,illu/ration ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t ,,no4 #eie ,,new ,,york1 ,,may #bh1 #ahhg4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t4 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 ,no4 #eie4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican e/abli%$ #ahde ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 #e a ye>4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican & ,supplem5t1 #g a ye>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,i4 ,,botany4--,! ,relation ( ,taba%e] to ,m9]al ,sub/ances4--,! composition ( ?is curi\s secretion ( ! bamboo4--,analyses & prop]ties ( ! mat]ial1 accord+ to v>i\s obs]v]s4--,its appe>ance "u ! microscope4 #a illu/ration4 ,,ii4 ,,*emi/ry4--,app>atus = ,dry+ ,fl\r4--,an app>atus = det]m9+ ! moi/ure 9 fl\r4 #a illu/ration4 ,,iii4 ,,electricity4--,automatic ,commutator = ,inc&esc5t ,lamps4--,an app>atus = light+ automatically a new lamp to replace "o t has fail$4 #a illu/ration4 ,def9itions & ,designations 9 ,electro-,te*nics4--,mr4 ,jamieson's propos$ code ( electric symbols--lit]al & graphic4 #d illu/rations4 ,,iv4 ,,eng9e]+4--,new ,dr$g+ ,ma*9]y4--,! dr$g] ,ajax1 rec5tly built 9 ,cali=nia4--,its dim5sions & capacity4 #a illu/ration4 ,res]voir ,dams4--,by ,,david ,,gravell4--,! eng9e]+ details ( dams4--,typical masonry & e>?work dams ( ! _w4 #bc illu/rations4 ,! ,flexible ,gird] ,tramway4--,a new type ( susp5d$ railway--a modification ( ! wire tramway sy/em4 #ba illu/rations4 ,v4 ,,hygi5e4--,climate 9 its ,relation to ,heal?4--,by ,g4,v4 ,,poore1 ,m4,d4--,! ?ird lecture ( ?is s]ies4--,consid]ation ( ! float+ matt] ( ! air & diseases caus$ !reby4--,causation ( hay fev]4 ,,vi4 ,,ma!matics4--,radii ( ,curvature ,geometrically ,det]m9$4--,by ,pr(4 ,c4,w4 ,,maccord1 ,sc4,d4--,no4 ,,vii4 ,pa? ( a po9t on a connect+ rod4 #c illu/rations4 ,,vii4 ,,microscopy4--,improv$ ,microscopical ,settl+ ,tube4--,by ,f4 ,,v&]poel4--,new tubes = use 9 ur9>y analysis4 #d illu/rations4 ,,viii4 ,,miscellane\s4--,app>atus = ,manufactur+ ,b\quets4--,an +5i\s ma*9e = facilitat+ ! con/ruction ( b\quets4 #a illu/ration4 ,boz]ian's ,refrig]ant ,punkas4--,a fan work$ by ! feet1 a sub/itute = ! ,indian punka4 #b illu/rations4 ,h[ to ,make a ,kite )\t a ,tail4--,an improv$ =m ( kite describ$ & illu/rat$4 #a illu/ration4 ,punkas4--,by ,j4 ,,wallace1 ,c4,e4--,! me*anics ( punkas2 exp]im5ts on _! rate ( sw+4 ,! ,edible ,e>? ( ,java4--,an acc\nt ( ?is curi\s sub/ance1 its ta/e & appe>ance4 ,,ix4 ,,naval ,,eng9e]+4--,ano!r ,rem>kable ,torp$o ,boat4--,ov] tw5ty-eight miles an h\r4--,full p>ticul>s ( ! trial ( "o ( ! new ,italian torp$o boats1 built by ,y>r[ ,co4 ,copeman ,p9hey's ,life ,rafts4--,a new life raft = use on /eam]s1 fold+ into deck settees4 #c illu/rations4 ,x4 ,,physics4--,sunlight ,colors--,by ,capt4 ,w4 ,,de ,w4 ,,abney4--,a valuable lecture on ! cause ( ! colors ( ! sun1 & _! relative int5sities4 #c illu/rations4 ,! ,wave ,!ory ( ,s\nd ,consid]$4--,by ,,h5ry ,a4 ,,mott1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d4--,argum5ts aga9/ ! g5]ally accept$ !ory ( s\nd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,copeman ,,p9hey',s ,,life ,,rafts4 ,! exp]im5ts ) life sav+ appliances :i* ,mr4 ,copeman br\ght be=e ! delegates ( ! ,colonial ,conf]5ce1 on ! #ac? ,april1 at ! ,we/m9/] ,aqu>ium1 _h a p>ticul> int]e/1 due to ! late & lam5table accid5t :i* befell ! ,ne:av5-,dieppe pass5g] /eam] ,victoria4 ,9 _m cases ( ?is nature1 loss ( life mu/ r be attribut$ to panic ?an to a want ( life sav+ appliances2 b1 z a g5]al rule1 an abundant supply ( su* app>atus w t5d to give pass5g]s confid5ce1 & prev5t ! outbreak ( su* discr$itable sc5es on ! "p ( pass5g]s z took place on ! ,victoria4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,copeman ,,p9hey',s ,,life ,,rafts4 ,messrs4 ,copeman ,p9hey h1 = "s ye>s pa/1 done good "w 9 ?is direction1 & at ! rec5t meet+ ( ! ,in/itution ( ,naval ,ar*itects1 ,mr4 ,copeman %[$ sev]al models ( ! late/ types ( _! life sav+ app>atus1 bo? = use on torp$o boats & pass5g] /eam]s4 ,our illu/ration 7,fig4 #a7 repres5ts ! k9d ( rafts suppli$ to h] ,maje/y's troop %ips1 :ile ,figs4 #b & #c %[ deck seats conv]tible into rafts1 :i* are int5d$ = ord9>y pass5g] /eam]s4 ,! raft %[n 9 ,fig4 #a consi/s ( two pontoons1 jo9$ by /rong cross beams1 & fitt$ ) ma/1 sail1 & o>s4 ,:5 n 9 use1 ! pontoons =m deck seats1 cov]$ by a wood5 grat+1 :i* 9 our illu/ration =ms ! middle "p ( ! raft4 ,ea* pontoon has a comp>tm5t = /or+ provisions1 & :5 rigg$ z a raft1 !re is a rail+ to prev5t p]sons be+ wa%$ ov]bo>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,! seat life buoy1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #b1 s]ves z an ord9>y deck seat1 be+ ab\t #h ft4 long1 & x consi/s ( two portions1 h+$ at ! back4 ,:5 requir$ = use z a life buoy1 x is simply ?r[n =w>d1 ! seat be+ at ! same "t lift$ upw>d1 s t ! top rail ( ! back engages ) ! two clips1 %[n at ei!r end ( ! seat1 & ! :ole /ructure !n =ms a rigid raft1 z w be se5 f ,fig4 #c4 ,sev]al o!r appliances 7 %[n at ! ,we/m9/] ,aqu>ium on ,april #ac1 b ! two rafts we h select$ = illu/ration w give a suffici5tly correct idea ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ^u :i* ! app>atus is bas$4--,indu/ries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ano!r ,,rem>kable ,,torp$o ,,boat--,,ov] ,,tw5ty-,,eight ,,miles ,,an ,,h\r4 ,9 a rec5t impression we gave "s p>ticul>s ( ! trial trip ( a boat built = ! ,italian gov]nm5t by ,messrs4 ,y>r[ ,co41 :i* atta9$ ! highe/ spe$ kn[n1 namely1 z ne>ly z possible1 #bh miles an h\r4 ,on ! #ad? ,april ! si/] boat made h] trial trip 9 ! ,l[] ,hope1 beat+ all previ\s p]=mances1 & atta9+ a mean spe$ ( #be4aja knots1 or ov] #bh miles an h\r4 ,! quicke/ run made ) ! tide 0 at ! rate ( #bg4bgb knots1 or #ca4dd miles p] h\r1 pa/ ! %ore4 ,?is is a wond]ful p]=mance4 ,9 ! foll[+ table we give ! precise results3 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,second ,boil]4,receiv]4,vacuum4,revs4 ,spe$4 ,means4 ,means4 ---------------------------------------- --------- p] ,knots ,knots ,knots lb4 lb4 94 m94p] hr4p] hr4p] hr4 ---------------------------------------- --------- #a #acj #cb #bh #cgc #bb4fda #bd4ief #b #acj #cb #bh #cgb4g #bg4bgb #be4jbh #bd4iib #c #acj #cb #bh #cgb #bb4ghd #be4jbh #be4jbh #d #acj #cb #bh #cgg #bg4bgb #be4bdh #be4ach #e #acj #cb #bh #cge #bc4bbe #be4bdh #be4bdh #f #acj #cb #bh #cgg #bg4bgb ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,means #acj #cb #bh #cgd4e #be4aja ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,! boat is #adj ft4 long1 & fitt$ ) tw9 screws driv5 by comp\nd eng9es1 "o pair to ea* propell]4 ,^! eng9es are ( ! usual type1 con/ruct$ by ,messrs4 ,y>r[4 ,ea* has two cyl9d]s ) cranks at #ij4 ,! fram+1 &1 inde$1 e portion n ( phosphor-bronze or gun metal1 is ( /eel1 extraord9>y precautions be+ tak5 to secure lightness4 ,?us ! connect+ rods h holes drill$ ?r\gh !m f end to end4 ,! l[ pressure cyl9d]s are fitt$ ) slide valves4 ,! high pressure valves are ( ! pi/on type1 all be+ work$ by ! ord9>y l9k motion & ecc5trics4 ,! eng9e room is n f> f ! mid l5g? ( ! boat1 & "o boil] is plac$ ahead & ! o!r a/]n ( x4 ,ea* boil] is s arrang$ t x w supply ei!r eng9e or bo? at pleasure4 ,! boat has !re=e two funnels1 "o =w>d & ! o!r aft1 & air is suppli$ to ! furnaces by two fans1 "o fix$ on ! =w>d & ! o!r on ! aft bulkhead ( ! eng9e room4 ,! fan eng9es h cyl9d]s #e 94 diamet] & #c 94 /roke1 & make ab\t #a1ajj revolutions p] m9ute :5 at full spe$1 caus+ a pl5um 9 ! /okeholes ( ab\t #f 94 wat] pressure4 ,d\ble /eam /e]+ ge> is fitt$1 = ! =w>d & aft rudd] respectively1 & safety f f\nd]+ is provid$ to an unusual degree by ! subdivision ( ! hull into num]\s comp>tm5ts1 ea* ( :i* is fitt$ ) a huge ejector1 capable ( ?r[+ ov]bo>d a great body ( wat]4 ,a body ( wat] equal to ! :ole displacem5t ( ! boat c be dis*>g$ 9 less ?an sev5 m9utes4 ,!re is also a c5trifugal pump provid$1 :i* c draw f any comp>tm5t4 ,! circulat+ pump is n available1 because x has virtually no exi/5ce1 a v small pump on ! same %aft z ! c5trifugal be+ us$ m]ely to dra9 ! cond5s]s4 ,^! la/ are ( copp]1 cyl9drical1 & fitt$ ) pipes ?r\gh :i* a trem5d\s curr5t ( wat] is set up by ! passage ( ! boat ?r\gh ! sea4 ,?us ! space & weight due to a circulat+ pump is sav$ & complication avoid$4 ,! air & fe$ pumps are comb9$ 9 "o ca/+ let into ! eng9e room floor1 q out ( ! way1 & work$ by a crank p9 9 a small disk on ! =w>d end ( ! propell] %aft4 ,?is is an admirable arrangem5t1 & works to p]fection4 ,! armam5t ( ! boat consi/s ( two torp$o tubes 9 h] b[s1 & a second pair set at a small angle to ea*--,y>r['s pat5t--c>ri$ aft on a turntable = broadside fir+4 ,!re are also two quick fir+ #c lb4 guns on h] deck4 ,! conn+ t[] =w>d is rifle pro(1 & b5ea? x & fur!r =w>d is fix$ ! /e]+ eng9e1 & a compress+ eng9e1 by :i* air is compress$ = />t+ ! torp$oes ov]bo>d & = *>g+ _! res]voirs4 ,a small dynamo & eng9e are also provid$ = work+ a se>* light1 if necess>y4 ,! accommodation provid$ = ! (fic]s & crew is f> 9 advance ( any?+ hi!rto f\nd on bo>d a torp$o boat4 ,! wea!r on ! morn+ ( ,?ursday1 ,april #ad1 0 any?+ r ?an t :i* w\ld be select$ = a trial1 or inde$ any1 trip on ! ,?ames4 ,at #aa ,a4,m41 ! h\r at :i* ! boat 0 to leave ,messrs4 ,y>r['s y>d1 ,isle ( ,dogs1 ! w9d 0 bl[+ 9 heavy squalls f ! nor!a/1 accompani$ by %[]s ( sn[ & hail4 ,! ,italian gov]nm5t 0 repres5t$ by ,c\nt ,g&iani & sev]al (fic]s & eng9e]s4 ,9 all !re 7 ab\t ?irty-?ree p]sons on bo>d4 ,! displacem5t ( ! vessel 0 z ne>ly z might be #ig tons4 ,a />t 0 made d[n ! riv] at #aa3ae ,a4,m41 ! eng9es mak+ ab\t #ahj revolutions p] m9ute1 & ! boat runn+ at "s #aa or #ab knots4 ,dur+ ?is "t ! /okehole hat*es 7 op51 b ! fans 7 kept runn+ at sl[ spe$ to ma9ta9 a mod]ate draught4 ,! fuel us$ ?r\gh\t ! trip 0 briquettes made ( ! be/ ,wel% an?racite work$ up ) a little t>4 ,! briquettes 7 brok5 up to conv5i5t sizes be=e be+ put 9 ! bunk]s4 ,?is fuel is n ( s high evaporative effici5cy z ,nixon's navigation coal1 b x is m suitable = torp$o boat "w1 because x gives out ,v little du/1 :ile ! coal 9 clos$ /okeholes half smo!rs ! firem54 ,wat]+ only p>tially mitigates ! evil4 ,besides ?is1 ! pat5t fuel does n cl9k] ! tube ends--a matt] ( vital importance4 ,dur+ ! run d[n to ,graves5d1 ! small quantity ( smoke giv5 out 0 borne d[n & away f ! tops ( ! funnels by ! fi]ce head w9d1 & n[ & !n a heavy spray broke on ! b[s1 wett+ ev]y?+ =w>d4 ,9 ! eng9e room prep>ations 7 made = tak+ indicator diagrams4 ,no attempt 0 made to drive ! boat fa/1 because high spe$s are prohibit$ by ! riv] au?orities on acc\nt ( ! heavy swell set up4 ,! measur$ mile on ! ,l[] ,hope is on ! s\!rn bank ( ! riv]1 ab\t ?ree miles bel[ ,graves5d4 ,j z ! boat pass$ ! t[n1 9 ! mid/ ( a heavy ra9 squall1 ! /okehole hat*es 9 ! deck 7 %ut1 & ! dull humm+ ro> ( ! fans %[$ t ! fires 7 be+ got up4 ,! smoke no long] rose leisurely f ! funnels4 ,x came up n[ ) a ru% & viol5ce :i* %[$ ! p[]ful ag5cy at "w bel[4 ,a rapid vibrat+ motion b5ea? ! feet 0 ! fir/ evid5ce t ! eng9es 7 away full spe$4 ,z ! boat ga!r$ way %e seem$ to settle d[n to h] "w1 & ! vibration almo/ ceas$4 ,! measur$ mile 0 soon rea*$1 & !n 9 ! tee? ( ! nor!a/] %e tore ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,! tide & w9d 7 bo? aga9/ h]4 ,_h ! tide & w9d be5 oppos$1 !re w\ld h be5 a heavy sea on4 ,z x 01 !re 0 q en\gh2 ! wat]1 break+ on h] port b[1 came on bo>d 9 %eets1 sp>kl+ 9 ! sun1 :i*1 ! ra9 squall hav+ pass$1 %one out = ! mom5t4 ,z ! w9d 0 bl[+ at lea/ ?irty miles an h\r1 & ! boat 0 go+ at "s tw5ty-six miles an h\r aga9/ x1 ! result 0 a mod]ate hurricane on bo>d4 ,x 0 next to impossible to /& up aga9/ ! fury ( ! bla/ )\t hold+ on4 ,! mile 0 trav]s$ 9 less ?an #b m9utes1 h[ev]2 b ! boat _h to cont9ue h] c\rse d[n ! riv] = ne>ly ano!r mile to avoid "s b>ges :i* lay 9 ! way1 & prev5t$ h] f turn+4 ,!n ! helm 0 put ov]1 & %e came r\nd4 ,!re 0 no slack+ ( ! eng9es1 & a/]n ( h] ! wat] leap$ f h] rudd] 9 a great upheav$1 foam+ mass1 "s #g ft4 or #h ft4 high4 ,br\ght r\nd1 %e once m lay h] c\rse4 ,?is "t ! w9d 0 on h] />bo>d qu>t]1 or /ill m ne>ly aft4 ,! boat w5t lit]ally z fa/ z ! w9d1 & on deck x 0 ne>ly calm4 ,! light smoke f ! funnels1 no long] beat5 d[n by w9d1 leap$ up high into ! air4 ,look+ ov] ! side1 x 0 difficult to imag9e t ! boat 0 pass+ ?r\gh wat] at all4 ,! enorm\s velocity gave ! surface ( ! riv] ! appe>ance ( a %eet ( /eel = #a ft4 or m outside ! boat4 ,/&+ "r aft1 ! sight 0 yet m rem>kable4 ,al?\gh two #f ft4 screws 7 revolv+ at ne>ly #djj revolutions p] m9ute almo/ "u foot1 n a bubble ( air came up to break ! surface4 ,!re 0 no wave 9 h] wake2 ab\t #gj ft4 beh9d h] rose a g5tle swell+ hill4 ,h] wake 0 a broad smoo? br[n pa?1 cut "r ?r\gh ! r\gh surface ( ! riv]4 ,on ea* side ( ?is pa? rose & broke ! angry little seas la%$ up by ! sc\rg+ w9d4 ,along ! v c5t] ( ! br[n track ran a ?9 ridge ( sp>kl+ foam1 "s #b ft4 high & "s #bj ft4 long1 caus$ by ! rudd] be+ dragg$ ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,!re 0 sc>cely any vibration4 ,! noise 0 n excessive4 ,a rapid :irr due to ! eng9es1 & a ry?mical clatt] due to ! relief valve on "o ( ! port eng9e cyl9d]s n be+ screw$ d[n h>d en\gh1 & !re=e lift+ a little 9 its seat at ea* /roke1 made ! mo/ ( x4 ,! mo/ prom95t noise p]haps 0 ! hum ( ! fans4 ,/&+ =w>d1 ! deck seems to slope away d[nw>d aft1 z inde$ x does1 = x is to be not$ t at ^! high spe$s ! =efoot ( ! boat is always ?r[n up clean out ( ! wat]--& ! :ole aspect ( ! boat3 ! funnels vomit+ ?9 br[n smoke1 & occasionally1 :5 a fire door is op5$1 a lurid pill> ( flame = a mom5t2 ! :irr 9 ! eng9e room2 ! dull ?und] ( ! fans1 produce an impression on ! m9d n easily express$1 & due 9 "s measure no d\bt to ! exhil>ation caus$ by ! rapid motion ?r\gh ! air4 ,! be/ way to convey :at we mean is to say t ! :ole craft seems to be alive1 & a p]fect demon ( en]gy & /r5g?4 ,_m p]sons hold t a torp$o boat is likely to be m useful 9 t]rify+ an enemy ?an 9 do+ him real h>m1 & we c safely say t ! capta9 ( an ironclad :o saw half a doz5 ( ^! vessels be>+ d[n on him1 & did n wi% himself well out ( a scrape1 has m n]ve ?an mo/ m54 ,! second mile 0 run 9 f> less "t ?an t 9 :i* :at we h writt5 conc]n+ x c be read1 & !n ! boat turn$ aga91 & once m ! head w9d ) all its discom=ts 0 enc\nt]$4 ,ev5ts repeat$ !mselves1 & s at la/ ! six? trip 0 complet$1 & ! boat proce$$ at a leisurely pace back aga9 to ,popl>4 ,mr4 ,crohn1 repres5t+ ,messrs4 ,y>r[ on bo>d1 & all conc]n$1 might well feel satisfi$4 ,we _h travel$ at a great] spe$ ?an _h ev] be=e be5 rea*$ by any?+ t floats1 & !re 0 no hit* or imp$im5t or tr\ble ( any k9d4 ,! ,italian gov]nm5t may be congratulat$ on possess+ ! two fa/e/ & mo/ p[]ful torp$o boats 9 ! _w4 ,we believe1 h[ev]1 t ,messrs4 ,y>r[ are q confid5t t1 ) tw9 screw triple expansion eng9es1 !y c atta9 a spe$ ( #bf knots an h\r1 & we h no reason to d\bt ?is4--,! ,eng9e]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,res]voir ,,dams4 ,footnote3 ,pap]1 ) slight abbreviation1 read by ,mr4 ,david ,gravell1 ,assoc4 ,m4 ,in/4 ,c4,e41 be=e ! ,society ( ,civil & ,me*anical ,eng9e]s4 ,! pap] br+s toge!r 9 a conv5i5t =m ! sections & sali5t facts conc]n+ _m dams4 ,x 0 illu/rat$ by num]\s diagrams1 f :i* our engrav+s h be5 prep>$4--,! ,eng9e]4 ,by ,,david ,,gravell4 ,! con/ruction ( dams1 9 "s =m or o!r1 may probably rank among ! v e>lie/ ( eng9e]+ works4 ,works ( ?is "* are n infrequ5tly ref]r$ to 9 ! acc\nts ( ! e>lie/ hi/orians2 b x is to be fe>$ t !y are n always p]fectly tru/wor?y4 ,! subscrib]s to ! ,mudie ( ! p]iod _h to be consid]$1 & _! ta/e = ! m>vel\s 0 probably n mu* inf]ior to t ( our own day4 ,:51 !re=e1 ,h]odotus describes ! res]voir ( ,mo]is z =m$ = ! control ( ! riv] floods ( ,nile-n\ri%$ ,egypt1 & ( ano!r con/ruct$ by ,nebu*adnezz> at ,sipp>a1 ( #adj miles 9 circumf]5ce1 we mu/ make all[ances4 ,b !re is no "q z to ! exi/5ce 9 ! ,ea/ at ! pres5t day1 & especially 9 ,india & ,ceylon1 ( ! rema9s ( :at may correctly be t]m$ /up5d\s works2 & ! date ( ! con/ruction ( :i*1 z reg>ds ,india1 is 9 _m cases prehi/oric4 ,9 ,spa9 also ! ,moors1 ^: occupation ( ! p59sula t]m9at$ 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 h left res]voir dams ( great magnitude1 situat$ mo/ly 9 ! s\?-ea/]n prov9ces ( ,murcia & ,alicante1 & _m ( :i* are /ill s]viceable4 ,9 ,india & ,ceylon ! great] numb] ( ! anci5t dams or bunds are n[ 9 ru9s1 & ?is c occasion b little surprise1 consid]+ ! meteorological condition ( ^! c\ntries4 ,9 ,ceylon1 = in/ance1 ! :ole ra9fall ( ! ye> occurs )9 a p]iod ( six to eight weeks1 & (t5 am\nts to z mu* z #ab 94 9 ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & has be5 kn[n1 comp>atively rec5tly1 to rea* ne>ly #ai 941 ! latt] an am\nt only #b 94 or #c 94 less ?an ! av]age ra9fall ( ,l9coln%ire = ! :ole ye>4 ,9 ,london x is only #be 94 & 9 ! wette/ di/rict 9 ,great ,brita91 viz41 ,cumb]l&1 av]ages n m ?an #gj 94 p] annum4 ,! ra9fall 9 ,bombay is f #hj 94 to #ajj 94 p] annum1 & ?r\gh\t ,india may be tak5 z f #ej 94 to #acj 941 v>y+1 z is ! g5]al rule1 9 direct ratio ) ! altitude1 & limit$ to a few weeks 9 ! ye>4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 !re /ill exi/ 9 ! ,madras ,presid5cy a n inconsid]able numb] ( anci5t bunds :i* s]ve _! int5d$ purpose at ! pres5t day z well z ev]4 ,slight mi/akes did occasionally occur1 z !y ev] w till no m dams are want$1 z is prov$ by ! rema9s ( "s works 9 ,ceylon1 :]e ! failure 0 evid5tly due to error1 possibly due to ! in/rum5ts be+ out ( adju/m5t1 z _! base is at a high] level ?an ! b$ ( ! /ream at ! po9t :]e wat] f ! latt] 0 to be div]t$ to af=d ! supply4 ,among ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! anci5t works is ! ,horra-,b]a tank1 ! bund ( :i* is betwe5 ?ree & f\r miles 9 l5g? & f #ej to #gj ft4 9 height1 & al?\gh n[ 9 ru9s w\ld =m]ly imp\nd a res]voir lake ( f eight to t5 miles long & ?ree to f\r miles broad4 ,!re is also ! ,kala-,weva tank1 ) a bund ( twelve miles 9 l5g?1 :i* w\ld1 if p]fect1 create a lake ( =ty miles 9 circumf]5ce4 ,bo? ( ^! ru9$ works are situat$ 9 ,ceylon4 ,! ?ird embankm5t ( a simil> "* is t ( ! ,cummum tank1 situat$ 9 ! ,madras ,presid5cy1 & :i*1 ?\gh rank+ among ! e>lie/ works ( ,h9doo hi/ory1 is /ill 9 su* a condition z to fulfill its orig9al int5tion4 ,! area ( ! res]voir is ab\t fifte5 squ>e miles1 ! dam ab\t #ajb ft4 high1 ) a bread? at ! cre/ ( #gf ft41 & ( ! section %[n 9 ! diagram4 ,! by-wa% is cut 9 ! solid rock altoge!r cle> ( ! dam2 ! outlet culv]ts1 h[ev]1 are c>ri$ "u ! bank4 ,we w n[ consid] g5]ally ! me?ods employ$ 9 det]m9+ ! site1 dim5sions1 & me?ods ( con/ruction ( res]voir dams adapt$ to ! v>y+ circum/ances & requirem5ts ( mod]n times1 ) a few ref]5ces to "s ( ! m important works con/ruct$ or 9 progress1 :i* x w be endeavor$ to make z concise & burd5$ ) z few enum]ations ( dim5sions z possible4 ,! am\nt ( ! supply ( wat] requir$1 & ! purposes to :i* x is to be appli$1 :e!r = h\sehold1 manufactur+1 or irrigation uses1 are among ! fir/ consid]ations affect+ ! *oice ( ! site ( ! res]voir1 & is gov]n$ by ! am\nt ( ra9fall available1 aft] d$uct+ = evaporation & absorption1 & ! nature ( ! surface soil & vegetation4 ,! next important po9t is to det]m9e ! position ( ! dam1 hav+ reg>d to ! suitability ( ! gr\nd = af=d+ a good f\ndation & ! imp\ndm5t ( ! requisite body ( wat] ) ! lea/ outlay on embankm5t works4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! floods ( ! valley ( ! ,?ames might be controll$ by a sy/em ( /orage res]voirs1 & notice 0 especially drawn to ?is 9 consequ5ce ( ! heavy floods ( ! w9t] ( #ahge4 ,f evid5ce giv5 be=e ! ,royal ,commission on ,wat] ,supply1 previ\s to t date x 0 /at$ t a ra9fall ( #a 94 ov] ! ,?ames bas9 above ,k+/on w\ld give1 omitt+ evaporation & absorption1 a volume ( #ec1cge1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,to prev5t floods1 a ra9fall ( at lea/ #c 94 w\ld h to be provid$ aga9/1 :i* w\ld mean ! con/ruction ( res]voirs ( a /orage capacity ( say #afj1jjj1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,mr4 ,bailey ,d5ton1 9 8 evid5ce be=e t commission1 e/imat$ t res]voirs to /ore less ?an "o t5? t quantity w\ld co/ #a1cfj1jjj1 & !re=e a #c 94 /orage z above w\ld require an outlay (1 say1 #ae1jjj1jjj /]l+2 & x w be se5 t #c 94 is by no means too great a ra9fall to all[ =1 z 9 ,july ( #ahge1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,symons1 at ,cir5ce/]1 #c4aa 94 fell )9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,suppos+ s]i\s att5tion 7 to be giv5 to su* a s*eme1 !re w\ld1 )\t d\bt1 be v great difficulty 9 f9d+ suitable situations1 f an eng9e]+ & l& own]'s po9t ( view1 = ! requisite dams & res]voir areas4 ,9 ,great ,brita9 & _m ,european c\ntries ra9 gauges h be5 e/abli%$ at a great] or less numb] ( /ations = _m ye>s pa/1 & data !reby af=d$ = e/imat+ approximately ! ra9fall ( any giv5 di/rict or cat*m5t bas94 ,! t]m wat]%$ is "o :i* x appe>s to me is frequ5tly misappli$2 z ,i und]/& x1 wat]%$ is equival5t to :at 9 ,am]ica is t]m$ ! divide1 & means ! b\nd>y ( ! cat*m5t area or bas9 ( any giv5 /ream1 al?\gh ,i believe x is frequ5tly made use ( z mean+ ! cat*m5t area itself4 ,:5 say+ t ! ra9 gauges already e/abli%$ 9 mo/ ( ! old] civiliz$ c\ntries af=d data = an approximate e/imate only1 x is meant t an increase 9 ! numb] ( po9ts at :i* obs]vations are made is necess>y1 previ\s to ! design ( a res]voir dam on ! cat*m5t area above1 ! wat]s ( :i* are propos$ to be imp\nd$1 & %\ld be cont9u\s = a s]ies ( five or six ye>s1 & ^! mu/ be comp>$ ) ! obs]vations made ) ! old e/abli%$ ra9 gauges ( ! adjac5t di/rict1 say = a p]iod ( tw5ty ye>s previ\sly1 & modifi$ accord+ly4 ,?is is absolutely necess>y be=e an accurate e/imate ( ! av]age & maximum & m9imum ra9fall c be arriv$ at1 z ! ra9fall ( ea* squ>e mile ( ga!r+ gr\nd may v>y ! am\nt be+ affect$ by ! altitude & ! aspect z reg>ds ! ra9y qu>t]4 ,b ?is in=mation w be ( b little s]vice to ! eng9e] )\t an inve/igation ( ! loss due to evaporation & absorption1 v>y+ ) ! season ( ! ye> & ! m or less degree ( saturation ( ! soil2 ! am\nt ( absorption dep5d+ ^u ! "* ( ! gr\nd1 dip ( /rata1 etc41 ! hydrographic area be+1 z a rule1 by no means equal to ! topographic area ( a giv5 bas94 ,f ?is cursory view ( ! prelim9>y inve/igations necess>y c be realiz$ :at difficulties mu/ att5d ! design ( dams = res]voirs 9 newly settl$ or unciviliz$ c\ntries1 :]e !re are no data ( ?is nature to g on1 & :]e if maps exi/ !y are probably ( ! r\ghe/ description & uncont\r$2 s t be=e any project c be ev5 discuss$ s]i\sly special surveys h to be made1 ! results ( :i* may only g to prove ! unsuitability ( ! site "u consid]ation z reg>ds area1 etc4 ,! loss due to evaporation1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,hawksley1 9 ?is c\ntry am\nts to a mean ( ab\t #ae 942 ?is & ! absorption mu/ v>y ) ! geological conditions1 & !re=e to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion reg>d+ ! am\nt ( ra9fall actually available = /orage1 c>eful gaug+s h to be made ( ! /ream affect$1 & ^! %\ld ext5d ov] a l5g!n$ p]iod1 & be comp\nd$ ) ! ra9fall4 ,a c]ta9 loss ( wat]1 9 times ( excessive floods1 mu/1 9 design+ a dam1 be ev] expect$1 & "u favorable conditions may be e/imat$ at #aj p] c5t4 ( ! total am\nt imp\nd$4 ,z reg>ds ! *oice ( position = ! dam ( a res]voir1 suppos+ t x is int5d$ to imp\nd ! wat] by ?r[+ an ob/ruction across a valley1 x may be premis$ t to imp\nd ! l>ge/ quantity ( wat] ) ! m9imum outlay1 ! mo/ favorable conditions are pres5t :]e a m or less broad valley flank$ by /eep hills sudd5ly n>r[s at its l[] end1 =m+ a gorge :i* c be ob/ruct$ by a comp>atively %ort dam4 ,! accompany+ condition is t ! nature ( ! soil1 i4e41 ! "*1 /rata1 & lie ( ! rock1 clay1 etc41 z ! case may be1 is favorable to assur+ a good f\ndation4 ,9 ,great ,brita91 z a rule1 dams = res]voirs h be5 con/ruct$ ( e>?work ) a puddle core1 deem$ by ! majority ( ,engli% eng9e]s z m suitable = ?is purpose ?an masonry4 ,e>?work1 9 "s in/ances comb9$ ) masonry1 0 also a =m usual 9 ! anci5t works ( ! ,ea/1 already ref]r$ to2 b x w\ld appe> f ! exp]i5ce ( rec5t ye>s t masonry dams are likely to become z common z ^? ( e>?work1 especially 9 di/ricts favorable to ! con/ruction ( ! =m]1 :]e ! natural gr\nd is ( a rocky "*1 & good /one easily obta9$4 ,z to ! /ability ( /ructures ( masonry = ?is purpose1 z comp>$ ) e>?work1 exp]i5ce w\ld seem to leave ! "q an op5 "o4 ,ei!r me?od is liable to failure1 & !re c]ta9ly are z _m cases on record ( ! de/ruction ( masonry dams z !re are ( ^? con/ruct$ ( e>?work1 z in/anc$ 9 ,alg]ia )9 ! pa/ few ye>s4 ,z reg>ds masonry dams1 ! "q ( success does n seem s mu* to dep5d ^u _! design1 z f> z ! m]e det]m9ation ( ! suitable pr(ile or cross section is conc]n$1 z t has be5 v exhau/ively inve/igat$1 & fairly agre$ ^u1 f a ma!matical po9t ( view1 b to be pr9cipally due to ! correctness ( ! e/imate ( ! floods to be dealt )1 & a suffici5t provision ( by-wa% all[$ = ! mo/ extreme cases2 &1 la/ly1 p]haps ! mo/ important ( all1 ! secur+ a ?or\ghly good f\ndation1 & a c>eful execution ( ! "w ?r\gh\t4 ,^! rem>ks equally apply to e>?work dams1 z reg>ds suffici5t provision ( by-wa%1 c>eful execution ( "w1 & security ( f\ndation1 b _! area ( cross section1 suppos+ !m to be wat]-tight1 on acc\nt ( ! flatness ( _! slopes & consequ5t bread? ( base1 is1 ( c\rse1 f> 9 excess ( t m]ely requir$ = /ability2 b 9 ^! latt]1 ! me?od adopt$ = ! wat] supply dis*>ge is ( ! v greate/ importance1 & w be aga9 ref]r$ to4 ,be=e comm5c+ ! excavation = ! f\ndations ( a dam1 x is mo/ ess5tial t ! "* ( ! soil or rock %\ld be exam9$ c>efully1 by s9k+ a succession ( small %afts1 n m]e bor+s1 along ! site1 s t ! dep? to :i* ! tr5* w h to be c>ri$1 & ! am\nt ( gr\nd wat] likely to be enc\nt]$1 c be reliably asc]ta9$1 z ?is portion ( ! "w _c be o!rwise e/imat$1 & z x may be> a v l>ge proportion ( ! total exp5se ( con/ruction1 & 9 c]ta9 cases may demon/rate t ! site is altoge!r unsuitable = ! propos$ purpose4 ,! dep? to :i* puddle tr5*es h be5 c>ri$1 = ! purpose ( p5etrat+ wat]-be>+ /rata1 & rea*+ imp5etrable gr\nd1 9 "s cases1 has be5 z mu* z #afj ft4 bel[ ! natural surface ( ! gr\nd1 & ! exp5se ( timb]+1 pump+1 & excavation 9 su* an in/ance c be easily imag9$4 ,?is may be realiz$ by ref]r+ to ,fig4 #d1 giv+ a cross-section ( ! ,y>r[ dam1 9 :i* ! bottom ( ! tr5* is !re only #he ft4 bel[ ! gr\nd surface4 ,9 ! ,dale ,dyke dam1 ,fig4 #b1 ! bottom ( ! tr5* 0 ab\t #ej ft4 bel[ ! gr\nd surface4 ,!re is "o o!r po9t :i* %\ld be m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! =m ( ! base ( ! puddle tr5*--t in/ead ( cutt+ ! bottom ( ! tr5* at ! sides ( ! valley 9 /eps1 x %\ld be m]ely slop$1 s t ! puddle1 9 sett+1 t5ds to slide d[n ea* incl9$ plane t[>d ! bottom ( valley1 !reby becom+ fur!r compress$2 :]eas1 %\ld ! natural gr\nd be cut 9 /eps1 ! puddle 9 sett+ t5ds to bulge at ! side ( ea* ris]1 z x may be t]m$1 & s cause fissures4 ,x w be notic$ t ! slopes ( ^! e>?work dams v>y f #g to #a to #b to #a4 ,! dep?s to :i* "s puddle tr5*es are c>ri$ has be5 object$ to by "s eng9e]s1 & among !m ,sir ,rob]t ,rawl9son1 z excessive & unnecess>y1 &1 9 ! op9ion ( ! latt]1 ! same end might be obta9$ by go+ d[n to a dep? say ( #cj ft4 only1 & putt+ 9 a ?ick b$ ( concrete1 & also c>ry+ up ! concrete at ! back ( ! puddle tr5*1 ) a well = collect+ wat]1 & a pipe lead+ ! same (f ?r\gh ! back ( ! dam to ! d[n /ream side4 ,an arrangem5t ( ?is k9d is %[n 9 ! ,y>r[ dam1 ,fig4 #d4 ,! ?ickness ( ! puddle wall v>ies consid]ably 9 ! diff]5t examples giv5 9 ! diagrams be=e y1 a fair av]age be+ ! ,r[ bank ( ! ,paisley ,wat] ,works1 ,fig4 #f2 & al?\gh 9 in/ances ( dams made e>ly 9 ! c5tury1 su* z ! ,gl5corse dam--,fig4 #e--( ! ,ed9burgh ,wat] ,works1 ! puddle 0 ( v consid]able ?ickness1 & x w\ld appe> rightly s4 ,?is practice does n seem to h be5 foll[$ 9 _m cases1 z1 = in/ance1 aga9 ref]r+ to ! ,dale ,dyke dam1 ,fig4 #b1 :]e ! ?ickness ( ! top 0 only #d ft41 ) a batt] ( #a 9 #af d[nw>d1 giv+ a ?ickness ( #af ft4 at ! base4 ,= a dam #ie ft4 9 height ?is is v light1 comp>$ ) t ( ! ,vehui dam at ,bombay1 ( :i* ! eng9e] 0 ,mr4 ,conybe>e--,fig4 #g--:]e ! puddle wall is #aj ft4 wide at ! top1 ) a batt] d[nw>d ( #a 9 #h1 ! ,bann res]voir--,fig4 #h--( ,mr4 ,bateman's design1 :]e ! puddle is #h ft4 broad at ! top1 & o!r in/ances4 ,! same dim5sion 0 adopt$ = ! puddle wall ( ! ,h>elaw res]voir1 at ,paisley1 by ,mr4 ,alex&] ,leslie1 an eng9e] ( consid]able exp]i5ce 9 dam con/ruction4 ,!re appe>s to be a "q z to :at ! composition ( puddle %\ld be1 "s advocat+ a consid]able admixture ( gravel ) clay4 ,!re is no d\bt t clay int5d$ = puddle %\ld be expos$ to ! wea!r = z long previ\s to use z possible1 & subject to ! action ( ! air at any rate1 ( sun%9e if !re be any1 or ( fro/4 ,:5 deposit$ 9 ! tr5*1 x %\ld be spread 9 lay]s ( n m ?an #f 94 9 ?ickness1 cut transv]sely 9 bo? directions1 ?or\ghly wat]$1 & work$ by /amp+4 ,! position ( ! puddle wall is1 z a rule1 9 ! c5t] ( ! bank & v]tical2 b lay+ a ?ickness ( puddle ^u ! inn] or up /ream slope1 say #c ft4 ?ick1 protect$ by a lay] ( gravel & pit*+1 has be5 advocat$ z prev5t+ any portion ( ! dam f becom+ saturat$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 evid5t objections to ?is me?od1 z ! puddle be+ comp>atively unprotect$ w\ld be m liable to damage by v]m91 su* z wat] rats1 etc42 & 9 case ( ! e>?work dam at ! back settl+1 z w\ld c]ta9ly be ! case1 unless its con/ruction ext5d$ ov] a v l5g!n$ p]iod1 ! puddle w\ld be almo/ c]ta9 to become fissur$ & leaky2 9 addition1 ! comp>ative am\nts ( puddle us$ 9 ?is mann]1 z comp>$ ) ! v]tical wall1 w\ld be s mu* increas$4 ,) ! puddle wall 9 ! position usually adopt$1 unequal settlem5t ( ! bank on ei!r side is less liable to affect ! puddle1 be+ v]tical4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to ref] to ! embankm5t ( ! ,bann1 or ,l\gh ,isl& ,reavy res]voir1 ,fig4 #h1 design$ by ,mr4 ,bateman1 n[ ne>ly fifty ye>s ago1 :]e a lay] ( peat 0 adopt$ bo? on ! slope1 #ae 94 ?ick1 & 9 front or on ! up /ream side ( ! puddle wall1 #c ft4 ?ick4 ,! object 01 t %\ld ! puddle become fissur$ & leaky1 ! draught s creat$ w\ld c>ry ) x p>ticles ( peat1 :i* w\ld *oke up ! cracks & s r$uce ! leakage t ! alluvial matt] w\ld gradually settle ov] x & close x up4 ,on ! same diagram w be notic$ curv$ l9es1 :i* are int5d$ to del9eate ! way 9 :i* ! e>?work ( ! embankm5t 0 made up4 ,! lay]s 7 #c ft4 9 ?ickness1 laid 9 ! curv$ lay]s z indicat$4 ,x is a moot "q :e!r1 9 mak+ an e>?work embankm5t1 dep5d5ce1 z f> z /an*ness is conc]n$1 %\ld be plac$ ^u ! puddle wall alone or ^u ! embankm5ts on ei!r side1 & especially ^u ! up-/ream side 9 addition4 ,suppos+ ! =m] idea prevails1 !n x c be ( little mom5t z to h[ or ( :at mat]ial ! bank on ei!r side is made up--:e!r ( e>? or /one--plac$ 9 ?9 lay]s or tipp$ 9 banks ( #c ft4 or #d ft4 high2 b ! op9ion ( ! majority ( eng9e]s seems to be 9 favor ( mak+ ! banks act n m]ely z buttresses to ! puddle wall1 & ?r[+ ! :ole onus1 z x may be t]m$1 ( /an*ness ^u t1 b also %>+ ! responsibility & less5+ ! *ances ( rupture !reby4 ,b to insure ?is1 ! mat]ial mu/ be ( ! v be/ description = ! purpose4 ,/ones1 if all[$ at all--& 9 ! au?or's op9ion !y %\ld n be--%\ld be small1 few1 & f> betwe54 ,let ^? t are sift$ out be ?r[n into ! tail ( ! d[n /ream slope4 ,!y w d no h>m !re1 b ! lay]s ( e>? mu/ n approa* #c ft4 9 ?ickness nor #a ft4--! maximum %\ld be six 941 & ?is applies also to ! puddle4 ,let ! soil be br\ght on by say "o-horse c>ts1 spread 9 six in* lay]s1 & well wat]$4 ,! traffic ( ! c>ts w consolidate x1 & 9 places :]e c>ts _c trav]se x %\ld be punn$4 ,9 ! ,p>vy res]voir dam a roll] 0 employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,x compris$ a small lorry body hold+ ab\t a y>d & a half ( /one1 ) two axles1 on ea* ( :i* 0 key$ a r[ ( five or six :eels4 ,at ! ,ou$ ,meurad dam1 9 ,alg]ia1 #ie ft4 high1 con/ruct$ ab\t #bc ye>s ago1 ! e>?work lay]s 7 deposit$ normal to ! out] slope1 & z ! bank 0 c>ri$ up ! wat] 0 admitt$ & all[$ to rise to ne> ! tempor>y cre/1 & z soon z ! bank _h settl$1 ! e>?work cont9u$ ano!r grade1 & ! same process repeat$4 ,x 0 ! practice until comp>atively rec5tly to make ! dis*>ge outlet by lay+ pipes 9 a tr5* "u ! dam1 g5]ally at ! l[e/ po9t 9 ! valley1 or con/ruct+ a culv]t 9 ! same position & c>ry+ ! pipes ?r\gh ?is1 & 9 ! e>li] works ! valves or sluices regulat+ ! outfl[ 7 plac$ at ! tail ( ! d[n /ream bank1 ! pipes "u ! bank be+ consequ5tly at all times subject to ! pressure ( ! full head ( ! wat] 9 ! res]voir4 ,an in/ance ( ! fir/ m5tion$ me?od is af=d$ by ! ,dale ,dyke res]voir1 ,fig4 #b1 :]e two l9es ( pipes ( #ah 94 diamet] 7 laid 9 a tr5* excavat$ 9 ! rock & re/+ ^u a b$ ( puddle #ab 94 9 ?ickness1 & surr\nd$ by puddle2 ! pipes 7 ( ca/ iron1 ( ! spigot & faucet type1 probably y>n$ & lead$ at ! jo9ts z usual1 & ! sluice valves 7 situat$ at ! out] end ( ! pipes4 ,z ! failure ( ?is embankm5t 01 z we all "k1 productive ( su* t]rible consequ5ces1 x may be ( int]e/ to ent] a little m fully into ! details ( its con/ruction4 ,x 0 situat$ at ,bradfield1 six or sev5 miles f ,%effield1 & at sev]al hundr$ feet high] level4 ,its con/ruction 0 comm5c$ 9 #aheh1 ! puddle tr5* 0 probably tak5 d[n to a dep? ( #dj ft4 to #ej ft41 a consid]able am\nt ( wat] be+ enc\nt]$4 ,?is tr5* 0 #ae ft4 to #bj ft4 broad at ! top1 & ( c\rse _h to be cross$ by ! be=e m5tion$ l9e ( pipes2 & al?\gh ! tr5* 0 fill$ ) puddle1 & ! gullet cut 9 ! rock already m5tion$ = c>ry+ ! pipes "u ! site ( ! dam 0 padd$ ) a lay] ( #ab 94 ( puddle1 we c imag9e t ! effect ( ! weight ( ! puddle wall & bank ^u ?is l9e ( pipes w\ld be v diff]5t at ! po9t :]e !y cross$ ! puddle tr5* to :at x w\ld be :]e !y 7 laid 9 ! rock gullet & p>tially protect$ f pressure by ! sides ( ! latt]4 ,at ! tr5* cross+ !re w\ld be a b$ ( puddle #ej ft4 9 ?ickness b5ea? ! pipe1 9 ! gullet a b$ ( #a ft4 9 ?ickness4 ,s mu* z reg>ds ! lay+ ( ! pipes4 ,! embankm5t _h sc>cely be5 complet$ :51 on ,m>* #aa1 #ahfd1 a /orm ( ra9 came on & ne>ly fill$ x up to ! by-wa%1 :5 ! bank began sl[ly to subside4 ,! eng9e] 0 on ! cre/ at ! v "t1 & rema9$ until ! wat] 0 runn+ ov] 8 boots2 he !n ru%$ d[n ! o!r slope & 0 snat*$ out ( ! way z ! bank bur/1 & ! :ole body ( wat]1 ab\t #bej1jjj1jjj gallons1 ru%$ out ?r\gh ! tr5*1 c>ry+ ) x 9 ! c\rse ( ab\t tw5ty m9utes #ib1jjj cubic y>ds1 or say "o f\r? ( ! total mass ( e>?work1 caus+ ! dea? ( #bej human be+s1 n to m5tion cattle1 & de/ruction ( factories1 dwell+s1 & bridges1 d5ud+ ! rock ( its surface soil1 &1 z x 71 oblit]at+ all ! l&m>ks 9 its c\rse4 ,! greate/ dep? ( ! bank f gr\nd level to cre/ 0 #ie ft41 ! top wid? #ab ft41 & ! slopes1 bo? on ! up /ream & d[n /ream sides1 #b to #a1 & ! area ( ! res]voir #gh acres4 ,mr4--n[ ,sir ,rob]t--,rawl9son1 toge!r ) ,mr4 ,beadmore1 7 call$ 9 to make a report1 to lay be=e ,p>liam5t1 ^u ?is disa/]2 & hav+ made a c>eful exam9ation ( ! ru9s1 & tak5 evid5ce1 !y 7 ( op9ion t ! mode ( lay+ ! pipes1 & 9 su* an unprotect$ way1 0 faulty1 & t subsid5ce ( ! pipes probably occurr$ at ! cross+ ( ! puddle tr5*4 ,a fissure 9 ! puddle 0 creat$1 af=d+ a creep = ! wat]1 :i*1 once set up1 w\ld rapidly increase ! brea* by sc\r2 & ?is ev5t 0 favor$ by ! mann] 9 :i* ! bank _h be5 con/ruct$ & ! unsuitability ( ! mat]ial us$1 :i*1 9 ! words ( "o eng9e]1 _h m ! appe>ance ( a qu>ry tip ?an ( a bank int5d$ to /ore wat]4 ,?is op9ion ( ! cause ( failure 01 h[ev]1 n adopt$ univ]sally by eng9e]s1 ! l9e ( pipes :5 exam9$ be+ f\nd to be1 al?\gh disjo9t$1 fairly 9 l9e2 & !re hav+ occurr$ a l& slip 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood1 x 0 sugge/$ t ! rupture might be caus$ by a slip also hav+ tak5 place "h1 especially z ! sub/ratum 0 ( flag/one rock tilt$ at a consid]able angle4 ,! =mation 0 mill/one grit4 ,?is cata/rophe induc$ an exam9ation to be made ( o!r /orage res]voir dams 9 ! same di/rict1 & a report on ! subject 0 pres5t$ to ,p>liam5t by ,sir ,rob]t ,rawl9son4 ,illu/ration3 ,,typical ,,masonry ,,& ,,e>?work ,,dams ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,! dam ( ,/ubd5 res]voir1 ( ! ,brad=d wat] supply1 also on ! mill/one grit1 0 con/ruct$ ab\t #ahei1 & caus$ consid]able anxiety = a l5g? ( "t1 z leakage occurr$ 9 ! culv]t c>ry+ ! pipes1 "u ! embankm5t at a po9t a %ort di/ance on ! d[n /ream side ( ! puddle tr5*4 ,?is 0 repair$ to "s ext5t by l9+ ) ca/ iron plates2 & an entirely indep5d5t outlet 0 made by driv+ a curv$ tunnel into ! hill side cle> ( ! ends ( ! dam & l9+ x ) ca/ iron plates4 ,9 ?is tunnel 0 !n laid ! ma9 ( #b ft4 diamet]1 & z ! orig9al culv]t aga9 became leaky1 ! wat] _h to be l[]$1 ! old masonry pull$ out1 & ! space fill$ 9 ) puddle4 ,! ,leem+ comp5sation res]voir ( ! same wat] supply1 ) a dam ( #ej ft4 9 height1 & culv]t outlet1 _h to be treat$ some:at 9 ! same mann]1 z1 al?\gh ! res]voir _h nev] be5 fill$ ) wat]1 9 #ahge1 :5 x 0 exam9$ previ\s to fill+1 x 0 f\nd t ! culv]t 0 crack$ 9 all directions2 & x 0 deem$ be/ to fill x up ) ,portl& cem5t concrete1 & drive a tunnel outlet ?r\gh ! hill side1 z describ$ 9 ! case ( ! ,/ubd5 res]voir4 ,! ,lee%aw dam1 :i* 0 be+ con/ruct$ at t "t ^u ! same l9es1 viz41 ) culv]t outlet "u ! dam1 01 at ! advice ( ,sir ,rob]t ,rawl9son1 alt]$ to a side tunnel outlet cle> ( ! dam4 ,"s ye>s previ\s to ! failure ( ! ,dale ,dyke res]voir !re occurr$1 9 #aheb1 a failure ( a simil> "*--?\gh1 z f> z ! au?or is aw>e1 unatt5d$ by su* disa/r\s results--at ! ,bilb]ry res]voir at ,holmfir?1 ne> ,hudd]sfield1 :i* _h nev] be5 fill$ previ\s to ! day ( its failure1 & arose f ! dam hav+ sunk1 & be+ all[$ to rema9 at a level actually bel[ t ( ! by-wa%2 s t :5 ! /orm occurr$1 ! dam 0 topp$ & de/roy$4 ,an aft] exam9ation prov$ t ! bank 0 badly con/ruct$ & ! f\ndation imp]fect4 ,besides ! above in/ances1 !re h be5 num]\s failures )9 rec5t times ( e>?work dams 9 ,spa91 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,alg]ia1 & else:]e1 su* z t :i* occurr$ at ,e/re*o de ,ri5tes1 ne> ,lorca1 9 ,murcia1 :]e a dam #aej ft4 high1 ! con/ruction ( :i* = irrigation purposes 0 comm5c$ 9 #agee & complet$ 9 #aghi1 0 fill$ = ! fir/ "t 9 ,febru>y1 #ahjb1 & two mon?s lat] gave way1 de/roy+ "p ( ! t[n ( ,lorca & deva/at+ a l>ge tract ( ! mo/ f]tile c\ntry1 & caus+ ! dea? ( #fjj p4 ,! imm$iate cause ( failure 9 ?is case ! au?or has be5 unable to asc]ta94 ,9 ,alg]ia ! ,sig & ,tlelat dams 7 de/roy$ 9 #ahfe2 & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 at ,williamsburg1 ,hamp%ire ,co41 ,massa*usetts1 9 #ahgd1 an e>?work dam gave way1 by :i* #aei lives 7 lo/ & mu* damage done to prop]ty4 ,9 ano!r case1 viz41 t ( ! ,worce/] dam1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica--imp\nd+ a volume ( #ffc1ccj1jjj gallons1 & #da ft4 high1 #ej ft4 broad at ! cre/1 & =m$ ) a c5t] wall ( masonry1 ) e>?work on ea* side--:i* gave way 9 #ahge1 f\r ye>s aft] its completion2 "h1 z 9 almo/ all o!r in/ances ( failure1 ! leakage comm5c$ at a po9t :]e ! pipes trav]se ! dam4 ,9 ?is case !y 7 c>ri$ 9 a masonry culv]t1 & ! leak />t$ at ab\t #bj ft4 on ! up /ream side ( ! c5tral wall4 ,! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,mc,alpine z to ! cause ( failure1 :i* agrees ) t ( ! mo/ em95t ( our own wat] eng9e]s1 0 to ! effect t e>!n dams r>ely fail f any fault 9 ! artificial e>?work1 & seldom f any defect 9 ! natural soil4 ,! latt] may leak1 b n s z to endang] ! dam4 ,9 n9e t5?s ( ! cases1 ! dam is brea*$ along ! l9e ( ! wat] outlet passages4 ,! me?od ( =m+ ! dis*>ge outlet by ! con/ruction ( a masonry culv]t 9 ! op5 has no d\bt _m advantages ov] t ( tunnel driv+ ?r\gh ! hill side cle> ( ! dam1 p]mitt+ z x does ( an easy inspection & control ( ! "w z x proce$s2 b a slight leakage 9 ! in/ance ( a side tunnel probably means no?+ m ?an ! wa/e ( s mu* wat]1 :]eas 9 ! case ( ! culv]t trav]s+ ! site ( ! bank1 ! same am\nt or less imp]ils ! /ability ( ! bank1 & 9 n9ety-n9e cases out ( a hundr$ w\ld1 if n att5d$ to1 soon] or lat] be ! cause ( its de/ruction4 ,i ?9k ! majority w !re=e agree t ! me?od ( dis*>ge outlets "u ! site ( embankm5ts %\ld n be tol]at$ :]e x is possible to make an outlet 9 ! flank ( ! hill1 to "o side1 & altoge!r cle> ( ! dam4 ,at ,fig4 #i is a diagram ( ! ,r\ndwood dam ( ! ,v>try ,wat] ,works1 supply+ ,dubl91 :i* is a fair specim5 ( ! class ( e>?work dam ) ! outlet pipes c>ri$ 9 a culv]t "u ! embankm5t1 & :i*1 p]haps1 is "o ( ! mo/ favorable specim5s ( ?is me?od ( con/ruction1 z ! inlet valves are on ! up /ream ( ! dam1 & consequ5tly :5 necess>y ! wat] c be cut (f f ! l5g? ( pipes trav]s+ ! dam4 ,a %ort description w be giv54 ,?is dam is #ff ft4 high at ! deepe/ po9t & #bh ft4 wide at ! cre/1 hav+ to c>ry a public road4 ,! slope on ! inn] face is #c to #a1 & on ! out] #b to #a4 ,! by-wa% is #f ft4 bel[ ! cre/1 :i* is ab\t ! av]age diff]5ce4 ,! /orage capacity ( ! res]voir is #b1djj1jjj1jjj gallons1 or suffici5t = #bjj days' supply to ! city4 ,! puddle wall is #f ft4 wide at ! top & #ah ft4 at gr\nd level1 ! bottom ( ! puddle tr5* ab\t #dj ft4 bel[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,! culv]t 0 =m$ by cutt+ a gullet #ad ft4 wide ) ne>ly v]tical sides ?r\gh ! rock1 & cov]+ x ) a semicircul> ar* #d ft4 9 ?ickness4 ,?r\gh ?is tunnel are laid a #cc 94 & #dh 94 ma92 ! =m] = ! wat] supply1 & ! latt] = sc\r+ or = empty+ ! res]voir on an em]g5cy4 ,!re is a plugg+ ( brickwork 9 cem5t "u ! c5t] ( ! dam 9 ! l9e ( ! puddle wall1 & !n /op walls built at ! end ( ! plugg+1 project+ #be ft4 beyond ! sides ( ! culv]t & #h ft4 above1 ! space betwe5 !m be+ fill$ up ) cem5t concrete ti$ into ! rock1 & on ?is ! puddle wall re/s4 ,?is bank1 l almo/ all o!rs pi]c$ by outlet pipes or culv]ts1 0 n de/9$ to be p]fect4 ,9 #ahfg1 f\r ye>s aft] ! completion1 spurts ( wat] %[$ !mselves 9 ! culv]t 9 front ( ! puddle wall1 :i* began to settle1 & ! wat] _h to be drawn (f to admit ( repairs4 ,diagram ,no4 #aj %[s a /ructure ( a diff]5t "* to any ( ^! already describ$4 ,?is "* ( "w is adopt$ on ! ,nor? ,p\dre ,irrigation ,canal1 9 ,n4,e4 ,colorado4 ,timb] is !re pl5tiful1 & a dam ( ?is "* c be rapidly con/ruct$1 al?\gh probably n v durable1 ow+ to liability to decay ( timb]4 ,t repres5t$ is ab\t #be ft4 high4 ,! au?or has n[ conclud$ ! consid]ation ( e>?work dams1 & proposes mak+ a few rem>ks ^u ^? ( masonry or concrete1 ) ref]5ce to "s ( ! mo/ important1 z %[n on ! diagrams4 ,_! /ability1 unlike ^? ( e>?work1 may be consid]ably increas$ :]e ! cont\r & nature ( ! gr\nd is favorable by be+ curv$ 9 plan1 convex t[>d ! wat]1 & ) a suitable radius4 ,!y are especially suitable = block+ n>r[ rocky valleys1 & z su* situations mu/1 f ! "* ( ! gr\nd1 be liable to sudd5 & high floods1 great c>e is necess>y to make suffici5t provision = ov]fl[4 ,:5 ( masonry1 ! /ones %\ld be bond$1 n m]ely z !y w\ld be 9 an ord9>y v]tical wall1 :]e ! direction ( ! /ress is p]p5dicul>1 b ea* c\rse %\ld be knit 9 ) t above & bel[ x 9 a some:at simil> mann] to :at is t]m$ r&om "w4 ,& la/ly1 if hydraulic mort> be us$1 a suffici5t "t %\ld elapse aft] con/ruction be=e be+ subject$ to /ra91 or 9 o!r words1 be=e wat] is all[$ to rise 9 ! res]voir4 ,= ?is latt] reason1 & also ! liability to damage by sudd5 floods dur+ ! progress ( ! works1 dams ( ,portl& cem5t concrete1 on acc\nt ( _! quick consolidation1 possess advantages ov] ^? ( hydraulic masonry ap>t f ! necessity 9 ! latt] in/ance ( con/ant sup]vision to prev5t scamp+ by leav+ *9ks & spaces vacant1 especially :]e l>ge masses ( /one or ,cyclopean rubble are us$4 ,aga91 %\ld ! dam be dr[n$ by flood dur+ its erection1 no h>m w\ld accrue 7 x compos$ ( ,portl& cem5t concrete1 :]eas %\ld x be ( hydraulic mort> masonry1 ! wall w\ld probably be de/roy$ or1 at all ev5ts1 consid]ably injur$ by ! mort> be+ wa%$ out ( ! jo9ts4 ,portl& cem5t1 h[ev]1 is only suitable = situations :]e ! f\ndation is absolutely firm1 z1 %\ld !re be ! slighte/ settlem5t1 fissures w\ld c]ta9ly be produc$4 ,z reg>ds f\ndations1 ! dam ( ! ,pu5tes res]voir 9 ,spa9 is some:at rem>kable--see ,fig4 #ab4 ,its height is #afd ft41 & ! pr(ile or cross section is ( precisely ! same "* z t ( ! ,alicante dam1 ! latt] be+ #ace ft4 9 height1 #fe ft4 wide at ! cre/1 & #fe ft4 at ! base1 & erect$ ab\t #cjj ye>s ago4 ,at ! ,pu5tes dam ! flanks ( ! valley 7 reliable1 b1 z mu/ be frequ5tly ! case 9 su* situations1 ! b$ ( ! valley 0 compos$ to a great dep? ( gravel1 debris1 & %aky /rata4 ,! difficulty 0 ov]come by ?r[+ an ar*1 or ar*es1 across ! valley1 ! abutm5ts be+ =m$ by ! solid rock on ea* side1 & build+ ! dam ^u ?is ar*+ & fill+ 9 bel[ ! latt] d[n to a suffici5t dep? ) wall+4 ,be>+ 9 m9d ! sudd5 & great floods to :i* dams con/ruct$ 9 su* situations mu/ be subject$1 &1 if ! valley be v n>r[1 ! probability t suffici5t space at ! side = a by-wa% w be difficult to obta91 x w\ld seem reasonable t 9 ! calculation = _! section all[ance %\ld be made = ! possible condition ( ! :ole l5g? ( ! dam be+ conv]t$ into a weir1 ov] :i* ! wat]s may fl[ )\t risk ( injury to ! dam1 to a dep? (1 say1 at lea/ twice t ev] probable4 ,! topp+ ( dams by floods is n uncommon1 & if ! extra /ra9 ?us induc$ has n be5 all[$ =1 _! de/ruction is ne>ly c]ta91 z in/anc$ 9 m ?an "o case 9 ,alg]ia1 :]e1 al?\gh ! av]age ra9fall is only #ae 94 ye>ly1 a dep? ( #f 941 or m ?an "o-?ird ( ! annual total1 has be5 kn[n to fall 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! ,habra dam--see ,fig4 ,no4 #ac--;complet$ 9 #ahga1 0 de/roy$ by a sudd5 flood ( ?is k9d 9 ,decemb]1 #ahha4 ,?is res]voir1 ) a /orage capacity ( #f1fjj1jjj1jjj gallons1 0 int5d$ = ! irrigation ( a cultivat$ bord]+ on ! ,m$it]ranean & ! /orage ( floods4 ,! height ( ! dam 0 #aaf4g ft4 & 0 provid$ ) a by-wa% ( #cid ft4 9 l5g?1 & outlets = irrigation =m$ by f\r ca/ iron pipes ( #ca 94 diamet] ?r\gh ! dam4 ,x 0 compos$ ( rubble set 9 hydraulic mort>1 ! latt] compos$ ( two p>ts ( s& to "o ( hydraulic lime4 ,= gett+ rid ( ! l>ge deposits ( s& to :i* all res]voirs 9 t c\ntry are liable1 two sc\r+ outlets 7 provid$ ( ! same description z ^? 9 ! old ,moori% dams4 ,! pr(ile 0 calculat$ f ,delocre's =mula1 & 0 correct 9 ?is respect1 suppos+ ! by-wa% to h be5 suffici5t4 ,b z x 0 o!rwise1 & ! flood swept ov] ! cre/ to ! dep? ( ab\t #c ft41 ! enorm\s extra /ra9 ?us induc$ ov]?rew ! dam & caus$ ! de/ruction ( sev]al villages & ! dea? ( #bji p]sons4 ,x mu/ be m5tion$ t :5 ! res]voir 0 fill+1 ! wat] p]colat$ ?r\gh ! masonry1 giv+ ! face wall ! appe>ance ( a huge filt]1 :i* at ! "t 0 attribut$ to ! por\s nature ( ! s&/one us$ 9 con/ruction1 b :i* m probably 0 due to ! wa%+ ( ! gre5 mort> out ( ! jo9ts4 ,at ! ,hamiz dam1 also 9 ,alg]ia1 ! wat] 0 admitt$ 9 #ahhd1 b x %[$ imm$iately signs ( weakness1 s t ! wat] _h to be run out & an imm5se reta9+ wall erect$ to /r5g!n ! ma9 dam4 ,alg]ia seems to h be5 s+ul>ly un=tunate z reg>ds ! success ( works ( ?is description4 ,wat] 0 admitt$ to ! ,*eurfas res]voir 9 ,janu>y1 #ahhe1 & x at once began to make its way ?r\gh p]meable gr\nd at "o end ( ! dam4 ,! flu%+ sluice 9 ! deepe/ "p ( ! dam _h become jamm$1 s t ! pressure c\ld n be reliev$1 & 9 ,febru>y #cj ft4 l5g? ( ! dam 0 c>ri$ away1 caus+ a flood 9 ! riv] bel[4 ,at "s di/ance d[n /ream 0 ! ,sig res]voir4 ,! flood ru%+ d[n1 topp$ ?is dam by #ah ft4 & ov]?rew x also4 ,allusion has be5 made to provision = sc\r+ out s& & deposit1 especially 9 ! dams ( ,alg]ia & ( ,spa94 ,! am\nt ( s&1 etc41 br\ght d[n by ! floods is some?+ enorm\s1 & ! "q ( ! be/ means ( gett+ rid ( x has occupi$ mu* att5tion4 ,9 ! old ,moori% res]voirs ! flu%+ gall]y1 pi]c+ ! l[] "p ( ! dam1 0 clos$ by iron doors on ! d[n /ream face & block$ ) timb] at ! upp] end4 ,:5 requir$ to be flu%$ out1 labor]s pass$ ?r\gh ! gall]y & broke d[n ! timb] b>ri]1 ! silt =m+ a wall suffici5tly ?ick to resi/ ! pressure ( ! wat] = ! "t be+1 & all[ ( ! retreat ( ! ,=lorn ,hope--if ! latt] _h luck--be=e giv+ way4 ,"o me?od adopt$ 9 ,alg]ia1 :i* has ! advantage ( p]mitt+ ! s$im5t to be utiliz$ toge!r ) ! irrigation1 ?is s$im5t be+ v f]tiliz+1 is to pump air d[n ?r\gh hose ext5d+ to ! bottom ( ! res]voir1 ! pumps be+ actuat$ by /eam p[] or turb9e1 & ! s$im5t ?us /irr$ up & run (f ) ! wat] ?r\gh ! irrigation pipes4 ,z an example ( "o ( ! e>ly types ( masonry dams 9 ,france1 ref]5ce may be made to ,fig4 #ac1 on :i* is %[n an elevation & cross section ( ! ,lampy dam1 =m+ a l>ge res]voir = fe$+ ! ,langu$oc canal4 ,i w n[ ref] to "s ( ! mo/ notable masonry dams 9 exi/5ce1 comm5c+ ) ,france1 :]e p]haps ! f9e/ is t kn[n z ! ,fur5s1 9 connection ) ! ,/4 ,eti5ne ,wat] ,works1 con/ruct$ betwe5 ! ye>s #ahei-ff1 & design$ by ! eng9e]s ,graiff & ,gr&*amps4 ,x is curv$ 9 plan1 /ruck ) a radius ( #hbh ft4 f a c5t] on ! d[n /ream side1 & f\nd$ ^u compact granite1 ! foot+s be+ c>ri$ d[n to a dep? ( #c ft4 #c 94 bel[ ! surface ( ! rock4 ,x is ( rubble masonry1 9 hydraulic mort>1 c>ri$ up 9 c\rses ( #e ft4 9 dep?4 ,! height is #agj ft4 on ! up /ream side & #ahd ft4 high on ! l[] side1 ) a bread? ( #i ft4 #h 94 at ! cre/ & #aaj ft4 at ! base1 & ! cross section is s design$ t ! pressure is ne>ly con/ant 9 all p>ts1 & n[h]e exce$s #ic lb4 to ! squ>e in*--#ac1cib lb4 to ! squ>e foot4 ,! cont5ts is equal to #eb1jjj cubic y>ds ( masonry1 & ! co/ ( erection 0 #cf1jhj4 ,! capacity ( ! res]voir is equal to #ceb1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,! res]voir dis*>ges into two tunnels 7see ,fig4 #aa71 driv5 "o above ! o!r ?r\gh a hill into an adjac5t valley4 ,! l[] tunnel conta9s ?ree ca/ iron pipes1 ) a masonry /opp+ ( #cf ft4 long4 ,two ( ^! pipes are #af 94 diamet]1 ) regulat+ valves1 & dis*>ge into a well1 f :5ce ! wat] c be direct$ = ! t[n supply or into ! riv]4 ,! ?ird pipe1 ( #h 94 diamet]1 is always op51 & s]ves to remove any deposit 9 ! res]voir1 & to furni% a con/ant supply = ! use ( manufactur]s4 ,! au?or drew att5tion to ! diff]5ce 9 ! section ( ! ,fur5s dam1 ,fig4 #aa1 z comp>$ ) t ( ,alicante1 & ( ,pu5tes1 :i* is simil> to ! latt]4 ,^! two la/ illu/rate ! anci5t ,moori% type1 & ! =m] t ( ! pres5t day4 ,! ,gileppe dam at ,v]vi]s1 9 ,belgium1 ,fig4 #ad1 al?\gh q rec5tly erect$1 viz41 betwe5 ! ye>s #ahfi & #ahge1 diff]s v mu* f ! ,fur5s type1 9 s f> z x is ( v mu* l>g] sectional area 9 proportion to its height1 b ?is is acc\nt$ = by ! desire ( ! eng9e]1 ,m4 ,bodson1 to ov]come ! opposition to its con/ruction1 & meet ! objections & combat ! fe>s ( ^? ^: int]e/s--& ^? s]i\s ones1 no d\bt--w\ld be affect$ 9 ! ev5t ( its rupture1 ! body ( wat] /or$ be+ #b1gja1fhg1jjj gallons1 or ab\t eight times z mu* z ! capacity ( ! ,fur5s res]voir4 ,9 addition to ?is1 !re 0 ano!r reason1 :i* 0 q suffici5t 9 itself to acc\nt = ! extra sub/antiality ( ! dam4 ,?is res]voir is = supply+ wat] to ! clo? factories ( ,v]vi]s1 on ! ,belgian-,g]man fronti]4 ,x is curv$ 9 plan to a radius ( #a1fdj ft41 ) a l5g? ( #gga ft41 & ! additional /r5g? ( ! /ructure due to s flat a curve is probably slight4 ,x is built ( rubble masonry1 ) a%l> facework1 laid 9 hydraulic mort>4 ,! total am\nt ( masonry is #cbe1jjj cubic y>ds4 ,!re are two weirs1 at a level ( #f ft4 bel[ ! cre/1 ea* #hb ft4 wide4 ,! total height1 includ+ ! f\ndations1 :i* are c>ri$ d[n f #c ft4 to #e ft4 into ! rock1 is #aed ft41 & ! bread? ( ! cre/1 :i* c>ries a road1 is #di ft4 #c 941 & at ! base #baf ft4 ,! outlet pipes are c>ri$ ?r\gh tunnels1 :i* are driv5 on ! curve into ! hill side a consid]able di/ance cle> ( ea* end ( ! dam4 ,ano!r v important /ructure is ! ,vill> dam1 ,fig4 #ae1 9 connection ) ! wat] supply ( ,madrid1 & situat$ on ! riv] ,lozoya4 ,! /orage capacity ( ?is res]voir is v consid]able1 viz41 #d1djj1jjj1jjj1 or ne>ly ?irte5 times z great z t ( ,fur5s4 ,! height ( ! dam is #afb ft41 ) a bread? ( #ad ft4 #i 94 at ! cre/4 ,x is built on ! curve to a radius ( #ddj ft41 & ! l5g? ( ! dam measur$ along ! cre/ is #edf ft41 ( :i* #aig ft4 is by-wa%1 ?us describ+ ne>ly "o-fif? ( a circle1 & consequ5tly well design$ to resi/ pressure4 ,! dam is built ( rubble masonry 9 hydraulic mort>1 & co/ #hj1eef4 ,! ,/ony ,creek l[] res]voir dam ( ! ,geelong wat] supply1 ,fig4 #af1 colony ( ,victoria1 is int]e/+ z be+ con/ruct$ ( concrete1 9 ! proportion ( #a to #h4 ,its erection occupi$ eighte5 mon?s1 & co/ ab\t #ah1jjj4 ,x is curv$ 9 plan to a radius ( #cjj ft41 & ! greate/ dep? or head ( wat] is #eb ft4 #d 94 ,! wid? at ! cre/ is only #b ft4 #h 941 al?\gh surm\nt$ by a heavy cop+ ( blue/one #c ft4 #c 94 broad & #a ft4 #i 94 deep4 ,!re be+ no facility = mak+ a by-wa% at ! side1 ! c5t] ( ! dam is di%$ to =m a weir #cj ft4 long4 ,!re are bo? outlet & sc\r pipes1 & valves ( #b ft4 diamet]1 & ! capacity ( ! res]voir is #adc1ade1hcd gallons4 ,! ,p>amatta dam1 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales1 built ( masonry 9 hydraulic mort>1 is ano!r in/ance ( a dam built on ! curve1 & :i* has resi/$ a flood ( wat] #d ft4 9 dep? ov] ! cre/2 & 9 ! case ( a dam ( ab\t #dj ft4 high across ! riv] ,wyre1 9 connection ) ! ,lanca/] ,wat] ,works1 made ( cem5t concrete 9 proportion ( #d to #a1 !re has1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,mans]gh1 frequ5tly be5 a dep? ( #e ft4 ( fl[ ov] x4 ,?is dam is built to a radius ( #hj ft4 only1 & z x measures #ajj ft4 along ! cre/1 mu/ include ab\t ! fif? ( a circle4 ,!re n[ rema9 only two o!r examples ( masonry dams1 ! fir/ be+ t 9 connection ) ! ,liv]pool wat] supply1 & kn[n z ! ,vyrnwy dam1 ,fig4 #ag1 ?is be+ ?r[n across a /ream ( t "n 9 ,nor? ,wales4 ,x is n[ "u con/ruction1 & :5 complet$ w imp\nd an area ( #a1aae acres4 ,! dam w be #a1bee ft4 long1 & =m$ ( ,cyclopean rubble set 9 cem5t mort>1 & ! int]/ices or spaces betwe5 ! l>ge masses ( /one1 :i* are r\gh hewn & n squ>$1 are fill$ ) cem5t concrete4 ,! proportion ( ! cem5t mort> is #b to #a4 ,^! masses ( /one weigh f two to eight tons ea*1 & x is expect$ t ! wall w be ( a mo/ solid description1 z great c>e is be+ tak5 to fill up all spaces4 ,! face next to ! wat] is cem5t$4 ,! area ( ! cross section %[n on ! diagram1 :i* is at "o ( ! deepe/ po9ts1 is #h1igb squ>e feet1 & ! height f f\ndation to flood level is #abi ft41 ! bread? at ! base be+ #aag ft4 #i 94 ,! exi/+ dam ( ! ,new ,york wat] supply1 ,fig4 #ah1 kn[n z ! ,croton res]voir1 is %[n on ! diagram4 ,its capacity is #cfd1jjj1jjj gallons & ! area #bgi acres4 ,! height is #gh ft4 & wid? at cre/ #h ft4 #f 941 & is built ( masonry 9 hydraulic mort>4 ,! face walls are ( /one laid 9 c\rses ( #ad 94 to #bf 941 & are v]tical on ! up /ream side1 & ) a batt] ( #a 9 #b on ! d[n4 ,! he>t+ is ( concrete = a dep? ( #de ft4 f ! top1 & ! rema9+ dep? is 9 ,cyclopean rubble4 ,at ,fig4 #ai is %[n ! section ( ! ,quak] ,bridge dam1 :i* :5 complet$ w be ! l>ge/ /ructure ( ! k9d 9 exi/5ce4 ,x is situat$ on ! ,croton ,riv]1 :i* is a tribut>y ( ! ,hudson1 ab\t f\r miles bel[ ! pres5t ,croton dam4 ,! l5g? w be #a1cjj ft4 & ! height #agj ft4 above ! riv] b$1 or #bgg ft4 above ! f\ndation4 ,! wat] by-wa% is #g ft4 bel[ ! cre/1 & ! dam is #bf ft4 broad at ! cre/ & #baf ft4 at ! base4 ,! capacity ( ! res]voir w be #cb1jjj1jjj1jjj gallons1 or ne>ly a hundr$ times z great z t ( ,fur5s4 ,! geological =mation at ! site is si5itic gneiss4 ,! co/ ( ! dam is e/imat$ at #ejj1jjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,typical ,,masonry ,,& ,,e>?work ,,dams ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,! accompany+ table gives ! pressures to :i* v>i\s dams are subject$1 & x may be not$ ) reg>d to ! weight ( wat]1 g5]ally assum$ z #fb4d lb4 p] cubic foot1 t x w1 9 "s di/ricts1 9 "t ( flood1 c>ry s mu* matt] 9 susp5sion z to be increas$ to z mu* z #ge lb4 weight1 or an addition ( #bj p] c5t41 :i*1 x may be easily imag9$1 w affect ! conditions ( /ability v s]i\sly4 ,,table ,,( ,,maximum ,,pressures4 ,lb4 p] sq4 94 ,gileppe 7,v]vi]s74 #hh ,fur5s 7,/4 ,eti5ne74 #ic ,pu5tes4 #aab ,de ,ban4 #aac ,/4 ,*amond4 #aad ,alicante4 #aed ,hamiz 7,alg]ia7--fail$4 #aeg ,habra 7,alg]ia7--fail$4 #ahe ,a diagram comp>+ ! section d]iv$ f ,moleswor?'s =mula & ^? ( ,fur5s1 ,gileppe1 ,vyrnwy1 & ,quak] ,bridge1 is giv5 at ,fig4 #bj1 ! limit ( pressure assum$ = ! masonry be+ #ic lb4 p] squ>e in*1 :i* is t ( ! ,fur5s1 ! ,gileppe be+ #hh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,dr$g+ ,,ma*9]y4 ,we illu/rate ! new dr$g] ,ajax1 rec5tly built = ,mr4 ,geo4 ,f4 ,smi?1 ( ,/ockton1 ,cal4 ,! dr$g] has n[ be5 work+ = two weeks at ,wakefield1 &1 we are in=m$1 is giv+ entire satisfaction2 hav+ be5 repeat$ly tim$ to be dis*>g+ clay at ! rate ( #bbj cubic y>ds p] h\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,new ,,dr$g] ,,ajax4 ,! ,ajax is almo/ a duplicate ( ! la/ dr$g] design$ by ,mr4 ,f]ris = levee build+ on ,rob]ts ,isl&1 ) su* modifications & improvem5ts z h sugge/$ !mselves 9 ! two ye>s x has be5 work+4 ,! hull1 oval 9 plan1 is #cf ft4 #aj 94 by #fj ft4 ov] all2 x has f\r solid =e & aft bulkheads1 & a well hole #e #ab ft4 at "o end = ! bucket ladd]4 ,! ma9 eng9e is #aj #bd1 op]at+1 by bevel ge>+ & a #c 94 v]tical %aft1 a #d sid$ upp] tumbl] ) #ba 94 sides4 ,?is eng9e works also a gypsy %aft = sw++1 & ! convey] t c>ries ! mud a%ore4 ,a /eam hoi/ ) #f #aa eng9es raises & l[]s ! bucket ladd]4 ,! buckets1 at #d foot c5t]s1 h a /ruck capacity ( #e cubic feet1 & are spe$$ to deliv] f #ah to #bj a m9ute1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! mat]ial be+ h&l$4 ,!y are ( boil] iron1 ) a #e 94 /eel nos+4 ,! l9ks are ( wr\ght iron1 ) ca/ bu%+s4 ,! l[] tumbl] is hexagonal1 on a #d 94 %aft4 ,! convey]1 project+ #gb ft4 f ! c5t] ( ! boat1 consi/s ( a #e ply rubb] belt #cf 94 wide2 runn+ ov] iron drums at ea* end & int]m$iate iron friction roll]s at #c foot c5t]s4 ,rat*et & p9ion on ea* side ( convey] ladd] give means = tak+ up ! slack ( ! belt & adju/+ ! drums to ma9ta9 !m p>allel4 ,?is convey] is ! important feature ( ! dr$ge4 ,x is entirely satisfactory 9 its work+ & deliv]s its mat]ial1 z ne>ly z may be1 9 a dry /ate ^u ! levee4 ,x 0 fe>$ ! rubb] belt w\ld be %ortliv$1 b a #d ply belt ran cont9u\sly = ov] two ye>s on ! ,rob]ts ,isl& dr$ge be=e x ne$$ replac+4 ,! boil] is ( ! m>9e type1 #eb 94 by #aj ft4 #f 941 ) #c 94 tubes & #ad 94 flues2 & burns ab\t #a1djj lb4 ( /eam coal 9 a day ( #ab h\rs4 ,!re are ?ree pumps abo>d--a h& =ce pump = wa%+ boil]1 a plung] pump = boil] fe$1 & an ,evans /eam pump to ?r[ a jet ( wat] into ! deliv]y hopp] :5 digg+ 9 any v t5aci\s mat]ial4 ,all ?ree are connect$ ) ! boil]4 ,wat] tanks bel[ deck s]ve to trim ! boat & furni% a supply = ! boil]4 ,! dr$g] cuts by sw++ on a c5t] spud #af 94 9 diamet]1 & moves =w>d f #h to #aj ft4 at ea* fleet4 ,! ,rob]ts ,isl& dr$g]1 ( :i* ! ,ajax is an improv$ copy1 h&les /eadily #gjj y>ds p] day ( #ab h\rs1 9 ! /iffe/ & mo/ t5aci\s clay 9 :i* x has be5 work$2 & ranges f t av]age to #a1ejj y>ds p] day 9 s(t1 peaty mud4 ,! ,ajax 0 built by ,f>r+ton1 ,hyatt ,co41 ( ! ,/ockton ,iron ,works4 ,?is type ( dr$g] c be built = ab\t #ab1ejj1 & we are in=m$ c be reli$ on = a mon?ly av]age ( #bf1jjj y>ds 9 any mat]ial met ) 9 ! ov]fl[$ l&s ne> ,/ockton1 deliv]$ #ej ft4 a%ore1 at a height ( #aj or #ab ft4 above ! gr\nd l9e4--,m94 & ,sci4 ,press4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,flexible ,,gird] ,,tramway4 ,?is is an +5i\s proposition = utiliz+ a modification ( ! wire tramway sy/em = ov]com+ ob/acles 7:ile reta9+ ! ord9>y wire tramway or any light railway on o!r p>ts ( ! l9e71 made by ,mr4 ,*>les ,ball1 ( ,london4 ,! flexible gird] tramway is an improv$ sy/em ( con/ruct+ a modification ( ! well kn[n & ext5sively us$ rope or wire tramway1 & x is claim$ t x w revolutionize ! transport ( ! products ( indu/rial op]ations f ! place ( production to ! works or manufactory1 railway /ation1 %ipp+ ports1 or place ( consumption2 & t 9 ! result ! introduction ( ! flexible gird] tramway w 9 _m cases enable pr(its to be e>n$ 9 bus9esses :i* h hi!rto be5 unremun]ative4 ,x is decl>$ to be at once simple1 *eap1 durable1 & effici5t4 ,! improvem5t consi/s 9 ! employm5t1 9 addition to ! usual tram wire 7a hemp5 rope1 a wire rope1 or a metallic or o!r rod71 along :i* ! load is transport$1 ( a second or susp5sion wire or rope to :i* ! tram wire is connect$ by t5sion rods or _! equival5t at int]vals betwe5 ! rigid supports or pi]s1 ! object be+ to dim9i% or di/ribute ! sagg+ or deflection ( ! tram wire1 & ?us less5 ! /eepness ( ! gradi5ts ov] :i* ! load has to be transport$4 ,! comb9$ tram wire1 t5sion rods1 susp5sion wire1 & accessories are1 = conv5i5ce1 designat$ a flexible gird]4 ,ano!r improvem5t consi/s 9 us+1 :5 a d\ble l9e is employ$1 /ret*]s or cros%eads to keep ! flexible gird]s ne>ly p>allel to ea* o!r1 s t :5 necess>y ! load to be transport$ may be susp5d$ f or borne by bo? tram wires jo9tly or simultane\sly1 ?us p]mitt+ a load ( great] weight ?an t = :i* ea* s+le tram wire is int5d$ to be c>ri$ ov] ! sy/em4 ,"o indisputable claim = confid5ce 9 ! flexible gird] pr9ciple is said to be t1 al?\gh ! peculi> comb9ation ( p>ts con/itutes a /rik+ & valuable novelty1 x conta9s no?+ t has n be5 prov$ by ! exp]i5ce ( ye>s--nay1 g5]ations--to be useful1 economic1 & reliable4 ,! usual practice foll[$ 9 erect+ susp5sion bridges is applicable 9 m\nt+ ! l9e1 & ! c>ri]s1 supports1 & c>riages may be ( any ( ! usual =ms4 ,= ! rapid removal ( limit$ loads wire tramways are 9 univ]sal favor1 & are recogniz$ n only z v economic & quickly con/ruct$1 b also z be+ 9 _m cases ! only means ( transport available except by ! adoption ( elaborate & co/ly eng9e]+ works4 ,x has1 x seems1 be5 sugge/$ by "s :o h exam9$ ! con/ruction ( ! flexible gird] tramway = m9]al & produce traffic t x w\ld be an additional advantage if arrangem5ts 7 made = ! c>riage ( small loads--half a doz5 or s--( pass5g]s1 ! prim>y int5tion be+ to c>ry ! workpeople backw>d & =w>d betwe5 comp>atively inaccessible m9es1 works1 or plantations & a neighbor+ village or t[n4 ,comp>$ ) e o!r sy/em :]e ! l9e ov] :i* ! load travels is elevat$1 ! flexible gird] tramway is claim$ to possess _m advantages--! c5t] ( gravity is kept well d[n1 ! liability ( ! :eels leav+ ! l9e is r$uc$ to ! m9imum1 ! gradi5ts are ! easie/ t c be obta9$1 !re is an entire abs5ce ( jolt+ & extremely little vibration1 & ! motion is altoge!r smoo? & regul>2 yet x is v que/ionable :e!r1 :5 human life is at /ake1 any b an ord9>y gr\nd l9e %\ld be reli$ ^u4 ,a liv+ freight is f> m liable ?an a dead freight to move dur+ ! j\rney2 & z ! safety ( all ov]head l9es dep5ds ^u :at is sci5tifically designat$ un/able equilibrium1 ! flexible gird] tramway is n recomm5dable = pass5g] l9es1 al?\gh x c1 ( c\rse1 be fitt$ = pass5g] traffic1 a suitable vehicle & t5 or a doz5 good /\t workm5 com+ well )9 a two-ton load1 :i* c be readily c>ri$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ball',s ,,flexible ,,wire ,,tramway4 ,rope traction or animal traction--practically speak+--is alone available = wire tramways 7t is to say1 if ! tra9s are ea* to be propell$ by its own locomotive--:e!r /eam1 spr+s1 or electricity--! co/ ( con/ruction & ma9t5ance becomes s s]i\s t ov]head l9es1 h[ev] well design$1 are no long] economic72 & exp]i5ce ga9$ ) rope traction 9 num]\s colli]ies 9 ! ,nor? ( ,engl& & ,lanca%ire di/ricts--:]e x is highly appreciat$--has %[n t1 all circum/ances consid]$1 ! endless rope is pref]able4 ,! *ief objection urg$ aga9/ wire tramways z hi!rto con/ruct$ has be5 t ! sag ( ! rope has sometimes caus$ annoyance to ^? us+ ! prop]ty pass$ ov]1 & has always add$ mu* to ! co/ ( traction1 ow+ to ! increas$ p[] requir$ = mov+ ! load2 ?is has also result$ 9 va/ly increas$ we> & te> & ! rapid det]ioration & de/ruction ( ! wire rope4 ,! flexible gird] sy/em s r$uces ! sag t ! maximum economy & durability are obta9$1 & ! gradi5ts ov] :i* ! load has to travel c be made z easy & regul> z ^? ^u an ord9>y railway4 ,?is advantage w be ! m readily appreciat$ :5 x is consid]$ t ) a giv5 load on a gradi5t ( #a 9 #cj ! resi/ance due to gravity alone is #bjj p] c5t4 great] ?an on a gradi5t ( #a 9 #aej1 & t ! ret>dation & we> & te> due to friction1 great] curves1 & imp]fections increase /ill m rapidly ) increase ( gradi5t1 soon r5d]+ ! old sagg+ wire l9e practically wor?less4 ,to con/ruct an entire l9e ( flexible gird]s w\ld be n only unnecess>y1 b s co/ly z to neutralize any advantage :i* x may possess1 yet = surm\nt+ occasional ob/acles ! claim made = x--t x w sometimes p]mit ( a l9e o!rwise impracticable be+ *eaply made--seems ju/ifi$4 ,"o c readily imag9e a light n>r[ gauge l9e co/+ #a1jjj p] mile be+ laid1 = example1 betwe5 a m9e & ! %ipp+ place1 & t a swamp1 riv]1 or valley w\ld co/ m to bridge ov] ?an ! :ole l9e besides4 ,if at ?is ob/acle ! trucks or c>riages c\ld be lift$ bodily1 pass$ along ! flexible gird]1 & aga9 plac$ on ! l9e ! o!r side ( ! ob/acle1 ! advantage to be d]iv$ is obvi\s2 & z ! flexible gird] is really little m ?an a susp5sion bridge m9us ! plat=m1 & hav+ b two susp5sion wires1 ! co/ & ! difficulties %\ld bo? be v small4--,indu/rial ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,boz]ian',s ,,refrig]ant ,,punkas4 ,punkas 7also call$ pankasor tankas7 are app>atus t s]ve = fann+ rooms ?r\gh\t ! entire ext5t ( ,engli% ,india4 ,^! devices consi/ ( a light wood5 frame cov]$ ) canvas1 f ! bottom ( :i* dep5ds a fr+e4 ,^! frames are susp5d$ f ! ceil+ 9 su* a way z to occupy ne>ly ! entire wid? & l5g? ( ! room4 ,to ! base ( ! frame is atta*$ a cord :i* passes ov] a :eel1 & :i* is pull$ by a ,h9doo dome/ic4 ,aft] ! frame has be5 lift$1 a weight fa/5$ to ! l[] "p causes x to fall back aga94 ,! result ( ! cont9u\s motion ( ?is colossal fan is a coolness t is highly appreciat$ 9 a c\ntry :]e ! temp]ature is at times incr$ibly high1 & :]e1 )\t ! factiti\s breeze creat$ by ! punka1 liv+ w\ld n be endurable4 ,?is breeze prev5ts p]spiration1 or evaporates ! same z soon z x is =m$4 ,sometimes x s9ks to a light zephyr2 !n1 if y are read+ or writ+1 y may cont9ue y\r "w1 b 9 a di/ract$ way1 ) a moi/ br[1 & ) a feel+ ( annoyance t soon makes y leave book or p54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,t5t ,,or ,,table ,,fan ,,or ,,punka4 ,look+ ar\nd y1 y f9d ! punka immovable4 ,! bahi /ill holds ! cord t pulls x1 b x is because he has ti$ x to 8 h&4 ,he has g5tly slid to ! floor 9 a squatt+ po/ure4 ,he is asleep & y are burn+4 ,a vigor\s exclamation br+s him to 8 feet all /&+1 & he beg9s to pull ! punka ) all 8 might1 & y h a feel+ ( ease & coolness4 ,x is l ! passage f an attack ( fev] to a /ate ( com=t 9 an int]mitt5t disease4 ,s ! punka is se5 ev]y:]e--9 ! temple & c\rt room & o!r public places1 z well z 9 private dwell+s4 ,x is "o ( ! fir/ ?+s to a/oni% ! ,european ^u 8 arrival 9 ,india1 & x is n long be=e he has to bless ! happy inv5tion4 ,al?\gh1 9 a c\ntry :]e ! temp]ature g5]ally rea*es1 & ev5 (t5 exce$s1 #dj ,c41 x is absolutely necess>y to obta9 by e means possible a factiti\s coolness )\t :i* ! ,indies w\ld n be habitable = ,europeans2 & al?\gh !re is no hesitancy 9 putt+ up ^! punkas ev]y:]e to be maneuv]$ by bahis1 ! elevation ( ! temp]ature is n su* 9 ,france t we are oblig$ to h rec\rse to su* processes4 ,b1 )\t be+ =c$ !reto by nature1 x is none ! less true t we are (t5 ! m incommod$ by heat 9 t we are n accu/om$ to x1 & t 9 s\!rn ,france1 at c]ta9 h\rs ( ! day1 su* heat becomes absolutely unbe>able4 ,we c1 x is true1 obta9 a little air by mov+ a fan1 b1 aside f ! fact t ?is ex]cise soon becomes tiresome1 x prev5ts ! use ( ! h& t is fann+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #b4--;,,an ,,ap>tm5t ,,fan4 ,! new app>atus :i* h j be5 devis$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,boz]ian p]mit ( "o's fann+ himself all day long if he wants to1 )\t any fatigue1 & :ile he is eat+1 read+1 writ+1 etc4 ,9 "o ( ^! app>atus1 design$ to be us$ 9 ! op5 air 7,fig4 #a71 we f9d a table1 a t5t1 & a fan comb9$2 b z ea* "p is indep5d5t1 we c h ! table & fan )\t t5t1 or ! fan & p$als alone )\t table or t5t4 ,"u ! t5t !re is arrang$ a frame :i* pivots freely 9 ap]tures =m$ 9 ! uprights t support bo? ! t5t & table4 ,?is frame is connect$1 ?r\gh two lev]s1 ) ! p$als ^u :i* "o's feet re/4 ,! motion ( ! p$als is an alt]nat+ "o l ^? ( sew+ ma*9es2 b :ile 9 ! case ( ! latt] a pressure has to be ex]t$ t soon becomes v tiresome1 ! motion 9 ,mr4 ,boz]ian's app>atus is s easy t x is only necess>y to raise ! toes ( ea* foot 9 succession 9 ord] to produce a sw+ ( ! fan ?r\gh ! weight alone ( ! foot t is press+4 ,! frame1 :i* :5 at re/ hangs p]p5dicul>ly1 describes ab\t a qu>t] ( a circle :5 ! extremity ( ! foot is rais$ ab\t an in*4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! abs5ce ( passive resi/ances1 motion occurs )\t any /ress1 & almo/ me*anically1 giv+ air n only to him :o is actuat+ ! fan1 b also to 8 vis-a-vis4 ,fig4 #b repres5ts an ap>tm5t app>atus design$ to be plac$ 9 front ( a table or desk1 9 ord] t "o c fan himself :ile eat+ or writ+4 ,be+ m\nt$ ^u ca/]s1 x c be readily mov$ ab\t f "o place to ano!r4 ,at ! extremity ( a wood5 support1 ^: height may be v>i$ at w1 !re is arrang$ a flexible fan ^: h&le is fix$ ne> a pulley4 ,a small piece ( lead =ms ! c\nt]poise ( ! fan1 :i* is ?us completely balanc$4 ,ov] ! pulley runs a cord1 ea* end ( :i* is atta*$ to a p$al4 ,x w be se5 t ! alt]nate motion ( ^! p$als mu/ cause a rotation ( ! pulley 9 "o direction or ! o!r1 & t consequ5tly ! fan w rise or fall m or less rapidly1 & give a quantity ( air t v>ies accord+ to ! rapidity ) :i* ! toes are mov$4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,punkas4 ,footnote3 ,extract f a lecture rec5tly deliv]$ at ,bombay4 ,by ,j4 ,,wallace1 ,c4,e4 ,! function ( a punka is to cause a curr5t ( air to pass ! human body s t ! animal heat may escape m rapidly4 ,?is has no?+ to d ) v5tilation2 = if ! punka 7 us$ 9 a clos$ room1 x w\ld /ill produce a cool+ effect on ! sk94 ,let u = a mom5t exam9e into :at takes place 9 ?is op]ation1 = a cle> idea ( ! cause ( our s5sations ( heat is absolutely necess>y to enable u to g directly to ! simple/ & be/ =m ( rem$y4 ,! heat we feel1 & :i* sometimes r5d]s u uncom=table1 is produc$ )9 u by ! sl[ combu/ion ( ! food we eat4 ,?is heat cont9ues to escape f ! :ole surface ( ! body dur+ ! :ole lifetime1 & if any?+ occurs to arre/ x to any great ext5t1 ! result is fatal4 ,9 cold wea!r1 & especially :5 !re is mu* w9d1 ! animal heat escapes v rapidly f ! body1 & extra clo?+ is us$1 n = any heat x imp>ts1 b simply because x int]rupts ! escape ( ! heat1 & ?us ma9ta9s ! temp]ature ( ! sk9--t "p ( u :i* is mo/ s5sible ( *ange ( temp]ature4 ,x is a wond]ful fact t ! heat ( ! int]ior ( ! body v>ies v little 9 a heal?y man betwe5 ,india & ,gre5l&4 ,! sk9 may be> a good _m degrees ( *ange ( temp]ature ) impunity1 b ! blood w only suff] a v small v>iation f ! normal temp]ature ( #ih-d_/aj ,fahr5heit )\t s]i\s consequ5ces4 ,well1 to keep ! sk9 at an agreeable temp]ature 9 ,india we g5]ally we> a m9imum ( clo?+1 & :5 !re is no breeze1 we try to produce "o ) ! punka4 ,! escape ( animal heat f ! body =ms a subject :i* is mu* m complicat$1 & mu* m important1 ?an ! "o we h met to consid]1 b x is impossible )9 ! limits ( our "t to ref] to x1 except 9 ! measure t is /rictly necess>y to elucidate ! pr9ciples t %\ld control ! con/ruction ( ! punka4 ,x has (t5 be5 said t e eng9e] on 8 arrival 9 ,india sets ab\t improv+ ?is useful app>atus2 b if we may judge f ! endless v>iety ( =ms :i* may be se5 9 %ops & (fices1 9 public & 9 private build+s1 no g5]al pr9ciple ( con/ruction has be5 recogniz$1 & ! punka1 z we see x1 seems to dep5d1 = its =m1 m ^u ! ta/e ( ! workman :o makes x ?an on any?+ else4 ,we %all beg9 by direct+ our att5tion to ! susp5d$ punka1 :i* is usually hung f ! ceil+1 & put 9 movem5t by a cord4 ,! object ( ?is class ( punka is to produce a d[nw>d curr5t ( air by sw++ to & fro1 & ! be/ punka is ! "o :i* ?r[s d[nw>d ! greate/ quantity ( air ) ! smalle/ appli$ =ce4 ,! sw++ punka is "o ( ! simple/ =ms ( me*anism2 x c be fitt$ up ) ! mo/ primitive mat]ials1 & h[ev] badly made1 x w always h "s effect4 ,?is fact has its good & its bad aspects2 x br+s a c]ta9 com=t )9 ! rea* ( all1 b x removes a great "p ( t necessity :i*1 z we all "k1 is ! "m ( inv5tion4 ,!re are "s v important natural laws :i* are illu/rat$ 9 ! punka4 ,! fir/ is t :i* gov]ns ! movem5t ( ! p5dulum4 ,! numb] ( sw+s x makes p] m9ute dep5ds on ! l5g? ( ! susp5d+ cords2 a p5dulum ?ree feet long w sw+ #fb times p] m9ute1 & a p5dulum six feet long w sw+ #dd times p] m9ute4 ,:e!r ! sw+s are long ones or %ort ones1 ! numb] p] m9ute is /ill ! same4 ,y _c1 !re=e1 alt] ! natural rate ( movem5t ( a punka unless y pull x at bo? sides4 ,! next law is t :i* det]m9es t ! angles ( incid5ce & ( reflection are equal4 ,?is 9 simple language means t x is useless to expect a good d[nw>d curr5t ( air f a sl[ mov+ & heavy punka1 ) long susp5d+ cords :i* keep x ne>ly always 9 a v]tical position to its plane ( movem5t4 ,/rik+ ! air squ>ely z x does 9 its =w>d & backw>d movem5t1 x ?r[s almo/ z mu* air upw>d z d[nw>d1 & ( c\rse all ! air t is propell$ 9 any o!r ?an a d[nw>d direction repres5ts j s mu* p[] wa/$4 ,"o m law1 & !n we may proce$ to demon/ration4 ,z ! air weighs #j4jgb lb4 p] cubic foot at #hb ,fahr5heit1 & z a consid]able quantity ( air is put 9 motion1 ! p[] requir$ to drive a punka dep5ds ^u ! quantity ( air x puts 9 motion 9 a giv5 "t4 ,! useful effect is a sep>ate matt]2 x dep5ds on ! am\nt ( air ?r[n 9 a d[nw>d direction4 ,to summ>ize2 all punkas ( ! same size or surface1 & go+ at ! same spe$1 require ! same am\nt ( pull+4 ,! be/ "o is t :i* w ?r[ d[n m air ?an any o!r ( ! same size4 ,to obta9 ! greate/ result f ! p[] exp5d$ 9 driv+ x1 ! punka %\ld be plac$ z ne> z possible to ! p]son to be cool$1 z ! loss ( effect1 due to di/ance1 increases n 9 direct ratio1 b 9 proportion to ! squ>e ( ! di/ance betwe5 punka & p]son4 ,if at two feet ( di/ance he receives "o eigh? ( ! total effect1 he w at f\r feet ( di/ance obta9 only "o ?irty-second "p4 ,9 practice1 ! punka %\ld j cle> 8 head :5 /&+1 & ! weight+ ( ! curta9 %\ld be ( "s yield+ mat]ial1 s z n to damage any p]son :o might /& 9 its c\rse4 ,we %all n[ proce$ to exam9e sev]al =ms ( punka1 all made to ! same size1 &1 = purposes ( comp>ison1 we %all drive !m all at ! same spe$4 ,& 9 ord] t _! effects may be visible to y1 ,i h prep>$ an indicator :i* resembles m ?an any?+ else ! keybo>d ( a piano4 ,x consi/s ( a s]ies ( balanc$ lev]s ) blades or keys atta*$1 =m+ a keybo>d f\r feet long4 ,! lev]s1 ea* ?ree feet long1 are delicately hung on f9e brass c5t]s1 & ea* lev] is c\nt]balanc$ by a weight hung 9 a vessel ( wat]1 :i* acts z a hydraulic brake1 & *ecks any spasmodic movem5t 9 ! app>atus4 ,on ! end ( ea* blade is fix$ a disk ( :ite ,bri/ol bo>d f\r in*es 9 diamet]1 =m+ a r[ :i* faces ! audi5ce4 ,?is app>atus is s s5sitive t a slight *ange 9 ! humidity ( ! atmosph]e is suffici5t to ?r[ x out ( balance4 ,! p[] requir$ to drive a punka is ne>ly all due to ! resi/ance ( ! air2 t "p due to ! =ce ( gravity1 & ! friction ( ! susp5d+ jo9ts1 is sc>cely wor? c\nt+4 ,we may readily obs]ve ! effect ( ! resi/ance ( ! air by sw++ two p5dulums ( equal l5g? & hav+ ea* a l>ge c>dbo>d disk atta*$4 ,"o ( ! disks %all pres5t its edge to ! l9e ( movem5t1 & ! o!r its face4 ,exp4 #a4--,!y are n[ sw++1 & be+ bo? ( ! same gravity l5g?1 !y %\ld sw+ toge!r & = an equal l5g? ( "t4 ,?is !y w\ld d 9 a vacuum1 b y h already obs]v$ t "o ( !m is lagg+1 & w evid5tly soon come to a /&/ill4 ,x is ! "o fac+ ! air4 ,if punkas 7 pull$ f bo? sides1 !y might be made v mu* light] ?an !y are at pres5t1 b = ! sake ( simplicity a s+le pull is pref]r$4 ,!y mu/1 !re=e1 be made ( su* a weight t !y w sw+ ne>ly z f> on ! opposite side z !y are pull$ on ! ne> side2 any great] weight is useless & only s]ves to we> out ! susp5d+ cords1 :i*1 by ! way1 are ne>ly always too num]\s & too ?ick = _! purpose4 ,exp4 #b4--;,"h is a panel punka :i* we %all try to use )\t ! cu/om>y sw+ b>4 ,x is ( calico /ret*$ on a light wood5 frame1 & y w be able to judge if x sw+s equally on ea* side ( ! po/ :i* supports x4 ,! irregul>ity ( its movem5t %[s t x is too light1 s we %all add1 by way ( sw+ b>1 a b> ( r\nd iron "o & a qu>t] in* ?ick4 ,exp4 #c4--;,x is n[ sw++ regul>ly1 & exp]im5ts h already prov$ t ! sw+ b> %\ld n be light] ?an ?is "o1 :i* weighs f\r & a six? lb4 p] foot ( l5g?4 ,iron is ! be/ mat]ial = ?is purpose1 z x (f]s ! smalle/ surface to ! resi/ance ( ! air4 ,! l5g? ( ! susp5d+ cords is usually a matt] ( accid5t 9 ! con/ruction ( a punka1 b a little att5tion to ! subject w soon conv9ce u t x is "o ( ! mo/ important consid]ations4 ,! limit ( movem5t ( a punka is to be f\nd 9 ! man :o pulls x4 ,tw5ty-f\r pulls a m9ute ( a l5g? ( #cf in*es give 9 practice a spe$ ( #afh l9e> feet to ! punka curta94 ,?is spe$ is f\nd to produce a curr5t suffici5tly rapid = practical purposes1 & tw5ty-f\r pulls or beats p] m9ute correspond to a l5g? ( susp5d+ cord ( fifty in*es4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,h[ ,,to ,,make ,a ,,kite ,,)\t ,a ,,tail4 ,! foll[+ is ! me?od ( mak+ a kite )\t a tail3 ,all ! calculations necess>y 9 ord] to obta9 ! diff]5t proportions are bas$ ^u ! l5g? ( ! /ick1 ,a',a1 employ$4 ,su* l5g? be+ f\nd1 we divide x by t51 & ?us obta9 :at is call$ ! unit ( l5g?4 ,) su* unit x is v easy to obta9 all ! proportions4 ,! b[1 ,k',k1 consi/s ( two pieces ( osi] ea* #e units 9 l5g?1 t =m1 ?r\gh _! union1 a total l5g? ( #g units4 ,illu/ration3 ,,kite ,,)\t ,a ,,tail4 ,aft] ! b[ has be5 con/ruct$ accord+ to ^! measurem5ts1 x only rema9s to fix x to ! /ick 9 su* a way t x %all be two units di/ant f ! upp] end ( ! /ick4 ,! balance1 ,,cc'1 ^: accuracy contributes mu* to ! /ability ( ! :ole 9 ! air1 consi/s ( a /r+ fix$ at "o end to ! junction1 ,d1 ( ! b[ & /ick1 & at ! o!r to ! /ick itself at a di/ance ( ?ree units f ! l[] extremity4 ,next1 a cord1 ,b1 is pass$ ar\nd ! frame1 & ! :ole is cov]$ ) ?9 pap]4 ,be=e rais+ ! kite1 ! /r+1 :i* hangs f ,k'1 is made fa/ at ,k 9 su* a way z to cause ! b[ to curve backw>d4 ,?is curvature is increas$ or dim9i%$ accord+ to ! =ce ( ! w9d4 ,no?+ rema9s to be done b to atta* ! cord to ! balance1 & raise ! kite4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,app>atus ,,= ,,dry+ ,,fl\r4 ,! accompany+ draw+ repres5ts a simple b effective app>atus = dry+ fl\r & asc]ta9+ ! quantity ( wat] conta9$ !re94 ,x consi/s ( f\r pieces1 ! :ole be+ made ( block t94 ,a is a simple saucepan = conta9+ ! wat]4 ,b is ! lid1 :i* only p>tially cov]s ! top ( ! pan1 to :i* x is fix$ by two slots1 a hole be+ left 9 ! middle = ! plac+ ( ! vessel :i* conta9s ! fl\r to be op]at$ ^u1 & is dropp$ 9 9 ! same way z ! pan conta9+ ! glue is let into an ord9>y glue pot4 ,c is ! sp\t1 :i* s]ves z an outlet = ! /eam aris+ f ! boil+ wat]4 ,d is ! vessel 9 :i* ! fl\r is plac$ to be exp]im5t$ ^u2 & ,,ee are ! funnels ( ! lid :i* cov]s ! said vessel1 & :i* s]ve z escapes = ! /eam aris+ f ! moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! fl\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,app>atus ,,= ,,dry+ ,,fl\r ,directions = use4--,p>tially fill ! pan ) wat] & all[ x to boil4 ,place a giv5 quantity ( fl\r 9 ! inn] vessel1 ,d1 tak+ c>e fir/ to weigh x4 ,subject x to ! action ( ! boil+ wat] until x is p]fectly dry1 :i* w be indicat$ by ! /eam ceas+ to issue f ! funnels4 ,!n weigh aga91 & ! diff]5ce 9 ! weight w repres5t ! quantity ( moi/ure conta9$ 9 x1 dri$ at a temp]ature ( #bab degrees ,fahr41 t ( boil+ wat]4--,! ,mill]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,app>atus ,,= ,,manufactur+ ,,b\quets4 ,= "s ye>s pa/1 ! sale ( fl[]s has be5 gradually increas+4 ,into ! l>g] cities1 su* z ,p>is = example1 !y are introduc$ by ! c> load1 & along ab\t ! fir/ ( ,janu>y ! consumption ( !m is extraord9>y4 ,all *oice fl[]s are n[ be+ cultivat$ by improv$ me?ods t assure ( an abundant production ( !m4 ,:at tw5ty ye>s ago w\ld h appe>$ to be an antiquat$ me*anism1 viz41 an app>atus = mak+ b\quets1 has n[ become a device ( prime necessity by reason ( ! exig5cies ( an excessive dem&4 ,mr4 ,my>d1 a g>d5] ( ,*alon-sur-,saone1 & vice-presid5t ( ! horticultural society ( t city1 has devis$ a curi\s app>atus1 :i* we repres5t h]e) f a photograph4 ,?is b\quet ma*9e1 :i* ! inv5tor /yles a b\queti]e1 consi/s ( a /ation>y rod 7%[n to ! "r ( ! figure71 ^u :i* slides a spool w\nd ) tw9e1 & ! l[] "p ( :i* is provid$ ) ?ree spr+s = keep+ ! tw9e taut4 ,a horizontal arm at ! top supports a guide or patt]n ^: curve is to be foll[$1 on plac+ ! fl[]s 9 position4 ,?is arm is remov$ or turn$ aside aft] ! b9d+ screw has be5 loos5$1 9 ord] t ! rod to ! left t c>ries ! b\quet may be tak5 out4 ,a guide1 =m$ ( a /eel ribbon1 is fix$ to ! arm & to its movable rod by means ( b9d+ screws1 :i* p]mit ( its be+ readily elongat$4 ,?is c5tral rod c be rais$ or l[]$ at w1 &1 ow+ to ^! comb9ations1 e desir$ =m ( b\quet may be obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,app>atus ,,= ,,mak+ ,,b\quets4 ,! rod to ! left is provid$ ) a /eel pivot1 & conta9s sev]al ap]tures1 into :i* a p9 ent]s1 ?us r5d]+ x easy to beg9 b\quets at diff]5t heights4 ,! b\quet is m\nt$ ^u ! rod to ! left1 z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,! p9 passes ?r\gh ! rod & ent]s a loop =m$ at ! extremity ( ! tw9e1 & ?us s]ves z a po9t ( support1 & prev5ts ! b\quet f fall+1 no matt] :at its weight is4 ,:5 ! p9 is remov$ 9 ord] t ! b\quet may be tak5 out1 ! loop escapes4 ,at ! l[] "p ( ! rod ^u :i* ! b\quet is m\nt$1 !re is a coll> ) ?ree bran*es1 by means ( :i* a rot>y motion is giv5 to ! fl[]s ?r\gh ! aid ( ! h&4 ,! tw9e us$ = ty+ is ?us w\nd ar\nd ! /ems4 ,:5 ! app>atus is 9 motion1 ! tw9e unw9ds f ! spool1 & w9ds ar\nd ! rod t c>ries ! fl[]s1 & twi/s ab\t & holds e /em4 ,an exp]i5c$ op]ator c "w v rapidly ) ?is little app>atus1 :i* has be5 con/ruct$ ) mu* c>e & +5uity1 & :i* ent]s into a s]ies ( special me*anisms t is always ( int]e/ to "k ab\t4 ,! manufactur] 0 advis$ to con/ruct 8 app>atus s t x c\ld be run by foot p[]1 b1 aft] "s trials1 x 0 f\nd t ! addition ( a p$al & ! me*anism t x necessitates 0 absolutely sup]flu\s1 ! app>atus work+ v well su* z x is4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cont9u$ f ,,supplem5t1 ,no4 #efg1 page #ijeg4 ,,radii ,,( ,,curvature ,,geometrically ,,det]m9$4 ,by ,pr(4 ,c4,w4 ,,maccord1 ,sc4,d4 ,,no4 ,,vii4--,,pa? ,,( ,a ,,po9t ,,on ,a ,,connect+ ,,rod4 ,! motion ( ! connect+ rod ( a reciprocat+ /eam eng9e is v cle>ly und]/ood f ! simple /atem5t t "o end travels 9 a circle & ! o!r 9 a "r l9e4 ,f ?is /atem5t x is also readily inf]r$ t ! pa? ( any po9t betwe5 ! c5t]s ( ! crank & cros%ead p9s w be nei!r circul> nor /raight1 b an elongat$ curve4 ,?is inf]5ce is s f> correct1 b ! v common impression t ! middle po9t ( ! rod always describes an ellipse is q errone\s4 ,! v>iation f t curve1 :ile n conspicu\s 9 all cases1 is nev]!less q suffici5t to prev5t ! use ( ?is movem5t = an elliptograph4 ,to ?is !re is1 ab/ractly1 "o exception4 ,ref]r+ to ,fig4 #bb 9 ! prec$+ article1 x w be se5 t if ! crank ,,oh & ! connect+ ,,he are ( equal l5g?1 any po9t on ! latt] or on its prolongation1 except ,e1 ,h1 & ,f1 w describe an exact ellipse4 ,b ! proportions are "h s diff]5t f any?+ us$ 9 /eam eng9es 7! /roke be+ f\r times ! l5g? ( ! crank71 t ?is p>ticul> arrangem5t c h>dly be consid]$ z :at is ord9>ily und]/ood by a crank & connect+ rod movem5t1 su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bc4 ,! l5g? ,,de ( ! curve trac$ by ! po9t ,p w evid5tly be equal to ,a',b'1 ! /roke ( ! eng9e1 & t aga9 to ,,ab1 ! ?r[ ( ! crank4 ,! highe/ position ( ,p w be t %[n 9 ! figure1 det]m9$ by plac+ ! crank v]tically1 z ,,oc4 ,at t in/ant ! motions ( ,c & ,c' are horizontal1 & be+ incl9$ to ,,cc' !y mu/ be equal4 ,9 o!r words1 ! motion is "o ( translation1 & ! radius ( curvature at ,p is inf9ite4 ,to f9d ! c5t] ( curvature at ,d1 assume ! crank p9 ,a to h a velocity ,aa4 ,!n1 s9ce ! rod is at t in/ant turn+ ab\t ! f>!r end ,a'1 we w h ,dd = ! motion ( ,d4 ,! in/antane\s axis ( ! connect+ rod is f\nd by draw+ p]p5dicul>s to ! directions ( ! simultane\s motions ( its two ends1 & x !re=e falls at ,a'1 9 ! pres5t position4 ,b ! p]p5dicul> to ! motion ( ! crank p9 is ! l9e ( ! crank itself1 & consequ5tly is revolv+ ab\t ,o ) an angul> velocity repres5t$ by ,,aoa4 ,! motion ( ,a' is 9 ! direction ,a',b'1 b its velocity at ! in/ant is z]o4 ,h5ce1 draw+ a v]tical l9e at ,a'1 limit$ by ! prolongation ( a,o1 we h ,a'a' = ! motion ( ! in/antane\s axis4 ,!re=e1 by draw+ a'd1 cutt+ ! normal at x1 we det]m9e ,dx1 ! radius ( curvature4 ,plac+ ! crank 9 ! opposite position ,,ob1 we f9d by a con/ruction precisely simil> to ! above1 ! radius ( curvature ,ez at ! o!r extremity ( ! axis ( ! curve4 ,x w at once be se5 t ,ez is less ?an ,dx1 & t s9ce ! normal at ,p is v]tical & inf9ite1 ! evolute ( ,,dpe w consi/ ( two bran*es x,n1 z,m1 to :i* ! v]tical normal ,,pl is a common asymptote4 ,^! two bran*es w n be simil>1 nor is ! curve itself symmetrical ) respect to ,,pl or to any transv]se l9e2 all ( :i* peculi>ities *>act]ize x z some?+ q diff]5t f ! ellipse4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,moreov]1 9 ,fig4 #bb1 ! locus ( ! in/antane\s axis ( ! trammel b> 7( :i* ! "p ,,eh corresponds to ! connect+ rod1 :5 a crank ,,oh is add$ to ! elliptograph !re discuss$7 0 f\nd to be a circle4 ,b 9 ! pres5t case ?is locus is v diff]5t4 ,beg9n+ at ,a'1 ! in/antane\s axis moves d[nw>d & to ! "r1 z ! crank travels f ,a 9 ! direction ( ! arr[1 until x becomes v]tical1 :5 ! axis w be f\nd ^u ,c',r1 at an inf9ite di/ance bel[ ,,ab'1 ! locus = ?is qu>t] ( ! revolution be+ a curve ,a',g1 to :i* ,c',r is an asymptote4 ,aft] ! crank p9 passes ,c1 ! axis w be f\nd above ,,ab' & to ! "r ( ,c',r1 mov+ 9 a curve ,,hb'1 :i* is ! locus = ! second quadrant4 ,s9ce ! pa? ( ,p is symmetrical ) respect to ,,de1 ! completion ( ! revolution w result 9 ! =mation ( two o!r curves1 cont9u\s & symmetrical ) ^? above describ$1 ! :ole appe>+ z 9 ,fig4 #bd1 ! v]tical l9e ?r\gh ,c' be+ a common asymptote4 ,9 ord] to f9d ! radius ( curvature at any po9t on ! g5]at$ curve1 x is necess>y to f9d n only ! location ( ! in/antane\s axis1 b its motion4 ,?is is done z %[n 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,p be+ ! giv5 po9t1 ,,cd is ! correspond+ position ( ! connect+ rod1 ,,oc t ( ! crank4 ,draw ?r\gh ,d a p]p5dicul> to ,,od1 produce ,,oc to cut x 9 ,e1 ! in/antane\s axis4 ,assume ,c ,a p]p5dicul> to ,,oc1 z ! motion ( ! crank4 ,!n ! po9t ,e 9 ,,oc produc$ w h ! motion ,,ef p]p5dicul> to ,,oe1 ( a magnitude det]m9$ by produc+ ,,oa to cut ?is p]p5dicul> 9 ,f4 ,b s9ce ! int]section ,e ( ! crank produc$ is to be ) a v]tical l9e ?r\gh ! o!r end ( ! rod1 ! in/antane\s axis has a motion :i*1 s f> z x dep5ds ^u ! movem5t ( ,c only1 is 9 ! direction ,,de4 ,!re=e ,,ef is a compon5t1 ^: resultant ,,eg is f\nd by draw+ ,,fg p]p5dicul> to ,,ef4 ,n[ ,d is mov+ to ! left ) a velocity :i* may be det]m9$ ei!r by draw+ ?r\gh ,a a p]p5dicul> to ,,cd1 & ?r\gh ,c a horizontal l9e to cut ?is p]p5dicul> 9 ,h1 or by mak+ ! angle ,,dei equal to ! angle ,,cea1 giv+ on ,,d ! di/ance ,,di1 equal to ,,*4 ,make ,,ek ,,di or ,,*1 complete ! rectangle ,,kegl1 & its diagonal ,,es is1 f9ally1 ! motion ( ! in/antane\s axis4 ,,ep is ! normal1 & ! actual motion ( ,p is ,,pm1 p]p5dicul> to ,,ep1 ! angle ,,pem be+ made equal to ,,cea4 ,f9d n[ ! compon5t ,,en ( ! motion ,,es1 :i* is p]p5dicul> to ,,ep4 ,draw ,,nm & produce x to cut ,,ep produc$ 9 ,r ! c5t] ( curvature at ,p4 ,?is po9t evid5tly lies ^u ! bran* z,m ( ! evolute 9 ,fig4 #bc4 ,! process ( f9d+ "o ^u ! o!r bran* x,n is %[n 9 ! l[] "p ( ! diagram1 ,fig4 #be4 ,! op]ations be+ exactly l ^? above describ$1 w be readily trac$ by ! read] )\t fur!r explanation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,automatic ,,commutator ,,= ,,inc&esc5t ,,lamps4 ,inc&esc5t electric light+1 already pu%$ to su* a degree ( p]fection 9 ! details ( con/ruction & in/allation1 cont9ually f9ds new exig5cies t h to be satisfi$4 ,z x is m & m firmly e/abli%$1 x has to provide = all ! com=ts ( exi/5ce by simple solutions ( problems ( ! small] class4 ,take = example ?is case3 ,suppose a room1 su* z an (fice1 light$ by a s+le lamp4 ,! filam5t breaks2 ! room becomes d>k4 ,! bell pu% is n always )9 rea* ( ! arm1 & x is by haphaz>d t "o has to w&] ar\nd 9 ! d>k4 ,?is is c]ta9ly an unpleasant situation4 ,! com=t we seek = 9 our h\ses is f> f be+ provid$4 ,m4 ,cl]c1 ! well kn[n inv5tor ( ! sun lamp1 has tri$ to ov]come tr\bles ( ?is sort1 & has atta9$ a simple1 elegant1 & at ! same "t *eap solution4 ,! cut %[s ! arrangem5t4 ,! app>atus is connect$ at ! po9ts1 ,,bb'1 ) ! light+ circuit4 ,! curr5t ent]+ by ! t]m9al1 ,b'1 passes ?r\gh ! coils ( a bobb91 ,s1 be=e rea*+ ! po9ts ( atta*m5t1 a & b1 ( ! lamp1 ,l1 ! normally work+ "o4 ,!nce ! circuit runs to ,b4 ,)9 ! coil1 ,s1 is a small holl[ cyl9d]1 ,t1 ( ?9 %eet iron1 :i* is rais$ p>allel ) ! axis ( ! bobb9 dur+ ! passage ( ! curr5t ?r\gh ! latt]4 ,at its base ! cyl9d] is prolong$ into two little rods1 h & h'1 :i* plunge into two m]cury cups1 ,g & ,g'4 ,! cut %[s t "o ( ! cups1 ,g'1 is connect$ to ! t]m9al1 ,b'1 & ! o!r1 ,g1 to ! t]m9al1 a'1 ( ! o!r lamp1 ,l'4 ,an inspection ( ! cut %[s j :at ensues :5 an accid5t happ5s to ! fir/ lamp :ile burn+4 ,! fir/ circuit be+ brok5 at ab1 ! magnetiz+ action ( ! curr5t 9 ! bobb9 ceases1 ! cyl9d]1 ,t1 desc5ds1 & ! rods1 h & h'1 dip into ! m]cury4 ,x foll[s t ! curr5t1 always />t+ f ! t]m9al1 ,b'1 w by means ( ! cups1 ,g & ,g'1 pass ?r\gh ! lamp1 ,l'1 to g by ! orig9al return wire to ,b4 ,illu/ration ,! sub/itution ( ! lamp1 ,l1 = ,l' is almo/ in/antane\s4 ,x c sc>cely be p]ceiv$4 ,x goes )\t say+ t su* an arrangem5t ( automatic commutation is applicable to lamps ) two or m filam5ts ( :i* only "o is to be light$ at a "t4 ,! app>atus co/s little1 & c be made z ornam5tal z desir$4 ,no exagg]ation is indulg$ 9 if we pron\nce x simple & +5i\s4 ,x may be us$ 9 a great v>iety ( eases4 ,! diamet] ( ! wire is #ee_/ajj 7#bb mm471 its l5g? eighte5 met]s 7#fj feet71 its resi/ance "o ohm2 amp]e is ne$$ to "w x1 & less ?an a watt is absorb$ by x4--,electricite4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,def9itions ,,& ,,designations ,,9 ,,electrote*nics4 ,we may disc\rse = "s "t to come ^u ! uni=mity ( electric language1 = univ]sal agreem5t is f> f be+ e/abli%$4 ,an important /ep t[>d ! unity ( ?is language 0 tak5 9 #ahha by ! congress ( ,p>is1 :i* r5d]$ ! use ( ! ,c4,g4,s4 sy/em def9itive & univ]sal4 ,?is labor 0 complet$ 9 #ahhd by ! meet+ ( a new congress at ,p>is1 at :i* a def9ition ( ! ,c4,g4,s4 & practical units 0 di/9ctly decid$ ^u4 ,t ! unit ( light def9$ by ! congress has n rapidly come into favor is due to ! fact t its practical realization is n )9 ev]ybody's rea*4 ,! "w ( unification %\ld n come to a /&/ill on s good a road4 ,h[ _m times 9 sci5tific works or 9 practical applications d we f9d ! same physical magnitude designat$ by diff]5t names1 or ev5 ! use ( ! same expression to designate entirely diff]5t ?+s6 ,! result is an increase ( difficulties & confusions1 n only = p]sons n ?or\ghly initiat$ into ^! notions1 b also = adepts1 ev51 9 ?is new bran* ( ! eng9e]'s art4 ,! effects ( su* confusion make !mselves /ill fur!r felt 9 ! read+ ( =eign publications4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ,g]many t "p ( a dynamo electric ma*9e t is call$ 9 ,france ! induit 7armature7 is sometimes /yl$ ank]1 & m r>ely armatur4 ,! nor? pole ( a freely susp5d$ magnetiz$ ne$le is ! "o t po9ts t[>d ! geographical nor? ( ! e>?4 ,9 ,france1 & by "s ,engli% au?ors1 ?is pole is call$ ! s\? "o4 ,among electricians ( ! same c\ntry1 :at by "o is call$ electro-motive =ce is by ano!r /yl$ diff]5ce ( pot5tial1 by a ?ird t5sion1 & ev5 diff]5ce ( t5sion4 ,our confr]e ,ruhlmann1 ( ! ,elektrote*nis*e ,zeits*rift1 gives a /ill m rem>kable example yet ( su* confusion4 ,! ^w pol>ization1 borr[$ f optics1 :]e x has an unequivocal s5se1 s]ves likewise to designate ! developm5t ( ! c\nt] electro-motive =ce ( galvanic elem5ts1 & also t ess5tially diff]5t condition ( badly conduct+ sub/ances t is br\ght ab\t by ! simultane\s influ5ce ( quantities ( opposite electricity4 ,9 ,g]many1 ! ^w induction1 c\pl$ ) ! ^w wire1 = example1 accord+ to ! =mation ( comp\nd words 9 t language1 may also h a d\ble mean+1 & x is by ! s5se alone ( ! phrase t we le>n :e!r we h to d ) an induc$ wire or an induct+ "o4 ,! examples might be multipli$4 ,at its session ( ,novemb] #e1 #ahhd1 ! ,int]national ,society ( ,electricians1 ^u a motion ( ,mr4 ,hospitali]1 :o _h made a communication ^u ?is "q1 appo9t$ a committee to /udy x & report ^u x4 ,! ,engli% ,society ( ,electricians likewise took ! subject into consid]ation1 & "o ( its mo/ active & di/+ui%$ memb]s1 ,mr4 ,jamieson1 pres5t$ ! result ( 8 labors at ! ,may session ( ! society 9 #ahhe4 ,a discussion arose 9 :i* ! committee ( ! ,int]national ,society ( ,electricians 0 invit$ to take "p4 ,! committee 0 repres5t$ by its secret>y1 ,mr4 ,hospitali]1 :o express$ himself 9 ab\t ^! words3 ,! committee on electric notations presid$ ov] by ,mr4 ,blauvelt has f9i%$ a "p ( its task1 t relative to abbreviations1 notations1 & symbols4 ,x w soon take up ! second "p1 :i* relates to def9itions & agreem5ts4 ,he broadly outl9$ ! committee's ideas z foll[s3 ,9 all physical magnitudes t are made use (1 we h3 7#a7 ! physical magnitude itself1 aside f ! units t s]ve to measure x2 7#b7 ! ,c4,g4,s4 unit t s]ves to measure su* gr&eur 7grant$ ! adoption ( ! ,c4,g4,s4 sy/em72 7#c7 practical units1 :i*1 9 g5]al1 h a special "n = ea* k9d ( magnitude1 & are a decimal multiple or sub-multiple ( ! ,c4,g4,s4 unit1 except = "t & angles2 7#d7 f9ally1 decimal multiples & sub-multiples ( ^! practical units1 t are 9 curr5t use4 ,! committee likewise decid$ always to adopt a l>ge capital to designate ! physical magnitude2 a small capital to designate ! ,c4,g4,s4 unit1 :5 x has a special "n2 a l[] case lett] = ! abbreviation ( ea* practical unit2 & prefixes1 always ! same1 = ! decimal multiples & sub-multiples ( ! practical units4 ,?us1 = example1 "w w\ld be indicat$ by ! lett] ,w 7initial ( ! ^w72 ! ,c4,g4,s4 unit is ! erg1 :i* w\ld be writt5 )\t abbreviation1 on acc\nt ( its be+ %ort2 & ! practical units w\ld be ! kilogrammet] 7kgm71 ! grammet] 7gm71 etc4 ,! multiples w\ld be ! meg-erg1 ! tonne-met] 7t-m71 etc4 ,mr4 ,jamieson's propositions h be5 9 great "p approv$4 ,"s criticisms1 h[ev]1 7 made dur+ ! c\rse ( ! discussion1 & x is = ?is reason t ! s*eme /ill rema9s op5 to improvem5ts4 ,! propos$ symbols are z foll[s3 ,a4--,,practical ,,electric ,,units4 ,total resi/ance ( a circuit4 ,r ,int]nal resi/ance ( a s\rce ( curr5t4 r#a ,resi/ance ( ! sep>ate p>ts ( a curr5t4 r#a1 r#b1 etc4 ,specific resi/ance4 rho #a ohm4 omega #a megohm4 ,omega ,int5sity ( a curr5t4 ,c ,magnitude ( #a amp]e4 ,a #a milliamp]e4 alpha ,electro-motive =ce4 ,e ,magnitude ( #a volt4 v ,capacity4 ,k ,con/ant ( specific induction4 sigma #a f>ad4 ,phi #a micr(>ad4 phi ,quantity ( electricity4 ,q #a c\lomb4 ,c ,electric "w 7volt c\lomb74 v,c ,electric effect 7volt amp]e1 watt 9 "o second74 ,w ,horse p[]4 ,,hp ,b4--,,magnetism4 ,pole ( magnet po9t+ t[>d ! nor?4 ,n ,! opposite pole4 ,s ,=ce ( a pole1 quantity ( magnetism4 m ,di/ance ( ! poles ( a magnet4 l ,magnetic mom5t4 ,m m4l ,int5sity ( magnetization4 ,j ,int5sity ( ! horizontal compon5t ( t]re/rial magnetism4 ,h ,c4--,,electric ,,measurem5ts4 ,galvanomet] & its resi/ance4 ,g ,resi/ance ( ! %unt ( a galvanomet]4 s ,batt]y & its int]nal resi/ance4 ,b ,= dynamo ma*9es1 ! foll[+ designations are propos$3 ,! ma*9e itself4 ,d ,positive t]m9al4 ,t ,negative t]m9al4 -,t ,magnet =m+ ! field4 ,,fm ,curr5t indicator 7amp]emet]74 ,,am ,t5sion indicator 7voltamet]74 ,,mv ,electro-magnet4 ,,em ,lum9\s int5sity ( a lamp1 9 c&les4 c4p4 ,resi/ance ( ! armature4 ,ra ,resi/ance ( ! magnet =m+ ! field4 ,rm ,resi/ance ( ! ext]nal circuit4 ,ro ,int5sity 9 ! armature4 ,ca ,int5sity 9 ! coils ( ! magnet4 ,cm ,int5sity 9 ! ext]nal circuit4 ,ce ,coeffici5t ( self-induction4 ,ls ,coeffici5t ( mutual induction4 ,lm ,a prim>y batt]y w\ld be repres5t$ z 9 ,fig4 #a1 & a batt]y ( accumulators z 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,9 ord] to designate inc&esc5t lamps1 circles w\ld be us$1 & />s = arc lamps4 ,a sy/em ( inc&esc5t lamps arrang$ 9 multiple arc w\ld be repres5t$ z 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #d & ! =mula ,r ,b ,gs_/7,g s7 r w\ld s]ve = ! total resi/ance1 ,r1 ( an electric circuit1 ^u giv+ ! lett]s ! significations adopt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,su* is1 9 brief1 ! pres5t /ate ( ! "q4 ,! sci5tific bodies t h tak5 hold ( x h n z yet furni%$ a fully co-ord9at$ "w on ! subject4 ,let u hope1 h[ev]1 t we %all n h to wait long4 ,! "q is ( z mu* int]e/ to sci5tific m5 z to practical ones4 ,a collection ( id5tical symbols w\ld h ! advantage ( p]mitt+ u to abridge explanations 9 reg>d to ! signification ( t]ms us$ 9 ma!matical =mulas4 ,a simple exam9ation ( a =mula w\ld suffice to tea* u its cont5ts )\t ! aid ( tiresome explanatory matt]4 ,b 9 ord] t ! language %all be precise1 x w be necess>y = ! words always to repres5t precise ideas t are univ]sally accept$1 & = _! s5se n to dep5d ^u ! mann] ( und]/&+ ! idea accord+ to _! arrangem5t 9 ! phrase4 ,no?+ c be m desirable ?an t ! societies ( electricians ( all c\ntries %all cont9ue ! /udy ( ^! que/ions ) ! desire ( com+ to a common und]/&+ ?r\gh a mutual sacrifice ( c]ta9 pref]5ces & habitudes4--,e4 ,dieudonne1 9 ,la ,lumi]e ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improv$ ,,microscopical ,,settl+ ,,tube4 ,by ,f4 ,,v&]poel1 ( ,new>k1 ,new ,j]sey4 ,9 ! ,febru>y numb] ( ?is ,j\rnal ! writ] describ$ a new settl+ tube = ur9>y deposits :i* possess$ sev]al advantages ov] ! old me?od ) conical te/-glass & pipette4 ,= sev]al reasons1 h[ev]1 ! article 0 n illu/rat$1 & x is = ! purpose ( elucidation by means ( illu/ration1 z well z to br+ be=e ! read]s ( ! ,j\rnal two new & improv$ =ms ( ! tube1 t space 9 ^! columns is aga9 s\ght4 ,! fir/ two ( ! figures1 #a & #b1 repres5t ! tube z orig9ally devis$2 #a d5ot+ ! tube ) movable cap secur$ to x by means ( a rubb] b&1 & #b ! tube ) a gr\nd glass cap & /op cock4 ,! fir/ dep>ture f ^! =ms is %[n at #c1 & consi/s ( a conical tube1 z be=e1 b provid$ ) a p]=at$ /opp]1 ! side op5+ 9 :i* communicates ) a side tube4 ,! p]=ation 9 ! /opp]1 :i* is easily made by a glass bl[]1 ?us all[s ! ov]fl[1 :5 ! /opp] is ins]t$ into ! full tube1 to pass into ! side tube4 ,! /opp] is !n turn$ s z to cut (f ! ur9e 9 ! latt] f t 9 ! l>ge tube1 & ! latt] is ?us made tight4 ,aft] all[+ x to rema9 at re/ long en\gh to p]mit subsid5ce ( all t w settle1 ! /opp] is g5tly turn$ & a drop tak5 (f ! l[] end ^u a slide1 to be exam9$ at leisure ) ! microscope4 ,! cap1 gr\nd & fitt$ ^u ! l[] end1 is put !re z a precaution>y measure1 z w be se5 f>!r on4 ,illu/ration3 ,,v&]poel',s ,,settl+ ,,tubes4 ,! tube %[n at #d is1 we ?9k1 an improvem5t ^u all ( ! =ego+1 = ^u x !re is no side tube to break (f1 & ev]y?+ is compris$ 9 a small space4 ,z w be se5 by ref]r+ to ! figure1 !re is a slight enl>gem5t 9 ! gr\nd portion ( ! /opp] end ( ! tube1 ?is protub]ance com+ d[n ab\t "o-half ! l5g? ( ! /opp]1 :i* is solid & gr\nd to fit p]fectly4 ,! l[] half1 h[ev]1 is provid$ ) a small longitud9al slit or groove1 ! l[] end ( :i* communicates ) ! int]ior ( ! tube1 :ile ! upp] end j rea*es ! enl>gem5t 9 ! side ( ! latt]4 ,?us 9 "o position ( ! /opp] !re is a communication betwe5 ! tube & ! out] air1 :ile 9 all o!r positions ! tube is q %ut4 ,9 all ^! tubes c>e mu/ be tak5 to fill !m completely ) ! ur9e1 & to all[ no bubbles ( air to rema9 !re94 ,! fir/ ( ^! settl+ tubes 0 made )\t ! gr\nd cap on ! l[] end1 ! latt] be+ ins]t$ into a small te/ tube = safety4 ,at ! sugge/ion ( ,mr4 ,j4,l4 ,smi? ! te/ tube 0 made a "p ( ! app>atus by fitt+ x 7by gr9d+7 ^u ! conical end1 & 9 its pres5t =m x s]ves to protect ! latt] f du/ & to prev5t evaporation ( ! ur9e 7or o!r liquid71 & consequ5t deposition ( salts1 if1 = any reason1 ! us] %\ld all[ ! tube to rema9 susp5d$ = sev]al days4 ,^! tubes w be f\nd v useful = collect+ & conc5trat+ into a small bulk ! s$im5t conta9$ 9 any liquid1 :e!r x be compos$ ( ur9>y deposits1 diatoms 9 process ( be+ clean$1 or any ?+ ( l nature2 &1 z ! p>ts are all ( glass1 ! /ronge/ acids may be us$1 except+1 ( c\rse1 hydr(luoric acid1 )\t h>m to ! tubes4--,am]ican ,microscopical ,j\rnal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,cont9u$ f ,,supplem5t1 ,no4 #eid1 page #idia4 ,,climate ,,9 ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,heal?4 ,by ,g4,v4 ,,poore1 ,m4,d4 ,footnote3 ,?ree lectures be=e ! ,society ( ,arts1 ,london4 ,f ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,society4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,diseases ,,caus$ ,,by ,,float+ ,,matt] ,,9 ,,! ,,air4 ,! in=mation :i* mod]n me?ods ( rese>* h giv5 u ) reg>d to ! float+ matt] 9 ! air is ( an importance :i* _c be ov]e/imat$4 ,t ! air is full ( organic p>ticles capable ( life & gr[? is n[ a matt] ( absolute c]ta9ty4 ,x has long be5 a matt] ( speculation1 b !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 a fact & a speculation4 ,an em95t hi/orian has rec5tly deprecat$ ! di/9ction :i* is conv5tionally drawn betwe5 sci5ce & k1 b1 nev]!less1 su* a di/9ction is useful1 & w cont9ue to be drawn4 ,a man's head may be fill$ ) v>i\s ?+s4 ,8 incl9ation may lead him1 = example1 to /udy ar*aic my?s 9 ! v>i\s dialects :i* fir/ gave !m bir?2 he may h a fancy = committ+ to memory ! writ+s ( au?ors on a/rology1 or ! speculations ( anci5t philosoph]s1 f ,ari/otle & ,lucretius d[nw>d4 ,su* a "o may h a j claim to be consid]$ a man ( le>n+1 & f> be x f me to despise ! bran*es ( k t[>d :i* 8 m9d has a natural b5t4 ,b 9 s f> z 8 k is a k ( fancies r ?an facts1 x has no claim to be call$ sci5ce4 ,fancies1 h[ev] beautiful1 _c =m a solid basis = action or conduct1 :]eas a sci5tific fact does4 ,x is all v well to suppose t su* & su* ?+s may be1 b m]e possibilities1 or ev5 probabilities1 d n bre$ a liv+ fai?4 ,!y (t5 fo/] s*ism1 & give rise to disunit$ or oppos$ action on ! "p ( ^? :o ?9k t su* & su* ?+s may n be4 ,:51 h[ev]1 a fancy or a speculation becomes a fact :i* is capable ( demon/ration1 its univ]sal acceptance is only a matt] ( "t1 & ! man :o neglects su* facts 9 regulat+ 8 actions or conduct is rightly reg>d$ z insane all ! _w ov]4 ,! influ5ce ( micro-organisms on disease is em]g+ m & m1 day by day1 f ! regions ( unc]ta9ty1 & :at once 7 ! speculations ( ! few are n[ ! accept$ facts ( ! majority4 ,miquel's exp]im5ts %[ v cle>ly t ! numb] ( microbes 9 ! air corresponds ) tol]able clos5ess to ! d5sity ( population4 ,f ! ,alp9e solitudes ( ! ,b]nese ,ob]l& to ! cr[d$ w>d ( a ,p>isian hospital1 we h a con/antly asc5d+ ratio ( microbes 9 ! air1 f z]o to #bh1jjj p] cubic met]4 ,_! complete abs5ce on ! ,alps is ma9ly due to ! abs5ce ( productive foci4 ,organic matt] capable ( n\ri%+ microbes is r>e1 & ! dryness & cold prev5t any manife/ation ( vitality or increase4 ,:5ce come ! l>ge numb] ( microbes 9 ! cr[d$ places & 9 hospitals8 ,e individual1 ev5 9 heal?1 is a productive focus = microbes2 !y are f\nd 9 ! brea?1 & fl\ri% luxuriantly 9 ! m\? ( ^? especially :o are neglig5t 9 ! use ( ! too? bru%4 ,:5 we speak ( fl\ri%+ luxuriantly1 :at d we mean8 ,simply t ^! microbes1 "u favorable circum/ances1 increase by simple division1 & t "o becomes ab\t #af1jjj1jjj 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! brea?1 ev5 ( heal?y p]sons1 conta9s ammonia & organic matt] :i* we c smell4 ,:5 ! moi/ure ( ! brea? is cond5s$ & collect$1 x w putrefy4 ,e drop ( cond5s$ moi/ure t =ms on ! walls ( a cr[d$ room is pot5tially a productive focus = microbes4 ,e deposit ( dirt on p]sons1 clo?+1 or furniture is also a productive focus1 & production is fo/]$ 9 close ap>tm5ts by ! w>m? & moi/ure ( ! place4 ,9 hospitals productive foci are m num]\s ?an 9 ord9>y dwell+s4 ,if microbes are pres5t 9 ! brea? ( ord9>y individuals1 :at c we expect 9 ! brea? ( ^? ^: lungs are rott5 ) tub]cul> disease8 ,!n we h ! collections ( expectorat$ matt] & ( o!r organic secretions1 :i* all s]ve z productive foci4 ,e w\nd & sore1 :5 antiseptic precautions are n us$1 becomes a mo/ active & dang]\s focus1 & e pati5t suff]+ f an infective disease is probably a focus = ! production ( infective p>ticles4 ,:5 we consid]1 also1 t hospital w>ds are occupi$ day & night1 & cont9u\sly = weeks1 x is n to be wond]$ at t microbes are abundant !re94 ,i want especially to dwell ^u ! fact t foci1 & probably productive foci1 may exi/ outside ! body4 ,x is highly probable1 judg+ f ! results ( exp]im5ts1 t e collection ( putrescible matt] is pot5tially a productive focus ( microbes4 ,! ?\ght1 ( a pit or sew] fill$ ) excrem5tal matt]s mix$ ) wat]1 see?+ & bubbl+ 9 its d>k w>m atmosph]e1 & communicat+ directly 7) or )\t ! int]v5tion ( t trea*]\s ma*9e call$ a trap7 ) a h\se1 is en\gh to make "o %udd]1 & ! long bills ( mortality already *>geable to ?is arrangem5t tell u t if we %udd] we d n d s )\t cause4 ,z an in/ance ( ! way 9 :i* dang]s may "w 9 unsuspect$ ways1 ,i may m5tion ! fact t ,emm]i*1 9 exam9+ ! soil b5ea? a w>d ( a hospital at ,amb]g1 discov]$ !re9 ! peculi> bacillus :i* causes pneumonia1 & :i* _h probably be5 ! cause ( an outbreak ( pneumonia t _h occurr$ 9 t v w>d4 ,! importance ( ,dut* cleanl9ess 9 our h\ses1 & ! abolition ( all collections ( putrescible matt] 9 & ar\nd our h\ses1 is abundantly evid5t4 ,x w n be )\t pr(it to exam9e "s well-kn[n facts1 by ! aids ( ! additional light :i* has be5 ?r[n ^u !m by ! /udy ( ! microbes :i* are 9 ! m$ia ar\nd u4 ,!re is no bett] kn[n cause ( a high dea? rate ?an ov]cr[d+4 ,ov]cr[d+ increases ! dea? rate f infecti\s diseases1 especially su* z :oop+ c\gh1 measles1 sc>let fev]1 diph!ria1 small-pox1 & typhus4 ,! infection ( all ^! diseases is communicable ?r\gh ! air1 & :]e !re is ov]cr[d+1 ! *ance ( be+ infect$ by infective p>ticles1 giv5 (f by ! brea? or sk91 is ( c\rse v great4 ,:]e !re is ov]cr[d+1 ! collections ( putrescible fil? are multipli$1 & ) !m probably ! productive foci ( infective p>ticles4 ,tub]cul> disease1 common sore ?roat1 *ick5-pox1 & mumps1 are also among ! diseases :i* are increas$ by ov]cr[d+4 ,to come to details :i* are m specific1 let u consid] ! case ( "s diseases :i* are def9itely caus$ by float+ matt] 9 ! air4 ,fir/1 let u take "o :i* is app>5tly attributable to poll54 ,,hay ,,fev]4 ,among diseases :i* are und\bt$ly caus$ by float+ matt] 9 ! air mu/ be reckon$ ! well-kn[n malady hay fev]1 :i* is a v]itable sc\rge dur+ ! summ] mon?s to a c]ta9 p]c5tage ( p]sons1 :o h1 probably1 a peculi>ly s5sitive organization to beg9 )1 & are1 9 a sci5tific s5se1 irritable4 ,?is disease has be5 mo/ ?or\ghly & labori\sly inve/igat$ by ,mr4 ,*>les ,blackley1 ( ,man*e/]1 :o1 be+ himself a m>tyr to hay fev]1 sp5t t5 ye>s 9 inve/igat+ ! subject1 & publi%$ ! result 9 #ahgc1 9 a small "w entitl$ ,exp]im5tal ,rese>*es on ! ,causes & ,nature ( ,cat>rhus ae/ivus 7hay fev] or hay a/hma74 ,mr4 ,blackley _h little difficulty 9 det]m9+ t ! cause ( 8 tr\ble 0 ! poll5 ( grasses & fl[]s1 & 8 inve/igations %[$ t ! poll5 ( "s plants 0 f> m irritat+ ?an ! poll5 ( o!rs4 ,! poll5 ( rye1 = example1 produc$ v sev]e symptoms ( cat>rh & a/hma1 :5 inhal$ by ! nose or m\?4 ,mr4 ,blackley came to ! conclusion t ! action ( ! poll5 0 p>tly *emical & p>tly me*anical1 & t ! full effect 0 n produc$ until ! out] envelope bur/ & all[$ ( ! escape ( ! granul> cont5ts4 ,hav+ satisfi$ himself t poll5 0 capable ( produc+ all ! symptoms ( hay fev]1 ,mr4 ,blackley next s\ght to det]m9e1 by a s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 ! quantity ( poll5 f\nd float+ 9 ! atmosph]e dur+ ! preval5ce ( hay fev]1 & its relation to ! int5sity ( ! symptoms4 ,! am\nt ( poll5 0 det]m9$ by expos+ slips ( glass1 ea* hav+ an area ( a squ>e c5timet]1 & coat$ ) a /icky mixture ( glyc]9e1 wat]1 pro( _s1 & a little c>bolic acid4 ,mr4 ,blackley gives two tables1 %[+ ! av]age numb] ( poll5 gra9s collect$ 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs on "o squ>e ( glass1 betwe5 ,may #bh & ,augu/ #ba1 9 bo? a rural & an urban position4 ,! maximum bo? 9 t[n & c\ntry 0 rea*$ on ,june #bh1 :5 9 ! t[n #aje poll5 gra9s 7 deposit$1 & 9 ! c\ntry #hhj gra9s4 ,! numb] ( gra9s deposit$ 0 f\nd to v>y mu*1 fall+ almo/ to z]o dur+ heavy ra9 & ris+ to a maximum if ! ra9 7 foll[$ by bright sun%9e4 ,mr4 ,blackley f\nd t ! sev]ity ( 8 own symptoms closely correspond$ to ! numb] ( poll5 gra9s deposit$ on 8 glasses4 ,mr4 ,blackley devis$ "s v +5i\s exp]im5ts to det]m9e ! numb] ( gra9s float+ 9 ! air at diff]5t altitudes4 ,! exp]im5ts 7 conduct$ by means ( a kite1 to :i* ! slips ( glass 7 atta*$1 fix$ 9 an +5i\s app>atus1 by means ( :i* ! surface ( ! glass 0 kept cov]$ until a consid]able altitude _h be5 rea*$4 ,mr4 ,blackley's fir/ exp]im5t gave z a result t #ajd poll5 gra9s 7 deposit$ 9 ! glass atta*$ to ! kite1 :ile only #aj 7 deposit$ on a glass ne> ! gr\nd4 ,?is exp]im5t 0 repeat$4 ,aga9 & aga91 & always ) ! same result1 !re 0 m poll5 9 ! upp] /rata ( ! air ?an 9 ! l[]4 ,a v int]e/+ exp]im5t 0 p]=m$ at ,filey1 9 ,june1 #ahgj4 ,a breeze 0 bl[+ f ! sea1 & _h be5 bl[+ = #ab or #ae h\rs4 ,mr4 ,blackley flew 8 kite to an elevation ( #a1jjj feet4 ,! glass atta*$ to ! kite 0 expos$ = ?ree h\rs1 & on x !re 7 #hj gra9s ( poll51 :]eas a simil> glass1 expos$ at ! m>g9 ( ! wat]1 %[$ no poll5 nor any organic =m4 ,:5ce came ?is poll5 collect$ on ! upp] glass8 ,probably f ,holl& or ,d5m>k4 ,possibly f "s po9t ne>] ! c5t] ( ,europe4 ,,potato ,,disease4 ,a /udy ( ! t]rible disease :i* s (t5 attacks ! potato crop 9 ?is c\ntry w s]ve1 ,i ?9k1 to br+ =cibly be=e y c]ta9 unt[>d conditions :i* may be call$ climatic1 & :i* are attributable to fungoid spores 9 ! air4 ,) ! potato disease y are all1 probably1 m or less practically acqua9t$4 ,:5 summ] is at its height1 & :5 ! g>d5]s & f>m]s are all look+ anxi\sly to ! progress ( _! crops1 h[ (t5 h we he>d ! congratulatory rem>k ( ,h[ well & /rong ^? potatoes look6 ,su* a rem>k is mo/ common at ! end ( ,july or ! beg9n+ ( ,augu/1 :5 ! gre5 "p1 or haulm1 ( ! plant is look+ its be/1 & :5 ! r[s ( potatoes1 ) _! elegant ri* foliage & bun*es ( blossom1 h an appe>ance :i* w\ld almo/ m]it _! admission to ! fl[] bord]4 ,! same ev5+1 x may be1 !re comes a prolong$ ?und] /orm1 foll[$ by a p]iod ( hot1 close1 moi/1 muggy wea!r4 ,f\r-&-tw5ty h\rs lat]1 ! hapless g>d5] notices t c]ta9 ( 8 potato plants h d>k spots ^u "s ( _! leaves4 ,?is1 he kn[s too well1 is ! plague spot1 & if he exam9e 8 plants c>efully1 he w p]haps f9d t !re is sc>cely a plant :i* is n spott$4 ,if ! ?und] %[] :i* we h imag9$ be foll[$ by a long p]iod ( dr\ght1 ! plague may be /ay$ & ! potatoes sav$2 b if ! damp wea!r cont9ue1 ! numb] ( spott$ leaves among ! potatoes increases day by day1 until ! spott$ leaves are ! majority2 & !n ! haulm dies1 gets slimy1 & emits a *>act]i/ic odor2 & x w be f\nd t ! tub]s b5ea? ! soil are b half develop$1 & impregnat$ ) ! disease to an ext5t :i* de/roys _! value4 ,n[1 ! ess5tial cause ( ! potato disease is p]fectly well und]/ood4 ,x is p>asitical1 ! p>asite be+ a fungus1 ! ,p]onospora infe/ans1 :i* gr[s at ! exp5se ( ! leaves1 /ems1 & tub]s ( ! plant until x de/roys _! vitality4 ,if a diseas$ potato leaf be exam9$ ) ! nak$ eye1 x w be se5 t1 on ! upp] surface1 !re is an irregul> br[ni% black spot1 & if ! "u surface ( ! leaf be look$ at c>efully1 ! br[n spot is also visible1 b x w be se5 to be cov]$ ) a v fa9t :ite bloom1 due to ! gr[? ( ! fungus f ! microscopic op5+s or /omata1 :i* exi/ 9 l>ge numb]s on ! "u surface ( mo/ gre5 leaves4 ,! microscope %[s ?is bloom to be due to ! protrusion ( ! fungus 9 ! mann] /at$1 & on ! free ends ( ! m9ute bran*es are develop$ t9y egg %ap$ vessels1 call$ conidia1 9 :i* are develop$ c\ntless spores1 ea* "o ( :i* is !oretically capable ( infect+ neighbor+ plants4 ,n[1 x is "r to say t1 ) respect to ! mode ( spread ( ! disease1 sci5tific m5 are n q agre$4 ,all admit t x may be convey$ by contact1 t "o leaf may infect its neighbors1 & t birds1 flies1 rabbits1 & o!r gr\nd game may c>ry ! disease f "o plant to ano!r & f "o crop to ano!r4 ,?is is insuffici5t to acc\nt = ! sudd5 onset & ! wide ext5t ( potato epidemics1 :i* usually attack :ole di/ricts at "o fell swoop4 ,"s ( ^? be/ qualifi$ to judge believe t ! spores are c>ri$ ?r\gh ! air1 & ,i am myself incl9$ to tru/ 9 ! op9ion express$ by ,mr4 ,william ,c>ru!rs1 ,f4,r4,s41 be=e ! select committee on ! potato crop1 9 #ahhj4 ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs' great sci5tific atta9m5ts1 & 8 position z ! head ( ! botanical dep>tm5t ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 & z ! consult+ naturali/ ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 at lea/ dem& t 8 op9ion %\ld be receiv$ ) ! greate/ respect & consid]ation4 ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs said 7report on ! potato crop1 pres5t$ to ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 ,july #i1 #ahhj1 "q #adc et seq473 ,! disease1 ,i believe1 did n exi/ at all 9 ,europe be=e #ahdd4444 ,_m diseases _h be5 obs]v$2 _m injuries to potatoes _h be5 obs]v$ & c>efully describ$ be=e #ahdd2 b ?is p>ticul> disease _h n4 ,x is due to a species ( plant1 & al?\gh t species is small1 x is z easily sep>at$ f alli$ plants z species ( fl[]+ plants c be sep>at$ f ea* o!r4 ,?is plant 0 kn[n 9 ,s\? ,am]ica be=e x made its appe>ance 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,x has be5 trac$ f ,s\? ,am]ica to ,nor? ,am]ica1 & to ,au/ralia1 & x made its fir/ appe>ance 9 ,europe 9 ,belgium1 9 #ahdd1 & )9 a v few days aft] x appe>$ 9 ,belgium1 x 0 notic$ 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & !n )9 almo/ a few h\rs aft] t x spread ov] ! :ole ( ! s\? ( ,engl& & ov] ,scotl&4444 ,:5 ! disease beg9s to make its appe>ance1 ! fungus produces ^! l>ge oblong bodies 7conidia71 & ! "q is h[ ^! bodies are spread1 & ! disease scatt]$4444 ,i believe t ^! bodies1 :i* are produc$ 9 imm5se quantities1 & v spe$ily1 )9 a few h\rs aft] ! disease attacks ! potato1 are float+ 9 ! atmosph]e1 & are easily transplant$ by ! w9d all ov] ! c\ntry4 ,i believe ?is is ! explanation ( ! spread ( ! disease 9 #ahdd1 :5 x made its appe>ance 9 ,belgium4 ,! spores produc$ 9 myriads 7 br\ght ov] 9 ! w9d1 & fir/ attack$ ! potato crops 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & !n spread ov] ! s\? ( ,engl&4 ,! c\rse ( ! disease is cle>ly trac$ f ! s\? ( ,engl& t[>d ! midl& c\nties1 & all ov] ! isl&1 & into ,scotl& & ,irel&4 ,x 0 a progress nor?w>d4444 ,?is plant1 ! ,p]onospora infe/ans1 w only gr[ on ! ,solanum tub]osum1 t is1 ! cultivat$ potato4444 ,j z plants ( high] organization *oose _! soils1 "s gr[+ 9 ! wat] & "s on l&1 s ! ,p]onospora infe/ans *ooses its ho/ plant2 & its soil is ?is species1 ! ,solatium tub]osum4 ,x w n gr[ if x falls on ! leaves ( ! oak or ! bee*1 or on grass1 because t is n its soil1 s to speak4 ,n[1 ! process ( gr[? is simply ?is3 ,:5 ! conidia fall on ! leaf1 !y rema9 !re p]fectly innoc5t & h>mless unless !y get a supply ( wat] to enable !m to g]m9ate4444 ,! disease makes its appe>ance 9 ! end ( ,july or ! beg9n+ ( ,augu/1 :5 we h1 g5]ally1 v hot wea!r4 ,! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e is v high1 & we h heavy %[]s ( ra94 ,! w>m? & moi/ure are1 9 fact1 ! conditions necess>y = ! g]m9ation ( ! conidia4 ,_! cont5ts 7zoospores7 are lib]at$1 & quickly gr[ 9 ! leaf1 & soon p]meate e tissue ( ! plant4 ,x 0 cle>ly e/abli%$ be=e ! committee t n all potatoes 7 equally liable to ! disease4 ,! liability dep5ds ^u /r5g? ( con/itution4 ,x is well kn[n t potatoes are usually1 almo/ inv>iably1 propagat$ by sets1 t is1 by plant+ tub]s1 or portions ( tub]s1 & ?is me?od ( propagation is analog\s to ! propagation ( o!r =ms ( plants by means ( cutt+s4 ,:5 potatoes are rais$ f se$1 x is f\nd t "s ( ! se$l+s pres5t a /r5g? ( con/itution :i* enables !m to resi/ ! disease = "s ye>s1 ev5 ?\gh ! subsequ5t propagation ( ! se$l+ is entirely f sets4 ,! rais+ ( se$l+ potatoes is a t$i\s process1 b ! pati5ce ( ! gr[] is (t5 rew>d$ by success1 & ,i may allude to ! fact t ! s-call$ ,*ampion potato1 rais$ f se$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance by ,mr4 ,nicoll1 9 ,=f>%ire1 & s9ce propagat$ all ov] ! c\ntry1 has enjoy$1 des]v$ly z x w\ld appe>1 a great reputation z a disease-resi/+ potato2 b all :o h a practical k ( potato gr[+ seem agre$ t we _c expect its disease-resi/+ quality to la/ at mo/ m ?an tw5ty ye>s f its fir/ introduction 79 #ahgg71 & t 9 "t ! con/itution ( ! ,*ampion w det]iorate1 & x w become a prey to disease4 ,!re is "s evid5ce to %[1 also1 t ! con/itution ( ! potato may be mat]ially influ5c$ by good or bad culture4 ,damp soils1 insuffici5t or badly select$ manures1 ! selection ( ill develop$ potatoes = se$1 & ! ov]cr[d+ ( ! sets 9 ! soil1 all seem to act z causes :i* pr$ispose ! potatoes to ! attacks ( ! p>asite4 ,/rong potatoes resi/ disease1 j z /rong *ildr5 w2 :ile weak potatoes1 equally ) weak *ildr51 are liable to succumb to epidemic influ5ces4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( "s exact exp]im5ts c>ri$ out by ,mr4 ,george ,murray1 ( ! ,botanical ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 seems to %[ t ,mr4 ,c>ru!rs' !ory z to ! diffusion ( conidia ?r\gh ! air is some?+ m ?an a speculation3 ,9 ! middle ( ,augu/1 #ahgf1 says ,mr4 ,murray1 ,i in/itut$ ! foll[+ exp]im5ts1 ) ! object ( det]m9+ ! mode ( diffusion ( ! conidia ( ,p]onospora infe/ans4 ,! me?od ( proc$ure 0 to expose on ! lee side ( a field ( potatoes1 ( :i* only ab\t two p] c5t1 7 diseas$1 ord9>y microscopic slides1 measur+ two in*es long by "o in* broad1 coat$ on ! expos$ surface ) a ?9 lay] ( glyc]9e1 to :i* objects alight+ w\ld adh]e1 & 9 :i*1 if ( ! nature ( conidia1 !y w\ld be pres]v$4 ,^! slides 7 plac$ on ! project+ /ones ( a dry /one wall :i* surr\nd$ ! field1 & 0 at lea/ five y>ds f ! ne>e/ potato plant4 ,dur+ ! five days & nights ( ! exp]im5t1 a g5tle w9d blew1 & ! wea!r 01 on ! :ole1 dry & cle>4 ,e morn+1 ab\t n9e o'clock1 ,i plac$ f\rte5 slides on ! lee side ( ! field1 & e ev5+1 ab\t sev5 o'clock1 ,i remov$ !m1 & plac$ o!rs till ! foll[+ morn+ at n9e o'clock4 ,! f\rte5 slides expos$ dur+ ! day1 :5 exam9$ 9 ! ev5+1 %[$ 7among o!r objects73 ,on ! fir/ day4 #ae conidia4 second day4 #ag ?ird day4 #bg f\r? day4 #d fif? day4 #i ,on none ( ! five nights did a s+le conidium alight on ! slides4 ,?is seem$ to me to prove t dur+ ! day ! conidia1 ?r\gh ! dryness ( ! atmosph]e & ! %ak+ ( ! leaves1 became detat*$ & waft$ by ! air2 :ile dur+ ! night ! moi/ure 79 ! =m ( dew1 & on "o occasion ( a slight & g5tly fall+ %[]7 prev5t$ ! dry+ ( ! conidia1 & ?us r5d]$ !m less easy ( deta*m5t4 ,i det]m9$ ! nature ( ! conidia 7#a7 by comp>+ !m ) au!ntic conidia directly remov$ f diseas$ plants2 7#b7 by !re be+ atta*$ to "s ( !m portions ( ! *>act]i/ic conidiaphores2 & 7#c7 by cultivat+ !m 9 a moi/ *amb]1 ! result ( :i* 01 t five conidia1 n hav+ be5 imm]s$ 9 ! glyc]9e1 reta9$ _! vitality1 :i* !y %[$ by bur/+ & produc+ zoospores 9 ! mann] *>act]i/ic ( ,p]onospora infe/ans4 ,,influ5za4 ,let u look at ano!r disease by ! light ( rec5t k1 viz41 ! epidemic influ5za1 conc]n+ :i* ,i rememb] he>+ mu* talk1 z a *ild1 9 #ahdg-dh4 ,!re has be5 no epidemic ( ?is disease 9 ! ,briti% ,isles s9ce #ahdg1 b we may judge ( its s]i\s nature f ! computation ( ,peacock t 9 ,london alone #bej1jjj p]sons 7 /rick5 d[n ) x 9 ! space ( a few days4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ?is disease t x invades a :ole city1 or ev5 a :ole c\ntry1 at "o fell swoop1 resembl+ 9 its sudd5 onset & its ext5t ! potato disease :i* we h be5 consid]+4 ,! mode ( its spread+ =bids u to attribute x1 at lea/ 9 any mat]ial degree1 al?\gh x may be p>tially s1 to contagion 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 i4e41 contagion pass+ f p]son to p]son along ! l9es ( human int]c\rse4 ,x =bids u also to look at community ( wat] supply or food1 or ! peculi>ities ( soil1 = ! s\rce ( ! disease virus4 ,we look1 naturally1 to "s atmosph]ic condition = ! explanation4 ,t ! atmosph]e is ! s\rce ( ! virus is made m likely f ! fact t ! disease has brok5 out on bo>d %ip 9 a rem>kable way4 ,9 #aghb1 !re 0 an epidemic1 & on ,may #b 9 t ye>1 says ,sir ,?omas ,watson-- ,admiral ,kemp5felt sail$ f ,spi!ad ) a squadron1 ( :i* ! ,goliah 0 "o4 ,! crew ( t vessel 7 attack$ ) influ5za on ,may #bi1 & ! re/ 7 at diff]5t times affect$2 & s _m ( ! m5 7 r5d]$ incapable ( duty by ?is prevail+ sickness1 t ! :ole squadron 0 oblig$ to return into port ab\t ! second week 9 ,june1 n hav+ _h communication ) any port1 b hav+ cruis$ solely betwe5 ,bre/ & ! ,liz>d4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! same mon? ano!r l>ge squadron sail$1 all 9 p]fect heal?1 "u ,"l ,h[e's comm&1 = ! ,dut* coa/4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! mon?1 j at ! "t1 !re=e1 :5 ! ,goliah became full ( ! disease1 x appe>$ 9 ! ,rippon1 ! ,pr9cess ,amelia1 & o!r %ips ( ! la/ m5tion$ fleet1 al?\gh !re _h be5 no int]c\rse ) ! l&4 ,simil> ev5ts 7 notic$ dur+ ! epidemic ( #ahcc3 ,on ,april #c1 #ahcc1 ! v day on :i* ,i saw ! fir/ two cases t ,i did see ( influ5za--all ,london be+ smitt5 ) x on t & ! foll[+ day--! ,/ag 0 com+ up ! ,*annel1 & arriv$ at two o'clock (f ,b]ry ,head on ! coa/ ( ,devon%ire1 all on bo>d be+ at t "t well4 ,9 half an h\r aft]w>d1 ! breeze be+ ea/]ly & bl[+ (f ! l&1 #dj m5 7 d[n ) ! influ5za1 by six o'clock ! numb] 0 increas$ to #fj1 & by two o'clock ! next day to #afj4 ,on ! self-same ev5+ a regim5t on duty at ,portsm\? 0 9 a p]fectly heal?y /ate1 b by ! next morn+ s _m ( ! soldi]s ( ! regim5t 7 affect$ by ! influ5za t ! g>rison duty c\ld n be p]=m$ by x4 ,aft] review+ ! v>i\s hypo!ses :i* _h be5 put =w>d to acc\nt = ! disease1 sudd5 ?aws1 fogs1 p>ticul> w9ds1 sw>ms ( insects1 electrical conditions1 ozone1 ,sir ,?omas ,watson goes on to say3 ,ano!r hypo!sis1 m fanciful p]haps at fir/ sight ?an ^!1 yet q z easily accommodat$ to ! kn[n facts ( ! di/emp]1 attributes x to ! pres5ce ( innum]able m9ute sub/ances1 end[$ ) vegetable or ) animal life1 & develop$ 9 unusual abundance "u specific /ates ( ! atmosph]e 9 :i* !y float1 & by :i* !y are c>ri$ hi!r & ?i!r4 ,?is hypo!sis has c]ta9ly m facts 9 support ( x n[ ?an x _h :5 ,sir ,?omas ,watson gave utt]ance to x 9 #ahcg4 ,& :5 ano!r epidemic ( influ5za occurs1 we may look ) "s confid5ce to hav+ ! hypo!sis ei!r refut$ or confirm$ by ^? engag$ 9 ! sy/ematic /udy ( atmosph]ic bact]ia4 ,among curi\s facts 9 connection ) influ5za1 quot$ by ,watson1 is ! foll[+3 ,dur+ ! rag+ ( "o epidemic1 #cjj wom5 engag$ 9 coal dr$g+ at ,newca/le1 & wad+ all day 9 ! sea1 escap$ ! compla9t4 ,read+ ?is1 ! m9d naturally turns to ,dr4 ,blackley's glass slide expos$ on ! %ore at ,filey1 & ^u :i* no poll5 0 deposit$1 :ile eighty poll5 gra9s 7 deposit$ on a glass at a high] elevation4 ,,small-,,pox4 ,let u next inquire into ! evid5ce reg>d+ ! convey5ce ( small-pox ?r\gh ! air4 ,9 ! supplem5t to ! ,t5? ,report ( ! ,local ,gov]nm5t ,bo>d = #ahhj-ha 7c4 #c1bij7 is a report by ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,p[] on ! influ5ce ( ! ,fulham1 ,hospital 7= small-pox7 on ! neighborhood surr\nd+ x4 ,mr4 ,p[] inve/igat$ ! incid5ce ( small-pox on ! neighborhood1 bo? be=e & aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! hospital4 ,he f\nd t1 9 ! ye> includ$ betwe5 ,m>*1 #ahgf1 & ,m>*1 #ahgg1 be=e ! e/abli%m5t ( ! hospital1 ! incid5ce ( small-pox on h\ses 9 ,*elsea1 ,fulham & ,k5s+ton am\nt$ to #j4da p] c5t4 7i4e41 t "o h\se out ( e #bdd 0 attack$ by small-pox 9 ! ord9>y way71 & t ! area inclos$ by a circle hav+ a radius ( "o mile r\nd ! spot :]e ! hospital 0 subsequ5tly e/abli%$ 7call$ 9 ! report ! special area7 01 z a matt] ( fact1 r m free f small-pox ?an ! re/ ( ! di/rict4 ,aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! hospital 9 ,m>*1 #ahgg1 ! am\nt ( small-pox 9 ! special area r\nd ! hospital v notably increas$1 z is %[n by ! table by ,mr4 ,p[]1 giv5 bel[4 ,?is table %[s conclusively t ! h\ses ne>e/ ! hospital 7 9 ! greate/ dang] ( small-pox4 ,x might naturally be suppos$ t ! excessive incid5ce ( ! disease ^u ! h\ses ne>e/ to ! hospital 0 due to bus9ess traffic betwe5 ! hospital & ! dwell]s 9 ! neighborhood1 & ,mr4 ,p[] admits t he />t$ on 8 inve/igation ) ?is belief1 b ) ! prosecution ( 8 "w he f\nd su* a !ory unt5able4 ,,admissions ,,( ,,acute ,,small-,,pox ,,to ,,fulham ,,hospital1 ,,& ,,incid5ce ,,( ,,small-,,pox ,,^u ,,h\ses ,,9 ,,sev]al ,,divisions ,,( ,,! ,,special ,,area ,,dur+ ,,five ,,epidemic ,,p]iods4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,incid5ce on e #ajj h\ses )9 ! special area & its divisions4 ,cases (,! epidemic p]iods ---------------------------------------- ---- acute s9ce op5+ ,on total,on small ,on fir/ ,on second,on ?ird small- ( hospital4 special circle1 r+1 r+1 r+1 pox4 area4 #j- mile4- mile4- mile4-#a mile4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #cbg ,m>*-,decemb] #ahgg #a4aj #c4dg #a4cg #a4bg #j4cf #gad ,janu>y- ,septemb]1 #ahgh #a4hj #d4fb #b4ee #a4hd #j4fg #fgi ,septemb] #ahgh- ,octob] #ahgi #a4fh #d4dj #b4fc #a4di #j4fd #bib ,octob]1 #ahgi- ,decemb]1 #ahhj #j4eh #a4he #a4jf #j4cj #j4bh #eae ,decemb] #ahhj- ,april #ahha #a4ba #b4jj #a4ed #a4be #j4fa ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #b1ebg ,five p]iods #f4cg #af4cd #i4ae #f4ae #b4ef ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,n[1 ! s\rce ( infection 9 cases ( small-pox is (t5 m easy to f9d ?an 9 cases ( "s o!r =ms ( infecti\s disease1 & ma9ly = two reasons3 #a4 ,t ! onset ( small-pox is usually sudd5 & /rik+1 su* z is n likely to escape obs]vation4 #b4 ,t ! s-call$ incubative p]iod is v def9ite & regul>1 be+ j a =tnight f infection to eruption4 ,! old exp]im5ts ( inoculation practic$ on our =efa!rs h taught u t f inoculation to ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! ra% is j twelve days4 ,giv5 a case ( small-pox1 !n "o has only to g c>efully ov] ! do+s & movem5ts ( ! pati5t on ! days ab\t a =tnight prec$+ 9 ord] to succe$ v (t5 9 f9d+ ! s\rce ( infection4 ,9 ! =tnight end+ ,febru>y #e1 #ahha1 =ty-"o h\ses 7 attack$ by small-pox 9 ! special mile circle r\nd ! hospital1 & 9 ?is limit$ outbreak x 0 f\nd1 z previ\sly1 t ! sev]ity ( incid5ce bore an exact inv]se proportion to ! di/ance f ! hospital4 ,! great] "p ( ^! 7 attack$ 9 ! five days ,janu>y #bf-cj1 #ahha1 & 9 seek+ = ! s\rce ( infection ( ^! cases1 special att5tion 0 direct$ to ! "t ab\t a =tnight previ\s viz41 ,janu>y #ab-ag1 #ahha4 ,! com+s & go+s ( all :o _h be5 directly connect$ ) ! hospital 7ambulances1 visitors1 pati5ts1 /aff1 nurses1 etc47 7 especially inquir$ into1 b ) an almo/ negative result1 & ,mr4 ,p[] 0 reluctantly =c$ to ! conclusion t small-pox poison _h be5 dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! air4 ,dur+ ! p]iod :5 ! infection did spread1 ! atmosph]ic conditions 7 su* z w\ld be likely to favor ! dissem9ation ( p>ticulate matt]4 ,mr4 ,p[] says3 ,famili> illu/ration ( t conveyance ( p>ticulate matt] :i* ,i am "h includ+ 9 ! t]m dissem9ation is se51 summ] & w9t]1 9 ! movem5ts ( p>ticles =m+ mi/ & fog4 ,! *ief ( ^! are1 ( c\rse1 wat] p>ticles1 b ^! c>ry g5tly ab\t ) !m1 9 an unalt]$ =m1 o!r matt]s t h be5 susp5d$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 & ^! o!r matt]s1 dur+ ! almo/ absolute /illness att5d+ ! =mation ( dew & ho> fro/1 s9k e>?w>d1 & may (t5 be recogniz$ aft] _! deposit4 ,z to ! capacity ( fogs to ?is end1 no ,london] ne$s in/ruction2 & few p]sons c h fail$ to notice ! imm5se di/ances t odors w travel on ! 'air brea?s' ( a /ill summ] night4 ,& !re are reasons :i* require u to believe p>ticulate matt] to be m easy ( susp5sion 9 an un*ang$ =m dur+ any rem>kable calmness ( atmosph]e4 ,ev5 q conspicu\s objects1 su* z cobwebs1 may be held up 9 ! air "u su* conditions4 ,probably !re are few obs]vant p]sons ( rural habits :o _c call to m9d "o or ano!r /ill autumn morn+1 :5 f a cl\dless1 ?\gh p]haps hazy1 sky1 !y h not$1 ov] a wide area1 /eady desc5t ( c\ntless spid] webs1 _m ( !m well-nigh p]fect 9 all details ( _! con/ruction4 ,a ref]5ce to ! meteorological returns issu$ by ! regi/r>-g5]al %[s t on ! #ab? ( ,janu>y1 #ahha1 began a p]iod ( sev]e fro/1 *>act]iz$ by /ill1 sometimes foggy1 wea!r1 ) occasional light airs f ne>ly all po9ts ( ! compass4 ,?is /ate ( affairs cont9u$ till ,janu>y #ah1 :5 !re 0 a notable sn[ /orm1 & a gale f ! ,e4,n4,e4 ,= f\r days1 up to & inclusive ( ,janu>y #h1 ozone 0 pres5t 9 m ?an its usual am\nts4 ,dur+ ,janu>y #i-af1 x 0 abs5t4 ,on ,janu>y #ag x reappe>$1 & on ,janu>y #ah x 0 abundant4 ,simil> meteorological conditions 7calm & no ozone7 7 f\nd to prec$e previ\s epidemics4 ,mr4 ,p[]'s report1 ) reg>d to ,fulham1 seems conclusive1 & !re is a /rong impression t hospitals1 o!r ?an ,fulham1 h s]v$ z c5t]s ( dissem9ation4 ,9 ! la/ lecture ,i gave y ! op9ion ( ,m4 ,b]tillon1 ( ,p>is1 & quot$ figures 9 support ( t op9ion4 ,x is a fact ( "s importance to rememb] t small-pox is "o ( ^? diseases :i* has a peculi> odor1 recognizable by ! exp]t4 ,z to its conveyance = long di/ances ?r\gh ! air1 !re are "s curi\s facts quot$ by ,pr(essor ,wat]h\se1 ( ,cambridge1 ,massa*usetts1 9 a lett] address$ to ,dr4 ,hayg>? at ! close ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,pr(essor ,wat]h\se /ates t at ,bo/on !re 0 a small-pox hospital on "o side ( a riv]1 & opposite x1 #a1ejj y>ds away1 0 a docky>d1 :]e1 on a c]ta9 mi/y1 foggy day1 ) light airs j mov+ 9 a direction f ! hospital to ! docky>d1 t5 m5 7 work+4 ,twelve days lat] all b two ( ^! m5 7 d[n ) small-pox1 & ! only possible s\rce ( infection 0 ! hospital across ! riv]4 7,to be cont9u$47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sunlight ,,colors4 ,footnote3 ,lecture deliv]$ by ,capt4 ,w4 ,de ,w4 ,abney1 ,r4,e41 ,p4,b4,s41 at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 on ,febru>y #be1 #ahhg4--,nature4 ,by ,capt4 ,w4 ,,de ,w4 ,,abney4 ,sunlight is s intimately wov5 up ) our physical enjoym5t ( life t x is p]haps n ! mo/ un9t]e/+ subject t c be *os5 = :at is--p]haps some:at p$antically--t]m$ a ,friday ev5+ disc\rse4 ,n[1 no disc\rse ought to be be possible )\t a text on :i* to hang "o's words1 & ,i ?9k ,i f\nd a suitable "o :5 walk+ ) an arti/ fri5d f ,s\? ,k5s+ton ,museum ! o!r day4 ,! sun appe>$ l a r$ disk ?r\gh "o ( ^? fogs :i* ! ea/ w9d _h br\ght1 & ,i happ5$ to po9t x out to him4 ,he look$1 & said1 ,:y is x t ! sun appe>s s r$8 ,be+ ne> ! railway /ation1 :i!r he 0 b\nd1 ,i _h no "t to ent] into ! subject1 b said if he w\ld come to ! ,royal ,in/itution ?is ev5+ ,i w\ld endeavor to expla9 ! matt]4 ,i am go+ to r$eem t promise1 & to devote at all ev5ts a portion ( ! "t allott$ to me 9 answ]+ ! "q :y ! sun appe>s r$ 9 a fog4 ,i mu/ fir/ ( all appeal to :at e "o :o frequ5ts ?is !at] is s accu/om$1 viz41 ! spectrum4 ,i am go+ n to put x 9 ! l>ge & spl5did /ripe ( ! mo/ gorge\s colors be=e y1 ) :i* y are s well acqua9t$1 b my spectrum w take a m mode/ =m ( pur] colors1 "s twelve in*es 9 l5g?4 ,i w\ld ask y to notice :i* color is mo/ lum9\s4 ,i ?9k t no "o w dispute t 9 ! yell[ we h ! mo/ int5se lum9osity1 & t x fades gradually 9 ! r$ on ! "o side & 9 ! violet on ! o!r4 ,?is1 !n1 may be call$ a qualitative e/imate ( relative brightnesses2 b ,i wi% n[ to introduce to y :at 0 novel la/ ye>1 a quantitative me?od ( measur+ ! brightness ( any "p4 ,be=e do+ ?is ,i mu/ %[ y ! diagram ( ! app>atus :i* ,i %all employ 9 "s ( my exp]im5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,color ,,photomet]4 ,,rr are rays 7,fig4 ,i7 com+ f ! arc light1 or1 if we 7 us+ sunlight1 f a helio/at1 & a sol> image is =m$ by a l5s1 ,l#a1 on ! slit1 ,s#a ( ! collimator1 ,c4 ,! p>allel rays produc$ by ! l5s1 ,l#b1 are p>tially refract$ & p>tially reflect$4 ,! =m] pass ?r\gh ! prisms1 ,p#a,p#b1 & are focus$ to =m a spectrum by a l5s1 ,l#c1 on ,d1 a movable gr\nd glass scre54 ,! rays are collect$ by a l5s1 ,l#d1 tilt$ at an angle z %[n1 to =m a :ite image ( ! ne> surface ( ! second prism on ,f4 ,pass+ a c>d ) a n>r[ slit1 ,s#b1 cut 9 x 9 front ( ! spectrum1 any color :i* ,i may require c be isolat$4 ,! consequ5ce is t1 in/ead ( ! :ite pat* ^u ! scre51 ,i h a color$ pat*1 ! color ( :i* ,i c alt] to any hue ly+ betwe5 ! r$ & ! violet4 ,?us1 !n1 we are able to get a real pat* ( v approximately homog5e\s light to "w )1 & x is ) ^! pat*es ( color t ,i %all h to deal4 ,is !re any way ( measur+ ! brightness ( ^! pat*es8 0 a "q ask$ by ,g5]al ,fe/+ & myself4 ,aft] try+ v>i\s plans1 we hit ^u ! me?od ,i %all n[ %[ y1 & if any "o works ) x he mu/ become fasc9at$ ) x on acc\nt ( its almo/ *ildi% simplicity--a simplicity1 ,i may rem>k1 :i* x took u "s mon?s to f9d out4 ,plac+ a rod be=e ! scre51 x ca/s a black %ad[ surr\nd$ ) a color$ backgr\nd4 ,n[ ,i may ca/ ano!r %ad[ f a c&le or an inc&esc5ce lamp1 & ! two %ad[s are illum9at$1 "o by ! light ( ! color$ pat* & ! o!r by ! light f an inc&esc5ce lamp :i* ,i am us+ tonight4 ,%[n4 ,n[ "o /ripe is evid5tly too d>k4 ,by an arrangem5t :i* ,i h ( alt]+ ! resi/ance int]pos$ betwe5 ! batt]y & ! lamp1 ,i c dim9i% or increase ! light f ! lamp1 fir/ mak+ ! %ad[ x illum9ates too light & !n too d>k comp>$ ) ! o!r %ad[1 :i* is illum9at$ by ! color$ light4 ,evid5tly !re is "s position 9 :i* ! %ad[s are equally lum9\s4 ,:5 t po9t is rea*$1 ,i c read (f ! curr5t :i* is pass+ ?r\gh ! lamp1 & hav+ previ\sly /&>diz$ x = ea* increm5t ( curr5t1 ,i "k :at am\nt ( light is giv5 out4 ,?is value ( ! inc&esc5ce lamp ,i c use z an ord9ate to a curve1 ! scale numb] :i* m>ks ! position ( ! color 9 ! spectrum be+ ! abscissa4 ,?is c be done = ea* "p ( ! spectrum1 & s a complete curve c be con/ruct$1 :i* we call ! illum9ation curve ( ! spectrum ( ! light "u consid]ation4 ,n[1 :5 we are work+ 9 ! laboratory ) a /eady light1 we may be at ease ) ?is me?od1 b :5 we come to work+ ) light su* z ! sun1 9 :i* !re may be con/ant v>iation1 ow+ to pass+1 & may be usually imp]ceptible1 mi/1 we are met ) a difficulty2 & 9 ord] to avoid ?is1 ,g5]al ,fe/+ & myself sub/itut$ ano!r me?od1 :i* ,i w n[ %[ y4 ,we made ! comp>ison light "p ( ! light we 7 measur+4 ,light :i* ent]s ! collimat+ l5s p>tly passes ?r\gh ! prisms & is p>tly reflect$ f ! fir/ surface ( ! prism2 t we utilize1 ?us giv+ a second %ad[4 ,! reflect$ rays f ,p#a fall on ,g1 a silv] on glass mirror4 ,!y are collect$ by ,l#e1 & =m a :ite image ( ! prism also at ,f4 ,! me?od we c adopt ( alt]+ ! int5sity ( ! comp>ison light is by means ( rotat+ sectors1 :i* c be op5$ or clos$ at w1 & ! two %ad[s ?us made equally lum9\s4 ,%[n4 ,b al?\gh ?is is an excell5t plan = "s purposes1 we h f\nd x bett] to adopt a diff]5t me?od4 ,y w recollect t ! brighte/ "p ( ! spectrum is 9 ! yell[1 & t x falls (f 9 brightness on ea* side1 s in/ead ( op5+ & clos+ ! sectors1 !y are set at fix$ int]vals1 & ! slit is mov$ 9 front ( ! spectrum1 j mak+ ! %ad[ ca/ by ! reflect$ beam too d>k or too light1 & oscillat+ betwe5 ! two till equality is discov]$4 ,! scale numb] is !n not$1 & ! curve con/ruct$ z be=e4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t1 on ea* side ( ! yell[1 equality c be e/abli%$4 ,?is me?od ( secur+ a comp>ison light is v mu* bett] = sun "w ?an any o!r1 z any v>iation 9 ! light ^: spectrum is to be measur$ affects ! comp>ison light 9 ! same degree4 ,?us1 suppose ,i int]pose an artificial cl\d be=e ! slit ( ! spectroscope1 hav+ adju/$ ! two %ad[s1 x w be se5 t ! passage ( /eam 9 front ( ! slit does n alt] ! relative int5sities2 b ?is result mu/ be receiv$ ) caution4 ,! lectur] !n proce$$ to po9t out ! contra/ colors t ! %ad[ ( ! rod illum9at$ by :ite light assum$4 ,i mu/ n[ make a digression4 ,x mu/ n be assum$ t e "o has ! same s5se ( color1 o!rwise !re w\ld be no color bl9dness4 ,"p ( ! rese>*es ( ,g5]al ,fe/+ & myself h be5 on ! subject ( color bl9dness1 & ^! ,i mu/ briefly ref] to4 ,we te/ all :o come by mak+ !m mat* ! lum9osity ( colors ) :ite light1 z ,i h n[ %[n y4 ,& z a color bl9d p]son has only two fundam5tal color p]ceptions in/ead ( ?ree1 8 mat*+ ( lum9osities is ev5 m accurate ?an is t made by ^? ^: eyes are normal or ne>ly normal4 ,x is curi\s to note h[ _m p are m or less defici5t 9 color p]ception4 ,"s h rem>k$ t x is impossible t !y 7 color bl9d & w\ld n believe x1 & sometimes we h be5 /agg]$ at fir/ ) ! rem>kable mann] 9 :i* !y recogniz$ color to :i* !y ultimately prov$ defici5t 9 p]ception4 ,= in/ance1 "o g5tleman :5 ,i ask$ him ! "n ( a r$ color pat*1 said x 0 sunset color4 ,he !n nam$ gre5 & blue correctly1 b :5 ,i rev]t$ to ! r$ pat* he said gre54 ,on te/+ fur!r1 he prov$ totally defici5t 9 ! color p]ception ( r$1 & ) a brilliant r$ pat* he mat*$ almo/ a black %ad[4 ,! diagram %[s y ! relative p]ceptions 9 ! spectrum ( ?is g5tleman & myself4 ,!re are o!rs :o only see ?ree-qu>t]s1 o!rs half1 & o!rs a qu>t] ! am\nt ( r$ t we see1 :ile "s see none4 ,o!rs see less gre5 & o!rs less violet1 b ,i h met ) no "o t c see m ?an myself or ,g5]al ,fe/+1 ^: color p]ceptions are almo/ id5tical4 ,h5ce we h call$ our curve ( illum9ation ! normal curve4 ,we h te/$ sev]al em95t arti/s 9 ?is mann]1 & ab\t "o half ( ! numb] h be5 prov$ to see only ?ree qu>t]s ( ! am\nt ( r$ :i* we see4 ,x might be ?\ght t ?is w\ld vitiate _! p[]s ( mat*+ color1 b x is n s4 ,!y pa9t :at !y see2 & al?\gh !y see less r$ 9 a subject1 !y see ! same defici5cy 9 _! pigm5ts2 h5ce !y are correct4 ,if totally defici5t1 ! case ( c\rse w\ld be diff]5t4 ,let u c>ry our exp]im5ts a /ep fur!r1 & see :at effect :at is kn[n z a turbid m$ium has ^u ! illum9at+ value ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! spectrum4 ,i h "h wat] :i* has be5 r5d]$ turbid 9 a v simple mann]4 ,9 x has be5 v cauti\sly dropp$ an alcoholic solution ( ma/ic4 ,n[ ma/ic is practically insoluble 9 wat]1 & directly ! alcoholic solution comes 9 contact ) ! wat] x sep>ates out 9 v f9e p>ticles1 :i*1 f _! v f95ess1 rema9 susp5d$ 9 ! wat]4 ,i propose n[ to make an exp]im5t ) ?is turbid wat]4 ,i place a glass cell conta9+ wat] 9 front ( ! slit1 & on ! scre5 ,i ?r[ a pat* ( blue light4 ,i n[ *ange x = turbid wat] 9 a cell4 ,?is ?ickness mu* dims ! blue2 ) a /ill great] ?ickness ! blue has almo/ gone4 ,if ,i measure ! int5sity ( ! light at ea* op]ation1 ,i %all f9d t x dim9i%es accord+ to a c]ta9 law1 :i* is ( ! same nature z ! law ( absorption4 ,= in/ance1 if "o in* dim9i%es ! light "o half1 ! next w dim9i% x half ( t aga91 ! next half ( t aga91 :ile ! f\r? in* w cause a f9al dim9ution ( ! total light ( "o sixte5?4 ,if ! fir/ in* all[s only "o qu>t] ( ! light1 ! next w only all[ "o sixte5?1 & ! f\r? in* w only p]mit #a_/bef "p to pass4 ,let u1 h[ev]1 take a r$ pat* ( light & exam9e x 9 ! same way4 ,we %all f9d t1 :5 ! great] ?ickness ( ! turbid m$ium we us$ :5 exam9+ ! blue pat* ( light is plac$ 9 front ( ! slit1 mu* m ( ?is light is all[$ to pass ?an ( ! blue4 ,if we measure ! light1 we %all f9d t ! same law holds good z be=e1 b t ! proportion :i* passes is inv>iably great] ) ! r$ ?an ! blue4 ,! "q !n pres5ts itself3 ,is !re any connection betwe5 ! am\nts ( ! r$ & ! blue :i* pass8 ,"l ,rayleigh1 "s ye>s ago1 made a !oretical inve/igation ( ! subject4 ,b1 z f> z ,i am aw>e1 no def9ite exp]im5tal pro( ( ! tru? ( ! !ory 0 made till x 0 te/$ la/ ye> by ,g5]al ,fe/+ & myself4 ,8 law 0 t = any ray1 & ?r\gh ! same ?ickness1 ! light transmitt$ v>i$ inv]sely z ! f\r? p[] ( ! wave l5g?4 ,! wave l5g? #f1jjj lies 9 ! r$1 & ! wave l5g? #d1jjj 9 ! violet4 ,n[ #f1jjj is to #d1jjj z #c to #b1 & ! f\r? p[]s ( ^! wave l5g?s are z #ha to #af1 or z ab\t #e to #a4 ,if1 !n1 ! f\r in*es ( our turbid m$ium all[$ ?ree qu>t]s ( ?is p>ticul> r$ ray to be transmitt$1 !y w\ld only all[ 77#e1 or r less ?an "o f\r?1 ( ! blue ray to pass4 ,n[1 ?is law is n l ! law ( absorption = ord9>y absorb+ m$ia1 su* z color$ glass = in/ance1 because "h we h an increas$ loss ( light runn+ f ! r$ to ! blue1 & x matt]s n h[ ! m$ium is made turbid1 :e!r by v>ni%1 susp5d$ sulphur1 or :at n4 ,x holds 9 e case1 s long z ! p>ticles :i* make ! m$ium turbid are small en\gh4 ,& please to recollect t x matt]s n 9 ! lea/ :e!r ! m$ium :i* is r5d]$ turbid is solid1 liquid1 or air4 ,sulphur is yell[ 9 mass1 & ma/ic v>ni% is ne>ly :ite1 :ile tobacco smoke :5 cond5s$ is black1 & v m9ute p>ticles ( wat] are colorless2 x matt]s n :at ! color is1 ! loss ( light is always ! same4 ,! result is simply due to ! scatt]+ ( light by f9e p>ticles1 su* p>ticles be+ small 9 dim5sions comp>$ ) a wave ( light4 ,n[1 9 ?is tr\gh is susp5d$ #a_/ajjj ( a cubic in* ( ma/ic v>ni%1 & ! wat] 9 x measures ab\t #ajj cubic in*es1 or is #ajj1jjj times m 9 bulk ?an ! v>ni%4 ,"u a microscope ( ord9>y p[] x is impossible to di/+ui% any p>ticles ( v>ni%2 x looks l a homog5e\s fluid1 ?\gh we "k t ma/ic w n dissolve 9 wat]4 ,n[ a wave l5g? 9 ! r$ is ab\t #a_/djjjj ( an in*1 & a little calculation w %[ t ^! p>ticles are well )9 ! necess>y limits4 ,pr(4 ,tyndall has delight$ audi5ces "h ) an exposition ( ! effect ( ! scatt]+ ( light by small p>ticles 9 ! =mation ( artificial skies1 & x w\ld be sup]flu\s = me to ent] m into t4 ,suffice x to say t :5 p>ticles are small en\gh to =m ! artificial blue sky1 !y are fully small en\gh to obey ! above law1 & t ev5 l>g] p>ticles w suffice4 ,we may sum up by say+ t v f9e p>ticles scatt] m blue light ?an r$ light1 & t consequ5tly m r$ light ?an blue light passes ?r\gh a turbid m$ium1 & t ! rays obey ! law prescrib$ by !ory4 ,i w exemplify ?is once m by us+ ! :ole spectrum & plac+ ?is cell1 :i* conta9s hyposulphite ( soda 9 solution 9 wat]1 9 front ( ! slit4 ,by dropp+ 9 hydro*loric acid1 ! sulphur sep>ates out 9 m9ute p>ticles2 & y w see t1 z ! p>ticles increase 9 numb]1 ! violet1 blue1 gre51 & yell[ disappe> "o by "o & only r$ is left1 & f9ally ! r$ disappe>s itself4 ,n[ let me rev]t to ! "q :y ! sun is r$ at sunset4 ,^? :o are lov]s ( l&scape w h (t5 se5 on "s bright summ]'s day t ! mo/ beautiful effects are ^? 9 :i* ! di/ance is almo/ ( a mat* to ! sky4 ,di/ant hills1 :i* :5 view$ close to are gre5 or br[n1 :5 se5 "s five or t5 miles away appe> ( a delicate & delici\s1 almo/ ( a cobalt1 blue color4 ,n[1 :at is ! cause ( ?is *ange 9 color8 ,x is simply t we h a sky =m$ betwe5 u & ! di/ant ranges1 ! m]e outl9e ( :i* looms ?r\gh x4 ,! %ad[s are s(t5$ s z almo/ to leave no trace1 & we h :at arti/s call an atmosph]ic effect4 ,if we g into ano!r climate1 su* z ,egypt or among ! high ,alps1 we usually lose ?is effect4 ,di/ant m\nta9s /& out crisp ) black %ad[s1 & ! want ( atmosph]e is mu* felt4 ,photographs %[+ ^! diff]5ces 7 %[n4 ,let u ask to :at ?is is due4 ,9 su* climates z ,engl& !re is always a c]ta9 am\nt ( moi/ure pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e1 & ?is moi/ure may be pres5t z v m9ute p>ticles ( wat]--s m9ute inde$ t !y w s9k d[n 9 an atmosph]e ( normal d5sity--or z vapor4 ,:5 pres5t z vapor ! air is mu* m transp>5t1 & x is a common expression to use1 t :5 di/ant hills look s close ra9 may be expect$ %ortly to foll[1 s9ce ! wat] is pres5t 9 a /ate to precipitate 9 l>g] p>ticles4 ,b :5 pres5t z small p>ticles ( wat] ! hills look v di/ant1 ow+ to :at we may call ! haze betwe5 u & !m4 ,9 rec5t weeks e "o has be5 able to see v multipli$ effects ( su* haze4 ,! ends ( long /reets1 = in/ance1 h be5 sc>cely visible1 ?\gh ! sun may h be5 %9+1 & at night ! long vi/as ( gas lamps h %[n light hav+ an increas+ r$ness z !y became m di/ant4 ,e "o admits ! pres5ce ( mi/ on ^! occasions1 & ?is mi/ mu/ be m]ely a collection ( intangible & v m9ute p>ticles ( susp5d$ wat]4 ,9 a di/ant l&scape we h simply ! same or a small] quantity ( /reet mi/ occupy+1 in/ead ( p]haps #a1jjj y>ds1 t5 times t di/ance4 ,n[ ,i w\ld ask1 ,:at effect w\ld su* a mi/ h ^u ! light ( ! sun :i* %one ?r\gh x8 ,x is n 9 ! b\nds ( pres5t possibility to get outside our atmosph]e & measure by ! plan ,i h describ$ to y ! diff]5t illum9at+ values ( ! diff]5t rays1 b ?is we c d3 ,fir/1 we c measure ^! values at diff]5t altitudes ( ! sun1 & ?is means measur+ ! effect on ea* ray aft] pass+ ?r\gh diff]5t ?icknesses ( ! atmosph]e1 ei!r at diff]5t times ( day or at diff]5t times ( ! ye>1 ab\t ! same h\r4 ,second1 by tak+ ! in/rum5t up to "s su* elevation z t to :i* ,langley took 8 bolomet] at ,m\nt ,:itney1 & s to leave ! d5se/ "p ( ! atmosph]e bel[ u4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,relative ,,lum9osities4 ,n[1 ,i h adopt$ bo? ^! plans4 ,= m ?an a ye> ,i h tak5 measurem5ts ( sunlight 9 my laboratory at ,s\? ,k5s+ton1 & ,i h also tak5 ! in/rum5t up to #h1jjj feet high 9 ! ,alps1 & made obs]vations !re1 & ) a result :i* is satisfactory 9 t bo? sets ( obs]vations %[ t ! law :i* holds ) artificially turbid m$ia is "u ord9>y circum/ances obey$ by sunlight 9 pass+ ?r\gh our air3 :i* is1 y w rememb]1 t m ( ! r$ is transmitt$ ?an ( ! violet1 ! am\nt ( ea* dep5d+ on ! wave l5g?4 ,! lum9osity ( ! spectrum obs]v$ at ! ,riffel ,i h us$ z my /&>d lum9osity1 & comp>$ all o!rs ) x4 ,! result = f\r days y see 9 ! diagram4 ,i h diagrammatically %[n ! am\nt ( diff]5t colors :i* p5etrat$ on ! same days1 tak+ ! ,riffel z t54 ,x w be se5 t on ,decemb] #bc we h really v little violet & less ?an half ! gre51 al?\gh we h f\r fif?s ( ! r$4 ,! next diagram be=e y %[s ! m9imum loss ( light :i* ,i h obs]v$ = diff]5t air ?icknesses4 ,on ! top we h ! calculat$ int5sities ( ! diff]5t rays outside our atmosph]e4 ,?us we h t ?r\gh "o atmosph]e1 & two1 ?ree1 & f\r4 ,& y w see :at enorm\s absorption !re is 9 ! blue end at f\r atmosph]es4 ,! areas ( ^! curves1 :i* give ! total lum9osity ( ! light1 are #gfa1 #ffb1 #egg1 #ejc1 & #dci2 & if obs]v$ z a/ronom]s obs]ve ! absorption ( light1 by means ( /ell> obs]vations1 !y w\ld h _h ! values1 #gfa1 #ffd1 #egh1 #ejd1 & #dci--;a v close approximation "o to ! o!r4 ,next notice 9 ! diagram t ! top ( ! curve gradually incl9es to g to ! r$ end ( ! spectrum z y get ! light transmitt$ ?r\gh m & m air1 & ,i %\ld l to %[ y t ?is is ! case 9 a laboratory exp]im5t4 ,tak+ a slide ) a wide & long slot 9 x1 a portion is occupi$ by a "r angl$ prism1 "o ( ! angles ( #de be+ t[>d ! c5t] ( ! slot4 ,by slid+ ?is prism 9 front ( ! spectrum ,i c deflect outw>d any portion ( ! spectrum ,i l1 & by a mirror c reflect x ?r\gh a second l5s1 =m+ a pat* ( light on ! scre5 ov]lapp+ ! pat* ( light =m$ by ! undeflect$ rays4 ,if ! two pat*es be exactly equal1 :ite light is =m$4 ,n[1 by plac+ a rod z be=e 9 front ( ! pat*1 ,i h two color$ /ripes 9 a :ite field1 & ?\gh ! backgr\nd rema9s ( ! same int5sity ( :ite1 ! int5sities ( ! two /ripes c be alt]$ by mov+ ! "r angl$ prism ?r\gh ! spectrum4 ,! two /ripes are n[ app>5tly equally lum9\s1 & ,i see ! po9t ( equality is :]e ! edge ( ! "r angl$ prism is 9 ! gre54 ,plac+ a n>r[ cell fill$ ) our turbid m$ium 9 front ( ! slit1 ,i f9d t ! equality is di/urb$1 & ,i h to all[ m ( ! yell[ to come into ! pat* =m$ by ! blue end ( ! spectrum1 & consequ5tly less ( x 9 ! r$ end4 ,i aga9 e/abli% equality4 ,plac+ a ?ick] cell 9 front1 equality is aga9 di/urb$1 & ,i h to h less yell[ /ill 9 ! r$ half1 & m 9 ! blue half4 ,i n[ remove ! cell1 & ! inequality ( lum9osity is /ill m gl>+4 ,?is %[s1 !n1 t ! rays ( maximum lum9osity mu/ travel t[>d ! r$ z ! ?ickness ( ! turbid m$ium is increas$4 ,! obs]vations at #h1jjj feet1 "h record$1 7 tak5 on ,septemb] #ae1 at noon1 & ( c\rse 9 latitude #df ! sun c\ld n be ov]head1 b _h to trav]se :at w\ld be almo/ exactly equival5t to ! atmosph]e at sea level4 ,x is mu* ne>] ! calculat$ int5sity = no atmosph]e int]v5+ ?an x is = "o atmosph]e4 ,! explanation ( ?is is easy4 ,! air is d5s] at sea level ?an at #h1jjj feet up1 & ! l[] /ratum is m likely to hold small wat] p>ticles or du/ 9 susp5sion ?an is ! high]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,proportions ,,( ,,transmitt$ ,,colors4 ,=1 h[ev] small ! p>ticles may be1 !y w h a great] t5d5cy to s9k 9 a r>e air ?an 9 a d5s] "o1 & less wat] vapor c be held p] cubic foot4 ,look+1 !n1 f my laboratory at ,s\? ,k5s+ton1 we h to look ?r\gh a proportionately l>g] quantity ( susp5d$ p>ticles ?an we h at a high altitude :5 ! air ?icknesses are ! same4 ,& consequ5tly ! absorption is proportionately great] at sea level t at #h1jjj feet high4 ,?is leads u to ! fact t ! real int5sity ( illum9ation ( ! diff]5t rays outside ! atmosph]e is great] ?an x is calculat$ f obs]vations ne> sea level4 ,pr(4 ,langley1 9 ?is !at]1 9 a rem>kable & int]e/+ lecture1 9 :i* he describ$ 8 j\rney up ,m\nt ,:itney to ab\t #ab1jjj feet1 told u t ! sun 0 really blue outside our atmosph]e1 & at fir/ blu% ! am\nt ( extra blue :i* he d$uc$ to be pres5t 9 x w\ld1 he ?\ght1 make x s4 ,b ?\gh he surmis$ ! result f exp]im5ts made ) rotat+ disks ( color$ pap]1 he did n1 ,i ?9k1 try ! me?od ( us+ pure colors1 & consequ5tly1 ,i believe1 slightly exagg]at$ ! blu5ess :i* w\ld result4 ,i h tak5 ,pr(4 ,langley's calculations ( ! increase ( int5sity = ! diff]5t rays1 :i* ,i may say d n q agree ) m9e1 & ,i h prep>$ a mask :i* ,i c place 9 ! spectrum1 giv+ ! diff]5t proportions ( ea* ray z calculat$ by him1 & ?is :5 plac$ 9 front ( ! spectrum w %[ y t ! real color ( sunlight outside ! atmosph]e1 z calculat$ by ,langley1 c sc>cely be call$ blui%4 ,alongside ,i place a pat* ( light :i* is v closely ! color ( sunlight on a ,july day at noon 9 ,engl&4 ,?is comp>ison w enable y to gauge ! blu5ess1 & y w see t x is n v blue1 &1 9 fact1 n blu] p]ceptibly ?an t we h at ! ,riffel1 ! color ( ! sunlight at :i* place ,i %[ 9 a simil> way4 ,i h also prep>$ "s scre5s to %[ y ! value ( sunlight aft] pass+ ?r\gh five & t5 atmosph]es4 ,on an ord9>y cle> day y w see :at a yell[ness !re is 9 ! color4 ,x seems t aft] a c]ta9 am\nt ( blue is pres5t 9 :ite light1 ! addition ( m makes b little diff]5ce 9 ! t9t4 ,b ^! la/ pat*es %[ t ! light :i* passes ?r\gh ! atmosph]e :5 x is feebly *>g$ ) p>ticles does n induce ! r$ ( ! sun z se5 ?r\gh a fog4 ,x only requires m susp5d$ p>ticles 9 any ?ickness to induce x4 ,9 obs]vations made at ! ,riffel1 & at #ad1jjj feet1 ,i h f\nd t x is possible to see f> into ! ultra-violet1 & to di/+ui% & measure l9es 9 ! sun's spectrum :i* c ord9>ily only be se5 by ! aid ( a fluoresc5t eye piece or by means ( photography4 ,circum/antial evid5ce t5ds to %[ t ! burn+ ( ! sk91 :i* always takes place 9 ^! high altitudes 9 sunlight1 is due to ! great increase 9 ! ultra-violet rays4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! same k9d ( burn+ is effect$ by ! electric arc light1 :i* is kn[n to be v ri* 9 ^! rays4 ,aga91 to use a homely phrase1 ,y _c eat y\r cake & h x4 ,y _c h a l>ge quantity ( blue rays pres5t 9 y\r direct sunlight & h a lum9\s blue sky4 ,! latt] mu/ always be light scatt]$ f ! =m]4 ,n[1 9 ! high ,alps y h1 on cle> day1 a deep blue-black sky1 v diff]5t inde$ f ! blue sky ( ,italy or ( ,engl&2 & z x is ! sky :i* is ! *ief ag5t 9 light+ up ! %ad[s1 n only 9 ^? regions d we h d>k %ad[s on acc\nt ( no int]v5+--:at ,i w call--mi/1 b because ! sky itself is s little lum9\s4 ,9 an arti/ic po9t ( view ?is is important4 ,! w>m? ( an ,engli% l&scape 9 sunlight is due to ! highe/ lights be+ yell[i%1 & to ! %ad[s be+ blui% f ! sky light illum9at+ !m4 ,9 ! high ,alps ! high lights are cold]1 be+ blu]1 & ! %ad[s are d>k1 & *iefly illum9at$ by reflect$ direct sunlight4 ,^? :o h travel$ abroad w "k :at ! effect is4 ,a pa9t+ 9 ! ,alps1 at any high elevation1 is r>ely pleas+1 al?\gh x may be true to nature4 ,x looks cold1 & some:at h>% & blue4 ,9 ,london we are (t5 favor$ ) ea/]ly w9ds1 & ^!1 unpleasant 9 o!r ways1 are also de/ructive ( t portion ( ! sunlight :i* is ! mo/ *emically active on liv+ organisms4 ,! sunlight composition ( a ,july day may1 by ! preval5ce ( an ea/]ly w9d1 be r$uc$ to t ( a ,novemb] day1 z ,i h prov$ by actual measurem5t4 ,9 ?is case x is n ! wat] p>ticles :i* act z scatt]]s1 b ! c>bon p>ticles f ! smoke4 ,kn[+1 !n1 ! cause ( ! *ange 9 ! color ( sunlight1 we c make an artificial sunset1 9 :i* we h an imitation light pass+ ?r\gh increas+ ?icknesses ( air l>gely *>g$ ) wat] p>ticles4 ,! image ( a circul> diaphragm plac$ 9 front ( ! electric light 0 ?r[n on ! scre5 9 imitation ( ! sun1 & a cell conta9+ hyposulphite ( soda plac$ 9 ! beam4 ,hydro*loric acid 0 !n add$2 z ! f9e p>ticles ( sulphur 7 =m$1 ! disk ( light assum$ a yell[ t9t1 & z ! decomposition ( ! hyposulphite progress$1 x assum$ an orange & f9ally a deep r$ t9t4 ,) ?is exp]im5t ,i t]m9ate my lecture1 hop+ t 9 "s degree ,i h answ]$ ! "q ,i prop\nd$ at ! outset--:y ! sun is r$ :5 se5 ?r\gh a fog4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,wave ,,!ory ,,( ,,s\nd ,,consid]$4 ,by ,,h5ry4 ,a4 ,,mott1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,be=e pres5t+ any ( ! num]\s difficulties 9 ! way ( accept+ ! wave !ory ( s\nd z correct1 x w be be/ to briefly repres5t its tea*+s1 s t ! read] w see t ! writ] is p]fectly famili> ) ! same4 ,! wave !ory ( s\nd />ts (f ) ! assumption t ! atmosph]e is compos$ ( molecules1 & t ^! suppos$ molecules are free to vibrate :5 act$ ^u by a vibrat+ body4 ,:5 a tun+ =k1 = example1 is caus$ to vibrate1 x is assum$ t ! suppos$ molecules 9 front ( ! advanc+ =k are cr[d$ closely toge!r1 ?us =m+ a cond5sation1 & on ! retreat ( ! =k are sep>at$ m widely ap>t1 ?us =m+ a r>efaction4 ,on acc\nt ( ! cr[d+ ( ! molecules toge!r to =m ! cond5sation1 ! air is suppos$ to become m d5se & ( a high] temp]ature1 :ile 9 ! r>efaction ! air is suppos$ to become less d5se & ( l[] temp]ature2 b ! heat ( ! cond5sation is suppos$ to j satisfy ! cold ( ! r>efaction1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! av]age temp]ature ( ! air rema9s un*ang$4 ,! suppos$ increase ( temp]ature 9 ! cond5sation is suppos$ to facilitate ! transf]5ce ( ! s\nd pulse1 9 consequ5ce ( :i*1 s\nd is able to travel at ! rate ( #a1jie feet a second at #j;,c41 :i* x w\ld n d if !re 0 no heat g5]at$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! suppos$ increase ( temp]ature is suppos$ to add #a_/f to ! velocity ( s\nd4 ,if ! tun+ =k be a ,ko5ig ,c#c =k1 :i* makes #bef full vibrations 9 "o second1 !n !re w be #bef s\nd waves 9 "o second ( a l5g? ( #ajie_/bef or #d4bc feet1 s t at ! end ( a second ( "t f ! comm5cem5t ( ! vibration1 ! =emo/ wave w\ld h rea*$ a di/ance ( #a1jie feet1 at #j;,c4 ,! motion ( a s\nd wave mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be conf\nd$ ) ! motion ( ! molecules :i* at any mom5t =m ! wave2 = dur+ its passage e molecule conc]n$ 9 its transf]5ce makes only a small excursion to & fro1 ! l5g? ( ! excursion be+ ! amplitude ( vibration1 on :i* ! int5sity ( ! s\nd dep5ds4 ,tak+ ! same tun+ =k m5tion$ above1 ! molecule w\ld take #a_/bef ( a second to make a full vibration1 :i* is ! l5g? ( "t x takes = ! pulse to travel ! l5g? ( ! s\nd wave4 ,= diff]5t int5sities1 ! amplitude ( vibration ( ! molecule is r\ghly #a_/ej to #a_/ajjjjjj ( an in*4 ,t is to say1 9 ! case ( ! same tun+ =k1 ! molecules x causes to vibrate mu/ ei!r travel a di/ance ( #a_/ef or #a_/ajjjjjj ( an in* =w>d & back 9 ! #a_/bef ( a second or 9 "o direction 9 ! #a_/eab ( a second4 ,i might fur!r /ate t ! pit* ( ! s\nd dep5ds on ! numb] ( vibrations & ! int5sity1 z already indicat$ by ! amplitude ( /roke--! timbre or quality ( ! s\nd dep5d+ ^u factors :i* w be cle>ly set =? z we advance4 ,hav+ n[ cle>ly & correctly repres5t$ ! wave !ory ( s\nd1 )\t t\*+ ! physiological effect p]ceiv$ by means ( ! e>1 we w proce$ to consid] x4 ,we mu/ fir/ consid] ! /ate 9 :i* ! suppos$ molecules exi/ 9 ! air1 be=e mak+ progress4 ,! pres5t sci5ce tea*es t ! diamet] ( ! suppos$ molecules ( ! air is ab\t #a_/bejjjjjjj ( an in* 7,tait72 t ! di/ance betwe5 ! molecules is ab\t #h_/ajjjjj ( an in*2 t ! velocity ( ! molecules is ab\t #a1eab feet a second at #j;,c41 9 its free pa?2 t ! numb] ( molecules 9 a cubic in* at #j;,c4 is #c1eje1eai1hjj1jjj1jjj1jjj or #ce foll[$ by #ag ciph]s 7#ce7ag2 & t ! numb] ( collisions p] second t ! molecules make is1 accord+ to ,boltzmann1 = hydrog51 #ag1gjj1jjj1jjj1 t is to say1 a hydrog5 molecule 9 "o second has its c\rse :olly *ang$ ov] sev5te5 billion times4 ,assum+ sev5te5 billion or million to be "r = ! suppos$ air molecules1 we h a v int]e/+ problem to consid]4 ,! wave !ory ( s\nd requires1 if we expect to he> s\nd by means ( a ,c#c =k ( #bef vibrations1 t ! molecules ( ! air compos+ ! s\nd wave mu/ n be int]f]$ ) 9 su* a way z to prev5t !m f travel+ a di/ance ( at lea/ #a_/ej to #a_/ajjjjjj ( an in* =w>d & back 9 ! #a_/bef ( a second4 ,! problem we h to expla9 is1 h[ a molecule travel+ at ! rate ( #a1eab feet a second ?r\gh a mean pa? ( #h_/ajjjjj ( an in*1 & collid+ sev5te5 billion or million times a second1 c1 by ! vibration ( ! ,c#c =k1 be made to vibrate s z to h a p5dul\s motion = #a_/bef ( a second & vibrate ?r\gh a di/ance ( #a_/ej to ! #a_/ajjjjjj ( an in* )\t be+ *ang$ or m> its h>monic motion4 ,x is claim$ t ! range ( s\nd lies betwe5 #af vibrations & #cj1jjj 7ab\t72 9 su* extreme cases ! molecules w\ld require #a_/af & #a_/cjjjj ( a second to p]=m ! same j\rney4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t a mass mov+ ?r\gh a giv5 di/ance has ! p[] ( do+ "w1 & ! am\nt ( en]gy x w ex]cise w dep5d on its velocity4 ,n[1 a molecule ( oxyg5 or nitrog51 accord+ to mod]n sci5ce1 is a mass #a_/bejjjjjjj ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & an oxyg5 molecule has be5 calculat$ to weigh #j4jjjjjjjjedjdd ounce4 ,tak+ ?is weight travel+ ) a velocity ( #a1eab feet a second ?r\gh an av]age di/ance ( #h_/ajjjjj ( an in*1 ! batt]+ p[] or mom5tum x w\ld h c be %[n to be 9 r\nd numb]s capable ( mov+ #a_/bjjjjj ( an ounce4 ,n[1 :5 ! ,c#c tun+ =k has be5 vibrat+ = "s "t1 b /ill s\nd+ audibly1 ,pr(4 ,c>t] det]m9$ t its amplitude ( /roke 0 only ! #a_/agjjj ( an in*1 or its velocity ( motion 0 at ! rate ( #a_/cc ( an in* 9 "o second1 or "o in* 9 #cc seconds 7ov] half a m9ute71 or less ?an "o foot 9 "o h\r4 ,assum+ "o prong to weigh two ounces1 we h a two-ounce mass mov+ #a_/agjjj ( an in* ) a velocity ( #a_/cc ( an in* 9 "o second4 ,! prong1 !n1 has a mom5tum or c ex]cise an am\nt ( en]gy equival5t to #a_/bjj ( an ounce1 or c ov]come ! mom5tum ( #a1jjj molecules4 ,x w\ld be difficult to discov] n only h[ a locu/ c exp5d suffici5t en]gy to imp>t to molecules ( ! air1 s z to set !m 9 a =c$ vibration1 & ?us enable a pulse ( ! en]gy imp>t$ to control ! motion ( ! suppos$ molecules ( ! air = a mile 9 all directions1 b also to e/imate ! am\nt ( en]gy ! locu/ mu/ exp5d4 ,accord+ to ! wave !ory1 a cond5sation & r>efaction are necess>y to con/itute a s\nd wave4 ,surely1 if a cond5sation is n produc$1 !re c be no s\nd wave6 ,we h !n no ne$ to consid] any?+ b ! cond5sation or compression ( ! suppos$ air molecules1 :i* w %ort5 ! discussion4 ,! prop]ty ( mobility ( ! air & fluidity ( wat] are well kn[n4 ,9 ! case ( wat]1 :i* is almo/ incompressible1 ?is prop]ty is well m>k$1 & unque/ionably w\ld be v ne>ly ! same if wat] 7 :olly incompressible4 ,9 ! case ( ! air1 x is conc$$ by ,tyndall1 ,?omson1 ,daniell1 ,helmholtz1 & o!rs t any compression or cond5sation ( ! air mu/ be well m>k$ or def9$ to secure ! transmission ( a s\nd pulse4 ,! reason = ?is is on acc\nt ( ?is v prop]ty ( mobility4 ,tyndall says3 ,! prong ( ! =k 9 its swift advancem5t cond5ses ! air4 ,?omson says3 ,if ,i move my h& vehem5tly ?r\gh ! air1 ,i produce a cond5sation4 ,helmholtz says3 ,! p5dulum sw+s f "r to left ) a uni=m motion4 ,ne> to ei!r end ( its pa? x moves sl[ly1 & 9 ! middle fa/4 ,among sonor\s bodies :i* move 9 ! same way1 only v mu* fa/]1 we may m5tion tun+ =ks4 ,tyndall says aga93 ,:5 a common p5dulum oscillates1 x t5ds to =m a cond5sation 9 front & a r>efaction beh9d4 ,b x is only a t5d5cy2 ! motion is s sl[1 & ! air s ela/ic1 t x moves away 9 front be=e x is s5sibly cond5s$1 & fills ! space beh9d be=e x c become s5sibly dilat$4 ,h5ce waves or pulses are n g5]at$ by ! p5dulum4 ,& f9ally1 ,daniell says3 ,a vibrat+ body1 be=e x c act z a s\nd+ body1 mu/ produce alt]nate compressions & r>efactions 9 ! air1 & ^! mu/ be well m>k$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! vibrat+ body be s small t at ea* oscillation ! surr\nd+ air has "t to fl[ r\nd x1 !re is at e oscillation a local re>rangem5t--a local fl[ & refl[ ( ! air2 b ! air at a di/ance is almo/ :olly unaffect$ by ?is4 ,n[1 z ,pr(4 ,c>t] has %[n by exp]im5t t a tun+ =k :ile /ill s\nd+ _h only an amplitude ( sw+ ( #a_/agjjj ( an in*1 & only travel$ an aggregate di/ance ( #a_/cc ( an in* 9 "o second1 or "o in* 9 #cc seconds1 surely su* a motion is nei!r swift1 fa/1 nor vehem5t1 & is unque/ionably mu* sl[] ?an ! motion ( a p5dulum4 ,we h only to consid] "o =w>d motion ( ! prong1 & if t motion _c cond5se ! air1 !n no wave c be produc$2 = aft] a prong has advanc$ & /opp$ mov+ 7no matt] = h[ %ort a "t71 if x has n compress$ ! air1 its return motion 7on ! same side7 _c d any?+ t[>d mak+ a compression4 ,if "o su* motion ( #a_/agjjj ( an in* 9 #a_/eab ( a second _c compress ! air1 !n ! rema9+ motions _c4 ,!re is unque/ionably a union limit betwe5 mobility & compressibility1 & unless ?is limit is pass$1 mobility holds sway & prev5ts cond5sation or compression ( ! air2 b :5 ?is limit is pass$ by ! ex]cise ( suffici5t en]gy1 !n compression ( ! air results4 ,j imag9e ! f+] to be mov$ ?r\gh ! air at a velocity ( "o foot 9 "o h\r2 is x possible t any sci5ti/ :o consid]s ! problem 9 connection ) ! mobility ( ! air1 c\ld risk 8 reputation by say+ t ! air w\ld be compress$8 ,h]et(ore x 0 suppos$ t a praeong ( a tun+ =k 0 travel+ fa/ because x vibrat$ s _m times 9 a second1 nev] /opp+ to ?9k t its velocity ( motion 0 entirely dep5d5t ^u ! di/ance x travel$4 ,at ! />t ! prong travels #a_/bj ( an in*1 b 9 a %ort "t1 :ile /ill s\nd+1 ! di/ance is r$uc$ to #a_/agjjj ( an in*4 ,:ile ! fir/ motion 0 q fa/1 ab\t #be in*es 9 a second1 ! la/ motion 0 only ab\t #a_/cc ( an in* 9 ! same "t1 & is consequ5tly #hbe times sl[] motion4 ,! mom5tum ( ! prong1 ! am\nt ( "w x c d1 is likewise proportionately r$uc$4 ,"s seem to imag9e1 )\t ?9k+1 t ! ela/icity ( ! air c add additional en]gy4 ,?is is p]fectly errone\s2 = ela/icity is a m]e prop]ty1 :i* p]mits a body to be compress$ on ! application ( a =ce1 & to be dilat$ by ! ex]cise ( ! =ce /or$ up 9 x by ! compression4 ,no prop]ty ( ! air c imp>t any en]gy4 ,if ! mom5tum ( a molecule or a s]ies ( molecules ext5d+ 9 all directions = a mile is to be ov]come s z to control ! "* ( ! movem5ts ( ! molecules1 !n suffici5t ext]nal en]gy mu/ be appli$ to accompli% ! task3 & :5 we ?9k t "o cubic in* ( air conta9s #c1eje1eai1hjj1jjj1jjj1jjj molecules1 to say no?+ ab\t ! numb] 9 a cubic mile1 :i* a locu/ c transmit s\nd ?r\gh1 we are naturally compell$ to /op & ?9k :e!r ! vibrations ( suppos$ molecules h any?+ or c h any?+ to d ) ! transf]5ce ( s\nd ?r\gh ! air4 ,if control 0 only _h ( ! di/ance ! vibrat+ molecule travels f its />t to ! end ( its j\rney1 !n only ! int5sity ( ! s\nd w\ld be "u subjection2 b if at e inf9itesimal in/ant control 0 _h ( its amplitude ( sw+1 !n ! "*1 timbre1 or quality ( ! s\nd is "u subjection4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t ! bl[s normally giv5 by "o molecule to ano!r 9 _! suppos$ con/ant bomb>dm5t mu/ n be suffici5t to alt] ! "* ( vibration a molecule set 9 oscillation by a s\nd+ body mu/ ma9ta91 to pres]ve ! timbre or quality ( ! s\nd 9 process ( transmission2 = if any su* alt]ation %\ld take place1 !n1 naturally1 :ile ! pit*1 & p]haps int5sity1 might be transmitt$1 ! quality ( ! s\nd w\ld be de/roy$4 ,aga91 x is c]ta9 t no molecule c p]=m two sets ( vibrations1 two sep>ate movem5ts1 at ! same "t1 any m ?an x c be 9 two places at ! same "t4 ,:5 a b& ( music is play+1 ! molecule is suppos$ to make a complex vibration1 a resultant motion ( all act+ influ5ces1 :i* ! e> is suppos$ to analyze4 ,x rema9s = ! ma!matician to %[ h[ a molecule influ5c$ by tw5ty or m degrees ( appli$ en]gy1 & tw5ty or m requir$ numb] ( frequ5ces ( vibration at ! same "t1 c e/abli% a resultant motion :i* w transmit ! requir$ pit*1 int5sity1 & timbre ( ea* in/rum5t4 ,:5 a molecule is act$ on by v>i\s =ces1 a resultant motion is unque/ionably produc$1 b ?is w\ld only t5d to s5d ! molecule =w>d & back 9 "o direction1 &1 9 fact1 a direction x might h tak5 9 ! fir/ place if hit prop]ly4 ,h[ any resultant c be e/abli%$ z reg>ds ! "t necess>y = ! molecule to take s z to complete a full vibration = ! note ,c#aa1 :i* requires #a_/af ( a second1 & = o!r notes up to ,c'''''1 :i* only requires #a_/dagf ( a second1 z :5 an or*e/ra is play+1 is c]ta9ly beyond human compreh5sion1 if x is n beyond ! transc5d5tal ma!matics ( ! pres5t day4 ,unque/ionably1 ! able ma!maticians ,"l ,rayleigh1 ,/okes1 or ,maxwell1 if ! problem 0 submitt$ to !m1 w\ld />t directly to "w1 & d$uce by s call$ high] ma!matics ! requir$ motions ! molecules w\ld h to und]go to accompli% ?is m>vel\s task--! same z !y h e/abli%$ ! diamet] ( ! suppos$ molecules1 _! velocity1 di/ance ap>t1 & numb] ( bomb>dm5ts1 )\t any %ad[ ( positive pro( t any su* ?+s z molecules exi/4 ,z ,s4 ,caunizzana has said3 ,"s ( ! foll[]s ( ! mod]n s*ool pu% _! fai? to ! bord]s ( fanaticism2 !y (t5 speak on molecul> subjects ) z mu* dogmatic assurance z ?\gh !y _h actually realiz$ ! +5i\s fiction ( ,laplace1 & _h con/ruct$ a microscope by :i* !y c\ld detect ! molecule & c\nt ! numb] ( its con/itu5t atoms4 ,speak+ ( ! mod]n manufactur]s ( ma!matical hypo!ses1 ,mattieu ,williams says3 ,x matt]s n to !m h[ 'wild & vision>y1' h[ utt]ly gratuit\s1 any assumption may be1 x is n unsci5tific provid$ x c be ve/$ 9 =mulae & work$ out ma!matically4 ,^! transc5d5tal ma!maticians are /ruggl+ to c>ry philosophy back to ! era ( ,duns ,scotus1 :5 ! greate/ triumph ( le>n+ 0 to sophi/icate s pr(\ndly an obvi\s absurdity t no ord9>y intellect c\ld refute x4444 ,! close /udy ( pure ma!matics1 by direct+ ! m9d to processes ( calculation r ?an to ph5om5a1 induces t sublime indiff]5ce to facts :i* has *>act]iz$ ! purely ma!matical intellect ( all ages4 ,tyndall1 h[ev]1 /ates 9 all frankness1 & )\t ! aid ( ma!matical consid]ations1 t :5 we try to visualize ! motions ( ! air hav+ "o ?\s& sep>ate tones1 to pres5t to ! eye ( ! m9d ! battl+ ( ! pulses1 direct & rev]b]at$1 ! imag9ation retires baffl$ at ! attempt2 & he might h add$1 ! %all[ness & fallacy ( ! wave !ory ( s\nd 0 made app>5t4 ,he1 h[ev]1 does express himself z foll[s3 ,assur$ly1 no "q ( sci5ce ev] /ood s mu* 9 ne$ ( revision z ?is ( ! transmission ( s\nd ?r\gh ! atmosph]e4 ,sl[ly b surely we ma/]$ ! "q1 & ! fur!r we advance1 ! m pla9ly x appe>$ t our reput$ k reg>d+ x 0 errone\s f beg9n+ to end4 ,until physici/s are will+ to admit t ! physical =ces ( nature are objective ?+s--actual entities1 & n m]e modes ( motion--a full & cle> compreh5sion ( ! ph5om5a ( nature w nev] be reveal$ to !m4 ,! motion ( all bodies1 :e!r small or great1 is due to ! entitative =ce /or$ up 9 !m1 & ! en]gy !y ex]cise is 9 proportion to ! /or$-up =ce4 ,tyndall says t heat itself1 its ess5ce & quiddity1 ,,is ,,motion1 ,,& ,,no?+ ,,else4 ,surely1 no sci5ti/ :o consid]s :at motion is c admit su* a fallaci\s /atem5t1 = motion is simply position 9 space *ang+2 x is a ph5om5on1 ! result ( ! application ( entitative =ce to a body4 ,x is no m an entity ?an %ad[1 :i* is likewise a ph5om5on4 ,motion1 p] se1 is no?+ & c d no?+ 9 physics4 ,matt] & =ce are ! two great entities ( ! univ]se--bo? be+ objective ?+s4 ,s\nd1 heat1 light1 electricity1 etc41 are diff]5t =ms ( manife/ation ( an all-p]vad+ =ce elem5t--sub/antial1 yet n mat]ial4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,taba%e] ,,to ,,m9]al ,,sub/ances4 ,mr4 ,?iselton ,dy] has r5d]$ a great s]vice1 n only to botani/s1 b also to physici/s & m9]alogi/s1 by recall+ att5tion to ! v int]e/+ sub/ance kn[n z taba%e]4 ,z he truly /ates1 v little fre% in=mation has be5 publi%$ on ! subject dur+ rec5t ye>s1 a circum/ance = :i* ,i c only acc\nt by ! fact t botani/s may ju/ly feel "s d\bt z to :e!r x belongs to ! vegetable k+dom1 :ile m9]alogi/s seem to h equal gr\nd = hesitation 9 accept+ x z a memb] ( ! m9]al k+dom4 ,x is v int]e/+ to he> t s able a physiologi/ z ,pr(4 ,cohn int5ds to inve/igate ! conditions "u :i* liv+ plants sep>ate ?is sub/ance f _! tissues4 ,t unicellul> algae1 l ! ,diatomaceae1 liv+ 9 a m$ium :i* may conta9 only "o "p 9 #aj1jjj by weight ( dissolv$ silica1 or ev5 less ?an t am\nt1 %\ld be able to sep>ate ?is sub/ance to =m _! exquisitely ornam5t$ fru/ules is "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ facts 9 natural hi/ory1 :e!r we reg>d x 9 its physiological or its *emical aspects4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] long ago po9t$ out ! rem>kable physical *>act]s pres5t$ by ! curi\s product ( ! vegetable _w kn[n z taba%e]1 ?\gh s f> z ,i c f9d out x has n 9 rec5t ye>s receiv$ t att5tion f physici/s :i* ! exp]im5ts & obs]vations ( ! great ,scot* philosoph] %[ x to be wor?y (4 ,taba%e] seems to /& 9 ! same relation to ! m9]al k+dom z d amb]s & pe>ls4 ,x is 9 fact an opal =m$ "u some:at rem>kable & anomal\s conditions :i* we are able to /udy2 & 9 ?is aspect ,i h = "s "t pa/ be5 devot+ a consid]able am\nt ( att5tion to ! m9ute /ructure ( ! sub/ance by mak+ ?9 sections & exam9+ !m "u ! microscope4 ,x may be z well1 p]haps1 to give a %ort sket* ( ! in=mation ^u ! subject :i* ,i h up to ! pres5t "t be5 able to obta91 & 9 ?is way to call att5tion to po9ts ^u :i* fur!r rese>* seems to be necess>y4 ,f "t immemorial taba%e] has enjoy$ a v high reputation 9 ,ea/]n c\ntries z a drug4 ,its suppos$ m$ic9al virtues1 l ^? ( ! fossil tee? ( ,*9a & ! belemnites 7?und]bolts7 ( ?is c\ntry1 seem to h be5 sugge/$ by ! peculi>ity ( its mode ( occurr5ce4 ,a k ( ! sub/ance 0 introduc$ into ,we/]n ,europe by ! ,arabian physicians1 & ! "n by :i* ! sub/ance is g5]ally kn[n is said to be ( ,arabic orig94 ,mu* ( ! mat]ial :i* "u ! "n ( taba%e] f9ds its way to ,syria & ,turkey is said1 h[ev]1 to be fictiti\s or adult]at$4 ,9 #aghh ,dr4 ,patrick ,russell1 ,f4,r4,s41 !n resid5t at ,vizagapatam1 wrote a lett] to ,sir ,joseph ,banks 9 :i* he gave an acc\nt ( all ! facts :i* he _h be5 able to collect ) respect to ?is curi\s sub/ance & its mode ( occurr5ce1 & 8 int]e/+ lett] 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #agij 7vol4 lxxx41 p4 #bgc74 ,taba%e] is said to be sometimes f\nd among ! a%es ( bamboos t h be5 set on fire 7by mutual friction874 ,ord9>ily1 h[ev]1 x is s\ght = by splitt+ op5 ^? bamboo /ems :i* give a rattl+ s\nd :5 %ak54 ,su* rattl+ s\nds d n1 h[ev]1 af=d infallible crit]ia z to ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( taba%e] 9 a bamboo1 = :]e ! quantity is small x is (t5 f\nd to be closely adh]5t to ! bottom & sides ( ! cavity4 ,taba%e] is by no means f\nd 9 all /ems or 9 all jo9ts ( ! same /em ( ! bamboos4 ,:e!r c]ta9 species produce x 9 great] abundance ?an o!rs1 & :at is ! influ5ce ( soil1 situation1 & season ^u ! production ( ! sub/ance1 are que/ions :i* d n seem z yet to h be5 accurately inve/igat$4 ,dr4 ,russell f\nd t ! bamboos :i* produce taba%e] (t5 conta9 a fluid1 usually cle>1 transp>5t1 & colorless or ( gre5i% t9t1 b sometimes ?ick] & ( a :ite color1 & at o!r times d>k] & ( ! consi/5cy ( honey4 ,occasionally ! ?ick] v>ieties 7 f\nd pass+ into a solid /ate1 & =m+ taba%e]4 ,dr4 ,russell p]=m$ ! int]e/+ exp]im5t ( draw+ (f ! liquid f ! bamboo /em & all[+ x to /& 9 /opp]$ bottles4 ,a :iti%1 cottony s$im5t 0 =m$ at ! bottom1 ) a ?9 film ( ! same k9d at ! top4 ,:5 ! :ole 0 well %ak5 toge!r & all[$ to evaporate1 x left a residue ( a :iti% br[n color resembl+ ! inf]ior k9ds ( taba%e]4 ,by splitt+ up diff]5t jo9ts ( bamboo ,dr4 ,russell 0 also able to satisfy himself ( ! gradual deposition )9 !m ( ! solid taba%e] by ! evaporation ( ! liquid solv5t4 ,9 #agia1 ,mr4 ,james ,l\is ,macie1 ,f4,r4,s4 7:o aft]w>d took ! "n ( ,smi?son71 gave an acc\nt ( 8 exam9ation ( ! prop]ties ( ! specim5s ( taba%e] s5t home by ,dr4 ,russell 7,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 lxxxi41 #agia1 p4 #cfh74 ,^! specim5s came f ,vellore1 ,hyd]abad1 ,masulipatam1 & o!r localities 9 ,india4 ,!y 7 submitt$ to a numb] ( te/s :i* induc$ ,mr4 ,macie to believe t !y consi/$ pr9cipally ( silica1 b t be=e calc9ation "s vegetable matt] mu/ h be5 pres5t4 ,a det]m9ation ( ! specific gravity ( ! sub/ance by ,mr4 ,macie gave #b4ahh z ! result4 ,ano!r det]m9ation by ,mr4 ,cav5di% gave #b4afi4 ,9 ?is same pap] x is /at$ t a bamboo gr[n 9 a hot-h\se at ,isl+ton gave a rattl+ noise1 & on be+ split op5 by ,sir ,joseph ,banks yield$1 n an ord9>y taba%e]1 b a small pebble ab\t ! size ( half a pea1 ext]nally ( a d>k br[n or black color1 & )9 ( a r$di% br[n t9t4 ,?is /one is said to h be5 s h>d z to cut glass1 & to h be5 9 p>ts ( a cry/all9e /ructure4 ,its behavior ) reag5ts 0 f\nd to be diff]5t 9 _m respects f t ( ! ord9>y taba%e]2 & x 0 prov$ to conta9 silica & iron4 ,! specim5 is ref]r$ to 9 a lett] to ,b]?ollet publi%$ 9 ! ,annales de ,*imie = ! same ye> 7,octob]1 #agia74 ,!re may be "s d\bt z to :e!r ?is specim5 0 really ( ! nature ( taba%e]4 ,if su* 7 ! case1 x w\ld seem to h be5 a taba%e] 9 :i* a cry/all9e /ructure _h begun to be set up4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjf1 ,,mm4 ,f\r]oy & ,vauquel9 gave an acc\nt ( a specim5 ( taba%e] br\ght f ,s\? ,am]ica 9 #ahjd by ,humboldt & ,bonpl& 7,mem4 de l',in/41 vol4 vi41 p4 #chb74 ,x 0 procur$ f a species ( bamboo gr[+ on ! we/ ( ,pi*9*a1 & is describ$ z be+ ( a milk :ite color1 9 "p app>5tly cry/all9e 9 /ructure1 & 9 "p semi-transp>5t & gelat9\s4 ,x 0 se5 to conta9 traces ( ! vegetable /ructure ( ! plant f :i* x _h be5 extract$4 ,on ignition x became black1 & emitt$ pung5t fumes4 ,an analysis ( ?is taba%e] f ! ,&es %[$ t x conta9$ #gj p] c5t4 ( silica & #cj p] c5t4 ( pota%1 lime1 & wat]1 ) "s organic matt]4 ,x w\ld1 p]haps1 be ra% to conclude f ?is s+le obs]vation t ! ,am]ican bamboo produc$ taba%e] ( diff]5t composition f t ( ! ,old ,_w2 b ! subject is evid5tly "o wor?y ( c>eful inve/igation4 ,x 0 9 ! ye> #ahai t ,sir ,david ,brew/] publi%$ ! fir/ acc\nt ( 8 long & important s]ies ( obs]vations ^u ! physical peculi>ities ( taba%e] 7,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 cix41 #ahai1 p4 #bhc74 ,! specim5s :i* he fir/ exam9$ 7 obta9$ f ,india by ,dr4 ,k5n$y1 by :om !y 7 giv5 to ,brew/]4 ,brew/] f\nd ! specim5s :i* he exam9$ to be p]fectly isotropic1 ex]cis+ no influ5ce 9 depol>iz+ light4 ,:5 heat$1 h[ev]1 x prov$ to be rem>kably phosphoresc5t4 ,! transluc5t v>ieties 7 f\nd to transmit a yell[i% & to reflect a blui% :ite light--or1 9 o!r words1 to exhibit ! ph5om5on ( opalesc5ce4 ,:5 taba%e] is slightly wett$1 x becomes :ite & opaque2 b :5 ?or\ghly saturat$ ) wat]1 p]fectly transp>5t4 ,by prep>+ prisms ( diff]5t v>ieties ( taba%e]1 ,brew/] proce$$ to det]m9e its refractive index1 arriv+ at ! rem>kable result t taba%e] has a l[] index ( refraction ?an any o!r kn[n solid or liquid1 & t x actually holds an int]m$iate place betwe5 wat] & gase\s bodies6 ,?is excessively l[ refractive p[] ,brew/] believes to af=d a complete explanation ( ! extraord9>y behavior exhibit$ by taba%e] :5 :olly or p>tially saturat$ ) fluids4 ,a numb] ( int]e/+ exp]im5ts 7 p]=m$ by saturat+ ! taba%e] ) oils ( diff]5t refractive p[]s1 & by heat+ x 9 v>i\s ways & "u diff]5t conditions1 & also by introduc+ c>bonace\s matt] into ! m9ute pores ( ! sub/ance by sett+ fire to pap] 9 :i* fragm5ts 7 wrapp$4 ,! mean ( exp]im5ts und]tak5 by ,mr4 ,james ,j>d9e1 on behalf ( ,brew/]1 = det]m9+ ! specific gravity ( taba%e]1 gave z a result #b4bce4 ,f ^! exp]im5ts ,brew/] conclud$ t ! space occupi$ by ! pores ( ! taba%e] is ab\t two & a half times z great z t ( ! colloid silica itself6 ,f ?is "t =w>d ,brew/] seems to h manife/$ ! ke5e/ int]e/ 9 all que/ions connect$ ) ! orig9 & hi/ory ( a sub/ance possess+ su* s+ul> physical prop]ties4 ,by ! aid ( ,mr4 ,sw9ton1 secret>y to ! gov]nm5t at ,calcutta1 he =m$ a l>ge & int]e/+ collection ( all ! diff]5t v>ieties ( taba%e] f v>i\s p>ts ( ,india4 ,he also obta9$ specim5s ( ! bamboo ) ! taba%e] 9 situ4 ,9 #ahbh he publi%$ an int]e/+ pap] on ,! ,natural ,hi/ory & ,prop]ties ( ,taba%e] 7,ed9burgh ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 viii41 #ahbh1 p4 #bhh71 9 :i* he discuss$ _m ( ! important problems connect$ ) ! orig9 ( ! sub/ance4 ,f 8 inquiries & obs]vations1 ,brew/] 0 l$ to conclude t taba%e] 0 only produc$ 9 ^? jo9ts ( bamboos :i* are 9 an injur$1 unheal?y1 or mal=m$ condition1 & t ! silice\s fluid only f9ds its way into ! holl[ spaces betwe5 ! jo9ts ( ! /em :5 ! membrane l9+ ! cavities is de/roy$ or r5t by disease4 ,pr(4 ,edw>d ,turn]1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,london1 und]took an analysis ( taba%e]1 ! specim5s be+ suppli$ f ,brew/]'s collection 7,ed9burgh ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 viii41 #ahbh1 p4 #cce74 ,8 det]m9ations ( ! specific gravities ( diff]5t v>ieties 7 z foll[s3 ,*alky taba%e]4 #b4ahi ,transluc5t taba%e]4 #b4afg ,transp>5t taba%e]4 #b4afj ,all ! v>ieties lose air & hygroscopic wat] at #ajj ,c41 & a l>g] quantity ( wat] & organic matt] 7indicat$ by fa9t smoke & an empyreumatic odor7 at a r$ heat4 ,! results obta9$ 7 z foll[s3 ,loss at #ajj ,c4 ,loss at r$ heat4 ,*alky taba%e]4 #j4hch p] c5t4 #a4bgg p] c5t4 ,transluc5t taba%e]4 #a4fbj #c4hdj ,transp>5t taba%e]4 #b4daa #d4eah ,dr4 ,turn] f\nd ! ignit$ ,indian taba%e] to consi/ almo/ entirely ( pure silica ) a m9ute quantity ( lime & vegetable matt]4 ,he fail$ to f9d any trace ( alkalies 9 x4 ,9 #ahee1 ,guib\rt 7,j\rn4 de ,ph>m4 #c1 xxvii41 #ha1 #afa1 #beb2 ,phil4 ,mag1 #d1 x41 #bbi7 analyz$ a specim5 ( taba%e] hav+ a specific gravity ( #b4adh4 ,x gave ! foll[+ result3 ,silica4 #if4id ,pota% & lime4 #j4ac ,wat]4 #b4ic ,organic matt]4 trace ,guib\rt criticis$ "s ( ! conclusions arriv$ at by ,brew/]1 & s\ght to expla9 ! s\rce ( ! silica by /udy+ ! composition ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! bamboo4 ,:ile ! a%es ( ! wood conta9$ #j4jfab ( ! :ole weight ( ! wood1 ! pi? 0 f\nd to conta9 #j4ddh p] c5t41 ! inn] wood mu* less1 & ! greate/ proportion occurr$ 9 ! ext]nal wood4 ,on ^! det]m9ations ,guib\rt f\nd$ a !ory ( ! mode ( =mation ( taba%e] bas$ on ! sugge/ion t at c]ta9 p]iods ( its gr[? ! bamboo ne$$ less silica ?an at o!r times1 & t :5 n ne$$1 ! silica 0 c>ri$ inw>d & deposit$ 9 ! int]ior4 ,9 ! ye> #aheg1 ,d4,w4 ,ho/ van ,tonn+51 ( ,buit5zorg1 und]took an inve/igation ( ! taba%e] ( ,java1 :i* is kn[n to ! natives ( t isl& "u ! "n ( s+k>a 7,naturkundig ,tijds*rift voor ,n$]l&s* ,indie1 vol4 xiii41 #aheg1 p4 #cia74 ,! specim5s exam9$ 7 obta9$ f ! ,bambusa apus1 gr[+ 9 ! ,resid5cy ( ,bantam4 ,x is describ$ z resembl+ 9 appe>ance ! ,indian taba%e]s4 ,its analysis gave ! foll[+ result3 ,silica4 #hf4chg ,iron oxide4 #j4dbd ,lime4 #j4bdd ,pota%4 #d4hjf ,organic matt]4 #j4ejg ,wat]4 #g4fcb ------ ,total4 #ajj4jjj ,ap>t f ! "q ( its s+ul> mode ( orig91 h[ev]1 & its rem>kable & anomal\s physical prop]ties1 taba%e] is ( mu* int]e/ to m9]alogi/s & geologi/s4 ,all ! v>ieties hi!rto exam9$1 ) ! exception ( ! peculi> "o f ! ,&es1 are 9 composition & physical *>act]s true opals4 ,?is is ! case ) all ! ,indian & ,java v>ieties4 ,!y consi/ ess5tially ( silica 9 its colloidal =m1 ! wat]1 lime1 pota%1 & organic matt] be+ z small & v>iable 9 am\nt z 9 ! m9]al opals2 &1 z 9 !m1 ^! sub/ances mu/ be reg>d$ m]ely z me*anical impurities4 ,! taba%e]s mu/ be /udi$ 9 _! relations on ! "o h& ) c]ta9 v>ieties ( ! natural semi-opals1 hydrophanes1 beekites1 & float/ones1 "s ( :i* !y closely resemble 9 _! physical *>act]s1 & on ! o!r h& ) specim5s ( artificially deposit$ colloid silica =m$ "u diff]5t conditions4 ,pr(4 ,*ur*1 :o has s successfully /udi$ ! beekites1 in=ms me t "s ( ^? rem>kable bodies pres5t s+ul> po9ts ( analogy ) taba%e]4 ,by ! /udy ( ?9 sections ,i h1 dur+ sev]al ye>s1 be5 endeavor+ to trace ! m9ute /ructure ( "s ( ^! sub/ances4 ,9 no class ( mat]ials is x m necess>y to gu>d "o's self aga9/ errors ( obs]vation aris+ f *anges induc$ 9 ! sub/ance dur+ ! op]ations :i* are necess>y to ! prep>ation ( transp>5t sections ( h>d sub/ances4 ,un=tunately1 too1 x is ! cu/om ( ! natives to prep>e ! sub/ance = ! m>ket by an imp]fect calc9ation1 & hi!rto ,i h only be5 able to /udy specim5s procur$ 9 ! m>kets :i* h be5 subject$ to ?is process4 ,x is obvi\sly desirable1 be=e attempt+ to int]pret ! /ructures exhibit$1 "u ! microscope1 to comp>e ! fre% & uncalc9$ mat]ials ) ^? t h be5 m or less alt]$ by heat4 ,taba%e] w\ld seem1 f ,brew/]'s exp]im5ts1 to be a v intimate admixture ( two & a half p>ts ( air ) "o "p ( colloidal silica4 ,! int]spaces fill$ ) air appe>1 at all ev5ts1 9 mo/ cases1 to be s m9ute t !y _c be detect$ by ! highe/ p[]s ( ! microscope :i* ,i h be5 able to employ4 ,x is ?is intimate admixture ( a solid ) a gas :i* probably gives rise to ! curi\s & anomal\s prop]ties exhibit$ by ?is s+ul> sub/ance4 ,! ultra-microscopical vesicles fill$ ) air 9 all probability give rise to ! opalesc5ce :i* is s m>k$ a prop]ty ( ! sub/ance4 ,_! size is su* z to scatt] & ?r[ back ! rays at ! blue end ( ! spectrum & to transmit ^? at ! r$ end4 ,:5 ! vesicles ( ! sub/ance are fill$ ) ,canada balsam1 & a ?9 slice is cut f x1 ?is opalesc5ce comes out 9 ! mo/ /rik+ mann]4 ,v ?9 sections are ( a ri* orange yell[ by transmitt$ light1 & a delicate blue t9t by reflect$ light4 ,i d n "k ( any sub/ance :i* 9 su* ?9 films displays su* /rik+ opalesc5ce4 ,t ! excessively l[ refractive p[] ( taba%e] is connect$ ) ! me*anical admixture ( ! colloidal silica ) air seems to be prov$ by ! exp]im5ts ( ,brew/]1 %[+ t ) increase ( d5sity !re 0 an increase 9 ! refractive index f #a4aaa 9 specim5s ( ! l[e/ specific gravity to #a4ahb 9 ^? ( ! highe/ specific gravity4 ,:]e ! surface 0 h>d & d5se1 ,brew/] f\nd ! refractive index to approa* t ( semi opal4 ,! wond]ful ?+ is t a sub/ance s full ( cavities conta9+ gas %\ld nev]!less be transp>5t4 ,by ! k9dness ( ,mr4 ,f4 ,rutley1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,i am able to supply a draw+ tak5 f "o ( my sections ( taba%e]4 ,! accompany+ woodcut gives "s idea ( ! int]e/+ /ructures exhibit$ 9 "s sections ( taba%e]1 ?\gh mu* ( ! delicacy & fidelity ( ! orig9al draw+ has be5 lo/ 9 transf]r+ x to ! wood4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> case1 ! fa9t punctation ( ! surface may possibly indicate ! pres5ce ( air vesicles ( a size suffici5tly great to be visible "u ! microscope4 ,b 9 _m o!r in/ances ,i h fail$ to detect any su* indication1 ev5 ) mu* high] p[]s4 ,! small ramify+ tubules might at fir/ sight be tak5 = "s traces ( a vegetable tissue1 b my colleague1 ,dr4 ,scott1 assures me t !y d n 9 ! lea/ resemble any tissue f\nd 9 ! bamboo4 ,i h myself no d\bt t x is an inorganic /ructure4 ,x is n improbably analog\s to ! peculi> ramify+ tubules =m$ 9 a solution ( wat] glass :5 a cry/al ( copp] sulphate is susp5d$ 9 x1 z %[n by ,dr4 ,heaton 7,proc4 ,brit4 ,assoc41 #ahfi1 p4 #abg74 ,simil> =ms also occur on a l>g] scale 9 "s agates1 & ! artificial cells ( ,traube may probably be reg>d$ z analog\s ph5om5a4 ,! aggregates ( globul> bodies se5 9 ! section s greatly resemble ! globulites ( slags & natural glasses1 & 9 _! arrangem5t s =cibly recall ! /ructures se5 9 ! well kn[n pit*/one ( ,corriegills 9 ,arran1 t "o is tempt$ to reg>d !m z indicat+ ! beg9n+s ( ! developm5t ( cry/all9e /ructure 9 ! taba%e]4 ,b ,i h good gr\nds = believ+ ! /ructure to h a totally diff]5t orig94 ,!y seem 9 fact to be ! portions ( ! mass :i* ! fluid ,canada balsam has n succe$$ 9 p5etrat+4 ,by heat+ !y may be made to gr[ outw>d1 & z m balsam is imbib$ !y gradually dim9i%1 & f9ally disappe>4 ,i mu/ po/pone till a future occasion a discussion ( all ! /ructures ( ?is rem>kable sub/ance & ( ! resemblances & diff]5ces :i* !y pres5t to ! m9]al opals on ! "o h&1 & to ^? ( ! opals ( animal orig9 f\nd 9 sponge spicules1 radiol>ians1 & ! rocks =m$ f !m1 "s ( :i* h rec5tly be5 admirably inve/igat$ by ,dr4 ,g4,j4 ,h9de 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahhe1 pp4 #dbe-hc74 ,i _c1 h[ev]1 b ?9k t x w\ld be ( ! greate/ s]vice to botani/s1 physici/s1 & m9]alogi/s alike1 if "s resid5t 9 ,india w\ld resume ! inve/igations s admirably comm5c$ by ,dr4 ,patrick ,russell ne>ly a c5tury ago2 & x is 9 ! hope ( induc+ "s "o to und]take ?is task t ,i h put toge!r ^! notes4 ,!re are c]ta9 problems ) reg>d to ! mode ( occurr5ce ( ?is s+ul> sub/ance :i* c\ld only be solv$ by an inve/igator 9 ! c\ntry :]e x is f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,section ,,( ,,indian ,,taba%e]1 ,,se5 ,,) ,a ,,magnify+ ,,p[] ,,( #bej ,,diamet]s4 ,mo/ p>cels ( ! comm]cial taba%e] appe> to conta9 diff]5t v>ieties1 f ! :ite1 opaque1 *alk l =ms ?r\gh ! transluc5t k9ds to ^? t are p]fectly transp>5t4 ,x w\ld be ( mu* int]e/ if ! exact relation & modes ( orig9 ( ^! diff]5t v>ieties c\ld be trac$4 ,x w\ld also be important to det]m9e if ,brew/] 0 "r 9 8 conclusion t ! p>ticul> int]nodes ( a bamboo :i* conta9 taba%e] always h _! inn] l9+ tissue r5t or injur$4 ,! repetition ( ,dr4 ,russell's exp]im5t ( draw+ (f ! liquids f ! jo9ts ( bamboos & all[+ !m to evaporate is also greatly to be desir$4 ,my colleague1 ,pr(4 ,ruck]1 ,f4,r4,s41 has k9dly und]tak5 to re-exam9e ! results arriv$ at by ,brew/] 9 ! light ( m rec5t physical inve/igations1 & ,i d\bt n t "s ( ! curi\s problems sugge/$ by ?is v rem>kable sub/ance may ere long f9d a solution4 ,,john ,w4 ,,judd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,edible ,,e>? ,,( ,,java4 ,9 #ahhc ,mr4 ,hekmey]1 ph>maceuti/ 9 *ief ( ! ,dut* ,indies1 exhibit$ at ,am/]dam "s specim5s ( ,javanese edible e>?1 bo? 9 a natural /ate & 9 ! =m ( v>i\s natural objects4 ,a portion ( ?is collection he has plac$ at our disposal1 & has giv5 u "s in=mation reg>d+ its nature1 use1 etc4 ,^! clays1 :i* are eat5 n only 9 ,java1 b also 9 ,sumatra1 ,new ,cal$onia1 ,sib]ia1 ,guiana1 ,t]ra del ,fuego1 etc41 are ess5tially compos$ ( silex1 alum9a1 & wat] 9 v>iable proportions1 & are color$ ) v>i\s metallic oxides4 ,!y are 9 amorph\s masses1 are unctu\s to ! t\*1 /ick to ! tongue1 & =m a f9e1 smoo? pa/e ) wat]4 ,! natives ( ,java & ,sumatra prep>e !m 9 a peculi> way4 ,!y free !m ( =eign sub/ances1 spread !m out 9 ?9 %eets1 :i* !y cut into small pieces & p>* 9 an iron saucepan ov] a coal fire4 ,ea* ( ^! little cakes1 :5 %runk5 up into a little roll1 looks some:at l a grayi% or r$di% fragm5t ( c9namon b>k4 ,! clay is also =m$ into imitations ( v>i\s objects4 ,we h ta/$ ?is ,javanese da9ty1 & we mu/ v humbly confess t we h f\nd no?+ attractive 9 ! e>?y & slightly empyreumatic ta/e ( ?is s+ul> food4 ,h[ev]1 a sweet & slightly aromatic ta/e t foll[s ! fir/ impression is an ext5uat+ circum/ance4 ,accord+ to ! acc\nt giv5 by ,labill>di]e1 confirm$ by ! in=mation giv5 by ,mr4 ,hekmey]1 ! figures are (t5 craun*$ by wom5 & *ildr51 to ! latt] ( :om !y s]ve z dolls1 toys1 & ev5 money-boxes1 z %[n by ! slits =m$ 9 ! upp] "p ( ! l>g] objects1 :i* are usually holl[4 ,we h n suffici5t docum5ts to c>ry u back to ! orig9 ( t tradition t w\ld h x t ! human =m has be5 giv5 to c]ta9 food prep>ations f remote times4 ,savants w n be sl[ to see 9 ?is a vague relic ( ! horrible fe/ivities t succe$$ human sacrifices among primitive peoples4 ,= want ( prison]s & ( designat$ victims1 a symbolic repres5tation w\ld h gradually develop$1 & be5 kept up1 ?\gh los+ its religi\s "*4 ,we m]ely call brief att5tion to ?is obscure problem1 n hav+ ! pret5sion to solve x4--,revue d',e?nographie4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t4 ,,publi%$ ,,weekly4 ,t]ms ( ,subscription1 #e a ,ye>4 ,s5t by mail1 po/age prepaid1 to subscrib]s 9 any "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ,canada4 ,six doll>s a ye>1 s5t1 prepaid1 to any =eign c\ntry4 ,all ! back numb]s ( ,,! ,,supplem5t1 f ! comm5cem5t1 ,janu>y #a1 #ahgf1 c be _h4 ,price1 #aj c5ts ea*4 ,all ! back volumes ( ,,! ,,supplem5t c likewise be suppli$4 ,two volumes are issu$ ye>ly4 ,price ( ea* volume1 #b4ej1 /it*$ 9 pap]1 or #c4ej1 b\nd 9 /iff cov]s4 ,,comb9$ ,,rates--,"o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican & "o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t1 "o ye>1 po/paid1 #g4jj4 ,a lib]al disc\nt to booksell]s1 news ag5ts1 & canvass]s4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publi%]s1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pat5ts4 ,9 connection ) ! ,sci5tific ,am]ican1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors ( ,am]ican & ,=eign ,pat5ts1 h _h #db ye>s' exp]i5ce1 & n[ h ! l>ge/ e/abli%m5t 9 ! _w4 ,pat5ts are obta9$ on ! be/ t]ms4 ,a special notice is made 9 ! ,sci5tific ,am]ican ( all inv5tions pat5t$ ?r\gh ?is ,ag5cy1 ) ! "n & resid5ce ( ! ,pat5tee4 ,by ! imm5se circulation ?us giv51 public att5tion is direct$ to ! m]its ( ! new pat5t1 & sales or introduction (t5 easily effect$4 ,any p]son :o has made a new discov]y or inv5tion c asc]ta91 free ( *>ge1 :e!r a pat5t c probably be obta9$1 by writ+ to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also s5d free our ,h& ,book ab\t ! ,pat5t ,laws1 ,pat5ts1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,m>ks1 _! co/s1 & h[ procur$4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,bran* ,(fice1 #fbb & #fbd ,f ,/41 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,ar*itects & ,build]s ,edition4 #b4ej a ,ye>4 ,s+le ,copies1 #be ,c5ts4 ,?is is a ,special ,edition ( ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 issu$ mon?ly--on ! fir/ day ( ! mon?4 ,ea* numb] conta9s ab\t =ty l>ge qu>to pages1 equal to ab\t two hundr$ ord9>y book pages1 =m+1 practically1 a l>ge & spl5did ,magaz9e ( ,ar*itecture1 ri*ly adorn$ ) elegant plates 9 colors & ) f9e engrav+s2 illu/rat+ ! mo/ int]e/+ examples ( mod]n ,ar*itectural ,con/ruction & alli$ subjects4 ,a special feature is ! pres5tation 9 ea* numb] ( a v>iety ( ! late/ & be/ plans = private resid5ces1 city & c\ntry1 includ+ ^? ( v mod]ate co/ z well z ! m exp5sive4 ,draw+s 9 p]spective & 9 color are giv51 toge!r ) full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,co/s1 ,bills ( ,e/imate1 & ,%eets ( ,details4 ,no o!r build+ pap] conta9s s _m plans1 details1 & specifications regul>ly pres5t$ z ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican4 ,hundr$s ( dwell+s h already be5 erect$ on ! v>i\s plans we h issu$ dur+ ! pa/ ye>1 & _m o!rs are 9 process ( con/ruction4 ,ar*itects1 ,build]s1 & ,own]s w f9d ?is "w valuable 9 furni%+ fre% & useful sugge/ions4 ,all :o contemplate build+ or improv+ homes1 or erect+ /ructures ( any k9d1 h be=e !m 9 ?is "w an almo/ endless s]ies ( ! late/ & be/ examples f :i* to make selections1 ?us sav+ "t & money4 ,_m o!r subjects1 includ+ ,sew]age1 ,pip+1 ,light+1 ,w>m+1 ,v5tilat+1 ,decorat+1 ,lay+ out ( gr\nds1 etc41 are illu/rat$4 ,an ext5sive ,comp5dium ( ,manufactur]s' ,ann\ncem5ts is also giv51 9 :i* ! mo/ reliable & approv$ ,build+ ,mat]ials1 ,goods1 ,ma*9es1 ,tools1 & ,appliances are describ$ & illu/rat$1 ) addresses ( ! mak]s1 etc4 ,! fullness1 ri*ness1 *eapness1 & conv5i5ce ( ?is "w h won = x ! ,l>ge/ ,circulation ( any ,ar*itectural publication 9 ! _w4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,publi%]s1 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,a ,catalogue ( valuable books on ,ar*itecture1 ,build+1 ,c>p5try1 ,masonry1 ,heat+1 ,w>m+1 ,light+1 ,v5tilation1 & all bran*es ( indu/ry p]ta9+ to ! art ( ,build+1 is suppli$ free ( *>ge1 s5t to any address4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,build+ ,,plans & ,,specifications4 ,9 connection ) ! publication ( ! ,,build+ ,,edition ( ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 ,messrs4 ,munn ,co4 furni% plans & specifications = build+s ( e k9d1 includ+ ,*ur*es1 ,s*ools1 ,/ores1 ,dwell+s1 ,c>riage ,h\ses1 ,b>ns1 etc4 ,9 ?is "w !y are assi/$ by able & exp]i5c$ ar*itects4 ,full plans1 details1 & specifications = ! v>i\s build+s illu/rat$ 9 ?is pap] c be suppli$4 ,^? :o contemplate build+1 or :o wi% to alt]1 improve1 ext5d1 or add to exi/+ build+s1 :e!r w+s1 por*es1 bay w9d[s1 or attic rooms1 are invit$ to communicate ) ! und]sign$4 ,our "w ext5ds to all p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,e/imates1 plans1 & draw+s promptly prep>$4 ,t]ms mod]ate4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4