,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #eih ,,new ,,york1 ,,june #ah1 #ahhg ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 ,no4 #eih4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,botany4--,the ,brazil ,nut4--,the botanical position1 appearance1 etc41 and general features of the tree and plant4--#a illustration4 ,,ii4 ,,decorative ,,art4--,decoration4--,the study of ornaments4--,by ,miss ,,marie ,r4 ,,garesche4--,the principles of ornament and relations between nature and art2 ancient and medival art contrasted4--#a illustration4 ,,iii4 ,,electricity4--,electric ,registering ,apparatus for ,meteorological ,instruments4--,grime's telemareograph described2 an apparatus giving distant registrations of tidal phenomena4--#b illustrations4 ,the ,montaud ,accumulator4--,full account of construction and power of this recent battery4--#d illustrations4 ,,iv4 ,,engineering4--,belt ,joints4--,a new cement1 the ,hercules glue1 and its adaptation for cementing belt joints4 ,v4 ,,mineralogy4--,precious ,stones of the ,united ,states4--,a review of ,mr4 ,g4,f4 ,,kunz',s recent report on this subject4 ,,vi4 ,,miscellaneous4--,a ,clinical ,lesson at ,la ,salpetriere4--,a portraiture picture by ,m4 ,,andre ,,brouillet1 of a clinic4--#b illustrations4 ,inauguration of the statue of ,denis ,papin4--,the statue to ,papin erected in ,paris by popular subscription4--#a illustration4 ,the ,action of the ,magnet in ,hypnosis4--,the nullity of the action of the magnet disclosed4 ,to ,find the ,day of the ,week for any ,year4--,a new method devised by ,lewis ,carroll4 ,,vii4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,some ,recent ,high ,speed ,twin ,screws4--,by ,e4,a4 ,,linnington4--,an important paper on the subject of screw propulsion4--#f illustrations4 ,the ,havre ,maritime ,exhibition4--,notes on the recently opened exhibition of ships and naval appliances at ,havre4--#a illustration4 ,the ,new ,german ,corvette ,greif4--,a recent addition to the ,german fleet illustrated and described4--#a illustration4 ,the ,steamship ,great ,eastern4--,a plea for the mammoth steamer4--,probabilities of her future usefulness4 ,twin ,screw ,torpedo ,boat4--,the new sea-going vessel built by ,yarrow ,co4 for the ,italian government4--,her extraordinary speed4 ,,viii4 ,,ordnance4--,our ,coast ,defenses4--,an interesting summary by ,gen4 ,h4,l4 ,,abbott of our means for defending our coasts4 ,the ,new ,krupp ,guns4--,the dimensions of the largest guns in the world1 now in process of construction at ,essen4--#b illustrations4 ,,ix4 ,,physics4--,colors of ,thin ,plates4--,report of a recent lecture by ,lord ,rayleigh4 ,x4 ,,technology4--,recent ,advances in ,sewing ,machines4--,by ,,john ,w4 ,,urquhart4--,a recent lecture before the ,society of ,arts of ,london1 giving an exhaustive review of the subject4--#ae illustrations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,havre ,,maritime ,,exhibition4 ,the ,havre ,maritime ,exhibition opened on the #gth of ,may4 ,will this exhibition awaken general interest1 or will it prove a local affair simply8 ,this is a secret of the weeks that are to follow4 ,should nothing chance to discourage the general interest that surrounds ,havre1 to dampen the enthusiasm of the public1 or to act to the prejudice of the exhibitors1 whose very evident desire is to show nothing but remarkable products in every line1 the ,international ,maritime ,exhibition will prove a great success4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,international ,,marine ,,exhibition ,,at ,,havre4--,,the ,,principal ,,entrance4 ,the people of ,havre have two points of comparison that more particularly concern themselves3 ,their ,maritime ,exhibition of #ahfh1 which1 as far as exhibition goes1 was a complete success1 is the first4 ,the financial results of it were not brilliant1 but that was due to certain reasons upon which it is not necessary to dwell4 ,on the contrary1 the ,rouen ,exhibition of #ahhd proved profitable4 ,the ,havre ,exhibition1 under able management1 can have only a like good fortune4 ,it must be said that the people of ,havre would be deeply humiliated should it prove otherwise4 ,a very appropriate location was selected for the ,exhibition1 in the busiest quarter of the center of the city4 ,its circumference embraces one of the finest docks of the port--the ,commerce ,dock1 thus named because it could not be finished 7in #ahbg7 except by the financial co-operation of the shipowners and merchants of the city4 ,for the purposes of the ,exhibition1 this dock is now temporarily closed to navigation4 ,in the various structures1 wood has been exclusively employed4 ,the main building1 which alone has a monumental character1 is ,arabic in style1 and is situated in the center of ,gambetta ,place1 over ,paris ,street1 which here becomes a tunnel4 ,two facades overlook the ends of this tunnel4 ,a third facade1 which is much longer1 fronts ,commerce ,dock4 ,the edifice is surmounted by a spherical cupola that serves as a base to a semaphore provided with masts and rigging4 ,on each side of the sphere there are two pendent beacons4 ,wide glazed bays open in the external facades1 and allow the eye to wander to the south through ,paris ,street as far as to the outer port1 to the summits of ,floride1 and to see beyond this point the bay of ,la ,seine1 ,honfleur1 and the coast of ,grce4 ,to the north1 the most limited view has for perspective the ,city ,hall1 its garden1 and the charming coast of ,ingonville4 ,the principal facade1 that which fronts ,commerce ,dock1 from which it is separated solely by a garden laid out on ,mture ,place1 is the most attractive and most ornamented4 ,here are located the restaurants1 the cafes1 the music pavilion1 and a few other light structures4 ,internally1 this portion of the ,exhibition comprises a vast entertainment hall1 brilliantly and artistically decorated with tympans representing the three principal ports of commerce--,havre1 ,bordeaux1 and ,marseilles--and with pictures by the best marine painters4 ,it is lighted by an immense stained glass window which fronts ,commerce ,dock and the garden1 and which lets in a flood of soft light4 ,the galleries to the right and left1 over ,paris ,street1 are reserved for the exhibitions of the ministers of state and of the large public departments1 and for models1 specimens1 plans1 and drawings of war and merchant vessels1 and of pleasure boats1 and for plans of port1 roadstead1 and river works4 ,two endless galleries run to the north and south of ,commerce ,dock1 parallel with ,orleans ,wharf on the one hand and ,lamblardie ,wharf on the other4 ,the northern gallery is connected by a foot bridge with the annex of ,commerce ,place1 where is located the colonial exhibition1 the center of which is occupied by a ,cambodian pavilion1 in which are brought together the products of ,indo-,china and ,algeria4 ,for half of their extent1 the two galleries are separated from the dock by a promenade provided with seats and covered with a roof4 ,on this promenade1 it became necessary to make room for certain belated exhibitors whose products are not affected by the open air4 ,in ,commerce ,dock are to be seen1 floating1 specimens of every ancient and modern naval construction1 ,french and foreign1 among which are the state convette ,favorite and an ,english three-master converted into a cafe boat4 ,we find here1 too1 the giant and prehistoric oak of the ,rhine1 on board of the ,drysphore4 ,commerce ,dock is divided into two parts by a foot bridge1 which allows the visitors to pass from one side to the other without being compelled to tiresomely retrace their steps4 ,the main entrance to the ,exhibition is opposite the portico of the theater1 on ,gambetta ,place4 ,a second entrance is found on ,commerce ,place in the colonies annex4 ,the others1 near the center1 are on ,orleans ,wharf1 opposite ,edward ,larue ,street1 and on ,lamblardie ,wharf1 opposite ,hospital ,street and opposite ,saint ,louis ,street4 ,the garden of the ,exhibition and the galleries that surround it are illuminated at night by the electric light4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,our ,,coast ,,defenses4 ,general ,h4,l4 ,abbott delivered a lecture before the ,academy of ,sciences in ,new ,york1 on the evening of ,march #ba1 a summary of which is given by the ,herald as follows3 ,according to ,general ,abbott1 the country needs for its coast defenses3 ,heavy guns2 ,armor-clad casemates2 ,disappearing gun carriages in earthworks2 ,heavy mortars2 ,submarine mines or fixed torpedoes2 and ,fish torpedoes4 ,the lecturer said that this nation may be attacked in four ways3 ,first1 by fleet and army combined1 as in our revolutionary war2 second1 by blockading the entrances to all our ports2 third1 by bombardment of our seaport cities from a long distance2 fourth1 by a fleet forcing its way into our harbors1 and making a direct attack or levying tribute on our people4 ,the first is not now greatly to be feared4 ,we are too distant from great powers1 and too strong on land4 ,the second should be met by the navy1 and is1 therefore1 outside a discussion of coast defenses4 ,the third is not probable1 though it may be possible4 ,the extreme range of #aj miles for heavy guns cannot be obtained from shipboard1 and as an elevation of only #ae or #af can be given1 not over #e to #f miles range is attainable4 ,the fourth is the one which is possible1 probable1 even certain--if we have war before we have better defenses4 ,the race between guns and armor began about thirty years ago1 and there has been more development in ships and guns in that time than in the two hundred preceding years4 ,the jump has been from the #g in4 rifle as the largest piece to the #aaj ton ,armstrong2 in armor1 from #d in4 of iron to the ,inflexible with #bb in4 of steel plating4 ,the new ,armstrong gun of #aaj tons1 tried only recently1 with #hej pounds of powder and an #a1hjj pound shot can pierce all the targets1 and so far guns have the victory over armor4 ,this gun developed #eg1jjj foot tons of energy1 and will probably reach #fb1jjj4 ,imagine the ,egyptian needle in ,central ,park1 shod on its apex with hard steel1 dropped point downward from the height of ,trinity steeple2 it weighs #bbe tons1 and it would strike with just about the effect of one of the #aaj ton gun's projectiles4 ,two of these guns are ready for the ironclad ,benbow1 and the ,italians have several equally powerful of #aai tons from ,herr ,krupp4 ,the most powerful gun in the ,united ,states1 the #ae in4 or the #ab in4 rifle1 has a muzzle energy of #c1hjj foot tons4 ,ships like the ,inflexible are the most powerful afloat4 ,a steel water-tight deck extends across the ship1 and she has #ace water-tight compartments4 ,her guns and engines amidships have a protection of #bd in4 of armor1 and amidships she has a citadel carrying two revolving turrets1 each containing two #hj ton guns4 ,her turret armor is #ah in4 thick4 ,she can make #ad knots1 and she has cost #c1ejj1jjj4 ,but she has a low freeboard1 and the guns1 therefore1 get no plunging fire4 ,the ,french ship ,meta has her heaviest guns mounted en barbette1 high above the water line1 giving a splendid plunging fire4 ,either of these ships could enter any of our harbors and hold us at her mercy4 ,the entrance to the harbor of ,alexandria1 ,egypt1 is about #e miles across4 ,at the time of the bombardment the protecting fortifications were situated at the east end1 in the center1 and at the west end4 ,on the west there were mounted #bj modern guns of great size and power1 and there were #g others at the east end4 ,although the ,egyptians fought bravely1 they did very little harm to the ,english fleet1 while on the second day the defense was silenced altogether4 ,following the bombardment--as in ,paris--came the reign of mob law1 doing more harm than the shells had done2 and it is a possibility that every such bombardment would be followed by such an overthrow--at least temporary--of all forms of law and order4 ,the ships that had silenced the ,alexandria batteries--which had #bg heavy guns more than we have--could reach our coasts in #aj or #ab days1 and we would have nothing to meet them4 ,armor-clad casemates are beginning to take the place of masonry4 ,a tremendous thickness of masonry is built up to the very embrasures for the guns in the steel-clad turrets4 ,this 7the ,gruson7 system has been adopted by ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,italy4 ,in #ahhb ,england had #dcd heavy modern guns behind armored shore batteries2 besides these at home1 she had #ib in her colonies1 of which #ac were in ,halifax and #aa in ,bermuda--for our express benefit4 ,what we have are brick and stone casemates and earthworks4 ,a sample granite casemate1 with iron-lined embrasure1 was built at ,fortress ,monroe1 and #h shots were fired at it from a #ab in4 rifle converted from an old #ae in4 smooth bore4 ,this gun develops only #c1hjj foot tons of energy--a mere nothing compared with the #fb1jjj foot tons of the ,english and ,german #aaj ton guns4 ,general ,abbott showed most conclusive proof of the worthlessness of masonry forts in pictures showing the effect of the shots4 ,the massive #h feet thickness of granite was pierced and battered till it looked like a ruin4 ,not a man inside would have been left alive4 ,he also showed a disappearing gun in an earthwork1 the gun recoiling below the level of the parapet and being run up to a firing position by a counterweight4 ,in #ahgh ,congress stopped all appropriations for defenses1 and nothing had been done since4 ,general ,abbott said that we needed submarine mines or fixed torpedoes1 which should be thickly interspersed about the channel and be exploded by an electric battery on shore4 ,to prevent these torpedoes from being exploded by the enemy1 the surface over them should be covered by plenty of guns4 ,heavy guns and mortars were needed to resist attacks by heavy iron-clads4 ,movable torpedoes were valuable1 but only as an auxiliary--a very minor auxiliary--compared with submarine mines4 ,we should be cautious not to infer that torpedoes made a satisfactory defense alone1 as they must be protected by large and small guns1 and they form only a part of the chain of general defenses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,steamship ,,great ,,eastern4 ,footnote3 ,see ,engraving in ,,supplement ,,no4 #ehd4 ,the history of the ,great ,eastern is full of surprises4 ,it is always that which is most unlikely to happen to her which occurs4 ,not long since we recorded her sale by auction in ,liverpool for #bf1jjj4 ,it was stated that her purchasers were going to fit her out for the ,australian trade1 and that she would at once be sent from ,dublin to ,glasgow to be fitted with new engines and boilers1 and to undergo thorough renovation4 ,lord ,ravensworth1 in his address to the ,institution of ,naval ,architects1 spoke recently of the bright future before her in that ,australian trade for which she was specially built4 ,yet at this moment the ,great ,eastern is lying in her old berth in the ,sloyne at ,liverpool1 and unless something else at present quite unforeseen takes place1 she will once more play the undignified part of a floating music hall4 ,it seems that although she was certainly sold1 as we have stated1 the transaction was not completed4 ,her owners then cast about for the next highest bidder1 who at once took her4 ,he is1 we understand1 a ,manchester cotton spinner1 and he paid #be1ejj for her4 ,it is no secret that ,messrs4 ,lewis made a considerable sum out of the ship last year1 and the knowledge of this fact has no doubt induced her present owner to follow their example4 ,the ship left ,dublin on ,sunday1 ,april #c1 under her own steam and in tow of two ,liverpool tugs1 the ,brilliant ,star and the ,wrestler1 and arrived in the ,mersey without accident on ,monday1 after a passage of only thirteen hours4 ,mr4 ,reeves1 formerly her chief officer1 has been made captain4 ,mr4 ,jackson is still chief engineer4 ,we cannot at present explain the fact that she went more than twice as fast as she has done recently1 her engines making as many as #cf revolutions a minute1 save on the assumption that while lying at ,dublin much of the enormous growth of seaweed on her bottom died off1 as will sometimes happen as a result of change of water4 ,her engines and boilers1 too1 have had a good overhaul by ,mr4 ,jackson1 and this may account in part for this improvement4 ,it is much to be regretted that the scheme of using the ship for her legitimate purpose has not been carried out4 ,it is not1 however1 yet too late4 ,the ,great ,eastern was not a success in ,dublin1 for one reason1 that a beer and spirit license could not be obtained for her4 ,it is said that notice has been given at the ,birkenhead police court that any application for a license of a similar kind will be opposed4 ,whether the ship will be as popular a resort without as she was with a license1 we cannot pretend to say2 and we may add that all our predilections are against her degradation to the status of a floating music hall4 ,the greater her failure as such1 the greater the chance of her being put to a better use2 and it may help to that desirable end if we say here something concerning the way in which she could be rendered a commercial success as a trader4 ,it may be taken as proved that the present value of the ship is about #bf1jjj4 ,mr4 ,de ,mattos gave1 we understand1 #bg1jjj for her1 and he bought her by auction4 ,the last sale gives nearly the same figures4 ,if we assume that there are #aj1jjj tons of iron in her1 we may also assume that if broken up it would not fetch more than #c a ton at present rates2 but even if we say #d1 we have as a total but #dj1jjj4 ,to break the ship up would be a herculean task2 we very much doubt if it could be done for the difference between #bf1jjj and #dj1jjj2 her engines would only sell for old iron1 being entirely worthless for any other place than the foundry once they were taken out of her2 as for her boilers1 the less said about them the better4 ,in one word1 she would not pay to break up4 ,on the other hand1 by a comparatively moderate further outlay1 she might be made the finest trading ship afloat4 ,there are two harbors at all events into which she can always get1 namely1 ,milford and ,sydney4 ,there are others1 of course1 but these will do2 and the ship could trade between these two ports4 ,by taking out her paddle engines1 she would be relieved of a weight of #hej tons4 ,the removal of her paddle engine boilers would further lighten her1 and would give in addition an enormous stowage space4 ,by using her both as a cargo and a passenger ship1 the whole of the upper portion could be utilized for emigrants1 let us say1 and the lower decks for cargo1 of which she could carry nearly1 if not quite1 #bj1jjj tons4 ,she would possess the great advantage that1 notwithstanding she was a cargo ship1 she would be nearly1 if not quite1 as fast as any1 save a few of the most recent additions to the ,australian fleet4 ,there is every reason to believe that she has been driven at #ad knots by about #f1jjj horse power4 ,we are inclined to think that the power has been overstated1 and we have it on good authority that she has more than once attained a speed of #ae knots4 ,let us assume1 however1 that her speed is to be #ac knots1 or about fifteen miles an hour4 ,assuming the power required to vary as the cube of the speed1 if #f1jjj horsepower gave #ad knots1 then about #d1hjj would give #ac knots--say #e1jjj horse power4 ,now1 good compound engines of this power ought not to burn more than #b lb4 per horse per hour1 or say #d4e tons per hour1 or #ajh tons a day4 ,allowing the trip to ,australia to take forty days1 we have #d1cbj tons of coal--say #e1jjj tons for the trip4 ,the ,etruria burns about this quantity in the run to ,new ,york and back4 ,for each ton of coal burned in the ,great ,eastern about #ae1jjj tons of cargo and #c1jjj passengers could be moved about #c-a_/c miles4 ,there is1 we need hardly say1 nothing afloat which can compare in economy of fuel with this4 ,taken on another basis1 we may compare her with an ordinary cargo boat4 ,in such a vessel about #c1jjj tons of grain can be moved at #i knots an hour for #fjj horse power--that is #e tons of cargo per horse power4 ,reducing the speed of the ,great ,eastern to #i knots and about #b1jjj horse power1 we have #i tons of cargo moved at #i knots per horse power2 so that in the relation of coal burned to cargo moved she would be nearly twice as economical as any other vessel afloat4 ,the important question is1 ,what would the necessary alterations cost8 ,much1 of course1 would depend on what was done4 ,a very large part of the present screw engines could be used4 ,for example1 the crank shaft1 some #b feet in diameter1 is a splendid job1 and no difficulty need be met with in working in nearly the whole of the present framing4 ,if the engines were only to be compound1 two of the existing cylinders might be left where they are1 two high-pressure cylinders being substituted for the others4 ,if triple expansion were adopted1 then new engines would be wanted1 but the present crank and screw shafts would answer perfectly4 ,the present screw would have to be removed and one of smaller diameter and less pitch put in its place4 ,all things considered1 we believe that for about #ge1jjj the ,great ,eastern could be entirely renovated and remodeled inside4 ,her owners would then have for1 say1 #ajj1jjj a ship without a rival4 ,her freights might be cut so low that she would always have cargo enough1 and her speed and moderate fares ought to attract plenty of passengers4 ,sum up the matter how we may1 there appears to be a good case for further investigation and inquiry as to the prospects of success for such a ship in the ,australian trade1 and the opinion of merchants and others in ,melbourne and ,sydney ought to be obtained4 ,something would be gained even if the opinions of unprejudiced experts were adverse4 ,we might then rest content to regard the ship as an utter failure1 and not object to see her sunk and filled with concrete to play the part of a breakwater4 ,until1 however1 such an opinion has been expressed after full discussion1 we must continue to regard the ship as fit for something better than a music hall and dancing saloon4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,german ,,corvette ,,greif4 ,our cut represents the corvette ,greif--the latest addition to the ,german fleet--on its trial trip1 ,march #aj4 ,as other naval powers1 especially ,england and ,france1 have lately built corvettes and cruisers which can travel from #ag to #ah knots1 while the fastest ,german boats1 ,blitz and ,pfeil1 can make only #af knots an hour1 the chief of the ,imperial ,admiralty decided to construct a corvette which should be the fastest vessel in the world4 ,the order was given to the ship and engine corporation ,germania1 of ,berlin and ,keil1 in ,april1 #ahhe1 the requirements being that the engines should generate #e1djj h4p41 and that the vessel1 when loaded1 should have a speed of #ai knots1 a point which has never been reached by any boat of its size4 ,the hull is made of the best ,german steel of ,krupp's manufacture1 and measures #cah ft4 in length at the water line1 with a breadth of beam of #cc ft41 the depth from keel to deck being #bb ft4 ,it draws about #aa ft41 and has a displacement of #b1jjj tons4 ,as the vessel is to be used principally as a dispatch boat and for reconnoitering1 and as--on account of its great speed--it will not be obliged to come into conflict with larger and stronger men-of-war1 no great preparations for protection were needed1 nor was it necessary that it should be heavily armed1 all available room being devoted to the engines1 boilers1 and the storing of coal2 these occupy more than half the length of the vessel1 leaving only space enough for the accommodation of the officers and crew at the ends4 ,the armament consists of five ,hotchkiss revolving guns on each side1 and a #d in4 gun at each end1 the latter being so arranged that each one can sweep half the horizon4 ,the keel was laid in ,august1 #ahhe1 and the ship was launched ,july #bi1 #ahhf1 on which occasion it was christened ,greif4 ,on the trial trip it was found that the slender shape of the vessel adapted it for the development of a very high rate of speed under favorable conditions1 when it can make at least #bb knots an hour1 so that the speed of #ai knots an hour guaranteed by the builders can certainly be reached1 even when traveling at a disadvantage4 ,in spite of its great length1 the ,greif can be easily maneuvered4 ,when moving forward at full speed1 it can be made to describe a circle by proper manipulation of the rudder1 and by turning one screw forward and the other backward1 the ship can be turned in a channel of its own length4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,german ,,war ,,steamer ,,greif4 ,a large and rapid cruiser1 also for the ,german navy1 is being built by the corporation ,germania4 ,this vessel is of about the same length as the ,greif1 has more than double its displacement1 and will make #ah knots an hour1 an unusual rate of speed for a vessel of its class4 ,it will be launched by the last of the summer or early in the fall4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,twin ,,screw ,,torpedo ,,boat4 ,we give several illustrations of a sea going twin screw torpedo boat lately built for the ,italian government by ,messrs4 ,yarrow ,co41 of ,poplar4 ,the vessel in question is #adj ft4 long by #ad ft4 wide1 and her displacement approaches close on #ajj tons4 ,the engines are of the compound surface condensing type ordinarily fitted by this firm in their torpedo boats1 excepting where triple compounds are fitted4 ,the general arrangement is shown by the sectional plan4 ,as will be noticed1 there are two boilers1 one before and the other aft of the engines1 and either boiler is arranged to supply either or both the engines4 ,yarrow's patent water tight ash pans are fitted to each boiler1 to prevent the fire being extinguished by a sudden influx of water into the stokehold4 ,there is an independent centrifugal pumping engine arranged to take its suction from any compartment of the boat4 ,there are also steam ejectors and hand pumps to each compartment4 ,these compartments are very numerous1 as the space is much subdivided1 both from considerations of strength and safety4 ,bow and stern rudders are fitted1 each having independent steam steering gear1 but both rudders can be worked in unison1 or they can be immediately changed to hand gear when necessary4 ,the accommodation is very good for a vessel of this class4 ,officers' and petty officers' cabins are aft1 while the crew is berthed forward4 ,illustration3 ,,twin ,,screw ,,torpedo ,,boat ,,for ,,the ,,italian ,,government4 ,the armament consists of two bow tubes built in the boat4 ,there are two turntables1 as shown in the illustrations1 each fitted with two torpedo tubes4 ,these1 it will be noticed1 are not arranged parallel to each other1 but lie at a small angle1 so that if both torpedoes are ejected at once1 they will take a somewhat divergent course4 ,messrs4 ,yarrow have introduced this plan in order to give a better chance for one of the torpedoes to hit the vessel attacked4 ,there are two quick firing three pounder guns on deck1 and there is a powerful search light1 the dynamo and engine being placed in the galley compartment4 ,we believe1 says ,engineering1 this torpedo boat1 together with a sister vessel1 built also for the ,italian government1 are the fastest vessels of their class yet tried1 and it is certain that the ,british ,navy does not yet possess a craft to equal them4 ,it is an extraordinary and lamentable fact that ,great ,britain1 which claims to be the foremost naval power in the world1 has always been behind the times in the matter of torpedo boats4 ,the official trial of this boat was recently made in the ,lower ,hope in rough weather4 ,the following is a copy of the official record of the six runs on the measured mile3 ,boiler ,receiver ,revolutions ,second ,pressure4 ,pressure4 ,vacuum4 per ,minute4 ,speed4 ,means4 ,means4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ lb4 lb4 in4 #a #acj #cb #bh #cgc #bb4fda #bd4ief #b #acj #cb #bh #cgb4g #bg4bgb #bd4iib #be4jbh #c #acj #cb #bh #cgb #bb4ghd #be4jbh #be4jbh #d #acj #cb #bh #cgg #bg4bgb #be4ach #be4bdh #e #acj #cb #bh #cge #bc4bbe #be4bdh #be4bdh #f #acj #cb #bh #cgg #bg4bgb ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,means4 #acj #cb #bh #bgd #be4aja knots ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- --,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,some ,,recent ,,high-,,speed ,,twin ,,screws4 ,footnote3 ,a paper recently read before the ,institution of ,naval ,architects1 ,london4 ,by ,e4,a4 ,,linnington4 ,one of the most interesting and valuable features in the development of naval construction in recent years is the great advance which has been made in the speeds of our war ships4 ,this advance has been general1 and not confined to any particular vessel or class of vessel4 ,from the first class armored fighting ship of about #aj1jjj tons displacement down to the comparatively diminutive cruiser of #a1ejj tons1 the very desirable quality of a high speed has been provided4 ,these are all twin screw ships1 and each of the twins is driven by its own set of engines and line of shafting1 so that the propelling machinery of each ship is duplicated throughout4 ,the speeds attained indicate a high efficiency with the twin screws4 ,in all ships1 but more especially in high speed ships1 success depends largely upon the provision of propellers suited for the work they have to perform1 and where a high propulsive efficiency has been secured1 there is no doubt the screws are working with a high efficiency4 ,the principal purpose of this paper is to record the particulars of the propellers1 and the results of the trials of several of these high speed twin screw ships4 ,the table gives the leading particulars of several classes of ships1 the particulars of the screws1 and the results obtained on the measured mile trials from a ship of each class1 except ,c4 ,the vessels whose trials are inserted in the table have not been selected as showing the highest speeds for the several classes4 ,excepting ,c1 they are the ships which have been run on the measured mile at or near the designed load water line4 ,on light draught trials1 speeds have been attained from half a knot to a knot higher than those here recorded4 ,no ship of the class ,c has yet been officially tried on the measured mile1 but as several are in a forward state1 perhaps the actual data from one of them may shortly be obtained4 ,all these measured mile trials were made under the usual ,admiralty conditions1 that is to say1 the ships' bottoms and the screws were clean1 and the force of the wind and state of the sea were not such as to make the trials useless for purposes of comparison4 ,on such trials the i4h4p4 is obtained from diagrams taken while the ship is on the mile1 and the revolutions are recorded by ruechanical counters for the time occupied in running the mile4 ,not less than four runs are made during a trial extending over several hours4 ,the i4h4p4 in the table is not necessarily the maximum during the trial1 for the average while on the mile is sometimes a little below the average for the whole of the trial4 ,the revolutions are the mean for the two sets of engines1 and the i4h4p4 is the sum of the powers of the two sets4 ,the pitch of the screw is measured4 ,the bolt holes in the blade flanges allow an adjustment of pitch1 but in each case the blades were set as nearly as possible at the pitch at which they were cast4 ,the particulars given in the table may be taken to be as reliable and accurate as such things can be obtained1 and for each ship there are corresponding data2 that is1 the powers1 speeds1 displacements1 revolutions1 pitches1 and other items existed at the same time4 ,there are a few points of detail about these propellers which deserve a passing notice4 ,in ,fig4 #a is shown a fore and aft section through the boss4 ,it will be observed that the flanges of the blades are sunk into the boss1 and that the bolts are sunk into the flanges4 ,the recess for the bolt heads is covered with a thin plate having the curve of the flange1 so that the flanges and the boss form a section of a sphere4 ,this method of construction is a little more expensive than exposed flanges and bolts1 which1 however1 render the boss a huge churn4 ,with the high revolutions at which these screws work1 a spherical boss is extremely desirable1 but1 of course1 the details need not be exactly as shown in the illustration4 ,the conical tail is fitted to prevent loss with eddies behind the flat end of the boss1 and is particularly valuable with the screws of high speed ships4 ,the light hood shown on the stern bracket is for the purpose of preventing eddies behind the boss of the stern bracket1 and to save the resistance of the flat face of the screw boss4 ,the edges of the blades are cast sharp1 instead of being rounded at the back1 with a small radius1 as in the usual practice--the object of the sharp edge being the diminution of the edge resistance4 ,the driving key extends the whole length of the boss1 and the tapered shaft fits throughout its length4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,these points of detail have been features of all ,admiralty screws for some years4 ,the frictional resistance of screw propellers is always a fruitful source of inefficiency4 ,with a given screw1 the loss due to friction may be taken to vary approximately as the square of the speed4 ,this is not to say that the frictional resistance is greater in proportion to the thrust at high than at low speeds4 ,the blades of screws for any speed should be as smooth and clean as possible1 but for high speed screws the absolute saving of friction may be considerable with an improvement of the surface4 ,there is no permanent advantage in polishing the blades4 ,no doubt there is some advantage for a little time1 and1 probably1 better results may thereby be secured on trial1 but the blades soon become rough1 and shell fish and weed appear to grow as rapidly on recently polished blades as on an ordinary surface4 ,these screws are of gun metal4 ,they were fitted to the ships in the condition in which they left the foundry4 ,it appears that within certain limits mere shape of blade does not affect the efficiency of the screw1 but1 with a given number of blades and a given disk1 the possible variations in the form or distribution of a given area are such that different results may be realized4 ,the shapes of the blades of these propellers are shown in ,figs4 #b1 #c1 and #d4 ,it will be seen the shapes are not exactly the same for all the screws1 but the differences do not call for much remark4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b41 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #b shows the blades for the ,a screw4 ,c and ,d have the same form4 ,fig4 #c shows in full lines the blades of the ,b screw1 and1 though very narrow at the tips1 they1 like ,a1 are after the ,griffith pattern4 ,the blades of ,e and ,f are of a similar shape1 as shown in ,fig4 #d1 and approach an oval form rather than the ,griffith pattern4 ,the particulars of these propellers would be considered incomplete without some reference to their positions with respect to the hulls4 ,when deciding the positions of twin screws1 there is room for variation1 vertically1 longitudinally1 and transversely4 ,for these screws1 the immersions inserted in the table give the vertical positions4 ,the immersion in ,a is #i ft41 showing what may be done in a deep draught ship with a small screw4 ,whatever the value of deep immersion may be in smooth water1 there can be no question that it is much enhanced in a seaway4 ,the longitudinal positions are such that the center of the screw is about one-fifth of the diameter forward of the aft side of the rudder post4 ,the positions may1 perhaps1 differ somewhat from this rule without appreciably affecting the performance1 but1 if any alteration be made1 it would probably be better to put the screws a little farther aft rather than forward4 ,the forward edges of the blades are from #b ft4 to #c ft4 clear of the legs of the bracket which carries the after bearing4 ,the transverse positions are decided1 to some extent1 by the distance between the center lines of the engines4 ,as regards propulsive efficiency1 it would appear that the nearer the screws are to the middle line1 the less is the resistance due to the shaft tubes and brackets1 and the greater is the gain from the wake in the screw efficiency1 but1 on the other hand1 the greater is the augment of the ship's resistance1 due to the action of the screws4 ,further1 the nearer the screws are to the hull1 the less are they exposed4 ,but experience is not wanting to show that the vibration may be troublesome when the blades come within a few inches of the hull4 ,the average of the clearances between the tips of the blades and the respective hulls is about one-eighth of the diameter of the screw4 ,an interesting and noteworthy fact in connection with these propellers is the wide differences in the pitches and revolutions1 though the products of the two do not greatly vary4 ,such differences are extremely rare in the mercantile marine for similar speeds1 but in war ships they are inseparable from the conditions of the engine design4 ,as a general rule1 with 7revolutions pitch7 a constant1 an increase of revolutions and the consequent decrease of pitch allow a diminution of disk and of blade area--other modifying conditions1 such as the thrust1 slip1 number1 and pattern of blades1 being the same4 ,the screws for ,e and ,f are interesting1 because1 with practically the same speeds and slips1 there is a considerable difference in the revolutions4 ,it will be observed that ,f is a vessel of finer form and a little less displacement than ,e1 and1 therefore1 has less resistance4 ,although ,e has the greater resistance and the screw the smaller pitch_/diameter1 the higher revolutions permit the use of a smaller screw4 ,but from this example the influence of the high revolutions in diminishing the size of screw does not appear so great as some empirical rules would indicate4 ,the screws for ,a and ,b are also worthy of attention4 ,although the ship ,a has a much greater resistance than ,b1 the screw of the former is much the smaller1 both in the blade area and the disk4 ,a's screws1 however1 in addition to #bb per cent4 more revolutions than ,b1 have a much larger slip1 and the blades have rather a fuller form at the tips4 ,compared with the practice in the mercantile marine1 the revolutions of these screws are very high1 and from the foregoing remarks it may appear that much larger screws would be required for a merchant ship than for a war ship of the same displacement and speed4 ,there would1 however1 be several items favorable to the use of small screws4 ,for a given displacement the resistance would be less in the mercantile ship1 and with the lower revolutions the proportion of blade area to the disk could be increased without impairing the efficiency4 ,thus in passing from the war vessel to a merchant ship of the same displacement1 there are the lower revolutions favorable to a larger screw1 but1 on the other hand1 the smaller resistance1 larger proportion of blade area1 and the coarser pitch1 are favorable to a diminution of the screw4 ,the ship ,b has a very large screw at #hh revolutions1 but the tips are very narrow4 ,if the blade were as dotted for a diameter of #af ft41 the same work could be done with the same revolutions1 but with a little coarser pitch and a little more slip4 ,there is something to be said for large screws with a small proportion of blade area to disk4 ,for instance1 two bladed screws have frequently given better results than four bladed screws of smaller diameter1 neglecting1 of course1 the question of vibrations4 ,twin screws1 however1 should1 as a rule1 be made as small as possible in diameter without loss of efficiency4 ,the advantages of small twin screws are the shorter shaft tubes and stern brackets1 deeper immersion1 and less exposure as compared with large screws4 ,the exposure of the screws is usually considered an objection1 but1 perhaps1 too much has been made of it1 for those well qualified to speak on the subject consider that careful handling of the ship would1 in most cases1 prevent damage to the screws1 and that where the exposure is unusually great1 effectual protection by portable protectors presents no insuperable difficulty4 ,,high ,,speed ,,twin ,,screws4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ship ,a4,ship ,b4,ship ,c4,ship ,d4,ship ,e4,ship ,f4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,length1 ft4 #cbe #cae #cjj #cjj #bbj #bej ,breadth1 ft4 #fh #fa #ef #df #cd #cb ,draught on trial1 #bf ft #bd ft #ae ft #ab ft #ac ft forward4 #b in #f in 4444 #f in #aj in #a in ,draught on trial1 #bg ft #be ft #ai ft #ae ft #ad ft aft4 #c in #f in 4444 #i in #b in #g in ,displacement1 tons4 #i1fij #g1fde #e1jjj #c1ehd #a1efj #a1edd ,i4,m4,s41 sq4 ft4 #a1efj #a1bhg #a1jjj #gdd #dch #cib ,speed of ship1 knots4 #af4ib #ag4ba #ah4ge #ah4ah #af4ia #ag ,i4,h4,p4 #aa1faj #aj1ahj #h1ejj #f1afj #c1aae #c1jde ,revolutions per minute4 #ajg4b #hh #abj #abb4f #aej4d #acb4a ,pitch of #ai ft #bb ft #ah ft #ag ft #ab ft #ad ft screw4 #e in #i in #f in #g;in #i in ,slip4 per cent #ag4f #aj 444 #ad4b #i4g #aa4d ,diameter of #ae ft #ah ft #ad ft #ac ft #aj ft #aa ft screw4 #f in #f in #f in ,diameter of #d ft #d ft #c ft #c ft #b ft #b ft boss4 #d in #aa in #i in #e in #i in #aj in ,number of blades #d #d #c #c #c #c ,blade area of one screw4 #gb #hg #fj #dg #bd #bd ,shape of blade4 ,fig4 #b4;,fig4 #c4;,fig4 #b4;,fig4 #b4;,fig4 #d4;,fig4 #d ,pitch ---------- #a4be #a4bb #a4c #a4cd #a4b #a4cd ,diameter ,disk -------- #b4fb #b4ib #b4ge #b4hb #c4f #c4if ,blade area ,immersion of #i ft #e ft #d ft #b ft #a ft screw4 #c in 4444 #d in #i in #aj in ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the slips of these screws vary from #aj to #ag per cent41 which is certainly not an extensive range1 considering the widely different working conditions4 ,slip1 as an indication of the efficiency of the screw1 is not only an interesting subject1 but it is often one of importance4 ,in these ships1 however1 there is nothing about the slips which would give rise to any doubts as to the fitness of the screws for their work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,fig4 #f4 ,the ancient fallacy that small slip meant a high screw efficiency was supported by the great authority of the late ,professor ,rankine4 ,experience proved that considerable slips and efficient screws were companions4 ,the late ,mr4 ,froude offered an explanation of this general rule in a paper read before this ,institution in #ahgh1 and gave a curve of efficiency with varying true slip4 ,in ,mr4 ,r ,e4 ,froude's paper last year there was a form of this curve1 with an arbitrary abscissa scale for the slip1 devised to illustrate in one diagram the wide conditions covered by his experiments4 ,in the screws now under consideration1 the values of the pitch_/diameter vary only from #a4b to #a4cd1 and for these the abscissa values for the same slips do not differ much4 ,taking the mean value1 and bringing the slips to a common scale1 ,fig4 #e is obtained1 which would approximately represent the relation between the efficiency of any one of these screws and its true slip1 if this curve were applicable to full sized screws propelling actual ships4 ,the slips in ,fig4 #e being real or true1 are not the slips of commerce1 which are the apparent slips1 such as those given in the table4 ,let us endeavor to split up these real slips into the apparent slips and another item1 the speed of the wake4 ,we then at once meet with the difficulty that the wake in which the screw works has not a uniform motion4 ,complex1 however1 as are the motions of the wake1 the screw may be assumed to work in a cylinder of water having such a uniform forward velocity as will produce the same effect as the actual wake on the thrust of the screw4 ,it is then readily seen that the real slip is the sum of the apparent slip and the speed of the hypothetical wake4 ,to make this clear1 let ,v be the speed of the ship1 ,vs the speed of the screw1 i4e41 revolutions pitch1 and ,v the speed of the wake2 then-- ,apparent slip ,vs - ,v4 ,real slip ,vs - speed of ship with respect to the wake4 ,vs - 7,v - ,v7 7,vs - ,v7 ,vw4 ,apparent slip speed of the wake4 ,if the apparent slip be zero1 the real slip is the speed of the wake1 and if the apparent slip be negative1 the real slip is less than the speed of the wake4 ,the real slip is greater than the apparent slip1 and can never be a negative quantity4 ,from ,mr4 ,froude's model experiments1 it appears that this speed of wake for the ,a class of ship amounts to about #aj per cent4 of the speed of the ,a screw4 ,if this value is correct1 then the real slip is 7#aj #ag4f7 per cent41 or #bg4f per cent4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #f1 where ,o is the point of no slip1 being #ag4fd from the point of real slip4 ,slips to the right of ,o are positive apparent slips1 slips to the left are negative apparent slips4 ,the vessel ,f would certainly have a wake with a speed considerably less than that of ,a's wake4 ,from the model experiments1 the wake for ,f is about one-half that for the ,a class1 or1 roughly1 #e per cent4 of the speed of the screw4 ,for the ship ,f1 ,o is the point of no apparent slip1 and the real slip is 7#e #aa4d7 or #af4d per cent4 ,for ,e1 the point of real slip is approximately the same as for ,f4 ,for ,b and ,d1 the positions on the curve would be about the same4 ,the ship ,b has a higher speed of wake than ,d1 but the screw ,d has the greater apparent slip4 ,the influence of the number of blades on the scale for the slip has been neglected4 ,if this efficiency curve were applicable to full sized screws propelling actual ships1 and if the determination of the wakes were beyond question1 then we should have a proof that our screws were at or near the maximum efficiency4 ,but1 as we know1 from the total propulsive efficiencies1 that the screws have high and not widely different efficiencies on these ships1 we may argue the other way1 and say that there is good reason to consider that at least the upper part of the curve agrees with experience obtained from actual ships4 ,now take ,fig4 #f and consider the general laws there represented4 ,take the speed of the wake as #aj per cent4 of the speed of the screw1 which is probably an average of widely different conditions1 including many single as well as twin screw ships4 ,then this curve shows that considerable negative slips mean inefficient screws2 that screws may have very different positive slips without any appreciable difference in their efficiencies2 and that very large positive slips and inefficient screws may be companions4 ,for instance1 a screw with a large positive slip in smooth water is frequently inefficient at sea against a head wind1 which increases the resistance1 and necessitates an increase of slip4 ,i venture to say that these statements1 taken in a general manner1 are not at variance with experience obtained from the performances of screw ships4 ,before it is possible to satisfactorily decide if this curve applies in a general manner to full sized screws propelling ships1 we require the results of trials of various ships where the screws are working about the region of no slip4 ,model experiments teach that the scale for the slip varies with the design of the screw1 and that with a given screw the speed of the wake 7which decides the point of no apparent slip7 varies with the type of ship and with the position of the screw with respect to the hull4 ,remembering these disturbances1 it is not improbable that it may be possible to account for or explain what at first sight may appear departures from the curve4 ,the diameters of the screws in the table are not compared with the diameters given by the method explained by ,mr4 ,froude in his paper last year1 for there are differences in the slips1 the proportions of blade area to disk1 and1 to some extent1 in the shapes of the blades1 which are not taken into account in that method4 ,assuming1 however1 as ,mr4 ,froude does1 a constant proportion of blade area to disk1 and a uniform pattern of blade1 the determination of the diameter for a given set of conditions may1 as a rule1 be a complete solution of the problem of the design of a screw1 but these assumptions do not cover all the necessities of actual practice1 which make it extremely desirable to know something about the influence or efficiency of various proportions of blade area to disk1 and of the form or distribution of a given area4 ,during the discussion which followed1 ,mr4 ,john said that1 both as regarded the mercantile marine and the ,royal ,navy1 there were few data to work upon1 but few ships having been built with twin screws4 ,mr4 ,linnington's proportions of pitch to diameter of #a4b to #a4cd was not invariably adhered to4 ,he mentioned a couple of small twin screw vessels where the proportion of pitch to diameter came nearly to #a4e1 and he remembered a few years ago the propellers in one of these vessels being changed and the pitch increased1 the result being a very considerable improvement4 ,he believed they might go with quick running twin screw engines to a larger proportion of pitch to diameter than they could with a single screw4 ,he might instance the change in the ,iris4 ,she was first engined with the pitch equal to the diameter1 and she gained two knots or thereabout when the diameter was reduced #b ft4 and the pitch increased #b ft4 ,admiral ,de ,horsey said that he tried experiments with the single screw in the ,aurora4 ,she had a feathering serew1 and when the sails were used to assist1 they commonly altered the pitch of the screw according to the strength of the wind4 ,the screw could be altered while it was revolving1 and as the wind freshened they coarsened the pitch1 and when they wanted to stop the engines they coarsened the pitch so as to bring the screw right fore and aft1 so that they never altered the way of the ship in changing from steam to sail alone4 ,the reason why twin screws had been adopted in the navy was that if one was damaged there was the other still available4 ,but it gave them a still further advantage1 as it enabled them to have a fore and aft bulkhead1 which with a single screw was difficult4 ,the mercantile marine had not as yet looked favorably on twin screws4 ,their finest and fastest ships were single screws1 probably because1 in very bad weather1 the single screw was better4 ,mr4 ,spyer said that in designing propellers for ships of war1 they were obliged to attempt to obtain the highest possible speed1 and that was not necessarily coincident with a propeller of maximum efficiency4 ,on the other hand1 for mercantile purposes1 coal consumption was obviously of paramount importance1 and the speed of any particular vessel must be obtained with the smallest possible amount of indicated horse power1 and a propeller of maximum efficiency4 ,regarding the position of the propellers in a small pinnace1 the propellers were shifted six or seven inches further out1 and with about ten per cent4 less indicated horse power she obtained three tenths of a knot more speed4 ,mr4 ,barnaby asked ,mr4 ,linnington whether1 in designing twin screws for a vessel of #h1jjj i4h4p41 he would make each screw1 which would have to take #d1jjj i4h4p41 of the same diameter as a screw for a single ship of #d1jjj i4h4p41 of the same speed4 ,unfortunately in high speed vessels1 from one point of view1 the faster they went for a given power the smaller the diameter of the screw had to be1 and the larger the pitch1 so that in very high speed twin screw vessels the ratio of pitch to diameter would be found to come out very great indeed4 ,in a twin screw torpedo boat1 to be tried shortly1 they had a ratio as high as #a4fd4 ,in the case of the ,inflexible it was found1 owing possibly to the position of the screw1 that the whole of the plates immediately over the screws were damaged4 ,mr4 ,beckett ,hill had been using1 during the past three or four years1 the twin screw steamers the ,ludgate ,hill1 ,richmond ,hill1 and ,tower ,hill4 ,these were all over #d1jjj tons register1 and indicated1 when at work at full speed1 #b1ejj h4p4 ,before he and his friends built these steamers1 they built some very large tug boats on the twin screw principle4 ,at the present moment1 four of the fastest steamers building for the ,atlantic service were to have twin screws4 ,the great obstacle to the extension of the twin screw in the mercantile navy had been the fear that the projection of these screws would make the vessels very difficult to handle1 but he had found no such difficulties4 ,he had found it an advantage to put the point of the propeller as near the deadwood as he could1 without actually touching it1 and in the large steamers1 as well as in the tugs1 the distance was a few inches4 ,as to the point of safety1 he thought it a great advantage to have twin screws1 and on two occasions twin screw vessels had met with accidents which1 but for the twin screws1 would have necessitated their putting back to ,new ,york for repairs4 ,the ,richmond ,hill1 on one occasion1 met with an accident to her machinery two days after leaving ,new ,york2 but she was able to come on with the second set of engines1 and was only one day late in the passage4 ,no difficulty had been found in the docking and undocking of these vessels1 either in ,london or ,liverpool1 and while with single screw vessels they had sometimes to employ one or two dock boats to dock and undock them1 they never had to do so with the twin screw vessels4 ,these vessels were #djj ft4 long1 with #dh ft4 breadth of beam--a very large size to handle in a river like the ,thames4 ,he noticed in the paper a propeller with a diameter of #ae ft4 #f in4 to indicate #aa1aaj h4p41 so that a great ,atlantic steamer1 which should indicate #aa1jjj or #ab1jjj h4p41 and have a beam of about #fe;ft41 would have her screws very well protected4 ,mr4 ,white said that as soon as it was found that with twin screws they lost nothing in efficiency1 ship owners generally were contemplating their adoption1 an admirable example of which had been set in the vessels of the ,hill line4 ,in adopting twin screws1 the question whether they should overlap was one that deserved very serious consideration1 and it was interesting to know1 from experience gained by the vessels of the ,hill line1 that there was no difficulty in the way of the projection of the screws4 ,with a moderate power1 and with vessels of considerable size1 the screws were well sheltered3 but in the large ships which were contemplated1 where there must necessarily be larger screws1 this might be different1 and become a difficulty4 ,mr4 ,linnington1 in reply1 said there was no reason to think that the twin screw at sea might not be as satisfactory1 in comparison with the single screw1 as it appeared in smooth water4 ,as a matter of fact1 one of the great advantages of twin screws was that at sea the condition of weather which would bring the single screw out of the water1 and make it extremely inefficient1 would have no appreciable effect on the twin screws4 ,in vessels of deep draught especially1 they were well immersed1 and they were really more efficient at sea than in smooth water4 ,in ships of full form1 the longitudinal position of the screws was of importance2 but in the ships referred to in this table the run was very fine1 and the screws were well covered by the hull4 ,he did not think1 in such a case1 any small difference in longitudinal position would affect the performance4 ,if any alteration were made1 it would probably be better to put the screws farther off4 ,when the rudder was hard over1 the blades of the screw should be about a foot clear of the rudder4--,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,recent ,,advances ,,in ,,sewing ,,machinery4 ,footnote3 ,a recent lecture before the ,society of ,arts1 ,london4 ,by ,,john ,w4 ,,urquhart4 ,the distinct improvements in sewing machinery to which ,i would invite your attention this evening have reference more particularly to the results of inventive effort within the past ten years4 ,but although marked development in the machines has occurred in so short a time1 it may be taken for granted that those advances are but the accumulated results of many years' prior invention and experience of stitching appliances4 ,the history of the sewing machine1 and the decision of the great question1 ,who invented an apparatus that would unite fabrics by stitches8 do not at present concern us4 ,many sources of information are open to those who would decide that extremely involved problem4 ,but whether the production of the first device of this kind be claimed for ,england or for ,america1 it is quite certain that no one man invented the perfect machine1 and that those fine specimens of sewing apparatus shown here to-night embody the labors of many earnest workers1 both in ,europe and ,america4 ,most of us are familiar with the arrangements of an ordinary lock stitch machine1 and an able paper by ,mr4 ,edwin ,p4 ,alexander1 embracing not only a good account of its history1 but most of the elements of the earlier machines1 has already 7,april #e1 #ahfc71 been read before you4 ,this1 and sundry descriptions of such apparatus in the engineering papers1 confine my remarks to the more recent improvements in three great classes of machines4 ,these are1 briefly1 plain sewing machines2 sewing machines as used in factories1 where they are moved by steam power2 and special sewing machines1 embracing many interesting forms1 only recently introduced4 ,we have thus to consider1 in the first place1 the general efficiency of the machine as a plain stitcher4 ,secondly1 its adaptability to high rates of speed1 and the provision that has been made to withstand such velocities for a reasonable time4 ,and1 thirdly1 the apparatus and means employed to effect the controlling of the motive power when applied to the machines4 ,to deal with the subject in this way must1 ,i fear1 involve a good deal of technical description2 and ,i hope to be pardoned if in attempting to elucidate the more important devices1 use must be made of words but seldom heard outside of a machinists' workshop4 ,it appears scarcely necessary to premise that the sewing machine of twenty years ago has almost faded away1 save1 perhaps1 in general exterior appearance2 that the bell crank arms1 the heart cams1 the weaver's shuttles1 the spring take ups1 rectangular needle bars1 and gear wheels1 have developed into very different devices for performing the various functions of those several parts4 ,the shuttle is perhaps the most important part of a lock stitch machine4 ,but what is a shuttle8 ,so many devices for performing the functions of the early weaver's shuttle have been introduced of late1 that the word shuttle1 if it be used at all1 must not be accepted as meaning to shoot4 ,we have vibrating shuttles1 which are1 strictly speaking1 the only surviving representatives of the weaver's shuttle in these new orders of machines2 and stationary shuttles1 oscillating shuttles1 and revolving shuttles1 besides the earlier rotating hook1 in several new forms1 difficult to name4 ,but the general acceptation of the word shuttle1 as indicating those devices that pass bodily through the loop of upper thread1 is1 ,i venture to think1 sufficiently correct4 ,many changes have been effected in the form1 size1 and movements of the shuttle1 and we may profitably inquire into the causes that have induced manufacturers to abandon the earlier forms4 ,the long1 weaver's kind of shuttle1 originally used by ,howe and ,singer1 had many drawbacks4 ,mr4 ,a4,b4 ,wilson's ingenious device1 the lock stitch rotating hook1 was not free from corresponding faults4 ,the removal of these in both has led to the adoption of an entirely new class of both shuttles and revolving hooks4 ,it is well known that the lock stitch is formed by the crossing of two threads1 one of which lies over1 and the other under1 the cloth to be sewn4 ,this crossing point1 to insure integrity of the stitch1 must occur as nearly as possible in the middle of the thickness of the fabric4 ,the crossing must also be effected while a certain strain1 called tension1 is imposed upon both threads4 ,if the tension of one thread should outweigh that of the other1 the locking point becomes displaced4 ,if the tension be insignificant1 the stitches will be loose4 ,if the tension should vary1 as in the long shuttle1 there will occur faulty points in the seam4 ,in the earlier rotating hook the tension depended upon the friction developed between the spool and the hook4 ,this tension1 therefore1 varied in proportion to the speed of the latter1 and could never be constant4 ,this was quite apart from the frictional resistance offered to the upper thread in passing over the cavity of the hook4 ,in the shuttle the tension was obtained by threading through holes in the shell1 or beneath a tension plate1 as in ,howe's machine4 ,this tension1 so long as the reel ran between spring centers1 was never constant4 ,the variation was chiefly due to the angular strain set up when unwinding from the reel4 ,this strain varied according to the point of unwinding4 ,it was light in the middle of the reel and heavy at either extremity4 ,these drawbacks caused immense anxiety to the first makers of sewing machines1 and numerous attempts to overcome them led to little improvement4 ,with reference to high rates of speed1 the older shuttle1 requiring a long and noisy reciprocation1 had its disadvantages4 ,the only effective remedy for these drawbacks was a radical one4 ,it was necessary to substitute depth of reel for length4 ,hence1 several attempts have been made to construct disk or ring shuttles4 ,many forms of those have been tried4 ,they all depend upon the principle of coiling up the thread in a vertical plane1 rather than in horizontal spirals4 ,some makers placed the disk in a horizontal plane1 and caused it to revolve4 ,nothing could be worse1 as will be seen1 if we follow the course the enveloping loop must take in encircling such a shuttle4 ,but a complete solution of the difficulty of employing a ring shuttle has been achieved in the oscillating form1 invented by ,mr4 ,phil4 ,diehl1 and known as ,singer's 7,fig4 #a74 ,a short examination of it may profitably engage your attention4 ,the shuttle itself is sufficiently well known1 but certain features of it1 and to which it owes its efficiency1 appear to call for some explanation4 ,its introduction dates back some years1 during which time it has undergone certain modifications4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,it consists of a thick disk bobbin of thread1 h1 fitting loosely in a case constructed in the form of a bivalve1 a and d4 ,this case is furnished with a long beak1 usually forming a continuation of the periphery4 ,the beak is intended to enter and detain the loops of upper thread1 and lead them so that they ultimately envelop the shuttle1 a motion of the thread which is chiefly due to the oscillation of the shuttle in a vertical plane4 ,the oscillating movement is to the extent of #ahj degs4 of the circle1 which suffices to cast the loops freely over the shuttle4 ,the center of oscillation is not coincident with the center of the shuttle2 but it is nearly so with the periphery of the thread reel1 and exactly coincides with the point where the under thread is drawn from the shuttle1 g4 ,the shuttle thread is thus entirely freed from any tendency to twist1 an objection frequently urged against circular or revolving shuttles4 ,it will be observed1 also1 that the body of the shuttle is extremely narrow4 ,bulging of the thread loops to one side or the other is thus obviated4 ,but the long beak in this description of shuttle serves an important purpose other than that of seizing the upper thread loops1 otherwise a very short beak would be preferable4 ,it adds so much to the efficiency of the machine that a little further explanation of it appears essential4 ,in the old fashioned machines the thread required to envelop the shuttle was dragged downward through the cloth1 while the needle still remained in the fabric4 ,this necessitated the use of large needles with deep side channels1 to enable the thread to run freely1 and as a consequence the punctures that had to be made in the fabric were unnecessarily large1 and could not in any case be entirely filled by the thread1 a condition which is now recognized as essential in linen stitching and for waterproof boots4 ,the long beak in both shuttles and hooks offers an immediate solution of the old difficulty experienced with long shuttles4 ,when the needle begins to rise1 the shuttle commences to oscillate1 through the loop1 the motions so coinciding that the long beak1 c1 merely detains the loop until the eye of the needle has ascended above the cloth2 then1 and then only1 does the envelopment of the shuttle commence1 and the thread required for it flows downward through the puncture4 ,the envelopment is completed before the needle has attained its highest point1 and the consequent loose thread is immediately pulled up by a lever1 called a positive take-up1 before the needle begins to descend for a fresh stitch4 ,in this way little or no movement of the thread is required in the cloth while the puncture made is occupied by the needle4 ,the result is the capability of such apparatus to work with an incredibly fine needle--indeed1 so fine as to be no thicker than the incompressed thread itself4 ,this would have been considered quite impossible of accomplishment by our earlier machine makers4 ,the advantage thereby gained in stitching linen goods1 and in sewing leather1 where every puncture of the needle should be quite filled by the thread1 is at once apparent4 ,indeed1 a rubber or leather sack1 stitched in this way1 will contain water without leakage--a very extreme test4 ,revolving ,shuttles4--,the class of shuttles known as revolving or rotating1 and which really consist of a combination of the disk shuttle and the earlier rotating hook of ,wilson1 have been under trial by several makers for many years4 ,if1 for example1 the oscillating shuttle we have just examined were to complete its circular movement1 it would constitute a revolving shuttle1 but would not be quite similar to those devices now known as such4 ,the most remarkable device of this kind yet introduced is to be found in ,wheeler ,wilson's machine known as ,no4 #aj ,d1 and invented by ,mr4 ,dials last year4 ,it consists1 in fact1 of a detached hook1 and its inventor declines to class it with shuttles at all1 styling it a detached hook4 ,it consists of an exterior shell or skeleton of steel1 capable of rotation in an annular raceway4 ,its detachment from the axis forms a striking exception to the general construction of interlocking apparatus in this company's machines4 ,under the beak of this curious device is found an oblong recess1 into which fits loosely a carrier or driver1 rotating with a differential or variable motion4 ,the space between the carrier and the sides of the recess is sufficient to permit the free passage of the thread in encircling the shuttle1 and the differential movement ingeniously releases the contact between the hook and carrier4 ,the skeleton of this device is only one-sided1 and does not really carry its bobbin in the course of its revolution4 ,the bobbin is placed in a cup-like holder1 which lies within the shuttle or hook body1 and is retained in position by a latch hinged to the bed of the machine4 ,the cup and bobbin are prevented from partaking of the rotatory movement by a steel spur projecting from the cup1 and fitting loosely into a notch in the latch4 ,tension upon the under thread is obtained by passing it under a tension plate upon the bobbin cup4 ,twisting of the thread is by these means entirely obviated4 ,in this apparatus1 the disk-like appearance of the bobbin is partially lost in its considerable breadth1 and there is thus a distinct departure from the lines of the ring shuttles before mentioned4 ,the diagrams exhibit the hook in several positions during its revolution1 and the position of the threads corresponding thereto4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,fixed ,rotating ,hooks4--,wilson's rotating hook for lock stitch machines1 and ,gribbs' hook for single thread machines1 are both well known4 ,in the year #ahgb1 the ,wheeler ,wilson company introduced a new hook1 forming an improvement upon ,wilson's original device 7,fig4 #c74 ,its chief peculiarity consists in the extension of the termination of the periphery1 forming a long tail piece1 quite overlapping the point1 and serving as a guard1 both to keep off the bobbin thread and to prevent collision between bobbin and needle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,this improved class of hooks are provided with a much deeper cavity than those first introduced1 an arrangement permitting of the employment of a more commodious bobbin1 which is generally covered by a cap1 as in the revolving shuttle1 but free to revolve4 ,in some cases the cap carries a tension plate preventing its revolution with the hook4 ,but beyond these improvements on ,wilson's original device1 the utility of the hook mainly depends upon two things quite apart from the hook itself4 ,these are the dispensing with the old fashioned check brush and the use of a positive take-up4 ,thus1 in the original machine1 the stitch was pulled up by the succeeding revolution of the hook4 ,for while one revolution sufficed to cast it over the spool1 a second turn was requisite to complete the stitch4 ,in this way1 to make a first stitch with such an apparatus required two turns of the rotating hook4 ,the improvements mentioned enable the machine to complete a stitch with one turn of the hook--an important step in advance1 when we consider that by the old method each length of slack thread must be tightened up solely through the fabric and the needle eye4 ,but this particular arrangement bears so much upon the introduction of the positive take-up itself that further reference to it must be reserved until that device has been described4 ,simple ,thread ,hooks4--,the best known of these is ,willcox ,gibbs4 ,it has been so often described1 that no further reference to it may be made4 ,it continues to make the same excellent twisted stitch as it produced twenty-five years ago4 ,of ,vibrating ,shuttles4--,these are shuttles of the long description1 moving in a segment of a circle4 ,there are several varieties4 ,the most novel machine of this kind is the vibrating shuttle machine just produced by the ,singer ,manufacturing ,company4 ,in this case the shuttle itself consists of a steel tube1 into the open end of which the wound reel is dropped1 and is free to revolve quite loosely4 ,variation of tension is thus obviated in a very simple manner4 ,the chief point of interest in the machine is undoubtedly the means employed in transferring the motion from the main shaft to the underneath parts1 an arrangement as ingenious and effective as any device ever introduced into stitching mechanism4 ,it is the invention of ,mr4 ,robert ,whitehall1 and consists of a vertical rocking shaft situated in the arm of the machine ,motion is imparted to it by means of an elbow formed upon the main shaft acting upon two arms1 called wipers1 projecting from the rocking shaft1 the angle formed by the arms exactly coinciding with that of the elbow in its revolution4 ,this admirable motion will no doubt attract much attention from mechanists and engineers4 ,the ,lock ,stitch from ,two ,reels4--,in the early days of the sewing machine1 the makers of it often met with the question1 ,why do you use a shuttle at all8 ,can you not invent a method of working from a reel direct8 ,the questioner generally means a reel placed upon a pin1 just as the upper reel is placed4 ,the reply to such a query is1 of course1 that to produce the lock stitch in that way is impossible--as indeed it is4 ,but many ingenious machinists have pondered long over the problem1 and several clever contrivances have been invented with a view to its solution4 ,it may scarcely be necessary to say that the best manufacturers of sewing machines have conducted experiments with the same object in view1 and the result has always been a return to the shuttle1 with its steel bobbins4 ,why is this1 and how is it that a very big shuttle cannot be used1 large enough1 indeed1 to accommodate any bobbin within itself8 ,the answer is very simple4 ,it has been done over and over again4 ,since the whole bulk of the under thread must pass through the loop of the upper one1 it1 is quite clear that the size of that loop must be proportioned to the bulk of the shuttle4 ,thus1 a small shuttle would1 perhaps1 be covered by an inch of thread1 while our supposed mammoth shuttle might require ten times that amount4 ,now1 let us consider that to sew an inch of thread into lock stitches frequently involves its being drawn up and down through both needle and fabric twenty times4 ,this means considerable chafing1 and possible injury to the thread4 ,but if we were to sanction the use of capacious shuttles1 ten inches of thread must undergo this chafing and seesaw treatment1 and under the above conditions every part of the ten inches must pass up and down two hundred times--treatment that might reasonably be expected to leave little life in the thread4 ,but in spite of this tremendous drawback1 there are machines offered for sale made with such shuttles4 ,for reasons that ,i have now pointed out1 it is quite clear that a large shuttle or bobbin is by no means an unmixed advantage4 ,indeed1 the very best makers of sewing machines have always striven to keep down the bulk of the shuttle1 and in those splendid machines shown here to-night the use of the small shuttles is conspicuous4 ,it may be contended that small bobbins frequently require refilling1 which is quite true1 but the saving of the thread effected thereby1 not to mention that of the machine itself1 amply compensates for the use of small shuttles4 ,apart from this1 however1 it is no longer necessary to wind bobbins at all4 ,dewhurst ,sons1 of ,skipton1 and ,clark ,co41 of ,paisley1 have produced ready wound cops or bobbins of thread for placing direct into shuttles4 ,thus no winding of bobbins is necessary1 and indeed the bobbins themselves are dispensed with4 ,i believe that the slightly increased cost of the thread thus wound is the only present bar to the extensive introduction of ready wound cops4 ,of ,thread ,controllers4--,one of the earliest difficulties encountered by the maker of a sewing machine was that of effectually controlling the loose thread after it had been cast off the shuttle4 ,in some machines this slack thread amounts to six1 in others to one or two inches4 ,howe got over the difficulty by passing his thread1 on its way to the needle1 over the upper extremity of the needle bar--the ascent of the bar1 then1 sufficed to pull up the slack4 ,singer improved upon this by furnishing his machine with a spring take-up lever1 partially controlled by the needle bar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,wilson1 in the ,wheeler-,wilson machine1 had neither of those arrangements1 but depended upon the succeeding revolution of the hook to draw up the slack of the preceding stitch4 ,these devices were all far from perfect in their operation1 chiefly because they commenced to act too soon4 ,in each case the pulling up commenced with the rise of the needle1 and the tightening operation subjected the thread to all the friction of rubbing its way through both needle eye and fabric4 ,now1 an ideal take-up should not commence to act until the needle has ascended above the fabric1 and one of the most important steps toward perfection in sewing machines was undoubtedly attained when such a device was actually invented4 ,in effecting this1 the means employed consists of a differential or variable cam1 rotating with the main shaft4 ,this controls the movements of a lever called the take-up1 pivoted to the machine 7,fig4 #d74 ,not only has it been possible by these means to control the tightening of the stitch1 but the paying out of the thread for enveloping the shuttle also1 and both the paying out and pulling up are actually effected after the needle has ascended above the cloth4 ,the introduction of the positive take-up1 the first forms of which appeared in #ahgb1 not only simplifies the movements of the shuttle or hook1 but for the first time renders the making of the lock stitch possible1 while the needle has a direct up and down motion4 ,thus1 we find that in most of the swiftest sewing machines1 the needle bar is actuated by a simple crank pin or eccentric1 there being no loop dip or pause in its motion4 ,the diagram shows a positive take-up in three positions--at the commencement of the needle's descent1 during the detention of the loop by the beak1 and during the casting off of the loop4 ,the dotted lines indicate the path of the cam to produce these positions4 ,the intermittent movements of the take-up have thus led to the abandonment of variable motions in both needle and shuttle1 and particularly so in oscillating shuttle machines4 ,wheeler ,wilson's ,variable ,motion4--,but while the simple and direct movement is now preferred for shuttles1 both oscillating and rotary1 the revolving hooks of ,wheeler ,wilson are provided with a differential motion1 and the way it is effected appears sufficiently interesting to call for a short description4 ,when the rotating hook has seized the loop of thread1 it makes half a revolution with great rapidity2 its speed then slackens1 and becomes very slow for the remaining half a revolution4 ,in the first machines introduced1 this was effected by means of a revolving disk1 having slots in which worked pins attached to the main shaft and hook shaft respectively4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,in the later and more improved machines1 the variable device is much simplified 7,fig4 #e74 ,the main shaft1 leading to the rotating hook1 is separated into two portions1 the axis of one portion being placed above that of the other4 ,a crank pin is attached to each1 and these pins are connected together by a simple link4 ,an examination of the device itself shows that1 while the motion of the main shaft portion is uniform1 that of the hook shaft is alternately accelerated and retarded4 ,the picture on the screen gives a general view of the ,no4 #aj ,d machine1 in which these motions are embodied1 and showing the position of the positive take-up affected by those motions1 a position which is preferred for very high speeds in this machine1 especially for threads possessing little elasticity4 ,motions of the ,feeder4--,the speed attained by the fastest sewing machines is due more to the reduction and simplification of the movements than to any other improvement4 ,heavy concessions and reactions have been replaced by direct motions1 and cams have been excluded as much as possible4 ,mr4 ,a4,b4 ,wilson's famous invention of the four motion feeder depended upon both gravity and a reacting spring for two motions4 ,singer improved upon it by making three of the motions positive1 a spring being used for the drop4 ,but a really positive four motion feeder was long sought by inventors4 ,hitherto the reaction of the feeder--that is1 its descent and recession--was generally attained by means of a spring4 ,the drop and ascent are now effected by means of a separate eccentric in ,singer's machine4 ,uncertainty of action in the feed1 once a cause of much inconvenience1 may now be said to be overcome4 ,a peculiarity of the four motion feeder in ,wheeler ,wilson's machine is an arrangement enabling the operator to feed in either direction at will4 ,not less worthy of note are improvements that have been made in wheel feeders4 ,the wheel feed was originally much used for cloth sewing machines1 especially in ,singer's system4 ,but in recent years the drop or four motion feeder has entirely superseded it for such purposes4 ,the wheel feed still holds its own1 however1 for sewing leather1 especially in the closing of boot uppers1 in this country4 ,singer's original wheel feeder was actuated by a friction shoe riding upon the flange of the wheel4 ,the friction grip1 however1 had certain faults1 owing to the tendency of the shoe to slip when the surfaces became covered with oil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,a later form of ,howe's machine used a pair of angular clutches1 embracing the flange of the wheel4 ,in both ,singer's and ,wheeler ,wilson's latest styles of machines this arrangement is simplified and improved by the use of a single angle clutch1 which is found to work even when the surfaces are freely oiled 7,fig4 #f74 ,any motion of the free extremity of the lever upon which the biting clutch is formed binds the latter upon the flange of the wheel1 which then advances so long as the lever continues to move in that direction4 ,when the stitch is completed1 the clutch is allowed to recede1 and is pulled back by a reacting spring4 ,the bite of the clutch is given by the two opposite corners4 ,the feed wheel itself is free to revolve in a forward direction1 but is prevented from rocking backward in ,singer's machine by an ingenious little device1 recently introduced4 ,it consists of a small steel roller1 situated within the angle formed by an inclined plane and the flange of the wheel1 and constantly pulled into the angle by a spiral spring4 ,any backward tendency of the wheel binds the roller more firmly in the angle and stops the wheel4 ,former feed wheels were checked by a brake spring or block1 which retarded the motion of the whole machine when heavily adjusted4 ,feeders for ,button ,hole ,sewing ,machines are almost invariably of the wheel type1 but in this case the cloth is usually carried by a clamping device1 and moved in a pear-shaped path by means of a cam cut in the feed wheel1 as shown in the samples of this wonderful kind of mechanism exhibited here to-night4 ,the ,compensating ,system of ,construction4--,compensation for wear is a part of the mechanist's art that appears just as essential to him as compensation for variation of temperature is to a maker of chronometers4 ,in the construction of sewing machines to be run in factories by power at their utmost speed1 such a system is of the greatest importance4 ,an effective system of compensation has been eagerly sought by the best machine makers ever since the introduction of fast speed sewing4 ,compensation has been attempted here and there in the machines for many years1 but no sewing apparatus could be said to be so compensated until the cone compensator came into use1 a device which has been taken advantage of by various makers4 ,save in the shuttle race itself there is not a part of the oscillating shuttle machine subject to serious wear that cannot be instantly adjusted to full motion by the turning of a screw1 while wear in the shuttle race can be compensated for in the usual way4 ,this effective system depends upon the union of two mathematical forms1 long used in mechanism--the cone and the screw4 ,in screw cones we possess a perfect compensator1 and it is surprising that parts of mechanism so hung appear subject to very little wear4 ,another advantage1 too1 is gained by the introduction of screw cone bearings2 the friction is always greatly reduced by their use4 ,in every case the fine adjustment of the cones is securely maintained by locknuts 7,fig4 #g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,but the screw cone system is not the only compensator used in sewing machinery2 where it cannot be easily introduced1 other devices have been employed4 ,the well known tapering needle bars of former years have been superseded by cylindrical needle bars4 ,the ,wheeler ,wilson ,company appear to be the first who utilized the engineer's shifting box as an antifriction device for round needle bars4 ,they packed their bars round with felt rings1 and compressed the whole by a screw cap4 ,in the ,singer machines the same excellent device has been adopted1 hemp packing and screw bushes being used 7,fig4 #h72 f and g show the direct action on the needle bar4 ,this method of forming needle bar bearings1 partially of metal and partially of felt or hemp1 has afforded the most surprising results4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,when the bars are of hard or finely polished steel1 no perceptible wear can be detected in them1 even after they have been in daily use in factories for twelve months1 whereas bars not so bushed might show considerable wear in that space of time4 ,the packing1 to be effective1 should be sufficiently close to prevent as much as possible friction of the steel with the cast iron needle bar ways4 ,lubrication of the steel is insured by keeping the hemp packing moistened with oil4 ,cylindrical needle bars1 when combined with an effective system of brushing1 have proved themselves superior to every other form of slide for lock stitch machines4 ,but their introduction is by no means a thing of yesterday4 ,they were used freely in sewing machines as far back as #ahfj1 but were never very successful until united with the lubricating brush4 ,some makers go a step further1 and elaborate the system by the introduction of steel brushes1 easily renewable4 ,every effort is now made to reduce1 as much as possible1 not only the extent of movement of the parts in high speed machines1 but the weight of the parts themselves4 ,indeed1 so far has this been carried that1 in some of the ,wheeler ,wilson machines now shown1 the needle bars consist really of steel tubes4 ,small moving parts are made as light as possible1 but rigidity is secured by the free use of strengthening ribs4 ,many of the parts are of cast iron1 rendered malleable by annealing1 and finally casehardened4 ,such parts are found to be quite as durable as if made of forged steel1 and are1 of course1 less costly4 ,as to the automatic tools now used in the construction of the machines1 it may be said that scarcely a file1 hammer1 or chisel touches the frame or parts while they are being assembled to work together4 ,the interchangeable system of construction is1 of course1 the only one possible for the accurate production of the millions of sewing machines now manufactured annually4 ,high ,arm ,construction4--,sewing machines1 as now constructed1 exhibit a rather short and very high arm1 a form of framework that has been found to contribute in no small degree to the light running capabilities of fast speed machines4 ,while it reduces the length of the various parts concerned in the transference of the motive power1 it adds to their rigidity and diminishes their weight1 maintaining at the same time the capacity of the machine to accommodate the largest garments beneath the arm4 ,but the specific improvements in plain sewing machines1 to which ,i have had the honor of drawing your attention1 do not exhaust the list1 and1 time permitting1 it might be considerably augmented4 ,nor must it be inferred that advancement has taken place exclusively in those systems of sewing machinery now before us4 ,accessories to ,sewing ,machines4--,the number of special attachments that have been successfully adapted to plain sewing machines has multiplied so rapidly of late1 that only one or two of the more notable can be spoken of on this occasion4 ,perhaps the most generally useful of these is the trimmer1 an arrangement consisting of a vibrating knife1 which trims off the superfluous edge of a seam as the machine stitches it4 ,these are in extensive use in the factories at ,leicester1 ,nottingham1 and elsewhere1 while ,northampton and ,norwich use the same device for paring the seams in boot upper manufacture4 ,the chisel-like knife is usually actuated by a cam rotating with the main shaft1 and one or two of the usual forms of this attachment are to be seen here this evening on both lock and loop stitch machines4 ,when machines are moved by the foot1 there are many objections to running the whole machine while winding the shuttle reels4 ,we have1 therefore1 several useful devices for releasing the balance wheel of the machine from the main shaft1 while winding4 ,these are to be found both on ,wheeler ,wilson's manufacturing machine and upon ,singer's highly finished ,family machine1 which also carries a most ingenious automatic reel winder1 capable of doing all the work itself1 and ceasing to act as soon as the bobbin is filled4 ,the setting of the needle in a sewing machine was once quite a task4 ,ofttimes it had to be adjusted by chance1 in other instances by certain guiding marks upon the needle bar4 ,it is gratifying to know that all this has been done away with1 and that the needle has only to be inserted into the bar1 and fastened by turning a small screw4 ,these are styled self-setting needles1 and are usually so arranged that they cannot be adjusted wrongly as to the position of the eye4 ,in the ,willcox ,gibbs machine1 and in ,singer's single thread machine1 shown here1 we have an intermittent tension arrangement1 which clamps the thread at the right moment1 and differs from ordinary tension devices1 inasmuch as it may be said to be automatic4 ,the feeder1 too1 on these machines is of excellent design1 while the arrangements that have been introduced into the ,willcox ,gibbs straw hat sewing machine are surprisingly effective in spinning up a hat from a loose roll of braid4 ,speaking of straw hat machines1 mention should be made of ,wiseman's hand stitch apparatus1 as improved by ,messrs4 ,willcox ,gibbs1 and shown here this evening4 ,this machine employs two needles1 and makes a stitch resembling hand work at intervals1 producing a short stitch at the center of the hat1 and automatically widening the space between the stitches as the distance from the center increases4 ,the machine itself is of wonderful ingenuity1 and must be examined to be understood4 ,the stitch making itself is1 ,i believe1 quite new1 and is also of much interest4 ,a pair of needles1 the width of a stitch apart1 rise from beneath through the material4 ,one of these is an ordinary machine needle1 threaded2 the other is a barbed needle4 ,after rising above the surface1 the loop of the threaded needle is seized by a threader1 and thrown into the barb of the barbed needle4 ,the needles then descend1 and the feed occurs1 being the length between stitches4 ,upon the ascent of the needles again against the material1 the loop is both given off the barb and is entered by the threaded needle1 completing the stitch4 ,of ,button ,hole ,machines4--,the mechanism of button hole machines is so intricate1 that ,i can only attempt on this occasion to partially elucidate the construction of one of them1 recently introduced1 namely1 ,singer's1 which automatically cuts1 guides1 and stitches the work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,fig4 #i exhibits the stitching made by this machine upon the edge of the button hole4 ,fig4 #aj represents the right and left hand loopers and loop spreaders1 and for the stitch making4 ,they rock from right to left with an intermittent motion obtained from a cam4 ,the left hand looper carries the under thread and interweaves it with the upper1 forming the stitch1 originally invented1 ,i believe1 by ,mr4 ,george ,fisher1 of ,nottingham1 and reinvented for the button holing machine by ,d4,w4,g4 ,humphreys1 of ,massachusetts1 ,u4,s4,a41 in #ahfb4 ,the loop spreaders are moved by a roller carried upon the looper frame4 ,fig4 #aa exhibits the feeding arrangement1 both sides of the feed wheel1 the driving lever1 and the shape of the path given to the carrying clamp by the heart cam cut in the upper surface of the feed wheel4 ,the picture on the screen represents the upper portions of the machine1 exhibiting the conveying clamp1 the to and fro dipping motions of the needle bar1 and the parts conveying motion to the arrangements beneath the bed plate4 ,these are shown in ,fig4 #ab1 and represent the feed and looper cams1 the feeding and looper levers1 and the stitch forming mechanism already shown4 ,a most ingenious device in this machine is the arrangement for automatically lengthening the throw of the feed while stitching around the eye of the button hole4 ,it is effected by means of a cam1 which imparts more or less leverage to the feed arm by the intervention of a shipper lever1 hinged to the feed lever itself4 ,the space of time at my disposal obliges me to recommend a personal examination of the machine itself1 to fully understand its various motions and its action in working a button hole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,mention may be made of ,singer's special button hole machine for making the straight holes used in linen work1 and in which a shuttle is employed4 ,of ,wheeler ,wilson's ingenious button hole machine for the same purpose1 ,i am enabled to show a diagram1 in which it will be observed that the feeding arrangements are placed above the bed plate1 and are no doubt thereby rendered easily accessible4 ,application of ,power to ,sewing ,machines4--,there was a time when a cry arose to the effect that the introduction of mechanical sewing would lead to divers calamities1 physical and mental4 ,the ladies were to become crooked in the spine1 and regular operators were to become regular cripples4 ,it is scarcely necessary to ask1 ,has this been so8 ,the operators of to-day are1 ,i think1 superior in physical attainments to their sisters of the needle and thread fifty years ago4 ,within the past few years a revolution has taken place in the moving of sewing machines4 ,domestic machines will probably always be driven by foot power1 spring1 electric1 and water motors notwithstanding4 ,but the age of treadles in the great manufacturing trades is a thing of the past4 ,it was not necessary for ,parliament to step in and protect the workers1 as was frequently suggested by alarmists4 ,the commercial interests of manufacturers themselves were at stake4 ,machines driven by power could do #be per cent4 more work than those moved by foot4 ,the operators1 relieved of the treadling1 maintained a much better working condition2 and altogether the introduction of power driving1 once well tested1 became a necessity4 ,power sewing machinery was speedily devised and introduced by several of the first manufacturers1 controllers of the speed of the machines followed1 and two or three splendid systems of stitching by steam power were soon widely known4 ,by the kindness of three of the best manufacturers of power sewing machinery1 ,i am enabled to show to you1 this evening1 the best known systems1 arranged just as they are fitted in many large factories1 as also a sketch of the arrangements of ,wheeler ,wilson's system4 ,we have in the first place a light shafting carrying a band wheel opposite to each machine4 ,by the use of a powerful electromotor1 the shafting is caused to rotate at the rate of #djj revolutions per minute by electricity4 ,the current is generated by the ,society's dynamo machine1 and is conveyed here by copper cable4 ,i do not know of any instance of sewing machinery in a factory being driven by an electromotor1 but such means of conveying motive power appears admirably adapted for that purpose1 when the stitching room happens to be far removed from the main shafting or engine4 ,but with regard to motors for sewing machines1 when special power has to be fitted down for that purpose1 my own experience leads me to speak in favor of the admirably governed ,otto gas engines made by ,crossley ,bros4 ,these are especially steady1 a feature of no small moment in moving stitching machinery of various kinds4 ,much attention has been devoted to the invention of controllers of the motive power supplied to sewing machines4 ,the principle of the friction disk has found most favor4 ,in many cases two of these plates1 fast and loose1 are placed upon the main shaft1 and their separation and contact controlled by the treadle4 ,the great sensitiveness of the friction attachment employed by the ,singer company is due chiefly to the transference of the friction plates to the axis of the machine itself 7,fig4 #ac74 ,their contact and separation are controlled by a lever worked by a very slight movement of the treadle4 ,but the chief point of interest in this device lies in the combination with the lever of a brake1 enabling the operator1 by a simple reversal of the treadle's motion1 to instantly suspend the rotation of the machine4 ,the forked lever1 in fact1 acts simultaneously in throwing off the motion and applying the brake4 ,the speed is always in direct proportion to the pressure exerted upon the treadle1 and a single stitch can be made at will4 ,fig4 #ad shows the friction wheel separated1 the portion a being fast1 and e loose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,the ,wheeler ,wilson company do not confine themselves to any particular controller1 but prefer the form shown here this evening 7,fig4 #ae71 in which two bands and an intermediate pulley are employed4 ,the first band is left rather loose1 and the machine is set in motion by the tightening of this band through the depression of the treadle4 ,the speed varies in proportion to the pressure applied1 and the sensitiveness of the arrangement is increased by a brake device coming into play by the reversal of the treadle as before4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,messrs4 ,willcox ,gibbs depend upon a similar device shown in three varieties to-night4 ,speed of ,power ,sewing ,machines4--,the fastest practicable speed of a machine worked by the foot appears to be #a1jjj stitches per minute4 ,most operators can guide the work at a much higher rate1 especially in tailoring or on long seams4 ,the average speed upon such work is #a1bjj stitches per minute2 but many lock-stitch machines are run at #a1ejj and #a1hjj per minute1 and even at much higher rates4 ,there is always a limit to be imposed upon speed by the guiding powers of hand and eye2 it is this limit1 and not the capability of the machine1 that confines the rate of driving4 ,willcox ,gibbs' single thread machines are run in many instances at #c1ejj stitches per minute4 ,we have before us a single thread ,singer machine 7appropriately named the ,lightning ,sewer7 and a ,willcox machine1 moving at the enormous rate of #d1ejj stitches per minute1 and producing good work4 ,but it is doubtful whether such very great velocities can ever be advantageously employed4 ,upon collar work1 and in sewing boot uppers1 the rate seldom rises above #a1bjj with advantage4 ,if the machines be speeded too high in any trade1 the operator never uses the excess1 and it only proves a drawback4 ,i seen the heaviest and hardest kind of navy boots stitched at #a1ejj to the minute upon ,singer's lock-stitch machines4 ,wheeler ,wilson's ,no4 #aj ,d machine has been run by them1 ,i am informed1 as high as #b1ejj to the minute4 ,loop-stitch machines1 when well made1 can be actually run as high as #f1jjj1 but #d1ejj is1 ,i believe1 the maximum yet used for this class of machine1 even experimentally4 ,there can be no doubt that lock-stitch machines can be run as high as #c1jjj4 ,the actual speeds of the lock-stitch machines shown here upon the power stand average #a1cjj2 those of the chain stitch machines vary from #a1bjj for the sack sewing machine to #d1ejj for the small or single chain stitchers4 ,any of the latest styles of either lock stitch or single thread machines can be run far faster than any known expert operator can possibly guide the work under it4 ,it is very improbable that such speeds will ever be exceeded4 ,the limit has no doubt been reached4 ,very high speed is generally a delusion1 and either results in indifferent work1 or actually retards its progress4 ,some idea of the speed of the single thread machines now shown may be gathered from the fact that1 running at #d1ejj1 and making eight stitches to the inch1 they accomplish over fourteen yards of sewing every minute4 ,of special machines of interest1 and which are too unwieldy to be shown here1 ,i am enabled to exhibit a few photographs4 ,one of the most novel of these is the ,twin machine1 designed by the ,singer company for the connecting together of the ,jacquard cards used in lace machines4 ,the operation was formerly performed by hand4 ,it is now done by machine at less cost4 ,the cards are placed upon a feeding drum1 and fed beneath a pair of needles4 ,the laces forming the connection between the cards are fed above and beneath1 in line with the needles1 and the whole is easily stitched together4 ,an extension of the same device is the multiple machine1 in which four needles and shuttles are used1 sewing all the four seams at one operation4 ,this method of linking the cards is considered better than similar work done by hand4 ,of ,wheeler ,wilson's new factory1 at ,bridgeport1 and of the ,singer company's great new factory near ,glasgow1 ,i am enabled to exhibit photographic views4 ,before drawing my remarks to a close1 ,i would briefly indicate the nature of the various machines shown upon the power benching4 ,of the ,singer system1 there are four4 ,a drop-feed oscillating shuttle machine for manufacturing purposes2 a wheel-feed oscillating shuttle machine1 furnished with a trimmer1 used chiefly in stitching leather and boot uppers2 double chain-stitch machine1 used for sack making1 now shown for the first time2 and a single thread ,lightning ,sewer1 fitted with a trimmer for hosiery work4 ,of ,wheeler ,wilson's system1 there is a drop-feed manufacturing machine with the new detached hook and latest improvements2 a ,no4 #aj machine with the usual hook1 a wheel feed and trimmer1 and a smaller machine of the same type with drop feed4 ,of ,willcox ,gibbs' system1 there is the ordinary single-thread machine for manufacturing1 a single-thread machine1 with a trimmer1 as used in the hosiery trades1 and a machine specially used for straw hat making4 ,we have here a small ,singer machine1 riding upon the edge of two pieces of carpet1 a carpet machine weighing ten pounds4 ,when the handle is turned1 it stitches and travels over the edges1 uniting them faster and more securely than six hand sewers2 and several others1 representative of the family type of sewing machine1 besides ,wheeler ,wilson's hemstitch machine1 the working of which is of much interest4 ,i would now invite those of you who seek a better acquaintance with those curious and novel machines to freely examine and test the various types to be found upon the power benching and upon stands4 ,one or two operators will come forward and show some of the capabilities of the machines upon actual work1 in which the making of a straw hat will perhaps show what can be done in a few minutes by quick speed and expert fingers2 but these performances must not be regarded in the light of competitive tests between the manufacturers showing them1 and are intended merely to show the utility of motive power driving4 ,in conclusion1 ,i desire to thank those gentlemen at the head of the leading firms of sewing machine manufacturers for the trouble they have taken to arrange for your inspection specimens of their excellent systems1 and ,i have much satisfaction in expressing my obligations to them for ready assistance in the preparation of my paper4 99 99 99 99 99 ,power machines and treadle machines were exhibited by ,messrs4 ,willcox ,gibbs1 ,messrs4 ,wheeler ,wilson1 and the ,singer ,manufacturing ,company4 ,the motive power was provided by an electrical motor1 supplied by ,mr4 ,moritz ,immish4 ,the ,howe ,machine ,company exhibited a model of the first machine made by ,elias ,howe1 and also one of the most recent ,howe machines4 ,mr4 ,newton ,wilson showed a model of the ,saint sewing machines1 constructed from ,thomas ,saint's patent specification1 #agij1 and ,mr4 ,carver showed the ,standard sewing machine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,krupp ,,guns4 ,nothing is being talked about at present in ,germany but the guns of great caliber that are manufacturing at the celebrated works on the banks of the ,ruhr4 ,as our neighbors appear to be elated over this wonderful work1 it is expedient to examine the subject1 in order to see whether their applause is legitimate4 ,we have known for a long time that the artillery materiel devoted to the defense of the ,german coasts consists of a long1 stationary #e inch gun2 of long #g inch hooped steel guns1 closed by a cylindrico-prismatic wedge2 of an #h inch mortar2 and of guns of #aa and #ae inch caliber4 ,the #aa inch gun is #bb feet in length1 and1 including the closing mechanism1 weighs #gi1bjj pounds4 ,as regards the projectiles that this weapon throws1 the ordinary shell is #cc inches in length1 and weighs1 all charged1 #fef pounds1 and the exploding shell1 of the same length1 weighs1 all charged1 #a1afj pounds4 ,the initial velocity of the latter is #a1fjj feet with a maximum charge of #adh pounds of powder4 ,the #ae inch gun is #cb4h feet in length1 and weighs #aeh1djj pounds4 ,its projectiles are #c4fg feet in length4 ,the ordinary shell1 charge included1 weighs #a1djj pounds1 and the exploding shell1 under the same circumstances1 #a1gjj pounds1 that is1 more than three quarters of a metric ton4 ,the initial velocity of this last named projectile is #a1fej feet with a maximum charge of #a1fej pounds of powder4 ,we also know that ,mr4 ,krupp has two models of guns of #ac inch caliber1 and of a length equal to #ce times the caliber1 say #ci-e_/ab feet4 ,the lighter of these models 7which was shown at ,anvers7 weighs no less than #bfd1jjj pounds1 carriage not included4 ,its cylindrico prismatic closing mechanism 7,rundkeilverschluss7 alone weighs #hb1ejj pounds4 ,this is the weight of a #e inch hooped steel gun6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,new #eb ,,foot ,,krupp ,,gun ,,and ,a ,,german ,,field ,,piece ,,figured ,,on ,,the ,,same ,,scale4 ,we now learn that the ,essen works have just begun the manufacture of a #cad1fjj pound gun4 ,this piece1 called #dj cm4 kanone ,l_/#dj1 will1 of course1 be of #ae4f inch caliber1 but it will differ from the one above described in that its length will be equal to #dj times the caliber1 say #eb feet1 or to the space occupied on the maneuvering ground by a field piece drawn by six horses 7,fig4 #a74 ,this gun will be provided with two kinds of projectiles4 ,one of these1 called light1 will be #c feet in length1 weigh #a1fbh pounds1 and be capable of taking an initial velocity of #b1daj feet and of piercing1 on its exit from the chamber1 either a hammered iron plate #c feet in thickness or two united plates #a and #b feet in thickness4 ,the shell called heavy will be #e feet in length1 and weigh #b1caj pounds1 say more than a #d inch siege piece6 ,the charge employed will be #a1jfg pounds of brown1 prismatic ,dunwald powder4 ,ten hundred and sixty-seven pounds--nearly half a metric ton1 more than the weight of a field piece without its carriage6 ,with this enormous charge1 the heavy shell will be capable of an initial velocity of #b1ajj feet and of piercing1 on its exit from the chamber1 either a hammered iron plate #d feet in thickness or two united plates #b and #b4hh feet in thickness4 ,the ,cologne ,gazette1 from which we borrow most of the data just presented1 adds that the #dj ,l_/#dj piece will be the largest cannon in the world1 but that it will not long enjoy the privilege of such pre-eminence4 ,it appears1 in fact1 that ,mr4 ,krupp is preparing to manufacture a gun of #ag inch caliber1 weighing #ccj1jjj pounds4 ,the projectile for this monster will be #f feet in length1 say the stature of a full grown man1 and will weigh no less than a ton and a half4 ,a man of medium stature will measure a little less than this projectile 7,fig4 #b74 ,it is possible that all these figures have been slightly exaggerated by the ultra-,vosges journals1 who doubtless intend to make an impression upon us2 but we shall not dwell upon that point4 ,as regards the penetrating power of the large #dj ,l_/#dj gun1 the ,german press observes that in #ahfh artillery was incapable of piercing in one-hundredths of an inch what it is now piercing in tenths of an inch4 ,the principle was formerly admitted1 it says1 that a shell should by right have a thickness equal to its caliber4 ,now1 the largest cannon in the world perforates a plate whose thickness is three times the diameter of the gun's bore4 ,what great progress6 exclaim the ,german journals1 and how jealous the ,french and ,english are going to be6 ,jealous of that8 ,why1 indeed8 ,we are not the least in the world so4 ,how could we be8 ,in the first place1 we have a gun of very great caliber--a #ac inch steel coast and siege piece4 ,this weighs #cg tons1 and is #cf feet in length4 ,its projectile weighs from #ibd to #a1cbj pounds1 according to its internal organization4 ,its conoid head is very elongated1 and by reason of this elegant form it always falls upon its point1 even at falling angles of an amplitude approaching #fj degrees4 ,the charge used varies from #cif to #ddj pounds1 according to the nature of the powder4 ,as for the ballistic properties of the piece1 they are very remarkable4 ,its projectile has an initial velocity of #b1acb feet1 and the maximum range is from #aj to #aa miles1 say the distance from ,paris to ,montgeron by the ,paris-,lyons-,mediterranean railroad1 or from ,paris to ,versailles4 ,finally1 the accuracy of this gun is much greater than that of the #i inch steel one4 ,now1 the accuracy of this latter is such that it is impossible for its projectiles to miss a ship under way1 and that we are sure of playing with it against the enemy that game whose device is ,we win at every shot6 ,well1 we do not hesitate to say that these results appear to us to be satisfactory--we mean quite sufficient--and that there is no need of looking for a better gun4 ,if there were1 ,french industry would be capable of producing weapons of any caliber desired4 ,as regards this1 there is1 so to speak1 no limit2 moreover1 taking into account merely the terrestrial conditions of the problem1 we may be satisfied that the great works of our country are more powerfully equipped than those of ,essen1 and consequently better able to forge large pieces of steel4 ,mr4 ,krupp1 it is said1 is very proud of his two power hammers1 which he has named ,max and ,fritz4 ,but1 on the whole1 these two apparatus are only fifty ton ones1 and have a fall of but ten feet4 ,now1 ,creusot and ,st4 ,chamond each has a hundred ton steam hammer with a fall of #af feet1 accompanied with four furnaces and four cranes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--c1cjj ,,pound ,,projectile ,,of ,a ,,krupp ,,gun ,,in ,,course ,,of ,,manufacture4 ,but why proceed to the manufacture of monstrous guns1 like those that ,mr4 ,krupp has just produced1 or meditates producing in the future2 guns of such a caliber can be used only in special cases--in battery on the coast or on board of a ship4 ,it is not with materiel of this kind that war is waged2 it is with field pieces4 ,our ultra-,vosges neighbors well know this4 ,one of the reasons that the war that very recently threatened us did not break out1 was because the ,germans could not fail to see that their field materiel was not as powerful as ours2 that the shell of our #c inch gun weighs #ag pounds1 while that of their heavy #c inch gun does not weigh #ae4 ,now1 this difference has its value4 ,hunters well know what importance it is necessary to attach to the number of the ball that they use4 ,this granted1 it is well to observe that the net cost of the #dj cm4 kanone ,l_/#dj must not be less than #cjj1jjj or #djj1jjj4 ,now1 on the interest of such a sum we could have from ten to fifteen complete batteries1 that is to say1 comprising1 in addition to the sixty or eighty guns1 all the necessary accessories1 such as carriages1 limbers1 caissons1 harness1 etc4 ,frankly1 between the two acquisitions1 there is no hesitation possible4 ,finally1 if we must say so1 we do not think that foreign powers1 when they believe it their duty to provide themselves with materiel of great caliber1 will think of supplying themselves from the ,essen works1 on account of the memorable accidents due to the imperfection of guns coming from this celebrated establishment4 ,the list of burstings that have occurred1 not only in ,germany1 but also in ,russia1 ,bohemia1 ,italy1 ,turkey1 and ,roumania1 is already a long one4 ,to speak here only of what occurred in ,france in #ahgj-ga1 it is certain that out of seventy ,german guns of large caliber in battery against the southwest front of the wall of ,paris1 thirty-six--say more than half--were put out of service during the first fifteen days of the bombardment1 and that too through firing merely2 and it was the opinion of ,mr4 ,de ,moltke himself that the ,german siege batteries would have been reduced to silence1 had the defenders been able to hold out for a week longer4 ,it is equally certain that1 during the course of the ,loire campaign1 eighty guns of ,prince ,frederick ,charles' were put out of service by the sole fact of their firing4 ,summing up the history of these many accidents1 the ,duke of ,cambridge asserted to the ,house of ,lords 7,april #cj1 #ahgf7 that two hundred ,krupp guns burst during the ,franco-,german war4 ,have the engineers of the ,essen works improved their processes of manufacture since that epoch8 ,it is permissible to doubt it1 seeing that1 very recently1 the ,italian navy refused to take from ,mr4 ,krupp some #ae inch guns whose tubes were but very imperfectly welded4 ,must the numerous accidents mentioned be attributed to defects in the metal employed8 ,were they due to defective hooping8 ,were they due to some one of the numerous inconveniences inherent to the cylindrico-prismatic system of closing 7,rundkeilverschluss78 ,they were doubtless owing to such causes combined4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,colors ,,of ,,thin ,,plates4 ,the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,rayleigh lately delivered a lecture at the ,royal ,institution upon ,the ,colors of ,thin ,plates1 a term which he explained was applied to thin films of substances1 such as oily films on the surface of water or the equally familiar soap bubble4 ,although the reflection of colors from the surface of a soap bubble is probably the most noticeable1 yet the plate which lends itself most readily for experiment is a film of air confined between two sheets of glass4 ,if a ray of white light be reflected from the surface of the film upon a screen1 the so-called ,newton's rings1 a series of colored concentric rings1 are obtained4 ,if1 instead of reflected light1 the ray of light transmitted through the film of air be allowed to fall upon the screen1 the same phenomenon is observable1 but the effect is very considerably minimized1 owing to the great preponderance of white light1 which overlies as it were the colored rings4 ,even in the first instance1 as the lecturer was able to show later on1 the colors are not nearly so intense as they may be obtained1 owing to some white light being reflected from the surfaces of the two sheets of glass4 ,with regard to the appearance of the phenomenon1 it is observed that the part which corresponds to the thinnest part of the film is considerably darker than the rest of the spectrum2 around this is a bright ring of white1 succeeded by constantly increasing concentric rings of different colors apparently repeating themselves4 ,lord ,rayleigh also obtained the same results with a film of a solution of soap and glycerine1 but in this case the dark portion was observed at the top of the spectrum1 the other colors arranging themselves in order in the soap film thinned by the force of gravitation1 thus showing that the colors vary according to the thickness of the film4 ,another form of the experiment called forth a considerable amount of applause from the audience4 ,lord ,rayleigh caused a gentle stream of air to play obliquely upon a soap film1 so that the part struck was moved forward and the whole film rotated4 ,then with the alteration of the force of the current of air1 which of course regulated the centrifugal force1 alternating thicknesses of film were obtained1 causing a varying display of beautiful colors and combinations of colors4 ,this last experiment also tended to prove that the bands of color are not arranged in a certain order1 but vary according to the thickness of the film1 a conclusion arrived at by ,brewster1 who observed that if a film reflecting certain colors be carefully inverted so as not to disturb the gravity1 the colors reflected are also inverted4 ,lord ,rayleigh explained the phenomenon by referring to ,young's wave theory of light4 ,he regarded the film as having two surfaces from which light is reflected1 an anterior exterior surface and a posterior interior surface4 ,if a ray of light be thrown upon the film1 a part of the light is reflected from the first surface1 but the greater part is transmitted1 and some of this is reflected from the second surface1 passes back through the film1 and is combined with the light reflected from the first surface4 ,if then the light reflected from the second surface be in the same state of vibration as that reflected from the first surface1 the effect of their combination will be to increase the amount of light reflected from the first surface1 but if otherwise1 the effect will be a partial neutralization of the light reflected from the first surface4 ,that is to say1 if the retardation of the light which is reflected from the second surface1 owing to its twice traversing the thickness of the film1 be equivalent to a wave length of the vibration of the light1 it will increase the intensity of the light reflected from the first surface4 ,if1 however1 the retardation be only equivalent to half a wave length1 the intensity of the light will be decreased4 ,thus1 then1 with a ray of monochromatic light it will be seen that the effect of difference in the thickness of the film will be to alter the intensity of the reflected ray1 but with a white light composed of several colors the result will be more complicated4 ,as each color has a different wave length in vibration1 it will be seen that each color will act independently of the others1 and a certain thickness of film which1 upon the combination of the two reflected rays1 will cause one particular color to be intensified1 will at the same time cause the other colors to be more or less obscured4 ,thus as the thickness of the film is altered different colors preponderate1 causing the appearance of rings or bands1 according to the nature of the experiment4 ,the dark appearance on the screen corresponding to the thinnest part of the film is probably due to refraction of the ray of light reflected from the second surface1 consequent in its passing from a rare into a denser medium1 and again from the denser medium into the rare1 which refraction ,lord ,rayleigh considers to effect a retardation equivalent to half a wave length4 ,lord ,rayleigh supported this theory of the formation of ,newton's rings by several interesting experiments4 ,a beam of light was intercepted by two of ,nicol's prisms1 one of which acted as a polarizer and the other as an analyzer of the light1 so that no light was able to pass through both on to the screen4 ,between the two prisms a double refractive lens was now placed1 in this case a double concave lens of selenite1 when the same series of concentric rings observed with the film of air was obtained on the screen1 only much more intense1 while a wedge of selenite gave the bands of color in the same order as with the soap bubble4 ,but perhaps the most striking proof of the dependence of the colors upon the thickness of the film was shown by the reflection of a beam of light from a piece of mica composed of twenty-four very attenuated plates overlapping each other4 ,with each layer a marked gradation in color was visible4 ,the remainder of the lecture was devoted to an explanation of the determination of the chromatic relations of the colors of the spectrum4 ,lord ,rayleigh at this point made a rather startling statement that any color can be produced by two other colors4 ,as an example of such a formation1 a ray of white light was passed separately through a solution of yellow chromate of potash and an alkaline litmus solution1 throwing respectively a yellow and violet-blue color upon the screen4 ,when the ray was made to pass through the two solutions successively1 an orange-yellow color was obtained upon the screen1 which color ,lord ,rayleigh asserted to be made up of red and green rays4 ,to prove this1 the ray of white light was decomposed by means of a prism1 and the decomposed rays passed through the two solutions4 ,the one solution was found to exclude all the yellow and orange rays from the spectrum1 while the other excluded all the blue and violet rays1 so that when the ray had passed through both solutions1 only the red and green rays were left4 ,if1 instead of allowing the decomposed ray of light to pass through a slit1 and thus obtain definite bands in the spectrum1 the ray was passed through a circular hole1 the red and green colors overlapped each other on the screen1 forming by their combination the identical orange-yellow color obtained with the primary white light4 ,it was then stated that if three definite positions be taken in a spectrum in the red1 green1 and violet bands respectively1 and these positions be represented by the corners of an equilateral triangle 7,clerk ,maxwell's triangle71 it has been mathematically determined in what position within this triangle the colors of ,newton's rings would fall4 ,lord ,rayleigh1 by means of a diagram and the selenite wedge1 showed that the relations to the three standard colors in practice were identical with the position assigned them by theory4 ,in conclusion1 the lecturer showed a piece of glass1 the surface of which had been decomposed1 a ray of light transmitted through which showed upon the screen patches of very pure color4 ,these he considered to be due to the glass consisting of a number of thin plates1 some of which had been removed by the decomposition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,belt ,,joints4 ,from time to time1 serious accidents have taken place1 and the progress of work stopped1 by the sudden snapping of driving belts in machinery1 and1 as a general rule1 it is found that the collapse is attributable either to faulty leather or insecure joining4 ,a great improvement of the leather intended for belts has been brought about during the last few years1 by the introduction of improved processes for currying and the subsequent treatment4 ,paterson has worked successfully a patent for rendering belt leather more pliable1 and lessening the tendency to stretch4 ,under this treatment the leather is either curried or rough dried1 and then soaked in a solution of wood1 resin1 and gum thus1 or frankincense1 first melted together1 and then dissolved1 by the application of heat1 in boiled or linseed oil4 ,the leather1 after this process1 is soaked in petroleum or carbon bisulphide containing a little ,india-rubber solution1 and is finally washed with petroleum benzoline4 ,should the mixture be found to be too thick1 it is thinned down with benzoline spirit until it is about the consistency of molasses at the ordinary temperature4 ,the leather so prepared is not liable to stretch1 and can be joined in the usual way by copper riveting1 or the ends can be sewn4 ,a good material for smaller belts1 and for strings and bands for connecting larger ones1 is that recently patented by ,vornberger1 in which the gut of cattle is the basis4 ,after careful cleansing1 the gut is split up into strands1 and treated with a bath of pearlash water for several days4 ,the strands are then twisted together1 and after being dipped in a solution of ,condy's fluid1 are dried4 ,they are then sulphured in a wooden box for twenty-four hours1 after which the twisting can be completed4 ,they are by this process rendered pliable1 and can be used in this state for stitching the leather ends of larger belts1 or can be stiffened by plunging them into a bath of isinglass and white wine vinegar4 ,after drying they are susceptible of a fine polish1 emery cloth being usually employed1 and the final finish is given to the material with gum arabic and oil4 ,canvas and woven fabrics1 coated with ,india-rubber1 are also now being used for driving belts and for covering machine rollers4 ,as this material can be made in one piece1 without the necessity of a joint1 it is uniform in strength1 and is recommended as a substitute for leather belts requiring joints4 ,a patented material of this description is due to ,zingler1 who boils the canvas or similar woven fabric under pressure in a solution of tungstate of soda for three hours4 ,it is then transferred to a bath of acetate of lead solution1 and drained1 dried1 and stretched4 ,when in this condition it is coated1 by means of a spreading machine1 with repeated layers of a composition consisting of ,india-rubber1 antimony sulphide1 peroxide of iron1 sulphur1 lime1 asbestos1 chalk1 sulphate of zinc1 and carbonate of magnesia4 ,when a sufficient thickness of this composition has been applied1 it is vulcanized under pressure at a temperature of #bej ,f41 or a little higher4 ,the material produced in this manner is said to have the strength and durability of the best leather belts4 ,attempts have recently been made to obtain a glue suitable for joining the ends of driving belts1 without the use of metal fastenings or sewing1 and ,messrs4 ,david ,kirkaldy ,son have reported favorably on such a belt glue1 which is being introduced by ,mr4 ,w4,v4 ,van ,wyk1 of #cj and #ca ,newgate street1 ,e4,c4 ,in the test applied by them1 a joint of this ,hercules glue1 as it is called1 in a #d in4 single belt was stronger than the solid leather4 ,when a tensile stress of #b1agd lb41 equivalent to #b1hfj lb4 per square inch of section1 was applied1 the leather gave way1 leaving the joint intact4 ,belts fastened by a scarf joint with this glue are said to be of absolutely the same thickness and pliability at the joint as in the main portion of the belt1 and thus insure freedom from noise and perfect steadiness4 ,the instructions for use are simple1 and it requires only fifteen minutes for the joint to set before being ready for use4 ,from a rough chemical analysis of the sample submitted to us1 we find that it consists of gelatine1 with small amounts of mineral ingredients4 ,josef ,horadam1 some few years ago1 patented in ,germany a process for preserving glues from decomposition1 by the addition of from #h to #aj per cent4 of magnesium or calcium chlorides4 ,the addition of these salts does not impair in any way the strength of the glue1 but prevents it from decomposing1 and it may be that the ,hercules glue is preserved in a similar manner4 ,a cement of this nature1 if thoroughly to be relied on1 must be of great value1 although the great variation in the quality of leather1 apart from the difficulty hitherto experienced of securely connecting the ends together1 opens a wide field for a material of uniform composition1 and capable of being made in one piece in suitable lengths for driving belts and other machine gear4--,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,inauguration ,,of ,,the ,,statue ,,of ,,denis ,,papin4 ,a large crowd was present recently at the inauguration of the statue of ,denis ,papin1 which took place in the court of the ,conservatoire des ,arts et ,metiers1 under the presidency of ,mr4 ,lockroy1 ,minister of ,commerce and the ,industries4 ,illustration3 ,,denis ,,papin4 ,in the large hall in which the addresses were made there were several municipal counselors1 the representatives of the ,minister of ,war1 ,captains ,driant and ,frocard1 several members of the ,institute1 and others4 ,a delegation from the ,syndical ,chamber of ,conductors1 ,enginemen1 and ,stokers1 which contributed through a subscription toward the erection of the statue1 was present at the ceremony with its banner4 ,mr4 ,lanssedat1 superintendent of the ,conservatoire1 received the guests1 assisted by all the professors4 ,mr4 ,lanssedat opened the proceedings by an address in which he paid homage to the scientists who were persecuted while living1 to ,denis ,papin1 who did for mechanics what ,nicolas le ,blanc did for chemistry1 and to those men whose entire life was devoted to the triumph of the cause of science4 ,after this1 an address was delivered by ,mr4 ,lockroy1 who expatiated upon the great services rendered by the master of all the sciences known at that epoch1 who was in turn physician1 physicist1 mechanician1 and mathematician1 and who1 in discovering the properties of steam1 laid the foundation of modern society1 which1 so to speak1 arose from this incomparable discovery4 ,speeches were afterward made by ,mr4 ,feray d',essonnes1 president of the ,syndical ,chamber of ,conductors1 ,enginemen1 and ,stokers1 and by ,prof4 ,comberousse1 of the ,central ,school1 who broadly outlined the life of ,papin4 ,along about four o'clock1 the ,minister of ,commerce and the ,industries1 followed by all the invited guests1 repaired to the court1 and the veil that hid the statue was then lifted amid acclamation4 ,papin is represented as standing and performing an experiment4 ,upon the pedestal is the following inscription3 ,,denis ,,papin ,,born ,,in #afdg1 ,,died ,,about #agad1 ,,invented ,,the ,,steam ,,engine ,,in #afij ,,national ,,subscription1 #ahhf4 ,the inauguration is due to the initiative of ,mr4 ,lanssedat1 for it was he who in #ahhe suggested the national subscription1 which was quickly raised4 ,denis ,papin was born at ,blois on the #bb;d of ,august1 #afdg4 ,he was the son of a physician4 ,after the example of his father and of several of his relatives1 he studied medicine and took his degree2 but his taste for mathematics1 and especially for experimental physics1 soon led him to abandon medicine4 ,it was in #afij that he published in the ,actes of ,leipsic the memoir which will forever and irrevocably assign to him the priority in the invention of steam engines and steamboats1 and the title of which was3 ,new method of cheaply obtaining the greatest motive powers4 ,in #agjd1 ,papin1 poor and obliged to do everything for himself1 finished his first steamboat2 but for want of money he was unable to make a trial of it until ,august #ae1 #agjg4 ,the trial was made upon the ,fulda and ,wera1 affluents of the ,weser4 ,the operation succeeded wonderfully1 and1 shortly afterward1 ,papin1 being desirous of rendering the experiment complete1 put his boat on the ,weser2 but the stupid boatmen of this river drew his craft ashore and broke it and its engine in pieces4 ,this catastrophe ruined ,papin1 and annihilated all his hopes4 ,the great man1 falling into shocking destitution1 broken down and conquered by adversity1 returned to ,england in #agab to seek aid and an asylum4 ,everywhere repulsed1 he returned to ,cassel about #agad1 sad and discouraged2 and the man to whom we owe that prodigy1 the steam engine1 that instrument of universal welfare and riches1 disappeared without leaving any trace of his death4--,le ,monde ,illustre4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,decoration4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,ornaments4 ,footnote3 ,authorities consulted in preparing this paper3 ,analysis of ,ornament1 ,wornum2 ,truth1 ,beauty1 and ,power1 ,dresser2 ,lectures on ,art4 ,f4,w4 ,moody2 ,hopes and ,fears for ,art1 ,wm4 ,morris2 ,ornamental ,art1 ,hulme2 ,manuals of ,art ,education1 ,prang4 ,by ,,miss ,,marie ,r4 ,,garesche1 ,st4 ,louis ,high ,school4 ,decoration is the science and art of beautifying objects and rendering them more pleasing to the eye4 ,as an art1 individual taste and skill have much to do with the perfection of the results2 as a science1 it is subject to certain invariable laws and principles which cannot be violated1 and a study of which1 added to familiarity with some of the best examples1 will enable any one to appreciate and understand it1 even if lacking the skill and power to create original and beautiful designs4 ,the study of decoration offers many advantages4 ,it cultivates the imagination and the taste2 it develops our capacity for recognizing and enjoying the beautiful in both nature and art2 it adds to the pleasure and refinement of life4 ,practically1 its importance can hardly be overestimated1 as it enters into almost all the industrial pursuits4 ,we can think of but few classes of objects1 even the most simple1 in which some attempt at ornamentation is not made4 ,ornament is one of the principal means of enhancing the value of the raw material4 ,a piece of carved wood1 or an artistically decorated porcelain vase1 worth perhaps many hundred dollars1 if reduced to the commercial value of the material of which they are composed would be valued at but a few dollars or cents4 ,the higher the ornamentation ranks1 from an artistic point of view1 the greater becomes the value of the article to which it is applied4 ,knowledge of good designs is thus evidently important1 to the purchaser of the object ornamented as well as to the designer who planned it4 ,this can only be attained by cultivation4 ,to know and appreciate the best ornament should be an aim set forth in any scheme of general education4 ,this knowledge and appreciation can be obtained by studying the application of the laws and principles of ornamental art as exemplified in the works of masters1 and also by endeavoring to apply these principles in designs of our own creation4 ,,principles ,,of ,,ornament4 ,we can only arrive at a knowledge of these principles by a consideration of the object4 ,in other words1 nature and history must be studied4 ,first1 nature1 for she is the primary source and origin of all good ornament1 whether ancient or modern2 and if1 as in everything else1 we would not become servile imitators and weak copyists1 we must go to the fountain head4 ,second1 history1 for by the study of the ornament of past ages we will not only become acquainted with the highest developments of which ornamental art is capable1 but will moreover broaden our views as to its object and scope1 and will stimulate our own imagination and invention1 by leading us to the contemplation of the myriad beautiful and protean forms it has assumed1 when surrounding conditions1 such as religion1 climate1 temperament1 nationality1 etc41 have been different4 ,knowledge of historic ornament will also prevent the imposition on the public1 so common in our day1 of weak and unworthy productions which claim to be based on classic originals1 and which constitute a great stumbling block to the progress and appreciation of good art4 ,the result is somewhat analogous to that produced upon conscientious but ill-informed minds1 who make every effort to appreciate and enjoy the spurious productions of a great author1 not knowing that they are not genuine4 ,,position ,,and ,,scope ,,of ,,ornamental ,,or ,,decorative ,,art4 ,i4 ,object of ,ornamental ,art4--,the object or purpose of ornament1 as in the other fine arts1 is to please4 ,in music and poetry this enjoyment is conveyed to the mind through the ear2 in the decorative and pictorial arts1 through the eye4 ,generally1 the meaning that we find in such productions1 the appeal that they make to the understanding or feelings1 is as great a source of interest to us as their intrinsic beauty4 ,poetry and vocal music are greatly dependent for their effect upon the meaning they convey in words2 painting and sculpture1 upon the ideas or sentiments they suggest4 ,in all four1 however1 and most decidedly in music unaccompanied by words1 the appeal is frequently made almost exclusively to the sthetic sense1 the mind or intellect remaining almost dormant under the impression4 ,gems of rhythmical verse1 such as ,poe's ,bells1 ,the ,raven1 ,whistler's ,symphonies in ,color1 nameless forms in statuary1 expressionless save in the mere beauty of their proportions and curves1 and1 as has been stated1 nearly the entire field of instrumental music1 are cases in point4 ,in the ornamental and decorative arts1 as well as in architecture 7from which they are indeed inseparable71 beauty alone1 in like manner1 should be the principal aim and purpose4 ,in the former1 of course1 it is indispensable that such should be the case1 as they are entirely subordinate and accessory in their nature1 their only raison d'etre being to beautify or render more agreeable objects already created for some purpose4 ,it must not be imagined that such artistic impressions--viz41 where the appeal is made almost solely to the sthetic sense1 regardless of the reason1 judgment1 or feelings--are necessarily of a lower order4 ,their effect is almost analogous to that which nature herself produces upon us--the starry heavens1 the mighty ocean1 the tender flower4 ,the impression1 whether the object belongs to the domain of nature or art1 may be a merely sensuous one2 and if it stops there1 as it certainly does for the majority of people1 it ranks without doubt far below productions where the sthetic element is only used to stimulate and heighten the appeal to the mind or the feelings4 ,but if it extend beyond1 and makes the sensuous impression but the parting link to the contemplation of ideal1 abstract beauty1 without the intermediate aid of the heart or the reason1 it is the shortest and quickest road toward the realization of the infinite1 and makes us indeed feel that it is but a short step from nature up to nature's ,god4 ,thus architecture1 which embodies1 more than any other of the space arts1 principles of abstract beauty1 has been with reason called the noblest of them all4 ,however1 ornamental and architectural forms frequently do convey a meaning1 which we term symbolism in art4 ,if this symbolism does not detract from the first object of ornament--viz41 to beautify--it is perfectly legitimate and proper4 ,it is impossible to fully appreciate many phases of art1 as1 for instance1 the ,egyptian and the early ,christian1 if we leave out of sight the symbolism which pervades them4 ,while beauty1 or capacity for pleasing the eye1 may be very definitely said to be the aim of ornamental art1 it is difficult to arrive at a universal standard as to what constitutes beauty4 ,what pleases one person will not always please another4 ,the child loves glittering objects and gaudy combinations1 which the mature taste of the man declares extravagant and unharmonious4 ,savages decorate their weapons1 utensils1 and their own persons with ornaments that appear uncouth and barbarous to civilized people4 ,besides these differences in taste1 which are due to different degrees of mental development1 and which can consequently be easily disposed of1 we find among highly civilized and cultured nations1 at different periods1 a great diversity of tastes4 ,these varying and sometimes apparently conflicting products of ornamental art we designate as styles1 viz41 ,egyptian style1 ,greek style1 ,gothic style1 etc4 ,so marked are the differences between them that we can sometimes tell at a glance to what period and to what style a small fragment of decoration belongs4 ,notwithstanding these differences1 which at first may appear very great1 a careful study of the best styles--those that achieved the greatest and most lasting popularity--will reveal the fact that they are all based upon certain fundamental laws and principles1 and that all are good1 bad1 or indifferent according as they conform to or violate these principles4 ,these essentials having been preserved1 the opportunities for the exercise of individual or national taste are almost boundless4 ,,ii4 ,position of ,ornament4--,the position that ornament occupies is necessarily a secondary one1 as it cannot exist independently1 but is always applied to objects created for some purpose entirely independent of their capacity for pleasing4 ,this gives us one of the great underlying principles that should characterize all ornament1 viz41 it must be subordinate to the object which it adorns1 and must not detract from its use4 ,we often see this rule violated in personal1 household1 and architectural decoration--windows so overloaded with projecting cornices and lattice work as to almost exclude light and air2 knife handles carved so elaborately that it is impossible to grasp them firmly2 styles of dress in form or color that impede the motions of the wearer1 and make the clothes1 rather than the personality of the wearer1 the most noticeable feature4 ,from this principle there is but a step to another3 ,all ornament should be modest and moderate4 ,it must not obtrude itself1 and a great profusion and ostentation in its application is always a sign of degeneracy and bad taste4 ,of course some objects1 from their nature1 position1 and use1 will admit of greater and more elaborate ornament than others4 ,ornament1 being entirely subordinate1 should not conceal the construction of the object4 ,in architecture it should follow the leading lines of the building1 and should emphasize1 or at least suggest1 the construction4 ,if architectural in character1 it should so enter into the construction of the building that it could not be taken away without injuring it4 ,we must feel that a column1 no matter how beautiful1 is supporting something4 ,a floor1 always a plane surface1 must not be tiled or decorated in any way to express relief4 ,this would apparently destroy the essential constructive quality of a floor1 viz41 flatness4 ,for the same reason1 all shams1 such as painted arches1 pillars1 etc41 are not legitimate4 ,as long as they do not actually exist1 they are evidently not necessary to the construction1 and have no purpose save an imaginary decorative one1 and in the words of ,owen ,jones1 construction must be decorated--not decoration constructed4 ,,iii4 ,scope of ,ornament4--,the scope of ornamental art is almost boundless4 ,it is applied to objects large and small1 adapted to the most various uses1 constructed of the most different materials4 ,as the ornamentation is always to be subordinate to the object1 considerations regarding size1 use1 position1 material1 etc41 must govern it4 ,an ornament that would be admirable applied to one object1 might be detestable if applied to another4 ,a design cannot be made without reference to its future application4 ,first3 ,the material must be considered4 ,heavy and hard materials1 such as wood and stone1 will not admit of as delicate curves and lines as textile fabrics1 such as cotton and woolen goods1 laces1 etc4 ,second3 ,the manner in which the article is to be made1 whether by weaving1 cutting1 carving1 casting1 etc4 ,third3 ,the position the object is to occupy4 ,if elevated or otherwise remote from the eye1 elaborate finish and minute detail are useless4 ,ornamental art1 from time immemorial1 has attained its greatest excellence and exercised its greatest influence in connection with architecture4 ,in fact1 the study of ornament is inseparable from that of architecture4 ,it is upon architectural forms that the greatest artists have in all ages expended their greatest efforts and skill1 and in a treatise on historic ornament they are decidedly the most interesting and important object of study4 ,,iv4 ,material of ,ornament4--,the two great sources of ornament are geometry and nature4 ,the latter includes the former2 for not only must natural forms1 in order to be available as material for ornament1 be first conventionalized1 or reduced to regular1 symmetrical1 geometric outlines1 but any and all designs1 whether the unit of repetition be geometric or conventional1 must be founded upon geometric construction4 ,this refers to the regularity1 repetition1 and distribution of parts2 so that every good design1 if reduced to its principal lines of construction1 would exhibit but a few geometric lines and inclosing spaces4 ,many designs are not only geometric in their basis or plan1 but make use of geometric figures as the units or materials of design4 ,such designs1 however1 rank lower than those in which natural forms conventionalized are taken as the subjects of repetition2 and as the ornament rises in the scale toward perfection1 even the geometric basis becomes less and less apparent1 and sinks into a decidedly subordinate position2 so that in many of the most perfect specimens it can be traced only in a few leading lines of the composition4 ,its presence1 however1 is necessary1 and is the foundation1 if not the most important element1 of beauty in the design4 ,,relation ,,between ,,nature ,,and ,,ornamental ,,art4 ,while the natural world1 including leaves1 flowers1 animals1 etc41 is the greatest source of ornament1 it is generally the opinion of the best authorities1 derived from the study of the best styles and by a consideration of the principles of fitness and propriety which underlie the entire physical and moral world1 that natural forms in ornamental and decorative art should not be literally copied or imitated4 ,that is the aim of painting1 sculpture1 and the other representative arts1 where the object is to present something to the eye which will suggest at once the actual presence of the object4 ,to produce that effect1 the object1 whether animal or vegetable1 is represented as much as possible in the actual circumstances of its existence1 surrounded by the necessary conditions of its well-being and growth4 ,a frame is placed around it1 to shut it off as much as possible from other surroundings1 and thus help us delude ourselves that we are in the presence of the real thing1 either as it would impress us through our senses or our imagination4 ,but in ornamental art the case is entirely different4 ,as it is to be applied and consequently subordinated to something1 and does not exist for itself1 it would be impossible1 except in very rare instances1 to introduce in a design a natural object in a realistic manner and not violate some important law of its growth or the conditions of its well-being4 ,for instance1 to exactly repeat a certain rose1 with all the accidents of its growth1 many times in a carpet is not natural4 ,nature never repeats herself4 ,moreover1 to tread on that which is supposed to suggest to us real roses is barbarous4 ,it would really be outraging and distorting nature while pretending to be her faithful disciple and imitator4 ,we not only derive from nature the most important materials for our designs1 but also the various modes of arranging this material4 ,various modes of repetition--radical1 bilateral1 etc4--were all probably suggested by some natural arrangement observed in flowers1 leaves1 etc4 ,of these different arrangements it is curious to note that the bilateral is more characteristic of the higher forms of nature and the radiating of the lower4 ,the leading principles of ornament--symmetry1 proportion1 rhythm1 contrast1 unity1 variety1 repose1 etc4--are all exemplified in natural forms4 ,the latter have also suggested many of the most important architectural forms4 ,the ,gothic cathedral1 with its clustered columns branching and forming pointed arches overhead1 was probably suggested by a grove of trees with overarching branches and boughs4 ,the idea of the column was derived from the papyrus plant1 a species of reed growing in the river ,nile4 ,the bud or flower suggested the capital of the column2 the stalk1 the shaft2 and the bulbous root1 the pedestal4 ,the blue vault of the sky undoubtedly suggested the dome1 etc4 ,the following are a few of the leading principles of ornamental art as set forth by ,owen ,jones in his ,grammar of ,ornament1 a fine work1 magnificently illustrated1 whose perusal could hardly fail to delight the most indifferent3 ,all good ornamental art should possess fitness1 proportion1 harmony1 the result of all which is repose4 ,construction should be decorated4 ,decoration should never be purposely constructed4 ,all ornament should be based upon geometrical construction4 ,harmony of form consists in the proper balancing and contrast of the straight1 the inclined1 and the curved4 ,in surface decoration all lines should flow out of a parent stem4 ,every part1 however distant1 should be traced to its branch or root4 ,natural law4 ,all junctions of curved lines with each other1 or with straight lines1 should be tangential to each other4 ,natural law4 ,natural forms1 as subjects of ornament1 should not be imitated1 but should be conventionalized4 ,,historic ,,ornament4 ,the origin of all attempts at decorating or beautifying objects lies in the universal love of mankind for the beautiful4 ,once the necessaries of life provided for1 man instinctively1 the world over1 turns his attention toward gratifying this feeling1 by improving and decorating the forms around him--his arms1 utensils1 dwelling1 or his own person4 ,the history of every nation proves this1 and no matter how rude1 and even ugly1 their efforts may seem to us1 we are bound to recognize in them the same motives that actuated the builders of the ,parthenon or of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome4 ,this awakening and gratification of the sthetic sense seems to be the first advance from a condition of mere animal existence1 in which food1 shelter1 and comfort are the only considerations1 to tastes and desires that are higher and1 consequently1 more impersonal4 ,the term historic ornament is applied to the various styles of ornamental art which have flourished at various periods in the world's history1 from the ,egyptian1 dating from the #adth century ,b4,c41 to those that exist at the present day4 ,their number is1 consequently1 almost unlimited1 and we will confine ourselves to the consideration of a few of the principal ones only--those that have achieved the most enduring fame1 or those that exercised the most marked influence upon succeeding styles4 ,in considering the various styles1 we must always bear in mind that1 with the exception of the ,egyptian1 all show very markedly the influence of the styles that preceded them1 being very often merely an outgrowth or development of a preceding one4 ,thus the ,greeks borrowed many forms from the ,egyptians4 ,the ,romans simply adapted and elaborated the ,greek style1 etc4 ,so that while each style is usually known by certain prominent characteristics1 it does not follow that these characteristics are peculiar to it alone4#a ,they may be found in other styles1 though not to such a great extent4 ,while similar features will thus be seen to run through many styles1 each will usually be found to possess an individuality of its own4 ,every nation1 like every individual1 possesses different wants and capabilities1 and will develop itself accordingly4 ,differences in religion1 climate1 manners1 customs1 etc41 will cause differences in their art and literature1 the most lasting monuments of their morals1 taste1 and feelings4 ,footnote #a3 ,rudiments of ,architecture and ,building1 through courtesy of ,h4,c4 ,baird4 ,it is rather by the study of the art and literature of a people that we arrive at a true knowledge of them than from the perusal of mere historic facts concerning them--when they lived1 who conquered them1 etc4 ,,the ,,styles4 ,,ancient ,,or ,,classic4 #adjj ,b4,c4--#cjj ,a4,d4 ,egyptian4--,characteristics3 symbolic1 severe1 simple1 grand1 massive4 ,conventional forms of lotus1 papyrus1 etc4 ,oblique lines4 ,greek4--,characteristics3 sthetic1 simple1 harmonious1 beautiful4 ,conventional forms1 anthemion1 acanthus4 ,ellipse4 ,roman4--,characteristics3 elaborate1 rich1 costly4 ,conventional forms1 acanthus scroll1 monsters4 ,circle4 ,,medieval4 #cjj ,a4,d4--#acjj ,a4,d4 ,byzantine4--,symbolic1 rich1 elaborate4 ,conventional forms1 principal architectural feature--dome4 ,saracenic4--,gorgeous coloring1 graceful curves4 ,forms entirely geometric4 ,arabesque1 geometrical tracery1 interlacing4 ,gothic4--,imposing1 grand4 ,pointed arches1 clustered columns1 vaulted roof1 spire buttress4 ,forms both natural and conventional4 ,stained glass4 ,,modern ,,or ,,renaissance4 #acjj ,a4,d4--#aijj ,a4,d4 ,renaissance4--,mixture of classic and medival elements4 ,result not generally good4 ,cinquecento4--sthetic1 revival of true classic principles4 ,beautiful curves1 fine proportions and distribution4 ,conventional animal and plant forms4 ,human figure4 ,louis ,quatorze4--,sparkling1 glittering4 ,absence of color1 want of symmetry4 ,i4 ,,ancient ,,or ,,classic ,,art4 ,ancient art is also known as classic1 a term which1 in architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 and music1 is almost synonymous with good and admirable4 ,taken as a whole and at its best1 classic art has never been surpassed4 ,the designs of the ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,egyptians1 and even the forms of their buildings1 are still copied at the present day4 ,the horizontal line is a marked feature of classic art4 ,it is visible in the leading lines of their architecture1 in the frequency of horizontal borders1 friezes1 etc4 ,it accords admirably with the constructive features of classic architecture1 and thus conforms to the important decorative principle that ornament should emphasize rather than disguise construction4 #a4 ,egyptian ,art4--,the oldest of which we have any record dates from #ahjj ,b4,c4 ,egyptian art is symbolic1 that is to say1 the forms were chosen not so much on account of their beauty as for the purpose of conveying some meaning4 ,the government of ,egypt being almost entirely in the hands of the priests1 these symbols were generally of a religious character1 signifying power and protection4 ,the principal ones were3 ,the lotus1 signifying plenty1 abundance2 the zigzag1 symbolic of the river ,nile2 the winged globe or scarabus1 signifying protection and dominion1 usually placed over doors of houses2 the fret1 type of the ,great ,labyrinth1 with its three thousand chambers1 which was1 in its turn1 symbolic of the life of a human soul4 ,the column originated with the ,egyptians4 ,it was at first heavy1 broad compared to its length1 and was usually covered with hieroglyphics4 ,the architecture of ,egypt1 of which the principal forms are pyramids1 sphinxes1 obelisks1 and temples1 is characterized by massiveness of material1 grandeur of proportion1 and simplicity of parts--a style well suited to its flat1 sandy soil1 though it would look heavy and out of place in a country where nature had herself supplied the elements of grandeur and massiveness in the form of lofty mountains or mighty forests4 ,egyptian art greatly influenced all the succeeding styles1 and to this time is unsurpassed in many of its qualities4 #b4 ,greek ,art4--,the next great historic style is the ,greek4 ,its spirit differed entirely from the ,egyptian1 being sthetic and not symbolic4 ,its sole aim was to create beautiful forms1 without any thought of attaching to them a meaning4 ,it adopted many ,egyptian forms1 such as the lotus1 fret1 and scroll1 but divested them of all symbolism or significance4 ,the most characteristic feature of ,greek ornament is the anthemion1 a conventionalized flower form resembling our honeysuckle bud1 which was usually alternated with the lotus or lily form bud4 ,the ,greeks also borrowed the column and flat arch from the ,egyptians1 but changed it to a more slender1 graceful form4 ,the three principal orders of ,greek architecture are named from the style of the column used that characterized them1 viz41 the ,corinthian1 the ,doric1 the ,ionic4 ,of these the ,doric is the simplest and the ,corinthian the most elaborate4 ,for harmony of proportions1 elegance of form1 and simplicity of detail1 ,greek architecture and ornament has probably never been surpassed4 ,these qualities are admirably displayed in the ,parthenon1 a temple in ,athens1 dedicated to ,venus4 ,though in ruins1 it is still one of the greatest attractions to travelers in ,greece4 ,a very fine collection of fragments taken from it is to be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,they are known as the ,elgin marbles4 ,the most flourishing period of ,greek art1 as will be found in the history of almost all nations1 was identical with the most flourishing period of its literature and general welfare4 #c4 ,roman ,art4--,in the #fth century ,b4,c4 the ,greeks1 already on the decline1 were conquered by the ,romans1 a nation hardier and more powerful1 though ruder and less civilized than themselves4 ,the conquerors recognized this1 and immediately set to work to copy or steal from their vanquished foes everything that might enhance the beauty and splendor of their own city4 ,greek artists were transported to ,rome and placed in charge of the most important public works4 ,roman art is1 consequently1 but a development or adaptation of the ,greek4 ,it is noticeable1 however1 that it almost completely ignored the most characteristic and popular of the ,greek forms--for example1 the anthemion--and adapted those1 such as the acanthus and the scroll1 which had been considered of minor importance among the ,greeks4 ,they added another to the three orders of the ,greek architecture1 viz41 the ,composite1 the most elaborate of all1 being a combination of the ,ionic and the ,corinthian4 ,this leads us to consider the leading features of ,roman ornament--richness and profusion4 ,with the acanthus and scroll as their principal units of design1 they elaborated and enriched every form that would admit of it4 ,the most elaborate ,greek example cannot compare in this respect to the simplest ,roman4 ,the ,roman style of architecture was very similar to the ,greek1 though more massive in its proportions1 probably on account of the larger number of people to be accommodated4 ,the details were also bolder and the curves fuller4 ,they used the round arch to a great extent4 ,the column of ,trajan and the ,forum are fine examples of their architecture4 ,,ii4 ,,medi,,val ,,art4 ,the ,roman empire1 after having reigned as mistress of the world for upward of five centuries1 commenced to show signs of decay4 ,its people had gradually lost the sturdy spirit of independence1 endurance1 and courage which had characterized their forefathers1 and had degenerated into a race of effeminate slaves and cowards4 ,ostentation became the feature of their art2 immorality and luxury1 of their mode of living4 ,they thus fell an easy prey to the rude but vigorous barbarians of the ,north4 ,the latter1 rude and uncivilized as they were1 extended the contempt they had for the nation they had conquered to their works of art as well1 and mutilated or destroyed them whenever they could lay hands on them4 ,this spirit of antagonism was strengthened upon their conversion to ,christianity1 and everything that savored of paganism in art or literature was severely proscribed4 ,for the heathen forms1 whose only aim and object was beauty1 were substituted religious symbols1 the cross and other implements of the passion1 the lily1 the fish1 the aureole1 etc41 whose object was to recall to the faithful the mysteries of religion4 ,gradually1 however1 as the artistic feelings of the new people became awakened1 principles of beauty commenced to be regarded1 and1 while symbolism remained an important feature of ,european art until the period of the ,renaissance1 and even then was not entirely superseded1 magnificent artistic results were obtained4 #a4 ,byzantine ,art4--,the principal of the early medival art developments was the ,byzantine4 ,it flourished principally in the eastern part of ,europe4 ,in the west it was known1 with a few variations1 as the ,lombard and the ,norman4 ,all three are often included under the term ,romanesque4 ,byzantine art was essentially ,christian in its spirit and motives4 ,it used religious symbols extensively1 but incorporated in its ornament a few pagan elements1 such as the acanthus and the scroll4 ,natural forms were always conventionally treated4 ,its coloring was rich and gorgeous4 ,the principal features of its architecture were the dome and round arch4 ,the plan of the churches was often in the form of a ,greek or ,latin cross1 with the dome placed over the intersection of the two arms4 ,the church of ,st4 ,sophia1 in ,constantinople1 is the most magnificent example of ,byzantine architecture and ornament4 ,although now a ,mohammedan mosque1 it is1 probably1 in the motive and spirit that actuated its construction1 the most ,christian building in the world4 #b4 ,saracenic ,art4--,developed from the ,byzantine by the ,moors and the ,saracens4 ,it differs from it1 however1 in one important respect4 ,while the ,byzantine makes use of numerous conventionalized plant and animal forms1 the ,saracens and ,moors were forbidden by their religion1 the ,mohammedan1 to copy in any manner the form of any living thing1 animal or vegetable4 ,they were thus limited entirely to geometric forms1 which1 however1 often fall insensibly into flower and leaf forms4 ,interlacing bands and curves of intricate pattern1 and exhibiting the peculiar ,moorish curve1 are very characteristic of ,saracenic ornament4 ,inscriptions were frequently interwoven in this tracery4 ,the coloring was gorgeous1 consisting principally of blue1 red1 and gold4 ,the principal arches used were the pointed and the horseshoe arch4 ,the ,alhambra ,palace in ,spain is the most famous example of ,saracenic ornament and architecture4 #c4 ,gothic ,art4--,gothic art grew out of the ,byzantine1 all the symbolic elements being retained4 ,it is divided into many different varieties4 ,in the earliest the round arch was used1 but the later and more perfect styles having employed the pointed arch almost exclusively1 the latter became characteristic of ,gothic art generally4 ,it is a style of architecture and ornament usually applied to churches1 and well adapted to moist and cold climates on account of the sloping roof4 ,clustered columns1 the spire or belfry1 the arched roof1 and the division of the interior into nave1 transept1 and choir1 are leading features4 ,natural as well as conventional treatment of plants is another important characteristic4 ,illustration ,the ,gothic style flourished principally in ,england1 ,france1 and parts of ,germany4 ,nearly all the principal cathedrals and churches in these countries1 and many in our own1 are built after this style4 ,the most beautiful example in this country is ,st4 ,patrick's ,cathedral1 in ,new ,york4 ,the finest specimen in the world is probably the ,cathedral of ,cologne1 which was commenced in the #adth century1 but was not completed until many years later4 ,,iii4 ,,modern ,,art4 ,in the #aeth century a remarkable revival occurred in literature and the fine arts1 showing a decided tendency to return to the old classic ideas of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,after an almost complete neglect1 which lasted for centuries1 artists and men of letters turned their attention to the long neglected relics of pagan civilization as worthy of study for their intrinsic beauty alone4 ,symbolism was relegated to a minor position1 and beauty was once more cultivated for its own sake4 ,this epoch is termed the ,renaissance--which literally means a rebirth or revival4 #a4 ,renaissance ,style4--,the term ,renaissance is also applied to one of the early styles which came into vogue at this time4 ,it flourished principally in southern ,europe4 ,it is not a pure style1 but marks a transition period from the old popular ,gothic and ,saracenic forms to the revivified classic4 ,it naturally exhibits a queer mixture of conflicting elements--classic and medival thrown together without much regard to propriety or fitness4 ,it still showed traces of symbolism4 #b4 ,the ,cinquecento ,style4--,the ,renaissance reached its most perfect development in the ,cinquecento or the #aeth century style4 ,it followed the ,quatrocento or #adth century style4 ,entirely untrammeled by symbolism1 and with the whole field of classic and medival ornament to glean from1 its aim was to develop a perfect style of ornament4 ,the best examples of this period are founded on the soundest principles of ornamental art4 ,nothing that could be turned into an element of beauty was neglected4 ,animals1 real and fictitious1 flowers1 leaves1 fruit1 the human form1 etc41 were conventionalized and made to contribute their part to enhance the beauty of the whole4 ,some of the principal characteristics of the ,cinquecento style are the delicate arabesque scroll work1 the profusion and beauty of the curves1 its admirable variations of standard classic ornaments1 such as the anthemion and scroll4 ,the coloring1 also1 was one of its most pleasing features4 ,this style flourished principally in ,italy and ,france4 ,farnese ,palace and the tombs of the ,medicis are noted examples4 #c4 ,the ,louis ,quatorze4--,this style succeeded the ,cinquecento1 but was far inferior to it4 ,it arose in ,italy1 and while preserving generally the materials of the style that preceded it1 it added as characteristic features the scroll and the shell4 ,its principal object was to create brilliant and startling effects in light and shade4 ,color was1 in consequence1 decidedly secondary1 gilding being used everywhere4 ,the ,palace of ,versailles1 near ,paris1 is a gorgeous example of this style4 ,everything in it is glittering and sparkling4 ,mirrors are everywhere placed to intensify this effect4 ,this style was followed by the ,louis ,quinze1 inferior to it in every respect1 and in which symmetry1 at least in detail1 seems to be carefully avoided4 ,it still further degenerated into the ,rococo1 the most extravagant and exaggerated of all the historic styles1 and which prevailed in the latter part of the #ahth and the beginning of the #aith century4 ,the present century cannot boast of any great characteristic style in either architecture or ornament4 ,whether it is only in a course of development1 and what will be the results1 time only can show4 ,all styles are now in vogue1 hence the importance of accurate knowledge on the subject4 ,to be able to judge of and appreciate the best1 and to profit by the labors of those gone before us1 at the same time imparting individuality and character to our own design1 should be the aim and object of the study of decoration1 and it should enter into any scheme of general education and culture4--,journal of ,education4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,montaud ,,accumulator4 ,this accumulator is of the ,plante type1 and is modified so as to obtain a more rapid formation1 a larger surface1 and a symmetrical distance of the plates from each other4 ,if into an alkaline bath saturated with litharge 7added in excess7 we plunge two lead electrodes and pass in a current of suitable tension and intensity1 there is deposited upon the anode a layer of peroxide of lead varying in thickness with the intensity of the current1 and more or less rich in oxygen according to the intensity of the bath1 while the cathode is covered with a stratum of reduced lead4 ,the liquid of the bath supplies material for both deposits1 while in galvanoplastic operations the anode supplies it to the cathode4 ,the principle of the formation consists in introducing in an efficacious manner currents of a great intensity1 and thus abridging its duration4 ,of two plates thus treated1 the one becomes positive1 and is covered with a thick layer of peroxide of lead4 ,on leaving the bath it undergoes various preparations and several washings1 and is then fit to be mounted along with others to form an accumulator ready to be charged and to work4 ,the second1 or negative1 plate is covered with a thick sponge of lead4 ,it is carefully washed1 preserved in water with exclusion of air1 and submitted to a very considerable pressure4 ,after this operation it presents the appearance of ordinary sheet lead1 but though the physical porosity has disappeared1 the chemical porosity is intact1 and this alone comes into play in accumulators4 ,when a negative plate is constructed in this manner1 it is ready to be combined with the positives to form an accumulator4 ,the inventor has sometimes put into the bath at the positive pole negative plates prepared as just described4 ,they become very easily peroxidized1 but they have the grave defect of requiring two preparations in place of one4 ,to secure an accumulator against any leakage from plate1 the solderings and the entire plates must be submerged in the liquid1 so that nothing projects up out of the acidulated water except two strong rods for making contact4 ,these rods are covered with an insulating varnish from their origin to above the point where they issue from the liquid4 ,the plates are of a rectangular form 7,fig4 #a74 ,they are sloped out at one corner1 and as two plates in juxtaposition are cut together1 when they are separated the sloping out of the one serves for the handle of the other4 ,this handle is doubled back on the plate which is suspended in the bath1 so that the part which has to be soldered does not undergo any preparation4 ,a hole pierced in this corner of the plate serves to receive a square rod of lead1 which connects the plates together and supports one of the poles or contacts of the accumulator4 ,at the point of soldering the doubled-down handle gives a double thickness1 and the margins of the plate are folded in such a manner as to insure their solidity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the sloped out corner affords the free space necessary for the rod of the opposite pole1 and one and the same plate may be indifferently connected either to the or the - at the right or the left4 ,the plates are made of four different sizes3 ,no4 #a1 #ai of which serve for an accumulator of #a square meter2 ,no4 #b1 #ba1 #be1 or #bi of which serve for accumulators of #b1 #c1 and #d square meters2 ,no4 #c1 which with #ba1 #be1 or #bi plates composes accumulators of #e1 #f1 and #g square meters2 and ,no4 #d1 which with #ba1 #bc1 #be1 #bg or #bi plates forms accumulators of #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 and #ab square meters4 ,as the plates are entirely submerged in the liquid their entire surface is active1 and the entire surface being absolutely flat1 it is sufficient to preserve their respective distance at any one point in order to have it everywhere alike4 ,the weight of the plate depends on the intended duration of the plate and its capacity4 ,as for the negative plate1 its thickness is the most important factor of its capacity4 ,the proportion has yet to be established for daily practice4 ,the inventor uses in practice positive plates of #j4jjb meter in thickness4 ,on the other hand1 the negative plates have a body of only #j4jja meter in thickness1 their greater thickness being due only to the deposit of compressed lead4 ,the rod which fixes the plate to each pole 7,fig4 #b7 is formed of a special alloy of lead and antimony1 not attacked by acid4 ,this gives rigidity to the rod1 and hinders it from binding when the accumulator is taken out of its case4 ,the copper piece which surmounts it is fitted at its base with an iron cramp1 which is fixed in the lead1 and above which is a wide furrow with two grooved parts1 which being immersed in the lead hinders the copper from slipping round under the action of the screw4 ,the rod is square1 and is cast in a single piece4 ,against one of its surfaces the ends of the connected plates press flatly up4 ,a square form has been selected to give more surface for soldering4 ,the soldering is autogenous 7as in the lead chambers at vitriol works74 ,the soldering1 as well as the entire plates1 is entirely immersed in the liquid1 and to prevent any leakage an insulating varnish1 perfectly proof against the acid and the current1 is laid over the rod from the part soldered upward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,if it is wished to lift the accumulator from its chest for any verification1 hooks passing between the plates seize hold of the rods1 and thanks to the rigidity of the antimony lead1 they effect the removal of the apparatus without bending the rods in the least4 ,all the parts of the plates must be kept at exactly the same reciprocal distances1 and a difference of only #j4jja meter between two points is sufficient to affect the yield considerably4 ,for an insulating material1 wood1 when plunged in dilute acid1 is preferred by the inventor4 ,he makes a comb of wood1 the teeth of which vary according to the thickness of the plates to be lodged between them4 ,fig4 #c represents a comb having #ae_/aj of a millimeter for the negative plates and #be_/aj for the positive plates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,this appliance1 which is #j4ja meter in thickness and #j4jb meter in width in the back1 is made very cheaply by machinery4 ,the weight of the accumulator bears entirely upon the back of the combs1 which are all placed back downward1 and the number of which varies according to the size of the plates4 ,small combs of wood clasp the plates at their extremities1 and make the entire accumulator quite compact and manageable4 ,the entire accumulator is shut up in a wooden chest1 which the outer teeth of the comb serve to insulate from the leaden chest1 and to prevent any loss of electricity along the sides4 ,fig4 #d shows the arrangement of the side combs4 ,a single glance at this figure shows that it would be difficult to have more surface without having recourse to curved1 undulated1 or folded plates1 in which the distances are variable1 and consequently defective4 ,in the ,montaud accumulator1 the weight is simply proportional to the intended duration4 ,for the notion1 ,so much capacity and so much yield per kilo41 ,montaud substitutes the notion1 ,so much capacity or yield per square meter1 the weight not being taken into consideration4 ,these ,montaud accumulators are classified as follows3 ,they have from #a to #ab square meters of surface1 and the number corresponding to the surface indicates its weight of useful lead1 its manner of charging1 its capacity1 and its manner of discharge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,according to the inventor's experiments1 the square meter of active surface can receive a charging current of #aj amperes1 and furnish on discharging a current of the intensity of #bj amperes4 ,for a ,no4 #aj accumulator we have an active surface of #aj square meters1 a charging current of #ajj amperes1 and on discharging a current of #bjj amperes4 ,a square meter of lead of the thickness of #j4jja meter weighs about #aa kilos4 ,as both surfaces of the lead are utilized1 their weight is reduced to #e kilos4 ,a ,no4 #aj therefore requires #ee kilos4 of useful lead4 ,it will be seen that to increase the thickness of the sheet of lead merely augments the duration of the accumulator1 without affecting its capacity or its manner of charging and discharging4 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d may be placed in vessels of stoneware1 glass1 or ebonite1 or in boxes of pitch pine1 painted with three coats of gum lac and lined with sheet lead4 ,nos4 #e to #ab are only sent out in pitch pine boxes lined with lead4 ,the box is supported on feet of porcelain of the shape of a mushroom4 ,if a drop of water falls upon this foot1 it cannot give a communication with the earth1 since1 falling upon the broad part of the mushroom1 it will glide off without running along the foot1 which serves as the stalk of the mushroom4 ,a slip of glass is placed under each foot2 the part which supports the mushroom is covered with an insulating varnish1 which prevents the formation of climbing salts and preserves the screws from rust4 ,a common layer of insulating varnish is applied under the head of the mushroom4 ,as regards the advantages of the ,montaud accumulator we notice1 first1 its longevity4 ,dr4 ,d',arsonval points out that the accumulators of the ,plante class have a great advantage over the ,faure type as regards duration1 and that the most striking quality of the ,montaud accumulator is its longevity4 ,the inventor has in his possession positive plates1 five to six years old1 completely peroxidized1 though there remains in the interior a thin core of metallic lead sufficient to give passage to the current4 ,the adhesion of the peroxide is such that to detach it1 it must be beaten with a hammer upon an anvil4 ,the next four points--i4e41 the rapidity of charge2 the yield1 much greater than that of any other system in proportion to its surface2 its small weight in comparison with its yield2 and its capacity1 which for an equal weight is greater than that of any other accumulator4 ,in his experiments in ,september1 #ahhe1 ,dr4 ,d',arsonval obtained with an accumulator of #b square meters of surface3 ,useful capacity #dj ampere hours4 ,total #fb ,surface #b square meters ,charge #aj amp4 per sq4 meter4 ,discharge #bj ,useful weight of lead #aj kilos4 ,representing a total capacity of six ampere hours per kilo41 and of a discharge of #e amperes per kilo41 or a total capacity of #ha ampere hours per square meter1 and a useful capacity of #bj ampere hours per square meter4 ,subsequently the modification of the negative plate has greatly improved these figures1 which will certainly become much more advantageous in future4 ,the total capacity of an accumulator having exactly #a meters of surface has become #hg ampere hours1 which if referred to an accumulator of #b square meters of surface1 would give the following results3 ,useful weight of lead per sq4 meter #e kilos4 ,total capacity of useful lead per kilo #i4a amp4 hr4 ,total capacity per sq4 meter #ej ,useful capacity of per kilo of useful lead #f4bc ,useful capacity per square meter #cd4cj ,current of charge per square meter #aj amp4 ,current of charge per kilo1 of useful lead #b ,current of discharge per sq4 meter #bj ,current of discharge per kilo1 of useful lead #d4ef ,the next advantage of the ,montaud accumulator is the ease with which it can be taken out of its box and repaired without special tools and experience4 ,a capital defect in this respect has hitherto much interfered with the use of accumulators4 ,in case of accidents1 several kinds of which are possible1 it is found very difficult to rectify the apparatus4 ,the ,montaud accumulator is much less liable to accidents1 on account of the firmness and compactness of its construction1 and if any accident happens1 the repairs are simple and easy4 ,lastly1 the stout framework secures the apparatus from any accident due to a disproportionate charge or discharge4 ,the peculiarities of the combs and rods already described solve this problem4 ,on ,september #h1 #ahhe1 ,dr4 ,d',arsonval1 professor at the ,college of ,france1 wrote as follows3 ,the ,montaud accumulator is of the ,plante type1 and is extremely well conceived from a mechanical point of view4 ,the wooden combs prevent the plates from coming in mutual contact1 and give the apparatus great solidity4 ,the process of formation is ingenious and rapid4 ,to give #a square meter a capacity of #bj ampere hours1 there is required only a quarter of an hour's treatment4 ,to obtain the same result by ,plante's method1 months are required4 ,the entire experiments have been effected with ,no4 #b1 which has a surface of two square meters4 ,this apparatus1 if charged to saturation1 gives #fb ampere hours as its total capacity1 and1 as in the ,plante1 this capacity constantly increases with use4 ,the normal rule for the charge is #aj amperes per square meter1 and for the discharge double this quantity4 ,this apparatus has always given me on discharging #dj amperes at the ,e4,m4,f4 of #a4he volts during #fj or #fe minutes4 ,the charge is effected in two hours up to #bj amperes1 without any appreciable loss of electricity4 ,the points to be aimed at in an accumulator are longevity and energy1 or1 rather1 rapid yield per kilo4 ,from both points of view accumulators of the ,plante type 7and consequently those of ,montaud7 are far superior to those of the ,faure type4 ,my opinion1 therefore1 is that the ,montaud accumulator is very practical1 that it is a great improvement on the ,plante type1 and that it can compete successfully with the other systems in use4--,revue ,internationale de l',electricite4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electric ,,registering ,,apparatus ,,for ,,meteorological ,,instruments4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,gime1 whose name is not unknown to our readers1 sends us a description of a certain number of meteorological apparatus to which he has applied a peculiar method of registering that it is of interest to make known4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,gime',s ,,telemareograph4 ,mr4 ,gime in the first place has devised a telemareograph1 that is to say1 an apparatus designed to register at a distance the curve of the motions of the tide in a given place4 ,the structure of this device1 shown diagramatically in ,fig4 #a1 is very simple4 ,it is divided into two distinct parts--a transmitter and a registering apparatus4 ,the transmitter consists of a long glass tube1 ,a1 closed at one end and communicating through the other with a receptacle filled with mercury4 ,a barometric vacuum is formed in this tube4 ,the level of the open receptacle corresponds exactly to the level of the lowest tide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,the ,,apparatus ,,with ,,three ,,registering ,,stations4 ,pieces of iron wire projecting sufficiently in the interior to establish good contacts with the column of mercury are fastened one millimeter apart to the inner surface of the tube4 ,these iron contacts are connected with the divisions of a rheostat1 ,r1 arranged in a tight compartment surrounded with paraffine1 near the tube4 ,this rheostat is interposed in the general circuit4 ,it is connected through one extremity with the line1 and through the other with a disk of copper1 which has a surface of one square meter1 and is immersed in the sea4 ,the line1 ,l1 insulated like an ordinary telegraph wire1 is prolonged as far as to the registering station4 ,the registering apparatus consists of a solenoid1 ,s1 that acts upon a soft iron core suspended by a cord from the extremity1 x1 of the beam of a balance4 ,this cord passes between the channels of two rollers designed1 despite the motion of the beam1 to keep the core in a vertical position in the center of the solenoid4 ,the opposite arm of the balance carries a sliding weight1 i1 that moves over a graduated scale and is designed to balance the core1 ,n1 in a certain position in regulating the motions of the curve4 ,at its extremity it carries a style that bears against the drum1 ,t1 on which the paper is wound that is to receive the mareometric curve4 ,the solenoid1 ,s1 is interposed in the general circuit1 being connected on the one hand with the line1 ,l1 and on the other with a very constant battery of an electromotive force proportioned to the resistance of the circuit4 ,through the electrode that remains free1 the battery is grounded with so great care that no variation in resistance can be produced thereby4 ,if the station is near the sea1 the conductor of this electrode may be run to a copper disk1 having the same surface as the one at the transmitting station4 ,with this description1 the operation of the apparatus may be easily understood4 ,at low water1 the pressure of the atmosphere balances a column of mercury rising in a glass tube to a height proportionate to such pressure4 ,in measure as the level of the water rises1 the pressure on the mercury in the receptacle increases1 and causes the metal to rise in the tube4 ,the higher the level of the sea1 the less becomes the sum of the resistances of the rheostat1 since the column of mercury puts in short circuit all the divisions of the rheostat1 whose contacts are comprised in the height of the column4 ,from these variations in the resistance of the circuit naturally result variations in the current from the battery1 ,b1 at the registering station4 ,to the variations in intensity of the current in the circuit there correspond variations in the attraction of the solenoid for the core that transmits these motions to the balance that carries the registering style1 which latter amplifies or reduces them4 ,the same transmitter suffices for various registering stations arranged in series1 as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the variations in the resistance of the circuit1 due to variations in the temperature1 and the variations in the height of the column of mercury1 due to atmospheric variations1 etc41 are1 according to the inventor1 of no importance4 ,it would evidently be possible1 on the same principle1 to construct an apparatus for registering the indications of a thermometer at a distance4 ,such is the principle of ,mr4 ,gime's apparatus4 ,we do not believe that they are entirely closed to criticism4 ,what1 in fact1 are the conditions essential for their proper working8 ,evidently3 7#a7 the constancy of the battery used2 7#b7 a rigorously accurate adjustment4 ,this latter condition1 is easily realized2 but the same is not the case with the former4 ,of what elements shall this constant battery be formed8 ,mr4 ,gime recommends the use of the ,latimer-,clark elements4 ,every one knows that the ,latimer-,clark element is now the best standard of electromotive force2 but let us not forget that this is on condition of its being employed in open circuit4 ,now1 it is not a question here of an open circuit1 nor even of infinitely weak currents1 since in the line we have a solenoid whose core must set in motion a whole system of connected pieces4 ,we do not see any possibility of employing ,latimer-,clark elements2 on the contrary1 it seems to us indispensable to select piles of large discharge1 since the solenoid1 ,s1 will attract nothing at all unless a notable quantity of energy is expended in it4 ,is there a pile of this kind so constant as not to render a rigorously accurate adjustment illusory8 ,therein lies the entire question1 and for our part we hesitate to pronounce ourselves in the negative4--,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,clinical ,,lesson ,,at ,,la ,,salpetriere4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,salon ,,of #ahhg4--;,a ,,lecture ,,in ,,the ,,dispensary ,,at ,,la ,,salpetriere4--,painted by ,m4 ,andre ,brouillet4--,m4 ,dochy4 ,engraver4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,clinical ,,lecture ,,at ,,la ,,salpetriere4 ,we reproduce the picture of ,mr4 ,andre ,brouillet1 which was in the ,salon of #ahhg2 and that the subject may be better understood1 we give the accompanying sketch and description4 ,this picture is very interesting1 not only from an artistic point of view1 but also as a representation of students and spectators of all ages admirably grouped around a great master of science when most interested in his work4 ,we borrow from ,matin-,salon ,mr4 ,goetschy's explanation of the picture3 ,the hall in which the lesson is given is lighted by two large windows opening on one of the courts of the hospital4 ,the ,professor stands at the right of the picture1 his head uncovered1 one hand close to his body and the other extended slightly in a gesture which is familiar to him1 his audience being before him4 ,at his side is ,mr4 ,babinski1 chief of the clinic1 supporting a person afflicted with hysteria4 ,near the latter stands a nurse and assistant who watches every movement of the patient4 ,this is ,mother ,bottard1 a good1 intelligent1 and devoted woman1 who is well known to all those present4 ,the auditors have arranged themselves at the students' tables1 some seated on the chairs and stools which furnish the room1 and others standing1 but all following closely the teaching of the master1 and at the same time watching the subject4 ,the picture is full of life and motion1 and yet is very exact4 ,the head and shoulders of the subject are beautifully and correctly drawn4 ,the artist has brought together many men who are well known in literature and science4--,le ,monde ,illustre4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,to ,,find ,,the ,,day ,,of ,,the ,,week ,,for ,,any ,,given ,,date4 ,having hit upon the following method of mentally computing the day of the week for any given date1 ,i send it you in the hope that it may interest some of your readers4 ,i am not a rapid computer myself1 and as ,i find my average time for doing any such question is about #bj seconds1 ,i have little doubt that a rapid computer would not need #ae4 ,take the given date in #d portions1 viz41 the number of centuries1 the number of years over1 the month1 the day of the month4 ,compute the following #d items1 adding each1 when found1 to the total of the previous items4 ,when an item or total exceeds #g1 divide by #g1 and keep the remainder only4 ,the ,century ,item4--,for old style 7which ended ,september #b1 #ageb7 subtract from #ah4 ,for new style 7which began ,september #ad7 divide by #d1 take overplus from #c1 multiply remainder by #b4 ,the ,year ,item4--,add together the number of dozens1 the overplus1 and the number of #d's in the overplus4 ,the ,month ,item4--,if it begins or ends with a vowel1 subtract the number denoting its place in the year from #aj4 ,this1 plus its number of days1 gives the item for the following month4 ,the item for ,january is #j2 for ,february or ,march 7the #c;d month71 #c2 for ,december 7the #abth month71 #ab4 ,the ,day ,item is the day of the month4 ,the total thus reached must be corrected by deducting #a 7first adding #g1 if the total be #j71 if the date be ,january or ,february in a leap year2 remembering that every year divisible by #d is a leap year1 excepting only the century years1 in new style1 when the number of centuries is not so divisible 7e4g41 #ahjj74 ,the final result gives the day of the week1 #j meaning ,sunday1 #a ,monday1 and so on4 ,,examples4 #aghc1 ,september #ah4 #ag divided by #d leaves #a over2 #a from #c gives #b2 twice #b is #d4 #hc is #f dozen and #aa1 giving #ag2 plus #b gives #ai1 i4e4 7dividing by #g71 #e4 ,total #i1 i4e41 #b4 ,the item for ,august is #h from #aj1 i4e41 #b2 so1 for ,september1 it is #b plus #c1 i4e41 #e4 ,total #g1 i4e41 #j1 which goes out4 #ah gives #d4 ,answer1 ,thursday4 #afgf1 ,february #bc4 #af from #ah gives #b4 #gf is #f dozen and #d1 giving #aj2 plus #a gives #aa1 i4e41 #d4 ,total #f4 ,the item for ,february is #c4 ,total #i1 i4e41 #b4 #bc gives #b4 ,total #d4 ,correction for leap year gives #c4 ,answer1 ,wednesday4 ,,lewis ,,carroll4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,precious ,,stones ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,to the recently distributed government report on the mineral resources of the ,united ,states for #ahhe4a ,mr4 ,g4,f4 ,kunz contributes an interesting chapter in which is recorded the progress made during that year in the discovery and utilization of precious stones4 ,footnote #a3 ,mineral ,resources of the ,united ,states3 ,calendar ,year #ahhe4 ,washington3 ,government ,printing ,office4 #ahhh4 ,in the summer of #ahhe1 a remarkably large pocket containing fine crystals of muscovite1 with brilliant crystals of rutile implanted on them1 was found at the ,emerald and ,hiddenite ,mining ,company's works1 at ,stony ,point1 ,n4,c41 and was sold in the form of cabinet specimens for #gej4 ,while the soil overlying the rock was being worked1 nine crystals of emerald were found1 all of which were doubly terminated1 and measured from #a inch to #c-a_/h inches in length and #a-b_/c inch in width4 ,one of these crystals is very perfect as a specimen1 being of a fine light green color1 and weighing #h ounces4 ,it is held by the company at #a1ejj1 and the nine crystals together at #c1jjj4 ,another of these crystals1 doubly terminated1 measures #b inches by #aa_/ab of an inch1 and is filled with large rhombohedral cavities1 which formerly contained dolomite4 ,the only crystal from this collection that has been cut into a gem was found in a pocket at a depth of over #dc feet4 ,in color it is of a pleasing light green1 and it weighs #d-bb_/cb carats4 ,no crystal of a finer color has as yet been found in the ,united ,states1 and the gem is held by the company at #bjj4 ,during the recent mining1 the largest fine crystal of lithia emerald ever found was also brought to light4 ,it measures #b inches by #c_/e of an inch by #a_/c of an inch4 ,one end is of a very fine color1 and would afford the largest gem of this mineral yet found1 and one which would probably weigh #e carats4 ,with this there was a number of superior crystals and some ounces of common pieces of the same mineral4 ,the company estimates the value of this entire yield of hiddenite at about #b1ejj4 ,there was also found a quantity of quartz filled with white byssolite1 forming very attractive specimens and valued at #bej4 ,a number of beryls of a fine blue color1 resembling the ,mourne ,mountain specimens1 were found near ,mount ,antero1 ,chaffee ,county1 ,col4 ,one of these was #d inches long and #c_/h of an inch across1 with cutting material in it4 ,the other crystals measured from #a to #a inch in length1 and from #a_/e to #a_/c inch in width4 ,the large beryl mentioned by ,mr4 ,kunz in the ,mineral ,resources for #ahhc and #ahhd has afforded the finest aquamarine of ,american origin known4 ,it is brilliant as a cut gem1 and1 with the exception of a few internal hair-like stri1 is absolutely perfect4 ,it weighs #acc carats1 measures #a-b_/e #a-b_/e #d_/e inch1 and is of a deep bluish green1 equal to that of gems from any known locality4 ,mr4 ,g4,f4 ,breed1 manager of the ,valencia ,mica ,company1 has cut nearly one hundred aquamarines1 ranging from carat to #d carats in weight1 and of a light blue color1 from white beryls found in the company's mica mine at ,north ,grafton1 ,n4,h4 ,a number of fine1 deep golden-yellow1 blue1 and green beryls1 equaling any ever found1 have been taken by ,mr4 ,m4,w4 ,barse from his mica mine between ,new ,milford and ,litchfield1 ,conn4 ,some fine blood-red garnets from this same locality have been cut into gems4 ,the largest phenacite crystal ever found is owned by ,mr4 ,whitman ,cross4 ,it was discovered at ,crystal ,park1 ,col41 weighs #ei pennyweights #f grains1 and measures #a-d_/e inch in length and #a-a_/e inch in thickness4 ,thousands of garnet crystals1 found at ,ruby ,mountain1 near ,salides1 ,col41 have been made into paperweights and sold to tourists4 ,those that weigh a few ounces sell for about ten cents each4 ,one was sold that weighed #ad pounds4 ,apropos of garnets1 the discovery1 in the heart of ,new ,york city1 of as fine a crystal as was ever found on this continent1 and weighing #i pounds #aj ounces1 may be mentioned as a matter of peculiar interest4 ,several thousand dollars' worth of the wood jasper of ,arizona has been cut into paper weights1 charms1 and other objects1 or polished on one side for cabinet specimens4 ,numbers of these articles are now being cut and sold to tourists along the line of the ,atchison1 ,topeka1 and ,santa ,fe ,railroad4 ,the compact quartzite of ,sioux ,falls1 ,dakota1 is being quarried and polished for ornamental purposes4 ,it is known and sold as ,sioux ,falls jasper1 and is really the stone referred to by ,longfellow in his ,hiawatha as being used for arrow heads4 ,this stone takes a very high polish1 and is found in a variety of pleasing tints1 such as chocolate1 brownish-red1 brick-red1 and yellowish4 ,for the two years previous to #ahhe1 #ae1jjj worth of it was sold4 ,a remarkable mass of rock crystal has been received by ,messrs4 ,tiffany ,co4 from a locality near ,cave ,city1 ,va4 ,although this mass weighs #ea pounds1 it is but a fragment of the original crystal1 which weighed #cjj pounds1 and which was broken in pieces by the ignorant mountain girl who found it4 ,the fragment1 as it is1 will furnish slabs #h inches square and from #a_/c to #a inch thick4 ,the original crystal would have furnished a ball from #d to #e inches in diameter1 and almost perfect4 ,a number of fine agates of various kinds were found by ,mr4 ,f4,c4 ,yeomans at the same locality4 ,the meccanite from ,cumberland1 ,r4,i41 is often spotted with white quartz4 ,it has been cut into oval stones several inches in length1 which take a fine polish4 ,this quality1 coupled with its hardness1 makes it a desirable ornamental gem stone4 ,mr4 ,kunz records the discovery1 by himself1 in the largest mass of the ,glorieta ,mountain 7,santa ,fe ,county1 ,n4,m471 of pieces of peridot of sufficient transparency to afford gems one-fifth of an inch in length4 ,large quantities of turquoise from ,los ,cevillos1 ,n4,m41 have been sold1 both as cabinet specimens and gems2 but1 unfortunately1 many of those of the finest color have been found to be artificially colored4 ,malachite in large masses has been found at the ,copper ,queen mine at ,bisbee1 ,oregon4 ,one of these masses weighed #ae pounds and others were quite as large4 ,all were of good enough quality and large enough for table tops4 ,in conclusion1 ,mr4 ,kunz says that the ,national ,museum collection of gems1 formed by ,prof4 ,f4,w4 ,clarke1 is now one of the most complete1 for species1 in the ,united ,states1 and as many of the gems are of more than average merit1 and all can have access to them1 this is one of the best opportunities afforded the student in this country4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,brazil ,,nut4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,brazil ,,nut4 ,every one is acquainted with the hard-shelled1 triangular fruit called the ,brazil nut1 but there are1 perhaps1 but few who know anything about the tree that produces it1 or its mode of growth4 ,the ,brazil nut tree belongs to a genus of ,lecythidace of which there is only one species1 ,bertholletia excelsa4 ,this tree is a native of ,guiana1 ,venezuela1 and ,brazil4 ,it forms large forests on the banks of the ,amazons and ,rio ,negro1 and likewise about ,esmeraldas1 on the ,orinoco1 where the natives call it juvia4 ,the natives of ,brazil call the fruit capucaya1 while to the ,portuguese it is known as castaa de maraon4 ,the tree is one of the most majestic in the ,south ,american forests1 attaining a height of #ajj or #aej feet4 ,its trunk is straight and cylindrical1 and measures about #c or #d feet in diameter4 ,the bark is grayish and very even4 ,at a distance1 the tree somewhat resembles a chestnut4 ,its branches are alternate1 open1 very long1 and droop toward the earth4 ,the leaves are alternate1 oblong1 short petioled1 nearly coriaceous1 about #b feet long by #f inches wide1 entire or undivided1 and of a bright green color4 ,the flowers have a two-parted1 deciduous calyx1 six unequal cream-colored petals1 and numerous stamens united into a broad1 hood-shaped mass1 those at the base being fertile1 and the upper ones sterile4 ,the fruit is nearly orbicular1 and about #f inches in diameter1 and has a hard shell about half an inch thick1 which contains from #ah to #bd triangular1 wrinkled seeds that are so beautifully packed within the shell that when once disturbed it is impossible to replace them4 ,when these fruits are ripe1 they fall from the tree and are collected into heaps by troops of ,indians called ,castanhieros1 who visit the forests at the proper season of the year expressly for this purpose4 ,they are then split open with an ax1 and the seeds 7the ,brazil nuts of commerce7 taken out and packed in baskets for transportation to ,para in the native canoes4 ,the meat that the ,brazil nut contains consists of a white substance of the same nature as that of the common almond1 and which is good to eat when fresh1 but which1 by reason of its very oily nature1 soon gets rancid4 ,besides its use as an article of dessert1 a bland oil1 used by watchmakers and artists1 is obtained from the nut by pressure4 ,brazil nuts form a considerable article of export from the port of ,para1 whence they are sometimes called ,para nuts4 ,the ,brazil nut tree remained for a long time unknown to ,european botanists1 although the fruit has been from a very remote epoch consumed in large quantities in certain southern countries of the ,new ,world4 ,the first description of the tree we owe to ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 who established the genus and species in the botanical part of the account of their voyage4 ,the genus is dedicated to the illustrious ,berthollet4 ,we were very fortunate1 say these authors1 to find some of these nuts in our travels on the ,orinoco4 ,for three months we had been living on nothing but poor chocolate and rice cooked in water1 always without butter1 and often without salt1 when we procured a large quantity of the fresh fruits of the ,bertholletia4 ,it was along in ,june1 and the natives had just gathered them4 ,the formation of a large woody fruit1 often in the shape of an urn1 from which the top spontaneously separates in the form of a lid1 is one of the characteristics of the order ,lecythidace1 which includes the ,couronpita ,guianensis1 or cannon ball tree2 the gigantic ,lecythis ollaria1 or monkey-pot tree1 whose great woody pericarps serve as drinking vessels2 and the ,lecythis ,zabucajo1 whose fruit is known in the market as sapucaia nuts1 and is greatly superior to the closely allied ,brazil nuts as regards flavor and ease of digestion4 ,all the trees of this order are natives of ,south ,america1 and especially of ,guiana4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,magnet ,,in ,,hypnosis4 ,mr4 ,tamburini some time ago observed that1 during a period of lethargy1 the approach of a magnet produced in persons affected with hysterical hypnosis a series of modifications of the respiratory functions and of contractility4 ,from some very careful experiments made by him and ,mr4 ,righi in common1 upon the lady who was the principal subject of his observations1 it results that 7#a7 it makes no difference whether the magnet be presented by its poles or its neutral line2 7#b7 that any mass of metal whatever acts like a magnet2 7#c7 that an electromagnet produces exactly the same effect whether it be or be not excited by a current2 and 7#d7 that a glass tube filled with cold or warm water likewise produces analogous effects1 which disappear when the water is raised to the temperature of the human body4 ,it seems1 therefore1 that the magnetic properties of the magnet count for nothing in the phenomena observed4--,journal de ,physique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,terms of ,subscription1 #e a ,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej1 stitched in paper1 or #c4ej1 bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined ,,rates--,one copy of ,,scientific ,,american and one copy of ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj4 ,a liberal discount to booksellers1 news agents1 and canvassers4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,patents4 ,in connection with the ,scientific ,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors of ,american and ,foreign ,patents1 have had #ci years' experience1 and now have the largest establishment in the world4 ,patents are obtained on the best terms4 ,a special notice is made in the ,scientific ,american of all ,inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how procured4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,branch ,office1 #fbb and #fbd ,f ,st41 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 #b4ej a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be ,cents4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of ,,the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,magazine of ,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings2 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of ,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans1 details1 and specifications regularly presented as the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans we have issued during the past year1 and many others are in process of construction4 ,architects1 ,builders1 and ,owners will find this work valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions4 ,all who contemplate building or improving homes1 or erecting structures of any kind1 have before them in this work an almost endless series of the latest and best examples from which to make selections1 thus saving time and money4 ,many other subjects1 including ,sewerage1 ,piping1 ,lighting1 ,warming1 ,ventilating1 ,decorating1 ,laying out of ,grounds1 etc4 are illustrated4 ,an extensive ,compendium of ,manufacturers' ,announcements is also given1 in which the most reliable and approved ,building ,materials1 ,goods1 ,machines1 ,tools1 and ,appliances are described1 and illustrated1 with addresses of the makers1 etc4 ,the fullness1 richness1 cheapness1 and convenience of this work have won for it the ,largest ,circulation of any ,architectural publication in the world4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publishers1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,a ,catalogue of valuable books on ,architecture1 ,building1 ,carpentry1 ,masonry1 ,heating1 ,warming1 ,lighting1 ,ventilation1 and all branches of industry pertaining to the art of ,building1 is supplied free of charge1 sent to any address4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,building ,,plans and ,,specifications4 ,in connection with the publication of the ,,building ,,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,munn ,co4 furnish plans and specifications for buildings of every kind1 including ,churches1 ,schools1 ,stores1 ,dwellings1 ,carriage ,houses1 ,barns1 etc4 ,in this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects4 ,full plans1 details1 and specifications for the various buildings illustrated in this paper can be supplied4 ,those who contemplate building1 or who wish to alter1 improve1 extend1 or add to existing buildings1 whether wings1 porches1 bay windows1 or attic rooms1 are invited to communicate with the undersigned4 ,our work exends to all parts of the country4 ,estimates1 plans1 and drawings promptly prepared4 ,terms moderate4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4