,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #dfj ,,new ,,york1 ,,october #be1 #ahhd ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,no4 #dfj4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,chemistry4 ,,etc4--,wolpert's ,method of ,estimating the ,amount of ,carbonic ,acid in the ,air4--#g ,figures4 ,japanese ,camphor4--,its preparation1 experiments1 and analysis of the camphor oil4--,by ,h4 ,,oishi4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,links in the ,history of the ,locomotive4--,with two engravings of the ,rocket4 ,the ,flow of ,water through ,turbines and ,screw ,propellers4--,by ,,arthur ,,rigg4--,experimental researches4--,impact on level plate4--,impact and reaction in confined channels4--#d figures4 ,improved ,textile ,machinery4--,the ,textile ,exhibition at ,islington4--#e figures4 ,endless ,rope ,haulage4--#b figures4 ,,iii4 ,,technology4--,a ,reliable ,water ,filter4--,with engraving4 ,simple ,devices for ,distilling ,water4--#d figures4 ,improved ,fire ,damp ,detecter4--,with full description and engraving4 ,camera ,attachment for ,paper ,photo ,negatives4--#b figures4 ,instantaneous ,photo ,shutter4--#a figure4 ,sulphurous ,acid4--,easy method of preparation for photographic purposes4 ,,iv4 ,,physics4 ,,electricity1 ,,etc4--,steps toward a ,kinetic ,theory of ,matter4--,address by ,sir ,wm4 ,,thomson at the ,montreal meeting of the ,british ,association4 ,application of ,electricity to ,tramways4--,by ,m4 ,,holroyd ,,smith4--#g figures4 ,the ,sunshine ,recorder4--#a figure4 ,v4 ,,architecture ,,and ,,art4--,the ,national ,monument at ,rome4--,with full page engraving4 ,on the ,evolution of ,forms of ,art4--,from a paper by ,prof4 ,,jacobsthal4--,plant ,forms the archetypes of cashmere patterns4--,ornamental representations of plants of two kinds4--,architectural forms of different ages4--#bj figures4 ,,vi4 ,,natural ,,history4--,the ,latest ,knowledge about ,gapes4--,how to keep poultry free from them4 ,the ,voyage of the ,vettor ,pisani4--,shark fishing ,in the ,gulf of ,panama4--,capture of ,rhinodon typicus1 the largest fish in existence4 ,,vii4 ,,horticulture1 ,,etc4--,the ,proper ,time for ,cutting ,timber4 ,raising ,ferns from ,spores4--#a figure4 ,the ,life ,history of ,vaucheria4--,growth of alga vaucheria under the microscope4--#d figures4 ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,fires in ,london and ,new ,york4 ,the ,greely ,arctic ,expedition4--,with engraving4 ,the ,nile ,expedition4--#a figure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,links ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive4 ,it is1 perhaps1 more difficult to write accurate history than anything else1 and this is true not only of nations1 kings1 politicians1 or wars1 but of events and things witnessed or called into existence in every-day life4 ,in ,the ,engineer for ,september #ag1 #ahhj1 we did our best to place a true statement of the facts concerning the ,rocket before our readers4 ,in many respects this was the most remarkable steam engine ever built1 and about it there ought to be no difficulty1 one would imagine1 in arriving at the truth4 ,it was for a considerable period the cynosure of all eyes4 ,engineers all over the world were interested in its performance4 ,drawings were made of it2 accounts were written of it1 descriptions of it abounded4 ,little more than half a century has elapsed since it startled the world by its performance at ,rainhill1 and yet it is not too much to say that the truth--the whole truth1 that is to say--can never now be written4 ,we are1 however1 able to put some facts before our readers now which have never before been published1 which are sufficiently startling1 and while supplying a missing link in the history of the locomotive1 go far to show that much that has hitherto been held to be true is not true at all4 ,when the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway was opened on the #aeth of ,september1 #ahcj1 among those present was ,james ,nasmyth1 subsequently the inventor of the steam hammer4 ,mr4 ,nasmyth was a good freehand draughtsman1 and he sketched the ,rocket as it stood on the line4 ,the sketch is still in existence4 ,mr4 ,nasmyth has placed this sketch at our disposal1 thus earning the gratitude of our readers1 and we have reproduced as nearly as possible1 but to a somewhat enlarged scale1 this invaluable link in the history of the locomotive4 ,mr4 ,nasmyth writes concerning it1 ,july #bf1 #ahhd3 ,this slight and hasty sketch of the ,rocket was made the day before the opening of the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway1 ,september #ab1 #ahcj4 ,i availed myself of the opportunity of a short pause in the experimental runs with the ,rocket1 of three or four miles between ,liverpool and ,rainhill1 ,george ,stephenson acting as engine driver and his son ,robert as stoker4 ,the limited time ,i had for making my sketch prevented me from making a more elaborate one1 but such as it is1 all the important and characteristic details are given2 but the pencil lines1 after the lapse of fifty-four years1 have become somewhat indistinct4 ,the pencil drawing1 more than fifty years old1 has become so faint that its reproduction has become a difficult task4 ,enough remains1 however1 to show very clearly what manner of engine this ,rocket was4 ,for the sake of comparison we reproduce an engraving of the ,rocket of #ahbi4 ,a glance will show that an astonishing transformation had taken place in the eleven months which had elapsed between the ,rainhill trials and the opening of the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 ,we may indicate a few of the alterations4 ,in #ahbi the cylinders were set at a steep angle2 in #ahcj they were nearly horizontal4 ,in #ahbi the driving wheels were of wood2 in #ahcj they were of cast iron4 ,in #ahbi there was no smoke-box proper1 and a towering chimney2 in #ahcj there was a smoke-box and a comparatively short chimney4 ,in #ahbi a cask and a truck constituted the tender2 in #ahcj there was a neatly designed tender1 not very different in style from that still in use on the ,great ,western broad gauge4 ,all these things may perhaps be termed concomitants1 or changes in detail4 ,but there is a radical difference yet to be considered4 ,in #ahbi the fire-box was a kind of separate chamber tacked on to the back of the barrel of the boiler1 and communicating with it by three tubes2 one on each side united the water spaces1 and one at the top the steam spaces4 ,in #ahcj all this had disappeared1 and we find in ,mr4 ,nasmyth's sketch a regular fire-box1 such as is used to this moment4 ,in one word1 the ,rocket of #ahbi is different from the ,rocket of #ahcj in almost every conceivable respect2 and we are driven perforce to the conclusion that the ,rocket of #ahbi never worked at all on the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway2 the engine of #ahcj was an entirely new engine4 ,we see no possible way of escaping from this conclusion4 ,the most that can be said against it is that the engine underwent many alterations4 ,the alterations must1 however1 have been so numerous that they were tantamount to the construction of a new engine4 ,it is difficult1 indeed1 to see what part of the old engine could exist in the new one2 some plates of the boiler shell might1 perhaps1 have been retained1 but we doubt it4 ,it may1 perhaps1 disturb some hitherto well rooted beliefs to say so1 but it seems to us indisputable that the ,rocket of #ahbi and #ahcj were totally different engines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,the ,,rocket1 #ahbi4 ,,the ,,rocket1 #ahcj4 ,our engraving1 ,fig4 #a1 is copied from a drawing made by ,mr4 ,phipps1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 who was employed by ,messrs4 ,stephenson to compile a drawing of the ,rocket from such drawings and documents as could be found4 ,this gentleman had made the original drawings of the ,rocket of #ahbi1 under ,messrs4 ,g4 ,r4 ,stephenson's direction4 ,mr4 ,phipps is quite silent about the history of the engine during the eleven months between the ,rainhill trials and the opening of the railway4 ,in this respect he is like every one else4 ,this period is a perfect blank4 ,it is assumed that from ,rainhill the engine went back to ,messrs4 ,stephenson's works2 but there is nothing on the subject in print1 so far as we are aware4 ,mr4 ,g4,r4 ,stephenson lent us in #ahhj a working model of the ,rocket4 ,an engraving of this will be found in ,the ,engineer for ,september #ag1 #ahhj4 ,the difference between it and the engraving below1 prepared from ,mr4 ,phipps' drawing1 is1 it will be seen1 very small--one of proportions more than anything else4 ,mr4 ,stephenson says of his model3 ,i can say that it is a very fair representation of what the engine was before she was altered4 ,hitherto it has always been taken for granted that the alteration consisted mainly in reducing the angle at which the cylinders were set4 ,the ,nasmyth drawing alters the whole aspect of the question1 and we are now left to speculate as to what became of the original ,rocket4 ,we are told that after it left the railway it was employed by ,lord ,dundonald to supply steam to a rotary engine2 then it propelled a steamboat2 next it drove small machinery in a shop in ,manchester2 then it was employed in a brickyard2 eventually it was purchased as a curiosity by ,mr4 ,thomson1 of ,kirkhouse1 near ,carlisle1 who sent it to ,messrs4 ,stephenson to take care of4 ,with them it remained for years4 ,then ,messrs4 ,stephenson put it into something like its original shape1 and it went to ,south ,kensington ,museum1 where it is now4 ,the question is1 ,what engine is this8 ,was it the ,rocket of #ahbi or the ,rocket of #ahcj1 or neither8 ,it could not be the last1 as will be understood from ,mr4 ,nasmyth's drawing2 if we bear in mind that the so-called fire-box on the ,south ,kensington engine is only a sham made of thin sheet iron without water space1 while the fire-box shown in ,mr4 ,nasmyth's engine is an integral part of the whole1 which could not have been cut off4 ,that is to say1 ,messrs4 ,stephenson1 in getting the engine put in order for the ,patent ,office ,museum1 certainly did not cut off the fire-box shown in ,mr4 ,nasmyth's sketch1 and replace it with the sham box now on the boiler4 ,if our readers will turn to our impression for the #cjth of ,june1 #ahgf1 they will find a very accurate engraving of the ,south ,kensington engine1 which they can compare with ,mr4 ,nasmyth's sketch1 and not fail to perceive that the differences are radical4 ,in ,wood on ,railroads1 second edition1 #ahcb1 page #cgg1 we are told that after those experiments--the ,rainhill trials--were concluded1 the ,novelty underwent considerable alterations2 and on page #cii1 ,mr4 ,stephenson had also improved the working of the ,rocket engine1 and by applying the steam more powerfully in the chimney to increase the draught1 was enabled to raise a much greater quantity of steam than before4 ,nothing is said as to where the new experiments took place1 nor their precise date4 ,but it seems that the ,meteor and the ,arrow--,stephenson engines--were tried at the same time2 and this is really the only hint ,wood gives as to what was done to the ,rocket between the #fth of ,october1 #ahbi1 and the #aeth of ,september1 #ahcj4 ,there are men still alive who no doubt could clear up the question at issue1 and it is much to be hoped that they will do so4 ,as the matter now stands1 it will be seen that we do not so much question that the ,rocket in ,south ,kensington ,museum is1 in part perhaps1 the original ,rocket of ,rainhill celebrity1 as that it ever ran in regular service on the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 ,yet1 if not1 then we may ask1 what became of the ,rocket of #ahcj8 ,it is not at all improbable that the first ,rocket was cast on one side1 until it was bought by ,lord ,dundonald1 and that its history is set out with fair accuracy above4 ,but the ,rocket of the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway is hardly less worthy of attention than its immediate predecessor1 and concerning it information is needed4 ,any scrap of information1 however apparently trifling1 that can be thrown on this subject by our readers will be highly valued1 and given an appropriate place in our pages4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the largest grain elevator in the world1 says the ,nashville ,american1 is that just constructed at ,newport ,news under the auspices of the ,chesapeake ,ohio ,railway ,co4 ,it is #ij ft4 wide1 #chf ft4 long1 and about #afd ft4 high1 with engine and boiler rooms #dj #ajj ft4 and #dj ft4 high4 ,in its construction there were used about #c1jjj piles1 #ajj1jjj ft4 of white-oak timber1 #hb1jjj cu4 ft4 of stone1 #hjj1jjj brick1 #f1jjj1jjj ft4 of pine and spruce lumber1 #d1ejj kegs of nails1 #f large boilers1 #b large engines1 #bjj tons of machinery1 #bj large hopper-scales1 and #ag1bjj ft4 of rubber belts1 from #h to #dh in4 wide and #ej to #a1gjj ft4 long2 in addition1 there were #h1jjj elevator buckets1 and other material4 ,the storage capacity is #a1fjj1jjj bushels1 with a receiving capacity of #cj1jjj1 and a shipping capacity of #bj1jjj bushels per hour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,flow ,,of ,,water ,,through ,,turbines ,,and ,,screw ,,propellers4 ,footnote3 ,paper read before the ,british ,association at ,montreal4 ,by ,mr4 ,,arthur ,,rigg1 ,c4,e4 ,literature relating to turbines probably stands unrivaled among all that concerns questions of hydraulic engineering1 not so much in its voluminous character as in the extent to which purely theoretical writers have ignored facts1 or practical writers have relied upon empirical rules rather than upon any sound theory4 ,in relation to this view1 it may suffice to note that theoretical deductions have frequently been based upon a generalization that streams of water must enter the buckets of a turbine without shock1 and leave them without velocity4 ,both these assumed conditions are misleading1 and it is now well known that in every good turbine both are carefully disobeyed4 ,so-called practical writers1 as a rule1 fail to give much useful information1 and their task seems rather in praise of one description of turbine above another4 ,but generally1 it is of no consequence whatever how a stream of water may be led through the buckets of any form of turbine1 so long as its velocity gradually becomes reduced to the smallest amount that will carry it freely clear of the machine4 ,the character of theoretical information imparted by some ,chicago ,journal of ,commerce1 dated #bjth ,february1 #ahhd4 ,there we are informed that the height of the fall is one of the most important considerations1 as the same stream of water will furnish five times the horse power at ten ft4 that it will at five ft4 fall4 ,by general consent twice two are four1 but it has been reserved for this imaginative writer to make the useful discovery that sometimes twice two are ten4 ,not until after the translation of ,captain ,morris' work on turbines by ,mr4 ,e4 ,morris in #ahdd1 was attention in ,america directed to the advantages which these motors possessed over the gravity wheels then in use4 ,a duty of #ge per cent4 was then obtained1 and a further study of the subject by a most acute and practical engineer1 ,mr4 ,boyden1 led to various improvements upon ,mr4 ,fauneyron's model1 by which his experiments indicated the high duty of #hh per cent4 ,the most conspicuous addition made by ,mr4 ,boyden was the diffuser4 ,the ingenious contrivance had the effect of transforming part of whatever velocity remained in the stream after passing out of a turbine into an atmospheric pressure1 by which the corresponding lost head became effective1 and added about #c per cent4 to the duty obtained4 ,it may be worth noticing that1 by an accidental application of these principles to some inward flow turbines1 there is obtained most1 if not all1 of whatever advantage they are supposed to possess1 but oddly enough this genuine advantage is never mentioned by any of the writers who are interested in their introduction or sale4 ,the well-known experiments of ,mr4 ,james ,b4 ,francis in #aheg1 and his elaborate report1 gave to hydraulic engineers a vast store of useful data1 and since that period much progress has been made in the construction of turbines1 and literature on the subject has become very complete4 ,in the limits of a short paper it is impossible to do justice to more than one aspect of the considerations relating to turbines1 and it is now proposed to bring before the ,mechanical ,section of the ,british ,association some conclusions drawn from the behavior of jets of water discharged under pressure1 more particularly in the hope that1 as water power is extremely abundant in ,canada1 any remarks relating to the subject may not fail to prove interesting4 ,between the action of turbines and that of screw propellers exists an exact parallelism1 although in one case water imparts motion to the buckets of a turbine1 while in the other case blades of a screw give spiral movement to a column of water driven aft from the vessel it propels forward4 ,turbines have been driven sometimes by impact alone1 sometimes by reaction above1 though generally by a combination of impact and reaction1 and it is by the last named system that the best results are now known to be obtained4 ,the ordinary paddles of a steamer impel a mass of water horizontally backward by impact alone1 but screw propellers use reaction somewhat disguised1 and only to a limited extent4 ,the full use and advantages of reaction for screw propellers were not generally known until after the publication of papers by the present writer in the ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,naval ,architects for #ahfg and #ahfh1 and more fully in the ,transactions of the ,society of ,engineers for #ahfh4 ,since that time1 by the author of these investigations then described1 by the ,english ,admiralty1 and by private firms1 further experiments have been carried out1 some on a considerable scale1 and all corroborative of the results published in #ahfh4 ,but nothing further has been done in utilizing these discoveries until the recent exigencies of modern naval warfare have led foreign nations to place a high value upon speed4 ,some makers of torpedo boats have thus been induced to slacken the trammels of an older theory and to apply a somewhat incomplete form of the author's reaction propeller for gaining some portion of the notable performance of these hornets of the deep4 ,just as in turbines a combination of impact and reaction produces the maximum practical result1 so in screw propellers does a corresponding gain accompany the same construction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,turbines4--,while studying those effects produced by jets of water impinging upon plain or concave surfaces corresponding to buckets of turbines1 it simplifies matters to separate these results due to impact from others due to reaction4 ,and it will be well at the outset to draw a distinction between the nature of these two pressures1 and to remind ourselves of the laws which lie at the root and govern the whole question under present consideration4 ,water obeys the laws of gravity1 exactly like every other body2 and the velocity with which any quantity may be falling is an expression of the full amount of work it contains4 ,by a sufficiently accurate practical rule this velocity is eight times the square root of the head or vertical column measured in feet4 ,velocity per second #h sqrt 7head in feet71 therefore1 for a head of #ajj ft4 as an example1 ,v #h sqrt 7#ajj7 #hj ft4 per second4 ,the graphic method of showing velocities or pressures has many advantages1 and is used in all the following diagrams4 ,beginning with purely theoretical considerations1 we must first recollect that there is no such thing as absolute motion4 ,all movements are relative to something else1 and what we have to do with a stream of water in a turbine is to reduce its velocity relatively to the earth1 quite a different thing to its velocity in relation to the turbine2 for while the one may be zero1 the other may be anything we please4 ,,abcd in ,fig4 #a represents a parallelogram of velocities1 wherein ,,ac gives the direction of a jet of water starting at ,a1 and arriving at ,c at the end of one second or any other division of time4 ,at a scale of #a_/dj in4 to #a ft41 ,,ac represents #hj ft41 the fall due to #ajj ft4 head1 or at a scale of #a in4 to #a ft41 ,,ac gives #b ft41 or the distance traveled by the same stream in #a_/dj of a second4 ,the velocity ,,ac may be resolved into two others1 namely1 ,,ab and ,,ad1 or ,,bc1 which are found to be #fi4bh ft4 and #dj ft4 respectively1 when the angle ,,bac--generally called x in treatises on turbines--is #cj deg4 ,if1 however1 ,,ac is taken at #b ft41 then ,a ,b will be found #bj4gh in41 and ,,bc #ab in4 for a time of #a_/dj or #j4jbe of a second4 ,supposing now a flat plate1 ,,bc #ab in4 wide move from ,,da to ,,cb during #j4jbe second1 it will be readily seen that a drop of water starting from ,a will have arrived at ,c in #j4jbe second1 having been flowing along the surface ,,bc from ,b to ,c without either friction or loss of velocity4 ,if now1 instead of a straight plate1 ,,bc1 we substitute one having a concave surface1 such as ,,bk in ,fig4 #b1 it will be found necessary to move it from ,a to ,l in #j4jbe second1 in order to allow a stream to arrive at ,c1 that is ,k1 without1 in transit1 friction or loss of velocity4 ,this concave surface may represent one bucket of a turbine4 ,supposing now a resistance to be applied to that it can only move from ,a to ,b instead of to ,l4 ,then1 as we have already resolved the velocity ,a ,c into ,,ab and ,,bc1 so far as the former 7,,ab7 is concerned1 no alteration occurs whether ,,bk be straight or curved4 ,but the other portion1 ,,bc1 pressing vertically against the concave surface1 ,,bk1 becomes gradually diminished in its velocity in relation to the earth1 and produces and effect known as reaction4 ,a combined operation of impact and reaction occurs by further diminishing the distance which the bucket is allowed to travel1 as1 for examples1 to ,,ef4 ,here the jet is impelled against the lower edge of the bucket1 ,b1 and gives a pressure by its impact2 then following the curve ,,bk1 with a diminishing velocity1 it is finally discharged at ,k1 retaining only sufficient movement to carry the water clear out of the machine4 ,thus far we have considered the movement of jets and buckets along ,,ab as straight lines1 but this can only occur1 so far as buckets are concerned1 when their radius in infinite4 ,in practice these latter movements are always curves of more or less complicated form1 which effect a considerable modification in the forms of buckets1 etc41 but not in the general principles1 and it is the duty of the designer of any form of turbine to give this consideration its due importance4 ,having thus cleared away any ambiguity from the terms impact1 and reaction1 and shown how they can act independently or together1 we shall be able to follow the course and behavior of streams in a turbine1 and by treating their effects as arising from two separate causes1 we shall be able to regard the problem without that inevitable confusion which arises when they are considered as acting conjointly4 ,turbines1 though driven by vast volumes of water1 are in reality impelled by countless isolated jets1 or streams1 all acting together1 and a clear understanding of the behavior of any one of these facilitates and concludes a solution of the whole problem4 ,experimental researches4--,all experiments referred to in this paper were made by jets of water under an actual vertical head of #de ft41 but as the supply came through a considerable length of in4 bore lead piping1 and many bends1 a large and constant loss occurred through friction and bends1 so that the actual working head was only known by measuring the velocity of discharge4 ,this was easily done by allowing all the water to flow into a tank of known capacity4 ,the stop cock had a clear circular passage through it1 and two different jets were used4 ,one oblong measured #j4e in4 by #j4ae in41 giving an area of #j4jge square inch4 ,the other jet was circular1 and just so much larger than in4 to be #j4je of a square inch area1 and the stream flowed with a velocity of #dj ft4 per second1 corresponding to a head of #be ft4 ,either nozzle could be attached to the same universal joint1 and directed at any desired inclination upon the horizontal surface of a special well-adjusted compound weighing machine1 or into various bent tubes and other attachments1 so that all pressures1 whether vertical or horizontal1 could be accurately ascertained and reduced to the unit1 which was the quarter of an ounce4 ,the vertical component p of any pressure ,p may be ascertained by the formula-- p ,p sin alpha1 where alpha is the angle made by a jet against a surface2 and in order to test the accuracy of the simple machinery employed for these researches1 the oblong jet which gave #ga unit when impinging vertically upon a circular plate1 was directed at #fj deg4 and #de deg4 thereon1 with results shown in ,table ,i41 and these1 it will be observed1 are sufficiently close to theory to warrant reliance being placed on data obtained from the simple weighing machinery used in the experiment4 ,table ,i4--,impact on ,level ,plate4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,inclination of jet ,distance4 to the horizonal4 #ij deg4 #fj deg4 #de deg4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,pressure ,pressure ,pressure _/ ,experiment _/ #fa4jj #di4jj #a in4 #ga4jj ,theory _/ #fa4dh #ej4aj _/ ,experiment _/ #ee4jj #de4jj #a in4 #fc4jj ,theory _/ #ed4jj #de4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,in each case the unit of pressure is oz4 ,in the first trial there was a distance of #a in4 between the jet and point of its contact with the plate1 while in the second trial this space was diminished to in4 ,it will be noticed that as this distance increases we have augmented pressures1 and these are not due1 as might be supposed1 to increase of head1 which is practically nothing1 but they are due to the recoil of a portion of the stream1 which occurs increasingly as it becomes more and more broken up4 ,these alterations in pressure can only be eliminated when care is taken to measure that only due to impact1 without at the same time adding the effect of an imperfect reaction4 ,any stream that can run off at all points from a smooth surface gives the minimum of pressure thereon1 for then the least resistance is offered to the destruction of the vertical element of its velocity1 but this freedom becomes lost when a stream is diverted into a confined channel4 ,as pressure is an indication and measure of lost velocity1 we may then reasonably look for greater pressure on the scale when a stream is confined after impact than when it discharges freely in every direction4 ,experimentally this is shown to be the case1 for when the same oblong jet1 discharged under the same conditions1 impinged vertically upon a smooth plate1 and gave a pressure of #ga units1 gave #hg units when discharged into a confined right-angled channel4 ,this result emphasizes the necessity for confining streams of water whenever it is desired to receive the greatest pressure by arresting their velocity4 ,such streams will always endeavor to escape in the directions of least resistance1 and1 therefore1 in a turbine means should be provided to prevent any lateral deviation of the streams while passing through their buckets4 ,so with screw propellers the great mass of surrounding water may be regarded as acting like a channel with elastic sides1 which permits the area enlarging as the velocity of a current passing diminishes4 ,the experiments thus far described have been made with jets of an oblong shape1 and they give results differing in some degree from those obtained with circular jets4 ,yet as the general conclusions from both are found the same1 it will avoid unnecessary prolixity by using the data from experiments made with a circular jet of #j4je square inch area1 discharging a stream at the rate of #dj ft4 per second4 ,this amounts to #eb lb4 of water per minute with an available head of #be ft41 or #a1cjj foot-pounds per minute4 ,the tubes which received and directed the course of this jet were generally of lead1 having a perfectly smooth internal surface1 for it was found that with a rougher surface the flow of water is retarded1 and changes occur in the data obtained4 ,any stream having its course changed presses against the body causing such change1 this pressure increasing in proportion to the angle through which the change is made1 and also according to the radius of a curve around which it flows4 ,this fact has long been known to hydraulic engineers1 and formul exist by which such pressures can be determined2 nevertheless1 it will be useful to study these relations from a somewhat different point of view than has been hitherto adopted1 more particularly as they bear upon the construction of screw propellers and turbines2 and by directing the stream1 ,,ab1 ,fig4 #c1 vertically into a tube #c_/h in4 internal diameter and bent so as to turn the jet horizontally1 and placing the whole arrangement upon a compound weighing machine1 it is easy to ascertain the downward pressure1 ,,ab1 due to impact1 and the horizontal pressures1 ,,cb1 due to reaction4 ,in theoretical investigations it may be convenient to assume both these pressures exactly equal1 and this has been done in the paper ,on ,screw ,propellers already referred to2 but this brings in an error of no importance so far as general principles are involved1 but one which destroys much of the value such researches might1 otherwise possess for those who are engaged in the practical construction of screw propellers or turbines4 ,the downward impact pressure1 ,,ab1 is always somewhat greater than the horizontal reaction1 ,,bc1 and any proportions between these two can only be accurately ascertained by trials4 ,in these particular experiments the jet of water flowed #dj ft4 per second through an orifice of #j4je square inch area1 and in every case its course was bent to a right angle4 ,the pressures for impact and reaction were weighed coincidently1 with results given by columns #a and #b1 ,table ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,table ,,ii4--,impact and ,reaction in ,confined ,channels4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,number of column4 #a #b #c #d ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,description of experiments4 ,impact4,reaction4,resultant4 ,angles ,,abs4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,smooth ,london tube1 #a in4 #ga #fb #id4be #di mean radius4 ,rough wrought iron tube1 #gh #eb #ih4ge #ef4e #a in4 ,smooth leaden tube bent to a #ga #dj #ha4e #fj sharp right angle4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,the third column is obtained by constructing a parallelogram of forces1 where impact and reaction form the measures of opposing sides1 and it furnishes the resultant due to both forces4 ,the fourth column gives the inclination ,,abs1 at which the line of impact must incline toward a plane surface ,,rs1 ,fig4 #c1 so as to produce this maximum resultant perpendicularly upon it2 as the resultant given in column #c indicates the full practical effect of impact and reaction4 ,when a stream has its direction changed to one at right angles to its original course1 and as such a changed direction is all that can be hoped for by ordinary screw propellers1 the figures in column #c should bear some relationship to such cases4 ,therefore1 it becomes an inquiry of some interest as to what angle of impact has been found best in those screw propellers which have given the best results in practical work4 ,taking one of the most improved propellers made by the late ,mr4 ,robert ,griffiths1 its blades do not conform to the lines of a true screw1 but it is an oblique paddle1 where the acting portions of its blades were set at #dh deg4 to the keel of the ship or #db deg4 to the plane of rotation4 ,again1 taking a screw tug boat on the river ,thames1 with blades of a totally different form to those used by ,mr4 ,griffiths1 we still find them set at the same angle1 namely1 #dh deg4 to the keel or #db deg4 to the plane of rotation4 ,an examination of other screws tends only to confirm these figures1 and they justify the conclusion that the inclinations of blades found out by practice ought to be arrived at1 or at any rate approached1 by any sound and reliable theory2 and that blades of whatever form must not transgress far from this inclination if they are to develop any considerable efficiency4 ,indeed1 many favorable results obtained by propellers are not due to their peculiarities1 but only to the fact that they have been made with an inclination of blade not far from #db deg4 to the plan of rotation4 ,referring to column #d1 and accepting the case of water flowing through a smooth tube as analogous to that of a current flowing within a large body of water1 it appears that the inclination necessary to give the highest resultant pressure is an angle of #di deg41 and this corresponds closely enough with the angle which practical constructors of screw propellers have found to give the best results4 ,until1 therefore1 we can deal with currents after they have been discharged from the blades of a propeller1 it seems unlikely that anything can be done by alterations in the pitch of a propeller4 ,so far as concerns theory1 the older turbines were restricted to such imperfect results of impact and reaction as might be obtained by turning a stream at right angles to its original course2 and the more scientific of modern turbine constructors may fairly claim credit for an innovation by which practice gave better results than theory seemed to warrant2 and the consideration of this aspect of the question will form the concluding subject of the present paper4 ,referring again to ,fig4 #c1 when a current passes round such a curve as the quadrant of a circle1 its horizontal reaction appears as a pressure along c ,b1 which is the result of the natural integration of all the horizontal components of pressures1 all of which act perpendicularly to each element of the concave surface along which the current flows4 ,if1 now1 we add another quadrant of a circle to the curve1 and so turn the stream through two right angles1 or #ahj deg41 as shown by ,fig4 #d1 then such a complete reversal of the original direction represents the carrying of it back again to the highest point2 it means the entire destruction of its velocity1 and it gives the maximum pressure obtainable from a jet of water impinging upon a surface of any form whatsoever4 ,the reaction noticed in ,fig4 #c as acting along c ,b is now confronted by an impact of the now horizontal stream as it is turned round the second #ij deg4 of curvature1 and reacts also vertically downward4 ,it would almost seem as if the first reaction from ,b to ,f should be exactly neutralized by the second impact from ,f to ,d4 ,but such is not the case1 as experiment shows an excess of the second impact over the first reaction amounting to six units1 and shows also that the behavior of the stream through its second quadrant is precisely similar in kind to the first1 only less in degree4 ,also the impact takes place vertically in one case and horizontally in the other4 ,the total downward pressure given by the stream when turned #ahj deg4 is found by experiment thus3 ,total impact and reaction from #ahj deg4 change in direction of current #acb units2 and by deducting the impact #ga units1 as previously measured1 the new reaction corresponds with an increase of #fa units above the first impact4 ,it also shows an increase of #cg4ge units above the greatest resultant obtained by the same stream turned through #ij deg4 only4 ,therefore1 in designing a screw propeller or turbine1 it would seem from these experiments desirable to aim at changing the direction of the stream1 so far as possible1 into one at #ahj deg4 to its original course1 and it is by carrying out this view1 so far as the necessities of construction will permit1 that the scientifically designed modern turbine has attained to that prominence which it holds at present over all hydraulic motors4 ,much more might be written to extend and amplify the conclusions that can be drawn from the experiments described in the present paper1 and from many others made by the writer1 but the exigencies of time and your patience alike preclude further consideration of this interesting and important subject4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,textile ,,machinery4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,textile ,,exhibition1 ,,islington4 ,in the recent textile exhibition at ,islington1 one of the most extensive exhibits was that1 of ,messrs4 ,james ,farmer and ,sons1 of ,salford4 ,the exhibit consists of a ,universal calender1 drying machines1 patent creasing1 measuring1 and marking machines1 and apparatus for bleaching1 washing1 chloring1 scouring1 soaping1 dunging1 and dyeing woven fabrics4 ,the purpose of the ,universal calender is1 says the ,engineer1 to enable limited quantities of goods to be finished in various ways without requiring different machines4 ,the machine consists of suitable framing1 to which is attached all the requisite stave rails1 batching apparatus1 compound levers1 top and bottom adjusting screws1 and level setting down gear1 also ,stanley roller with all its adjustments4 ,it is furthermore supplied with chasing arrangement and four bowls2 the bottom one is of cast iron1 with wrought iron center2 the next is of paper or cotton2 the third of chilled iron fitted for heating by steam or gas1 and the top of paper or cotton4 ,by this machine are given such finishes as are known as chasing finish when the thready surface is wanted2 frictioning1 or what is termed glazing finish1 swigging finish1 and embossing finish2 the later is done by substituting a steel or copper engraved roller in place of the friction bowl4 ,this machine is also made to ,i produce the ,moire luster finish4 ,the drying machine consists of nineteen cylinders1 arranged with stave rails and plaiting down apparatus4 ,these cylinders are driven by bevel wheels1 so that each one is independent of its neighbor1 and should any accident occur to one or more of the cylinders or wheels1 the remaining ones can be run until a favorable opportunity arrives to repair the damage4 ,a small separate double cylinder diagonal engine is fitted to this machine1 the speed of which can be adjusted for any texture of cloth1 and being of the design it is1 will start at once on steam being turned one4 ,the machine cylinders are rolled by a special machine for that purpose1 and are perfectly true on the face4 ,their insides are fitted with patent buckets1 which remove all the condensed water4 ,in the machine exhibited1 which is designed for the bleaching1 washing1 chloring1 and dyeing1 the cloth is supported by hollow metallic cylinders perforated with holes and corrugated to allow the liquor used to pass freely through as much of the cloth as possible2 the open ends of the cylinders are so arranged that nearly all of their area is open to the action of the pump4 ,the liquor1 which is drawn through the cloth into the inside of the cylinders by the centrifugal pumps1 is discharged back into the cistern by a specially constructed discharge pipe1 so devised that the liquor1 which is sent into it with great force by the pump1 is diverted so as to pour straight down in order to prevent any eddies which could cause the cloth to wander from its course4 ,the cloth is supported to and from the cylinders by flat perforated plates in such a manner that the force of the liquor cannot bag or displace the threads of the cloth1 and by this means also the liquor has a further tendency to penetrate the fibers of the cloth4 ,means are provided for readily and expeditiously cleansing the entire machine4 ,the next machine which we have to notice in this exhibit is ,farmer's patent marking and measuring machine1 the purpose of which is to stamp on the cloths the lengths of the same at regular distances4 ,it is very desirable that drapers should have some simple means of discovering at a glance what amount of material they have in stock without the necessity of unrolling their cloth to measure it1 and this machine seems to perfectly meet the demands of the case4 ,the arrangement for effecting the printing and inking is shown in our engraving at ,a4 ,it is contained within a small disk1 which can be moved at will1 so that it can be adapted to various widths of cloth or other material4 ,a measuring roller runs beside the printing disk1 and on this is stamped the required figures by a simple contrivance at the desired distances1 say every five yards4 ,the types are linked together into a roller chain which is carried by the disk1 ,a1 and they ink themselves automatically from a flannel pad4 ,the machine works in this way3 ,the end of the piece to be measured is brought down until it touches the surface of the table1 the marker is turned to zero1 and also the finger of the dial on the end of the measuring roller4 ,the machine is then started1 and the lengths are printed at the required distances until it becomes necessary to cut out the first piecing or joint in the fabric4 ,the dial registers the total length of the piece4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,endless ,,rope ,,haulage4 ,in the ,north of ,england ,report1 the endless rope systems are classified as ,no4 #a and ,no #b systems4 ,no4 #a1 which has the rope under the tubs1 is said to be in operation in the ,midland counties4 ,to give motion to the rope a single wheel is used1 and friction for driving the rope is supplied either by clip pulleys or by taking the rope over several wheels4 ,the diagram shows an arrangement for a tightening arrangement4 ,one driving wheel is used1 says ,the ,colliery ,guardian1 and the rope is kept constantly tight by passing it round a pulley fixed upon a tram to which a heavy weight is attached4 ,either one or two lines of rails are used4 ,when a single line is adopted the rope works backward and forward1 only one part being on the wagon way and the other running by the side of the way4 ,when two lines are used the ropes move always in one direction1 the full tubs coming out on one line and the empties going in on the other4 ,the rope passes under the tubs1 and the connection is made by means of a clamp or by sockets in the rope1 to which the set is attached by a short chain4 ,the rope runs at a moderately high speed4 ,illustration3 ,,tightening ,,arrangement--,,endless ,,rope ,,haulage4 ,no4 #b system was peculiar to ,wigan4 ,a double line of rails is always used4 ,the rope rests upon the tubs1 which are attached to the rope either singly or in sets varying in number from two to twelve4 ,the other engraving shows a mode of connection between the tubs and the rope by a rope loop as shown4 ,illustration3 ,,attachment ,,to ,,endless ,,rope ,,over4 ,the tubs are placed at a regular distance apart1 and the rope works slowly4 ,motion is given to the rope by large driving pulleys1 and friction is obtained by taking the rope several times round the driving pulley4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,reliable ,,water ,,filter4 ,opinions are so firmly fixed at present that water is capable of carrying the germs of disease that1 in cases of epidemics1 the recommendation is made to drink natural mineral waters1 or to boil ordinary water4 ,this is a wise measure1 assuredly2 but mineral waters are expensive1 and1 moreover1 many persons cannot get used to them4 ,as for boiled water1 that is a beverage which has no longer a normal composition2 a portion of its salts has become precipitated1 and its dissolved gases have been given off4 ,in spite of the aeration that it is afterward made to undergo1 it preserves an insipid taste1 and ,i believe that it is not very digestible4 ,i have thought1 then1 that it would be important1 from a hygienic standpoint1 to have a filter that should effectually rid water of all the microbes or germs that it contains1 while at the same time preserving the salts or gases that it holds in solution4 ,i have reached such a result1 and1 although it is always delicate to speak of things that one has himself done1 ,i think the question is too important to allow me to hold back my opinion in regard to the apparatus4 ,it is a question of general hygiene before which my own personality must disappear completely4 ,in ,mr4 ,pasteur's laboratory1 we filter the liquids in which microbes have been cultivated1 so as to separate them from the medium in which they exist4 ,for this purpose we employ a small unglazed porcelain tube that we have had especially constructed therefor4 ,the liquid traverses the porous sides of this under the influence of atmospheric pressure1 since we cause a vacuum around the tube by means of an air-pump4 ,we collect in this way1 after several hours1 a few cubic inches of a liquid which is absolutely pure1 since animals may be inoculated with it without danger to them1 while the smallest quantity of the same liquid1 when not filtered1 infallibly causes death4 ,this is the process that ,i have applied to the filtration of water4 ,i have introduced into it merely such modifications as are necessary to render the apparatus entirely practical4 ,my apparatus consists of an unglazed porcelain tube inverted upon a ring of enameled porcelain1 forming a part thereof1 and provided with an aperture for the outflow of the liquid4 ,this tube is placed within a metallic one1 which is directly attached to a cock that is soldered to the service pipe4 ,a nut at the base that can be maneuvered by hand permits1 through the intermedium of a rubber washer resting upon the enameled ring1 of the tube being hermetically closed4 ,under these circumstances1 when the cock is turned on1 the water fills the space between the two tubes and slowly filters1 under the influence of pressure1 through the sides of the porous one1 and is freed from all solid matter1 including the microbes and germs1 that it contains4 ,it flows out thoroughly purified1 through the lower aperture1 into a vessel placed there to receive it4 ,i have directly ascertained that water thus filtered is deprived of all its germs4 ,for this purpose ,i have added some of it 7with the necessary precautions against introducing foreign organisms7 to very changeable liquids1 such as veal broth1 blood1 and milk1 and have found that there was no alteration4 ,such water1 then1 is incapable of transmitting the germs of disease4 ,illustration3 ,,chamberland',s ,,water ,,filter4 ,with an apparatus like the one here figured1 and in which the filtering tube is eight inches in length by about one inch in diameter1 about four and a half gallons of water per day may be obtained when the pressure is two atmospheres--the mean pressure in ,mr4 ,pasteur's laboratory1 where my experiments were made4 ,naturally1 the discharge is greater or less according to the pressure4 ,a discharge of three and a half to four and a half gallons of water seems to me to be sufficient for the needs of an ordinary household4 ,for schools1 hospitals1 barracks1 etc41 it is easy to obtain the necessary volume of water by associating the tubes in series4 ,the discharge will be multiplied by the number of tubes4 ,in the country1 or in towns that have no water mains1 it will be easy to devise an arrangement for giving the necessary pressure4 ,an increase in the porosity of the filtering tube is not to be thought of1 as this would allow very small germs to pass4 ,this filter being a perfect one1 we must expect to see it soil quickly4 ,filters that do not get foul are just the ones that do not filter4 ,but with the arrangement that ,i have adopted the solid matters deposit upon the external surface of the filter1 while the inner surface always remains perfectly clean4 ,in order to clean the tube1 it is only necessary to take it out and wash it vigorously4 ,as the tube is entirely of porcelain1 it may likewise be plunged into boiling water so as to destroy the germs that may have entered the sides or1 better yet1 it may be heated over a gas burner or in an ordinary oven4 ,in this way all the organic matter will be burned1 and the tube will resume its former porosity4--,m4 ,chamberland1 ,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,simple ,,devices ,,for ,,distilling ,,water4 ,the alchemists dreamed and talked of that universal solvent which they so long and vainly endeavored to discover2 still1 for all this1 not only the alchemist of old1 but his more immediate successor1 the chemist of to-day1 has found no solvent so universal as water4 ,no liquid has nearly so wide a range of dissolving powers1 and1 taking things all round1 no liquid exercises so slight an action upon the bodies dissolved--evaporate the water away1 and the dissolved substance is obtained in an unchanged condition2 at any rate1 this is the general rule4 ,the function of water in nature is essentially that of a solvent or a medium of circulation2 it is not1 in any sense1 a food1 yet without it no food can be assimilated by an animal4 ,without water the solid materials of the globe would be unable to come together so closely as to interchange their elements2 and unless the temperatures were sufficiently high to establish an igneous fluidity1 such as undoubtedly exists in the sun1 there would be no circulation of matter to speak of1 and the earth would be1 as it were1 locked up or dead4 ,when we look upon water as the nearest approach to a universal solvent that even the astute scientist of to-day has been able to discover1 who can wonder that it is never found absolutely pure in nature8 ,for wherever it accumulates it dissolves something from its surroundings4 ,still1 in a rain-drop just formed we have very nearly pure water2 but even this contains dissolved air to the extent of about one-fiftieth of its volume1 and as the drop falls downward it takes up such impurities as may be floating in the atmosphere2 so that if our rain-drop is falling immediately after a long drought1 it becomes charged with nitrate or nitrite of ammonia and various organic matters--perhaps also the spores or germs of disease4 ,thus it will be seen that rain tends to wonderfully clear or wash the atmosphere1 and we all know how much a first rain is appreciated as an air purifier1 and how it carries down with it valuable food for plants4 ,the rain-water1 in percolating through or over the land1 flows mainly toward the rivers1 and in doing so it becomes more or less charged with mineral matter1 lime salts and common salt being the chief of them2 while some of that water which has penetrated more deeply into the earth takes up far more solid matter than is ordinarily found in river water4 ,the bulk of this more or less impure water tends toward the ocean1 taking with it its load of salt and lime4 ,constant evaporation1 of course1 takes place from the surface of the sea1 so that the salt and lime accumulate1 this latter being1 however1 ultimately deposited as shells1 coral1 and chalk1 while nearly pure or naturally distilled water once more condenses in the form of clouds4 ,this process1 by which a constant supply of purified water is kept up in the natural economy1 is imitated on a small scale when water is converted into steam by the action of heat1 and this vapor is cooled so as to reproduce liquid water1 the operation in question being known as distillation4 ,for this purpose an apparatus known as a still is required2 and although by law one must pay an annual license fee for the right to use a still1 it is not usual for the government authorities to enforce the law when a still is merely used for purifying water4 ,one of the best forms of still for the photographer to employ consists of a tin can or bottle in which the water is boiled1 and to this a tin tube is adapted by means of a cork1 one end of this tin tube terminating in a coil passing through a tub or other vessel of cold water4 ,a gas burner1 as shown1 is a convenient source of heat1 and in order to insure a complete condensation of the vapor1 the water in the cooling tub must be changed now and again4 ,illustration ,sometimes the vapor is condensed by being allowed to play against the inside of a conical cover which is adapted to a saucepan1 and is kept cool by the external application of cold water2 and in this case the still takes the form represented by the subjoined diagrams2 such compact and portable stills being largely employed in ,ireland for the private manufacture of whisky4 ,illustration ,it is scarcely necessary to say that the condensed water trickles down on the inside of the cone1 and flows out at the spout4 ,an extemporized arrangement of a similar character may be made by passing a tobacco pipe through the side of a tin saucepan as shown below1 and inverting the lid of the saucepan2 if the lid is now kept cool by frequent changes of water inside it1 and the pipe is properly adjusted so as to catch the drippings from the convex side of the lid1 a considerable quantity of distilled water may be collected in an hour or so4 ,the proportion of solid impurities present in water as ordinarily met with is extremely variable3 rain water which has been collected toward the end of a storm contains only a minute fraction of a grain per gallon1 while river or spring water may contain from less than thirty grains per gallon or so and upward4 ,ordinary sea water generally contains from three to four per cent4 of saline matter1 but that of the ,dead ,sea contains nearly one-fourth of its weight of salts4 ,illustration ,the three impurities of water which most interest the photographer are lime or magnesia salts1 which give the so-called hardness2 chlorides 7as1 for example1 chloride of sodium or common salt71 which throw down silver salts2 and organic matter1 which may overturn the balance of photographic operations by causing premature reduction of the sensitive silver compounds4 ,to test for them is easy4 ,hardness is easily recognizable by washing one's hands in the water1 the soap being curdled2 but in many cases one must rather seek for a hard water than avoid it1 as the tendency of gelatine plates to frill is far less in hard water than in soft water4 ,it is1 indeed1 a common and useful practice to harden the water used for washing by adding half an ounce or an ounce of ,epsom salts 7sulphate of magnesia7 to each bucket of water4 ,chlorides--chloride of sodium or common salt being that usually met with--may be detected by adding a drop or two of nitrate of silver to half a wineglassful of the water1 a few drops of nitric acid being then added4 ,a slight cloudiness indicates a trace of chlorides1 and a decided milkiness shows the presence of a larger quantity4 ,if it is wished to get a somewhat more definite idea of the amount1 it is easy to make up a series of standards for comparison1 by dissolving known weights of common salt in distilled or rain water1 and testing samples of them side by side with the water to be examined4 ,organic matters may be detected by adding a little nitrate of silver to the water1 filtering off from any precipitate of chloride of silver1 and exposing the clear liquid to sunlight2 a clean stoppered bottle being the most convenient vessel to use4 ,the extent to which a blackening takes place may be regarded as approximately proportionate to the amount of organic matter present4 ,filtration on a small scale is not altogether a satisfactory mode of purifying water1 as organic impurities often accumulate in the filter1 and enter into active putrefaction when hot weather sets in4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,fire-,,damp ,,detecter4 ,according to the ,london ,mining ,journal1 ,mr4 ,w4,e4 ,garforth1 of ,normanton1 has introduced an ingenious invention1 the object of which is to detect fire-damp in collieries with the least possible degree of risk to those engaged in the work4 ,mr4 ,garforth's invention1 which is illustrated in the diagram given below1 consists in the use of a small ,india rubber hand ball1 without a valve of any description2 but by the ordinary action of compressing the ball1 and then allowing it to expand1 a sample of the suspected atmosphere is drawn from the roof1 or any part of the mine1 without the great risk which now attends the operation of testing for gas should the gauze of the lamp be defective4 ,the sample thus obtained is then forced through a small protected tube on to the flame1 when if gas is present it is shown by the well-known blue cap and elongated flame4 ,from this description1 and from the fact that the ball is so small that it can be carried in the coat pocket1 or1 if necessary1 in the waistcoat pocket1 it will be apparent what a valuable adjunct ,mr4 ,garforth's invention will prove to the safety-lamp4 ,it has been supposed by some persons that explosions have been caused by the fire-trier himself1 but owing to his own death in most cases the cause has remained undiscovered4 ,this danger will now be altogether avoided4 ,it is well known that the favorite form of lamp with the firemen is the ,davy1 because it shows more readily the presence of small quantities of gas2 but the ,davy was some years ago condemned1 and is now strictly prohibited in all ,belgian and many ,english mines4 ,recent experience1 gained by repeated experiments with costly apparatus1 has resulted in not only proving the ,davy and some other descriptions of lamps to be unsafe1 but some of our ,government ,inspectors and our most experienced mining engineers go so far as to say that no lamp in a strong current of explosive gas is safe unless protected by a tin shield4 ,illustration ,if such is the case1 ,mr4 ,garforth seems to have struck the key-note when1 in the recent paper read before the ,midland ,institute of ,mining and ,civil ,engineers1 and which we have now before us1 he says3 ,it would seem from the foregoing remarks that in any existing safety-lamp where one qualification is increased another is proportionately reduced2 so it is doubtful whether all the necessary requirements of sensitiveness1 resistance to strong currents1 satisfactory light1 self-extinction1 perfect combustion1 etc41 can ever be combined in one lamp4 ,the nearest approach to ,mr4 ,garforth's invention which we have ever heard of is that of a workman at a colliery in the north of ,england1 who1 more than twenty years ago1 to avoid the trouble of getting to the highest part of the roof1 used a kind of air pump1 seven or eight feet long1 to extract the gas from the breaks2 and some five years ago ,mr4 ,jones1 of ,ebbw ,vale1 had a similar idea4 ,it appears that these appliances were so cumbersome1 besides requiring too great length or height for most mines1 and necessitating the use of both hands1 that they did not come into general use4 ,the ideas1 however1 are totally different1 and the causes which have most likely led to the invention of the ball and protected tube were probably never thought of until recently2 indeed1 ,mr4 ,garforth writes that he has only learned about them since his paper was read before the ,midland ,institute1 and some weeks after his patent was taken out4 ,no one1 says ,mr4 ,garforth1 in his paper read before the ,midland ,institute1 will1 ,i presume1 deny that the ,davy is more sensitive than the tin shield lamp1 inasmuch as in the former the surrounding atmosphere or explosive mixture has only one thickness of gauze to pass through1 and that on a level with the flame2 while the latter has a number of small holes and two or three thicknesses of gauze 7according to the construction of the lamp71 which the gas must penetrate before it reaches the flame4 ,moreover1 the tin shield lamp1 when inclined to one side1 is extinguished 7though not so easily as the ,mueseler72 and as the inlet holes are #f inches from the top1 it does not show a thin stratum of fire-damp near the roof as perceptibly as the ,davy1 which admits of being put in almost a horizontal position4 ,although the ,davy lamp was1 nearly fifty years ago1 pronounced unsafe1 by reason of its inability to resist an ordinary velocity of eight feet per second1 yet it is still kept in use on account of its sensitiveness4 ,its advocates maintain that a mine can be kept safer by using the ,davy1 which detects small quantities of gas1 and thereby shows the real state of the mine1 than by a lamp which1 though able to resist a greater velocity1 is not so sensitive1 and consequently is apt to deceive4 ,assuming the ,davy lamp to be condemned 7as it has already been in ,belgium and in some ,english mines71 the ,stephenson and some of the more recently invented lamps pronounced unsafe1 then if greater shielding is recommended the question is1 what means have we for detecting small quantities of fire-damp8 ,it would seem from the foregoing remarks that in any existing safety-lamp1 where one qualification is increased another is proportionately reduced2 so it is doubtful whether all the necessary requirements of sensitiveness1 resistance to strong currents1 satisfactory light1 self-extinction1 perfect combustion1 etc41 can ever be combined in one lamp4 ,the object of the present paper is to show that with the assistance of the fire-damp detecter1 the tin shield1 or any other description of lamp1 is made as sensitive as the ,davy1 while its other advantages of resisting velocity1 etc41 are not in any way interfered with4 ,as a proof of this ,i may mention that a deputy of experience recently visited a working place to make his inspection4 ,he reported the stall to be free from gas1 but when the manager and steward visited it with the detecter1 which they applied to the roof 7where it would have been difficult to put even a small ,davy71 it drew a sample of the atmosphere which1 on being put to the test tube in the tin-shield lamp1 at once showed the presence of fire-damp4 ,out of twenty-eight tests in a mine working a long-wall face the ,davy showed gas only eleven times1 while the detecter showed it in every case4 ,the detecter1 as will be perceived from the one exhibited1 and the accompanying sectional drawing1 consists simply of an oval-shaped ,india rubber ball1 fitted with a mouthpiece4 ,the diameter is about #b inches by #c inches1 its weight is two ounces1 and it is so small that it can be carried without any inconvenience in the coat or even in the waistcoat pocket4 ,its capacity is such that all the air within it may be expelled by the compression of one hand4 ,the mouthpiece is made to fit a tube in the bottom of the lamp1 and when pressed against the ,india rubber ring on the ball-flange1 a perfectly tight joint is made1 which prevents the admission of any external air4 ,the tube in the bottom of the lamp is carried within a short distance of the height of the wick-holder4 ,it is covered at the upper end with gauze1 besides being fitted with other thicknesses of gauze at certain distances within the tube2 and if it be found desirable to further protect the flame against strong currents of air1 a small valve may be placed at the inlet1 as shown in the drawing4 ,this valve is made of sufficient weight to resist the force of a strong current1 and is only lifted from its seat by the pressure of the hand on the mouthpiece4 ,it will be apparent from the small size and elasticity of the detecter that the test can easily be made with one hand1 and when the ball is allowed to expand a vacuum is formed within it1 and a sample of the atmosphere drawn from the breaks1 cavities1 or highest parts of the roof1 or1 of course1 any portion of the mine4 ,when the sample is forced through the tube near the flame1 gas if present at once reveals itself by the elongation of the flame in the usual way1 at the same time giving an additional proof by burning with a blue flame on the top of the test tube4 ,if gas is not present1 the distinction is easily seen by the flame keeping the same size1 but burning with somewhat greater brightness1 owing to the increased quality of oxygen forced upon it4 ,i venture to claim for this method of detecting fire-damp among other advantages3 #a4 ,the detecter1 on account of its size1 can be placed in a break in the roof where an ordinary lamp--even a small ,davy--could not be put1 and a purer sample of the suspected atmosphere is obtained than would be the case even a few inches below the level of the roof1 #b4 ,the obtaining and testing of a sample in the manner above described takes away the possibility of an explosion1 which might be the result if a lamp with a defective gauze were placed in an explosive atmosphere4 ,no one knows how many explosions have not been caused by the fire-trier himself4 ,this will now be avoided4 7,although lamps fitted with a tin shield will be subjected to the same strict examination as hitherto1 still they do not admit of the same frequent inspection as those without shields1 for in the latter case each workman can examine his own lamp as an extra precaution2 whereas the examination of the tin shield lamps will rest entirely with the lamp man47 #c4 ,the lamp can be kept in a pure atmosphere while the sample is obtained by the detecter1 and at a greater height than the flame in a safety-lamp could be properly distinguished4 ,the test can afterward be made in a safe place1 at some distance from the explosive atmosphere2 and1 owing to the vacuum formed1 the ball 7without closing the mouthpiece7 has been carried a mile or more without the gas escaping4 #d4 ,the detecter supplies a better knowledge of the condition of the working places1 especially in breaks and cavities in the roof2 which latter1 with the help of a nozzle and staff1 may be reached to a height of ten feet or more1 by the detecter being pressed against the roof and sides1 or by the use of a special form of detecter4 #e4 ,being able at will to force the contents of the detecter on to the flame1 the effects of an explosion inside the lamp need not be feared4 7,this danger being removed1 admits1 ,i think1 of the glass cylinder being made of a larger diameter1 whereby a better light is obtained2 it may also be considered quite as strong1 when used with the detecter1 as a lamp with a small diameter1 when the latter is placed in an explosive atmosphere47 #f4 ,the use of the detecter will permit the further protection of the present tin shield lamp1 by an extra thickness of gauze1 if such addition is found advantageous in resisting an increased velocity4 #g4 ,in the ,mueseler1 ,stephenson1 and other lamps1 where the flame is surrounded by glass1 there is no means of using the wire for shot firing4 ,the detecter tube1 although protected by two thicknesses of gauze1 admits of this being done by the use of a special form of valve turned by the mouthpiece of the detecter4 ,the system of firing shots or using open lamps in the same pit where safety lamps are used is exceedingly objectionable2 still1 under certain conditions shots may be fired without danger4 ,whether safety lamps or candles are used1 it is thought the use of the detecter will afford such a ready means of testing that more examinations will be made before firing a shot1 thereby insuring greater safety4 #h4 ,in testing for gas with a safety lamp there is a fear of the light being extinguished1 when the lamp is suddenly placed in a quantity of gas1 or in endeavoring to get a very small light2 this is especially the case with some kinds of lamps4 ,with the detecter this is avoided1 as a large flame can be used1 which is considered by some a preferable means of testing for small quantities2 and the test can be made without risk4 ,where gas is present in large quantities1 the blue flame at the end of the test tube will be found a further proof4 ,this latter result is produced by the slightest compression of the ball4 7,i need not point out the inconvenience and loss of time in having to travel a mile or more to relight47 ,as regards the use of the detecter with open lights1 several of the foregoing advantages or modifications of them will apply4 ,instead of having to use the safety lamp as at present1 it is thought that the working place will be more frequently examined1 for a sample of the suspected atmosphere can be carried to a safe place and forced on to the naked light1 when1 if gas be present1 it simply burns at the end of the mouthpiece like an ordinary gas jet4 ,there are other advantages1 such as examining the return airways without exposing the lamp1 etc41 which will be apparent1 and become of more or less importance according to the conditions under which the tests are made4 ,in conclusion1 ,i wish to paint out that the practice adopted at some collieries1 of having all the men supplied with the most approved lamp 7such as the ,mueseler or tin shield lamp7 is not a safe one4 ,if the strength of a chain is only equal to the weakest link1 it may be argued that the safety of a mine is only equal to that of the most careless man or most unsafe lamp in it4 ,if1 therefore1 the deputies1 whose duty it is to look for gas and travel the most dangerous parts of the mine1 are obliged to use the ,davy on account of its sensitiveness1 may it not be said that1 as their lamps are exposed equally with the workmen's to the high velocities of air1 they are the weak links in the safety of the mine8 ,for the reasons given1 ,i venture to submit that the difficulties and dangers ,i have mentioned will be largely reduced1 if not wholly overcome1 by the use of the fire-damp detecter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,camera ,,attachment ,,for ,,paper ,,photo ,,negatives4 ,in computing the weight of the various items for a photographic tour1 the glass almost invariably comes out at the head of the list1 and the farther or longer the journey1 so much more does the weight of the plates stand out pre-eminent2 indeed1 if one goes out on a trip with only three dozen half-plates1 the glass will probably weigh nearly as much as camera1 backs1 and tripod1 in spite of the stipulation with the maker to supply plates on thin glass4 ,next in importance to glass as a support comes paper1 and it is quite easy to understand that the tourist in out of the way parts might be able to take an apparatus containing a roll of sensitive paper1 when it would be altogether impracticable for him to take an equivalent surface of coated glass1 and in such a case the roller slide becomes of especial value4 ,the roller slide of ,melhuish is tolerably well known1 and is1 we believe1 now obtainable as an article of commerce4 ,the slide is fitted up with two rollers1 a a1 and the sensitive sheets1 b b1 are gummed together1 making one long band1 the ends of which are gummed to pieces of paper always kept on the rollers4 ,the sensitive sheets are wound off the left or reserve roller on to the right or exposed roller1 until all are exposed4 ,illustration ,the rollers are supported on springs1 a a1 to render their motion equal2 they are turned by the milled heads1 m m1 and clamped when each fresh sheet is brought into position by the nuts1 a a4 c1 is a board which is pressed forward by springs1 c c1 so as to hold the sheet to be exposed1 and keep it smooth against the plate of glass1 d2 when the sheet has been exposed1 the board is drawn back from the glass in order to release the exposed sheet1 and allow it to be rolled on the exposed roller2 the board is kept back while this is being done by turning the square rod1 c1 half round1 so that the angles of the square will not pass back through the square opening until again turned opposite to it2 e e are doors1 by opening which the operator can see 7through the yellow glass1 y y7 to adjust the position of the sensitive sheets when changing them4 ,the remarkable similarity of such a slide to the automatic printing-frame described last week will strike the reader2 and1 like the printing-frame1 it possesses the advantage of speed in working--no small consideration to the photographer in a distant1 and possibly hostile1 country4 ,fine paper well sized with an insoluble size and coated with a sensitive emulsion is1 we believe1 the very best material to use in the roller slide2 and such a paper might be made in long lengths at a very low price1 a coating machine similar to that constructed for use in making carbon tissue being employed4 ,we have used such paper with success1 and hope that some manufacturer will introduce it into commerce before long4 ,but the question suggests itself1 how are the paper negatives to be rendered transparent1 and how is the grain of the paper to be obliterated8 ,simply by pressure1 as extremely heavy rolling will render such paper almost as transparent as glass1 a fact abundantly demonstrated by ,mr4 ,woodbury in his experiments on the ,photo-,filigrane process1 and confirmed by some trials which we have made4 ,it must be confessed that roller slide experiments which we have made with sensitive films supported on gelatine sheets1 or on such composite sheets as the alternate rubber and collodion pellicle of ,mr4 ,warnerke1 have been hardly satisfactory--possibly1 however1 from our own want of skill2 while no form of the ,calotype process which we have tried has proved so satisfactory as gelatino-bromide paper4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,instantaneous ,,photo ,,shutter4 ,m4 ,audra1 in the name of ,m4 ,braun1 of ,angoulme1 has presented to the ,photo ,society of ,france a new instantaneous shutter4 ,the shutter is formed by a revolving metallic disk out of which a segment has been taken4 ,this disk is placed in the center of the diaphragms1 in order to obtain the greatest rapidity combined with the least possible distance to travel4 ,on the axis to which this circular disk is fixed is a small wheel1 to which is attached a piece of string1 and when the disk is turned round for the exposure the string is wound round the wheel4 ,if the string be pulled1 naturally the disk will revolve back to its former position so much the more quickly the more violently the string is pulled4 ,m4 ,braun has replaced the hand by a steel spring attached to the drum of the lens 7,fig4 #b7 ,by shortening or lengthening the string1 more or less rapid exposures may be obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,aaa1 lens2 ,b1 aperture of lens2 ,c1 metallic disk2 ,d1 wheel on the axis2 ,e1 cord or string2 ,e,e,e,e1 knots in string2 ,g1 steel spring2 ,h1 catch2 ,k1 socket for catch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sulphurous ,,acid4--,,easy ,,method ,,of ,,preparation ,,for ,,photographic ,,purposes4 ,within a short period sulphurous acid has become an important element in the preparation of an excellent pyro developer for gelatine plates2 and as it is more or less unstable in its keeping qualities1 some easy method of preparing a small quantity which shall have a uniform strength is desirable4 ,a method recently described in the ,photographic ,news will afford the amateur photographer a ready way of preparing a small quantity of the acid4 ,illustration ,in the illustration given above1 ,a and ,b are two bottles1 both of which can be closed tightly with corks4 ,a hole is made in the cork in the bottle1 ,a1 a little smaller than the glass tube which connects ,a and ,b4 ,it is filed out with a rat-tail file until it is large enough to admit the tube very tightly4 ,the tube may be bent easily1 by being heated over a common fish-tail gas burner or over the top of the chimney of a kerosene lamp1 so as to form two right angles1 one end extending close to the bottom of the bottle ,b as shown4 ,having fitted up the apparatus1 about two ounces of hyposulphite of soda are placed in the bottle ,a1 while the bottle ,b is about three-fourths filled with water--distilled or melted ice water is to be preferred2 some sulphuric acid--about two ounces--is now diluted with about twice its bulk of water1 by first putting the water into a dish and pouring in the acid in a steady stream1 stirring meanwhile4 ,it is well to set the dish in a sink1 to avoid any damage which might occur through the breaking of the dish by the heat produced2 when cool1 the solution is ready for use and may be kept in a bottle4 ,the cork which serves to adapt the bent tube to the bottle ,a is now just removed for an instant1 the other end remaining in the water in bottle ,b1 and about two or three ounces of the dilute acid are poured in upon the hyposulphite1 after which the cork is immediately replaced4 ,sulphurous acid is now evolved by the action of the acid on the hypo1 and as the gas is generated it is led as a series of bubbles through the water in the bottle ,b as shown4 ,the air space above the water in bottle ,b soon becomes filled by displacement with sulphurous acid gas1 which is a little over twice as heavy as air2 so in order to expedite the complete saturation of the water1 it is convenient to remove the bottle ,a with its tube from bottle ,b1 and after having closed the latter by its cork or stopper1 to agitate it thoroughly by turning the bottle upside down4 ,as the sulphurous acid gas accumulated in the air space over the water is absorbed by the water1 a partial vacuum is created1 and when the stopper is eased an inrush of air may be noted4 ,when1 after passing fresh gas through the liquid for some minutes1 no further inrush of air is noted on easing the stopper as before described after agitating the bottle1 it may be concluded that the water is thoroughly saturated with sulphurous acid and is strong enough for immediate use4 ,more gas can be generated by adding more dilute sulphuric acid to the hypo until the latter is decomposed2 then it should be thrown aside1 and a fresh charge put in the bottle4 ,on preparing the solution it is well to set the bottles on the outside ledge of the window1 or in some other open situation where no inconvenience will result from the escape of the excess of sulphurous gas as it bubbles through the water4 ,the solution of sulphurous acid1 if preserved at all1 ought to be kept in small bottles1 completely filled and perfectly closed2 but as it is very easy to saturate a considerable quantity of water with sulphurous acid gas in a short time1 there is but little inducement to use a solution which may possibly have become weakened by keeping4 ,care should be taken not to add too much dilute acid to the hypo at a time1 else excessive effervescence will occur1 and the solution will froth over the top of the bottle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,national ,,monument ,,at ,,rome4 ,about three years ago the ,italian ,government invited the architects and artists of the world to furnish competitive designs for a national monument to be erected to the memory of ,king ,victor ,emanuel ,,ii4 at ,rome4 ,more than #a1hjj1jjj were appropriated for the monument exclusive of the foundation4 ,it is very seldom that an artist has occasion to carry out as grand and interesting a work as this was to be3 the representation of the creator of the ,italian union in the new capitol of the new state surrounded by the ruins and mementos of a proud and mighty past4 ,prizes of #aj1jjj1 #f1jjj1 and #d1jjj were donated for the first1 second1 and third prize designs respectively4 ,designs were entered1 not only from ,italy1 but also from ,germany1 ,france1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,england1 and ,america1 and even from ,caucasus and ,japan4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,italy4 ,,sacconi',s ,,prize ,,design ,,for ,,the ,,national ,,monument1 ,,rome1 ,,italy4 ,the height and size of the monument were not determined on1 nor was the exact location1 and the competitors had full liberty in relation to the artistic character of the monument1 and it was left for them to decide whether it should be a triumphal arch1 a column1 a temple1 a mausoleum1 or any other elaborate design4 ,this great liberty given to the competitors was of great value and service to the monument commission1 as it enabled them to decide readily what the character of the monument should be but it was a dangerous point for the artists1 at which most of them foundered4 ,the competition was resultless4 ,two prizes were given1 but new designs had to be called for1 which were governed more or less by a certain programme issued by the committee4 ,in place of the ,piazza de ,termini1 a square extending from the church of ,st4 ,maria degli ,angeli to the new ,via ,nazionale1 to which preference was given by the competitors1 the heights of ,aracoeli were chosen4 ,the monument was to be erected at this historic place in front of the side wall of the church1 with the center toward the ,corso1 high above the surrounding buildings4 ,the programme called for an equestrian statue of the ,king located in front of an architectural background which was to cover the old church walls1 and was to be reached by a grand staircase4 ,even the result of this second competition was not definite1 but as the designers were guided by the programme1 the results obtained were much more satisfactory4 ,the commission decided not to award the first prize1 but honored the ,italian architects ,giuseppi ,sacconi and ,manfredo ,manfredi1 and the ,german ,bruno ,schmitz1 with a prize of #b1jjj each2 and requested them to enter into another competition and deliver their models within four months1 so as to enable the commission to come to a final decision4 ,on ,june #ah1 the commission decided to accept ,sacconi's design for execution1 and awarded a second prize of #b1jjj to ,manfredi4 ,sacconi's design1 shown opposite page1 cut taken from the ,illustrirte ,zeitung1 needs but little explanation4 ,an elegant gallery of sixteen ,corinthian columns on a high1 prominent base is crowned by a high attica and flanked by pavilions4 ,it forms the architectural background for the equestrian statue1 and is reached by an elaborately ornamented staircase4 ,manfredi's design shows a handsomely decorated wall in place of the gallery1 and in front of the wall an amphitheater is arranged1 in the center of which the equestrian statue is placed4 ,bruno ,schmitz' design shows a rich mosaic base supporting an ,ionic portico1 from the middle of which a six column ,corinthian pronaos projects1 which no doubt would have produced a magnificent effect in the streets of ,rome4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,forms ,,of ,,ornament4 ,footnote3 ,from a paper by ,prof4 ,jacobsthal in the ,transactions of the ,archological ,society of ,berlin4--,nature4 ,the statement that modern culture can be understood only through a study of all its stages of development is equally true of its several branches4 ,let us assume that decorative art is one of these4 ,it contains in itself1 like language and writing1 elements of ancient and even of prehistoric forms1 but it must1 like these other expressions of culture1 which are forever undergoing changes1 adapt itself to the new demands which are made upon it1 not excepting the very arbitrary ones of fashion2 and it is owing to this cause that1 sometimes even in the early stages of its development1 little or nothing of its original form is recognizable4 ,investigations the object of which is to clear up this process of development as far as possible are likely to be of some service2 a person is more likely to recognize the beauties in the details of ornamental works of art if he has an acquaintance with the leading styles1 and the artist who is freed from the bondage of absolute tradition will be put into a better position to discriminate between accidental and arbitrary and organic and legitimate forms1 and will thus have his work in the creation of new ones made more easy for him4 ,hence ,i venture to claim some measure of indulgence in communicating the results of the following somewhat theoretical investigations1 as they are not altogether without a practical importance4 ,i must ask the reader to follow me into a modern drawing-room1 not into one that will dazzle us with its cold elegance1 but into one whose comfort invites us to remain in it4 ,the simple stucco ceiling presents a central rosette1 which passes over by light conventional floral forms into the general pattern of the ceiling4 ,the frieze also1 which is made of the same material1 presents a similar but somewhat more compact floral pattern as its chief motive4 ,neither of these1 though they belong to an old and never extinct species1 has as yet attained the dignity of a special name4 ,the walls are covered with a paper the ornamentation of which is based upon the designs of the splendid textile fabrics of the middle ages1 and represents a floral pattern of spirals and climbing plants1 and bears evident traces of the influence of ,eastern culture4 ,it is called a pomegranate or pine-apple pattern1 although in this case neither pomegranates nor pine-apples are recognizable4 ,similarly with respect to the pattern of the coverings of the chairs and sofas and of the stove-tiles2 these1 however1 show the influence of ,eastern culture more distinctly4 ,the carpet also1 which is not a true ,oriental one1 fails to rivet the attention1 but gives a quiet satisfaction to the eye1 which1 as it were1 casually glances over it1 by its simple pattern1 which is derived from ,persian-,indian archetypes 7,cashmere pattern1 ,indian palmettas71 and which is ever rhythmically repeating itself 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the floral pattern on the dressing-gown of the master of the house1 as well as on the light woolen shawl that is thrown round the shoulders of his wife1 and even the brightly colored glass knicknacks on the mantel-piece1 manufactured in ,silesia after the ,indian patterns of the ,reuleaux collection1 again show the same motive2 in the one case in the more geometrical linear arrangement1 in the other in the more freely entwined spirals4 ,now you will perhaps permit me to denominate these three groups of patterns that occur in our new home fabrics as modern patterns4 ,whether we shall in the next season be able1 in the widest sense of the word1 to call these patterns modern naturally depends on the ruling fashion of the day1 which of course cannot be calculated upon 7,fig4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,i beg to be allowed to postpone the nearer definition of the forms that occur in the three groups1 which1 however1 on a closer examination all present a good deal that they have in common4 ,taking them in a general way1 they all show a leaf-form inclosing an inflorescence in the form of an ear or thistle2 or at other times a fruit or a fruit-form4 ,in the same way with the stucco ornaments and the wall-paper pattern4 ,the ,cashmere pattern also essentially consists of a leaf with its apex laterally expanded2 it closes an ear-shaped flower-stem1 set with small florets1 which in exceptional cases protrude beyond the outline of the leaf2 the whole is treated rigorously as an absolute flat ornament1 and hence its recognition is rendered somewhat more difficult4 ,the blank expansion of the leaf is not quite unrelieved by ornament1 but is set off with small points1 spots1 and blossoms4 ,this will be thought less strange if we reflect on the ,eastern representations of animals1 in the portrayal of which the flat expanses produced by the muscle-layers are often treated from a purely decorative point of view1 which strikes us as an exaggeration of convention4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,one cannot go wrong in taking for granted that plant-forms were the archetypes of all these patterns4 ,now we know that it holds good1 as a general principle in the history of civilization1 that the tiller of the ground supplants the shepherd1 as the shepherd supplants the hunter2 and the like holds also in the history of the branch of art we are discussing--representations of animals are the first to make their appearance1 and they are at this period remarkable for a wonderful sharpness of characterization4 ,at a later stage man first begins to exhibit a preference for plant-forms as subjects for representation1 and above all for such as can in any way be useful or hurtful to him4 ,we1 however1 meet such plant-forms used in ornament in the oldest extant monuments of art in ,egypt1 side by side with representations of animals2 but the previous history of this very developed culture is unknown4 ,in such cases as afford us an opportunity of studying more primitive though not equally ancient stages of culture1 as for instance among the ,greeks1 we find the above dictum confirmed1 at any rate in cases where we have to deal with the representation of the indigenous flora as contradistinguished from such representations of plants as were imported from foreign civilizations4 ,in the case that is now to occupy us1 we have not to go back so very far in the history of the world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the ornamental representations of plants are of two kinds4 ,where we have to deal with a simple pictorial reproduction of plants as symbols 7laurel branches1 boughs of olive and fir1 and branches of ivy71 i4 e41 with a mere characteristic decoration of a technical structure1 stress is laid upon the most faithful reproduction of the object possible--the artist is again and again referred to the study of ,nature in order to imitate her4 ,hence1 as a general rule1 there is less difficulty in the explanation of these forms1 because even the minute details of the natural object now and then offer points that one can fasten upon4 ,it is quite another thing when we have to deal with actual decoration which does not aim at anything further than at employing the structural laws of organisms in order to organize the unwieldy substance1 to endow the stone with a higher vitality4 ,these latter forms depart1 even at the time when they originate1 very considerably from the natural objects4 ,the successors of the originators soon still further modify them by adapting them to particular purposes1 combining and fusing them with other forms so as to produce particular individual forms which have each their own history 7e4g41 the acanthus ornament1 which1 in its developed form1 differs very greatly from the acanthus plant itself72 and in a wider sense we may here enumerate all such forms as have been raised by art to the dignity of perfectly viable beings1 e4g41 griffins1 sphinxes1 dragons1 and angels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,the deciphering and derivation of such forms as these is naturally enough more difficult2 in the case of most of them we are not even in possession of the most necessary preliminaries to the investigation1 and in the case of others there are very important links missing 7e4g41 for the well-known ,greek palmettas74 ,in proportion as the representation of the plant was a secondary object1 the travesty has been more and more complete4 ,as in the case of language1 where the root is hardly recognizable in the later word1 so in decorative art the original form is indistinguishable in the ornament4 ,the migration of races and the early commercial intercourse between distant lands have done much to bring about the fusion of types2 but again in contrast to this we find1 in the case of extensive tracts of country1 notably in the ,asiatic continent1 a fixity1 throughout centuries1 of forms that have once been introduced1 which occasions a confusion between ancient and modern works of art1 and renders investigations much more difficult4 ,an old ,french traveler writes3 ,j'ai vu dans le trsor d',ispahan les vetements de ,tamerlan2 ils ne different en rien de ceux d'aujourd'hui4 ,ethnology1 the natural sciences1 and last1 but not least1 the history of technical art are here set face to face with great problems4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,in the case in point1 the study of the first group of artistic forms that have been elaborated by ,western art leads to definite results1 because the execution of the forms in stone can be followed on monuments that are relatively not very old1 that are dated1 and of which the remains are still extant4 ,in order to follow the development1 ,i ask your permission to go back at once to the very oldest of the known forms4 ,they come down to us from the golden era of ,greek decorative art--from the fourth or fifth century ,b4,c4--when the older simple styles of architecture were supplanted by styles characterized by a greater richness of structure and more developed ornament4 ,a number of flowers from capitals in ,priene1 ,miletus1 ,eleusis1 ,athens 7monument of ,lysicrates71 and ,pergamon2 also flowers from the calathos of a ,greek caryatid in the ,villa ,albani near ,rome1 upon many ,greek sepulchral wreaths1 upon the magnificent gold helmet of a ,grecian warrior 7in the ,museum of ,st4 ,petersburg7--these show us the simplest type of the pattern in question1 a folded leaf1 that has been bulged out1 inclosing a knob or a little blossom 7see ,figs4 #c and #d74 ,this is an example from the ,temple of ,apollo at ,miletus1 one that was constructed about ten years ago1 for educational purposes4 ,here is the specimen of the flower of the monument to ,lysicrates at ,athens1 of which the central part consists of a small flower or fruits 7,figs4 #e and #f74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,the form passes over into ,roman art4 ,the larger scale of the buildings1 and the pretensions to a greater richness in details1 lead to a further splitting up of the leaf into acanthus-like forms4 ,instead of a fruit-form a fir-cone appears1 or a pine-apple or other fruit in an almost naturalistic form4 ,in a still larger scale we have the club-shaped knob developing into a plant-stem branching off something after the fashion of a candelabrum1 and the lower part of the leaf1 where it is folded together in a somewhat bell-shaped fashion1 becomes in the true sense of the word a campanulum1 out of which an absolute vessel-shaped form1 as e4g4 is to be seen in the frieze of the ,basilica ,ulpia in ,rome1 becomes developed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,such remains of pictorial representation as are still extant present us with an equally perfect series of developments4 ,the splendid ,grco-,italian vessels1 the richly ornamented ,apulian vases1 show flowers in the spirals of the ornaments1 and even in the foreground of the pictorial representations1 which correspond exactly to the above mentioned ,greek relief representations4 ,the lecturer sent round1 among other illustrations1 a small photograph of a celebrated vase in ,naples 7representing the funeral rites of ,patroclus71 in which the flower in question appears in the foreground1 and is perhaps also employed as ornament4 7,figs4 #g and #h47 ,the ,pompeian paintings and mosaics1 and the ,roman paintings1 of which unfortunately very few specimens have come down to us1 show that the further developments of this form were most manifold1 and indeed they form in conjunction with the ,roman achievements in plastic art the highest point that this form reached in its development1 a point that the ,renaissance1 which followed hard upon it1 did not get beyond4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,thus the work of ,raphael from the loggias follows in unbroken succession upon the forms from the ,therm of ,titus4 ,it is only afterward that a freer handling of the traditional pattern arose1 characterized by the substitution of1 for instance1 maple or whitethorn for the acanthus-like forms4 ,often even the central part falls away completely1 or is replaced by overlapping leaves4 ,in the forms of this century we have the same process repeated4 ,schinkel and ,botticher began with the ,greek form1 and have put it to various uses2 ,stuler1 ,strack1 ,gropius1 and others followed in their wake until the more close resemblance to the forms of the period of the ,renaissance in regard to ,roman art which characterizes the present day was attained 7,fig4 #i74 ,now1 what plant suggested this almost indispensable form of ornament1 which ranks along with the acanthus and palmetta1 and which has also become so important by a certain fusion with the structural laws of both8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,we meet with organism of the form in the family of the ,arace1 or aroid plants4 ,an enveloping leaf 7bract71 called the spathe1 which is often brilliantly colored1 surrounds the florets1 or fruits1 that are disposed upon a spadix4 ,even the older writers--,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 ,galen1 and ,pliny--devote a considerable amount of attention to several species of this interesting family1 especially to the value of their swollen stems as a food-stuff1 to their uses in medicine1 etc4 ,some species of ,arum were eaten1 and even nowadays the value of the swollen stems of some species of the family causes them to be cultivated1 as1 for instance1 in ,egypt and ,india1 etc4 7the so-called ,portland sago1 ,portland ,island arrowroot1 is prepared from the swollen stems of ,arum maculatum74 ,in contrast with the smooth or softly undulating outlines of the spathe of ,mediterranean ,arace1 one species stands out in relief1 in which the sharply-marked fold of the spathe almost corresponds to the forms of the ornaments which we are discussing4 ,it is ,dracunculus vulgaris1 and derives its name from its stem1 which is spotted like a snake4 ,this plant1 which is pretty widely distributed in olive woods and in the river valleys of the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean1 was employed to a considerable extent in medicine by the ancients 7and is so still nowadays1 according to ,von ,heldreich1 in ,greece74 ,it was1 besides1 the object of particular regard1 because it was said not only to heal snake-bite1 but the mere fact of having it about one was supposed to keep away snakes1 who were said altogether to avoid the places where it grew4 ,but1 apart from this1 the striking appearance of this plant1 which often grows to an enormous size1 would be sufficient to suggest its employment in art4 ,according to measurements of ,dr4 ,julius ,schmidt1 who is not long since dead1 and was the director of the ,observatory at ,athens1 a number of these plants grow in the ,valley of ,cephisus1 and attain a height of as much as two meters1 the spathe alone measuring nearly one meter4 ,the lecturer here exhibited a drawing 7natural size7 of this species1 drawn to the measurements above referred to4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,dr4 ,sintenis1 the botanist1 who last year traveled through ,asia ,minor and ,greece1 tells me that he saw beautiful specimens of the plant in many places1 e4g41 in ,assos1 in the neighborhood of the ,dardanelles1 under the cypresses of the ,turkish cemeteries4 ,the inflorescence corresponds almost exactly to the ornament1 but the multipartite leaf has also had a particular influence upon its development and upon that of several collateral forms which ,i cannot now discuss4 ,the shape of the leaf accounts for several as yet unexplained extraordinary forms in the ancient plane-ornament1 and in the ,renaissance forms that have been thence developed4 ,it first suggested the idea to me of studying the plant attentively after having had the opportunity five years ago of seeing the leaves in the ,botanic ,gardens at ,pisa4 ,it was only afterward that ,i succeeded in growing some flowers which fully confirmed the expectations that ,i had of them 7,figs4 #aj and #aa74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,the leaf in dracunculus has a very peculiar shape2 it consists of a number of lobes which are disposed upon a stalk which is more or less forked 7tends more or less to dichotomize74 ,if you call to your minds some of the ,pompeian wall decorations1 you will perceive that similar forms occur there in all possible variations4 ,stems are regularly seen in decorations that run perpendicularly1 surrounded by leaves of this description4 ,before this1 these suggested the idea of a misunderstood 7or very conventional7 perspective representation of a circular flower4 ,now the form also occurs in this fashion1 and thus negatives the idea of a perspective representation of a closed flower4 ,it is out of this form in combination with the flower-form that the series of patterns was developed which we have become acquainted with in ,roman art1 especially in the ornament of ,titus' ,therm and in the ,renaissance period in ,raphael's work4 ,the lecturer here explained a series of illustrations of the ornaments referred to 7,figs4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad74 ,the attempt to determine the course of the first group of forms has been to a certain extent successful1 but we meet greater difficulties in the study of the second4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,it is difficult to obtain a firm basis on which to conduct our investigations from the historical or geographical point of view into this form of art1 which was introduced into the ,west by ,arabico-,moorish culture1 and which has since been further developed here4 ,there is only one method open to us in the determination of the form1 which is to pass gradually from the richly developed and strongly differentiated forms to the smaller and simpler ones1 even if these latter should have appeared contemporaneously or even later than the former4 ,here we have again to refer to the fact that has already been mentioned1 to wit1 that ,oriental art remained stationary throughout long periods of time4 ,in point of fact1 the simpler forms are invariably characterized by a nearer and nearer approach to the more ancient patterns and also to the natural flower-forms of the ,arace4 ,we find the spathe1 again1 sometimes drawn like an acanthus leaf1 more often1 however1 bulged out1 coming to be more and more of a mere outline figure1 and becoming converted into a sort of background2 then the spadix1 generally conical in shape1 sometimes1 however1 altogether replaced by a perfect thistle1 at other times again by a pomegranate4 ,auberville1 in his magnificent work ,l',ornement des ,tissus1 is astonished to find the term pomegranate-pattern almost confined to these forms1 since their central part is generally formed of a thistle-form4 ,as far as ,i can discover in the literature that is at my disposal1 this question has not had any particular attention devoted to it except in the large work upon ,ottoman architecture published in ,constantinople under the patronage of ,edhem ,pasha4 ,the pomegranate that has served as the original of the pattern in question is in this work surrounded with leaves till it gives some sort of an approach to the pattern4 7,there are important suggestions in the book as to the employment of melon-forms47 ,whoever has picked the fruit from the tender twigs of the pomegranate tree1 which are close set with small altered leaves1 will never dream of attributing the derivation of the thorny leaves that appear in the pattern to pomegranate leaves at any stage of their development4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad ,it does not require much penetration to see that the outline of the whole form corresponds to the spathe of the ,arace1 even although in later times the jagged contour is all that has remained of it1 and it appears to have been provided with ornamental forms quite independently of the rest of the pattern4 ,the inner thistle-form cannot be derived from the common thistle1 because the surrounding leaves negative any such idea4 ,the artichoke theory also has not enough in its favor1 although the artichoke1 as well as the thistle1 was probably at a later time directly pressed into service4 ,prof4 ,ascherson first called my attention to the extremely anciently cultivated plant1 the safflor 7,carthamus tinctoris1 ,fig4 #ae71 a thistle plant whose flowers were employed by the ancients as a dye4 ,some drawings and dried specimens1 as well as the literature of the subject1 first gave me a hope to find that this plant was the archetype of this ornament1 a hope that was borne out by the study of the actual plant1 although ,i was unable to grow it to any great perfection4 ,in the days of the ,egyptian ,king ,sargo 7according to ,ascherson and ,schweinfurth7 this plant was already well known as a plant of cultivation2 in a wild state it is not known 7,de ,candolle1 ,originel des ,plantes cultives74 ,in ,asia its cultivation stretches to ,japan4 ,semper cites a passage from an ,indian drama to the effect that over the doorway there was stretched an arch of ivory1 and about it were bannerets on which wild safran 7,saflor7 was painted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae ,the importance of the plant as a dye began steadily to decrease1 and it has now ceased to have any value as such in the face of the introduction of newer coloring matters 7a question that was treated of in a paper read a short time ago by ,dr4 ,reimann before this ,society74 ,perhaps its only use nowadays is in the preparation of rouge 7rouge vgtale74 ,but at a time when dyeing1 spinning1 and weaving were1 if not in the one hand1 yet at any rate intimately connected with one another in the narrow circle of a home industry1 the appearance of this beautiful gold-yellow plant1 heaped up in large masses1 would be very likely to suggest its immortalization in textile art1 because the drawing is very faithful to nature in regard to the thorny involucre4 ,drawings from nature of the plant in the old botanical works of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries look very like ornamental patterns4 ,now after the general form had been introduced1 pomegranates or other fruits--for instance1 pine-apples--were introduced within the nest of leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,into the detailed study of the intricacies of this subject ,i cannot here enter2 the ,east-,asian influences are not to be neglected1 which had probably even in early times an effect upon the form that was assumed1 and have fused the correct style of compound flowers for flat ornament with the above-mentioned forms1 so as to produce peculiar patterns2 we meet them often in the so-called ,persian textures and flat ornaments 7,fig4 #af74 ,we now come to the third group of forms--the so-called ,cashmere pattern1 or ,indian palmetta4 ,the developed forms1 which1 when they have attained their highest development1 often show us outlines that are merely fanciful1 and represent quite a bouquet of flowers leaning over to one side1 and springing from a vessel 7the whole corresponding to the ,roman form with the vessel71 must be thrown to one side1 while we follow up the simpler forms1 because in this case also we have no information as to either the where or the when the forms originated4 7,figs4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,here again we are struck by resemblances to the forms that were the subjects of our previous study1 we even come across direct transitional forms1 which differ from the others only by the lateral curve of the apex of the leaf2 sometimes it is the central part1 the spadix1 that is bent outward1 and the very details show a striking agreement with the structure of the aroid inflorescence1 so much so that one might regard them as actually copied from them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,this form of ornament has been introduced into ,europe since the ,french expedition to ,egypt1 owing to the importation of genuine ,cashmere shawls4 7,when it cropped up in isolated forms1 as in ,venice in the fifteenth century1 it appears not to have exerted any influence2 its introduction is perhaps rather to be attributed to calico-printing47 ,soon afterward the ,european shawl-manufacture1 which is still in a flourishing state1 was introduced4 ,falcot informs us that designs of a celebrated ,french artist1 ,couder1 for shawl-patterns1 a subject that he studied in ,india itself1 were exported back to that country and used there 7,fig4 #bj74 ,in these shawl-patterns the original simple form meets us in a highly developed1 magnificent1 and splendidly colored differentiation and elaboration4 ,this we can have no scruples in ranking along with the medival plane-patterns1 which we have referred to above1 among the highest achievements of decorative art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,it is evident that it1 at any rate in this high stage of development1 resisted fusion with ,western forms of art4 ,it is all the more incumbent upon us to investigate the laws of its existence1 in order to make it less alien to us1 or perhaps to assimilate it to ourselves by attaining to an understanding of those laws4 ,a great step has been made when criticism has1 by a more painstaking study1 put itself into a position to characterize as worthless ignorantly imitated1 or even original1 miscreations such as are eternally cropping up4 ,if we look at our modern manufactures immediately after studying patterns which enchant us with their classical repose1 or after it such others as captivate the eye by their beautiful coloring1 or the elaborative working out of their details1 we recognize that the beautifully balanced form is often cut up1 choked over with others1 or mangled 7the flower springing up side down from the leaves71 the whole being traversed at random by spirals1 which are utterly foreign to the spirit of such a style1 and all this at the caprice of uncultured1 boorish designers4 ,once we see that the original of the form was a plant1 we shall ever in the developed1 artistic form cling1 in a general way at least1 to the laws of its organization1 and we shall at any rate be in a position to avoid violent incongruities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,i had resort1 a few years ago1 to the young botanist ,ruhmer1 assistant at the ,botanical ,museum at ,schneberg1 who has unfortunately since died of some chest-disease1 in order to get some sort of a groundwork for direct investigations4 ,i asked him to look up the literature of the subject1 with respect to the employment of the ,indian ,arace for domestic uses or in medicine4 ,a detailed work on the subject was produced1 and establishes that1 quite irrespective of species of ,alocasia and ,colocasia that have been referred to1 a large number of ,arace were employed for all sorts of domestic purposes4 ,scindapsus1 which was used as a medicine1 has actually retained a ,sanskrit name1 vustiva4 ,i cannot here go further into the details of this investigation1 but must remark that even the incomplete and imperfect drawings of these plants1 which1 owing to the difficulty of preserving them1 are so difficult to collect through travelers1 exhibit such a wealth of shape1 that it is quite natural that ,indian and ,persian flower-loving artists should be quite taken with them1 and employ them enthusiastically in decorative art4 ,let me also mention that ,haeckel1 in his ',letters of an ,indian ,traveler1 very often bears witness to the effect of the ,arace upon the general appearance of the vegetation1 both in the full and enormous development of species of ,caladia and in the species of ,pothos which form such impenetrable mazes of interlooping stems4 ,in conclusion1 allow me to remark that the results of my investigation1 of which but a succinct account has been given here1 negative certain derivations1 which have been believed in1 though they have never been proved2 such as that of the form ,i have last discussed from the ,assyrian palmetta1 or from a cypress bent down by the wind4 ,to say the least the laws of formation here laid down have a more intimate connection with the forms as they have come down to us1 and give us a better handle for future use and development4 ,the object of the investigation was1 in general words1 to prepare for an explanation of the questions raised2 and even if the results had turned out other than they have1 it would have sufficed me to have given an impulse to labors which will testify to the truth of the dead master's words3 ,was ,du ererbt von deinen ,vtern hast1 ,erwirb es1 um es zu besitzen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,steps ,,toward ,a ,,kinetic ,,theory ,,of ,,matter4 ,footnote3 ,meeting of the ,british ,association1 ,montreal4 #ahhd4 ,section ,a4 ,mathematical and ,physical science4 ,opening ,address by ,prof4 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,,ss4,l4 and ,e41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,president of the ,section4 ,by ,sir ,,william ,,thomson4 ,the now well known kinetic theory of gases is a step so important in the way of explaining seemingly static properties of matter by motion1 that it is scarcely possible to help anticipating in idea the arrival at a complete theory of matter1 in which all its properties will be seen to be merely attributes of motion4 ,if we are to look for the origin of this idea we must go back to ,democritus1 ,epicurus1 and ,lucretius4 ,we may then1 ,i believe1 without missing a single step1 skip #ahjj years4 ,early last century we find in ,malebranche's ,recherche de la ,verite1 the statement that la durete de corps depends on petits tourbillons4 #a ,these words1 embedded in a hopeless mass of unintelligible statements of the physical1 metaphysical1 and theological philosophies of the day1 and unsupported by any explanation1 elucidation1 or illustration throughout the rest of the three volumes1 and only marred by any other single sentence or word to be found in the great book1 still do express a distinct conception which forms a most remarkable step toward the kinetic theory of matter4 ,a little later we have ,daniel ,bernoulli's promulgation of what we now accept as a surest article of scientific faith--the kinetic theory of gases4 ,he1 so far as ,i know1 thought only of ,boyle's and ,mariotte's law of the spring of air1 as ,boyle called it1 without reference to change of temperature or the augmentation of its pressure if not allowed to expand for elevation of temperature1 a phenomenon which perhaps he scarcely knew1 still less the elevation of temperature produced by compression1 and the lowering of temperature by dilatation1 and the consequent necessity of waiting for a fraction of a second or a few seconds of time 7with apparatus of ordinary experimental magnitude71 to see a subsidence from a larger change of pressure down to the amount of change that verifies ,boyle's law4 ,the consideration of these phenomena forty years ago by ,joule1 in connection with ,bernoulli's original conception1 formed the foundation of the kinetic theory of gases as we now have it4 ,but what a splendid and useful building has been placed on this foundation by ,clausius and ,maxwell1 and what a beautiful ornament we see on the top of it in the radiometer of ,crookes1 securely attached to it by the happy discovery of ,tait and ,dewar1#b that the length of the free path of the residual molecules of air in a good modern vacuum may amount to several inches6 ,clausius' and ,maxwell's explanations of the diffusion of gases1 and of thermal conduction in gases1 their charmingly intelligible conclusion that in gases the diffusion of heat is just a little more rapid than the diffusion of molecules1 because of the interchange of energy in collisions between molecules1#c while the chief transference of heat is by actual transport of the molecules themselves1 and ,maxwell's explanation of the viscosity of gases1 with the absolute numerical relations which the work of those two great discoverers found among the three properties of diffusion1 thermal conduction1 and viscosity1 have annexed to the domain of science a vast and ever growing province4 ,footnote #a3 ,preuve de la supposition que j'ay faite3 ,que la matiere subtile ou etheree est necessairement composee de ,,petits ,,tourbillons2 et qu'ils sont les causes naturelles de tous les changements qui arrivent a la matiere2 ce que je confirme par i'explication des effets les plus generaux de la ,physique1 tels que sont la durete des corps1 leur fluidite1 leur pesanteur1 legerete1 la lumiere et la refraction et reflexion de ses rayons4--,malebranche1 ,recherche de la ,verite1 #agab4 ,footnote #b3 ,proc4 ,r4,s4,e41 ,march #b1 #ahgd1 and ,july #e1 #ahge4 ,footnote #c3 ,on the other hand1 in liquids1 on account of the crowdedness of the molecules1 the diffusion of heat must be chiefly by interchange of energies between the molecules1 and should be1 as experiment proves it is1 enormously more rapid than the diffusion of the molecules themselves1 and this again ought to be much less rapid than either the material or thermal diffusivities of gases4 ,thus the diffusivity of common salt through water was found by ,fick to be as small as #j4jjjjaab square centimeter per second2 nearly #bjj times as great as this is the diffusivity of heat through water1 which was found by ,j4,t4 ,bottomley to be about #j4jjb square centimeter per second4 ,the material diffusivities of gases1 according to ,loschmidt's experiments1 range from #j4ih 7the interdiffusivity of carbonic acid and nitrous oxide7 to #j4fdb 7the interdiffusivity of carbonic oxide and hydrogen71 while the thermal diffusivities of gases1 calculated according to ,clausius' and ,maxwell's kinetic theory of gases1 are #j4jhi for carbonic acid1 #j4af for common air of other gases of nearly the same density1 and #a4ab for hydrogen 7all1 both material and thermal1 being reckoned in square centimeters per second74 ,rich as it is in practical results1 the kinetic theory of gases1 as hitherto developed1 stops absolutely short at the atom or molecule1 and gives not even a suggestion toward explaining the properties in virtue of which the atoms or molecules mutually influence one another4 ,for some guidance toward a deeper and more comprehensive theory of matter1 we may look back with advantage to the end of last century and beginning of this century1 and find ,rumford's conclusion regarding the heat generated in boring a brass gun3 ,it appears to me to be extremely difficult1 if not quite impossible1 to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in the manner the heat was excited and communicated in these experiments1 except it be ,,motion2 and ,davy's still more suggestive statements3 ,the phenomena of repulsion are not dependent on a peculiar elastic fluid for their existence4 444 ,heat may be defined as a peculiar motion1 probably a vibration1 of the corpuscles of bodies1 tending to separate them4 444 ,to distinguish this motion from others1 and to signify the causes of our sensations of heat1 etc41 the name repulsive motion has been adopted4 ,here we have a most important idea4 ,it would be somewhat a bold figure of speech to say the earth and moon are kept apart by a repulsive motion2 and yet1 after all1 what is centrifugal force but a repulsive motion1 and may it not be that there is no such thing as repulsion1 and that it is solely by inertia that what seems to be repulsion is produced8 ,two bodies fly together1 and1 accelerated by mutual attraction1 if they do not precisely hit one another1 they cannot but separate in virtue of the inertia of their masses4 ,so1 after dashing past one another in sharply concave curves round their common center of gravity1 they fly asunder again4 ,a careless onlooker might imagine they had repelled one another1 and might not notice the difference between what he actually sees and what he would see if the two bodies had been projected with great velocity toward one another1 and either colliding and rebounding1 or repelling one another into sharply convex continuous curves1 fly asunder again4 ,joule1 ,clausius1 and ,maxwell1 and no doubt ,daniel ,bernoulli himself1 and ,i believe every one who has hitherto written or done anything very explicit in the kinetic theory of gases1 has taken the mutual action of molecules in collision as repulsive4 ,may it not after all be attractive8 ,this idea has never left my mind since ,i first read ,davy's ,repulsive ,motion1 about thirty-five years ago1 and ,i never made anything of it1 at all events have not done so until to-day 7,june #af1 #ahhd7--;if this can be said to be making anything of it--when1 in endeavoring to prepare the present address1 ,i notice that ,joule's and my own old experiments#a on the thermal effect of gases expanding from a high-pressure vessel through a porous plug1 proves the less dense gas to have greater intrinsic potential energy than the denser gas1 if we assume the ordinary hypothesis regarding the temperature of a gas1 according to which two gases are of equal temperatures #b when the kinetic energies of their constituent molecules are of equal average amounts per molecule4 ,footnote #a3 ,republished in ,sir ,w4 ,thomson's ,mathematical and ,physical ,papers1 vol4 i41 article xlix41 p4 #cha4 ,footnote #b3 ,that this is a mere hypothesis has been scarcely remarked by the founders themselves1 nor by almost any writer on the kinetic theory of gases4 ,no one has yet examined the question1 ,what is the condition as regards average distribution of kinetic energy1 which is ultimately fulfilled by two portions of gaseous matter1 separated by a thin elastic septum which absolutely prevents interdiffusion of matter1 while it allows interchange of kinetic energy by collisions against itself8 ,indeed1 ,i do not know but1 that the present is the very first statement which has ever been published of this condition of the problem of equal temperatures between two gaseous masses4 ,think of the thing thus4 ,imagine a great multitude of particles inclosed by a boundary which may be pushed inward in any part all round at pleasure4 ,now station an engineer corps of ,maxwell's army of sorting demons all round the inclosure1 with orders to push in the boundary diligently everywhere1 when none of the besieged troops are near1 and to do nothing when any of them are seen approaching1 and until after they have turned again inward4 ,the result will be that1 with exactly the same sum of kinetic and potential energies of the same inclosed multitude of particles1 the throng has been caused to be denser4 ,now ,joule's and my own old experiments on the efflux of air prove that if the crowd be common air1 or oxygen1 or nitrogen1 or carbonic acid1 the temperature is a little higher in the denser than in the rarer condition when the energies are the same4 ,by the hypothesis1 equality of temperature between two different gases or two portions of the same gas at different densities means equality of kinetic energies in the same number of molecules of the two4 ,from our observations proving the temperature to be higher1 it therefore follows that the potential energy is smaller in the condensed crowd4 ,this--always1 however1 under protest as to the temperature hypothesis--proves some degree of attraction among the molecules1 but it does not prove ultimate attraction between two molecules in collision1 or at distances much less than the average mutual distance of nearest neighbors in the multitude4 ,the collisional force might be repulsive1 as generally supposed hitherto1 and yet attraction might predominate in the whole reckoning of difference between the intrinsic potential energies of the more dense and less dense multitudes4 ,it is however remarkable that the explanation of the propagation of sound through gases1 and even of the positive fluid pressure of a gas against the sides of the containing vessel1 according to the kinetic theory of gases1 is quite independent of the question whether the ultimate collisional force is attractive or repulsive4 ,of course it must be understood that1 if it is attractive1 the particles must1 be so small that they hardly ever meet--they would have to be infinitely small to never meet--that1 in fact1 they meet so seldom1 in comparison with the number of times their courses--are turned through large angles by attraction1 that the influence of these surely attractive collisions is preponderant over that of the comparatively very rare impacts from actual contact4 ,thus1 after all1 the train of speculation suggested by ,davy's ,repulsive ,motion does not allow us to escape from the idea of true repulsion1 does not do more than let us say it is of no consequence1 nor even say this with truth1 because1 if there are impacts at all1 the nature of the force during the impact and the effects of the mutual impacts1 however rare1 cannot be evaded in any attempt to realize a conception of the kinetic theory of gases4 ,and in fact1 unless we are satisfied to imagine the atoms of a gas as mathematical points endowed with inertia1 and as1 according to ,boscovich1 endowed with forces of mutual1 positive1 and negative attraction1 varying according to some definite function of the distance1 we cannot avoid the question of impacts1 and of vibrations and rotations of the molecules resulting from impacts1 and we must look distinctly on each molecule as being either a little elastic solid or a configuration of motion in a continuous all-pervading liquid4 ,i do not myself see how we can ever permanently rest anywhere short of this last view2 but it would be a very pleasant temporary resting-place on the way to it if we could1 as it were1 make a mechanical model of a gas out of little pieces of round1 perfectly elastic solid matter1 flying about through the space occupied by the gas1 and colliding with one another and against the sides of the containing vessel4 ,this is1 in fact1 all we have of the kinetic theory of gases up to the present time1 and this has done for us1 in the hands of ,clausius and ,maxwell1 the great things which constitute our first step toward a molecular theory of matter4 ,of course from it we should have to go on to find an explanation of the elasticity and all the other properties of the molecules themselves1 a subject vastly more complex and difficult than the gaseous properties1 for the explanation of which we assume the elastic molecule2 but without any explanation of the properties of the molecule itself1 with merely the assumption that the molecule has the requisite properties1 we might rest happy for a while in the contemplation of the kinetic theory of gases1 and its explanation of the gaseous properties1 which is not only stupendously important as a step toward a more thoroughgoing theory of matter1 but is undoubtedly the expression of a perfectly intelligible and definite set of facts in ,nature4 ,but alas for our mechanical model consisting of the cloud of little elastic solids flying about among one another4 ,though each particle have absolutely perfect elasticity1 the end must be pretty much the same as if it were but imperfectly elastic4 ,the average effect of repeated and repeated mutual collisions must be to gradually convert all the translational energy into energy of shriller and shriller vibrations of the molecule4 ,it seems certain that each collision must have something more of energy in vibrations of very finely divided nodal parts than there was of energy in such vibrations before the impact4 ,the more minute this nodal subdivision1 the less must be the tendency to give up part of the vibrational energy into the shape of translational energy in the course of a collision2 and ,i think it is rigorously demonstrable that the whole translational energy must ultimately become transformed into vibrational energy of higher and higher nodal subdivisions if each molecule is a continuous elastic solid4 ,let us1 then1 leave the kinetic theory of gases for a time with this difficulty unsolved1 in the hope that we or others after us may return to it1 armed with more knowledge of the properties of matter1 and with sharper mathematical weapons to cut through the barrier which at present hides from us any view of the molecule itself1 and of the effects other than mere change of translational motion which it experiences in collision4 ,to explain the elasticity of a gas was the primary object of the kinetic theory of gases4 ,this object is only attainable by the assumption of an elasticity more complex in character1 and more difficult of explanation1 than the elasticity of gases--the elasticity of a solid4 ,thus1 even if the fatal fault in the theory1 to which ,i have alluded1 did not exist1 and if we could be perfectly satisfied with the kinetic theory of gases founded on the collisions of elastic solid molecules1 there would still be beyond it a grander theory which need not be considered a chimerical object of scientific ambition--to explain the elasticity of solids4 ,but we may be stopped when we commence to look in the direction of such a theory with the cynical question1 ,what do you mean by explaining a property of matter8 ,as to being stopped by any such question1 all ,i can say is that if engineering were to be all and to end all physical science1 we should perforce be content with merely finding properties of matter by observation1 and using them for practical purposes4 ,but ,i am sure very few1 if any1 engineers are practically satisfied with so narrow a view of their noble profession4 ,they must and do patiently observe1 and discover by observation1 properties of matter and results of material combinations4 ,but deeper questions are always present1 and always fraught with interest to the true engineer1 and he will be the last to give weight to any other objection to any attempt to see below the surface of things than the practical question1 ,is it likely to prove wholly futile8 ,but now1 instead of imagining the question1 ,what do you mean by explaining a property of matter8 to be put cynically1 and letting ourselves be irritated by it1 suppose we give to the questioner credit for being sympathetic1 and condescend to try and answer his question4 ,we find it not very easy to do so4 ,all the properties of matter are so connected that we can scarcely imagine one thoroughly explained without our seeing its relation to all the others1 without in fact having the explanation of all2 and till we have this we cannot tell what we mean by explaining a property or explaining the properties of matter4 ,but though this consummation may never be reached by man1 the progress of science may be1 ,i believe will be1 step by step toward it1 on many different roads converging toward it from all sides4 ,the kinetic theory of gases is1 as ,i have said1 a true step on one of the roads4 ,on the very distinct road of chemical science1 ,st4 ,claire ,deville arrived at his grand theory of dissociation without the slightest aid from the kinetic theory of gases4 ,the fact that he worked it out solely from chemical observation and experiment1 and expounded it to the world without any hypothesis whatever1 and seemingly even without consciousness of the beautiful explanation it has in the kinetic theory of gases1 secured for it immediately an independent solidity and importance as a chemical theory when he first promulgated it1 to which it might even by this time scarcely have attained if it had first been suggested as a probability indicated by the kinetic theory of gases1 and been only afterward confirmed by observation4 ,now1 however1 guided by the views which ,clausius and ,williamson have given us of the continuous interchange of partners between the compound molecules constituting chemical compounds in the gaseous state1 we see in ,deville's theory of dissociation a point of contact of the most transcendent interest between the chemical and physical lines of scientific progress4 ,to return to elasticity3 if we could make out of matter devoid of elasticity a combined system of relatively moving parts which1 in virtue of motion1 has the essential characteristics of an elastic body1 this would surely be1 if not positively a step in the kinetic theory of matter1 at least a fingerpost pointing a way which we may hope will lead to a kinetic theory of matter4 ,now this1 as ,i have already shown1#a we can do in several ways4 ,in the case of the last of the communications referred to1 of which only the title has hitherto been published1 ,i showed that1 from the mathematical investigation of a gyrostatically dominated combination contained in the passage of ,thomson and ,tait's ,natural ,philosophy referred to1 it follows that any ideal system of material particles1 acting on one another mutually through massless connecting springs1 may be perfectly imitated in a model consisting of rigid links jointed together1 and having rapidly rotating fly wheels pivoted on some or on all of the links4 ,the imitation is not confined to cases of equilibrium4 ,it holds also for vibration produced by disturbing the system infinitesimally from a position of stable equilibrium and leaving it to itself4 ,thus we may make a gyrostatic system such that it is in equilibrium under the influence of certain positive forces applied to different points of this system2 all the forces being precisely the same as1 and the points of application similarly situated to1 those of the stable system with springs4 ,then1 provided proper masses 7that is to say1 proper amounts and distributions of inertia7 be attributed to the links1 we may remove the external forces from each system1 and the consequent vibration of the points of application of the forces will be identical4 ,or we may act upon the systems of material points and springs with any given forces for any given time1 and leave it to itself1 and do the same thing for the gyrostatic system2 the consequent motion will be the same in the two cases4 ,if in the one case the springs are made more and more stiff1 and in the other case the angular velocities of the fly wheels are made greater and greater1 the periods of the vibrational constituents of the motion will become shorter and shorter1 and the amplitudes smaller and smaller1 and the motions will approach more and more nearly those of two perfectly rigid groups of material points moving through space and rotating according to the well known mode of rotation of a rigid body having unequal moments of inertia about its three principal axes4 ,in one case the ideal nearly rigid connection between the particles is produced by massless1 exceedingly stiff springs2 in the other case it is produced by the exceedingly rapid rotation of the fly wheels in a system which1 when the fly wheels are deprived of their rotation1 is perfectly limp4 ,footnote #a3 ,paper on ,vortex ,atoms1 ,proc4 ,r4,s4,e4 ,february4 #ahfg3 abstract of a lecture before the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain1 ,march #d1 #ahha1 on ,elasticity ,viewed as possibly a ,mode of ,motion2 ,thomson and ,tait's ,natural ,philosophy1 second edition1 part #a1 #cde viii4 to #cde xxxvii42 ,on ,oscillation and ,waves in an ,adynamic ,gyrostatic ,system 7title only71 ,proc4 ,r4,s4,e4 ,march1 #ahhc4 ,the drawings 7,figs4 #a and #b7 before you illustrate two such material systems4#a ,the directions of rotation of the fly-wheels in the gyrostatic system 7,fig4 #b7 are indicated by directional ellipses1 which show in perspective the direction of rotation of the fly-wheel of each gyrostat4 ,the gyrostatic system 7,fig4 #b7 might have been constituted of two gyrostatic members1 but four are shown for symmetry4 ,the inclosing circle represents in each case in section an inclosing spherical shell to prevent the interior from being seen4 ,in the inside of one there are fly-wheels1 in the inside of the other a massless spring4 ,the projecting hooked rods seem as if they are connected by a spring in each case4 ,if we hang any one of the systems up by the hook on one of its projecting rods1 and hang a weight to the hook of the other projecting rod1 the weight1 when first put on1 will oscillate up and down1 and will go on doing so for ever if the system be absolutely unfrictional4 ,if we check the vibration by hand1 the weight will hang down at rest1 the pin drawn out to a certain degree2 and the distance drawn out will be simply proportional to the weight hung on1 as in an ordinary spring balance4 ,footnote #a3 ,in ,fig4 #a the two hooked rods seen projecting from the sphere are connected by an elastic coach-spring4 ,in ,fig4 #b the hooked rods are connected one to each of two opposite corners of a four-sided jointed frame1 each member of which carries a gyrostat so that the axis of rotation of the fly-wheel is in the axis of the member of the frame which bears it4 ,each of the hooked rods in ,fig4 #b is connected to the framework through a swivel joint1 so that the whole gyrostatic framework may be rotated about the axis of the hooked rods in order to annul the moment of momentum of the framework about this axis due to rotation of the fly-wheels in the gyrostat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,here1 then1 out of matter possessing rigidity1 but absolutely devoid of elasticity1 we have made a perfect model of a spring in the form of a spring balance4 ,connect millions of millions of particles by pairs of rods such as these of this spring balance1 and we have a group of particles constituting an elastic solid2 exactly fulfilling the mathematical ideal worked out by ,navier1 ,poisson1 and ,cauchy1 and many other mathematicians1 who1 following their example1 have endeavored to found a theory of the elasticity of solids on mutual attraction and repulsion between a group of material particles4 ,all that can possibly be done by this theory1 with its assumption of forces acting according to any assumed law of relation to distance1 is done by the gyrostatic system4 ,but the gyrostatic system does1 besides1 what the system of naturally acting material particles cannot do--it constitutes an elastic solid which can have the ,faraday magneto-optic rotation of the plane of polarization of light2 supposing the application of our solid to be a model of the luminiferous ether for illustrating the undulatory theory of light4 ,the gyrostatic model spring balance is arranged to have zero moment of momentum as a whole1 and therefore to contribute nothing to the ,faraday rotation2 with this arrangement the model illustrates the luminiferous ether in a field unaffected by magnetic force4 ,but now let there be a different rotational velocity imparted to the jointed square round the axis of the two projecting hooked rods1 such as to give a resultant moment of momentum round any given line through the center of inertia of the system2 and let pairs of the hooked rods in the model thus altered1 which is no longer a model of a mere spring balance1 be applied as connections between millions of pairs of particles as before1 with the lines of resultant moment of momentum all similarly directed4 ,we now have a model elastic solid which will have the property that the direction of vibration in waves of rectilinear vibrations propagated through it shall turn round the line of propagation of the waves1 just as ,faraday's observation proves to be done by the line of vibration of light in a dense medium between the poles of a powerful magnet4 ,the case of wave front perpendicular to the lines of resultant moment of momentum 7that is to say1 the direction of propagation being parallel to these lines7 corresponds1 in our mechanical model1 to the case of light traveling in the direction of the lines of force in a magnetic field4 ,in these illustrations and models we have different portions of ideal rigid matter acting upon one another1 by normal pressure at mathematical points of contact--of course no forces of friction are supposed4 ,it is exceedingly interesting to see how thus1 with no other postulates than inertia1 rigidity1 and mutual impenetrability1 we can thoroughly model not only an elastic solid1 and any combination of elastic solids1 but so complex and recondite a phenomenon as the passage of polarized light through a magnetic field4 ,but now1 with the view of ultimately discarding the postulate of rigidity from all our materials1 let us suppose some to be absolutely destitute of rigidity1 and to possess merely inertia and incompressibility1 and mutual impenetrability with reference to the still remaining rigid matter4 ,with these postulates we can produce a perfect model of mutual action at a distance between solid particles1 fulfilling the condition1 so keenly desired by ,newton and ,faraday1 of being explained by continuous action through an intervening medium4 ,the law of the mutual force in our model1 however1 is not the simple ,newtonian law1 but the much more complex law of the mutual action between electro magnets--with this difference1 that in the hydro-kinetic model in every case the force is opposite in direction to the corresponding force in the electro-magnetic analogue4 ,imagine a solid bored through with a hole1 and placed in our ideal perfect liquid4 ,for a moment let the hole be stopped by a diaphragm1 and let an impulsure pressure be applied for an instant uniformly over the whole membrane1 and then instantly let the membrane be dissolved into liquid4 ,this action originates a motion of the liquid relatively to the solid1 of a kind to which ,i have given the name of irrotational circulation1 which remains absolutely constant however the solid be moved through the liquid4 ,thus1 at any time the actual motion of the liquid at any point in the neighborhood of the solid will be the resultant of the motion it would have in virtue of the circulation alone1 were the solid at rest1 and the motion it would have in virtue of the motion of the solid itself1 had there been no circulation established through the aperture4 ,it is interesting and important to remark in passing that the whole kinetic energy of the liquid is the sum of the kinetic energies which it would have in the two cases separately4 ,now1 imagine the whole liquid to be inclosed in an infinitely large1 rigid1 containing vessel1 and in the liquid1 at an infinite distance from any part of the containing vessel1 let two perforated solids1 with irrotational circulation through each1 be placed at rest near one another4 ,the resultant fluid motion due to the two circulations1 will give rise to fluid pressure on the two bodies1 which1 if unbalanced1 will cause them to move4 ,the force systems--force-and-torques1 or pairs of forces--required to prevent them from moving will be mutual and opposite1 and will be the same as1 but opposite in direction to1 the mutual force systems required to hold at rest two electromagnets fulfilling the following specification3 ,the two electro magnets are to be of the same shape and size as the two bodies1 and to be placed in the same relative positions1 and to consist of infinitely thin layers of electric currents in the surfaces of solids possessing extreme diamagnetic quality--in other words1 infinitely small permeability4 ,the distribution of electric current on each body may be any whatever which fulfills the condition that the total current across any closed line drawn on the surface once through the aperture is equal to pi of the circulation#a through the aperture in the hydro-kinetic analogue4 ,footnote #a3 ,the integral of tangential component velocity all round any closed curve1 passing once through the aperture1 is defined as the cyclic-constant or the circulation 7,vortex ,motion1 #fj 7a71 ,trans4 ,r4,s4,e41 ,april #bi1 #ahfg74 ,it has the same value for all closed curves passing just once through the aperture1 and it remains constant through all time1 whether the solid body be in motion or at rest4 ,it might be imagined that the action at a distance thus provided for by fluid motion could serve as a foundation for a theory of the equilibrium1 and the vibrations1 of elastic solids1 and the transmission of waves like those of light through an extended quasi-elastic solid medium4 ,but unfortunately for this idea the equilibrium is essentially unstable1 both in the case of magnets and1 notwithstanding the fact that the forces are oppositely directed1 in the hydro-kinetic analogue also1 when the several movable bodies 7two or any greater number7 are so placed relatively as to be in equilibrium4 ,if1 however1 we connect the perforated bodies with circulation through them in the hydro-kinetic system1 by jointed rigid connecting links1 we may arrange for configurations of stable equilibrium4 ,thus1 without fly-wheels1 but with fluid circulations through apertures1 we may make a model spring balance or a model luminiferous ether1 either without or with the rotational quality corresponding to that of the true luminiferous ether in the magnetic fluid--in short1 do all by the perforated solids with circulations through them that we saw we could do by means of linked gyrostats4 ,but something that we cannot do by linked gyrostats we can do by the perforated bodies with fluid circulation3 we can make a model gas4 ,the mutual action at a distance1 repulsive or attractive according to the mutual aspect of the two bodies when passing within collisional distance#a of one another1 suffices to produce the change of direction of motion in collision1 which essentially constitutes the foundation of the kinetic theory of gases1 and which1 as we have seen before1 may as well be due to attraction as to repulsion1 so far as we know from any investigation hitherto made in this theory4 ,footnote #a3 ,according to this view1 there is no precise distance1 or definite condition respecting the distance1 between two molecules1 at which apparently they come to be in collision1 or when receding from one another they cease to be in collision4 ,it is convenient1 however1 in the kinetic theory of gases1 to adopt arbitrarily a precise definition of collision1 according to which two bodies or particles mutually acting at a distance may be said to be in collision when their mutual action exceeds some definite arbitrarily assigned limit1 as1 for example1 when the radius of curvature of the path of either body is less than a stated fraction 7one one-hundredth1 for instance7 of the distance between them4 ,there remains1 however1 as we have seen before1 the difficulty of providing for the case of actual impacts between the solids1 which must be done by giving them massless spring buffers or1 which amounts to the same thing1 attributing to them repulsive forces sufficiently powerful at very short distances to absolutely prevent impacts between solid and solid2 unless we adopt the equally repugnant idea of infinitely small perforated solids1 with infinitely great fluid circulations through them4 ,were it not for this fundamental difficulty1 the hydro-kinetic model gas would be exceedingly interesting2 and1 though we could scarcely adopt it as conceivably a true representation of what gases really are1 it might still have some importance as a model configuration of solid and liquid matter1 by which without elasticity the elasticity of true gas might be represented4 ,but lastly1 since the hydro-kinetic model gas with perforated solids and fluid circulations through them fails because of the impacts between the solids1 let us annul the solids and leave the liquid performing irrotational circulation round vacancy1#a in the place of the solid cores which we have hitherto supposed2 or let us annul the rigidity of the solid cores of the rings1 and give them molecular rotation according to ,helmholtz's theory of vortex motion4 ,for stability the molecular rotation must be such as to give the same velocity at the boundary of the rotational fluid core as that of the irrotationally circulating liquid in contact with it1 because1 as ,i have proved1 frictional slip between two portions of liquid in contact is inconsistent with stability4 ,there is a further condition1 upon which ,i cannot enter into detail just now1 but which may be understood in a general way when ,i say that it is a condition of either uniform or of increasing molecular rotation from the surface inward1 analogous to the condition that the density of a liquid1 resting for example under the influence of gravity1 must either be uniform or must be greater below than above for stability of equilibrium4 ,all that ,i have said in favor of the model vortex gas composed of perforated solids with fluid circulations through them holds without modification for the purely hydro-kinetic model1 composed of either ,helmholtz cored vortex rings or of coreless vortices1 and we are now troubled with no such difficulty as that of the impacts between solids4 ,whether1 however1 when the vortex theory of gases is thoroughly worked out1 it will or will not be found to fail in a manner analogous to the failure which ,i have already pointed out in connection with the kinetic theory of gases composed of little elastic solid molecules1 ,i cannot at present undertake to speak with certainty4 ,it seems to me most probable that the vortex theory cannot fail in any such way1 because all ,i have been able to find out hitherto regarding the vibration of vortices1#b whether cored or coreless1 does not seem to imply the liability of translational or impulsive energies of the individual vortices becoming lost in energy of smaller and smaller vibrations4 ,footnote #a3 ,investigations respecting coreless vortices will be found in a paper by the author1 ,vibrations of a ,columnar ,vortex1 ,proc4 ,r4,s4,e41 ,march #a1 #ahhj2 and a paper by ,hicks1 recently read before the ,royal ,society4 ,footnote #b3 ,see papers by the author ,on ,vortex ,motion4 ,trans4 ,r4,s4,e4 ,april1 #ahfg1 and ,vortex ,statics1 ,proc4 ,r4,s4,e4 ,december1 #ahge2 also a paper by ,j4,j4 ,thomson1 ,b4,a41 ,on the ,vibrations of a ,vortex ,ring1 ,trans4 ,r4,s4 ,december1 #ahha1 and his valuable book on ,vortex ,motion4 ,as a step toward kinetic theory of matter1 it is certainly most interesting to remark that in the quasi-elasticity1 elasticity looking like that of an ,india-rubber band1 which we see in a vibrating smoke-ring launched from an elliptic aperture1 or in two smoke-rings which were circular1 but which have become deformed from circularity by mutual collision1 we have in reality a virtual elasticity in matter devoid of elasticity1 and even devoid of rigidity1 the virtual elasticity being due to motion1 and generated by the generation of motion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,application ,,of ,,electricity ,,to ,,tramways4 ,by ,m4 ,,holroyd ,,smith4 ,last year1 when ,i had the pleasure of reading a paper before you on my new system of electric tramways1 ,i ventured to express the hope that before twelve months had passed1 to be able to report progress1 and ,i am happy to say that notwithstanding the wearisome delay and time lost in fruitless negotiations1 and the hundred and one difficulties within and without that have beset me1 ,i am able to appear before you again and tell you of advance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,practical men know well that there is a wide difference between a model and a full sized machine2 and when ,i decided to construct a full sized tramcar and lay out a full sized track1 ,i found it necessary to make many alterations of detail1 my chief difficulty being so to design my work as to facilitate construction and allow of compensation for that inaccuracy of workmanship which ,i have come to regard as inevitable4 ,in order to satisfy the directors of a tramway company of the practical nature of my system before disturbing their lines1 ,i have laid1 in a field near the works of ,messrs4 ,smith1 ,baker ,co41 ,manchester1 a track #aaj yards long1 #d ft4 #h in4 gauge1 and ,i have constructed a full sized street tramcar to run thereon4 ,my negotiations being with a company in a town where there are no steep gradients1 and where the coefficient of friction of ordinary wheels would be sufficient for all tractive purposes1 ,i thought it better to avoid the complication involved in employing a large central wheel with a broad surface specially designed for hilly districts1 and with which ,i had mounted a gradient of one in sixteen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,but as the line in question was laid with all the curves unnecessarily quick1 even those in the pass-bies1 ,i thought it expedient to employ differential gear1 as illustrated at ,d1 ,fig4 #a1 which is a sketch plan showing the mechanism employed4 ,m is a ,siemens electric motor running at #fej revolutions per minute2 ,e is a combination of box gearing1 frictional clutch1 and chain pinion1 and from this pinion a steel chain passes around the chain-wheel1 ,h1 which is free to revolve upon the axle1 and carries within it the differential pinion1 gearing with the bevel-wheel1 ,b1 keyed upon the sleeve of the loose tram-wheel1 ,t1 and with the bevel-wheel1 ,b1 keyed upon the axle1 to which the other tram-wheel1 ,t1 is attached4 ,to the other tram-wheels no gear is connected2 one of them is fast to the axle1 and the other runs loose1 but to them the brake is applied in the usual manner4 ,the electric current from the collector passes1 by means of a copper wire1 and a switch upon the dashboard of the car1 and resistance coils placed under the seats1 to the motor1 and from the motor by means of an adjustable clip 7illustrated in diagram1 ,fig4 #b7 to the axles1 and by them through the four wheels to the rails1 which form the return circuit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,i have designed many modifications of the track1 but it is1 perhaps1 best at present to describe only that which ,i have in actual use1 and it is illustrated in diagram1 ,fig4 #c1 which is a sectional and perspective view of the central channel4 ,l is the surface of the road1 and ,,ss are the sleepers1 ,,cc are the chairs which hold the angle iron1 ,,aa forming the longitudinally slotted center rail and the electric lead1 which consists of two half-tubes of copper insulated from the chairs by the blocks1 ,i1 ,i4 ,a special brass clamp1 free to slide upon the tube1 is employed for this purpose1 and the same form of clamp serves to join the two ends of the copper tubes together and to make electric contact4 ,two half-tubes instead of one slotted tube have been employed1 in order to leave a free passage for dirt or wet to fall through the slot in the center rail to the drain space1 ,g4 ,between chair and chair hewn granite or artificial stone is employed1 formed1 as shown in the drawing1 to complete the surface of the road and to form a continuous channel or drain4 ,in order that this drain may not become choked1 at suitable intervals1 in the length of the track1 sump holes are formed as illustrated in diagram1 ,fig4 #d ,these sump holes have a well for the accumulation of mud1 and are also connected with the main street drain1 so that water can freely pass away4 ,the hand holes afford facility for easily removing the dirt4 ,in a complete track these hand holes would occasionally be wider than shown here1 for the purpose of removing or fixing the collector1 ,fig4 #e1 which consists of two sets of spirally fluted rollers free to revolve upon spindles1 which are held by knuckle-joints drawn together by spiral springs2 by this means the pressure of the rollers against the inside of the tube is constantly maintained1 and should any obstruction occur in the tube the spiral flute causes it to revolve1 thus automatically cleansing the tubes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,the collector is provided with two steel plates1 which pass through the slit in the center rail2 the lower ends of these plates are clamped by the upper frame of the collector1 insulating material being interposed1 and the upper ends are held in two iron cheeks4 ,between these steel plates insulated copper strips are held1 electrically connected with the collector and with the adjustable clip mounted upon the iron cheeks2 this clip holds the terminal on the end of the wire 7leading to the motor7 firmly enough for use1 the cheeks being also provided with studs for the attachment of leather straps hooked on to the framework of the car1 one for the forward and one for backward movement of the collector4 ,these straps are strong enough for the ordinary haulage of the collector1 and for the removal of pebbles and dirt that may get into the slit2 but should any absolute block occur then they break and the terminal is withdrawn from the clip2 the electric contact being thereby broken the car stops1 the obstruction can then be removed and the collector reconnected without damage and with little delay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e ,in order to secure continuity of the center rail throughout the length of the track1 and still provide for the removal of the collector at frequent intervals1 the framework of the collector is so made that1 by slackening the side-bolts1 the steel plates can be drawn upward and the collector itself withdrawn sideways through the hand holes1 one of the half-tubes being removed for the purpose4 ,fig4 #f illustrates another arrangement that ,i have constructed1 both of collector and method of collecting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f ,as before mentioned1 the arrangement now described has been carried out in a field near the works of ,messrs4 ,smith1 ,baker ,co41 ,cornbrook ,telegraph ,works1 ,manchester1 and its working efficiency has been most satisfactory4 ,after a week of rain and during drenching showers the car ran with the same speed and under the same control as when the ground was dry4 ,this ,i account for by the theory that when the rails are wet and the tubes moist the better contact made compensates for the slight leakage that may occur4 ,at the commencement of my paper ,i promised to confine myself to work done2 ,i therefore abstain from describing various modifications of detail for the same purpose4 ,but one method of supporting and insulating the conductor in the channel may be suggested by an illustration of the plan ,i adopted for a little pleasure line in the ,winter ,gardens1 ,blackpool4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,fig4 #g4 ,there the track being exclusively for the electric railway1 it was not necessary to provide a center channel2 the conductor has therefore been placed in the center of the track1 and consists of bar iron #a in4 by in41 and is held vertically by means of studs riveted into the side2 these studs pass through porcelain insulators1 and by means of wooden clamps and wedges are held in the iron chairs which rest upon the sleepers4 ,the iron conductors were placed vertically to facilitate bending round the sharp curves which were unavoidable on this line4 ,the collector consists of two metal slippers held together by springs1 attached to the car by straps and electrically connected to the motor by clips in the same manner as the one employed in ,manchester4 ,i am glad to say that1 notwithstanding the curves with a radius of #ee feet and gradients of #a in #eg1 this line is also a practical success4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fires ,,in ,,london ,,and ,,new ,,york4 ,when the chief of the ,london ,fire ,brigade visited the ,united ,states in #ahhb1 he was1 as is the general rule on the other side of the ,atlantic1 interviewed--a custom1 it may be remarked1 which appears to be gaining ground also in this country4 ,the inferences drawn from these interviews seem to be that the absence of large fires in ,london was chiefly due to the superiority of our fire brigade1 and that the greater frequency of conflagrations in ,american cities1 and particularly in ,new ,york1 was due to the inferiority of their fire departments4 ,how unjust such a comparison would be is shown in a paper presented by ,mr4 ,edward ,b4 ,dorsey1 a member of the ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers1 to that association1 in which the author discusses the comparative liability to and danger from conflagrations in ,london and in ,american cities4 ,he found from an investigation which he conducted with much care during a visit to ,london that it is undoubtedly true that large fires are much less frequent in the metropolis than in ,american cities2 but it is equally true that the circumstances existing in ,london and ,new ,york are quite different4 ,as it is a well-known fact that the promptness1 efficiency1 and bravery of ,american firemen cannot be surpassed1 we gladly give prominence to the result of the author's investigations into the true causes of the great liability of ,american cities to large fires4 ,in a highly interesting comparison the writer has selected ,new ,york and ,london as typical cities1 although his observations will apply to most ,american and ,english towns1 if1 perhaps1 with not quite the same force4 ,in the first place1 the efforts of the ,london ,fire ,brigade receive much aid from our peculiarly damp climate4 ,from the average of eleven years 7#ahga-ahha7 of the meteorological observations made at the ,greenwich ,observatory1 it appears that in ,london it rains1 on the average1 more than three days in the week1 that the sun shines only one-fourth of the time he is above the horizon1 and that the atmosphere only lacks #ah per cent4 of complete saturation1 and is cloudy seven-tenths of the time4 ,moreover1 the humidity of the atmosphere in ,london is very uniform1 varying but little in the different months4 ,under these circumstances1 wood will not be ignited very easily by sparks or by contact with a weak flame4 ,this is very different from the condition of wood in the long1 hot1 dry seasons of the ,american continent4 ,the average temperature for the three winter months in ,london is #ch4bd degrees ,fahr42 in ,new ,york it is #ca4ef degrees1 or #f4fh degrees lower4 ,this lower range of temperature must be the cause of many conflagrations1 for1 to make up for the deficiency in the natural temperature1 there must be in ,new ,york many more and larger domestic fires4 ,the following statistics1 taken from the records of the ,new ,york ,fire ,department1 show this4 ,in the three winter months of #ahha1 ,january1 ,february1 and ,december1 there were #ebb fire alarms in ,new ,york1 or an average per month of #agd2 in the remaining nine months #a1bfc1 or an average per month of #adj4 ,in the corresponding three winter months of #ahhb there were #fjb fire alarms1 or an average per month of #bja2 in the remaining nine months #a1dja1 or an average per month of #aee4 ,in round numbers there were in #ahha one-fourth1 and in #ahhb one-third more fire alarms in the three winter months than in the nine warmer months4 ,we are not aware that similar statistics have ever been compiled for ,london1 and are consequently unable to draw comparison2 but1 speaking from recollection1 fires appear to be more frequent also in ,london during the winter months4 ,another cause of the greater frequency of fires in ,new ,york and their more destructive nature is the greater density of population in that city4 ,the ,london ,metropolitan ,police ,district covers #fij square miles1 extending #ab to #ae miles in every direction from ,charing ,cross1 and contained in #ahha a population of #d1gfd1cab2 but what is generally known as ,london covers #abb square miles1 containing1 in #ahha1 #ebh1gid houses1 and a population of #c1had1egd1 averaging #g4ba persons per house1 #di per acre1 and #ca1bfg per square mile4 ,now let us look at ,new ,york4 ,south of ,fortieth ,street between the ,hudson and ,east ,rivers1 ,new ,york has an area of #c1ije acres1 a fraction over six square miles1 exclusive of piers1 and contained1 according to the census of #ahhj1 a population of #hac1jgf4 ,this gives #bjh persons per acre4 ,the census of #ahhj reports the total number of dwellings in ,new ,york at #gc1fhd2 total population1 #a1bjf1bii2 average per dwelling1 #af4cg4 ,selecting for comparison an area about equal from the fifteen most densely populated districts or parishes of ,london1 of an aggregate area of #c1hif acres1 and with a total population of #gdf1cje1 we obtain #aia4e persons per acre4 ,thus briefly ,new ,york averaged #bjh persons per acre1 and #af4cg per dwelling2 ,london1 for the same area1 #aia4e persons per acre1 and #g4ba per house4 ,but this comparison is scarcely fair1 as in ,london only the most populous and poorest districts are included1 corresponding to the entirely tenement districts of ,new ,york1 while in the latter city it includes the richest and most fashionable sections1 as well as the poorest4 ,if tenement districts were taken alone1 the population would be found much more dense1 and ,new ,york proportionately much more densely populated4 ,taking four of the most thickly populated of the ,london districts 7,east ,london1 ,strand1 ,old ,street1 ,st4 ,luke's1 ,st4 ,giles-in-the-,fields1 and ,st4 ,george1 ,bloomsbury71 we find on a total area of #gib acres a population of #aig1bhe1 or an average of #bdi persons per acre4 ,in four of the most densely populated wards of ,new ,york 7#ajth1 #aath1 #acth1 and #agth71 we have on an area of #gce acres a population of #beh1iff1 or #ceb persons per acre4 ,this is #dj per cent4 higher than in ,london1 the districts being about the same size1 each containing about #a-a_/e square miles4 ,apart from the greater crowding which takes place in ,new ,york1 and the different style of buildings1 another very fertile cause of the spreading of fires is the freer use of wood in their construction4 ,it is asserted that in ,new ,york there is more than double the quantity of wood used in buildings per acre than in ,london4 ,from a house census undertaken in #ahhb by the ,new ,york ,fire ,department1 moreover1 it appears that there were #ajf1hhe buildings including sheds1 of which #bh1gih houses were built of wood or other inflammable materials1 besides #c1hjc wooden sheds1 giving a total of #cb1fja wooden buildings4 ,we are not aware that there are any wooden houses left in ,london4 ,there are other minor causes which act as checks upon the spreading of fires in ,london4 ,london houses are mostly small in size1 and fires are thus confined to a limited space between brick walls4 ,their walls are generally low and well braced1 which enable the firemen to approach them without danger4 ,about #fj per cent4 of ,london houses are less than #bb feet high from the pavement to the eaves2 more than half of the remainder are less than #dj feet high1 very few being over #ej feet high4 ,this1 of course1 excludes the newer buildings in the ,city4 ,st4 ,james's ,palace does not exceed #dj feet1 the ,bank of ,england not over #cj feet in height2 but these are exceptional structures4 ,fireproof roofings and projecting party walls also retard the spreading of conflagrations4 ,the houses being comparatively low and small1 the firemen are enabled to throw water easily over them1 and to reach their roofs with short ladders4 ,there is in ,london an almost universal absence of wooden additions and outbuildings1 and the ,new ,york ash barrel or box kept in the house is also unknown4 ,the local authorities in ,london keep a strict watch over the manufacture or storage of combustible materials in populous parts of the city4 ,although overhead telegraph wires are multiplying to an alarming extent in ,london1 their number is nothing to be compared to their bewildering multitude in ,new ,york1 where their presence is not only a hinderance to the operations of the firemen1 but a positive danger to their lives4 ,finally--and this has already been partly dealt with in speaking of the comparative density of population of the two cities--a look at the map of ,london will show us how the ,river ,thames and the numerous parks1 squares1 private grounds1 wide streets1 as well as the railways running into ,london1 all act as effectual barriers to the extension of fires4 ,the recent great conflagrations in the city vividly illustrate to ,londoners what fire could do if their metropolis were built on the ,new ,york plan4 ,the ,city1 however1 as we have remarked1 is an exceptional part of ,london1 and1 taking the ,british metropolis as it is1 with its hundreds of square miles of suburbs1 and contrasting its condition with that of ,new ,york1 we are led to adopt the opinion that ,london1 with its excellent fire brigade1 is safe from a destructive conflagration4 ,it was stated above1 and it is repeated here1 that the fire brigade of ,new ,york is unsurpassed for promptness1 skill1 and heroic intrepidity1 but their task1 by contrast1 is a heavy one in a city like ,new ,york1 with its numerous wooden buildings1 wooden or asphalt roofs1 buildings from four to ten stories high1 with long unbraced walls1 weakened by many large windows1 containing more than ten times the timber an average ,london house does1 and that very inflammable1 owing to the dry and hot ,american climate4 ,but this is not all4 ,in ,new ,york we find the five and six story tenement houses with two or three families on each floor1 each with their private ash barrel or box kept handy in their rooms1 all striving to keep warm during the severe winters of ,north ,america4 ,we also find narrow streets and high buildings1 with nothing to arrest the extension of a fire except a few small parks1 not even projecting or effectual fire-walls between the several buildings4 ,and to all this must be added the perfect freedom with which the city authorities of ,new ,york allow in its most populous portions large stables1 timber yards1 carpenters' shops1 and the manufacture and storage of inflammable materials4 ,personal liberty could not be carried to a more dangerous extent4 ,we ought to be thankful that in such matters individual freedom is somewhat hampered in our old-fashioned and quieter-going country4--,london ,morning ,post4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,latest ,,knowledge ,,about ,,gapes4 ,the gape worm may be termed the bete noir of the poultry-keeper--his greatest enemy--whether he be farmer or fancier4 ,it is true there are some who declare that it is unknown in their poultry-yards--that they have never been troubled with it at all4 ,these are apt to lay it down1 as ,i saw a correspondent did in a recent number of the ,country ,gentleman1 that the cause is want of cleanliness or neglect in some way4 ,but ,i can vouch that that is not so4 ,i have been in yards where everything was first-rate1 where the cleanliness was almost painfully complete1 where no fault in the way of neglect could be found1 and yet the gapes were there2 and on the other hand1 ,i have known places where every condition seemed favorable to the development of such a disease1 and there it was absent--this not in isolated cases1 but in many4 ,no1 we must look elsewhere for the cause4 ,observations lead me to the belief that gapes are more than usually troublesome during a wet spring or summer following a mild winter4 ,this would tend to show that the egg from which the worm 7that is in itself the disease7 emerges is communicated from the ground1 from the food eaten1 or the water drunk1 in the first instance1 but it is more than possible that the insects themselves may pass from one fowl to another4 ,all this we can accept as a settled fact1 and also any description of the way in which the parasitic worms attach themselves to the throats of the birds1 and cause the peculiar gaping of the mouth which gives the name to the disease4 ,many remedies have been suggested1 and my object now is to communicate some of the later ones--thus to give a variety of methods1 so that in case of the failure of one1 another will be at hand ready to be tried4 ,it is a mistake always to pin the faith to one remedy1 for the varying conditions found in fowls compel a different treatment4 ,the old plan of dislodging the worms with a feather is well known1 and need not be described again4 ,but ,i may mention that in this country some have found the use of an ointment1 first suggested by ,mr4 ,lewis ,wright1 ,i believe1 most valuable4 ,this is made of mercurial ointment1 two parts2 pure lard1 two parts2 flour of sulphur1 one part2 crude petroleum1 one part--and when mixed together is applied to the heads of the chicks as soon as they are dry after hatching4 ,many have testified that they have never found this to fail as a preventive1 and if the success is to be attributed to the ointment1 it would seem as if the insects are driven off by its presence1 for the application to the heads merely would not kill the eggs4 ,some time ago ,lord ,walsingham offered1 through the ,entomological ,society of ,london1 a prize for the best life history of the gapes disease1 and this has been won by the eminent ,french scientist ,m4 ,pierre ,mgnin1 whose essay has been published by the noble donor4 ,his offer was in the interest of pheasant breeders1 but the benefit is not confined to that variety of game alone1 for it is equally applicable to all gallinaceous birds troubled with this disease4 ,the pamphlet in question is a very valuable work1 and gives very clearly the methods by which the parasite develops4 ,but for our purpose it will be sufficient to narrate what ,m4 ,mgnin recommends for the cure of it4 ,these are various1 as will be seen1 and comprise the experience of other inquirers as well as himself4 ,he states that ,montague obtained great success by a combination of the following methods3 ,removal from infested runs2 a thorough change of food1 hemp seed and green vegetables figuring largely in the diet2 and for drinking1 instead of plain water1 an infusion of rue and garlic4 ,and ,mgnin himself mentions an instance of the value of garlic4 ,in the years #ahgg and #ahgh1 the pheasant preserves of ,fontainebleau were ravaged by gapes4 ,the disease was there arrested and totally cured1 when a mixture1 consisting of yolks of eggs1 boiled bullock's heart1 stale bread crumbs1 and leaves of nettle1 well mixed and pounded together with garlic1 was given1 in the proportion of one clove to ten young pheasants4 ,the birds were found to be very fond of this mixture1 but great care was taken to see that the drinking vessels were properly cleaned out and refilled with clean1 pure water twice a day4 ,this treatment has met with the same success in other places1 and if any of your readers are troubled with gapes and will try it1 ,i shall be pleased to see the results narrated in the columns of the ,country ,gentleman4 ,garlic in this case is undoubtedly the active ingredient1 and as it is volatile1 when taken into the stomach the breath is charged with it1 and in this way 7for garlic is a powerful vermifuge7 the worms are destroyed4 ,another remedy recommended by ,m4 ,mgnin was the strong smelling vermifuge assafoetida1 known sometimes by the suggestive name of devil's dung4 ,it has one of the most disgusting oders possible1 and is not very pleasant to be near4 ,the assafoetida was mixed with an equal part of powdered yellow gentian1 and this was given to the extent of about #h grains a day in the food4 ,as an assistance to the treatment1 with the object of killing any embryos in the drinking water1 fifteen grains of salicylate of soda was mixed with a pint and three-quarters of water4 ,so successful was this1 that on ,m4 ,de ,rothschild's preserves at ,rambouillet1 where a few days before gapes were so virulent that #a1bjj pheasants were found dead every morning1 it succeeded in stopping the epidemic in a few days4 ,but to complete the matter1 ,m4 ,mgnin adds that it is always advisable to disinfect the soil of preserves4 ,for this purpose1 the best means of destroying any eggs or embryos it may contain is to water the ground with a solution of sulphuric acid1 in the proportion of a pennyweight to three pints of water1 and also birds that die of the disease should be deeply buried in lime4 ,fumigation with carbolic acid is an undoubted cure1 but then it is a dangerous one1 and unless very great care is taken in killing the worms1 the bird is killed also4 ,thus many find this a risky method1 and prefer some other4 ,lime is found to be a valuable remedy4 ,in some districts of ,england1 where lime-kilns abound1 it is a common thing to take children troubled with whooping-cough there4 ,standing in the smoke arising from the kilns1 they are compelled to breathe it4 ,this dislodges the phlegm in the throat1 and they are enabled to get rid of it4 ,except near lime-kilns1 this cannot be done to chickens1 but fine slaked lime can be used1 either alone or mixed with powdered sulphur1 two parts of the former to one of the latter4 ,the air is charged with this fine powder1 and the birds1 breathing it1 cough1 and thus get rid of the worms1 which are stupefied by the lime1 and do not retain so firm a hold on the throat4 ,an apparatus has recently been introduced to spread this lime powder4 ,it is in the form of an air-fan1 with a pointed nozzle1 which is put just within the coop at night1 when the birds are all within4 ,the powder is already in a compartment made for it1 and by the turning of a handle1 it is driven through the nozzle1 and the air within the coop charged with it4 ,there is no waste of powder1 nor any fear that it will not be properly distributed4 ,experienced pheasant and poultry breeders state that by the use of this once a week1 gapes are effectually prevented4 ,in this case1 also1 ,i shall be glad to learn the result if tried4 ,,stephen ,,beale4 ,h----1 ,eng41 ,aug4 #a4 --,country ,gentleman4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,wolpert',s ,,method ,,of ,,estimating ,,the ,,amount ,,of ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,in ,,the ,,air4 ,there is a large number of processes and apparatus for estimating the amount of carbonic acid in the air4 ,some of them1 such as those of ,regnault1 ,reiset1 the ,montsouris observers 7,fig4 #a71 and ,brand1 are accurate analytical instruments1 and consequently quite delicate1 and not easily manipulated by hygienists of middling experience4 ,others are less complicated1 and also less exact1 but still require quite a troublesome manipulation--such1 for example1 as the process of ,pettenkofer1 as modified by ,fodor1 that of ,hesse1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,estimating ,,the ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,of ,,the ,,air4 ,,fig4 #a4--,montsouris ,apparatus4 ,,fig4 #b4--,smith's ,minimetric ,apparatus4 ,,fig4 #c4--;,bertin-,sans ,apparatus4 ,,fig4 #d4--;,bubbling ,glass4 ,,fig4 #e4--,pipette4 ,,fig4 #f4--;,arrangement of the ,u-shaped ,tube4 ,,fig4 #g4--,wolpert's ,apparatus4 ,hygienists have for some years striven to obtain some very simple apparatus 7rather as an indicator than an analytical instrument7 that should permit it to be quickly ascertained whether the degree of impurity of a place was incompatible with health1 and in what proportion it was so4 ,it is from such efforts that have resulted the processes of ,messrs4 ,smith4 ,lunge1 ,bertin-,sans1 and the apparatus of ,prof4 ,wolpert 7,fig4 #g74 ,it is of the highest interest to ascertain the proportion of carbonic acid in the air1 and especially in that of inhabited places1 since up to the present this is the best means of finding out how much the air that we are breathing is polluted1 and whether there is sufficient ventilation or not4 ,experiment has1 in fact1 demonstrated that carbonic acid increases in the air of inhabited rooms in the same way as do those organic matters which are difficult of direct estimation4 ,although a few ten-thousandths more of carbonic acid in our air cannot of themselves endanger us1 yet they have on another hand a baneful significance1 and1 indeed1 the majority of hygienists will not tolerate more than six ten-millionths of this element in the air of dwellings1 and some of them not more than five ten-millionths4 ,carbonic acid readily betrays its presence through solutions of the alkaline earths such as baryta and chalk1 in which its passage produces an insoluble carbonate1 and consequently makes the liquid turbid4 ,if1 then1 one has prepared a solution of baryta or lime1 of which a certain volume is made turbid by the passage of a likewise known volume of ,,co#b1 it will be easy to ascertain how much ,,co#b a certain air contains1 from the volume of the latter that it will be necessary to pass through the basic solution in order to obtain the amount of turbidity that has been taken as a standard4 ,the problem consists in determining the minimum of air required to make the known solution turbid4 ,hence the name minimetric estimation1 that has been given to this process4 ,prof4 ,lescoeur has had the goodness to construct for me a ,smith's minimetric apparatus 7,fig4 #b7 with the ingenious improvements that have been made in it by ,mr4 ,fischli1 assistant to ,prof4 ,weil1 of ,zurich4 ,i have employed it frequently1 and ,i use it every year in my lectures4 ,i find it very practical1 provided one has got accustomed to using it4 ,it is1 at all events1 of much simpler manipulation than that of ,bertin-,sans1 although the accuracy of the latter may be greater 7,figs4 #c1 #d1 #e1 and #f74 ,but it certainly has more than one defect1 and some of the faults that have been found with it are quite serious4 ,the worst of these consists in the difficulty of catching the exact moment at which the turbidity of the basic liquid is at the proper point for arresting the operation4 ,in addition to this capital defect1 it is regrettable that it is necessary to shake the flask that contains the solution after every insufflation of air1 and also that the play of the valves soon becomes imperfect4 ,finally1 ,mr4 ,wolpert rightly sees one serious drawback to the use of baryta in an apparatus that has to be employed in schools1 among children1 and that is that this substance is poisonous4 ,this gentleman therefore replaces the solution of baryta by water saturated with lime1 which costs almost nothing1 and the preparation of which is exceedingly simple4 ,moreover1 it is a harmless agent4 ,the apparatus consists of two parts4 ,the first of these is a glass tube closed at one end1 and #ab cm4 in length by #ab mm4 in diameter4 ,its bottom is of porcelain1 and bears on its inner surface the date #ahhb in black characters4 ,above1 and at the level that corresponds to a volume of three cubic centimeters1 there is a black line which serves as an invariable datum point4 ,a rubber bulb of twenty-eight cubic centimeters capacity is fixed to a tube which reaches its bottom1 and is flanged at the other extremity 7,fig4 #g74 ,the operation is as follows3 ,the saturated1 but limpid1 solution of lime is poured into the first tube up to the black mark1 the tube of the air bulb is introduced into the lime water in such a way that its orifice shall be in perfect contact with the bottom of the other tube1 and then1 while the bulb is held between the fore and middle fingers of the upturned hand1 one presses slowly with the thumb upon its bottom so as to expel all the air that it contains4 ,this air enters the lime-water bubble by bubble4 ,after this the tube is removed from the water1 and the bulb is allowed to fill with air1 and the same maneuver is again gone through with4 ,this is repeated until the figures #ahhb1 looked at from above1 cease to be clearly visible1 and disappear entirely after the contents of the tube have been vigorously shaken4 ,the measures are such that the turbidity supervenes at once if the air in the bulb contains twenty thousandths of ,,co#b4 ,if it becomes necessary to inject the contents of the bulb into the water twice1 it is clear that the proportion is only ten thousandths2 and if it requires ten injections the air contains ten times less ,,co#b than that having twenty thousandths1 or only two per cent4 ,a table that accompanies the apparatus has been constructed upon this basis1 and does away with the necessity of making calculations4 ,an air that contained ten thousandths of ,,co#b1 or even five1 would be almost as deleterious1 in my opinion1 as one of two per cent4 ,it is of no account1 then1 to know the proportions intermediate to these round numbers4 ,yet it is possible1 if the case requires it1 to obtain an indication between two consecutive figures of the scale by means of another bulb whose capacity is only half that of the preceding4 ,thus1 two injections of the large bulb1 followed by one of the small1 or two and a half injections1 correspond to a richness of #h thousandths of ,,co#b2 and #e to #c4f thousandths4 ,this half-bulb serves likewise for another purpose4 ,from the moment that the large bulb makes the lime-water turbid with an air containing two per cent4 of ,,co#b1 it is clear that the small one can cause the same turbidity only with air twice richer in ,,co#b1 i4e41 of four per cent4 ,this apparatus1 although it makes no pretensions to extreme accuracy1 is capable of giving valuable information4 ,the table that accompanies it is arranged for a temperature of #ag and a pressure of #gdj mm4 ,but different meteorological conditions do not materially alter the results4 ,thus1 with #aj less it would require thirty-one injections instead of thirty1 and ,,co#b would be #j4fd per #a1jjj instead of #j4ff2 and with #aj more1 thirty injections instead of thirty one4 ,the apparatus is contained in a box that likewise holds a bottle of lime-water sufficient for a dozen analyses1 the table of proportions of ,,co#b1 and the apparatus for cleaning the tubes4 ,the entire affair is small enough to be carried in the pocket4--,j4 ,arnould1 in ,science et ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,the ,,voyage ,,of ,,the ,,vettor ,,pisani4 ,knowing how much ,nature is read by all the naturalists of the world1 ,i send these few lines1 which ,i hope will be of some interest4 ,the ,italian ,r4,n4 corvette ,vettor ,pisani left ,italy in ,april1 #ahhb1 for a voyage round the world with the ordinary commission of a man-of-war4 ,the ,minister of ,marine1 wishing to obtain scientific results1 gave orders to form1 when possible1 a marine zoological collection1 and to carry on surveying1 deep-sea soundings1 and abyssal thermometrical measurements4 ,the officers of the ship received their different scientific charges1 and ,prof4 ,dohrn1 director of the ,zoological ,station at ,naples1 gave to the writer necessary instructions for collecting and preserving sea animals4 ,at the end of #ahhb the ,vettor ,pisani visited the ,straits of ,magellan1 the ,patagonian ,channels1 and ,chonos and ,chiloe islands2 we surveyed the ,darwin ,channel1 and following ,dr4 ,cuningham's work 7who visited these places on board ,h4,m4,s4 ,nassau71 we made a numerous collection of sea animals by dredging and fishing along the coasts4 ,while fishing for a big shark in the ,gulf of ,panama during the stay of our ship in ,taboga ,island1 one day in ,february1 with a dead clam1 we saw several great sharks some miles from our anchorage4 ,in a short time several boats with natives went to sea1 accompanied by two of the ,vettor ,pisani's boats4 ,having wounded one of these animals in the lateral part of the belly1 we held him with lines fixed to the spears2 he then began to describe a very narrow curve1 and irritated by the cries of the people that were in the boats1 ran off with a moderate velocity4 ,to the first boat1 which held the lines just mentioned1 the other boats were fastened1 and it was a rather strange emotion to feel ourselves towed by the monster for more than three hours with a velocity that proved to be two miles per hour4 ,one of the boats was filled with water4 ,at last the animal was tired by the great loss of blood1 and the boats assembled to haul in the lines and tow the shark on shore4 ,with much difficulty the nine boats towed the animal alongside the ,vettor ,pisani to have him hoisted on board1 but it was impossible on account of his colossal dimensions4 ,but as it was high water we went toward a sand beach with the animal1 and we had him safely stranded at night4 ,with much care were inspected the mouth1 the nostrils1 the ears1 and all the body1 but no parasite was found4 ,the eyes were taken out and prepared for histological study4 ,the set of teeth was all covered by a membrane that surrounded internally the lips2 the teeth are very little1 and almost in a rudimental state4 ,the mouth1 instead of opening in the inferior part of the head1 as in common sharks1 was at the extremity of the head2 the jaws having the same bend4 ,cutting the animal on one side of the backbone we met 7#a7 a compact layer of white fat #bj centimeters deep2 7#b7 the cartilaginous ribs covered with blood vessels2 7#c7 a stratum of flabby1 stringy1 white muscle1 #fj centimeters high1 apparently in adipose degeneracy2 7#d7 the stomach4 ,by each side of the backbone he had three chamferings1 or flutings1 that were distinguished by inflected interstices4 ,the color of the back was brown with yellow spots that became close and small toward the head1 so as to be like marble spots4 ,the length of the shark was #h4ij m4 from the mouth to the pinna caudalis extremity1 the greatest circumference #f4ej m41 and #b4ej m4 the main diameter 7the outline of the two projections is made for giving other dimensions74 ,the natives call the species ,tintoreva1 and the most aged of the village had only once before fished such an animal1 but smaller4 ,while the animal was on board we saw several ,remora about a foot long drop from his mouth2 it was proved that these fish lived fixed to the palate1 and one of them was pulled off and kept in the zoological collection of the ship4 ,the ,vettor ,pisani has up the present visited ,gibraltar1 ,cape ,verde ,islands1 ,pernambuco1 ,rio ,janeiro1 ,monte ,video1 ,valparaiso1 many ports of ,peru1 ,guayaquil1 ,panama1 ,galapagos ,islands1 and all the collections were up to this sent to the ,zoological ,station at ,naples to be studied by the naturalists4 ,by this time the ship left ,callao for ,honolulu1 ,manila1 ,hong ,kong1 and1 as the ,challenger had not crossed the ,pacific ,ocean in these directions1 we made several soundings and deep-sea thermometrical measurements from ,callao to ,honolulu4 ,soundings are made with a steel wire 7,thompson system7 and a sounding-rod invented by ,j4 ,palumbo1 captain of the ship4 ,the thermometer employed is a ,negretti and ,zambra deep-sea thermometer1 improved by ,captain ,maguaghi 7director of the ,italian ,r4,n4 ,hydrographic ,office74 ,with the thermometer wire has always been sent down a tow-net which opens and closes automatically1 also invented by ,captain ,palumbo4 ,this tow-net has brought up some little animals that ,i think are unknown4 ,g4 ,,chierchia4 ,honolulu ,july #a4 ,the shark captured by the ,vettor ,pisani in the ,gulf of ,panama is ,rhinodon typicus1 probably the most gigantic fish in existence4 ,mr4 ,swinburne ,ward1 formerly commissioner of the ,seychelles1 has informed me that it attains to a length of #ej feet or more1 which statement was afterward confirmed by ,prof4 ,e4,p4 ,wright4 ,originally described by ,sir ,a4 ,smith from a single specimen which was killed in the neighborhood of ,cape ,town1 this species proved to be of not uncommon occurrence in the ,seychelles ,archipelago1 where it is known by the name of ,chagrin4 ,quite recently ,mr4 ,haly reported the capture of a specimen on the coast of ,ceylon4 ,like other large sharks 7,carcharodon rondeletii1 ,selache maxima1 etc471 ,rhinodon has a wide geographical range1 and the fact of its occurrence on the ,pacific coast of ,america1 previously indicated by two sources1 appears now to be fully established4 ,t4 ,gill in #ahfe described a large shark known in the ,gulf of ,california by the name of ,tiburon ballenas or whale-shark1 as a distinct genus--,micristodus punctatus--which1 in my opinion1 is the same fish4 ,and finally1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,nation examined in #ahgh a specimen captured at ,callao4 ,of this specimen we possess in the ,british ,museum a portion of the dental plate4 ,the teeth differ in no respect from those of a ,seychelles ,chagrin2 they are conical1 sharply pointed1 recurved1 with the base of attachment swollen4 ,making no more than due allowance for such variations in the descriptions by different observers as are unavoidable in accounts of huge creatures examined by some in a fresh1 by others in a preserved1 state1 we find the principal characteristics identical in all these accounts1 viz43 the form of the body1 head1 and snout1 relative measurements1 position of mouth1 nostrils1 and eyes1 dentition1 peculiar ridges on the side of the trunk and tail1 coloration1 etc4 ,i have only to add that this shark is stated to be of mild disposition and quite harmless4 ,indeed1 the minute size of its teeth has led to the belief in the ,seychelles that it is a herbivorous fish1 which1 however1 is not probable4 ,,albert ,,gunther4 ,natural ,history ,museum1 ,july #cj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,greely ,,arctic ,,expedition4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,greely ,,arctic ,,expedition4--,,the ,,farthest ,,point ,,north4 ,some account has been given of the ,american ,meteorological ,expedition1 commanded by ,lieutenant1 now ,major1 ,greely1 of the ,united ,states ,army1 in the farthest north channels1 beyond ,smith ,sound1 that part of the ,arctic regions where the ,british ,polar expedition1 in ,may1 #ahgf1 penetrated to within four hundred geographical miles of the ,north ,pole4 ,the ,american expedition1 in #ahhc1 succeeded in getting four miles beyond1 this being effected by a sledge party traveling over the snow from ,fort ,conger1 the name they had given to their huts erected on the western shore near ,discovery ,cove1 in ,lady ,franklin ,sound4 ,the farthest point reached1 on ,may #ah1 was in latitude #hc deg4 #bd min4 ,n42 longitude #dj deg4 #df min4 ,w41 on the ,greenland coast4 ,the sledge party was commanded by ,lieutenant ,lockwood1 and the following particulars are supplied by ,sergeant ,brainerd1 who accompanied ,lieutenant ,lockwood on the expedition4 ,during their sojourn in the ,arctic regions the men were allowed to grow the full beard1 except under the mouth1 where it was clipped short4 ,they wore knitted mittens1 and over these heavy seal-skin mittens were drawn1 connected by a tanned seal-skin string that passed over the neck1 to hold them when the hands were slipped out4 ,large tanned leather pockets were fastened outside the jackets1 and in very severe weather jerseys were sometimes worn over the jackets for greater protection against the intense cold4 ,on the sledge journeys the dogs were harnessed in a fan-shaped group to the traces1 and were never run tandem4 ,in traveling1 the men were accustomed to hold on to the back of the sledge1 never going in front of the team1 and often took off their heavy overcoats and threw them on the load4 ,when taking observations with the sextant1 ,lieutenant ,lockwood generally reclined on the snow1 while ,sergeant ,brainerd called time and made notes1 as shown in our illustration4 ,when further progress northward was barred by open water1 and the party almost miraculously escaped drifting into the ,polar sea1 ,lieutenant ,lockwood erected1 at the highest point of latitude reached by civilized man1 a pyramidal-shaped cache of stones1 six feet square at the base1 and eight or nine feet high4 ,in a little chamber about a foot square half-way to the apex1 and extending to the center of the pile1 he placed a self-recording spirit thermometer1 a small tin cylinder containing records of the expedition1 and then sealed up the aperture with a closely fitting stone4 ,the cache was surmounted with a small ,american flag made by ,mrs4 ,greely1 but there were only thirteen stars1 the number of the old revolutionary flag4 ,from the summit of ,lockwood ,island1 the scene presented in our illustration1 #b1jjj feet above the sea1 ,lieutenant ,lockwood was unable to make out any land to the north or the northwest4 ,the awful panorama of the ,arctic which their elevation spread out before them made a profound impression upon the explorers4 ,the exultation which was natural to the achievement which they found they had accomplished was tempered by the reflections inspired by the sublime desolation of that stern and silent coast and the menace of its unbroken solitude4 ,beyond to the eastward was the interminable defiance of the unexplored coast--black1 cold1 and repellent4 ,below them lay the ,arctic ,ocean1 buried beneath frozen chaos4 ,no words can describe the confusion of this sea of ice--the hopeless asperity of it1 the weariness of its torn and tortured surface4 ,only at the remote horizon did distance and the fallen snow mitigate its roughness and soften its outlines2 and beyond it1 in the yet unattainable recesses of the great circle1 they looked toward the ,pole itself4 ,it was a wonderful sight1 never to be forgotten1 and in some degree a realization of the picture that astronomers conjure to themselves when the moon is nearly full1 and they look down into the great plain which is called the ,ocean of ,storms1 and watch the shadows of sterile and airless peaks follow a slow procession across its silver surface4--,illustrated ,london ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,nile ,,expedition4 ,illustration3 ,,whaler ,,gig ,,for ,,the ,,nile4 ,as soon as the authorities had finally made up their minds to send a flotilla of boats to ,cairo for the relief of ,khartoum1 not a moment was lost in issuing orders to the different shipbuilding contractors for the completion1 with the utmost dispatch1 of the #djj whaler-gigs for service on the ,nile4 ,they are light-looking boats1 built of white pine1 and weigh each about #ibj lb41 that is without the gear1 and are supposed to carry four tons of provisions1 ammunition1 and camp appliances1 the food being sufficient for #ajj days4 ,the crew will number twelve men1 soldiers and sailors1 the former rowing1 while the latter 7two7 will attend the helm4 ,each boat will be fitted with two lug sails1 which can be worked reefed1 so as to permit an awning to be fitted underneath for protection to the men from the sun4 ,as is well known1 the wind blows for two or three months alternately up and down the ,nile1 and the authorities expect the flotilla will have the advantage of a fair wind astern for four or five days at the least4 ,on approaching the ,cataracts1 the boats will be transported on wooden rollers over the sand to the next level for relaunching4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,proper ,,time ,,for ,,cutting ,,timber4 ,to the ,editor of the ,oregonian3 ,believing that any ideas relating to this matter will be of some interest to your readers in this heavily-timbered region1 ,i therefore propose giving you my opinion and conclusions arrived at after having experimented upon the cutting and use of timber for various purposes for a number of years here upon the ,pacific coast4 ,this1 we are all well aware1 is a very important question1 and one very difficult to answer1 since it requires observation and experiment through a course of many years to arrive at any definite conclusion2 and it is a question too upon which even at the present day there exists a great difference of opinion among men who1 being engaged in the lumber business1 are thereby the better qualified to form an opinion4 ,many articles have been published in the various papers of the country upon this question for the past thirty years1 but in all cases an opinion only has been given1 which1 at the present day1 such is the advance and higher development of the intellectual faculties of man1 that a mere opinion upon any question without sufficient and substantial reasons to back it is of little value4 ,my object in writing this is not simply to give an opinion1 but how and the methods used by which ,i adopted such conclusions1 as well also as the reasons why timber is more durable and better when cut at a certain season of the year than when cut at any other4 ,in the course of my investigations of this question for the past thirty years1 ,i have asked the opinion of a great many persons who have been engaged in the lumber business in various ,states of the ,union1 from ,maine to ,wisconsin1 and they all agree upon one point1 viz41 that the winter time is the proper time for cutting timber1 although none has ever been able to give a reason why1 only the fact that such was the case1 and therefore drawing the inference that it was the proper time when timber should be cut2 and so it is1 for one reason only1 however1 and that is the convenience for handling or moving timber upon the snow and ice4 ,it was while engaged in the business of mining in the mountains of ,california in early days1 and having occasion to work often among timber1 in removing stumps1 etc41 it was while so engaged that ,i noticed one peculiar fact1 which was this--that the stumps of some trees which had been cut but two or three years had decayed1 while others of the same size and variety of pine which had been cut the same year were as sound and firm as when first cut4 ,this seemed strange to me1 and ,i found upon inquiry of old lumbermen who had worked among timber all their lives1 that it was strange to them also1 and they could offer no explanation2 and it was the investigation of this singular fact that led me to experiment further upon the problem of cutting timber4 ,it was not1 however1 until many years after1 and when engaged in clearing land for farming purposes1 that ,i made the discovery why some stumps should decay sooner than others of the same size and variety1 even when cut a few months afterward4 ,i had occasion to clear several acres of land which was covered with a very dense growth of young pines from two to six inches in diameter 7this work for certain reasons is usually done in the winter74 ,the young trees1 not being suitable for fuel1 are thrown into piles and burned upon the ground4 ,such land1 therefore1 on account of the stumps is very difficult to plow1 as the stumps do not decay for three or four years1 while most of the larger ones remain sound even longer4 ,but1 for the purpose of experimenting1 ,i cleaned a few acres of ground in the spring1 cutting them in ,may and ,june4 ,i trimmed the poles1 leaving them upon the ground1 and when seasoned hauled them to the house for fuel1 and found that for cooking or heating purposes they were almost equal to oak2 and it was my practice for many years afterward to cut these young pines in ,may or ,june for winter fuel4 ,i found also that the stumps1 instead of remaining sound for any length of time1 decayed so quickly that they could all be plowed up the following spring4 ,from which facts ,i draw these conclusions3 that if in the cutting of timber the main object is to preserve the stumps1 cut your trees in the fall or winter2 but if the value of the timber is any consideration1 cut your trees in the spring after the sap has ascended the tree1 but before any growth has taken place or new wood has been formed4 ,i experimented for many years also in the cutting of timber for fencing1 fence posts1 etc41 and with the same results4 ,those which were cut in the spring and set after being seasoned were the most durable1 such timber being much lighter1 tougher1 and in all respects better for all variety of purposes4 ,having given some little idea of the manner in which ,i experimented1 and the conclusions arrived at as to the proper time when timber should be cut1 ,i now propose to give what are1 in my opinion1 the reasons why timber cut in early summer is much better1 being lighter1 tougher and more durable than if cut at any other time4 ,therefore1 in order to do this it is necessary first to explain the nature and value of the sap and the growth of a tree4 ,we find it to be the general opinion at present1 as it perhaps has always been among lumbermen and those who work among timber1 that the sap of a tree is an evil which must be avoided if possible1 for it is this which causes decay and destroys the life and good qualities of all wood when allowed to remain in it for an unusual length of time1 but that this is a mistaken idea ,i will endeavor to show1 not that the decay is due to the sap1 but to the time when the tree was felled4 ,we find by experiment in evaporating a quantity of sap of the pine1 that it is water holding in solution a substance of a gummy nature1 being composed of albumen and other elementary matters1 which is deposited within the pores of the wood from the new growth of the tree2 that these substances in solution1 which constitute the sap1 and which promote the growth of the tree1 should have a tendency to cause decay of the wood is an impossibility4 ,the injury results from the water only1 and the improper time of felling the tree4 ,of the process in which the sap promotes the growth of the tree1 the scientist informs us that it is extracted from the soil1 and flows up through the pores of the wood of the tree1 where it is deposited upon the fiber1 and by a peculiar process of nature the albumen forms new cells1 which in process of formation crowd and push out from the center1 thus constituting the growth of the tree in all directions from center to circumference4 ,consequently this new growth of wood1 being composed principally of albumen1 is of a soft1 spongy nature1 and under the proper conditions will decay very rapidly1 which can be easily demonstrated by experiment4 ,hence1 we must infer that the proper time for felling the tree is when the conditions are such that the rapid decay of a new growth of wood is impossible2 and this ,i have found by experiment to be in early summer1 after the sap has ascended the tree1 but before any new growth of wood has been formed4 ,the new growth of the previous season is now well matured1 has become hard and firm1 and will not decay4 ,on the contrary1 the tree being cut when such new growth has not well matured1 decay soon takes place1 and the value of the timber is destroyed4 ,the effect of this cutting and use of timber under the wrong conditions can be seen all around us4 ,in the timbers of the bridges1 in the trestlework and ties of railroads and in the piling of the wharves will be found portions showing rapid decay1 while other portions are yet firm and in sound condition4 ,much more might be said in the explanation of this subject1 but not wishing to extend the subject to an improper length1 ,i will close4 ,i would1 however1 say in conclusion that persons who have the opportunities and the inclination can verify the truth of a portion1 at least1 of what ,i have stated1 in a simple manner and in a short time2 for instance1 by cutting two or three young fir or spruce saplings1 say about six inches in diameter1 mark them when cut1 and also mark the stumps by driving pegs marked to correspond with the trees4 ,continue this monthly for the space of about one year1 and note the difference in the wood1 which should be left out and exposed to the weather until seasoned4 ,c4,w4 ,,haskins4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,raising ,,ferns ,,from ,,spores4 ,illustration3 #a1 ,,pan2 #b1 ,,bell ,,glass2 #c1 ,,small ,,pots ,,and ,,labels4 ,this plan1 of which ,i give a sketch1 has been in use by myself for many years1 and most successfully4 ,i have at various times given it to growers1 but still ,i hear of difficulties4 ,procure a good sized bell-glass and an earthenware pan without any holes for drainage4 ,prepare a number of small pots1 all filled for sowing1 place them inside the pan1 and fit the glass over them1 so that it takes all in easily4 ,take these filled small pots out of the pan1 place them on the ground1 and well water them with boiling water to destroy all animal and vegetable life1 and allow them to get perfectly cold2 use a fine rose4 ,then taking each small pot separately1 sow the spores on the surface and label them2 do this with the whole number1 and then place them in the pan under the bell-glass4 ,this had better be done in a room1 so that nothing foreign can grow inside4 ,having arranged the pots and placed the glass over them1 and which should fit down upon the pan with ease1 take a clean sponge1 and tearing it up pack the pieces round the outside of the glass1 and touching the inner side of the pan all round4 ,water this with cold water1 so that the sponge is saturated4 ,do this whenever required1 and always use water that has been boiled4 ,at the end of six weeks or so the prothallus will perhaps appear1 certainly in a week or two more2 perhaps from unforeseen circumstances not for three months4 ,slowly these will begin to show themselves as young ferns1 and most interesting it is to watch the results4 ,as the ferns are gradually increasing in size pass a small piece of slate under the edge of the bell-glass to admit air1 and do this by very careful degrees1 allowing more and more air to reach them4 ,never water overhead until the seedlings are acclimated and have perfect form as ferns1 and even then water at the edges of the pots4 ,in due time carefully prick out1 and the task so interesting to watch is performed4--,the ,garden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,life ,,history ,,of ,,vaucheria4 ,footnote3 ,read before the ,san ,francisco ,microscopical ,society1 ,august #ac1 and furnished for publication in the ,press4 ,by ,a4,h4 ,,breckenfeld4 ,nearly a century ago1 ,vaucher1 the celebrated ,genevan botanist1 described a fresh water filamentous alga which he named ,ectosperma geminata1 with a correctness that appears truly remarkable when the imperfect means of observation at his command are taken into consideration4 ,his pupil1 ,de ,candolle1 who afterward became so eminent a worker in the same field1 when preparing his ,flora of ,france1 in #ahje1 proposed the name of ,vaucheria for the genus1 in commemoration of the meritorious work of its first investigator4 ,on ,march #ab1 #ahbf1 ,unger made the first recorded observation of the formation and liberation of the terminal or non-sexual spores of this plant4 ,hassall1 the able ,english botanist1 made it the subject of extended study while preparing his fine work entitled ,a ,history of the ,british ,fresh ,water ,alg1 published in #ahde4 ,he has given us a very graphic description of the phenomenon first observed by ,unger4 ,in #ahef ,pringsheim described the true sexual propagation by oospores1 with such minuteness and accuracy that our knowledge of the plant can scarcely be said to have essentially increased since that time4 ,illustration3 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,alga1 ,,vaucheria1 ,,under ,,the ,,microscope4 ,vaucheria has two or three rather doubtful marine species assigned to it by ,harvey1 but the fresh water forms are by far the more numerous1 and it is to some of these ,i would call your attention for a few moments this evening4 ,the plant grows in densely interwoven tufts1 these being of a vivid green color1 while the plant is in the actively vegetative condition1 changing to a duller tint as it advances to maturity4 ,its habitat 7with the exceptions above noted7 is in freshwater--usually in ditches or slowly running streams4 ,i have found it at pretty much all seasons of the year1 in the stretch of boggy ground in the ,presidio1 bordering the road to ,fort ,point4 ,the filaments attain a length of several inches when fully developed1 and are of an average diameter of #a_/bej 7#j4jjd7 inch4 ,they branch but sparingly1 or not at all1 and are characterized by consisting of a single long tube or cell1 not divided by septa1 as in the case of the great majority of the filamentous alg4 ,these tubular filaments are composed of a nearly transparent cellulose wall1 including an inner layer thickly studded with bright green granules of chlorophyl4 ,this inner layer is ordinarily not noticeable1 but it retracts from the outer envelope when subjected to the action of certain reagents1 or when immersed in a fluid differing in density from water1 and it then becomes distinctly visible1 as may be seen in the engraving 7,fig4 #a74 ,the plant grows rapidly and is endowed with much vitality1 for it resists changes of temperature to a remarkable degree4 ,vaucheria affords a choice hunting ground to the microscopist1 for its tangled masses are the home of numberless infusoria1 rotifers1 and the minuter crustacea1 while the filaments more advanced in age are usually thickly incrusted with diatoms4 ,here1 too1 is a favorite haunt of the beautiful zoophytes1 ,hydra vividis and ,h4 vulgaris1 whose delicate tentacles may be seen gracefully waving in nearly every gathering4 ,,reproduction ,,in ,,vaucheria4 ,after the plant has attained a certain stage in its growth1 if it be attentively watched1 a marked change will be observed near the ends of the filaments4 ,the chlorophyl appears to assume a darker hue1 and the granules become more densely crowded4 ,this appearance increases until the extremity of the tube appears almost swollen4 ,soon the densely congregated granules at the extreme end will be seen to separate from the endochrome of the filament1 a clear space sometimes1 but not always1 marking the point of division4 ,here a septum or membrane appears1 thus forming a cell whose length is about three or four times its width1 and whose walls completely inclose the dark green mass of crowded granules 7,fig4 #a1 b74 ,these contents are now gradually forming themselves into the spore or gonidium1 as ,carpenter calls it1 in distinction from the true sexual spores1 which he terms oospores4 ,at the extreme end of the filament 7which is obtusely conical in shape7 the chlorophyl grains retract from the old cellulose wall1 leaving a very evident clear space4 ,in a less noticeable degree1 this is also the case in the other parts of the circumference of the cell1 and1 apparently1 the granular contents have secreted a separate envelope entirely distinct from the parent filament4 ,the grand climax is now rapidly approaching4 ,the contents of the cell near its base are now so densely clustered as to appear nearly black 7,fig4 #a1 c71 while the upper half is of a much lighter hue and the separate granules are there easily distinguished1 and1 if very closely watched1 show an almost imperceptible motion4 ,the old cellulose wall shows signs of great tension1 its conical extremity rounding out under the slowly increasing pressure from within4 ,suddenly it gives way at the apex4 ,at the same instant1 the inclosed gonidium 7for it is now seen to be fully formed7 acquires a rotary motion1 at first slow1 but gradually increasing until it has gained considerable velocity4 ,its upper portion is slowly twisted through the opening in the apex of the parent wall1 the granular contents of the lower end flowing into the extruded portion in a manner reminding one of the flow of protoplasm in a living amoeba4 ,the old cell wall seems to offer considerable resistance to the escape of the gonidium1 for the latter1 which displays remarkable elasticity1 is pinched nearly in two while forcing its way through1 assuming an hour glass shape when about half out4 ,the rapid rotation of the spore continues during the process of emerging1 and after about a minute it has fully freed itself 7,fig #a1 a74 ,it immediately assumes the form of an ellipse or oval1 and darts off with great speed1 revolving on its major axis as it does so4 ,its contents are nearly all massed in the posterior half1 the comparatively clear portion invariably pointing in advance4 ,when it meets an obstacle1 it partially flattens itself against it1 then turns aside and spins off in a new direction4 ,this erratic motion is continued for usually seven or eight minutes4 ,the longest duration ,i have yet observed was a little over nine and one-half minutes4 ,hassall records a case where it continued for nineteen minutes4 ,the time1 however1 varies greatly1 as in some cases the motion ceases almost as soon as the spore is liberated1 while in open water1 unretarded by the cover glass or other obstacles1 its movements have been seen to continue for over two hours4 ,the motile force is imparted to the gonidium by dense rows of waving cilia with which it is completely surrounded4 ,owing to their rapid vibration1 it is almost impossible to distinguish them while the spore is in active motion1 but their effect is very plainly seen on adding colored pigment particles to the water4 ,by subjecting the cilia to the action of iodine1 their motion is arrested1 they are stained brown1 and become very plainly visible4 ,after the gonidium comes gradually to a rest its cilia soon disappear1 it becomes perfectly globular in shape1 the inclosed granules distribute themselves evenly throughout its interior1 and after a few hours it germinates by throwing out one1 two1 or sometimes three tubular prolongations1 which become precisely like the parent filament 7,fig #b74 ,eminent ,english authorities have advanced the theory that the ciliated gonidium of ,vaucheria is in reality a densely crowded aggregation of biciliated zoospores1 similar to those found in many other confervoid alg4 ,although this has by no means been proved1 yet ,i cannot help calling the attention of the members of this society to a fact which ,i think strongly bears out the said theory3 ,while watching a gathering of ,vaucheria one morning when the plant was in the gonidia-forming condition 7which is usually assumed a few hours after daybreak71 ,i observed one filament1 near the end of which a septum had formed precisely as in the case of ordinary filaments about to develop a spore4 ,but1 instead of the terminal cell being filled with the usual densely crowded cluster of dark green granules constituting the rapidly forming spore1 it contained hundreds of actively moving1 nearly transparent zoospores1 and nothing else4 ,not a single chlorophyl granule was to be seen4 ,it is also to be noted as a significant fact1 that the cellulose wall was intact at the apex1 instead of showing the opening through which in ordinary cases the gonidium escapes4 ,it would seem to be a reasonable inference1 ,i think1 based upon the theory above stated1 that in this case the newly formed gonidium1 unable to escape from its prison by reason of the abnormal strength of the cell wall1 became after a while resolved into its component zoospores4 ,,wonders ,,of ,,reproduction4 ,i very much regret that my descriptive powers are not equal to conveying a sufficient idea of the intensely absorbing interest possessed by this wonderful process of spore formation4 ,i shall never forget the bright sunny morning when for the first time ,i witnessed the entire process under the microscope1 and for over four hours scarcely moved my eyes from the tube4 ,to a thoughtful observer ,i doubt if there is anything in the whole range of microscopy to exceed this phenomenon in point of startling interest4 ,no wonder that its first observer published his researches under the caption of ,the ,plant at the ,moment of becoming an ,animal4 ,,formation ,,of ,,other ,,spores4 ,the process of spore formation just described1 it will be seen1 is entirely non-sexual1 being simply a vegetative process1 analogous to the budding of higher plants1 and the fission of some of the lower plants and animals4 ,vaucheria has1 however1 a second and far higher mode of reproduction1 viz41 by means of fertilized cells1 the true oospores1 which1 lying dormant as resting spores during the winter1 are endowed with new life by the rejuvenating influences of spring4 ,their formation may be briefly described as follows3 ,when ,vaucheria has reached the proper stage in its life cycle1 slight swellings appear here and there on the sides of the filament4 ,each of these slowly develops into a shape resembling a strongly curved horn4 ,this becomes the organ termed the antheridium1 from its analogy in function to the anther of flowering plants4 ,while this is in process of growth1 peculiar oval capsules or sporangia 7usually #b to #e in number7 are formed in close proximity to the antheridium4 ,in some species both these organs are sessile on the main filament1 in others they appear on a short pedicel 7,figs4 #c and #d74 ,the upper part of the antheridium becomes separated from the parent stem by a septum1 and its contents are converted into ciliated motile antherozoids4 ,the adjacent sporangia also become cut off by septa1 and the investing membrane1 when mature1 opens3 it a beak-like prolongation1 thus permitting the inclosed densely congregated green granules to be penetrated by the antherozoids which swarm from the antheridium at the same time4 ,after being thus fertilized the contents of the sporangium acquire a peculiar oily appearance1 of a beautiful emerald color1 an exceedingly tough but transparent envelope is secreted1 and thus is constituted the fully developed oospore1 the beginner of a new generation of the plant4 ,after the production of this oospore the parent filament gradually loses its vitality and slowly decays4 ,the spore being thus liberated1 sinks to the bottom4 ,its brilliant hue has faded and changed to a reddish brown1 but after a rest of about three months 7according to ,pringsheim1 who seems to be the only one who has ever followed the process of oospore formation entirely through71 the spore suddenly assumes its original vivid hue and germinates into a young ,vaucheria4 ,,charm ,,of ,,microscopical ,,study4 ,this concludes the account of my very imperfect attempt to trace the life history of a lowly plant4 ,its study has been to me a source of ever increasing pleasure1 and has again demonstrated how our favorite instrument reveals phenomena of most absorbing interest in directions where the unaided eye finds but little promise4 ,in walking along the banks of the little stream1 where1 half concealed by more pretentious plants1 our humble ,vaucheria grows1 the average passer by1 if he notices it at all1 sees but a tangled tuft of dark green scum4 ,yet1 when this is examined under the magic tube1 a crystal cylinder1 closely set with sparkling emeralds1 is revealed4 ,and although so transparent1 so apparently simple in structure that it does not seem possible for even the finest details to escape our search1 yet almost as we watch it mystic changes appear4 ,we see the bright green granules1 impelled by an unseen force1 separate and rearrange themselves in new formations4 ,strange outgrowths from the parent filament appear4 ,the strange power we call life1 doubly mysterious when manifested in an organism so simple as this1 so open to our search1 seems to challenge us to discover its secret1 and1 armed with our glittering lenses and our flashing stands of exquisite workmanship1 we search intently1 but in vain4 ,and yet not in vain1 for we are more than recompensed by the wondrous revelations beheld and the unalloyed pleasures enjoyed1 through the study of even the unpretentious ,vaucheria4 ,the amplification of the objects in the engravings is about #hj diameters4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,japanese ,,camphor--,,its ,,preparation1 ,,experiments1 ,,and ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,camphor ,,oil4 ,footnote3 ,from the ,journal of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry4 ,by ,h4 ,,oishi4 7,communicated by ,kakamatsa47 ,,laurus ,,camphora1 or kusunoki1 as it is called in ,japan1 grows mainly in those provinces in the islands ,shikobu and ,kinshin1 which have the southern sea coast4 ,it also grows abundantly in the province of ,kishu4 ,the amount of camphor varies according to the age of the tree4 ,that of a hundred years old is tolerably rich in camphor4 ,in order to extract the camphor1 such a tree is selected2 the trunk and large stems are cut into small pieces1 and subjected to distillation with steam4 ,an iron boiler of #c feet in diameter is placed over a small furnace1 the boiler being provided with an iron flange at the top4 ,over this flange a wooden tub is placed1 which is somewhat narrowed at the top1 being #a foot #f inches in the upper1 and #b feet #aj inches in the lower diameter1 and #d feet in height4 ,the tub has a false bottom for the passage of steam from the boiler beneath4 ,the upper part of the tub is connected with a condensing apparatus by means of a wooden or bamboo pipe4 ,the condenser is a flat rectangular wooden vessel1 which is surrounded with another one containing cold water4 ,over the first is placed still another trough of the same dimensions1 into which water is supplied to cool the vessel at the top4 ,after the first trough has been filled with water1 the latter flows into the next by means of a small pipe attached to it4 ,in order to expose a large surface to the vapors1 the condensing trough is fitted internally with a number of vertical partitions1 which are open at alternate ends1 so that the vapors may travel along the partitions in the trough from one end to the other4 ,the boiler is filled with water1 and #abj kilogrammes of chopped pieces of wood are introduced into the tub1 which is then closed with a cover1 cemented with clay1 so as to make it air-tight4 ,firing is then begun2 the steam passes into the tub1 and thus carries the vapors of camphor and oil into the condenser1 in which the camphor solidifies1 and is mixed with the oil and condensed water4 ,after twenty-four hours the charge is taken out from the tub1 and new pieces of the wood are introduced1 and distillation is conducted as before4 ,the water in the boiler must be supplied from time to time4 ,the exhausted wood is dried and used as fuel4 ,the camphor and oil accumulated in the trough are taken out in five or ten days1 and they are separated from each other by filtration4 ,the yield of the camphor and oil varies greatly in different seasons4 ,thus much more solid camphor is obtained in winter than in summer1 while the reverse is the case with the oil4 ,in summer1 from #abj kilogrammes of the wood #b4d kilogrammes1 or #b per cent4 of the solid camphor are obtained in one day1 while in winter1 from the same amount of the wood1 #c kilogrammes1 or #b4e per cent41 of camphor are obtainable at the same time4 ,the amount of the oil obtained in ten days1 i4e41 from #aj charges or #a1bjj kilogrammes of the wood1 in summer is about #ah liters1 while in winter it amounts only to #e-g liters4 ,the price of the solid camphor is at present about #as4 #a;d4 per kilo4 ,the oil contains a considerable amount of camphor in solution1 which is separated by a simple distillation and cooling4 ,by this means about #bj per cent4 of the camphor can be obtained from the oil4 ,the author subjected the original oil to fractioned distillation1 and examined different fractions separately4 ,that part of the oil which distilled between #ahj-ahe ,o4 was analyzed after repeated distillations4 ,the following is the result3 ,found4 ,calculated as ,c#aj;,h#af,o4 ,c #gh4hg #gh4ie ,h #aj4gc #aj4eb ,o #aj4dj 7by difference7 #aj4eb ,the composition thus nearly agrees with that of the ordinary camphor4 ,the fraction between #agh-ahj ,c41 after three distillations1 gave the following analytical result3 ,c #hf4ie ,h #ab4bh ----- #ii4bc ,it appears from this result that the body is a hydrocarbon4 ,the vapor density was then determined by ,v4 ,meyer's apparatus1 and was found to be #e4g 7air#a74 ,the molecular weight of the compound is therefore #e4g #ad4db #b #afd4d1 which gives ,h 7#afd4d #ab4bh7_/ajj #bj4ah or ,c#ab;,h#bj ,c 7#afd4d #hf4ie7_/ajj #aa4ha ,hence it is a hydrocarbon of the terpene series1 having the general formula ,cn,h7#bn-#d74 ,from the above experiments it seems to be probable that the camphor oil is a complicated mixture1 consisting of hydrocarbons of terpene series1 oxy-hydrocarbons isomeric with camphor1 and other oxidized hydrocarbons4 ,application of the ,camphor ,oil4 ,the distinguishing property of the camphor oil1 that it dissolves many resins1 and mixes with drying oils1 finds its application for the preparation of varnish4 ,the author has succeeded in preparing various varnishes with the camphor oil1 mixed with different resins and oils4 ,lampblack was also prepared by the author1 by subjecting the camphor oil to incomplete combustion4 ,in this way from #ajj c4c4 of the oil1 about #ac grammes of soot of a very good quality were obtained4 ,soot or lampblack is a very important material in ,japan for making inks1 paints1 etc4 ,if the manufacture of lampblack from the cheap camphor oil is conducted on a large scale1 it would no doubt be profitable4 ,the following is the report on the amount of the annual production of camphor in the province of ,tosa up to #ahhj3 ,amount of ,camphor produced4 ,total ,cost4 #ahgg4444444444 #ejd1jjj kins4444 #fe1ebj yen4 #ahgh4444444444 #eai1jjj 4444 #gb1ffj #ahgi4444444444 #bib1hij 4444 #gd1dha #ahhj4444444444 #aib1hcg 4444 #eh1cjb 7#a yen #bs4 #i;d47 7#a kin #a-a_/clb47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,sunshine ,,recorder4 ,mc,leod's sunshine recorder consists of a camera fixed with its axis parallel to that of the earth1 and with the lens northward4 ,opposite to the lens there is placed a round-bottomed flask1 silvered inside4 ,the solar rays reflected from this sphere pass through the lens1 and act on the sensitive surface4 ,illustration ,the construction of the instrument is illustrated by the subjoined cut1 ,a being a camera supported at an inclination of #ef degrees with the horizon1 and ,b the spherical flask silvered inside1 while at ,d is placed the ferro-prussiate paper destined to receive the solar impression4 ,the dotted line1 ,c1 may represent the direction of the central solar ray at one particular time1 and it is easy to see how the sunlight reflected from the flask always passes through the lens4 ,as the sun moves 7apparently7 in a circle round the flask1 the image formed by the lens moves round on the sensitive paper1 forming an arc of a circle4 ,although it is obvious that any sensitive surface might be used in the ,mc,leod sunshine recorder1 the inventor prefers at present to use the ordinary ferro-prussiate paper as employed by engineers for copying tracings1 as this paper can be kept for a considerable length of time without change1 and the blue image is fixed by mere washing in water2 another advantage is the circumstance that a scale or set of datum lines can be readily printed on the paper from an engraved block1 and if the printed papers be made to register properly in the camera1 the records obtained will show at a glance the time at which sunshine commenced and ceased4 ,instead of specially silvering a flask inside1 it will be found convenient to make use of one of the silvered globes which are sold as ,christmas tree ornaments4 ,the sensitive fluid for preparing the ferro-prussiate paper is made as follows3 ,one part by weight of ferricyanide of potassium 7red prussiate7 is dissolved in eight parts of water1 and one part of ammonia-citrate of iron is added4 ,this last addition must be made in the dark-room4 ,a smooth-faced paper is now floated on the liquid and allowed to dry4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,breaking ,,of ,a ,,water ,,main4 ,in ,boston1 ,mass41 recently1 at a point where two iron bridges1 with stone abutments1 are being built over the ,boston and ,albany ,railroad tracks at ,brookline ,avenue1 the main water pipe1 which partially supplies the city with water1 had to be raised1 and while in that position a large stone which was being raised slipped upon the pipe and broke it4 ,immediately a stream of water fifteen feet high spurted out4 ,before the water could be shut off it had made a breach thirty feet long in the main line of track1 so that the entire four tracks1 sleepers1 and roadbed at that point were washed completely away4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,terms of ,subscription1 #e a ,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 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