,illustration ,scientific ,american ,supplement ,no4 #deh ,,new ,,york1 ,,october #aa1 #ahhd ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,no4 #deh4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,chemistry ,,and ,,metallurgy4--,chemical ,nature of ,starch ,grains4 ,the ,amalgamation of ,silver ,ores4--,description of the ,francke tina1 or vat process for amalgamation of silver ores4--,by ,e4,p4 ,,rathbone4--#f figures4 ,interesting ,facts about ,platinum4--,draw stones used for drawing wire of precious metals4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering1 ,,mining1 ,,etc4--,modern ,locomotive ,practice4--,paper read before the ,civil and ,mechanical ,engineers' ,society4--,by ,h4 ,,michell ,,whitley--#aj figures4 ,new ,screw ,steam ,collier1 ,frostburg4--#a figure4 ,destruction of the ,tardes ,viaduct by ,wind4--,with engraving4 ,joy's ,reversing and ,expansion ,valve ,gear4--#a figure4 ,the ,steam ,bell for ,locomotives4--#b figures4 ,diamond ,mining in ,brazil4--,with engravings showing the dam on the ,ribeirao ,inferno at ,portao de ,ferro1 and the arrangement of the machinery4 ,,iii4 ,,electricity1 ,,etc4--,the ,frankfort and ,offenbach ,electric ,railway4--,with #c engravings4 ,possibilities of the ,telephone4--,its use by vessels at sea4 ,pyrometers4--,the inventions of ,siemens and others4 ,,iv4 ,,arch,,ology4--,the ,cay ,monument at ,uxmal4--,discovered by ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon on ,june #a1 #ahha4--,with engraving4 ,v4 ,,astronomy4--,the ,temperature of the ,solar ,surface ,corresponding with the ,temperature ,transmitted to the ,sun ,motor4--,by ,j4 ,,ericsson4--,with #b engravings of the sun motor4 ,,vi4 ,,horticulture4--,halesia ,hispida1 a ,hardy ,shrub4--,with engraving4 ,windflowers or ,anemone4--,with engraving4 ,,vii4 ,,medicine1 ,,hygiene4 ,,etc4--,what we ,really ,know about ,asiatic ,cholera4--,by ,j4,c4 ,,peters1 ,m4,d4 ,dr4 ,koch on the ,cholera4 ,malaria4--,the natural production of malaria and the means of making malarial countries healthier4--,by ,c4,t4 ,,crudeli1 of ,rome4 ,story of ,lieut4 ,greely's ,recovery4--,treatment by ,surgeon ,green4 ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,bayle's ,new ,lamp ,chimney4--,with engraving4 ,lieut4 ,greely before the ,british ,association4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,frankfort ,,and ,,offenbach ,,electric ,,railway4 ,the electric railway recently set in operation between ,frankfort and ,offenbach furnishes an occasion for studying the question of such roads anew and from a practical standpoint4 ,for elevated railways ,messrs4 ,siemens and ,halske a long time ago chose rails as current conductors4 ,the electric railway from ,berlin to ,lichterfelde and the one at ,vienna are in reality only elevated roads established upon the surface4 ,although it is possible to insulate the rails in a satisfactory manner in the case of an elevated road1 the conditions of insulation are not very favorable where the railway is to be constructed on a level with the surface4 ,in this case it becomes necessary to dispense with the simple and cheap arrangement of rails as conductors1 and to set up1 instead1 a number of poles to support the electric conductors4 ,it is from these latter that certain devices of peculiar construction take up the current4 ,the simplest arrangement to be adopted under these circumstances would evidently be to stretch a wire upon which a traveler would slide--this last named piece being connected with the locomotive by means of a flexible cord4 ,this general idea1 moreover1 has been put in practice by several constructors4 ,in the ,messrs4 ,siemens ,bros4' electric railway that figured at ,paris in #ahha the arrangement adopted for taking up the current consisted of two split tubes from which were suspended two small contact carriages that communicated with the electric car through the intermedium of flexible cables4 ,this is the mode of construction that ,messrs4 ,siemens and ,halske have adopted in the railway from ,frankfort to ,offenbach4 ,while the ,paris road was of an entirely temporary character1 that of ,frankfort has been built according to extremely well studied plans1 and after much light having been thrown upon the question of electric traction by three years of new experiments4 ,fig4 #a shows the electric car at the moment of its start from ,frankfort1 ,fig4 #b shows the arrangement of a turnout1 and ,fig4 #c gives a general plan of the electric works4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,electric ,,railway1 ,,frankfort1 ,,germany4 ,the two grooved tubes are suspended from insulators fixed upon external cast iron supports4 ,as for the conductors1 which have their resting points upon ordinary insulators mounted at the top of the same supports1 these are cables composed of copper and steel4 ,they serve both for leading the current and carrying the tubes4 ,the same arrangement was used by ,messrs4 ,siemens and ,halske at ,vienna in #ahhc4 ,the motors1 which are of #bdj ,h4,p41 consist of two coupled steam engines of the ,collmann system4 ,the one shaft in common runs with a velocity of #fj revolutions per minute4 ,its motion is transmitted by means of ten hempen cables1 #c4e cm4 in diameter4 ,the flywheel1 which is #d m4 in diameter1 serves at the same time as a driving pulley4 ,as the pulley mounted upon the transmitting shaft is only one meter in diameter1 it follows that the shafting has a velocity of #bdj revolutions per minute4 ,the steam generators are of the ,ten ,brink type1 and are seven in number4 ,the normal pressure in them is four atmospheres4 ,there are at present four dynamo-electric machines1 but sufficient room was provided for four more4 ,the shafts of the dynamos have a velocity of #fjj revolutions per minute4 ,the pulleys are #fj cm4 in diameter1 and the width of the driving belts is #ah cm4 ,the dynamos are mounted upon rails so as to permit the tension of the belting to be regulated when necessity requires it4 ,this arrangement1 which possesses great advantages1 had already been adopted in many other installations4 ,the electric machines are #b meters in height4 ,the diameter of the rings is about #de cm4 and their length is #gj cm4 ,the electric tension of the dynamos measures #fjj volts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,turnout ,,track ,,of ,,the ,,electric ,,railway1 ,,frankfort1 ,,germany4 ,the duty varies between #hj and #ej per cent41 according to the arrangement of the cars4 ,the total length of the road is #f1fee meters4 ,usually1 there are four cars en route1 and two dynamos serve to create the current4 ,when the cars are coupled in pairs1 three dynamos are used--one of the machines being always held in reserve4 ,all the dynamos are grouped for quantity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,general ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,electric ,,works4 ,the company at present owns six closed and five open cars4 ,in the former there is room for twenty-two persons4 ,the weight of these cars varies between #c1ejj and #d1jjj kilos4--,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by the addition of ten parts of collodion to fifteen of creasote 7says the ,revue de ,therap47 a sort of jelly is obtained which is more convenient to apply to decayed teeth than is creasote in its liquid form4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,possibilities ,,of ,,the ,,telephone4 ,the meeting of the ,american ,association was one of unusual interest and importance to the members of ,section ,b4 ,this is to be attributed not only to the unusually large attendance of ,american physicists1 but also to the presence of a number of distinguished members of the ,british ,association1 who have contributed to the success of the meetings not only by presenting papers1 but by entering freely into the discussions4 ,in particular the section was fortunate in having the presence of ,sir ,william ,thomson1 to whom more than to any one else we owe the successful operation of the great ocean cables1 and who stands with ,helmholtz first among living physicists4 ,whenever he entered any of the discussions1 all were benefited by the clearness and suggestiveness of his remarks4 ,professor ,a4 ,graham ,bell1 the inventor of the telephone1 read a paper giving a possible method of communication between ships at sea4 ,the simple experiment that illustrates the method which he proposed is as follows3 ,take a basin of water1 introduce into it1 at two widely separated points1 the two terminals of a battery circuit which contains an interrupter1 making and breaking the circuit very rapidly4 ,now at two other points touch the water with the terminals of a circuit containing a telephone4 ,a sound will be heard1 except when the two telephone terminals touch the water at points where the potential is the same4 ,in this way the equipotential lines can easily be picked out4 ,now to apply this to the case of a ship at sea3 ,suppose one ship to be provided with a dynamo machine generating a powerful current1 and let one terminal enter the water at the prow of the ship1 and the other to be carefully insulated1 except at its end1 and be trailed behind the ship1 making connection with the sea at a considerable distance from the vessel2 and suppose the current be rapidly made and broken by an interrupter2 then the observer on a second vessel provided with similar terminal conductors to the first1 but having a telephone instead of a dynamo1 will be able to detect the presence of the other vessel even at a considerable distance2 and by suitable modifications the direction of the other vessel may be found4 ,this conception ,professor ,bell has actually tried on the ,potomac ,river with two small boats1 and found that at a mile and a quarter1 the furthest distance experimented upon1 the sound due to the action of the interrupter in one boat was distinctly audible in the other4 ,the experiment did not succeed quite so well in salt water4 ,professor ,trowbridge then mentioned a method which he had suggested some years ago for telegraphing across the ocean without a cable1 the method having been suggested more for its interest than with any idea of its ever being put in practice4 ,a conductor is supposed to be laid from ,labrador to ,patagonia1 ending in the ocean at those points1 and passing through ,new ,york1 where a dynamo machine is supposed to be included in the circuit4 ,in ,europe a line is to extend from the north of ,scotland to the south of ,spain1 making connections with the ocean at those points1 and in this circuit is to be included a telephone4 ,then any change in the strength of the current in the ,american line would produce a corresponding change in current in the ,european line2 and thus signals could be transmitted4 ,mr4 ,preece1 of the ,english postal telegraph1 then gave an account of how such a system had actually been put into practice in telegraphing between the ,isle of ,wight and ,southampton during a suspension in the action of the regular cable communication4 ,the instruments used were a telephone in one circuit1 and in the other about twenty-five ,leclanche cells and an interrupter4 ,the sound could then be heard distinctly2 and so communication was kept up until the cable was again in working order4 ,of the two lines used in this case1 one extended from the sea at the end of the island near ,hurst ,castle1 through the length of the island1 and entered the sea again at ,rye2 while the line on the mainland ran from ,hurst ,castle1 where it was connected with the sea1 through ,southampton to ,portsmouth1 where it again entered the sea4 ,the distance between the two terminals at ,hurst ,castle was about one mile1 while that between the terminals at ,portsmouth and ,rye amounted to six miles4--,science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pyrometers4 ,the accurate measurement of very high temperatures is a matter of great importance1 especially with regard to metallurgical operations2 but it is also one of great difficulty4 ,until recent years the only methods suggested were to measure the expansion of a given fluid or gas1 as in the air pyrometer2 or to measure the contraction of a cone of hard1 burnt clay1 as in the ,wedgwood pyrometer4 ,neither of these systems was at all reliable or satisfactory4 ,lately1 however1 other principles have been introduced with considerable success1 and the matter is of so much interest1 not only to the practical manufacturer but also to the physicist1 that a sketch of the chief systems now in use will probably be acceptable4 ,he will thus be enabled to select the instrument best suited for the particular purpose he may have in view4 ,the first real improvement in this direction1 as in so many others1 is due to the genius of ,sir ,william ,siemens4 ,his first attempt was a calorimetric pyrometer1 in which a mass of copper at the temperature required to be known is thrown into the water of a calorimeter1 and the heat it has absorbed thus determined4 ,this method1 however1 is not very reliable1 and was superseded by his well-known electric pyrometer4 ,this rests on the principle that the electric resistance of metal conductors increases with the temperature4 ,in the case of platinum1 the metal chosen for the purpose1 this increase up to #a1ejj;,c4 is very nearly in the exact proportion of the rise of temperature4 ,the principle is applied in the following manner3 ,a cylinder of fireclay slides in a metal tube1 and has two platinum wires one one-hundredth of an inch in diameter wound round it in separate grooves4 ,their ends are connected at the top to two conductors1 which pass down inside the tube and end in a fireclay plug at the bottom4 ,the other ends of the wires are connected with a small platinum coil1 which is kept at a constant resistance4 ,a third conductor starting from the top of the tube passes down through it1 and comes out at the face of the metal plug4 ,the tube is inserted in the medium whose temperature is to be found1 and the electric resistance of the coil is measured by a differential voltameter4 ,from this it is easy to deduce the temperature to which the platinum has been raised4 ,this pyrometer is probably the most widely used at the present time4 ,tremeschini's pyrometer is based on a different principle1 viz41 on the expansion of a thin plate of platinum1 which is heated by a mass of metal previously raised to the temperature of the medium4 ,the exact arrangements are difficult to describe without the aid of drawings1 but the result is to measure the difference of temperature between the medium to be tested and the atmosphere at the position of the instrument4 ,the whole apparatus is simple1 compact1 and easy to manage1 and its indications appear to be correct at least up to #hjj;,c4 ,the ,trampler pyrometer is based upon the difference in the coefficients of dilatation for iron and graphite1 that of the latter being about two-thirds that of the former4 ,there is an iron tube containing a stick of hard graphite4 ,this is placed in the medium to be examined1 and both lengthen under the heat1 but the iron the most of the two4 ,at the top of the stick of graphite is a metal cap carrying a knife-edge1 on which rests a bent lever pressed down upon it by a light spring4 ,a fine chain attached to the long arm of this lever is wound upon a small pulley2 a larger pulley on the same axis has wound upon it a second chain1 which actuates a third pulley on the axis of the indicating needle4 ,in this way the relative dilatation of the graphite is sufficiently magnified to be easily visible4 ,a somewhat similar instrument is the ,gauntlett pyrometer1 which is largely used in the north of ,england4 ,here the instrument is partly of iron1 partly of fireclay1 and the difference in the expansion of the two materials is caused to act by a system of springs upon a needle revolving upon a dial4 ,the ,ducomet pyrometer is on a very different principle1 and only applicable to rough determinations4 ,it consists of a series of rings made of alloys which have slightly different melting-points4 ,these are strung upon a rod1 which is pushed into the medium to be measured1 and are pressed together by a spiral spring4 ,as soon as any one of the rings begins to soften under the heat1 it is squeezed together by the pressure1 and1 as it melts1 it is completely squeezed out and disappears4 ,the rod is then made to rise by the thickness of the melted ring1 and a simple apparatus shows at any moment the number of rings which have melted1 and therefore the temperature which has been attained4 ,this instrument cannot be used to follow variations of temperature1 but indicates clearly the moment when a particular temperature is attained4 ,it is of course entirely dependent on the accuracy with which the melting-points of the various alloys have been fixed4 ,yet another principle is involved in the instrument called the thalpotasimeter1 which may be used either with ether1 water1 or mercury4 ,it is based on the principle that the pressure of any saturated vapor corresponds to its temperature4 ,the instrument consists of a tube of metal partly filled with liquid1 which is exposed to the medium which is to be measured4 ,a metallic pressure gauge is connected with the tube1 and indicates the pressure existing within it at any moment4 ,by graduating the face of the gauge when the instrument is at known temperatures1 the temperature can be read off directly from the position of the needle4 ,from #ajj to #bbj;,f4 ether is the liquid used1 from thence to #fhj it is water1 and above the latter temperature mercury is employed4 ,another class of pyrometers having great promise in the future is based on what may be called the water-current principle4 ,here the temperature is determined by noting the amount of heat communicated to a known current of water circulating in the medium to be observed4 ,the idea1 which was due to ,m4 ,de ,saintignon1 has been carried out in its most improved form by ,m4 ,boulier4 ,here the pyrometer itself consists of a set of tubes one inside the other1 and all inclosed for safety in a large tube of fireclay4 ,the central tube or pipe brings in the water from a tank above1 where it is maintained at a constant level4 ,the water descends to the bottom of the instrument1 and opens into the end of another small tube called the explorer 7explorateur74 ,this tube projects from the fireclay casing into the medium to be examined1 and can be pushed in or out as required4 ,after circulating through this tube the water rises again in the annular space between the central pipe and the second pipe4 ,the similar space between the second pipe and the third pipe is always filled by another and much larger current of water1 which keeps the interior cool4 ,the result is that no loss of heat is possible in the instrument1 and the water in the central tube merely takes up just so much heat as is conducted into it through the metal of the explorer4 ,this heat it brings back through a short ,india-rubber pipe to a casing containing a thermometer4 ,this thermometer is immersed in the returning current of water1 and records its temperature4 ,it is graduated by immersing the instrument in known and constant temperatures1 and thus the graduations on the thermometer give at once the temperature1 not of the current of water1 but of the medium from which it has received its heat4 ,in order to render the instrument perfectly reliable1 all that is necessary is that the current of water should be always perfectly uniform1 and this is easily attained by fixing the size of the outlet once for all1 and also the level of water in the tank4 ,so arranged1 the pyrometer works with great regularity1 indicating the least variations of temperature1 requiring no sort of attention1 and never suffering injury under the most intense heat2 in fact the tube1 when withdrawn from the furnace1 is found to be merely warm4 ,if there is any risk of the instrument getting broken from fall of materials or other causes1 it may be fitted with an ingenious self-acting apparatus shutting off the supply4 ,for this purpose the water which has passed the thermometer is made to fall into a funnel hung on the longer arm of a balanced lever4 ,with an ordinary flow the water stands at a certain height in the funnel1 and1 while this is so1 the lever remains balanced2 but if from any accident the flow is diminished1 the level of the water in the funnel descends1 the other arm of the lever falls1 and in doing so releases two springs1 one of which in flying up rings a bell1 and the other by detaching a counterweight closes a cock and stops the supply of water altogether4 ,it will be seen that these instruments are not adapted for shifting about from place to place in order to observe different temperatures1 but rather for following the variations of temperature at one and the same place4 ,for many purposes this is of great importance4 ,they have been used with great success in porcelain furnaces1 both at the famous manufactories at ,sevres and at another porcelain works in ,limoges4 ,from both these establishments very favorable reports as to their working have been received4--,w4,r4 ,browne1 in ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,the ,,temperature ,,of ,,the ,,solar ,,surface4 ,i have1 during the summer solstice of #ahhd1 carried out an experimental investigation for the purpose of demonstrating the temperature of the solar surface corresponding with the temperature transmitted to the sun motor4 ,referring to the illustrations previously published1 it will be seen that the cylindrical heater of the sun motor1 constructed solely for the purpose of generating steam or expanding air1 is not well adapted for an exact determination of the amount of surface exposed to the action of the reflected solar rays4 ,it will be perceived on inspection that only part of the bottom of the cylindrical heater of the motor is acted upon by the reflected rays1 and that their density diminishes gradually toward the sides of the vessel2 also that owing to the imperfections of the surface of the reflecting plates the exact course of the terminal rays cannot be defined4 ,consequently1 the most important point in the investigation1 namely1 the area acted upon by the reflected radiant heat1 cannot be accurately determined4 ,i have accordingly constructed an instrument of large dimensions1 a polygonal reflector 7see ,fig4 #a71 composed of a series of inclined mirrors1 and provided with a central heater of conical form1 acted upon by the reflected radiation in such a manner that each point of its surface receives an equal amount of radiant heat in a given time4 ,the said reflector is contained within two regular polygonal planes twelve inches apart1 each having ninety-six sides1 the perimeter of the upper plane corresponding with a circle of eight feet diameter1 that of the lower plane being six feet4 ,the corresponding sides of these planes are connected by flat taper mirrors composed of thin glass silvered on the outside4 ,when the reflector faces the sun at right angles1 each mirror intercepts a pencil of rays of #cb4fa square inches section1 hence the entire reflecting surface receives the radiant heat of an annular sunbeam of #cb4fa #if #c1acj square inches section4 ,it should be observed that the area thus stated is #j4jaa less than the total foreshortened superficies of the ninety-six mirrors if sufficiently wide to come in perfect contact at the vertices4 ,fig4 #b represents a transverse section of the instrument as it appears when facing the sun2 the direct and reflected rays being indicated by dotted lines4 ,the reflector and conical heater are sustained by a flat hub and eight radial spokes bent upward toward the ends at an angle of #de4 ,the hub and spokes are supported by a vertical pivot1 by means of which the operator is enabled to follow the diurnal motion of the sun1 while a horizontal axle1 secured to the upper end of the pivot1 and held by appropriate bearings under the hub1 enables him to regulate the inclination to correspond with the altitude of the luminary4 ,the heater is composed of rolled plate iron #j4jag inch thick1 and provided with bead and bottom formed of non-conducting materials4 ,by means of a screw-plug passing through the bottom and entering the face of the hub the heater may be applied and removed in the course of five minutes1 an important fact1 as will be seen hereafter4 ,it is scarcely necessary to state that the proportion of the ends of the conical heater should correspond with the perimeters of the reflector1 hence the diameter of the upper end1 at the intersection of the polygonal plane1 should be to that of the lower end as #h to #f1 in order that every part may be acted upon by reflected rays of equal density4 ,this condition being fulfilled1 the temperature communicated will be perfectly uniform4 ,a short tube passes through the upper head of the heater1 through which a thermometer is inserted for measuring the internal temperature4 ,the stem being somewhat less than the bore of the tube1 a small opening is formed by which the necessary equilibrium of pressure will be established with the external atmosphere4 ,it should be mentioned that the indications of the thermometer during the experiment have been remarkably prompt1 the bulb being subjected to the joint influence of radiation and convection4 ,the foregoing particulars1 it will be found1 furnish all necessary data for determining with absolute precision the diffusion of rays acting on the central vessel of the solar pyrometer4 ,but the determination of temperature which uninterrupted solar radiation is capable of transmitting to the polygonal reflector calls for a correct knowledge of atmospheric absorption4 ,besides1 an accurate estimate of the loss of radiant heat attending the reflection of the rays by the mirrors is indispensable4 ,let us consider these points separately4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,atmospheric ,absorption4--,the principal object of conducting the investigation during the summer solstice has been the facilities afforded for determining atmospheric absorption1 the sun's zenith distance at noon being only #ag #ab' at ,new ,york4 ,the retardation of the sun's rays in passing through a clear atmosphere obviously depends on the depth penetrated2 hence--neglecting the curvature of the atmospheric limit--the retardation will be as the secants of the zenith distances4 ,accordingly1 an observation of the temperature produced by solar radiation at a zenith distance whose secant is twice that of the secant of #ag #ab'1 viz41 #fa #bh'1 determines the minimum atmospheric absorption at ,new ,york4 ,the result of observations conducted during a series of years shows that the maximum solar intensity at #ag #ab' reaches #ff4b ,f41 while at a zenith distance of #fa #bh' it is #eb4e ,f42 hence1 minimum atmospheric absorption at ,new ,york1 during the summer solstice1 #ac4g is #ff4b-eb4e #ac4g ,f41 or ------ #j4bjg of the sun's #ff4b radiant energy where the rays enter the terrestrial atmosphere4 ,illustration3 ,,captain ,,ericsson',s ,,solar ,,pyrometer1 ,,erected ,,at ,,new ,,york1 #ahhd4 ,in order to determine the loss of energy attending the reflection of the rays by the diagonal mirrors1 ,i have constructed a special apparatus1 which1 by means of a parallactic mechanism1 faces the sun at right angles during observations4 ,it consists principally of two small mirrors1 manufactured of the same materials as the reflector1 placed diagonally at right angles to each other2 a thermometer being applied between the two1 whose stem points toward the sun4 ,the direct solar rays entering through perforations of an appropriate shade1 and reflected by the inclined mirrors1 act simultaneously on opposite sides of the bulb4 ,the mean result of repeated trials1 all differing but slightly1 show that the energy of the direct solar rays acting on the polygonal reflector is reduced #j4bce before reaching the heater4 ,in accordance with the previous article1 the investigation has been based on the assumption that the temperatures produced by radiant heat at given distances from its source are inversely as the diffusion of the rays at those distances4 ,in other words1 the temperature produced by solar radiation is as the density of the rays4 ,it will be remembered that ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 in estimating the temperature to which the comet of #afhj was subjected when nearest to the sun1 based his calculations on the result of his practical observations that the maximum temperature produced by solar radiation was one-third of that of boiling water4 ,modern research shows that the observer of #afhj underrated solar intensity only #e for the latitude of ,london4 ,the distance of the comet from the center of the sun being to the distance of the earth from the same as #f to #a1jjj1 the author of the ,principia asserted that the density of the rays was as #a1jjj to #f #bh1jjj to #a2 hence the comet was subjected to a temperature of #bh1jjj #ahj_/c #a1fhj1jjj1 an intensity exactly #b1jjj times greater than that of red-hot iron at a temperature of #hdj4 ,the distance of the comet from the solar surface being equal to one-third of the sun's radius1 it will be seen that1 in accordance with the ,newtonian doctrine1 the temperature to which it was subjected indicated a solar intensity of #d #a1fhj1jjj -------------- #b1ihf1jjj ,f4 #c ,the writer has established the correctness of the assumption that the temperature is as the density of the rays1 by showing practically that the diminution of solar temperature 7for corresponding zenith distances7 when the earth is in aphelion corresponds with the increased diffusion of the rays consequent on increased distance from the sun4 ,this practical demonstration1 however1 has been questioned on the insufficient ground that the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is too small and the temperature produced by solar radiation too low to furnish a safe basis for computations of solar temperature4 ,in order to meet the objection that the diffusion of the rays in aphelion do not differ sufficiently1 the solar pyrometer has been so arranged that the density1 i4 e41 the diffusion of the reflected rays1 can be changed from a ratio of #a in #e1jdj to that of #a in #aj1bda4 ,this has been effected by employing heaters respectively #aj inches and #bj inches in diameter4 ,with reference to the low solar temperature pointed out1 it will be perceived that the adopted expedient of increasing the density of the rays without raising the temperature by converging radiation1 removes the objection urged4 ,agreeably to the dimensions already specified1 the area of the #aj-;inch heater acted upon by the reflected solar rays is #cca4fe square inches1 the area of the #bj-;inch heater being #fgc4i square inches4 ,the section of the annular sunbeam whose direct rays act upon the polygonal reflector is #c1acj square inches1 as before stated4 ,regarding the diffusion of the solar rays during the investigation1 the following demonstration will be readily understood4 ,the area of a sphere whose radius is equal to the earth's distance from the sun in aphelion being to the sun's area as #bah4a to #a1 while the reflecter of the solar pyrometer intercepts a sunbeam of #c1acj square inches section1 it follows that the reflector will receive the radiant heat developed by #c1acj _/ #bah4a #j4jfeh square inch of the solar surface4 ,hence1 as the #aj-;inch heater presents an area of #cca4fe square inches1 we establish the fact that the reflected solar rays1 acting on the same1 are diffused in the ratio of #cca4fe to #j4jfeh1 or #cca4fe _/ #j4jfeh #e1jdj to #a2 the diffusion of the rays acting on the #bj-;inch heater being as #fgc4i to #j4jfeh1 or #fgc4i _/ #j4jfeh #aj1bda to #a4 ,the atmospheric conditions having proved unfavorable during the investigation1 maximum solar temperature was not recorded4 ,accordingly1 the heaters of the solar pyrometer did not reach maximum temperature1 the highest indication by the thermometer of the small heater being #ccf4e1 that of the large one being #bjj4e above the surrounding air4 ,no compensation will1 however1 be introduced on account of deficient solar heat1 the intention being to base the computation of solar temperature solely on the result of observations conducted at ,new ,york during the summer solstice of #ahhd4 ,it will be noticed that the temperature of the large heater is proportionally higher than that of the small heater1 a fact showing that the latter1 owing to its higher temperature1 loses more heat by radiation and convection than the former4 ,besides1 the rate of cooling of heated bodies increases more rapidly than the augmentation of temperature4 ,the loss occasioned by the imperfect reflection of the mirrors1 as before stated1 is #j4bce of the energy transmitted by the direct solar rays acting on the polygonal reflector1 hence the temperature which the solar rays are capable of imparting to the large heater will be #bjj4e #a4bce #bdg4fag2 but the energy of the solar rays acting on the reflector is reduced #j4bjg by atmospheric absorption1 consequently the ultimate temperature which the sun's radiant energy is capable of imparting to the heater is #a4bjg #bdg4fag #bih4hg ,f4 ,it is hardly necessary to observe that this temperature 7developed by solar radiation diffused fully ten-thousandfold7 must be regarded as an actual temperature1 since a perfectly transparent atmosphere1 and a reflector capable of transmitting the whole energy of the sun's rays to the heater1 would produce the same4 ,the result of the experimental investigation carried out during the summer solstice of #ahhd may be thus briefly stated4 ,the diffusion of the solar rays acting on the #bj inch heater being in the ratio of #a to #aj1bda1 the temperature of the solar surface cannot be less than #bih4hg #aj1bda #c1jfj1gbg ,f4 ,this underrated computation must be accepted unless it can be shown that the temperature produced by radiant heat is not inversely as the diffusion of the rays4 ,physicists who question the existence of such high solar temperature should bear in mind that in consequence of the great attraction of the solar mass1 hydrogen on the sun's surface raised to a temperature of #d1jjj ,c4 will be nearly twice as heavy as hydrogen on the surface of the earth at ordinary atmospheric temperatures2 and that1 owing to the immense depth of the solar atmosphere1 its density would be so enormous at the stated low temperature that the observed rapid movements within the solar envelope could not possibly take place4 ,it scarcely needs demonstration to prove that extreme tenuity can alone account for the extraordinary velocities recorded by observers of solar phenomena4 ,but extreme tenuity is incompatible with low temperature and the pressure produced by an atmospheric column probably exceeding #ej1jjj miles in height subjected to the sun's powerful attraction1 diminished only one-fourth at the stated elevation4 ,these facts warrant the conclusion that the high temperature established by our investigation is requisite to prevent undue density of the solar atmosphere4 ,it is not intended at present to discuss the necessity of tenuity with reference to the functions of the sun as a radiator2 yet it will be proper to observe that on merely dynamical grounds the enormous density of the solar envelope which would result from low temperature presents an unanswerable objection to the assumption of ,pouillet1 ,vicaire1 ,sainte-,claire ,deville1 and other eminent savants1 that the temperature of the solar surface does not reach #c1jjj ,c4 ,j4 ,,ericsson4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chemical ,,nature ,,of ,,starch ,,grains4 ,dr4 ,brukner has contributed to the ,proceedings of the ,vienna ,academy of ,sciences a paper on the ,chemical ,nature of the ,different ,varieties of ,starch1 especially in reference to the question whether the granulose of ,nageli1 the soluble starch of ,jessen1 the amylodextrin of ,w4 ,nageli1 and the amidulin of ,nasse are the same or different substances4 ,a single experiment will serve to show that under certain conditions a soluble substance maybe obtained from starch grains4 ,if dried starch grains are rubbed between two glass plates1 the grains will be seen under the microscope to be fissured1 and if then wetted and filtered1 the filtrate will be a perfectly clear liquid showing a strong starch reaction with iodine4 ,since no solution is obtained from uninjured grains1 even after soaking for weeks in water1 ,brukner concludes that the outer layers of the starch grains form a membrane protecting the interior soluble layers from the action of the water4 ,the soluble filtrate from starch paste also contains a substance identical with granulose4 ,between the two kinds of starch1 the granular and that contained in paste1 there is no chemical but only a physical difference1 depending on the condition of aggregation of their micell4 ,w4 ,nageli maintains that granulose1 or soluble starch1 differs from amylodextrin in the former being precipitated by tannic acid and acetate of lead1 while the latter is not4 ,brukner fails to confirm this difference1 obtaining a voluminous precipitate with tannic acid and acetate of lead in the case of both substances4 ,another difference maintained by ,nageli1 that freshly precipitated starch is insoluble1 amylodextrin soluble in water1 is also contested2 the author finding that granulose is soluble to a considerable extent in water1 not only immediately after precipitation1 but when it has remained for twenty-four hours under absolute alcohol4 ,other differences pointed out by ,w4 ,nageli1 ,brukner also maintains to be non-existent1 and he regards amidulin and amylodextrin as identical4 ,brucke gave the name erythrogranulose to a substance nearly related to granulose1 but with a stronger affinity for iodine1 and receiving from it not a blue but a red color4 ,brukner regards the red color as resulting from a mixture of erythrodextrin1 and the greater solubility of this substance in water4 ,if a mixture of filtered potato starch paste and erythrodextrin is dried in a watch glass covered with a thin pellicle of collodion1 and a drop of iodine solution placed on the latter1 it penetrates very slowly through the pellicle1 the dextrin becoming first tinctured with red1 and the granulose afterward with blue4 ,if1 on the other hand1 no erythrodextrin is used1 the diffusion of the iodine causes at once simply a blue coloring4 ,with regard to the iodine reaction of starch1 ,brukner contests ,sachsse's view as to the loss of color of iodide of starch at a high temperature4 ,he shows that the iodide may resist heat1 and that the loss of color depends on the greater attraction of water for iodine as compared with starch1 and the greater solubility of iodine in water at high temperatures4 ,the different kinds of starch do not take the same tint with the same quantity of 7solid7 iodine4 ,that from the potato arum gives a blue1 and that from wheat and rice a violet tint2 while the filtrate from starch paste1 from whatever source1 always gives a blue color4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,amalgamation ,,of ,,silver ,,ores4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,francke ,,tina ,,or ,,vat ,,process ,,for ,,the ,,amalgamation ,,of ,,silver ,,ores4 ,footnote3 ,paper read before the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers at the ,cardiff meeting4--,engineering4 ,by ,mr4 ,,edgar ,p4 ,,rathbone1 of ,london4 ,in the year #ahhb1 while on a visit to some of the great silver mines in ,bolivia1 an opportunity was afforded the writer of inspecting a new and successful process for the treatment of silver ores1 the invention of ,herr ,francke1 a ,german gentleman long resident in ,bolivia1 whose acquaintance the writer had also the pleasure of making4 ,after many years of tedious working devoted to experiments bearing on the metallurgical treatment of rich but refractory silver ores1 the inventor has successfully introduced the process of which it is proposed in this paper to give a description1 and which has1 by its satisfactory working1 entirely eclipsed all other plans hitherto tried in ,bolivia1 ,peru1 and ,chili4 ,the ,francke tina process is based on the same metallurgical principles as the system described by ,alonzo ,barba in #afdj1 and also on those introduced into the ,states in more recent times under the name of the ,washoe process4#a ,footnote #a3 ,transactions of the ,american ,institute of ,mining ,engineers1 vol4 ii41 p4 #aei4 ,it was only after a long and careful study of these two processes1 and by making close observations and experiments on other plans1 which had up to that time been tried with more or less success in ,bolivia1 ,peru1 and ,chili--such as the ,mexican amalgamation process1 technically known as the patio process2 the improved ,freiberg barrel amalgamation process2 as used at ,copiapo2 and the ,kronke process--that ,herr ,francke eventually succeeded in devising his new process1 and by its means treating economically the rich but refractory silver ores1 such as those found at the celebrated ,huanchaca and ,guadalupe mines in ,potosi1 ,bolivia4 ,in this description of the process the writer will endeavor to enter into every possible detail having a practical bearing on the final results2 and with this view he commences with the actual separation of the ores at the mines4 ,ore ,dressing1 etc4--,this consists simply in the separation of the ore by hand at the mines into different qualities1 by women and boys with small hammers1 the process being that known as cobbing in ,cornwall4 ,the object of this separation is twofold3 first to separate the rich parts from the poor as they come together in the same lump of ore1 otherwise rich pieces might go undetected2 and1 secondly1 to reduce the whole body of ore coming from the mine to such convenient size as permits of its being fed directly into the stamps battery4 ,the reason for this separation not being effected by those mechanical appliances so common in most ore dressing establishments1 such as stone breakers or crushing rolls1 is simply because the ores are so rich in silver1 and frequently of such a brittle nature1 that any undue pulverization would certainly result in a great loss of silver1 as a large amount would be carried away in the form of fine dust4 ,so much attention is indeed required in this department that it is found requisite to institute strict superintendence in the sorting or cobbing sheds1 in order to prevent as far as practicable any improper diminution of the ores4 ,according to the above method1 the ores coming from the mine are classified into the four following divisions3 #a4 ,very rich ore1 averaging about six per cent4 of silver1 or containing say #b1jjj ounces of silver to the ton 7of #b1jjj lb474 #b4 ,rich ore1 averaging about one per cent4 of silver1 or say from #cjj to #djj ounces of silver to the ton4 #c4 ,ordinary ore1 averaging about per cent4 of silver1 or say from #aej oz4 to #bjj oz4 of silver to the ton4 #d4 ,gangue1 or waste rock1 thrown on the dump heaps4 ,the first of these qualities--the very rich ore--is so valuable as to render advantageous its direct export in the raw state to the coast for shipment to ,europe4 ,the cost of fuel in ,bolivia forms so considerable a charge in smelting operations1 that the cost of freight to ,europe on very rich silver ores works out at a relatively insignificant figure1 when compared with the cost of smelting operations in that country4 ,this rich ore is consequently selected very carefully1 and packed up in tough rawhide bags1 so as to make small compact parcels some #ah in4 to #b ft4 long1 and #h in4 to #ab in4 thick1 each containing about #a cwt4 ,two of such bags form a mule load1 slung across the animal's back4 ,the second and third qualities of ore are taken direct to the smelting works2 and where these are situated at some distance from the mines1 as at ,huanchaca and ,guadalupe1 the transport is effected by means of strong but lightly built iron carts1 specially constructed to meet the heavy wear and tear consequent upon the rough mountain roads4 ,these two classes of ores are either treated separately1 or mixed together in such proportion as is found by experience to be most suitable for the smelting process4 ,on its arrival at the reduction works the ore is taken direct to the stamp mill4 ,at the ,huanchaca works there are sixty-five heads of stamps1 each head weighing about #ejj lb41 with five heads in each battery1 and crushing about #ej cwt4 per head per twenty-four hours4 ,the ore is stamped dry1 without water1 requiring no coffers2 this is a decided advantage as regards first cost1 owing to the great weight of the coffers1 from #b to #c tons--a very heavy item when the cost of transport from ,europe at about #ejl4 per ton is considered4 ,as fast as the ore is stamped1 it is shoveled out by hand1 and thrown upon inclined sieves of forty holes per lineal inch2 the stuff which will not pass through the mesh is returned to the stamps4 ,dry stamping may be said to be almost a necessity in dealing with these rich silver ores1 as with the employment of water there is a great loss of silver1 owing to the finer particles being carried away in suspension1 and thus getting mixed with the slimes1 from which it is exceedingly difficult to recover them1 especially in those remote regions where the cost of maintaining large ore-dressing establishments is very heavy4 ,dry stamping1 however1 presents many serious drawbacks1 some of which could probably be eliminated if they received proper attention4 ,for instance1 the very fine dust1 which rises in a dense cloud during the operation of stamping1 not only settles down on all parts of the machinery1 interfering with its proper working1 so that some part of the battery is nearly always stopped for repairs1 but is also the cause of serious inconvenience to the workmen4 ,at the ,huanchaca mines1 owing to the presence of galena or sulphide of lead in the ores1 this fine dust is of such an injurious character as not unfrequently to cause the death of the workmen2 as a precautionary measure they are accustomed to stuff cotton wool into their nostrils4 ,this1 however1 is only a partial preventive2 and the men find the best method of overcoming the evil effect is to return to their homes at intervals of a few weeks1 their places being taken by others for the same periods4 ,in dry stamping there is also a considerable loss of silver in the fine particles of rich ore which are carried away as dust and irrevocably lost4 ,to prevent this loss1 the writer proposed while at ,huanchaca that a chamber should be constructed1 into which all the fine dust might be exhausted or blown by a powerful fan or ventilator4 ,roasting4--,from the stamps the stamped ore is taken in small ore cars to the roasting furnaces1 which are double bedded in design1 one hearth being built immediately above the other4 ,this type of furnace has proved1 after various trials1 to be that best suited for the treatment of the ,bolivian silver ores1 and is stated to have been found the most economical as regards consumption of fuel1 and to give the least trouble in labor4 ,at the ,huanchaca mines these furnaces cost about #ajjl4 each1 and are capable of roasting from #b to #b tons of ore in twenty-four hours1 the quantity and cost of the fuel consumed being as follows3 ,bolivian dollars at #cs4 #a;d4 ,tola 7a kind of shrub71 #c cwt41 at #fj cents4 #a4hj ,yareta 7a resinous moss71 #d cwt41 at #hj cents4 #c4bj ,torba 7turf71 #aj cwt41 at #dj cents4 #d4jj ---- ,bolivian dollars4 #i4jj1 say #bhs4 ,one man can attend to two furnaces1 and earns #cs4 per shift of twelve hours4 ,probably no revolving mechanical furnace is suited to the roasting of these ores1 as the operation requires to be carefully and intelligently watched1 for it is essential to the success of the ,francke process that the ores should not be completely or dead roasted1 inasmuch as certain salts1 prejudicial to the ultimate proper working of the process1 are liable to be formed if the roasting be too protracted4 ,these salts are mainly due to the presence of antimony1 zinc1 lead1 and arsenic1 all of which are unfavorable to amalgamation4 ,the ores are roasted with #h per cent4 of salt1 or #djj lb4 of salt for the charge of #b tons of ore2 the salt costs #gj cents1 or #bs4 #b;d4 per #ajj lb4 ,so roasted the ores are only partially chlorinized1 and their complete chlorination is effected subsequently1 during the process of amalgamation2 the chlorides are thus formed progressively as required1 and1 in fact1 it would almost appear that the success of the process virtually consists in obviating the formation of injurious salts4 ,all the sulphide ores in ,bolivia contain sufficient copper to form the quantity of cuprous chloride requisite for the first stages of roasting1 in order to render the silver contained in the ore thoroughly amenable to subsequent amalgamation4 ,amalgamating4--,from the furnaces the roasted ore is taken in ore cars to large hoppers or bins situated immediately behind the grinding and amalgamating vats1 locally known as tinas1 into which the ore is run from the bin through a chute fitted with a regulating slide4 ,the tinas or amalgamating vats constitute the prominent feature of the ,francke process2 they are large wooden vats1 shown in ,figs4 #a and #b1 page #agc1 from #f ft4 to #aj ft4 in diameter and #e ft4 deep1 capacious enough to treat about #b tons of ore at a time4 ,each vat is very strongly constructed1 being bound with thick iron hoops4 ,at the bottom it is fitted with copper plates about #c in4 thick1 ,a in ,fig4 #a2 and at intervals round the sides of the vat are fixed copper plates1 as shown in ,figs4 #c and #d1 with ribs on their inner faces1 slightly inclined to the horizontal1 for promoting a more thorough mixing4 ,it is considered essential to the success of the process that the bottom plates should present a clear rubbing surface of at least #aj square feet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,francke ,,tina ,,process ,,for ,,the ,,amalgamation ,,of ,,silver ,,ores4 ,within the vat1 and working on the top of the copper plates1 there is a heavy copper stirrer or muller1 ,b1 ,figs4 #a and #b1 caused to revolve by the shafting1 ,c1 at the rate of #de revolutions per minute4 ,at ,huanchaca this stirrer has been made with four projecting radial arms1 ,d ,d1 ,figs4 #a and #b2 but at ,guadalupe it is composed of one single bell-shaped piece1 ,figs4 #c and #d1 without any arms1 but with slabs like arms fixed on its underside2 and this latter is claimed to be the most effective4 ,the stirrer can be lifted or depressed in the vat at will by means of a worm and screw at the top of the driving shaft1 ,fig4 #c4 ,the bevel gearing is revolved by shafting connected with pulley wheels and belting1 the wheels being #c ft4 and #a ft4 in diameter1 and #f in4 broad4 ,the driving engine is placed at one end of the building4 ,each vat requires from #b to #c horse-power1 or in other words1 an expenditure of #a horse-power per ton of ore treated4 ,at the bottom of the vat1 and in front of it1 a large wooden stop-cock is fitted1 through which the liquid amalgam is drawn off at the end of the process into another shallow-bottomed and smaller vat1 ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,directly above this last vat there is a water hose1 supplied with a flexible spout1 through which a strong stream of water is directed upon the amalgam as it issues from the grinding vat1 in order to wash off all impurities4 ,the following is the mode of working usually employed4 ,the grinding vat or tina is first charged to about one-fifth of its depth with water and from #f cwt4 to #g cwt4 of common salt4 ,the amount of salt required in the process depends naturally on the character of the ore to be treated1 as ascertained by actual experiment1 and averages from #aej lb4 to #cjj lb4 per ton of ore4 ,into this brine a jet of steam is then directed1 and the stirrer is set to work for about half an hour1 until the liquid is in a thoroughly boiling condition1 in which state it must be kept until the end of the process4 ,as soon as the liquid reaches boiling point1 the stamped and roasted ore is run into the vat1 and at the end of another half-hour about #a cwt4 of mercury is added1 further quantities being added as required at different stages of the process4 ,the stirring is kept up continuously for eight to twelve hours1 according to the character and richness of the ores4 ,at the end of this time the amalgam is run out through the stop-cock at bottom of the vat1 is washed1 and is put into hydraulic presses1 by means of which the mercury is squeezed out1 leaving behind a thick1 pulpy mass1 composed mainly of silver1 and locally termed a pia1 from its resembling in shape the cone of a pine tree4 ,these pias are then carefully weighed and put into a subliming furnace1 ,figs4 #e and #f1 in order to drive off the rest of the mercury1 the silver being subsequently run into bars4 ,about four ounces of mercury are lost for every pound of silver made4 ,the actual quantities of mercury to be added in the grinding vat1 and the times of its addition1 are based entirely on practical experience of the process4 ,with ore assaying #aej oz4 to #age oz4 of silver to the ton1 #ge lb4 of mercury are put in at the commencement1 another #ge lb4 at intervals during the middle of the process1 and finally another lot of #ge lb4 shortly before the termination4 ,when treating pacos1 or earthy chlorides of silver1 assaying only #bj oz4 to #cj oz4 of silver to the ton1 #cf lb4 of mercury is added to #b tons of ore at three different stages of the process as just described4 ,the rationale of the process therefore appears to be that the chlorination of the ores is only partially effected during the roasting1 so as to prevent the formation of injurious salts1 and is completed in the vats1 in which the chloride of copper is formed progressively as required1 by the gradual grinding away of the copper by friction between the bottom copper plates and the stirrer2 and this chloride subsequently becoming incorporated with the boiling brine is considered to quicken the action of the mercury upon the silver4 ,subliming4--,the subliming furnace1 shown in ,figs4 #e and #f1 is a plain cylindrical chamber1 ,a1 about #d ft4 diameter inside and #d ft4 high1 lined with firebrick1 in the center of which is fixed the upright cast-iron cylinder or retort1 ,c1 of #a ft4 diameter1 closed at top and open at bottom4 ,the furnace top is closed by a cast-iron lid1 which is lifted off for charging the fuel4 ,round the top of the furnace is a tier of radial outlet holes for the fuel smoke to escape through2 and round the bottom is a corresponding tier of inlet air-holes1 through which the fuel is continually rabbled with poles by hand4 ,the fuel used is llama dung1 costing #hj cents1 or #bs4 #f;d41 per #bej lb42 it makes a very excellent fuel for smelting purposes1 smouldering and maintaining steadily the low heat required for subliming the mercury from the amalgam4 ,beneath the furnace is a vault containing a wrought-iron water-tank1 ,b1 into which the open mouth of the retort1 ,c1 projects downward and is submerged below the water4 ,for charging the retort1 the water-tank is placed on a trolly2 and standing upright on a stool inside the tank is placed the pia1 or conical mass of silver amalgam1 which is held together by being built up on a core-bar fitted with a series of horizontal disks4 ,the trolly is then run into the vault1 and the water-tank containing the pia is lifted by screw-jacks1 so as to raise the pia into the retort1 in which position the tank is then supported by a cross-beam4 ,the sublimed mercury is condensed and collected in the water2 and on the completion of the process the tank is lowered1 and the spongy or porous cone of silver is withdrawn from the retort4 ,the subliming furnaces are ranged in a row1 and communicate by lines of rails with the weigh-house4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,interesting ,,facts ,,about ,,platinum4 ,after an excellent day of weakfishing on ,barnegat ,bay and an exceptionable supper of the good1 old fashioned1 country tavern kind1 a social party of anglers sat about on ,uncle ,jo ,parker's broad porch at ,forked ,river1 smoking and enjoying the cool1 fragrant breath of the cedar swamp1 when somehow the chat drifted to the subject of assaying and refining the precious metals4 ,that was just where one of the party1 ,mr4 ,d4,w4 ,baker1 of ,newark1 was at home1 and in the course of an impromptu lecture he told the party more about the topic under discussion1 and especially the platinum branch of it1 than they ever knew before4 ,our firm1 he said1 practically does all the platinum business of this country1 and the demand for the material is so great that we never can get more than we want of it4 ,the principal portion1 or1 in fact1 nearly all of it1 comes from the famous mines of the ,demidoff family1 who have the monopoly of the production in ,russia4 ,it is all refined and made into sheets of various thicknesses1 and into wire of certain commercial sizes1 before it comes to us2 but we have frequently to cut1 roll1 and redraw it to new forms and sizes to meet the demands upon us4 ,at one time it was coined in ,russia1 but it is no longer applied to that use4 ,we have obtained some very good crude platinum ore from ,south ,america and have refined it successfully1 but the supply from that source is1 as yet1 very small4 ,i am not aware that it has been found anywhere else than in ,colombia1 on that continent1 but the explorations thus far made into the mineral resources of ,south ,america have been very meager1 and it is by no means improbable that platinum may yet be discovered there in quantities rivaling the supply of ,russia4 ,a popular error respecting platinum is that its intrinsic value is the same as that of gold4 ,at one time it did approximate to gold in value1 but never quite reached it1 and is now worth only #h to #ab an ounce1 according to the work expended upon it in getting it into required forms and the amount of alloy it contains4 ,the alloy used for it is iridium1 which hardens it1 and the more iridium it contains the more difficult it is to work1 and consequently the more expensive4 ,when pure1 platinum is as soft as silver1 but by the addition of iridium it becomes the hardest of metals4 ,the great difficulty in manipulating platinum is its excessive resistance to heat4 ,a temperature that will make steel run like water and melt down fireclay has absolutely no effect upon it4 ,you may put a piece of platinum wire no thicker than human hair into a blast furnace where ingots of steel are melting down all around it1 and the bit of wire will come out as absolutely unchanged as if it had been in an ice box all the time4 ,no means has been discovered for accurately determining the melting temperature of platinum1 but it must be enormous4 ,and yet1 if you put a bit of lead into the crucible with the platinum1 both metals will melt down together at the low temperature that fuses the lead1 and if you try to melt lead in a platinum crucible1 you will find that as soon as the lead melts the platinum with which it comes into contact also melts and your crucible is destroyed4 ,a distinguishing characteristic of platinum is its extreme ductility4 ,a wire can be made from it finer than from any other metal4 ,i have a sample in my pocket1 the gauge of which is only one two-thousandth of an inch1 and it is practicable to make it thinner4 ,it has even been affirmed that platinum wire has been made so fine as to be invisible to the naked eye1 but that ,i do not state as of my own knowledge4 ,this wire my son made4 ,mr4 ,baker exhibited the sample spoken of4 ,it looked like a tress of silky hair1 and had it not been shown upon a piece of black paper could hardly have been seen4 ,he went on3 ,the draw plates1 by means of which these fine wires are made1 are sapphires and rubies4 ,you may fancy for yourselves how extremely delicate must be the work of making holes of such exceeding smallness to accurate gauge1 too1 in those very hard stones4 ,i get all my draw plates from an old ,swiss lady in ,new ,york1 who makes them herself to order4 ,but1 delicate as is the work of boring the holes1 there is something still more delicate in the processes that produce such fine wire as this4 ,that something is the filing of a long point on the wire to enable the poking of the end of it through the draw plate so that it can be caught by the nippers4 ,imagine yourself filing a long1 tapering point on the end of a wire only one eighteen-hundredths of an inch in diameter1 in order to get it through a draw plate that will bring it down to one two-thousandths4 ,my son does that without using a magnifying glass4 ,i cannot say positively what uses this very thin wire is put to1 but something in surgery1 ,i believe1 either for fastening together portions of bone or for operations4 ,a newly invented instrument has been described to me1 which1 if it does what has been affirmed1 is one of the greatest and most wonderful discoveries of modern science4 ,a very thin platinum wire loop1 brought to incandescence by the current from a battery--which1 though of great power1 is so small that it hangs from the lapel of the operator's coat--is used instead of a knife for excisions and certain amputations4 ,it sears as it cuts1 prevents the loss of blood1 and is absolutely painless1 which is the most astonishing thing about it4 ,our greatest consumers of platinum are the electricians1 particularly the incandescent light companies4 ,i supply the platinum wire for both the ,edison and the ,maxim companies1 and the quantity they require so constantly increases that the demand threatens to exceed the supply of the metal4 ,sheets of platinum are bought by chemists1 who have them converted into crucibles and other forms4 ,the reporter's curiosity was awakened by ,mr4 ,baker's mention of the old lady who made those very fine draw plates1 and on his return to the city he hunted her up4 ,mrs4 ,francis ,a4 ,jeannot1 the lady in question1 was found in neat apartments in a handsome flat in ,west ,fifty-first street4 ,age has silvered her hair1 but her eyes are still bright1 and her movements indicate elasticity and strength4 ,she is a native of ,neufchatel1 ,switzerland1 and speaks ,english with a little difficulty1 but whenever the reporter's ,english was a little hard for her a very pretty girl with brilliant eyes and crinkly jet-black hair1 who subsequently proved to be a daughter of ,mrs4 ,jeannot1 came to the rescue4 ,with the girl's occasional aid1 the old lady's story was as follows3 ,i have been in this business for thirty years4 ,i learned it when ,i was a girl in ,switzerland4 ,very few in this country know anything correctly about it4 ,numbers of people endeavor to find it out1 and they experiment to learn it1 especially to do it by machinery1 but without success4 ,but1 ah1 me6 ,it is no longer a business that is anything worth4 ,thirty years ago many stone draw plates were wanted1 for then there was a great deal done in filigree gold jewelry4 ,then the plates were worth from #b4ej up to as high as #ae1 according to the magnitude of the stones and the size of the holes ,i bored in them4 ,now1 however1 all that good time is past4 ,nobody wants filigree gold jewelry any more1 and there is so little demand for fine wire of the precious metals that few draw plates are desired4 ,the prices now are no more than from #a4be up to say #h1 but it is very rare that one is required the cost of which is more than #d4 ,and of that a very large part must go to the lapidary to pay for the stone and for his work in cutting it to an even round disk4 ,then1 what ,i get for the long and hard work of boring the stone by hand is very little4 ',by hand8' ,oh1 yes4 ,that must always be the only good way4 ,the work of the machine is not perfect4 ,it never produces such good plates as are made by the hand and eye of the trained artisan4 ',how are they bored8' ,ah1 sir1 you must excuse me that ,i do not tell you that4 ,it is simple1 but there is just a little of it that is a secret1 and that little makes a vast difference between producing work which is good and that which is not4 ,it has cost me no little to learn it1 and while it is worth very little just now1 perhaps fashion may change1 and plates may be wanted to make gold wire again to an extent that may be profitable4 ,i do not wish to tell everybody that which will deprive me of the little advantage my knowledge gives me4 ',the stones8' ,oh1 we of course do not use finely colored ones4 ,they are too valuable4 ,but those that we employ must be genuine sapphires and rubies1 sound and without flaws4 ,here are some4 ,you see they look like only irregular lumps of muddy-tinted broken glass4 ,here is a finished one4 ,the old lady exhibited a piece of solid brass about an inch long1 three-quarters of an inch in width1 and one-sixteenth in thickness4 ,in its center was a small disk of stone with a hole through it1 a hole that was very smooth1 wide on one side and hardly perceptible on the other4 ,the stone was sunk deep into the brass and bedded firmly in it4 ,she went on3 ,you will find1 if you try1 that you can with difficulty push through that hole a hair from your beard4 ,but1 small as it is1 it must be perfectly smooth1 and of an accurate gauge4 ,i do not any longer myself set the stones in the brass1 as ,i am not so strong as ,i once was4 ,my son does that for me4 ,but neither he nor my daughter1 nor anybody else in this country1 ,i believe1 can bore the holes so well as ,i can even yet4 ',how long does a draw plate last8' ,ah6 ,practically forever4 ,except by clumsy handling or accident1 it does not need to be replaced1 at least in one lifetime4 ,and there is another reason why ,i sell so few now4 ,those who require them are supplied4 ',watch jewels8' ,yes1 ,i used to make them1 but do so no longer4 ,they can be imported from ,europe at the price of #a a dozen1 and at such a figure one could not earn bread in making them here4--,manuf4 ,gazette4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bayle',s ,,lamp ,,chimney4 ,the different types of lamps used in domestic lighting present several imperfections1 and daily experience shows too often how difficult it is1 even with the most careful and best studied models1 to have a perfect combustion of the usual liquids--oil1 kerosene1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,bayle',s ,,new ,,lamp ,,chimney4 ,mr4 ,p4 ,bayle has endeavored to remedy this state of things by experiments upon the chimney1 inasmuch as he could not think of modifying the arrangements of the lamps of commerce without injury to man interests1 and encountering material difficulties4 ,the chimney is not only an apparatus designed to carry off the smoke and gases due to combustion1 for its principal role is to break the equilibrium of the atmospheric air1 which is the great reservoir of oxygen1 and to suck into the flame1 through the difference of densities1 this indispensable agent to combustion4 ,the lamps which we now use are provided with cylindrical chimneys either with or without a shoulder at the base4 ,the shouldered chimney would be sufficient to suck in the quantity of air necessary for a good combustion if we could at will increase its dimensions in the direction of the diameter or height4 ,but1 on account of the fragile nature of the material of which it consists1 as also because of the arrangement of the lighting apparatus1 we are forced lo give the chimney limited dimensions4 ,the result is an insufficient draught1 and consequently an imperfect combustion4 ,it became a question1 then1 of finding a chimney which1 with small dimensions1 should have great suctional power4 ,mr4 ,bayle has taken advantage of the properties of convergent-divergent ajutages1 and of the discovery of ,mr4 ,romilly that a current of gas directed into the axis and toward the small base of a truncated cone1 at a definite distance therefrom1 has the property of drawing along with it a quantity of air nearly double that which this same current could carry along if it were directed toward a cylinder4 ,in getting up his new chimney1 ,mr4 ,bayle has utilized these principles as follows3 ,round-burner lamps have1 as well known1 two currents of air--an internal current which traverses the small tube that carries the wick1 and an external one which passes under the chimney-holder externally to the wick4 ,in giving the upper part of the chimney1 properly so called1 the form of a truncated cone whose smaller base is turned toward the internal current of air1 that is to say1 in directing this current toward the contracted part of the upper cone1 at the point where the depression is greatest1 a strong suction is brought about1 which has the effect of carrying along the air between the wick and glass1 and giving it its own velocity4 ,the draught of the two currents having been effected through the conical form of the upper part of the chimney1 it remained to regulate the entrance of the external current into the flame4 ,if this current should enter the latter at too sharp an angle1 it would carry it toward the mouth of the chimney before the chemical combustion of the carbon and oxygen was finished2 and if1 on the contrary1 it should traverse it at too obtuse an angle1 it would depress and contract it4 ,experience has shown that in the majority of cases the most favorable angle at which the external current of air can be led into the flame varies between #ce and #de4 ,we say in the majority of cases1 for there are exceptions2 this depends upon the combustive materials and upon the conditions under which they enter the flame4 ,the annexed figure shows the form adopted by the inventor for oil and kerosene lamps4 ,as may be seen1 the chimney consists of two cones1 ,a and ,b1 connected end to end by their small bases4 ,the upper one1 ,a1 or divergent cone1 is constructed according to a variable angle1 but one which1 in order to produce its maximum effect1 ought not to differ much from #e4 ,this cone rests upon the convergent one1 ,b1 whose angle1 as we have said1 varies between #ce and #de4 ,to the large base of this cone there is soldered a cylindrical part1 c1 designed for fixing the chimney to the holder4 ,the height given the divergent cone is likewise variable1 but a very beautiful light is obtained1 when it is equal to six times the diameter of the contracted part4 ,when the lamp is designed to be used in a still atmosphere1 free from abrupt currents of air1 the height may be reduced to four times the diameter of the base1 without the light being thereby rendered any the less bright4 ,as for the height to be given the convergent cone1 ,b1 that is determined by the opening of the angle according to which it has been constructed4 ,finally1 as a general thing1 the diameter of the small base should be equal to half the large base of the convergent cone1 ,b4 ,the new chimney should be placed upon the holder in such a way that the upper part of the wick tube1 ,d1 is a few millimeters beneath the base of the convergent cone4 ,the height to be given the wick varies according to the lamp used4 ,it is regulated so as to obtain a steady and regular combustion4 ,in oil lamps it must project about #a centimeters4 ,if two lamps of the same size be observed1 one of which is fitted with the new chimney and the other with the old style1 we shall be struck with the difference that exists in the color of the flame as well as in its intensity4 ,while in the case of the cylindrical glass the flame is red and dull1 in that of the circuit it is white and very bright4 ,this1 however1 is not surprising when we reflect upon the theoretical conditions upon which the construction of the new chimney is based--the strong influx of air having the result of causing a more active combustion of the liquid1 and consequently of raising to white heat the particles of carbon disseminated through the flame4 ,as it was of interest to ascertain what the increase of illuminating power was in a given lamp provided with the new chimney1 ,mr4 ,felix le ,blanc undertook some photometric experiments4 ,the trials were made with a ,gagneau lamp provided with a chimney of the ordinary shape1 and then with one of ,mr4 ,bayle's4 ,the measurements were made after each had been burned half an hour4 ,the light of the standard ,carcel lamp being #a1 there was obtained with the ,gagneau lamp with the ordinary chimney #a4aac carcels1 and with the ,bayle chimney #a4djd carcels4 ,thus #a4aac3a4djd represents the ratio of the same lamp with the ordinary chimney and with that of ,bayle4 ,whence it follows that the light of the lamp with the old chimney being #a1 that with the new one is #a4bf1 say an increase of about #be per cent4 ,there is nothing absolute about this figure1 however4 ,on kerosene lamps the new chimney1 compared with the contracted ,prussian one1 gives an increase of #dj per cent4 in illuminating power1 and the oil is burned without odor or smoke4 ,as it was of interest to see whether this increase in intensity was not due to a greater consumption of oil1 a determination was made of the quantity of the latter consumed per hour4 ,the ,gagneau lamp1 with the old chimney1 burned #fb4be grammes per hour1 and with the ,bayle #fc grammes in the same length of time4 ,it may be concluded1 then1 that the increase in light is due to the special form given the chimney4 ,this new burner is applicable to gas lamps as well as to oil and petroleum ones4 ,the effects obtained by the new chimney may be summed up as follows3 increase in illuminating power1 as a natural result of a better combustion2 suppression of smoke2 and a more active combustion1 which dries the carbon of the wick and thus facilitates the ascent of the oil4 ,the velocity of the current of air likewise facilitates the action of capillarity by carrying the oil to the top of the wick4 ,moreover1 the great influx of air under the flame continually cools the base of the chimney as well as the wick tube1 and the result is that the excess of oil falls limpid and unaltered into the reservoir1 and produces none of those gummy deposits that soil the external movements and clog up the conduits through which the oil ascends4 ,finally1 the influx of air produced by this chimney permits of burning1 without smoke and without charring the wick1 those oils of poor quality that are unfortunately too often met with in commerce4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,modern ,,locomotive ,,practice4 ,footnote3 ,paper read before the ,civil and ,mechanical ,engineers' ,society1 ,april #b1 #ahhd4 ,by ,h4 ,,michell ,,whitley1 ,assoc4 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,a little more than half a century ago1 but yet at a period not so far distant as to be beyond the remembrance of many still living1 a clear-headed ,north-countryman1 on the banks of the ,tyne1 was working out1 in spite of all opposition1 the great problem of adapting the steam engine to railway locomotion4 ,buoyed up by an almost prophetic confidence in his ultimate triumph over all obstacles1 he continued to labor to complete an invention which promised the grandest benefits to mankind4 ,what was thought of ,stephenson and his schemes may be judged by the following extracts from the ,quarterly ,review of #ahbe1 in which the introduction of locomotive traction is condemned in the most pointed manner3 ,as to those persons who speculate on making railways general throughout the kingdom1 and superseding every other mode of conveyance by land and water1 we deem them and their visionary schemes unworthy of notice4444 ,the gross exaggeration of the locomotive steam engine may delude for a time1 but must end in the mortification of all concerned4444 ,it is certainly some consolation to those who are to be whirled1 at the rate of #ah or #bj miles per hour1 by means of a high-pressure engine1 to be told that they are in no danger of being sea-sick while on shore1 that they are not to be scalded to death or drowned by the bursting of a boiler1 and that they need not mind being shot by the shattered fragments1 or dashed in pieces by the flying off or breaking of a wheel4 ,but with all these assurances1 we would as soon expect the people of ,woolwich to suffer themselves to be fired off upon one of ,congreve's ricochet rockets1 as trust themselves to the mercy of such a machine going at such a rate4 ,these words1 strange and ludicrous as they seem to us1 but tersely expressed the general opinion of the day2 but fortunately the clear head and the undaunted will persevered1 until success was at last attained1 and the magnificent railway system of the present1 which has revolutionized the world1 is the issue4 ,and the results are almost overwhelming in their magnitude4 ,here1 in ,great ,britain alone1 #fed1jjj1jjj people travel annually4 ,there are #ad1jjj locomotives1 and the rolling stock would form a train nearly #b1jjj miles long2 while the number of miles traveled in a year by trains is more than #aj1jjj times round the world2 and the passengers would form a procession #ajj abreast1 a yard apart1 and #c1gjj miles long4 ,these stupendous results have been attained gradually2 if we go back to #ahdh1 we find that on the ,london and ,birmingham ,railway the number of trains in and out of ,euston was forty-four per day4 ,the average weight of the engines was #ah tons1 and the gross loads were1 for passenger trains #gf tons1 and for goods #afj4 ,now1 the weight of an express engine and tender is about #fe tons1 and gross loads of #bej to #cjj tons for an express1 and #ejj tons for a coal train are not uncommon1 while not only have the trains materially increased in weight1 owing to the carriage of third-class passengers by all 7except a few special7 trains1 and also to the lowering of fares and consequent more frequent traveling1 but the speed1 and therefore the duty of the engines1 is greatly enhanced4 ,a ,bradshaw's ,guide of thirty-five years ago is now a rare book1 but it is very interesting to glance over its pages1 and in doing so it will be found that the fastest speed in all cases but one falls far short of that which obtains at present4 ,the following table will show what the alteration has been3 #ahdi4 #ahhd4 ,speed miles,speed miles per hour4 per hour4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,great ,western--,london to ,didcot4 #ef -- to ,swindon4 -- #ec ,north-,western--,euston to ,wolverton4 #cg -- ,northampton to ,willesden4 -- #ea ,south-,western--,waterloo to ,farnborough4 #ci -- ,yeovil to ,exeter4 -- #df ,brighton--,london ,bridge to ,reigate4 #cf -- ,victoria to ,eastbourne4 -- #de ,midland--,derby to ,masborough4 #dc -- ,london to ,kettering4 -- #dg ,north-,eastern--,york to ,darlington4 #ch -- -- #ej ,great ,eastern--,london to ,broxbourne4 #bi -- ,lincoln to ,spalding4 -- #di ,great ,northern--,king's ,cross to ,grantham4 -- #ea ,cheshire ,lines--,manchester to ,liverpool4 -- #ea ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,with this problem then before them1 increased weight1 increased speed1 and increased duty1 the locomotive superintendents of our various railways have designed numerous types of engines1 of which the author proposes to give a brief account1 confining himself entirely to ,english practice1 as foreign practice in addition would open too wide a field for a single paper4 ,commencing then with passenger engines for fast traffic1 and taking first in order the ,great ,western ,railway1 we find that it holds a unique position1 as its fast broad gauge trains are worked by the same type of engine as that designed by ,sir ,daniel ,grooch in #ahdh1 although1 of course1 the bulk of the stock has been rebuilt1 almost on the same lines1 and rendered substantially new engines4 ,they are single engines of #g ft4 gauge with inside cylinders #ah in4 diameter1 and #bd in4 stroke2 the driving-wheels are #h ft4 in diameter1 and there are two pairs of leading wheels1 and one of trailing1 all of #d ft4 #f in4 diameter4 ,the total wheel base is #ah ft4 #f in42 the boiler is #d ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and #aa ft4 #c in4 long4 ,the grate area is #ba square feet1 and the heating surface is1 in the fire-box1 #aec square feet2 tubes1 #a1hjj square feet2 total1 #a1iec square feet4 ,the weight in full working order is1 on the four leading wheels1 #ae ton #ah cwt42 driving wheels1 #af tons2 trailing wheels1 #i tons #aj cwt42 total1 #da tons #h cwt4 ,the tender1 which is low-sided and very graceful in appearance1 weighs #ae tons #aj cwt41 and will hold #b1gjj gallons of water4 ,the boiler pressure is #adj lb4 on the square inch1 and the tractive power per pound of steam pressure in the cylinders is #ha lb4 ,these engines take the fast trains to the ,west of ,england2 the ,flying ,dutchman averages #agj tons gross load1 and runs at a mean time-table speed of #ec miles per hour1 which allowing for starting1 stopping1 and slowing down to #be miles per hour through ,didcot gives a speed of nearly #fj miles an hour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,great ,,western ,,railway4 ,the average consumption of coal per mile1 of thirteen of these engines1 with the express trains between ,london and ,bristol1 during the half-year averaged #bd4fg lb4 per mile1 the lowest being #bc4bb lb41 and the highest #bf4ag lb41 the average load being about eight coaches1 or #bdc tons4 ,we have already seen that in #ahdi the ,great ,western express ran at a higher rate than at present1 being an exception to the general rule2 and the fastest journey on record was performed at this time by one of these engines1 when on ,may #ad1 #ahdh1 the ,great ,britain took this ,bristol express1 consisting of four coaches and a van1 to ,didcot1 fifty-three miles1 in forty-seven minutes1 or at the average speed of sixty-eight miles an hour4 ,the maximum running speed was seventy-five miles an hour1 and the indicated horse-power #a1jjj4 ,a class of engines corresponding to this type in their general dimensions1 but with #g ft4 coupled wheels1 was introduced on the line1 but it was not found successful4 ,through the courtesy of ,mr4 ,dean1 ,i am enabled to give a table showing the running speeds and loads of the principal express trains1 broad and narrow gauge1 to the ,west and ,north of ,england1 run on the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,great ,western ,railway4--,average ,speed and ,weight of ,express ,trains4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,speed to first stopping station4 ,weight of train4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,average ,train4 speed-- ,engine ,carriages miles per and and vans1 ,station,distance hour4 tender4 empty4 ,total ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- miles tons4 tons4 ,,broad ,,gauge ,,to ,,west ,,of ,,england3 #i4j ,paddington to ,reading #cf #dg #fg #adi #baf ,plymouth #aa4de do4 ,swindon #gg #ec #fg #ajd #aga ,,narrow ,,gauge ,,to ,,the ,,north #aj4j ,paddington to,reading #cf #ci4b #fj #aij #bej ,birkenhead #d4de do4 ,oxford #fc #dh4h #fj #abi #ahi ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fig #b4--;,,great ,,western ,,railway4 ,the narrow gauge trains are worked by two classes of engines4 ,the first is a single engine with inside cylinders #ah in4 diameter1 #bd in4 stroke4 ,the driving wheels are #g ft4 diameter1 and the leading and trailing wheels #d ft4 ,the frames are double1 giving outside bearings to the leading and trailing axles1 and outside and inside bearings to the driving axle2 this arrangement gives a very steady running engine1 and insures1 as far as can possibly be done1 safety in case of the fracture of a crank axle4 ,the frames are #ae inches deep1 of ,,bb ,staffordshire iron4 ,the wheel base is1 leading to driving wheels1 #h ft4 #f in2 driving to trailing wheels1 #i ft42 total1 #ag ft4 #f in4 ,the boiler is of ,lowmoor iron1 #aj ft4 #f in4 long and #d ft4 #b in4 outside diameter4 ,the grate area is #ag square feet1 and the heating surface is1 tubes1 #a1ade square feet2 fire-box #acc square feet2 total1 #a1bgh square feet4 ,the boiler pressure is #adj lb4 on the square inch1 and the tractive power per lb4 of mean pressure in cylinders1 #ib lb4 ,the weight in full working order is1 engine1 leading wheel1 #aj tons2 ditto driving wheels1 #ad tons2 ditto trailing wheels1 #i tons #aj cwt42 tender1 with #dj cwt4 coal and #b1fjj gals4 water1 #bf tons #aj cwt42 total1 #fj tons4 ,these engines are extremely simple1 but well proportioned1 and are a very handsome type1 and their average consumption of coal1 working trains averaging ten coaches1 is about #bd4hg lb4 per mile4 ,the standard coupled passenger express engine on the narrow gauge has inside cylinders #ag in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke2 the coupled wheels are #f ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and the leading wheels #d ft42 the wheel base is #af ft4 #i in4 ,the frames are double1 giving outside bearings to the leading axle1 and inside bearings to the coupled wheels4 ,the boiler is #aa ft4 long by #d ft4 #b in4 diameter2 the grate area is #af4be square feet2 and the heating surface is1 tubes1 #a1baf4e square feet2 fire-box1 #ig4j square feet2 total1 #a1cac4e square feet4 ,the boiler pressure is #adj lb41 and the tractive power per lb4 of steam pressure in the cylinders1 #hh lb4 ,the weight in full working order is on the leading wheels1 #aj tons #e cwt42 driving wheels1 #aa tons2 trailing wheels1 #i tons #ae cwt42 total1 #ca tons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,london ,,north-,,western ,,railway4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,joy',s ,,valve ,,gear4 ,turning now to the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway1 we find that between #ahfb and #ahfe the express trains were worked with a handsome type of engines1 known as the ,lady of the ,lake class4 ,they have outside cylinders #af in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke1 with single driving wheels of #g ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and leading and trailing wheels #c ft4 #f in4 diameter1 with a total wheel base of #ae ft4 #e in4 ,the frames are single1 with inside bearings to all the wheels4 ,the boiler is #aa ft4 long and #d ft4 diameter1 and the heating surface is in the tubes1 #a1jac feet2 fire-box1 #he ft42 total1 #a1jih feet4 ,the tractive power per lb4 of steam pressure in the cylinders is #fh lb4 ,the weight in full working order is on the leading wheels1 #i tons #h cwt42 driving wheels1 #aa tons #aj cwt42 trailing wheels1 #f tons #b cwt42 total1 #bg tons4 ,the tender weighs #ag tons in working order4 ,these engines burn about #bg lb4 of coal per mile with trains of the gross weight of #aag tons1 which is not at all an economical duty4 ,about #ahgb1 the weight of the heavier express trains on the ,north-,western had so increased1 that a new standard type for this service was designed1 and is now the standard passenger engine2 it has inside cylinders #ag in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke2 the driving and trailing wheels are coupled1 and are #f ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and the leading wheels #c ft4 #f in4 ,the frames of steel are single1 with inside bearings to all the wheels1 and the boiler1 of steel1 is #i ft4 #aj in4 long and #d ft4 #b in4 diameter4 ,the steel used has a tensile strength of #cb to #cd tons per square inch1 all the rivets are put in by hydraulic pressure1 and the magnetic oxide on the surface of the plates where they overlap is washed off by a little weak sal-ammoniac and water4 ,in testing1 steam is first got up to #cj lb4 on the square inch1 the boiler is then allowed to cool1 it is then proved to #bjj lb4 with hydraulic pressure1 and afterward to #afj lb4 with steam4 ,the fire-box is of copper1 fitted with a fire brick arch for coal burning1 and the grate area is #ae square feet4 ,the heating surface is1 in the tubes1 #a1jac square feet2 fire-box1 #hi square feet2 total1 #a1ajb square feet4 ,the wheel base is #ae ft4 #h in41 and the tractive power #hh lb4 for each lb4 of steam pressure in the cylinders4 ,these engines1 working the fast passenger trains at a speed of about #de miles per hour1 burn about #ce lb4 of coal per mile1 when taking trains weighing about #bcj tons gross4 ,a variation from this type has been adopted on the ,northern and ,welsh sections1 known as the ,precursor class4 ,these engines have #e ft4 #f in4 coupled wheels1 and weigh #ca tons #h cwt4 in working order1 but in other respects are very similar to the standard engines just described2 with the ,scotch express1 averaging in total weight #ahg tons1 between ,crewe and ,carlisle1 over heavy gradients1 they burn #cc lb4 of coal per mile4 ,these engines1 although much more powerful than the standard type1 are not nearly of so handsome an appearance1 the drivers seeming much too small for the boiler under which they are placed4 ,but by far the boldest innovation on existing practice is the new class of compound locomotives now being introduced by ,mr4 ,webb4 ,it is a six wheel engine1 with leading wheels #d ft4 diameter1 and two pairs of drivers1 #f ft4 #f in4 diameter4 ,the trailing drivers are driven by a pair of outside cylinders1 #ah in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke2 and the leading drivers by a single low-pressure cylinder--which takes the exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylinders--of #bf in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke1 placed under the center of the smoke-box4 ,the boiler is the same as that in the standard type of engine1 but the wheel base is #ag ft4 #g in41 and in order to allow it to traverse curves easily1 the front axle is fitted with a radial axle-box1 which is in one casting from journal to journal1 and fitted at each end with brass steps for the bearings2 the box is radial1 struck from the center of the rigid wheel base1 and the horn plates are curved to suit the box1 the lateral motion being controlled by strong springs4 ,another peculiarity of this engine is that1 instead of the ordinary link motion1 it is fitted with ,joy's valve gear1 which is now being more and more adopted4 ,this gear--which is of a most ingenious decription--dispenses altogether with eccentrics1 and so allows the inside bearings to be much increased1 those on these engines being #ac in4 long2 and it is also claimed for it that it is simpler and less costly1 weighs less1 and is more correct in its action than the ordinary link motion2 the friction is less1 the working parts are simplified1 it takes less oil1 and is well under the driver's eye4 ,it also allows larger cylinders to be got in between the frames of inside cylinder engines1 as1 the slide valves may be placed on the top or bottom of the cylinders4 ,this latter advantage is a great one1 as1 with the ordinary link motion1 large cylinders are exceedingly difficult to design so as to get the requisite clear exhaust4 ,the action of the gear is as follows3 ,a rod1 a1 is fixed by a pin at b1 on which it is free to turn1 and is attached to a rod1 c1 at d1 the other end of which link is fastened to the connecting rod at e4 ,at the point1 f1 in this rod another lever1 g1 is connected to it1 the upper end of which is coupled to the valve rod1 h1 at i1 and just below this point a second connection is made to a block at j1 sliding in a short curved piece1 k4 ,the inclination of the block1 k1 governs the travel of the valve4 ,the total weight of the engine in working order is3 ,on the leading wheels1 #aj tons #h cwt42 front drivers1 #ad tons #d cwt42 rear drivers1 #ac tons #aj cwt42 total1 #cg4ge tons4 ,the tender weighs #be tons in full working order4 ,the boiler pressure is #aej lb41 and the usual point of cut-off in the high pressure cylinders1 when running at speed1 is half-stroke1 while the pressure of steam admitted to the large cylinder is never to exceed #ge lb4 per square inch4 ,the average consumption of coal between ,london and ,crewe is #bf4f lb4 per train mile1 or about #h lb4 per mile less than the standard coupled engine4 ,in an experiment made in ,october1 #ahhc1 one of these engines took the ,scotch express from ,euston to ,carlisle at an average speed1 between stations1 of #dd miles an hour1 the engine1 tender1 and train weighing #bcj tons1 with a consumption of #bi lb4 of coal per mile1 and an evaporation of #h4e lb4 of water per pound of fuel4 ,mr4 ,webb's object1 in designing this engine was to secure in the first place a greater economy of fuel1 and secondly1 to do away with coupling rods1 while at the same time obtaining greater adhesion1 with the freedom of a single engine4 ,the cost is much more than an ordinary locomotive1 but the saving in fuel is said to be #bj per cent4 over the other engines of the ,north ,western ,rail way4 ,these engines run very sweetly1 and are said to steam freely1 although with only half the usual number of blasts2 but from the small size of the high pressure cylinders1 they are liable to slip when starting heavy trains1 as the low pressure cylinders are not then effective1 while the consumption of coal does not seem to show the saving that would have been expected1 when compared with ordinary engines doing similar duty on other lines2 for instance1 the ,great ,northern single engine takes trains of the same weight with the same consumption of coal and at a somewhat higher speed4 ,but it must1 of course1 be borne in mind in making such a comparison1 that the fuel used may not be of the same quality4 ,mr4 ,stirling1 of the ,great ,northern1 has adopted an entirely different type of engine to those last described4 ,holding strongly that single engines are more economical not only in running1 but in repairs1 and that cylinder power is generally inadequate to the adhesion1 he has designed his magnificent well-known class of express engines4 ,they have single driving wheels #h ft4 in diameter1 with a four-wheel bogie in front and a pair of trailing wheels1 #d ft4 diameter1 behind4 ,the frames are single1 and inside of one solid piece2 the cylinders are outside #ah in4 diameter and #bh in4 stroke2 and the valve gear is of the usual shifting link description4 ,the boiler is of ,yorkshire plates1 #aa ft4 #e in4 long and #d ft4 diameter1 and the steam pressure is #adj lb42 while the tractive power per lb4 of steam in the cylinders is #id lb4 ,the fire-box is of copper1 and the roof is stayed to the outer shell by wrought iron radiating stays screwed into both2 a sloping mid-feather is placed in the fire-box4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,great ,,northern ,,railway4 ,the tubes1 #bag in number1 are of brass1 #a-i_/af in4 diameter2 and the heating surface is in the tubes1 #a1jdc square feet2 fire-box1 #abb square feet2 total1 #a1afe square feet4 ,the fire-grate area is #ag4f square feet4 ,the wheel base from the center of the bogie pin to the trailing axle is #ai ft4 #e in41 and the weight in working order is1 on the bogie wheels1 #ae tons2 driving wheels1 #ae tons2 trailing wheels1 #h tons2 total1 #ch tons4 ,the tender weighs #bg tons4 ,these engines are remarkable for their efficiency2 the traffic of the ,great ,northern ,railway is exceedingly heavy1 and the trains run at a high rate1 the average speed of the ,flying ,scotchman being fifty miles an hour1 and no train in the kingdom keeps better time4 ,those who remember this express at ,york in the icy winter of #ahgi-hj1 when the few travelers who did not remain thawing themselves at the waiting-room fires used to stamp up and down a sawdusted platform1 under a darkened roof1 while day after day the train came gliding in from ,grantham with couplings like wool1 icicles pendent from the carriage eaves1 and an air of punctual unconcern2 or those who have known some of our other equally sterling trains--these will hardly mind if friendship does let them drift into exaggeration when speaking of expresses4 ,the author well remembers how1 when living some years ago at ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 it was often his custom to stroll on the platform of the ,central ,station to watch the arrival of the ,flying ,scotchman1 and as the hands of the station clock marked seven minutes past four he would turn around1 and in nine cases out of ten the express was gliding into the station1 punctual to the minute after its run of #bgb miles4 ,such results speak for themselves1 and for the power of the engines employed1 and one of the best runs on record was that of the special train1 drawn by one of these locomotives1 which in #ahhj took the ,lord ,mayor of ,london1 to ,scarborough4 ,the train consisted of six ,great ,northern coaches1 and ran the #ahh miles to ,york in #bag minutes1 including a stop of ten minutes at ,grantham1 or at the average rate of #ed miles an hour4 ,the speed from ,grantham to ,york1 #hb miles1 with three slowing downs at ,retford1 ,doncaster1 and ,selby1 averaged #eg miles an hour1 and the #ei miles from ,claypole1 near ,newark1 to ,selby1 were run in #fj minutes1 and for #bb consecutive miles the speed was #fd miles an hour4 ,in ordinary working these engines convey trains of sixteen to twenty-six coaches from ,king's-,cross with ease1 and often twenty-eight are taken and time kept4 ,considering that the ,great ,northern main line rises almost continuously to ,potter's ,bar1 #ac miles1 with gradients varying from #a in #aje to #a in #bjj1 this is a very high duty1 while1 with regard to speed1 they have run with sixteen coaches for #ae miles at the rate of #ge miles an hour4 ,their consumption of coal with trains averaging sixteen ten ton carriages is #bg lb4 per mile1 or #h lb4 per mile less than the standard coupled engine of the ,north-,western with similar loads4 ,mr4 ,stirling's view1 that the larger the wheel the better the adhesion1 seems borne out of these facts2 thus to take twenty-eight coaches1 or a gross load of #cde tons1 up #a in #bjj at a speed of #ce miles an hour1 would require an adhesive force of #h1igj lb41 or #fjj lb4 per ton--more than a quarter the weight on the driving wheels4 ,these engines are magnificent samples of the most powerful express engines of the present day4 ,the ,london1 ,brighton1 and ,south ,coast ,railway ,company has in the last few years had its locomotive stock almost entirely replaced1 and instead of seventy-two different varieties of engines out of a total of #bcc1 which was the state of locomotive stock in #ahga4 a small number of well-considered types1 suited to the different class of work required1 are now in use4 ,mr4 ,stroudley considers--contrary to the opinion once almost universally held--that engines with a high center of gravity are the safest to traverse curves at high speed1 as the centrifugal force throws the greatest weight on the outer wheels1 and prevents their mounting2 also that the greatest weight should be on the leading wheels1 and that there is no objection to these wheels being of a much larger diameter than that usually adopted2 in fact1 by coupling the leading and driving wheels where the main weight is placed a lighter load is thrown on the trailing wheels1 thus enabling them to traverse curves at a high speed with safety1 while it permits of a larger fire-box being used2 and these principles have been carried out in the newest class of engines1 especially designed for working the heavy fast passenger traffic of the line4 ,the modern express engines are of two types4 ,the first is a single engine with #f ft4 #f in4 driving wheels1 and leading and trailing wheels #d ft4 #f in4 in diameter and a wheel base of #ae ft4 #i in4 ,the frames are single1 with inside bearings to all the wheels2 the cylinders are inside1 #ag in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke4 ,the boiler is #aj ft4 #b in4 long and #d ft4 #c in4 diameter2 the fire-box is of copper with a fire-grate area of #ag4h square feet1 and the heating surface is in the tubes #a1jhj square feet1 fire-box #ajb square feet2 total1 #aahb square feet4 ,the weight in working order is about #ce tons4 ,these engines have a tractive power of #hi lb4 per pound of mean steam pressure in the cylinders1 and their consumption of coal with trains averaging nine coaches is about #bj lb4 per mile4 ,the next type of engine designed has coupled wheels under the barrel of the boiler #f ft4 #f in4 diameter1 with cylinders #ag in4 diameter and #bf in4 stroke1 and were found so successful that ,mr4 ,stroudley designed a more powerful engine of the same class1 especially to take the heaviest fast trains in all weathers4 ,the #h3de ,a4,m4 train from ,brighton has grown to be one of the heaviest fast trains in the kingdom1 although the distance it runs is but very short1 while it is also exceptional in consisting entirely of first class coaches1 and the passengers mainly season ticket holders2 it often weighs in the gross #cej tons1 and to take this weight at a mean speed of forty-five to fifty miles an hour over gradients of #a in #bfd is no light work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,london1 ,,brighton1 ,,and ,,south ,,coast ,,railway4 ,the engines known as the ,gladstone type have inside cylinders #ah in4 diameter and #bf in4 stroke1 with coupled wheels #f ft4 #f in4 diameter under the barrel of the boiler2 the trailing wheels are #d ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and the total wheel base is #ae ft4 #g in4 ,the frames are inside1 of steel #a in4 thick1 with inside bearings to all the axles4 ,the cylinders are cast in one piece #b ft4 #a in4 apart1 but in order to get them so close together the valves are placed below the cylinders1 the leading axle coming between the piston and slide valve4 ,the boiler is of iron1 #aj ft4 #b in4 long1 and #d ft4 #f in4 diameter2 and the heating surface is1 in the tubes1 #a1cgc square feet2 fire-box1 #aab square feet2 total1 #a1dhe square feet4 ,the grate area is #bj4fe square feet1 and the tractive power per pound of mean cylinder pressure is #aaa lb4 ,the weight in full working order is--leading wheels1 #ac tons #af cwt42 driving wheels1 #ad tons #aj cwt42 trailing wheels1 #aj tons #h cwt42 total1 #ch tons #ad cwt4 ,the tender weighs #bg tons4 ,to enable these engines to traverse curves easily a special arrangement of draw-bar is used1 consisting of a ,t-piece with a wheel at each end working in a curved path in the back of the frame under the foot plate2 on the back buffer beam a curved plate abuts against a rubbing piece on the tender1 through which the draw-bar is passed and screwed up against an ,india-rubber washer1 thus allowing the engine to move free of the tender as the curvature of the road road requires2 the flanges on the driving wheel are also cut away1 so as not to touch the rail4 ,in order to reduce the wear of the leading flanges1 a jet of steam from the exhaust is directed against the outer side of each wheel4 ,the center line of the boiler is #g ft4 #e in4 above the rails1 and the tubes1 of which there are as many as #cca1 are bent upward #a in41 which permits expansion and contraction to take place without starting the tubes1 and they are stated never to leak or give trouble4 ,the feed-water is heated by a portion of the exhaust steam and the exhaust from the ,westinghouse brake1 and the boiler is consequently fed by pumps1 is kept cleaner1 and makes steam better4 ,the reversing gear is automatic and exceedingly ingenious1 the compressed air from the ,westinghouse brake reservoir being employed to do the heavy work4 ,a cylinder #d in4 diameter is fitted with a piston and rod attached to the nut of the reversing screw1 and a three-way cock supplies the compressed air behind the piston2 this forces the engine into back gear1 and by allowing the air to escape1 the weight of the valve motion puts the engine in forward gear4 ,there are no balance weights1 and the screw regulates the movement4 ,there is also a very ingenious speed indicator1 which consists of a small brass case filled with water1 in which is a small fan driven by a cord from the driving wheel2 a copper pipe leads from the fan case to a glass gauge tube2 the faster the fan runs the higher the water will stand in the tube1 thus indicating the speed4 ,the author has been led to describe this engine fully on account of the numerous ingenious appliances which have been adopted in its design4 ,in a trial trip on ,october #c1 #ahhc1 from ,brighton to ,london ,bridge and back1 with an average load of #ai coaches1 or #bhe tons gross1 and with a speed of #de miles per hour1 the consumption of coal was #ca lb4 per train mile1 evaporating #h4de lb4 of water per pound of coal1 and with as much as #a1ajj indicated horse-power at one portion of the run4 ,the finish and painting of these engines is well considered1 but the large coupled wheels give a very high shouldered appearance1 and as a type they are not nearly as handsome as the single engines previously described4 ,from the ,brighton to the ,south-,western ,railway is but a step2 but here a totally different practice obtains to that adopted on most lines1 all the passenger engines having outside cylinders1 where they are more exposed to damage in case of accident1 and1 from being less protected1 there is more condensation of steam1 while the width between the cylinders tends to make an unsteady running engine at high speeds1 unless the balancing is perfect2 but the costly crank axle1 with its risk of fracture1 is avoided1 and the center of gravity of the boiler may be consequently lowered1 while larger cylinders may be employed4 ,on the other hand1 inside cylinders are well secured1 protected1 and kept hot in the smoke-box1 thus minimizing the condensation of steam4 ,the steam ports are short1 and the engine runs steadier at high speeds1 while with ,joy's valve gear much larger cylinders can be got in than with the link motion4 ,thus modern improvements have minimized the advantages of the outside class4 ,the passenger engines for the fast traffic are of two types1 the six-wheel engines with #g ft4 coupled wheels1 and the new bogie engines which are being built to replace them4 ,the former have #ag in4 cylinders with #bb in4 stroke1 and a pair of coupled wheels #g ft4 in diameter1 the leading wheels being #d ft4 diameter1 and the wheel base #ad ft4 #c in4 ,the grate area is #af4a square feet1 and the heating surface #a1ada square feet4 ,the total weight in working order is #cc tons4 ,the chief peculiarity of this type of engine consists in the boiler1 which is fitted with a combustion chamber stocked with perforated bricks1 the tubes being only #e ft4 #d in4 long4 ,these engines are very expensive to build and maintain1 owing to the complicated character of the boiler and fire-box1 but as a coal burning engine there is no doubt the class was very efficient1 but no more are being built1 and a new type has been substituted4 ,this is an outside cylinder bogie engine1 with cylinders #ah in4 diameter and #bf in4 stroke2 the driving and trailing coupled wheels are #f ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and the bogie wheels #c ft4 #c in4 ,the wheel base to the center of the bogie pin is #ah ft4 #f in42 the heating surface is1 in the tubes1 #a1aab2 fire box1 #ajd2 total1 #a1baf sq4 ft4 ,the weight of the engine in working order is #db tons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,midland ,,railway4 ,the ,midland ,railway route to the ,north is distinguished by the heavy nature of its gradients2 between ,settle and ,carlisle1 running through the ,cumberland hills1 attaining a height of #a1agj ft4 above sea level1 the highest point of any express route in the kingdom2 and to work heavy fast traffic over such a line necessitates the employment of coupled engines4 ,the standard express locomotive of this company has inside cylinders #ah in4 in diameter and #bf in4 stroke4 ,the coupled wheels are #f ft4 #i in4 diameter1 and the leading wheels #d ft4 #c in41 the total wheel base being #af ft4 #f in41 and the tractive force #ajd lb4 for each lb4 of mean cylinder pressure4 ,the boiler is of best ,yorkshire iron1 #aj ft4 #d in4 long and #d ft4 #a in4 diameter4 ,the grate area is #ag4e square feet1 and the heating surface is1 in the tubes1 #a1jif2 fire-box1 #aaj2 total1 #a1bjf4 ,there are double frames to give outside bearings to the leading axle1 as in the ,great ,western engine1 and the engine is fitted with a steam brake4 ,the weight in full working order is--leading wheels1 #ab tons #b cwt42 driving wheels1 #ae tons2 trailing wheels1 #aa tons #f cwt42 total1 #ch tons #h cwt4 ,the tender weighs #bf tons #b cwt41 and holds #c1cjj gallons of water and #e tons of coal4 ,latterly a fine type of bogie express engine has been introduced1 with inside cylinders #ah in4 diameter and #bf in4 stroke1 and four coupled driving wheels #g ft4 diameter4 ,the total wheel base to the center of the bogie pin is #ah ft4 #f in4 ,the grate area is #ag4e square feet1 and the heating surface is1 in tubes1 #a1bjc square feet1 and fire-box1 #aaj2 total1 #a1cac2 and the engine weighs #db tons in working order4 ,these engines take fourteen coaches1 or a gross load of #bbb tons1 at #ej miles an hour over gradients of #a in #abj to #a in #acj1 with a consumption of #bh lb4 of coal per mile4 ,the ,london1 ,chatham1 and ,dover ,company has also some fine engines of a similar type4 ,they have inside cylinders #ag in4 diameter and #bf in4 stroke2 the coupled wheels are #f ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and the bogie wheels #c ft4 #f in41 the wheel base to the center of the bogie pin being #ah ft4 #b in4 ,the boiler is #aj ft4 #b in4 long and #d ft4 #b in4 diameter1 the grate area is #af4c square feet1 and the heating surface is1 in the tubes1 #ifb square feet2 fire-box1 #ajg square feet2 total1 #a1jfi4 ,the boiler pressure is #adj lb41 and the tractive force per lb4 of steam in the cylinder #ajb lb4 ,the weight in full working order is1 on the bogie wheels1 #ae tons #aj cwt42 driving wheels1 #ac tons #aj cwt42 trailing wheels1 #ac tons2 total1 #db tons4 ,mr4 ,worsdell has lately designed for the ,great ,eastern ,railway a fine type of coupled express engine1 which deserves mention4 ,it has inside cylinders #ah in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke1 with coupled wheels #g ft4 diameter and leading wheels #d ft4 diameter1 the latter being fitted with a radial axle on a somewhat similar plan to that previously described as adopted by ,mr4 ,webb for the new ,north-,western engines2 the frames are single1 with inside bearings to all the wheels1 and ,joy's valve gear is used4 ,the boiler pressure is #adj lb41 and the tractive power per lb4 of mean cylinder pressure #ib lb4 ,the total wheel base is #ag ft4 #f in4 ,the boiler1 which is fed by two injectors1 is of steel1 #aa ft4 #e in4 long and #d ft4 #b in4 diameter4 ,the grate area is #ag4c square feet1 and the heating surface is1 in the tubes1 #a1jhc2 fire-box1 #aag2 total1 #a1bjj sq4 ft4 ,the weight in working order is1 on the leading wheels1 #ab tons #ai cwt42 driving wheels1 #ae tons2 trailing wheels1 #ac tons #d cwt42 total1 #da tons #c cwt4 ,these engines burn #bg lb4 of coal per train mile with trains averaging thirteen coaches4 ,it has been seen that the ,cheshire lines express between ,liverpool and ,manchester is one of the fastest in ,england1 and the ,manchester1 ,sheffield1 and ,lincolnshire ,railway ,company1 who works the trains1 has just introduced a new class of engine specially for this and other express trains on the line4 ,the cylinders are outside1 #ag in4 diameter and #bf in4 stroke1 with single driving wheels #g ft4 #e in4 diameter1 the leading and trailing wheels being #c ft4 #h in4 diameter4 ,the total wheel base is #ae ft4 #i in41 and the frames are double1 giving outside bearings to the leading and trailing axles1 and inside bearings to the driving axle4 ,the boiler is #aa ft4 #f in4 long and #c ft4 #aa in4 diameter1 and the grate area is #ag square feet4 ,the heating surface is in the tubes #a1jeg square feet2 fire-box1 #hg square feet2 total1 #a1add square feet4 ,the tractive force per pound of mean cylinder pressure is #hh4d lb4 ,the weight in full working order is1 on the leading wheels1 #aa tons #c cwt42 driving wheels1 #ag tons #aa cwt42 trailing wheels1 #aa tons #ah cwt42 total1 #dj tons #ab cwt4 ,this engine is remarkable for the great weight thrown on the driving wheels1 and its cylinder power is great in proportion to its adhesion1 thus allowing the steam to be worked at a high rate of expansion1 which is most favorable to the economical consumption of fuel4 ,there are numerous fine engines running on other lines1 such as the new bogie locomotives on the ,north-,eastern and ,lancashire and ,yorkshire railways1 and the coupled express engines on the ,caledonian2 but those already described represent fairly the lending features of modern practice1 and the author will now notice briefly the two other classes of engines--tank passenger engines for suburban and local traffic and goods engines4 ,the ,brighton tank passenger engine is a good example of the former class2 it has inside cylinders #ag in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke4 ,the two coupled wheels under the barrel of the boiler are #e ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and the trailing wheels #d ft4 #f in42 there are single frames with inside bearings to all the axles4 ,the boiler pressure is #adj lb41 and the tractive force per pound of mean cylinder pressure #ajf lb42 the total wheel base is #ad ft4 #f in4 ,the boiler is #aj ft4 #b in4 long and #d ft4 #d in4 diameter1 and the heating surface is in the tubes1 #heh square feet2 fire-box1 #ij square feet2 total1 #idh square feet4 ,the engine is furnished with wing tanks holding #hfj gallons of water1 and carries #cj cwt4 of coal4 ,the weight in working order is #ch tons4 ,these engines have taken a maximum load of twenty-five coaches between ,london and ,brighton1 but are mainly employed in working the suburban and branch line traffic2 their average consumption of coal is #bc4e lb4 per mile1 with trains averaging about ten coaches4 ,another example is ,mr4 ,webb's tank engine on the ,north-,western ,railway1 which presents a contrast to the foregoing4 ,it has inside cylinders #ag in4 diameter and #bj in4 stroke1 coupled wheels #d ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and a tractive power per lb4 of mean cylinder pressure of #ajg lb42 the wheel base is #ad ft4 #f in4 with a radial box to the leading axle2 the heating surface is in the tubes1 #hhg2 fire-box1 #hd2 total1 #iga square feet2 the weight in working order is #ce tons #ae cwt4 ,the engine is fitted with ,webb's hydraulic brake1 and steel1 manufactured at ,crewe1 is largely used in its construction4 ,the consumption of coal-working fast passenger trains has been #bh lb4 per mile4 ,there are many other types1 such as the ten wheel bogie tank engines of the ,london1 ,tilbury1 and ,southend and ,south-,western railways2 the saddle tank bogie engines1 working the broad gauge trains on the ,great ,western ,railway1 west of ,newton2 and the familiar class working the ,metropolitan and ,north ,london traffic4 ,but the same principle is adopted in nearly all--a flexible wheel base to enable them to traverse sharp curves1 small driving wheels coupled for adhesion1 and wing or saddle tanks to take the water4 ,one notable exception is1 however1 the little six wheel all-coupled engines weighing only #bd tons1 which work the ,south ,london traffic1 burning #bd lb4 of coal per mile1 with an average load of eleven coaches4 ,goods engines on all lines do not vary much4 ,as a rule they are six wheel all-coupled engines1 with generally #e ft4 wheels1 and cylinders varying between #ag in4 and #ah in4 diameter and #bd in4 to #bf in4 stroke2 the grate area is about #ag square feet1 and the total heating surface from #a1jjj to #a1bjj sq4 ft42 the average weight in full working order varies from #cj to #ch tons4 ,one noteworthy exception occurs1 however1 on the ,great ,eastern ,railway1 where a type of goods engine with a pony truck in front has been introduced4 ,the cylinders are outside #ai in4 diameter and #bf in4 stroke1 there are six coupled wheels #d ft4 #aj in4 diameter1 and the pony truck wheels are #b ft4 #aj in4 diameter2 the total wheel wheel base is #bc ft4 #b in41 but there are no flanges on the driving wheels4 ,the boiler is #aa ft4 #e in4 long and #d ft4 #e in4 diameter1 the boiler pressure is #adj lb41 and the tractive force per lb4 of mean cylinder pressure #afb lb42 the grate area is #ah4c square feet1 and the heating surface is in the tubes1 #a1ccd square feet2 fire-box1 #abb square feet2 total1 #a1def square feet4 ,the weight in working order is on the pony truck1 #h tons #aj cwt42 leading coupled1 #ab tons #h cwt42 driving coupled1 #ac tons #e cwt42 trailing coupled1 #ab tons #ae cwt42 total1 #dg tons4 ,the tender weighs #bh tons in full working order4 ,these engines take #dj loaded coal trucks or sixty empty ones1 and burn #eb lb4 of coal per train mile1 the worst gradient being #a in #agf4 ,a notice of goods engines would not be complete without alluding to a steep gradient locomotive1 and a good example is the engine which works the ,redheugh ,bank on the ,north-,eastern ,railway4 ,this incline is #a1jdj yards long1 and rises for #egj yards #a in #cc1 then for #bfj yards #a in #ba4g1 for #bjj yards #a in #be1 and finally for #aaj yards #a in #bg4 ,the engine1 which is an all-coupled six wheel tank engine1 weighs #dh tons in working order1 it has cylinders #ah in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke1 and #d ft4 wheels1 the boiler pressure is #afj lb41 and the tractive force per lb4 of mean steam pressure in the cylinders is #afb lb4 ,this engine will take up the incline twenty-six coal wagons1 or a gross load of #bah tons1 which is a very good duty indeed4 ,having now passed in review the general types of engines adopted in modern ,english practice1 the author would briefly draw attention to some points of design and some improvements effected in late years4 ,and first1 as to the question of single or coupled engines1 there is a great diversity of opinion4 ,mr4 ,stirling conducts his traffic at a higher rate of speed1 and certainly with equal punctuality1 with his magnificent single #h ft4 engines1 as ,mr4 ,webb on the ,north-,western with coupled engines1 and the economy of fuel of the former class over the latter is very remarkable2 this is1 no doubt1 owing1 as has been previously pointed out1 to their ample cylinder power1 which permits of the steam being worked at a high rate of expansion4 ,there is no doubt that if single engines can take the load they will do so more freely and at a less cost than coupled engines1 burning on the average #b lb4 of coal per mile less with similar trains4 ,with1 regard to loads1 it is a question whether any express train should be made up with more than twenty-five coaches4 ,the ,great ,northern engine will take twenty-six and keep time1 and the ,brighton single engine has taken the five ,p4,m4 express from ,london ,bridge to ,brighton1 consisting of twenty-two coaches1 at a speed of forty-five miles per hour4 ,of course where heavy gradients have to be surmounted1 such as those on the ,midland route to ,scotland1 coupled engines are a necessity4 ,single engines are said to slip more than coupled2 thus an #h ft4 single ,great ,northern engine running down the incline from ,potter's ,bar to ,wood ,green with twelve coaches at the rate of sixty miles an hour was found to be making #bdb revolutions per mile instead of #baj2 and in an experiment tried on the ,midland ,railway it was found that a coupled engine with ten coaches at fifty miles an hour made seventeen extra revolutions a mile1 but when the side rods were removed it made forty-three4 ,the ,great ,western1 ,great ,northern1 and ,brighton mainly employ single engines for their fast traffic2 and the ,manchester1 ,sheffield1 and ,lincolnshire have now adopted the single type in preference to the coupled for their express trains2 while the ,north-,western1 ,midland1 ,south-,western1 and ,chatham adopted the coupled type4 ,one noticeable feature in modern practice is the increased height of the center line of boiler2 formerly it was the great aim to keep this low1 and numerous schemes to this effect were propounded1 but now it has become generally recognized that a high pitched engine will travel as steadily and more safely round a curve--given a good road--than a low pitched one2 and thus while in #ahej the average height of the center line of boilers varied between #e ft4 #c in4 and #f ft4 #c in41 now in the latest designs it lies between #g ft4 and #g ft4 #f in4 ,single frames are very generally adopted1 but double frames and outside bearings to the leading and trailing wheels1 as in the ,great ,western engines1 give great steadiness in running1 and this class has also double bearings to the driving wheels1 thus entailing greater security in case of the facture of a crank axle4 ,the general adoption of cabs on the foot-plate for the men is another improvement of late introduction1 although at first not universally appreciated by those for whose comfort it was designed--,i felt as if ,i was in my coffin1 said an old driver when asked how he liked the new shelter4 ,mild steel fire-boxes1 which have been employed in ,america1 are not in favor here1 copper being universally used2 they have been tried on the ,caledonian1 ,great ,southern and ,western1 ,north ,london1 and ,north-,western1 and were found not to succeed4 ,brake blocks of cast iron have now generally superseded wood2 steel is being more and more used1 especially on the ,north ,western4 ,there is less use of brasswork for domes and fittings1 although it is claimed for brass that it looks brighter and can easily be kept clean4 ,there is greater simplicity of design generally1 and the universal substitution of coal as coke for fuel1 with its consequent economy2 and last1 but not least1 the adoption of standard types of engines1 are among the changes which have taken place in locomotive practice during the past quarter of a century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,london1 ,,chatham1 ,,dover ,,railway4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,great ,,eastern ,,railway4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,manchester1 ,,sheffield1 ,,and ,,lincolnshire ,,railway4 ,having now reviewed1 as far as the limits of this paper will allow1 the locomotive practice of the present day1 the author would in conclusion draw attention to what may possibly be one course of locomotive development in the future4 ,time is money1 and it may be in the coming years that a demand will arise for faster means of transit than that which we possess at present4 ,how can we meet it8 ,with our railways laid out with the curves and gradients existing1 and with our national gauge1 and our present type of locomotive1 no great advance in speed is very probable2 the mean speed of express trains is about fifty miles an hour1 and to take an average train of #bjj tons weight at this speed over a level line requires between #fej and #gjj effective horse-power1 within the compass of the best engines of the present day4 ,but if instead of fifty miles an hour seventy is required1 an entirely different state of things obtains4 ,taking a train of #ajj tons1 with engine and tender weighing #ge tons1 or #age tons gross1 the first question to determine will be the train resistance1 and with reference to this we much want careful experiments on the subject1 like those which ,sir ,daniel ,gooch made in #ahdh1 on the ,bristol and ,exeter ,railway1 which are even now the standard authority2 the general use of oil axle-boxes and long bogie coaches1 irrespective of other improvements1 would render this course desirable4 ,with regard to the former1 they appear to run with less friction1 but are heavier to start1 oil boxes in some experiments made on the ,south-,western ,railway giving a resistance of #b4e lb4 per ton1 while grease boxes ranged from #f lb4 to #i lb4 per ton4 ,again1 the long and heavy bogie ,pullman and other coaches have the reputation among drivers1 rightly or wrongly1 of being hard to pull4 ,the resistance of an express train on the ,great ,western ,railway at seventy-five miles an hour was #db lb4 per ton1 and taking #dj lb4 per ton for seventy miles an hour would give a total resistance on the level of #g1jjj lb41 corresponding to #a1djj horse-power--about double the average duty of an express engine of the present day4 ,the weight on the driving wheels required would be #ah tons1 allowing one-sixth for adhesion1 about the same as that on the driving axle of the ,bristol and ,exeter old bogie engines4 ,allowing #b lb4 of coal per horse-power per hour would give a total combustion of #c1ejj lb4 per hour and to burn this even at the maximum economic rate of #he lb4 per square foot of grate per hour would require a grate area of #da square feet1 and about #b1hjj square feet of heating surface4 ,unless a most exceptional construction combined with small wheels is adopted1 it appears almost impossible to get this amount on the ordinary gauge4 ,it is true the ,wootten locomotives on the ,philadelphia and ,reading ,railway have fire-boxes with a grate area of as much as #gf square feet1 but these boxes extend clean over the wheels1 and the heating surface in the tubes is only #ihb square feet2 but although these engines run at a speed of forty-two miles an hour1 they are hardly the type to be adopted for such a service as is being considered4 ,on the broad gauge1 however1 such an engine could easily be designed on the lines now recognized as being essential for express engines without introducing any exceptional construction1 and there appears but little doubt that were ,brunei's magnificent gauge the national one1 competition would have introduced a higher rate of speed between ,london and our great towns than that which obtains at present4 ,the whole question of the future introduction of trunk lines1 exclusively for fast passenger traffic1 is fraught with the highest interest1 but it would be foreign to the subject matter of this paper to enter more fully on it1 the author merely desiring to state his opinion that if the future trade and wealth of our country require their construction1 and if a very high rate of speed much above our present is to be attained1 their gauge will have to be seriously considered and settled1 not by the reasons which caused the adoption of the present gauge1 but by the power required to carry on the traffic--in fact1 to adapt the rail to the engine1 and not1 as at present1 the engine to the rail4 ,high speed requires great power1 and great power can only be obtained by ample fire-grate area1 which for a steady running engine means a broad gauge4 ,the ,gauge ,commissioners of #ahdf in their report esteemed the importance of the highest speed on express trains for the accommodation of a comparatively small number of persons1 however desirable that may be to them1 as of far less moment than affording increased convenience to the general commercial traffic of the country4 ,the commercial traffic of ,england has grown and prospered under our present system1 and if its ever increasing importance demands high speed passenger lines1 we may rest assured that the ingenuity of man1 to which it is impossible to assign limits1 will satisfactorily solve the problem4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,screw ,,steam ,,collier ,,frostburg4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,steam ,,collier4 ,our diagram shows the screw steam collier ,frostburg1 built by ,henry ,h4 ,gorringe 7the ,american ,shipbuilding ,co471 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,length1 #baj ft4 ,beam1 #cc ft4 ,depth1 #ag ft1 ,register tonnage1 #ecc4 ,carrying capacity on #ad;ft41 #a1ajj tons1 and #ajj tons coal in bunker4 ,cubical contents of cargo space1 #ee1afh cub4 ft4 ,carrying capacity on #af feet draught1 #a1ddj tons4 ,engines1 compound surface condensing4 ,high pressure #bf in4 diameter1 low pressure #dh in4 diameter1 stroke #cf in4 ,two boilers1 each #ac ft4 diameter4 #aj ft4 long1 and one auxiliary #e ft4 diameter and #aj ft4 high4 #ajj lb4 working pressure4 ,sea speed with full cargo1 #aa knots4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a thirteen year old girl1 who is perfect in other ways1 but who has simply little blue spots that puff out slightly where her eyes should be1 is said to be living at ,amherst1 ,portage ,county1 ,wisconsin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,tardes ,,viaduct4 ,the railroad from ,montlucon to ,eygurande1 which is being constructed by the state engineers1 crosses the valley of the ,tardes in the environs of ,evaux 7,creuse74 ,at the spot selected for the establishment of the viaduct the gauge is deep and steep4 ,the line passes at #cjj feet above the river1 and the total length of the metallic superstructure had to be #hbb feet4 ,to support this there was built upon the right bank a pier #aeh feet in height1 and1 upon the left1 another one of #aif feet4 ,the superstructure had been completed1 and a portion of it had already been swung into position1 when a violent1 gale occurred and blew it to the bottom of the gorge4 ,at the time of the accident the superstructure projected #agd feet beyond the pier on the right bank1 and had to advance but #aba feet to reach the #cc foot scaffolding that had been established upon the other pier4 ,it blows often and violently in this region4 ,for example1 a gale on the #bjth of ,february1 #ahgi1 caused great damage1 and1 among other things1 blew the rear cars of a hay train from the top of the ,louvoux viaduct to the ,bouble4 ,the superstructure of the ,tardes viaduct had already withstood the tempest of the #bc;d and the #bdth of ,january1 #ahhd1 and neither any alteration in its direction nor any change in the parts that held it upon the pile could be perceived4 ,but on the night of ,january #bf-bg the storm doubled in violence1 and the work was precipitated into the ravine4 ,no one was witness of the fall1 and the noise was perceived only by the occupants of the mill located below the viaduct4 ,the workmen of the enterprise1 who lived about #cbe feet above this mill and about #fej feet from the south abutment1 heard nothing of it1 the wind having carried the noise in an opposite direction4 ,it was not until morning that they learned of the destruction of their work and the extent of the disaster4 ,one hundred and sixty-nine feet of the superstructure1 weighing #dej tons1 had been precipitated from a height of nearly #bjj feet and been broken up on the rock at #de feet from the axis of the pier4 ,the breakage had occurred upon the abutment1 and the part #aie feet in length that remained in position in the cutting was strongly wedged between walls of rock1 which had kept this portion in place and prevented its following the other into the ravine4 ,upon the pier there remained a few broken pieces and a portion of the apparatus used in swinging the superstructure into place4 ,below1 in the debris of the superstructure1 the up-stream girder lay upon the down-stream one4 ,the annexed engraving shows the state of things after the disaster4 ,several opinions have been expressed in regard to the cause of the fall4 ,according to one of these1 the superstructure was suddenly wrenched from its bearings upon the pier1 and was horizontally displaced by an impulse such that1 when it touched the masonry1 its up-stream girder struck the center of the pier1 upon which it divided1 while the down-stream one was already in space4 ,the fall would have afterward continued without the superstructure meeting the face of the pier4 ,illustration3 ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,tardes ,,viaduct4 ,upon taking as a basis the horizontal displacement of the superstructure1 which was #de meters to the right of the pier1 and upon combining the horizontal stress that produced it with that of the loads1 the stress exerted upon the body may he deduced4 ,but this hypothesis seems to us scarcely tenable1 especially by reason of the great stress that it would have taken to lift the superstructure4 ,on another hand1 it was possible for the latter to slide over one edge of the pier1 and this explains the horizontal distance of #de feet by which its center of gravity was displaced4 ,it is probable1 moreover1 that the superstructure1 before going over1 moved laterally upon its temporary supports4 ,the girders were1 in fact1 resting upon rollers1 and the roller apparatus themselves were renting upon wedges1 and there was no anchorage to prevent a transverse sliding4 ,under the prolonged thrust of a very high wind1 the superstructure1 by reason of its considerable projection1 must have begun to swing like a pendulum4 ,these oscillations acquired sufficient amplitude to cause the superstructure to gradually move upon its rollers until the latter no longer bore beneath the webs4 ,the flanges therefore finally bent upward where they rested upon the rollers1 through the action of the weight which they had to support1 and the entire superstructure slid off into space4 ,an examination of the bent pieces seems to give great value to this hypothesis4--,le ,genie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,joy',s ,,reversing ,,and ,,expansion ,,valve ,,gear4 ,footnote3 ,a paper read before the ,mechanical ,section of the ,british ,association1 at ,montreal1 ,august1 #ahhd4 ,four years ago1 in ,august1 #ahhj1 a paper was read on this subject before the ,annual ,summer ,meeting of the ,mechanical ,engineers' ,society of ,great ,britain1 then held in ,barrow-in-,furness1 describing this valve motion and its functions1 which was then comparatively new4 ,it was1 however1 illustrated by its application to a large express goods 7freight7 engine1 built by the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company 7,england7 specially to test the advantages and the endurance of the gear4 ,this engine had cylinders of #ah inches in diameter and #bd inch stroke1 and six wheels coupled #e feet #a inch diameter1 and was designed by ,mr4 ,webb1 the ,company's chief engineer1 for their heavy fast goods traffic on the main line4 ,the engine has been running this class of traffic ever since4 ,in ,january1 #ahhd1 it was passed through the repair shops for a general overhauling1 when it was found that the valve motion was in such good condition as to be put back on the engine without any repairs4 ,the main object of this present paper is to deal with the advantages of the valve gear and its application to various classes of engines both on land and at sea1 and with the results of such applications1 rather than treating it as a novelty1 to give an exhaustive description of its construction and functions1 which was done in the paper above referred to4 ,a very short description of its action and main features will1 however1 be necessary to the completeness of the paper1 and as a basis from which the improved results to be recorded should necessarily be shown to spring4 ,the essential feature of this valve gear is that movement for the valve is produced by a combination of two motions at right angles to each other2 and by the various proportions in which these are combined1 and by the positions in which the moving parts are set with regard to each other1 it gives both the reversal of motion and the various degrees of expansion required4 ,eccentrics are entirely dispensed with and the time-honored link gear abandoned1 the motion is taken direct from the connecting rod1 and by utilizing independently the backward and forward action of the rod1 due to the reciprocation of the piston1 and combining this with the vibrating action of the rod1 a movement results which is suitable to work the valves of engines1 allowing the use of any proportions of lap and lead desired1 and giving an almost mathematically correct cut-off for both sides of the piston and for all points of expansion intermediately1 as well as a much quicker action at the points of cut-off and release than is given by a link gear4 ,the machinery for accomplishing this is both less costly and less complicated than the ordinary link motion1 and is shown in elevation on cut1 which is a view of the complete motion as on the first ,london and ,north-,western locomotive4 ,here ,e is the main valve lever1 pinned at ,d to a link1 ,b1 one end of which is fastened to the connecting rod at ,a1 and the other end maintained in about the vertical by the radius rod1 ,c1 which is fixed at the point1 ,c4 ,the center or fulcrum1 ,f1 of the lever1 ,e1 partaking of the vibrating movement of the connecting rod at the point1 ,a1 is carried in a curved slide1 ,j1 the radius of which is equal to the length of the link1 ,g1 and the center of which is fixed to be concentric with the fulcrum1 ,f1 of the lever when the piston is at either extreme end of its stroke4 ,from the upper end of the lever1 ,e1 the motion is carried direct to the valve by the rod1 ,g4 ,it will be evident thus that by one revolution of the crank the lower end of the lever1 ,e1 will have imparted to it two different movements1 one along the longer axis of the ellipse1 traveled by the point1 ,a1 and one through its minor axis up and down1 these movements differing as to time1 and corresponding with the part of the movement of the valve required for lap and lead1 and that part constituting the port opening for admission of steam4 ,illustration3 ,,joy',s ,,reversing ,,and ,,expanding ,,valve ,,gear4 ,the former of these is constant and unalterable1 the latter is controllable by the angle at which the curved slide1 ,j1 may be set with the vertical4 ,it will further be evident that if the lever1 ,e1 were pinned direct to the connecting rod at the point1 ,a1 which passes through a practically true ellipse1 it would vibrate its fulcrum1 ,f1 unequally on either side of the center of the curved slide1 ,j1 by the amount of the versed sine of the arc of the lever1 ,e1 from ,f ,d2 it is to correct this error that the lever1 ,e1 is pinned at the point1 ,d1 to a parallel motion formed by the parts1 ,b and ,c4 ,the point1 ,d1 performing a figure which is equal to an ellipse1 with the error to be eliminated added1 so neutralizing its effect on the motion of the fulcrum1 ,f4 ,the lap and lead are opened by the action of the valve lever acting as a lever1 and the port opening is given by the incline of the curved slide in which the center of that lever slides1 and the amount of this opening depends upon the angle given to that incline4 ,when these two actions are in unison1 the motion of the valve is very rapid1 and this occurs when the steam is being admitted4 ,then follows a period of opposition of these motions1 during which time the valve pauses momentarily1 this corresponding to the time when the port is fully open4 ,further periods of unison follow1 at which time the sharp cut-off is obtained4 ,the compression resulting with this gear is also reduced to a minimum1 owing to the peculiar movement given to the valves 7i4 e41 the series of accelerations and retardations referred to71 as1 while the lead is obtained later and quicker1 the port is also shut for compression later and quicker1 doing away with the necessity for a special expansion valve1 with its complicated and expensive machinery1 and allowing the main valve to be used for expansion1 as the compression is not of an injurious amount1 even with a cut-off reduced to #ae per cent41 or about #a_/f of the stroke4 ,thus1 so far as the distribution of the steam and its treatment in the cylinder is concerned1 a marked advantage is shown in favor of this valve gear4 ,but next in its favor1 as before said1 is that the above advantages are not gained at the cost of added complication of parts or increased cost of machinery1 but the reverse1 as this gear can be built at a less cost than link gear1 varying according to the circumstances1 but reaching as high as a saving of #be per cent41 or1 if it be compared with a link gear supplemented by the usual special expansion valve and gear as employed on marine engines1 then the total saving is fully #ej per cent41 and an equally good result is obtained as to the distribution and subsequent treatment of the steam4 ,after accuracy of result and reduction in cost may rank saving room and the advantages arising therefrom 7though for steamships perhaps this should have come first74 ,taking locomotives of the inside cylinder type1 which is the general form in use in ,england and the continent of ,europe1 by clearing away the eccentrics and valves from the middle of the engine1 much larger cylinders may be introduced and a higher rate of expansion employed1 and this is being done4 ,also room is left for increasing the length and wearing surfaces of all the main bearings with even less crowding than is now the case with engines with the smaller cylinders4 ,but this advantage of saving room comes much more prominently forward in marine engines1 especially in war ships1 where every inch of room saved is valuable2 and in the new type of triple-cylinder engines now coming so much into vogue in the mercantile marine1 whether those engines be only the ordinary three-cylinder engines with double expansion1 or the newer1 triple expansion engine1 expanding the steam consecutively through three cylinders--the form of marine engine which promises to come into use wherever high-class work and economy are required4 ,on this system1 by placing all the valve chests in front of the cylinders instead of between them1 or in a line with them1 sufficient room is saved to get the new-type three-cylinder engine into the space occupied by the old form of two-cylinder engine4 ,besides these prominent advantages there are others which1 though of minor importance1 are still necessary to the practical and permanent success of any new mechanical arrangement1 such as the accessibility of all the working parts while in motion1 for examination and oiling2 the ease with which any part or the whole can be stripped and cleaned1 or pinned up out of the way in case of break down or accident1 or got at and dismantled for ordinary repair2 the ease with which the whole may be handled1 started1 reversed1 or set at any point of expansion--all these being recommendations to enlist the care and attention of the engineers in charge by lightening their duties and rendering the engines easy to work4 ,with those advantages it is perhaps not surprising that this valve gear has been very considerably adopted for many classes of steam engines1 especially where a high result has been required1 with economy of space1 and a minimum of complication4 ,having crucially tested the original engine on the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway1 ,mr4 ,webb proceeded to build others similar1 and on his bringing out his ,compound ,express ,engine--notably the most advanced step in locomotive design of the present day--he adopted this valve gear throughout4 ,there are now a number of these engines running some of the fastest trains on the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway1 with the most satisfactory results4 ,following these1 others of the leading railways took up the system1 and prominently among these ,mr4 ,worsdell1 of the ,great ,eastern ,railway1 built a number of large express engines for his fast and heavy traffic1 and is now building a number of others similar as to the valve gear for his suburban traffic1 which is specially heavy4 ,also the ,lancashire and ,yorkshire and the ,midland and others of the chief railways are employing the system specially for large express engines2 the ,midland engines having cylinders of #ai inches diameter by #bf inches stroke1 and four coupled wheels of #g feet diameter4 ,a number of the above-named engines have run large mileages1 in many cases already exceeding #ajj1jjj miles per engine4 ,for other countries also a number of locomotive engines have been built or contracted for--both of inside and outside cylinder types--making a total of nearly #hjj locomotives built and building1 many of them being of special design and large size1 up to #bj inches and #ba inches diameter of cylinder4 ,in all these the absence of wire-drawing may be specially noted by the full line at the top of the diagram1 showing the admission of steam--this fullness arising from the rapid and full opening of the port for admission4 ,passing now to the other great type of engines1 those covered under the general designation of marine engines1 this gear has been applied to nearly #dj1jjj ,h4,p4 indicated1 built and building1 and to all classes and sizes1 from the launch engine with cylinders #h inches by #i inches1 running at #fjj to #gjj revolutions per minute1 up to engines for the largest class of war ships1 such as her ,britannic ,majesty's steel cruiser ,amphion1 of #e1jjj ,h4,p41 with cylinders in duplicate of #df inches and #hf inches diameter1 and #c feet #c inches stroke1 running #ajj revolutions per minute4 ,an examination of the indicator diagrams taken from these engines shows that no wire-drawing takes place1 and that1 though the expansion is carried to a point beyond the ordinary requirements1 the compression is but slightly increased4 ,in all the diagrams taken from this valve motion there is seen the clear1 full upper line showing an abundant admission of steam without any wire-drawing1 and also the distinctly marked points where cut-off or suppression and where release takes place1 showing the rapid action of the valves at those points4 ,it is well known to engineers that to obtain the maximum advantage out of compounding1 it is necessary to cut off in the low pressure cylinder at a point corresponding to the relation between the low and the high1 and that point should be unaltered1 whereas the point of cut-off in the high may at the same time be varied to suit the work to be done4 ,in an ordinary link motion engine 7where both links are connected to the same weigh shaft71 when linking up the high pressure cylinder to cut-off short1 the same change is necessarily made in the low4 ,by the use of the ,joy gear1 cut-off valves may be fitted to both cylinders1 that for the low pressure being fixed at the constant position required by the proportion of the cylinders1 while that on the high is adjustable2 of course1 in this case1 the position of the quadrants must be only changed for reversing4 ,in arranging the independent cut-off on the ,joy gear1 it is only necessary to increase the length of the vibrating link beyond the point of attachment for the main valve spindle connection to obtain a point from which motion may be taken to actuate the cut-off valve2 even then the cost of the ,joy gear for both cylinders is but little more than for a single set of link gear4 ,this arrangement gives an absolutely perfect distribution of steam for compounding1 also equalizes the power developed by both cylinders1 and is far more simple and inexpensive than any other gear in existence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,steam ,,bell4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,the secondary railways in rural districts in ,austria having no gates or bars at the level crossings1 or guards at such points1 but being open like tramways1 special precautions are required to avoid accidents1 and the public has to be warned of the approach of the train from a sufficient distance4 ,this is done by ringing bells preferably to sounding whistles1 as these are more likely to startle horses4 ,the steam bell shown by our illustrations has been adopted for this purpose on the ,austrian lines1 and is a simple contrivance4 ,it consists of a cylindrical chamber1 a1 ending in a narrower tube1 c1 which forms the seating for a flap valve1 d1 to which the hammer or clapper1 e1 is fixed4 ,steam is admitted through a small pipe1 b1 at the bottom1 and after a certain interval attains sufficient pressure to lift the valve4 ,the opening being large compared with the pipe1 b1 steam escapes more rapidly than it arrives through the small orifice2 the pressure falls1 and the valve drops down and causes the hammer to strike a bell surrounding the cylinder4 ,the valve is provided with an internal collar as shown1 so that it has to rise for the width of this before the steam is let out1 and thus determines the swing of the clapper and the force of the blow4 ,to intensify the latter and multiply the number of blows1 the clapper spring is prolonged over the fulcrum and bent back so as to form a spring1 which is tightened by the lifting of the flap1 and sends the clapper down on the bell with increased force4 ,the hinge of the flap does not require any lubrication besides what it gets through the steam4 ,the bell is fixed upon the roof of the driver's cab1 so that the steam does not interfere with his lookout1 and fastened by three bolts or screws4 ,the diameter of the steam-pipe is from to inch according to the size of the bell1 and the distance of the clapper from the bell is a little less than the diameter of the corresponding cock4 ,the steam cock is perforated as shown by the illustration to drain the pipe when shut1 and a small hole1 b1 in the bell cylinder drains the latter4 ,the steam-pipe is made with a bend as usual1 to allow for contraction and expansion4 ,the number of blows given varies according to the steam pressure1 and the opening of the steam cock2 it is ,with #ij lb4 pressure1 and cock #a_/b open1 #agj blows per min4 #a_/c #acf #aje #a_/b #bdj #a_/c #aef #a_/e #acf #abj #a_/c #bbh #ace #a_/e #bjj ,to start the bell1 the cock is opened full1 and afterward partly closed4 ,the blows follow in such rapid succession that a kind of uniform sound with louder intervals is produced1 but not of the same shrill character as by a steam whistle4 ,the same kind of bell is used on the shunting engines in goods yards1 where roadways have to be crossed on which lurries and handtrucks circulate1 and the results as far as prevention of accidents is concerned are stated to be very satisfactory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lieut4 ,,greely ,,before ,,the ,,british ,,association4 ,lieuts4 ,greely and ,ray were received with distinguished honors at the meeting of the ,british ,association in ,montreal4 ,a complimentary luncheon was tendered him by the members of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 at the ,windsor ,hotel4 ,general ,sir ,henry ,lefroy presided4 ,in response to the toast ,our ,distinguished ,guests1 coupling the names of ,lieuts4 ,greely and ,ray and ,mrs4 ,greely1 ,lieut4 ,greely said3 ,mr4 ,president1 ,ladies and ,gentlemen3 ,i need scarcely say that this flattering reception from representative men of one of ,england's most distinguished societies touches deeply my feelings as a soldier and as a man4 ,it is not alone that you represent the science and learning of ,england and the world1 but that you are all countrymen of those daring seamen and explorers whose names and whose deeds have become household words throughout the world4 ,hudson1 ,baffin1 ,cook1 ,nelson1 ,parry1 ,franklin1 and a score of others among the dead2 ,mc,clintock1 ,nares1 and ,markham1 and last1 but not least1 the man whose name was oftenest on our lips when praying for relief during the past terrible winter--,bedford ,pim4 ,what those men have done the whole world knows4 ,that you should deem aught that ,i have done worthy to placed with the deeds of those illustrious men must always be a source of pride to me4 ,for three centuries ,england maintained against the world the honors of the farthest north4 ,step by step every advance was made by ,englishmen4 ,now ,england's grandest colony presses to the front2 but none the less is the honor ,england's1 for at the price of her sons' lives and by their toil the path was cleared4 ,but for ,beaumont's dauntless pluck and indomitable energy in #ahgf1 ,lockwood would never had made his great northing in #ahhb4 ,i have during a quarter of a century's service1 as becomes a soldier1 been jealous of my honor4 ,i have striven to maintain it in the field1 fighting and bleeding for my country1 and at my desk studying and discussing scientific data2 in the ,arctic ,circle1 when pursuing scientific and geographical work1 or later1 when stranded by adverse fate1 and starving and freezing upon the barren coast4 ,this marked and public testimonial of your approval cannot fail to make me doubly jealous of it in days to come4 ,lieut4 ,ray followed1 returning thanks in his own behalf4 ,after other speeches ,sir ,henry ,lefroy presented ,lieutenant ,greely with the following informal address3 ,montreal1 ,sept4 #b1 #ahhd4 ,the undersigned1 on behalf of many warm friends and admirers1 and as representing various professional and scientific pursuits1 desire to express to you their appreciation of the courage and devotion which has characterized your conduct during the trying circumstances of your late ,arctic service4 ,we trust that your health may soon be restored1 and that you may long be spared to tender1 as during your past distinguished career1 those valuable and distinguished services to your great country which have already placed you among the foremost of scientific explorers of the age4 ,yours faithfully1 ,rayleigh1 ,president4 ,in introducing ,lieut4 ,greely1 ,sir ,henry ,lefroy1 referring to the persistence of purpose shown by his party in bringing back the pendulum apparatus1 remarked that there was nothing nobler in the annals of scientific heroism than the determination of these hungry men to drag the cumbersome box along their weary way4 ,it was fully two minutes after rising before ,lieut4 ,greely could speak1 so great was the outburst of enthusiasm which greeted him4 ,he remarked that he was surprised to learn that the ground did not thaw lower at ,lieut4 ,ray's station1 which was ten degrees farther south than his own1 where the ground thawed to a much greater depth--namely1 twenty to thirty feet4 ,in regard to an open polar sea1 he differed from ,lieut4 ,ray4 ,he did not believe there was a navigable sea at the pole1 but he was of the opinion that there was open water somewhere about4 ,the geographical work of the ,lady ,franklin ,bay expedition covers nearly three degrees of latitude and over forty degrees of longitude4 ,starting from latitude #ha deg4 #dd min4 and longitude #hd deg4 #de min41 ,lieut4 ,lockwood reached1 ,may #ah1 #ahhb1 on the north coast of ,greenland1 latitude #hc deg4 #bd min4 and longitude #dj deg4 #df min4 ,from the same starting point he reached to the southwest1 in ,may1 #ahhc1 ,greely ,fiord1 an inlet of the ,western ,polar ,ocean1 latitude #hj deg4 #dh min4 and longitude #gh deg4 #bf min4 ,this journey to the northward resulted in the addition to our charts of a new coast line of nearly #ajj miles beyond the farthest point seen by ,lieut4 ,beaumont1 ,r4,n4 ,it also carried ,greenland over #djj miles northward1 giving that continent a much greater extension in that direction than it had generally been credited with4 ,in a subsequent speech he took occasion to say that a fact had surprised him4 ,it was the discovery that when the tide was flowing from the ,north ,pole it was found by his observations that the water was warmer than when flowing in the opposite direction4 ,he took the trouble to have prepared an elaborate set of observations showing this wonderful phenomenon1 which would eventually be published4 ,to him these pecularities were unexplainable1 and be hoped that the observations would be studied by his hearers1 and some explanation found in regard to the thermometric observations of the expedition4 ,he remarked that the mean temperature for the year of the hourly observations was #e degrees below zero1 which justified him in saying his station was the coldest point of earth ever reached4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,diamond ,,mining ,,in ,,brazil4 ,it was in #agbi that the ,portuguese government learned of the discovery of the diamond that had been made in the rivers of the environs of ,diamantina by some adventurers who had entered this region in search of gold4 ,since that epoch the exploitation of this gem1 pursued under varied regimes1 and with diverse success1 has never ceased4 ,as soon as it heard of this discovery1 the ,portuguese government thought it would make as much profit out of it as possible1 so it no longer authorized any other exploitation in the ,diamantina regions than that of the diamond1 and it imposed upon such exploitation a tax that was fixed at #bh francs per laborer in #agbi and #bbd in #agcd4 ,from #agcd to #agci all operations were suspended1 and a more lucrative organization for the treasury was sought for4 ,in #agci the era of contracts was inaugurated4 ,the exploitation of the diamond was farmed out for four years to a contratador1 who was to work a certain territory with a number of men1 fixed at #fjj as a maximum1 and to pay into the treasury a sum per workman 7whether working or not7 that varied from #a1bhh francs per year in #agcd to #a1cdd francs for the last contract1 that ended in #aggb4 ,at this epoch the government took the exploitation of the diamond in hand1 and gave it in charge of a special administration1 which was submitted to the direction of the treasury of ,lisbon1 and which had at its head a comptroller4 ,this new regime lasted till #ahde4 ,in order to render the surveillance of the treasury agents efficient1 and prevent smuggling 7which can be so easily done with an object like the diamond71 it was necessary to impose a special regime over the entire region of ,diamantina1 and1 in fact1 the latter was1 up to the independence of ,brazil1 submitted to ,draconian regulations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,dam ,,on ,,the ,,ribeirao ,,inferno ,,at ,,portato ,,de ,,ferro4 ,we only know the quantity of stones that were discovered during the period when operations were directed by the ,royale ,extraccao1 from #aggb to #ahde1 and this was #bfi1hgj grammes1 or more than #a1cjj1jjj carats4 ,it should be understood that what was taken by stealth does not enter into this total1 and it must be stated that during the latter years1 when the ,extraccao existed only in name1 smuggling must have been active4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,machinery ,,at ,,the ,,portato ,,de ,,ferro ,,diamond ,,deposits4 ,since that epoch the exploitation has been continued by lessees of the diamondiferous grounds4 ,it is almost impossible to estimate what the territory has produced4 ,the discovery of the ,cape deposits has given it a terrible blow4 ,although the ,brazilian diamond is much more beautiful1 and for this reason is held at a much higher price1 these new exploitations1 by annually throwing large quantities of stones upon the market1 have led to a great reduction in the price1 and the ,diamantina exploitations1 which have become long1 difficult1 and costly1 have received a serious set-back4 ,so the annual production of this region1 which was estimated for the years preceding #ahgj at #c1jjj oitavas 7about #eb1jjj carats71 is now scarcely #ejj4 ,the rivers in the environs of ,diamantina rim at the bottom of deep and narrow gorges that have been scooped out to depths of #cjj or #djj meters through the denuded plateau in whose center stands the city of ,diamantina4 ,in the bed of these rivers1 in places where they have not yet been worked1 there may be found1 underneath a stratum of modern sand1 another of rocks1 and finally a diamondiferous deposit of rounded pebbles1 mixed with sand4 ,this gravel1 which is characterized in the first place by the fact that all its elements are rounded1 and next by the presence of a large number of minerals 7among which the most important are all the oxides of titanium1 different oxides of iron1 tourmaline1 and a whole series of hydrated phosphates of complex composition71 is called in the language of the country cascalho4 ,it is the matrix of the diamond1 and the latter is extracted from it by washing4 ,it is arranged in roundish masses upon the beds of the rivers1 and is met with at depths ranging from a few decimeters up to #be and #cj meters4 ,the same material1 with the same name1 is also found deposited at all heights upon small terraces at the sides of the valleys through which the rivers flow4 ,it is coarser and less rolled1 and has very likely been deposited by risings of the rivers during the period when the valleys were being formed4 ,these deposits bear the name of gupiarras4 ,finally1 it is found in a still coarser state1 mixed with red earth and deposited in horizontal strata upon the upper plateau4 ,it is then called gorgulho4 ,of these different deposits1 the most important are those of the river beds1 the material here having undergone a true mechanical preparation and being richer4 ,these are the deposits that have been the object of the most important exploitations4 ,the year is divided into two distinct seasons--the dry1 from ,may to ,september1 during which rain is exceptional1 and the rainy1 from ,october to ,april4 ,as water is necessary for all the operations1 no work can be done upon the high plateaux except through rain water stored up in large reservoirs4 ,these beds form what are called the rainy season washings4 ,in the rivers the working of the beds requires a preliminary drying1 which is effected by diverting the river's course4 ,now in all this rocky and denuded region the water that falls runs immediately to the river1 and causes terrible freshets therein2 so operations capable of keeping the bed dry would be out of proportion to the probable results of the exploitation1 whence it follows that the latter is only possible in dry weather1 and these deposits are therefore called dry season washings4 ,these deposits are still worked in our day as they were in the time of the ,portuguese4 ,in order to dry the bed a dam is constructed1 and the river is either diverted into a plank flume supported by piles1 or into a canal dug along the shore1 or by means of tight walls1 according to the lay of the place4 ,the second process1 which is preferable to the first1 is in fact impossible when the river runs1 as is often the case1 in a narrow1 abrupt1 walled channel4 ,these works are sometimes very important4 ,in #ahha1 the ,acaba ,mundo flume was #adj meters in length and #e4b m4 wide1 and1 with a velocity of #b4be m41 discharged #d1ejj liters per second2 still longer ones might be cited that discharged as much as #h1jjj liters4 ,in the dry part of the river the extraction of the sand1 stones1 and cascalho is done solely by hand4 ,the men carry the sand upon their heads in small wooden bowls called carumbs1 which hold about #ae kilogrammes1 and throw it somewhere where the deposit will not interfere with the exploitation4 ,almost all of these men are negroes1 who run with their load upon their head over the white sand1 singing some song of their country4 ,it1 is very picturesque1 but it is doubtful whether it is economical4 ,since the century and a half that these rivers have been dug and redug1 it may be admitted that wherever the cascalho has been easy of access it has been removed2 and that wherever it has not been1 little attempt has been made to work it4 ,how have these attempts1 which have doubtless been made at several periods1 come out8 ,this would at present be very difficult to ascertain4 ,the exploitations have been too numerous to allow us now to estimate the value of a bed from the data furnished by geology1 and local tradition is too uncertain or exaggerated to allow us to place much confidence in it4 ,we can1 at the very most1 say that if some points still remain intact it must be because the exploitation of them was too difficult with the processes that were employed1 and this should be a reason1 were it desired to attempt new operations1 for having recourse to entirely different modes of work4 ,it would seem rational1 as regards this1 to try to put to profit the hydraulic power that the flumes and canals render disposable for mechanically extracting the sand4 ,the field to be worked being naturally long and narrow1 it would be the proper thing to employ a series of inclined planes distributed along the banks1 actuated by water wheels1 and corresponding to so many small working points4 ,the river often flows through a genuine canon with nearly vertical walls1 where space would be absolutely wanting for installing wheels elsewhere than at the exit of the canal1 and if may become necessary to distribute the power of these wheels along the works4 ,in these regions of difficult access and few resources it is necessary to dispense with complicated apparatus1 and one might in such a case1 it would seem1 try electric motors1 whose installation would be easy4 ,an exploitation in accordance with these ideas was begun for the first time in #ahhc upon the ,ribeirao de ,inferno at ,portao de ,ferro4 ,we shall describe it4 ,once established in the country1 the first thing to do is to form roads so as to secure communications with the neighboring villages and forests1 and afterward to cut down trees for building houses4 ,these latter are usually constructed1 for these works1 of untrimmed wood and mud1 with thatched roof4 ,there were thus constructed at ,portao de ,ferro a few kilometers of roads1 then some houses for the engineers and special workmen1 barracks for #bjj laborers1 stores1 kitchens1 etc41 a forge1 and a shop with a lathe and a saw run by a wheel at the side4 ,it was afterward necessary to repair the old lateral canal which had been dug out of the rock in the times of the ,royal ,extraction1 but which had been torn open for a considerable length4 ,this necessitated the erection of tight walls of dry stone1 grass1 and mud1 for a length of #bjj meters1 and with thicknesses of from #f to #aj meters4 ,in order to divert the water into this canal1 it was necessary to raise its level #e meters4 ,the dam1 then1 had to support a strong pressure1 and it could not be built upon sand4 ,it therefore became necessary to build a temporary dam and to turn the river into a plank flume1 so as to make it possible to dig at the location of the permanent dam in order to reach a solid bottom at a depth of nearly #d meters4 ,the permanent dam thus had a total height of #aj meters1 with a thickness of #ae at the base and #g at the top4 ,it was constructed of dry stone1 grass1 and earth1 with the addition of strong wood-work4 ,the rocks upon which it had to be built were full of fissures1 and when it was desired to close it great leakages of water occurred1 which came near ruining it and necessitated the construction of a second wall behind it and a talus of earth in front4 ,the dam as shown in ,fig4 #a1 when finished1 had a thickness of #be meters at the base4 ,it was closed on the second of ,july1 and had a storage capacity of #ee1jjj cubic meters4 ,the principal excavation was begun at the point where the bed was deepest1 and which consequently the older miners must have had most trouble in reaching4 ,here were set up two ,letestu pumps that were actuated by a four-horse wheel4 ,these pumps lifted #ej cubic meters per hour4 ,all except the pump chambers and pipes was made of wood on the spot4 ,the water that was lifted was carried away from the works in a flume #afj meters in length1 which likewise removed the water from the motive wheels4 ,for the service of the same excavation two simple acting inclined planes were installed that were moved by a four-horse wheel4 ,fig4 #b gives a general view of the arrangement4 ,the tracks of these planes were made of wood4 ,steel rails1 however1 had been brought for the cars1 along with the cables and the metallic parts of the windlass2 but all else was made upon the spot1 including all the wooden pulleys for transmitting motion from the wheel to the windlasses4 ,this excavation reached bottom at a depth of #af meters4 ,the second touched bottom at about #aj meters1 and gave access to a subterranean canal1 which was followed for about #bj meters4 ,the extraction of sand was effected here by an inclined plane moved by a ,gramme machine4 ,the generatrix had to make #a1ejj revolutions1 and be set in motion by an overshot wheel4 ,as time was wanting1 it became necessary to diminish to as great a degree as possible the number of parts to be employed in the transmission of motion1 and since there was an abundance of water1 a velocity of #ae revolutions was accepted for the wheel1 which1 with a total fall of #d4h meters1 had to give a power of eight horses4 ,a three meter pulley was placed upon the shaft of the wheel4 ,this was made of freshly cut wood that had been exposed to the sun4 ,in order to give it sufficient stability and prevent its warping1 it was placed against the wheel in such a way as to rest upon the latter's spokes4 ,this rendered it necessary to give up the idea of using a belt1 since it was not possible to prevent its getting wet4 ,cords could not be found in the country1 and so it was necessary to make use of a too heavy chain1 which was in no wise intended for such a purpose1 and which at a velocity of #ae revolutions began to swing and necessarily absorbed much power4 ,the large pulley drove one of #j4d m4 upon an intermediate shaft4 ,upon this latter a #b4f m4 wooden pulley directly drove1 through a belt1 the #j4b m4 pulley of the generatrix4 ,from this may be judged what the country's resources are4 ,the motor1 by means of a belt1 actuated a windlass provided with suitable checking gearings4 ,the distance of the two machines was #aaf meters4 ,save the transmission by chain1 the whole worked in a satisfactory manner4 ,the performance could only be estimated in a lump1 by comparing on the one hand the theoretical work of the fall of water1 and1 on the other1 that of the vertical elevation of the car2 and1 further1 one was obliged to estimate the weight of the latter4 ,if we allow #a1jjj kilogrammes for the weight of a car that received #cfj liters of dry sand or #cjj of wet1 the performance was #ai per cent41 and appeared to be satisfactory1 considering the conditions under which the installation was made4 ,this experiment was at all events of such a nature as to indicate the use of these machines in cases where the arrangement of the locality absolutely necessitates a transmission of power4 ,the first workmen reached ,portao de ,ferro ,december #ae1 #ahhb1 and the material shipped from ,france did not arrive until ,april #be1 #ahhc4 ,operations were suspended about the #beth of ,september1 since1 for a fortnight already1 there had no longer been any doubt as to the manner in which the river bed had been cleaned by former operators4 ,as a result of this first experiment1 the proof remained that it would be easy in future exploitations to introduce into the country methods of work that are quicker and more economical than those now in use4 ,in fact1 all the operations were performed with natives of the country1 with the exception of a carpenter and blacksmith from ,rio ,janeiro4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,what ,,we ,,really ,,know ,,about ,,asiatic ,,cholera4 ,,new ,,york1 ,september #a1 #ahhd4 ,to the ,editor of the ,new ,york ,medical ,journal3 ,,sir3 ,i have been exceedingly interested in ,dr4 ,bartlett's suggestive article in your issue of ,august #cj4 ,but a sufficient number of well-established facts are known to account for all the peculiarities and vagaries of cholera4 #a4 ,cholera has existed in ,hindostan for centuries4 ,it was found there by ,vasco da ,gama in #adif1 and there is a perfectly authentic history of it from that time down to the present4 #b4 ,it is never absent from ,india1 from whence it has been conveyed innumerable times to other countries4 ,it has never become domiciled in any other land1 not even in ,china1 parts of which lie in the same latitude2 nor in ,arabia1 to which country pilgrims go every year from ,india2 nor in ,egypt1 nor ,persia1 with which communication is so frequent2 much less in any other part of the world4 ,canton in ,china1 ,muscat and ,mecca in ,arabia1 lie nearly in the same degree of latitude as ,calcutta1 in which cholera is always existent2 yet these places only have cholera occasionally1 and then only after arrivals of it from ,hindostan4 #c4 ,the arrival of cholera in other countries is often involved in some easily removable obscurity1 which is deepened only by the ignorance and want of veracity of quarantine and other officials4 #d4 ,cholera is almost always preceded by a premonitory diarrhoea1 which lasts from one or two to three or four or more days before urgent and characteristic symptoms show themselves4 ,of #f1bac cases1 no less than #e1ghf had preceding diarrhoea4 ,the sufferers from this sow the germs of the disease in numerous1 often distant and obscure1 places1 to which no choleraic person is supposed to have come4 #e4 ,the discharges swarm with infective bacteria of various kinds1 some of which1 especially ,koch's comma bacilli1 seem to be specific4 #f4 ,the disease has been reproduced in men and some few animals by their swallowing the discharges4 #g4 ,the discharges1 according to the experiments of ,thiersch1 ,burdon-,sanderson1 and ,macnamara1 are not virulent and poisonous for the first twenty-four hours2 on the second day eleven per cent4 of those who swallow them will suffer2 on the third day1 thirty-six per cent42 on the fourth day1 ninety per cent42 on the fifth day1 seventy-one per cent42 on the sixth day1 forty per cent42 and after that the discharges have no effect--the bacteria die1 and the poison becomes inert4 ,professor ,robin reproduced cholera in dogs1 and the celebrated dog ,juno died of cholera in ,egypt last year4 ,professor ,botkin1 of the ,university of ,dorpat1 reproduced cholera in dogs by the subcutaneous injection of the urine of cholera patients4 ,even if the comma bacilli are not found in the urine1 other bacteria are2 and even ,koch supposes that they secrete a virulent poison similar to that of some insects1 which may be absorbed into the blood and escape from the kidneys4 #h4 ,some of the manners and customs of the ,hindoos are very peculiar4 ,they always defecate upon the open ground1 and will not use privies or latrines ,this is a matter of religious obligation with them4 ,it is also obligatory upon them to go to stool every morning2 to use the left hand only in wiping themselves2 to wash their fundaments after stool2 to wash their whole persons and clothing every day2 and1 finally1 also to rinse their mouths with water1 and this they often do after washing in foul tanks1 or still fouler pools of water4 ,on steamships1 where tubs of water were provided for washing their fundaments after defecation1 ,surgeon-,general ,de ,renzy saw many ,hindoos rinse their mouth with the same water4 #i4 ,the population of ,hindostan is nearly three hundred millions1 and at least one hundred million pounds of fcal matter is deposited on the open ground everyday1 and has been for centuries4 #aj4 ,much of this foul matter is washed by rains into their tanks and pools of water1 which they use indiscriminately for washing1 cooking1 and drinking purposes4 #aa4 ,the poison of cholera has repeatedly been carried in soiled clothing packed in trunks and boxes1 and conveyed to great distances4 #ab4 ,articles of food1 even bread and cake1 as well as apples1 plums1 and other fruit1 handled by persons in the incipient stages of cholera1 have been known to convey the disease4 #ac4 ,the number of epidemics produced by cholera discharges getting into drinking water are almost innumerable1 and those from contaminated milk are not few4 #ad4 ,the first case of cholera is generally counted from the first fatal one1 whereas this is almost always preceded by non-fatal ones1 which have escaped notice4 ,and each subsequent fatal case is interwoven by one1 or several1 or even many1 non-fatal causes4 ,if the string of a row of beads is broken1 and the beads scattered everywhere1 it would be just as improper to say that they had never been upon a string as to say that1 because all the fatal cases of cholera cannot be traced to equally fatal ones1 no connection ever existed between them4 ,these points are necessarily stated categorically1 but every one can be proved1 if proof is called for4 ,the numerous and very large pilgrimages of the ,hindoos must not be forgotten4 ,john ,c4 ,peters1 ,m4,d4 #hc ,madison ,avenue4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dr4 ,,koch ,,on ,,the ,,cholera4 ,an important and influential conference#a upon cholera was opened in ,berlin at the ,imperial ,board of ,health on the evening of ,july #bf4 ,there were present ,drs4 v4 ,bergmann1 ,coler1 ,eulenbrg1 ,b4 ,frnkel1 ,gaffky1 ,hirsch1 ,koch1 ,leyden1 ,s4 ,neumann1 ,pistor1 ,schubert1 ,skreczka1 ,struck1 ,virchow1 and ,wollfhgel4 ,the conference had been called at the instance of the ,berlin ,medical ,society1 whose ,president1 ,prof4 ,virchow1 explained that it was thought advisable ,dr4 ,koch should1 in the first instance1 give a demonstration of his work before a smaller body than the whole society1 so that the proceedings might be fully reported in the medical press4 ,he mentioned that ,herr ,director ,lucanus and ,president ,sydow had expressed their regret at being unable to be present1 as well as many others1 including ,drs4 ,von ,lauer1 ,von ,frerichs1 ,mehlhausen1 and ,kersaudt4 ,before the meeting ,dr4 ,koch exhibited microscopical specimens and drawings of the cholera bacillus1 and demonstrated the method of its preparation and cultivation4 ,the preparations included specimens of choleraic dejections dried on covering glasses1 stained with fuchsin or methyl-blue1 and examined with oil immersion1 one-twelfth1 and ,abbe's condenser2 also sections of intestine preserved in absolute alcohol1 and stained with methyl-blue4 ,there were also cultures in gelatin1 etc4 ,footnote #a3 ,a detailed report is published in the ,berliner ,klinische ,wochenschrift ,aug4 #d4 ,dr4 ,koch commenced by remarking that what was required for the prevention of cholera was a scientific basis4 ,many and diverse views as to its mode of diffusion and infection prevailed1 but they furnished no safe ground for prophylaxis4 ,on the one hand1 it was held that cholera is a specific disease originating in ,india2 on the other1 that it may arise spontaneously in any country1 and own no specific cause4 ,one view regards the infection to be conveyed only by the patient and his surroundings2 and the other that it is spread by merchandise1 by healthy individuals1 and by atmospheric currents4 ,there is a like discrepancy in the views on the possibility of its diffusion by drinking water1 on the influence of conditions of soil1 on the question whether the dejecta contain the poison or not1 and on the duration of the incubation period4 ,no progress was possible in combating the disease until these root questions of the etiology of cholera are decided4 ,hitherto the advances in knowledge upon the etiology of other infective diseases have done little toward the etiology of cholera4 ,these advances have been made within the last ten years1 during which time no opportunity--at least not in ,europe--has occurred to pursue researches2 and in ,india1 where there is abundant material for such research1 no one has undertaken the task4 ,the opportunity given by the outbreak of cholera in ,egypt last year to study the disease before it reached ,european soil was taken advantage of by various governments1 who sent expeditions for the purpose4 ,he had the honor to take part in one of these1 and in accepting it he well knew the difficulties of the task before him1 for hardly anything was known about the cholera poison1 or where it should be sought2 whether it was to be found only in the intestinal canal1 or in the blood1 or elsewhere4 ,nor was it known whether it was of bacterial nature1 or fungoid1 or an animal parasite--e4g41 an amoeba4 ,but other difficulties appeared in an unexpected direction4 ,from the accounts given in text-books he had imagined that the cholera intestine would show very slight changes1 and would be filled with a clear rice-water fluid4 ,he had not fully recollected the conditions met with in post-mortem examinations had formerly made1 and was therefore at first surprised to meet with quite a different state of things4 ,for he soon found that in a large majority of cases remarkably severe lesions were present in the intestines4 ,in other cases the changes were slighter1 and eventually he met with some which1 to a certain extent1 corresponded with the type described in text-books4 ,but it was some time1 and after many inspections1 before he was enabled to correctly interpret the varied changes met with4 ,in spite of a most careful examination of all other organs and of the ,mood1 nothing was found to establish the presence of an infective material1 and attention was finally concentrated on the intestinal conditions4 ,there were cases in which the lower segment of the small intestine1 most marked immediately above the ileoccal valve1 extending thence upward1 was of a dark reddish-brown color1 the mucous membrane being covered with superficial hmorrhages4 ,in many cases the mucous membrane appeared to be superficially necrosed1 and covered with diphtheritic patches4 ,the intestinal contents in such cases were not colorless1 but consisted of a sanguinolent1 ichorous1 putrid fluid4 ,other cases showed a gradual transition to a less marked change4 ,the redness was less intense1 and was in patches1 while in others the injection was limited to the margins of the follicular and ,peyerian glands1 giving an appearance which is quite peculiar to cholera4 ,in comparatively few cases were the changes so slight as to consist in a somewhat swollen and opaque condition of the superficial layers of the mucous membrane1 with delicate rosy-red injection1 and some prominence of the solitary follicles and ,peyer's patches4 ,in such cases the intestinal contents were colorless1 but resembling meal-soup rather than rice-water4 ,in only a solitary instance were the contents watery and mucoid4 ,microscopical examination of the intestine and its contents revealed1 especially in the cases where the margins of ,peyer's patches were reddened1 a considerable invasion of bacteria1 occurring partly within the tubular glands1 partly between the epithelium and basement membrane1 and in some parts deeper still4 ,then he found cases in which1 besides bacteria of one definite and constant form1 there were others also accumulated within and around the tubular glands1 of various size1 some short and thick1 others very fine2 and be soon concluded that he had to do here with a primary invasion of pathogenic bacilli1 which1 as it were1 prepared the tissues for the entrance of the non-pathogenic forms1 just as he had observed1 in the necrotic1 diphtheritic changes in the intestinal mucosa and in typhoid ulcers4 ,passing to speak of the microscopical character of the contents of the bowel1 ,dr4 ,koch said that owing to the sanguinolent and putrescent character of these in the cases first examined1 no conclusion was arrived at for some time4 ,thus he found multitudes of bacteria of various kinds1 rendering it impossible to distinguish any special forms1 and it was not until he had examined two acute and uncomplicated cases1 before hmorrhage had occurred1 and where the evacuation had not decomposed1 that he found more abundantly the kind of organism which had been seen so richly in the intestinal mucosa4 ,he then proceeded to describe the characters of this bacterium4 ,it is smaller than the tubercle bacillus1 being only about half or at most two-thirds the size of the latter1 but much more plump1 thicker1 and slightly curved4 ,as a rule1 the curve is no more than that of a comma 717 but sometimes it assumes a semicircular shape1 and he has seen it forming a double curve like an ,s1 these two variations from the normal being suggestive of the junction of two individual bacilli4 ,in cultures there always appears a remarkably free development of comma shaped bacilli4 ,these bacilli often grow out to form long threads1 not in the manner of anthrax bacilli1 nor with a simple undulating form1 but assuming the shape of delicate long spirals1 a corkscrew shape1 reminding one very forcibly of the spirochaete of relapsing fever4 ,indeed1 it would be difficult to distinguish the two if placed side by side4 ,on account of this developmental change1 he doubted if the cholera organism should be ranked with bacilli2 it is rather a transitional form between the bacillus and the spirillum4 ,possibly it is a true spirillum1 portions of which appear in the comma shape1 much as in other spirilla--e4 g41 spirilla undula1 which do not always form complete spirals1 but consist only of more or less curved rods4 ,the comma bacilli thrive well in meat infusion1 growing in it with great rapidity4 ,by examining1 microscopically1 a drop of this broth culture the baccilli are seen in active movement1 swarming at the margins of the drop1 interspersed with the spiral threads1 which are also apparently mobile4 ,they grow also in other fluids--e4 g41 very abundantly in milk1 without coagulating it or changing its appearance4 ,also in blood serum they grow very richly4 ,another good nutrient medium is gelatine1 wherein the comma bacilli form colonies of a perfectly characteristic kind1 different from those of any other form of bacteria4 ,the colony when very young appears as a pale and small spot1 not completely spherical as other bacterial colonies in gelatine are wont to be1 but with a more or less irregular1 protruding1 or jagged contour4 ,it also very soon takes on a somewhat granular appearance4 ,as the colony increases1 the granular character becomes more marked1 until it seems to be made up of highly refractile granules1 like a mass of particles of glass4 ,in its further growth the gelatine is liquefied in the vicinity of the colony1 which at the same time sinks down deeper into the gelatine mass1 and makes a small thread-like excavation in the gelatine1 in the center of which the colony appears as a small white point4 ,this again is peculiar2 it is never seen1 at least so marked1 with any other bacterium4 ,and a similar appearance is produced when gelatine is inoculated with a pure culture of this bacillus1 the gelatine liquefying at the seat of inoculation1 and the small colony continually enlarging2 but above it there occurs the excavated spot1 like a bubble of air floating over the bacillary colony4 ,it gives the impression that the bacillus growth not only liquefies the gelatine1 but causes a rapid evaporation of the fluid so formed4 ,many bacteria also have the power of so liquefying gelatine with which they are inoculated1 but never do they produce such an excavation with the bladder-like cavity on the surface4 ,another peculiarity was the slowness with which the gelatine liquefied1 and the narrow limits of this liquefaction in the case of a gelatine disk4 ,cultures of the comma bacillus were also made in agar-agar jelly1 which is not liquefied by them4 ,on potato these bacilli grow like those of glanders1 forming a grayish-brown layer on the surface4 ,the comma bacilli thrive best at temperatures between #cj and #dj ,c41 but they are not very sensitive to low temperatures1 their growth not being prevented until #ag or #af ,c4 is reached4 ,in this respect they agree with anthrax bacilli4 ,koch made an experiment to ascertain whether a very low temperature not merely checked development but killed them1 and subjected the comma bacilli to a temperature of #aj ,c4 ,they were then completely frozen1 but yet retained vitality1 growing in gelatine afterward4 ,other experiments1 by excluding air from the gelatine cultures1 or placing them under an exhausted bell jar1 or in an atmosphere of carbonic acid1 went to prove that they required air and oxygen for their growth2 but the deprivation did not kill them1 since on removing them from these conditions they again began to grow4 ,the growth of these bacilli is exceptionally rapid1 quickly attaining its height1 and after a brief stationary period as quickly terminating4 ,the dying bacilli lose their shape1 sometimes appearing shriveled1 sometimes swollen1 and then staining very slightly or not at all4 ,the special features of their vegetation are best seen when substances which also contain other forms of bacteria are taken--e4 g41 the intestinal contents or choleraic evacuations mixed with moistened earth or linen and kept damp4 ,the comma bacilli in these conditions multiply with great rapidity so as to far outnumber the other forms of bacteria1 which at first might have been in far greater abundance4 ,this state of affairs does not last long2 in two or three days the comma bacilli began to die off1 and the other bacteria began to multiply4 ,precisely the same thing takes place in the intestine1 where1 after the rapid initial vegetation is over1 and when exudation of blood occurs in the bowel1 the comma bacilli disappear and putrefactive bacteria predominate4 ,whether the occurrence of putrefaction is inimical to the comma bacilli has not been proved1 but from analogy it is very probable4 ,at any rate1 it is important to know this for certain1 for if it be so1 then the comma bacilli will not thrive in a cesspit1 and then further disinfection would be unnecessary4 ,these bacilli thrive best in fluids containing a certain amount of nutriment4 ,experiments have not yet shown the limits in this respect1 but ,koch has found them capable of growing in meat broth diluted ten times4 ,again1 if the nutrient medium become acid in reaction their growth is checked1 at least in gelatine and meat infusion2 but singularly enough1 they continue to grow on the surface of a boiled potato which has become acid1 showing that all acids are not equally obnoxious to them4 ,but here1 as with other substances which hinder their growth1 they do not kill the bacilli4 ,davaine has shown that iodine is a strong bactericide4 ,he experimented with anthrax bacilli in water to which iodine was added1 and the bacilli were destroyed4 ,but practically the organisms have to be dealt with in the alkaline contents of the bowel1 or in the blood or fluids of the tissues1 where iodine cannot remain in the free state4 ,koch found that the addition of an aqueous solution of iodine 7#a in #d1jjj7 to meat infusion1 in the proportion of #a in #aj1 did not in the least interfere with the growth of the bacilli in that medium4 ,he did not pursue this line of inquiry1 seeing that in practice larger quantities of iodine than that could not be given4 ,alcohol first checks the development of the comma bacilli when it is mixed with the nutrient fluid in the proportion of #a in #aj1 a degree of concentration which renders it impracticable for treatment4 ,common salt was added to the extent of #b per cent4 without influencing the growth of the bacilli4 ,sulphate of iron1 in the proportion of #b per cent41 checks this growth1 probably by precipitating albumimites from the fluids1 and possibly also by its acid reaction2 certainly it does not seem to have any specific disinfecting action--i4e41 in destroying the bacilli4 ,indeed1 ,koch thinks that the admixture of sulphate of iron with fcal matter may arrest putrefaction1 and really remove what may be the most destructive process to the comma bacilli4 ,hence he would distinguish between substances which merely arrest putrefaction and those which are bactericidal2 for the former may simply serve the purpose of preserving the infective virus4 ,among other substances which prevent the growth of the comma bacilli may be mentioned alum1 in solutions of the strength of #a in #ajj2 camphor1 #a in #cjj2 carbolic acid1 #a in #djj2 oil of peppermint1 #a in #b1jjj2 sulphate of copper1 #a in #b1ejj 7a remedy much employed1 but how much would really be needed merely to hinder the growth of the bacilli in the intestine672 quinine1 #a in #e1jjj2 and sublimate1 #a in #ajj1jjj4 ,in contrast with the foregoing measures for preventing the growth of these bacilli is the striking fact that they are readily killed by drying4 ,this fact is proved by merely drying a small drop of material containing the bacilli on a cover-glass1 and then placing this over some of the fluid on a glass slide4 ,with anthrax bacilli vitality is retained for nearly a week2 whereas1 the comma bacillus appears to be killed in a very short time4 ,thus it was found that although vitality was retained--depending largely upon the number of bacilli--for a short time1 yet withdrawal of the nutrient fluid for an hour or even less often sufficed2 and it never happened that the bacilli retained vitality after a deprivation lasting twenty-four hours4 ,these results would seem to point to the fact that the comma bacillus does not1 like the organisms of anthrax and vaccinia1 pass into the resting state 7,daner-zustande7 by drying2 and if so1 it is one of the most important facts in the etiology of cholera4 ,much1 however1 remains to be done1 especially with regard to the soiled linen of cholera patients being kept in a damp state4 ,he found that in soiled articles1 when dried for a time1 varying from twenty-four hours and upward1 the comma bacilli were quite destroyed4 ,nor was the destruction delayed by placing choleraic excreta in or upon earth1 dry or moist1 or mixed with stagnant water4 ,in gelatine cultures the comma bacilli can be cultivated for six weeks1 and also in blood serum1 milk1 and potato1 where anthrax bacilli rapidly form spores4 ,but a resting state of the comma bacilli has never been met with--a very exceptional thing in the case of bacilli1 and another reason why the organism must be regarded rather as a spirillum than a bacillus1 for the spirilla require only a fluid medium1 and do not1 like the anthrax bacilli1 thrive in a dry state4 ,it is quite unlikely that a resting state of the comma bacillus will ever be discovered2 and1 moreover1 its absence harmonizes with our knowledge of cholera etiology4--,the ,lancet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,medical ,,record4 ,,malaria4--,,the ,,natural ,,production ,,of ,,malaria1 ,,and ,,the ,,means ,,of ,,making ,,malarial ,,countries ,,healthier4 ,footnote3 ,an ,address delivered at the ,eighth ,session of the ,international ,medical ,congress1 ,copenhagen1 ,august #ab1 #ahhd4 ,by ,conrad ,tommasi ,crudeli1 ,m4,d41 ,professor of ,hygiene1 ,university of ,rome1 ,italy4 ,before entering upon my subject1 ,i must crave the indulgence of those of my colleagues whose language ,i have borrowed for any italicisms that ,i may use1 as well as for the foreign accent which must strike their ears more or less disagreeably4 ,desiring to respond as well as lay in my power to the invitation with which ,i have been honored to discuss the hygienic questions relating to malaria1 ,i have chosen the ,french language as being the one in which1 apart from my mother tongue1 ,i could express myself with the greatest ease and precision4 ,i shall be pardoned also1 ,i hope1 for having employed the terms malaria and malarial districts in place of the more commonly used expressions paludal miasm 7miasme paludeen7 and marshy regions 7contres marcageuses74 ,the substitution is not a happy one from a literary point of view1 but ,i have made it deliberately and for the following reason3 ,the idea that intermittent and pernicious fevers are engendered by putrid emanations from swamps and marshes is one of those semi-scientific assumptions which have contributed most to lead astray the investigations of scientists and the work of public administrations4 ,this idea1 so widespread and so well established by the traditions of the school1 is radically false4 ,the specific ferment which engenders those fevers by its accumulation in the atmosphere which we breathe is not exclusively of paludal origin1 and still less is it a product of putrefaction4 ,indeed1 in every region of the globe between the two ,arctic circles there are swamps and marshes1 steeping-tanks of hemp and flax1 large deltas where salt and fresh waters mix1 and yet there is no malaria there1 although putrid decomposition is on every side4 ,on the other hand1 in the same parts of the globe there are places which are not and never were marshy1 and in which there is not the least trace of putrefaction1 but which1 nevertheless1 produce malaria in abundance4 ,i reject1 therefore1 wholly the paludal assumption1 and in order to express this view in the title of my paper1 have been forced to employ terms which to my hearers may sound like italicisms4 ,the ,italians generally have not this paludal notion1 for experience taught them long ago that malaria is produced nearly everywhere--in marshy districts as well as in those which might almost be called arid2 in a volcanic soil as well as in the deposits of the ,miocene and ,pliocene periods and the ancient and modern alluvia2 in a soil rich in organic matters as well as in one containing almost none2 in the plains as well as on the hills or mountains4 ,the word malaria 7bad air71 which it is the sad privilege of ,italy to have lent to all languages to express the cause of intermittent and pernicious fevers1 represents1 then1 among the majority of our rural populations1 the idea of an agent which may infect any sort of country1 whatever may be its hydraulic and topographical conditions1 and whatever may be its geological formation4 ,this word1 therefore1 is the one best suited to designate this specific ferment in question1 and ,i have on this account1 employed it and its adjectival derivatives in order not to resuscitate the idea of the exclusively paludal origin of the morbific agent4 ,i shall not tarry long to speak of the nature of this ferment1 for the studies bearing upon that point1 although far advanced1 are not yet completed4 ,i may remark1 however1 that the idea that the ferment is formed of living organisms is a very old one1 and has not arisen suddenly because of the modern theories of the parasitic nature of disease4 ,from the time of ,varrar 7who believed that malaria was made up of invisible mites suspended in the atmosphere7 to our own day this theory has been several times advanced by hygienists4 ,independently of the general considerations which led ,rasori1 and later ,henle1 to formulate the doctrine of the contagium vivum of infection 7long before the progress of microscopical science had revealed the existence of living ferments71 there were peculiar circumstances as regards malaria which should have impelled minds to look in that direction1 even in times long past4 ,some of these circumstances are of a nature to strike every serious observer1 and deserve a few moments' attention4 ,how could one maintain1 for example1 that this ferment is a product of chemical reactions taking place in the ground1 when it is seen to remain constantly the same whatever may be the composition of the soil from which it emanates6 ,as long as the paludal theory held sway1 the chemical interpretation of this identity of the product in every latitude was easy4 ,rica does not hesitate to admit that when a swampy tract is heated by the sun's rays to the necessary point for the putrid decomposition of the organic matters contained in it1 the chemical ferment1 or rather the mephitic gases1 to which is attributed the morbific action1 are developed1 whatever may be the distance from the equator at which this marshy region lies4 ,but since it has been ascertained that malaria is produced in soils of the most varied chemical composition1 the persistent identity of this product has become chemically inexplicable2 while it is however readily conceivable1 if one admits that malaria is an organized ferment which easily finds the necessary conditions for its life and multiplication in the most varied soils1 as is the case with millions of other organisms vastly superior to the rudimentary vegetables which constitute the living ferments4 ,the same thing may be said of the progressive intensity of the morbific production in abandoned malarious districts4 ,this fact has been historically proved in several parts of the earth1 and especially in ,italy4 ,a large number of ,grecian1 ,etruscan1 and ,latin cities1 even ,rome itself1 sprang up in malarious territories and attained a high state of prosperity4 ,first among the reasons for this success must be placed the works undertaken with a view of rendering these places more salubrious1 and which lessened the evil production1 but almost never extinguished it completely4 ,after the abandonment of these localities1 the production of malaria recommenced in a degree which went on increasing from age to age1 and which has rendered some of these places actually uninhabitable4 ,this was seen1 in the time of the ancient ,romans1 in ,etruria1 when it was conquered and laid waste1 and in several parts of ,magna ,grcia1 and of ,sicily4 ,from the fall of ,rome even to the present day1 this phenomenon has been manifested in a very evident manner in the ,roman ,campagna1 in certain parts of which1 even up to the time of the ,renaissance1 it was possible to maintain pleasure houses1 but which are now unhabitable during the hot season4 ,in many cases the physical conditions of the soil have undergone no appreciable change during centuries1 so that it is impossible to attribute so enormous an augmentation of malaria to an increase in its annual production1 itself increased by a progressive alteration of the chemical composition of the soil4 ,but if1 on the contrary1 it be admitted that malaria is caused by a living organism whose successive generations accumulate in the soil1 the interpretation of this fact becomes very simple4 ,there are1 finally1 peculiarities in the local charging of the atmosphere with malaria which can be explained only in this manner4 ,if the malarial miasm were composed of gaseous bodies emanating from the soil1 or rather of chemical ferments formed beneath the ground and raised into the air by gases or watery vapor1 the charging of the atmosphere with the specific poison ought to arrive at its maximum during the hottest part of the day1 when the ground is heated the most by the sun's rays1 and when the evaporation of water and all chemical actions attain their maximum intensity4 ,but this is very different from what actually occurs4 ,the local charging of the atmosphere is always less strong during the meridian hours than at the beginning and the end of the day1 that is to say1 after the rising1 and especially after the setting1 of the sun4 ,now it is precisely at these hours that the difference between the temperature of the lower layers of the atmosphere and that of the surface of the ground is the greatest1 and that the ascending currents of air starting from the ground are the strongest4 ,if malaria consists of solid particles contained in the soil1 one may readily understand how their elevation en masse into the atmosphere should take place especially at these two periods of the day4 ,all these facts1 which can be easily verified if the subject of malaria be studied on the spot and without any preconceived notions1 explain the tendency which has always been manifested to attribute this specific poisoning of the air to a living organism which is multiplied in the soil2 and they also explain the ardor with which hygienists have applied themselves to the production of the scientific proof4 ,unfortunately the investigations undertaken for this end have for a long time been fruitless1 for the preconceived paludal theory has led investigators to occupy themselves exclusively with the inferior organisms inhabiting marshes4 ,among these organisms they studied especially the hyphomycetes1 which had already acquired so great an importance in dermatology2 and their entire attention was concentrated upon the aquatic algae1 without even taking the precaution to determine whether the varieties which they thought to be malarial were found in all malarious swamps1 or whether they were capable of living within the human organism4 ,it has thus happened that each observer has indicated as the cause of malaria a different variety of alga1 whichever he found to be most abundant in the swampy ground that he had to examine4 ,thus ,salisbury has indicated the palmella gemiasma1 which is found with us in places perfectly free from malaria1 while it is often wanting in malarious marshes in the center of ,italy2 ,balestra1 a species of alga which is as yet indeterminate2 ,bargellini1 the palmogloea micrococca2 ,safford and ,bartlett1 the hydrogastrum granulatum2 and ,archer1 the chitonoblastus oeruginosus4 ,there is not a single one of these species the parasitic nature of which has been demonstrated2 and as regards the two last named varieties1 it can be positively denied that they are capable of producing a general infection1 for the diameter of their spores and filaments is greater than that of the capillary blood vessels4 ,it was only in #ahgi that ,klebs and myself1 after having been thoroughly freed1 by a long series of preparatory studies1 from the unfortunate paludal idea1 undertook together some investigations in malarious districts of the most varied character1 marshy and not marshy4 ,we employed the system of fractional cultivation1 making experiments on animals with the final products thus obtained4 ,we felt ourselves justified in recognizing the malarial ferment in the schizomycete bacillus4 ,the numerous researches made subsequently by us1 and by many other observers1 in the soil and in the air of several malarious localities1 as well as in the blood and in the organs of men and animals specifically infected1 have put it henceforth almost beyond doubt that we really have to do with a schizomycete4 ,very recently1 ,,mm4 ,marchiafava and ,celli have succeeded in demonstrating that the germs of this schizomycete attack directly the red blood-globules1 and destroy them1 causing them to undergo a series of very characteristic changes which admit of easy verification1 and which render certain the existence of a malarial infection4 ,several observations made recently in ,rome tend to demonstrate that the schizomycete of malaria does not always assume the complete bacillary form described by ,klebs and myself2 but this morphological question possesses no further interest for the hygienist4 ,for him the essential thing is to know that he has to deal with a living ferment which can flourish in soils of very varied composition1 and without the presence of which neither marshes nor stagnant pools of water are capable of producing malaria4 ,we must not think1 however1 that all earth containing this ferment is capable of poisoning the superjacent atmosphere4 ,popular experience1 certain modern scientific investigation1 and the facts which one can often verify when the soil1 which was malarious in ancient times and which has since ceased to be so1 is turned up to a great depth1 all agree in proving that the ground remains inoffensive as long as it is not placed in certain conditions indispensable for the multiplication of this specific ferment4 ,up to this point the organism lives1 so to speak1 in an inert state1 and may remain so during centuries without losing any of its deleterious power4 ,there is nothing in this fact that ought to surprise us1 since we know that the life and the power of evolution belonging to the seeds of plants of a much higher order than these vegetable organisms constituting ferments1 may remain latent for centuries1 and may then revive at once when these grains are placed in the conditions suitable for their germination4 ,among the conditions favorable to the multiplication of the malarial ferment contained in the soil1 and to its dispersion through the superjacent atmosphere1 there are three which are absolutely essential1 and the concurrence of which is indispensable for the production of bad air 7malaria74 ,first1 a temperature which does not fall below #bj;,c4 7#fg4e;,f472 next1 a very moderate degree of permanent humidity of the soil2 and finally1 the direct action of the oxygen of the air upon the strata of earth which contain the ferment4 ,if a single one of these three conditions be wanting1 the development of malaria becomes impossible4 ,this is a point of prime importance in the natural history of malaria1 and it gives us the key to most of the methods of sanitary improvement attempted by man4 ,let us see first what can be done in this direction without the labor of man4 ,for nature herself makes localities salubrious by suspending for a greater or less time the production of malaria4 ,it is thus that winter brings about in every country a freedom from malaria which is purely thermic1 for it is due simply and entirely to a sinking of the temperature below the required minimum4 ,indeed1 if the temperature in winter rises above this minimum1 there are often sudden outbreaks of malaria4 ,sometimes1 during very warm and dry summers1 the heat extracts all the humidity from the malarious soil1 and thus procures for us a freedom from the disease which is purely hydraulic4 ,this may continue for a long time 7as happened in the ,roman ,campagna during the years #ahha and #ahhb71 but may also be completely destroyed by a single shower4 ,nature also sometimes renders a district healthy in a manner purely atmospheric1 by covering a malarious soil with earth which does not contain the malarial ferment1 or with a matting formed of earth and the roots of grasses growing closely together in a natural meadow4 ,in the attempts of purification by suspending the malarial action1 which have been devised by man1 the same thing has been done2 that is to say1 it has been sought1 to eliminate at least one of the three conditions essential to the development of the specific ferment contained in the infected soil4 ,naturally1 they have not thought of bringing about a thermic purification1 such as nature produces in winter1 because of the impossibility of moderating the action of the sun2 but they have tried from all time to procure hydraulic or atmospheric purifications1 and sometimes to combine these together in a very happy way4 ,the hydraulic systems are very numerous1 for the problem which is presented1 namely1 that of depriving the ground of its humidity during the hot season1 necessitates different solutions according to the nature and the bearing of the soil4 ,sometimes this is done by digging open or closing ditches intended to draw away large bodies of water4 ,at other limes a system of drainage is established1 by means of which the water is drawn out of the earth and its level is depressed1 so that the upper malarious strata1 exposed to the direct action of the air1 are deprived of moisture during the hot season4 ,this system of drainage is not a modern invention2 the ,italian monks understood it as well as1 and even better than1 we do4 ,in deep and loose soils they used sometimes1 just as we do now1 porous clay pipes2 but when the subsoil was formed of compact and nearly impermeable matters1 they employed a system of drainage1 the extent and grandeur of which astonishes us4 ,it is that of drainage by cavities1 applied by the ,etruscans1 ,latins1 and ,volsci to all the ,roman hills formed of volcanic tufa1 the tradition of which ,i have found still preserved in some countries of the ,abruzzi4 ,we may sometimes establish a double drainage1 from below and from above2 that is to say1 to drain the subsoil1 and at the same time increase the evaporation of water from the surface of the ground4 ,it is well known that clearing off the forests of malarious countries has often proved an excellent means of making lands salubrious which were before too damp2 for1 by removing every obstacle to the direct action of the sun's rays upon the ground1 we cause an increase of evaporation from its surface1 and may thus be enabled to exhaust the superficial strata completely of their water during the hot season4 ,in very moist lands1 which lend themselves readily to deep drainage1 the combination of the latter with a clearing of the surface has1 in almost every quarter of the globe1 rendered possible a very widespread and sometimes a quite lasting freedom from malaria4 ,but1 although a nearly universal experience proclaims this fact1 there is a school which1 following in the footsteps of ,lancisi1 maintains the contrary opinion1 that it is necessary to preserve the forests in malarious districts1 and even to increase their extent1 since the trees filter the infected atmosphere and arrest the malaria in their foliage4 ,this strange theory was formulated by ,lancisi in #agad1 on the occasion of the proposed clearing of a forest belonging to the ,caetani family1 and lying between the ,pontine ,marshes and the district of ,cistema4 ,lancisi was completely imbued with the paludal notion1 and consequently believed that the very severe malaria of ,cistema was brought by the winds from the coast marshes1 instead of being produced in the soil surrounding the district1 which was then covered by this forest4 ,he believed then that the forest acted as a protective rampart1 and he prevented its being cut down4 ,but toward the middle of the present century the ,caetani had the woods cleared off from the entire belt of land surrounding ,cistema4 ,twenty years later ,i was able to show that ,cistema had gained greatly in salubrity4 ,i published my observation in #ahgi1 and1 naturally1 was taken to task rather sharply in the name of the sacred tradition4 ,happily these recriminations led our ,minister of ,agriculture to have the question studied by a special commission4 ,this commission1 after a conscientious examination extending over three years of all the malarious localities in the province of ,rome1 has just published its report1#a the conclusions of which are entirely in accord with the facts of universal experience4 ,they were not able to verify a single fact in support of ,lancisi's theory1 while they found many of the same nature as that of ,cistema1 and which have resulted in overturning the theory entirely4 ,footnote #a3 ,della influenza dei boshi sulla malaria dominante nella regiona marittima della provincia di ,roma4 ,annali di ,agricoltura1 ,no4 #gg1 #ahhd4 ,roma3 ,eredi ,botta4 ,it has also been thought possible to practice drainage from above by means of plantations of certain trees which would draw considerable moisture from the earth1 a method which might really be serviceable in some malarious districts4 ,but in accordance with the idea that malaria is a product of paludal decomposition1 the trees selected have almost always been the eucalyptus4 ,it has been maintained that trees of so rapid a growth ought to drain the soil very actively1 and also that the aroma of their foliage ought to destroy the miasmatic emanations4 ,i have hitherto been unable to verify a single instance of the destruction of malaria by eucalyptus plantations1 but ,i do not consider myself justified in denying the facts which have been stated by others4 ,there is nothing to oppose the admission that these plantations1 when properly made1 may sometimes have been of great utility4 ,i maintain frankly1 however1 that they have not always been so1 and that it is necessary to guard against the exaggerations into which some have allowed themselves to fall in recent times4 ,such exaggerations might have been avoided if1 instead of talking about these plantations on the basis of a theoretical assumption1 the results only had been studied in places where the eucalyptus abounds4 ,it would then have been known that even in the southern hemisphere1 the original home of the eucalyptus1 there are eucalyptus forests which are very malarious4 ,this fact has been demonstrated by ,mr4 ,liversige1 professor in the ,university of ,sydney1 ,australia4 ,among us also1 although everybody was convinced by the statements of the press that the locality of the ,tre ,fontaine1 near ,rome1 had been freed from malaria by means of the eucalyptus1 people were disagreeably surprised by an outbreak of very grave fever occurring throughout the whole of this colony in #ahhb1 a year in which all the rest of the ,roman ,campagna enjoyed an exceptional salubrity4 ,if1 alongside of these hygienic uncertainties1 we place the agricultural uncertainties1 we must conclude that it is necessary to contend strongly against this fanatical prejudice in favor of the eucalyptus tree4 ,these plants are1 in fact1 very capricious in their growth4 ,in full vegetation during the winter in our climate1 they are often killed instantly by a sharp winter frost1 by damp cold1 by the frosts of spring1 or by other causes which the botanists have not yet been able to determine4 ,at other times1 if the winters are very mild1 these plants grow too rapidly in height1 and then are broken short off by moderately strong winds4 ,it should further be mentioned that these plantations are sometimes very expensive4 ,in fact1 if the earth contains too much water1 it must be drained under penalty of seeing the roots of the eucalyptus rot4 ,then again1 if the subsoil is compact1 it is necessary to dig deep trenches in order to give room to the long roots of these trees1 and often indeed these trenches must also be drained1 as is done for olive trees4 ,the conclusion evidently is that it is better to confine ourselves to hydraulic methods of promoting the health fulness of a locality1 the immediate effects of which are less uncertain4 ,and then1 when the local conditions are such as to make it desirable to try the effects of plants possessed of strongly absorbing powers1 it is better to choose them from among the flora of our own hemisphere4 ,this is more sure1 and will cost less4 ,simple hydraulic methods of purification1 even the most perfect1 do not1 however1 produce permanent hygienic effects1 since the moisture necessary for the multiplication of the malaria in the soil is so slight that these effects may be compromised by anything whatever that is capable of restoring a moderate degree of humidity to the ground during the hot season4 ,it has often been thought that a suspension of malarial production would be better assured by suppressing at the same time the humidity of the soil and the direct action of the oxygen of the air upon the superficial strata of earth which contain the ferment4 ,this has been successfully accomplished by the system of overlaying 7combles74 ,this consists in covering the infected soil by thick layers of uninfected earth1 carried there either by the muddy waters of rivers or by the hand of man4 ,at the same time the steady drainage of the surface and underground water is provided for4 ,last year ,i advised our ,minister of ,war to undertake in another form a hydraulico-atmospheric purification of the district of the ,janiculum surrounding the ,salviati ,palace on the ,via della ,longara1 by draining the soil carefully and covering with a layer of very close turf all the parts of the surface which could not be macadamized4 ,it would seem as if this system had been rather successful1 since there has not been this year a single case of fever in the personnel of the new military college1 established in the ,salviati ,palace2 while in the ,corsimi ,palace1 which is situated on the same side of the ,via della ,longara1 but which looks out upon that part of the ,janiculum which is still uncovered1 there have been some fatal cases of fever4 ,furthermore1 we have had in ,rome1 during the past few years1 some very evident proofs of the efficacy of atmospheric methods of purification4 ,i will confine myself to the relation here only of the most striking instance1 one which has been furnished us in the building up of new quarters of the city4 ,there was much discussion at first as to whether the improvements should be undertaken in the parts where they now are or in the valley of the ,tiber1 for the uncovered lands of the ,esquiline and of the ,quirinal were malarious1 and1 as nearly everybody then thought that the malaria of ,rome was carried into the city from the coast marshes1 it was supposed that this state of things was irremediable4 ,we opposed to this view the fact of the salubrity of the ,viminal1 which is situated between the ,esquiline and the ,quirinal1 and which ought to be as unhealthy as the two other hills were the malaria of the latter imported into the city instead of being indigenous4 ,believing it to be indigenous1 we hoped that by shielding the surface of these hills from the direct action of the air 7by building houses and paving the streets71 the malaria would cease to be produced there4 ,that is precisely what has happened1 for the new quarters are very healthy4 ,but the malaria is only held in abeyance1 and is not definitely overcome2 for if an extensive excavation is made in these hills1 and the contact of the air with the malarious soil is thus re-established1 during a hot and damp season1 the production of malaria commences anew4 ,a complete atmospheric purification is nevertheless the most stable of all the methods of obtaining a suspension of malarial production1 but unfortunately its realization is very limited1 for it is restricted to inhabited localities and to sodded surfaces4 ,the ideal method of insuring freedom from malaria should be to obtain a permanent immunity1 that is1 to be able to modify the composition of the infected soil in such a way as to make it sterile as regards malaria1 without taking from it the power of furnishing products useful for the social economy4 ,but all the elements indispensable for obtaining such a result fail us utterly just here4 ,we do not yet know what ought to be1 in general terms1 the composition of a soil incapable of producing malaria1 yet retaining those properties which are suitable for vegetation4 ,when we shall have arrived at this first stage1 there will still be a long road to travel2 and the most difficult part will be to discover a practical means of imparting this salutary composition to all the numerous varieties of malarious soils4 ,scientifically1 then1 in the present state of our knowledge we are unable to affirm anything on this point4 ,practically1 we are not much further advanced4 ,it is very probable that the combination of hydraulic purification with a forced cultivation of the soil has sometimes determined changes in its composition by which it has been rendered sterile as regards malaria4 ,if that has happened1 it has happened by chance1 and we are unable to reproduce the result at will2 for we have not all the data which might enable us to understand how it has come about4 ,most of the purifications obtained in ancient times1 by means of forced cultivation1 continued during centuries1 have not been definite at all1 but the production of malaria has been simply suspended4 ,hardly was the regular cultivation of the fields interrupted than the production of malaria recommenced4 ,among the numerous examples that ,i might cite in this connection1 ,i will limit myself to that of the ,roman ,campagna4 ,this seemed to have been made permanently healthy under the ,antonii1 but after the fall of the empire it began again to produce malaria1 as if the forced cultivation through so many centuries had never been4 ,one might1 strictly speaking1 be content with such a result1 and boldly undertake forced cultivation of all malarious districts1 without stopping to ascertain whether the freedom from malaria so obtained would be definite1 or whether the production of the poison were only suspended4 ,unfortunately1 one is never sure of arriving at such a result1 and no one can say1 priori1 whether the forced cultivation of a given malarious tract will render it healthful4 ,it must always be remembered that the first effect of forced cultivation1 which requires an overturning of the soil by means of the plow1 the spade1 and the pick1 is an unfortunate one1 from a hygienic point of view1 whenever we have to deal with a malarious country4 ,experience has shown1 especially in ,italy and ,america1 that this overturning of the soil almost invariably increases the local production of malaria4 ,and this can be readily understood1 since the plowing and the digging in a soil containing the specific ferment increase the extent of surface of the ground in immediate contact with the atmosphere4 ,this first mischievous effect is often gradually weakened by the continued cultivation1 and may end by disappearing4 ,at other times1 on the contrary1 it persists obstinately1 and one is often forced in desperation to the resolve to level the ground again and to varnish it1 so to speak1 with a thick sowing of grass1 if he wishes to suspend or weaken the malarial production4 ,however1 when the local conditions will permit1 it is well to try whether1 by means of forced cultivation of the soil1 it may not be possible to increase the efficacy of the hydraulic method of procuring immunity from malaria1 or of the hydraulico-atmospheric method of overlaying4 ,the moment that it is known that this cultivation has frequently been advantageous1 there comes forward a crowd of social reasons which induce us to attempt it1 even though we be persuaded that we are about to engage in a game of chance4 ,but to dare to attempt it is not all that is necessary2 we need also the possibility of so doing1 and just here we find ourselves in a vicious circle from which it is not easy to emerge4 ,forced cultivation cannot be accomplished without the presence of agriculturists in the region during the entire year2 and the agriculturists cannot remain in the region during the fever season1 for they run thereby too great a risk4 ,for the solution of this question there is but one means3 try to increase the power of resistance of the human organism to the attacks of the malaria4 ,it is to a search after the means of accomplishing this result that ,i have devoted myself during the past few years4 ,there is nothing to hope for1 as regards malaria1 in acclimation4 ,individual acclimation is1 and always has been1 impossible4 ,the malarial infection is not one of those a first attack of which confers immunity from other attacks4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 a progressive infection1 the duration of which is indeterminate1 and which is of such a nature that a single attack may suffice to ruin the constitution for life4 ,collective or racial acclimation certainly existed in the past1 at a time when specific remedies for pernicious malaria were unknown2 and even later1 when the employment of these remedies was very limited4 ,the acclimation was due to a natural selection made by the malaria upon successive generations1 from which it took away1 almost without opposition1 all those who possessed but a feeble individual power of resistance to the specific poison1 while it spared those who possessed this power of resistance in an extraordinary degree4 ,the first were1 according to the ,grecian myth1 the human victims destined to appease the monster or demon who opposed the violation of the territory over which he had up to that time exercised an absolute sovereignty4 ,the second became the founders of the race1 and through them1 from generation to generation1 the collective power of resistance to the malaria was progressively increased4 ,in our own days a like selection may take place among barbarous races1 as it does among the cattle and the horses in a malarious region1 but it has become an impossibility among civilized nations4 ,by means of the specific remedies which we possess1 the use of which is now so general1 the lives of a large number of individuals whose resisting powers are very feeble are preserved2 and these individuals beget others whose power of resistance to the action of the specific poison is still more feeble4 ,this results after a number of generations in the physical degradation of that part of the human race which inhabits malarious countries4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 in the future1 count upon the assistance of external natural forces to increase the power of resistance of human society against the assaults of malaria4 ,such an object can be obtained only by artificial means4 ,it has been sought to attain this end by the daily administration of the salts of quinine1 of the salicylates1 and of the tincture of eucalyptus1 each and every one tried in turn4 ,but the salts of quinine are dear1 exercise a prompt1 though very transient anti-malarial action1 and1 when administered for a long time1 disturb rather seriously the functions of the digestive and nervous systems4 ,the salicylates1 when well prepared1 are rather dear1 and there is as yet no proof that they possess prophylactic powers against malaria4 ,the alcoholic tincture of eucalyptus is useful in malarious regions 7as are all the alcoholics1 beginning with wine7 in quickening the circulation of the blood2 may it1 perhaps1 also act as a preservative against light attacks of malaria8 ,possibly4 ,but it is very certain that it possesses no efficacy in places where malaria is severe4 ,it will suffice to prove this to recall the two epidemics of fever which afflicted the colony of the ,tre ,fontaine1 near ,rome1 in #ahhj and #ahhb4 ,everybody was attacked1 and there were several cases of pernicious fever1 although a good preparation of eucalyptus is manufactured in the place and is distributed largely to the colonists during the dangerous season of the year4 ,,arsenic ,,for ,,malaria4 ,having several times had occasion to observe1 in malarious regions1 that when recourse was had to arsenic in order to subdue fevers over which quinine had exerted almost no effect1 relapses occurred but rarely2 and having been able to satisfy myself that the arsenical treatment sometimes procured a permanent1 immunity in individuals who are subject to frequent attacks of malaria1 ,i began in #ahhj to employ arsenic 7arsenious acid7 as a prophylactic in certain portions of the ,roman ,campagna4 ,this remedy was indicated in an experiment of this sort1 not only by reason of its durable anti-malarial effects1 but also by its low price1 by the beneficial influence it exerts upon all the nutritive functions1 and because it has no disagreeable taste and may therefore be given to everybody1 even to children4 ,my first trials in #ahhj were rather encouraging1 and ,i felt myself justified in engaging some proprietors and the association of our southern railroads to repeat the experiments on a large scale the following year1 recommending them1 however1 to use arsenic in a solid form as offering an easy and certain dosage4 ,this extensive prophylactic experiment began in #ahha1 and acquired constantly increasing proportions in #ahhb and #ahhc1 which have become still larger this year4 ,an experiment of this kind is not easy to conduct in the beginning4 ,the name1 arsenic1 frightens not only those whom we desire to submit to its action1 but also the physicians1 whose exaggerated fears have sometimes rendered the experiments of no avail1 since they were conducted too timidly and the doses of arsenic employed were altogether insufficient4 ,but some intelligent men1 especially ,m4 ,ricchi1 physician in chief to the southern railroads1 were able speedily to triumph over these obstacles1 and to place the experiment on a firm basis4 ,the general testimony of all the facts which they have collected tends really to prove that when the administration of arsenic is begun some weeks before the presumed season for the appearance of the fever1 and when it is continued regularly throughout the whole of this season1 the power of resistance of the human organism to malaria is increased4 ,many individuals gained thereby a complete immunity1 others a partial immunity1 that is to say1 they were sometimes attacked by the fever1 but it never1 even in very malarious districts1 assumed a pernicious form1 and was easily subdued by very moderate doses of quinine4 ,last year1 for example1 in the district of ,borino1 where the malaria is very severe1 ,m4 ,ricchi experimented upon seventy-eight employes of the southern railroads1 dividing them into two equal divisions1 one of which received no prophylactic treatment1 while the other was submitted to a systematic arsenical treatment4 ,at the end of the fever season it was found that several employes among the first half had been attacked by fevers of a severe type2 while thirty-six of those in the second division had enjoyed a complete immunity1 the three others having been attacked1 but so lightly that they cured themselves by quinine without seeking medical aid4 ,facts of this sort are very encouraging1 and the more so as the general health of those submitted to the prophylactic treatment was much improved4 ,it was found almost invariably1 upon the termination of the experiment1 that there had been an increase in bodily weight and an amelioration of the anmia which is so common in milarious districts4 ,but1 in order to arrive at such results1 it is necessary to be at once bold and prudent4 ,on the one hand1 it is necessary to graduate very carefully the daily dose1 never exceeding at the commencement the dose of two milligrammes 7#c_/ajj grain per diem7 for adults1 and never giving the arsenic upon an empty stomach4 ,on the other hand1 it is necessary to gradually push the dose up to ten or twelve milligrammes 7#ae_/ajj or #ah_/ajj7 a day for adults1 in districts where the malaria is very severe1 giving the arsenic in such a way that there is never an accumulation of the drug in the stomach4 ,most of the experiments which have been undertaken this year are being conducted on this plan1 and there is reason to hope that they will give satisfactory results4 ,we must not1 however1 rest here if we wish to attain promptly the end proposed1 namely1 that of planting colonies in malarious districts without exposing the colonists to grave danger4 ,even if we realize perfectly the hope which ,i conceived in #ahhj1 and if we are enabled to prove that arsenic increases man's power of resistance to the assaults of malaria1 we must not imagine that everything is accomplished4 ,it will take a long time before the use of a preservative method of this kind becomes generalized2 we have first to contend against the fear which nearly every one experiences when arsenic is mentioned1 and then there will also be difficulty in establishing everywhere a proper control over its administration4 ,in every attempt at the colonization of malarious regions it will be necessary to combat for a long time the diseases caused by malaria1 and we must seek for a method of combating them by a means which is in the possession of everybody1 and which shall not be dangerous to the general economy of the human organism4 ,those who do not know from actual experience the miseries of a malarious country1 think only of combating the acute forms of infection1 which often place the patient in danger of death4 ,but this danger1 though great1 is for the most part imaginary1 provided that assistance be obtained in time4 ,but that which desolates families1 and which causes a physical degradation of the human race exposed to the attacks of malaria1 is the chronic poisoning1 which undermines the springs of life and produces a slow but progressive anmia4 ,this infection often resists all human therapeutic measures1 and is even aggravated by the use of quinine1 which is given during the recurrent paroxysms of fever4 ,quinine is1 when given for a long period of time1 a true poison to the vaso-motor nerves4 ,the question1 then1 is to replace quinine1 and the alkaloids which possess an analogous physiological action1 by an agent the efficacy of which against1 chronic malarial poisoning may be greater and the dangers of its employment less4 ,,the ,,lemon ,,for ,,malaria4 ,a happy chance has led ,dr4 ,magliori to the discovery of an agent of this sort which was traditionally in use by certain ,italian families4 ,it is an exceedingly simple thing--merely a decoction of lemon4 ,it is prepared by cutting up one lemon1 peel and all1 into thin slices1 which are then put into three glassfuls of water and the whole boiled down to one glassful4 ,it is then strained through linen1 squeezing the remains of the boiled lemon1 and set aside for some hours to cool4 ,the whole amount of the liquid is then taken fasting4 ,it is well known that in ,italy1 ,greece1 and ,north ,africa1 they often use lemon juice or a decoction of lemon seeds1 as a remedy in malarial fevers of moderate intensity2 and in ,guadaloupe they use for the same purpose a decoction of the bark of the roots of the lemon tree4 ,all these popular practices tend to show that the lemon tree produces a febrifuge substance1 which resides in all parts of the plant1 but which would seem to be most abundant in the fruit4 ,in fact1 among the popular remedies employed against malarial infection1 that which ,i have just described is the most efficacious1 for it can be employed with good effects in acute fevers4 ,but it is especially advantageous in combating the chronic infection1 which is rebellious to the action of quinine1 and in removing or moderating its deplorable effects4 ,hardly had ,i learned of this method of medication1 when ,i hastened to induce some proprietors in the ,roman ,campagna to try it with their farm hands2 and1 after witnessing the good results there1 ,i endeavored to persuade practitioners to make a trial of the same treatment4 ,i was ridiculed a little at first1 for they thought it rather singular that a professor should be trying to popularize on old woman's remedy4 ,in reply to that ,i answered that practical medicine would not have existed1 had it not known how to treasure up from age to age the facts of popular experience2 and ,i ventured to remark that1 had the ,countess de ,chinchon waited until methodical researches had been made into the physiological action of cinchona bark1 before popularizing the remedy1 the use of which she had learned from the semi-barbarous ,peruvians1 in all probability humanity would still1 as regards malaria1 be dependent upon the medication practiced in the middle ages4 ,happily these arguments had the desired effect upon certain distinguished practitioners1 some of whom1 especially in ,sicily and ,tuscany1 have already collected together a tolerably large number of very encouraging observations4 ,one of them1 ,dr4 ,mascagni1 of ,avezzo1 tried the remedy in his own person1 and succeeded in promptly curing an obstinate malarial fever which had resisted the action of quinine4 ,gentlemen1 in dealing with malaria we ought always to hold popular experience in high esteem1 for we owe much to it4 ,we owe to it the fact that we have been liberated from the paludal idea1 and furthermore1 that we have learned that it is often better1 instead of trying to prevent the importation1 for the most part imaginary1 of malaria from distant marshes1 to suppress its production in the soil under our feet or in that immediately surrounding us4 ,we owe to it the knowledge1 which we now have1 that malaria rises up into the atmosphere only to a limited height1 so that by placing ourselves a little above this limit in order to eliminate the possibility of the malaria being carried up to us by oblique atmospheric currents1 we are enabled to breathe an air which does not contain this ferment1 or which contains it only in insignificant amounts2 thus one may even sleep in the open air during the night in very unhealthy districts without running any risks4 ,the knowledge of this fact has led some peoples of ,greece1 and the inhabitants of the ,pontine ,marshes1 to sleep in the open air on platforms raised on poles four or five meters 7twelve to fifteen feet7 in height4 ,some people in the ,roman ,campagna have built houses for themselves on top of the ancient tombs1 the walls of which are perpendicular2 the ,american ,indians fasten their hammocks as high up as possible to the trees of the malarious forests2 and very recently1 the engineers of the ,panama ,railroad had little wooden huts built in the trees in order to procure safety against the terrible outbreak of malaria which occurred during the construction of that iron way4 ,we owe1 finally1 to this popular experience the discovery of the specific action of quinine1 and the consequent preservation of thousands and thousands of human lives4 ,why should we reject a priori and without investigation other useful data which it may yet present to our consideration8 ,if we wish to make progress in this question of rendering malarious countries healthy1 we must always hold before our eyes a double object--to find a means of prophylaxis which may be accessible to everybody2 and1 at the same time1 to find a means equally within everybody's reach1 to overcome chronic malarial poisoning and its evil consequences4 ,science is still too far behind to permit us to hope that we shall soon succeed in discovering this second means by purely scientific researches4 ,we ought1 therefore1 to gather together with great care all the facts which point to the possibility of a solution of this problem1 and if the measures to which these facts point seem to be incapable of doing harm1 we ought to try them boldly1 and not be restrained by a false idea of the dignity of science4 ,the social importance of the problem is too great to allow of its solution being retarded by the fear that scientific men may be accused of having been outrun by the ignorant4 ,true science has none of these puerile susceptibilities2 on the contrary1 it deems it an honor to be able to seize all the observations of fact1 whoever may have been their first recorder1 to put them to the crucial test of methodical experiment1 and to convert them into a new stepping stone on the march of human progress4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,halesia ,,hispida4 ,illustration3 ,,halesia ,,hispida3 ,,hardy ,,shrub3 ,,flowers ,,white4 ,this fine hardy shrub is perhaps best known under the name of ,pterostyrax1 but we think gardeners will1 quite independently of botanical grounds1 be inclined to thank ,messrs4 ,bentham and ,hooker for reducing the genus to the more easily remembered name of ,halesia4 ,halesia hispida is a hardy ,japanese shrub of recent introduction1 with numerous white ,deutzia-like flowers in long terminal racemes4 ,a peculiar appearance is produced by the arrangement of the flowers on one side only of the branchlets of the inflorescence4 ,the botanical history of the plant is well known1 and our illustration is sufficient to show the general appearance of the plant4 ,it is decidedly one of the best recent additions to the number of hardy deciduous flowering shrubs4 ,for the specimen whence our figure was taken we are indebted to ,w4,e4 ,gumbleton1 ,esq4--,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,windflowers4 ,illustration3 ,,flowers ,,of ,,anemone ,,decapetala 7,natural ,size74 ,the genus ,anemone has a great future4 ,even at present its popularity is only a little less than that of roses and daffodils1 but when we trust to seeds as a means of reproducing the best of windflowers instead of buying dried roots from the shops1 then1 and then only1 will coy anemone become a garden queen4 ,a4 coronaria1 if treated as an annual1 furnishes glowing blossoms from ,october until ,june1 after which ,a4 dichotoma and ,a4 japonica in all its forms--white and rosy--carry on the supply and complete the cycle of a year's blossoming4 ,by sowing good1 newly-saved seed in succession from ,february until ,may in prepared beds out of doors1 the common crown anemone may in many sunny1 sheltered gardens be had in bloom all the year round4 ,this is saying a great deal1 but it is true2 indeed1 it is questionable if we have any other popular garden flower which is at once so showy1 so hardy1 and so continuous in its blossoming4 ,a friend beside me says3 ,ah6 but what of violas8 ,to which ,i reply3 ,grow both in quantity1 since both are as variable as they are beautiful4 ,but when viola shrinks in foggy ,november from the frost demon1 anemone rises ,phoenix-like responsive to the first ray of sunshine4 ,besides1 fair ,viola1 richly as she dresses in velvet purple or in golden sheen1 has not yet donned that vivid scarlet robe which ,queen ,anemone weareth1 nor are her wrappers of celestial azure so pure2 and blue is1 as we all know1 the highest note of coloring in floral music4 ,but comparisons are not required1 ,anemones are variable and beautiful enough to be grown for themselves alone4 ,no matter whether we look at a waving mass of sparkling windflowers in a vineyard or cornfield by the ,mediterranean1 or walk knee deep among the silvery stars of ,a4 nemorosa in an ,english wood--silvery stars in a sea of bluebells--they are alike satisfying4 ,i believe that there is any amount of raw material in the genus ,anemone--hardihood1 good form and habit1 and coloring alike delicate and brilliant2 and what we now want is that amateurs should grow them with the attention and care that have been lavished upon roses and lilies and daffodils4 ,but1 alas6 we have some capricious beauties in this group4 ,a4 coronaria and some other species succeed well treated as seedling hardy annuals1 and others1 as ,a4 apennina1 ,a4 ,robinsoni1 ,a4 ,pulsatilla1 ,a4 dichotoma1 and ,a4 japonica1 may be multiplied ad infinitum by cuttings of the root4 ,it is when we come to the aristocratic ,alpine forms1 to ,a4 alpina1 ,a4 sulphurea1 ,a4 narcissiflora1 etc41 that difficulties alike of propagation and of culture test our skill to the uttermost4 ,tourists fond of gardens walk over these plants in bloom every year2 they dig up roots and send them home2 but they are as yet very rare in even the best of gardens4 ,nor is it easy to rear them from seeds4 ,a year ago ,i sowed seed by the ounce each of ,a4 alpina and of ,a4 sulphurea1 but as yet not a single plantlet has rewarded me for my trouble4 ,even freshly gathered seeds of ,a4 narcissiflora will not germinate with me1 but ,i live in hopes of surmounting little difficulties of this kind1 and in the mean time1 perhaps1 others more fortunate will tell us how to amend our unsuccessful ways4 ,one of the prettiest species which is now in flower in our gardens is the pure white ,a4 dichotoma1 which carries on the succession after the ,snowdrop anemone 7,a4 sylvestris7 has passed away4 ,then we have dreams1 and lend willing ears to the oral traditions of ,anemone alba4 ,is this species in cultivation1 or where may a figure of it be seen8 ,it is said to be of neat habit1 #ab inches high1 with erect1 saucer-shaped1 white blossoms #c inches in diameter4 ,the species we now figure is well worth a place1 being easily raised from seeds4 ,it is called ,anemone decapetala1 and if not by any means a showy species1 tufts of it three years from seed have this season been very pretty4 ,it grows less than a foot in height1 and bears pale creamy yellow flowers the size of a shilling on branched flowering stems2 each blossom has eight or nine sepals around a yellowish green center4 ,some of our clumps had from a dozen to twenty flowers open at the same time1 and the general effect in the early morning sunshine is a very pretty one4 ,we have another species similar in habit which is just now a mass of rosy buds1 and if you blow open its sepals1 they are of a bright magenta color inside1 but ,i never yet saw a flower open naturally on this plant4 ,just as the sepals open at the tips1 and you think they are about to expand1 they shrivel and fall away1 leaving a tuft of greenish yellow stamens in the center4 ,is it ,a4 ,hudsoni8 ,another species not often seen1 but well worth culture1 is ,a4 coerulea1 a kind with finely cut leaves and purplish blue flowers4 ,then ,a4 coronaria1 ,the ,bride1 a pure creamy white kind1 with flowers #c inches across1 raised by ,van ,velsen1 of ,haarlem1 is really a good addition to these dainty blossoms1 and affords a vivid contrast to the fiery ,a4 fulgens4 ,i have received this year some roots of anemones1 iris1 and other hardy flowers from the site of ancient ,troy1 and trust that some of these1 if not new1 will be beautiful additions to our gardens4 ,the true ,a4 vitifolia from northern ,india does well in mild localities2 but best of all of this perennial large-leaved race is ,a4 japonica alba1 the queen of all autumnal kinds1 rivaling the best of all hardy border flowers in purity and freedom of blossoming4 ,taken as a class1 windflowers are so beautiful that we cannot grow them too plentifully1 and but few other genera will so well repay cultural attention at all seasons4--,f4,w4,b41 in ,the ,garden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,story ,,of ,,lieut4 ,,greely',s ,,recovery4 ,the story of ,lieut4 ,greely's recovery after his rescue from ,cape ,sabine is given by ,passed ,assistant ,surgeon ,edward ,h4 ,green1 ,u4,s4,n1 of the relief ship ,thetis1 in a communication to the ,medical ,record4 ,the cases of ,greely's six fellow survivors1 it is remarked1 were very similar to his4 ,the condition of all was so desperate that a delay of two hours in the camp was necessary before they could be removed to the relief vessels4 ,brandy1 milk1 and beef essence were administered4 ,lieut4 ,greely's disease is called by the surgeon asthenia1 a diminution of the vital forces4 ,greely fainted after being carried to the wardroom of the ,thetis4 ,when he was brought to1 a teaspoonful of minced raw fresh beef was given to him4 ,his clothes were carefully cut off of him1 and heavy red flannels1 previously warmed1 were-substituted4 ,he was excessively enacted1 and his body emitted an offensive odor4 ,his skin hung from his limbs in flaps4 ,his face1 hands1 and scalp were black with a thick crust of soot and dirt4 ,he had not washed himself or changed his clothing for ten months4 ,he had lived a long time at a temperature inside the hut of from five to ten degrees above zero4 ,he was nervous and irritable1 at times almost irrational1 and his eyes were wild and staring4 ,he insisted on talking1 craving news1 and demanding food1 but he complained of no pain4 ,his tongue was dry and cracked1 and coated a brownish black4 ,he was ravenously hungry4 ,his pulse was #eb1 and soft or compressible4 ,his skin was cold1 clammy1 shriveled1 and sallow4 ,his temperature under the tongue was #ig4b deg4 ,there was great muscular waste1 and he was unable to move or to stand without support4 ,before leaving ,fort ,conger in ,august1 #ahhc1 he weighed #afh pounds4 ,he now weighed #abj pounds4 ,he was carried aboard the ,thetis about #aa ,p4,m4 on ,june #bb1 it being then broad daylight in that region1 and his treatment from that hour until #h o'clock the next morning was a teaspoonful of minced raw beef1 alternated every half hour with a teaspoonful of milk punch4 ,strict quiet was enjoined4 ,on ,june #bc ,surgeon ,green was compelled to allow him to read some letters from home1 after which he seemed less restless4 ,he talked rationally1 but showed a loss of memory in often repeating what he had previously said4 ,he had not closed his eyes in sleep since his rescue4 ,there was excessive constipation4 ,the treatment was the same as during the night1 except that finely cut raw onion was added to the minced beef1 and half an ounce of milk punch was given every two hours4 ,on the next day1 ,june #bd1 although he had yet had no sleep1 and he showed a great desire to talk and read1 there were signs of improvement4 ,he was less persistent in demanding food1 his tongue presented a moister appearance1 he began to complain of soreness in his limbs1 and his heart sounded stronger4 ,surgeon ,green had him sponged with tepid water1 and briskly rubbed with flannels4 ,he gave him a small quantity of oatmeal thoroughly boiled1 beef essence1 and scraped beef and onion4 ,on the next day1 ,june #be1 ,lieut4 ,greely slept for the first time4 ,he awoke after two or three hours1 much refreshed4 ,he talked without excitement1 and his tongue and skin began to look more natural4 ,his muscles felt sore1 and his ankles were puffed4 ,on the next day1 ,june #bf1 his mind was tranquil1 but there was a loss of memory of words4 ,he was allowed to sit up in bed and read a little4 ,he slept six hours4 ,for the first time since his rescue medicine was given him--some muriate of iron4 ,on the next morning he got eight ounces of broiled steak and on the following day1 ,june #bh1 he dressed himself and sat up for two hours4 ,his food was now gradually increased from day to day1 and he continued steadily to improve4 ,on ,july #a he was well bundled up1 and allowed to sit on deck for an hour in the sunshine4 ,on ,july #ag1 the ,thetis arrived at ,st4 ,johns4 ,lieut4 ,greely's muscles were now filling out rapidly1 and he was allowed to go on shore and take exercise4 ,here1 ,surgeon ,green says1 the lieutenant committed an error in diet at the ,american ,consul's table1 and suffered for two days with a slight attack of intestinal indigestion4 ,on ,july #be1 for the first time1 he was allowed to eat three square meals4 ,six weeks after his rescue he had gained #di pounds4 ,he gained #i pounds the first week1 #ae pounds the second week1 #h pounds the third week1 #g pounds the fourth week1 #e pounds the fifth week1 and #d pounds the sixth week4 ,surgeon ,green adds1 under the head of remarks3 ,vital depression1 as exhibited by the temperature1 not marked2 digestion fairly good all the time2 nervous system soon calmed4 ,microscopic examination of blood disappointing2 exhibiting no unhealthy character of red blood globules4 ,liver not secreting4 ,large gain in weight1 due to rapid assimilation of food1 owing to a great muscular waste4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,cay ,,monument ,,at ,,uxmal4 ,,discovered ,,by ,,dr4 ,,le ,,plongeon ,,on ,,june #a1 #ahha4 ,in #ahha1 we went for the second time to the ancient ruined city of ,uxmal1 ,yucatan1 and lived there four months1 making moulds of every ornament and inscription1 from which moulds perfect facsimiles of those grand old palaces can be produced in plaster1 and placed in any exposition or museum4 ,during our stay there1 on ,june #a1 ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon had the great satisfaction of discovering a monument1 a splendid work of art in all its pristine beauty1 fresh as when the artist put the finishing touch to it1 without blemish1 unharmed by time1 and not even looked upon by man since it was concealed1 ages ago1 where ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon discovered it through his interpretations of certain inscriptions4 ,it was probably hidden to save it from destruction1 between the sixth and seventh centuries of the ,christian era1 when the ,naualts invaded and overran the country1 demolishing many art treasures of the ,mayas4 ,illustration ,the monument represents a mastodon head1 with various ornaments above and below it1 the whole measuring #c4ej m4 7#aa feet #d inches7 in height1 and in width #a4be m4 7#d feet #a inch74 ,above the mastodon head there is a chain1 nearly #aj inches deep2 the stones forming the links are sculptured and fitted into each other just like the rattles of a rattlesnake2 and yet higher another row of stones resembling knots4 ,the uppermost part is composed of stones that incline outward from above2 they are flat1 measuring #j4ee by #j4de centimeters 7#ba inches by #ag inches71 and are covered with various signs pertaining to certain mysteries4 ,on the sides of the mastodon's trunk are these signs ,illustration3 7an x and a circle with a dot in the middle7 which read ,tza1 and means that which is necessary4 ,beneath the trunk and the upper jaw is what is meant to represent the distended jaws of a serpent2 on it is inscribed the family name1 1 ,can1 the mouth 7chi7 of the serpent giving the second part of the name4 ,canchi means serpent's mouth1 and was the name of the royal family that ruled over the ,mayas when their civilization was at its height4 ,within the serpent's jaws is the greatest gem of ,american sculpture yet discovered4 ,it is a head and throat1 sculptured in the round1 of ,cay ,canchi1 the high priest and elder brother of the warrior ,chaacmol1 whose statue we exhumed from #h meters below the soil in ,chichen ,itza1 during the year #ahgf2 which statue was afterward robbed from us by the ,mexican government1 and is now in the museum at ,mexico city4 ,the stone out of which the beautiful head is cut is not polished1 but wrought so finely as to almost imitate the texture of the skin4 ,it is decidedly a good looking face4 ,the nostrils are most delicately chiseled1 and the cartilage pierced2 the eyes are open1 and clearly marked4 ,on the right cheek is his totem1 a fish traced in exceedingly small cross bars4 ,the forehead is well formed1 not retreating1 and incircled by a diadem composed of small disks1 from the front of which projects a perfect fish's head4 ,the hair is short in front1 and hangs like a fringe on the upper part of the forehead1 but is longer at the sides1 hanging in straight locks4 ,on the wall against which this monument is built1 feathers are sculptured1 forming a canopy4 ,such a superb chef d'oeuvre proves beyond doubt that the ,maya artists were in no way inferior to those of ,assyria and ,egypt4 ,having been so unjustly deprived of ,chaacmol without any remuneration for our time1 labor1 and expenditure1 we decided to save the ,cay monument from destruction at any cost1 for should any ignorant persons attempt to move it1 they would break it in so doing2 so1 after making a mould of it1 we guarded it most securely1 as we considered best1 afterward inclosing it with planks1 then built it up and left it as we had found it4 ,sr4 ,don ,romero ,ancona1 then ,governor of ,yucatan1 was very much provoked because we would not reveal the whereabouts of our find1 but gained nothing by it1 and the beautiful monument is still safe4 ,,alice ,d4 ,,le ,,plongeon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,rolled gold is made by casting an ingot of brass1 and while this is still hot pouring upon it a thin layer of gold alloy4 ,the ingot when cold is forced between steel rollers until a long1 thin ribbon is produced1 of which the proportion of gold and brass is the same as of the ingot4 ,the percentage of gold is reduced as low as two and three per cent4 ,this rolled gold is used in making cheap bracelets and watch chains4 ,it wears from one to ten years4 ,a ,,catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a 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