,transcriber's ,notes3 ,despite the severity with which the author of this work treats those who depart from his standard of correctness1 the source text does contain a small number of typographical errors4 ,missing punctuation has been supplied silently1 but all other errors have been left uncorrected4 ,to let the reader distinguish such problems from any inadvertent transcription errors that remain1 ,i have inserted notes to flag items that appear errors by ,brown's own standard4 ,spellings that are simply different from current practice1 e4g41 ',shakspeare' are not noted4 ,special characters3 vowels with macrons are rendered with an equals sign 77 before the vowel4 ,vowels with breve marks are rendered with tildes 77 before the vowels4--,,kth4 ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,english ,,grammars1 ,,with ,,an ,,introduction ,,historical ,,and ,,critical2 ,,the ,,whole ,,methodically ,,arranged ,,and ,,amply ,,illustrated2 ,,with ,,forms ,,of ,,correcting ,,and ,,of ,,parsing1 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction1 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing1 ,,questions ,,for ,,examination1 ,,exercises ,,for ,,writing1 ,,observations ,,for ,,the ,,advanced ,,student1 ,,decisions ,,and ,,proofs ,,for ,,the ,,settlement ,,of ,,disputed ,,points1 ,,occasional ,,strictures ,,and ,,defences1 ,,an ,,exhibition ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,methods ,,of ,,analysis1 ,,and ,a ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,oral ,,exercises3 ,,to ,,which ,,are ,,added ,,four ,,appendixes1 ,,pertaining ,,separately ,,to ,,the ,,four ,,parts ,,of ,,grammar4 ,,by ,,goold ,,brown1 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,institutes ,,of ,,english ,,grammar1 ,,the ,,first ,,lines ,,of ,,english ,,grammar1 ,,etc4 ,so let great authors have their due1 that ,time1 who is the author of authors1 be not deprived of his due1 which is1 farther and farther to discover truth4--,,lord ,,bacon4 ,,sixth ,,edition--,,revised ,,and ,,improved4 ,,enlarged ,,by ,,the ,,addition ,,of ,a ,,copious ,,index ,,of ,,matters4 ,,by ,,samuel ,u4 ,,berrian1 ,a4 ,m4 ,,preface ,the present performance is1 so far as the end could be reached1 the fulfillment of a design1 formed about twenty-seven years ago1 of one day presenting to the world1 if ,i might1 something like a complete grammar of the ,english language2--not a mere work of criticism1 nor yet a work too tame1 indecisive1 and uncritical2 for1 in books of either of these sorts1 our libraries already abound2--not a mere philosophical investigation of what is general or universal in grammar1 nor yet a minute detail of what forms only a part of our own philology2 for either of these plans falls very far short of such a purpose2--not a mere grammatical compend1 abstract1 or compilation1 sorting with other works already before the public2 for1 in the production of school grammars1 the author had early performed his part2 and1 of small treatises on this subject1 we have long had a superabundance rather than a lack4 ,after about fifteen years devoted chiefly to grammatical studies and exercises1 during most of which time ,i had been alternately instructing youth in four different languages1 thinking it practicable to effect some improvement upon the manuals which explain our own1 ,i prepared and published1 for the use of schools1 a duodecimo volume of about three hundred pages2 which1 upon the presumption that its principles were conformable to the best usage1 and well established thereby1 ,i entitled1 ,the ,institutes of ,english ,grammar4 ,of this work1 which1 it is believed1 has been gradually gaining in reputation and demand ever since its first publication1 there is no occasion to say more here1 than that it was the result of diligent study1 and that it is1 essentially1 the nucleus1 or the groundwork1 of the present volume4 ,with much additional labour1 the principles contained in the ,institutes of ,english ,grammar1 have here been not only reaffirmed and rewritten1 but occasionally improved in expression1 or amplified in their details4 ,new topics1 new definitions1 new rules1 have also been added2 and all parts of the subject have been illustrated by a multiplicity of new examples and exercises1 which it has required a long time to amass and arrange4 ,to the main doctrines1 also1 are here subjoined many new observations and criticisms1 which are the results of no inconsiderable reading and reflection4 ,regarding it as my business and calling1 to work out the above-mentioned purpose as circumstances might permit1 ,i have laid no claim to genius1 none to infallibility2 but ,i have endeavoured to be accurate1 and aspired to be useful2 and it is a part of my plan1 that the reader of this volume shall never1 through my fault1 be left in doubt as to the origin of any thing it contains4 ,it is but the duty of an author1 to give every needful facility for a fair estimate of his work2 and1 whatever authority there may be for anonymous copying in works on grammar1 the precedent is always bad4 ,the success of other labours1 answerable to moderate wishes1 has enabled me to pursue this task under favourable circumstances1 and with an unselfish1 independent aim4 ,not with vainglorious pride1 but with reverent gratitude to ,god1 ,i acknowledge this advantage1 giving thanks for the signal mercy which has upborne me to the long-continued effort4 ,had the case been otherwise1--had the labours of the school-room been still demanded for my support1--the present large volume would never have appeared4 ,i had desired some leisure for the completing of this design1 and to it ,i scrupled not to sacrifice the profits of my main employment1 as soon as it could be done without hazard of adding another chapter to the ,calamities of ,authors4 ,the nature and design of this treatise are perhaps sufficiently developed in connexion with the various topics which are successively treated of in the ,introduction4 ,that method of teaching1 which ,i conceive to be the best1 is also there described4 ,and1 in the ,grammar itself1 there will be found occasional directions concerning the manner of its use4 ,i have hoped to facilitate the study of the ,english language1 not by abridging our grammatical code1 or by rejecting the common phraseolgy sic--,,kth of its doctrines1 but by extending the former1 improving the latter1 and establishing both2--but still more1 by furnishing new illustrations of the subject1 and arranging its vast number of particulars in such order that every item may be readily found4 ,an other important purpose1 which1 in the preparation of this work1 has been borne constantly in mind1 and judged worthy of very particular attention1 was the attempt to settle1 so far as the most patient investigation and the fullest exhibition of proofs could do it1 the multitudinous and vexatious disputes which have hitherto divided the sentiments of teachers1 and made the study of ,english grammar so uninviting1 unsatisfactory1 and unprofitable1 to the student whose taste demands a reasonable degree of certainty4 ,whenever labour implies the exertion of thought1 it does good1 at least to the strong3 when the saving of labour is a saving of thought1 it enfeebles4 ,the mind1 like the body1 is strengthened by hard exercise3 but1 to give this exercise all its salutary effect1 it should be of a reasonable kind2 it should lead us to the perception of regularity1 of order1 of principle1 of a law4 ,when1 after all the trouble we have taken1 we merely find anomalies and confusion1 we are disgusted with what is so uncongenial3 and1 as our higher faculties have not been called into action1 they are not unlikely to be outgrown by the lower1 and overborne as it were by the underwood of our minds4 ,hence1 no doubt1 one of the reasons why our language has been so much neglected1 and why such scandalous ignorance prevails concerning its nature and history1 is its unattractive1 disheartening irregularity3 none but ,satan is fond of plunging into chaos4--,philological ,museum1 7,cambridge1 ,eng41 #ahcb17 ,vol4 i1 p4 #fff4 ,if there be any remedy for the neglect and ignorance here spoken of1 it must be found in the more effectual teaching of ,english grammar4 ,but the principles of grammar can never have any beneficial influence over any person's manner of speaking or writing1 till by some process they are made so perfectly familiar1 that he can apply them with all the readiness of a native power2 that is1 till he can apply them not only to what has been said or written1 but to whatever he is about to utter4 ,they must present themselves to the mind as by intuition1 and with the quickness of thought2 so as to regulate his language before it proceeds from the lips or the pen4 ,if they come only by tardy recollection1 or are called to mind but as contingent afterthoughts1 they are altogether too late2 and serve merely to mortify the speaker or writer1 by reminding him of some deficiency or inaccuracy which there may then be no chance to amend4 ,but how shall1 or can1 this readiness be acquired8 ,i answer1 ,by a careful attention to such exercises as are fitted to bring the learner's knowledge into practice4 ,the student will therefore find1 that ,i have given him something to do1 as well as something to learn4 ,but1 by the formules and directions in this work1 he is very carefully shown how to proceed2 and1 if he be a tolerable reader1 it will be his own fault1 if he does not1 by such aid1 become a tolerable grammarian4 ,the chief of these exercises are the parsing of what is right1 and the correcting of what is wrong2 both1 perhaps1 equally important2 and ,i have intended to make them equally easy4 ,to any real proficient in grammar1 nothing can be more free from embarrassment1 than the performance of these exercises1 in all ordinary cases4 ,for grammar1 rightly learned1 institutes in the mind a certain knowledge1 or process of thought1 concerning the sorts1 properties1 and relations1 of all the words which can be presented in any intelligible sentence2 and1 with the initiated1 a perception of the construction will always instantly follow or accompany a discovery of the sense3 and instantly1 too1 should there be a perception of the error1 if any of the words are misspelled1 misjoined1 misapplied1--or are1 in any way1 unfaithful to the sense intended4 ,thus it is the great end of grammar1 to secure the power of apt expression1 by causing the principles on which language is constructed1 if not to be constantly present to the mind1 at least to pass through it more rapidly than either pen or voice can utter words4 ,and where this power resides1 there cannot but be a proportionate degree of critical skill1 or of ability to judge of the language of others4 ,present what you will1 grammar directs the mind immediately to a consideration of the sense2 and1 if properly taught1 always creates a discriminating taste which is not less offended by specious absurdities1 than by the common blunders of clownishness4 ,every one who has any pretensions to this art1 knows that1 to parse a sentence1 is but to resolve it according to one's understanding of its import2 and it is equally clear1 that the power to correct an erroneous passage1 usually demands or implies a knowledge of the author's thought4 ,but1 if parsing and correcting are of so great practical importance as our first mention of them suggests1 it may be well to be more explicit here concerning them4 ,the pupil who cannot perform these exercises both accurately and fluently1 is not truly prepared to perform them at all1 and has no right to expect from any body a patient hearing4 ,a slow and faltering rehearsal of words clearly prescribed1 yet neither fairly remembered nor understandingly applied1 is as foreign from parsing or correcting1 as it is from elegance of diction4 ,divide and conquer1 is the rule here1 as in many other cases4 ,begin with what is simple2 practise it till it becomes familiar2 and then proceed4 ,no child ever learned to speak by any other process4 ,hard things become easy by use2 and skill is gained by little and little4 ,of the whole method of parsing1 it should be understood1 that it is to be a critical exercise in utterance1 as well as an evidence of previous study1--an exhibition of the learner's attainments in the practice1 as well as in the theory1 of grammar2 and that1 in any tolerable performance of this exercise1 there must be an exact adherence to the truth of facts1 as they occur in the example1 and to the forms of expression1 which are prescribed as models1 in the book4 ,for parsing is1 in no degree1 a work of invention2 but wholly an exercise1 an exertion of skill4 ,it is1 indeed1 an exercise for all the powers of the mind1 except the inventive faculty4 ,perception1 judgement1 reasoning1 memory1 and method1 are indispensable to the performance4 ,nothing is to be guessed at1 or devised1 or uttered at random4 ,if the learner can but rehearse the necessary definitions and rules1 and perform the simplest exercise of judgement in their application1 he cannot but perceive what he must say in order to speak the truth in parsing4 ,his principal difficulty is in determining the parts of speech4 ,to lessen this1 the trial should commence with easy sentences1 also with few of the definitions1 and with definitions that have been perfectly learned4 ,this difficulty being surmounted1 let him follow the forms prescribed for the several praxes of this work1 and he shall not err4 ,the directions and examples given at the head of each exercise1 will show him exactly the number1 the order1 and the proper phraseology1 of the particulars to be stated2 so that he may go through the explanation with every advantage which a book can afford4 ,there is no hope of him whom these aids will not save from plunging into chaos4 ,of all the works of man1 language is the most enduring1 and partakes the most of eternity4 ,and1 as our own language1 so far as thought can project itself into the future1 seems likely to be coeval with the world1 and to spread vastly beyond even its present immeasurable limits1 there cannot easily be a nobler object of ambition than to purify and better it4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ffe4 ,it was some ambition of the kind here meant1 awakened by a discovery of the scandalous errors and defects which abound in all our common ,english grammars1 that prompted me to undertake the present work4 ,now1 by the bettering of a language1 ,i understand little else than the extensive teaching of its just forms1 according to analogy and the general custom of the most accurate writers4 ,this teaching1 however1 may well embrace also1 or be combined with1 an exposition of the various forms of false grammar by which inaccurate writers have corrupted1 if not the language itself1 at least their own style in it4 ,with respect to our present ,english1 ,i know not whether any other improvement of it ought to be attempted1 than the avoiding and correcting of those improprieties and unwarrantable anomalies by which carelessness1 ignorance1 and affectation1 are ever tending to debase it1 and the careful teaching of its true grammar1 according to its real importance in education4 ,what further amendment is feasible1 or is worthy to engage attention1 ,i will not pretend to say2 nor do ,i claim to have been competent to so much as was manifestly desirable within these limits4 ,but what ,i lacked in ability1 ,i have endeavored to supply by diligence2 and what ,i could conveniently strengthen by better authority than my own1 ,i have not failed to support with all that was due1 of names1 guillemets1 and references4 ,like every other grammarian1 ,i stake my reputation as an author1 upon a certain set of opinions1 and a certain manner of exhibiting them1 appealing to the good sense of my readers for the correctness of both4 ,all contrary doctrines are unavoidably censured by him who attempts to sustain his own2 but1 to grammatical censures1 no more importance ought to be attached than what belongs to grammar itself4 ,he who cares not to be accurate in the use of language1 is inconsistent with himself1 if he be offended at verbal criticism2 and he who is displeased at finding his opinions rejected1 is equally so1 if he cannot prove them to be well founded4 ,it is only in cases susceptible of a rule1 that any writer can be judged deficient4 ,i can censure no man for differing from me1 till ,i can show him a principle which he ought to follow4 ,according to ,lord ,kames1 the standard of taste1 both in arts and in manners1 is the common sense of mankind1 a principle founded in the universal conviction of a common nature in our species4 7,see ,elements of ,criticism1 ,chap1 xxv1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cfd47 ,if this is so1 the doctrine applies to grammar as fully as to any thing about which criticism may concern itself4 ,but1 to the discerning student or teacher1 ,i owe an apology for the abundant condescension with which ,i have noticed in this volume the works of unskillful grammarians4 ,for men of sense have no natural inclination to dwell upon palpable offences against taste and scholarship2 nor can they be easily persuaded to approve the course of an author who makes it his business to criticise petty productions4 ,and is it not a fact1 that grammatical authorship has sunk so low1 that no man who is capable of perceiving its multitudinous errors1 dares now stoop to notice the most flagrant of its abuses1 or the most successful of its abuses8 ,and1 of the quackery which is now so prevalent1 what can be a more natural effect1 than a very general contempt for the study of grammar8 ,my apology to the reader therefore is1 that1 as the honour of our language demands correctness in all the manuals prepared for schools1 a just exposition of any that are lacking in this point1 is a service due to the study of ,english grammar1 if not to the authors in question4 ,the exposition1 however1 that ,i have made of the errors and defects of other writers1 is only an incident1 or underpart1 of the scheme of this treatise4 ,nor have ,i anywhere exhibited blunders as one that takes delight in their discovery4 ,my main design has been1 to prepare a work which1 by its own completeness and excellence1 should deserve the title here chosen4 ,but1 a comprehensive code of false grammar being confessedly the most effectual means of teaching what is true1 ,i have thought fit to supply this portion of my book1 not from anonymous or uncertain sources1 but from the actual text of other authors1 and chiefly from the works of professed grammarians4 ,in what regards the laws of grammatical purity1 says ,dr4 ,campbell1 the violation is much more conspicuous than the observance4--,see ,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #aij4 ,it therefore falls in with my main purpose1 to present to the public1 in the following ample work1 a condensed mass of special criticism1 such as is not elsewhere to be found in any language4 ,and1 if the littleness of the particulars to which the learner's attention is called1 be reckoned an objection1 the author last quoted has furnished for me1 as well as for himself1 a good apology4 ,the elements which enter into the composition of the hugest bodies1 are subtile and inconsiderable4 ,the rudiments of every art and science exhibit at first1 to the learner1 the appearance of littleness and insignificancy4 ,and it is by attending to such reflections1 as to a superficial observer would appear minute and hypercritical1 that language must be improved1 and eloquence perfected4--,ib41 p4 #bdd4 ,,goold ,,brown4 ,,lynn1 ,,mass41 #ahea4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,preliminary ,,matters4 ,preface to the ,grammar of ,english ,grammars ,this ,table of ,contents ,catalogue of ,english ,grammars and ,grammarians ,,introduction4 ,chapter ,i4 ,of the ,science of ,grammar ,chapter ,,ii4 ,of ,grammatical ,authorship ,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,grammatical ,success and ,fame ,chapter ,,iv4 ,of the ,origin of ,language ,chapter ,v4 ,of the ,power of ,language ,chapter ,,vi4 ,of the ,origin and ,history of the ,english ,language ,chapter ,,vii4 ,changes and ,specimens of the ,english ,language ,chapter ,,viii4 ,of the ,grammatical ,study of the ,english ,language ,chapter ,,ix4 ,of the ,best ,method of ,teaching ,grammar ,chapter ,x4 ,of ,grammatical ,definitions ,chapter ,,xi4 ,brief ,notices of the ,schemes of certain ,grammars ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,english ,,grammars4 ,introductory ,definitions ,general ,division of the ,subject ,,part ,i4 ,,orthography4 ,chapter ,i4 ,of ,letters ,i4 ,names of the ,letters ,,ii4 ,classes of the ,letters ,,iii4 ,powers of the ,letters ,,iv4 ,forms of the ,letters ,rules for the use of ,capitals ,errors concerning ,capitals ,promiscuous ,errors of ,capitals ,chapter ,,ii4 ,of ,syllables ,diphthongs and ,triphthongs ,rules for ,syllabication ,observations on ,syllabication ,errors concerning ,syllables ,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,words ,rules for the ,figure of ,words ,observations on ,figure of ,words ,on the ,identity of ,words ,errors concerning ,figure ,promiscuous ,errors in ,figure ,chapter ,,iv4 ,of ,spelling ,rules for ,spelling ,observations on ,spelling ,errors in ,spelling ,promiscuous ,errors in ,spelling ,chapter ,v4 ,questions on ,orthography ,chapter ,,vi ,exercises for ,writing ,,part ,,ii4 ,,etymology4 ,introductory ,definitions ,chapter ,i4 ,of the ,parts of ,speech ,observations on ,parts of ,speech ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,i ,chapter ,,ii4 ,of the ,articles ,observations on the ,articles ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,ii ,errors concerning ,articles ,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,nouns ,classes of ,nouns ,modifications of ,nouns ,persons ,numbers ,genders ,cases ,the ,declension of ,nouns ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,iii ,errors concerning ,nouns ,chapter ,,iv4 ,of ,adjectives ,classes of ,adjectives ,modifications of ,adjectives ,regular ,comparison ,comparison by ,adverbs ,irregular ,comparison ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,iv ,errors concerning ,adjectives ,chapter ,v4 ,of ,pronouns ,classes of the ,pronouns ,modifications of the ,pronouns ,the ,declension of ,pronouns ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,v ,errors concerning ,pronouns ,chapter ,,vi4 ,of ,verbs ,classes of ,verbs ,modifications of ,verbs ,moods ,tenses ,persons and ,numbers ,the ,conjugation of ,verbs ,i4 ,simple ,form1 ,active or ,neuter ,first ,example1 the verb ,,love ,second ,example1 the verb ,,see ,third ,example1 the verb ,,be ,,ii4 ,compound or ,progressive ,form ,fourth ,example1 to ,,be ,,reading ,observations on ,compound ,forms ,,iii4 ,form of ,passive ,verbs ,fifth ,example1 to ,,be ,,loved ,,iv4 ,form of ,negation ,v4 ,form of ,question ,,vi4 ,form of ,question with ,negation ,irregular ,verbs1 with ,obs4 and ,list ,redundant ,verbs1 with ,obs4 and ,list ,defective ,verbs1 with ,obs4 and ,list ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,vi ,errors concerning ,verbs ,chapter ,,vii4 ,of ,participles ,classes of ,participles ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,vii ,errors concerning ,participles ,chapter ,,viii4 ,of ,adverbs ,classes of ,adverbs ,modifications of ,adverbs ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,viii ,errors concerning ,adverbs ,chapter ,,ix4 ,of ,conjunctions ,classes of ,conjunctions ,list of the ,conjunctions ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,ix ,errors concerning ,conjunctions ,chapter ,x4 ,of ,prepositions ,list of the ,prepositions ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,x ,errors concerning ,prepositions ,chapter ,,xi4 ,of ,interjections ,list of the ,interjections ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,xi ,errors concerning ,interjections ,chapter ,,xii4 ,questions on ,etymology ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,exercises for ,writing ,,part ,,iii4 ,,syntax4 ,introductory ,definitions ,chapter ,i4 ,of ,sentences ,the ,rules of ,syntax ,general or ,critical ,obs4 on ,syntax ,the ,analyzing of ,sentences ,the several ,methods of ,analysis ,observations on ,methods of ,analysis ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,xii ,chapter ,,ii4 ,of the ,articles ,rule ,i4 ,syntax of ,articles ,observations on ,rule ,i ,notes to ,rule ,i2 #ag of them ,false ,syntax under ,notes to ,rule ,i ,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,cases1 or ,nouns ,rule ,,ii4 ,of ,nominatives ,observations on ,rule ,,ii ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,ii ,rule ,,iii4 ,of ,apposition ,observations on ,rule ,,iii ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,iii ,rule ,,iv4 ,of ,possessives ,observations on ,rule ,,iv ,notes to ,rule ,,iv2 #e of them ,false ,syntax under ,notes to ,rule ,,iv ,rule ,v4 ,of ,objectives after ,verbs ,observations on ,rule ,v ,notes to ,rule ,v2 #h of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,v ,rule ,,vi4 ,of ,same ,cases ,observations on ,rule ,,vi ,notes to ,rule ,,vi2 #b of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,vi ,rule ,,vii4 ,of ,objectives after ,prepositions ,observations on ,rule ,,vii ,note to ,rule ,,vii2 #a only ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,vii ,rule ,,viii4 ,of ,nominatives ,absolute ,observations on ,rule ,,viii ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,viii ,chapter ,,iv4 ,of ,adjectives ,rule ,,ix4 ,of ,adjectives ,observations on ,rule ,,ix ,notes to ,rule ,,ix2 #af of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,ix ,chapter ,v4 ,of ,pronouns ,rule ,x4 ,pronoun and ,antecedent ,observations on ,rule ,x ,notes to ,rule ,x2 #af of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,x ,rule ,,xi4 ,pronoun and ,collective ,noun ,observations on ,rule ,,xi ,notes to ,rule ,,xi2 #b of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xi ,rule ,,xii4 ,pronoun after ,,and ,observations on ,rule ,,xii ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xii ,rule ,,xiii4 ,pronoun after ,,or or ,,nor ,observations on ,rule ,,xiii ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xiii ,chapter ,,vi4 ,of ,verbs ,rule ,,xiv4 ,verb and ,nominative ,observations on ,rule ,,xiv ,notes to ,rule ,,xiv2 #aj of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xiv ,rule ,,xv4 ,verb and ,collective ,noun ,observations on ,rule ,,xv ,note to ,rule ,,xv2 #a only ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xv ,rule ,,xvi4 ,the ,verb after ,,and ,observations on ,rule ,,xvi ,notes to ,rule ,,xvi2 #g of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xvi ,rule ,,xvii4 ,the ,verb with ,,or or ,,nor ,observations on ,rule ,,xvii ,notes to ,rule ,,xvii2 #ae of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xvii ,rule ,,xviii4 ,of ,infinitives with ,,to ,observations on ,rule ,,xviii ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xviii ,rule ,,xix4 ,of ,infinitives without ,,to ,observations on ,rule ,,xix ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xix ,chapter ,,vii4 ,of ,participles ,rule ,,xx4 ,syntax of ,participles ,observations on ,rule ,,xx ,notes to ,rule ,,xx2 #ac of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xx ,chapter ,,viii4 ,of ,adverbs ,rule ,,xxi4 ,relation of ,adverbs ,observations on ,rule ,,xxi ,notes to ,rule ,,xxi2 #aj of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xxi ,chapter ,,ix4 ,of ,conjunctions ,rule ,,xxii4 ,use of ,conjunctions ,observations on ,rule ,,xxii ,notes to ,rule ,,xxii2 #h of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xxii ,chapter ,x4 ,of ,prepositions ,rule ,,xxiii4 ,use of ,prepositions ,observations on ,rule ,,xxiii ,notes to ,rule ,,xxiii2 #e of them ,false ,syntax under ,rule ,,xxiii ,chapter ,,xi4 ,of ,interjections ,rule ,,xxiv4 ,for ,interjections ,observations on ,rule ,,xxiv ,false ,syntax ,promiscuous ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,xiii ,chapter ,,xii4 ,general ,review ,false ,syntax for a ,general ,review ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,general ,rule of ,syntax ,critical ,notes to the ,general ,rule ,general ,observations on the ,syntax ,false ,syntax under the ,general ,rule ,false ,syntax under the ,critical ,notes ,promiscuous ,examples of ,false ,syntax ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,questions on ,syntax ,chapter ,,xv4 ,exercises for ,writing ,,part ,,iv4 ,,prosody4 ,introductory ,definitions and ,observations ,chapter ,i4 ,punctuation ,obs4 on ,pauses1 ,points1 ,names1 c4 ,section ,i4 ,the ,comma2 its #ag ,rules ,errors concerning the ,comma ,section ,,ii4 ,the ,semicolon2 its #c ,rules ,errors concerning the ,semicolon ,mixed ,examples of ,error ,section ,,iii4 ,the ,colon2 its #c ,rules ,errors concerning the ,colon ,mixed ,examples of ,error ,section ,,iv4 ,the ,period2 its #h ,rules ,observations on the ,period ,errors concerning the ,period ,mixed ,examples of ,error ,section ,v4 ,the ,dash2 its #c ,rules ,observations on the ,dash ,errors concerning the ,dash ,mixed ,examples of ,error ,section ,,vi4 ,the ,eroteme2 its #c ,rules ,observations on the ,eroteme ,errors concerning the ,eroteme ,mixed ,examples of ,error ,section ,,vii4 ,the ,ecphoneme2 its #c ,rules ,errors concerning the ,ecphoneme ,mixed ,examples of ,error ,section ,,viii4 ,the ,curves2 and their #b ,rules ,errors concerning the ,curves ,mixed ,examples of ,error ,section ,,ix4 ,the ,other ,marks ,mixed ,examples of ,error ,bad ,english ,badly ,pointed ,chapter ,,ii4 ,of ,utterance ,section ,i4 ,of ,articulation ,article ,i4 ,of the ,definition ,article ,,ii4 ,of ,good ,articulation ,section ,,ii4 ,of ,pronunciation ,article ,i4 ,powers of ,letters ,article ,,ii4 ,of ,quantity ,article ,,iii4 ,of ,accent ,section ,,iii4 ,of ,elocution ,article ,i4 ,of ,emphasis ,article ,,ii4 ,of ,pauses ,article ,,iii4 ,of ,inflections ,article ,,iv4 ,of ,tones ,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,figures ,section ,i4 ,figures of ,orthography ,section ,,ii4 ,figures of ,etymology ,section ,,iii4 ,figures of ,syntax ,section ,,iv4 ,figures of ,rhetoric ,section ,v4 ,examples for ,parsing1 ,praxis ,,xiv ,chapter ,,iv4 ,of ,versification ,section ,i4 ,of ,verse ,definitions and ,principles ,observations on ,verse ,section ,,ii4 ,of ,accent and ,quantity ,section ,,iii4 ,of ,poetic ,feet ,critical ,observations on ,theories ,section ,,iv4 ,of the ,kinds of ,verse ,order ,i4 ,iambic ,verse2 its #h ,measures ,order ,,ii4 ,trochaic ,verse2 its ,nature ,observations on ,trochaic ,metre ,trochaics shown in their #h ,measures ,order ,,iii4 ,anapestic ,verse2 its #d ,measures ,observations on the ,short ,anapestics ,order ,,iv4 ,dactylic ,verse2 its #h ,measures ,observations on ,dactylics ,order ,v4 ,composite ,verse ,observations on ,composites ,section ,v4 ,improprieties for ,correction ,chapter ,v4 ,questions on ,prosody ,chapter ,,vi4 ,exercises for ,writing ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,oral ,,exercises4 ,,the ,,key4--,,part ,i4--,,orthography4 ,chapter ,i4 ,of ,letters2 ,capitals ,corrections under each of the #af ,rules ,promiscuous corrections of ,capitals ,chapter ,,ii4 ,of ,syllables ,corrections of ,false ,syllabication ,chapter ,,iii4 ,of the ,figure of ,words ,corrections under each of the #f ,rules ,promiscuous corrections of ,figure ,chapter ,,iv4 ,of ,spelling ,corrections under each of the #ae ,rules ,promiscuous corrections of ,spelling ,,the ,,key4--,,part ,,ii--,,etymology4 ,chapter ,i4 ,of the ,parts of ,speech ,remark concerning ,false ,etymology ,chapter ,,ii4 ,of ,articles2 #e ,lessons ,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,nouns2 #c ,lessons ,chapter ,,iv4 ,of ,adjectives2 #c ,lessons ,chapter ,v4 ,of ,pronouns2 #c ,lessons ,chapter ,,vi4 ,of ,verbs2 #c ,lessons ,chapter ,,vii4 ,of ,participles2 #c ,lessons ,chapter ,,viii4 ,of ,adverbs2 #a ,lesson ,chapter ,,ix4 ,of ,conjunctions2 #a ,lesson ,chapter ,x4 ,of ,prepositions2 #a ,lesson ,chapter ,,xi4 ,of ,interjections2 #a ,lesson ,,the ,,key4--,,part ,,iii4--,,syntax4 ,chapter ,i4 ,of ,sentences2 ,remark ,chapter ,,ii4 ,of ,articles4 ,corrections under the #ag ,notes to ,rule #a ,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,cases1 or ,nouns ,cor4 under ,rule ,,ii2 of ,nominatives ,cor4 under ,rule ,,iii2 of ,apposition ,cor4 under ,rule ,,iv2 of ,possessives ,cor4 under ,rule ,v2 of ,objectives ,cor4 under ,rule ,,vi2 of ,same ,cases ,cor4 under ,rule ,,vii2 of ,objectives ,cor4 under ,rule ,,viii2 of ,nom4 ,absolute ,chapter ,,iv4 ,of ,adjectives4 ,corrections under the #af ,notes to ,rule ,,ix ,chapter ,v4 ,of ,pronouns4 ,corrections under ,rule ,x and its #af ,notes ,corrections under ,rule ,,xi2 of ,pronouns ,cor4 under ,rule ,,xii2 of ,pronouns ,cor4 under ,rule ,,xiii2 of ,pronouns ,chapter ,,vi4 ,of ,verbs4 ,corrections under ,rule ,,xiv and its #aj ,notes ,cor4 under ,rule ,,xv and its ,note ,cor4 under ,rule ,,xvi and its #g ,notes ,cor4 under ,rule ,,xvii and its #ae ,notes ,cor4 under ,rule ,,xviii2 of ,infinitives ,cor4 under ,rule ,,xix2 of ,infinitives ,chapter ,,vii4 ,of ,participles4 ,corrections under the #ac ,notes to ,rule ,,xx ,chapter ,,viii4 ,of ,adverbs4 ,corrections under the #aj ,notes to ,rule ,,xxi ,chapter ,,ix4 ,of ,conjunctions4 ,corrections under the #h ,notes to ,rule ,,xxii ,chapter ,x4 ,of ,prepositions4 ,corrections under the #e ,notes to ,rule ,,xxiii ,chapter ,,xi4 ,promiscuous ,exercises4 ,corrections of the #h ,lessons ,chapter ,,xii4 ,general ,review4 ,corrections under all the preceding ,rules and ,notes2 #ah ,lessons ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,general ,rule4 ,corrections under the ,general ,rule2 #af ,lessons ,corrections under the ,critical ,notes ,promiscuous ,corrections of ,false ,syntax2 #e ,lessons1 under ,various ,rules ,,the ,,key4--,,part ,,iv4--,,prosody4 ,chapter ,i4 ,punctuation ,section ,i4 ,the ,comma2 ,corrections under its #ag ,rules ,section ,,ii4 ,the ,semicolon2 ,corrections under its #h ,rules ,mixed ,examples ,corrected ,section ,,iii4 ,the ,colon2 ,corrections under its #h ,rules ,mixed ,examples ,corrected ,section ,,iv4 ,the ,period2 ,corrections under its #h ,rules ,mixed ,examples ,corrected ,section ,v4 ,the ,dash2 ,corrections under its #h ,rules ,mixed ,examples ,corrected ,section ,,vi4 ,the ,eroteme2 ,corrections under its #c ,rules ,mixed ,examples ,corrected ,section ,,vii4 ,the ,ecphoneme2 ,corrections under its #c ,rules ,mixed ,examples ,corrected ,section ,,viii4 ,the ,curves2 ,corrections under their #b ,rules ,mixed ,examples ,corrected ,section ,,ix4 ,all ,points2 ,corrections ,good ,english ,rightly ,pointed ,chapter ,,ii4 ,utterance2 no ,corrections ,chapter ,,iii4 ,figures2 no ,corrections ,chapter ,,iv4 ,versification4 ,false ,prosody1 or ,errors of ,metre1 ,corrected ,,the ,,four ,,appendixes4 ,appendix ,i4 7,to ,orthography47 ,of the ,sounds of the ,letters ,appendix ,,ii4 7,to ,etymology47 ,of the ,derivation of ,words ,appendix ,,iii4 7,to ,syntax47 ,of the ,qualities of ,style ,appendix ,,iv4 7,to ,prosody47 ,of ,poetic ,diction2 its ,peculiarities ,,index ,,of ,,matters4 ,a ,,digested ,,catalogue ,,of ,,english ,,grammars ,,and ,,grammarians1 ,,with ,,some ,,collateral ,,works ,,and ,,authorities1 ,,especially ,,such ,,as ,,are ,,cited ,,in ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,english ,,grammars4 ,,adam1 ,,alexander1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,latin and ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #cjb3 ,edinburgh1 #aggb2 ,boston1 #ahjc4 ,,adams1 ,,john ,,quincy1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,lectures on ,rhetoric and ,oratory2 #b vols41 #hvo3 ,cambridge1 ,n4 ,e41 #ahaj4 ,,adams1 ,rev4 ,,charles1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #agb3 #ast ,edition1 ,boston1 #ahch4 ,,adams1 ,,daniel1 ,m4 ,b42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ajc3 #c;d ,edition1 ,montpelier1 ,vt41 #ahad4 ,,adams1 ,e42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #adc4 ,leicester1 ,mass41 #ast ,ed41 #ahjf2 #eth ,ed41 #ahba4 ,,aickin1 ,,joseph2 ,english ,grammar1 #hvo3 ,london1 #afic4 ,,ainsworth1 ,,robert2 ,latin and ,english ,dictionary1 #dto3 #ast ,ed41 #agcf2 revised ,ed41 ,lond41 #ahbc4 ,,ainsworth1 ,,luther2 ,a ,practical ,system of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #add3 #ast ,ed41 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i41 #ahcg4 ,,alden1 ,,abner1 ,a4 ,m42 ,grammar ,made ,easy2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahj3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahaa4 ,,alden1 ,rev4 ,,timothy1 ,jun42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #cf3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahaa4 ,,aldrich1 ,w42 ,lectures on ,english ,grammar and ,rhetoric1 for ,common ,schools1 ,academies1 c42 #ahmo1 pp4 #fh3 #aath ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahdg4 ,,alexander1 ,,caleb1 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,grammatical ,elements1 published before #agid4 7#b47 ,a ,grammatical ,institute of the ,latin ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #acb3 ,worcester1 ,mass41 #agid4 7#c47 ,a ,grammatical ,system of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #if2 written at ,mendon1 ,mass41 #agie3 #ajth ,ed41 ,keene1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahad4 ,also1 7#d47 ,an ,introduction to ,latin1 #agie2 and1 7#e47 ,an ,introduction to the ,speaking and ,writing of ,english4 ,,alexander1 ,,samuel2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #baf3 #dth ,edition1 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,,alger1 ,,israel1 ,jun41 ,a4 ,m42 ,abridgement of ,murray's ,e4 ,gram41 c42 #ahmo1 pp4 #abf3 ,boston1 #ahbd and #ahdb4 ,,allen1 ,rev4 ,,william1 ,m4 ,a42 ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 c42 #ahmo3 ,london4 ,also1 ,the ,elements of ,english ,grammar4 c42 #abmo1 pp4 #deg3 ,london1 #ahac2 #b;d ,ed41 ,,allen and ,,cornwell2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #afb3 #c;d ,edition1 ,london1 #ahda4 ,,allen1 ,d4 ,,caverno2 ,grammatic ,guide1 or ,common ,school ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #id3 ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahdg4 ,,andrew1 ,,james1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #abi3 ,london1 #ahag4 ,,andrews ,,stoddard2 ,a ,grammar of the ,latin ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #cbh3 ,boston1 #ahcf2 #aath ,ed41 #ahde4 ,,angell1 ,,oliver1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ij3 #ast ,edition1 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i41 #ahcj4 ,,angus1 ,,william1 ,m4 ,a42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bee3 #b;d ,edition1 ,glasgow1 ,scotland1 #ahjg4 ,,anon42 ,the ,british ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #bha3 ,london1 #agfj1 or near that date4 ,boston1 ,mass41 #aghd4 ,,anon42 ,a ,comprehensive ,grammar1 c42 #ahmo1 pp4 #agd3 #c;d ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 ,t4 ,dobson1 #aghi4 ,,anon42 ,the ,comic ,grammar1 c13 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,,anon42 ,the ,decoy1 an ,english ,grammar with ,cuts2 #abmo1 pp4 #cc3 ,new ,york1 ,s4 ,wood ,sons1 #ahbj4 ,,anon43 ,e4 ,gram41 ,by ,t4 ,c42 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajd3 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,,anon42 ,grammar and ,rhetoric2 #abmo1 pp4 #bba3 ,london1 #aggf4 ,,anon42 ,the ,english ,tutor2 #hvo3 ,london1 #agdg4 ,,anon42 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,london1 ,boosey1 #agie4 ,,anon42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #afa3 ,london1 #ahch4 ,,anon42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #he3 ,london1 #ahch4 ,,anon42 ,an ,english ,grammar1 with ,engravings2 #ahmo1 pp4 #af3 ,london1 #ahbj4 ,,anon42 ,english ,grammar1 pp4 #hd3 #ast ,ed41 ,huddersfield1 #ahag4 ,,anon43 ,the ,essentials of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #c;d ,edition1 ,london1 #ahba4 ,,anon42 ,a ,plain and ,comprehensive ,grammar1 in ,the ,complete ,letter-,writer2 #abmo1 pp4 #ca2--pages of the whole book1 #bae3 ,london1 #ahaa4 ,,anon42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aca3 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahai4 ,,anon42 7,a4 ,h4 ,maltby ,co4 pub427 ,murray's ,abridgement1 with ,additions2 #ahmo1 pp4 #abj3 ,newhaven1 ,ct41 #ahbb4 ,,anon42 7,james ,loring1 pub427 ,murray's ,abridgement1 with ,alterations and ,improvements2 by a ,teacher of ,youth2 7,lawson ,lyon27 #ahmo1 pp4 #gb3 #adth ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahba4 ,,anon42 ,the ,infant ,school ,grammar2 7said to have been written by ,mrs4 ,bethune27 #ahmo1 pp4 #ahb3 ,new ,york1 #ahcj4 ,jonathan ,seymour1 proprietor4 ,,anon42 ,pestalozzian ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #fj3 ,boston1 #ahcj4 ,,anon42 ,interrogative ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #gj3 ,boston1 #ahcb4 ,,anon42 ,grammar with ,cuts2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 ,boston1 #ahcj4 ,,anon42 ,the ,juvenile ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #hi3 ,boston1 #ahbi4 ,b4 ,perkins ,co41 publishers and proprietors4 ,,anon42 ,the ,little ,grammarian2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #b;d ,edition1 ,boston1 #ahbi4 ,,anon42 ,an ,inductive ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahe3 ,windsor1 ,vt41 #ahbi4 ,,anon42 ,a ,concise ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 attempted in ,verse2 #ahmo1 pp4 #fc3 #ast ,edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahbe4 ,,anon42 ,edward's ,first ,lessons in ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 ,t4 ,h4 ,webb ,co41 #ahdc4 ,,anon42 ,the ,first ,lessons in ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ij3 #ast ,edition1 ,boston1 #ahdb4 ,,anon42 ,a ,new ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #abd3 ,new ,york1 #ahca2 #b;d ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahcd4 ,,anon42 ,enclytica1 or the ,principles of ,universal ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #acc3 ,london1 ,j4 ,booth1 #ahad4 ,,anon42 ,the ,general ,principles of ,grammar1 edited by a few ,well-,wishers to ,knowledge2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gf3 ,philadelphia1 ,lea ,blanchard1 #ahdg4 ,,anon42 ,english ,school ,grammar2 small #abmo1 pp4 #cb3 ,london1 #ahej4 ,a meagre sketch1 published by the ,society for promoting ,christian ,knowledge4 ,,anon42 ,an ,english ,grammar1 together with a ,first ,lesson in ,reading2 #ahmo1 pp4 #af3 ,james ,burns1 ,london2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahdd4 ,not worth a pin4 ,,aristotle2 his ,poetics2--the ,greek text1 with ,goulston's ,latin ,version1 and ,winstanley's ,notes2--#hvo1 pp4 #cbj3 ,oxford1 ,england1 #aghj4 ,,arnold1 ,t4 ,k41 ,m4 ,a42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #gf3 #b;d ,edition1 ,london1 #ahda4 ,,ash1 ,,john1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,grammatical ,institutes2 #ahmo1 pp4 #adb3 ,london1 first published about #agfc2 ,new ,york1 ,a ,new ,edition1 ,revised and ,corrected1 #agii4 ,,bacon1 ,,caleb1 ,teacher2 ,murray's ,english ,grammar ,put into ,questions and ,answers2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 ,new ,york1 #ast ,edition1 #ahah2 #eth ,edition1 #ahbc1 #ahbg1 and #ahcj4 ,,badgley1 ,,jonathan2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bjj3 #ast ,edition1 ,utica1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahde4 ,suppressed for plagiarism from ,g4 ,brown4 ,,balch1 ,,william ,s42 7#a47 ,lectures on ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #beb3 ,providence1 #ahch4 7#b47 ,a ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp1 #adj3 #ast ,edition1 ,boston1 #ahci4 ,,baldwin1 ,,edward2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #adh3 ,london1 #ahaj2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbd4 ,,barber1 ,dr4 ,,jonathan2 ,a ,grammar of ,elocution2 #abmo2 ,newhaven1 #ahcj4 ,,barnard1 ,,frederick ,a4 ,p41 ,a4 ,m42 ,analytic ,grammar2 with ,symbolic ,illustration2 #abmo1 pp4 #bfd3 ,new ,york1 #ahcf4 ,this is a curious work1 and remarkably well-written4 ,,barnes1 ,,daniel ,h41 of ,n4 ,y42 ,the ,red ,book1 or ,bearcroft's ,practical ,orthography1 ,revised and ,enlarged2 #abmo1 pp4 #cdg3 ,new ,york1 #ahbh4 ,,barnes1 ,,william1 ,b4 ,d42 7#a47 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #abj3 ,london1 #ahdb4 7#b47 ,a ,philological ,grammar1 grounded upon ,english1 and formed from a ,comparison of more than ,sixty ,languages2 #hvo1 pp4 #cab3 ,london1 #ahed4 ,,barrett1 ,,john2 ,a ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bad3 #b;d ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahai4 ,,barrett1 ,,solomon1 ,jun42 7#a47 ,the ,principles of ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #abj3 ,albany1 #ahcg4 7#b47 ,the ,principles of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #if2 ,tenth ,edition1 ,revised3 ,utica1 #ahde4 7#c47 ,the ,principles of ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #djg3 ,revised ,edition2 ,cambridge1 #ahed4 ,,barrie1 ,,alexander2 ,english ,grammar2 #bdto1 pp4 #ed3 ,edinburgh1 #ith ,ed41 #ahjj4 ,,bartlett1 ,,montgomery ,r42 ,the ,common ,school ,manual2 called in the ,third or ,philadelphia ,edition1 ,the ,national ,school ,manual2--in ,four ,parts1 or ,separate ,volumes1 #abmo3 ,i1 pp4 #ajh2 ,,ii1 #cjb2 ,,iii1 #cgi2 ,,iv1 promised to consist of #dej or #ejj pages4 ,first three parts1 ,second ,edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahcj4 ,a miserable jumble1 in the successive pages of which1 ,grammar is mixed up with ,spelling-columns1 ,reading-lessons1 ,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 and the other supposed daily tasks of a school-boy6 ,,bailey1 ,n41 ,schoolmaster2 ,english and ,latin ,exercises2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahc3 ,london4 #ahth ,ed41 #agih4 ,,bailey1 ,rev4 ,r4 ,w41 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar1 or ,manual of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #bdj3 #b;d ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahed4 ,,bayley1 ,,anselm1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,english ,grammar1 #hvo3 ,london1 #aggb4 ,,beale1 ,,solon2 ,english ,grammar1 #ahmo1 pp4 #bg3 ,bangor1 ,maine1 #ahcc4 ,,beall1 ,,alexander2 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo3 #ast ,ed41 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 #ahda4 ,,beattie1 ,,james1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,theory of ,language3 ,london1 #aghc2 ,philadelphia1 #ahji4 ,elements of ,moral ,science2 #abmo1 pp4 #egb2 ,baltimore1 #ahac4 ,see1 in ,part #a1 the sections which treat of ,the ,faculty of ,speech1 and the ,essentials of ,language2 and1 in ,part ,,iv1 those which treat of ,rhetorick1 ,figures1 ,sentences1 ,style1 and ,poetry4 ,,beck1 ,,william2 ,outline of ,english ,grammar2 very small1 pp4 #cd3 #c;d ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbi4 ,,beecher1 ,,catharine ,e42 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo1 pp4 #gd4 #ast ,ed41 ,hartford1 ,ct41 #ahbi4 ,,bell1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo1 pp4 #ddf3 7#b vols437 #ast ,ed41 ,glasgow1 #agfi4 ,,bellamy1 ,,elizabeth2 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,london1 #ahjb4 ,,benedict1--------2 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo1 pp4 #aib3 #ast ,ed41 ,nicholasville1 ,ky41 #ahcb4 ,,bettesworth1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,london1 #aggh4 ,,bicknell1 ,,alexander1 ,esq42 ,the ,grammatical ,wreath2 or1 a ,complete ,system of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #hjd3 ,london1 #agij4 ,,bingham1 ,,caleb1 ,a4 ,m42 ,the ,young ,lady's ,accidence2 #ahmo1 pp4 #fj3 ,boston1 #ahjd2 #bjth ,ed41 #ahae4 ,,blair1 ,,hugh1 ,d4 ,d41 ,f4 ,b4 ,s42 ,lectures on ,rhetoric and ,belles-,lettres2 #hvo1 pp4 #ejj3 ,london1 #aghc2 ,new ,york1 #ahai4 ,,blair1 ,,john1 ,d4 ,d42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ade3 #ast ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahca4 ,,blair1 ,,david1 ,rev42 ,a ,practical ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #ahmo1 pp4 #afg3 #gth ,ed41 ,london1 #ahae4 ,,blaisdale1 ,,silas2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #hh3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahca4 ,,bliss1 ,,leonard ,jun42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gc3 #ast ,ed41 ,louisville1 ,ky41 #ahci4 ,,bobbitt1 ,a42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #acf3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahcc4 ,,bolles1 ,,william2 7#a47 ,a ,spelling-,book2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahj3 ,ster4 ,ed41 ,n4 ,london1 #ahca4 7#b47 ,an ,explanatory and ,phonographic ,pronouncing ,dictionary of the ,english ,language2 royal octavo1 pp4 #idd2 ,ster4 ,ed41 ,new ,london1 #ahde4 ,,booth1 ,,david2 ,introd4 to ,analytical ,dict42 #hvo1 pp4 #afh3 ,london1 #ahad4 ,analytical ,dictionary of the ,english ,language3 ,london1 #ahce4 ,e4 ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,london1 #ahcg4 ,,brace1 ,,joab2 ,the ,principles of ,english ,grammar2 7vile theft from ,lennie27 #ahmo1 pp4 #add3 #ast ,edition1 ,philadelphia1 #ahci4 ,,bradley1 ,,joshua1 ,a4 ,m42 ,youth's ,literary ,guide2 #abmo1 pp4 #aib3 #ast ,ed41 ,windsor1 ,vt41 #ahae4 ,,bradley1 ,rev4 ,c42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #adh3 ,york1 ,eng41 #ahaj2 #c;d ,ed41 #ahac4 ,,bridil1 ,,edmund1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,e4 ,gram41 #dto3 ,london1 #agii4 ,,brightland1 ,,john1 ,pub42 ,a ,grammar of the ,english ,tongue2 #abmo1 pp4 #hjj3 #gth ,ed41 ,london1 #agdh4 ,,brittain1 ,rev4 ,,lewis2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aef3 #b;d ,edition1 ,london1 #agij4 ,,bromley1 ,,walter2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajd3 #ast ,ed41 ,halifax1 ,n4 ,s41 #ahbb4 ,,brown1 ,,goold2 7#a47 ,the ,institutes of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bbj-cab3 ,new ,york1 #ast ,ed41 #ahbc2 stereotyped in #ahcb1 and again in #ahdf4 7#b47 ,the ,first ,lines of ,english ,grammar2 early copies #ahmo1 late copies #abmo1 pp4 #ajh3 ,new ,york1 #ast ,ed41 #ahbc2 stereotyped in #ahbg1 and in #ahdd4 7#c47 ,a ,key to the ,exercises for ,writing1 contained in the ,institutes of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ea3 ,new ,york1 #ahbe4 7#d47 ,a ,catechism of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gb3 ,new ,york1 #ahbg4 7#e47 ,a ,compendious ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bb3 7in ,part ,i of the ,treasury of ,knowledge37 ,new ,york1 #ahca4 7#f47 ,the ,grammar of ,english ,grammars2 #hvo1 pp4 #ajbh2 first printed in ,boston in #ahej and #ahea4 ,,brown1 ,,james2 7#a47 ,an ,explanation of ,e4 ,grammar as taught by an ,expensive ,machine2 #hvo1 pp4 #dj3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahae4 7#b47 ,the ,american ,grammar2 a ,pamphlet2 #abmo1 pp4 #dh3 ,salem1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahba4 7#c47 ,an ,american ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #afb3 ,new ,york1 #ahba4 7#d47 ,an ,appeal from the ,british ,system of ,english ,grammar to ,common ,sense2 #abmo1 pp4 #ccf3 ,philadelphia1 #ahcg4 7#e47 ,the ,american ,system of ,english ,syntax2 #abmo1 pp4 #baf3 ,philad41 #ahch4 7#f47 ,an ,exegesis of ,english ,syntax2 #abmo1 pp4 #adg3 ,philad41 #ahdj4 7#g47 ,the ,first ,part of the ,american ,system of ,english ,syntax2 #abmo1 pp4 #aie3 ,boston1 #ahda4 7#h47 ,an ,english ,syntascope1 a ,chart1 and other fantastical works4 ,,brown1 ,j4 ,h41 ,a4 ,m42 7with ,gengemhre27 ,elements of ,english ,grammar1 on a ,progressive ,system2 #abmo1 pp4 #bac3 ,philad41 #ahee4 ,,brown1 ,,richard2 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,london1 #afib4 ,,buchanan1 ,,james2 ,a ,regular ,english ,syntax2 #abmo1 pp4 #aif3 #eth ,american ,ed41 ,philad41 #agib4 ,,bucke1 ,,charles2 ,a ,classical ,grammar of the ,e4 ,language2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aeb3 ,london1 #ahbi4 ,,bullen1 ,rev4 ,h4 ,,st4 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #adj3 #ast ,edition1 ,london1 #agig4 ,,bullions1 ,rev4 ,,peter1 ,d4 ,d42 7#a47 ,elements of the ,greek ,language2 7now called1 ,the ,principles of ,greek ,grammar27 mostly a version of ,dr4 ,moor's ,elementa ,lingu ,grc3 #ast ,ed41 #ahca4 7#b47 ,the ,principles of ,english ,grammar2 7mostly copied from ,lennie27 #abmo1 pp4 #ahg2 #b;d ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahcg2 #eth ,ed41 ,revised1 pp4 #baf1 #ahdc1 7#c47 ,the ,principles of ,latin ,grammar2 7professedly1 upon the foundation of ,adam's ,latin ,grammar27 #abmo1 pp4 #cab3 ,albany1 #ahda3 #abth ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahdf4 7#d47 ,practical ,lessons in ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #acb3 ,new ,york1 #ahdd4 7#e47 ,an ,analytical and ,practical ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #bdj3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahdi4 ,,bullokar1 ,,william2 7#a47 ,booke at ,large for the ,amendment of ,orthographie for ,english ,speech4 7#b47 ,a ,bref ,grammar for ,english3 ,london1 #aehf4 ,,burhans1 ,,hezekiah2 ,the ,critical ,pronouncing ,spelling-,book2 #abmo1 pp4 #bjd3 #ast ,ed41 ,philad41 #ahbc4 ,,burles1 ,,edward2 ,e4 ,gram41 #abmo3 ,lond41 #afeb4 ,,burn1 ,,john2 ,a ,practical ,grammar of the ,e4 ,lang42 #abmo1 pp4 #bge3 ,glasgow1 #agff2 #ajth ,ed41 #ahaj4 ,,burr1 ,,jonathan1 ,a4 ,m42 ,a ,compendium of ,eng4 ,gram42 #ahmo1 pp4 #gb3 ,boston1 #agig1--ahjd1--ahah4 ,,butler1 ,,charles2 ,e4 ,gram41 #dto3 ,oxford1 ,eng41 #afcc4 ,,butler1 ,,noble1 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,a ,practical ,grammar of the ,e4 ,lang42 #abmo1 pp4 #baf3 #ast ,ed41 ,louisville1 ,ky41 #ahde4 7#b47 ,introductory ,lessons in ,e4 ,grammar1 #ahde4 ,,campbell1 ,,george1 ,d4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s42 ,the ,philosophy of ,rhetoric2 #hvo1 pp4 #dde3 ,london1 #aggf3 ,philad41 #ahah4 ,,cardell1 ,,wm4 ,s42 7#a47 ,an ,analytical ,spelling-,book2 7with ,part of the ,story of ,jack ,halyard27 #abmo1 pp4 #aib3 7published at first under the fictitious name of ,john ,franklin ,jones37 ,new ,york1 #ahbc2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbd4 7#b47 ,an ,essay on ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #bjc3 ,new ,york1 #ahbe4 7#c47 ,elements of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ada3 ,new ,york1 #ahbf2 #c;d ,ed41 ,hartford1 #ahbg4 7#d47 ,philosophic ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #bcf3 ,philadelphia1 #ahbg4 ,,carey1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bbj3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahji4 ,,carter1 ,,john2 ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo3 ,leeds1 #aggc4 ,,chandler1 ,,joseph ,r42 ,a ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahj3 ,philad41 #ahba4 ,rev4 ,ed41 pp4 #bjh1 stereotyped1 #ahdg4 ,,chapin1 ,,joel2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #beb3 #ast ,edition1 ,springfield1 ,mass41 #ahdb4 ,,chauvier1 ,j4 ,h41 ,m4 ,a42 ,a ,treatise on ,punctuation2 translated from the ,french1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,huntington2 large #ahmo1 pp4 #aab3 ,london1 #ahdi4 ,,chessman1 ,,daniel1 ,a4 ,m42 ,murray ,abridged2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bd3 #c;d ,ed41 ,hullowell1 ,me41 #ahba4 ,,child1 ,,prof4 ,f4 ,j42 ,revised ,edition of ,dr4 ,latham's ,elementary ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bcf3 ,cambridge1 ,n4 ,e41 #aheb4 ,,churchill1 ,t4 ,o42 ,a ,new ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #ded3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbc4 ,,clapham1 ,rev4 ,,samuel2 ,e4 ,grammar3 ,london1 #ahaj4 ,,clark1 ,,henry2 ,e4 ,grammar2 #dto3 ,london1 #afef4 ,,clark1 ,,schuyler2 ,the ,american ,linguist1 or ,natural ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bdj3 ,providence1 #ahcj4 ,,clark1 ,s4 ,w41 ,a4 ,m42 ,a ,practical ,grammar1 with a ,system of ,diagrams2 #abmo1 pp4 #bah2 #b;d ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahdh4 ,,clark1 ,,william2 ,e4 ,gram42 #ahmo3 ,london1 #ahaj4 ,,clarke1 ,r42 ,poetical ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 and an ,epitome of ,rhetoric2 #abmo1 pp4 #agb2 price1 #bs4 #f;d43 ,london1 #ahee4 ,,coar1 ,,thomas2 ,a ,grammar of the ,english ,tongue2 #abmo1 pp4 #bgf3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #agif4 ,,cobb1 ,,enos2 ,elements of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahbj4 ,,cobb1 ,,lyman1 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,a ,spelling-,book according to ,j4 ,walker2 ,revised ,ed43 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahbe4 7#b47 ,abridgment of ,walker's ,crit4 ,pron4 ,dict43 ,hartford1 ,ct41 #ahbi4 7#c47 ,juvenile ,reader1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and ,sequel3 ,new ,york1 #ahca4 7#d47 ,the ,north ,american ,reader2 #abmo1 pp4 #dih3 ,new ,york1 #ahce4 7#e47 ,new ,spelling-,book1 in ,six ,parts2 #abmo1 pp4 #afh3 ,n4 ,y41 #ahdc4 7#f47 ,an ,expositor1 a ,miniature ,lexicon1 books of ,arithmetic1 c41 c4 ,,cobbett1 ,,william2 ,a ,grammar of the ,e4 ,language2 #abmo1 ,new ,york and ,lond41 #ahah2 #ahmo1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahcb4 ,,cobbin1 ,rev4 ,,ingram1 ,m4 ,a42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gb3 #bjth ,edition1 ,london1 #ahdd4 ,,cochran1 ,,peter1 ,a4 ,b43 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ga3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahjb4 ,,colet1 ,dr4 ,john1 ,dean of ,st4 ,paul's2 the ,english ,introduction to ,lily's ,grammar2 dedicated to ,lily in #aeaj4 ,see ,gram4 of ,e4 ,gram41 ,introd41 ,chap4 ,,xi1 #c1 #d1 and #e4 ,,comly1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar ,made ,easy2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aib3 #fth ,ed41 ,philad41 #ahae2 #aeth ,ed41 #ahbf4 ,,comstock1 ,,andrew1 ,m4 ,d42 ,a ,system of ,elocution2 #abmo1 pp4 #cfd3 ,philadelphia1 #ahdd4 ,a ,treatise on ,phonology2 #abmo1 #ahdf3 c4 ,,connel1 ,,robert2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #afb3 ,glasgow1 #ahca2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahcd4 ,,connon1 ,c4 ,w41 ,m4 ,a42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #afh3 ,edinburgh1 #ahde4 ,,cooper1 ,rev4 ,,joab ,,goldsmith1 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,an ,abridgment of ,murray's ,english ,grammar2 7largely stolen from ,g4 ,brown27 #abmo1 pp4 #bjj3 ,philadelphia1 #ahbh4 7#b47 ,a ,plain and ,practical ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #baj3 ,philad41 #ahca4 ,,coote1 ,c41 ,,ll4 ,d42 on the ,english ,language2 #hvo1 pp4 #bha3 #ast ,edition1 ,london1 #aghh4 ,,corbet1 ,,james2 ,english ,grammar2 #bdto1 pp4 #aec3 #ast ,edition1 ,glasgow1 #agdc4 ,,corbet1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,shrewsbury1 ,england1 #aghd4 ,,cornell1 ,,william ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #dto1 pp4 #ab3 #ast ,edition1 ,boston1 #ahdj4 ,,covell1 ,l4 ,t42 ,a ,digest of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bai3 #c;d ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahec4 ,much indebted to ,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 ,h4 ,mandeville1 and ,g4 ,brown4 ,,crane1 ,,george2 ,the ,principles of ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #bfd3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,,crocker1 ,,abraham2 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,lond41 #aggb4 ,,crombie1 ,,alexander1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s42 ,a ,treatise on the ,etymology and ,syntax of the ,english ,language2 #hvo1 pp4 #dbe3 ,london1 #b;d ,ed41 #ahji2 #dth ,ed41 #ahcf4 ,,cutler1 ,,andrew1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar and ,parser2 #abmo1 pp4 #afh3 #ast ,ed41 ,plainfield1 ,ct41 #ahda4 ,,dale1 ,w4 ,a4 ,t42 a small ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gb3 #ast ,ed41 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahbj4 ,,dalton1 ,,john2 ,elements of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #abb3 ,london1 #ast ,ed41 #ahja4 ,,davenport1 ,,bishop2 ,english ,grammar ,simplified2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aci3 #ast ,ed41 ,wilmington1 ,del41 #ahcj4 ,,davidson1 ,,david2 a ,syntactical ,treatise1 or ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,london1 #ahbc4 ,,davis1 ,rev4 ,,john1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ahh3 #ast ,ed41 ,belfast1 ,ireland1 #ahcb4 ,,davis1 ,,pardon2 7#a47 ,an ,epitome of ,e4 ,gram42 #abmo1 pp4 #ef3 #ast ,ed41 ,philad41 #ahah4 7#b47 ,modern ,practical ,e4 ,gram42 #abmo1 pp4 #age3 #ast ,ed41 ,philad41 #ahde4 ,,day1 ,,parsons ,e42 ,district ,school ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #abj3 #b;d ,ed41 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahdd4 ,,day1 ,,william2 ,punctuation ,reduced to a ,system2 #ahmo1 pp4 #adg3 #c;d ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,,dearborn1 ,,benjamin2 ,columbian ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #adj3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #agie4 ,,del ,,mar1 ,e42 ,treatise on ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aae3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdb4 ,d',,orsey1 ,,alexander ,j4 ,d42 7#a47 ,a ,duodecimo ,grammar1 in ,two ,parts2 ,part ,i1 pp4 #aec2 ,part ,,ii1 pp4 #adb3 #ast ,ed41 ,edinburgh1 #ahdb4 7#b47 ,an ,introduction to ,e4 ,gram42 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajd3 ,edin41 #ahde4 ,,de ,,sacy1 ,a4 ,j4 ,,sylvestre1 ,baron2 ,principles of ,general ,grammar2 translated from the ,french1 by ,d4 ,fosdick1 ,jun42 #abmo1 pp4 #aef3 #ast ,american1 from the #eth ,french ,edition2 ,andover and ,new ,york1 #ahcd4 ,,despauter1 ,,john1 a ,flemish grammarian1 whose books were1 at one time1 in great repute2 he died in #aebj4--,univ4 ,biog4 ,dict4 ,despauter's ,latin ,grammar1 in ,three ,parts1--,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,versification1--comprises #heh octavo pages4 ,dr4 ,adam says1 in the ,preface to the ,fourth ,edition of his ,grammar1 ,the first complete edition of ,despauter's ,grammar was printed at ,cologne1 anno #aebb2 his ,syntax had been published anno #aeji4 ,g4 ,brown's copy is a complete edition1 printed partly in #aeag1 and partly in #aeah4 ,,devis1 ,,ellen2 ,e4 ,gram42 #ahmo1 pp4 #acj3 ,london and ,dublin2 #ast ,ed41 #aggg2 #agth ,ed41 #ahbe4 ,fist ,devis's ,grammar1 spoken of in ,d4 ,blair's ,preface1 as being too comprehensive and minute1 is doubtless an other and much larger work4 ,,dilworth1 ,,thomas2 ,a ,new ,guide to the ,english ,tongue2 #abmo1 pp4 #adh3 ,london2 #ast ,ed41 #agdj3 #bfth ,ed41 #agfd2 #djth ,ed41 7used by ,g4 ,b417 undated4 ,,doherty1 ,,hugh2 a ,treatise on ,english ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #bdj2 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahda4 ,,drummond1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo3 ,london1 #agfg4 ,,dyche1 ,,thomas2 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #aj3 ,london1 #ast ,ed41 #agaj2 #abth ,ed41 #agfe4 ,,earl1 ,,mary2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #cf3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahaf4 ,,edwards1 ,mrs4 ,m4 ,c42 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo3 ,brentford4 ,england1 #agif4 ,,egelshem1 ,,wells2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,london1 #agha4 ,,elmore1 ,d4 ,w41 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar1 or ,natural ,analysis2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ah3 #ast ,ed41 ,troy1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahcj4 ,a mere trifle4 ,,elphinston1 ,,james2 on the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #bih3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #agif4 ,,emerson1 ,,benjamin ,d42 ,national ,spelling-,book2 #abmo1 pp4 #afh3 ,boston1 #ahbh4 ,,emery1 ,j41 ,a4 ,b42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ci3 #ast ,ed41 ,wellsborough1 ,pa41 #ahbi4 ,,emmons1 ,s4 ,b42 ,the ,grammatical ,instructer2 #abmo1 pp4 #afj3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahcb4 ,worthless4 ,,ensell1 ,g42 ,a ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 in ,english and ,dutch2 #hvo1 pp4 #fab3 ,rotterdam1 #agig4 ,,everest1 ,rev4 ,,cornelius ,b42 ,an ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bgj3 #ast ,ed41 ,norwich1 ,ct41 #ahce4 ,suppressed for plagiarism from ,g4 ,brown4 ,,everett1 ,,erastus1 ,a4 ,m42 ,a ,system of ,english ,versification2 #abmo1 pp4 #aih3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahdh4 ,,farnum1 ,,caleb1 ,jun41 ,a4 ,m42 ,practical ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #abd3 #ast ,edition1 7suppressed for petty larcenies from ,g4 ,brown17 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i41 #ahdb2 #b;d ,edition1 7altered to evade the charge of plagiarism17 ,boston1 #ahdc4 ,,farbo1 ,,daniel2 ,the ,royal ,british ,grammar and ,vocabulary2 #abmo1 pp4 #cdd3 #ast ,ed41 ,london4 #aged4 ,,felch1 ,w42 ,a ,comprehensive ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #abb3 #ast ,edition1 ,boston1 #ahcg4 ,this author can see others' faults better than his own4 ,,felton1 ,,oliver ,c42 ,a ,concise ,manual of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ade3 ,salem1 ,mass41 #ahdc4 ,,fenning1 ,,daniel2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bbd3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #agga4 ,,fenwick1 ,,john2 an ,english ,grammar1 #abmo43 ,london1 #ahaa4 ,,fisher1 ,a42 ,a ,practical ,new ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #agf3 ,london3 #ast ,ed41 #agec2 #bhth ,ed41 #agie2 ,a ,new ,ed41 ,enlarged1 ,improved1 and ,corrected1 7used by ,g4 ,b417 #ahjj4 ,,fisk1 ,,allen2 7#a47 ,epitome of ,e4 ,gram42 #ahmo1 pp4 #abd3 ,hallowell1 ,me41 #ahba2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbh4 7#b47 ,adam's ,latin ,grammar ,simplified2 #hvo1 pp4 #aij3 ,new ,york1 #ahbb2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbd4 7#c47 ,murray's ,english ,grammar ,simplified2 #hvo1 pp4 #agh3 #ast ,ed41 ,troy1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahbb4 ,,fleming1 ,rev4 ,,caleb2 an ,english ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,london1 #agfe4 ,,fletcher1 ,,levi2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #hc3 #ast ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahcd4 ,,fletcher1 ,rev4 ,w42 ,english ,gram42 #ahmo1 pp4 #age3 ,london2 #ast ,ed41 #ahbh2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahcc4 ,,flint1 ,,abel1 ,a4 ,m41 and ,d4 ,d42 ,murray's ,english ,grammar ,abridged2 #abmo1 pp4 #bjd3 ,hartford1 ,ct42 #ast ,ed41 #ahjg2 #fth ,ed41 pp4 #bad1 #ahbf4 ,,flint1 ,,john2 ,first ,lessons in ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajg3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahcd4 ,,flower1 ,m4 and ,w4 ,b42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #agj3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdd4 ,,folker1 ,,joseph2 ,an ,introduction to ,e4 ,gram42 #abmo1 pp4 #cd3 ,savannah1 ,ga41 #ahba4 ,,formey1 ,m41 ,m4 ,d41 ,s4 ,e41 c41 c42 ,elementary ,principles of the ,belles-,lettres2--,translated from the ,french1 by the late ,mr4 ,sloper ,forman2 #abmo1 pp4 #bbd3 ,glasgow1 #agfg4 ,,fowle1 ,,william ,,bentley2 7#a47 ,the ,true ,english ,grammar1 7,part ,i27 #ahmo1 pp4 #ahj3 ,boston1 #ahbg4 7#b47 ,the ,true ,english ,grammar1 ,part ,,ii2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ig3 ,boston1 #ahbi4 7#c47 ,the ,common ,school ,grammar1 ,part ,i2 #abmo1 pp4 #df3 ,boston1 #ahdb4 7#d47 ,the ,common ,school ,grammar1 ,part ,,ii2 #abmo1 pp4 #ajh3 ,boston1 #ahdb4 ,,fowler1 ,,william ,c42 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #fge3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahej4 ,,frazee1 ,rev4 ,,bradford2 ,an ,improved ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aib3 ,philad41 #ahdd2 ,ster4 ,ed41 #ahde4 ,,french1 ,d',,arcy ,a42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #afh3 ,baltimore1 #ast ,ed41 #ahca4 ,,frost1 ,,john1 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,elements of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahbi4 7#b47 ,a ,practical ,english ,grammar2 7with #hi cuts27 #abmo1 pp4 #bjd3 #ast ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahdb4 ,,fuller1 ,,allen2 ,grammatical ,exercises1 being a plain and concise ,method of teaching ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #ast ,ed41 ,plymouth1 ,mass41 #ahbb4 ,a book of no value4 ,,gartley1 ,g42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bbe3 #ast ,edition1 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,,gay1 ,,anthelme2 ,a ,french ,prosodical ,grammar2 for ,english or ,american ,students2 #abmo1 pp4 #bae3 ,new ,york1 #agie4 ,,gengembre1 ,p4 ,w42 ,brown and ,gengembre's ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bac3 ,philad41 #ahee4 7,see ,j4 ,h4 ,brown47 ,,gibbs1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,w41 of ,yale ,c42 on ,dialects1 ,sounds1 and ,derivations4 ,see about #abf pages1 credited to this gentleman1 in ,prof4 ,fowler's large ,grammar1 of #ahej4 ,,gilbert1 ,,eli2 a ,catechetical ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #abd3 #ast ,ed41 #ahcd2 #b;d ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahce4 ,,gilchrist1 ,,james2 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #bfi3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahae4 ,,giles1 ,,james2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aeb3 ,london1 #ahjd2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahaj4 ,,giles1 ,rev4 ,t4 ,a41 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 ,london1 #b;d ,ed41 #ahch4 ,,gill1 ,,alexander2 ,english ,grammar1 treated in ,latin2 #dto3 ,london1 #afba4 ,,gilleade1 ,g42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bjf3 ,london2 #ast ,ed41 #ahaf4 ,,girault ,du ,,vivier1 ,ch4 ,p42 7#a47 ,la ,grammaire des ,grammaires2 two thick volumes1 #hvo3 ,paris2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahad4 7#b47 ,trait des ,participes2 #hvo1 pp4 #hd3 #b;d ,ed41 ,paris1 #ahaf4 ,,goldsbury1 ,,john1 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,the ,common ,school ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #id3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahdb4 7#b47 ,sequel to the ,common ,school ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aaj3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahdb4 ,,goodenow1 ,,smith ,b42 ,a ,systematic ,text-,book of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #add3 #ast ,edition1 ,portland1 #ahci2 #b;d ,edition1 ,boston1 #ahdc4 ,,gough1 ,,john and ,,james2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bab3 #b;d ,ed41 ,dublin1 #agfj4 ,,gould1 ,,benjamin ,a42 ,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 with ,improvements2 #abmo1 pp4 #cjj3 ,boston1 #ahbi4 ,,graham1 ,g4 ,f42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #acd3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,,grant1 ,,john1 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,institutes of ,latin ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #dec3 ,london1 #ahjh4 7#b47 ,a ,comprehensive ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #daj3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahac4 ,,granville1 ,,geo42 ,english ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,london1 #ahbg4 ,,gray1 ,,james1 ,d4 ,d42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #add3 #ast ,ed41 ,baltimore1 #ahah4 ,,green1 ,,matthias2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #adh3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahcg4 ,,green1 ,,richard ,w42 ,inductive ,exercises in ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahbi2 #eth ,ed41 ,phila41 #ahcd4 ,,geeene1 ,,roscoe ,g42 7#a47 ,e4 ,gram42 #abmo1 pp4 #acb3 ,hallowell1 ,me42 #ast ,ed41 #ahbh2 ,ster4 ,ed41 #ahce4 7#b47 ,a ,practical ,grammar for the ,english ,language2 7with ,diagrams of ,moods27 #abmo3 ,portland1 #ahbi4 7#c47 ,a ,grammatical ,text-,book1 being an ,abstract of a ,practical ,gram41 c42 #abmo1 pp4 #fi3 ,boston1 #ahcc4 ,,greene1 ,,samuel ,s42 7#a47 ,analysis of ,sentences2 #abmo1 pp4 #beh3 #ast ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahdh4 7#b47 ,first ,lessons in ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aga3 #ast ,ed41 ,philad41 #ahdh4 ,,greenleaf1 ,,jeremiah2 ,grammar ,simplified2 #dto1 pp4 #dh3 ,new ,york2 #c;d ,ed41 #ahba2 #bjth ,ed41 #ahcg4 ,,greenwood1 ,,james2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #cae3 ,london1 #agaa2 #b;d ,ed41 #agbb4 ,,geenville1 ,a4 ,s42 ,introduction to ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #fc3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahbb4 ,,griscom1 ,,john1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,questions in ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #db3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahba4 ,,gurney1 ,,david4 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gb3 ,boston1 #ahja2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahjh4 ,,guy1 ,,joseph1 ,jun42 ,english ,school ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #adc3 #dth ,ed41 ,london #ahaf4 ,,hall1 ,rev4 ,s4 ,r42 ,the ,grammatical ,assistant2 #abmo1 pp4 #aca3 #ast ,ed41 ,springfield1 ,mass41 #ahcb4 ,,hall1 ,,william2 ,encyclopedia of ,english ,grammar2 7by report27 ,ohio1 #ahej4 ,,hallock1 ,,edward ,j41 ,a4 ,m42 ,a ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #bea3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahdb4 ,a very inaccurate book1 with sundry small plagiarisms from ,g4 ,brown4 ,,hamlin1 ,,lorenzo ,f42 ,english ,grammar in ,lectures2 #abmo1 pp4 #ajh3 ,new ,york1 #ahca2 ,ster4 ,ed41 #ahcb4 ,,hammond1 ,,samuel2 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo3 ,lond41 #agdd4 ,,harris1 ,,james1 ,esq42 ,hermes2 or a ,philosophical ,inquiry concerning ,universal ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #dfh2 ,london1 #agea3 #fth ,ed41 #ahjf4 ,,harrison1 ,mr42 ,rudiments of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #ith ,american ,ed41 ,philad41 #ahab4 ,,harrison1 ,rev4 ,,matthew1 ,a4 ,m42 ,the ,rise1 ,progress1 and ,present ,structure of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #cic3 ,preface dated ,basingstoke1 ,eng41 #ahdh2 #ast ,american ,ed41 ,philad41 #ahej4 ,,hart1 ,,john ,s41 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aib2 #ast ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahde4 ,,harvey1 ,j42 ,english ,grammar3 ,london1 #ahda4 ,,hazen1 ,,edward1 ,a4 ,m42 ,a ,practical ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #bdj3 ,new ,york1 #ahdb4 ,,hazlitt1 ,,william2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bje3 ,london1 #ahaj4 ,,hendrick1 ,j4 ,l41 ,a4 ,m42 ,a ,grammatical ,manual2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aje3 #ast ,ed41 ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahdd4 ,,hewes1 ,,john1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #dto3 ,london1 #afbd4 ,,hewett1 ,d42 ,english ,grammar2 folio1 pp4 #af3 #ast ,edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahch4 ,,higginson1 ,rev4 ,t4 ,e42 ,e4 ,gram42 #abmo2 ,dublin1 #ahjc4 ,,hiley1 ,,richard2 ,a ,treatise on ,english ,grammar1 c42 #abmo1 pp4 #bfi3 #c;d ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,hiley's ,grammar ,abridged2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aif3 ,london1 #ahdc3 #dth ,ed41 #ahea4 ,,hill1 ,j4 ,h42 ,on the ,subjunctive ,mood2 #hvo1 pp4 #fc3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahcd4 ,,hodgson1 ,rev4 ,,isaac2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ahd3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #aggj4 ,,home1 ,,henry1 ,lord ,kames2 ,elements of ,criticism2 #b volumes #hvo1 pp4 #hcf3 7#c;d ,american1 from the #hth ,london ,ed437 ,new ,york1 #ahai4 ,also1 ,the ,art of ,thinking2 #abmo1 pp4 #bhd3 7from the last ,london ,ed437 ,new ,york1 #ahah4 ,,hornsey1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #add2 ,york1 ,england1 #agih3 #fth ,ed41 #ahaf4 ,,hort1 ,w4 ,,jillard2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bai3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,,houghton1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo3 ,london1 #agff4 ,,houston1 ,,samuel1 ,a4 ,b42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #dh3 #ast ,ed41 ,harrisburgh1 ,pa41 #ahah4 ,,howe1 ,s4 ,l42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo2 #ast ,ed41 ,lancaster1 ,ohio1 #ahch4 ,,howell1 ,,james2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,london1 #affb4 ,,hull1 ,,joseph ,,hervey2 ,e4 ,gram41 by ,lectures2 #abmo1 pp4 #gb3 #dth ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahbh4 ,,humphrey1 ,,asa2 7#a47 ,the ,english ,prosody2 #abmo1 pp4 #age3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahdg4 7#b47 ,the ,rules of ,punctuation2 with ,rules for the ,use of ,capitals2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ga3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahdg4 ,,hurd1 ,s4 ,t42 ,e4 ,gram43 #b;d ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahbg4 ,,huthersal1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo3 ,england1 #ahad4 ,,ingersoll1 ,,charles ,m42 ,conversations on ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bif3 ,new ,york1 #ahba4 ,,jamieson1 ,,alexander2 ,a ,grammar of ,rhetoric and ,polite ,literature2 #abmo1 pp4 #cde3 ,the first ,american1 from the last ,london ,edition2 ,newhaven1 #ahbj4 ,,jaudon1 ,,daniel2 ,the ,union ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #baf3 ,philadelphia2 #ast ,ed41 #ahab2 #dth1 #ahbh4 ,,jenkins1 ,,azariah2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bef2 #ast ,ed41 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahce4 ,,joel1 ,,thomas2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #gh3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #agge4 ,,johnson1 ,,richard2 ,grammatical ,commentaries2 7chiefly on ,lily27 #hvo1 pp4 #dcf3 ,london1 #agjf4 ,,johnson1 ,,samuel1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,a ,dictionary of the ,english ,language2 in two thick volumes1 #dto3 #ast ,american1 from the #aath ,london ,edition2 ,philadelphia1 #ahah4 ,to this work1 are prefixed ,johnson's ,history of the ,english ,language1 pp4 #bi2 and his ,grammar of the ,english ,tongue1 pp4 #ad4 ,,jones1 ,,joshua2 ,e4 ,gram42 #ahmo3 ,phila41 #ahda4 ,,jonson1 ,,ben2--see1 in his ,works1 ,the ,english ,grammar1 made by ,ben ,jonson1 for the ,benefit of all ,strangers1 out of his ,observation of the ,english ,language1 now spoken and in use3 ,london1 #afcd3 #hvo1 pp4 #id2 ,lond41 #ahaf4 ,,judson1 ,,adoniram1 ,jun41 ,a4 ,b42 ,e4 ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ef3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahjh4 ,,kennion1 ,,charlotte2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aeg3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdb4 ,,kilson1 ,,roger2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,england1 #ahjg4 ,,king1 ,,walter ,w42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gf3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahda4 ,,kirkham1 ,,samuel2 ,english ,grammar in familiar ,lectures2 #abmo1 pp4 #ada--bbh3 #b;d ,ed41 ,harrisburgh1 ,pa41 #ahbe2 #abth ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahbi4 ,,knowles1 ,,john2 ,the ,principles of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 #c;d ,ed41 ,london1 #agid4 ,,knowlton1 ,,joseph2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #hd3 ,salem1 ,mass41 #ahah2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahcb4 ,,latham1 ,,robert ,,gordon1 ,a4 ,m41 ,m4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 7#a47 ,the ,english ,language2 #hvo1 pp4 #dah3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahda4 7#b47 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bad3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdc4 7#c47 ,a ,hand-,book of the ,english ,language2 large #abmo1 pp4 #hih3 ,new ,york1 #aheb4 ,,leavitt1 ,,dudley2 ,english ,grammar2 #bdto1 pp4 #fj3 #ast ,ed41 ,concord1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahbf4 ,,lennie1 ,,william2 ,the ,principles of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #adb3 #eth ,ed41 ,edinburgh1 #ahai2 #acth ,ed41 #ahca4 ,,lewis1 ,,alonzo2 ,lessons in ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ej3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahbb4 ,,lewis1 ,,john2 7#a47 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #dh3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahbh4 7#b47 ,tables of ,comparative ,etymology2 or1 ,the ,student's ,manual of ,languages2 #dto1 pp4 #ajh3 ,philad41 #ahbh4 ,,lewis1 ,,william ,,greathead2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bjd3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahba4 ,,lily1 ,,william2 ,brevissima ,institutio1 seu ,ratio ,grammatices cognoscend2 large #ahmo1 pp4 #adj3 ,london1 #agic4 ,,lindsay1 ,rev4 ,,john1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #hh3 #ast ,ed41 ,london4 #ahdb4 ,,locke1 ,,john1 ,m4 ,d42 small ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo3 #ast ,ed41 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 #ahbg4 ,,loughton1 ,,william2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aid3 #c;d ,ed41 ,london1 #agci4 ,,lovechild1 ,mrs42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gb3 #djth ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdb4 ,,lowth1 ,,robert1 ,d4 ,d42 ,a ,short ,introduction to ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #acb3 ,london1 #agfc2--,philadelphia1 #agii2--;,cambridge1 ,mass41 #ahch4 ,,lynde1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aj3 #ast ,ed41 ,woodstock1 ,vt41 #ahba4 ,,mack1 ,,evered ,j42 ,the ,self-,instructor1 and ,practical ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahj3 #ast ,ed41 ,springfield1 ,mass41 #ahce4 ,an egregious plagiarism from ,g4 ,brown4 ,,macgowan1 ,rev4 ,,james2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bdh3 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,,mackintosh1 ,,duncan2 ,an ,essay on ,english ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #bci3 ,boston1 #agig4 ,,mackilquhem1 ,,william2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,glasgow1 #agii4 ,,maittaire1 ,,michael2 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #bgb3 ,london1 #agab4 ,,mandeville1 ,,henry1 ,d4 ,d42 7#a47 ,elements of ,reading and ,oratory2 large #abmo3 ,utica1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahde4 7#b47 ,a ,course of ,reading for ,schools2 #abmo1 pp4 #cgg3 ,improved ,ed42 ,new ,york1 #ahea4 ,,marcet1 ,mrs42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #cca3 #gth ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,,martin1 ,,benj42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,london1 #aged4 ,,matheson1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ach3 #b;d ,ed41 ,london1 #ahba4 ,,maunder1 ,,samuel2 ,grammar prefixed to ,dict42 #abmo1 pp4 #bj3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,,mavor1 ,,william2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gj3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbj4 ,m',,cready1 ,f42 #abmo ,grammar3 ,philad41 #ahbj4 ,m',,culloch1 ,j4 ,m41 ,d4 ,d42 ,a ,manual of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ahh3 #gth ,ed41 ,edinburgh1 #ahda4 ,m',,elligott1 ,,james ,n42 ,manual1 ,analytical and ,synthetical1 of ,orthography and ,definition2 #hvo1 pp4 #bbc3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahdf4 ,also1 ,the ,young ,analyzer3 #abmo1 pp4 #ed3 ,new ,york1 #ahdf4 ,,meilan1 ,,mark ,a42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,london1 #ahjc4 ,,mendenhall1 ,,william2 ,the ,classification of ,words2 #abmo1 pp4 #cf3 ,philad41 #ahad4 ,,mennye1 ,j43 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #abd3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #aghe4 ,,mercey1 ,,blanche2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 #b vols41 pp4 #bdh3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #agii4 ,,merchant1 ,,aaron ,m42 ,murray's ,small ,grammar1 ,enlarged2 #ahmo1 pp4 #baf3 ,n4 ,y41 #ahbd4 ,this ,enlarged ,abridgement became ,the ,american ,school ,grammar in #ahbh4 ,,miller1 ,,alexander2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aai3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #agie4 ,,miller1 ,the ,misses2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #fc3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,,miller1 ,,ferdinand ,h42 ,the ,ready ,grammarian2 square #abmo1 pp4 #bd3 ,ithaca1 ,new ,york1 #ahdc4 ,,miller1 ,,tobias ,,ham2 ,murray's ,abridgement1 with ,questions2 #abmo1 pp4 #gf3 ,portsmouth1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahbc4 ,,milligan1 ,rev4 ,,george2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gb3 ,edin41 #ahca2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahci4 ,,moore1 ,,thomas2 ,orthography and ,pronunciation2 #abmo1 pp4 #agf3 ,london1 #ahaj4 ,,morgan1 ,,jonathan1 ,jun41 ,a4 ,b42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #dje3 #ast ,ed41 ,hallowell1 ,me41 #ahad4 ,,morley1 ,,charles1 ,a4 ,b42 ,school ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #hf3 7with ,cuts37 #ast ,ed41 ,hartford1 ,ct41 #ahcf4 ,,morey1 ,,amos ,c42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajf3 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahbi4 ,,mulkey1 ,,william2 ,an ,abridgment of ,walker's ,rules on the ,sounds of the ,letters2 #ahmo1 pp4 #abd3 ,boston4 #ahcd4 ,fudge6 ,,mulligan1 ,,john1 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,exposition of the ,grammatical ,structure of the ,english ,language2 small #hvo1 pp4 #egd3 ,new ,york1 #aheb4 7#b47 ,same ,abridged for ,schools2 #abmo1 pp4 #cja3 ,n4 ,y41 #ahed4 ,,murray1 ,,alexander1 ,d4 ,d42 ,the ,history of ,european ,languages2 in two vols41 #hvo42 pp4 #hjj4 ,,murray1 ,,alexander1 ,schoolmaster2 ,easy ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aid3 #c;d ,ed41 ,london1 #agic4 ,,murray1 ,,lindley2 7#a47 ,english ,grammar1 ,adapted to the ,different ,classes of ,learners2 #abmo1 pp4 #bhd3 ,york1 ,eng41 #agie2 #b;d ,ed41 #agif2 #bc;d ,ed41 #ahaf4 7#b47 ,abridgment of ,murray's ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aje3 ,from the #cjth ,english ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahag4 7#c47 ,an ,english ,grammar2 in two volumes1 octavo2 pp4 #fhd3 #dth ,american from the last ,english ,ed42 ,new ,york1 #ahai4 7#d47 ,a ,spelling-,book2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ahj3 ,new ,york1 #ahai4 ,,mylins1 ,,wm4 ,f42 ,gram41 #abmo3 ,england1 #ahji4 ,,mylne1 ,rev4 ,a41 ,d4 ,d42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ahj3 #aath ,ed41 ,edinburgh1 #ahcb4 ,,nesbit1 ,a42 ,an ,introd4 to ,english ,parsing2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bac3 #b;d ,ed41 ,york1 ,england1 #ahbc4 ,,newbury1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aeb3 #eth ,ed41 ,london1 #aghg4 ,,nightingale1 ,rev4 ,j42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #if3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,,nixon1 ,h42 7#a47 ,the ,english ,parser2 #abmo1 pp4 #afd3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbf4 7#b47 ,new and ,comprehensive ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahcc4 ,,nutting1 ,,rufus1 ,a4 ,m42 ,a ,practical ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #add3 #c;d ,ed41 ,montpelier1 ,vt41 #ahbf4 ,,odell1 ,j41 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bje3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahjf4 ,,oliver1 ,,edward1 ,d4 ,d42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #agh3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahjg4 ,,oliver1 ,,samuel2 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #cgg3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,,palmer1 ,,mary2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #dh3 ,new ,york1 #ahjc4 ,,parker1 ,,richard ,,green2 7#a47 ,exercises in ,composition2 #abmo1 pp4 #ajf3 #c;d ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahcc4 7#b47 ,aids to ,english ,composition2 #abmo1 pp4 #dah3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahdd4 ,,parker and ,,fox2 ,progressive ,exercises in ,english ,grammar2 in three separate parts1 #abmo3--,part ,i1 pp4 #if2 ,boston1 #ahcd3 ,part ,,ii1 pp4 #fj2 ,boston1 #ahce3 ,part ,,iii1 pp4 #abb2 ,boston1 #ahdj4 ,,parkhurst1 ,,john ,l42 7#a47 ,a ,systematic ,introduction to ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajd3 ,concord1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahbj2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbd4 7#b47 ,english ,grammar for ,beginners2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ahj3 #ast ,ed41 ,andover1 ,mass41 #ahch4 ,,parsons1 ,,samuel ,h42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajg3 #ast ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahcf4 ,,peirce1 ,,john2 ,the ,new ,american ,spelling-,book1 with ,a ,plain and ,easy ,introduction to ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bjj3 #fth ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahjd4 ,this ,grammar is mostly copied from ,harrison's4 ,,peirce1 ,,oliver ,b42 ,the ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #chd3 #ast ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahci4 ,also1 ,abridgement of the same2 #ahmo1 pp4 #add3 ,boston1 #ahdj4 ,,pengelley1 ,,edward2 ,english ,gram42 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,,perley1 ,,daniel1 ,m4 ,d42 ,a ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gi3 #ast ,ed41 ,andover1 ,mass41 #ahcd4 ,,perry1 ,,william2 ,grammar in ,dict42 #abmo3 ,edinburgh1 #ahja4 ,,pickbourn1 ,,james2 ,dissertation on the ,english ,verb3 ,london1 #aghi4 ,,picket1 ,,albert2 ,analytical ,school ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #beb3 ,new ,york1 #ahbc2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbd4 ,,pinneo1 ,t4 ,s41 ,m4 ,a41 ,m4 ,d42 7#a47 ,a ,primary ,grammar1 for ,beginners3 ,cincinnati4 7#b47 ,analytical ,grammar of the ,e4 ,language3 #abmo1 pp4 #baf3 ,cincinnati1 #ahej2 ,new ,york1 #ahec4 7#c47 ,pinneo's ,english ,teacher2 in which is taught the ,structure of ,sentences by ,analysis and ,synthesis2 #abmo1 pp4 #bdj3 ,cincinnati1 #ahed4 ,,pinnock1 ,w42 7#a47 ,a ,catechism of ,e4 ,gram42 #ahmo1 pp4 #gj3 #ahth ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbe4 7#b47 ,a ,comprehensive ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #cah3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbi4 ,,pond1 ,,enoch1 ,d4 ,d42 ,murray's ,system of ,eng4 ,grammar1 ,improved2 #abmo1 pp4 #bbh3 #eth ,ed41 ,worcester1 ,mass41 #ahce4 ,also1 under the same title1 a petty ,grammar with ,cuts2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ga3 ,new ,ed41 ,worcester1 #ahce4 ,,powers1 ,,daniel1 ,a4 ,m42 ,e4 ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahh3 #ast ,ed41 ,west ,brookfleld1 ,mass41 #ahde4 ,,priestley1 ,,joseph1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,the ,rudiments of ,e4 ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #bjb3 #c;d ,ed41 ,london1 #aggb4 ,,pue1 ,,hugh ,a42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #adi3 #ast ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahda4 ,,pullen1 ,p4 ,h42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #cba3 ,london1 #ahbj2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbb4 ,,putnam1 ,j4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 7,murray's1 ,modified27 #ahmo1 pp4 #afb3 ,concord1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahbe2 ,ster41 #ahca4 ,,putnam1 ,,samuel2 ,putnam's ,murray2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 ,improved ,ster4 ,ed42 ,dover1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahbh4 ,,putsey1 ,rev4 ,w42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #baa3 ,london1 #ahba2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbi4 ,,quackenbos1 ,,geo4 ,,payn2 7#a47 ,first ,lessons in ,composition4 7#b47 ,advanced ,course of ,composition and ,rhetoric2 #abmo1 pp4 #dee3 ,new ,york1 #ahed4 ,,rand1 ,,asa2 ,teacher's ,manual1 c42 #ahmo1 pp4 #ij3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahcb4 ,,reed1 ,,caleb1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #cj3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahba4 ,,reid1 ,a42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #df3 #b;d ,ed41 ,london1 #ahci4 ,,reid1 ,,john1 ,m4 ,d42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #fh3 #ast ,ed41 ,glasgow1 #ahcj4 ,,ricord1 ,f4 ,w41 ,a4 ,m42 ,the ,youth's ,grammar2 or1 ,easy ,lessons in ,etymology2 #abmo1 pp4 #aah3 #ast ,ed41 ,n4 ,y41 #ahee4 ,,rigan1 ,,john2 ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,dublin1 #ahbc4 ,,robbins1 ,,manasseh2 ,rudimental ,lessons in ,etym4 and ,synt42 #abmo1 pp4 #gj3 ,prov41 ,r4 ,i41 #ahbf4 ,,robinson1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ie3 #ast ,ed41 ,maysville1 #ahcj4 ,,roome1 ,rev4 ,t42 ,gram42 #abmo3 ,england1 #ahac4 ,,ross1 ,,robert2 an ,american ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aii3 #gth ,ed41 ,hartford1 ,ct41 #aghb4 ,,rothwell1 ,j42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 #b;d ,ed41 ,london1 #agig4 ,,rozzell1 ,,wm42 ,english ,grammar in ,verse2 #hvo3 ,london1 #agie4 ,,rush1 ,,james1 ,m4 ,d42 ,philosophy of the ,human ,voice2 #hvo3 ,philadelphia1 #ahcc4 ,,russell1 ,rev4 ,j41 ,d4 ,d42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #afh3 ,london1 #ahce2 #ajth ,ed41 #ahdb4 ,,russell1 ,,william2 7#a47 ,a ,grammar of ,composition2 #abmo1 pp4 #aej3 ,newhaven1 #ahbc4 7#b47 ,lessons in ,enunciation3 ,boston1 #ahda4 7#c47 ,orthophony2 or the ,cultivation of the ,voice2 #abmo1 pp4 #cjj3 improved ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahdg4 ,,russell1 ,,william ,e43 ,an ,abridgment of ,murray's ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #adb3 ,hartford1 #ahai4 ,,ryland1 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #afd3 #ast ,ed41 ,northampton1 ,eng41 #agfg4 ,,sabine1 ,h41 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #abj3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #agjb4 ,,sanbobn1 ,,dyer ,h42 ,an ,analytical ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #bii3 #ast ,ed41 ,concord1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahcf4 ,,sanders1 ,,charles ,w4 and ,j4 ,c42 ,the ,young ,grammarian2 #abmo1 pp4 #abj3 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahdg4 ,,sargent1 ,,epes2 ,the ,standard ,speaker2 a ,treatise on ,oratory and ,elocution2 small #hvo1 pp4 #eeh3 ,philadelphia1 #aheb4 ,,scott1 ,,william2 ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,edinb41 #agig4 ,dictionary1 with ,grammar prefixed2 square1 pp4 #dib3 ,cork1 #ahaj4 ,,searle1 ,rev4 ,,thomas2 ,grammar in ,verse2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aad3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,,shatford1 ,w42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajd3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahcd4 ,,shaw1 ,rev4 ,,john2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bei3 #dth ,ed41 ,london1 #agic4 ,,sheridan1 ,,thomas1 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,lectures on ,elocution2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahe3 ,london1 #agfb2 ,troy1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahjc4 7#b47 ,lectures on the ,art of ,reading4 7#c47 ,a ,rhetorical ,grammar2 square #abmo1 pp4 #gc3 #c;d ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #aghi4 7#d47 ,elements of ,english2 #abmo1 pp4 #fi3 ,dublin1 #aghi4 7#e47 ,a ,complete ,dictionary of the ,english ,language2 #ast ,ed41 #aghj4 ,,sherman1 ,,john2 ,american ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #cbc3 #ast ,ed41 ,trenton ,falls1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahcf4 ,,simmonite1 ,w4 ,j42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bbh3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahda4 ,,skillern1 ,r4 ,s41 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahd3 #b;d ,ed41 ,gloucester1 ,england1 #ahjh4 ,,smart1 ,b4 ,h42 7#a47 ,a ,practical ,grammar of ,english ,pronunciation2 #hvo3 ,london1 #ahaj4 7#b47 ,the ,accidence of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #eb3 ,london1 #ahda4 7#c47 ,the ,accidence and ,principles of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bhj3 ,london1 #ahda4 ,,smetham1 ,,thomas2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #afh3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #aggd4 ,,smith1 ,,eli2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #ast ,ed41 ,philadelphia1 #ahab4 ,,smith1 ,,john2 ,grammar1 #hvo3 ,norwich1 ,eng41 #ahaf4 ,,smith1 ,,peter1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #agf3 #ast ,ed41 ,edinburgh1 #ahbf4 ,,smith1 ,rev4 ,,thomas2 7#a47 ,alderson's ,orthographical ,exercises1 ,copied2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajh3 #aeth ,ed41 ,london1 #ahai4 7#b47 ,smith's ,edition of ,l4 ,murray's ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #abh3 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,very petty authorship4 ,,smith1 ,,roswell ,c42 7#a47 ,english ,grammar on the ,inductive ,system2 #abmo1 pp4 #bje3 ,boston1 #ahcj2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahha4 7#b47 ,english ,grammar on the ,productive ,system2 #abmo1 pp4 #aib3 #b;d ,ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahcb4 ,a sham4 ,,snyder1 ,w42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #afd3 #ast ,ed41 ,winchester1 ,va41 #ahcd4 ,,spalding1 ,,charles2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #cf3 #ast ,ed41 ,onondaga1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahbe4 ,,spear1 ,,matthew ,p42 ,the ,teacher's ,manual of ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aaf3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahde4 ,,spencer1 ,,george1 ,a4 ,m42 ,an ,english ,grammar on ,synthetical ,principles2 #abmo1 pp4 #agh3 ,new ,york1 #ahea4 ,,staniford1 ,,daniel1 ,a4 ,m42 ,a ,short but ,comprehensive ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #if3 ,boston1 #ahjg2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahae4 ,,stearns1 ,,george2 ,english ,grammar2 #dto1 pp4 #ag3 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahdc4 ,,stockwood1 ,,john2 ,gram41 #dto3 ,london1 #aeij4 ,,story1 ,,joshua2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #ahj3 #ast ,ed41 ,newcastle1 ,eng41 #aggh2 #c;d1 #aghc4 ,,st4 ,,quentin1 ,d41 ,m4 ,a42 ,the ,rudiments of ,general ,gram42 #abmo1 pp4 #afc3 ,lond41 #ahab4 ,,sutcliffe1 ,,joseph1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bfb2 ,london1 #ahae2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahba4 ,,swett1 ,j41 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aib3 ,claremont1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahdc2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahdd4 ,,ticken1 ,,william2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #adg3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahjf4 ,,ticknor1 ,,elisha1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #gb3 #c;d ,ed41 ,boston1 #agid4 ,,tobitt1 ,r42 ,grammatical ,institutes2 7in ,verse27 #abmo1 pp4 #gb3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,,todd1 ,,lewis ,c42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #abf3 ,fredonia1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahbf2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbg4 ,,tooke1 ,,john ,,horne1 ,a4 ,m42 ,epea ,pteroenta2 or1 the ,diversions of ,purley2 #b vols41 #hvo2 pp4 #ibd3 #ast ,american1 from the #b;d ,london ,ed42 ,philadelphia1 #ahjf4 ,,tower1 ,,david ,b41 ,a4 ,m42 ,gradual ,lessons in ,grammar2 small #abmo1 pp4 #ahj3 ,boston1 #ahdg4 ,,trench1 ,,richard ,,chenevix1 ,b4 ,d2 ,on the ,study of ,words2 #abmo1 pp4 #bcf3 ,london1 #ast ,ed41 #ahea2 #b;d ,ed41 #aheb3 reprinted1 ,new ,york1 #aheb4 ,,trinder1 ,,william ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aaf3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #agha4 ,,tucker1 ,,benjamin2 ,a ,short ,introd4 to ,e4 ,gram42 #ahmo1 pp4 #cf3 #dth ,ed41 ,phila41 #ahab4 ,,turner1 ,,daniel1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #hvo3 ,london1 #agci4 ,,turner1 ,rev4 ,,brandon1 ,a4 ,m42 ,grammar from ,g4 ,brown's ,inst42 #abmo1 pp4 #bch3 ,lond41 #ahda4 ,,twitchell1 ,,mark2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajf3 #ast ,ed41 ,portland4 ,me41 #ahbe4 ,,ussher1 ,g4 ,,neville2 ,english ,grammar3 #abmo1 pp4 #acb3 ,london1 #aghg2 #c;d ,amer4 ,ed41 ,exeter1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahjd4 ,,waldo1 ,,john2 ,rudiments1 #abmo2 ,philad41 #ahac3 ,abridg't1 #ahmo1 pp4 #abd2 ,philadelphia1 #ahad4 ,,walker1 ,,john2 7#a47 ,e4 ,gram41 #abmo1 pp4 #aah3 ,london1 #ahjf4 7#b47 ,elements of ,elocution2 #hvo1 pp4 #cgi3 ,boston1 #ahaj4 7#c47 ,rhyming ,dict41 #abmo2 7#d47 ,pronouncing ,dict41 #hvo2 and other valuable works4 ,,walker1 ,,william1 ,b4 ,d42 7#a47 ,a ,treatise of ,english ,particles2 #abmo1 pp4 #dhh3 ,london1 #afec2 #ajth ,ed41 #afia4 7#b47 ,the ,art of ,teaching ,grammar2 large #ahmo1 pp4 #bbf3 #hth ,ed41 ,london1 #agag4 ,,wallis1 ,,john1 ,d4 ,d42 ,e4 ,gram4 in ,latin2 #hvo1 pp4 #bha34 ,lond41 #afec2 #fth ,ed41 #agfe4 ,,ward1 ,h42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aea3 ,whitehaven1 ,england1 #aggg4 ,,ward1 ,,john1 ,,ll4 ,d42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bch3 ,london1 #agfh4 ,,ward1 ,,william1 ,a4 ,m42 ,a ,practical ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aib3 ,york1 ,england1 #agfe4 ,,ware1 ,,jonathan1 ,esq42 ,a ,new ,introduction to ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #dh3 ,windsor1 ,vt41 #ahad4 ,,wase1 ,,christopher1 ,m4 ,a42 ,an ,essay of a ,practical ,gram41 #abmo1 pp4 #gi3 ,lond41 #affj4 ,,watt1 ,,thomas1 ,a4 ,m42 ,gram4 ,made ,easy2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ib3 ,edinburgh1 #agjh42 #eth ,ed41 #agdb4 ,,webber1 ,,samuel1 ,a4 ,m41 ,m4 ,d42 ,an ,introd4 to ,e4 ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aaf3 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #ahcb4 ,,webster1 ,,noah1 ,,ll4 ,d42 7#a47 ,a ,plain and ,comprehensive ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #aca3 #hth ,ed41 ,hartford1 ,ct41 #ahjj4 7#b47 ,a ,philosophical and ,practical ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bej3 ,newhaven1 ,ct41 #ahjg4 7#c47 ,rudiments of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #hg3 ,new ,york1 #ahaa4 7#d47 ,an ,improved ,grammar of the ,e4 ,l42 #abmo1 pp4 #ahj3 ,newhaven1 #ahca4 7#e47 ,an ,american ,dictionary of the ,e4 ,l41 #dto2 and an ,abridgement1 #hvo4 ,,welch1 ,a4 ,s42 ,analysis of the ,english ,sentence2 #abmo1 pp4 #bfd3 ,new ,york1 #ahed4 ,of no value4 ,,weld1 ,,allen ,h41 ,a4 ,m42 7#a47 ,english ,grammar ,illustrated2 #abmo1 pp4 #bbh3 ,portland1 ,me41 #ahdf2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahdg3 ,abridged ,edition1 ,boston1 #ahdi4 ,improved ,edition1 much altered3 ,portland1 #aheb4 7#b47 ,parsing ,book1 containing ,rules of ,syntax1 c42 #ahmo1 pp4 #aab3 ,portland1 #ahdg4 ,,wells1 ,,william ,h41 ,m4 ,a42 ,wells's ,school ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bbj3 #ast ,ed41 ,andover1 #ahdf2 #aacth ,thousand1 #ahej4 ,,white1 ,,mr4 ,,james2 ,the ,english ,verb2 #hvo1 pp4 #cjb3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #agfa4 ,,whiting1 ,,joseph1 ,a4 ,m42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,detroit1 #ahde4 ,,whitworth1 ,t42 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #baf3 #ast ,ed41 ,london1 #ahai4 ,,wickes1 ,,edward ,,walter2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ajf3 #b;d ,ed41 ,london1 #ahda4 ,,wilber ,,livingston2 ,the ,grammatical ,alphabet2 7with a ,chart27 #ahmo1 pp4 #cf3 #b;d ,ed41 ,albany1 #ahae4 ,,wilbur1 ,,josiah2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #acb3 ,bellows ,falls1 ,n4 ,h41 #ahae2 #b;d ,ed41 #ahbb4 ,,wilcox1 ,a4 ,f42 ,a ,catechetical and ,practical ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aaj3 #ast ,ed41 ,newhaven1 ,ct41 #ahbh4 ,,willard1 ,,samuel3 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ed3 #ast ,ed41 ,greenfield1 ,mass41 #ahaf4 ,,williams1 ,,mrs4 ,,honoria2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bbf3 ,london1 #ahbc2 #c;d ,ed41 #ahbf4 ,,wilson1 ,,charles1 ,d4 ,d42 ,elements of ,hebrew ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #cih3 #c;d ,ed41 ,london1 #ahjb4 ,,wilson1 ,,george2 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo2 ,london1 #aggg4 ,,wilson1 ,,james ,p41 ,d4 ,d43 ,an ,essay on ,grammar2 #hvo1 pp4 #bha3 ,philadelphia1 #ahag4 ,,wilson1 ,,john2 ,a ,treatise on ,english ,punctuation2 #abmo1 pp4 #bjd3 ,boston1 #ahej4 ,,wilson1 ,rev4 ,j42 ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #ahd3 #c;d ,ed41 ,congleton1 ,england1 #ahjc4 ,,winning1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,b41 ,m4 ,a42 ,a ,manual of ,comparative ,philology2 #hvo1 pp4 #bia3 ,london1 #ahch4 ,,wiseman1 ,,charles2 an ,english ,grammar1 #abmo3 ,london1 #agfe4 ,,wood1 ,,helen2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo1 pp4 #bjg3 ,london1 #ast ,ed41 #ahbg2 #fth ,ed41 #ahda4 ,,wood1 ,rev4 ,,james1 ,d4 ,d2 ,english ,grammar2 #abmo3 ,london1 #aggh4 ,,woodworth1 ,a42 ,grammar ,demonstrated2 #abmo1 pp4 #gb3 #ast ,ed41 ,auburn1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahbc4 ,,worcester1 ,,joseph1 ,e42 ,universal and ,critical ,dictionary of the ,english ,language2 #ast ,ed41 ,boston1 #ahdf4 ,,worcester1 ,,samuel2 ,a ,first ,book of ,english ,grammar2 #ahmo1 pp4 #hf2 ,boston1 #ahca4 ,,wright1 ,,albert ,d42 ,analytical ,orthography2 #ahmo1 pp4 #aab3 #b;d ,ed41 ,cazenovia1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahdb4 ,,wright1 ,,joseph ,w42 ,a ,philosophical ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 #abmo1 pp4 #beb3 ,new ,york and ,london1 #ahch4 ,asterism ,the ,names1 or ,heads1 in the foregoing alphabetical ,catalogue1 are #deb2 the ,works mentioned are #edh2 the ,grammars are #dfc2 the other ,books are #he4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,catalogue4 ,,introduction ,,historical ,,and ,,critical ,,chapter ,i4 ,,of ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,grammar4 ,hc de ,grammatica quam brevissime potui3 non ut omnia dicerem sectatus1 7quod infinitum erat17 sed ut maxima necessaria4--,,quintilian4 ,de ,inst4 ,orat41 ,lib4 i1 ,cap4 x4 #a4 ,language1 in the proper sense of the term1 is peculiar to man2 so that1 without a miraculous assumption of human powers1 none but human beings can make words the vehicle of thought4 ,an imitation of some of the articulate sounds employed in speech1 may be exhibited by parrots1 and sometimes by domesticated ravens1 and we know that almost all brute animals have their peculiar natural voices1 by which they indicate their feelings1 whether pleasing or painful4 ,but language is an attribute of reason1 and differs essentially not only from all brute voices1 but even from all the chattering1 jabbering1 and babbling of our own species1 in which there is not an intelligible meaning1 with division of thought1 and distinction of words4 #b4 ,speech results from the joint exercise of the best and noblest faculties of human nature1 from our rational understanding and our social affection2 and is1 in the proper use of it1 the peculiar ornament and distinction of man1 whether we compare him with other orders in the creation1 or view him as an individual preminent among his fellows4 ,hence that science which makes known the nature and structure of speech1 and immediately concerns the correct and elegant use of language1 while it surpasses all the conceptions of the stupid or unlearned1 and presents nothing that can seem desirable to the sensual and grovelling1 has an intrinsic dignity which highly commends it to all persons of sense and taste1 and makes it most a favourite with the most gifted minds4 ,that science is ,grammar4 ,and though there be some geniuses who affect to despise the trammels of grammar rules1 to whom it must be conceded that many things which have been unskillfully taught as such1 deserve to be despised2 yet it is true1 as ,dr4 ,adam remarks1 that1 ,the study of ,grammar has been considered an object of great importance by the wisest men in all ages4--,preface to ,latin and ,english ,gram41 p4 iii4 #c4 ,grammar bears to language several different relations1 and acquires from each a nature leading to a different definition4 ,first1 ,it is to language1 as knowledge is to the thing known2 and as doctrine1 to the truths it inculcates4 ,in these relations1 grammar is a science4 ,it is the first of what have been called the seven sciences1 or liberal branches of knowledge2 namely1 grammar1 logic1 rhetoric1 arithmetic1 geometry1 astronomy1 and music4 ,secondly1 ,it is as skill1 to the thing to be done2 and as power1 to the instruments it employs4 ,in these relations1 grammar is an art2 and as such1 has long been defined1 ars rect scribendi1 rectque loquendi the art of writing and speaking correctly4 ,thirdly1 ,it is as navigation1 to the ocean1 which nautic skill alone enables men to traverse4 ,in this relation1 theory and practice combine1 and grammar becomes1 like navigation1 a practical science4 ,fourthly1 ,it is as a chart1 to a coast which we would visit4 ,in this relation1 our grammar is a text-book1 which we take as a guide1 or use as a help to our own observation4 ,fifthly1 ,it is as a single voyage1 to the open sea1 the highway of nations4 ,such is our meaning1 when we speak of the grammar of a particular text or passage4 #d4 ,again3 ,grammar is to language a sort of self-examination4 ,it turns the faculty of speech or writing upon itself for its own elucidation2 and makes the tongue or the pen explain the uses and abuses to which both are liable1 as well as the nature and excellency of that power1 of which1 these are the two grand instruments4 ,from this account1 some may begin to think that in treating of grammar we are dealing with something too various and changeable for the understanding to grasp2 a dodging ,proteus of the imagination1 who is ever ready to assume some new shape1 and elude the vigilance of the inquirer4 ,but let the reader or student do his part2 and1 if he please1 follow us with attention4 ,we will endeavour1 with welded links1 to bind this ,proteus1 in such a manner that he shall neither escape from our hold1 nor fail to give to the consulter an intelligible and satisfactory response4 ,be not discouraged1 generous youth4 ,hark to that sweet far-reaching note3 ,sed1 quanto ille magis formas se vertet in omnes1 ,tanto1 nate1 magis contende tenacia vincla4 ,,virgil4 ,geor4 ,,iv1 #daa4 ,but thou1 the more he varies forms1 beware ,to strain his fetters with a stricter care4 ,,dryden',s ,,virgil4 #e4 ,if for a moment we consider the good and the evil that are done in the world through the medium of speech1 we shall with one voice acknowledge1 that not only the faculty itself1 but also the manner in which it is used1 is of incalculable importance to the welfare of man4 ,but this reflection does not directly enhance our respect for grammar1 because it is not to language as the vehicle of moral or of immoral sentiment1 of good or of evil to mankind1 that the attention of the grammarian is particularly directed4 ,a consideration of the subject in these relations1 pertains rather to the moral philosopher4 ,nor are the arts of logic and rhetoric now considered to be properly within the grammarian's province4 ,modern science assigns to these their separate places1 and restricts grammar1 which at one period embraced all learning1 to the knowledge of language1 as respects its fitness to be the vehicle of any particular thought or sentiment which the speaker or writer may wish to convey by it4 ,accordingly grammar is commonly defined1 by writers upon the subject1 in the special sense of an art--the art of speaking or writing a language with propriety or correctness4--,webster's ,dict4 #f4 ,lily says1 ,grammatica est rect scribendi atque loquendi ars2 that is1 ,grammar is the art of writing and speaking correctly4 ,despauter1 too1 in his definition1 which is quoted in a preceding paragraph1 not improperly placed writing first1 as being that with which grammar is primarily concerned4 ,for it ought to be remembered1 that over any fugitive colloquial dialect1 which has never been fixed by visible signs1 grammar has no control2 and that the speaking which the art or science of grammar teaches1 is exclusively that which has reference to a knowledge of letters4 ,it is the certain tendency of writing1 to improve speech4 ,and in proportion as books are multiplied1 and the knowledge of written language is diffused1 local dialects1 which are beneath the dignity of grammar1 will always be found to grow fewer1 and their differences less4 ,there are1 in the various parts of the world1 many languages to which the art of grammar has never yet been applied2 and to which1 therefore1 the definition or true idea of grammar1 however general1 does not properly extend4 ,and even where it has been applied1 and is now honoured as a popular branch of study1 there is yet great room for improvement3 barbarisms and solecisms have not been rebuked away as they deserve to be4 #g4 ,melancthon says1 ,grammatica est certa loquendi ac scribendi ratio1 ,latinis ,latin4 ,vossius1 ,ars ben loquendi eque et scribendi1 atque id ,latinis ,latin4 ,dr4 ,prat1 ,grammatica est rect loquendi atque scribendi ars4 ,ruddiman also1 in his ,institutes of ,latin ,grammar1 reversed the terms writing and speaking1 and defined grammar1 ars rec loquendi scribendique2 and1 either from mere imitation1 or from the general observation that speech precedes writing1 this arrangement of the words has been followed by most modern grammarians4 ,dr4 ,lowth embraces both terms in a more general one1 and says1 ,grammar is the art of rightly expressing our thoughts by words4 ,it is1 however1 the province of grammar1 to guide us not merely in the expression of our own thoughts1 but also in our apprehension of the thoughts1 and our interpretation of the words1 of others4 ,hence1 ,perizonius1 in commenting upon ,sanctius's imperfect definition1 ,grammatica est ars rect loquendi1 not improperly asks1 et quidni intelligendi et explicandi8 and why not also of understanding and explaining8 ,hence1 too1 the art of reading is virtually a part of grammar2 for it is but the art of understanding and speaking correctly that which we have before us on paper4 ,and ,nugent has accordingly given us the following definition3 ,grammar is the art of reading1 speaking1 and writing a language by rules4--,introduction to ,dict41 p4 xii4#a #h4 ,the word rect1 rightly1 truly1 correctly1 which occurs in most of the foregoing ,latin definitions1 is censured by the learned ,richard ,johnson1 in his ,grammatical ,commentaries1 on account of the vagueness of its meaning4 ,he says1 it is not only ambiguous by reason of its different uses in the ,latin classics1 but destitute of any signification proper to grammar4 ,but even if this be true as regards its earlier application1 it may well be questioned1 whether by frequency of use it has not acquired a signification which makes it proper at the present time4 ,the ,english word correctly seems to be less liable to such an objection2 and either this brief term1 or some other of like import1 7as1 with correctness--with propriety17 is still usually employed to tell what grammar is4 ,but can a boy learn by such means what it is1 to speak and write grammatically8 ,in one sense1 he can2 and in an other1 he cannot4 ,he may derive1 from any of these terms1 some idea of grammar as distinguished from other arts2 but no simple definition of this1 or of any other art1 can communicate to him that learns it1 the skill of an artist4 #i4 ,r4 ,johnson speaks at large of the relation of words to each other in sentences1 as constituting in his view the most essential part of grammar2 and as being a point very much overlooked1 or very badly explained1 by grammarians in general4 ,his censure is just4 ,and it seems to be as applicable to nearly all the grammars now in use1 as to those which he criticised a hundred and thirty years ago4 ,but perhaps he gives to the relation of words1 7which is merely their dependence on other words according to the sense17 an earlier introduction and a more prominent place1 than it ought to have in a general system of grammar4 ,to the right use of language1 he makes four things to be necessary4 ,in citing these1 ,i vary the language1 but not the substance or the order of his positions4 ,first1 ,that we should speak and write words according to the significations which belong to them3 the teaching of which now pertains to lexicography1 and not to grammar1 except incidentally4 ,secondly1 ,that we should observe the relations that words have one to another in sentences1 and represent those relations by such variations1 and particles1 as are usual with authors in that language4 ,thirdly1 ,that we should acquire a knowledge of the proper sounds of the letters1 and pay a due regard to accent in pronunciation4 ,fourthly1 ,that we should learn to write words with their proper letters1 spelling them as literary men generally do4 #aj4 ,from these positions1 7though he sets aside the first1 as pertaining to lexicography1 and not now to grammar1 as it formerly did17 the learned critic deduces first his four parts of the subject1 and then his definition of grammar4 ,hence1 says he1 there arise ,four ,parts of ,grammar2 ,analogy1 which treats of the several parts of speech1 their definitions1 accidents1 and formations2 ,syntax1 which treats of the use of those things in construction1 according to their relations2 ,orthography1 which treats of spelling2 and ,prosody1 which treats of accenting in pronunciation4 ,so1 then1 the true definition of ,grammar is this3 ,grammar is the art of expressing the relations of things in construction1 with due accent in speaking1 and orthography in writing1 according to the custom of those whose language we learn4 ,again he adds3 ,the word relation has other senses1 taken by itself2 but yet the relation of words one to another in a sentence1 has no other signification than what ,i intend by it1 namely1 of cause1 effect1 means1 end1 manner1 instrument1 object1 adjunct1 and the like2 which are names given by logicians to those relations under which the mind comprehends things1 and therefore the most proper words to explain them to others4 ,and if such things are too hard for children1 then grammar is too hard2 for there neither is1 nor can be1 any grammar without them4 ,and a little experience will satisfy any man1 that the young will as easily apprehend them1 as gender1 number1 declension1 and other grammar-terms4 ,see ,r4 ,johnson's ,grammatical ,commentaries1 p4 #d4 #aa4 ,it is true1 that the relation of words--by which ,i mean that connexion between them1 which the train of thought forms and suggests--or that dependence which one word has on an other according to the sense--lies at the foundation of all syntax4 ,no rule or principle of construction can ever have any applicability beyond the limits1 or contrary to the order1 of this relation4 ,to see what it is in any given case1 is but to understand the meaning of the phrase or sentence4 ,and it is plain1 that no word ever necessarily agrees with an other1 with which it is not thus connected in the mind of him who uses it4 ,no word ever governs an other1 to which the sense does not direct it4 ,no word is ever required to stand immediately before or after an other1 to which it has not some relation according to the meaning of the passage4 ,here then are the relation1 agreement1 government1 and arrangement1 of words in sentences2 and these make up the whole of syntax--but not the whole of grammar4 ,to this one part of grammar1 therefore1 the relation of words is central and fundamental2 and in the other parts also1 there are some things to which the consideration of it is incidental2 but there are many more1 like spelling1 pronunciation1 derivation1 and whatsoever belongs merely to letters1 syllables1 and the forms of words1 with which it has1 in fact1 no connexion4 ,the relation of words1 therefore1 should be clearly and fully explained in its proper place1 under the head of syntax2 but the general idea of grammar will not be brought nearer to truth1 by making it to be the art of expressing the relations of things in construction1 c41 according to the foregoing definition4 #ab4 ,the term grammar is derived from the ,greek word ,greek3 gramma1 a letter4 ,the art or science to which this term is applied1 had its origin1 not in cursory speech1 but in the practice of writing2 and speech1 which is first in the order of nature1 is last with reference to grammar4 ,the matter or common subject of grammar1 is language in general2 which1 being of two kinds1 spoken and written1 consists of certain combinations either of sounds or of visible signs1 employed for the expression of thought4 ,letters and sounds1 though often heedlessly confounded in the definitions given of vowels1 consonants1 c41 are1 in their own nature1 very different things4 ,they address themselves to different senses2 the former1 to the sight2 the latter1 to the hearing4 ,yet1 by a peculiar relation arbitrarily established between them1 and in consequence of an almost endless variety in the combinations of either1 they coincide in a most admirable manner1 to effect the great object for which language was bestowed or invented2 namely1 to furnish a sure medium for the communication of thought1 and the preservation of knowledge4 #ac4 ,all languages1 however different1 have many things in common4 ,there are points of a philosophical character1 which result alike from the analysis of any language1 and are founded on the very nature of human thought1 and that of the sounds or other signs which are used to express it4 ,when such principles alone are taken as the subject of inquiry1 and are treated1 as they sometimes have been1 without regard to any of the idioms of particular languages1 they constitute what is called ,general1 ,philosophical1 or ,universal ,grammar4 ,but to teach1 with ,lindley ,murray and some others1 that ,grammar may be considered as consisting of two species1 ,universal and ,particular1 and that the latter merely applies those general principles to a particular language1 is to adopt a twofold absurdity at the outset4#b ,for every cultivated language has its particular grammar1 in which whatsoever is universal1 is necessarily included2 but of which1 universal or general principles form only a part1 and that comparatively small4 ,we find therefore in grammar no two species of the same genus2 nor is the science or art1 as commonly defined and understood1 susceptible of division into any proper and distinct sorts1 except with reference to different languages--as when we speak of ,greek1 ,latin1 ,french1 or ,english grammar4 #ad4 ,there is1 however1 as ,i have suggested1 a certain science or philosophy of language1 which has been denominated ,universal ,grammar2 being made up of those points only1 in which many or all of the different languages preserved in books1 are found to coincide4 ,all speculative minds are fond of generalization2 and1 in the vastness of the views which may thus be taken of grammar1 such may find an entertainment which they never felt in merely learning to speak and write grammatically4 ,but the pleasure of such contemplations is not the earliest or the most important fruit of the study4 ,the first thing is1 to know and understand the grammatical construction of our own language4 ,many may profit by this acquisition1 who extend not their inquiries to the analogies or the idioms of other tongues4 ,it is true1 that every item of grammatical doctrine is the more worthy to be known and regarded1 in proportion as it approaches to universality4 ,but the principles of all practical grammar1 whether universal or particular1 common or peculiar1 must first be learned in their application to some one language1 before they can be distinguished into such classes2 and it is manifest1 both from reason and from experience1 that the youth of any nation not destitute of a good book for the purpose1 may best acquire a knowledge of those principles1 from the grammatical study of their native tongue4 #ae4 ,universal or ,philosophical ,grammar is a large field for speculation and inquiry1 and embraces many things which1 though true enough in themselves1 are unfit to be incorporated with any system of practical grammar1 however comprehensive its plan4 ,many authors have erred here4 ,with what is merely theoretical1 such a system should have little to do4 ,philosophy1 dealing in generalities1 resolves speech not only as a whole into its constituent parts and separable elements1 as anatomy shows the use and adaptation of the parts and joints of the human body2 but also as a composite into its matter and form1 as one may contemplate that same body in its entireness1 yet as consisting of materials1 some solid and some fluid1 and these curiously modelled to a particular figure4 ,grammar1 properly so called1 requires only the former of these analyses2 and in conducting the same1 it descends to the thousand minute particulars which are necessary to be known in practice4 ,nor are such things to be despised as trivial and low3 ignorance of what is common and elementary1 is but the more disgraceful for being ignorance of mere rudiments4 ,wherefore1 says ,quintilian1 they are little to be respected1 who represent this art as mean and barren2 in which1 unless you faithfully lay the foundation for the future orator1 whatever superstructure you raise will tumble into ruins4 ,it is an art1 necessary to the young1 pleasant to the old1 the sweet companion of the retired1 and one which in reference to every kind of study has in itself more of utility than of show4 ,let no one therefore despise as inconsiderable the elements of grammar4 ,not because it is a great thing1 to distinguish consonants from vowels1 and afterwards divide them into semivowels and mutes2 but because1 to those who enter the interior parts of this temple of science1 there will appear in many things a great subtilty1 which is fit not only to sharpen the wits of youth1 but also to exercise the loftiest erudition and science4--,de ,institutione ,oratoria1 ,lib4 i1 ,cap4 iv4 #af4 ,again1 of the arts which spring from the composition of language4 ,here the art of logic1 aiming solely at conviction1 addresses the understanding with cool deductions of unvarnished truth2 rhetoric1 designing to move1 in some particular direction1 both the judgement and the sympathies of men1 applies itself to the affections in order to persuade2 and poetry1 various in its character and tendency1 solicits the imagination1 with a view to delight1 and in general also to instruct4 ,but grammar1 though intimately connected with all these1 and essential to them in practice1 is still too distinct from each to be identified with any of them4 ,in regard to dignity and interest1 these higher studies seem to have greatly the advantage over particular grammar2 but who is willing to be an ungrammatical poet1 orator1 or logician8 ,for him ,i do not write4 ,but ,i would persuade my readers1 that an acquaintance with that grammar which respects the genius of their vernacular tongue1 is of primary importance to all who would cultivate a literary taste1 and is a necessary introduction to the study of other languages4 ,and it may here be observed1 for the encouragement of the student1 that as grammar is essentially the same thing in all languages1 he who has well mastered that of his own1 has overcome more than half the difficulty of learning another2 and he whose knowledge of words is the most extensive1 has the fewest obstacles to encounter in proceeding further4 #ag4 ,it was the original design of grammar1 says ,dr4 ,adam1 to facilitate the acquisition of languages2 and1 of all practical treatises on the subject1 this is still the main purpose4 ,in those books which are to prepare the learner to translate from one tongue into another1 seldom is any thing else attempted4 ,in those also which profess to explain the right use of vernacular speech1 must the same purpose be ever paramount1 and the original design be kept in view4 ,but the grammarian may teach many things incidentally4 ,one cannot learn a language1 without learning at the same time a great many opinions1 facts1 and principles1 of some kind or other1 which are necessarily embodied in it4 ,for all language proceeds from1 and is addressed to1 the understanding2 and he that perceives not the meaning of what he reads1 makes no acquisition even of the language itself4 ,to the science of grammar1 the nature of the ideas conveyed by casual examples1 is not very essential3 to the learner1 it is highly important4 ,the best thoughts in the best diction should furnish the models for youthful study and imitation2 because such language is not only the most worthy to be remembered1 but the most easy to be understood4 ,a distinction is also to be made between use and abuse4 ,in nonsense1 absurdity1 or falsehood1 there can never be any grammatical authority2 because1 however language may be abused1 the usage which gives law to speech1 is still that usage which is founded upon the common sense of mankind4 #ah4 ,grammar appeals to reason1 as well as to authority1 but to what extent it should do so1 has been matter of dispute4 ,the knowledge of useful arts1 says ,sanctius1 is not an invention of human ingenuity1 but an emanation from the ,deity1 descending from above for the use of man1 as ,minerva sprung from the brain of ,jupiter4 ,wherefore1 unless thou give thyself wholly to laborious research into the nature of things1 and diligently examine the causes and reasons of the art thou teachest1 believe me1 thou shalt but see with other men's eyes1 and hear with other men's ears4 ,but the minds of many are preoccupied with a certain perverse opinion1 or rather ignorant conceit1 that in grammar1 or the art of speaking1 there are no causes1 and that reason is scarcely to be appealed to for any thing2--than which idle notion1 ,i know of nothing more foolish2--nothing can be thought of which is more offensive4 ,shall man1 endowed with reason1 do1 say1 or contrive any thing1 without design1 and without understanding8 ,hear the philosophers2 who positively declare that nothing comes to pass without a cause4 ,hear ,plato himself2 who affirms that names and words subsist by nature1 and contends that language is derived from nature1 and not from art4 #ai4 ,i know1 says he1 that the ,aristotelians think otherwise2 but no one will doubt that names are the signs1 and as it were the instruments1 of things4 ,but the instrument of any art is so adapted to that art1 that for any other purpose it must seem unfit2 thus with an auger we bore1 and with a saw we cut wood2 but we split stones with wedges1 and wedges are driven with heavy mauls4 ,we cannot therefore but believe that those who first gave names to things1 did it with design2 and this1 ,i imagine1 ,aristotle himself understood when he said1 ad placitum nomina significare4 ,for those who contend that names were made by chance1 are no less audacious than if they would endeavour to persuade us1 that the whole order of the universe was framed together fortuitously4 #bj4 ,you will see1 continues he1 that in the first language1 whatever it was1 the names of things were taken from ,nature herself2 but1 though ,i cannot affirm this to have been the case in other tongues1 yet ,i can easily persuade myself that in every tongue a reason can be rendered for the application of every name2 and that this reason1 though it is in many cases obscure1 is nevertheless worthy of investigation4 ,many things which were not known to the earlier philosophers1 were brought to light by ,plato2 after the death of ,plato1 many were discovered by ,aristotle2 and ,aristotle was ignorant of many which are now everywhere known4 ,for truth lies hid1 but nothing is more precious than truth4 ,but you will say1 ',how can there be any certain origin to names1 when one and the same thing is called by different names1 in the several parts of the world8' ,i answer1 of the same thing there may be different causes1 of which some people may regard one1 and others1 an other4 99 99 99 ,there is therefore no doubt1 that of all things1 even of words1 a reason is to be rendered3 and if we know not what that reason is1 when we are asked2 we ought rather to confess that we do not know1 than to affirm that none can be given4 ,i know that ,scaliger thinks otherwise2 but this is the true account of the matter4 #ba4 ,these several observations1 he remarks further1 ,i have unwillingly brought together against those stubborn critics who1 while they explode reason from grammar1 insist so much on the testimonies of the learned4 ,but have they never read ,quintilian1 who says1 7,lib4 i1 ,cap4 #f17 that1 ',language is established by reason1 antiquity1 authority1 and custom8' ,he therefore does not exclude reason1 but makes it the principal thing4 ,nay1 in a manner1 ,laurentius1 and other grammatists1 even of their fooleries1 are forward to offer reasons1 such as they are4 ,moreover1 use does not take place without reason2 otherwise1 it ought to be called abuse1 and not use4 ,but from use authority derives all its force2 for when it recedes from use1 authority becomes nothing3 whence ,cicero reproves ,coelius and ,marcus ,antonius for speaking according to their own fancy1 and not according to use4 ,but1 ',nothing can be lasting1' says ,curtius1 7,lib4 iv17 'which is not based upon reason4' ,it remains1 therefore1 that of all things the reason be first assigned2 and then1 if it can be done1 we may bring forward testimonies2 that the thing1 having every advantage1 may be made the more clear4--,sanctii ,minerva1 ,lib4 i1 ,cap4 #b4 #bb4 ,julius ,csar ,scaliger1 from whose opinion ,sanctius dissents above1 seems to limit the science of grammar to bounds considerably too narrow1 though he found within them room for the exercise of much ingenuity and learning4 ,he says1 ,grammatica est scientia loquendi ex usu2 neque enim constituit regulas scientibus usus modum1 sed ex eorum statis frequentibusque usurpatiombus colligit communem rationem loquendi1 quam discentibus traderet4--,de ,causis ,l4 ,latin1 ,lib4 iv1 ,cap4 #gf4 ,grammar is the science of speaking according to use2 for it does not establish rules for those who know the manner of use1 but from the settled and frequent usages of these1 gathers the common fashion of speaking1 which it should deliver to learners4 ,this limited view seems not only to exclude from the science the use of the pen1 but to exempt the learned from any obligation to respect the rules prescribed for the initiation of the young4 ,but ,i have said1 and with abundant authority1 that the acquisition of a good style of writing is the main purpose of the study2 and1 surely1 the proficients and adepts in the art can desire for themselves no such exemption4 ,men of genius1 indeed1 sometimes affect to despise the pettiness of all grammatical instructions2 but this can be nothing else than affectation1 since the usage of the learned is confessedly the basis of all such instructions1 and several of the loftiest of their own rank appear on the list of grammarians4 #bc4 ,quintilian1 whose authority is appealed to above1 belonged to that age in which the exegesis of histories1 poems1 and other writings1 was considered an essential part of grammar4 ,he therefore1 as well as ,diomedes1 and other ancient writers1 divided the grammarian's duties into two parts2 the one including what is now called grammar1 and the other the explanation of authors1 and the stigmatizing of the unworthy4 ,of the opinion referred to by ,sanctius1 it seems proper to make here an ampler citation4 ,it shall be attempted in ,english1 though the paragraph is not an easy one to translate4 ,i understand the author to say1 ,speakers1 too1 have their rules to observe2 and writers1 theirs4 ,language is established by reason1 antiquity1 authority1 and custom4 ,of reason the chief ground is analogy1 but sometimes etymology4 ,ancient things have a certain majesty1 and1 as ,i might say1 religion1 to commend them4 ,authority is wont to be sought from orators and historians2 the necessity of metre mostly excuses the poets4 ,when the judgement of the chief masters of eloquence passes for reason1 even error seems right to those who follow great leaders4 ,but1 of the art of speaking1 custom is the surest mistress2 for speech is evidently to be used as money1 which has upon it a public stamp4 ,yet all these things require a penetrating judgement1 especially analogy2 the force of which is1 that one may refer what is doubtful1 to something similar that is clearly established1 and thus prove uncertain things by those which are sure4--,,quint1 de ,inst4 ,orat41 ,lib4 i1 ,cap4 #f1 p4 #dh4 #bd4 ,the science of grammar1 whatever we may suppose to be its just limits1 does not appear to have been better cultivated in proportion as its scope was narrowed4 ,nor has its application to our tongue1 in particular1 ever been made in such a manner1 as to do great honour to the learning or the talents of him that attempted it4 ,what is new to a nation1 may be old to the world4 ,the development of the intellectual powers of youth by instruction in the classics1 as well as the improvement of their taste by the exhibition of what is elegant in literature1 is continually engaging the attention of new masters1 some of whom may seem to effect great improvements2 but we must remember that the concern itself is of no recent origin4 ,plato and ,aristotle1 who were great masters both of grammar and of philosophy1 taught these things ably at ,athens1 in the fourth century before ,christ4 ,varro1 the grammarian1 usually styled the most learned of the ,romans1 was contemporary with the ,saviour and his apostles4 ,quintilian lived in the first century of our era1 and before he wrote his most celebrated book1 taught a school twenty years in ,rome1 and received from the state a salary which made him rich4 ,this consummate guide of wayward youth1 as the poet ,martial called him1 being neither ignorant of what had been done by others1 nor disposed to think it a light task to prescribe the right use of his own language1 was at first slow to undertake the work upon which his fame now reposes2 and1 after it was begun1 diligent to execute it worthily1 that it might turn both to his own honour1 and to the real advancement of learning4 #be4 ,he says1 at the commencement of his book3 ,after ,i had obtained a quiet release from those labours which for twenty years had devolved upon me as an instructor of youth1 certain persons familiarly demanded of me1 that ,i should compose something concerning the proper manner of speaking2 but for a long time ,i withstood their solicitations1 because ,i knew there were already illustrious authors in each language1 by whom many things which might pertain to such a work1 had been very diligently written1 and left to posterity4 ,but the reason which ,i thought would obtain for me an easier excuse1 did but excite more earnest entreaty2 because1 amidst the various opinions of earlier writers1 some of whom were not even consistent with themselves1 the choice had become difficult2 so that my friends seemed to have a right to enjoin upon me1 if not the labour of producing new instructions1 at least that of judging concerning the old4 ,but although ,i was persuaded not so much by the hope of supplying what was required1 as by the shame of refusing1 yet1 as the matter opened itself before me1 ,i undertook of my own accord a much greater task than had been imposed2 that while ,i should thus oblige my very good friends by a fuller compliance1 ,i might not enter a common path and tread only in the footsteps of others4 ,for most other writers who have treated of the art of speaking1 have proceeded in such a manner as if upon adepts in every other kind of doctrine they would lay the last touch in eloquence2 either despising as little things the studies which we first learn1 or thinking them not to fall to their share in the division which should be made of the professions2 or1 what indeed is next to this1 hoping no praise or thanks for their ingenuity about things which1 although necessary1 lie far from ostentation3 the tops of buildings make a show1 their foundations are unseen4--,quintiliani de ,inst4 ,orat41 ,prooemium4 #bf4 ,but the reader may ask1 ,what have all these things to do with ,english ,grammar8 ,i answer1 they help to show us whence and what it is4 ,some acquaintance with the history of grammar as a science1 as well as some knowledge of the structure of other languages than our own1 is necessary to him who professes to write for the advancement of this branch of learning--and for him also who would be a competent judge of what is thus professed4 ,grammar must not forget her origin4 ,criticism must not resign the protection of letters4 ,the national literature of a country is in the keeping1 not of the people at large1 but of authors and teachers4 ,but a grammarian presumes to be a judge of authorship1 and a teacher of teachers2 and is it to the honour of ,england or ,america1 that in both countries so many are countenanced in this assumption of place1 who can read no language but their mother tongue8 ,english ,grammar is not properly an indigenous production1 either of this country or of ,britain2 because it is but a branch of the general science of philology--a new variety1 or species1 sprung up from the old stock long ago transplanted from the soil of ,greece and ,rome4 #bg4 ,it is true1 indeed1 that neither any ancient system of grammatical instruction nor any grammar of an other language1 however contrived1 can be entirely applicable to the present state of our tongue2 for languages must needs differ greatly one from an other1 and even that which is called the same1 may come in time to differ greatly from what it once was4 ,but the general analogies of speech1 which are the central principles of grammar1 are but imperfectly seen by the man of one language4 ,on the other hand1 it is possible to know much of those general principles1 and yet be very deficient in what is peculiar to our own tongue4 ,real improvement in the grammar of our language1 must result from a view that is neither partial nor superficial4 ,time1 sorry artist1 as was said of old1 makes all he handles worse4 ,and ,lord ,bacon1 seeming to have this adage in view1 suggests3 ,if ,time of course alter all things to the worse1 and ,wisdom and ,counsel shall not alter them to the better1 what shall be the end8--,bacon's ,essays1 p4 #fd4 #bh4 ,hence the need that an able and discreet grammarian should now and then appear1 who with skillful hand can effect those corrections which a change of fashion or the ignorance of authors may have made necessary2 but if he is properly qualified for his task1 he will do all this without a departure from any of the great principles of ,universal ,grammar4 ,he will surely be very far from thinking1 with a certain modern author1 whom ,i shall notice in an other chapter1 that1 ,he is bound to take words and explain them as he finds them in his day1 without any regard to their ancient construction and application4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bh4 ,the whole history of every word1 so far as he can ascertain it1 will be the view under which he will judge of what is right or wrong in the language which he teaches4 ,etymology is neither the whole of this view1 nor yet to be excluded from it4 ,i concur not therefore with ,dr4 ,campbell1 who1 to make out a strong case1 extravagantly says1 ,it is never from an attention to etymology1 which would frequently mislead us1 but from custom1 the only infallible guide in this matter1 that the meanings of words in present use must be learnt4--,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #ahh4 ,jamieson too1 with an implicitness little to be commended1 takes this passage from ,campbell2 and1 with no other change than that of learnt to learned publishes it as a corollary of his own4--,grammar of ,rhetoric1 p4 #db4 ,it is folly to state for truth what is so obviously wrong4 ,etymology and custom are seldom at odds2 and where they are so1 the latter can hardly be deemed infallible4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,of ,,grammatical ,,authorship4 ,respondeo1 dupliciter aliquem dici grammaticum1 arte et professione4 ,grammatici vera arte paucissimi sunt3 et hi magna laude digni sunt1 ut patuit3 hos non vituperant summi viri2 quia ipse ,plinius ejusmodi grammaticus fuit1 et de arte grammatica libelos edidit4 ,et ,grellius ver grammatic fuit diligentissimus doctor2 sic et ipse ,datus4 ,alii sunt grammatici professione1 et ii plerumque sunt inceptissimi2 quia scribimus indocti doctique1 et indignissimus quisque hanc sibi artem vindicat3----hos mastigias multis probris docti summo jure insectantur4--,,despauter4 ,syntaxis1 fol4 #a4 #a4 ,it is of primary importance in all discussions and expositions of doctrines1 of any sort1 to ascertain well the principles upon which our reasonings are to be founded1 and to see that they be such as are immovably established in the nature of things2 for error in first principles is fundamental1 and he who builds upon an uncertain foundation1 incurs at least a hazard of seeing his edifice overthrown4 ,the lover of truth will be1 at all times1 diligent to seek it1 firm to adhere to it1 willing to submit to it1 and ready to promote it2 but even the truth may be urged unseasonably1 and important facts are things liable to be misjoined4 ,it is proper1 therefore1 for every grammarian gravely to consider1 whether and how far the principles of his philosophy1 his politics1 his morals1 or his religion1 ought to influence1 or actually do influence1 his theory of language1 and his practical instructions respecting the right use of words4 ,in practice1 grammar is so interwoven with all else that is known1 believed1 learned1 or spoken of among men1 that to determine its own peculiar principles with due distinctness1 seems to be one of the most difficult points of a grammarian's duty4 #b4 ,from misapprehension1 narrowness of conception1 or improper bias1 in relation to this point1 many authors have started wrong2 denounced others with intemperate zeal2 departed themselves from sound doctrine2 and produced books which are disgraced not merely by occasional oversights1 but by central and radical errors4 ,hence1 too1 have sprung up1 in the name of grammar1 many unprofitable discussions1 and whimsical systems of teaching1 calculated rather to embarrass than to inform the student4 ,mere collisions of opinion1 conducted without any acknowledged standard to guide the judgement1 never tend to real improvement4 ,grammar is unquestionably a branch of that universal philosophy by which the thoroughly educated mind is enlightened to see all things aright2 for philosophy1 in this sense of the term1 is found in everything4 ,yet1 properly speaking1 the true grammarian is not a philosopher1 nor can any man strengthen his title to the former character by claiming the latter2 and it is certain1 that a most disheartening proportion of what in our language has been published under the name of ,philosophic ,grammar1 is equally remote from philosophy1 from grammar1 and from common sense4 #c4 ,true grammar is founded on the authority of reputable custom2 and that custom1 on the use which men make of their reason4 ,the proofs of what is right are accumulative1 and on many points there can be no dispute1 because our proofs from the best usage1 are both obvious and innumerable4 ,on the other hand1 the evidence of what is wrong is rather demonstrative2 for when we would expose a particular error1 we exhibit it in contrast with the established principle which it violates4 ,he who formed the erroneous sentence1 has in this case no alternative1 but either to acknowledge the solecism1 or to deny the authority of the rule4 ,there are disputable principles in grammar1 as there are moot points in law2 but this circumstance affects no settled usage in either2 and every person of sense and taste will choose to express himself in the way least liable to censure4 ,all are free indeed from positive constraint on their phraseology2 for we do not speak or write by statutes4 ,but the ground of instruction assumed in grammar1 is similar to that upon which are established the maxims of common law1 in jurisprudence4 ,the ultimate principle1 then1 to which we appeal1 as the only true standard of grammatical propriety1 is that species of custom which critics denominate ,,good ,,use2 that is1 present1 reputable1 general use4 #d4 ,yet a slight acquaintance with the history of grammar will suffice to show us1 that it is much easier to acknowledge this principle1 and to commend it in words1 than to ascertain what it is1 and abide by it in practice4 ,good use is that which is neither ancient nor recent1 neither local nor foreign1 neither vulgar nor pedantic2 and it will be found that no few have in some way or other departed from it1 even while they were pretending to record its dictates4 ,but it is not to be concealed1 that in every living language1 it is a matter of much inherent difficulty1 to reach the standard of propriety1 where usage is various2 and to ascertain with clearness the decisions of custom1 when we descend to minute details4 ,here is a field in which whatsoever is achieved by the pioneers of literature1 can be appreciated only by thorough scholars2 for the progress of improvement in any art or science1 can be known only to those who can clearly compare its ruder with its more refined stages2 and it often happens that what is effected with much labour1 may be presented in a very small compass4 #e4 ,but the knowledge of grammar may retrograde2 for whatever loses the vital principle of renovation and growth1 tends to decay4 ,and if mere copyists1 compilers1 abridgers1 and modifiers1 be encouraged as they now are1 it surely will not advance4 ,style is liable to be antiquated by time1 corrupted by innovation1 debased by ignorance1 perverted by conceit1 impaired by negligence1 and vitiated by caprice4 ,and nothing but the living spirit of true authorship1 and the application of just criticism1 can counteract the natural tendency of these causes4 ,english grammar is still in its infancy2 and even bears1 to the imagination of some1 the appearance of a deformed and ugly dwarf among the liberal arts4 ,treatises are multiplied almost innumerably1 but still the old errors survive4 ,names are rapidly added to our list of authors1 while little or nothing is done for the science4 ,nay1 while new blunders have been committed in every new book1 old ones have been allowed to stand as by prescriptive right24 and positions that were never true1 and sentences that were never good ,english1 have been published and republished under different names1 till in our language grammar has become the most ungrammatical of all studies6 ,imitators generally copy their originals in an inverse ratio of their merits2 that is1 by adding as much to their faults1 as they lose of their merits4--,,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 p4 #aag4 ,who to the life an exact piece would make1 ,must not from others' work a copy take4--,cowley4 #f4 ,all science is laid in the nature of things2 and he only who seeks it there1 can rightly guide others in the paths of knowledge4 ,he alone can know whether his predecessors went right or wrong1 who is capable of a judgement independent of theirs4 ,but with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been copied and copied from one grammar to another1 as if authority had canonized their errors1 or none had eyes to see them6 ,whatsoever is dignified and fair1 is also modest and reasonable2 but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own1 nor reason in following with blind partiality the footsteps of others4 ,grammar unsupported by authority1 is indeed mere fiction4 ,but what apology is this1 for that authorship which has produced so many grammars without originality8 ,shall he who cannot write for himself1 improve upon him who can8 ,shall he who cannot paint1 retouch the canvass of ,guido8 ,shall modest ingenuity be allowed only to imitators and to thieves8 ,how many a prefatory argument issues virtually in this6 ,it is not deference to merit1 but impudent pretence1 practising on the credulity of ignorance6 ,commonness alone exempts it from scrutiny1 and the success it has1 is but the wages of its own worthlessness6 ,to read and be informed1 is to make a proper use of books for the advancement of learning2 but to assume to be an author by editing mere commonplaces and stolen criticisms1 is equally beneath the ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a man4 ',t is true1 the ancients we may rob with ease2 ,but who with that mean shift himself can please8 ,sheffield1 ,duke of ,buckingham4 #g4 ,grammar being a practical art1 with the principles of which every intelligent person is more or less acquainted1 it might be expected that a book written professedly on the subject1 should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill4 ,but it would seem that a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to teach the art of speaking and writing well2 so that correctness of language and neatness of style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in other books4 ,nay1 ,i have before suggested that in no other science are the principles of good writing so frequently and so shamefully violated4 ,the code of false grammar embraced in the following work1 will go far to sustain this opinion4 ,there have been1 however1 several excellent scholars1 who have thought it an object not unworthy of their talents1 to prescribe and elucidate the principles of ,english ,grammar4 ,but these1 with scarcely any exception1 have executed their inadequate designs1 not as men engaged in their proper calling1 but as mere literary almoners1 descending for a day from their loftier purposes1 to perform a service1 needful indeed1 and therefore approved1 but very far from supplying all the aid that is requisite to a thorough knowledge of the subject4 ,even the most meritorious have left ample room for improvement1 though some have evinced an ability which does honour to themselves1 while it gives cause to regret their lack of an inducement to greater labour4 ,the mere grammarian can neither aspire to praise1 nor stipulate for a reward2 and to those who were best qualified to write1 the subject could offer no adequate motive for diligence4 #h4 ,unlearned men1 who neither make1 nor can make1 any pretensions to a knowledge of grammar as a study1 if they show themselves modest in what they profess1 are by no means to be despised or undervalued for the want of such knowledge4 ,they are subject to no criticism1 till they turn authors and write for the public4 ,and even then they are to be treated gently1 if they have any thing to communicate1 which is worthy to be accepted in a homely dress4 ,grammatical inaccuracies are to be kindly excused1 in all those from whom nothing better can be expected2 for people are often under a necessity of appearing as speakers or writers1 before they can have learned to write or speak grammatically4 ,the body is more to be regarded than raiment2 and the substance of an interesting message1 may make the manner of it a little thing4 ,men of high purposes naturally spurn all that is comparatively low2 or all that may seem nice1 overwrought1 ostentatious1 or finical4 ,hence ,st4 ,paul1 in writing to the ,corinthians1 suggests that the design of his preaching might have been defeated1 had he affected the orator1 and turned his attention to mere excellency of speech1 or wisdom of words4 ,but this view of things presents no more ground for neglecting grammar1 and making coarse and vulgar example our model of speech1 than for neglecting dress1 and making baize and rags the fashionable costume4 ,the same apostle exhorts ,timothy to hold fast the form of sound words1 which he himself had taught him4 ,nor can it be denied that there is an obligation resting upon all men1 to use speech fairly and understandingly4 ,but let it be remembered1 that all those upon whose opinions or practices ,i am disposed to animadvert1 are either professed grammarians and philosophers1 or authors who1 by extraordinary pretensions1 have laid themselves under special obligations to be accurate in the use of language4 ,the wise in heart shall be called prudent2 and the sweetness of the lips increaseth learning4--,prov41 xvi1 #ba4 ,the words of a man's mouth are as deep waters1 and the well-spring of wisdom is as a flowing brook4--,ib41 xviii1 #d4 ,a fool's mouth is his destruction1 and his lips are the snare of his soul4--,ib41 xviii1 #g4 #i4 ,the old maxim recorded by ,bacon1 ,loquendum ut vulgus1 sentiendum ut sapientes1--,we should speak as the vulgar1 but think as the wise1 is not to be taken without some limitation4 ,for whoever literally speaks as the vulgar1 shall offend vastly too much with his tongue1 to have either the understanding of the wise or the purity of the good4 ,in all untrained and vulgar minds1 the ambition of speaking well is but a dormant or very weak principle4 ,hence the great mass of uneducated people are lamentably careless of what they utter1 both as to the matter and the manner2 and no few seem naturally prone to the constant imitation of low example1 and some1 to the practice of every abuse of which language is susceptible4 ,hence1 as every scholar knows1 the least scrupulous of our lexicographers notice many terms but to censure them as low1 and omit many more as being beneath their notice4 ,vulgarity of language1 then1 ever has been1 and ever must be1 repudiated by grammarians4 ,yet we have had pretenders to grammar1 who could court the favour of the vulgar1 though at the expense of all the daughters of ,mnemosyne4 #aj4 ,hence the enormous insult to learning and the learned1 conveyed in the following scornful quotations3 ,grammarians1 go to your tailors and shoemakers1 and learn from them the rational art of constructing your grammars6--,neef's ,method of ,education1 p4 #fb4 ,from a labyrinth without a clew1 in which the most enlightened scholars of ,europe have mazed themselves and misguided others1 the author ventures to turn aside4--,cardell's ,gram41 #abmo1 p4 #ae4 ,again3 ,the nations of unlettered men so adapted their language to philosophic truth1 that all physical and intellectual research can find no essential rule to reject or change4--,ibid41 p4 #ia4 ,i have shown that the nations of unlettered men are among that portion of the earth's population1 upon whose language the genius of grammar has never yet condescended to look down6 ,that people who make no pretensions to learning1 can furnish better models or instructions than the most enlightened scholars1 is an opinion which ought not to be disturbed by argument4 #aa4 ,i regret to say1 that even ,dr4 ,webster1 with all his obligations and pretensions to literature1 has well-nigh taken ground with ,neef and ,cardell1 as above cited2 and has not forborne to throw contempt1 even on grammar as such1 and on men of letters indiscriminately1 by supposing the true principles of every language to be best observed and kept by the illiterate4 ,what marvel then1 that all his multifarious grammars of the ,english language are despised8 ,having suggested that the learned must follow the practice of the populace1 because they cannot control it1 he adds3 ,men of letters may revolt at this suggestion1 but if they will attend to the history of our language1 they will find the fact to be as here stated4 ,it is commonly supposed that the tendency of this practice of unlettered men is to corrupt the language4 ,but the fact is directly the reverse4 ,i am prepared to prove1 were it consistent with the nature of this work1 that nineteen-twentieths of all the corruptions of our language1 for five hundred years past1 have been introduced by authors--men who have made alterations in particular idioms which they did not understand4 ,the same remark is applicable to the orthography and pronunciation4 ,the tendency of unlettered men is to uniformity--to analogy2 and so strong is this disposition1 that the common people have actually converted some of our irregular verbs into regular ones4 ,it is to unlettered people that we owe the disuse of holpen1 bounden1 sitten1 and the use of the regular participles1 swelled1 helped1 worked1 in place of the ancient ones4 ,this popular tendency is not to be contemned and disregarded1 as some of the learned affect to do2#c for it is governed by the natural1 primary principles of all languages1 to which we owe all their regularity and all their melody2 viz41 a love of uniformity in words of a like character1 and a preference of an easy natural pronunciation1 and a desire to express the most ideas with the smallest number of words and syllables4 ,it is a fortunate thing for language1 that these natural principles generally prevail over arbitrary and artificial rules4--,webster's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #aai2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,so much for unlettered erudition6 #ab4 ,if every thing that has been taught under the name of grammar1 is to be considered as belonging to the science1 it will be impossible ever to determine in what estimation the study of it ought to be held2 for all that has ever been urged either for or against it1 may1 upon such a principle1 be proved by reference to different authorities and irreconcilable opinions4 ,but all who are studious to know1 and content to follow1 the fashion established by the concurrent authority of the learned1#d may at least have some standard to refer to2 and if a grammarian's rules be based upon this authority1 it must be considered the exclusive privilege of the unlearned to despise them--as it is of the unbred1 to contemn the rules of civility4 ,but who shall determine whether the doctrines contained in any given treatise are1 or are not1 based upon such authority8 ,who shall decide whether the contributions which any individual may make to our grammatical code1 are1 or are not1 consonant with the best usage8 ,for this1 there is no tribunal but the mass of readers1 of whom few perhaps are very competent judges4 ,and here an author's reputation for erudition and judgement1 may be available to him3 it is the public voice in his favour4 ,yet every man is at liberty to form his own opinion1 and to alter it whenever better knowledge leads him to think differently4 #ac4 ,but the great misfortune is1 that they who need instruction1 are not qualified to choose their instructor2 and many who must make this choice for their children1 have no adequate means of ascertaining either the qualifications of such as offer themselves1 or the comparative merits of the different methods by which they profess to teach4 ,hence this great branch of learning1 in itself too comprehensive for the genius or the life of any one man1 has ever been open to as various and worthless a set of quacks and plagiaries as have ever figured in any other4 ,there always have been some who knew this1 and there may be many who know it now2 but the credulity and ignorance which expose so great a majority of mankind to deception and error1 are not likely to be soon obviated4 ,with every individual who is so fortunate as to receive any of the benefits of intellectual culture1 the whole process of education must begin anew2 and1 by all that sober minds can credit1 the vision of human perfectibility is far enough from any national consummation4 #ad4 ,whatever any may think of their own ability1 or however some might flout to find their errors censured or their pretensions disallowed2 whatever improvement may actually have been made1 or however fondly we may listen to boasts and felicitations on that topic2 it is presumed1 that the general ignorance on the subject of grammar1 as above stated1 is too obvious to be denied4 ,what then is the remedy8 and to whom must our appeal be made8 ,knowledge cannot be imposed by power1 nor is there any domination in the republic of letters4 ,the remedy lies solely in that zeal which can provoke to a generous emulation in the cause of literature2 and the appeal1 which has recourse to the learning of the learned1 and to the common sense of all1 must be pressed home to conviction1 till every false doctrine stand refuted1 and every weak pretender exposed or neglected4 ,then shall ,science honour them that honour her2 and all her triumphs be told1 all her instructions be delivered1 in sound speech that cannot be condemned4 #ae4 ,a generous man is not unwilling to be corrected1 and a just one cannot but desire to be set right in all things4 ,even over noisy gainsayers1 a calm and dignified exhibition of true docrine sic--,,kth1 has often more influence than ever openly appears4 ,i have even seen the author of a faulty grammar heap upon his corrector more scorn and personal abuse than would fill a large newspaper1 and immediately afterwards1 in a new edition of his book1 renounce the errors which had been pointed out to him1 stealing the very language of his amendments from the man whom he had so grossly vilified6 ,it is true that grammarians have ever disputed1 and often with more acrimony than discretion4 ,those who1 in elementary treatises1 have meddled much with philological controversy1 have well illustrated the couplet of ,denham3 ,the tree of knowledge1 blasted by disputes1 ,produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits4 #af4 ,thus1 then1 as ,i have before suggested1 we find among writers on grammar two numerous classes of authors1 who have fallen into opposite errors1 perhaps equally reprehensible2 the visionaries1 and the copyists4 ,the former have ventured upon too much originality1 the latter have attempted too little4 ,the science of philology1 says ,dr4 ,alexander ,murray1 is not a frivolous study1 fit to be conducted by ignorant pedants or visionary enthusiasts4 ,it requires more qualifications to succeed in it1 than are usually united in those who pursue it3--a sound penetrating judgement2 habits of calm philosophical induction2 an erudition various1 extensive1 and accurate2 and a mind likewise1 that can direct the knowledge expressed in words1 to illustrate the nature of the signs which convey it4--,murray's ,history of ,european ,languages1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ccc4 #ag4 ,they who set aside the authority of custom1 and judge every thing to be ungrammatical which appears to them to be unphilosophical1 render the whole ground forever disputable1 and weary themselves in beating the air4 ,so various have been the notions of this sort of critics1 that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found in some of their books4 ,amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical1 various attempts have been made1 to overthrow that system of instruction1 which long use has rendered venerable1 and long experience proved to be useful4 ,but it is manifestly much easier to raise even plausible objections against this system1 than to invent an other less objectionable4 ,such attempts have generally met the reception they deserved4 ,their history will give no encouragement to future innovators4 #ah4 ,again3 ,while some have thus wasted their energies in eccentric flights1 vainly supposing that the learning of ages would give place to their whimsical theories2 others1 with more success1 not better deserved1 have multiplied grammars almost innumerably1 by abridging or modifying the books they had used in childhood4 ,so that they who are at all acquainted with the origin and character of the various compends thus introduced into our schools1 cannot but desire to see them all displaced by some abler and better work1 more honourable to its author and more useful to the public1 more intelligible to students and more helpful to teachers4 ,books professedly published for the advancement of knowledge1 are very frequently to be reckoned1 among its greatest impediments2 for the interests of learning are no less injured by whimsical doctrines1 than the rights of authorship by plagiarism4 ,too many of our grammars1 profitable only to their makers and venders1 are like weights attached to the heels of ,hermes4 ,it is discouraging to know the history of this science4 ,but the multiplicity of treatises already in use1 is a reason1 not for silence1 but for offering more4 ,for1 as ,lord ,bacon observes1 the number of ill-written books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write1 but by writing others which1 like ,aaron's serpent1 shall swallow up the spurious4#e #ai4 ,i have said that some grammars have too much originality1 and others too little4 ,it may be added1 that not a few are chargeable with both these faults at once4 ,they are original1 or at least anonymous1 where there should have been given other authority than that of the compiler's name2 and they are copies1 or1 at best1 poor imitations1 where the author should have shown himself capable of writing in a good style of his own4 ,what then is the middle ground for the true grammarian8 ,what is the kind1 and what the degree1 of originality1 which are to be commended in works of this sort8 ,in the first place1 a grammarian must be a writer1 an author1 a man who observes and thinks for himself2 and not a mere compiler1 abridger1 modifier1 copyist1 or plagiarist4 ,grammar is not the only subject upon which we allow no man to innovate in doctrine2 why1 then1 should it be the only one upon which a man may make it a merit1 to work up silently into a book of his own1 the best materials found among the instructions of his predecessors and rivals8 ,some definitions and rules1 which in the lapse of time and by frequency of use have become a sort of public property1 the grammarian may perhaps be allowed to use at his pleasure2 yet even upon these a man of any genius will be apt to set some impress peculiar to himself4 ,but the doctrines of his work ought1 in general1 to be expressed in his own language1 and illustrated by that of others4 ,with respect to quotation1 he has all the liberty of other writers1 and no more2 for1 if a grammarian makes use of his predecessors' labours1 why should any one think with ,murray1 it is scarcely necessary to apologize for this1 or for omitting to insert their names8--,introd4 to ,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #g4 #bj4 ,the author of this volume would here take the liberty briefly to refer to his own procedure4 ,his knowledge of what is technical in grammar1 was of course chiefly derived from the writings of other grammarians2 and to their concurrent opinions and practices1 he has always had great respect2 yet1 in truth1 not a line has he ever copied from any of them with a design to save the labour of composition4 ,for1 not to compile an ,english grammar from others already extant1 but to compose one more directly from the sources of the art1 was the task which he at first proposed to himself4 ,nor is there in all the present volume a single sentence1 not regularly quoted1 the authorship of which he supposes may now be ascribed to an other more properly than to himself4 ,where either authority or acknowledgement was requisite1 names have been inserted4 ,in the doctrinal parts of the volume1 not only quotations from others1 but most examples made for the occasion1 are marked with guillemets1 to distinguish them from the main text2 while1 to almost every thing which is really taken from any other known writer1 a name or reference is added4 ,for those citations1 however1 which there was occasion to repeat in different parts of the work1 a single reference has sometimes been thought sufficient4 ,this remark refers chiefly to the corrections in the ,key1 the references being given in the ,exercises4 #ba4 ,though the theme is not one on which a man may hope to write well with little reflection1 it is true that the parts of this treatise which have cost the author the most labour1 are those which consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others4 ,these1 however1 are not the didactical portions of the book1 but the proofs and examples2 which1 according to the custom of the ancient grammarians1 ought to be taken from other authors4 ,but so much have the makers of our modern grammars been allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their readers1 that the ancient exactness on this point would often appear pedantic4 ,many phrases and sentences1 either original with the writer1 or common to everybody1 will therefore be found among the illustrations of the following work2 for it was not supposed that any reader would demand for every thing of this kind the authority of some great name4 ,anonymous examples are sufficient to elucidate principles1 if not to establish them2 and elucidation is often the sole purpose for which an example is needed4 #bb4 ,it is obvious enough1 that no writer on grammar has any right to propose himself as authority for what he teaches2 for every language1 being the common property of all who use it1 ought to be carefully guarded against the caprices of individuals2 and especially against that presumption which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary definitions and rules4 ,since the matter of which we are treating1 says the philologist of ,salamanca1 is to be verified1 first by reason1 and then by testimony and usage1 none ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of great men2 for1 with whatever authority any grammarian may weigh with me1 unless he shall have confirmed his assertions by reason1 and also by examples1 he shall win no confidence in respect to grammar4 ,for1 as ,seneca says1 ,epistle #ie1 ',grammarians are the guardians1 not the authors1 of language4'--,sanctii ,minerva1 ,lib4 ii1 ,cap4 #b4 ,yet1 as what is intuitively seen to be true or false1 is already sufficiently proved or detected1 many points in grammar need nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated2 nay1 it would seem an injurious reflection on the understanding of the reader1 to accumulate proofs of what cannot but be evident to all who speak the language4 #bc4 ,among men of the same profession1 there is an unavoidable rivalry1 so far as they become competitors for the same prize2 but in competition there is nothing dishonourable1 while excellence alone obtains distinction1 and no advantage is sought by unfair means4 ,it is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian1 who has the most completely executed the worthiest design4 ,but no worthy design can need a false apology2 and it is worse than idle to prevaricate4 ,that is but a spurious modesty1 which prompts a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in an other--or to underrate the duties of his office1 that he may boast of having done all that could reasonably be expected4 ,whoever professes to have improved the science of ,english grammar1 must claim to know more of the matter than the generality of ,english grammarians2 and he who begins with saying1 that little can be expected from the office he assumes1 must be wrongfully contradicted1 when he is held to have done much4 ,neither the ordinary power of speech1 nor even the ability to write respectably on common topics1 makes a man a critic among critics1 or enables him to judge of literary merit4 ,and if1 by virtue of these qualifications alone1 a man will become a grammarian or a connoisseur1 he can hold the rank only by courtesy--a courtesy which is content to degrade the character1 that his inferior pretensions may be accepted and honoured under the name4 #bd4 ,by the force of a late popular example1 still too widely influential1 grammatical authorship has been reduced1 in the view of many1 to little or nothing more than a mere serving-up of materials anonymously borrowed2 and1 what is most remarkable1 even for an indifferent performance of this low office1 not only unnamed reviewers1 but several writers of note1 have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of grammatical excellence6 ,and thus the palm of superior skill in grammar1 has been borne away by a professed compiler2 who had so mean an opinion of what his theme required1 as to deny it even the common courtesies of compilation6 ,what marvel is it1 that1 under the wing of such authority1 many writers have since sprung up1 to improve upon this most happy design2 while all who were competent to the task1 have been discouraged from attempting any thing like a complete grammar of our language8 ,what motive shall excite a man to long-continued diligence1 where such notions prevail as give mastership no hope of preference1 and where the praise of his ingenuity and the reward of his labour must needs be inconsiderable1 till some honoured compiler usurp them both1 and bring his most useful matter before the world under better auspices8 ,if the love of learning supply such a motive1 who that has generously yielded to the impulse1 will not now1 like ,johnson1 feel himself reduced to an humble drudge--or1 like ,perizonius1 apologize for the apparent folly of devoting his time to such a subject as grammar8 #be4 ,the first edition of the ,institutes of ,english ,grammar1 the doctrinal parts of which are embraced in the present more copious work1 was published in the year #ahbc2 since which time1 7within the space of twelve years17 about forty new compends1 mostly professing to be abstracts of ,murray1 with improvements1 have been added to our list of ,english grammars4 ,the author has examined as many as thirty of them1 and seen advertisements of perhaps a dozen more4 ,being various in character1 they will of course be variously estimated2 but1 so far as he can judge1 they are1 without exception1 works of little or no real merit1 and not likely to be much patronized or long preserved from oblivion4 ,for which reason1 he would have been inclined entirely to disregard the petty depredations which the writers of several of them have committed upon his earlier text1 were it not possible1 that by such a frittering-away of his work1 he himself might one day seem to some to have copied that from others which was first taken from him4 ,trusting to make it manifest to men of learning1 that in the production of the books which bear his name1 far more has been done for the grammar of our language than any single hand had before achieved within the scope of practical philology1 and that with perfect fairness towards other writers2 he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be preserved1 whatever else may befall2 and that the multitude of scribblers who judge it so needful to remodel ,murray's defective compilation1 would forbear to publish under his name or their own what they find only in the following pages4 #bf4 ,the mere rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern2 but it is enough for any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to complete a work of public utility1 without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it4 ,accidental coincidences in books are unfrequent1 and not often such as to excite the suspicion of the most sensitive4 ,but1 though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nor disputable1 it is not easy1 in this beaten track of literature1 for persons of little reading to know what is1 or is not1 original4 ,dates must be accurately observed2 and a multitude of minute things must be minutely compared4 ,and who will undertake such a task but he that is personally interested8 ,of the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning1 few ever care to know1 by what pioneer1 or with what labour1 their way was cast up for them4 ,and even of those who are honestly engaged in teaching1 not many are adequate judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this subject4 ,the common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than to truth2 and even of some things within their reach1 the majority seem contend to take their opinions upon trust4 ,hence1 it is vain to expect that that which is intrinsically best1 will be everywhere preferred2 or that which is meritoriously elaborate1 adequately appreciated4 ,but common sense might dictate1 that learning is not encouraged or respected by those who1 for the making of books1 prefer a pair of scissors to the pen4 #bg4 ,the fortune of a grammar is not always an accurate test of its merits4 ,the goddess of the plenteous horn stands blindfold yet upon the floating prow2 and1 under her capricious favour1 any pirate-craft1 ill stowed with plunder1 may sometimes speed as well1 as barges richly laden from the golden mines of science4 ,far more are now afloat1 and more are stranded on dry shelves1 than can be here reported4 ,but what this work contains1 is candidly designed to qualify the reader to be himself a judge of what it should contain2 and ,i will hope1 so ample a report as this1 being thought sufficient1 will also meet his approbation4 ,the favour of one discerning mind that comprehends my subject1 is worth intrinsically more than that of half the nation3 ,i mean1 of course1 the half of whom my gentle reader is not one4 ,they praise and they admire they know not what1 ,and know not whom1 but as one leads the other4--,milton4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,of ,,grammatical ,,success ,,and ,,fame4 ,non is ego sum1 cui aut jucundum1 aut adeo opus sit1 de aliis detrahere1 et hac vi ad famara contendere4 ,melioribus artibus laudem parare didici4 ,itaque non libenter dico1 quod prsens institutum dicere cogit4--,jo4 ,,augusti ,,ernesti ,prf4 ad ,grcum ,lexicon1 p4 vii4 #a4 ,the real history of grammar is little known2 and many erroneous impressions are entertained concerning it3 because the story of the systems most generally received has never been fully told2 and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion was never worth telling4 ,in the distribution of grammatical fame1 which has chiefly been made by the hand of interest1 we have had a strange illustration of the saying3 ,unto every one that hath shall be given1 and he shall have abundance2 but from him that hath not1 shall be taken away even that which he hath4 ,some whom fortune has made popular1 have been greatly overrated1 if learning and talent are to be taken into the account2 since it is manifest1 that with no extraordinary claims to either1 they have taken the very foremost rank among grammarians1 and thrown the learning and talents of others into the shade1 or made them tributary to their own success and popularity4 #b4 ,it is an ungrateful task to correct public opinion by showing the injustice of praise4 ,fame1 though it may have been both unexpected and undeserved1 is apt to be claimed and valued as part and parcel of a man's good name2 and the dissenting critic1 though ever-so candid1 is liable to be thought an envious detractor4 ,it would seem in general most prudent to leave mankind to find out for themselves how far any commendation bestowed on individuals is inconsistent with truth4 ,but1 be it remembered1 that celebrity is not a virtue2 nor1 on the other hand1 is experience the cheapest of teachers4 ,a good man may not have done all things ably and well2 and it is certainly no small mistake to estimate his character by the current value of his copy-rights4 ,criticism may destroy the reputation of a book1 and not be inconsistent with a cordial respect for the private worth of its author4 ,the reader will not be likely to be displeased with what is to be stated in this chapter1 if he can believe1 that no man's merit as a writer1 may well be enhanced by ascribing to him that which he himself1 for the protection of his own honour1 has been constrained to disclaim4 ,he cannot suppose that too much is alleged1 if he will admit that a grammarian's fame should be thought safe enough in his own keeping4 ,are authors apt to undervalue their own performances8 ,or because proprietors and publishers may profit by the credit of a book1 shall it be thought illiberal to criticise it8 ,is the author himself to be disbelieved1 that the extravagant praises bestowed upon him may be justified8 ,superlative commendation1 says ,dillwyn1 is near akin to detraction4 7,see his ,reflections1 p4 #bb47 ,let him1 therefore1 who will charge detraction upon me1 first understand wherein it consists4 ,i shall criticise1 freely1 both the works of the living1 and the doctrines of those who1 to us1 live only in their works2 and if any man dislike this freedom1 let him rebuke it1 showing wherein it is wrong or unfair4 ,the amiable author just quoted1 says again3 ,praise has so often proved an impostor1 that it would be well1 wherever we meet with it1 to treat it as a vagrant4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,i go not so far as this2 but that eulogy which one knows to be false1 he cannot but reckon impertinent4 #c4 ,few writers on grammar have been more noted than ,,william ,,lily and ,,lindley ,,murray4 ,others have left better monuments of their learning and talents1 but none perhaps have had greater success and fame4 ,the ,latin grammar which was for a long time most popular in ,england1 has commonly been ascribed to the one2 and what the ,imperial ,review1 in #ahje1 pronounced the best ,english grammar1 beyond all comparison1 that has yet appeared1 was compiled by the other4 ,and doubtless they have both been rightly judged to excel the generality of those which they were intended to supersede2 and both1 in their day1 may have been highly serviceable to the cause of learning4 ,for all excellence is but comparative2 and to grant them this superiority1 is neither to prefer them now1 nor to justify the praise which has been bestowed upon their authorship4 ,as the science of grammar can never be taught without a book1 or properly taught by any book which is not itself grammatical1 it is of some importance both to teachers and to students1 to make choice of the best4 ,knowledge will not advance where grammars hold rank by prescription4 ,yet it is possible that many1 in learning to write and speak1 may have derived no inconsiderable benefit from a book that is neither accurate nor complete4 #d4 ,with respect to time1 these two grammarians were three centuries apart2 during which period1 the ,english language received its most classical refinement1 and the relative estimation of the two studies1 ,latin and ,english grammar1 became in a great measure reversed4 ,lily was an ,englishman1 born at ,odiham1#f in ,hampshire1 in #adff4 ,when he had arrived at manhood1 he went on a pilgrimage to ,jerusalem2 and while abroad studied some time at ,rome1 and also at ,paris4 ,on his return he was thought one of the most accomplished scholars in ,england4 ,in #aeaj1 ,dr4 ,john ,colet1 dean of ,st4 ,paul's church1 in ,london1 appointed him the first high master of ,st4 ,paul's ,school1 then recently founded by this gentleman's munificence4 ,in this situation1 ,lily appears to have taught with great credit to himself till #aebb1 when he died of the plague1 at the age of #ef4 ,for the use of this school1 he wrote and published certain parts of the grammar which has since borne his name4 ,of the authorship of this work many curious particulars are stated in the preface by ,john ,ward1 which may be seen in the edition of #agic4 ,lily had able rivals1 as well as learned coadjutors and friends4 ,by the aid of the latter1 he took precedence of the former2 and his publications1 though not voluminous1 soon gained a general popularity4 ,so that when an arbitrary king saw fit to silence competition among the philologists1 by becoming himself1 as ,sir ,thomas ,elliott says1 the chiefe authour and setter-forth of an introduction into grammar1 for the childrene of his lovynge subjects1 ,lily's ,grammar was preferred for the basis of the standard4 ,hence1 after the publishing of it became a privilege patented by the crown1 the book appears to have been honoured with a royal title1 and to have been familiarly called ,king ,henry's ,grammar4 #e4 ,prefixed to this book1 there appears a very ancient epistle to the reader1 which while it shows the reasons for this royal interference with grammar1 shows also1 what is worthy of remembrance1 that guarded and maintained as it was1 even royal interference was here ineffectual to its purpose4 ,it neither produced uniformity in the methods of teaching1 nor1 even for instruction in a dead language1 entirely prevented the old manual from becoming diverse in its different editions4 ,the style also may serve to illustrate what ,i have elsewhere said about the duties of a modern grammarian4 ,as for the diversitie of grammars1 it is well and profitably taken awaie by the ,king's ,majesties wisdome2 who1 foreseeing the inconvenience1 and favorably providing the remedie1 caused one kind of grammar by sundry learned men to be diligently drawn1 and so to be set out1 only every where to be taught1 for the use of learners1 and for the hurt in changing of schoolemaisters4 ,that is1 to prevent the injury which schoolmasters were doing by a whimsical choice1 or frequent changing1 of grammars4 ,but1 says the letter1 ,the varietie of teaching is divers yet1 and alwaies will be2 for that every schoolemaister liketh that he knoweth1 and seeth not the use of that he knoweth not2 and therefore judgeth that the most sufficient waie1 which he seeth to be the readiest meane1 and perfectest kinde1 to bring a learner to have a thorough knowledge therein4 ,the only remedy for such an evil then is1 to teach those who are to be teachers1 and to desert all who1 for any whim of their own1 desert sound doctrine4 #f4 ,but1 to return4 ,a law was made in ,england by ,henry the ,eighth1 commanding ,lily's ,grammar only1 7or that which has commonly been quoted as ,lily's17 to be everywhere adopted and taught1 as the common standard of grammatical instruction4#g ,being long kept in force by means of a special inquiry1 directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations1 this law1 for three hundred years1 imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm4 ,yet it is certain1 that about one half of what has thus gone under the name of ,lily1 7because1 says one of the patentees1 he had so considerable a hand in the composition17 was written by ,dr4 ,colet1 by ,erasmus1 or by others who improved the work after ,lily's death4 ,and of the other half1 it has been incidentally asserted in history1 that neither the scheme nor the text was original4 ,the ,printer's ,grammar1 ,london1 #aghg1 speaking of the art of type-foundery1 says3 ,the ,italians in a short time brought it to that perfection1 that in the beginning of the year #adgd1 they cast a letter not much inferior to the best types of the present age2 as may be seen in a ,latin ,grammar1 written by ,omnibonus ,leonicenus1 and printed at ,padua on the #adth of ,january1 #adgd2 from whom our grammarian1 ,lily1 has taken the entire scheme of his ,grammar1 and transcribed the greatest part thereof1 without paying any regard to the memory of this author4 ,the historian then proceeds to speak about types4 ,see also the same thing in the ,history of ,printing1 #hvo1 ,london1 #aggj4 ,this is the grammar which bears upon its title page3 ,quam solam ,regia ,majestas in omnibus scholis docendam prccipit4 #g4 ,murray was an intelligent and very worthy man1 to whose various labours in the compilation of books our schools are under many obligations4 ,but in original thought and critical skill he fell far below most of the authors to whom1 he confesses1 the grammatical part of his compilation is principally indebted for its materials2 namely1 ,harris1 ,johnson1 ,lowth1 ,priestley1 ,beattie1 ,sheridan1 ,walker1 ,coote1 ,blair1 and ,campbell4--,introd4 to ,lindley ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,it is certain and evident that he entered upon his task with a very insufficient preparation4 ,his biography1 which was commenced by himself and completed by one of his most partial friends1 informs us1 that1 ,grammar did not particularly engage his attention1 until a short time previous to the publication of his first work on that subject2 that1 ,his ,grammar1 as it appeared in the first edition1 was completed in rather less than a year2 that1 ,it was begun in the spring of #agid1 and published in the spring of #agie--though he had an intervening illness1 which1 for several weeks1 stopped the progress of the work2 and that1 ,the ,exercises and ,key were also composed in about a year4--,life of ,l4 ,murray1 p4 #ahh4 ,from the very first sentence of his book1 it appears that he entertained but a low and most erroneous idea of the duties of that sort of character in which he was about to come before the public4#h ,he improperly imagined1 as many others have done1 that little can be expected from a modern grammarian1 or 7as he chose to express it7 from a new compilation1 besides a careful selection of the most useful matter1 and some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the understanding1 and the gradual progress of learners4--,introd4 to ,l4 ,murray's ,gram42 #hvo1 p4 #e2 #abmo1 p4 #c4 ,as if1 to be master of his own art--to think and write well himself1 were no part of a grammarian's business6 ,and again1 as if the jewels of scholarship1 thus carefully selected1 could need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which fashioned them6 #h4 ,murray's general idea of the doctrines of grammar was judicious4 ,he attempted no broad innovation on what had been previously taught2 for he had neither the vanity to suppose he could give currency to novelties1 nor the folly to waste his time in labours utterly nugatory4 ,by turning his own abilities to their best account1 he seems to have done much to promote and facilitate the study of our language4 ,but his notion of grammatical authorship1 cuts off from it all pretence to literary merit1 for the sake of doing good2 and1 taken in any other sense than as a forced apology for his own assumptions1 his language on this point is highly injurious towards the very authors whom he copied4 ,to justify himself1 he ungenerously places them1 in common with others1 under a degrading necessity which no able grammarian ever felt1 and which every man of genius or learning must repudiate4 ,if none of our older grammars disprove his assertion1 it is time to have a new one that will2 for1 to expect the perfection of grammar from him who cannot treat the subject in a style at once original and pure1 is absurd4 ,he says1 ,the greater part of an ,english grammar must necessarily be a compilation 2 and adds1 with reference to his own1 originality belongs to but a small portion of it4 ,this ,i have acknowledged2 and ,i trust this acknowledgement will protect me from all attacks1 grounded on any supposed unjust and irregular assumptions4 ,this quotation is from a letter addressed by ,murray to his ,american publishers1 in #ahaa1 after they had informed him of certain complaints respecting the liberties which he had taken in his work4 ,see ,the ,friend1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #cd4 #i4 ,the acknowledgement on which he thus relies1 does not appear to have been made1 till his grammar had gone through several editions4 ,it was1 however1 at some period1 introduced into his short preface1 or ,introduction1 in the following well-meant but singularly sophistical terms3 ,in a work which professes itself to be a compilation1 and which1 from the nature and design of it1 must consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others1 it is scarcely necessary to apologise for the use which the ,compiler has made of his predecessors' labours1 or for omitting to insert their names4 ,from the alterations which have been frequently made in the sentiments and the language1 to suit the connexion1 and to adapt them to the particular purposes for which they are introduced2 and1 in many instances1 from the uncertainty to whom the passages originally belonged1 the insertion of names could seldom be made with propriety4 ,but if this could have been generally done1 a work of this nature would derive no advantage from it1 equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references4 ,it is4 however1 proper to acknowledge1 in general terms1 that the authors to whom the grammatical part of this compilation is principally indebted for its materials1 are ,harris1 ,johnson1 ,lowth1 ,priestley1 ,beattie1 ,sheridan1 ,walker1 and ,coote4--,introd42 ,duodecimo ,gram41 p4 #d2 ,octavo1 p4 #g4 #aj4 ,the fallacy1 or absurdity1 of this language sprung from necessity4 ,an impossible case was to be made out4 ,for compilation1 though ever so fair1 is not grammatical authorship4 ,but some of the commenders of ,murray have not only professed themselves satisfied with this general acknowledgement1 but have found in it a candour and a liberality1 a modesty and a diffidence1 which1 as they allege1 ought to protect him from all animadversion4 ,are they friends to learning8 ,let them calmly consider what ,i reluctantly offer for its defence and promotion4 ,in one of the recommendations appended to ,murray's grammars1 it is said1 ,they have nearly superseded every thing else of the kind1 by concentrating the remarks of the best authors on the subject4 ,but1 in truth1 with several of the best ,english grammars published previously to his own1 ,murray appears to have been totally unacquainted4 ,the chief1 if not the only school grammars which were largely copied by him1 were ,lowth's and ,priestley's1 though others perhaps may have shared the fate of these in being superseded by his4 ,it may be seen by inspection1 that in copying these two authors1 the compiler1 agreeably to what he says above1 omitted all names and references--even such as they had scrupulously inserted3 and1 at the outset1 assumed to be himself the sole authority for all his doctrines and illustrations2 satisfying his own mind with making1 some years afterwards1 that general apology which we are now criticising4 ,for if he so mutilated and altered the passages which he adopted1 as to make it improper to add the names of their authors1 upon what other authority than his own do they rest8 ,but if1 on the other hand1 he generally copied without alteration2 his examples are still anonymous1 while his first reason for leaving them so1 is plainly destroyed3 because his position is thus far contradicted by the fact4 #aa4 ,in his later editions1 however1 there are two opinions which the compiler thought proper to support by regular quotations2 and1 now and then1 in other instances1 the name of an author appears4 ,the two positions thus distinguished1 are these3 ,first1 ,that the noun means is necessarily singular as well as plural1 so that one cannot with propriety use the singular form1 mean1 to signify that by which an end is attained2 ,second1 ,that the subjective mood1 to which he himself had previously given all the tenses without inflection1 is not different in form from the indicative1 except in the present tense4 ,with regard to the later point1 ,i have shown1 in its proper place1 that he taught erroneously1 both before and after he changed his opinion2 and concerning the former1 the most that can be proved by quotation1 is1 that both mean and means for the singular number1 long have been1 and still are1 in good use1 or sanctioned by many elegant writers2 so that either form may yet be considered grammatical1 though the irregular can claim to be so1 only when it is used in this particular sense4 ,as to his second reason for the suppression of names1 to wit1 the uncertainty to whom the passages originally belonged1--to make the most of it1 it is but partial and relative2 and1 surely1 no other grammar ever before so multiplied the difficulty in the eyes of teachers1 and so widened the field for commonplace authorship1 as has the compilation in question4 ,the origin of a sentiment or passage may be uncertain to one man1 and perfectly well known to an other4 ,the embarrassment which a compiler may happen to find from this source1 is worthy of little sympathy4 ,for he cannot but know from what work he is taking any particular sentence or paragraph1 and those parts of a grammar1 which are new to the eye of a great grammarian1 may very well be credited to him who claims to have written the book4 ,i have thus disposed of his second reason for the omission of names and references1 in compilations of grammar4 #ab4 ,there remains one more3 ,a work of this nature would derive no advantage from it1 equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references4 ,with regard to a small work1 in which the matter is to be very closely condensed1 this argument has considerable force4 ,but ,murray has in general allowed himself very ample room1 especially in his two octavoes4 ,in these1 and for the most part also in his duodecimoes1 all needful references might easily have been added without increasing the size of his volumes1 or injuring their appearance4 ,in nine cases out of ten1 the names would only have been occupied what is now blank space4 ,it is to be remembered1 that these books do not differ much1 except in quantity of paper4 ,his octavo ,grammar is but little more than a reprint1 in a larger type1 of the duodecimo ,grammar1 together with his ,exercises and ,key4 ,the demand for this expensive publication has been comparatively small2 and it is chiefly to the others1 that the author owes his popularity as a grammarian4 ,as to the advantage which ,murray or his work might have derived from an adherence on his part to the usual custom of compilers1 that may be variously estimated4 ,the remarks of the best grammarians or the sentiments of the best authors1 are hardly to be thought the more worthy of acceptance1 for being concentrated in such a manner as to merge their authenticity in the fame of the copyist4 ,let me not be understood to suggest that this good man sought popularity at the expense of others2 for ,i do not believe that either fame or interest was his motive4 ,but the right of authors to the credit of their writings1 is a delicate point2 and1 surely1 his example would have been worthier of imitation1 had he left no ground for the foregoing objections1 and carefully barred the way to any such interference4 #ac4 ,but let the first sentence of this apology be now considered4 ,it is here suggested1 that because this work is a compilation1 even such an acknowledgement as the author makes1 is scarcely necessary4 ,this is too much to say4 ,yet one may readily admit1 that a compilation1 from the nature and design of it1 must consist chiefly--nay1 wholly--of materials selected from the writings of others4 ,but what able grammarian would ever willingly throw himself upon the horns of such a dilemma6 ,the nature and design of a book1 whatever they may be1 are matters for which the author alone is answerable2 but the nature and design of grammar1 are no less repugnant to the strain of this apology1 than to the vast number of errors and defects which were overlooked by ,murray in his work of compilation4 ,it is the express purpose of this practical science1 to enable a man to write well himself4 ,he that cannot do this1 exhibits no excess of modesty when he claims to have done all that could reasonably be expected in a work of this nature4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 ,introd41 p4 #i4 ,he that sees with other men's eyes1 is peculiarly liable to errors and inconsistencies3 uniformity is seldom found in patchwork1 or accuracy in secondhand literature4 ,correctness of language is in the mind1 rather than in the hand or the tongue2 and1 in order to secure it1 some originality of thought is necessary4 ,a delineation from new surveys is not the less original because the same region has been sketched before2 and how can he be the ablest of surveyors1 who1 through lack of skill or industry1 does little more than transcribe the field-notes and copy the projections of his predecessors8 #ad4 ,this author's oversights are numerous4 ,there is no part of the volume more accurate than that which he literally copied from ,lowth4 ,to the ,short ,introduction alone1 he was indebted for more than a hundred and twenty paragraphs2 and even in these there are many things obviously erroneous4 ,many of the best practical notes were taken from ,priestley2 yet it was he1 at whose doctrines were pointed most of those positions and discussions1 which alone the author claims as original4 ,to some of these reasonings1 however1 his own alterations may have given rise2 for1 where he persuades himself he is not destitute of originality1 he is often arguing against the text of his own earlier editions4 ,webster's well-known complaints of ,murray's unfairness1 had a far better cause than requital2 for there was no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness1 though the passages in question were not worth copying4 ,on perspicuity and accuracy1 about sixty pages were extracted from ,blair2 and it requires no great critical acumen to discover1 that they are miserably deficient in both4 ,on the law of language1 there are fifteen pages from ,campbell2 which1 with a few exceptions1 are well written4 ,the rules for spelling are the same as ,walker's3 the third one1 however1 is a gross blunder2 and the fourth1 a1 needless repetition4 #ae4 ,were this a place for minute criticism1 blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out4 ,it might easily be shown that almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the learner1 was repeatedly violated by the hand of the master4 ,nor is there among all those who have since abridged or modified the work1 an abler grammarian than he who compiled it4 ,who will pretend that ,flint1 ,alden1 ,comly1 ,jaudon1 ,russell1 ,bacon1 ,lyon1 ,miller1 ,alger1 ,maltby1 ,ingersoll1 ,fisk1 ,greenleaf1 ,merchant1 ,kirkham1 ,cooper1 ,r4 ,g4 ,greene1 ,woodworth1 ,smith1 or ,frost1 has exhibited greater skill8 ,it is curious to observe1 how frequently a grammatical blunder committed by ,murray1 or some one of his predecessors1 has escaped the notice of all these1 as well as of many others who have found it easier to copy him than to write for themselves4 ,no man professing to have copied and improved ,murray1 can rationally be supposed to have greatly excelled him2 for to pretend to have produced an improved copy of a compilation1 is to claim a sort of authorship1 even inferior to his1 and utterly unworthy of any man who is able to prescribe and elucidate the principles of ,english grammar4 #af4 ,but ,murray's grammatical works1 being extolled in the reviews1 and made common stock in trade1--being published1 both in ,england and in ,america1 by booksellers of the most extensive correspondence1 and highly commended even by those who were most interested in the sale of them1--have been eminently successful with the public2 and in the opinion of the world1 success is the strongest proof of merit4 ,nor has the force of this argument been overlooked by those who have written in aid of his popularity4 ,it is the strong point in most of the commendations which have been bestowed upon ,murray as a grammarian4 ,a recent eulogist computes1 that1 at least five millions of copies of his various school-books have been printed2 particularly commends him for his candour and liberality towards rival authors2 avers that1 he went on1 examining and correcting his ,grammar1 through all its forty editions1 till he brought it to a degree of perfection which will render it as permanent as the ,english language itself2 censures 7and not without reason7 the presumption of those superficial critics who have attempted to amend the work1 and usurp his honours2 and1 regarding the compiler's confession of his indebtedness to others1 but as a mark of his exemplary diffidence of his own merits1 adds1 7in very bad ,english17 ,perhaps there never was an author whose success and fame were more unexpected by himself than ,lindley ,murray4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #cc4 #ag4 ,in a ,new-,york edition of ,murray's ,grammar1 printed in #ahab1 there was inserted a ,caution to the ,public1 by ,collins ,co41 his ,american correspondents and publishers1 in which are set forth the unparalleled success and merit of the work1 as it came in purity from the pen of the author2 with an earnest remonstrance against the several revised editions which had appeared at ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 and other places1 and against the unwarrantable liberties taken by ,american teachers1 in altering the work1 under pretence of improving it4 ,in this article it is stated1 that the whole of these mutilated editions have been seen and examined by ,lindley ,murray himself1 and that they1 have met with his decided disapprobation4 ,every rational mind1 continue these gentlemen1 will agree with him1 that1 'the rights of living authors1 and the interests of science and literature1 demand the abolition of this ungenerous practice4' 7,see this also in ,murray's ,key1 #abmo1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahaa1 p4 iii47 ,here1 then1 we have the feeling and opinion of ,murray himself1 upon this tender point of right4 ,here we see the tables turned1 and other men judging it scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which they have made of their predecessors' labours4 #ah4 ,it is really remarkable to find an author and his admirers so much at variance1 as are ,murray and his commenders1 in relation to his grammatical authorship2 and yet1 under what circumstances could men have stronger desires to avoid apparent contradiction8 ,they1 on the one side1 claim for him the highest degree of merit as a grammarian2 and continue to applaud his works as if nothing more could be desired in the study of ,english grammar--a branch of learning which some of them are willing emphatically to call his science4 ,he1 on the contrary1 to avert the charge of plagiarism1 disclaims almost every thing in which any degree of literary merit consists2 supposes it impossible to write an ,english grammar the greater part of which is not a compilation2 acknowledges that originality belongs to but a small part of his own2 trusts that such a general acknowledgement will protect him from all censure2 suppresses the names of other writers1 and leaves his examples to rest solely on his own authority2 and1 contented with the great respectability of his private character and station1 is satisfied with being useful as an author4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #cc4 ,by the high praises bestowed upon his works1 his own voice is overborne3 the trumpet of fame has drowned it4 ,his liberal authorship is profitable in trade1 and interest has power to swell and prolong the strain4 #ai4 ,the name and character of ,lindley ,murray are too venerable to allow us to approach even the errors of his grammars1 without some recognition of the respect due to his personal virtues and benevolent intentions4 ,for the private virtues of ,murray1 ,i entertain as cordial a respect as any other man4 ,nothing is argued against these1 even if it be proved that causes independent of true literary merit have given him his great and unexpected fame as a grammarian4 ,it is not intended by the introduction of these notices1 to impute to him any thing more or less than what his own words plainly imply2 except those inaccuracies and deficiencies which still disgrace his work as a literary performance1 and which of course he did not discover4 ,he himself knew that he had not brought the book to such perfection as has been ascribed to it2 for1 by way of apology for his frequent alterations1 he says1 ,works of this nature admit of repeated improvements2 and are1 perhaps1 never complete4 ,necessity has urged this reasoning upon me4 ,i am as far from any invidious feeling1 or any sordid motive1 as was ,lindley ,murray4 ,but it is due to truth1 to correct erroneous impressions2 and1 in order to obtain from some an impartial examination of the following pages1 it seemed necessary first to convince them1 that it is possible to compose a better grammar than ,murray's1 without being particularly indebted to him4 ,if this treatise is not such1 a great deal of time has been thrown away upon a useless project2 and if it is1 the achievement is no fit subject for either pride or envy4 ,it differs from his1 and from all the pretended amendments of his1 as a new map1 drawn from actual and minute surveys1 differs from an old one1 compiled chiefly from others still older and confessedly still more imperfect4 ,the region and the scope are essentially the same2 the tracing and the colouring are more original2 and 7if the reader can pardon the suggestion7 perhaps more accurate and vivid4 #bj4 ,he who makes a new grammar1 does nothing for the advancement of learning1 unless his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the same purpose2 and nothing for his own honour1 unless such excellence result from the exercise of his own ingenuity and taste4 ,a good style naturally commends itself to every reader--even to him who cannot tell why it is worthy of preference4 ,hence there is reason to believe1 that the true principles of practical grammar1 deduced from custom and sanctioned by time1 will never be generally superseded by any thing which individual caprice may substitute4 ,in the republic of letters1 there will always be some who can distinguish merit2 and it is impossible that these should ever be converted to any whimsical theory of language1 which goes to make void the learning of past ages4 ,there will always be some who can discern the difference between originality of style1 and innovation in doctrine1--between a due regard to the opinions of others1 and an actual usurpation of their text2 and it is incredible that these should ever be satisfied with any mere compilation of grammar1 or with any such authorship as either confesses or betrays the writer's own incompetence4 ,for it is not true1 that1 an ,english grammar must necessarily be1 in any considerable degree1 if at all1 a compilation2 nay1 on such a theme1 and in the grammatical part of the work1 all compilation beyond a fair use of authorities regularly quoted1 or of materials either voluntarily furnished or free to all1 most unavoidably implies--not conscious ability1 generously doing honour to rival merit--nor exemplary diffidence1 modestly veiling its own--but inadequate skill and inferior talents1 bribing the public by the spoils of genius1 and seeking precedence by such means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify4 #ba4 ,among the professed copiers of ,murray1 there is not one to whom the foregoing remarks do not apply1 as forcibly as to him4 ,for no one of them all has attempted any thing more honourable to himself1 or more beneficial to the public1 than what their master had before achieved2 nor is there any one1 who1 with the same disinterestedness1 has guarded his design from the imputation of a pecuniary motive4 ,it is comical to observe what they say in their prefaces4 ,between praise to sustain their choice of a model1 and blame to make room for their pretended amendments1 they are often placed in as awkward a dilemma1 as that which was contrived when grammar was identified with compilation4 ,i should have much to say1 were ,i to show them all in their true light4#i ,few of them have had such success as to be worthy of notice here2 but the names of many will find frequent place in my code of false grammar4 ,the one who seems to be now taking the lead in fame and revenue1 filled with glad wonder at his own popularity1 is ,,samuel ,,kirkham4 ,upon this gentleman's performance1 ,i shall therefore bestow a few brief observations4 ,if ,i do not overrate this author's literary importance1 a fair exhibition of the character of his grammar1 may be made an instructive lesson to some of our modern literati4 ,the book is a striking sample of a numerous species4 #bb4 ,kirkham's treatise is entitled1 ,english ,grammar in familiar ,lectures1 accompanied by a ,compendium2 that is1 by a folded sheet4 ,of this work1 of which ,i have recently seen copies purporting to be of the ,,sixty-,,seventh ,,edition1 and others again of the ,,hundred ,,and ,,fifth ,,edition1 each published at ,baltimore in #ahce1 ,i can give no earlier account1 than what may be derived from the ,,second ,,edition1 enlarged and much improved1 which was published at ,harrisburg in #ahbe4 ,the preface1 which appears to have been written for his first edition1 is dated1 ,fredericktown1 ,md41 ,august #bb1 #ahbc4 ,in it1 there is no recognition of any obligation to ,murray1 or to any other grammarian in particular2 but with the modest assumption1 that the style of the best philologists1 needed to be retouched1 the book is presented to the world under the following pretensions3 ,the author of this production has endeavoured to condense all the most important subject-matter of the whole science1 and present it in so small a compass that the learner can become familiarly acquainted with it in a short time4 ,he makes but small pretensions to originality in theoretical matter4 ,most of the principles laid down1 have been selected from our best modern philologists4 ,if his work is entitled to any degree of merit1 it is not on account of a judicious selection of principles and rules1 but for the easy mode adopted of communicating these to the mind of the learner4--,kirkham's ,grammar1 #ahbe1 p4 #aj4 #bc4 ,it will be found on examination1 that what this author regarded as all the most important subject-matter of the whole science of grammar1 included nothing more than the most common elements of the orthography1 etymology1 and syntax1 of the ,english tongue--beyond which his scholarship appears not to have extended4 ,whatsoever relates to derivation1 to the sounds of the letters1 to prosody1 7as punctuation1 utterance1 figures1 versification1 and poetic diction17 found no place in his comprehensive system of grammar2 nor do his later editions treat any of these things amply or well4 ,in short1 he treats nothing well2 for he is a bad writer4 ,commencing his career of authorship under circumstances the most forbidding1 yet receiving encouragement from commendations bestowed in pity1 he proceeded1 like a man of business1 to profit mainly by the chance2 and1 without ever acquiring either the feelings or the habits of a scholar1 soon learned by experience that1 ,it is much better to write than to starve4--,kirkham's ,gram41 ,stereotyped1 p4 #hi4 ,it is cruel in any man1 to look narrowly into the faults of an author who peddles a school-book for bread4 ,the starveling wretch whose defence and plea are poverty and sickness1 demands1 and must have1 in the name of humanity1 an immunity from criticism1 if not the patronage of the public4 ,far be it from me1 to notice any such character1 except with kindness and charity4 ,nor need ,i be told1 that tenderness is due to the young2 or that noble results sometimes follow unhopeful beginnings4 ,these things are understood and duly appreciated4 ,the gentleman was young once1 even as he says2 and ,i1 his equal in years1 was then1 in authorship1 as young--though1 it were to be hoped1 not quite so immature4 ,but1 as circumstances alter cases1 so time and chance alter circumstances4 ,under no circumstances1 however1 can the artifices of quackery be thought excusable in him who claims to be the very greatest of modern grammarians4 ,the niche that in the temple of learning belongs to any individual1 can be no other than that which his own labours have purchased3 here1 his own merit alone must be his pedestal4 ,if this critical sketch be unimpeachably just1 its publication requires no further warrant4 ,the correction has been forborne1 till the subject of it has become rich1 and popular1 and proud2 proud enough at least to have published his utter contempt for me and all my works4 ,yet not for this do ,i judge him worthy of notice here1 but merely as an apt example of some men's grammatical success and fame4 ,the ways and means to these grand results are what ,i purpose now to consider4 #bd4 ,the common supposition1 that the world is steadily advancing in knowledge and improvement1 would seem to imply1 that the man who could plausibly boast of being the most successful and most popular grammarian of the nineteenth century1 cannot but be a scholar of such merit as to deserve some place1 if not in the general literary history of his age1 at least in the particular history of the science which he teaches4 ,it will presently be seen that the author of ,english ,grammar in ,familiar ,lectures1 boasts of a degree of success and popularity1 which1 in this age of the world1 has no parallel4 ,it is not intended on my part1 to dispute any of his assertions on these points2 but rather to take it for granted1 that in reputation and revenue he is altogether as preminent as he pretends to be4 ,the character of his alleged improvements1 however1 ,i shall inspect with the eyes of one who means to know the certainty for himself2 and1 in this item of literary history1 the reader shall see1 in some sort1 what profit there is in grammar4 ,is the common language of two of the largest and most enlightened nations on earth so little understood1 and its true grammar so little known or appreciated1 that one of the most unscholarly and incompetent of all pretenders to grammar can have found means to outrival all the grammarians who have preceded him8 ,have plagiarism and quackery become the only means of success in philology8 ,are there now instances to which an intelligent critic may point1 and say1 ,this man1 or that1 though he can scarcely write a page of good ,english1 has patched up a grammar1 by the help of ,murray's text only1 and thereby made himself rich8 ,is there such a charm in the name of ,murray1 and the word improvement1 that by these two implements alone1 the obscurest of men1 or the absurdest of teachers1 may work his passage to fame2 and then1 perchance1 by contrast of circumstances1 grow conceited and arrogant1 from the fortune of the undertaking8 ,let us see what we can find in ,kirkham's ,grammar1 which will go to answer these questions4 #be4 ,take first from one page of his hundred and fifth edition1 a few brief quotations1 as a sample of his thoughts and style3 ,they1 however1 who introduce usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language1 are conspicuous among the number of those who form that language1 and have power to control it4 ,,principle4--,a principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the language1 sanctioned by good usage4 ,,definition4--,a definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed in a definite form4 ,,rule4--,a rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial relation of words1 which custom has established for our observance4--,kirkham's ,grammar1 page #ah4 ,now1 as a rule describes a peculiar construction1 and a principle is a peculiar construction1 and a definition is a principle2 how1 according to this grammarian1 do a principle1 a definition1 and a rule1 differ each from the others8 ,from the rote here imposed1 it is certainly not easier for the learner to conceive of all these things distinctly1 than it is to understand how a departure from philosophy may make a man deservedly conspicuous4 ,it were easy to multiply examples like these1 showing the work to be deficient in clearness1 the first requisite of style4 #bf4 ,the following passages may serve as a specimen of the gentleman's taste1 and grammatical accuracy2 in one of which1 he supposes the neuter verb is to express an action1 and every honest man to be long since dead6 ,so it stands in all his editions4 ,did his praisers think so too8 ,it is correct to say1 ,the man eats1 he eats2 but we cannot say1 ,the man dog eats1 he dog eats4 ,why not8 ,because the man is here represented as the possessor1 and dog1 the property1 or thing possessed2 and the genius of our language requires1 that when we add to the possessor1 the thing which he is represented as possessing1 the possessor shall take a particular form to show ,,its case1 or relation to the property4--,ib41 p4 #eb4 ,,the ,,present ,,tense4--,this tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons long since dead2 as1 ',seneca reasons and moralizes well2 ,an ,,honest ,,man ,,is the noblest work of ,god4'--,ib41 p4 #ach4 ,,participles4--,the term ,participle comes from the ,latin word participio1#aj which signifies to partake4--,participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination ing1 ed1 or en4 ,ing signifies the same thing as the noun being4 ,when postfixed to the noun-state of the verb1 the compound word thus formed expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement4 ,it implies that what is meant by the verb1 is being continued4--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,all participles are compound in their meaning and office4--,ib41 p4 #gi4 ,,verbs4--,verbs express1 not only the state or manner of being1 but1 likewise1 all the different actions and movements of all creatures and things1 whether animate or inanimate4--,ib41 p4 #fb4 ,it can be easily shown1 that from the noun and verb1 all the other parts of speech have sprung4 ,nay1 more4 ,they may even be reduced to one4 ,verbs do not1 in reality1 express actions2 but they are intrinsically the mere ,,names of actions4--,ib41 p4 #cg4 ,,philosophical ,,grammar4--,i have thought proper to intersperse through the pages of this work1 under the head of ',philosophical ,notes1' an entire system of grammatical principles1 as deduced from what appears#aa to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical investigations4-- ,ib41 p4 #cf4 ,johnson1 and ,blair1 and ,lowth1 would have been laughed at1 had they essayed to thrust any thing like our modernized philosophical grammar down the throats of their cotemporaries4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,is it not a pity1 that more than one hundred thousand children and youth should be daily poring over language and logic like this8 #bg4 ,for the sake of those who happily remain ignorant of this successful empiricism1 it is desirable that the record and exposition of it be made brief4 ,there is little danger that it will long survive its author4 ,but the present subjects of it are sufficiently numerous to deserve some pity4 ,the following is a sample of the gentleman's method of achieving what he both justly and exultingly supposes1 that ,johnson1 or ,blair1 or ,lowth1 could not have effected4 ,he scoffs at his own grave instructions1 as if they had been the production of some other impostor4 ,can the fact be credited1 that in the following instances1 he speaks of what he himself teaches8--of what he seriously pronounces most rational and consistent8--of what is part and parcel of that philosophy of his1 which he declares1 will in general be found to accord with the practical theory embraced in the body of his work8--,see ,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,call this 'philosophical parsing1 on reasoning principles1 according to the original laws of nature and of thought1' and the pill will be swallowed1 by pedants and their dupes1 with the greatest ease imaginable4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #add4 ,for the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it1 and for their adoption1 too1 a modernized philosophical theory of the moods and tenses is here presented4 ,if it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one1 they need not hesitate to adopt it4 ,it has the advantage of being new2 and1 moreover1 it sounds large1 and will make the commonalty stare4 ,let it be distinctly understood that you teach ',kirkham's philosophical grammar1 founded on reason and common sense1' and you will pass for a very learned man1 and make all the good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect1 and the vast improvements of the age4--,ib41 p4 #ada4 #bh4 ,the pretty promises with which these ,familiar ,lectures abound1 are also worthy to be noticed here1 as being among the peculiar attractions of the performance4 ,the following may serve as a specimen3 ,if you proceed according to my instructions1 you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of ,grammar in a short time4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #di4 ,if you have sufficient resolution to do this1 you will1 in a short time1 perfectly understand the nature and office of the different parts of speech1 their various properties and relations1 and the rules of syntax that apply to them2 and1 in a few weeks1 be able to speak and write accurately4--,ib41 p4 #fb4 ,you will please to turn back and read over again the whole five lectures4 ,you must exercise a little patience4--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,by studying these lectures with attention1 you will acquire more grammatical knowledge in three months1 than is commonly obtained in two years4--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,i will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and tenses1 and the conjugation of verbs1 that1 instead of finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep intricacies1 you will scarcely find an obstruction to impede your progress4--,ib41 p4 #acc4 ,the supposed ,herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs1 will be transformed into a few hours of pleasant pastime4--,ib41 p4 #adb4 ,by examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood1 you will find it very easy4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 ,by pursuing the following direction1 you can1 in a very short time1 learn to conjugate any verb4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 ,although this mode of procedure may1 at first1 appear to be laborious1 yet1 as it is necessary1 ,i trust you will not hesitate to adopt it4 ,my confidence in your perseverance1 induces me to recommend any course which ,i know will tend to facilitate your progress4--,ib41 p4 #adh4 #bi4 ,the grand boast of this author is1 that he has succeeded in pleasing himself and the public4 ,he trusts to have gained the latter point1 to so great an extent1 and with such security of tenure1 that henceforth no man can safely question the merit of his performance4 ,happy mortal6 to whom that success which is the ground of his pride1 is also the glittering gis of his sure defence6 ,to this he points with exultation and self-applause1 as if the prosperity of the wicked1 or the popularity of an imposture1 had never yet been heard of in this clever world6#ab ,upon what merit this success has been founded1 my readers may judge1 when ,i shall have finished this slight review of his work4 ,probably no other grammar was ever so industriously spread4 ,such was the author's perseverance in his measures to increase the demand for his book1 that even the attainment of such accuracy as he was capable of1 was less a subject of concern4 ,for in an article designed to ward off some of the arrows of criticism1--an advertisement which1 from the eleventh to the one hundred and fifth edition1 has been promising to the publick another and a better edition1--he plainly offers this urgent engagement1 as an apology for its defects3 ,the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be4 ,if1 however1 the disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution1 and of being able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time1 snatched from the active pursuits of a business life1 7active as far as imperfect health permits him to be17 are any apology for his defects1 he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his credit4--,not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen criticks and reviewers4 ,any compromise with them would betray a want of self-confidence and moral courage1 which he would by no means1 be willing to avow4--,kirkham's ,gram41 7,adv4 of #ahbi17 p4 #g4 #cj4 ,now1 to this painful struggle1 this active contention between business and the vapours1 let all credit be given1 and all sympathy be added2 but1 as an aid to the studies of healthy children1 what better is the book1 for any forbearance or favour that may have been won by this apology8 ,it is well known1 that1 till phrenology became the common talk1 the author's principal business was1 to commend his own method of teaching grammar1 and to turn this publication to profit4 ,this honourable industry1 aided1 as himself suggests1 by not much less than one thousand written recommendations1 is said to have wrought for him1 in a very few years1 a degree of success and fame1 at which both the eulogists of ,murray and the friends of ,english grammar may hang their heads4 ,as to a compromise with any critic or reviewer whom he cannot bribe1 it is enough to say of that1 it is morally impossible4 ,nor was it necessary for such an author to throw the gauntlet1 to prove himself not lacking in self-confidence4 ,he can show his moral courage1 only by daring do right4 #ca4 ,in #ahbi1 after his book had gone through ten editions1 and the demand for it had become so great as to call forth twenty thousand copies during the year1 the prudent author1 intending to veer his course according to the trade-wind1 thought it expedient to retract his former acknowledgement to our best modern philologists1 and to profess himself a modifier of the ,great ,compiler's code4 ,where then holds the anchor of his praise8 ,let the reader say1 after weighing and comparing his various pretensions3 ,aware that there is1 in the publick mind1 a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in ,mr4 ,murray's grammar1 he has thought proper1 not merely from motives of policy1 but from choice1 to select his principles chiefly from that work2 and1 moreover1 to adopt1 as far as consistent with his own views1 the language of that eminent philologist4 ,in no instance has he varied from him1 unless he conceived that1 in so doing1 some practical advantage would be gained4 ,he hopes1 therefore1 to escape the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter1 mutilate1 and torture the text of that able writer1 merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world as authors1 and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves the credit due to another4 #ac--,kirkham's ,gram41 #ahbi1 p4 #aj4 #cb4 ,now these statements are either true or false2 and ,i know not on which supposition they are most creditable to the writer4 ,had any ,roman grammatist thus profited by the name of ,varro or ,quintilian1 he would have been filled with constant dread of somewhere meeting the injured author's frowning shade6 ,surely1 among the professed admirers of ,murray1 no other man1 whether innovator or copyist1 unfortunate or successful1 is at all to be compared to this gentleman for the audacity with which he has not scrupled to alter1 mutilate1 and torture1 the text of that able writer4 ,murray simply intended to do good1 and good that might descend to posterity2 and this just and generous intention goes far to excuse even his errors4 ,but ,kirkham1 speaking of posterity1 scruples not to disavow and to renounce all care for them1 or for any thing which a coming age may think of his character3 saying1 ,my pretensions reach not so far4 ,to the present generation only1 ,i present my claims4 ,should it lend me a listening ear1 and grant me its suffrages1 the height of my ambition will be attained4--,advertisement1 in his ,elocution1 p4 #cdf4 ,his whole design is1 therefore1 upon the very face of it1 a paltry scheme of present income4 ,and1 seeing his entered classes of boys and girls must soon have done with him1 he has doubtless acted wisely1 and quite in accordance with his own interest1 to have made all possible haste in his career4 #cc4 ,being no rival with him in this race1 and having no personal quarrel with him on any account1 ,i would1 for his sake1 fain rejoice at his success1 and withhold my criticisms2 because he is said to have been liberal with his gains1 and because he has not1 like some others1 copied me instead of ,murray4 ,but the vindication of a greatly injured and perverted science1 constrains me to say1 on this occasion1 that pretensions less consistent with themselves1 or less sustained by taste and scholarship1 have seldom1 if ever1 been promulgated in the name of grammar4 ,i have1 certainly1 no intention to say more than is due to the uninformed and misguided4 ,for some who are ungenerous and prejudiced themselves1 will not be unwilling to think me so2 and even this freedom1 backed and guarded as it is by facts and proofs irrefragable1 may still be ingeniously ascribed to an ill motive4 ,to two thirds of the community1 one grammar is just as good as an other2 because they neither know1 nor wish to know1 more than may be learned from the very worst4 ,an honest expression of sentiment against abuses of a literary nature1 is little the fashion of these times2 and the good people who purchase books upon the recommendations of others1 may be slow to believe there is no merit where so much has been attributed4 ,but facts may well be credited1 in opposition to courteous flattery1 when there are the author's own words and works to vouch for them in the face of day4 ,though a thousand of our great men may have helped a copier's weak copyist to take some practical advantage of the world's credulity1 it is safe to aver1 in the face of dignity still greater1 that testimonials more fallacious have seldom mocked the cause of learning4 ,they did not read his book4 #cd4 ,notwithstanding the author's change in his professions1 the work is now essentially the same as it was at first2 except that its errors and contradictions have been greatly multiplied1 by the addition of new matter inconsistent with the old4 ,he evidently cares not what doctrines he teaches1 or whose2 but1 as various theories are noised abroad1 seizes upon different opinions1 and mixes them together1 that his books may contain something to suit all parties4 ,a ,system of ,philosophical ,grammar1 though but an idle speculation1 even in his own account1 and doubly absurd in him1 as being flatly contradictory to his main text1 has been thought worthy of insertion4 ,and what his title-page denominates ,a ,new ,system of ,punctuation1 though mostly in the very words of ,murray1 was next invented to supply a deficiency which he at length discovered4 ,to admit these1 and some other additions1 the comprehensive system-of grammar was gradually extended from #add small duodecimo pages1 to #bbh of the ordinary size4 ,and1 in this compass1 it was finally stereotyped in #ahbi2 so that the ninety-four editions published since1 have nothing new for history4 #ce4 ,but the publication of an other work designed for schools1 ,an ,essay an ,elocution shows the progress of the author's mind4 ,nothing can be more radically opposite1 than are some of the elementary doctrines which this gentleman is now teaching2 nothing1 more strangely inconsistent1 than are some of his declarations and professions4 ,for instance3 ,a consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,again3 ,a consonant is not only capable of being perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel1 but1 moreover1 of forming1 like a vowel1 a separate syllable4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #cb4 ,take a second example4 ,he makes ,,adjective ,,pronouns a prominent division and leading title1 in treating of the pronouns proper2 defines the term in a manner peculiar to himself2 prefers and uses it in all his parsing2 and yet1 by the third sentence of the story1 the learner is conducted to this just conclusion3 ,hence1 such a thing as an adjective-pronoun cannot exist4--,grammar1 p4 #aje4 ,once more4 ,upon his own rules1 or such as he had borrowed1 he comments thus1 and comments truly1 because he had either written them badly or made an ill choice3 ,but some of these rules are foolish1 trifling1 and unimportant4--,elocution1 p4 #ig4 ,again3 ,rules #aj and #aa1 rest on a sandy foundation4 ,they appear not to be based on the principles of the language4--,grammar1 p4 #ei4 ,these are but specimens of his own frequent testimony against himself6 ,nor shall he find refuge in the impudent falsehood1 that the things which ,i quote as his1 are not his own4#ad ,these contradictory texts1 and scores of others which might be added to them1 are as rightfully his own1 as any doctrine he has ever yet inculcated4 ,but1 upon the credulity of ignorance1 his high-sounding certificates and unbounded boasting can impose any thing4 ,they overrule all in favour of cue of the worst grammars extant2--of which he says1 it is now studied by more than one hundred thousand children and youth2 and is more extensively used than all other ,english grammars published in the ,united ,states4--,elocution1 p4 #cdg4 ,the booksellers say1 he receives from his publishers ten cents a copy1 on this work1 and that he reports the sale of sixty thousand copies per annum4 ,such has of late been his public boast4 ,i have once had the story from his own lips1 and of course congratulated him1 though ,i dislike the book4 ,six thousand dollars a year1 on this most miserable modification of ,lindley ,murray's ,grammar6 ,be it so--or double1 if he and the public please4 ,murray had so little originality in his work1 or so little selfishness in his design1 that he would not take any thing2 and his may ultimately prove the better bargain4 #cf4 ,a man may boast and bless himself as he pleases1 his fortune1 surely1 can never be worthy of an other's envy1 so long as he finds it inadequate to his own great merits1 and unworthy of his own poor gratitude4 ,as a grammarian1 ,kirkham claims to be second only to ,lindley ,murray2 and says1 ,since the days of ,lowth1 no other work on grammar1 ,murray's only excepted1 has been so favourably received by the publick as his own4 ,as a proof of this1 he would mention1 that within the last six years it has passed through fifty editions4--,preface to ,elocution1 p4 #ab4 ,and1 at the same time1 and in the same preface1 he complains1 that1 ,of all the labours done under the sun1 the labours of the pen meet with the poorest reward4--,ibid41 p4 #e4 ,this too clearly favours the report1 that his books were not written by himself1 but by others whom he hired4 ,possibly1 the anonymous helper may here have penned1 not his employer's feeling1 but a line of his own experience4 ,but ,i choose to ascribe the passage to the professed author1 and to hold him answerable for the inconsistency4 ,willing to illustrate by the best and fairest examples these fruitful means of grammatical fame1 ,i am glad of his present success1 which1 through this record1 shall become yet more famous4 ,it is the only thing which makes him worthy of the notice here taken of him4 ,but ,i cannot sympathize with his complaint1 because he never sought any but the poorest reward2 and more than all he sought1 he found4 ,in his last ,address to ,teachers1 he says1 ,he may doubtless be permitted emphatically to say with ,prospero1 ',your breath has filled my sails4'--,elocution1 p4 #ah4 ,if this boasting has any truth in it1 he ought to be satisfied4 ,but it is written1 ,he that loveth silver1 shall not be satisfied with silver2 nor he that loveth abundance1 with increase4 ,let him remember this4#ae ,he now announces three or four other works as forthcoming shortly4 ,what these will achieve1 the world will see4 ,but ,i must confine myself to the ,grammar4 #cg4 ,in this volume1 scarcely any thing is found where it might be expected4 ,the author1 as he tells us in his preface1 has not followed the common 'artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors2' yet he has endeavoured to pursue a more judicious one1 namely1 'the order of the understanding4'--,grammar1 p4 #ab4 ,but if this is the order of his understanding1 he is greatly to be pitied4 ,a book more confused in its plan1 more wanting in method1 more imperfect in distinctness of parts1 more deficient in symmetry1 or more difficult of reference1 shall not easily be found in stereotype4 ,let the reader try to follow us here4 ,bating twelve pages at the beginning1 occupied by the title1 recommendations1 advertisement1 contents1 preface1 hints to teachers1 and advice to lecturers2 and fifty-four at the end1 embracing syntax1 orthography1 orthopy1 provincialisms1 prosody1 punctuation1 versification1 rhetoric1 figures of speech1 and a ,key1 all in the sequence here given2 the work consists of fourteen chapters of grammar1 absurdly called ,familiar ,lectures4 ,the first treats of sundries1 under half a dozen titles1 but chiefly of ,orthography2 and the last is three pages and a half1 of the most common remarks1 on ,derivation4 ,in the remaining twelve1 the ,etymology and ,syntax of the ten parts of speech are commingled2 and an attempt is made1 to teach simultaneously all that the author judged important in either4 ,hence he gives us1 in a strange congeries1 rules1 remarks1 illustrations1 false syntax1 systematic parsing1 exercises in parsing1 two different orders of notes1 three different orders of questions1 and a variety of other titles merely occasional4 ,all these things1 being additional to his main text1 are to be connected1 in the mind of the learner1 with the parts of speech successively1 in some new and inexplicable catenation found only in the arrangement of the lectures4 ,the author himself could not see through the chaos4 ,he accordingly made his table of contents a mere meagre alphabetical index4 ,having once attempted in vain to explain the order of his instructions1 he actually gave the matter up in despair6 #ch4 ,in length1 these pretended lectures vary1 from three or four pages1 to eight-and-thirty4 ,their subjects run thus3 #a4 ,language1 ,grammar1 ,orthography2 #b4 ,nouns and ,verbs2 #c4 ,articles2 #d4 ,adjectives2 #e4 ,participles2 #f4 ,adverbs2 #g4 ,prepositions2 #h4 ,pronouns2 #i4 ,conjunctions2 #aj4 ,interjections and ,nouns2 #aa4 ,moods and ,tenses2 #ab4 ,irregular ,verbs2 #ac4 ,auxiliary1 ,passive1 and ,defective ,verbs2 #ad4 ,derivation4 ,which1 now1 is more judicious1 such confusion as this1 or the arrangement which has been common from time immemorial8 ,who that has any respect for the human intellect1 or whose powers of mind deserve any in return1 will avouch this jumble to be the order of the understanding8 ,are the methods of science to be accounted mere hinderances to instruction8 ,has grammar really been made easy by this confounding of its parts8 ,or are we lured by the name1 ,familiar ,lectures1--a term manifestly adopted as a mere decoy1 and1 with respect to the work itself1 totally inappropriate8 ,if these chapters have ever been actually delivered as a series of lectures1 the reader must have been employed on some occasions eight or ten times as long as on others6 ,people1 says ,dr4 ,johnson1 have now-a-days got a strange opinion that every thing should be taught by lectures4 ,now1 ,i cannot see that lectures can do so much good as a private reading of the books from which the lectures are taken4 ,i know of nothing that can be best taught by lectures1 except where experiments are to be shown4 ,you may teach chymistry by lectures--you might teach the making of shoes by lectures4 --,boswell's ,life of ,johnson4 #ci4 ,with singular ignorance and untruth1 this gentleman claims to have invented a better method of analysis than had ever been practised before4 ,of other grammars1 his preface avers1 ,they have all overlooked what the author considers a very important object2 namely1 a systematick order of parsing4--,grammar1 p4 #i4 ,and1 in his ,hints to ,teachers1 presenting himself as a model1 and his book as a paragon1 he says3 ,by pursuing this system1 he can1 with less labour1 advance a pupil farther in the practical knowledge of this abstruse science1 in two months1 than he could in one year1 when he taught in the old way4--,grammar1 p4 #ab4 ,what his old way was1 does not appear4 ,doubtless something sufficiently bad4 ,and as to his new way1 ,i shall hereafter have occasion to show that that is sufficiently bad also4 ,but to this gasconade the simple-minded have given credit--because the author showed certificates that testified to his great success1 and called him amiable and modest6 ,but who can look into the book1 or into the writer's pretensions in regard to his predecessors1 and conceive the merit which has made him--preminent by so much odds8 ,was ,murray less praiseworthy1 less amiable1 or less modest8 ,in illustration of my topic1 and for the sake of literary justice1 ,i have selected that honoured ,compiler to show the abuses of praise2 let the history of this his vaunting modifier cap the climax of vanity4 ,in general1 his amendments of that eminent philologist1 are not more skillful than the following touch upon an eminent dramatist2 and here1 it is plain1 he has mistaken two nouns for adjectives1 and converted into bad ,english a beautiful passage1 the sentiment of which is worthy of an author's recollection3 ,the evil deed or deeds that men do1 lives after them2 ,the good deed or deeds is oft interred with their bones4 #af ,kirkham's ,grammar1 p4 #ge4 #dj4 ,lord ,bacon observes1 ,nothing is thought so easy a request to a great person as his letter2 and yet1 if it be not in a good cause1 it is so much out of his reputation4 ,it is to this mischievous facility of recommendation1 this prostituted influence of great names1 that the inconvenient diversity of school-books1 and the continued use of bad ones1 are in a great measure to be attributed4 ,it belongs to those who understand the subjects of which authors profess to treat1 to judge fairly and fully of their works1 and then to let the reasons of their judgement be known4 ,for no one will question the fact1 that a vast number of the school-books now in use are either egregious plagiarisms or productions of no comparative merit4 ,and1 what is still more surprising and monstrous1 presidents1 governors1 senators1 and judges2 professors1 doctors1 clergymen1 and lawyers2 a host of titled connoisseurs2 with incredible facility lend their names1 not only to works of inferior merit1 but to the vilest thefts1 and the wildest absurdities1 palmed off upon their own and the public credulity1 under pretence of improvement4 ,the man who thus prefixes his letter of recommendation to an ill-written book1 publishes1 out of mere courtesy1 a direct impeachment of his own scholarship or integrity4 ,yet1 how often have we seen the honours of a high office1 or even of a worthy name1 prostituted to give a temporary or local currency to a book which it would disgrace any man of letters to quote6 ,with such encouragement1 nonsense wrestles for the seat of learning1 exploded errors are republished as novelties1 original writers are plundered by dunces1 and men that understand nothing well1 profess to teach all sciences6 #da4 ,all praise of excellence must needs be comparative1 because the thing itself is so4 ,to excel in grammar1 is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excellence consists4 ,hence there is no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning may not be carried4 ,the limit to improvement is not so much in the nature of the subject1 as in the powers of the mind1 and in the inducements to exert them upon a theme so humble and so uninviting4 ,dr4 ,johnson suggests1 in his masterly preface1 that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology1 and that even a whole life would not be sufficient4 ,who then will suppose1 in the face of such facts and confessions as have been exhibited1 that either in the faulty publications of ,murray1 or among the various modifications of them by other hands we have any such work as deserves to be made a permanent standard of instruction in ,english grammar8 ,with great sacrifices1 both of pleasure and of interest1 ,i have humbly endeavoured to supply this desideratum2 and it remains for other men to determine1 and other times to know1 what place shall be given to these my labours1 in the general story of this branch of learning4 ,intending to develop not only the principles but also the history of grammar1 ,i could not but speak of its authors4 ,the writer who looks broadly at the past and the present1 to give sound instruction to the future1 must not judge of men by their shadows4 ,if the truth1 honestly told1 diminish the stature of some1 it does it merely by clearing the sight of the beholder4 ,real greatness cannot suffer loss by the dissipating of a vapour4 ,if reputation has been raised upon the mist of ignorance1 who but the builder shall lament its overthrow8 ,if the works of grammarians are often ungrammatical1 whose fault is this but their own8 ,if all grammatical fame is little in itself1 how can the abatement of what is undeserved of it be much8 ,if the errors of some have long been tolerated1 what right of the critic has been lost by nonuser8 ,if the interests of ,science have been sacrificed to ,mammon1 what rebuke can do injustice to the craft8 ,nay1 let the broad-axe of the critic hew up to the line1 till every beam in her temple be smooth and straight4 ,for1 certainly1 next to commending good writers1 the greatest service to learning is1 to expose the bad1 who can only in that way be made of any use to it4 #ag ,and if1 among the makers of grammars1 the scribblings of some1 and the filchings of others1 are discreditable alike to themselves and to their theme1 let the reader consider1 how great must be the intrinsic worth of that study which still maintains its credit in spite of all these abuses6 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,language4 ,tot fallaciis obrutum1 tot hallucinationibus demersum1 tot adhuc tenebris circumfusum studium hocce mihi visum est1 ut nihil satis tuto in hac materia prstari posse arbitratus sim1 nisi nova quadam arte critica prmissa4--,,scipio ,,maffeius3 ,cassiod4 ,complexiones1 p4 xxx4 #a4 ,the origin of things is1 for many reasons1 a peculiarly interesting point in their history4 ,among those who have thought fit to inquire into the prime origin of speech1 it has been matter of dispute1 whether we ought to consider it a special gift from ,heaven1 or an acquisition of industry--a natural endowment1 or an artificial invention4 ,nor is any thing that has ever yet been said upon it1 sufficient to set the question permanently at rest4 ,that there is in some words1 and perhaps in some of every language1 a natural connexion between the sounds uttered and the things signified1 cannot be denied2 yet1 on the other hand1 there is1 in the use of words in general1 so much to which nature affords no clew or index1 that this whole process of communicating thought by speech1 seems to be artificial4 ,under an other head1 ,i have already cited from ,sanctius some opinions of the ancient grammarians and philosophers on this point4 ,with the reasoning of that zealous instructor1 the following sentence from ,dr4 ,blair very obviously accords3 ,to suppose words invented1 or names given to things1 in a manner purely arbitrary1 without any ground or reason1 is to suppose an effect without a cause4 ,there must have always been some motive which led to the assignation of one name rather than an other4--,rhet41 ,lect4 vi1 p4 #ee4 #b4 ,but1 in their endeavours to explain the origin and early progress of language1 several learned men1 among whom is this celebrated lecturer1 have needlessly perplexed both themselves and their readers1 with sundry questions1 assumptions1 and reasonings1 which are manifestly contrary to what has been made known to us on the best of all authority4 ,what signifies it#ah for a man to tell us how nations rude and barbarous invented interjections first1#ai and then nouns1 and then verbs1#bj and finally the other parts of speech2 when he himself confesses that he does not know whether language can be considered a human invention at all2 and when he believed1 or ought to have believed1 that the speech of the first man1 though probably augmented by those who afterwards used it1 was1 essentially1 the one language of the earth for more than eighteen centuries8 ,the task of inventing a language de novo1 could surely have fallen upon no man but ,adam2 and he1 in the garden of ,paradise1 had doubtless some aids and facilities not common to every wild man of the woods4 #c4 ,the learned ,doctor was equally puzzled to conceive1 either how society could form itself1 previously to language1 or how words could rise into a language1 previously to society formed4--,blair's ,rhet41 ,lect4 vi1 p4 #ed4 ,this too was but an idle perplexity1 though thousands have gravely pored over it since1 as a part of the study of rhetoric2 for1 if neither could be previous to the other1 they must have sprung up simultaneously4 ,and it is a sort of slander upon our prime ancestor1 to suggest1 that1 because he was the first1 he must have been the rudest of his race2 and that1 consequently1 those first rudiments of speech1 which alone the supposition allows to him or to his family1 must have been poor and narrow4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ed4 ,it is far more reasonable to think1 with a later author1 that1 ,adam had an insight into natural things far beyond the acutest philosopher1 as may be gathered from his giving of names to all creatures1 according to their different constitutions4--,robinson's ,scripture ,characters1 p4 #d4 #d4 ,but ,dr4 ,blair is not alone in the view which he here takes4 ,the same thing has bean suggested by other learned men4 ,thus ,dr4 ,james ,p4 ,wilson1 of ,philadelphia1 in an octavo published in #ahag1 says3 ,it is difficult to discern how communities could have existed without language1 and equally so to discover how language could have obtained1 in a peopled world1 prior to society4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,i know not how so many professed ,christians1 and some of them teachers of religion too1 with the ,bible in their hands1 can reason upon this subject as they do4 ,we find them1 in their speculations1 conspiring to represent primeval man1 to use their own words1 as a savage1 whose 'howl at the appearance of danger1 and whose exclamations of joy at the sight of his prey1 reiterated1 or varied with the change of objects1 were probably the origin of language4'--,booth's ,analytical ,dictionary4 ,in the dawn of society1 ages may have passed away1 with little more converse than what these efforts would produce4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #ca4 ,here ,gardiner quotes ,booth with approbation1 and the latter1 like ,wilson1 may have borrowed his ideas from ,blair4 ,thus are we taught by a multitude of guessers1 grave1 learned1 and oracular1 that the last of the ten parts of speech was in fact the first3 ,interjections are exceedingly interesting in one respect4 ,they are1 there can be little doubt1 the oldest words in all languages2 and may be considered the elements of speech4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,on this point1 however1 ,dr4 ,blair seems not to be quite consistent with himself3 ,those exclamations1 therefore1 which by grammarians are called interjections1 uttered in a strong and passionate manner1 were1 beyond doubt1 the first elements or beginnings of speech4--,rhet41 ,lect4 vi1 p4 #ee4 ,the names of sensible objects were1 in all languages1 the words most early introduced4--,rhet41 ,lect4 xiv1 p4 #ace4 ,the names of sensible objects1 says ,murray too1 were the words most early introduced4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ccf4 ,bat what says the ,bible8 #e4 ,revelation informs us that our first progenitor was not only endowed with the faculty of speech1 but1 as it would appear1 actually incited by the ,deity to exert that faculty in giving names to the objects by which he was surrounded4 ,out of the ground the ,lord ,god formed every beast of the field and every fowl of the air2 and brought them unto ,adam1 to see what he would call them3 and whatsoever ,adam called every living creature1 that was the name thereof4 ,and ,adam gave names to all cattle1 and to the fowls of the air1 and to every beast of the field2 but for ,adam there was not found a help meet for him4--,gen41 ii1 #ai1 #bj4 ,this account of the first naming of the other creatures by man1 is apparently a parenthesis in the story of the creation of woman1 with which the second chapter of ,genesis concludes4 ,but1 in the preceding chapter1 the ,deity is represented not only as calling all things into existence by his ,word2 but as speaking to the first human pair1 with reference to their increase in the earth1 and to their dominion over it1 and over all the living creatures formed to inhabit it4 ,so that the order of the events cannot be clearly inferred from the order of the narration4 ,the manner of this communication to man1 may also be a subject of doubt4 ,whether it was1 or was not1 made by a voice of words1 may be questioned4 ,but1 surely1 that ,being who1 in creating the world and its inhabitants1 manifested his own infinite wisdom1 eternal power1 and godhead1 does not lack words1 or any other means of signification1 if he will use them4 ,and1 in the inspired record of his work in the beginning1 he is certainly represented1 not only as naming all things imperatively1 when he spoke them into being1 but as expressly calling the light ,day1 the darkness ,night1 the firmament ,heaven1 the dry land ,earth1 and the gatherings of the mighty waters ,seas4 #f4 ,dr4 ,thomas ,hartwell ,horne1 in commending a work by ,dr4 ,ellis1 concerning the origin of human wisdom and understanding1 says3 ,it shows satisfactorily1 that religion and language entered the world by divine revelation1 without the aid of which1 man had not been a rational or religious creature4--,study of the ,scriptures1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #d4 ,plato attributes the primitive words of the first language to a divine origin2 and ,dr4 ,wilson remarks1 ,the transition from silence to speech1 implies an effort of the understanding too great for man4--,essay on ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,dr4 ,beattie says1 ,mankind must have spoken in all ages1 the young constantly learning to speak by imitating those who were older2 and1 if so1 our first parents must have received this art1 as well as some others1 by inspiration4--,moral ,science1 p4 #bg4 ,horne ,tooke says1 ,i imagine that it is1 in some measure1 with the vehicle of our thoughts1 as with the vehicles for our bodies4 ,necessity produced both4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bj4 ,again3 ,language1 it is true1 is an art1 and a glorious one2 whose influence extends over all the others1 and in which finally all science whatever must centre3 but an art springing from necessity1 and originally invented by artless men1 who did not sit down like philosophers to invent it4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bei4 #g4 ,milton imagines ,adam's first knowledge of speech1 to have sprung from the hearing of his own voice2 and that voice to have been raised1 instinctively1 or spontaneously1 in an animated inquiry concerning his own origin--an inquiry in which he addresses to unintelligent objects1 and inferior creatures1 such questions as the ,deity alone could answer3 ,myself ,i then perused1 and limb by limb ,surveyed1 and sometimes went1 and sometimes ran ,with supple joints1 as lively vigor led3 ,but who ,i was1 or where1 or from what cause1 ,knew not2 to speak ,i tried1 and forthwith spake2 ,my tongue obeyed1 and readily could name ,whatever ,i saw4 ',thou ,sun1' said ,i1 'fair light1 ,and thou enlightened ,earth1 so fresh and gay1 ,ye ,hills and ,dales1 ye ,rivers1 ,woods1 and ,plains2 ,and ye that live and move1 fair ,creatures6 tell1 ,tell1 if ye saw1 how came ,i thus1 how here8 ,not of myself2 by some great ,maker then1 ,in goodness and in power preminent3 ,tell me how ,i may know him1 how adore1 ,from whom ,i have that thus ,i move and live1 ,and feel that ,i am happier than ,i know4' ,paradise ,lost1 ,book viii1 l4 #bfg4 ,but1 to the imagination of a poet1 a freedom is allowed1 which belongs not to philosophy4 ,we have not always the means of knowing how far he literally believes what he states4 #h4 ,my own opinion is1 that language is partly natural and partly artificial4 ,and1 as the following quotation from the ,greek of ,ammonius will serve in some degree to illustrate it1 ,i present the passage in ,english for the consideration of those who may prefer ancient to modern speculations3 ,in the same manner1 therefore1 as mere motion is from nature1 but dancing is something positive2 and as wood exists in nature1 but a door is something positive2 so is the mere utterance of vocal sound founded in nature1 but the signification of ideas by nouns or verbs is something positive4 ,and hence it is1 that1 as to the simple power of producing vocal sound--which is as it were the organ or instrument of the soul's faculties of knowledge or volition--as to this vocal power1 ,i say1 man seems to possess it from nature1 in like manner as irrational animals2 but as to the power of using significantly nouns or verbs1 or sentences combining these1 7which are not natural but positive17 this he possesses by way of peculiar eminence2 because he alone of all mortal beings partakes of a soul which can move itself1 and operate to the production of arts4 ,so that1 even in the utterance of sounds1 the inventive power of the mind is discerned2 as the various elegant compositions1 both in metre1 and without metre1 abundantly prove4--,ammon4 de ,interpr41 p4 #ea4ba #i4 ,man was made for society2 and from the first period of human existence the race were social4 ,monkish seclusion is manifestly unnatural2 and the wild independence of the savage1 is properly denominated a state of nature1 only in contradistinction to that state in which the arts are cultivated4 ,but to civilized life1 or even to that which is in any degree social1 language is absolutely necessary4 ,there is therefore no danger that the language of any nation shall fall into disuse1 till the people by whom it is spoken1 shall either adopt some other1 or become themselves extinct4 ,when the latter event occurs1 as is the case with the ancient ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin1 the language1 if preserved at all from oblivion1 becomes the more permanent2 because the causes which are constantly tending to improve or deteriorate every living language1 have ceased to operate upon those which are learned only from ancient books4 ,the inflections which now compose the declensions and conjugations of the dead languages1 and which indeed have ever constituted the peculiar characteristics of those forms of speech1 must remain forever as they are4 #aj4 ,when a nation changes1 its language1 as did our forefathers in ,britain1 producing by a gradual amalgamation of materials drawn from various tongues a new one differing from all1 the first stages of its grammar will of course be chaotic and rude4 ,uniformity springs from the steady application of rules2 and polish is the work of taste and refinement4 ,we may easily err by following the example of our early writers with more reverence than judgement2 nor is it possible for us to do justice to the grammarians1 whether early or late1 without a knowledge both of the history and of the present state of the science which they profess to teach4 ,i therefore think it proper rapidly to glance at many things remote indeed in time1 yet nearer to my present purpose1 and abundantly more worthy of the student's consideration1 than a thousand matters which are taught for grammar by the authors of treatises professedly elementary4 #aa4 ,as we have already seen1 some have supposed that the formation of the first language must have been very slow and gradual4 ,but of this they offer no proof1 and from the pen of inspiration we seem to have testimony against it4 ,did ,adam give names to all the creatures about him1 and then allow those names to be immediately forgotten8 ,did not both he and his family continually use his original nouns in their social intercourse8 and how could they use them1 without other parts of speech to form them into sentences8 ,nay1 do we not know from the ,bible1 that on several occasions our prime ancestor expressed himself like an intelligent man1 and used all the parts of speech which are now considered necessary8 ,what did he say1 when his fit partner1 the fairest and loveliest work of ,god1 was presented to him8 ,this is now bone of my bones1 and flesh of my flesh3 she shall be called ,woman1 because she was taken out of ,man4 ,and again3 ,had he not other words than nouns1 when he made answer concerning his transgression3 ,i heard thy voice in the garden1 and ,i was afraid1 because ,i was naked2 and ,i hid myself8 ,what is it1 then1 but a groundless assumption1 to make him and his immediate descendants ignorant savages1 and to affirm1 with ,dr4 ,blair1 that their speech must have been poor and narrow8 ,it is not possible now to ascertain what degree of perfection the oral communication of the first age exhibited4 ,but1 as languages are now known to improve in proportion to the improvement of society in civilization and intelligence1 and as we cannot reasonably suppose the first inhabitants of the earth to have been savages1 it seems1 ,i think1 a plausible conjecture1 that the primeval tongue was at least sufficient for all the ordinary intercourse of civilized men1 living in the simple manner ascribed to our early ancestors in ,scripture2 and that1 in many instances1 human speech subsequently declined far below its original standard4 #ab4 ,at any rate1 let it be remembered that the first language spoken on earth1 whatever it was1 originated in ,eden before the fall2 that this one language1 which all men understood until the dispersion1 is to be traced1 not to the cries of savage hunters1 echoed through the wilds and glades where ,nimrod planted ,babel1 but to that eastern garden of ,god's own planting1 wherein grew every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food2 to that paradise into which the ,lord ,god put the new-created man1 to dress it and to keep it4 ,it was here that ,adam and his partner learned to speak1 while yet they stood blameless and blessed1 entire and wanting nothing2 free in the exercise of perfect faculties of body and mind1 capable of acquiring knowledge through observation and experience1 and also favoured with immediate communications with their ,maker4 ,yet ,adam1 having nothing which he did not receive1 could not originally bring any real knowledge into the world with him1 any more than men do now3 this1 in whatever degree attained1 must be1 and must always have been1 either an acquisition of reason1 or a revelation from ,god4 ,and1 according to the understanding of some1 even in the beginning1 ,that was not first which is spiritual1 but that which is natural2 and afterward that which is spiritual4--#a ,cor41 xv1 #df4 ,that is1 the spirit of ,christ1 the second ,adam1 was bestowed on the first ,adam1 after his creation1 as the life and the light of the immortal soul4 ,for1 ,in ,him was life1 and the life was the light of men1 a life which our first parents forfeited and lost on the day of their transgression4 ,it was undoubtedly in the light of this pure influence that ,adam had such an intuitive discerning of the creation1 as enabled him to give names to all creatures according to their several natures4--,phipps1 on ,man1 p4 #d4 ,a lapse from all this favour1 into conscious guilt and misery2 a knowledge of good withdrawn1 and of evil made too sure2 followed the first transgression4 ,abandoned then in great measure by superhuman aid1 and left to contend with foes without and foes within1 mankind became what history and observation prove them to have been2 and henceforth1 by painful experience1 and careful research1 and cautious faith1 and humble docility1 must they gather the fruits of knowledge2 by a vain desire and false conceit of which1 they had forfeited the tree of life4 ,so runs the story ,of man's first disobedience1 and the fruit ,of that forbidden tree1 whose mortal taste ,brought death into the world1 and all our wo1 ,with loss of ,eden1 till one greater ,man ,restore us1 and regain the blissful seat4 #ac4 ,the analogy of words in the different languages now known1 has been thought by many to be sufficiently frequent and clear to suggest the idea of their common origin4 ,their differences are indeed great2 but perhaps not greater1 than the differences in the several races of men1 all of whom1 as revelation teaches1 sprung from one common stock4 ,from the same source we learn1 that1 till the year of the world #ahdd1 ,the whole earth was of one language1 and of one speech4--,gen41 xi1 #a4bb ,at that period1 the whole world of mankind consisted only of the descendants of the eight souls who had been saved in the ark1 and so many of the eight as had survived the flood one hundred and eighty-eight years4 ,then occurred that remarkable intervention of the ,deity1 in which he was pleased to confound their language2 so that they could not understand one an other's speech1 and were consequently scattered abroad upon the face of the earth4 ,this1 however1 in the opinion of many learned men1 does not prove the immediate formation of any new languages4 #ad4 ,but1 whether new languages were thus immediately formed or not1 the event1 in all probability1 laid the foundation for that diversity which subsequently obtained among the languages of the different nations which sprung from the dispersion2 and hence it may be regarded as the remote cause of the differences which now exist4 ,but for the immediate origin of the peculiar characteristical differences which distinguish the various languages now known1 we are not able with much certainty to account4 ,nor is there even much plausibility in the speculations of those grammarians who have attempted to explain the order and manner in which the declensions1 the moods1 the tenses1 or other leading features of the languages1 were first introduced4 ,they came into use before they could be generally known1 and the partial introduction of them could seldom with propriety be made a subject of instruction or record1 even if there were letters and learning at hand to do them this honour4 ,and it is better to be content with ignorance1 than to form such conjectures as imply any thing that is absurd or impossible4 ,for instance3 ,neilson's ,theory of the ,moods1 published in the ,classical ,journal of #ahai1 though it exhibits ingenuity and learning1 is liable to this strong objection2 that it proceeds on the supposition1 that the moods of ,english verbs1 and of several other derivative tongues1 were invented in a certain order by persons1 not speaking a language learned chiefly from their fathers1 but uttering a new one as necessity prompted4 ,but when or where1 since the building of ,babel1 has this ever happened8 ,that no dates are given1 or places mentioned1 the reader regrets1 but he cannot marvel4 #ae4 ,by what successive changes1 our words in general1 and especially the minor parts of speech1 have become what we now find them1 and what is their original and proper signification according to their derivation1 the etymologist may often show to our entire satisfaction4 ,every word must have had its particular origin and history2 and he who in such things can explain with certainty what is not commonly known1 may do some service to science4 ,but even here the utility of his curious inquiries may be overrated2 and whenever1 for the sake of some favourite theory1 he ventures into the regions of conjecture1 or allows himself to be seduced from the path of practical instruction1 his errors are obstinate1 and his guidance is peculiarly deceptive4 ,men fond of such speculations1 and able to support them with some show of learning1 have done more to unsettle the science of grammar1 and to divert ingenious teachers from the best methods of instruction1 than all other visionaries put together4 ,etymological inquiries are important1 and ,i do not mean to censure or discourage them1 merely as such2 but the folly of supposing that in our language words must needs be of the same class1 or part of speech1 as that to which they may be traced in an other1 deserves to be rebuked4 ,the words the and an may be articles in ,english1 though obviously traceable to something else in ,saxon2 and a learned man may1 in my opinion1 be better employed1 than in contending that if1 though1 and although1 are not conjunctions1 but verbs6 #af4 ,language is either oral or written2 the question of its origin has consequently two parts4 ,having suggested what seemed necessary respecting the origin of speech1 ,i now proceed to that of writing4 ,sheridan says1 ,we have in use two kinds of language1 the spoken and the written3 the one1 the gift of ,god2 the other1 the invention of man4--,elocution1 p4 xiv4 ,if this ascription of the two things to their sources1 were as just as it is clear and emphatical1 both parts of our question would seem to be resolved4 ,but this great rhetorician either forgot his own doctrine1 or did not mean what he here says4 ,for he afterwards makes the former kind of language as much a work of art1 as any one will suppose the latter to have been4 ,in his sixth lecture1 he comments on the gift of speech thus3 ,but still we are to observe1 that nature did no more than furnish the power and means2 she did not give the language1 as in the case of the passions1 but left it to the industry of men1 to find out and agree upon such articulate sounds1 as they should choose to make the symbols of their ideas4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 ,he even goes farther1 and supposes certain tones of the voice to be things invented by man3 ,accordingly1 as she did not furnish the words1 which were to be the symbols of his ideas2 neither did she furnish the tones1 which were to manifest1 and communicate by their own virtue1 the internal exertions and emotions1 of such of his nobler faculties1 as chiefly distinguish him from the brute species2 but left them also1 like words1 to the care and invention of man4--,ibidem4 ,on this branch of the subject1 enough has already been presented4 #ag4 ,by most authors1 alphabetic writing is not only considered an artificial invention1 but supposed to have been wholly unknown in the early ages of the world4 ,its antiquity1 however1 is great4 ,of this art1 in which the science of grammar originated1 we are not able to trace the commencement4 ,different nations have claimed the honour of the invention2 and it is not decided1 among the learned1 to whom1 or to what country1 it belongs4 ,it probably originated in ,egypt4 ,for1 ,the ,egyptians1 it is said1 paid divine honours to the ,inventor of ,letters1 whom they called ,theuth3 and ,socrates1 when he speaks of him1 considers him as a god1 or a god-like man4--,british ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,charles ,bucke has it1 ,that the first inventor of letters is supposed to have been ,memnon2 who was1 in consequence1 fabled to be the son of ,aurora1 goddess of the morning4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,the ancients in general seem to have thought ,phoenicia the birthplace of ,letters3 ,phoenicians first1 if ancient fame be true1 ,the sacred mystery of letters knew2 ,they first1 by sound1 in various lines design'd1 ,express'd the meaning of the thinking mind2 ,the power of words by figures rude conveyed1 ,and useful science everlasting made4 ,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 iii1 l4 #ccd4 #ah4 ,some1 however1 seem willing to think writing coeval with speech4 ,thus ,bicknell1 from ,martin's ,physico-,grammatical ,essay3 ,we are told by ,moses1 that ,adam gave names to every living creature2#bc but how those names were written1 or what sort of characters he made use of1 is not known to us2 nor indeed whether ,adam ever made use of a written language at all2 since we find no mention made of any in the sacred history4--,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #e4 ,a certain late writer on ,english grammar1 with admirable flippancy1 cuts this matter short1 as follows1--satisfying himself with pronouncing all speech to be natural1 and all writing artificial3 ,of how many primary kinds is language8 ,it is of two kinds2 natural or spoken1 and artificial or written4--,oliver ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,natural language is1 to a limited extent1 7the representation of the passions17 common to brutes as well as man2 but artificial language1 being the work of invention1 is peculiar to man4--,ib41 p4 #af4bd #ai4 ,the writings delivered to the ,israelites by ,moses1 are more ancient than any others now known4 ,in the thirty-first chapter of ,exodus1 it is said1 that ,god gave unto ,moses1 upon ,mount ,sinai1 two tables of testimony1 tables of stone1 written with the finger of ,god4 ,and again1 in the thirty-second3 ,the tables were the work of ,god1 and the writing was the writing of ,god1 graven upon the tables4 ,but these divine testimonies1 thus miraculously written1 do not appear to have been the first writing2 for ,moses had been previously commanded to write an account of the victory over ,amalek1 for a memorial in a book1 and rehearse it in the ears of ,joshua4--,exod41 xvii1 #ad4 ,this first battle of the ,israelites occurred in ,rephidim1 a place on the east side of the western gulf of the ,red ,sea1 at or near ,horeb1 but before they came to ,sinai1 upon the top of which1 7on the fiftieth day after their departure from ,egypt17 ,moses received the ten commandments of the law4 #bj4 ,some authors1 however1 among whom is ,dr4 ,adam ,clarke1 suppose that in this instance the order of the events is not to be inferred from the order of the record1 or that there is room to doubt whether the use of letters was here intended2 and that there consequently remains a strong probability1 that the sacred ,decalogue1 which ,god himself delivered to ,moses on ,sinai1 ,a4 ,m4 #beac1 ,b4 ,c4 #adia1 was the first writing in alphabetical characters ever exhibited to the world4 ,see ,clarke's ,succession of ,sacred ,literature1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bd4 ,dr4 ,scott1 in his ,general ,preface to the ,bible1 seems likewise to favour the same opinion4 ,indeed1 says he1 there is some probability in the opinion1 that the art of writing was first communicated by revelation1 to ,moses1 in order to perpetuate1 with certainty1 those facts1 truths1 and laws1 which he was employed to deliver to ,israel4 ,learned men find no traces of literary1 or alphabetical1 writing1 in the history of the nations1 till long after the days of ,moses2 unless the book of ,job may be regarded as an exception4 ,the art of expressing almost an infinite variety of sounds1 by the interchanges of a few letters1 or marks1 seems more like a discovery to man from heaven1 than a human invention2 and its beneficial effects1 and almost absolute necessity1 for the preservation and communication of true religion1 favour the conjecture4--,scott's ,preface1 p4 xiv4 #ba4 ,the time at which ,cadmus1 the ,phoenician1 introduced this art into ,greece1 cannot be precisely ascertained4 ,there is no reason to believe it was antecedent to the time of ,moses2 some chronologists make it between two and three centuries later4 ,nor is it very probable1 that ,cadmus invented the sixteen letters of which he is said to have made use4 ,his whole story is so wild a fable1 that nothing certain can be inferred from it4 ,searching in vain for his stolen sister--his sister ,europa1 carried off by ,jupiter--he found a wife in the daughter of ,venus6 ,sowing the teeth of a dragon1 which had devoured his companions1 he saw them spring up to his aid a squadron of armed soldiers6 ,in short1 after a series of wonderful achievements and bitter misfortunes1 loaded with grief and infirm with age1 he prayed the gods to release him from the burden of such a life2 and1 in pity from above1 both he and his beloved ,hermon were changed into serpents6 ,history1 however1 has made him generous amends1 by ascribing to him the invention of letters1 and accounting him the worthy benefactor to whom the world owes all the benefits derived from literature4 ,i would not willingly rob him of this honour4 ,but ,i must confess1 there is no feature of the story1 which ,i can conceive to give any countenance to his claim2 except that as the great progenitor of the race of authors1 his sufferings correspond well with the calamities of which that unfortunate generation have always so largely partaken4 #bb4 ,the benefits of this invention1 if it may be considered an invention1 are certainly very great4 ,in oral discourse the graces of elegance are more lively and attractive1 but well-written books are the grand instructors of mankind1 the most enduring monuments of human greatness1 and the proudest achievements of human intellect4 ,the chief glory of a nation1 says ,dr4 ,johnson1 arises from its authors4 ,literature is important1 because it is subservient to all objects1 even those of the very highest concern4 ,religion and morality1 liberty and government1 fame and happiness1 are alike interested in the cause of letters4 ,it was a saying of ,pope ,pius the ,second1 that1 ,common men should esteem learning as silver1 noblemen value it as gold1 and princes prize it as jewels4 ,the uses of learning are seen in every thing that is not itself useless4#be ,it cannot be overrated1 but where it is perverted2 and whenever that occurs1 the remedy is to be sought by opposing learning to learning1 till the truth is manifest1 and that which is reprehensible1 is made to appear so4 #bc4 ,i have said1 learning cannot be overrated1 but where it is perverted4 ,but men may differ in their notions of what learning is2 and1 consequently1 of what is1 or is not1 a perversion of it4 ,and so far as this point may have reference to theology1 and the things of ,god1 it would seem that the ,spirit of ,god alone can fully show us its bearings4 ,if the illumination of the ,spirit is necessary to an understanding and a reception of scriptural truth1 is it not by an inference more erudite than reasonable1 that some great men have presumed to limit to a verbal medium the communications of ,him who is everywhere ,his own witness1 and who still gives to ,his own holy oracles all their peculiar significance and authority8 ,some seem to think the ,almighty has never given to men any notion of ,himself1 except by words4 ,many ideas1 says the celebrated ,edmund ,burke1 have never been at all presented to the senses of any men but by words1 as ,god1#bf angels1 devils1 heaven1 and hell1 all of which have however a great influence over the passions4--,on the ,sublime and the ,beautiful1 p4 #ig4 ,that ,god can never reveal facts or truths except by words1 is a position with which ,i am by no means satisfied4 ,of the great truths of ,christianity1 ,dr4 ,wayland1 in his ,elements of ,moral ,science1 repeatedly avers1 ,all these being facts1 can never be known1 except by language1 that is1 by revelation4--,first ,edition1 p4 #acb4 ,again3 ,all of them being of the nature of facts1 they could be made known to man in no other way than by language4--,ib41 p4 #acf4 ,but it should be remembered1 that these same facts were otherwise made known to the prophets2 7#a ,pet41 i1 #aa27 and that which has been done1 is not impossible1 whether there is reason to expect it again or not4 ,so of the ,bible1 ,calvin says1 ,no man can have the least knowledge of true and sound doctrine1 without having been a disciple of the ,scripture4-- ,institutes1 ,b4 i1 ,ch4 #f4 ,had ,adam1 ,abel1 ,enoch1 ,noah1 and ,abraham1 then1 no such knowledge8 ,and if such they had1 what ,scripture taught them8 ,we ought to value the ,scriptures too highly to say of them any thing that is unscriptural4 ,i am1 however1 very far from supposing there is any other doctrine which can be safely substituted for the truths revealed of old1 the truths contained in the ,holy ,scriptures of the ,old and ,new ,testaments3 ,left only in those written records pure1 ,though not but by the ,spirit understood4 #bg--,milton4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,of ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,language4 ,quis huic studio literarum1 quod profitentur ii1 qui grammatici vocantur1 penitus se dedidit1 quin omnem illarum artium pne infinitam vim et materiam scienti cogitatione comprehenderit8--,,cicero4 ,de ,oratore1 ,lib4 i1 #c4 #a4 ,the peculiar power of language is another point worthy of particular consideration4 ,the power of an instrument is virtually the power of him who wields it2 and1 as language is used in common1 by the wise and the foolish1 the mighty and the impotent1 the candid and the crafty1 the righteous and the wicked1 it may perhaps seem to the reader a difficult matter1 to speak intelligibly of its peculiar power4 ,i mean1 by this phrase1 its fitness or efficiency to or for the accomplishment of the purposes for which it is used4 ,as it is the nature of an agent1 to be the doer of something1 so it is the nature of an instrument1 to be that with which something is effected4 ,to make signs1 is to do something1 and1 like all other actions1 necessarily implies an agent2 so all signs1 being things by means of which other things are represented1 are obviously the instruments of such representation4 ,words1 then1 which represent thoughts1 are things in themselves2 but1 as signs1 they are relative to other things1 as being the instruments of their communication or preservation4 ,they are relative also to him who utters them1 as well as to those who may happen to be instructed or deceived by them4 ,was it ,mirabeau1 ,mr4 ,president1 or what other master of the human passions1 who has told us that words are things8 ,they are indeed things1 and things of mighty influence1 not only in addresses to the passions and high-wrought feelings of mankind1 but in the discussion of legal and political questions also2 because a just conclusion is often avoided1 or a false one reached1 by the adroit substitution of one phrase or one word for an other4--,daniel ,webster1 in ,congress1 #ahcc4 #b4 ,to speak1 is a moral action1 the quality of which depends upon the motive1 and for which we are strictly accountable4 ,but ,i say unto you1 that every idle word that men shall speak1 they shall give account thereof in the day of judgement2 for by thy words thou shalt be justified1 and by thy words thou shalt be condemned4--,matt41 xii1 #cf1 #cg4 ,to listen1 or to refuse to listen1 is a moral action also2 and there is meaning in the injunction1 ,take heed what ye hear4--,mark1 iv1 #bd4 ,but why is it1 that so much of what is spoken or written1 is spoken or written in vain8 ,is language impotent8 ,it is sometimes employed for purposes with respect to which it is utterly so2 and often they that use it1 know not how insignificant1 absurd1 or ill-meaning a thing they make of it4 ,what is said1 with whatever inherent force or dignity1 has neither power nor value to him who does not understand it2#bh and1 as ,professor ,duncan observes1 ,no word can be to any man the sign of an idea1 till that idea comes to have a real existence in his mind4--,logic1 p4 #fb4 ,in instruction1 therefore1 speech ought not to be regarded as the foundation or the essence of knowledge1 but as the sign of it2 for knowledge has its origin in the power of sensation1 or reflection1 or consciousness1 and not in that of recording or communicating thought4 ,dr4 ,spurzheim was not the first to suggest1 ,it is time to abandon the immense error of supposing that words and precepts are sufficient to call internal feelings and intellectual faculties into active exercise4--,spurzheim's ,treatise on ,education1 p4 #id4 #c4 ,but to this it may be replied1 ,when ,god wills1 the signs of knowledge are knowledge2 and words1 when he gives the ability to understand them1 may1 in some sense1 become--spirit and life4 ,see ,john1 vi1 #fc4 ,where competent intellectual faculties exist1 the intelligible signs of thought do move the mind to think2 and to think sometimes with deep feelings too1 whether of assent or dissent1 of admiration or contempt4 ,so wonderful a thing is a rational soul1 that it is hard to say to what ends the language in which it speaks1 may1 or may not1 be sufficient4 ,let experience determine4 ,we are often unable to excite in others the sentiments which we would3 words succeed or fail1 as they are received or resisted4 ,but let a scornful expression be addressed to a passionate man1 will not the words call internal feelings into action8 ,and how do feelings differ from thoughts8#bi ,hear ,dr4 ,james ,rush3 ,the human mind is the place of representation of all the existences of nature which are brought within the scope of the senses4 ,the representatives are called ideas4 ,these ideas are the simple passive pictures of things1 or else they exist with an activity1 capable of so affecting the physical organs as to induce us to seek the continuance of that which produces them1 or to avoid it4 ,this active or vivid class of ideas comprehends the passions4 ,the functions of the mind here described1 exist then in different forms and degrees1 from the simple idea1 to the highest energy of passion3 and the terms1 thought1 sentiment1 emotion1 feeling1 and passion1 are but the verbal signs of these degrees and forms4 ,nor does there appear to be any line of classification1 for separating thought from passion3 since simple thoughts1 without changing their nature1 do1 from interest or incitement1 often assume the colour of passion4--,philosophy of the ,human ,voice1 p4 #cbh4 #d4 ,lord ,kames1 in the ,appendix to his ,elements of ,criticism1 divides the senses into external and internal1 defining perception to be the act by which through the former we know outward objects1 and consciousness the act by which through the latter we know what is within the mind4 ,an idea1 according to his definition1 7which he says is precise and accurate17 is1 ,that perception of a real object which is raised in the mind by the power of memory4 ,but among the real objects from which memory may raise ideas1 he includes the workings of the mind itself1 or whatever we remember of our former passions1 emotions1 thoughts1 or designs4 ,such a definition1 he imagines1 might have saved ,locke1 ,berkley1 and their followers1 from much vain speculation2 for with the ideal systems of these philosophers1 or with those of ,aristotle and ,des ,cartes1 he by no means coincides4 ,this author says1 ,as ideas are the chief materials employed in reasoning and reflecting1 it is of consequence that their nature and differences be understood4 ,it appears now that ideas may be distinguished into three kinds3 first1 ,ideas derived from original perceptions1 properly termed ideas of memory2 second1 ,ideas communicated by language or other signs2 and third1 ,ideas of imagination4 ,these ideas differ from each other in many respects2 but chiefly in respect to their proceeding from different causes4 ,the first kind is derived from real existences that have been objects of our senses2 language is the cause of the second1 or any other sign that has the same power with language2 and a man's imagination is to himself the cause of the third4 ,it is scarce ly necessary to add1 that an idea1 originally of imagination1 being conveyed to others by language or any other vehicle1 becomes in their mind an idea of the second kind2 and again1 that an idea of this kind1 being afterwards recalled to the mind1 becomes in that circumstance an idea of memory4--,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #chd4 #e4 ,whether1 or how far1 language is to the mind itself the instrument of thought1 is a question of great importance in the philosophy of both4 ,our literature contains occasional assertions bearing upon this point1 but ,i know of no full or able discussion of it4#cj ,cardell's instructions proceed upon the supposition1 that neither the reason of men1 nor even that of superior intelligences1 can ever operate independently of words4 ,speech1 says he1 is to the mind what action is to animal bodies4 ,its improvement is the improvement of our intellectual nature1 and a duty to ,god who gave it4--,essay on ,language1 p4 #c4 ,again3 ,an attentive investigation will show1 that there is no way in which the individual mind can1 within itself1 to any extent1 combine its ideas1 but by the intervention of words4 ,every process of the reasoning powers1 beyond the immediate perception of sensible objects1 depends on the structure of speech2 and1 in a great degree1 according to the excellence of this chief instrument of all mental operations1 will be the means of personal improvement1 of the social transmission of thought1 and the elevation of national character4 ,from this1 it may be laid down as a broad principle1 that no individual can make great advances in intellectual improvement1 beyond the bounds of a ready-formed language1 as the necessary means of his progress4--,ib41 p4 #i4 ,these positions might easily be offset by contrary speculations of minds of equal rank2 but ,i submit them to the reader1 with the single suggestion1 that the author is not remarkable for that sobriety of judgement which gives weight to opinions4 #f4 ,we have seen1 among the citations in a former chapter1 that ,sanctius says1 ,names are the signs1 and as it were the instruments1 of things4 ,but what he meant by instrumenta rerum is not very apparent4 ,dr4 ,adam says1 ,the principles of grammar may be traced from the progress of the mind in the acquisition of language4 ,children first express their feelings by motions and gestures of the body1 by cries and tears4 ,this is#ca the language of nature1 and therefore universal4 ,it fitly represents#cb the quickness of sentiment and thought1 which are as instantaneous as the impression of light on the eye4 ,hence we always express our stronger feelings by these natural signs4 ,but when we want to make known to others the particular conceptions of the mind1 we must represent them by parts1 we must divide and analyze them4 ,we express each part by certain signs1#cc and join these together1 according to the order of their relations4 ,thus words are both the instrument and signs#cd the division of thought4--,preface to ,latin ,gram4 #g4 ,the utterance of words1 or the making of signs of any sort1 requires time2#ce but it is here suggested by ,dr4 ,adam1 that sentiment and thought1 though susceptible of being retained or recalled1 naturally flash upon the mind with immeasurable quickness4#cf ,if so1 they must originate in something more spiritual than language4 ,the ,doctor does not affirm that words are the instruments of thought1 but of the division of thought4 ,but it is manifest1 that if they effect this1 they are not the only instruments by means of which the same thing may be done4 ,the deaf and dumb1 though uninstructed and utterly ignorant of language1 can think2 and can1 by rude signs of their own inventing1 manifest a similar division1 corresponding to the individuality of things4 ,and what else can be meant by the division of thought1 than our notion of objects1 as existing severally1 or as being distinguishable into parts8 ,there can1 ,i think1 be no such division respecting that which is perfectly pure and indivisible in its essence2 and1 ,i would ask1 is not simple continuity apt to exclude it from our conception of every thing which appears with uniform coherence8 ,dr4 ,beattie says1 ,it appears to me1 that1 as all things are individuals1 all thoughts must be so too4--,moral ,science1 ,chap1 i1 ,sec4 #a4 ,if1 then1 our thoughts are thus divided1 and consequently1 as this author infers1 have not in themselves any of that generality which belongs to the signification of common nouns1 there is little need of any instrument to divide them further3 the mind rather needs help1 as ,cardell suggests1 to combine its ideas4 #cg #h4 ,so far as language is a work of art1 and not a thing conferred or imposed upon us by nature1 there surely can be in it neither division nor union that was not first in the intellect for the manifestation of which it was formed4 ,first1 with respect to generalization4 ,the human mind1 says ,harris1 by an energy as spontaneous and familiar to its nature1 as the seeing of colour is familiar to the eye1 discerns at once what in many is one1 what in things dissimilar and different is similar and the same4--,hermes1 p4 #cfb4 ,secondly1 with respect to division4 ,mechanical separations are limited3 ,but the mind surmounts all power of concretion2 and can place in the simplest manner every attribute by itself2 convex without concave2 colour without superficies2 superficies without body2 and body without its accidents3 as distinctly each one1 as though they had never been united4 ,and thus it is1 that it penetrates into the recesses of all things1 not only dividing them as wholes1 into their more conspicuous parts1 but persisting till it even separate those elementary principles which1 being blended together after a more mysterious manner1 are united in the minutest part as much as in the mightiest whole4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #cjg4 #i4 ,it is remarkable that this philosopher1 who had so sublime conceptions of the powers of the human mind1 and who has displayed such extraordinary acuteness in his investigations1 has represented the formation of words1 or the utterance of language1 as equalling in speed the progress of our very thoughts2 while1 as we have seen1 an other author1 of great name1 avers1 that thought is as instantaneous as the impression of light on the eye4 ,philosophy here too evidently nods4 ,in showing the advantage of words1 as compared with pictures1 ,harris says1 ,if we consider the ease and speed with which words are formed1-an ease which knows no trouble or fatigue1 and a speed which equals the progress of our very thoughts1#ch--we may plainly perceive an answer to the question here proposed1 ,why1 in the common intercourse of men with men1 imitations have been rejected1 and symbols preferred4--,hermes1 p4 #ccf4 ,let us hear a third man1 of equal note3 ,words have been called winged2 and they well deserve that name1 when their abbreviations are compared with the progress which speech could make without these inventions2 but1 compared with the rapidity of thought1 they have not the smallest claim to that title4 ,philosophers have calculated the difference of velocity between sound and light2 but who will attempt to calculate the difference between speech and thought6--,horne ,tooke's ,epea ,pteroenta1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bc4 #aj4 ,it is certain1 that1 in the admirable economy of the creation1 natures subordinate are made1 in a wonderful manner1 subservient to the operations of the higher2 and that1 accordingly1 our first ideas are such as are conceived of things external and sensible4 ,hence all men whose intellect appeals only to external sense1 are prone to a philosophy which reverses the order of things pertaining to the mind1 and tends to materialism1 if not to atheism4 ,but--to refer again to ,harris--the intellectual scheme which never forgets ,deity1 postpones every thing corporeal to the primary mental ,cause4 ,it is here it looks for the origin of intelligible ideas1 even of those which exist in human capacities4 ,for though sensible objects may be the destined medium to awaken the dormant energies of man's understanding1 yet are those energies themselves no more contained1 in sense1 than the explosion of a cannon1 in the spark which gave it fire4 ,in short1 all minds that are1 are similar and congenial2 and so too are their ideas1 or intelligible forms4 ,were it otherwise1 there could be no intercourse between man and man1 or 7what is more important7 between man and ,god4--,hermes1 p4 #cic4 #aa4 ,a doctrine somewhat like this1 is found in the ,meditations of the emperor ,marcus ,aurelius ,antoninus1 though apparently repugnant to the polytheism commonly admitted by the ,stoics1 to whom he belonged3 ,the world1 take it all together1 is but one2 there is but one sort of matter to make it of1 one ,god to govern it1 and one law to guide it4 ,for1 run through the whole system of rational beings1 and you will find reason and truth but single and the same4 ,and thus beings of the same kind1 and endued with the same reason1 are made happy by the same exercises of it4--,book vii1 ,sec4 #i4 ,again3 ,let your soul receive the ,deity as your blood does the air2 for the influences of the one are no less vital1 than those of the other4 ,this correspondence is very practicable3 for there is an ambient omnipresent ,spirit1 which lies as open and pervious to your mind1 as the air you breathe does to your lungs3 but then you must remember to be disposed to draw it4--,book viii1 ,sec4 #ed2 ,collier's ,translation4 #ab4 ,agreeably to these views1 except that he makes a distinction between a natural and a supernatural idea of ,god1 we find ,barclay1 the early defender of the ,quakers1 in an argument with a certain ,dutch nobleman1 philosophizing thus3 ,if the ,scripture then be true1 there is in men a supernatural idea of ,god1 which altogether differs from this natural idea--,i say1 in all men2 because all men are capable of salvation1 and consequently of enjoying this divine vision4 ,now this capacity consisteth herein1 that they have such a supernatural idea in themselves4#ci ,for if there were no such idea in them1 it were impossible they should so know ,god2 for whatsoever is clearly and distinctly known1 is known by its proper idea2 neither can it otherwise be clearly and distinctly known4 ,for the ideas of all things are divinely planted in our souls2 for1 as the better philosophy teacheth1 they are not begotten in us by outward objects or outward causes1 but only are by these outward things excited or stirred up4 ,and this is true1 not only in supernatural ideas of ,god and things divine1 and in natural ideas of the natural principles of human understanding1 and conclusions thence deduced by the strength of human reason2 but even in the ideas of outward objects1 which are perceived by the outward senses3 as that noble ,christian philosopher ,bothius hath well observed2 to which also the ,cartesian philosophy agreeth4 ,i quote only to show the concurrence of others1 with ,harris's position4 ,barclay carries on his argument with much more of a similar import4 ,see ,sewell's ,history1 folio1 p4 #fbj4 #ac4 ,but the doctrine of ideas existing primarily in ,god1 and being divinely planted in our souls1 did not originate with ,bothius3 it may be traced back a thousand years from his time1 through the philosophy of ,proclus1 ,zeno1 ,aristotle1#dj ,plato1 ,socrates1 ,parmenides1 and ,pythagoras4 ,it is absurd to suppose any production or effect to be more excellent than its cause4 ,that which really produces motion1 cannot itself be inert2 and that which actually causes the human mind to think and reason1 cannot itself be devoid of intelligence4 ,for knowledge can alone produce knowledge4 #da ,a doctrine apparently at variance with this1 has recently been taught1 with great confidence1 among the professed discoveries of ,phrenology4 ,how much truth there may be in this new science1 as it is called1 ,i am not prepared to say2 but1 as sometimes held forth1 it seems to me not only to clash with some of the most important principles of mental philosophy1 but to make the power of thought the result of that which is in itself inert and unthinking4 ,assuming that the primitive faculties of the human understanding have not been known in earlier times1 it professes to have discovered1 in the physical organization of the brain1 their proper source1 or essential condition1 and the true index to their measure1 number1 and distribution4 ,in short1 the leading phrenologists1 by acknowledging no spiritual substance1 virtually deny that ancient doctrine1 ,it is not in flesh to think1 or bones to reason1 #db and make the mind either a material substance1 or a mere mode without substantial being4 #ad4 ,the doctrine of immaterial substances1 says ,dr4 ,spurzheim1 is not sufficiently amenable to the test of observation2 it is founded on belief1 and only supported by hypothesis4--,phrenology1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bj4 ,but it should be remembered1 that our notion of material substance1 is just as much a matter of hypothesis4 ,all accidents1 whether they be qualities or actions1 we necessarily suppose to have some support2 and this we call substance1 deriving the term from the ,latin1 or hypostasis1 if we choose to borrow from the ,greek4 ,but what this substance1 or hypostasis1 is1 independently of its qualities or actions1 we know not4 ,this is clearly proved by ,locke4 ,what do we mean by matter8 and what by mind8 ,matter is that which is solid1 extended1 divisible1 movable1 and occupies space4 ,mind is that which thinks1 and wills1 and reasons1 and remembers1 and worships4 ,here are qualities in the one case2 operations in the other4 ,here are two definitions as totally distinct as any two can be2 and he that sees not in them a difference of substance1 sees it nowhere3 to him all natures are one2 and that one1 an absurd supposition4 #ae4 ,in favour of what is urged by the phrenologists1 it may perhaps be admitted1 as a natural law1 that1 ,if a picture of a visible object be formed upon the retina1 and the impression be communicated1 by the nerves1 to the brain1 the result will be an act of perception4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #d4 ,but it does not follow1 nor did the writer of this sentence believe1 that perception is a mere act or attribute of the organized matter of the brain4 ,a material object can only occasion in our sensible organs a corporeal motion1 which has not in it the nature of thought or perception2 and upon what principle of causation1 shall a man believe1 in respect to vision1 that the thing which he sees1 is more properly the cause of the idea conceived of it1 than is the light by which he beholds it1 or the mind in which that idea is formed8 ,lord ,kames avers1 that1 ,colour1 which appears to the eye as spread upon a substance1 has no existence but in the mind of the spectator4--,elements of ,criticism1 i1 #agh4 ,and ,cicero placed the perception1 not only of colour1 but of taste1 of sound1 of smell1 and of touch1 in the mind1 rather than in the senses4 ,illud est album1 hoc dulce1 canorum illud1 hoc bene olens1 hoc asperum3 animo jam hc tenemus comprehensa1 non sensibus4--,ciceronis ,acad4 ,lib4 ii1 #g4 ,dr4 ,beattie1 however1 says3 ,colours inhere not in the coloured body1 but in the light that falls upon it2 99 99 99 and the word colour denotes1 an external thing1 and never a sensation of the mind4--,moral ,science1 i1 #ed4 ,here is some difference of opinion2 but however the thing may be1 it does not affect my argument2 which is1 that to perceive or think is an act or attribute of our immaterial substance or nature1 and not to be supposed the effect either of the objects perceived or of our own corporeal organization4 #af4 ,divine wisdom has established the senses as the avenues through which our minds shall receive notices of the forms and qualities of external things2 but the sublime conception of the ancients1 that these forms and qualities had an abstract prexistence in the divine mind1 is a common doctrine of many ,english authors1 as ,milton1 ,cowper1 ,akenside1 and others4 ,for example3 ,now if ,ens primum be the cause of entia a primo1 then he hath the idea of them in him3 for he made them by counsel1 and not by necessity2 for then he should have needed them1 and they have a parhelion of that wisdom that is in his ,idea4--,richardson's ,logic1 p4 #af3 ,lond4 #afeg4 ,then the ,great ,spirit1 whom his works adore1 ,within his own deep essence view'd the forms1 ,the forms eternal of created things4--,,akenside4 ,pleasures of the ,imagination1 ,book i4 ,and in the school of sacred wisdom taught1 ,to read his wonders1 in whose thought the world1 ,fair as it is1 existed ere it was4--,,cowper4 ,task3 ,winter ,morning ,walk1 p4 #aej4 ,thence to behold this new-created world1 ,the addition of his empire1 how it show'd ,in prospect from his throne1 how good1 how fair1 ,answering his great idea4--,,milton4 ,paradise ,lost1 ,book vii1 line #eed4 ,thought shines from ,god as shines the morn2 ,language from kindling thought is born4 ,,anon43 a ,poem in imitation of ,coleridge4 #ag4 ,original ,truth1 #dc says ,harris1 having the most intimate connection with the ,supreme ,intelligence1 may be said 7as it were7 to shine with unchangeable splendor1 enlightening throughout the universe every possible subject1 by nature susceptible of its benign influence4 ,passions and other obstacles may prevent indeed its efficacy1 as clouds and vapours may obscure the sun2 but itself neither admits diminution1 nor change1 because the darkness respects only particular percipients4 ,among these therefore we must look for ignorance and error1 and for that subordination of intelligence which is their natural consequence4 ,partial views1 the imperfections of sense2 inattention1 idleness1 the turbulence of passions2 education1 local sentiments1 opinions1 and belief2 conspire in many instances to furnish us with ideas1 some too partial1 and 7what is worse than all this7 with many that are erroneous1 and contrary to truth4 ,these it behoves us to correct as far as possible1 by cool suspense and candid examination4 ,thus by a connection perhaps little expected1 the cause of ,letters1 and that of ,virtue1 appear to coincide2 it being the business of both1 to examine our ideas1 and to amend them by the standard of nature and of truth4--,see ,hermes1 p4 #djf4 #ah4 ,although it seems plain from our own consciousness1 that the mind is an active self-moving principle or essence1 yet capable of being moved1 after its own manner1 by other causes outward as well as inward2 and although it must be obvious to reflection1 that all its ideas1 perceptions1 and emotions1 are1 with respect to itself1 of a spiritual nature--bearing such a relation to the spiritual substance in which alone they appear1 as bodily motion is seen to bear to material substances2 yet we know1 from experience and observation1 that they who are acquainted with words1 are apt to think in words--that is1 mentally to associate their internal conceptions with the verbal signs which they have learned to use4 ,and though ,i do not conceive the position to be generally true1 that words are to the mind itself the necessary instruments of thought1 yet1 in my apprehension1 it cannot well be denied1 that in some of its operations and intellectual reaches1 the mind is greatly assisted by its own contrivances with respect to language4 ,i refer not now to the communication of knowledge2 for1 of this1 language is admitted to be properly the instrument4 ,but there seem to be some processes of thought1 or calculation1 in which the mind1 by a wonderful artifice in the combination of terms1 contrives to prevent embarrassment1 and help itself forward in its conceptions1 when the objects before it are in themselves perhaps infinite in number or variety4 #ai4 ,we have an instance of this in numeration4 ,no idea is more obvious or simple than that of unity1 or one4 ,by the continual addition of this1 first to itself to make two1 and then to each higher combination successively1 we form a series of different numbers1 which may go on to infinity4 ,in the consideration of these1 the mind would not be able to go tar without the help of words1 and those peculiarly fitted to the purpose4 ,the understanding would lose itself in the multiplicity1 were it not aided by that curious concatenation of names1 which has been contrived for the several parts of the succession4 ,as far as twelve we make use of simple unrelated terms4 ,thenceforward we apply derivatives and compounds1 formed from these in their regular order1 till we arrive at a hundred4 ,this one new word1 hundred1 introduced to prevent confusion1 has nine hundred and ninety-nine distinct repetitions in connexion with the preceding terms1 and thus brings us to a thousand4 ,here the computation begins anew1 runs through all the former combinations1 and then extends forward1 till the word thousand has been used nine hundred and ninety-nine thousand times2 and then1 for ten hundred thousand1 we introduce the new word million4 ,with this name we begin again as before1 and proceed till we have used it a million of times1 each combination denoting a number clearly distinguished from every other2 and then1 in like manner1 we begin and proceed1 with billions1 trillions1 quadrillions1 quintillions1 etc41 to any extent we please4 #bj4 ,now can any one suppose that words are not here1 in some true sense1 the instruments of thought1 or of the intellectual process thus carried on8 ,were all these different numbers to be distinguished directly by the mind itself1 and denominated by terms destitute of this artificial connexion1 it may well be doubted whether the greatest genius in the world would ever be able to do what any child may now effect by this orderly arrangement of words2 that is1 to distinguish exactly the several stages of this long progression1 and see at a glance how far it is from the beginning of the series4 ,the great art of knowledge1 says ,duncan1 lies in managing with skill the capacity of the intellect1 and contriving such helps1 as1 if they strengthen not its natural powers1 may yet expose them to no unnecessary fatigue4 ,when ideas become very complex1 and by the multiplicity of their parts grow too unwieldy to be dealt with in the lump1 we must ease the view of the mind by taking them to pieces1 and setting before it the several portions separately1 one after an other4 ,by this leisurely survey we are enabled to take in the whole2 and if we can draw it into such an orderly combination as will naturally lead the attention1 step by step1 in any succeeding consideration of the same idea1 we shall have it ever at command1 and with a single glance of thought be able to run over all its parts4--,duncan's ,logic1 p4 #cg1 ,hence we may infer the great importance of method in grammar2 the particulars of which1 as ,quintilian says1 are infinite4#dd #ba4 ,words are in themselves but audible or visible signs1 mere arbitrary symbols1 used1 according to common practice and consent1 as significant of our ideas or thoughts4#de ,but so well are they fitted to be made at will the medium of mental conference1 that nothing else can be conceived to equal them for this purpose4 ,yet it does not follow that they who have the greatest knowledge and command of words1 have all they could desire in this respect4 ,for language is in its own nature but an imperfect instrument1 and even when tuned with the greatest skill1 will often be found inadequate to convey the impression with which the mind may labour4 ,cicero1 that great master of eloquence1 frequently confessed1 or declared1 that words failed him4 ,this1 however1 may be thought to have been uttered as a mere figure of speech2 and some may say1 that the imperfection ,i speak of1 is but an incident of the common weakness or ignorance of human nature2 and that if a man always knew what to say to an other in order to persuade or confute1 to encourage or terrify him1 he would always succeed1 and no insufficiency of this kind would ever be felt or imagined4 ,this also is plausible2 but is the imperfection less1 for being sometimes traceable to an ulterior source8 ,or is it certain that human languages used by perfect wisdom1 would all be perfectly competent to their common purpose8 ,and if some would be found less so than others1 may there not be an insufficiency in the very nature of them all8 #bb4 ,if there is imperfection in any instrument1 there is so much the more need of care and skill in the use of it4 ,duncan1 in concluding his chapter about words as signs of our ideas1 says1 ,it is apparent1 that we are sufficiently provided with the means' of communicating our thoughts one to another2 and that the mistakes so frequently complained of on this head1 are wholly owing to ourselves1 in not sufficiently defining the terms we use2 or perhaps not connecting them with clear and determinate ideas4--,logic1 p4 #fi4 ,on the other hand1 we find that some of the best and wisest of men confess the inadequacy of language1 while they also deplore its misuse4 ,but1 whatever may be its inherent defects1 or its culpable abuses1 it is still to be honoured as almost the only medium for the communication of thought and the diffusion of knowledge4 ,bishop ,butler remarks1 in his ,analogy of ,religion1 7a most valuable work1 though defective in style17 ,so likewise the imperfections attending the only method by which nature enables and directs us to communicate our thoughts to each other1 are innumerable4 ,language is1 in its very nature1 inadequate1 ambiguous1 liable to infinite abuse1 even from negligence2 and so liable to it from design1 that every man can deceive and betray by it4--,part ii1 ,chap4 #c4 ,lord ,kames1 too1 seconds this complaint1 at least in part3 ,lamentable is the imperfection of language1 almost in every particular that falls not under external sense4 ,i am talking of a matter exceedingly clear in the perception1 and yet ,i find no small difficulty to express it clearly in words4--,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hf4 ,all writers1 says ,sheridan1 seem to be under the influence of one common delusion1 that by the help of words alone1 they can communicate all that passes in their minds4--,lectures on ,elocution1 p4 xi4 #bc4 ,addison also1 in apologizing for ,milton's frequent use of old words and foreign idioms1 says1 ,i may further add1 that ,milton's sentiments and ideas were so wonderfully sublime1 that it would have been impossible for him to have represented them in their full strength and beauty1 without having recourse to these foreign assistances4 ,our language sunk under him1 and was unequal to that greatness of soul which furnished him with such glorious conceptions4--,spectator1 ,no4 #big4 ,this1 however1 ,dr4 ,johnson seems to regard as a mere compliment to genius2 for of ,milton he says1 ,the truth is1 that both in prose and verse1 he had formed his style by a perverse and pedantick principle4 ,but the grandeur of his thoughts is not denied by the critic2 nor is his language censured without qualification4 ,whatever be the faults of his diction1 he cannot want the praise of copiousness and variety3 he was master of his language in its full extent2 and has selected the melodious words with such diligence1 that from his book alone the ,art of ,english ,poetry might be learned4-- ,johnson's ,life of ,milton3 ,lives1 p4 #ib4 #bd4 ,as words abstractly considered are empty and vain1 being in their nature mere signs1 or tokens1 which derive all their value from the ideas and feelings which they suggest2 it is evident that he who would either speak or write well1 must be furnished with something more than a knowledge of sounds and letters4 ,words fitly spoken are indeed both precious and beautiful--like apples of gold in pictures of silver4 ,but it is not for him whose soul is dark1 whose designs are selfish1 whose affections are dead1 or whose thoughts are vain1 to say with the son of ,amram1 ,my doctrine shall drop as the rain1 my speech shall distil as the dew2 as the small rain upon the tender herb1 and as the showers upon the grass4--,deut41 xxxii1 #b4 ,it is not for him to exhibit the true excellency of speech1 because he cannot feel its power4 ,it is not for him1 whatever be the theme1 to convince the judgement with deductions of reason1 to fire the imagination with glowing imagery1 or win with graceful words the willing ear of taste4 ,his wisdom shall be silence1 when men are present2 for the soul of manly language1 is the soul that thinks and feels as best becomes a man4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language4 ,non mediocres enim tenebr in sylva1 ubi hc captanda3 neque eon1 quo pervenire volumus semit trit3 neque non in tramitibus qudam objecta1 qu euntem retinere possent4--,,varro4 ,de ,lingua ,latina1 ,lib4 iv1 p4 #d4 #a4 ,in order that we may set a just value upon the literary labours of those who1 in former times1 gave particular attention to the culture of the ,english language1 and that we may the better judge of the credibility of modern pretensions to further improvements1 it seems necessary that we should know something of the course of events through which its acknowledged melioration in earlier days took place4 ,for1 in this case1 the extent of a man's knowledge is the strength of his argument4 ,as ,bacon quotes ,aristotle1 ,qui respiciunt ad pauca1 de facili pronunciant4 ,he that takes a narrow view1 easily makes up his mind4 ,but what is any opinion worth1 if further knowledge of facts can confute it8 #b4 ,whatsoever is successively varied1 or has such a manner of existence as time can affect1 must have had both an origin and a progress2 and may have also its particular history1 if the opportunity for writing it be not neglected4 ,but such is the levity of mankind1 that things of great moment are often left without memorial1 while the hand of ,literature is busy to beguile the world with trifles or with fictions1 with fancies or with lies4 ,the rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations1 till the genius of ,grammar arise to their rescue1 are among those transitory things which unsparing time is ever hurrying away1 irrecoverably1 to oblivion4 ,tradition knows not what they were2 for of their changes she takes no account4 ,philosophy tells us1 they are resolved into the variable1 fleeting breath of the successive generations of those by whom they were spoken2 whose kindred fate it was1 to pass away unnoticed and nameless1 lost in the elements from which they sprung4 #c4 ,upon the history of the ,english language1 darkness thickens as we tread back the course of time4 ,the subject of our inquiry becomes1 at every step1 more difficult and less worthy4 ,we have now a tract of ,english literature1 both extensive and luminous2 and though many modern writers1 and no few even of our writers on grammar1 are comparatively very deficient in style1 it is safe to affirm that the ,english language in general has never been written or spoken with more propriety and elegance1 than it is at the present day4 ,modern ,english we read with facility2 and that which was good two centuries ago1 though considerably antiquated1 is still easily understood4 ,the best way1 therefore1 to gain a practical knowledge of the changes which our language has undergone1 is1 to read some of our older authors in retrograde order1 till the style employed at times more and more remote1 becomes in some degree familiar4 ,pursued in this manner1 the study will be less difficult1 and the labour of the curious inquirer1 which may be suspended or resumed at pleasure1 will be better repaid1 than if he proceed in the order of history1 and attempt at first the ,saxon remains4 #d4 ,the value of a language as an object of study1 depends chiefly on the character of the books which it contains2 and1 secondarily1 on its connexion with others more worthy to be thoroughly known4 ,in this instance1 there are several circumstances which are calculated soon to discourage research4 ,as our language took its rise during the barbarism of the dark ages1 the books through which its early history must be traced1 are not only few and meagre1 but1 in respect to grammar1 unsettled and diverse4 ,it is not to be expected that inquiries of this kind will ever engage the attention of any very considerable number of persons4 ,over the minds of the reading public1 the attractions of novelty hold a much greater influence1 than any thing that is to be discovered in the dusk of antiquity4 ,all old books contain a greater or less number of obsolete words1 and antiquated modes of expression1 which puzzle the reader1 and call him too frequently to his glossary4 ,and even the most common terms1 when they appear in their ancient1 unsettled orthography1 are often so disguised as not to be readily recognized4 #e4 ,these circumstances 7the last of which should be a caution to us against innovations in spelling7 retard the progress of the reader1 impose a labour too great for the ardour of his curiosity1 and soon dispose him to rest satisfied with an ignorance1 which1 being general1 is not likely to expose him to censure4 ,for these reasons1 ancient authors are little read2 and the real antiquary is considered a man of odd habits1 who1 by a singular propensity1 is led into studies both unfashionable and fruitless--a man who ought to have been born in the days of old1 that he might have spoken the language he is so curious to know1 and have appeared in the costume of an age better suited to his taste4 #f4 ,but ,learning is ever curious to explore the records of time1 as well as the regions of space2 and wherever her institutions flourish1 she will amass her treasures1 and spread them before her votaries4 ,difference of languages she easily overcomes2 but the leaden reign of unlettered ,ignorance defies her scrutiny4 ,hence1 of one period of the world's history1 she ever speaks with horror--that long night of apostasy1 during which1 like a lone ,sibyl1 she hid her precious relics in solitary cells1 and fleeing from degraded ,christendom1 sought refuge with the eastern caliphs4 ,this awful decline of true religion in the world carried with it almost every vestige of civil liberty1 of classical literature1 and of scientific knowledge2 and it will generally be found in experience that they must all stand or fall together4--,hints on ,toleration1 p4 #bfc4 ,in the tenth century1 beyond which we find nothing that bears much resemblance to the ,english language as now written1 this mental darkness appears to have gathered to its deepest obscuration2 and1 at that period1 ,england was sunk as low in ignorance1 superstition1 and depravity1 as any other part of ,europe4 #g4 ,the ,english language gradually varies as we trace it back1 and becomes at length identified with the ,anglo-,saxon2 that is1 with the dialect spoken by the ,saxons after their settlement in ,england4 ,these ,saxons were a fierce1 warlike1 unlettered people from ,germany2 whom the ancient ,britons had invited to their assistance against the ,picts and ,scots4 ,cruel and ignorant1 like their ,gothic kindred1 who had but lately overrun the ,roman empire1 they came1 not for the good of others1 but to accommodate themselves4 ,they accordingly seized the country2 destroyed or enslaved the ancient inhabitants2 or1 more probably1 drove the remnant of them into the mountains of ,wales4 ,of ,welsh or ancient ,british words1 ,charles ,bucke1 who says in his grammar that he took great pains to be accurate in his scale of derivation1 enumerates but one hundred and eleven1 as now found in our language2 and ,dr4 ,johnson1 who makes them but ninety-five1 argues from their paucity1 or almost total absence1 that the ,saxons could not have mingled at all with these people1 or even have retained them in vassalage4 #h4 ,the ancient languages of ,france and of the ,british isles are said to have proceeded from an other language yet more ancient1 called the ,celtic2 so that1 from one common source1 are supposed to have sprung the present ,welsh1 the present ,irish1 and the present ,highland ,scotch4#df ,the term ,celtic ,dr4 ,webster defines1 as a noun1 ,the language of the ,celts2 and1 as an adjective1 ,pertaining to the primitive inhabitants of the south and west of ,europe1 or to the early inhabitants of ,italy1 ,gaul1 ,spain1 and ,britain4 ,what unity1 according to this1 there was1 or could have been1 in the ancient ,celtic tongue1 does not appear from books1 nor is it easy to be conjectured4#dg ,many ancient writers sustain this broad application of the term ,celt or ,celts2 which1 according to ,strabo's etymology of it1 means horsemen1 and seems to have been almost as general as our word ,indians4 ,but ,csar informs us that the name was more particularly claimed by the people who1 in his day1 lived in ,france between the ,seine and the ,garonne1 and who by the ,romans were called ,galli1 or ,gauls4 #i4 ,the ,celtic tribes are said to have been the descendants of ,gomer1 the son of ,japhet4 ,the ,english historians agree that the first inhabitants of their island owed their origin and their language to the ,celt1 or ,gauls1 who settled on the opposite shore4 ,julius ,csar1 who invaded ,britain about half a century before the ,christian era1 found the inhabitants ignorant of letters1 and destitute of any history but oral tradition4 ,to this1 however1 they paid great attention1 teaching every thing in verse4 ,some of the ,druids1 it is said in ,csar's ,commentaries1 spent twenty years in learning to repeat songs and hymns that were never committed to writing4 ,these ancient priests1 or diviners1 are represented as having great power1 and as exercising it in some respects beneficially2 but their horrid rites1 with human sacrifices1 provoked the ,romans to destroy them4 ,smollett says1 ,tiberius suppressed those human sacrifices in ,gaul2 and ,claudius destroyed the ,druids of that country2 but they subsisted in ,britain till the reign of ,nero1 when ,paulus ,suetonius reduced the island of ,anglesey1 which was the place of their retreat1 and overwhelmed them with such unexpected and sudden destruction1 that all their knowledge and tradition1 conveyed to them in the songs of their predecessors1 perished at once4--,smollett's ,hist4 of ,eng41 #dto1 ,b4 i1 ,ch4 i1 #g4 #aj4 ,the ,romans considered ,britain a province of their empire1 for a period of about five hundred years2 but the northern part of the island was never entirely subdued by them1 and not till ,anno ,domini #gh1 a hundred and thirty-three years after their first invasion of the country1 had they completed their conquest of ,england4 ,letters and arts1 so far at least as these are necessary to the purposes of war or government1 the victors carried with them2 and under their auspices some knowledge of ,christianity was1 at a very early period1 introduced into ,britain4 ,but it seems strange1 that after all that is related of their conquests1 settlements1 cities1 fortifications1 buildings1 seminaries1 churches1 laws1 c41 they should at last have left the ,britons in so helpless1 degraded1 and forlorn a condition4 ,they did not sow among them the seeds of any permanent improvement4 #aa4 ,the ,roman government1 being unable to sustain itself at home1 withdrew its forces finally from ,britain in the year #ddf1 leaving the wretched inhabitants almost as savage as it found them1 and in a situation even less desirable4 ,deprived of their native resources1 their ancient independence of spirit1 as well as of the laws1 customs1 institutions1 and leaders1 that had kept them together under their old dynasties1 and now deserted by their foreign protectors1 they were apparently left at the mercy of blind fortune1 the wretched vicissitudes of which there was none to foresee1 none to resist4 ,the glory of the ,romans now passed away4 ,the mighty fabric of their own proud empire crumbled into ruins4 ,civil liberty gave place to barbarism2 ,christian truth1 to papal superstition2 and the lights of science were put out by both4 ,the shades of night gathered over all2 settling and condensing1 till almost every point of that wide horizon1 over which the ,sun of ,righteousness had diffused his cheering rays1 was enveloped in a darkness more awful and more portentous than that which of old descended upon rebellious ,pharaoh and the callous sons of ,ham4--,hints on ,toleration1 p4 #caj4 #ab4 ,the ,saxons entered ,britain in the year #ddi4 ,but what was the form of their language at that time1 cannot now be known4 ,it was a dialect of the ,gothic or ,teutonic2 which is considered the parent of all the northern tongues of ,europe1 except some few of ,sclavonian origin4 ,the only remaining monument of the ,gothic language is a copy of the ,gospels1 translated by ,ulphilas2 which is preserved at ,upsal1 and called1 from its embellishments1 the ,silver ,book4 ,this old work has been three times printed in ,england4 ,we possess not yet in ,america all the advantages which may be enjoyed by literary men in the land of our ancestors2 but the stores of literature1 both ancient and modern1 are somewhat more familiar to us1 than is there supposed2 and the art of printing is fast equalizing1 to all nations that cultivate learning1 the privilege of drinking at its ancient fountains4 #ac4 ,it is neither liberal nor just to argue unfavourably of the intellectual or the moral condition of any remote age or country1 merely from our own ignorance of it4 ,it is true1 we can derive from no quarter a favourable opinion of the state of ,england after the ,saxon invasion1 and during the tumultuous and bloody government of the heptarchy4 ,but ,i will not darken the picture through design4 ,if justice were done to the few names--to ,gildas the wise1 the memorialist of his country's sufferings and censor of the nation's depravity1 who appears a solitary star in the night of the sixth century--to the venerable ,bede1 the greatest theologian1 best scholar1 and only historian of the seventh--to ,alcuin1 the abbot of ,canterbury1 the luminary of the eighth--to ,alfred the great1 the glory of the ninth1 great as a prince1 and greater as a scholar1 seen in the evening twilight of an age in which the clergy could not read2--if justice were done to all such1 we might find something1 even in these dark and rugged times1 if not to soften the grimness of the portrait1 at least to give greater distinctness of feature4 #ad4 ,in tracing the history of our language1 ,dr4 ,johnson1 who does little more than give examples1 cites as his first specimen of ancient ,english1 a portion of king sic--,,kth ,alfred's paraphrase in imitation of ,bothius4 ,but this language of ,alfred's is not ,english2 but rather1 as the learned doctor himself considered it1 an example of the ,anglo-,saxon in its highest state of purity4 ,this dialect was first changed by admixture with words derived from the ,danish and the ,norman2 and1 still being comparatively rude and meagre1 afterwards received large accessions from the ,latin1 the ,french1 the ,greek1 the ,dutch--till1 by gradual changes1 which the etymologist may exhibit1 there was at length produced a language bearing a sufficient resemblance to the present ,english1 to deserve to be called ,english at this day4 #ae4 ,the formation of our language cannot with propriety be dated earlier than the thirteenth century4 ,it was then that a free and voluntary amalgamation of its chief constituent materials took place2 and this was somewhat earlier than we date the revival of learning4 ,the ,english of the thirteenth century is scarcely intelligible to the modern reader4 ,dr4 ,johnson calls it a kind of intermediate diction1 neither ,saxon nor ,english2 and says1 that ,sir ,john ,gower1 who wrote in the latter part of the fourteenth century1 was the first of our authors who can be properly said to have written ,english4 ,contemporary with ,gower1 the father of ,english poetry1 was the still greater poet1 his disciple ,chaucer2 who embraced many of the tenets of ,wickliffe1 and imbibed something of the spirit of the reformation1 which was now begun4 #af4 ,the literary history of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is full of interest2 for it is delightful to trace the progress of great and obvious improvement4 ,the reformation of religion and the revival of learning were nearly simultaneous4 ,yet individuals may have acted a conspicuous part in the latter1 who had little to do with the former2 for great learning does not necessarily imply great piety1 though1 as ,dr4 ,johnson observes1 the ,christian religion always implies or produces a certain degree of civility and learning4--,hist4 ,eng4 ,lang4 before his #dto ,dict4 ,the ordinary instructions of the clergy1 both philosophical and religious1 gradually fell into contempt1 as the ,classics superseded the one1 and the ,holy ,scriptures expelled the other4 ,the first of these changes was effected by the early grammarians of ,europe2 and it gave considerable aid to the reformation1 though it had no immediate connexion with that event4 ,the revival of the ,english ,bible1 however1 completed the work3 and though its appearance was late1 and its progress was retarded in every possible manner1 yet its dispersion was at length equally rapid1 extensive1 and effectual4--,constable's ,miscellany1 ,vol4 xx1 p4 #ge4 #ag4 ,peculiar honour is due to those who lead the way in whatever advances human happiness4 ,and1 surely1 our just admiration of the character of the reformers must be not a little enhanced1 when we consider what they did for letters as well as for the church4 ,learning does not consist in useless jargon1 in a multitude of mere words1 or in acute speculations remote from practice2 else the seventeen folios of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 the angelical doctor of the thirteenth century1 and the profound disputations of his great rival1 ,duns ,scotus the subtle1 for which they were revered in their own age1 had not gained them the contempt of all posterity4 ,from such learning the lucid reasoning of the reformers delivered the halls of instruction4 ,the school divinity of the middle ages passed away before the presence of that which these men learned from the ,bible1 as did in a later age the ,aristotelian philosophy before that which ,bacon drew from nature4 #ah4 ,towards the latter part of the fourteenth century1 ,wickliffe furnished the first entire translation of the ,bible into ,english4 ,in like manner did the ,germans1 a hundred and fifty years after1 receive it in their tongue from the hands of ,luther2 who says1 that at twenty years of age1 he himself had not seen it in any language4 ,wickliffe's ,english style is elegant for the age in which he lived1 yet very different from what is elegant now4 ,this first ,english translation of the ,bible1 being made about a hundred years before the introduction of printing into ,england1 could not have been very extensively circulated4 ,a large specimen of it may be seen in ,dr4 ,johnson's ,history of the ,english ,language4 ,wickliffe died in #achd4 ,the art of printing was invented about #addj1 and first introduced into ,england1 in #adfh2 but the first printed edition of the ,bible in ,english1 was executed in ,germany4 ,it was completed1 ,october #eth1 #aece4 #ai4 ,martin ,luther1 about the year #aeag1 first introduced metrical psalmody into the service of the church1 which not only kept alive the enthusiasm of the reformers1 but formed a rallying point for his followers4 ,this practice spread in all directions2 and it was not long ere six thousand persons were heard singing together at ,st4 ,paul's ,cross in ,london4 ,luther was a poet and musician2 but the same talent existed not in his followers4 ,thirty years afterwards1 ,sternhold versified fifty-one of the ,psalms2 and in #aefb1 with the help of ,hopkins1 he completed the ,psalter4 ,these poetical effusions were chiefly sung to ,german melodies1 which the good taste of ,luther supplied3 but the ,puritans1 in a subsequent age1 nearly destroyed these germs of melody1 assigning as a reason1 that music should be so simplified as to suit all persons1 and that all may join4--,dr4 ,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #bhc4 #bj4 ,the schools and colleges of ,england in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were not governed by a system of education which would render their students very eminent either as scholars or as gentlemen3 and the monasteries1 which were used as seminaries1 even until the reformation1 taught only the corrupt ,latin used by the ecclesiastics4 ,the time however was approaching1 when the united efforts of ,stanbridge1 ,linacre1 ,sir ,john ,cheke1 ,dean ,colet1 ,erasmus1 ,william ,lily1 ,roger ,ascham1 c41 were successful in reviving the ,latin tongue in all its purity2 and even in exciting a taste for ,greek in a nation the clergy of which opposed its introduction with the same vehemence which characterized their enmity to a reformation in religion4 ,the very learned ,erasmus1 the first who undertook the teaching of the ,greek language at ,oxford1 met with few friends to support him2 notwithstanding ,oxford was the seat of nearly all the learning in ,england4--,constable's ,miscellany1 ,vol4 xx1 p4 #adf4 #ba4 ,the priests preached against it1 as a very recent invention of the arch-enemy2 and confounding in their misguided zeal1 the very foundation of their faith1 with the object of their resentment1 they represented the ,new ,testament itself as 'an impious and dangerous book1' because it was written in that heretical language4 ,even after the accession of ,henry ,,viii1 when ,erasmus1 who had quitted ,oxford in disgust1 returned under his especial patronage1 with the support of several eminent scholars and powerful persons1 his progress was still impeded1 and the language opposed4 ,the ,university was divided into parties1 called ,greeks and ,trojans1 the latter being the strongest1 from being favoured by the monks2 and the ,greeks were driven from the streets1 with hisses and other expressions of contempt4 ,it was not therefore until ,henry ,,viii and ,cardinal ,wolsey gave it their positive and powerful protection1 that this persecuted language was allowed to be quietly studied1 even in the institutions dedicated to learning4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 #bb4 ,these curious extracts are adduced to show the spirit of the times1 and the obstacles then to be surmounted in the cause of learning4 ,this popular opposition to ,greek1 did not spring from a patriotic design to prefer and encourage ,english literature2 for the improvement of this was still later1 and the great promoters of it were all of them classical scholars4 ,they wrote in ,english1 not because they preferred it1 but because none but those who were bred in colleges1 could read any thing else2 and1 even to this very day1 the grammatical study of the ,english language is shamefully neglected in what are called the higher institutions of learning4 ,in alleging this neglect1 ,i speak comparatively4 ,every student1 on entering upon the practical business of life1 will find it of far more importance to him1 to be skillful in the language of his own country than to be distinguished for any knowledge which the learned only can appreciate4 ,will the greatest ,mastership in ,greek and ,latin1 or the translating of these ,languages into ,english1 avail for the ,purpose of acquiring an elegant ,english ,style8 ,no--we know just the ,reverse from woeful ,experience6 ,and1 as ,mr4 ,locke and the ,spectator observe1 ,men who have threshed hard at ,greek and ,latin for ten or eleven years together1 are very often deficient in their own ,language4--,preface to the ,british ,gram41 #hvo1 #aghd1 p4 xxi4 #bc4 ,that the progress of ,english literature in early times was slow1 will not seem wonderful to those who consider what is affirmed of the progress of other arts1 more immediately connected with the comforts of life4 ,down to the reign of ,elizabeth1 the greater part of the houses in considerable towns1 had no chimneys3 the fire was kindled against the wall1 and the smoke found its way out as well as it could1 by the roof1 the door1 or the windows4 ,the houses were mostly built of wattling1 plastered over with clay2 and the beds were only straw pallets1 with a log of wood for a pillow4 ,in this respect1 even the king fared no better than his subjects2 for1 in ,henry the ,eighth's time1 we find directions1 'to examine every night the straw of the king's bed1 that no daggers might be concealed therein4' ,a writer in #aegg1 speaking of the progress of luxury1 mentions three things especially1 that were 'marvellously altered for the worse in ,england2' the multitude of chimneys lately erected1 the increase of lodgings1 and the exchange of treen platters into pewter1 and wooden spoons into silver and tin2 and he complains bitterly that oak instead of willow was employed in the building of houses4--,,rev4 ,,royal ,,robbins3 ,outlines of ,history1 p4 #cgg4 #bd4 ,shakspeare appeared in the reign of ,elizabeth2 outlived her thirteen years2 and died in #afaf aged #eb4 ,the ,english language in his hands did not lack power or compass of expression4 ,his writings are now more extensively read1 than any others of that age2 nor has any very considerable part of his phraseology yet become obsolete4 ,but it ought to be known1 that the printers or editors of the editions which are now read1 have taken extensive liberty in modernizing his orthography1 as well as that of other old authors still popular4 ,how far such liberty is justifiable1 it is difficult to say4 ,modern readers doubtless find a convenience in it4 ,it is very desirable that the orthography of our language should be made uniform1 and remain permanent4 ,great alterations cannot be suddenly introduced2 and there is1 in stability1 an advantage which will counterbalance that of a slow approximation to regularity4 ,analogy may sometimes decide the form of variable words1 but the concurrent usage of the learned must ever be respected1 in this1 as in every other part of grammar4 #be4 ,among the earliest of the ,english grammarians1 was ,ben ,jonson1 the poet2 who died in the year #afcg1 at the age of sixty-three4 ,his grammar1 7which ,horne ,tooke mistakingly calls the first as well as the best ,english grammar17 is still extant1 being published in the several editions of his works4 ,it is a small treatise1 and worthy of attention only as a matter of curiosity4 ,it is written in prose1 and designed chiefly for the aid of foreigners4 ,grammar is an unpoetical subject1 and therefore not wisely treated1 as it once very generally was1 in verse4 ,but every poet should be familiar with the art1 because the formal principles of his own have always been considered as embraced in it4 ,to its poets1 too1 every language must needs be particularly indebted2 because their compositions1 being in general more highly finished than works in prose1 are supposed to present the language in its most agreeable form4 ,in the preface to the ,poems of ,edmund ,waller1 published in #afij1 the editor ventures to say1 ,he was1 indeed1 the ,parent of ,english ,verse1 and the first that shewed us our ,tongue had ,beauty and ,numbers in it4 ,our ,language owes more to ,him1 than the ,french does to ,cardinal ,richelieu and the whole ,academy4 99 99 99 99 ,the ,tongue came into ,his hands a rough diamond3 he polished it first2 and to that degree1 that all artists since him have admired the workmanship1 without pretending to mend it4--,british ,poets1 ,vol4 ii1 ,lond41 #ahjj3 ,waller's ,poems1 p4 #d4 #bf4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 however1 in his ,lives of the ,poets1 abates this praise1 that he may transfer the greater part of it to ,dryden and ,pope4 ,he admits that1 ,after about half a century of forced thoughts and rugged metre1 some advances towards nature and harmony had been already made by ,waller and ,denham2 but1 in distributing the praise of this improvement1 he adds1 ,it may be doubted whether ,waller and ,denham could have over-born overborne the prejudices which had long prevailed1 and which even then were sheltered by the protection of ,cowley4 ,the new versification1 as it was called1 may be considered as owing its establishment to ,dryden2 from whose time it is apparent that ,english poetry has had no tendency to relapse to its former savageness4--,johnson's ,life of ,dryden3 ,lives1 p4 #bjf4 ,to ,pope1 as the translator of ,homer1 he gives this praise3 ,his version may be said to have tuned the ,english tongue2 for since its appearance no writer1 however deficient in other powers1 has wanted melody4--,life of ,pope3 ,lives1 p4 #efg4 ,such was the opinion of ,johnson2 but there are other critics who object to the versification of ,pope1 that it is monotonous and cloying4 ,see1 in ,leigh ,hunt's ,feast of the ,poets1 the following couplet1 and a note upon it3 ,but ever since ,pope spoil'd the ears of the town ,with his cuckoo-song verses half up and half down4 #bg4 ,the unfortunate ,charles ,i1 as well as his father ,james ,i1 was a lover and promoter of letters4 ,he was himself a good scholar1 and wrote well in ,english1 for his time3 he ascended the throne in #afbe1 and was beheaded in #afdh4 ,nor was ,cromwell himself1 with all his religious and military enthusiasm1 wholly insensible to literary merit4 ,this century was distinguished by the writings of ,milton1 ,dryden1 ,waller1 ,cowley1 ,denham1 ,locke1 and others2 and the reign of ,charles ,,ii1 which is embraced in it1 has been considered by some the ,augustan age of ,english literature4 ,but that honour1 if it may well be bestowed on any1 belongs rather to a later period4 ,the best works produced in the eighteenth century1 are so generally known and so highly esteemed1 that it would be lavish of the narrow space allowed to this introduction1 to speak particularly of their merits4 ,some grammatical errors may be found in almost all books2 but our language was1 in general1 written with great purity and propriety by ,addison1 ,swift1 ,pope1 ,johnson1 ,lowth1 ,hume1 ,horne1 and many other celebrated authors who flourished in the last century4 ,nor was it much before this period1 that the ,british writers took any great pains to be accurate in the use of their own language2 ,late1 very late1 correctness grew our care1 ,when the tir'd nation breath'd from civil war4--,pope4 #bh4 ,english books began to be printed in the early part of the sixteenth century2 and1 as soon as a taste for reading was formed1 the press threw open the flood-gates of general knowledge1 the streams of which are now pouring forth1 in a copious1 increasing1 but too often turbid tide1 upon all the civilized nations of the earth4 ,this mighty engine afforded a means by which superior minds could act more efficiently and more extensively upon society in general4 ,and thus1 by the exertions of genius adorned with learning1 our native tongue has been made the polished vehicle of the most interesting truths1 and of the most important discoveries2 and has become a language copious1 strong1 refined1 and capable of no inconsiderable degree of harmony4 ,nay1 it is esteemed by some who claim to be competent judges1 to be the strongest1 the richest1 the most elegant1 and the most susceptible of sublime imagery1 of all the languages in the world4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,changes ,,and ,,specimens ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language4 ,quot enim verba1 et nonnunquam in deterius1 hoc1 quo vivimus1 sculo1 partim aliq1 partim null necessitate cogente1 mutata sunt8--,,rob4 ,,ainsworth3 ,lat4 ,dict41 #dto2 ,prf41 p4 xi4 #a4 ,in the use of language1 every one chooses his words from that common stock which he has learned1 and applies them in practice according to his own habits and notions4 ,if the style of different writers of the same age is various1 much greater is the variety which appears in the productions of different ages4 ,hence the date of a book may often be very plausibly conjectured from the peculiarities of its style4 ,as to what is best in itself1 or best adapted to the subject in hand1 every writer must endeavour to become his own judge4 ,he who1 in any sort of composition1 would write with a master's hand1 must first apply himself to books with a scholar's diligence4 ,he must think it worth his while to inform himself1 that he may be critical4 ,desiring to give the student all the advantage1 entertainment1 and satisfaction1 that can be expected from a work of this kind1 ,i shall subjoin a few brief specimens in illustration of what has been said in the foregoing chapter4 ,the order of time will be followed inversely2 and1 as ,saxon characters are not very easily obtained1 or very apt to be read1 the ,roman letters will be employed for the few examples to which the others would be more appropriate4 ,but there are some peculiarities of ancient usage in ,english1 which1 for the information of the young reader1 it is proper in the first place to explain4 #b4 ,with respect to the letters1 there are several changes to be mentioned4 7#a47 ,the pages of old books are often crowded with capitals3 it was at one time the custom to distinguish all nouns1 and frequently verbs1 or any other important words1 by heading them with a great letter4 7#b47 ,the letter ,ess1 of the lower case1 had till lately two forms1 the long and the short1 as tall-s and s2 the former very nearly resembling the small f1 and the latter1 its own capital4 ,the short s was used at the end of words1 and the long tall-s1 in other places2 but the latter is now laid aside1 in favour of the more distinctive form4 7#c47 ,the letters ,i and ,j were formerly considered as one and the same4 ,hence we find hallelujah for halleluiah1 ,iohn for ,john1 iudgement for judgement1 c4 ,and in many dictionaries1 the words beginning with ,j are still mixed with those which begin with ,i4 7#d47 ,the letters ,u and ,v were mixed in like manner1 and for the same reason2 the latter being a consonant power given to the former1 and at length distinguished from it by a different form4 ,or rather1 the figure of the capital seems to have been at last appropriated to the one1 and that of the small letter to the other4 ,but in old books the forms of these two letters are continually confounded or transposed4 ,hence it is1 that our ,double-u is composed of two ,vees2 which1 as we see in old books1 were sometimes printed separately3 as1 ,,vv1 for ,w2 or vv1 for w4 #c4 ,the orthography of our language1 rude and unsettled as it still is in many respects1 was formerly much more variable and diverse4 ,in books a hundred years old or more1 we often find the most common words spelled variously by the same writer1 and even upon the very same page4 ,with respect to the forms of words1 a few particulars may here be noticed3 7#a47 ,the article an1 from which the n was dropped before words beginning with a consonant sound1 is often found in old books where a would be more proper2 as1 an heart1 an help1 an hill1 an one1 an use4 7#b47 ,till the seventeenth century1 the possessive case was written without the apostrophe2 being formed at different times1 in es1 is1 ys1 or s1 like the plural2 and apparently without rule or uniformity in respect to the doubling of the final consonant3 as ,goddes1 ,godes1 ,godis1 ,godys1 or ,gods1 for ,god's2 so mannes1 mannis1 mannys or mans1 for man's4 ,dr4 ,ash1 whose ,english ,grammar was in some repute in the latter part of the eighteenth century1 argued against the use of the apostrophe1 alleging that it was seldom used to distinguish the possessive case till about the beginning of that century2 and he then prophesied that the time would come1 when correct writers would lay it aside again1 as a strange corruption1 an improper departure from the original formation of that case of ,english nouns4 ,and1 among the speculations of these latter days1 ,i have somewhere seen an attempt to disparage this useful sign1 and explode it1 as an unsightly thing never well established4 ,it does not indeed1 like a syllabic sign1 inform the ear or affect the sound2 but still it is useful1 because it distinguishes to the eye1 not only the case1 but the number1 of the nouns thus marked4 ,pronouns1 being different in their declension1 do not need it1 and should therefore always be written without it4 #d4 ,the common usage of those who have spoken ,english1 has always inclined rather to brevity than to melody2 contraction and elision of the ancient terminations of words1 constitute no small part of the change which has taken place1 or of the difference which perhaps always existed between the solemn and the familiar style4 ,in respect to euphony1 however1 these terminations have certainly nothing to boast2 nor does the earliest period of the language appear to be that in which they were the most generally used without contraction4 ,that degree of smoothness of which the tongue was anciently susceptible1 had certainly no alliance with these additional syllables4 ,the long sonorous endings which constitute the declensions and conjugations of the most admired languages1 and which seem to chime so well with the sublimity of the ,greek1 the majesty of the ,latin1 the sweetness of the ,italian1 the dignity of the ,spanish1 or the polish of the ,french1 never had any place in ,english4 ,the inflections given to our words never embraced any other vowel power than that of the short e or i2 and even1 this we are inclined to dispense with1 whenever we can2 so that most of our grammatical inflections are1 to the ear1 nothing but consonants blended with the final syllables of the words to which they are added4 ,ing for the first participle1 er for the comparative degree1 and est for the superlative1 are indeed added as whole syllables2 but the rest1 as d or ed for preterits and perfect participles1 s or es for the plural number of nouns1 or for the third person singular of verbs1 and st or est for the second person singular of verbs1 nine times in ten1 fall into the sound or syllable with which the primitive word terminates4 ,english verbs1 as they are now commonly used1 run through their entire conjugation without acquiring a single syllable from inflection1 except sometimes when the sound of d1 s1 or st cannot be added to them4 #e4 ,this simplicity1 so characteristic of our modern ,english1 as well as of the ,saxon tongue1 its proper parent1 is attended with advantages that go far to compensate for all that is consequently lost in euphony1 or in the liberty of transposition4 ,our formation of the moods and tenses1 by means of a few separate auxiliaries1 all monosyllabic1 and mostly without inflection1 is not only simple and easy1 but beautiful1 chaste1 and strong4 ,in my opinion1 our grammarians have shown far more affection for the obsolete or obsolescent terminations en1 eth1 est1 and edst1 than they really deserve4 ,till the beginning of the sixteenth century1 en was used to mark the plural number of verbs1 as1 they sayen for they say2 after which1 it appears to have been dropped4 ,before the beginning of the seventeenth century1 s or es began to dispute with th or eth the right of forming the third person singular of verbs2 and1 as the ,bible and other grave books used only the latter1 a clear distinction obtained1 between the solemn and the familiar style1 which distinction is well known at this day4 ,thus we have1 ,he runs1 walks1 rides1 reaches1 c41 for the one2 and1 ,he runneth1 walketh1 rideth1 reacheth1 c41 for the other4 ,about the same time1 or perhaps earlier1 the use of the second person singular began to be avoided in polite conversation1 by the substitution of the plural verb and pronoun2 and1 when used in poetry1 it was often contracted1 so as to prevent any syllabic increase4 ,in old books1 all verbs and participles that were intended to be contracted in pronunciation1 were contracted also1 in some way1 by the writer3 as1 call'd1 carry'd1 sacrific'd2 fly'st1 ascrib'st1 cryd'st2 tost1 curst1 blest1 finisht2 and others innumerable4 ,all these1 and such as are like them1 we now pronounce in the same way1 but usually write differently2 as1 called1 carried1 sacrificed2 fliest1 ascribest1 criettst2 tossed1 cursed1 blessed1 finished4 ,most of these topics will be further noticed in the ,grammar4 ,i4 ,,english ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 #f4 ,queen ,victoria's ,answer to an ,address4--,example written in #ahcg4 ,i thank you for your condolence upon the death of his late ,majesty1 for the justice which you render to his character1 and to the measures of his reign1 and for your warm congratulations upon my accession to the throne4 ,i join in your prayers for the prosperity of my reign1 the best security for which is to be found in reverence for our holy religion1 and in the observance of its duties4--,,victoria1 to the ,friends' ,society4 #g4 ,from ,president ,adams's ,eulogy on ,lafayette4--,written in #ahcd4 ,pronounce him one of the first men of his age1 and you have yet not done him justice4 ,try him by that test to which he sought in vain to stimulate the vulgar and selfish spirit of ,napoleon2 class him among the men who1 to compare and seat themselves1 must take in the compass of all ages2 turn back your eyes upon the records of time2 summon from the creation of the world to this day the mighty dead of every age and every clime2 and where1 among the race of merely mortal men1 shall one be found1 who1 as the benefactor of his kind1 shall claim to take precedence of ,lafayette8--,,john ,,quincy ,,adams4 #h4 ,from ,president ,jackson's ,proclamation against ,nullification4--#ahcb4 ,no1 we have not erred6 ,the ,constitution is still the object of our reverence1 the bond of our ,union1 our defence in danger1 the source of our prosperity in peace4 ,it shall descend1 as we have received it1 uncorrupted by sophistical construction1 to our posterity3 and the sacrifices of local interest1 of ,state prejudices1 of personal animosities1 that were made to bring it into existence1 will again be patriotically offered for its support4--,,andrew ,,jackson4 #i4 ,from a ,note on one of ,robert ,hall's ,sermons4--,written about #ahca4 ,after he had written down the striking apostrophe which occurs at about page #gf of most of the editions--',eternal ,god6 on what are thine enemies intent6 what are those enterprises of guilt and horror1 that1 for the safety of their performers1 require to be enveloped in a darkness which the eye of ,heaven must not penetrate6'--he asked1 ',did ,i say penetrate1 sir1 when ,i preached1 it8' ',yes4' ',do you think1 sir1 ,i may venture to alter it8 for no man who considered the force of the ,english language1 would use a word of three syllables there1 but from absolute necessity4' ',you are doubtless at liberty to alter it1 if you think well4' ',then be so good1 sir1 as to take your pencil1 and for penetrate put pierce2 pierce is the word1 sir1 and the only word to be used there4'--,,olinthus ,,gregory4 #aj4 ,king ,william's ,answer to an ,address4--,example written in #ahcj4 ,i thank you sincerely for your condolence with me1 on account of the loss which ,i have sustained1 in common with my people1 by the death of my lamented brother1 his late ,majesty4 ,the assurances which you have conveyed to me1 of loyalty and affectionate attachment to my person1 are very gratifying to my feelings4 ,you may rely upon my favour and protection1 and upon my anxious endeavours to promote morality and true piety among all classes of my subjects4--,,william ,,iv1 to the ,friends4 #aa4 ,reign of ,george ,,iv1 #ahcj back to #ahbj4--;,example written in #ahbg4 ,that morning1 thou1 that slumbered#dh not before1 ,nor slept1 great ,ocean ,i laid thy waves to rest1 ,and hushed thy mighty minstrelsy4 ,no breath ,thy deep composure stirred1 no fin1 no oar2 ,like beauty newly dead1 so calm1 so still1 ,so lovely1 thou1 beneath the light that fell ,from angel-chariots sentinelled on high1 ,reposed1 and listened1 and saw thy living change1 ,thy dead arise4 ,charybdis listened1 and ,scylla2 ,and savage ,euxine on the ,thracian beach ,lay motionless3 and every battle ship ,stood still2 and every ship of merchandise1 ,and all that sailed1 of every name1 stood still4 ,,robert ,,pollok3 ,course of ,time1 ,book ,,vii1 line #fcd-fdg4 ,,ii4 ,,english ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4 #ab4 ,reign of ,george ,,iii1 #ahbj back to #agfj4--;,example written in #ahjj4 ,there is1 it will be confessed1 a delicate sensibility to character1 a sober desire of reputation1 a wish to possess the esteem of the wise and good1 felt by the purest minds1 which is at the farthest remove from arrogance or vanity4 ,the humility of a noble mind scarcely dares approve of itself1 until it has secured the approbation of others4 ,very different is that restless desire of distinction1 that passion for theatrical display1 which inflames the heart and occupies the whole attention of vain men4 99 99 99 ,the truly good man is jealous over himself1 lest the notoriety of his best actions1 by blending itself with their motive1 should diminish their value2 the vain man performs the same actions for the sake of that notoriety4 ,the good man quietly discharges his duty1 and shuns ostentation2 the vain man considers every good deed lost that is not publickly displayed4 ,the one is intent upon realities1 the other upon semblances3 the one aims to be virtuous1 the other to appear so4--,,robert ,,hall3 ,sermon on ,modern ,infidelity4 #ac4 ,from ,washington's ,farewell ,address4--,example written in #agif4 ,of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity1 ,religion and ,morality are indispensable supports4 ,in vain would that man claim the tribute of patriotism1 who should labour to subvert these great pillars of human happiness1 these firmest props of the duties of men and citizens4 ,the mere politician1 equally with the pious man1 ought to respect and cherish them4 ,a volume could not trace all their connexions with private and publick felicity4 ,let it simply be asked1 where is the security for property1 for reputation1 for life1 if the sense of religious obligation desert the oaths which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice8 ,and let us with caution indulge the supposition1 that morality can be maintained without religion4 ,whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of a peculiar structure2 reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle4--,,george ,,washington4 #ad4 ,from ,dr4 ,johnson's ,life of ,addison4--,example written about #aghj4 ,that he always wrote as he would think it necessary to write now1 cannot be affirmed2 his instructions were such as the character of his readers made proper4 ,that general knowledge which now circulates in common talk1 was in his time rarely to be found4 ,men not professing learning1 were not ashamed of ignorance2 and in the female world1 any acquaintance with books was distinguished only to be censured4 ,his purpose was to infuse literary curiosity1 by gentle and unsuspected conveyance1 into the gay1 the idle1 and the wealthy2 he therefore presented knowledge in the most alluring form1 not lofty and austere1 but accessible and familiar4 ,when he shewed them their defects1 he shewed them likewise that they might easily be supplied4 ,his attempt succeeded2 inquiry was awakened1 and comprehension expanded4 ,an emulation of intellectual elegance was excited1 and from this time to our own1 life has been gradually exalted1 and conversation purified and enlarged4--,,samuel ,,johnson3 ,lives1 p4 #cba4 #ae4 ,reign of ,george ,,ii1 #agfj back to #agbg4--;,example written in #agea4 ,we ,britons in our time have been remarkable borrowers1 as our multiform ,language may sufficiently shew4 ,our ,terms in polite ,literature prove1 that this came from ,greece2 our terms in ,music and ,painting1 that these came from ,italy2 our ,phrases in ,cookery and ,war1 that we learnt these from the ,french2 and our phrases in ,navigation1 that we were taught by the ,flemings and ,low ,dutch4 ,these many and very different ,sources of our ,language may be the cause1 why it is so deficient in ,regularity and ,analogy4 ,yet we have this advantage to compensate the defect1 that what we want in ,elegance1 we gain in ,copiousness1 in which last respect few ,languages will be found superior to our own4--,,james ,,harris3 ,hermes1 ,book iii1 ,ch4 v1 p4 #djh4 #af4 ,reign of ,george ,i1 #agbg back to #agad4--;,example written about #agah4 ,there is a certain coldness and indifference in the phrases of our ,european languages1 when they are compared with the ,oriental forms of speech3 and it happens very luckily1 that the ,hebrew idioms ran into the ,english tongue1 with a particular grace and beauty4 ,our language has received innumerable elegancies and improvements from that infusion of ,hebraisms1 which are derived to it out of the poetical passages in holy writ4 ,they give a force and energy to our expressions1 warm and animate our language1 and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intense phrases1 than any that are to be met with in our tongue4--,,joseph ,,addison3 ,evidences1 p4 #aib4 #ag4 ,reign of ,queen ,anne1 #agad to #agjb4--;,example written in #agjh4 ,some by old words to ,fame have made pretence1 ,ancients in phrase1 mere moderns in their sense2 ,such labour'd nothings1 in so strange a style1 ,amaze th' unlearn'd1 and make the learned smile4 ,in words1 as fashions1 the same rule will hold2 ,alike fantastick1 if too new or old3 ,be not the first by whom the new are try'd1 ,nor yet the last to lay the old aside4 ,,alexander ,,pope3 ,essay on ,criticism1 l4 #cbd-ccf4 ,,iii4 ,,english ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4 #ah4 ,reign of ,william ,,iii1 #agjb to #afhi4--;,example published in #agjj4 ,and when we see a ,man of ,milton's ,wit ,chime in with such a ,herd1 and ,help on the ,cry against ,hirelings6 ,we find ,how ,easie it is for ,folly and ,knavery to ,meet1 and that they are ,near of ,kin1 tho they bear ,different ,aspects4 ,therefor since ,milton has put himself upon a ,level with the ,quakers in this1 ,i will let them go together4 ,and take as little ,notice of his ,buffoonry1 as of their ,dulness against ,tythes4 ,ther is nothing worth ,quoting in his ,lampoon against the ,hirelings4 ,but what ther is of ,argument in it1 is fully ,consider'd in what follows4--,,charles ,,leslie3 ,divine ,right of ,tithes1 ,pref41 p4 xi4 #ai4 ,reign of ,james ,,ii1 #afhi back to #afhe4--;,example written in #afhe4 ,his conversation1 wit1 and parts1 ,his knowledge in the noblest useful arts1 ,were such1 dead authors could not give2 ,but habitudes of those who live2 ,who1 lighting him1 did greater lights receive3 ,he drain'd from all1 and all they knew2 ,his apprehension quick1 his judgment true3 ,that the most learn'd with shame confess ,his knowledge more1 his reading only less4 ,,john ,,dryden3 ,ode to the ,memory of ,charles ,,ii2 ,poems1 p4 #hd4 #bj4 ,reign of ,charles ,,ii1 #afhe to #affj4--;,example from a ,letter to the ,earl of ,sunderland1 dated1 ,philadelphia1 #bhth #eth mo4 ,july1 #afhc4 ,and ,i will venture to say1 that by the help of ,god1 and such noble ,friends1 ,i will show a ,province in seven years1 equal to her neighbours of forty years planting4 ,i have lay'd out the ,province into ,countys4 ,six are begun to be seated2 they lye on the great river1 and are planted about six miles back4 ,the town platt is a mile long1 and two deep1--has a navigable river on each side1 the least as broad as the ,thames at ,woolwych1 from three to eight fathom water4 ,there is built about eighty houses1 and ,i have settled at least three hundred farmes contiguous to it4--,,william ,,penn4 ,the ,friend1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #agi4 #ba4 ,from an ,address or ,dedication to ,charles ,,ii4--,written in #afge4 ,there is no other king in the world1 who can so experimentally testify of ,god's providence and goodness2 neither is there any other1 who rules so many free people1 so many true ,christians3 which thing renders thy government more honourable1 thyself more considerable1 than the accession of many nations filled with slavish and superstitious souls4--,,robert ,,barclay3 ,apology1 p4 viii4 #bb4 ,the following example1 from the commencement of ,paradise ,lost1 first published in #affg1 has been cited by several authors1 to show how large a proportion of our language is of ,saxon origin4 ,the thirteen words in ,italics are the only ones in this passage1 which seem to have been derived from any other source4 ,of man's first disobedience1 and the fruit ,of that forbidden tree1 whose mortal taste ,brought death into the world1 and all our woe1 ,with loss of ,eden2 till one greater ,man ,restore us1 and regain the blissful seat1 ,sing1 heav'nly ,muse1 that on the secret top ,of ,oreb1 or of ,sinai1 didst inspire ,that shepherd1 who first taught the chosen seed1 ,in the beginning1 how the ,heav'ns and ,earth ,rose out of ,chaos4--,,milton3 ,paradise ,lost1 ,book ,i4 #bc4 ,examples written during ,cromwell's ,protectorate1 #affj to #afej4 ,the ,queene was pleased to shew me the letter1 the seale beinge a ,roman eagle1 havinge characters about it almost like the ,greeke4 ,this day1 in the afternoone1 the vice-chauncellor came to me and stayed about four hours with me2 in which tyme we conversed upon the longe debates4--,,whitelocke4 ,bucke's ,class4 ,gram41 p4 #adi4 ,i am yet heere1 and have the ,states of ,holland ingaged in a more than ordnary maner1 to procure me audience of the ,states ,generall4 ,whatever happen1 the effects must needes be good4--,,strickland3 ,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #adi4 #bd4 ,reign of ,charles ,i1 #afdh to #afbe4--;,example from ,ben ,jonson's ,grammar1 written about #afcd2 but the orthography is more modern4 ,the second and third person singular of the present are made of the first1 by adding est and eth2 which last is sometimes shortened into s4 ,it seemeth to have been poetical licence which first introduced this abbreviation of the third person into use2 but our best grammarians have condemned it upon some occasions1 though perhaps not to be absolutely banished the common and familiar style4 ,the persons plural keep the termination of the first person singular4 ,in former times1 till about the reign of ,henry the eighth1 they were wont to be formed by adding en2 thus1 loven1 sayen1 complainen4 ,but now 7whatever is the cause7 it hath quite grown out of use1 and that other so generally prevailed1 that ,i dare not presume to set this afoot again3 albeit 7to tell you my opinion7 ,i am persuaded that the lack hereof well considered1 will be found a great blemish to our tongue4 ,for seeing time and person be1 as it were1 the right and left hand of a verb1 what can the maiming bring else1 but a lameness to the whole body8--,book i1 ,chap4 xvi4 #be4 ,reign of ,james ,i1 #afbe to #afjc4--;,from an ,advertisement1 dated #afjh4 ,i svppose it altogether needlesse 7,christian ,reader7 by commending ,m4 ,v,villiam ,perkins1 the ,author of this booke1 to wooe your holy affection1 which either himselfe in his life time by his ,christian conversation hath woon in you1 or sithence his death1 the neuer-dying memorie of his excellent knowledge1 his great humilitie1 his sound religion1 his feruent zeale1 his painefull labours1 in the ,church of ,god1 doe most iustly challenge at your hands3 onely in one word1 ,i dare be bold to say of him as in times past ,nazianzen spake of ,athanasius4 ,his life was a good definition of a true minister and preacher of the ,gospell4--,the ,printer to the ,reader4 #bf4 ,examples written about the end of ,elizabeth's reign--#afjc4 ,some say1 ,that euer 'gainst that season comes ,wherein our ,saviour's ,birth is celebrated1 ,the ,bird of ,dawning singeth all night long2 ,and then1 say they1 no ,spirit dares walk abroad3 ,the nights are wholsom1 then no ,planets strike1 ,no ,fairy takes1 nor ,witch hath pow'r to charm2 ,so hallow'd and so gracious is the time4 ,,shakspeare3 ,hamlet4 ,the sea1 with such a storme as his bare head ,in hell-blacke night indur'd1 would haue buoy'd up ,and quench'd the stelled fires4 ,yet1 poore old heart1 he holpe the heuens to raine4 ,if wolues had at thy gate howl'd that sterne time1 ,thou shouldst haue said1 ,good porter1 turne the key4 ,,shakspeare3 ,lear4 ,,iv4 ,,english ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4 #bg4 ,reign of ,elizabeth1 #afjc back to #aeeh4--;,example written in #aeib4 ,as for the soule1 it is no accidentarie qualitie1 but a spirituall and inuisible essence or nature1 subsisting by it selfe4 ,which plainely appeares in that the soules of men haue beeing and continuance as well forth of the bodies of men as in the same2 and are as wel subiect to torments as the bodie is4 ,and whereas we can and doe put in practise sundrie actions of life1 sense1 motion1 vnderstanding1 we doe it onely by the power and vertue of the soule4 ,hence ariseth the difference betweene the soules of men1 and beasts4 ,the soules of men are substances3 but the soules of other creatures seeme not to be substances2 because they haue no beeing out of the bodies in which they are4--,,william ,,perkins3 ,theol4 ,works1 folio1 p4 #aee4 #bh4 ,examples written about the beginning of ,elizabeth's reign4--#aeeh4 ,who can perswade1 when treason is aboue reason2 and mighte ruleth righte2 and it is had for lawfull1 whatsoever is lustfull2 and commotioners are better than commissioners2 and common woe is named common weale8--,,sir ,,john ,,cheke4 ,if a yong jentleman will venture him selfe into the companie of ruffians1 it is over great a jeopardie1 lest their facions1 maners1 thoughts1 taulke1 and dedes1 will verie sone be over like4--,,roger ,,ascham4 #bi4 ,reign of ,mary the ,bigot1 #aeeh to #aeec4--;,example written about #aeee4 ,and after that ,philosophy had spoken these wordes the said companye of the musys poeticall beynge rebukyd and sad1 caste downe their countenaunce to the grounde1 and by blussyng confessed their shamefastnes1 and went out of the dores4 ,but ,i 7that had my syght dull and blynd wyth wepyng1 so that ,i knew not what woman this was hauyng soo great aucthoritie7 was amasyd or astonyed1 and lokyng downeward1 towarde the ground1 ,i began pryvyle to look what thyng she would save ferther4--,,colville3 ,version from ,bothius3 ,johnson's ,hist4 of ,e4 ,l41 p4 #bi4 #cj4 ,example referred by ,dr4 ,johnson to the year #aeec4 ,pronunciation is an apte orderinge bothe of the voyce1 countenaunce1 and all the whole bodye1 accordynge to the worthinea of such woordes and mater as by speache are declared4 ,the vse hereof is suche for anye one that liketh to haue prayse for tellynge his tale in open assemblie1 that hauing a good tongue1 and a comelye countenaunce1 he shal be thought to passe all other that haue not the like vtteraunce3 thoughe they have muche better learning4--,,dr4 ,,wilson3 ,johnson's ,hist4 ,e4 ,l41 p4 #de4 #ca4 ,reign of ,edward ,,vi1 #aeec to #aedg4--;,example written about #aeej4 ,who that will followe the graces manyfolde ,which are in vertue1 shall finde auauncement3 ,wherefore ye fooles that in your sinne are bolde1 ,ensue ye wisdome1 and leaue your lewde intent1 ,wisdome is the way of men most excellent3 ,therefore haue done1 and shortly spede your pace1 ,to quaynt your self and company with grace4 ,,alexander ,,barclay3 ,johnson's ,hist4 ,e4 ,l41 p4 #dd4 #cb4 ,reign of ,henry ,,viii1 #aedg to #aeji4--;,example dated #aeda4 ,let hym that is angry euen at the fyrste consyder one of these thinges1 that like as he is a man1 so is also the other1 with whom he is angry1 and therefore it is as lefull for the other to be angry1 as unto hym3 and if he so be1 than shall that anger be to hym displeasant1 and stere hym more to be angrye4--,,sir ,,thomas ,,elliott3 ,castel of ,helthe4 #cc4 ,example of the earliest ,english ,blank ,verse2 written about #aedj4 ,the supposed author died in #aeda1 aged #ch4 ,the piece from which these lines are taken describes the death of ,zoroas1 an ,egyptian astronomer1 slain in ,alexander's first battle with the ,persians4 ,the ,persians waild such sapience to foregoe2 ,and very sone the ,macedonians wisht ,he would have lived2 king ,alexander selfe ,demde him a man unmete to dye at all2 ,who wonne like praise for conquest of his yre1 ,as for stoute men in field that day subdued1 ,who princes taught how to discerne a man1 ,that in his head so rare a jewel beares2 ,but over all those same ,camenes1#di those same ,divine ,camenes1 whose honour he procurde1 ,as tender parent doth his daughters weale1 ,lamented1 and for thankes1 all that they can1 ,do cherish hym deceast1 and sett hym free1 ,from dark oblivion of devouring death4 ,probably written by ,,sir ,,thomas ,,wyat4 #cd4 ,a ,letter written from prison1 with a coal4 ,the writer1 ,sir ,thomas ,more1 whose works1 both in prose and verse1 were considered models of pure and elegant style1 had been ,chancellor of ,england1 and the familiar confidant of ,henry ,,viii1 by whose order he was beheaded in #aece4 ,myne own good doughter1 our ,lorde be thanked ,i am in good helthe of bodye1 and in good quiet of minde3 and of worldly thynges ,i no more desyer then ,i haue4 ,i beseche hym make you all mery in the hope of heauen4 ,and such thynges as ,i somewhat longed to talke with you all1 concerning the worlde to come1 our ,lorde put theim into your myndes1 as ,i truste he doth and better to by hys holy spirite3 who blesse you and preserue you all4 ,written wyth a cole by your tender louing father1 who in hys pore prayers forgetteth none of you all1 nor your babes1 nor your nources1 nor your good husbandes1 nor your good husbandes shrewde wyues1 nor your fathers shrewde wyfe neither1 nor our other frendes4 ,and thus fare ye hartely well for lacke of paper4 ,,thomas ,,more1 knight4--,johnson's ,hist4 ,e4 ,lang41 p4 #db4 #ce4 ,from ,more's ,description of ,richard ,,iii4--,probably written about #aebj4 ,richarde the third sonne1 of whom we nowe entreate1 was in witte and courage egall with either of them1 in bodye and prowesse farre vnder them bothe1 little of stature1 ill fetured of limmes1 croke backed1 his left shoulder much higher than his right1 hard fauoured of visage1 and such as is in states called warlye1 in other menne otherwise1 he was malicious1 wrathfull1 enuious1 and from afore his birth euer frowarde4 99 99 99 ,hee was close and secrete1 a deep dissimuler1 lowlye of counteynaunce1 arrogant of heart--dispitious and cruell1 not for euill will alway1 but after for ambicion1 and either for the suretie and encrease of his estate4 ,frende and foo was muche what indifferent1 where his aduauntage grew1 he spared no mans deathe1 whose life withstoode his purpose4 ,he slew with his owne handes king ,henry the sixt1 being prisoner in the ,tower4--,,sir ,,thomas ,,more3 ,johnson's ,history of the ,english ,language1 p4 #ci4 #cf4 ,from his description of ,fortune1 written about the year #aejj4 ,fortune is stately1 solemne1 prowde1 and hye3 ,and rychesse geueth1 to haue seruyce therefore4 ,the nedy begger catcheth an half peny3 ,some manne a thousaude pounde1 some lesse some more4 ,but for all that she kepeth euer in store1 ,from euery manne some parcell of his wyll1 ,that he may pray therefore and serve her styll4 ,some manne hath good1 but chyldren hath he none4 ,some manne hath both1 but he can get none health4 ,some hath al thre1 but vp to honours trone1 ,can he not crepe1 by no maner of stelth4 ,to some she sendeth chyldren1 ryches1 welthe1 ,honour1 woorshyp1 and reuerence all hys lyfe3 ,but yet she pyncheth hym with a shrewde wife4 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,more4 ,v4 ,,english ,,of ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century4 #cg4 ,example for the reign of ,henry ,,vii1 who was crowned on ,bosworth field1 #adhe1 and who died in #aeji4 ,wherefor and forasmoche as we haue sent for our derrest wif1 and for our derrest moder1 to come unto us1 and that we wold have your advis and counsail also in soche matters as we haue to doo for the subduying of the rebelles1 we praie you1 that1 yeving your due attendaunce vppon our said derrest wif and lady moder1 ye come with thaym unto us2 not failing herof as ye purpose to doo us plaisir4 ,yeven undre our signett1 at our ,castell of ,kenelworth1 the xiii daie of ,maye4--,,henry ,,vii3 ,letter to the ,earl of ,ormond3 ,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #adg4 #ch4 ,example for the short reign of ,richard ,,iii1--from #adhe to #adhc4 ,right reverend fader in ,god1 right trusty and right wel-beloved1 we grete yow wele1 and wol and charge you that under oure greate seale1 being in your warde1 ye do make in all haist our lettres of proclamation severally to be directed unto the shirrefs of everie countie within this oure royaume4--,,richard ,,iii3 ,letter to his ,chancellor4 #ci4 ,reign of ,edward ,,iv1--from #adhc to #adfa4--;,example written in #adfc4 ,forasmoche as we by divers meanes bene credebly enformed and undarstand for certyne1 that owr greate adversary ,henry1 naminge hym selfe kynge of ,england1 by the maliceous counseyle and exitacion of ,margaret his wife1 namynge hir selfe queane of ,england1 have conspired1 c4--,,edward ,,iv3 ,letter of ,privy ,seal4 #dj4 ,examples for the reign of ,henry ,,vi1--from #adfa back to #adbb4 ,when ,nembroth i4e4 ,nimrod by ,might1 for his own ,glorye1 made and incorporate the first ,realme1 and subduyd it to hymself by ,tyrannye1 he would not have it governyd by any other ,rule or ,lawe1 but by his own ,will2 by which and for th' accomplishment thereof he made it4 ,and therefor1 though he had thus made a ,realme1 holy ,scripture denyd to cal hym a ,kyng1 ,quia ,rex dicitur a ,regendo2 ,whych thyng he did not1 but oppressyd the ,people by ,myght4--,,sir ,,john ,,fortescue4 #da4 ,example from ,lydgate1 a poetical ,monk1 who died in #addj4 ,our life here short of wit the great dulnes ,the heuy soule troubled with trauayle1 ,and of memorye the glasyng brotelnes1 ,drede and vncunning haue made a strong batail ,with werines my spirite to assayle1 ,and with their subtil creping in most queint ,hath made my spirit in makyng for to feint4 ,,john ,,lydgate3 ,fall of ,princes1 ,book ,,iii1 ,prol4 #db4 ,example for the reign of ,henry ,v1--from #adbb back to #adac4 ,i wolle that the ,duc of ,orliance be kept stille withyn the ,castil of ,pontefret1 with owte goyng to ,robertis place1 or to any other disport1 it is better he lak his disport then we were disceyved4 ,of all the remanant dothe as ye thenketh4--,letter of ,,henry ,v4 #dc4 ,example for the reign of ,henry ,,iv1--from #adac back to #adjj4 ,right heigh and myghty ,prynce1 my goode and gracious ,lorde1--,i recommaund me to you as lowly as ,i kan or may with all my pouer hert1 desiryng to hier goode and gracious tydynges of your worshipful astate and welfare4--,,lord ,,grey3 ,letter to the ,prince of ,wales3 ,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,,vi4 ,,english ,,of ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,century4 #dd4 ,reign of ,richard ,,ii1 #adjj back to #acgg4--;,example written in #acia4 ,lytel ,lowys my sonne1 ,i perceve well by certaine evidences thyne abylyte to lerne scyences1 touching nombres and proporcions1 and also well consydre ,i thy besye prayer in especyal to lerne the tretyse of the astrolabye4 ,than for as moche as a philosopher saithe1 he wrapeth hym in his frende1 that condiscendeth to the ryghtfull prayers of his frende3 therefore ,i have given the a sufficient astrolabye for oure orizont1 compowned after the latitude of ,oxenforde3 vpon the whiche by meditacion of this lytell tretise1 ,i purpose to teche the a certame nombre of conclusions1 pertainynge to this same instrument4--,,geoffrey ,,chaucer3 ,of the ,astrolabe4 #de4 ,example written about #ache--to be compared with that of #aeee1 on p4 #hg4 ,and thus this companie of muses iblamed casten wrothly the chere dounward to the yerth1 and shewing by rednesse their shame1 thei passeden sorowfully the thresholde4 ,and ,i of whom the sight plounged in teres was darked1 so that ,i ne might not know what that woman was1 of so ,imperial aucthoritie1 ,i woxe all abashed and stonied1 and cast my sight doune to the yerth1 and began still for to abide what she would doen afterward4--,,chaucer3 ,version from ,bothius3 ,johnson's ,hist4 of ,e4 ,l41 p4 #bi4 #df4 ,poetical ,example--probably written before #achj4 ,o ,socrates1 thou stedfast champion2 ,she ne might nevir be thy turmentour1 ,thou nevir dreddist her oppression1 ,ne in her chere foundin thou no favour1 ,thou knewe wele the disceipt of her colour1 ,and that her moste worship is for to lie1 ,i knowe her eke a false dissimulour1 ,for finally ,fortune ,i doe defie4--,,chaucer4 #dg4 ,reign of ,edward ,,iii1 #acgg to #acbg4--;,example written about #acfj4 ,and eke full ofte a littell skare ,vpon a banke1 er men be ware1 ,let in the streme1 whiche with gret peine1 ,if any man it shall restreine4 ,where lawe failleth1 errour groweth2 ,he is not wise1 who that ne troweth4--,,sir ,,john ,,gower4 #dh4 ,example from ,mandeville1 the ,english traveller--written in #acef4 ,and this sterre that is toward the ,northe1 that wee clepen the lode sterre1 ne apperethe not to hem4 ,for whiche cause1 men may wel perceyve1 that the lond and the see ben of rownde schapp and forme4 ,for the partie of the firmament schewethe in o contree1 that schewethe not in another contree4 ,and men may well preven be experience and sotyle compassement of wytt1 that zif a man fond passages be schippes1 that wolde go to serchen the world1 men mighte go be schippe all aboute the world1 and aboven and benethen4 ,the whiche thing ,i prove thus1 aftre that ,i have seyn4 99 99 99 ,be the whiche ,i seye zou certeynly1 that men may envirowne alle the erthe of alle the world1 as wel undre as aboven1 and turnen azen to his contree1 that hadde companye and schippynge and conduyt3 and alle weyes he scholde fynde men1 londes1 and yles1 als wel as in this contree4--,,sir ,,john ,,mandeville2 ,johnson's ,hist4 of ,e4 ,l41 p4 #bf4 #di4 ,example from ,rob4 ,langland's ,vision of ,pierce ,ploughman1 #acej4 ,in the somer season1 ,when hot was the ,sun1 ,i shope me into shroubs1 ,as ,i a shepe were2 ,in habit as an harmet1 ,vnholy of werkes1 ,went wyde in this world ,wonders to heare4 #ej4 ,description of a ,ship--referred to the reign of ,edward ,,ii3 #acbg-acjg4 ,such ne saw they never none1 ,for it was so gay begone1 ,every nayle with gold ygrave1 ,of pure gold was his sklave1 ,her mast was of ivory1 ,of samyte her sayle wytly1 ,her robes all of whyte sylk1 ,as whyte as ever was ony mylke4 ,the noble ship was without ,with clothes of gold spread about ,and her loft and her wyndlace ,all of gold depaynted was4 ,,anonymous3 ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #adc4 #ea4 ,from an ,elegy on ,edward ,i1 who reigned till #acjg from #abgb4 ,thah mi tonge were made of stel1 ,ant min herte yzote of bras1 ,the goodness myht y never telle1 ,that with kyng ,edward was3 ,kyng1 as thou art cleped conquerour1 ,in uch battaille thou hadest prys2 ,god bringe thi soule to the honour1 ,that ever wes ant ever ys4 ,now is ,edward of ,carnavan ,kyng of ,engelond al aplyght2 ,god lete him never be worse man ,then his fader1 ne lasse myht1 ,to holden his pore men to ryht1 ,ant understonde good counsail1 ,al ,engelond for to wysse and dyht2 ,of gode knyhtes darh him nout fail4 ,,anon43 ,percy's ,reliques1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aj4 ,,vii4 ,,english ,,of ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,century4 #eb4 ,reign of ,henry ,,iii1 #abgb to #abaf4--;,example from an old ballad entitled ,richard of ,almaigne2 which ,percy says was made by one of the adherents of ,simon de ,montfort1 earl of ,leicester1 soon after the battle of ,lewes1 which was fought1 ,may #ad1 #abfd4--,percy's ,reliques1 ,vol4 ii4 ,sitteth alle stille1 and herkneth to me2 ,the kyng of ,almaigne1 bi mi leaute1 ,thritti thousent pound askede he ,for te make the pees in the countre1 ,ant so he dude more4 ,richard1 thah thou be ever trichard1 ,trichten shalt thou never more4 #ec4 ,in the following examples1 ,i substitute ,roman letters for the ,saxon4 ,at this period1 we find the characters mixed4 ,the style here is that which ,johnson calls a kind of intermediate diction1 neither ,saxon nor ,english4 ,of these historical rhymes1 by ,robert of ,gloucester1 the ,doctor gives us more than two hundred lines2 but he dates them no further than to say1 that the author is placed by the criticks in the thirteenth century4--,hist4 of ,eng4 ,lang41 p4 #bd4 ,alfred thys noble man1 as in the ger of grace he nom ,eygte hondred and syxty and tuelue the kyndom4 ,arst he adde at ,rome ybe1 and1 vor ys grete wysdom1 ,the pope ,leo hym blessede1 tho he thuder com1 ,and the kynges croune of hys lond1 that in this lond gut ys3 ,and he led hym to be kyng1 ar he kyng were y wys4 ,an he was kyng of ,engelond1 of alle that ther come1 ,that vorst thus ylad was of the pope of ,rome1 ,an suththe other after hym of the erchebyssopes echon4 ,clere he was god ynou1 and gut1 as me telleth me1 ,he was more than ten ger old1 ar he couthe ys abece4 ,ac ys gode moder ofte smale gyftes hym tok1 ,vor to byleue other pie1 and loky on ys boke4 ,so that by por clergye ys rygt lawes he wonde1 ,that neuere er nere y mad to gouerny ys lond4 ,,robert ,,of ,,gloucester3 ,johnson's ,hist4 of ,e4 ,l41 p4 #be4 #ed4 ,reign of ,john1 #abaf back to #aaii4--,subject of ,christ's ,crucifixion4 ,i syke when y singe for sorewe that y se ,when y with wypinge bihold upon the tre1 ,ant se ,jhesu the suete ys hert blod for-lete ,for the love of me2 ,ys woundes waxen wete1 thei wepen1 still and mete1 ,marie reweth me4 ,,anon43 ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,,viii4 ,,english1 ,,or ,,anglo-,,saxon1 ,,of ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century4 #ee4 ,reign of ,richard ,i1 #aaii back to #aahi4--,owl and ,nightingale4 ,ich was in one sumere dale1 ,in one snive digele pale1 ,i herde ich hold grete tale1 ,an hule and one nightingale4 ,that plait was stif ,i stare and strong1 ,sum wile softe ,i lud among4 ,an other again other sval ,i let that wole mod ut al4 ,i either seide of otheres custe1 ,that alere worste that hi wuste ,i hure and ,i hure of others songe ,hi hold plaidung futhe stronge4 ,,anon43 ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 #ef4 ,reign of ,henry ,,ii1 #aahi back to #aaed4--;,example dated #aahj4 ,and of alle than folke ,the wuneden ther on folde1 ,wes thisses landes folke ,leodene hendest itald2 ,and alswa the wimmen ,wunliche on heowen4 ,,godric3 ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ada4 #eg4 ,example from the ,saxon ,chronicle1 written about #aafj4 ,micel hadde ,henri king gadered gold syluer1 and na god ne dide me for his saule thar of4 ,tha the king ,stephne to ,engla-land com1 tha macod he his gadering t ,oxene-ford1 thar he nam the biscop ,roger of ,seres-beri1 and ,alexander biscop of ,lincoln1 te ,canceler ,roger hife neues1 dide lle in prisun1 til hi jafen up here castles4 ,tha the suikes undergton that he milde man was softe god1 na justise ne dide2 tha diden hi alle wunder4 ,see ,johnson's ,hist4 of the ,eng4 ,language1 p4 #bb4 #eh4 ,reign of ,stephen1 #aaed to #aace4--;,example written about this time4 ,fur in see bi west ,spaygne4 ,is a lond ihone ,cokaygne4 ,there nis lond under heuenriche4 ,of wel of godnis hit iliche4 ,thoy paradis be miri and briyt4 ,cokaygne is of fairer siyt4 ,what is ther in paradis4 ,bot grasse and flure and greneris4 ,thoy ther be ioi and gret dute4 ,ther nis met bot nlic frute4 ,ther nis halle bure no bench4 ,bot watir manis thurst to quench4 ,,anon43 ,johnson's ,hist4 ,eng4 ,lang41 p4 #bc4 #ei4 ,reign of ,henry ,i1 #aace to #aajj4--,part of an ,anglo-,saxon ,hymn4 ,heuene erthe all that is1 ,biloken is on his honde4 ,he deth al that his wille is1 ,on sea and ec on londe4 ,he is orde albuten orde4 ,and ende albuten ende4 ,he one is eure on eche stede1 ,wende wer thu wende4 ,he is buuen us and binethen1 ,biuoren and ec bihind4 ,se man that ,godes wille deth1 ,he mai hine aihwar uinde4 ,eche rune he iherth1 ,and wot eche dede4 ,he durh sighth eches ithanc1 ,wai hwat sel us to rede4 ,se man neure nele don god1 ,ne neure god lif leden1 ,er deth dom come to his dure1 ,he mai him sore adreden4 ,hunger thurst1 hete chele1 ,ecthe and all unhelthe1 ,durh deth com on this midelard1 ,and other uniselthe4 ,ne mai non herte hit ithenche1 ,ne no tunge telle1 ,hu muchele pinum and hu uele1 ,bieth inne helle4 ,louie ,god mid ure hierte1 ,and mid all ure mihte1 ,and ure emcristene swo us self1 ,swo us lereth drihte4 ,,anon43 ,johnson's ,hist4 ,eng4 ,lang41 p4 #ba4 ,,ix4 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,of ,,the ,,eleventh ,,century1 ,,compared ,,with ,,english4 #fj4 ,saxon1--#aath ,century4#ej ,,luc1 ,,cap4 ,i4 #e4 ,on ,herodes dagum ,iudea cynincges1 ws sum sacred on naman ,zacharias1 of ,abian tune3 and his wif ws of ,aarones dohtrum1 and hyre nama waas ,elizabeth4 #f4 ,sothlice hig wron butu rihtwise beforan ,gode1 gangende on eallum his bebodum and rihtwisnessum1 butan wrohte4 #g4 ,and hig nfdon nan bearn1 fortham the ,elizabeth ws unberende2 and hy on hyra dagum butu forth-eodun4 #h4 ,sothlice ws geworden tha ,zacharias hys sacerdhades breac on his gewrixles endebyrdnesse beforan ,gode1 #i4 fter gewunan ths sacerdhades hlotes1 he eode that he his offrunge sette1 tha he on ,godes tempel eode4 #aj4 ,eall werod ths folces ws ute gebiddende on thre offrunge timan4 #aa4 ,tha tywde him ,drihtnes engel standende on ths weofodes swithran healfe4 #ab4 ,tha weard ,zacharias gedrefed that geseonde1 and him ege onhreas4 #ac4 ,tha cwth se engel him to1 ,ne ondrd thu the ,zacharias2 fortham thin ben is gehyred1 and thin wif ,elizabeth the sunu centh1 and thu nemst hys naman ,johannes4--,saxon ,gospels4 ,english4--#adth ,century4 ,,luk1 ,,chap4 ,i4 #e4 ,in the dayes of ,eroude kyng of ,judee ther was a prest ,zacarye by name1 of the sort of ,abia3 and his wyf was of the doughtris of ,aaron1 and hir name was ,elizabeth4 #f4 ,and bothe weren juste bifore ,god1 goynge in alle the maundementis and justifyingis of the ,lord1 withouten playnt4 #g4 ,and thei hadden no child1 for ,elizabeth was bareyn2 and bothe weren of greet age in her dayes4 #h4 ,and it befel that whanne ,zacarye schould do the office of presthod in the ordir of his course to fore ,god1 #i4 ,aftir the custom of the presthood1 he wente forth by lot1 and entride into the temple to encensen4 #aj4 ,and al the multitude of the puple was without forth and preyede in the our of encensying4 #aa4 ,and an aungel of the ,lord apperide to him1 and stood on the right half of the auter of encense4 #ab4 ,and ,zacarye seyinge was afrayed1 and drede fel upon him4 #ac4 ,and the aungel sayde to him1 ,zacarye1 drede thou not2 for thy preier is herd1 and ,elizabeth thi wif schal bere to thee a sone1 and his name schal be clepid ,jon4 ,wickliffe's ,bible1 #achj4 ,english4--#agth ,century4 ,,luke1 ,,chap4 ,i4 #e4 ,there was in the days of ,herod the king of ,judea1 a certain priest named ,zacharias1 of the course of ,abia3 and his wife was of the daughters of ,aaron1 and her name was ,elisabeth4 #f4 ,and they were both righteous before ,god1 walking in all the commandments and ordinances of the ,lord1 blameless4 #g4 ,and they had no child1 because that ,elisabeth was barren2 and they both were now well stricken in years4 #h4 ,and it came to pass1 that while he executed the priest's office before ,god in the order of his course1 #i4 ,according to the custom of the priest's office1 his lot was to burn incense when he went into the temple of the ,lord4 #aj4 ,and the whole multitude of the people were praying without at the time of incense4 #aa4 ,and there appeared unto him an angel of the ,lord1 standing on the right side of the altar of incense4 #ab4 ,and when ,zacharias saw him1 he was troubled1 and fear fell upon him4 #ac4 ,but the angel said unto him1 ,fear not1 ,zacharias2 for thy prayer is heard1 and thy wife ,elisabeth shall bear thee a son1 and thou shall call his name ,john4 ,common ,bible1 #afaj4 ,see ,dr4 ,johnson's ,history of the ,english ,language1 in his ,quarto ,dictionary4 ,x4 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,king ,,alfred4 #fa4 ,alfred the ,great1 who was the youngest son of ,ethelwolf1 king of the ,west ,saxons1 succeeded to the crown on the death of his brother ,ethelred1 in the year #hga1 being then twenty-two years old4 ,he had scarcely time to attend the funeral of his brother1 before he was called to the field to defend his country against the ,danes4 ,after a reign of more than twenty-eight years1 rendered singularly glorious by great achievements under difficult circumstances1 he died universally lamented1 on the #bhth of ,october1 ,a4 ,d4 #ijj4 ,by this prince the university of ,oxford was founded1 and provided with able teachers from the continent4 ,his own great proficiency in learning1 and his earnest efforts for its promotion1 form a striking contrast with the ignorance which prevailed before4 ,in the ninth century1 throughout the whole kingdom of the ,west ,saxons1 no man could be found who was scholar enough to instruct the young king ,alfred1 then a child1 even in the first elements of reading3 so that he was in his twelfth year before he could name the letters of the alphabet4 ,when that renowned prince ascended the throne1 he made it his study to draw his people out of the sloth and stupidity in which they lay2 and became1 as much by his own example as by the encouragement he gave to learned men1 the great restorer of arts in his dominions4--,life of ,bacon4 #fb4 ,the language of eulogy must often be taken with some abatement3 it does not usually present things in their due proportions4 ,how far the foregoing quotation is true1 ,i will not pretend to say2 but what is called the revival of learning1 must not be supposed to have begun at so early a period as that of ,alfred4 ,the following is a brief specimen of the language in which that great man wrote2 but1 printed in ,saxon characters1 it would appear still less like ,english4 ,on thre tide the ,gotan of ,siththiu mgthe with ,romana rice gewin upahofon4 and mith heora cyningum4 ,rdgota and ,eallerica wron hatne4 ,romane burig abrcon4 and eall ,italia rice that is betwux tham muntum and ,sicilia tham ealonde in anwald gerehton4 and tha gter tham foresprecenan cyningum ,theodric feng to tham ilcan rice se ,theodric ws ,amulinga4 he wass ,cristen4 theah he on tham ,arrianiscan gedwolan durhwunode4 ,he gehet ,romanum his freondscype4 swa that hi mostan heora ealdrichta wyrthe beon4--,,king ,,alfred3 ,johnson's ,hist4 of ,e4 ,l41 #dto ,dict41 p4 #ag4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,of ,,the ,,grammatical ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language4 ,grammatica quid est8 ars rect scribendi rectque loquendi2 poetarum enarrationem continens2 omnium ,scientiarum fons uberrimus4 99 99 99 ,nostra tas parum perita rerum veterum1 nimis brevi gyro grammaticum sepsit2 at apud antiques olim tantum auctoritatis hic ordo habuit1 ut censores essent et judices scriptorum omnium soli grammatici2 quos ob id etiam ,criticos vocabant4--,,despauter4 ,prf4 ad ,synt1 fol4 #a4 #a4 ,such is the peculiar power of language1 that there is scarcely any subject so trifling1 that it may not thereby be plausibly magnified into something great2 nor are there many things which cannot be ingeniously disparaged till they shall seem contemptible4 ,cicero goes further3 ,nihil est tam incredibile quod non dicendo fiat probabile2--,there is nothing so incredible that it may not by the power of language be made probable4 ,the study of grammar has been often overrated1 and still oftener injuriously decried4 ,i shall neither join with those who would lessen in the public esteem that general system of doctrines1 which from time immemorial has been taught as grammar2 nor attempt1 either by magnifying its practical results1 or by decking it out with my own imaginings1 to invest it with any artificial or extraneous importance4 #b4 ,i shall not follow the footsteps of ,neef1 who avers that1 ,grammar and incongruity are identical things1 and who1 under pretence of reaching the same end by better means1 scornfully rejects as nonsense every thing that others have taught under that name2 because ,i am convinced1 that1 of all methods of teaching1 none goes farther than his1 to prove the reproachful assertion true4 ,nor shall ,i imitate the declamation of ,cardell2 who1 at the commencement of his ,essay1 recommends the general study of language on earth1 from the consideration that1 ,the faculty of speech is the medium of social bliss for superior intelligences in an eternal world2 #ea and who1 when he has exhausted censure in condemning the practical instruction of others1 thus lavishes praise1 in both his grammars1 upon that formless1 void1 and incomprehensible theory of his own3 ,this application of words1 says he1 in their endless use1 by one plain rule1 to all things which nouns can name1 instead of being the fit subject of blind cavil1 is the most sublime theme presented to the intellect on earth4 ,it is the practical intercourse of the soul at once with its ,god1 and with all parts of his works6--,cardell's ,gram41 #abmo1 p4 #hg2 ,gram41 #ahmo1 p4 #di4 #c4 ,here1 indeed1 a wide prospect opens before us2 but he who traces science1 and teaches what is practically useful1 must check imagination1 and be content with sober truth4 ,for apt the mind or fancy is to rove ,uncheck'd1 and of her roving is no end4--,,milton4 ,restricted within its proper limits1 and viewed in its true light1 the practical science of grammar has an intrinsic dignity and merit sufficient to throw back upon any man who dares openly assail it1 the lasting stigma of folly and self-conceit4 ,it is true1 the judgements of men are fallible1 and many opinions are liable to be reversed by better knowledge3 but what has been long established by the unanimous concurrence of the learned1 it can hardly be the part of a wise instructor now to dispute4 ,the literary reformer who1 with the last named gentleman1 imagines that the persons to whom the civilized world have looked up to for instruction in language were all wrong alike in the main points1 #eb intends no middle course of reformation1 and must needs be a man either of great merit1 or of little modesty4 #d4 ,the ,english language may now be regarded as the common inheritance of about fifty millions of people2 who are at least as highly distinguished for virtue1 intelligence1 and enterprise1 as any other equal portion of the earth's population4 ,all these are more or less interested in the purity1 permanency1 and right use of that language2 inasmuch as it is to be1 not only the medium of mental intercourse with others for them and their children1 but the vehicle of all they value1 in the reversion of ancestral honour1 or in the transmission of their own4 ,it is even impertinent1 to tell a man of any respectability1 that the study of this his native language is an object of great importance and interest3 if he does not1 from these most obvious considerations1 feel it to be so1 the suggestion will be less likely to convince him1 than to give offence1 as conveying an implicit censure4 #e4 ,every person who has any ambition to appear respectable among people of education1 whether in conversation1 in correspondence1 in public speaking1 or in print1 must be aware of the absolute necessity of a competent knowledge of the language in which he attempts to express his thoughts4 ,many a ludicrous anecdote is told1 of persons venturing to use words of which they did not know the proper application2 many a ridiculous blunder has been published to the lasting disgrace of the writer2 and so intimately does every man's reputation for sense depend upon his skill in the use of language1 that it is scarcely possible to acquire the one without the other4 ,who can tell how much of his own good or ill success1 how much of the favour or disregard with which he himself has been treated1 may have depended upon that skill or deficiency in grammar1 of which1 as often as he has either spoken or written1 he must have afforded a certain and constant evidence4#ec #f4 ,i have before said1 that to excel in grammar1 is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excellence consists2 and1 as this excellence1 whether in the thing itself1 or in him that attains to it1 is merely comparative1 there seems to be no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning may not be carried4 ,in speaking or writing to different persons1 and on different subjects1 it is necessary to vary one's style with great nicety of address2 and in nothing does true genius more conspicuously appear1 than in the facility with which it adopts the most appropriate expressions1 leaving the critic no fault to expose1 no word to amend4 ,such facility of course supposes an intimate knowledge of all words in common use1 and also of the principles on which they are to be combined4 #g4 ,with a language which we are daily in the practice of hearing1 speaking1 reading1 and writing1 we may certainly acquire no inconsiderable acquaintance1 without the formal study of its rules4 ,all the true principles of grammar were presumed to be known to the learned1 before they were written for the aid of learners2 nor have they acquired any independent authority1 by being recorded in a book1 and denominated grammar4 ,the teaching of them1 however1 has tended in no small degree to settle and establish the construction of the language1 to improve the style of our ,english writers1 and to enable us to ascertain with more clearness the true standard of grammatical purity4 ,he who learns only by rote1 may speak the words or phrases which he has thus acquired2 and he who has the genius to discern intuitively what is regular and proper1 may have further aid from the analogies which he thus discovers2 but he who would add to such acquisitions the satisfaction of knowing what is right1 must make the principles of language his study4 #h4 ,to produce an able and elegant writer1 may require something more than a knowledge of grammar rules2 yet it is argument enough in favour of those rules1 that without a knowledge of them no elegant and able writer is produced4 ,who that considers the infinite number of phrases which words in their various combinations may form1 and the utter impossibility that they should ever be recognized individually for the purposes of instruction and criticism1 but must see the absolute necessity of dividing words into classes1 and of showing1 by general rules of formation and construction1 the laws to which custom commonly subjects them1 or from which she allows them in particular instances to deviate8 ,grammar1 or the art of writing and speaking1 must continue to be learned by some persons2 because it is of indispensable use to society4 ,and the only question is1 whether children and youth shall acquire it by a regular process of study and method of instruction1 or be left to glean it solely from their own occasional observation of the manner in which other people speak and write4 #i4 ,the practical solution of this question belongs chiefly to parents and guardians4 ,the opinions of teachers1 to whose discretion the decision will sometimes be left1 must have a certain degree of influence upon the public mind2 and the popular notions of the age1 in respect to the relative value of different studies1 will doubtless bias many to the adoption or the rejection of this4 ,a consideration of the point seems to be appropriate here1 and ,i cannot forbear to commend the study to the favour of my readers2 leaving every one1 of course1 to choose how much he will be influenced by my advice1 example1 or arguments4 ,if past experience and the history of education be taken for guides1 the study of ,english grammar will not be neglected2 and the method of its inculcation will become an object of particular inquiry and solicitude4 ,the ,english language ought to be learned at school or in colleges1 as other languages usually are2 by the study of its grammar1 accompanied with regular exercises of parsing1 correcting1 pointing1 and scanning2 and by the perusal of some of its most accurate writers1 accompanied with stated exercises in composition and elocution4 ,in books of criticism1 our language is already more abundant than any other4 ,some of the best of these the student should peruse1 as soon as he can understand and relish them4 ,such a course1 pursued with regularity and diligence1 will be found the most direct way of acquiring an ,english style at once pure1 correct1 and elegant4 #aj4 ,if any intelligent man will represent ,english grammar otherwise than as one of the most useful branches of study1 he may well be suspected of having formed his conceptions of the science1 not from what it really is in itself1 but from some of those miserable treatises which only caricature the subject1 and of which it is rather an advantage to be ignorant4 ,but who is so destitute of good sense as to deny1 that a graceful and easy conversation in the private circle1 a fluent and agreeable delivery in public speaking1 a ready and natural utterance in reading1 a pure and elegant style in composition1 are accomplishments of a very high order8 ,and yet of all these1 the proper study of ,english grammar is the true foundation4 ,this would never be denied or doubted1 if young people did not find1 under some other name1 better models and more efficient instruction1 than what was practised on them for grammar in the school-room4 ,no disciple of an able grammarian can ever speak ill of grammar1 unless he belong to that class of knaves who vilify what they despair to reach4 #aa4 ,by taking proper advantage of the ductility of childhood1 intelligent parents and judicious teachers may exercise over the studies1 opinions1 and habits of youth a strong and salutary control2 and it will seldom be found in experience1 that those who have been early taught to consider grammatical learning as worthy and manly1 will change their opinion in after life4 ,but the study of grammar is not so enticing that it may be disparaged in the hearing of the young1 without injury4 ,what would be the natural effect of the following sentence1 which ,i quote from a late well-written religious homily8 ,the pedagogue and his dunce may exercise their wits correctly enough1 in the way of grammatical analysis1 on some splendid argument1 or burst of eloquence1 or thrilling descant1 or poetic rapture1 to the strain and soul of which not a fibre in their nature would yield a vibration4--,new-,york ,observer1 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #gc4 #ab4 ,would not the bright boy who heard this from the lips of his reverend minister1 be apt the next day to grow weary of the parsing lesson required by his schoolmaster8 ,and yet what truth is there in the passage8 ,one can no more judge of the fitness of language1 without regard to the meaning conveyed by it1 than of the fitness of a suit of clothes1 without knowing for whom they were intended4 ,the grand clew to the proper application of all syntactical rules1 is the sense2 and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the author's meaning1 so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous1 in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved4 ,to parse rightly and fully1 is nothing else than to understand rightly and explain fully2 and whatsoever is well expressed1 it is a shame either to misunderstand or to misinterpret4 #ac4 ,this study1 when properly conducted and liberally pursued1 has an obvious tendency to dignify the whole character4 ,how can he be a man of refined literary taste1 who cannot speak and write his native language grammatically8 ,and who will deny that every degree of improvement in literary taste tends to brighten and embellish the whole intellectual nature8 ,the several powers of the mind are not so many distinct and separable agents1 which are usually brought into exercise one by one2 and even if they were1 there might be found1 in a judicious prosecution of this study1 a healthful employment for them all4 ,the imagination1 indeed1 has nothing to do with the elements of grammar2 but in the exercise of composition1 young fancy may spread her wings as soon as they are fledged2 and for this exercise the previous course of discipline will have furnished both language and taste1 as well as sentiment4 #ad4 ,the regular grammatical study of our language is a thing of recent origin4 ,fifty or sixty years ago1 such an exercise was scarcely attempted in any of the schools1 either in this country or in ,england4#ed ,of this fact we have abundant evidence both from books1 and from the testimony of our venerable fathers yet living4 ,how often have these presented this as an apology for their own deficiencies1 and endeavoured to excite us to greater diligence1 by contrasting our opportunities with theirs6 ,is there not truth1 is there not power1 in the appeal8 ,and are we not bound to avail ourselves of the privileges which they have provided1 to build upon the foundations which their wisdom has laid1 and to carry forward the work of improvement8 ,institutions can do nothing for us1 unless the love of learning preside over and prevail in them4 ,the discipline of our schools can never approach perfection1 till those who conduct1 and those who frequent them1 are strongly actuated by that disposition of mind1 which generously aspires to all attainable excellence4 #ae4 ,to rouse this laudable spirit in the minds of our youth1 and to satisfy its demands whenever it appears1 ought to be the leading objects with those to whom is committed the important business of instruction4 ,a dull teacher1 wasting time in a school-room with a parcel of stupid or indolent boys1 knows nothing of the satisfaction either of doing his own duty1 or of exciting others to the performance of theirs4 ,he settles down in a regular routine of humdrum exercises1 dreading as an inconvenience even such change as proficiency in his pupils must bring on2 and is well content to do little good for little money1 in a profession which he honours with his services merely to escape starvation4 ,he has1 however1 one merit3 he pleases his patrons1 and is perhaps the only man that can2 for they must needs be of that class to whom moral restraint is tyranny1 disobedience to teachers1 as often right as wrong2 and who1 dreading the expense1 even of a school-book1 always judge those things to be cheapest1 which cost the least and last the longest4 ,what such a man1 or such a neighbourhood1 may think of ,english grammar1 ,i shall not stop to ask4 #af4 ,to the following opinion from a writer of great merit1 ,i am inclined to afford room here1 because it deserves refutation1 and1 ,i am persuaded1 is not so well founded as the generality of the doctrines with which it is presented to the public4 ,since human knowledge is so much more extensive than the opportunity of individuals for acquiring it1 it becomes of the greatest importance so to economize the opportunity as to make it subservient to the acquisition of as large and as valuable a portion as we can4 ,it is not enough to show that a given branch of education is useful3 you must show that it is the most useful that can be selected4 ,remembering this1 ,i think it would be expedient to dispense with the formal study of ,english grammar1--a proposition which ,i doubt not many a teacher will hear with wonder and disapprobation4 ,we learn the grammar in order that we may learn ,english2 and we learn ,english whether we study grammars or not4 ,especially we shall acquire a competent knowledge of our own language1 if other departments of our education were improved4 #ag4 ,a boy learns more ,english grammar by joining in an hour's conversation with educated people1 than in poring for an hour over ,murray or ,horne ,tooke4 ,if he is accustomed to such society and to the perusal of well-written books1 he will learn ,english grammar1 though he never sees a word about syntax2 and if he is not accustomed to such society and such reading1 the 'grammar books' at a boarding-school will not teach it4 ,men learn their own language by habit1 and not by rules3 and this is just what we might expect2 for the grammar of a language is itself formed from the prevalent habits of speech and writing4 ,a compiler of grammar first observes these habits1 and then makes his rules3 but if a person is himself familiar with the habits1 why study the rules8 ,i say nothing of grammar as a general science2 because1 although the philosophy of language be a valuable branch of human knowledge1 it were idle to expect that school-boys should understand it4 ,the objection is1 to the system of attempting to teach children formally that which they will learn practically without teaching4--,,jonathan ,,dymond3 ,essays on ,morality1 p4 #aie4 #ah4 ,this opinion1 proceeding from a man who has written upon human affairs with so much ability and practical good sense1 is perhaps entitled to as much respect as any that has ever been urged against the study in question4 ,and so far as the objection bears upon those defective methods of instruction which experience has shown to be inefficient1 or of little use1 ,i am in no wise concerned to remove it4 ,the reader of this treatise will find their faults not only admitted1 but to a great extent purposely exposed2 while an attempt is here made1 as well as in my earlier grammars1 to introduce a method which it is hoped will better reach the end proposed4 ,but it may easily be perceived that this author's proposition to dispense with the formal study of ,english grammar is founded upon an untenable assumption4 ,whatever may be the advantages of those purer habits of speech1 which the young naturally acquire from conversation with educated people1 it is not true1 that1 without instruction directed to this end1 they will of themselves become so well educated as to speak and write grammatically4 ,their language may indeed be comparatively accurate and genteel1 because it is learned of those who have paid some attention to the study2 but1 as they cannot always be preserved from hearing vulgar and improper phraseology1 or from seeing it in books1 they cannot otherwise be guarded from improprieties of diction1 than by a knowledge of the rules of grammar4 ,one might easily back this position by the citation of some scores of faulty sentences from the pen of this very able writer himself4 #ai4 ,i imagine there can be no mistake in the opinion1 that in exact proportion as the rules of grammar are unknown or neglected in any country1 will corruptions and improprieties of language be there multiplied4 ,the general science of grammar1 or the philosophy of language1 the author seems to exempt1 and in some sort to commend2 and at the same time his proposition of exclusion is applied not merely to the school-grammars1 but a fortiori to this science1 under the notion that it is unintelligible to school-boys4 ,but why should any principle of grammar be the less intelligible on account of the extent of its application8 ,will a boy pretend that he cannot understand a rule of ,english grammar1 because he is told that it holds good in all languages8 ,ancient etymologies1 and other facts in literary history1 must be taken by the young upon the credit of him who states them2 but the doctrines of general grammar are to the learner the easiest and the most important principles of the science4 ,and ,i know of nothing in the true philosophy of language1 which1 by proper definitions and examples1 may not be made as intelligible to a boy1 as are the principles of most other sciences4 ,the difficulty of instructing youth in any thing that pertains to language1 lies not so much in the fact that its philosophy is above their comprehension1 as in our own ignorance of certain parts of so vast an inquiry2--in the great multiplicity of verbal signs2 the frequent contrariety of practice2 the inadequacy of memory2 the inveteracy of ill habits2 and the little interest that is felt when we speak merely of words4 #bj4 ,the grammatical study of our language was early and strongly recommended by ,locke1#ee and other writers on education1 whose character gave additional weight to an opinion which they enforced by the clearest arguments4 ,but either for want of a good grammar1 or for lack of teachers skilled in the subject and sensible of its importance1 the general neglect so long complained of as a grievous imperfection in our methods of education1 has been but recently and partially obviated4 ,the attainment of a correct and elegant style1 says ,dr4 ,blair1 is an object which demands application and labour4 ,if any imagine they can catch it merely by the ear1 or acquire it by the slight perusal of some of our good authors1 they will find themselves much disappointed4 ,the many errors1 even in point of grammar1 the many offences against purity of language1 which are committed by writers who are far from being contemptible1 demonstrate1 that a careful study of the language is previously requisite1 in all who aim at writing it properly4--,blair's ,rhetoric1 ,lect4 ix1 p4 #ia4 #ba4 ,to think justly1 to write well1 to speak agreeably1 are the three great ends of academic instruction4 ,the ,universities will excuse me1 if ,i observe1 that both are1 in one respect or other1 defective in these three capital points of education4 ,while in ,cambridge the general application is turned altogether on speculative knowledge1 with little regard to polite letters1 taste1 or style2 in ,oxford the whole attention is directed towards classical correctness1 without any sound foundation laid in severe reasoning and philosophy4 ,in ,cambridge and in ,oxford1 the art of speaking agreeably is so far from being taught1 that it is hardly talked or thought of4 ,these defects naturally produce dry unaffecting compositions in the one2 superficial taste and puerile elegance in the other2 ungracious or affected speech in both4--,,dr4 ,,brown1 #ageg3 ,estimate1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dd4 #bb4 ,a grammatical study of our own language makes no part of the ordinary method of instruction1 which we pass through in our childhood2 and it is very seldom we apply ourselves to it afterward4 ,yet the want of it will not be effectually supplied by any other advantages whatsoever4 ,much practice in the polite world1 and a general acquaintance with the best authors1 are good helps2 but alone they will hardly be sufficient3 ,we have writers1 who have enjoyed these advantages in their full extent1 and yet cannot be recommended as models of an accurate style4 ,much less then will1 what is commonly called learning1 serve the purpose2 that is1 a critical knowledge of ancient languages1 and much reading of ancient authors3 ,the greatest critic and most able grammarian of the last age1 when he came to apply his learning and criticism to an ,english author1 was frequently at a loss in matters of ordinary use and common construction in his own vernacular idiom4--,,dr4 ,,lowth1 #agfc3 ,pref4 to ,gram41 p4 vi4 #bc4 ,to the pupils of our public schools the acquisition of their own language1 whenever it is undertaken1 is an easy task4 ,for he who is acquainted with several grammars already1 finds no difficulty in adding one more to the number4 ,and this1 no doubt1 is one of the reasons why ,english engages so small a proportion of their time and attention4 ,it is not frequently read1 and is still less frequently written4 ,its supposed facility1 however1 or some other cause1 seems to have drawn upon it such a degree of neglect as certainly cannot be praised4 ,the students in those schools are often distinguished by their compositions in the learned languages1 before they can speak or write their own with correctness1 elegance1 or fluency4 ,a classical scholar too often has his ,english style to form1 when he should communicate his acquisitions to the world4 ,in some instances it is never formed with success2 and the defects of his expression either deter him from appearing before the public at all1 or at least counteract in a great degree the influence of his work1 and bring ridicule upon the author4 ,surely these evils might easily be prevented or diminished4--,,dr4 ,,barrow3 ,essays on ,education1 ,london1 #ahjd2 ,philad41 #ahbe1 p4 #hg4 #bd4 ,it is also said that those who know ,latin and ,greek generally express themselves with more clearness than those who do not receive a liberal education4 ,it is indeed natural that those who cultivate their mental powers1 write with more clearness than the uncultivated individual4 ,the mental cultivation1 however1 may take place in the mother tongue as well as in ,latin or ,greek4 ,yet the spirit of the ancient languages1 further is declared to be superior to that of the modern4 ,i allow this to be the case2 but ,i do not find that the ,english style is improved by learning ,greek4 ,it is known that literal translations are miserably bad1 and yet young scholars are taught to translate1 word for word1 faithful to their dictionaries4 ,hence those who do not make a peculiar study of their own language1 will not improve in it by learning1 in this manner1 ,greek and ,latin4 ,is it not a pity to hear1 what ,i have been told by the managers of one of the first institutions of ,ireland1 that it was easier to find ten teachers for ,latin and ,greek1 than one for the ,english language1 though they proposed double the salary to the latter8 ,who can assure us that the ,greek orators acquired their superiority by their acquaintance with foreign languages2 or1 is it not obvious1 on the other hand1 that they learned ideas and expressed them in their mother tongue8--,,dr4 ,,spurzheim3 ,treatise on ,education1 #ahcb1 p4 #ajg4 #be4 ,dictionaries were compiled1 which comprised all the words1 together with their several definitions1 or the sense each one expresses and conveys to the mind4 ,these words were analyzed and classed according to their essence1 attributes1 and functions4 ,grammar was made a rudiment leading to the principles of all thoughts1 and teaching by simple examples1 the general classification of words and their subdivisions in expressing the various conceptions of the mind4 ,grammar is then the key to the perfect understanding of languages2 without which we are left to wander all our lives in an intricate labyrinth1 without being able to trace back again any part of our way4--,chazotte's ,essay on the ,teaching of ,languages1 p4 #de4 ,again3 ,had it not been for his dictionary and his grammar1 which taught him the essence of all languages1 and the natural subdivision of their component parts1 he might have spent a life as long as ,methuselah's1 in learning words1 without being able to attain to a degree of perfection in any of the languages4--,ib41 p4 #ej4 ,indeed1 it is not easy to say1 to what degree1 and in how many different ways1 both memory and judgement may be improved by an intimate acquaintance with grammar2 which is therefore1 with good reason1 made the first and fundamental part of literary education4 ,the greatest orators1 the most elegant scholars1 and the most accomplished men of business1 that have appeared in the world1 of whom ,i need only mention ,csar and ,cicero1 were not only studious of grammar1 but most learned grammarians4--,,dr4 ,,beattie3 ,moral ,science1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ajg4 #bf4 ,here1 as in many other parts of my work1 ,i have chosen to be liberal of quotations2 not to show my reading1 or to save the labour of composition1 but to give the reader the satisfaction of some other authority than my own4 ,in commending the study of ,english grammar1 ,i do not mean to discountenance that degree of attention which in this country is paid to other languages2 but merely to use my feeble influence to carry forward a work of improvement1 which1 in my opinion1 has been wisely begun1 but not sufficiently sustained4 ,in consequence of this improvement1 the study of grammar1 which was once prosecuted chiefly through the medium of the dead languages1 and was regarded as the proper business of those only who were to be instructed in ,latin and ,greek1 is now thought to be an appropriate exercise for children in elementary schools4 ,and the sentiment is now generally admitted1 that even those who are afterwards to learn other languages1 may best acquire a knowledge of the common principles of speech from the grammar of their vernacular tongue4 ,this opinion appears to be confirmed by that experience which is at once the most satisfactory proof of what is feasible1 and the only proper test of what is useful4 #bg4 ,it must1 however1 be confessed1 that an acquaintance with ancient and foreign literature is absolutely necessary for him who would become a thorough philologist or an accomplished scholar2 and that the ,latin language1 the source of several of the modern tongues of ,europe1 being remarkably regular in its inflections and systematic in its construction1 is in itself the most complete exemplar of the structure of speech1 and the best foundation for the study of grammar in general4 ,but1 as the general principles of grammar are common to all languages1 and as the only successful method of learning them1 is1 to commit to memory the definitions and rules which embrace them1 it is reasonable to suppose that the language most intelligible to the learner1 is the most suitable for the commencement of his grammatical studies4 ,a competent knowledge of ,english grammar is also in itself a valuable attainment1 which is within the easy reach of many young persons whose situation in life debars them from the pursuit of general literature4 #bh4 ,the attention which has lately been given to the culture of the ,english language1 by some who1 in the character of critics or lexicographers1 have laboured purposely to improve it1 and by many others who1 in various branches of knowledge1 have tastefully adorned it with the works of their genius1 has in a great measure redeemed it from that contempt in which it was formerly held in the halls of learning4 ,but1 as ,i have before suggested1 it does not yet appear to be sufficiently attended to in the course of what is called a liberal education4 ,compared with1 other languages1 the ,english exhibits both excellences and defects2 but its flexibility1 or power of accommodation to the tastes of different writers1 is great2 and when it is used with that mastership which belongs to learning and genius1 it must be acknowledged there are few1 if any1 to which it ought on the whole to be considered inferior4 ,but above all1 it is our own2 and1 whatever we may know or think of other tongues1 it can never be either patriotic or wise1 for the learned men of the ,united ,states or of ,england to pride themselves chiefly upon them4 #bi4 ,our language is worthy to be assiduously studied by all who reside where it is spoken1 and who have the means and the opportunity to become critically acquainted with it4 ,to every such student it is vastly more important to be able to speak and write well in ,english1 than to be distinguished for proficiency in the learned languages and yet ignorant of his own4 ,it is certain that many from whom better things might be expected1 are found miserably deficient in this respect4 ,and their neglect of so desirable an accomplishment is the more remarkable and the more censurable on account of the facility with which those who are acquainted with the ancient languages may attain to excellence in their ,english style4 ,whatever the advantages or defects of the ,english language be1 as it is our own language1 it deserves a high degree of our study and attention4 99 99 99 ,whatever knowledge may be acquired by the study of other languages1 it can never be communicated with advantage1 unless by such as can write and speak their own language well4--,,dr4 ,,blair3 ,rhetoric1 ,lect4 ix1 p4 #ia4 #cj4 ,i am not of opinion that it is expedient to press this study to much extent1 if at all1 on those whom poverty or incapacity may have destined to situations in which they will never hear or think of it afterwards4 ,the course of nature cannot be controlled2 and fortune does not permit us to prescribe the same course of discipline for all4 ,to speak the language which they have learned without study1 and to read and write for the most common purposes of life1 may be education enough for those who can be raised no higher4 ,but it must be the desire of every benevolent and intelligent man1 to see the advantages of literary1 as well as of moral culture1 extended as far as possible among the people4 ,and it is manifest1 that in proportion as the precepts of the divine ,redeemer are obeyed by the nations that profess his name1 will all distinctions arising merely from the inequality of fortune be lessened or done away1 and better opportunities be offered for the children of indigence to adorn themselves with the treasures of knowledge4 #ca4 ,we may not be able to effect all that is desirable2 but1 favoured as our country is1 with great facilities for carrying forward the work of improvement1 in every thing which can contribute to national glory and prosperity1 ,i would1 in conclusion of this topic1 submit--that a critical knowledge of our common language is a subject worthy of the particular attention of all who have the genius and the opportunity to attain it2--that on the purity and propriety with which ,american authors write this language1 the reputation of our national literature greatly depends2--that in the preservation of it from all changes which ignorance may admit or affectation invent1 we ought to unite as having one common interest2--that a fixed and settled orthography is of great importance1 as a means of preserving the etymology1 history1 and identity of words2--that a grammar freed from errors and defects1 and embracing a complete code of definitions and illustrations1 rules and exercises1 is of primary importance to every student and a great aid to teachers2--that as the vices of speech as well as of manners are contagious1 it becomes those who have the care of youth1 to be masters of the language in its purity and elegance1 and to avoid as much as possible every thing that is reprehensible either in thought or expression4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,of ,,the ,,best ,,method ,,of ,,teaching ,,grammar4 ,quomodo differunt grammaticus et grammatista8 ,grammaticus est qui diligenter1 acut1 scienterque possit aut dicere aut scribere1 et poetas enarrare3 idem literatus dicitur4 ,grammatista est qui barbaris literis obstrepit1 cui abusus pro usu est2 ,grcis ,latinam dat etymologiam1 et totus in nugis est3 ,latin dicitur literator4--,,despauter4 ,synt41 fol4 #a4 #a4 ,it is hardly to be supposed that any person can have a very clear conviction of the best method of doing a thing1 who shall not at first have acquired a pretty correct and adequate notion of the thing to be done4 ,arts must be taught by artists2 sciences1 by learned men2 and1 if ,grammar is the science of words1 the art of writing and speaking well1 the best speakers and writers will be the best teachers of it1 if they choose to direct their attention to so humble an employment4 ,for1 without disparagement of the many worthy men whom choice or necessity has made schoolmasters1 it may be admitted that the low estimation in which school-keeping is commonly held1 does mostly exclude from it the first order of talents1 and the highest acquirements of scholarship4 ,it is one strong proof of this1 that we have heretofore been content to receive our digests of ,english grammar1 either from men who had had no practical experience in the labours of a school-room1 or from miserable modifiers and abridgers1 destitute alike of learning and of industry1 of judgement and of skill4 #b4 ,but1 to have a correct and adequate notion of ,english grammar1 and of the best method of learning or teaching it1 is no light attainment4 ,the critical knowledge of this subject lies in no narrow circle of observation2 nor are there any precise limits to possible improvement4 ,the simple definition in which the general idea of the art is embraced1 ,grammar is the art of writing and speaking correctly1 however useful in order to fix the learner's conception1 can scarcely give him a better knowledge of the thing itself1 than he would have of the art of painting1 when he had learned from ,dr4 ,webster1 that it is the art of representing to the eye1 by means of figures and colors1 any object of sight1 and sometimes emotions of the mind4 ,the first would no more enable him to write a sonnet1 than the second1 to take his master's likeness4 ,the force of this remark extends to all the technical divisions1 definitions1 rules1 and arrangements of grammar2 the learner may commit them all to memory1 and know but very little about the art4 #c4 ,this fact1 too frequently illustrated in practice1 has been made the basis of the strongest argument ever raised against the study of grammar2 and has been particularly urged against the ordinary technical method of teaching it1 as if the whole of that laborious process were useless4 ,it has led some men1 even of the highest talents1 to doubt the expediency of that method1 under any circumstances1 and either to discountenance the whole matter1 or invent other schemes by which they hoped to be more successful4 ,the utter futility of the old accidence has been inferred from it1 and urged1 even in some well-written books1 with all the plausibility of a fair and legitimate deduction4 ,the hardships of children1 compelled to learn what they did not understand1 have been bewailed in prefaces and reviews2 incredible things boasted by literary jugglers1 have been believed by men of sense2 and the sympathies of nature1 with accumulated prejudices1 have been excited against that method of teaching grammar1 which after all will be found in experience to be at once the easiest1 the shortest1 and the best4 ,i mean1 essentially1 the ancient positive method1 which aims directly at the inculcation of principles4 #d4 ,it has been already admitted1 that definitions and rules committed to memory and not reduced to practice1 will never enable any one to speak and write correctly4 ,but it does not follow1 that to study grammar by learning its principles1 or to teach it technically by formal lessons1 is of no real utility4 ,surely not4 ,for the same admission must be made with respect to the definitions and rules of every practical science in the world2 and the technology of grammar is even more essential to a true knowledge of the subject1 than that of almost any other art4 ,to proceed upon principles at first1 says ,dr4 ,barrow1 is the most compendious method of attaining every branch of knowledge2 and the truths impressed upon the mind in the years of childhood1 are ever afterwards the most firmly remembered1 and the most readily applied4--,essays1 p4 #hd4 ,reading1 as ,i have said1 is a part of grammar2 and it is a part which must of course precede what is commonly called in the schools the study of grammar4 ,any person who can read1 can learn from a book such simple facts as are within his comprehension2 and we have it on the authority of ,dr4 ,adam1 that1 ,the principles of grammar are the first abstract truths which a young mind can comprehend4--,pref4 to ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #d4 #e4 ,it is manifest1 that1 with respect to this branch of knowledge1 the duties of the teacher will vary considerably1 according to the age and attainments of his pupils1 or according to each student's ability or inclination to profit by his printed guide4 ,the business lies partly between the master and his scholar1 and partly between the boy and his book4 ,among these it may be partitioned variously1 and of course unwisely2 for no general rule can precisely determine for all occasions what may be expected from each4 ,the deficiencies of any one of the three must either be supplied by the extraordinary readiness of an other1 or the attainment of the purpose be proportionably imperfect4 ,what one fails to do1 must either be done by an other1 or left undone4 ,after much observation1 it seems to me1 that the most proper mode of treating this science in schools1 is1 to throw the labour of its acquisition almost entirely upon the students2 to require from them very accurate rehearsals as the only condition on which they shall be listened to2 and to refer them to their books for the information which they need1 and in general for the solution of all their doubts4 ,but then the teacher must see that he does not set them to grope their way through a wilderness of absurdities4 ,he must know that they have a book1 which not only contains the requisite information1 but arranges it so that every item of it may be readily found4 ,that knowledge may reasonably be required at their recitations1 which culpable negligence alone could have prevented them from obtaining4 #f4 ,most grammars1 and especially those which are designed for the senior class of students1 to whom a well-written book is a sufficient instructor1 contain a large proportion of matter which is merely to be read by the learner4 ,this is commonly distinguished in type from those more important doctrines which constitute the frame of the edifice4 ,it is expected that the latter will receive a greater degree of attention4 ,the only successful method of teaching grammar1 is1 to cause the principal definitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to memory1 that they may ever afterwards be readily applied4 ,oral instruction may smoothe the way1 and facilitate the labour of the learner2 but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of grammar without imposing this task1 is disproved by universal experience4 ,nor will it avail any thing for the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he makes no practical application4 ,in etymology and syntax1 he should be alternately exercised in learning small portions of his book1 and then applying them in parsing1 till the whole is rendered familiar4 ,to a good reader1 the achievement will be neither great nor difficult2 and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory and strengthen all the faculties of the mind4 #g4 ,the objection drawn from the alleged inefficiency of this method1 lies solely against the practice of those teachers who disjoin the principles and the exercises of the art2 and who1 either through ignorance or negligence1 impose only such tasks as leave the pupil to suppose1 that the committing to memory of definitions and rules1 constitutes the whole business of grammar4#ef ,such a method is no less absurd in itself1 than contrary to the practice of the best teachers from the very origin of the study4 ,the epistle prefixed to ,king ,henry's ,grammar almost three centuries ago1 and the very sensible preface to the old ,british ,grammar1 an octavo reprinted at ,boston in #aghd1 give evidence enough that a better method of teaching has long been known4 ,nay1 in my opinion1 the very best method cannot be essentially different from that which has been longest in use1 and is probably most known4 ,but there is everywhere ample room for improvement4 ,perfection was never attained by the most learned of our ancestors1 nor is it found in any of our schemes4 ,english grammar can be better taught than it is now1 or ever has been4 ,better scholarship would naturally produce this improvement1 and it is easy to suppose a race of teachers more erudite and more zealous1 than either we or they4 #h4 ,where invention and discovery are precluded1 there is little room for novelty4 ,i have not laboured to introduce a system of grammar essentially new1 but to improve the old and free it from abuses4 ,the mode of instruction here recommended is the result of long and successful experience4 ,there is nothing in it1 which any person of common abilities will find it difficult to understand or adopt4 ,it is the plain didactic method of definition and example1 rule and praxis2 which no man who means to teach grammar well1 will ever desert1 with the hope of finding an other more rational or more easy4 ,this book itself will make any one a grammarian1 who will take the trouble to observe and practise what it teaches2 and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest means of making their pupils familiar with its contents1 they will not fail to instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other4 ,a hope is also indulged1 that this work will be particularly useful to many who have passed the ordinary period allotted to education4 ,whoever is acquainted with the grammar of our language1 so as to have some tolerable skill in teaching it1 will here find almost every thing that is true in his own instructions1 clearly embraced under its proper head1 so as to be easy of reference4 ,and perhaps there are few1 however learned1 who1 on a perusal of the volume1 would not be furnished with some important rules and facts which had not before occurred to their own observation4 #i4 ,the greatest peculiarity of the method is1 that it requires the pupil to speak or write a great deal1 and the teacher very little4 ,but both should constantly remember that grammar is the art of speaking and writing well2 an art which can no more be acquired without practice1 than that of dancing or swimming4 ,and each should ever be careful to perform his part handsomely--without drawling1 omitting1 stopping1 hesitating1 faltering1 miscalling1 reiterating1 stuttering1 hurrying1 slurring1 mouthing1 misquoting1 mispronouncing1 or any of the thousand faults which render utterance disagreeable and inelegant4 ,it is the learner's diction that is to be improved2 and the system will be found well calculated to effect that object2 because it demands of him1 not only to answer questions on grammar1 but also to make a prompt and practical application of what he has just learned4 ,if the class be tolerable readers1 and have learned the art of attention1 it will not be necessary for the teacher to say much2 and in general he ought not to take up the time by so doing4 ,he should1 however1 carefully superintend their rehearsals2 give the word to the next when any one errs2 and order the exercise in such a manner that either his own voice1 or the example of his best scholars1 may gradually correct the ill habits of the awkward1 till all learn to recite with clearness1 understanding well what they say1 and making it intelligible to others4 #aj4 ,without oral instruction and oral exercises1 a correct habit of speaking our language can never be acquired2 but written rules1 and exercises in writing1 are perhaps quite as necessary1 for the formation of a good style4 ,all these should therefore be combined in our course of ,english grammar4 ,and1 in order to accomplish two objects at once1 the written doctrines1 or the definitions and rules of grammar1 should statedly be made the subject of a critical exercise in utterance2 so that the boy who is parsing a word1 or correcting a sentence1 in the hearing of others1 may impressively realize1 that he is then and there exhibiting his own skill or deficiency in oral discourse4 ,perfect forms of parsing and correcting should be given him as models1 with the understanding that the text before him is his only guide to their right application4 ,it should be shown1 that in parsing any particular word1 or part of speech1 there are just so many things to be said of it1 and no more1 and that these are to be said in the best manner3 so that whoever tells fewer1 omits something requisite2 whoever says more1 inserts something irrelevant2 and whoever proceeds otherwise1 either blunders in point of fact1 or impairs the beauty of the expression4 ,i rely not upon what are called ,parsing ,tables but upon the precise forms of expression which are given in the book for the parsing of the several sorts of words4 ,because the questions1 or abstract directions1 which constitute the common parsing tables1 are less intelligible to the learner than a practical example2 and more time must needs be consumed on them1 in order to impress upon his memory the number and the sequence of the facts to be stated4 #aa4 ,if a pupil happen to be naturally timid1 there should certainly be no austerity of manner to embarrass his diffidence2 for no one can speak well1 who feels afraid4 ,but a far more common impediment to the true use of speech1 is carelessness4 ,he who speaks before a school1 in an exercise of this kind1 should be made to feel that he is bound by every consideration of respect for himself1 or for those who hear him1 to proceed with his explanation or rehearsal1 in a ready1 clear1 and intelligible manner4 ,it should be strongly impressed upon him1 that the grand object of the whole business1 is his own practical improvement2 that a habit of speaking clearly and agreeably1 is itself one half of the great art of grammar2 that to be slow and awkward in parsing1 is unpardonable negligence1 and a culpable waste of time2 that to commit blunders in rehearsing grammar1 is to speak badly about the art of speaking well2 that his recitations must be limited to such things as he perfectly knows2 that he must apply himself to his book1 till he can proceed without mistake2 finally1 that he must watch and imitate the utterance of those who speak well1 ever taking that for the best manner1 in which there are the fewest things that could be mimicked4#eg #ab4 ,the exercise of parsing should be commenced immediately after the first lesson of etymology--the lesson in which are contained the definitions of the ten parts of speech2 and should be carried on progressively1 till it embraces all the doctrines which are applicable to it4 ,if it be performed according to the order prescribed in the following work1 it will soon make the student perfectly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules of grammar4 ,it asks no aid from a dictionary1 if the performer knows the meaning of the words he is parsing2 and very little from the teacher1 if the forms in the grammar have received any tolerable share of attention4 ,it requires just enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the lips are uttering2 while it advances by such easy gradations and constant repetitions as leave the pupil utterly without excuse1 if he does not know what to say4 ,being neither wholly extemporaneous nor wholly rehearsed by rote1 it has more dignity than a school-boy's conversation1 and more ease than a formal recitation1 or declamation2 and is therefore an exercise well calculated to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in ordinary speech--a species of elocution as valuable as any other4#eh #ac4 ,thus would ,i unite the practice with the theory of grammar2 endeavouring to express its principles with all possible perspicuity1 purity1 and propriety of diction2 retaining1 as necessary parts of the subject1 those technicalities which the pupil must needs learn in order to understand the disquisitions of grammarians in general2 adopting every important feature of that system of doctrines which appears to have been longest and most generally taught2 rejecting the multitudinous errors and inconsistencies with which unskillful hands have disgraced the science and perplexed the schools2 remodelling every ancient definition and rule which it is possible to amend1 in respect to style1 or grammatical correctness2 supplying the numerous and great deficiencies with which the most comprehensive treatises published by earlier writers1 are chargeable2 adapting the code of instruction to the present state of ,english literature1 without giving countenance to any innovation not sanctioned by reputable use2 labouring at once to extend and to facilitate the study1 without forgetting the proper limits of the science1 or debasing its style by puerilities4 #ad4 ,these general views1 it is hoped1 will be found to have been steadily adhered to throughout the following work4 ,the author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most approved grammars already in use2 nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist4 ,it was not his design to introduce novelties1 but to form a practical digest of established rules4 ,he has not laboured to subvert the general system of grammar1 received from time immemorial2 but to improve upon it1 in its present application to our tongue4 ,that which is excellent1 may not be perfect2 and amendment may be desirable1 where subversion would be ruinous4 ,believing that no theory can better explain the principles of our language1 and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the student1 the writer has in general adopted those doctrines which are already best known2 and has contented himself with attempting little more than to supply the deficiencies of the system1 and to free it from the reproach of being itself ungrammatical4 ,this indeed was task enough2 for1 to him1 all the performances of his predecessors seemed meagre and greatly deficient1 compared with what he thought needful to be done4 ,the scope of his labours has been1 to define1 dispose1 and exemplify those doctrines anew2 and1 with a scrupulous regard to the best usage1 to offer1 on that authority1 some further contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge4 #ae4 ,having devoted many years to studies of this nature1 and being conversant with most of the grammatical treatises already published1 the author conceived that the objects above referred to1 might be better effected than they had been in any work within his knowledge4 ,and he persuades himself1 that1 however this work may yet fall short of possible completeness1 the improvements here offered are neither few nor inconsiderable4 ,he does not mean to conceal in any degree his obligations to others1 or to indulge in censure without discrimination4 ,he has no disposition to depreciate the labours1 or to detract from the merits1 of those who have written ably upon this topic4 ,he has studiously endeavoured to avail himself of all the light they have thrown upon the subject4 ,with a view to further improvements in the science1 he has also resorted to the original sources of grammatical knowledge1 and has not only critically considered what he has seen or heard of our vernacular tongue1 but has sought with some diligence the analogies of speech in the structure of several other languages4 ,if1 therefore1 the work now furnished be thought worthy of preference1 as exhibiting the best method of teaching grammar2 he trusts it will be because it deviates least from sound doctrine1 while1 by fair criticism upon others1 it best supplies the means of choosing judiciously4 #af4 ,of all methods of teaching grammar1 that which has come nearest to what is recommended above1 has doubtless been the most successful2 and whatever objections may have been raised against it1 it will probably be found on examination to be the most analogous to nature4 ,it is analytic in respect to the doctrines of grammar1 synthetic in respect to the practice1 and logical in respect to both4 ,it assumes the language as an object which the learner is capable of conceiving to be one whole2 begins with the classification of all its words1 according to certain grand differences which make the several parts of speech2 then proceeds to divide further1 according to specific differences and qualities1 till all the classes1 properties1 and relations1 of the words in any intelligible sentence1 become obvious and determinate3 and he to whom these things are known1 so that he can see at a glance what is the construction of each word1 and whether it is right or not1 is a good grammarian4 ,the disposition of the human mind to generalize the objects of thought1 and to follow broad analogies in the use of words1 discovers itself early1 and seems to be an inherent principle of our nature4 ,hence1 in the language of children and illiterate people1 many words are regularly inflected even in opposition to the most common usage4 #ag4 ,it has unfortunately become fashionable to inveigh against the necessary labour of learning by heart the essential principles of grammar1 as a useless and intolerable drudgery4 ,and this notion1 with the vain hope of effecting the same purpose in an easier way1 is giving countenance to modes of teaching well calculated to make superficial scholars4 ,when those principles are properly defined1 disposed1 and exemplified1 the labour of learning them is far less than has been represented2 and the habits of application induced by such a method of studying grammar1 are of the utmost importance to the learner4 ,experience shows1 that the task may be achieved during the years of childhood2 and that1 by an early habit of study1 the memory is so improved1 as to render those exercises easy and familiar1 which1 at a later period1 would be found very difficult and irksome4 ,upon this plan1 and perhaps upon every other1 some words will be learned before the ideas represented by them are fully comprehended1 or the things spoken of are fully understood4 ,but this seems necessarily to arise from the order of nature in the development of the mental faculties2 and an acquisition cannot be lightly esteemed1 which has signally augmented and improved that faculty on which the pupil's future progress in knowledge depends4 #ah4 ,the memory1 indeed1 should never be cultivated at the expense of the understanding2 as is the case1 when the former is tasked with ill-devised lessons by which the latter is misled and bewildered4 ,but truth1 whether fully comprehended or not1 has no perplexing inconsistencies4 ,and it is manifest that that which does not in some respect surpass the understanding1 can never enlighten it--can never awaken the spirit of inquiry or satisfy research4 ,how often have men of observation profited by the remembrance of words which1 at the time they heard them1 they did not perfectly understand6 ,we never study any thing of which we imagine our knowledge to be perfect4 ,to learn1 and1 to understand1 are1 with respect to any science or art1 one and the same thing4 ,with respect to difficult or unintelligible phraseology alone1 are they different4 ,he who by study has once stored his memory with the sound and appropriate language of any important doctrine1 can never1 without some folly or conceit akin to madness1 repent of the acquisition4 ,milton1 in his academy1 professed to teach things rather than words2 and many others have made plausible profession of the same thing since4 ,but it does not appear1 that even in the hands of ,milton1 the attempt was crowned with any remarkable success4 ,see ,dr4 ,barrow's ,essays1 p4 #he4 #ai4 ,the vain pretensions of several modern simplifiers1 contrivers of machines1 charts1 tables1 diagrams1 vincula1 pictures1 dialogues1 familiar lectures1 ocular analyses1 tabular compendiums1 inductive exercises1 productive systems1 intellectual methods1 and various new theories1 for the purpose of teaching grammar1 may serve to deceive the ignorant1 to amuse the visionary1 and to excite the admiration of the credulous2 but none of these things has any favourable relation to that improvement which may justly be boasted as having taken place within the memory of the present generation4 ,the definitions and rules which constitute the doctrines of grammar1 may be variously expressed1 arranged1 illustrated1 and applied2 and in the expression1 arrangement1 illustration1 and application of them1 there may be room for some amendment2 but no contrivance can ever relieve the pupil from the necessity of committing them thoroughly to memory4 ,the experience of all antiquity is added to our own1 in confirmation of this2 and the judicious teacher1 though he will not shut his eyes to a real improvement1 will be cautious of renouncing the practical lessons of hoary experience1 for the futile notions of a vain projector4 #bj4 ,some have been beguiled with the idea1 that great proficiency in grammar was to be made by means of a certain fanciful method of induction4 ,but if the scheme does not communicate to those who are instructed by it1 a better knowledge of grammar than the contrivers themselves seem to have possessed1 it will be found of little use4#ei ,by the happy method of ,bacon1 to lead philosophy into the common walks of life1 into the ordinary business and language of men1 is to improve the condition of humanity2 but1 in teaching grammar1 to desert the plain didactic method of definition and example1 rule and praxis1 and pretend to lead children by philosophic induction into a knowledge of words1 is to throw down the ladder of learning1 that boys may imagine themselves to ascend it1 while they are merely stilting over the low level upon which its fragments are cast4 #ba4 ,the chief argument of these inductive grammarians is founded on the principle1 that children cannot be instructed by means of any words which they do not perfectly understand4 ,if this principle were strictly true1 children could never be instructed by words at all4 ,for no child ever fully understands a word the first time he hears or sees it2 and it is rather by frequent repetition and use1 than by any other process1 that the meaning of words is commonly learned4 ,hence most people make use of many terms which they cannot very accurately explain1 just as they do of many things1 the real nature of which they do not comprehend4 ,the first perception we have of any word1 or other thing1 when presented to the ear or the eye1 gives us some knowledge of it4 ,so1 to the signs of thought1 as older persons use them1 we soon attach some notion of what is meant2 and the difference between this knowledge1 and that which we call an understanding of the word or thing1 is1 for the most part1 only in degree4 ,definitions and explanations are doubtless highly useful1 but induction is not definition1 and an understanding of words may be acquired without either2 else no man could ever have made a dictionary4 ,but1 granting the principle to be true1 it makes nothing for this puerile method of induction2 because the regular process by definitions and examples is both shorter and easier1 as well as more effectual4 ,in a word1 this whole scheme of inductive grammar is nothing else than a series of leading questions and manufactured answers2 the former being generally as unfair as the latter are silly4 ,it is a remarkable tissue of ill-laid premises and of forced illogical sequences4 #bb4 ,of a similar character is a certain work1 entitled1 ,english ,grammar on the ,productive ,system3 a method of instruction recently adopted in ,germany and ,switzerland4 ,it is a work which certainly will be productive of no good to any body but the author and his publishers4 ,the book is as destitute of taste1 as of method2 of authority1 as of originality4 ,it commences with the inductive process1 and after forty pages of such matter as is described above1 becomes a productive system1 by means of a misnamed ,,recapitulation2 which jumbles together the etymology and the syntax of the language1 through seventy-six pages more4 ,it is then made still more productive by the appropriation of a like space to a reprint of ,murray's ,syntax and ,exercises1 under the inappropriate title1 ,,general ,,observations4 ,to ,prosody1 including punctuation and the use of capitals1 there are allotted six pages1 at the end2 and to ,orthography1 four lines1 in the middle of the volume6 7,see p4 #da47 ,it is but just1 to regard the title of this book1 as being at once a libel and a lie2 a libel upon the learning and good sense of ,woodbridge2#fj and a practical lie1 as conveying a false notion of the origin of what the volume contains4 #bc4 ,what there is in ,germany or ,switzerland1 that bears any resemblance to this misnamed system of ,english ,grammar1 remains to be shown4 ,it would be prodigal of the reader's time1 and inconsistent with the studied brevity of this work1 to expose the fallacy of what is pretended in regard to the origin of this new method4 ,suffice it to say1 that the anonymous and questionable account of the ,productive ,system of ,instruction1 which the author has borrowed from a valuable periodical1 to save himself the trouble of writing a preface1 and1 as he says1 to assist the reader in forming an opinion of the comparative merits of the system is not only destitute of all authority1 but is totally irrelevant1 except to the whimsical name of his book4 ,if every word of it be true1 it is insufficient to give us even the slightest reason to suppose1 that any thing analogous to his production ever had existence in either of those countries2 and yet it is set forth on purpose to convey the idea that such a system now predominates in the schools of both4 7,see ,pref41 p4 #e47 ,the infidel ,neef1 whose new method of education has been tried in our country1 and with its promulgator forgot1 was an accredited disciple of this boasted productive school2 a zealous coadjutor with ,pestalozzi himself1 from whose halls he emanated to teach the offspring of a free people--to teach them the nature of things sensible1 and a contempt for all the wisdom of books4 ,and what similarity is there between his method of teaching and that of ,roswell ,c4 ,smith1 except their pretence to a common parentage1 and that both are worthless8 #bd4 ,the success of ,smith's ,inductive and ,productive ,grammars1 and the fame perhaps of a certain ,grammar in ,familiar ,lectures1 produced in #ahcf a rival work from the hands of a gentleman in ,new ,hampshire1 entitled1 ,an ,analytical ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 embracing the ,inductive and ,productive ,methods of ,teaching1 with ,familiar ,explanations in the ,lecture ,style c4 ,this is a fair-looking duodecimo volume of three hundred pages1 the character and pretensions of which1 if they could be clearly stated1 would throw further light upon the two fallacious schemes of teaching mentioned above4 ,for the writer says1 ,this grammar professes to combine both the ,inductive and ,productive methods of imparting instruction1 of which much has been said within a few years past--,preface1 p4 iv4 ,and again3 ,the inductive and productive methods of instruction contain the essence of modern improvements4--,gram41 p4 #aci4 ,in what these modern improvements consist1 he does not inform us2 but1 it will be seen1 that he himself claims the copyright of all the improvements which he allows to ,english grammar since the appearance of ,murray in #agie4 ,more than two hundred pretenders to such improvements1 appear however within the time2 nor is the grammarian of ,holdgate the least positive of the claimants4 ,this new purveyor for the public taste1 dislikes the catering of his predecessor1 who poached in the fields of ,murray2 and1 with a tacit censure upon his productions1 has honestly bought the rareties which he has served up4 ,in this he has the advantage4 ,he is a better writer too than some who make grammars2 though no adept at composition1 and a total stranger to method4 ,to call his work a system is a palpable misnomer2 to tell what it is1 an impossibility4 ,it is a grammatical chaos1 bearing such a resemblance to ,smith's or ,kirkham's as one mass of confusion naturally bears to an other1 yet differing from both in almost every thing that looks like order in any of the three4 #be4 ,the claimant of the combination says1 this new system of ,english grammar now offered to the public1 embraces the principles of a ',systematic ,introduction to ,english ,grammar1' by ,john ,l4 ,parkhurst2 and the present author is indebted to ,mr4 ,parkhurst for a knowledge of the manner of applying the principles involved in his peculiar method of teaching grammatical science4 ,he is also under obligations to ,mr4 ,parkhurst for many useful hints received several years since while under his instruction4--,the copy right of ,parkhurst's ,grammar has been purchased by the writer of this1 who alone is responsible for the present application of its definitions4 ,parkhurst's ,systematic ,introduction to ,english ,grammar has passed through two editions1 and is the first improved system of ,english grammar that has appeared before the public since the first introduction of ,lindley ,murray's ,english ,grammar4--,sanborn's ,gram41 ,preface1 p4 iii4 ,what1 then1 is ,,the ,,productive ,,system8 and with whom did it originate8 ,the thousands of gross blunders committed by its professors1 prove at least that it is no system of writing grammatically2 and1 whether it originated with ,parkhurst or with ,pestalozzi1 with ,sanborn or with ,smith1 as it is confessedly a method but recently adopted1 and1 so far as appears1 never fairly tested1 so is it a method that needs only to be known1 to be immediately and forever exploded4 #bf4 ,the best instruction is that which ultimately gives the greatest facility and skill in practice2 and grammar is best taught by that process which brings its doctrines most directly home to the habits as well as to the thoughts of the pupil--which the most effectually conquers inattention1 and leaves the deepest impress of shame upon blundering ignorance4 ,in the language of some men1 there is a vividness1 an energy1 a power of expression1 which penetrates even the soul of dullness1 and leaves an impression both of words unknown and of sentiments unfelt before4 ,such men can teach2 but he who kindly or indolently accommodates himself to ignorance1 shall never be greatly instrumental in removing it4 ,the colloquial barbarisms of boys1 says ,dr4 ,barrow1 should never be suffered to pass without notice and censure4 ,provincial tones and accents1 and all defects in articulation1 should be corrected whenever they are heard2 lest they grow into established habits1 unknown1 from their familiarity1 to him who is guilty of them1 and adopted by others1 from the imitation of his manner1 or their respect for his authority4--,barrow's ,essays on ,education1 p4 #hh4 #bg4 ,in the whole range of school exercises1 there is none of greater importance than that of parsing2 and yet perhaps there is none which is1 in general1 more defectively conducted4 ,scarcely less useful1 as a means of instruction1 is the practice of correcting false syntax orally1 by regular and logical forms of argument2 nor does this appear to have been more ably directed towards the purposes of discipline4 ,there is so much to be done1 in order to effect what is desirable in the management of these things2 and so little prospect that education will ever be generally raised to a just appreciation of that study which1 more than all others1 forms the mind to habits of correct thinking2 that1 in reflecting upon the state of the science at the present time1 and upon the means of its improvement1 the author cannot but sympathize1 in some degree1 with the sadness of the learned ,sanctius2 who tells us1 that he had always lamented1 and often with tears1 that while other branches of learning were excellently taught1 grammar1 which is the foundation of all others1 lay so much neglected1 and that for this neglect there seemed to be no adequate remedy4--,pref4 to ,minerva4 ,the grammatical use of language is in sweet alliance with the moral2 and a similar regret seems to have prompted the following exclamation of the ,christian poet3 ,sacred ,interpreter of human thought1 ,how few respect or use thee as they ought6--,,cowper4 #bh4 ,no directions1 either oral or written1 can ever enable the heedless and the unthinking to speak or write well4 ,that must indeed be an admirable book1 which can attract levity to sober reflection1 teach thoughtlessness the true meaning of words1 raise vulgarity from its fondness for low examples1 awaken the spirit which attains to excellency of speech1 and cause grammatical exercises to be skillfully managed1 where teachers themselves are so often lamentably deficient in them4 ,yet something may be effected by means of better books1 if better can be introduced4 ,and what withstands8--,whatever there is of ignorance or error in relation to the premises4 ,and is it arrogant to say there is much8 ,alas6 in regard to this1 as well as to many a weightier matter1 one may too truly affirm1 ,multa non sunt sicut multis videntur--,many things are not as they seem to many4 ,common errors are apt to conceal themselves from the common mind2 and the appeal to reason and just authority is often frustrated1 because a wrong head defies both4 ,but1 apart from this1 there are difficulties3 multiplicity perplexes choice2 inconvenience attends change2 improvement requires effort2 conflicting theories demand examination2 the principles of the science are unprofitably disputed2 the end is often divorced from the means2 and much that belies the title1 has been published under the name4 #bi4 ,it is certain1 that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for the important exercises of parsing and correcting1 are either so awkwardly written or so negligently followed1 as to make grammar1 in the mouths of our juvenile orators1 little else than a crude and faltering jargon4 ,murray evidently intended that his book of exercises should be constantly used with his grammar2 but he made the examples in the former so dull and prolix1 that few learners1 if any1 have ever gone through the series agreeably to his direction4 ,the publishing of them in a separate volume1 has probably given rise to the absurd practice of endeavouring to teach his grammar without them4 ,the forms of parsing and correcting which this author furnishes1 are also misplaced2 and when found by the learner1 are of little use4 ,they are so verbose1 awkward1 irregular1 and deficient1 that the pupil must be either a dull boy or utterly ignorant of grammar1 if he cannot express the facts extemporaneously in better ,english4 ,they are also very meagre as a whole1 and altogether inadequate to their purpose2 many things that frequently occur in the language1 not being at all exemplified in them1 or even explained in the grammar itself4 ,when we consider how exceedingly important it is1 that the business of a school should proceed without loss of time1 and that1 in the oral exercises here spoken of1 each pupil should go through his part promptly1 clearly1 correctly1 and fully1 we cannot think it a light objection that these forms1 so often to be repeated1 are so badly written4 ,nor does the objection lie against this writer only3 ,ab uno disce omnes4 ,but the reader may demand some illustrations4#fa #cj4 ,first--from his etymological parsing3 ,o ,virtue6 how amiable thou art6 ,here his form for the word ,virtue is--,virtue is a common substantive1 of the neuter gender1 of the third person1 in the singular number1 and the nominative case4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #b4 ,it should have been--,virtue is a common noun1 personified proper1 of the second person1 singular number1 feminine gender1 and nominative case4 ,and then the definitions of all these things should have followed in regular numerical order4 ,he gives the class of this noun wrong1 for virtue addressed becomes an individual2 he gives the gender wrong1 and in direct contradiction to what he says of the word in his section on gender2 he gives the person wrong1 as may be seen by the pronoun thou1 which represents it2 he repeats the definite article three times unnecessarily1 and inserts two needless prepositions1 making them different where the relation is precisely the same3 and all this1 in a sentence of two lines1 to tell the properties of the noun ,virtue6--,but further3 in etymological parsing1 the definitions explaining the properties of the parts of speech1 ought to be regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil1 till all of them become perfectly familiar2 and till he can discern1 with the quickness of thought1 what alone will be true for the full description of any word in any intelligible sentence4 ,all these the author omits2 and1 on account of this omission1 his whole method of etymological parsing is1 miserably deficient4#fb #ca4 ,secondly--from his syntactical parsing3 ,vice degrades us4 ,here his form for the word ,vice is--,vice is a common substantive1 of the third person1 in the singular number1 and the nominative case4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #i4 ,now1 when the learner is told that this is the syntactical parsing of a noun1 and the other the etymological1 he will of course conclude1 that to advance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech1 is merely1 to omit the gender--this being the only difference between the two forms4 ,but even this difference had no other origin than the compiler's carelessness in preparing his octavo book of exercises--the gender being inserted in the duodecimo4 ,and what then8 ,is the syntactical parsing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymological8 ,never4 ,but ,murray1 and all who admire and follow his work1 are content to parse many words by halves--making1 or pretending to make1 a necessary distinction1 and yet often omitting1 in both parts of the exercise1 every thing which constitutes the difference4 ,he should here have said--,vice is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case3 and is the subject of degrades2 according to the rule which says1 ',a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb1 must be in the nominative case4' ,because the meaning is--vice degrades4 ,this is the whole description of the word1 with its construction2 and to say less1 is to leave the matter unfinished4 #cb4 ,thirdly--from his ,mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences3 ,take his first example3 ,the man is prudent which speaks little4 7,how far silence is prudence1 depends upon circumstances3 ,i waive that question47 ,the learner is here taught to say1 ,this sentence is incorrect2 because which is a pronoun of the neuter gender1 and does not agree in gender with its antecedent man1 which is masculine4 ,but a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender1 c4 according to the fifth rule of syntax4 ,which should therefore be who1 a relative pronoun1 agreeing with its antecedent man2 and the sentence should stand thus3 ',the man is prudent who speaks little4'--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ah2 ,exercises1 #abmo1 p4 xii4 ,again3 ',after ,i visited ,europe1 ,i returned to ,america4' ,this sentence1 says ,murray1 is not correct2 because the verb visited is in the imperfect tense1 and yet used here to express an action1 not only past1 but prior to the time referred to by the verb returned1 to which it relates4 ,by the thirteenth rule of syntax1 when verbs are used that1 in point of time1 relate to each other1 the order of time should be observed4 ,the imperfect tense visited should therefore have been had visited1 in the pluperfect tense1 representing the action of visiting1 not only as past1 but also as prior to the time of returning4 ,the sentence corrected would stand thus3 ',after ,i had visited ,europe1 ,i returned to ,america4'--,gr41 ii1 p4 #ai2 and ,ex4 #abmo1 p4 xii4 ,these are the first two examples of ,murray's verbal corrections1 and the only ones retained by ,alger1 in his improved1 recopy-righted edition of ,murray's ,exercises4 ,yet1 in each of them1 is the argumentation palpably false6 ,in the former1 truly1 which should be who2 but not because which is of the neuter gender2 but because the application of that relative to persons1 is now nearly obsolete4 ,can any grammarian forget that1 in speaking of brute animals1 male or female1 we commonly use which1 and never who8 ,but if which must needs be neuter1 the world is wrong in this4--,as for the latter example1 it is right as it stands2 and the correction is1 in some sort1 tautological4 ,the conjunctive adverb after makes one of the actions subsequent to the other1 and gives to the visiting all the priority that is signified by the pluperfect tense4 ,after ,i visited ,europe1 is equivalent to ,when ,i had visited ,europe4 ,the whole argument is therefore void4#fc #cc4 ,these few brief illustrations1 out of thousands that might be adduced in proof of the faultiness of the common manuals1 the author has reluctantly introduced1 to show that even in the most popular books1 with all the pretended improvements of revisers1 the grammar of our language has never been treated with that care and ability which its importance demands4 ,it is hardly to be supposed that men unused to a teacher's duties1 can be qualified to compose such books as will most facilitate his labours4 ,practice is a better pilot than theory4 ,and while1 in respect to grammar1 the consciousness of failure is constantly inducing changes from one system to another1 and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly to end in the same disappointment2 perhaps the practical instructions of an experienced teacher1 long and assiduously devoted to the study1 may approve themselves to many1 as seasonably supplying the aid and guidance which they require4 #cd4 ,from the doctrines of grammar1 novelty is rigidly excluded4 ,they consist of details to which taste can lend no charm1 and genius no embellishment4 ,a writer may express them with neatness and perspicuity--their importance alone can commend them to notice4 ,yet1 in drawing his illustrations from the stores of literature1 the grammarian may select some gems of thought1 which will fasten on the memory a worthy sentiment1 or relieve the dullness of minute instruction4 ,such examples have been taken from various authors1 and interspersed through the following pages4 ,the moral effect of early lessons being a point of the utmost importance1 it is especially incumbent on all those who are endeavouring to confer the benefits of intellectual culture1 to guard against the admission or the inculcation of any principle which may have an improper tendency1 and be ultimately prejudicial to those whom they instruct4 ,in preparing this treatise for publication1 the author has been solicitous to avoid every thing that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader2 and of the several thousands of quotations introduced for the illustration or application of the principles of the science1 he trusts that the greater part will be considered valuable on account of the sentiments they contain4 #ce4 ,the nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention4 ,the author has1 however1 aimed at that kind and degree of originality which are to be commended in works of this sort4 ,what these are1 according to his view1 he has sufficiently explained in a preceding chapter4 ,and1 though he has taken the liberty of a grammarian1 to think for himself and write in a style of his own1 he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence of research1 or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority which gives law to language4 ,in criticising the critics and grammatists of the schools1 he has taken them upon their own ground--showing their errors1 for the most part1 in contrast with the common principles which they themselves have taught2 and has hoped to escape censure1 in his turn1 not by sheltering himself under the name of a popular master1 but by a diligence which should secure to his writings at least the humble merit of self-consistency4 ,his progress in composing this work has been slow1 and not unattended with labour and difficulty4 ,amidst the contrarieties of opinion1 that appear in the various treatises already before the public1 and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated a subject1 he has1 after deliberate consideration1 adopted those views and explanations which appeared to him the least liable to objection1 and the most compatible with his ultimate object--the production of a work which should show1 both extensively and accurately1 what is1 and what is not1 good ,english4 #cf4 ,the great art of meritorious authorship lies chiefly in the condensation of much valuable thought into few words4 ,although the author has here allowed himself ampler room than before1 he has still been no less careful to store it with such information as he trusted would prevent the ingenious reader from wishing its compass less4 ,he has compressed into this volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials in comparison with which the book is still exceedingly small4 ,the effort to do this1 has greatly multiplied his own labour and long delayed the promised publication2 but in proportion as this object has been reached1 the time and patience of the student must have been saved4 ,adequate compensation for this long toil1 has never been expected4 ,whether from this performance any profit shall accrue to the author or not1 is a matter of little consequence2 he has neither written for bread1 nor on the credit of its proceeds built castles in the air4 ,his ambition was1 to make an acceptable book1 by which the higher class of students might be thoroughly instructed1 and in which the eyes of the critical would find little to condemn4 ,he is too well versed in the history of his theme1 too well aware of the precarious fortune of authors1 to indulge in any confident anticipations of extraordinary success3 yet he will not deny that his hopes are large1 being conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of feeling which cannot fear disappointment4 ,in this temper he would invite the reader to a thorough perusal of these pages4 #cg4 ,a grammar should speak for itself4 ,in a work of this nature1 every word or tittle which does not recommend the performance to the understanding and taste of the skillful1 is1 so far as it goes1 a certificate against it4 ,yet if some small errors shall have escaped detection1 let it be recollected that it is almost impossible to compose and print1 with perfect accuracy1 a work of this size1 in which so many little things should be observed1 remembered1 and made exactly to correspond4 ,there is no human vigilance which multiplicity may not sometimes baffle1 and minuteness sometimes elude4 ,to most persons grammar seems a dry and difficult subject2 but there is a disposition of mind1 to which what is arduous1 is for that very reason alluring4 ,quo difficilius1 hoc prclarius1 says ,cicero2 ,the more difficult1 the more honourable4 ,the merit of casting up a high-way in a rugged land1 is proportionate not merely to the utility of the achievement1 but to the magnitude of the obstacles to be overcome4 ,the difficulties encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epitome and the deep impression of a few mortifying blunders made in public1 first gave the author a fondness for grammar2 circumstances having since favoured this turn of his genius1 he has voluntarily pursued the study1 with an assiduity which no man will ever imitate for the sake of pecuniary recompense4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,of ,,grammatical ,,definitions4 ,scientiam autem nusquam esse censebant1 nisi in animi motionibus atque rationibus3 qu de caus definitiones rerum probabant1 et has ad omnia1 de quibus disceptabatur1 adhibebant4--,,ciceronis ,academica1 ,lib4 i1 #i4 #a4 ,the first and highest philosophy1 says ,puffendorf1 is that which delivers the most accurate and comprehensive definitions of things4 ,had all the writers on ,english grammar been adepts in this philosophy1 there would have been much less complaint of the difficulty and uncertainty of the study4 ,it is easy1 says ,murray1 to advance plausible objections against almost every definition1 rule1 and arrangement of grammar4--,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ei4 ,but1 if this is true1 as regards his1 or any other work1 the reason1 ,i am persuaded1 is far less inherent in the nature of the subject than many have supposed4#fd ,objectionable definitions and rules are but evidences of the ignorance and incapacity of him who frames them4 ,and if the science of grammar has been so unskillfully treated that almost all its positions may be plausibly impugned1 it is time for some attempt at a reformation of the code4 ,the language is before us1 and he who knows most about it1 can best prescribe the rules which we ought to observe in the use of it4 ,but how can we expect children to deduce from a few particulars an accurate notion of general principles and their exceptions1 where learned doctors have so often faltered8 ,let the abettors of grammatical induction answer4 #b4 ,nor let it be supposed a light matter to prescribe with certainty the principles of grammar4 ,for1 what is requisite to the performance8 ,to know certainly1 in the first place1 what is the best usage4 ,nor is this all4 ,sense and memory must be keen1 and tempered to retain their edge and hold1 in spite of any difficulties which the subject may present4 ,to understand things exactly as they are2 to discern the differences by which they may be distinguished1 and the resemblances by which they ought to be classified2 to know1 through the proper evidences of truth1 that our ideas1 or conceptions1 are rightly conformable to the nature1 properties1 and relations1 of the objects of which we think2 to see how that which is complex may be resolved into its elements1 and that which is simple may enter into combination2 to observe how that which is consequent may be traced to its cause1 and that which is regular be taught by rule2 to learn from the custom of speech the proper connexion between words and ideas1 so as to give to the former a just application1 to the latter an adequate expression1 and to things a just description2 to have that penetration which discerns what terms1 ideas1 or things1 are definable1 and therefore capable of being taught1 and what must be left to the teaching of nature3 these are the essential qualifications for him who would form good definitions2 these are the elements of that accuracy and comprehensiveness of thought1 to which allusion has been made1 and which are characteristic of the first and highest philosophy4 #c4 ,again1 with reference to the cultivation of the mind1 ,i would add3 ,to observe accurately the appearances of things1 and the significations of words2 to learn first principles first1 and proceed onward in such a manner that every new truth may help to enlighten and strengthen the understanding2 and thus to comprehend gradually1 according to our capacity1 whatsoever may be brought within the scope of human intellect3--to do these things1 ,i say1 is1 to ascend by sure steps1 so far as we may1 from the simplest elements of science--which1 in fact1 are our own1 original1 undefinable notices of things--towards the very topmost height of human wisdom and knowledge4 ,the ancient saying1 that truth lies hid1 or in the bottom of a well1 must not be taken without qualification2 for the first and highest philosophy has many principles which even a child may understand4 ,these several suggestions1 the first of which the ,baron de ,puffendorf thought not unworthy to introduce his great work on the ,law of ,nature and of ,nations1 the reader1 if he please1 may bear in mind1 as he peruses the following digest of the laws and usages of speech4 #d4 ,definitions1 says ,duncan1 in his ,elements of ,logic1 are intended to make known the meaning of words standing for complex ideas2#fe and were we always careful to form those ideas exactly in our minds1 and copy our definitions from that appearance1 much of the confusion and obscurity complained of in languages might be prevented4--,p4 #gj4 ,again he says3 ,the writings of the mathematicians are a clear proof1 how much the advancement of human knowledge depends upon a right use of definitions4--,p4 #gb4 ,mathematical science has been supposed to be1 in its own nature1 that which is best calculated to develop and strengthen the reasoning faculty2 but1 as speech is emphatically the discourse of reason1 ,i am persuaded1 that had the grammarians been equally clear and logical in their instructions1 their science would never have been accounted inferior in this respect4 ,grammar is perhaps the most comprehensive of all studies2 but it is chiefly owing to the unskillfulness of instructors1 and to the errors and defects of the systems in use1 that it is commonly regarded as the most dry and difficult4 #e4 ,poor ,scaliger 7who well knew what a definition should be7 from his own melancholy experience exclaimed--',nihil infelicius grammatico definitore6' ,nothing is more unhappy than the grammatical definer4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bch4 ,nor do our later teachers appear to have been more fortunate in this matter4 ,a majority of all the definitions and rules contained in the great multitude of ,english grammars which ,i have examined1 are1 in some respect or other1 erroneous4 ,the nature of their multitudinous faults1 ,i must in general leave to the discernment of the reader1 except the passages be such as may be suitably selected for examples of false syntax4 ,enough1 however1 will be exhibited1 in the course of this volume1 to make the foregoing allegation credible2 and of the rest a more accurate judgement may perhaps be formed1 when they shall have been compared with what this work will present as substitutes4 ,the importance of giving correct definitions to philological terms1 and of stating with perfect accuracy whatsoever is to be learned as doctrine1 has never been duly appreciated4 ,the grand source of the disheartening difficulties encountered by boys in the study of grammar1 lies in their ignorance of the meaning of words4 ,this cause of embarrassment is not to be shunned and left untouched2 but1 as far as possible1 it ought to be removed4 ,in teaching grammar1 or indeed any other science1 we cannot avoid the use of many terms to which young learners may have attached no ideas4 ,being little inclined or accustomed to reflection1 they often hear1 read1 or even rehearse from memory1 the plainest language that can be uttered1 and yet have no very distinct apprehension of what it means4 ,what marvel then1 that in a study abounding with terms taken in a peculiar or technical sense1 many of which1 in the common manuals1 are either left undefined1 or are explained but loosely or erroneously1 they should often be greatly puzzled1 and sometimes totally discouraged8 #f4 ,simple ideas are derived1 not from teaching1 but from sensation or consciousness2 but complex ideas1 or the notions which we have of such things as consist of various parts1 or such as stand in any known relations1 are definable4 ,a person can have no better definition of heat1 or of motion1 than what he will naturally get by moving towards a fire4 ,not so of our complex or general ideas1 which constitute science4 ,the proper objects of scientific instruction consist in those genuine perceptions of pure mind1 which form the true meaning of generic names1 or common nouns2 and he who is properly qualified to teach1 can for the most part readily tell what should be understood by such words4 ,but are not many teachers too careless here8 ,for instance3 a boy commencing the process of calculation1 is first told1 that1 ,arithmetic is the art of computing by numbers1 which sentence he partly understands2 but should he ask his teacher1 ,what is a number1 in arithmetic8 what answer will he get8 ,were ,goold ,brown so asked1 he would simply say1 ,a number1 in arithmetic1 is an expression that tells how many2 for every expression that tells how many1 is a number in arithmetic1 and nothing else is4 ,but as no such definition is contained in the books1#ff there are ten chances to one1 that1 simple as the matter is1 the readiest master you shall find1 will give an erroneous answer4 ,suppose the teacher should say1 ,that is a question which ,i have not thought of2 turn to your dictionary4 ,the boy reads from ,dr4 ,webster3 ,,number--the designation of a unit in reference to other units1 or in reckoning1 counting1 enumerating4--,yes1 replies the master1 that is it2 ,dr4 ,webster is unrivalled in giving definitions4 ,now1 has the boy been instructed1 or only puzzled8 ,can he conceive how the number five can be a unit8 or how the word five1 the figure #e1 or the numeral letter ,v1 is the designation of a unit8 ,he knows that each of these is a number1 and that the oral monosyllable five is the same number1 in an other form2 but is still as much at a loss for a proper answer to his question1 as if he had never seen either schoolmaster or dictionary4 ,so is it with a vast number of the simplest things in grammar4 #g4 ,since what we denominate scientific terms1 are seldom1 if ever1 such as stand for ideas simple and undefinable2 and since many of those which represent general ideas1 or classes of objects1 may be made to stand for more or fewer things1 according to the author's notion of classification2 it is sufficiently manifest that the only process by which instruction can effectually reach the understanding of the pupil and remove the difficulties spoken of1 is that of delivering accurate definitions4 ,these are requisite for the information and direction of the learner2 and these must be thoroughly impressed upon his mind1 as the only means by which he can know exactly how much and what he is to understand by our words4 ,the power which we possess1 of making known all our complex or general ideas of things by means of definitions1 is a faculty wisely contrived in the nature of language1 for the increase and spread of science2 and1 in the hands of the skillful1 it is of vast avail to these ends4 ,it is the first and highest philosophy1 instructing mankind1 to think clearly and speak accurately2 as well as to know definitely1 in the unity and permanence of a general nature1 those things which never could be known or spoken of as the individuals of an infinite and fleeting multitude4 #h4 ,and1 without contradiction1 the shortest and most successful way of teaching the young mind to distinguish things according to their proper differences1 and to name or describe them aright1 is1 to tell in direct terms what they severally are4 ,cicero intimates that all instruction appealing to reason ought to proceed in this manner3 ,omnis enim quse ratione suscipitur de re aliqua institutio1 debet definitione proficisci1 ut intelligatur quid sit id1 de quo disputetur4--,off4 ,lib4 i1 p4 #d4 ,literally thus3 ,for all instruction which from reason is undertaken concerning any thing1 ought to proceed from a definition1 that it may be understood what the thing is1 about which the speaker is arguing4 ,little advantage1 however1 will be derived from any definition1 which is not1 as ,quintilian would have it1 ,lucida et succincta rei descriptio1--a clear and brief description of the thing4 #i4 ,let it here be observed that scientific definitions are of things1 and not merely of words2 or if equally of words and things1 they are rather of nouns than of the other parts of speech4 ,for a definition1 in the proper sense of the term1 consists not in a mere change or explanation of the verbal sign1 but in a direct and true answer to the question1 ,what is such or such a thing8 ,in respect to its extent1 it must with equal exactness include every thing which comes under the name1 and exclude every thing which does not come under the name3 then will it perfectly serve the purpose for which it is intended4 ,to furnish such definitions1 7as ,i have suggested17 is work for those who are capable of great accuracy both of thought and expression4 ,those who would qualify themselves for teaching any particular branch of knowledge1 should make it their first concern to acquire clear and accurate ideas of all things that ought to be embraced in their instructions4 ,these ideas are to be gained1 either by contemplation upon the things themselves as they are presented naturally1 or by the study of those books in which they are rationally and clearly explained4 ,nor will such study ever be irksome to him whose generous desire after knowledge1 is thus deservedly gratified4 #aj4 ,but it must be understood1 that although scientific definitions are said to be of things1 they are not copied immediately from the real essence of the things1 but are formed from the conceptions of the author's mind concerning that essence4 ,hence1 as ,duncan justly remarks1 ,a mistaken idea never fails to occasion a mistake also in the definition4 ,hence1 too1 the common distinction of the logicians1 between definitions of the name and definitions of the thing1 seems to have little or no foundation4 ,the former term they applied to those definitions which describe the objects of pure intellection1 such as triangles1 and other geometrical figures2 the latter1 to those which define objects actually existing in external nature4 ,the mathematical definitions1 so noted for their certainty and completeness1 have been supposed to have some peculiar preminence1 as belonging to the former class4 ,but1 in fact the idea of a triangle exists as substantively in the mind1 as that of a tree1 if not indeed more so2 and if ,i define these two objects1 my description will1 in either case1 be equally a definition both of the name and of the thing2 but in neither1 is it copied from any thing else than that notion which ,i have conceived1 of the common properties of all triangles or of all trees4 #aa4 ,infinitives1 and some other terms not called nouns1 may be taken abstractly or substantively1 so as to admit of what may be considered a regular definition2 thus the question1 ,what is it to read8 is nearly the same as1 ,what is reading8 ,what is it to be wise8 is little different from1 ,what is wisdom8 and a true answer might be1 in either case1 a true definition4 ,nor are those mere translations or explanations of words1 with which our dictionaries and vocabularies abound1 to be dispensed with in teaching3 they prepare the student to read various authors with facility1 and furnish him with a better choice of terms1 when he attempts to write4 ,and in making such choice1 let him remember1 that as affectation of hard words makes composition ridiculous1 so the affectation of easy and common ones may make it unmanly4 ,but not to digress4 ,with respect to grammar1 we must sometimes content ourselves with such explications of its customary terms1 as cannot claim to be perfect definitions2 for the most common and familiar things are not always those which it is the most easy to define4 ,when ,dr4 ,johnson was asked1 ,what is poetry8 he replied1 ,why1 sir1 it is easier to tell what it is not4 ,we all know what light is3 but it is not easy to tell what it is4--,boswell's ,life of ,johnson1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #djb4 ,this was thought by the biographer to have been well and ingeniously said4 #ab4 ,but whenever we encounter difficulties of this sort1 it may be worth while to seek for their cause4 ,if we find it1 the understanding is no longer puzzled4 ,dr4 ,johnson seemed to his biographer1 to show1 by this ready answer1 the acuteness of his wit and discernment4 ,but did not the wit consist in adroitly excusing himself1 by an illusory comparison8 ,what analogy is there between the things which he compares8 ,of the difficulty of defining poetry1 and the difficulty of defining light1 the reasons are as different as are the two things themselves1 poetry and light4 ,the former is something so various and complex that it is hard to distinguish its essence from its accidents2 the latter presents an idea so perfectly simple and unique that all men conceive of it exactly in the same way1 while none can show wherein it essentially consists4 ,but is it true1 that1 ,we all know what light is8 ,is it not rather true1 that we know nothing at all about it1 but what it is just as easy to tell as to think8 ,we know it is that reflexible medium which enables us to see2 and this is definition enough for all but the natively blind1 to whom no definition perhaps can ever convey an adequate notion of its use in respect to sight4 #ac4 ,if a person cannot tell what a thing is1 it is commonly considered to be a fair inference1 that he does not know4 ,will any grammarian say1 ,i know well enough what the thing is1 but ,i cannot tell8 ,yet1 taken upon this common principle1 the authors of our ,english grammars1 7if in framing their definitions they have not been grossly wanting to themselves in the exercise of their own art17 may be charged1 ,i think1 with great ignorance1 or great indistinctness of apprehension2 and that1 too1 in relation to many things among the very simplest elements of their science4 ,for example3 ,is it not a disgrace to a man of letters1 to be unable to tell accurately what a letter is8 ,yet to say1 with ,lowth1 ,murray1 ,churchill1 and a hundred others of inferior name1 that1 ,a letter is the first principle or least part of a word1 is to utter what is neither good ,english nor true doctrine4 ,the two articles a and the are here inconsistent with each other4 ,a letter is one letter1 any letter2 but the first principle of a word is1 surely1 not one or any principle taken indefinitely4 ,equivocal as the phrase is1 it must mean either some particular principle1 or some particular first principle1 of a word2 and1 taken either way1 the assertion is false4 ,for it is manifest1 that in no sense can we affirm of each of the letters of a word1 that it is the first principle of that word4 ,take1 for instance1 the word man4 ,is m the first principle of this word8 ,you may answer1 ,yes2 for it is the first letter4 ,is a the first principle8 ,no2 it is the second4 ,but n too is a letter2 and is n the first principle8 ,no2 it is the last6 ,this grammatical error might have been avoided by saying1 ,letters are the first principles1 or least parts1 of words4 ,but still the definition would not be true1 nor would it answer the question1 ,what is a letter8 ,the true answer to which is3 ,a letter is an alphabetic character1 which commonly represents some elementary sound of human articulation1 or speech4 #ad4 ,this true definition sufficiently distinguishes letters from the marks used in punctuation1 because the latter are not alphabetic1 and they represent silence1 rather than sound2 and also from the ,arabic figures used for numbers1 because these are no part of any alphabet1 and they represent certain entire words1 no one of which consists only of one letter1 or of a single element of articulation4 ,the same may be said of all the characters used for abbreviation2 as1 for and1 for dollars1 or the marks peculiar to mathematicians1 to astronomers1 to druggists1 c4 ,none of these are alphabetic1 and they represent significant words1 and not single elementary sounds3 it would be great dullness1 to assume that a word and an elementary sound are one and the same thing4 ,but the reader will observe that this definition embraces no idea contained in the faulty one to which ,i am objecting2 neither indeed could it1 without a blunder4 ,so wide from the mark is that notion of a letter1 which the popularity of ,dr4 ,lowth and his copyists has made a hundred-fold more common than any other6#fg ,according to an other erroneous definition given by these same gentlemen1 ,words are articulate sounds1 used by common consent1 as signs of our ideas4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bb2 ,kirkham's1 #bj2 ,ingersoll's1 #g2 ,alger's1 #ab2 ,russell's1 #g2 ,merchant's1 #i2 ,fisk's1 #aa2 ,greenleaf's1 #bj2 and many others4 ,see ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #f2 from which almost all authors have taken the notion1 that words consist of sounds only4 ,but letters are no principles or parts of sounds at all2 unless you will either have visible marks to be sounds1 or the sign to be a principle or part of the thing signified4 ,nor are they always principles or parts of words3 we sometimes write what is not a word2 as when1 by letters1 we denote pronunciation alone1 or imitate brute voices4 ,if words were formed of articulate sounds only1 they could not exist in books1 or be in any wise known to the deaf and dumb4 ,these two primary definitions1 then1 are both false2 and1 taken together1 they involve the absurdity of dividing things acknowledged to be indivisible4 ,in utterance1 we cannot divide consonants from their vowels2 on paper1 we can4 ,hence letters are the least parts of written language only2 but the least parts of spoken words are syllables1 and not letters4 ,every definition of a consonant implies this4 #ae4 ,they who cannot define a letter or a word1 may be expected to err in explaining other grammatical terms4 ,in my opinion1 nothing is well written1 that can possibly be misunderstood2 and if any definition be likely to suggest a wrong idea1 this alone is enough to condemn it3 nor does it justify the phraseology1 to say1 that a more reasonable construction can be put upon it4 ,by ,murray and others1 the young learner is told1 that1 ,a vowel is an articulate sound1 that can be perfectly uttered by itself2 as if a vowel were nothing but a sound1 and that a sort of echo1 which can utter itself2 and next1 that1 ,a consonant is an articulate sound1 which cannot be perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel4 ,now1 by their own showing1 every letter is either a vowel or a consonant2 hence1 according to these definitions1 all the letters are articulate sounds4 ,and1 if so1 what is a silent letter8 ,it is a silent articulate sound6 ,again3 ask a boy1 ,what is a triphthong8 ,he answers in the words of ,murray1 ,weld1 ,pond1 ,smith1 ,adams1 ,kirkham1 ,merchant1 ,ingersoll1 ,bacon1 ,alger1 ,worcester1 and others3 ,a triphthong is the union of three vowels1 pronounced in like manner3 as eau in beau1 iew in view4 ,he accurately cites an entire paragraph from his grammar1 but does he well conceive how the three vowels in beau or view are pronounced in like manner8 ,again3 ,a syllable is a sound1 either simple or compound1 pronounced by a single impulse of the voice4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bb4 ,this definition resolves syllables into sounds2 whereas their true elements are letters4 ,it also mistakes the participle compounded for the adjective compound2 whereas the latter only is the true reverse of simple4 ,a compound sound is a sound composed of others which may be separated2 a sound compounded is properly that which is made an ingredient with others1 but which may itself be simple4 #af4 ,it is observable1 that in their attempts to explain these prime elements of grammar1 ,murray1 and many others who have copied him1 overlook all written language2 whereas their very science itself took its origin1 name1 and nature1 from the invention of writing2 and has consequently no bearing upon any dialect which has not been written4 ,their definitions absurdly resolve letters1 vowels1 consonants1 syllables1 and words1 all into sounds2 as if none of these things had any existence on paper1 or any significance to those who read in silence4 ,hence1 their explanations of all these elements1 as well as of many other things equally essential to the study1 are palpably erroneous4 ,i attribute this to the carelessness with which men have compiled or made up books of grammar2 and that carelessness to those various circumstances1 already described1 which have left diligence in a grammarian no hope of praise or reward4 ,without alluding here to my own books1 no one being obliged to accuse himself1 ,i doubt whether we have any school grammar that is much less objectionable in this respect1 than ,murray's2 and yet ,i am greatly mistaken1 if nine tenths of all the definitions in ,murray's system are not faulty4 ,it was this sort of definitions1 which made ,scaliger say1 ',nihil infelicius definitore grammatico4'--,see ,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cea2 also ,paragraph #eth1 above4 #ag4 ,nor can this objection be neutralized by saying1 it is a mere matter of opinion--a mere prejudice originating in rivalry4 ,for1 though we have ample choice of terms1 and may frequently assign to particular words a meaning and an explanation which are in some degree arbitrary2 yet whenever we attempt to define things under the name which custom has positively fixed upon them1 we are no longer left to arbitrary explications2 but are bound to think and to say that only which shall commend itself to the understanding of others1 as being altogether true to nature4 ,when a word is well understood to denote a particular object or class of objects1 the definition of it ought to be in strict conformity to what is known of the real being and properties of the thing or things contemplated4 ,a definition of this kind is a proposition susceptible of proof and illustration2 and therefore whatsoever is erroneously assumed to be the proper meaning of such a term1 may be refuted4 ,but those persons who take every thing upon trust1 and choose both to learn and to teach mechanically1 often become so slavishly habituated to the peculiar phraseology of their text-books1 that1 be the absurdity of a particular expression what it may1 they can neither discover nor suspect any inaccuracy in it4 ,it is also very natural even for minds more independent and acute1 to regard with some reverence whatsoever was gravely impressed upon them in childhood4 ,hence the necessity that all school-books should proceed from skillful hands4 ,instruction should tell things as they are1 and never falter through negligence4 #ah4 ,i have admitted that definitions are not the only means by which a general knowledge of the import of language may be acquired2 nor are they the only means by which the acquisition of such knowledge may be aided4 ,to exhibit or point out things and tell their names1 constitutes a large part of that instruction by which the meaning of words is conveyed to the young mind2 and1 in many cases1 a mere change or apposition of terms may sufficiently explain our idea4 ,but when we would guard against the possibility of misapprehension1 and show precisely what is meant by a word1 we must fairly define it4 ,there are1 however1 in every language1 many words which do not admit of a formal definition4 ,the import of all definitive and connecting particles must be learned from usage1 translation1 or derivation2 and nature reserves to herself the power of explaining the objects of our simple original perceptions4 ,all words standing for complex ideas are definable2 but those by which we denote simple ideas1 are not4 ,for the perceptions of this latter class1 having no other entrance into the mind1 than by sensation or reflection1 can be acquired only by experience4--,duncan's ,logic1 p4 #fc4 ,and thus we see1 that as our simple ideas are the materials and foundation of knowledge1 so the names of simple ideas may be considered as the elementary parts of language1 beyond which we cannot trace the meaning and signification of words4 ,when we come to them1 we suppose the ideas for which they stand to be already known2 or1 if they are not1 experience alone must be consulted1 and not definitions or explications4--,ibid41 p4 #fi4 #ai4 ,but this is no apology for the defectiveness of any definition which might be made correct1 or for the effectiveness of our ,english grammars1 in the frequent omission of all explanation1 and the more frequent adoption of some indirect form of expression4 ,it is often much easier to make some loose observation upon what is meant by a given word or term in science1 than to frame a faultless definition of the thing2 because it is easier to refer to some of the relations1 qualities1 offices1 or attributes of things1 than to discern wherein their essence consists1 so as to be able to tell directly and clearly what they are4 ,the improvement of our grammatical code in this respect1 was one of the principal objects which ,i thought it needful to attempt1 when ,i first took up the pen as a grammarian4 ,i cannot pretend to have seen1 of course1 every definition and rule which has been published on this subject2 but1 if ,i do not misjudge a service too humble for boasting1 ,i have myself framed a greater number of new or improved ones1 than all other ,english grammarians together4 ,and not a few of them have1 since their first publication in #ahbc1 been complimented to a place in other grammars than my own4 ,this is in good keeping with the authorship which has been spoken of in an other chapter2 but ,i am constrained to say1 it affords no proof that they were well written4 ,if it did1 the definitions and rules in ,murray's grammar must undoubtedly be thought the most correct that ever have been given3 they have been more frequently copied than any others4 #bj4 ,but ,i have ventured to suggest1 that nine tenths of this author's definitions are bad1 or at least susceptible of some amendment4 ,if this can be shown to the satisfaction of the reader1 will he hope to find an other ,english grammar in which the eye of criticism may not detect errors and deficiencies with the same ease8 ,my object is1 to enforce attention to the proprieties of speech2 and this is the very purpose of all grammar4 ,to exhibit here all ,murray's definitions1 with criticisms upon them1 would detain us too long4 ,we must therefore be content to take a part of them as a sample4 ,and1 not to be accused of fixing only upon the worst1 we will take a series4 ,let us then consider in their order his definitions of the nine parts of speech2--for1 calling the participle a verb1 he reduces the sorts of words to that number4 ,and though not one of his nine definitions now stands exactly as it did in his early editions1 ,i think it may be said1 that not one of them is now1 if it ever has been1 expressed grammatically4 #ba4 ,,first ,,definition3--,an ,article is a word prefixed to substantives1 to point them out1 and to show how far their#fh signification extends4--,murray1 and others1 from1 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,this is obscure4 ,in what manner1 or in what respect1 does an article point out substantives8 ,to point them out as such1 or to show which words are substantives1 seems at first view to be the meaning intended2 but it is said soon after1 ,a or an is used in a vague sense1 to point out one single thing of the kind1 in other respects indeterminate2 as1 ',give me a book2' ',bring me an apple4'--,lowth1 p4 #aa2 ,murray1 p4 #ca4 ,and again3 ,it is of the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing spoken of4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #agj4 ,now to point out nouns among the parts of speech1 and to point out things as individuals of their class1 are very different matters2 and which of these is the purpose for which articles are used1 according to ,lowth and ,murray8 ,their definition says the former1 their explanations imply the latter2 and ,i am unable to determine which they really meant4 ,the term placed before would have been better than prefixed2 because the latter commonly implies junction1 as well as location4 ,the word indeterminate is not a very easy one for a boy2 and1 when he has found out what it means1 he may possibly not know to which of the four preceding nouns it ought to be referred3--in a vague sense1 to point out one single thing of the kind1 in other respects indeterminate4 ,what is this vague sense8 and what is it1 that is indeterminate8 #bb4 ,,second ,,definition3--,a ,substantive or ,noun is the name of any thing that exists1 or of which we have any notion4--,murray1 and others4 ,according to his own syntax1 this sentence of ,murray's is wrong2 for he himself suggests1 that when two or more relative clauses refer to the same antecedent1 the same pronoun should be used in each4 ,of clauses connected like these1 this is true4 ,he should therefore have said1 ,a ,substantive1 or ,noun1 is the name of any thing which exists1 or of which we have any notion4 ,his rule1 however1 though good against a text like this1 is utterly wrong in regard to many others1 and not very accurate in taking two for a series thus3 ,whatever relative is used1 in one of a series of clauses relating to the same antecedent1 the same relative ought1 generally to be used in them all4 ,in the following sentence1 this rule is violated3 ',it is remarkable1 that ,holland1 against which the war was undertaken1 and that1 in the very beginning1 was reduced to the brink of destruction1 lost nothing4' ,the clause ought to have been1 'and which in the very beginning4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aee4 ,but both the rule and the example1 badly as they correspond1 were borrowed from ,priestley's ,grammar1 p4 #ajb1 where the text stands thus3 ,whatever relative be used1 in one of a series of clauses1 relating to the same antecedent1 the same ought to be used in them all4 ',it is remarkable1 that ,holland1' c4 #bc4 ,,third ,,definition3--,an ,adjective is a word added to a substantive1 to express its quality4--,lowth1 ,murray1 ,bullions1 ,pond1 and others4 ,here we have the choice of two meanings2 but neither of them is according to truth4 ,it seems doubtful whether its quality is the adjective's quality1 or the substantive's2 but in either sense1 the phrase is false2 for an adjective is added to a noun1 not to express any quality either of the adjective or of the noun1 but to express some quality of the thing signified by the noun4 ,but the definition is too much restricted2 for adjectives may be added to pronouns as well as to nouns1 nor do they always express quality4 #bd4 ,,fourth ,,definition3--,a ,pronoun is a word used instead of a noun1 to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #be2 ,murray's1 #bh and #ej2 ,felton's1 #ah2 ,alger's1 #ac2 ,bacon's1 #aj2 and others4 ,the latter part of this sentence is needless1 and also contains several errors4 #a4 ,the verb avoid is certainly very ill-chosen2 because it implies intelligent agency1 and not that which is merely instrumental4 #b4 ,the article the is misemployed for a2 for1 the too frequent repetition1 should mean some particular too frequent repetition--an idea not intended here1 and in itself not far from absurdity4 #c4 ,the phrase1 the same word may apply to the pronoun itself as well as to the noun3 in saying1 ,i came1 ,i saw1 ,i conquered1 there is as frequent a repetition of the same word1 as in saying1 ,csar came1 ,csar saw1 ,csar conquered4 ,if1 therefore1 the latter part of this definition must be retained1 the whole should be written thus3 ,a ,pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun1 to prevent too frequent a repetition of it4 #be4 ,,fifth ,,definition3--,a ,verb is a word which signifies to be1 to do1 or to suffer--,lowth1 ,murray1 and others4 ,,note3--,a verb may generally be distinguished by its making sense with any of the personal pronouns1 or the word to before it4--,murray1 and others4 ,it is confessedly difficult to give a perfect definition of a verb2 and if1 with ,murray1 we will have the participles to be verbs1 there must be no small difficulty in forming one that shall be tolerable4 ,against the foregoing old explanation1 it may be objected1 that the phrase to suffer1 being now understood in a more limited sense than formerly1 does not well express the nature or import of a passive verb4 ,i have said1 ,a ,verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,children cannot readily understand1 how every thing that is in any way acted upon1 may be said to suffer4 ,the participle1 ,i think1 should be taken as a distinct part of speech1 and have its own definition4 ,the note added by ,murray to his definition of a verb1 would prove the participle not to be included in this part of speech1 and thus practically contradict his scheme4 ,it is also objectionable in respect to construction4 ,the phrase by its making sense is at least very questionable ,english2 for its making supposes making to be a noun1 and making sense supposes it to be an active participle4 ,but ,lowth says1 ,let it be either the one or the other1 and abide by its own construction4 ,nay1 the author himself1 though he therein contradicts an other note of his own1 virtually condemns the phrase1 by his caution to the learner against treating words in ing1 as if they were of an amphibious species1 partly nouns and partly verbs4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aic4 #bf4 ,,sixth ,,definition3--,an ,adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb1 an adjective1 and sometimes to another adverb1 to express some quality or circumstance respecting it4--,murray's ,gram41 pp4 #bh and #aad4 ,see ,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,this definition contains many errors2 some of which are gross blunders4 #a4 ,the first word1 ,an1 is erroneously put for ,the3 an adverb is one adverb1 not the whole class2 and1 if1 ,an adverb is a part of speech1 any and every adverb is a part of speech2 then1 how many parts of speech are there8 #b4 ,the word joined is not well chosen2 for1 with the exception of not in cannot1 the adverb is very rarely joined to the word to which it relates4 #c4 ,the want of a comma before joined1 perverts the construction2 for the phrase1 speech joined to a verb1 is nonsense2 and to suppose joined to relate to the noun part1 is not much better4 #d4 ,the word and should be or2 because no adverb is ever added to three or four different terms at once4 #e4 ,the word sometimes should be omitted2 because it is needless1 and because it is inconsistent with the only conjunction which will make the definition true4 #f4 ,the preposition to should either be inserted before an adjective1 or suppressed before the term which follows2 for when several words occur in the same construction1 uniformity of expression is desirable4 #g4 ,for the same reason1 7if custom may be thus far conformed to analogy17 the article an ought1 in cases like this1 if not always1 to be separated from the word other2 thus1 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb4 ,were the eye not familiar with it1 another would be thought as irregular as theother4 #h4 ,the word quality is wrong2 for no adverb ever expresses any quality1 as such2 qualities are expressed by adjectives1 and never1 in any direct manner1 by adverbs4 #i4 ,the circumstances which we express by adverbs never belong to the words1 as this definition avers that they do1 but always to the actions or qualities which the words signify4 #aj4 ,the pronoun it1 according to ,murray's second rule of syntax1 ought to be them1 and so it stands in his own early editions2 but if and be changed to or1 as ,i have said it should be1 the pronoun it will be right4 #bg4 ,,seventh ,,definition3--,prepositions serve to connect words with one another1 and to show the relation between them4--,lowth1 ,murray1 and others4 ,this is only an observation1 not a definition1 as it ought to have been2 nor does it at all distinguish the preposition from the conjunction4 ,it does not reach the thing in question4 ,besides1 it contains an actual solecism in the expression4 ,the word between implies but two things2 and the phrase one another is not applicable where there are but two4 ,it should be1 to connect words with each other1 and to show the relation between them2--or else1 to connect words with one an other1 and to show the relations among them4 ,but the latter mode of expression would not apply to prepositions considered severally1 but only to the whole class4 #bh4 ,,eighth ,,definition3--,a ,conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences2 so as1 out of two or more sentences1 to make but one3 it sometimes connects only words4--,murray1 and others4 ,here are more than thirty words1 awkwardly and loosely strung together2 and all that is said in them1 might be much better expressed in half the number4 ,for example3 ,a ,conjunction is a word which connects other terms1 and commonly of two sentences makes but one4 ,but verbosity and want of unity are not the worst faults of this definition4 ,we have three others to point out4 #a4 ,a conjunction is not a part of speech2 because a conjunction is one conjunction1 and a part of speech is a whole class1 or sort1 of words4 ,a similar error was noticed in ,murray's definition of an adverb2 and so common has this blunder become1 that by a comparison of the definitions which different authors have given of the parts of speech1 probably it will be found1 that1 by some hand or other1 every one of the ten has been commenced in this way4 #b4 ,the words or more are erroneous1 and ought to be omitted2 for no one conjunction can connect more than two terms1 in that consecutive order which the sense requires4 ,three or more simple sentences may indeed form a compound sentence2 but1 as they cannot be joined in a cluster1 they must have two or more connectives4 #c4 ,the last clause erroneously suggests1 that any or every conjunction sometimes connects only words2 but the conjunctions which may connect only words1 are not more than five1 whereas those which connect only sentences are four times as many4 #bi4 ,,ninth ,,definition3--,interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence1 to express the passions or emotions of the speaker2 as1 ',o ,virtue6 how amiable thou art6'--,murray1 and many others4 ,this definition1 which has been copied from grammar to grammar1 and committed to memory millions of times1 is obviously erroneous1 and directly contradicted by the example4 ,interjections1 though often enough thrown in between the parts of a discourse1 are very rarely thrown in between the parts of a sentence4 ,they more frequently occur at the beginning of a sentence than any where else2 and1 in such cases1 they do not come under this narrow definition4 ,the author1 at the head of his chapter on interjections1 appends to this definition two other examples2 both of which contradict it in like manner3 ,oh6 ,i have alienated my friend4--,alas6 ,i fear for life4 ,again3 ,interjections are used occasionally1 in written1 as well as in oral discourse2 nor are they less indicative of the emotions of the writer1 than of those of the speaker4 #cj4 ,i have thus exhibited1 with all intentional fairness of criticism1 the entire series of these nine primary definitions2 and the reader may judge whether they sustain the praises which have been bestowed on the book1#fi or confirm the allegations which ,i have made against it4 ,he will understand that my design is1 here1 as well as in the body of this work1 to teach grammar practically1 by rectifying1 so far as ,i may1 all sorts of mistakes either in it or respecting it2 to compose a book which1 by a condensed exposition of such errors as are commonly found in other grammars1 will at once show the need we have of a better1 and be itself a fit substitute for the principal treatises which it censures4 ,grammatical errors are universally considered to be small game for critics4 ,they must therefore be very closely grouped together1 to be worth their room in this work4 ,of the tens of thousands who have learned for grammar a multitude of ungrammatical definitions and rules1 comparatively few will ever know what ,i have to say of their acquisitions4 ,but this ,i cannot help4 ,to the readers of the present volume it is due1 that its averments should be clearly illustrated by particular examples2 and it is reasonable that these should be taken from the most accredited sources1 whether they do honour to their framers or not4 ,my argument is only made so much the stronger1 as the works which furnish its proofs1 are the more esteemed1 the more praised1 or the more overrated4 #ca4 ,murray tells us1 ,there is no necessary connexion between words and ideas4--,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aci4 ,though this1 as ,i before observed1 is not altogether true1 he doubtless had very good reason to distinguish1 in his teaching1 between the sign and the thing signified4 ,yet1 in his own definitions and explanations1 he frequently confounds these very things which he declares to be so widely different as not even to have a necessary connexion4 ,errors of this kind are very common in all our ,english grammars4 ,two instances occur in the following sentence2 which also contains an error in doctrine1 and is moreover obscure1 or rather1 in its literal sense1 palpably absurd3 ,to substantives belong gender1 number1 and case2 and they are all of the third person when spoken of1 and of the second person when spoken to4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ch2 ,alger's ,murray1 #af2 ,merchant's1 #bc2 ,bacon's1 #ab2 ,maltby's1 #ab2 ,lyon's1 #g2 ,guy's1 #d2 ,ingersoll's1 #bf2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #ac2 ,t4 ,h4 ,miller's1 #ag2 ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith's1 #ac4 ,who1 but a child taught by language like this1 would ever think of speaking to a noun8 or1 that a noun of the second person could not be spoken of8 or1 that a noun cannot be put in the first person1 so as to agree with ,i or we8 ,murray himself once taught1 that1 ,pronouns must always agree with their antecedents1 and the nouns for which they stand1 in gender1 number1 and person2 and he departed from a true and important principle of syntax1 when he altered his rule to its present form4 ,but ,i have said that the sentence above is obscure1 or its meaning absurd4 ,what does the pronoun they represent8 ,substantives1 according to the author's intent2 but gender1 number1 and case1 according to the obvious construction of the words4 ,let us try a parallel3 ,to scriveners belong pen1 ink1 and paper2 and they are all of primary importance when there is occasion to use them1 and of none at all when they are not needed4 ,now1 if this sentence is obscure1 the other is not less so2 but1 if this is perfectly clear1 so that what is said is obviously and only what is intended1 then it is equally clear1 that what is said in the former1 is gross absurdity1 and that the words cannot reasonably be construed into the sense which the writer1 and his copyists1 designed4 #cb4 ,all ,murray's grammars1 not excepting the two volumes octavo1 are as incomplete as they are inaccurate2 being deficient in many things which are of so great importance that they should not be excluded from the very smallest epitome4 ,for example3 ,on the subject of the numbers1 he attempted but one definition1 and that is a fourfold solecism4 ,ho speaks of the persons1 but gives neither definitions nor explanations4 ,in treating of the genders1 he gives but one formal definition4 ,his section on the cases contains no regular definition4 ,on the comparison of adjectives1 and on the moods and tenses of verbs1 he is also satisfied with a very loose mode of teaching4 ,the work as a whole exhibits more industry than literary taste1 more benevolence of heart than distinctness of apprehension2 and1 like all its kindred and progeny1 fails to give to the principles of grammar that degree of clearness of which they are easily susceptible4 ,the student does not know this1 but he feels the effects of it1 in the obscurity of his own views on the subject1 and in the conscious uncertainty with which he applies those principles4 ,in grammar1 the terms person1 number1 gender1 case1 mood1 tense1 and many others1 are used in a technical and peculiar sense2 and1 in all scientific works1 the sense of technical terms should be clearly and precisely defined4 ,nothing can be gained by substituting other names of modern invention2 for these also would need definitions as much as the old4 ,we want to know the things themselves1 and what they are most appropriately called4 ,we want a book which will tell us1 in proper order1 and in the plainest manner1 what all the elements of the science are4 #cc4 ,what does he know of grammar1 who cannot directly and properly answer such questions as these8--,what are numbers1 in grammar8 ,what is the singular number8 ,what is the plural number8 ,what are persons1 in grammar8 ,what is the first person8 ,what is the second person8 ,what is the third person8 ,what are genders1 in grammar8 ,what is the masculine gender8 ,what is the feminine gender8 ,what is the neuter gender8 ,what are cases1 in grammar8 ,what is the nominative case8 ,what is the possessive case8 ,what is the objective case8--,and yet the most complete acquaintance with every sentence or word of ,murray's tedious compilation1 may leave the student at a loss for a proper answer1 not only to each of these questions1 but also to many others equally simple and elementary6 ,a boy may learn by heart all that ,murray ever published on the subject of grammar1 and still be left to confound the numbers in grammar with numbers in arithmetic1 or the persons in grammar with persons in civil life6 ,nay1 there are among the professed improvers of this system of grammar1 men who have actually confounded these things1 which are so totally different in their natures6 ,in ,smith's ,new ,grammar on the ,productive ,system1 a work in which ,murray is largely copied and strangely metamorphosed1 there is an abundance of such confusion4 ,for instance3 ,what is the meaning of the word number8 ,number means a sum that may be counted4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,from this1 by a tissue of half a dozen similar absurdities1 called inductions1 the novice is brought to the conclusion that the numbers are two--as if there were in nature but two sums that might be counted6 ,there is no end to the sickening detail of such blunders4 ,how many grammars tell us1 that1 ,the first person is the person who speaks2 that1 ,the second person is the person spoken to2 and that1 the third person is the person spoken of6 ,as if the three persons of a verb1 or other part of speech1 were so many intelligent beings6 ,as if1 by exhibiting a word in the three persons1 7as go1 goest1 goes17 we put it first into the speaker1 then into the hearer1 and then into somebody else6 ,nothing can be more abhorrent to grammar1 or to sense1 than such confusion4 ,the things which are identified in each of these three definitions1 are as unlike as ,socrates and moonshine6 ,the one is a thinking being2 the other1 a mere form peculiar to certain words4 ,but ,chandler1 of ,philadelphia1 7the ,grammar ,king1 forsooth67 without mistaking the grammatical persons for rational souls1 has contrived to crowd into his definition of person more errors of conception and of language1--more insult to common sense1--than one could have believed it possible to put together in such space4 ,and this ridiculous old twaddle1 after six and twenty years1 he has deliberately re-written and lately republished as something adapted to the schools of ,america4 ,it stands thus3 ,person is a distinction which is made in a noun between its representation of its object1 either as spoken to1 or spoken of4--,chandler's ,e4 ,grammar2 ,edition of #ahba1 p4 #af2 ,ed4 #ahdg1 p4 #ba4 #cd4 ,grammarians have often failed in their definitions1 because it is impossible to define certain terms in the way in which the description has been commonly attempted4 ,he who undertakes what is impossible must necessarily fail2 and fail too1 to the discredit of his ingenuity4 ,it is manifest that whenever a generic name in the singular number is to be defined1 the definition must be founded upon some property or properties common to all the particular things included under the term4 ,thus1 if ,i would define a globe1 a wheel1 or a pyramid1 my description must be taken1 not from what is peculiar to one or an other of these things1 but from those properties only which are common to all globes1 all wheels1 or all pyramids4 ,but what property has unity in common with plurality1 on which a definition of number may be founded8 ,what common property have the three cases1 by which we can clearly define case8 ,what have the three persons in common1 which1 in a definition of person1 could be made evident to a child8 ,thus all the great classes of grammatical modifications1 namely1 persons1 numbers1 genders1 cases1 moods1 and tenses1 though they admit of easy1 accurate1 and obvious definitions in the plural1 can scarcely be defined at all in the singular4 ,i do not say1 that the terms person1 number1 gender1 case1 mood1 and tense1 ia their technical application to grammar1 are all of them equally and absolutely undefinable in the singular2 but ,i say1 that no definition1 just in sense and suitable for a child1 can ever be framed for any one of them4 ,among the thousand varied attempts of grammarians to explain them so1 there are a hundred gross solecisms for every tolerable definition4 ,for this1 as ,i have shown1 there is a very simple reason in the nature of the things4 #ce4 ,but this reason1 as well as many other truths equally important and equally clear1 our common grammarians1 have1 so far as ,i know1 every man of them1 overlooked4 ,consequently1 even when they were aiming at the right thing1 they frequently fell into gross errors of expression2 and1 what is still more surprising1 such errors have been entailed upon the very art of grammar1 and the art of authorship itself1 by the prevalence of an absurd notion1 that modern writers on this subject can be meritorious authors without originality4 ,hence many a school-boy is daily rehearsing from his grammar-book what he might well be ashamed to have written4 ,for example1 the following definition from ,murray's grammar1 is found in perhaps a dozen other compends1 all professing to teach the art of speaking and writing with propriety3 ,number is the consideration of an object1 as one or more4 #gj ,yet this short sentence1 as ,i have before suggested1 is a fourfold solecism4 ,first1 the word number is wrong2 because those modifications of language1 which distinguish unity and plurality1 cannot be jointly signified by it4 ,secondly1 the word consideration is wrong2 because number is not consideration1 in any sense which can be put upon the terms3 condition1 constitution1 configuration1 or any other word beginning with con1 would have done just as well4 ,thirdly1 the consideration of an object as one1 is but idle waste of thought2 for1 that one thing is one1--that an object is one object1--every child knows by intuition1 and not by consideration4 ,lastly1 to consider an object as more than one1 is impossible2 unless this admirable definition lead us into a misconception in so plain a case6 ,so much for the art of the grammatical definer4 #cf4 ,many other examples1 equally faulty and equally common1 might1 be quoted and criticised for the further proof and illustration of what ,i have alleged4 ,but the reader will perhaps judge the foregoing to be sufficient4 ,i have wished to be brief1 and yet to give my arguments1 and the neglected facts upon which they rest1 their proper force upon the mind4 ,against such prejudices as may possibly arise from the authorship of rival publications1 or from any interest in the success of one book rather than of an other1 let both my judges and me be on our guard4 ,i have intended to be fair2 for captiousness is not criticism4 ,if the reader perceives in these strictures any improper bias1 he has a sort of discernment which it is my misfortune to lack4 ,against the compilers of grammars1 ,i urge no conclusions at which any man can hesitate1 who accedes to my preliminary remarks upon them2 and these may be summed up in the following couplet of the poet ,churchill3 ,to copy beauties1 forfeits all pretence ,to fame2--to copy faults1 is want of sense4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,brief ,,notices ,,of ,,the ,,schemes ,,of ,,certain ,,grammars4 ,sed ut perveniri ad summa nisi ex principiis non potest3 ita1 procedente jam opere1 minima incipiunt esse qu prima sunt4--,,quintilian4 ,de ,inst4 ,orat41 ,lib4 x1 ,cap4 #a1 p4 #efj4 #a4 ,the history of grammar1 in the proper sense of the term1 has heretofore been made no part of the study4 ,i have imagined that many of its details might be profitable1 not only to teachers1 but to that class of learners for whose use this work is designed4 ,accordingly1 in the preceding pages1 there have been stated numerous facts properly historical1 relating either to particular grammars1 or to the changes and progress of this branch of instruction4 ,these various details it is hoped will be more entertaining1 and perhaps for that reason not less useful1 than those explanations which belong merely to the construction and resolution of sentences4 ,the attentive reader must have gathered from the foregoing chapters some idea of what the science owes to many individuals whose names are connected with it4 ,but it seems proper to devote to this subject a few pages more1 in order to give some further account of the origin and character of certain books4 #b4 ,the manuals by which grammar was first taught in ,english1 were not properly ,english ,grammars4 ,they were translations of the ,latin ,accidence2 and were designed to aid ,british youth in acquiring a knowledge of the ,latin language1 rather than accuracy in the use of their own4 ,the two languages were often combined in one book1 for the purpose of teaching sometimes both together1 and sometimes one through the medium of the other4 ,the study of such works doubtless had a tendency to modify1 and perhaps at that time to improve1 the ,english style of those who used them4 ,for not only must variety of knowledge have led to copiousness of expression1 but the most cultivated minds would naturally be most apt to observe what was orderly in the use of speech4 ,a language1 indeed1 after its proper form is well fixed by letters1 must resist all introduction of foreign idioms1 or become corrupted4 ,hence it is1 that ,dr4 ,johnson avers1 ,the great pest of speech is frequency of translation4 ,no book was ever turned from one language into another1 without imparting something of its native idiom2 this is the most mischievous and comprehensive innovation4--,preface to ,joh4 ,dict41 #dto1 p4 #ad4 ,without expressly controverting this opinion1 or offering any justification of mere metaphrases1 or literal translations1 we may well assert1 that the practice of comparing different languages1 and seeking the most appropriate terms for a free version of what is ably written1 is an exercise admirably calculated to familiarize and extend grammatical knowledge4 #c4 ,of the class of books here referrred sic--,,kth to1 that which ,i have mentioned in an other chapter1 as ,lily's or ,king ,henry's ,grammar1 has been by far the most celebrated and the most influential4 ,concerning this treatise1 it is stated1 that its parts were not put together in the present form1 until eighteen or twenty years after ,lily's death4 ,the time when this work was completed1 says the preface of #agic1 has been differently related by writers4 ,thomas ,hayne places it in the year #aedc1 and ,anthony ,wood1 in #aede4 ,but neither of these accounts can be right2 for ,i have seen a beautiful copy1 printed upon vellum1 and illuminated1 anno #aedb1 in quarto4 ,and it may be doubted whether this was the first edition4--,john ,ward1 ,pref41 p4 vii4 ,in an ,introductory ,lecture1 read before the ,university of ,london in #ahbh1 by ,thomas ,dale1 professor of ,english literature1 ,i find the following statement3 ,in this reign1--the reign of ,henry ,,viii1--the study of grammar was reduced to a system1 by the promulgation of many grammatical treatises2 one of which was esteemed of sufficient importance to be honoured with a royal name4 ,it was called1 ',the ,grammar of ,king ,henry the ,eighth2' and to this1 'with other works1 the young ,shakspeare was probably indebted for some learning and much loyalty4' ,but the honour of producing the first ,english grammar is claimed by ,william ,bullokar1 who published1 in the year #aehf1 ',a ,bref ,grammar for ,english1' being1 to use his own words1 'the first ,grammar for ,english that ever waz1 except my ,grammar at large4' #d4 ,ward's preface to ,lily commences thus3 ,if we look back to the origin of our common ,latin ,grammar1 we shall find it was no hasty performance1 nor the work of a single person2 but composed at different times by several eminent and learned men1 till the whole was at length finished1 and by the order of ,king ,henry ,,viii41 brought into that form in which it has ever since continued4 ,the ,english introduction was written by the reverend and learned ,dr4 ,john ,colet1 ,dean of ,st4 ,paul's1 for the use of the school he had lately founded there2 and was dedicated by him to ,william ,lily1 the first high master of that school1 in the year #aeaj2 for which reason it has usually gone by the name of ,paul's ,accidence4 ,the substance of it remains the same1 as at first2 though it has been much altered in the manner of expression1 and sometimes the order1 with other improvements4 ,the ,english syntax was the work of ,lily1 as appears by the title in the most ancient editions1 which runs thus3 ,gulielmi ,lilii ,angli ,rudimenta4 ,but it has been greatly improved since his time1 both with1 regard to the method1 and an enlargement of double the quantity4 #e4 ,paul's ,accidence is therefore probably the oldest grammar that can now be found in our language4 ,it is not1 however1 an ,english grammar2 because1 though written in antique ,english1 and embracing many things which are as true of our language as of any other1 it was particularly designed for the teaching of ,latin4 ,it begins thus3 ,in speech be these eight parts following3 ,noun1 ,pronoun1 ,verb1 ,participle1 declined2 ,adverb1 ,conjunction1 ,preposition1 ,interjection1 undeclined4 ,this is the old platform of the ,latin grammarians2 which differs from that of the ,greek grammars1 only in having no ,article1 and in separating the ,interjection from the class of ,adverbs4 ,some ,greek grammarians1 however1 separate the ,adjective from the ,noun1 and include the ,participle with the ,verb3 thus1 ,there are in ,greek eight species of words1 called ,parts of ,speech2 viz4 ,article1 ,noun1 ,adjective1 ,pronoun1 ,verb1 ,adverb1 ,preposition1 and ,conjunction4--,anthon's ,valpy1 p4 #ah4 ,with respect to our language1 the plan of the ,latin ,accidence is manifestly inaccurate2 nor can it be applied1 without some variation1 to the ,greek4 ,in both1 as well as in all other languages that have ,articles1 the best amendment of it1 and the nearest adherence to it1 is1 to make the ,parts of ,speech ten2 namely1 the ,article1 the ,noun1 the ,adjective1 the ,pronoun1 the ,verb1 the ,participle1 the ,adverb1 the ,conjunction1 the ,preposition1 and the ,interjection4 #f4 ,the best ,latin grammarians admit that the ,adjective ought not to be called a ,noun2 and the best ,greek grammarians1 that the ,interjections ought not to be included among ,adverbs4 ,with respect to ,participles1 a vast majority of grammarians in general1 make them a distinct species1 or part of speech2 but1 on this point1 the ,english grammarians are about equally divided3 nearly one half include them with the verbs1 and a few call them adjectives4 ,in grammar1 it is wrong to deviate from the old groundwork1 except for the sake of truth and improvement2 and1 in this case1 to vary the series of parts1 by suppressing one and substituting an other1 is in fact a greater innovation1 than to make the terms ten1 by adding one and dividing an other4 ,but our men of nine parts of speech innovated yet more3 they added the ,article1 as did the ,greeks2 divided the ,noun into ,substantive and ,adjective2 and1 without good reason1 suppressed the ,participle4 ,and1 of latter time1 not a few have thrown the whole into confusion1 to show the world the order of their understanding4 ,what was grammar fifty years ago1 some of these have not thought it worth their while to inquire6 ,and the reader has seen1 that1 after all this1 they can complacently talk of the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to unfortunate innovators4--,,kirkham',s ,gram41 p4 #aj4 #g4 ,the old scheme of the ,latin grammarians has seldom1 if ever1 been literally followed in ,english2 because its distribution of the parts of speech1 as declined and undeclined1 would not be true with respect to the ,english participle4 ,with the omission of this unimportant distinction1 it was1 however1 scrupulously retained by ,dilworth1 by the author of the ,british ,grammar1 by ,william ,ward1 by ,buchanan1 and by some others now little known1 who chose to include both the article and the adjective with the noun1 rather than to increase the number of the parts of speech beyond eight4 ,dr4 ,priestley says1 ,i shall adopt the usual distribution of words into eight classes2 viz4 ,nouns1 ,adjectives1 ,pronouns1 ,verbs1 ,adverbs1 ,prepositions1 ,conjunctions1 and ,interjections4#ga ,i do this in compliance with the practice of most ,grammarians2 and because1 if any number1 in a thing so arbitrary1 must be fixed upon1 this seems to be as comprehensive and distinct as any4 ,all the innovation ,i have made hath been to throw out the ,participle1 and substitute the ,adjective1 as more evidently a distinct part of speech4--,rudiments of ,english ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,all this comports well enough with ,dr4 ,priestley's haste and carelessness2 but it is not true1 that he either adopted1 the usual distribution of words1 or made an other as comprehensive and distinct as any4 ,his innovation1 too1 which has since been countenanced by many other writers1 ,i have already shown to be greater1 than if1 by a promotion of the article and the adjective1 he had made the parts of speech ten4 ,dr4 ,beattie1 who was ,priestley's coeval1 and a much better scholar1 adopted this number without hesitation1 and called every one of them by what is still its right name3 ,in ,english there are ten sorts of words1 which are all found in the following short sentence2 ',i now see the good man coming2 but1 alas6 he walks with difficulty4' ,i and he are pronouns2 now is an adverb2 see and walks are verbs2 the is an article2 good1 an adjective2 man and difficulty are nouns1 the former substantive1 the latter abstract2 coming is a participle2 but1 a conjunction2 alas6 an interjection2 with1 a preposition4 ,that no other sorts of words are necessary in language1 will appear1 when we have seen in what respects these are necessary4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cj4 ,this distribution is precisely that which the best ,french grammarians have usually adopted4 #h4 ,dr4 ,johnson professes to adopt the division1 the order1 and the terms1 of the common grammarians1 without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not be found4--,gram4 before #dto ,dict41 p4 #a4 ,but1 in the ,etymology of his ,grammar1 he makes no enumeration of the parts of speech1 and treats only of articles1 nouns1 adjectives1 pronouns1 and verbs2 to which if we add the others1 according to the common grammarians1 or according to his own ,dictionary1 the number will be ten4 ,and this distribution1 which was adopted by ,dr4 ,ash about #agfe1 by ,murray the schoolmaster about #agij1 by ,caleb ,alexander in #agie1 and approved by ,dr4 ,adam in #agic1 has since been very extensively followed2 as may be seen in ,dr4 ,crombie's treatise1 in the ,rev4 ,matt4 ,harrison's1 in ,dr4 ,mandeville's reading-books1 and in the grammars of ,harrison1 ,staniford1 ,alden1 ,coar1 ,john ,peirce1 ,e4 ,devis1 ,c4 ,adams1 ,d4 ,adams1 ,chandler1 ,comly1 ,jaudon1 ,ingersoll1 ,hull1 ,fuller1 ,greenleaf1 ,kirkham1 ,ferd4 ,h4 ,miller1 ,merchant1 ,mack1 ,nutting1 ,bucke1 ,beck1 ,barrett1 ,barnard1 ,maunder1 ,webber1 ,emmons1 ,hazen1 ,bingham1 ,sanders1 and many others4 ,dr4 ,lowth's distribution is the same1 except that he placed the adjective after the pronoun1 the conjunction after the preposition1 and1 like ,priestley1 called the participle a verb1 thus making the parts of speech nine4 ,he also has been followed by many2 among whom are ,bicknell1 ,burn1 ,lennie1 ,mennye1 ,lindley ,murray1 ,w4 ,allen1 ,guy1 ,churchill1 ,wilson1 ,cobbett1 ,davis1 ,david ,blair1 ,davenport1 ,mendenhall1 ,wilcox1 ,picket1 ,pond1 ,russell1 ,bacon1 ,bullions1 ,brace1 ,hart1 ,lyon1 ,tob4 ,h4 ,miller1 ,alger1 ,a4 ,flint1 ,folker1 ,s4 ,putnam1 ,cooper1 ,frost1 ,goldsbury1 ,hamlin1 ,t4 ,smith1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 and ,woodworth4 ,but a third part of these1 and as many more in the preceding list1 are confessedly mere modifiers of ,murray's compilation2 and perhaps1 in such a case1 those have done best who have deviated least from the track of him whom they professed to follow4#gb #i4 ,some seem to have supposed1 that by reducing the number of the parts of speech1 and of the rules for their construction1 the study of grammar would be rendered more easy and more profitable to the learner4 ,but this1 as would appear from the history of the science1 is a mere retrogression towards the rudeness of its earlier stages4 ,it is hardly worth while to dispute1 whether there shall be nine parts of speech or ten2 and perhaps enough has already been stated1 to establish the expediency of assuming the latter number4 ,every word in the language must be included in some class1 and nothing is gained by making the classes larger and less numerous4 ,in all the artificial arrangements of science1 distinctions are to be made according to the differences in things2 and the simple question here is1 what differences among words shall be at first regarded4 ,to overlook1 in our primary division1 the difference between a verb and a participle1 is merely to reserve for a subdivision1 or subsequent explanation1 a species of words which most grammarians have recognized as a distinct sort in their original classification4 #aj4 ,it should be observed that the early period of grammatical science was far remote from the days in which ,english grammar originated4 ,many things which we now teach and defend as grammar1 were taught and defended two thousand years ago1 by the philosophers of ,greece and ,rome4 ,of the parts of speech1 ,quintilian1 who lived in the first century of our era1 gives the following account3 ,for the ancients1 among whom were ,aristotle#gc and ,theodectes1 treated only of verbs1 nouns1 and conjunctions3 as the verb is what we say1 and the noun1 that of which we say it1 they judged the power of discourse to be in verbs1 and the matter in nouns1 but the connexion in conjunctions4 ,little by little1 the philosophers1 and especially the ,stoics1 increased the number3 first1 to the conjunctions were added articles2 afterwards1 prepositions2 to nouns1 was added the appellation2 then the pronoun2 afterwards1 as belonging to each verb1 the participle2 and1 to verbs in common1 adverbs4 ,our language i4 e41 the ,latin does not require articles1 wherefore they are scattered among the other parts of speech2 but there is added to the foregoing the interjection4 ,but some1 on the authority of good authors1 make the parts only eight2 as ,aristarchus1 and1 in our day1 ,palmon2 who have included the vocable1 or appellation1 with the noun1 as a species of it4 ,but they who make the noun one and the vocable an other1 reckon nine4 ,but there are also some who divide the vocable from the appellation2 making the former to signify any thing manifest to sight or touch1 as house1 bed2 and the latter1 any thing to which either or both are wanting1 as wind1 heaven1 god1 virtue4 ,they have also added the asseveration and the attrectation1 which ,i do not approve4 ,whether the vocable or appellation should be included with the noun or not1 as it is a matter of little consequence1 ,i leave to the decision of others4--,see ,,quintil4 de ,inst4 ,orat41 ,lib4 i1 ,cap4 #d1 #bd4 #aa4 ,several writers on ,english grammar1 indulging a strange unsettlement of plan1 seem not to have determined in their own minds1 how many parts of speech there are1 or ought to be4 ,among these are ,horne ,tooke1 ,webster1 ,dalton1 ,cardell1 ,green1 and ,cobb2 and perhaps1 from what he says above1 we may add the name of ,priestley4 ,the present disputation about the sorts of words1 has been chiefly owing to the writings of ,horne ,tooke1 who explains the minor parts of speech as mere abbreviations1 and rejects1 with needless acrimony1 the common classification4 ,but many have mistaken the nature of his instructions1 no less than that of the common grammarians4 ,this author1 in his third chapter1 supposes his auditor to say1 ,but you have not all this while informed me how many parts of speech you mean to lay down4 ,to whom he replies1 ,that shall be as you please4 ,either two1 or twenty1 or more4 ,such looseness comported well enough with his particular purpose2 because he meant to teach the derivation of words1 and not to meddle at all with their construction4 ,but who does not see that it is impossible to lay down rules for the construction of words1 without first dividing them into the classes to which such rules apply8 ,for example3 if a man means to teach1 that1 ,a verb must agree with its subject1 or nominative1 in person and number1 must he not first show the learner what words are verbs8 and ought he not to see in this rule a reason for not calling the participle a verb8 ,let the careless followers of ,lowth and ,priestley answer4 ,tooke did not care to preserve any parts of speech at all4 ,his work is not a system of grammar2 nor can it be made the basis of any regular scheme of grammatical instruction4 ,he who will not grant that the same words may possibly be used as different parts of speech1 must make his parts of speech either very few or very many4 ,this author says1 ,i do not allow that any words change their nature in this manner1 so as to belong sometimes to one part of speech1 and sometimes to another1 from the different ways of using them4 ,i never could perceive any such fluctuation in any word whatever4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #fh4 #ab4 ,from his own positive language1 ,i imagine this ingenious author never well considered what constitutes the sameness of words1 or wherein lies the difference of the parts of speech2 and1 without understanding these things1 a grammarian cannot but fall into errors1 unless he will follow somebody that knows them4 ,but ,tooke confessedly contradicts1 and outfaces all other ,grammarians in the passage just cited4 ,yet it is plain1 that the whole science of grammar--or at least the whole of etymology and syntax1 which are its two principal parts--is based upon a division of words into the parts of speech2 a division which necessarily refers1 in many instances1 the same words to different sections according to the manner in which they are used4 ,certains mots rpondent1 ainsi au mme temps1 diverses parties d'oraison selon que la grammaire les emploie diversement4--,buffier1 ,art4 #aej4 ,some words1 from the different ways in which they are used1 belong sometimes to one part of speech1 sometimes to another4--,m',culloch's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,and so say all other ,grammarians4--,tooke1 as above4 #ac4 ,the history of ,dr4 ,webster1 as a grammarian1 is singular4 ,he is remarkable for his changeableness1 yet always positive2 for his inconsistency1 yet very learned2 for his zeal to correct popular errors1 yet often himself erroneous2 for his fertility in resources1 yet sometimes meagre2 for his success as an author1 yet never satisfied2 for his boldness of innovation1 yet fond of appealing to antiquity4 ,his grammars are the least judicious1 and at present the least popular1 of his works4 ,they consist of four or five different treatises1 which for their mutual credit should never be compared3 it is impossible to place any firm reliance upon the authority of a man who contradicts himself so much4 ,those who imagine that the last opinions of so learned a man must needs be right1 will do well to wait1 and see what will be his last3 they cannot otherwise know to what his instructions will finally lead3 ,experience has already taught him the folly of many of his pretended improvements1 and it is probable his last opinions of ,english grammar will be most conformable to that just authority with which he has ever been tampering4 ,i do not say that he has not exhibited ingenuity as well as learning1 or that he is always wrong when he contradicts a majority of the ,english grammarians2 but ,i may venture to say1 he was wrong when he undertook to disturb the common scheme of the parts of speech1 as well as when he resolved to spell all words exactly as they are pronounced4 #ad4 ,it is not commonly known with how rash a hand this celebrated author has sometimes touched the most settled usages of our language4 ,in #agij1 which was seven years after the appearance of his first grammar1 he published an octavo volume of more than four hundred pages1 consisting of ,essays1 moral1 historical1 political1 and literary1 which might have done him credit1 had he not spoiled his book by a grammatical whim about the reformation of orthography4 ,not perceiving that ,english literature1 multiplied as it had been within two or three centuries1 had acquired a stability in some degree corresponding to its growth1 he foolishly imagined it was still as susceptible of change and improvement as in the days of its infancy4 ,let the reader pardon the length of this digression1 if for the sake of any future schemer who may chance to adopt a similar conceit1 ,i cite from the preface to this volume a specimen of the author's practice and reasoning4 ,the ingenious attorney had the good sense quickly to abandon this project1 and content himself with less glaring innovations2 else he had never stood as he now does1 in the estimation of the public4 ,but there is the more need to record the example1 because in one of the southern states the experiment has recently been tried again4 ,a still abler member of the same profession1 has renewed it but lately2 and it is said there are yet remaining some converts to this notion of improvement4 ,i copy literally1 leaving all my readers and his to guess for themselves why he spelled writers with a w and riting without4 #ae4 ,during the course of ten or twelv yeers1 ,i hav been laboring to correct popular errors1 and to assist my yung brethren in the road to truth and virtue2 my publications for theze purposes hav been numerous2 much time haz been spent1 which ,i do not regret1 and much censure incurred1 which my hart tells me ,i do not dezerv4 99 99 99 ,the reeder wil observ that the orthography of the volum iz not uniform4 ,the reezon iz1 that many of the essays hav been published before1 in the common orthography1 and it would hav been a laborious task to copy the whole1 for the sake of changing the spelling4 ,in the essays1 ritten within the last yeer1 a considerable change of spelling iz introduced by way of experiment4 ,this liberty waz taken by the writers before the age of queen ,elizabeth1 and to this we are indeted for the preference of modern spelling over that of ,gower and ,chaucer4 ,the man who admits that the change of hoasbonde1 mynde1 ygone1 moneth into husband1 mind1 gone1 month1 iz an improovment1 must acknowlege also the riting of helth1 breth1 rong1 tung1 munth1 to be an improovment4 ,there iz no alternativ4 ,every possible reezon that could ever be offered for altering the spelling of wurds1 stil exists in full force2 and if a gradual reform should not be made in our language1 it wil proov that we are less under the influence of reezon than our ancestors4--,noah ,webster's ,essays1 ,preface1 p4 xi4 #af4 ,but let us return1 with our author1 to the question of the parts of speech4 ,i have shown that if we do not mean to adopt some less convenient scheme1 we must count them ten1 and preserve their ancient order as well as their ancient names4#gd ,and1 after all his vacillation in consequence of reading ,horne ,tooke1 it would not be strange if ,dr4 ,webster should come at last to the same conclusion4 ,he was not very far from it in #ahbh1 as may be shown by his own testimony1 which he then took occasion to record4 ,i will give his own words on the point3 ,there is great difficulty in devising a correct classification of the several sorts of words2 and probably no classification that shall be simple and at the same time philosophically correct1 can be invented4 ,there are some words that do not strictly fall under any description of any class yet devised4 ,many attempts have been made and are still making to remedy this evil2 but such schemes as ,i have seen1 do not1 in my apprehension1 correct the defects of the old schemes1 nor simplify the subject4 ,on the other hand1 all that ,i have seen1 serve only to obscure and embarrass the subject1 by substituting new arrangements and new terms which are as incorrect as the old ones1 and less intelligible4 ,i have attentively viewed these subjects1 in all the lights which my opportunities have afforded1 and am convinced that the distribution of words1 most generally received1 is the best that can be formed1 with some slight alterations adapted to the particular construction of the ,english language4 #ag4 ,this passage is taken from the advertisement1 or preface1 to the ,grammar which accompanies the author's edition of his great quarto ,dictionary4 ,now the several schemes which bear his own name1 were doubtless all of them among those which he had that he had seen2 so that he here condemns them all collectively1 as he had previously condemned some of them at each reformation4 ,nor is the last exempted4 ,for although he here plainly gives his vote for that common scheme which he first condemned1 he does not adopt it without some slight alterations2 and in contriving these alterations he is inconsistent with his own professions4 ,he makes the parts of speech eight1 thus3 #a4 ,the name or noun2 #b4 ,the pronoun or substitute2 #c4 ,the adjective1 attribute1 or attributive2 #d4 ,the verb2 #e4 ,the adverb2 #f4 ,the preposition2 #g4 ,the connective or conjunction2 #h4 ,the exclamation or interjection4 ,in his ,rudiments of ,english ,grammar1 published in #ahaa1 to unfold the true principles of the language1 his parts of speech were seven2 viz4 #a4 ,names or nouns2 #b4 ,substitutes or pronouns2 #c4 ,attributes or adjectives2 #d4 ,verbs1 with their participles2 #e4 ,modifiers or adverbs2 #f4 ,prepositions2 #g4 ,connectives or conjunctions4 ,in his ,philosophical and ,practical ,grammar1 published in #ahjg1 a book which professes to teach the only legitimate principles1 and established usages1 of the language1 a twofold division of words is adopted2 first1 into two general classes1 primary and secondary2 then into seven species or parts of speech1 the first two belonging to the former class1 the other five to the latter2 thus3 #a4 ,names or nouns2 #b4 ,verbs2 #c4 ,substitutes2 #d4 ,attributes2 #e4 ,modifiers2 #f4 ,prepositions2 #g4 ,connectives4 ,in his ,improved ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 published in #ahca1 the same scheme is retained1 but the usual names are preferred4 #ah4 ,how many different schemes of classification this author invented1 ,i know not2 but he might well have saved himself the trouble of inventing any2 for1 so far as appears1 none of his last three grammars ever came to a second edition4 ,in the sixth edition of his ,plain and ,comprehensive ,grammar1 grounded on the true principles and idioms of the language1 a work which his last grammatical preface affirms to have been originally fashioned on the model of ,lowth's1 the parts of speech are reckoned six2 nouns1 articles1 pronouns1 adjectives1 verbs1 and abbreviations or particles4 ,this work1 which he says was extensively used in the schools of this country1 and continued to be in demand1 he voluntarily suppressed2 because1 after a profitable experiment of four and twenty years1 he found it so far from being grounded on true principles1 that the whole scheme then appeared to him incorrigibly bad4 ,and1 judging from this sixth edition1 printed in #ahjj1 the only one which ,i have seen1 ,i cannot but concur with him in the opinion4 ,more than one half of the volume is a loose ,appendix composed chiefly of notes taken from ,lowth and ,priestley2 and there is a great want of method in what was meant for the body of the work4 ,i imagine his several editions must have been different grammars with the same title2 for such things are of no uncommon occurrence1 and ,i cannot otherwise account for the assertion that this book was compiled on the model of ,lowth's1 and on the same principles as those on which ,murray has constructed his4--,advertisement in ,webster's ,quarto ,dict41 #ast ,ed4 #ai4 ,in a treatise on grammar1 a bad scheme is necessarily attended with inconveniences for which no merit in the execution can possibly compensate4 ,the first thing1 therefore1 which a skillful teacher will notice in a work of this kind1 is the arrangement4 ,if he find any difficulty in discovering1 at sight1 what it is1 he will be sure it is bad2 for a lucid order is what he has a right to expect from him who pretends to improve upon all the ,english grammarians4 ,dr4 ,webster is not the only reader of the ,,epea ,,pteroenta1 who has been thereby prompted to meddle with the common scheme of grammar2 nor is he the only one who has attempted to simplify the subject by reducing the parts of speech to six4 ,john ,dalton of ,manchester1 in #ahja1 in a small grammar which he dedicated to ,horne ,tooke1 made them six1 but not the same six4 ,he would have them to be1 nouns1 pronouns1 verbs1 adverbs1 conjunctions1 and prepositions4 ,this writer1 like ,brightland1 ,tooke1 ,fisher1 and some others1 insists on it that the articles are adjectives4 ,priestley1 too1 throwing them out of his classification1 and leaving the learner to go almost through his book in ignorance of their rank1 at length assigns them to the same class1 in one of his notes4 ,and so has ,dr4 ,webster fixed them in his late valuable1 but not faultless1 dictionaries4 ,but ,david ,booth1 an etymologist perhaps equally learned1 in his ,introduction to an ,analytical ,dictionary of the ,english ,language1 declares them to be of the same species as the pronouns2 from which he thinks it strange that they were ever separated6 ,see ,booth's ,introd41 p4 #ba4 #bj4 ,now1 what can be more idle1 than for teachers to reject the common classification of words1 and puzzle the heads of school-boys with speculations like these8 ,it is easy to admit all that etymology can show to be true1 and still justify the old arrangement of the elements of grammar4 ,and if we depart from the common scheme1 where shall we stop8 ,some have taught that the parts of speech are only five2 as did the latter stoics1 whose classes1 according to ,priscian and ,harris1 were these3 articles1 nouns appellative1 nouns proper1 verbs1 and conjunctions4 ,others have made them four2 as did ,aristotle and the elder stoics1 and1 more recently1 ,milnes1 ,brightland1 ,harris1 ,ware1 ,fisher1 and the author of a work on ,universal ,grammar1 entitled ,enclytica4 ,yet1 in naming the four1 each of these contrives to differ from all the rest6 ,with ,aristotle1 they are1 nouns1 verbs1 articles1 and conjunctions2 with ,milnes1 nouns1 adnouns1 verbs1 and particles2 with ,brightland1 names1 qualities1 affirmations1 and particles2 with ,harris1 substantives1 attributives1 definitives1 and connectives2 with ,ware1 the name1 the word1 the assistant1 the connective2 with ,fisher1 names1 qualities1 verbs1 and particles2 with the author of ,enclytica1 names1 verbs1 modes1 and connectives4 ,but why make the classes so numerous as four8 ,many of the ancients1 ,greeks1 ,hebrews1 and ,arabians1 according to ,quintilian1 made them three2 and these three1 according to ,vossius1 were nouns1 verbs1 and particles4 ,veteres ,arabes1 ,hebri1 et ,grci1 tres1 non amplius1 classes faciebant2 l4 ,nomen1 #b4 ,verbum1 #c4 ,particula seu ,dictio4--,voss4 de ,anal41 ,lib4 i1 ,cap4 #a4 #ba4 ,nor is this number1 three1 quite destitute of modern supporters2 though most of these come at it in an other way4 ,d4 ,st4 ,quentin1 in his ,rudiments of ,general ,grammar1 published in #ahab1 divides words into the three general classes last mentioned2 viz41 #a4 ,nouns1 #b4 ,verbs1 #c4 ,particles4--,p4 #e4 ,booth1 who published the second edition of his etymological work in #ahad1 examining severally the ten parts of speech1 and finding what he supposed to be the true origin of all the words in some of the classes1 was led to throw one into an other1 till he had destroyed seven of them4 ,then1 resolving that each word ought to be classed according to the meaning which its etymology fixes upon it1 he refers the number of classes to nature1 thus3 ,if1 then1 each word has a meaning1 and is capable of raising an idea in the mind1 that idea must have its prototype in nature4 ,it must either denote an exertion1 and is therefore a verb2 or a quality1 and is1 in that case1 an adjective2 or it must express an assemblage of qualities1 such as is observed to belong to some individual object1 and is1 on this supposition1 the name of such object1 or a noun4 99 99 99 ,we have thus given an account of the different divisions of words1 and have found that the whole may be classed under the three heads of ,names1 ,qualities1 and ,actions2 or ,nouns1 ,adjectives1 and ,verbs4--,introd4 to ,analyt4 ,dict41 p4 #bb4 #bb4 ,this notion of the parts of speech1 as the reader will presently see1 found an advocate also in the author of the popular little story of ,jack ,halyard4 ,it appears in his ,philosophic ,grammar published in ,philadelphia in #ahbg4 ,whether the writer borrowed it from ,booth1 or was led into it by the light of nature1 ,i am unable to say3 he does not appear to have derived it from the ancients4 ,now1 if either he or the lexicographer has discovered in nature a prototype for this scheme of grammar1 the discovery is only to be proved1 and the schemes of all other grammarians1 ancient or modern1 must give place to it4 ,for the reader will observe that this triad of parts is not that which is mentioned by ,vossius and ,quintilian4 ,but authority may be found for reducing the number of the parts of speech yet lower4 ,plato1 according to ,harris1 and the first inquirers into language1 according to ,horne ,tooke1 made them two2 nouns and verbs1 which ,crombie1 ,dalton1 ,m',culloch1 and some others1 say1 are the only parts essentially necessary for the communication of our thoughts4 ,those who know nothing about grammar1 regard all words as of one class4 ,to them1 a word is simply a word2 and under what other name it may come1 is no concern of theirs4 #bc4 ,towards this point1 tends every attempt to simplify grammar by suppressing any of the ten parts of speech4 ,nothing is gained by it2 and it is a departure from the best authority4 ,we see by what steps this kind of reasoning may descend2 and we have an admirable illustration of it in the several grammatical works of ,william ,s4 ,cardell4 ,i shall mention them in the order in which they appeared2 and the reader may judge whether the author does not ultimately arrive at the conclusion to which the foregoing series is conducted4 ,this writer1 in his ,essay on ,language1 reckons seven parts of speech2 in his ,new-,york ,grammar1 six2 in his ,hartford ,grammar1 three principal1 with three others subordinate2 in his ,philadelphia ,grammar1 three only--nouns1 adjectives1 and verbs4 ,here he alleges1 ,the unerring plan of nature has established three classes of perceptions1 and consequently three parts of speech4--,p4 #aga4 ,he says this1 as if he meant to abide by it4 ,but1 on his twenty-third page1 we are told1 ,every adjective is either a noun or a participle4 ,now1 by his own showing1 there are no participles3 he makes them all adjectives1 in each of his schemes4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that all his adjectives1 including what others call participles1 are nouns4 ,and this reduces his three parts of speech to two1 in spite of the unerring plan of nature6 ,but even this number is more than he well believed in2 for1 on the twenty-first page of the book1 he affirms1 that1 ,all other terms are but derivative forms and new applications of nouns4 ,so simple a thing is this method of grammar6 ,but ,neef1 in his zeal for reformation1 carries the anticlimax fairly off the brink2 and declares1 ,in the grammar which shall be the work of my pupils1 there shall be found no nouns1 no pronouns1 no articles1 no participles1 no verbs1 no prepositions1 no conjunctions1 no adverbs1 no interjections1 no gerunds1 not even one single supine4 ,unmercifully shall they be banished from it4--,neef's ,method of ,education1 p4 #fj4 #bd4 ,when ,cardell's system appeared1 several respectable men1 convinced by his powerful demonstrations1 admitted that he had made many things in the established doctrines of the expounders of language appear sufficiently ridiculous2 #ge and willingly lent him the influence of their names1 trusting that his admirable scheme of ,english grammar1 in which their ignorance saw nothing but new truth1 would be speedily perfected and generally embraced4 #gf ,being invited by the author to a discussion of his principles1 ,i opposed them in his presence1 both privately and publicly2 defending against him1 not unsuccessfully1 those doctrines which time and custom have sanctioned4 ,and1 what is remarkable1 that candid opposition which ,cardell himself had treated with respect1 and parried in vain1 was afterwards1 by some of his converts1 impeached of all unfairness1 and even accused of wanting common sense4 ,no one1 says ,niebuhr1 ever overthrew a literary idol1 without provoking the anger of its worshipers4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dhi4 ,the certificates given in commendation of this set of opinions1 though they had no extensive effect on the public1 showed full well that the signers knew little of the history of grammar2 and it is the continual repetition of such things1 that induces me now to dwell upon its history1 for the information of those who are so liable to be deceived by exploded errors republished as novelties4 ,a eulogist says of ,cardell1 ,he had adopted a set of opinions1 which1 to most of his readers1 appeared entirely new4 ,a reviewer proved1 that all his pretended novelties are to be found in certain grammars now forgotten1 or seldom read4 ,the former replies1 ,then he ,cardell1 is right--and the man is no less stupid than abusive1 who finds fault2 for here is proof that the former had highly respectable authority for almost every thing he has advanced6--,see ,the ,friend1 ,vol4 ii1 pp4 #aje and #aaf1 from which all the quotations in this paragraph1 except one1 are taken4 #be4 ,the reader may now be curious to know what these doctrines were4 ,they were summed up by the reviewer1 thus3 ,our author pretends to have drawn principally from his own resources1 in making up his books2 and many may have supposed there is more novelty in them than there really is4 ,for instance3 #a4 ,he classes the articles with adjectives2 and so did ,brightland1 ,tooke1 ,fisher1 ,dalton1 and ,webster4 #b4 ,he calls the participles1 adjectives2 and so did ,brightland and ,tooke4 #c4 ,he make the pronouns1 either nouns or adjectives2 and so did ,adam1 ,dalton1 and others4 #d4 ,he distributes the conjunctions among the other parts of speech2 and so did ,tooke4 #e4 ,he rejects the interjections2 and so did ,valla1 ,sanctius1 and ,tooke4 #f4 ,he makes the possessive case an adjective2 and so did ,brightland4 #g4 ,he says our language has no cases2 and so did ,harris4 #h4 ,he calls case1 position2 and so did ,james ,brown4 #i4 ,he reduces the adjectives to two classes1 defining and describing2 and so did ,dalton4 #aj4 ,he declares all verbs to be active2 and so did ,harris1 7in his ,hermes1 ,book i1 ,chap4 ix17 though he admitted the expediency of the common division1 and left to our author the absurdity of contending about it4 ,fisher also rejected the class of neuter verbs1 and called them all active4 #aa4 ,he reduces the moods to three1 and the tenses to three2 and so did ,dalton1 in the very same words4 ,fisher also made the tenses three1 but said there are no moods in ,english4 #ab4 ,he makes the imperative mood always future2 and so did ,harris1 in #agea4 ,nor did the doctrine originate with him2 for ,brightland1 a hundred years ago1 about #agjf1 ascribed it to some of his predecessors4 #ac4 ,he reduces the whole of our syntax to about thirty lines2 and two thirds of these are useless2 for ,dr4 ,johnson expressed it quite as fully in ten4 ,but their explanations are both good for nothing2 and ,wallis1 more wisely1 omitted it altogether4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ei4 #bf4 ,dr4 ,webster says1 in a marginal note to the preface of his ,philosophical ,grammar1 ,since the days of ,wallis1 who published a ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 in ,latin1 in the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 from which ,johnson and ,lowth borrowed most of their rules1 little improvement has been made in ,english grammar4 ,lowth supplied some valuable criticisms1 most of which however respect obsolete phrases2 but many of his criticisms are extremely erroneous1 and they have had an ill effect1 in perverting the true idioms of our language4 ,priestley furnished a number of new and useful observations on the peculiar phrases of the ,english language4 ,to which may be added some good remarks of ,blair and ,campbell1 interspersed with many errors4 ,murray1 not having mounted to the original sources of information1 and professing only to select and arrange the rules and criticisms of preceding writers1 has furnished little or nothing new4 ,of the numerous compilations of inferior character1 it may be affirmed1 that they have added nothing to the stock of grammatical knowledge4 ,and the concluding sentence of this work1 as well as of his ,improved ,grammar1 published in #ahca1 extends the censure as follows3 ,it is not the ,english language only whose history and principles are yet to be illustrated2 but the grammars and dictionaries of all other languages1 with which ,i have any acquaintance1 must be revised and corrected1 before their elements and true construction can be fully understood4 ,in an advertisement to the grammar prefixed to his quarto ,american ,dictionary1 the ,doctor is yet more severe upon books of this sort4 ,i close1 says he1 with the single remark1 that from all the observations ,i have been able to make1 ,i am convinced the dictionaries and grammars which have been used in our seminaries of learning for the last forty or fifty years1 are so incorrect and imperfect that they have introduced or sanctioned more errors than they have amended2 in other words1 had the people of ,england and of these ,states been left to learn the pronunciation and construction of their vernacular language solely by tradition1 and the reading of good authors1 the language would have been spoken and written with more purity than it has been and now is1 by those who have learned to adjust their language by the rules which dictionaries prescribe4 #bg4 ,little and much are but relative terms2 yet when we look back to the period in which ,english grammar was taught only in ,latin1 it seems extravagant to say1 that little improvement has been made in it since4 ,i have elsewhere expressed a more qualified sentiment4 ,that the grammar of our language has made considerable progress since the days of ,swift1 who wrote a petty treatise on the subject1 is sufficiently evident2 but whoever considers what remains to be done1 cannot but perceive how ridiculous are many of the boasts and felicitations which we have heard on that topic4 #gg ,some further notice will now be taken of that progress1 and of the writers who have been commonly considered the chief promoters of it1 but especially of such as have not been previously mentioned in a like connexion4 ,among these may be noticed ,william ,walker1 the preceptor of ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 a teacher and grammarian of extraordinary learning1 who died in #afhd4 ,he has left us sundry monuments of his taste and critical skill3 one is his ,treatise of ,english ,particles1--a work of great labour and merit1 but useless to most people now-a-days1 because it explains the ,english in ,latin2 an other1 his ,art of ,teaching ,improv'd1--which is also an able treatise1 and apparently well adapted to its object1 the ,grounding of a ,young ,scholar in the ,latin ,tongue4 ,in the latter1 are mentioned other works of his1 on ,rhetorick1 and ,logick which ,i have not seen4 #bh4 ,in #agjf1 ,richard ,johnson published an octavo volume of more than four hundred pages1 entitled1 ,grammatical ,commentaries2 being an ,apparatus to a ,new ,national ,grammar3 by way of animadversion upon the falsities1 obscurities1 redundancies and defects of ,lily's ,system now in use4 ,this is a work of great acuteness1 labour1 and learning2 and might be of signal use to any one who should undertake to prepare a new or improved ,latin grammar3 of which1 in my opinion1 we have yet urgent need4 ,the ,english grammarian may also peruse it with advantage1 if he has a good knowledge of ,latin--and without such knowledge he must be ill prepared for his task4 ,this work is spoken of and quoted by some of the early ,english grammarians2 but the hopes of the writer do not appear to have been realized4 ,his book was not calculated to supply the place of the common one2 for the author thought it impracticable to make a new grammar1 suitable for boys1 and at the same time to embrace in it proofs sufficient to remove the prejudices of teachers in favour of the old4 ,king ,henry's edict in support of ,lily1 was yet in force1 backed by all the partiality which long habit creates2 and ,johnson's learning1 and labour1 and zeal1 were admired1 and praised1 and soon forgot4 #bi4 ,near the beginning of the last century1 some of the generous wits of the reign of ,queen ,anne1 seeing the need there was of greater attention to their vernacular language1 and of a grammar more properly ,english than any then in use1 produced a book with which the later writers on the same subjects1 would have done well to have made themselves better acquainted4 ,it is entitled ,a ,grammar of the ,english ,tongue2 with the ,arts of ,logick1 ,rhetorick1 ,poetry1 c4 ,illustrated with useful ,notes2 giving the ,grounds and ,reasons of ,grammar in ,general4 ,the ,whole making a ,compleat ,system of an ,english ,education4 ,published by ,,john ,,brightland1 for the ,use of the ,schools of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,it is ingeniously recommended in a certificate by ,sir ,richard ,steele1 or the ,tattler1 under the fictitious name of ,isaac ,bickerstaff1 ,esq41 and in a poem of forty-three lines1 by ,nahum ,tate1 poet laureate to her ,majesty4 ,it is a duodecimo volume of three hundred pages2 a work of no inconsiderable merit and originality2 and written in a style which1 though not faultless1 has scarcely been surpassed by any ,english grammarian since4 ,i quote it as ,brightland's3#gh who were the real authors1 does not appear4 ,it seems to be the work of more than one1 and perhaps the writers of the ,tattler were the men4 ,my copy is of the seventh edition1 ,london1 printed for ,henry ,lintot1 #agdf4 ,it is evidently the work of very skillful hands2 yet is it not in all respects well planned or well executed4 ,it unwisely reduces the parts of speech to four2 gives them new names2 and rejects more of the old system than the schools could be made willing to give up4 ,hence it does not appear to have been very extensively adopted4 #cj4 ,it is now about a hundred and thirty years1 since ,dr4 ,swift1 in a public remonstrance addressed to the ,earl of ,oxford1 complained of the imperfect state of our language1 and alleged in particular1 that in many instances it offended against every part of grammar4 #gi ,fifty years afterward1 ,dr4 ,lowth seconded this complaint1 and pressed it home upon the polite and the learned4 ,does he mean1 says the latter1 that the ,english language1 as it is spoken by the politest part of the nation1 and as it stands in the writings of the most approved authors1 often offends against every part of grammar8 ,thus far1 ,i am afraid the charge is true4--,lowth's ,grammar1 ,preface1 p4 iv4 ,yet the learned ,doctor1 to whom much praise has been justly ascribed for the encouragement which he gave to this neglected study1 attempted nothing more than ,a ,short ,introduction to ,english ,grammar2 which1 he says1 was calculated for the learner even of the lowest class3 and those who would enter more deeply into the subject1 he referred to ,harris2 whose work is not an ,english grammar1 but ,a ,philosophical ,inquiry concerning ,universal ,grammar4 ,lowth's ,grammar was first published in #ageh4 ,at the commencement of his preface1 the reverend author1 after acknowledging the enlargement1 polish1 and refinement1 which the language had received during the preceding two hundred years1 ventures to add1 but1 whatever other improvements it may have received1 it hath made no advances in grammatical accuracy4 ,i do not quote this assertion to affirm it literally true1 in all its apparent breadth2 but there is less reason to boast of the correctness even now attained1 than to believe that the writers on grammar are not the authors who have in general come nearest to it in practice4 ,nor have the ablest authors always produced the best compends for the literary instruction of youth4 #ca4 ,the treatises of the learned doctors ,harris1 ,lowth1 ,johnson1 ,ash1 ,priestley1 ,horne ,tooke1 ,crombie1 ,coote1 and ,webster1 owe their celebrity not so much to their intrinsic fitness for school instruction1 as to the literary reputation of the writers4 ,of ,harris's ,hermes1 7which1 in comparison with our common grammars1 is indeed a work of much ingenuity and learning1 full of interesting speculations1 and written with great elegance both of style and method17 ,dr4 ,lowth says1 it is the most beautiful and perfect example of analysis1 that has been exhibited since the days of ,aristotle4--,preface to ,gram41 p4 x4 ,but these two authors1 if their works be taken together1 as the latter intended they should be1 supply no sufficient course of ,english grammar4 ,the instructions of the one are too limited1 and those of the other are not specially directed to the subject4 #cb4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 who was practically one of the greatest grammarians that ever lived1 and who was very nearly coetaneous with both ,harris and ,lowth1 speaks of the state of ,english grammar in the following terms3 ,i found our speech copious without order1 and energetick without rules3 wherever ,i turned my view1 there was perplexity to be disentangled1 and confusion to be regulated4--,preface to ,dict41 p4 #a4 ,again3 ,having therefore no assistance but from general grammar1 ,i applied myself to the perusal of our writers2 and noting whatever might be of use to ascertain or illustrate any word or phrase1 accumulated in time the materials of a dictionary4--,ibid4 ,but it is not given to any one man to do every thing2 else1 ,johnson had done it4 ,his object was1 to compile a dictionary1 rather than to compose a grammar1 of our language4 ,to lexicography1 grammar is necessary1 as a preparation2 but1 as a purpose1 it is merely incidental4 ,dr4 ,priestley speaks of ,johnson thus3 ,i must not conclude this preface1 without making my acknowledgements to ,mr4 ,johnson1 whose admirable dictionary has been of the greatest use to me in the study of our language4 ,it is pity he had not formed as just1 and as extensive an idea of ,english grammar4 ,perhaps this very useful work may still be reserved for his distinguished abilities in this way4--,priestley's ,grammar1 ,preface1 p4 xxiii4 ,dr4 ,johnson's ,english ,grammar is all comprised in fourteen pages1 and of course it is very deficient4 ,the syntax he seems inclined entirely to omit1 as 7he says7 ,wallis did1 and ,ben ,jonson had better done2 but1 for form's sake1 he condescends to bestow upon it ten short lines4 #cc4 ,my point here is1 that the best grammarians have left much to be done by him who may choose to labour for the further improvement of ,english grammar2 and that a man may well deserve comparative praise1 who has not reached perfection in a science like this4 ,johnson himself committed many errors1 some of which ,i shall hereafter expose2 yet ,i cannot conceive that the following judgement of his works was penned without some bias of prejudice3 ,johnson's merit ought not to be denied to him2 but his dictionary is the most imperfect and faulty1 and the least valuable of any#hj of his productions2 and that share of merit which it possesses1 makes it by so much the more hurtful4 ,i rejoice1 however1 that though the least valuable1 he found it the most profitable3 for ,i could never read his preface without shedding a tear4 ,and yet it must be confessed1 that his grammar and history and dictionary of what he calls the ,english language1 are in all respects 7except the bulk of the latter#ha7 most truly contemptible performances2 and a reproach to the learning and industry of a nation which could receive them with the slightest approbation4 ,nearly one third of this dictionary is as much the language of the ,hottentots as of the ,english2 and it would be no difficult matter so to translate any one of the plainest and most popular numbers of the ,spectator into the language of this dictionary1 that no mere ,englishman1 though well read in his own language1 would he able to comprehend one sentence of it4 ,it appears to be a work of labour1 and yet is in truth one of the most idle performances ever offered to the public2 compiled by an author who possessed not one single requisite for the undertaking1 and 7being a publication of a set of booksellers7 owing its success to that very circumstance which alone must make it impossible that it should deserve success4--,tooke's ,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ahb4 #cd4 ,dr4 ,ash's ,grammatical ,institutes1 or ,easy ,introduction to ,dr4 ,lowth's ,english ,grammar1 is a meagre performance1 the ease of which consists in nothing but its brevity4 ,dr4 ,priestley1 who in the preface to his third edition acknowledges his obligations to ,johnson1 and also to ,lowth1 thought it premature to attempt an ,english grammar2 and contented himself with publishing a few brief ,rudiments1 with a loose appendix consisting of ,notes and ,observations1 for the use of those who have made some proficiency in the language4 ,he says1 ,with respect to our own language1 there seems to be a kind of claim upon all who make use of it1 to do something for its improvement2 and the best thing we can do for this purpose at present1 is1 to exhibit its actual structure1 and the varieties with which it is used4 ,when these are once distinctly pointed out1 and generally attended to1 the best forms of speech1 and those which are most agreeable to the analogy of the language1 will soon recommend themselves1 and come into general use2 and when1 by this means1 the language shall be written with sufficient uniformity1 we may hope to see a complete grammar of it4 ,at present1 it is by no means ripe for such a work2#hb but we may approximate to it very fast1 if all persons who are qualified to make remarks upon it1 will give a little attention to the subject4 ,in such a case1 a few years might be sufficient to complete it4--,priestley's ,grammar1 ,preface1 p4 xv4 ,in point of time1 both ,ash and ,priestley expressly claim priority to ,lowth1 for their first editions2 but the former having allowed his work to be afterwards entitled an ,introduction to ,lowth's1 and the latter having acknowledged some improvements in his from the same source1 they have both been regarded as later authors4 #ce4 ,the great work of the learned etymologist ,john ,horne ,tooke1 consists of two octavo volumes1 entitled1 ,,epea ,,pteroenta1 or the ,diversions of ,purley4 ,this work explains1 with admirable sagacity1 the origin and primitive import of many of the most common yet most obscure ,english words2 and is1 for that reason1 a valuable performance4 ,but as it contains nothing respecting the construction of the language1 and embraces no proper system of grammatical doctrines1 it is a great error to suppose that the common principles of practical grammar ought to give place to such instructions1 or even be modelled according to what the author proves to be true in respect to the origin of particular words4 ,the common grammarians were less confuted by him1 than many of his readers have imagined2 and it ought not to be forgotten that his purpose was as different from theirs1 as are their schemes of ,grammar from the plan of his critical ,diversions4 ,in this connexion may be mentioned an other work of similar size and purpose1 but more comprehensive in design2 the ,history of ,european ,languages1 by that astonishing linguist the late ,dr4 ,alexander ,murray4 ,this work was left unfinished by its lamented author2 but it will remain a monument of erudition never surpassed1 acquired in spite of wants and difficulties as great as diligence ever surmounted4 ,like ,tooke's volumes1 it is however of little use to the mere ,english scholar4 ,it can be read to advantage only by those who are acquainted with several other languages4 ,the works of ,crombie and ,coote are more properly essays or dissertations1 than elementary systems of grammar4 #cf4 ,the number of ,english grammars has now become so very great1 that not even a general idea of the comparative merits or defects of each can here be given4 ,i have examined with some diligence all that ,i have had opportunity to obtain2 but have heard of several which ,i have never yet seen4 ,whoever is curious to examine at large what has been published on this subject1 and thus to qualify himself to judge the better of any new grammar1 may easily make a collection of one or two hundred bearing different names4 ,there are also many works not called grammars1 from which our copyists have taken large portions of their compilations4 ,thus ,murray confessedly copied from ten authors2 five of whom are ,beattie1 ,sheridan1 ,walker1 ,blair1 and ,campbell4 ,dr4 ,beattie1 who acquired great celebrity as a teacher1 poet1 philosopher1 and logician1 was well skilled in grammar2 but he treated the subject only in critical disquisitions1 and not in any distinct elementary work adapted to general use4 ,sheridan and ,walker1 being lexicographers1 confined themselves chiefly to orthography and pronunciation4 ,murray derived sundry principles from the writings of each2 but the ,english ,grammar prepared by the latter1 was written1 ,i think1 several years later than ,murray's4 ,the learned doctors ,blair and ,campbell wrote on rhetoric1 and not on the elementary parts of grammar4 ,of the two1 the latter is by far the more accurate writer4 ,blair is fluent and easy1 but he furnishes not a little false syntax2 ,campbell's ,philosophy of ,rhetoric is a very valuable treatise4 ,to these1 and five or six other authors whom ,i have noticed1 was ,lindley ,murray principally indebted for his materials4 ,thus far of the famous contributors to ,english grammar4 ,the ,lectures on ,rhetoric and ,oratory1 delivered at ,harvard ,university by ,john ,quincy ,adams1 and published in two octavo volumes in #ahaj1 are such as do credit even to that great man2 but they descend less to verbal criticism1 and enter less into the peculiar province of the grammarian1 than do most other works of a similar title4 #cg4 ,some of the most respectable authors or compilers of more general systems of ,english grammar for the use of schools1 are the writer of the ,british ,grammar1 ,bicknell1 ,buchanan1 ,william ,ward1 ,alexander ,murray the schoolmaster1 ,mennye1 ,fisher1 ,lindley ,murray1 ,penning1 ,w4 ,allen1 ,grant1 ,david ,blair1 ,lennie1 ,guy1 ,churchill4 ,to attempt any thing like a review or comparative estimate of these1 would protract this introduction beyond all reasonable bounds2 and still others would be excluded1 which are perhaps better entitled to notice4 ,of mere modifiers and abridgers1 the number is so great1 and the merit or fame so little1 that ,i will not trespass upon the reader's patience by any further mention of them or their works4 ,whoever takes an accurate and comprehensive view of the history and present state of this branch of learning1 though he may not conclude1 with ,dr4 ,priestley1 that it is premature to attempt a complete grammar of the language1 can scarcely forbear to coincide with ,dr4 ,barrow1 in the opinion that among all the treatises heretofore produced no such grammar is found4 ,some superfluities have been expunged1 some mistakes have been rectified1 and some obscurities have been cleared2 still1 however1 that all the grammars used in our different schools1 public as well as private1 are disgraced by errors or defects1 is a complaint as just as it is frequent and loud4--,barrow's ,essays1 p4 #hc4 #ch4 ,whether1 in what ,i have been enabled to do1 there will be found a remedy for this complaint1 must be referred to the decision of others4 ,upon the probability of effecting this1 ,i have been willing to stake some labour2 how much1 and with what merit1 let the candid and discerning1 when they shall have examined for themselves1 judge4 ,it is certain that we have hitherto had1 of our language1 no complete grammar4 ,the need of such a work ,i suppose to be at this time in no small degree felt1 especially by those who conduct our higher institutions of learning2 and my ambition has been to produce one which might deservedly stand along side of the ,port-,royal ,latin and ,greek ,grammars1 or of the ,grammaire des ,grammaires of ,girault ,du ,vivier4 ,if this work is unworthy to aspire to such rank1 let the patrons of ,english literature remember that the achievement of my design is still a desideratum4 ,we surely have no other book which might1 in any sense1 have been called the ,grammar of ,english ,grammars2 none1 which1 either by excellence1 or on account of the particular direction of its criticism1 might take such a name4 ,i have turned the eyes of ,grammar1 in an especial manner1 upon the conduct of her own household2 and if1 from this volume1 the reader acquire a more just idea of the grammar which is displayed in ,english grammars1 he will discover at least one reason for the title which has been bestowed upon the work4 ,such as the book is1 ,i present it to the public1 without pride1 without self-seeking1 and without anxiety3 knowing that most of my readers will be interested in estimating it justly2 that no true service1 freely rendered to learning1 can fail of its end2 and that no achievement merits aught with ,him who graciously supplies all ability4 ,the opinions expressed in it have been formed with candour1 and are offered with submission4 ,if in any thing they are erroneous1 there are those who can detect their faults4 ,in the language of an ancient master1 the earnest and assiduous ,despauter1 ,i invite the correction of the candid3 ,nos quoque1 quantumcunque diligentes1 cm a candidis tm a lividis carpemur3 a candidis interdum just2 quos oro1 ut de erratis omnibus amic me admoneant--erro nonnunquam quia homo sum4 ,,goold ,,brown4 ,new ,york1 #ahcf4 ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,english ,,grammars4 ,grammar1 as an art1 is the power of reading1 writing1 and speaking correctly4 ,as an acquisition1 it is the essential skill of scholarship4 ,as a study1 it is the practical science which teaches the right use of language4 ,an ,english ,grammar is a book which professes to explain the nature and structure of the ,english language2 and to show1 on just authority1 what is1 and what is not1 good ,english4 ,,english ,,grammar1 in itself1 is the art of reading1 writing1 and speaking the ,english language correctly4 ,it implies1 in the adept1 such knowledge as enables him to avoid improprieties of speech2 to correct any errors that may occur in literary compositions2 and to parse1 or explain grammatically1 whatsoever is rightly written4 ,to read is to perceive what is written or printed1 so as to understand the words1 and be able to utter them with their proper sounds4 ,to write is to express words and thoughts by letters1 or characters1 made with a pen or other instrument4 ,to speak is to utter words orally1 in order that they may be heard and understood4 ,grammar1 like every other liberal art1 can be properly taught only by a regular analysis1 or systematic elucidation1 of its component parts or principles2 and these parts or principles must be made known chiefly by means of definitions and examples1 rules and exercises4 ,a perfect definition of any thing or class of things is such a description of it1 as distinguishes that entire thing or class from every thing else1 by briefly telling what it is4 ,an example is a particular instance or model1 serving to prove or illustrate some given proposition or truth4 ,a rule of grammar is some law1 more or less general1 by which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of language4 ,an exercise is some technical performance required of the learner in order to bring his knowledge and skill into practice4 ,,language1 in the primitive sense of the term1 embraced only vocal expression1 or human speech uttered by the mouth2 but after letters were invented to represent articulate sounds1 language became twofold1 spoken and written1 so that the term1 language1 now signifies1 any series of sounds or letters formed into words and employed for the expression of thought4 ,of the composition of language we have also two kinds1 prose and verse2 the latter requiring a certain number and variety of syllables in each line1 but the former being free from any such restraint4 ,the least parts of written language are letters2 of spoken language1 syllables2 of language significant in each part1 words2 of language combining thought1 phrases2 of language subjoining sense1 clauses2 of language cordinating sense1 members2 of language completing sense1 sentences4 ,a discourse1 or narration1 of any length1 is but a series of sentences2 which1 when written1 must be separated by the proper points1 that the meaning and relation of all the words may be quickly and clearly perceived by the reader1 and the whole be uttered as the sense requires4 ,in extended compositions1 a sentence is usually less than a paragraph2 a paragraph1 less than a section2 a section1 less than a chapter2 a chapter1 less than a book2 a book1 less than a volume2 and a volume1 less than the entire work4 ,the common order of literary division1 then1 is2 of a large work1 into volumes2 of volumes1 into books2 of books1 into chapters2 of chapters1 into sections2 of sections1 into paragraphs2 of paragraphs1 into sentences2 of sentences1 into members2 of members1 into clauses2 of clauses1 into phrases2 of phrases1 into words2 of words1 into syllables2 of syllables1 into letters4 ,but it rarely happens that any one work requires the use of all these divisions2 and we often assume some natural distinction and order of parts1 naming each as we find it2 and also subdivide into articles1 verses1 cantoes1 stanzas1 and other portions1 as the nature of the subject suggests4 ,grammar is divided into four parts2 namely1 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4 ,orthography treats of letters1 syllables1 separate words1 and spelling4 ,etymology treats of the different parts of speech1 with their classes and modifications4 ,syntax treats of the relation1 agreement1 government1 and arrangement of words in sentences4 ,prosody treats of punctuation1 utterance1 figures1 and versification4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,in the ,introduction to this work1 have been taken many views of the study1 or general science1 of grammar2 many notices of its history1 with sundry criticisms upon its writers or critics2 and thus language has often been presented to the reader's consideration1 either as a whole1 or with broader scope than belongs to the teaching of its particular forms4 ,we come now to the work of analyzing our own tongue1 and of laying down those special rules and principles which should guide us in the use of it1 whether in speech or in writing4 ,the author intends to dissent from other grammarians no more than they are found to dissent from truth and reason2 nor will he expose their errors further than is necessary for the credit of the science and the information of the learner4 ,a candid critic can have no satisfaction merely in finding fault with other men's performances4 ,but the facts are not to be concealed1 that many pretenders to grammar have shown themselves exceedingly superficial in their knowledge1 as well as slovenly in their practice2 and that many vain composers of books have proved themselves despisers of this study1 by the abundance of their inaccuracies1 and the obviousness of their solecisms4 ,,obs4 #b4--,some grammarians have taught that the word language is of much broader signification1 than that which is given to it in the definition above4 ,i confine it to speech and writing4 ,for the propriety of this limitation1 and against those authors who describe the thing otherwise1 ,i appeal to the common sense of mankind4 ,one late writer defines it thus3 ,,language is any means by which one person communicates his ideas to another4--,sanders's ,spelling-,book1 p4 #g4 ,the following is the explanation of an other slack thinker3 ,one may1 by speaking or by writing1 7and sometimes by motions17 communicate his thoughts to others4 ,the process by which this is done1 is called ,,language4--,language is the expression of thought and feeling4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,dr4 ,webster goes much further1 and says1 ,,language1 in its most extensive sense1 is the instrument or means of communicating ideas and affections of the mind and body1 from one animal to another4 ,in this sense1 brutes possess the power of language2 for by various inarticulate sounds1 they make known their wants1 desires1 and sufferings4-- ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #aa2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,this latter definition the author of that vain book1 the ,district ,school1 has adopted in his chapter on ,grammar4 ,sheridan1 the celebrated actor and orthopist1 though he seems to confine language to the human species1 gives it such an extension as to make words no necessary part of its essence4 ,the first thought1 says he1 that would occur to every one1 who had not properly considered the point1 is1 that language is composed of words4 ,and yet1 this is so far from being an adequate idea of language1 that the point in which most men think its very essence to consist1 is not even a necessary property of language4 ,for language1 in its full extent1 means1 any way or method whatsoever1 by which all that passes in the mind of one man1 may be manifested to another4--,sheridan's ,lectures on ,elocution1 p4 #abi4 ,again3 ,i have already shown1 that words are1 in their own nature1 no essential part of language1 and are only considered so through custom4--,ib4 p4 #ace4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,according to ,s4 ,kirkham's notion1 ,,language1 in its most extensive sense1 implies those signs by which men and brutes1 communicate to each other their thoughts1 affections and desires4--,kirkham's ,english ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,again3 ,the language of brutes consists in the use of those inarticulate sounds by which they express their thoughts and affections4--,ib4 ,to me it seems a shameful abuse of speech1 and a vile descent from the dignity of grammar1 to make the voices of brutes any part of language1 as taken in a literal sense4 ,we might with far more propriety raise our conceptions of it to the spheres above1 and construe literally the metaphors of ,david1 who ascribes to the starry heavens1 both speech and language1 voice and words1 daily uttered and everywhere heard4 ,see ,psalm xix4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,but1 strange as it may seem1 ,kirkham1 commencing his instructions with the foregoing definition of language1 proceeds to divide it1 agreeably to this notion1 into two sorts1 natural and artificial2 and affirms that the former is common both to man and brute1 and that the language which is peculiar to man1 the language which consists of words1 is altogether an artificial invention3#hc thereby contradicting at once a host of the most celebrated grammarians and philosophers1 and that without appearing to know it4 ,but this is the less strange1 since he immediately forgets his own definition and division of the subject1 and as plainly contradicts himself4 ,without limiting the term at all1 without excluding his fanciful language of brutes1 he says1 on the next leaf1 ,language is conventional1 and not only invented1 but1 in its progressive advancement1 varied for purposes of practical convenience4 ,hence it assumes any and every form which those who make use of it1 choose to give it4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,this1 though scarcely more rational than his natural language of men and brutes1 plainly annihilates that questionable section of grammatical science1 whether brutal or human1 by making all language a thing conventional and invented4 ,in short1 it leaves no ground at all for any grammatical science of a positive character1 because it resolves all forms of language into the irresponsible will of those who utter any words1 sounds1 or noises4 ,,obs4 #e4--,nor is this gentleman more fortunate in his explanation of what may really be called language4 ,on one page1 he says1 ,spoken language or speech1 is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the human voice4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,on the next1 ,the most important use of that faculty called speech1 is1 to convey our thoughts to others4--,ib41 p4 #ah4 ,thus the grammarian who1 in the same short paragraph1 seems to defy the ingenuity of man to give his words any other meaning than that which he himself intends them to express1 7,ib41 p4 #ai17 either writes so badly as to make any ordinary false syntax appear trivial1 or actually conceives man to be the inventor of one of his own faculties4 ,nay1 docs he not make man the contriver of that natural language which he possesses in common with the brutes8 a language ,the meaning of which1 he says1 all the different animals perfectly understand8--,see his ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,and if this notion again be true1 does it not follow1 that a horse knows perfectly well what horned cattle mean by their bellowing1 or a flock of geese by their gabbling8 ,i should not have noticed these things1 had not the book which teaches them1 been made popular by a thousand imposing attestations to its excellence and accuracy4 ,for grammar has nothing at all to do with inarticulate voices1 or the imaginary languages of brutes4 ,it is scope enough for one science to explain all the languages1 dialects1 and speeches1 that lay claim to reason4 ,we need not enlarge the field1 by descending ,to beasts1 whom#hd ,god on their creation-day ,created mute to all articulate sound4--,milton4#he ,,part ,i4 ,,orthography4 ,,orthography treats of letters1 syllables1 separate words1 and spelling4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,of ,,letters4 ,a ,letter is an alphabetic character1 which commonly represents some elementary sound of the human voice1 some element of speech4 ,an elementary sound of the human voice1 or an element of speech1 is one of the simple sounds which compose a spoken language4 ,the sound of a letter is commonly called its power3 when any letter of a word is not sounded1 it is said to be silent or mute4 ,the letters in the ,english alphabet1 are twenty-six2 the simple or primary sounds which they represent1 are about thirty-six or thirty-seven4 ,a knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance with these four sorts of things2 their names1 their classes1 their powers1 and their forms4 ,the letters are written1 or printed1 or painted1 or engraved1 or embossed1 in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes2 and yet are always the same1 because their essential properties do not change1 and their names1 classes1 and powers1 are mostly permanent4 ,the following are some of the different sorts of types1 or styles of letters1 with which every reader should be early acquainted3-- #a4 ,the ,roman3 ,a a1 ,b b1 ,c c1 ,d d1 ,e e1 ,f f1 ,g g1 ,h h1 ,i i1 ,j j1 ,k k1 ,l l1 ,m m1 ,n n1 o1 ,p p1 ,q q1 ,r r1 ,s s1 ,t t1 ,u u1 ,v v1 ,w w1 ,x x1 ,y y1 ,z z4 #b4 ,the ,italic3 ,a a1 ,b b1 ,c c1 ,d d1 ,e e1 ,f f1 ,g g1 ,h h1 ,i i1 ,j j1 ,k k1 ,l l1 ,m m1 ,n n1 o1 ,p p1 ,q q1 ,r r1 ,s s1 ,t t1 ,u u1 ,v v1 ,w w1 ,x x1 ,y y1 ,z z4 #c4 ,the ,script3 ,script3 ,a a1 ,b b1 ,c c1 ,d d1 ,e e1 ,f f1 ,g g1 ,h h1 ,i i1 ,j j1 ,k k1 ,l l1 ,m m1 ,n n1 o1 ,p p1 ,q q1 ,r r1 ,s s1 ,t t1 ,u u1 ,v v1 ,w w1 ,x x1 ,y y1 ,z z4 #d4 ,the ,old ,english3 ,old ,english3 ,a a1 ,b b1 ,c c1 ,d d1 ,e e1 ,f f1 ,g g1 ,h h1 ,i i1 ,j j1 ,k k1 ,l l1 ,m m1 ,n n1 o1 ,p p1 ,q q1 ,r r1 ,s s1 ,t t1 ,u u1 ,v v1 ,w w1 ,x x1 ,y y1 ,z z4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,a letter consists not in the figure only1 or in the power only1 but in the figure and power united2 as an ambassador consists not in the man only1 or in the commission only1 but in the man commissioned4 ,the figure and the power1 therefore1 are necessary to constitute the letter2 and a name is as necessary1 to call it by1 teach it1 or tell what it is4 ,the class of a letter is determined by the nature of its power1 or sound2 as the ambassador is plenipotentiary or otherwise1 according to the extent of his commission4 ,to all but the deaf and dumb1 written language is the representative of that which is spoken2 so that1 in the view of people in general1 the powers of the letters are habitually identified with their sounds1 and are conceived to be nothing else4 ,hence any given sound1 or modification of sound1 which all men can produce at pleasure1 when arbitrarily associated with a written sign1 or conventional character1 constitutes what is called a letter4 ,thus we may produce the sounds of a1 e1 o1 then1 by a particular compression of the organs of utterance1 modify them all1 into ba1 be1 bo1 or fa1 fe1 fo2 and we shall see that a1 e1 and o1 are letters of one sort1 and b and f of an other4 ,by elementary or articulate sounds1#hf then1 we mean not only the simple tones of the voice itself1 but the modifying stops and turns which are given them in speech1 and marked by letters3 the real voices constituting vowels2 and their modifications1 consonants4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,a mere mark to which no sound or power is ever given1 cannot be a letter2 though it may1 like the marks used for punctuation1 deserve a name and a place in grammar4 ,commas1 semicolons1 and the like1 represent silence1 rather than sounds1 and are therefore not letters4 ,nor are the ,arabic figures1 which represent entire words1 nor again any symbols standing for things1 7as the astronomic marks for the sun1 the moon1 the planets17 to be confounded with letters2 because the representative of any word or number1 of any name or thing1 differs widely in its power1 from the sign of a simple elementary sound3 i4 e41 from any constituent part of a written word4 ,the first letter of a word or name does indeed sometimes stand for the whole1 and is still a letter2 but it is so1 as being the first element of the word1 and not as being the representative of the whole4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,in their definitions of vowels and consonants1 many grammarians have resolved letters into sounds only2 as1 ,a ,vowel is an articulate sound1 c4--,a ,consonant is an articulate sound1 c4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,but this confounding of the visible signs with the things which they signify1 is very far from being a true account of either4 ,besides1 letters combined are capable of a certain mysterious power which is independent of all sound1 though speech1 doubtless1 is what they properly represent4 ,in practice1 almost all the letters may occasionally happen to be silent2 yet are they not1 in these cases1 necessarily useless4 ,the deaf and dumb also1 to whom none of the letters express or represent sounds1 may be taught to read and write understandingly4 ,they even learn in some way to distinguish the accented from the unaccented syllables1 and to have some notion of quantity1 or of something else equivalent to it2 for some of them1 it is said1 can compose verses according to the rules of prosody4 ,hence it would appear1 that the powers of the letters are not1 of necessity1 identified with their sounds2 the things being in some respect distinguishable1 though the terms are commonly taken as synonymous4 ,the fact is1 that a word1 whether spoken or written1 is of itself significant1 whether its corresponding form be known or not4 ,hence1 in the one form1 it may be perfectly intelligible to the illiterate1 and in the other1 to the educated deaf and dumb2 while1 to the learned who hear and speak1 either form immediately suggests the other1 with the meaning common to both4 ,,obs4 #d4--,our knowledge of letters rises no higher than to the forms used by the ancient ,hebrews and ,phoenicians4 ,moses is supposed to have written in characters which were nearly the same as those called ,samaritan1 but his writings have come to us in an alphabet more beautiful and regular1 called the ,chaldee or ,chaldaic1 which is said to have been made by ,ezra the scribe1 when he wrote out a new copy of the law1 after the rebuilding of the temple4 ,cadmus carried the ,phoenician alphabet into ,greece1 where it was subsequently altered and enlarged4 ,the small letters were not invented till about the seventh century of our era4 ,the ,latins1 or ,romans1 derived most of their capitals from the ,greeks2 but their small letters1 if they had any1 were made afterwards among themselves4 ,this alphabet underwent various changes1 and received very great improvements1 before it became that beautiful series of characters which we now use1 under the name of ,roman letters4 ,indeed these particular forms1 which are now justly preferred by many nations1 are said to have been adopted after the invention of printing4 ,the ,roman letters were first used by ,sweynheim and ,pannartz1 printers who settled at ,rome1 in #adfg4 ,the earliest work printed wholly in this character in ,england1 is said to have been ,lily's or ,paul's ,accidence1 printed by ,richard ,pinson1 #aeah4 ,the ,italic letters were invented by ,aldus ,manutius at ,rome1 towards the close of the fifteenth century1 and were first used in an edition of ,virgil1 in #aeja4--;,constables ,miscellany1 ,vol4 xx1 p4 #adg4 ,the ,saxon alphabet was mostly ,roman4 ,not more than one quarter of the letters have other forms4 ,but the changes1 though few1 give to a printed page a very different appearance4 ,under ,william the ,conqueror1 this alphabet was superseded by the modern ,gothic1 ,old ,english1 or ,black letter2 which1 in its turn1 happily gave place to the present ,roman4 ,the ,germans still use a type similar to the ,old ,english1 but not so heavy4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,i have suggested that a true knowledge of the letters implies an acquaintance with their names1 their classes1 their powers1 and their forms4 ,under these four heads1 therefore1 ,i shall briefly present what seems most worthy of the learner's attention at first1 and shall reserve for the appendix a more particular account of these important elements4 ,the most common and the most useful things are not those about which we are in general most inquisitive4 ,hence many1 who think themselves sufficiently acquainted with the letters1 do in fact know but very little about them4 ,if a person is able to read some easy book1 he is apt to suppose he has no more to learn respecting the letters2 or he neglects the minute study of these elements1 because he sees what words they make1 and can amuse himself with stories of things more interesting4 ,but merely to understand common ,english1 is a very small qualification for him who aspires to scholarship1 and especially for a teacher4 ,for one may do this1 and even be a great reader1 without ever being able to name the letters properly1 or to pronounce such syllables as ca1 ce1 ci1 co1 cu1 cy1 without getting half of them wrong4 ,no one can ever teach an art more perfectly than he has learned it2 and if we neglect the elements of grammar1 our attainments must needs be proportionately unsettled and superficial4 ,i4 ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,letters4 ,the names of the letters1 as now commonly spoken and written in ,english1 are ,a1 ,bee1 ,cee1 ,dee1 ,e1 ,eff1 ,gee1 ,aitch1 ,i1 ,jay1 ,kay1 ,ell1 ,em1 ,en1 ,o1 ,pee1 ,kue1 ,ar1 ,ess1 ,tee1 ,u1 ,vee1 ,double-u1 ,ex1 ,wy1 ,zee4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,with the learning and application of these names1 our literary education begins2 with a continual rehearsal of them in spelling1 it is for a long time carried on2 nor can we ever dispense with them1 but by substituting others1 or by ceasing to mention the things thus named4 ,what is obviously indispensable1 needs no proof of its importance4 ,but ,i know not whether it has ever been noticed1 that these names1 like those of the days of the week1 are worthy of particular distinction1 for their own nature4 ,they are words of a very peculiar kind1 being nouns that are at once both proper and common4 ,for1 in respect to rank1 character1 and design1 each letter is a thing strictly individual and identical--that is1 it is ever one and the same2 yet1 in an other respect1 it is a comprehensive sort1 embracing individuals both various and numberless4 ,thus every ,b is a b1 make it as you will2 and can be nothing else than that same letter b1 though you make it in a thousand different fashions1 and multiply it after each pattern innumerably4 ,here1 then1 we see individuality combined at once with great diversity1 and infinite multiplicity2 and it is to this combination1 that letters owe their wonderful power of transmitting thought4 ,their names1 therefore1 should always be written with capitals1 as proper nouns1 at least in the singular number2 and should form the plural regularly1 as ordinary appellatives4 ,thus3 7if we adopt the names now most generally used in ,english schools37 ,a1 ,aes2 ,bee1 ,bees2 ,cee1 ,cees2 ,dee1 ,dees2 ,e1 ,ees2 ,eff1 ,effs2 ,gee1 ,gees2 ,aitch1 ,aitches2 ,i1 ,ies2 ,jay1 ,jays2 ,kay1 ,kays2 ,ell1 ,ells2 ,em1 ,ems2 ,en1 ,ens2 ,o1 ,oes2 ,pee1 ,pees2 ,kue1 ,kues2 ,ar1 ,ars2 ,ess1 ,esses2 ,tee1 ,tees2 ,u1 ,ues2 ,vee1 ,vees2 ,double-u1 ,double-ues2 ,ex1 ,exes2 ,wy1 ,wies2 ,zee1 ,zees4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the names of the letters1 as expressed in the modern languages1 are mostly framed with reference to their powers1 or sounds4 ,yet is there in ,english no letter of which the name is always identical with its power3 for ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 and ,u1 are the only letters which can name themselves1 and all these have other sounds than those which their names express4 ,the simple powers of the other letters are so manifestly insufficient to form any name1 and so palpable is the difference between the nature and the name of each1 that did we not know how education has been trifled with1 it would be hard to believe even ,murray1 when he says1 ,they are frequently confounded by writers on grammar4 ,observations and reasonings on the name1 are often applied to explain the nature of a consonant2 and by this means the student is led into error and perplexity4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #h4 ,the confounding of names with the things for which they stand1 implies1 unquestionably1 great carelessness in the use of speech1 and great indistinctness of apprehension in respect to things2 yet so common is this error1 that ,murray himself has many times fallen into it4#hg ,let the learner therefore be on his guard1 remembering that grammar1 both in its study and in its practice1 requires the constant exercise of a rational discernment4 ,those letters which name themselves1 take for their names those sounds which they usually represent at the end of an accented syllable2 thus the names1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 ,u1 are uttered with the sounds given to the same letters in the first syllables of the other names1 ,abel1 ,enoch1 ,isaac1 ,obed1 ,urim2 or in the first syllables of the common words1 paper1 penal1 pilot1 potent1 pupil4 ,the other letters1 most of which can never be perfectly sounded alone1 have names in which their powers are combined with other sounds more vocal2 as1 ,bee1 ,cee1 ,dee1--,ell1 ,em1 ,en1--,jay1 ,kay1 ,kue4 ,but in this respect the terms ,aitch and ,double-u are irregular2 because they have no obvious reference to the powers of the letters thus named4 ,,obs4 #c4--,letters1 like all other things1 must be learned and spoken of by their names2 nor can they be spoken of otherwise2 yet1 as the simple characters are better known and more easily exhibited than their written names1 the former are often substituted for the latter1 and are read as the words for which they are assumed4 ,hence the orthography of these words has hitherto been left too much to mere fancy or caprice4 ,our dictionaries1 by a strange oversight or negligence1 do not recognize them as words2 and writers have in general spelled them with very little regard to either authority or analogy4 ,what they are1 or ought to be1 has therefore been treated as a trifling question3 and1 what is still more surprising1 several authors of spelling-books make no mention at all of them2 while others1 here at the very threshold of instruction1 teach falsely--giving he for ,aitch1 er for ,ar1 oo or uu for ,double-u1 ye for ,wy1 and writing almost all the rest improperly4 ,so that many persons who think themselves well educated1 would be greatly puzzled to name on paper these simple elements of all learning4 ,nay1 there can be found a hundred men who can readily write the alphabetic names which were in use two or three thousand years ago in ,greece or ,palestine1 for one who can do the same thing with propriety1 respecting those which we now employ so constantly in ,english3#hh and yet the words themselves are as familiar to every school-boy's lips as are the characters to his eye4 ,this fact may help to convince us1 that the grammar of our language has never yet been sufficiently taught4 ,among all the particulars which constitute this subject1 there are none which better deserve to be everywhere known1 by proper and determinate names1 than these prime elements of all written language4 ,,obs4 #d4--,should it happen to be asked a hundred lustrums hence1 what were the names of the letters in the ,augustan age of ,english literature1 or in the days of ,william the ,fourth and ,andrew ,jackson1 ,i fear the learned of that day will be as much at a loss for an answer1 as would most of our college tutors now1 were they asked1 by what series of names the ,roman youth were taught to spell4 ,might not ,quintilian or ,varro have obliged many1 by recording these8 ,as it is1 we are indebted to ,priscian1 a grammarian of the sixth century1 for almost all we know about them4 ,but even the information which may be had1 on this point1 has been strangely overlooked by our common ,latin grammarians4#hi ,what1 but the greater care of earlier writers1 has made the ,greek names better known or more important than the ,latin8 ,in every nation that is not totally illiterate1 custom must have established for the letters a certain set of names1 which are the only true ones1 and which are of course to be preferred to such as are local or unauthorized4 ,in this1 however1 as in other things1 use may sometimes vary1 and possibly improve2 but when its decisions are clear1 no feeble reason should be allowed to disturb them4 ,every parent1 therefore1 who would have his children instructed to read and write the ,english language1 should see that in the first place they learn to name the letters as they are commonly named in ,english4 ,a ,scotch gentleman of good education informs me1 that the names of the letters1 as he first learned them in a school in his own country1 were these3 ,a1 ,ib1 ,ec1 ,id1 ,e1 ,iff1 ,ig1 ,ich1 ,i1 ,ij1 ,ik1 ,ill1 ,im1 ,in1 ,o1 ,ip1 ,kue1 ,ir1 ,iss1 ,it1 ,u1 ,iv1 ,double-u1 ,ix1 ,wy1 ,iz2 but that in the same school the ,english names are now used4 ,it is to be hoped1 that all teachers will in time abandon every such local usage1 and name the letters as they ought to be named2 and that the day will come1 in which the regular ,english orthography of these terms1 shall be steadily preferred1 ignorance of it be thought a disgrace1 and the makers of school-books feel no longer at liberty to alter names that are a thousand times better known than their own4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,it is not in respect to their orthography alone1 that these first words in literature demand inquiry and reflection3 the pronunciation of some of them has often been taught erroneously1 and1 with respect to three or four of them1 some writers have attempted to make an entire change from the customary forms which ,i have recorded4 ,whether the name of the first letter should be pronounced ,aye1 as it is in ,england1 ,ah1 as it is in ,ireland1 or ,aw1 as it is in ,scotland1 is a question which ,walker has largely discussed1 and clearly decided in favour of the first sound2 and this decision accords with the universal practice of the schools in ,america4 ,it is remarkable that this able critic1 though he treated minutely of the letters1 naming them all in the outset of his ,principles subsequently neglected the names of them all1 except the first and the last4 ,of ,zee1 7which has also been called ,zed1 ,zad1 ,izzard1 ,uzzard1 ,izzet1 and ,iz17#ij he says1 ,its common name is izzard1 which ,dr4 ,johnson explains into s hard2 if1 however1 this is the meaning1 it is a gross misnomer2 for the z is not the hard1 but the soft s2#ia but as it has a less sharp1 and therefore not so audible a sound1 it is not impossible but it may mean s surd4 ,zed1 borrowed from the ,french1 is the more fashionable name of this letter2 but1 in my opinion1 not to be admitted1 because the names of the letters ought to have no diversity4--,walker's ,principles1 ,no4 #dhc4 ,it is true1 the name of a letter ought to be one1 and in no respect diverse2 but where diversity has already obtained1 and become firmly rooted in custom1 is it to be obviated by insisting upon what is old-fashioned1 awkward1 and inconvenient8 ,shall the better usage give place to the worse8 ,uniformity cannot be so reached4 ,in this country1 both ,zed and ,izzard1 as well as the worse forms ,zad and ,uzzard1 are now fairly superseded by the softer and better term ,zee2 and whoever will spell aloud1 with each of these names1 a few such words as dizzy1 mizzen1 gizzard1 may easily perceive why none of the former can ever be brought again into use4 ,the other two1 ,iz and ,izzet1 being localisms1 and not authorized ,english1 ,i give up all six2 ,zed to the ,french1 and the rest to oblivion4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,by way of apology for noticing the name of the first letter1 ,walker observes1 ,if a diversity of names to vowels did not confound us in our spelling1 or declaring to each other the component letters of a word1 it would be entirely needless to enter into so trifling a question as the mere name of a letter2 but when we find ourselves unable to convey signs to each other on account of this diversity of names1 and that words themselves are endangered by an improper utterance of their component parts1 it seems highly incumbent on us to attempt a uniformity in this point1 which1 insignificant as it may seem1 is undoubtedly the foundation of a just and regular pronunciation4--,dict41 under ,a4 ,if diversity in this matter is so perplexing1 what shall we say to those who are attempting innovations without assigning reasons1 or even pretending authority8 and if a knowledge of these names is the basis of a just pronunciation1 what shall we think of him who will take no pains to ascertain how he ought to speak and write them8 ,he who pretends to teach the proper fashion of speaking and writing1 cannot deal honestly1 if ever he silently prefer a suggested improvement1 to any established and undisturbed usage of the language2 for1 in grammar1 no individual authority can be a counterpoise to general custom4 ,the best usage can never be that which is little known1 nor can it be well ascertained and taught by him who knows little4 ,inquisitive minds are ever curious to learn the nature1 origin1 and causes of things2 and that instruction is the most useful1 which is best calculated to gratify this rational curiosity4 ,this is my apology for dwelling so long upon the present topic4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the names originally given to the letters were not mere notations of sound1 intended solely to express or make known the powers of the several characters then in use2 nor ought even the modern names of our present letters1 though formed with special reference to their sounds1 to be considered such4 ,expressions of mere sound1 such as the notations in a pronouncing dictionary1 having no reference to what is meant by the sound1 do not constitute words at all2 because they are not those acknowledged signs to which a meaning has been attached1 and are consequently without that significance which is an essential property of words4 ,but1 in every language1 there must be a series of sounds by which the alphabetical characters are commonly known in speech2 and which1 as they are the acknowledged names of these particular objects1 must be entitled to a place among the words of the language4 ,it is a great error to judge otherwise2 and a greater to make it a trifling question in grammar1 whether a given letter shall be called by one name or by an other4 ,who shall say that ,daleth1 ,delta1 and ,dee1 are not three real words1 each equally important in the language to which it properly belongs8 ,such names have always been in use wherever literature has been cultivated2 and as the forms and powers of the letters have been changed by the nations1 and have become different in different languages1 there has necessarily followed a change of the names4 ,for1 whatever inconvenience scholars may find in the diversity which has thence arisen1 to name these elements in a set of foreign terms1 inconsistent with the genius of the language to be learned1 would surely be attended with a tenfold greater4 ,we derived our letters1 and their names too1 from the ,romans2 but this is no good reason why the latter should be spelled and pronounced as we suppose they were spelled and pronounced in ,rome4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the names of the twenty-two letters in ,hebrew1 are1 without dispute1 proper words2 for they are not only significant of the letters thus named1 but have in general1 if not in every instance1 some other meaning in that language4 ,thus the mysterious ciphers which the ,english reader meets with1 and wonders over1 as he reads the #aaith ,psalm1 may be resolved1 according to some of the ,hebrew grammars1 as follows3-- ,hebrew3 ,aleph ,aleph1 ,a1 an ox1 or a leader2 ,hebrew3 ,beth ,beth1 ,bee1 house2 ,hebrew3 ,gimel ,gimel1 ,gee1 a camel2 ,hebrew3 ,dalet ,daleth1 ,dee1 a door2 ,hebrew3 he ,he1 ,e1 she1 or behold2 ,hebrew3 vav ,vau1 ,u1 a hook1 or a nail2 ,hebrew3 zajin ,zain1 ,zee1 armour2 ,hebrew3 het ,cheth1 or ,heth1 ,aitch1 a hedge2 ,hebrew3 tet ,teth1 ,tee1 a serpent1 or a scroll2 ,hebrew3 jod ,jod1 or ,yod1 ,i1 or ,wy1 a hand shut2 ,hebrew3 kaf ,caph1 ,cee1 a hollow hand1 or a cup2 ,hebrew3 lamed ,lamed1 ,ell1 an ox-goad2 ,hebrew3 mem ,mem1 ,em1 a stain1 or spot2 ,hebrew3 nun ,nun1 ,en1 a fish1 or a snake2 ,hebrew3 samekh ,samech1 ,ess1 a basis1 or support2 ,hebrew3 ayin ,ain1 or ,oin1 ,o1 an eye1 or a well2 ,hebrew3 pe ,pe1 ,pee1 a lip1 or mouth2 ,hebrew3 tsadi ,tzaddi1 or ,tsadhe1 ,tee-zee1 7i4 e4 tz1 or ts17 a hunter's pole2 ,hebrew3 qof ,koph1 ,kue1 or ,kay1 an ape2 ,hebrew3 resh ,resch1 or ,resh1 ,ar1 a head2 ,hebrew3 shin ,schin1 or ,sin1 ,ess-aitch1 or ,ess1 a tooth2 ,hebrew3 tav ,tau1 or ,thau1 ,tee1 or ,tee-aitch1 a cross1 or mark4 ,these ,english names of the ,hebrew letters are written with much less uniformity than those of the ,greek1 because there has been more dispute respecting their powers4 ,this is directly contrary to what one would have expected2 since the ,hebrew names are words originally significant of other things than the letters1 and the ,greek are not4 ,the original pronunciation of both languages is admitted to be lost1 or involved in so much obscurity that little can be positively affirmed about it2 and yet1 where least was known1 grammarians have produced the most diversity2 aiming at disputed sounds in the one case1 but generally preferring a correspondence of letters in the other4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the word alphabet is derived from the first two names in the following series4 ,the ,greek letters are twenty-four2 which are formed1 named1 and sounded1 thus3-- ,greek3 ,a a1 ,alpha1 a2 ,greek3 ,b1 b1 ,beta1 b2 ,greek3 ,g g1 ,gamma1 g hard2 ,greek3 ,d d1 ,delta1 d2 ,greek3 ,e e1 ,epsilon1 e short2 ,greek3 ,z z1 ,zeta1 z2 ,greek3 1 ,eta1 e long2 ,greek3 ,,th ,th th1 ,theta1 th2 ,greek3 ,i i1 ,iota1 i2 ,greek ,k k1 ,kappa1 k2 ,greek3 ,l l1 ,lambda1 l2 ,greek3 ,m m1 ,mu1 m2 ,greek3 ,n n1 ,nu1 n2 ,greek3 ,x x1 ,xi1 x2 ,greek3 ,o o1 ,omicron1 o short2 ,greek3 ,p p1 ,pi1 p2 ,greek3 ,r r ,rho1 r2 ,greek3 ,s s s1 ,sigma1 s2 ,greek3 ,t t1 ,tau1 t2 ,greek3 ,y y1 ,upsilon1 u2 ,greek3 ,,ph ph1 ,phi1 ph2 ,greek3 ,,ch ch1 ,chi1 ch2 ,greek3 ,,ps ps1 ,psi1 ps2 ,greek3 ,o o1 ,omega1 o long4 ,of these names1 our ,english dictionaries explain the first and the last2 and ,webster has defined ,iota1 and ,zeta1 but without reference to the meaning of the former in ,greek4 ,beta1 ,delta1 ,lambda1 and perhaps some others1 are also found in the etymologies or definitions of ,johnson and ,webster1 both of whom spell the word ,lambda and its derivative lambdoidal without the silent b1 which is commonly1 if not always1 inserted by the authors of our ,greek grammars1 and which ,worcester1 more properly1 retains4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the reader will observe that the foregoing names1 whether ,greek or ,hebrew1 are in general much less simple than those which our letters now bear2 and if he has ever attempted to spell aloud in either of those languages1 he cannot but be sensible of the great advantage which was gained when to each letter there was given a short name1 expressive1 as ours mostly are1 of its ordinary power4 ,this improvement appears to have been introduced by the ,romans1 whose names for the letters were even more simple than our own4 ,but so negligent in respect to them have been the ,latin grammarians1 both ancient and modern1 that few even of the learned can tell what they really were in that language2 or how they differed1 either in orthography or sound1 from those of the ,english or the ,french1 the ,hebrew or the ,greek4 ,most of them1 however1 may yet be ascertained from ,priscian1 and some others of note among the ancient philologists2 so that by taking from later authors the names of those letters which were not used in old times1 we can still furnish an entire list1 concerning the accuracy of which there is not much room to dispute4 ,it is probable that in the ancient pronunciation of ,latin1 a was commonly sounded as in father2 e like the ,english a2 i mostly like e long2 y like i short2 c generally and g always hard1 as in come and go4 ,but1 as the original1 native1 or just pronunciation of a language is not necessary to an understanding of it when written1 the existing nations have severally1 in a great measure1 accommodated themselves1 in their manner of reading this and other ancient tongues4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,as the ,latin language is now printed1 its letters are twenty-five4 ,like the ,french1 it has all that belong to the ,english alphabet1 except the ,double-u4 ,but1 till the first ,punic war1 the ,romans wrote ,c for ,g1 and doubtless gave it the power as well as the place of the ,gamma or ,gimel4 ,it then seems to have slid into ,k2 but they used it also for ,s1 as we do now4 ,the ancient ,saxons1 generally pronounced ,c as ,k1 but sometimes as ,ch4 ,their ,g was either guttural1 or like our ,y4 ,in some of the early ,english grammars the name of the latter is written ,ghee4 ,the letter ,f1 when first invented1 was called1 from its shape1 ,digamma1 and afterwards ,ef4 ,j1 when it was first distinguished from ,i1 was called by the ,hebrew name ,jod1 and afterwards ,je4 ,v1 when first distinguished from ,u1 was called ,vau1 then ,va1 then ,ve4 ,y1 when the ,romans first borrowed it from the ,greeks1 was called ,ypsilon2 and ,z1 from the same source1 was called ,zeta2 and1 as these two letters were used only in words of ,greek origin1 ,i know not whether they ever received from the ,romans any shorter names4 ,in ,schneider's ,latin ,grammar1 the letters are named in the following manner2 except ,je and ,ve1 which are omitted by this author3 ,a1 ,be1 ,ce1 ,de1 ,e1 ,ef1 ,ge1 ,ha1 ,i1 ,je1 ,ka1 ,el1 ,em1 ,en1 ,o1 ,pe1 ,cu1 ,er1 ,es1 ,te1 ,u1 ,ve1 ,ix1 ,ypsilon1 ,zeta4 ,and this ,i suppose to be the most proper way of writing their names in ,latin1 unless we have sufficient authority for shortening ,ypsilon into ,y1 sounded as short i1 and for changing ,zeta into ,ez4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,in many1 if not in all languages1 the five vowels1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 ,u1 name themselves2 but they name themselves differently to the ear1 according to the different ways of uttering them in different languages4 ,and as the name of a consonant necessarily requires one or more vowels1 that also may be affected in the same manner4 ,but in every language there should be a known way both of writing and of speaking every name in the series2 and that1 if there is nothing to hinder1 should be made conformable to the genius of the language4 ,i do not say that the names above can be regularly declined in ,latin2 but in ,english it is as easy to speak of two ,dees as of two trees1 of two ,kays as of two days1 of two ,exes as of two foxes1 of two ,effs as of two skiffs2 and there ought to be no more difficulty about the correct way of writing the word in the one case1 than in the other4 ,in ,dr4 ,sam4 ,prat's ,latin ,grammar1 7an elaborate octavo1 all ,latin1 published in ,london1 #agbb17 nine of the consonants are reckoned mutes2 b1 c1 d1 g1 p1 q1 t1 j1 and v2 and eight1 semivowels2 f1 l1 m1 n1 r1 s1 x1 z4 ,all the mutes1 says this author1 are named by placing e after them2 as1 be1 ce1 de1 ge1 except q1 which ends in u4 ,see p4 #h4 ,the semivowels1 beginning with e1 end in themselves2 as1 ef1 ach1 el1 em1 en1 er1 es1 ex1 7or1 as ,priscian will have it1 ix17 eds4 ,see p4 #i4 ,this mostly accords with the names given in the preceding paragraph2 and so far as it does not1 ,i judge the author to be wrong4 ,the reader will observe that the ,doctor's explanation is neither very exact nor quite complete3 ,k is a mute which is not enumerated1 and the rule would make the name of it ,ke1 and not ,ka2--,h is not one of his eight semivowels1 nor does the name ,ach accord with his rule or seem like a ,latin word2--the name of ,z1 according to his principle1 would be ,ez and not ,eds1 although the latter may better indicate the sound which was then given to this letter4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,if the history of these names exhibits diversity1 so does that of almost all other terms2 and yet there is some way of writing every word with correctness1 and correctness tends to permanence4 ,but ,time1 that establishes authority1 destroys it also1 when he fairly sanctions newer customs4 ,to all names worthy to be known1 it is natural to wish a perpetual uniformity2 but if any one thinks the variableness of these to be peculiar1 let him open the ,english ,bible of the fourteenth century1 and read a few verses1 observing the names4 ,for instance3 ,forsothe whanne ,eroude was to bringynge forth hym1 in that nigt ,petir was slepynge bitwixe tweyno knytis4--,dedis1 7i4 e41 ,acts17 xii1 #f4 ,crist ,ihesu that is to demynge the quyke and deed4--#b ,tim41 iv1 #a4 ,since this was written for ,english1 our language has changed much1 and at the same time acquired1 by means of the press1 some aids to stability4 ,i have recorded above the true names of the letters1 as they are now used1 with something of their history2 and if there could be in human works any thing unchangeable1 ,i should wish1 7with due deference to all schemers and fault-finders17 that these names might remain the same forever4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,if any change is desirable in our present names of the letters1 it is that we may have a shorter and simpler term in stead of ,double-u4 ,but can we change this well known name8 ,i imagine it would be about as easy to change ,alpha1 ,upsilon1 or ,omega2 and perhaps it would be as useful4 ,let ,dr4 ,webster1 or any defender of his spelling1 try it4 ,he never named the ,english letters rightly2 long ago discarded the term ,double-u2 and is not yet tired of his experiment with oo2 but thinks still to make the vowel sound of this letter its name4 ,yet he writes his new name wrong2 has no authority for it but his own2 and is1 most certainly1 reprehensible for the innovation4#ib ,if ,w is to be named as a vowel1 it ought to name itself1 as other vowels do1 and not to take two ,oes for its written name4 ,who that knows what it is1 to name a letter1 can think of naming w by double o8 ,that it is possible for an ingenious man to misconceive this simple affair of naming the letters1 may appear not only from the foregoing instance1 but from the following quotation3 ,among the thousand mismanagements of literary instruction1 there is at the outset in the hornbook1 the pretence to represent elementary sounds by syllables composed of two or more elements2 as1 ,be1 ,kay1 ,zed1 ,double-u1 and ,aitch4 ,these words are used in infancy1 and through life1 as simple elements in the process of synthetic spelling4 ,if the definition of a consonant was made by the master from the practice of the child1 it might suggest pity for the pedagogue1 but should not make us forget the realities of nature4--,dr4 ,push1 on the ,philosophy of the ,human ,voice1 p4 #eb4 ,this is a strange allegation to come from such a source4 ,if ,i bid a boy spell the word why1 he says1 ,double-u1 ,aitch1 ,wy1 hwi2 and knows that he has spelled and pronounced the word correctly4 ,but if he conceives that the five syllables which form the three words1 ,double-u1 and ,aitch1 and ,wy1 are the three simple sounds which he utters in pronouncing the word why1 it is not because the hornbook1 or the teacher of the hornbook1 ever made any such blunder or pretence2 but because1 like some great philosophers1 he is capable of misconceiving very plain things4 ,suppose he should take it into his head to follow ,dr4 ,webster's books1 and to say1 ,oo1 he1 ye1 hwi2 who1 but these doctors1 would imagine1 that such spelling was supported either by the realities of nature1 or by the authority of custom8 ,i shall retain both the old definition of a consonant1 and the usual names of the letters1 notwithstanding the contemptuous pity it may excite in the minds of such critics4 ,,ii4 ,,classes ,,of ,,the ,,letters4 ,the letters are divided into two general classes1 vowels and consonants4 ,a vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone2 as1 a1 e1 o4 ,a consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered till joined to a vowel2 as1 b1 c1 d4#ic ,the vowels are a1 e1 i1 o1 u1 and sometimes w and y4 ,all the other letters are consonants4 ,w or y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard in the same syllable2 as in wine1 twine1 whine2 ye1 yet1 youth3 in all other cases1 these letters are vowels2 as in ,yssel1 ,ystadt1 yttria2 newly1 dewy1 eyebrow4 ,,classes ,,of ,,consonants4 ,the consonants are divided1 with respect to their powers1 into semivowels and mutes4 ,a semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded without a vowel1 so that at the end of a syllable its sound may be protracted2 as1 l1 n1 z1 in al1 an1 az4 ,a mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all without a vowel1 and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops the breath2 as1 k1 p1 t1 in ak1 ap1 at4 ,the semivowels are1 f1 h1 j1 l1 m1 n1 r1 s1 v1 w1 x1 y1 z1 and c and g soft3 but w or y at the end of a syllable1 is a vowel2 and the sound of c1 f1 g1 h1 j1 s1 or x1 can be protracted only as an aspirate1 or strong breath4 ,four of the semivowels1--l1 m1 n1 and r1--are termed liquids1 on account of the fluency of their sounds2 and four others1--v1 w1 y1 and z1--are likewise more vocal than the aspirates4 ,the mutes are eight2--b1 d1 k1 p1 q1 t1 and c and g hard3 three of these1--k1 q1 and c hard1--sound exactly alike3 b1 d1 and g hard1 stop the voice less suddenly than the rest4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity1 and1 in respect to its principal features sanctioned by almost universal authority2 yet if we examine it minutely1 either with reference to the various opinions of the learned1 or with regard to the essential differences among the things of which it speaks1 it will not perhaps be found in all respects indisputably certain4 ,it will however be of use1 as a basis for some subsequent rules1 and as a means of calling the attention of the learner to the manner in which he utters the sounds of the letters4 ,a knowledge of about three dozen different elementary sounds is implied in the faculty of speech4 ,the power of producing these sounds with distinctness1 and of adapting them to the purposes for which language is used1 constitutes perfection of utterance4 ,had we a perfect alphabet1 consisting of one symbol1 and only one1 for each elementary sound2 and a perfect method of spelling1 freed from silent letters1 and precisely adjusted to the most correct pronunciation of words2 the process of learning to read would doubtless be greatly facilitated4 ,and yet any attempt toward such a reformation1 any change short of the introduction of some entirely new mode of writing1 would be both unwise and impracticable4 ,it would involve our laws and literature in utter confusion1 because pronunciation is the least permanent part of language2 and if the orthography of words were conformed entirely to this standard1 their origin and meaning would1 in many instances1 be soon lost4 ,we must therefore content ourselves to learn languages as they are1 and to make the best use we can of our present imperfect system of alphabetic characters2 and we may be the better satisfied to do this1 because the deficiencies and redundancies of this alphabet are not yet so well ascertained1 as to make it certain what a perfect one would be4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,in order to have a right understanding of the letters1 it is necessary to enumerate1 as accurately as we can1 the elementary sounds of the language2 and to attend carefully to the manner in which these sounds are enunciated1 as well as to the characters by which they are represented4 ,the most unconcerned observer cannot but perceive that there are certain differences in the sounds1 as well as in the shapes1 of the letters2 and yet under what heads they ought severally to be classed1 or how many of them will fall under some particular name1 it may occasionally puzzle a philosopher to tell4 ,the student must consider what is proposed or asked1 use his own senses1 and judge for himself4 ,with our lower-case alphabet before him1 he can tell by his own eye1 which are the long letters1 and which the short ones2 so let him learn by his own ear1 which are the vowels1 and which1 the consonants4 ,the processes are alike simple2 and1 if he be neither blind nor deaf1 he can do both about equally well4 ,thus he may know for a certainty1 that a is a short letter1 and b a long one2 the former a vowel1 the latter a consonant3 and so of others4 ,yet as he may doubt whether t is a long letter or a short one1 so he may be puzzled to say whether w and y1 as heard in we and ye1 are vowels or consonants3 but neither of these difficulties should impair his confidence in any of his other decisions4 ,if he attain by observation and practice a clear and perfect pronunciation of the letters1 he will be able to class them for himself with as much accuracy as he will find in books4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,grammarians have generally agreed that every letter is either a vowel or a consonant2 and also that there are among the latter some semivowels1 some mutes1 some aspirates1 some liquids1 some sharps1 some flats1 some labials1 some dentals1 some nasals1 some palatals1 and perhaps yet other species2 but in enumerating the letters which belong to these several classes1 they disagree so much as to make it no easy matter to ascertain what particular classification is best supported by their authority4 ,i have adopted what ,i conceive to be the best authorized1 and at the same time the most intelligible4 ,he that dislikes the scheme1 may do better1 if he can4 ,but let him with modesty determine what sort of discoveries may render our ancient authorities questionable4 ,aristotle1 three hundred and thirty years before ,christ1 divided the ,greek letters into vowels1 semivowels1 and mutes1 and declared that no syllable could be formed without a vowel4 ,in the opinion of some neoterics1 it has been reserved to our age1 to detect the fallacy of this4 ,but ,i would fain believe that the ,stagirite knew as well what he was saying1 as did ,dr4 ,james ,rush1 when1 in #ahbg1 he declared the doctrine of vowels and consonants to be a misrepresentation4 ,the latter philosopher resolves the letters into tonics1 subtonics1 and atonics2 and avers that consonants alone may form syllables4 ,indeed1 ,i cannot but think the ancient doctrine better4 ,for1 to say that consonants alone may form syllables1 is as much as to say that consonants are not consonants1 but vowels6 ,to be consistent1 the attempters of this reformation should never speak of vowels or consonants1 semivowels or mutes2 because they judge the terms inappropriate1 and the classification absurd4 ,they should therefore adhere strictly to their tonics1 subtonics1 and atonics2 which classes1 though apparently the same as vowels1 semivowels1 and mutes1 are better adapted to their new and peculiar division of these elements4 ,thus1 by reforming both language and philosophy at once1 they may make what they will of either6 ,,obs4 #d4--,some teach that w and y are always vowels3 conceiving the former to be equivalent to oo1 and the latter to i or e4 ,dr4 ,lowth says1 ,y is always a vowel1 and ,w is either a vowel or a diphthong4 ,dr4 ,webster supposes w to be always a vowel1 a simple sound2 but admits that1 ,at the beginning of words1 y is called an articulation or consonant1 and with some propriety perhaps1 as it brings the root of the tongue in close contact with the lower part of the palate1 and nearly in the position to which the close g brings it4--,american ,dict41 ,octavo4 ,but ,i follow ,wallis1 ,brightland1 ,johnson1 ,walker1 ,murray1 ,worcester1 and others1 in considering both of them sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants4 ,they are consonants at the beginning of words in ,english1 because their sounds take the article a1 and not an1 before them2 as1 a wall1 a yard1 and not1 an wall1 an yard4 ,but oo or the sound of e1 requires an1 and not a2 as1 an eel1 an oozy bog4#id ,at the end of a syllable we know they are vowels2 but at the beginning1 they are so squeezed in their pronunciation1 as to follow a vowel without any hiatus1 or difficulty of utterance2 as1 ,o worthy youth6 so young1 so wise6 ,,obs4 #e4--,murray's rule1 ,w and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable1 but in every other situation they are vowels1 which is found in ,comly's book1 ,kirkham's1 ,merchant's1 ,ingersoll's1 ,fisk's4 ,hart's1 ,hiley's1 ,alger's1 ,bullions's1 ,pond's1 ,s4 ,putnam's1 ,weld's1 and in sundry other grammars1 is favourable to my doctrine1 but too badly conceived to be quoted here as authority4 ,it undesignedly makes w a consonant in wine1 and a vowel in twine2 and y a consonant when it forms a syllable1 as in dewy3 for a letter that forms a syllable1 begins it4 ,but ,kirkham has lately learned his letters anew2 and1 supposing he had ,dr4 ,rush on his side1 has philosophically taken their names for their sounds4 ,he now calls y a diphthong4 ,but he is wrong here by his own showing3 he should rather have called it a triphthong4 ,he says1 ,by pronouncing in a very deliberate and perfectly natural manner1 the letter y1 7which is a diphthong17 the unpractised student will perceive1 that the sound produced1 is compound2 being formed1 at its opening1 of the obscure sound of oo as heard in oo-ze1 which sound rapidly slides into that of i1 and then advances to that of ee as heard in e-ve1 and on which it gradually passes off into silence4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #ge4 ,thus the unpractised student is taught that b-y spells bwy2 or1 if pronounced very deliberately1 boo-i-ee6 ,nay1 this grammatist makes b1 not a labial mute1 as ,walker1 ,webster1 ,cobb1 and others1 have called it1 but a nasal subtonic1 or semivowel4 ,he delights in protracting its guttural murmur2 perhaps1 in assuming its name for its sound2 and1 having proved1 that consonants are capable of forming syllables1 finds no difficulty in mouthing this little monosyllable by into b-oo-i-ee6 ,in this way1 it is the easiest thing in the world1 for such a man to outface ,aristotle1 or any other divider of the letters2 for he makes the sounds by which he judges4 ,boy1 says the teacher of ,kirkham's ,elocution1 describe the protracted sound of y4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #aaj4 ,the pupil may answer1 ,that letter1 sir1 has no longer or more complex sound1 than what is heard in the word eye1 or in the vowel i2 but the book which ,i study1 describes it otherwise4 ,i know not whether ,i can make you understand it1 but ,i will tr-oo-i-ee4 ,if the word try1 which the author uses as an example1 does not exhibit his protracted sound of y1 there is no word that does3 the sound is a mere fiction1 originating in strange ignorance4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,in the large print above1 ,i have explained the principal classes of the letters1 but not all that are spoken of in books4 ,it is proper to inform the learner that the sharp consonants are t1 and all others after which our contracted preterits and participles require that d should be sounded like t2 as in the words faced1 reached1 stuffed1 laughed1 triumphed1 croaked1 cracked1 houghed1 reaped1 nipped1 piqued1 missed1 wished1 earthed1 betrothed1 fixed4 ,the flat or smooth consonants are d1 and all others with which the proper sound of d may be united2 as in the words1 daubed1 judged1 hugged1 thronged1 sealed1 filled1 aimed1 crammed1 pained1 planned1 feared1 marred1 soothed1 loved1 dozed1 buzzed4 ,the labials are those consonants which are articulated chiefly by the lips2 among which1 ,dr4 ,webster reckons b1 f1 m1 p1 and v4 ,but ,dr4 ,rush says1 b and m are nasals1 the latter1 purely nasal4 #ie ,the dentals are those consonants which are referred to the teeth2 the nasals are those which are affected by the nose2 and the palatals are those which compress the palate1 as k and hard g4 ,but these last-named classes are not of much importance2 nor have ,i thought it worth while to notice minutely the opinions of writers respecting the others1 as whether h is a semivowel1 or a mute1 or neither4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the ,cherokee alphabet1 which was invented in #ahba1 by ,see-quo-yah1 or ,george ,guess1 an ingenious but wholly illiterate ,indian1 contains eighty-five letters1 or characters4 ,but the sounds of the language are much fewer than ours2 for the characters represent1 not simple tones and articulations1 but syllabic sounds1 and this number is said to be sufficient to denote them all4 ,but the different syllabic sounds in our language amount to some thousands4 ,i suppose1 from the account1 that ,see-quo-yah writes his name1 in his own language1 with three letters2 and that characters so used1 would not require1 and probably would not admit1 such a division as that of vowels and consonants4 ,one of the ,cherokees1 in a letter to the ,american ,lyceum1 states1 that a knowledge of this mode of writing is so easily acquired1 that one who understands and speaks the language1 can learn to read in a day2 and1 indeed1 continues the writer1 ,i have known some to acquire the art in a single evening4 ,it is only necessary to learn the different sounds of the characters1 to be enabled to read at once4 ,in the ,english language1 we must not only first learn the letters1 but to spell1 before reading2 but in ,cherokee1 all that is required1 is1 to learn the letters2 for they have syllabic sounds1 and by connecting different ones together1 a word is formed3 in which there is no art4 ,all who understand the language can do so1 and both read and write1 so soon as they can learn to trace with their fingers the forms of the characters4 ,i suppose that more than one half of the ,cherokees can read their own language1 and are thereby enabled to acquire much valuable information1 with which they otherwise would never have been blessed4--,w4 ,s4 ,coodey1 #ahca4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,from the foregoing account1 it would appear that the ,cherokee language is a very peculiar one3 its words must either be very few1 or the proportion of polysyllables very great4 ,the characters used in ,china and ,japan1 stand severally for words2 and their number is said to be not less than seventy thousand2 so that the study of a whole life is scarcely sufficient to make a man thoroughly master of them4 ,syllabic writing is represented by ,dr4 ,blair as a great improvement upon the ,chinese method1 and yet as being far inferior to that which is properly alphabetic1 like ours4 ,the first step1 in this new progress1 says he1 was the invention of an alphabet of syllables1 which probably preceded the invention of an alphabet of letters1 among some of the ancient nations2 and which is said to be retained to this day1 in ,ethiopia1 and some countries of ,india4 ,by fixing upon a particular mark1 or character1 for every syllable in the language1 the number of characters1 necessary to be used in writing1 was reduced within a much smaller compass than the number of words in the language4 ,still1 however1 the number of characters was great2 and must have continued to render both reading and writing very laborious arts4 ,till1 at last1 some happy genius arose1 and tracing the sounds made by the human voice1 to their most simple elements1 reduced them to a very few vowels and consonants2 and1 by affixing to each of these1 the signs which we now call letters1 taught men how1 by their combinations1 to put in writing all the different words1 or combinations of sound1 which they employed in speech4 ,by being reduced to this simplicity1 the art of writing was brought to its highest state of perfection2 and1 in this state1 we now enjoy it in all the countries of ,europe4--,blair's ,rhetoric1 ,lect4 ,,vii1 p4 #fh4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,all certain knowledge of the sounds given to the letters by ,moses and the prophets having been long ago lost1 a strange dispute has arisen1 and been carried on for centuries1 concerning this question1 ,whether the ,hebrew letters are1 or are not1 all consonants3 the vowels being supposed by some to be suppressed and understood2 and not written1 except by points of comparatively late invention4 ,the discussion of such a question does not properly belong to ,english grammar2 but1 on account of its curiosity1 as well as of its analogy to some of our present disputes1 ,i mention it4 ,dr4 ,charles ,wilson says1 ,after we have sufficiently known the figures and names of the letters1 the next step is1 to learn to enunciate or to pronounce them1 so as to produce articulate sounds4 ,on this subject1 which appears at first sight very plain and simple1 numberless contentions and varieties of opinion meet us at the threshold4 ,from the earliest period of the invention of written characters to represent human language1 however more or less remote that time may be1 it seems absolutely certain1 that the distinction of letters into vowels and consonants must have obtained4 ,all the speculations of the ,greek grammarians assume this as a first principle4 ,again3 ,i beg leave only to premise this observation1 that ,i absolutely and unequivocally deny the position1 that all the letters of the ,hebrew alphabet are consonants2 and1 after the most careful and minute inquiry1 give it as my opinion1 that of the twenty-two letters of which the ,hebrew alphabet consists1 five are vowels and seventeen are consonants4 ,the five vowels by name are1 ,aleph1 ,he1 ,vau1 ,yod1 and ,ain4--,wilson's ,heb4 ,gram41 pp4 #f and #h4 ,,iii4 ,,powers ,,of ,,the ,,letters4 ,the powers of the letters are properly those elementary sounds which their figures are used to represent2 but letters formed into words1 are capable of communicating thought independently of sound4 ,the simple elementary sounds of any language are few1 commonly not more than thirty-six2#if but they may be variously combined1 so as to form words innumerable4 ,different vowel sounds1 or vocal elements1 are produced by opening the mouth differently1 and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each2 but the voice may vary in loudness1 pitch1 or time1 and still utter the same vowel power4 ,the vowel sounds which form the basis of the ,english language1 and which ought therefore to be perfectly familiar to every one who speaks it1 are those which are heard at the beginning of the words1 ate1 at1 ah1 all1 eel1 ell1 isle1 ill1 old1 on1 ooze1 use1 us1 and that of u in bull4 ,in the formation of syllables1 some of these fourteen primary sounds may be joined together1 as in ay1 oil1 out1 owl2 and all of them may be preceded or followed by certain motions and positions of the lips and tongue1 which will severally convert them into other terms in speech4 ,thus the same essential sounds may be changed into a new series of words by an f2 as1 fate1 fat1 far1 fall1 feel1 fell1 file1 fill1 fold1 fond1 fool1 fuse1 fuss1 full4 ,again1 into as many more with a p2 as1 pate1 pat1 par1 pall1 peel1 pell1 pile1 pill1 pole1 pond1 pool1 pule1 purl1 pull4 ,each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by letters4 ,about half of them are sometimes words3 the rest are seldom1 if ever1 used alone even to form syllables4 ,but the reader may easily learn to utter them all1 separately1 according to the foregoing series4 ,let us note them as plainly as possible3 eigh1 a1 ah1 awe1 eh1 e1 eye1 i1 oh1 o1 oo1 yew1 u1 4 ,thus the eight long sounds1 eigh1 ah1 awe1 eh1 eye1 oh1 ooh1 yew1 are1 or may be1 words2 but the six less vocal1 called the short vowel sounds1 as in at1 et1 it1 ot1 ut1 put1 are commonly heard only in connexion with consonants2 except the first1 which is perhaps the most frequent sound of the vowel ,a or a--a sound sometimes given to the word a1 perhaps most generally2 as in the phrase1 twice a day4 ,the simple consonant sounds in ,english are twenty-two3 they are marked by b1 d1 f1 g hard1 h1 k1 l1 m1 n1 ng1 p1 r1 s1 sh1 t1 th sharp1 th flat1 v1 w1 y1 z1 and zh4 ,but zh is written only to show the sound of other letters2 as of s in pleasure1 or z in azure4 ,all these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words3 buy1 die1 fie1 guy1 high1 kie1 lie1 my1 nigh1 eying1 pie1 rye1 sigh1 shy1 tie1 thigh1 thy1 vie1 we1 ye1 zebra1 seizure4 ,again3 most of them may be repeated in the same word1 if not in the same syllable2 as in bibber1 diddle1 fifty1 giggle1 high-hung1 cackle1 lily1 mimic1 ninny1 singing1 pippin1 mirror1 hissest1 flesh-brush1 tittle1 thinketh1 thither1 vivid1 witwal1 union1#ig dizzies1 vision4 ,with us1 the consonants ,j and ,x represent1 not simple1 but complex sounds3 hence they are never doubled4 ,j is equivalent to dzh2 and ,x1 either to ks or to gz4 ,the former ends no ,english word1 and the latter begins none4 ,to the initial ,x of foreign words1 we always give the simple sound of ,z2 as in ,xerxes1 xebec4 ,the consonants ,c and ,q have no sounds peculiar to themselves4 ,q has always the power of k4 ,c is hard1 like k1 before a1 o1 and u2 and soft1 like s1 before e1 i1 and y3 thus the syllables1 ca1 ce1 ci1 co1 cu1 cy1 are pronounced1 ka1 se1 si1 ko1 ku1 sy4 ,s before c preserves the former sound1 but coalesces with the latter2 hence the syllables1 sca1 sce1 sci1 sco1 scu1 scy1 are sounded1 ska1 se1 si1 sko1 sku1 sy4 ,ce and ci have sometimes the sound of sh2 as in ocean1 social4 ,ch commonly represents the compound sound of tsh2 as in church4 ,g1 as well as ,c1 has different sounds before different vowels4 ,g is always hard1 or guttural1 before a1 o1 and u2 and generally soft1 like j1 before e1 i1 or y3 thus the syllables1 ga1 ge1 gi1 go1 gu1 gy1 are pronounced ga1 je1 ji1 go1 gu1 jy4 ,the possible combinations and mutations of the twenty-six letters of our alphabet1 are many millions of millions4 ,but those clusters which are unpronounceable1 are useless4 ,of such as may be easily uttered1 there are more than enough for all the purposes of useful writing1 or the recording of speech4 ,thus it is1 that from principles so few and simple as about six or seven and thirty plain elementary sounds1 represented by characters still fewer1 we derive such a variety of oral and written signs1 as may suffice to explain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all men in all ages4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,a knowledge of sounds can be acquired1 in the first instance1 only by the ear4 ,no description of the manner of their production1 or of the differences which distinguish them1 can be at all intelligible to him who has not already1 by the sense of hearing1 acquired a knowledge of both4 ,what ,i here say of the sounds of the letters1 must of course be addressed to those persons only who are able both to speak and to read ,english4 ,why then attempt instruction by a method which both ignorance and knowledge on the part of the pupil1 must alike render useless8 ,i have supposed some readers to have such an acquaintance with the powers of the letters1 as is but loose and imperfect2 sufficient for the accurate pronunciation of some words or syllables1 but leaving them liable to mistakes in others2 extending perhaps to all the sounds of the language1 but not to a ready analysis or enumeration of them4 ,such persons may profit by a written description of the powers of the letters1 though no such description can equal the clear impression of the living voice4 ,teachers1 too1 whose business it is to aid the articulation of the young1 and1 by a patient inculcation of elementary principles1 to lay the foundation of an accurate pronunciation1 may derive some assistance from any notation of these principles1 which will help their memory1 or that of the learner4 ,the connexion between letters and sounds is altogether arbitrary2 but a few positions1 being assumed and made known1 in respect to some characters1 become easy standards for further instruction in respect to others of similar sound4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the importance of being instructed at an early age1 to pronounce with distinctness and facility all the elementary sounds of one's native language1 has been so frequently urged1 and is so obvious in itself1 that none but those who have been themselves neglected1 will be likely to disregard the claims of their children in this respect4#ih ,but surely an accurate knowledge of the ordinary powers of the letters would be vastly more common1 were there not much hereditary negligence respecting the manner in which these important rudiments are learned4 ,the utterance of the illiterate may exhibit wit and native talent1 but it is always more or less barbarous1 because it is not aided by a knowledge of orthography4 ,for pronunciation and orthography1 however they may seem1 in our language especially1 to be often at variance1 are certainly correlative3 a true knowledge of either tends to the preservation of both4 ,each of the letters represents some one or more of the elementary sounds1 exclusive of the rest2 and each of the elementary sounds1 though several of them are occasionally transferred1 has some one or two letters to which it most properly or most frequently belongs4 ,but borrowed1 as our language has been1 from a great variety of sources1 to which it is desirable ever to retain the means of tracing it1 there is certainly much apparent lack of correspondence between its oral and its written form4 ,still the discrepancies are few1 when compared with the instances of exact conformity2 and1 if they are1 as ,i suppose they are1 unavoidable1 it is as useless to complain of the trouble they occasion1 as it is to think of forcing a reconciliation4 ,the wranglers in this controversy1 can never agree among themselves1 whether orthography shall conform to pronunciation1 or pronunciation to orthography4 ,nor does any one of them well know how our language would either sound or look1 were he himself appointed sole arbiter of all variances between our spelling and our speech4 ,,obs4 #c4--,language1 says ,dr4 ,rush1 was long ago analyzed into its alphabetic elements4 ,wherever this analysis is known1 the art of teaching language has1 with the best success1 been conducted upon the rudimental method4 99 99 99 ,the art of reading consists in having all the vocal elements under complete command1 that they may be properly applied1 for the vivid and elegant delineation of the sense and sentiment of discourse4--,philosophy of the ,voice1 p4 #cdf4 ,again1 of the pronunciation of the alphabetic elements1 he says1 ,the least deviation from the assumed standard converts the listener into the critic2 and ,i am surely speaking within bounds when ,i say1 that for every miscalled element in discourse1 ten succeeding words are lost to the greater part of an audience4--,ibid41 p4 #cej4 ,these quotations plainly imply both the practicability and the importance of teaching the pronunciation of our language analytically by means of its present orthography1 and agreeably to the standard assumed by the grammarians4 ,the first of them affirms that it has been done1 with the best success1 according to some ancient method of dividing the letters and explaining their sounds4 ,and yet1 both before and afterwards1 we find this same author complaining of our alphabet and its subdivisions1 as if sense or philosophy must utterly repudiate both2 and of our orthography1 as if a ploughman might teach us to spell better3 and1 at the same time1 he speaks of softening his censure through modesty4 ,the deficiencies1 redundancies1 and confusion1 of the system of alphabetic characters in this language1 prevent the adoption of its subdivisions in this essay4--,ib41 p4 #eb4 ,of the specific sounds given to the letters1 he says1 ,the first of these matters is under the rule of every body1 and therefore is very properly to be excluded from the discussions of that philosophy which desires to be effectual in its instruction4 ,how can we hope to establish a system of elemental pronunciation in a language1 when great masters in criticism condemn at once every attempt1 in so simple and useful a labour as the correction of its orthography6--,p4 #bef4 ,again3 ,i deprecate noticing the faults of speakers1 in the pronunciation of the alphabetic elements4 ,it is better for criticism to be modest on this point1 till it has the sense or independence to make our alphabet and its uses1 look more like the work of what is called--wise and transcendent humanity3 till the pardonable variety of pronunciation1 and the true spelling by the vulgar1 have satirized into reformation that pen-craft which keeps up the troubles of orthography for no other purpose1 as one can divine1 than to boast of a very questionable merit as a criterion of education4--,ib41 p4 #chc4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,how far these views are compatible1 the reader will judge4 ,and it is hoped he will excuse the length of the extracts1 from a consideration of the fact1 that a great master of the pen-craft here ridiculed1 a noted stickler for needless ,kays and ,ues1 now commonly rejected1 while he boasts that his grammar1 which he mostly copied from ,murray's1 is teaching the old explanation of the alphabetic elements to more than one hundred thousand children and youth1 is also vending under his own name an abstract of the new scheme of tonicks1 subtonicks1 and atonicks2 and1 in one breath1 bestowing superlative praise on both1 in order1 as it would seem1 to monopolize all inconsistency4 ,among those who have successfully laboured in the philological field1 ,mr4 ,lindley ,murray stands forth in bold relief1 as undeniably at the head of the list4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #ab4 ,the modern candidate for oratorical fame1 stands on very different1 and far more advantageous1 ground1 than that occupied by the young and aspiring ,athenian2 especially since a correct analysis of the vocal organs1 and a faithful record of their operations1 have been given to the world by ,dr4 ,james ,rush1 of ,philadelphia--a name that will outlive the unquarried marble of our mountains4--,ibid41 p4 #bi4 ,but what is to be said when presumption pushes itself into the front ranks of elocution1 and thoughtless friends undertake to support it8 ,the fraud must go on1 till presumption quarrels1 as often happens1 with its own friends1 or with itself1 and thus dissolves the spell of its merits4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #dje4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the question respecting the number of simple or elementary sounds in our language1 presents a remarkable puzzle3 and it is idle1 if not ridiculous1 for any man to declaim about the imperfection of our alphabet and orthography1 who does not show himself able to solve it4 ,all these sounds may easily be written in a plain sentence of three or four lines upon almost any subject2 and every one who can read1 is familiar with them all1 and with all the letters4 ,now it is either easy to count them1 or it is difficult4 ,if difficult1 wherein does the difficulty lie8 and how shall he who knows not what and how many they are1 think himself capable of reforming our system of their alphabetic signs8 ,if easy1 why do so few pretend to know their number8 and of those who do pretend to this knowledge1 why are there so few that agree8 ,a certain verse in the seventh chapter of ,ezra1 has been said to contain all the letters4 ,it however contains no j2 and1 with respect to the sounds1 it lacks that of f1 that of th sharp1 and that of u in bull4 ,i will suggest a few additional words for these2 and then both all the letters1 and all the sounds1 of the ,english language1 will be found in the example2 and most of them1 many times over3 ',and ,i1 even ,i1 ,artaxerxes1 the king1 do make a decree to all the treasurers' who 'are beyond the river1 that whatsoever ,ezra the priest1 the scribe of the law of the ,god of heaven1 shall require of you1 it be done speedily' and faithfully1 according to that which he shall enjoin4 ,some letters1 and some sounds1 are here used much more frequently than others2 but1 on an average1 we have1 in this short passage1 each sound five times1 and each letter eight4 ,how often1 then1 does a man speak all the elements of his language1 who reads well but one hour6 ,,obs4 #f4--,of the number of elementary sounds in our language1 different orthopists report differently2 because they cannot always agree among themselves1 wherein the identity or the simplicity1 the sameness or the singleness1 even of well-known sounds1 consists2 or because1 if each is allowed to determine these points for himself1 no one of them adheres strictly to his own decision4 ,they may also1 each for himself1 have some peculiar way of utterance1 which will confound some sounds which other men distinguish1 or distinguish some which other men confound4 ,for1 as a man may write a very bad hand which shall still be legible1 so he may utter many sounds improperly and still be understood4 ,one may1 in this way1 make out a scheme of the alphabetic elements1 which shall be true of his own pronunciation1 and yet have obvious faults when tried by the best usage of ,english speech4 ,it is desirable not to multiply these sounds beyond the number which a correct and elegant pronunciation of the language obviously requires4 ,and what that number is1 it seems to me not very difficult to ascertain2 at least1 ,i think we may fix it with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes4 ,but let it be remembered1 that all who have hitherto attempted the enumeration1 have deviated more or less from their own decisions concerning either the simplicity or the identity of sounds2 but1 most commonly1 it appears to have been thought expedient to admit some exceptions concerning both4 ,thus the long or diphthongal sounds of ,i and ,u1 are admitted by some1 and excluded by others2 the sound of j1 or soft g1 is reckoned as simple by some1 and rejected as compound by others2 so a part1 if not all1 of what are called the long and the short vowels1 as heard in ale and ell1 arm and am1 all and on1 isle or eel and ill1 tone and tun1 pule or pool and pull1 have been declared essentially the same by some1 and essentially different by others4 ,were we to recognize as elementary1 no sounds but such as are unquestionably simple in themselves1 and indisputably different in quality from all others1 we should not have more sounds than letters3 and this is a proof that we have characters enough1 though the sounds are perhaps badly distributed among them4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,i have enumerated thirty-six well known sounds1 which1 in compliance with general custom1 and for convenience in teaching4 ,i choose to regard as the oral elements of our language4 ,there may be found some reputable authority for adding four or five more1 and other authority as reputable1 for striking from the list seven or eight of those already mentioned4 ,for the sake of the general principle1 which we always regard in writing1 a principle of universal grammar1 that there can be no syllable without a vowel1 ,i am inclined to teach1 with ,brightland1 ,dr4 ,johnson1 ,l4 ,murray1 and others1 that1 in ,english1 as in ,french1 there is given to the vowel e a certain very obscure sound which approaches1 but amounts not to an absolute suppression1 though it is commonly so regarded by the writers of dictionaries4 ,it may be exemplified in the words oven1 shovel1 able2#ii or in the unemphatic article the before a consonant1 as in the sentence1 ,take the nearest3 we do not hear it as thee nearest1 nor as then carest1 but more obscurely4 ,there is also a feeble sound of i or y unaccented1 which is equivalent to ee uttered feebly1 as in the word diversity4 ,this is the most common sound of i and of y4 ,the vulgar are apt to let it fall into the more obscure sound of short u4 ,as elegance of utterance depends much upon the preservation of this sound from such obtuseness1 perhaps ,walker and others have done well to mark it as e in me2 though some suppose it to be peculiar1 and others identify it with the short i in fit4 ,thirdly1 a distinction is made by some writers1 between the vowel sounds heard in hate and bear1 which ,sheridan and ,walker consider to be the same4 ,the apparent difference may perhaps result from the following consonant r1 which is apt to affect the sound of the vowel which precedes it4 ,such words as bear1 care1 dare1 careful1 parent1 are very liable to be corrupted in pronunciation1 by too broad a sound of the a2 and1 as the multiplication of needless distinctions should be avoided1 ,i do not approve of adding an other sound to a vowel which has already quite too many4 ,worcester1 however1 in his new ,dictionary1 and ,wells1 in his new ,grammar1 give to the vowel ,a six or seven sounds in lieu of four2 and ,dr4 ,mandeville1 in his ,course of ,reading1 says1 ,a has eight sounds4--,p4 #i4 ,,obs4 #h4--,sheridan made the elements of his oratory twenty-eight4 ,jones followed him implicitly1 and adopted the same number4#ajj ,walker recognized several more1 but ,i know not whether he has anywhere told us how many there are4 ,lindley ,murray enumerates thirty-six1 and the same thirty-six that are given in the main text above4 ,the eight sounds not counted by ,sheridan are these3 #a4 ,the ,italian a1 as in far1 father1 which he reckoned but a lengthening of the a in hat2 #b4 ,the short o1 as in hot1 which he supposed to be but a shortening of the a in hall2 #c4 ,the diphthongal i1 as in isle1 which he thought but a quicker union of the sounds of the diphthong oi1 but which1 in my opinion1 is rather a very quick union of the sounds ah and ee into ay1 ,i2#aja #d4 ,the long u1 which is acknowledged to be equal to yu or yew1 though perhaps a little different from you or yoo1#ajb the sound given it by ,walker2 #e4 ,the u heard in pull1 which he considered but a shortening of oo2 #f4 ,the consonant w1 which he conceived to be always a vowel1 and equivalent to oo2 #g4 ,the consonant y1 which he made equal to a short ee2 #h4 ,the consonant h1 which he declared to be no letter1 but a mere breathing1 ,in all other respects1 his scheme of the alphabetic elements agrees with that which is adopted in this work1 and which is now most commonly taught4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the effect of ,quantity in the prolation of the vowels1 is a matter with which every reader ought to be experimentally acquainted4 ,quantity is simply the time of utterance1 whether long or short4 ,it is commonly spoken of with reference to syllables1 because it belongs severally to all the distinct or numerable impulses of the voice1 and to these only2 but1 as vowels or diphthongs may be uttered alone1 the notion of quantity is of course as applicable to them1 as to any of the more complex sounds in which consonants are joined with them4 ,all sounds imply time2 because they are the transient effects of certain percussions which temporarily agitate the air1 an element that tends to silence4 ,when mighty winds have swept over sea and land1 and the voice of the ,ocean is raised1 he speaks to the towering cliffs in the deep tones of a long quantity2 the rolling billows1 as they meet the shore1 pronounce the long-drawn syllables of his majestic elocution4 ,but see him again in gentler mood2 stand upon the beach and listen to the rippling of his more frequent waves3 he will teach you short quantity1 as well as long4 ,in common parlance1 to avoid tediousness1 to save time1 and to adapt language to circumstances1 we usually utter words with great rapidity1 and in comparatively short quantity4 ,but in oratory1 and sometimes in ordinary reading1 those sounds which are best fitted to fill and gratify the ear1 should be sensibly protracted1 especially in emphatic words2 and even the shortest syllable1 must be so lengthened as to be uttered with perfect clearness3 otherwise the performance will be judged defective4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,some of the vowels are usually uttered in longer time than others2 but whether the former are naturally long1 and the latter naturally short1 may be doubted3 the common opinion is1 that they are4 ,but one author at least denies it2 and says1 ,we must explode the pretended natural epithets short and long given to our vowels1 independent on accent3 and we must observe that our silent e final lengthens not its syllable1 unless the preceding vowel be accented4--,mackintosh's ,essay on ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bcb4 ,the distinction of long and short vowels which has generally obtained1 and the correspondences which some writers have laboured to establish between them1 have always been to me sources of much embarrassment4 ,it would appear1 that in one or two instances1 sounds that differ only in length1 or time1 are commonly recognized as different elements2 and that grammarians and orthopists1 perceiving this1 have attempted to carry out the analogy1 and to find among what they call the long vowels a parent sound for each of the short ones4 ,in doing this1 they have either neglected to consult the ear1 or have not chosen to abide by its verdict4 ,i suppose the vowels heard in pull and pool would be necessarily identified1 if the former were protracted or the latter shortened2 and perhaps there would be a like coalescence of those heard in of and all1 were they tried in the same way1 though ,i am not sure of it4 ,in protracting the e in met1 and the i in ship1 ignorance or carelessness might perhaps1 with the help of our orthopists1 convert the former word into mate and the latter into sheep2 and1 as this would breed confusion in the language1 the avoiding of the similarity may perhaps be a sufficient reason for confining these two sounds of e and i1 to that short quantity in which they cannot be mistaken4 ,but to suppose1 as some do1 that the protraction of u in tun would identify it with the o in tone1 surpasses any notion ,i have of what stupidity may misconceive4 ,with one or two exceptions1 therefore1 it appears to me that each of the pure vowel sounds is of such a nature1 that it may be readily recognized by its own peculiar quality or tone1 though it be made as long or as short as it is possible for any sound of the human voice to be4 ,it is manifest that each of the vowel sounds heard in ate1 at1 arm1 all1 eel1 old1 ooze1 us1 may be protracted to the entire extent of a full breath slowly expended1 and still be precisely the same one simple sound2#ajc and1 on the contrary1 that all but one may be shortened to the very minimum of vocality1 and still be severally known without danger of mistake4 ,the prolation of a pure vowel places the organs of utterance in that particular position which the sound of the letter requires1 and then holds them unmoved till we have given to it all the length we choose4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,in treating of the quantity and quality of the vowels1 ,walker says1 ,the first distinction of sound that seems to obtrude itself upon us when we utter the vowels1 is a long and a short sound1 according to the greater or less duration of time taken up in pronouncing them4 ,this distinction is so obvious as to have been adopted in all languages1 and is that to which we annex clearer ideas than to any other2 and though the short sounds of some vowels have not in our language been classed with sufficient accuracy with their parent long ones1 yet this has bred but little confusion1 as vowels long and short are always sufficiently distinguishable4--,principles1 ,no4 #fc4 ,again3 ,but though the terms long and short1 as applied to vowels1 are pretty generally understood1 an accurate ear will easily perceive that these terms do not always mean the long and short sounds of the respective vowels to which they are applied2 for1 if we choose to be directed by the ear1 in denominating vowels long or short1 we must certainly give these appellations to those sounds only which have exactly the same radical tone1 and differ only in the long or short emission of that tone4--,ib41 ,no4 #ff4 ,he then proceeds to state his opinion that the vowel sounds heard in the following words are thus correspondent3 tame1 them2 car1 carry2 wall1 want2 dawn1 gone2 theme1 him2 tone1 nearly tun2 pool1 pull4 ,as to the long sounds of i or y1 and of u1 these two being diphthongal1 he supposes the short sound of each to be no other than the short sound of its latter element ee or oo4 ,now to me most of this is exceedingly unsatisfactory2 and ,i have shown why4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,if men's notions of the length and shortness of vowels are the clearest ideas they have in relation to the elements of speech1 how comes it to pass that of all the disputable points in grammar1 this is the most perplexed with contrarieties of opinion8 ,in coming before the world as an author1 no man intends to place himself clearly in the wrong2 yet1 on the simple powers of the letters1 we have volumes of irreconcilable doctrines4 ,a great connoisseur in things of this sort1 who professes to have been long in the habit of listening to sounds of every description1 and that with more than ordinary attention1 declares in a recent and expensive work1 that in every language we find the vowels incorrectly classed2 and1 in order to give to the simple elements of ,english utterance a better explanation than others have furnished1 he devotes to a new analysis of our alphabet the ample space of twenty octavo pages1 besides having several chapters on subjects connected with it4 ,and what do his twenty pages amount to8 ,i will give the substance of them in ten lines1 and the reader may judge4 ,he does not tell us how many elementary sounds there are2 but1 professing to arrange the vowels1 long and short1 in the order in which they are naturally found1 as well as to show of the consonants that the mutes and liquids form correspondents in regular pairs1 he presents a scheme which ,i abbreviate as follows4 ,,vowels3 #a4 ,a1 as in all and what1 or o1 as in orifice and not2 #b4 ,u--urn and hut1 or love and come2 #c4 ,o--vote and echo2 #d4 ,a--ah and hat2 #e4 ,a--hazy1 no short sound2 #f4 ,e--eel and it2 #g4 ,e--mercy and met2 #h4 ,o--prove and ado2 #i4 ,,oo--tool and foot2 #aj4 ,w--vow and law2 #aa4 ,y--7like the first e--7 syntax and duty4 ,,diphthongs3 #a4 ,i--as ah-ee2 #b4 ,u--as ee-oo2 #c4 ,,ou--as au-oo4 ,,consonants3 #a4 ,mutes1--c or s1 f1 h1 k or q1 p1 t1 th sharp1 sh2 #b4 ,liquids1--l1 which has no corresponding mute1 and z1 v1 r1 ng1 m1 n1 th flat and j1 which severally correspond to the eight mutes in their order2 #c4 ,subliquids1--g hard1 b1 and d4 ,see ,music of ,nature1 by ,william ,gardiner1 p4 #dhj1 and after4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,dr4 ,rush comes to the explanation of the powers of the letters as the confident first revealer of nature's management and wisdom2 and hopes to have laid the foundation of a system of instruction in reading and oratory1 which1 if adopted and perfected1 will beget a similarity of opinion and practice1 and be found to possess an excellence which must grow into sure and irreversible favour4--,phil4 of the ,voice1 p4 #djd4 ,we have been willing1 he says1 to believe1 on faith alone1 that nature is wise in the contrivance of speech4 ,let us now show1 by our works of analysis1 how she manages the simple elements of the voice1 in the production of their unbounded combinations4--,ibid41 p4 #dd4 ,again3 ,every one1 with peculiar self-satisfaction1 thinks he reads well1 and yet all read differently3 there is1 however1 but one mode of reading well4--,ib41 p4 #djc4 ,that one mode1 some say1 his philosophy alone teaches4 ,of that1 others may judge4 ,i shall only notice here what seems to be his fundamental position1 that1 on all the vocal elements of language1 nature has stamped duplicity4 ,to establish this extraordinary doctrine1 he first attempts to prove1 that the letter a1 as heard in the word day1 combines two distinguishable yet inseparable sounds2 that it is a compound of what he calls1 with reference to vowels and syllables in general1 the radical and the vanishing movement of the voice1--a single and indivisible element in which two sounds are heard continuously successive1 the sounds of a and e as in ale and eve4 ,he does not know that some grammarians have contended that ay in day is a proper diphthong1 in which both the vowels are heard2 but1 so pronouncing it himself1 infers from the experiment1 that there is no simpler sound of the vowel a4 ,if this inference is not wrong1 the word shape is to be pronounced sha-epe2 and1 in like manner1 a multitude of other words will acquire a new element not commonly heard in them4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,but the doctrine stops not here4 ,the philosopher examines1 in some similar way1 the other simple vowel sounds1 and finds a beginning and an end1 a base and an apex1 a radical and a vanishing movement1 to them all2 and imagines a sufficient warrant from nature to divide them all into two parts1 and to convert most of them into diphthongs1 as well as to include all diphthongs with them1 as being altogether as simple and elementary4 ,thus he begins with confounding all distinction between diphthongs and simple vowels2 except that which he makes for himself when he admits the radical and the vanish1 the first half of a sound and the last1 to have no difference in quality4 ,this admission is made with respect to the vowels heard in ooze1 eel1 err1 end1 and in1 which he calls1 not diphthongs1 but monothongs4 ,but in the a of ale1 he hears a'-ee2 in that of an1 a'-e2 7that is1 the short a followed by something of the sound of e in err27 in that of art1 ah'-e2 in that of all1 awe'-e2 in the i of isle1 i'-ee2 in the o of old1 o'-oo2 in the proper diphthong ou1 ou'-oo2 in the oy of boy1 he knows not what4 ,after his explanation of these mysteries1 he says1 ,the seven radical sounds with their vanishes1 which have been described1 include1 as far as ,i can perceive1 all the elementary diphthongs of the ,english language4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,but all the sounds of the vowel u1 whether diphthongal or simple1 are excluded from his list1 unless he means to represent one of them by the e in err2 and the complex vowel sound heard in voice and boy1 is confessedly omitted on account of a doubt whether it consists of two sounds or of three6 ,the elements which he enumerates are thirty-five2 but if oi is not a triphthong1 they are to be thirty-six4 ,twelve are called ,tonics2 and are heard in the usual sound of the separated ,italics1 in the following words3 ,a-ll1 a-rt1 a-n1 a-le1 ou-r1 i-sle1 o-ld1 ee-l1 oo-ze1 e-rr1 e-nd1 i-n1--,ib41 p4 #ec4 ,fourteen are called ,subtonics2 and are marked by the separated ,italics1 in the following words3 ,b-ow1 d-are1 g-ive1 v-ile1 z-one1 y-e1 w-o1 th-en1 a-z-ure1 si-ng1 l-ove1 m-ay1 n-ot1 r-oe4--,ib41 p4 #ed4 ,nine are called ,atonics2 they are heard in the words1 ,u-p1 ou-t1 ar-k1 i-f1 ye-s1 h-e1 wh-eat1 th-in1 pu-sh4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,my opinion of this scheme of the alphabet the reader will have anticipated4 ,,iv4 ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,letters4 ,in printed books of the ,english language1 the ,roman characters are generally employed2 sometimes1 the ,italic2 and occasionally1 the ,font change3 ,old ,english3 but in handwriting1 ,font change3 ,script letters are used1 the forms of which are peculiarly adapted to the pen4 ,characters of different sorts or sizes should never be needlessly mixed2 because facility of reading1 as well as the beauty of a book1 depends much upon the regularity of its letters4 ,in the ordinary forms of the ,roman letters1 every thick stroke that slants1 slants from the left to the right downwards1 except the middle stroke in ,z2 and every thin stroke that slants1 slants from the left to the right upwards4 ,italics are chiefly used to distinguish emphatic or remarkable words3 in the ,bible1 they show what words were supplied by the translators4 ,in manuscripts1 a single line drawn under a word is meant for ,italics2 a double line1 for small capitals2 a triple line1 for full capitals4 ,in every kind of type or character1 the letters have severally two forms1 by which they are distinguished as capitals and small letters4 ,small letters constitute the body of every work2 and capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction4 ,the titles of books1 and the heads of their principal divisions1 are printed wholly in capitals4 ,showbills1 painted signs1 and short inscriptions1 commonly appear best in full capitals4 ,some of these are so copied in books2 as1 ,i found an altar with this inscription1 ,,to ,,the ,,unknown ,,god4--,acts1 xvii1 #bc4 ,and they set up over his head1 his accusation written1 ,,this ,,is ,,jesus1 ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,jews4--,matt41 xxvii1 #cg4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,capitals4 ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,books4 ,when particular books are mentioned by their names1 the chief words in their titles begin with capitals1 and the other letters are small2 as1 ,pope's ,essay on ,man--the ,book of ,common ,prayer--the ,scriptures of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 #ajd ,,rule ,,ii4--,,first ,,words4 ,the first word of every distinct sentence1 or of any clause separately numbered or paragraphed1 should begin with a capital2 as1 ,rejoice evermore4 ,pray without ceasing4 ,in every thing give thanks3 for this is the will of ,god in ,christ ,jesus concerning you4 ,quench not the ,spirit4 ,despise not prophesyings4 ,prove all things3 hold fast that which is good4--#a ,thess41 v1 #af--ba4 #ad4 ,he has given his assent to their acts of pretended legislation3 #ae4 ,for quartering large bodies of armed troops among us3 #af4 ,for protecting them1 by a mock trial1 from punishment for murders3 #ag4 ,for cutting off our trade with all parts of the world3 #ah4 ,for imposing taxes on us without our consent3 c4 ,declaration of ,american ,independence4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,the ,,deity4 ,all names of the ,deity1 and sometimes their emphatic substitutes1 should begin with capitals2 as1 ,god1 ,jehovah1 the ,almighty1 the ,supreme ,being1 ,divine ,providence1 the ,messiah1 the ,comforter1 the ,father1 the ,son1 the ,holy ,spirit1 the ,lord of ,sabaoth4 ,the hope of my spirit turns trembling to ,thee4--,moore4 ,,rule ,,iv4--,,proper ,,names4 ,proper names1 of every description1 should always begin with capitals2 as1 ,saul of ,tarsus1 ,simon ,peter1 ,judas ,iscariot1 ,england1 ,london1 the ,strand1 the ,thames1 the ,pyrenees1 the ,vatican1 the ,greeks1 the ,argo and the ,argonauts4 ,,rule ,v4--,,of ,,titles4 ,titles of office or honour1 and epithets of distinction1 applied to persons1 begin usually with capitals2 as1 ,his ,majesty ,william the ,fourth1 ,chief ,justice ,marshall1 ,sir ,matthew ,hale1 ,dr4 ,johnson1 the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,chalmers1 ,lewis the ,bold1 ,charles the ,second1 ,james the ,less1 ,st4 ,bartholomew1 ,pliny the ,younger1 ,noah ,webster1 ,jun41 ,esq4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,one ,,capital4 ,those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen1 should be so written1 and have but one capital3 as1 ,eastport1 ,eastville1 ,westborough1 ,westfield1 ,westtown1 ,whitehall1 ,whitechurch1 ,whitehaven1 ,whiteplains1 ,mountmellick1 ,mountpleasant1 ,germantown1 ,germanflats1 ,blackrock1 ,redhook1 ,kinderhook1 ,newfoundland1 ,statenland1 ,newcastle1 ,northcastle1 ,southbridge1 ,fairhaven1 ,dekalb1 ,deruyter1 ,lafayette1 ,macpherson4 ,,rule ,,vii4--,,two ,,capitals4 ,the compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two2 as1 ,the chief mountains of ,ross-shire are ,ben ,chat1 ,benchasker1 ,ben ,golich1 ,ben ,nore1 ,ben ,foskarg1 and ,ben ,wyvis4--,glasgow ,geog41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #caa4 ,write ,ben ,chasker4 ,so1 when the word ,east1 ,west1 ,north1 or ,south1 as part of a name1 denotes relative position1 or when the word ,new distinguishes a place by contrast1 we have generally separate words and two capitals2 as1 ,east ,greenwich1 ,west ,greenwich1 ,north ,bridgewater1 ,south ,bridgewater1 ,new ,jersey1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,,rule ,,viii4--,,compounds4 ,when any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name1 it ought to begin with a capital2 as1 ,the ,united ,states1 the ,argentine ,republic1 the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 the ,blue ,ridge1 the ,little ,pedee1 ,long ,island1 ,jersey ,city1 ,lower ,canada1 ,green ,bay1 ,gretna ,green1 ,land's ,end1 the ,gold ,coast4 ,,rule ,,ix4--,,apposition4 ,when a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other1 it is in general sufficient1 if the proper name begin with a capital1 and the appellative1 with a small letter2 as1 ,the prophet ,elisha1 ,matthew the publican1 the brook ,cherith1 the river ,euphrates1 the ,ohio river1 ,warren county1 ,flatbush village1 ,new ,york city4 ,,rule ,x4--,,personifications4 ,the name of an object personified1 when it conveys an idea strictly individual1 should begin with a capital2 as1 ,upon this1 ,fancy began again to bestir herself4--,addison4 ,come1 gentle ,spring1 ethereal mildness1 come4--,thomson4 ,,rule ,,xi4--,,derivatives4 ,words derived from proper names1 and having direct reference to particular persons1 places1 sects1 or nations1 should begin with capitals2 as1 ,platonic1 ,newtonian1 ,greek1 or ,grecian1 ,romish1 or ,roman1 ,italic1 or ,italian1 ,german1 or ,germanic1 ,swedish1 ,turkish1 ,chinese1 ,genoese1 ,french1 ,dutch1 ,scotch1 ,welsh3 so1 perhaps1 to ,platonize1 ,grecize1 ,romanize1 ,italicize1 ,latinize1 or ,frenchify4 ,,rule ,,xii4--,,of ,i ,,and ,o4 ,the words ,i and ,o should always be capitals2 as1 ,praise the ,lord1 ,o ,jerusalem2 praise thy ,god1 ,o ,zion4--,psalm cxlvii4 ,o wretched man that ,i am6--,for that which ,i do1 ,i allow not3 for what ,i would1 that do ,i not2 but what ,i hate1 that do ,i4--,rom41 vii1 #bd and #ae4 ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,of ,,poetry4 ,every line in poetry1 except what is regarded as making but one verse with the line preceding1 should begin with a capital2 as1 ,our sons their fathers' failing language see1 ,and such as ,chaucer is1 shall ,dryden be4--,pope4 ,of the exception1 some editions of the ,psalms in ,metre are full of examples2 as1 ,happy the man whose tender care relieves the poor distress'd6 ,when troubles compass him around1 the ,lord shall give him rest4 ,psalms with ,com4 ,prayer1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahai1 ,ps4 xli4 ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,of ,,examples4 ,the first word of a full example1 of a distinct speech1 or of a direct quotation1 should begin with a capital2 as1 ,remember this maxim3 ',know thyself4'--,virgil says1 ',labour conquers all things4'--,jesus answered them1 ,is it not written in your law1 ,i said1 ,ye are gods8--,john1 x1 #cd4 ,thou knowest the commandments1 ,do not commit adultery1 ,do not kill1 ,do not steal1 ,do not bear false witness1 ,honour thy father and thy mother4--,luke1 xviii1 #bj4 ,,rule ,,xv4--,,chief ,,words4 ,other words of particular importance1 and such as denote the principal subjects treated of1 may be distinguished by capitals2 and names subscribed frequently have capitals throughout3 as1 ,in its application to the ,executive1 with reference to the ,legislative branch of the ,government1 the same rule of action should make the ,president ever anxious to avoid the exercise of any discretionary authority which can be regulated by ,congress4--,,andrew ,,jackson1 #ahce4 ,,rule ,,xvi4--,,needless ,,capitals4 ,capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use3 a century ago books were disfigured by their frequency2 as1 ,many a ,noble ,genius is lost for want of ,education4 ,which wou'd then be ,much ,more ,liberal4 ,as it was when the ,church ,enjoy'd her ,possessions4 ,and ,learning was1 in the ,dark ,ages1 ,preserv'd almost only among the ,clergy4--,,charles ,,leslie1 #agjj2 ,divine ,right of ,tythes1 p4 #bbh4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the letters of the alphabet1 read by their names1 are equivalent to words4 ,they are a sort of universal signs1 by which we may mark and particularize objects of any sort1 named or nameless2 as1 ,to say1 therefore1 that while ,a and ,b are both quadrangular1 ,a is more or less quadrangular than ,b1 is absurd4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ej4 ,hence they are used in the sciences as symbols of an infinite variety of things or ideas1 being construed both substantively and adjectively2 as1 ,in ascending from the note ,c to ,d1 the interval is equal to an inch2 and from ,d to ,e1 the same4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #bic4 ,we have only to imagine the ,g clef placed below it4--,ib4 ,any of their forms may be used for such purposes1 but the custom of each science determines our choice4 ,thus ,algebra employs small ,italics2 ,music1 ,roman capitals2 ,geometry1 for the most part1 the same2 ,astronomy1 ,greek characters2 and ,grammar1 in some part or other1 every sort4 ,examples3 ,then comes answer like an ,,abc book4--,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #ig4 ,then comes question like an a1 b1 c1 book4--,shakspeare4 ,see ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 in ,johnson's quarto ,dict4 ,better3--like an ,a-,bee-,cee book4 ,for ,a1 his magic pen evokes an ,o1 ,and turns the tide of ,europe on the foe4--,young4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,a lavish use of capitals defeats the very purpose for which the letters were distinguished in rank2 and carelessness in respect to the rules which govern them1 may sometimes misrepresent the writer's meaning4 ,on many occasions1 however1 their use or disuse is arbitrary1 and must be left to the judgement and taste of authors and printers4 ,instances of this kind will1 for the most part1 concern chief words1 and come under the fifteenth rule above4 ,in this grammar1 the number of rules is increased2 but the foregoing are still perhaps too few to establish an accurate uniformity4 ,they will however tend to this desirable result2 and if doubts arise in their application1 the difficulties will be in particular examples only1 and not in the general principles of the rules4 ,for instance3 ,in #a ,chron41 xxix1 #ajth1 some of our ,bibles say1 ,blessed be thou1 ,,lord ,god of ,israel our father1 for ever and ever4 ,others say1 ,blessed be thou1 ,,lord ,god of ,israel1 our ,father1 for ever and ever4 ,and others1 ,blessed be thou1 ,,lord ,god of ,israel our ,father1 for ever and ever4 ,the last is wrong1 either in the capital ,f1 or for lack of a comma after ,israel4 ,the others differ in meaning2 because they construe the word father1 or ,father1 differently4 ,which is right ,i know not4 ,the first agrees with the ,latin ,vulgate1 and the second1 with the ,greek text of the ,septuagint2 which two famous versions here disagree1 without ambiguity in either4#aje ,,obs4 #c4--,the innumerable discrepancies in respect to capitals1 which1 to a greater or less extent1 disgrace the very best editions of our most popular books1 are a sufficient evidence of the want of better directions on this point4 ,in amending the rules for this purpose1 ,i have not been able entirely to satisfy myself2 and therefore must needs fail to satisfy the very critical reader4 ,but the public shall have the best instructions ,i can give4 ,on ,rule #ast1 concerning ,books1 it may be observed1 that when particular books or writings are mentioned by other terms than their real titles1 the principle of the rule does not apply4 ,thus1 one may call ,paradise ,lost1 ,milton's great poem2 or the ,diversions of ,purley1 the etymological investigations of ,horne ,tooke4 ,so it is written in the ,bible1 ,and there was delivered unto him the book of the prophet ,esaias4--,luke1 iv1 #ag4 ,because the name of ,esaias1 or ,isaiah1 seems to be the only proper title of his book4 ,,obs4 #d4--,on ,rule #b;d1 concerning ,first ,words1 it may be observed1 that the using of other points than the period1 to separate sentences that are totally distinct in sense1 as is sometimes practised in quoting1 is no reason for the omission of capitals at the beginning of such sentences2 but1 rather1 an obvious reason for their use4 ,our grammarians frequently manufacture a parcel of puerile examples1 and1 with the formality of apparent quotation1 throw them together in the following manner3 ,he is above disguise2 we serve under a good master2 he rules over a willing people2 we should do nothing beneath our character4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,these sentences1 and all others so related1 should1 unquestionably1 begin with capitals4 ,of themselves1 they are distinct enough to be separated by the period and a dash4 ,with examples of one's own making1 the quotation points may be used or not1 as the writer pleases2 but not on their insertion or omission1 nor even on the quality of the separating point1 depends in all cases the propriety or impropriety of using initial capitals4 ,for example3 ,the ,future ,tense is the form of the verb which denotes future time2 as1 ,john will come1 you shall go1 they will learn1 the sun will rise to-morrow1 he will return next week4--,frazee's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #ch2 ,old ,edition1 #ce4 ,to say nothing of the punctuation here used1 it is certain that the initial words1 you1 they1 the1 and he1 should have commenced with capitals4 ,,obs4 #e4--,on ,rule #c;d1 concerning ,names of ,deity1 it may be observed1 that the words ,lord and ,god take the nature of proper names1 only when they are used in reference to the ,eternal ,divinity4 ,the former1 as a title of honour to men1 is usually written with a capital2 but1 as a common appellative1 with a small letter4 ,the latter1 when used with reference to any fabulous deity1 or when made plural to speak of many1 should seldom1 if ever1 begin with a capital2 for we do not write with a capital any common name which we do not mean to honour3 as1 ,though there be that are called gods1 whether in heaven or in earth--as there be gods many1 and lords many4--#a ,cor41 viii1 #e4 ,but a diversity of design or conception in respect to this kind of distinction1 has produced great diversity concerning capitals1 not only in original writings1 but also in reprints and quotations1 not excepting even the sacred books4 ,example3 ,the ,lord is a great ,god1 and a great ,king above all ,gods4--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #hh4 ,perhaps the writer here exalts the inferior beings called gods1 that he may honour the one true ,god the more2 but the ,bible1 in four editions to which ,i have turned1 gives the word gods no capital4 ,see ,psalms1 xcv1 #c4 ,the word ,heaven put for ,god1 begins with a capital2 but when taken literally1 it commonly begins with a small letter4 ,several nouns occasionally connected with names of the ,deity1 are written with a very puzzling diversity3 as1 ,the ,lord of ,sabaoth2--,the ,lord ,god of hosts2--,the ,god of armies2--,the ,father of goodness2--,the ,giver of all good2--,the ,lord1 the righteous ,judge4 ,all these1 and many more like them1 are found sometimes with a capital1 and sometimes without4 ,sabaoth1 being a foreign word1 and used only in this particular connexion1 usually takes a capital2 but the equivalent ,english words do not seem to require it4 ,for ,judge1 in the last example1 ,i would use a capital2 for good and goodness1 in the preceding ones1 the small letter3 the one is an eminent name1 the others are mere attributes4 ,alger writes1 the ,son of ,man1 with two capitals2 others1 perhaps more properly1 the ,son of man1 with one--wherever that phrase occurs in the ,new ,testament4 ,but1 in some editions1 it has no capital at all4 ,,obs4 #f4--,on ,rule #dth1 concerning ,proper ,names1 it may be observed1 that the application of this principle supposes the learner to be able to distinguish between proper names and common appellatives4 ,of the difference between these two classes of words1 almost every child that can speak1 must have formed some idea4 ,i once noticed that a very little boy1 who knew no better than to call a pigeon a turkey because the creature had feathers1 was sufficiently master of this distinction1 to call many individuals by their several names1 and to apply the common words1 man1 woman1 boy1 girl1 c41 with that generality which belongs to them4 ,there is1 therefore1 some very plain ground for this rule4 ,but not all is plain1 and ,i will not veil the cause of embarrassment4 ,it is only an act of imposture1 to pretend that grammar is easy1 in stead of making it so4 ,innumerable instances occur1 in which the following assertion is by no means true3 ,the distinction between a common and a proper noun is very obvious4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p #cb4 ,nor do the remarks of this author1 or those of any other that ,i am acquainted with1 remove any part of the difficulty4 ,we are told by this gentleman1 7in language incorrigibly bad17 that1 ,nouns which denote the genus1 species1 or variety of beings or things1 are always common2 as1 tree1 the genus2 oak1 ash1 chestnut1 poplar1 different species2 and red oak1 white oak1 black oak1 varieties4--,ib41 p4 #cb4 ,now1 as it requires but one noun to denote either a genus or a species1 ,i know not how to conceive of those nouns which denote the genus of things1 except as of other confusion and nonsense2 and1 as for the three varieties of oak1 there are surely no nouns here to denote them1 unless he will have red1 white1 and black to be nouns4 ,but what shall we say of--the ,red sea1 the ,white sea1 the ,black sea2 or1 with two capitals1 ,red ,sea1 ,white ,sea1 ,black ,sea1 and a thousand other similar terms1 which are neither proper names unless they are written with capitals1 nor written with capitals unless they are first judged to be proper names8 ,the simple phrase1 the united states1 has nothing of the nature of a proper name2 but what is the character of the term1 when written with two capitals1 the ,united ,states8 ,if we contend that it is not then a proper name1 we make our country anonymous4 ,and what shall we say to those grammarians who contend1 that ,heaven1 ,hell1 ,earth1 ,sun1 and ,moon1 are proper names2 and that1 as such1 they should be written with capitals8 ,see ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #chj4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,it would seem that most1 if not all1 proper names had originally some common signification1 and that very many of our ordinary words and phrases have been converted into proper names1 merely by being applied to particular persons1 places1 or objects1 and receiving the distinction of capitals4 ,how many of the oceans1 seas1 lakes1 capes1 islands1 mountains1 states1 counties1 streets1 institutions1 buildings1 and other things1 which we constantly particularize1 have no other proper names than such as are thus formed1 and such as are still perhaps1 in many instances1 essentially appellative6 ,the difficulties respecting these will be further noticed below4 ,a proper noun is the name of some particular individual1 group1 or people2 as1 ,adam1 ,boston1 the ,hudson1 the ,azores1 the ,andes1 the ,romans1 the ,jews1 the ,jesuits1 the ,cherokees4 ,this is as good a definition as ,i can give of a proper noun or name4 ,thus we commonly distinguish the names of particular persons1 places1 nations1 tribes1 or sects1 with capitals4 ,yet we name the sun1 the moon1 the equator1 and many other particular objects1 without a capital2 for the word the may give a particular meaning to a common noun1 without converting it into a proper name3 but if we say ,sol1 for the sun1 or ,luna1 for the moon1 we write it with a capital4 ,with some apparent inconsistency1 we commonly write the word ,gentiles with a capital1 but pagans1 heathens1 and negroes1 without3 thus custom has marked these names with degradation4 ,the names of the days of the week1 and those of the months1 however expressed1 appear to me to partake of the nature of proper names1 and to require capitals3 as1 ,sunday1 ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 ,thursday1 ,friday1 ,saturday2 or1 as the ,friends denominate them1 ,firstday1 ,secondday1 ,thirdday1 ,fourthday1 ,fifthday1 ,sixthday1 ,seventhday4 ,so1 if they will not use ,january1 ,february1 c41 they should write as proper names their ,firstmonth1 ,secondmonth1 c4 ,the ,hebrew names for the months1 were also proper nouns3 to wit1 ,abib1 ,zif1 ,sivan1 ,thamuz1 ,ab1 ,elul1 ,tisri1 ,marchesvan1 ,chisleu1 ,tebeth1 ,shebat1 ,adar2 the year1 with the ancient ,jews1 beginning1 as ours once did1 in ,march4 ,,obs4 #h4--,on ,rule #eth1 concerning ,titles of ,honour1 it may be observed1 that names of office or rank1 however high1 do not require capitals merely as such2 for1 when we use them alone in their ordinary sense1 or simply place them in apposition with proper names1 without intending any particular honour1 we begin them with a small letter3 as1 the emperor ,augustus2--our mighty sovereign1 ,abbas ,carascan2--,david the king2--,tidal king of nations2--,bonner1 bishop of ,london2--,the sons of ,eliphaz1 the first-born you of ,esau2 duke ,teman1 duke ,omar1 duke ,zepho1 duke ,kenaz1 duke ,korah1 duke ,gatam1 and duke ,amalek4--,gen41 xxxvi1 #ae4 ,so1 sometimes1 in addresses in which even the greatest respect is intended to be shown3 as1 ,o sir1 we came indeed down at the first time to buy food4--,gen41 xliii1 #bj4 ,o my lord1 let thy servant1 ,i pray thee1 speak a word in my lord's ears4--,gen41 xliv1 #ah4 ,the ,bible1 which makes small account of worldly honours1 seldom uses capitals under this rule2 but1 in some editions1 we find ,nehemiah the ,tirshatha1 and ,herod the ,tetrarch1 each with a needless capital4 ,murray1 in whose illustrations the word king occurs early one hundred times1 seldom honours his ,majesty with a capital2 and1 what is more1 in all this mawkish mentioning of royalty1 nothing is said of it that is worth knowing4 ,examples3 ,the king and the queen had put on their robes4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,the king1 with his life-guard1 has just passed through the village4--,ib41 #aej4 ,the king of ,great ,britain's dominions4--,ib41 #de4 ,on a sudden appeared the king4--,ib41 #adf4 ,long live the ,king6--,ib41 #adf4 ,on which side soever the king cast his eyes4--,ib41 #aef4 ,it is the king of ,great ,britain's4--,ib41 #agf4 ,he desired to be their king4--,ib41 #aha4 ,they desired him to be their king4--,ib41 #aha4 ,he caused himself to be proclaimed king4--,ib41 #ahb4 ,these examples1 and thousands more as simple and worthless1 are among the pretended quotations by which this excellent man1 thought to promote the cause of virtue1 as well as of learning6 ,,obs4 #i4--,on ,rule #fth1 concerning ,one ,capital for ,compounds1 ,i would observe1 that perhaps there is nothing more puzzling in grammar1 than to find out1 amidst all the diversity of random writing1 and wild guess-work in printing1 the true way in which the compound names of places should be written4 ,for example3 ,what in ,greek was ho ,areios ,pagos1 the ,martial ,hill1 occurs twice in the ,new ,testament3 once1 in the accusative case1 ton ,areion ,pagan1 which is rendered ,areopagus2 and once1 in the genitive1 tou ,areiou ,pagou1 which1 in different copies of the ,english ,bible is made ,mars' ,hill1 ,mars' hill1 ,mars'-hill1 ,marshill1 ,mars ,hill1 and perhaps ,mars hill4 ,but if ,mars must needs be put in the possessive case1 7which ,i doubt17 they are all wrong3 for then it should be ,mars's ,hill2 as the name ,campus ,martins is rendered ,mars's ,field1 in ,collier's ,life of ,marcus ,antoninus4 ,we often use nouns adjectively2 and ,areios is an adjective3 ,i would therefore write this name ,mars ,hill1 as we write ,bunker ,hill4 ,again3 ,whitehaven and ,fairhaven are commonly written with single capitals2 but1 of six or seven towns called ,newhaven or ,new ,haven1 some have the name in one word and some in two4 ,haven means a harbour1 and the words1 ,new ,haven1 written separately1 would naturally be understood of a harbour3 the close compound is obviously more suitable for the name of a city or town4 ,in ,england1 compounds of this kind are more used than in ,america2 and in both countries the tendency of common usage seems to be1 to contract and consolidate such terms4 ,hence the ,british counties are almost all named by compounds ending with the word shire2 as1 ,nottinghamshire1 ,derbyshire1 ,staffordshire1 ,leicestershire1 ,northamptonshire1 ,warwickshire1 ,worcestershire1 c4 ,but the best books we have1 are full of discrepancies and errors in respect to names1 whether foreign or domestic2 as1 ,ulswater is somewhat smaller4 ,the handsomest is ,derwentwater4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bab4 ,ulswater1 a lake of ,england1 c4 ,derwent-,water1 a lake in ,cumberland1 c4--,univ4 ,gazetteer1 ,ulleswater1 lake1 ,eng4 situated partly in ,westmoreland1 c4--,worcester's ,gaz4 ,derwent ,water1 lake1 ,eng4 in ,cumberland4--,ibid4 ,these words1 ,i suppose1 should be written ,ullswater and ,derwentwater4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,an affix1 or termination1 differs from a distinct word2 and is commonly understood otherwise1 though it may consist of the same letters and have the same sound4 ,thus1 if ,i were to write ,stow ,bridge1 it would be understood of a bridge2 if ,stowbridge1 of a town3 or the latter might even be the name of a family4 ,so ,belleisle is the proper name of a strait2 and ,belle ,isle of several different islands in ,france and ,america4 ,upon this plain distinction1 and the manifest inconvenience of any violation of so clear an analogy of the language1 depends the propriety of most of the corrections which ,i shall offer under ,rule #fth4 ,but if the inhabitants of any place choose to call their town a creek1 a river1 a harbour1 or a bridge1 and to think it officious in other men to pretend to know better1 they may do as they please4 ,if between them and their correctors there lie a mutual charge of misnomer1 it is for the literary world to determine who is right4 ,important names are sometimes acquired by mere accident4 ,those which are totally inappropriate1 no reasonable design can have bestowed4 ,thus a fancied resemblance between the island of ,aquidneck1 in ,narraganset ,bay1 and that of ,rhodes1 in the gean ,sea1 has at length given to a state1 or republic1 which lies chiefly on the main land1 the absurd name of ,rhode ,island2 so that now1 to distinguish ,aquidneck itself1 geographers resort to the strange phrase1 the ,island of ,rhode ,island4--,balbi4 ,the official title of this little republic1 is1 the ,state of ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations4 ,but this name is not only too long for popular use1 but it is doubtful in its construction and meaning4 ,it is capable of being understood in four different ways4 #a4 ,a stranger to the fact1 would not learn from this phrase1 that the ,providence ,plantations are included in the ,state of ,rhode ,island1 but would naturally infer the contrary4 #b4 ,the phrase1 ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations1 may be supposed to mean ,rhode ,island ,plantations and ,providence ,plantations4 #c4 ,it may be understood to mean ,rhode ,island and ,providence i4e41 two ,plantations4 #d4 ,it may be taken for ,rhode ,island i4e41 as an island1 and the ,providence ,plantations4 ,which1 now1 of all these did ,charles the ,second mean1 when he gave the colony this name1 with his charter1 in #affc8 ,it happened that he meant the last2 but ,i doubt whether any man in the state1 except perhaps some learned lawyer1 can parse the phrase1 with any certainty of its true construction and meaning4 ,this old title can never be used1 except in law4 ,to write the popular name ,rhodeisland1 as ,dr4 ,webster has it in his ,american ,spelling-,book1 p4 #aba1 would be some improvement upon it2 but to make it ,rhodeland1 or simply ,rhode1 would be much more appropriate4 ,as for ,rhode ,island1 it ought to mean nothing but the island2 and it is1 in fact1 an abuse of language to apply it otherwise4 ,in one of his parsing lessons1 ,sanborn gives us for good ,english the following tautology3 ,rhode ,island derived its name from the island of ,rhode ,island4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,think of that sentence6 ,,obs4 #aa4--,on ,rules #gth and #hth1 concerning ,two ,capitals for ,compounds1 ,i would observe1 with a general reference to those compound terms which designate particular places or things1 that it is often no easy matter to determine1 either from custom or from analogy1 whether such common words as may happen to be embraced in them1 are to be accounted parts of compound proper names and written with capitals1 or to be regarded as appellatives1 requiring small letters according to ,rule #ith4 ,again the question may be1 whether they ought not to be joined to the foregoing word1 according to ,rule #fth4 ,let the numerous examples under these four rules be duly considered3 for usage1 in respect to each of them1 is diverse2 so much so1 that we not unfrequently find it contradictory1 in the very same page1 paragraph1 or even sentence4 ,perhaps we may reach some principles of uniformity and consistency1 by observing the several different kinds of phrases thus used4 #a4 ,we often add an adjective to an old proper name to make a new one1 or to serve the purpose of distinction3 as1 ,now ,york1 ,new ,orleans1 ,new ,england1 ,new ,bedford2 ,north ,america1 ,south ,america2 ,upper ,canada1 ,lower ,canada2 ,great ,pedee1 ,little ,pedee2 ,east ,cambridge1 ,west ,cambridge2 ,troy1 ,west ,troy4 ,all names of this class require two capitals3 except a few which are joined together2 as ,northampton1 which is sometimes more analogically written ,north ,hampton4 #b4 ,we often use the possessive case with some common noun after it2 as1 ,behring's ,straits1 ,baffin's ,bay1 ,cook's ,inlet1 ,van ,diemen's ,land1 ,martha's ,vineyard1 ,sacket's ,harbour1 ,glenn's ,falls4 ,names of this class generally have more than one capital2 and perhaps all of them should be written so1 except such as coalesce2 as1 ,gravesend1 ,moorestown1 the ,crowsnest4 #c4 ,we sometimes use two common nouns with of between them2 as1 the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 the ,isle of ,man1 the ,isles of ,shoals1 the ,lake of the ,woods1 the ,mountains of the ,moon4 ,such nouns are usually written with more than one capital4 ,i would therefore write the ,mount of ,olives in this manner1 though it is not commonly found so in the ,bible4 #d4 ,we often use an adjective and a common noun2 as1 the ,yellow sea1 the ,indian ocean1 the ,white hills1 ,crooked lake1 the ,red river2 or1 with two capitals1 the ,yellow ,sea1 the ,indian ,ocean1 the ,white ,hills1 ,crooked ,lake1 the ,red ,river4 ,in this class of names the adjective is the distinctive word1 and always has a capital2 respecting the other term1 usage is divided1 but seems rather to favour two capitals4 #e4 ,we frequently put an appellative1 or common noun1 before or after a proper name2 as1 ,new ,york city1 ,washington street1 ,plymouth county1 ,greenwich village4 ,the ,carondelet canal extends from the city of ,new ,orleans to the bayou ,st4 ,john1 connecting lake ,pontchartrain with the ,mississippi river4--,balbi's ,geog4 ,this is apposition4 ,in phrases of this kind1 the common noun often has a capital1 but it seldom absolutely requires it2 and in general a small letter is more correct1 except in some few instances in which the common noun is regarded as a permanent part of the name2 as in ,washington ,city1 ,jersey ,city4 ,the words ,mount1 ,cape1 ,lake1 and ,bay1 are now generally written with capitals when connected with their proper names2 as1 ,mount ,hope1 ,cape ,cod1 ,lake ,erie1 ,casco ,bay4 ,but they are not always so written1 even in modern books2 and in the ,bible we read of mount ,horeb1 mount ,sinai1 mount ,zion1 mount ,olivet1 and many others1 always with a single capital4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,in modern compound names1 the hyphen is now less frequently used than it was a few years ago4 ,they seldom1 if ever1 need it1 unless they are employed as adjectives2 and then there is a manifest propriety in inserting it4 ,thus the phrase1 the ,new ,london ,bridge1 can be understood only of a new bridge in ,london2 and if we intend by it a bridge in ,new ,london1 we must say1 the ,new-,london ,bridge4 ,so the ,new ,york ,directory is not properly a directory for ,new ,york1 but a new directory for ,york4 ,i have seen several books with titles which1 for this reason1 were evidently erroneous4 ,with respect to the ancient ,scripture names1 of this class1 we find1 in different editions of the ,bible1 as well as in other books1 many discrepancies4 ,the reader may see a very fair specimen of them1 by comparing together the last two vocabularies of ,walker's ,key4 ,he will there meet with an abundance of examples like these3 ,uz'zen ,shrah1 ,uzzen-shrah2 ,talitha ,cmi1 ,talithacmi2 ,nthan ,mlech1 ,nathan'-melech2 ,a'bel ,mehlath1 ,abel-mehlah2 ,hzel ,elpni1 ,hazelepni2 ,az'noth ,tbor1 ,asnoth-tbor2 ,bal ,ham'on1 ,baal-hmon2 ,hmon ,gog1 ,ham'ongog2 ,bal ,zbub1 ,bal'zebub2 ,shthar ,boz'ni1 ,shether-boz'ni2 ,merdach ,bal'adan1 ,merodach-bal'adan4 ,all these glaring inconsistencies1 and many more1 has ,dr4 ,webster restereotyped from ,walker1 in his octavo ,dictionary6 ,i see no more need of the hyphen in such names1 than in those of modern times4 ,they ought1 in some instances1 to be joined together without it2 and1 in others1 to be written separately1 with double capitals4 ,but special regard should be had to the ancient text4 ,the phrase1 ,talitha1 cumi1--i4 e41 ,damsel1 arise1--is found in some ,bibles1 ,talitha-cumi2 but this form of it is no more correct than either of those quoted above4 ,see ,mark1 v1 #dast1 in ,griesbach's ,greek ,testament1 where a comma divides this expression4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,on ,rule #ajth1 concerning ,personifications1 it may be well to observe1 that not every noun which is the name of an object personified1 must begin with a capital1 but only such as have a resemblance to proper nouns2 for the word person itself1 or persons1 or any other common noun denoting persons or a person1 demands no such distinction4 ,and proper names of persons are so marked1 not with any reference to personality1 but because they are proper nouns--or names of individuals1 and not names of sorts4 ,thus1 sop's viper and file are both personified1 where it is recorded1 ',what ails thee1 fool8' says the file to the viper2 but the fable gives to these names no capitals1 except in the title of the story4 ,it may here be added1 that1 according to their definitions of personification1 our grammarians and the teachers of rhetoric have hitherto formed no very accurate idea of what constitutes the figure4 ,lindley ,murray says1 ,,personification 1 or ,,prosopopoeia1 is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #cdf2 ,duodecimo1 p4 #baa4 ,now this is all wrong1 doubly wrong1--wrong in relation to what personification is1 and wrong too in its specification of the objects which may be personified4 ,for life and action not being peculiar to persons1 there must be something else than these ascribed1 to form the figure2 and1 surely1 the objects which ,fancy thinks it right to personify1 are not always inanimate4 ,i have elsewhere defined the thing as follows3 ,personification is a figure by which1 in imagination1 we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities4--,inst41 p4 #bcd4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,on ,rule #aath1 concerning ,derivatives1 ,i would observe1 that not only the proper adjectives1 to which this rule more particularly refers1 but also nouns1 and even verbs1 derived from such adjectives1 are frequently1 if not generally1 written with an initial capital4 ,thus1 from ,greece1 we have ,greek1 ,greeks1 ,greekish1 ,greekling1 ,grecise1 ,grecism1 ,grecian1 ,grecians1 ,grecianize4 ,so ,murray1 copying ,blair1 speaks of ,latinised ,english2 and1 again1 of style strictly ,english1 without ,scotticisms or ,gallicisms4--,mur4 ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bie2 ,blair's ,lect41 pp4 #ic and #id4 ,but it is questionable1 how far this principle respecting capitals ought to be carried4 ,the examples in ,dr4 ,johnson's quarto ,dictionary exhibit the words1 gallicisms1 anglicisms1 hebrician1 latinize1 latinized1 judaized1 and christianized1 without capitals2 and the words ,latinisms1 ,grecisms1 ,hebraisms1 and ,frenchified1 under like circumstances1 with them4 ,dr4 ,webster also defines ,romanize1 ,to ,latinize2 to conform to ,romish opinions4 ,in the examples of ,johnson1 there is a manifest inconsistency4 ,now1 with respect to adjectives from proper names1 and also to the nouns formed immediately from such adjectives1 it is clear that they ought to have capitals3 no one will contend that the words ,american and ,americans should be written with a small a4 ,with respect to ,americanism1 ,gallicism1 and other similar words1 there may be some room to doubt4 ,but ,i prefer a capital for these4 ,and1 that we may have a uniform rule to go by1 ,i would not stop here1 but would write ,americanize and ,americanized with a capital also2 for it appears that custom is in favour of thus distinguishing nearly all verbs and participles of this kind1 so long as they retain an obvious reference to their particular origin4 ,but when any such word ceases to be understood as referring directly to the proper name1 it may properly be written without a capital4 ,thus we write jalap from ,jalapa1 hermetical from ,hermes1 hymeneal from ,hymen1 simony1 from ,simon1 philippic from ,philip2 the verbs1 to hector1 to romance1 to japan1 to christen1 to philippize1 to galvanize2 and the adverbs hermetically and jesuitically1 all without a capital3 and perhaps judaize1 christianize1 and their derivatives1 may join this class4 ,dr4 ,webster's octavo ,dictionary mentions the prussic acid and prussian blue1 without a capital2 and so does ,worcester's4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,on ,rule #abth1 concerning ,i and ,o1 it may be observed1 that although many who occasionally write1 are ignorant enough to violate this1 as well as every other rule of grammar1 yet no printer ever commits blunders of this sort4 ,consequently1 the few erroneous examples which will be exhibited for correction under it1 will not be undesigned mistakes4 ,among the errors of books1 we do not find the printing of the words ,i and ,o in small characters2 but the confounding of ,o with the other interjection oh1 is not uncommon even among grammarians4 ,the latter has no concern with this rule1 nor is it equivalent to the former1 as a sign3 ,o is a note of wishing1 earnestness1 and vocative address2 but oh is1 properly1 a sign of sorrow1 pain1 or surprise4 ,in the following example1 therefore1 a line from ,milton is perverted3-- ,oh thou6 that with surpassing glory crowned6 --,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,,obs4 #af4--,on ,rule #acth1 concerning ,poetry1 it may be observed1 that the principle applies only to regular versification1 which is the common form1 if not the distinguishing mark1 of poetical composition4 ,and1 in this1 the practice of beginning every line with a capital is almost universal2 but ,i have seen some books in which it was whimsically disregarded4 ,such poetry as that of ,macpherson's ,ossian1 or such as the common translation of the ,psalms1 is subjected neither to this rule1 nor to the common laws of verse4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,on ,rule #adth1 concerning ,examples1 ,speeches1 and ,quotations1 it may be observed1 that the propriety of beginning these with a capital or otherwise1 depends in some measure upon their form4 ,one may suggest certain words by way of example1 7as see1 saw1 seeing1 seen17 and they will require no capital2 or he may sometimes write one half of a sentence in his own words1 and quote the other with the guillemets and no capital2 but whatsoever is cited as being said with other relations of what is called person1 requires something to distinguish it from the text into which it is woven4 ,thus ,cobbett observes1 that1 ,the ,french1 in their ,bible1 say ,le ,verbe1 where we say ,the ,word4--,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,cobbett says the whole of this2 but he here refers one short phrase to the ,french nation1 and an other to the ,english1 not improperly beginning each with a capital1 and further distinguishing them by ,italics4 ,our common ,bibles make no use of the quotation points1 but rely solely upon capitals and the common points1 to show where any particular speech begins or ends4 ,in some instances1 the insufficiency of these means is greatly felt1 notwithstanding the extraordinary care of the original writers1 in the use of introductory phrases4 ,murray says1 ,when a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma1 a capital is unnecessary3 as1 ',solomon observes1 that pride goes before destruction4'--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bhd4 ,but1 as the word 'that' belongs not to ,solomon1 and the next word begins his assertion1 ,i think we ought to write it1 ,solomon observes1 that1 ',pride goeth before destruction4' ,or1 if we do not mean to quote him literally1 we may omit the guillemets1 and say1 ,solomon observes that pride goes before destruction4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,respecting ,,capitals4 ,fist,the improprieties in the following examples are to be corrected orally by the learner1 according to the formules given1 or according to others framed from them with such slight changes as the several quotations may require4 ,a correct example will occasionally he admitted for the sake of contrast1 or that the learner may see the quoted author's inconsistency4 ,it will also serve as a block over which stupidity may stumble and wake up4 ,but a full explanation of what is intended1 will be afforded in the ,key4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,books4 ,many a reader of the bible knows not who wrote the acts of the apostles4--,g4 ,b4 ,,formule ,,of ,,correction4--,not proper1 because the words1 bible1 acts1 and apostles1 here begin with small letters4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast1 ,when particular books are mentioned by their names1 the chief words in their titles begin with capitals1 and the other letters are small4 ,therefore1 ,bible should begin with a capital ,b2 and ,acts and ,apostles1 each with a large ,a4 ,the sons of ,levi1 the chief of the fathers1 were written in the book of the chronicles4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,neh41 xii1 #bc4 ,are they not written in the book of the acts of ,solomon8--,,scott1 ,,alger3 ,i ,kings1 xi1 #da4 ,are they not written in the book of the ,chronicles of the kings of ,israel8--,,alger3 #a ,kings1 xxii1 #ci4 ,are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of ,judah8--,,scott3 ib41 ver4 #de4 ,which were written in the law of ,moses1 and in the prophets1 and in the psalms4--,,scott3 ,luke1 xxiv1 #dd4 ,the narrative of which may be seen in ,josephus's ,history of the ,jewish wars4--,scott's ,preface1 p4 ix4 ,this history of the ,jewish war was ,josephus's first work1 and published about ,a4 ,d4 #ge4--,note to ,josephus4 ',i have read1' says ,photius1 'the chronology of ,justus of ,tiberias4'--,ib41 ,jos4 ,life4 ,a philosophical grammar1 written by ,james ,harris1 ,esquire4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,the reader is referred to ,stroud's sketch of the slave laws4--,anti-,slavery ,mag41 i1 #be4 ,but ,god has so made the bible that it interprets itself4--,ib41 i1 #gh4 ,in #aefb1 with the help of ,hopkins1 he completed the psalter4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #bhc4 ,gardiner says this of ,sternhold2 of whom the universal biographical dictionary and the ,american encyclopedia affirm1 that he died in #aedi4--;,author4 ,the title of a ,book1 to wit3 ',english ,grammar in familiar lectures1' c4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,we had not1 at that time1 seen ,mr4 ,kirkham's ',grammar in familiar ,lectures4'--,ib41 p4 #c4 ,when you parse1 you may spread the ,compendium before you4--,ib41 p4 #ec4 ,whenever you parse1 you may spread the compendium before you4--,ib41 p4 #aac4 ,adelung was the author of a grammatical and critical dictionary of the ,german language1 and other works4--,univ4 ,biog4 ,dict4 ,alley1 ,william1 author of 'the poor man's library1' and a translation of the ,pentateuch1 died in #aegj4--;,ib4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,first ,,words4 ,depart instantly3 improve your time3 forgive us our sins4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the words improve and forgive begin with small letters4 ,but1 according to ,rule #bnd1 ,the first word of every distinct sentence should begin with a capital4 ,therefore1 ,improve should begin with a capital ,i2 and ,forgive1 with a capital ,f4 ,,examples3 ,gold is corrupting2 the sea is green2 a lion is bold4--,mur4 ,gram41 p4 #agj2 et al4 ,again3 ,it may rain2 he may go or stay2 he would walk2 they should learn4--,ib41 p4 #fd2 et al4 ,again3 ,oh6 ,i have alienated my friend2 alas6 ,i fear for life4--,ib41 p4 #abh2 et al4 ,again3 ,he went from ,london to ,york2 she is above disguise2 they are supported by industry4--,ib41 p4 #bh2 et al4 ,on the foregoing examples1 ,i have a word to say4 they are better than a fair specimen of their kind1 our grammars abound with worse illustrations1 their models of ,english are generally spurious quotations4 few of their proof-texts have any just parentage1 goose-eyes are abundant1 but names scarce4 who fathers the foundlings8 nobody4 then let their merit be nobody's1 and their defects his who could write no better4--,author4 goose-eyes6 says a bright boy2 pray1 what are they8 does this ,mr4 ,author make new words when he pleases8 dead-eyes are in a ship1 they are blocks1 with holes in them1 but what are goose-eyes in grammar8 ,,answer3 goose-eyes are quotation points1 some of the ,germans gave them this name1 making a jest of their form1 the ,french call them guillemets1 from the name of their inventor4--,author4 it is a personal pronoun1 of the third person singular4--,comly's ,gram41 #abth ,ed41 p4 #abf4 ourselves is a personal pronoun1 of the first person plural4--,ib41 #ach4 thee is a personal pronoun1 of the second person singular4--,ib41 #abf4 contentment is a noun common1 of the third person singular4--,ib41 #abh4 were is a neuter verb1 of the indicative mood1 imperfect tense4--,ib41 #abi4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,deity4 ,o thou dispenser of life6 thy mercies are boundless4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #ddi4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word dispenser begins with a small letter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d1 ,all names of the ,deity1 and sometimes their emphatic substitutes1 should begin with capitals4 ,therefore1 ,dispenser should here begin with a capital ,d4 ,shall not the judge of all the earth do right8--,,scott3 ,gen41 xviii1 #be4 ,and the spirit of ,god moved upon the face of the waters4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ccj4 ,it is the gift of him1 who is the great author of good1 and the ,father of mercies4--,ib41 #bhg4 ,this is thy god that brought thee up out of ,egypt4--,,scott1 ,,alger3 ,neh41 ix1 #ah4 ,for the lord is our defence2 and the holy one of ,israel is our king4--,see ,psalm lxxxix1 #ah4 ,by making him the responsible steward of heaven's bounties4--,anti- ,slavery ,mag41 i1 #bi4 ,which the ,lord1 the righteous judge1 shall give me at that day4--,,scott1 ,,friends3 #b ,tim41 iv1 #h4 ,the cries of them 99 99 99 entered into the ears of the ,lord of sabaoth4--,,scott3 ,james1 v1 #d4 ,in ,horeb1 the deity revealed himself to ,moses1 as the eternal ,i am1 the self-existent one2 and1 after the first discouraging interview of his messengers with ,pharaoh1 he renewed his promise to them1 by the awful name1 jehovah--a name till then unknown1 and one which the ,jews always held it a fearful profanation to pronounce4--,author4 ,and god spake unto ,moses1 and said unto him1 ,i am the lord3 and ,i appeared unto ,abraham1 unto ,isaac1 and unto ,jacob1 by the name of god almighty2 but by my name jehovah was ,i not known to them4--,see#ajf ,exod41 vi1 #b4 ,thus saith the lord the king of ,israel1 and his redeemer the lord of hosts2 ,i am the first1 and ,i am the last2 and besides me there is no god4--,see ,isa41 xliv1 #f4 ,his impious race their blasphemy renew'd1 ,and nature's king through nature's optics view'd4--,dryden1 p4 #ij4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iv4--,,of ,,proper ,,names4 ,islamism prescribes fasting during the month ramazan4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #ag4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word ramazan here begins with a small letter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #dth1 ,proper names1 of every description1 should always begin with capitals4 ,therefore1 ,ramazan should begin with a capital ,r4 ,the word is also misspelled3 it should rather be ,ramadan4 ,near mecca1 in arabia1 is jebel nor1 or the mountain of light1 on the top of which the mussulmans erected a mosque1 that they might perform their devotions where1 according to their belief1 mohammed received from the angel gabriel the first chapter of the ,koran4--,author4 ,in the kaaba at mecca1 there is a celebrated block of volcanic basalt1 which the mohammedans venerate as the gift of gabriel to abraham1 but their ancestors once held it to be an image of remphan1 or saturn2 so 'the image which fell down from jupiter1' to share with diana the homage of the ephesians1 was probably nothing more than a meteoric stone4--,id4 ,when the lycaonians1 at lystra1 took paul and barnabas to be gods1 they called the former mercury1 on account of his eloquence1 and the latter jupiter1 for the greater dignity of his appearance4--,id4 ,of the writings of the apostolic fathers of the first century1 but few have come down to us2 yet we have in those of barnabas1 clement of rome1 hermas1 ignatius1 and polycarp1 very certain evidence of the authenticity of the ,new ,testament1 and the ,new ,testament is a voucher for the old4--,id4 ,it is said by tatian1 that theagenes of rhegium1 in the time of cambyses1 stesimbrotus the thracian1 antimachus the colophonian1 herodotus of halicarnassus1 dionysius the olynthian1 ephorus of cum1 philochorus the athenian1 metaclides and chamleon the peripatetics1 and zenodotus1 aristophanes1 callimachus1 erates1 eratosthenes1 aristarchus1 and apollodorus1 the grammarians1 all wrote concerning the poetry1 the birth1 and the age of homer4 ,see ,coleridge's ,introd41 p4 #eg4 ,yet1 for aught that now appears1 the life of homer is as fabulous as that of hercules2 and some have even suspected1 that1 as the son of jupiter and alcmena1 has fathered the deeds of forty other herculeses1 so this unfathered son of critheis1 themisto1 or whatever dame--this melesigenes1 monides1 homer--the blind schoolmaster1 and poet1 of smyrna1 chios1 colophon1 salamis1 rhodes1 argos1 athens1 or whatever place--has1 by the help of lycurgus1 solon1 pisistratus1 and other learned ancients1 been made up of many poets or homers1 and set so far aloft and aloof on old parnassus1 as to become a god in the eyes of all greece1 a wonder in those of all ,christendom4--,author4 ,why so sagacious in your guesses8 ,your effs1 and tees1 and arrs1 and esses8--,swift4 ,,under ,,rule ,v4--,,of ,,titles4 ,the king has conferred on him the title of duke4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aic4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word duke begins with a small letter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #eth1 ,titles of office or honour1 and epithets of distinction1 applied to persons1 begin usually with capitals4 ,therefore1 ,duke should here begin with a capital ,d4 ,at the court of queen ,elizabeth4--,murray's ,gram42 #hvo1 p4 #aeg2 #abmo1 p4 #abf2 ,fisk's1 #aae2 et al4 ,the laws of nature are1 truly1 what lord ,bacon styles his aphorisms1 laws of laws4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bfj4 ,sixtus the fourth was1 if ,i mistake not1 a great collector of books4--,ib41 p4 #beg4 ,who at that time made up the court of king ,charles the second4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cad4 ,in case of his majesty's dying without issue4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aha4 ,king ,charles the first was beheaded in #afdi4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,he can no more impart or 7to use lord ,bacon's word17 transmit convictions4--,kirkham's ,eloc41 p4 #bbj4 ,i reside at lord ,stormont's1 my old patron and benefactor4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agf4 ,we staid a month at lord ,lyttleton's1 the ornament of his country4--,ib41 p4 #agg4 ,whose prerogative is it8 ,it is the king of ,great ,britain's2 ,that is the duke of ,bridgewater's canal2 ,the bishop of ,llandaff's excellent book2 ,the ,lord mayor of ,london's authority4--,ib41 p4 #agf4 ,why call ye me lord1 lord1 and do not the things which ,i say8--,see ,,griesbach3 ,luke1 vi1 #df4 ,and of them he chose twelve1 whom also he named apostles4--,,scott3 ,luke1 vi1 #ac4 ,and forthwith he came to ,jesus1 and said1 ,hail1 master2 and kissed him4--,see the ,greek3 ,matt41 xxvi1 #di4 ,and he said1 ,nay1 father ,abraham3 but if one went unto them from the dead1 they will repent4--,luke1 xvi1 #cj4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vi4--,,of ,,one ,,capital4 ,fall ,river1 a village in ,massachusetts1 population #cdca4--,see ,univ4 ,gaz41 p4 #daf4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the name ,fall ,river is here written in two parts1 and with two capitals4 ,but1 according to ,rule #fth1 ,those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen1 should be so written1 and have but one capital4 ,therefore1 ,fallriver1 as the name of a town1 should be one word1 and retain but one capital4 ,dr4 ,anderson died at ,west ,ham1 in ,essex1 in #ahjh4--;,biog4 ,dict4 ,mad ,river1 the name of two towns in ,clark and ,champaign counties1 ,ohio4--,williams's ,universal ,gazetteer4 ,white ,creek1 town of ,washington county1 ,n4 ,york4--,ib4 ,salt ,creek1 the name of four towns in different parts of ,ohio4--,ib4 ,salt ,lick1 a town of ,fayette county1 ,pennsylvania4--,ib4 ,yellow ,creek1 a town of ,columbiana county1 ,ohio4--,ib4 ,white ,clay1 a hundred of ,new ,castle county1 ,delaware4--,ib4 ,newcastle1 town and halfshire of ,newcastle county1 ,delaware4--,ib4 ,sing-,sing1 a village of ,west ,chester county1 ,new ,york1 situated in the town of ,mount ,pleasant4--,ib4 ,west ,chester1 a county of ,new ,york2 also a town in ,westchester county4--,ib4 ,west ,town1 a village of ,orange county1 ,new ,york4--,ib4 ,white ,water1 a town of ,hamilton county1 ,ohio4--,ib4 ,white ,water ,river1 a considerable stream that rises in ,indiana1 and flowing southeasterly1 unites with the ,miami1 in ,ohio4--,ib4 ,black ,water1 a village of ,hampshire1 in ,england1 and a town in ,ireland4--,ib4 ,black ,water1 the name of seven different rivers in ,england1 ,ireland1 and the ,united ,states4--,ib4 ,red ,hook1 a town of ,dutchess county1 ,new ,york1 on the ,hudson4--,ib4 ,kinderhook1 a town of ,columbia county1 ,new ,york1 on the ,hudson4--,ib4 ,new ,fane1 a town of ,niagara county1 ,new ,york4--,ib4 ,lake ,port1 a town of ,chicot county1 ,arkansas4--,ib4 ,moose ,head ,lake1 the chief source of the ,kennebeck1 in ,maine4--,ib4 ,macdonough1 a county of ,illinois1 population 7in #ahcj7 #b1iei4--;,ib41 p4 #djh4 ,mc ,donough1 a county of ,illinois1 with a courthouse1 at ,macomb4--,ib41 p4 #ahe4 ,half-,moon1 the name of two towns1 in ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania2 also of two bays in the ,west ,indies4--,see ,worcester's ,gaz4 ,le ,boeuf1 a town of ,erie county1 ,pennsylvania1 near a small lake of the same name4--,ib4 ,charles ,city1 ,james ,city1 ,elizabeth ,city1 names of counties in ,virginia1 not cities1 nor towns4--,see ,univ4 ,gaz4 ,the superior qualities of the waters of the ,frome1 here called ,stroud water4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bbc4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vii4--,,two ,,capitals4 ,the ,forth rises on the north side of ,benlomond1 and runs easterly4--,glas4 ,geog4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the name ,benlomond is compounded under one capital1 contrary to the general analogy of other similar terms4 ,but1 according to ,rule #gth1 ,the compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two4 ,therefore1 ,ben ,lomond should be written with two capitals and no hyphen4 ,the red granite of ,ben-nevis is said to be the finest in the world4--,ib41 ii1 #caa4 ,ben-more1 in ,perthshire1 is #c1iae feet above the level of the sea4--,ib41 #cac4 ,the height of ,benclough is #b1dbj feet4--,ib44 ,in ,sutherland and ,caithness1 are ,ben ,ormod1 ,ben ,clibeg1 ,ben ,grin1 ,ben ,hope1 and ,ben ,lugal4--,ib41 #caa4 ,benvracky is #b1gef feet high2 ,ben-ledi1 #c1jji2 and ,benvoirlich1 #c1cjj4--;,ib41 #cac4 ,the river ,dochart gives the name of ,glendochart to the vale through which it runs4--,ib41 #cad4 ,about ten miles from its source1 the ,tay diffuses itself into ,lochdochart4--,geog4 altered4 ,,lakes3--,lochard1 ,loch-,achray1 ,loch-,con1 ,loch-,doine1 ,loch-,katrine1 ,loch-,lomond1 ,loch-,voil4--,scott's ,lady of the ,lake4 ,,glens3--,glenfinlas1 ,glen ,fruin1 ,glen ,luss1 ,ross-dhu1 ,leven-glen1 ,strath-,endrick1 ,strath-,gartney1 ,strath-,ire4--,ib4 ,,mountains3--,ben-an1 ,benharrow1 ,benledi1 ,ben-,lomond1 ,benvoirlich1 ,ben-venue1 and sometimes ,benvenue4--,ib4 ,fenelon died in #agae1 deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the ,low-countries4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #cbb4 ,and ,pharaoh-nechoh made ,eliakim1 the son of ,josiah1 king4--,,scott1 ,,friends3 #b ,kings1 xxiii1 #cd4 ,those who seem so merry and well pleased1 call her ,good ,fortune2 but the others1 who weep and wring their hands1 ,bad-fortune4--,collier's ,tablet of ,cebes4 ,,under ,,rule ,,viii4--,,of ,,compounds4 ,when ,joab returned1 and smote ,edom in the valley of salt4--,,scott3 ,ps4 lx1 title4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the words valley and salt begin with small letters4 ,but1 according to ,rule #hth1 ,when any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name1 it ought to begin with a capital4 ,therefore1 ,valley should here begin with a capital ,v1 and ,salt with a capital ,s4 ,then ,paul stood in the midst of ,mars' hill and said1 c4--,,scott3 ,acts1 xvii1 #bb4 ,and at night he went out1 and abode in the mount that is called the mount of ,olives4--,luke1 xxi1 #cg4 ,abgillus1 son of the king of the ,frisii1 surnamed ,prester ,john1 was in the ,holy land with ,charlemagne4--,univ4 ,biog4 ,dict4 ,cape ,palmas1 in ,africa1 divides the ,grain coast from the ,ivory coast4--,dict4 of ,geog41 p4 #abe4 ,the ,north ,esk1 flowing from ,loch-lee1 falls into the sea three miles north of ,montrose4--,ib41 p4 #bcb4 ,at ,queen's ferry1 the channel of the ,forth is contracted by promontories on both coasts4--,ib41 p4 #bcc4 ,the ,chestnut ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the ,alleghanies1 and ,laurel ridge1 ten miles further west4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #fe4 ,washington ,city1 the metropolis of the ,united ,states of ,america4--,w4's ,univ4 ,gaz41 p4 #chj4 ,washington city1 in the ,district of ,columbia1 population 7in #ahcj7 #ah1hbf4--;,ib41 p4 #djh4 ,the loftiest peak of the white mountains1 in new ,hampshire1 is called mount ,washington4--,author4 ,mount's bay1 in the west of ,england1 lies between the land's end and lizard point4--,id4 ,salamis1 an island of the ,egean ,sea1 off the southern coast of the ancient ,attica4--,dict4 of ,geog4 ,rhodes1 an island of the ,egean sea1 the largest and most easterly of the ,cyclades4--,ib4 ,but he overthrew ,pharaoh and his host in the ,red sea4--,,bruce',s ,,bible3 ,ps4 cxxxvi1 #ae4 ,but they provoked him at the sea1 even at the ,red sea4--,,scott3 ,ps4 cvi1 #g4ajg ,,under ,,rule ,,ix4--,,of ,,apposition4 ,at that time1 ,herod the ,tetrarch heard of the fame of ,jesus4--,,alger3 ,matt41 xiv1 #a4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word ,tetrarch begins with a capital letter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #hth1 ,when a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other1 it is in general sufficient1 if the proper name begin with a capital1 and the appellative1 with a small letter4 ,therefore1 tetrarch should here begin with a small t4 ,who has been more detested than ,judas the ,traitor8--,author4 ,st4 ,luke1 the ,evangelist1 was a physician of ,antioch1 and one of the converts of ,st4 ,paul4--,id4 ,luther1 the ,reformer1 began his bold career by preaching against papal indulgences4--,id4 ,the ,poet ,lydgate was a disciple and admirer of ,chaucer3 he died in #addj4--;,id4 ,the ,grammarian ,varro1 'the most learned of the ,romans1' wrote three books when he was eighty years old4--,id4 ,john ,despauter1 the great ,grammarian of ,flanders1 whose works are still valued1 died in #aebj4--;,id4 ,nero1 the ,emperor and ,tyrant of ,rome1 slew himself to avoid a worse death4--,id4 ,cicero the ,orator1 'the ,father of his ,country1' was assassinated at the age of #fd4--;,id4 ,euripides1 the ,greek ,tragedian1 was born in the ,island of ,salamis1 ,b4 ,c4 #dgf4--;,id4 ,i will say unto ,god my ,rock1 ,why hast thou forgotten me8--,,scott3 ,ps4 xlii1 #i4 ,staten ,island1 an island of ,new ,york1 nine miles below ,new ,york ,city4--,univ4 ,gaz4 ,when the son of ,atreus1 ,king of ,men1 and the noble ,achilles first separated4--,coleridge's ,introd41 p4 #hc4 ,hermes1 his ,patron-,god1 those gifts bestow'd1 ,whose shrine with weaning lambs he wont to load4 --,,pope3 ,odys41 ,b4 #ai4 ,,under ,,rule ,x4--,,of ,,personifications4 ,but wisdom is justified of all her children4--,,scott1 ,,alger3 ,luke1 vii1 #ce4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word wisdom begins with a small letter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ajth1 ,the name of an object personified1 when it conveys an idea strictly individual1 should begin with a capital4 ,therefore1 ,wisdom should here begin with a capital ,w4 ,fortune and the church are generally put in the feminine gender4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #cg4 ,go to your natural religion2 lay before her ,mahomet1 and his disciples4--,blair's ,rhetoric1 p4 #aeg3 see also ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cdg4 ,o death6 where is thy sting8 ,o grave6 where is thy victory8--#a ,cor41 xv1 #ee2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cdh2 ,english ,reader1 #ca2 ,merchant's ,gram41 #bab4 ,ye cannot serve ,god and ,mammon4--,,scott1 ,,friends1 ,,et ,,al43 ,matt41 vi1 #bd4 ,ye cannot serve ,god and mammon4--,,iidem3 ,luke1 xvi1 #ac4 ,this house was built as if suspicion herself had dictated the plan4--,see ,key4 ,poetry distinguishes herself from prose1 by yielding to a musical law4--,see ,key4 ,my beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions3 ',my name is religion4 ,i am the offspring of truth and love1 and the parent of benevolence1 hope1 and joy4 ,that monster1 from whose power ,i have freed you1 is called superstition3 she is the child of discontent1 and her followers are fear and sorrow4'--,see ,key4 ,neither hope nor fear could enter the retreats2 and habit had so absolute a power1 that even conscience1 if religion had employed her in their favour1 would not have been able to force an entrance4--,see ,key4 ,in colleges and halls in ancient days1 ,there dwelt a sage called discipline4--,wayland's ,m4 ,sci41 p4 #cfh4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xi4--,,of ,,derivatives4 ,in ,english1 ,i would have gallicisms avoided4--,,felton3 ,johnson's ,dict4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word gallicisms here begins with a small letter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #aath1 ,words derived from proper names1 and having direct reference to particular persons1 places1 sects1 or nations1 should begin with capitals4 ,therefore1 ,gallicisms should begin with a capital ,g4 ,sallust was born in ,italy1 #he years before the christian era4--,murray's ,seq41 p4 #ceg4 ,dr4 ,doddridge was not only a great man1 but one of the most excellent and useful christians1 and christian ministers4--,ib41 #cai4 ,they corrupt their style with untutored anglicisms4--,,milton3 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,albert of ,stade1 author of a chronicle from the creation to #abhf1 a benedictine of the #acth century4--,universal ,biog4 ,dict4 ,graffio1 a jesuit of ,capua in the #afth century1 author of two volumes on moral subjects4--,ib4 ,they frenchify and italianize words whenever they can4--,see ,key4 ,he who sells a christian1 sells the grace of ,god4--,anti-,slavery ,mag41 p4 #gg4 ,the first persecution against the christians1 under ,nero1 began ,a4 ,d4 #fd4--;,gregory's ,dict4 ,p4 ,rapin1 the jesuit1 uniformly decides in favour of the ,roman writers4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #aga4 ,the ,roman poet and epicurean philosopher ,lucretius has said1 c4--,cohen's ,florida1 p4 #ajg4 ,spell calvinistic1 atticism1 gothicism1 epicurism1 jesuitism1 sabianism1 socinianism1 anglican1 anglicism1 anglicize1 vandalism1 gallicism1 romanize4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 #acj-acc4 ,the large ternate bat4--,webster's ,dict4 w4 ,,rosset2 ,bolles's ,dict41 w4 ,,roset4 ,church-ladders are not always mounted best ,by learned clerks1 and latinists profess'd4--,cowper4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xii4--,,of ,i ,,and ,o4 ,fall back1 fall back2 i have not room3--o6 methinks i see a couple whom i should know4--,lucian1 varied4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word ,i1 which occurs three times1 and the word ,o1 which occurs once1 are here printed in letters of the lower case4#ajh ,but1 according to ,rule #abth1 ,the words ,i and ,o should always be capitals4 ,therefore1 each should be changed to a capital1 as often as it occurs4 ,nay1 i live as i did1 i think as i did1 i love you as i did2 but all these are to no purpose3 the world will not live1 think1 or love1 as i do4--,swift1 varied4 ,whither1 o6 whither shall i fly8 o wretched prince6 o cruel reverse of fortune6 o father ,micipsa6 is this the consequence of thy generosity8--,sallust1 varied4 ,when i was a child1 i spake as a child1 i understood as a child1 i thought as a child2 but when i became a man1 i put away childish things4--#a ,cor41 xiii1 #aa1 varied4 ,and i heard1 but i understood not3 then said i1 o my ,lord1 what shall be the end of these things8--,dan41 xii1 #h1 varied4 ,here am i2 i think i am very good1 and i am quite sure i am very happy1 yet i never wrote a treatise in my life4--,few ,days in ,athens1 varied4 ,singular1 ,vocative1 o master2 ,plural1 ,vocative1 o masters4--,bicknell's ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,i1 i am he2 o father6 rise1 behold ,thy son1 with twenty winters now grown old6--,see ,pope's ,odyssey4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,of ,,poetry4 ,reason's whole pleasure1 all the joys of sense1 lie in three words--health1 peace1 and competence2 but health consists with temperance alone1 and peace1 ,o ,virtue6 peace is all thy own4 ,pope's ,essay on ,man1 a fine ,london ,edition4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the last three lines of this example begin with small letters4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ahth1 ,every line in poetry1 except what is regarded as making but one verse with the preceding line1 should begin with a capital4 ,therefore1 the words1 ,lie1 ,but1 and ,and1 at the commencement of these lines1 should severally begin with the capitals ,l1 ,b1 and ,a4 ,observe the language well in all you write1 and swerve not from it in your loftiest flight4 ,the smoothest verse and the exactest sense displease us1 if ill ,english give offence3 a barbarous phrase no reader can approve2 nor bombast1 noise1 or affectation love4 ,in short1 without pure language1 what you write can never yield us profit or delight4 ,take time for thinking1 never work in haste2 and value not yourself for writing fast4 ,see ,dryden's ,art of ,poetry3--,british ,poets1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #gd4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,of ,,examples4 ,the word rather is very properly used to express a small degree or excess of a quality3 as1 'she is rather profuse in her expenses4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word she begins with a small letter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #adth1 ,the first word of a full example1 of a distinct speech1 or of a direct quotation1 should begin with a capital4 ,therefore1 the word ,she should here begin with a capital ,s4 ,neither imports not either2 that is1 not one nor the other3 as1 'neither of my friends was there4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ef4 ,when we say1 'he is a tall man1' 'this is a fair day1' we make some reference to the ordinary size of men1 and to different weather4--,ib41 p4 #dg4 ,we more readily say1 ',a million of men1' than 'a thousand of men4'--,ib41 p4 #afi4 ,so in the instances1 'two and two are four2' 'the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books4'--,ib41 p4 #abd4 ,the adjective may frequently either precede or follow it the verb3 as1 'the man is happy2' or1 'happy is the man3' ',the interview was delightful2' or1 'delightful was the interview4'--,ib41 p4 #afh4 ,if we say1 'he writes a pen1' 'they ran the river1 'the tower fell the ,greeks1' ',lambeth is ,westminster-abbey1' we speak absurdly2 and1 it is evident1 there is a vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word3 as thus1 ',he writes with a pen2' 'they ran towards the river2' 'the tower fell upon the ,greeks2' ',lambeth is over against ,westminster-abbey4'--,ib41 p4 #aah4 ,let me repeat it2--he only is great1 who has the habits of greatness4--,murray's ,key1 #bda4 ,i say not unto thee1 until seven times2 but1 until seventy times seven4--,see ,matt41 xviii1 #bb4 ,the ,panther smil'd at this2 and when1 said she1 ,were those first councils disallow'd by me8--,dryden1 p4 #ie4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xv4--,,of ,,chief ,,words4 ,the supreme council of the nation is called the divan4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #cfj4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word divan begins with a small letter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #aeth1 ,other words of particular importance1 and such as denote the principal subjects treated of1 may be distinguished by capitals4 ,therefore1 ,divan should here begin with a capital ,d4 ,the ,british parliament is composed of kings1 lords1 and commons4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #ahd4 ,a popular orator in the ,house of ,commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he pleases4--,see ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afi2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cfd4 ,they may all be taken together1 as one name2 as1 the house of commons4-- ,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,intrusted to persons in whom the parliament could confide4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bjb4 ,for ',the ,lords' house1' it were certainly better to say1 ',the house of lords2' and1 in stead of ',the commons' vote1' to say1 ',the votes of the commons4'--,see ib41 p4 #agg1 #dth ,amer4 ,ed42 also ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,the house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aeb2 ,priestley's ,gram41 #ahh4 ,rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes2 figures of words1 and figures of thought4 ,the former1 figures of words1 are commonly called tropes4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #acb4 ,perhaps figures of imagination1 and figures of passion1 might be a more useful distribution4--,ib41 p4 #acc4 ,hitherto we have considered sentences1 under the heads of perspicuity1 unity1 and strength4--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ,the word is then depos'd1 and in this view1 ,you rule the scripture1 not the scripture you4--,dryden1 p4 #ie4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xvi4--,,of ,,needless ,,capitals4 ,be of good cheer3 ,it is ,i2 be not afraid4--,,alger3 ,matt41 xiv1 #bg4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word ,it begins with a capital ,i1 for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason4 ,but1 according to ,rule #afth1 ,capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use4 ,therefore1 'it' should here begin with a small letter1 as ,dr4 ,scott has it4 ,between passion and lying1 there is not a ,finger's breadth4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bdj4 ,can our ,solicitude alter the course1 or unravel the intricacy1 of human events8--,ib41 p4 #bdb4 ,the last edition was carefully compared with the ,original ,m4 ,s4--,ib41 p4 #bci4 ,and the governor asked him1 saying1 ,art thou the ,king of the ,jews8--,,alger3 ,matt41 xxvii1 #aa4 ,let them be turned back for a reward of their shame1 that say1 ,aha1 ,aha6--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,ps41 lxx1 #c4 ,let them be desolate for a reward of their shame1 that say unto me1 ,aha1 aha6--,,ib43 ,ps41 xl1 #ae4 ,what think ye of ,christ8 whose ,son is he8 ,they say unto him1 ,the ,son of ,david4 ,he saith unto them1 ,how then doth ,david in ,spirit call him ,lord8--,,scott3 ,matt41 xxii1 #db1 #dc4 ,among all ,things in the ,universe1 direct your ,worship to the ,greatest2 ,and which is that8 ',t is that ,being which ,manages and ,governs all the ,rest4--,meditations of ,m4 ,aurelius ,antoninus1 p4 #gf4 ,as for ,modesty and ,good ,faith1 ,truth and ,justice1 they have left this wicked ,world and retired to ,heaven3 ,and now what is it that can keep you here8--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,if ,pulse of ,terse1 a ,nation's ,temper shows1 ,in keen ,iambics ,english ,metre flows4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,,promiscuous ,,errors ,,respecting ,,capitals4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,mixed4 ,come1 gentle spring1 ,ethereal mildness1 come4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #daa4 ,,formules4--#a4 ,not proper1 because the word spring begins with a small letter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ajth1 ,the name of an object personified1 when it conveys an idea strictly individual1 should begin with a capital4 ,therefore ,spring should here begin with a capital ,s4 #b4 ,not proper again1 because the word ,ethereal begins with a capital ,e1 for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason4 ,but1 according to ,rule #afth4 ,capitals are improper whenever there is not some special rule or reason for their use4 ,therefore1 ethereal should here begin with a small letter4 ,as1 ,he is the ,cicero of his age2 he is reading the lives of the ,twelve ,csars4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,in the ,history of ,henry the fourth1 by father ,daniel1 we are surprized at not finding him the great man4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,in the history of ,henry the fourth1 by ,father ,daniel1 we are surprised at not finding him the great man4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agb2 ,ingersoll's1 #ahg2 ,fisk's1 #ii4 ,do not those same poor peasants use the ,lever and the ,wedge1 and many other instruments8--,murray1 #bhh2 from ,harris1 #bic4 ,arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of ,liquors2 ,geometry1 for the measuring of ,estates2 ,astronomy1 for the making of ,almanacks2 and ,grammar1 perhaps1 for the drawing of ,bonds and ,conveyances4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bie4 ,the wars of ,flanders1 written in ,latin by ,famianus ,strada1 is a book of some note4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cfd4 ,william is a noun4--why8 was is a verb4--why8 a is an article4--why8 very is an adverb4--why8 c4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,in the beginning was the word1 and that word was with ,god1 and ,god was that word4--,gwilt's ,saxon ,gram41 p4 #di4 ,the greeks are numerous in thessaly1 macedonia1 romelia1 and albania4--,balbi1 varied4 ,he is styled by the ,turks1 ,sultan 7,mighty7 or ,padishah 7lord74--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #cfj4 ,i will ransom them from the power of the grave2 ,i will redeem them from death3 ,o death1 ,i will be thy plagues2#aji ,o grave1 ,i will be thy destruction4--,,scott1 ,,alger1 ,,et ,,al43 ,hosea1 xiii1 #ad4 ,silver and ,gold have ,i none2 but such as ,i have1 give ,i unto thee4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cba4 ,return1 we beseech thee1 ,o ,god of ,hosts1 look down from heaven1 and behold1 and visit this vine4--,ib41 p4 #cdb4 ,in the ,attic ,commonwealth1 it was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public4--,ib41 p4 #caf4 ,they assert that1 in the phrases1 'give me that1' 'this is ,john's1' and 'such were some of you1' the words in italics are pronouns3 but that1 in the following phrases1 they are not pronouns2 'this book is instructive1' 'some boys are ingenious1' 'my health is declining1' 'our hearts are deceitful1' c4--,ib41 p4 #eh4 ,and the coast bends again to the northwest1 as far as ,far ,out head4--,glasgow ,geog41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cjh4 ,dr4 ,webster1 and other makers of spelling-books1 very improperly write sunday1 monday1 tuesday1 wednesday1 thursday1 friday1 saturday1 without capitals4--,see ,webster's ,elementary ,spelling-,book p4 #he4 ,the commander in chief of the ,turkish navy is styled the capitan-pasha4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #cfj4 ,shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the father of spirits1 and live8--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,heb41 xii1 #i4 ,shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the ,father of ,spirits1 and live8--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,heb41 xii1 #i4 ,he was more anxious to attain the character of a ,christian hero4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #cjh4 ,beautiful for situation1 the joy of the whole earth1 is mount ,zion4--,psalms1 xlviii1 #b4 ,the ,lord is my ,helper1 and ,i will not fear what man shall do unto me4--,,scott3 ,heb41 xiii1 #f4 ,make haste to help me1 ,o ,,lord my ,salvation4--,,scott3 ,ps41 xxxviii1 #bb4 ,the ,city1 which ,thou seest1 no other deem ,than great and glorious ,rome1 ,queen of the ,earth4 ,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #di4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed4 ,that range of hills1 known under the general name of mount ,jura4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aaj4 ,he rebuked the ,red sea also1 and it was dried up4--,,scott3 ,ps41 cvi1 #i4 ,jesus went unto the mount of ,olives4--,john1 viii1 #a4 ,milton's book1 in reply to the ,defence of the king1 by ,salmasius1 gained him a thousand pounds from the parliament1 and killed his antagonist with vexation4--,see ,murray's ,sequel1 #cdc4 ,mandeville1 sir ,john1 an ,englishman1 famous for his travels1 born about #acjj1 died in #acgb4--;,biog4 ,dict4 ,ettrick pen1 a mountain in ,selkirkshire1 ,scotland1 height #b1bjj feet4--,glasgow ,geog41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cab4 ,the coast bends from ,dungsbyhead in a northwest direction to the promontory of ,dunnet head4--,ib41 p4 #cjg4 ,gen4 ,gaines ordered a detachment of near #cjj men1 under the command of ,major ,twiggs1 to surround and take an ,indian ,village1 called ,fowl ,town1 about fourteen miles from fort ,scott4--,cohen's ,florida1 p4 #da4 ,and he took the damsel by the hand1 and said unto her1 ,talitha ,cumi4--,,alger3 ,mark1 v1 #d4 ,on religious subjects1 a frequent recurrence of scripture-language is attended with peculiar force4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cah4 ,contemplated with gratitude to their ,author1 the ,giver of all ,good4--,ib41 p4 #bhi4 ,when he1 the ,spirit of ,truth1 is come1 he will guide you into all truth4--,ib41 p4 #aga2 ,fisk1 #ih2 ,ingersoll1 #ahf4 ,see the lecture on verbs1 rule ,,xv4 note #d4--;,fisk's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aag4 ,at the commencement of lecture ,,ii4 ,i informed you that ,etymology treats1 #c;dly1 of derivation4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aga4 ,this ,,viii4 lecture is a very important one4--,ib41 p4 #aac4 ,now read the ,,xi4 and ,,xii4 lectures four or five times over4--,ib41 p4 #aeb4 ,in #ageb1 he was advanced to the bench1 under the title of lord ,kames4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #cca4 ,one of his maxims was1 'know thyself4'--,lempriere's ,dict41 n4 ,chilo4 ,good master1 what good thing shall ,i do1 that ,i may have eternal life8--,see ,matt41 xix1 #af4 ,his best known works1 however1 are 'anecdotes of the earl of ,chatham1' #b vols4 #dto41 #c vols4 #hvo41 and 'biographical1 literary1 and political anecdotes of several of the most eminent persons of the present age2 never before printed1' #c vols4 #hvo4 #agig4--,univ4 ,biog4 ,dict41 n4 ,almon4 ,o gentle sleep1 ,nature's soft nurse1 how have ,i frighted thee8--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,o sleep1 ,o gentle sleep1 ,nature's soft nurse1 c4--,,singer',s ,,shak4 ,sec4 ,part of ,hen4 ,,iv1 ,act iii4 ,sleep1 gentle sleep1 ,nature's soft nurse1 c4--,dodd's ,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #abi4 ,and ,peace1 ,o1 ,virtue6 ,peace is all thy own4--,pope's ,works1 p4 #cgi4 ,and peace1 ,o virtue6 peace is all thy own4--,murray's ,gram41 ii1 #af4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed4 ,fenelon united the characters of a nobleman and a ,christian pastor4 ,his book entitled ',an explication of the ,maxims of the ,saints concerning the interior life1' gave considerable offence to the guardians of orthodoxy4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #cba4 ,when natural religion1 who before was only a spectator1 is introduced as speaking by the centurion's voice4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aeg4 ,you cannot deny1 that the great mover and author of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men1 by the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs1 which have no similitude1 or connexion1 with the things signified4--,berkley's ,minute ,philosopher1 p4 #afi4 ,the name of this letter is double ,u1 its form1 that of a double ,v4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,murray1 in his spelling book1 wrote ',charles-,town' with a ,hyphen and two ,capitals4--,see p4 #aja4 ,he also wrote 'european' without a capital4--,see p4 #hf4 ,they profess themselves to be pharisees1 who are to be heard and not imitated4--,calvin's ,institutes1 ,ded41 p4 #ee4 ,dr4 ,webster wrote both ',newhaven' and ',newyork' with single capitals4--,see his ,american ,spelling-,book1 p4 #aaa4 ,gayhead1 the west point of ,martha's ,vineyard4--,williams's ,univ4 ,gaz4 ,write ,craborchard1 ,eggharbor1 ,longisland1 ,perthamboy1 ,westhampton1 ,littlecompton1 ,newpaltz1 ,crownpoint1 ,fellspoint1 ,sandyhook1 ,portpenn1 ,portroyal4 ,portobello1 and ,portorico4--,webster's ,american ,spelling-,book1 #abg-adj4 ,write the names of the months3 january1 february1 march1 april1 may1 june1 july1 august1 september1 october1 november1 december4--,cobb's ,standard ,spelling-,book1 #ba-dj4 ,write the following names and words properly3 tuesday1 wednesday1 thursday1 friday1 saturday1 saturn2--christ1 christian1 christmas1 christendom1 michaelmas1 indian1 bacchanals2--,easthampton1 omega1 johannes1 aonian1 levitical1 deuteronomy1 european4--,cobb's ,standard ,spelling-,book1 sundry places4 ,eight ,letters in some ,syllables we find1 ,and no more ,syllables in ,words are joined4 ,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,of ,,syllables4 ,a ,syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound2 and is either a word1 as1 a1 an1 ant2 or a part of a word1 as di in dial4 ,in every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds1 or separate impulses of the voice2 as1 gram-ma-ri-an4 ,a word of one syllable is called a monosyllable2 a word of two syllables1 a dissyllable2 a word of three syllables1 a trissyllable2 and a word of four or more syllables1 a polysyllable4 ,every vowel1 except w1 may form a syllable of itself2 but the consonants belong to the vowels or diphthongs2 and without a vowel no syllable can be formed4 ,,diphthongs ,,and ,,triphthongs4 ,a diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable2 as1 ea in beat1 ou in sound4 ,in oe or 1 old or foreign1 the characters often unite4 ,a proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded2 as1 oi in voice1 ow in vow4 ,an improper diphthong is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded2 as1 oa in loaf1 eo in people4 ,a triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable2 as1 eau in beau1 iew in view1 oeu in manoeuvre4 ,a proper triphthong is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded2 as1 uoy in buoy4 ,an improper triphthong is a triphthong in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded2 as1 eau in beauty1 iou in anxious4 ,the diphthongs in ,english are twenty-nine2 embracing all but six of the thirty-five possible combinations of two vowels3 aa1 ae1 ai1 ao1 au1 aw1 ay1--ea1 ee1 ei1 eo1 eu1 ew1 ey1--ia1 ie1 7ii17 io1 7iu1 iw1 iy17--oa1 oe1 oi1 oo1 ou1 ow1 oy1--ua1 ue1 ui1 uo1 7uu1 uw17 uy4 ,ten of these diphthongs1 being variously sounded1 may be either proper or improper2 to wit1 ay1--ie1--oi1 ou1 ow1--ua1 ue1 ui1 uo1 uy4 ,the proper diphthongs appear to be thirteen2 ay1--ia1 ie1 io1--oi1 ou1 ow1 oy1--ua1 ue1 ui1 uo1 uy3 of which combinations1 only three1 ia1 io1 and oy1 are invariably of this class4 ,the improper diphthongs are twenty-six2 aa1 ae1 ai1 ao1 au1 aw1 ay1--ea1 ee1 ei1 eo1 eu1 ew1 ey1--ie1--oa1 oe1 oi1 oo1 ou1 ow1--ua1 ue1 ui1 uo1 uy4 ,the only proper triphthong in ,english is uoy1 as in buoy1 buoyant1 buoyancy2 unless uoi in quoit may be considered a parallel instance4 ,the improper triphthongs are sixteen2 awe1 aye1--eau1 eou1 ewe1 eye1--ieu1 iew1 iou1--oeu1 owe1--uai1 uaw1 uay1 uea1 uee4 ,,syllabication4 ,in dividing words into syllables1 we are to be directed chiefly by the ear2 it may however be proper to observe1 as far as practicable1 the following rules4 ,,rule ,i4--,,consonants4 ,consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance2 as1 ,an-ax-ag'-o-ras1 ap-os-tol'-i-cal4#aaj ,,rule ,,ii4--,,vowels4 ,two vowels1 coming together1 if they make not a diphthong1 must be parted in dividing the syllables2 as1 ,a-cka'-i-a1 ,a-o'-ni-an1 a-e'-ri-al4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,terminations4 ,derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical words to which they have been added2 as1 harm-less1 great-ly1 connect-ed3 thus count-er and coun-ter are different words4 ,,rule ,,iv4--,,prefixes4 ,prefixes1 in general1 form separate syllables2 as1 mis-place1 out-ride1 up-lift3 but if their own primitive meaning be disregarded1 the case may be otherwise2 thus1 re-create1 and rec'-reate1 re-formation1 and ref-ormation1 are words of different import4 ,,rule ,v4--,,compounds4 ,compounds1 when divided1 should be divided into the simple words which compose them2 as1 boat-swain1 foot-hold1 never-the-less4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,lines ,,full4 ,at the end of a line1 a word may be divided1 if necessary2 but a syllable must never be broken4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the doctrine of ,english syllabication is attended with some difficulties2 because its purposes are various1 and its principles1 often contradictory4 ,the old rules1 borrowed chiefly from grammars of other languages1 and still retained in some of our own1 are liable to very strong objections4#aaa ,by aiming to divide on the vowels1 and to force the consonants1 as much as possible1 into the beginning of syllables1 they often pervert or misrepresent our pronunciation4 ,thus ,murray1 in his ,spelling-,book1 has gra-vel1 fi-nish1 me-lon1 bro-ther1 bo-dy1 wi-dow1 pri-son1 a-va-rice1 e-ve-ry1 o-ran-ges1 e-ne-my1 me-di-cine1 re-pre-sent1 re-so-lu-tion1 and a multitude of other words1 divided upon a principle by which the young learner can scarcely fail to be led into error respecting their sounds4 ,this method of division is therefore particularly reprehensible in such books as are designed to teach the true pronunciation of words2 for which reason1 it has been generally abandoned in our modern spelling-books and dictionaries3 the authors of which have severally aimed at some sort of compromise between etymology and pronunciation2 but they disagree so much1 as to the manner of effecting it1 that no two of them will be found alike1 and very few1 if any1 entirely consistent with themselves4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the object of syllabication may be any one of the following four2 #a4 ,to enable a child to read unfamiliar words by spelling them2 #b4 ,to show the derivation or composition of words2 #c4 ,to exhibit the exact pronunciation of words2 #d4 ,to divide words properly1 when it is necessary to break them at the ends of lines4 ,with respect to the first of these objects1 ,walker observes1 ,when a child has made certain advances in reading1 but is ignorant of the sound of many of the longer words1 it may not be improper to lay down the common general rule to him1 that a consonant between two vowels must go to the latter1 and that two consonants coming together must be divided4 ,farther than this it would be absurd to go with a child4--,walker's ,principles1 ,no4 #eci4 ,yet1 as a caution be it recorded1 that1 in #ahcc1 an itinerant lecturer from the ,south1 who made it his business to teach what he calls in his title-page1 ,an ,abridgment of ,walker's ,rules on the ,sounds of the ,letters1--an ,abridgement1 which1 he says in his preface1 will be found to contain1 it is believed1 all the important rules that are established by ,walker1 and to carry his principles farther than he himself has done--befooled the ,legislature of ,massachusetts1 the ,school ,committee and ,common ,council of ,boston1 the professor of elocution at ,harvard ,university1 and many other equally wise men of the east1 into the notion that ,english pronunciation could be conveniently taught to children1 in four or five days1 by means of some three or four hundred rules of which the following is a specimen3 ,,rule #bhb4 ,when a single consonant is preceded by a vowel under the preantepenultimate accent1 and is followed by a vowel that is succeeded by a consonant1 it belongs to the accented vowel4--,mulkey's ,abridgement of ,walker's ,rules1 p4 #cd4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,a grosser specimen of literary quackery1 than is the publication which ,i have just quoted1 can scarcely be found in the world of letters4 ,it censures the principles laid down and illustrated by ,walker1 as so elaborate and so verbose as to be wearisome to the scholar and useless to the child2 and yet declares them to be1 for the most part1 the true rules of pronunciation1 according to the analogy of the language4--,mulkey's ,preface1 p4 #c4 ,it professes to be an abridgement and simplification of those principles1 especially adapted to the wants and capacities of children2 and1 at the same time1 imposes upon the memory of the young learner twenty-nine rules for syllabication1 similar to that which ,i have quoted above2 whereas ,walker himself1 with all his verbosity1 expressly declares it absurd1 to offer more than one or two1 and those of the very simplest character4 ,it is to be observed that the author teaches nothing but the elements of reading2 nothing but the sounds of letters and syllables2 nothing but a few simple fractions of the great science of grammar3 and1 for this purpose1 he would conduct the learner through the following particulars1 and have him remember them all3 #a4 ,fifteen distinctions respecting the classification and organic formation of the letters4 #b4 ,sixty-three rules for the sounds of the vowels1 according to their relative positions4 #c4 ,sixty-four explanations of the different sounds of the diphthongs4 #d4 ,eighty-nine rules for the sounds of the consonants1 according to position4 #e4 ,twenty-three heads1 embracing a hundred and fifty-six principles of accent4 #f4 ,twenty-nine rules for dividing words into syllables4 #g4 ,thirty-three additional principles2 which are thrown together promiscuously1 because he could not class them4 #h4 ,fifty-two pages of irregular ,words1 forming particular exceptions to the foregoing rules4 #i4 ,twenty-eight pages of notes extracted from ,walker's ,dictionary1 and very prettily called ,the ,beauties of ,walker4 ,all this is ,walker simplified for children6 ,,obs4 #d4--,such is a brief sketch of ,mulkey's system of orthopy2 a work in which he claims to have devised what has heretofore been a desideratum--a mode by which children in our common schools may be taught the rules for the pronunciation of their mother tongue4--,preface1 p4 #d4 ,the faults of the book are so exceedingly numerous1 that to point them out1 would be more toil1 than to write an accurate volume of twice the size4 ,and is it possible1 that a system like this could find patronage in the metropolis of ,new ,england1 in that proud centre of arts and sciences1 and in the proudest halls of learning and of legislation8 ,examine the gentleman's credentials1 and take your choice between the adoption of his plan1 as a great improvement in the management of syllables1 and the certain conclusion that great men may be greatly duped respecting them4 ,unless the public has been imposed upon by a worse fraud than mere literary quackery1 the authorities ,i have mentioned did extensively patronize the scheme2 and the ,common ,council of that learned city did order1 ,november #adth1 #ahcc1 ,that the ,school ,committee be and they are hereby authorized to employ ,mr4 ,william ,mulkey to give a course of ,lectures on ,orthopy to the several instructors of the public schools1 and that the sum of five hundred dollars is hereby appropriated for that purpose1 and that the same amount be withdrawn from the reserved fund4--,see ,mulkey's ,circular4 ,,obs4 #e4--,pronunciation is best taught to children by means of a good spelling-book2 a book in which the words are arranged according to their analogies1 and divided according to their proper sounds4 ,vocabularies1 dictionaries1 and glossaries1 may also be serviceable to those who are sufficiently advanced to learn how to use them4 ,with regard to the first of the abovenamed purposes of syllabication1 ,i am almost ready to dissent even from the modest opinion of ,walker himself2 for ignorance can only guess at the pronunciation of words1 till positive instruction comes in to give assurance2 and it may be doubted whether even the simple rule or rules suggested by ,walker would not about as often mislead the young reader as correct him4 ,with regard to the second purpose1 that of showing the derivation or composition of words1 it is plain1 that etymology1 and not pronunciation1 must here govern the division2 and that it should go no further than to separate the constituent parts of each word2 as1 ortho-graphy1 theo-logy4 ,but when we divide for the third purpose1 and intend to show what is the pronunciation of a word1 we must1 if possible1 divide into such syllabic sounds as will exactly recompose the word1 when put together again2 as1 or-thog-ra-phy1 the-ol-o-gy4 ,this being the most common purpose of syllabication1 perhaps it would be well to give it a general preference2 and adopt it whenever we can1 not only in the composing of spelling-books and dictionaries1 but also in the dividing of words at the ends of lines4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,dr4 ,lowth says1 ,the best and easiest rule1 for dividing the syllables in spelling1 is1 to divide them as they are naturally divided in a right pronunciation2 without regard to the derivation of words1 or the possible combination of consonants at the beginning of a syllable4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,and ,walker approves of the principle1 with respect to the third purpose mentioned above3 ,this1 says that celebrated orthopist1 is the method adopted by those who would convey the whole sound1 by giving distinctly every part2 and1 when this is the object of syllabication1 ,dr4 ,lowth's rule is certainly to be followed4--,walker's ,principles1--,no4 #eda4 ,but this rule1 which no one can apply till he has found out the pronunciation1 will not always be practicable where that is known1 and perhaps not always expedient where it is practicable4 ,for example3 the words colonel1 venison1 transition1 propitious1 cannot be so divided as to exhibit their pronunciation2 and1 in such as acid1 magic1 pacify1 legible1 liquidate1 it may not be best to follow the rule1 because there is some reasonable objection to terminating the first syllables of these words with c1 g1 and q1 especially at the end of a line4 ,the rule for terminations may also interfere with this1 called ,lowth's2 as in sizable1 rising1 dronish4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,for the dividing of words into syllables1 ,i have given six rules1 which are perhaps as many as will be useful4 ,they are to be understood as general principles2 and1 as to the exceptions to be made in their application1 or the settling of their conflicting claims to attention1 these may be left to the judgement of each writer4 ,the old principle of dividing by the eye1 and not by the ear1 ,i have rejected2 and1 with it1 all but one of the five rules which the old grammarians gave for the purpose4 ,the divisions of the letters into syllables1 should1 unquestionably1 be the same in written1 as in spoken language2 otherwise the learner is misguided1 and seduced by false representations into injurious errors4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,through the influence of books in which the words are divided according to their sounds1 the pronunciation of the language is daily becoming more and more uniform2 and it may perhaps be reasonably hoped1 that the general adoption of this method of syllabication1 and a proper exposition of the occasional errors of ignorance1 will one day obviate entirely the objection arising from the instability of the principle4 ,for the old grammarians urged1 that the scholar who had learned their rules should strictly conform to them2 and that he should industriously avoid that random ,method of dividing by the ,ear1 which is subject to mere jumble1 as it must be continually fluctuating according to the various ,dialects of different ,countries4--,british ,grammar1 p4 #dg4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the important exercise of oral spelling is often very absurdly conducted4 ,in many of our schools1 it may be observed that the teacher1 in giving out the words to be spelled1 is not always careful to utter them with what he knows to be their true sounds1 but frequently accommodates his pronunciation to the known or supposed ignorance of the scholar2 and the latter is still more frequently allowed to hurry through the process1 without putting the syllables together as he proceeds2 and1 sometimes1 without forming or distinguishing the syllables at all4 ,merely to pronounce a word and then name its letters1 is an exceedingly imperfect mode of spelling2 a mode in which far more is lost in respect to accuracy of speech1 than is gained in respect to time4 ,the syllables should not only be distinctly formed and pronounced1 but pronounced as they are heard in the whole word2 and each should be successively added to the preceding syllables1 till the whole sound is formed by the reunion of all its parts4 ,for example3 divisibility4 ,the scholar should say1 ,dee ,i1 de2 ,vee ,i ,ess1 viz1 de-viz2 ,i1 de-viz-e2 ,bee ,i ,ell1 bil1 de-viz-e-bil2 ,i1 de-viz-e-bil-e2 ,tee ,wy1 te1 de-viz-e-bil-e-te4 ,again3 chicanery4 ,cee ,aitch ,i1 she2 ,cee ,a1 ka1 she-ka2 ,en ,e ,ar1 nur1 she-ka-nur2 ,wy1 she-ka-nur-e4 ,one of the chief advantages of oral spelling1 is its tendency to promote accuracy of pronunciation2 and this end it will reach1 in proportion to the care and skill with which it is conducted4 ,but oral spelling should not be relied on as the sole means of teaching orthography4 ,it will not be found sufficient4 ,the method of giving out words for practical spelling on slates or paper1 or of reading something which is to be written again by the learner1 is much to be commended1 as a means of exercising those scholars who are so far advanced as to write legibly4 ,this is called1 in the schools1 dictation4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,in ,,syllabication4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,consonants4 #a4 ,correct the division of the following words of two syllables3 ci-vil1 co-lour1 co-py1 da-mask1 do-zen1 e-ver1 fea-ther1 ga-ther1 hea-ven1 hea-vy1 ho-ney1 le-mon1 li-nen1 mea-dow1 mo-ney1 ne-ver1 o-live1 o-range1 o-ther1 phea-sant1 plea-sant1 pu-nish1 ra-ther1 rea-dy1 ri-ver1 ro-bin1 scho-lar1 sho-vel1 sto-mach1 ti-mid1 whe-ther4--,murray's ,spelling-,book1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahai1 p4 #dc-ej4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the v in ci-vil1 the l in co-lour1 the p in co-py1 c41 are written with the following vowel1 but spoken with that which precedes4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast1 ,consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance4 ,therefore1 these words should be divided thus3 civ-il1 col-our1 cop-y1 c4 #b4 ,correct the division of the following words of three syllables3 be-ne-fit1 ca-bi-net1 ca-nis-ter1 ca-ta-logue1 cha-rac-ter1 cha-ri-ty1 co-vet-ous1 di-li-gence1 di-mi-ty1 e-le-phant1 e-vi-dent1 e-ver-green1 fri-vo-lous1 ga-ther-ing1 ge-ne-rous1 go-vern-ess1 go-vern-or1 ho-nes-ty1 ka-len-dar1 la-ven-der1 le-ve-ret1 li-be-ral1 me-mo-ry1 mi-nis-ter1 mo-dest-ly1 no-vel-ty1 no-bo-dy1 pa-ra-dise1 po-ver-ty1 pre-sent-ly1 pro-vi-dence1 pro-per-ly1 pri-son-er1 ra-ven-ous1 sa-tis-fy1 se-ve-ral1 se-pa-rate1 tra-vel-ler1 va-ga-bond2--con-si-der1 con-ti-nue1 de-li-ver1 dis-co-ver1 dis-fi-gure1 dis-ho-nest1 dis-tri-bute1 in-ha-bit1 me-cha-nic1 what-e-ver2--re-com-mend1 re-fu-gee1 re-pri-mand4--,murray3 ib41 p4 #fg-hc4 #c4 ,correct the division of the following words of four syllables3 ca-ter-pil-lar1 cha-ri-ta-ble1 di-li-gent-ly1 mi-se-ra-ble1 pro-fit-a-ble1 to-le-ra-ble2--be-ne-vo-lent1 con-si-der-ate1 di-mi-nu-tive1 ex-pe-ri-ment1 ex-tra-va-gant1 in-ha-bi-tant1 no-bi-li-ty1 par-ti-cu-lar1 pros-pe-ri-ty1 ri-di-cu-lous1 sin-ce-ri-ty2--de-mon-stra-tion1 e-du-ca-tion1 e-mu-la-tion1 e-pi-de-mic1 ma-le-fac-tor1 ma-nu-fac-ture1 me-mo-ran-dum1 mo-de-ra-tor1 pa-ra-ly-tic1 pe-ni-ten-tial1 re-sig-na-tion1 sa-tis-fac-tion1 se-mi-co-lon4--,murray3 ib41 p4 #hd-hg4 #d4 ,correct the division of the following words of five syllables3 a-bo-mi-na-ble1 a-po-the-ca-ry1 con-sid-e-ra-ble1 ex-pla-na-to-ry1 pre-pa-ra-to-ry2--a-ca-de-mi-cal1 cu-ri-o-si-ty1 ge-o-gra-phi-cal1 ma-nu-fac-to-ry1 sa-tis-fac-to-ry1 me-ri-to-ri-ous2--cha-rac-te-ris-tic1 e-pi-gram-ma-tic1 ex-pe-ri-ment-al1 po-ly-syl-la-ble1 con-sid-e-ra-tion4 --,murray3 ib41 p4 #hg-hi4 #e4 ,correct the division of the following proper names3 ,he-len1 ,leo-nard1 ,phi-lip1 ,ro-bert1 ,ho-race1 ,tho-mas2--,ca-ro-line1 ,ca-tha-rine1 ,da-ni-el1 ,de-bo-rah1 ,do-ro-thy1 ,fre-de-rick1 ,i-sa-bel1 ,jo-na-than1 ,ly-di-a1 ,ni-cho-las1 ,o-li-ver1 ,sa-mu-el1 ,si-me-on1 ,so-lo-mon1 ,ti-mo-thy1 ,va-len-tine2--,a-me-ri-ca1 ,bar-tho-lo-mew1 ,e-li-za-beth1 ,na-tha-ni-el1 ,pe-ne-lo-pe1 ,the-o-phi-lus4--,murray3 ib41 p4 #ih-aja4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed4 #a4 ,correct the division of the following words1 by ,rule #ast3 cap-rice1 es-teem1 dis-es-teem1 ob-lige2--az-ure1 mat-ron1 pat-ron1 phal-anx1 sir-en1 trait-or1 trench-er1 barb-er1 burn-ish1 garn-ish1 tarn-ish1 varn-ish1 mark-et1 musk-et1 pamph-let2--brave-ry1 knave-ry1 siave-ry1 eve-ning1 scene-ry1 bribe-ry1 nice-ty1 chi-cane-ry1 ma-chine-ry1 im-age-ry2-- as-y-lum1 hor-i-zon1--fi-nan-cier1 he-ro-ism1--sar-don-yx1 scur-ril-ous1-- com-e-di-an1 post-e-ri-or4--,webster's ,spelling-,books4 #b4 ,correct the division of the following words by ,rule #b;d3 oy-er1 fol-io1 gen-ial1 gen-ius1 jun-ior1 sa-tiate1 vi-tiate2--am-bro-sia1 cha-mel-ion1 par-hel-ion1 con-ven-ient1 in-gen-ious1 om-nis-cience1 pe-cul-iar1 so-cia-ble1 par-tial-i-ty1 pe-cun-ia-ry2--an-nun-ciate1 e-nun-ciate1 ap-pre-ciate1 as-so-ciate1 ex-pa-tiate1 in-gra-tiate1 in-i-tiate1 li-cen-tiate1 ne-go-tiate1 no-vi-ciate1 of-fi-ciate1 pro-pi-tiate1 sub-stan-tiate4--,webster3 ,old ,spelling-,book1 #hf-ia2 ,new1 #aba-abh4 #c4 ,correct the division of the following words by ,rule #c;d3 dres-ser1 has-ty1 pas-try1 sei-zure1 rol-ler1 jes-ter1 wea-ver1 vam-per1 han-dy1 dros-sy1 glos-sy1 mo-ver1 mo-ving1 oo-zy1 ful-ler1 trus-ty1 weigh-ty1 noi-sy1 drow-sy1 swar-thy4--,cobb's ,standard ,spelling-,book4 ,again3 eas-tern1 full-y1 pull-et1 rill-et1 scan-ty1 nee-dy4--,webster4 #d4 ,correct the division of the following words by ,rule #dth3 aw-ry1--,webster's ,old ,book1 #eb2 ath-wart1--,ib41 #ic2 pros-pect-ive1--,ib41 #ff2 pa-renth-e-sis1--,ib41 #ic2 res-ist-i-bil-ity1--,webster's ,new ,book1 #ic2 hem-is-pher-ic1--,ib41 #acj2 mo-nos-tich1 he-mis-tick1 #aab--,walker's ,dict41 #hvo2 ,cobb1 #cc2 tow-ards1--,cobb1 #dh4 #e4 ,correct the division of the following words by ,rule #eth3 ,e'n-gland1--,murray's ,spelling-,book1 p4 #ajj2 a-no-ther1--,ib41 #ga2 a-noth-er1--,emerson1 #gf2 ,be-thes-da1 ,beth-a-ba-ra1--,webster1 #ada2 ,cobb1 #aei4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed4 #a4 ,correct the division of the following words1 according to their derivation3 ben-der1 bles-sing1 bras-sy1 chaf-fy1 chan-ter1 clas-per1 craf-ty1 cur-dy1 fen-der1 fil-my1 fus-ty1 glas-sy1 graf-ter1 gras-sy1 gus-ty1 ban-ded1 mas-sy1 mus-ky1 rus-ty1 swel-ling1 tel-ler1 tes-ted1 thrif-ty1 ves-ture4--,cobb's ,standard ,spelling-,book4 #b4 ,correct the division of the following words1 so as to give no wrong notion of their derivation and meaning3 barb-er1 burn-ish1 brisk-et1 cank-er1 chart-er1 cuck-oo1 furn-ish1 garn-ish1 guil-ty1 hank-er1 lust-y1 port-al1 tarn-ish1 test-ate1 test-y1 trait-or1 treat-y1 varn-ish1 vest-al1 di-urn-al1 e-tern-al1 in-fern-al1 in-tern-al1 ma-tern-al1 noc-turn-al1 pa-tern-al4--,webster's ,elementary ,spelling-,book4 #c4 ,correct the division of the following words1 so as to convey no wrong idea of their pronunciation3 ar-mo-ry1 ar-te-ry1 butch-er-y1 cook-e-ry1 eb-o-ny1 em-e-ry1 ev-e-ry1 fel-o-ny1 fop-pe-ry1 flip-pe-ry1 gal-le-ry1 his-to-ry1 liv-e-ry4 lot-te-ry1 mock-e-ry1 mys-te-ry1 nun-ne-ry1 or-re-ry1 pil-lo-ry1 quack-e-ry1 sor-ce-ry1 witch-e-ry4--,ib41 #da-db4 #d4 ,correct the division of the following words1 and give to n before k the sound of ng3 ank-le1 bask-et1 blank-et1 buck-le1 cack-le1 crank-le1 crink-le1 east-er1 fick-le1 freck-le1 knuck-le1 mark-et1 monk-ey1 port-ress1 pick-le1 poult-ice1 punch-eon1 qua-drant1 qua-drate1 squa-dron1 rank-le1 shack-le1 sprink-le1 tink-le1 twink-le1 wrink-le4--,cobb's ,standard ,spelling-,book4 #e4 ,correct the division of the following words1 with a proper regard to ,rules #ast and #c;d3 a-scribe1 bland-ish1 bran-chy1 clou-dy1 dus-ty1 drea-ry1 eve-ning1 faul-ty1 fil-thy1 fros-ty1 gau-dy1 gloo-my1 heal-thy1 hear-ken1 hear-ty1 hoa-ry1 lea-ky1 loung-er1 mar-shy1 migh-ty1 mil-ky1 naugh-ty1 pas-sing1 pit-cher1 rea-dy1 roc-ky1 spee-dy1 stea-dy1 stor-my1 thirs-ty1 thor-ny1 trus-ty1 ves-try1 wes-tern1 weal-thy4--,emerson's ,spelling-,book1 #ag-dd4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,of ,,words4 ,a ,word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea1 or of some manner of thought4 ,words are distinguished as primitive or derivative1 and as simple or compound4 ,the former division is called their species2 the latter1 their figure4 ,a primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language2 as1 harm1 great1 connect4 ,a derivative word is one that is formed from some simpler word in the language2 as1 harmless1 greatly1 connected1 disconnect1 unconnected4 ,a simple word is one that is not compounded1 not composed of other words2 as1 watch1 man1 house1 tower1 never1 the1 less4 ,a compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words2 as1 watchman1 watchhouse1 watchtower1 nevertheless4 ,permanent compounds are consolidated2 as1 bookseller1 schoolmaster3 others1 which may be called temporary compounds1 are formed by the hyphen2 as1 good-natured1 negro-merchant4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,figure ,,of ,,words4 ,,rule ,i4--,,compounds4 ,words regularly or analogically united1 and commonly known as forming a compound1 should never be needlessly broken apart4 ,thus1 steamboat1 railroad1 red-hot1 well-being1 new-coined1 are preferable to the phrases1 steam boat1 rail road1 red hot1 well being1 new coined2 and toward us is better than the old phrase1 to us ward4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,simples4 ,when the simple words would only form a regular phrase1 of the same meaning1 the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided4 ,thus1 the compound instead is not to be commended1 because the simple phrase1 in stead of1 is exactly like the other phrases1 in lieu of1 in place of1 in room of1 in which we write no compound4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,the ,,sense4 ,words otherwise liable to be misunderstood1 must be joined together or written separately1 as the sense and construction may happen to require4 ,thus1 a glass house is a house made of glass1 but a glasshouse is a house in which glass is made2 so a negro merchant is a coloured trader1 but a negro-merchant is a man who buys and sells negroes4 ,,rule ,,iv4--,,ellipses4 ,when two or more compounds are connected in one sentence1 none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word4 ,thus1 six or seventeen should not be said for sixteen or seventeen2 nor ought we to say1 calf1 goat1 and sheepskins for calfskins1 goatskins1 and sheepskins ,in the latter instance1 however1 it might be right to separate all the words2 as in the phrase1 soup1 coffee1 and tea houses4--,liberator1 x1 #dj4 ,,rule ,v4--,,the ,,hyphen4 ,when the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce1 as to-day1 to-night1 to-morrow2 or when each retains its original accent1 so that the compound has more than one1 or one that is movable1 as first-born1 hanger-on1 laughter-loving1 garlic-eater1 butterfly-shell1 the hyphen should be inserted between them4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,no ,,hyphen4 ,when a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation1 as watchword1 statesman1 gentleman1 and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence1 no hyphen should be inserted between them4 ,churchill1 after much attention to this subject1 writes thus3 ,the practical instruction of the countinghouse imparts a more thorough knowledge of bookkeeping1 than all the fictitious transactions of a mere schoolbook1 however carefully constructed to suit particular purposes4--,new ,gram41 p4 vii4 ,but counting-house1 having more stress on the last syllable than on the middle one1 is usually written with the hyphen2 and book-keeping and school-book1 though they may not need it1 are oftener so formed than otherwise4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,words are the least parts of significant language2 that is1 of language significant in each part2 for1 to syllables1 taken merely as syllables1 no meaning belongs4 ,but1 to a word1 signification of some sort or other1 is essential2 there can be no word without it2 for a sign or symbol must needs represent or signify something4 ,and as ,i cannot suppose words to represent external things1 ,i have said ,a ,word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea4 ,but of what ideas are the words of our language significant8 ,are we to say1 ,of all ideas2 and to recognize as an ,english word every syllable1 or combination of syllables1 to which we know a meaning is attached8 ,no4 ,for this1 in the first place1 would confound one language with an other2 and destroy a distinction which must ever be practically recognized1 till all men shall again speak one language4 ,in the next place1 it would compel us to embrace among our words an infinitude of terms that are significant only of local ideas1 such as men any where or at any time may have had concerning any of the individuals they have known1 whether persons1 places1 or things4 ,but1 however important they may be in the eyes of men1 the names of particular persons1 places1 or things1 because they convey only particular ideas1 do not properly belong to what we call our language4 ,lexicographers do not collect and define proper names1 because they are beyond the limits of their art1 and can be explained only from history4 ,i do not say that proper names are to be excluded from grammar2 but ,i would show wherein consists the superiority of general terms over these4 ,for if our common words did not differ essentially from proper names1 we could demonstrate nothing in science3 we could not frame from them any general or affirmative proposition at all2 because all our terms would be particular1 and not general2 and because every individual thing in nature must necessarily be for ever itself only1 and not an other4 ,,obs4 #b4--,our common words1 then1 are the symbols neither of external particulars1 nor merely of the sensible ideas which external particulars excite in our minds1 but mainly of those general or universal ideas which belong rather to the intellect than to the senses4 ,for intellection differs from sensation1 somewhat as the understanding of a man differs from the perceptive faculty of a brute2 and language1 being framed for the reciprocal commerce of human minds1 whose perceptions include both1 is made to consist of signs of ideas both general and particular1 yet without placing them on equal ground4 ,our general ideas--that is1 our ideas conceived as common to many individuals1 existing in any part of time1 past1 present1 or future--such1 for example1 as belong to the words man1 horse1 tree1 cedar1 wave1 motion1 strength1 resist--such ideas1 ,i say1 constitute that most excellent significance which belongs to words primarily1 essentially1 and immediately2 whereas1 our particular ideas1 such as are conceived only of individual objects1 which arc infinite in number and ever fleeting1 constitute a significance which belongs to language only secondarily1 accidentally1 and mediately4 ,if we express the latter at all1 we do it either by proper names1 of which but very few ever become generally known1 or by means of certain changeable limitations which are added to our general terms2 whereby language1 as ,harris observes1 without wandering into infinitude1 contrives how to denote things infinite4--,hermes1 p4 #cde4 ,the particular manner in which this is done1 ,i shall show hereafter1 in ,etymology1 when ,i come to treat of articles and definitives4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,if we examine the structure of proper names1 we shall find that most of them are compounds1 the parts of which have1 in very many instances1 some general signification4 ,now a complete phrase commonly conveys some particular notion or conception of the mind2 but1 in this case1 the signification of the general terms is restricted by the other words which are added to them4 ,thus smith is a more general term than goldsmith2 and goldsmith is more general than a goldsmith2 a goldsmith1 than the goldsmith2 the goldsmith1 than one ,goldsmith2 one ,goldsmith1 than ,mr4 ,goldsmith2 ,mr4 ,goldsmith1 than ,oliver ,goldsmith4 ,thus we see that the simplest mode of designating particular persons or objects1 is that of giving them proper names2 but proper names must needs be so written1 that they may be known as proper names1 and not be mistaken for common terms4 ,i have before observed1 that we have some names which are both proper and common2 and that these should be written with capitals1 and should form the plural regularly4 ,it is surprising that the ,friends1 who are in some respects particularly scrupulous about language1 should so generally have overlooked the necessity there is1 of compounding their numerical names of the months and days1 and writing them uniformly with capitals1 as proper names4 ,for proper names they certainly are1 in every thing but the form1 whenever they are used without the article1 and without those other terms which render their general idea particular4 ,and the compound form with a capital1 is as necessary for ,firstday1 ,secondday1 ,thirdday1 c41 as for ,sunday1 ,monday1 ,tuesday1 c4 ,the first day of the week1--,the seventh day of the month1--,the second month of summer1--,the second month in the year1 c41 are good ,english phrases1 in which any compounding of the terms1 or any additional use of capitals1 would be improper2 but1 for common use1 these phrases are found too long and too artificial4 ,we must have a less cumbersome mode of specifying the months of the year and the days of the week4 ,what then8 ,shall we merely throw away the terms of particularity1 and1 without substituting in their place the form of proper names1 apply general terms to particular thoughts1 and insist on it that this is right8 ,and is not this precisely what is done by those who reject as heathenish the ordinary names of the months and days1 and write first day1 for ,sunday1 in stead of the first day of the week2 or second month1 for ,february1 in stead of the second month in the year2 and so forth8 ,this phraseology may perhaps be well understood by those to whom it is familiar1 but still it is an abuse of language1 because it is inconsistent with the common acceptation of the terms4 ,example3 ,the departure of a ship will take place every sixth day with punctuality4--,philadelphia ,weekly ,messenger4 ,the writer of this did not mean1 every ,friday2 and it is absurd for the ,friends so to understand it1 or so to write1 when that is what they mean4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,in the ordinary business of life1 it is generally desirable to express our meaning as briefly as possible2 but legal phraseology is always full to the letter1 and often redundant4 ,hence a merchant will write1 ,nov4 #bd1 #ahcg1 or1 #aa mo4 #bdth1 #ahcg2 but a conveyancer will have it1 ,on the twenty-fourth day of ,november1 one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven2--or1 perhaps1 ,on the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month1 in the year of our ,lord one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven4 ,accordingly we find that1 in common daily use1 all the names of the months1 except ,march1 ,may1 ,june1 and ,july1 are abbreviated2 thus1 ,jan41 ,feb41 ,apr41 ,aug41 ,sept41 ,oct41 ,nov41 ,dec4 ,and sometimes even the ,arabic number of the year is made yet shorter2 as '#cg for #ahcg2 or #ahce-f-g1 for #ahce1 #ahcf1 and #ahcg4 ,in like manner1 in constructing tables of time1 we sometimes denote the days of the week by the simple initials of their names2 as1 ,s4 for ,sunday1 ,m4 for ,monday1 c4 ,but1 for facility of abbreviation1 the numerical names1 whether of the months or of the days1 are perhaps still more convenient4 ,for1 if we please1 we may put the simple ,arabic figures for them2 though it is better to add d4 for day1 and mo4 for month3 as1 #a d41 #b d41 #c d41 c42--#a mo41 #b mo41 #c mo41 c43--or more compactly thus3 #a;d41 #b;d41 #c;d41 c42--#amo41 #bmo41 #cmo41 c4 ,but1 take which mode of naming we will1 our ordinary expression of these things should be in neither extreme1 but should avoid alike too great brevity and too great prolixity2 and1 therefore1 it is best to make it a general rule in our literary compositions1 to use the full form of proper names for the months and days1 and to denote the years by ,arabic figures written in full4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in considering the nature of words1 ,i was once a little puzzled with a curious speculation1 if ,i may not term it an important inquiry1 concerning the principle of their identity4 ,we often speak of the same words1 and of different words2 but wherein does the sameness or the difference of words consist8 ,not in their pronunciation2 for the same word may be differently pronounced2 as1 pat'ron or pa'tron1 mat'ron or ma'tron4 ,not in their orthography2 for the same word may be differently spelled2 as1 favour or favor1 music or musick1 connexion or connection4 ,not in their form of presentation2 for the same word may be either spoken or written2 and speech and writing present what we call the same words1 in two ways totally different4 ,not in their meaning2 for the same word may have different meanings1 and different words may signify precisely the same thing4 ,this sameness of words1 then1 must consist in something which is to be reconciled with great diversity4 ,yet every word is itself1 and not an other3 and every word must necessarily have some property peculiar to itself1 by which it may be easily distinguished from every other4 ,were it not so1 language would be unintelligible4 ,but it is so2 and1 therefore1 to mistake one word for an other1 is universally thought to betray great ignorance or great negligence1 though such mistakes are by no means of uncommon occurrence4 ,but that the question about the identity of words is not a very easy one1 may appear from the fact1 that the learned often disagree about it in practice2 as when one grammarian will have an and a to be two words1 and an other will affirm them to be only different forms of one and the same word4 ,,obs4 #f4--,let us see1 then1 if amidst all this diversity we can find that principle of sameness1 by which a dispute of this kind ought to be settled4 ,now1 although different words do generally differ in orthography1 in pronunciation1 and in meaning1 so that an entire sameness implies one orthography1 one pronunciation1 and one meaning2 yet some diversity is allowed in each of these respects1 so that a sign differing from an other only in one1 is not therefore a different word1 or a sign agreeing with an other only in one1 is not therefore the same word4 ,it follows thence1 that the principle of verbal identity1 the principle which distinguishes every word from every other1 lies in neither extreme3 it lies in a narrower compass than in all three1 and yet not singly in any one1 but jointly in any two4 ,so that signs differing in any two of these characteristics of a word1 are different words2 and signs agreeing in any two1 are the same word4 ,consequently1 if to any difference either of spelling or of sound we add a difference of signification everybody will immediately say1 that we speak or write different words1 and not the same3 thus dear1 beloved1 and deer1 an animal1 are two such words as no one would think to be the same2 and1 in like manner1 use1 advantage1 and use1 to employ1 will readily be called different words4 ,upon this principle1 an and a are different words2 yet1 in conformity to old usage1 and because the latter is in fact but an abridgement of the former1 ,i have always treated them as one and the same article1 though ,i have nowhere expressly called them the same word4 ,but1 to establish the principle above named1 which appears to me the only one on which any such question can be resolved1 or the identity of words be fixed at all1 we must assume that every word has one right pronunciation1 and only one2 one just orthography1 and only one2 and some proper signification1 which1 though perhaps not always the same1 is always a part of its essence4 ,for when two words of different meaning are spelled or pronounced alike1 not to maintain the second point of difference1 against the double orthography or the double pronunciation of either1 is to confound their identity at once1 and to prove by the rule that two different words are one and the same1 by first absurdly making them so4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,in no part of grammar is usage more unsettled and variable than in that which relates to the figure of words4 ,it is a point of which modern writers have taken but very little notice4 ,lily1 and other ancient ,latin grammarians1 reckoned both species and figure among the grammatical accidents of nearly all the different parts of speech2 and accordingly noticed them1 in their ,etymology1 as things worthy to be thus made distinct topics1 like numbers1 genders1 cases1 moods1 tenses1 c4 ,but the manner of compounding words in ,latin1 and also in ,greek1 is always by consolidation4 ,no use appears to have been made of the hyphen1 in joining the words of those languages1 though the name of the mark is a ,greek compound1 meaning under one4 ,the compounding of words is one principal means of increasing their number2 and the arbitrariness with which that is done or neglected in ,english1 is sufficient of itself to make the number of our words a matter of great uncertainty4 ,such terms1 however1 having the advantage of explaining themselves in a much greater degree than others1 have little need of definition2 and when new things are formed1 it is very natural and proper to give them new names of this sort3 as1 steamboat1 railroad4 ,the propriety or impropriety of these additions to the language1 is not to be determined by dictionaries2 for that must be settled by usage before any lexicographer will insert them4 ,and so numerous1 after all1 are the discrepancies found in our best dictionaries1 that many a word may have its day and grow obsolete1 before a nation can learn from them the right way of spelling it2 and many a fashionable thing may go entirely out of use1 before a man can thus determine how to name it4 ,railroads are of so recent invention that ,i find the word in only one dictionary2 and that one is wrong1 in giving the word a hyphen1 while half our printers are wrong1 in keeping the words separate because ,johnson did not compound them4 ,but is it not more important1 to know whether we ought to write railroad1 or rail-road1 or rail road1 which we cannot learn from any of our dictionaries1 than to find out whether we ought to write rocklo1 or roquelo1 or roquelaur1 or roquelaure1 which1 in some form or other1 is found in them all8 ,the duke of ,roquelaure is now forgotten1 and his cloak is out of fashion4 ,,obs4 #h4--,no regular phrase1 as ,i have taught in the second rule above1 should be needlessly converted into a compound word1 either by tacking its parts together with the hyphen1 or by uniting them without a hyphen2 for1 in general1 a phrase is one thing1 and a word is an other3 and they ought to be kept as distinct as possible4#aac ,but1 when a whole phrase takes the relation of an adjective1 the words must be compounded1 and the hyphen becomes necessary2 as1 ,an inexpressibly apt bottle-of-small-beer comparison4--,peter ,pindar4 ,the occasions for the compounding of words1 are in general sufficiently plain1 to any one who knows what is intended to be said2 but1 as we compound words1 sometimes with the hyphen1 and sometimes without1 there is no small difficulty in ascertaining when to use this mark1 and when to omit it4 ,some settled rule for the use of the hyphen on these occasions1 is much wanted4 ,modern printers have a strange predilection for it2 using it on almost every possible occasion4 ,mr4 ,l4 ,murray1 who has only three lines on the subject1 seems inclined to countenance this practice2 which is1 no doubt1 convenient enough for those who do not like trouble4 ,his words are3 ',a ,hyphen1 marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words3 as1 ,lap-dog1 tea-pot1 pre-existence1 self-love1 to-morrow1 mother-in-law4' ,of his six examples1 ,johnson1 our only acknowledged standard1 gives the first and third without any separation between the syllables1 lapdog1 preexistence2 his second and fifth as two distinct words each1 tea pot1 to morrow2 and his sixth as three words1 mother in law3 so that only his fourth has the sanction of the lexicographer4 ,there certainly can be no more reason for putting a hyphen after the common prefixes1 than before the common affixes1 ness1 ly1 and the rest4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cgd4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,again3 ,while it would be absurd1 to sacrifice the established practice of all good authors to the ignorance of such readers as could possibly mistake for a diphthong the two contiguous vowels in such words as preexistence1 cooperate1 and reenter2 it would unquestionably be advantageous1 to have some principle to guide us in that labyrinth of words1 in which the hyphen appears to have been admitted or rejected arbitrarily1 or at hap-hazard4 ,thus1 though we find in ,johnson1 alms-basket1 alms-giver1 with the hyphen2 we have almsdeed1 almshouse1 almsman1 without3 and many similar examples of an unsettled practice might be adduced1 sufficient to fill several pages4 ,in this perplexity1 is not the pronunciation of the words the best guide8 ,in the ,english language1 every word of more than one syllable is marked by an accent on some particular syllable4 ,some very long words indeed admit a secondary accent on another syllable2 but still this is much inferior1 and leaves one leading accent prominent3 as in expos'tulatory4 ,accordingly1 when a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation1 as night'cap1 bed'stead1 broad'sword1 the two words have coalesced completely into one1 and no hyphen should be admitted4 ,on the other hand1 when each of the radical words has an accent1 as ,chris'tian-name'1 broad'-shoul'dered1 ,i think the hyphen should be used4 ,good'-na'tured is a compound epithet with two accents1 and therefore requires the hyphen3 in good nature1 good will1 and similar expressions1 good is used simply as an adjective1 and of course should remain distinct from the noun4 ,thus1 too1 when a noun is used adjectively1 it should remain separate from the noun it modifies2 as1 a gold ring1 a silver buckle4 ,when two numerals are employed to express a number1 without a conjunction between them1 it is usual to connect them by a hyphen2 as1 twenty-five1 eighty-four3 but when the conjunction is inserted1 the hyphen is as improper as it would be between other words connected by the conjunction4 ,this1 however1 is a common abuse2 and we often meet with five--twenty1 six--thirty1 and the like4--,ib41 p4 #cgf4 ,thus far ,churchill3 who appears to me1 however1 too hasty about the hyphen in compound numerals4 ,for we write one hundred1 two hundred1 three thousand1 c41 without either hyphen or conjunction2 and as five-and-twenty is equivalent to twenty-five1 and virtually but one word1 the hyphen1 if not absolutely necessary to the sense1 is certainly not so very improper as he alleges4 ,christian name is as often written without the hyphen as with it1 and perhaps as accurately4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,in ,,the ,,figure1 ,,or ,,form1 ,,of ,,words4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,compounds4 ,professing to imitate ,timon1 the man hater4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 p4 #afa4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the compound term manhater is here made two words4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast1 ,words regularly or analogically united1 and commonly known as forming a compound1 should never be needlessly broken apart4 ,therefore1 manhater should be written as one word4 ,men load hay with a pitch fork4--,webster's ,new ,spelling-,book1 p4 #dj4 ,a pear tree grows from the seed of a pear4--,ib41 p4 #cc4 ,a tooth brush is good to brush your teeth4--,ib41 p4 #he4 ,the mail is opened at the post office4--,ib41 p4 #aea4 ,the error seems to me two fold4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bcj4 ,to pre-engage means to engage before hand4--,webster's ,new ,spelling-,book1 p4 #hb4 ,it is a mean act to deface the figures on a mile stone4--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,a grange is a farm and farm house4--,ib41 p4 #aah4 ,it is no more right to steal apples or water melons1 than money4--,ib41 p4 #aah4 ,the awl is a tool used by shoemakers1 and harness makers4--,ib41 p4 #aej4 ,twenty five cents are equal to one quarter of a dollar4--,ib41 p4 #ajg4 ,the blowing up of the ,fulton at ,new ,york was a terrible disaster4--,ib41 p4 #ed4 ,the elders also1 and the bringers up of the children1 sent to ,jehu4--,,scott3 #b ,kings1 x1 #e4 ,not with eye service1 as men pleasers4--,bickersteth1 on ,prayer1 p4 #fd4 ,a good natured and equitable construction of cases4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ach4 ,and purify your hearts1 ye double minded4--,gurney's ,portable ,evidences1 p4 #aae4 ,it is a mean spirited action to steal2 i4 e4 to steal is a mean spirited action4--,grammar of ,alex4 ,murray1 the schoolmaster1 p4 #abd4 ,there is1 indeed1 one form of orthography which is a kin to the subjunctive mood of the ,latin tongue4--,booth's ,introd4 to ,dict41 p4 #ga4 ,to bring him into nearer connexion with real and everyday life4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dei4 ,the common place1 stale declamation of its revilers would be silenced4--,ib41 i1 #did4 ,she formed a very singular and unheard of project4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 p4 #afj4 ,he had many vigilant1 though feeble talented1 and mean spirited enemies4--,,roberts ,,vaux3 ,the ,friend1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #gd4 ,these old fashioned people would level our psalmody1 c4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #bib4 ,this slow shifting scenery in the theatre of harmony4--,ib41 p4 #cih4 ,so we are assured from ,scripture it self4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #cjj4 ,the mind1 being disheartened1 then betakes its self to trifling4--,r4 ,johnson's ,pref4 to ,gram4 ,com4 ,whose soever sins ye remit1 they are remitted unto them4--,beacon1 p4 #aae3 ,,scott1 ,,alger1 ,,friends3 ,john1 xx1 #bc4 ,tarry we our selves how we will4--,walker's ,english ,particles1 p4 #afa4 ,manage your credit so1 that you need neither swear your self1 nor want a voucher4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #cc4 ,whereas song never conveys any of the above named sentiments4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #dbd4 ,i go on horse back4--,guy's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,this requires purity1 in opposition to barbarous1 obsolete1 or new coined words4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bdb2 ,gould's1 #bcd4 ,may the ,plough share shine4--,white's ,eng4 ,verb1 p4 #afa4 ,which way ever we consider it4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #hc4 ,where e'er the silent 7e7 a ,place obtains1 ,the ,voice foregoing1 ,length and softness gains4 --,brightland's ,gr41 p4 #ae4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,simples4 ,it qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because abovenamed is here unnecessarily made a compound4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d1 ,when the simple words would only form a regular phrase1 of the same meaning1 the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided4 ,therefore1 above and named should here have been written as two words4 ,after awhile they put us out among the rude multitude4--,fox's ,journal4 ,vol4 i1 p4 #afi4 ,it would be ashame1 if your mind should falter and give in4--,collier's ,meditations of ,antoninus1 p4 #id4 ,they stared awhile in silence one upon another4--,rasselas1 p4 #gc4 ,after passion has for awhile exercised its tyrannical sway4--,murray's ,gram41 ii1 #ace and #bfg4 ,though set within the same general-frame of intonation4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #cci4 ,which do not carry any of the natural vocal-signs of expression4--,ib41 p4 #cbi4 ,the measurable constructive-powers of a few associable constituents4--,ib41 p4 #cdc4 ,before each accented syllable or emphatic monosyllabic-word4--,ib41 p4 #cfd4 ,one should not think too favourably of oneself4--,see ,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aed4 ,know ye not your ownselves1 how that ,jesus ,christ is in you4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cee4 ,i judge not my ownself1 for ,i know nothing of my ownself4-- ,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #hd4 ,though they were in such a rage1 ,i desired them to tarry awhile4--,josephus1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #agi4 ,a instead of an is now used before words beginning with a long4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,john will have earned his wages the next new-year's day4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,a new-year's-gift is a present made on the first day of the year4--,see ,johnson1 ,walker1 ,webster1 et al4 ,when he sat on the throne1 distributing new-year's-gifts4--,,stillingfleet1 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,st4 ,paul admonishes ,timothy to refuse old-wives'- fables4--,author4 ,the world1 take it altogether1 is but one4-- ,collier's ,antoninus1 ,b4 vii1 ,sec4 #i4 ,in writings of this stamp we must accept of sound instead of sense4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bih4 ,a male-child1 ,a female-child1 ,male-descendants1 ,female-descendants4-- ,goldsbury's ,c4 ,s4 ,gram41 p4 #ac2 ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,male-servants1 ,female-servants4 ,male-relations1 ,female-relations4-- ,felton's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,reserved and cautious1 with no partial aim1 ,my muse e'er sought to blast another's fame4--,lloyd1 p4 #afb4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,the ,,sense4 ,our discriminations of this matter have been but four footed instincts4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #bia4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the term four footed is made two words1 as if the instincts were four and footed4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d1 ,words otherwise liable to be misunderstood1 must be joined together1 or written separately1 as the sense and construction may happen to require4 ,therefore1 four-footed1 as it here means quadruped1 or having four feet1 should be one word4 ,he is in the right1 7says ,clytus17 not to bear free born men at his table4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #abh4 ,to the short seeing eye of man1 the progress may appear little4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #cgg4 ,knowledge and virtue are1 emphatically1 the stepping stone to individual distinction4--,town's ,analysis1 p4 #e4 ,a tin peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels4--,webster's ,new ,spelling-,book1 p4 #dd4 ,the beams of a wood-house are held up by the posts and joists4--,ib41 p4 #ci4 ,what you mean by future tense adjective1 ,i can easily understand4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dej4 ,the town has been for several days very well behaved4--,spectator1 ,no4 #ecb4 ,a rounce is the handle of a printing press4--,webster's' ,dict42 also ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #aah4 ,the phraseology we call thee and thouing is not in so common use with us1 as the tutoyant among the ,french4--,walker's ,dict41 w4 ,thy4 ,hunting1 and other out door sports1 are generally pursued4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bbg4 ,come unto me1 all ye that labour and are heavy laden4--,,scott1 ,,alger1 ,,friends3 ,matt41 xi1 #bh4 ,god so loved the world1 that he gave his only begotten ,son to save it4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 p4 #ga4 ,see ,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,john1 iii1 #af4 ,jehovah is a prayer hearing ,god3 ,nineveh repented1 and was spared4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer1 ,vol4 x1 p4 #ij4 ,these are well pleasing to ,god1 in all ranks and relations4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #gc4 ,whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle4--,numb41 xvii1 #ac4 ,the words coalesce1 when they have a long established association4-- ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afi4 ,open to me the gates of righteousness3 ,i will go in to them4--,,old ,,bible3 ,ps41 cxviii1 #ai4 ,he saw an angel of ,god coming into him4--,see ,acts1 x1 #c4 ,the consequences of any action are to be considered in a two fold light4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #ajh4 ,we commonly write two fold1 three fold1 four fold1 and so on up to ten fold1 without a hyphen2 and1 after that1 we use one4--,author4 ,see ,matt41 xiii1 #h4 ,when the first mark is going off1 he cries turn6 the glass holder answers done6--,bowditch's ,nav41 p4 #abh4 ,it is a kind of familiar shaking hands with all the vices4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #agj4 ,she is a good natured woman2 ,james is self opinionated2 ,he is broken hearted4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #adg4 ,these three examples apply to the present tense construction only4--,ib41 p4 #fe4 ,so that it was like a game of hide and go seek4--,edward's ,first ,lessons in ,grammar1 p4 #ij4 ,that lowliness is young ambition's ladder1 ,whereto the climber upward turns his face4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iv4--,,of ,,ellipses4 ,this building serves yet for a school and a meeting-house4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the compound word schoolhouse is here divided to avoid a repetition of the last half4 ,but1 according to ,rule #dth1 ,when two or more compounds are connected in one sentence1 none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word4 ,therefore1 school should be schoolhouse2 thus1 ,this building serves yet for a schoolhouse and a meeting-house4 ,schoolmasters and mistresses of honest friends are to be encouraged4--,n4 ,e4 ,discipline1 p4 xv4 ,we never assumed to ourselves a faith or worship-making-power4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hc4 ,pot and pearl ashes are made from common ashes4--,webster's ,new ,spelling-,book1 p4 #fi4 ,both the ten and eight syllable verses are iambics4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aba4 ,i say to myself1 thou1 he says to thy1 to his self2 c4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,lang41 ,vol4 ii p4 #aba4 ,or those who have esteemed themselves skilful1 have tried for the mastery in two or four horse chariots4--,zenobia1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aeb4 ,i remember him barefooted and headed1 running through the streets4--,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #fh4 ,friends have the entire control of the school and dwelling-houses4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #bca4 ,the meeting is held at the first mentioned place in the first month1 at the last in the second1 and so on4--,ib41 p4 #afg4 ,meetings for worship are held at the same hour on first and fourth days4--,ib41 p4 #bcj4 ,every part of it1 inside and out1 is covered with gold leaf4--,ib41 p4 #djd4 ,the ,eastern ,quarterly ,meeting is held on the last seventh day in second1 fifth1 eighth1 and eleventh month4--,ib41 p4 #hg4 ,trenton ,preparative ,meeting is held on the third fifth day in each month1 at ten o'clock2 meetings for worship at the same hour on first and fifth days4--,ib41 p4 #bca4 ,ketch1 a vessel with two masts1 a main and mizzen-mast4--,webster's ,dict41 ,i only mean to suggest a doubt1 whether nature has enlisted herself as a ,cis or ,trans-,atlantic partisan8-- ,jefferson's ,notes1 p4 #ig4 ,by large hammers1 like those used for paper and fullingmills1 they beat their hemp4--,,mortimer3 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,ant-hill1 or ,hillock1 n4 s4 ,the small protuberances of earth1 in which ants make their nests4--,ib4 ,it became necessary to substitute simple indicative terms called pro-names or nouns4--,enclytica1 p4 #af4 ,obscur'd1 where highest woods1 impenetrable ,to star or sun-light1 spread their umbrage broad4--,milton4 ,,under ,,rule ,v4--,,the ,,hyphen4 ,evilthinking2 a noun1 compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle thinking2 singular number2 c4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ahj4 ,,formule--,not proper1 because the word evilthinking1 which has more than one accented syllable1 is here compounded without the hyphen4 ,but1 according to ,rule #eth1 ,when the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce1 or when each retains its original accent1 so that the compound has more than one1 or one that is movable1 the hyphen should be inserted between them4 ,therefore1 the hyphen should be used in this word2 thus1 evil-thinking4 ,evilspeaking2 a noun1 compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle speaking4--,ib4 ,i am a tall1 broadshouldered1 impudent1 black fellow4--,,spectator3 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,ingratitude6 thou marblehearted fiend4--,,shak43 ib4 ,a popular licence is indeed the manyheaded tyranny4--,,sidney3 ib4 ,he from the manypeopled city flies4--,,sandys3 ib4 ,he manylanguaged nations has surveyed4--,,pope3 ib4 ,the horsecucumber is the large green cucumber1 and the best for the table4--,,mortimer3 ib4 ,the bird of night did sit1 even at noonday1 upon the market-place4--,,shak43 ib4 ,these make a general gaoldelivery of souls1 not for punishment4--,,south3 ib4 ,thy air1 thou other goldbound brow1 is like the first4--,,shak43 ib4 ,his person was deformed to the highest degree2 flatnosed1 and blobberlipped4--,l',,estrange3 ib4 ,he that defraudeth the labourer of his hire1 is a bloodshedder4--,,ecclus41 xxxiv1 #bb3 ib4 ,bloodyminded1 adj4 from bloody and mind4 ,cruel2 inclined to blood-shed4--,see ,johnson's ,dict4 ,bluntwitted lord1 ignoble in demeanour4--,,shak43 ib4 ,a young fellow with a bobwig and a black silken bag tied to it4--,,spectator3 ib4 ,i have seen enough to confute all the boldfaced atheists of this age4--,,bramhall3 ib4 ,before milkwhite1 now purple with love's wound4--,,shak3 ib4 ,for what else is a redhot iron than fire8 and what else is a burning coal than redhot wood8--,,newton3 ib4 ,pollevil is a large swelling1 inflammation1 or imposthume in the horse's poll1 or nape of the neck just between the ears4--,,farrier3 ib4 ,quick-witted1 brazenfac'd1 with fluent tongues1 ,patient of labours1 and dissembling wrongs4--,,dryden3 ib4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vi4--,,no ,,hyphen4 ,from his fond parent's eye a tear-drop fell4--,snelling's ,gift for ,scribblers1 p4 #dc4 ,,formule--,not proper1 because the word tear-drop1 which has never any other than a full accent on the first syllable1 is here compounded with the hyphen4 ,but1 according to ,rule #fth1 ,when a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation1 and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence1 no hyphen should be inserted between them4 ,therefore1 teardrop should be made a close compound4 ,how great1 poor jack-daw1 would thy sufferings be6--,ib41 p4 #bi4 ,placed like a scare-crow in a field of corn4--,ib41 p4 #ci4 ,soup for the alms-house at a cent a quart4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,up into the watch-tower get1 and see all things despoiled of fallacies4--,,donne3 ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,lattice4 ,in the day-time she sitteth in a watchtower1 and flieth most by night4--,,bacon3 ib41 w4 ,watchtower4 ,in the daytime ,fame sitteth in a watch-tower1 and flieth most by night4--,,id43 ib41 w4 ,daytime4 ,the moral is the first business of the poet1 as being the ground-work of his instruction4--,,dryden3 ib41 w4 ,moral4 ,madam's own hand the mouse-trap baited4--,,prior3 ib41 w4 ,mouse-trap4 ,by the sinking of the air-shaft the air hath liberty to circulate4--,,ray3 ib41 w4 ,airshaft4 ,the multiform and amazing operations of the air-pump and the loadstone4--,,watts3 ib41 w4 ,multiform4 ,many of the fire-arms are named from animals4--,ib41 w4 ,musket4 ,you might have trussed him and all his apparel into an eel-skin4--,,shak43 ib41 w4 ,truss4 ,they may serve as land-marks to shew what lies in the direct way of truth4--,,locke3 ib41 w4 ,landmark4 ,a pack-horse is driven constantly in a narrow lane and dirty road4--,id4 ib41 w4 ,lane4 ,a mill-horse1 still bound to go in one circle4--,,sidney3 ib41 w4 ,mill-horse4 ,of singing birds they have linnets1 goldfinches1 ruddocks1 ,canary-birds1 black-birds1 thrushes1 and divers others4--,,carew3 ib41 w4 ,goldfinch4 ,of singing birds1 they have linnets1 gold-finches1 blackbirds1 thrushes1 and divers others4--,,id43 ib41 w4 ,blackbird4 ,of singing birds1 they have linnets1 gold-finches1 ruddocks1 canary birds1 blackbirds1 thrushes1 and divers other4--,,id43 ib41 w4 ,canary bird4 ,cartrage1 or ,cartridge1 a case of paper or parchment filled with gun-powder4--,johnson's ,dict41 #dto4 ,deep night1 dark night1 the silent of the night1 ,the time of night when ,troy was set on fire1 ,the tune when screech-owls cry1 and ban-dogs howl4 ,,shakspeare3 ib41 w4 ,silent4 ,the time when screech-owls cry1 and bandogs howl4 ,,idem43 ib41 w4 ,bandog4 ,,promiscuous ,,errors ,,in ,,the ,,figure ,,of ,,words4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,mixed4 ,they that live in glass-houses1 should not throw stones4--,old ,adage4 ,if a man profess ,christianity in any manner or form soever4--,watts1 p4 #e4 ,for ,cassius is a weary of the world4--,,shakspeare3 in ,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #fg4 ,by the coming together of more1 the chains were fastened on4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bbc4 ,unto the carrying away of ,jerusalem captive in the fifth month4--,jer41 i1 #c4 ,and the goings forth of the border shall be to ,zedad4--,numbers1 xxxiv1 #h4 ,and the goings out of it shall be at ,hazar-enan4--,ib41 ver4 #i4 ,for the taking place of effects1 in a certain particular series4--,dr4 ,west1 on ,agency1 p4 #ci4 ,the letting go of which was the occasion of all that corruption4--,dr4 ,j4 ,owen4 ,a falling off at the end always hurts greatly4--,blair's ,lect41 p4 #abf4 ,a falling off at the end is always injurious4--,jamieson's ,rhetoric1 p4 #abg4 ,as all holdings forth were courteously supposed to be trains of reasoning4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,lang41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ccc4 ,whose goings forth have been from of old1 from everlasting4-- ,micah1 v1 #b4 ,some times the adjective becomes a substantive4-- ,bradley's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,it is very plain1 ,i consider man as visited a new4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #cca4 ,nor do ,i any where say1 as he falsely insinuates4--,ib41 p4 #cca4 ,every where1 any where1 some where1 no where4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,the world hurries off a pace1 and time is like a rapid river4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #eh4 ,but to now model the paradoxes of ancient skepticism4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ajb4 ,the south east winds from the ocean invariably produce rain4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cfi4 ,north west winds from the high lands produce cold clear weather4--,ib4 ,the greatest part of such tables would be of little use to ,english men4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,the ground floor of the east wing of ,mulberry street meeting house was filled4--,the ,friend1 vii1 #bcb4 ,prince ,rupert's ,drop4 ,this singular production is made at the glass houses4--,red ,book1 p4 #aca4 ,the lights and shades1 whose well accorded strife ,gives all the strength and colour of our life4 --,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ed2 ,fisk's1 #fe4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed4 ,in the twenty and seventh year of ,asa king of ,judah did ,zimri reign seven days in ,tirzah4--#a ,kings1 xvi1 #ae4 ,in the thirty and first year of ,asa king of ,judah1 began ,omri to reign over ,israel4--,ib41 xvi1 #bc4 ,he cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a rule of three sum4--,foreign ,quarterly ,review4 ,the best cod are those known under the name of ,isle of ,shoals dun fish4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bf4 ,the soldiers1 with down cast eyes1 seemed to beg for mercy4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #adb4 ,his head was covered with a coarse worn out piece of cloth4--,ib41 p4 #abd4 ,though they had lately received a reinforcement of a thousand heavy armed ,spartans4--,ib41 p4 #ch4 ,but he laid them by unopened2 and1 with a smile1 said1 ',business to morrow4'--,ib41 p4 #g4 ,chester monthly meeting is held at ,moore's town1 the third day following the second second day4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #abd4 ,eggharbour monthly meeting is held the first second day4--,ib41 p4 #abd4 ,little ,egg ,harbour ,monthly ,meeting is held at ,tuckerton on the second fifth day in each month4--,ib41 p4 #bca4 ,at three o'clock1 on first day morning the #bdth of eleventh month1 #ahcd1 c4--,ib41 p4 #fd4 ,in less than one-fourth part of the time usually devoted4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,the pupil will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much4--,ib41 p4 #aa4 ,the painter dips his paint brush in paint1 to paint the carriage4--,ib41 p4 #bh4 ,in an ancient ,english version of the ,new-,testament4--,ib41 p4 #gd4 ,the little boy was bare headed4--,red ,book1 p4 #cf4 ,the man1 being a little short sighted1 did not immediately know him4--,ib41 p4 #dj4 ,picture frames are gilt with gold4--,ib41 p4 #dd4 ,the park keeper killed one of the deer4--,ib41 p4 #dd4 ,the fox was killed near the brick kiln4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,here comes ,esther1 with her milk pail4--,ib41 p4 #ej4 ,the cabinet maker would not tell us4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,a fine thorn hedge extended along the edge of the hill4--,ib41 p4 #fe4 ,if their private interests should be ever so little affected4--,ib41 p4 #gc4 ,unios are fresh water shells1 vulgarly called fresh water clams4--,ib41 p4 #ajb4 ,did not each poet mourn his luckless doom1 ,jostled by pedants out of elbow room4--,lloyd1 p4 #afc4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed4 ,the captive hovers a-while upon the sad remains4--,,prior3 in ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,hover4 ,constantia saw that the hand writing agreed with the contents of the letter4--,,addison3 ib41 w4 ,hand4 ,they have put me in a silk night-gown1 and a gaudy fool's cap4--,,id43 ib41 w4 ,nightgown4 ,have you no more manners than to rail at ,hocus1 that has saved that clod-pated1 numskull'd ninnyhammer of yours from ruin1 and all his family8--,,arbuthnot3 ib41 w4 ,ninnyhammer4 ,a noble1 that is1 six1 shillings and eightpence1 is1 and usually hath been paid4--,,bacon3 ib41 w4 ,noble4 ,the king of birds thick feather'd and with full-summed wings1 fastened his talons east and west4--,,howell3 ib41 w4 ,full-summed4 ,to morrow4 ,this is an idiom of the same kind1 supposing morrow to mean originally morning3 as1 to night1 to day4--,johnson's ,dict41 #dto4 ,to-day goes away and to-morrow comes4--,id41 ib41 w4 ,go1 ,no4 #gj4 ,young children1 who are try'd in ,go carts1 to keep their steps from sliding4--,,prior3 ib41 w4 ,go-cart4 ,which1 followed well1 would demonstrate them but goers backward4--,,shak43 ib41 w4 ,goer4 ,heaven's golden winged herald late he saw1 to a poor ,galilean virgin sent4--,,crashaw3 ib41 w4 ,golden4 ,my penthouse eye-brows and my shaggy beard offend your sight4--,,dryden3 ib41 w4 ,penthouse4 ,the hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good horse-flesh4-- ,l',,estrange3 ib41 w4 ,nag4 ,a broad brimmed hat ensconced each careful head4--,snelling's ,gift1 p4 #fc4 ,with harsh vibrations of his three stringed lute4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,they magnify a hundred fold an author's merit4--,ib41 p4 #ad4 ,i'll nail them fast to some oft opened door4--,ib41 p4 #aj4 ,glossed over only with a saint-like show1 still thou art bound to vice4--,,dryden3 in ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,gloss4 ,take of aqua-fortis two ounces1 of quick-silver two drachms4--,,bacon3 ib41 w4 ,charge4 ,this rainbow never appears but when it rains in the sun-shine4--,,newton3 ib41 w4 ,rainbow4 ,not but there are1 who merit other palms2 ,hopkins and ,stern hold glad the heart with ,psalms4 ,british ,poets1 ,lond41 #ahjj1 ,vol4 vi1 p4 #dje4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,of ,,spelling4 ,spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters4 ,this important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spelling-book or dictionary1 and by observation in reading1 than by the study of written rules2 because what is proper or improper1 depends chiefly upon usage4 ,the orthography of our language is attended with much uncertainty and perplexity3 many words are variously spelled by the best scholars1 and many others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words4 ,but to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are spelled with uniformity1 and frequently used1 is justly considered disgraceful4 ,the following rules may prevent some embarrassment1 and thus be of service to those who wish to be accurate4 ,,rules ,,for ,,spelling4 ,,rule ,i4--,,final ,f1 ,l1 ,,or ,s4 ,monosyllables ending in f1 l1 or s1 preceded by a single vowel1 double the final consonant2 as staff1 mill1 pass--muff1 knell1 gloss--off1 hiss1 puss4 ,,exceptions4--,the words clef1 if1 and of1 are written with single f2 and as1 gas1 has1 was1 yes1 his1 is1 this1 us1 pus1 and thus1 with single s4 ,so bul1 for the flounder2 nul1 for no1 in law2 sol1 for sou or sun2 and sal1 for salt1 in chemistry1 have but the single l4 ,,obs4--,because sal1 salis1 in ,latin1 doubles not the l1 the chemists write salify1 salifiable1 salification1 saliferous1 saline1 salinous1 saliniform1 salifying1 c41 with single l1 contrary to ,rule #c;d4 ,but in gas they ought to double the s2 for this is a word of their own inventing4 ,neither have they any plea for allowing it to form gases and gaseous with the s still single2 for so they make it violate two general rules at once4 ,if the singular cannot now be written gass1 the plural should nevertheless be gasses1 and the adjective should be gasseous1 according to ,rule #c;d4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,other ,,finals4 ,words ending in any other consonant than f1 l1 or s1 do not double the final letter2 as1 mob1 nod1 dog1 sum1 sun1 cup1 cur1 cut1 fix1 whiz4 ,,exceptions4--,we double the consonant in abb1 ebb1 add1 odd1 egg1 jagg1 ragg1 inn1 err1 burr1 purr1 butt1 buzz1 fuzz1 yarr1 and some proper names4 ,but we have also ab 7from7 and ad 7to7 for prefixes2 and jag1 rag1 in1 bur1 and but1 are other words that conform to the rule4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,doubling4 ,monosyllables1 and words accented on the last syllable1 when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel1 or by a vowel after qu1 double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel3 as1 rob1 robbed1 robber2 fop1 foppish1 foppery2 squat1 squatter1 squatting2 thin1 thinner1 thinnest2 swim1 swimmer1 swimming2 commit1 committeth1 committing1 committed1 committer1 committees2 acquit1 acquittal1 acquittance1 acquitted1 acquitting1 acquitteth4 ,,exceptions4--#a4 ,x final1 being equivalent to ks1 is never doubled3 thus1 from mix1 we have mixed1 mixing1 and mixer4 #b4 ,when the derivative retains not the accent of the root1 the final consonant is not always doubled3 as1 prefer'1 pref'erence1 pref'erable2 refer'1 ref'erence1 ref'erable1 or refer'rible2 infer'1 in'ference1 in'ferable1 or infer'rible2 transfer'1 a trans'fer1 trans'ferable1 or transfer'rible4 #c4 ,but letters doubled in ,latin1 are usually doubled in ,english1 without regard to accent1 or to any other principle3 as1 ,britain1 ,britan'nic1 ,britannia2 appeal1 appel'lant2 argil1 argil'laus1 argilla'ceous2 cavil1 cav'illous1 cavilla'tion2 excel'1 ex'cellent1 ex'cellence2 inflame'1 inflam'mable1 inflamma'tion4 ,see ,observations #ac and #ad1 p4 #aii4 ,,rule ,,iv4--,,no ,,doubling4 ,a final consonant1 when it is not preceded by a single vowel1 or when the accent is not on the last syllable1 should remain single before an additional syllable3 as1 toil1 toiling2 oil1 oily2 visit1 visited2 differ1 differing2 peril1 perilous2 viol1 violist2 real1 realize1 realist2 dial1 dialing1 dialist2 equal1 equalize1 equality2 vitriol1 vitriolic1 vitriolate4 ,,exceptions4--#a4 ,the final l of words ending in el1 must be doubled before an other vowel1 lest the power of the e be mistaken1 and a syllable be lost3 as1 travel1 traveller2 duel1 duellist2 revel1 revelling2 gravel1 gravelly2 marvel1 marvellous4 ,yet the word parallel1 having three ,ells already1 conforms to the rule in forming its derivatives2 as1 paralleling1 paralleled1 and unparalleled4 #b4 ,contrary to the preceding rule1 the preterits1 participles1 and derivative nouns1 of the few verbs ending in al1 il1 or ol1 unaccented1--namely1 equal1 rival1 vial1 marshal1 victual1 cavil1 pencil1 carol1 gambol1 and pistol1--are usually allowed to double the l1 though some dissent from the practice3 as1 equalled1 equalling2 rivalled1 rivalling2 cavilled1 cavilling1 caviller2 carolled1 carolling1 caroller4 #c4 ,when ly follows l1 we have two ,ells of course1 but in fact no doubling3 as1 real1 really2 oral1 orally2 cruel1 cruelly2 civil1 civilly2 cool1 coolly2 wool1 woolly4 #d4 ,compounds1 though they often remove the principal accent from the point of duplication1 always retain the double letter3 as1 wit'snapper1 kid'napper1#aad grass'hopper1 duck'-legged1 spur'galled1 hot'spurred1 broad'-brimmed1 hare'-lipped1 half-witted4 ,so1 compromitted and manumitted2 but benefited is different4 ,,rule ,v4--,,final ,,ck4 ,monosyllables and ,english verbs end not with c1 but take ck for double c2 as1 rack1 wreck1 rock1 attack3 but1 in general1 words derived from the learned languages need not the k1 and common use discards it2 as1 ,italic1 maniac1 music1 public4 ,,exceptions4--,the words arc1 part of a circle2 orc1 the name of a fish2 lac1 a gum or resin2 and sac1 or soc1 a privilege1 in old ,english law1 are ended with c only4 ,zinc is1 perhaps1 better spelled zink2 marc1 mark2 disc1 disk2 and talc1 talck4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,retaining4 ,words ending with any double letter1 preserve it double before any additional termination1 not beginning with the same letter2#aae as in the following derivatives3 wooer1 seeing1 blissful1 oddly1 gruffly1 equally1 shelly1 hilly1 stiffness1 illness1 stillness1 shrillness1 fellness1 smallness1 drollness1 freeness1 grassless1 passless1 carelessness1 recklessness1 embarrassment1 enfeoffment1 agreement1 agreeable4 ,,exceptions4--#a4 ,certain irregular derivatives in d or t1 from verbs ending in ee1 ll1 or ss1 7as fled from flee1 sold from sell1 told from tell1 dwelt from dwell1 spelt from spell1 spilt from spill1 shalt from shall1 wilt from will1 blest from bless1 past from pass17 are exceptions to the foregoing rule4 #b4 ,if the word pontiff is properly spelled with two ,effs1 its eight derivatives are also exceptions to this rule2 for they are severally spelled with one2 as1 pontific1 pontifical1 pontificate1 c4 #c4 ,the words skillful1 skillfully1 willful1 willfully1 chillness1 tallness1 dullness1 and fullness1 have generally been allowed to drop the second l1 though all of them might well be made to conform to the general rule1 agreeably to the orthography of ,webster4 ,,rule ,,vii4--,,retaining4 ,words ending with any double letter1 preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes3 as1 see1 foresee2 feoff1 enfeoff2 pass1 repass2 press1 depress2 miss1 amiss2 call1 recall2 stall1 forestall2 thrall1 inthrall2 spell1 misspell2 tell1 foretell2 sell1 undersell2 add1 superadd2 snuff1 besnuff2 swell1 overswell4 ,,observation4--,the words enroll1 unroll1 miscall1 befall1 befell1 bethrall1 reinstall1 disinthrall1 fulfill1 and twibill1 are very commonly written with one l1 and made exceptions to this rule2 but those authors are in the right who retain the double letter4 ,,rule ,,viii4--,,final ,,ll4 ,final ll is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds1 with the few derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes2 consequently1 all other words that end in l1 must be terminated with a single l3 as1 cabal1 logical1 appal1 excel1 rebel1 refel1 dispel1 extol1 control1 mogul1 jackal1 rascal1 damsel1 handsel1 tinsel1 tendril1 tranquil1 gambol1 consul4 ,,observation4--,the words annul1 until1 distil1 extil1 and instil1 are also properly spelled with one l2 for the monosyllables null1 till1 and still are not really their roots1 but rather derivatives1 or contractions of later growth4 ,webster1 however1 prefers distill1 extill1 and instill with ll2 and some have been disposed to add the other two4 ,,rule ,,ix4--,,final ,e4 ,the final e of a primitive word1 when this letter is mute or obscure1 is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel3 as1 remove1 removal2 rate1 ratable2 force1 forcible2 true1 truism2 rave1 raving2 sue1 suing2 eye1 eying2 idle1 idling2 centre1 centring4 ,,exceptions4--#a4 ,words ending in ce or ge1 retain the e before able or ous1 to preserve the soft sounds of c and g3 as1 trace1 traceable2 change1 changeable2 outrage1 outrageous4 #b4 ,so1 from shoe1 we write shoeing1 to preserve the sound of the root2 from hoe1 hoeing1 by apparent analogy2 and1 from singe1 singeing2 from swinge1 swingeing2 from tinge1 tingeing2 that they may not be confounded with singing1 swinging1 and tinging4 #c4 ,to compounds and prefixes1 as firearms1 forearm1 anteact1 viceagent1 the rule does not apply2 and final ee remains double1 by ,rule #fth1 as in disagreeable1 disagreeing4 ,,rule ,x4--,,final ,e4 ,the final e of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant3 as1 pale1 paleness2 edge1 edgeless2 judge1 judgeship2 lodge1 lodgement2 change1 changeful2 infringe1 infringement4 ,,exceptions4--#a4 ,when the e is preceded by a vowel1 it is sometimes omitted2 as in duly1 truly1 awful1 argument2 but much more frequently retained2 as in dueness1 trueness1 blueness1 bluely1 rueful1 dueful1 shoeless1 eyeless4 #b4 ,the word wholly is also an exception to the rule1 for nobody writes it wholely4 #c4 ,some will have judgment1 abridgment1 and acknowledgment1 to be irreclaimable exceptions2 but ,i write them with the e1 upon the authority of ,lowth1 ,beattie1 ,ainsworth1 ,walker1 ,cobb1 ,chalmers1 and others3 the ,french jugement1 judgement1 always retains the e4 ,,rule ,,xi--,,final ,y4 ,the final y of a primitive word1 when preceded by a consonant1 is generally changed into i before an additional termination3 as1 merry1 merrier1 merriest1 merrily1 merriment2 pity1 pitied1 pities1 pitiest1 pitiless1 pitiful1 pitiable2 contrary1 contrariness1 contrarily4 ,,exceptions4--#a4 ,this rule applies to derivatives1 but not to compounds3 thus1 we write merciful1 and mercy-seat2 penniless1 and pennyworth2 scurviness1 and scurvy-grass2 c4 ,but ladyship and goodyship1 being unlike secretariship and suretiship2 handicraft and handiwork1#aaf unlike handygripe and handystroke2 babyship and babyhood1 unlike stateliness and likelihood2 the distinction between derivatives and compounds1 we see1 is too nice a point to have been always accurately observed4 #b4 ,before ing or ish1 the y is retained to prevent the doubling of i3 as1 pity1 pitying2 baby1 babyish4 #c4 ,words ending in ie1 dropping the e by ,rule #ith1 change the i into y1 for the same reason3 as1 die1 dying2 vie1 vying2 lie1 lying4 ,,rule ,,xii--,,final ,y4 ,the final y of a primitive word1 when preceded by a vowel1 should not be changed into i before any additional termination3 as1 day1 days2 key1 keys2 guy1 guys2 valley1 valleys2 coy1 coyly2 cloy1 cloys1 cloyed2 boy1 boyish1 boyhood2 annoy1 annoyer1 annoyance2 joy1 joyless1 joyful4 ,,exceptions4--#a4 ,from lay1 pay1 say1 and stay1 are formed laid1 paid1 said1 and staid2 but the regular words1 layed1 payed1 stayed1 are sometimes used4 #b4 ,raiment1 contracted from arrayment1 is never written with the y4 #c4 ,daily is more common than the regular form dayly2 but gayly1 gayety1 and gayness1 are justly superseding gaily and gaiety4 ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,ize ,,and ,,ise4 ,words ending in ize or ise sounded alike1 as in wise and size1 generally take the z in all such as are essentially formed by means of the termination2 and the s in monosyllables1 and all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes3 as1 gormandise1 apologize1 brutalize1 canonize1 pilgrimize1 philosophize1 cauterize1 anathematize1 sympathize1 disorganize1 with z2#aag rise1 arise1 disguise1 advise1 devise1 supervise1 circumcise1 despise1 surmise1 surprise1 comprise1 compromise1 enterprise1 presurmise1 with s4 ,,exceptions4--#a4 ,advertise1 catechise1 chastise1 criticise1#aah exercise1 exorcise1 and merchandise1 are most commonly written with s and size1 assize1 capsize1 analyze1 overprize1 detonize1 and recognize1 with z4 ,how many of them are real exceptions to the rule1 it is difficult to say4 #b4 ,prise1 a thing taken1 and prize1 to esteem2 apprise1 to inform1 and apprize1 to value1 or appraise1 are often written either way1 without this distinction of meaning1 which some wish to establish4 #c4 ,the want of the foregoing rule has also made many words variable1 which ought1 unquestionably1 to conform to the general principle4 ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,compounds4 ,compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them3 as1 wherein1 horseman1 uphill1 shellfish1 knee-deep1 kneedgrass1 kneading-trough1 innkeeper1 skylight1 plumtree1 mandrill4 ,,exceptions4--#a4 ,in permanent compounds1 or in any derivatives of which1 they are not the roots1 the words full and all drop one l2 as1 handful1 careful1 fulfil1 always1 although1 withal2 in temporary compounds1 they retain both2 as1 full-eyed1 chock-full1#aai all-wise1 save-all4 #b4 ,so the prefix mis1 7if from miss1 to err17 drops one s2 but it is wrong to drop them both1 as in ,johnson's mispell and mispend1 for misspell and misspend4 #c4 ,in the names of days1 the word mass also drops one s2 as1 ,christmas1 ,candlemas1 ,lammas4 #d4 ,the possessive case often drops the apostrophe2 as in herdsman1 kitesfoot4 #e4 ,one letter is dropped1 if three of the same kind come together3 as1 ,rosshire1 chaffinch2 or else a hyphen is used3 as1 ,ross-shire1 ill-looking1 still-life4 #f4 ,chilblain1 welcome1 and welfare1 drop one l4 #g4 ,pastime drops an s4 #h4 ,shepherd1 wherever1 and whosever1 drop an e2 and wherefore and therefore assume one4 ,,rule ,,xv4--,,usage4 ,any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage1 is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned3 as1 ,the brewer grinds his malt before he brues his beer4--,red ,book1 p4 #ch4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the foregoing rules aim at no wild and impracticable reformation of our orthography2 but1 if carefully applied1 they will do much to obviate its chief difficulties4 ,being made variable by the ignorance of some writers and the caprice of others1 our spelling is now1 and always has been1 exceedingly irregular and unsettled4 ,uniformity and consistency can be attained in no other way1 than by the steady application of rules and principles2 and these must be made as few and as general as the case will admit1 that the memory of the learner may not be overmatched by their number or complexity4 ,rules founded on the analogy of similar words1 and sanctioned by the usage of careful writers1 must be taken as our guides2 because common practice is often found to be capricious1 contradictory1 and uncertain4 ,that errors and inconsistencies abound1 even in the books which are proposed to the world as standards of ,english orthography1 is a position which scarcely needs proof4 ,it is true1 to a greater or less extent1 of all the spelling-books and dictionaries that ,i have seen1 and probably of all that have ever been published4 ,and as all authors are liable to mistakes1 which others may copy1 general rules should have more weight than particular examples to the contrary4 ,the right spelling of a word may be said to be that which agrees the best with its pronunciation1 its etymology1 and with the analogy of the particular class of words to which it belongs4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #fdg4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,i do not deny that great respect is due to the authority of our lexicographers1 or that great improvement was made in the orthography of our language when ,dr4 ,johnson put his hand to the work4 ,but sometimes one man's authority may offset an other's2 and he that is inconsistent with himself1 destroys his own3 for1 surely1 his example cannot be paramount to his principles4 ,much has been idly said1 both for and against the adoption of ,johnson's ,dictionary1 or ,webster's1 as the criterion of what is right or wrong in spelling2 but it would seem that no one man's learning is sufficiently extensive1 or his memory sufficiently accurate1 to be solely relied on to furnish a standard by which we may in all cases be governed4 ,johnson was generally right2 but1 like other men1 he was sometimes wrong4 ,he erred sometimes in his principles1 or in their application2 as when he adopted the k in such words as rhetorick1 and demoniack2 or when he inserted the u in such words as governour1 warriour1 superiour4 ,neither of these modes of spelling was ever generally adopted1 in any thing like the number of words to which he applied them2 or ever will be2 though some indiscreet compilers are still zealously endeavouring to impose them upon the public1 as the true way of spelling4 ,he also erred sometimes by accident1 or oversight2 as when he spelled thus3 recall and miscal1 inthrall and bethral1 windfall and downfal1 laystall and thumbstal1 waterfall and overfal1 molehill and dunghil1 windmill and twibil1 uphill and downhil4 ,this occasional excision of the letter l is reprehensible1 because it is contrary to general analogy1 and because both letters are necessary to preserve the sound1 and show the derivation of the compound4 ,walker censures it as a ridiculous irregularity1 and lays the blame of it on the printers1 and yet does not venture to correct it6 ,see ,johnson's ,dictionary1 first ,american edition1 quarto2 ,walker's ,pronouncing ,dictionary1 under the word ,dunghil2 and his ,rhyming ,dictionary1 ,introd41 p4 xv4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,dr4 ,johnson's ,dictionary has been represented by some as having nearly fixed the external form of our language4 ,but ,murray1 who quotes this from ,dr4 ,nares1 admits1 at the same time1 that1 ,the orthography of a great number of ,english words1 is far from being uniform1 even amongst writers of distinction4--,gram41 p4 #be4 ,and1 after commending this work of ,johnson's1 as ,a ,,standard1 from which1 it is earnestly to be hoped1 that no author will henceforth1 on light grounds1 be tempted to innovate1 he adds1 ,this ,dictionary1 however1 contains some orthographical inconsistencies which ought to be rectified3 such as1 immovable1 moveable2 chastely1 chastness2 fertileness1 fertily2 sliness1 slyly2 fearlessly1 fearlesness2 needlessness1 needlesly4--,ib4 ,in respect to the final ck and our1 he also intentionally departs from ,,the ,,standard which he thus commends2 preferring1 in that1 the authority of ,walker's ,rhyming ,dictionary1 from which he borrowed his rules for spelling4 ,for1 against the use of k at the end of words from the learned languages1 and against the u in many words in which ,johnson used it1 we have the authority1 not only of general usage now1 but of many grammarians who were contemporary with ,johnson1 and of more than a dozen lexicographers1 ancient or modern1 among whom is ,walker himself4 ,in this1 therefore1 ,murray's practice is right1 and his commended standard dictionary1 wrong4 ,,obs4 #d4--,of words ending in or or our1 we have about three hundred and twenty2 of which not more than forty can now with any propriety be written with the latter termination4 ,aiming to write according to the best usage of the present day1 ,i insert the u in so many of these words as now seem most familiar to the eye when so written2 but ,i have no partiality for any letters that can well be spared2 and if this book should ever1 by any good fortune1 happen to be reprinted1 after honour1 labour1 favour1 behaviour1 and endeavour1 shall have become as unfashionable as authour1 errour1 terrour1 and emperour1 are now1 let the proof-reader strike out the useless letter not only from these words1 but from all others which shall bear an equally antiquated appearance4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,i have suggested the above-mentioned imperfections in ,dr4 ,johnson's orthography1 merely to justify the liberty which ,i take of spelling otherwise2 and not with any view to give a preference to that of ,dr4 ,webster1 who is now contending for the honour of having furnished a more correct standard4 ,for the latter author1 though right in some things in which the former was wrong1 is1 on the whole1 still more erroneous and inconsistent4 ,in his various attempts at reformation in our orthography1 he has spelled many hundreds of words in such a variety of ways1 that he knows not at last which of them is right1 and which are wrong4 ,but in respect to definitions1 he has done good service to our literature2 nor have his critics been sufficiently just respecting what they call his innovations4 ,see ,cobb's ,critical ,review of the ,orthography of ,webster4 ,to omit the k from such words as publick1 or the u from such as superiour1 is certainly no innovation2 it is but ignorance that censures the general practice1 under that name4 ,the advocates for ,johnson and opponents of ,webster1 who are now so zealously stickling for the k and the u in these cases1 ought to know that they are contending for what was obsolete1 or obsolescent1 when ,dr4 ,johnson was a boy4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,i have before observed that some of the grammarians who were contemporary with ,johnson1 did not adopt his practice respecting the k or the u1 in publick1 critick1 errour1 superiour1 c4 ,and indeed ,i am not sure there were any who did4 ,dr4 ,johnson was born in #agji1 and he died in #aghd4 ,but ,brightland's ,grammar1 which was written during the reign of ,queen ,anne1 who died in #agad1 in treating of the letter ,c1 says1 ,if in any ,word the harder ,sound precedes 7e71 7i71 or 7y71 7k7 is either added or put in its ,place2 as1 ,skill1 ,skin1 ,publick3 ,and tho' the additional 7k7 in the foregoing ,word be an old ,way of ,spelling1 yet it is now very justly left off1 as being a superfluous ,letter2 for 7c7 at the ,end is always hard4--,seventh ,edition1 ,lond41 #agdf1 p4 #cg4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the three grammars of ,ash1 ,priestley1 and ,lowth1 all appeared1 in their first editions1 about one time2 all1 if ,i mistake not1 in the year #agfc2 and none of these learned doctors1 it would seem1 used the mode of spelling now in question4 ,in ,ash1 of #agii1 we have such orthography as this3 ,italics1 public1 domestic1 our traffic1 music1 quick2 error1 superior1 warrior1 authors1 honour1 humour1 favour1 behaviour4 ,in ,priestley1 of #aggb3 ,iambics1 dactyls1 dactylic1 anapstic1 monosyllabic1 electric1 public1 critic2 author1 emperor's1 superior2 favour1 labours1 neighbours1 laboured1 vigour1 endeavour2 meagre1 hillock1 bailiwick1 bishoprick1 control1 travelling4 ,in ,lowth1 of #agii3 ,comic1 critic1 characteristic1 domestic2 author1 favor1 favored1 endeavored1 alledging1 foretells4 ,now all these are words in the spelling of which ,johnson and ,webster contradict each other2 and if they are not all right1 surely they would not1 on the whole1 be made more nearly right1 by being conformed to either of these authorities exclusively4 ,for ,,the ,,best ,,usage is the ultimate rule of grammar4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the old ,british ,grammar1 written before the ,american ,revolution1 and even before the learned ,mr4 ,samuel ,johnson was doctorated1 though it thus respectfully quotes that great scholar1 does not follow him in the spelling of which ,i am treating4 ,on the contrary1 it abounds with examples of words ending in ic and or1 and not in ick and our1 as he wrote them2 and ,i am confident1 that1 from that time to this1 the former orthography has continued to be more common than his4 ,walker1 the orthopist1 who died in #ahjg1 yielded the point respecting the k1 and ended about four hundred and fifty words with c in his ,rhyming ,dictionary2 but he thought it more of an innovation than it really was4 ,in his ,pronouncing ,dictionary1 he says1 ,it has been a custom1 within these twenty years1 to omit the k at the end of words1 when preceded by c4 ,this has introduced a novelty into the language1 which is that of ending a word with an unusual letter1 c4 ,this omission of k is1 however1 too general to be counteracted1 even by the authority of ,johnson2 but it is to be hoped it will be confined to words from the learned languages4-- ,walker's ,principles of ,pronunciation1 ,no4 #djj4 ,the tenth edition of ,burn's ,grammar1 dated #ahaj1 says1 ,it has become customary to omit k after c at the end of dissyllables and trisyllables1 c4 as music1 arithmetic1 logic2 but the k is retained in monosyllables2 as1 back1 deck1 rick1 c4--,p4 #be4 ,james ,buchanan1 of whose ,english ,syntax there had been five ,american editions in #agib1 added no k to such words as didactic1 critic1 classic1 of which he made frequent use2 and though he wrote honour1 labour1 and the like1 with u1 as they are perhaps most generally written now1 he inserted no u in error1 author1 or any of those words in which that letter would now be inconsistent with good taste4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,bicknell's ,grammar1 of #agij1 treating of the letter k1 says1 ,and for the same reason we have dropt it at the end of words after c1 which is there always hard2 as in publick1 logick1 c4 which are more elegantly written public1 logic4--,part ii1 p4 #ac4 ,again3 ,it has heretofore joined with c at the end of words2 as publick1 logick2 but1 as before observed1 being there quite superfluous1 it is now left out--,ib41 p4 #af4 ,horne ,tooke's orthography was also agreeable to the rule which ,i have given on this subject4 ,so is the usage of ,david ,booth3 ,formerly a k was added1 as1 rustick1 politick1 ,arithmetick1 c4 but this is now in disuse4--,booth's ,introd4 to ,dict41 ,lond41 #ahad1 p4 #hj4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,as the authors of many recent spelling-books--,cobb1 ,emerson1 ,burhans1 ,bolles1 ,sears1 ,marshall1 ,mott1 and others--are now contending for this superfluous letter1 in spite of all the authority against it1 it seems proper briefly to notice their argument1 lest the student be misled by it4 ,it is summed up by one of them in the following words3 ,in regard to k after c at the end of words1 it may be sufficient to say1 that its omission has never been attempted1 except in a small portion of the cases where it occurs2 and that it tends to an erroneous pronunciation of derivatives1 as in mimick1 mimicking1 where1 if the k were omitted1 it would read mimicing2 and as c before i is always sounded like s1 it must be pronounced mimising4 ,now1 since it is never omitted in monosyllables1 where it most frequently occurs1 as in block1 clock1 c41 and can be in a part only of polysyllables1 it is thought better to preserve it in all cases1 by which we have one general rule1 in place of several irregularities and exceptions that must follow its partial omission4--,bolles's ,spelling-,book1 p4 #b4 ,i need not tell the reader that these two sentences evince great want of care or skill in the art of grammar4 ,but it is proper to inform him1 that we have in our language eighty-six monosyllables which end with ck1 and from them about fifty compounds or derivatives1 which of course keep the same termination4 ,to these may be added a dozen or more which seem to be of doubtful formation1 such as huckaback1 pickapack1 gimcrack1 ticktack1 picknick1 barrack1 knapsack1 hollyhock1 shamrock1 hammock1 hillock1 hammock1 bullock1 roebuck4 ,but the verbs on which this argument is founded are only six2 attack1 ransack1 traffick1 frolick1 mimick1 and physick2 and these1 unquestionably1 must either be spelled with the k1 or must assume it in their derivatives4 ,now that useful class of words which are generally and properly written with final c1 are about four hundred and fifty in number1 and are all of them either adjectives or nouns of regular derivation from the learned languages1 being words of more than one syllable1 which have come to us from ,greek or ,latin roots4 ,but what has the doubling of c by k1 in our native monosyllables and their derivatives1 to do with all these words of foreign origin8 ,for the reason of the matter1 we might as well double the l1 as our ancestors did1 in naturall1 temporall1 spirituall1 c4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,the learner should observe that some letters incline much to a duplication1 while gome others are doubled but seldom1 and some1 never4 ,thus1 among the vowels1 ee and oo occur frequently2 aa is used sometimes2 ii1 never--except in certain ,latin words1 7wherein the vowels are separately uttered17 such as ,horatii1 ,veii1 iidem1 genii4 ,again1 the doubling of u is precluded by the fact that we have a distinct letter called ,double-u1 which was made by joining two ,vees1 or two ,ues1 when the form for u was v4 ,so1 among the consonants1 f1 l1 and s1 incline more to duplication1 than any others4 ,these letters are double1 not only at the end of those monosyllables which have but one vowel1 as staff1 mill1 pass2 but also under some other circumstances4 ,according to general usage1 final f is doubled after a single vowel1 in almost all cases2 as in bailiff1 caitiff1 plaintiff1 midriff1 sheriff1 tariff1 mastiff3 yet not in calif1 which is perhaps better written caliph4 ,final l1 as may be seen by ,rule #hth1 admits not now of a duplication like this2 but1 by the exceptions to ,rule #dth1 it is frequently doubled when no other consonant would be2 as in travelling1 grovelling2 unless1 7contrary to the opinion of ,lowth1 ,walker1 and ,webster17 we will have fillipping1 gossipping1 and worshipping1 to be needful exceptions also4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,final s sometimes occurs single1 as in alas1 atlas1 bias2 and especially in ,latin words1 as virus1 impetus2 and when it is added to form plurals1 as verse1 verses3 but this letter1 too1 is generally doubled at the end of primitive words of more than one syllable2 as in carcass1 compass1 cuirass1 harass1 trespass1 embarrass4 ,on the contrary1 the other consonants are seldom doubled1 except when they come under ,rule #c;d4 ,the letter p1 however1 is commonly doubled1 in some words1 even when it forms a needless exception to ,rule #dth2 as in the derivatives from fillip1 gossip1 and perhaps also worship4 ,this letter1 too1 was very frequently doubled in ,greek2 whence we have1 from the name of ,philip of ,macedon1 the words ,philippic and ,philippize1 which1 if spelled according to our rule for such derivatives1 would1 like galloped and galloper1 siruped and sirupy1 have but one p4 ,we find them so written in some late dictionaries4 ,but if fillipped1 gossipped1 and worshipped1 with the other derivatives from the same roots1 are just and necessary exceptions to ,rule #dth1 7which ,i do not admit17 so are these2 and for a much stronger reason1 as the classical scholar will think4 ,in our language1 or in words purely ,english1 the letters h1 i1 j1 k1 q1 v1 w1 x1 and y1 are1 properly speaking1 never doubled4 ,yet1 in the forming of compounds1 it may possibly happen1 that two ,aitches1 two ,kays1 or even two ,double-ues or ,wies1 shall come together2 as in withhold1 brickkiln1 slowwoorm1 bayyarn4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,there are some words--as those which come from metal1 medal1 coral1 crystal1 argil1 axil1 cavil1 tranquil1 pupil1 papil--in which the classical scholar is apt to violate the analogy of ,english derivation1 by doubling the letter l1 because he remembers the ll of their foreign roots1 or their foreign correspondents4 ,but let him also remember1 that1 if a knowledge of etymology may be shown by spelling metallic1 metalliferous1 metallography1 metallurgic1 metallurgist1 metallurgy1 medallic1 medallion1 crystallize1 crystalline1 argillous1 argillaceous1 axillar1 axillary1 cavillous1 cavillation1 papillate1 papillous1 papillary1 tranquillity1 and pupillary1 with double l1 ignorance of it must needs be implied in spelling metaline1 metalist1 metaloid1 metaloidal1 medalist1 coralaceous1 coraline1 coralite1 coralinite1 coraloid1 coraloidal1 crystalite1 argilite1 argilitic1 tranquilize1 and pupilage1 in like manner4 ,but we cannot well double the l in the former1 and not in the latter words4 ,here is a choice of difficulties4 ,etymology must govern orthography4 ,but what etymology8 our own1 or that which is foreign8 ,if we say1 both1 they disagree2 and the mere ,english scholar cannot know when1 or how far1 to be guided by the latter4 ,if a ,latin diminutive1 as papilla from papula or papa1 pupillus from pupus1 or tranquillus from trans and quietus1 happen to double an l1 must we forever cling to the reduplication1 and that1 in spite of our own rules to the contrary8 ,why is it more objectionable to change pupillaris to pupilary1 than pupillus to pupil8 or1 to change tranquillitas to tranquility1 than tranquillus to tranquil8 ,and since papilous1 pupilage1 and tranquilize are formed from the ,english words1 and not directly from the ,latin1 why is it not as improper to write them with double l1 as to write perilous1 vassalage1 and civilize1 in the same manner8 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,if the practice of the learned would allow us to follow the ,english rule here1 ,i should incline to the opinion1 that all the words which ,i have mentioned above1 ought to be written with single l4 ,ainsworth exhibits the ,latin word for coral in four forms1 and the ,greek word in three4 ,two of the ,latin and two of the ,greek have the l single2 the others double it4 ,he also spells coraliticus with one l1 and defines it ,a sort of white marble1 called coraline4 #abj ,the ,spaniards1 from whose medalla1 we have medal2 whose argil#aba is arcilla1 from the ,latin argilla2 and to whose cavilar1 ,webster traces cavil2 in all their derivatives from these ,latin roots1 metallum1 metal--coralium1 corallium1 curalium1 or corallum1 coral--crystallus or crystallum1 crystal--pupillus1 pupil--and tranquillus1 tranquil--follow their own rules1 and write mostly with single l3 as1 pupilero1 a teacher2 metalico1 metalic2 corolina 7fem47 coraline2 cristalino1 crystaline2 crystalizar1 crystalize2 traquilizar1 tranquilize2 and tranquilidad1 tranquility4 ,and if we follow not ours1 when or how shall the ,english scholar ever know why we spell as we do8 ,for example1 what can he make of the orthography of the following words1 which ,i copy from our best dictionaries3 equip'1 eq'uipage2 wor'ship1 wor'shipper2--peril1 perilous2 cavil1 cavillous2#abb--libel1 libellous2 quarrel1 quarrelous2--opal1 opaline2 metal1 metalline2#abc--;coral1 coralliform2 crystal1 crystalform2--dial1 dialist2 medal1 medallist2--rascal1 rascalion2 medal1 medallion2--moral1 moralist1 morality2 metal1 metallist1 metallurgy2--civil1 civilize1 civility2 tranquil1 tranquillize1 tranquillity2--novel1 novelism1 novelist1 novelize2 grovel1 grovelling1 grovelled1 groveller8 ,,obs4 #ae4--,the second clause of ,murray's or ,walker's #eth ,rule for spelling1 gives only a single l to each of the derivatives above named4#abd ,but it also treats in like manner many hundreds of words in which the l must certainly be doubled4 ,and1 as neither the ,compiler1 nor any of his copiers1 have paid any regard to their own principle1 neither their doctrine nor their practice can be of much weight either way4 ,yet it is important to know to what words the rule is1 or is not1 applicable4 ,in considering this vexatious question about the duplication of l1 ,i was at first inclined to admit that1 whenever final l has become single in ,english by dropping the second l of a foreign root1 the word shall resume the ll in all derivatives formed from it by adding a termination beginning with a vowel2 as1 beryllus1 beryl1 berylline4 ,this would1 of course1 double the l in nearly all the derivatives from metal1 medal1 c4 ,but what says ,custom8 ,she constantly doubles the l in most of them2 but wavers in respect to some1 and in a few will have it single4 ,hence the difficulty of drawing a line by which we may abide without censure4 ,pu'pillage and pu'pillary1 with ll1 are according to ,walker's ,rhyming ,dictionary2 but ,johnson spells them pu'pilage and pu'pilary1 with single l2 and ,walker1 in his ,pronouncing ,dictionary1 has pupilage with one l1 and pupillary with two4 ,again3 both ,johnson's and the ,pronouncing ,dictionary1 give us medallist and metallist with ll1 and are sustained by ,webster and others2 but ,walker1 in his ,rhyming ,dictionary1 writes them medalist and metalist1 with single l1 like dialist1 formalist1 cabalist1 herbalist1 and twenty other such words4 ,further3 ,webster doubles the l in all the derivatives of metal1 medal1 coral1 axil1 argil1 and papil2 but writes it single in all those of crystal1 cavil1 pupil1 and tranquil--except tranquillity4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,dr4 ,webster also attempts1 or pretends1 to put in practice the hasty proposition of ,walker1 to spell with single l all derivatives from words ending in l not under the accent4 ,no letter1 says ,walker1 seems to be more frequently doubled improperly than l4 ,why we should write libelling1 levelling1 revelling1 and yet offering1 suffering1 reasoning1 ,i am totally at a loss to determine2 and1 unless l can give a better plea than any other letter in the alphabet1 for being doubled in this situation1 ,i must1 in the style of ,lucian1 in his trial of the letter ,t1 declare for an expulsion4--,rhyming ,dict41 p4 x4 ,this rash conception1 being adopted by some men of still less caution1 has wrought great mischief in our orthography4 ,with respect to words ending in el1 it is a good and sufficient reason for doubling the l1 that the e may otherwise be supposed servile and silent4 ,i have therefore made this termination a general exception to the rule against doubling4 ,besides1 a large number of these words1 being derived from foreign words in which the l was doubled1 have a second reason for the duplication1 as strong as that which has often induced these same authors to double that letter1 as noticed above4 ,such are bordel1 chapel1 duel1 fardel1 gabel1 gospel1 gravel1 lamel1 label1 libel1 marvel1 model1 novel1 parcel1 quarrel1 and spinel4 ,accordingly we find1 that1 in his work of expulsion1 ,dr4 ,webster has not unfrequently contradicted himself1 and conformed to usage1 by doubling the l where he probably intended to write it single4 ,thus1 in the words bordeller1 chapellany1 chapelling1 gospellary1 gospeller1 gravelly1 lamellate1 lamellar1 lamellarly1 lamelliform1 and spinellane1 he has written the l double1 while he has grossly corrupted many other similar words by forbearing the reduplication2 as1 traveler1 groveling1 duelist1 marvelous1 and the like4 ,in cases of such difficulty1 we can never arrive at uniformity and consistency of practice1 unless we resort to principles1 and such principles as can be made intelligible to the ,english scholar4 ,if any one is dissatisfied with the rules and exceptions which ,i have laid down1 let him study the subject till he can furnish the schools with better4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,we have in our language a very numerous class of adjectives ending in able or ible1 as affable1 arable1 tolerable1 admissible1 credible1 infallible1 to the number of nine hundred or more4 ,in respect to the proper form and signification of some of these1 there occurs no small difficulty4 ,able is a common ,english word1 the meaning of which is much better understood than its origin4 ,horne ,tooke supposes it to have come from the ,gothic noun abal1 signifying strength2 and consequently avers1 that it has nothing to do with the ,latin adjective habilis1 fit1 or able1 from which our etymologists erroneously derive it4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dej4 ,this ,i suppose the etymologists will dispute with him4 ,but whatever may be its true derivation1 no one can well deny that able1 as a suffix1 belongs most properly1 if not exclusively1 to verbs2 for most of the words formed by it1 are plainly a sort of verbal adjectives4 ,and it is evident that this author is right in supposing that ,english words of this termination1 like the ,latin verbals in bilis1 have1 or ought to have1 such a signification as may justify the name which he gives them1 of potential passive adjectives2 a signification in which the ,english and the ,latin derivatives exactly correspond4 ,thus dis'soluble or dissolv'able does not mean able to dissolve1 but capable of being dissolved2 and divisible or dividable does not mean able to divide1 but capable of being divided4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,as to the application of this suffix to nouns1 when we consider the signification of the words thus formed1 its propriety may well be doubted4 ,it is true1 however1 that nouns do sometimes assume something of the nature of verbs1 so as to give rise to adjectives that are of a participial character2 such1 for instance1 as sainted1 bigoted1 conceited1 gifted1 tufted4 ,again1 of such as hard-hearted1 good-natured1 cold-blooded1 we have an indefinite number4 ,and perhaps1 upon the same principle1 the formation of such words as actionable1 companionable1 exceptionable1 marketable1 merchantable1 pasturable1 treasonable1 and so forth1 may be justified1 if care be taken to use them in a sense analogous to that of the real verbals4 ,but1 surely1 the meaning which is commonly attached to the words amicable1 changeable1 fashionable1 favourable1 peaceable1 reasonable1 pleasurable1 seasonable1 suitable1 and some others1 would never be guessed from their formation4 ,thus1 suitable means fitting or suiting1 and not able to suit1 or capable of being suited4 ,,obs4 #ai4--,though all words that terminate in able1 used as a suffix1 are properly reckoned derivatives1 rather than compounds1 and in the former class the separate meaning of the parts united is much less regarded than in the latter2 yet1 in the use of words of this formation1 it would be well to have some respect to the general analogy of their signification as stated above2 and not to make derivatives of the same fashion convey meanings so very different as do some of these4 ,perhaps it is from some general notion of their impropriety1 that several words of this doubtful character have already become obsolete1 or are gradually falling into disuse3 as1 accustomable1 chanceable1 concordable1 conusable1 customable1 behoovable1 leisurable1 medicinable1 personable1 powerable1 razorable1 shapable1 semblable1 vengeable1 veritable4 ,still1 there are several others1 yet currently employed1 which might better perhaps1 for the same reason1 give place to more regular terms3 as1 amicable1 for friendly or kind2 charitable1 for benevolent or liberal2 colourable1 for apparent or specious2 peaceable1 for peaceful or unhostile2 pleasurable1 for pleasing or delightful2 profitable1 for gainful or lucrative2 sociable1 for social or affable2 reasonable1 for rational or just4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,in respect to the orthography of words ending in able or ible1 it is sometimes difficult to determine which of these endings ought to be preferred2 as whether we ought to write tenable or tenible1 reversable or reversible1 addable or addible4 ,in ,latin1 the termination is bilis1 and the preceding vowel is determined by the conjugation to which the verb belongs4 ,thus1 for verbs of the first conjugation1 it is a2 as1 from arare1 to plough1 arabilis1 arable1 tillable4 ,for the second conjugation1 it is i2 as1 from docere1 to teach1 docibilis1 or docilis1 docible or docile1 teachable4 ,for the third conjugation1 it is i2 as1 from vendere1 to sell1 vendibilis1 vendible1 salable4 ,and1 for the fourth conjugation1 it is i2 as1 from sepelire1 to bury1 sepelibilis1 sep'elible1#abe buriable4 ,but from solvo and volvo1 of the third conjugation1 we have ubilis1 uble2 as1 solubilis1 sol'uble1 solvible or solvable2 volubilis1 vol'uble1 rollable4 ,hence the ,english words1 rev'oluble1 res'oluble1 irres'oluble1 dis'soluble1 indis'soluble1 and insol'uble4 ,thus the ,latin verbals in bilis1 are a sufficient guide to the orthography of all such words as are traceable to them2 but the mere ,english scholar cannot avail himself of this aid2 and of this sort of words we have a much greater number than were ever known in ,latin4 ,a few we have borrowed from the ,french3 as1 tenable1 capable1 preferable1 convertible2 and these we write as they are written in ,french4 ,but the difficulty lies chiefly in those which are of ,english growth4 ,for some of them are formed according to the model of the ,latin verbals in ibilis2 as forcible1 coercible1 reducible1 discernible2 and others are made by simply adding the suffix able2 as traceable1 pronounceable1 manageable1 advisable1 returnable4 ,the last are purely ,english2 and yet they correspond in form with such as come from ,latin verbals in abilis4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,from these different modes of formation1 with the choice of different roots1 we have sometimes two or three words1 differing in orthography and pronunciation1 but conveying the same meaning2 as1 divis'ible and divi'dable1 des'picable and despi'sable1 ref'erable and refer'rible1 mis'cible and mix'able1 dis'soluble1 dissol'vible1 and dissol'vable4 ,hence1 too1 we have some words which seem to the mere ,english scholar to be spelled in a very contradictory manner1 though each1 perhaps1 obeys the law of its own derivation2 as1 peaceable and forcible1 impierceable and coercible1 marriageable and corrigible1 damageable and eligible1 changeable and tangible1 chargeable and frangible1 fencible and defensible1 pref'erable and referrible1 conversable and reversible1 defendable and descendible1 amendable and extendible1 bendable and vendible1 dividable and corrodible1 returnable and discernible1 indispensable and responsible1 advisable and fusible1 respectable and compatible1 delectable and collectible1 taxable and flexible4 ,,obs4 #bb4--,the ,american editor of the ,red ,book1 to whom all these apparent inconsistencies seemed real blunders1 has greatly exaggerated this difficulty in our orthography1 and charged ,johnson and ,walker with having written all these words and many more1 in this contradictory manner1 without any apparent reason6 ,he boldly avers1 that1 ,the perpetual contradictions of the same or like words1 in all the books1 show that the authors had no distinct ideas of what is right1 and what is wrong2 and ignorantly imagines1 that1 ,the use of ible rather than able1 in any case1 originated in the necessity of keeping the soft sound of c and g1 in the derivatives2 and if ible was confined to that use1 it would be an easy and simple rule4--,red ,book1 p4 #agj4 ,hence1 he proposes to write peacible for peaceable1 tracible for traceable1 changible for changeable1 managible for manageable2 and so for all the rest that come from words ending in ce or ge4 ,but1 whatever advantage there might be in this1 his easy and simple rule would work a revolution for which the world is not yet prepared4 ,it would make audible audable1 fallible fallable1 feasible feasable1 terrible terrable1 horrible horrable1 c4 ,no tyro can spell in a worse manner than this1 even if he have no rule at all4 ,and those who do not know enough of ,latin grammar to profit by what ,i have said in the preceding observation1 may console themselves with the reflection1 that1 in spelling these difficult words entirely by guess1 they will not miss the way more than some have done who pretended to be critics4 ,the rule given by ,john ,burn1 for able and ible1 is less objectionable2 but it is rendered useless by the great number of its exceptions4 ,,obs4 #bc4--;,as most of the rules for spelling refer to the final letters of our primitive words1 it may be proper for the learner to know and remember1 that not all the letters of the alphabet can assume that situation1 and that some of them terminate words much more frequently than others4 ,thus1 in ,walker's ,rhyming ,dictionary1 the letter a ends about #bbj words2 b1 #afj2 c1 #dej2 d1 #aeej2 e1 #gjjj2 f1 #adj2 g1 #bhj2 h1 #djj2 i1 #bi2 j1 none2 k1 #eej2 l1 #aijj2 m1 #eej2 n1 #ccjj2 o1 #bjj2 p1 #dej2 q1 none2 r1 #bgej2 s1 #cbej2 t1 #cajj2 u1 #ad2 v1 none2 w1 #bjj2 x1 #ajj2 y1 #ejjj2 z1 #e4 ,we have1 then1 three consonants1 j1 q1 and v1 which never end a word4 ,and why not8 ,with respect to j and v1 the reason is plain from their history4 ,these letters were formerly identified with i and u1 which are not terminational letters4 ,the vowel i ends no pure ,english word1 except that which is formed of its own capital ,i2 and the few words which end with u are all foreign1 except thou and you4 ,and not only so1 the letter j is what was formerly called i consonant2 and v is what was called u consonant4 ,but it was the initial i and u1 or the i and u which preceded an other vowel1 and not those which followed one1 that were converted into the consonants j and v4 ,hence1 neither of these letters ever ends any ,english word1 or is ever doubled4 ,nor do they unite with other consonants before or after a vowel3 except that v is joined with r in a few words of ,french origin1 as livre1 manoeuvre2 or with l in some ,dutch names1 as ,watervleit4 ,q ends no ,english word1 because it is always followed by u4 ,the ,french termination que1 which is commonly retained in pique1 antique1 critique1 opaque1 oblique1 burlesque1 and grotesque1 is equivalent to k2 hence we write packet1 lackey1 checker1 risk1 mask1 and mosk1 rather than paquet1 laquey1 chequer1 risque1 masque1 and mosque4 ,and some authors write burlesk and grotesk1 preferring k to que4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,thus we see that j1 q1 and v1 are1 for the most part1 initial consonants only4 ,hence there is a harshness1 if not an impropriety1 in that syllabication which some have recently adopted1 wherein they accommodate to the ear the division of such words as maj-es-ty1 proj-ect1 traj-ect1--eq-ui-ty1 liq-ui-date1 ex-cheq-uer4 ,but v1 in a similar situation1 has now become familiar2 as in ev-er-y1 ev-i-dence3 and it may also stand with l or r1 in the division of such words as solv-ing and serv-ing4 ,of words ending in ive1 ,walker exhibits four hundred and fifty--exactly the same number that he spells with ic4 ,and ,horne ,tooke1 who derives ive from the ,latin ivus1 7q4 d4 vis17 and ic from the ,greek ,greek3 ikos1 7q4 d4 ,greek3 ischus7 both implying power1 has well observed that there is a general correspondence of meaning between these two classes of adjectives--both being of a potential active signification2 as purgative1 vomitive1 operative1 c42 cathartic1 emetic1 energetic1 c4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dde4 ,i have before observed1 that ,tooke spelled all this latter class of words without the final k2 but he left it to ,dr4 ,webster to suggest the reformation of striking the final e from the former4 ,,obs4 #be4--;,in ,dr4 ,webster's ,collection of ,essays and ,fugitiv ,peeces1 published in #agij1 we find1 among other equally ingenious improvements of our orthography1 a general omission of the final e in all words ending in ive1 or rather of all words ending in ve1 preceded by a short vowel2 as1 primitiv1 derivativ1 extensiv1 positiv1 deserv1 twelv1 proov1 luv1 hav1 giv1 liv4 ,this mode of spelling1 had it been adopted by other learned men1 would not only have made v a very frequent final consonant1 but would have placed it in an other new and strange predicament1 as being subject to reduplication4 ,for he that will write hav1 giv1 and liv1 must also1 by a general rule of grammar1 write havving1 givving1 and livving4 ,and not only so1 there will follow also1 in the solemn style of the ,bible1 a change of givest1 livest1 giveth1 and liveth1 into givvest1 livvest1 givveth1 and livveth4 ,from all this it may appear1 that a silent final e is not always quite so useless a thing as some may imagine4 ,with a levity no less remarkable1 does the author of the ,red ,book propose at once two different ways of reforming the orthography of such words as pierceable1 manageable1 and so forth2 in one of which1 the letter j would be brought into a new position1 and subjected sometimes to reduplication4 ,it would be a useful improvement to change this c into s1 and g into j2 as1 piersable1 manajable1 c4 ,or they might assume i2 as1 piercibe1 managible1 c4--,red ,book1 p4 #agj4 ,now would not this useful improvement give us such a word as allejjable8 and would not one such monster be more offensive than all our present exceptions to ,rule #ith8 ,out upon all such tampering with orthography6 ,,obs4 #bf4--;,if any thing could arrest the folly of innovators and dabbling reformers1 it would be the history of former attempts to effect improvements similar to theirs4 ,with this sort of history every one would do well to acquaint himself1 before he proceeds to disfigure words by placing their written elements in any new predicament4 ,if the orthography of the ,english language is ever reduced to greater regularity than it now exhibits1 the reformation must be wrought by those who have no disposition either to exaggerate its present defects1 or to undertake too much4 ,regard must be had to the origin1 as well as to the sounds1 of words4 ,to many people1 all silent letters seem superfluous2 and all indirect modes of spelling1 absurd4 ,hence1 as the learner may perceive1 a very large proportion of the variations and disputed points in spelling1 are such as refer to the silent letters1 which are retained by some writers and omitted by others4 ,it is desirable that such as are useless and irregular should be always omitted2 and such as are useful and regular always retained4 ,the rules which ,i have laid down as principles of discrimination1 are such as almost every reader will know to be generally true1 and agreeable to present usage1 though several of them have never before been printed in any grammar4 ,their application will strike out some letters which are often written1 and retain some which are often omitted2 but1 if they err on either hand1 ,i am confident they err less than any other set of rules ever yet formed for the same purpose4 ,walker1 from whom ,murray borrowed his rules for spelling1 declares for an expulsion of the second l from traveller1 gambolled1 grovelling1 equalling1 cavilling1 and all similar words2 seems more willing to drop an l from illness1 stillness1 shrillness1 fellness1 and drollness1 than to retain both in smallness1 tallness1 chillness1 dullness1 and fullness2 makes it one of his orthographical aphorisms1 that1 ,words taken into composition often drop those letters which were superfluous in their simples2 as1 ,christmas1 dunghil1 handful2 and1 at the same time1 chooses rather to restore the silent e to the ten derivatives from move and prove1 from which ,johnson dropped it1 than to drop it from the ten similar words in which that author retained it6 ,and not only so1 he argues against the principle of his own aphorism2 and says1 ,it is certainly to be feared that1 if this pruning of our words of all the superfluous letters1 as they are called1 should be much farther indulged1 we shall quickly antiquate our most respectable authors1 and irreparably maim our language4--,walker's ,rhyming ,dict41 p4 xvii4 ,,obs4 #bg4--,no attempt to subject our orthography to a system of phonetics1 seems likely to meet with general favour1 or to be free from objection1 if it should4 ,for words are not mere sounds1 and in their orthography more is implied than in phonetics1 or phonography4 ,ideographic forms have1 in general1 the advantage of preserving the identity1 history1 and lineage of words2 and these are important matters in respect to which phonetic writing is very liable to be deficient4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 about a century ago1 observed1 ,there have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement of our orthography1 which1 like that of other nations1 being formed by chance1 or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages1 was at first very various and uncertain1 and is as yet sufficiently irregular4 ,of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate orthography better to the pronunciation1 without considering that this is to measure by a shadow1 to take that for a model or standard which is changing while they apply it4 ,others1 less absurdly indeed1 but with equal unlikelihood of success1 have endeavoured to proportion the number of letters to that of sounds1 that every sound may have its own character1 and every character a single sound4 ,such would be the orthography of a new language to be formed by a synod of grammarians upon principles of science4 ,but who can hope to prevail on nations to change their practice1 and make all their old books useless8 or what advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion and perplexity of such an alteration8--,johnson's ,grammar before ,quarto ,dict41 p4 #d4 ,,obs4 #bh4--;,among these reformers of our alphabet and orthography1 of whose schemes he gives examples1 the ,doctor mentions1 first1 ,sir ,thomas ,smith1 secretary of state to ,queen ,elizabeth1 a man of real learning1 and much practised in grammatical disquisitions2 who died in #aeig2--next1 ,dr4 ,gill1 the celebrated master of ,st4 ,paul's ,school in ,london2 who died in #afce2--then1 ,charles ,butler1 a man who did not want an understanding which might have qualified him for better employment2 who died in #afdg2--;and1 lastly1 ,bishop ,wilkins1 of ,chester1 a learned and ingenious critic1 who is said to have proposed his scheme1 without expecting to be followed2 he died in #afgb4 ,,obs4 #bi4--;,from this time1 there was1 so far as ,i know1 no noticeable renewal of such efforts1 till about the year #agij1 when1 as it is shown above on page #acd of my ,introduction1 ,dr4 ,webster1 7who was then only ,noah ,webster1 ,jun41 attorney at law17 attempted to spell all words as they are spoken1 without revising the alphabet--a scheme which his subsequent experience before many years led him to abandon4 ,such a reformation was again attempted1 about forty years after1 by an other young lawyer1 the late lamented ,thomas ,s4 ,grimke1 of ,south ,carolina1 but with no more success4 ,more recently1 phonography1 or phonetic writing1 has been revived1 and to some extent spread1 by the publications of ,isaac ,pitman1 of ,bath1 ,england1 and of ,dr4 ,andrew ,comstock1 of ,philadelphia4 ,the system of the former has been made known in ,america chiefly by the lectures and other efforts of ,andrews and ,boyle1 of ,dr4 ,stone1 a citizen of ,boston1 and of ,e4 ,webster1 a publisher in ,philadelphia4 ,,obs4 #cj4--,the pronunciation of words being evidently as deficient in regularity1 in uniformity1 and in stability1 as is their orthography1 if not more so1 cannot be conveniently made the measure of their written expression4 ,concerning the principle of writing and printing by sounds alone1 a recent writer delivers his opinion thus3 ,let me here observe1 as something not remote from our subject1 but1 on the contrary1 directly bearing upon it1 that ,i can conceive no other method of so effectually defacing and barbarizing our ,english tongue1 no other scheme that would go so far to empty it1 practically at least and for us1 of all the hoarded wit1 wisdom1 imagination1 and history which it contains1 to cut the vital nerve which connects its present with the past1 as the introduction of the scheme of 'phonetic spelling1' which some have lately been zealously advocating among us2 the principle of which is1 that all words should be spelt according as they are sounded1 that the writing should be1 in every case1 subordinated to the speaking4 ,the tacit assumption that it ought so to be1 is the pervading error running through the whole system4--,r4 ,c4 ,trench1 on the ,study of ,words1 p4 #agg4 ,,obs4 #ca4--,the phonographic system of stenography1 tachygraphy1 or short-hand writing1 is1 ,i incline to believe1 a very great improvement upon the earlier methods4 ,it is perhaps the most reliable mode of taking down speeches1 sermons1 or arguments1 during their delivery1 and reporting them for the press2 though ,i cannot pronounce upon this from any experience of my own in the practice of the art4 ,and it seems highly probable1 if it has not been fully proved1 that children may at first be taught to read more readily1 and with better articulation1 from phonetic print1 or phonotypy1 as it has been called1 than from books that exhibit words in their current or established orthography4 ,but still it is questionable whether it is not best for them to learn each word at first by its peculiar or ideographic form--the form in which they must ultimately learn to read it1 and which indeed constitutes its only orthography4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,in ,,spelling4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,final ,f1 ,l1 ,,or ,s4 ,he wil observe the moral law1 in hiz conduct4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cbj4 ,,formules--#a4 ,not proper1 because the word wil is here spelled with one l4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast1 ,monosyllables ending in f1 l1 or s1 preceded by a single vowel1 double the final consonant4 ,therefore1 this l should be doubled2 thus1 will4 #b4 ,not proper again1 because the word hiz is here spelled with z4 ,but1 according to the exceptions to ,rule #ast1 ,the words as1 gas1 has1 was1 yes1 his1 c41 are written with single s4 ,therefore1 this z should be s2 thus1 his4 ,a clif is a steep bank1 or a precipitous rock4--,see ,rhyming ,dict4 ,a needy man's budget is ful of schemes4--,old ,adage4 ,few large publications in this country wil pay a printer4--,noah ,webster's ,essays1 p4 x4 ,i shal1 with cheerfulness1 resign my other papers to oblivion4--,ib41 p4 x4 ,the proposition waz suspended til the next session of the legislature4--,ib41 p4 #cfb4 ,tenants for life wil make the most of lands for themselves4--,ib41 p4 #cff4 ,while every thing iz left to lazy negroes1 a state wil never be wel cultivated4--,ib41 p4 #cfg4 ,the heirs of the original proprietors stil hold the soil4--,ib41 p4 #cdi4 ,say my annual profit on money loaned shal be six per cent4--,ib41 p4 #cjh4 ,no man would submit to the drudgery of business1 if he could make money az fast by lying stil4--,ib41 p4 #caj4 ,a man may az wel feed himself with a bodkin1 az with a knife of the present fashion4--,ib41 p4 #djj4 ,the clothes wil be ill washed1 the food wil be badly cooked2 and you wil be ashamed of your wife1 if she iz not ashamed of herself4--,ib41 p4 #djd4 ,he wil submit to the laws of the state1 while he iz a member of it4--,ib41 p4 #cbj4 ,but wil our sage writers on law forever think by tradition8--,ib41 p4 #cah4 ,some stil retain a sovereign power in their territories4--,ib41 p4 #bih4 ,they sel images1 prayers1 the sound of bels1 remission of sins1 c4--,perkins's ,theology1 p4 #dja4 ,and the law had sacrifices offered every day for the sins of al the people4--,ib41 p4 #djf4 ,then it may please the ,lord1 they shal find it to be a restorative4--,ib41 p4 #dbj4 ,perdition is repentance put of til a future day4--,old ,maxim4 ,the angels of ,god1 which wil good and cannot wil evil1 have nevertheless perfect liberty of wil4--,perkins's ,theology1 p4 #gaf4 ,secondly1 this doctrine cuts off the excuse of al sin4--,ib41 p4 #gag4 ,knel1 the sound of a bell rung at a funeral4--,johnson and ,walker4 ,if gold with dros or grain with chaf you find1 ,select--and leave the chaf and dros behind4--,author4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,other ,,finals4 ,the mobb hath many heads1 but no brains4--,old ,maxim4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word mobb is here spelled with double b4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d1 ,words ending in any other consonant than f1 l1 or s1 do not double the final letter4 ,therefore1 this b should be single3 thus1 mob4 ,clamm1 to clog with any glutinous or viscous matter4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,whurr1 to pronounce the letter r with too much force4--,ib4 ,flipp1 a mixed liquor1 consisting of beer and spirits sweetened4--,ib4 ,glynn1 a hollow between two mountains1 a glen4--,churchill's ,grammar1 p4 #bb4 ,lamm1 to beat soundly with a cudgel or bludgeon4--,walker's ,dict4 ,bunn1 a small cake1 a simnel1 a kind of sweet bread4--,see ib4 ,brunett1 a woman with a brown complexion4--,ib4 and ,johnson's ,dict4 ,wad'sett1 an ancient tenure or lease of land in the ,highlands of ,scotland4--,webster's ,dict4 ,to dodd sheep1 is to cut the wool away about their tails4--,ib4 ,in aliquem arietare1 ,,cic4 ,to run full but at one4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ie4 ,neither your policy nor your temper would permitt you to kill me4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dbg4 ,and admitt none but his own offspring to fulfill them4--,ib41 i1 #dcg4 ,the summ of all this ,dispute is1 that some make them ,participles1 c4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #ceb4 ,as1 the whistling of winds1 the buz and hum of insects1 the hiss of serpents1 the crash of falling timber4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abi2 ,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bdg2 ,gould's1 #bch4 ,vann1 to winnow1 or a fan for winnowing4--,walker's ,rhyming ,dict4 ,creatures that buz1 are very commonly such as will sting4--,author ,begg1 buy1 or borrow2 butt beware how you find4--,id4 ,it is better to have a house to lett1 than a house to gett4--,id4 ,let not your tongue cutt your throat4--,old ,precept4 ,a little witt will save a fortunate man4--,old ,adage4 ,there is many a slipp 'twixt the cup and the lipp4--,id4 ,mothers' darlings make but milksopp heroes4--,id4 ,one eye-witness is worth tenn hearsays4--,id4 ,the judge shall jobb1 the bishop bite the town1 ,and mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown4--,,pope3 in ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,pack4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,doubling4 ,friz1 to curl2 frized1 curled2 frizing1 curling4--,webster's ,dict41 #hvo4 ,ed4 of #ahbi4 ,,formule--,not proper1 because the words frized and frizing are here spelled with the single z1 of their primitive friz4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d1 ,monosyllables1 and words accented on the last syllable1 when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel1 double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel4 ,therefore1 this z should be doubled2 thus1 frizzed1 frizzing4 ,the commercial interests served to foster the principles of ,whigism4--,payne's ,geog41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #eaa4 ,their extreme indolence shuned every species of labour4--,robertson's ,amer41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cda4 ,in poverty and stripedness they attend their little meetings4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #bef4 ,in guiding and controling#abf the power you have thus obtained4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #ae4 ,i began1 ,thou beganest1 ,he began2 ,we began1 ,you began1 ,they began4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,why does began change its ending2 as1 ,i began1 ,thou beganest8--,ib41 p4 #ic4 ,truth and conscience cannot be controled by any methods of coercion4--,hints on ,toleration1 p4 xvi4 ,dr4 ,webster noded1 when he wrote 'knit1 kniter1 and knitingneedle' without doubling the t4--,see ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #acf4 ,a wag should have wit enough to know when other wags are quizing him4--,g4 ,brown4 ,bon'y1 handsome1 beautiful1 merry4--,walker's ,rhyming ,dict4 ,coquetish1 practicing coquetry2 after the manner of a jilt4--,webster's ,dict4 ,potage1 a species of food1 made of meat and vegetables boiled to softness in water4--,see ib4 ,potager1 from potage1 a porringer1 a small vessel for children's food4--,see ib41 and ,worcester's4 ,compromit1 compromited1 compromiting2 manumit1 manumitted1 manumitting4--,webster4 ,inferible2 that may be inferred or deduced from premises4--,red ,book1 p4 #bbh4 ,acids are either solid1 liquid1 or gaseous4--,gregory's ,dict41 art4 ,chemistry4 ,the spark will pass through the interrupted space between the two wires1 and explode the gases4--,ib4 ,do we sound gases and gaseous like cases and caseous8 ,no3 they are more like glasses and osseous4--,g4 ,brown4 ,i shall not need here to mention ,swiming1 when he is of an age able to learn4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #ab4 ,why do lexicographers spell thinnish and mannish with two ,ens1 and dimish and ramish with one ,em1 each8--,see ,johnson and ,webster4 ,gas forms the plural regularly1 gases4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,singular1 ,gas2 ,plural1 ,gases4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,these are contractions from sheded1 bursted4--,hiley's ,grammar1 p4 #de4 ,the ,present ,tense denotes what is occuring at the present time4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #cf1 and p4 #fa4 ,the verb ending in eth is of the solemn or antiquated style2 as1 he loveth1 he walketh1 he runeth4--,p4 ,davis's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,thro' freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings1 ,degrading nobles and controling kings4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #bib4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iv4--,,no ,,doubling4 ,a bigotted and tyrannical clergy will be feared4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #gh4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the final t of bigot is here doubled in bigotted4 ,but1 according to ,rule #dth1 ,a final consonant1 when it is not preceded by a single vowel1 or when the accent is not on the last syllable1 should remain single before an additional syllable4 ,therefore1 this t should be single2 thus1 bigoted4 ,jacob worshipped his ,creator1 leaning on the top of his staff4--,key in ,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #ahe4 ,for it is all marvelously destitute of interest4--,merchant's ,criticisms4 ,as1 box1 boxes2 church1 churches2 lash1 lashes2 kiss1 kisses2 rebus1 rebusses4--,murray's ,gram41 #abmo1 p4 #db4 ,gossipping and lying go hand in hand4--,old ,maxim4 ,the substance of the ,criticisms on the ,diversions of ,purley was1 with singular industry1 gossipped by the present precious secretary of war1 in ,payne the bookseller's shop4--,see ,key4 ,worship makes worshipped1 worshipper1 worshipping2 gossip1 gossipped1 gossipper1 gossipping2 fillip1 fillipped1 fillipper1 fillipping4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #gb4 ,i became as fidgetty as a fly in a milk-jug4--,blackwood's ,mag41 ,vol4 xl1 p4 #fgd4 ,that enormous error seems to be rivetted in popular opinion4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cfd4 ,whose mind iz not biassed by personal attachments to a sovereign4--,ib41 p4 #cah4 ,laws against usury originated in a bigotted prejudice against the ,jews4--,ib41 p4 #cae4 ,the most criticcal period of life iz usually between thirteen and seventeen4--,ib41 p4 #chh4 ,generallissimo1 the chief commander of an army or military force4--,see ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #ic4 ,tranquillize1 to quiet1 to make calm and peaceful4--,ib41 p4 #acc4 ,pommeled1 beaten1 bruised2 having pommels1 as a sword or dagger4--,webster and ,chalmers4 ,from what a height does the jeweler look down upon his shoemaker6--,red ,book1 p4 #ajh4 ,you will have a verbal account from my friend and fellow traveler4--,ib41 p4 #aee4 ,i observe that you have written the word counseled with one l only4--,ib41 p4 #agc4 ,they were offended at such as combatted these notions4--,robertson's ,america1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dcg4 ,from libel1 come libeled1 libeler1 libeling1 libelous2 from grovel1 groveled1 groveler1 groveling2 from gravel1 graveled and graveling4--,see ,webster's ,dict4 ,wooliness1 the state of being woolly4--,ib4 ,yet he has spelled chappelling1 bordeller1 medallist1 metalline1 metallist1 metallize1 clavellated1 c4 with ll1 contrary to his rule4--,cobb's ,review of ,webster1 p4 #aa4 ,again1 he has spelled cancelation and snively with single l1 and cupellation1 pannellation1 wittolly1 with ll4--,ib4 ,oilly1 fatty1 greasy1 containing oil1 glib4--,rhyming ,dict4 ,medallist1 one curious in medals2 ,metallist1 one skilled in metals4--,johnson1 ,webster1 ,worcester1 ,cobb1 et al4 ,he is benefitted4--,town's ,spelling-,book1 p4 #e4 ,they traveled for pleasure4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark's ,gram41 p4 #aja4 ,without you1 what were man8 ,a groveling herd1 ,in darkness1 wretchedness1 and want enchain'd4 --,beattie's ,minstrel1 p4 #dj4 ,,under ,,rule ,v4--,,of ,,final ,,ck4 ,he hopes1 therefore1 to be pardoned by the critick4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word critick is here spelled with a final k4 ,but1 according to ,rule #eth1 ,monosyllables and ,english verbs end not with c1 but take ck for double c2 as1 rack1 wreck1 rock1 attack3 but1 in general1 words derived from the learned languages need not the k1 and common use discards it4 ,therefore1 this k should be omitted2 thus1 critic4 ,the leading object of every publick speaker should be to persuade4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #aec4 ,may not four feet be as poetick as five2 or fifteen feet1 as poetick as fifty8--,ib41 p4 #adf4 ,avoid all theatrical trick and mimickry1 and especially all scholastick stiffness4--,ib41 p4 #aed4 ,no one thinks of becoming skilled in dancing1 or in musick1 or in mathematicks1 or logick1 without long and close application to the subject4--,ib41 p4 #aeb4 ,caspar's sense of feeling1 and susceptibility of metallick and magnetick excitement were also very extraordinary4--,ib41 p4 #bch4 ,authorship has become a mania1 or1 perhaps ,i should say1 an epidemick4--,ib41 p4 #f4 ,what can prevent this republick from soon raising a literary standard8--,ib41 p4 #aj4 ,courteous reader1 you may think me garrulous upon topicks quite foreign to the subject before me4--,ib41 p4 #aa4 ,of the ,tonick1 ,subtonick1 and ,atoniek elements4--,ib41 p4 #ae4 ,the subtonick elements are inferiour to the tonicks in all the emphatick and elegant purposes of speech4--,ib41 p4 #cb4 ,the nine atonicks1 and the three abrupt subtonicks cause an interruption to the continuity of the syllabick impulse4--,ib41 p4 #cg4 ,on scientifick principles1 conjunctions and prepositions are but one part of speech4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #abj4 ,that some inferior animals should be able to mimic human articulation1 will not seem wonderful4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #b4 ,when young1 you led a life monastick1 ,and wore a vest ecelesiastick2 ,now1 in your age1 you grow fantastick4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vi4--,,of ,,retaining4 ,fearlesness1 exemption from fear1 intrepidity4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word fearlesness is here allowed to drop one s of fearless4 ,but1 according to ,rule #fth1 ,words ending with any double letter1 preserve it double before any additional termination not beginning with the same letter4 ,therefore1 the other s should be inserted2 thus1 fearlessness4 ,dreadlesness2 fearlesness1 intrepidity1 undauntedness4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,regardlesly1 without heed2 ,regardlesness1 heedlessness1 inattention4--,ib4 ,blamelesly1 innocently2 ,blamlesness1 innocence4--,ib4 ,that is better than to be flattered into pride and carelesness4--,,taylor3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,good fortunes began to breed a proud recklesness in them4--,,sidney3 ib4 ,see whether he lazily and listlesly dreams away his time4--,,locke3 ib4 ,it may be1 the palate of the soul is indisposed by listlesness or sorrow4--,,taylor3 ib4 ,pitilesly1 without mercy2 ,pitilesness1 unmercifulness4--,johnson4 ,what say you to such as these8 abominable1 accordable1 agreable1 c4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dcb4 ,artlesly2 naturally1 sincerely1 without craft4--,johnson4 ,a chilness1 or shivering of the body1 generally precedes a fever4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #afg4 ,smalness2 littleness1 minuteness1 weakness4--,rhyming ,dict4 ,gall-less1 a4 free from gall or bitterness4--,webster's ,dict4 ,talness2 height of stature1 upright length with comparative slenderness4--,see ,johnson et al4 ,wilful2 stubborn1 contumacious1 perverse1 inflexible4--,id4 ,he guided them by the skilfulness of his hands4--,psal4 lxxviii1 #gb4 ,the earth is the ,lord's and the fulness thereof4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #agb4 ,what is now1 is but an amasment of imaginary conceptions4--,,glanville3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,embarrasment2 perplexity1 entanglement4--,see ,littleton's ,dict4 ,the second is slothfulness1 whereby they are performed slackly and carelesly4--,perkins's ,theology1 p4 #gbi4 ,instalment2 induction into office2 part of a large sum of money1 to be paid at a particular time4--,see ,johnson's ,dict4 ,inthralment2 servitude1 slavery4--,ib4 ,i1 who at some times spend1 at others spare1 ,divided between carelesness and care4--,pope4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vii4--,,of ,,retaining4 ,shall1 on the contrary1 in the first person1 simply foretels4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #hh2 ,ingersoll's1 #acf2 ,fisk's1 #gh2 ,jaudon's1 #ei2 ,a4 ,flint's1 #db2 ,wright's1 #ij2 ,bullions's1 #cb4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word foretels does not here retain the double l of tell4 ,but1 according to ,rule #gth1 ,words ending with any double letter1 preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes4 ,therefore1 the other l should be inserted2 thus1 foretells4 ,there are a few compound irregular verbs1 as befal1 bespeak1 c4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,that we might frequently recal it to our memory4--,calvin's ,institutes1 p4 #aab4 ,the angels exercise a constant solicitude that no evil befal us4--,ib41 p4 #ajg4 ,inthral2 to enslave1 to shackle1 to reduce to servitude4--,walker's ,dict4 ,he makes resolutions1 and fulfils them by new ones4--,red ,book1 p4 #ach4 ,to enrol my humble name upon the list of authors on ,elocution4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #ab4 ,forestal2 to anticipate1 to take up beforehand4--,walker's ,rhym4 ,dict4 ,miscal2 to call wrong1 to name improperly4--,johnson4 ,bethral2 to enslave1 to reduce to bondage4--,see id4 ,befal2 to happen to1 to come to pass4--,rhym4 ,dict4 ,unrol2 to open what is rolled or convolved4--,johnson4 ,counterrol2 to keep copies of accounts to prevent frauds4--,see id4 ,as ,sisyphus uprols a rock1 which constantly overpowers him at the summit4--,author4 ,unwel2 not well1 indisposed1 not in good health4--,see ,red ,book1 p4 #ccf4 ,undersel2 to defeat by selling for less1 to sell cheaper than an other4--,see id41 p4 #ccb4 ,inwal2 to enclose or fortify with a wall4--,see id41 p4 #bie4 ,twibil2 an instrument with two bills1 or with a point and a blade2 a pickaxe1 a mattock1 a halberd1 a battle-axe4--,see ,dict4 ,what you miscal their folly1 is their care4--,dryden4 ,my heart will sigh when ,i miscal it so4--,shakspeare4 ,but if the arrangement recal one set of ideas more readily than another4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #acj4 ',tis done2 and since 'tis done1 'tis past recal2 ,and since 'tis past recal1 must be forgotten4--,dryden4 ,,under ,,rule ,,viii4--,,of ,,final ,,ll4 ,the righteous is taken away from the evill to come4--,perkins's ,works1 p4 #dag4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word evill is here written with final ll4 ,but1 according to ,rule #hth1 ,final ll is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds1 with the few derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes2 consequently1 all other words that end in l1 must be terminated with a single l4 ,therefore1 one l should be here omitted2 thus1 evil4 ,patroll2 to go the rounds in a camp or garrison1 to march about and observe what passes4--,webster's ,amer4 ,dict41 #hvo4 ,marshall2 the chief officer of arms1 one who regulates rank and order4--,see ,bailey's ,dict4 ,weevill2 a destructive grub that gets among corn4--,see ,rhym4 ,dict4 ,it much excells all other studies and arts4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bag4 ,it is essentiall to all magnitudes1 to be in one place4--,perkins's ,works1 p4 #djc4 ,by nature ,i was thy vassall1 but ,christ hath redeemed me4--,ib41 p4 #djd4 ,some1 being in want1 pray for temporall blessings4--,ib41 p4 #dab4 ,and this the ,lord doth1 either in temporall or spirituall benefits4--,ib41 p4 #dae4 ,he makes an idoll of them1 by setting his heart on them4--,ib41 p4 #daf4 ,this triall by desertion serveth for two purposes4--,ib41 p4 #dbj4 ,moreover1 this destruction is both perpetuall and terrible4--,ib41 p4 #gbf4 ,giving to severall men several gifts1 according to his good pleasure4--,ib41 p4 #gca4 ,untill2 to some time1 place1 or degree1 mentioned4--,see ,red ,book1 p4 #ccj4 ,annull2 to make void1 to nullify1 to abrogate1 to abolish4 ,nitric acid combined with argill1 forms the nitrate of argill4--,gregory's ,dict41 art4 ,chemistry4 ,let modest ,foster1 if he will1 excell ,ten ,metropolitans in preaching well4--,pope1 p4 #dad4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ix4--,,of ,,final ,e4 ,adjectives ending in able signify capacity2 as1 comfortable1 tenable1 improvable4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word improveable here retains the final e of improve4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ith1 ,the final e of a primitive word is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel4 ,therefore1 this e should be omitted2 thus1 improvable4 ,their mildness and hospitality are ascribeable to a general administration of religious ordinances4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ccf4 ,retrench as much as possible without obscureing the sense4--,james ,brown's ,amer4 ,gram41 #ahba1 p4 #aa4 ,changable1 subject to change2 ,unchangeable1 immutable4--,walker's ,rhym4 ,dict4 ,tameable1 susceptive of taming2 ,untameable1 not to be tamed4--,ib4 ,reconcileable1 ,unreconcileable1 ,reconcileableness2 ,irreconcilable1 ,irreconcilably1 ,irreconcilableness4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,we have thought it most adviseable to pay him some little attention4-- ,merchants ,criticisms4 ,proveable1 that may be proved2 ,reprovable4 blameable1 worthy of reprehension4--,walker's ,dict4 ,moveable and ,immovable1 ,moveably and ,immovably1 ,moveables and ,removal1 ,moveableness and ,improvableness1 ,unremoveable and ,unimprovable1 ,unremoveably and ,removable1 ,proveable and ,approvable1 ,irreproveable and ,reprovable1 ,unreproveable and ,improvable1 ,unimproveableness and ,improvably4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,and with this cruelty you are chargable in some measure yourself4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #id4 ,mothers would certainly resent it1 as judgeing it proceeded from a low opinion of the genius of their sex4--,british ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 xxv4 ,titheable1 subject to the payment of tithes2 ,saleable1 vendible1 fit for sale2 ,loseable1 possible to be lost2 ,sizeable1 of reasonable bulk or size4--,walker's ,rhyming ,dict4 ,when he began this custom1 he was puleing and very tender4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #h4 ,the plate1 coin1 revenues1 and moveables1 ,whereof our uncle ,gaunt did stand possess'd4--,shak4 ,,under ,,rule ,x4--,,of ,,final ,e4 ,diversly2 in different ways1 differently1 variously4--,rhym4 ,dict41 and ,webster's4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word ,diversly here omits the final e of its primitive word1 diverse4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ajth1 ,the final e of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant4 ,therefore1 this e should be retained2 thus1 ,diversely4 ,the event thereof contains a wholsome instruction4--,bacon's ,wisdom of the ,ancients1 p4 #ag4 ,whence ,scaliger falsly concluded that articles were useless4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,the child that we have just seen is wholesomly fed4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahg4 ,indeed1 falshood and legerdemain sink the character of a prince4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #e4 ,in earnest1 at this rate of managment1 thou usest thyself very coarsly4--,ib41 p4 #ai4 ,to give them an arrangment and diversity1 as agreeable as the nature of the subject would admit--,murray's ,pref4 to ,ex41 p4 vi4 ,alger's ,grammar is only a trifling enlargment of ,murray's little ,abridgment4--,author4 ,you ask whether you are to retain or omit the mute e in the word judgment1 abridgment1 acknowledgment1 lodgment1 adjudgment1 and prejudgment4--,red ,book1 p4 #agb4 ,fertileness1 fruitfulness2 ,fertily1 fruitfully1 abundantly4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,chastly1 purely1 without contamination2 ,chastness1 chastity1 purity4--,ib41 and ,walker's4 ,rhymster1 n4 ,one who makes rhymes2 a versifier2 a mean poet4--,johnson and ,webster4 ,it is therefore an heroical achievment to dispossess this imaginary monarch4--,berkley's ,minute ,philos41 p4 #aea4 ,whereby1 is not meant the ,present ,time1 as he imagins1 but the ,time ,past4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cdd ,so far is this word from affecting the noun1 in regard to its definitness1 that its own character of definitness or indefinitness1 depends upon the name to which it is prefixed4--,webster's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,satire1 by wholsome ,lessons1 wou'd reclaim1 ,and heal their ,vices to secure their ,fame4 --,brightland's ,gr41 p4 #aga4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xi4--,,of ,,final ,y4 ,solon's the veryest fool in all the play4--,dryden1 from ,persius1 p4 #dge4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word veryest here retains the final y of its primitive very4 ,but1 according to ,rule #acth1 ,the final y of a primitive word1 when preceded by a consonant1 is generally changed into i before an additional termination4 ,therefore1 this y should be changed to i2 thus1 veriest4 ,our author prides himself upon his great slyness and shrewdness4--,merchant's ,criticisms4 ,this tense1 then1 implys also the signification of ,debeo4--,b4 ,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cjj4 ,that may be apply'd to a ,subject1 with respect to something accidental4--,ib41 p4 #acc4 ,this latter accompanys his ,note with a distinction4--,ib41 p4 #aif4 ,this ,rule is defective1 and none of the ,annotators have sufficiently supply'd it4--,ib41 p4 #bjd4 ,though the fancy'd ,supplement of ,sanctius1 ,scioppius1 ,vossius1 and ,mariangelus1 may take place4--,ib41 p4 #bgf4 ,yet as to the commutableness of these two ,tenses1 which is deny'd likewise1 they are all one4--,ib41 p4 #caa4 ,both these ,tenses may represent a ,futurity implyed by the dependence of the ,clause4--,ib41 p4 #ccb4 ,cry1 cries1 crying1 cried1 crier1 decrial2 ,shy1 shyer1 shyest1 shyly1 shyness2 ,fly1 flies1 flying1 flier1 high-flier2 ,sly1 slyer1 slyest1 slyly1 slyness2 ,spy1 spies1 spying1 spied1 espial2 ,dry1 drier1 driest1 dryly1 dryness4--,cobb's ,dict4 ,cry1 cried1 crying1 crier1 cryer1 decried1 decrier1 decrial2 ,shy1 shyly1 shily1 shyness1 shiness2 ,fly1 flier1 flyer1 high-flyer2 ,sly1 slily1 slyly1 sliness1 slyness2 ,ply1 plyer1 plying1 pliers1 complied1 compiler2 ,dry1 drier1 dryer1 dryly1 dryness4--,webster's ,dict41 #hvo4 ,cry1 crier1 decrier1 decrial2 ,shy1 shily1 shyly1 shiness1 shyness2 ,fly1 flier1 flyer1 high-flier2 ,sly1 slily1 slyly1 sliness1 slyness2 ,ply1 pliers1 plyers1 plying1 complier2 ,dry1 drier1 dryer1 dryly1 dryness4--,chalmers's ,abridgement of ,todd's ,johnson4 ,i would sooner listen to the thrumming of a dandyzette at her piano4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #bd4 ,send her away2 for she cryeth after us4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,,ivyed1 a4 ,overgrown with ivy4--,todd's ,dict41 and ,webster's4 ,some dryly plain1 without invention's aid1 ,write dull receipts how poems may be made4--,pope4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xii4--,,of ,,final ,y4 ,the gaiety of youth should be tempered by the precepts of age4--,mur4 ,key1 p4 #age4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word gaiety does not here retain the final y of the primitive word gay4 ,but1 according to ,rule #abth1 ,the final y of a primitive word1 when preceded by a vowel1 should not be changed into i before an additional termination4 ,therefore1 this y should be retained2 thus1 gayety4 ,in the storm of #agjc1 two thousand stacks of chimnies were blown down1 in and about ,london4--,see ,red ,book1 p4 #aab4 ,and the vexation was not abated by the hacknied plea of haste4--,ib41 p4 #adb4 ,the fourth sin of our daies is lukewarmness4--,perkins's ,works1 p4 #gbe4 ,god hates the workers of iniquity1 and destroies them that speak lies4--,ib41 p4 #gbc4 ,for1 when he laies his hand upon us1 we may not fret4--,ib41 p4 #gbf4 ,care not for it2 but if thou maiest be free1 choose it rather4--,ib41 p4 #gcf4 ,alexander ,severus saith1 ',he that buieth1 must sell3 ,i will not suffer buyers and sellers of offices4'--,ib41 p4 #gcg4 ,with these measures fell in all monied men4--,,swift3 ,johnson's ,dict4 ,but rattling nonsense in full vollies breaks4--,,pope3 ib41 w4 ,volley4 ,vallies are the intervals betwixt mountains4--,,woodward3 ib4 ,the ,hebrews had fifty-two journies or marches4--,wood's ,dict4 ,it was not possible to manage or steer the gallies thus fastened together4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ajf4 ,turkies were not known to naturalists till after the discovery of ,america4--,see ,gregory's ,dict4 ,i would not have given it for a wilderness of monkies4--,see ,key4 ,men worked at embroidery1 especially in abbies4--,constable's ,miscellany1 ,vol4 xxi1 p4 #aja4 ,by which all purchasers or mortgagees may be secured of all monies they lay out4--,,temple3 ,johnson's ,dict4 ,he would fly to the mines and the gallies for his recreation4--,,south3 ,ib4 ,here pullies make the pond'rous oak ascend4--,,gay3 ib4 ------------,you need my help1 and you say1 ,shylock1 we would have monies4--,,shakspeare3 ib4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,of ,,ize ,,and ,,ise4 ,will any able writer authorise other men to revise his works8--,author4 ,,formules4--#a4 ,not proper1 because the word authorise is here written with s in the last syllable1 in stead of z4 ,but1 according to ,rule #acth1 ,words ending in ize or ise sounded alike1 as in wise and size1 generally take the z in all such as are essentially formed by means of the termination4 ,therefore1 this s should be z2 thus1 authorize4 #b4 ,not proper again1 because the word revize is here written with z in the last syllable1 in lieu of s4 ,but1 according to ,rule #acth1 ,words ending in ize or ise sounded alike1 as in wise and size1 generally take the s1 in monosyllables1 and all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes4 ,therefore1 this z should be s2 thus1 revise4 ,it can be made as strong and expressive as this ,latinised ,english4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bie4 ,governed by the success or the failure of an enterprize4--,ib41 ,vol4 ii1 pp4 #abh and #bei4 ,who have patronised the cause of justice against powerful oppressors4--,ib41 pp4 #id and #bbh2 ,merchant1 p4 #aii4 ,yet custom authorises this use of it4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,they surprize myself1 99 99 99 and ,i even think the writers themselves will be surprized4--,ib41 ,pref41 p4 xi4 ,let the interest rize to any sum which can be obtained4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #caj4 ,to determin what interest shall arize on the use of money4--,ib41 p4 #cac4 ,to direct the popular councils and check a rizing opposition4--,ib41 p4 #cce4 ,five were appointed to the immediate exercize of the office4--,ib41 p4 #cdj4 ,no man ever offers himself as a candidate by advertizing4--,ib41 p4 #cdd4 ,they are honest and economical1 but indolent1 and destitute of enterprize4--,ib41 p4 #cdg4 ,i would however advize you to be cautious4--,ib41 p4 #djd4 ,we are accountable for whatever we patronise in others4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #age4 ,after he was baptised1 and was solemnly admitted into the office4--,perkins's ,works1 p4 #gcb4 ,he will find all1 or most of them1 comprized in the ,exercises4--,british ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 v4 ,a quick and ready habit of methodising and regulating their thoughts4--,ib41 p4 xviii4 ,to tyrannise over the time and patience of his reader4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 iii4 ,writers of dull books1 however1 if patronised at all1 are rewarded beyond their deserts4--,ib41 p4 v4 ,a little reflection1 will show the reader the propriety and the reason for emphasising the words marked4--,ib41 p4 #afc4 ,the ,english ,chronicle contains an account of a surprizing cure4--,red ,book1 p4 #fa4 ,dogmatise1 to assert positively2 ,dogmatizer1 an asserter1 a magisterial teacher4--,chalmers's ,dict4 ,and their inflections might now have been easily analysed4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aac4 ,authorize1 disauthorise1 and unauthorized2 ,temporize1 contemporise1 and extemporize4--,walkers ,dict4 ,legalize1 equalise1 methodise1 sluggardize1 womanise1 humanize1 patronise1 cantonize1 gluttonise1 epitomise1 anatomize1 phlebotomise1 sanctuarise1 characterize1 synonymise1 recognise1 detonize1 colonise4--,ibid4 ,this ,,beauty ,sweetness always must comprize1 ,which from the ,subject1 well express'd will rise4 --,brightland's ,gr41 p4 #afd4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,of ,,compounds4 ,the glory of the ,lord shall be thy rereward4--,,common ,,bibles3 ,isa41 lviii1 #h4 ,,formule--,not proper1 because the compound word rereward has not here the orthography of the two simple words rear and ward1 which compose it4 ,but1 according to ,rule #adth1 ,compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them4 ,and1 the accent being here unfixed1 a hyphen is proper4 ,therefore1 this word should be spelled thus1 rear-ward4 ,a mere vaunt-courier to announce the coming of his master4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #di4 ,the parti-coloured shutter appeared to come close up before him4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #bcc4 ,when the day broke upon this handfull of forlorn but dauntless spirits4--,ib41 p4 #bde4 ,if1 upon a plumbtree1 peaches and apricots are ingrafted1 no body will say they are the natural growth of the plumbtree4--,berkley's ,minute ,philos41 p4 #de4 ,the channel between ,newfoundland and ,labrador is called the ,straits of ,bellisle4--,worcester's ,gaz4 ,there being nothing that more exposes to ,headach4 #abg--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #f4 ,and1 by a sleep1 to say we end the heartach4--,,shak43 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,he that sleeps1 feels not the toothach4--,,id41 ibid4 ,that the shoe must fit him1 because it fitted his father and granfather4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dca4 ,a single word1 mispelt1 in a letter1 is sufficient to show1 that you have received a defective education4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,which mistatement the committee attributed to a failure of memory4--,professors' ,reasons1 p4 #ad4 ,then he went through the ,banquetting-,house to the scaffold4-- ,smollett's ,england1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #cde4 ,for the purpose of maintaining a clergyman and skoolmaster4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cee4 ,they however knew that the lands were claimed by ,pensylvania4--,ib41 p4 #ceg4 ,but if you ask a reason1 they immediately bid farewel to argument4--,red ,book1 p4 #hj4 ,whom resist stedfast in the faith4--,,scott3 #a ,peter1 v1 #i4 ,and they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine4--,acts1 ii1 #db4 ,beware lest ye also fall from your own stedfastness4--#b ,peter1 iii1 #ag4 ,galiot1 or galliott1 a ,dutch vessel1 carrying a main-mast and a mizen-mast4--,web4 ,dict4 ,infinitive1 to overflow2 ,preterit1 overflowed2 ,participle1 overflown4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 7#ahah17 p4 #fa4 ,after they have mispent so much precious ,time4--,british ,gram41 p4 xv4 ,some say1 two handsfull2 some1 two handfulls2 and others1 two handfull4-- ,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,lapfull1 as much as the lap can contain4--,webster's ,octavo ,dict4 ,darefull1 full of defiance4-- ,walker's ,rhym4 ,dict4 ,the road to the blissfull regions1 is as open to the peasant as to the king4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #afg4 ,mis-spel is mis-spell in every ,dictionary which ,i have seen4--,barnes's ,red ,book4 p4 #cjc4 ,downfal2 ruin1 calamity1 fall from rank or state4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,the whole legislature likewize acts az a court4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cdj4 ,it were better a milstone were hanged about his neck4--,perkins's ,works1 p4 #gca4 ,plum-tree1 a tree that produces plums2 ,hog-plumbtree1 a tree4--,webster's ,dict4 ,trisyllables ending in re or le1 accent the first syllable4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bch4 ,it happen'd on a summer's holiday1 ,that to the greenwood shade he took his way4 --,churchill's ,gr41 p4 #ace4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xv4--,,of ,,usage4 ,nor are the modes of the ,greek tongue more uniform4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aab4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word modes is here written for moods1 which is more common among the learned1 and usually preferred by ,murray himself4 ,but1 according to ,rule #aeth1 ,any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage1 is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned4 ,therefore1 the latter form should be preferred2 thus1 moods1 and not modes4 ,if we analize a conjunctive preterite1 the rule will not appear to hold4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,no landholder would have been at that expence4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,i went to see the child whilst they were putting on its cloaths4--,ib41 p4 #abe4 ,this stile is ostentatious1 and doth not suit grave writing4--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,the king of ,israel1 and ,jehosophat the king of ,judah1 sat each on his throne4--,mur4 ,gram41 p4 #afe1 twice2 ,merchant's1 #hi2 ,churchill's1 #cjj4 ,the king of ,israel1 and ,jehosaphat the king of ,judah1 sat each on his throne4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ij2 ,harrison's1 #ii2 ,churchill's1 #ach2 ,wright's1 #adh4 ,lisias1 speaking of his friends1 promised to his father1 never to abandon them4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 pp4 #aba and #bec4 ,some1 to avoid this errour1 run into it's opposite4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #aii4 ,hope1 the balm of life1 sooths us under every misfortune4--,merchants ,key1 p4 #bjd4 ,any judgement or decree might be heerd and reversed by the legislature4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cdj4 ,a pathetic harang wil skreen from punishment any knave4--,ib41 p4 #cda4 ,for the same reezon1 the wimen would be improper judges4--,ibid4 ,every person iz indulged in worshiping az he pleezes4--,ib41 p4 #cde4 ,most or all teechers are excluded from genteel company4--,ib41 p4 #cfb4 ,the ,kristian religion1 in its purity1 iz the best institution on erth4--,ib41 p4 #cfd4 ,neether clergymen nor human laws hav the leest authority over the conscience4--,ib41 p4 #cfc4 ,a gild is a society1 fraternity1 or corporation4--,red ,book1 p4 #hc4 ,phillis was not able to unty the knot1 and so she cut it4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,an aker of land is the quantity of one hundred and sixty perches4--,ib41 p4 #ic4 ,oker is a fossil earth combined with the oxid of some metal4--,ib41 p4 #if4 ,genii1 when denoting rial spirits3 ,geniuses1 when signifying persons of genius4--,mur4's ,gram41 i1 p4 #db4 ,genii1 when denoting riel spirits2 ,geniuses1 when signifying persons of genius4--,frost's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,genius1 ,plu4 geniuses1 men of wit2 but genii1 rial beings4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,aerisius1 king of ,argos1 had a beautiful daughter1 whose name was ,dan4--,classic ,tales1 p4 #aji4 ,phton was the son of ,apollo and ,clymene4--,ib41 p4 #aeb4 ,but1 after all1 ,i may not have reached the intended ,gaol4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 ,pref41 p4 xxvii4 ',pitticus was offered a large sum4' ,better3 ',a large sum was offered to ,pitticus4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ahg4 ,king ,missipsi charged his sons to respect the senate and people of ,rome4--,see ib41 p4 #afa4 ,for example3 ,gallileo invented the telescope4--,ib41 pp4 #ed and #fg4 ,cathmor's warriours sleep in death4--,ib41 p4 #ed4 ,for parsing will enable you to detect and correct errours in composition4--,ib41 p4 #ej4 ,o'er barren mountains1 o'er the flow'ry plain1 ,extends thy uncontroul'd and boundless reign4--,dryden4 ,,promiscuous ,,errors ,,in ,,spelling4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,mixed4 ,a bad author deserves better usage than a bad critick4--,,pope3 ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,former4 ,produce a single passage superiour to the speech of ,logan1 a ,mingo chief1 delivered to ,lord ,dunmore1 when governour of ,virginia4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #bdg4 ,we have none synonimous to supply its place4--,jamieson's ,rhetoric1 p4 #dh4 ,there is a probability that the effect will be accellerated4--,ib41 p4 #dh4 ,nay1 a regard to sound hath controuled the public choice4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,though learnt from the uninterrupted use of gutterel sounds4--,ib41 p4 #e4 ,it is by carefully filing off all roughness and inequaleties1 that languages1 like metals1 must be polished4--,ib41 p4 #dh4 ,that ,i have not mispent my time in the service of the community4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 ,pref41 p4 xxviii4 ,the leaves of maiz are also called blades4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #dc4 ,who boast that they know what is past1 and can foretel what is to come4--,robertson's ,amer41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cfj4 ,its tasteless dullness is interrupted by nothing but its perplexities4-- ,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #ah4 ,sentences constructed with the ,johnsonian fullness and swell4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #acj4 ,the privilege of escaping from his prefatory dullness and prolixity4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 iv4 ,but in poetry this characteristick of dulness attains its full growth4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,the leading characteristick consists in an increase of the force and fullness4--,ib41 p4 #ga4 ,the character of this opening fulness and feebler vanish4--,ib41 p4 #ca4 ,who1 in the fullness of unequalled power1 would not believe himself the favourite of heaven8--,ib41 p4 #aha4 ,they marr one another1 and distract him4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dcc4 ,let a deaf worshipper of antiquity and an ,english prosodist settle this4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #adj4 ,this phillipic gave rise to my satirical reply in self-defence4-- ,merchant's ,criticisms4 ,we here saw no inuendoes1 no new sophistry1 no falsehoods4--,ib4 ,a witty and humourous vein has often produced enemies4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #agc4 ,cry holla6 to thy tongue1 ,i pr'ythee3 it curvetts unseasonably4--,shak4 ,i said1 in my slyest manner1 ',your health1 sir4'--,blackwood's ,mag41 ,vol4 xl1 p4 #fgi4 ,and attornies also travel the circuit in pursute of business4--,red ,book1 p4 #hc4 ,some whole counties in ,virginia would hardly sel for the valu of the dets du from the inhabitants4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cja4 ,they were called the court of assistants1 and exercized all powers legislativ and judicial4--,ib41 p4 #cdj4 ,arithmetic is excellent for the guaging of liquors4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bhh4 ,most of the inflections may be analysed in a way somewhat similar4--,ib41 p4 #aab4 ,to epithets allots emphatic state1 ,whilst principals1 ungrac'd1 like lacquies wait4 --,c4 ,churchill's ,ros41 p4 #h4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed4 ,hence it less is a privative word1 denoting destitution2 as1 fatherless1 faithless1 pennyless4--,webster's ,dict41 w4 ,less4 ,bay2 red1 or reddish1 inclining to a chesnut color4--,same4 ,to mimick1 to imitate or ape for sport2 a mimic1 one who imitates or mimics4--,ib4 ,counterroil1 a counterpart or copy of the rolls2 ,counterrolment1 a counter account4--,ib4 ,millenium1 the thousand years during which ,satan shall be bound4--,ib4 ,millenial1 pertaining to the millenium1 or to a thousand years4--,ib4 ,thraldom2 slavery1 bondage1 a state of servitude4--,see ,johnson's ,dict4 ,brier1 a prickly bush2 ,briery1 rough1 prickly1 full of briers2 ,sweetbriar1 a fragrant shrub4--,see ,johnson1 ,walker1 ,chalmers1 ,webster1 and others4 ,will1 in the second and third ,persons1 barely foretels4--,british ,gram41 p4 #acb4 ,and therefor there is no ,word false1 but what is distinguished by ,italics4--,ib41 ,pref41 p4 v4 ,what should be repeted is left to their ,discretion4--,ib41 p4 iv4 ,because they are abstracted or seperated from material ,substances4--,ib41 p4 ix4 ,all ,motion is in ,time1 and therefor1 where-ever it exists1 implies ,time as its ,concommitant4--,ib41 p4 #adj4 ,and illiterate grown persons are guilty of blameable spelling4--,ib41 ,pref41 p4 xiv4 ,they wil always be ignorant1 and of ruf uncivil manners4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cdf4 ,this fact wil hardly be beleeved in the northern states4--,ib41 p4 #cfg4 ,the province however waz harrassed with disputes4--,ib41 p4 #ceb4 ,so little concern haz the legislature for the interest of lerning4--,ib41 p4 #cdi4 ,the gentlemen wil not admit that a skoolmaster can be a gentleman4--,ib41 p4 #cfb4 ,such absurd qui-pro-quoes cannot be too strenuously avoided4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bje4 ,when we say1 'a man looks slyly2' we signify1 that he assumes a sly look4--,ib41 p4 #cci4 ,peep2 to look through a crevice2 to look narrowly1 closely1 or slyly4--,webster's ,dict4 ,hence the confession has become a hacknied proverb4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #aaj4 ,not to mention the more ornamental parts of guilding1 varnish1 c4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bj4 ,after this system of self-interest had been rivetted4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #acf4 ,prejudice might have prevented the cordial approbation of a bigotted ,jew4--,,scott3 on ,luke1 x4 ,all twinkling with the dew-drop sheen1 ,the briar-rose fell in streamers green4--,lady of the ,lake1 p4 #af4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed4 ,the infinitive mode has commonly the sign to before it4--,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,thus1 it is adviseable to write singeing1 from the verb to singe1 by way of distinction from singing1 the participle of the verb to sing4--,ib41 p4 #bg4 ,many verbs form both the preterite tense and the preterite participle irregularly4--,ib41 p4 #bh4 ,much must be left to every one's taste and judgment4--,ib41 p4 #fg4 ,verses of different lengths intermixed form a ,pindarick poem4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,he'll surprize you4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,unequalled archer6 why was this concealed8--,,knowles3 ib41 p4 #ajb4 ,so gaily curl the waves before each dashing prow4--,,byron3 ib41 p4 #ajd4 ,when is a dipthong called a proper dipthong8--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,how many ss would goodness then end with8 ,three4--,ib41 p4 #cc4 ,q4 ,what is a tripthong8 ,a4 ,a tripthong is the union of three vowels1 pronounced in like manner4--,bacon's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,the verb1 noun1 or pronoun1 is referred to the preceding terms taken seperately4--,ib41 p4 #dg4 ,the cubic foot of matter which occupies the center of the globe4--,cardell's ,gram41 #ahmo1 p4 #dg4 ,the wine imbibes oxigen1 or the acidifying principle1 from the air4--,ib41 p4 #fb4 ,charcoal1 sulphur1 and niter1 make gun powder4--,ib41 p4 #ij4 ,it would be readily understood1 that the thing so labeled1 was a bottle of ,madeira wine4--,ib41 p4 #ii4 ,they went their ways1 one to his farm1 an other to his merchandize4--,ib41 p4 #acj4 ,a dipthong is the union of two vowels1 sounded by a single impulse of the voice4--,russell's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,the professors of the ,mahommedan religion are called ,mussulmans4--,maltby's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,this shews that let is not a sign of the imperative mood1 but a real verb4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,those preterites and participles1 which are first mentioned in the list1 seem to be the most eligible4--,ib41 p4 #dg4 ,monosyllables1 for the most part1 are compared by er and est2 and dyssyllables by more and most4--,ib41 p4 #ai4 ,this termination1 added to a noun1 or adjective1 changes it into a verb3 as modern1 to modernise2 a symbol1 to symbolize4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,an ,abridgment of ,murray's ,grammar1 with additions from ,webster1 ,ash1 ,tooke1 and others4--,maltby's title-page4 ,for the sake of occupying the room more advantagously1 the subject of ,orthography is merely glanced at4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,so contended the accusers of ,gallileo4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 #abmo1 #ahci1 p4 #chj4 ,murray says1 ',they were traveling past when we met them4'--,peirce1 ib41 p4 #cfa4 ,they fulfil the only purposes for which they are designed4--,ib41 p4 #cei4 ,on the fulfillment of the event4--,ib41 p4 #age4 ,fullness consists in expressing every idea4--,ib41 p4 #bia4 ,consistently with fulness and perspicuity4--,ib41 p4 #ccg4 ,the word verriest is a gross corruption2 as1 ',he is the verriest fool on earth4'--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #bjb4 ,the sound will recal the idea of the object4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,formed for great enterprizes4--,bullions's ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,the most important rules and definitions are printed in large type1 italicised4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,,hamletted1 a4 ,accustomed to a hamlet2 countrified4-- ,bolles's ,dict41 and ,chalmers's4 ,singular1 spoonful1 cup-full1 coach-full1 handful2 plural1 spoonfuls1 cup-fulls1 coach-fulls1 handfuls4--,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,between ,superlatives and following ,names1 ,,of1 by ,grammatick ,right1 a ,station claims4 --,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #adf4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,questions4 ,,order ,,of ,,rehearsal1 ,,and ,,method ,,of ,,examination4 ,fist,the student ought to be able to answer with readiness1 and in the words of the book1 all the following questions on grammar4 ,and if he has but lately commenced the study1 it may be well to require of him a general rehearsal of this kind1 before he proceeds to the correction of any part of the false grammar quoted in the foregoing chapters4 ,at any rate1 he should be master of so many of the definitions and rules as precede the part which he attempts to correct2 because this knowledge is necessary to a creditable performance of the exercise4 ,but those who are very quick at reading1 may perform it tolerably1 by consulting the book at the time1 for what they do not remember4 ,the answers to these questions will embrace all the main text of the work2 and1 if any further examination be thought necessary1 extemporaneous questions may be framed for the purpose4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,grammar4 #a4 ,what is the name1 or title1 of this book8 #b4 ,what is ,grammar8 #c4 ,what is an ,english ,grammar8 #d4 ,what is ,english ,grammar1 in itself8 and what knowledge does it imply8 #e4 ,if grammar is the art of reading1 writing1 and speaking1 define these actions4 ,what is it1 to read8 #f4 ,what is it1 to write8 #g4 ,what is it1 to speak8 #h4 ,how is grammar to be taught1 and by what means are its principles to be made known8 #i4 ,what is a perfect definition8 #aj4 ,what is an example1 as used in teaching8 #aa4 ,what is a rule of grammar8 #ab4 ,what is an exercise8 #ac4 ,what was language at first1 and what is it now8 #ad4 ,of what two kinds does the composition of language consist8 and how do they differ8 #ae4 ,what are the least parts of language8 #af4 ,what has discourse to do with sentences8 or sentences1 with points8 #ag4 ,in extended compositions1 what is the order of the parts1 upwards from a sentence8 #ah4 ,what1 then1 is the common order of literary division1 downwards1 throughout8 #ai4 ,are all literary works divided exactly in this way8 #bj4 ,how is ,grammar divided8 #ba4 ,of what does ,orthography treat8 #bb4 ,of what does ,etymology treat8 #bc4 ,of what does ,syntax treat8 #bd4 ,of what does ,prosody treat8 ,,part ,,first1 ,,orthography4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,letters4 #a4 ,of what does ,orthography treat8 #b4 ,what is a letter8 #c4 ,what is an elementary sound of human voice1 or speech8 #d4 ,what name is given to the sound of a letter8 and what epithet1 to a letter not sounded8 #e4 ,how many letters are there in ,english8 and how many sounds do they represent8 #f4 ,in what does a knowledge of the letters consist8 #g4 ,what variety is there in the letters8 and how are they always the same8 #h4 ,what different sorts of types1 or styles of letters1 are used in ,english8 #i4 ,what are the names of the letters in ,english8 #aj4 ,what are their names in both numbers1 singular and plural8 #aa4 ,into what general classes are the letters divided8 #ab4 ,what is a vowel8 #ac4 ,what is a consonant8 #ad4 ,what letters are vowels8 and what1 consonants8 #ae4 ,when are w and y consonants8 and when1 vowels8 #af4 ,how are the consonants divided8 #ag4 ,what is a semivowel8 #ah4 ,what is a mute8 #ai4 ,what letters are reckoned semivowels8 and how many of these are aspirates8 #bj4 ,what letters are called liquids8 and why8 #ba4 ,what letters are reckoned mutes8 and which of them are imperfect mutes8 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,sounds4 #a4 ,what is meant1 when we speak of the powers of the letters8 #b4 ,are the sounds of a language fewer than its words8 #c4 ,how are different vowel sounds produced8 #d4 ,what are the vowel sounds in ,english8 #e4 ,how may these sounds be modified in the formation of syllables8 #f4 ,can you form a word upon each by means of an f8 #g4 ,will you try the series again with a p8 #h4 ,how may the vowel sounds be written8 and how uttered when they are not words8 #i4 ,which of the vowel sounds form words8 and what of the rest8 #aj4 ,how many and what are the consonant sounds in ,english8 #aa4 ,in what series of words may all these sounds be heard8 #ab4 ,in what series of words may each of them be heard two or three times8 #ac4 ,what is said of the sounds of j and x8 #ad4 ,what is said of the sounds of c and g8 #ae4 ,what is said of sc1 or s before c8 #af4 ,what1 of ce1 ci1 and ch8 #ag4 ,what sounds has the consonant g8 #ah4 ,in how many different ways can the letters of the alphabet be combined8 #ai4 ,what do we derive from these combinations of sounds and characters8 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,capitals4 #a4 ,what characters are employed in ,english8 #b4 ,why should the different sorts of letters be kept distinct8 #c4 ,what is said of the slanting strokes in ,roman letters8 #d4 ,for what purpose are ,italics chiefly used8 #e4 ,in preparing a manuscript1 how do we mark these things for the printer8 #f4 ,what distinction of form belongs to each of the letters8 #g4 ,what is said of small letters8 and why are capitals used8 #h4 ,what things are commonly exhibited wholly in capitals8 #i4 ,how many rules for capitals are given in this book8 and what are their titles8 #aj4 ,what says ,rule #ast of books8 #aa4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of first words8 #ab4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of names of ,deity8 #ac4 ,what says ,rule #dth of proper names8 #ad4 ,what says ,rule #eth of titles8 #ae4 ,what says ,rule #fth of one capital8 #af4 ,what says ,rule #gth of two capitals8 #ag4 ,what says ,rule #hth of compounds8 #ah4 ,what says ,rule #ith of apposition8 #ai4 ,what says ,rule #ajth of personifications8 #bj4 ,what says ,rule #aath of derivatives8 #ba4 ,what says ,rule #abth of ,i and ,o8 #bb4 ,what says ,rule #acth of poetry8 #bc4 ,what says ,rule #adth of examples8 #bd4 ,what says ,rule #aeth of chief words8 #be4 ,what says ,rule #afth of needless capitals8 ,now turn to the first chapter of ,orthography1 and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,syllables4 #a4 ,what is a syllable8 #b4 ,can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear8 #c4 ,under what names are words classed according to the number of their syllables8 #d4 ,which of the letters can form syllables of themselves8 and which cannot8 #e4 ,what is a diphthong8 #f4 ,what is a proper diphthong8 #g4 ,what is an improper diphthong8 #h4 ,what is a triphthong8 #i4 ,what is a proper triphthong8 #aj4 ,what is an improper triphthong8 #aa4 ,how many and what are the diphthongs in ,english8 #ab4 ,how many and which of these are so variable in sound that they may be either proper or improper diphthongs8 #ac4 ,how many and what are the proper diphthongs8 #ad4 ,how many and what are the improper diphthongs8 #ae4 ,are proper triphthongs numerous in our language8 #af4 ,how many and what are the improper triphthongs8 #ag4 ,what guide have we for dividing words into syllables8 #ah4 ,how many special rules of syllabication are given in this book8 and what are their titles1 or subjects8 #ai4 ,what says ,rule #ast of consonants8 #bj4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of vowels8 #ba4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of terminations8 #bb4 ,what says ,rule #dth of prefixes8 #bc4 ,what says ,rule #eth of compounds8 #bd4 ,what says ,rule #fth of lines full8 ,now turn to the second chapter of ,orthography1 and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,words4 #a4 ,what is a word8 #b4 ,how are words distinguished in regard to species and figure8 #c4 ,what is a primitive word8 #d4 ,what is a derivative word8 #e4 ,what is a simple word8 #f4 ,what is a compound word8 #g4 ,how do permanent compounds differ from others8 #h4 ,how many rules for the figure of words are given in this book8 and what are their titles1 or subjects8 #i4 ,what says ,rule #ast of compounds8 #aj4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of simples8 #aa4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of the sense8 #ab4 ,what says ,rule #dth of ellipses8 #ac4 ,what says ,rule #eth of the hyphen8 #ad4 ,what says ,rule #fth of no hyphen8 ,now turn to the third chapter of ,orthography1 and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules4 ,,lesson ,,vii4--,,spelling4 #a4 ,what is spelling8 #b4 ,how is this art to be acquired8 and why so8 #c4 ,why is it difficult to learn to spell accurately8 #d4 ,is it then any disgrace to spell words erroneously8 #e4 ,what benefit may be expected from the rules for spelling8 #f4 ,how many rules for spelling are given in this book8 and what are their titles1 or subjects8 #g4 ,what says ,rule #ast of final f1 l1 or s8 #h4 ,can you mention the principal exceptions to this rule8 #i4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of other finals8 #aj4 ,are there any exceptions to this rule8 #aa4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of the doubling of consonants8 #ab4 ,under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed8 #ac4 ,what says ,rule #dth against the doubling of consonants8 #ad4 ,under what four heads are the apparent exceptions to this ,rule noticed8 #ae4 ,what says ,rule #eth of final ck8 #af4 ,what monosyllables1 contrary to this rule1 end with c only8 #ag4 ,what says ,rule #fth of the retaining of double letters before affixes8 #ah4 ,under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed8 #ai4 ,what says ,rule #gth of the retaining of double letters after prefixes8 #bj4 ,what observation is made respecting exceptions to this rule8 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,spelling4 #ba4 ,what says ,rule #hth of final ll1 and of final l single8 #bb4 ,what words does this rule claim1 which might seem to come under ,rule #gth8 and why8 #bc4 ,what says ,rule #ith of final e omitted8 #bd4 ,under what three heads are the exceptions1 real or apparent1 here noticed8 #be4 ,what says ,rule #ajth of final e retained8 #bf4 ,under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed8 #bg4 ,what says ,rule #aath of final y changed8 #bh4 ,under what three heads are the limits and exceptions to this rule noticed8 #bi4 ,what says ,rule #abth of final y unchanged8 #cj4 ,under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed8 #ca4 ,what says ,rule #acth of the terminations ize and ise8 #cb4 ,under what three heads are the apparent exceptions to this rule noticed8 #cc4 ,what says ,rule #adth of compounds8 #cd4 ,under what seven heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed8 #ce4 ,what says ,rule #aeth of usage1 as a law of spelling8 ,now turn to the fourth chapter of ,orthography1 and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules and their exceptions4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,for ,,writing4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,orthography4 ,fist ,the following examples of false orthography are inserted here1 and not explained in the general ,key1 that they may he corrected by the pupil in writing4 ,some of the examples here quoted are less inaccurate than others1 but all of them1 except a few shown in contrast1 are1 in some respect or other1 erroneous4 ,it is supposed1 that every student who can answer the questions contained in the preceding chapter1 will readily discern wherein the errors lie1 and be able to make the necessary corrections4 ,,exercise ,i4--,,capitals4 ,alexander the great killed his friend ,clitus4--,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #fh4 ,the words in italics are parsed in the same manner4--,maltby's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,it may be read by those who do not understand latin4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #bfb4 ,a roman s being added to a word in italics or small capitals4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bae4 ,this is not simply a gallicism1 but a corruption of the ,french on2 itself a corruption4-- ,ib41 p4 #bbh4 ,the ,gallicism1 'it is me1' is perpetually striking the ear in ,london4--,ib41 p4 #caf4 ',almost nothing1' is a common ,scotticism1 equally improper3 it should be1 'scarcely any thing4'--,ib41 p4 #ccc4 ,to use learn for teach1 is a common ,scotticism1 that ought to be carefully avoided4--,see ib41 p4 #bfa4 ,a few observations on the subjunctive mood as it appears in our ,english bible4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,the translators of the bible1 have confounded two tenses1 which in the original are uniformly kept distinct4--,ib41 p4 #dj4 ,more like heaven on earth1 than the holy land would have been4--,anti-,slavery ,mag41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #gb4 ,there is now extant a poetical composition1 called the golden verses of ,pythagoras4-- ,lempriere's ,dict4 ,exercise of the ,mind upon ,theorems of ,science1 like generous and manly ,exercise of the ,body1 tends to call forth and strengthen ,nature's original ,vigour4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bie4 ,o that ,i could prevail on ,christians to melt down1 under the warm influence of brotherly love1 all the distinctions of methodists1 independents1 baptists1 anabaptists1 arians1 trinitarians1 unitarians1 in the glorious name of christians4--,,knox3 ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #agc4 ,pythagoras long ago remarked1 'that ability and necessity dwell near each other4'--,student's ,manual1 p4 #bhe4 ,the ,latin ,writers ,decency neglect1 ,but modern ,readers challenge more ,respect4 --,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,,exercise ,,ii4--,,syllables4 #a4 ,correct ,bolles1 in the division of the following words3 ,del-ia1 ,jul-ia1 ,lyd-ia1 heigh-ten1 pat-ron1 ad-roit1 worth-y1 fath-er1 fath-er-ly1 mar-chi-o-ness1 i-dent-ic-al1 out-ra-ge-ous1 ob-nox-i-ous1 pro-di-gi-ous1 tre-mend-ous1 ob-liv-i-on1 pe-cul-i-ar4--,revised ,spelling-,book3 ,new ,london1 #ahca4 #b4 ,correct ,sears1 in the division of the following words3 ,a-quil-a1 hear-ty1 drea-ry1 wor-my1 hai-ry1 thor-ny1 phil-os-o-phy1 dis-cov-e-ry1 re-cov-e-ry1 ad-diti-on1 am-biti-on1 au-spici-ous1 fac-titi-ous1 fla-giti-ous1 fru-iti-on1 sol-stiti-al1 ab-o-liti-on4--,standard ,spelling-,book3 ,new ,haven1 #ahbf4 #c4 ,correct ,bradley1 in the division of the following words3 ,jes-ter1 rai-ny1 forg-e-ry1 fin-e-ry1 spic-e-ry1 brib-e-ry1 groc-e-ry1 chi-can-e-ry1 fer-riage1 line-age1 cri-ed1 tri-ed1 s-ed1 slic-ed1 forc-ed1 pledg-ed1 sav-ed1 dup-ed1 strip-ed1 touch-ed1 trounc-ed4--,improved ,spelling-,book3 ,windsor1 #ahae4 #d4 ,correct ,burhans1 in the division of the following words3 ,boar-der1 brigh-ten1 cei-ling1 frigh-ten1 glea-ner1 lea-kage1 suc-ker1 mos-sy1 fros-ty1 twop-ence1 pu-pill-ar-y1 crit-i-call-y1 gen-er-all-y1 lit-er-all-y1 log-i-call-y1 trag-i-call-y1 ar-ti-fici-al1 po-liti-call-y1 sloth-full-y1 spite-full-y1 re-all-y1 sui-ta-ble1 ta-mea-ble1 flumm-er-y1 nesc-i-ence1 shep-her-dess1 trav-ell-er1 re-pea-ter1 re-pressi-on1 suc-cessi-on1 un-lear-ned4--,critical ,pronouncing ,spelling-,book3#abh ,philadelphia1 #ahbc4 #e4 ,correct ,marshall1 in the division of the following words3 ,trench-er1 trunch-eon1 dros-sy1 glos-sy1 glas-sy1 gras-sy1 dres-ses1 pres-ses1 cal-ling1 chan-ging1 en-chan-ging1 con-ver-sing1 mois-ture1 join-ture1 qua-drant1 qua-drate1 trans-gres-sor1 dis-es-teem4--,new ,spelling-,book3 ,new ,york1 #ahcf4 #f4 ,correct ,emerson1 in the division of the following words3 ,dus-ty mis-ty1 mar-shy1 mil-ky1 wes-tern1 stor-my1 nee-dy1 spee-dy1 drea-ry1 fros-ty1 pas-sing1 roc-ky1 bran-chy1 bland-ish1 pru-dish1 eve-ning1 a-noth-er4--,national ,spelling-,book3 ,boston1 #ahbh4 ,two ,vowels meeting1 each with its full ,sound1 ,always to make ,two ,syllables are bound4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,,exercise ,,iii4--,,figure ,,of ,,words4 ,i was surprised by the return of my long lost brother4--,parker's ,exercises in ,english ,composition1 p4 #e4 ,such singular and unheard of clemency cannot be passed over by me in silence4--,ib41 p4 #aj4 ,i perceive my whole system excited by the potent stimulus of sun-shine4--,ib41 p4 #aa4 ,to preserve the unity of a sentence1 it is sometimes necessary to employ the case absolute1 instead of the verb and conjunction4--,ib41 p4 #ag4 ,severity and hard hearted opinions accord with the temper of the times4--,ib41 p4 #ah4 ,that poor man was put into the mad house4--,ib41 p4 #bb4 ,this fellow must be put into the poor house4--,ib4 p4 #bb4 ,i have seen the breast works and other defences of earth1 that were thrown up4--,ib41 p4 #bd4 ,cloven footed animals are enabled to walk more easily on uneven ground4--,ib41 p4 #be4 ,self conceit blasts the prospects of many a youth4--,ib41 p4 #bf4 ,not a moment should elapse without bringing some thing to pass4--,ib41 p4 #cf4 ,a school master decoyed the children of the principal citizens into the ,roman camp4--,ib41 p4 #ci4 ,the pupil may now write a description of the following objects4 ,a school room4 ,a steam boat4 ,a writing desk4 ,a dwelling house4 ,a meeting house4 ,a paper mill4 ,a grist mill4 ,a wind mill4--,ib41 p4 #de4 ,every metaphor should be founded on a resemblance which is clear and striking2 not far fetched1 nor difficult to be discovered4--,ib41 p4 #di4 ,i was reclining in an arbour overhung with honey suckle and jessamine of the most exquisite fragrance4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,the author of the following extract is speaking of the slave trade4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,the all wise and benevolent ,author of nature has so framed the soul of man1 that he cannot but approve of virtue4--,ib41 p4 #gd4 ,there is something of self denial in the very idea of it4--,ib41 p4 #ge4 ,age therefore requires a well spent youth to render it happy4--,ib41 p4 #gf4 ,pearl-ash requires much labour in its extraction from ashes4--,ib41 p4 #ia4 ,club1 or crump1 footed1 ,loripes2 ,rough1 or leather1 footed1 ,plumipes4--,ainsworth's ,dict4 ,the honey-bags steal from the humble bees1 ,and for night-tapers crop their waxen thighs4 --,,shak43 ,joh4's ,dict41 w4 ,glowworm4 ,the honeybags steal from the bumblebees1 ,and for night tapers crop their waxen thighs4 --,,shak43 ,joh4's ,dict41 w4 ,humblebee4 ,the honey bags steal from the humble-bees1 ,and1 for night tapers crop their waxen thighs4 --,dodd's ,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #ea4 ,,exercise ,,iv4--,,spelling4 ,his antichamber1 and room of audience1 are little square chambers wainscoted4--,,addison3 ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,antechamber4 ,nobody will deem the quicksighted amongst them to have very enlarged views of ethicks4--,,locke3 ,ib41 w4 ,quicksighted4 ,at the rate of this thick-skulled blunderhead1 every plow-jobber shall take upon him to read upon divinity4--,l',,estrange3 ,ib41 m4 ,blunderhead4 ,on the topmast1 the yards1 and boltsprit would ,i flame distinctly4--,,shak43 ,ib41 w4 ,bowsprit4 ,this is the tune of our catch plaid by the picture of nobody4--,,id43 ,ib41 w4 ,nobody4 ,thy fall hath left a kind of blot to mark the fulfraught man4--,,id43 ,ib41 w4 ,fulfraught4 ,till blinded by some ,jack o',lanthorn sprite4--,snelling's ,gift1 p4 #fb4 ,the beauties you would have me eulogise4--,ib41 p4 #ad4 ,they rail at me--,i gaily laugh at them4--,ib41 p4 #ac4 ,which the king and his sister had intrusted to him withall4--,josephus1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #adc4 ,the terms of these emotions are by no means synonimous4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #ccf4 ,lillied1 adj4 ,embellished with lilies4--,chalmers's ,dict4 ,they seize the compendious blessing without exertion and without reflexion4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dbh4 ,the first cry that rouses them from their torpour1 is the cry that demands their blood4--,ib41 p4 #dcc4 ,it meets the wants of elementary schools and deserves to be patronised4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,whose attempts were paralysed by the hallowed sound4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #bgj4 ,it would be an amusing investigation to analyse their language4--,ib41 p4 #bjj4 ,it is my father's will that ,i should take on me the hostess-ship of the day4--,,shak43 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,to retain the full apprehension of them undiminisht4--,phil4 ,museum41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #deh4 ,the ayes and noes were taken in the ,house of ,commons4--,anti-,slavery ,mag41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aa4 ,derivative words are formed by adding letters or syllables to primatives4--,davenport's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,the minister never was thus harrassed himself4--,nelson1 on ,infidelity1 p4 #f4 ,the most vehement politician thinks himself unbiassed in his judgment4--,ib41 p4 #ag4 ,mistress-ship1 n4 ,female rule or dominion4--,webster's ,dict4 ,thus forced to kneel1 thus groveling to embrace1 ,the scourge and ruin of my realm and race4 --,,pope3 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,,exercise ,v4--,,mixed ,,errors4 ,the quince tree is of a low stature2 the branches are diffused and crooked4--,,miller3 ,johnson's ,dict4 ,the greater slow worm1 called also the blindworm1 is commonly thought to be blind1 because of the littleness of his eyes4--,,grew3 ib4 ,oh ,hocus6 where art thou8 ,it used to go in another guess manner in thy time4--,,arbuthnot3 ib4 ,one would not make a hotheaded crackbrained coxcomb forward for a scheme of moderation4--,,id43 ib4 ,as for you1 colonel huff-cap1 we shall try before a civil magistrate who's the greatest plotter4--,,dryden3 ib41 w4 ,huff4 ,in like manner1 ,actions co-alesce with their ,agents1 and ,passions with their ,patients4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bfc4 ,these ,sentiments are not unusual even with the ,philosopher now a days4--,ib41 p4 #cej4 ,as if the ,marble were to fashion the ,chizzle1 and not the ,chizzle the ,marble4--,ib41 p4 #cec4 ,i would not be understood1 in what ,i have said1 to undervalue ,experiment4--,ib41 p4 #ceb4 ,how therefore is it that they approach nearly to ,non-,entity's8--,ib41 p4 #dca4 ,gluttonise1 modernise1 epitomise1 barbarise1 tyranise4--,churchill's ,gram41 pp4 #ca and #db4 ,now fair befal thee and thy noble house6--,,shak43 ib41 p4 #bda4 ,nor do ,i think the error above-mentioned would have been so long indulged1 c4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,the editor of the two editions above mentioned was pleased to give this little manuel to the public1 c4--,ib41 p4 #g4 ,a ,note of ,admiration denotes a modelation of the voice suited to the expression4--,ib41 p4 #af4 ,it always has some respect to the power of the agent2 and is therefore properly stiled the potential mode4--,ib41 p4 #bi4 ,both these are supposed to be synonomous expressions4--,ib41 p4 #aje4 ,an expence beyond what my circumstances admit4--,,doddridge3 ib41 p4 #ach4 ,there are four of them3 the ,full-,point1 or ,period2 the ,colon2 the ,semi-,colon2 the ,comma4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 ,n4 ,y41 #ahah1 p4 #gg4 ,there are many men1 who have been at ,latin-,schools for years1 and who1 at last1 cannot write six sentences in ,english correctly4--,ib41 p4 #ci4 ,but1 figures of rhetorick are edge tools1 and two edge tools too4--,ib41 p4 #ahb4 ,the horse-chesnut grows into a goodly standard4--,,mortimer3 ,johnson's ,dict4 ,whereever if is to be used4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #age4 ,peel'd1 patch'd1 and pyebald1 linsey-woolsey brothers4 --,,pope3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w41 ,mummer4 ,peel'd1 patch'd1 and piebald1 linsey-woolsey brothers4 --,,id43 ib41 w4 ,piebald4 ,,exercise ,,vi4--,,mixed ,,errors4 ,pied1 adj4 from pie4 ,variegated2 partycoloured4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,pie1 pica1 ,lat4 ,a magpie2 a party-coloured bird4--,ib4 ,gluy1 adj4 from glue4 ,viscous2 tenacious2 glutinous4--,ib4 ,gluey1 a4 ,viscous1 glutinous4 ,glueyness4 n4 ,the quality of being gluey4--,webster's ,dict4 ,old ,euclio1 seeing a crow-scrat#abi upon the muck-hill1 returned in all haste1 taking it for an ill sign4--,,burton3 ,johnson's ,dict4 ,wars are begun by hairbrained#acj dissolute captains4--,,id43 ib4 ,a carot is a well known garden root4--,red ,book1 p4 #fj4 ,natural philosophy1 metaphysicks1 ethicks1 history1 theology1 and politicks1 were familiar to him4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #bji4 ,the words in ,italicks and capitals1 are emphatick4--,ib41 p4 #baj4 ,it is still more exceptionable2 ,candles1 ,cherrys1 ,figs1 and other sorts of ,plumbs1 being sold by ,weight1 and being ,plurals4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #ace4 ,if the ,end of ,grammar be not to save that ,trouble1 and ,expence of ,time1 ,i know not what it is good for4--,ib41 p4 #afa4 ,caulce1 ,sheep ,penns1 or the like1 has no ,singular1 according to ,charisius4--,ib41 p4 #aid4 ,these busibodies are like to such as reade bookes with intent onely to spie out the faults thereof--,perkins's ,works1 p4 #gda4 ,i think it every man's indispensible duty1 to do all the service he can to his country4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #d4 ,either fretting it self into a troublesome ,excess1 or flaging into a downright want of ,appetite4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,and nobody would have a child cramed at breakfast4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,judgeship and judgment1 lodgable and alledgeable1 alledgement and abridgment1 lodgment and infringement1 enlargement and acknowledgment4--,webster's ,dict41 #hvo4 ,huckster1 n4 s4 ,one who sells goods by retail1 or in small quantities2 a pedler4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,he seeks bye-streets1 and saves th' expensive coach4 --,,gay3 ib41 w4 ,mortgage4 ,he seeks by-streets1 and saves th' expensive coach4 --,,gay3 ib41 w4 ,by-street4 ,,exercise ,,vii4--,,mixed ,,errors4 ,boys like a warm fire in a wintry day4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #fb4 ,the lilly is a very pretty flower4--,ib41 p4 #fb4 ,the potatoe is a native plant of ,america4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,an anglicism is a peculiar mode of speech among the ,english4--,ib41 p4 #acf4 ,black berries and raspberries grow on briars4--,ib41 p4 #aej4 ,you can broil a beef steak over the coals of fire4--,ib41 p4 #ch4 ,beef'-steak1 n4 ,a steak or slice of beef for broiling4--,webster's ,dict4 ,beef'steak1 s4 a slice of beef for broiling4--,treasury of ,knowledge4 ,as he must suffer in case of the fall of merchandize1 he is entitled to the corresponding gain if merchandize rises4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #beh4 ,he is the worshipper of an hour1 but the worldling for life4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #dbd4 ,slyly hinting something to the disadvantage of great and honest men4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cbi4 ',tis by this therefore that ,i ,define the ,verb2 namely1 that it is a ,part of ,speech1 by which something is apply'd to another1 as to its ,subject4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bee4 ,it may sometimes throw a passing cloud over the bright hour of gaiety4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #agh4 ,to criticize1 is to discover errors2 and to crystalize implies to freeze or congele4--,red ,book1 p4 #fh4 ,the affectation of using the preterite instead of the participle1 is peculiarly aukward2 as1 he has came4--,priestley's ,grammar1 p4 #abe4 ,they are moraly responsible for their individual conduct4--,cardell's ,el4 ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,an engine of sixty horse power1 is deemed of equal force with a team of sixty horses4--,red ,book1 p4 #aac4 ,this1 at fourpence per ounce1 is two shillings and fourpence a week1 or six pounds1 one shining and four pence a year4--,ib41 p4 #abb4 ,the tru meening of parliament iz a meeting of barons or peers4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bgf4 ,several authorities seem at leest to favor this opinion4--,ib41 p4 #bgg4 ,that iz1 az ,i hav explained the tru primitiv meening of the word4--,ib41 p4 #bgf4 ,the lords are peers of the relm2 that iz1 the ancient prescriptiv judges or barons4--,ib41 p4 #bgd4 ,falshood is folly1 and 'tis just to own ,the fault committed2 this was mine alone4 --,pope1 ,odys41 ,b4 xxii1 l4 #afh4 ,,exercise ,,viii--,,mixed ,,errors4 ,a second verb so nearly synonimous with the first1 is at best superfluous4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ccb4 ,indicate it1 by some mark opposite to the word misspelt4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #gd4 ,and succesfully controling the tendencies of mind4--,ib41 p4 #bd4 ,it the ,monastick ,life looks very like what we call ,childrens-,play4--,,leslie',s ,right of ,tythes1 p4 #bcf4 ,it seems rather lik ,playing of ,booty1 to ,please those ,fools and ,knaves4--,ib41 ,pref41 p4 vi4 ,and first ,i ,name ,milton1 only for his ,name1 lest the ,party should say1 that ,i had not ,cousider'd his ,performance against ,tythes4--,ib41 p4 iv4 ,his ,fancy was too ,predominant for his ,judgment4 ,his ,talent lay so much in ,satyr that he hated ,reasoning4--,ib41 p4 iv4 ,he has thrown away some of his ,railery against ,tythes1 and the ,church then underfoot4--,ib41 p4 v4 ,they ,vey'd with one another in these things4--,ib41 p4 #bbj4 ,epamanondas was far the most accomplished of the ,thebans4--,cooper's ,new ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,whoever and ,whichever1 are thus declined4 ,sing4 and ,plur4 nom4 whoever1 poss4 whoseever1 obj4 whomever4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 nom4 whichever1 poss4 whoseever1 obj4 whichever4--,ib41 p4 #ch4 ,,whereever1 adv4 where and ever4 ,at whatever place4--,webster's ,dict4 ,they at length took possession of all the country south of the ,welch mountains4--,dobson's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,those ,britains1 who refused to submit to the foreign yoke1 retired into ,wales4--,ib41 p4 #f4 ,religion is the most chearful thing in the world4--,ib41 p4 #dc4 ,two means the number two compleatly1 whereas second means only the last of two1 and so of all the rest4--,ib41 p4 #dd4 ,now send men to ,joppa1 and call for one ,simon1 whose sirname is ,peter4--,ib41 p4 #if4 7,see ,acts1 x1 #e47 ,in ,french words1 we use enter instead of inter2 as1 entertain1 enterlace1 enterprize4--,ib41 p4 #aja4 ,amphiology1 i4 e4 a speech of uncertain or doubtful meaning4--,ib41 p4 #ajc4 ,surprize2 as1 hah6 hey day6 what6 strange6--,ib41 p4 #aji4 ,names of the letters3 ai bee see dee ee ef jee aitch eye jay kay el em en o pee cue ar ess tee you voe double u eks wi zed4--,rev4 ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,i1 ,o1 and ,u1 at th' ,end of ,words require1 ,the silent 7e71 the same do's 7va7 desire4 --,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,,exercise ,,ix4--,,mixed ,,errors4 ,and is written for eacend1 adding1 ekeing4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,lang41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bbb4 ,the ,hindus have changed ai into e1 sounded like e in where4--,ib41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aba4 ,and therefor ,i would rather see the cruelest usurper than the mildest despot4-- ,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dcj4 ,sufficiently distinct to prevent our marveling4--,ib41 i1 #dgg4 ,possessed of this preheminence he disregarded the clamours of the people4--,smollett's ,england1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #bbb4 ,he himself1 having communicated1 administered the sacrament to some of the bye-standers4--,ib41 p4 #bbb4 ,the high fed astrology which it nurtured1 is reduced to a skeleton on the leaf of an almanac4--,cardell's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,fulton was an eminent engineer3 he invented steam boats4--,ib41 p4 #cj4 ,then1 in comes the benign latitude of the doctrine of goodwill4--,,south3 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,being very lucky in a pair of long lanthorn-jaws1 he wrung his face into a hideous grimace4--,,spectator3 ib4 ,who had lived almost four-and-twenty years under so politick a king as his father4--,,bacon3 ib41 w4 ,lowness4 ,the children will answer2 ,john's1 or ,william's1 or whose ever it may be4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,it is found tolerably easy to apply them1 by practising a little guess work4--,cardell's ,gram41 p4 #ia4 ,for between which two links could speech makers draw the division line8--,ib41 p4 #ej4 ,the wonderful activity of the rope dancer who stands on his head4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,the brilliancy which the sun displays on its own disk1 is sun shine4--,ib41 p4 #fc4 ,a word of three syllables is termed a trisyllable4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bc2 ,coar's1 #ag2 ,jaudon's1 #ac2 ,comly's1 #h2 ,cooper's1 ,new ,gr41 #h2 ,kirkham's1 #bj2 ,picket's1 #aj2 ,alger's1 #ab2 ,blair's1 #a2 ,guy's1 #b2 ,bolles's ,spelling-,book1 #afa4 ,see ,johnson's ,dict4 ,a word of three syllables is termed a trissyllable4--,british ,gram41 p4 #cc2 ,comprehensive ,gram41 #bc2 ,bicknell's1 #ag2 ,allen's1 #ca2 ,john ,peirce's1 #adi2 ,lennie's1 #e2 ,maltby's1 #h2 ,ingersoll's1 #g2 ,bradley's1 #ff2 ,davenport's1 #g2 ,bucke's1 #af2 ,bolles's ,spelling-,book1 #ia4 ,see ,littleton's ,lat4 ,dict4 7#a47 ,will1 in the first ,persons1 promises or threatens3 ,but in the second and third ,persons1 it barely foretells4--,british ,gram41 p4 #acb4 7#b47 ,will1 in the first ,persons1 promises or threatens2 but in the second and third ,persons1 it barely foretells4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #da4 7#c47 ,will1 in the first person1 promises1 engages1 or threatens4 ,in the second and third persons1 it merely foretels4--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #ei4 7#d47 ,will1 in the first person singular and plural1 promises or threatens2 in the second and third persons1 only foretells4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #da4 7#e47 ,will1 in the first person singular and plural1 intimates resolution and promising2 in the second and third person1 only foretels4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #hh2 ,ingersoll's1 #acf2 ,fisk's1 #gh2 ,a4 ,flint's1 #db2 ,bullions's1 #cb2 ,hamlin's1 #da2 ,cooper's ,murray1 #ej4 ,fist ,murray's ,second ,edition has it foretells4 7#f47 ,will1 in the first person singular and plural1 expresses resolution and promising4 ,in the second and third persons it only foretells4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #ch2 ,e4 ,devis's1 #ea2 ,lennie's1 #bb4 7#g47 ,will1 in the first person1 promises4 ,in the second and third persons1 it simply foretels4--,maltby's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 7#h47 ,will1 in the first person implies resolution and promising2 in the second and third1 it foretells4--,cooper's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ea4 7#i47 ,will1 in the first person singular and plural1 promises or threatens2 in the second and third persons1 only foretels3 shall1 on the contrary1 in the first person1 simply foretels2 in the second and third persons1 promises1 commands1 or threatens4--,adam's ,lat4 and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #hc4 7#aj47 ,in the first person shall foretels1 and will promises or threatens2 but in the second and third persons will foretels1 and shall promises or threatens4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,if ,mvius scribble in ,apollo's spight1 ,there are who judge still worse than he can write4--,pope4 ,,exercise ,x4--,,mixed ,,errors4 ,i am liable to be charged that ,i latinize too much4--,,dryden3 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,to mould him platonically to his own idea4--,,wotton3 ib4 ,i will marry a wife as beautiful as the houries1 and as wise as ,zobeide4--,murray's ,e4 ,reader1 p4 #adh4 ,i will marry a wife1 beautiful as the ,houries4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,the words in italics are all in the imperative mood4--,maltby's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,words ,italicised1 are emphatick1 in various degrees4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #agc4 ,wherever two gg's come together1 they are both hard4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,but these are rather silent 7o7's than obscure 7u7's4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,that can be ,guest at by us1 only from the ,consequences4--,right of ,tythes1 p4 viii4 ,he says he was glad that he had ,baptized so few2 ,and asks them1 ,were ye ,baptised in the ,name of ,paul8--,ib41 p4 ix4 ,therefor he ,charg'd the ,clergy with the ,name of ,hirelings4--,ib41 p4 viii4 ,on the fourth day before the first second day in each month4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #bcj4 ,we are not bound to adhere for ever to the terms1 or to the meaning of terms1 which were established by our ancestors4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,o6 learn from him to station quick eyed ,prudence at the helm4--,frosts ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,it pourtrays the serene landscape of a retired village4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #dba4 ,by stating the fact1 in a circumlocutary manner4--,booth's ,introd4 to ,dict41 p4 #cc4 ,time as an abstract being is a non-entity4--,ib41 p4 #bi4 ,from the difficulty of analysing the multiplied combinations of words4--,ib41 p4 #ai4 ,drop those letters that are superfluous1 as3 handful1 foretel4--,cooper's ,plain ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,shall1 in the first person1 simply foretells4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,and the latter must evidently be so too1 or1 at least1 cotemporary1 with the act4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,the man has been traveling for five years4--,ib41 p4 #gg4 ,i shall not take up time in combatting their scruples4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cbj4 ,in several of the chorusses of ,euripides and ,sophocles1 we have the same kind of lyric poetry as in ,pindar4--,ib41 p4 #cih4 ,until the ,statesman and ,divine shall unite their efforts in forming the human mind1 rather than in loping its excressences1 after it has been neglected4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bf4 ,where conviction could be followed only by a bigotted persistence in error4--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,all the barons were entitled to a seet in the national council1 in right of their baronys4--,ib41 p4 #bfj4 ,some knowledge of arithmetic is necessary for every lady4--,ib41 p4 #bi4 ,upon this1 the system of chivalry1 were founded those romances of night-errantry4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgd4 ,the subject is1 the atchievements of ,charlemagne and his ,peers1 or ,paladins4--,ib41 p4 #cgd4 ,aye1 aye2 this slice to be sure outweighs the other4--,blair's ,reader1 p4 #ca4 ,in the common phrase1 good-bye1 bye signifies passing1 going4 ,the phrase signifies1 a good going1 a prosperous passage1 and is equivalent to farewell4--,webster's ,dict4 ,good-by1 adv4--a contraction of good be with you--a familiar way of bidding farewell4--,see ,chalmers's ,dict4 ,off he sprung1 and did not so much as stop to say good bye to you4--,blair's ,reader1 p4 #af4 ,it no longer recals the notion of the action4--,barnard's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,good-nature and good-sense must ever join2 ,to err1 is human2 to forgive1 divine4--,pope1 ,ess4 on ,crit4 ,,exercise ,,xi4--,,mixed ,,errors4 ,the practices in the art of carpentry are called planeing1 sawing1 mortising1 scribing1 moulding1 c4--,blair's ,reader1 p4 #aah4 ,with her left hand1 she guides the thread round the spindle1 or rather round a spole which goes on the spindle4--,ib41 p4 #acd4 ,much suff'ring heroes next their honours claim4--,,pope3 ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,much4 ,vein healing verven1 and head purging dill4--,,spenser3 ib41 w4 ,head4 ,an1 in old ,english1 signifies if2 as1 'an it please your honor4'--,webster's ,dict4 ,what1 then1 was the moral worth of these renouned leaders8--,m',ilvaine's ,lect41 p4 #dfj4 ,behold how every form of human misery is met by the self denying diligence of the benevolent4--,ib41 p4 #daa4 ,reptiles1 bats1 and doleful creatures--jackalls1 hyenas1 and lions--inhabit the holes1 and caverns1 and marshes of the desolate city4--,ib41 p4 #bgj4 ,,adays1 adv4 ,on or in days2 as1 in the phrase1 now adays4--,webster's ,dict4 ,,referee1 one to whom a thing is referred2 ,,transferree1 the person to whom a transfer is made4--,ib4 ,the ,hospitallers were an order of knights who built a hospital at ,jerusalem for pilgrims4--,ib4 ,,gerard1 ,tom1 or ,tung1 was the institutor and first grand master of the knights hospitalers3 he died in #aabj4--;,biog4 ,dict4 ,i had a purpose now to lead our many to the holy land4--,,shak43 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,he turned their heart to hate his people1 to deal subtilly with his servants4--,psalms1 cv1 #be4 ,in ,dryden's ode of ,alexander's ,feast1 the line1 ',faln1 faln1 faln1 faln1' represents a gradual sinking of the mind4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ga4 ,the first of these lines is marvelously nonsensical4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aag4 ,we have the nicely chiseled forms of an ,apollo and a ,venus1 but it is the same cold marble still4--,christian ,spect41 ,vol4 viii1 p4 #bja4 ,death waves his mighty wand and paralyses all4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ce4 ,fear ,god4 ,honor the patriot4 ,respect virtue4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #baf4 ,pontius ,pilate being ,governour of ,judea1 and ,herod being ,tetrarch of ,galilee4--,ib41 p4 #ahi4 ,see ,luke1 iii1 #a4 ,,auctioneer1 n4 s4 ,the person that manages an auction4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,the earth put forth her primroses and days-eyes1 to behold him4--,,howel3 ib4 ,musselman1 not being a compound of man1 is musselmans in the plural4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,the absurdity of fatigueing them with a needless heap of grammar rules4--,burgh's ,dignity1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #adg4 ,john was forced to sit with his arms a kimbo1 to keep them asunder4--,,arbuthnot3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,to set the arms a kimbo1 is to set the hands on the hips1 with the elbows projecting outward4--,webster's ,dict4 ,we almost uniformly confine the inflexion to the last or the latter noun4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,this is all souls day1 fellows6 ,is it not8--,,shak43 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,the english physicians make use of troy-weight4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,there is a certain number of ranks allowed to dukes1 marquisses1 and earls4--,,peacham3 ib41 w4 ,marquis4 ,how could you chide the young good natur'd prince1 ,and drive him from you with so stern an air4 --,,addison3 ib41 w4 ,good1 #be4 ,,exercise ,,xii4--,,mixed ,,errors4 ,in reading1 every appearance of sing-song should be avoided4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,if you are thoroughly acquainted with the inflexions of the verb4--,ib41 p4 #ec4 ,the preterite of read is pronounced red4--,ib41 p4 #dh4 ,humility opens a high way to dignity4--,ib41 p4 #ae4 ,what is intricate must be unraveled4--,ib41 p4 #bge4 ,roger ,bacon invented gun powder1 ,a4 ,d4 #abhj4--;,ib41 p4 #bgg4 ,on which ever word we lay the emphasis4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bdc2 #abmo1 p4 #aie4 ,each of the leaders was apprized of the ,roman invasion4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #abc4 ,if ,i say1 ',i gallopped from ,islington to ,holloway2' the verb is intransitive3 if1 ',i gallopped my horse from ,islington to ,holloway2' it is transitive4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bch4 ,the reasonableness of setting a part one day in seven4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 iv1 p4 #bdj4 ,the promoters of paper money making reprobated this act4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #aif4 ,there are five compound personal pronouns1 which are derived from the five simple personal pronouns by adding to some of their cases the syllable self2 as1 my-self1 thy-self1 him-self1 her-self1 it-self4--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,possessives1 my-own1 thy-own1 his-own1 her-own1 its-own1 our-own1 your-own1 their-own4--,ib41 ,declensions4 ,thy man servant and thy maid servant may rest1 as well as thou4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #afj4 ,how many right angles has an acute angled triangle8--,ib41 p4 #bbj4 ,in the days of ,jorum1 king of ,israel1 flourished the prophet ,elisha4--,ib41 p4 #adh4 ,in the days of ,jorum1 king of ,israel1 ,elisha1 the prophet flourished4--,ib41 p4 #acc4 ,lodgable1 a4 ,capable of affording a temporary abode4--,webster's ,octavo ,dict4--,win me into the easy hearted man4--,johnson's ,quarto ,dict4 ,and then to end life1 is the same as to dye4--,milnes's ,greek ,gram41 p4 #agf4 ,those usurping hectors who pretend to honour without religion1 think the charge of a lie a blot not to be washed out but by blood4--,,south3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,his gallies attending him1 he pursues the unfortunate4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #ia4 ,this cannot fail to make us shyer of yielding our assent4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aag4 ,when he comes to the ,italicised word1 he should give it such a definition as its connection with the sentence may require4--,claggett's ,expositor1 p4 vii4 ,learn to distil from your lips all the honies of persuasion4--,adams's ,rhetoric1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ca4 ,to instill ideas of disgust and abhorrence against the ,americans4--,ib41 ii1 #cjj4 ,where prejudice has not acquired an uncontroled ascendency4--,ib41 i1 #ca4 ,the uncontrolable propensity of his mind was undoubtedly to oratory4--,ib41 i1 #ajj4 ,the ,brutus is a practical commentary upon the dialogues and the orator4--,ib41 i1 #abj4 ,the oratorical partitions are a short elementary compendium4--,ib41 i1 #acj4 ,you shall find hundreds of persons able to produce a crowd of good ideas upon any subject1 for one that can marshall them to the best advantage4--,ib41 i1 #afi4 ,in this lecture1 you have the outline of all that the whole course will comprize4--,ib41 i1 #ahb4 ,he would have been stopped by a hint from the bench1 that he was traveling out of the record4--,ib41 i1 #bhi4 ,to tell them that which should befal them in the last days4--,ib41 ii1 #cjh4 ,where all is present1 there is nothing past to recal4--,ib41 ii1 #ceh4 ,whose due it is to drink the brimfull cup of ,god's eternal vengeance4--,law and ,grace1 p4 #cf4 ,there1 from the dead1 centurions see him rise1 ,see1 but struck down with horrible surprize6--,savage4 ,with seed of woes my heart brimful is charged4--,,sidney3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,our legions are brimful1 our cause is ripe4--,,shakspeare3 ib4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,etymology4 ,,etymology treats of the different parts of speech1 with their classes and modifications4 ,the ,parts of ,speech are the several kinds1 or principal classes1 into which words are divided by grammarians4 ,classes1 under the parts of speech1 are the particular sorts into which the several kinds of words are subdivided4 ,modifications are inflections1 or changes1 in the terminations1 forms1 or senses1 of some kinds of words4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,the ,parts of ,speech1 or sorts of words1 in ,english1 are ten2 namely1 the ,article1 the ,noun1 the ,adjective1 the ,pronoun1 the ,verb1 the ,participle1 the ,adverb1 the ,conjunction1 the ,preposition1 and the ,interjection4 #a4 ,,the ,,article4 ,an ,article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification3 as1 ,the air1 the stars2 an island1 a ship4 #b4 ,,the ,,noun4 ,a ,noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned3 as1 ,george1 ,york1 man1 apple1 truth4 #c4 ,,the ,,adjective4 ,an ,adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality3 as1 ,a wise man2 a new book4 ,you two are diligent4 #d4 ,,the ,,pronoun4 ,a ,pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun3 as1 ,the boy loves his book2 he has long lessons1 and he learns them well4 #e4 ,,the ,,verb4 ,a ,verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon3 as1 ,i am1 ,i rule1 ,i am ruled2 ,i love1 thou lovest1 he loves4 #f4 ,,the ,,participle4 ,a ,participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb3 thus1 from the verb rule1 are formed three participles1 two simple and one compound2 as1 #a4 ruling1 #b4 ruled1 #c4 having ruled4 #g4 ,,the ,,adverb4 ,an ,adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner3 as1 ,they are now here1 studying very diligently4 #h4 ,,the ,,conjunction4 ,a ,conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected3 as1 ,thou and he are happy1 because you are good4--,l4 ,murray4 #i4 ,,the ,,preposition4 ,a ,preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun2 as1 ,the paper lies before me on the desk4 #aj4 ,,the ,,interjection4 ,an ,interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind3 as1 ,oh6 alas6 ah6 poh6 pshaw6 avaunt6 aha6 hurrah6 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the first thing to be learned in the study of this the second part of grammar1 is the distribution of the words of the language into those principal sorts1 or classes1 which are denominated the ,parts of ,speech4 ,this is a matter of some difficulty4 ,and as no scheme which can be adopted1 will be in all cases so plain that young beginners will not occasionally falter in its application1 the teacher may sometimes find it expedient to refer his pupils to the following simple explanations1 which are designed to aid their first and most difficult steps4 ,how can we know to what class1 or part of speech1 any word belongs8 ,by learning the definitions of the ten parts of speech1 and then observing how the word is written1 and in what sense it is used4 ,it is necessary also to observe1 so far as we can1 with what other words each particular one is capable of making sense4 #a4 ,is it easy to distinguish an ,,article8 ,if not always easy1 it is generally so3 the1 an1 and a1 are the only ,english words called articles1 and these are rarely any thing else4 ,because an and a have the same import1 and are supposed to have the same origin1 the articles are commonly reckoned two1 but some count them as three4 #b4 ,how can we distinguish a ,,noun8 ,by means of the article before it1 if there is one2 as1 the house1 an apple1 a book2 or1 by adding it to the phrase1 ,i mentioned2 as1 ,i mentioned peace2--,i mentioned war2--,i mentioned slumber4 ,any word which thus makes complete sense1 is1 in that sense1 a noun2 because a noun is the name of any thing which can thus be mentioned by a name4 ,of ,english nouns1 there are said to be as many as twenty-five or thirty thousand4 #c4 ,how can we distinguish an ,,adjective8 ,by putting a noun after it1 to see if the phrase will be sense4 ,the noun thing1 or its plural things1 will suit almost any adjective2 as1 ,a good thing--,a bad thing--,a little thing--,a great thing--,few things--,many things--,some things--,fifty things4 ,of adjectives1 there are perhaps nine or ten thousand4 #d4 ,how can we distinguish a ,,pronoun8 ,by observing that its noun repeated makes the same sense4 ,thus1 the example of the pronoun above1 ,the boy loves his book2 he has long lessons1 and he learns them well1--very clearly means1 ,the boy loves the boy's book2 the boy has long lessons1 and the boy learns those lessons well4 ,here then1 by a disagreeable repetition of two nouns1 we have the same sense without any pronoun2 but it is obvious that the pronouns form a better mode of expression1 because they prevent this awkward repetition4 ,the different pronouns in ,english are twenty-four2 and their variations in declension are thirty-two3 so that the number of words of this class1 is fifty-six4 #e4 ,how can we distinguish a ,,verb8 ,by observing that it is usually the principal word in the sentence1 and that without it there would be no assertion4 ,it is the word which expresses what is affirmed or said of the person or thing mentioned2 as1 ,jesus wept4--,felix trembled4--,the just shall live by faith4 ,it will make sense when inflected with the pronouns2 as1 ,i write1 thou writ'st1 he writes2 we write1 you write1 they write4--,i walk1 thou walkst1 he walks2 we walk1 you walk1 they walk4 ,of ,english verbs1 some recent grammarians compute the number at eight thousand2 others formerly reckoned them to be no more than four thousand three hundred4#aca #f4 ,how can we distinguish a ,,participle8 ,by observing its derivation from the verb1 and then placing it after to be or having2 as1 ,to be writing1 ,having written--,to be walking1 ,having walked--,to be weeping1 ,having wept--,to be studying1 ,having studied4 ,of simple participles1 there are twice as many as there are of simple or radical verbs2 and the possible compounds are not less numerous than the simples1 but they are much less frequently used4 #g4 ,how can we distinguish an ,,adverb8 ,by observing that it answers to the question1 ,when8 ,where8 ,how much8 or ,how8--or serves to ask it2 as1 ,he spoke fluently4 ,how did he speak8 ,fluently4 ,this word fluently is therefore an adverb3 it tells how he spoke4 ,of adverbs1 there are about two thousand six hundred2 and four fifths of them end in ly4 #h4 ,how can we distinguish a ,,conjunction8 ,by observing what words or terms it joins together1 or to what other conjunction it corresponds2 as1 ,neither wealth nor honor can heal a wounded conscience4--,dillwyn's ,ref41 p4 #af4 ,or1 it may be well to learn the whole list at once3 ,and1 as1 both1 because1 even1 for1 if1 that1 then1 since1 seeing1 so3 ,or1 nor1 either1 neither1 than1 though1 although1 yet1 but1 except1 whether1 lest1 unless1 save1 provided1 notwithstanding1 whereas4 ,of conjunctions1 there are these twenty-nine in common use1 and a few others now obsolete4 #i4 ,how can we distinguish a ,,preposition8 ,by observing that it will govern the pronoun them1 and is not a verb or a participle2 as1 ,about them--above them--across them--after them--against them--amidst them--among them--around them--at them--,before them--behind them--below them--beneath them--beside them--between them--beyond them--by them--,for them--from them--,in them--into them1 c4 ,of the prepositions1 there are about sixty now in common use4 #aj4 ,how can we distinguish an ,,interjection8 ,by observing that it is an independent word or sound1 uttered earnestly1 and very often written with the note of exclamation2 as ,lo6 behold6 look6 see6 hark6 hush6 hist6 mum6 ,of interjections1 there are sixty or seventy in common use1 some of which are seldom found in books4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,an accurate knowledge of words1 and of their changes1 is indispensable to a clear discernment of their proper combinations in sentences1 according to the usage of the learned4 ,etymology1 therefore1 should be taught before syntax2 but it should be chiefly taught by a direct analysis of entire sentences1 and those so plainly written that the particular effect of every word may be clearly distinguished1 and the meaning1 whether intrinsic or relative1 be discovered with precision4 ,the parts of speech are usually named and defined with reference to the use of words in sentences2 and1 as the same word not unfrequently stands for several different parts of speech1 the learner should be early taught to make for himself the proper application of the foregoing distribution1 without recurrence to a dictionary1 and without aid from his teacher4 ,he who is endeavouring to acquaint himself with the grammar of a language which he can already read and understand1 is placed in circumstances very different from those which attend the school-boy who is just beginning to construe some sentences of a foreign tongue4 ,a frequent use of the dictionary may facilitate the progress of the one1 while it delays that of the other4 ,english grammar1 it is hoped1 may be learned directly from this book alone1 with better success than can be expected when the attention of the learner is divided among several or many different works4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,dr4 ,james ,p4 ,wilson1 in speaking of the classification of words1 observes1 ,the names of the distributive parts should either express1 distinctly1 the influence1 which each class produces on sentences2 or some other characteristic trait1 by which the respective species of words may be distinguished1 without danger of confusion4 ,it is at least probable1 that no distribution1 sufficiently minute1 can ever be made1 of the parts of speech1 which shall be wholly free from all objection4 ,hasty innovations1 therefore1 and crude conjectures1 should not be permitted to disturb that course of grammatical instruction1 which has been advancing in melioration1 by the unremitting labours of thousands1 through a series of ages4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,again3 ,the number of the parts of speech may be reduced1 or enlarged1 at pleasure2 and the rules of syntax may be accommodated to such new arrangement4 ,the best grammarians find it difficult1 in practice1 to distinguish1 in some instances1 adverbs1 prepositions1 and conjunctions2 yet their effects are generally distinct4 ,this inconvenience should be submitted to1 since a less comprehensive distribution would be very unfavourable to a rational investigation of the meaning of ,english sentences4--,ib41 p4 #fh4 ,again3 ,as and so have been also deemed substitutes1 and resolved into other words4 ,but if all abbreviations are to be restored to their primitive parts of speech1 there will be a general revolution in the present systems of grammar2 and the various improvements1 which have sprung from convenience1 or necessity1 and been sanctioned by the usage of ancient times1 must be retrenched1 and anarchy in letters universally prevail4--,ib41 p4 #aad4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,i have elsewhere sufficiently shown why ten parts of speech are to be preferred to any other number1 in ,english2 and whatever diversity of opinion there may be1 respecting the class to which some particular words ought to be referred1 ,i trust to make it obvious to good sense1 that ,i have seldom erred from the course which is most expedient4 #a4 ,articles are used with appellative nouns1 sometimes to denote emphatically the species1 but generally to designate individuals4 #b4 ,nouns stand in discourse for persons1 things1 or abstract qualities4 #c4 ,adjectives commonly express the concrete qualities of persons or things2 but sometimes1 their situation or number4 #d4 ,pronouns are substitutes for names1 or nouns2 but they sometimes represent sentences4 #e4 ,verbs assert1 ask1 or say something2 and1 for the most part1 express action or motion4 #f4 ,participles contain the essential meaning of their verbs1 and commonly denote action1 and imply time2 but1 apart from auxiliaries1 they express that meaning either adjectively or substantively1 and not with assertion4 #g4 ,adverbs express the circumstances of time1 of place1 of degree1 and of manner2 the when1 the where1 the how much1 and the how4 #h4 ,conjunctions connect1 sometimes words1 and sometimes sentences1 rarely phrases2 and always show1 either the manner in which one sentence or one phrase depends upon an other1 or what connexion there is between two words that refer to a third4 #i4 ,prepositions express the correspondent relations of things to things1 of thoughts to thoughts1 or of words to words2 for these1 if we speak truly1 must be all the same in expression4 #aj4 ,interjections are either natural sounds or exclamatory words1 used independently1 and serving briefly to indicate the wishes or feelings of the speaker4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in the following passage1 all the parts of speech are exemplified1 and each is pointed out by the figure placed over the word3-- #a #b #i #b #e #a #b #c #i #b #a #b #f ,the power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man2 a faculty bestowed #i #d #i #d #c #b #i #a #c #h #g #c on him by his beneficent ,creator1 for the greatest and most excellent #b #h #aj #g #g #e #d #e #d #i #a #c #i uses2 but1 alas6 how often do we pervert it to the worst of #b purposes6--,see ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,in this sentence1 which has been adopted by ,murray1 ,churchill1 and others1 we have the following parts of speech3 #a4 ,the words the1 a1 and an1 are articles4 #b4 ,the words power1 speech1 faculty1 man1 faculty1 ,creator1 uses1 and purposes1 are nouns4 #c4 ,the words peculiar1 beneficent1 greatest1 excellent1 and worst1 are adjectives4 #d4 ,the words him1 his1 we1 and it1 are pronouns4 #e4 ,the words is1 do1 and pervert1 are verbs4 #f4 ,the word bestowed is a participle4 #g4 ,the words most1 how1 and often1 are adverbs4 #h4 ,the words and and but are conjunctions4 #i4 ,the words of1 on1 to1 by1 for1 to1 and of1 are prepositions4 #aj4 ,the word alas6 is an interjection4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,in speaking or writing1 we of course bring together the different parts of speech just as they happen to be needed4 ,though a sentence of ordinary length usually embraces more than one half of them1 it is not often that we find them all in so small a compass4 ,sentences sometimes abound in words of a particular kind1 and are quite destitute of those of some other sort4 ,the following examples will illustrate these remarks4 7#a7 ,,articles3 ,a square is less beautiful than a circle2 and the reason seems to be1 that the attention is divided among the sides and angles of a square1 whereas the circumference of a circle1 being a single object1 makes one entire impression4--,kames1 ,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #age4 7#b47 ,,nouns3 ,a number of things destined for the same use1 such as windows1 chairs1 spoons1 buttons1 cannot be too uniform2 for1 supposing their figure to be good1 utility requires uniformity4--,ib41 i1 #agf4 7#c47 ,,adjectives3 ,hence nothing just1 proper1 decent1 beautiful1 proportioned1 or grand1 is risible4--,ib41 i1 #bbi4 7#d47 ,,pronouns3 ,i must entreat the courteous reader to suspend his curiosity1 and rather to consider what is written than who they are that write it4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #eef4 7#e47 ,,verbs3 ,the least consideration will inform us how easy it is to put an ill-natured construction upon a word2 and what perverse turns and expressions spring from an evil temper4 ,nothing can be explained to him who will not understand1 nor will any thing appear right to the unreasonable4--,cecil4 7#f47 ,,participles3 ,the ,scriptures are an authoritative voice1 reproving1 instructing1 and warning the world2 and declaring the only means ordained and provided for escaping the awful penalties of sin4--,g4 ,b4 7#g47 ,,adverbs3 ,the light of ,scripture shines steadily1 purely1 benignly1 certainly1 superlatively4--,dr4 ,s4 ,h4 ,cox4 7#h47 ,,conjunctions3 ,quietness and silence both become and befriend religious exercises4 ,clamour and violence often hinder1 but never further1 the work of ,god4--,henry's ,exposition4 7#i47 ,,prepositions3 ,he has kept among us1 in times of peace1 standing armies1 without the consent of our legislatures4--,dec4 of ,indep4 7#aj47 ,,interjections3 ,oh1 my dear strong-box6 ,oh1 my lost guineas6 ,oh1 poor1 ruined1 beggared old man6 ,boo6 hoo6 hoo6--,,moliere3 ,burgh's ,art of ,speaking1 p4 #bff4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence1 or of some related word or words1 according to the definitions and rules of grammar4 ,parsing is to grammar what ciphering is to arithmetic4 ,a ,praxis is a method of exercise1 or a form of grammatical resolution1 showing the learner how to proceed4 ,the word is ,greek1 and literally signifies action1 doing1 practice1 or formal use4 ,,praxis ,i--,,etymological4 ,in the first ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--merely to distinguish and define the different parts of speech4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,first ,praxis1 are one1 and only one1 for each word1 or part of speech4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,the patient ox submits to the yoke1 and meekly performs the labour required of him4 ,the is an article4 #a4acb ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 ,patient is an adjective4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 ,ox is a noun4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 ,submits is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,to is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,the is an article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 ,yoke is a noun4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 ,and is a conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,meekly is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,performs is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,the is an article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 ,labour is a noun4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 ,required is a participle4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 ,of is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,him is a pronoun4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,a nimble tongue often trips4 ,the rule of the tongue is a great attainment4 ,the language of truth is direct and plain4 ,truth is never evasive4 ,flattery is the food of vanity4 ,a virtuous mind loathes flattery4 ,vain persons are an easy prey to parasites4 ,vanity easily mistakes sneers for smiles4 ,the smiles of the world are deceitful4 ,true friendship hath eternal views4 ,a faithful friend is invaluable4 ,constancy in friendship denotes a generous mind4 ,adversity is the criterion of friendship4 ,love and fidelity are inseparable4 ,few know the value of a friend till they lose him4 ,justice is the first of all moral virtues4 ,let justice hold1 and mercy turn1 the scale4 ,a judge is guilty who connives at guilt4 ,justice delayed is little better than justice denied4 ,vice is the deformity of man4 ,virtue is a source of constant cheerfulness4 ,one vice is more expensive than many virtues4 ,wisdom1 though serious1 is never sullen4 ,youth is the season of improvement4--,dillwyn's ,reflections1 pp4 #d-bg4 ,oh6 my ill-chang'd condition6 oh1 my fate6 ,did ,i lose heaven for this8--,cowley's ,davideis4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,so prone is man to society1 and so happy in it1 that1 to relish perpetual solitude1 one must be an angel or a brute4 ,in a solitary state1 no creature is more timid than man2 in society1 none more bold4 ,the number of offenders lessens the disgrace of the crime2 for a common reproach is no reproach4 ,a man is more unhappy in reproaching himself when guilty1 than in being reproached by others when innocent4 ,the pains of the mind are harder to bear than those of the body4 ,hope1 in this mixed state of good and ill1 is a blessing from heaven3 the gift of prescience would be a curse4 ,the first step towards vice1 is to make a mystery of what is innocent3 whoever loves to hide1 will soon or late have reason to hide4 ,a man who gives his children a habit of industry1 provides for them better than by giving them a stock of money4 ,our good and evil proceed from ourselves3 death appeared terrible to ,cicero1 indifferent to ,socrates1 desirable to ,cato4--,home's ,art of ,thinking1 pp4 #bf-ec4 ,o thou most high transcendent gift of age6 ,youth from its folly thus to disengage4--,denham's ,age4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,calm was the day1 and the scene1 delightful4 ,we may expect a calm after a storm4 ,to prevent passion is easier than to calm it4--,murray's ,ex41 p4 #e4 ,better is a little with content1 than a great deal with anxiety4 ,a little attention will rectify some errors4 ,unthinking persons care little for the future4--,see ib4 ,still waters are commonly deepest4 ,he laboured to still the tumult4 ,though he is out of danger1 he is still afraid4--,ib4 ,damp air is unwholesome4 ,guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours4 ,soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones4--,ib4 ,the hail was very destructive4 ,hail1 virtue6 source of every good4 ,we hail you as friends4--,ib41 p4 #f4 ,much money makes no man happy4 ,think much1 and speak little4 ,he has seen much of the world4--,see ib4 ,every being loves its like4 ,we must make a like space between the lines4 ,behave like men4 ,we are apt to like pernicious company4--,ib4 ,give me more love1 or more disdain4--,carew4 ,he loved ,rachel more than ,leah4--,genesis4 ,but how much that more is2 he hath no distinct notion4--,locke4 ,and my more having would be as a sauce ,to make me hunger more4--,shakspeare4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,articles4 ,an ,article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification3 as1 ,the air1 the stars2 an island1 a ship4 ,an and a1 being equivalent in meaning1 are commonly reckoned one and the same article4 ,an is used in preference to a1 whenever the following word begins with a vowel sound2 as1 ,an art1 an end1 an heir1 an inch1 an ounce1 an hour1 an urn4 ,a is used in preference to an1 whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound2 as1 ,a man1 a house1 a wonder1 a one1 a yew1 a use1 a ewer4 ,thus the consonant sounds of w and y1 even when expressed by other letters1 require a and not an before them4 ,a common noun1 when taken in its widest sense1 usually admits no article3 as1 ,a candid temper is proper for man2 that is1 for all mankind4--,murray4 ,in ,english1 nouns without any article1 or other definitive1 are often used in a sense indefinitely partitive3 as1 ,he took bread1 and gave thanks4--,acts4 ,that is1 some bread4 ,to buy food are thy servants come4--,genesis4 ,that is1 some food4 ,there are fishes that have wings1 and are not strangers to the airy region4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #cbb4 ,that is1 some fishes4 ,words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied1 are used without articles3 as1 ',this is not beer1 but water2' ',this is not brass1 but steel4'--,see ,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,an or a before the genus1 may refer to a whole species2 and the before the species1 may denote that whole species emphatically3 as1 ,a certain bird is termed the cuckoo1 from the sound which it emits4--,blair4 ,but an or a is commonly used to denote individuals as unknown1 or as not specially distinguished from others3 as1 ,i see an object pass by1 which ,i never saw till now2 and ,i say1 ',there goes a beggar with a long beard4'--,harris4 ,and the is commonly used to denote individuals as known1 or as specially distinguished from others3 as1 ,the man departs1 and returns a week after2 and ,i say1 ',there goes the beggar with the long beard4'--,id4 ,the article the is applied to nouns of cither number3 as1 ,the man1 the men2 ,the good boy1 the good boys4 ,the is commonly required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns3 as1 ,the young are slaves to novelty2 the old1 to custom4--,ld4 ,kames4 ,the article an or a implies unity1 or one1 and of course belongs to nouns of the singular number only2 as1 ,a man1--,an old man1--,a good boy4 ,an or a1 like one1 sometimes gives a collective meaning to an adjective of number1 when the noun following is plural2 as1 ,a few days1--,a hundred men1--,one hundred pounds sterling4 ,articles should be inserted as often as the sense requires them2 as1 ,repeat the preterit and the perfect participle of the verb to abide4--,error in ,merchant's ,american ,school ,grammar1 p4 #ff4 ,needless articles should be omitted2 they seldom fail to pervert the sense3 as1 ,the ,rhine1 the ,danube1 the ,tanais1 the ,po1 the ,wolga1 the ,ganges1 like many hundreds of similar names1 rose not from any obscure jargon or irrational dialect4--,error in ,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,lang41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cbg4 ,the articles can seldom be put one for the other1 without gross impropriety2 and of course either is to be preferred to the other1 as it better suits the sense3 as1 ,the violation of this rule never fails to hurt and displease a reader4--,error in ,blair's ,lectures1 p4 #ajg4 ,say1 ,a violation of this rule never fails to displease the reader4 ,,classes4 ,the articles are distinguished as the definite and the indefinite4 ,i4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things2 as1 ,the boy1 the oranges4 ,,ii4 ,the indefinite article is an or a1 which denotes one thing of a kind1 but not any particular one2 as1 ,a boy1 an orange4 ,,modifications4#acc ,the ,english articles have no modifications1 except that an is shortened into a before the sound of a consonant2 as1 ,in an epic poem1 or a poem upon an elevated subject1 a writer ought to avoid raising a simile on a low image4--,ld4 ,kames4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,no other words are so often employed as the articles4 ,and1 by reason of the various and very frequent occasions on which these definitives are required1 no words are oftener misapplied2 none1 oftener omitted or inserted erroneously4 ,i shall therefore copiously illustrate both their uses and their abuses2 with the hope that every reader of this volume will think it worth his while to gain that knowledge which is requisite to the true use of these small but important words4 ,some parts of the explanation1 however1 must be deferred till we come to ,syntax4 ,,obs4 #b4--,with the attempts of ,tooke1 ,dalton1 ,webster1 ,cardell1 ,fowle1 ,wells1#acd ,weld1 ,butler ,frazee1 ,perley1 ,mulligan1 ,pinneo1 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 and other writers1 to degrade the article from its ancient rank among the parts of speech1 no judicious reader1 duly acquainted with the subject1 can1 ,i think1 be well pleased4 ,an article is not properly an adjective1 as they would have it to be2 but it is a word of a peculiar sort--a customary index to the sense of nouns4 ,it serves not merely to show the extent of signification1 in which nouns are to be taken1 but is often the principal1 and sometimes the only mark1 by which a word is known to have the sense and construction of a noun4 ,there is just as much reason to deny and degrade the ,greek or ,french article1 7or that of any other language17 as the ,english2 and1 if those who are so zealous to reform our the1 an1 and a into adjectives1 cared at all to appear consistent in the view of ,comparative or ,general ,grammar1 they would either set about a wider reformation or back out soon from the pettiness of this4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,first let it be understood1 that an or a is nearly equivalent in meaning to the numeral adjective one1 but less emphatic2 and that the is nearly equivalent in meaning to the pronominal adjective that or those1 but less emphatic4 ,on some occasions1 these adjectives may well be substituted for the articles2 but not generally4 ,if the articles were generally equivalent to adjectives1 or even if they were generally like them1 they would be adjectives2 but1 that adjectives may occasionally supply their places1 is no argument at all for confounding the two parts of speech4 ,distinctions must be made1 where differences exist2 and1 that a1 an1 and the1 do differ considerably from the other words which they most resemble1 is shown even by some who judge the distinctive name of article to be useless4 ,see ,crombie's ,treatise1 ,chap4 #b4 ,the articles therefore must be distinguished1 not only from adjectives1 but from each other4 ,for1 though both are articles1 each is an index sui generis2 the one definite1 the other indefinite4 ,and as the words that and one cannot often be interchanged without a difference of meaning1 so the definite article and the indefinite are seldom1 if ever1 interchangeable4 ,to put one for the other1 is therefore1 in general1 to put one meaning for an other3 ,a daughter of a poor man--,the daughter of the poor man--,a daughter of the poor man--and1 ,the daughter of a poor man1 are four phrases which certainly have four different and distinct significations4 ,this difference between the two articles may be further illustrated by the following example3 ,that ,jesus was a prophet sent from ,god1 is one proposition2 that ,jesus was the prophet1 the ,messiah1 is an other2 and1 though he certainly was both a prophet and the prophet1 yet the foundations of the proof of these propositions are separate and distinct4--,watson's ,apology1 p4 #aje4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,common nouns are1 for the most part1 names of large classes of objects2 and1 though what really constitutes the species must always be found entire in every individual1 the several objects thus arranged under one general name or idea1 are in most instances susceptible of such a numerical distribution as gives rise to an other form of the noun1 expressive of plurality2 as1 horse1 horses4 ,proper nouns in their ordinary application1 are1 for the most part1 names of particular individuals2 and as there is no plurality to a particular idea1 or to an individual person or thing as distinguished from all others1 so there is in general none to this class of nouns2 and no room for further restriction by articles4 ,but we sometimes divert such nouns from their usual signification1 and consequently employ them with articles or in the plural form2 as1 ,i endeavoured to retain it nakedly in my mind1 without regarding whether ,i had it from an ,aristotle or a ,zoilus1 a ,newton or a ,descartes4--,churchill's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 #h4 ,it is not enough to have ,vitruviuses1 we must also have ,augustuses to employ them4--,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #fa4 ,a ,daniel come to judgment6 yea1 a ,daniel6 --,,shak4 ,shylock4 ,great ,homer1 in th' ,achilles1 whom he drew1 ,sets not that one sole ,person in our ,view4 --,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ahc4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the article an or a usually denotes one out of several or many2 one of a sort of which there are more2 any one of that name1 no matter which4 ,hence its effect upon a particular name1 or proper noun1 is directly the reverse of that which it has upon a common noun4 ,it varies and fixes the meaning of both2 but while it restricts that of the latter1 it enlarges that of the former4 ,it reduces the general idea of the common noun to any one individual of the class3 as1 ,a man2 that is1 ,one man1 or any man4 ,on the contrary1 it extends the particular idea of the proper noun1 and makes the word significant of a class1 by supposing others to whom it will apply3 as1 ,a ,nero2 that is1 ,any ,nero1 or any cruel tyrant4 ,sometimes1 however1 this article before a proper name1 seems to leave the idea still particular2 but1 if it really does so1 the propriety of using it may be doubted3 as1 ,no1 not by a ,john the ,baptist risen from the dead4--,henry's ,expos41 ,mark1 vi4 ,it was not solely owing to the madness and depravity of a ,tiberius1 a ,caligula1 a ,nero1 or a ,caracalla1 that a cruel and sanguinary spirit1 in their day1 was so universal4--,m',ilvaine's ,evid41 p4 #cih4 ,,obs4 #f4--,with the definite article1 the noun is applied1 sometimes specifically1 sometimes individually1 but always definitely1 always distinctively4 ,this article is demonstrative4 ,it marks either the particular individual1 or the particular species1--or1 7if the noun be plural17 some particular individuals of the species1--as being distinguished from all others4 ,it sometimes refers to a thing as having been previously mentioned2 sometimes presumes upon the hearer's familiarity with the thing2 and sometimes indicates a limitation which is made by subsequent words connected with the noun4 ,such is the import of this article1 that with it the singular number of the noun is often more comprehensive1 and at the same time more specific1 than the plural4 ,thus1 if ,i say1 ,the horse is a noble animal1 without otherwise intimating that ,i speak of some particular horse1 the sentence will be understood to embrace collectively that species of animal2 and ,i shall be thought to mean1 ,horses are noble animals4 ,but if ,i say1 ,the horses are noble animals1 ,i use an expression so much more limited1 as to include only a few2 it must mean some particular horses1 which ,i distinguish from all the rest of the species4 ,such limitations should be made1 whenever there is occasion for them2 but needless restrictions displease the imagination1 and ought to be avoided2 because the mind naturally delights in terms as comprehensive as they may be1 if also specific4 ,lindley ,murray1 though not uniform in his practice respecting this1 seems to have thought it necessary to use the plural in many sentences in which ,i should decidedly prefer the singular2 as1 ,that the learners may have no doubts4--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ha4 ,the business will not be tedious to the scholars4--,ib41 #ha4 ,for the information of the learners4--,ib41 #ha4 ,it may afford instruction to the learners4--,ib41 #aaj4 ,that this is the case1 the learners will perceive by the following examples4--,ib41 #cbf4 ,some knowledge of it appears to be indispensable to the scholars4--,ib41 #cce4 ,,obs4 #g4--,proper names of a plural form and signification1 are almost always preceded by the definite article2 as1 ,the ,wesleys1--,the twelve ,csars1--,all the ,howards4 ,so the names of particular nations1 tribes1 and sects2 as1 ,the ,romans1 the ,jews1 the ,levites1 the ,stoics4 ,likewise the plural names of mountains2 as1 ,the ,alps1 the ,apennines1 the ,pyrenees1 the ,andes4 ,of plural names like these1 and especially of such as designate tribes and sects1 there is a very great number4 ,like other proper names1 they must be distinguished from the ordinary words of the language1 and accordingly they are always written with capitals2 but they partake so largely of the nature of common nouns1 that it seems doubtful to which class they most properly belong4 ,hence they not only admit1 but require the article2 while most other proper names are so definite in themselves1 that the article1 if put before them1 would be needless1 and therefore improper4 ,nash1 ,rutledge1 ,jefferson1 in council great1 ,and ,jay1 and ,laurens oped the rolls of fate2 ,the ,livingstons1 fair freedoms generous band1 ,the ,lees1 the ,houstons1 fathers of the land4--,barlow4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,in prose1 the definite article is always used before names of rivers1 unless the word river1 be added2 as1 ,the ,delaware1 the ,hudson1 the ,connecticut4 ,but if the word river be added1 the article becomes needless2 as1 ,delaware river1 ,hudson river1 ,connecticut river4 ,yet there seems to be no impropriety in using both2 as1 ,the ,delaware river1 the ,hudson river1 the ,connecticut river4 ,and if the common noun be placed before the proper name1 the article is again necessary2 as1 ,the river ,delaware1 the river ,hudson1 the river ,connecticut4 ,in the first form of expression1 however1 the article has not usually been resolved by grammarians as relating to the proper name2 but these examples1 and others of a similar character1 have been supposed elliptical3 as1 ,the river ,potomac--,the ship ,constitution1--,the steamboat ,fulton4 ,upon this supposition1 the words in the first and fourth forms are to be parsed alike2 the article relating to the common noun1 expressed or understood1 and the proper noun being in apposition with the appellative4 ,but in the second form1 the apposition is reversed2 and1 in the third1 the proper name appears to be taken adjectively4 ,without the article1 some names of rivers could not be understood2 as1 ,no more the ,varus and the ,atax feel ,the lordly burden of the ,latian keel4--,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 i4 l4 #gbb4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the definite article is often used by way of eminence1 to distinguish some particular individual emphatically1 or to apply to him some characteristic name or quality3 as1 ,the ,stagirite1--that is1 ,aristotle2 ,the ,psalmist1 that is1 ,david2 ,alexander the ,great1--that is1 7perhaps17 ,alexander the ,great ,monarch1 or ,great ,hero4 ,so1 sometimes1 when the phrase relates to a collective body of men3 as1 ,the ,honourable1 the ,legislature1--,the ,honourable1 the ,senate2--that is1 ,the ,honourable ,body1 the ,legislature1 c4 ,a similar application of the article in the following sentences1 makes a most beautiful and expressive form of compliment3 ,these are the sacred feelings of thy heart1 ,o ,lyttleton1 the friend4--,thomson4 ,the pride of swains ,palemon was1 the generous and the rich4--,id4 ,in this last example1 the noun man is understood after generous1 and again after rich2 for1 the article being an index to the noun1 ,i conceive it to be improper ever to construe two articles as having reference to one unrepeated word4 ,dr4 ,priestley says1 ,we sometimes repeat the article1 when the epithet precedes the substantive2 as ,he was met by the worshipful the magistrates4--,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,it is true1 we occasionally meet with such fulsome phraseology as this2 but the question is1 how is it to be explained8 ,i imagine that the word personages1 or something equivalent1 must be understood after worshipful1 and that the ,doctor ought to have inserted a comma there4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,in ,greek1 there is no article corresponding to our an or a1 consequently man and a man are rendered alike2 the word1 ,greek3 anthropos may mean either4 ,see1 in the original1 these texts3 ,there was a man sent from ,god1 7,john1 i1 #f17 and1 ,what is man1 that thou art mindful of him8--,heb41 ii1 #f4 ,so of other nouns4 ,but the definite article of that language1 which is exactly equivalent to our the1 is a declinable word1 making no small figure in grammar4 ,it is varied by numbers1 genders1 and cases2 so that it assumes more than twenty different forms1 and becomes susceptible of six and thirty different ways of agreement4 ,but this article in ,english is perfectly simple1 being entirely destitute of grammatical modifications1 and consequently incapable of any form of grammatical agreement or disagreement--a circumstance of which many of our grammarians seem to be ignorant2 since they prescribe a rule1 wherein they say1 it agrees1 may agree1 or must agree1 with its noun4 ,nor has the indefinite article any variation of form1 except the change from an to a1 which has been made for the sake of brevity or euphony4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,as an or a conveys the idea of unity1 of course it applies to no other than nouns of the singular number4 ,an eagle is one eagle1 and the plural word eagles denotes more than one2 but what could possibly be meant by ans eagles1 if such a phrase were invented8 ,harris very strangely says1 ,the ,greeks have no article correspondent to an or a1 but supply its place by a ,,negation of their article4 ,and even in ,english1 where the article a cannot be used1 as in plurals1 its force is exprest by the same ,,negation4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bah4 ,what a sample of grammar is this6 ,besides several minor faults1 we have here a nonentity1 a ,,negation of the ,greek article1 made to occupy a place in language1 and to express force6 ,the force of what8 ,of a plural an or a16 of such a word as ans or aes6 ,the error of the first of these sentences1 ,dr4 ,blair has copied entire into his eighth lecture4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the following rules of agreement1 though found in many ,english grammars1 are not only objectionable with respect to the sense intended1 but so badly written as to be scarcely intelligible in any sense3 #a4 ,the article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only1 individually1 or collectively3 as1 ,a ,christian1 an infidel1 a score1 a thousand4 #b4 ,the definite article the may agree with nouns in the singular ,,and#ace plural number3 as1 ,the garden1 the houses1 the stars4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #agj2 #abmo1 #aci2 ,fish's ,murray1 #ih2 a ,teacher's1 #de4 ,for the purpose of preventing any erroneous construction of the articles1 these rules are utterly useless2 and for the purpose of syntactical parsing1 or the grammatical resolution of this part of speech1 they are awkward and inconvenient4 ,the syntax of the articles may be much better expressed in this manner3 ,articles relate to the nouns which they limit1 for1 in ,english1 the bearing of the articles upon other words is properly that of simple relation1 or dependence1 according to the sense1 and not that of agreement1 not a similarity of distinctive modifications4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,among all the works of earlier grammarians1 ,i have never yet found a book which taught correctly the application of the two forms of the indefinite article an or a4 ,murray1 contrary to ,johnson and ,webster1 considers a to be the original word1 and an the euphonic derivative4 ,he says3 ,a becomes an before a vowel1 and before a silent h4 ,but if the h be sounded1 the a only is to be used4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,to this he adds1 in a marginal note1 ,a instead of an is now used before words beginning with u long4 ,it is used before one4 ,an must be used before words ,,where the h is not silent1 if the accent is on the second syllable2 as1 an heroic action1 an historical account4--,ib4 ,this explanation1 clumsy as it is1 in the whole conception2 broken1 prolix1 deficient1 and inaccurate as it is1 both in style and doctrine2 has been copied and copied from grammar to grammar1 as if no one could possibly better it4 ,besides several other faults1 it contains a palpable misuse of the article itself3 the h which is specified in the second and fifth sentences1 is the silent h of the first sentence2 and this inaccurate specification gives us the two obvious solecisms of supposing1 if the silent h be sounded1 and of locating words ,,where the silent h is not silent6 ,in the word humour1 and its derivatives1 the h is silent1 by all authority except ,webster's2 and yet these words require a and not an before them4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,it is the sound only1 that governs the form of the article1 and not the letter itself2 as1 ,those which admit of the regular form1 are marked with an ,r4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aja4 ,a heroic poem1 written by ,virgil4--,webster's ,dict4 ,every poem of the kind has no doubt a historical groundwork4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #deg4 ,a poet must be a naturalist and a historian4--,coleridge's ,introduction1 p4 #aaa4 ,before h in an unaccented syllable1 either form of the article may be used without offence to the ear2 and either may be made to appear preferable to the other1 by merely aspirating the letter in a greater or less degree4 ,but as the h1 though ever so feebly aspirated has something of a consonant sound1 ,i incline to think the article in this case ought to conform to the general principle3 as1 ,a historical introduction has1 generally1 a happy effect to rouse attention4-- ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #caa4 ,he who would write heroic poems1 should make his whole life a heroic poem4--,see ,life of ,schiller1 p4 #ef4 ,within two lines of this quotation1 the biographer speaks of an heroic multitude6 ,the suppression of the sound of h being with ,englishmen a very common fault in pronunciation1 it is not desirable to increase the error1 by using a form of the article which naturally leads to it4 ,how often do we hear an air metamorphosed into a hair1 a hat into a gnat1 and a hero into a ,nero6--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bje4 ,thus3 ,neither of them had that bold and adventurous ambition which makes a conqueror an hero4--,bolingbroke1 on ,history1 p4 #agd4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,some later grammarians are still more faulty than ,murray1 in their rules for the application of an or a4 ,thus ,sanborn3 ,the vowels are a1 e1 i1 o1 and u4 ,an should be used before words beginning with any of these letters1 or with a silent h4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,an is used before words beginning with u long or with h not silent1 when the accent is on the second syllable2 as1 an united people1 an historical account1 an heroic action4--,ib41 p4 #he4 ,a is used when the next word begins with a consonant2 an1 when it begins with a vowel or silent h4--lb41 p4 #abi4 ,if these rules were believed and followed1 they would greatly multiply errors4 ,,obs4 #af4--,whether the word a has been formed from an1 or an from a1 is a disputed point--or rather1 a point on which our grammarians dogmatize differently4 ,this1 if it be worth the search1 must be settled by consulting some genuine writings of the twelfth century4 ,in the pure ,saxon of an earlier date1 the words seldom occur2 and in that ancient dialect an1 ,i believe1 is used only as a declinable numerical adjective1 and a only as a preposition4 ,in the thirteenth century1 both forms were in common use1 in the sense now given them1 as may be seen in the writings of ,robert of ,gloucester2 though some writers of a much later date--or1 at any rate1 one1 the celebrated ,gawin ,douglas1 a ,scottish bishop1 who died of the plague in ,london1 in #aebb--;constantly wrote ane for both an and a3 as1 ,be not ouer studyous to spy ane mote in myn ,e1 ,that in gour awin ane ferrye bot can not se4 --,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #abd4 ,ane uthir mache to him was socht and sperit2 ,bot thare was nane of all the rout that sterit4 --,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #afj4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,this1 however1 was a ,scotticism2 as is also the use of ae for a3 ,gower and ,chaucer used an and a as we now use them4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,m',culloch1 in an ,english grammar published lately in ,edinburgh1 says1 ,a and an were originally ae and ane1 and were probably used at first simply to convey the idea of unity2 as1 ae man1 ane ox4--,manual of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,for this idea1 and indeed for a great part of his book1 he is indebted to ,dr4 ,crombie2 who says1 ,to signify unity1 or one of a class1 our forefathers employed ae or ane2 as1 ae man1 ane ox4--,treatise on ,etym4 and ,synt41 p4 #ec4 ,these authors1 like ,webster1 will have a and an to be adjectives4 ,dr4 ,johnson says1 ,a1 an article set before nouns of the singular number2 as1 a man1 a tree4 ,this article has no plural signification4 ,before a word beginning with a vowel1 it is written an2 as1 an ox1 an egg2 of which a is the contraction4--,quarto ,dict41 w4 ,a4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,dr4 ,webster says1 ,a is also an abbreviation of the ,saxon an or ane1 one1 used before words beginning with an articulation2 as1 a table1 instead of an table1 or one table4 ,this is a modern change2 for1 in ,saxon1 an was used before articulations as well as vowels2 as1 an tid1 a time1 an gear1 a year4--,webster's ,octavo ,dict41 w4 ,a4 ,a modern change1 indeed6 ,by his own showing in other works1 it was made long before the ,english language existed6 ,he says1 ,an1 therefore1 is the original ,english adjective or ordinal number one2 and was never written a until after the ,conquest4--,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #bj2 ,improved ,gram41 #ad4 ,the ,conquest1 means the ,norman ,conquest1 in #ajff2 but ,english was not written till the thirteenth century4 ,this author has long been idly contending1 that an or a is not an article1 but an adjective2 and that it is not properly distinguished by the term indefinite4 ,murray has answered him well enough1 but he will not be convinced4#acf ,see ,murray's ,gram41 pp4 #cd and #ce4 ,if a and one were equal1 we could not say1 ,such a one1--,what a one1--,many a one1--,this one thing2 and surely these are all good ,english1 though a and one here admit no interchange4 ,nay1 a is sometimes found before one when the latter is used adjectively2 as1 ,there is no record in ,holy ,writ of the institution of a one all-controlling monarchy4--,supremacy of the ,pope ,disproved1 p4 #i4 ,if not to a one ,sole ,arbiter4--,ib41 p4 #ai4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,an is sometimes a conjunction1 signifying if2 as1 ,nay1 an thou'lt mouthe1 ,i'll rant as well as thou4--,shak4 ,an ,i have not ballads made on you all1 and sung to fifty tunes1 may a cup of sack be my poison4--,id41 ,falstaff4 ,but1 an it were to do again1 ,i should write again4--,lord ,byron's ,letters4 ,but an it be a long part1 ,i can't remember it4--,,shakspeare3 ,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #acf4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,in the ,new ,testament1 we meet with several such expressions as the following3 ,and his disciples were an hungred4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,matt1 xii1 #a4 ,when he was an hungred4--,ib4 xii1 #c4 ,when he had need and was an hungered4--,ib4 ,mark1 ii1 #be4 ,alger1 the improver of ,murray's ,grammar1 and editor of the ,pronouncing ,bible1 taking this an to be the indefinite article1 and perceiving that the h is sounded in hungered1 changed the particle to a in all these passages2 as1 ,and his disciples were a hungered4 ,but what sense he thought he had made of the sacred record1 ,i know not4 ,the ,greek text1 rendered word for word1 is simply this3 ,and his disciples hungered4 ,and that the sentences above1 taken either way1 are not good ,english1 must be obvious to every intelligent reader4 ,an1 as ,i apprehend1 is here a mere prefix1 which has somehow been mistaken in form1 and erroneously disjoined from the following word4 ,if so1 the correction ought to be made after the fashion of the following passage from ,bishop ,m',ilvaine3 ,on a certain occasion1 our ,saviour was followed by five thousand men1 into a desert place1 where they were enhungered4--,lectures on ,christianity1 p4 #baj4 ,,obs4 #ba4--,the word a1 when it does not denote one thing of a kind1 is not an article1 but a genuine preposition2 being probably the same as the ,french 1 signifying to1 at1 on1 in1 or of3 as1 ,who hath it8 ,he that died a ,wednesday4--,shak4 ,that is1 on ,wednesday4 ,so sometimes before plurals2 as1 ,he carves a ,sundays4--,swift4 ,that is1 on ,sundays4 ,he is let out a nights4--,id4 ,that is1 on nights--like the following example3 ,a pack of rascals that walk the streets on nights4--,id4 ,he will knap the spears a pieces with his teeth4--,more's ,antid4 ,that is1 in pieces1 or to pieces4 ,so in the compound word now-a-days1 where it means on2 and in the proper names1 ,thomas ,becket1 ,thomas ,kempis1 ,anthony ,wood1 where it means at or of4 ,bot certainly the daisit blude now on dayis ,waxis dolf and dull throw myne unwieldy age4--,douglas4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,as a preposition1 a has now most generally become a prefix1 or what the grammarians call an inseparable preposition2 as in abed1 in bed2 aboard1 on board2 abroad1 at large2 afire1 on fire2 afore1 in front2 afoul1 in contact2 aloft1 on high2 aloud1 with loudness2 amain1 at main strength2 amidst1 in the midst2 akin1 of kin2 ajar1 unfastened2 ahead1 onward2 afield1 to the field2 alee1 to the leeward2 anew1 of new1 with renewal4 ,a-nights1 he was in the practice of sleeping1 c42 but a-days he kept looking on the barren ocean1 shedding tears4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,lang41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #afb4 ,compounds of this kind1 in most instances1 follow verbs1 and are consequently reckoned adverbs2 as1 ,to go astray1--,to turn aside1--,to soar aloft1--,to fall asleep4 ,but sometimes the antecedent term is a noun or a pronoun1 and then they are as clearly adjectives2 as1 ,imagination is like to work better upon sleeping men1 than men awake4--,lord ,bacon4 ,man alive1 did you ever make a hornet afraid1 or catch a weasel asleep8 ,and sometimes the compound governs a noun or a pronoun after it1 and then it is a preposition2 as1 ,a bridge is laid across a river4--,webster's ,dict41 ,to break his bridge athwart the ,hellespont4--,bacon's ,essays4 ,where ,ufens glides along the lowly lands1 ,or the black water of ,pomptina stands4--,dryden4 ,,obs4 #bc4--;,in several phrases1 not yet to be accounted obsolete1 this old preposition still retains its place as a separate word2 and none have been more perplexing to superficial grammarians1 than those which are formed by using it before participles in ing2 in which instances1 the participles are in fact governed by it3 for nothing is more common in our language1 than for participles of this form to be governed by prepositions4 ,for example1 ,you have set the cask a leaking1 and1 ,you have set the cask to leaking1 are exactly equivalent1 both in meaning and construction4 ,forty and six years was this temple in building4--,john1 ii1 #bj4 ,building is not here a noun1 but a participle2 and in is here better than a1 only because the phrase1 a building1 might be taken for an article and a noun1 meaning an edifice4#acg ,yet1 in almost all cases1 other prepositions are1 ,i think1 to be preferred to 1 if others equivalent to it can be found4 ,examples3 ,lastly1 they go about to apologize for the long time their book hath been a coming out3 i4e41 in coming out4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #agi4 ,and1 for want of reason1 he falls a railing33 i4e41 to railing4--,ib41 iii1 #ceg4 ,that the soul should be this moment busy a thinking3 i4e41 at or in thinking4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #gh4 ,which1 once set a going1 continue in the same steps3 i4e41 to going4--,ib41 p4 #bhd4 ,those who contend for four per cent1 have set men's mouths a watering for money3 i4e41 to watering4--,,locke3 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,an other falls a ringing a ,pescennius ,niger3 i4e41 to ringing4--,,addison3 ib4 ,at least to set others a thinking upon the subject3 i4e41 to thinking4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cjj4 ,every one that could reach it1 cut off a piece1 and fell a eating3 i4e41 to eating4--,newspaper4 ,to go a mothering1#ach is to visit parents on ,midlent ,sunday4--,webster's ,dict41 w4 ,mothering4 ,which we may find when we come a fishing here4--,wotton4 ,they go a begging to a bankrupt's door4--,dryden4 ,a hunting ,chlo went4--,prior4 ,they burst out a laughing4--,m4 ,edgeworth4 ,in the last six sentences1 a seems more suitable than any other preposition would be3 all it needs1 is an accent to distinguish it from the article2 as1 4 ,,obs4 #bd4--;,dr4 ,alexander ,murray says1 ,to be a-seeking1 is the relic of the ,saxon to be on or an seeking4 ,what are you a-seeking8 is different from1 ,what are you seeking8 ,it means more fully the going on with the process4--,hist4 ,europ4 ,lang11 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #adi4 ,i disapprove of the hyphen in such terms as seeking1 because it converts the preposition and participle into ,i know not what2 and it may be observed1 in passing1 that the want of it1 in such as the going on1 leaves us a loose and questionable word1 which1 by the conversion of the participle into a noun1 becomes a nondescript in grammar4 ,i dissent also from ,dr4 ,murray1 concerning the use of the preposition or prefix a1 in examples like that which he has here chosen4 ,after a neuter verb1 this particle is unnecessary to the sense1 and1 ,i think1 injurious to the construction4 ,except in poetry1 which is measured by syllables1 it may be omitted without any substitute2 as1 ,i am a walking4--,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,a4 ,he had one only daughter1 and she lay a dying4--,luke1 viii1 #db4 ,in the days of ,noah1 while the ark was a preparing4--#a ,pet41 iii1 #bj4 ,though his unattentive thoughts be elsewhere a wandering4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #bhd4 ,say--be wandering elsewhere2 and omit the a1 in all such cases4 ,and--when he thinks1 good easy man1 full surely ,his greatness is a ripening--nips his root4--,shak4 ,,obs4 #be4--;,a has a peculiar signification1 denoting the proportion of one thing to an other4 ,thus we say1 ,the landlord hath a hundred a year2 the ship's crew gained a thousand pounds a man4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,after the rate of twenty leagues a day4--,addison4 ,and corn was at two sesterces a bushel4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #hb4 ,whether a in this construction is the article or the preposition1 seems to be questionable4 ,merchants are very much in the habit of supplying its place by the ,latin preposition per1 by2 as1 ,board1 at #b per week4--,preston's ,book-,keeping1 p4 #dd4 ,long lawn1 at #ab per piece4--,dilworth's1 p4 #fc4 ,cotton1 at #bs4 #f;d4 per pound4--,morrison's1 p4 #ge4 ,exchange1 at #ab;d4 per livre4--,jackson's1 p4 #gc4 ,it is to be observed that an1 as well as a1 is used in this manner2 as1 ,the price is one dollar an ounce4 ,hence1 ,i think1 we may infer1 that this is not the old preposition a1 but the article an or a1 used in the distributive sense of each or every1 and that the noun is governed by a preposition understood2 as1 ,he demands a dollar an hour2 i4 e41 a dollar for each hour4--,he comes twice a year3 i4 e41 twice in every year4--,he sent them to ,lebanon1 ten thousand a month by courses3 7#a ,kings1 v1 #ad37 i4 e41 ten thousand1 monthly2 or1 as our merchants say1 per month4 ,some grammarians have also remarked1 that1 ,in mercantile accounts1 we frequently see a put for to1 in a very odd sort of way2 as1 ',six bales marked #a a #f4' ,the merchant means1 'marked from #a to #f4' ,this is taken to be a relic of the ,norman ,french1 which was once the law and mercantile language of ,england2 for1 in ,french1 a1 with an accent1 signifies to or at4--,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,modern merchants1 in stead of accenting the a1 commonly turn the end of it back2 as1 4 ,,obs4 #bf4--,sometimes a numeral word with the indefinite article--as a few1 a great many1 a dozen1 a hundred1 a thousand--denotes an aggregate of several or many taken collectively1 and yet is followed by a plural noun1 denoting the sort or species of which this particular aggregate is a part3 as1 ,a few small fishes1--,a great many mistakes1--,a dozen bottles of wine1--,a hundred lighted candles1--,a thousand miles off4 ,respecting the proper manner of explaining these phrases1 grammarians differ in opinion4 ,that the article relates not to the plural noun1 but to the numerical word only1 is very evident2 but whether1 in these instances1 the words few1 many1 dozen1 hundred1 and thousand1 are to be called nouns or adjectives1 is matter of dispute4 ,lowth1 ,murray1 and many others1 call them adjectives1 and suppose a peculiarity of construction in the article2--like that of the singular adjectives every and one in the phrases1 ,every ten days1--,one seven times more4--,dan41 iii1 #ai4 ,churchill and others call them nouns1 and suppose the plurals which follow1 to be always in the objective case governed by of1 understood3 as1 ,a few of years1--,a thousand of doors2--like the phrases1 ,a couple of fowls1--,a score of fat bullocks4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bgi4 ,neither solution is free from difficulty4 ,for example3 ,there are a great many adjectives4--,dr4 ,adam4 ,now1 if many is here a singular nominative1 and the only subject of the verb1 what shall we do with are8 and if it is a plural adjective1 what shall we do with a and great8 ,taken in either of these ways1 the construction is anomalous4 ,one can hardly think the word adjectives to be here in the objective case1 because the supposed ellipsis of the word of cannot be proved2 and if many is a noun1 the two words are perhaps in apposition1 in the nominative4 ,if ,i say1 ,a thousand men are on their way1 the men are the thousand1 and the thousand is nothing but the men2 so that ,i see not why the relation of the terms may not be that of apposition4 ,but if authorities are to decide the question1 doubtless we must yield it to those who suppose the whole numeral phrase to be taken adjectively2 as1 ,most young ,christians have1 in the course of half a dozen years1 time to read a great many pages4--,young ,christian1 p4 #f4 ,for harbour at a thousand doors they knock'd2 ,not one of all the thousand but was lock'd4--,dryden4 ,,obs4 #bg4--,the numeral words considered above1 seem to have been originally adjectives1 and such may be their most proper construction now2 but all of them are susceptible of being construed as nouns1 even if they are not such in the examples which have been cited4 ,dozen1 or hundred1 or thousand1 when taken abstractly1 is unquestionably a noun2 for we often speak of dozens1 hundreds1 and thousands4 ,few and many never assume the plural form1 because they have naturally a plural signification2 and a few or a great many is not a collection so definite that we can well conceive of fews and manies2 but both are sometimes construed substantively1 though in modern ,english#aci it seems to be mostly by ellipsis of the noun4 ,example3 ,the praise of the judicious few is an ample compensation for the neglect of the illiterate many4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bgh4 ,dr4 ,johnson says1 the word many is remarkable in ,saxon for its frequent use4 ,the following are some of the examples in which he calls it a substantive1 or noun3 ,after him the rascal many ran4--,spenser4 ,o thou fond many4--,shakspeare4 ,a care-craz'd mother of a many children4--,id4 ,and for thy sake have ,i shed many a tear4--,id4 ,the vulgar and the many are fit only to be led or driven4--,south4 ,he is liable to a great many inconveniences every moment of his life4--,tillotson4 ,seeing a great many in rich gowns1 he was amazed4--,addison4 ,there parting from the king1 the chiefs divide1 ,and wheeling east and west1 before their many ride4--,dryden4 ,,obs4 #bh4--,on the principle here laid down1 we may account for a peculiar use of the article with the adjective few1 and some other diminutives4 ,in saying1 ',a few of his adherents remained with him2' we insinuate1 that they constituted a number sufficiently important to be formed into an aggregate3 while1 if the article be omitted1 as1 ',few of his adherents remained with him2' this implies1 that he was nearly deserted1 by representing them as individuals not worth reckoning up4 ,a similar difference occurs between the phrases3 ',he exhibited a little regard for his character2' and ',he exhibited little regard for his character4'--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bgi4 ,the word little1 in its most proper construction1 is an adjective1 signifying small2 as1 ,he was little of stature4--,luke4 ,is it not a little one8--,genesis4 ,and in sentences like the following1 it is also reckoned an adjective1 though the article seems to relate to it1 rather than to the subsequent noun2 or perhaps it may be taken as relating to them both3 ,yet a little sleep1 a little slumber1 a little folding of the hands to sleep4--,prov41 vi1 #aj2 xxiv1 #cc4 ,but by a common ellipsis1 it is used as a noun1 both with and without the article2 as1 ,a little that a righteous man hath1 is better than the riches of many wicked4--,psalms1 xxxvii1 #af4 ,better is little with the fear of the ,lord1 than great treasure and trouble therewith4--,prov41 xv1 #af4 ,he that despiseth little things1 shall perish by little and little4--,ecclesiasticus4 ,it is also used adverbially1 both alone and with the article a2 as1 ,the poor sleep little4--,otway4 ,though they are a little astringent4--,arbuthnot4 ,when he had gone a little farther thence4--,mark1 i1 #ai4 ,let us vary the phrase in a very little degree4--,kames1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #afc4 ,,obs4 #bi4--;,as it is the nature of the articles to limit the signification of a word1 they are applicable only to words expressing ideas capable of being individualized1 or conceived of as single things or acts2 and nouns implying a general state1 condition1 or habit1 must be used without the article4 ,it is not vaguely therefore1 but on fixed principles1 that the article is omitted1 or inserted1 in such phrases as the following3 'in terror1 in fear1 in dread1 in haste1 in sickness1 in pain1 in trouble2 in a fright1 in a hurry1 in a consumption2 the pain of his wound was great2 her son's dissipated life was a great trouble to her4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #abg4 ,,obs4 #cj4--,though the1 an1 and a1 are the only articles in our language1 they are far from being the only definitives4 ,hence1 while some have objected to the peculiar distinction bestowed upon these little words1 firmly insisting on throwing them in among the common mass of adjectives2 others have taught1 that the definitive adjectives--,i know not how many--such as1 this1 that1 these1 those1 any1 other1 some1 all1 both1 each1 every1 either1 neither--are much more properly articles than any thing else4--,hermes1 p4 #bcd4 ,but1 in spite of this opinion1 it has somehow happened1 that these definitive adjectives have very generally1 and very absurdly1 acquired the name of pronouns4 ,hence1 we find ,booth1 who certainly excelled most other grammarians in learning and acuteness1 marvelling that the articles were ever separated from the class of pronouns4 ,to all this ,i reply1 that the1 an1 and a1 are worthy to be distinguished as the only articles1 because they are not only used with much greater frequency than any other definitives1 but are specially restricted to the limiting of the signification of nouns4 ,whereas the other definitives above mentioned are very often used to supply the place of their nouns2 that is1 to represent them understood4 ,for1 in general1 it is only by ellipsis of the noun after it1 and not as the representative of a noun going before1 that any one of these words assumes the appearance of a pronoun4 ,hence1 they are not pronouns1 but adjectives4 ,nor are they more properly articles than any thing else2 for1 if the essence of an article be to define and ascertain the meaning of a noun1 this very conception of the thing necessarily supposes the noun to be used with it4 ,,obs4 #ca4--,the following example1 or explanation1 may show what is meant by definitives4 ,let the general term be man1 the plural of which is men3 ,a man--one unknown or indefinite2 ,the man--one known or particular2 ,the men--some particular ones2 ,any man--one indefinitely2 ,a certain man--one definitely2 ,this man--one near2 ,that man--one distant2 ,these men--several near2 ,those men--several distant2 ,such a man--one like some other2 ,such men--some like others2 ,many a man--a multitude taken singly2 ,many men--an indefinite multitude taken plurally2 ,a thousand men--a definite multitude2 ,every man--all or each without exception2 ,each man--both or all taken separately2 ,some man--one1 as opposed to none2 ,some men--an indefinite number or part2 ,all men--the whole taken plurally2 ,no men--none of the sex2 ,no man--never one of the race4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,ii--,,etymological4 ,in the ,second ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and to explain the ,,articles as definite or indefinite4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,second ,praxis1 are two for an article1 and one for a noun1 an adjective1 a pronoun1 a verb1 a participle1 an adverb1 a conjunction1 a preposition1 or an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,the task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class1 is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road4--,g4 ,brown4 ,the is the definite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things4 ,task is a noun4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 ,of is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,a is the indefinite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the indefinite article is an or a1 which denotes one thing of a kind1 but not any particular one4 ,schoolmaster is a noun4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 ,laboriously is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,prompting is a participle4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 ,and is a conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,urging is a participle4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 ,an is the indefinite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the indefinite article is an or a1 which denotes one thing of a kind1 but not any particular one4 ,indolent is an adjective4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 ,class is a noun4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 ,is is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,worse is an adjective4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 ,than is a conjunction4 #a1 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,he is a pronoun4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 ,who is a pronoun4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 ,drives is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,lazy is an adjective4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 ,horses is a noun4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 ,along is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,a is the indefinite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the indefinite article is an or a1 which denotes one thing of a kind1 but not any particular one4 ,sandy is an adjective4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 ,road is a noun4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,the ,honourable1 the ,corporation of the city1 granted the use of the common council chamber1 for holding the ,convention2 generously adding the privilege of occupying the rotunda1 or the new court-room1 if either would better suit the wishes of the committee4--,journal of ,literary ,convention1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahcj4 ,when the whole is put for a part1 or a part for the whole2 the genus for a species1 or a species for the genus2 the singular number for the plural1 or the plural for the singular2 and1 in general1 when any thing less1 or any thing more1 is put for the precise object meant2 the figure is called a ,synecdoche4--,see ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ada4 ,the truth is1 a representative1 as an individual1 is on a footing with other people2 but1 as a representative of a ,state1 he is invested with a share of the sovereign authority1 and is so far a governor of the people4--,see ,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ej4 ,knowledge is the fruit of mental labour--the food and the feast of the mind4 ,in the pursuit of knowledge1 the greater the excellence of the subject of inquiry1 the deeper ought to be the interest1 the more ardent the investigation1 and the dearer to the mind the acquisition of the truth4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #ae4 ,canst thou1 ,o partial ,sleep6 give thy repose ,to the wet seaboy in an hour so rude8--,shakspeare4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,every family has a master2 7or a mistress--,i beg the ladies' pardon27 a ship has a master2 when a house is to be built1 there is a master2 when the highways are repairing1 there is a master2 every little school has a master3 the continent is a great school2 the boys are numerous1 and full of roguish tricks2 and there is no master4 ,the boys in this great school play truant1 and there is no person to chastise them4--,see ,webster's ,essays1 p4 #abh4 ,a man who purposely rushes down a precipice and breaks his arm1 has no right to say1 that surgeons are an evil in society4 ,a legislature may unjustly limit the surgeon's fee2 but the broken arm must be healed1 and a surgeon is the only man to restore it4--,see ib41 p4 #ace4 ,but what new sympathies sprung up immediately where the gospel prevailed6 ,it was made the duty of the whole ,christian community to provide for the stranger1 the poor1 the sick1 the aged1 the widow1 and the orphan4--,m',ilvaine's ,evi41 p4 #djh4 ,in the ,english language1 the same word is often employed both as a noun and as a verb2 and sometimes as an adjective1 and even as an adverb and a preposition also4 ,of this1 round is an example4--,see ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,the old oaken bucket1 the iron-bound bucket1 ,the moss-covered bucket1 arose from the well4--,woodworth4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,most of the objects in a natural landscape are beautiful1 and some of them are grand3 a flowing river1 a spreading oak1 a round hill1 an extended plain1 are delightful2 and even a rugged rock1 and a barren heath1 though in themselves disagreeable1 contribute by contrast to the beauty of the whole4--,see ,kames's ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #ahe4 ,an animal body is still more admirable1 in the disposition of its several parts1 and in their order and symmetry3 there is not a bone1 a muscle1 a blood-vessel1 a nerve1 that hath not one corresponding to it on the opposite side2 and the same order is carried through the most minute parts4--,see ib41 i1 #bga4 ,the constituent parts of a plant1 the roots1 the stem1 the branches1 the leaves1 the fruit1 are really different systems1 united by a mutual dependence on each other4--,ib41 i1 #bgb4 ,with respect to the form of this ornament1 ,i observe1 that a circle is a more agreeable figure than a square1 a globe than a cube1 and a cylinder than a parallelopipedon4 ,a column is a more agreeable figure than a pilaster2 and1 for that reason1 it ought to be preferred1 all other circumstances being equal4 ,an other reason concurs1 that a column connected with a wall1 which is a plain surface1 makes a greater variety than a pilaster4--,see ib41 ii1 #ceb4 ,but ah6 what myriads claim the bended knee6 ,go1 count the busy drops that swell the sea4--,rogers4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,respecting ,,articles4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,adapt ,,the ,,articles4 ,honour is an useful distinction in life4--,milnes's ,greek ,grammar1 p4 vii4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the article an is used before useful1 which begins with the sound of yu4 ,but1 according to a principle expressed on page #bbeth1 ,a is to be used whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound4 ,therefore1 an should here be changed to a2 thus1 ,honour is a useful distinction in life4 ,no writer1 therefore1 ought to foment an humour of innovation4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ee4 ,conjunctions require a situation between the things of which they form an union4--,ib41 p4 #hc4 ,nothing is more easy than to mistake an u for an a4--,tooke's ,diversions1 i1 #acj4 ,from making so ill an use of our innocent expressions4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,to grant thee an heavenly and incorruptible crown of glory4--,sewel's ,hist41 ,ded41 p4 iv4 ,it in no wise follows1 that such an one was able to predict4--,ib41 p4 viii4 ,with an harmless patience they have borne most heavy oppressions1--,ib41 p4 x4 ,my attendance was to make me an happier man4--,spect41 ,no4 #dhj4 ,on the wonderful nature of an human mind4--,ib41 #eed4 ,i have got an hussy of a maid1 who is most craftily given to this4--,ib41 ,no4 #ecd4 ,argus is said to have had an hundred eyes1 some of which were always awake4--,classic ,stories1 p4 #adh4 ,centiped1 an hundred feet2 centennial1 consisting of a hundred years4--,town's ,analysis1 p4 #ai4 ,no good man1 he thought1 could be an heretic4--,gilpin's ,lives1 p4 #gb4 ,as1 a ,christian1 an infidel1 an heathen4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ej4 ,of two or more words1 usually joined by an hyphen4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,we may consider the whole space of an hundred years as time present4--,,beattie3 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,in guarding against such an use of meats and drinks4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ach4 ,worship is an homage due from man to his ,creator4--,annual ,monitor for #ahcf4 ,then1 an eulogium on the deceased was pronounced4--,grimshaw's ,u4 ,s41 p4 #ib4 ,but for ,adam there was not found an help meet for him4--,gen41 ii1 #bj4 ,my days are consumed like smoke1 and my bones are burned as an hearth4--,psalms1 cii1 #c4 ,a foreigner and an hired servant shall not eat thereof--,exod41 xii1 #de4 ,the hill of ,god is as the hill of ,bashan2 an high hill1 as the hill of ,bashan4--,psalms1 lxviii1 #ae4 ,but ,i do declare it to have been an holy offering1 and such an one too as was to be once for all4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,an hope that does not make ashamed those that have it4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ae4 ,where there is not an unity1 we may exercise true charity4--,ib41 i1 #if4 ,tell me1 if in any of these such an union can be found8--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #af4 ,such holy drops her tresses steeped1 ,though 'twas an hero's eye that weeped4--,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,insert ,,articles4 ,this veil of flesh parts the visible and invisible world4--,sherlock4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the article the is omitted before invisible1 where the sense requires it4 ,but1 according to a suggestion on page #bbeth1 ,articles should be inserted as often as the sense requires them4 ,therefore1 the should be here supplied2 thus1 ,this veil of flesh parts the visible and the invisible world4 ,the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions operate differently on the verb4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bhf4 ,every combination of a preposition and article with the noun4--,ib41 i1 #dd4 ,either signifies1 'the one or the other2' neither imports not either1 that is1 'not one nor the other4'--,ib41 i1 #ef4 ,a noun of multitude may have a pronoun1 or verb1 agreeing with it1 either of the singular or plural number4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ij4 ,copulative conjunctions are1 principally1 and1 as1 both1 because1 for1 if1 that1 then1 since1 c4--,see ib41 #bh4 ,the two real genders are the masculine and feminine4--,ib41 #cd4 ,in which a mute and liquid are represented by the same character1 th4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #dha4 ,they said1 ,john ,baptist hath sent us unto thee4--,luke1 vii1 #bj4 ,they indeed remember the names of abundance of places4--,spect41 ,no4 #dgd4 ,which created a great dispute between the young and old men4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #abg4 ,then shall be read the ,apostles' or ,nicene ,creed4--,com4 ,prayer1 p4 #aai4 ,the rules concerning the perfect tenses and supines of verbs are ,lily's4--,king ,henry's ,gram41 p4 iv4 ,it was read by the high and the low1 the learned and illiterate4--,johnson's ,life of ,swift4 ,most commonly1 both the pronoun and verb are understood4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 viii4 ,to signify the thick and slender enunciation of tone4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alph41 p4 #i4 ,the difference between a palatial and guttural aspirate is very small4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,leaving it to waver between the figurative and literal sense4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aed4 ,whatever verb will not admit of both an active and passive signification4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,the is often set before adverbs in the comparative or superlative degree4--,ib41 p4 #ae2 ,kirkham's ,gram41 #ff4 ,lest any should fear the effect of such a change upon the present or succeeding age of writers4--,fowle's ,common ,school ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,in all these measures1 the accents are to be placed on even syllables2 and every line is1 in general1 more melodious1 as this rule is more strictly observed4--,l4 ,murray's ,octavo ,gram1 p4 #bef2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #cjg4 ,how many numbers do nouns appear to have8 ,two1 the singular and plural4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,how many persons8 ,three persons--the first1 second1 and third4--,ib41 p4 #aj4 ,how many cases8 ,three--the nominative1 possessive and objective4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,ah6 what avails it me1 the flocks to keep1 ,who lost my heart while ,i preserv'd sheep4 ,,pope',s ,,works3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vi1 p4 #cji3 ,lond41 #ahjj4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,omit ,,articles4 ,the negroes are all the descendants of ,africans4--,morse's ,geog4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the article the before descendants1 is useless to the construction1 and injurious to the sense4 ,but1 according to a principle on page #bbeth1 ,needless articles should be omitted2 they seldom fail to pervert the sense4 ,therefore1 the should be here omitted2 thus1 ,the negroes are all descendants of ,africans4 ,a ,sybarite was applied as a term of reproach to a man of dissolute manners4--,morse's ,ancient ,geog41 p4 #d4 ,the original signification of knave was a boy4--,webster's ,el4 ,spell41 p4 #acf4 ,the meaning of these will be explained1 for the greater clearness and precision4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,what ,sort of a ,noun is ,man8 ,a ,noun ,substantive common4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ,is what ever used as three kinds of a pronoun8--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aag4 ,they delighted in the having done it1 as well as in the doing of it4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cdd4 ,both the parts of this rule are exemplified in the following sentences4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agd4 ,he has taught them to hope for another and a better world4--,s4 ,l4 ,knapp4 ,it was itself only preparatory to a future1 a better1 and perfect revelation4--,keith's ,evid41 p4 #bc4 ,es then makes another and a distinct syllable4-- ,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,the eternal clamours of a selfish and a factious people4--,brown's ,estimate1 i1 #gd4 ,to those whose taste in ,elocution is but a little cultivated4--,kirkham's ,eloc41 p4 #fe4 ,they considered they had but a ,sort of a ,gourd to rejoice in4--,bennet's ,memorial1 p4 #ccc4 ,now there was but one only such a bough1 in a spacious and shady grove4--,bacon's ,wisdom1 p4 #ge4 ,now the absurdity of this latter supposition will go a great way towards the making a man easy4--,collier's ,antoninus p4 #aca4 ,this is true of the mathematics1 where the taste has but little to do4--,todd's ,student's ,manual1 p4 #cca4 ,to stand prompter to a pausing1 yet a ready comprehension4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #bea4 ,such an obedience as the yoked and the tortured negro is compelled to yield to the whip of the overseer4--,chalmers's ,serm41 p4 #ij4 ,for the gratification of a momentary and an unholy desire4--,wayland's ,mor4 ,sci41 p4 #bhh4 ,the body is slenderly put together2 the mind a rambling sort of a thing4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #bf4 ,the only nominative to the verb1 is1 the officer4--,murray's ,gram41 ii1 #bb4 ,and though in the general it ought to be admitted1 c4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgf4 ,philosophical writing admits of a polished1 a neat1 and elegant style4--,ib41 p4 #cfg4 ,but notwithstanding this defect1 ,thomson is a strong and a beautiful describer4--,ib41 p4 #dje4 ,so should he be sure to be ransomed1 and a many poor men's lives saved4--,,shak43 ,hen4 v4 ,who felt the wrong1 or fear'd it1 took the alarm1 ,appeal'd to ,law1 and ,justice lent her arm4--,pope1 p4 #djf4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,change ,,articles4 ,to enable us to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word4--,bucke's ,gr41 p1 #eb4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the article the is used to limit the meaning of repetition1 or too frequent repetition1 where a would better suit the sense4 ,but1 according to a principle on page #bbeth1 ,the articles can seldom be put one for the other1 without gross impropriety2 and either is of course to be preferred to the other1 as it better suits the sense4 ,therefore1 the should be a1 which1 in this instance1 ought to be placed after the adjective2 thus1 ,to enable us to avoid too frequent a repetition of the same word4 ,the former is commonly acquired in the third part of the time4--,burn's ,gram41 p4 xi4 ,sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive1 and has another adjective joined to it3 as1 ',the chief good4'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #afi4 ,an articulate sound is the sound of the human voice1 formed by the organs of speech4--,ib41 i1 #b2 ,lowth's ,gram41 #b2 ,t4 ,smith's1 #e4 ,tense is the distinction of time3 there are six tenses4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,in this case1 the ellipsis of the last article would be improper4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #bah4 ,contrast has always the effect to make each of the contrasted objects appear in the stronger light4--,ib41 i1 #cdi2 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #afg4 ,these remarks may serve to shew the great importance of the proper use of the article4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ab2 ,murray's1 i1 #aga4 ',archbishop ,tillotson1' says an author of the ,history of ,england1 'died in this year4'--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajg4 ,pronouns are used instead of substantives1 to prevent the too frequent repetition of them4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,that1 as a relative1 seems to be introduced to save the too frequent repetition of who and which4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #bh4 ,that is often used as a relative1 to prevent the too frequent repetition of who and which4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aji2 ,l4 ,murray's1 i1 #ec2 ,hiley's1 #hd4 ,his knees smote one against an other4--,logan's ,sermons4 ,they stand now on one foot1 then on another4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bei4 ,the ,lord watch between me and thee1 when we are absent one from another4--,gen41 xxxi1 #di4 ,some have enumerated ten parts of speech1 making a participle a distinct part4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram1 i1 p4 #bi4 ,nemesis rides upon an ,hart1 because a ,hart was a most lively ,creature4--,bacon's ,wisdom1 p4 #ej4 ,the transition of the voice from one vowel of the diphthong to another4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,so difficult it is to separate these two things from one another4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ib4 ,without the material breach of any rule4--,ib41 p4 #aja4 ,the great source of a loose style1 in opposition to precision1 is the injudicious use of those words termed synonymous4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 ,the great source of a loose style1 in opposition to precision1 is the injudicious use of the words termed synonymous4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #cjb4 ,sometimes one article is improperly used for another4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #aig4 ,satire of sense1 alas6 can ,sporus feel8 ,who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel8--,pope1 p4 #cif4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,he hath no delight in the strength of an horse4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #caa4 ,the head of it would be an universal monarch4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ih4 ,here they confound the material and formal object of faith4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #eg4 ,the ,irish and ,scotish ,celtic are one language2 the ,welsh1 ,cornish1 and ,armorican1 are another4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #caf4 ,in an uniform and perspicuous manner4--,ib41 i1 #di4 ,,scripture1 n4 ,appropriately1 and by way of distinction1 the books of the ,old and ,new ,testament2 the ,bible4--,webster's ,dict4 ,in two separate volumes1 entitled the ,old and the ,new ,testaments4--,wayland's ,mor4 ,sci41 p4 #aci4 ,the ,scriptures of the ,old and ,new ,testament contain a revelation4--,ib4 ,q has ever an u after it2 which is not sounded in words derived from the ,french4--,wilson's ,essay1 p4 #cb4 ,what should we say of such an one8 ,that he is regenerate8 ,no4--,hopkins's ,prim4 ,ch41 p4 #bb4 ,some grammarians subdivide vowels into the simple and the compound4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #h4 ,emphasis has been further distinguished into the weaker and stronger emphasis4--,ib41 i1 #bdd4 ,emphasis has also been divided into superior and the inferior emphasis4--,ib41 i1 #bde1 ,pronouns must agree with their antecedents1 or nouns which they represent1 in gender1 number1 and person4--,merchant's ,gram41 pp4 #hf1 #aaa1 and #acj4 ,the adverb where1 is often improperly used1 for the relative pronoun and preposition4--,ib41 #id4 ,the termination ish imports diminution1 or lessening the quality4--,ib41 #gi4 ,in this train all their verses proceed3 the one half of the line always answering to the other4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #chd4 ,to an height of prosperity and glory1 unknown to any former age4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #ceb4 ,,hwilc1 who1 which1 such as1 such an one1 is declined as follows4--,gwilt's ,saxon ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,when a vowel precedes y1 an s only is required to form a plural4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,he is asked what sort of a word each is1 whether a primitive1 derivative1 or compound4--,british ,gram41 p4 vii4 ,it is obvious1 that neither the #b;d1 #c;d1 nor #dth chapter of ,matthew is the first2 consequently1 there are not four first chapters4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cjf4 ,some thought1 which a writer wants art to introduce in its proper place4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aji4 ,groves and meadows are most pleasing in the spring4--,ib41 p4 #bjg4 ,the conflict between the carnal and spiritual mind1 is often long4--,gurney's ,port4 ,ev41 p4 #adf4 ,a ,philosophical ,inquiry into the ,origin of our ,ideas of the ,sublime and ,beautiful4--,burke's ,title-page4 ,silence1 my muse6 make not these jewels cheap1 ,exposing to the world too large an heap4--,waller1 p4 #aac4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,nouns4 ,a ,noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned3 as1 ,george1 ,york1 man1 apple1 truth4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,all words and signs taken technically1 7that is1 independently of their meaning1 and merely as things spoken of17 are nouns2 or1 rather1 are things read and construed as nouns2 because1 in such a use1 they temporarily assume the syntax of nouns3 as1 ,for this reason1 ,i prefer contemporary to cotemporary4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #age2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #cfh4 ,i and ,j were formerly expressed by the same character2 as were ,u and ,v4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,us is a personal pronoun4--,murray4 ,th has two sounds4--,ib4 ,the 's cannot be a contraction of his1 because 's is put to female feminine nouns2 as1 ,woman's beauty1 the ,virgin's delicacy4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram4 ,their and theirs are the possessives likewise of they1 when they is the plural of it4--,ib4 ,let ,b be a now or instant4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #ajc4 ,in such case1 ,i say that the instant ,b is the end of the time ,a ,b4--,ib41 #ajc4 ,a is sometimes a noun3 as1 a great ,a4--,todd's ,johnson4 ,formerly sp was cast in a piece1 as st's are now4--,hist4 of ,printing1 #aggj4 ,i write to others than he will perhaps include in his we4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #dee4 ,here are no fewer than eight ands in one sentence4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aab2 ,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cai4 ,within this wooden ,o2 i4 e41 circle4--,shak4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,in parsing1 the learner must observe the sense and use of each word1 and class it accordingly4 ,many words commonly belonging to other parts of speech are occasionally used as nouns2 and1 since it is the manner of its use1 that determines any word to be of one part of speech rather than of an other1 whatever word is used directly as a noun1 must of course be parsed as such4 #a4 ,adjectives made nouns3 ,the ,ancient of days did sit4--,bible4 ,of the ancients4--,swift4 ,for such impertinents4--,steele4 ,he is an ignorant in it4--,id4 ,in the luxuriance of an unbounded picturesque4--,jamieson4 ,a source of the sublime2 i4 e41 of sublimity4--,burke4 ,the vast immense of space3 i4 e41 immensity4--,murray4 ,there is none his like4--,job1 xli1 #cc4 ,a little more than a little1 is by much too much4--,shakspeare4 ,and gladly make much of that entertainment4--,sidney4 ,a covetous man makes the most of what he has4--,l',estrange4 ,it has done enough for me4--,pope4 ,he had enough to do4--,bacon4 ,all withers here2 who most possess1 are losers by their gain1 ,stung by full proof1 that bad at best1 life's idle all is vain4 --,young4 ,nor grudge ,i thee the much the ,grecians give1 ,nor murm'ring take the little ,i receive4 --,dryden4 #b4 ,pronouns made nouns3 ,a love of seeing the what and how of all about him4--,,story',s ,,life ,,of ,,flaxman3 ,pioneer1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #acc4 ,the nameless ,,he1 whose nod is ,nature's birth4--,young1 ,night iv4 ,i was wont to load my she with knacks4--,shak4 ,winter's ,tale4 ,or any he1 the proudest of thy sort4--,shak4 ,i am the happiest she in ,kent4--,steele4 ,the shes of ,italy4--,shak4 ,the hes in birds4--,bacon4 ,we should soon have as many hes and shes as the ,french4--,cobbet's ,e4 ,gram41 ,para4 #db4 ,if1 for instance1 we call a nation a she1 or the sun a he4--,ib41 ,para4 #aih4 ,when ,i see many its in a page1 ,i always tremble for the writer4--,ib41 ,para4 #aif4 ,let those two questionary petitioners try to do this with their whos and their whiches4--,,spect3 ,ash's ,gr41 p4 #aca4 ,such mortal drugs ,i have2 but ,mantua's law ,is death to any he that utters them4--,shak4 #c4 ,verbs made nouns3 ,avaunt all attitude1 and stare1 and start theatric4--,cowper4 ,a may-be of mercy is sufficient4--,bridge4 ,which cuts are reckoned among the fractures4--,wiseman4 ,the officer erred in granting a permit4--,feel darts and charms1 attracts and flames4--,hudibras4 ,you may know by the falling off of the come1 or sprout4--,mortimer4 ,and thou hast talk'd of sallies and retires4--,shak4 ,for all that else did come1 were sure to fail2 ,yet would he further none1 but for avail4--,spenser4 #d4 ,participles made nouns3 ,for the producing of real happiness4--,crabb4 ,for the crying of the poor and the sighing of the needy1 ,i will arise4--,bible4 ,surely the churning of milk bringeth forth butter1 and the wringing of the nose bringeth forth blood2 so the forcing of wrath bringeth forth strife4--,prov41 xxx1 #cc4 ,reading1 writing1 and ciphering1 are indispensable to civilized man4--,hence was invented the distinction between doing and permitting4--,calvin's ,inst41 p4 #aca4 ,knowledge of the past comes next4--,hermes1 p4 #aac4 ,i am my beloved's1 and his desire is toward me4--,sol4 ,song1 vii1 #aj4 ,here's--a simple coming-in for one man4--,shak4 ,what are thy rents8 ,what are thy comings-in8 ,o ,ceremony1 show me but thy worth4--,id4 #e4 ,adverbs made nouns3 ,in these cases we examine the why1 the what1 and the how of things4--,l',estrange4 ,if a point or now were extended1 each of them would contain within itself infinite other points or nows4--,hermes1 p4 #aja4 ,the why is plain as way to parish church4--,shak4 ',tis ,heaven itself that points out an hereafter4--,addison4 ,the dread of a hereafter4--,fuller4 ,the murmur of the deep amen4--,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,for their whereabouts lieth in a mystery4--,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #ad4 ,better3 ,their whereabout lieth1 or1 ,their whereabouts lie1 c4 ,bid them farewell1 ,cordelia1 though unkind2 ,thou losest here1 a better where to find4--,shak4 #f4 ,conjunctions made nouns3 ,the if1 which is here employed1 converts the sentence into a supposition4--,blair's ,rhet4 ,your if is the only peacemaker2 much virtue is in if4--,shak4 ,so his ,lordship decreed with a grave solemn tone1 ,decisive and clear1 without one if or but-- ,that whenever the ,nose put his spectacles on1 ,by daylight or candlelight--,eyes should be shut4--,cowper4 #g4 ,prepositions made nouns3 ,o1 not like me2 for mine's beyond beyond4--,shakspeare3 ,cymb41 iii1 #b4 ,i4 e41 her longing is further than beyond2 beyond any thing that desire can be said to be beyond4--,singer's ,notes4 ,you whirled them to the back of beyont to look at the auld ,roman camp4--,antiquary1 i4 #cg4 #h4 ,interjections or phrases made nouns3 ,come away from all the lo-heres6 and lo-theres6--,sermon4 ,will cuts him short with a ',what then8'--,addison4 ,with hark and whoop1 and wild halloo4--,scott4 ,and made a pish at chance and sufferance4--,shak4 ,a single look more marks th' internal wo1 ,than all the windings of the lengthen'd oh4--,lloyd4 ,,classes4 ,nouns are divided into two general classes2 proper and common4 ,i4 ,a proper noun is the name of some particular individual1 or people1 or group2 as1 ,adam1 ,boston1 the ,hudson1 the ,romans1 the ,azores1 the ,alps4 ,,ii4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things2 as1 ,beast1 bird1 fish1 insect1--creatures1 persons1 children4 ,the particular classes1 collective1 abstract1 and verbal1 or participial1 are usually included among common nouns4 ,the name of a thing sui generis is also called common4 #a4 ,a collective noun1 or noun of multitude1 is the name of many individuals together2 as1 ,council1 meeting1 committee1 flock4 #b4 ,an abstract noun is the name of some particular quality considered apart from its substance2 as1 ,goodness1 hardness1 pride1 frailty4 #c4 ,a verbal or participial noun is the name of some action1 or state of being2 and is formed from a verb1 like a participle1 but employed as a noun3 as1 ,the triumphing of the wicked is short4--,job1 xx1 #e4 #d4 ,a thing sui generis1 7i4 e41 of its own peculiar kind17 is something which is distinguished1 not as an individual of a species1 but as a sort by itself1 without plurality in either the noun or the sort of thing2 as1 ,galvanism1 music1 geometry4 ,,obs4 #a4--,through the influence of an article1 a proper name sometimes acquires the import of a common noun3 as1 ,he is the ,cicero of his age2 that is1 the great orator4 ,many a fiery ,alp2 that is1 high volcanic mountain4 ,such is the following application of famous names2 a ,solomon for a wise man1 a ,croesus for a rich man1 a ,judas for a traitor1 a ,demosthenes for an orator1 and a ,homer for a poet4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cbf4 ,consideration1 like an angel1 came1 ,and whipp'd th' offending ,adam out of him4--,shak4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,a common noun1 with the definite article before it1 sometimes becomes proper3 as1 ,the ,park2 the ,strand2 the ,gharmel2 the ,downs2 the ,united ,states4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the common name of a thing or quality personified1 often becomes proper2 our conception of the object being changed by the figure of speech3 as1 ,my power1 said ,reason1 is to advise1 not to compel4--,johnson4 ,fair ,peace her olive branch extends4 ,for such a word1 the form of parsing should be like this3 ,peace is a common noun1 personified proper2 of the third person1 singular number1 feminine gender1 and nominative case4 ,here the construction of the word as a proper noun1 and of the feminine gender1 is the result of the personification1 and contrary to the literal usage4 ,,modifications4 ,nouns have modifications of four kinds2 namely1 ,persons1 ,numbers1 ,genders1 and ,cases4 ,,persons4 ,persons1 in grammar1 are modifications that distinguish the speaker1 the hearer1 and the person or thing merely spoken of4 ,there are three persons2 the first1 the second1 and the third4 ,the first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer2 as1 ,i ,paul have written it4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed2 as1 ,robert1 who did this8 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of2 as1 ,james loves his book4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the distinction of persons is founded on the different relations which the objects mentioned in any discourse may bear to the discourse itself4 ,the speaker or writer1 being the mover and maker of the communication1 of course stands in the nearest or first of these relations4 ,the hearer or hearers1 being personally present and directly addressed1 evidently sustain the next or second of these relations2 this relation is also that of the reader1 when he peruses what is addressed to himself in print or writing4 ,lastly1 whatsoever or whosoever is merely mentioned in the discourse1 bears to it that more remote relation which constitutes the third person4 ,the distinction of persons belongs to nouns1 pronouns1 and finite verbs2 and to these it is always applied1 either by peculiarity of form or construction1 or by inference from the principles of concord4 ,pronouns are like their antecedents1 and verbs are like their subjects1 in person4 ,,obs4 #b4--,of the persons1 numbers1 genders1 cases1 and some other grammatical modifications of words1 it should be observed that they belong not exclusively to any one part of speech1 but jointly and equally1 to two or three4 ,hence1 it is necessary that our definitions of these things be such as will apply to each of them in full1 or under all circumstances2 for the definitions ought to be as general in their application as are the things or properties defined4 ,any person1 number1 gender1 case1 or other grammatical modification1 is really but one and the same thing1 in whatever part of speech it may be found4 ,this is plainly implied in the very nature of every form of syntactical agreement2 and as plainly contradicted in one half1 and probably more1 of the definitions usually given of these things4 ,,obs4 #c4--,let it be understood1 that persons1 in grammar1 are not words1 but mere forms1 relations1 or modifications of words2 that they are things1 thus named by a figure2 things of the neuter gender1 and not living souls4 ,but persons1 in common parlance1 or in ordinary life1 are intelligent beings1 of one or the other sex4 ,these objects1 different as they are in their nature1 are continually confounded by the makers of ,english grammars3 as1 ,the first person is the person who speaks4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,so ,bicknell1 of ,london3 ,the first person speaks of himself2 as1 ,i ,john take thee ,elizabeth4 ,the second person has the speech directed to him1 and is supposed to be present2 as1 ,thou ,harry art a wicked fellow4 ,the third person is spoken of1 or described1 and supposed to be absent2 as1 ,that ,thomas is a good man4 ,and in the same manner the plural pronouns are used1 when more than one are spoken of4--,bicknell's ,grammatical ,wreath1 p4 #ej4 ,the person speaking is the first person2 the person spoken to1 the second2 and the person spoken of1 the third4--,russell's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,the first person is the speaker4--,parker ,fox's ,gram41 ,part i1 p4 #f4 ,person is that1 which distinguishes a noun1 that speaks1 one spoken to1 or one spoken about4--,s4 ,b4 ,hall's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,a noun that speaks6 ,a noun spoken to6 ,if ever one of ,father ,hall's nouns shall speak for itself1 or answer when spoken to1 will it not reprove him8 ,and how can the first person be the person ,,who speaks1 when every word of this phrase is of the third person8 ,most certainly1 it is not ,,he1 nor any one of his sort4 ,if any body can boast of being the first person in grammar1 ,i pray1 ,who is it8 ,is it not ,i1 even ,i8 ,many grammarians say so4 ,but nay3 such authors know not what the first person in grammar is4 ,the ,rev4 ,charles ,adams1 with infinite absurdity1 makes the three persons in grammar to be never any thing but three nouns1 which hold a confabulation thus3 ,person is defined to be that which distinguishes a noun that speaks1 one spoken to1 or one spoken of4 ,the noun that speaks 1 is the first person2 as1 ,i1 ,james1 was present4 ,the noun that is spoken to1 is the second person2 as1 ,james1 were you present8 ,the noun that is spoken of is the third person2 as1 ,james was present4--,adams's ,system of ,english ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,what can be a greater blunder1 than to call the first person of a verb1 of a pronoun1 or even of a noun1 the noun that speaks8 ,what can be more absurd than are the following assertions8 ,nouns are in the first person when speaking4 ,nouns are of the second person when addressed or spoken to4--,o4 ,c4 ,felton's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,an other error1 scarcely less gross than that which has just been noticed1 is the very common one of identifying the three grammatical persons with certain words1 called personal pronouns3 as1 ,i is the first person1 thou the second1 he1 she or it1 the third4--,smith's ,productive ,gram41 p4 #ec4 ,i is the first person1 singular4 ,thou is the second person1 singular4 ,he1 she1 or it1 is the third person1 singular4 ,we is the first person1 plural4 ,ye or you is the second person1 plural4 ,they is the third person1 plural4--,l4 ,murray's ,grammar1 p4 #ea2 ,ingersoll's1 #ed2 ,d4 ,adams's1 #cg2 ,a4 ,flint's1 #ah2 ,kirkham's1 #ih2 ,cooper's1 #cd2 ,t4 ,h4 ,miller's1 #bf2 ,hull's1 #ba2 ,frost's1 #ac2 ,wilcox's1 #ah2 ,bacon's1 #ai2 ,alger's1 #bb2 ,maltby's1 #ai2 ,perley's1 #ae2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #bb4 ,now there is no more propriety in affirming1 that ,i is the first person1 than in declaring that me1 we1 us1 am1 ourselves1 we think1 ,i write1 or any other word or phrase of the first person1 is the first person4 ,yet ,murray has given us no other definitions or explanations of the persons than the foregoing erroneous assertions2 and1 if ,i mistake not1 all the rest who are here named1 have been content to define them only as he did4 ,some others1 however1 have done still worse3 as1 ,there are three personal pronouns2 so called1 because they denote the three persons1 who are the subjects of a discourse1 viz4 #ast4 ,i1 who is the person speaking2 #b;d thou1 who is spoken to2 #c;d he1 she1 or it1 who is spoken of1 and their plurals1 we1 ye or you1 they4--,bingham's ,accidence1 #bjth ,ed41 p4 #g4 ,here the two kinds of error which ,i have just pointed out1 are jumbled together4 ,it is impossible to write worse ,english than this6 ,nor is the following much better3 ,of the personal pronouns there are five1 viz4 ,i1 in the first person1 speaking2 ,thou1 in the second person1 spoken to2 and ,he1 she1 it1 in the third person1 spoken of4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in written language1 the first person denotes the writer or author2 and the second1 the reader or person addressed3 except when the writer describes not himself1 but some one else1 as uttering to an other the words which he records4 ,this exception takes place more particularly in the writing of dialogues and dramas2 in which the first and second persons are abundantly used1 not as the representatives of the author and his reader1 but as denoting the fictitious speakers and hearers that figure in each scene4 ,but1 in discourse1 the grammatical persons may be changed without a change of the living subject4 ,in the following sentence1 the three grammatical persons are all of them used with reference to one and the same individual3 ,say ye of ,him whom the ,father hath sanctified and sent into the world1 ,thou blasphemest1 because ,i said ,i am the ,son of ,god8--,john1 x1 #cf4 ,,obs4 #f4-,the speaker seldom refers to himself by name1 as the speaker2 and1 of the objects which there is occasion to name in discourse1 but comparatively few are such as can ever be supposed to speak4 ,consequently1 nouns are rarely used in the first person2 and when they do assume this relation1 a pronoun is commonly associated with them3 as1 ,i ,john1--,we ,britons4 ,these words ,i conceive to agree throughout1 in person1 number1 gender1 and case2 though it must be confessed1 that agreement like this is not always required between words in apposition4 ,but some grammarians deny the first person to nouns altogether2 others1 with much more consistency1 ascribe it2#adj while very many are entirely silent on the subject4 ,yet it is plain that both the doctrine of concords1 and the analogy of general grammar1 require its admission4 ,the reason of this may be seen in the following examples3 ,themistocles ad te veni4 ,i ,themistocles have come to you4--,grant's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #gb4 ,adsum ,troius neas4--,virgil4 ,romulus ,rex regia arma offero4--,livy4 ,annibal peto pacem4--,id4 ,callopius recensui4--,see ,terence's ,comedies1 at the end4 ,paul1 an apostle1 c41 unto ,timothy1 my own son in the faith4--#a ,tim41 i1 #b4 ,again1 if the word ,god is of the second person1 in the text1 ,thou1 ,god1 seest me1 why should any one deny that ,paul is of the first person1 in this one8 ,i ,paul have written it4--,philemon1 #ai4 ,or this8 ,the salutation by the hand of me ,paul4--,col41 iv1 #ah4 ,and so of the plural3 ,of you builders4--,acts1 iv1 #aa4 ,of us the apostles4--#b ,pet41 iii1 #b4 ,how can it be pretended1 that1 in the phrase1 ,i ,paul1 ,i is of the first person1 as denoting the speaker1 and ,paul1 of some other person1 as denoting something or somebody that is not the speaker8 ,let the admirers of ,murray1 ,kirkham1 ,ingersoll1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,comly1 ,greenleaf1 ,parkhurst1 or of any others who teach this absurdity1 answer4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,as1 in the direct application of what are called ,christian names1 there is a kind of familiarity1 which on many occasions would seem to indicate a lack of proper respect2 so in a frequent and familiar use of the second person1 as it is the placing of an other in the more intimate relation of the hearer1 and one's self in that of the speaker1 there is a sort of assumption which may seem less modest and respectful than to use the third person4 ,in the following example1 the patriarch ,jacob uses both forms2 applying the term servant to himself1 and to his brother ,esau the term lord3 ,let my lord1 ,i pray thee1 pass over before his servant3 and ,i will lead on softly4--,gen41 xxxiii1 #ad4 ,for when a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself in the first person1 or to address his hearer or reader in the second1 he speaks of both or either in the third4 ,thus ,moses relates what ,moses did1 and ,csar records the achievements of ,csar4 ,so ,judah humbly beseeches ,joseph3 ,let thy servant abide in stead of the lad a bondman to my lord4--,gen41 xliv1 #cc4 ,and ,abraham reverently intercedes with ,god3 ,oh6 let not the ,lord be angry1 and ,i will speak4--,gen41 xviii1 #cj4 ,and the ,psalmist prays3 ,god be merciful unto us1 and bless us2 and cause his face to shine upon us4--,ps41 lxvii1 #a4 ,so1 on more common occasions3-- ,as will the rest1 so willeth ,winchester4--,shak4 ,richard of ,york1 how fares our dearest brother8--,id4#ada ,,obs4 #h4--,when inanimate things are spoken to1 they are personified2 and their names are put in the second person1 because by the figure the objects are supposed to be capable of hearing3 as1 ,what ailed thee1 ,o thou sea1 that thou fleddest8 thou ,jordan1 that thou wast driven back8 ,ye mountains1 that ye skipped like rams2 and ye little hills1 like lambs8 ,tremble1 thou earth1 at the presence of the ,lord1 at the presence of the ,god of ,jacob4--,psalms1 cxiv1 #e-g4 ,,numbers4 ,numbers1 in grammar1 are modifications that distinguish unity and plurality4 ,there are two numbers2 the singular and the plural4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one2 as1 ,the boy learns4 ,the plural number is that which denotes more than one2 as1 ,the boys learn4 ,the plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s or es to the singular3 as1 book1 books2 box1 boxes2 sofa1 sofas2 hero1 heroes4 ,when the singular ends in a sound which will unite with that of s1 the plural is generally formed by adding s only1 and the number of syllables is not increased3 as1 pen1 pens2 grape1 grapes4 ,but when the sound of s cannot be united with that of the primitive word1 the regular plural adds s to final e1 and es to other terminations1 and forms a separate syllable3 as1 page1 pages2 fox1 foxes4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the distinction of numbers serves merely to show whether we speak of one object1 or of more4 ,in some languages1 as the ,greek and the ,arabic1 there is a dual number1 which denotes two1 or a pair2 but in ours1 this property of words1 or class of modifications1 extends no farther than to distinguish unity from plurality1 and plurality from unity4 ,it belongs to nouns1 pronouns1 and finite verbs2 and to these it is always applied1 either by peculiarity of form1 or by inference from the principles of concord4 ,pronouns are like their antecedents1 and verbs are like their subjects1 in number4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the most common way of forming the plural of ,english nouns1 is that of simply adding to them an s2 which1 when it unites with a sharp consonant1 is always sharp1 or hissing2 and when it follows a vowel or a flat mute1 is generally flat1 like z3 thus1 in the words1 ships1 skiffs1 pits1 rocks1 depths1 lakes1 gulfs1 it is sharp2 but in seas1 lays1 rivers1 hills1 ponds1 paths1 rows1 webs1 flags1 it is flat4 ,the terminations which always make the regular plural in es1 with increase of syllables1 are twelve2 namely1 ce1 ge1 ch soft1 che soft1 sh1 ss1 s1 se1 x1 xe1 z1 and ze3 as in face1 faces2 age1 ages2 torch1 torches2 niche1 niches2 dish1 dishes2 kiss1 kisses2 rebus1 rebuses2 lens1 lenses2 chaise1 chaises2 corpse1 corpses2 nurse1 nurses2 box1 boxes2 axe1 axes2 phiz1 phizzes2 maze1 mazes4 ,all other endings readily unite in sound either with the sharp or with the flat s1 as they themselves are sharp or flat2 and1 to avoid an increase of syllables1 we allow the final e mute to remain mute after that letter is added3 thus1 we always pronounce as monosyllables the words babes1 blades1 strifes1 tithes1 yokes1 scales1 names1 canes1 ropes1 shores1 plates1 doves1 and the like4 ,,obs4 #c4--,though the irregular plurals of our language appear considerably numerous when brought together1 they are in fact very few in comparison with the many thousands that are perfectly simple and regular4 ,in some instances1 however1 usage is various in writing1 though uniform in speech2 an unsettlement peculiar to certain words that terminate in vowels3 as1 ,rabbis1 or rabbies2 octavos1 or octavoes2 attornies1 or attorneys4 ,there are also some other difficulties respecting the plurals of nouns1 and especially respecting those of foreign words2 of compound terms2 of names and titles2 and of words redundant or deficient in regard to the numbers4 ,what is most worthy of notice1 respecting all these puzzling points of ,english grammar1 is briefly contained in the following observations4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,it is a general rule of ,english grammar1 that all singular nouns ending with a vowel preceded by an other vowel1 shall form the plural by simply assuming an s3 as1 ,plea1 pleas2 idea1 ideas2 hernia1 hernias2 bee1 bees2 lie1 lies2 foe1 foes2 shoe1 shoes2 cue1 cues2 eye1 eyes2 folio1 folios2 bamboo1 bamboos2 cuckoo1 cuckoos2 embryo1 embryos2 bureau1 bureaus2 purlieu1 purlieus2 sou1 sous2 view1 views2 straw1 straws2 play1 plays2 key1 keys2 medley1 medleys2 viceroy1 viceroys2 guy1 guys4 ,to this rule1 the plurals of words ending in quy1 as alloquies1 colloquies1 obloquies1 soliloquies1 are commonly made exceptions2 because many have conceived that the u1 in such instances1 is a mere appendage to the q1 or is a consonant having the power of w1 and not a vowel forming a diphthong with the y4 ,all other deviations from the rule1 as monies for moneys1 allies for alleys1 vallies for valleys1 chimnies for chimneys1 c41 are now usually condemned as errors4 ,see ,rule #abth for ,spelling4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,it is also a general principle1 that nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant1 change the y into i1 and add es for the plural1 without increase of syllables3 as1 fly1 flies2 ally1 allies2 city1 cities2 colony1 colonies4 ,so nouns in i1 7so far as we have any that are susceptible of a change of number17 form the plural regularly by assuming es3 as1 alkali1 alkalies2 salmagundi1 salinagundies4 ,common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant1 are numerous2 and none of them deviate from the foregoing rule of forming the plural3 thus1 duty1 duties4 ,the termination added is es1 and the y is changed into i1 according to the general principle expressed in ,rule #aath for ,spelling4 ,but1 to this principle1 or rule1 some writers have supposed that proper nouns were to be accounted exceptions4 ,and accordingly we sometimes find such names made plural by the mere addition of an s2 as1 ,how come the ,pythagoras'1 it should be1 the ,pythagorases1 the ,aristotles1 the ,tullys1 the ,livys1 to appear1 even to us at this distance1 as stars of the first magnitude in the vast fields of ether8--,burgh's ,dignity1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aca4 ,this doctrine1 adopted from some of our older grammars1 ,i was myself1 at one period1 inclined to countenance2 7see ,institutes of ,english ,grammar1 p4 #cc1 at the bottom27 but further observation having led me to suspect1 there is more authority for changing the y than for retaining it1 ,i shall by-and-by exhibit some examples of this change1 and leave the reader to take his choice of the two forms1 or principles4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the vowel a1 at the end of a word1 7except in the questionable term huzza1 or when silent1 as in guinea17 has always its ,italian or middle sound1 as heard in the interjection aha6 a sound which readily unites with that of s flat1 and which ought1 in deliberate speech1 to be carefully preserved in plurals from this ending3 as1 ,canada1 the ,canadas2 cupola1 cupolas2 comma1 commas2 anathema1 anathemas4 ,to pronounce the final a flat1 as ,africay for ,africa1 is a mark of vulgar ignorance4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the vowel e at the end of a word1 is generally silent2 and1 even when otherwise1 it remains single in plurals from this ending2 the es1 whenever the e is vocal1 being sounded eez1 or like the word ease3 as1 apostrophe1 apostrophes2 epitome1 epitomes2 simile1 similes4 ,this class of words being anomalous in respect to pronunciation1 some authors have attempted to reform them1 by changing the e to y in the singular1 and writing ies for the plural3 as1 apostrophy1 apostrophies2 epitomy1 epitomies2 simily1 similies4 ,a reformation of some sort seems desirable here1 and this has the advantage of being first proposed2 but it is not extensively adopted1 and perhaps never will be2 for the vowel sound in question1 is not exactly that of the terminations y and ies1 but one which seems to require ee--a stronger sound than that of y1 though similar to it4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,for nouns ending in open o preceded by a consonant1 the regular method of forming the plural seems to be that of adding es2 as in bilboes1 umboes1 buboes1 calicoes1 moriscoes1 gambadoes1 barricadoes1 fumadoes1 carbonadoes1 tornadoes1 bravadoes1 torpedoes1 innuendoes1 viragoes1 mangoes1 embargoes1 cargoes1 potargoes1 echoes1 buffaloes1 volcanoes1 heroes1 negroes1 potatoes1 manifestoes1 mulattoes1 stilettoes1 woes4 ,in words of this class1 the e appears to be useful as a means of preserving the right sound of the o2 consequently1 such of them as are the most frequently used1 have become the most firmly fixed in this orthography4 ,in practice1 however1 we find many similar nouns very frequently1 if not uniformly1 written with s only2 as1 cantos1 juntos1 grottos1 solos1 quartos1 octavos1 duodecimos1 tyros4 ,so that even the best scholars seem to have frequently doubted which termination they ought to regard as the regular one4 ,the whole class includes more than one hundred words4 ,some1 however1 are seldom used in the plural2 and others1 never4 ,wo and potato are sometimes written woe and potatoe4 ,this may have sprung from a notion1 that such as have the e in the plural1 should have it also in the singular4 ,but this principle has never been carried out2 and1 being repugnant to derivation1 it probably never will be4 ,the only ,english appellatives that are established in oe1 are the following fourteen3 seven monosyllables1 doe1 foe1 roe1 shoe1 sloe1 soe1 toe2 and seven longer words1 rockdoe1 aloe1 felloe1 canoe1 misletoe1 tiptoe1 diploe4 ,the last is pronounced dip'-lo-e by ,worcester2 but ,webster1 ,bolles1 and some others1 give it as a word of two syllables only4#adb ,,obs4 #i4--;,established exceptions ought to be enumerated and treated as exceptions2 but it is impossible to remember how to write some scores of words1 so nearly alike as fumadoes and grenados1 stilettoes and palmettos1 if they are allowed to differ in termination1 as these examples do in ,johnson's ,dictionary4 ,nay1 for lack of a rule to guide his pen1 even ,johnson himself could not remember the orthography of the common word mangoes well enough to copy it twice without inconsistency4 ,this may be seen by his example from ,king1 under the words mango and potargo4 ,since1 therefore1 either termination is preferable to the uncertainty which must attend a division of this class of words between the two2 and since es has some claim to the preference1 as being a better index to the sound2 ,i shall make no exceptions to the principle1 that common nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant take es for the plural4 ,murray says1 ,nouns which end in o have sometimes es added1 to form the plural2 as1 cargo1 echo1 hero1 negro1 manifesto1 potato1 volcano1 wo3 and sometimes only s2 as1 folio1 nuncio1 punctilio1 seraglio4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,this amounts to nothing1 unless it is to be inferred from his examples1 that others like them in form are to take s or es accordingly2 and this is what ,i teach1 though it cannot be said that ,murray maintains the principle4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,proper names of individuals1 strictly used as such1 have no plural4 ,but when several persons of the same name are spoken of1 the noun becomes in some degree common1 and admits of the plural form and an article2 as1 ,the ,stuarts1 the ,csars4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,these1 however1 may still be called proper nouns1 in parsing2 because they are only inflections1 peculiarly applied1 of certain names which are indisputably such4 ,so likewise when such nouns are used to denote character3 as1 ,solomons1 for wise men2 ,neros1 for tyrants4--,ib4 ,here we see it becomes a doubt which of the two ,herculeses1 was the monster-queller4--,notes to ,pope's ,dunciad1 iv1 #dib4 ,the proper names of nations1 tribes1 and societies1 are generally plural2 and1 except in a direct address1 they are usually construed with the definite article3 as1 ,the ,greeks1 the ,athenians1 the ,jews1 the ,jesuits4 ,but such words may take the singular form with the indefinite article1 as often as we have occasion to speak of an individual of such a people2 as1 ,a ,greek1 an ,athenian1 a ,jew1 a ,jesuit4 ,these1 too1 may be called proper nouns2 because they are national1 patrial1 or tribal names1 each referring to some place or people1 and are not appellatives1 which refer to actual sorts or kinds1 not considered local4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,proper names1 when they form the plural1 for the most part form it regularly1 by assuming s or es according to the termination3 as1 ,carolina1 the ,carolinas2 ,james1 the ,jameses4 ,and those which are only or chiefly plural1 have1 or ought to have1 such terminations as are proper to distinguish them as plurals1 so that the form for the singular may be inferred3 as1 ,the ,tungooses occupy nearly a third of ,siberia4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #cgi4 ,here the singular must certainly be a ,tungoose4 ,the principal tribes are the ,pawnees1 the ,arrapahoes1 and the ,cumanches1 who roam through the regions of the ,platte1 the ,arkansaw1 and the ,norte4--,ib41 p4 #agi4 ,here the singulars may be supposed to be a ,pawnee1 an ,arrapaho1 and a ,cumanche4 ,the ,southern or ,floridian family comprised the ,cherokees1 ,creeks1 ,chickasaws1 ,choctaws1 ,seminoles1 and ,natchez4--,ib41 p4 #agi4 ,here all are regular plurals1 except the last2 and this probably ought to be ,natchezes1 but ,jefferson spells it ,natches1 the singular of which ,i do not know4 ,sometimes foreign words or foreign terminations have been improperly preferred to our own2 which last are more intelligible1 and therefore better3 as1 ,esquimaux1 to ,esquimaus2 ,knistenaux1 to ,knistenaus1 or ,crees2 ,sioux1 to ,sious1 or ,dahcotahs2 ,iroquois1 to ,iroquoys1 or ,hurons4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,respecting the plural of nouns ending in i1 o1 u1 or y1 preceded by a consonant1 there is in present usage much uncertainty4 ,as any vowel sound may be uttered with an s1 many writers suppose these letters to require for plurals strictly regular1 the s only2 and to take es occasionally1 by way of exception4 ,others1 7perhaps with more reason17 assume1 that the most usual1 regular1 and proper endings for the plural1 in these instances1 are ies1 oes1 and ues3 as1 alkali1 alkalies2 halo1 haloes2 gnu1 gnues2 enemy1 enemies4 ,this1 ,i think1 is right for common nouns4 ,how far proper names are to be made exceptions1 because they are proper names1 is an other question4 ,it is certain that some of them are not to be excepted3 as1 for instance1 ,alleghany1 the ,alleghanies2 ,sicily1 the ,two ,sicilies2 ,ptolemy1 the ,ptolemies2 ,jehu1 the ,jehues4 ,so the names of tribes2 as1 ,the ,missouries1 the ,otoes1 the ,winnebagoes4 ,likewise1 the houries and the harpies2 which words1 though not strictly proper names1 are often written with a capital as such4 ,like these are rabbies1 cadies1 mufties1 sophies1 from which some writers omit the e4 ,johnson1 ,walker1 and others1 write gipsy and gipsies2 ,webster1 now writes ,gipsey and ,gipseys2 ,worcester prefers ,gypsy1 and probably ,gypsies3 ,webster once wrote the plural gypsies2 7see his ,essays1 p4 #ccc27 and ,johnson cites the following line3-- ,i1 near yon stile1 three sallow gypsies met4--,gay4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,proper names in o are commonly made plural by s only4 ,yet there seems to be the same reason for inserting the e in these1 as in other nouns of the same ending2 namely1 to prevent the o from acquiring a short sound4 ,i apprehend1 says ,churchill1 it has been from an erroneous notion of proper names being unchangeable1 that some1 feeling the necessity of obviating this mispronunciation1 have put an apostrophe between the o and the s in the plural1 in stead of an e2 writing ,cato's1 ,nero's2 and on a similar principle1 ,ajax's1 ,venus's2 thus using the possessive case singular for the nominative or objective plural4 ,harris says very properly1 ',we have our ,marks and our ,antonies3 ,hermes1 ,b4 #b1 ,ch4 #d2 for which those would have given us ,mark's and ,antony's4--,new ,gram41 p4 #bjf4 ,whatever may have been the motive for it1 such a use of the apostrophe is a gross impropriety4 ,in this quotation1 ',from the ,socrates's1 the ,plato's1 and the ,confucius's of the age1' the proper names should have been pluralized like common nouns2 thus1 ,from the ,socrateses1 the ,platoes1 and the ,confuciuses of the age4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #abf2 ,bullions's1 #adb4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,the following are some examples of the plurals of proper names1 which ,i submit to the judgement of the reader1 in connexion with the foregoing observations3 ,the ,romans had their plurals ,marci and ,antonii1 as we in later days have our ,marks and our ,anthonies4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #dj4 ,there seems to be more reason for such plurals1 as the ,ptolemies1 ,scipios1 ,catos3 or1 to instance in more modern names1 the ,howards1 ,pelhams1 and ,montagues4--,ib41 #dj4 ,near the family seat of the ,montgomeries of ,coil's-field4--,burns's ,poems1 ,note1 p4 #g4 ,tryphon1 a surname of one of the ,ptolemies4--,lempriere's ,dict4 ,sixteen of the ,tuberos1 with their wives and children1 lived in a small house4--,ib4 ,what are the ,jupiters and ,junos of the heathens to such a ,god8--,burgh's ,dignity1 i1 #bcd4 ,also when we speak of more than one person of the same name2 as1 the ,henries1 the ,edwards4--,cobbetts ,e4 ,gram41 #dj4 ,she was descended from the ,percies and the ,stanleys4--,loves of the ,poets1 ii1 #ajb4 ,naples1 or the ,two ,sicilies4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bgc4 ,the word ,india1 commonly makes the plural ,indies1 not ,indias2 and1 for ,ajaxes1 the poets write ,ajaces4 ,but ,richard ,hiley says1 ,proper nouns1 when pluralized1 follow the same rules as common nouns2 as1 ,venus1 the ,venuses2 ,ajax1 the ,ajaxes2 ,cato1 the ,catoes2 ,henry1 the ,henries4--,hiley's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,he ev'ry day from ,king to ,king can walk1 ,of all our ,harries1 all our ,edwards talk4--,pope's ,satires1 iv4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,when a name and a title are to be used together in a plural sense1 many persons are puzzled to determine whether the name1 or the title1 or both1 should be in the plural form4 ,for example--in speaking of two young ladies whose family name is ,bell--whether to call them the ,miss ,bells1 the ,misses ,bell1 or the ,misses ,bells4 ,to an inquiry on this point1 a learned editor1 who prefers the last1 lately gave his answer thus3 ,there are two young ladies2 of course they are 'the ,misses4' ,their name is ,bell2 of course there are two ',bells4' ,ergo1 the correct phrase1 in speaking of them1 is--'the ,misses ,bells4'--,n4 ,y4 ,com4 ,adv4 ,this puts the words in apposition2 and there is no question1 that it is formally correct4 ,but still it is less agreeable to the ear1 less frequently heard1 and less approved by grammarians1 than the first phrase2 which1 if we may be allowed to assume that the two words may be taken together as a sort of compound1 is correct also4 ,dr4 ,priestley says1 ,when a name has a title prefixed to it1 as ,doctor1 ,miss1 ,master1 c41 the plural termination affects only the latter of the two words2 as1 ',the two ,doctor ,nettletons'--',the two ,miss ,thomsons2' though a strict analogy would plead for the alteration of the former word1 and lead us to say1 ',the two ,doctors ,nettleton'--',the two ,misses ,thomson4'--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,the following quotations show the opinions of some other grammarians3 ,two or more nouns in concordance1 and forming one complex name1 or a name and a title1 have the plural termination annexed to the last only2 as1 ',the ,miss ,smiths'--',the three ,doctor ,simpsons'--',the two ,master ,wigginses4' ,with a few exceptions1 and those not parallel to the examples just given1 we almost uniformly1 in complex names1 confine the inflection to the last or the latter noun4--,dr4 ,crombie4 ,the foregoing opinion from ,crombie1 is quoted and seconded by ,maunder1 who adds the following examples3 ,thus1 ,dr4 ,watts3 ',may there not be ,sir ,isaac ,newtons in every science8'--',you must not suppose that the world is made up of ,lady ,aurora ,granvilles4'--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,,obs4 #af4--,these writers do not seem to accord with ,w4 ,l4 ,stone1 the editor above quoted1 nor would his reasoning apply well to several of their examples4 ,yet both opinions are right1 if neither be carried too far4 ,for when the words are in apposition1 rather than in composition1 the first name or title must be made plural1 if it refers to more than one3 as1 ,the ,misses ,bell and ,brown1--,messrs4 ,lambert and ,son1--,the ,lords ,calthorpe and ,erskine1--,the ,lords ,bishops of ,durham and ,st4 ,david's1--,the ,knights ,hospitalers1--,the ,knights ,templars1--,the ,knights ,baronets4 ,but this does not prove the other construction1 which varies the last word only1 to be irregular2 and1 if it did1 there is abundant authority for it4 ,nor is that which varies the first only1 to be altogether condemned1 though ,dr4 ,priestley is unquestionably wrong respecting the strict analogy of which he speaks4 ,the joining of a plural title to one singular noun1 as1 ,misses ,roy1--,the ,misses ,bell1--,the two ,misses ,thomson1 produces a phrase which is in itself the least analogous of the three2 but1 ,the ,misses ,jane and ,eliza ,bell1 is a phrase which nobody perhaps will undertake to amend4 ,it appears1 then1 that each of these forms of expression may be right in some cases2 and each of them may be wrong1 if improperly substituted for either of the others4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,the following statements1 though erroneous in several particulars1 will show the opinions of some other grammarians1 upon the foregoing point3 ,proper nouns have the plural only when they refer to a race or family2 as1 ,the ,campbells2 or to several persons of the same name2 as1 ,the eight ,henrys2 the two ,mr4 ,sells2 the two ,miss ,browns2 or1 without the numeral1 the ,miss ,roys4 ,but in addressing letters in which both or all are equally concerned1 and also when the names are different1 we pluralize the title1 7,mr4 or ,miss17 and write1 ,misses ,brown2 ,misses ,roy2 ,messrs1 7for ,messieurs1 ,fr47 ,guthrie and ,tait4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,if we wish to distinguish the unmarried from the married ,howards1 we call them the ,miss ,howards4 ,if we wish to distinguish these ,misses from other ,misses1 we call them the ,misses ,howard4--,fowle's ,gram4 ,to distinguish several persons of the same name and family from others of a different name and family1 the title1 and not the proper name1 is varied to express the distinction2 as1 the ,misses ,story1 the ,messrs4 ,story4 ,the elliptical meaning is1 the ,misses and ,messrs1 who are named ,story4 ,to distinguish unmarried from married ladies1 the proper name1 and not the title1 should be varied2 as1 the ,miss ,clarks4 ,when we mention more than one person of different names1 the title should be expressed before each2 as1 ,miss ,burns1 ,miss ,parker1 and ,miss ,hopkinson1 were present4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #gi4 ,in the following examples from ,pope's ,works1 the last word only is varied3 ,he paragons himself to two ,lord ,chancellors for law4--,vol4 iii1 p4 #fa4 ,yearly panegyrics upon the ,lord ,mayors4--,ib41 p4 #hc4 ,whence hapless ,monsieur much complains at ,paris ,of wrongs from ,duchesses and ,lady ,maries4--,dunciad1 ,b4 ii1 ,l #ace4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,the following eleven nouns in f1 change the f into v and assume es for the plural3 sheaf1 sheaves2 leaf1 leaves2 loaf1 loaves2 leaf1 beeves2 thief1 thieves2 calf1 calves2 half1 halves2 elf1 elves2 shelf1 shelves2 self1 selves2 wolf1 wolves4 ,three others in fe are similar3 life1 lives2 knife1 knives2 wife1 wives4 ,these are specific exceptions to the general rule for plurals1 and not a series of examples coming under a particular rule2 for1 contrary to the instructions of nearly all our grammarians1 there are more than twice as many words of the same endings1 which take s only3 as1 chiefs1 kerchiefs1 handkerchiefs1 mischiefs1 beliefs1 misbeliefs1 reliefs1 bassreliefs1 briefs1 feifs1 griefs1 clefs1 semibrefs1 oafs1 waifs1 coifs1 gulfs1 hoofs1 roofs1 proofs1 reproofs1 woofs1 califs1 turfs1 scarfs1 dwarfs1 wharfs1 fifes1 strifes1 safes4 ,the plural of wharf is sometimes written wharves2 but perhaps as frequently1 and1 if so1 more accurately1 wharfs4 ,examples and authorities3 ,wharf1 wharfs4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #hj2 ,ward's1 #bd2 ,goar's1 #bf2 ,lennie's1 #g2 ,bucke's1 #ci4 ,there were not in ,london so many wharfs1 or keys1 for the landing of merchants' goods4--,,child3 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,the wharfs of ,boston are also worthy of notice4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #cg4 ,between banks thickly clad with dwelling-houses1 manufactories1 and wharfs4--,london ,morn4 ,chronicle1 #ahcc4 ,nouns in ff take s only2 as1 skiffs1 stuffs1 gaffs4 ,but the plural of staff has hitherto been generally written staves2 a puzzling and useless anomaly1 both in form and sound3 for all the compounds of staff are regular2 as1 distaffs1 whipstaffs1 tipstaffs1 flagstaffs1 quarterstaffs2 and staves is the regular plural of stave1 a word now in very common use with a different meaning1 as every cooper and every musician knows4 ,staffs is now sometimes used2 as1 ,i saw the husbandmen bending over their staffs4--,lord ,carnarvon4 ,with their staffs in their hands for very age4--,hope of ,israel1 p4 #af4 ,to distinguish between the two staffs4--,comstock's ,elocution1 p4 #dc4 ,in one instance1 ,i observe1 a very excellent scholar has written selfs for selves1 but the latter is the established plural of self3 ,self-love would cease1 or be dilated1 when ,we should behold as many selfs as men4--,waller's ,poems1 p4 #ee4 ,,obs4 #ai4--,of nouns purely ,english1 the following thirteen are the only simple words that form distinct plurals not ending in s or es1 and four of these are often regular3 man1 men2 woman1 women2 child1 children2 brother1 brethren or brothers2 ox1 oxen2 goose1 geese2 foot1 feet2 tooth1 teeth2 louse1 lice2 mouse1 mice2 die1 dice or dies2 penny1 pence or pennies2 pea1 pease or peas4 ,the word brethren is now applied only to fellow-members of the same church or fraternity2 for sons of the same parents we always use brothers2 and this form is sometimes employed in the other sense4 ,dice are spotted cubes for gaming2 dies are stamps for coining money1 or for impressing metals4 ,pence1 as six pence1 refers to the amount of money in value2 pennies denotes the corns themselves4 ,we write peas1 for two or more individual seeds2 but pease1 for an indefinite number in quantity or bulk4--,webster's ,dict4 ,this last anomaly1 ,i think1 might well enough be spared2 the sound of the word being the same1 and the distinction to the eye not always regarded4 ,why is it not as proper1 to write an order for a bushel of peas1 as for a bushel of beans8 ,peas and beans may be severed from the ground before they be quite dry4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #ca4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,when a compound1 ending with any of the foregoing irregular words1 is made plural1 it follows the fashion of the word with which it ends3 as1 ,gentleman1 gentlemen2 bondwoman1 bondwomen2 foster-child1 foster-children2 solan-goose1 solan-geese2 eyetooth1 eyeteeth2 woodlouse1 woodlice2#adc dormouse1 dormice2 half-penny1 halfpence1 half-pennies4 ,in this way1 these irregularities extend to many words2 though some of the metaphorical class1 as kite's-foot1 colts-foot1 bear's-foot1 lion's-foot1 being names of plants1 have no plural4 ,the word man1 which is used the most frequently in this way1 makes more than seventy such compounds4 ,but there are some words of this ending1 which1 not being compounds of man1 are regular3 as1 ,german1 ,germans2 ,turcoman1 ,turcomans2 ,mussulman1 ,mussulmans2 talisman1 talismans2 leman1 lemans2 caiman1 caimans4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,compounds1 in general1 admit but one variation to form the plural1 and that must be made in the principal word1 rather than in the adjunct2 but where the terms differ little in importance1 the genius of the language obviously inclines to a variation of the last only4 ,thus we write fathers-in-law1 sons-in-law1 knights-errant1 courts-martial1 cousins-german1 hangers-on1 comings-in1 goings-out1 goings-forth1 varying the first2 and manhaters1 manstealers1 manslayers1 maneaters1 mandrills1 handfuls1 spoonfuls1 mouthfuls1 pailfuls1 outpourings1 ingatherings1 downsittings1 overflowings1 varying the last4 ,so1 in many instances1 when there is a less intimate connexion of the parts1 and the words are written with a hyphen1 if not separately1 we choose to vary the latter or last3 as1 fellow-servants1 queen-consorts1 three-per-cents1 he-goats1 she-bears1 jack-a-dandies1 jack-a-lanterns1 piano-fortes4 ,the following mode of writing is irregular in two respects2 first1 because the words are separated1 and secondly1 because both are varied3 ,is it unreasonable to say with ,john ,wesley1 that 'men buyers are exactly on a level with men stealers8--,,goodell',s ,,lect4 ,,ii3 ,liberator1 ix1 #fe4 ,according to analogy1 it ought to be3 ,manbuyers are exactly on a level with manstealers4 ,j4 ,w4 ,wright alleges1 that1 ,the phrase1 ',i want two spoonfuls or handfuls1' though common1 is improperly constructed2 and that1 we should say1 ',two spoons or hands full4'--,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #bbb4 ,from this opinion1 ,i dissent3 both authority and analogy favour the former mode of expressing the plural of such quantities4 ,,obs4 #bb4--,there is neither difficulty nor uncertainty respecting the proper forms for the plurals of compound nouns in general2 but the two irregular words man and woman are often varied at the beginning of the looser kind of compounds1 contrary to what appears to be the general analogy of similar words4 ,of the propriety of this1 the reader may judge1 when ,i shall have quoted a few examples3 ,besides their man-servants and their maid-servants4--,nehemiah1 vii1 #fg4 ,and ,i have oxen and asses1 flocks1 and men-servants1 and women-servants4--,gen41 xxxii1 #e4 ,i gat me men-singers1 and women-singers1 and the delights of the sons of men4--,ecclesiastes1 ii1 #h4 ,and she brought forth a man-child1 who was to rule all nations with a rod of iron4--,rev41 xii1 #e4--,why have ye done this1 and saved the men-children alive8--,exod41 i1 #ah4 ,such terms as these1 if thought objectionable1 may easily be avoided1 by substituting for the former part of the compound the separate adjective male or female2 as1 male child1 male children4 ,or1 for those of the third example1 one might say1 singing men and singing women1 as in ,nehemiah1 vii1 #fg2 for1 in the ancient languages1 the words are the same4 ,alger compounds singing-men and singing-women4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,some foreign compound terms1 consisting of what are usually1 in the language from which they come1 distinct words and different parts of speech1 are made plural in ,english1 by the addition of e or es at the end4 ,but1 in all such cases1 ,i think the hyphen should be inserted in the compound1 though it is the practice of many to omit it4 ,of this odd sort of words1 ,i quote the following examples from ,churchill2 taking the liberty to insert the hyphen1 which he omits3 ,ave-,maries1 ,te-,deums1 camera-obscuras1 agnus-castuses1 habeas-corpuses1 scire-faciases1 hiccius-docciuses1 hocus-pocuses1 ignis-fatuuses1 chef-d'oeuvres1 cong-d'lires1 flower-de-luces1 louis-d'-ores1 tte--ttes4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,some nouns1 from the nature of the things meant1 have no plural4 ,for1 as there ought to be no word1 or inflection of a word1 for which we cannot conceive an appropriate meaning or use1 it follows that whatever is of such a species that it cannot be taken in any plural sense1 must naturally be named by a word which is singular only3 as1 perry1 cider1 coffee1 flax1 hemp1 fennel1 tallow1 pitch1 gold1 sloth1 pride1 meekness1 eloquence4 ,but there are some things1 which have in fact neither a comprehensible unity1 nor any distinguishable plurality1 and which may therefore be spoken of in either number2 for the distinction of unity and plurality is1 in such instances1 merely verbal2 and1 whichever number we take1 the word will be apt to want the other3 as1 dregs1 or sediment2 riches1 or wealth2 pains1 or toil2 ethics1 or moral philosophy2 politics1 or the science of government2 belles-lettres1 or polite literature4 ,so darkness1 which in ,english appears to have no plural1 is expressed in ,latin by tenebr1 in ,french by tnbres1 which have no singular4 ,it is necessary that every noun should be understood to be of one number or the other2 for1 in connecting it with a verb1 or in supplying its place by a pronoun1 we must assume it to be either singular or plural4 ,and it is desirable that singulars and plurals should always abide by their appropriate forms1 so that they may be thereby distinguished with readiness4 ,but custom1 which regulates this1 as every thing else of the like nature1 does not always adjust it well2 or1 at least1 not always upon principles uniform in themselves and obvious to every intellect4 ,,obs4 #be4--,nouns of multitude1 when taken collectively1 generally admit the regular plural form2 which of course is understood with reference to the individuality of the whole collection1 considered as one thing3 but1 when taken distributively1 they have a plural signification without the form2 and1 in this case1 their plurality refers to the individuals that compose the assemblage4 ,thus1 a council1 a committee1 a jury1 a meeting1 a society1 a flock1 or a herd1 is singular2 and the regular plurals are councils1 committees1 juries1 meetings1 societies1 flocks1 herds4 ,but these1 and many similar words1 may be taken plurally without the s1 because a collective noun is the name of many individuals together4 ,hence we may say1 ,the council were unanimous4--,the committee are in consultation4--,the jury were unable to agree4--,the meeting have shown their discretion4--,the society have settled their dispute4--,the flock are widely scattered4--,the whole herd were drowned in the sea4 ,the propriety of the last example seems questionable2 because whole implies unity1 and were drowned is plural4 ,where a purer concord can be effected1 it may be well to avoid such a construction1 though examples like it are not uncommon3 as1 ,clodius was acquitted by a corrupt jury1 that had palpably taken shares of money before they gave their verdict4--,bacon4 ,and the whole multitude of the people were praying without1 at the time of incense4--,luke1 i1 #aj4 ,,obs4 #bf4--,nouns have1 in some instances1 a unity or plurality of meaning1 which seems to be directly at variance with their form4 ,thus1 cattle1 for beasts of pasture1 and pulse1 for peas and beans1 though in appearance singulars only1 are generally1 if not always1 plural2 and summons1 gallows1 chintz1 series1 superficies1 molasses1 suds1 hunks1 jakes1 trapes1 and corps1 with the appearance of plurals1 are generally1 if not always1 singular4 ,dr4 ,webster says that cattle is of both numbers2 but wherein the oneness of cattle can consist1 ,i know not4 ,the ,bible says1 ,god made--cattle after their kind4--,gen41 i1 #be4 ,here kind is indeed singular1 as if cattle were a natural genus of which one must be a cattle2 as sheep are a natural genus of which one is a sheep3 but whether properly expressed so or not1 is questionable2 perhaps it ought to be1 and cattle after their kinds4 ,dr4 ,gillies says1 in his ,history of ,greece1 cattle was regarded as the most convenient measure of value4 ,this seems to me to be more inaccurate and unintelligible1 than to say1 ,sheep was regarded as the most convenient measure of value4 ,and what would this mean8 ,sheep is not singular1 unless limited to that number by some definitive word2 and cattle ,i conceive to be incapable of any such limitation4 ,,obs4 #bg4--,of the last class of words above cited1 some may assume an additional es1 when taken plurally2 as1 summonses1 gallowses1 chintses3 the rest either want the plural1 or have it seldom and without change of form4 ,corps1 a body of troops1 is a ,french word1 which1 when singular1 is pronounced core1 and when plural1 cores4 ,but corpse1 a dead body1 is an ,english word1 pronounced korps1 and making the plural in two syllables1 corpses4 ,summonses is given in ,cobb's ,dictionary as the plural of summons2 but some authors have used the latter with a plural verb3 as1 ,but ,love's first summons seldom are obey'd4--,waller's ,poems1 p4 #h4 ,dr4 ,johnson says this noun is from the verb to summon2 and1 if this is its origin1 the singular ought to be a summon1 and then summons would be a regular plural4 ,but this singular noun with a plural termination1 as ,webster describes it1 more probably originated from the ,latin verb submoneas1 used in the writ1 and came to us through the jargon of law1 in which we sometimes hear men talk of summonsing witnesses4 ,the authorities for it1 however1 are good enough2 as1 ,this present summons4--,,shak43 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,this summons he resolved to disobey4--,,fell3 ib4 ,chints is called by ,cobb a substantive plural and defined as cotton cloths1 made in ,india2 but other lexicographers define it as singular1 and ,worcester 7perhaps more properly7 writes it chintz4 ,johnson cites ,pope as speaking of a charming chints1 and ,i have somewhere seen the plural formed by adding es4 ,of the ,construction of single ,words1 or ,serieses of ,words4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,walker1 in his ,elements of ,elocution1 makes frequent use of the word serieses1 and of the phrase series of serieses4 ,but most writers1 ,i suppose1 would doubt the propriety of this practice2 because1 in ,latin1 all nouns of the fifth declension1 such as caries1 congeries1 series1 species1 superficies1 make their nominative and vocative cases alike in both numbers4 ,this1 however1 is no rule for writing ,english4 ,dr4 ,blair has used the word species in a plural sense2 though ,i think he ought rather to have preferred the regular ,english word kinds3 ,the higher species of poetry seldom admit it4--,rhet41 p4 #djc4 ,specie1 meaning hard money1 though derived or corrupted from species1 is not the singular of that word2 nor has it any occasion for a plural form1 because we never speak of a specie4 ,the plural of gallows1 according to ,dr4 ,webster1 is gallowses2 nor is that form without other authority1 though some say1 gallows is of both numbers and not to be varied3 ,gallowses were occasionally put in order by the side of my windows4--,leigh ,hunt's ,byron1 p4 #cfi4 ,who would not guess there might be hopes1 ,the fear of gallowses and ropes1 ,before their eyes1 might reconcile ,their animosities a while8--,hudibras1 p4 #ij4 ,,obs4 #bh4--,though the plural number is generally derived from the singular1 and of course must as generally imply its existence1 we have examples1 and those not a few1 in which the case is otherwise4 ,some nouns1 because they signify such things as nature or art has made plural or double2 some1 because they have been formed from other parts of speech by means of the plural ending which belongs to nouns2 and some1 because they are compounds in which a plural word is principal1 and put last1 are commonly used in the plural number only1 and have1 in strict propriety1 no singular4 ,though these three classes of plurals may not be perfectly separable1 ,i shall endeavour to exhibit them in the order of this explanation4 #a4 ,plurals in meaning and form3 analects1 annals1#add archives1 ashes1 assets1 billiards1 bowels1 breeches1 calends1 cates1 chops1 clothes1 compasses1 crants1 eaves1 embers1 estovers1 forceps1 giblets1 goggles1 greaves1 hards or hurds1 hemorrhoids1 ides1 matins1 nippers1 nones1 obsequies1 orgies1#ade piles1 pincers or pinchers1 pliers1 reins1 scissors1 shears1 skittles1 snuffers1 spectacles1 teens1 tongs1 trowsers1 tweezers1 umbles1 vespers1 victuals4 #b4 ,plurals by formation1 derived chiefly from adjectives3 acoustics1 aeronautics1 analytics1 bitters1 catoptrics1 commons1 conics1 credentials1 delicates1 dioptrics1 economics1 ethics1 extraordinaries1 filings1 fives1 freshes1 glanders1 gnomonics1 goods1 hermeneutics1 hustings1 hydrodynamics1 hydrostatics1 hydraulics1 hysterics1 inwards1 leavings1 magnetics1 mathematics1 measles1 mechanics1 mnemonics1 merils1 metaphysics1 middlings1 movables1 mumps1 nuptials1 optics1 phonics1 phonetics1 physics1#adf pneumatics1 poetics1 politics1 riches1 rickets1 settlings1 shatters1 skimmings1 spherics1 staggers1 statics1 statistics1 stays1 strangles1 sundries1 sweepings1 tactics1 thanks1 tidings1 trappings1 vives1 vitals1 wages1#adg withers1 yellows4 #c4 ,plurals by composition3 backstairs1 cocklestairs1 firearms1#adh headquarters1 hotcockles1 spatterdashes1 self-affairs4 ,to these may be added the ,latin words1 aborigines1 antipodes1 antes1 antoeci1 amphiscii1 anthropophagi1 antiscii1 ascii1 literati1 fauces1 regalia1 and credenda1 with the ,italian vermicelli1 and the ,french belles-lettres and entremets4 ,,obs4 #bi4--,there are several nouns which are set down by some writers as wanting the singular1 and by others as having it4 ,of this class are the following3 amends1#adi ancients1 awns1 bots1 catacombs1 chives1 cloves1 cresses1 dogsears1 downs1 dregs1#aej entrails1 fetters1 fireworks1 greens1 gyves1 hatches1 intestines1 lees1#aea lungs1 malanders1 mallows1 moderns1 oats1 orts1 pleiads1 premises1 relics1 remains1 shackles1 shambles1#aeb stilts1 stairs1 tares1 vetches4 ,the fact is1 that these words have1 or ought to have1 the singular1 as often as there is any occasion to use it2 and the same may1 in general terms1 be said of other nouns1 respecting the formation of the plural4#aec ,for where the idea of unity or plurality comes clearly before the mind1 we are very apt to shape the word accordingly1 without thinking much about the authorities we can quote for it4 ,,obs4 #cj4--;,in general1 where both numbers exist in common use1 there is some palpable oneness or individuality1 to which the article a or an is applicable2 the nature of the species is found entire in every individual of it2 and a multiplication of the individuals gives rise to plurality in the name4 ,but the nature of a mass1 or of an indefinite multitude taken collectively1 is not found in individuals as such2 nor is the name1 whether singular1 as gold1 or plural1 as ashes1 so understood4 ,hence1 though every noun must be of one number or the other1 there are many which have little or no need of both4 ,thus we commonly speak of wheat1 barley1 or oats1 collectively2 and very seldom find occasion for any other forms of these words4 ,but chafferers at the corn-market1 in spite of ,cobbett1#aed will talk about wheats and barleys1 meaning different kinds#aee or qualities2 and a gardener1 if he pleases1 will tell of an oat1 7as does ,milton1 in his ,lycidas17 meaning a single seed or plant4 ,but1 because wheat or barley generally means that sort of grain in mass1 if he will mention a single kernel1 he must call it a grain of wheat or a barleycorn4 ,and these he may readily make plural1 to specify any particular number2 as1 five grains of wheat1 or three barleycorns4 ,,obs4 #ca4--,my chief concern is with general principles1 but the illustration of these requires many particular examples--even far more than ,i have room to quote4 ,the word amends is represented by ,murray and others1 as being singular as well as plural2 but ,webster's late dictionaries exhibit amend as singular1 and amends as plural1 with definitions that needlessly differ1 though not much4 ,i judge an amends to be bad ,english2 and prefer the regular singular1 an amend4 ,the word is of ,french origin1 and is sometimes written in ,english with a needless final e2 as1 ,but only to make a kind of honourable amende to ,god4--,rollin's ,ancient ,hist41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bd4 ,the word remains ,dr4 ,webster puts down as plural only1 and yet uses it himself in the singular3 ,the creation of a ,dictator1 even for a few months1 would have buried every remain of freedom4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #gj4 ,there are also other authorities for this usage1 and also for some other nouns that are commonly thought to have no singular2 as1 ,but ,duelling is unlawful and murderous1 a remain of the ancient ,gothic barbarity4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 #bf4 ,i grieve with the old1 for so many additional inconveniences1 more than their small remain of life seemed destined to undergo4--,,pope3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,a disjunctive syllogism is one whose major premise is disjunctive4--,hedge's ,logic4 ,where should he have this gold8 ,it is some poor fragment1 some slender ort of his remainder4--,,shak43 ,timon of ,athens4 ,,obs4 #cb4--,there are several nouns which are usually alike in both numbers4 ,thus1 deer1 folk1 fry1 gentry1 grouse1 hose1 neat1 sheep1 swine1 vermin1 and rest1 7i4 e4 the rest1 the others1 the residue17 are regular singulars1 but they are used also as plurals1 and that more frequently4 ,again1 alms1 aloes1 bellows1 means1 news1 odds1 shambles1 and species1 are proper plurals1 but most of them are oftener construed as singulars4 ,folk and fry are collective nouns4 ,folk means people2 a folk1 a people3 as1 ,the ants are a people not strong2--,the conies are but a feeble folk4--,prov41 xxx1 #be1 #bf4 ,he laid his hands on a few sick folk1 and healed them4--,mark1 vi1 #e4 ,folks1 which ought to be the plural of folk1 and equivalent to peoples1 is now used with reference to a plurality of individuals1 and the collective word seems liable to be entirely superseded by it4 ,a fry is a swarm of young fishes1 or of any other little creatures living in water3 so called1 perhaps1 because their motions often make the surface fry4 ,several such swarms might properly be called fries2 but this form can never be applied to the individuals1 without interfering with the other4 ,so numerous was the fry4--,cowper4 ,the fry betake themselves to the neighbouring pools4--,quarterly ,review4 ,you cannot think more contemptuously of these gentry than they were thought of by the true prophets4--,watson's ,apology1 p4 #ic4 ,grouse1 a heathcock4--,johnson4 ,the 'squires in scorn will fly the house ,for better game1 and look for grouse4--,swift4 ,here's an ,english tailor1 come hither for stealing out of a ,french hose4--,shak4 ,he1 being in love1 could not see to garter his hose4--,id4 ,formerly1 the plural was hosen3 ,then these men were bound1 in their coats1 their hosen1 and their hats4--,dan41 iii1 #ba4 ,of sheep1 ,shakspeare has used the regular plural3 ,two hot sheeps1 marry6--,love's ,labour ,lost1 ,act ii1 ,sc4 #a4 ,who both by his calf and his lamb will be known1 ,may well kill a neat and a sheep of his own4--,tusser4 ,his droves of asses1 camels1 herds of neat1 ,and flocks of sheep1 grew shortly twice as great4--,sandys4 ,as a jewel of gold in a swine's snout4--,prov41 xi1 #bb4 ,a herd of many swine1 feeding4--,matt41 viii1 #cj4 ,an idle person only lives to spend his time1 and eat the fruits of the earth1 like a vermin or a wolf4--,taylor4 ,the head of a wolf1 dried and hanged up1 will scare away vermin4--,bacon4 ,cheslip1 a small vermin that lies under stones or tiles4--,,skinner3 in ,joh4 and in ,web4 ,dict4 ,this is flour1 the rest is bran4--,and the rest were blinded4--,rom41 xi1 #g4 ,the poor beggar hath a just demand of an alms4--,swift4 ,thine alms are come up for a memorial before ,god4--,acts1 x1 #d4 ,the draught of air performed the function of a bellows4--,robertson's ,amer41 ii1 #bbc4 ,as the bellows do4--,bicknell's ,gram41 ii1 #aa4 ,the bellows are burned4--,jer41 vi1 #bi4 ,let a gallows be made4--,esther1 v1 #ad4 ,mallows are very useful in medicine4--,wood's ,dict4 ,news1 says ,johnson1 is without the singular1 unless it be considered as singular4--,dict4 ,so is good news from a far country4--,prov41 xxv1 #be4 ,evil news rides fast1 while good news baits4--,milton4 ,when ,rhea heard these news1 she fled4--,raleigh4 ,news were brought to the queen4--,hume's ,hist41 iv1 #dbf4 ,the news ,i bring are afflicting1 but the consolation with which they are attended1 ought to moderate your grief4--,gil ,blas1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bj4 ,between these two cases there are great odds4--,hooker4 ,where the odds is considerable4--,campbell4 ,determining on which side the odds lie4--,locke4 ,the greater are the odds that he mistakes his author4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #a4 ,though thus an odds unequally they meet4--,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 iv1 l4 #ghi4 ,preminent by so much odds4--,milton4 ,to make a shambles of the parliament house4--,shak4 ,the earth has been1 from the beginning1 a great ,aceldama1 a shambles of blood4--,christian's ,vade-,mecum1 p4 #f4 ,a shambles sounds so inconsistent1 ,i should rather say1 ,a shamble4 ,johnson says1 the etymology of the word is uncertain2 ,webster refers it to the ,saxon scamel3 it means a butcher's stall1 a meat-market2 and there would seem to be no good reason for the s1 unless more than one such place is intended4 ,who sells his subjects to the shambles of a foreign power4--,pitt4 ,a special idea is called by the schools a species4--,watts4 ,he intendeth the care of species1 or common natures4--,brown4 ,,aloe1 7alo7 n42 plu4 ,,aloes4--,webster's ,dict41 and ,worcester's4 ,but it was aloe itself to lose the reward4-- ,tupper's ,crock of ,gold1 p4 #af4 ,but high in amphitheatre above1 ,his arms the everlasting aloes threw4 --,campbell1 ,g4 of ,w41 ii1 #aj4 ,,obs4 #cc4--,there are some nouns1 which1 though really regular in respect to possessing the two forms for the two numbers1 are not free from irregularity in the manner of their application4 ,thus means is the regular plural of mean2 and1 when the word is put for mediocrity1 middle point1 place1 or degree1 it takes both forms1 each in its proper sense2 but when it signifies things instrumental1 or that which is used to effect an object1 most writers use means for the singular as well as for the plural3#aef as1 ,by this means--,by those means1 with reference to one mediating cause2 and1 ,by these means1--,by those means1 with reference to more than one4 ,dr4 ,johnson says the use of means for mean is not very grammatical2 and1 among his examples for the true use of the word1 he has the following3 ,pamela's noble heart would needs gratefully make known the valiant mean of her safety4--,sidney4 ,their virtuous conversation was a mean to work the heathens' conversion4--,hooker4 ,whether his wits should by that mean have been taken from him4--,id4 ,i'll devise a mean to draw the ,moor out of the way4--,shak4 ,no place will please me so1 no mean of death4--,id4 ,nature is made better by no mean1 but nature makes that mean4--,id4 ,dr4 ,lowth also questioned the propriety of construing means as singular1 and referred to these same authors as authorities for preferring the regular form4 ,buchanan insists that means is right in the plural only2 and that1 ,the singular should be used as perfectly analogous2 by this mean1 by that mean4--,english ,syntax1 p4 #ajc4 ,lord ,kames1 likewise1 appears by his practice to have been of the same opinion3 ,of this the child must be sensible intuitively1 for it has no other mean of knowledge4--,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ceg4 ,and in both the same mean is employed4--,ib4 ii1 #bga4 ,caleb ,alexander1 too1 declares this means1 that means4 and a means1 to be ungrammatical4--,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,but common usage has gone against the suggestions of these critics1 and later grammarians have rather confirmed the irregularity1 than attempted to reform it4 ,,obs4 #cd4--,murray quotes sixteen good authorities to prove that means may be singular2 but whether it ought to be so or not1 is still a disputable point4 ,principle is for the regular word mean1 and good practice favours the irregularity1 but is still divided4 ,cobbett1 to the disgrace of grammar1 says1 ,mean1 as a noun1 is never used in the singular4 ,it1 like some other words1 has broken loose from all principle and rule4 ,by universal consent1 it is become always a plural1 whether used with singular or plural pronouns and articles1 or not4--,e4 ,gram41 p4 #add4 ,this is as ungrammatical1 as it is untrue4 ,both mean and means are sufficiently authorized in the singular3 ,the prospect which by this mean is opened to you4--,melmoth's ,cicero4 ,faith in this doctrine never terminates in itself1 but is a mean1 to holiness as an end4--,dr4 ,chalmers1 ,sermons1 p4 v4 ,the mean of basely affronting him4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 #ai4 ,they used every mean to prevent the re-establishment of their religion4--,dr ,jamieson's ,sacred ,hist41 i1 p4 #bj4 ,as a necessary mean to prepare men for the discharge of that duty4-- ,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #aec4 ,greatest is the power of a mean1 when its power is least suspected4--,tupper's ,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #cg4 ,to the deliberative orator the reputation of unsullied virtue is not only useful1 as a mean of promoting his general influence1 it is also among his most efficient engines of persuasion1 upon every individual occasion4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,lectures on ,rhetoric and ,oratory1 i1 #ceb4 ,i would urge it upon you1 as the most effectual mean of extending your respectability and usefulness in the world4--,ib41 ii1 #cie4 ,exercise will be admitted to be a necessary mean of improvement4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cdc4 ,and by that means we have now an early prepossession in their favour4--,ib41 p4 #cdh4 ,to abolish all sacrifice by revealing a better mean of reconciliation4 --,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #df4 ,as a mean of destroying the distinction4 --,ib41 p4 #c4 ,which however is by no mean universally the case4-- ,religious ,world ,displayed1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #aee4 ,,obs4 #ce4--;,again1 there are some nouns1 which1 though they do not lack the regular plural form1 are sometimes used in a plural sense without the plural termination4 ,thus manner makes the plural manners1 which last is now generally used in the peculiar sense of behaviour1 or deportment1 but not always3 it sometimes means methods1 modes1 or ways2 as1 ,at sundry times and in divers manners4--,heb41 i1 #a4 ,in the manners above mentioned4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ajj4 ,there be three manners of trials in ,england4--,,cowell3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,jury4 ,these two manners of representation4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,these are the three primary modes1 or manners1 of expression4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,in arrangement1 too1 various manners suit various styles4--,campbell's ,phil4 of ,rhet41 p4 #agb4 ,between the two manners4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #ce4 ,here are three different manners of asserting4-- ,barnard's ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,but manner has often been put for sorts1 without the s2 as1 ,the tree of life1 which bare twelve manner of fruits4--,rev41 xxii1 #b4 ,all manner of men assembled here in arms4--,shak4 ,all manner of outward advantages4--,atterbury4 ,milton used kind in the same way1 but not very properly2 as1 ,all kind of living creatures4--,p4 ,lost1 ,b4 iv1 l4 #bhf4 ,this irregularity it would be well to avoid4 ,manners may still1 perhaps1 be proper for modes or ways2 and all manner1 if allowed1 must be taken in the sense of a collective noun2 but for sorts1 kinds1 classes1 or species1 ,i would use neither the plural nor the singular of this word4 ,the word heathen1 too1 makes the regular plural heathens1 and yet is often used in a plural sense without the s2 as1 ,why do the heathen rage8--,psalms1 ii1 #a4 ,christianity was formerly propagated among the heathens4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bag4 ,the word youth1 likewise1 has the same peculiarities4 ,,obs4 #cf4--,under the present head come names of fishes1 birds1 or other things1 when the application of the singular is extended from the individual to the species1 so as to supersede the plural by assuming its construction3 as1 ,sing4 ,a great fish4--,jonah1 i1 #ag4 ,plur4 ,for the multitude of fishes'4--,john1 xxi1 #f4 ,a very great multitude of fish4--,ezekiel1 xlvii1 #i4aeg ,the name of the genus being liable to this last construction1 men seem to have thought that the species should follow2 consequently1 the regular plurals of some very common names of fishes are scarcely known at all4 ,hence some grammarians affirm1 that salmon1 mackerel1 herring1 perch1 tench1 and several others1 are alike in both numbers1 and ought never to be used in the plural form4 ,i am not so fond of honouring these anomalies4 ,usage is here as unsettled1 as it is arbitrary2 and1 if the expression of plurality is to be limited to either form exclusively1 the regular plural ought certainly to be preferred4 ,but1 for fish taken in bulk1 the singular form seems more appropriate2 as1 ,these vessels take from thirty-eight to forty-five quintals of cod and pollock1 and six thousand barrels of mackerel1 yearly4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bh4 ,,obs4 #cg4--,the following examples will illustrate the unsettled usage just mentioned1 and from them the reader may judge for himself what is right4 ,in quoting1 at second-hand1 ,i generally think it proper to make double references2 and especially in citing authorities after ,johnson1 because he so often gives the same passages variously4 ,but he himself is reckoned good authority in things literary4 ,be it so4 ,i regret the many proofs of his fallibility4 ,hear you this ,triton of the minnows8--,shak4 ,the shoal of herrings was of an immense extent4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #ahe4 ,buy my herring fresh4--,,swift3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,in the fisheries of ,maine1 cod1 herring1 mackerel alewives1 salmon1 and other fish1 are taken4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bc4 ,,mease1 n4 ,the quantity of #ejj2 as1 a mease of herrings4--,webster's ,dict4 ,we shall have plenty of mackerel this season4--,,addison3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,mackarel is the same in both numbers4 ,gay has improperly mackarels4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bjh4 ,they take salmon and trouts by groping and tickling them under the bellies4--,,carew3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,the pond will keep trout and salmon in their seasonable plight4--,id41 ib41 w4 ,trout4 ,some fish are preserved fresh in vinegar1 as turbot4--,id41 ib41 w4 ,turbot4 ,some fish are boiled and preserved fresh in vinegar1 as tunny and turbot4--,id41 ib41 w4 ,tunny4 ,of round fish1 there are brit1 sprat1 barn1 smelts4--,id41 ib41 w4 ,smelt4 ,for sprats and spurlings for your house4--,,tussee3 ib41 w4 ,spurling4 ,the coast is plentifully stored with pilchards1 herrings1 and haddock4--,,carew3 ib41 w4 ,haddock4 ,the coast is plentifully stored with round fish1 pilchard1 herring1 mackerel1 and cod--,id41 ib41 w4 ,herring4 ,the coast is plentifully stored with shellfish1 sea-hedgehogs1 scallops1 pilcherd1 herring1 and pollock4--,id41 ib41 w4 ,pollock4 ,a roach is a fish of no great reputation for his dainty taste4 ,it is noted that roaches recover strength and grow a fortnight after spawning4--,,walton3 ib41 w4 ,roach4 ,a friend of mine stored a pond of three or four acres with carps and tench4--,,hale3 ib41 w4 ,carp4 ,having stored a very great pond with carps1 tench1 and other pond-fish1 and only put in two small pikes1 this pair of tyrants in seven years devoured the whole4--,id41 ib41 w4 ,tench4 ,singular1 tench2 plural1 tenches4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,the polar bear preys upon seals1 fish1 and the carcasses of whales4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #agb4 ,trouts and salmons swim against the stream4--,,bacon3 ,ward's ,gram41 p4 #acj4 ',tis true no turbots dignify my boards1 ,but gudgeons1 flounders1 what my ,thames affords4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #ch4--,prom the foregoing examples it would seem1 if fish or fishes are often spoken of without a regular distinction of the grammatical numbers1 it is not because the words are not susceptible of the inflection1 but because there is some difference of meaning between the mere name of the sort and the distinct modification in regard to number4 ,there are also other nouns in which a like difference may be observed4 ,some names of building materials1 as brick1 stone1 plank1 joist1 though not destitute of regular plurals1 as bricks1 stones1 planks1 joists1 and not unadapted to ideas distinctly singular1 as a brick1 a stone1 a plank1 a joist1 are nevertheless sometimes used in a plural sense without the s1 and sometimes in a sense which seems hardly to embrace the idea of either number2 as1 ,let us make brick1 and burn them thoroughly4--,gen41 xi1 #c4 ,and they had brick for stone4--,ib4 ,the tale of bricks4--,exod41 v1 #h and #ah4 ,make brick4--,ib41 v1 #af4 ,from your bricks4--,ib41 v1 #ai4 ,upon altars of brick4--,isaiah4 lxv1 #c4 ,the bricks are fallen down4--,ib41 ix1 #aj4 ,the same variety of usage occurs in respect to a few other words1 and sometimes perhaps without good reason2 as1 ,vast numbers of sea fowl frequent the rocky cliffs4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bca4 ,bullocks1 sheep1 and fowls4--,ib41 p4 #dci4 ,cannon is used alike in both numbers4--,everest's ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,cannon and shot may be used in the singular or plural sense4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,the column in the ,place ,vendome is one hundred and thirty-four feet high1 and is made of the brass of the cannons taken from the ,austrians and ,prussians4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bdi4 ,as his cannons roar4--,dryden's ,poems1 p4 #ha4 ,twenty shot of his greatest cannon4--,,clarendon3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,twenty shots would here1 ,i think1 be more proper1 though the word is not made plural when it means little balls of lead4 ,and cannons conquer armies4--,hudibras1 ,part ,,iii1 ,canto iii1 l4 #bdi4 ,healths to both kings1 attended with the roar ,of cannons echoed from th' affrighted shore4--,waller1 p4 #g4 ,,obs4 #ci4--,of foreign nouns1 many retain their original plural2 a few are defective2 and some are redundant1 because the ,english form is also in use4 ,our writers have laid many languages under contribution1 and thus furnished an abundance of irregular words1 necessary to be explained1 but never to be acknowledged as ,english till they conform to our own rules4 #a4 ,of nouns in a1 saliva1 spittle1 and scoria1 dross1 have no occasion for the plural2 lamina1 a thin plate1 makes lamin2 macula1 a spot1 macul2 minutia1 a little thing1 minuti2 nebula1 a mist1 nebul2 siliqua1 a pod1 siliqiu4 ,dogma makes dogmas or dogmata2 exanthema1 exanthemas or exanthemata2 miasm or miasma1 miasms or miasmata2 stigma1 stigmas or stigmata4 #b4 ,of nouns in um1 some have no need of the plural2 as1 bdellium1 decorum1 elysium1 equilibrium1 guaiacum1 laudanum1 odium1 opium1 petroleum1 serum1 viaticum4 ,some form it regularly2 as1 asylums1 compendiums1 craniums1 emporiums1 encomiums1 forums1 frustums1 lustrums1 mausoleums1 museums1 pendulums1 nostrums1 rostrums1 residuums1 vacuums4 ,others take either the ,english or the ,latin plural2 as1 desideratums or desiderata1 mediums or media1 menstruums or menstrua1 memorandums or memoranda1 spectrums or spectra1 speculums or specula1 stratums or strata1 succedaneums or succedanea1 trapeziums or trapezia1 vinculums or vincula4 ,a few seem to have the ,latin plural only3 as1 arcanum1 arcana2 datum1 data2 effluvium1 effluvia2 erratum1 errata2 scholium1 scholia4 #c4 ,of nouns in us1 a few have no plural2 as1 asparagus1 calamus1 mucus4 ,some have only the ,latin plural1 which usually changes us to i2 as1 alumnus1 alumni2 androgynus1 androgyni2 calculus1 calculi2 dracunculus1 dracunculi2 echinus1 echini2 magus1 magi4 ,but such as have properly become ,english words1 may form the plural regularly in es2 as1 chorus1 choruses3 so1 apparatus1 bolus1 callus1 circus1 fetus1 focus1 fucus1 fungus1 hiatus1 ignoramus1 impetus1 incubus1 isthmus1 nautilus1 nucleus1 prospectus1 rebus1 sinus1 surplus4 ,five of these make the ,latin plural like the singular2 but the mere ,english scholar has no occasion to be told which they are4 ,radius makes the plural radii or radiuses4 ,genius has genii1 for imaginary spirits1 and geniuses1 for men of wit4 ,genus1 a sort1 becomes genera in ,latin1 and genuses in ,english4 ,denarius makes1 in the plural1 denarii or denariuses4 #d4 ,of nouns in is1 some are regular2 as1 trellis1 trellises3 so1 annolis1 butteris1 caddis1 dervis1 iris1 marquis1 metropolis1 portcullis1 proboscis4 ,some seem to have no need of the plural2 as1 ambergris1 aqua-fortis1 arthritis1 brewis1 crasis1 elephantiasis1 genesis1 orris1 siriasis1 tennis4 ,but most nouns of this ending follow the ,greek or ,latin form1 which simply changes is to es3 as1 amanuensis1 amanuenses2 analysis1 analyses2 antithesis1 antitheses2 axis1 axes2 basis1 bases2 crisis1 crises2 diresis1 direses2 diesis1 dieses2 ellipsis1 ellipses2 emphasis1 emphases2 fascis1 fasces2 hypothesis1 hypotheses2 metamorphosis1 metamorphoses2 oasis1 oases2 parenthesis1 parentheses2 phasis1 phases2 praxis1 praxes2 synopsis1 synopses2 synthesis1 syntheses2 syrtis1 syrtes2 thesis1 theses4 ,in some1 however1 the original plural is not so formed2 but is made by changing is to ides2 as1 aphis1 aphides2 apsis1 apsides2 ascaris1 ascarides2 bolis1 bolides2 cantharis1 cantharides2 chrysalis1 chrysalides2 ephemeris1 ephemerides2 epidermis1 epidermides4 ,so iris and proboscis1 which we make regular2 and perhaps some of the foregoing may be made so too4 ,fisher writes ,praxises for praxes1 though not very properly4 ,see his ,gram1 p4 v4 ,eques1 a ,roman knight1 makes equites in the plural4 #e4 ,of nouns in x1 there are few1 if any1 which ought not to form the plural regularly1 when used as ,english words2 though the ,latins changed x to ces1 and ex to ices1 making the i sometimes long and sometimes short3 as1 apex1 apices1 for apexes2 appendix1 appendices1 for appendixes2 calix1 calices1 for calixes2 calx1 calces1 for calxes2 calyx1 calyces1 for calyxes2 caudex1 caudices1 for caudexes2 cicatrix1 cicatrices1 for cicatrixes2 helix1 helices1 for helixes2 index1 indices1 for indexes2 matrix1 matrices1 for matrixes2 quincunx1 quincunces1 for quincunxes2 radix1 radices1 for radixes2 varix1 varices1 for varixes2 vertex1 vertices1 for vertexes2 vortex1 vortices1 for vortexes4 ,some ,greek words in x change that letter to ges2 as1 larynx1 larynges1 for larinxes2 phalanx1 phalanges1 for phalanxes4 ,billet-doux1 from the ,french1 is billets-doux in the plural4 #f4 ,of nouns in on1 derived from ,greek1 the greater part always form the plural regularly2 as1 etymons1 gnomons1 ichneumons1 myrmidons1 phlegmons1 trigons1 tetragons1 pentagons1 hexagons1 heptagons1 octagons1 enneagons1 decagons1 hendecagons1 dodecagons1 polygons4 ,so trihedrons1 tetrahedrons1 pentahedrons1 c41 though some say1 these last may end in dra1 which ,i think improper4 ,for a few words of this class1 however1 there are double plurals in use2 as1 automata or atomatons1 criteria or criterions1 parhelia or parhelions2 and the plural of phenomenon appears to be always phenomena4 #g4 ,the plural of legumen is legumens or legumina2 of stamen1 stamens or stamina3 of cherub1 cherubs or cherubim2 of seraph1 seraphs or seraphim2 of beau1 beaus or beaux2 of bandit1 bandits or banditti4 ,the regular forms are in general preferable4 ,the ,hebrew plurals cherubim and seraphim1 being sometimes mistaken for singulars1 other plurals have been formed from them2 as1 ,and over it the cherubims of glory4--,heb4 ix1 #e4 ,then flow one of the seraphims unto me4--,isaiah1 vi1 #f4 ,dr4 ,campbell remarks3 ,we are authorized1 both by use and by analogy1 to say either cherubs and seraphs1 according to the ,english idiom1 or cherubim and seraphim1 according to the oriental4 ,the former suits better the familiar1 the latter the solemn style4 ,i shall add to this remark1 says he1 that1 as the words cherubim and seraphim are plural1 the terms cherubims and seraphims1 as expressing the plural1 are quite improper4--,phil4 of ,rhet41 p4 #bja4 ,,obs4 #dj4--,when other parts of speech become nouns1 they either want the plural1 or form it regularly1#aeh like common nouns of the same endings2 as1 ,his affairs went on at sixes and sevens4--,arbuthnot4 ,some mathematicians have proposed to compute by twoes2 others1 by fours2 others1 by twelves4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,three fourths1 nine tenths4--,ib41 p4 #bcj4 ,time's takings and leavings4-- ,barton4 ,the yeas and nays4--,newspaper4 ,the ays and noes4--,ib4 ,oes and spangles4--,bacon4 ,the ins and the outs4--,newspaper4--,we find it more safe against outs and doubles4--,printer's ,gram4 ,his ands and his ors4--,mott4 ,one of the buts4--,fowle4 ,in raising the mirth of stupids4--,steele4 ,eatings1 drinkings1 wakings1 sleepings1 walkings1 talkings1 sayings1 doings--all were for the good of the public2 there was not such a things as a secret in the town4--,,landon3 ,keepsake1 #ahcc4 ,her innocent forsooths and yesses4--,spect41 ,no4 #bff4 ,henceforth my wooing mind shall be expressed ,in russet yeas and honest kersey noes4 --,,shak4 ,see ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,kersey4 ,,genders4 ,genders1 in grammar1 are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex4 ,there are three genders2 the masculine1 the feminine1 and the neuter4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind2 as1 man1 father1 king4 ,the feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind2 as1 woman1 mother1 queen4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female2 as1 pen1 ink1 paper4 ,hence1 names of males are masculine2 names of females1 feminine2 and names of things inanimate1 literally1 neuter4 ,masculine nouns make regular feminines1 when their termination is changed to ess3 as1 hunter1 huntress2 prince1 princess2 lion1 lioness4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the different genders in grammar are founded on the natural distinction of sex in animals1 and on the absence of sex in other things4 ,in ,english1 they belong only to nouns and pronouns2 and to these they are usually applied1 not arbitrarily1 as in some other languages1 but agreeably to the order of nature4 ,from this we derive a very striking advantage over those who use the gender differently1 or without such rule2 which is1 that our pronouns are easy of application1 and have a fine effect when objects are personified4 ,pronouns are of the same gender as the nouns for which they stand4 ,,obs4 #b4--,many nouns are equally applicable to both sexes2 as1 cousin1 friend1 neighbour1 parent1 person1 servant4 ,the gender of these is usually determined by the context2 and they are to be called masculine or feminine accordingly4 ,to such words1 some grammarians have applied the unnecessary and improper term common gender4 ,murray justly observes1 ,there is no such gender belonging to the language4 ,the business of parsing can be effectually performed1 without having recourse to a common gender4--,gram41 #hvo4 p4 #ci4 ,the term is more useful1 and less liable to objection1 as applied to the learned languages2 but with us1 whose genders distinguish objects in regard to sex1 it is plainly a solecism4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,a great many of our grammars define gender to be the distinction of sex1 and then speak of a common gender1 in which the two sexes are left undistinguished2 and of the neuter gender1 in which objects are treated as being of neither sex4 ,these views of the matter are obviously inconsistent4 ,not genders1 or a gender1 do the writers undertake to define1 but gender as a whole2 and absurdly enough1 too2 because this whole of gender they immediately distribute into certain other genders1 into genders of gender1 or kinds of gender1 and these not compatible with their definition4 ,thus ,wells3 ,gender is the distinction of objects1 with regard to sex4 ,there are four genders2--the masculine1 the feminine1 the common1 and the neuter4--,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #di4 ,those ,nouns which are applicable alike to both sexes1 are of the common gender4--,ib4 ,this then is manifestly no gender under the foregoing definition1 and the term neuter is made somewhat less appropriate by the adoption of a third denomination before it4 ,nor is there less absurdity in the phraseology with which ,murray proposes to avoid the recognition of the common gender3 ,thus we may say1 ,parents is a noun of the masculine and feminine gender2 ,parent1 if doubtful1 is of the masculine or feminine gender2 and ,parent1 if the gender is known by the construction1 is of the gender so ascertained4--,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ci4 ,according to this1 we must have five genders1 exclusive of that which is called common2 namely1 the masculine1 the feminine1 the neuter1 the androgynal1 and the doubtful4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,it is plain that many writers on grammar have had but a confused notion of what a gender really is4 ,some of them1 confounding gender with sex1 deny that there are more than two genders1 because there are only two sexes4 ,others1 under a like mistake1 resort occasionally1 7as in the foregoing instance17 to an androgynal1 and also to a doubtful gender3 both of which are more objectionable than the common gender of the old grammarians2 though this common distinction with regard to sex1 is1 in our language1 confessedly1 no distinction at all4 ,i assume1 that there are in ,english the three genders1 masculine1 feminine1 and neuter1 and no more2 and that every noun and every pronoun must needs be of some gender2 consequently1 of some one of these three4 ,a gender is1 literally1 a sort1 a kind1 a sex4 ,but genders1 in grammar1 are attributes of words1 rather than of persons1 or animals1 or things2 whereas sexes are attributes1 not of words1 but of living creatures4 ,he who understands this1 will perceive that the absence of sex in some things1 is as good a basis for a grammatical distinction1 as the presence or the difference of it in others2 nor can it be denied1 that the neuter1 according to my definition1 is a gender1 is a distinction in regard to sex1 though it does not embrace either of the sexes4 ,there are therefore three genders1 and only three4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,generic names1 even when construed as masculine or feminine1 often virtually include both sexes2 as1 ,hast thou given the horse strength8 hast thou clothed his neck with thunder8 ,canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper8 the glory of his nostrils is terrible4--,job1 xxxix1 #ai4 ,doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom1 and stretch her wings toward the south8 ,doth the eagle mount up at thy command1 and make her nest on high8--,ib41 ver4 #bf4 ,these were called1 by the old grammarians1 epicene nouns--that is1 supercommon2 but they are to be parsed each according to the gender of the pronoun which is put for it4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the gender of words1 in many instances1 is to be determined by the following principle of universal grammar4 ,those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes1 7if they are not expressly applied to females17 and those plurals which are known to include both sexes1 should be called masculine in parsing2 for1 in all languages1 the masculine gender is considered the most worthy1#aei and is generally employed when both sexes are included under one common term4 ,thus parents is always masculine1 and must be represented by a masculine pronoun1 for the gender of a word is a property indivisible1 and that which refers to the male sex1 always takes the lead in such cases4 ,if one say1 ,joseph took the young child and his mother by night1 and fled with them into ,egypt1 the pronoun them will be masculine2 but let his be changed to its1 and the plural pronoun that follows1 will be feminine4 ,for the feminine gender takes precedence of the neuter1 but not of the masculine2 and it is not improper to speak of a young child without designating the sex4 ,as for such singulars as parent1 friend1 neighbour1 thief1 slave1 and many others1 they are feminine when expressly applied to any of the female sex2 but otherwise1 masculine4 ,,obs4 #g4--,nouns of multitude1 when they convey the idea of unity or take the plural form1 are of the neuter gender2 but when they convey the idea of plurality without the form1 they follow the gender of the individuals which compose the assemblage4 ,thus a congress1 a council1 a committee1 a jury1 a sort1 or a sex1 if taken collectively1 is neuter2 being represented in discourse by the neuter pronoun it3 and the formal plurals1 congresses1 councils1 committees1 juries1 sorts1 sexes1 of course1 are neuter also4 ,but1 if ,i say1 ,the committee disgraced themselves1 the noun and pronoun are presumed to be masculine1 unless it be known that ,i am speaking of a committee of females4 ,again3 ,the fair sex1 whose task is not to mingle in the labours of public life1 have their own part assigned them to act4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #acb4 ,here sex1 and the three pronouns which have that word for their antecedent1 are all feminine4 ,again3 ,each sex1 dressing themselves in the clothes of the other4--,wood's ,dictionary1 v4 ,feast of ,purim4 ,here sex1 and the pronoun which follows1 are masculine2 because1 the male sex1 as well as the female1 is here spoken of plurally4 ,,obs4 #h4--,to persons1 of every description1 known or unknown1 real or imaginary1 we uniformly ascribe sex4#afj ,but1 as personality implies intelligence1 and sex supposes some obvious difference1 a young child may be spoken of with distinction of sex or without1 according to the notion of the speaker2 as1 ,i went to see the child whilst they were putting on its cloaths4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #abe4 ,because the child has no idea of any nurse besides his own4--,ib41 p4 #aec4 ,to brute animals also1 the same distinction is generally applied1 though with less uniformity4 ,some that are very small1 have a gender which seems to be merely occasional and figurative2 as1 ,go to the ant1 thou sluggard2 consider her ways1 and be wise4--,prov41 vi1 #f4 ,the spider taketh hold with her hands1 and is in kings' palaces4--,prov41 xxx1 #bh4 ,so the bee is usually made feminine1 being a little creature of admirable industry and economy4 ,but1 in general1 irrational creatures whose sex is unknown1 or unnecessary to be regarded1 are spoken of as neuter2 as1 ,and it became a serpent2 and ,moses fled from before it4 ,and the ,lord said unto ,moses1 ,put forth thine hand1 and take it by the tail4 ,and he put forth his hand and caught it1 and it became a rod in his hand4--,exod41 iv1 #c1 #d4 ,here1 although the word serpent is sometimes masculine1 the neuter pronoun seems to be more proper4 ,so of some imaginary creatures3 as1 ,phenix1 the fowl which is said to exist single1 and to rise again from its own ashes4--,webster's ,dict4 ,so shall the ,phoenix escape1 with no stain on its plumage4--,dr4 ,bartlett's ,lect41 p4 #aj4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,but this liberty of representing animals as of no sex1 is often carried to a very questionable extent2 as1 ,the hare sleeps with its eyes open4--,barbauld4 ,the hedgehog1 as soon as it perceives itself attacked1 rolls itself into a kind of ball1 and presents nothing but its prickles to the foe4--,blair's ,reader1 p4 #ach4 ,the panther is a ferocious creature3 like the tiger it seizes its prey by surprise4--,ib41 p4 #ajb4 ,the leopard1 in its chace of prey1 spares neither man nor beast4--,ib41 p4 #ajc4 ,if a man shall steal an ox1 or a sheep1 and kill it1 or sell it4--,exod41 xxii1 #a4 ,a dog resists its instinct to run after a hare1 because it recollects the beating it has previously received on that account4 ,the horse avoids the stone at which it once has stumbled4--,spurzheim1 on ,education1 p4 #c4 ,the racehorse is looked upon with pleasure2 but it is the warhorse1 that carries grandeur in its idea4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cj4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the sexes are distinguished by words1 in four different ways4 ,first1 by the use of different terminations3 as1 ,jew1 ,jewess2 ,julius1 ,julia2 hero1 heroine4 ,secondly1 by the use of entirely different names3 as1 ,henry1 ,mary2 king1 queen4 ,thirdly1 by compounds or phrases including some distinctive term3 as1 ,mr4 ,murray1 ,mrs4 ,murray2 ,englishman1 ,englishwoman2 grandfather1 grandmother2 landlord1 landlady2 merman1 mermaid2 servingman1 servingmaid2 man-servant1 maid-servant2 schoolmaster1 schoolmistress2 school-boy1 school-girl2 peacock1 peahen2 cock-sparrow1 hen-sparrow2 he-goat1 she-goat2 buck-rabbit1 doe-rabbit2 male elephant1 female elephant2 male convicts1 female convicts4 ,fourthly1 by the pronouns he1 his1 him1 put for nouns masculine2 and she1 her1 hers1 for nouns feminine3 as1 ,ask him that fleeth1 and her that escapeth1 and say1 ,what is done8--,jer41 xlviii1 #ai4 ,o happy peasant6 ,oh unhappy bard6 ,his the mere tinsel1 hers the rich reward4--,cowper4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,for feminine nouns formed by inflection1 the regular termination is ess2 but the manner in which this ending is applied to the original or masculine noun1 is not uniform3-- #a4 ,in some instances the syllable ess is simply added3 as1 accuser1 accuseress2 advocate1 advocatess2 archer1 archeress2 author1 authoress2 avenger1 avengeress2 barber1 barberess2 baron1 baroness2 canon1 canoness2 cit1 cittess2#afa coheir1 coheiress2 count1 countess2 deacon1 deaconess2 demon1 demoness2 diviner1 divineress2 doctor1 doctoress2 giant1 giantess2 god1 goddess2 guardian1 guardianess2 ,hebrew1 ,hebrewess2 heir1 heiress2 herd1 herdess2 hermit1 hermitess2 host1 hostess2 ,jesuit1 ,jesuitess2 ,jew1 ,jewess2 mayor1 mayoress2 ,moabite1 ,moabitess2 monarch1 monarchess2 pape1 papess2 or1 pope1 popess2 patron1 patroness2 peer1 peeress2 poet1 poetess2 priest1 priestess2 prior1 prioress2 prophet1 prophetess2 regent1 regentess2 saint1 saintess2 shepherd1 shepherdess2 soldier1 soldieress2 tailor1 tailoress2 viscount1 viscountess2 warrior1 warrioress4 #b4 ,in other instances1 the termination is changed1 and there is no increase of syllables3 as1 abbot1 abbess2 actor1 actress2 adulator1 adulatress2 adulterer1 adulteress2 adventurer1 adventuress2 advoutrer1 advoutress2 ambassador1 ambassadress2 anchorite1 anchoress2 or1 anachoret1 anachoress2 arbiter1 arbitress2 auditor1 auditress2 benefactor1 benefactress2 caterer1 cateress2 chanter1 chantress2 cloisterer1 cloisteress2 commander1 commandress2 conductor1 conductress2 creator1 creatress2 demander1 demandress2 detractor1 detractress2 eagle1 eagless2 editor1 editress2 elector1 electress2 emperor1 emperess1 or empress2 emulator1 emulatress2 enchanter1 enchantress2 exactor1 exactress2 fautor1 fautress2 fornicator1 fornicatress2 fosterer1 fosteress1 or fostress2 founder1 foundress2 governor1 governess2 huckster1 huckstress2 or1 hucksterer1 hucksteress2 idolater1 idolatress2 inhabiter1 inhabitress2 instructor1 instructress2 inventor1 inventress2 launderer1 launderess1 or laundress2 minister1 ministress2 monitor1 monitress2 murderer1 murderess2 negro1 negress2 offender1 offendress2 ogre1 ogress2 porter1 portress2 progenitor1 progenitress2 protector1 protectress2 proprietor1 proprietress2 pythonist1 pythoness2 seamster1 seamstress2 solicitor1 solicitress2 songster1 songstress2 sorcerer1 sorceress2 suitor1 suitress2 tiger1 tigress2 traitor1 traitress2 victor1 victress2 votary1 votaress4 #c4 ,in a few instances the feminine is formed as in ,latin1 by changing or to rix2 but some of these have also the regular form1 which ought to be preferred3 as1 adjutor1 adjutrix2 administrator1 administratrix2 arbitrator1 arbitratrix2 coadjutor1 coadjutrix2 competitor1 competitress1 or competitrix2 creditor1 creditrix2 director1 directress1 or directrix2 executor1 executress1 or executrix2 inheritor1 inheritress1 or inheritrix2 mediator1 mediatress1 or mediatrix2 orator1 oratress1 or oratrix2 rector1 rectress1 or rectrix2 spectator1 spectatress1 or spectatrix2 testator1 testatrix2 tutor1 tutoress1 or tutress1 or tutrix2 deserter1 desertress1 or desertrice1 or desertrix4 #d4 ,the following are irregular words1 in which the distinction of sex is chiefly made by the termination3 amoroso1 amorosa3 archduke1 archduchess2 chamberlain1 chambermaid2 duke1 duchess2 gaffer1 gammer2 goodman1 goody2 hero1 heroine2 landgrave1 landgravine2 margrave1 margravine2 marquis1 marchioness2 palsgrave1 palsgravine2 sakeret1 sakerhawk2 sewer1 sewster2 sultan1 sultana2 tzar1 tzarina2 tyrant1 tyranness2 widower1 widow4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the proper names of persons almost always designate their sex2 for it has been found convenient to make the names of women different from those of men4 ,we have also some appellatives which correspond to each other1 distinguishing the sexes by their distinct application to each3 as1 bachelor1 maid2 beau1 belle2 boy1 girl2 bridegroom1 bride2 brother1 sister2 buck1 doe2 boar1 sow2 bull1 cow2 cock1 hen2 colt1 filly2 dog1 bitch2 drake1 duck2 earl1 countess2 father1 mother2 friar1 nun2 gander1 goose2 grandsire1 grandam2 hart1 roe2 horse1 mare2 husband1 wife2 king1 queen2 lad1 lass2 lord1 lady2 male1 female2 man1 woman2 master1 mistress2 ,mister1 ,missis2 7,mr41 ,mrs427 milter1 spawner2 monk1 nun2 nephew1 niece2 papa1 mamma2 rake1 jilt2 ram1 ewe2 ruff1 reeve2 sire1 dam2 sir1 madam2 sloven1 slut2 son1 daughter2 stag1 hind2 steer1 heifer2 swain1 nymph2 uncle1 aunt2 wizard1 witch2 youth1 damsel2 young man1 maiden4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,the people of a particular country are commonly distinguished by some name derived from that of their country2 as1 ,americans1 ,africans1 ,egyptians1 ,russians1 ,turks4 ,such words are sometimes called gentile names4 ,there are also adjectives1 of the same origin1 if not the same form1 which correspond with them4 ,gentile names are for the most part considered as masculine1 and the feminine is denoted by the gentile adjective and the noun woman3 as1 a ,spaniard1 a ,spanish woman2 a ,pole1 or ,polander1 a ,polish woman4 ,but1 in a few instances1 we always use a compound of the adjective with man or woman3 as1 an ,englishman1 an ,englishwoman2 a ,welshman1 a ,welshwoman2 an ,irishman1 an ,irishwoman2 a ,frenchman1 a ,frenchwoman2 a ,dutchman1 a ,dutchwoman3 and in these cases the adjective is employed as the collective noun2 as1 the ,dutch1 the ,french1 c4 ,a ,scotchman1 and a ,scot1 are both in use2 but the latter is not common in prose writers3 though some employ it1 and these generally adopt the plural1 ,scots1 with the definite article1 as the collective term4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,the names of things without life1 used literally1 are always of the neuter gender3 as1 ,when ,cleopatra fled1 ,antony pursued her in a five-oared galley2 and1 coming along side of her ship1 entered it without being seen by her4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 p4 #afj4 ,the sun1 high as it is1 has its business assigned2 and so have the stars4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ach4 ,but inanimate objects are often represented figuratively as having sex4 ,things remarkable for power1 greatness1 or sublimity1 are spoken of as masculine2 as1 the sun1 time1 death1 sleep1 fear1 anger1 winter1 war4 ,things beautiful1 amiable1 or prolific1 are spoken of as feminine2 as1 a ship1 the moon1 the earth1 nature1 fortune1 knowledge1 hope1 spring1 peace4 ,figurative gender is indicated only by the personal pronouns of the singular number3 as1 ,when we say of the sun1 ,he is setting2 or of a ship1 ,she sails well4--,l4 ,murray4 ,for these two objects1 the sun and a ship1 this phraseology is so common1 that the literal construction quoted above is rarely met with4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,when any inanimate object or abstract quality is distinctly personified1 and presented to the imagination in the character of a living and intelligent being1 there is necessarily a change of the gender of the word2 for1 whenever personality is thus ascribed to what is literally neuter1 there must be an assumption of one or the other sex3 as1 ,the ,genius of ,liberty is awakened1 and springs up2 she sheds her divine light and creative powers upon the two hemispheres4 ,a great nation1 astonished at seeing herself free1 stretches her arms from one extremity of the earth to the other1 and embraces the first nation that became so4--,abb ,fauchet4 ,but there is an inferior kind of personification1 or of what is called such1 in which1 so far as appears1 the gender remains neuter3 as1 ,the following is an instance of personification and apostrophe united3 ',o thou sword of the ,lord6 how long will it be ere thou be quiet8 put thyself up into thy scabbard1 rest1 and be still6 ,how can it be quiet1 seeing the ,lord hath given it a charge against ,askelon1 and against the sea-shore8 there hath he appointed it4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cdh4 ,see ,jer41 xlvii1 #f4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,if what is called personification1 does not always imply a change of gender and an ascription of sex1 neither does a mere ascription of sex to what is literally of no sex1 necessarily imply a personification2 for there may be sex without personality1 as we see in brute animals4 ,hence the gender of a brute animal personified in a fable1 may be taken literally as before2 and the gender which is figuratively ascribed to the sun1 the moon1 or a ship1 is merely metaphorical4 ,in the following sentence1 nature is animated and made feminine by a metaphor1 while a lifeless object bearing the name of ,venus1 is spoken of as neuter3 ,like that conceit of old1 which declared that the ,venus of ,gnidos was not the work of ,praxiteles1 since nature herself had concreted the boundary surface of its beauty4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 xxv4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,in personifications regard must be had to propriety in determining the gender4 ,of most of the passions and moral qualities of man the ancients formed deities1 as they did of various other things3 and1 when these are personified1 they are usually made male or female1 according as they were gods or goddesses in the pagan mythology4 ,the same rule applies in other cases3 and thus the planet ,jupiter will be masculine2 ,venus1 feminine3 the ocean1 ,oceanus1 masculine3 rivers1 months1 and winds1 the same3 the names of places1 countries1 and islands1 feminine4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,these suggestions are worthy of consideration1 but1 for the gender which ought to be adopted in personifications1 there seems to be no absolute general rule1 or none which ,english writers have observed with much uniformity4 ,it is well1 however1 to consider what is most common in each particular case1 and abide by it4 ,in the following examples1 the sex ascribed is not that under which these several objects are commonly figured2 for which reason1 the sentences are perhaps erroneous3-- ,knowledge is proud that he has learn'd so much2 ,wisdom is humble that he knows no more4--,cowper4 ,but hoary ,winter1 unadorned and bare1 ,dwells in the dire retreat1 and freezes there2 ,there she assembles all her blackest storms1 ,and the rude hail in rattling tempests forms4--,addison4 ,her pow'r extends o'er all things that have breath1 ,a cruel tyrant1 and her name is ,death4--,sheffield4 ,,cases4 ,cases1 in grammar1 are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns or pronouns to other words4 ,there are three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb3 as1 ,the boy runs2 ,i run4 ,the subject of a finite verb is that which answers to who or what before it2 as1 ,the boy runs4--,who runs8 ,the boy4 ,boy is therefore here in the nominative case4 ,the possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the relation of property3 as1 ,the boy's hat2 my hat4 ,the possessive case of nouns is formed1 in the singular number1 by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe2 and1 in the plural1 when the nominative ends in s1 by adding an apostrophe only3 as1 singular1 boy's2 plural1 boys'2--sounded alike1 but written differently4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition3 as1 ,i know the boy1 having seen him at school2 and he knows me4 ,the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition1 is that which answers to whom or what after it2 as1 ,i know the boy4--,i know whom8 ,the boy4 ,boy is therefore here in the objective case4 ,the nominative and the objective of nouns1 are always alike in form1 being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sentence1 or by their simple dependence according to the sense4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the cases1 in grammar1 are founded on the different relations under which things are represented in discourse2 and from which the words acquire correspondent relations2 or connexions and dependences according to the sense4 ,in ,latin1 there are six cases2 and in ,greek1 five4 ,consequently1 the nouns and pronouns of those languages1 and also their adjectives and participles1 7which last are still farther inflected by the three genders17 are varied by many different terminations unknown to our tongue4 ,in ,english1 those modifications or relations which we call cases1 belong only to nouns and pronouns2 nor are there ever more than three4 ,pronouns are not necessarily like their antecedents in case4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,because the infinitive mood1 a phrase1 or a sentence1 may in some instances be made the subject of a verb1 so as to stand in that relation in which the nominative case is most commonly found2 very many of our grammarians have deliberately represented all terms used in this manner1 as being in the nominative case3 as if1 to sustain any one of the relations which are usually distinguished by a particular case1 must necessarily constitute that modification itself4 ,many also will have participles1 infinitives1 phrases1 and sentences1 to be occasionally in the objective case3 whereas it must be plain to every reader1 that they are1 all of them1 indeclinable terms2 and that1 if used in any relation common to nouns or pronouns1 they assume that office1 as participles1 as infinitives1 as phrases1 or as sentences1 and not as cases4 ,they no more take the nature of cases1 than they become nouns or pronouns4 ,yet ,nixon1 by assuming that of1 with the word governed by it1 constitutes a possessive case1 contrives to give to participles1 and even to the infinitive mood1 all three of the cases4 ,of the infinitive1 he says1 ,an examination of the first and second methods of parsing this mood1 must naturally lead to the inference that it is a substantive2 and that1 if it has the nominative case1 it must also have the possessive and objective cases of a substantive4 ,the fourth method proves its capacity of being in the possessive case3 thus1 ',a desire to learn2' that is1 'of learning4' ,when it follows a participle1 or a verb1 as by the fifth or the seventh method1 it is in the objective case4 ,method sixth is analogous to the ,case ,absolute of a substantive4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #hc4 ,if the infinitive mood is really a declinable substantive1 none of our grammarians have placed it in the right chapter2 except that bold contemner of all grammatical and literary authority1 ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce4 ,when will the cause of learning cease to have assailants and underminers among those who profess to serve it8 ,thus every new grammatist1 has some grand absurdity or other1 peculiar to himself2 and what can be more gross1 than to talk of ,english infinitives and participles as being in the possessive case8 ,,obs4 #c4--;,it was long a subject of dispute among the grammarians1 what number of cases an ,english noun should be supposed to have4 ,some1 taking the ,latin language for their model1 and turning certain phrases into cases to fill up the deficits1 were for having six in each number2 namely1 the nominative1 the genitive1 the dative1 the accusative1 the vocative1 and the ablative4 ,others1 contending that a case in grammar could be nothing else than a terminational inflection1 and observing that ,english nouns have but one case that differs from the nominative in form1 denied that there were more than two1 the nominative and the possessive4 ,this was certainly an important question1 touching a fundamental principle of our grammar2 and any erroneous opinion concerning it1 might well go far to condemn the book that avouched it4 ,every intelligent teacher must see this4 ,for what sense could be made of parsing1 without supposing an objective case to nouns8 or what propriety could there be in making the words1 of1 and to1 and from1 govern or compose three different cases8 ,again1 with what truth can it be said1 that nouns have no cases in ,english8 or what reason can be assigned for making more than three8 ,,obs4 #d4--,public opinion is now clear in the decision1 that it is expedient to assign to ,english nouns three cases1 and no more2 and1 in a matter of this kind1 what is expedient for the purpose of instruction1 is right4 ,yet1 from the works of our grammarians1 may be quoted every conceivable notion1 right or wrong1 upon this point4 ,cardell1 with ,tooke and ,gilchrist on his side1 contends that ,english nouns have no cases4 ,brightland averred that they have neither cases nor genders4#afb ,buchanan1 and the author of the old ,british ,grammar1 assigned to them one case only1 the possessive1 or genitive4 ,dr4 ,adam also says1 ,in ,english1 nouns have only one case1 namely1 the genitive1 or possessive case4--,latin and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,w4 ,b4 ,fowle has two cases1 but rejects the word case3 ,we use the simple term agent for a noun that acts1 and object for the object of an action4--,fowle's ,true ,eng4 ,gram41 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #fh4 ,spencer too discards the word case1 preferring form1 that he may merge in one the nominative and the objective1 giving to nouns two cases1 but neither of these4 ,nouns have two ,forms1 called the ,simple and the ,possessive4--,spencer's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,webber's ,grammar1 published at ,cambridge in #ahcb1 recognizes but two cases of nouns1 declaring the objective to be altogether superfluous4--,p4 #bb4 ,our substantives have no more cases than two4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ad4 ,a ,substantive doth not properly admit of more than two cases3 the ,nominative1 and the ,genitive4--,ellen ,devis's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,dr4 ,webster1 in his ,philosophical ,grammar1 of #ahjg1 and in his ,improved ,grammar1 of #ahca1 teaches the same doctrine1 but less positively4 ,this assumption has also had the support of ,lowth1 ,johnson1 ,priestley1 ,ash1 ,bicknell1 ,fisher1 ,dalton1 and our celebrated ,lindley ,murray4#afc ,in ,child's or ,latham's ,english ,grammar1 #aheb1 it is said1 ,the cases in the present ,english are three3--#a4 ,nominative2 #b4 ,objective2 #c4 ,possessive4 ,but this seems to be meant of pronouns only2 for the next section affirms1 ,the substantives in ,english have only two out of the three cases4--,see pp4 #gi and #hj4 ,reckless of the current usage of grammarians1 and even of self-consistency1 both author and reviser will have no objective case of nouns1 because this is like the nominative2 yet1 finding an objective set after the adjective like1 they will recognize it as a dative still existing in ,english6--,see p4 #aef4 ,thus do they forsake their own enumeration of cases1 as they had before1 in all their declensions1 forsaken the new order in which they had at first so carefully set them6 ,,obs4 #e4--;,for the true doctrine of three cases1 we have the authority of ,murray1 in his later editions2 of ,webster1 in his ,plain and ,comp4 ,grammar1 grounded on ,true ,principles1 #agij2 also in his ,rudiments of ,english ,grammar1 #ahaa2 together with the united authority of ,adams1 ,ainsworth1 ,alden1 ,alger1 ,bacon1 ,barnard1 ,bingham1 ,burr1 ,bullions1 ,butler1 ,churchill1 ,chandler1 ,cobbett1 ,cobbin1 ,comly1 ,cooper1 ,crombie1 ,davenport1 ,davis1 ,fisk1 ,a4 ,flint1 ,frost1 ,guy1 ,hart1 ,hiley1 ,hull1 ,ingersoll1 ,jaudon1 ,kirkham1 ,lennie1 ,mack1 ,m',culloch1 ,maunder1 ,merchant1 ,nixon1 ,nutting1 ,john ,peirce1 ,perley1 ,picket1 ,russell1 ,smart1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith1 ,wilcox1 and ,i know not how many others4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,dearborn1 in #agie1 recognized four cases3 the nominative1 the possessive1 the objective1 and the absolute4--,columbian ,gram41 pp4 #af and #bj4 ,charles ,bucke1 in his work misnamed ,a ,classical ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 published in ,london in #ahbi1 asserts1 that1 ,substantives in ,english do not vary their terminations2 yet he gives them four cases2 the nominative1 the genitive1 the accusative1 and the vocative4 ,so did ,allen1 in a grammar much more classical1 dated1 ,london1 #ahac4 ,hazen1 in #ahdb1 adopted four cases2 namely1 the nominative1 the possessive1 the objective1 and the independent4--,hazen's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ce4 ,mulligan1 since1 has chosen these four3 ,nominative1 ,genitive1 ,dative1 ,accusative4--,structure of ,e4 ,lang41 p4 #ahe4 ,and yet his case after to or for is not dative1 but accusative6-- ,ib41 p4 #bci4 ,so too1 ,goodenow1 of ,maine1 makes the cases four3 the subjective1#afd the possessive1 the objective1 and the absolute4--,text-,book1 p4 #ca4 ,goldsbury1 of ,cambridge1 has also four3 the ,nominative1 the ,possessive1 the ,objective1 and the ,vocative4--,com4 ,s4 ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,three other recent grammarians1--,wells1 of ,andover1-- ,weld1 of ,portland1--and ,clark1 of ,bloomfield1 ,n4 ,y41--also adopt four cases2--the nominative1 the possessive1 the objective1 and the independent4--,wells's ,gram41 p4 #eg2 ,weld's1 #fj2 ,clark's1 #di4 ,the first of these gentlemen argues1 that1 ,since a noun or pronoun1 used independently1 cannot at the same time be employed as 'the subject of a verb1' there is a manifest impropriety in regarding it as a nominative4 ,it might as well be urged1 that a nominative after a verb1 or in apposition with an other1 is1 for this reason1 not a nominative4 ,he also cites this argument3 ',is there not as much difference between the nominative and the independent case1 as there is between the nominative and the objective8 ,if so1 why class them together as one case8'--,s4 ,r4 ,hall4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,to this ,i answer1 ,no4 ,the nominative is that case which primely denotes the name of any person or thing2 7,burn's ,gram41 p4 #cf27 and this only it is1 that can be absolute1 or independent1 in ,english4 ,this scheme of four cases is1 in fact1 a grave innovation4 ,as authority for it1 ,wells cites ,felton2 and bids his readers1 ,see also ,kennion1 ,parkhurst1 ,fowle1 ,flint1 ,goodenow1 ,buck1 ,hazen1 ,goldsbury1 ,chapin1 ,s4 ,alexander1 and ,p4 ,smith4--,page #eg4 ,but is the fourth case of these authors the same as his8 ,is it a case which has usually the nominative form1 but admits occasionally of me and him1 and embraces objective nouns of time1 measure1 distance1 direction1 or place8 ,no4 ,certainly one half of them1 and probably more1 give little or no countenance to such an independent case as he has adopted4 ,parkhurst admitted but three cases2 though he thought two others might be an improvement4 ,what ,fowle has said in support of ,wells's four cases1 ,i have sought with diligence1 and not found4 ,felton's independent case is only what he absurdly calls1 ,the noun or pronoun addressed4-- ,page #ia4 ,bucke and ,goldsbury acknowledge the nominative case absolute2 and none of the twelve1 so far as ,i know1 admit any objective word1 or what others call objective1 to be independent or absolute1 except perhaps ,goldsbury4 ,,obs4 #g4--,s4 ,r4 ,hall1 formerly principal of the ,seminary for ,teachers at ,andover1 7but no great grammarian17 in #ahcb1 published a manual1 called ,the ,grammatical ,assistant2 in which he says1 ,there are at least five cases1 belonging to ,english nouns1 differing as much from each other1 as the cases of ,latin and ,greek nouns4 ,they may be called ,nominative1 ,possessive1 ,objective1 ,independent and ,absolute4--,p4 #g4 ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce will have both nouns and pronouns to be used in five cases1 which he thus enumerates3 ,four simple cases2 the ,subjective1 ,possessive1 ,objective1 and the ,independent2 and the ,twofold case4--,gram41 p4 #db4 ,but1 on page #efth1 he speaks of a twofold subjective case1 the twofold objective case1 and shows how the possessive may be twofold also2 so that1 without taking any of the ,latin cases1 or even all of ,hall's1 he really recognizes as many as seven1 if not eight4 ,among the ,english grammars which assume all the six cases of the ,latin ,language1 are ,burn's1 ,coar's1 ,dilworth's1 ,mackintosh's1 ,mennye's1 ,wm4 ,ward's1 and the ,comprehensive ,grammar1 a respectable little book1 published by ,dobson of ,philadelphia1 in #aghi1 but written by somebody in ,england4 ,,obs4 #h4--,of the ,english grammars which can properly be said to be now in use1 a very great majority agree in ascribing to nouns three cases1 and three only4 ,this1 ,i am persuaded1 is the best number1 and susceptible of the best defence1 whether we appeal to authority1 or to other argument4 ,the disputes of grammarians make no small part of the history of grammar2 and in submitting to be guided by their decisions1 it is proper for us to consider what degree of certainty there is in the rule1 and what difference or concurrence there is among them3 for1 the teaching of any other than the best opinions1 is not the teaching of science1 come from what quarter it may4 ,on the question respecting the objective case of nouns1 ,murray and ,webster changed sides with each other2 and that1 long after they first appeared as grammarians4 ,nor was this the only1 or the most important instance1 in which the different editions of the works of these two gentlemen1 present them in opposition1 both to themselves and to each other4 ,what cases are there in ,english8 ,the nominative1 which usually stands before a verb2 as1 the boy writes3 ,the possessive1 which takes an s with a comma1 and denotes property2 as1 ,john's hat3 ,the objective1 which follows a verb or preposition2 as1 he honors virtue1 or it is an honor to him4--,webster's ,plain and ,comp4 ,gram41 ,sixth ,edition1 #ahjj1 p4 #i4 ,but for convenience1 the two positions of nouns1 one before1 the other after the verb1 are called cases4 ,there are then three cases1 the nominative1 possessive1 and objective4--,webster's ,rudiments of ,gram41 #ahaa1 p4 #ab4 ,in ,english therefore names have two cases only1 the nominative or simple name1 and the possessive4-- ,webster's ,philosoph4 ,gram41 #ahjg1 p4 #cb3 also his ,improved ,gram41 #ahca1 p4 #bd4 ,,obs4 #i4--,murray altered his opinion after the tenth or eleventh edition of his duodecimo ,grammar4 ,his instructions stand thus3 ,in ,english1 substantives have but two cases1 the nominative1 and the possessive or genitive4--,murray's ,gram4 #abmo1 ,second ,edition1 #agif1 p4 #ce4 ,for the assertion1 that there are in ,english but two cases of nouns1 and three of pronouns1 we have the authority of ,lowth1 ,johnson1 ,priestley1 c4 names which are sufficient to decide this point4--,ib41 p4 #cf4 ,in ,english1 substantives have three cases1 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,murray's ,gram41 #abmo1 ,twenty-third ,edition1 #ahaf1 p4 #dd4 ,the author of this work long doubted the propriety of assigning to ,english substantives an objective case3 but a renewed critical examination of the subject2 an examination to which he was prompted by the extensive and increasing demand for the grammar1 has produced in his mind a full persuasion1 that the nouns of our language are entitled to this comprehensive objective case4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,if there is any credit in changing one's opinions1 it is1 doubtless1 in changing them for the better2 but1 of all authors1 a grammarian has the most need critically to examine his subject before he goes to the printer4 ,this case was adopted in the twelfth edition of the ,grammar4--,murray's ,exercises1 #abmo1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahah1 p4 viii4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the possessive case has occasioned no less dispute than the objective4 ,on this vexed article of our grammar1 custom has now become much more uniform than it was a century ago2 and public opinion may be said to have settled most of the questions which have been agitated about it4 ,some individuals1 however1 are still dissatisfied4 ,in the first place1 against those who have thought otherwise1 it is determined1 by infinite odds of authority1 that there is such a case1 both of nouns and of pronouns4 ,many a common reader will wonder1 who can have been ignorant enough to deny it4 ,the learned and sagacious ,wallis1 to whom every ,english grammarian owes a tribute of reverence1 calls this modification of the noun an adjective possessive2 ,i think1 with no more propriety than he might have applied the same to the ,latin genitive4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,brightland also1 who gave to adjectives the name of qualities1 included all possessives among them1 calling them ,possessive ,qualities1 or ,qualities of ,possession4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ij4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,this exploded error1 ,william ,s4 ,cardell1 a few years ago1 republished as a novelty2 for which1 among other pretended improvements of a like sort1 he received the ephemeral praise of some of our modern literati4 ,william ,b4 ,fowle also teaches the same thing4 ,see his ,common ,school ,gram41 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #ajd4 ,in ,felch's ,grammar1 too1 published in ,boston in #ahcg1 an attempt is made1 to revive this old doctrine2 but the author takes no notice of any of the above-named authorities1 being probably ignorant of them all4 ,his reasoning upon the point1 does not appear to me to be worthy of a detailed answer4#afe ,that the possessive case of nouns is not an adjective1 is demonstrable2 because it may have adjectives of various kinds1 relating to it3 as1 ,this old man's daughter4--,shak4 ,it may also govern an other possessive2 as1 ,peter's wife's mother4--,bible4 ,here the former possessive is governed by the latter2 but1 if both were adjectives1 they would both relate to the noun mother1 and so produce a confusion of ideas4 ,again1 nouns of the possessive case have a distinction of number1 which adjectives have not4 ,in gender also1 there lies a difference4 ,adjectives1 whenever they are varied by gender or number1 agree with their nouns in these respects4 ,not so with possessives2 as1 ,in the ,jews' religion4--,gal41 i4 #ac4 ,the children's bread4--,mark1 vii1 #bg4 ,some men's sins4--#a ,tim41 v1 #bd4 ,other men's sins4--,ib41 ver4 #bb4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,secondly1 general custom has clearly determined that the possessive case of nouns is always to be written with an apostrophe3 except in those few instances in which it is not governed singly by the noun following1 but so connected with an other that both are governed jointly2 as1 ,cato the ,censor's doctrine1--,sir ,walter ,scott's ,works1--,beaumont and ,fletcher's ,plays4 ,this custom of using the apostrophe1 however1 has been opposed by many4 ,brightland1 and ,buchanan1 and the author of the ,british ,grammar1 and some late writers in the ,philological ,museum1 are among those who have successively taught1 that the possessive case should be formed like the nominative plural1 by adding s when the pronunciation admits the sound1 and es when the word acquires an additional syllable4 ,some of these approve of the apostrophe1 and others do not4 ,thus ,brightland gives some examples1 which are contrary to his rule1 adopting that strange custom of putting the s in ,roman1 and the name in ,italic2 as1 ,king ,charles's ,court1 and ,st4 ,james's ,park4--,gram4 of the ,english ,tongue1 p4 #ia4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,the genitive case1 in my opinion1 says ,dr4 ,ash1 might be much more properly formed by adding s1 or when the pronunciation requires it1 es1 without an ,apostrophe3 as1 men1 mens2 ,ox1 ,oxes2 ,horse1 ,horses2 ,ass1 ,asses4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,to write ,ox's1 ,ass's1 ,fox's1 and at the same time pronounce it ,oxes1 ,asses1 ,foxes1 is such a departure from the original formation1 at least in writing1 and such an inconsistent use of the ,apostrophe1 as cannot be equalled perhaps in any other language4--,ib4 ,lowth1 too1 gives some countenance to this objection3 ,it i4e41 ',god's grace' was formerly written ',godis grace2' we now always shorten it with an apostrophe2 often very improperly1 when we are obliged to pronounce it fully2 as1 ',thomas's book1' that is1 ',thomasis book1' not ',thomas his book1' as it is commonly supposed4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,whatever weight there may be in this argument1 the objection has been overruled by general custom4 ,the convenience of distinguishing1 even to the eye alone1 the numbers and cases of the noun1 is found too great to be relinquished4 ,if the declension of ,english nouns is ever to be amended1 it cannot be done in this way4 ,it is understood by every reader1 that the apostrophic s adds a syllable to the noun1 whenever it will not unite with the sound in which the nominative ends2 as1 torch's1 pronounced torchiz4 ,yet time ennobles or degrades each line2 ,it brightened ,craggs's1 and may darken thine4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,the ,english possessive case unquestionably originated in that form of the ,saxon genitive which terminates in es1 examples of which may be found in almost any specimen of the ,saxon tongue3 as1 ,on ,herodes dagum1--,in ,herod's days2--,of ,aarones dohtrum1--,of ,aaron's daughters4--,luke1 i1 #e4 ,this ending was sometimes the same as that of the plural2 and both were changed to is or ys1 before they became what we now find them4 ,this termination added a syllable to the word2 and ,lowth suggests1 in the quotation above1 that the apostrophe was introduced to shorten it4 ,but some contend1 that the use of this mark originated in a mistake4 ,it appears from the testimony of ,brightland1 ,johnson1 ,lowth1 ,priestley1 and others1 who have noticed the error in order to correct it1 that an opinion was long entertained1 that the termination 's was a contraction of the word his4 ,it is certain that ,addison thought so2 for he expressly says it1 in the #aceth number of the ,spectator4 ,accordingly he wrote1 in lieu of the regular possessive1 ,my paper is ,ulysses his bow4--,guardian1 ,no4 #ih4 ,of ,socrates his rules of prayer4--,spect41 ,no4 #bjg4 ,so ,lowth quotes ,pope3 ,by young ,telemachus his blooming years4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ag4aff ,there is also one late author who says1 ,the 's is a contraction of his1 and was formerly written in full2 as1 ,william ,russell his book4--,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,this is undoubtedly bad ,english2 and always was so1 however common may have been the erroneous notion which gave rise to it4 ,but the apostrophe1 whatever may have been its origin1 is now the acknowledged distinctive mark of the possessive case of ,english nouns4 ,the application of the 's1 frequently to feminines1 and sometimes to plurals1 is proof positive that it is not a contraction of the pronoun his2 as1 ,now ,jove suspends his golden scales in air1 ,weighs the men's wits against the ,lady's hair4 --,pope1 ,r4 of ,l41 ,c4 v1 l4 #gb4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,many of the old grammarians1 and ,guy1 ,pinneo1 and ,spencer1 among the moderns1 represent the regular formation of the possessive case as being the same in both numbers1 supposing generally in the plural an abbreviation of the word by the omission of the second or syllabic s4 ,that is1 they suppose that such terms as eagles' wings1 angels' visits1 were written for eagles's wings1 angels's visits1 c4 ,this odd view of the matter accounts well enough for the fashion of such plurals as men's1 women's1 children's1 and makes them regular4 ,but ,i find no evidence at all of the fact on which these authors presume2 nor do ,i believe that the regular possessive plural was ever1 in general1 a syllable longer than the nominative4 ,if it ever had been so1 it would still be easy to prove the point1 by citations from ancient books4 ,the general principle then is1 that the apostrophe forms the possessive case1 with an s in the singular1 and without it in the plural2 but there are some exceptions to this rule1 on either hand2 and these must be duly noticed4 ,,obs4 #af4--,the chief exceptions1 or irregularities1 in the formation of the possessive singular1 are1 ,i think1 to be accounted mere poetic licenses2 and seldom1 if ever1 to be allowed in prose4 ,churchill1 7closely copying ,lowth17 speaks of them thus3 ,in poetry the s is frequently omitted after proper names ending in s or x as1 ',the wrath of ,peleus' son4' ,pope4 ,this is scarcely allowable in prose1 though instances of it occur3 as1 ',moses' minister4' ,josh41 i1 #a4 ',phinehas' wife4' #a ,sam41 iv1 #ai4 ',festus came into ,felix' room4' ,acts1 xxiv1 #bg4 ,it was done in prose evidently to avoid the recurrence of a sibilant sound at the end of two following syllables2 but this may as readily be obviated by using the preposition of1 which is now commonly substituted for the possessive case in most instances4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #bae4 ,in ,scott's ,bible1 ,philadelphia1 #ahad1 the texts here quoted are all of them corrected1 thus3 ,moses's minister1--,phinehas's wife1--,felix's room4 ,but the phrase1 for conscience sake1 7,rom41 xiii1 #e17 is there given without the apostrophe4 ,alger prints it1 for conscience' sake1 which is better2 and though not regular1 it is a common form for this particular expression4 ,our common ,bibles have this text3 ,and the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den4--,isaiah1 xi1 #h4 ,alger1 seeing this to be wrong1 wrote it1 on the cockatrice-den4--,pronouncing ,bible4 ,dr4 ,scott1 in his ,reference ,bible1 makes this possessive regular1 on the cockatrice's den4 ,this is right4 ,the ,vulgate has it1 in caverna reguli2 which1 however1 is not classic ,latin4 ,after z also1 the poets sometimes drop the s3 as1 ,sad was the hour1 and luckless was the day1 ,when first from ,shiraz' walls ,i bent my way4--,collins4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,a recent critic1 who1 ,i think1 has not yet learned to speak or write the possessive case of his own name properly1 assumes that the foregoing occasional or poetical forms are the only true ones for the possessive singular of such words4 ,he says1 ,when the name does end with the sound of s or z1 7no matter what letter represents the sound17 the possessive form is made by annexing only an apostrophe4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,agreeably to this rule1 he letters his work1 ,peirce' ,grammar1 and condemns1 as bad ,english1 the following examples and all others like them3 ,james ,otis's letters1 ,general ,gates's command1 ,general ,knox's appointment1 ,gov4 ,meigs's promptness1 ,mr4 ,williams's oration1 ,the witness's deposition4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,it is obvious that this gentleman's doctrine and criticism are as contrary to the common practice of all good authors1 as they are to the common grammars1 which he ridicules4 ,surely1 such expressions as1 ,harris's ,hermes1 ,philips's ,poems1 ,prince's ,bay1 ,prince's ,island1 ,fox's ,journal1 ,king ,james's edict1 a justice's warrant1 ,sphinx's riddle1 the lynx's beam1 the lass's beauty1 have authority enough to refute the cavil of this writer2 who1 being himself wrong1 falsely charges the older grammarians1 that1 their theories vary from the principles of the language correctly spoken or written4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,a much more judicious author treats this point of grammar as follows3 ,when the possessive noun is singular1 and terminates with an s1 another s is requisite after it1 and the apostrophe must be placed between the two2 as1 ',dickens's works1'--',harris's wit4'--,day's ,punctuation1 ,third ,london ,edition1 p4 #acf4 ,the following example1 too1 is right3 ,i would not yield to be your house's guest4--,shakespeare4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,all plural nouns that differ from the singular without ending in s1 form the possessive case in the same manner as the singular3 as1 man's1 men's2 woman's1 women's j child's1 children's2 brother's1 brothers' or brethren's2 ox's1 oxen's2 goose1 geese's4 ,in two or three words which are otherwise alike in both numbers1 the apostrophe ought to follow the s in the plural1 to distinguish it from the singular3 as1 the sheep's fleece1 the sheeps' fleeces2 a neat's tongue1 neats' tongues2 a deer's horns1 a load of deers' horns4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,dr4 ,ash says1 ,nouns of the plural number that end in s1 will not very properly admit of the genitive case4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,and ,dr4 ,priestley appears to have been of the same opinion4 ,see his ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,lowth too avers1 that the sign of the possessive case is never added to the plural number ending in s4--,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,perhaps he thought the plural sign must involve an other s1 like the singular4 ,this however is not true1 neither is ,dr4 ,ash's assertion true2 for the ,new ,testament speaks as properly of the soldiers' counsel1 as of the centurion's servant2 of the scribes that were of the ,pharisees' part1 as of ,paul's sister's son4 ,it would appear1 however1 that the possessive plural is less frequently used than the possessive singular2 its place being much oftener supplied by the preposition of and the objective4 ,we cannot say that either of them is absolutely necessary to the language2 but they are both worthy to be commended1 as furnishing an agreeable variety of expression4 ,then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend ,his actions'1 passions'1 being's use and end4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,the apostrophe was introduced into the possessive case1 at least for the singular number1 in some part of the seventeenth century4 ,its adoption for the plural1 appears to have been later3 it is not much used in books a hundred years old4 ,in ,buchanan's ,regular ,english ,syntax1 which was written1 ,i know not exactly when1 but near the middle of the eighteenth century1 ,i find the following paragraph3 ,we have certainly a ,genitive ,plural1 though there has been no ,mark to distinguish it4 ,the ,warriors ,arms1 i4 e4 the ,arms of the ,warriors1 is as much a ,genitive ,plural1 as the ,warrior's ,arms1 for the ,arms of the ,warrior is a ,genitive ,singular4 ,to distinguish this ,genitive ,plural1 especially to ,foreigners1 we might use the ,apostrophe reversed1 thus1 the ,warriors ,arms1 the ,stones ,end1 for the ,end of the ,stones1 the ,grocers1 ,taylors1 ,haberdashers1 c4 ,company2 for the ,company of ,grocers1 ,taylors1 c4 ,the ,surgeons ,hall1 for the ,hall of the ,surgeons2 the ,riders ,names1 for the ,names of the ,riders2 and so of all ,plural ,possessives4--,see ,buchan4 ,synt41 p4 #aaa4 ,our present form of the possessive plural1 being unknown to this grammarian1 must have had a later origin2 nor can it have been1 as some imagine it was1 an abbreviation of a longer and more ancient form4 ,,obs4 #ba4--,the apostrophic s has often been added to nouns improperly2 the words formed by it not being intended for the possessive singular1 but for the nominative or objective plural4 ,thus we find such authors as ,addison and ,swift1 writing ,jacobus's and genius's1 for ,jacobuses and geniuses2 idea's1 toga's1 and tunica's1 for ideas1 togas1 and tunicas2 enamorato's and virtuoso's1 for enamoratoes and virtuosoes4 ,errors of this kind1 should be carefully avoided4 ,,obs4 #bb4--,the apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere characters1 to denote plurality1 and not the possessive case2 as1 two a's1 three b's1 four #i's4 ,these we cannot avoid1 except by using the names of the things3 as1 two ,aes1 three ,bees1 four ,nines4 ,laced down the sides with little c's4--,steele4 ,whenever two gg's come together1 they are both hard4--,buchanan4 ,the names of c and g1 plural1 are ,cees and ,gees4 ,did these authors know the words1 or did they not8 ,to have learned the names of the letters1 will be found on many occasions a great convenience1 especially to critics4 ,for example3 ,the pronunciation of these two consecutive s's is hard4--,webber's ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,better3 ,esses4 ,s and x1 however1 are exceptions4 ,they are pluralyzed by adding es preceded by a hyphen -1 as the s-es2 the x-es4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,better1 use the names1 ,ess and ,ex1 and pluralize thus3 the ,esses2 the ,exes4 ,make ,q's of answers1 to waylay ,what th' other party's like to say4 --,hudibras1 ,p4 ,,iii1 ,c4 ii1 l4 #iea4 ,here the cipher is to be read ,kues1 but it has not the meaning of this name merely4 ,it is put either for the plural of ,q41 a ,question1 like ,d4 ,d4's1 7read ,dee-,dees17 for ,doctors of ,divinity2 or else1 more erroneously1 for cues1 the plural of cue1 a turn which the next speaker catches4 ,,obs4 #bc4--;,in the following example1 the apostrophe and s are used to give the sound of a verb's termination1 to words which the writer supposed were not properly verbs3 ,when a man in a soliloquy reasons with himself1 and pro's and con's1 and weighs all his designs4--,congreve4 ,but here1 proes and cons1 would have been more accurate4 ,we put the ordered number of m's into our composing-stick4--,printer's ,gram4 ,here ,ems would have done as well4 ,all measures for folio's and quarto's1 should be made to m's of the ,english body2 all measures for octavo's1 to ,pica m's4--,ibid4 ,here regularity requires1 folios1 quartoes1 octavoes1 and pica ,ems4 ,the verb is1 when contracted1 sometimes gives to its nominative the same form as that of the possessive case1 it not being always spaced off for distinction1 as it may be2 as1 ,a wit's a feather1 and a chief a rod2 ,an honest man's the noblest work of ,god4 --,pope1 on ,man1 ,ep4 iv1 l4 #bdg4 ,,obs4 #bd4--;,as the objective case of nouns is to be distinguished from the nominative1 only by the sense1 relation1 and position1 of words in a sentence1 the learner must acquire a habit of attending to these several things4 ,nor ought it to be a hardship to any reader to understand that which he thinks worth reading4 ,it is seldom possible to mistake one of these cases for the other1 without a total misconception of the author's meaning4 ,the nominative denotes the agent1 actor1 or doer2 the person or thing that is made the subject of an affirmation1 negation1 question1 or supposition3 its place1 except in a question1 is commonly before the verb4 ,the objective1 when governed by a verb or a participle1 denotes the person on whom1 or the thing on which1 the action falls and terminates3 it is commonly placed after the verb1 participle1 or preposition1 which governs it4 ,nouns1 then1 by changing places1 may change cases3 as1 ,jonathan loved ,david2 ,david loved ,jonathan4 ,yet the case depends not entirely upon position2 for any order in which the words cannot be misunderstood1 is allowable3 as1 ,such tricks hath strong imagination4--,shak4 ,here the cases are known1 because the meaning is plainly this3 ,strong imagination hath such tricks4 ,to him give all the prophets witness4--,acts1 x1 #dc4 ,this is intelligible enough1 and more forcible than the same meaning expressed thus3 ,all the prophets give witness to him4 ,the order of the words never can affect the explanation to be given of them in parsing1 unless it change the sense1 and form them into a different sentence4 ,,the ,,declension ,,of ,,nouns4 ,the declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,i4--,,friend4 ,sing4 ,nom4 friend1 ,plur4 ,nom4 friends1 ,poss4 friend's1 ,poss4 friends'1 ,obj4 friend2 ,obj4 friends4 ,,example ,,ii4--,,man4 ,sing4 ,nom4 man1 ,plur4 ,nom4 men1 ,poss4 man's1 ,poss4 men's1 ,obj4 man2 ,obj4 men4 ,,example ,,iii4--,,fox4 ,sing4 ,nom4 fox1 ,plur4 ,nom4 foxes1 ,poss4 fox's1 ,poss4 foxes'1 ,obj4 fox2 ,obj4 foxes4 ,,example ,,iv4--,,fly4 ,sing4 ,nom4 fly1 ,plur4 ,nom4 flies1 ,poss4 fly's1 ,poss4 flies'1 ,obj4 fly2 ,obj4 flies4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,iii4--,,etymological4 ,in the ,third ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and the classes and modifications of the ,,articles and ,,nouns4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,third ,praxis1 are two for an article1 six for a noun1 and one for an adjective1 a pronoun1 a verb1 a participle1 an adverb1 a conjunction1 a preposition1 or an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,the writings of ,hannah ,more appear to me more praiseworthy than ,scott's4 ,the is the definite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things4 ,writings is a common noun1 of the third person1 plural number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the plural number is that which denotes more than one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,of is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,hannah ,more is a proper noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 feminine gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a proper noun is the name of some particular individual1 or people1 or group4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,appear is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,to is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,me is a pronoun4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 ,more is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,praiseworthy is an adjective4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 ,than is a conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,scott's is a proper noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and possessive case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a proper noun is the name of some particular individual1 or people1 or group4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the relation of property4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,the virtue of ,alexander appears to me less vigorous than that of ,socrates4 ,socrates in ,alexander's place ,i can readily conceive3 ,alexander in that of ,socrates ,i cannot4 ,alexander will tell you1 he can subdue the world3 it was a greater work in ,socrates to fulfill the duties of life4 ,worth consists most1 not in great1 but in good actions4--,kames's ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #gj4 ,no one should ever rise to speak in public1 without forming to himself a just and strict idea of what suits his own age and character2 what suits the subject1 the hearers1 the place1 the occasion4--,blair's ,rhetoric1 p4 #bfj4 ,in the short space of little more than a century1 the ,greeks became such statesmen1 warriors1 orators1 historians1 physicians1 poets1 critics1 painters1 sculptors1 architects1 and1 last of all1 philosophers1 that one can hardly help considering that golden period1 as a providential event in honour of human nature1 to show to what perfection the species might ascend4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #dag4 ,is genius yours8 ,be yours a glorious end1 ,be your king's1 country's1 truth's1 religion's friend4--,young4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,he that is called in the ,lord1 being a servant1 is the ,lord's freeman3 likewise also1 he that is called1 being free1 is ,christ's servant4--#a ,cor41 vii1 #bb4 ,what will remain to the ,alexanders1 and the ,csars1 and the ,jenghizes1 and the ,louises1 and the ,charleses1 and the ,napoleons1 with whose 'glories' the idle voice of fame is filled8--,j4 ,dymond4 ,good sense1 clear ideas1 perspicuity of language1 and proper arrangement of words and thoughts1 will always command attention4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #agd4 ,a mother's tenderness and a father's care are nature's gifts for man's advantage4--,wisdom's precepts form the good man's interest and happiness4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #aid4 ,a dancing-school among the ,tuscaroras1 is not a greater absurdity than a masquerade in ,america4 ,a theatre1 under the best regulations1 is not essential to our happiness4 ,it may afford entertainment to individuals2 but it is at the expense of private taste and public morals4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #hf4 ,where dancing sunbeams on the waters played1 ,and verdant alders form'd a quivering shade4--,pope4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,i have ever thought that advice to the young1 unaccompanied by the routine of honest employments1 is like an attempt to make a shrub grow in a certain direction1 by blowing it with a bellows4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bdg4 ,the ,arabic characters for the writing of numbers1 were introduced into ,europe by ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii1 in the eleventh century4--,constable's ,miscellany4 ,emotions raised by inanimate objects1 trees1 rivers1 buildings1 pictures1 arrive at perfection almost instantaneously2 and they have a long endurance1 a second view producing nearly the same pleasure with the first4--,kames's ,elements1 i1 #ajh4 ,there is great variety in the same plant1 by the different appearances of its stem1 branches1 leaves1 blossoms1 fruit1 size1 and colour2 and yet1 when we trace that variety through different plants1 especially of the same kind1 there is discovered a surprising uniformity4--,ib41 i1 #bgc4 ,attitude1 action1 air1 pause1 start1 sigh1 groan1 ,he borrow'd1 and made use of as his own4--,churchill4 ,i dread thee1 fate1 relentless and severe1 ,with all a poet's1 husband's1 father's fear6--,burns4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,of ,,nouns4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,numbers4 ,all the ablest of the ,jewish ,rabbis acknowledge it4--,wilson's ,heb4 ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word ,rabbi is here made plural by the addition of s only4 ,but1 according to ,observation #abth on the ,numbers1 nouns in i ought rather to form the plural in ies4 ,the capital ,r1 too1 is not necessary4 ,therefore1 ,rabbis should be rabbies1 with ies and a small r4 ,who has thoroughly imbibed the system of one or other of our ,christian rabbis4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cgh4 ,the seeming singularitys of reason soon wear off4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #dg4 ,the chiefs and arikis or priests have the power of declaring a place or object taboo4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #dfj4 ,among the various tribes of this family1 are the ,pottawatomies1 the ,sacs and ,foxes1 or ,saukis and ,ottogamis4--,ib41 p4 #agh4 ,the ,shawnees1 ,kickapoos1 ,menomonies1 ,miamis and ,delawares1 are of the same region4--,ib41 p4 #agh4 ,the ,mohegans and ,abenaquis belonged also to this family4--,ib41 p4 #agh4 ,one tribe of this family1 the ,winnebagos1 formerly resided near lake ,michigan4--,ib41 p4 #agi4 ,the other tribes are the ,ioways1 the ,otoes1 the ,missouris1 the ,quapaws4--,ib41 p4 #agi4 ,the great ,mexican family comprises the ,aztecs1 ,toltecs1 and ,tarascos4--,ib41 p4 #agi4 ,the ,mulattoes are born of negro and white parents2 the ,zambos1 of ,indians and negroes4--,ib41 p4 #afe4 ,to have a place among the ,alexanders1 the ,csars1 the ,lewis'1 or the ,charles'1 the scourges and butchers of their fellow-creatures4--,burgh's ,dignity1 i1 #acb4 ,which was the notion of the ,platonic ,philosophers and ,jewish rabbii4--,ib41 p4 #bdh4 ,that they should relate to the whole body of virtuosos4--,gobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #bab4 ,what thank have ye8 for sinners also love those that love them4--,luke1 vi1 #cb4 ,there are five ranks of nobility2 dukes1 marquesses1 earls1 viscounts1 and barons4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bbh4 ,acts1 which were so well known to the two ,charles's4--,payne's ,geog41 ii1 #eaa4 ,court ,martials are held in all parts1 for the trial of the blacks4--,observer1 ,no4 #deh4 ,it becomes a common noun1 and may have a plural number2 as1 the two ,davids2 the two ,scipios1 the two ,pompies4--,staniford's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,the food of the rattlesnake is birds1 squirrels1 hare1 rats1 and reptiles4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #agg4 ,and let fowl multiply in the earth4--,genesis1 i1 #bb4 ,then we reached the hill-side where eight buffalo were grazing4--,martineau's ,amer41 i1 #bjb4 ,corset1 n4 a pair of bodice for a woman4--,worcester's ,dict41 #abmo4 ,as the be's2 the ce's1 the doubleyu's4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,simplicity is the means between ostentation and rusticity4--,pope's ,pref4 to ,homer4 ,you have disguised yourselves like tipstaves4--,gil ,blas1 i1 #aaa4 ,but who1 that hath any taste1 can endure the incessant quick returns of the also's1 and the likewise's1 and the moreover's1 and the however's1 and the notwithstanding's8--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #dci4 ,sometimes1 in mutual sly disguise1 ,let ,aye's seem ,no's1 and ,no's seem ,aye's4--,gay1 p4 #dca4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,cases4 ,for whose name sake1 ,i have been made willing4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the noun name1 which is here meant for the possessive case singular1 has not the true form of that case4 ,but1 according to a principle on page #behth1 ,the possessive case of nouns is formed1 in the singular number1 by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe2 and1 in the plural1 when the nominative ends in s1 by adding an apostrophe only4 ,therefore1 name should be name's2 thus1 ,for whose name's sake1 ,i have been made willing4 ,be governed by your conscience1 and never ask anybodies leave to be honest4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #aje4 ,to overlook nobodies merit or misbehaviour4--,ib41 p4 #i4 ,and ,hector at last fights his way to the stern of ,ajax' ship4--,coleridge's ,introd41 p4 #ia4 ,nothing is lazier1 than to keep ones eye upon words without heeding their meaning4-- ,philological ,museum1 i1 #fde4 ,sir ,william ,joneses division of the day4--,ib41 ,contents4 ,i need only refer here to ,vosses excellent account of it4--,ib41 i1 #dfe4 ,the beginning of ,stesichoruses palinode has been preserved4--,ib41 i1 #ddb4 ,though we have ,tibulluses elegies1 there is not a word in them about ,glycera4--,ib41 p4 #ddf4 ,that ,horace was at ,thaliarchuses country-house4--,ib41 i1 #dea4 ,that ,sisyphuses foot-tub should have been still in existence4--,ib41 i1 #dfh4 ,how every thing went on in ,horace's closet1 and in ,mecenases antechamber4--,ib41 i1 #deh4 ,who1 for elegant brevities sake1 put a participle for a verb4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #db4 ,the countries liberty being oppressed1 we have no more to hope4--,ib41 p4 #gc4 ,a brief but true account of this peoples' principles4--,barclay's ,pref4 ,as1 the ,churche's ,peace1 or the ,peace of the ,church2 ,virgil's ,eneid1 or the ,eneid of ,virgil--,british ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,as1 ,virgil's neid1 for the neid of ,virgil2 the ,church'es ,peace1 for the ,peace of the ,church4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #ah4 ,which1 with ,hubner's ,compend1 and ,wells' ,geographia ,classica1 will be sufficient4-- ,burgh's ,dignity1 i1 #aee4 ,witness ,homer's speaking horses1 scolding goddesses1 and ,jupiter enchanted with ,venus' girdle4--,ib41 i1 #ahd4 ,dr4 ,watts' ,logic may with success be read and commented on to them4--,ib41 p4 #aef4 ,potter's ,greek1 and ,kennet's ,roman ,antiquities1 ,strauchius' and ,helvicus' ,chronology4--,ib41 p4 #afa4 ,sing4 ,alice' friends1 ,felix' property2 ,plur4 ,the ,alices' friends1 ,the ,felixes' property4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,such as ,bacchus'es company1--at ,bacchus'es festivals4--,ainsworth's ,dict41 w4 ,thyrsus4 ,burn's inimitable ,tam o',shanter turns entirely upon such a circumstance4--,scott's ,lay1 ,notes1 p4 #bja4 ,nominative1 ,men4 ,genitive1 ,mens4 ,objective1 ,men4--,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,mens ,happiness or ,misery is most part of their own making4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #a4 ,that your ,sons ,cloths be never made strait1 especially about the ,breast4--,ib41 p4 #ae4 ,childrens ,minds are narrow and weak4--,ib41 p4 #big4 ,i would not have little ,children much tormented about ,punctilio's1 or ,niceties of ,breeding4--,ib41 p4 #ij4 ,to fill his ,head with suitable ,idea's4--,ib41 p4 #aac4 ,the ,burgusdiscius's and the ,scheiblers did not swarm in those ,days1 as they do now4--,ib41 p4 #afc4 ,to see the various ways of dressing--a calve's head6--,shenstone1 ,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #adc4 ,he puts it on1 and for decorum sake ,can wear it e'en as gracefully as she4--,cowper's ,task4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed4 ,simon the witch was of this religion too4--,bunyan's ,p4 ,p41 p4 #abc4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the feminine name witch is here applied to a man4 ,but1 according to the doctrine of genders1 on page #bedth1 ,names of males are masculine2 names of females1 feminine2 c4 ,therefore1 witch should be wizard2 thus1 ,simon the wizard1 c4 ,mammodis1 n4 ,coarse1 plain ,india muslins4--,webster's ,dict4 ,go on from single persons to families1 that of the ,pompeyes for instance4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #adb4 ,by which the ancients were not able to account for phnomenas4--,bailey's ,ovid1 p4 vi4 ,after this ,i married a wife who had lived at ,crete1 but a ,jew by birth4--,josephus's ,life1 p4 #aid4 ,the very heathen are inexcusable for not worshipping him4--,student's ,manual1 p4 #cbh4 ,such poems as ,camoen's ,lusiad1 ,voltaire's ,henriade1 c4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dbb4 ,my learned correspondent writes a word in defence of large scarves4--,,spect43 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,the forerunners of an apoplexy are dulness1 vertigos1 tremblings4--,,arbuthnot3 ib4 ,vertigo changes the o into ines1 making the plural vertigines4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,noctambulo changes the o into ones1 making the plural noctambulones4--,ib41 p4 #ei4 ,what shall we say of noctambulos8--,,arbuthnot3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,in the curious fretwork of rocks and grottos4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bbj4 ,wharf makes the plural wharves4--,smith's ,gram41 p4 #de2 ,merchant's1 #bi2 ,picket's1 #ba2 ,frost's1 #h4 ,a few cent's worth of maccaroni supplies all their wants4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bge4 ,c sounds hard1 like k1 at the end of a word or syllables4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,by which the virtuosi try ,the magnitude of every lie4--,hudibras4 ,quartos1 octavos1 shape the lessening pyre4--,pope's ,dunciad1 ,b4 i1 l4 #afb4 ,perching within square royal rooves4--,,sidney3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,similies should1 even in poetry1 be used with moderation4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aff4 ,similies should never be taken from low or mean objects4--,ib41 p4 #afg4 ,it were certainly better to say1 ',the house of lords1' than 'the ,lord's house4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #agg4 ,read your answers4 ,unit figure8 ',five4' ,ten's8 ',six4' ,hundreds8 ',seven4'--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #gi4 ,alexander conquered ,darius' army4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,three days time was requisite1 to prepare matters4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #aef4 ,so we say that ,ciceros stile and ,sallusts1 were not one1 nor ,cesars and ,livies1 nor ,homers and ,hesiodus1 nor ,herodotus and ,theucidides1 nor ,euripides and ,aristophanes1 nor ,erasmus and ,budeus stiles4--,puttenham's ,arte of ,english ,poesie1 iii1 #e4 ,lex 7i4e4 legs7 is no other than our ancestors past participle lg1 laid down4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ii1 #g4 ,achaia's sons at ,ilium slain for the ,atrid' sake4--,cowper's ,iliad4 ,the corpse#afg of half her senate manure the fields of ,thessaly4--,addison's ,cato4 ,poisoning1 without regard of fame or fear3 ,and spotted corpse are frequent on the bier4--,dryden4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,adjectives4 ,an ,adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality3 as1 ,a wise man2 a new book4 ,you two are diligent4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,adjectives have been otherwise called attributes1 attributives1 qualities1 adnouns2 but none of these names is any better than the common one4 ,some writers have classed adjectives with verbs2 because1 with a neuter verb for the copula1 they often form logical predicates3 as1 ,vices are contagious4 ,the ,latin grammarians usually class them with nouns2 consequently their nouns are divided into nouns substantive and nouns adjective4 ,with us1 substantives are nouns2 and adjectives form a part of speech by themselves4 ,this is generally acknowledged to be a much better distribution4 ,adjectives cannot with propriety be called nouns1 in any language2 because they are not the names of the qualities which they signify4 ,they must be added to nouns or pronouns in order to make sense4 ,but if1 in a just distribution of words1 the term adjective nouns is needless and improper1 the term adjective pronouns is1 certainly1 not less so3 most of the words which ,murray and others call by this name1 are not pronouns1 but adjectives4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the noun1 or substantive1 is a name1 which makes sense of itself4 ,the adjective is an adjunct to the noun or pronoun4 ,it is a word added to denote quality1 situation1 quantity1 number1 form1 tendency1 or whatever else may characterize and distinguish the thing or things spoken of4 ,adjectives1 therefore1 are distinguished from nouns by their relation to them2 a relation corresponding to that which qualities bear to things3 so that no part of speech is more easily discriminated than the adjective4 ,again3 ,english adjectives1 as such1 are all indeclinable4 ,when1 therefore1 any words usually belonging to this class1 are found to take either the plural or the possessive form1 like substantive nouns1 they are to be parsed as nouns4 ,to abbreviate expression1 we not unfrequently1 in this manner1 convert adjectives into nouns4 ,thus1 in grammar1 we often speak of nominatives1 possessives1 or objectives1 meaning nouns or pronouns of the nominative1 the possessive1 or the objective case2 of positives1 comparatives1 or superlatives1 meaning adjectives of the positive1 the comparative1 or the superlative degree2 of infinitives1 subjunctives1 or imperatives1 meaning verbs of the infinitive1 the subjunctive1 or the imperative mood2 and of singulars1 plurals1 and many other such things1 in the same way4 ,so a man's superiors or inferiors are persons superior or inferior to himself4 ,his betters are persons better than he4 ,others are any persons or things distinguished from some that are named or referred to2 as1 ,if you want enemies1 excel others2 if you want friends1 let others excel you4--,lacon4 ,all adjectives thus taken substantively1 become nouns1 and ought to be parsed as such1 unless this word others is to be made an exception1 and called a pronoun4 ,th' event is fear'd2 should we again provoke ,our stronger1 some worse way his wrath may find4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #hb4 ,,obs4 #c4--,murray says1 ,perhaps the words former and latter may be properly ranked amongst the demonstrative pronouns1 especially in many of their applications4 ,the following sentence may serve as an example3 ',it was happy for the state1 that ,fabius continued in the command with ,minutius3 the former's phlegm was a check upon the latter's vivacity4'--,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #eg4 ,this ,i take to be bad ,english4 ,former and latter ought to be adjectives only2 except when former means maker4 ,and1 if not so1 it is too easy a way of multiplying pronouns1 to manufacture two out of one single anonymous sentence4 ,if it were said1 ,the deliberation of the former was a seasonable chock upon the fiery temper of the latter the words former and latter would seem to me not to be pronouns1 but adjectives1 each relating to the noun commander understood after it4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the sense and relation of words in sentences1 as well as their particular form and meaning1 must be considered in parsing1 before the learner can say1 with certainty1 to what class they belong4 ,other parts of speech1 and especially nouns and participles1 by a change in their construction1 may become adjectives4 ,thus1 to denote the material of which a thing is formed1 we very commonly make the name of the substantive an adjective to that of the thing3 as1 ,a gold chain1 a silver spoon1 a glass pitcher1 a tin basin1 an oak plank1 a basswood slab1 a whalebone rod4 ,this construction is in general correct1 whenever the former word may be predicated of the latter2 as1 ,the chain is gold4--,the spoon is silver4 ,but we do not write gold beater for goldbeater1 or silver smith for silversmith2 because the beater is not gold1 nor is the smith silver4 ,this principle1 however1 is not universally observed2 for we write snowball1 whitewash1 and many similar compounds1 though the ball is snow and the wash is white2 and linseed oil1 or ,newark cider1 may be a good phrase1 though the former word cannot well be predicated of the latter4 ,so in the following examples3 ,let these conversation tones be the foundation of public pronunciation4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccd4 ,a muslin flounce1 made very full1 would give a very agreeable flirtation air4--,,pope3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #gi4 ,come1 calm ,content1 serene and sweet1 ,o gently guide my pilgrim feet ,to find thy hermit cell4--,barbauld4 ,,obs4 #e4--,murray says1 ,various nouns placed before other nouns assume the nature of adjectives3 as1 sea fish1 wine vessel1 corn field1 meadow ground1 c4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,this is1 certainly1 very lame instruction4 ,if there is not palpable error in all his examples1 the propriety of them all is at least questionable2 and1 to adopt and follow out their principle1 would be1 to tear apart some thousands of our most familiar compounds4 ,meadow ground may perhaps be a correct phrase1 since the ground is meadow2 it seems therefore preferable to the compound word meadow-ground4 ,what he meant by wine vessel is doubtful3 that is1 whether a ship or a cask1 a flagon or a decanter4 ,if we turn to our dictionaries1 ,webster has sea-fish and wine-cask with a hyphen1 and cornfield without2 while ,johnson and others have corn-field with a hyphen1 and seafish without4 ,according to the rules for the figure of words1 we ought to write them seafish1 winecask1 cornfield4 ,what then becomes of the thousands of adjectives embraced in the c4 quoted above8 ,,obs4 #f4--,the pronouns he and she1 when placed before or prefixed to nouns merely to denote their gender1 appear to be used adjectively2 as1 ,the male or he animals offered in sacrifice4--,wood's ,dict41 w4 ,males4 ,the most usual term is he or she1 male or female1 employed as an adjective3 as1 a he bear1 a she bear2 a male elephant1 a female elephant4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,most writers1 however1 think proper to insert a hyphen in the terms here referred to3 as1 he-bear1 she-bear1 the plurals of which are he-bears and she-bears4 ,and1 judging by the foregoing rule of predication1 we must assume that this practice only is right4 ,in the first example1 the word he is useless2 for the term male animals is sufficiently clear without it4 ,it has been shown in the third chapter1 that he and she are sometimes used as nouns2 and that1 as such1 they may take the regular declension of nouns1 making the plurals hes and shes4 ,but whenever these words are used adjectively to denote gender1 whether we choose to insert the hyphen or not1 they are1 without question1 indeclinable1 like other adjectives4 ,in the following example1 ,sanborn will have he to be a noun in the objective case2 but ,i consider it rather1 to be an adjective1 signifying masculine3 7,philosophy1 ,i say1 and call it ,he2 ,for1 whatsoe'er the painter's fancy be1 ,it a male-virtue seems to me47--,cowley1 ,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ed4 ,,obs4 #g4--,though verbs give rise to many adjectives1 they seldom1 if ever1 become such by a mere change of construction4 ,it is mostly by assuming an additional termination1 that any verb is formed into an adjective3 as in teachable1 moveable1 oppressive1 diffusive1 prohibitory4 ,there are1 however1 about forty words ending in ate1 which1 without difference of form1 are either verbs or adjectives2 as1 aggregate1 animate1 appropriate1 articulate1 aspirate1 associate1 complicate1 confederate1 consummate1 deliberate1 desolate1 effeminate1 elate1 incarnate1 intimate1 legitimate1 moderate1 ordinate1 precipitate1 prostrate1 regenerate1 reprobate1 separate1 sophisticate1 subordinate4 ,this class of adjectives seems to be lessening4 ,the participials in ed1 are superseding some of them1 at least in popular practice3 as1 contaminated1 for contaminate1 defiled2 reiterated1 for reiterate1 repeated2 situated1 for situate1 placed2 attenuated1 for attenuate1 made thin or slender4 ,devote1 exhaust1 and some other verbal forms1 are occasionally used by the poets1 in lieu of the participial forms1 devoted1 exhausted1 c4 ,,obs4 #h4--,participles1 which have naturally much resemblance to this part of speech1 often drop their distinctive character1 and become adjectives4 ,this is usually the case whenever they stand immediately before the nouns to which they relate2 as1 ,a pleasing countenance1 a piercing eye1 an accomplished scholar1 an exalted station4 ,many participial adjectives are derivatives formed from participles by the negative prefix un1 which reverses the meaning of the primitive word2 as1 undisturbed1 undivided1 unenlightened4 ,most words of this kind differ of course from participles1 because there are no such verbs as to undisturb1 to undivide1 c4 ,yet they may be called participial adjectives1 because they have the termination1 and embrace the form1 of participles4 ,nor should any participial adjective be needlessly varied from the true orthography of the participle3 a distinction is1 however1 observed by some writers1 between past and passed1 staid and stayed2 and some old words1 as drunken1 stricken1 shotten1 rotten1 now obsolete as participles1 are still retained as adjectives4 ,this sort of words will be further noticed in the chapter on participles4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,adverbs are generally distinguished from adjectives1 by the form1 as well as by the construction1 of the words4 ,yet1 in instances not a few1 the same word is capable of being used both adjectively and adverbially4 ,in these cases1 the scholar must determine the part of speech1 by the construction alone2 remembering that adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns only2 and adverbs1 to verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 or other adverbs1 only4 ,the following examples from ,scripture1 will partially illustrate this point1 which will be noticed again under the head of syntax3 ,is your father well8--,gen41 xliii1 #bg4 ,thou hast well said4--,john1 iv1 #ag4 ,he separateth very friends4--,prov41 xvii1 #i4 ,esaias is very bold4--,rom41 x1 #bj4 ,for a pretence1 ye make long prayer4--,matt41 xxiii1 #ad4 ,they that tarry long at the wine4--,prov41 xxiii1 #cj4 ,it had not much earth4--,mark1 iv1 #e4 ,for she loved much4--,luke1 vii1 #dg4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,prepositions1 in regard to their construction1 differ from adjectives1 almost exactly as active-transitive participles differ syntactically from adjectives3 that is1 in stead of being mere adjuncts to the words which follow them1 they govern those words1 and refer back to some other term2 which1 in the usual order of speech1 stands before them4 ,thus1 if ,i say1 ,a spreading oak1 spreading is an adjective relating to oak2 if1 ,a boy spreading hay1 spreading is a participle1 governing hay1 and relating to boy1 because the boy is the agent of the action4 ,so1 when ,dr4 ,webster says1 ,the off horse in a team1 off is an adjective1 relating to the noun horse2 but1 in the phrase1 ,a man off his guard1 off is a preposition1 showing the relation between man and guard1 and governing the latter4 ,the following are other examples3 ,from the above speculations4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #aid4 ,an after period of life4--,,marshall3 in ,web4 ,dict4 ,with some other of the after ,judaical rites4--,right of ,tythes1 p4 #hf4 ,whom this beneath world doth embrace and hug4--,shak4 ,especially is over exertion made4--,journal of ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #aai4 ,to both the under worlds4--,hudibras4 ,please to pay to ,a4 ,b4 the amount of the within bill4 ,whether properly used or not1 the words above1 after1 beneath1 over1 under1 and within1 are here unquestionably made adjectives2 yet every scholar knows1 that they are generally prepositions1 though sometimes adverbs4 ,,classes4 ,adjectives may be divided into six classes2 namely1 common1 proper1 numeral1 pronominal1 participial1 and compound4 ,i4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation2 as1 ,good1 bad1 peaceful1 warlike--eastern1 western1 outer1 inner4 ,,ii4 ,a proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper name2 as1 ,american1 ,english1 ,platonic1 ,genoese4 ,,iii4 ,a numeral adjective is an adjective that expresses a definite number2 as1 ,one1 two1 three1 four1 five1 six1 c4 ,,iv4 ,a pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun1 or represent it understood2 as1 ,all join to guard what each desires to gain4--,pope4 ,that is1 ,all men join to guard what each man desires to gain4 ,v4 ,a participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle1 but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time2 as1 ,an amusing story1--,a lying divination4 ,,vi4 ,a compound adjective is one that consists of two or more words joined together1 either by the hyphen or solidly3 as1 ,nut-brown1 laughter-loving1 four-footed2 threefold1 lordlike1 lovesick4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,this distribution of the adjectives is no less easy to be applied1 than necessary to a proper explanation in parsing4 ,how many adjectives there are in the language1 it is difficult to say2 none of our dictionaries profess to exhibit all that are embraced in some of the foregoing classes4 ,of the ,common ,adjectives1 there are probably not fewer than six thousand1 exclusive of the common nouns which we refer to this class when they are used adjectively4 ,walker's ,rhyming ,dictionary contains five thousand or more1 the greater part of which may be readily distinguished by their peculiar endings4 ,of those which end in ous1 as generous1 there are about #hej4 ,of those in y or ly1 as shaggy1 homely1 there are about #eej4 ,of those in ive1 as deceptive1 there are about #djj4 ,of those in al1 as autumnal1 there are about #eej4 ,of those in ical1 as mechanical1 there are about #cej4 ,of those in able1 as valuable1 there are about #fjj4 ,of those in ible1 as credible1 there are about #bjj4 ,of those in ent1 as different1 there are about #cjj4 ,of those in ant1 as abundant1 there are about #agj4 ,of those in less1 as ceaseless1 there are about #bbj4 ,of those in ful1 as useful1 there are about #acj4 ,of those in ory1 as explanatory1 there are about #bjj4 ,of those in ish1 as childish1 there are about #ajj4 ,of those in ine1 as masculine1 there are about #gj4 ,of those in en1 as wooden1 there are about #ej4 ,of those in some1 as quarrelsome1 there are about #cj4 ,these sixteen numbers added together1 make #dggj4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the ,proper ,adjectives are1 in many instances1 capable of being converted into declinable nouns3 as1 ,european1 a ,european1 the ,europeans2 ,greek1 a ,greek1 the ,greeks2 ,asiatic1 an ,asiatic1 the ,asiatics4 ,but with the words ,english1 ,french1 ,dutch1 ,scotch1 ,welsh1 ,irish1 and in general all such as would acquire an additional syllable in their declension1 the case is otherwise4 ,the gentile noun has frequently fewer syllables than the adjective1 but seldom more1 unless derived from some different root4 ,examples3 ,arabic1 an ,arab1 the ,arabs2 ,gallic1 a ,gaul1 the ,gauls2 ,danish1 a ,dane1 the ,danes2 ,moorish1 a ,moor1 the ,moors2 ,polish1 a ,pole1 or ,polander1 the ,poles2 ,swedish1 a ,swede1 the ,swedes2 ,turkish1 a ,turk1 the ,turks4 ,when we say1 the ,english1 the ,french1 the ,dutch1 the ,scotch1 the ,welsh1 the ,irish1--meaning1 the ,english people1 the ,french people1 c41 many grammarians conceive that ,english1 ,french1 c41 are indeclinable nouns4 ,but in my opinion1 it is better to reckon them adjectives1 relating to the noun men or people understood4 ,for if these words are nouns1 so are a thousand others1 after which there is the same ellipsis2 as when we say1 the good1 the great1 the wise1 the learned4#afh ,the principle would involve the inconvenience of multiplying our nouns of the singular form and a plural meaning1 indefinitely4 ,if they are nouns1 they are1 in this sense1 plural only2 and1 in an other1 they are singular only4 ,for we can no more say1 an ,english1 an ,irish1 or a ,french1 for an ,englishman1 an ,irishman1 or a ,frenchman2 than we can say1 an old1 a selfish1 or a rich1 for an old man1 a selfish man1 or a rich man4 ,yet1 in distinguishing the languages1 we call them ,english1 ,french1 ,dutch1 ,scotch1 ,welsh1 ,irish2 using the words1 certainly1 in no plural sense2 and preferring always the line of adjectives1 where the gentile noun is different3 as1 ,arabic1 and not ,arab2 ,danish1 and not ,dane2 ,swedish1 and not ,swede4 ,in this sense1 as well as in the former1 ,webster1 ,chalmers1 and other modern lexicographers1 call the words nouns2 and the reader will perceive1 that the objections offered before do not apply here4 ,but ,johnson1 in his two quarto volumes1 gives only two words of this sort1 ,english and ,latin2 and both of these he calls adjectives3 ,,english1 adj4 ,belonging to ,england2 hence ,english#afi is the language of ,england4 ,the word ,latin1 however1 he makes a noun1 when it means a schoolboy's exercise2 for which usage he quotes1 the following inaccurate example from ,ascham3 ,he shall not use the common order in schools for making of ,latins4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,dr4 ,webster gives us explanations like these3 ,,chinese1 n4 sing4 and plu4 ,a native of ,china2 also the language of ,china4--,,japanese1 n4 ,a native of ,japan2 or the language of the inhabitants4--,,genoese1 n4 pl4 the people of ,genoa in ,italy4 ,addison4--,,danish1 n4 ,the language of the ,danes4--,,irish1 n4 #a4 ,a native of ,ireland4 #b4 ,the language of the ,irish2 the ,hiberno-,celtic4 ,according to him1 then1 it is proper to say1 a ,chinese1 a ,japanese1 or an ,irish2 but not1 a ,genoese1 because he will have this word to be plural only6 ,again1 if with him we call a native of ,ireland an ,irish1 will not more than one be ,irishes8#agj ,if a native of ,japan be a ,japanese1 will not more than one be ,japaneses8 ,in short1 is it not plain1 that the words1 ,chinese1 ,japanese1 ,portuguese1 ,maltese1 ,genoese1 ,milanese1 and all others of like formation1 should follow one and the same rule8 ,and if so1 what is that rule8 ,is it not this2--that1 like ,english1 ,french1 c41 they are always adjectives2 except1 perhaps1 when they denote languages8 ,there may possibly be some real authority from usage1 for calling a native of ,china a ,chinese1--of ,japan a ,japanese1--c42 as there is also for the regular plurals1 ,chineses1 ,japaneses1 c42 but is it1 in either case1 good and sufficient authority8 ,the like forms1 it is acknowledged1 are1 on some occasions1 mere adjectives2 and1 in modern usage1 we do not find these words inflected1 as they were formerly4 ,examples3 ,the ,chinese are by no means a cleanly people1 either in person or dress4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #dae4 ,the ,japanese excel in working in copper1 iron1 and steel4--,ib41 p4 #dai4 ,the ,portuguese are of the same origin with the ,spaniards4--,ib41 p4 #bgb4 ,by whom the undaunted ,tyrolese are led4--,wordsworth's ,poems1 p4 #abb4 ,again3 ,amongst the ,portugueses1 'tis so much a ,fashion1 and ,emulation1 amongst their ,children1 to learn to ,read1 and ,write1 that they cannot hinder them from it4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #bga4 ,the ,malteses do so1 who harden the ,bodies of their ,children1 and reconcile them to the ,heat1 by making them go stark ,naked4--,idem1 ,edition of #affi1 p4 #e4 ,,chinese1 n4 s4 ,used elliptically for the language and people of ,china3 plural1 ,chineses4 ,sir ,t4 ,herbert4--,abridgement of ,todd's ,johnson4 ,this is certainly absurd4 ,for if ,chinese is used elliptically for the people of ,china1 it is an adjective1 and does not form the plural1 ,chineses3 which is precisely what ,i urge concerning the whole class4 ,these plural forms ought not to be imitated4 ,horne ,tooke quotes some friend of his1 as saying1 ,no1 ,i will never descend with him beneath even a ,japanese3 and ,i remember what ,voltaire remarks of that country4--,diversions of ,purley1 i1 #ahg4 ,in this case1 he ought1 unquestionably1 to have said--beneath even a native of ,japan2 because1 whether ,japanese be a noun or not1 it is absurd to call a ,japanese1 that country4 ,butler1 in his ,hudibras1 somewhere uses the word ,chineses2 and it was1 perhaps1 in his day1 common2 but still1 ,i say1 it is contrary to analogy1 and therefore wrong4 ,milton1 too1 has it3 ,but in his way lights on the barren plains ,of ,sericana1 where ,chineses#aga drive ,with sails and wind their cany waggons light4 --,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 iii1 l4 #dcg4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the ,numeral ,adjectives are of three kinds1 namely1 cardinal1 ordinal1 and multiplicative3 each kind running on in a series indefinitely4 ,thus3-- #a4 ,cardinal2 ,one1 two1 three1 four1 five1 six1 seven1 eight1 nine1 ten1 eleven1 twelve1 thirteen1 fourteen1 fifteen1 sixteen1 seventeen1 eighteen1 nineteen1 twenty1 twenty-one1 twenty-two1 c4 #b4 ,ordinal2 ,first1 second1 third1 fourth1 fifth1 sixth1 seventh1 eighth1 ninth1 tenth1 eleventh1 twelfth1 thirteenth1 fourteenth1 fifteenth1 sixteenth1 seventeenth1 eighteenth1 nineteenth1 twentieth1 twenty-first1 twenty-second1 c4 #c4 ,multiplicative2 ,single or alone1 double or twofold1 triple or threefold1 quadruple or fourfold1 quintuple or fivefold1 sextuple or sixfold1 septuple or sevenfold1 octuple or eightfold1 c4 ,but high terms of this series are seldom used4 ,all that occur above decuple or tenfold1 are written with a hyphen1 and are usually of round numbers only2 as1 thirty-fold1 sixty-fold1 hundred-fold4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,a cardinal numeral denotes the whole number1 but the corresponding ordinal denotes only the last one of that number1 or1 at the beginning of a series1 the first of several or many4 ,thus3 ,one denotes simply the number one1 without any regard to more2 but first has respect to more1 and so denotes only the first one of a greater number2 and two means the number two completely2 but second1 the last one of two3 and so of all the rest4--,burn's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,a cardinal number answers to the question1 ,how many8 ,an ordinal number answers to the question1 ,which one8 or1 ,what one8 ,all the ordinal numbers1 except first1 second1 third1 and the compounds of these1 as twenty-first1 twenty-second1 twenty-third1 are formed directly from the cardinal numbers by means of the termination th4 ,and as the primitives1 in this case1 are many of them either compound words1 or phrases consisting of several words1 it is to be observed1 that the addition is made to the last term only4 ,that is1 of every compound ordinal number1 the last term only is ordinal in form4 ,thus we say1 forty-ninth1 and not fortieth-ninth2 nor could the meaning of the phrase1 four hundred and fiftieth1 be expressed by saying1 fourth hundredth and fiftieth2 for this1 if it means any thing1 speaks of three different numbers4 ,,obs4 #f4--,some of the numerals are often used as nouns2 and1 as such1 are regularly declined3 as1 ,ones1 twoes1 threes1 fours1 fives1 c4 ,so1 ,fifths1 sixths1 sevenths1 eighths1 ninths1 tenths1 c4 ,the seventy's translation4--,wilson's ,hebrew ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,i will not do it for forty's sake4--,gen41 xviii1 #bi4 ,i will not destroy it for twenty's sake4--,ib41 ver4 #ca4 ,for ten's sake4--,ib41 ver4 #cb4 ,they sat down in ranks1 by hundreds1 and by fifties4--,mark1 vi1 #dj4 ,there are millions of truths that a man is not concerned to know4--,locke4 ,with the compound numerals1 such a construction is less common2 yet the denominator of a fraction may be a number of this sort3 as1 seven twenty-fifths4 ,and here it may be observed1 that1 in stead of the ancient phraseology1 as in #a ,chron41 xxiv1 #agth1 ,the one and twentieth to ,jachin1 the two and twentieth to ,gamul1 the three and twentieth to ,delaiah1 the four and twentieth to ,maaziah1 we now generally say1 the twenty-first1 the twenty-second1 c42 using the hyphen in all compounds till we arrive at one hundred1 or one hundredth1 and then first introducing the word and2 as1 one hundred and one1 or one hundred and first1 c4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the ,pronominal ,adjectives are comparatively very few2 but frequency of use gives them great importance in grammar4 ,the following words are perhaps all that properly belong to this class1 and several of these are much oftener something else3 ,all1 any1 both1 certain1 divers1 each1 either1 else1 enough1 every1 few1 fewer1 fewest1 former1 first1 latter1 last1 little1 less1 least1 many1 more1 most1 much1 neither1 no or none1 one1 other1 own1 only1 same1 several1 some1 such1 sundry1 that1 this1 these1 those1 what1 whatever1 whatsoever1 which1 whichever1 whichsoever4#agb ,of these forty-six words1 seven are always singular1 if the word one is not an exception2 namely1 each1 either1 every1 neither1 one1 that1 this3 and nine or ten others are always plural1 if the word many is not an exception2 namely1 both1 divers1 few1 fewer1 fewest1 many1 several1 sundry1 these1 those4 ,all the rest1 like our common adjectives1 are applicable to nouns of either number4 ,else1 every1 only1 no1 and none1 are definitive words1 which ,i have thought proper to call pronominal adjectives1 though only the last can now with propriety be made to represent its noun understood4 ,nor has ,vossius1 or any else that ,i know of1 observed it4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bgi4 ,say1 or any one else4 ,dr4 ,webster explains this word else thus3 ,,else1 a4 or pron4 ,sax4 elles ,other2 one or something beside2 as1 ,who else is coming8--,octavo ,dict4 ,each and every of them1 is an old phrase in which every is used pronominally1 or with ellipsis of the word to which it refers2 but1 in common discourse1 we now say1 every one1 every man1 c41 never using the word every alone to suggest its noun4 ,only is perhaps most commonly an adverb2 but it is still in frequent use as an adjective2 and in old books we sometimes find an ellipsis of the noun to which it belongs2 as1 ,neither are they the only verbs in which it is read4--,johnson's ,grammatical ,commentaries1 p4 #cgc4 ,but ,i think he is the only one of these ,authors4--,ib41 p4 #aic4 ,no and none seem to be only different forms of the same adjective2 the former being used before a noun expressed1 and the latter when the noun is understood1 or not placed after the adjective2 as1 ,for none of us liveth to himself1 and no man dieth to himself4--,romans1 xiv1 #g4 ,none was anciently used for no before all words beginning with a vowel sound2 as1 ,they are sottish children2 and they have none understanding4--,jeremiah1 iv1 #bb4 ,this practice is now obsolete4 ,none is still used1 when its noun precedes it2 as1 ,fools6 who from hence into the notion fall1 ,that vice or virtue there is none at all4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #h4--,of the words given in the foregoing list as pronominal adjectives1 about one third are sometimes used adverbially4 ,they are the following3 ,all1 when it means totally2 any1 for in any degree2 else1 meaning otherwise2 enough1 signifying sufficiently2 first1 for in the first place2 last1 for in the last place2 little1 for in a small degree2 less1 for in a smaller degree2 least1 for in the smallest degree2 much1 for in a great degree2 more1 for in a greater degree2 most1 for in the greatest degree2 no1 or none1 for in no degree2 only1 for singly1 merely1 barely2 what1 for in what degree1 or in how great a degree4#agc ,to these may perhaps be added the word other1 when used as an alternative to somehow2 as1 ,somehow or other he will be favoured4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #hi4 ,here other seems to be put for otherwise2 and yet the latter word would not be agreeable in such a sentence4 ,somewhere or other1 is a kindred phrase equally common1 and equally good2 or1 rather1 equally irregular and puzzling4 ,would it not be better1 always to avoid both1 by saying1 in their stead1 ,in some way or other1--,in someplace or other8 ,in the following examples1 however1 other seems to be used for otherwise1 without such a connection3 ,how is ,,that used1 other than as a ,conjunction8--,ainsworth's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,will it not be receiv'd that they have done 't8 --,who dares receive it other8--,,shak43 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,other4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,all and enough1 little and much1 more and less1 sometimes suggest the idea of quantity so abstractly1 that we can hardly consider them as adjuncts to any other words2 for which reason1 they are1 in this absolute sense1 put down in our dictionaries as nouns4 ,if nouns1 however1 they are never inflected by cases or numbers2 nor do they in general admit the usual adjuncts or definitives of nouns4#agd ,thus1 we can neither say1 the all1 for the whole1 nor an enough1 for a sufficiency4 ,and though a little1 the more1 and the less1 are common phrases1 the article does not here prove the following word to be a noun2 because the expression may either be elliptical1 or have the construction of an adverb3 as1 ,though the more abundantly ,i love you1 the less ,i be loved4--#b ,cor41 xii1 #ae4 ,dr4 ,johnson seems to suppose that the partitive use of these words makes them nouns2 as1 ,they have much of the poetry of ,mecnas1 but little of his liberality4--,,dryden3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,upon this principle1 however1 adjectives innumerable would be made nouns2 for we can just as well say1 ,some of the poetry1--,any of the poetry1--,the best of ,poetry1 c4 ,in all such expressions1 the name of the thing divided1 is understood in the partitive word2 for a part of any thing must needs be of the same species as the whole4 ,nor was this great grammarian sufficiently attentive to adjuncts1 in determining the parts of speech4 ,nearly all1 quite enough1 so little1 too much1 vastly more1 rather less1 and an abundance of similar phrases1 are familiar to every body2 in none of which1 can any of these words of quantity1 however abstract1 be very properly reckoned nouns2 because the preceding word is an adverb1 and adverbs do not relate to any words that are literally nouns4 ,all these may also be used partitively2 as1 ,nearly all of us4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the following are some of ,dr4 ,johnson's nouns2 which1 in connexion with the foregoing remarks1 ,i would submit to the judgement of the reader3 ',then shall we be news-crammed4'--',all the better2 we shall be the more remarkable4'--,,shak43 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,all the fitter1 ,lentulus2 our coming is not for salutation2 we have business4--,,ben ,,jonson3 ib4 ',tis enough for me to have endeavoured the union of my country4--,,temple3 ib4 ,ye take too much upon you4--,,numbers3 ib4 ,the fate of love is such1 that still it sees too little or too much4--,,dryden3 ib4 ,he thought not much to clothe his enemies4--,,milton3 ib4 ,there remained not so much as one of them4--,ib41 ,exod41 xiv1 #bh4 ,we will cut wood out of ,lebanon1 as much as thou shalt need4--,ib41 #b ,chronicles4 ,the matter of the universe was created before the flood2 if any more was created1 then there must be as much annihilated to make room for it4--,,burnet3 ib4 ,the ,lord do so1 and much more1 to ,jonathan4--#a ,,samuel3 ib4 ,they that would have more and more1 can never have enough2 no1 not if a miracle should interpose to gratify their avarice4--,l',,estrange3 ib4 ,they gathered some more1 some less4--,,exodus3 ib4 ,thy servant knew nothing of this1 less or more4--#a ,,samuel3 ib4 ,the first two examples above1 ,johnson explains thus3 ,that is1 ',every thing is the better4'--,every thing is the fitter4--,quarto ,dict4 ,the propriety of this solution may well be doubted2 because the similar phrases1 ,so much the better1--,none the fitter1 would certainly be perverted1 if resolved in the same way3 much and none are here1 very clearly1 adverbs4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,whatever disposition may be made of the terms cited above1 there are instances in which some of the same words can hardly be any thing else than nouns4 ,thus all1 when it signifies the whole1 or every thing1 may be reckoned a noun2 as1 ,our all is at stake1 and irretrievably lost1 if we fail of success4--,addison4 ,a torch1 snuff and all1 goes out in a moment1 when dipped in the vapour4--,id4 ,the first blast of wind laid it flat on the ground2 nest1 eagles1 and all4--,l',estrange4 ,finding1 the wretched all they here can have1 ,but present food1 and but a future grave4--,prior4 ,and will she yet debase her eyes on me2 ,on me1 whose all not equals ,edward's moiety8--,shak4 ,thou shalt be all in all1 and ,i in thee1 ,forever2 and in me all whom thou lov'st4--,milton4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,there are yet some other words1 which1 by their construction alone1 are to be distinguished from the pronominal adjectives4 ,both1 when it stands as a correspondent to and1 is reckoned a conjunction2 as1 ,for both he that sanctifieth1 and they who are sanctified1 are all of one4--,heb41 ii1 #aa4 ,but1 in sentences like the following1 it seems to be an adjective1 referring to the nouns which precede3 ,language and manners are both established by the usage of people of fashion4--,amer4 ,chesterfield1 p4 #hc4 ,so either1 corresponding to or1 and neither1 referring to nor1 are conjunctions1 and not adjectives4 ,which and what1 with their compounds1 whichever or whichsoever1 whatever or whatsoever1 though sometimes put before nouns as adjectives1 are1 for the most part1 relative or interrogative pronouns4 ,when the noun is used after them1 they are adjectives2 when it is omitted1 they are pronouns3 as1 ,there is a witness of ,god1 which witness gives true judgement4--,i4 ,penington4 ,here the word witness might be omitted1 and which would become a relative pronoun4 ,dr4 ,lowth says1 ,thy1 my1 her1 our1 your1 their1 are pronominal adjectives4--,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,this ,i deny2 and the reader may see my reasons1 in the observations upon the declension of pronouns4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,the words one and other1 besides their primitive uses as adjectives1 in which they still remain without inflection1 are frequently employed as nouns1 or as substitutes for nouns2 and1 in this substantive or pronominal character1 they commonly have the regular declension of nouns1 and are reckoned such by some grammarians2 though others call them indefinite pronouns1 and some1 7among whom are ,lowth and ,comly17 leave them with the pronominal adjectives1 even when they are declined in both numbers4 ,each of them may be preceded by either of the articles2 and so general is the signification of the former1 that almost any adjective may likewise come before it3 as1 ,any one1 some one1 such a one1 many a one1 a new one1 an old one1 an other one1 the same one1 the young ones1 the little ones1 the mighty ones1 the wicked one1 the ,holy ,one1 the ,everlasting ,one4 ,so1 like the ,french on1 or l'on1 the word one1 without any adjective1 is now very frequently used as a general or indefinite term for any man1 or any person4 ,in this sense1 it is sometimes1 unquestionably1 to be preferred to a personal pronoun applied indefinitely3 as1 ,pure religion1 and undefiled before ,god and the ,father1 is this1 ,to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction1 and to keep himself better1 one's self unspotted from the world4--,james1 i1 #bg4 ,but1 as its generality of meaning seems to afford a sort of covering for egotism1 some writers are tempted to make too frequent a use of it4 ,churchill ridicules this practice1 by framing1 or anonymously citing1 the following sentence3 ,if one did but dare to abide by one's own judgement1 one's language would be much more refined2 but one fancies one's self obliged to follow1 whereever the many choose to lead one4--,see ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bbi4 ,here every scholar will concur with the critic in thinking1 it would be better to say3 ,if we did but dare to abide by our own judgement1 our language would be much more refined2 but we fancy ourselves obliged to follow wherever the many choose to lead us4--,see ib4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,of the pronominal adjectives the following distribution has been made3 ,each1 every1 and either1 are called distributives2 because1 though they imply all the persons or things that make up a number1 they consider them1 not as one whole1 but as taken separately4 ,this1 that1 former1 latter1 both1 neither1 are termed demonstratives2 because they point out precisely the subjects to which they relate4 ,this has these for its plural2 that has those4 ,this and that are frequently put in opposition to each other2 this1 to express what is nearer in place or time2 that1 what is more remote4 ,all1 any1 one1 other1 some1 such1 are termed indefinite4 ,another is merely other in the singular1 with the indefinite article not kept separate from it4#age ,other1 when not joined with a noun1 is occasionally used both in the possessive case1 and in the plural number3 as1 ',teach me to feel an other's wo1 to hide the fault ,i see2 ,that mercy ,i to others show1 that mercy show to me4'--,pope4 ,each other and one another1 when used in conjunction1 may be termed reciprocals2 as they are employed to express a reciprocal action2 the former1 between two persons or things2 the latter1 between#agf more than two4 ,the possessive cases of the personal pronouns have been also ranked under the head of pronominal adjectives1 and styled possessives2 but for this ,i see no good reason4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,the reciprocal terms each other and one an other divide1 according to some mutual act or interchangeable relation1 the persons or things spoken of1 and are commonly of the singular number only4 ,each other1 if rightly used1 supposes two1 and only two1 to be acting and acted upon reciprocally2 one an other1 if not misapplied1 supposes more than two1 under like circumstances1 and has an indefinite reference to all taken distributively3 as1 ,brutus and ,aruns killed each other4 ,that is1 ,each combatant killed the other4 ,the disciples were commanded to love one an other1 and to be willing to wash one an other's feet4 ,that is1 ,all the disciples were commanded to love mutually2 for both terms1 one and other1 or one disciple and an other disciple1 must be here understood as taken indefinitely4 ,the reader will observe1 that the two terms thus brought together1 if taken substantively or pronominally in parsing1 must be represented as being of different cases2 or1 if we take them adjectively the noun1 which is twice to be supplied1 will necessarily be so4 ,,obs4 #af4--,misapplications of the foregoing reciprocal terms are very frequent in books1 though it is strange that phrases so very common should not be rightly understood4 ,dr4 ,webster1 among his explanations of the word other1 has the following3 ,correlative to each1 and applicable to any number of individuals4--,octavo ,dict4 ,other is used as a substitute for a noun1 and in this use has the plural number and the sign of the possessive case4--,ib4 ,now it is plain1 that the word other1 as a correlative to each1 may be so far a substitute for a noun as to take the form of the possessive case singular1 and perhaps also the plural2 as1 ,lock'd in each other's arms they lay4 ,but1 that the objective other1 in any such relation1 can convey a plural idea1 or be so loosely applicable--to any number of individuals1 ,i must here deny4 ,if it were so1 there would be occasion1 by the foregoing rule1 to make it plural in form2 as1 ,the ambitious strive to excel each others4 ,but this is not ,english4 ,nor can it be correct to say of more than two1 ,they all strive to excel each other4 ,because the explanation must be1 ,each strives to excel other2 and such a construction of the word other is not agreeable to modern usage4 ,each other is therefore not equivalent to one an other1 but nearer perhaps to the one the other3 as1 ,the two generals are independent the one of the other4--,voltaire's ,charles ,,xii1 p4 #fg4 ,and these are contrary the one to the other4--,gal41 v1 #ag4 ,the necessary connexion of the one with the other4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cjd4 ,the latter phraseology1 being definite and formal1 is now seldom used1 except the terms be separated by a verb or a preposition4 ,it is a literal version of the ,french l'un l'autre1 and in some instances to be preferred to each other2 as1 ,so fellest foes1 whose plots have broke their sleep1 ,to take the one the other1 by some chance4--,shak4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,the ,greek term for the reciprocals each other and one an other1 is a certain plural derivative from ,greek3 allos1 other2 and is used in three cases1 the genitive1 ,greek3 alllon1 the dative1 ,greek3 alllois1 the accusative1 ,greek3 alllous3 these being all the cases which the nature of the expression admits2 and for all these we commonly use the objective2--that is1 we put each or one before the objective other4 ,now these ,english terms1 taken in a reciprocal sense1 seldom1 if ever1 have any plural form2 because the article in one an other admits of none2 and each other1 when applied to two persons or things1 7as it almost always is17 does not require any4 ,i have indeed seen1 in some narrative1 such an example as this3 ,the two men were ready to cut each others' throats4 ,but the meaning could not be1 that each was ready to cut others' throats2 and since1 between the two1 there was but one throat for each to cut1 it would doubtless be more correct to say1 each other's throat4 ,so ,burns1 in touching a gentler passion1 has an inaccurate elliptical expression3 ',tis when a youthful1 loving1 modest pair1 ,in others' arms1 breathe out the tender tale4 --,cotter's ,sat4 ,night4 ,he meant1 ,in each other's arms2 the apostrophe being misplaced1 and the metre improperly allowed to exclude a word which the sense requires4 ,now1 as to the plural of each other1 although we do not use the objective1 and say of many1 ,they love each others1 there appear to be some instances in which the possessive plural1 each others'1 would not be improper2 as1 ,sixteen ministers1 who meet weekly at each other's houses4--,johnson's ,life of ,swift4 ,here the singular is wrong1 because the governing noun implies a plurality of owners4 ,the citizens of different states should know each others characters4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ce4 ,this also is wrong1 because no possessive sign is used4 ,either write1 each others' characters1 or say1 one an other's character4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,one and other are1 in many instances1 terms relative and partitive1 rather than reciprocal2 and1 in this use1 there seems to be an occasional demand for the plural form4 ,in ,french1 two parties are contrasted by les uns--les autres2 a mode of expression seldom1 if ever imitated in ,english4 ,thus3 ,il les sparera les uns d'avec les autres4 ,that is1 ,he shall separate them some from others2--or1 literally1 the ones from the others4 ,our version is3 ,he shall separate them one from an other4--,matt41 xxv1 #cb4 ,beza has it3 ,separabit eos alteros ab alteris4 ,the ,vulgate3 ,separabit eos ab invicem4 ,the ,greek3 ,greek3 ,aphoriei autous ap alllon4 ,to separate many one from an other1 seems1 literally1 to leave none of them together2 and this is not1 as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats4 ,to express such an idea with perfect propriety1 in our language1 therefore1 we must resort to some other phraseology4 ,in ,campbell's version1 we read3 ,and out of them he will separate the good from the bad1 as a shepherd separateth the sheep from the goats4 ,better1 perhaps1 thus3 ,and he shall separate them1 the righteous from the wicked1 as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,dr4 ,bullions says1 ,one and other refer to the singular only4--,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #ih4 ,of ones and others he takes no notice2 nor is he sufficiently attentive to usage in respect to the roots4 ,if there is any absurdity in giving a plural meaning to the singulars one and other1 the following sentences need amendment3 ,the one preach ,christ of contention2 but the other1 of love4--,philippians1 i1 #af4 ,here the one is put for the one class1 and the other for the other class2 the ellipsis in the first instance not being a very proper one4 ,the confusion arises1 when the one will put their sickle into the other's harvest4--,,lesley3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,this may be corrected by saying1 the one party1 or1 the one nation1 in stead of the one4 ,it is clear from ,scripture1 that ,antichrist shall be permitted to work false miracles1 and that they shall so counterfeit the true1 that it will be hard to discern the one from the other4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #ic4 ,if in any ease we may adopt the ,french construction above1 the ones from the others1 it will be proper here4 ,again3 ,i have seen children at a table1 who1 whatever was there1 never asked for any thing1 but contentedly took what was given them3 and1 at an other place1 ,i have seen others cry for every thing they saw2 they must be served out of every dish1 and that first too4 ,what made this vast difference1 but this3 ,that one was accustomed to have what they called or cried for2 the other to go without it8--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #ee4 ,here1 7with were for was17 the terms of contrast ought rather to have been1 the ones--the others2 the latter--the former2 or1 the importunate--the modest4 ,those nice shades1 by which virtues and vices approach each one another4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #cej4 ,this expression should be any thing1 rather than what it is4 ,say1 ,by which virtue and vice approach each other4 ,or3 ,by which certain virtues and vices approximate-- blend--become difficult of distinction4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,most authors have given the name of pronoun adjectives1 'pronouns adjective1' or 'pronominal adjectives1' to my1 mine2 our1 ours2 thy1 thine2 your1 yours2 his1 her1 hers2 their1 theirs3 perhaps because they are followed by1 or refer to1 some substantive expressed or understood after them4 ,but1 were they adjectives1 they must either express the quality of their substantive1 or limit its extent3 adjectives properly so called1 do the first2 definitive pronouns do the last4 ,all adjectives that are either singular or plural1 agree with their substantives in number2 but ,i can say1 ',they are my books3' my is singular1 and books plural2 therefore my is not an adjective4 ,besides1 my does not express the quality of the books1 but only ascertains the possessor1 the same as the genitive or substantive does1 to which it is similar4 ,examples3 ',they are my books2'--',they are ,john's books2' c4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,,obs4 #ba4--,to the class of ,participial ,adjectives1 should be referred all such words as the following3 7#a47 ,the simple participles made adjectives by position2 as4 ,a roaring lion1--,a raging bear1--,a brawling woman1--,a flattering mouth1--,an understanding heart1--,burning coals1--,the hearing ear1 and the seeing eye4--,bible4 ,a troubled fountain1--,a wounded spirit1--,an appointed time4--,ib4 7#b47 ,words of a participial appearance1 formed from nouns by adding ed2 as1 ,the eve thy sainted mother died4--,w4 ,scott4 ,what you write of me1 would make me more conceited1 than what ,i scribble myself4--,pope4 7#c47 ,participles1 or participial adjectives1 reversed in sense by the prefix un2 as1 unaspiring1 unavailing1 unbelieving1 unbattered1 uninjured1 unbefriended4 7#d47 ,words of a participial form construed elliptically1 as if they were nouns2 as1 ,among the dying and the dead4--,the called of ,jesus ,christ4--,rom41 i1 #f4 ,dearly beloved1 ,i beseech you4--#a ,pet41 ii1 #aa4 ,the redeemed of the ,lord shall return4--,isaiah1 li1 #aa4 ,they talk1 to the grief of thy wounded4--,psalms1 lxix1 #bf3 ,margin4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,in the text1 ,prov41 vii1 #bf1 ,she hath cast down many wounded1 wounded is a participle2 because the meaning is1 many men wounded1 and not1 many wounded men4 ,our ,participial ,adjectives are exceedingly numerous4 ,it is not easy to ascertain how many there are of them2 because almost any simple participle may be set before a noun1 and thus become an adjective3 as1 ,where smiling spring its earliest visit paid1 ,and parting summer's ling'ring blooms delay'd4--,goldsmith4 ,,obs4 #bc4--;,compound ,adjectives1 being formed at pleasure1 are both numerous and various4 ,in their formation1 however1 certain analogies may be traced3 7#a47 ,many of them are formed by joining an adjective to its noun1 and giving to the latter the participial termination ed2 as1 able-bodied1 sharp-sighted1 left-handed1 full-faced1 flat-nosed1 thick-lipped1 cloven-footed1 high-heeled4 7#b47 ,in some1 two nouns are joined1 the latter assuming ed1 as above2 as1 bell-shaped1 hawk-nosed1 eagle-sighted1 lion-hearted1 web-footed4 7#c47 ,in some1 the object of an active participle is placed before it2 as1 money-getting1 time-serving1 self-consuming1 cloud-compelling1 fortune-hunting1 sleep-disturbing4 7#d47 ,some1 embracing numerals1 form a series1 though it is seldom carried far2 as1 one-legged1 two-legged1 three-legged1 four-legged4 ,so1 one-leaved1 two-leaved1 three-leaved1 four-leaved3 or1 perhaps better as ,webster will have them1 one-leafed1 two-leafed1 c4 ,but1 upon the same principle1 short-lived1 should be short-lifed1 and long-lived1 long-lifed4 7#e47 ,in some1 there is a combination of an adjective and a participle2 as1 noble-looking1 high-sounding1 slow-moving1 thorough-going1 hard-finished1 free-born1 heavy-laden1 only-begotten4 7#f47 ,in some1 we find an adverb and a participle united2 as1 ever-living1 ill-judging1 well-pleasing1 far-shooting1 forth-issuing1 back-sliding1 ill-trained1 down-trodden1 above-mentioned4 7#g47 ,some consist of a noun and a participle which might be reversed with a preposition between them2 as1 church-going1 care-crazed1 travel-soiled1 blood-bespotted1 dew-sprinkled4 7#h47 ,a few1 and those inelegant1 terminate with a preposition2 as1 unlooked-for1 long-looked-for1 unthought-of1 unheard-of4 7#i47 ,some are phrases of many words1 converted into one part of speech by the hyphen2 as1 ,where is the ever-to-be-honoured ,chaucer8--,wordsworth4 ,and1 with ,god-only-knows-how-gotten light1 ,informs the nation what is wrong or right4 --,snelling's ,gift for ,scribblers1 p4 #di4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,nouns derived from compound adjectives1 are generally disapproved by good writers2 yet we sometimes meet with them3 as1 hard-heartedness1 for hardness of heart1 or cruelty2 quick-sightedness1 for quickness of sight1 or perspicacity2 worldly-mindedness1 for devotion to the world1 or love of gain2 heavenly-mindedness1 for the love of ,god1 or true piety4 ,in speaking of ancestors or descendants1 we take the noun1 father1 mother1 son1 daughter1 or child2 prefix the adjective grand2 for the second generation2 great1 for the1 third2 and then1 sometimes1 repeat the same1 for degrees more remote3 as1 father1 grandfather1 great-grandfather1 great-great-grandfather4 ,what would my great-grandmother say1 thought ,i1 could she know that thou art to be chopped up for fuel to warm the frigid fingers of her great-great-great-granddaughters6--,t4 ,h4 ,bayley4 ,,modifications4 ,adjectives have1 commonly1 no modifications but the forms of comparison4 ,comparison is a variation of the adjective1 to express quality in different degrees3 as1 hard1 harder1 hardest2 soft1 softer1 softest4 ,there are three degrees of comparison2 the positive1 the comparative1 and the superlative4 ,the positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form3 as1 ,an elephant is large2 a mouse1 small2 a lion1 fierce1 active1 bold1 and strong4 ,the comparative degree is that which is more or less than something contrasted with it3 as1 ,a whale is larger than an elephant2 a mouse is a much smaller animal than a rat4 ,the superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it3 as1 ,the whale is the largest of the animals that inhabit this globe2 the mouse is the smallest of all beasts4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees1 cannot be compared2 as1 two1 second1 all1 every1 immortal1 infinite4 ,those adjectives which may be varied in sense1 but not in form1 are compared by means of adverbs2 as1 fruitful1 more fruitful1 most fruitful--fruitful1 less fruitful1 least fruitful4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,some scruple to call the positive a degree of comparison2 on the ground1 that it does not imply either comparison1 or degree4 ,but no quality can exist1 without existing in some degree3 and1 though the positive is very frequently used without reference to any other degree2 as it is the standard1 with which other degrees of the quality are compared1 it is certainly an essential object of the comparison4 ,while these critics allow only two degrees1 we might in fact with more propriety say1 that there are five3 #a1 the quality in its standard state1 or positive degree2 as wise3 #b1 in a higher state1 or the comparative ascending2 more wise3 #c1 in a lower1 or the comparative descending2 less wise3 #d1 in the highest state1 or superlative ascending2 most wise3 #e1 in the lowest state1 or superlative descending2 least wise4 ,all grammarians1 however1 agree about the things themselves1 and the forms used to express them2 though they differ about the names1 by which these forms should be called3 and as those names are practically best1 which tend least to perplex the learner1 ,i see no good reason here for deviating from what has been established by long custom4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bca4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,churchill here writes plausibly enough1 but it will be seen1 both from his explanation1 and from the foregoing definitions of the degrees of comparison1 that there are but three4 ,the comparative and the superlative may each be distinguishable into the ascending and the descending1 as often as we prefer the adverbial form to the regular variation of the adjective itself2 but this imposes no necessity of classing and defining them otherwise than simply as the comparative and the superlative4 ,the assumption of two comparatives and two superlatives1 is not only contrary to the universal practice of the teachers of grammar2 but there is this conclusive argument against it--that the regular method of comparison has no degrees of diminution1 and the form which has such degrees1 is no inflection of the adjective4 ,if there is any exception1 it is in the words1 small1 smaller1 smallest1 and little1 less1 least4 ,but of the smallness or littleness1 considered abstractly1 these1 like all others1 are degrees of increase1 and not of diminution4 ,smaller is as completely opposite to less small1 as wiser is to less wise4 ,less itself is a comparative descending1 only when it diminishes some other quality3 less little1 if the phrase were proper1 must needs be nearly equivalent to greater or more4 ,churchill1 however1 may be quite right in the following remark3 ,the comparative ascending of an adjective1 and the comparative descending of an adjective expressing the opposite quality1 are often considered synonymous1 by those who do not discriminate nicely between ideas4 ,but less imprudent does not imply precisely the same thing as more prudent2 or more brave1 the same as less cowardly4--,new ,gram41 p4 #bca4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the definitions which ,i have given of the three degrees of comparison1 are new4 ,in short1 ,i know not whether any other grammarian has ever given what may justly be called a definition1 of any one of them4 ,here1 as in most other parts of grammar1 loose remarks1 ill-written and untrue assertions1 have sufficed4 ,the explanations found in many ,english grammars are the following3 ,the positive state expresses the quality of an object1 without any increase or diminution2 as1 good1 wise1 great4 ,the comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification2 as1 wiser1 greater1 less wise4 ,the superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or the lowest degree2 as1 wisest1 greatest1 least wise4 ,the simple word1 or positive1 becomes the comparative by adding r or er2 and the superlative by adding st or est1 to the end of it4 ,and the adverbs more and most1 placed before the adjective1 have the same effect2 as1 wise1 more wise1 most wise4--,murray's ,grammar1 #b;d ,ed41 #agif1 p4 #dg4 ,if a man wished to select some striking example of bad writing--of thoughts ill conceived1 and not well expressed--he could not do better than take the foregoing3 provided his auditors knew enough of grammar to answer the four simple questions here involved2 namely1 ,what is the positive degree8 ,what is the comparative degree8 ,what is the superlative degree8 ,how are adjectives regularly compared8 ,to these questions ,i shall furnish direct answers1 which the reader may compare with such as he can derive from the foregoing citation3 the last two sentences of which ,murray ought to have credited to ,dr4 ,lowth2 for he copied them literally1 except that he says1 the adverbs more ,,and most1 for the ,doctor's phrase1 the adverbs more ,,or most4 ,see the whole also in ,kirkham's ,grammar1 p4 #gb2 in ,ingersoll's1 p4 #ce2 in ,alger's1 p4 #ba2 in ,bacon's1 p4 #ah2 in ,russell's1 p4 #ad2 in ,hamlin's1 p4 #bb2 in ,j4 ,m4 ,putnam's1 p4 #cc2 in ,s4 ,putnam's1 p4 #bj2 in ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 p4 #ea2 in ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith's1 p4 #bj4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,in the five short sentences quoted above1 there are more errors1 than can possibly be enumerated in ten times the space4 ,for example3 7#a47 ,if one should say of a piece of iron1 ,it grows cold or hot very rapidly1 cold and hot could not be in the positive state1 as they define it3 because1 either the quality or the object1 7,i know not which17 is represented by them as without any increase or diminution2 and this would not1 in the present case1 be true of either2 for iron changes in bulk1 by a change of temperature4 7#b47 ,what1 in the first sentence1 is erroneously called the positive state1 in the second and the third1 is called1 the positive degree2 and this again1 in the fourth1 is falsely identified with the simple word4 ,now1 if we suppose the meaning to be1 that the positive state1 the positive degree1 or the simple word1 is without any increase or diminution2 this is expressly contradicted by three sentences out of the five1 and implicitly1 by one of the others4 7#c47 ,not one of these sentences is true1 in the most obvious sense of the words1 if in any other2 and yet the doctrines they were designed to teach1 may have been1 in general1 correctly gathered from the examples4 7#d47 ,the phrase1 positive in signification1 is not intelligible in the sense intended1 without a comma after positive2 and yet1 in an armful of different ,english grammars which contain the passage1 ,i find not one that has a point in that place4 7#e47 ,it is not more correct to say1 that the comparative or the superlative degree1 increases or lessens the positive1 than it would be to aver1 that the plural number increases or lessens the singular1 or the feminine gender1 the masculine4 ,nor does the superlative mean1 what a certain learned ,doctor understands by it--namely1 the greatest or least possible degree4 ,if it did1 the thickest parts of his skull1 for example1 would imply small room for brains2 the thinnest1 protect them ill1 if there were any4 7#f47 ,it is improper to say1 ,the simple word becomes the comparative by adding r or er2 and the superlative by adding st or est4 ,the thought is wrong2 and nearly all the words are misapplied2 as1 simple for primitive1 adding for assuming1 c4 7#g47 ,nor is it very wise to say1 the adverbs more and most1 placed before the adjective1 have the same effect3 because it ought to be known1 that the effect of the one is very different from that of the other6 ,the same effect1 cannot here be taken for any effect previously described2 unless we will have it to be1 that these words1 more and most1 become comparative by adding r or er2 and the superlative by adding st or est1 to the end of them3 all of which is grossly absurd4 7#h47 ,the repetition of the word degree1 in saying1 ,the superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree1 is a disagreeable tautology4 ,besides1 unless it involves the additional error of presenting the same word in different senses1 it makes one degree swell or diminish an other to itself2 whereas1 in the very next sentence1 this singular agency is forgotten1 and a second equally strange takes its place3 ,the positive becomes the superlative by adding st or est1 to the end of it2 i4 e41 to the end of itself4 ,nothing can be more ungrammatical1 than is much of the language by which grammar itself is now professedly taught6 ,,obs4 #e4--;,it has been almost universally assumed by grammarians1 that the positive degree is the only standard to which the other degrees can refer2 though many seem to think1 that the superlative always implies or includes the comparative1 and is consequently inapplicable when only two things are spoken of4 ,neither of these positions is involved in any of the definitions which ,i have given above4 ,the reader may think what he will about these points1 after observing the several ways in which each form may be used4 ,in the phrases1 greater than ,solomon1--more than a bushel1--later than one o'clock1 it is not immediately obvious that the positives great1 much1 and late1 are the real terms of contrast4 ,and how is it in the ,latin phrases1 ,dulcior melle1 sweeter than honey1--,prstantior auro1 better than gold8 ,these authors will resolve all such phrases thus3 greater1 than ,solomon was great1--more1 than a bushel is much1 c4 ,as the conjunction than never governs the objective case1 it seems necessary to suppose an ellipsis of some verb after the noun which follows it as above2 and possibly the foregoing solution1 uncouth as it seems1 may1 for the ,english idiom1 be the true one3 as1 ,my ,father is greater than ,i4--,john1 xiv1 #bh4 ,that is1 ,my ,father is greater than ,i am2--or1 perhaps1 than ,i am great4 ,but if it appear that some degree of the same quality must always be contrasted with the comparative1 there is still room to question whether this degree must always be that which we call the positive4 ,cicero1 in exile1 wrote to his wife3 ,ego autem hoc miserior sum1 quam tu1 qu es miserrima1 quod ipsa calamitas communis est utriusque nostrm1 sed culpa mea propria est4--,epist4 ad ,fam41 xiv1 #c4 ,but in this ,i am more wretched1 than thou1 who art most wretched1 that the calamity itself is common to us both1 but the fault is all my own4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,in my ,institutes and ,first ,lines of ,english ,grammar1 ,i used the following brief definitions3 ,the comparative degree is that which exceeds the positive2 as1 harder1 softer1 better4 ,the superlative degree is that which is not exceeded2 as1 hardest1 softest1 best4 ,and it is rather for the sake of suggesting to the learner the peculiar application of each of these degrees1 than from any decided dissatisfaction with these expressions1 that ,i now present others4 ,the first1 however1 proceeds upon the common supposition1 that the comparative degree of a quality1 ascribed to any object1 must needs be contrasted with the positive in some other1 or with the positive in the same at an other time4 ,this idea may be plausibly maintained1 though it is certain that the positive term referred to1 is seldom1 if ever1 allowed to appear4 ,besides1 the comparative or the superlative may appear1 and in such a manner as to be1 or seem to be1 in the point of contrast4 ,thus3 ,objects near our view are apt to be thought greater than those of a larger size1 that are more remote4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #ahf4 ,upon the principle above1 the explanation here must be1 that the meaning is--greater than those of a larger size are thought great4 ,the poor man that loveth ,christ1 is richer than the richest man in the world1 that hates him4--,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress1 p4 #hf4 ,this must be richer than the richest man is rich4 ,the riches contemplated here1 are of different sorts2 and the comparative or the superlative of one sort1 may be exceeded by either of these degrees of an other sort1 though the same epithet be used for both4 ,so in the following instances3 ,he that is higher than the highest regardeth2 and there be higher than they4--,eccl41 v1 #h4 ,that is1 ,he that is higher than the highest earthly dignitaries1 regardeth2 and there are higher authorities than these4 ,fairer than aught imagined else fairest4--,pollok4 ,sadder than saddest night4--,byron4 ,it is evident that the superlative degree is not1 in general1 that which cannot be exceeded1 but that which1 in the actual state of the things included1 is not exceeded4 ,again1 as soon as any given comparative or superlative is1 by a further elevation or intension of the quality1 surpassed and exceeded1 that particular degree1 whatever it was1 becomes merely positive2 for the positive degree of a quality1 though it commonly includes the very lowest measure1 and is understood to exceed nothing1 may at any time equal the very highest4 ,there is no paradox in all this1 which is not also in the following simple examples3 ,easier1 indeed1 ,i was1 but far from easy4--,cowper's ,life1 p4 #ej4 ,who canst the wisest wiser make1 ,and babes as wise as they4--,cowper's ,poems4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the relative nature of these degrees deserves to be further illustrated4 7#a47 ,it is plain1 that the greatest degree of a quality in one thing1 may be less than the least in an other2 and1 consequently1 that the least degree in one thing1 may be greater than the greatest in an other4 ,thus1 the heaviest wood is less heavy than the lightest of the metals2 and the least valuable of the metals is perhaps of more value than the choicest wood4 7#b47 ,the comparative degree may increase upon itself1 and be repeated to show the gradation4 ,thus1 a man may ascend into the air with a balloon1 and rise higher1 and higher1 and higher1 and higher1 till he is out of sight4 ,this is no uncommon form of expression1 and the intension is from comparative to comparative4 7#c47 ,if a ladder be set up for use1 one of its rounds will be the highest1 and one other will be the lowest1 or least high4 ,and as that which is highest1 is higher than all the rest1 so every one will be higher than all below it4 ,the higher rounds1 if spoken of generally1 and without definite contrast1 will be those in the upper half2 the lower rounds1 referred to in like manner1 will be those in the lower half1 or those not far from the ground4 ,the highest rounds1 or the lowest1 if we indulge such latitude of speech1 will be those near the top or the bottom2 there being1 absolutely1 or in strictness of language1 but one of each4 7#d47 ,if the highest round be removed1 or left uncounted1 the next becomes the highest1 though not so high as the former4 ,for every one is the highest of the number which it completes4 ,all admit this1 till we come to three4 ,and1 as the third is the highest of the three1 ,i see not why the second is not properly the highest of the two4 ,yet nearly all our grammarians condemn this phrase1 and prefer the higher of the two4 ,but can they give a reason for their preference8 ,that the comparative degree is implied between the positive and the superlative1 so that there must needs be three terms before the latter is applicable1 is a doctrine which ,i deny4 ,and if the second is the higher of the two1 because it is higher than the first2 is it not also the highest of the two1 because it completes the number8 7#e47 ,it is to be observed1 too1 that as our ordinal numeral first1 denoting the one which begins a series1 and having reference of course to more1 is an adjective of the superlative degree1 equivalent to foremost1 of which it is perhaps a contraction2 so last likewise1 though no numeral1 is a superlative also4 7#f47 ,these1 like other superlatives1 admit of a looser application1 and may possibly include more than one thing at the beginning or at the end of a series3 as1 ,the last years of man are often helpless1 like the first4 7#g47 ,with undoubted propriety1 we may speak of the first two1 the last two1 the first three1 the last three1 c42 but to say1 the two first1 the two last1 c41 with this meaning1 is obviously and needlessly inaccurate4 ,the two first men in the nation1 may1 ,i admit1 be good ,english2 but it can properly be meant only of the two most eminent4 ,in specifying any part of a series1 we ought rather to place the cardinal number after the ordinal4 7#h47 ,many of the foregoing positions apply generally1 to almost all adjectives that are susceptible of comparison4 ,thus1 it is a common saying1 ,take the best first1 and all will be best4 ,that is1 remove that degree which is now superlative1 and the epithet will descend to an other1 the next best4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,it is a common assumption1 maintained by almost all our grammarians1 that the degrees which add to the adjective the terminations er and est1 as well as those which are expressed by more and most1 indicate an increase1 or heightening1 of the quality expressed by the positive4 ,if such must needs be their import1 it is certainly very improper1 to apply them1 as many do1 to what can be only an approximation to the positive4 ,thus ,dr4 ,blair3 ,nothing that belongs to human nature1 is more universal than the relish of beauty of one kind or other4--,lectures1 p4 #af4 ,in architecture1 the ,grecian models were long esteemed the most perfect4--,ib41 p4 #bj4 ,again3 ,in his reprehension of ,capernaum1 the ,saviour said1 ,it shall be more tolerable for the land of ,sodom1 in the day of judgement1 than for thee4--,matt41 xi1 #bd4 ,now1 although ,greek3 anektoteron1 more tolerable1 is in itself a good comparative1 who would dare infer from this text1 that in the day of judgement ,capernaum shall fare tolerably1 and ,sodom1 still better8 ,there is much reason to think1 that the essential nature of these grammatical degrees has not been well understood by those who have heretofore pretended to explain them4 ,if we except those few approximations to sensible qualities1 which are signified by such words as whitish1 greenish1 c41 there will be found no actual measure1 or inherent degree of any quality1 to which the simple form of the adjective is not applicable2 or which1 by the help of intensive adverbs of a positive character1 it may not be made to express2 and that1 too1 without becoming either comparative or superlative1 in the technical sense of those terms4 ,thus very white1 exceedingly white1 perfectly white1 are terms quite as significant as whiter and whitest1 if not more so4 ,some grammarians1 observing this1 and knowing that the ,romans often used their superlative in a sense merely intensive1 as altissimus for very high1 have needlessly divided our ,english superlative into two1 the definite1 and the indefinite2 giving the latter name to that degree which we mark by the adverb very1 and the former to that which alone is properly called the superlative4 ,churchill does this3 while1 7as we have seen above17 in naming the degrees1 he pretends to prefer what has been established by long custom4--,new ,gram41 p4 #bca4 ,by a strange oversight also1 he failed to notice1 that this doctrine interferes with his scheme of five degrees1 and would clearly furnish him with six3 to which if he had chosen to add the imperfect degree of ,dr4 ,webster1 7as whitish1 greenish1 c417 which is recognized by ,johnson1 ,murray1 and others1 he might have had seven4 ,but ,i hope my readers will by-and-by believe there is no need of more than three4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the true nature of the ,comparative degree is this3 it denotes either some excess or some relative deficiency of the quality1 when one thing or party is compared with an other1 in respect to what is in both3 as1 ,because the foolishness of ,god is wiser than men2 and the weakness of ,god is stronger than men4--#a ,cor41 i1 #be4 ,few languages are1 in fact1 more copious than the ,english4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #hg4 ,our style is less compact than that of the ancients4--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,they are counted to him less than nothing and vanity4--,isaiah1 xl1 #ag4 ,as the comparatives in a long series are necessarily many1 and some of them higher than others1 it may be asked1 ,how can the comparative degree1 in this case1 be merely 'that which exceeds the positive8' ,or1 as our common grammarians prompt me here to say1 ,may not the comparative degree increase or lessen the comparative1 in signification8 ,the latter form of the question they may answer for themselves2 remembering that the comparative may advance from the comparative1 step by step1 from the second article in the series to the utmost4 ,thus1 three is a higher or greater number than two2 but four is higher than three2 five1 than four2 and so on1 ad infinitum4 ,my own form of the question ,i answer thus3 ,the highest of the higher is not higher than the rest are higher1 but simply higher than they are high4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the true nature of the ,superlative degree is this3 it denotes1 in a quality1 some extreme or unsurpassed extent4 ,it may be used either absolutely1 as being without bounds2 or relatively1 as being confined within any limits we choose to give it4 ,it is equally applicable to that which is naturally unsurpassable1 and to that which stands within the narrowest limits of comparison4 ,the heaviest of three feathers would scarcely be thought a heavy thing1 and yet the expression is proper2 because the weight1 whatever it is1 is relatively the greatest4 ,the youngest of three persons1 may not be very young2 nor need we suppose the oldest in a whole college to have arrived at the greatest conceivable age4 ,what then shall be thought of the explanations which our grammarians have given of this degree of comparison8 ,that of ,murray ,i have already criticised4 ,it is ascribed to him1 not upon the supposition that he invented it2 but because common sense continues to give place to the authority of his name in support of it4 ,comly1 ,russell1 ,alger1 ,ingersoll1 ,greenleaf1 ,fisk1 ,merchant1 ,kirkham1 ,t4 ,smith1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,hall1 ,hiley1 and many others1 have copied it into their grammars1 as being better than any definition they could devise4 ,murray himself unquestionably took it from some obscure pedagogue among the old grammarians4 ,buchanan1 who long preceded him1 has nearly the same words3 ,the ,superlative increases or diminishes the ,positive in ,signification1 to the highest or the lowest ,degree of all4--,english ,syntax1 p4 #bh4 ,if this is to be taken for a grammatical definition1 what definition shall grammar itself bear8 ,,obs4 #aa4--,let us see whether our later authors have done better4 ,the superlative expresses a quality in the greatest or the least possible degree2 as1 wisest1 coldest1 least wise4--,webster's ,old ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,in his later speculations1 this author conceives that the termination ish forms the first degree of comparison2 as1 ,imperfect1 dankish1 ,pos4 dank1 ,comp4 danker1 ,superl4 dankest4 ,there are therefore four degrees of comparison4--,webster's ,philosophical ,gram4 p4 #fe4 ,the fourth denotes the utmost or the least degree of a quality2 as1 bravest1 wisest1 poorest1 smallest4 ,this is called the superlative degree4--,ib42 also his ,improved ,gram41 #ahca1 p4 #dg4 ,this degree is called the ,superlative degree1 from its raising the amount of the quality above that of all others4--,webber's ,gram41 #ahcb1 p4 #bf4 ,it is not easy to quote1 from any source1 a worse sentence than this2 if1 indeed1 so strange a jumble of words can be called a sentence4 ,from its raising the amount1 is in itself a vicious and untranslatable phrase1 here put for because it raises the amount2 and who can conceive of the superlative degree1 as raising the amount of the quality above that of all other qualities8 ,or1 if it be supposed to mean1 above the amount of all other degrees1 what is this amount8 ,is it that of one and one1 the positive and the comparative added numerically8 or is it the sum of all the quantities which these may indicate8 ,perhaps the author meant1 above the amount of all other amounts4 ,if none of these absurdities is here taught1 nothing is taught1 and the words are nonsense4 ,again3 ,the superlative degree increases or diminishes the positive to the highest or the lowest degree of which it is susceptible4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #di4 ,the superlative degree is generally formed by adding st or est to the positive2 and denotes the greatest excess4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,the ,superlative increases or diminishes the ,signification of the ,positive or ,adjective1 to a very high or a very low ,degree4--,british ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,what excess of skill1 or what very high degree of acuteness1 have the brightest and best of these grammarians exhibited8 ,there must be some1 if their definitions are true4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the common assertion of the grammarians1 that the superlative degree is not applicable to two objects1#agg is not only unsupported by any reason in the nature of things1 but it is contradicted in practice by almost every man who affirms it4 ,thus ,maunder3 ,when only two persons or things are spoken of comparatively1 to use the superlative is improper3 as1 ',deborah1 my dear1 give those two boys a lump of sugar each2 and let ,dick's be the largest1 because he spoke first4' ,this1 says the critic1 should have been 'larger4'--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,it is true1 the comparative might here have been used2 but the superlative is clearer1 and more agreeable to custom4 ,and how can largest be wrong1 if first is right8 ,let ,dick's be the larger1 because he spoke sooner1 borders too much upon a different idea1 that of proportion2 as when we say1 ,the sooner the better1--,the more the merrier4 ,so ,blair3 ,when only two things are compared1 the comparative degree should be used1 and not the superlative4--,practical ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,a ,trochee has the first syllable accented1 and the last unaccented4--,ib41 p4 #aah4 ,an ,iambus has the first syllable unaccented1 and the last accented4--,ibid4 ,these two examples are found also in ,jamieson's ,rhetoric1 p4 #cje2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bec2 ,kirkham's1 #bai2 ,bullions's1 #afi2 ,guy's1 #abj2 ,merchant's1 #aff4 ,so ,hiley3 ,when two persons or things are compared1 the comparative degree must be employed4 ,when three or more persons or things are compared1 the superlative must be used4--,treatise on ,english ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,contradiction in practice3 ,thomas is wiser than his brothers4--,ib41 p4 #gi4 ,are not three or more persons here compared by the comparative wiser8 ,in an ,iambus the first syllable is unaccented4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,an iambus has but two syllables2 and this author expressly teaches that first is superlative4--,ib41 p4 #ba4 ,so ,sanborn3 ,the positive degree denotes the simple form of an adjective without any variation of meaning4 ,the comparative degree increases or lessens the meaning of the positive1 and denotes a comparison between two persons or things4 ,the superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the greatest extent1 and denotes a comparison between more than two persons or things4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #cj and p4 #hf4 ,these pretended definitions of the degrees of comparison embrace not only the absurdities which ,i have already censured in those of our common grammars1 but several new ones peculiar to this author4 ,of the inconsistency of his doctrine and practice1 take the following examples3 ,which of two bodies1 that move with the same velocity1 will exercise the greatest power8--,ib41 p4 #ic2 and again1 p4 #bjc1 ',i was offered a dollar2'--',a dollar was offered 7to7 me4' ,the first form should always be avoided4--,ib41 p4 #abg4 ,nouns in apposition generally annex the sign of the possessive case to the last2 as1 ',for ,david my servant's sake4'--',john the ,baptist's head4' ,bible4--,ib41 p4 #aig4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,so ,murray3 ,we commonly say1 ',this is the weaker of the two2' or1 ',the weakest of the two2'#agh but the former is the regular mode of expression1 because there are only two things compared4--,octavo ,gram41 i1 #afg4 ,what then of the following example3 ,which of those two persons has most distinguished himself8--,ib41 ,key1 ii1 #ahg4 ,again1 in treating of the adjectives this and that1 the same hand writes thus3 ,this refers to the nearest person or thing1 and that to the most distant3 as1 ',this man is more intelligent than that4' ,this indicates the latter1 or last mentioned2 that1 the former1 or first mentioned3 as1 ',both wealth and poverty are temptations2 that tends to excite pride1 this1 discontent4'--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #ef4 ,in the former part of this example1 the superlative is twice applied where only two things are spoken of2 and1 in the latter1 it is twice made equivalent to the comparative1 with a like reference4 ,the following example shows the same equivalence3 ,this refers to the last mentioned or nearer thing1 that to the first mentioned or more distant thing4--,webber's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,so ,churchill3 ,the superlative should not be used1 when only two persons or things are compared4--,new ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,in the first of these two sentences4--,ib41 p4 #afb2 ,lowth1 p4 #abj4 ,according to the rule1 it should have been1 ,in the former of these two sentences2 but this would be here ambiguous1 because former might mean maker4 ,when our sentence consists of two members1 the longest should1 generally1 be the concluding one4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aag3 and ,jamieson's1 p4 #ii4 ,the shortest member being placed first1 we carry it more readily in our memory as we proceed to the second4--,ib41 ,ib4 ,pray consider us1 in this respect1 as the weakest sex4--,spect41 ,no4 #ecc4 ,in this last sentence1 the comparative1 weaker1 would perhaps have been better2 because1 not an absolute1 but merely a comparative weakness is meant4 ,so ,latham and ,child3 ,it is better1 in speaking of only two objects1 to use the comparative degree rather than the superlative1 even1 where we use the article the4 ,this is the better of the two1 is preferable to this is the best of the two4--,elementary ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,such is their rule2 but very soon they forget it1 and write thus3 ,in this case the relative refers to the last of the two4--,ib41 p4 #afc4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,hyperboles are very commonly expressed by comparatives or superlatives2 as1 ,my little finger shall be thicker than my father's loins4--#a ,kings1 xii1 #aj4 ,unto me1 who am less than the least of all saints1 is this grace given4--,ephesians1 iii1 #h4 ,sometimes1 in thus heightening or lowering the object of his conception1 the writer falls into a catachresis1 solecism1 or abuse of the grammatical degrees2 as1 ,mustard-seed--which is less than all the seeds that be in the earth4--,mark1 iv1 #ca4 ,this expression is objectionable1 because mustard-seed is a seed1 and cannot be less than itself2 though that which is here spoken of1 may perhaps have been the least of all seeds3 and it is the same ,greek phrase1 that is thus rendered in ,matt1 xiii1 #cb4 ,murray has inserted in his ,exercises1 among unintelligible and inconsistent words and phrases1 the following example from ,milton3 ,and1 in the lowest deep1 a lower deep ,still threat'ning to devour me1 opens wide4--,exercises1 p4 #abb4 ,for this supposed inconsistency1 ho proposes in his ,key the following amendment3 ,and1 in the lower deep1 another deep ,still threat'ning to devour me1 opens wide4--,key1 p4 #bed4 ,but1 in an other part of his book1 he copies from ,dr4 ,blair the same passage1 with commendation3 saying1 ,the following sentiments of ,satan in ,milton1 as strongly as they are described1 contain nothing but what is natural and proper3 ',me miserable6 which way shall ,i fly ,infinite wrath1 and infinite despair8 ,which way ,i fly is ,hell2 myself am ,hell2 ,and in the lowest depth1 a lower deep1 ,still threat'ning to devour me1 opens wide1 ,to which the ,hell ,i suffer seems a ,heaven4' ,p4 ,lost1 ,b4 iv1 l4 #gc4 ,blair's ,lectures1 p4 #aec2 ,murray's ,grammar1 p4 #ceb4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,milton's word1 in the fourth line above1 is deep1 and not depth1 as these authors here give it3 nor was it very polite in them1 to use a phraseology which comes so near to saying1 the devil was in the poet4 ,alas for grammar6 accuracy in its teachers has become the most rare of all qualifications4 ,as for ,murray's correction above1 ,i see not how it can please any one who chooses to think ,hell a place of great depth4 ,a descent into his lower deep and other deep1 might be a plunge less horrible than two or three successive slides in one of our western caverns6 ,but ,milton supposes the arch-fiend might descend to the lowest imaginable depth of ,hell1 and there be liable to a still further fall of more tremendous extent4 ,fall whither8 ,into the horrid and inconceivable profundity of the bottomless pit6 ,what signifies it1 to object to his language as unintelligible if it conveys his idea better than any other could8 ,in no human conception of what is infinite1 can there be any real exaggeration4 ,to amplify beyond the truth1 is here impossible4 ,nor is there any superlation which can fix a limit to the idea of more and more in infinitude4 ,whatever literal absurdity there may be in it1 the duplication seems greatly to augment what was even our greatest conception of the thing4 ,homer1 with a like figure1 though expressed in the positive degree1 makes ,jupiter threaten any rebel god1 that he shall be thrown down from ,olympus1 to suffer the burning pains of the ,tartarean gulf2 not in the centre1 but1 ,as deep beneath th' infernal centre hurl'd1 ,as from that centre to th' ethereal world4 --,pope's ,iliad1 ,b4 viii1 l4 #ai4 ,,regular ,,comparison4 ,adjectives are regularly compared1 when the comparative degree is expressed by adding er1 and the superlative1 by adding est to them3 as1 ,pos41 great1 ,comp41 greater1 ,superl41 greatest2 ,pos41 mild1 ,comp41 milder1 ,superl41 mildest4 ,in the variation of adjectives1 final consonants are doubled1 final e is omitted1 and final y is changed to i1 agreeably to the rules for spelling3 as1 hot1 hotter1 hottest2 wide1 wider1 widest2 happy1 happier1 happiest4 ,the regular method of comparison belongs almost exclusively to monosyllables1 with dissyllables ending in w or y1 and such others as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent3 as1 fierce1 fiercer1 fiercest2 narrow1 narrower1 narrowest2 gloomy1 gloomier1 gloomiest2 serene1 serener1 serenest2 noble1 nobler1 noblest2 gentle1 gentler1 gentlest4 ,,comparison ,,by ,,adverbs4 ,the two degrees of superiority may also be expressed with precisely the same import as above1 by prefixing to the adjective the adverbs more and most3 as1 wise1 more wise1 most wise2 famous1 more famous1 most famous2 amiable1 more amiable1 most amiable4 ,the degrees of inferiority are expressed1 in like manner1 by the adverbs less and least3 as1 wise1 less wise1 least wise2 famous1 less famous1 least famous2 amiable1 less amiable1 least amiable4 ,the regular method of comparison has1 properly speaking1 no degrees of this kind4 ,nearly all adjectives that admit of different degrees1 may be compared by means of the adverbs2 but1 for short words1 the regular method is generally preferable3 as1 quick1 quicker1 quickest2 rather than1 quick1 more quick1 most quick4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the genius of our language is particularly averse to the lengthening of long words by additional syllables2 and1 in the comparison of adjectives1 er and est always add a syllable to the word1 except it end in le after a mute4 ,thus1 free1 freer1 freest1 increases syllabically2 but ample1 ampler1 amplest1 does not4 ,whether any particular adjective admits of comparison or not1 is a matter of reasoning from the sense of the term2 by which method it shall be compared1 is in some degree a matter of taste2 though custom has decided that long words shall not be inflected1 and for the shorter1 there is generally an obvious bias in favour of one form rather than the other4 ,dr4 ,johnson says1 ,the comparison of adjectives is very uncertain2 and being much regulated by commodiousness of utterance1 or agreeableness of sound1 is not easily reduced to rules4 ,monosyllables are commonly compared4 ,polysyllables1 or words of more than two syllables1 are seldom compared otherwise than by more and most4 ,dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in full1 less1 ing1 ous1 ed1 id1 at1 ent1 ain1 or ive4--,gram4 of the ,english ,tongue1 p4 #f4 ,when the positive contains but one syllable1 the degrees are usually formed by adding er or est4 ,when the positive contains two syllables1 it is matter of taste which method you shall use in forming the degrees4 ,the ear is1 in this case1 the best guide4 ,but1 when the positive contains more than two syllables1 the degrees must be formed by the use of more and most4 ,we may say1 tenderer and tenderest1 pleasanter and pleasantest1 prettier and prettiest2 but who could endure delicater and delicatest8--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,quiet1 bitter1 clever1 sober1 and perhaps some others like them1 are still regularly compared2 but such words as secretest1 famousest1 virtuousest1 powerfullest1 which were used by ,milton1 have gone out of fashion4 ,the following1 though not very commonly used1 are perhaps allowable4 ,yet these are the two commonest occupations of mankind4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #dca4 ,their pleasantest walks throughout life must be guarded by armed men4--,ib41 i1 #dcg4 ,franklin possessed the rare talent of drawing useful lessons from the commonest occurrences4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #cbc4 ,unbidden guests are often welcomest when they are gone4--,,shak43 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,there was a lad1 th' unluckiest of his crew1 ,was still contriving something bad1 but new4--,,king3 ib4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,i make a distinction between the regular comparison by er and est1 and the comparison by adverbs2 because1 in a grammatical point of view1 these two methods are totally different3 the meaning1 though the same1 being expressed in the one case1 by an inflection of the adjective2 and in the other1 by a phrase consisting of two different parts of speech4 ,if the placing of an adverb before an adjective is to be called a grammatical modification or variation of the latter word1 we shall have many other degrees than those which are enumerated above4 ,the words may with much more propriety be parsed separately1 the degree being ascribed to the adverb--or1 if you please1 to both words1 for both are varied in sense by the inflection of the former4 ,the degrees in which qualities may exist in nature1 are infinitely various2 but the only degrees with which the grammarian is concerned1 are those which our variation of the adjective or adverb enables us to express--including1 as of course we must1 the state or sense of the primitive word1 as one4 ,the reasoning which would make the positive degree to be no degree1 would also make the nominative case1 or the casus rectus of the ,latins1 to be no case4 ,,obs4 #c4--,whenever the adjective itself denotes these degrees1 and is duly varied in form to express them1 they properly belong to it2 as1 worthy1 worthier1 worthiest4 7,though no apology can be made for the frequent error of confounding the degree of a quality1 with the verbal sign which expresses it47 ,if an adverb is employed for this purpose1 that also is compared1 and the two degrees thus formed or expressed1 are properly its own2 as1 worthy1 more worthy1 most worthy4 ,but these same degrees may be yet otherwise expressed2 as1 worthy1 in a higher degree worthy1 in the highest degree worthy4 ,here also the adjective worthy is virtually compared1 as before2 but only the adjective high is grammatically modified4 ,again1 we may form three degrees with several adverbs to each1 thus3 ,pos41 very truly worthy2 ,comp41 much more truly worthy2 ,sup41 much the most truly worthy4 ,there are also other adverbs1 which1 though not varied in themselves like much1 more1 most1 may nevertheless have nearly the same effect upon the adjective2 as1 worthy1 comparatively worthy1 superlatively worthy4 ,i make these remarks1 because many grammarians have erroneously parsed the adverbs more and most1 less and least1 as parts of the adjective4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,harris1 in his ,hermes1 or ,philosophical ,inquiry concerning ,universal ,grammar1 has very unceremoniously pronounced the doctrine of three degrees of comparison1 to be absurd2 and the author of the ,british ,grammar1 as he emotes the whole passage without offering any defence of that doctrine1 seems to second the allegation4 ,mr4 ,harris observes1 that1 ',there cannot well be more than two degrees2 one to denote simple excess1 and one to denote superlative4 ,were we indeed to introduce more degrees1 we ought perhaps to introduce infinite1 which is absurd4 ,for why stop at a limited number1 when in all subjects1 susceptible of intension1 the intermediate excesses are in a manner infinite8 ,there are infinite degrees of more white between the first simple white and the superlative whitest2 the same may be said of more great1 more strong1 more minute1 c4 ,the doctrine of grammarians about three such degrees1 which they call the ,positive1 the ,comparative1 and the ,superlative1 must needs be absurd2 both because in their ,positive there is no comparison at all1 and because their ,superlative is a ,comparative as much as their ,comparative itself4' ,hermes1 p4 #aig4--;,brit4 ,gram41 p4 #ih4 ,this objection is rashly urged4 ,no comparison can be imagined without bringing together as many as two terms1 and if the positive is one of these1 it is a degree of comparison2 though neither this nor the superlative is1 for that reason1 a ,comparative4 ,why we stop at three degrees1 ,i have already shown3 we have three forms1 and only three4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the termination ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of comparison1 by which the signification is diminished below the positive1 as black1 blackish1 or tending to blackness2 salt1 saltish1 or having a little taste of salt3#agi they therefore admit of no comparison4 ,this termination is seldom added but to words expressing sensible qualities1 nor often to words of above one syllable1 and is scarcely used in the solemn or sublime style4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram4 ,the first degree denotes a slight degree of the quality1 and is expressed by the termination ish2 as1 reddish1 brownish1 yellowish4 ,this may be denominated the imperfect degree of the attribute4--,dr4 ,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,i doubt the correctness of the view taken above by ,johnson1 and dissent entirely from ,webster1 about his first degree of comparison4 ,of adjectives in ish we have perhaps a hundred2 but nine out of ten of them are derived clearly from nouns1 as1 boyish1 girlish2 and who can prove that blackish1 saltish1 reddish1 brownish1 and yellowish1 are not also from the nouns1 black1 salt1 red1 brown1 and yellow8 or that a more reddish tinge1--a more saltish taste1 are not correct phrases8 ,there is1 ,i am persuaded1 no good reason for noticing this termination as constituting a degree of comparison4 ,all double comparisons are said to be ungrammatical2 but1 if ish forms a degree1 it is such a degree as may be compared again3 as1 ,and seem more learnedish than those ,that at a greater charge compose4--,butler4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,among the degrees of comparison1 some have enumerated that of equality2 as when we say1 ,it is as sweet as honey4 ,here is indeed a comparison1 but it is altogether in the positive degree1 and needs no other name4 ,this again refutes ,harris2 who says1 that in the positive there is no comparison at all4 ,but further3 it is plain1 that in this degree there may be comparisons of inequality also2 as1 ,molasses is not so sweet as honey4--,civility is not so slight a matter as it is commonly thought4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ib4 ,nay1 such comparisons may equal any superlative4 ,thus it is said1 ,i think1 in the ,life of ,robert ,hall3 ,probably no human being ever before suffered so much bodily pain4 ,what a preminence is here6 and yet the form of the adjective is only that of the positive degree4 ,nothing so uncertain as general reputation4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ej4 ,nothing so nauseous as undistinguishing civility4--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,these1 likewise1 would be strong expressions1 if they were correct ,english4 ,but1 to my apprehension1 every such comparison of equality involves a solecism1 when1 as it here happens1 the former term includes the latter4 ,the word nothing is a general negative1 and reputation is a particular affirmative4 ,the comparison of equality between them1 is therefore certainly improper3 because nothing cannot be equal to something2 and1 reputation being something1 and of course equal to itself1 the proposition is evidently untrue4 ,it ought to be1 ,nothing is more uncertain than general reputation4 ,this is the same as to say1 ,general reputation is as uncertain as any thing that can be named4 ,or else the former term should exempt the latter2 as4 ,nothing else--or1 ,no other thing1 is so uncertain as this popular honour1 public esteem1 or general reputation4 ,and so of all similar examples4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,in all comparisons1 care must be taken to adapt the terms to the degree which is expressed by the adjective or adverb4 ,the superlative degree requires that the object to which it relates1 be one of those with which it is compared2 as1 ,eve was the fairest of women4 ,the comparative degree1 on the contrary1 requires that the object spoken of be not included among those with which it is compared2 as1 ,eve was fairer than any of her daughters4 ,to take the inclusive term here1 and say1 ,eve was fairer than any woman1 would be no less absurd1 than ,milton's assertion1 that ,eve was the fairest of her daughters3 the former supposes that she was not a woman2 the latter1 that she was one of her own daughters4 ,but ,milton's solecism is double2 he makes ,adam one of his own sons3-- ,adam the goodliest man of men since born ,his sons1 the fairest of her daughters ,eve4--,p4 ,lost1 ,b4 iv1 l4 #cbd4 ,,obs4 #h4--,such adjectives1 says ,churchill1 as have in themselves a superlative signification1 or express qualities not susceptible of degrees1 do not properly admit either the comparative or the superlative form4 ,under this rule may be included all adjectives with a negative prefix4--,new ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,again3 ,as immediate signifies instant1 present with regard to time1 ,prior should not have written 'more immediate4' ,dr4 ,johnson4--,ib41 p4 #bcc4 ,hooker has unaptest2 ,locke1 more uncorrupted2 ,holder1 more undeceivable3 for these the proper expressions would have been the opposite signs without the negation3 least apt1 less corrupted1 less deceivable4 ,watts speaks of 'a most unpassable barrier4' ,if he had simply said 'an unpassable barrier1' we should have understood it at once in the strongest sense1 as a barrier impossible to be surmounted3 but1 by attempting to express something more1 he gives an idea of something less2 we perceive1 that his unpassable means difficult to pass4 ,this is the mischief of the propensity to exaggeration2 which1 striving after strength1 sinks into weakness4--,ib41 p4 #bcd4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the foregoing remarks from ,churchill appear in general to have been dictated by good sense2 but1 if his own practice is right1 there must be some exceptions to his rule respecting the comparison of adjectives with a negative prefix2 for1 in the phrase less imprudent1 which1 according to a passage quoted before1 he will have to be different from more prudent1 he himself furnishes an example of such comparison4 ,in fact1 very many words of that class are compared by good writers3 as1 ,nothing is more unnecessary4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 v4 ,what is yet more unaccountable4--,,rogers3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,it is hard to determine which is most uneligible4--,id41 ib4 ,where it appears the most unbecoming and unnatural4--,,addison3 ib4 ,men of the best sense and of the most unblemished lives4--,id41 ib4 ,march and ,september are the most unsettled and unequable of seasons4--,,bentley3 ib4 ,barcelona was taken by a most unexpected accident4--,,swift3 ib4 ,the most barren and unpleasant4--,,woodward3 ib4 ,o good1 but most unwise patricians6--,,shak43 ib4 ,more unconstant than the wind4--,id41 ib4 ,we may say more or less imperfect4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afh4 ,some of those passions which act with the most irresistible energy upon the hearts of mankind1 are altogether omitted in the catalogue of ,aristotle4--,adams's ,rhet41 i1 #chj4 ,the wrong of him who presumes to talk of owning me1 is too unmeasured to be softened by kindness4--,channing1 on ,emancipation1 p4 #eb4 ,which1 we are sensible1 are more inconclusive than the rest4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cai4 ,ere yet the salt of most unrighteous tears ,had left the flushing in her galled eyes4--,shak4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,comparison must not be considered a general property of adjectives4 ,it belongs chiefly to the class which ,i call common adjectives1 and is by no means applicable to all of these4 ,common adjectives1 or epithets denoting quality1 are perhaps more numerous than all the other classes put together4 ,many of these1 and a few that are pronominal1 may be varied by comparison2 and some participial adjectives may be compared by means of the adverbs4 ,but adjectives formed from proper names1 all the numerals1 and most of the compounds1 are in no way susceptible of comparison4 ,all nouns used adjectively1 as an iron bar1 an evening school1 a mahogany chair1 a ,south-,sea dream1 are also incapable of comparison4 ,in the title of ,his ,most ,christian ,majesty1 the superlative adverb is applied to a proper adjective2 but who will pretend that we ought to understand by it the highest degree of ,christian attainment8 ,it might seem uncourtly to suggest that this is an abuse of the king's ,english1 ,i shall therefore say no such thing4 ,pope compares the word ,christian1 in the following couplet3-- ,go1 purified by flames ascend the sky1 ,my better and more ,christian progeny4--,dunciad1 ,b4 i1 l4 #bbg4 ,,irregular ,,comparison4 ,the following adjectives are compared irregularly3 good1 better1 best2 bad1 evil1 or ill1 worse1 worst2 little1 less1 least2 much1 more1 most2 many1 more1 most4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,in ,english1 and also in ,latin1 most adjectives that denote place or situation1 not only form the superlative irregularly1 but are also either defective or redundant in comparison4 ,thus3 ,i4 ,the following nine have more than one superlative3 far1 farther1 farthest1 farmost1 or farthermost2 near1 nearer1 nearest or next2 fore1 former1 foremost or first2 hind1 hinder1 hindmost or hindermost2 in1 inner1 inmost or innermost2 out1 outer1 or utter1 outmost or utmost1 outermost or uttermost2 up1 upper1 upmost or uppermost2 low1 lower1 lowest or lowermost2 late1 later or latter1 latest or last4 ,,ii4 ,the following five want the positive3 aft1 adv41 after1 aftmost or aftermost2 forth1 adv41 formerly furth1#ahj further1 furthest or furthermost2 hither1 hithermost2 nether1 nethermost2 under1 undermost4 ,,iii4 ,the following want the comparative3 front1 frontmost2 rear1 rearmost2 head1 headmost2 end1 endmost2 top1 topmost2 bottom1 bottommost2 mid or middle1 midst1#aha midmost or middlemost2 north1 northmost2 south1 southmost2 east1 eastmost2 west1 westmost2 northern1 northernmost2 southern1 southernmost2 eastern1 easternmost2 western1 westernmost4 ,,obs4 #b4--,many of these irregular words are not always used as adjectives1 but oftener as nouns1 adverbs1 or prepositions4 ,the sense in which they are employed1 will show to what class they belong4 ,the terms fore and hind1 front and rear1 right and left1 in and out1 high and low1 top and bottom1 up and down1 upper and under1 mid and after1 all but the last pair1 are in direct contrast with each other4 ,many of them are often joined in composition with other words2 and some1 when used as adjectives of place1 are rarely separated from their nouns3 as1 inland1 outhouse1 mid-sea1 after-ages4 ,practice is here so capricious1 ,i find it difficult to determine whether the compounding of these terms is proper or not4 ,it is a case about which he that inquires most1 may perhaps be most in doubt4 ,if the joining of the words prevents the possibility of mistaking the adjective for a preposition1 it prevents also the separate classification of the adjective and the noun1 and thus in some sense destroys the former by making the whole a noun4 ,dr4 ,webster writes thus3 ,,frontroom1 n4 ,a room or apartment in the forepart of a house4 ,,backroom1 n4 ,a room behind the front room1 or in the back part of the house4--,octavo ,dict4 ,so of many phrases by which people tell of turning things1 or changing the position of their parts2 as1 inside out1 outside in2 upside down1 downside up2 wrong end foremost1 but-end foremost2 fore-part back1 fore-end aft2 hind side before1 backside before4 ,here all these contrasted particles seem to be adjectives of place or situation4 ,what grammarians in general would choose to call them1 it is hard to say2 probably1 many would satisfy themselves with calling the whole an adverbial phrase1--the common way of disposing of every thing which it is difficult to analyze4 ,these1 and the following examples from ,scott1 are a fair specimen of the uncertainty of present usage3 ,the herds without a keeper strayed1 ,the plough was in mid-furrow staid4--,lady of the ,lake4 ,the eager huntsman knew his bound1 ,and in mid chase called off his hound4--,ibidem4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,for the chief points of the compass1 we have so many adjectives1 and so many modes of varying or comparing them1 that it is difficult to tell their number1 or to know which to choose in practice4 7#a47 ,north1 south1 east1 and west1 are familiarly used both as nouns and as adjectives4 ,from these it seems not improper to form superlatives1 as above1 by adding most2 as1 ,from ,aroar to ,nebo1 and the wild of southmost ,abarim4--,milton4 ,there are no rivulets or springs in the island of ,feror1 the westmost of the ,canaries4--,white's ,nat4 ,hist4 7#b47 ,these primitive terms may also be compared1 in all three of the degrees1 by the adverbs farther and farthest1 or further and furthest2 as1 ,which is yet farther west4--,bacon4 7#c47 ,though we never employ as separate words the comparatives norther1 souther1 easter1 wester1 we have northerly1 southerly1 easterly1 and westerly1 which seem to have been formed from such comparatives1 by adding ly2 and these four may be compared by the adverbs more and most1 or less and least3 as1 ,these hills give us a view of the most easterly1 southerly1 and westerly parts of ,england4--,,graunt3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 7#d47 ,from these supposed comparatives likewise1 some authors form the superlatives northermost1 southermost1 eastermost1 and westermost2 as1 ,from the westermost part of ,oyster bay4--,dr4 ,webster's ,hist4 ,u4 ,s41 p4 #abf4 ,and three miles southward of the southermost part of said bay4--,trumbull's ,hist4 of ,amer41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hh4 ,pockanocket was on the westermost line of ,plymouth ,colony4--,ib41 p4 #dd4 ,as far as the northermost branch of the said bay or river4--,ib41 p4 #abg4 ,the propriety of these is at least questionable2 and1 as they are neither very necessary to the language1 nor recognized by any of our lexicographers1 ,i forbear to approve them4 7#e47 ,from the four primitives we have also a third series of positives1 ending in ern2 as1 northern1 southern1 eastern1 western4 ,these1 though they have no comparatives of their own1 not only form superlatives by assuming the termination most1 but are sometimes compared1 perhaps in both degrees1 by a separate use of the adverbs3 as1 ,southernmost1 a4 ,furthest towards the south4--,webster's ,dict4 ,until it shall intersect the northernmost part of the thirty-first degree of north latitude4--,articles of ,peace4 ,to the north-westernmost head of ,connecticut river4--,ib4 ,thence through the said lake to the most north-western point thereof4--,ib4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,it may be remarked of the comparatives former and latter or hinder1 upper and under or nether1 inner and outer or utter1 after and hither2 as well as of the ,latin superior and inferior1 anterior and posterior1 interior and exterior1 prior and ulterior1 senior and junior1 major and minor2 that they cannot1 like other comparatives1 be construed with the conjunction than4 ,after all genuine ,english comparatives1 this conjunction may occur1 because it is the only fit word for introducing the latter term of comparison2 but we never say one thing is former or latter1 superior or inferior1 than an other4 ,and so of all the rest here named4 ,again1 no real comparative or superlative can ever need an other superadded to it2 but inferior and superior convey ideas that do not always preclude the additional conception of more or less3 as1 ,with respect to high and low notes1 pronunciation is still more inferior to singing4--,kames1 ,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #gc4 ,the mistakes which the most superior understanding is apt to fall into4--,west's ,letters to a ,young ,lady1 p4 #aag4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,double comparatives and double superlatives1 being in general awkward and unfashionable1 as well as tautological1 ought to be avoided4 ,examples3 ,the ,duke of ,milan1 and his more braver daughter1 could control thee4--,shak41 ,tempest4 ,say1 his more gallant daughter4 ,what in me was purchased1 falls upon thee in a more fairer sort4--,id41 ,henry ,,iv4 ,say1 fairer1 or1 more honest2 for purchased here means stolen4 ,changed to a worser shape thou canst not be4--,id41 ,hen4 ,,vi4 ,say1 a worse shape--or1 an uglier shape4 ,after the most straitest sect of our religion1 ,i lived a ,pharisee4--,acts1 xxvi1 #e4 ,say1 the strictest sect4 ,some say he's mad2 others1 that lesser hate him1 do call it valiant fury4--,shak4 ,say1 others1 that hate him less4 ,in this last example1 lesser is used adverbially2 in which construction it is certainly incorrect4 ,but against lesser as an adjective1 some grammarians have spoken with more severity1 than comports with a proper respect for authority4 ,dr4 ,johnson says1 ,,lesser1 adj4 ,a barbarous corruption of less1 formed by the vulgar from the habit of terminating comparatives in er2 afterward adopted by poets1 and then by writers of prose1 till it has all the authority which a mode originally erroneous can derive from custom4--,quarto ,dict4 ,with no great fairness1 ,churchill quotes this passage as far as the semicolon1 and there stops4 ,the position thus taken1 he further endeavours to strengthen1 by saying1 ,worser1 though not more barbarous1 offends the ear in a much greater degree1 because it has not been so frequently used4--,new ,gram41 p4 #bcb4 ,example3 ,and ,god made two great lights2 the greater light to rule the day1 and the lesser light to rule the night4--,gen41 i1 #af4 ,kirkham1 after making an imitation of this passage1 remarks upon it3 ,lesser is as incorrect as badder1 gooder1 worser4--,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,the judgement of any critic who is ignorant enough to say this1 is worthy only of contempt4 ,lesser is still frequently used by the most tasteful authors1 both in verse and prose3 as1 ,it is the glowing style of a man who is negligent of lesser graces4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ahi4 ,athos1 ,olympus1 tna1 ,atlas1 made ,these hills seem things of lesser dignity4--,byron4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the adjective little is used in different senses2 for it contrasts sometimes with great1 and sometimes with much4 ,lesser appears to refer only to size4 ,hence less and lesser are not always equivalent terms4 ,lesser means smaller1 and contrasts only with greater4 ,less contrasts sometimes with greater1 but oftener with more1 the comparative of much2 for1 though it may mean not so large1 its most common meaning is not so much4 ,it ought to be observed1 likewise1 that less is not an adjective of number1#ahb though not unfrequently used as such4 ,it does not mean fewer1 and is therefore not properly employed in sentences like the following3 ,in all verbs1 there are no less than three things implied at once4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ha4 ,smaller things than three1 is nonsense2 and so1 in reality1 is what the ,doctor here says4 ,less is not the proper opposite to more1 when more is the comparative of many3 few1 fewer1 fewest1 are the only words which contrast regularly with many1 more1 most4 ,in the following text1 these comparatives are rightly employed3 ,and to the more ye shall give the more inheritance1 and to the fewer ye shall give the less inheritance4--,numbers1 xxxiii1 #ed4 ,but if writers will continue to use less for fewer1 so that less cattle1 for instance1 may mean fewer cattle2 we shall be under a sort of necessity to retain lesser1 in order to speak intelligibly3 as1 ,it shall be for the sending-forth of oxen1 and for the treading of lesser cattle4--,isaiah1 vii1 #be4 ,i have no partiality for the word lesser1 neither will ,i make myself ridiculous by flouting at its rudeness4 ,this word1 says ,webster1 is a corruption1 but it is too well established to be discarded4 ,authors always write the ,lesser ,asia4--,octavo ,dict4 ,by the same reason1 may a man punish the lesser breaches of that law4--,locke4 ,when we speak of the lesser differences among the tastes of men4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bj4 ,in greater or lesser degrees of complexity4--,burke1 on ,sublime1 p4 #id4 ,the greater ought not to succumb to the lesser4--,dillwyn's ,reflections1 p4 #abh4 ,to such productions1 lesser composers must resort for ideas4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #dac4 ,the larger here1 and there the lesser lambs1 ,the new-fall'n young herd bleating for their dams4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #g4--,our grammarians deny the comparison of many adjectives1 from a false notion that they are already superlatives4 ,thus ,w4 ,allen3 ,adjectives compounded with the ,latin preposition per1 are already superlative3 as1 perfect1 perennial1 permanent1 c4--,elements of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #eb4 ,in reply to this1 ,i would say1 that nothing is really superlative1 in ,english1 but what has the form and construction of the superlative2 as1 ,the most permanent of all dyes4 ,no word beginning with per1 is superlative by virtue of this ,latin prefix4 ,separate spirits1 which are beings that have perfecter knowledge and greater happiness than we1 must needs have also a perfecter way of communicating their thoughts than we have4--,locke's ,essay1 ,b4 ii1 ,ch4 #bd1 #cf1 ,this mode of comparison is not now good1 but it shows that perfect is no superlative4 ,thus ,kirkham3 ,the following adjectives1 and many others1 are always in the superlative degree2 because1 by expressing a quality in the highest degree1 they carry in themselves a superlative signification3 chief1 extreme1 perfect1 right1 wrong1 honest1 just1 true1 correct1 sincere1 vast1 immense1 ceaseless1 infinite1 endless1 unparalleled1 universal1 supreme1 unlimited1 omnipotent1 all-wise1 eternal4 #ahc--;,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,so the ,rev4 ,david ,blair3 ,the words perfect1 certain1 infinite1 universal1 chief1 supreme1 right1 true1 extreme1 superior1 and some others1 which express a perfect and superlative sense in themselves1 do not admit of comparison4--,english ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,now1 according to ,murray's definition1 which ,kirkham adopts1 none of these words can be at all in the superlative degree4 ,on the contrary1 there are several among them1 from which true superlatives are frequently and correctly formed4 ,where are the positives which are here supposed to be increased to the highest degree8 ,every real superlative in our language1 except best and worst1 most and least1 first and last1 with the still more irregular word next1 is a derivative1 formed from some other ,english word1 by adding est or most2 as1 truest1 hindmost4 ,the propriety or impropriety of comparing the foregoing words1 or any of the many others of which this author speaks1 is to be determined according to their meaning1 and according to the usage of good writers1 and not by the dictation of a feeble pedant1 or upon the supposition that if compared they would form double superlatives4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,chief is from the ,french word chef1 the head3 chiefest is therefore no more a double superlative than headmost3 ,but when the headmost foes appeared4--,scott4 ,nor are chief and chiefest equivalent terms3 ,doeg an ,edomite1 the chiefest of the herdsmen4--#a ,samuel1 xxi1 #g4 ,the chief of the herdsmen1 would convey a different meaning2 it would be either the leader of the herdsmen1 or the principal part of them4 ,chiefest1 however1 has often been used where chief would have been better2 as1 ,he sometimes denied admission to the chiefest officers of the army4--,clarendon1 let us look further at ,kirkham's list of absolute superlatives4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,extreme is from the ,latin superlative extremus1 and of course its literal signification is not really susceptible of increase4 ,yet extremest has been used1 and is still used1 by some of the very best writers2 as1 ,they thought it the extremest of evils4--,bacon4 ,that on the sea's extremest border stood4--,addison4 ,how1 to extremest thrill of agony4--,pollok1 ,b4 viii1 l4 #bgj4 ,i go th' extremest remedy to prove4--,dryden4 ,in extremest poverty4--,swift4 ,the hairy fool stood on th' extremest verge of the swift brook1 augmenting it with tears4--,shak4 ,while the extremest parts of the earth were meditating submission4--,atterbury4 ,his writings are poetical to the extremest boundaries of poetry4--,adams's ,rhetoric1 i1 #hg4 ,in prose1 this superlative is not now very common2 but the poets still occasionally use it1 for the sake of their measure2 and it ought to be noticed that the simple adjective is not partitive4 ,if we say1 for the first example1 the extreme of evils2 we make the word a noun1 and do not convey exactly the same idea that is there expressed4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,perfect1 if taken in its strictest sense1 must not be compared2 but this word1 like many others which mean most in the positive1 is often used with a certain latitude of meaning1 which renders its comparison by the adverbs not altogether inadmissible2 nor is it destitute of authority1 as ,i have already shown4 7,see ,obs4 #hth1 p4 #bhj47 ,from the first rough sketches1 to the more perfect draughts4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #aeb4 ,the most perfect4--,adams's ,lect4 on ,rhet41 i1 #ii and #acf2 ii1 #ag and #eg3 ,blair's ,lect41 pp4 #bj and #cii4 ,the most beautiful and perfect example of analysis4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 #aj4 ,the plainest1 most perfect1 and most useful manual4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 ,rev41 p4 #g4 ,our sight is the most perfect1 and the most delightful1 of all our senses4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #daa2 ,blair's ,lect41 pp4 #aae and #aid2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cbb4 ,here ,murray anonymously copied ,blair4 ,and to render natives more perfect in the knowledge of it4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aga2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cff4 ,here ,murray copied ,campbell1 the most accurate of all his masters4 ,whom did he copy when he said1 ,the phrases1 more perfect1 and most perfect1 are improper8--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #afh4 ,but if these are wrong1 so is the following sentence3 ,no poet has ever attained a greater perfection than ,horace4--,blair's ,lect41 p4 #cih4 ,and also this3 ,why are we brought into the world less perfect in respect to our nature8--,west's ,letters to a ,young ,lady1 p4 #bbj4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,right and wrong are not often compared by good writers2 though we sometimes see such phrases as more right and more wrong1 and such words as rightest and wrongest3 ',tis always in the wrongest sense4--,butler4 ,a method of attaining the rightest and greatest happiness4--,,price3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,it is no more right to steal apples1 than it is to steal money4--,webster's ,new ,spelling-,book1 p4 #aah4 ,there are equivalent expressions which seem preferable2 as1 more proper1 more erroneous1 most proper1 most erroneous4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,honest1 just1 true1 correct1 sincere1 and vast1 may all be compared at pleasure4 ,pope's ,essay on ,criticism is more correct than any thing this modest pretender can write2 and in it1 he may find the comparative juster1 the superlatives justest1 truest1 sincerest1 and the phrases1 ,so vast a throng1--,so vast is art3 all of which are contrary to his teaching4 ,unjuster dealing is used in buying than in selling4--,butler's ,poems1 p4 #afc4 ,iniquissimam pacem justissimo bello antefero4--,cicero4 ,i prefer the unjustest peace before the justest war4--,walker's ,english ,particles1 p4 #fh4 ,the poet ,cowley used the word honestest2 which is not now very common4 ,so ,swift3 ,what honester folks never durst for their ears4--,the ,yahoo's ,overthrow4 ,so ,jucius3 ,the honestest and ablest men4--,letter ,,xviii4 ,the sentence would be more correct in the following form4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #bbc4 ,elegance is chiefly gained by studying the correctest writers4--,holmes's ,rhetoric1 p4 #bg4 ,honest and correct1 for the sake of euphony1 require the adverbs2 as1 more honest1 most correct4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 iv4 ,vast1 vaster1 vastest1 are words as smooth1 as fast1 faster1 fastest2 and more vast is certainly as good ,english as more just3 ,shall mortal man be more just than ,god8--,job1 iv1 #ag4 ,wilt thou condemn him that is most just8--,ib41 xxxiv1 #ag4 ,more wise1 more learn'd1 more just1 more-everything4--,pope4 ,universal is often compared by the adverbs1 but certainly with no renforcement of meaning3 as1 ,one of the most universal precepts1 is1 that the orator himself should feel the passion4--,adams's ,rhet41 i1 #cgi4 ,though not so universal4--,ib41 ii1 #caa4 ,this experience is general1 though not so universal1 as the absence of memory in childhood4--,ib41 ii1 #cfb4 ,we can suppose no motive which would more universally operate4--,dr4 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ee4 ,music is known to have been more universally studied4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,we shall not wonder1 that his grammar has been so universally applauded4--,walker's ,recommendation in ,murray's ,gram41 ii1 #cjf4 ,the pronoun it is the most universal of all the pronouns4--,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,thus much for one half of this critic's twenty-two superlatives4 ,the rest are simply adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison3 they are not superlatives at all4 ,a man might just as well teach1 that good is a superlative1 and not susceptible of comparison1 because there is none good but one4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,pronominal adjectives1 when their nouns are expressed1 simply relate to them1 and have no modifications3 except this and that1 which form the plurals these and those2 and much1 many1 and a few others1 which are compared4 ,examples3 ,whence hath this man this wisdom1 and these mighty works8--,matt41 xiii1 #ed4 ,but some man will say1 ,how are the dead raised up8 and with what body do they come8--#a ,cor41 xv1 #ce4 ,the first man ,adam was made a living soul2 the last ,adam was made a quickening spirit4--,ib41 #de4 ,so1 when one pronominal adjective precedes an other1 the former must be taken simply as an adjective2 as1 ,those suns are set4 ,o rise some other such6 --,cowper's ,task1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #beb4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,pronominal adjectives1 when their nouns are not expressed1 may be parsed as representing them in person1 number1 gender1 and case2 but those who prefer it1 may supply the ellipsis1 and parse the adjective1 simply as an adjective4 ,example3 ,he threatens many1 who injures one4--,kames4 ,here it may be said1 ,many is a pronominal adjective1 meaning many persons2 of the third person1 plural number1 masculine gender1 and objective case4 ,or those who will take the word simply as an adjective1 may say1 ,many is a pronominal adjective1 of the positive degree1 compared many1 more1 most1 and relating to persons understood4 ,and so of one1 which represents1 or relates to1 person understood4 ,either say1 ,one is a pronominal adjective1 not compared1 and give the three definitions accordingly2 or else say1 ,one is a pronominal adjective1 relating to person understood2 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and objective case1 and give the six definitions accordingly4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,elder for older1 and eldest for oldest1 are still frequently used2 though the ancient positive1 eld for old1 is now obsolete4 ,hence some have represented old as having a two-fold comparison2 and have placed it1 not very properly1 among the irregular adjectives4 ,the comparatives elder and better1 are often used as nouns2 so are the ,latin comparatives superior and inferior1 interior and exterior1 senior and junior1 major and minor3 as1 ,the elder's advice1--,one of the elders1--,his betters1--,our superiors1--,the interior of the country1--,a handsome exterior1--,your seniors1--,my juniors1--,a major in the army1--,he is yet a minor4 ,the word other1 which has something of the nature of a comparative1 likewise takes the form of a noun1 as before suggested2 and1 in that form1 the reader1 if he will1 may call it a noun3 as1 ,what do ye more than others8--,bible4 ,god in thus much is bounded1 that the evil hath he left unto an other2 and that ,dark ,other hath usurped the evil which ,omnipotence laid down4--,tupper's ,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #de4 ,some call it a pronoun4 ,but it seems to be pronominal1 merely by ellipsis of the noun after it2 although1 unlike a mere adjective1 it assumes the ending of the noun1 to mark that ellipsis4 ,perhaps therefore1 the best explanation of it would be this3 ',others is a pronominal adjective1 having the form of a noun1 and put for other men2 in the third person1 plural number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 ,the gender of this word varies1 according to that of the contrasted term2 and the case1 according to the relation it bears to other words4 ,in the following example1 it is neuter and objective3 ,the fibres of this muscle act as those of others4--,cheyne4 ,here1 as those of others1 means1 as the fibres of other muscles4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,comparatives and superlatives seem sometimes to part with their relative nature1 and only to retain their intensive1 especially those which are formed by the superlative adverb most2 as1 ',a most learned man1'--',a most brave man3' i4 e4 not the bravest or the most learned man that ever was1 but a man possessing bravery or learning in a very eminent degree4--,see ,alexander ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aaj4 ,this use of the terms of comparison is thought by some not to be very grammatical4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,contractions of the superlative termination est1 as high'st for highest1 bigg'st for biggest1 though sometimes used by the poets1 are always inelegant1 and may justly be considered grammatically improper4 ,they occur most frequently in doggerel verse1 like that of ,hudibras2 the author of which work1 wrote1 in his droll fashion1 not only the foregoing monosyllables1 but learned'st for most learned1 activ'st for most active1 desperat'st for most desperate1 epidemical'st for most epidemical1 c4 ,and th' activ'st fancies share as loose alloys1 ,for want of equal weight to counterpoise4--,butler's ,poems4 ,who therefore finds the artificial'st fools ,have not been chang'd i th' cradle1 but the schools4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,nouns used adjectively are not varied in number to agree with the nouns to which they relate1 but what is singular or plural when used substantively1 is without number when taken as an adjective3 as1 ,one of the nine sister goddesses4--,webster's ,dict41 w4 ,muse4 ,he has money in a savings bank4 ,the latter mode of expression is uncommon1 and the term savings-bank is sometimes compounded1 but the hyphen does not really affect the nature of the former word4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether a plural noun can ever properly assume the character of an adjective2 because1 if it is not then really the same as the possessive case1 it will always be liable to be thought a false form of that case4 ,what ,johnson wrote fullers earth and fullers thistle2 ,chalmers has fullers earth and fuller's thistle2 ,webster1 fuller's-earth and fuller's-thistle2 ,ainsworth1 fuller's earth and fuller's thistle2 ,walker has only fullers-earth2 ,worcester1 fuller's-earth2 ,cobb1 fullers earth2 the ,treasury of ,knowledge1 fullers'-earth4 ,so unsettled is this part of our grammar1 that in many such cases it is difficult cult to say whether we ought to use the apostrophe1 or the hyphen1 or both1 or neither4 ,to insert neither1 unless we make a close compound1 is to use a plural noun adjectively2 which form1 ,i think1 is the most objectionable of all4 ,see ,all souls day1--,all-fools-day1--,all-saints'-day1 c41 in the dictionaries4 ,these may well be written ,all ,souls' ,day c4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,iv4--,,etymological4 ,in the ,fourth ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and the classes and modifications of the ,,articles1 ,,nouns1 and ,,adjectives4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,fourth ,praxis1 are two for an article1 six for a noun1 three for an adjective1 and one for a pronoun1 a verb1 a participle1 an adverb1 a conjunction1 a preposition1 or an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,the best and most effectual method of teaching grammar1 is precisely that of which the careless are least fond3 teach learnedly1 rebuking whatsoever is false1 blundering1 or unmannerly4--,g4 ,brown4 ,the is the definite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things4 ,best is a common adjective1 of the superlative degree2 compared irregularly1 good1 better1 best4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,the superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it4 ,and1 is a conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in constructing1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,most is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,effectual is a common adjective1 compared by means of the adverbs2 effectual1 more effectual1 most effectual2 or1 effectual1 less effectual1 least effectual4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,those adjectives which may be varied in sense1 but not in form1 are compared by means of adverbs4 ,method is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person1 is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,of is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,teaching is a participle4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 ,grammar is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,is is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,precisely is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,that is a pronominal adjective1 not compared2 standing for that method1 in the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 ,see ,,obs4 #adth1 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun or represent it understood4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,of is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,which is a pronoun4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 ,the is the definite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things4 ,careless is a common adjective1 compared by means of the adverbs2 careless1 more careless1 most careless2 or1 careless1 less careless1 least careless4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,those adjectives which may be varied in sense1 but not in form1 are compared by means of adverbs4 ,are is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,least is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,fond is a common adjective1 compared regularly1 fond1 fonder1 fondest2 but here made superlative by the adverb least4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #h4 ,the superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it4 ,teach is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,learnedly is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,rebuking is a participle4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 ,whatsoever is a pronoun4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 ,is is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,false is a common adjective1 of the positive degree2 compared regularly1 false1 falser1 falsest4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,the positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form4 ,blundering is a participial adjective1 compared by means of the adverbs2 blundering1 more blundering1 most blundering2 or1 blundering1 less blundering1 least blundering4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle1 but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time4 #c4 ,those adjectives which may be varied in sense1 but not in form1 are compared by means of adverbs4 ,or is a conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,unmannerly is a common adjective1 compared by means of the adverbs2 unmannerly1 more unmannerly1 most unmannerly2 or1 unmannerly1 less unmannerly1 least unmannerly4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,those adjectives which may be varied in sense1 but not in form1 are compared by means of adverbs4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,the noblest and most beneficial invention of which human ingenuity can boast1 is that of writing4--,robertson's ,america1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aic4 ,charlemagne was the tallest1 the handsomest1 and the strongest man of his time2 his appearance was truly majestic1 and he had surprising agility in all sorts of manly exercises4--,stories of ,france1 p4 #ai4 ,money1 like other things1 is more or less valuable1 as it is less or more plentiful4--,beanie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #cgh4 ,the right way of acting1 is1 in a moral sense1 as much a reality1 in the mind of an ordinary man1 as the straight or the right road4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 ,lang41 i1 #aah4 ,the full period of several members possesses most dignity and modulation1 and conveys also the greatest degree of force1 by admitting the closest compression of thought4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #gi4 ,his great master1 ,demosthenes1 in addressing popular audiences1 never had recourse to a similar expedient4 ,he avoided redundancies1 as equivocal and feeble4 ,he aimed only to make the deepest and most efficient impression2 and he employed for this purpose1 the plainest1 the fewest1 and the most emphatic words4--,ib41 p4 #fh4 ,the high eloquence which ,i have last mentioned1 is always the offspring of passion4 ,a man actuated by a strong passion1 becomes much greater than he is at other times4 ,he is conscious of more strength and force2 he utters greater sentiments1 conceives higher designs1 and executes them with a boldness and felicity1 of which1 on other occasions1 he could not think himself capable4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bcf4 ,his words bore sterling weight1 nervous and strong1 ,in manly tides of sense they roll'd along4--,churchill4 ,to make the humble proud1 the proud submiss1 ,wiser the wisest1 and the brave more brave4--,w4 ,s4 ,landor4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,i am satisfied that in this1 as in all cases1 it is best1 safest1 as well as most right and honorable1 to speak freely and plainly4--,channing's ,letter to ,clay1 p4 #d4 ,the gospel1 when preached with the ,holy ,ghost sent down from heaven1 through the wonder-working power of ,god1 can make the proud humble1 the selfish disinterested1 the worldly heavenly1 the sensual pure4--,christian ,experience1 p4 #cii4 ,i am so much the better1 as ,i am the liker#ahd the best2 and so much the holier1 as ,i am more conformable to the holiest1 or rather to ,him who is holiness itself4--,bp4 ,beneridge4 ,whether any thing in ,christianity appears to them probable1 or improbable2 consistent1 or inconsistent2 agreeable to what they should have expected1 or the contrary2 wise and good1 or ridiculous and useless2 is perfectly irrelevant4--,m',ilvaine's ,evidences1 p4 #ebc4 ,god's providence is higher1 and deeper1 and larger1 and stronger1 than all the skill of his adversaries2 and his pleasure shall be accomplished in their overthrow1 except they repent and become his friends4--,cox1 on ,christianity1 p4 #dde4 ,a just relish of what is beautiful1 proper1 elegant1 and ornamental1 in writing or painting1 in architecture or gardening1 is a fine preparation for the same just relish of these qualities in character and behaviour4 ,to the man who has acquired a taste so acute and accomplished1 every action wrong or improper must be highly disgustful3 if1 in any instance1 the overbearing power of passion sway him from his duty1 he returns to it with redoubled resolution never to be swayed a second time4--,kames1 ,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #be4 ,in grave ,quintilian's copious work1 we find ,the justest rules and clearest method join'd4--,pope1 on ,crit4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,there are several sorts of scandalous tempers2 some malicious1 and some effeminate2 others obstinate1 brutish1 and savage4 ,some humours are childish and silly2 some1 false1 and others1 scurrilous2 some1 mercenary1 and some1 tyrannical4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #eb4 ,words are obviously voluntary signs3 and they are also arbitrary2 excepting a few simple sounds expressive of certain internal emotions1 which sounds being the same in all languages1 must be the work of nature3 thus the unpremeditated tones of admiration are the same in all men4--,kames1 ,elements of ,crit41 i1 #cdg4 ,a stately and majestic air requires sumptuous apparel1 which ought not to be gaudy1 nor crowded with little ornaments4 ,a woman of consummate beauty can bear to be highly adorned1 and yet shows best in a plain dress4--,ib41 p4 #bgi4 ,of all external objects a graceful person is the most agreeable4 ,but in vain will a person attempt to be graceful1 who is deficient in amiable qualities4--,ib41 p4 #bii4 ,the faults of a writer of acknowledged excellence are more dangerous1 because the influence of his example is more extensive2 and the interest of learning requires that they should be discovered and stigmatized1 before they have the sanction of antiquity bestowed upon them1 and become precedents of indisputable authority4--,dr4 ,johnson1 ,rambler1 ,vol4 ii1 ,no4 #ic4 ,judges ought to be more learned than witty1 more reverend than plausible1 and more advised than confident2 above all things1 integrity is their portion and proper virtue4--,bacon's ,essays1 p4 #ade4 ,the wisest nations1 having the most and best ideas1 will consequently have the best and most copious languages4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #djh4 ,here we trace the operation of powerful causes1 while we remain ignorant of their nature2 but everything goes on with such regularity and harmony1 as to give a striking and convincing proof of a combining directing intelligence4--,life of ,w4 ,allen1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #agj4 ,the wisest1 unexperienced1 will be ever ,timorous and loth1 with novice modesty1 ,irresolute1 unhardy1 unadventurous4--,milton4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,degrees4 ,i have the real excuse of the honestest sort of bankrupts4--,cowley's ,preface1 p4 viii4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the adjective honestest is harshly compared by est4 ,but1 according to a principle stated on page #bhc;d concerning the regular degrees1 ,this method of comparison is to be applied only to monosyllables1 and to dissyllables of a smooth termination1 or such as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent4 ,therefore1 honestest should be most honest2 thus1 ,i have real excuse of the most honest sort of bankrupts4 ,the honourablest part of talk1 is1 to give the occasion4--,bacon's ,essays1 p4 #ij4 ,to give him one of his own modestest proverbs4-- ,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #cdj4 ,our language is now certainly properer and more natural1 than it was formerly4--,bp4 ,burnet4 ,which will be of most and frequentest use to him in the world4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #afc4 ,the same is notified in the notablest places in the diocese4--,whitgift4 ,but it was the dreadfullest sight that ever ,i saw4--,pilgrim's ,progress1 p4 #gj4 ,four of the ancientest1 soberest1 and discreetest of the brethren1 chosen for the occasion1 shall regulate it4--,locke1 on ,church ,gov4 ,nor can there be any clear understanding of any ,roman author1 especially of ancienter time1 without this skill4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 x4 ,far the learnedest of the ,greeks4--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ,the learneder thou art1 the humbler be thou4--,ib41 p4 #bbh4 ,he is none of the best or honestest4-- ,ib41 p4 #bgd4 ,the properest methods of communicating it to others4-- ,burn's ,gram41 ,prof1 p4 viii4 ,what heaven's great ,king hath powerfullest to send against us4--,paradise ,lost4 ,benedict is not the unhopefullest husband that ,i know4--,,shak43 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,that he should immediately do all the meanest and triflingest things himself4--,,ray3 in ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,i shall be named among the famousest of women4--,,milton',s ,samson ,agonistes3 ib4 ,those have the inventivest heads for all purposes4--,,ascham3 ib4 ,the wretcheder are the contemners of all helps4--,,ben ,,jonson3 ib4 ,i will now deliver a few of the properest and naturallest considerations that belong to this piece4--,,wotton3 ib4 ,the mortalest poisons practised by the ,west ,indians1 have some mixture of the blood1 fat1 or flesh of man4--,,bacon3 ib4 ,he so won upon him1 that he rendered him one of the faithfulest and most affectionate allies the ,medes ever had4--,rollin1 ii1 #ga4 ',you see before you1' says he to him1 'the most devoted servant1 and the faithfullest ally1 you ever had4'--,ib41 ii1 #gi4 ,i chose the flourishing'st tree in all the park4--,cowley4 ,which he placed1 ,i think1 some centuries backwarder than ,julius ,africanus thought fit to place it afterwards4--,bolingbroke1 on ,history1 p4 #ec4 ,the ,tiber1 the notedest river of ,italy4--,littleton's ,dict4 ,to fartherest shores the ambrosial spirit flies4 --,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ----,that what she wills to do or say1 ,seems wisest1 virtuousest1 discreetest1 best4 --,milton1 ,b4 viii1 l4 #eej4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed4 ,during the three or four first years of its existence4--,taylor's ,district ,school1 p4 #bg4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the cardinal numbers1 three and four are put before the ordinal first4 ,but1 according to the #gth part of ,obs4 #gth1 page #bhjth1 ,in specifying any part of a series1 we ought to place the cardinal number after the ordinal4 ,therefore the words three and four should be placed after first2 thus1 ,during the first three or four years of its existence4 ,to the first of these divisions1 my ten last lectures have been devoted4--,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cia4 ,there are in the twenty-four states not less than sixty thousand common schools4--,taylor's ,district ,school1 p4 #ch4 ,i know of nothing which gives teachers so much trouble as this want of firmness4--,ib41 p4 #eg4 ,i know of nothing that throws such darkness over the line which separates right from wrong4--,ib41 p4 #eh4 ,none need this purity and simplicity of language and thought so much as the common school instructor4--,ib41 p4 #fd4 ,i know of no periodical that is so valuable to the teacher as the ,annals of ,education4--,ib41 p4 #fg4 ,are not these schools of the highest importance8 ,should not every individual feel the deepest interest in their character and condition8--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,if instruction were made a profession1 teachers would feel a sympathy for each other4--,ib41 p4 #ic4 ,nothing is so likely to interest children as novelty and change4--,ib41 p4 #aca4 ,i know of no labour which affords so much happiness as that of the teacher's4--,ib41 p4 #acf4 ,their school exercises are the most pleasant and agreeable of any that they engage in4--,ib41 p4 #acf4 ,i know of no exercise so beneficial to the pupil as that of drawing maps4--,ib41 p4 #agf4 ,i know of nothing in which our district schools are so defective as they are in the art of teaching grammar4--,ib41 p4 #aif4 ,i know of nothing so easily acquired as history4--,ib4 p4 #bjf4 ,i know of nothing for which scholars usually have such an abhorrence1 as composition4--,ib41 p4 #baj4 ,there is nothing in our fellow-men that we should respect with so much sacredness as their good name4--,ib41 p4 #cjg4 ,sure never any thing was so unbred as that odious man4--,,congreve3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,in the dialogue between the mariner and the shade of the deceast4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #dff4 ,these master-works would still be less excellent and finisht--,ib41 i1 #dfi4 ,every attempt to staylace the language of polisht conversation1 renders our phraseology inelegant and clumsy4--,ib41 i1 #fgh4 ,here are a few of the unpleasant'st words that ever blotted paper4--,,shak43 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,with the most easy1 undisobliging transitions4--,,broome3 ib4 ,fear is1 of all affections1 the unaptest to admit any conference with reason4--,,hooker3 ib4 ,most chymists think glass a body more undestroyable than gold itself4--,,boyle3 ib4 ,to part with unhackt edges1 and bear back our barge undinted4--,,shak43 ib4 ,erasmus1 who was an unbigotted ,roman ,catholic1 was transported with this passage4--,,addison3 ib4 ,there are no less than five words1 with any of which the sentence might have terminated4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cig4 ,the one preach ,christ of contention2 but the other1 of love4--,philippians1 i1 #af4 ,hence we find less discontent and heart-burnings1 than where the subjects are unequally burdened4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ef4 ,the serpent1 subtil'st beast of all the field1 ,i knew2 but not with human voice indu'd4 --,,milton3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,human4 ,how much more grievous would our lives appear1 ,to reach th' eighth hundred1 than the eightieth year8 --,,denham3 ,b4 ,p41 ii1 #bdd4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed4 ,brutus engaged with ,aruns2 and so fierce was the attack1 that they pierced one another at the same time4--,lempriere's ,dict4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the phrase one another is here applied to two persons only1 the words an and other being needlessly compounded4 ,but1 according to ,observation #aeth1 on the ,classes of ,adjectives1 each other must be applied to two persons or things1 and one an other to more than two4 ,therefore one another should here be each other2 thus1 ,brutus engaged with ,aruns2 and so fierce was the attack1 that they pierced each other at the same time4 ,her two brothers were one after another turned into stone4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #aid4 ,nouns are often used as adjectives2 as1 ,a gold-ring1 a silver-cup4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,fire and water destroy one another4--,wanostrocht's ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,two negatives in ,english destroy one another1 or are equivalent to an affirmative4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #id2 ,e4 ,devis's1 #aaa2 ,mack's1 #adg2 ,murray's1 #aih2 ,churchill's1 #adh2 ,putnam's1 #ace2 ,c4 ,adams's1 #ajb2 ,hamlin's1 #gi2 ,alger's1 #ff2 ,fisk's1 #adj2 ,ingersoll's1 #bjg2 and many others4 ,two negatives destroy one another1 and are generally equivalent to an affirmative4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aia2 ,felton's1 #he4 ,two negatives destroy one another and make an affirmative4--,j4 ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #gi4 ,two negatives destroy one another1 being equivalent to an affirmative4--,frost's ,el4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,two objects1 resembling one another1 are presented to the imagination4--,parker's ,exercises in ,comp41 p4 #dg4 ,mankind1 in order to hold converse with each other1 found it necessary to give names to objects4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,words are derived from each other#ahe in various ways4--,cooper's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,there are many other ways of deriving words from one another4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aca4 ,when several verbs connected by conjunctions1 succeed each other in a sentence1 the auxiliary is usually omitted except with the first4--,frost's ,gram41 p4 #ia4 ,two or more verbs1 having the same nominative case1 and immediately following one another1 are also separated by commas4 #ahf--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bgj2 ,c4 ,adams's1 #abf2 ,russell's1 #aac2 and others4 ,two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other1 must be separated by commas4--,same ,grammars4 ,if1 however1 the members succeeding each other1 are very closely connected1 the comma is unnecessary4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bgc2 ,comly's1 #aeb2 and others4 ,gratitude1 when exerted towards one another1 naturally produces a very pleasing sensation in the mind of a grateful man4--,mur41 p4 #bhg4 ,several verbs in the infinitive mood1 having a common dependence1 and succeeding one another1 are also divided by commas4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,the several words of which it consists1 have so near a relation to each other4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bfh2 ,comly's1 #add2 ,russell's1 #aaa2 and others4 ,when two or more verbs have the same nominative1 and immediately follow one another1 or two or more adverbs immediately succeed one another1 they must be separated by commas4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,nouns frequently succeed each other1 meaning the same thing4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,and these two tenses may thus answer one another4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cbb4 ,or some other relation which two objects bear to one another4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #adi4 ,that the heathens tolerated each other1 is allowed4--,gospel its own ,witness1 p4 #gf4 ,and yet these two persons love one another tenderly4--,murray's ,e4 ,reader1 p4 #aab4 ,in the six hundredth and first year4--,gen41 viii1 #ac4 ,nor is this arguing of his but a reiterate clamour4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #bej4 ,in severals of them the inward life of ,christianity is to be found4--,ib41 iii1 #bgb4 ,though ,alvarez1 ,despauterius1 and other1 allow it not to be ,plural4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #afi4 ,even the most dissipate and shameless blushed at the sight4--,lemp4 ,dict41 w4 ,antiochus4 ,we feel a superior satisfaction in surveying the life of animals1 than that of vegetables4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 #agb4 ,but this man is so full fraughted with malice4--,barclay's ,works1 i#aa1 #bje4 ,that ,i suggest some things concerning the properest means4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccg4 ,so hand in hand they pass'd1 the loveliest pair ,that ever since in love's embraces met4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b41 iv1 l4 #cba4 ,aim at the high'est1 without the high'est attain'd ,will be for thee no sitting1 or not long4 --,id41 ,p4 ,r41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #ajf4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,pronouns4 ,a ,pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun3 as1 ,the boy loves his book2 he has long lessons1 and he learns them well4 ,the pronouns in our language are twenty-four2 and their variations are thirty-two3 so that the number of words of this class1 is fifty-six4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the word for which a pronoun stands1 is called its antecedent1 because it usually precedes the pronoun4 ,but some have limited the term antecedent to the word represented by a relative pronoun4 ,there can be no propriety in this1 unless we will have every pronoun to be a relative1 when it stands for a noun which precedes it2 and1 if so1 it should be called something else1 when the noun is to be found elsewhere4 ,in the example above1 his and he represent boy1 and them represents lessons2 and these nouns are as truly the antecedents to the pronouns1 as any can be4 ,yet his1 he1 and them1 in our most approved grammars1 are not called relative pronouns1 but personal4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,every pronoun may be explained as standing for the name of something1 for the thing itself unnamed1 or for a former pronoun2 and1 with the noun1 pronoun1 or thing1 for which it stands1 every pronoun must agree in person1 number1 and gender4 ,the exceptions to this1 whether apparent or real1 are very few2 and1 as their occurrence is unfrequent1 there will be little occasion to notice them till we come to syntax4 ,but if the student will observe the use and import of pronouns1 he may easily see1 that some of them are put substantively1 for nouns not previously introduced2 some1 relatively1 for nouns or pronouns going before2 some1 adjectively1 for nouns that must follow them in any explanation which can be made of the sense4 ,these three modes of substitution1 are very different1 each from the others4 ,yet they do not serve for an accurate division of the pronouns2 because it often happens1 that a substitute which commonly represents the noun in one of these ways1 will sometimes represent it in an other4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the pronouns ,i and thou1 in their different modifications1 stand immediately for persons that are1 in general1 sufficiently known without being named2 7,i meaning the speaker1 and thou1 the hearer27 their antecedents1 or nouns1 are therefore generally understood4 ,the other personal pronouns1 also1 are sometimes taken in a general and demonstrative sense1 to denote persons or things not previously mentioned2 as1 ,he that hath knowledge1 spareth his words4--,bible4 ,here he is equivalent to the man1 or the person4 ,the care of posterity is most in them that have no posterity4--,bacon4 ,here them is equivalent to those persons4 ,how far do you call it to such a place8--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,here it1 according to ,priestley1 is put for the distance4 ,for the priest's lips should keep knowledge1 and they should seek the law at his mouth4--,malachi1 ii1 #g4 ,here they is put indefinitely for men or people4 ,so who and which1 though called relatives1 do not always relate to a noun or pronoun going before them2 for who may be a direct substitute for what person2 and which may mean which person1 or which thing3 as1 ,and he that was healed1 wist not who it was4--,john1 v1 #ac4 ,that is1 ,the man who was healed1 knew not what person it was4 ,i care not which you take2 they are so much alike1 one cannot tell which is which4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,a pronoun with which a question is asked1 usually stands for some person or thing unknown to the speaker2 the noun1 therefore1 cannot occur before it1 but may be used after it or in place of it4 ,examples3 ,in the grave1 who shall give thee thanks8--,ps41 vi1 #e4 ,here the word who is equivalent to what person1 taken interrogatively4 ,which of you convinceth me of sin8--,john1 viii1 #df4 ,that is1 ,which man of you8 ,master1 what shall we do8--,luke1 iii1 #ab4 ,that is1 ,what act1 or thing8 ,these solutions1 however1 convert which and what into adjectives3 and1 in fact1 as they have no inflections for the numbers and cases1 there is reason to think them at all times essentially such4 ,we call them pronouns1 to avoid the inconvenience of supposing and supplying an infinite multitude of ellipses4 ,but who1 though often equivalent 7as above7 to an adjective and a noun1 is never itself used adjectively2 it is always a pronoun4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in respect to who or whom1 it sometimes makes little or no difference to the sense1 whether we take it as a demonstrative pronoun equivalent to what person1 or suppose it to relate to an antecedent understood before it3 as1 ,even so the ,son quickeneth whom he will4--,john1 v1 #ba4 ,that is--what persons he will1 or1 those persons whom he will2 for the ,greek word for whom1 is1 in this instance1 plural4 ,the former is a shorter explanation of the meaning1 but the latter ,i take to be the true account of the construction2 for1 by the other1 we make whom a double relative1 and the object of two governing words at once4 ,so1 perhaps1 of the following example1 which ,dr4 ,johnson cites under the word who1 to show what he calls its disjunctive sense3-- ,there thou tellst of kings1 and who aspire2 ,who fall1 who rise1 who triumph1 who do moan4--,daniel4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,it sometimes happens that the real antecedent1 or the term which in the order of the sense must stand before the pronoun1 is not placed antecedently to it1 in the order given to the words3 as1 ,it is written1 ,to whom he was not spoken of1 they shall see2 and they that have not heard1 shall understand4--,romans1 xv1 #ba4 ,here the sense is1 ,they to whom he was not spoken of1 shall see4 ,whoever takes the passage otherwise1 totally misunderstands it4 ,and yet the same order of the words might be used to signify1 ,they shall see to whom 7that is1 to what persons7 he was not spoken of4 ,transpositions of this kind1 as well as of every other1 occur most frequently in poetry4 ,the following example is from an ,essay on ,satire1 printed with ,pope's ,works1 but written by one of his friends3-- ,whose is the crime1 the scandal too be theirs2 ,the knave and fool are their own libellers4--,j4 ,brown4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in construction as the antecedents to other pronouns3 as1 ,he also that is slothful in his work1 is brother to him that is a great waster4--,prov41 xviii4 #i4 ,here he and him are each equivalent to the man1 and each is taken as the antecedent to the relative which follows it4 ,for both he that sanctifieth1 and they who are sanctified1 are all of one3 for which cause1 he is not ashamed to call them brethren4--,heb41 ii1 #aa4 ,here he and they may be considered the antecedents to that and who1 of the first clause1 and also to he and them1 of the second4 ,so the interrogative who may be the antecedent to the relative that2 as1 ,who that has any moral sense1 dares tell lies8 ,here who1 being equivalent to what person1 is the term with which the other pronoun agrees4 ,nay1 an interrogative pronoun1 7or the noun which is implied in it17 may be the antecedent to a personal pronoun2 as1 ,who hath first given to ,him1 and it shall be recompensed to him again8--,romans1 xi1 #ce4 ,here the idea is1 ,what person hath first given any thing to the ,lord1 so that it ought to be repaid him8 that is1 so that the gift ought to be recompensed from ,heaven to the giver8 ,in the following example1 the first pronoun is the antecedent to all the rest3-- ,and he that never doubted of his state1 ,he may perhaps--perhaps he may--too late4--,cowper4 ,,obs4 #h4--,so the personal pronouns of the possessive case1 7which some call adjectives17 are sometimes represented by relatives1 though less frequently than their primitives3 as1 ,how different1 ,o ,ortogrul1 is thy condition1 who art doomed to the perpetual torments of unsatisfied desire6--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,here who is of the second person1 singular1 masculine2 and represents the antecedent pronoun thy3 for thy is a pronoun1 and not 7as some writers will have it7 an adjective4 ,examples like this1 disprove the doctrine of those grammarians who say that my1 thy1 his1 her1 its1 and their plurals1 our1 your1 their1 are adjectives4 ,for1 if they were mere adjectives1 they could not thus be made antecedents4 ,examples of this construction are sufficiently common1 and sufficiently clear1 to settle that point1 unless they can be better explained in some other way4 ,take an instance or two more3 ,and they are written for our admonition1 upon whom the ends of the world are come4--#a ,cor41 x1 #aa4 ,be thou the first true merit to befriend2 ,his praise is lost1 who stays till all commend4--,pope4 ,,classes4 ,pronouns are divided into three classes2 personal1 relative1 and interrogative4 ,i4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is2 as1 ,whether it#ahg were ,i or they1 so we preach1 and so ye believed4--#a ,cor41 xv1 #aa4 ,the simple personal pronouns are five3 namely1 ,i1 of the first person2 thou1 of the second person2 he1 she1 and it1 of the third person4 ,the compound personal pronouns are also five3 namely1 myself1 of the first person2 thyself1 of the second person2 himself1 herself1 and itself1 of the third person4 ,,ii4 ,a relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase1 and connects different clauses of a sentence2 as1 ,no people can be great1 who have ceased to be virtuous4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,the relative pronouns are who1 which1 what1 that1 as1 and the compounds whoever or whosoever1 whichever or whichsoever1 whatever or whatsoever4#ahh ,what is a kind of double relative1 equivalent to that which or those which2 and is to be parsed1 first as antecedent1 and then as relative3 as1 ,this is what ,i wanted2 that is to say1 the thing which ,i wanted4--,l4 ,murray4 ,,iii4 ,an interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which a question is asked2 as1 ,who touched my clothes8--,mark1 v1 #cj4 ,the interrogative pronouns are who1 which1 and what2 being the same in form as relatives4 ,who demands a person's name2 which1 that a person or thing be distinguished from others2 what1 the name of a thing1 or a person's occupation and character4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the pronouns ,i and myself1 thou and thyself1 with their inflections1 are literally applicable to persons only2 but1 figuratively1 they represent brutes1 or whatever else the human imagination invests with speech and reason4 ,the latter use of them1 though literal perhaps in every thing but person1 constitutes the purest kind of personification4 ,for example3 ,the trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over them3 and they said unto the olive-tree1 ',reign thou over us4' ,but the olive-tree said unto them1 ',should ,i leave my fatness1 wherewith by me they honour ,god and man1 and go to be promoted over the trees8' ,see ,judges1 ix1 from #h to #af4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the pronouns he and himself1 she and herself1 with their inflections1 are literally applicable to persons and to brutes1 and to these only2 if applied to lifeless objects1 they animate them1 and are figurative in gender1 though literal perhaps in every other respect4 ,for example3 ,a diamond of beauty and lustre1 observing at his side in the same cabinet1 not only many other gems1 but even a loadstone1 began to question the latter how he came there--he1 who appeared to be no better than a mere flint1 a sorry rusty-looking pebble1 without the least shining quality to advance him to such honour2 and concluded with desiring him to keep his distance1 and to pay a proper respect to his superiors4--,kames's ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #bbf4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the pronoun it1 as it carries in itself no such idea as that of personality1 or sex1 or life1 is chiefly used with reference to things inanimate2 yet the word is1 in a certain way1 applicable to animals1 or even to persons2 though it does not1 in itself1 present them as such4 ,thus we say1 ,it is ,i2--,it was they2--,it was you2--,it was your agent2--,it is your bull that has killed one of my oxen4 ,in examples of this kind1 the word it is simply demonstrative2 meaning1 the thing or subject spoken of4 ,that subject1 whatever it be in itself1 may be introduced again after the verb1 in any person1 number1 or gender1 that suits it4 ,but1 as the verb agrees with the pronoun it1 the word which follows1 can in no sense be made1 as ,dr4 ,priestley will have it to be1 the antecedent to that pronoun4 ,besides1 it is contrary to the nature of what is primarily demonstrative1 to represent a preceding word of any kind4 ,the ,doctor absurdly says1 ,not only things1 but persons1 may be the antecedent to this pronoun2 as1 ,who is it8 ,is it not ,thomas8 i4 e4 ,who is the person8 ,is not he ,thomas8--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,in these examples1 the terms are transposed by interrogation2 but that circumstance1 though it may have helped to deceive this author and his copiers1 affects not my assertion4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the pronoun who is usually applied only to persons4 ,its application to brutes or to things is improper1 unless we mean to personify them4 ,but whose1 the possessive case of this relative1 is sometimes used to supply the place of the possessive case1 otherwise wanting1 to the relative which4 ,examples3 ,the mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be protracted4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,philosophy1 whose end is1 to instruct us in the knowledge of nature4--,ib41 p4 #ed2 ,campbell's ,rhet41 #dba4 ,those adverbs are compared whose primitives are obsolete4--,adam's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,after a sentence whose sense is complete in itself1 a period is used4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #abd4 ,we remember best those things whose parts are methodically disposed1 and mutually connected4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 i1 #ei4 ,is there any other doctrine whose followers are punished8--,,addison3 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ed2 ,lowth's1 p4 #be4 ,the question1 whose solution ,i require1 ,is1 what the sex of women most desire4--,,dryden3 ,lowth1 p4 #be4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,buchanan1 as well as ,lowth1 condemns the foregoing use of whose1 except in grave poetry3 saying1 ,this manner of personification adds an air of dignity to the higher and more solemn kind of poetry1 but it is highly improper in the lower kind1 or in prose4--,buchanan's ,english ,syntax1 p4 #gc4 ,and1 of the last two examples above quoted1 he says1 ,it ought to be of which1 in both places3 i4 e4 ,the followers of which2 the solution of which4--,ib41 p4 #gc4 ,the truth is1 that no personification is here intended4 ,hence it may be better to avoid1 if we can1 this use of whose1 as seeming to imply what we do not mean4 ,but ,buchanan himself 7stealing the text of an older author7 has furnished at least one example as objectionable as any of the foregoing3 ,prepositions are naturally placed betwixt the ,words whose ,relation and ,dependence each of them is to express4--,english ,syntax1 p4 #ij2 ,british ,gram41 p4 #bja4 ,i dislike this construction1 and yet sometimes adopt it1 for want of another as good4 ,it is too much1 to say with ,churchill1 that this practice is now discountenanced by all correct writers4--,new ,gram41 p4 #bbf4 ,grammarians would perhaps differ less1 if they would read more4 ,dr4 ,campbell commends the use of whose for of which1 as an improvement suggested by good taste1 and established by abundant authority4 ,see ,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #dbj4 ,,whose1 the possessive or genitive case of who or which2 applied to persons or things4--,webster's ,octavo ,dict4 ,whose is well authorized by good usage1 as the possessive of which4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,nor is any language complete1 whose verbs have not tenses4--,harris's ,hermes4 --------',past and future1 are the wings ,on whose support1 harmoniously conjoined1 ,moves the great spirit of human knowledge4'--,,ms4 ,wordsworth's ,preface to his ,poems1 p4 xviii4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the relative which1 though formerly applied to persons and made equivalent to who1 is now confined to brute animals and inanimate things4 ,thus1 ,our ,father which art in heaven1 is not now reckoned good ,english2 it should be1 ,our ,father who art in heaven4 ,in this1 as well as in many other things1 the custom of speech has changed2 so that what was once right1 is now ungrammatical4 ,the use of which for who is very common in the ,bible1 and in other books of the seventeenth century2 but all good writers now avoid the construction4 ,it occurs seventy-five times in the third chapter of ,luke2 as1 ,joseph1 which was the son of ,heli1 which was the son of ,matthat1 etc4 etc4 ,after a personal term taken by metonymy for a thing1 which is not improper2 as1 ,of the particular author which he is studying4--,gallaudet4 ,and as an interrogative or a demonstrative pronoun or adjective1 the word which is still applicable to persons1 as formerly2 as1 ,which of you all8--,which man of you all8--,there arose a reasoning among them1 which of them should be the greatest4--,luke1 ix1 #df4 ,two fair twins--the puzzled ,strangers1 which is which1 inquire4--,tickell4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,if which1 as a direct relative1 is inapplicable to persons1 who ought to be preferred to it in all personifications3 as1 ,the seal is set4 ,now welcome thou dread power1 ,nameless1 yet thus omnipotent1 which here ,walk'st in the shadow of the midnight hour4 ,,byron3 ,childe ,harold's ,pilgrimage1 ,cant1 iv1 st4 #ach4 ,what sort of personage is here imagined and addressed1 ,i will not pretend to say2 but it should seem1 that who would be more proper than which1 though less agreeable in sound before the word here4 ,in one of his notes on this word1 ,churchill has fallen into a strange error4 ,he will have who to represent a horse6 and that1 in such a sense1 as would require which and not who1 even for a person4 ,as he prints the masculine pronoun in ,italics1 perhaps he thought1 with ,murray and ,webster1 that which must needs be of the neuter gender4 #ahi ,he says1 ,in the following passage1 which seems to be used instead of who3-- ',between two horses1 which doth bear him best2 ,i have1 perhaps1 some shallow spirit of judgment' ,,shaks41 #a ,hen4 ,,vi4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bbf4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the pronoun what is usually applied to things only4 ,it has a twofold relation1 and is often used 7by ellipsis of the noun7 both as antecedent and as relative1 in the form of a single word2 being equivalent to that which1 or the thing which1--those which1 or the things which4 ,in this double relation1 what represents two cases at the same time3 as1 ,he is ashamed of what he has done2 that is1 of what thing or action he has done2--or1 of that thing or action which he has done4 ,here are two objectives4 ,the two cases are sometimes alike1 sometimes different2 for either of them may be the nominative1 and either1 the objective4 ,examples3 ,the dread of censure ought not to prevail over what is proper4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #beb4 ,the public ear will not easily bear what is slovenly and incorrect4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ab4 ,he who buys what he does not need1 will often need what he cannot buy4--,student's ,manual1 p4 #bij4 ,what is just1 is honest2 and again1 what is honest1 is just4--,cicero4 ,he that hath an ear1 let him hear what the ,spirit saith unto the churches4--,rev41 ii1 #g1 #aa1 #ag1 #bi2 iii1 #f1 #ac1 #bb4 ,,obs4 #i4--,this pronoun1 what1 is usually of the singular number1 though sometimes plural3 as1 ,i must turn to the faults1 or what appear such to me4--,byron4 ,all distortions and mimicries1 as such1 are what raise aversion instead of pleasure4--,steele4 ,purified indeed from what appear to be its real defects4--,wordsworth's ,pref41 p4 xix4 ,every single impression1 made even by the same object1 is distinguishable from what have gone before1 and from what succeed4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ajg4 ,sensible people express no thoughts but what make some figure4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cii4 ,the following example1 which makes what both singular and plural at once1 is a manifest solecism3 ,what has since followed are but natural consequences4--,j4 ,c4 ,,calhoun1 ,speech in ,u4 ,s4 ,senate1 ,march #d1 #ahej4 ,here has should be have2 or else the form should be this3 ,what has since followed1 is but a natural consequence4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the common import of this remarkable pronoun1 what1 is1 as we see in the foregoing examples1 twofold2 but some instances occur1 in which it does not appear to have this double construction1 but to be simply declaratory2 and many1 in which the word is simply an adjective3 as1 ,what a strange run of luck ,i have had to-day6--,columbian ,orator1 p4 #bic4 ,here what is a mere adjective2 and1 in the following examples1 a pronoun indefinite3-- ,i tell thee what1 corporal1 ,i could tear her4--,shak4 ,he knows what's what1 and that's as high ,as metaphysic wit can fly4--,hudibras4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,what is sometimes used both as an adjective and as a relative at the same time1 and is placed before the noun which it represents2 being equivalent to the adjective any or all1 and the simple relative who1 which#aij or that3 as1 ,what money we had1 was taken away4 ,that is1 ,all the money that we had1 was taken away4 ,what man but enters1 dies4 ,that is1 ,any man who enters1 dies4 ,it was agreed that what goods were aboard his vessels1 should be landed4--,mickle's ,india1 p4 #hi4 ,what appearances of worth afterwards succeeded1 were drawn from thence4--,internal ,policy of ,great ,britain1 p4 #aif4 ,that is1 ,all the appearances of worth1 which afterwards succeeded4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,indeed1 this pronoun does not admit of being construed after a noun1 as a simple relative3 none but the most illiterate ever seriously use it so4 ,what put for who or which1 is therefore a ludicrous vulgarism2 as1 ,the aspiring youth what fired the ,ephesian dome4--,jester4 ,the word used as above1 however1 does not always preclude the introduction of a personal pronoun before the subsequent verb2 as1#aia ,what god but enters yon forbidden field1 ,who yields assistance1 or but wills to yield1 ,back to the skies with shame he shall be driven1 ,gash'd with dishonest wounds1 the scorn of heaven4--,pope's ,homer4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the compound whatever or whatsoever has the same peculiarities of construction as has the simpler word what3 as1 ,whatever word expresses an affirmation1 or assertion1 is a verb2 or thus1 ,whatever word1 with a noun or pronoun before or after it1 makes full sense1 is a verb4--,adam's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,that is1 ,any word which expresses1 c4 ,we will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth forth out of our own mouth4--,jeremiah1 xliv1 #ag4 ,that is--any thing1 or every thing1 which4 ,whatever sounds are difficult in pronunciation1 are1 in the same proportion1 harsh and painful to the ear4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aba2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cbe4 ,whatsoever things were written aforetime1 were written for our learning4--,romans1 xv1 #d4 ,in all these examples1 the word whatever or whatsoever appears to be used both adjectively and relatively4 ,there are instances1 however1 in which the relation of this term is not twofold1 but simple3 as1 ,whatever useful or engaging endowments we possess1 virtue is requisite in order to their shining with proper lustre4--,english ,reader1 p4 #bc4 ,here whatever is simply an adjective4 ,the declarations contained in them the ,scriptures rest on the authority of ,god himself2 and there can be no appeal from them to any other authority whatsoever4--,london ,epistle1 #ahcf4 ,here whatsoever may be parsed either as an adjective relating to authority1 or as an emphatic pronoun in apposition with its noun1 like himself in the preceding clause4 ,in this general explanatory sense1 whatsoever may be applied to persons as well as to things2 as1 ,i should be sorry if it entered into the imagination of any person whatsoever1 that ,i was preferred to all other patrons4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #aa4 ,here the word whomsoever might have been used4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,but there is an other construction to be here explained1 in which whatever or whatsoever appears to be a double relative1 or a term which includes both antecedent and relative2 as1 ,whatever purifies1 fortifies also the heart4--,english ,reader1 p4 #bc4 ,that is4 ,all that purifies--or1 ,everything which purifies--fortifies also the heart4 ,whatsoever he doeth1 shall prosper4--,psal41 i1 #c4 ,that is1 ,all that he doeth--or1 ,all the things which he doeth--shall prosper4 ,this construction1 however1 may be supposed elliptical4 ,the ,latin expression is1 ,omnia qucumque faciet prosperabuntur4--,vulgate4 ,the ,greek is similar3 ,greek3 ,kai panta hosa an poii kateuodothsetai4-- ,septuagint4 ,it is doubtless by some sort of ellipsis which familiarity of use inclines us to overlook1 that what1 whatever1 and whatsoever1 which are essentially adjectives1 have become susceptible of this double construction as pronouns4 ,but it is questionable what particular ellipsis we ought here to suppose1 or whether any2 and certainly1 we ought always to avoid the supposing of an ellipsis1 if we can4#aib ,now if we say the meaning is1 ,whatsoever things he doeth1 shall prosper2 this1 though analogous to other expressions1 does not simplify the construction4 ,if we will have it to be1 ,whatsoever things he doeth1 they shall prosper2 the pronoun they appears to be pleonastic4 ,so is the word it1 in the text1 ,whatsoever he saith unto you1 do it4--,john1 ii1 #e4 ,if we say the full phrase is1 ,all things whatsoever he doeth1 shall prosper2 this presents1 to an ,english ear1 a still more obvious pleonasm4 ,it may be1 too1 a borrowed idiom1 found nowhere but in translations2 as1 ,all things whatsoever ye shall ask in prayer1 believing1 ye shall receive4--,matt41 xxi1 #bb4 ,from these views1 there seems to be some objection to any and every method of parsing the above-mentioned construction as elliptical4 ,the learner may therefore say1 in such instances1 that whatever or whatsoever is a double relative1 including both antecedent and relative2 and parse it1 first as antecedent1 in connexion with the latter verb1 and then as relative1 in connexion with the former4 ,but let him observe that the order of the verbs may be the reverse of the foregoing2 as1 ,ye are my friends1 if ye do whatsoever ,i command you4--,john1 xv1 #ad4 ,that is1 according to the ,greek1 ,if ye do whatsoever ,i command to you2 ,though it would be better ,english to say1 ,if ye do whatsoever ,i command you to do4 ,in the following example1 however1 it seems proper to recognize an ellipsis2 nay1 the omissions in the construction of the last line1 are as many as three or four2-- ,expatiate with glad step1 and choose at will ,whate'er bright spoils the florid earth contains1 ,whate'er the waters1 or the liquid air4--,akenside4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,as the simple word who differs from which and what1 in being always a declinable pronoun2 so its compounds differ from theirs1 in being incapable of either of the double constructions above described4 ,yet whoever and whoso or whosoever1 as well as whichever and whichsoever1 whatever and whatsoever1 derive1 from the affix which is added1 or from the peculiarity of their syntax1 an unlimited signification--or a signification which is limited only by the following verb2 and1 as some general term1 such as any person1 or all persons1 is implied as the antecedent1 they are commonly connected with other words as if they stood for two cases at once3 as1 ,whoever seeks1 shall find4 ,that is1 ,any person who seeks1 shall find4 ,but as the case of this compound1 like that of the simple word who1 whose1 or whom1 is known and determined by its form1 it is necessary1 in parsing1 to treat this phraseology as being elliptical4 ,the compounds of who do not1 therefore1 actually stand for two cases1 though some grammarians affirm that they do4#aic ,example3 ,the soldiers made proclamation1 that they would sell the empire to whoever would purchase it at the highest price4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 p4 #bca4 ,that is--to any man who would purchase it4 ,the affix ever or soever becomes unnecessary when the ellipsis is supplied2 and this fact1 it must be confessed1 is a plausible argument against the supposition of an ellipsis4 ,but the supposing of an antecedent understood1 is here unavoidable2 because the preposition to cannot govern the nominative case1 and the word whoever cannot be an objective4 ,and so in all other instances in which the two cases are different3 as1 ,he bids whoever is athirst1 to come4--,jenks's ,devotions1 p4 #aea4 ,elizabeth publicly threatened1 that she would have the head of whoever had advised it4--,,hume3 in ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,if it is necessary in parsing to supply the antecedent to whoever or whosoever1 when two different cases are represented1 it is but analogous and reasonable to supply it also when two similar cases occur3 as1 ,whoever borrows money1 is bound in conscience to repay it4--,paley4 ,whoever is eager to find excuses for vice and folly1 will find his own backwardness to practise them much diminished4-- ,chapone4 ,whoever examines his own imperfections1 will cease to be fastidious2 whoever restrains humour and caprice1 will cease to be squeamish4--,crabb's ,synonymes4 ,in all these examples1 we have the word in the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 ,and here it is most commonly found4 ,it is always of the third person2 and1 though its number may be plural2 its gender1 feminine2 its case1 possessive or objective2 we do not often use it in any of these ways4 ,in some instances1 the latter verb is attended with an other pronoun1 which represents the same person or persons2 as1 ,and whosoever will1 let him take of the water of life freely4--,rev41 xxii1 #ag4 ,the case of this compound relative always depends upon what follows it1 and not upon what precedes2 as1 ,or ask of whomsoever he has taught4--,cowper4 ,that is--of any person whom he has taught4 ,in the following text1 we have the possessive plural3 ,whosesoever sins ye remit1 they are remitted unto them4--,john1 xx1 #bc4 ,that is1 ,whatever persons' sins4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,in such phraseology as the following1 there is a stiffness which ought to be avoided3 ,for whomever ,god loves1 he loves them in ,christ1 and no otherways4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #bae4 ,better3 ,for all whom ,god loves1 he loves in ,christ1 and no otherwise4 ,when the ,father draws1 whomever he draws1 may come4--,penington4 ,better3 ,when the ,father draws1 all whom he draws1 7or1 every one whom he draws47 may come4 ,a modern critic of immense promise cites the following clause as being found in the ,bible3 ,but he loveth whomsoever followeth after righteousness4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #gb4 ,it is lamentable to see the unfaithfulness of this gentleman's quotations4 ,about half of them are spurious2 and ,i am confident that this one is neither ,scripture nor good ,english4 ,the compound relative1 being the subject of followeth1 should be in the nominative case2 for the object of the verb loveth is the antecedent every one1 understood4 ,but the idea may be better expressed1 without any ellipsis1 thus3 ,he loveth every one who followeth after righteousness4 ,the following example from the same hand is also wrong1 and the author's rule and reasoning connected with it1 are utterly fallacious3 ,i will give the reward to whomsoever will apprehend the rogue4--,ib41 p4 #bef4 ,much better say1 to any one who2 but1 if you choose the compound word1 by all analogy1 and all good authority1 it must here be whoever or whosoever4 ,the shorter compound whoso1 which occurs very frequently in the ,bible1 is now almost obsolete in prose1 but still sometimes used by the poets4 ,it has the same meaning as whosoever1 but appears to have been confined to the nominative singular2 and whatso is still more rare3 as1 ,whoso diggeth a pit1 shall fall therein4--,prov41 xxvi1 #bg4 ,which whoso tastes1 can be enslaved no more4--,cowper4 ,on their intended journey to proceed1 ,and over night whatso thereto did need4--,hubbard4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,the relative that is applied indifferently to persons1 to brute animals1 and to inanimate things4 ,but the word that is not always a relative pronoun4 ,it is sometimes a pronoun1 sometimes an adjective1 and sometimes a conjunction4 ,i call it not a demonstrative pronoun and also a relative2 because1 in the sense in which ,murray and others have styled it a demonstrative adjective pronoun1 it is a pronominal adjective1 and it is better to call it so4 7#a47 ,it is a relative pronoun whenever it is equivalent to who1 whom1 or which3 as1 ,there is not a just man upon earth1 that doeth good1 and sinneth not--,eccl41 vii1 #bj4 ,it was diverse from all the beasts that were before it4--,dan41 vii1 #g4 ,and he had a name written1 that no man knew but he himself4--,rev41 xix1 #ab4 7#b47 ,it is a pronominal adjective whenever it relates to a noun expressed or understood after it3 as1 ,thus with violence shall that great city1 ,babylon1 be thrown down4--,rev41 xviii1 #ba4 ,behold that thing which ,i have seen4--,eccl41 v1 #ah4 ,and they said1 ',what is that#aid matter to us8 ,see thou to that' matter4--,matt41 xxvii1 #d4 7#c47 ,in its other uses1 it is a conjunction1 and1 as such1 it most commonly makes what follows it1 the purpose1 object1 or final cause1 of what precedes it3 as1 ,i read that ,i may learn4--,dr4 ,adam4 ,ye men of ,athens1 ,i perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious4--,st4 ,paul4 ,live well1 that you may die well4--,anon4 ,take heed that thou speak not to ,jacob4--,genesis4 ,judge not1 that ye be not judged4--,matthew4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,the word that1 or indeed any other word1 should never be so used as to leave the part of speech uncertain2 as1 ,for in the day that thou eatest thereof1 thou shalt surely die4--,gen41 ii1 #ag4 ,here that seems to be a relative pronoun1 representing day1 in the third person1 singular1 neuter2 yet1 in other respects1 it seems to be a conjunction1 because there is nothing to determine its case4 ,better3 ,for in the day on which thou eatest thereof1 thou shalt surely die4 ,this mongrel construction of the word that1 were its justification possible1 is common enough in our language to be made good ,english4 ,but it must needs be condemned1 because it renders the character of the term ambiguous1 and is such a grammatical difficulty as puts the parser at a dead nonplus4 ,examples3 7#a47 ,but at the same time ,,that men are giving their orders1 ,god on his part is likewise giving his4--,rollin's ,hist41 ii1 #ajf4 ,here the phrase1 at the same time that1 is only equivalent to the adverb while2 and yet it is incomplete1 because it means1 at the same time at which1 or1 at the very time at which4 7#b47 ,the author of this work1 at the same time ,,that he has endeavoured to avoid a plan1 which may be too concise or too extensive1 defective in its parts or irregular in the disposition of them1 has studied to render his subject sufficiently easy1 intelligible1 and comprehensive4--,murray's ,gram41 ,introd41 p4 #a4 ,this sentence1 which is no unfair specimen of its author's original style1 needs three corrections3 #a4 ,for at the same time that1 say while3 #b4 ,drop the phrase1 which may be1 because it is at least useless3 #c4 ,for subject1 read treatise1 or compilation4 ,you will thus have tolerable diction4 ,again3 7#c47 ,the participles of active verbs act upon objects and govern them in the objective case1 in the same manner that the verbs do1 from which they are derived4 ,a participle in the nature of an adjective1 belongs or refers to nouns or pronouns in the same manner that adjectives do2 and when it will admit the degrees of comparison1 it is called a participial adjective4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,this is the style of a gentleman of no ordinary pretensions1 one who thinks he has produced the best grammar that has ever appeared in our language4 ,to me1 however1 his work suggests an abundance of questions like these2 each of which would palpably involve him in a dilemma3 ,what is here meant by objects1 the words1 or the things8 if the former1 how are they acted upon8 if the latter1 how are they governed8 ,if a participle is called an adjective1 which is it1 an adjective1 or a participle8 ,if a participle refers to nouns or pronouns1 how many of these are required by the relation8 ,when does a participle admit the degrees of comparison8 ,how shall we parse the word that in the foregoing sentences8 ,,obs4 #ai4--,the word as1 though usually a conjunction or an adverb1 has sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun1 especially after such1 so many1 or as many2 and1 whatever the antecedent noun may be1 this is the only fit relative to follow any of these terms in a restrictive sense4 ,examples3 ,we have been accustomed to repose on its veracity with such humble confidence as suppresses curiosity4--,johnson's ,life of ,cowley4 ,the malcontents made such demands as none but a tyrant could refuse4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 ,let4 #g4 ,the ,lord added to the church daily such persons as should be saved4--,acts1 ii1 #dg4 ,and as many as were ordained to eternal life1 believed4--,acts1 xiii1 #dh4 ,as many as ,i love1 ,i rebuke and chasten4--,rev41 iii1 #ai4 ,know ye not1 that so many of us as were baptized into ,jesus ,christ1 were baptized into his death8--,rom41 vi1 #c4 ,for as many of you as have been baptized into ,christ1 have put on ,christ4--,gal41 iii1 #bg4 ,a syllable is so many letters as are spoken with one motion of the voice4--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,the compound tenses are such as cannot be formed without an auxiliary verb4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ia4 ,send him such books as will please him4--,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,in referring to such a division of the day as is past1 we use the imperfect4-- ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived4--,ib41 ,rule xiv4 ,participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived4-- ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,in some of these examples1 as is in the nominative case1 and in others1 in the objective2 in some1 it is of the masculine gender1 and in others1 it is neuter2 in some1 it is of the plural number1 and in others1 it is singular3 but in all1 it is of the third person2 and in all1 its person1 number1 gender1 and case1 are as obvious as those of any invariable pronoun can be4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,some writers--7the most popular are ,webster1 ,bullions1 ,wells1 and ,chandler--7 imagine that as1 in such sentences as the foregoing1 can be made a conjunction1 and not a pronoun1 if we will allow them to consider the phraseology elliptical4 ,of the example for which ,i am indebted to him1 ,dr4 ,webster says1 ,as must be considered as the nominative to will please1 or we must suppose an ellipsis of several words3 as1 ',send him such books as the books which will please him1 or as those which will please him4'--,improved ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,this pretended explanation must be rejected as an absurdity4 ,in either form of it1 two nominatives are idly imagined between as and its verb2 and1 ,i ask1 of what is the first one the subject8 ,if you say1 ,of are understood1 making the phrase1 such books as the books are2 does not as bear the same relation to this new verb are1 that is found in the pronoun who1 when one says1 ,tell him who you are8 ,if so1 as is a pronoun still2 so that1 thus far1 you gain nothing4 ,and if you will have the whole explanation to be1 ,send him such books as the books are books which will please him2 you multiply words1 and finally arrive at nothing1 but tautology and nonsense4 ,wells1 not condescending to show his pupils what he would supply after this as1 thinks it sufficient to say1 the word is followed by an ellipsis of one or more words required to complete the construction2 as1 ',he was the father of all such as handle the harp and organ4'--,gen4 #d3 #ba4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #afd2 #c;d ,ed41 p4 #agb4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,chandler exhibits the sentence1 ,these are not such as are worn2 and1 in parsing it1 expounds the words as and are1 thus2 the crotchets being his1 not mine3 as4444 is an adverb1 connecting the two sentences in comparing them1 ,it is a fault of some1 that they make as a pronoun1 when1 in a comparative sentence1 it corresponds with such1 and is immediately followed by a verb1 as in the sentence now given4 ,this is probably done from an ignorance of the real nominative to the verb4 ,the sentence should stand thus3 ',these 7perhaps bonnets7 are not such 7bonnets7 as 7those bonnets7 are 7which are7 worn4' ,then are 4444 is the substantive verb1 third person1 plural number1 indicative mood1 present tense1 and agrees with the noun bonnets1 understood4--,chandler's ,common ,school ,gram41 p4 #afb4 ,all this bears the marks of shallow flippancy4 ,no part of it is accurate4 ,are worn1 which the critic unwarrantably divides by his misplaced curves and uncouth impletions1 is a passive verb1 agreeing with the pronoun as4 ,but the text itself is faulty1 being unintelligible through lack of a noun2 for1 of things that may be worn1 there are a thousand different sorts4 ,is it not ridiculous1 for a great grammarian to offer1 as a model for parsing1 what he himself1 from an ignorance of the real nominative1 can only interpret with a perhaps8 ,but the noun which this author supplies1 the meaning which he guesses that he had1 he here very improperly stows away within a pair of crotchets4 ,nor is it true1 that the sentence should stand as above exhibited2 for the tautological correction not only has the very extreme of awkwardness1 but still makes as a pronoun1 a nominative1 belonging after are3 so that the phrase1 as are worn1 is only encumbered and perverted by the verbose addition made4 ,so of an other example given by this expounder1 in which as is an objective3 ,he is exactly such a man as ,i saw4--,chandler's ,com4 ,sch4 ,gram41 p4 #afc4 ,here as is the object of saw4 ,but the author says1 ,the sentence1 however1 should stand thus3 ',he is exactly such a man as that person was whom ,i saw4'--,ibid4 ,this inelegant alteration makes as a nominative dependent on was4 ,,obs4 #bb4--,the use of as for a relative pronoun1 is almost entirely confined to those connexions in which no other relative would be proper2 hence few instances occur1 of its absolute equivalence to who1 which1 or that1 by which to establish its claim to the same rank4 ,examples like the following1 however1 go far to prove it1 if proof be necessary2 because who and which are here employed1 where as is certainly now required by all good usage3 ,it is not only convenient1 but absolutely needful1 that there be certain meetings at certain places and times1 as may best suit the convenience of such1 who may be most particularly concerned in them4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #die4 ,which1 no doubt1 will be found obligatory upon all such1 who have a sense and feeling of the mind of the ,spirit4--,ib41 i1 p4 #egh4 ,condemning or removing such things1 which in themselves are evil4--,ib41 i1 p4 #eaa4 ,in these citations1 not only are who and which improperly used for as1 but the commas before them are also improper1 because the relatives are intended to be taken in a restrictive sense4 ,if there be such that walk disorderly now4--,ib41 i1 p4 #dhh4 ,here that ought to be as2 or else such ought to be persons1 or those4 ,when such virtues1 as which still accompany the truth1 are necessarily supposed to be wanting4--,ib41 i1 p4 #ejb4 ,here which1 and the comma before as1 should both be expunged4 ,i shall raise in their minds the same course of thought as has taken possession of my own4--,duncan's ,logic1 p4 #fa4 ,the pronoun must be in the same case as the antecedent would be in1 if substituted for it4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aha4 ,the verb must therefore have the same construction as it has in the following sentence4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #aij4 ,here as is exactly equivalent to the relative that1 and either may be used with equal propriety4 ,we cannot avoid the conclusion1 therefore1 that1 as the latter word is sometimes a conjunction and sometimes a pronoun1 so is the former4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,the relatives that and as have this peculiarity2 that1 unlike whom and which1 they never follow the word on which their case depends2 nor indeed can any simple relative be so placed1 except it be governed by a preposition or an infinitive4 ,thus1 it is said1 7,john1 xiii1 #bith17 ,buy those things that we have need of2 so we may say1 ,buy such things as we have need of4 ,but we cannot say1 ,buy those things of that we have need2 or1 ,buy such things of as we have need4 ,though we may say1 ,buy those things of which we have need1 as well as1 ,buy those things which we have need of2 or1 ,admit those persons of whom we have need1 as well as1 ,admit those persons whom we have need of4 ,by this it appears that that and as have a closer connexion with their antecedents than the other relatives require3 a circumstance worthy to have been better remembered by some critics4 ,again1 that and as are used rather differently4 ,when that is used1 the verb must be repeated2 as1 ',participles require the same government1 that their verbs require4'--',james showed the same credulity1 that his minister showed4' ,but when as is used1 the verb generally may1 or may not be repeated2 as1 ',participles require the same government as their verbs2' or1 'as their verbs require4'--',james showed the same credulity as his minister2' or1 'as his minister showed3' the second nominative minister being parsed as the nominative to the same verb showed understood4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #adj4aie ,,obs4 #bd4--,the terminating of a sentence with a preposition1 or other small particle1 is in general undignified1 though perhaps not otherwise improper4 ,hence the above-named inflexibility in the construction of that and as1 sometimes induces an ellipsis of the governing word designed2 and is occasionally attended with some difficulty respecting the choice of our terms4 ,examples3 ,the answer is always in the same case that the interrogative word is4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,here is a faulty termination2 and with it a more faulty ellipsis4 ,in stead of ending the sentence with is in1 say1 ,the answer always agrees in case with the interrogative word4 ,again3 ,the relative is of the same person with the antecedent4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aja4 ,this sentence is wrong1 because the person of the relative is not really identical with the antecedent4 ,the relative is of the same person as the antecedent4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,here the writer means--as the antecedent is of4 ,a neuter verb becomes active1 when followed by a noun of the same signification with its own4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #abg4 ,here same is wrong1 or else the last three words are useless4 ,it would therefore be improper to say--of the same signification as its own4 ,the expression ought to be--of a signification similar to its own4 ,ode is1 in ,greek1 the same with song or hymn4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cif4 ,song being no ,greek word1 ,i cannot think the foregoing expression accurate1 though one might say1 ,ode is identical with song or hymn4 ,would it not be better to say1 ,ode is the same as song or hymn8 ,that is1 ,ode is1 literally1 the same thing that song or hymn is8 ,treatises of philosophy1 ought not to be composed in the same style with orations4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #age4 ,here neither with nor as can be proper2 because orations are not a style4 ,expunge same2 and say--in the style of orations4 ,,obs4 #be4--;,few writers are sufficiently careful in their choice and management of relatives4 ,in the following instance1 ,murray and others violate a special rule of their own grammars1 by using whom for that after an adjective of the superlative degree3 ,modifying them according to the genius of that tongue1 and the established practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #a2 ,fisk's1 p4 #aa2 et al4 ,according to ,priestley and himself1 the great ,compiler is here in an error4 ,the rule is perhaps too stringent2 but whoever teaches it1 should keep it4 ,if he did not like to say1 the best speakers and writers that it is used by2 he ought to have said1 the best speakers and writers that use it4 ,or1 rather1 he ought to have said nothing after the word writers2 because the whole relative clause is here weak and useless4 ,yet how many of the amenders of this grammar have not had perspicacity enough1 either to omit the expression1 or to correct it according to the author's own rule6 ,,obs4 #bf4--,relative pronouns are capable of being taken in two very different senses3 the one1 restrictive of the general idea suggested by the antecedent2 the other1 resumptive of that idea1 in the full import of the term--or1 in whatever extent the previous definitives allow4 ,the distinction between these two senses1 important as it is1 is frequently made to depend solely upon the insertion or the omission of a comma4 ,thus1 if ,i say1 ,men who grasp after riches1 are never satisfied2 the relative who is taken restrictively1 and ,i am understood to speak only of the avaricious4 ,but1 if ,i say1 ,men1 who grasp after riches1 are never satisfied2 by separating the terms men and who1 ,i declare all men to be covetous and unsatisfied4 ,for the former sense1 the relative that is preferable to who2 and ,i shall presently show why4 ,this example1 in the latter form1 is found in ,sanborn's ,grammar1 page #adb;d2 but whether the author meant what he says1 or not1 ,i doubt4 ,like many other unskillful writers1 he has paid little regard to the above-mentioned distinction2 and1 in some instances1 his meaning cannot have been what his words declare3 as1 ,a prism is a solid1 whose sides are all parallelograms4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,this1 as it stands1 is no definition of a prism1 but an assertion of two things2 that a prism is a solid1 and that all the sides of a solid are parallelograms4 ,erase the comma1 and the words will describe the prism as a peculiar kind of solid2 because whose will then be taken in the restrictive sense4 ,this sense1 however1 may be conveyed even with a comma before the relative2 as1 ,some fictitious histories yet remain1 that were composed during the decline of the ,roman empire4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgd4 ,this does not suggest that there are no other fictitious histories now extant1 than such as were composed during the decline of the ,roman empire2 but ,i submit it to the reader1 whether the word which1 if here put for that1 would not convey this idea4 ,,obs4 #bg4--,upon this point1 many philologists are open to criticism2 and none more so1 than the recent author above cited4 ,by his own plain showing1 this grammarian has no conception of the difference of meaning1 upon which the foregoing distinction is founded4 ,what marvel1 then1 that he falls into errors1 both of doctrine and of practice8 ,but1 if no such difference exists1 or none that is worthy of a critic's notice2 then the error is mine1 and it is vain to distinguish between the restrictive and the resumptive sense of relative pronouns4 ,for example3 ,the boy that desires to assist his companions1 deserves respect4--,g4 ,brown4 ,that boy1 who desires to assist his companions1 deserves respect4--,d4 ,h4 ,sanborn4 ,according to my notion1 these two sentences clearly convey two very different meanings2 the relative1 in the former1 being restrictive1 but1 in the latter1 resumptive of the sense of the antecedent4 ,but of the latter example this author says1 ,the clause1 'who desires to assist his companions1' with the relative who at its head1 explains or tells what boy deserves respect2 and1 like a conjunction1 connects this clause to the noun boy4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,he therefore takes it in a restrictive sense1 as if this sentence were exactly equivalent to the former4 ,but he adds1 ,a relative pronoun is resolvable into a personal pronoun and a conjunction4 ,the sentence would then read1 ',that boy desires to assist his companions1 and he deserves respect4' ,the relative pronoun governs the nearer verb1 and the antecedent the more distant one4--,ib41 p4 #fi4 ,now1 concerning the restrictive relative1 this doctrine of equivalence does not hold good2 and1 besides1 the explanation here given1 not only contradicts his former declaration of the sense he intended1 but1 with other seeming contradiction1 joins the antecedent to the nearer verb1 and the substituted pronoun to the more distant4 ,,obs4 #bh4--;,again1 the following principles of this author's punctuation are no less indicative of his false views of this matter3 ,,rule xiv4--,relative pronouns in the nominative or the objective case1 are preceded by commas1 when the clause which the relative connects 1 ends a sentence2 as1 ',sweetness of temper is a quality1 which reflects a lustre on every accomplishment'--,b4 ,greenleaf4' ,self - denial is the sacrifice 1 which virtue must make4' --,l4 ,murray4 ,the comma is omitted before the relative1 when the verb which the antecedent governs1 follows the relative clause2 as1 ',he that suffers by imposture1 has too often his virtue more impaired than his fortune4'--,johnson4 ,see ,sanborn's ,analytical ,gram41 p4 #bfi4 ,such are some of our author's principles--the essence of modern improvements4 ,his practice1 though often wrong1 is none the worse for contradicting these doctrines4 ,nay1 his proudest boast is ungrammatical1 though peradventure not the less believed3 ,no other grammar in the language probably contains so great a quantity of condensed and useful matter with so little superfluity4--,sanborn's ,preface1 p4 v4 ,,obs4 #bi4--,murray's rule for the punctuation of relatives1 7a rule which he chiefly copied from ,lowth17 recognizes virtually the distinction which ,i have made above2 but1 in assuming that relatives generally require a comma before them1 it erroneously suggests that the resumptive sense is more common than the restrictive4 ,churchill1 on the contrary1 as wrongly makes it an essential characteristic of all relatives1 to limit or explain the words to which they refer4 ,see his ,new ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,the fact is1 that relatives are so generally restrictive1 that not one half of them are thus pointed2 though some that do restrict their antecedent1 nevertheless admit the point4 ,this may be seen by the first example given us by ,murray3 ,relative pronouns are connective words1 and generally admit a comma before them3 as1 ',he preaches sublimely1 who lives a sober1 righteous1 and pious life4' ,but when two members1 or phrases1 say clauses1 are closely connected by a relative1 restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense1 the comma should be omitted3 as1 ',self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make2' ',a man who is of a detracting spirit1 will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put together4' ,in the latter example1 the assertion is not of 'a man in general1' but of 'a man who is of a detracting spirit2' and therefore they say the pronoun and its antecedent should not be separated4--,murray's ,gram41 ,octavo1 p4 #bgc2 ,ingersoll's1 #bhe2 ,comly's1 #aeb4 ,this reasoning1 strictly applied1 would exclude the comma before who in the first example above2 but1 as the pronoun does not closely or immediately follow its antecedent1 the comma is allowed1 though it is not much needed4 ,not so1 when the sense is resumptive3 as1 ,the additions1 which are very considerable1 are chiefly such as are calculated to obviate objections4 ,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 ix4 ,here the comma is essential to the meaning4 ,without it1 which would be equivalent to that2 with it1 which is equivalent to and they4 ,but this latter meaning1 as ,i imagine1 cannot be expressed by the relative that4 ,,obs4 #cj4--;,into the unfortunate example which ,sanborn took from ,murray1 ,i have inserted the comma for him2 not because it is necessary or right1 but because his rule requires it3 ,self-denial is the sacrifice1 c4 ,the author of a complete system of grammar1 might better contradict even ,murray1 than himself4 ,but why was this text admired8 and why have ,greene1 ,bullions1 ,hiley1 ,hart1 and others1 also copied it8 ,a sacrifice is something devoted and lost1 for the sake of a greater good2 and1 if ,virtue sacrifice self-denial1 what will she do1 but run into indulgence8 ,the great sacrifice which she demands of men1 is rather that of their self-love4 ,wm4 ,e4 ,russell has it1 ,self defence is the sacrifice which virtue must make6--,russell's ,abridgement of ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,bishop ,butler tells us1 ,it is indeed ridiculous to assert1 that self-denial is essential to virtue and piety2 but it would have been nearer the truth1 though not strictly the truth itself1 to have said1 that it is essential to discipline and improvement4--,analogy of ,religion1 p4 #abc4 ,,obs4 #ca4--,the relative that1 though usually reckoned equivalent to who or which1 evidently differs from both1 in being more generally1 and perhaps more appropriately1 taken in the restrictive sense4 ,it ought therefore1 for distinction's sake1 to be preferred to who or which1 whenever an antecedent not otherwise limited1 is to be restricted by the relative clause2 as1 ,men that grasp after riches1 are never satisfied4--,i love wisdom that is gay and civilized4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #cd4 ,this phraseology leaves not the limitation of the meaning to depend solely upon the absence of a pause after the antecedent2 because the relative that is seldom1 if ever1 used by good writers in any other than a restrictive sense4 ,again3 ,a man of a polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #daa4 ,here1 too1 according to my notion1 that is obviously preferable to which2 though a great critic1 very widely known1 has taken some pains to establish a different opinion4 ,the many pleasures here spoken of1 are no otherwise defined1 than as being such as the vulgar are not capable of receiving4 ,the writer did not mean to deny that the vulgar are capable of receiving a great many pleasures2 but1 certainly1 if that were changed to which1 this would be the meaning conveyed1 unless the reader were very careful to avoid a pause where he would be apt to make one4 ,i therefore prefer ,addison's expression to that which ,dr4 ,blair would substitute4 ,,obs4 #cb4--,the style of ,addison is more than once censured by ,dr4 ,blair1 for the frequency with which the relative that occurs in it1 where the learned lecturer would have used which4 ,the reasons assigned by the critic are these3 ,which is a much more definitive word than that1 being never employed in any other way than as a relative2 whereas that is a word of many senses2 sometimes a demonstrative pronoun1 often a conjunction4 ,in some cases we are indeed obliged to use that for a relative1 in order to avoid the ungraceful repetition of which in the same sentence4 ,but when we are laid under no necessity of this kind1 which is always the preferable word1 and certainly was so in this sentence3 ',pleasures which the vulgar are not capable of receiving1' is much better than 'pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving4'--,blair's ,rhetoric1 ,lect4 xx1 p4 #bjj4 ,now the facts are these3 7#a47 ,that that is the more definitive or restrictive word of the two4 7#b47 ,that the word which has as many different senses and uses as the word that4 7#c47 ,that not the repetition of which or who in a series of clauses1 but a needless change of the relative1 is ungraceful4 7#d47 ,that the necessity of using that rather than which or who1 depends1 not upon what is here supposed1 but upon the different senses which these words usually convey4 7#e47 ,that as there is always some reason of choice1 that is sometimes to be preferred2 which1 sometimes2 and who1 sometimes3 as1 ,it is not the man who has merely taught1 or who has taught long1 or who is able to point out defects in authors1 that is capable of enlightening the world in the respective sciences which have engaged his attention2 but the man who has taught well4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #g4 ,,obs4 #cc4--;,blair's ,rhetoric consists of forty-seven lectures2 four of which are devoted to a critical examination of the style of ,addison1 as exhibited in four successive papers of the ,spectator4 ,the remarks of the professor are in general judicious2 but1 seeing his work is made a common textbook for students of ,belles ,lettres1 it is a pity to find it so liable to reprehension on the score of inaccuracy4 ,among the passages which are criticised in the twenty-first lecture1 there is one in which the essayist speaks of the effects of novelty as follows3 ',it is this which bestows charms on a monster1 and makes even the imperfections of nature please us4 ,it is this that recommends variety1 where the mind is every instant called off to something new1 and the attention not suffered to dwell too long and waste itself on any particular object4 ,it is this1 likewise1 that improves what is great or beautiful1 and makes it afford the mind a double entertainment4'--,spectator1 ,no4 #dab4 ,this passage is deservedly praised by the critic1 for its perspicuity1 grace1 and harmony2 but1 in using different relatives under like circumstances1 the writer has hardly done justice to his own good taste4 ,blair's remark is this3 ,his frequent use of that1 instead of which1 is another peculiarity of his style2 but1 on this occasion in particular1 it cannot be much commended1 as1 ',it is this which1' seems1 in every view1 to be better than1 ',it is this that1' three times repeated4--,lect4 xxi1 p4 #bjg4 ,what is here meant by every view1 may1 ,i suppose1 be seen in the corresponding criticism which is noticed in my last observation above2 and ,i am greatly deceived1 if1 in this instance also1 the relative that is not better than which1 and more agreeable to polite usage4 ,the direct relative which corresponds to the introductory pronoun it and an other antecedent1 should1 ,i think1 be that1 and not who or which3 as1 ,it is not ye that speak4--,matt41 x1 #bj4 ,it is thou1 ,lord1 who hast the hearts of all men in thy hands1 that turnest the hearts of any to show me favour4--,jenks's ,prayers1 p4 #bgh4 ,here who has reference to thou or ,lord only2 but that has some respect to the pronoun it1 though it agrees in person and gender with thou4 ,a similar example is cited at the close of the preceding observation2 and ,i submit it to the reader1 whether the word that1 as it there occurs1 is not the only fit word for the place it occupies4 ,so in the following examples3 ,there are ,words1 which are not ,verbs1 that signify actions and passions1 and even things transient4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ajj4 ,it is the universal taste of mankind1 which is subject to no such changing modes1 that alone is entitled to possess any authority4--,blair's ,rhetoric1 p4 #bhf4 ,,obs4 #cd4--,sometimes the broad import of an antecedent is doubly restricted1 first by one relative clause1 and then by an other2 as1 ,and all that dwell upon the earth1 shall worship him1 whose names are not written in the book of life4--,rev41 xiii1 #h4 ,and then1 like true ,thames-,watermen1 they abuse every man that passes by1 who is better dressed than themselves4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aj4 ,here and1 or if he1 would be as good as who2 for the connective only serves to carry the restriction into narrower limits4 ,sometimes the limit fixed by one clause is extended by an other2 as1 ,there is no evil that you may suffer1 or that you may expect to suffer1 which prayer is not the appointed means to alleviate4--,bickersteth1 on ,prayer1 p4 #af4 ,here which resumes the idea of evil1 in the extent last determined2 or rather1 in that which is fixed by either clause1 since the limits of both are embraced in the assertion4 ,and1 in the two limiting clauses1 the same pronoun was requisite1 on account of their joint relation2 but the clause which assumes a different relation1 is rightly introduced by a different pronoun4 ,this is also the case in the following examples3 ,for there is no condemnation to those that are in ,christ ,jesus1 who walk not after the flesh1 but after the ,spirit4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dcb4 ,i will tell thee the mystery of the woman1 and of the beast that carrieth her1 which hath the seven heads and ten horns4--,rev41 xvii1 #g4 ,here the restrictive sense is well expressed by one relative1 and the resumptive by an other4 ,when neither of these senses is intended by the writer1 any form of the relative must needs be improper3 as1 ,the greatest genius which runs through the arts and sciences1 takes a kind of tincture from them1 and falls unavoidably into imitation4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #afj4 ,here1 as ,i suppose1 which runs should be in running4 ,what else can the author have meant8 ,,obs4 #ce4--;,having now1 as ,i imagine1 clearly shown the difference between the restrictive and the resumptive sense of a relative pronoun1 and the absolute necessity of making such a choice of words as will express that sense only which we intend2 ,i hope the learner will see1 by these observations1 not merely that clearness requires the occasional use of each of our five relatives1 who1 which1 what1 that1 and as2 but that this distinction in the meaning1 is a very common principle by which to determine what is1 and what is not1 good ,english4 ,thus that and as are appropriately our restrictive relatives1 though who and which are sometimes used restrictively2 but1 in a resumptive sense1 who or which is required1 and required even after those terms which usually demand that or as3 thus1 ,we are vexed at the unlucky chance1 and go away dissatisfied4 ,such impressions1 which ought not to be cherished1 are a sufficient reason for excluding stories of that kind from the theatre4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bgi4 ,here which is proper to the sense intended2 but such requires as1 when the latter term limits the meaning of the former4 ,in sentences like the following1 who or which may be used in lieu of that2 whether with any advantage or not1 the reader may judge3 ,you seize the critical moment that is favorable to emotion4--,bair's ,rhet41 p4 #cba4 ,an historian that would instruct us1 must know when to be concise4--,ib41 p4 #cei4 ,seneca has been censured for the affectation that appears in his style4--,ib41 p4 #cfg4 ,such as the prodigies that attended the death of ,julius ,csar4--,ib41 p4 #dja4 ,by unfolding those principles that ought to govern the taste of every individual4--,kames's ,dedication to ,el4 of ,crit4 ,but ,i am sure he has that that is better than an estate4--,spect41 ,no4 #dge4 ,there are two properties1 that characterize and essentially distinguish relative pronouns4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,by these examples1 it may be seen1 that ,dr4 ,blair often forgot or disregarded his own doctrine respecting the use of this relative2 though he was oftener led1 by the error of that doctrine1 to substitute which for that improperly4 ,,obs4 #cf4--,whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun1 in which sense it always referred to one of two things2 as1 ,ye fools and blind6 for whether is greater1 the gold1 or the temple that sanctifieth the gold8--,matt41 xxiii1 #ag4 ,this usage is now obsolete2 and1 in stead of it1 we say1 ,which is greater8 ,but as a disjunctive conjunction1 corresponding to or1 the word whether is still in good repute2 as1 ,resolve whether you will go or not4--,webster's ,dict4 ,in this sense of the term1 some choose to call whether an adverb4 ,,obs4 #cg4--;,in the view of some writers1 interrogative pronouns differ from relatives chiefly in this2 that1 as the subject referred to is unknown to the speaker1 they do not relate to a preceding noun1 but to something which is to be expressed in the answer to the question4 ,it is certain that their person1 number1 and gender1 are not regulated by an antecedent noun2 but by what the speaker supposes or knows of a subject which may1 or may not1 agree with them in these respects3 as1 ,what lies there8 ,answer1 ,two men asleep4 ,here what1 standing for what thing1 is of the third person1 singular number1 and neuter gender2 but men1 which is the term that answers to it1 is of the third person1 plural1 masculine4 ,there is therefore no necessary agreement between the question and the answer1 in any of those properties in which a pronoun usually agrees with its noun4 ,yet some grammarians will have interrogatives to agree with these subsequents1 as relatives agree with their antecedents4 ,the answer1 it must be granted1 commonly contains a noun1 corresponding in some respects to the interrogative pronoun1 and agreeing with it in case2 but this noun cannot be supposed to control the interrogation1 nor is it1 in any sense1 the word for which the pronoun stands4 ,for every pronoun must needs stand for something that is uttered or conceived by the same speaker2 nor can any question be answered1 until its meaning is understood4 ,interrogative pronouns must therefore be explained as direct substitutes for such other terms as one might use in stead of them4 ,thus who means what person8 ,who taught that heav'n-directed spire to rise8 ,the ,man of ,ross1 each lisping babe replies4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #ch4--;,in the classification of the pronouns1 and indeed in the whole treatment of them1 almost all our ,english grammars are miserably faulty1 as well as greatly at variance4 ,in some forty or fifty1 which ,i have examined on this point1 the few words which constitute this part of speech1 have more than twenty different modes of distribution4 7#a47 ,cardell says1 ,there is but one kind of pronouns--,elements of ,gram41 p4 #cj4 7#b47 ,d4 ,adam's1 ,greenleaf1 ,nutting1 and ,weld1 will have two kinds2 personal and relative4 7#c47 ,dr4 ,webster's ,substitutes1 or pronouns1 are of two kinds3 the one1 called personal2 the other1 without name or number4 ,see his ,improved ,gram41 p4 #bd4 7#d47 ,many have fixed upon three sorts2 personal1 relative1 and adjective2 with a subdivision of the last4 ,of these is ,lindley ,murray1 in his late editions1 with his amenders1 ,ainsworth1 ,alger1 ,bacon1 ,bullions1 ,fisk1 ,a4 ,flint1 ,frost1 ,guy1 ,hall1 ,kirkham1 ,lennie1 ,merchant1 ,picket1 ,pond1 and ,s4 ,putnam4 7#e47 ,kirkham1 however1 changes the order of the classes2 thus1 personal1 adjective1 and relative2 and1 with ridiculous absurdity1 makes mine1 thine1 hers1 ours1 yours1 and theirs to be compounds4 7#f47 ,churchill adopts the plan of personal1 relative1 and adjective pronouns2 and then destroys it by a valid argument4 7#g47 ,comly1 ,wilcox1 ,wells1 and ,perley1 have these three classes2 personal1 relative1 and interrogative3 and this division is right4 7#h47 ,sanborn makes the following bull3 ,the general divisions of pronouns are into personal1 relative1 interrogative1 and several sub-divisions4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #ia4 7#i47 ,jaudon has these three kinds2 personal1 relative1 and distributive4 7#aj47 ,robbins1 these2 simple1 conjunctive1 and interrogative4 7#aa47 ,lindley ,murray1 in his early editions1 had these four2 personal1 possessive1 relative1 and adjective4 7#ab47 ,bucke has these2 personal1 relative1 interrogative1 and adjective4 7#ac47 ,ingersoll1 these2 personal1 adjective1 relative1 and interrogative4 7#ad47 ,buchanan2 personal1 demonstrative1 relative1 and interrogative4 7#ae47 ,coar2 personal1 possessive or pronominal adjectives1 demonstrative1 and relative4 7#af47 ,bicknell2 personal1 possessive1 relative1 and demonstrative4 7#ag47 ,cobbett2 personal1 relative1 demonstrative1 and indefinite4 7#ah7 ,m',culloch2 personal1 possessive1 relative1 and reciprocal4 7#ai47 ,staniford has five2 personal1 relative1 interrogative1 definitive1 and distributive4 7#bj47 ,alexander1 six2 personal1 relative1 demonstrative1 interrogative1 definitive1 and adjective4 7#ba47 ,cooper1 in #ahbh1 had five2 personal1 relative1 possessive1 definite1 and indefinite4 7#bb47 ,cooper1 in #ahca1 six2 personal1 relative1 definite1 indefinite1 possessive1 and possessive pronominal adjectives4 7#bc47 ,dr4 ,crombie says3 ,pronouns may be divided into ,substantive1 and ,adjective2 ,personal1 and ,impersonal2 ,relative1 and ,interrogative4 7#bd47 ,alden has seven sorts2 personal1 possessive1 relative1 interrogative1 distributive1 demonstrative1 and indefinite4 7#be47 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith has many kinds1 and treats them so badly that nobody can count them4 ,in respect to definitions1 too1 most of these writers are shamefully inaccurate1 or deficient4 ,hence the filling up of their classes is often as bad as the arrangement4 ,for instance1 four and twenty of them will have interrogative pronouns to be relatives2 but who that knows what a relative pronoun is1 can coincide with them in opinion8 ,dr4 ,crombie thinks1 that interrogatives are strictly relatives2 and yet divides the two classes with his own hand6 ,,modifications4 ,pronouns have the same modifications as nouns2 namely1 ,persons1 ,numbers1 ,genders1 and ,cases4 ,definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things2 it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,in the personal pronouns1 most of these properties are distinguished by the words themselves2 in the relative and the interrogative pronouns1 they are ascertained chiefly by means of the antecedent and the verb4 ,interrogative pronouns1 however1 as well as the relatives which1 what1 as1 and all the compounds of who1 which1 and what1 are always of the third person4 ,even in etymological parsing1 some regard must be had to the syntactical relations of words4 ,by modifications1 we commonly mean actual changes in the forms of words1 by which their grammatical properties are inherently distinguished2 but1 in all languages1 the distinguishable properties of words are somewhat more numerous than their actual variations of form2 there being certain principles of universal grammar1 which cause the person1 number1 gender1 or case1 of some words1 to be inferred from their relation to others2 or1 what is nearly the same thing1 from the sense which is conveyed by the sentence4 ,hence1 if in a particular instance it happen1 that some1 or even all1 of these properties1 are without any index in the form of the pronoun itself1 they are still to be ascribed in parsing1 because they may be easily and certainly discovered from the construction4 ,for example3 in the following text1 it is just as easy to discern the genders of the pronouns1 as the cases of the nouns2 and both are known and asserted to be what they are1 upon principles of mere inference3 ,for what knowest thou1 ,o wife1 whether thou shalt save thy husband8 or how knowest thou1 ,o man1 whether thou shalt save thy wife8--#a ,cor41 vii1 #af4 ,again3 ,who betrayed her companion8 ,not ,i4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #baa4 ,here her being of the feminine gender1 it is the inference of every reader1 that who and ,i are so too2 but whether the word companion is masculine or feminine1 is not so obvious4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the personal pronouns of the first and second persons1 are equally applicable to both sexes2 and should be considered masculine or feminine1 according to the known application of them4 ,see ,levizac's ,french ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,the speaker and the hearer1 being present to each other1 of course know the sex to which they respectively belong2 and1 whenever they appear in narrative or dialogue1 we are told who they are4 ,in ,latin1 an adjective or a participle relating to these pronouns1 is varied to agree with them in number1 gender1 and case4 ,this is a sufficient proof that ego1 ,i1 and tu1 thou1 are not destitute of gender1 though neither the ,latin words nor the ,english are themselves varied to express it3-- ,miser hoc tamen unum ,exequere1 ,anna1 mihi3 solam nam perfidus ille ,te colere1 arcanos etiam tibi credere sensus2 ,sola viri molles aditus et tempora nras4--,virgil4 ,,obs4 #c4--,many ,english grammarians1 and ,murray at their head1 deny the first person of nouns1 and the gender of pronouns of the first and second persons2 and at the same time teach1 that1 ,pronouns must always agree with their antecedents1 and the nouns for which they stand1 in gender1 number1 and person3 7,murray's ,gr41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #aaa2 ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith's1 p4 #fj37 and further1 with redundance of expression1 that1 ,the relative is of the same person with the antecedent1 and the verb agrees with it accordingly4--,same4 ,these quotations form ,murray's fifth rule of syntax1 as it stands in his early editions4#aif ,in some of his revisings1 the author erased the word person from the former sentence1 and changed with to as in the latter4 ,but other pronouns than relatives1 agree with their nouns in person2 so that his first alteration was not for the better1 though ,ingersoll1 ,kirkham1 ,alger1 ,bacon1 ,j4 ,greenleaf1 and some others1 have been very careful to follow him in it4 ,and why did he never discern1 that the above-named principles of his etymology are both of them contradicted by this rule of his syntax1 and one of them by his rule as it now stands8 ,it is manifest1 that no two words can possibly agree in any property which belongs not to both4 ,else what is agreement8 ,nay1 no two things in nature1 can in any wise agree1 accord1 or be alike1 but by having some quality or accident in common4 ,how strange a contradiction then is this6 ,and what a compliment to learning1 that it is still found in well-nigh all our grammars6 ,,obs4 #d4--;,if there were truth in what ,murray and others affirm1 that ,gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns1 he1 she1 it1 #aig no two words could ever agree in gender2 because there can be no such agreement between any two of the words here mentioned1 and the assertion is1 that gender has respect to no others4 ,but1 admitting that neither the author nor the numerous copiers of this false sentence ever meant to deny that gender has respect to nouns1 they do deny that it has respect to any other pronouns than these2 whereas ,i affirm that it ought to be recognized as a property of all pronouns1 as well as of all nouns4 ,not that the gender of either is in all instances invariably fixed by the forms of the particular words2 but there is in general1 if not in every possible case1 some principle of grammar1 on which the gender of any noun or pronoun in a sentence may be readily ascertained4 ,is it not plain1 that if we know who speaks or writes1 who hears or is addressed1 we know also the gender of the pronouns which are applied to these persons8 ,the poet of ,the ,task looked upon his mother's picture1 and expressed his tender recollections of a deceased parent by way of address2 and will any one pretend1 that the pronouns which he applied to himself and to her1 are either of the same gender1 or of no gender8 ,if we take neither of these assumptions1 must we not say1 they are of different genders8 ,in this instance1 then1 let the parser call those of the first person1 masculine2 and those of the second1 feminine3-- ,my mother6 when ,i learned that thou wast dead1 ,say1 wast thou conscious of the tears ,i shed8--,cowper4 ,,obs4 #e4--,that the pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine1 is perfectly certain2 but whether they can or cannot be neuter1 is a question difficult to be decided4 ,to things inanimate they are applied only figuratively2 and the question is1 whether the figure always necessarily changes the gender of the antecedent noun4 ,we assume the general principle1 that the noun and its pronoun are always of the same gender2 and we know that when inanimate objects are personified in the third person1 they are usually represented as masculine or feminine1 the gender being changed by the figure4 ,but when a lifeless object is spoken to in the second person1 or represented as speaking in the first1 as the pronouns here employed are in themselves without distinction of gender1 no such change can be proved by the mere words2 and1 if we allow that it would be needless to imagine it where the words do not prove it1 the gender of these pronouns must in such cases be neuter1 because we have no ground to think it otherwise4 ,examples3 ,and ,jesus answered and said unto it1 the barren figtree1 ,no man eat fruit of thee hereafter forever4--,mark1 xi1 #ad4 ,o earth1 cover not thou my blood4--,job1 xvi1 #ah4 ,o thou sword of the ,lord1 how long will it be ere thou be quiet8--,jeremiah1 xlvii1 #f4 ,in these instances1 the objects addressed do not appear to be figuratively invested with the attribute of sex4 ,so likewise with respect to the first person4 ,if1 in the following example1 gold and diamond are neuter1 so is the pronoun me2 and1 if not neuter1 of what gender are they8 ,the personification indicates or discriminates no other4 ,where thy true treasure8 ,gold says1 ',not in me2 ,and1 ',not in me1' the diamond4 ,gold is poor4--,young4 ,,the ,,declension ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,the declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases4 ,i4 ,,simple ,,personals4 ,the simple personal pronouns are thus declined3-- ,i1 of the ,,first ,,person1 any of the genders4#aih ,sing4 ,nom4 ,i1 ,plur4 ,nom4 we1 ,poss4 my1 or mine1#aii ,poss4 our1 or ours1 ,obj4 me2 ,obj4 us4 ,,thou1 of the ,,second ,,person1 any of the genders4 ,sing4 ,nom4 thou1#bjj ,plur4 ,nom4 ye1 or you1 ,poss4 thy1 or thine1 ,poss4 your1 or yours1 ,obj4 thee2 ,obj4 you1 or ye4#bja ,,he1 of the ,,third ,,person1 masculine gender4 ,sing4 ,nom4 he1 ,plur4 ,nom4 they1 ,poss4 his1 ,poss4 their1 or theirs1 ,obj4 him2 ,obj4 them4 ,,she1 of the ,,third ,,person1 feminine gender4 ,sing4 ,nom4 she1 ,plur4 ,nom4 they1 ,poss4 her1 or hers1 ,poss4 their1 or theirs1 ,obj4 her2 ,obj4 them4 ,,it1 of the ,,third ,,person1 neuter gender4 ,sing4 ,nom1 it1 ,plur4 ,nom4 they1 ,poss4 its1 ,poss4 their1 or theirs1 ,obj4 it2 ,obj4 them4 ,,ii4 ,,compound ,,personals4 ,the word self1 added to the simple personal pronouns1 forms the class of compound personal pronouns2 which are used when an action reverts upon the agent1 and also when some persons are to be distinguished from others3 as1 sing1 myself1 plur4 ourselves2 sing1 thyself1 plur4 yourselves2 sing1 himself1 plur4 themselves2 sing1 herself1 plur4 themselves2 sing1 itself1 plur4 themselves4 ,they all want the possessive case1 and are alike in the nominative and objective4 ,thus3-- ,,myself1 of the ,,first ,,person1#bjb any of the genders4 ,sing4 ,nom4 myself1 ,plur4 ,nom4 ourselves1 ,poss4 ------1 ,poss4 ---------1 ,obj4 myself2 ,obj4 ourselves4 ,,thyself1 of the ,,second ,,person1 any of the genders4 ,sing4 ,nom4 thyself1#bjc ,plur4 ,nom4 yourselves1 ,poss4 -------1 ,poss4 ----------1 ,obj4 thyself2 ,obj4 yourselves4 ,,himself1 of the ,,third ,,person1 masculine gender4 ,sing4 ,nom4 himself1 ,plur4 ,nom4 themselves1 ,poss4 -------1 ,poss4 ----------1 ,obj4 himself2 ,obj4 themselves4 ,,herself1 of the ,,third ,,person1 feminine gender4 ,sing4 ,nom4 herself1 ,plur4 ,nom4 themselves1 ,poss4 -------1 ,poss4 ----------1 ,obj4 herself2 ,obj4 themselves4 ,,itself1 of the ,,third ,,person1 neuter gender4 ,sing4 ,nom4 itself1 ,plur4 ,nom4 themselves1 ,poss4 ------1 ,poss4 ----------1 ,obj4 itself2 ,obj4 themselves4 ,,iii4 ,,relatives ,,and ,,interrogatives4 ,the relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus declined3-- ,,who1 literally applied to persons only4 ,sing4 ,nom4 who1 ,plur4 ,nom4 who1 ,poss4 whose1 ,poss4 whose1 ,obj4 whom2 ,obj4 whom4 ,,which1 applied to animals and things4 ,sing4 ,nom4 which1 ,plur4 ,nom4 which1 ,poss4 #bjd--1 ,poss4 -----1 ,obj4 which2 ,obj4 which4 ,,what1 applied ordinarily to things only4#bje ,sing4 ,nom4 what1 ,plur4 ,nom4 what1 ,poss4 ----1 ,poss4 ----1 ,obj4 what2 ,obj4 what4 ,,that1 applied to persons1 animals1 and things4 ,sing4 ,nom4 that1 ,plur4 ,nom4 that1 ,poss4 ----1 ,poss4 ----1 ,obj4 that2 ,obj4 that4 ,,as1 applied to persons1 animals1 and things4 ,sing4 ,nom4 as1 ,plur4 ,nom4 as1 ,poss4 ----1 ,poss4 ----1 ,obj4 as2 ,obj4 as4 ,,iv4 ,,compound ,,relatives4 ,the compound relative pronouns1 whoever or whosoever1 whichever or whichsoever1 and whatever or whatsoever#bjf are declined in the same manner as the simples1 who which1 what4 ,thus3-- ,,whoever or ,,whosoever1 applied only to persons4 ,sing4 ,nom4 whoever1 ,plur4 ,nom4 whoever1 ,poss4 whosever1 ,poss4 whosever1 ,obj4 whomever2 ,obj4 whomever4 ,sing4 ,nom4 whosoever1 ,plur4 ,nom4 whosoever1 ,poss4 whosesoever1 ,poss4 whosesoever1 ,obj4 whomsoever2 ,obj4 whomsoever4 ,,whichever or ,,whichsoever1 applied to persons1 animals1 and things4 ,sing4 ,nom4 whichever1 ,plur4 ,nom4 whichever1 ,poss4 ---------1 ,poss4 --------1 ,obj4 whichever2 ,obj4 whichever4 ,sing4 ,nom4 whichsoever1 ,plur4 ,nom4 whichsoever1 ,poss4 ---------1 ,poss4 --------1 ,obj4 whichsoever2 ,obj4 whichsoever4 ,,whatever or ,,whatsoever1 applied ordinarily to things only4 ,sing4 ,nom4 whatever1 ,plur4 ,nom4 whatever1 ,poss4 --------1 ,poss4 --------1 ,obj4 whatever2 ,obj4 whatever4 ,sing4 ,nom4 whatsoever1 ,plur4 ,nom4 whatsoever1 ,poss4 ---------1 ,poss4 --------1 ,obj4 whatsoever2 ,obj4 whatsoever4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the possessive case1 in each number3 as1 my or mine1 our or ours2 thy or thine1 your or yours2 her or hers1 their or theirs4 ,the former is used before a noun expressed1 or when nothing but an adjective intervenes2 the latter1 when the governing noun is understood1 or is so placed that a repetition of it is implied in or after the pronoun3 as1 ,my powers are thine2 be thine alone ,the glory of my song4--,montgomery4 ,state what mine and your principles are4--,legh ,richmond1 to his ,daughters4 ,better1 perhaps3 ,state what my principles and yours are2--,state what your principles and mine are2--or1 ,state what are my principles and your own4 ,resign'd he fell2 superior to the dart ,that quench'd its rage in yours and ,britain's heart4--,j4 ,brown4 ,behold6 to yours and my surprise1 ,these trifles to a volume rise4--,lloyd1 p4 #ahf4 ,,obs4 #b4--,possibly1 when the same persons or things stand in a joint relation of this kind to different individuals or parties1 it may be proper to connect two of the simple possessives to express it2 though this construction can seldom1 if ever1 be necessary1 because any such expression as thy and her sister1 my and his duty1 if not erroneous1 can mean nothing but your sister1 our duty1 c4 ,but some examples occur1 the propriety of which it is worth while to consider3 as1 ,i am sure it will be a pleasure to you to hear that she proves worthy of her father1 worthy of you1 and of your and her ancestors4--,spectator1 ,no4 #ebe4 ,this sentence is from a version of ,pliny's letter to his wife's aunt2 and1 as the ancestors of the two individuals are here the same1 the phraseology may be allowable4 ,but had the aunt commended her niece to ,pliny1 she should have said1 worthy of you and of your ancestors and hers4 ,is it her or his honour that is tarnished8 ,it is not hers1 but his4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #age4 ,this question ,i take to be bad ,english4 ,it ought to be1 ,is it her honour or his1 that is tarnished8 ,her honour and his honour cannot be one and the same thing4 ,this example was framed by ,murray to illustrate that idle and puzzling distinction which he and some others make between possessive adjective pronouns and the genitive case of the personal pronouns2 and1 if ,i understand him1 the author will here have her and his to be of the former class1 and hers and his of the latter4 ,it were a better use of time1 to learn how to employ such words correctly4 ,unquestionably1 they are of the same class and the same case1 and would be every way equivalent1 if the first form were fit to be used elliptically4 ,for example3 ,the same phrenzy had hindered the ,dutch from improving to their and to the common advantage the public misfortunes of ,france4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #cji4 ,here the possessive case their appears to be governed by advantage understood1 and therefore it would perhaps be better to say1 theirs1 or their own4 ,but in the following instance1 our may be proper1 because both possessives appear to be governed by one and the same noun3-- ,although 'twas our and their opinion ,each other's church was but a ,rimmon4--,hudibras4 ,,obs4 #c4--,mine and thine were formerly preferred to my and thy1 before all words beginning with a vowel sound2 or rather1 mine and thine were the original forms1#bjg and my and thy were first substituted for them before consonants1 and afterwards before vowels3 as1 ,but it was thou1 a man mine equal1 my guide1 and mine acquaintance4--,psalms1 lv1 #ac4 ,thy prayers and thine alms are come up for a memorial before ,god4--,acts1 x1 #d4 ,when the ,bible was translated1 either form appears to have been used before the letter h2 as1 ,hath not my hand made all these things8--,acts1 vii1 #ej4 ,by stretching forth thine hand to heal4--,acts1 iv1 #cj4 ,according to present practice1 my and thy are in general to be preferred before all nouns1 without regard to the sounds of letters4 ,the use of the other forms1 in the manner here noticed1 has now become obsolete2 or1 at least1 antiquated1 and peculiar to the poets4 ,we occasionally meet with it in modern verse1 though not very frequently1 and only where the melody of the line seems to require it3 as1 ,time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow4--,byron4 ,deign on the passing world to turn thine eyes4--,johnson4 ,mine eyes beheld the messenger divine4--,lusiad4 ,thine ardent symphony sublime and high4--,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the possessives mine1 thine1 hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 usually denote possession1 or the relation of property1 with an ellipsis of the name of the thing possessed2 as1 ,my sword and yours are kin4--,shakspeare4 ,here yours means your sword4 ,you may imagine what kind of faith theirs was4--,bacon4 ,here theirs means their faith4 ,he ran headlong into his own ruin whilst he endeavoured to precipitate ours4--,bolingbroke4 ,here ours means our ruin4 ,every one that heareth these saying of mine4--,matt41 vii1 #bf4 ,here mine means my sayings4 ,sing unto the ,lord1 ,o ye saints of his4--,psalms1 xxx1 #d4 ,here his means his saints4 ,the noun which governs the possessive1 is here understood after it1 being inferred from that which precedes1 as it is in all the foregoing instances4 ,and the man of thine1 whom ,i shall not cut off from mine altar1 shall be to consume thine eyes1 and to grieve thine heart4--#a ,samuel1 ii1 #cc4 ,here thine1 in the first phrase1 means thy men2 but1 in the subsequent parts of the sentence1 both mine and thine mean neither more nor less than thy and my1 because there is no ellipsis4 ,of before the possessive case1 governs the noun which is understood after this case2 and is always taken in a partitive sense1 and not as the sign of the possessive relation3 as1 ,when we say1 'a soldier of the king's'1 we mean1 'one of the king's soldiers4'--,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,there is therefore an ellipsis of the word soldiers1 in the former phrase4 ,so1 in the following example1 mine is used elliptically for my feet2 or rather1 feet is understood after mine1 though mine feet is no longer good ,english1 for reasons before stated3-- ,ere ,i absolve thee1 stoop ,i that on thy neck ,levelled with earth tins foot of mine may tread4--,wordsworth4 ,,obs4 #e4--,respecting the possessive case of the simple personal pronouns1 there appears among our grammarians a strange diversity of sentiment4 ,yet is there but one view of the matter1 that has in it either truth or reason1 consistency or plausibility4 ,and1 in the opinion of any judicious teacher1 an erroneous classification of words so common and so important as these1 may well go far to condemn any system of grammar in which it is found4 ,a pronoun agrees in person1 number1 and gender1 with the noun for which it is a substitute2 and1 if it is in the possessive case1 it is usually governed by an other noun expressed or implied after it4 ,that is1 if it denotes possession1 it stands for the name of the possessor1 and is governed by the name of the thing possessed4 ,now do not my1 thy1 his1 her1 our1 your1 their1 and mine1 thine1 hers1 its1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 all equally denote possession8 and do they not severally show by their forms the person1 the number1 and sometimes also the gender1 of whomever or whatever they make to be the possessor8 ,if they do1 they are all of them pronouns1 and nothing else2 all found in the possessive case1 and nowhere else4 ,it is true1 that in ,latin1 ,greek1 and some other languages1 there are not only genitive cases corresponding to these possessives1 but also certain declinable adjectives which we render in ,english by these same words3 that is1 by my or mine1 our or ours2 thy or thine1 your or yours2 c4 ,but this circumstance affords no valid argument for considering any of these ,english terms to be mere adjectives2 and1 say what we will1 it is plain that they have not the signification of adjectives1 nor can we ascribe to them the construction of adjectives1 without making their grammatical agreement to be what it very manifestly is not4 ,they never agree1 in any respect1 with the nouns which follow them1 unless it be by mere accident4 ,this view of the matter is sustained by the authority of many of our ,english grammars2 as may be seen by the declensions given by ,ash1 ,c4 ,adams1 ,ainsworth1 ,r4 ,w4 ,bailey1 ,barnard1 ,buchanan1 ,bicknell1 ,blair1 ,burn1 ,butler1 ,comly1 ,churchill1 ,cobbett1 ,dalton1 ,davenport1 ,dearborn1 ,farnum1 ,a4 ,flint1 ,fowler1 ,frost1 ,gilbert1 ,s4 ,s4 ,green1 ,greenleaf1 ,hamlin1 ,hiley1 ,kirkham1 ,merchant1 ,murray the schoolmaster1 ,parkhurst1 ,picket1 ,russell1 ,sanborn1 ,sanders1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,wilcox4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,in opposition to the classification and doctrine adopted above1 many of our grammarians teach1 that my1 thy1 this1 her1 our1 your1 their1 are adjectives or adjective pronouns2 and that mine1 thine1 hers1 its1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 are personal pronouns in the possessive case4 ,among the supporters of this notion1 are ,d4 ,adams1 ,alden1 ,alger1 ,allen1 ,bacon1 ,barrett1 ,bingham1 ,bucke1 ,bullions1 ,cutler1 ,fisk1 ,frost1 7in his small ,grammar17 ,guy1 ,hall1 ,hart1 ,harrison1 ,ingersoll1 ,jaudon1 ,lennie1 ,lowth1 ,miller1 ,l4 ,murray1 ,pond1 ,t4 ,smith1 ,spear1 ,spencer1 ,staniford1 ,webber1 ,woodworth4 ,the authority of all these names1 however1 amounts to little more than that of one man2 for ,murray pretended to follow ,lowth1 and nearly all the rest copied ,murray4 ,dr4 ,lowth says1 ,thy1 my1 her1 our1 your1 their1 are pronominal adjectives2 but his1 7that is1 he's17 her's1 our's1 your's1 their's1 have evidently the form of the possessive case3 ,and1 by analogy1 mine1 thine1 may be esteemed of the same rank4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bc4bjh ,but why did he not see1 that by the same analogy1 and also by the sense and meaning of the words1 as well as by their distinctions of person1 number1 and gender1 all the other six are entitled to the same rank8 ,are not the forms of my1 thy1 her1 our1 your1 their1 as fit to denote the relation of property1 and to be called the possessive case1 as mine1 thine1 his1 or any others8 ,in grammar1 all needless distinctions are reprehensible4 ,and where shall we find a more blamable one than this8 ,it seems to have been based merely upon the false notion1 that the possessive case of pronouns ought to be formed like that of nouns2 whereas custom has clearly decided that they shall always be different3 the former must never be written with an apostrophe2 and the latter1 never without it4 ,contrary to all good usage1 however1 the ,doctor here writes her's1 our's1 your's1 their's1 each with a needless apostrophe4 ,perhaps he thought it would serve to strengthen his position2 and help to refute what some affirmed1 that all these words are adjectives4 ,,obs4 #g4--,respecting mine1 thine1 and his1 ,lowth and ,l4 ,murray disagree4 ,the latter will have them to be sometimes possessive pronouns1 and sometimes possessive cases4 ,an admirable distinction this for a great author to make6 too slippery for even the inventor's own hold1 and utterly unintelligible to those who do not know its history6 ,in short1 these authors disagree also concerning my1 thy1 her1 our1 your1 their2 and where two leaders of a party are at odds with each other1 and each is in the wrong1 what is to be expected from their followers8 ,perceiving that ,lowth was wrong in calling these words pronominal adjectives1 ,murray changed the term to possessive pronouns1 still retaining the class entire2 and accordingly taught1 in his early editions1 that1 ,there are four kinds of pronouns1 viz41 the personal1 the possessive1 the relative1 and the adjective pronouns4--,murray's ,gram41 #b;d ,edition1 p4 #cg4 ,the ,possessive ,pronouns are such as principally relate to possession or property4 ,there are seven of them2 viz4 my1 thy1 his1 her1 our1 your1 their4 ,the possessives his1 mine1 thine1 may be accounted either possessive pronouns1 or the possessive cases of their respective personal pronouns4--,ib41 p4 #dj4 ,he next idly demonstrates that these seven words may come before nouns of any number or case1 without variation2 then1 forgetting his own distinction1 adds1 ,when they are separated from the noun1 all of them1 except his1 vary their terminations2 as1 this hat is mine1 and the other is thine2 those trinkets are hers2 this house is ours1 and that is yours2 theirs is more commodious than ours--,ib41 p4 #dj4 ,thus all his personal pronouns of the possessive case1 he then made to be inflections of pronouns of a different class6 ,what are they now8 ,seek the answer under the head of that gross solecism1 ,adjective ,pronouns4 ,you may find it in one half of our ,english grammars4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,any considerable error in the classing of words1 does not stand alone2 it naturally brings others in its train4 ,murray's ,adjective ,pronouns1 7which he now subdivides into four little classes1 possessive1 distributive1 demonstrative1 and indefinite17 being all of them misnamed and misplaced in his etymology1 have led both him and many others into strange errors in syntax4 ,the possessives only are pronouns2 and these are pronouns of the possessive case4 ,as such1 they agree with the antecedent nouns for which they stand1 in person1 number1 and gender2 and are governed1 like all other possessives1 by the nouns which follow them4 ,the rest are not pronouns1 but pronominal adjectives2 and1 as such1 they relate to nouns expressed or understood after them4 ,accordingly1 they have none of the above-mentioned qualities1 except that the words this and that form the plurals these and those4 ,or1 if we choose to ascribe to a pronominal adjective all the properties of the noun understood1 it is merely for the sake of brevity in parsing4 ,the difference1 then1 between a pronominal adjective and an adjective pronoun1 should seem to be this2 that the one is an adjective1 and the other a pronoun3 it is like the difference between a horserace and a racehorse4 ,what can be hoped from the grammarian who cannot discern it8 ,and what can be made of rules and examples like the following8 ,adjective pronouns must agree1 in number1 with their substantives3 as1 ',this book1 these books2 that sort1 those sorts2 another road1 other roads4'--,murray's ,gram41 ,rule viii1 ,late ,editions2 ,alger's ,murray1 p4 #ef2 ,alden's1 #he2 ,bacon's1 #dh2 ,maltby's1 #ei2 ,miller's1 #ff2 ,merchant's1 #ha2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #aj2 and others4 ,pronominal adjectives must agree with their nouns in gender1 number1 and person2 thus1 ',my son1 hear the instructions of thy father4' ',call the labourers1 and give them their hire4'--,maunder's ,gram41 ,rule xvii4 ,here ,murray gives a rule for pronouns1 and illustrates it by adjectives2 and ,maunder1 as ingeniously blunders in reverse3 he gives a rule for adjectives1 and illustrates it by pronouns4 ,but what do they mean by their substantives1 or their nouns8 ,as applicable to pronouns1 the phrase should mean nouns antecedent2 as applicable to adjectives1 it should mean nouns subsequent4 ,both these rules are therefore false1 and fit only to bewilder2 and the examples to both are totally inapplicable4 ,murray's was once essentially right1 but he afterwards corrupted it1 and a multitude of his admirers have since copied the perversion4 ,it formerly stood thus3 ,the pronominal adjectives this and that1 c4 and the numbers#bji one1 two1 c41 must agree in number with their substantives3 as1 ',this book1 these books2 that sort1 those sorts2 one girl1 ten girls2 another road1 other roads4' --,murray's ,gram41 ,rule viii1 #b;d ,ed41 #agif4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,among our grammarians1 some of considerable note have contended1 that the personal pronouns have but two cases1 the nominative and the objective4 ,of this class1 may be reckoned ,brightland1 ,dr4 ,johnson1 ,fisher1 ,mennye1 ,cardell1 ,cooper1 ,dr4 ,jas4 ,p4 ,wilson1 ,w4 ,b4 ,fowle4 and1 according to his late grammars1 ,dr4 ,webster4 ,but1 in contriving what to make of my or mine1 our or ours1 thy or thine1 your or yours1 his1 her or hers1 its1 and their or theirs1 they are as far from any agreement1 or even from self-consistency1 as the cleverest of them could ever imagine4 ,to the person1 the number1 the gender1 and the case1 of each of these words1 they either profess themselves to be total strangers1 or else prove themselves so1 by the absurdities they teach4 ,brightland calls them ,possessive ,qualities1 or ,qualities of ,possession2 in which class he also embraces all nouns of the possessive case4 ,johnson calls them pronouns2 and then says of them1 ,the possessive pronouns1 like other adjectives1 are without cases or change of termination4--,gram41 p4 #f4 ,fisher calls them ,personal ,possessive ,qualities2 admits the person of my1 our1 c42 but supposes mine1 ours1 c4 to supply the place of the nouns which govern them6 ,mennye makes them one of his three classes of pronouns1 personal1 possessive1 and relative2 giving to both forms the rank which ,murray once gave1 and which ,allen now gives1 to the first form only4 ,cardell places them among his defining adjectives4 ,with ,fowle1 these1 and all other possessives1 are possessive adjectives4 ,cooper1 in his grammar of #ahbh4 copies the last scheme of ,murray3 in that of #ahca1 he avers that the personal pronouns want the possessive case4 ,now1 like ,webster and ,wilson1 he will have mine1 thine1 hers1 ours1 yours1 and theirs1 to be pronouns of the nominative or the objective case4 ,dividing the pronouns into six general classes1 he makes these the fifth2 calling them ,possessive ,pronouns1 but preferring in a note the monstrous name1 ,possessive ,pronouns ,substitute4 ,his sixth class are what he calls1 ,the ,possessive ,pronominal ,adjectives2 namely1 my1 thy1 his1 her1 our1 your1 their1 its1 own1 and sometimes mine and thine4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,but all these he has1 unquestionably1 either misplaced or misnamed2 while he tells us1 that1 ,simplicity of arrangement should be the object of every compiler4--,ib41 p4 #cc4 ,dr4 ,perley1 7in whose scheme of grammar all the pronouns are nouns17 will have my1 thy1 his1 her1 its1 our1 your1 and their1 to be in the possessive case2 but of mine1 thine1 hers1 ours1 yours1 and theirs1 he says1 ,these may be called ,desiderative ,personal ,pronouns4--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,kirkham1 though he professes to follow ,murray1 declines the simple personal pronouns as ,i have declined them2 and argues admirably1 that my1 thy1 his1 c41 are pronouns of the possessive case1 because1 ,they always stand for nouns in the possessive case4 ,but he afterwards contradicts both himself and the common opinion of all former grammarians1 in referring mine1 thine1 hers1 c41 to the class of ,compound ,personal ,pronouns4 ,nay1 as if to outdo even himself in absurdity1 he first makes mine1 thine1 hers1 ours1 c41 to be compounds1 by assuming that1 ,these pluralizing adjuncts1 ne and s1 were1 no doubt1 formerly detached from the pronouns with which they now coalesce2 and then1 because he finds in each of his supposed compounds the signification of a pronoun and its governing noun1 reassumes1 in parsing them1 the very principle of error1 on which he condemns their common classification4 ,he says1 ,they should be parsed as two words4 ,he also supposes them to represent the nouns which govern them--nouns with which they do not agree in any respect6 ,thus is he wrong in almost every thing he says about them4 ,see ,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ii1 p4 #aja1 and p4 #ajd4 ,goodenow1 too1 a still later writer1 adopts the major part of all this absurdity4 ,he will have my1 thy1 his1 her1 its1 our1 your1 their1 for the possessive case of his personal pronouns2 but mine1 thine1 hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 he calls compound possessive pronouns1 in the subjective or the objective case4--,text-,book of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,thus he introduces a new class1 unknown to his primary division of the pronouns1 and not included in his scheme of their declension4 ,fuller1 too1 in a grammar produced at ,plymouth1 ,mass41 in #ahbb1 did nearly the same thing4 ,he called ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 and it1 with their plurals1 antecedent pronouns2 took my1 thy1 his1 her1 c41 for their only possessive forms in his declension2 and1 having passed from them by the space of just half his book1 added3 ,sometimes1 to prevent the repetition of the same word1 an antecedent pronoun in the possessive case1 is made to represent1 both the pronoun and a noun2 as1 ',that book is mine'--i4 e4 'my book4' ,,mine is a compound antecedent pronoun1 and is equivalent to my book4 ,then parse my1 and book1 as though they were both expressed4--,fuller's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,amidst all this diversity of doctrine at the very centre of grammar1 who shall so fix its principles that our schoolmasters and schoolmistresses may know what to believe and teach8 ,not he that speculates without regard to other men's views2 nor yet he that makes it a merit to follow implicitly the footsteps of one only4 ,the true principles of grammar are with the learned2 and that man is in the wrong1 with whom the most learned will not1 in general1 coincide4 ,contradiction of falsities1 is necessary to the maintenance of truth2 correction of errors1 to the success of science4 ,but not every man's errors can be so considerable as to deserve correction from other hands than his own4 ,misinstruction in grammar has for this reason generally escaped censure4 ,i do not wish any one to coincide with me merely through ignorance of what others inculcate4 ,if doctors of divinity and doctors of laws will contradict themselves in teaching grammar1 so far as they do so1 the lovers of consistency will find it necessary to deviate from their track4 ,respecting these pronouns1 ,i learned in childhood1 from ,webster1 a doctrine which he now declares to be false4 ,this was nearly the same as ,lowth's1 which is quoted in the sixth observation above4 ,but1 in stead of correcting its faults1 this zealous reformer has but run into others still greater4 ,now1 with equal reproach to his etymology1 his syntax1 and his logic1 he denies that our pronouns have any form of the possessive case at all4 ,but grant the obvious fact1 that substitution is one thing1 and ellipsis an other1 and his whole argument is easily overthrown2 for it is only by confounding these1 that he reaches his absurd conclusion4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,dr4 ,webster's doctrine now is1 that none of the ,english pronouns have more than two cases4 ,he says1 mine1 thine1 his1 hers1 yours1 and theirs1 are usually considered as being of the possessive case4 ,but the three first are either attributes1 and used with nouns1 or they are substitutes4 ,the three last are always substitutes1 used in the place of names ,,which ,,are ,,understood4--,that mine1 thine1 his1 ours1 yours1 hers1 and theirs1 do not constitute a possessive case1 is demonstrable2 for they are constantly used as the nominatives to verbs and as the objectives after verbs and prepositions1 as in the following passages4 ',whether it could perform its operations of thinking and memory out of a body organized as ours is4'--,locke4 ',the reason is1 that his subject is generally things2 theirs1 on the contrary1 is persons4'--,camp4 ,rhet4 ',therefore leave your forest of beasts for ours of brutes1 called men4'--,wycherley to ,pope4 ,it is needless to multiply proofs4 ,we observe these pretended possessives uniformly used as nominatives or objectives4#baj ,should it be said that a noun is understood2 ,i reply1 this cannot be true1 c4--,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #ce2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,now1 whether it be true or not1 this very position is expressly affirmed by the ,doctor himself1 in the citation above2 though he is1 unquestionably1 wrong in suggesting that the pronouns are used in the place of those names ,,which ,,are ,,understood4 ,they are used in the place of other names--the names of the possessors2 and are governed by those which he here both admits and denies to be understood4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,the other arguments of ,dr4 ,webster against the possessive case of pronouns1 may perhaps be more easily answered than some readers imagine4 ,the first is drawn from the fact that conjunctions connect like cases4 ,besides1 in three passages just quoted1 the word yours is joined by a connective to a name in the same case2 ',to ensure yours and their immortality4' ',the easiest part of yours and my design4' ',my sword and yours are kin4' ,will any person pretend that the connective here joins different cases8--,improved ,gram41 p4 #bh2 ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,i answer1 ,no4 ,but it is falsely assumed that yours is here connected by and to immortality1 to design1 or to sword2 because these words are again severally understood after yours3 or1 if otherwise1 the two pronouns alone are connected by and1 so that the proof is rather1 that their and my are in the possessive case4 ,the second argument is drawn from the use of the preposition of before the possessive4 ,for we say correctly1 'an acquaintance of yours1 ours1 or theirs'--of being the sign of the possessive2 but if the words in themselves are possessives1 then there must be two signs of the same case1 which is absurd4--,improved ,gram41 p4 #bh2 ,phil4 ,gr41 #cf4 ,i deny that of is here the sign of the possessive1 and affirm that it is taken partitively1 in all examples of this sort4 ,i know my sheep1 and am known of mine1 is not of this kind2 because of here means by--a sense in which the word is antiquated4 ,in recurring afterwards to this argument1 the ,doctor misquotes the following texts1 and avers that they are evidently meant to include the whole number3 ',sing to the ,lord1 all ye saints of his4'--,ps4 #cj1 #d4 ',he that heareth these sayings of mine4'--,matt4 #g4--;,improved ,gram41 p4 #bi2 ,phil4 ,gr41 #ch4 ,if he is right about the meaning1 however1 the passages are mistranslated1 as well as misquoted3 they ought to be1 ,sing unto the ,lord1 ,o ye his ,saints4--,every one that heareth these my sayings4 ,but when a definitive particle precedes the noun1 it is very common with us1 to introduce the possessive elliptically after it2 and what ,dr4 ,wilson means by suggesting that it is erroneous1 ,i know not3 ,when the preposition of precedes mine1 ours1 yours1 c4 the errour lies1 not in this1 that there are double possessive cases1 but in forming an implication of a noun1 which the substitute already denotes1 together with the persons4--,essay on ,gram41 p4 #aaj4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,in his ,syllabus of ,english ,grammar1 ,dr4 ,wilson teaches thus3 ,my1 our1 thy1 your1 his1 her1 its1 their1 whose1 and whosesoever are possessive pronominal adjectives4 ,ours1 yours1 hers1 and theirs are pronoun substantives1 used either as subjects1 or as objects2 as singulars1 or as plurals2 and are substituted both for the names of the possessors1 and for those of the things possessed4 ,his1 its1 whose1 mine1 and thine1 are sometimes used as such substantives2 but also are at other times pronominal possessive adjectives4--,wilson's ,syllabus1 p4 ,x4 ,now compare with these three positions1 the following three from the same learned author4 ,in ,hebrew1 the adjective generally agrees with its noun in gender and number1 but pronouns follow the gender of their antecedents1 and not of the nouns with which they stand4 ,so in ,english1 my1 thy1 his1 her1 its1 our1 your1 and their1 agree with the nouns they represent1 in number1 gender1 and person4 ,but adjectives1 having no change expressive of number1 gender1 or case1 cannot accord with their nouns4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #aib4 ,ours1 yours1 hers1 and theirs1 are most usually considered possessive cases of personal pronouns2 but they are1 more probably1 possessive substitutes1 not adjectives1 but nouns4--,ib41 p4 #aji4 ,nor can mine or thine1 with any more propriety than ours1 yours1 c4 be joined to any noun1 as possessive adjectives and possessive cases may4--,ib41 p4 #aaj4 ,whoever understands these instructions1 cannot but see their inconsistency4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,murray argues at some length1 without naming his opponents1 that the words which he assumes to be such1 are really personal pronouns standing rightfully in the possessive case2 and that1 they should not1 on the slight pretence of their differing from nouns1 be dispossessed of the right and privilege1 which1 from time immemorial they have enjoyed4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ec4 ,churchill as ably shows1 that the corresponding terms1 which ,lowth calls pronominal adjectives1 and which ,murray and others will have to be pronouns of no case1 are justly entitled to the same rank4 ,if mine1 thine1 hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 be the possessive case2 my1 thy1 her1 our1 your1 their1 must be the same4 ,whether we say1 ',it is ,john's book1' or1 ',the book is ,john's2' ,john's is not less the possessive case in one instance1 than it is in the other4 ,if we say1 ',it is his book1' or1 ',the book is his2' ',it is her book1' or1 ',the book is hers2' ',it is my book1' or1 ',the book is mine2' ',it is your book1' or1 ',the book is yours2' are not these parallel instances8 ,custom has established it as a law1 that this case of the pronoun shall drop its original termination1 for the sake of euphony1 when it precedes the noun that governs it2 retaining it only where the noun is understood3 but this certainly makes no alteration in the nature of the word2 so that either my is as much a possessive case as mine2 or mine and my are equally pronominal adjectives4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #bba4 ,mr4 ,murray considers the phrases1 'our desire1' 'your intention1' 'their resignation1' as instances of plural adjectives agreeing with singular nouns2 and consequently exceptions to the general 7may we not say universal87 rule3 but if they the words our1 your1 their1 be1 as is attempted to be proved above1 the possessive cases of pronouns1 no rule is here violated4--,ib41 p4 #bbd4 ,,obs4 #af4--,one strong argument1 touching this much-disputed point of grammar1 was incidentally noticed in the observations upon antecedents3 an adjective cannot give person1 number1 and gender1 to a relative pronoun2 because1 in our language1 adjectives do not possess these qualities2 nor indeed in any other1 except as they take them by immediate agreement with nouns or pronouns in the same clause4 ,but it is undeniable1 that my1 thy1 his1 her1 our1 your1 their1 do sometimes stand as antecedents1 and give person1 number1 and gender to relatives1 which head other clauses4 ,for the learner should remember1 that1 ,when a relative pronoun is used1 the sentence is divided into two parts2 viz4 the antecedent sentence1 or that which contains the antecedent2 and the relative sentence1 containing the relative4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #abc4 ,we need not here deny1 that ,terence's ,latin1 as quoted in the grammars1 ,omnes laudare fortunas meas1 qui haberem gnatum tali ingeuio prditum1 is quite as intelligible syntax1 as can literally be made of it in ,english--,that all would praise my fortunes1 who had a son endued with such a genius4 ,for1 whether the ,latin be good or not1 it affords no argument against us1 except that of a supposed analogy2 nor does the literality of the version prove1 at all points1 either the accuracy or the sameness of the construction4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,surely1 without some imperative reason1 we ought not1 in ,english1 to resort to such an assumption as is contained in the following ,rule3 ,sometimes the relative agrees in person with that pronoun substantive1 from which the possessive pronoun adjective is derived2 as1 ,pity my condition1 who am so destitute4 ,i rejoice at thy lot1 who art so fortunate4 ,we lament his fate1 who is so unwary4 ,beware of her cunning1 who is so deceitful4 ,commiserate our condition1 who are so poor4 ,tremble at your negligence1 who are so careless4 ,it shall be their property1 who are so diligent4 ,we are rejoicing at thy lot1 who hast been so fortunate4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #adb4 ,in his explanation of the last of these sentences1 the author says1 ,who is a relative pronoun2 in the masculine gender1 singular number1 second person1 and agrees with thee1 implied in the adjective thy4 ,,rule4--,sometimes the relative agrees in person1 c4 ,and it is the nominative to the verb hast been4 ,,rule4--,when no nominative comes between the relative and the verb1 the relative is the nominative to the verb4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,a pupil of ,g4 ,brown's would have said1 ,who is a relative pronoun1 representing 'thy1' or the person addressed1 in the second person1 singular number1 and masculine gender2 according to the rule which says1 ',a pronoun must agree with its antecedent1 or the noun or pronoun which it represents1 in person1 number1 and gender3' and is in the nominative case1 being the subject of hast been2 according to the rule which says1 ',a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4' ,because the meaning is--who hast been2 that is1 thy lot1 or the lot of thee1 who hast been4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,because the possessive case of a noun or pronoun is usually equivalent in meaning to the preposition of and the objective case1 some grammarians1 mistaking this equivalence of meaning for sameness of case1 have asserted that all our possessives have a double form4 ,thus ,nixon3 ,when the particle of comes between two substantives signifying different things1 it is not to be considered a preposition1 but the sign of the substantive's being in the possessive case1 equally as if the apostrophic s had been affixed to it2 as1 ',the skill of ,csar1' or ,csar's skill4'--,english ,parser1 p4 #ch4 ,when the apostrophic s is used1 the genitive is the former of the two substantives2 as1 ',john's house3' but when the particle of is used1 it is the latter2 as1 ',the house of ,john4'--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,the work here quoted is adapted to two different grammars2 namely1 ,murray's and ,allen's4 ,these the author doubtless conceived to be the best ,english grammars extant4 ,and it is not a little remarkable1 that both of these authors1 as well as many others1 teach in such a faulty manner1 that their intentions upon this point may be matter of dispute4 ,when ,murray1 ,allen1 and others1 say1 'we make use of the particle of to express the relation of the genitive1' the ambiguity of their assertion leaves it in doubt whether or not they considered the substantive which is preceded by of and an other substantive1 as in the genitive case4--,nixon's ,english ,parser1 p4 #ch4 ,resolving this doubt according to his own fancy1 ,nixon makes the possessive case of our personal pronouns to be as follows3 mine or of me1 ours or of us2 thine or of thee1 yours or of you2 his or of him1 theirs or of them2 hers or of her1 theirs or of them2 its or of it1 theirs or of them4--,english ,parser1 p4 #dc4 ,this doctrine gives us a form of declension that is both complex and deficient4 ,it is therefore more objectionable than almost any of those which are criticised above4 ,the arguments and authorities on which the author rests his position1 are not thought likely to gain many converts2 for which reason1 ,i dismiss the subject1 without citing or answering them4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,in old books1 we sometimes find the word ,i written for the adverb ay1 yes3 as1 ,to dye1 to sleepe2 ,to sleepe1 perchance to dreame2 ,i1 there's the rub4--,shakspeare1 ,old ,copies4 ,the ,british ,grammar1 printed in #aghd1 and the ,grammar of ,murray the schoolmaster1 published some years earlier than ,lindley ,murray's1 say3 ,we use ,i as an ,answer1 in a familiar1 careless1 or merry ,way2 as1 ',i1 ,i1 ,sir1 ,i1 ,i2' but to use ay1 is accounted rude1 especially to our ,betters4 ,see ,brit4 ,gram41 p4 #aih4 ,the age of this rudeness1 or incivility1 if it ever existed1 has long passed away2 and the fashion seems to be so changed1 that to write or utter ,i for ay1 would now in its turn be accounted rude--the rudeness of ignorance--a false orthography1 or a false pronunciation4 ,in the word ay1 the two sounds of ah-ee are plainly heard2 in the sound of ,i1 the same elements are more quickly blended4 7,see a note at the foot of page #afb47 ,when this sound is suddenly repeated1 some writers make a new word of it1 which must be called an interjection3 as1 ',pray1 answer me a question or two4' ',ey1 ey1 as many as you please1 cousin ,bridget1 an they be not too hard4'--,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #ii4 ,ey1 ey1 'tis so2 she's out of her head1 poor thing4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,this is probably a corruption of ay1 which is often doubled in the same manner3 thus1 ,ay1 ay1 ,antipholus1 look strange1 and frown4--,shakspeare4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,the common fashion of address being nowadays altogether in the plural form1 the pronouns thou1 thy1 thine1 thee1 and thyself1 have become unfamiliar to most people1 especially to the vulgar and uneducated4 ,these words are now confined almost exclusively to the writings of the poets1 to the language of the ,friends1 to the ,holy ,scriptures1 and to the solemn services of religion4 ,they are1 however1 the only genuine representatives of the second person singular1 in ,english2 and to displace them from that rank in grammar1 or to present you1 your1 and yours1 as being literally singular1 though countenanced by several late writers1 is a useless and pernicious innovation4 ,it is sufficient for the information of the learner1 and far more consistent with learning and taste1 to say1 that the plural is fashionably used for the singular1 by a figure of syntax2 for1 in all correct usage of this sort1 the verb is plural1 as well as the pronoun--,dr4 ,webster's fourteen authorities to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,for1 surely1 ,you was cannot be considered good ,english1 merely because that number of respectable writers have happened1 on some particular occasions1 to adopt the phrase2 and even if we must needs concede this point1 and grant to the ,doctor and his converts1 that ,you was is primitive and correct1 the example no more proves that you is singular1 than that was is plural4 ,and what is one singular irregular preterit1 compared with all the verbs in the language8 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,in our present authorized version of the ,bible1 the numbers and cases of the second person are kept remarkably distinct1#baa the pronouns being always used in the following manner3 thou for the nominative1 thy or thine for the possessive1 and thee for the objective1 singular2 ye for the nominative1 your or yours for the possessive1 and you for the objective1 plural4 ,yet1 before that version was made1 fashionable usage had commonly substituted you for ye1 making the former word nominative as well as objective1 and applying it to one hearer as well as to more4 ,and subsequently1 as it appears1 the religious sect that entertained a scruple about applying you to an individual1 fell for the most part into an ungrammatical practice of putting thee for thou2 making1 in like manner1 the objective pronoun to be both nominative and objective2 or1 at least1 using it very commonly so in their conversation4 ,their manner of speaking1 however1 was not--or1 certainly1 with the present generation of their successors1 is not--as some grammarians represent it to be1 that formal and antique phraseology which we call the solemn style4#bab ,they make no more use of the pronoun ye1 or of the verbal termination eth1 than do people of fashion2 nor do they1 in using the pronoun thou1 or their improper nominative thee1 ordinarily inflect with st or est the preterits or the auxiliaries of the accompanying verbs1 as is done in the solemn style4 ,indeed1 to use the solemn style familiarly1 would be1 to turn it into burlesque2 as when ,peter ,pindar telleth what he troweth4 #bac ,and let those who think with ,murray1 that our present version of the ,scriptures is the best standard of ,english grammar1#bad remember that in it they have no warrant for substituting s or es for the old termination eth1 any more than for ceasing to use the solemn style of the second person familiarly4 ,that version was good in its day1 yet it shows but very imperfectly what the ,english language now is4 ,can we consistently take for our present standard1 a style which does not allow us to use you in the nominative case1 or its for the possessive8 ,and again1 is not a simplification of the verb as necessary and proper in the familiar use of the second person singular1 as in that of the third8 ,this latter question ,i shall discuss in a future chapter4 ,,obs4 #bb4--,the use of the pronoun ye in the nominative case1 is now mostly confined to the solemn style2#bae but the use of it in the objective1 which is disallowed in the solemn style1 and nowhere approved by our grammarians1 is nevertheless common when no emphasis falls upon the word3 as1 ,when you're unmarried1 never load ye ,with jewels2 they may incommode ye4--,dr4 ,king1 p4 #chd4 ,upon this point1 ,dr4 ,lowth observes1 ,some writers have used ye as the objective case plural of the pronoun of the second person1 very improperly and ungrammatically2 as1 ',the more shame for ye2 holy men ,i thought ye4' ,shak4 ,hen4 ,,viii4 ',but tyrants dread ye1 lest your just decree ,transfer the pow'r1 and set the people free4' ,prior4 ',his wrath1 which one day will destroy ye both4' ,milt4 ,p4 ,l4 ii4 #gcd4 ,milton uses the same manner of expression in a few other places of his ,paradise ,lost1 and more frequently in his smaller poems1 ,it may1 perhaps1 be allowed in the comic and burlesque style1 which often imitates a vulgar and incorrect pronunciation2 but in the serious and solemn style1 no authority is sufficient to justify so manifest a solecism4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,churchill copies this remark1 and adds2 ,dryden has you as the nominative1 and ye as the objective1 in the same passage3#baf ',what gain you1 by forbidding it to tease ye8 ,it now can neither trouble ye1 nor please ye4' ,was this from a notion1 that you and ye1 thus employed1 were more analogous to thou and thee in the singular number8--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,i answer1 ,no2 but1 more probably1 from a notion1 that the two words1 being now confessedly equivalent in the one case1 might as well be made so in the other3 just as the ,friends1 in using thee for you1 are carelessly converting the former word into a nominative1 to the exclusion of thou2 because the latter has generally been made so1 to the exclusion of ye4 ,when the confounding of such distinctions is begun1 who knows where it will end8 ,with like ignorance1 some writers suppose1 that the fashion of using the plural for the singular is a sufficient warrant for putting the singular for the plural3 as1 ,the joys of love1 are they not doubly thine1 ,ye poor6 whose health1 whose spirits ne'er decline8 --,southwick's ,pleas4 of ,poverty4 ,but1 ,neatherds1 go look to the kine1 ,their cribs with fresh fodder supply2 ,the task of compassion be thine1 ,for herbage the pastures deny4--,perfect's ,poems1 p4 #e4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,when used in a burlesque or ludicrous manner1 the pronoun ye is sometimes a mere expletive2 or1 perhaps1 intended rather as an objective governed by a preposition understood4 ,but1 in such a construction1 ,i see no reason to prefer it to the regular objective you2 as1 ,he'll laugh ye1 dance ye1 sing ye1 vault1 look gay1 ,and ruffle all the ladies in his play4--,king1 p4 #egd4 ,some grammarians1 who will have you to be singular as well as plural1 ignorantly tell us1 that ye always means more than one4 ,but the fact is1 that when ye was in common use1 it was as frequently applied to one person as you3 thus1 ,farewell my doughter lady ,margarete1 ,god wotte full oft it grieued hath my mynde1 ,that ye should go where we should seldome mete3 ,now am ,i gone1 and haue left you behynde4--,sir ,t4 ,more1 #aejc4 ,in the following example1 ye is used for thee1 the objective singular2 and that by one whose knowledge of the ,english language1 is said to have been unsurpassed3-- ,proud ,baronet of ,nova ,scotia6 ,the ,dean and ,spaniard must reproach ye4--,swift4 ,so in the story of the ,chameleon3-- ',tis green1 'tis green1 ,sir1 ,i assure ye4--,merrick4 ,thus we have ye not only for the nominative in both numbers1 but at length for the objective in both2 ye and you being made everywhere equivalent1 by very many writers4 ,indeed this pronoun has been so frequently used for the objective case1 that one may well doubt any grammarian's authority to condemn it in that construction4 ,yet ,i cannot but think it ill-chosen in the third line below1 though right in the first3-- ,ye6 who have traced the ,pilgrim to the scene ,which is his last1 if in your memories dwell ,a thought which once was his1 if on ye swell ,a single recollection1 not in vain ,he wore his sandal-shoon1 and scallop-shell4--,byron4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,the three pronouns of the third person1 he1 she1 and it1 have always formed their plural number after one and the same manner1 they1 their or theirs1 them4 ,or1 rather1 these plural words1 which appear not to be regular derivatives from any of the singulars1 have ever been applied alike to them all4 ,but it1 the neuter pronoun singular1 had formerly no variation of cases1 and is still alike in the nominative and the objective4 ,the possessive its is of comparatively recent origin4 ,in our common ,bible1 the word is not found1 except by misprint2 nor do other writings of the same age contain it4 ,the phrase1 of it1 was often used as an equivalent2 as1 ,and it had three ribs in the mouth of it between the teeth of it4--,dan41 vii1 #e4 ,that is--in its mouth1 between its teeth4 ,but1 as a possessive case was sometimes necessary1 our ancestors used to borrow one2 commonly from the masculine1 though sometimes from the feminine4 ,this produced what now appears a strange confusion of the genders3 as1 ,learning hath his infancy1 when it is but beginning1 and almost childish2 then his youth1 when it is luxuriant and juvenile2 then his strength of years1 when it is solid and reduced2 and lastly his old age1 when it waxeth dry and exhaust4--,bacon's ,essays1 p4 #eh4 ,of beaten work shall the candlestick be made3 his shaft1 and his branches1 his bowls1 his knops1 and his flowers1 shall be of the same4--,exodus1 xxv1 #ca4 ,they came and emptied the chest1 and took it and carried it to his place again4--#b ,chron41 xxiv1 #aa4 ,look not thou upon the wine1 when it is red1 when it giveth his colour in the cup1 when it moveth itself aright4--,prov41 xxiii1 #ca4 ,the tree is known by his fruit4--,matt41 xii1 #cc4 ,when thou tillest the ground1 it shall not henceforth yield unto thee her strength4--,gen41 iv1 #ab4 ,he that pricketh the heart1 maketh it to show her knowledge4--,eccl41 xxii1 #ai4 ,shakspeare rarely1 if ever1 used its2 and his style is sometimes obscure for the want of it3 as1 ,there is no vice so simple1 but assumes ,some mark of virtue on his outward parts4 --,merch4 of ,venice4 ,the name of ,cassius honours this corruption1 ,and chastisement doth therefore hide his head4 --,jul4 ,cs41 ,act iv4 ,,obs4 #be4--,the possessive case of pronouns should never be written with an apostrophe4 ,a few pronominal adjectives taken substantively receive it2 but the construction which it gives them1 seems to make them nouns3 as1 one's1 other's1 and1 according to ,murray1 former's and latter's4 ,the real pronouns that end in s1 as his1 hers1 its1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 though true possessives after their kind1 have no occasion for this mark1 nor does good usage admit it4 ,churchill1 with equal disregard of consistency and authority1 gives it to one of them1 and denies it to the rest4 ,referring to the classification of these words as possessives1 and of my1 thy1 her1 our1 your1 their1 as adjectives1 he says3 ,it seems as if the termination in s had led to the distinction3 but no one will contend1 that ours is the possessive case of our1 or theirs of their2 though ours1 yours1 hers1 and theirs1 are often very improperly spelt with an apostrophe1 a fault not always imputable to the printer2 while in it's1 which is unquestionably the possessive case of it1 the apostrophe1 by a strange perverseness1 is almost always omitted4--,churchill ,gram41 p4 #bbb4 ,the charge of strange perverseness may1 in this instance1 ,i think1 be retorted upon the critic2 and that1 to the fair exculpation of those who choose to conform to the general usage which offends him4 ,,obs4 #bf4--,of the compound personal pronouns1 this author gives the following account3 ,self1 in the plural selves1 a noun1 is often combined with the personal pronouns1 in order to express emphasis1 or opposition1 or the identity of the subject and the object of a verb2 and thus forms a pronoun relative3 as1 ',i did it myself2' 'he was not himself1 when he said so2' 'the envious torment themselves more than others4' ,formerly self and selves were used simply as nouns1 and governed the pronoun1 which was kept distinct from it them in the possessive case3 but since they the pronoun and the noun have coalesced into one word1 they the compounds are used only in the following forms3 for the first person1 myself1 ourselves2 for the second1 thyself1 or yourself1 yourselves2 for the third1 himself1 herself1 itself1 themselves3 except in the regal style1 in which1 as generally in the second person1 the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun1 making ourself4 ,each of these is the same in all three cases4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,in a note referring to the close of this explanation1 he adds3 ,own also is often employed with the possessive cases of the personal pronouns by way of emphasis1 or opposition2 but separately1 as an adjective1 and not combining with them to form a relative3 as1 ',i did it of my own free will3' ',did he do it with his own hand8'--,ib41 p4 #bbg4 ,,obs4 #bg4--,the preceding instructions1 faulty and ungrammatical as they are1 seem to be the best that our writers have furnished upon this point4 ,to detect falsities and blunders1 is half the grammarian's duty4 ,the pronouns of which the term self or selves forms a part1 are used1 not for the connecting of different clauses of a sentence1 but for the purpose of emphatic distinction in the sense4 ,in calling them relatives1 ,churchill is wrong1 even by his own showing4 ,they have not the characteristics which he himself ascribes to relatives2 but are compound personal pronouns1 and nothing else4 ,he is also manifestly wrong in asserting1 that they are severally the same in all three cases4 ,from the very nature of their composition1 the possessive case is alike impossible to them all4 ,to express ownership with emphasis or distinction1 we employ neither these compounds nor any others2 but always use the simple possessives with the separate adjective own3 as1 ,with my own eyes1--,by thy own confession1--,to his own house1--,for her own father1--,by its own weight1--,to save our own lives1--,for your own sake1--,in their own cause4 ,,obs4 #bh4--,the phrases1 my own1 thy own1 his own1 and so forth1 ,dr4 ,perley1 in his little ,grammar1 has improperly converted by the hyphen into compound words3 calling them the possessive forms of myself1 thyself1 himself1 and so forth2 as if one set of compounds could constitute the possessive case of an other6 ,and again1 as if the making of eight new pronouns for two great nations1 were as slight a feat1 as the inserting of so many hyphens6 ,the word own1 anciently written owen1 is an adjective2 from an old form of the perfect participle of the verb to owe2 which verb1 according to ,lowth and others1 once signified to possess4 ,it is equivalent to due1 proper1 or peculiar2 and1 in its present use as an adjective1 it stands nowhere else than between the possessive case and the name of the thing possessed2 as1 ,the ,boy's ,own ,book1--,christ's own words1--,solomon's own and only son4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 while he acknowledges the abovementioned derivation1 very strangely calls own a noun substantive2 and1 with not more accuracy1 says3 ,this is a word of no other use than as it is added to the possessive pronouns1 my1 thy1 his1 our1 your1 their4--,quarto ,dict41 w4 ,own4 ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce1 with obvious untruth1 says1 ,own is used in combination with a name or substitute1 and as a part of it1 to constitute it emphatic4--,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,he writes it separately1 but parses it as a part of the possessive noun or pronoun which precedes it6 ,,obs4 #bi4--,the word self was originally an adjective1 signifying same1 very1 or particular2 but1 when used alone1 it is now generally a noun4 ,this may have occasioned the diversity which appears in the formation of the compound personal pronouns4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 in his great ,dictionary1 calls self a pronoun2 but he explains it as being both adjective and substantive1 admitting that1 ,its primary signification seems to be that of an adjective4--,again he observes1 ,myself1 himself1 themselves1 and the rest1 may1 contrary to the analogy of my1 him1 them1 be used as nominatives4 ,hisself1 itsself1 and theirselves1 would be more analogical than himself1 itself1 themselves2 but custom has rejected the former1 and established the latter4 ,when an adjective qualifies the term self1 the pronouns are written separately in the possessive case2 as1 ,my single self1--,my own self1--,his own self1--,their own selves4 ,so1 anciently1 without an adjective3 as1 ,a man shall have diffused his life1 his self1 and his whole concernments so far1 that he can weep his sorrows with an other's eyes4--,south4 ,something valuable for its self without view to anything farther4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bic4 ,that they would willingly1 and of their selves endeavour to keep a perpetual chastity4--,stat4 ,ed4 ,,vi4 in ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,why ,i should either imploy my self in that study or put others upon it4--,walker's ,english ,particles1 p4 xiv4 ,it is no matter whether you do it by your proctor1 or by your self4--,ib41 p4 #if4 ,the compound oneself is sometimes written in stead of the phrase one's self2 but the latter is preferable1 and more common4 ,even his self1 when written as two words1 may possibly be right in some instances2 as1 ,scorn'd be the wretch that quits his genial bowl1 ,his loves1 his friendships1 ev'n his self1 resigns2 ,perverts the sacred instinct of his soul1 ,and to a ducat's dirty sphere confines4 --,,shenstone3 ,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #ajg4 ,,obs4 #cj4--;,in poetry1 and even in some compositions not woven into regular numbers1 the simple personal pronouns are not unfrequently used1 for brevity's sake1 in a reciprocal sense2 that is1 in stead of the compound personal pronouns1 which are the proper reciprocals3 as1 ,wash you1 make you clean4--,isaiah1 i1 #af4 ,i made me great works2 ,i builded me houses2 ,i planted me vineyards2 ,i made me gardens and orchards4--,ecclesiastes1 ii1 #d4 ,thou shalt surely clothe thee with them all as with an ornament1 and bind them on thee as a bride doeth4--,isaiah1 xlix1 #ah4 ,compare with these the more regular expression3 ,as a bridegroom decketh himself with ornaments1 and as a bride adorneth herself with jewels4--,isaiah1 lxi1 #aj4 ,this phraseology is almost always preferable in prose2 the other is a poetical license1 or peculiarity3 as1 ,i turn me from the martial roar4--,scott's ,l4 ,l41 p4 #ig4 ,hush thee1 poor maiden1 and be still4--,ib41 p4 #aaj4 ,firmer he roots him the ruder it blow4--,ib41 p4 #di4 ,,obs4 #ca4--,to accommodate the writers of verse1 the word ever is frequently contracted into e'er1 pronounced like the monosyllable air4 ,an easy extension of this license1 gives us similar contractions of all the compound relative pronouns2 as1 whoe'er or whosoe'er1 whose'er or whosesoe'er1 whome'er or whomsoe'er1 whiche'er or whichsoe'er1 whate'er or whatsoe'er4 ,the character and properties of these compounds are explained1 perhaps sufficiently1 in the observations upon the classes of pronouns4 ,some of them are commonly parsed as representing two cases at once2 there being1 in fact1 an ellipsis of the noun1 before or after them3 as1 ,each art he prompts1 each charm he can create1 ,whate'er he gives1 are given for you to hate4--,pope's ,dunciad4 ,,obs4 #cb4--;,for a form of parsing the double relative what1 or its compound whatever or whatsoever1 it is the custom of some teachers1 to suggest equivalent words1 and then proceed to explain these1 in lieu of the word in question4 ,this is the method of ,russell's ,gram41 p4 #ii2 of ,merchants1 p4 #aaj2 of ,kirkham's1 p4 #aaa2 of ,gilbert's1 p4 #ib4 ,but it should be remembered that equivalence of meaning is not sameness of grammatical construction2 and1 even if the construction be the same1 to parse other equivalent words1 is not really to parse the text that is given4 ,a good parser1 with the liberty to supply obvious ellipses1 should know how to explain all good ,english as it stands2 and for a teacher to pervert good ,english into false doctrine1 must needs seem the very worst kind of ignorance4 ,what can be more fantastical than the following etymology1 or more absurd than the following directions for parsing8 ,what is compounded of which that4 ,these words have been contracted and made to coalesce1 a part of the orthography of both being still retained3 what--which--that2 7which-that47 ,anciently it appeared in the varying forms1 tha qua1 qua tha1 qu'tha1 quthat1 quhat1 hwat1 and finally what4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,this bald pedantry of tha qua1 qua tha1 was secretly borrowed from the grammatical speculations of ,william ,s4 ,cardell3#bag the which-that notion contradicts it1 and is partly of the borrower's own invention4 ,if what is a compound1 it was compounded more than a thousand years ago2 and1 of course1 long before any part of the ,english language existed as such4 ,king ,alfred used it1 as he found it1 in the ,saxon form of hwt4 ,the ,scotch afterwards spelled it quhat4 ,our ,english grammarians have improperly called it a compound2 and ,kirkham1 still more absurdly1 calls the word others a compound1 and mine1 thine1 ours1 yours1 e4 compounds4#bah ,,obs4 #cc4--;,according to this gentleman's notion of things1 there is1 within the little circle of the word what1 a very curious play of antecedent parts and parts relative--a dodging contra-dance of which that and that which1 with things which1 and so forth4 ,thus3 ,when what is a compound relative you must always parse it as two words2 that is1 you must parse the antecedent part as a noun1 and give it case2 the relative part you may analyze like any other relative1 giving it a case likewise4 ,example3 ',i will try what 7that which7 can be found in female delicacy4' ,here that1 the antecedent part of what1 is in the obj4 case1 governed by the verb 'will try2' which1 the relative part1 is in the nom4 case to 'can be found4' ',i have heard what 7i4e4 that which1 or the thing which7 has been alleged4' --,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,here1 we sec1 the author's which-that becomes that which1 or something else4 ,but this is not a full view of his method4 ,the following vile rigmarole is a further sample of that ,new ,systematick ,order of ,parsing1 by virtue of which he so very complacently and successfully sets himself above all other grammarians3 ',from what is recorded1 he appears1 c4' ,what is a comp4 rel4 pron4 including both the antecedent and the relative1 and is equivalent to that which1 or the thing which4--,thing1 the antecedent part of what1 is a noun1 the name of a thing--com4 the name of a species--neuter gender1 it has no sex--third person1 spoken of--sing4 number1 it implies but one--and in the obj4 case1 it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep4 'from1' and gov4 by it3 ,,rule #ca4 7,repeat the ,rule1 and every other ,rule to which ,i refer47 ,which1 the relative part of what1 is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--relative1 it relates to 'thing' for its antecedent--neut4 gender1 third person1 sing1 number1 because the antecedent is with which it agrees1 according to ,,rule #ad4 ,rel4 pron4 c4 ,which is in the nom4 case to the verb 'is recorded1' agreeably to ,,rule #ae4 ,the relative is the nominative case to the verb1 when no nominative comes between it and the verb4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,,obs4 #cd4--,the distinction which has been made by ,murray and others1 between etymological parsing and syntactical--or1 between that exercise which simply classifies and describes the words of a sentence1 and that which adds to this the principles of their construction--is rejected by ,kirkham1 and also by ,ingersoll1 ,fuller1 ,smith1 ,sanborn1 ,mack1 and some others1 it being altogether irreconcilable with their several modes of confounding the two main parts of grammar4 ,if such a distinction is serviceable1 the want of it is one of the inherent faults of the schemes which they have adopted4 ,but1 since grammar is the art of speaking and writing with propriety who that really values clearness and accuracy of expression1 can think the want of them excusable in models prescribed for the exercise of parsing8 ,and is it not better to maintain the distinction above named1 than to interlace our syntactical parsing with broken allusions to the definitions which pertain to etymology8 ,if it is1 this new mode of parsing1 which ,kirkham claims to have invented1 and ,smith pretends to have got from ,germany1 whatever boast may be made of it1 is essentially defective and very immethodical4#bai ,this remark applies not merely to the forms above cited1 respecting the pronoun what1 but to the whole method of parsing adopted by the author of ,english ,grammar in ,familiar ,lectures4 ,,obs4 #ce4--,the forms of etymological parsing which ,i have adopted1 being designed to train the pupil1 in the first place1 by a succession of easy steps1 to a rapid and accurate description of the several species of words1 and a ready habit of fully defining the technical terms employed in such descriptions1 will be found to differ more from the forms of syntactical parsing1 than do those of perhaps any other grammarian4 ,the definitions1 which constitute so large a portion of the former1 being omitted as soon as they are thoroughly learned1 give place in the latter1 to the facts and principles of syntax4 ,thus have we fullness in the one part1 conciseness in the other1 order and distinctness in both4 ,the separation of etymology from syntax1 however1 though judiciously adopted by almost all grammarians1 is in itself a mere matter of convenience4 ,no one will pretend that these two parts of grammar are in their nature totally distinct and independent4 ,hence1 though a due regard to method demands the maintenance of this ancient and still usual division of the subject1 we not unfrequently1 in treating of the classes and modifications of words1 exhibit contingently some of the principles of their construction4 ,this1 however1 is very different from a purposed blending of the two parts1 than which nothing can be more unwise4 ,,obs4 #cf4--,the great peculiarity of the pronoun what1 or of its compound whatever or whatsoever1 is a peculiarity of construction1 rather than of etymology4 ,hence1 in etymological parsing1 it may be sufficient to notice it only as a relative1 though the construction be double4 ,it is in fact a relative2 but it is one that reverses the order of the antecedent1 whenever the noun is inserted with it4 ,but as the noun is usually suppressed1 and as the supplying of it is attended with an obvious difficulty1 arising from the transposition1 we cut the matter short1 by declaring the word to have1 as it appears to have1 a double syntactical relation4 ,of the foregoing example1 therefore--viz41 ,from what is recorded1 c41--a pupil of mine1 in parsing etymologically1 would say thus3 ,what is a relative pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase1 and connects different clauses of a sentence4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which denotes the subject of a verb4 ,in parsing syntactically1 he would say thus3 ,what is a double relative1 including both antecedent and relative1 being equivalent to that which4 ,as antecedent1 it is of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case2 being governed by from2 according to the rule which says1 ',a ,noun or a ,pronoun made the object of a preposition1 is goverved sic--,,kth by it in the objective case4' ,because the meaning is--from what4 ,as relative1 it is of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case2 being the subject of is recorded2 according to the rule which says1 ',a ,noun or a ,pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4' ,because the meaning is--what is recorded4 ,,obs4 #cg4--,the word what1 when uttered independently as a mark of surprise1 or as the prelude to an emphatic question which it does not ask1 becomes an interjection2 and1 as such1 is to be parsed merely as other interjections are parsed3 as1 ,what6 came the word of ,god out from you8 or came it unto you only8--#a ,cor41 xiv1 #cf4 ,what6 know ye not that your body is the temple of the ,holy ,ghost which is in you1 which ye have of ,god8--#a ,cor41 vi1 #ai4 ,but what6 is thy servant a dog1 that he should do this great thing8--#b ,kings1 viii1 #ac4 ,what6 are you so ambitious of a man's good word1 who perhaps in an hour's time shall curse himself to the pit of hell8--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #aeb4 ,what6 up and down1 carv'd like an apple-tart8--,shakspeare4 ,what6 can you lull the winged winds asleep8--,campbell4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,v4--,,etymological4 ,in the ,fifth ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and the classes and modifications of the ,,articles1 ,,nouns1 ,,adjectives1 and ,,pronouns4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,fifth ,praxis1 are two for an article1 six for a noun1 three for an adjective1 six for a pronoun1 and one for a verb1 a participle1 an adverb1 a conjunction1 a preposition1 or an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,nay but1 ,o man1 who art thou that repliest against ,god8 ,shall the thing formed say to him that formed it1 ,why hast thou made me thus4--,rom41 ix1 #bj4 ,nay is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,but is a conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,o is an interjection4 #a4 ,an interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind4 ,man is a common noun1 of the second person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,who is an interrogative pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,an interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which a question is asked4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,art is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,thou is a personal pronoun1 of the second person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,that is a relative pronoun1 of the second person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase1 and connects different clauses of a sentence4 #c4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,repliest is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,against is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,god is a proper noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known1 or mentioned4 #b4 ,a proper noun is the name of some particular individual1 or people1 or group4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,shall is a verb1 auxiliary to say1 and may be taken with it4 ,the is the definite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things4 ,thing is a common noun of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,formed is a participle4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 ,say1 or shall say1 is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,to is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,him is a personal pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,that is a relative pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase1 and connects different clauses of a sentence4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,formed is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,it is a personal pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,why is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,hast is a verb1 auxiliary to made1 and may be taken with it4 ,thou is a personal pronoun1 of the second person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,made1 or hast made1 is a verb4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,me is a personal pronoun1 of the first person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,thus is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,every man has undoubtedly an inward perception of the celestial goodness by which he is quickened4 ,but1 if to obtain some ideas of ,god1 it be not necessary for us to go beyond ourselves1 what an unpardonable indolence it is in those who will not descend into themselves that they may find him8--,calvin's ,institutes1 ,b4 i1 ,ch4 #e4 ,jesus answered1 ,if ,i honour myself1 my honour is nothing3 it is my ,father that honoureth me2 of whom ye say1 that he is your ,god3 yet ye have not known him2 but ,i know him4--,john1 viii1 #ed4 ,what6 have ye not houses to eat and to drink in8 or despise ye the church of ,god1 and shame them that have not8 ,what shall ,i say to you8 shall ,i praise you in this8 ,i praise you not4--#a ,cor41 xi1 #bb4 ,we know not what we ought to wish for1 but ,he who made us1 knows4--,burgh's ,dignity1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bj4 ,and who is he that will harm you1 if ye be followers of that which is good8--#a ,peter1 iii1 #ac4 ,for we dare not make ourselves of the number1 or compare ourselves with some that commend themselves3 but they1 measuring themselves by themselves1 and comparing themselves among themselves1 are not wise4--#b ,cor41 x1 #ab4 ,whatever is humane1 is wise2 whatever is wise1 is just2 whatever is wise1 just1 and humane1 will be found the true interest of states4--,dr4 ,rush1 on ,punishments1 p4 #ai4 ,but1 methinks1 we cannot answer it to ourselves1 as-well-as to our ,maker1 that we should live and die ignorant of ourselves1 and thereby of him1 and of the obligations which we are under to him for ourselves4--,william ,penn4 ,but where shall wisdom be found8 and where is the place of understanding8 ,the depth saith1 ',it is not in me2' and the sea saith1 ',it is not with me4' ,destruction and death say1 ',we have heard the fame thereof with our ears4'--,see ,job1 xxviii1 #ab1 #ad1 #bb2 and ,blair's ,lect41 p4 #dag4 ,i still had hopes1 my latest hours to crown1 ,amidst these humble bow'rs to lay me down4--,goldsmith4 ,why dost thou then suggest to me distrust1 ,knowing who ,i am1 as ,i know who thou art8--,milton1 ,p4 ,r4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,i would1 methinks1 have so much to say for myself1 that if ,i fell into the hands of him who treated me ill1 he should be sensible when he did so3 his conscience should be on my side1 whatever became of his inclination4--,steele1 ,spect41 ,no4 #ebb4 ,a boy should understand his mother tongue well before he enters upon the study of a dead language2 or1 at any rate1 he should be made perfect master of the meaning of all the words which are necessary to furnish him with a translation of the particular author which he is studying4--,gallaudet1 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #bjf4 ,no discipline is more suitable to man1 or more congruous to the dignity of his nature1 than that which refines his taste1 and leads him to distinguish1 in every subject1 what is regular1 what is orderly1 what is suitable1 and what is fit and proper4--,kames's ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bge4 ,simple thoughts are what arise naturally2 what the occasion or the subject suggests unsought2 and what1 when once suggested1 are easily apprehended by all4 ,refinement in writing1 expresses a less natural and less obvious train of thought4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ahd4 ,where the story of an epic poem is founded on truth1 no circumstances must be added1 but such as connect naturally with what are known to be true3 history may be supplied1 but it must not be contradicted4--,see ,kames's ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bhj4 ,others1 ,i am told1 pretend to have been once his friends4 ,surely they are their enemies1 who say so2 for nothing can be more odious than to treat a friend as they have treated him4 ,but of this ,i cannot persuade myself1 when ,i consider the constant and eternal aversion of all bad writers to a good one4--,cleland1 in ,defence of ,pope4 ,from side to side1 he struts1 he smiles1 he prates1 ,and seems to wonder what's become of ,yates4--,churchill4 ,alas6 what sorrows gloom'd that parting day1 ,that call'd them from their native walks away6--,goldsmith4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,it is involved in the nature of man1 that he cannot be indifferent to an event that concerns him or any of his connexions3 if it be fortunate1 it gives him joy2 if unfortunate1 it gives him sorrow4--,kames's ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #fb4 ,i knew a man who had relinquished the sea for a country life3 in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial mount with a level summit1 resembling most accurately a quarter-deck1 not only in shape1 but in size2 and here he generally walked4--,ib41 p4 #cbh4 ,i mean1 when we are angry with our ,maker4 ,for against whom else is it that our displeasure is pointed1 when we murmur at the distribution of things here1 either because our own condition is less agreeable than we would have it1 or because that of others is more prosperous than we imagine they deserve8--,archbishop ,seeker4 ,things cannot charge into the soul1 or force us upon any opinions about them2 they stand aloof and are quiet4 ,it is our fancy that makes them operate and gall us2 it is we that rate them1 and give them their bulk and value4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #bab4 ,what is your opinion of truth1 good-nature1 and sobriety8 ,do any of these virtues stand in need of a good word2 or are they the worse for a bad one8 ,i hope a diamond will shine ne'er the less for a man's silence about the worth of it4--,ib41 p4 #di4 ,those words which were formerly current and proper1 have now become obsolete and barbarous4 ,alas6 this is not all3 fame tarnishes in time too2 and men grow out of fashion1 as well as languages4--,ib41 p4 #ee4 ,o ,luxury6 thou curs'd by ,heaven's decree1 ,how ill exchang'd are things like these for thee4--,goldsmith4 ,o1 then1 how blind to all that truth requires1 ,who think it freedom when a part aspires6--,id4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,relatives4 ,at the same time that we attend to this pause1 every appearance of sing-song and tone must be carefully guarded against4--,murray's ,english ,reader1 p4 xx4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word that had not clearly the construction either of a pronoun or of a conjunction4 ,but1 according to ,observation #ahth1 on the ,classes of ,pronouns1 ,the word that1 or indeed any other word1 should never be so used as to leave the part of speech uncertain4 ,therefore1 the expression should be altered3 thus1 ,while we attend to this pause1 every appearance of singsong must be carefully avoided4 ,for thou shalt go to all that ,i shall send thee4--,jeremiah1 i1 #g2 ,gurney's ,obs41 p4 #bbc4 ,ah6 how happy would it have been for me1 had ,i spent in retirement these twenty-three years that ,i have possessed my kingdom4--,see ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bdb4 ,in the same manner that relative pronouns and their antecedents are usually parsed4--,ib41 p4 #ga4 ,parse or mention all the other nouns in the parsing examples1 in the same manner that you do the word in the form of parsing4--,ib41 p4 #h4 ,the passive verb will always be of the person and number that the verb be is1 of which it is in part composed4--,ib41 p4 #ec4 ,you have been taught that a verb must always be of the same person and number that its nominative is4--,ib41 p4 #fh4 ,a relative pronoun1 also1 must always be of the same person1 number1 and even gender that its antecedent is4--,ib41 p4 #fh4 ,the subsequent is always in the same case that the word is1 which asks the question4--,ib41 p4 #ie4 ,one sometimes represents an antecedent noun in the same definite manner that personal pronouns do4--,ib41 p4 #ih4 ,the mind being carried forward to the time that an event happens1 easily conceives it to be present4--,ib41 p4 #ajg4 ,save and saving are parsed in the same manner that except and excepting are4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,adverbs describe1 qualify1 or modify the meaning of a verb in the same manner that adjectives do nouns4--,ib41 p4 #af4 ,the third person singular of verbs1 is formed in the same manner1 that the plural number of nouns is4--,ib41 p4 #da4 ,he saith further3 'that the apostles did not anew baptize such persons1 that had been baptized with the baptism of ,john4'--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #bib4 ,for we which live1 are always delivered unto death for ,jesus' sake4--#b ,cor41 iv1 #aa4 ,for they1 which believe in ,god1 must be careful to maintain good works4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dca4 ,nor yet of those which teach things which they ought not1 for filthy lucre's sake4--,ib41 i1 #dce4 ,so as to hold such bound in heaven1 whom they bind on earth1 and such loosed in heaven1 whom they loose on earth4--,ib41 i1 #dgh4 ,now1 if it be an evil to do any thing out of strife2 then such things that are seen so to be done1 are they not to be avoided and forsaken8--,ib41 i1 #ebb4 ,all such who satisfy themselves not with the superficies of religion4--,ib41 ii1 #bc4 ,and he is the same in substance1 what he was upon earth1 both in spirit1 soul and body4--,ib41 iii1 #ih4 ,and those that do not thus1 are such1 to whom the ,church of ,rome can have no charity4--,ib41 iii1 #bjd4 ,before his book he placeth a great list of that he accounts the blasphemous assertions of the ,quakers4--,ib41 iii1 #beg4 ,and this is that he should have proved4--,ib41 iii1 #cbb4 ,three of which were at that time actual students of philosophy in the university4--,ib41 iii1 #ahj4 ,therefore it is not lawful for any whatsoever 99 99 99 to force the consciences of others4--,ib41 ii1 #ac4 ,what is the cause that the former days were better than these8--,eccl41 vii1 #aj4 ,in the same manner that the term my depends on the name books4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,in the same manner as the term house depends on the relative near4--,ib41 p4 #eh4 ,james died on the day that ,henry returned4--,ib41 p4 #agg4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,declensions4 ,other makes the plural others1 when it is found without it's substantive4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronoun it's is written with an apostrophe4 ,but1 according to ,observation #beth1 on the ,declensions of ,pronouns1 ,the possessive case of pronouns should never be written with an apostrophe4 ,therefore1 this apostrophe should be omitted2 thus1 ,other makes the plural others1 when it is found without its substantive4 ,but his1 her's1 our's1 your's1 their's1 have evidently the form of the possessive case4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,to the ,saxon possessive cases1 hire1 ure1 eower1 hira1 7that is1 her's1 our's1 your's1 their's17 we have added the s1 the characteristic of the possessive case of nouns4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,upon the name of ,jesus ,christ our ,lord1 both their's and our's4--,,friends' ,,bible3 #a ,cor41 i1 #b4 ,in this ,place ,his ,hand is clearly preferable either to ,her's or ,it's4 #bbj--;,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #ei4 ,that roguish leer of your's makes a pretty woman's heart ake4--,,addison3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,lest by any means this liberty of your's become a stumbling-block4--,,friends' ,,bible3 #a ,cor41 viii1 #i4 ,first person3 ,sing4 ,i1 mine1 me2 ,plur4 we1 our's1 us4--,wilbur and ,livingston's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,second person3 ,sing4 thou1 thine1 thee2 ,plur4 ye or you1 your's1 you4--,ib4 ,third person3 ,sing4 she1 her's1 her2 ,plur4 they1 their's1 them4--,ib4 ,so shall ye serve strangers in a land that is not your's4--,,scott ,,et ,,al43 ,jer41 v1 #ai4 ,second person1 ,singular3 ,nom4 thou or you1 ,poss4 thine or yours1 ,obj4 thee or you4--,frost's ,el4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,second person1 ,dual3 ,nom4 ,gyt1 ye two2 ,gen4 ,incer1 of ye two2 ,dat4 ,inc1 incrum1 to ye two2 ,acc4 ,inc1 ye two2 ,voc4 ,eala inc1 ,o ye two2 ,abl4 ,inc1 incrum1 from ye two4--,gwill's ,saxon ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,second person1 ,plural2 ,nom4 ,ge1 ye2 ,gen4 ,eower1 of ye2 ,dat4 ,eow1 to ye2 ,acc4 ,eow1 ye2 ,voc4 ,eala ge1 ,o ye2 ,abl4 ,eow1 from ye4--,ib4 7written in #ahbi47 ,these words are1 mine1 thine1 his1 her's1 our's1 your's1 their's1 and whose4--,cardell's ,essay1 p4 #hh4 ,this house is our's1 and that is your's4 ,their's is very commodious4--,ib41 p4 #ij4 ,and they shall eat up thine harvest1 and thy bread3 they shall eat up thy flocks and thine herds4--,jeremiah1 v1 #ag4 ,whoever and ,whichever are thus declined4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 nom4 whoever1 poss4 whoseever1 obj4 whomever4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 nom4 whichever1 poss4 whoseever1 obj4 whichever4--,cooper's ,plain and ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,the compound personal pronouns are thus declined2 ,sing4 ,n4 ,myself1 ,p4 my-own1 ,o4 myself2 ,plur4 ,n4 ourselves1 ,p4 our-own1 ,o4 ourselves4 ,sing4 ,n4 ,thyself or yourself1 ,p4 thy-own or your-own1 ,o4 thyself or yourself2 c4--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,every one of us1 each for hisself1 laboured how to recover him4--,,sidney3 in ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,unless when ideas of their opposites manifestly suggest their selves4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #di4 ,it not only exists in time1 but is time its self4--,ib41 p4 #ge4 ,a position which the action its self will palpably deny4--,ib41 p4 #ajb4 ,a difficulty sometimes presents its self4--,ib41 p4 #afe4 ,they are sometimes explanations in their selves4--,ib41 p4 #bdi4 ,our's1 ,your's1 ,their's1 ,her's1 ,it's4--,s4 ,barrett's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,their's the wild chace of false felicities3 ,his1 the compos'd possession of the true4 --,murray's ,e4 ,reader1 p4 #baf4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed4 ,it is the boast of ,americans1 without distinction of parties1 that their government is the most free and perfect1 which exists on the earth4--,dr4 ,allen's ,lectures1 p4 #ah4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the relative which is here intended to be taken in a restrictive sense4 ,but1 according to ,observation #bfth1 on the ,classes of ,pronouns1 7and others that follow it17 the word who or which1 with a comma before it1 does not usually limit the preceding term4 ,therefore1 which should be that1 and the comma should be omitted2 thus1--that their government is the most free and perfect that exists on the earth4 ,children1 who are dutiful to their parents1 enjoy great prosperity4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,the scholar1 who improves his time1 sets an example worthy of imitation4--,ib41 p4 #fi4 ,nouns and pronouns1 which signify the same person1 place1 or thing1 agree in case4--,cooper's ,gram41 p4 #aae4 ,an interrogative sentence is one1 which asks a question4--,ib41 p4 #aad4 ,in the use of words and phrases1 which in point of time relate to each other1 a due regard to that relation should be observed4--,ib41 p4 #adf2 see ,l4 ,murray's ,rule xiii4 ,the same observations1 which have been made respecting the effect of the article and participle1 appear to be applicable to the pronoun and participle4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aic4 ,the reason that they have not the same use of them in reading1 may be traced to the very defective and erroneous method1 in which the art of reading is taught4--,ib41 p4 #beb4 ,since the time that reason began to exert her powers1 thought1 during our waking hours1 has been active in every breast1 without a moment's suspension or pause4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bga2 ,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #bab4 ,in speaking of such who greatly delight in the same4--,notes to ,dunciad1 #agg4 ,except such to whom the king shall hold out the golden sceptre1 that he may live4--,esther1 iv1 #aa4--;,but the same day that ,lot went out of ,sodom1 it rained fire and brimstone from heaven1 and destroyed them all4--,luke1 xvii1 #bi4 ,in the next place ,i will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns which have not yet come under our notice4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #abi4 ,three natural distinctions of time are all which can exist4--,rail's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,we have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct2 and which seem to be sufficient1 and not more than sufficient4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fh2 ,hall's1 #ad4 ,this point encloses a part of a sentence which may be omitted without materially injuring the connexion of the other members4--,hall's ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,consonants are letters1 which cannot be sounded without the aid of a ,vowel4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,words are not simple sounds1 but sounds1 which convey a meaning to the mind4--,ib41 p4 #af4 ,nature's postures are always easy2 and which is more1 nothing but your own will can put you out of them4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #aig4 ,therefore ought we to examine our ownselves1 and prove our ownselves4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dbf4 ,certainly it had been much more natural1 to have divided ,active ,verbs into ,immanent1 or such whose ,action is terminated in it self1 and ,transient1 or such whose ,action is terminated in something without it self4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bgc4 ,this is such an advantage which no other lexicon will afford4--,,dr4 ,,taylor3 in ,pike's ,lex41 p4 iv4 ,for these reasons1 such liberties are taken in the ,hebrew tongue with those words as are of the most general and frequent use4--,pike's ,heb4 ,lexicon1 p4 #ahd4 ,at the same time that we object to the laws1 which the antiquarian in language would impose upon us1 we must enter our protest against those authors1 who are too fond of innovations4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #acf4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,verbs4 ,a ,verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon3 as1 ,i am1 ,i rule1 ,i am ruled2 ,i love1 thou lovest1 he loves4 ,,verbs are so called1 from the ,latin ,verbum1 a ,word2 because the verb is that word which most essentially contains what is said in any clause or sentence4 ,an ,english verb has four ,,chief ,,terms1 or ,,principal ,,parts1 ever needful to be ascertained in the first place2 namely1 the ,present1 the ,preterit1 the ,imperfect ,participle1 and the ,perfect ,participle4 ,the ,present is that form of the verb1 which is the root of all the rest2 the verb itself2 or that simple term which we should look for in a dictionary3 as1 be1 act1 rule1 love1 defend1 terminate4 ,the ,preterit is that simple form of the verb1 which denotes time past2 and which is always connected with some noun or pronoun1 denoting the subject of the assertion3 as1 ,i was1 ,i acted1 ,i ruled1 ,i loved1 ,i defended4 ,the ,imperfect ,participle is that which ends commonly#bba in ing1 and implies a continuance of the being1 action1 or passion3 as1 being1 acting1 ruling1 loving1 defending1 terminating4 ,the ,perfect ,participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en1 and implies a completion of the being1 action1 or passion3 as1 been1 acted1 ruled1 loved4 ,,classes4 ,verbs are divided1 with respect to their form1 into four classes2 regular and irregular1 redundant and defective4 ,i4 ,a regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed2 as1 love1 loved1 loving1 loved4 ,,ii4 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed2 as1 see1 saw1 seeing1 seen4 ,,iii4 ,a redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways1 and so as to be both regular and irregular2 as1 thrive1 thrived or throve1 thriving1 thrived or thriven4 ,,iv4 ,a defective verb is a verb that forms no participles1 and is used in but few of the moods and tenses2 as1 beware1 ought1 quoth4 ,verbs are divided again1 with respect to their signification1 into four classes2 active-transitive1 active-intransitive1 passive1 and neuter4 ,i4 ,an active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object2 as1 ,cain slew ,abel4--,cassius loved ,brutus4 ,,ii4 ,an active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object2 as1 ,john walks4--,jesus wept4 ,,iii4 ,a4 passive verb is a verb that represents its subject1 or what the nominative expresses1 as being acted upon2 as1 ,i am compelled4--,csar was slain4 ,,iv4 ,a neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion1 but simply being1 or a state of being2 as1 ,there was light4--,the babe sleeps4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,so various have been the views of our grammarians1 respecting this complex and most important part of speech1 that almost every thing that is contained in any theory or distribution of the ,english verbs1 may be considered a matter of opinion and of dispute4 ,nay1 the essential nature of a verb1 in ,universal ,grammar1 has never yet been determined by any received definition that can be considered unobjectionable4 ,the greatest and most acute philologists confess that a faultless definition of this part of speech1 is difficult1 if not impossible1 to be formed4 ,horne ,tooke1 at the close of his ,diversions of ,purley1 cites with contempt nearly a dozen different attempts at a definition1 some ,latin1 some ,english1 some ,french2 then1 with the abruptness of affected disgust1 breaks off the catalogue and the conversation together1 leaving his readers to guess1 if they can1 what he conceived a verb to be4 ,he might have added some scores of others1 and probably would have been as little satisfied with any one of them4 ,a definition like that which is given above1 may answer in some degree the purpose of distinction2 but1 after all1 we must judge what is1 and what is not a verb1 chiefly from our own observation of the sense and use of words4#bbb ,,obs4 #b4--,whether participles ought to be called verbs or not1 is a question that has been much disputed1 and is still variously decided2 nor is it possible to settle it in any way not liable to some serious objections4 ,the same may perhaps be said of all the forms called infinitives4 ,if the essence of a verb be made to consist in affirmation1 predication1 or assertion1 7as it is in many grammars17 neither infinitives nor participles can be reckoned verbs1 without a manifest breach of the definition4 ,yet are the former almost universally treated as verbs1 and by some as the only pure verbs2 nor do all deny them this rank1 who say that affirmation is essential to a verb4 ,participles1 when unconnected with auxiliaries1 are most commonly considered a separate part of speech2 but in the formation of many of our moods and tenses1 we take them as constituent parts of the verb4 ,if there is absurdity in this1 there is more in undertaking to avoid it2 and the inconvenience should be submitted to1 since it amounts to little or nothing in practice4 ,with auxiliaries1 then1 participles are verbs3 without auxiliaries1 they are not verbs1 but form a separate part of speech4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the number of verbs in our language1 amounts unquestionably to four or five thousand2 some say1 7perhaps truly17 to eight thousand4 ,all these1 whatever be the number1 are confessedly regular in their formation1 except about two hundred4 ,for1 though the catalogues in our grammars give the number somewhat variously1 all the irregular1 redundant1 and defective verbs1 put together1 are commonly reckoned fewer than two hundred4 ,i admit1 in all1 two hundred and nineteen4 ,the regular verbs1 therefore1 are vastly more numerous than those which deviate from the stated form4 ,but1 since many of the latter are words of very frequent occurrence1 the irregular verbs appear exceedingly numerous in practice1 and consequently require a great deal of attention4 ,the defective verbs being very few1 and most of these few being mere auxiliaries1 which are never parsed separately1 there is little occasion to treat them as a distinct class2 though ,murray and others have ranked them so1 and perhaps it is best to follow their example4 ,the redundant verbs1 which are regular in one form and irregular in an other1 being of course always found written either one way or the other1 as each author chooses1 may be1 and commonly have been1 referred in parsing to the class of regular or irregular verbs accordingly4 ,but1 as their number is considerable1 and their character peculiar1 there may be some advantage in making them a separate class4 ,besides1 the definition of an irregular verb1 as given in any of our grammars1 seems to exclude all such as may form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,in most grammars and dictionaries1 verbs are divided1 with respect to their signification1 into three classes only2 active1 passive1 and neuter4 ,in such a division1 the class of active verbs includes those only which are active-transitive1 and all the active-intransitive verbs are called neuter4 ,but1 in the division adopted above1 active-intransitive verbs are made a distinct class2 and those only are regarded as neuter1 which imply a state of existence without action4 ,when1 therefore1 we speak of verbs without reference to their regimen1 we may1 if we please1 apply the simple term active to all those which express action1 whether transitive or intransitive4 ,we act whenever we do any thing2 but we may act without doing any thing4--,crabb's ,synonymes4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,among the many ,english grammars in which verbs are divided1 as above mentioned1 into active1 passive1 and neuter1 only1 are those of the following writers3 ,lowth1 ,murray1 ,ainsworth1 ,alden1 ,allen1 ,alger1 ,bacon1 ,bicknell1 ,blair1 ,bullions1 7at first17 ,charles ,adams1 ,bucke1 ,cobbett1 ,cobbin1 ,dilworth1 ,a4 ,flint1 ,frost1 7at first17 ,greenleaf1 ,hall1 ,johnson1#bbc ,lennie1 ,picket1 ,pond1 ,sanborn1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith1 and ,wright4 ,these authors1 and many more1 agree1 that1 ,a verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion1 but being1 or a state of being4--,l4 ,murray4 ,yet1 according to their scheme1 such words as walk1 run1 fly1 strive1 struggle1 wrestle1 contend1 are verbs neuter4 ,in view of this palpable absurdity1 ,i cannot but think it was a useful improvement upon the once popular scheme of ,english grammar1 to make active-intransitive verbs a distinct class1 and to apply the term neuter to those few only which accord with the foregoing definition4 ,this had been done before the days of ,lindley ,murray1 as may be seen in ,buchanan's ,english ,syntax1 p4 #ef1 and in the old ,british ,grammar1 p4 #aec1 each published many years before the appearance of his work2#bbd and it has often been done since1 and is preferred even by many of the professed admirers and followers of ,murray2 as may be seen in the grammars of ,comly1 ,fisk1 ,merchant1 ,kirkham1 and others4 ,,obs4 #f4--,murray himself quotes this improved distribution1 and with some appearance of approbation2 but strangely imagines it must needs be inconvenient in practice4 ,had he been a schoolmaster1 he could hardly have so judged4 ,he says1 ,verbs have been distinguished by some writers1 into the following kinds3-- #ast4 ,active-transitive1 or those which denote an action that passes from the agent to some object3 as1 ,csar conquered ,pompey4 #b;d4 ,active-intransitive1 or those which express that kind of action1 which has no effect upon any thing beyond itself3 as1 ,csar walked4 #c;d4 ,passive1 or those which express1 not action1 but passion1 whether pleasing or painful3 as1 ,portia was loved2 ,pompey was conquered4 #dth4 ,neuter1 or those which express an attribute that consists neither in action nor passion3 as1 ,csar stood4 ,this appears to be an orderly arrangement4 ,but if the class of active-intransitive verbs were admitted1 it would rather perplex than assist the learner3 for the difference between verbs active and neuter1 as transitive and intransitive is easy and obvious3 but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and those which are intransitively active1 is not always clear4 ,it is1 indeed1 often very difficult1 if not impossible to be ascertained4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #fj4bbe ,,obs4 #g4--,the following note1 from a book written on purpose to apply the principles of ,murray's ,grammar1 and of ,allen's1 7the two best of the foregoing two dozen17 may serve as an offset to the reason above assigned for rejecting the class of active-intransitive verbs3 ,it is possible that some teachers may look upon the nice distinction here made1 between the active transitive and the active intransitive verbs1 as totally unnecessary4 ,they may1 perhaps1 rank the latter with the neuter verbs4 ,the author had his choice of difficulties3 on the one hand1 he was aware that his arrangement might not suit the views of the above-mentioned persons2 and1 on the other1 he was so sensible of the inaccuracy of their system1 and of its clashing with the definitions1 as well as rules1 laid down in almost every grammar1 that he was unwilling to bring before the public a work containing so well-known and manifest an error4 ,of what use can ,murray's definition of the active verb be1 to one who endeavours to prove the propriety of thus assigning an epithet to the various parts of speech1 in the course of parsing8 ,he says1 ',a verb active expresses an action1 and necessarily implies an agent1 and an object acted upon4' ,in the sentence1 ',william hastens away1' the active intransitive verb hastens has indeed an agent1 ',william1' but where is the object8 ,again1 he says1 ',active verbs govern the objective case2' although it is clear it is not the active meaning of the verb which requires the objective case1 but the transitive1 and that only4 ,he adds1 ',a verb neuter expresses neither action1 nor passion1 but being1 or a state of being2' and the accuracy of this definition is borne out by the assent of perhaps every other grammarian4 ,if1 with this clear and forcible definition before our eyes1 we proceed to class active intransitive verbs with neuter verbs1 and direct our pupils to prove such a classification by reciting ,murray's definition of the neuter verb1 we may indeed expect from a thinking pupil the remonstrance which was actually made to a teacher on that system1 while parsing the verb 'to run4' ',sir1' asks the boy1 'does not to run imply action1 for it always makes me perspire8'--,nixon's ,english ,parser1 p4 #i4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,for the consideration of those classical scholars who may think we are bound by the authority of general usage1 to adhere to the old division of verbs into active1 passive1 and neuter1 it may be proper to say1 that the distribution of the verbs in ,latin1 has been as much a matter of dispute among the great grammarians of that language1 as has the distribution of ,english verbs1 more recently1 among ourselves2 and often the points at issue were precisely the same4#bbf ,to explain here the different views of the very old grammarians1 as ,charisius1 ,donatus1 ,servius1 ,priscian2 or even to notice the opinions of later critics1 as ,sanctius1 ,scioppius1 ,vossius1 ,perizonius2 might seem perhaps a needless departure from what the student of mere ,english grammar is concerned to know4 ,the curious1 however1 may find interesting citations from all these authors1 under the corresponding head1 in some of our ,latin grammars4 ,see ,prat's ,grammatica ,latina1 #hvo1 ,london1 #agbb4 ,it is certain that the division of active verbs1 into transitive and intransitive--or1 7what is the same thing17 into absolute and transitive--or1 into immanent and transient--is of a very ancient date4 ,the notion of calling passive verbs transitive1 when used in their ordinary and proper construction1 as some now do1 is1 ,i think1 a modern one1 and no small error4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,dr4 ,adam's distribution of verbs1 is apparently the same as the first part of ,murray's2 and his definitions are also in nearly the same words4 ,but he adds1 ,the verb ,active is also called ,transitive1 when the action passeth over to the object1 or hath an effect on some other thing2 as1 scribo literas1 ,i write letters3 but when the action is confined within the agent1 and passeth not over to any object1 it is called ,intransitive2 as1 ambulo1 ,i walk2 curro1 ,i run3 fist which are likewise called ,neuter ,verbs4--,adam's ,latin and ,english ,gram41 p4 #gi4 ,but he had just before said1 ,a ,neuter verb properly expresses neither action nor passion1 but simply the being1 state1 or condition of things2 as1 dormio1 ,i sleep2 sedeo1 ,i sit4--,ibid4 ,verbs of motion or action1 then1 must needs be as improperly called neuter1 in ,latin1 as in ,english4 ,nor is this author's arrangement orderly in other respects2 for he treats of ,deponent and ,common ,verbs1 of ,irregular ,verbs1 of ,defective ,verbs1 and of ,impersonal ,verbs1 none of which had he mentioned in his distribution4 ,nor are the late revisers of his grammar any more methodical4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the division of our verbs into active-transitive1 active-intransitive1 passive1 and neuter1 must be understood to have reference not only to their signification as of themselves1 but also to their construction with respect to the government of an objective word after them4 ,the latter is in fact their most important distinction1 though made with reference to a different part of speech4 ,the classical scholar1 too1 being familiar with the forms of ,latin and ,greek verbs1 will doubtless think it a convenience1 to have the arrangement as nearly correspondent to those ancient forms1 as the nature of our language will admit4 ,this is perhaps the strongest argument for the recognition of the class of passive verbs in ,english4 ,some grammarians1 choosing to parse the passive participle separately1 reject this class of verbs altogether2 and1 forming their division of the rest with reference to the construction alone1 make but two classes1 transitive and intransitive4 ,such is the distribution adopted by ,c4 ,alexander1 ,d4 ,adams1 ,bingham1 ,chandler1 ,e4 ,cobb1 ,harrison1 ,nutting1 and ,john ,peirce2 and supported also by some ,british writers1 among whom are ,mc,culloch and ,grant4 ,such too was the distribution of ,webster1 in his ,plain and ,comprehensive ,grammar1 as published in #ahjj4 ,he then taught3 ,we have no passive verb in the language2 and those which are called neuter are mostly active4--,page #ad4 ,but subsequently1 in his ,philosophical1 ,abridged1 and ,improved ,grammars1 he recognized a more natural and comprehensive division of verbs1 transitive1 intransitive1 and passive4--,webster's ,rudiments1 p4 #bj4 ,this1 in reality1 differs but little from the old division into active1 passive1 and neuter4 ,in some grammars of recent date1 as ,churchill's1 ,r4 ,w4 ,bailey's1 ,j4 ,r4 ,brown's1 ,butler's1 ,s4 ,w4 ,clark's1 ,frazee's1 ,hart's1 ,hendrick's1 ,perley's1 ,pinneo's1 ,weld's1 ,wells's1 ,mulligan's1 and the improved treatises of ,bullions and ,frost1 verbs are said to be of two kinds only1 transitive and intransitive2 but these authors allow to transitive verbs a passive form1 or passive voice1--absurdly making all passive verbs transitive1 and all neuters intransitive1 as if action were expressed by both4 ,for this most faulty classification1 ,dr4 ,bullions pretends the authority of ,mr4 ,webster2 and ,frazee1 that of ,webster1 ,bullions1 and others4--,frazee's ,gram41 ,ster4 ,ed41 p4 #cj4 ,but if ,dr4 ,webster ever taught the absurd doctrine that passive verbs are transitive1 he has contradicted it far too much to have any weight in its favour4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,dalton makes only two classes2 and these he will have to be active and passive3 an arrangement for which he might have quoted ,scaliger1 ,sanctius1 and ,scioppius4 ,ash and ,coar recognize but two1 which they call active and neuter4 ,this was also the scheme of ,bullions1 in his ,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 #dth ,edition1 #ahdb4 ,priestley and ,maunder have two1 which they call transitive and neuter2 but ,maunder1 like some named above1 will have transitive verbs to be susceptible of an active and a passive voice1 and ,priestley virtually asserts the same4 ,cooper1 ,day1 ,davis1 ,hazen1 ,hiley1 ,webster1 ,wells1 7in his #ast ,edition17 and ,wilcox4 have three classes2 transitive1 intransitive1 and passive4 ,sanders's ,grammar has three2 ,transitive1 ,intransitive1 and ,neuter2 and two voices1 both transitive6 ,jaudon has four3 transitive1 intransitive1 auxiliary1 and passive4 ,burn has four2 active1 passive1 neuter1 and substantive4 ,cardell labours hard to prove that all verbs are both active and transitive2 and for this1 had he desired their aid1 he might have cited several ancient authorities4#bbg ,cutler avers1 ,all verbs are active2 yet he divides them into active transitive1 active intransitive1 and participial verbs4--,grammar and ,parser1 p4 #ca4 ,some grammarians1 appearing to think all the foregoing modes of division useless1 attempt nothing of the kind4 ,william ,ward1 in #agfe1 rejected all such classification1 but recognized three voices2 ,active1 ,passive1 and ,middle2 as1 ,i call1 ,i am called1 ,i am calling4 ,farnum1 in #ahdb1 acknowledged the first two of these voices1 but made no division of verbs into classes4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,if we admit the class of active-intransitive verbs1 that of verbs neuter will unquestionably be very small4 ,and this refutes ,murray's objection1 that the learner will often be puzzled to know which is which4 ,nor can it be of any consequence1 if he happen in some instances to decide wrong4 ,to be1 to exist1 to remain1 to seem1 to lie1 to sleep1 to rest1 to belong1 to appertain1 and perhaps a few more1 may best be called neuter2 though some grammarians1 as may be inferred from what is said above1 deny that there are any neuter verbs in any language4 ,verba ,neutra1 ait ,sanctius1 nullo pacto esse possunt2 quia1 teste ,aristotele1 omnis motus1 actio1 vel passio1 nihil medium est4--,prat's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #aag4 ,john ,grant1 in his ,institutes of ,latin ,grammar1 recognizes in the verbs of that language the distinction which ,murray supposes to be so very difficult in those of our own2 and1 without falling into the error of ,sanctius1 or of ,lily1#bbh respecting neuter verbs1 judiciously confines the term to such as are neuter in reality4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,active-transitive verbs1 in ,english1 generally require1 that the agent or doer of the action be expressed before them in the nominative case1 and the object or receiver of the action1 after them in the objective2 as1 ,csar conquered ,pompey4 ,passive verbs1 which are never primitives1 but always derived from active-transitive verbs1 7in order to form sentences of like import from natural opposites in voice and sense17 reverse this order1 change the cases of the nouns1 and denote that the subject1 named before them1 is affected by the action2 while the agent follows1 being introduced by the preposition by3 as1 ,pompey was conquered by ,csar4 ,but1 as our passive verb always consists of two or more separable parts1 this order is liable to be varied1 especially in poetry2 as1 ,how many things by season seasoned are ,to their right praise and true perfection6--,shakspeare4 ,experience is by industry achieved1 ,and perfected by the swift course of time4--,id4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,most active verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively4 ,active verbs are transitive whenever there is any person or thing expressed or clearly implied on which the action terminates2 as1 ,i knew him well1 and every truant knew4--,goldsmith4 ,when they do not govern such an object1 they are intransitive1 whatever may be their power on other occasions2 as1 ,the grand elementary principles of pleasure1 by which he knows1 and feels1 and lives1 and moves4--,wordsworth's ,pref41 p4 xxiii4 ,the ,father originates and elects4 ,the ,son mediates and atones4 ,the ,holy ,spirit regenerates and sanctifies4--,gurney's ,portable ,evidences1 p4 #ff4 ,spectators remark1 judges decide1 parties watch4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bga4 ,in a sermon1 a preacher may explain1 demonstrate1 infer1 exhort1 admonish1 comfort4--,alexander's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ia4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,some verbs may be used in either an active or a neuter sense4 ,in the sentence1 ,here ,i rest1 rest is a neuter verb2 but in the sentence1 ,here ,i rest my hopes1 rest is an active-transitive verb1 and governs hopes4 ,and a few that are always active in a grammatical sense1 as necessarily requiring an object after them1 do not always indicate such an exertion of force as we commonly call action4 ,such perhaps are the verbs to have1 to possess1 to owe1 to cost2 as1 ,they have no wine4--,the house has a portico4--,the man possesses no real estate4--,a son owes help and honour to his father4--,holyday4 ,the picture cost a crown4--,wright1 p4 #aha4 ,yet possibly even these may be sometimes rather active-intransitive2 as1 ,i can bear my part2 'tis my occupation3 have at it with you4--,shakspeare4 ,kings have to deal with their neighbours4--,bacon4 ,she will let her instructions enter where folly now possesses4--,shakspeare4 ,thou hast deserv'd more love than ,i can show2 ,but 'tis thy fate to give1 and mine to owe4--,dryden4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,an active-intransitive verb1 followed by a preposition and its object1 will sometimes admit of being put into the passive form3 the object of the preposition being assumed for the nominative1 and the preposition itself being retained with the verb1 as an adverb3 as1 7,active17 ,they laughed at him4--7,passive17 ,he was laughed at4 ,for some time the nonconformists were connived at4--,robertson's ,america1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dad4 ,every man shall be dealt equitably with4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bab4 ,if a church would be looked up to1 it must stand high4--,parker's ,idea1 p4 #ae4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,in some instances1 what is commonly considered the active form of the verb1 is used in a passive sense2 and1 still oftener1 as we have no other passive form that so well denotes continuance1 we employ the participle in ing in that sense also3 as1 ,i'll teach you all what's owing to your ,queen4--,dryden4 ,that is--what is due1 or owed4 ,the books continue selling2 i4e4 upon the sale1 or to be sold4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,so we say the brass is forging2 i4e4 at the forging1 or in being forged4--,ib4 ,they are to blame2 i4e4 to be blamed4--,ib4 ,hence some grammarians seem to think1 that in our language the distinction between active and passive verbs is of little consequence3 ,mr4 ,grant1 however1 observes1 p4 #fe1 ',the component parts of the ,english verb1 or name of action1 are few1 simple1 and natural2 they1 consist of three words1 as plough1 ploughing1 ploughed4 ,now these words1 and their inflections1 may be employed either actively or passively4 ,actively1 ',they plough the fields2 they are ploughing the fields2 they ploughed1 or have ploughed1 the fields4' ,passively1 ',the fields plough well2 the fields are ploughing2 the fields are ploughed4' ,this passive use of the present tense and participle is1 however1 restricted to what he denominates 'verbs of external1 material1 or mechanical action2' and not to be extended to verbs of sensation and perception2 e4g4 love1 feel1 see1 c4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,,modifications4 ,verbs have modifications of four kinds2 namely1 ,moods1 ,tenses1 ,persons and ,numbers4 ,,moods4 ,moods #bbi are different forms of the verb1 each of which expresses the being1 action1 or passion1 in some particular manner4 ,there are five moods2 the ,infinitive1 the ,indicative1 the ,potential1 the ,subjunctive1 and the ,imperative4 ,the ,infinitive mood is that form of the verb1 which expresses the being1 action1 or passion1 in an unlimited manner1 and without person or number3 as1 ,to die1--to sleep2--,to sleep6--perchance1 to dream6 ,the ,indicative mood is that form of the verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing3 as1 ,i write2 you know3 or asks a question2 as1 ,do you know8--,know ye not8 ,the ,potential mood is that form of the verb which expresses the power1 liberty1 possibility1 or necessity1 of the being1 action1 or passion3 as1 ,i can walk2 he may ride2 we must go4 ,the ,subjunctive mood is that form of the verb1 which represents the being1 action1 or passion1 as conditional1 doubtful1 and contingent3 as1 ,if thou go1 see that thou offend not4--,see thou do it not4--,rev41 xix1 #aj4 ,the ,imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding1 exhorting1 entreating1 or permitting3 as1 ,depart thou4--,be comforted4--,forgive me4--,go in peace4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the ,infinitive mood is so called in opposition to the other moods1 in which the verb is said to be finite4 ,in all the other moods1 the verb has a strict connexion1 and necessary agreement in person and number1 with some subject or nominative1 expressed or understood2 but the infinitive is the mere verb1 without any such agreement1 and has no power of completing sense with a noun4 ,in the nature of things1 however1 all being1 action1 or passion1 not contemplated abstractly as a thing1 belongs to something that is1 or acts1 or is acted upon4 ,accordingly infinitives have1 in most instances1 a reference to some subject of this kind2 though their grammatical dependence connects them more frequently with some other term4 ,the infinitive mood1 in ,english1 is distinguished by the preposition to2 which1 with a few exceptions1 immediately precedes it1 and may be said to govern it4 ,in dictionaries1 and grammars1 to is often used as a mere index1 to distinguish verbs from the other parts of speech4 ,but this little word has no more claim to be ranked as a part of the verb1 than has the conjunction if1 which is the sign of the subjunctive4 ,it is the nature of a preposition1 to show the relation of different things1 thoughts1 or words1 to each other2 and this sign of the infinitive may well be pursued separately as a preposition1 since in most instances it manifestly shows the relation between the infinitive verb and some other term4 ,besides1 by most of our grammarians1 the present tense of the infinitive mood is declared to be the radical form of the verb2 but this doctrine must be plainly untrue1 upon the supposition that this tense is a compound4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the ,indicative mood is so called because its chief use is1 to indicate1 or declare positively1 whatever one wishes to say4 ,it is that form of the verb1 which we always employ when we affirm or deny any thing in a direct and independent manner4 ,it is more frequently used1 and has a greater number of tenses1 than any other mood2 and is also1 in our language1 the only one in which the principal verb is varied in termination4 ,it is not1 however1 on all occasions1 confined to its primary use2 else it would be simply and only declarative4 ,but we use it sometimes interrogatively1 sometimes conditionally2 and each of these uses is different from a simple declaration4 ,indeed1 the difference between a question and an assertion is practically very great4 ,hence some of the old grammarians made the form of inquiry a separate mood1 which they called the ,interrogative ,mood4 ,but1 as these different expressions are distinguished1 not by any difference of form in the verb itself1 but merely by a different order1 choice1 or delivery of the words1 it has been found most convenient in practice1 to treat them as one mood susceptible of different senses4 ,so1 in every conditional sentence1 the prot'asis1 or condition1 differs considerably from the apod'osis1 or principal clause1 even where both are expressed as facts4 ,hence some of our modern grammarians1 by the help of a few connectives1 absurdly merge a great multitude of ,indicative or ,potential expressions in what they call the ,subjunctive ,mood4 ,but here again it is better to refer still to the ,indicative or ,potential mood whatsoever has any proper sign of such mood1 even though it occur in a dependent clause4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the ,potential mood is so called because the leading idea expressed by it1 is that of the power of performing some action4 ,this mood is known by the signs may1 can1 must1 might1 could1 would1 and should4 ,some of these auxiliaries convey other ideas than that of power in the agent2 but there is no occasion to explain them severally here4 ,the potential mood1 like the indicative1 may be used in asking a question2 as1 ,must ,i budge8 must ,i observe you8 must ,i stand and crouch under your testy humour8--,shakspeare4 ,no question can be asked in any other mood than these two4 ,by some grammarians1 the potential mood has been included in the subjunctive1 because its meaning is often expressed in ,latin by what in that language is called the subjunctive4 ,by others1 it has been entirely rejected1 because all its tenses are compound1 and it has been thought the words could as well be parsed separately4 ,neither of these opinions is sufficiently prevalent1 or sufficiently plausible1 to deserve a laboured refutation4 ,on the other hand1 ,james ,white1 in his ,essay on the ,english ,verb1 7,london1 #agfa17 divided this mood into the following five3 the ,elective1 denoted by may or might2 the ,potential1 by can or could2 the ,determinative by would2 the ,obligative1 by should2 and the ,compulsive1 by must4 ,such a distribution is needlessly minute4 ,most of these can as well be spared as those other moods1 ,interrogative1 ,optative1 ,promissive1 ,hortative1 ,precative1 c41 which ,murray mentions only to reject4 ,see his ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #fh4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the ,subjunctive mood is so called because it is always subjoined to an other verb4 ,it usually denotes some doubtful contingency1 or some supposition contrary to fact4 ,the manner of its dependence is commonly denoted by one of the following conjunctions2 if1 that1 though1 lest1 unless4 ,the indicative and potential moods1 in all their tenses1 may be used in the same dependent manner1 to express any positive or potential condition2 but this seems not to be a sufficient reason for considering them as parts of the subjunctive mood4 ,in short1 the idea of a subjunctive mood in the indicative form1 7which is adopted by ,chandler1 ,frazee1 ,fisk1 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 ,comly1 ,ingersoll1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,sanborn1 ,mack1 ,butler1 ,hart1 ,weld1 ,pinneo1 and others17 is utterly inconsistent with any just notion of what a mood is2 and the suggestion1 which we frequently meet with1 that the regular indicative or potential mood may be thrown into the subjunctive by merely prefixing a conjunction1 is something worse than nonsense4 ,indeed1 no mood can ever be made a part of an other1 without the grossest confusion and absurdity4 ,yet1 strange as it is1 some celebrated authors1 misled by an if1 have tangled together three of them1 producing such a snarl of tenses as never yet can have been understood without being thought ridiculous4 ,see ,murray's ,grammar1 and others that agree with his late editions4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in regard to the number and form of the tenses which should constitute the subjunctive mood in ,english1 our grammarians are greatly at variance2 and some1 supposing its distinctive parts to be but elliptical forms of the indicative or the potential1#bcj even deny the existence of such a mood altogether4 ,on this point1 the instructions published by ,lindley ,murray1 however commended and copied1 are most remarkably vague and inconsistent4#bca ,the early editions of his ,grammar gave to this mood six tenses1 none of which had any of the personal inflections2 consequently there was1 in all the tenses1 some difference between it and the indicative4 ,his later editions1 on the contrary1 make the subjunctive exactly like the indicative1 except in the present tense1 and in the choice of auxiliaries for the second-future4 ,both ways1 he goes too far4 ,and while at last he restricts the distinctive form of the subjunctive to narrower bounds than he ought1 and argues against1 ,if thou loved1 ,if thou knew1 c41 he gives to this mood not only the last five tenses of the indicative1 but also all those of the potential1 with its multiplied auxiliaries2 alleging1 that as the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive1 by the expression of a condition1 motive1 wish1 supposition1 c4#bcb being superadded to it1 so the potential mood may1 in like manner1 be turned into the subjunctive4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,according to this1 the subjunctive mood of every regular verb embraces1 in one voice1 as many as one hundred and thirty-eight different expressions2 and it may happen1 that in one single tense a verb shall have no fewer than fifteen different forms in each person and number4 ,six times fifteen are ninety2 and so many are the several phrases which now compose ,murray's pluperfect tense of the subjunctive mood of the verb to strow--a tense which most grammarians very properly reject as needless6 ,but this is not all4 ,the scheme not only confounds the moods1 and utterly overwhelms the learner with its multiplicity1 but condemns as bad ,english what the author himself once adopted and taught for the imperfect tense of the subjunctive mood1 ,if thou loved1 ,if thou knew1 c41 wherein he was sustained by ,dr4 ,priestley1 by ,harrison1 by ,caleb ,alexander1 by ,john ,burn1 by ,alexander ,murray1 the schoolmaster1 and by others of high authority4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 indeed1 made the preterit subjunctive like the indicative2 and this may have induced the author to change his plan1 and inflect this part of the verb with st4 ,but ,dr4 ,alexander ,murray1 a greater linguist than either of them1 very positively declares this to be wrong3 ,when such words as if1 though1 unless1 except1 whether1 and the like1 are used before verbs1 they lose their terminations of est1 eth1 and s1 in those persons which commonly have them4 ,no speaker of good ,english1 expressing himself conditionally1 says1 ,though thou fallest1 or ,though he falls1 but1 ,though thou fall1 and ,though he fall2 nor1 ,though thou camest1 but1 ,though1 or although1 thou came4--,history of ,european ,languages1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ee4 ,,obs4 #f4--,nothing is more important in the grammar of any language1 than a knowledge of the true forms of its verbs4 ,nothing is more difficult in the grammar of our own1 than to learn1 in this instance and some others1 what forms we ought to prefer4 ,yet some authors tell us1 and ,dr4 ,lowth among the rest1 that our language is wonderfully simple and easy4 ,perhaps it is so4 ,but do not its simplicity and facility appear greatest to those who know least about it8--i4e41 least of its grammar1 and least of its history8 ,in citing a passage from the eighteenth chapter of ,ezekiel1 ,lord ,kames has taken the liberty to change the word hath to have seven times in one sentence4 ,this he did1 upon the supposition that the subjunctive mood has a perfect tense which differs from that of the indicative2 and for such an idea he had the authority of ,dr4 ,johnson's ,grammar1 and others4 ,the sentence is this3 ,but if he be a robber1 a shedder of blood2 if he have eaten upon the mountains1 and defiled his neighbour's wife2 if he have oppressed the poor and needy1 have spoiled by violence1 have not restored the pledge1 have lift up his eyes to idols1 have given forth upon usury1 and have taken increase3 shall he live8 he shall not live4--,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bfa4 ,now1 is this good ,english1 or is it not8 ,one might cite about half of our grammarians in favour of this reading1 and the other half against it2 with ,murray1 the most noted of all1 first on one side1 and then on the other4 ,similar puzzles may be presented concerning three or four other tenses1 which are sometimes ascribed1 and sometimes denied1 to this mood4 ,it seems to me1 after much examination1 that the subjunctive mood in ,english should have two tenses1 and no more2 the present and the imperfect4 ,the present tense of this mood naturally implies contingency and futurity1 while the imperfect here becomes an aorist1 and serves to suppose a case as a mere supposition1 a case contrary to fact4 ,consequently the foregoing sentence1 if expressed by the subjunctive at all1 ought to be written thus3 ,but if he be a robber1 a shedder of blood2 if he eat upon the mountains1 and defile his neighbour's wife2 if he oppress the poor and needy1 spoil by violence1 restore not the pledge1 lift up his eyes to idols1 give forth upon usury1 and take increase2 shall he live8 he shall not live4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,grammarians generally make a present and a past time under the subjunctive mode4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #ajj4 ,these are the tenses which are given to the subjunctive by ,blair1 in his ,practical ,grammar4 ,if any one will give to this mood more tenses than these1 the five which are adopted by ,staniford1 are perhaps the least objectionable3 namely1 ,present1 ,if thou love1 or do love2 ,imperfect1 ,if thou loved1 or did love2 ,perfect1 ,if thou have loved2 ,pluperfect1 ,if thou had loved2 ,future1 ,if thou should or would love4--,staniford's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,but there are no sufficient reasons for even this extension of its tenses4--,fisk1 speaking of this mood1 says3 ,lowth restricts it entirely to the present tense4--,uniformity on this point is highly desirable4--,on this subject1 we adopt the opinion of ,dr4 ,lowth4--,english ,grammar ,simplified1 p4 #gj4 ,his desire of uniformity he has both heralded and backed by a palpable misstatement4 ,the learned ,doctor's subjunctive mood1 in the second person singular1 is this3 ,present time4 ,thou love2 ,,and1 ,thou mayest love4 ,past time4 ,thou mightest love2 ,,and1 ,thou couldst1 c4 love2 and have loved4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,but ,fisk's subjunctive runs thus3 ,indic4 form1 ,if thou lovest2 varied form1 ,if thou love4 ,and again3 ,present tense1 ,if thou art1 ,if thou be2 ,imperfect tense1 ,if thou wast1 ,if thou wert4--,fisk's ,grammar ,simplified1 p4 #gj4 ,his very definition of the subjunctive mood is illustrated only by the indicative2 as1 ,if thou walkest4--,i will perform the operation1 if he desires it4--,ib41 p4 #fi4 ,comly's subjunctive mood1 except in some of his early editions1 stands thus3 ,present tense1 ,if thou lovest2 ,imperfect tense1 ,if thou lovedst or loved2 ,first future tense1 ,if thou 7shalt7 love4--,eleventh ,ed41 p4 #da4 ,this author teaches1 that the indicative or potential1 when preceded by an if1 should be parsed in the subjunctive mood4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,of what is in fact the true subjunctive1 he says3 ,some writers use the singular number in the present tense of the subjunctive mood1 without any variation2 as1 'if ,i love1 if thou love1 if he love4' ,but this usage must be ranked amongst the anomalies of our language4--,ib41 p4 #da4 ,cooper1 in his pretended ,abridgment of ,murray's ,grammar1 ,philad41 #ahbh1 gave to the subjunctive mood the following form1 which contains all six of the tenses3 #b;d pers4 ,if thou love1 ,if thou do love1 ,if thou loved1 ,if thou did love1 ,if thou have loved1 ,if thou had loved1 ,if thou shall 7or will7 love1 ,if thou shall 7or will7 have loved4 ,this is almost exactly what ,murray at first adopted1 and afterwards rejected2 though it is probable1 from the abridger's preface1 that the latter was ignorant of this fact4 ,soon afterwards1 a perusal of ,dr4 ,wilson's ,essay on ,grammar dashed from the reverend gentleman's mind the whole of this fabric2 and in his ,plain and ,practical ,grammar1 ,philad41 #ahca1 he acknowledges but four moods1 and concludes some pages of argument thus3 ,from the above considerations1 it will appear to every sound grammarian1 that our language does not admit a subjunctive mode1 at least1 separate and distinct from the indicative and potential4--,cooper's ,new ,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the true ,subjunctive mood1 in ,english1 is virtually rejected by some later grammarians1 who nevertheless acknowledge under that name a greater number and variety of forms than have ever been claimed for it in any other tongue4 ,all that is peculiar to the ,subjunctive1 all that should constitute it a distinct mood1 they represent as an archaism1 an obsolete or antiquated mode of expression1 while they willingly give to it every form of both the indicative and the potential1 the two other moods which sometimes follow an if4 ,thus ,wells1 in his strange entanglement of the moods1 not only gives to the subjunctive1 as well as to the indicative1 a ,simple or ,common ,form1 and a ,potential ,form2 not only recognizes in each an ,auxiliary ,form1 and a ,progressive ,form2 but encumbers the whole with distinctions of style1--with what he calls the ,common ,style1 and the ,ancient ,style2 or the ,solemn ,style1 and the ,familiar ,style3 yet1 after all1 his own example of the ,subjunctive1 ,take heed1 lest any man deceive you1 is obviously different from all these1 and not explainable under any of his paradigms6 ,nor is it truly consonant with any part of his theory1 which is this3 ,the subjunctive of all verbs except be1 takes the same form as the indicative4 ,good writers were formerly much accustomed to drop the personal termination in the subjunctive present1 and write ',if he have1' ',if he deny1' etc41 for ',if he has1' ',if he denies1' etc42 but this termination is now generally retained1 unless an auxiliary is understood4 ,thus1 ',if he hear1' may properly be used for ',if he shall hear' or ',if he should hear1' but not for ',if he hears4'--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #hc2 #c;d ,ed41 p4 #hg4 ,now every position here taken is demonstrably absurd4 ,how could good writers indite much bad ,english by dropping from the subjunctive an indicative ending which never belonged to it8 ,and how can a needless auxiliary be understood1 on the principle of equivalence1 where1 by awkwardly changing a mood or tense1 it only helps some grammatical theorist to convert good ,english into bad1 or to pervert a text8 ,the phrases above may all be right1 or all be wrong1 according to the correctness or incorrectness of their application3 when each is used as best it may be1 there is no exact equivalence4 ,and this is true of half a dozen more of the same sort2 as1 ,if he does hear1--,if he do hear1--,if he is hearing1--,if he be hearing1--,if he shall be hearing1--,if he should be hearing4 ,,obs4 #i4--,similar to ,wells's1 are the subjunctive forms of ,allen ,h4 ,weld4 ,mistaking annex to signify prefix1 this author teaches thus3 ,,annex if1 though1 unless1 suppose1 admit1 grant1 allow1 or any word implying a condition1 to each tense of the ,indicative and ,potential modes1 to form the subjunctive2 as1 ,if thou lovest or love4 ,if he loves1 or love4 ,formerly it was customary to omit the terminations in the second and third persons of the present tense of the ,subjunctive mode4 ,but now the terminations are generally retained1 except when the ellipsis of shall or should is implied2 as1 ,if he obey1 i4 e41 if he shall1 or should obey4--,weld's ,grammar1 ,abridged ,edition1 p4 #ga4 ,again3 ,in general1 the form of the verb in the ,subjunctive1 is the same as that of the ,indicative2 but an elliptical form in the second and third person persona singular1 is used in the following instances3 7#a47 ,future contingency is expressed by the omission of the ,indicative termination2 as1 ,if he go1 for1 if he shall go4 ,though he slay me1 i4e41 though he should slay me4 7#b47 ,lest and that annexed to a command are followed by the elliptical form of the ,subjunctive2 as1 ,love not sleep 1 lest thou come to poverty4 7#c47 ,if with but following it1 when futurity is denoted1 requires the elliptical form2 as1 ,if he do but touch the hills1 they shall smoke4--,ib41 p4 #abf4 ,as for this scheme1 errors and inconsistencies mark every part of it4 ,first1 the rule for forming the subjunctive is false1 and is plainly contradicted by all that is true in the examples3 ,if thou love1 or1 ,if he love contains not the form of the indicative4 ,secondly1 no terminations have ever been generally omitted from1 or retained in1 the form of the subjunctive present2 because that part of the mood1 as commonly exhibited1 is well known to be made of the radical verb1 without inflection4 ,one might as well talk of suffixes for the imperative1 ,love thou1 or ,do thou love4 ,thirdly1 shall or should can never be really implied in the subjunctive present2 because the supposed ellipsis1 needless and unexampled1 would change the tense1 the mood1 and commonly also the meaning4 ,if he shall1 properly implies a condition of future certainty2 ,if he should1 a supposition of duty3 the true subjunctive suggests neither of these4 ,fourthly1 the ellipsis of shall1 or should1 is most absurdly called above1 the omission of the ,indicative termination4 ,fifthly1 it is very strangely supposed1 that to omit what pertains to the indicative or the potential mood1 will produce an elliptical form of the ,subjunctive4 ,sixthly1 such examples as the last1 ,if he do but touch the hills1 having the auxiliary do not inflected as in the indicative1 disprove the whole theory4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,in ,j4 ,b4 ,chandler's grammars1 are taken nearly the same views of the ,subjunctive or ,conditional ,mood1 that have just been noticed4 ,this mood1 we are told1 is only the indicative or potential mood1 with the word if placed before the nominative case4--,gram4 of #ahba1 p4 #dh2 ,gram4 of #ahdg1 p4 #gc4 ,yet1 of even this1 the author has said1 in the former edition1 ,it would1 perhaps1 be better to abolish the use of the subjunctive mood entirely4 ,its use is a continual source of dispute among grammarians1 and of perplexity to scholars4--,page #cc4 ,the suppositive verb were1--7as1 ,were ,i a king1--,if ,i were a king1--7 which this author formerly rejected1 preferring was1 is now1 after six and twenty years1 replaced in his own examples2 and yet he still attempts to disgrace it1 by falsely representing it as being only the indicative plural very grossly misapplied6 ,see ,chandler's ,common ,school ,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,the ,imperative mood is so called because it is chiefly used in commanding4 ,it is that brief form of the verb1 by which we directly urge upon others our claims and wishes4 ,but the nature of this urging varies according to the relation of the parties4 ,we command inferiors2 exhort equals2 entreat superiors2 permit whom we will2--and all by this same imperative form of the verb4 ,in answer to a request1 the imperative implies nothing more than permission4 ,the will of a superior may also be urged imperatively by the indicative1 future4 ,this form is particularly common in solemn prohibitions2 as1 ,thou shalt not kill4 99 99 99 ,thou shalt not steal4--,exodus1 xx1 #ac and #ae4 ,of the ten commandments1 eight are negative1 and all these are indicative in form4 ,the other two are in the imperative mood3 ,remember the sabbath day to keep it holy4 ,honour thy father and thy mother4--,ib4 ,but the imperative form may also be negative3 as1 ,touch not2 taste not2 handle not4--,colossians1 ii1 #ba4 ,,tenses4 ,tenses are those modifications of the verb1 which distinguish time4 ,there are six tenses2 the ,present1 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 the ,pluperfect1 the ,first-future1 and the ,second-future4 ,the ,present tense is that which expresses what now exists1 or is taking place3 as1 ,i hear a noise2 somebody is coming4 ,the ,imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place1 or was occurring1 in time fully past3 as1 ,i saw him yesterday1 and hailed him as he was passing4 ,the ,perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken place1 within some period of time not yet fully past3 as1 ,i have seen him to-day2 something must have detained him4 ,the ,pluperfect tense is that which expresses what had taken place1 at some past time mentioned3 as1 ,i had seen him1 when ,i met you4 ,the ,first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter3 as1 ,i shall see him again1 and ,i will inform him4 ,the ,second-future tense is that which expresses what will have taken place1 at some future time mentioned3 as1 ,i shall have seen him by tomorrow noon4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the terms here defined are the names usually given to those parts of the verb to which they are in this work applied2 and though some of them are not so strictly appropriate as scientific names ought to be1 it is thought inexpedient to change them4 ,in many old grammars1 and even in the early editions of ,murray1 the three past tenses are called the ,preterimperfect1 ,preterperfect1 and ,preterpluperfect4 ,from these names1 the term ,preter1 7which is from the ,latin preposition prter1 meaning beside1 beyond1 or past17 has been well dropped for the sake of brevity4#bcc ,,obs4 #b4--,the distinctive epithet ,imperfect1 or ,preterimperfect1 appears to have been much less accurately employed by the explainers of our language1 than it was by the ,latin grammarians from whom it was borrowed4 ,that tense which passes in our schools for the ,imperfect1 7as1 ,i slept1 did sleep1 or was sleeping17 is in fact1 so far as the indicative mood is concerned1 more completely past1 than that which we call the ,perfect4 ,murray indeed has attempted to show that the name is right2 and1 for the sake of consistency1 one could wish he had succeeded4 ,but every scholar must observe1 that the simple preterit1 which is the first form of this tense1 and is never found in any other1 as often as the sentence is declarative1 tells what happened within some period of time fully past1 as last week1 last year2 whereas the perfect tense is used to express what has happened within some period of time not yet fully past1 as this week1 this year4 ,as to the completeness of the action1 there is no difference2 for what has been done to-day1 is as completely done1 as what was achieved a year ago4 ,hence it is obvious that the term ,imperfect has no other applicability to the ,english tense so called1 than what it may have derived from the participle in ing1 which we use in translating the ,latin imperfect tense3 as1 ,dormiebam1 ,i was sleeping2 ,legebam1 ,i was reading2 ,docebam1 ,i was teaching4 ,and if for this reason the whole ,english tense1 with all its variety of forms in the different moods1 may1 with propriety1 be denominated imperfect2 surely1 the participle itself should be so denominated a fortiori3 for it always conveys this same idea1 of action not finished1 be the tense of its accompanying auxiliary what it may4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the tenses do not all express time with equal precision2 nor can the whole number in any language supersede the necessity of adverbs of time1 much less of dates1 and of nouns that express periods of duration4 ,the tenses of the indicative mood1 are the most definite2 and1 for this reason1 as well as for some others1 the explanations of all these modifications of the verb1 are made with particular reference to that mood4 ,some suppose the compound or participial form1 as ,i am writing1 to be more definite in time1 than the simple form1 as ,i write1 or the emphatic form1 as ,i do write2 and accordingly they divide all the tenses into ,indefinite and ,definite4 ,of this division ,dr4 ,webster seems to claim the invention2 for he gravely accuses ,murray of copying it unjustly from him1 though the latter acknowledges in a note upon his text1 it is1 in part1 taken from ,webster's ,grammar4--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,the distribution1 as it stands in either work1 is not worth quarrelling about3 it is evidently more cumbersome than useful4 ,nor1 after all1 is it true that the compound form is more definite in time than the other4 ,for example2 ,dionysius1 tyrant of ,syracuse1 was always betraying his unhappiness4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #abc4 ,now1 if was betraying were a more definite tense than betrayed1 surely the adverb always would require the latter1 rather than the former4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the present tense1 of the indicative mood1 expresses not only what is now actually going on1 but general truths1 and customary actions3 as1 ,vice produces misery4--,he hastens to repent1 who gives sentence quickly4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,among the ,parthians1 the signal is given by the drum1 and not by the trumpet4--,justin4 ,deceased authors may be spoken of in the present tense1 because they seem to live in their works2 as1 ,seneca reasons and moralizes well4--,murray4 ,women talk better than men1 from the superior shape of their tongues3 an ancient writer speaks of their loquacity three thousand years ago4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #bg4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the text1 ,john1 viii1 #eh1 ,before ,abraham was1 ,i am1 is a literal ,grecism1 and not to be cited as an example of pure ,english3 our idiom would seem to require1 ,before ,abraham was1 ,i existed4 ,in animated narrative1 however1 the present tense is often substituted for the past1 by the figure enallage4 ,in such cases1 past tenses and present may occur together2 because the latter are used merely to bring past events more vividly before us3 as1 ,ulysses wakes1 not knowing where he was4--,pope4 ,the dictator flies forward to the cavalry1 beseeching them to dismount from their horses4 ,they obeyed2 they dismount1 rush onward1 and for vancouriers show their bucklers4--,livy4 ,on this principle1 perhaps1 the following couplet1 which ,murray condemns as bad ,english1 may be justified3-- ,him portion'd maids1 apprentic'd orphans blest1 ,the young who labour1 and the old who rest4 ,see ,murray's ,key1 ,r4 #ac4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the present tense of the subjunctive mood1 and that of the indicative when preceded by as soon as1 after1 before1 till1 or when1 is generally used with reference to future time2 as1 ,if he ask a fish1 will he give him a serpent8--,matt41 vii1 #aj4 ,if ,i will that he tarry till ,i come1 what is that to thee8 ,follow thou me4--,john1 xxi1 #bb4 ,when he arrives1 ,i will send for you4 ,the imperative mood has but one tense1 and that is always present with regard to the giving of the command2 though what is commanded1 must be done in the future1 if done at all4 ,so the subjunctive may convey a present supposition of what the will of an other may make uncertain3 as1 ,if thou count me therefore a partner1 receive him as myself4--,st4 ,paul to ,philemon1 #ag4 ,the perfect indicative1 like the present1 is sometimes used with reference to time that is relatively future2 as1 ,he will be fatigued before he has walked a mile4--,my lips shall utter praise1 when thou hast taught me thy statutes4--,psalms1 cxix1 #aga4 ,marvel not at this3 for the hour is coming1 in the which all that are in the graves1 shall hear his voice1 and shall come forth2 they that have done good1 unto the resurrection of life2 and they that have done evil1 unto the resurrection of damnation4--,john1 v1 #bh4 ,,obs4 #g4--,what is called the present infinitive1 can scarcely be said to express any particular time4#bcd ,it is usually dependent on an other verb1 and therefore relative in time4 ,it may be connected with any tense of any mood3 as1 ,i intend to do it2 ,i intended to do it2 ,i have intended to do it2 ,i had intended to do it2 c4 ,for want of a better mode of expression1 we often use the infinitive to denote futurity1 especially when it seems to be taken adjectively2 as1 ,the time to come1--,the world to come1--,rapture yet to be4 ,this1 sometimes with the awkward addition of about1 is the only substitute we have for the ,latin future participle in rus1 as venturus1 to come1 or about to come4 ,this phraseology1 according to ,horne ,tooke1 7see ,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #deg17 is no fitter than that of our ancestors1 who for this purpose used the same preposition1 but put the participle in ing after it1 in lieu of the radical verb1 which we choose to employ3 as1 ,generacions of eddris1 who shewide to you to fle fro wraththe to comynge8--,matt41 iii1 #g4 ,common ,version3 ,o generation of vipers6 who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come8 ,art thou that art to comynge1 ether abiden we another8--,matt41 xi1 #c4 ,common ,version3 ,art thou he that should come1 or do we look for another8 ,sotheli there the ship was to puttyng out the charge4--,dedis1 xxi1 #c4 ,common ,version3 ,for there the ship was to unlade her burden4--,acts1 xxi1 #c4 ,churchill1 after changing the names of the two infinitive tenses to ,future imperfect and ,future perfect1 adds the following note3 ,the tenses of the infinitive mood are usually termed present and preterperfect3 but this is certainly improper2 for they are so completely future1 that what is called the present tense of the infinitive mood is often employed simply to express futurity2 as1 ',the life to come4'--,new ,gram41 p4 #bdi4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the pluperfect tense1 when used conditionally1 in stead of expressing what actually had taken place at a past time1 almost always implies that the action thus supposed never was performed2 on the contrary1 if the supposition be made in a negative form1 it suggests that the event had occurred3 as1 ,lord1 if thou hadst been here1 my brother had not died4--,john1 xi1 #cb4 ,if ,i had not come and spoken unto them1 they had not had sin2 but now they have no cloak for their sin4--,john1 xv1 #bb4 ,if thou hadst known1 even thou1 at least in this thy day1 the things which belong unto thy peace6 ,but now they are hid from thine eyes4--,luke1 xix1 #db4 ,the supposition is sometimes indicated by a mere transposition of the verb and its subject2 in which case1 the conjunction if is omitted2 as1 ,had ye believed ,moses1 ye would have believed me4--,john1 v1 #df4 ,had ,i but fought as wont1 one thrust ,had laid ,de ,wilton in the dust4--,scott ,,obs4 #i4--;,in the language of prophecy we find the past tenses very often substituted for the future1 especially when the prediction is remarkably clear and specific4 ,man is a creature of present knowledge only2 but it is certain1 that ,he who sees the end from the beginning1 has sometimes revealed to him1 and by him1 things deep in futurity4 ,thus the sacred seer who is esteemed the most eloquent of the ancient prophets1 more than seven hundred years before the events occurred1 spoke of the vicarious sufferings of ,christ as of things already past1 and even then described them in the phraseology of historical facts3 ,surely he hath borne our griefs1 and carried our sorrows3 yet we did esteem him stricken1 smitten of ,god1 and afflicted4 ,but he was wounded for our transgressions2 he was bruised for our iniquities3 the chastisement of our peace was upon him2 and by his stripes we are healed4--,isaiah1 liii1 #d and #e4 ,multiplied instances of a similar application of the past tenses to future events1 occur in the ,bible1 especially in the writings of this prophet4 ,,persons ,,and ,,numbers4 ,the person and number of a verb are those modifications in which it agrees with its subject or nominative4 ,in each number1 there are three persons2 and in each person1 two numbers3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #ast per4 ,i love1 #ast per4 ,we love1 #b;d per4 ,thou lovest1 #b;d per4 ,you love1 #c;d per4 ,he loves2 #c;d per4 ,they love4 ,definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things2 it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place4 ,where the verb is varied1 the second person singular is regularly formed by adding st or est to the first person2 and the third person singular1 in like manner1 by adding s or es3 as1 ,i see1 thou seest1 he sees2 ,i give1 thou givest1 he gives2 ,i go1 thou goest1 he goes2 ,i fly1 thou fliest1 he flies2 ,i vex1 thou vexest1 he vexes2 ,i lose1 thou losest1 he loses4 ,where the verb is not varied to denote its person and number1 these properties are inferred from its subject or nominative3 as1 ,if ,i love1 if thou love1 if he love2 if we love1 if you love1 if they love4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,it is considered a principle of ,universal ,grammar1 that a finite verb must agree with its subject or nominative in person and number4 ,upon this principle1 we ascribe to every such verb the person and number of the nominative word1 whether the verb itself be literally modified by the relation or not4 ,the doctrine must be constantly taught and observed1 in every language in which the verbs have any variations of this kind4 ,but suppose an instance1 of a language in which all the verbs were entirely destitute of such inflections2 the principle1 as regards that language1 must drop4 ,finite verbs1 in such a case1 would still relate to their subjects1 or nominatives1 agreeably to the sense2 but they would certainly be rendered incapable of adding to this relation any agreement or disagreement4 ,so the concords which belong to adjectives and participles in ,latin and ,greek1 are rejected in ,english1 and there remains to these parts of speech nothing but a simple relation to their nouns according to the sense4 ,and by the fashionable substitution of you for thou1 the concord of ,english verbs with their nominatives1 is made to depend1 in common practice1 on little more than one single terminational s1 which is used to mark one person of one number of one tense of one mood of each verb4 ,so near does this practice bring us to the dropping of what is yet called a universal principle of grammar4#bce ,,obs4 #b4--;,in most languages1 there are in each tense1 through all the moods of every verb1 six different terminations to distinguish the different persons and numbers4 ,this will be well understood by every one who has ever glanced at the verbs as exhibited in any ,latin1 ,greek1 ,french1 ,spanish1 or ,italian grammar4 ,to explain it to others1 a brief example shall be given3 7with the remark1 that the ,latin pronouns1 here inserted1 are seldom expressed1 except for emphasis37 ,ego amo1 ,i love2 ,tu amas1 ,thou lovest2 ,ille amat1 ,he loves2 ,nos amamus1 ,we love2 ,vos amatis1 ,you love2 ,illi amant1 ,they love4 ,hence it may be perceived1 that the paucity of variations in the ,english verb1 is a very striking peculiarity of our language4 ,whether we are gainers or losers by this simplicity1 is a question for learned idleness to discuss4 ,the common people who speak ,english1 have far less inclination to add new endings to our verbs1 than to drop or avoid all the remains of the old4 ,lowth and ,murray tell us1 ,this scanty provision of terminations is sufficient for all the purposes of discourse2 and that1 ,for this reason1 the plural termination en1 7they loven1 they weren17 formerly in use1 was laid aside as unnecessary1 and has long been obsolete4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ca2 ,murray's1 #fc4 ,,obs4 #c4--,though modern usage1 especially in common conversation1 evidently inclines to drop or shun all unnecessary suffixes and inflections1 still it is true1 that the ,english verb in some of its parts1 varies its termination1 to distinguish1 or agree with1 the different persons and numbers4 ,the change is1 however1 principally confined to the second and third persons singular of the present tense of the indicative mood1 and to the auxiliaries hast and has of the perfect4 ,in the ancient biblical style1 now used only on solemn occasions1 the second person singular is distinguished through all the tenses of the indicative and potential moods4 ,and as the use of the pronoun thou is now mostly confined to the solemn style1 the terminations of that style are retained in connexion with it1 through all the following examples of the conjugation of verbs4 ,in the plural number1 there is no variation of ending1 to denote the different persons2 and the verb in the three persons plural1 7with the two exceptions are and were1 from am and was17 is the same as in the first person singular4 ,nor does the use of you for the singular1 warrant its connexion with any other than the plural form of the verb4 ,this strange and needless confusion of the numbers1 is1 in all languages that indulge it1 a practical inconvenience4 ,it would doubtless have been much better1 had thou and you still kept their respective places--the one1 nominative singular--the other1 objective plural--as they appear in the ,bible4 ,but as the ,english verb is always attended by a noun or a pronoun1 expressing the subject of the affirmation1 no ambiguity arises from the want of particular terminations in the verb1 to distinguish the different persons and numbers4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,although our language1 in its ordinary use1 exhibits the verbs in such forms only1 as will make1 when put together1 but a very simple conjugation2 there is probably no other language on earth1 in which it would be so difficult for a learned grammarian to fix1 settle1 and exhibit1 to the satisfaction of himself and others1 the principles1 paradigms1 rules1 and exceptions1 which are necessary for a full and just exhibition of this part of speech4 ,this difficulty is owing1 partly to incompatibilities or unsettled boundaries between the solemn and the familiar style2 partly to differences in the same style between ancient usage and modern2 partly to interfering claims of new and old forms of the preterit and the perfect participle2 partly to the conflicting notions of different grammarians respecting the subjunctive mood2 and partly to the blind tenacity with which many writers adhere to rugged derivatives1 and prefer unutterable contractions to smooth and easy abbreviations4 ,for example3 a clergyman says to a lucky gamester1 7#a47 ,you dwell in a house which you neither planned nor built4 ,a member of the ,society of ,friends would say1 7#b47 ,thou dwellst in a house which thou neither planned nor built4 ,or1 if not a scholar1 as likely as not1 7#c47 ,thee dwells in a house which thee neither planned nor built4 ,the old or solemn style would b#c1 7#d47 ,thou dwellest in a house which thou neither plannedst nor buildedst4 ,some untasteful and overgrammatical poet will have it1 7#e47 ,thou dwell'st in halls thou neither plann'dst nor build'dst4 ,the doctrine of ,murray's ,grammar1 and of most others1 would require1 7#f47 ,thou dwellest in a house which thou neither plannedst nor builtest4 ,or1 7according to this author's method of avoiding unpleasant sounds17 the more complex form1 7#g47 ,thou dost dwell in a house which thou neither didst plan nor didst build4 ,out of these an other poet will make the line1 7#h47 ,dost dwell in halls which thou nor plann'dst nor built'st4 ,an other1 more tastefully1 would drop the st of the preterit1 and contract the present1 as in the second instance above3 thus1 7#i47 ,thou dwellst in halls thou neither planned nor built1 ,and revelst there in riches won by guilt4 ,,obs4 #e4--,now let all these nine different forms of saying the same thing1 by the same verbs1 in the same mood1 and the same two tenses1 be considered4 ,let it also be noticed1 that for these same verbs within these limits1 there are yet other forms1 of a complex kind2 as1 ,you do dwell1 or1 ,you are dwelling2 used in lieu of1 ,thou dost dwell1 or1 ,thou art dwelling3 so1 ,you did plan1 or1 ,you were planning2 used in lieu of1 ,thou didst plan1 or1 ,thou wast planning4 ,take into the account the opinion of ,dr4 ,webster and others1 that1 ,you was planning1 or1 ,you was building1 is a still better form for the singular number2 and well established by national usage1 both here and in ,england4--,improved ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,add the less inaccurate practice of some1 who use was and did familiarly with thou2 as1 ,thou was planning1 did thou build8 ,multiply all this variety tenfold1 with a view to the other moods and tenses of these three verbs1 dwell1 plan1 and build2 then extend the product1 whatever it is1 from these three common words1 to all the verbs in the ,english language4 ,you will thus begin to have some idea of the difficulty mentioned in the preceding observation4 ,but this is only a part of it2 for all these things relate only to the second person singular of the verb4 ,the double question is1 ,which of these forms ought to be approved and taught for that person and number8 and which of them ought to be censured and rejected as bad ,english8 ,this question is perhaps as important1 as any that can arise in ,english grammar4 ,with a few candid observations by way of illustration1 it will be left to the judgement of the reader4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the history of youyouing and thoutheeing appears to be this4 ,persons in high stations1 being usually surrounded by attendants1 it became1 many centuries ago1 a species of court flattery1 to address individuals of this class1 in the plural number1 as if a great man were something more than one person4 ,in this way1 the notion of greatness was agreeably multiplied1 and those who laid claim to such honour1 soon began to think themselves insulted whenever they were addressed with any other than the plural pronoun4#bcf ,humbler people yielded through fear of offence2 and the practice extended1 in time1 to all ranks of society3 so that at present the customary mode of familiar as well as complimentary address1 is altogether plural2 both the verb and the pronoun being used in that form4#bcg ,this practice1 which confounds one of the most important distinctions of the language1 affords a striking instance of the power of fashion4 ,it has made propriety itself seem improper4 ,but shall it be allowed1 in the present state of things1 to confound our conjugations and overturn our grammar8 ,is it right to introduce it into our paradigms1 as the only form of the second person singular1 that modern usage acknowledges8 ,or is it expedient to augment by it that multiplicity of other forms1 which must either take this same place or be utterly rejected8 ,with due deference to those grammarians who have adopted one or the other of these methods1 the author of this work answers all these questions decidedly in the negative4 ,it is not to be denied1 that the use of the plural for the singular is now so common as to form the customary mode of address to individuals of every rank4 ,the ,society of ,friends1 or ,quakers1 however1 continue to employ the singular number in familiar discourse2 and custom1 which has now destroyed the compliment of the plural1 has removed also the supposed opprobrium of the singular1 and placed it on an equality with the plural in point of respect4 ,the singular is universally employed in reference to the ,supreme ,being2 and is generally preferred in poetry4 ,it is the language of ,scripture1 and of the ,prayer-,book2 and is consistently retained in nearly all our grammars2 though not always1 perhaps1 consistently treated4 ,,obs4 #g4--,whatever is fashionable in speech1 the mere disciples of fashion will always approve2 and1 probably1 they will think it justifiable to despise or neglect all that is otherwise4 ,these may be contented with the sole use of such forms of address as1 ,you1 you1 sir2--,you1 you1 madam4 ,but the literati who so neglect all the services of religion1 as to forget that these are yet conducted in ,english independently of all this fashionable youyouing1 must needs be poor judges of what belongs to their own justification1 either as grammarians or as moral agents4 ,a fashion by virtue of which millions of youths are now growing up in ignorance of that form of address which1 in their own tongue1 is most appropriate to poetry1 and alone adapted to prayer1 is perhaps not quite so light a matter as some people imagine4 ,it is at least so far from being a good reason for displacing that form from the paradigms of our verbs in a grammar1 that indeed no better needs be offered for tenaciously retaining it4 ,many children may thus learn at school what all should know1 and what there is little chance for them to learn elsewhere4 ,not all that presume to minister in religion1 are well acquainted with what is called the solemn style4 ,not all that presume to explain it in grammars1 do know what it is4 ,a late work1 which boasted the patronage of ,de ,witt ,clinton1 and through the influence of false praise came nigh to be imposed by a law of ,new ,york on all the common schools of that ,state2 and which1 being subsequently sold in ,philadelphia for a great price1 was there republished under the name of the ,national ,school ,manual2 gives the following account of this part of grammar3 ,in the solemn and poetic styles1 the second person singular1 in both the above tenses1 is thou2 and the second person plural1 is ye1 or you4 ,the verb1 to agree with the second person singular1 changes its termination4 ,thus3 #b;d person1 sing4 ,pres4 ,tense1 ,thou walkest1 or ,thou walketh4 ,imperfect ,tense1 ,thou walkedst4 ,in the third person singular1 in the above styles1 the verb has sometimes a different termination2 as1 ,present ,tense1 ,he1 she1 or it walks or walketh4 ,the above form of inflection may be applied to all verbs used in the solemn or poetic styles2 but for ordinary purposes1 ,i have supposed it proper to employ the form of the verb1 adopted in common conversation1 as least perplexing to young minds4--,bartlett's ,common ,school ,manual1 ,part ii1 p4 #aad4 ,what can be hoped from an author who is ignorant enough to think ,thou walketh is good ,english8 or from one who tells us1 that ,it walks is of the solemn style8 or from one who does not know that you is never a nominative in the style of the ,bible8 ,,obs4 #h4--,nowhere on earth is fashion more completely mistress of all the tastes and usages of society1 than in ,france4 ,though the common ,french ,bible still retains the form of the second person singular1 which in that language is shorter and perhaps smoother than the plural2 yet even that sacred book1 or at least the ,new ,testament1 and that by different persons1 has been translated into more fashionable ,french1 and printed at ,paris1 and also at ,new ,york1 with the form of address everywhere plural2 as1 ,jesus anticipated him1 saying1 ',what do you think1 ,simon8 of whom do the kings of the earth take taxes and tribute8'--,matt41 xvii1 #bd4 ,and1 going to prayers1 they said1 '#j ,lord1 you who know the hearts of all men1 show which of these two you have chosen4'--,acts1 i1 #bd4 ,this is one step further in the progress of politeness1 than has yet been taken in ,english4 ,the ,french grammarians1 however1 as far as ,i can perceive1 have never yet disturbed the ancient order of their conjugations and declensions1 by inserting the plural verb and pronoun in place of the singular2 and1 in the familiarity of friendship1 or of domestic life1 the practice which is denominated tutoyant1 or thoutheeing1 is far more prevalent in ,france than in ,england4 ,also1 in the prayers of the ,french1 the second person singular appears to be yet generally preserved1 as it is in those of the ,english and the ,americans4 ,the less frequent use of it in the familiar conversation of the latter1 is very probably owing to the general impression1 that it cannot be used with propriety1 except in the solemn style4 ,of this matter1 those who have laid it aside themselves1 cannot with much modesty pretend to judge for those who have not2 or1 if they may1 there is still a question how far it is right to lay it aside4 ,the following lines are a sort of translation from ,horace2 and ,i submit it to the reader1 whether it is comely for a ,christian divine to be less reverent toward ,god1 than a heathen poet2 and whether the plural language here used1 does not lack the reverence of the original1 which is singular3-- ,preserve1 ,almighty ,providence6 ,just what you gave me1 competence4--,swift4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the terms1 solemn style1 familiar style1 modern style1 ancient style1 legal style1 regal style1 nautic style1 common style1 and the like1 as used in grammar1 imply no certain divisions of the language2 but are designed merely to distinguish1 in a general way1 the occasions on which some particular forms of expression may be considered proper1 or the times to which they belong4 ,for what is grammatical sometimes1 may not be so always4 ,it would not be easy to tell1 definitely1 in what any one of these styles consists2 because they all belong to one language1 and the number or nature of the peculiarities of each is not precisely fixed4 ,but whatever is acknowledged to be peculiar to any one1 is consequently understood to be improper for any other3 or1 at least1 the same phraseology cannot belong to styles of an opposite character2 and words of general use belong to no particular style4#bch ,for example3 ,so then it is not of him that willeth1 nor of him that runneth1 but of ,god that showeth mercy4--,rom41 ix1 #af4 ,if the termination eth is not obsolete1 as some say it is1 all verbs to which this ending is added1 are of the solemn style2 for the common or familiar expression would here be this2 ,so then it is not of him that wills1 nor of him that runs1 but of ,god that shows mercy4 ,ben ,jonson1 in his grammar1 endeavoured to arrest this change of eth to s2 and1 according to ,lindley ,murray1 7,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ij17 ,addison also injudiciously disapproved it4 ,in spite of all such objections1 however1 some future grammarian will probably have to say of the singular ending eth1 as ,lowth and ,murray have already said of the plural en3 ,it was laid aside as unnecessary4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,of the origin of the personal terminations of ,english verbs1 that eminent etymologist ,dr4 ,alexander ,murray1 gives the following account3 ,the readers of our modern tongue may be reminded1 that the terminations1 est1 eth1 and s1 in our verbs1 as in layest1 layeth1 and laid'st1 or laidest2 are the faded remains of the pronouns which were formerly joined to the verb itself1 and placed the language1 in respect of concise expression1 on a level with the ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,sanscrit1 its sister dialects4--,history of ,european ,languages1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #eb4 ,according to this1 since other signs of the persons and numbers are now employed with the verb1 it is not strange that there should appear a tendency to lay aside such of these endings as are least agreeable and least necessary4 ,any change of this kind will of course occur first in the familiar style4 ,for example3 ,thou wentest in to men uncircumcised1 and didst eat with them4--,acts1 xi1 #c4 ,these things write ,i unto thee1 that thou mayst know how thou oughtest to behave thyself in the house of ,god4--#a ,tim41 iii1 #ae4 ,these forms1 by universal consent1 are now of the solemn style2 and1 consequently1 are really good ,english in no other4 ,for nobody1 ,i suppose1 will yet pretend that the inflection of our preterits and auxiliaries by st or est1 is entirely obsolete2#bci and surely no person of any literary taste ever uses the foregoing forms familiarly4 ,the termination est1 however1 has in some instances become obsolete2 or has faded into st or t1 even in the solemn style4 ,thus1 7if indeed1 such forms ever were in good use17 diddest has become didst2 havest1 hast2 haddest1 hadst2 shallest1 shalt2 willest1 wilt2 and cannest1 canst4 ,mayest1 mightest1 couldest1 wouldest1 and shouldest1 are occasionally found in books not ancient2 but mayst1 mightst1 couldst1 wouldst1 and shouldst1 are abundantly more common1 and all are peculiar to the solemn style4 ,must1 burst1 durst1 thrust1 blest1 curst1 past1 lost1 list1 crept1 kept1 girt1 built1 felt1 dwelt1 left1 bereft1 and many other verbs of similar endings1 are seldom1 if ever1 found encumbered with an additional est4 ,for the rule which requires this ending1 has always had many exceptions that have not been noticed by grammarians4#bdj ,thus ,shakspeare wrote even in the present tense1 ,do as thou list1 and not ,do as thou listest4 ,possibly1 however1 list may here be reckoned of the subjunctive mood2 but the following example from ,byron is certainly in the indicative3-- ,and thou1 who never yet of human wrong ,lost the unbalanced scale1 great ,nemesis6--,harold1 ,c4 iv1 st4 #acb4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,any phraseology that is really obsolete1 is no longer fit to be imitated even in the solemn style2 and what was never good ,english1 is no more to be respected in that style1 than in any other4 ,thus3 ,art not thou that ,egyptian1 which before these days madest an uproar1 and leddest out into the wilderness four thousand men that were murderers8--,acts1 xxi1 #ch4 ,here1 7,i think17 the version ought to be1 ,art not thou that ,egyptian1 who a while ago made an uproar1 and led out into the wilderness four thousand men1 that were murderers8 ,if so1 there is in this no occasion to make a difference between the solemn and the familiar style4 ,but what is the familiar form of expression for the texts cited before8 ,the fashionable will say1 it is this3 ,you went in to men uncircumcised1 and did eat with them4--,i write these things to you1 that you may know how you ought to behave yourself in the house of ,god4 ,but this is not literally of the singular number3 it is no more singular1 than vos in ,latin1 or vous in ,french1 or we used for ,i in ,english1 is singular4 ,and if there remains to us any other form1 that is both singular and grammatical1 it is unquestionably the following3 ,thou went in to men uncircumcised1 and did eat with them4--,i write these things to thee1 that thou may know how thou ought to behave thyself in the house of ,god4 ,the acknowledged doctrine of all the teachers of ,english grammar1 that the inflection of our auxiliaries and preterits by st or est is peculiar to the solemn style1 leaves us no other alternative1 than either to grant the propriety of here dropping the suffix for the familiar style1 or to rob our language of any familiar use of the pronoun thou forever4 ,who1 then1 are here the neologists1 the innovators1 the impairers of the language8 ,and which is the greater innovation1 merely to drop1 on familiar occasions1 or when it suits our style1 one obsolescent verbal termination1--a termination often dropped of old as well as now1--or to strike from the conjugations of all our verbs one sixth part of their entire scheme8#bda ,o mother myn1 that cleaped were ,argyue1 ,wo worth that day that thou me bare on lyue4--,chaucer4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the grammatical propriety of distinguishing from the solemn style both of the forms presented above1 must be evident to every one who considers with candour the reasons1 analogies1 and authorities1 for this distinction4 ,the support of the latter is very far from resting solely on the practice of a particular sect2 though this1 if they would forbear to corrupt the pronoun while they simplify the verb1 would deserve much more consideration than has ever been allowed it4 ,which of these modes of address is the more grammatical1 it is useless to dispute2 since fashion rules the one1 and a scruple of conscience is sometimes alleged for the other4 ,a candid critic will consequently allow all to take their choice4 ,it is enough for him1 if he can demonstrate to the candid inquirer1 what phraseology is in any view allowable1 and what is for any good reason reprehensible4 ,that the use of the plural for the singular is ungrammatical1 it is neither discreet nor available to affirm2 yet1 surely1 it did not originate in any regard to grammar rules4 ,murray the schoolmaster1 whose ,english ,grammar appeared some years before that of ,lindley ,murray1 speaks of it as follows3 ,thou1 the second person singular1 though strictly grammatical1 is seldom used1 except in addresses to ,god1 in poetry1 and by the people called ,quakers4 ,in all other cases1 a fondness for foreign manners1#bdb and the power of custom1 have given a sanction to the use of you1 for the second person singular1 though contrary to grammar1#bdc and attended with this particular inconveniency1 that a plural verb must be used to agree with the pronoun in number1 and both applied to a single person2 as1 you are1 or you were1--not you wast1 or you was4--,third ,edition1 ,lond41 #agic1 p4 #cd4 ,this author everywhere exhibits the auxiliaries1 mayst1 mightst1 couldst1 wouldst1 and shouldst1 as words of one syllable2 and also observes1 in a marginal note1 ,some writers begin to say1 ',thou may1 thou might1' c4--,ib41 p4 #cf4 ,examples of this are not very uncommon3 ,thou shall want ere ,i want4--,old ,motto2 ,scott's ,lay1 ,note #ast to ,canto #c4 ,thyself the mournful tale shall tell4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,one sole condition would ,i dare suggest1 ,that thou would save me from my own request4--,jane ,taylor4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,in respect to the second person singular1 the grammar of ,lindley ,murray makes no distinction between the solemn and the familiar style2 recognizes in no way the fashionable substitution of you for thou2 and1 so far as ,i perceive1 takes it for granted1 that every one who pretends to speak or write grammatically1 must always1 in addressing an individual1 employ the singular pronoun1 and inflect the verb with st or est1 except in the imperative mood and the subjunctive present4 ,this is the more remarkable1 because the author was a valued member of the ,society of ,friends2 and doubtless his own daily practice contradicted his doctrine1 as palpably as does that of every other member of the ,society4 ,and many a schoolmaster1 taking that work for his text-book1 or some other as faulty1 is now doing precisely the same thing4 ,but what a teacher is he1 who dares not justify as a grammarian that which he constantly practices as a man6 ,what a scholar is he1 who can be led by a false criticism or a false custom1 to condemn his own usage and that of every body else6 ,what a casuist is he1 who dares pretend conscience for practising that which he knows and acknowledges to be wrong6 ,if to speak in the second person singular without inflecting our preterits and auxiliaries1 is a censurable corruption of the language1 the ,friends have no alternative but to relinquish their scruple about the application of you to one person2 for none but the adult and learned can ever speak after the manner of ancient books3 children and common people can no more be brought to speak agreeably to any antiquated forms of the ,english language1 than according to the imperishable models of ,greek and ,latin4 ,he who traces the history of our vernacular tongue1 will find it has either simplified or entirely dropped several of its ancient terminations2 and that the st or est of the second person singular1 never was adopted in any thing like the extent to which our modern grammarians have attempted to impose it4 ,thus becoming unused to inflections1 we lost the perception of their meaning and nature4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #ffi4 ,you cannot make a whole people all at once talk in a different tongue from that which it has been used to talk in3 you cannot force it to unlearn the words it has learnt from its fathers1 in order to learn a set of newfangled words out of a grammar or a dictionary4--,ib41 i1 #fej4 ,nor can you1 in this instance1 restrain our poets from transgressing the doctrine of ,lowth and ,murray3-- ,come1 thou pure ,light1--which first in ,eden glowed4 ,and threw thy splendor round man's calm abode4--,alonzo ,lewis4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,that which has passed away from familiar practice1 may still be right in the solemn style1 and may there remain till it becomes obsolete4 ,but no obsolescent termination has ever yet been recalled into the popular service4 ,this is as true in other languages as in our own3 ,in almost every word of the ,greek1 says a learned author1 we meet with contractions and abbreviations2 but1 ,i believe1 the flexions of no language allow of extension or amplification4 ,in our own we may write sleeped or slept1 as the metre of a line or the rhythm of a period may require2 but by no license may we write sleepeed4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 #dto1 p4 #ajg4 ,but1 if after contracting sleeped into slept1 we add an est and make sleptest1 is there not here an extension of the word from one syllable to two8 ,is there not an amplification that is at once novel1 disagreeable1 unauthorized1 and unnecessary8 ,nay1 even in the regular and established change1 as of loved to lovedst1 is there not a syllabic increase1 which is unpleasant to the ear1 and unsuited to familiar speech8 ,now1 to what extent do these questions apply to the verbs in our language8 ,lindley ,murray1 it is presumed1 had no conception of that extent2 or of the weight of the objection which is implied in the second4 ,with respect to a vast number of our most common verbs1 he himself never knew1 nor does the greatest grammarian now living know1 in what way he ought to form the simple past tense in the second person singular1 otherwise than by the mere uninflected preterit with the pronoun thou4 ,is thou sleepedst or thou sleptest1 thou leavedst or thou leftest1 thou feeledst or thou feltest1 thou dealedst or thou dealtest1 thou tossedst or thou tostest1 thou losedst or thou lostest1 thou payedst or thou paidest1 thou layedst or thou laidest1 better ,english than thou slept1 thou left1 thou felt1 thou dealt1 thou tossed1 thou lost1 thou paid1 thou laid8 ,and1 if so1 of the two forms in each instance1 which is the right one8 and why8 ,the ,bible has saidst and layedst2 ,dr4 ,alexander ,murray1 laid'st and laidest6 ,since the inflection of our preterits has never been orderly1 and is now decaying and waxing old1 shall we labour to recall what is so nearly ready to vanish away8 ,tremendous ,sea6 what time thou lifted up ,thy waves on high1 and with thy winds and storms ,strange pastime took1 and shook thy mighty sides ,indignantly1 the pride of navies fell4--,pollok1 ,b4 vii1 l4 #faa4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,whatever difficulty there is in ascertaining the true form of the preterit itself1 not only remains1 but is augmented1 when st or est is to be added for the second person of it4 ,for1 since we use sometimes one and sometimes the other of these endings2 7as1 saidst1 sawest1 bidst1 knewest1 lovedst1 wentest27 there is yet need of some rule to show which we ought to prefer4 ,the variable formation or orthography of verbs in the simple past tense1 has always been one of the greatest difficulties that the learners of our language have had to encounter4 ,at present1 there is a strong tendency to terminate as many as we can of them in ed1 which is the only regular ending4 ,the pronunciation of this ending1 however1 is at least threefold2 as in remembered1 repented1 relinquished4 ,here the added sounds are1 first d1 then ed1 then t2 and the effect of adding st1 whenever the ed is sounded like t1 will certainly be a perversion of what is established as the true pronunciation of the language4 ,for the solemn and the familiar pronunciation of ed unquestionably differ4 ,the present tendency to a regular orthography1 ought rather to be encouraged than thwarted2 but the preferring of mixed to mixt1 whipped to whipt1 worked to wrought1 kneeled to knelt1 and so forth1 does not make mixedst1 whippedst1 workedst1 kneeledst1 and the like1 any more fit for modern ,english1 than are mixtest1 whiptest1 wroughtest1 kneltest1 burntest1 dweltest1 heldest1 giltest1 and many more of the like stamp4 ,and what can be more absurd than for a grammarian to insist upon forming a great parcel of these strange and crabbed words for which he can quote no good authority8 ,nothing2 except it be for a poet or a rhetorician to huddle together great parcels of consonants which no mortal man can utter1#bdd 7as lov'dst1 lurk'dst1 shrugg'dst17 and call them words4 ,example3 ,the clump of subtonick and atonick elements at the termination of such words as the following1 is frequently1 to the no small injury of articulation1 particularly slighted3 couldst1 wouldst1 hadst1 prob'st1 prob'dst1 hurl'st1 hurl'dst1 arm'st1 arm'dst1 want'st1 want'dst1 burn'st1 burn'dst1 bark'st1 bark'dst1 bubbl'st1 bubbl'dst1 troubbl'st1 troubbl'dst4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #db4 ,the word trouble may receive the additional sound of st1 but this gentleman does not here spell so accurately as a great author should4 ,nor did they who penned the following lines1 write here as poets should3-- ,of old thou build'st thy throne on righteousness4 --,pollok's ,c4 of ,t41 ,b4 vi1 l4 #fch4 ,for though thou work'dst my mother's ill4 --,byron's ,parasina4 ,thou thyself doat'dst on womankind1 admiring4 --,milton's ,p4 ,r41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #age4 ,but he1 the sev'nth from thee1 whom thou beheldst4 --,id41 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 xi1 l4 #gjj4 ,shall build a wondrous ark1 as thou beheldst4 --,id41 ib41 ,b4 xi1 l4 #hai4 ,thou1 who inform'd'st this clay with active fire6 --,savage's ,poems1 p4 #bdg4 ,thy valiantness was mine1 thou suck'dst it from me4 --,shak41 ,coriol41 ,act iii4 ,this cloth thou dipp'dst in blood of my sweet boy4 --,id41 ,henry ,,vi1 ,p4 i4 ,great ,queen of arms1 whose favour ,tydeus won2 ,as thou defend'st the sire1 defend the son4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 x1 l4 #ccg4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,dr4 ,lowth1 whose popular little ,grammar was written in or about #ageh1 made no scruple to hem up both the poets and the ,friends at once1 by a criticism which ,i must needs consider more dogmatical than true2 and which1 from the suppression of what is least objectionable in it1 has become1 her hands1 the source of still greater errors3 ,thou in the polite1 and even in the familiar style1 is disused1 and the plural you is employed instead of it2 we say1 you have1 not thou hast4 ,though in this case1 we apply you to a single person1 yet the verb too must agree with it in the plural number2 it must necessarily be1 you have1 not you hast4 ,you was is an enormous solecism1#bde and yet authors of the first rank have inadvertently fallen into it4 99 99 99 ,on the contrary1 the solemn style admits not of you for a single person4 ,this hath led ,mr4 ,pope into a great impropriety in the beginning of his ,messiah3-- ',o thou my voice inspire1 ,who touch'd ,isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire6' ,the solemnity of the style would not admit of you for thou1 in the pronoun2 nor the measure of the verse touchedst1 or didst touch1 in the verb1 as it indispensably ought to be1 in the one or the other of those two forms2 you1 who touched1 or thou1 who touchedst1 or didst touch4 ',just of thy word1 in every thought sincere2 ,who knew no wish1 but what the world might hear4'--,pope4 ,it ought to be your in the first line1 or knewest in the second4 ,in order to avoid this grammatical inconvenience1 the two distinct forms of thou and you1 are often used promiscuously by our modern poets1 in the same paragraph1 and even in the same sentence1 very inelegantly and improperly3-- ',now1 now1 ,i seize1 ,i clasp thy charms2 ,and now you burst1 ah cruel6 from my arms4'--,pope4 --,lowth's ,english ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,the points of ,dr4 ,lowth's doctrine which are not sufficiently true1 are the following3 ,first1 it is not true1 that thou1 in the familiar style1 is totally disused1 and the plural you employed universally in its stead2 though ,churchill1 and others1 besides the good bishop1 seem to represent it so4 ,it is now nearly two hundred years since the rise of the ,society of ,friends3 and1 whatever may have been the practice of others before or since1 it is certain1 that from their rise to the present day1 there have been1 at every point of time1 many thousands who made no use of you for thou2 and1 but for the clumsy forms which most grammarians hold to be indispensable to verbs of the second person singular1 the beautiful1 distinctive1 and poetical words1 thou1 thyself1 thy1 thine1 and thee1 would certainly be in no danger yet of becoming obsolete4 ,nor can they1 indeed1 at any rate1 become so1 till the fairest branches of the ,christian ,church shall wither2 or1 what should seem no gracious omen1 her bishops and clergy learn to pray in the plural number1 for fashion's sake4 ,secondly1 it is not true1 that1 thou1 who touch'd1 ought indispensably to be1 thou1 who touchedst1 or didst touch4 ,it is far better to dispense with the inflection1 in such a case1 than either to impose it1 or to resort to the plural pronoun4 ,the grammatical inconvenience of dropping the st or est of a preterit1 even in the solemn style1 cannot be great1 and may be altogether imaginary2 that of imposing it1 except in solemn prose1 is not only real1 but is often insuperable4 ,it is not very agreeable1 however1 to see it added to some verbs1 and dropped from others1 in the same sentence3 as1 ,thou1 who didst call the ,furies from the abyss1 ,and round ,orestes bade them howl and hiss4 --,byron's ,childe ,harold1 ,canto iv1 st4 #acb4 ,thou satt'st from age to age insatiate1 ,and drank the blood of men1 and gorged their flesh4 --,pollok's ,course of ,time1 ,b4 vii1 l4 #gjj4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,we see then1 that1 according to ,dr4 ,lowth and others1 the only good ,english in which one can address an individual on any ordinary occasion1 is you with a plural verb2 and that1 according to ,lindley ,murray and others1 the only good ,english for the same purpose1 is thou with a verb inflected with st or est4 ,both parties to this pointed contradiction1 are more or less in the wrong4 ,the respect of the ,friends for those systems of grammar which deny them the familiar use of the pronoun thou1 is certainly not more remarkable1 than the respect of the world for those which condemn the substitution of the plural you4 ,let grammar be a true record of existing facts1 and all such contradictions must vanish4 ,and1 certainly1 these great masters here contradict each other1 in what every one who reads ,english1 ought to know4 ,they agree1 however1 in requiring1 as indispensable to grammar1 what is not only inconvenient1 but absolutely impossible4 ,for what the measure of verse will not admit1 cannot be used in poetry2 and what may possibly be crowded into it1 will often be far from ornamental4 ,yet our youth have been taught to spoil the versification of ,pope and others1 after the following manner3 ,who touch'd ,isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire4 ,say1 ,who touchedst or didst touch4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahj4 ,for thee that ever felt another's wo4 ,say1 ,didst feel4--,ib4 ,who knew no wish but what the world might hear4 ,say1 ,who knewest or didst know4--,ib4 ,who all my sense confin'd4 ,say1 ,confinedst or didst confine4--,ib41 p4 #ahf4 ,yet gave me in this dark estate4 ,say1 ,gavedst or didst give4--,ib4 ,left free the human will4--,pope4 ,murray's criticism extends not to this line1 but by the analogy we must say1 ,leavedst or leftest4 ,now it would be easier to fill a volume with such quotations1 and such corrections1 than to find sufficient authority to prove one such word as gavedst1 leavedst1 or leftest1 to be really good ,english4 ,if ,lord ,byron is authority for work'dst1 he is authority also for dropping the st1 even where it might be added3-- ----,thou1 who with thy frown ,annihilated senates4 --,childe ,harold's ,pilgrimage1 ,canto iv1 st4 #hc4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,according to ,dr4 ,lowth1 as well as ,coar and some others1 those preterits in which ed is sounded like t1 admit the change of ed into t2 as1 snacht1 checkt1 snapt1 mixt1 dropping also one of the double letters1 dwelt1 past4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,if this principle were generally adopted1 the number of our regular verbs would be greatly diminished1 and irregularities would be indefinitely increased4 ,what confusion the practice must make in the language1 especially when we come to inflect this part of the verb with st or est1 has already been suggested4 ,yet an ingenious and learned writer1 an able contributor to the ,philological ,museum1 published at ,cambridge1 ,england1 in #ahcb2 tracing the history of this class of derivatives1 and finding that after the ed was contracted in pronunciation1 several eminent writers1 as ,spenser1 ,milton1 and others1 adopted in most instances a contracted form of orthography2 has seriously endeavoured to bring us back to their practice4 ,from these authors1 he cites an abundance of such contractions as the following3 #a4 ,stowd1 hewd1 subdewd1 joyd1 cald1 expeld1 compeld1 spoild1 kild1 seemd1 benumbd1 armd1 redeemd1 staind1 shund1 paynd1 stird1 appeard1 perceivd1 resolvd1 obeyd1 equald1 foyld1 hurld1 ruind1 joynd1 scatterd1 witherd1 and others ending in d4 #b4 ,clapt1 whipt1 worshipt1 lopt1 stopt1 stampt1 pickt1 knockt1 linkt1 puft1 stuft1 hist1 kist1 abasht1 brusht1 astonisht1 vanquisht1 confest1 talkt1 twicht1 and many others ending in t4 ,this scheme divides our regular verbs into three classes2 leaving but very few of them to be written as they now are4 ,it proceeds upon the principle of accommodating our orthography to the familiar1 rather than to the solemn pronunciation of the language4 ,this1 as ,dr4 ,johnson observes1 is to measure by a shadow4 ,it is1 whatever show of learning or authority may support it1 a pernicious innovation4 ,the critic says1 ,i have not ventured to follow the example of ,spenser and ,milton throughout1 but have merely attempted to revive the old form of the preterit in t4--,phil4 ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ffc4 ,we ought not however to stop here1 he thinks2 and suggests that it would be no small improvement1 to write leveld for levelled1 enameld for enamelled1 reformd for reformed1 c4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,if the multiplication of irregular preterits1 as above described1 is a grammatical error of great magnitude2 the forcing of our old and well-known irregular verbs into regular forms that are seldom if ever used1 is an opposite error nearly as great4 ,and1 in either case1 there is the same embarrassment respecting the formation of the second person4 ,thus ,cobbett1 in his ,english ,grammar in a ,series of ,letters1 has dogmatically given us a list of seventy verbs1 which1 he says1 are1 by some persons1 erroneously deemed irregular2 and has included in it the words1 blow1 build1 cast1 cling1 creep1 freeze1 draw1 throw1 and the like1 to the number of sixty2 so that he is really right in no more than one seventh part of his catalogue4 ,and1 what is more strange1 for several of the irregularities which he censures1 his own authority may be quoted from the early editions of this very book3 as1 ,for you could have thrown about seeds4--,edition of #ahah1 p4 #ac4 ,for you could have throwed about seeds4--,edition of #ahcb1 p4 #ac4 ,a tree is blown down4--,ed4 of #ahah1 p4 #bg4 ,a tree is blowed down4--,ed4 of #ahcb1 p4 #be4 ,it froze hard last night4 ,now1 what was it that froze so hard8--,ed4 of #ahah1 p4 #ch4 ,it freezed hard last night4 ,now1 what was it that freezed so hard8--,ed4 of #ahcb1 p4 #ce4 ,a whole page of such contradictions may be quoted from this one grammarian1 showing that he did not know what form of the preterit he ought to prefer4 ,from such an instructor1 who can find out what is good ,english1 and what is not8 ,respecting the inflections of the verb1 this author says1 ,there are three persons2 but1 our verbs have no variation in their spelling1 except for the third person singular4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #hh4 ,again3 ,observe1 however1 that1 in our language1 there is no very great use in this distinction of modes2 because1 for the most part1 our little signs do the business1 and they never vary in the letters of which they are composed4--,ib41 #ie4 ,one would suppose1 from these remarks1 that ,cobbett meant to dismiss the pronoun thou entirely from his conjugations4 ,not so at all4 ,in direct contradiction to himself1 he proceeds to inflect the verb as follows3 ,i work1 ,thou workest1 ,he works2 c4 ,i worked1 ,thou workedst1 ,he worked2 c4 ,i shall or will work1 ,thou shalt or wilt work1 ,he shall or will work2 c4--,ib41 #ih4 ,all the compound tenses1 except the future1 he rejects1 as things which can only serve to fill up a book4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,it is a common but erroneous opinion of our grammarians1 that the unsyllabic suffix st1 wherever found1 is a modern contraction of the syllable est4 ,no writer1 however1 thinks it always necessary to remind his readers of this1 by inserting the sign of contraction2 though ,english books are not a little disfigured by questionable apostrophes inserted for no other reason4 ,dr4 ,lowth says1 ,the nature of our language1 the accent and pronunciation of it1 inclines incline us to contract even all our regular verbs3 thus loved1 turned1 are commonly pronounced in one syllable lov'd1 turn'd3 and the second person1 which was originally in three syllables1 lovedest1 turnedest1 is say has now become a dissyllable1 lovedst1 turnedst4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #de2 ,hiley's1 #de2 ,churchill's1 #ajd4 ,see also ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aad2 and ,coar's1 p4 #ajb4 ,this latter doctrine1 with all its vouchers1 still needs confirmation4 ,what is it but an idle conjecture8 ,if it were true1 a few quotations might easily prove it2 but when1 and by whom1 have any such words as lovedest1 turnedest1 ever been used8 ,for aught ,i see1 the simple st is as complete and as old a termination for the second person singular of an ,english verb1 as est2 indeed1 it appears to be older3 and1 for the preterit1 it is1 and 7,i believe7 always has been1 the most regular1 if not the only regular1 addition4 ,if sufferedest1 woundedest1 and killedest1 are words more regular than sufferedst1 woundedst1 killedst1 then are heardest1 knewest1 slewest1 sawest1 rannest1 metest1 swammest1 and the like1 more regular than heardst1 knewst1 slewst1 sawst1 ranst1 metst1 swamst1 satst1 saidst1 ledst1 fledst1 toldst1 and so forth2 but not otherwise4#bdf ,so1 in the solemn style1 we write seemest1 deemest1 swimmest1 like seemeth1 deemeth1 swimmeth1 and so forth2 but1 when we use the form which has no increase of syllables1 why is an apostrophe more necessary in the second person1 than in the third8--in seemst1 deemst1 swimst1 than in seems1 deems1 swims8 ,when final e is dropped from the verb1 the case is different2 as1 ,thou cutst my head off with a golden axe1 ,and smil'st upon the stroke that murders me4--,shakspeare4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,dr4 ,lowth supposes the verbal termination s or es to have come from a contraction of eth4 ,he says1 ,sometimes1 by the rapidity of our pronunciation1 the vowels are shortened or lost2 and the consonants1 which are thrown together1 do not coalesce with one another1 and are therefore changed into others of the same organ1 or of a kindred species4 ,this occasions a farther deviation from the regular form3 thus1 loveth1 turneth1 are contracted into lov'th1 turn'th1 and these1 for easier pronunciation1 immediately become loves1 turns4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #df2 ,hiley's1 #de4 ,this etymology may possibly be just1 but certainly such contractions as are here spoken of1 were not very common in ,lowth's age1 or even in that of ,ben ,jonson1 who resisted the s4 ,nor is the sound of sharp th very obviously akin to flat s4 ,the change would have been less violent1 if lov'st and turnst had become loves and turns2 as some people nowadays are apt to change them1 though doubtless this is a grammatical error3 as1 ,and wheresoe'er thou casts thy view4 --,cowley4 ,nor thou that flings me floundering from thy back4 --,bat4 of ,frogs and ,mice1 #a1abc4 ,thou sitt'st on high1 and measures destinies4 --,pollok1 ,course of ,time1 ,b4 vi1 #a1 #ffh4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,possibly1 those personal terminations of the verb which do not form syllables1 are mere contractions or relics of est and eth1 which are syllables2 but it is perhaps not quite so easy to prove them so1 as some authors imagine4 ,in the oldest specimens given by ,dr4 ,johnson in his ,history of the ,english ,language1--specimens bearing a much earlier date than the ,english language can claim1--even in what he calls ,saxon in its highest state of purity1 both st and th are often added to verbs1 without forming additional syllables1 and without any sign of contraction4 ,nor were verbs of the second person singular always inflected of old1 in those parts to which est was afterwards very commonly added4 ,examples3 ,buton ic wat tht thu hoefst thara wpna4--,king ,alfred4 ,but ,i know that thou hast those weapons4 ,tht thu oncnawe thara worda sothfstnesse4 of tham the thu geloered eart4--,luc1 i1 #d4 ,that thou mightest know the certainty of those things wherein thou hast been instructed4--,luke1 i1 #d4 ,and thu nemst his naman ,johannes4--,luc1 i1 #ac4 ,and his name schal be clepid ,jon4--,wickliffe's ,version4 ,and thou shalt call his name ,john4--,luke1 i1 #ac4 ,and he ne drincth win ne beor4--,luc1 i1 #ae4 ,he schal not drinke wyn ne sydyr4--,wickliffe4 ,and shall drink neither wine nor strong drink4--,luke1 i1 #ae4 ,and nu thu bist suwigende4 and thu sprecan ne miht oth thone dg the thas thing gewurthath4 fortham thu minum wordum ne gelyfdest4 tha beoth on hyra timan gefyllede4--,luc1 i1 #bj4 ,and lo1 thou schalt be doumbe1 and thou schalt not mowe speke1 til into the day in which these thingis schulen be don1 for thou hast not beleved to my wordis1 whiche schulen be fulfild in her tyme4--,wickliffe4 ,and1 behold1 thou shalt be dumb1 and not able to speak1 until the day that#bdg these things shall be performed1 because thou believest not my words1 which shall be fulfilled in their season4--,luke1 i1 #bj4 ,in chaungyng of her course1 the chaunge shewth this1 ,vp startth a knaue1 and downe there falth a knight4 --,sir ,thomas ,more4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,the corollary towards which the foregoing observations are directed1 is this4 ,as most of the peculiar terminations by which the second person singular is properly distinguished in the solemn style1 are not only difficult of utterance1 but are quaint and formal in conversation2 the preterits and auxiliaries of our verbs are seldom varied in familiar discourse1 and the present is generally simplified by contraction1 or by the adding of st without increase of syllables4 ,a distinction between the solemn and the familiar style has long been admitted1 in the pronunciation of the termination ed1 and in the ending of the verb in the third person singular2 and it is evidently according to good taste and the best usage1 to admit such a distinction in the second person singular4 ,in the familiar use of the second person singular1 the verb is usually varied only in the present tense of the indicative mood1 and in the auxiliary hast of the perfect4 ,this method of varying the verb renders the second person singular analogous to the third1 and accords with the practice of the most intelligent of those who retain the common use of this distinctive and consistent mode of address4 ,it disencumbers their familiar dialect of a multitude of harsh and useless terminations1 which serve only1 when uttered1 to give an uncouth prominency to words not often emphatic2 and1 without impairing the strength or perspicuity of the language1 increases its harmony1 and reduces the form of the verb in the second person singular nearly to the same simplicity as in the other persons and numbers4 ,it may serve also1 in some instances1 to justify the poets1 in those abbreviations for which they have been so unreasonably censured by ,lowth1 ,murray1 and some other grammarians3 as1 ,and thou their natures knowst1 and gave them names1 ,needless to thee repeated4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,book vii1 line #did4 ,,obs4 #be4--,the writings of the ,friends1 being mostly of a grave cast1 afford but few examples of their customary manner of forming the verb in connexion with the pronoun thou1 in familiar discourse4 ,the following may serve to illustrate it3 ,suitable to the office thou layst claim to4--,r4 ,,barclay',s ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bg4 ,notwithstanding thou may have sentiments opposite to mine4--,,thomas ,,story4 ,to devote all thou had to his service2--,if thou should come2--,what thou said2--,thou kindly contributed2--,the epistle which thou sent me2--,thou would perhaps allow2--,if thou submitted2--,since thou left2--,should thou act2--,thou may be ready2--,that thou had met2--,that thou had intimated2--,before thou puts putst2--,what thou meets meetst2--,if thou had made2--,i observed thou was2--,that thou might put thy trust2--,thou had been at my house4--,,john ,,kendall4 ,thou may be plundered2--,that thou may feel2--,though thou waited long1 and sought him2--,i hope thou will bear my style2--,thou also knows knowst2--,thou grew up2--,i wish thou would yet take my counsel4--,,stephen ,,crisp4 ,thou manifested thy tender regard1 stretched forth thy delivering hand1 and fed and sustained us4--,,samuel ,,fothergill4 ,the writer has met with thousands that used the second person singular in conversation1 but never with any one that employed1 on ordinary occasions1 all the regular endings of the solemn style4 ,the simplification of the second person singular1 which1 to a greater or less extent1 is everywhere adopted by the ,friends1 and which is here defined and explained1 removes from each verb eighteen of these peculiar terminations2 and1 7if the number of ,english verbs be1 as stated by several grammarians1 #hjjj17 disburdens their familiar dialect of #add1jjj of these awkward and useless appendages4#bdh ,this simplification is supported by usage as extensive as the familiar use of the pronoun thou2 and is also in accordance with the canons of criticism3 ,the first canon on this subject is1 ,all words and phrases which are remarkably harsh and unharmonious1 and not absolutely necessary1 should be rejected4 ,see ,campbell's ,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 ,b4 ii1 ,ch4 ii1 ,sec4 #b1 ,canon ,sixth1 p4 #aha4 ,see also1 in the same work1 7,b4 hi1 ,ch4 iv1 ,sec4 #b;d17 an express defence of those elisions whereby the sound is improved2 especially of the suppression of the feeble vowel in the last syllable of the preterits of our regular verbs2 and of such abbreviations as the eagerness of conveying one's sentiments1 the rapidity and ease of utterance1 necessarily produce1 in the dialect of conversation4--,pages #dbf and #dbg4 ,lord ,kames says1 ,that the ,english tongue1 originally harsh1 is at present much softened by dropping many redundant consonants1 is undoubtedly true2 that it is not capable of being further mellowed without suffering in its force and energy1 will scarce be thought by any one who possesses an ear4--,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ab4 ,,obs4 #bf4--,the following examples are from a letter of an ,african ,prince1 translated by ,dr4 ,desaguillier of ,cambridge1 ,england1 in #agdc1 and published in a ,london newspaper3 ,i lie there too upon the bed thou presented me2--,after thou left me1 in thy swimming house2--,those good things thou presented me2--,when thou spake to the ,great ,spirit and his ,son4 ,if it is desirable that our language should retain this power of a simple literal version of what in others may be familiarly expressed by the second person singular1 it is clear that our grammarians must not continue to dogmatize according to the letter of some authors hitherto popular4 ,but not every popular grammar condemns such phraseology as the foregoing4 ,i improved1 ,thou improvedst1 c4 ,this termination of the second person preterit1 on account of its harshness1 is seldom used1 and especially in the irregular verbs4--,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,the termination est1 annexed to the preter tenses of verbs1 is1 at best1 a very harsh one1 when it is contracted1 according to our general custom of throwing out the e2 as learnedst1 for learnedest2 and especially1 if it be again contracted into one syllable1 as it is commonly pronounced1 and made learndst4 99 99 99 ,i believe a writer or speaker would have recourse to any periphrasis rather than say keptest1 or keptst4 99 99 99 ,indeed this harsh termination est is generally quite dropped in common conversation1 and sometimes by the poets1 in writing4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aae4 ,the fact is1 it never was added with much uniformity4 ,examples3 ,but like the hell hounde thou waxed fall furious1 expressing thy malice when thou to honour stied4--,,fabian',s ,,chronicle1 ,v4 ii1 p4 #ebb3 in ,tooke's ,divers41 ,t4 ii1 p4 #bcb4 ,thou from the arctic regions came4 ,perhaps ,thou noticed on thy way a little orb1 ,attended by one moon--her lamp by night4 --,pollok1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #e4 ',so ,i believ'd4'--,no1 ,abel6 to thy grief1 ,so thou relinquish'd all that was belief4 --,crabbe1 ,borough1 p4 #bgi4 ,,obs4 #bg4--,l4 ,murray1 and his numerous copyists1 ,ingersoll1 ,greenleaf1 ,kirkham1 ,fisk1 ,flint1 ,comly1 ,alger1 and the rest2 though they insist on it1 that the st of the second person can never be dispensed with1 except in the imperative mood and some parts of the subjunctive2 are not altogether insensible of that monstrous harshness which their doctrine imposes upon the language4 ,some of them tell us to avoid this by preferring the auxiliaries dost and didst3 as dost burst1 for burstest2 didst check1 for checkedst4 ,this recommendation proceeds on the supposition that dost and didst are smoother syllables than est and edst2 which is not true3 didst learn is harsher than either learnedst or learntest2 and all three of them are intolerable in common discourse4 ,nor is the energy1 or positiveness1 which grammarians ascribe to these auxiliaries1 always appropriate4 ,except in a question1 dost and didst1 like do1 does1 and did1 are usually signs of emphasis2 and therefore unfit to be substituted for the st1 est1 or edst1 of an unemphatic verb4 ,kirkham1 who1 as we have seen1 graces his ,elocution with such unutterable things1 as prob'dst1 hurl'dst1 arm'dst1 want'dst1 burn'dst1 bark'dst1 bubbl'dst1 troubbl'dst1 attributes the use of the plural for the singular1 to a design of avoiding the raggedness of the latter4 ,in order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound1 occasioned by the frequent recurrence of the termination est1 edst1 in the adaptation of our verbs to the nominative thou1 a modern innovation which substitutes you for thou1 in familiar style1 has generally been adopted4 ,this innovation contributes greatly to the harmony of our colloquial style4 ,you was formerly restricted to the plural number2 but now it is employed to represent either a singular or a plural noun4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ii4 ,a modern innovation1 forsooth6 ,does not every body know it was current four hundred years ago1 or more8 ,certainly1 both ye and you were applied in this manner1 to the great1 as early as the fourteenth century4 ,chaucer sometimes used them so1 and he died in #adjj4 ,sir ,t4 ,more uses them so1 in a piece dated #aejc4 ,o dere cosyn1 ,dan ,johan1 she sayde1 ,what eyleth you so rathe to aryse8--,chaucer4 ,shakspeare most commonly uses thou1 but he sometimes has you in stead of it4 ,thus1 he makes ,portia say to ,brutus3 ,you suddenly arose1 and walk'd about1 ,musing1 and sighing1 with your arms across2 ,and when ,i ask'd you what the matter was1 ,you star'd upon me with ungentle looks4--,j4 ,csar1 ,act ii1 ,sc4 #b4 ,,obs4 #bh4--,there is a natural tendency in all languages to throw out the rugged parts which improper consonants produce1 and to preserve those which are melodious and agreeable to the ear4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #bi4 ,the ,english tongue1 so remarkable for its grammatical simplicity1 is loaded with a great variety of dull unmeaning terminations4 ,mr4 ,sheridan attributes this defect1 to an utter inattention to what is easy to the organs of speech and agreeable to the ear2 and further adds1 that1 'the ,french having been adopted as the language of the court1 no notice was taken1 of the spelling or pronunciation of our words1 until the reign of queen ,anne4' ,so little was spelling attended to in the time of ,elizabeth1 that ,dr4 ,johnson informs us1 that on referring to ,shakspeare's will1 to determine how his name was spelt1 he was found to have written it himself in no less fewer than three different ways4--,ib41 p4 #dgg4 ,in old books1 our participial or verbal termination ed1 is found written in about a dozen different ways2 as1 ed1 de1 d1 t1 id1 it1 yd1 yt1 ede1 od1 ud4 ,for est and eth1 we find sometimes the consonants only2 sometimes1 ist or yst1 ith or yth2 sometimes1 for the latter1 oth or ath2 and sometimes the ending was omitted altogether4 ,in early times also the th was an ending for verbs of the third person plural1 as well as for those of the third person singular2#bdi and1 in the imperative mood1 it was applied to the second person1 both singular and plural3 as1 ,demith thyself1 that demist other's dede2 ,and trouthe the shall deliver1 it's no drede4--,chaucer4 ,,obs4 #bi4--;,it must be obvious to every one who has much acquaintance with the history of our language1 that this part of its grammar has always been quite as unsettled as it is now2 and1 however we may wish to establish its principles1 it is idle to teach for absolute certainty that which every man's knowledge may confute4 ,let those who desire to see our forms of conjugation as sure as those of other tongues1 study to exemplify in their own practice what tends to uniformity4 ,the best that can be done by the author of a grammar1 is1 to exhibit usage1 as it has been1 and as it is2 pointing out to the learner what is most fashionable1 as well as what is most orderly and agreeable4 ,if by these means the usage of writers and speakers cannot be fixed to what is fittest for their occasions1 and therefore most grammatical1 there is in grammar no remedy for their inaccuracies2 as there is none for the blunders of dull opinionists1 none for the absurdities of ,ignorance stalled in the seats of ,learning4 ,some grammarians say1 that1 whenever the preterit of an irregular verb is like the present1 it should take edst for the second person singular4 ,this rule1 7which is adopted by ,walker1 in his ,principles1 ,no4 #cgb17 gives us such words as cast-edst1 cost-edst1 bid-dedst1 burst-edst1 cut-tedst1 hit-tedst1 let-tedst1 put-tedst1 hurt-edst1 rid-dedst1 shed-dedst1 c4 ,but the rule is groundless4 ,the few examples which may be adduced from ancient writings1 in support of this principle1 are undoubtedly formed in the usual manner from regular preterits now obsolete2 and if this were not the case1 no person of taste could think of employing1 on any occasion1 derivatives so uncouth4 ,dr4 ,johnson has justly remarked1 that the chief defect of our language1 is ruggedness and asperity4 ,and this defect1 as some of the foregoing remarks have shown1 is peculiarly obvious1 when even the regular termination of the second person singular is added to our preterits4 ,accordingly1 we find numerous instances among the poets1 both ancient and modern1 in which that termination is omitted4 ,see ,percy's ,reliques of ,ancient ,poetry1 everywhere4 ,thou1 who of old the prophet's eye unsealed4--,pollok4 ,thou saw the fields laid bare and waste4--,burns4#bej ,,obs4 #cj4--,with the familiar form of the second person singular1 those who constantly put you for thou can have no concern2 and many may think it unworthy of notice1 because ,murray has said nothing about it3 others will hastily pronounce it bad ,english1 because they have learned at school some scheme of the verb1 which implies that this must needs be wrong4 ,it is this partial learning which makes so much explanation here necessary4 ,the formation of this part of speech1 form it as you will1 is central to grammar1 and cannot but be very important4 ,our language can never entirely drop the pronoun thou1 and its derivatives1 thy1 thine1 thee1 thyself1 without great injury1 especially to its poetry4 ,nor can the distinct syllabic utterance of the termination ed be now generally practised1 except in solemn prose4 ,it is therefore better1 not to insist on those old verbal forms against which there are so many objections1 than to exclude the pronoun of the second person singular from all such usage1 whether familiar or poetical1 as will not admit them4 ,it is true that on most occasions you may be substituted for thou1 without much inconvenience2 and so may we be substituted for ,i1 with just as much propriety2 though ,dr4 ,perley thinks the latter usage is not to be encouraged4--,gram41 p4 #bh4 ,our authors and editors1 like kings and emperors1 are making we for ,i their most common mode of expression4 ,they renounce their individuality to avoid egotism4 ,and when all men shall have adopted this enallage1 the fault indeed will be banished1 or metamorphosed1 but with it will go an other sixth part of every ,english conjugation4 ,the pronouns in the following couplet are put for the first person singular1 the second person singular1 and the second person plural2 yet nobody will understand them so1 but by their antecedents3 ,right trusty1 and so forth--we let you to know ,we are very ill used by you mortals below4--,swift4 ,,obs4 #ca4--;,it is remarkable that some1 who forbear to use the plural for the singular in the second person1 adopt it without scruple1 in the first4 ,the figure is the same in both2 and in both1 sufficiently common4 ,neither practice is worthy to be made more general than it now is4 ,if thou should not be totally sacrificed to what was once a vain compliment1 neither should ,i1 to what is now an occasional1 and perhaps a vain assumption4 ,lindley ,murray1 who does not appear to have used you for thou1 and who was sometimes singularly careful to periphrase sic--,,kth and avoid the latter1 nowhere in his grammar speaks of himself in the first person singular4 ,he is often the ,compiler2 rarely1 the ,author2 generally1 ,we3 as1 ,we have distributed these parts of grammar1 in the mode which we think most correct and intelligible4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,we shall not pursue this subject any further4--,ib41 p4 #fb4 ,we shall close these remarks on the tenses4--,ib41 p4 #gf4 ,we presume no solid objection can be made4--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,the observations which we have made4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,we shall produce a remarkable example of this beauty from ,milton4--,ib41 p4 #cca4 ,we have now given sufficient openings into this subject4--,ib41 p4 #ccd4 ,this usage has authority enough2 for it was not uncommon even among the old ,latin grammarians2 but he must be a slender scholar1 who thinks the pronoun we thereby becomes singular4 ,what advantage or fitness there is in thus putting we for ,i1 the reader may judge4 ,dr4 ,blair did not hesitate to use ,i1 as often as ho had occasion2 neither did ,lowth1 or ,johnson1 or ,walker1 or ,webster3 as1 ,i shall produce a remarkable example of this beauty from ,milton4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abi4 ,i have now given sufficient openings into this subject4--,ib41 p4 #aca4 ,so in ,lowth's ,preface3 ,i believe1--,i am persuaded1--,i am sure1--,i think1--,i am afraid1--,i will not take upon me to say4 ,,obs4 #cb4--;,intending to be critical without hostility1 and explicit without partiality1 ,i write not for or against any sect1 or any man2 but to teach all who desire to know the grammar of our tongue4 ,the student must distinctly understand1 that it is necessary to speak and write differently1 according to the different circumstances or occasions of writing4 ,who is he that will pretend that the solemn style of the ,bible may be used in familiar discourse1 without a mouthing affectation8 ,in preaching1 or in praying1 the ancient terminations of est for the second person singular and eth for the third1 as well as ed pronounced as a separate syllable for the preterit1 are admitted to be generally in better taste than the smoother forms of the familiar style3 because the latter1 though now frequently heard in religious assemblies1 are not so well suited to the dignity and gravity of a sermon or a prayer4 ,in grave poetry also1 especially when it treats of scriptural subjects1 to which you put for thou is obviously unsuitable1 the personal terminations of the verb1 though from the earliest times to the present day they have usually been contracted and often omitted by the poets1 ought still perhaps to be considered grammatically necessary1 whenever they can be uttered1 agreeably to the notion of our tuneless critics4 ,the critical objection to their elision1 however1 can have no very firm foundation while it is admitted by some of the objectors themselves1 that1 ,writers generally have recourse to this mode of expression1 that they may avoid harsh terminations4-- ,irving's ,elements of ,english ,composition1 p4 #ab4 ,but if writers of good authority1 such as ,pope1 ,byron1 and ,pollok1 have sometimes had recourse to this method of simplifying the verb1 even in compositions of a grave cast1 the elision may1 with tenfold stronger reason1 be admitted in familiar writing or discourse1 on the authority of general custom among those who choose to employ the pronoun thou in conversation4 ,but thou1 false ,arcite1 never shall obtain1 c4 --,dryden1 ,fables4 ,these goods thyself can on thyself bestow4 --,id41 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,what ,i show1 thy self may freely on thyself bestow4 --,id41 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,that thou might ,fortune to thy side engage4 --,prior4 ,of all thou ever conquered1 none was left4 --,pollok1 ,b4 vii1 l4 #gfj4 ,and touch me trembling1 as thou touched the man1 c4 --,id41 ,b4 x1 l4 #fj4 ,,obs4 #cc4--,some of the ,friends 7perhaps from an idea that it is less formal7 misemploy thee for thou2 and often join it to the third person of the verb in stead of the second4 ,such expressions as1 thee does1 thee is1 thee has1 thee thinks1 c41 are double solecisms2 they set all grammar at defiance4 ,again1 many persons who are not ignorant of grammar1 and who employ the pronoun aright1 sometimes improperly sacrifice concord to a slight improvement in sound1 and give to the verb the ending of the third person1 for that of the second4 ,three or four instances of this1 occur in the examples which have been already quoted4 ,see also the following1 and many more1 in the works of the poet ,burns2 who says of himself1 ,though it cost the schoolmaster some thrashings1 ,i made an excellent ,english scholar2 and1 by the time ,i was ten or eleven years of age1 ,i was a critic in substantives1 ,,verbs1 and particles3--,but when thou pours2--,there thou shines chief2--,thou clears the head2--,thou strings the nerves2--,thou brightens black despair2--,thou comes2--,thou travels far2--,now thou's turned out2--,unseen thou lurks2--,o thou pale orb that silent shines4 ,this mode of simplifying the verb1 confounds the persons2 and1 as it has little advantage in sound1 over the regular contracted form of the second person1 it ought to be avoided4 ,with this author it may be1 perhaps1 a ,scotticism3 as1 ,thou paints auld nature to the nines1 ,in thy sweet ,caledonian lines4--,burns to ,ramsay4 ,thou paintst old nature1 would be about as smooth poetry1 and certainly much better ,english4 ,this confounding of the persons of the verb1 however1 is no modern peculiarity4 ,it appears to be about as old as the use of s for th or eth4 ,spenser1 the great ,english poet of the sixteenth century1 may be cited in proof3 as1 ,siker1 thou's but a lazy loord1 ,and rekes much of thy swinke4--,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,loord4 ,,obs4 #cd4--;,in the solemn style1 7except in poetry1 which usually contracts these forms17 the second person singular of the present indicative1 and that of the irregular preterits1 commonly end in est1 pronounced as a separate syllable1 and requiring the duplication of the final consonant1 according to ,rule #c;d for ,spelling3 as1 ,i run1 thou runnest2 ,i ran1 thou rannest4 ,but as the termination ed1 in solemn discourse1 constitutes a syllable1 the regular preterits form the second person singular by assuming st1 without further increase of syllables3 as1 ,i loved1 thou lovedst2 not1 lovedest1 as ,chandler made it in his ,english ,grammar1 p4 #da1 ,edition of #ahba2 and as ,wells's rule1 above cited1 if literally taken1 would make it4 ,dost and hast1 and the three irregular preterits1 wast1 didst1 and hadst1 are permanently contracted2 though doest and diddest are sometimes seen in old books4 ,saidst is more common1 and perhaps more regular1 than saidest4 ,werest has long been contracted into wert3 ,i would thou werest either cold or hot4--,w4 ,perkins1 #afjh4bea ,the auxiliaries shall and will change the final l to t1 and become shalt and wilt4 ,to the auxiliaries1 may1 can1 might1 could1 would1 and should1 the termination est was formerly added2 but they are now generally written with st only1 and pronounced as monosyllables1 even in solemn discourse4 ,murray1 in quoting the ,scriptures1 very often charges mayest to mayst1 mightest to mightst1 c4 ,some other permanent contractions are occasionally met with1 in what many grammarians call the solemn style2 as bidst for biddest1 fledst for fleddest1 satst for sattest3 ,riding sublime1 thou bidst the world adore1 ,and humblest nature with thy northern blast4 --,thomson4 ,fly thither whence thou fledst4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #ifc4 ,unspeakable1 who sitst above these heavens4 --,id41 ib41 ,b4 v1 l4 #aef4 ,why satst thou like an enemy in wait8 --,id41 ib41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #hbe4 ,,obs4 #ce4--,the formation of the third person singular of verbs1 is now precisely the same as that of the plural number of nouns3 as1 love1 loves2 show1 shows2 boast1 boasts2 fly1 flies2 reach1 reaches4 ,this form began to be used about the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,the ending seems once to have been es1 sounded as s or z3 as1 ,and thus ,i see among these pleasant thynges ,eche care decayes1 and yet my sorrow sprynges4--,earl of ,surry4 ,with throte yrent1 he roares1 he lyeth along4--,sir ,t4 ,wyat4 ,he dyeth1 he is all dead1 he pantes1 he restes4--,id41 #aedj4 ,in all these instances1 the e before the s has become improper4 ,the es does not here form a syllable2 neither does the eth1 in lyeth and dyeth4 ,in very ancient times1 the third person singular appears to have been formed by adding th or eth nearly as we now add s or es#beb ,afterwards1 as in our common ,bible1 it was formed by adding th to verbs ending in e1 and eth to all others2 as1 ,for he that eateth and drinketh unworthily1 eateth and drinketh damnation to himself4--#a ,cor41 xi1 #bi4 ,he quickeneth man1 who is dead in trespasses and sins2 he keepeth alive the quickened soul1 and leadeth it in the paths of life2 he scattereth1 subdueth1 and conquereth the enemies of the soul4--,i4 ,penington4 ,this method of inflection1 as now pronounced1 always adds a syllable to the verb4 ,it is entirely confined to the solemn style1 and is little used4 ,doth1 hath1 and saith1 appear to be permanent contractions of verbs thus formed4 ,in the days of ,shakspeare1 both terminations were common1 and he often mixed them1 in a way which is not very proper now3 as1 ,the quality of mercy is not strained2 ,it droppeth1 as the gentle rain from heaven ,upon the place beneath3 it is twice bless'd2 ,it blesseth him that gives1 and him that takes4 --,merchant of ,venice4 ,,obs4 #cf4--,when the second person singular is employed in familiar discourse1 with any regard to correctness1 it is usually formed in a manner strictly analogous to that which is now adopted in the third person singular4 ,when the verb ends with a sound which will unite with that of st or s1 the second person singular is formed by adding s only1 and the third1 by adding s only2 and the number of syllables is not increased3 as1 ,i read1 thou readst1 he reads2 ,i know1 thou knowst1 he knows2 ,i take1 thou takest1 he takes2 ,i free1 thou freest1 he frees4 ,for1 when the verb ends in mute a1 no termination renders this a vocal in the familiar style1 if a synresis can take place4 ,to prevent their readers from ignorantly assuming the pronunciation of the solemn style1 the poets have generally marked such words with an apostrophe3 as1 ,look what thy soul holds dear1 imagine it ,to lie the way thou go'st1 not whence thou com'st4--,shak4 ,,obs4 #cg4--;,but when the verb ends in a sound which will not unite with that of st or s1 the second and third persons are formed by adding est and es2 or1 if the first person end in mute e1 the st and s render that e vocal2 so that the verb acquires an additional syllable3 as1 ,i trace1 thou tracest1 he traces2 ,i pass1 thou passest1 he passes2 ,i fix1 thou fixest1 he fixes2 ,i preach1 thou preachest1 he preaches2 ,i blush1 thou blushest1 he blushes2 ,i judge1 thou judgest1 he judges4 ,but verbs ending in o or y preceded by a consonant1 do not exactly follow either of the foregoing rules4 ,in these1 y is changed into i2 and1 to both o and i1 est and es are added without increase of syllables3 as1 ,i go1 thou goest1 he goes2 ,i undo1 thou undoest1#bec he undoes2 ,i fly1 thou fliest1 he flies2 ,i pity1 thou pitiest1 he pities4 ,thus1 in the following lines1 goest must be pronounced like ghost2 otherwise1 we spoil the measure of the verse3 ,thou goest not now with battle1 and the voice ,of war1 as once against the rebel hosts2 ,thou goest a ,judge1 and findst the guilty bound2 ,thou goest to prove1 condemn1 acquit1 reward4--,pollok1 ,b4 x4 ,in solemn prose1 however1 the termination is here made a separate syllable3 as1 ,i go1 thou gost1 he goth2 ,i undo1 thou undost1 he undoth2 ,i fly1 thou flist1 he flith2 ,i pity1 thou pitist1 he pitith4 ,,obs4 #ch4--,the auxiliaries do1 dost1 does1--7pronounced doo1 dust1 duz2 and not as the words dough1 dosed1 doze1--7 am1 art1 is1--have1 hast1 has1--being also in frequent use as principal verbs of the present tense1 retain their peculiar forms1 with distinction of person and number1 when they help to form the compound tenses of other verbs4 ,the other auxiliaries are not varied1 or ought not to be varied1 except in the solemn style4 ,example of the familiar use3 ,that thou may be found truly owning it4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bcd4 ,,obs4 #ci4--,the only regular terminations that are added to ,english verbs1 are ing1 d or e1 st or est1 s or es1 th or eth#bed ,ing1 and th or eth1 always add a syllable to the verb2 except in doth1 hath1 saith4#bee ,the rest1 whenever their sound will unite with that of the final syllable of the verb1 are usually added without increasing the number of syllables2 otherwise1 they are separately pronounced4 ,in solemn discourse1 however1 ed and est are by most speakers uttered distinctly in all cases2 except sometimes when a vowel precedes3 as in sanctified1 glorified1 which are pronounced as three syllables only4 ,yet1 in spite of this analogy1 many readers will have sanctifiest and glorifiest to be words of four syllables4 ,if this pronunciation is proper1 it is only so in solemn prose4 ,the prosody of verse will show how many syllables the poets make3 as1 ,thou diedst1 a most rare boy1 of melancholy6 --,shak41 ,cymb41 ,act iv1 sc4 #b4 ,had not a voice thus warn'd me3 ,what thou seest1 ,what there thou seest1 fair creature1 is thyself4 --,milton1 ,b4 iv1 l4 #dfg4 ,by those thou wooedst from death to endless life4 --,pollok1 ,b4 ix1 l4 #g4 ,attend3 that thou art happy1 owe to ,god2 ,that thou continuest such1 owe to thyself --,milton1 ,b4 v1 l4 #ebj4 ,,obs4 #dj4--;,if the grave and full form of the second person singular must needs be supposed to end rather with the syllable est than with st only1 it is certain that this form may be contracted1 whenever the verb ends in a sound which will unite with that of st4 ,the poets generally employ the briefer or contracted forms2 but they seem not to have adopted a uniform and consistent method of writing them4 ,some usually insert the apostrophe1 and1 after a single vowel1 double the final consonant before st2 as1 hold'st1 bidd'st1 said'st1 ledd'st1 wedd'st1 trimm'st1 may'st1 might'st1 and so forth3 others1 in numerous instances1 add st only1 and form permanent contractions2 as1 holdst1 bidst1 saidst1 ledst1 wedst1 trimst1 mayst1 mightst1 and so forth4 ,some retain the vowel e1 in the termination of certain words1 and suppress a preceding one2 as1 quick'nest1 happ'nest1 scatt'rest1 rend'rest1 rend'redst1 slumb'rest1 slumb'redst3 others contract the termination of such words1 and insert the apostrophe2 as1 quicken'st1 happen'st1 scatter'st1 render'st1 render'dst1 slumber'st1 slumber'dst4 ,the nature and idiom of our language1 the accent and pronunciation of it1 incline us to abbreviate or contract even all our regular verbs2 so as to avoid1 if possible1 an increase of syllables in the inflection of them4 ,accordingly1 several terminations which formerly constituted distinct syllables1 have been either wholly dropped1 or blended with the final syllables of the verbs to which they are added4 ,thus the plural termination en has become entirely obsolete2 th or eth is no longer in common use2 ed is contracted in pronunciation2 the ancient ys or is1 of the third person singular1 is changed to s or es1 and is usually added without increase of syllables2 and st or est has1 in part1 adopted the analogy4 ,so that the proper mode of forming these contractions of the second person singular1 seems to be1 to add st only2 and to insert no apostrophe1 unless a vowel is suppressed from the verb to which this termination is added3 as1 thinkst1 sayst1 bidst1 sitst1 satst1 lov'st1 lov'dst1 slumberst1 slumber'dst4 ,and know1 for that thou slumberst on the guard1 ,thou shalt be made to answer at the bar4--,cotton4 ,,obs4 #da4--;,ho man deserves more praise for his attention to ,english pronunciation1 than ,john ,walker4 ,his ,pronouncing ,dictionary was1 for a long period1 the best standard of orthopy1 that our schools possessed4 ,but he seems to me to have missed a figure1 in preferring such words as quick'nest1 strength'nest1 to the smoother and more regular forms1 quickenst1 strengthenst4 ,it is true that these are rough words1 in any form you can give them2 but let us remember1 that needless apostrophes are as rough to the eye1 as needless st's to the ear4 ,our common grammarians are disposed to encumber the language with as many of both as they can find any excuse for1 and vastly more than can be sustained by any good argument4 ,in words that are well understood to be contracted in pronunciation1 the apostrophe is now less frequently used than it was formerly4 ,walker says1 ,this contraction of the participial ed1 and the verbal en1 is so fixed an idiom of our pronunciation1 that to alter it1 would be to alter the sound of the whole language4 ,it must1 however1 be regretted that it subjects our tongue to some of the most hissing1 snapping1 clashing1 grinding sounds that ever grated the ears of a ,vandal2 thus1 rasped1 scratched1 wrenched1 bridled1 fangled1 birchen1 hardened1 strengthened1 quickened1 c4 almost frighten us when written as they are actually pronounced1 as rapt1 scratcht1 wrencht1 bridl'd1 fangl'd1 birch'n1 strength'n'd1 quick'n'd1 c42 they become still more formidable when used contractedly in the solemn style1 which never ought to be the case2 for here instead of thou strength'n'st or strength'n'd'st1 thou quick'n'st or quick'n'd'st1 we ought to pronounce thou strength'nest or strength'nedst1 thou quick'nest or quick'nedst1 which are sufficiently harsh of all conscience4--,principles1 ,no4 #cei4 ,here are too many apostrophes2 for it does not appear that such words as strengthenedest and quickenedest ever existed1 except in the imagination of certain grammarians4 ,in solemn prose one may write1 thou quickenest1 thou strengthenest1 or thou quickenedst1 thou strengthenedst2 but1 in the familiar style1 or in poetry1 it is better to write1 thou quickenst1 thou strengthenst1 thou quickened1 thou strengthened4 ,this is language which it is possible to utter2 and it is foolish to strangle ourselves with strings of rough consonants1 merely because they are insisted on by some superficial grammarians4 ,is it not strange1 is it not incredible1 that the same hand should have written the two following lines1 in the same sentence8 ,surely1 the printer has been at fault4 ,with noiseless foot1 thou walkedst the vales of earth-- ,most honourable thou appeared1 and most ,to be desired4--,pollok's ,course of ,time1 ,b4 ix1 l4 #ah1 and l4 #bd4 ,,obs4 #db4--;,it was once a very common practice1 to retain the final y1 in contractions of the preterit or of the second person of most verbs that end in y1 and to add the consonant terminations d1 st1 and dst1 with an apostrophe before each2 as1 try'd for tried1 reply'd for replied1 try'st for triest1 try'dst for triedst4 ,thus ,milton3-- ,thou following cry'dst aloud1 ,return1 fair ,eve2 ,whom fly'st thou8 whom thou fly'st1 of him thou art4 --,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #dha4 ,this usage1 though it may have been of some advantage as an index to the pronunciation of the words1 is a palpable departure from the common rule for spelling such derivatives4 ,that rule is1 ,the final y of a primitive word1 when preceded by a consonant1 is changed into i before an additional termination4 ,the works of the ,british poets1 except those of the present century1 abound with contractions like the foregoing2 but late authors1 or their printers1 have returned to the rule2 and the former practice is wearing out and becoming obsolete4 ,of regular verbs that end in ay1 ey1 or oy1 we have more than half a hundred2 all of which usually retain the y in their derivatives1 agreeably to an other of the rules for spelling4 ,the preterits of these we form by adding ed without increase of syllables2 as1 display1 displayed2 survey1 surveyed2 enjoy1 enjoyed4 ,these also1 in both tenses1 may take st without increase of syllables2 as1 display'st1 display'dst2 survey'st1 survey'dst2 enjoy'st1 enjoy'dst4 ,all these forms1 and such as these1 are still commonly considered contractions1 and therefore written with the apostrophe2 but if the termination st is sufficient of itself to mark the second person singular1 as it certainly is considered to be as regards one half of them1 and as it certainly was in the ,saxon tongue still more generally1 then for the other half there is no need of the apostrophe1 because nothing is omitted4 ,est1 like es1 is generally a syllabic termination2 but st1 like s1 is not4 ,as signs of the third person1 the s and the es are always considered equivalent2 and1 as signs of the second person1 the st and the est are sometimes1 and ought to be always1 considered so too4 ,to all verbs that admit the sound1 we add the s without marking it as a contraction for es2 and there seems to be no reason at all against adding the st in like manner1 whenever we choose to form the second person without adding a syllable to the verb4 ,the foregoing observations ,i commend to the particular attention of all those who hope to write such ,english as shall do them honour--to every one who1 from a spark of literary ambition1 may say of himself1 ---------,i twine ,my hopes of being remembered in my line ,with my land's language4--,byron's ,childe ,harold1 ,canto iv1 st4 #i4 ,,the ,,conjugation ,,of ,,verbs4 ,the conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its moods1 tenses1 persons1 numbers1 and participles4 ,there are four ,,principal ,,parts in the conjugation of every simple and complete verb2 namely1 the ,present1 the ,preterit1 the ,imperfect ,participle1 and the ,perfect ,participle4#bef ,a verb which wants any of these parts1 is called defective2 such are most of the auxiliaries4 ,an auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb1 to express some particular mode and time of the being1 action1 or passion4 ,the auxiliaries are do1 be1 have1 shall1 will1 may1 can1 and must1 with their variations4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the present1 or the verb in the present tense1 is radically the same in all the moods1 and is the part from which all the rest are formed4 ,the present infinitive is commonly considered the root1 or simplest form1 of the ,english verb4 ,we usually place the preposition ,,to before it2 but never when with an auxiliary it forms a compound tense that is not infinitive3 there are also some other exceptions1 which plainly show1 that the word to is neither a part of the verb1 as ,cobbett1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,s4 ,kirkham1 and ,wells1 say it is2 nor a part of the infinitive mood1 as ,hart and many others will have it to be1 but a distinct preposition4 7,see1 in the ,syntax of this work1 ,observations on ,rule #ahth47 ,the preterit and the perfect participle are regularly formed by adding d or ed1 and the imperfect participle1 by adding ing1 to the present4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the moods and tenses1 in ,english1 are formed partly by inflections1 or changes made in the verb itself1 and partly by the combination of the verb or its participle1 with a few short verbs1 called auxiliaries1 or helping verbs4 ,this view of the subject1 though disputed by some1 is sustained by such a preponderance both of authority and of reason1 that ,i shall not trouble the reader with any refutation of those who object to it4 ,murray the schoolmaster observes1 ,in the ,english language1 the times and modes of verbs are expressed in a perfect1 easy1 and beautiful manner1 by the aid of a few little words called auxiliaries1 or helping verbs4 ,the possibility of a thing is expressed by can or could2 the liberty to do a thing1 by may or might2 the inclination of the will1 by will or would2 the necessity of a thing1 by must or ought1 shall or should4 ,the preposition to is never expressed after the helping verbs1 except after ought4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aab4 ,see nearly the same words in ,buchanan's ,english ,syntax1 p4 #cf2 and in the ,british ,gram41 p4 #abe4 ,,obs4 #c4--,these authors are wrong in calling ought a helping verb1 and so is ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce1 in calling ought to1 and ought to have auxiliaries2 for no auxiliary ever admits the preposition to after it or into it3 and ,murray of ,holdgate is no less in fault1 for calling let an auxiliary2 because no mere auxiliary ever governs the objective case4 ,the sentences1 ,he ought to help you1 and1 ,let him help you1 severally involve two different moods3 they are equivalent to1 ,it is his duty to help you2--,permit him to help you4 ,hence ought and let are not auxiliaries1 but principal verbs4 ,,obs4 #d4--,though most of the auxiliaries are defective1 when compared with other verbs2 yet these three1 do1 be1 and have1 being also principal verbs1 are complete3 but the participles of do and have are not used as auxiliaries2 unless having1 which helps to form the third or compound perfect participle1 7as having loved17 may be considered such4 ,the other auxiliaries have no participles4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,english verbs are principally conjugated by means of auxiliaries2 the only tenses which can be formed by the simple verb1 being the present and the imperfect2 as1 ,i love1 ,i loved4 ,and even here an auxiliary is usually preferred in questions and negations2 as1 ,do you love8--,you do not love4 ,did he love8--,he did not love4 ,do ,i not yet grieve8--,did she not die8 ,all the other tenses1 even in their simplest form1 are compounds4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,dr4 ,johnson says1 ,do is sometimes used superfluously1 as ,i do love1 ,i did love2 simply for ,i love1 or ,i loved2 but this is considered as a vitious mode of speech4--,gram41 in #dto ,dict41 p4 #h4 ,he also somewhere tells us1 that these auxiliaries are not proper before be and have2 as1 ,i do be1 for ,i am2 ,i did have1 for ,i had4 ,the latter remark is generally true1 and it ought to be remembered2#beg but1 in the imperative mood1 be and have will perhaps admit the emphatic word do before them1 in a colloquial style3 as1 ,now do be careful2--,do have a little discretion4 ,sanborn repeatedly puts do before be1 in this mood3 as1 ,do you be4 ,do you be guarded4 ,do thou be4 ,do thou be guarded4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,do thou be watchful4--,ib41 p4 #aee4 ,in these instances1 he must have forgotten that he had elsewhere said positively1 that1 ,do1 as an auxiliary1 is never used with the verb be or am4--,ib41 p4 #aab4 ,in the other moods1 it is seldom1 if ever1 proper before be2 but it is sometimes used before have1 especially with a negative3 as1 ,those modes of charity which do not have in view the cultivation of moral excellence1 are essentially defective4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #dbh4 ,surely1 the law of ,god1 whether natural or revealed1 does not have respect merely to the external conduct of men4--,stuart's ,commentary on ,romans1 p4 #aeh4 ,and each day of our lives do we have occasion to see and lament it4--,dr4 ,bartlett's ,lecture on ,health1 p4 #e4 ,verbs1 in themselves considered1 do not have person and number4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,this notion of ,smith's is absurd4 ,kirkham taught the same as regards person4 ,in the following example1 does he is used for is1--the auxiliary is1--and perhaps allowably3 ,it is certain from scripture1 that the same person does in the course of life many times offend and be forgiven4--,west's ,letters to a ,young ,lady1 p4 #ahb4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,in the compound tenses1 there is never any variation of ending for the different persons and numbers1 except in the first auxiliary3 as1 ,thou wilt have finished it2 not1 ,thou wilt hast finishedst it2 for this is nonsense4 ,and even for the former1 it is better to say1 in the familiar style1 ,thou will have finished it2 for it is characteristic of many of the auxiliaries1 that1 unlike other verbs1 they are not varied by s or eth1 in the third person singular1 and never by st or est1 in the second person singular1 except in the solemn style4 ,thus all the auxiliaries of the potential mood1 as well as shall and will of the indicative1 are without inflection in the third person singular1 though will1 as a principal verb1 makes wills or willeth1 as well as willest1 in the indicative present4 ,hence there appears a tendency in the language1 to confine the inflection of its verbs to this tense only2 and to the auxiliary have1 hast1 has1 which is essentially present1 though used with a participle to form the perfect4 ,do1 dost1 does1 and am1 art1 is1 whether used as auxiliaries or as principal verbs1 are always of the indicative present4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the word need1--7though1 as a principal verb and transitive1 it is unquestionably both regular and complete1--having all the requisite parts1 need1 needed1 needing1 needed1--and being necessarily inflected in the indicative present1 as1 ,i need1 thou needst or needest1 he needs or needeth1--7 is so frequently used without inflection1 when placed before an other verb to express a necessity of the being1 action1 or passion1 that one may well question whether it has not become1 under these circumstances1 an auxiliary of the potential mood2 and therefore proper to be used1 like all the other auxiliaries of this mood1 without change of termination4 ,i have not yet knowingly used it so myself1 nor does it appear to have been classed with the auxiliaries1 by any of our grammarians1 except ,webster4#beh ,i shall therefore not presume to say now1 with positiveness1 that it deserves this rank2 7though ,i incline to think it does27 but rather quote such instances as have occurred to me in reading1 and leave the student to take his choice1 whether to condemn as bad ,english the uninflected examples1 or to justify them in this manner4 ,he that can swim1 need not despair to fly4--,johnson's ,rasselas1 p4 #bi4 ,one therefore needs not expect to do it4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #aee4 ,in so doing ,i should only record some vain opinions of this age1 which a future one need not know4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #cde4 ,that a boy needs not be kept at school4--,,lisdsey3 in ,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #afd4 ,no man need promise1 unless he please4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #cab4 ,what better reason needs be given8--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ea4 ,he need assign no other reason for his conduct4--,wayland1 ib41 p4 #bad4 ,sow there is nothing that a man needs be ashamed of in all this4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #de4 ,no notice need be taken of the advantages4--,walker's ,rhyming ,dict41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cjd4 ,yet it needs not be repeated4--,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #ea4 ,he need not be anxious4--,greenleaf's ,gram4 ,simplified1 p4 #ch4 ,he needs not be afraid4--,fisk's ,gram4 ,simplified1 p4 #abd4 ,he who will not learn to spell1 needs not learn to write4--,red ,book1 p4 #bb4 ,the heeder need be under no fear4--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #ch4bei ,more need not be said about it4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #bgb4 ,the object needs not be expressed4--,booth's ,introduct4 to ,dict41 p4 #cg4 ,indeed1 there need be no such thing4--,fosdick's ,de ,sacy1 p4 #ga4 ,this needs to be illustrated4--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,and no part of the sentence need be omitted4--,parkhurst's ,grammar for ,beginners1 p4 #aad4 ,the learner needs to know what sort of words are called verbs4--,ib41 p4 #f4 ,no one need be apprehensive of suffering by faults of this kind4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #aga4 ,the student who has bought any of the former copies needs not repent4--,dr4 ,johnson1 ,adv4 to ,dict4 ,he need not enumerate their names4--,edward's ,first ,lessons in ,grammar1 p4 #ch4 ,a quotation consisting of a word or two only need not begin with a capital4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #chc4 ,their sex is commonly known1 and needs not to be marked4--,ib41 p4 #gb2 ,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 #ea4 ,one need only open ,lord ,clarendon's history1 to find examples every where4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajh4 ,their sex is commonly known1 and needs not be marked4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ba2 ,murray's ,duodecimo ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,nobody need be afraid he shall not have scope enough4--,,locke3 in ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #afh4 ,no part of the science of language1 needs to be ever uninteresting to the pursuer4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 vii4 ,the exact amount of knowledge is not1 and need not be1 great4--,todd's ,student's ,manual1 p4 #dd4 ,he needs to act under a motive which is all-pervading4--,ib41 p4 #cge4 ,what need be said1 will not occupy a long space4--,ib41 p4 #bdd4 ,the sign ,,to needs not always be used4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,such as he need not be ashamed of4--,snelling's ,gift for ,scribblers1 p4 #bc4 ,needst thou--need any one on earth--despair8--,ib41 p4 #cb4 ,take timely counsel2 if your dire disease ,admits no cure1 it needs not to displease4--,ib41 p4 #ad4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,if need is to be recognized as an auxiliary of the potential mood1 it must be understood to belong to two tenses2 the present and the perfect2 like may1 can1 and must3 as1 ,he need not go1 he need not have gone2 ,thou need not go1 ,thou need not have gone2 or1 in the solemn style1 ,thou needst not go1 ,thou needst not have gone4 ,if1 on the contrary1 we will have it to be always a principal verb1 the distinction of time should belong to itself1 and also the distinction of person and number1 in the parts which require it3 as1 ,he needs not go4 ,he needed not go2 ,thou needst not go1 ,thou needed not go2 or1 in the solemn style1 ,thou needest not go1 ,thou neededst not go4 ,whether it can be right to say1 ,he needed not have gone1 is at least questionable4 ,from the observations of ,murray1 upon relative tenses1 under his thirteenth rule of syntax1 it seems fair to infer that he would have judged this phraseology erroneous4 ,again1 ,he needs not have gone1 appears to be yet more objectionable1 though for the same reason4 ,and if1 ,he need not have gone1 is a correct expression1 need is clearly proved to be an auxiliary1 and the three words taken together must form the potential perfect4 ,and so of the plural2 for the argument is from the connexion of the tenses1 and not merely from the tendency of auxiliaries to reject inflection3 as1 ,they need not have been under great concern about their public affairs4--,hutchinson's ,history1 i1 #aid1 ,from these examples1 it may be seen that an auxiliary and a principal verb have some essential difference2 though these who dislike the doctrine of compound tenses1 pretend not to discern any4 ,take some further citations2 a few of which are erroneous in respect to time4 ,and observe also that the regular verb sometimes admits the preposition to after it3 ' ,there is great dignity in being waited for1' said one who had the habit of tardiness1 and who had not much else of which he need be vain4--,students ,manual1 p4 #fd4 ,but he needed not have gone so far for more instances4-- ,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #adc4 ,he need not have said1 'perhaps the virtue4'--,sedgwick's ,economy1 p4 #aif4 ,i needed not to ask how she felt4--,abbott's ,young ,christian1 p4 #hd4 ,it need not have been so4--,ib41 p4 #aaa4 ,the most unaccommodating politician need not absolutely want friends4--,hunts ,feast of the ,poets1 p4 iii4 ,which therefore needs not be introduced with much precaution4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cbf4 ,when an obscurer term needs to be explained by one that is clearer4--,ib41 p4 #cfg4 ,though1 if she had died younger1 she need not have known it4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #abj4 ,nothing need be said1 but that they were the most perfect barbarisms4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dgj4 ,he need not go4--,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,he needed but use the word body4--,,locke3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,he need not be required to use them4--,parker's ,eng4 ,composition1 p4 #ej4 ,the last consonant of appear need not be doubled4--,dr4 ,webster4 ,it needs the less to be inforced4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #aeh4 ,of these pieces of his1 we shall not need to give any particular account4--,seneca's ,morals1 p4 vi ,and therefore ,i shall need say the less of them4--,scougal1 p4 #aaja4 ,this compounding of words need occasion no surprise4--,cardell's ,essay on ,language1 p4 #hg4 ,therefore stay1 thou needst not to be gone4--,shakspeare4 ,thou need na start awa sae hasty4--,burns1 ,poems1 p4 #ae4 ,thou need na jouk behint the hallan4--,id41 ib41 p4 #fg4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the auxiliaries1 except must1 which is invariable1 have severally two forms in respect to tense1 or time2 and when inflected in the second and third persons singular1 are usually varied in the following manner3-- ,,to ,,do4 ,,present ,,tense2 ,,and ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,indicative ,,present4 ,sing4 ,i do1 thou dost1 he does2 ,plur4 ,we do1 you do1 they do4 ,,imperfect ,,tense2 ,,and ,,sign of ,,the ,,indicative ,,imperfect4 ,sing4 ,i did1 thou didst1 he did2 ,plur4 ,we did1 you did1 they did4 ,,to ,,be4 ,,present ,,tense2 ,,and ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,indicative ,,present4 ,sing4 ,i am1 thou art1 he is2 ,plur4 ,we are1 you are1 they are4 ,,imperfect ,,tense2 ,,and ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,indicative ,,imperfect4 ,sing4 ,i was1 thou wast1 he was2 ,plur4 ,we were1 you were2 they were4 ,,to ,,have4 ,,present ,,tense2 ,,but ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,indicative ,,perfect4 ,sing4 ,i have1 thou hast1 he has2 ,plur4 ,we have1 you have1 they have4 ,,imperfect ,,tense2 ,,but ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,indicative ,,pluperfect4 ,sing4 ,i had1 thou hadst1 he had2 ,plur4 ,we had1 you had1 they had4 ,,shall ,,and ,,will4 ,these auxiliaries have distinct meanings1 and1 as signs of the future1 they are interchanged thus3 ,,present ,,tense2 ,,but ,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,indicative ,,first-,,future4 #a4 ,simply to express a future action or event3-- ,sing4 ,i shall1 thou wilt1 he will2 ,plur4 ,we shall1 you will1 they will4 #b4 ,to express a promise1 command1 or threat3-- ,sing43 ,i will1 thou shalt1 he shall2 ,plur4 ,we will1 you shall1 they shall4 ,,imperfect ,,tense2 ,,but1 ,,as ,,signs1 ,,aorist1 ,,or ,,indefinite4 #a4 ,used with reference to duty or expediency3-- ,sing4 ,i should1 thou shouldst1 he should2 ,plur4 ,we should1 you should1 they should4 #b4 ,used with reference to volition or desire3-- ,sing4 ,i would1 thou wouldst1 he would2 ,plur4 ,we would1 you would1 they would4 ,,may4 ,,present ,,tense2 ,,and ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,potential ,,present4 ,sing4 ,i may1 thou mayst1 he may2 ,plur4 ,we may1 you may1 they may4 ,,imperfect ,,tense2 ,,and ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,potential ,,imperfect4 ,sing4 ,i might1 thou mightst1 he might2 ,plur4 ,we might1 you might1 they might4 ,,can4 ,,present ,,tense2 ,,and ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,potential ,,present4 ,sing4 ,i can1 thou canst1 he can2 ,plur4 ,we can1 you can1 they can4 ,,imperfect ,,tense2 ,,and ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,potential ,,imperfect4 ,sing4 ,i could1 thou couldst1 he could2 ,plur4 ,we could1 you could1 they could4 ,,must4 ,,present ,,tense2 ,,and ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,potential ,,present4 ,sing4 ,i must1 thou must1 he must2 ,plur4 ,we must1 you must1 they must4 ,if must is ever used in the sense of the ,imperfect tense1 or ,preterit1 the form is the same as that of the ,present3 this word is entirely invariable4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,several of the auxiliaries are occasionally used as mere expletives1 being quite unnecessary to the sense3 as1 #a4 ,,do and ,,did3 ,and it is night1 wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth4--,psalms1 civ1 #bj4 ,and ye1 that on the sands with printless foot do chase the ebbing ,neptune1 and do fly him when he comes back4--,shak4 ,and if a man did need a poison now4--,id4 ,this needless use of do and did is now avoided by good writers4 #b4 ,,shall1 ,,should1 and ,,could3 ',men shall deal unadvisedly sometimes1 which after-hours give leisure to repent of4' ,i should advise you to proceed4 ,i should think it would succeed4 ,he1 it should seem1 thinks otherwise4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,i could wish you to go4--,ib41 p4 #ga4 #c4 ,,will1 c4 ,the following are nearly of the same character1 but not exactly3 ,the isle is full of noises2 sometimes a thousand twanging instruments will hum about mine ears4--,shak4 ,in their evening sports she would steal in amongst them4--,barbauld4 ,his listless length at noontide would he stretch4--,gray4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,as our old writers often formed the infinitive in en1 so they sometimes dropped the termination of the perfect participle4 ,hence we find1 in the infancy of the language1 done used for do1 and do for done2 and that by the same hand1 with like changes in other verbs3 as1 ,thou canst nothing done4--,chaucer4 ,as he was wont to done4--,id4 ,the treson that to women hath be do4--,id4 ,for to ben honourable and free4--,id4 ,i am sworn to holden it secre4--,id4 ,our nature ,god hath to him unyte4--,douglas4 ,none otherwise negligent than ,i you saie haue ,i not bee4--,id4 ,see ,w4 ,allen's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,but netheless the thynge is do1 ,that fals god was soone go4--,,gower3 ,h4 ,tooke1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cgf4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,may is from the ,anglo-,saxon1 mgan1 to be able4 ,in the parent language also1 it is used as an auxiliary4 ,it is exhibited by ,fortescue1 as a principal verb2 ',they shall may do it3' i4 e4 they shall be able 7to7 do it4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,may not1 was formerly used for must not2 as1 ',graces for which we may not cease to sue4' ,hooker4--,ib41 p4 #ia4 ,may frequently expresses doubt of the fact2 as1 ',i may have the book in my library1 but ,i think ,i have not4' ,it is used also1 to express doubt1 or a consequence1 with a future signification2 as1 ',i may recover the use of my limbs1 but ,i see little probability of it4'--',that they may receive me into their houses4' ,luke1 xvi1 #d4--;,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bdg4 ,in these latter instances1 the potential present is akin to the subjunctive4 ,hence ,lowth and others improperly call ,i may love1 c4 the subjunctive mood4 ,others1 for the same reason1 and with as little propriety1 deny that we have any subjunctive mood2 alleging an ellipsis in every thing that bears that name3 as1 ',if it 7may7 be possible1 live peaceably with all men4' ,scriptures4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,may is also a sign of wishing1 and consequently occurs often in prayer3 as1 ,may it be thy good pleasure2--,o that it may please thee2--,mayst thou be pleased4 ,hence the potential is akin also to the imperative3 the phrases1 ,thy will be done1--,may thy will be done1--,be thy will done1--,let thy will be done1--are alike in meaning1 but not in mood or construction4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,can1 to be able1 is etymologically the same as the regular verbs ken1 to see1 and con1 to learn2 all of them being derived from the ,saxon connan or cunnan1 to know3 whence also the adjective cunning1 which was formerly a participle4 ,in the following example will and can are principal verbs3 ,in evil1 the best condition is1 not to will2 the second1 not to can4--,ld4 ,bacon4 ,that a verb which signifies knowledge1 may also signify power1 appears from these examples3 ,je ne saurois1 ,i should not know how1 7i4 e4 could not47 ,greek3 ,asphalisasthe hos oidate1 ,strengthen it as you know how1 7i4 e4 as you can47 ,nescio mentiri1 ,i know not how to 7i4e4 ,i cannot7 lie4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,shall1 ,saxon sceal1 originally signified to owe2 for which reason should literally means ought4 ,in the following example from ,chaucer1 shall is a principal verb1 with its original meaning3 ,for1 by the faith ,i shall to ,god1 ,i wene1 ,was neuer straungir none in hir degre4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,do and did are auxiliary only to the present infinitive1 or the radical verb2 as1 do throw1 did throw3 thus the mood of do throw or to throw is marked by do or to4 ,be1 in all its parts1 is auxiliary to either of the simple participles2 as1 to be throwing1 to be thrown2 ,i am throwing1 ,i am thrown3 and so1 through the whole conjugation4 ,have and had1 in their literal use1 are auxiliary to the perfect participle only2 as1 have thrown1 had thrown4 ,have is from the ,saxon habban1 to possess2 and1 from the nature of the perfect participle1 the tenses thus formed1 suggest in general a completion of the action4 ,the ,french idiom is similar to this3 as1 ,j'ai vu1 ,i have seen4 ,shall and should1 will and would1 may and might1 can and could1 must1 and also need1 7if we call the last a helping verb17 are severally auxiliary to both forms of the infinitive1 and to these only3 as1 shall throw1 shall have thrown2 should throw1 should have thrown2 and so of all the rest4 ,,obs4 #af4--,the form of the indicative pluperfect is sometimes used in lieu of the potential pluperfect2 as1 ,if all the world could have seen it1 the wo had been universal4--,shakspeare4 ,that is1--would have been universal4 ,i had been drowned1 but that the shore was shelvy and shallow4--,id4 ,that is1--,i should have been drowned4 ,this mode of expression may be referred to the figure enallage1 in which one word or one modification is used for an other4 ,similar to this is the use of were for would be3 ,it were injustice to deny the execution of the law to any individual2 that is1 it would be injustice4--,murray's ,grammar1 p4 #hi4 ,in some instances1 were and had been seem to have the same import2 as1 ,good were it for that man if he had never been born4--,mark1 xiv1 #ba4 ,it had been good for that man if he had not been born4--,matt41 xxvi1 #bd4 ,in prose1 all these licenses are needless1 if not absolutely improper4 ,in poetry1 their brevity may commend them to preference2 but to this style1 ,i think1 they ought to be confined3 as1 ,that had been just1 replied the reverend bard2 ,but done1 fair youth1 thou ne'er hadst met me here4--,pollok4 ,the keystones of the arch6--though all were o'er1 ,for us repeopled were the solitary shore4--,byron4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,with an adverb of comparison or preference1 as better1 rather1 best1 as lief1 or as lieve1 the auxiliary had seems sometimes to be used before the infinitive to form the potential imperfect or pluperfect3 as1 ,he that loses by getting1 had better lose than get4--,penn's ,maxims4 ,other prepositions had better have been substituted4-- ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ,i had as lief say4--,,lowth3 ib41 p4 #aaj4 ,it compels me to think of that which ,i had rather forget4-- ,bickersteth1 on ,prayer1 p4 #be4 ,you had much better say nothing upon the subject4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #adg4 ,i had much rather show thee what hopes thou hast before thee4--,baxter4 ,i had rather speak five words with my understanding1 than ten thousand words in an unknown tongue4--#a ,cor41 xiv1 #ai4 ,i knew a gentleman in ,america who told me how much rather he had be a woman than the man he is4--,martineau's ,society in ,america1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aec4 ,i had as lief go as not4-- ,webster's ,dict41 w4 ,lief4 ,i had as lieve the town crier spoke my lines4--,,shak43 ,hamlet4 ,we had best leave nature to her own operations4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #caj4 ,what method had he best take8--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 ix4 ,these are equivalent to the phrases1 might better lose--might better have been substituted--would as lief say--would rather forget--might much better say--would much rather show--would rather speak--how much rather he would be--would as lief go--should best leave--might he best take2 and1 for the sake of regularity1 these latter forms ought to be preferred1 as they sometimes are3 thus1 ,for my own part1 ,i would rather look upon a tree in all its luxuriancy4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #dad2 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bbc4 ,the following construction is different3 ,augustus had like to have been slain4--,s4 ,butler4 ,here had is a principal verb of the indicative imperfect4 ,the following examples appear to be positively erroneous3 ,much that was said1 had better remained unsaid4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer4 ,say1 might better have remained4 ,a man that is lifting a weight1 if he put not sufficient strength to it1 had as good put none at all4--,baxter4 ,say1 might as well put4 ,you were better pour off the first infusion1 and use the latter4--,bacon4 ,say1 might better pour2 or1 if you prefer it1 had better pour4 ,shakspeare has an expression which is still worse3-- ,or1 by the worth of mine eternal soul1 ,thou hadst been better have been born a dog4--,beauties1 p4 #bie4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,the form of conjugating the active verb1 is often called the ,active ,voice1 and that of the passive verb1 the ,passive ,voice4 ,these terms are borrowed from the ,latin and ,greek grammars1 and1 except as serving to diversify expression1 are of little or no use in ,english grammar4 ,some grammarians deny that there is any propriety in them1 with respect to any language4 ,de ,sacy1 after showing that the import of the verb does not always follow its form of voice1 adds3 ,we must1 therefore1 carefully distinguish the ,voice of a ,verb from its signification4 ,to facilitate the distinction1 ,i denominate that an ,active ,verb which contains an ,attribute in which the action is considered as performed by the ,subject2 and that a ,passive ,verb which contains an ,attribute in which the action is considered as suffered by the ,subject1 and performed upon it by some agent4 ,i call that voice a ,subjective ,voice which is generally appropriated to the ,active ,verb1 and that an ,objective ,voice which is generally appropriated to the ,passive ,verb4 ,as to the ,neuter ,verbs1 if they possess a peculiar form1 ,i call it a ,neuter ,voice4--,fosdick's ,translation1 p4 #ii4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,a recognition of the difference between actives and passives1 in our original classification of verbs with respect to their signification1-- a principle of division very properly adopted in a great majority of our grammars and dictionaries1 but opinionately rejected by ,webster1 ,bolles1 and sundry late grammarians1--renders it unnecessary1 if not improper1 to place ,voices1 the ,active ,voice and the ,passive1 among the modifications of our verbs1 or to speak of them as such in the conjugations4 ,so must it be in respect to a ,neuter ,voice1 or any other distinction which the classification involves4 ,the significant characteristic is not overlooked2 the distinction is not neglected as nonessential2 but it is transferred to a different category4 ,hence ,i cannot exactly approve of the following remark1 which the ,rev4 ,w4 ,allen appears to cite with approbation3 ',the distinction of active or passive1' says the accurate ,mr4 ,jones1 'is not essential to verbs4 ,in the infancy of language1 it was1 in all probability1 not known4 ,in ,hebrew1 the difference but imperfectly exists1 and1 in the early periods of it1 probably did not exist at all4 ,in ,arabic1 the only distinction which obtains1 arises from the vowel points1 a late invention compared with the antiquity of that language4 ,and in our own tongue1 the names of active and passive would have remained unknown1 if they had not been learnt in ,latin4'--,allen's ,elements of ,english ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,by the conjugation of a verb1 some teachers choose to understand nothing more than the naming of its principal parts2 giving to the arrangement of its numbers and persons1 through all the moods and tenses1 the name of declension4 ,this is a misapplication of terms1 and the distinction is as needless1 as it is contrary to general usage4 ,dr4 ,bullions1 long silent concerning principal parts1 seems now to make a singular distinction between conjugating and conjugation4 ,his conjugations include the moods1 tenses1 and inflections of verbs2 but he teaches also1 with some inaccuracy1 as follows3 ,the principal parts of the verb are the ,present indicative1 the ,past indicative and the ,past participle4 ,the mentioning of these parts is called ,,conjugating ,,the ,,verb4--,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 #ahdi1 p4 #hj4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,english verbs having but very few inflections to indicate to what part of the scheme of moods and tenses they pertain1 it is found convenient to insert in our conjugations the preposition to1 to mark the infinitive2 personal pronouns1 to distinguish the persons and numbers2 the conjunction if1 to denote the subjunctive mood2 and the adverb not1 to show the form of negation4 ,with these additions1 or indexes1 a verb may be conjugated in four ways3-- #a4 ,affirmatively2 as1 ,i write1 ,i do write1 or1 ,i am writing2 and so on4 #b4 ,negatively2 as1 ,i write not1 ,i do not write1 or1 ,i am not writing4 #c4 ,interrogatively2 as1 ,write ,i8 ,do ,i write8 or1 ,am ,i writing8 #d4 ,interrogatively and negatively2 as1 ,write ,i not8 ,do ,i not write8 or1 ,am ,i not writing8 #a4 ,,simple ,,form1 ,,active ,,or ,,neuter4 ,the simplest form of an ,english conjugation1 is that which makes the present and imperfect tenses without auxiliaries2 but1 even in these1 auxiliaries are required for the potential mood1 and are often preferred for the indicative4 ,,first ,,example4 ,the regular active verb ,,love1 conjugated affirmatively4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,present4 ,preterit4 ,imperfect ,participle4 ,perfect ,participle4 ,love4 ,loved4 ,loving4 ,loved4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4#bfj ,the infinitive mood is that form of the verb1 which expresses the being1 action1 or passion1 in an unlimited manner1 and without person or number4 ,it is used only in the present and perfect tenses4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,this tense is the root1 or radical verb2 and is usually preceded by the preposition to1 which shows its relation to some other word3 thus1 ,to love4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,this tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle2 and1 like the infinitive present1 is usually preceded by the preposition to3 thus1 ,to have loved4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,the indicative mood is that form of the verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 ,it is used in all the tenses4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,the present indicative1 in its simple form1 is essentially the same as the present infinitive1 or radical verb2 except that the verb be has am in the indicative4 #a4 ,the simple form of the present tense is varied thus3-- ,singular4 ,plural4 #ast person1 ,i love1 #ast person4 ,we love1 #b;d person1 ,thou lovest1 #b;d person1 ,you love1 #c;d person1 ,he loves2 #c;d person1 ,they love4 #b4 ,this tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary do to the verb3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i do love1 #a4 ,we do love1 #b4 ,thou dost love1 #b4 ,you do love1 #c4 ,he does love2 #c4 ,they do love4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,this tense1 in its simple form is the preterit2 which1 in all regular verbs1 adds d or ed to the present1 but in others is formed variously4 #a4 ,the simple form of the imperfect tense is varied thus3-- ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i loved1 #a4 ,we loved1 #b4 ,thou lovedst1 #b4 ,you loved1 #c4 ,he loved2 #c4 ,they loved4 #b4 ,this tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary did to the present3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i did love1 #a4 ,we did love1 #b4 ,thou didst love1 #b4 ,you did love1 #c4 ,he did love2 #c4 ,they did love4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,this tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i have loved1 #a4 ,we have loved1 #b4 ,thou hast loved1 #b4 ,you have loved1 #c4 ,he has loved2 #c4 ,they have loved4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,this tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i had loved1 #a4 ,we had loved1 #b4 ,thou hadst loved1 #b4 ,you had loved1 #c4 ,he had loved2 #c4 ,they had loved4 ,,first-,,future ,,tense4 ,this tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present3 thus1 #a4 ,simply to express a future action or event3-- ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall love1 #a4 ,we shall love1 #b4 ,thou wilt love1 #b4 ,you will love1 #c4 ,he will love2 #c4 ,they will love2 #b4 ,to express a promise1 volition1 command1 or threat3-- ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i will love1 #a4 ,we will love1 #b4 ,thou shalt love1 #b4 ,you shall love1 #c4 ,he shall love2 #c4 ,they shall love4 ,,second-,,future ,,tense4 ,this tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the perfect participle3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall have loved1 #a4 ,we shall have loved1 #b4 ,thou wilt have loved1 #b4 ,you will have loved1 #c4 ,he will have loved2 #c4 ,they will have loved4 ,,obs4--,the auxiliary shall may also be used in the second and third persons of this tense1 when preceded by a conjunction expressing condition or contingency2 as1 ,if he shall have completed the work by midsummer4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,so1 with the conjunctive adverb when2 as1 ,then cometh the end1 when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to ,god1 even the ,father2 when he shall have put down all rule and all authority and power4--#a ,cor41 xv1 #bd4 ,and perhaps will may here be used in the first person to express a promise1 though such usage1 ,i think1 seldom occurs4 ,professor ,fowler has given to this tense1 first1 the ,predictive form1 as exhibited above1 and then a form which he calls ,promissive1 and in which the auxiliaries are varied thus3 ,singular4 #a4 ,i will have taken4 #b4 ,thou shalt have taken1 you shall have taken4 #c4 ,he shall have taken4 ,plural4 #a4 ,we will have taken4 #b4 ,ye or you shall have taken4 #c4 ,he say ,they1 shall have taken4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo41 ,n4 ,y41 #ahej1 p4 #bha4 ,but the other instances just cited show that such a form is not always promissory4 ,,potential ,,mood4 ,the potential mood is that form of the verb1 which expresses the power1 liberty1 possibility1 or necessity of the being1 action1 or passion4 ,it is used in the first four tenses2 but the potential imperfect is properly an aorist3 its time is very indeterminate2 as1 ,he would be devoid of sensibility were he not greatly satisfied4--,lord ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aa4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,this tense prefixes the auxiliary may1 can1 or must1 to the radical verb3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may love1 #a4 ,we may love1 #b4 ,thou mayst love1 #b4 ,you may love1 #c4 ,he may love2 #c4 ,they may love4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,this tense prefixes the auxiliary might1 could1 would1 or should1 to the radical verb3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might love1 #a4 ,we might love1 #b4 ,thou mightst love1 #b4 ,you might love1 #c4 ,he might love2 #c4 ,they might love4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,this tense prefixes the auxiliaries1 may have1 can have1 or must have1 to the perfect participle3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may have loved1 #a4 ,we may have loved1 #b4 ,thou mayst have loved1 #b4 ,you may have loved1 #c4 ,he may have loved2 #c4 ,they may have loved4 ,,pluperfect ,,tense4 ,this tense prefixes the auxiliaries1 might have1 could have1 would have1 or should have1 to the perfect participle3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might have loved1 #a4 ,we might have loved1 #b4 ,thou mightst have loved1 #b4 ,you might have loved1 #c4 ,he might have loved2 #c4 ,they might have loved4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,the subjunctive mood is that form of the verb1 which represents the being1 action1 or passion1 as conditional1 doubtful1 or contingent4 ,this mood is generally preceded by a conjunction2 as1 if1 that1 though1 lest1 unless1 except4 ,but sometimes1 especially in poetry1 it is formed by a mere placing of the verb before the nominative2 as1 ,were ,i1 for1 ,if ,i were2--,had he1 for1 ,if he had2--,fall we for1 ,if we fall2--,knew they1 for1 ,if they knew4 ,it does not vary its termination at all1 in the different persons4#bfa ,it is used in the present1 and sometimes in the imperfect tense2 rarely--and perhaps never properly--in any other4 ,as this mood can be used only in a dependent clause1 the time implied in its tenses is always relative1 and generally indefinite2 as1 ,it shall be in eternal restless change1 ,self-fed1 and self-consum'd3 if this fail1 ,the pillar'd firmament is rottenness4--,milton1 ,comus1 l4 #eif4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,this tense is generally used to express some condition on which a future action or event is affirmed4 ,it is therefore erroneously considered by some grammarians1 as an elliptical form of the future4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i love1 #a4 ,if we love1 #b4 ,if ,thou love1 #b4 ,if you love1 #c4 ,if ,he love2 #c4 ,if they love4 ,,obs4--,in this tense1 the auxiliary do is sometimes employed2 as1 ,if thou do prosper my way4--,genesis1 xxiv1 #db4 ,if he do not utter it4--,leviticus1 v1 #a4 ,if he do but intimate his desire4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bjg4 ,if he do promise1 he will certainly perform4--,ib41 p4 #bjh4 ,an event which1 if it ever do occur1 must occur in some future period4--,hiley's ,gram41 7#c;d ,ed41 ,lond417 p4 #hi4 ,if he do but promise1 thou art safe4--,ib41 #hi4 ,till old experience do attain ,to something like prophetic strain4--,,milton3 ,il ,penseroso4 ,these examples1 if they are right1 prove the tense to be present1 and not future1 as ,hiley and some others suppose it to be4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,this tense1 like the imperfect of the potential mood1 with which it is frequently connected1 is properly an aorist1 or indefinite tense2 for it may refer to time past1 present1 or future3 as1 ,if therefore perfection were by the ,levitical priesthood1 what further need was there that an other priest should rise8--,heb41 vii1 #aa4 ,they must be viewed exactly in the same light1 as if the intention to purchase now existed4--,murray's ,parsing ,exercises1 p4 #bd4 ,if it were possible1 they shall deceive the very elect4--,matt41 xxiv1 #bd4 ,if the whole body were an eye1 where were the hearing8--#a ,corinthians1 xii1 #ag4 ,if the thankful refrained1 it would be pain and grief to them4--,atterbury4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i loved1 #a4 ,if we loved1 #b4 ,if thou loved1 #b4 ,if you loved1 #c4 ,if he loved2 #c4 ,if they loved4 ,,obs4--,in this tense1 the auxiliary did is sometimes employed4 ,the subjunctive may here be distinguished from the indicative1 by these circumstances2 namely1 that the time is indefinite1 and that the supposition is always contrary to the fact3 as1 ,great is the number of those who might attain to true wisdom1 if they did not already think themselves wise4--,dillwyn's ,reflections1 p4 #cf4 ,this implies that they do think themselves wise2 but an indicative supposition or concession--7as1 ,though they did not think themselves wise1 they were so--7 accords with the fact1 and with the literal time of the tense1--here time past4 ,the subjunctive imperfect1 suggesting the idea of what is not1 and known by the sense1 is sometimes introduced without any of the usual signs2 as1 ,in a society of perfect men1 where all understood what was morally right1 and were determined to act accordingly1 it is obvious1 that human laws1 or even human organization to enforce ,god's laws1 would be altogether unnecessary1 and could serve no valuable purpose4--,,pres4 ,,shannon3 ,examiner1 ,no4 #gh4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,the imperative mood is that form of the verb1 which is used in commanding1 exhorting1 entreating1 or permitting4 ,it is commonly used only in the second person of the present tense4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 #b4 ,love thou1 or ,do thou love2 ,plural4 #b4 ,love ye or you1 or ,do you love4 ,,obs4--,in the ,greek language1 which has three numbers1 the imperative mood is used in the second and third persons of them all2 and has also several different tenses1 some of which cannot be clearly rendered in ,english4 ,in ,latin1 this mood has a distinct form for the third person1 both singular and plural4 ,in ,italian1 ,spanish1 and ,french1 the first person plural is also given it4 ,imitations of some of these forms are occasionally employed in ,english1 particularly by the poets4 ,such imitations must be referred to this mood1 unless by ellipsis and transposition we make them out to be something else2 and against this there are strong objections4 ,again1 as imprecation on one's self is not impossible1 the first person singular may be added2 so that this mood may possibly have all the persons and numbers4 ,examples3 ,come we now to his translation of the ,iliad4--,pope's ,pref4 to ,dunciad4 ,proceed we therefore in our subject4--,ib4 ,blessed be he that blesseth thee4--,gen41 xxvii1 #bi4 ,thy kingdom come4--,matt41 vi1 #aj4 ,but pass we that4--,w4 ,scott4 ,third person3 ,be he1 ,be they4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,my soul1 turn from them--turn we to survey1 c4--,goldsmith4 ,then turn we to her latest tribune's name4--,byron4 ,where'er the eye could light these words you read3 ',who comes this way--behold1 and fear to sin6'--,pollok4 ,fall he that must1 beneath his rival's arms1 ,and live the rest1 secure of future harms4--,pope4 ,cursed be ,i that did so6--,all the charms ,of ,sycorax1 toads1 beetles1 bats1 light on you6--,shakspeare4 ,have done thy charms1 thou hateful wither'd hag6--,idem4 ,,participles4 #a4 ,the ,imperfect4 #b4 ,the ,perfect4 #c4 ,the ,preperfect4 ,loving4 ,loved4 ,having loved4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,example4 ,,first ,,person ,,singular4 ,,ind4 ,i love or do love1 ,i loved or did love1 ,i have loved4 ,i had loved1 ,i shall or will love1 ,i shall or will have loved4 ,,pot4 ,i may1 can1 or must love2 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should love2 ,i may1 can1 or must have loved2 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if ,i love1 ,if ,i loved4 ,,second ,,person ,,singular4 ,,ind4 ,thou lovest or dost love1 ,thou lovedst or didst love1 ,thou hast loved1 ,thou hadst loved1 ,thou shalt or wilt love1 ,thou shalt or wilt have loved4 ,,pot4 ,thou mayst1 canst1 or must love2 ,thou mightst1 couldst1 wouldst1 or shouldst love2 ,thou mayst1 canst1 or must have loved2 ,thou mightst1 couldst1 wouldst or shouldst have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if thou love1 ,if thou loved4 ,,imp4 ,love thou1 or ,do thou love4 ,,third ,,person ,,singular4 ,,ind4 ,he loves or does love1 ,he loved or did love1 ,he has loved1 ,he had loved1 ,he shall or will love1 ,he shall or will have loved4 ,,pot4 ,he may1 can1 or must love2 ,he might1 could1 would1 or should love2 ,he may1 can1 or must have loved2 ,he might1 could1 would1 or should have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if he love1 ,if he loved4 ,,first ,,person ,,plural4 ,,ind4 ,we love or do love1 ,we loved or did loved1 ,we have loved1 ,we had loved1 ,we shall or will love1 ,we shall or will have loved4 ,,pot4 ,we may1 can1 or must love1 ,we might1 could1 would1 or should love2 ,we may1 can1 or must have loved2 ,we might1 could1 would1 or should have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if we love1 ,if we loved4 ,,second ,,person ,,plural4 ,,ind4 ,you love or do love1 ,you loved or did love1 ,you have loved1 ,you had loved1 ,you shall or will love1 ,you shall or will have loved4 ,,pot4 ,you may1 can1 or must love2 ,you might1 could1 would1 or should love2 ,you may1 can1 or must have loved2 ,you might1 could1 would1 or should have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if you love1 ,if you loved4 ,,imp4 ,love ye or you1 or ,do you love4 ,,third ,,person ,,plural4 ,,ind4 ,they love or do love1 ,they loved or did love1 ,they have loved1 ,they had loved1 ,they shall or will love1 ,they shall or will have loved4 ,,pot4 ,they may1 can1 or must love2 ,they might1 could1 would1 or should love2 ,they may1 can1 or must have loved2 ,they might1 could1 would1 or should have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if they love1 ,if they loved4 ,,familiar ,,form ,,with ',,thou4' ,,note4--,in the familiar style1 the second person singular of this verb1 is usually and more properly formed thus3 ,,ind4 ,thou lov'st or dost love1 ,thou loved or did love1 ,thou hast loved1 ,thou had loved1 ,thou shall or will love1 ,thou shall or will have loved4 ,,pot4 ,thou may1 can1 or must love2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should love2 ,thou may1 can1 or must have loved2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if thou love1 ,if thou loved4 ,,imp4 ,love thou1 or ,do thou love4 ,,second ,,example4 ,the irregular active verb ,,see1 conjugated affirmatively4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,present4 ,preterit4 ,imp4 ,participle4 ,perf4 ,participle4 ,see4 ,saw4 ,seeing4 ,seen4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,to ,see4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,to have seen4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i see1 #b4 ,thou seest1 #c4 ,he sees2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we see1 #b4 ,you see1 #c4 ,they see4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i saw1 #b4 ,thou sawest1 #c4 ,he saw2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we saw1 #b4 ,you saw1 #c4 ,they saw4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i have seen1 #b4 ,thou hast seen1 #c4 ,he has seen2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we have seen1 #b4 ,you have seen1 #c4 ,they have seen4 ,,pluperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i had seen1 #b4 ,thou hadst seen1 ,he had seen2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we had seen1 #b4 ,you had seen1 #c4 ,they had seen4 ,,first-,,future ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i shall see1 #b4 ,thou wilt see1 ,he will see2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we shall see1 #b4 ,you will see1 #c4 ,they will see4 ,,second-,,future ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i shall have seen1 #b4 ,thou wilt have seen1 #c4 ,he will have seen2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we shall have seen1 #b4 ,you will have seen1 #c4 ,they will have seen4 ,,potential ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i may see1 #b4 ,thou mayst see1 #c4 ,he may see2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we may see1 #b4 ,you may see1 #c4 ,they may see4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i might see1 #b4 ,thou mightst see1 #c4 ,he might see2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we might see1 #b4 ,you might see1 #c4 ,they might see4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i may have seen1 #b4 ,thou mayst have seen1 #c4 ,he may have seen2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we may have seen1 #b4 ,you may have seen1 #c4 ,they may have seen4 ,,pluperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i might have seen1 #b4 ,thou mightst have seen1 #c4 ,he might have seen2 ,plural4 #a4 ,we might have seen1 #b4 ,you might have seen1 #c4 ,they might have seen4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,if ,i see1 #b4 ,if thou see1 #c4 ,if he see2 ,plural4 #a4 ,if we see1 #b4 ,if you see1 #c4 ,if they see4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 #a4 ,if ,i saw1 #b4 ,if thou saw1 #c4 ,if he saw2 ,plural4 #a4 ,if we saw1 #b4 ,if you saw1 #c4 ,if they saw4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 #b4 ,see thou1 or ,do thou see2 ,plural4 #b4 ,see ye or you1 or ,do you see4 ,,participles4 #a4 ,the ,imperfect4 #b4 ,the ,perfect4 #c4 ,the ,preperfect4 ,seeing4 ,seen4 ,having seen4 ,,notes4 ,,note ,i--,the student ought to be able to rehearse the form of a verb1 not only according to the order of the entire conjugation1 but also according to the synopsis of the several persons and numbers4 ,one sixth part of the paradigm1 thus recited1 gives in general a fair sample of the whole3 and1 in class recitations1 this mode of rehearsal will save much time3 as1 ,,ind4 ,i see or do see1 ,i saw or did see1 ,i have seen1 ,i had seen1 ,i shall or will see1 ,i shall or will have seen4 ,,pot4 ,i may1 can1 or must see2 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should see2 ,i may1 can1 or must have seen2 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should have seen4 ,,subj4 ,if ,i see1 ,if ,i saw4 ,,note ,,ii4--,in the familiar style1 the second person singular of this verb is usually and more properly formed thus3 ,,ind4 ,thou seest or dost see1 ,thou saw or did see1 ,thou hast seen1 ,thou had seen1 ,thou shall or will see1 ,thou shall or will have seen4 ,,pot4 ,thou may1 can1 or must see2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should see2 ,thou may1 can1 or must have seen2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should have seen4 ,,subj4 ,if thou see1 ,if thou saw4 ,,imp4 ,see thou1 or ,do thou see4 ,,third ,,example4 ,the irregular neuter verb ,,be1 conjugated affirmatively4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,present4 ,preterit4 ,imp4 ,participle4 ,perf4 ,participle4 ,be4 ,was4 ,being4 ,been4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,to be4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,to have been4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i am1 #a4 ,we are1 #b4 ,thou art1 #b4 ,you are1 #c4 ,he is2 #c4 ,they are4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i was1 #a4 ,we were1 #b4 ,thou wast1 7or wert17#bfb #b4 ,you were1 #c4 ,he was2 #c4 ,they were4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i have been1 #a4 ,we have been1 #b4 ,thou hast been1 #b4 ,you have been1 #c4 ,he has been2 #c4 ,they have been4 ,,pluperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i had been1 #a4 ,we had been1 #b4 ,thou hadst been1 #b4 ,you had been1 #c4 ,he had been2 #c4 ,they had been4 ,,first-,,future ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall be1 #a4 ,we shall be1 #b4 ,thou wilt be1 #b4 ,you will be1 #c4 ,he will be2 #c4 ,they will be4 ,,second-,,future ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall have been1 #a4 ,we shall have been1 #b4 ,thou wilt have been1 #b4 ,you will have been1 #c4 ,he will have been2 #c4 ,they will have been4 ,,potential ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may be1 #a4 ,we may be1 #b4 ,thou mayst be1 #b4 ,you may be1 #c4 ,he may be1 #c4 ,they may be4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might be1 #a4 ,we might be1 #b4 ,thou mightst be1 #b4 ,you might be1 #c4 ,he might be2 #c4 ,they might be4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may have been1 #a4 ,we may have been1 #b4 ,thou mayst have been1 #b4 ,you may have been1 #c4 ,he may have been2 #c4 ,they may have been4 ,,pluperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might have been1 #a4 ,we might have been1 #b4 ,thou mightst have been1 #b4 ,you might have been1 #c4 ,he might have been2 #c4 ,they might have been4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i be1 #a4 ,if we be1 #b4 ,if thou be1 #b4 ,if you be1 #c4 ,if he be2 #c4 ,if they be4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i were1#bfc #a4 ,if we were1 #b4 ,if thou were1 or wert1#bfd #b4 ,if you were1 #c4 ,if he were2 ,if they were4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 #b4 ,be thou1 or ,do thou be2 ,plural4 #b4 ,be ye or you1 or ,do you be4 ,,participles4 #a4 ,the ,imperfect4 #b4 ,the ,perfect4 #c4 ,the ,preperfect4 ,being4 ,been4 ,having been4 ,,familiar ,,form ,,with ',,thou4' ,,note4--,in the familiar style1 the second person singular of this verb1 is usually and more properly formed thus3 ,,ind4 ,thou art1 ,thou was1 ,thou hast been1 ,thou had been1 ,thou shall or will be1 ,thou shall or will have been4 ,,pot4 ,thou may1 can1 or must be2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should be2 ,thou may1 can1 or must have been2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should have been4 ,,subj4 ,if thou be1 ,if thou were4 ,,imp4 ,be thou1 or ,do thou be4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,it appears that be1 as well as am1 was formerly used for the indicative present3 as1 ,i be1 ,thou beest1 ,he be2 ,we be1 ,ye be1 ,they be4 ,see ,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,dr4 ,lowth1 whose ,grammar is still preferred at ,harvard ,university1 gives both forms1 thus3 ,i am1 ,thou art1 ,he is2 ,we are1 ,ye are1 ,they are4 ,or1 ,i be1 ,thou beest1 ,he is2 ,we be1 ,ye be1 ,they be4 ,to the third person singular1 he subjoins the following example and remark3 ',i think it be thine indeed1 for thou liest in it4' ,shak4 ,hamlet4 ,be1 in the singular number of this time and mode1 especially in the third person1 is obsolete2 and is become somewhat antiquated in the plural4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,dr4 ,johnson gives this tense thus3 ,sing4 ,i am2 thou art2 he is2 ,plur4 ,we are1 or be2 ye are1 or be2 they are1 or be4 ,and adds1 ,the plural be is now little in use4--,gram4 in ,johnson's ,dict41 p4 #h4 ,the ,bible commonly has am1 art1 is1 and are1 but not always2 the indicative be occurs in some places3 as1 ,we be twelve brethren4--,gen41 xlii1 #cb4 ,what be these two olive branches8--,zech41 iv1 #ab4 ,some traces of this usage still occur in poetry3 as1 ,there be more things to greet the heart and eyes ,in ,arno's dome of ,art's most princely shrine1 ,where ,sculpture with her rainbow sister vies2 ,there be more marvels yet--but not for mine4 --,byron's ,childe ,harold1 ,canto iv1 st4 #fa4 ,,obs4 #b4--,respecting the verb wert1 it is not easy to determine whether it is most properly of the indicative mood only1 or of the subjunctive mood only1 or of both1 or of neither4 ,the regular and analogical form for the indicative1 is ,thou wast2 and for the subjunctive1 ,if thou were4 ,brightland exhibits1 ,i was or were1 ,thou wast or wert1 ,he was or were1 without distinction of mood1 for the three persons singular2 and1 for the plural1 were only4 ,dr4 ,johnson gives us1 for the indicative1 ,thou wast1 or wert2 with the remark1 ,wert is properly of the conjunctive mood1 and ought not to be used in the indicative4--,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,in his conjunctive 7or subjunctive7 mood1 he has1 ,thou beest1 and ,thou wert4 ,so ,milton wrote1 ,if thou beest he4--,p4 ,lost1 ,b4 i1 l4 #hd4 ,likewise ,shakspeare3 ,if thou beest ,stephano4--,tempest4 ,this inflection of be is obsolete3 all now say1 ,if thou be4 ,but wert is still in use1 to some extent1 for both moods2 being generally placed by the grammarians in the subjunctive only1 but much oftener written for the indicative3 as1 ,whate'er thou art or wert4--,byron's ,harold1 ,canto iv1 st4 #aae4 ,o thou that wert so happy6--,ib41 st4 #aji4 ,vainly wert thou wed4--,ib41 st4 #afi4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,dr4 ,lowth gave to this verb1 ,,be1 that form of the subjunctive mood1 which it now has in most of our grammars2 appending to it the following examples and questions3 ',before the sun1 ,before the ,heavens1 thou wert4'--,milton4 ',remember what thou wert4'--,dryden4 ',i knew thou wert not slow to hear4'--,addison4 ',thou who of old wert sent to ,israel's court4'--,prior4 ',all this thou wert4'--,pope4 ',thou1 ,stella1 wert no longer young4'--,swift4 ,shall we1 in deference to these great authorities1 asks the ,doctor1 allow wert to be the same with wast1 and common to the indicative and the subjunctive mood8 or rather abide by the practice of our best ancient writers2 the propriety of the language1 which requires1 as far as may be1 distinct forms1 for different moods2 and the analogy of formation in each mood2 ,i was1 thou wast2 ,i were1 thou wert8 all which conspire to make wert peculiar to the subjunctive mood4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #cg2 ,churchill's1 p4 #bea4 ,i have before shown1 that several of the best ancient writers did not inflect the verb were1 but wrote thou were2 and1 surely1 the analogy of formation1 requires that the subjunctive be not inflected4 ,hence the propriety which requires distinct forms1 requires not wert1 in either mood4 ,why then should we make this contraction of the old indicative form werest1 a solitary exception1 by fixing it in the subjunctive only1 and that in opposition to the best authorities that ever used it8 ,it is worthier to take rank with its kindred beest1 and be called an archaism4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the chief characteristical difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood1 is1 that in the latter the verb is not inflected at all1 in the different persons3 ,,ind4 ,thou magnifiest his work4 ,,subj4 ,remember that thou magnify his work4--,job1 xxxvi1 #bd4 ,,ind4 ,he cuts off1 shuts up1 and gathers together4 ,,subj4 ,if he cut off1 and shut up1 or gather together1 then who can hinder him8--,job1 xl1 #aj4 ,there is also a difference of meaning4 ,the ,indicative1 ,if he was1 admits the fact2 the ,subjunctive1 ,if he were1 supposes that he was not4 ,these moods may therefore be distinguished by the sense1 even when their forms are alike3 as1 ,though it thundered1 it did not rain4--,though it thundered1 he would not hear it4 ,the indicative assumption here is1 ,though it did thunder1 or1 ,though there was thunder2 the subjunctive1 ,though it should thunder1 or1 ,though there were thunder4 ,these senses are clearly different4 ,writers however are continually confounding these moods2 some in one way1 some in an other4 ,thus ,s4 ,r4 ,hall1 the teacher of a ,seminary for ,teachers3 ,,subj4 ,present ,tense4 #a4 ,if ,i be1 or am1 #b4 ,if thou be1 or art1 #c4 ,if he be1 or is2 #a4 ,if we be1 or are1 #b4 ,if ye or you be1 or are1 #c4 ,if they be1 or are4 ,imperfect ,tense4 #a4 ,if ,i were1 or was1 #b4 ,if thou wert1 or wast1 #c4 ,if he were1 or was2 #a4 ,if we were1 #b4 ,if ye or you were1 #c4 ,if they were4--,hall's ,grammatical ,assistant1 p4 #aa4 ,again3 ,,subj4 ,present ,tense4 #a4 ,if ,i love1 #b4 ,if thou lovest1 #c4 ,if he love1 c4 ,the remaining tenses of this mode1 are1 in general1 similar to the correspondent tenses of the ,indicative mode1 only with the conjunction prefixed4--,ib41 p4 #bj4 ,dr4 ,johnson observes1 ,the indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently confounded2 or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected1 when some convenience of versification does not invite its revival4 ,it is used among the purer writers of former times2 as1 ',doubtless thou art our father1 though ,abraham be ignorant of us1 and ,israel acknowledge us not4'--,gram4 in ,joh4 ,dict41 p4 #i4 ,to neglect the subjunctive mood1 or to confound it with the indicative1 is to augment several of the worst faults of the language4 ,,ii4 ,,compound ,,or ,,progressive ,,form4 ,active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated1 by adding the ,imperfect ,participle to the auxiliary verb ,,be1 through all its changes2 as1 ,i am writing a letter4--,he is sitting idle4--,they are going4 ,this form of the verb denotes a continuance of the action or state of being1 and is1 on many occasions1 preferable to the simple form of the verb4 ,,fourth ,,example4 ,the irregular active verb ,,read1 conjugated affirmatively1 in the ,compound ,form4 ,,principal ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,simple ,,verb4 ,present4 ,preterit4 ,imp4 ,participle4 ,perf4 ,participle4 ,read4 ,read4 ,reading4 ,read4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,to be reading4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,to have been reading4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i am reading1 #a4 ,we are reading1 #b4 ,thou art reading1 #b4 ,you are reading1 #c4 ,he is reading2 #c4 ,they are reading4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i was reading1 #a4 ,we were reading1 #b4 ,thou wast reading1 #b4 ,you were reading1 #c4 ,he was reading2 #c4 ,they were reading4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i have been reading1 #a4 ,we have been reading1 #b4 ,thou hast been reading1 #b4 ,you have been reading1 #c4 ,he has been reading2 #c4 ,they have been reading4 ,,pluperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i had been reading1 #a4 ,we had been reading1 #b4 ,thou hadst been reading1 #b4 ,you had been reading1 #c4 ,he had been reading2 #c4 ,they had been reading4 ,,first-,,future ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall be reading1 #a4 ,we shall be reading1 #b4 ,thou wilt be reading1 #b4 ,you will be reading1 #c4 ,he will be reading2 #c4 ,they will be reading4 ,,second-,,future ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall have been reading1 #a4 ,we shall have been reading1 #b4 ,thou wilt have been reading1 #b4 ,you will have been reading1 #c4 ,he will have been reading2 #c4 ,they will have been reading4 ,,potential ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may be reading1 #a4 ,we may be reading1 #b4 ,thou mayst be reading1 #b4 ,you may be reading1 #c4 ,he may be reading2 #c4 ,they may be reading4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might be reading1 #a4 ,we might be reading1 #b4 ,thou mightst be reading1 #b4 ,you might be reading1 #c4 ,he might be reading2 #c4 ,they might be reading4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may have been reading1 #a4 ,we may have been reading1 #b4 ,thou mayst have been reading1 #b4 ,you may have been reading1 #c4 ,he may have been reading2 #c4 ,they may have been reading4 ,,pluperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might have been reading1 #a4 ,we might have been reading1 #b4 ,thou mightst have been reading1 #b4 ,you might have been reading1 #c4 ,he might have been reading2 #c4 ,they might have been reading4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i be reading1 #a4 ,if we be reading1 #b4 ,if thou be reading1 #b4 ,if you be reading1 #c4 ,if he be reading2 #c4 ,if they be reading4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i were reading1 #a4 ,if we were reading1 #b4 ,if thou were reading1 #b4 ,if you were reading1 #c4 ,if he were reading2 #c4 ,if they were reading4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,sing4 #b4 ,be thou reading1 or ,do thou be reading2 ,plur4 #b4 ,be ye or you reading1 or ,do you be reading4 ,,participles4 #a4 ,the ,imperfect4 #b4 ,the ,perfect4 #c4 ,the ,preperfect4 ,being reading4 --------- ,having been reading4 ,,familiar ,,form ,,with ',,thou4' ,,note4--,in the familiar style1 the second person singular of this verb1 is usually and more properly formed thus3 ,,ind4 ,thou art reading1 ,thou was reading1 ,thou hast been reading1 ,thou had been reading1 ,thou shall or will be reading1 ,thou shall or will have been reading4 ,,pot4 ,thou may1 can1 or must be reading2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should be reading2 ,thou may1 can1 or must have been reading2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should have been reading4 ,,subj4 ,if thou be reading1 ,if thou were reading4 ,,imp4 ,be thou1 reading1 or ,do thou be reading4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,those verbs which1 in their simple form1 imply continuance1 do not admit the compound form3 thus we say1 ,i respect him2 but not1 ,i am respecting him4 ,this compound form seems to imply that kind of action1 which is susceptible of intermissions and renewals4 ,affections of the mind or heart are supposed to last2 or1 rather1 actions of this kind are complete as soon as they exist4 ,hence1 to love1 to hate1 to desire1 to fear1 to forget1 to remember1 and many other such verbs1 are incapable of this method of conjugation4#bfe ,it is true1 we often find in grammars such models1 as1 ,i was loving1 ,thou wast loving1 ,he was loving1 c4 ,but this language1 to express what the authors intend by it1 is not ,english4 ,he was loving1 can only mean1 ,he was affectionate3 in which sense1 loving is an adjective1 and susceptible of comparison4 ,who1 in common parlance1 has ever said1 ,he was loving me1 or any thing like it8 ,yet some have improperly published various examples1 or even whole conjugations1 of this spurious sort4 ,see such in ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #ia2 ,gould's ,adam1 #hc2 ,bullions's ,english ,gram41 #eb2 his ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 #ib2 ,chandler's ,new ,gram41 #he and #hf2 ,clark's1 #hj2 ,cooper's ,plain and ,practical1 #gj2 ,frazee's ,improved1 #ff and #fi2 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene's1 #bcd2 ,guy's1 #be2 ,hallock's1 #ajc2 ,hart's1 #hh2 ,hendrick's1 #ch2 ,lennie's1 #ca2 ,lowth's1 #dj2 ,harrison's1 #cd2 ,perley's1 #cf2 ,pinneo's ,primary1 #aja4 ,,obs4 #b4--,verbs of this form have sometimes a passive signification2 as1 ,the books are now selling4--,allen's ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,as the money was paying down4--,ainsworth's ,dict41 w4 ,as4 ,it requires no motion in the organs whilst it is forming4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,those works are long forming which must always last4--,dr4 ,chetwood4 ,while the work of the temple was carrying on4--,dr4 ,j4 ,owen4 ,the designs of ,providence are carrying on4--,bp4 ,butler4 ,a scheme1 which has been carrying on1 and is still carrying on4--,id41 ,analogy1 p4 #ahh4 ,we are permitted to know nothing of what is transacting in the regions above us4--,dr4 ,blair4 ,while these things were transacting in ,germany4--,russell's ,modern ,europe1 ,part ,first1 ,let4 #ei4 ,as he was carrying to execution1 he demanded to be heard4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #afc4 ,to declare that the action was doing or done4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #bh4 ,it is doing by thousands now4--,abbott's ,young ,christian1 p4 #aba4 ,while the experiment was making1 he was watching every movement4--,ib41 p4 #cji4 ,a series of communications from heaven1 which had been making for fifteen hundred years4--,ib41 p4 #aff4 ,plutarch's ,lives are re-printing4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #fd4 ,my ,lives are reprinting4--,,dr4 ,,johnson3 ,worcester's ,univ4 and ,crit4 ,dict41 p4 xlvi4 ,all this has been transacting within #acj miles of ,london4--,,byron3 ,perley's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,when the heart is corroding by vexations4--,student's ,manual1 p4 #ccf4 ,the padlocks for our lips are forging4--,,whittier3 ,liberator1 ,no4 #iic4 ,when his throat is cutting4--,collier's ,antoninus4 ,while your story is telling4--,adams's ,rhet41 i1 #dbe4 ,but the seeds of it were sowing some time before4--,bolingbroke1 on ,history1 p4 #afh4 ,as soon as it was formed1 nay even whilst it was forming4--,ib41 p4 #afc4 ,strange schemes of private ambition were formed and forming there4--,ib41 p4 #bia4 ,even when it was making and made4--,ib41 #bii4 ,which have been made and are making4--,,henry ,,clay3 ,liberator1 ix1 p4 #ada4 ,and they are in measure sanctified1 or sanctifying1 by the power thereof4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ecg4 ,which is now accomplishing amongst the uncivilized countries of the earth4--,chalmers1 ,sermons1 p4 #bha4 ,who are ruining1 or ruined1 in this way4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #aee4 ,whilst they were undoing4--,ibid4 ,whether he was employing fire to consume something1 or was himself consuming by fire4--,crombie1 on ,etym4 and ,syntax1 p4 #adh4 ,at home1 the greatest exertions are making to promote its progress4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 iv4 ,with those sounds which are uttering4--,ib41 p4 #abe4 ,orders are now concerting for the dismissal of all officers of the ,revenue marine4--,providence ,journal1 ,feb4 #a1 #ahej4 ,expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics1 under the notion that the participle in ing must never be passive2 but the usage is unquestionably of far better authority1 and1 according to my apprehension1 in far better taste1 than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in its stead2 as1 ,the books are now being sold4--,in all the towns about ,cork1 the whiskey shops are being closed1 and soup1 coffee1 and tea houses are establishing generally4--,dublin ,evening ,post1 #ahdj4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the question here is1 ,which is the most correct expression1 ,while the bridge was building1--,while the bridge was a building1--or1 ,while the bridge was being built8 ,and again1 ,are they all wrong8 ,if none of these is right1 we must reject them all1 and say1 ,while they were building the bridge2--,while the bridge was in process of erection2--or resort to some other equivalent phrase4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 after noticing the compound form of active-intransitives1 as1 ,i am going--,she is dying1--,the tempest is raging1--,i have been walking1 and so forth1 adds3 ,there is another manner of using the active participle1 which gives it a passive signification3#bff as1 ,the grammar is now printing1 ,grammatica jam nunc chartis imprimitur4 ,the brass is forging1 ra excuduntur4 ,this is1 in my opinion1 says he1 a vitious expression1 probably corrupted from a phrase more pure1 but now somewhat obsolete3 ,the book is a printing1 ,the brass is a forging2 a being properly at1 and printing and forging verbal nouns signifying action1 according to the analogy of this language4--,gram4 in ,joh4 ,dict41 p4 #i4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,a is certainly sometimes a preposition2 and1 as such1 it may govern a participle1 and that without converting it into a verbal noun4 ,but that such phraseology ought to be preferred to what is exhibited with so many authorities1 in a preceding paragraph1 and with an example from ,johnson among the rest1 ,i am not prepared to concede4 ,as to the notion of introducing a new and more complex passive form of conjugation1 as1 ,the bridge is being built1 ,the bridge was being built1 and so forth1 it is one of the most absurd and monstrous innovations ever thought of4 ,yet some two or three men1 who seem to delight in huge absurdities1 declare that this modern innovation is likely to supersede the simpler mode of expression4 ,thus1 in stead of1 ,the work is now publishing1 they choose to say1 ,the work is now being published4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,this is certainly no better ,english than1 ,the work was being published1 has been being published1 had been being published1 shall or will be being published1 shall or will have been being published2 and so on1 through all the moods and tenses4 ,what a language shall we have when our verbs are thus conjugated6 ,,obs4 #e4--;,a certain ,irish critic1 who even outdoes in rashness the above-cited ,american1 having recently arrived in ,new ,york1 has republished a grammar1 in which he not only repudiates the passive use of the participle in ing1 but denies the usual passive form of the present tense1 ,i am loved1 ,i am smitten c41 as taught by ,murray and others1 to be good ,english2 and tells us that the true form is1 ,i am being loved1 ,i am being smitten1 c4 ,see the #ihth and #ajc;d pages of ,joseph ,w4 ,wright's ,philosophical ,grammar1 7,edition of #ahch17 dedicated ,,to ,,common ,,sense6 #bfg ,but both are offset1 if not refuted1 by the following observations from a source decidedly better3 ,it has lately become common to use the present participle passive 1 to express the suffering of an action as continuing1 instead of the participle in -ing in the passive sense2 thus1 instead of1 ',the house is building1' we now very frequently hear1 ',the house is being built4' ,this mode of expression1 besides being awkward1 is incorrect1 and does not express the idea intended4 ,this will be obvious1 ,i think1 from the following considerations4 #a4 ,the expression1 'is being1' is equivalent to 'is1' and expresses no more2 just as1 'is loving1' is equivalent to1 'loves4' ,hence1 'is being built1' is precisely equivalent to1 'is built4' #b4 ',built1' is a perfect participle2 and therefore cannot1 in any connexion1 express an action1 or the suffering of an action1 now in progress4 ,the verb to be1 signifies to exist2 'being1' therefore1 is equivalent to 'existing4' ,if then we substitute the synonyme1 the nature of the expression will be obvious2 thus1 'the house is being built1' is1 in other words1 'the house is existing built1' or more simply as before1 'the house is built2' plainly importing an action not progressing1 but now existing in a finished state4 #c4 ,if the expression1 'is being built1' be a correct form of the present indicative passive1 then it must be equally correct to say in the perfect1 'has been being built2' in the past perfect1 'had been being built2' in the present infinitive1'to be being built2' in the perfect infinitive1'to have been being built2' and in the present participle1 'being being built2' which all will admit to be expressions as incorrect as they are inelegant1 but precisely analogous to that which now begins to prevail4--,bullions's ,principles of ,english ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,it may be replied1 that the verbs to be and to exist are not always synonymous2 because the former is often a mere auxiliary1 or a mere copula1 whereas the latter always means something positive1 as to be in being1 to be extant4 ,thus we may speak of a thing as being destroyed1 or may say1 it is annihilated2 but we can by no means speak of it as existing destroyed1 or say1 it exists annihilated4 ,the first argument above is also nugatory4 ,these drawbacks1 however1 do not wholly destroy the force of the foregoing criticism1 or at all extenuate the obvious tautology and impropriety of such phrases as1 is being1 was being1 c4 ,the gentlemen who affirm that this new form of conjugation is being introduced into the language1 7since they allow participles to follow possessive pronouns7 may very fairly be asked1 ,what evidence have you of its being being introduced8 ,nor can they1 on their own principles1 either object to the monstrous phraseology of this question1 or tell how to better it6#bfh ,,obs4 #g4--;,d4 ,h4 ,sanborn1 an other recent writer1 has very emphatically censured this innovation1 as follows3 ,english and ,american writers have of late introduced a new kind of phraseology1 which has become quite prevalent in the periodical and popular publications of the day4 ,their intention1 doubtless1 is1 to supersede the use of the verb in the definite form1 when it has a passive signification4 ,they say1 ',the ship is being built1'--'time is being wasted1--'the work is being advanced1' instead of1 'the ship is building1 time is wasting1 the work is advancing4' ,such a phraseology is a solecism too palpable to receive any favor2 it is at war with the practice of the most distinguished writers in the ,english language1 such as ,dr4 ,johnson and ,addison4 ,when an individual says1 'a house is being burned1' he declares that a house is existing1 burned1 which is impossible2 for being means existing1 and burned1 consumed by fire4 ,the house ceases to exist as such1 after it is consumed by fire4 ,but when he says1 'a house is burning1' we understand that it is consuming by fire2 instead of inaccuracy1 doubt1 and ambiguity1 we have a form of expression perfectly intelligible1 beautiful1 definite1 and appropriate4--,sanborn's ,analytical ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,dr4 ,perley speaks of this usage thus3 ,an attempt has been made of late to introduce a kind of passive participial voice2 as1 ',the temple is being built4' ,this ought not to be encouraged4 ,for1 besides being an innovation1 it is less convenient than the use of the present participle in the passive sense4 ,being built signifies action finished2 and how can1 ,is being built1 signify an action unfinished8--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the question now before us has drawn forth1 on either side1 a deal of ill scholarship and false logic1 of which it would be tedious to give even a synopsis4 ,concerning the import of some of our most common words and phrases1 these ingenious masters1--,bullions1 ,sanborn1 and ,perley1--severally assert some things which seem not to be exactly true4 ,it is remarkable that critics can err in expounding terms so central to the language1 and so familiar to all ears1 as be1 being1 being built1 burned1 being burned1 is1 is burned1 to be burned1 and the like4 ,that to be and to exist1 or their like derivatives1 such as being and existing1 is and exists1 cannot always explain each other1 is sufficiently shown above2 and thereby is refuted ,sanborn's chief argument1 that1 is being burned1 involves the contradiction of existing1 burned1 or consumed by fire4 ,according to his reasoning1 as well as that of ,bullions1 is burned must mean exists consumed2 was burned1 existed consumed2 and thus our whole passive conjugation would often be found made up of bald absurdities6 ,that this new unco-passive form conflicts with the older and better usage of taking the progressive form sometimes passively1 is doubtless a good argument against the innovation2 but that ,johnson and ,addison are fit representatives of the older practice in this case1 may be doubted4 ,i know not that the latter has anywhere made use of such phraseology2 and one or two examples from the former are scarcely an offset to his positive verdict against the usage4 ,see ,,obs4 #crd1 above4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,as to what is called the present or the imperfect participle passive1--as1 being burned1 or being burnt1--if it is rightly interpreted in any of the foregoing citations1 it is1 beyond question1 very improperly thus named4 ,in participles1 ing denotes continuance3 thus being usually means continuing to be2 loving1 continuing to love2 building1 continuing to build1--or 7as taken passively7 continuing to be built3 i4 e41 7in words which express the sense more precisely and certainly17 continuing to be in process of construction4 ,what then is being built1 but continuing to be built1 the same1 or nearly the same1 as building taken passively8 ,true it is1 that built1 when alone1 being a perfect participle1 does not mean in process of construction1 but rather1 constructed which intimates completion2 yet1 in the foregoing passive phrases1 and others like them1 as well as in all examples of this unco-passive voice1 continuance of the passive state being first suggested1 and cessation of the act being either regarded as future or disregarded1 the imperfect participle passive is for the most part received as equivalent to the simple imperfect used in a passive sense4 ,but ,dr4 ,bullions1 who1 after making is being built precisely equivalent to is built1 classes the two participles differently1 and both erroneously1--the one as a present participle1 and the other1 of late1 as a past1--has also said above1 ',built1' is a perfect participle3 and ,,therefore cannot1 in any connexion1 express an action1 or the suffering of an action1 now in progress4 ,and ,dr4 ,perley1 who also calls the compound of being a present participle1 argues thus3 ,being built signifies an action1 finished2 and how can ,is being built1 signify an action unfinished8 ,to expound a passive term actively1 or as signifying action1 is1 at any rate1 a near approach to absurdity2 and ,i shall presently show that the fore-cited notion of a perfect participle1 now half abandoned by ,bullions himself1 has been the seed of the very worst form of that ridiculous neology which the good ,doctor was opposing4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,these criticisms being based upon the meaning of certain participles1 either alone or in phrases1 and the particular terms spoken of being chiefly meant to represent classes1 what is said of them may be understood of their kinds4 ,hence the appropriate naming of the kinds1 so as to convey no false idea of any participle's import1 is justly brought into view2 and ,i may be allowed to say here1 that1 for the first participle passive1 which begins with being1 the epithet ,imperfect is better than ,present1 because this compound participle denotes1 not always what is present1 but always the state of something by which an action is1 or was1 or will be1 undergone or undergoing--a state continuing1 or so regarded1 though perhaps the action causative may be ended--or sometimes perhaps imagined only1 and not yet really begun4 ,with a marvellous instability of doctrine1 for the professed systematizer of different languages and grammars1 ,dr4 ,bullions has recently changed his names of the second and third participles1 in both voices1 from ,perfect and ,compound ,perfect1 to ,past and ,perfect4 ,his notion now is1 that1 ,the ,perfect participle is always compound2 as1 ,having finished1 ,having been finished4--,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,grammar1 #ahdi1 p4 #gg4 ,and what was the ,perfect before1 in his several books1 is now called the ,past2 though1 with this change1 he has deliberately made an other which is repugnant to it3 this participle1 being the basis of three tenses always1 and of all the tenses sometimes1 is now allowed by the ,doctor to lend the term perfect to the three1--,present-perfect1 ,past-perfect1 ,future-perfect1--even when itself is named otherwise6 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,from the erroneous conception1 that a perfect participle must1 in every connexion1 express action finished1 action past1--or perhaps from only a moiety of this great error1--the notion that such a participle cannot1 in connexion with an auxiliary1 constitute a passive verb of the present tense1--,j4 ,w4 ,wright1 above-mentioned1 has not very unnaturally reasoned1 that1 ,the expression1 ',i am loved1' which ,mr4 ,murray has employed to exhibit the passive conjugation of the present tense1 may much more feasibly represent past than present time4--,see ,wright's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #ii4 ,accordingly1 in his own paradigm of the passive verb1 he has formed this tense solely from what he calls the participle present1 thus3 ,i am being smitten1 ,thou art being smitten1 c4--,ib41 p4 #ih4 ,his ,passed ,tense1 too1 for some reason which ,i do not discover1 he distinguishes above the rest by a double form1 thus3 ,i was smitten1 or being smitten2 ,thou wast smitten1 or being smitten2 c4--,p4 #ii4 ,in his opinion1 ,few will object to the propriety of the more familiar phraseology1 ',i am in the ,,act1--or1 suffering the ,,action of ,,being ,,smitten2' and yet1 says he1 in substance and effect1 it is wholly the same as1 ',i am being smitten1' which is ,,the ,,true ,,form of the verb in the present tense of the passive voice6--,ibid4 ,had we not met with some similar expressions of ,english or ,american blunderers1 the act or action of being smitten1 would be accounted a downright ,irish bull2 and as to this ultra notion of neologizing all our passive verbs1 by the addition of being1--with the author's cool talk of the presentation of this theory1 and the consequent suppression of that hitherto employed1--there is a transcendency in it1 worthy of the most sublime aspirant among grammatical newfanglers4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,but1 with all its boldness of innovation1 ,wright's ,philosophical ,grammar is not a little self-contradictory in its treatment of the passive verb4 ,the entire suppression of the usual form of its present tense1 did not always appear1 even to this author1 quite so easy and reasonable a matter1 as the foregoing citations would seem to represent it4 ,the passive use of the participle in ing1 he has easily disposed of3 despite innumerable authorities for it1 one false assertion1 of seven syllables1 suffices to make it quite impossible4#bfi ,but the usual passive form1 which1 with some show of truth1 is accused of not having always precisely the same meaning as the progressive used passively1--that is1 of not always denoting continuance in the state of receiving continued action1--and which is1 for that remarkable reason1 judged worthy of rejection1 is nevertheless admitted to have1 in very many instances1 a conformity to this idea1 and therefore to belong thus far to the present tense4--,p4 #ajc4 ,this contradicts to an indefinite extent1 the proposition for its rejection4 ,it is observable also1 that the same examples1 ',i am loved' and ',i am smitten1'--the same tolerated1 but erroneous forms1 7so called on page #ajc17 that are given as specimens of what he would reject1--though at first pronounced equivalent in grammatical construction1 censured for the same pretended error1 and proposed to be changed alike to the true form by the insertion of being1--are subsequently declared to belong to different classes and different tenses4 ,i am loved1 is referred to that numerous class of verbs1 which detail ,,action of prior1 but retained1 endured1 and continued existence2 and therefore1 in this sense1 belong to the present tense4 ,but ,i am smitten1 is idly reckoned of an opposite class1 7said by ,dr4 ,bullions to be perhaps the greater number17 whose ,,actions described are neither continuous in their nature1 nor progressive in their duration2 but1 on the contrary1 completed and perfected2 and which are consequently descriptive of passed time and ,,action4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,again3 ,in what instance soever this latter form and signification can be introduced1 their import should be1 and1 indeed1 ought to be1 supplied by the perfect tense construction3--for example1 ',i am smitten1' should be1 ',i have been smitten4'--,ib4 ,here is self-contradiction indefinitely extended in an other way4 ,many a good phrase1 if not every one1 that the author's first suggestion would turn to the unco-passive form1 his present remedy would about as absurdly convert into the perfect tense4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,but ,wright's inconsistency1 about this matter1 ends not here3 it runs through all he says of it2 for1 in this instance1 error and inconsistency constitute his whole story4 ,in one place1 he anticipates and answers a question thus3 ,to what tense do the constructions1 ',i am pleased2' ',he is expected2' ',i am smitten2' ',he is bound2' belong8 ,we answer3--,so far as these and like constructions are applicable to the delineation of continuous and retained ,,action1 they express present time2 and must be treated accordingly4--,p4 #ajc4 ,this seems to intimate that even1 ,i am smitten1 and its likes1 as they stand1 may have some good claim to be of the present tense2 which suggestion is contrary to several others made by the author4 ,to expound this1 or any other passive term1 passively1 never enters his mind3 with him1 as with sundry others1 ,,action1 finished ,,action1 or progressive ,,action1 is all any passive verb or participle ever means6 ,no marvel1 that awkward perversions of the forms of utterance and the principles of grammar should follow such interpretation4 ,in ,wright's syntax a very queer distinction is apparently made between a passive verb1 and the participle chiefly constituting it2 and here1 too1 through a fancied ellipsis of being before the latter1 most1 if not all1 of his other positions concerning passives1 are again disastrously overthrown by something worse--a word imperceptibly understood4 ',i am smitten2' ',i was smitten2' c41 are1 he says1 the universally acknowledged forms of the ,,verbs in these tenses1 in the passive voice3--not of the ,,participle4 ,in all verbal constructions of the character of which we have hitherto treated1 7see page #ajc7 and1 where the ,,actions described are continuous in their operations1--the participle ,,being is imperceptibly omitted1 by ellipsis4--,p4 #add4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,dr4 ,bullions has stated1 that1 ,the present participle active1 and the present participle passive1 are not counterparts to each other in signification2 1 the one signifying the present doing1 and the other the present suffering of an action1 2 for the latter always intimates the present being of an ,,act1 not in progress1 but completed4--,prin4 of ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,in this1 he errs no less grossly than in his idea of the action or the suffering expressed by a perfect participle1 as cited in ,,obs4 #eth above2 namely1 that it must have ceased4 ,worse interpretation1 or balder absurdity1 is scarcely to be met with2 and yet the reverend ,doctor1 great linguist as he should be1 was here only trying to think and tell the common import of a very common sort of ,english participles2 such as1 being loved and being seen4 ,in grammar1 an act1 that has present being1 can be nothing else than an act now doing1 or in progress2 and if1 the present being of an ,,act not in progress1 were here a possible thought1 it surely could not be intimated by any such participle4 ,in ,acts1 i1 #c and #d1 it is stated1 that our ,saviour showed himself to the apostles1 alive after his passion1 by many infallible proofs1 being seen of them forty days1 and speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of ,god2 and1 being assembled together with them commanded them that they should not depart from ,jerusalem4 ,now1 of these misnamed present participles1 we have here one active1 one passive1 and two others--7one in each form--7 that are neuter2 but no present time1 except what is in the indefinite date of pertaining4 ,the events are past1 and were so in the days of ,st4 ,luke4 ,yet each of the participles denotes continuance3 not1 indeed1 in or to the present time1 but for a time4 ,being seen means continuing to be seen2 and1 in this instance1 the period of the continuance was forty days of time past4 ,but1 according to the above-cited principle of ,english ,grammar1 so long and so widely inculcated by the ,rev4 ,peter ,bullions1 ,d4 ,d41 ,professor of ,languages1 c41--a central principle of interpretation1 presumed by him to hold always--this participle must intimate the present being of an act1 not in progress1 but completed2--that is1 the present being of the apostles' act in formerly seeing the risen ,saviour6 ,,obs4 #af4--,this grammarian has lately taken a deal of needless pains to sustain1 by a studied division of verbs into two classes1 similar to those which are mentioned in ,,obs4 #acth above1 a part of the philosophy of ,j4 ,w4 ,wright1 concerning our usual form of passives in the present tense4 ,but1 as he now will have it1 that the two voices sometimes tally as counterparts1 it is plain that he adheres but partially to his former erroneous conception of a perfect or past participle1 and the terms which hold it in any connexion4 ,the awkward substitutes proposed by the ,irish critic1 he does not indeed countenance2 but argues against them still1 and1 in some respects1 very justly4 ,the doctrine now common to these authors1 on this point1 is the highly important one1 that1 in respect to half our verbs1 what we commonly take for the passive present1 is not such--that1 in the second class1 7perhaps the greater number17 the present-passive implies that the act expressed by the active voice has ceased4 ,thus1 ',the house is built4' 99 99 99 ,strictly speaking1 then1 says the ,doctor1 the ,,past ,,participle with the verb ,,to ,,be is not the present tense in the passive voice of verbs thus used2 that is1 this form does not express passively the doing of the act4--,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,grammar1 ,ed4 of #ahdi1 p4 #bce4 ,thus far these two authors agree2 except that ,wright seems to have avoided the incongruity of calling that the present-passive which he denies to be such4 ,but the ,doctor1 approving none of this practitioner's remedies1 and being less solicitous to provide other treatment than expulsion for the thousands of present passives which both deem spurious1 adds1 as from the chair1 this verdict3 ,these verbs either have no present-passive1 or it is made by annexing the participle in ing1 in its passive sense1 to the verb to be2 as1 ',the house is building4'--,ib41 p4 #bcf4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,it would seem1 that ,dr4 ,bullions thinks1 and in reality ,wright also1 that nothing can be a present passive1 but what expresses passively the ,,doing of the act4 ,this is about as wise1 as to try to imagine every active verb to express actively the receiving of an act6 ,it borders exceedingly hard upon absurdity2 it very much resembles the nonsense of expressing receptively the giving of something6 ,besides1 the word ,,doing1 being used substantively1 does not determine well what is here meant2 which is1 ,i suppose1 continuance1 or an unfinished state of the act received--an idea which seems adapted to the participle in ing1 but which it is certainly no fault of a participle ending in d1 t1 or n1 not to suggest4 ,to express passively the doing of the act1 if the language means any thing rational1 may be1 simply to say1 that the act is or was done4 ,for doings are1 as often as any-wise1 things done1 as buildings are fabrics built2 and is built1 and am smitten1 the gentlemen's choice examples of false passives1 and of actions finished1--though neither of them necessarily intimates either continuance or cessation of the act suffered1 or1 if it did1 would be the less or the more passive or present1--may1 in such a sense1 express the doing of the act1 if any passives can3--nay1 the finished act has such completion as may be stated with degrees of progress or of frequency2 as1 ,the house is partly built4--,i am oftener smitten4 ,there is1 undoubtedly1 some difference between the assertions1 ,the house is building1--and1 ,the house is partly built2 though1 for practical purposes1 perhaps1 we need not always be very nice in choosing between them4 ,for the sake of variety1 however1 if for nothing else1 it is to be hoped1 the doctrine above-cited1 which limits half our passive verbs of the present tense1 to the progressive form only1 will not soon be generally approved4 ,it impairs the language more than unco-passives are likely ever to corrupt it4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,no startling novelties have been introduced1 says the preface to the ,analytical and ,practical ,grammar of the ,english ,language4 ,to have shunned all shocking innovations1 is only to have exercised common prudence4 ,it is not pretended1 that any of the ,doctor's errors here remarked upon1 or elsewhere in this treatise1 will startle any body2 but1 if errors exist1 even in plausible guise1 it may not be amiss1 if ,i tell of them4 ,to suppose every verb or participle to be either transitive or intransitive1 setting all passives with the former sort1 all neuters with the latter2 7p4 #ei27--to define the transitive verb or participle as expressing always an act ,,done by one person or thing to another2 7p4 #fj27--to say1 after making passive verbs transitive1 ,the object of a transitive verb is in the objective case1 and1 ,a verb that does not make sense with an objective after it1 is intransitive2 7p4 #fj27--to insist upon a precise and almost universal identity of meaning in terms so obviously contrasted as are the two voices1 active and passive2 7pp4 #ie and #bce27--to allege1 as a general principle1 that whether we use the active1 or the passive voice1 the meaning is the same1 except in some cases in the present tense2 7p4 #fg27--to attribute to the forms naturally opposite in voice and sense1 that sameness of meaning which is observable only in certain whole sentences formed from them2 7pp4 #fg1 #ie1 and #bce27--to assume that each ,,voice is a particular form of the verb1 yet make it include two cases1 and often a preposition before one of them2 7pp4 #ff1 #fg1 and #ie27--to pretend from the words1 ,the ,,passive ,,voice represents the subject of the verb as acted upon1 7p4 #fg17 that1 ,according to the ,,definition1 the passive voice expresses1 passively1 the same thing that the active does actively2 7p4 #bce27--to affirm that1 ',csar conquered ,gaul1' and ',gaul was conquered by ,csar1' express precisely the same idea1--and then say1 ,it will be felt at once that the expressions1 ',csar conquers ,gaul1' and ',gaul is conquered by ,csar1' do not express the same thing2 7p4 #bce27--to deny that passive verbs or neuter are worthy to constitute a distinct class1 yet profess to find1 in one single tense of the former1 such a difference of meaning as warrants a general division of verbs in respect to it2 7ib427--to announce1 in bad ,english1 that1 ,in regard to this matter 1 there are evidently ,two ,,classes of verbs2 namely1 those whose present-passive expresses precisely the same thing1 passively1 as the active voice does actively1 and those in which it does not3 7ib427--to do these several things1 as they have been done1 is1 to set forth1 not novelties only1 but errors and inconsistencies4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,dr4 ,bullions still adheres to his old argument1 that being after its own verb must be devoid of meaning2 or1 in his own words1 that is being built1 if it mean anything1 can mean nothing more than is built1 which is not the idea intended to be expressed4--,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #bcg4 ,he had said1 7as cited in ,,obs4 #eth above17 ,the expression1 'is being1' is equivalent to is1 and expresses no more2 just as1 'is loving1' is equivalent to 'loves4' ,hence1 'is being built1' is precisely equivalent to 'is built4'--,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,he has now discovered that there is no progressive form of the verb to be1 and no need of it3 and that1 hence1 there is no such expression in ,english as is being4--,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #bcf4 ,he should have noticed also1 that is loving is not an authorized equivalent to loves2 and1 further1 that the error of saying is being built1 is only in the relation of the first two words to each other4 ,if is being1 and is loving1 are left unused for the same reason1 the truth may be1 that is itself1 like loves1 commonly denotes continuance2 and that being after it1 in stead of being necessary or proper1 can only be awkwardly tautologous4 ,this is1 in fact1 ,,the ,,grand ,,objection to the new phraseology--is being practised--am being smitten--and the like4 ,were there no danger that petty writers would one day seize upon it with like avidity1 an other innovation1 exactly similar to this in every thing but tense--similar in awkwardness1 in tautology1 in unmistakeableness--might here be uttered for the sake of illustration4 ,some men conceive1 that ,the perfect participle is always compound2 as1 having seen1 having written2--and that the simple word1 seen or written1 had originally1 and still ought to have1 only a passive construction4 ,for such views1 they find authorities4 ,hence1 in lieu of the common phrases1 had we seen1 we have written1 they adopt such ,english as this2 ,had we having seen you1 we should have stopped4--,we have having written but just now1 to our correspondent4 ,now1 ,we are being smitten1 is no better grammar than this2--and no worse3 ,the idea intended is in no great jeopardy in either case4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,j4 ,r4 ,chandler1 of ,philadelphia1 in his ,common ,school ,grammar of #ahdg1 has earnestly undertaken the defence of this new and much-mooted passive expression3 which he calls the ,definite ,passive ,voice1 or the ,passive ,voice of the ,definite ,form4 ,he admits it1 however1 to be a form that does not sound well1--a novelty that strikes the ear unpleasantly2 but he will have the defect to be1 not in the tautologous conceit of is being1 was being1 has been being1 and the like1 but in everybody's organ of hearing1--supposing all ears corrupted1 from infancy1 to a distaste for correct speech1 by the habit of hearing and using words ungrammatically6--,see p4 #hi4 ,claiming this new form as the true passive1 in just contrast with the progressive active1 he not only rebukes all attempts to evade the use of it1 by some real or supposed equivalent1 but also declares1 that1 ,the attempt to deprive the transitive definite verb of this its passive voice1 is to strike at the foundation of the language1 and to strip it of one of its most important qualities2 that of making both actor and sufferer1 each in turn and at pleasure1 the subject of conversation4--,ibid4 ,concerning equivalents1 he evidently argues fallaciously2 for he urges1 that the using of them does not dispense with the necessity of the definite passive voice4--,p4 #hh4 ,but it is plain1 that1 of the many fair substitutes which may in most cases be found1 if any one is preferred1 this form1 and all the rest1 are of course rejected for the time4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,by ,chandler1 as well as others1 this new passive form is justified only on the supposition1 that the simple participle in ing can never with propriety be used passively4 ,no plausible argument1 indeed1 can be framed for it1 without the assumption1 that the simpler form1 when used in the same sense1 is ungrammatical4 ,but this is1 in fact1 a begging of the main question2 and that1 in opposition to abundant authority for the usage condemned4 7,see ,,obs4 #c;d1 above47 ,this author pretends that1 ,the ,,rule of all grammarians declares the verb is1 and a present participle 7is building1 or is writing71 to be in the active voice only4--,p4 #hh4 7,i add the word only1 but this is what he means1 else he merely quibbles47 ,now in this idea he is wrong1 and so are the several grammarians who support the principle of this imaginary ,,rule4 ,the opinion of critics in general would be better represented by the following suggestions of the ,rev4 ,w4 ,allen3 ,when the ,english verb does not signify mental affection1 the distinction of voice is often disregarded3 thus we say1 actively1 they were selling fruit2 and1 passively1 the books are now selling4 ,the same remark applies to the participle used as a noun3 as1 actively1 drawing is an elegant amusement1 building is expensive2 and1 passively1 his drawings are good1 this is a fine building4--,allen's ,elements of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,chandler admits1 that1 ,when it is said1 ',the house is building1' the meaning is easily obtained2 though1 he strangely insists1 it is exactly opposite to the assertion4--,p4 #hi4 ,he endeavours to show1 moreover1 by a fictitious example made for the purpose1 that the progressive form1 if used in both voices1 will be liable to ambiguity4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be so in some instances2 but1 were there weight enough in the objection to condemn the passive usage altogether1 one would suppose there might be found1 somewhere1 an actual example or two of the abuse4 ,not concurring with ,dr4 ,bullions in the notion that the active voice and the passive usually express precisely the same thing1 this critic concludes his argument with the following sentence3 ,there is an important difference between doing and suffering2 and that difference is grammatically shown by the appropriate use of the active and passive voices of a verb4--,chandler's ,common ,school ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,the opinion given at the close of ,,obs4 #b;d above1 was first published in #ahcc4 ,an opposite doctrine1 with the suggestion that it is improper to say1 'the house is building1' instead of 'the house is being built1'--is found on page #fdth of the ,rev4 ,david ,blair's ,grammar1 of #ahae1--,seventh ,edition1 with a preface dated1 ,october #bjth1 #ahad4 ,to any grammarian who wrote at a period much earlier than that1 the question about unco-passives never occurred4 ,many critics have passed judgement upon them since1 and so generally with reprobation1 that the man must have more hardihood than sense1 who will yet disgust his readers or hearers with them4#bgj ,that ,this new form has been used by some respectable writers1 we need not deny2 but let us look at the given instances of it3 ',for those who are being educated in our seminaries4' ,r4 ,,southey4--',it was being uttered4' ,,coleridge4--',the foundation was being laid4' ,,brit4 ,,critic4--,english ,grammar with ,worcester's ,univ4 and ,crit4 ,dict41 p4 xlvi4 ,here1 for the first example1 it would be much better to say1 ,for those who are educated1 #bga--or1 who are receiving their education2 for the others1 ,it was uttering1--was uttered1--or1 was in uttering4--,the foundation was laying1--was laid1--or1 was about being laid4 ,worcester's opinion of the new form is to be inferred from his manner of naming it in the following sentence3 ,within a few years1 a strange and awkward neologism has been introduced1 by which the present passive participle is substituted1 in such cases as the above1 for the participle in ing4--,ibid4 ,he has two instances more1 in each of which the phrase is linked with an expression of disapprobation2 ' ,it ,greek3 tetymmenos signifies properly1 though in uncouth ,english1 one who is being beaten4' ,,abp4 ,,whately4--',the bridge is being built1 and other phrases of the like kind1 have pained the eye4' ,d4 ,,booth4--,ibid4#bgb ,,obs4 #bd4--,richard ,hiley1 in the third edition of his ,grammar1 published in ,london1 in #ahdj1 after showing the passive use of the participle in ing1 proceeds thus3 ,no ambiguity arises1 we presume1 from the use of the participle in this manner4 ,to avoid1 however1 affixing a passive signification to the participle in ing1 an attempt has lately been made to substitute the passive participle in its place4 ,thus instead of ',the house was building1' ',the work imprinting1' we sometimes hear1 ',the house was being built1' ',the work is being printed4' ,but this mode is contrary to the ,english idiom1 and has not yet obtained the sanction of reputable authority4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,,obs4 #be4--,professor ,hart1 of ,philadelphia1 whose ,english ,grammar was first published in #ahde1 justly prefers the usage which takes the progressive form occasionally in a passive sense2 but1 in arguing against the new substitute1 he evidently remoulds the early reasoning of ,dr4 ,bullions1 errors and all2 a part of which he introduces thus3 ,i know the correctness of this mode of expression has lately been very much assailed1 and an attempt1 to some extent successful1 has been made 1 to introduce the form 1 'is being built4' ,but1 in the first place1 the old mode of expression is a well established usage of the language1 being found in our best and most correct writers4 ,secondly1 is being built does not convey the idea intended1 2 namely 1 that of progressive action4 ,is being1 taken together1 means simply is1 just as is writing means writes2 therefore1 is being built means is built1 a perfect and not a progressive ,,action4 ,or1 if being and built be taken together1 they signify an ,,action ,,complete1 and the phrase means1 as before1 the house is 7,,exists7 being built4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,the last three sentences here are liable to many objections1 some of which are suggested above4 ,,obs4 #bf4--;,it is important1 that the central phraseology of our language be so understood1 as not to be misinterpreted with credit1 or falsely expounded by popular critics and teachers4 ,hence errors of exposition are the more particularly noticed in these observations4 ,in being built1 ,prof4 ,hart1 like sundry authors named above1 finds nothing but ,,action ,,complete4 ,without doubt1 ,butler interprets better1 when he says1 ',the house is built1' denotes an existing state1 rather than a completed action4 ,but this author1 too1 in his next three sentences1 utters as many errors2 for he adds3 ,the name of the agent cannot be expressed in phrases of this kind4 ,we cannot say1 ',the house is built by ,john4' ,when we say1 ',the house is built by mechanics1' we do not express an existing state4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,unquestionably1 is built by mechanics1 expresses nothing else than the existing state of being built by mechanics1 together with an affirmation3--that is1 the existing state of receiving the action of mechanics1 is affirmed of the house4 ,and1 in my judgement1 one may very well say1 ,the house is built by ,john2 meaning1 ,john is building the house4 ,st4 ,paul says1 ,every house is builded by ,,some ,,man4--,heb41 iii1 #d4 ,in this text1 the common name of the agent is expressed4 ,,obs4 #bg4--,wells and ,weld1 whose grammars date from #ahdf1 being remarkably chary of finding anything wrong in respectable writers1 hazard no opinion of their own1 concerning the correctness or incorrectness of either of the usages under discussion4 ,they do not always see absurdity in the approbation of opposites2 yet one should here1 perhaps1 count them with the majorities they allow4 ,the latter says1 ,the participle in ing is sometimes used passively2 as1 forty and six years was this temple in building2 not in being built4--,weld's ,english ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #agj4 ,here1 if he means to suggest1 that in being built would not be good ,english1 he teaches very erroneously2 if his thought is1 that this phrase would not express the sense of the former one1 in building1 he palpably contradicts his own position6 ,but he proceeds1 in a note1 thus3 ,the form of expression1 is being built1 is being committed1 c41 is almost universally condemned by grammarians2 but it is sometimes met with in respectable writers4 ,it occurs most frequently in newspaper paragraphs1 and in hasty compositions4--,ibid4 ,wells comments thus3 ,different opinions have long existed among critics respecting this passive use of the imperfect participle4 ,many respectable writers substitute the compound passive participle2 as1 ',the house is being built2' ',the book is being printed4' ,but the prevailing practice of the best authors is in favor of the simple form2 as1 ',the house is building4'--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #adh2 #aacth ,ed41 p4 #afa4bgc ,,obs4 #bh4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark1 in the second edition of his ,practical ,grammar1 stereotyped and published in ,new ,york in #ahdh1 appears to favour the insertion of being into passive verbs2 but his instructions are so obscure1 so often inaccurate1 and so incompatible one with an other1 that it is hard to say1 with certainty1 what he approves4 ,in one place1 he has this position3 ,the ,passive ,voice of a verb is formed by adding the ,passive ,participle of that verb1 to the verb be4 ,,examples--,to be loved4 ,i am feared4 ,they are worshipped4--,page #fi4 ,in an other1 he has this3 ,when the ,subject is to be represented as receiving the action1 the ,passive ,participle should be used4 ,,example--,henry's lesson is ,,being ,,recited4--,p4 #acb4 ,now these two positions utterly confound each other2 for they are equally general1 and the ,passive ,participle is first one thing1 and then an other4 ,again1 he has the following assertions1 both false3 ,the ,present 7or ,first7 ,participle always ends in ing1 and is limited to the ,active ,voice4 ,the ,past 7or ,second7 ,participle of ,regular ,verbs ends in d or ed1 and is limited to the ,passive ,voice4--,p4 #aca4 ,afterwards1 in spite of the fancied limitation1 he acknowledges the passive use of the participle in ing1 and that there is authority for it2 but1 at the same time1 most absurdly supposes the word to predicate action1 and also to be wrong3 saying1 ,action is sometimes predicated of a passive subject4 ,,example--',the house is building144 for44 ',the house is being built1'44 which means44 ,the house is becoming built4 ,on this1 he remarks thus3 ,this is one of the instances in which ,authority is against ,philosophy4 ,for an act cannot properly be predicated of a passive agent4 ,many good writers properly reject this idiom4 ',mansfield's prophecy is being realized4'--,,michelet',s ,,luther4--,clark's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,it may require some study to learn from this which idiom it is4 that these many good writers reject3 but the grammarian who can talk of a passive agent1 without perceiving that the phrase is self-contradictory and absurd1 may well be expected to entertain a ,philosophy which is against ,authority1 and likewise to prefer a ridiculous innovation to good and established usage4 ,,obs4 #bi4--;,as most verbs are susceptible of both forms1 the simple active and the compound or progressive1 and likewise of a transitive and an intransitive sense in each2 and as many1 when taken intransitively1 may have a meaning which is scarcely distinguishable from that of the passive form2 it often happens that this substitution of the imperfect participle passive for the simple imperfect in ing1 is quite needless1 even when the latter is not considered passive4 ,for example3 ,see by the following paragraph1 how widely the bane is being circulated6--,liberator1 ,no4 #iii1 p4 #cd4 ,here is circulating would be better2 and so would is circulated4 ,nor would either of these much vary the sense1 if at all2 for circulate may mean1 according to ,webster1 to be diffused1 or1 as ,johnson and ,worcester have it1 to be dispersed4 ,see the second marginal note on p4 #cgh4 ,,obs4 #cj4--,r4 ,g4 ,parker appears to have formed a just opinion of the modern innovation1 the arguments for which are so largely examined in the foregoing observations2 but the principle which he adduces as conclusive against it1 if principle it can be called1 has scarcely any bearing on the question2 certainly no more than has the simple assertion of one reputable critic1 that our participle in ing may occasionally be used passively4 ,such expressions as the following1 says he1 have recently become very common1 not only in the periodical publications of the day1 but are likewise finding favor with popular writers2 as1 ',the house is being built4' ',the street is being paved4' ',the actions that are now being performed1' c4 ',the patents are being prepared4' ,the usage of the best writers does not sanction these expressions2 and ,mr4 ,pickbourn lays down the following principle1 which is conclusive upon the subject4 ',whenever the participle in ing is joined by an auxiliary verb to a nominative capable of the action1 it is taken actively2 but1 when joined to one incapable of the action1 it becomes passive4 ,if we say1 ,the man are building a house1 the participle building is evidently used in an active sense2 because the men are capable of the action4 ,but when we say1 ,the house is building1 or1 ,patents are preparing1 the participles building and preparing must necessarily be understood in a passive sense2 because neither the house nor the patents are capable of action4'--,see ,pickbourn on the ,english ,verb1 pp4 #gh-hj4--,parker's ,aids to ,english ,composition1 p4 #aje4 ,pickbourn wrote his ,dissertation before the question arose which he is here supposed to decide4 ,nor is he right in assuming that the common ,progressive ,form1 of which he speaks1 must be either active-transitive or passive3 ,i have shown above that it may be active-intransitive1 and perhaps1 in a few instances1 neuter4 ,the class of the verb is determined by something else than the mere capableness of the nominative4 ,,iii4 ,,form ,,of ,,passive ,,verbs4 ,passive verbs1 in ,english1 are always of a compound form2 being made from active-transitive verbs1 by adding the ,perfect ,participle to the auxiliary verb ,,be1 through all its changes3 thus from the active-transitive verb love1 is formed the passive verb be loved4 ,,fifth ,,example4 ,the regular passive verb ,,be ,,loved1 conjugated affirmatively4 ,,principal ,,parts or ,,the ,,active ,,verb4 ,present4 ,preterit4 ,imp4 ,participle4 ,perf4 ,participle4 ,love4 ,loved4 ,loving4 ,loved4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,to be loved4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,to have been loved4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i am loved1 #a4 ,we are loved1 #b4 ,thou art loved1 #b4 ,you are loved1 #c4 ,he is loved2 #c4 ,they are loved4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i was loved1 #a4 ,we were loved1 #b4 ,thou wast loved1 #b4 ,you were loved1 #c4 ,he was loved2 #c4 ,they were loved4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i have been loved1 #a4 ,we have been loved1 #b4 ,thou hast been loved1 #b4 ,you have been loved1 #c4 ,he has been loved2 #c4 ,they have been loved4 ,,pluperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i had been loved1 #a4 ,we had been loved1 #b4 ,thou hadst been loved1 #b4 ,you had been loved1 #c4 ,he had been loved2 #c4 ,they had been loved4 ,,first-,,future ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall be loved1 #a4 ,we shall be loved1 #b4 ,thou wilt be loved1 #b4 ,you will be loved1 #c4 ,he will be loved2 #c4 ,they will be loved4 ,,second-,,future ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall have been loved1 #a4 ,we shall have been loved1 #b4 ,thou wilt have been loved1 #b4 ,you will have been loved1 #c4 ,he will have been loved2 #c4 ,they will have been loved4 ,,potential ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may be loved1 #a4 ,we may be loved1 #b4 ,thou mayst be loved1 #b4 ,you may be loved1 #c4 ,he may be loved2 #c4 ,they may be loved4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might be loved1 #a4 ,we might be loved1 #b4 ,thou mightst be loved1 #b4 ,you might be loved1 #c4 ,he might be loved2 #c4 ,they might be loved4 ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may have been loved1 #a4 ,we may have been loved1 #b4 ,thou mayst have been loved1 #b4 ,you may have been loved1 #c4 ,he may have been loved2 #c4 ,they may have been loved4 ,,pluperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might have been loved1 #a4 ,we might have been loved1 #b4 ,thou mightst have been loved1 #b4 ,you might have been loved1 #c4 ,he might have been loved2 #c4 ,they might have been loved4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i be loved1 #a4 ,if we be loved1 #b4 ,if thou be loved1 #b4 ,if you be loved1 #c4 ,if he be loved2 #c4 ,if they be loved4 ,,imperfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i were loved1 #a4 ,if we were loved1 #b4 ,if thou were loved1 #b4 ,if you were loved1 #c4 ,if he were loved2 #c4 ,if they were loved4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 #b4 ,be thou loved1 or ,do thou be loved2 ,plural4 #b4 ,be ye or you loved1 or ,do you be loved4 ,,participles4 #a4 ,the ,imperfect4 #b4 ,the ,perfect4 #c4 ,the ,preperfect4 ,being loved4 ,loved4 ,having been loved4 ,,familiar ,,form ,,with ',,thou4' ,,note4--,in the familiar style1 the second person singular of this verb1 is usually and more properly formed thus3 ,,ind4 ,thou art loved1 ,thou was loved1 ,thou hast been loved1 ,thou had been loved1 ,thou shall or will be loved1 ,thou shall or will have been loved4 ,,pot4 ,thou may1 can1 or must be loved2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should be loved2 ,thou may1 can1 or must have been loved2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should have been loved4 ,,subj4 ,if thou be loved1 ,if thou were loved4 ,,imp4 ,be thou loved1 or ,do thou be loved4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,a few active-intransitive verbs1 that signify mere motion1 change of place1 or change of condition1 may be put into this form1 with a neuter signification2 making not passive but neuter verbs1 which express nothing more than the state which results from the change3 as1 ,i am come4--,she is gone4--,he is risen4--,they are fallen4 ,these are what ,dr4 ,johnson and some others call neuter passives2 a name which never was very proper1 and for which we have no frequent use4 ,,obs4 #b4--,most neuter verbs of the passive form1 such as1 am grown1 art become1 is lain1 are flown1 are vanished1 are departed1 was sat1 were arrived1 may now be considered errors of conjugation1 or perhaps of syntax4 ,in the verb1 to be mistaken1 there is an irregularity which ought to be particularly noticed4 ,when applied to persons1 this verb is commonly taken in a neuter sense1 and signifies1 to be in error1 to be wrong2 as1 ,i am mistaken1 thou art mistaken1 he is mistake4 ,but1 when used of things1 it is a proper passive verb1 and signifies1 to be misunderstood1 or to be taken wrong2 as1 ,the sense of the passage is mistaken2 that is1 not rightly understood4 ,see ,webster's ,dict41 w4 ,mistaken4 ,i have known a shadow across a brook to be mistaken for a footbridge4 ,,obs4 #c4--,passive verbs may be easily distinguished from neuter verbs of the same form1 by a reference to the agent or instrument1 common to the former class1 but not to the latter4 ,this frequently is1 and always may be1 expressed after passive verbs2 but never is1 and never can be1 expressed after neuter verbs3 as1 ,the thief has been caught by the officer4-- ,pens are made with a knife4 ,here the verbs are passive2 but1 ,i am not yet ascended1 7,john1 xx1 #ag17 is not passive1 because it does not convey the idea of being ascended by some one's agency4 ,,obs4 #d4--,our ancient writers1 after the manner of the ,french1 very frequently employed this mode of conjugation in a neuter sense2 but1 with a very few exceptions1 present usage is clearly in favour of the auxiliary have in preference to be1 whenever the verb formed with the perfect participle is not passive2 as1 ,they have arrived1--not1 ,they are arrived4 ,hence such examples as the following1 are not now good ,english3 ,all these reasons are now ceased4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aeg4 ,say1 have now ceased4 ,whether he were not got beyond the reach of his faculties4--,ib41 p4 #aeh4 ,say1 had not got4 ,which is now grown wholly obsolete4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ccj4 ,say1 has now grown4 ,and when he was entered into a ship4--,bible4 ,say1 had entered4-- ,what is become of decency and virtue8--,murray's ,key1 p4 #aif4 ,say1 has become4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,dr4 ,priestley says1 ,it seems not to have been determined by the ,english grammarians1 whether the passive participles of verbs neuter require the auxiliary am or have before them4 ,the ,french1 in this case1 confine themselves strictly to the former4 ',what has become of national liberty8' ,hume's ,history1 ,vol4 #f4 p4 #bed4 ,the ,french would say1 what is become2 and1 in this instance1 perhaps1 with more propriety4-- ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #abh4 ,it is no marvel that those writers who have not rightly made up their minds upon this point of ,english grammar1 should consequently fall into many mistakes4 ,the perfect participle of a neuter verb is not passive1 as the doctor seems to suppose it to be2 and the mode of conjugation which he here inclines to prefer1 is a mere ,gallicism1 which is fast wearing out from our language1 and is even now but little countenanced by good writers4 ,,obs4 #f4--,there are a few verbs of the passive form which seem to imply that a person's own mind is the agent that actuates him2 as1 ,the editor is rejoiced to think1 c4--,juvenile ,keepsake4 ,i am resolved what to do4--,luke1 xvi1 #d4 ,he was resolved on going to the city to reside4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,james was resolved not to indulge himself4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bbj4 ,he is inclined to go4--,he is determined to go4--,he is bent on going4 ,these are properly passive verbs1 notwithstanding there are active forms which are nearly equivalent to most of them2 as1 ,the editor rejoices to think4--,i know what to do4--,he had resolved on going4--,james resolved not to indulge himself4 ,so in the phrase1 ,i am ashamed to beg1 we seem to have a passive verb of this sort2 but1 the verb to ashame being now obsolete1 ashamed is commonly reckoned an adjective4 ,yet we cannot put it before a noun1 after the usual manner of adjectives4 ,to be indebted1 is an other expression of the same kind4 ,in the following example1 am remember'd is used for do remember1 and1 in my opinion1 inaccurately3 ,he said mine eyes were black1 and my hair black2 ,and1 now ,i am remember'd1 scorn'd at me4--,shakspeare4 ,,iv4 ,,form ,,of ,,negation4 ,a verb is conjugated negatively1 by placing the adverb not after it1 or after the first auxiliary2 but the infinitive and participles take the negative first3 as1 ,not to love1 ,not to have loved2 ,not loving1 ,not loved1 ,not having loved4 ,,first ,,person ,,singular4 ,,ind4 ,i love not1 or ,i do not love2 ,i loved not1 or ,i did not love2 ,i have not loved2 ,i had not loved2 ,i shall not1 or will not1 love2 ,i shall not1 or will not1 have loved4 ,,pot4 ,i may1 can1 or must not love2 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should not love2 ,i may1 can1 or must not have loved2 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should not have loved1 ,,subj4 ,if ,i love not1 ,if ,i loved not4 ,,second ,,person ,,singular4 ,,solemn ,,style3--,,ind4 ,thou lovest not1 or ,thou dost not love2 ,thou lovedst not1 or ,thou didst not love2 ,thou hast not loved2 ,thou hadst not loved2 ,thou shalt not1 or wilt not1 love2 ,thou shalt not1 or wilt not1 have loved4 ,,pot4 ,thou mayst1 canst1 or must not love2 ,thou mightst1 couldst1 wouldst1 or shouldst not love2 ,thou mayst1 canst1 or must not have loved2 ,thou mightst1 couldst1 wouldst1 or shouldst not have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if thou love not1 ,if thou loved not4 ,,imp4 ,love thou not1 or ,do thou not love4 ,,familiar ,,style3--,,ind4 ,thou lov'st not1 or ,thou dost not love2 ,thou loved not1 or ,thou did not love2 ,thou hast not loved2 ,thou had not loved2 ,thou shall not1 or will not1 love2 ,thou shall not1 or will not1 have loved4 ,,pot4 ,thou may1 can1 or must not love2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should not love2 ,thou may1 can1 or must not have loved2 ,thou might1 could1 would1 or should not have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if thou love not1 ,if thou loved not4 ,,imp4 ,love thou not1 or ,do thou not love4 ,,third ,,person ,,singular4 ,,ind4 ,he loves not1 or ,he does not love2 ,he loved not1 or ,he did not love2 ,he has not loved2 ,he had not loved2 ,he shall not1 or will not1 love2 ,he shall not1 or will not1 have loved4 ,,pot4 ,he may1 can1 or must not love2 ,he might1 could1 would1 or should not love2 ,he may1 can1 or must not have loved2 ,he might1 could1 would1 or should not have loved4 ,,subj4 ,if he love not1 ,if he loved not4 ,v4 ,,form ,,of ,,question4 ,a verb is conjugated interrogatively1 in the indicative and potential moods1 by placing the nominative after it1 or after the first auxiliary3 as1 ,,first ,,person ,,singular4 ,,ind4 ,love ,i8 or ,do ,i love8 ,loved ,i8 or ,did ,i love8 ,have ,i loved8 ,had ,i loved8 ,shall ,i love8 ,shall ,i have loved8 ,,pot4 ,may1 can1 or must ,i love8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should ,i love8 ,may1 can1 or must ,i have loved8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should ,i have loved8 ,,second ,,person ,,singular4 ,,solemn ,,style3--,,ind4 ,lovest thou8 or ,dost thou love8 ,lovedst thou8 or ,didst thou love8 ,hast thou loved8 ,hadst thou loved8 ,wilt thou love8 ,wilt thou have loved8 ,,pot4 ,mayst1 canst1 or must thou love8 ,mightst1 couldst1 wouldst1 or shouldst thou love8 ,mayst1 canst1 or must thou have loved8 ,mightst1 couldst1 wouldst1 or shouldst thou have loved8 ,,familiar ,,style3--,,ind4 ,lov'st thou8 or ,dost thou love8 ,loved thou8 or ,did thou love8 ,hast thou loved8 ,had thou loved8 ,will thou love8 ,will thou have loved8 ,,pot4 ,may1 can1 or must thou love8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should thou love8 ,may1 can1 or must thou have loved8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should thou have loved8 ,,third ,,person ,,singular4 ,,ind4 ,loves he8 or ,does he love8 ,loved he8 or ,did he love8 ,has he loved8 ,had he loved8 ,shall or will he love8 ,will he have loved8 ,,pot4 ,may1 can1 or must he love8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should he love8 ,may1 can1 or must he have loved8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should he have loved8 ,,vi4 ,,form ,,of ,,question ,,with ,,negation4 ,a verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively1 in the indicative and potential moods1 by placing the nominative and the adverb not after the verb1 or after the first auxiliary3 as1 ,,first ,,person ,,plural4 ,,ind4 ,love we not8 or ,do we not love8 ,loved we not8 or ,did we not love8 ,have we not loved8 ,had we not loved8 ,shall we not love8 ,shall we not have loved8 ,,pot4 ,may1 can1 or must we not love8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should we not love8 ,may1 can1 or must we not have loved8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should we not have loved8 ,,second ,,person ,,plural4 ,,ind4 ,see ye not8 or ,do you not see8 ,saw ye not8 or ,did you not see8 ,have you not seen8 ,had you not seen8 ,will you not see8 ,will you not have seen8 ,,pot4 ,may1 can1 or must you not see8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should you not see8 ,may1 can1 or must you not have seen8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should you not have seen8 ,,third ,,person ,,plural4 ,,ind4 ,are they not loved8 ,were they not loved8 ,have they not been loved8 ,had they not been loved8 ,shall or will they not be loved8 ,will they not have been loved8 ,may1 can1 or must they not be loved8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should they not be loved8 ,may1 can1 or must they not have been loved8 ,might1 could1 would1 or should they not have been loved8 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,in a familiar question or negation1 the compound or auxiliary form of the verb is1 in general1 preferable to the simple3 as1 ,no man lives to purpose1 who does not live for posterity4--,dr4 ,wayland4 ,it is indeed so much more common1 as to seem the only proper mode of expression3 as1 ,do ,i say these things as a man8--,do you think that we excuse ourselves8--,do you not know that a little leaven leavens the whole lump8--,dost thou revile8 c4 ,but in the solemn or the poetic style1 though either may be used1 the simple form is more dignified1 and perhaps more graceful3 as1 ,say ,i these things as a man8--#a ,cor41 ix1 #h4 ,think ye that we excuse ourselves8--#b ,cor41 xii1 #ai4 ,know ye not that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump8--#a ,cor41 v1 #f4 ,revilest thou ,god's high priest8--,acts4 ,king ,agrippa1 believest thou the prophets8--,ib4 ,understandest thou what thou readest8--,ib4 ,of whom speaketh the prophet this8--,id4 ,and the man of ,god said1 ,where fell it8--#b ,kings1 vi1 #f4 ,what6 heard ye not of lowland war8--,sir ,w4 ,scott1 ,l4 ,l4 ,seems he not1 ,malise1 like a ghost8--,id41 ,l4 of ,lake4 ,where thinkst thou he is now8 ,stands he1 or sits he8 ,or does he walk8 or is he on his horse8--,shak41 ,ant4 and ,cleop4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,in interrogative sentences1 the auxiliaries shall and will are not always capable of being applied to the different persons agreeably to their use in simple declarations3 thus1 ,will ,i go8 is a question which there never can be any occasion to ask in its literal sense2 because none knows better than ,i1 what my will or wish is4 ,but ,shall ,i go8 may properly be asked2 because shall here refers to duty1 and asks to know what is agreeable to the will of an other4 ,in questions1 the first person generally requires shall2 the second1 will2 the third admits of both3 but1 in the second-future1 the third1 used interrogatively1 seems to require will only4 ,yet1 in that figurative kind of interrogation which is sometimes used to declare a negative1 there may be occasional exceptions to these principles2 as1 ,will ,i eat the flesh of bulls1 or drink the blood of goats8--,psalms1 #a1 #ac4 ,that is1 ,i will not eat1 c4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,cannot is not properly one word1 but two3 in parsing1 the adverb must be taken separately1 and the auxiliary be explained with its principal4 ,when power is denied1 can and not are now generally united--perhaps in order to prevent ambiguity2 as1 ,i cannot go4 ,but when the power is affirmed1 and something else is denied1 the words are written separately2 as1 ,the ,christian apologist can not merely expose the utter baseness of the infidel assertion1 but he has positive ground for erecting an opposite and confronting assertion in its place4--,dr4 ,chalmers4 ,the junction of these terms1 however1 is not of much importance to the sense2 and1 as it is plainly contrary to analogy1 some writers1--7as ,dr4 ,webster1 in his late or improved works2 ,dr4 ,bullions1 in his2 ,prof4 ,w4 ,c4 ,fowler1 in his new ,english ,grammar1 #hvo2 ,r4 ,c4 ,trench1 in his ,study of ,words2 ,t4 ,s4 ,pinneo1 in his revised grammars2 ,j4 ,r4 ,chandler1 ,w4 ,s4 ,cardell1 ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce1--7 always separate them4 ,and1 indeed1 why should we write1 ,i cannot go1 ,thou canst not go1 ,he cannot go8 ,apart from the custom1 we have just as good reason to join not to canst as to can2 and sometimes its union with the latter is a gross error3 as1 ,he cannot only make a way to escape1 but with the injunction to duty can infuse the power to perform4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #bhg4 ,the fear of ambiguity never prevents us from disjoining can and not whenever we wish to put a word between them3 as1 ,though the waves thereof toss themselves1 yet can they not prevail2 though they roar1 yet can they not pass over it4--,jeremiah1 v1 #bb4 ,which then ,i can resist not4--,byron's ,manfred1 p4 #a4 ,can ,i not mountain maiden spy1 ,but she must bear the ,douglas eye8--,scott4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,in negative questions1 the adverb not is sometimes placed before the nominative1 and sometimes after it3 as1 ,told not ,i thee8--,numb41 xxiii1 #bf4 ,spake ,i not also to thy messengers8--,ib41 xxiv1 #ab4 ,cannot ,i do with you as this potter8--,jer41 xviii1 #f4 ,art not thou a seer8--#b ,sam41 xv1 #bg4 ,did not ,israel know8--,rom41 x1 #ai4 ,have they not heard8--,ib41 #ah4 ,do not they blaspheme that worthy name8--,james1 ii1 #g4 ,this adverb1 like every other1 should be placed where it will sound most agreeably1 and best suit the sense4 ,dr4 ,priestley imagined that it could not properly come before the nominative4 ,he says1 ,when the nominative case is put after the verb1 on account of an interrogation1 no other word should be interposed between them4 ,,examples3 ',may not we here say with ,lucretius8'--,addison on ,medals1 p4 #bi4 ,may we not say8 ',is not it he4' 8 ,smollett's ,voltaire1 ,vol #ah1 p4 #aeb4 ,is it not he4 8--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #agg4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in grave discourse1 or in oratory1 the adverb not is spoken as distinctly as other words2 but1 ordinarily1 when placed before the nominative1 it is rapidly slurred over in utterance and the o is not heard4 ,in fact1 it is generally 7though inelegantly7 contracted in familiar conversation1 and joined to the auxiliary3 as1 ,,ind4 ,don't they do it8 ,didn't they do it8 ,haven't they done it8 ,hadn't they done it8 ,shan't1 or won't they do it8 ,won't they have done it8 ,,pot4 ,mayn't1 can't1 or mustn't they do it8 ,mightn't1 couldn't1 wouldn't1 or shouldn't they do it8 ,mayn't1 can't1 or mustn't they have done it8 ,mightn't1 couldn't1 wouldn't1 or shouldn't they have done it8 ,,obs4 #f4--,well-educated people commonly utter their words with more distinctness and fullness than the vulgar1 yet without adopting ordinarily the long-drawn syllables of poets and orators1 or the solemn phraseology of preachers and prophets4 ,whatever may be thought of the grammatical propriety of such contractions as the foregoing1 no one who has ever observed how the ,english language is usually spoken1 will doubt their commonness1 or their antiquity4 ,and it may be observed1 that1 in the use of these forms1 the distinction of persons and numbers in the verb1 is almost1 if not entirely1 dropped4 ,thus don't is used for dost not or does not1 as properly as for do not2 and1 ,thou can't do it1 or shan't do it1 is as good ,english as1 ,he can't do it1 or shan't do it4 ,will1 according to ,webster1 was anciently written woll3 hence won't acquired the o1 which is long in ,walker's orthopy4 ,haven't1 which cannot be used for has not or hast not1 is still further contracted by the vulgar1 and spoken ha'nt1 which serves for all three4 ,these forms are sometimes found in books2 as1 ,,wont1 a contraction of woll not1 that is1 will not4--,webster's ,dict4 ,,ha',,nt1 a contraction of have not or has not4--,id4 ,,wont1 7wont or wunt17 ,a contraction of would not3-- used for will not4--,worcester's ,dict4 ,,han',t1 7hnt or hant17 ,a vulgar contraction for has not1 or have not4--,id4 ,in the writing of such contractions1 the apostrophe is not always used2 though some think it necessary for distinction's sake3 as1 ,which is equivalent1 because what can't be done won't be done4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cab4 ,,irregular ,,verbs4 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed2 as1 see1 saw1 seeing1 seen4 ,of this class of verbs there are about one hundred and ten1 beside their several derivatives and compounds4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,regular verbs form their preterits and perfect participles1 by adding d to final e1 and ed to all other terminations2 the final consonant of the verb being sometimes doubled1 7as in dropped17 and final y sometimes changed into i1 7as in cried17 agreeably to the rules for spelling in such cases4 ,the verb hear1 heard1 hearing1 heard1 adds d to r1 and is therefore irregular4 ,heard is pronounced herd by all our lexicographers1 except ,webster3 who formerly wrote it heerd1 and still pronounces it so2 alleging1 in despite of universal usage against him1 that it is written more correctly heared4--,octavo ,dict41 #ahbi4 ,such pronunciation would doubtless require this last orthography1 heared2 but both are1 in fact1 about as fanciful as his former mode of spelling1 which ran thus3 ,az ,i had heerd suggested by frends or indifferent reeders4--,dr4 ,webster's ,essays1 ,preface1 p4 #aj4 ,,obs4 #b4--,when a verb ends in a sharp consonant1 t is sometimes improperly substituted for ed1 making the preterit and the perfect participle irregular in spelling1 when they are not so in sound2 as1 distrest for distressed1 tost for tossed1 mixt for mixed1 cract for cracked4 ,these contractions are now generally treated as errors in writing2 and the verbs are accordingly 7with a few exceptions7 accounted regular4 ,lord ,kames commends ,dean ,swift for having done all in his power to restore the syllable ed2 says1 he possessed1 if any man ever did1 the true genius of the ,english tongue2 and thinks that in rejecting these ugly contractions1 he well deserves to be imitated4--,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ab4 ,the regular orthography is indeed to be preferred in all such cases2 but the writing of ed restores no syllable1 except in solemn discourse2 and1 after all1 the poems of ,swift have so very many of these irregular contractions in t1 that one can hardly believe his lordship had ever read them4 ,since the days of these critics still more has been done towards the restoration of the ed1 in orthography1 though not in sound2 but1 even at this present time1 our poets not unfrequently write1 est for essed or ess'd1 in forming the preterits or participles of verbs that end in the syllable ess4 ,this is an ill practice1 which needlessly multiplies our redundant verbs1 and greatly embarrasses what it seems at first to simplify3 as1 ,o friend6 ,i know not which way ,i must look ,for comfort1 being1 as ,i am1 opprest1 ,to think that now our life is only drest ,for show4--,wordsworth's ,poetical ,works1 #hvo1 p4 #aai4 ,,obs4 #c4--,when the verb ends with a smooth consonant1 the substitution of t for ed produces an irregularity in sound as well as in writing4 ,in some such irregularities1 the poets are indulged for the sake of rhyme2 but the best speakers and writers of prose prefer the regular form1 wherever good use has sanctioned it3 thus learned is better than learnt2 burned1 than burnt2 penned1 than pent2 absorbed1 than absorbt2 spelled1 than spelt2 smelled1 than smelt4 ,so many of this sort of words as are allowably contracted1 belong to the class of redundant verbs1 among which they may be seen in a subsequent table4 ,,obs4 #d4--,several of the irregular verbs are variously used by the best authors2 redundant forms are occasionally given to some verbs1 without sufficient authority2 and many preterits and participles which were formerly in good use1 are now obsolete1 or becoming so4 ,the simple irregular verbs in ,english are about one hundred and ten1 and they are nearly all monosyllables4 ,they are derived from the ,saxon1 in which language they are also1 for the most part1 irregular4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the following alphabetical list exhibits the simple irregular verbs1 as they are now generally used4 ,in this list1 those preterits and participles which are supposed to be preferable1 and best supported by authorities1 are placed first4 ,nearly all compounds that follow the form of their simple verbs1 or derivatives that follow their primitives1 are here purposely omitted4 ,welcome and behave are always regular1 and therefore belong not here4 ,some words which are obsolete1 have also been omitted1 that the learner might not mistake them for words in present use4 ,some of those which are placed last1 are now little used4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,irregular ,,verbs4 ,imperfect ,perfect ,present4 ,preterit4 ,participle4 ,participle4 ,arise1 arose1 arising1 arisen4 ,be1 was1 being1 been4 ,bear1 bore or bare1 bearing1 borne or born4#bgd ,beat1 beat1 beating1 beaten or beat4 ,begin1 began or begun1#bge beginning1 begun4 ,behold1 beheld1 beholding1 beheld4 ,beset1 beset1 besetting1 beset4 ,bestead1 bestead1 besteading1 bestead4#bgf ,bid1 bid or bade1 bidding1 bidden or bid4 ,bind1 bound1 bing1 bound4 ,bite1 bit1 biting1 bitten or bit4 ,bleed1 bled1 bleeding1 bled4 ,break1 broke1#bgg breaking1 broken4 ,breed1 bred1 breeding1 bred4 ,bring1 brought1 bringing1 brought4 ,buy1 bought1 buying1 bought4 ,cast1 cast1 casting1 cast4 ,chide1 chid1 chiding1 chidden or chid4 ,choose1 chose1 choosing1 chosen4 ,cleave1#bgh cleft or clove1 cleaving1 cleft or cloven4 ,cling1 clung1 clinging1 clung4 ,come1 came1 coming1 come4 ,cost1 cost1 costing1 cost4 ,cut1 cut1 cutting1 cut4 ,do1 did1 doing1 done4 ,draw1 drew1 drawing1 drawn4 ,drink1 drank1 drinking1 drunk1 or drank4#bgi ,drive1 drove1 driving1 driven4 ,eat1 ate or eat1 eating1 eaten or eat4 ,fall1 fell1 falling1 fallen4 ,feed1 fed1 feeding1 fed4 ,feel1 felt1 feeling1 felt4 ,fight1 fought1 fighting1 fought4 ,find1 found1 finding1 found4 ,flee1 fled1 fleeing1 fled4 ,fling1 flung1 flinging1 flung4 ,fly1 flew1 flying1 flown4 ,forbear1 forbore1 forbearing1 forborne4 ,forsake1 forsook1 forsaking1 forsaken4 ,get1 got1 getting1 got or gotten4 ,give1 gave1 giving1 given4 ,go1 went1 going1 gone4 ,grow1 grew1 growing1 grown4 ,have1 had1 having1 had4 ,hear1 heard1 hearing1 heard4 ,hide1 hid1 hiding1 hidden or hid4 ,hit1 hit1 hitting1 hit4 ,hold1 held1 holding1 held or holden4#bhj ,hurt1 hurt1 hurting1 hurt4#bha ,keep1 kept1#bhb keeping1 kept4 ,know1 knew1 knowing1 known4 ,lead1 led1 leading1 led4 ,leave1 left1 leaving1 left4 ,lend1 lent1 lending1 lent4 ,let1 let1 letting1 let ,lie1#bhc lay1 lying1 lain4 ,lose1 lost1 losing1 lost4 ,make1 made1 making1 made4 ,meet1 met1 meeting1 met4 ,outdo1 outdid1 outdoing1 outdone4 ,put1 put1 putting1 put4 ,read1 read1 reading1 read4 ,rend1 rent1 rending1 rent4#bhd ,rid1 rid1 ridding1 rid4 ,ride1 rode1 riding1 ridden or rode4 ,ring1 rung or rang1 ringing1 rung4 ,rise1 rose1 rising1 risen4 ,run1 ran or run1 running1 run4 ,say1 said1 saying1 said4#bhe ,see1 saw1 seeing1 seen4 ,seek1 sought1 seeking1 sought4 ,sell1 sold1 selling1 sold4 ,send1 sent1 sending1 sent4 ,set1 set1 setting1 set4 ,shed1 shed1 shedding1 shed4 ,shoe1 shod1 shoeing1 shod4#bhf ,shoot1 shot1 shooting1 shot4 ,shut1 shut1 shutting1 shut4 ,shred1 shred1 shredding1 shred4 ,shrink1 shrunk or shrank1 shrinking1 shrunk or shrunken4 ,sing1 sung or sang1#bhg singing1 sung4 ,sink1 sunk or sank1 sinking1 sunk4 ,sit1 sat1 sitting1 sat4#bhh ,slay1 slew1 slaying1 slain4 ,sling1 slung1 slinging1 slung4 ,slink1 slunk or slank1 slinking1 slunk4 ,smite1 smote1 smiting1 smitten or smit4 ,speak1 spoke1 speaking1 spoken4 ,spend1 spent1 spending1 spent4 ,spin1 spun1 spinning1 spun4 ,spit1 spit or spat1 spitting1 spit or spitten4 ,spread1 spread1 spreading1 spread4 ,spring1 sprung or sprang1 springing1 sprung4 ,stand1 stood1 standing1 stood4 ,steal1 stole1 stealing1 stolen4 ,stick1 stuck1 sticking1 stuck4 ,sting1 stung1 stinging1 stung4 ,stink1 stunk or stank1 stinking1 stunk4 ,stride1 strode or strid1 striding1 stridden or strid4#bhi ,strike1 struck1 striking1 struck or stricken4 ,swear1 swore1 swearing1 sworn4 ,swim1 swum or swam1 swimming1 swum4 ,swing1 swung or swang1 swinging1 swung4 ,take1 took1 taking1 taken4 ,teach1 taught1 teaching1 taught4 ,tear1 tore1 tearing1 torn4 ,tell1 told1 telling1 told4 ,think1 thought1 thinking1 thought4 ,thrust1 thrust1 thrusting1 thrust4 ,tread1 trod1 treading1 trodden or trod4 ,wear1 wore1 wearing1 worn4 ,win1 won1 winning1 won4 ,write1 wrote1 writing1 written4#bij ,,redundant ,,verbs4 ,a redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways1 and so as to be both regular and irregular2 as1 thrive1 thrived or throve1 thriving1 thrived or thriven4 ,of this class of verbs1 there are about ninety-five1 beside sundry derivatives and compounds4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,those irregular verbs which have more than one form for the preterit or for the perfect participle1 are in some sense redundant2 but1 as there is no occasion to make a distinct class of such as have double forms that are never regular1 these redundancies are either included in the preceding list of the simple irregular verbs1 or omitted as being improper to be now recognized for good ,english4 ,several examples of the latter kind1 including both innovations and archaisms1 will appear among the improprieties for correction1 at the end of this chapter4 ,a few old preterits or participles may perhaps be accounted good ,english in the solemn style1 which are not so in the familiar3 as1 ,and none spake a word unto him4--,job1 ii1 #ac4 ,when ,i brake the five loaves4--,mark1 viii1 #ai4 ,and he drave them from the judgement-seat4--,acts1 xviii1 #af4 ,serve me till ,i have eaten and drunken4--,luke1 xvii1 #h4 ,it was not possible that he should be holden of it4--,acts1 ii1 #bd4 ,thou castedst them down into destruction4--,psal41 lxxiii1 #ah4 ,behold1 ,i was shapen in iniquity4--,ib41 li1 #e4 ,a meat-offering baken in the oven4--,leviticus1 ii1 #d4 ,with casted slough1 and fresh celerity4--,,shak41 ,henry ,v4 ,thy dreadful vow1 loaden with death4--,,addison3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the verb bet is given in ,worcester's ,dictionary1 as being always regular3 ,,bet1 v4 a4 i4 ,,betted2 pp4 ,,betting1 ,,betted4 ,to wager2 to lay a wager or bet4 ,,shak4--,octavo ,dict4 ,in ,ainsworth's ,grammar1 it is given as being always irregular3 ,present1 ,bet2 ,imperfect1 ,bet2 ,participle1 ,bet4--,page #cf4 ,on the authority of these1 and of some others cited in ,,obs4 #fth below1 ,i have put it with the redundant verbs4 ,the verb prove is redundant1 if proven1 which is noticed by ,webster1 ,bolles1 and ,worcester1 is an admissible word4 ,the participle proven is used in ,scotland and in some parts of the ,united ,states1 and sometimes1 though rarely1 in ,england4--',there is a mighty difference between not proven and disproven4' ,,dr4 ,,th4 ,,chalmers4 ',not proven4' ,,qu4 ,,rev4--,worcester's ,universal and ,critical ,dict4 ,the verbs bless and dress are to be considered redundant1 according to the authority of ,worcester1 ,webster1 ,bolles1 and others4 ,cobbett will have the verbs1 cast1 chide1 cling1 draw1 grow1 shred1 sling1 slink1 spring1 sting1 stride1 swim1 swing1 and thrust1 to be always regular2 but ,i find no sufficient authority for allowing to any of them a regular form2 and therefore leave them1 where they always have been1 in the list of simple irregulars4 ,these fourteen verbs are a part of the long list of seventy which this author says1 are1 by some persons1 erroneously deemed irregular4 ,of the following nine only1 is his assertion true2 namely1 dip1 help1 load1 overflow1 slip1 snow1 stamp1 strip1 whip4 ,these nine ought always to be formed regularly2 for all their irregularities may well be reckoned obsolete4 ,after these deductions from this most erroneous catalogue1 there remain forty-five other very common verbs1 to be disposed of contrary to this author's instructions4 ,all but two of these ,i shall place in the list of redundant verbs2 though for the use of throwed ,i find no written authority but his and ,william ,b4 ,fowle's4 ,the two which ,i do not consider redundant are spit and strew1 of which it may be proper to take more particular notice4 ,,obs4 #c4--,spit1 to stab1 or to put upon a spit1 is regular2 as1 ,i spitted frogs1 ,i crushed a heap of emmets4--,dryden4 ,spit1 to throw out saliva1 is irregular1 and most properly formed thus3 spit1 spit1 spitting1 spit4 ,spat is obsolete4--,webster's ,dict4 ,it is used in the ,bible2 as1 ,he spat on the ground1 and made clay of the spittle4--,john1 ix1 #f4 ,l4 ,murray gives this verb thus3 ,pres4 ,spit2 ,imp4 spit1 spat2 ,perf4 ,part4 spit1 spitten4 ,,note3 ,spitten is nearly obsolete4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,sanborn has it thus3 ,pres4 ,spit2 ,imp4 spit2 ,pres4 ,part4 spitting2 ,perf4 ,part4 spit1 spat4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,cobbett1 at first1 taking it in the form1 to spit1 ,i spat1 spitten1 placed it among the seventy which he so erroneously thought should be made regular2 afterwards he left it only in his list of irregulars1 thus3 to spit1 ,i spit1 spitten4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 of #ahcb1 p4 #ed4 ,churchill1 in #ahbc1 preferring the older forms1 gave it thus3 ,spit1 spat or spit1 spitten or spit4--,new ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,,note3--,johnson gives spat as the preterimperfect1 and spit or spitted as the participle of this verb1 when it means to pierce through with a pointed instrument3 but in this sense1 ,i believe1 it is always regular2 while1 on the other hand1 the regular form is now never used1 when it signifies to eject from the mouth2 though we find in ,luke1 xviii1 #cb1 ',he shall be spitted on4'--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #bfd4 ,this text ought to have been1 ,he shall be spit upon4 ,,obs4 #d4--,to strew is in fact nothing else than an other mode of spelling the verb to strow2 as shew is an obsolete form for show2 but if we pronounce the two forms differently1 we make them different words4 ,walker1 and some others1 pronounce them alike1 stro2 ,sheridan1 ,jones1 ,jameson1 and ,webster1 distinguish them in utterance1 stroo and stro4 ,this is convenient for the sake of rhyme1 and perhaps therefore preferable4 ,but strew1 ,i incline to think1 is properly a regular verb only1 though ,wells and ,worcester give it otherwise3 if strewn has ever been proper1 it seems now to be obsolete4 ,,examples3 ,others cut down branches from the trees1 and strewed them in the way4--,matt41 xxi1 #h4 ,gathering where thou hast not strewed4--,matt41 xxv1 #bd4 ,their name1 their years1 spelt by th' unletter'd muse1 ,the place of fame and elegy supply2 ,and many a holy text around she strews1 ,that teach the rustic moralist to die4--,gray4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the list which ,i give below1 prepared with great care1 exhibits the redundant verbs1 as they are now generally used1 or as they may be used without grammatical impropriety4#bia ,those forms which are supposed to be preferable1 and best supported by authorities1 are placed first4 ,no words are inserted here1 but such as some modern authors countenance4 ,l4 ,murray recognizes bereaved1 catched1 dealed1 digged1 dwelled1 hanged1 knitted1 shined1 spilled2 and1 in his early editions1 he approved of bended1 builded1 creeped1 weaved1 worked1 wringed4 ,his two larger books now tell us1 ,the ,compiler has not inserted such verbs as learnt1 spelt1 spilt1 c4 which are improperly terminated by t1 instead of ed4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ajg2 ,duodecimo1 p4 #ig4 ,but if he did not1 in all his grammars1 insert1 ,spill1 spilt1 ,r4 spilt1 ,r41 7pp4 #ajf1 #if17 preferring the irregular form to the regular1 somebody else has done it for him4 ,and1 what is remarkable1 many of his amenders1 as if misled by some evil genius1 have contradicted themselves in precisely the same way6 ,ingersoll1 ,fisk1 ,merchant1 and ,hart1 republish exactly the foregoing words1 and severally become ,the ,compiler of the same erroneous catalogue6 ,kirkham prefers spilt to spilled1 and then declares the word to be improperly terminated by t instead of ed4--,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,greenleaf1 who condemns learnt and spelt1 thinks dwelt and spilt are the only established forms2 yet he will have dwell and spill to be regular verbs1 as well as irregular6--,gram4 ,simp41 p4 #bi4 ,webber prefers spilled to spilt2 but ,picket admits only the latter4 ,cobbett and ,sanborn prefer bereaved1 builded1 dealed1 digged1 dreamed1 hanged1 and knitted1 to bereft1 built1 dealt1 dug1 dreamt1 hung1 and knit4 ,the former prefers creeped to crept1 and freezed to froze2 the latter1 slitted to slit1 wringed to wrung2 and both consider1 ,i bended1 ,i bursted and ,i blowed1 to be good modern ,english4 ,w4 ,allen acknowledges freezed and slided2 and1 like ,webster1 prefers hove to hoven3 but the latter justly prefers heaved to both4 ,,examp43 ,the supple kinsman slided to the helm4--,new ,timon4 ,the rogues slided me into the river4--,shak4 ,and the sand slided from beneath my feet4-- ,,dr4 ,,johnson3 in ,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #agi4 ,wherewith she freez'd her foes to congeal'd stone4--,milton's ,comus1 l4 #ddi4 ,it freezed hard last night4 ,now1 what was it that freezed so hard8--,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,far hence lies1 ever freez'd1 the northern main4--,savage's ,wanderer1 l4 #eg4 ,has he not taught1 beseeched1 and shed abroad the ,spirit unconfined8--,pollok's ,course of ,time1 ,b4 x1 l4 #bge4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,d4 ,blair supposes catched to be an erroneous word and unauthorized3 ,i catch'd it1 for ,i caught it1 he sets down for a vulgarism4--,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,but catched is used by some of the most celebrated authors4 ,dearborn prefers the regular form of creep3 creep1 creeped or crept1 creeped or crept4--,columbian ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,i adopt no man's opinions implicitly2 copy nothing without examination2 but1 to prove all my decisions to be right1 would be an endless task4 ,i shall do as much as ought to be expected1 toward showing that they are so4 ,it is to be remembered1 that the poets1 as well as the vulgar1 use some forms which a gentleman would be likely to avoid1 unless he meant to quote or imitate2 as1 ,so clomb the first grand thief into ,god's fold2 ,so since into his church lewd hirelings climb4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #aib4 ,he shore his sheep1 and1 having packed the wool1 ,sent them unguarded to the hill of wolves4 --,pollok1 ,c4 of ,t41 ,b4 vi1 l4 #cjf4 ------,the ,king of heav'n ,bar'd his red arm1 and launching from the sky ,his writhen bolt1 not shaking empty smoke1 ,down to the deep abyss the flaming felon strook4 --,dryden4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the following are examples in proof of some of the forms acknowledged below3 ,where etiquette and precedence abided far away4--,paulding's ,westward-,ho6 p4 #f4 ,but there were no secrets where ,mrs4 ,judith ,paddock abided4--,ib41 p4 #h4 ,they abided by the forms of government established by the charters4--,john ,quincy ,adams1 ,oration1 #ahca4 ,i have abode consequences often enough in the course of my life4--,id41 ,speech1 #ahci4 ,present1 bide1 or abide2 ,past1 bode1 or abode4--,coar's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,i awaked up last of all4--,ecclus41 xxxiii1 #af4 ,for this are my knees bended before the ,god of the spirits of all flesh4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,there was never a prince bereaved of his dependencies1 c4--,bacon4 ,madam1 you have bereft me of all words4--,shakspeare4 ,reave1 reaved or reft1 reaving1 reaved or reft4 ,bereave is similar4--,ward's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,and let them tell their tales of woful ages1 long ago betid4--,shak4 ,of every nation blent1 and every age4--,pollok1 ,c4 of ,t41 ,b vii1 p4 #aec4 ,rider and horse1--friend1 foe1--in one red burial blent6--,byron1 ,harold1 ,c4 iii1 st4 #bh4 ,i builded me houses4--,ecclesiastes1 ii1 #d4 ,for every house is builded by some man2 but he that built all things is ,god4--,heb4 iii1 #d4 ,what thy hands builded not1 thy wisdom gained4--,milton's ,p4 ,l41 ,x1 #cgc4 ,present1 bet2 ,past1 bet2 ,participle1 bet4-- ,mackintosh's ,gram41 p4 #aig2 ,alexander's1 #ch4 ,john of ,gaunt loved him well1 and betted much upon his head4--,,shakspeare3 ,joh4 ,dict1 w4 ,bet4 ,he lost every earthly thing he betted4--,,prior3 ib4 ,a seraph kneeled4--,pollok1 ,c4 ,t41 p4 #ie4 ,at first1 he declared he himself would be blowed1 ,ere his conscience with such a foul crime he would load4 --,j4 ,r4 ,lowell4 ,they are catched without art or industry4--,robertson's ,amer41-,vol4 i1 p4 #cjb4 ,apt to be catched and dazzled4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bf4 ,the lion being catched in a net4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #bcb4 ,in their self-will they digged down a wall4--,gen41 xlix1 #f4 ,the royal mother instantly dove to the bottom and brought up her babe unharmed4-- ,trumbull's ,america1 i1 #add4 ,the learned have diven into the secrets of nature4--,,carnot3 ,columbian ,orator1 p4 #hb4 ,they have awoke from that ignorance in which they had slept4--,london ,encyclopedia4 ,and he slept and dreamed the second time4--,gen41 xli1 #e4 ,so ,i awoke4--,ib41 #ba4 ,but he hanged the chief baker4--,gen41 xl1 #bb4 ,make as if you hanged yourself4--,,arbuthnot3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,graven by art and man's device4--,acts1 xvii1 #bi4 ,grav'd on the stone beneath yon aged thorn4--,gray4 ,that the tooth of usury may be grinded4--,lord ,bacon4 ,,miln-,,ee1 ,the hole from which the grinded corn falls into the chest below4--,glossary of ,craven1 ,london1 #ahbh4 ,,ungrund1 ,not grinded4-- ,ibid4 ,and he built the inner court with three rows of hewed stone4--#a ,kings1 vi1 #cf4 ,a thing by which matter is hewed4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,lang41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cgh4 ,,scagd or ,,scad meaned distinction1 dividing4--,ib41 i1 #aad4 ,he only meaned to acknowledge him to be an extraordinary person4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,the determines what particular thing is meaned4--,ib41 p4 #aa4 ,if ,hermia mean'd to say ,lysander lied4--,shak4 ,as if ,i meaned not the first but the second creation4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #bhi4 ,from some stones have rivers bursted forth4--,sale's ,koran1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ad4 ,so move we on2 ,i only meant ,to show the reed on which you leant4--,scott1 ,l4 ,l41 ,c4 v1 st4 #aa4 ,,obs4 #h4--,layed1 payed1 and stayed1 are now less common than laid1 paid1 and staid2 but perhaps not less correct1 since they are the same words in a more regular and not uncommon orthography3 ,thou takest up that which thou layedst not down4--,,friends' ,,bible1 ,,smith',s1 ,,bruce',s3 ,luke1 xix1 #ba4 ,scott's ,bible1 in this place1 has layest1 which is wrong in tense4 ,thou layedst affliction upon our loins4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,psalms1 lxvi1 #aa4 ,thou laidest affliction upon our loins4--,,scott',s ,,bible1 and ,,bruce',s4 ,thou laidst affliction upon our loins4--,,smith',s ,,bible1 ,stereotyped by ,j4 ,howe4 ,which gently lay'd my knighthood on my shoulder4--,,singer',s ,,shakspeare3 ,richard ,,ii1 ,act i1 ,sc4 #a4 ,but no regard was payed to his remonstrance4--,smollett's ,england1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #bab4 ,therefore the heaven over you is stayed from dew1 and the earth is stayed from her fruit4--,haggai1 i1 #aj4 ,,stay1 i4 ,,stayed or ,,staid2 pp4 ,,staying1 ,,stayed or ,,staid4--,worcester's ,univ4 and ,crit4 ,dict4 ,now ,jonathan and ,ahimaaz stayed by ,en-rogel4--#b ,sam41 xvii1 #ag4 ,this day have ,i payed my vows4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,prov1 vii1 #ad4 ,scott's ,bible has paid4 ,they not only stayed for their resort1 but discharged divers4--,,hayward3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,i stayed till the latest grapes were ripe4--,waller's ,dedication4 ,to lay is regular1 and has in the past time and participle layed or laid4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,to the flood1 that stay'd her flight4--,milton's ,comus1 l4 #hcb4 ,all rude1 all waste1 and desolate is lay'd4--,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 ix1 l4 #afcf4 ,and he smote thrice1 and stayed4--#b ,kings1 xiii1 #ah4 ,when ,cobham1 generous as the noble peer ,that wears his honours1 pay'd the fatal price ,of virtue blooming1 ere the storms were laid4--,shenstone1 p4 #afg4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,by the foregoing citations1 lay1 pay1 and stay1 are clearly proved to be redundant4 ,but1 in nearly all our ,english grammars1 lay and pay are represented as being always irregular2 and stay is as often1 and as improperly1 supposed to be always regular4 ,other examples in proof of the list3 ,i lit my pipe with the paper4--,addison4 ,while he whom learning1 habits1 all prevent1 ,is largely mulct for each impediment4--,crabbe1 ,bor41 p4 #ajb4 ,and then the chapel--night and morn to pray1 ,or mulct and threaten'd if he kept away4--,ib41 p4 #afb4 ,a small space is formed1 in which the breath is pent up4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #dic4 ,pen1 when it means to write1 is always regular4 ,boyle has penned in the sense of confined4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bfa4 ,so far as it was now pled4--,,anderson3 ,annals of the ,bible1 p4 #be4 ,rapped with admiration4--,,hooker3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,and being rapt with the love of his beauty4--,id41 ib4 ,and rapt in secret studies4--,,shak43 ib4 ,i'm rapt with joy4--,,addison3 ib4 ,roast with fire4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,exod41 xii1 #h and #i4 ,roasted with fire4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,exod41 xii1 #h and #i4 ,upon them hath the light shined4--,isaiah1 ix1 #b4 ,the earth shined with his glory4--,ezekiel1 xliii1 #b4 ,after that he had showed wonders4--,acts1 vii1 #cf4 ,those things which ,god before had showed4--,acts1 iii1 #ah4 ,as shall be shewed in ,syntax4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bh4 ,i have shown you1 that the two first may be dismissed4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #aj4 ,and in this struggle were sowed the seeds of the revolution4--,everett's ,address1 p4 #af4 ,your favour showed to the performance1 has given me boldness4--,jenks's ,prayers1 ,ded4 ,yea1 so have ,i strived to preach the gospel4--,rom41 xv1 #bj4 ,art thou1 like the adder1 waxen deaf8--,shakspeare4 ,hamstring'd behind1 unhappy ,gyges died4--,dryden4 ,in ,syracusa was ,i born and wed4--,shakspeare4 ,and thou art wedded to calamity4--,id4 ,i saw thee first1 and wedded thee4--,milton4 ,sprung the rank weed1 and thrived with large increase4--,pope4 ,some errors never would have thriven1 had it not been for learned refutation4--,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #cd4 ,under your care they have thriven4--,junius1 p4 #e4 ,fixed by being rolled closely1 compacted1 knitted4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cgd4 ,with kind converse and skill has weaved4--,prior4 ,though ,i shall be wetted to the skin4--,sandford and ,merton1 p4 #fd4 ,i speeded hither with the very extremest inch of possibility4--,shakspeare4 ,and pure grief shore his old thread in twain4--,id4 ,and must ,i ravel out my weaved-up follies8--,id41 ,rich4 ,,ii4 ,tells how the drudging ,goblin swet4--,milton's ,l',allegro4 ,weave1 wove or weaved1 weaving1 wove1 weaved1 or woven4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #fg4 ,thou who beneath the frown of fate hast stood1 ,and in thy dreadful agony sweat blood4--,young1 p4 #bch4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the verb to shake is now seldom used in any other than the irregular form1 shake1 shook1 shaking1 shaken2 and1 in this form only1 is it recognized by our principal grammarians and lexicographers1 except that ,johnson improperly acknowledges shook as well as shaken for the perfect participle3 as1 ,i've shook it off4--,,dryden3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,but the regular form1 shake1 shaked1 shaking1 shaked1 appears to have been used by some writers of high reputation2 and1 if the verb is not now properly redundant1 it formerly was so4 ,examples regular3 ,the frame and huge foundation of the earth shak'd like a coward4--,,shakspeare3 ,hen4 ,,iv4 ,i am he that is so love-shaked4--,,id43 ,as ,you ,like it4 ,a sly and constant knave1 not to be shak'd4--,,id43 ,cymbeline3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,i thought he would have shaked it off4--,,tattler3 ib4 ,to the very point ,i shaked my head at4--,spectator1 ,no4 #d4 ,from the ruin'd roof of shak'd ,olympus4--,milton's ,poems4 ,none hath shak'd it off4--,walker's ,english ,particles1 p4 #hi4 ,they shaked their heads4--,psalms1 cix1 #be4 ,dr4 ,crombie says1 ,story1 in his ,grammar1 has1 most unwarrantably1 asserted1 that the ,participle of this ,verb should be shaked4--,,on ,,etymology ,,and ,,syntax1 p4 #aih4 ,fowle1 on the contrary1 pronounces shaked to be right4 ,see ,true ,english ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,all former lists of our irregular and redundant verbs are1 in many respects1 defective and erroneous2 nor is it claimed for those which are here presented1 that they are absolutely perfect4 ,i trust1 however1 they are much nearer to perfection1 than are any earlier ones4 ,among the many individuals who have published schemes of these verbs1 none have been more respected and followed than ,lowth1 ,murray1 and ,crombie2 yet are these authors' lists severally faulty in respect to as many as sixty or seventy of the words in question1 though the whole number but little exceeds two hundred1 and is commonly reckoned less than one hundred and eighty4 ,by ,lowth1 eight verbs are made redundant1 which ,i think are now regular only3 namely1 bake1 climb1 fold1 help1 load1 owe1 wash4 ,by ,crombie1 as many3 to wit1 bake1 climb1 freight1 help1 lift1 load1 shape1 writhe4 ,by ,murray1 two3 load and shape4 ,with ,crombie1 and in general with the others too1 twenty-seven verbs are always irregular1 which ,i think are sometimes regular1 and therefore redundant3 abide1 beseech1 blow1 burst1 creep1 freeze1 grind1 lade1 lay1 pay1 rive1 seethe1 shake1 show1 sleep1 slide1 speed1 string1 strive1 strow1 sweat1 thrive1 throw1 weave1 weep1 wind1 wring4 ,again1 there are1 ,i think1 more than twenty redundant verbs which are treated by ,crombie1--and1 with one or two exceptions1 by ,lowth and ,murray also1--as if they were always regular3 namely1 betide1 blend1 bless1 burn1 dive1 dream1 dress1 geld1 kneel1 lean1 leap1 learn1 mean1 mulct1 pass1 pen1 plead1 prove1 reave1 smell1 spell1 stave1 stay1 sweep1 wake1 whet1 wont4 ,crombie's list contains the auxiliaries1 which properly belong to a different table4 ,erroneous as it is1 in all these things1 and more1 it is introduced by the author with the following praise1 in bad ,english3 ,verbs1 which depart from this rule1 are called ,irregular1 of which ,i believe the subsequent enumeration to be nearly complete4--,,treatise ,,on ,,etym4 ,,and ,,synt41 p4 #aib4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,dr4 ,johnson1 in his ,grammar of the ,english ,tongue1 recognizes two forms which would make teach and reach redundant4 ,but teached is now obsolete1 and rought is old1 according to his own ,dictionary4 ,of loaded and loaden1 which he gives as participles of load1 the regular form only appears to be now in good use4 ,for the redundant forms of many words in the foregoing list1 as of abode or abided1 awaked or awoke1 besought or beseeched1 caught or catched1 hewed or hewn1 mowed or mown1 laded or laden1 seethed or sod1 sheared or shore1 sowed or sown1 waked or woke1 wove or weaved1 his authority may be added to that of others already cited4 ,in ,dearborn's ,columbian ,grammar1 published in ,boston in #agie1 the year in which ,lindley ,murray's ,grammar first appeared in ,york1 no fewer than thirty verbs are made redundant1 which are not so represented by ,murray4 ,of these ,i have retained nineteen in the following list1 and left the other eleven to be now considered always regular4 ,the thirty are these3 bake1 bend1 build1 burn1 climb1 creep1 dream1 fold1 freight1 geld1 heat1 heave1 help1 lay1 leap1 lift1 light1 melt1 owe1 quit1 rent1 rot1 seethe1 spell1 split1 strive1 wash1 weave1 wet1 work4 ,see ,dearborn's ,gram41 p4 #cg-de4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,redundant ,,verbs4 ,imperfect ,present4 ,preterit4 ,participle4 ,perfect ,participle4 ,abide1 abode or abided1 abiding1 abode or abided4 ,awake1 awaked or awoke1 awaking1 awaked or awoke4 ,belay1 belayed or belaid1 belaying1 belayed or belaid4 ,bend1 bent or bended1 bending1 bent or bended4 ,bereave1 bereft or bereaved1 bereaving1 bereft or bereaved4 ,beseech1 besought or beseeched1 beseeching1 besought or beseeched4 ,bet1 betted or bet1 betting1 betted or bet4 ,betide1 betided or betid1 betiding1 betided or betid4 ,bide1 bode or bided1 biding1 bode or bided4 ,blend1 blended or blent1 blending1 blended or blent4 ,bless1 blessed or blest1 blessing1 blessed or blest4 ,blow1 blew or blowed1 blowing1 blown or blowed4 ,build1 built or builded1 building1 built or builded4 ,burn1 burned or burnt1 burning1 burned or burnt4 ,burst1 burst or bursted1 bursting1 burst or bursted4 ,catch1 caught or catched1 catching1 caught or catched4 ,clothe1 clothed or clad1 clothing1 clothed or clad4 ,creep1 crept or creeped1 creeping1 crept or creeped4 ,crow1 crowed or crew1 crowing1 crowed4 ,curse1 cursed or curst1 cursing1 cursed or curst4 ,dare1 dared or durst1 daring1 dared4 ,deal1 dealt or dealed1 dealing1 dealt or dealed4 ,dig1 dug or digged1 digging1 dug or digged4 ,dive1 dived or dove1 diving1 dived or diven4 ,dream1 dreamed or dreamt1 dreaming1 dreamed or dreamt4 ,dress1 dressed or drest1 dressing1 dressed or drest4 ,dwell1 dwelt or dwelled1 dwelling1 dwelt or dwelled4 ,freeze1 froze or freezed1 freezing1 frozen or freezed4 ,geld1 gelded or gelt1 gelding1 gelded or gelt4 ,gild1 gilded or gilt1 gilding1 gilded or gilt4 ,gird1 girded or girt1 girding1 girded or girt4 ,grave1 graved1 graving1 graved or graven4 ,grind1 ground or grinded1 grinding1 ground or grinded4 ,hang1 hung or hanged1 hanging1 hung or hanged4 ,heat1 heated or het1 heating1 heated or het4 ,heave1 heaved or hove1 heaving1 heaved or hoven4 ,hew1 hewed1 hewing1 hewed or hewn4 ,kneel1 kneeled or knelt1 kneeling1 kneeled or knelt4 ,knit1 knit or knitted1 knitting1 knit or knitted4 ,lade1 laded1 lading1 laded or laden4 ,lay1 laid or layed1 laying1 laid or layed4 ,lean1 leaned or leant1 leaning1 leaned or leant4 ,leap1 leaped or leapt1 leaping1 leaped or leapt4#bib ,learn1 learned or learnt1 learning1 learned or learnt4 ,light1 lighted or lit1 lighting1 lighted or lit4 ,mean1 meant or meaned1 meaning1 meant or meaned4 ,mow1 mowed1 mowing1 mowed or mown4 ,mulct1 mulcted or mulct1 mulcting1 mulcted or mulct4 ,pass1 passed or past1 passing1 passed or past4 ,pay1 paid or payed1 paying1 paid or payed4 ,pen1 penned or pent1 penning1 penned or pent4 7to coop17 ,plead1 pleaded or pled1 pleading1 pleaded or pled4 ,prove1 proved1 proving1 proved or proven4 ,quit1 quitted or quit1 quitting1 quitted or quit4#bic ,rap1 rapped or rapt1 rapping1 rapped or rapt4 ,reave1 reft or reaved1 reaving1 reft or reaved4 ,rive1 rived1 riving1 riven or rived4 ,roast1 roasted or roast1 roasting1 roasted or roast4 ,saw1 sawed1 sawing1 sawed or sawn4 ,seethe1 seethed or sod1 seething1 seethed or sodden4 ,shake1 shook or shaked1 shaking1 shaken or shaked4 ,shape1 shaped1 shaping1 shaped or shapen4 ,shave1 shaved1 shaving1 shaved or shaven4 ,shear1 sheared or shore1 shearing1 sheared or shorn4 ,shine1 shined or shone1 shining1 shined or shone4 ,show1 showed1 showing1 showed or shown4 ,sleep1 slept or sleeped1 sleeping1 slept or sleeped4 ,slide1 slid or slided1 sliding1 slidden1 slid1 or slided4 ,slit1 slitted or slit1 slitting1 slitted or slit4 ,smell1 smelled or smelt1 smelling1 smelled or smelt4 ,sow1 sowed1 sowing1 sowed or sown4 ,speed1 sped or speeded1 speeding1 sped or speeded4 ,spell1 spelled or spelt1 spelling1 spelled or spelt4 ,spill1 spilled or spilt1 spilling1 spilled or spilt4 ,split1 split or splitted1 splitting1 split or splitted4#bid ,spoil1 spoiled or spoilt1 spoiling1 spoiled or spoilt4 ,stave1 stove or staved1 staving1 stove or staved4 ,stay1 staid or stayed1 staying1 staid or stayed4 ,string1 strung or stringed1 stringing1 strung or stringed4 ,strive1 strived or strove1 striving1 strived or striven4 ,strow1 strowed1 strowing1 strowed or strown4 ,sweat1 sweated or sweat1 sweating1 sweated or sweat4 ,sweep1 swept or sweeped1 sweeping1 swept or sweeped4 ,swell1 swelled1 swelling1 swelled or swollen4 ,thrive1 thrived or throve1 thriving1 thrived or thriven4 ,throw1 threw or throwed1 throwing1 thrown or throwed4 ,wake1 waked or woke1 waking1 waked or woke4 ,wax1 waxed1 waxing1 waxed or waxen4 ,weave1 wove or weaved1 weaving1 woven or weaved4 ,wed1 wedded or wed1 wedding1 wedded or wed4 ,weep1 wept or weeped1 weeping1 wept or weeped4 ,wet1 wet or wetted1 wetting1 wet or wetted4 ,whet1 whetted or whet1 whetting1 whetted or whet4#bie ,wind1 wound or winded1 winding1 wound or winded4 ,wont1 wont or wonted1 wonting1 wont or wonted4 ,work1 worked or wrought1 working1 worked or wrought4 ,wring1 wringed or wrung1 wringing1 wringed or wrung4#bif ,,defective ,,verbs4 ,a defective verb is a verb that forms no participles1 and is used in but few of the moods and tenses2 as1 beware1 ought1 quoth4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4 ,when any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting1 the tenses usually derived from those parts are also1 of course1 wanting4 ,all the auxiliaries1 except do1 be1 and have1 if we compare them with other verbs1 are defective2 but1 as auxiliaries1 they lack nothing2 for no complete verb is used throughout as an auxiliary1 except be4 ,and since an auxiliary differs essentially from a principal verb1 the propriety of referring may1 can1 must1 and shall1 to the class of defective verbs1 is at least questionable4 ,in parsing there is never any occasion to call them defective verbs1 because they are always taken together with their principals4 ,and though we may technically say1 that their participles are wanting1 it is manifest that none are needed4 ,,obs4 #b4 ,will is sometimes used as a principal verb1 and as such it is regular and complete2 will1 willed1 willing1 willed3 as1 ,his ,majesty willed that they should attend4--,clarendon4 ,he wills for them a happiness of a far more exalted and enduring nature4--,gurney4 ,whether thou willest it to be a minister to our pleasure4--,harris4 ,i will2 be thou clean4--,luke1 v1 #ac4 ,nevertheless1 not as ,i will1 but as thou will4--,matt41 xxvi1 #ci4 ,to will is present with me4--,rom41 vii1 #ah4 ,but would is sometimes also a principal verb2 as1 ,what would this man8--,pope4 ,would ,god that all the ,lord's people were prophets4--,numb41 xi1 #bi4 ,and ,israel would none of me4--,psalm1 lxxxi1 #aa4 ,if we refer this indefinite preterit to the same root1 will becomes redundant2 will1 willed or would1 willing1 willed4 ,in respect to time1 would is less definite than willed1 though both are called preterits4 ,it is common1 and perhaps best1 to consider them distinct verbs4 ,the latter only can be a participle3 as1 ,how rarely does it meet with this time's guise1 ,when man was will'd to love his enemies6--,shakspeare4 ,,obs4 #c4 ,the remaining defective verbs are only five or six questionable terms1 which our grammarians know not well how else to explain2 some of them being now nearly obsolete1 and others never having been very proper4 ,begone is a needless coalition of be and gone1 better written separately1 unless ,dr4 ,johnson is right in calling the compound an interjection3 as1 ,begone6 the goddess cries with stern disdain1 ,begone6 nor dare the hallow'd stream to stain6--,addison4 ,beware also seems to be a needless compound of be and the old adjective ware1 wary1 aware1 cautious4 ,both these are1 of course1 used only in those forms of expression in which be is proper2 as1 ,beware of dogs1 beware of evil workers1 beware of the concision4--,philippians1 iii1 #b4 ,but we must beware#big of carrying our attention to this beauty too far4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aai4 ,these words were formerly separated3 as1 ,of whom be thou ware also4--#a ,tim41 iv1 #ae4 ,they were ware of it4--,,friends' ,,bible1 and ,,alger',s3 ,acts1 xiii1 #f4 ,they were aware of it4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ib4 ,and in an hour that he is not ware of him4--,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,ware4 ,and in an hour that he is not aware of4--,,common ,,bibles3 ,matt41 xxiv1 #ej4 ,bid her well be ware and still erect4--,,milton3 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,that even ,silence was took ere she was ware4--,id41 ,comus1 line #eeh4 ,the adjective ware is now said to be obsolete2 but the propriety of this assertion depends upon that of forming such a defective verb4 ,what is the use of doing so8 ,this to disclose is all thy guardian can2 ,beware of all1 but most beware of man4--,pope4 ,the words written separately will always have the same meaning1 unless we omit the preposition of1 and suppose the compound to be a transitive verb4 ,in this case1 the argument for compounding the terms appears to be valid2 as1 ,beware the public laughter of the town2 ,thou springst a-leak already in thy crown4--,dryden4 ,,obs4 #d4 ,the words ought and own1 without question1 were originally parts of the redundant verb to owe2 thus3 owe1 owed or ought1 owing1 owed or own4 ,but both have long been disjoined from this connexion1 and hence owe has become regular4 ,own1 as now used1 is either a pronominal adjective1 as1 my own hand1 or a regular verb thence derived1 as1 to own a house4 ,ought1 under the name of a defective verb1 is now generally thought to be properly used1 in this one form1 in all the persons and numbers of the present and the imperfect tense of the indicative and subjunctive moods4 ,or1 if it is really of one tense only1 it is plainly an aorist2 and hence the time must be specified by the infinitive that follows3 as1 ,he ought to go2 ,he ought to have gone4 ,if thou ought to go2 ,if thou ought to have gone4 ,being originally a preterit1 it never occurs in the infinitive mood1 and is entirely invariable1 except in the solemn style1 where we find oughtest in both tenses2 as1 ,how thou oughtest to behave thyself4--#a ,tim41 iii1 #ae4 ,thou oughtest therefore to have put my money to the exchangers4--,matt41 xxiv1 #bg4 ,we never say1 or have said1 ,he1 she1 or it1 oughts or oughteth4 ,yet we manifestly use this verb in the present tense1 and in the third person singular2 as1 ,discourse ought always to begin with a clear proposition4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bag4 ,i have already observed that some grammarians improperly call ought an auxiliary4 ,the learned authors of ,brightland's ,grammar1 7which is dedicated to ,queen ,anne17 did so2 and also affirmed that must and ought have only the present time1 and are alike invariable4 ,it is now quite obsolete to say1 thou oughtest2 for ought now changes its ending no more than must4--,brightland's ,gram41 7approved by ,isaac ,bickerstaff1 ,esq417 p4 #aab4 ,do1 will1 and shall1 must1 ,,ought1 and may1 ,have1 am1 or be1 this ,doctrine will display4--,ib41 p4 #ajg4 ,,obs4 #e4--,wis1 preterit wist1 to know1 to think1 to suppose1 to imagine1 appears to be now nearly or quite obsolete2 but it may be proper to explain it1 because it is found in the ,bible3 as1 ,i wist not1 brethren1 that he was the high priest4--,acts1 xxiii1 #e4 ,he himself 'wist not that his face shone4'--,life of ,schiller1 p4 iv4 ,wit1 to know1 and wot1 knew1 are also obsolete1 except in the phrase to wit2 which1 being taken abstractly1 is equivalent to the adverb namely1 or to the phrase1 that is to say4 ,the phrase1 we do you to wit1 7in #b ,cor41 viii1 #ast17 means1 we inform you4 ,churchill gives the present tense of this verb three forms1 weet1 wit1 and wot2 and there seems to have been some authority for them all3 as1 ,he was1 to weet1 a little roguish page4--,thomson4 ,but little wotteth he the might of the means his folly despiseth4--,tupper's ,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #ce4 ,to wit1 used alone1 to indicate a thing spoken of1 7as the ,french use their infinitive1 savoir1 savoir1 or the phrase1 c'est savoir17 is undoubtedly an elliptical expression3 probably for1 ,i give you to wit2 i4 e41 ,i give you to know4 ,trow1 to think1 occurs in the ,bible2 as1 ,i trow not4--,n4 ,test4 ,and ,coar gives it as a defective verb2 and only in the first person singular of the present indicative1 ,i trow4 ,webster and ,worcester mark the words as obsolete2 but ,sir ,w4 ,scott1 in the ,lady of the ,lake1 has this line3 ,thinkst thou he trow'd thine omen ought8--,canto iv1 stanza #aj4 ,quoth and quod1 for say1 saith1 or said1 are obsolete1 or used only in ludicrous language4 ,webster supposes these words to be equivalent1 and each confined to the first and third persons of the present and imperfect tenses of the indicative mood4 ,johnson says1 that1 quoth you1 as used by ,sidney1 is irregular2 but ,tooke assures us1 that ,the th in quoth1 does not designate the third person4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cbc4 ,they are each invariable1 and always placed before the nominative3 as1 quoth ,i1 quoth he4 ,yea1 so sayst thou1 7quod ,trylus17 alas6--,chaucer4 ,i feare1 quod he1 it wyll not be4--,sir ,t4 ,more4 ,stranger1 go6 ,heaven be thy guide6 ,quod the beadsman of ,nith-side4--,burns4 ,,obs4 #f4--,methinks1 7i4 e41 to me it thinks17 for ,i think1 or1 it seems to me1 with its preterit methought1 7i4 e41 to me it thought17 is called by ,dr4 ,johnson an ungrammatical word4 ,he imagined it to be a ,norman corruption1 the ,french being apt to confound me and ,i4--,joh4 ,dict4 ,it is indeed a puzzling anomaly in our language1 though not without some ,anglo-,saxon or ,latin parallels2 and1 like its kindred1 me seemeth1 or meseems1 is little worthy to be countenanced1 though often used by ,dryden1 ,pope1 ,addison1 and other good writers4 ,our lexicographers call it an impersonal verb1 because1 being compounded with an objective1 it cannot have a nominative expressed4 ,it is nearly equivalent to the adverb apparently2 and if impersonal1 it is also defective2 for it has no participles1 no methinking1 and no participial construction of methought2 though ,webster's ,american ,dictionary1 whether quarto or octavo1 absurdly suggests that the latter word may be used as a participle4 ,in the ,bible1 we find the following text3 ,me thinketh the running of the foremost is like the running of ,ahimaaz4--#b ,sam41 xviii1 #bg4 ,and ,milton improperly makes thought an impersonal verb1 apparently governing the separate objective pronoun him2 as1 ,him thought he by the brook of ,cherith stood4 --,p4 ,r41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #bfd4 ,,obs4 #g4--,some verbs from the nature of the subjects to which they refer1 are chiefly confined to the third person singular2 as1 ,it rains2 it snows2 it freezes2 it hails2 it lightens2 it thunders4 ,these have been called impersonal verbs2 because the neuter pronoun it1 which is commonly used before them1 does not seem to represent any noun1 but1 in connexion with the verb1 merely to express a state of things4 ,they are however1 in fact1 neither impersonal nor defective4 ,some1 or all of them1 may possibly take some other nominative1 if not a different person2 as1 ,the ,lord rained upon ,sodom1 and upon ,gomorrah1 brimstone and fire4--,gen41 xix1 #bd4 ,the ,god of glory thundereth4--,psalms1 xxix1 #c4 ,canst thou thunder with a voice like him8--,job1 xl1 #i4 ,in short1 as ,harris observes1 ,the doctrine of ,impersonal ,verbs has been justly rejected by the best grammarians1 both ancient and modern4--,hermes1 p4 #age4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,by some writers1 words of this kind are called ,monopersonal ,verbs2 that is1 verbs of one person4 ,this name1 though not very properly compounded1 is perhaps more fit than the other2 but we have little occasion to speak of these verbs as a distinct class in our language4 ,dr4 ,murray says1 ,what is called an impersonal verb1 is not so2 for lic-et1 juv-at1 and oport-et1 have ,tha1 that thing1 or it1 in their composition4--,history of ,european ,languages1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #adf4 ,ail1 irk1 and behoove1 are regular verbs and transitive2 but they are used only in the third person singular3 as1 ,what ails you8--,it irks me4--,it behooves you4 ,the last two are obsolescent1 or at least not in very common use4 ,in ,latin1 passive verbs1 or neuters of the passive form1 are often used impersonally1 or without an obvious nominative2 and this elliptical construction is sometimes imitated in ,english1 especially by the poets3 as1 ,meanwhile1 ere thus was sinn'd and judg'd on earth1 ,within the gates of ,hell sat ,sin and ,death4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 x1 l4 #bcj4 ,forthwith on all sides to his aid was run ,by angels many and strong1 who interpos'd4 --,id41 ,b4 vi1 l4 #cce4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,defective ,,verbs4 ,present4 ,preterit4 ,beware1 ------ ,can1 could4 ,may1 might4 ,methinks1 methought4 ,must1 must4#bih ,ought1 ought4#bih ,shall1 should1 ,will#bii would4 ,quoth1 quoth4 ,wis1 wist4#cjj ,wit1 wot4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,vi--,,etymological4 ,in the ,sixth ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and the classes and modifications of the ,,articles1 ,,nouns1 ,,adjectives1 ,,pronouns1 and ,,verbs4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,sixth ,praxis1 are two for an article1 six for a noun1 three for an adjective1 six for a pronoun1 seven for a verb finite1 five for an infinitive1 and one for a participle1 an adverb1 a conjunction1 a preposition1 or an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,the freedom of choice seems essential to happiness2 because1 properly speaking1 that is riot our own which is imposed upon us4--,dillwyn's ,reflections1 p4 #aji4 ,the is the definite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things4 ,freedom is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,of is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,choice is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is2 the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can he known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,seems is a regular neuter verb1 from seem1 seemed1 seeming1 seemed2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and singular number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,a regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,a neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion1 but simply being1 or a state of being4 #d4 ,the indicative mood is that form of the verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 #e4 ,the present tense is that which expresses what now exists1 or is taking place4 #f4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,essential is a common adjective1 compared by means of the adverbs2 essential1 more essential1 most essential2 or1 essential1 less essential1 least essential4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,those adjectives which may be varied in sense1 but not in form1 are compared by means of adverbs4 ,to is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,happiness is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,because is a conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,properly is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,speaking is a participle4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 ,that is a pronominal adjective1 not compared2 standing for that thing1 in the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 ,see ,,obs4 #adth1 p4 #bij4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun1 or represent it understood4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,is is an irregular neuter verb1 from be1 was1 being1 been2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and singular number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,a neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion1 but simply being1 or a state of being4 #d4 ,the indicative mood is that form of the verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 #e4 ,the present tense is that which expresses what now exists1 or is taking place4 #f4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,not is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,our is a personal pronoun1 of the first person1 plural number1 masculine gender1 and possessive case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer4 #d4 ,the plural number is that which denotes more than one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the relation of property4 ,own is a pronominal adjective1 not compared4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun1 or represent it understood4 #c4 ,those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees cannot be compared4 ,which is a relative pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase1 and connects different clauses of a sentence4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,is imposed is a regular passive verb1 from the active verb1 impose1 imposed1 imposing1 imposed1--passive1 to be imposed2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and singular number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,a regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,a passive verb is a verb that represents the subject1 or what the nominative expresses1 as being acted upon4 #d4 ,the indicative mood is that form of the verb which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 #e4 ,the present tense is that which expresses what now exists1 or is taking place4 #f4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,upon is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,us is a personal pronoun1 of the first person1 plural number1 masculine gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer4 #d4 ,the plural number is that which denotes more than one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,he has desires after the kingdom1 and mates no question but it shall be his2 he wills1 runs1 strives1 believes1 hopes1 prays1 reads scriptures1 observes duties1 and regards ordinances4--,penington1 ii1 #abd4 ,wo unto you1 lawyers6 for ye have taken away the key of knowledge3 ye enter not in yourselves1 and them that were entering in ye hindered4--,luke1 xi1 #eb4 ,above all other liberties1 give me the liberty to know1 to utter1 and to argue freely1 according to my conscience4--,milton4 ,eloquence is to be looked for only in free states4 ,longinus illustrates this observation with a great deal of beauty4 ',liberty1' he remarks1 'is the nurse of true genius2 it animates the spirit1 and invigorates the hopes1 of men2 it excites honourable emulation1 and a desire of excelling in every art4'--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bcg4 ,none of the faculties common to man and the lower animals1 conceive the idea of civil liberty1 any more than that of religion4--,spurzheim1 on ,education1 p4 #bei4 ,whoever is not able1 or does not dare1 to think1 or does not feel contradictions and absurdities1 is unfit for a refined religion and civil liberty4--,ib41 p4 #beh4 ,the too great number of journals1 and the extreme partiality of their authors1 have much discredited them4 ,a man must have great talents to please all sorts of readers2 and it is impossible to please all authors1 who1 generally speaking1 cannot bear with the most judicious and most decent criticisms4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #agj4 ,son of man1 ,i have broken the arm of ,pharaoh king of ,egypt2 and1 lo1 it shall not be bound up to be healed1 to put a roller to bind it1 to make it strong to hold the sword4--,ezekiel1 xxx1 #ba4 ,yet he was humble1 kind1 forgiving1 meek1 ,easy to be entreated1 gracious1 mild2 ,and1 with all patience and affection1 taught1 ,rebuked1 persuaded1 solaced1 counselled1 warned4--,pollok1 ,b4 ix4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,what is coming1 will come2 what is proceeding onward1 verges towards completion4--,dr4 ,murray's ,europ4 ,lang41 i1 #cbd4 ,sir1 if it had not been for the art of printing1 we should now have had no learning at all2 for books would have perished faster than they could have been transcribed4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,life1 iii1 #djj4 ,passionate reproofs are like medicines given scalding hot3 the patient cannot take them4 ,if we wish to do good to those whom we rebuke1 we should labour for meekness of wisdom1 and use soft words and hard arguments4--,dodd4 ,my prayer for you is1 that ,god may guide you by his counsel1 and in the end bring you to glory3 to this purpose1 attend diligently to the dictates of his good spirit1 which you may hear within you2 for ,christ saith1 ',he that dwelleth with you1 shall be in you4' ,and1 as you hear and obey him1 he will conduct you through this troublous world1 in ways of truth and righteousness1 and land you at last in the habitations of everlasting rest and peace with the ,lord1 to praise him for ever and ever4--,t4 ,gwin4 ,by matter1 we mean1 that which is tangible1 extended1 and divisible2 by mind1 that which perceives1 reflects1 wills1 and reasons4 ,these properties are wholly dissimilar and admit of no comparison4 ,to pretend that mind is matter1 is to propose a contradiction in terms2 and is just as absurd1 as to pretend that matter is mind4--,gurney's ,portable ,evidence1 p4 #gh4 ,if any one should think all this to be of little importance1 ,i desire him to consider what he would think1 if vice had1 essentially1 and in its nature1 these advantageous tendencies1 or if virtue had essentially the direct contrary ones4--,butler1 p4 #ii4 ,no man can write simpler and stronger ,english than the celebrated ,boz1 and this renders us the more annoyed at those manifold vulgarities and slipshod errors1 which unhappily have of late years disfigured his productions4--,,living ,,authors ,,of ,,england3 ,the ,examiner1 ,no4 #aai4 ,here ,havard1 all serene1 in the same strains1 ,loves1 hates1 and rages1 triumphs1 and complains4--,churchill1 p4 #c4 ,let ,satire1 then1 her proper object know1 ,and ere she strike1 be sure she strike a foe4--,john ,brown4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,the ,author of nature has as truly directed that vicious actions1 considered as mischievous to society1 should be punished1 and has as clearly put mankind under a necessity of thus punishing them1 as he has directed and necessitated us to preserve our lives by food4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #hh4 ,an author may injure his works by altering1 and even amending1 the successive editions3 the first impression sinks the deepest1 and with the credulous it can rarely be effaced2 nay1 he will be vainly employed who endeavours to eradicate it4--,werter1 p4 #hb4 ,it is well ordered1 that even the most innocent blunder is not committed with impunity2 because1 were errors licensed where they do no hurt1 inattention would grow into habit1 and be the occasion of much hurt4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bhe4 ,the force of language consists in raising complete images2 which have the effect to transport the reader1 as by magic1 into the very place of the important action1 and to convert him as it were into a spectator1 beholding every thing that passes4--,id41 ib41 ii1 #bda4 ,an orator should not put forth all his strength at the beginning1 but should rise and grow upon us1 as his discourse advances4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cji4 ,when a talent is given to any one1 an account is open with the giver of it1 who appoints a day in which he will arrive and 'redemand his own with usury4'--,west's ,letters to a ,young ,lady1 p4 #gd4 ,go1 and reclaim the sinner1 instruct the ignorant1 soften the obdurate1 and 7as occasion shall demand7 cheer1 depress1 repel1 allure1 disturb1 assuage1 console1 or terrify4--,jerningham's ,essay on ,eloquence1 p4 #ig4 ,if all the year were playing holydays1 ,to sport would be as tedious as to work3 ,but when they seldom come1 they wish'd-for come1 ,and nothing pleaseth but rare accidents4 --,shak41 ,hen4 ,v4 ,the man that once did sell the lion's skin ,while the beast liv'd1 was kill'd with hunting him4 --,id41 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,beast4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,of ,,verbs4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,preterits4 ,in speaking on a matter which toucht their hearts4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dda4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the verb toucht is terminated in t4 ,but1 according to ,observation #bnd1 on the irregular verbs1 touch is regular4 ,therefore1 this t should be changed to ed2 thus1 ,in speaking on a matter which touched their hearts4 ,though ,horace publisht it some time after4--,ib41 i1 #ddd4 ,the best subjects with which the ,greek models furnisht him4--,ib41 i1 #ddd4 ,since he attacht no thought to it4--,ib41 i1 #fde4 ,by what slow steps the ,greek alphabet reacht its perfection4--,ib41 i1 #fea4 ,because ,goethe wisht to erect an affectionate memorial4--,ib41 i1 #dfi4 ,but the ,saxon forms soon dropt away4--,ib41 i1 #ffh4 ,it speaks of all the towns that perisht in the age of ,philip4--,ib41 i1 #beb4 ,this enricht the written language with new words4--,ib41 i1 #ffh4 ,he merely furnisht his friend with matter for laughter4--,ib41 i1 #dgi4 ,a cloud arose and stopt the light4--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #cac4 ,she slipt zpadillo in her breast4--,ib41 p4 #cga4 ,i guest the hand4--,ib41 p4 #cgb4 ,the tyrant stript me to the skin3 ,my skin he flay'd1 my hair he cropt2 ,at head and foot my body lopt4--,ib41 ,on a ,pen1 p4 #cch4 ,i see the greatest owls in you1 ,that ever screecht or ever flew4--,ib41 p4 #djc4 ,i sate with delight1 from morning till night4--,ib41 p4 #cfg4 ,dick nimbly skipt the gutter4--,ib41 p4 #cge4 ,in at the pantry door this morn ,i slipt4--,ib41 p4 #cfi4 ,nobody living ever toucht me but you4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ib4 ,present1 ,i ship2 ,past1 ,i shipped or shipt2 ,participle1 shipped or shipt4--,murray the schoolmaster4 ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,then the king arose1 and tare his garments4--#b ,sam41 xiii1 #ca4 ,when he lift up his foot1 he knew not where he should set it next4--,bunyan4 ,he lift up his spear against eight hundred1 whom he slew at one time4--#b ,,sam43 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,upon this chaos rid the distressed ark4--,,burnet3 ib4 ,on whose foolish honesty1 my practices rid easy4--,,shak43 ib4 ,that form of the first or primogenial ,earth1 which rise immediately out of chaos4--,,burnet3 ib4 ,sir1 how come it you have holp to make this rescue8--,,shak43 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,he sware he had rather lose all his father's images than that table4--,,peacham3 ib4 ,when our language dropt its ancient terminations4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist41 ii1 #e4 ,when themselves they vilify'd4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 xi1 #eae4 ,but ,i choosed rather to do thus4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #def4 ,when he plead against the parsons4-- ,school ,history1 p4 #afh4 ,and he that saw it1 bear record4--,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #gb4 ,an irregular verb has one more variation1 as drive1 drivest1 drives1 drivedst1 drove1 driving1 driven4--,,rev4 ,,matt4 ,,harrison1 on the ,english ,language1 p4 #bfj4 ,beside that village ,hannibal pitcht his camp4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #gi4 ,he fetcht it even from ,tmolus4-- ,ib41 p4 #aad4 ,he supt with his morning gown on4--,ib41 p4 #bhe4 ,there stampt her sacred name4--,barlow's ,columbiad1 ,b4 i1 l4 #bcc4 ,fixt on the view the great discoverer stood1 ,and thus addrest the messenger of good4--,barlow1 ,b1 i1 l4 #feh4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed4 ,three freemen were being tried at the date of our last information4--,newspaper4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the participle being is used after its own verb were4 ,but1 according to ,observation #dth1 on the compound form of the conjugation1 this complex passive form is an absurd innovation4 ,therefore1 the expression should be changed2 thus1 ,three freemen were on trial--or1 were receiving their trial--at the date of our last information4 ,while the house was being built1 many of the tribe arrived4--,ross ,cox's ,travels1 p4 #ajb4 ,but a foundation has been laid in ,zion1 and the church is being built upon it4--,the ,friend1 ix1 #cgg4 ,and one fourth of the people are being educated4--,east ,india ,magazine4 ,the present1 or that which is now being done4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,a new church1 called the ,pantheon1 is just being completed in an expensive style4--,g4 ,a4 ,thompson's ,guatemala1 p4 #dfg4 ,when ,i last saw him1 he was grown considerably4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bbc2 ,merchants1 #aih4 ,i know what a rugged and dangerous path ,i am got into4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #hc4 ,you were as good preach case to one on the rack4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #bhe4 ,thou hast heard me1 and art become my salvation4--,psal41 cxviii1 #ba4 ,while the ,elementary ,spelling-,book was being prepared for the press4--,l4 ,cobb's ,review1 p4 vi4 ,language is become1 in modern times1 more correct and accurate4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #af4 ,if the plan have been executed in any measure answerable to the author's wishes4--,robbins's ,hist41 p4 #c4 ,the vial of wrath is still being poured out on the seat of the beast4--,christian ,experience1 p4 #dji4 ,christianity was become the generally adopted and established religion of the whole ,roman ,empire4--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #ce4 ,who wrote before the first century was elapsed4--,ib41 p4 #ac4 ,the original and analogical form is grown quite obsolete4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ef4 ,their love1 and their hatred1 and their envy1 are perished4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #adi4 ,the poems were got abroad and in a great many hands4--,pref4 to ,waller4 ,it is more harmonious1 as well as more correct1 to say1 'the bubble is almost bursted4'--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #aji4 ,i drave my suitor from his mad humour of love4--,shak4 ,se viriliter expedivit4 7,cicero47 ,he hath plaid the man4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bad4 ,wilt thou kill me1 as thou diddest the ,egyptian yesterday4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,acts1 vii1 #bh4 ,and we1 methoughts1 look'd up t'him from our hill4--,cowley's ,davideis1 ,b4 iii1 l4 #chf4 ,i fear thou doest not think as much of best things as thou oughtest4--,memoir of ,m4 ,c4 ,thomas1 p4 #cd4 ,when this work was being commenced4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,exercises and ,key to this work are being prepared4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,james is loved1 or being loved by ,john4--,ib41 p4 #fd4 ,or that which is being exhibited4--,ib41 p4 #gg4 ,he was being smitten4--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,in the passive state we say1 ',i am being loved4'--,ib41 p4 #hj4 ,subjunctive ,mood3 ,if ,i am being smitten1 ,if thou art being smitten1 ,if he is being smitten4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,i will not be able to convince you how superficial the reformation is4--,chalmers's ,sermons1 p4 #hh4 ,i said to myself1 ,i will be obliged to expose the folly4--,chazotte's ,essay1 p4 #c4 ,when ,clodius1 had he meant to return that day to ,rome1 must have been arrived4--,adams's ,rhetoric1 i1 #dah4 ,that the fact has been done1 is being done1 or shall or will be done4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 pp4 #cdg and #cef4 ,am ,i being instructed8--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,i am choosing him4--,ib41 p4 #aab4 ,john1 who was respecting his father1 was obedient to his commands4--,barrett's ,revised ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,the region echos to the clash of arms4--,beattie's ,poems1 p4 #fc4 ,and sitt'st on high1 and mak'st creation's top ,thy footstool2 and behold'st below thee1 all4 --,pollok1 ,b4 vi1 l4 #ffc4 ,and see if thou can'st punish sin1 and let ,mankind go free4 ,thou fail'st--be not surprised4 --,id41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #aah4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed4 ,what follows1 had better been wanting altogether4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bja4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the phrase had better been1 is used in the sense of the potential pluperfect4 ,but1 according to ,observation #agth1 on the conjugations1 this substitution of one form for another is of questionable propriety4 ,therefore1 the regular form should here be preferred2 thus1 ,what follows1 might better have been wanting altogether4 ,this member of the sentence had much better have been omitted altogether4--,ib41 p4 #bab4 ,one or the other of them1 therefore1 had better have been omitted4--,ib41 p4 #bab4 ,the whole of this last member of the sentence had better have been dropped4--,ib41 p4 #aab4 ,in this case1 they had much better be omitted4--,ib41 p4 #agc4 ,he had better have said1 'the productions'--,ib41 p4 #bbj4 ,the ,greeks have ascribed the origin of poetry to ,orpheus1 ,linus1 and ,musus4--,ib41 p4 #cgg4 ,it has been noticed long ago1 that all these fictitious names have the same number of syllables4--,phil4 ,museum1 i1 #dga4 ,when ,i found that he had committed nothing worthy of death1 ,i have determined to send him4--,acts1 xxv1 #be4 ,i had rather be a door-keeper in the house of my ,god4--,ps41 lxxxiv1 #aj4 ,as for such1 ,i wish the ,lord open their eyes4--,barclay's ,works1 iii4 #bfc4 ,it would a made our passidge over the river very difficult4-- ,walley1 in #afib4 ,we should not a been able to have carried our great guns4--,id4 ,others would a questioned our prudence1 if wee had4--,id4 ,see ,hutchinson's ,hist4 of ,mass41 i1 #dgh4 ,beware thou bee'st not ,,bec,,sar',d2 i4e4 ,beware that thou dost not dwindle into a mere ,csar4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #ahc4 ,thou raisedest thy voice to record the stratagems of needy heroes4--,,arbuthnot3 in ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,scalade4 ,life hurrys off apace3 thine is almost up already4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ai4 ',how unfortunate has this accident made me6' crys such a one4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,the muse that soft and sickly wooes the ear4--,pollok1 i1 #ac4 ,a man were better relate himself to a statue4--,bacon4 ,i heard thee say but now1 thou lik'dst not that4--,shak4 ,in my whole course of wooing1 thou cried'st1 ,indeed6--,id4 ,but our ears are grown familiar with ,i have wrote1 ,i have drank1 c41 which are altogether as ungrammatical4-- ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fc2 ,churchill's1 #aad4 ,the court was sat before ,sir ,roger came4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #abb4 ,she need be no more with the jaundice possest4--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #cdf4 ,besides1 you found fault with our victuals one day that you was here4--,ib41 p4 #ccc4 ,if spirit of other sort1 ,so minded1 have o'erleap'd these earthy bounds4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #ehb4 ,it should have been more rational to have forborn this4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #bfe4 ,a student is not master of it till he have seen all these4--,dr4 ,murray's ,life1 p4 #ee4 ,the said justice shall summons the party4--,brevard's ,digest4 ,now what is become of thy former wit and humour8--,spect41 ,no4 #ecb4 ,young stranger1 whither wand'rest thou8--,burns1 p4 #bi4 ,,subj43 ,pres4 ,if ,i love1 ,if thou lovest1 ,if he love4 ,imp4 ,if ,i loved1 ,if thou lovedst1 ,if he loved4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,,subj43 ,if ,i do not love1 ,if thou dost not love1 ,if he does not love2 c4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,if he have committed sins1 they shall be forgiven him4--,james1 v1 #ae4 ,subjunctive ,mood of the verb to call1 second person singular3 ,if ,thou callest4 ,if ,thou calledst4 ,if ,thou hast called4 ,if ,thou hadst called4 ,if ,thou call4 ,if ,thou shalt or wilt have called4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,subjunctive ,mood of the verb to love1 second person singular3 ,if thou love4 ,if thou do love4 ,if thou lovedst4 ,if thou didst love4 ,if thou hast loved4 ,if thou hadst loved4 ,if thou shalt or wilt love4 ,if thou shalt or wilt have loved4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,i was2 thou wast1 or you was2 he1 she1 or it was3 ,we1 you or ye1 they1 were4--,white1 on the ,english ,verb1 p4 #ea4 ,i taught1 thou taughtedst1 he taught4--,coar's ,english ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,we say1 if it rains1 suppose it rains1 lest it should rain1 unless it rains4 ,this manner of speaking is called the ,,subjunctive mode4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #gb2 ,abridged ,ed41 #ei4 ,he is arrived at what is deemed the age of manhood4--,priestley's ,gram41 #afc4 ,he had much better have let it alone4--,tooke's ,diversions1 i1 #dc4 ,he were better be without it4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #aje4 ,hadest not thou been by4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #ajg4 ,i learned geography4 ,thou learnedest arithmetick4 ,he learned grammar4--,fuller's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,till the sound is ceased4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #abf4 ,present1 die2 ,preterit1 died2 ,perf4 ,participle1 dead4--,british ,gram41 p4 #aeh2 ,buchanan's1 #eh2 ,priestley's1 #dh2 ,ash's1 #de2 ,fisher's1 #ga2 ,bicknell's1 #gc4 ,thou bowed'st thy glorious head to none1 feared'st none4 --,pollok1 ,b4 viii1 l4 #fjc4 ,thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessedst it4 --,n4 ,a4 ,reader1 p4 #cbj4 ,as once thou slept'st1 while she to life was form'd --,milt41 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 xi1 l4 #cfi4 ,who finds the partridge in the puttock's nest1 ,but may imagine how the bird was dead8 --,,shak43 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,which might have well becom'd the best of men4 --,id41 ,ant4 and ,cleop4 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,participles4 ,a ,participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb3 thus1 from the verb rule1 are formed three participles1 two simple and one compound2 as1 #a4 ruling1 #b4 ruled1 #c4 having ruled4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,almost all verbs and participles seem to have their very essence in motion1 or the privation of motion--in acting1 or ceasing to act4 ,and to all motion and rest1 time and place are necessary concomitants2 nor are the ideas of degree and manner often irrelevant4 ,hence the use of tenses and of adverbs4 ,for whatsoever comes to pass1 must come to pass sometime and somewhere2 and1 in every event1 something must be affected somewhat and somehow4 ,hence it is evident that those grammarians are right1 who say1 that all participles imply time4 ,but it does not follow1 that the ,english participles divide time1 like the tenses of a verb1 and specify the period of action2 on the contrary1 it is certain and manifest1 that they do not4 ,the phrase1 men labouring1 conveys no other idea than that of labourers at work2 it no more suggests the time1 than the place1 degree1 or manner1 of their work4 ,all these circumstances require other words to express them2 as1 ,men now here awkwardly labouring much to little purpose4 ,again3 ,thenceforward will men1 there labouring hard and honourably1 be looked down upon by dronish lordlings4 ,,obs4 #b4--,participles retain the essential meaning of their verbs2 and1 like verbs1 are either active-transitive1 active-intransitive1 passive1 or neuter1 in their signification4 ,for this reason1 many have classed them with the verbs4 ,but their formal meaning is obviously different4 ,they convey no affirmation1 but usually relate to nouns or pronouns1 like adjectives1 except when they are joined with auxiliaries to form the compound tenses of their verbs2 or when they have in part the nature of substantives1 like the ,latin gerunds4 ,hence some have injudiciously ranked them with the adjectives4 ,the most discreet writers have commonly assigned them a separate place among the parts of speech2 because1 in spite of all opposite usages1 experience has shown that it is expedient to do so4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,according to the doctrine of ,harris1 all words denoting the attributes of things1 are either verbs1 or participles1 or adjectives4 ,some attributes have their essence in motion3 as1 to walk1 to run1 to fly1 to strike1 to live2 or1 walking1 running1 flying1 striking1 living4 ,others have it in the privation of motion3 as1 to stop1 to rest1 to cease1 to die2 or1 stopping1 resting1 ceasing1 dying4 ,and there are others which have nothing to do with either motion or its privation2 but have their essence in the quantity1 quality1 or situation of things2 as1 great and small1 white and black1 wise and foolish1 eastern and western4 ,these last terms are adjectives2 and those which denote motion or its privation1 are either verbs or participles1 according to their formal meaning2 that is1 according to their manner of attribution4 ,see ,hermes1 p4 #ie4 ,verbs commonly say or affirm something of their subjects2 as1 ,the babe wept4 ,participles suggest the action or attribute without affirmation2 as1 ,a babe weeping1--,an act regretted4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,a verb1 then1 being expressive of some attribute1 which it ascribes to the thing or person named as its subject2 of time1 which it divides and specifies by the tenses2 and also1 7with the exception of the infinitive17 of an assertion or affirmation2 if we take away the affirmation and the distinction of tenses1 there will remain the attribute and the general notion of time2 and these form the essence of an ,english participle4 ,so that a participle is something less than a verb1 though derived immediately from it2 and something more than an adjective1 or mere attribute1 though its manner of attribution is commonly the same4 ,hence1 though the participle by rejecting the idea of time may pass almost insensibly into an adjective1 and become truly a participial adjective2 yet the participle and the adjective are by no means one and the same part of speech1 as some will have them to be4 ,there is always an essential difference in their meaning4 ,for instance3 there is a difference between a thinking man and a man thinking2 between a bragging fellow and a fellow bragging2 between a fast-sailing ship and a ship sailing fast4 ,a thinking man1 a bragging fellow1 or a fast-sailing ship1 is contemplated as being habitually or permanently such2 a man thinking1 a fellow bragging1 or a ship sailing fast1 is contemplated as performing a particular act2 and this must embrace a period of time1 whether that time be specified or not4 ,john ,locke was a thinking man2 but we should directly contradict his own doctrine1 to suppose him always thinking4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the ,english participles are all derived from the roots of their respective verbs1 and do not1 like those of some other languages1 take their names from the tenses4 ,on the contrary1 they are reckoned among the principal parts in the conjugation of their verbs1 and many of the tenses are formed from them4 ,in the compound forms of conjugation1 they are found alike in all the tenses4 ,they do not therefore1 of themselves1 express any particular time2 but they denote the state of the being1 action1 or passion1 in regard to its progress or completion4 ,this ,i conceive to be their principal distinction4 ,respecting the participles in ,latin1 it has been matter of dispute1 whether those which are called the present and the perfect1 are really so in respect to time or not4 ,sanctius denies it4 ,in ,greek1 the distinction of tenses in the participles is more apparent1 yet even here the time to which they refer1 does not always correspond to their names4 ,see remarks on the ,participles in the ,port ,royal ,latin and ,greek ,grammars4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,horne ,tooke supposes our participles in ed to express time past1 and those in ing to have no signification of time4 ,he says1 ,i did not mean to deny the adsignification of time to all the participles2 though ,i continue to withhold it from that which is called the participle present4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dae4 ,upon the same point1 he afterwards adds1 ,i am neither new nor singular2 for ,sanctius both asserted and proved it by numerous instances in the ,latin4 ,such as1 ',et abfui proficiscens in ,grciam4' ,cicero4 ',sed postquam amans accessit pretium pollicens4' ,terent4 ',ultro ad cam venies indicans te amare4' ,terent4 ',turnum fugientem hc terra videbit4' ,virg4--,tooke's ,div41 ii1 #dbj4 ,again3 ,and thus ,i have given you my opinion concerning what is called the present participle4 ,which ,i think improperly so called2 because ,i take it to be merely the simple verb adjectived1 without any adsignification of manner or time4--,tooke's ,div41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dbc4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,i do not agree with this author1 either in limiting participles in ed to time past1 or in denying all signification of time to those in ing2 but ,i admit that what is commonly called the present participle1 is not very properly so denominated1 either in ,english or in ,latin1 or perhaps in any language4 ,with us1 however1 this participle is certainly1 in very many instances1 something else than merely the simple verb adjectived4 ,for1 in the first place1 it is often of a complex character1 as being loved1 being seen1 in which two verbs are adjectived together1 and that by different terminations4 ,yet do these words as perfectly coalesce in respect to time1 as to everything else2 and being loved or being seen is confessedly as much a present participle1 as being1 or loving1 or seeing--neither form being solely confined to what now is4 ,again1 our participle in ing stands not only for the present participle of the ,latin or ,greek grammarians1 but also for the ,latin gerund1 and often for the ,greek infinitive used substantively2 so that by this ending1 the ,english verb is not only adjectived1 but also substantived1 if one may so speak4 ,for the participle when governed by a preposition1 partakes not of the qualities of a verb and an adjective1 but rather of those of a verb and a noun4 ,,classes4 ,english verbs1 not defective1 have severally three participles2#cja which have been very variously denominated1 perhaps the most accurately thus3 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 and the ,preperfect4 ,or1 as their order is undisputed1 they may he conveniently called the ,first1 the ,second1 and the ,third4 ,i4 ,the ,imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in ing1 and implies a continuance of the being1 action1 or passion3 as1 being1 acting1 ruling1 loving1 defending1 terminating4 ,,ii4 ,the ,perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en1 and implies a completion of the being1 action1 or passion3 as1 been1 acted1 ruled1 loved1 defended1 terminated4 ,,iii4 ,the ,preperfect participle is that which takes the sign having1 and implies a previous completion of the being1 action1 or passion3 as1 having loved1 having seen1 having written2 having been loved1 having been writing1 having been written4 ,the ,first or ,imperfect ,participle1 when simple1 is always formed by adding ing to the radical verb2 as1 look1 looking3 when compound1 it is formed by prefixing being to some other simple participle2 as1 being reading1 being read1 being completed4 ,the ,second or ,perfect ,participle is always simple1 and is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical verb3 those verbs from which it is formed otherwise1 are either irregular or redundant4 ,the ,third or ,preperfect ,participle is always compound1 and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect1 when the compound is double1 and having been to the perfect or the imperfect1 when the compound is triple3 as1 having spoken1 having been spoken1 having been speaking4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,some have supposed that both the simple participles denote present time2 some have supposed that the one denotes present1 and the other1 past time2 some have supposed that the first denotes no time1 and the second time past2 some have supposed that neither has any regard to time2 and some have supposed that both are of all times4 ,in regard to the distinction of voice1 or the manner of their signification1 some have supposed the one to be active1 and the other to be passive2 some have supposed the participle in ing to be active or neuter1 and the other active or passive2 and some have supposed that either of them may be active1 passive1 or neuter4 ,nor is there any more unanimity among grammarians1 in respect to the compounds4 ,hence several different names have been loosely given to each of the participles3 and sometimes with manifest impropriety2 as when ,buchanan1 in his conjugations1 calls being1 ,active1--and been1 having been1 having had1 ,passive4 ,learned men may differ in opinion respecting the nature of words1 but grammar can never well deserve the name of science1 till at least an ordinary share of reason and knowledge appears in the language of those who teach it4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the ,,first participle has been called the ,present1 the ,progressive1 the ,imperfect1 the ,simple ,imperfect1 the ,indefinite1 the ,active1 the ,present ,active1 the ,present ,passive1 the ,present ,neuter1 and1 in the passive voice1 the ,preterimperfcct1 the ,compound ,imperfect1 the ,compound ,passive1 the ,passive4 ,the ,,second1 which1 though it is always but one word1 some authors treat as being two participles1 or three1 has been called the ,perfect1 the ,preter1 the ,preterperfect1 the ,imperfect1 the ,simple ,perfect1 the ,past1 the ,simple ,past1 the ,first ,past1 the ,preterit1 the ,passive1 the ,present ,passive1 the ,perfect ,active1 the ,past ,active1 the ,auxiliary ,perfect1 the ,perfect ,passive1 the ,perfect ,neuter1 the ,simple ,perfect ,active1 the ,simple ,perfect ,passive4 ,the ,,third has been called the ,compound1 the ,compound ,active1 the ,compound ,passive1 the ,compound ,perfect1 the ,compound ,perfect ,active1 the ,compound ,perfect ,passive1 the ,compound ,preter1 the ,present1 the ,present ,perfect1 the ,past1 the ,second ,past1 the ,past ,compound1 the ,compound ,past1 the ,prior-perfect1 the ,prior-present1 the ,perfect1 the ,pluperfect1 the ,preterperfect1 the ,preperfect4#cjb ,in teaching others to speak and write well1 it becomes us to express our doctrines in the most suitable terms2 but the application of a name is of no great consequence1 so that the thing itself be rightly understood by the learner4 ,grammar should be taught in a style at once neat and plain1 clear and brief4 ,upon the choice of his terms1 the writer of this work has bestowed much reflection2 yet he finds it impossible either to please everybody1 or to explain1 without intolerable prolixity1 all the reasons for preference4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the participle in ing represents the action or state as continuing and ever incomplete2 it is therefore rightly termed the ,,imperfect participle3 whereas the participle in ed always1 or at least usually1 has reference to the action as done and complete2 and is1 by proper contradistinction1 called the ,,perfect participle4 ,it is hardly necessary to add1 that the terms perfect and imperfect1 as thus applied to the ,english participles1 have no reference to time1 or to those tenses of the verb which are usually 7but not very accurately7 named by these epithets4 ,the terms present and past1 which some still prefer to imperfect and perfect1 do denote time1 and are in a kind of oblique contradistinction2 but how well they apply to the participles1 may be seen by the following texts3 ,god was in ,christ1 reconciling the world unto himself4--,we pray you in ,christ's stead1 be ye reconciled to ,god4--,,st4 ,,paul3 #b ,cor41 v1 #ai1 #bj4 ,here reconciling refers to the death of ,christ1 and reconciled1 to the desired conversion of the ,corinthians2 and if we call the former a present participle1 and the latter a past1 7as do ,bullions1 ,burn1 ,clark1 ,felton1 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 ,lennie1 ,pinneo1 and perhaps others17 we nominally reverse the order of time in respect to the events1 and egregiously misapply both terms4 ,,obs4 #d4--,though the participle in ing has1 by many1 been called the ,present participle1 it is as applicable to past or future1 as to present time2 otherwise1 such expressions as1 ,i had been writing1--,i shall be writing1 would be solecisms4 ,it has also been called1 almost as frequently1 the ,active participle4 ,but it is not always active1 even when derived from an active verb2 for such expressions as1 ,the goods are selling1--,the ships are now building1 are in use1 and not without good authority3 as1 ,and hope to allay1 by rational discourse1 the pains of his joints tearing asunder4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #bhe4 ,insensible of the designs now forming by ,philip4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ii1 #dh4 ,the improved edition now publishing4--,,bp4 ,,halifax3 ,pref4 to ,butler4 ,the present tense expresses an action now doing4--,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of this participle is1 that it denotes an unfinished and progressive state of the being1 action1 or passion2 it is therefore properly denominated the ,,imperfect participle4 ,if the term were applied with reference to time1 it would be no more objectionable than the word present1 and would be equally supported by the usage of the ,greek linguists4 ,i am no more inclined to innovation1 than are the pedants who1 for the choice here made1 have ignorantly brought the false charge against me4 ,this name1 authorized by ,beattie and ,pickbourn1 is approved by ,lindley ,murray1#cjc and adopted by several of the more recent grammarians4 ,see the works of ,dr4 ,crombie1 ,j4 ,grant1 ,t4 ,o4 ,churchill1 ,r4 ,hiley1 ,b4 ,h4 ,smart1 ,m4 ,harrison1 and ,w4 ,g4 ,lewis1 published in ,london2 and ,j4 ,m4 ,m',culloch's ,grammar1 published in ,edinburgh2 also some ,american grammars1 as ,e4 ,hazen's1 ,n4 ,butler's1 ,d4 ,b4 ,tower's1 ,w4 ,h4 ,wells's1 the ,sanderses'4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the participle in ed1 as is mentioned above1 usually denotes a completion of the being1 action1 or passion1 and should therefore be denominated the ,,perfect participle4 ,but this completion may be spoken of as present1 past1 or future2 for the participle itself has no tenses1 and makes no distinction of time1 nor should the name be supposed to refer to the perfect tense4 ,the conjugation of any passive verb1 is a sufficient proof of all this3 nor is the proof invalidated by resolving verbs of this kind into their component parts4 ,of the participles in ed applied to present time1 the following is an example3 ,such a course would be less likely to produce injury to health1 than the present course pursued at our colleges4--,literary ,convention1 p4 #aah4 ,tooke's notion of grammatical time1 appears to have been in several respects a strange one3 he accords with those who call this a past participle1 and denies to the other not only the name and notion of a tense1 but even the general idea of time4 ,in speaking of the old participial termination and or ende1#cjd which our ,anglo-,saxon ancestors used where we write ing1 he says1 ,i do not allow that there are any present participles1 or any present tense of the verb4 #cje--;,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #da4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the ,perfect participle of transitive verbs1 being used in the formation of passive verbs1 is sometimes called the ,passive participle4 ,it usually has in itself a passive signification1 except when it is used in forming the compound tenses of the active verb4 ,hence the difference between the sentences1 ,i have written a letter1 and1 ,i have a letter written2 the former being equivalent to ,scripsi literas1 and the latter to ,sunt mihi liter script4 ,but there are many perfect participles which cannot with any propriety be called passive4 ,such are all those which come from intransitive or neuter verbs2 and also those which so often occur in the tenses of verbs not passive4 ,i have already noticed some instances of this misnomer2 and it is better to preclude it altogether1 by adhering to the true name of this ,participle1 ,,the ,,perfect4 ,nor is that entirely true which some assert1 that this participle in the active is only found in combination2 that1 ,whenever it stands alone to be parsed as a participle1 it is passive4--,hart's ,english ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,see also ,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #gg2 and ,greene's ,analysis1 or ,gram41 p4 #bbe4 ,rebelled1 in the following examples1 cannot with any propriety be called a passive participle3 ,rebelled1 did ,i not send them terms of peace1 ,which not my justice1 but my mercy asked8--,pollok1 x1 #bec4 ,arm'd with thy might1 rid ,heav'n of these rebell'd1 ,to their prepar'd ill mansion driven down4--,milton1 vi1 #gcg4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the third participle has most generally been called the ,compound1 or the ,compound perfect4 ,the latter of these terms seems to be rather objectionable on account of its length2 and against the former it may be urged that1 in the compound forms of conjugation1 the first or imperfect participle is a compound3 as1 being writing1 being seen4 ,dr4 ,adam calls having loved the perfect participle active1 which he says must be rendered in ,latin by the pluperfect of the subjunctive2 as1 he having loved1 quum amavisset2 7,lat4 and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #adj27 but it is manifest that the perfect participle of the verb to love1 whether active or passive1 is the simple word loved1 and not this compound4 ,dr4 ,adam1 in fact1 if he denies this1 only contradicts himself2 for1 in his paradigms of the ,english ,active ,voice1 he gives the participles as two only1 and both simple1 thus3 ,present1 ,loving2 ,perfect1 ,loved3--,present1 ,having2 ,perfect1 ,had4 ,so of the ,neuter ,verb3 ,present1 ,being2 ,perfect1 ,been4--,ib41 pp4 #ha and #hb4 ,his scheme of either names or forms is no model of accuracy4 ,on the very next page1 unless there is a misprint in several editions1 he calls the ,second participle the imperfect2 saying1 ,the whole of the passive voice in ,english is formed by the auxiliary verb to be1 and the participle imperfect2 as1 ,i am loved1 ,i was loved1 c4 ,further3 ,in many verbs1 he adds1 the present participle also is used in a passive sense2 as1 ,these things are doing1 were doing1 c42 ,the house is building1 was building1 c4--,ib41 p4 #hc4 ,n4 ,butler1 in his ,practical ,grammar1 of #ahde1 names1 and counts1 and orders1 the participles very oddly3 ,every verb1 he says1 has two participles--the imperfect and the perfect4--,p4 #gh4 ,yet1 for the verb love1 he finds these six3 two ,,imperfect1 ,loving and ,being loved2 two ,,perfect1 ,having loved1 and ,having been loved2 one ,,auxiliary ,,perfect1 ,loved1 of the ,active ,voice2 and one ,,passive1 ,loved1 of the ,passive ,voice4 ,many old writers erroneously represent the participle in ing as always active1 and the participle in ed or en as always passive2 and some1 among whom is ,buchanan1 making no distinction between the simple perfect loved and the compound having loved1 place the latter with the former1 and call it passive also4 ,the absurdity of this is manifest3 for having loved or having seen is active2 having been or having sat is neuter2 and having been loved or having been seen is passive4 ,again1 the triple compound1 having been writing1 is active2 and having been sitting is neuter2 but if one speak of goods as having been selling low1 a similar compound is passive4 ,,obs4 #h4--,now all the compound participles which begin with having are essentially alike2 and1 as a class of terms1 they ought to have a name adapted to their nature1 and expressive of their leading characteristic4 ,having loved differs from the simple participle loved1 in signification as well as in form2 and1 if this participle is to be named with reference to its meaning1 there is no more suitable term for it than the epithet ,,preperfect1--a word which explains itself1 like prepaid or prerequisite4 ,of the many other names1 the most correct one is ,,pluperfect1--which is a term of very nearly the same meaning4 ,not because this compound is really of the pluperfect tense1 but because it always denotes being1 action1 or passion1 that is1 or was1 or will be1 completed before the doing or being of something else2 and1 of course1 when the latter thing is represented as past1 the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense of its verb2 as1 ,having explained her views1 it was necessary she should expatiate on the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised by ,pleasure4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aha4 ,here having explained is exactly equivalent to when she had explained4 ,again3 ,i may say1 ,he had commanded1 and we obeyed2 or1 ,he having commanded1 we obeyed4--,fetch's ,comprehensive ,gram41 p4 ix4 ,here the two phrases in ,italics correspond in import1 though not in construction4 ,,obs4 #i4--,pluperfect is a derivative contracted from the ,latin plusquam-perfectum1 and literally signifies more than complete1 or beyond the perfect2 i4 e41 7as confirmed by use17 antecedently finished1 or completed before4 ,it is the usual name of our fourth tense2 is likewise applicable to a corresponding tense in other tongues2 and is a word familiar to every scholar4 ,yet several grammarians1--too ready1 perhaps1 for innovation1--have shown their willingness to discard it altogether4 ,bullions1 ,butler1 ,hiley1 ,perley1 ,wells1 and some others1 call the ,english pluperfect tense1 the past-perfect1 and understand either epithet to mean--completed at or before a certain past time2 7,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ci27 that is--finished or past1 at some past time4--,butler's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #gb4 ,the relation of the tense is before the past1 but the epithet pluperfect is not necessarily limited to this relation1 any more than what is perfect is necessarily past4 ,butler has urged1 that1 ,pluperfect does not mean completed before1 but is only a technical name of a particular tense2 and1 arguing from this erroneous assumption1 has convinced himself1 ,it would be as correct to call this the second future participle1 as the pluperfect4--,ib41 p4 #gi4 ,the technical name1 as limited to the past1 is preterpluperfect1 from the older term prteritum plusquam perfectum2 so preterperfect1 from prteritum perfectum1 i4 e4 past perfect1 is the name of an other tense1 now called the perfect3 wherefore the substitution of past-perfect for pluperfect is the less to be commended4 ,there may be a convenience in having the name of the tense to differ from that of the participle1 and this alone induces me to prefer preperfect to pluperfect for the name of the latter4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,from the participle in ed or en1 we form three tenses1 which the above-named authors call perfect2--the present-perfect1 the past-perfect1 and the future-perfect2--as1 have seen1 had seen1 will have seen4 ,now it is1 doubtless1 the participle1 that gives to these their perfectness2 while diversity in the auxiliaries makes their difference of time4 ,yet it is assumed by ,butler1 that1 in general1 the simple participle in ed or en1 does not denote an action done and completed1 and is not to be called perfect2 7p4 #hj27--that1 ,if we wish to express by a participle1 an action completed at any time1 we use the compound form1 and this is ,,the perfect participle2 7p4 #gi27--that1 ,the characteristic of the participle in ed is1 that it implies the reception of an action2 7p4 #gi27--that1 hence1 it should be called the passive1 though it is usually called the perfect participle2 7p4 #gi27--that1 ,the use of this participle in the perfect tenses of the active voice should not be taken into consideration in giving it a name or a definition2 7p4 #hj27--that its active1 neuter1 or intransitive use is not a primitive idiom of the language1 but the result of a gradual change of the term from the passive to the active voice2 7p4 #hj27--that1 the participle has changed its mode of signification1 so that1 instead of being passive1 it is now active in sense2 7p4 #aje27--that1 having changed its original meaning so entirely1 it should not be considered the same participle2 7p4 #gh27--that1 in such cases1 it is a perfect participle1 and1 for the sake of distinction 1 this may be called the auxiliary perfect participle4--,ib4 ,these speculations ,i briefly throw before the reader1 without designing much comment upon them4 ,it will be perceived that they are1 in several respects1 contradictory one to an other4 ,the author himself names the participle in reference to a usage which he says1 should not be taken into consideration2 and names it absurdly too2 for he calls that the auxiliary1 which is manifestly the principal term4 ,he also identifies as one what he professes to distinguish as two4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,participles often become adjectives1 and are construed before nouns to denote quality4 ,the terms so converted form the class of participial adjectives4 ,words of a participial form may be regarded as adjectives1 under the following circumstances3 #a4 ,when they reject the idea of time1 and denote something customary or habitual1 rather than a transient act or state2 as1 ,a lying rogue1--i4e41 one that is addicted to lying4 #b4 ,when they admit adverbs of comparison2 as1 ,a more learned man4 #c4 ,when they are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb2 as1 unfeeling1 unfelt3 there is no verb to unfeel1 therefore these words cannot be participles4 ,adjectives are generally placed before their nouns2 participles1 after them4 ,the words beginning with un1 in the following lines may be classed with participial adjectives3 ,no king1 no subject was2 unscutcheoned all2 ,uncrowned1 unplumed1 unhelmed1 unpedigreed2 ,unlaced1 uncoroneted1 unbestarred4 --,pollok1 ,c4 of ,t41 ,b4 viii1 l4 #hi4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,participles in ing often become nouns4 ,when preceded by an article1 an adjective or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case1 they are construed as nouns2 and1 if wholly such1 have neither adverbs nor active regimen3 as1 ,he laugheth at the shaking of a spear4--,job1 xli1 #bi4 ,there is no searching of his understanding4--,isaiah1 xl1 #bh4 ,in their setting of their threshold by ray threshold4--,ezekiel1 xliii1 #h4 ,that any man should make my glorying void4--#a ,cor41 ix1 #ae4 ,the terms so converted form the class of verbal or participial nouns4 ,but some late authors--7,j4 ,s4 ,hart1 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 ,w4 ,h4 ,wells1 and others--7 have given the name of participial nouns to many participles1--such participles1 often1 as retain all their verbal properties and adjuncts1 and merely partake of some syntactical resemblance to nouns4 ,now1 since the chief characteristics of such words are from the verb1 and are incompatible with the specific nature of a noun1 it is clearly improper to call them nouns4 ,there are1 in the popular use of participles1 certain mixed constructions which are reprehensible2 yet it is the peculiar nature of a participle1 to participate the properties of other parts of speech1--of the verb and adjective1--of the verb and noun1--or sometimes1 perhaps1 of all three4 ,a participle immediately preceded by a preposition1 is not converted into a noun1 but remains a participle1 and therefore retains its adverb1 and also its government of the objective case2 as1 ,i thank you for helping him so seasonably4 ,participles in this construction correspond with the ,latin gerund1 and are sometimes called gerundives4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,to distinguish the participle from the participial noun1 the learner should observe the following four things3 #a4 ,nouns take articles and adjectives before them2 participles1 as such1 do not4 #b4 ,nouns may govern the possessive case before them1 but not the objective after them2 participles may govern the objective case1 but not so properly the possessive4 #c4 ,nouns1 if they have adverbs1 require the hyphen2 participles take adverbs separately1 as do their verbs4 #d4 ,participial nouns express actions as things1 and are sometimes declined like other nouns2 participles usually refer actions to their agents or recipients1 and have in ,english no grammatical modifications of any kind4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,to distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same form1 observe the sense1 and see which of the auxiliary forms will express it3 thus1 loved for being loved1 is a participle2 but loved for did love1 is a preterit verb4 ,so held for did hold1 stung for did sting1 taught for did teach1 and the like1 are irregular verbs2 but held for being held1 stung for being stung1 taught for being taught1 and the like1 are perfect participles4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,though the ,english participles have no inflections1 and are consequently incapable of any grammatical agreement or disagreement1 those which are simple1 are sometimes elegantly taken in a plural sense1 with the apparent construction of nouns2 but1 under these circumstances1 they are in reality neither nouns nor participles1 but participial adjectives construed elliptically1 as other adjectives often are1 and relating to plural nouns understood4 ,the ellipsis is sometimes of a singular noun1 though very rarely1 and much less properly4 ,examples3 ,to them who are the called according to his purpose4--,rom41 x1 #bh4 ,that is--the called ones or persons4 ,god is not the ,god of the dead1 but of the living4--,matt41 xxii1 #cb4 ,neither is it found in the land of the living4--,job1 xxviii1 #ac4 ,the living1 the living1 he shall praise thee1 as ,i do this day4--,isaiah1 xxxviii1 #ai4 ,till we are made fit to live and reign with him and all his redeemed1 in the heavenly glory forever4--,jenks's ,prayers1 p4 #ah4 ,ye blessed of my ,father1 come1 ye just1 ,enter the joy eternal of your ,lord4--,pollok1 ,b4 x1 l4 #eia4 ,depart from me1 ye cursed1 into the fire ,prepared eternal in the gulf of ,hell4--,id41 ,b4 x1 l4 #ddi4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,vii4--,,etymological4 ,in the ,seventh ,praxis it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and the classes and modifications of the ,,articles1 ,,nouns1 ,,adjectives1 ,,pronouns1 ,,verbs1 and ,,participles4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,seventh ,praxis1 are two for an article1 six for a noun1 three for an adjective1 six for a pronoun1 seven for a verb finite1 five for an infinitive1 two for a participle1--and one for an adverb1 a conjunction1 a preposition1 or an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,religion1 rightly understood and practised1 has the purest of all joys attending it4 ,religion is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,rightly is an adverb4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 ,understood is a perfect participle1 from the irregular active-transitive verb1 understand1 understood1 understanding1 understood4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 #b4 ,the perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en1 and implies a completion of the being1 action1 or passion4 ,and is a conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction1 is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,practised is a perfect participle1 from the regular active-transitive verb1 practise1 practised1 practising1 practised4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 #b4 ,the perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en1 and implies a completion of the being1 action1 or passion4 ,has is an irregular active-transitive verb1 from have1 had1 having1 had2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and singular number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,an active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object4 #d4 ,the indicative mood is that form of the verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 #e4 ,the present tense is that which expresses what now exists1 or is taking place4 #f4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,the is the definite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things4 ,purest is a common adjective1 of the superlative degree2 compared regularly1 pure1 purer1 purest4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,the superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it4 ,of is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,all is a pronominal adjective1 not compared4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun or represent it understood4 #c4 ,those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees1 cannot be compared4 ,joys is a common noun1 of the third person1 plural number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the plural number is that which denotes more than one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,attending is an imperfect participle1 from the regular active-transitive verb1 attend1 attended1 attending1 attended4 #a4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 participating the properties of a verb1 and of an adjective or a noun2 and is generally formed by adding ing1 d1 or ed1 to the verb4 #b4 ,the imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in ing1 and implies a continuance of the being1 action1 or passion4 ,it is a personal pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,a ,verb is a word whereby something or other is represented as existing1 possessing1 acting1 or being acted upon1 at some particular time1 past1 present1 or future2 and this in various manners4--,white1 on the ,english ,verb1 p4 #a4 ,error is a savage1 lurking about on the twilight borders of the circle illuminated by truth1 ready to rush in and take possession1 the moment her lamp grows dim4--,beecher4 ,the science of criticism may be considered as a middle link1 connecting the different parts of education into a regular chain4--,ld4 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 p4 xxii4 ,when ,i see a man walking1 a tree growing1 or cattle grazing1 ,i cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be4 ,nature determines us to rely on the veracity of our senses2 for otherwise they could not in any degree answer their end1 that of laying open things existing and passing around us4--,id41 ib41 i1 #he4 ,but1 advancing farther in life1 and inured by degrees to the crooked ways of men2 pressing through the crowd1 and the bustle of the world2 obliged to contend with this man's craft1 and that man's scorn2 accustomed1 sometimes1 to conceal their sentiments1 and often to stifle their feelings2 they become at last hardened in heart1 and familiar with corruption4--,,blair3 ,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #adj4 ,laugh'd at1 he laughs again2 and stricken hard1 ,turns to his stroke his adamantine scales1 ,that fear no discipline of human hands4--,cowper's ,task1 p4 #dg4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,thus shame and remorse united in the ungrateful person1 and indignation united with hatred in the hearts of others1 are the punishments provided by nature for injustice4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bhh4 ,viewing man as under the influence of novelty1 would one suspect that custom also should influence him8--,human nature1 diversified with many and various springs of action1 is wonderfully1 and1 indulging the expression1 intricately constructed4--,id41 ib41 i1 #cbe4 ,dryden frequently introduces three or four persons speaking upon the same subject1 each throwing out his own notions separately1 without regarding what is said by the rest4--,id41 ib41 ii1 #bid4 ,nothing is more studied in ,chinese gardens1 than to raise wonder and surprise4 ,sometimes one is led insensibly into a dark cavern1 terminating unexpectedly in a landscape enriched with all that nature affords the most delicious4--,id41 ib41 ii1 #ccd4 ,the answer to the objection here implied1 is obvious1 even on the supposition of the questions put being answered in the affirmative4--,prof4 ,vethake4 ,as birds flying1 so will the ,lord of hosts defend ,jerusalem2 defending also1 he will deliver it2 and1 passing over1 he will preserve it4--,isaiah1 xxxi1 #e4 ,here1 by the bonds of nature feebly held1 ,minds combat minds1 repelling and repell'd4--,goldsmith4 ,suffolk first died1 and ,york1 all haggled over1 ,comes to him where in gore he lay insteeped4--,shakspeare4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,every change in the state of things is considered as an effect1 indicating the agency1 characterizing the kind1 and measuring the degree1 of its cause4--,dr4 ,murray1 ,hist4 of ,en4 ,l41 i1 #agi4 ,having loved his own who were in the world1 he loved them unto the end4 ,and supper being ended1 7the devil having now put it into the heart of ,judas ,iscariot1 ,simon's son1 to betray him17 ,jesus1 knowing that the ,father had given all things into his hand1 and that he had come from ,god and was going to ,god1 arose from supper1 and laid aside his coat1 and1 taking a towel1 girded himself3 then he poured some water into a basin1 and began to wash the disciples' feet1 and to wipe them with the towel with which he was girded4--,see ,john1 xiii4 ,spiritual desertion is naturally and judicially incurred by sin4 ,it is the withdrawal of that divine unction which enriches the acquiescent soul with moral power and pleasure4 ,the subtraction leaves the mind enervated1 obscured1 confused1 degraded1 and distracted4--,,homo3 ,n4 ,y4 ,observer4 ,giving no offence in any thing1 but in all things approving ourselves as the ministers of ,god3 as unknown1 and yet well known2 as dying1 and1 behold1 we live2 as chastened1 and not killed2 as sorrowful1 yet always rejoicing2 as poor1 yet making many rich2 as having nothing1 and yet possessing all things4--#b ,cor41 vi4 ,o may th' indulgence of a father's love1 ,pour'd forth on me1 be doubled from above4--,young4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,of ,,participles4 ,fist ,as the principles upon which our participles ought to be formed1 were necessarily anticipated in the preceding chapter on verbs1 the reader must recur to that chapter for the doctrines by which the following errors are to be corrected4 ,the great length of that chapter seemed a good reason for separating these examples from it1 and it was also thought1 that such words as are erroneously written for participles1 should1 for the sake of order1 be chiefly noticed in this place4 ,in many of these examples1 however1 the participle is not really a separate part of speech1 but is in fact taken with an auxiliary to form some compound tense of its verb4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,irregulars4 ,many of your readers have mistook that passage4--,steele1 ,spect41 ,no4 #edd4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the preterit verb mistook is here used for the perfect participle4 ,but1 according to the table of irregular verbs1 we ought to say1 mistake1 mistook1 mistaking1 mistaken2 after the form of the simple verb1 take1 took1 taking1 taken4 ,therefore1 the sentence should be amended thus3 ,many of your readers have mistaken that passage4 ,had not my dog of a steward ran away4--,addison1 ,spect4 ,none should be admitted1 except he had broke his collar-bone thrice4--,spect41 ,no4 #dgd4 ,we could not know what was wrote at twenty4--,pref4 to ,waller4 ,i have wrote1 thou hast wrote1 he has wrote2 we have wrote1 ye have wrote1 they have wrote4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,as if ,god had spoke his last words there to his people4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dfb4 ,i had like to have came in that ship myself4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer1 ,no4 #dec4 ,our ships and vessels being drove out of the harbour by a storm4--,hutchinson's ,hist4 of ,mass41 i1 #dgj4 ,he will endeavour to write as the ancient author would have wrote1 had he writ in the same language4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 i1 #fh4 ,when his doctrines grew too strong to be shook by his enemies4--,atterbury4 ,the immortal mind that hath forsook ,her mansion4--,milton4 ,grease that's sweaten from the murderer's gibbet1 throw into the flame4--,shak41 ,macbeth4 ,the court also was chided for allowing such questions to be put4--,col4 ,stone1 on ,freemasonry1 p4 #dgj4 ,he would have spoke4-- ,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 x1 #a4 #eag4 ,words interwove with sighs found out their way4--,id41 ib41 i1 #fba4 ,those kings and potentates who have strove4--,id41 ,eiconoclast1 xvii4 ,that even ,silence was took4--,id41 ,comus1 l4 #eeg4 ,and envious ,darkness1 ere they could return1 had stole them from me4--,id41 ,comus1 #a4 #aie4 ,i have chose this perfect man4--,id41 ,p4 ,r41 ,b4 i1 l4 #afe4 ,i will scarce think you have swam in a gondola4--,shak41 ,as ,you ,like ,it4 ,the fragrant brier was wove between4--,dryden1 ,fables4 ,then finish what you have began4--,id41 ,poems1 ii1 #agb4 ,but now the years a numerous train have ran4--,pope's ,odyssey1 ,b4 xi1 l4 #eee4 ,repeats your verses wrote on glasses4--,prior4 ,who by turns have rose4--,id4 ,which from great authors ,i have took4--,id41 ,alma4 ,ev'n there he should have fell4--,id41 ,solomon4 ,the sun has rose1 and gone to bed1 ,just as if ,partridge were not dead4--,swift4 ,and though no marriage words are spoke1 ,they part not till the ring is broke4--,id41 ,riddles4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,regulars4 ,when the word is stript of all the terminations4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,en4 ,l41 i1 #cai4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the participle stript is terminated in t4 ,but1 according to ,observation #b;d1 on the irregular verbs1 stript is regular4 ,therefore1 this t should be changed to ed2 and the final p should be doubled1 according to ,rule #c;d for ,spelling3 thus1 ,when the word is stripped of all the terminations4 ,forgive him1 ,tom2 his head is crackt4--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #cig4 ,for 'tis the sport1 to have the engineer hoist with his own petar4--,hamlet1 ,act #c4 ,as great as they are1 ,i was nurst by their mother4--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #caj4 ,if he should now be cry'd down since his change4--,ib41 p4 #cjf4 ,dipt over head and ears--in debt4--,ib41 p4 #cab4 ,we see the nation's credit crackt4--,ib41 p4 #cab4 ,because they find their pockets pickt4--,ib41 p4 #cch4 ,o what a pleasure mixt with pain6--,ib41 p4 #cgc4 ,and only with her ,brother linkt4--,ib41 p4 #chg4 ,because he ne'er a thought allow'd1 ,that might not be confest4--,ib41 p4 #cfa4 ,my love to ,sheelah is more firmly fixt4--,ib41 p4 #cfi4 ,the observations annext to them will be intelligible4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #deg4 ,those eyes are always fixt on the general principles4--,ib41 i1 #deh4 ,laborious conjectures will be banisht from our commentaries4--,ib41 i1 #dei4 ,tiridates was dethroned1 and ,phraates was reestablisht in his stead4--,ib41 i1 #dfb4 ,a ,roman who was attacht to ,augustus4--,ib41 i1 #dff4 ,nor should ,i have spoken of it1 unless ,baxter had talkt about two such4--,ib41 i1 #dfg4 ,and the reformers of language have generally rusht on4--,ib41 i1 #fdi4 ,three centuries and a half had then elapst since the date4--,ib41 i1 #bdi4 ,of such criteria1 as has been remarkt already1 there is an abundance4--,ib41 i1 #bfa4 ,the ,english have surpast every other nation in their services4--,ib41 i1 #cjf4 ,the party addrest is next in dignity to the speaker4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #ff4 ,to which we are many times helpt4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ac4 ,but for him1 ,i should have lookt well enough to myself4--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,why are you vext1 ,lady8 why do frown8--,milton1 ,comus1 l4 #ffg4 ,obtruding false rules prankt in reason's garb4--,ib41 l4 #gei4 ,but1 like ,david equipt in ,saul's armour1 it is encumbered and oppressed4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cgh4 ,and when their merchants are blown up1 and crackt1 ,whole towns are cast away in storms1 and wreckt4 --,butler1 p4 #afc4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed4 ,the lands are holden in free and common soccage4 --,trumbull's ,hist1 i1 #acc4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the participle holden is not in that form which present usage authorizes4 ,but1 according to the table of irregular verbs1 the four parts of the verb to hold1 as now used1 are hold1 held1 holding1 held4 ,therefore1 holden should be held2 thus1 ,the lands are held in free and common soccage4 ,a stroke is drawed under such words4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,grammar1 ,edition of #ahcb1 #aed4 ,it is striked even1 with a strickle4--,walkers ,particles1 p4 #aae4 ,whilst ,i was wandring1 without any care1 beyond my bounds4--,ib41 p4 #hc4 ,when one would do something1 unless hindred by something present4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #caa4 ,it is used potentially1 but not so as to be rendred by these signs4--,ib41 p4 #cbj4 ,now who would dote upon things hurryed down the stream thus fast8--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #hi4 ,heaven hath timely try'd their growth4--,milton1 ,comus1 l4 #igj4 ,o6 ye mistook1 ye should have snatcht his wand4--,ib41 p4 #hae4 ,of true virgin here distrest4--,ib41 p4 #ije4 ,so that they have at last come to be substitute in the stead of it4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #cci4 ,though ye have lien among the pots4--,psal41 lxviii1 #ac4 ,and1 lo1 in her mouth was an olive-leaf pluckt off4--,,friends' ,,bible1 and ,,bruce',s3 ,gen41 viii1 #aa4 ,brutus and ,cassius ,are rid like madmen1 through the gates of ,rome4--,shak4 ,he shall be spitted on4--,luke1 xviii1 #cb4 ,and are not the countries so overflown still situate between the tropics8--,bentley's ,sermons4 ,not trickt and frounc't as she was wont1 ,but kercheft in a comely cloud4--,milton1 ,il ,penseroso1 l4 #abc4 ,to satisfy his rigor1 ,satisfy'd never4--,id41 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 x1 l4 #hjd4 ,with him there crucify'd4--,id41 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 xii1 l4 #dag4 ,th' earth cumber'd1 and the wing'd air darkt with plumes4--,id41 ,comus1 l4 #gcj4 ,and now their way to ,earth they had descry'd4--,id41 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 x1 l4 #cbe4 ,not so thick swarm'd once the soil ,bedropt with blood of ,gorgon4--,ib41 ,b4 x1 l4 #ebg4 ,and in a troubled sea of passion tost4--,ib41 ,b4 x1 l4 #gah4 ,the cause1 alas1 is quickly guest4--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #djd4 ,the kettle to the top was hoist--,ib41 p4 #bgd4 ,in chains thy syllables are linkt4--,ib41 p4 #cah4 ,rather than thus be overtopt1 ,would you not wish their laurels cropt8--,ib41 p4 #dae4 ,the hyphen1 or conjoiner1 is a little line1 drawed to connect words1 or parts of words4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #ahcb1 #aej4 ,in the other manners of dependence1 this general rule is sometimes broke4--,joh4 ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #ccd4 ,some intransitive verbs may be rendered transitive by means of a preposition prefixt to them4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,whoever now should place the accent on the first syllable of ,valerius1 would set every body a-laughing4--,walker's ,dict4 ,being mocked1 scourged1 spitted on1 and crucified4--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #dj4 ,for rhyme in ,greece or ,rome was never known1 ,till by barbarian deluges o'erflown4--,roscommon4 ,in my own ,thames may ,i be drownded1 ,if e'er ,i stoop beneath a crown'd-head4--,swift4 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,adverbs4 ,an ,adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner3 as1 ,they are now here1 studying very diligently4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require several words3 as ,now1 for at this time2--,here1 for in this place2--,very1 for in a high degree2--,diligently1 for in an industrious manner4 ,thus the meaning of almost any adverb1 may be explained by some phrase beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun4 ,,obs4 #b4--,there are several customary combinations of short words1 which are used adverbially1 and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing2 as1 not at all1 at length1 in fine1 in full1 at least1 at present1 at once1 this once1 in vain1 no doubt1 on board4 ,but all words that convey distinct ideas1 and rightly retain their individuality1 ought to be taken separately in parsing4 ,with the liberty of supposing a few ellipses1 an ingenious parser will seldom find occasion to speak of adverbial phrases4 ,in these instances1 length1 doubt1 fine1 and board1 are unquestionably nouns2 once1 too1 is used as a noun2 full and all may be parsed either as nouns1 or as adjectives whose nouns are understood2 at least1 is1 at the least measure2 at present1 is1 at the present time2 and in vain1 is1 in a vain course1 or manner4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,a phrase is a combination of two or more separable parts of speech1 the parsing of which of course implies their separation4 ,and though the division of our language into words1 and the division of its words into parts of speech1 have never yet been made exactly to correspond1 it is certainly desirable to bring them as near together as possible4 ,hence such terms as everywhere1 anywhere1 nowadays1 forever1 everso1 to-day1 to-morrow1 by-and-by1 inside-out1 upside-down1 if they are to be parsed simply as adverbs1 ought to be compounded1 and not written as phrases4 ,,obs4 #d--,under nearly all the different classes of words1 some particular instances may be quoted1 in which other parts of speech seem to take the nature of adverbs1 so as either to become such1 or to be apparently used for them4 7#a47 ,,articles3 ,this may appear incredible1 but it is not the less true4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist41 i1 #ccg4 ,the other party was a little coy4--,d4 ,webster4 7#b47 ,,nouns3 ,and scrutiny became stone#cjf blind4--,cowper4 ,he will come home to-morrow4--,clark4 ,they were travelling post when he met them4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,and with a vengeance sent from ,media post to ,egypt4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #agj4 ,that ,i should care a groat whether he likes the work or not4--,kirkham4 ,it has snowed terribly all night1 and is vengeance cold4--,swift4 7#c47 ,,adjectives3 ,drink deep1 or taste not4--,pope4 ,a place wondrous deep4--,webster's ,dict4 ,that fools should be so deep contemplative4--,shak4 ,a man may speak louder or softer in the same key2 when he speaks higher or lower1 he changes his key4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #aaf4 7#d47 ,,pronouns3 ,what am ,i eased8--,job4 ,what have ,i offended thee8--,gen41 xx1 #i4 ,he is somewhat arrogant4--,dryden4 7#e47 ,,verbs3 ,smack went the whip1 round went the wheels4--,cowper4 ,for then the farmers came jog1 jog1 along the miry road4--,id4 ,crack6 went something on deck4--,robinson ,crusoe4 ,then straight went the yard slap over their noddle4--,arbuthnot4 7#f47 ,,participles3 ,like medicines given scalding hot4--,dodd4 ,my clothes are almost dripping wet4--,in came ,squire ,south1 stark1 staring mad4--,arbuthnot4 ,an exceeding high mountain4--,matt41 iv1 #h4 ,how sweet1 how passing sweet1 the hour to me6--,ch4 ,observer4 ,when we act according to our duty4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,a man was famous according as he had lifted up axes upon the thick trees4--,psal41 lxxiv1 #e4 7#g47 ,,conjunctions3 ,look1 as ,i blow this feather from my face4--,shak4 ,not at all1 or but very gently4--,locke4 ,he was but born to try the lot of man4--,pope4 7#h47 ,,prepositions3 ,they shall go in and out4--,bible4 ,from going to and fro in the earth1 and walking up and down in it4--,ib4 ,these are actually adverbs1 and not prepositions1 because they govern nothing4 7#i47 ,,interjections are never used as adverbs1 though the ,greek grammarians refer them nearly all to this class4 ,the using of other words for adverbs1 7i4 e41 the adverbial use of any words that we do not actually call adverbs17 may be referred to the figure enallage3#cjg as1 ,tramp1 tramp1 across the land they speed1 ,splash1 splash1 across the sea4--,burger4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,as other parts of speech seem sometimes to take the nature of adverbs1 so adverbs sometimes1 either really or apparently1 assume the nature of other parts of speech4 7#a47 ,of ,,nouns3 as1 ,a committee is not needed merely to say ,yes or ,no2 that will do very little good2 the yes or the no must be accompanied and supported by reasons4--,dr4 ,m',cartee4 ,shall ,i tell you why8 ,ay1 sir1 and wherefore2 for1 they say1 every why hath a wherefore4--,shak4 7#b47 ,of ,,adjectives3 as1 ,nebuchadnezzar invaded the country1 and reduced it to an almost desert4--,wood's ,dict41 w4 ,moab4 ,the then bishop of ,london1 ,dr4 ,laud1 attended on his ,majesty4--,clarendon4 ,with upward speed his agile wings he spread4--,prior4 ,she lights the downward heaven1 and rises there4--,dryden4 7#c47 ,of ,,pronouns3 as1 ,he liked the ground whereon she trod4--,milton4 ,wherein have you been galled by the king8--,shak4 ,o how unlike the place from whence they fell6--,par4 ,lost1 ,b4 i1 l4 #ge4 ,here whereon is exactly equivalent in sense to on which2 wherein1 to in what2 and whence1 to which3 but none of them are actually reckoned pronouns4 7#d47 ,of ,,verbs3 as1 ,if he be hungry1 more than wanton1 bread alone will down4--,locke4 ,to down proud hearts that would not willing die4--,sidney4 ,she never could away with me4--,shak4 ,away1 and glister like the god of war4--,id4 ,up1 get ye out of this place4--,gen41 xix1 #ad4 7#e47 ,of ,,conjunctions3 as1 ,i1 even ,i1 am he4--,isaiah1 xliii1 #be4 ,if ,i will that he tarry till ,i come4--,john1 xxi1 #bb4 ,i will go and see him before ,i die4--,gen41 xlv1 #bh4 ,before ,i go whence ,i shall not return4--,job1 x1 #ba4 7#f7 ,of ,,prepositions3 as1 ,superior to any that are dug out the ground4--,eames's ,lect41 p4 #bh4 ,who act so counter heavenly mercy's plan4--,burns4 ,better perhaps1 out of and counter to4 7#g47 ,of ,,interjections3 as1 ,up1 up1 ,glentarkin6 rouse thee1 ho6--,scott4 ,down1 down1 cried ,mar1 your lances down6--,id4 ,off6 or ,i fly for ever from thy sight4--,smith4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,in these last examples1 up1 and down1 and off1 have perhaps as much resemblance to imperative verbs1 as to interjections2 but they need not be referred to either of these classes1 because by supplying a verb we may easily parse them as adverbs4 ,i neither adopt the notion of ,horne ,tooke1 that the same word cannot belong to different parts of speech1 nor refer every word to that class to which it may at first sight appear to belong2 for both of these methods are impracticable and absurd4 ,the essential nature of each part of speech1 and every important peculiarity of its individual terms1 it is hoped1 will be sufficiently explained in some part or other of this work2 but1 as the classification of words often depends upon their construction1 some explanations that go to determine the parts of speech1 must be looked for under the head of ,syntax4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the proper classification1 or subdivision1 of adverbs1 though it does not appear to have been discovered by any of our earlier grammarians1 is certainly very clearly indicated by the meaning and nature of the words themselves4 ,the four important circumstances of any event or assertion1 are the when1 the where1 the how-much1 and the how2 or the time1 the place1 the degree1 and the manner4 ,these four are the things which we usually express by adverbs4 ,and seldom1 if ever1 do we find any adverb the notion of which does not correspond to that of sometime1 somewhere1 somewhat1 or somehow4 ,hence1 the general classes of this sort of words ought to be formed under these four heads4 ,the classification heretofore most commonly adopted in ,english grammar1 has every fault which the spirit of awkwardness could possibly give it4 ,the head of it is this3 ,adverbs1 though very numerous1 may be reduced to certain classes1 the chief of which are those of ,number1 ,order1 ,place1 ,time1 ,quantity1 ,manner or ,quality1 ,doubt1 ,affirmation1 ,negation1 ,interrogation1 and ,comparison4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aae2 ,comly's1 #ff2 ,kirkham's1 #hf2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #cd2 ,hall's1 #bf2 and others4 ,,classes4 ,adverbs may be reduced to four general classes2 namely1 adverbs of time1 of place1 of degree1 and of manner4 ,besides these1 it is proper to distinguish the particular class of conjunctive adverbs4 ,i4 ,adverbs of time are those which answer to the question1 ,when8 ,how long8 ,how soon8 or1 ,how often8 including these which ask4 ,,obs4--,adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows3-- #a4 ,of time present2 as1 ,now1 yet1 to-day1 nowadays1 presently1 instantly1 immediately1 straightway1 directly1 forthwith4 #b4 ,of time past2 as1 ,already1 just now1 lately1 recently1 yesterday1 formerly1 anciently1 once1 heretofore1 hitherto1 since1 till now1 long ago1 erewhile1 erst4 #c4 ,of time to come2 as1 ,to-morrow1 hereafter1 henceforth1 henceforward1 by-and-by1 soon1 erelong1 shortly4 #d4 ,of time relative2 as1 ,when1 then1 first1 just1 before1 after1 while1 whilst1 meanwhile1 as1 till1 until1 seasonably1 betimes1 early1 late1 whenever1 afterward1 afterwards1 otherwhile1 otherwhiles4 #e4 ,of time absolute2 as1 ,always1 ever1 never1 aye1 eternally1 forever1 perpetually1 continually1 incessantly1 endlessly1 evermore1 everlastingly4 #f4 ,of time repeated2 as1 ,often1 oft1 again1 occasionally1 frequently1 sometimes1 seldom1 rarely1 daily1 weekly1 monthly1 yearly1 annually1 once1 twice1 thrice1 or three times4 ,above this1 we use only the phrases four times1 five times1 six times1 c4 ,whether these ought to be reckoned adverbs1 or not1 is questionable3 times1 for repetitions1 or instances1 may be supposed a noun2 but such phrases often appear to be used adverbially4 ,,ii4 ,adverbs of place are those which answer to the question1 ,where8 ,whither8 ,whence8 or1 ,whereabout8 including these which ask4 ,,obs4--,adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows3-- #a4 ,of place in which2 as1 ,where1 here1 there1 yonder1 above1 below1 about1 around1 somewhere1 anywhere1 elsewhere1 otherwhere1 everywhere1 nowhere1 wherever1 wheresoever1 within1 without1 whereabout1 whereabouts1 hereabout1 hereabouts1 thereabout1 thereabouts4 #b4 ,of place to which2 as1 ,whither1 hither1 thither1 in1 up1 down1 back1 forth1 aside1 ashore1 abroad1 aloft1 home1 homewards1 inwards1 upwards1 downwards1 backwards1 forwards4 ,inward1 homeward1 upward1 downward1 backward1 and forward1 are also adverbs1 as well as adjectives2 but some critics1 for distinction's sake1 choose to use these only as adjectives4 #c4 ,of place from which2 as1 ,whence1 hence1 thence1 away1 out1 off1 far1 remotely4 #d4 ,of the order of place2 as1 ,first1 secondly1 thirdly1 fourthly1 c4 ,thus1 secondly means in the second place2 thirdly1 in the third place2 c4 ,for order1 or rank1 implies place1 though it may consist of relative degrees4 ,,iii4 ,adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question1 ,how much8 ,how little8 or1 to the idea of more or less4 ,,obs4--,adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows3-- #a4 ,of excess or abundance2 as1 ,much1 more1 most1 too1 very1 greatly1 far1 besides2 chiefly1 principally1 mainly1 mostly1 generally2 entirely1 full1 fully1 completely1 perfectly1 wholly1 totally1 altogether1 all1 quite1 clear1 stark2 exceedingly1 excessively1 extravagantly1 intolerably2 immeasurably1 inconceivably1 infinitely4 #b4 ,of equality or sufficiency2 as1 ,enough1 sufficiently1 competently1 adequately1 proportionally1 equally1 so1 as1 even1 just1 exactly1 precisely4 #c4 ,of deficiency or abatement2 as1 ,little1 less1 least1 scarcely1 hardly1 scantly1 scantily merely1 barely1 only1 but1 partly1 partially1 nearly1 almost1 well-nigh1 not quite4 #d4 ,of quantity in the abstract2 as1 ,how1 7meaning1 in what degree17 however1 howsoever1 everso1 something1 anything1 nothing1 a groat1 a sixpence1 a sou-markee1 and other nouns of quantity used adverbially4 ,,iv4 ,adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question1 ,how8 or1 by affirming1 denying1 or doubting1 show how a subject is regarded4 ,,obs4--,adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows3-- #a4 ,of manner from quality2 as1 ,well1 ill1 wisely1 foolishly1 justly1 wickedly1 and many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality4 ,ly is a contraction of like2 and is the most common termination of ,english adverbs4 ,when added to nouns1 it forms adjectives2 but some few of these are also used adverbially2 as1 daily1 weekly1 monthly1 which denote time4 #b4 ,of affirmation or assent2 as1 ,yes1 yea1 ay1 verily1 truly1 indeed1 surely1 certainly1 doubtless1 undoubtedly1 assuredly1 certes1 forsooth1#cjh amen4 #c4 ,of negation2 as1 ,no1 nay1 not1 nowise1 noway1 noways1 nohow4 #d4 ,of doubt or uncertainty2 as1 ,perhaps1 haply1 possibly1 perchance1 peradventure1 may-be4 #e4 ,of mode or way2 as1 ,thus1 so1 how1 somehow1 nohow1 anyhow1 however1 howsoever1 like1 else1 otherwise1 across1 together1 apart1 asunder1 namely1 particularly1 necessarily1 hesitatingly1 trippingly1 extempore1 headlong1 lengthwise4 ,v4 ,conjunctive adverbs are those which perform the office of conjunctions1 and serve to connect sentences1 as well as to express some circumstance of time1 place1 degree1 or the like4 ,this class embraces a few words not strictly belonging to any of the others3 as1 7#a47 ,the adverbs of cause2 why1 wherefore1 therefore2 but the last two of these are often called conjunctions4 7#b47 ,the pronominal compounds2 herein1 therein1 wherein1 c42 in which the former term is a substitute1 and virtually governed by the enclitic particle4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,conjunctive adverbs often relate equally to two verbs in different clauses1 on which account it is the more necessary to distinguish them from others2 as1 ,and they feared when they heard that they were ,romans1--,acts1 xvi1 #ch4 ,here when is a conjunctive adverb of time1 and relates equally to feared and to heard4 ,the right of coming on the shore for their purposes in general1 as and when they please4--,holroyd4 ,here as is a conjunctive adverb of manner1 and when1 of time2 both relating equally to coming and to please4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the following words are the most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs3 after1 again1 also1 as1 before1 besides1 consequently1 else1 ere1 even1 furthermore1 hence1 how1 however1 moreover1 nevertheless1 otherwise1 since1 so1 still1 till1 then1 thence1 therefore1 too1 until1 when1 where1 wherefore1 whither1 and while1 or whilst4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,adverbs of time1 place1 and manner1 are generally connected with verbs or participles2 those of degree are more frequently placed before adjectives or adverbs3 the latter1 however1 sometimes denote the measure of actions or effects2 as1 ,and ,i wept much--,rev41 v1 #d4 ,and ,isaac trembled very exceedingly--,gen41 xxvii1 #cc4 ,writers who had felt less1 would have said more--,fuller4 ,victors and vanquished1 in the various field1 ,nor wholly overcome1 nor wholly yield4--,dryden4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the adverbs here1 there1 and where1 when compounded with prepositions1 have the force of pronouns1 or of pronominal adjectives3 as1 ,hereby1 for by this2 thereby1 for by that2 whereby1 for by which1 or by what4 ,the prepositions which may be subjoined in this manner1 are only the short words1 at1 by1 for1 from1 in1 into1 of1 on1 to1 unto1 under1 upon1 and with4 ,compounds of this kind1 although they partake of the nature of pronouns with respect to the nouns going before1 are still properly reckoned adverbs1 because they relate as such to the verbs which follow them2 as1 ,you take my life1 when you do take the means whereby ,i live4--,shak4 ,here whereby is a conjunctive adverb1 representing means1 and relating to the verb live4#cji ,this mode of expression is now somewhat antiquated1 though still frequently used by good authors1 and especially by the poets4 ,,obs4 #e--,the adverbs1 when1 where1 whither1 whence1 how1 why1 wherefore1 wherein1 whereof1 whereby1 and other like compounds of where1 are sometimes used as interrogatives2 but1 as such1 they still severally belong to the classes under which they are placed in the foregoing distribution1 except that words of interrogation are not at the same time connectives4 ,these adverbs1 and the three pronouns1 who1 which1 and what1 are the only interrogative words in the language2 but questions may be asked without any of them1 and all have other uses than to ask questions4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the conjunctive adverbs1 when1 where1 whither1 whence1 how1 and why1 are sometimes so employed as to partake of the nature of pronouns1 being used as a sort of special relatives1 which refer back to antecedent nouns of time1 place1 manner1 or cause1 according to their own respective meanings2 yet being adverbs1 because they relate as such1 to the verbs which follow them3 as1 ,in the day when ,god shall judge the secrets of men4--,rom41 ii1 #af4 ,in a time when thou mayest be found4--,psal41 xxxii1 #f4 ,i sought for some time what ,i at length found here1 a place where all real wants might be easily supplied4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,to that part of the mountain where the declivity began to grow craggy4--,id4 ,at ,canterbury1 whither some voice had run before4--,wotton4 ,look unto the rock whence ye are hewn1 and to the hole of the pit whence ye are digged4--,isaiah1 li1 #a4 ,we may remark three different sources whence it arises4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #afc4 ,i'll tell you a way how you may live your time over again4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ajh4 ,a crude account of the method how they perceive truth4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #djd4 ,the order how the ,psalter is appointed to be read4--,common ,prayer4 ,in the same reasoning we see the cause1 why no substantive is susceptible of these comparative degrees4--,hermes1 p4 #bja4 ,there seems no reason why it should not work prosperously4--,society in ,america1 p4 #fh4 ,there are strong reasons why an extension of her territory would be injurious to her4--,ib4 ,an other reason why it deserved to be more studied4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abc4 ,the end why ,god hath ordained faith1 is1 that his free grace might be glorified4--,goodwin4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the direct use of adverbs for pronouns1 is often1 if not generally1 inelegant2 and1 except the expression may be thereby agreeably shortened1 it ought to be considered ungrammatical4 ,the following examples1 and perhaps also some of the foregoing1 are susceptible of improvement3 ,youth is the time1 when we are young4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #abj4 ,say rather1 ,youth is that part of life which succeeds to childhood4 ,the boy gave a satisfactory reason why he was tardy4--,ibid4 ,say rather1 ,the boy gave a satisfactory reason for his tardiness4 ,the several sources from whence these pleasures are derived4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #beh4 ,say rather--sources from which ,in cases where it is only said1 that a question has been asked4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aag4 ,say1 ,in those cases in which4 ,to the false rhetoric of the age when he lived4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #dae4 ,say rather--of the age in which he lived4 ,,obs4 #h4--,when a conjunctive adverb is equivalent to both an antecedent and a relative1 the construction seems to be less objectionable1 and the brevity of the expression affords an additional reason for preferring it1 especially in poetry3 as1 ,but the ,son of man hath not where to lay his head4--,matt41 viii1 #bj4 ,there might they see whence ,po and ,ister came4--,hoole's ,tasso4 ,tell how he formed your shining frame4--,ogilvie4 ,the wind bloweth where it listeth1 and thou hearest the sound thereof1 but canst not tell whence it cometh1 and whither it goeth4--,john1 iii1 #h4 ,in this construction1 the adverb is sometimes preceded by a preposition2 the noun being1 in fact1 understood3 as1 ,sinks1 like a sea-weed1 into whence she rose4--,byron4 ,here ,machiavelli's earth return'd to whence it rose4--,id4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the conjunctive adverb so1 very often expresses the sense of some word or phrase going before2 as1 ,wheresoever the speech is corrupted1 so is the mind4--,seneca's ,morals1 p4 #bfg4 ,that is1 the mind is also corrupted4 ,i consider grandeur and sublimity1 as terms synonymous1 or nearly so4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bi4 ,the following sentence is grossly wrong1 because the import of this adverb was not well observed by the writer3 ,we have now come to far the most complicated part of speech2 and one which is sometimes rendered still more so1 than the nature of our language requires4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,so1 in some instances1 repeats the import of a preceding noun1 and consequently partakes the nature of a pronoun2 as1 ,we think our fathers fools1 so wise we grow2 ,our wiser sons1 no doubt1 will think us so4--,pope1 on ,crit4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,since is often improperly used for ago3 as1 ',when were you in ,france8--,twenty years since4' ,it ought to be1 ',twenty years ago4' ,since may be admitted to supply the place of ago that3 it being equally correct to say1 ',it is twenty years since ,i was in ,france2' and1 ',it is twenty years ago1 that ,i was in ,france4'--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ccg4 ,the difference between since and ago is clearly this3 the former1 being either a preposition or a conjunctive adverb1 cannot with strict propriety be used adjectively2 the latter1 being in reality an old participle1 naturally comes after a noun1 in the sense of an adjective2 as1 a year ago1 a month ago1 a week ago4 ,go1 ago1 ygo1 gon1 agon1 gone1 agone1 are all used indiscriminately by our old ,english writers as the past participle of the verb to go4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cgf4 ,three days agone1 ,i fell sick4--#a ,samuel1 xxx1 #ac4 ,,modifications4 ,adverbs have no modifications1 except that a few are compared1 after the manner of adjectives3 as1 soon1 sooner1 soonest2 often1 oftener1 oftenest2#caj long1 longer1 longest2 fast1 faster1 fastest4 ,the following are irregularly compared3 well1 better1 best2 badly or ill1 worse1 worst2 little less1 least2 much1 more1 most2 far1 farther1 farthest2 forth1 further1 furthest4 ,rath1 rather1 rathest1 is now used only in the comparative4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,most adverbs that are formed from adjectives by the addition of ly1 will admit the comparative adverbs more and most1 less and least1 before them31 as1 wisely1 more wisely1 most wisely2 culpably1 less culpably1 least culpably4 ,this is virtually a comparison of the latter adverb1 but the grammatical inflection1 or degree1 belongs only to the former2 and the words being written separately1 it is certainly most proper to parse them separately1 ascribing the degree of comparison to the word which expresses it4 ,as comparison does not belong to adverbs in general1 it should not be mentioned in parsing1 except in the case of those few which are varied by it4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,in the works of ,milton1 and occasionally in those of some other poets of his age1#caa adverbs of two syllables1 ending in ly1 are not only compared regularly like adjectives of the same ending1 but are used in the measure of iambic verse as if they still formed only two syllables4 ,examples3-- ,but ,god hath wiselier arm'd his vengeful ire4 --,p4 ,lost1 ,b4 x1 l4 #ajbb4 ,destroyers rightlier call'd and plagues of men4 --,ib41 ,b4 xi1 l4 #fii4 ,and on his quest1 where likeliest he might find4 --,ib41 ,b4 ix1 l4 #dad4 ,now amplier known thy ,saviour and thy ,lord4 --,ib41 ,b4 xii1 l4 #edd4 ,though thou wert firmlier fasten'd than a rock4 --,sam4 ,agon41 l4 #acih4 ,not rustic1 as before1 but seemlier clad4 --,p4 ,reg41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #bii4 -------------------------,whereof to thee anon ,plainlier shall be reveal'd4 --,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 xii1 l4 #aej4 ------------,to show what coast thy sluggish erare ,might easiliest harbour in4 --,shakspeare1 ,cymb41 ,act ,,iv4 ,shall not myself be kindlier mov'd than thou art8 --,id41 ,tempest1 ,act ,v4 ,but earthlier happy is the rose distill'd4 --,id41 ,m4 ,s4 ,n4 ,dream1 ,act ,i4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the usage just cited is clearly analogical1 and has the obvious advantage of adding to the flexibility of the language1 while it also multiplies its distinctive forms4 ,if carried out as it might be1 it would furnish to poets and orators an ampler choice of phraseology1 and at the same time1 obviate in a great measure the necessity of using the same words both adjectively and adverbially4 ,the words which are now commonly used in this twofold character1 are principally monosyllables2 and1 of adjectives1 monosyllables are the class which we oftenest compare by er and est3 next to which come dissyllables ending in y2 as1 holy1 happy1 lovely4 ,but if to any monosyllable we add ly to form an adverb1 we have of course a dissyllable ending in y2 and if adverbs of this class may be compared regularly1 after the manner of adjectives1 there can be little or no occasion to use the primitive word otherwise than as an adjective4 ,but1 according to present usage1 few adverbs are ever compared by inflection1 except such words as may also be used adjectively4 ,for example3 cleanly1 comely1 deadly1 early1 kindly1 kingly1 likely1 lively1 princely1 seemly1 weakly1 may all be thus compared2 and1 according to ,johnson and ,webster1 they may all be used either adjectively or adverbially4 ,again3 late1 later1 latest1 is commonly contrasted in both senses1 with early1 earlier1 earliest2 but if lately1 latelier1 lateliest1 were adopted in the adverbial contrast1 early and late1 earlier and later1 earliest and latest1 might be contrasted as adjectives only4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the using of adjectives for adverbs1 is in general a plain violation of grammar4 ,example3 ,to is a preposition1 governing the verb sell1 in the infinitive mood1 agreeable to ,rule #ah1 which says1 ,the preposition ,,to governs the infinitive mood4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #acg4 ,here agreeable ought to be agreeably2 an adverb1 relating to the participle governing4 ,again1 the using of adverbs for adjectives1 is a fault as gross4 ,example3 ,apprehending the nominative to be put absolutely4-- ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,here absolutely ought to be absolute2 an adjective1 relating to the word nominative4 ,but1 in poetry1 there is not only a frequent substitution of quality for manner1 in such a way that the adjective may still be parsed adjectively2 but sometimes also what appears to be 7whether right or wrong7 a direct use of adjectives for adverbs1 especially in the higher degrees of comparison3 as1 ,firmer he roots him the ruder it blow4 --,scott1 ,l4 of ,l41 ,c4 ii1 st4 #ai4 ,true ease in writing comes from art1 not chance1 ,as those move easiest who have learn'd to dance4 --,pope1 ,ess4 on ,crit4 ,and also now the sluggard soundest slept4 --,pollok1 ,c4 of ,t41 ,b4 vi1 l4 #beg4 ,in them is plainest taught1 and easiest learnt1 ,what makes a nation happy1 and keeps it so4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,r41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #cfa4 ,,obs4 #e4--,no use of words can be right1 that actually confounds the parts of speech2 but in many instances1 according to present practice1 the same words may be used either adjectively or adverbially4 ,firmer and ruder are not adverbs1 but adjectives4 ,in the example above1 they may1 ,i think1 be ranked with the instances in which quality is poetically substituted for manner1 and be parsed as relating to the pronouns which follow them4 ,a similar usage occurs in ,latin1 and is considered elegant4 ,easiest1 as used above by ,pope1 may perhaps be parsed upon the same principle2 that is1 as relating to those1 or to persons understood before the verb move4 ,but soundest1 plainest1 and easiest1 as in the latter quotations1 cannot be otherwise explained than as being adverbs4 ,plain and sound1 according to our dictionaries1 are used both adjectively and adverbially2 and1 if their superlatives are not misapplied in these instances1 it is because the words are adverbs1 and regularly compared as such4 ,easy1 though sometimes used adverbially by reputable writers1 is presented by our lexicographers as an adjective only2 and if the latter are right1 ,milton's use of easiest in the sense and construction of most easily1 must be considered an error in grammar4 ,and besides1 according to his own practice1 he ought to have preferred plainliest to plainest1 in the adverbial sense of most plainly4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,beside the instances already mentioned1 of words used both adjectively and adverbially1 our dictionaries exhibit many primitive terms which are to be referred to the one class or the other1 according to their construction2 as1 soon1 late1 high1 low1 quick1 slack1 hard1 soft1 wide1 close1 clear1 thick1 full1 scant1 long1 short1 clean1 near1 scarce1 sure1 fast2 to which may as well be added1 slow1 loud1 and deep2 all susceptible of the regular form of comparison1 and all regularly convertible into adverbs in ly2 though soonly and longly are now obsolete1 and fastly1 which means firmly1 is seldom used4 ,in short1 it is1 probably1 from an idea1 that no adverbs are to be compared by er and est unless the same words may also be used adjectively1 that we do not thus compare lately1 highly1 quickly1 loudly1 c41 after the example of ,milton4 ,but1 however custom may sanction the adverbial construction of the foregoing simple terms1 the distinctive form of the adverb is in general to be preferred1 especially in prose4 ,for example3 ,the more it was complained of1 the louder it was praised4--,daniel ,webster1 in ,congress1 #ahcg4 ,if it would seem quaint to say1 ,the loudlier it was praised1 it would perhaps be better to say1 ,the more loudly it was praised2 for our critics have not acknowledged loud or louder to be an adverb4 ,nor have slow and deep been so called4 ,dr4 ,johnson cites the following line to illustrate the latter as an adjective3 ,drink hellebore1 my boy6 drink deep1 and scour thy brain4 ,,dryden4 --,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,deep4 ,drink hellebore1 my boy6 drink deep1 and purge thy brain4 --,dryd4 ,,iv4 ,sat4 of ,persius4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,in some instances1 even in prose1 it makes little or no difference to the sense1 whether we use adjectives referring to the nouns1 or adverbs of like import1 having reference to the verbs3 as1 ,the whole conception is conveyed clear and strong to the mind4--,blair's ,rhet41 p1 #ach4 ,here clear and strong are adjectives1 referring to conception2 but we might as well say1 ,the whole conception is conveyed clearly and strongly to the mind4 ,against a power that exists independent of their own choice4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #df4 ,here we might as well say1 exists independently2 for the independence of the power1 in whichever way it is expressed1 is nothing but the manner of its existence4 ,this work goeth fast on and prospereth4--,ezra4 ,skill comes so slow1 and life so fast doth fly4--,davies4 ,dr4 ,johnson here takes fast and slow to be adjectives1 but he might as well have called them adverbs1 so far as their meaning or construction is concerned4 ,for what here qualifies the things spoken of1 is nothing but the manner of their motion2 and this might as well be expressed by the words1 rapidly1 slowly1 swiftly4 ,yet it ought to be observed1 that this does not prove the equivalent words to be adverbs1 and not adjectives4 ,our philologists have often been led into errors by the argument of equivalence4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,viii4--,,etymological4 ,in the ,eighth ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and the classes and modifications of the ,,articles1 ,,nouns1 ,,adjectives1 ,,pronouns1 ,,verbs1 ,,participles1 and ,,adverbs4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,eighth ,praxis1 are two for an article1 six for a noun1 three for an adjective1 six for a pronoun1 seven for a verb finite1 five for an infinitive1 two for a participle1 two 7and sometimes three7 for an adverb1--and one for a conjunction1 a preposition1 or an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,when was it that ,rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind8--,r4 ,g4 ,harper4 ,when is an adverb of time4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree or manner4 #b4 ,adverbs of time are those which answer to the question1 ,when8 ,how long8 ,how soon8 or1 ,how often8 including these which ask4 ,was is an irregular neuter verb1 from be1 was1 being1 been2 found in the indicative mood1 imperfect tense1 third person1 and singular number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,a neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion1 but simply being1 or a state of being4 #d4 ,the indicative mood is that form of the verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 #e4 ,the imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place1 or was occurring1 in time fully past4 #f4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,it is a personal pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,that is a conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,rome is a proper noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 personified feminine1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a proper noun is the name of some particular individual1 or people1 or group4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,attracted is a regular active-transitive verb1 from attract1 attracted1 attracting1 attracted2 found in the indicative mood1 imperfect tense1 third person1 and singular number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,a regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,an active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object4 #d4 ,the indicative mood is that form of the verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 #e4 ,the imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place1 or was occurring1 in time fully past4 #f4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,most is an a adverb of degree1 compared1 much1 more1 most1 and found in the superlative4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 #b4 ,adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question1 ,how much8 ,how little8 or to the idea of more or less4 #c4 ,the superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it4 ,strongly is an adverb of manner4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 #b4 ,adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question1 ,how8 or1 by affirming1 denying1 or doubting1 show how a subject is regarded4 ,the is the definite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things4 ,admiration is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,of is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,mankind is a common noun1 collective1 of the third person1 conveying the idea of plurality1 masculine gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a collective noun1 or noun of multitude1 is the name of many individuals together4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the plural number is that which denotes more than one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,wisely1 therefore1 is it ordered1 and agreeably to the system of ,providence1 that we should have nature for our instructor4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #ceh4 ,it is surprising1 how quickly1 and for the most part how correctly1 we judge of character from external appearance4--,id41 ib41 i1 #cei4 ,the members of a period connected by proper copulatives1 glide smoothly and gently along1 and are a proof of sedateness and leisure in the speaker4--,id41 ib41 ii1 #cc4 ,antithesis ought only to be occasionally studied1 when it is naturally demanded by the comparison or opposition of objects4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ajb4 ,did men always think clearly1 and were they at the same time fully masters of the language in which they write1 there would be occasion for few rules4--,ib41 #ajb4 ,rhetoric1 or oratory1 is the art of speaking justly1 methodically1 floridly1 and copiously1 upon any subject1 in order to touch the passions1 and to persuade4--,bradley's ,literary ,guide1 p4 #aee4 ,the more closely we follow the natural order of any subject we may be investigating1 the more satisfactorily and explicitly will that subject be opened to our understanding4--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #afj4 ,why should we doubt of that1 whereof our sense ,finds demonstration from experience8 ,our minds are here1 and there1 below1 above2 ,nothing that's mortal1 can so swiftly move4--,denham4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,if we can discern particularly and precisely what it is1 which is most directly obedience or disobedience to the will and commands of ,god2 what is truly morally beautiful1 or really and absolutely deformed2 the question concerning liberty1 as far as it respects ethics1 or morality1 will be sufficiently decided4--,west1 on ,agency1 p4 xiii4 ,thus it was true1 historically1 individually1 philosophically1 and universally1 that they did not like to retain ,god in their knowledge4--,cox1 on ,christianity1 p4 #cbg4 ,we refer to ,jeremiah ,evarts and ,gordon ,hall4 ,they had their imperfections1 and against them they struggled discreetly1 constantly1 successfully1 until they were fitted to ascend to their rest4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer1 ,feb4 #b;d1 #ahcc4 ,seek not proud riches2 but such as thou mayst get justly1 use soberly1 distribute cheerfully and leave contentedly4--,ld4 ,bacon4 ,there are also some particularly grievous sins1 of which conscience justly accuses us2 sins committed more or less presumptuously and willingly1 deliberately and repeatedly4--,bickersteth1 on ,prayer1 p4 #ei4 ,and herein ,i apprehend myself now to suffer wrongfully1 being slanderously reported1 falsely accused1 shamefully and despitefully used1 and hated without a cause4--,jenks's ,prayers1 p4 #agc4 ,of perfect knowledge1 see1 the dawning light ,foretells a noon most exquisitely bright6 ,here1 springs of endless joy are breaking forth6 ,there1 buds the promise of celestial worth6--,young4 ,,lesson ,,iii--,,parsing4 ,a true friend unbosoms freely1 advises justly1 assists readily1 adventures boldly1 takes all patiently1 defends courageously1 and continues a friend unchangeably4--,penn's ,maxims4 ,that mind must be wonderfully narrow1 that is wholly wrapped up in itself2 but this is too visibly the character of most human minds4--,burgh's ,dignity1 ii1 #ce4 ,there is not a man living1 who wishes more sincerely than ,i do1 to see a plan adopted for the abolition of slavery2 but there is only one proper and effectual mode by which it can be accomplished1 and that is1 by legislative authority4--,geo4 ,washington1 #aghf4 ,sloth has frequently and justly been denominated the rust of the soul4 ,the habit is easily acquired2 or1 rather1 it is a part of our very nature to be indolent4--,student's ,manual1 p4 #agf4 ,i am aware how improper it is to talk much of my wife2 never reflecting how much more improper it is to talk much of myself4--,home's ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #hi4 ,howbeit whereinsoever any is bold1 7,i speak foolishly17 ,i am bold also4 ,are they ,hebrews8 so am ,i4 ,are they ,israelites8 so am ,i4 ,are they the seed of ,abraham8 so am ,i4 ,are they ministers of ,christ8 7,i speak as a fool17 ,i am more4--#b ,cor41 xi4 ,oh1 speak the wondrous man6 how mild1 how calm1 ,how greatly humble1 how divinely good1 ,how firm establish'd on eternal truth4--,thomson4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,respecting ,,adverbs4 ,we can much easier form the conception of a fierce combat4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #afg4 ,,formule--,not proper1 because the adjective easier is used as an adverb1 to qualify the verb can form4 ,but1 according to ,observation #dth on the ,modifications of ,adverbs1 ,the using of adjectives for adverbs1 is in general a plain violation of grammar4 ,therefore1 easier should be more easily2 thus1 ,we can much more easily form the conception of a fierce combat4 ,when he was restored1 agreeable to the treaty1 he was a perfect savage4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bce4 ,how ,i shall acquit myself suitable to the importance of the trial4--,duncan's ,cic41 p4 #he4 ,can any thing show your holiness how unworthy you treat mankind8--,spect41 ,no4 #dig4 ,in what other language1 consistent with reason and common sense1 can you go about to explain it to him8--,lowth's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 viii4 ,agreeable to this rule1 the short vowel ,sheva has two characters4--,wilson's ,hebrew ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,we shall give a remarkable fine example of this figure4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cdg4 ,all of which is most abominable false4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #dca4 ,he heaped up great riches1 but passed his time miserable4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 ii1 #bjb4 ,he is never satisfied with expressing any thing clearly and simple4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #if4 ,attentive only to exhibit his ideas clear and exact1 he appears dry4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,such words as have the most liquids and vowels1 glide the softest4--,ib41 p4 #abi4 ,the simplest points1 such as are easiest apprehended4--,ib41 p4 #cab4 ,too historical1 to be accounted a perfect regular epic poem4--,ib41 p4 #dda4 ,putting after them the oblique case1 agreeable to the ,french construction4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,where the train proceeds with an extreme slow pace4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aea4 ,so as scarce to give an appearance of succession4--,ib41 i1 #aeb4 ,that concord between sound and sense1 which is perceived in some expressions independent of artful pronunciation4--,ib41 ii1 #fc4 ,cornaro had become very corpulent1 previous to the adoption of his temperate habits4--,hitchcock1 on ,dysp41 p4 #cif4 ,bread1 which is a solid and tolerable hard substance4--,sandford and ,merton1 p4 #ch4 ,to command every body that was not dressed as fine as himself4--,ib41 p1 #ai4 ,many of them have scarce outlived their authors4--,pref4 to ,lily's ,gram41 p4 ix4 ,their labour1 indeed1 did not penetrate very deep4--,wilson's ,heb4 ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,the people are miserable poor1 and subsist on fish4--,hume's ,hist41 ii1 #dcc4 ,a scale1 which ,i took great pains1 some years since1 to make4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,there is no truth on earth so well established as the truth of the ,bible4--,taylor's ,district ,school1 p4 #bhh4 ,i know of no work so much wanted as the one ,mr4 ,taylor has now furnished4--,,dr4 ,,nott3 ib41 p4 ii4 ,and therefore their requests are seldom and reasonable4--,taylor3 ib41 p4 #eh4 ,questions are easier proposed than rightly answered4--,dillwyn's ,reflections1 p4 #ai4 ,often reflect on the advantages you possess1 and on the source from whence they are all derived4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cgd4 ,if there be no special ,rule which requires it to be put forwarder4--,milnes's ,greek ,gram41 p4 #bcd4 ,the ,masculine and ,neuter have the same ,dialect in all ,numbers1 especially when they end the same4--,ib41 p4 #bei4 ,and children are more busy in their play ,than those that wisely'st pass their time away4--,butler1 p4 #afc4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,conjunctions4 ,a ,conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected3 as1 ,thou and he are happy1 because you are good4--,murray4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,our connective words are of four kinds2 namely1 relative pronouns1 conjunctive adverbs1#cab conjunctions1 and prepositions4 ,these have a certain resemblance to one another1 so far as they are all of them connectives2 yet there are also characteristical differences by which they may in general be easily distinguished4 ,relative pronouns represent antecedents1 and stand in those relations which we call cases2 conjunctive adverbs assume the connective power in addition to their adverbial character1 and consequently sustain a double relation2 conjunctions1 7except the introductory correspondents17 join words or sentences together1 showing their relation either to each other or to something else2 prepositions1 though naturally subject themselves to something going before1 assume the government of the terms which follow them1 and in this they differ from all the rest4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,conjunctions do not express any of the real objects of the understanding1 whether things1 qualities1 or actions1 but rather the several modes of connexion or contrast under which these objects are contemplated4 ,hence conjunctions were said by ,aristotle and his followers to be in themselves devoid of signification2 a notion which ,harris1 with no great propriety1 has adopted in his faulty definition#cac of this part of speech4 ,it is the office of this class of particles1 to link together words1 phrases1 or sentences1 that would otherwise appear as loose shreds1 or unconnected aphorisms2 and thus1 by various forms of dependence1 to give to discourse such continuity as may fit it to convey a connected train of thought or reasoning4 ,the skill or inability of a writer may as strikingly appear in his management of these little connectives1 as in that of the longest and most significant words in the language4 ,the current is often evinced by the straws1 ,and the course of the wind by the flight of a feather2 ,so a speaker is known by his ands and his ors1 ,those stitches that fasten his patchwork together4--,robert ,f4 ,mott4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,conjunctions sometimes connect entire sentences1 and sometimes particular words or phrases only4 ,when one whole sentence is closely linked with an other1 both become clauses or members of a more complex sentence2 and when one word or phrase is coupled with an other1 both have in general a common dependence upon some other word in the same sentence4 ,in etymological parsing1 it may be sufficient to name the conjunction as such1 and repeat the definition above2 but1 in syntactical parsing1 the learner should always specify the terms connected4 ,in many instances1 however1 he may conveniently abbreviate his explanation1 by parsing the conjunction as connecting what precedes and what follows2 or1 if the terms are transposed1 as connecting its own clause to the second1 to the third1 or to some other clause in the context4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,however easy it may appear1 for even the young parser to name the terms which in any given instance are connected by the conjunction1 and of course to know for himself what these terms are1--that is1 to know what the conjunction does or does not1 connect1--it is certain that a multitude of grammarians and philosophers1 great and small1 from ,aristotle down to the latest modifier of ,murray1 or borrower from his text1 have been constantly contradicting one an other1 if not themselves1 in relation to this matter4 ,harris avers1 that the ,conjunction connects1 not ,words1 but ,sentences2 and frames his definition accordingly4 ,see ,hermes1 p4 #bcg4 ,this doctrine is true of some of the conjunctions1 but it is by no means true of them all4 ,he adds1 in a note1 ,grammarians have usually considered the ,conjunction as connecting rather single ,parts of ,speech1 than whole ,sentences1 and that too with the addition of like with like1 ,tense with ,tense1 ,number with ,number1 ,case with ,case1 c4 ,this ,sanctius justly explodes4--,ib41 p4 #bch4 ,if such has been the usual doctrine of the grammarians1 they have erred on the one side1 as much as our philosopher1 and his learned authorities1 on the other4 ,for1 in this instance1 ,harris's quotations of ,latin and ,greek writers1 prove only that ,sanctius1 ,scaliger1 ,apollonius1 and ,aristotle1 held the same error that he himself had adopted2--the error which ,latham and others now inculcate1 that1 ,there are always two propositions where there is one ,conjunction4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 p4 #eeg4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the common doctrine of ,l4 ,murray and others1 that1 ,conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs1 and cases of nouns and pronouns1 is not only badly expressed1 but is pointedly at variance with their previous doctrine1 that1 ,conjunctions very often unite sentences1 when they appear to unite only words2 as in the following instances3 ',duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences2' ',wisdom or folly governs us4' ,each of these forms of expression1 they absurdly say1 contains two sentences4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #abd2 ,smith's1 #ie2 ,fisk's1 #hd2 ,ingersoll's1 #ha4 ,by the same moods1 tenses1 or cases1 we must needs here understand some one mood1 tense1 or case1 in which the connected words agree2 and1 if the conjunction has any thing to do with this agreement1 or sameness of mood1 tense1 or case1 it must be because words only1 and not sentences1 are connected by it4 ,now1 if1 that1 though1 lest1 unless1 or any other conjunction that introduces the subjunctive1 will almost always be found to connect different moods1 or rather to subjoin one sentence to another in which there is a different mood4 ,on the contrary1 and1 as1 even1 than1 or1 and nor1 though they may be used to connect sentences1 do1 in very many instances1 connect words only2 as1 ,the king and queen are an amiable pair4--,murray4 ,and a being of more than human dignity stood before me4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,it cannot be plausibly pretended1 that and and than1 in these two examples1 connect clauses or sentences4 ,so and and or1 in the examples above1 connect the nouns only1 and not sentences3 else our common rules for the agreement of verbs or pronouns with words connected1 are nothing but bald absurdities4 ,it is idle to say1 that the construction and meaning are not what they appear to be2 and it is certainly absurd to contend1 that conjunctions always connect sentences2 or always1 words only4 ,one author very strangely conceives1 that1 ,conjunctions may be said either always to connect words only1 or always to connect sentences1 according to the view which may be taken of them in analyzing4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,,obs4 #f4--,several words belonging to other parts of speech1 are occasionally used as conjunctions4 ,such are the following3 provided1 except1 verbs2 both1 an adjective2 either1 neither1 that1 pronouns2 being1 seeing1 participles2 before1 since1 for1 prepositions4 ,i will do it1 provided you lend some help4 ,here provided is a conjunction1 that connects the two sentences4 ',paul said1 ,except these abide in the ship1 ye cannot be saved4' ,here except is a conjunction4 ,excepting is also used as a participle and conjunction4 ',being this reception of the gospel was so anciently foretold4'--,bishop ,pearson4 ',seeing all the congregation are holy4'--,bible4 ,here being and seeing are used as conjunctions4--,alexander's ,gram31 p4 #ej4 ',the foregoing remark1 though worthy of some attention1 is not altogether accurate4 ,before1 when it connects sentences1 is not a conjunction1 but a conjunctive adverb4 ,provided1 as cited above1 resembles not the verb1 but the perfect participle4 ,either and neither1 when they are not conjunctions1 are pronominal adjectives1 rather than pronouns4 ,and1 to say1 that1 words belonging to other parts of speech1 are used as conjunctions1 is a sort of solecism1 which leaves the learner in doubt to what class they really belong4 ,being1 and being that1 were formerly used in the sense of because1 since1 or seeing that2 7,lat4 cum1 quoniam1 or quando27 but this usage is now obsolete4 ,so there is an uncommon or obsolete use of without1 in the sense of unless1 or except2 7,lat4 nisi27 as1 ,he cannot rise without he be helped4 ,walker's ,particles1 p4 #dbe4 ,non potest nisi adjutus exsurgere4--,seneca4 ,,classes4 ,conjunctions are divided into two general classes1 copulative and disjunctive2 and a few of each class are particularly distinguished from the rest1 as being corresponsive4 ,i4 ,a copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition1 a cause1 a consequence1 or a supposition3 as1 ,he and ,i shall not dispute2 for1 if he has any choice1 ,i shall readily grant it4 ,,ii4 ,a disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning3 as1 ,though he were dead1 yet shall he live4--,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,be not faithless1 but believing4--,id4 ,,iii4 ,the corresponsive conjunctions are those which are used in pairs1 so that one refers or answers to the other3 as1 ,john came neither eating nor drinking4--,matt41 xi1 #ah4 ,but if ,i cast out devils by the ,spirit of ,god1 then the kingdom of ,god is come unto you4--,ib41 xii1 #bh4 ,,obs4--,not all terms which stand in the relation of correspondents1 or corresponsives1 are therefore to be reckoned conjunctions2 nor are both words in each pair always of the same part of speech3 some are adverbs2 one or two are adjectives2 and sometimes a conjunction answers to a preceding adverb4 ,but1 if a word is seen to be the mere precursor1 index1 introductory sign1 or counterpart1 of a conjunction1 and has no relation or import which should fix it in any other of the ten classes called parts of speech1 it is1 clearly1 a conjunction1--a corresponding or corresponsive conjunction4 ,it is a word used preparatively1 to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,conjunctions4 #a4 ,the ,copulatives2 ,and1 as1 both1 because1 even1 for1 if1 that1 then1 since1 seeing1 so4 #b4 ,the ,disjunctives2 ,or1 nor1 either1 neither1 than1 though1 although1 yet1 but1 except1 whether1 lest1 unless1 save1 provided1 notwithstanding1 whereas4 #c4 ,the ,corresponsives2 ,both--and2 as--as2 as--so2 if--then2 either--or2 neither--nor2 whether--or2 though1 or although--yet4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,by some writers1 the words1 also1 since1 too1 then1 therefore1 and wherefore1 are placed among the copulative conjunctions2 and as1 so1 still1 however1 and albeit1 among the disjunctive2 but ,johnson and ,webster have marked most of these terms as adverbs only4 ,it is perhaps of little moment1 by which name they are called2 for1 in some instances1 conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs do not differ very essentially4 ,as1 so1 even1 then1 yet1 and but1 seem to belong sometimes to the one part of speech1 and sometimes to the other4 ,i call them adverbs when they chiefly express time1 manner1 or degree2 and conjunctions when they appear to be mere connectives4 ,as1 yet1 and but1 are generally conjunctions2 but so1 even1 and then1 are almost always adverbs4 ,seeing and provided1 when used as connectives1 are more properly conjunctions than any thing else2 though ,johnson ranks them with the adverbs1 and ,webster1 by supposing many awkward ellipses1 keeps them with the participles4 ,examples3 ,for these are not drunken1 as ye suppose1 seeing it is but the third hour of the day4--,acts1 ii1 #ae4 ,the senate shall have power to adjourn themselves1 provided such adjournment shall not exceed two days at a time4--,constitution of ,new ,hampshire4 ,,obs4 #b4--,since1 when it governs a noun after it1 is a preposition3 as1 ,hast thou commanded the morning since thy days8--,job4 ,albeit is equivalent in sense to although1 and is properly a conjunction2 but this old compound is now nearly or quite obsolete4 ,as is sometimes a relative pronoun1 sometimes a conjunctive adverb1 and sometimes a copulative conjunction4 ,example of the last3 ,we present ourselves as petitioners4 ,if as is ever disjunctive1 it is not so here2 nor can we parse it as an adverb1 because it comes between two words that are essentially in apposition4 ,the equivalent ,latin term quasi is called an adverb1 but1 in such a case1 not very properly3 as1 ,et colles quasi pulverem pones2--,and thou shalt make the hills as chaff4--,isaiah1 xli1 #ae4 ,so even1 which in ,english is frequently a sign of emphatic repetition1 seems sometimes to be rather a conjunction than an adverb3 as1 ,i1 even ,i1 am the ,lord4--,isaiah1 xliii1 #aa4 ,,obs4 #c4--,save and saving1 when they denote exception1 are not adverbs1 as ,johnson denominates them1 or a verb and a participle1 as ,webster supposes them to be1 or prepositions1 as ,covell esteems them1 but disjunctive conjunctions2 and1 as such1 they take the same case after as before them2 as1 ,all the conspirators1 save only he1 did that they did1 in envy of great ,csar4--,shak4 ,all this world's glory seemeth vain1 and all their shows but shadows1 saving she4--,spenser4 ,israel burned none of them1 save ,hazor only4--,joshua4 xi1 #ac4 ,and none of them was cleansed1 saving ,naaman the ,syrian4--,luke1 iv1 #bg4 ,save is not here a transitive verb1 for ,hazor was not saved in any sense1 but utterly destroyed2 nor is ,naaman here spoken of as being saved by an other leper1 but as being cleansed when others were not4 ,these two conjunctions are now little used2 and therefore the propriety of setting the nominative after them and treating them as conjunctions1 is the more apt to be doubted4 ,the ,rev4 ,matt4 ,harrison1 after citing five examples1 four of which have the nominative with save1 adds1 without naming the part of speech1 or assigning any reason1 this decision1 which ,i think erroneous3 ,in all these passages1 save requires after it the objective case4 ,his five examples are these3 ,all1 save ,i1 were at rest1 and enjoyment4-- ,frankenstein4 ,there was no stranger with us1 in the house1 save we two4--#a ,kings1 iii1 #ah4 ,and nothing wanting is1 save she1 alas6 --,,drummond of ,hawthornden4 ,when all slept sound1 save she1 who bore them both4 --,,rogers1 ,italy1 p4 #ajh4 ,and all were gone1 save him1 who now kept guard4 --,ibid41 p4 #ahe4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the conjunction if is sometimes used in the ,bible to express1 not a supposition of what follows it1 but an emphatic negation3 as1 ,i have sworn in my wrath1 if they shall enter into my rest4--,heb41 iv1 #c4 ,that is1 that they shall not enter4 ,the same peculiarity is found in the ,greek text1 and also in the ,latin1 and other versions4 ,or1 in the obsolete phrase1 or ever1 is not properly a conjunction1 but a conjunctive adverb of time1 meaning before4 ,it is supposed to be a corruption of ere3 as1 ,i was set up from everlasting1 from the beginning1 or ever the earth was4--,prov41 viii1 #bc4 ,and we1 or ever he come near1 are ready to kill him4--,acts1 xxiii1 #ae4 ,this term derives no support from the original text4 ,,obs4 #e4--,there are some peculiar phrases1 or combinations of words1 which have the force of conjunctions1 and which it is not very easy to analyze satisfactorily in parsing3 as1 ,and for all there were so many1 yet was not the net broken4--,john1 xxi1 #aa4 ,here for all is equivalent to although1 or notwithstanding2 either of which words would have been more elegant4 ,nevertheless is composed of three words1 and is usually reckoned a conjunctive adverb2 but it might as well be called a disjunctive conjunction1 for it is obviously equivalent to yet1 but1 or notwithstanding2 as1 ,i am crucified with ,christ3 nevertheless ,i live2 yet not ,i1 but ,christ liveth in me4--,gal41 ii1 #bj4 ,here1 for nevertheless and but1 we have in the ,greek the same particle ,greek3 de4 ,each man's mind has some peculiarity1 as well as his face4--,locke4 ,relative pronouns1 as well as conjunctions1 serve to connect sentences4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #abd4 ,here the first as corresponds to the second1 but well not being used in the literal sense of an adverb1 some judicious grammarians take the whole phrase as a conjunction4 ,it is1 however1 susceptible of division3 as1 ,it is adorned with admirable pieces of sculpture1 as well modern as ancient4--,addison4 ,,obs4 #f4--,so the phrases1 for as much as1 in as much as1 in so much that1 if taken collectively1 have the nature of conjunctions2 yet they contain within themselves correspondent terms and several different parts of speech4 ,the words are sometimes printed separately1 and sometimes partly together4 ,of late years1 forasmuch1 inasmuch1 insomuch1 have been usually compounded1 and called adverbs4 ,they might as well1 perhaps1 be called conjunctions1 as they were by some of our old grammarians2 for two conjunctions sometimes come together3 as1 ,answering their questions1 as if#cad it were a matter that needed it4--,locke4 ,these should be at first gently treated1 as though we expected an imposthumation1--,sharp4 ,but there are many things which we must acknowledge to be true1 notwithstanding that we cannot comprehend them4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #baa4 ,there is no difference1 except that some are heavier than others4--,we may be playful1 and yet innocent2 grave1 and yet corrupt4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #aff4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,conjunctions have no grammatical modifications1 and are consequently incapable of any formal agreement or disagreement with other words2 yet their import as connectives1 copulative or disjunctive1 must be carefully observed1 lest we write or speak them improperly4 ,example of error3 ,prepositions are generally set before nouns and pronouns4--,wilbur's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,here and should be or2 because1 although a preposition usually governs a noun or a pronoun1 it seldom governs both at once4 ,and besides1 the assertion above seems very naturally to mean1 that nouns and pronouns are generally preceded by prepositions--as gross an error as dullness could invent6 ,l4 ,murray also says of prepositions3 ,they are1 for the most part1 put before nouns and pronouns4--,gram41 p4 #aag4 ,so ,felton3 ,they generally stand before nouns and pronouns4--,analytic and ,prac4 ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,the blunder however came originally from ,lowth1 and out of the following admirable enigma3 ,prepositions1 standing by themselves in construction1 are put before nouns and pronouns2 and sometimes after verbs2 but in this sort of composition they are chiefly prefixed to verbs3 as1 to outgo1 to overcome4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the opposition suggested by the disjunctive particle or1 is sometimes merely nominal1 or verbal3 as1 ,that object is a triangle1 or figure contained under three right lines4--,harris4 ,so if we say1 that figure is a sphere1 or a globe1 or a ball4--,id41 ,hermes1 p4 #beh4 ,in these cases1 the disjunction consists in nothing but an alternative of words2 for the terms connected describe or name the same thing4 ,for this sense of or1 the ,latins had a peculiar particle1 sive1 which they called ,subdisjunctiva1 a ,subdisjunctive3 as1 ,alexander sive ,paris2 ,mars sive ,mavors4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #beh4 ,in ,english1 the conjunction or is very frequently equivocal3 as1 ,they were both more ancient than ,zoroaster or ,zerdusht4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bej2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #big4 ,here1 if the reader does not happen to know that ,zoroaster and ,zerdusht mean the same person1 he will be very likely to mistake the sense4 ,to avoid this ambiguity1 we substitute1 7in judicial proceedings17 the ,latin adverb alias1 otherwise2 using it as a conjunction subdisjunctive1 in lieu of or1 or the ,latin sive3 as1 ,alexander1 alias ,ellick4--,simson1 alias ,smith1 alias ,baker4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,ix4--,,etymological4 ,in the ,ninth ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and the classes and modifications of the ,,articles1 ,,nouns1 ,,adjectives1 ,,pronouns1 ,,verbs1 ,,participles1 ,,adverbs1 and ,,conjunctions4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,ninth ,praxis1 are two for an article1 six for a noun1 three for an adjective1 six for a pronoun1 seven for a verb finite1 five for an infinitive1 two for a participle1 two 7and sometimes three7 for an adverb1 two for a conjunction1--and one for a preposition1 or an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,if thou hast done a good deed1 boast not of it4--,maxims4 ,if is a copulative conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 #b4 ,a copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition1 a cause1 a consequence1 or a supposition4 ,thou is a personal pronoun1 of the second person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,hast done is an irregular active-transitive verb1 from do1 did1 doing1 done2 found in the indicative mood1 perfect tense1 second person1 and singular number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,an active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object4 #d4 ,the indicative mood is that form of the verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 #e4 ,the perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken place1 within some period of time not yet fully past4 #f4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,a is the indefinite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the indefinite article is an or a1 which denotes one thing of a kind1 but not any particular one4 ,good is a common adjective1 of the positive degree2 compared irregularly1 good1 better1 best4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,the positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form4 ,deed is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle or preposition4 ,boast is a regular active-intransitive verb1 from boast1 boasted1 boasting1 boasted2 found in the imperative mood1 present tense1 second person1 and singular number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,a regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,an active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object4 #d4 ,the imperative mood is that form of the verb1 which is used in commanding1 exhorting1 entreating1 or permitting4 #e4 ,the present tense is that which expresses what now exists1 or is taking place4 #f4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,not is an adverb or manner1 expressing negation4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 #b4 ,adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question1 ,how8 or1 by affirming1 denying1 or doubting1 show how a subject is regarded4 ,of is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,it is a personal pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,in all gratifications1 disgust ever lies nearest to the highest pleasures2 and therefore let us not marvel1 if this is peculiarly the case in eloquence4 ,by glancing at either poets or orators1 we may easily satisfy ourselves1 that neither a poem nor an oration which aims continually at what is fine1 showy1 and sparkling1 can please us long4 ,wherefore1 though we may wish for the frequent praise of having expressed ourselves well and properly1 we should not covet repeated applause for being bright and splendid4--,,cicero1 de ,oratore4 ,the foundation of eloquence1 as well as of every other high attainment1 is practical wisdom4 ,for it happens in oratory1 as in life1 that nothing is more difficult1 than to discern what is proper and becoming4 ,through lack of such discernment1 gross faults are very often committed4 ,for neither to all ranks1 fortunes1 and ages1 nor to every time1 place1 and auditory1 can the same style either of language or of sentiment be adapted4 ,in every part of a discourse1 as in every part of life1 we must consider what is suitable and decent2 and this must be determined with reference both to the matter in question1 and to the personal character of those who speak and those who hear4--,,cicero1 ,orator ad ,brutum4 ,so spake th' ,omnipotent1 and with his words ,all seem'd well pleas'd2 all seem'd1 but were not all4--,milton4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,a square1 though not more regular than a hexagon or an octagon1 is more beautiful than either3 for what reason1 but that a square is more simple1 and the attention is less divided8--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #age4 ,we see the material universe in motion2 but matter is inert2 and1 so far as we know1 nothing can move it but mind3 therefore ,god is a spirit4 ,we do not mean that his nature is the same as that of our soul2 for it is infinitely more excellent4 ,but we mean1 that he possesses intelligence and active power in supreme perfection2 and1 as these qualities do not belong to matter1 which is neither active nor intelligent1 we must refer them to that which is not matter1 but mind4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #baj4 ,men are generally permitted to publish books1 and contradict others1 and even themselves1 as they please1 with as little danger of being confuted1 as of being understood4--,boyle4 ,common reports1 if ridiculous rather than dangerous1 are best refuted by neglect4--,kames's ,thinking1 p4 #gf4 ,no man is so foolish1 but that he may give good counsel at a time2 no man so wise1 but he may err1 if he take no counsel but his own4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 ,young heads are giddy1 and young hearts are warm1 ,and make mistakes for manhood to reform4--,cowper4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,the ,nouns denote substances1 and those either natural1 artificial1 or abstract4 ,they moreover denote things either general1 or special1 or particular4 ,the ,pronouns1 their substitutes1 are either prepositive1 or subjunctive4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #he4 ,in a thought1 generally speaking1 there is at least one capital object considered as acting or as suffering4 ,this object is expressed by a substantive noun3 its action is expressed by an active verb2 and the thing affected by the action is expressed by an other substantive noun3 its suffering1 or passive state1 is expressed by a passive verb2 and the thing that acts upon it1 by a substantive noun4 ,beside these1 which are the capital parts of a sentence1 or period1 there are generally underparts2 each of the substantives1 as well as the verb1 may be qualified3 time1 place1 purpose1 motive1 means1 instrument1 and a thousand other circumstances1 may be necessary to complete the thought4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cd4 ,yet those whom pride and dullness join to blind1 ,to narrow cares and narrow space confined1 ,though with big titles each his fellow greets1 ,are but to wits1 as scavengers to streets4--,mallet4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,respecting ,,conjunctions4 ,a ,verb is so called from the ,latin verbum1 or word4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #ef4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the conjunction or1 connecting verbum and word1 supposes the latter to be ,latin4 ,but1 according to ,observation #gth1 on the ,classes of ,conjunctions1 ,the import of connectives1 copulative or disjunctive1 must be carefully observed1 lest we write or speak them improperly4 ,in this instance1 or should be changed to a2 thus1 ,a ,verb is so called from the ,latin verbum1 a word that is1 which means1 a word4 ,references are often marked by letters and figures4--,gould's ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bhc4 7#a47 ,a ,conjunction is a word which joins words and sentences together4--,lennie's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ea2 ,bullions's1 #gj2 ,brace's1 #eg4 7#b47 ,a conjunction is used to connect words and sentences together4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #cg4 7#c47 ,a conjunction is used to connect words and sentences4--,maunders ,gram41 p4 #a4 7#d47 ,conjunctions are words used to join words and sentences4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #c4 7#e47 ,a ,conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences4-- ,m',culloch's ,gram41 p4 #cf2 ,hart's1 #ib2 ,day's1 #aj4 7#f47 ,a ,conjunction joins words and sentences together4--,mackintosh's ,gram41 p4 #aae2 ,hiley's1 #aj and #ec4 7#g47 ,the ,conjunction joins words and sentences together4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #b;d ,edition1 p4 #bh4 7#h47 ,conjunctions connect words and sentences to each other4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ce4 7#i47 ,conjunctions connect words and sentences4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #hj2 ,wells's1 #ast ,ed41 #aei and #afh4 7#aj47 ,the conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #di4 7#aa47 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences together4-- ,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #cbi4 7#ab47 ,connectives are words which unite words and sentences in construction4--,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #abc2 ,improved ,gram41 #ha4 ,english ,grammar is miserably taught in our district schools2 the teachers know but little or nothing about it4--,taylor's ,district ,school1 p4 #dh4 ,least1 instead of preventing1 you draw on ,diseases4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #dj4 ,the definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cc2 ,ingersoll's1 #cc2 ,lennie's1 #f2 ,bullions's1 #h2 ,fisk's1 #ec1 and others4 ,when nouns naturally neuter are converted into masculine and feminine4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ch4 ,this form of the perfect tense represents an action completely past1 and often at no great distance1 but not specified4--,ib41 p4 #gd4 ,the ,conjunction ,copulative serves to connect or to continue a sentence1 by expressing an addition1 a supposition1 a cause1 c4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,the ,conjunction ,disjunctive serves1 not only to connect and continue the sentence1 but also to express opposition of meaning in different degrees4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,whether we open the volumes of our divines1 philosophers1 historians1 or artists1 we shall find that they abound with all the terms necessary to communicate their observations and discoveries4--,ib41 p4 #ach4 ,when a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun1 or pronoun1 and a plural one1 the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun4--,ib41 p4 #aeb3 ,r4 ,g4 ,smith1 ,alger1 ,gomly1 ,merchant1 ,picket1 et al4 ,pronouns must always agree with their antecedents1 and the nouns for which they stand1 in gender and number4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,verbs neuter do not act upon1 or govern1 nouns and pronouns4--,ib41 p4 #agi4 ,and the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,if this rule should not appear to apply to every example1 which has been produced1 nor to others which might be adduced4--,ib41 p4 #baf4 ,an emphatical pause is made1 after something has been said of peculiar moment1 and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention4--,ib41 p4 #bdh2 ,hart's ,gram41 #age4 ,an imperfect phrase contains no assertion1 or does not amount to a proposition or sentence4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bfg4 ,the word was in the mouth of every one1 but for all that1 the subject may still be a secret4--,ib41 p4 #bac4 ,a word it was in the mouth of every one1 but for all that1 as to its precise and definite idea1 this may still be a secret4--,harris's ,three ,treatises1 p4 #e4 ,it cannot be otherwise1 in regard that the ,french prosody differs from that of every other country in ,europe4--,smollett's ,voltaire1 ix1 #cjf4 ,so gradually as to allow its being engrafted on a subtonic4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #bee4 ,where the ,chelsea or ,maiden bridges now are4--,judge ,parker4 ,adverbs are words joined to verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 and other adverbs4--,smith's ,productive ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,i could not have told you1 who the hermit was1 nor on what mountain he lived4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,am1 or be 7for they are the same7 naturally1 or in themselves signify being4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,words are distinct sounds1 by which we express our thoughts and ideas4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,his fears will detect him1 but he shall not escape4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,whose is equally applicable to persons or things4--,,webster in ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,one negative destroys another1 or is equivalent to an affirmative4-- ,bullions1 ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,no sooner does he peep into ,the world1 but he has done his do4--,hudibras4 ,,chapter ,x4--,,prepositions4 ,a ,preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun3 as1 ,the paper lies before me on the desk4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the relations of things to things in nature1 or of words to words in discourse1 are infinite in number1 if not also in variety4 ,but just classification may make even infinites the subjects of sure science4 ,every relation of course implies more objects1 and more terms1 than one2 for any one thing1 considered merely in itself1 is taken independently1 abstractly1 irrelatively1 as if it had no relation or dependence4 ,in all correct language1 the grammatical relation of the words corresponds exactly to the relation of the things or ideas expressed2 for the relation of words1 is their dependence1 or connexion1 according to the sense4 ,this relation is oftentimes immediate1 as of one word to an other1 without the intervention of a preposition2 but it is seldom1 if ever1 reciprocally equal2 because dependence implies subordination2 and mere adjunction is a sort of inferiority4 ,,obs4 #b4--,to a preposition1 the prior or antecedent term may be a noun1 an adjective1 a pronoun1 a verb1 a participle1 or an adverb2 and the subsequent or governed term may be a noun1 a pronoun1 a pronominal adjective1 an infinitive verb1 or a participle4 ,in some instances1 also1 as in the phrases1 in vain1 on high1 at once1 till now1 for ever1 by how much1 until then1 from thence1 from above1 we find adjectives used elliptically1 and adverbs substantively1 after the preposition4 ,but1 in phrases of an adverbial character1 what is elsewhere a preposition often becomes an adverb4 ,now1 if prepositions are concerned in expressing the various relations of so many of the different parts of speech1 multiplied1 as these relations must be1 by that endless variety of combinations which may be given to the terms2 and if the sense of the writer or speaker is necessarily mistaken1 as often as any of these relations are misunderstood1 or their terms misconceived2 how shall we estimate the importance of a right explanation1 and a right use1 of this part of speech8 ,,obs4 #c4--,the grammarian whom ,lowth compliments1 as excelling all others1 in acuteness of investigation1 perspicuity of explication1 and elegance of method2 and as surpassing all but ,aristotle1 in the beauty and perfectness of his philological analysis2 commences his chapter on conjunctions in the following manner3 ,connectives are the subject of what follows2 which1 according as they connect either ,sentences or ,words1 are called by the different ,names of ,conjunctions ,,or ,prepositions4 ,of these ,names1 that of the ,preposition is taken from a mere accident1 as it commonly stands in connection before the ,part1 which it connects4 ,the name of the ,conjunction1 as is evident1 has reference to its essential character4 ,of these two we shall consider the ,conjunction first1 because it connects1 not ,words1 but ,sentences4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bcg4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,in point of order1 it is not amiss to treat conjunctions before prepositions2 though this is not the method of ,lowth1 or of ,murray4 ,but1 to any one who is well acquainted with these two parts of speech1 the foregoing passage cannot but appear1 in three sentences out of the four1 both defective in style and erroneous in doctrine4 ,it is true1 that conjunctions generally connect sentences1 and that prepositions as generally express relations between particular words3 but it is true also1 that conjunctions often connect words only2 and that prepositions1 by governing antecedents1 relatives1 or even personal pronouns1 may serve to subjoin sentences to sentences1 as well as to determine the relation and construction of the particular words which they govern4 ,example3 ,the path seems now plain and even1 but there are asperities and pitfalls1 over which ,religion only can conduct you4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,here are three simple sentences1 which are made members of one compound sentence1 by means of but and over which2 while two of these members1 clauses1 or subdivisions1 contain particular words connected by and4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in one respect1 the preposition is the simplest of all the parts of speech3 in our common schemes of grammar1 it has neither classes nor modifications4 ,every connective word that governs an object after it1 is called a preposition1 because it does so2 and in etymological parsing1 to name the preposition as such1 and define the name1 is1 perhaps1 all that is necessary4 ,but in syntactical parsing1 in which we are to omit the definitions1 and state the construction1 we ought to explain what terms the preposition connects1 and to give a rule adapted to this office of the particle4 ,it is a palpable defect in nearly all our grammars1 that their syntax contains ,,no ,,such ,,rule4 ,prepositions govern the objective case1 is a rule for the objective case1 and not for the syntax of prepositions4 ,prepositions show the relations of words1 and of the things or thoughts expressed by them1 is the principle for the latter2 a principle which we cannot neglect1 without a shameful lameness in our interpretation2--that is1 when we pretend to parse syntactically4 ,,obs4 #f4--,prepositions and their objects very often precede the words on which they depend1 and sometimes at a great distance4 ,of this we have an example1 at the opening of ,milton's ,paradise ,lost2 where ,of1 the first word1 depends upon ,sing1 in the sixth line below2 for the meaning is--,sing of man's first disobedience1 c4 ,to find the terms of the relation1 is to find the meaning of the passage2 a very useful exercise1 provided the words have a meaning which is worth knowing4 ,the following text has for centuries afforded ground of dispute1 because it is doubtful in the original1 as well as in many of the versions1 whether the preposition in 7i4 e41 in the regeneration7 refers back to have followed1 or forward to the last verb shall sit3 ,verily ,i say unto you that ye who have followed me1 in the regeneration1 when the ,son of man shall sit in the throne of his glory1 ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones1 judging the twelve tribes of ,israel4--,matt41 xix1 #bh4 ,the second in is manifestly wrong3 the ,greek word is ,greek3 epi1 on or upon2 i4 e41 upon the throne of his glory4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the prepositions have1 from their own nature1 or from custom1 such an adaptation to particular terms and relations1 that they can seldom be used one for an other without manifest impropriety4 ,example of error3 ,proper seasons should be allotted for retirement4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #agc4 ,we do not say allotted for1 but allotted to3 hence for is either wrong in itself or misplaced4 ,such errors always vex an intelligent reader4 ,he sees the terms mismatched1 the intended connection doubtful1 the sense obscured1 and wishes the author could have valued his own meaning enough to have made it intelligible2--that is1 7to speak technically17 enough to have made it a certain clew to his syntax4 ,we can neither parse nor correct what we do not understand4 ,did the writer mean1 ,proper seasons should be allotted to retirement8--or1 ,proper seasons for retirement should be allotted8--or1 ,seasons proper for retirement should be alloted8 sic--,,kth ,every expression is incorrigibly bad1 the meaning of which cannot be known4 ,expression8 ,nay1 expression it is not1 but only a mock utterance or an abortive attempt at expression4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,harris observes1 in substance1 though in other words1 that almost all the prepositions were originally formed to denote relations of place2 that this class of relations is primary1 being that which natural bodies maintain at all times one to an other2 that in the continuity of place these bodies form the universe1 or visible whole2 that we have some prepositions to denote the contiguous relation of bodies1 and others for the detached relation2 and that both have1 by degrees1 been extended from local relations1 to the relations of subjects incorporeal4 ,he appears also to assume1 that1 in such examples as the following1--,caius walketh with a staff2 --,the statue stood upon a pedestal2--,the river ran over a sand2--,he is going to ,turkey2--,the sun is risen above the hills2--,these figs came from ,turkey2--the antecedent term of the relation is not the verb1 but the noun or pronoun before it4 ,see ,hermes1 pp4 #bff and #bfg4 ,now the true antecedent is1 unquestionably1 that word which1 in the order of the sense1 the preposition should immediately follow3 and a verb1 a participle1 or an adjective1 may sustain this relation1 just as well as a substantive4 ,the man spoke of colour1 does not mean1 ,the man of colour spoke2 nor does1 ,the member from ,delaware replied1 mean1 ,the member replied from ,delaware ,,obs4 #i4--,to make this matter more clear1 it may be proper to observe further1 that what ,i call the order of the sense1 is not always that order of the words which is fittest to express the sense of a whole period2 and that the true antecedent is that word to which the preposition1 and its object would naturally be subjoined1 were there nothing to interfere with such an arrangement4 ,in practice it often happens1 that the preposition and its object cannot be placed immediately after the word on which they depend1 and which they would naturally follow4 ,for example3 ,she hates the means by which she lives4 ,that is1 ,she hates the means which she lives by4 ,here we cannot say1 ,she hates the means she lives by which2 and yet1 in regard to the preposition by1 this is really the order of the sense4 ,again3 ,though thou shouldest bray a fool in a mortar among wheat with a pestle1 yet will not his foolishness depart from him4--,prov41 xxvii1 #bc4 ,here is no transposition to affect our understanding of the prepositions1 yet there is a liability to error1 because the words which immediately precede some of them1 are not their true antecedents3 the text does not really speak of a mortar among wheat or of wheat with a pestle4 ,to what then are the mortar1 the wheat1 and the pestle1 to be mentally subjoined8 ,if all of them1 to any one thing1 it must be to the action suggested by the verb bray1 and not to its object fool2 for the text does not speak of a fool with a pestle1 though it does seem to speak of a fool in a mortar1 and among wheat4 ,indeed1 in this instance1 as in many others1 the verb and its object are so closely associated that it makes but little difference in regard to the sense1 whether you take both of them together1 or either of them separately1 as the antecedent to the preposition4 ,but1 as the instrument of an action is with the agent rather than with the object1 if you will have the substantives alone for antecedents1 the natural order of the sense must be supposed to be this3 ,though thou with a pestle shouldest bray a1 fool in a mortar and among wheat1 yet will not his foolishness from him depart4 ,this gives to each of the prepositions an antecedent different from that which ,i should assign4 ,sanborn observes1 ,there seem to be two kinds of relation expressed by prepositions1--an existing and a connecting relation4--,analyt4 ,gram41 p4 #bbe4 ,the latter1 he adds1 is the most important4--,ib41 p4 #bbf4 ,but it is the former that admits nothing but nouns for antecedents4 ,others besides ,harris may have adopted this notion1 but ,i have never been one of the number1 though a certain author scruples not to charge the error upon me4 ,see ,o4 ,b ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #afe4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,it is a very common error among grammarians1 and the source of innumerable discrepancies in doctrine1 as well as one of the chief means of maintaining their interminable disputes1 that they suppose ellipses at their own pleasure1 and supply in every given instance just what words their fancies may suggest4 ,in this work1 ,i adopt for myself1 and also recommend to others1 the contrary course of avoiding on all occasions the supposition of any needless ellipses4 ,not only may the same preposition govern more than one object1 but there may also be more than one antecedent word1 bearing a joint relation to that which is governed by the preposition4 7#a47 ,examples of joint objects3 ,there is an inseparable connection ,,between piety and virtue4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aga4 ,in the conduct of ,parmenio1 a mixture ,,of wisdom and folly was very conspicuous4--,ib41 p4 #agh4 ,true happiness is an enemy ,,to pomp and noise--,ib41 p4 #aga4 7#b47 ,examples of joint antecedents3 ,in unity consist the welfare and security ,,of every society4--,ib41 p4 #ahb4 ,it is our duty to be just and kind ,,to our fellow--creatures1 and to be pious and faithful ,,to ,him that made us4--,ib41 p4 #aha4 ,if the author did not mean to speak of being pious to ,god as well as faithful to ,him1 he has written incorrectly3 a comma after pious1 would alter both the sense and the construction4 ,so the text1 ,for ,i am meek1 and lowly in heart1 is commonly perverted in our ,bibles1 for want of a comma after meek4 ,the ,saviour did not say1 he was meek in heart3 the ,greek may be very literally rendered thus3 ,for gentle am ,i1 and humble in heart4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,many writers seem to suppose1 that no preposition can govern more than one object4 ,thus ,l4 ,murray1 and his followers3 ,the ellipsis of the preposition1 as well as of the verb1 is seen in the following instances3 ',he went into the abbeys1 halls1 and public buildings2' that is1 ',he went into the abbeys1 he went into the halls1 and he went into the public buildings4'--',he also went through all the streets1 and lanes of the city2' that is1 ',through all the streets1 and through all the lanes1' c4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bai4 ,see the same interpretations in ,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #aee2 ,merchant's1 #ajj2 ,picket's1 #baa2 ,alger's1 #gc2 ,fish's1 #adg2 ,guy's1 #ia2 ,adams's1 #hb2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #ahc2 ,hamlin's1 #aje2 ,putnam's1 #aci2 ,weld's1 #bib4 ,now it is plain1 that in neither of these examples is there any such ellipsis at all4 ,of the three prepositions1 the first governs three nouns2 the second1 two2 and the third1 one only4 ,but the last1 7which is of17 has two antecedents1 streets and lanes1 the comma after streets being wrong2 for the author does not speak of all the streets in the world1 but of all the streets and lanes of a particular city4 ,dr4 ,ash has the same example without the comma1 and supposes it only an ellipsis of the preposition through1 and even that supposition is absurd4 ,he also furnished the former example1 to show an ellipsis1 not of the verb went1 but only of the preposition into2 and in this too he was utterly wrong4 ,see ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ajj4 ,bicknell also1 whose grammar appeared five years before ,murray's1 confessedly copied the same examples from ,ash2 and repeated1 not the verb and its nominative1 but only the prepositions through and into1 agreeably to ,ash's erroneous notion4 ,see his ,grammatical ,wreath1 ,part i1 p4 #abd4 ,again the principles of ,murray's supposed ellipses1 are as inconsistent with each other1 as they are severally absurd4 ,had the author explained the second example according to his notion of the first1 he should have made it to mean1 ',he also went through all the streets of the city1 and he also went through all the lanes of the city4' ,what a pretty idea is this for a principle of grammar6 ,and what a multitude of admirers are pretending to carry it out in parsing6 ,one of the latest writers on grammar says1 that1 ,between him and me signifies1 ,between him1 and between me6--,wright's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #bjf4 ,and an other absurdly resolves a simple sentence into a compound one1 thus3 ',there was a difficulty between ,john1 and his brother4' ,that is1 there was a difficulty between ,john1 and there was a difficulty between his brother4--,james ,brown's ,english ,syntax1 p4 #abg2 and again1 p4 #acj4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,two prepositions are not unfrequently connected by a conjunction1 and that for different purposes1 thus3 7#a47 ,to express two different relations at once2 as1 ,the picture of my travels in and around ,michigan4--,society in ,america1 i1 #bca4 7#b47 ,to suggest an alternative in the relation affirmed2 as1 ,the action will be fully accomplished at or before the time4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #gb4 ,again3 ,the ,first ,future ,tense represents the action as yet to come1 either with or without respect to the precise time4--,ib42 and ,felton's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,with and without being direct opposites1 this alternative is a thing of course1 and the phrase is an idle truism4 7#c47 ,to express two relations so as to affirm the one and deny the other2 as1 ,captain1 yourself are the fittest to live and reign not over1 but next and immediately under the people4--,dryden4 ,here1 perhaps1 the people may be understood after over4 7#d47 ,to suggest a mere alternative of words2 as1 ,,negatively1 adv4 ,with or by denial4--,webster's ,dict4 7#e47 ,to add a similar word1 for aid or force2 as1 ,hence adverbs of time were necessary1 over and above the tenses4--,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,to take effect from and after the first day of ,may4--,newspaper4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,in some instances1 two prepositions come directly together1 so as jointly to express a sort of compound relation between what precedes the one and what follows the other3 as1 ,and they shall sever the wicked from among the just4--,matt41 xiii1 #di4 ,moses brought out all the rods from before the ,lord4--,numb41 xvii1 #i4 ,come out from among them4--#b ,cor41 vi1 #ag4 ,from ,judea1 and from beyond ,jordan4--,matt4 iv1 #be4 ,nor a lawgiver from between his feet4--,gen41 xlix1 #aj4 ,thus the preposition from1 being itself adapted to the ideas of motion and separation1 easily coincides with any preposition of place1 to express this sort of relation2 the terms however have a limited application1 being used only between a verb and a noun1 because the relation itself is between motion and the place of its beginning3 as1 ,the sand slided from beneath my feet4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,in this manner1 we may form complex prepositions beginning with from1 to the number of about thirty2 as1 from amidst1 from around1 from before1 from behind1 c4 ,besides these1 there are several others1 of a more questionable character1 which are sometimes referred to the same class2 as1 according to1 as to1 as for1 because of1 instead of1 off of1 out of1 over against1 and round about4 ,most or all of these are sometimes resolved in a different way1 upon the assumption that the former word is an adverb2 yet we occasionally find some of them compounded by the hyphen3 as1 ,pompey's lieutenants1 ,afranius and ,petreius1 who lay over-against him1 decamp suddenly4--,rowe's ,lucan1 ,argument to ,b4 iv4 ,but the common fashion is1 to write them separately2 as1 ,one thing is set over against an other4--,bible4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,it is not easy to fix a principle by which prepositions may in all cases be distinguished from adverbs4 ,the latter1 we say1 do not govern the objective case2 and if we add1 that the former do severally require some object after them1 it is clear that any word which precedes a preposition1 must needs be something else than a preposition4 ,but this destroys all the doctrine of the preceding paragraph1 and admits of no such thing as a complex preposition2 whereas that doctrine is acknowledged1 to some extent or other1 by every one of our grammarians1 not excepting even those whose counter-assertions leave no room for it4 ,under these circumstances1 ,i see no better way1 than to refer the student to the definitions of these parts of speech1 to exhibit examples in all needful variety1 and then let him judge for himself what disposition ought to be made of those words which different grammarians parse differently4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,if our prepositions were to be divided into classes1 the most useful distinction would be1 to divide them into ,single and ,double4 ,the distinction which some writers make1 who divide them into ,separable and ,inseparable1 is of no use at all in parsing1 because the latter are mere syllables2 and the idea of ,s4 ,r4 ,hall1 who divides them into ,possessive and ,relative1 is positively absurd2 for he can show us only one of the former kind1 and that one1 7the word of17 is not always such4 ,a ,double ,preposition1 if such a thing is admissible1 is one that consists of two words which in syntactical parsing must be taken together1 because they jointly express the relation between two other terms2 as1 ,the waters were dried up from off the earth4--,gen41 viii1 #ac4 ,the clergy kept this charge from off us4--,leslie1 on ,tithes1 p4 #bba4 ,confidence in an unfaithful man in time of trouble1 is like a broken tooth1 and a foot out of joint4--,prov41 xxv1 #ai4 ,the beam out of the timber shall answer it4--,hab41 ii1 #aa4 ,off and out are most commonly adverbs1 but neither of them can be called an adverb here4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,again1 if according to or as to is a preposition1 then is according or as a preposition also1 although it does not of itself govern the objective case4 ,as1 thus used1 is called a conjunction by some1 an adverb by others4 ,dr4 ,webster considers according to be always a participle1 and expressly says1 ,it is never a preposition4--,octavo ,dict4 ,the following is an instance in which1 if it is not a preposition1 it is a participle3 ,this is a construction not according to the rules of grammar4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bb4 ,but according to and contrary to are expressed in ,latin and ,greek by single prepositions2 and if to alone is the preposition in ,english1 then both according and contrary must1 in many instances1 be adverbs4 ,example3 ,for dost thou sit as judging me according to the law1 and contrary to law command me to be smitten8 7,see the ,greek of ,acts1 xxiii1 #c47 ,contrary1 though literally an adjective1 is often made either an adverb1 or a part of a complex preposition1 unless the grammarians are generally in error respecting it3 as1 ,ha dares not act contrary to his instructions4-- ,murray's ,key1 p4 #agi4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,j4 ,w4 ,wright1 with some appearance of analogy on his side1 but none of usage1 everywhere adds ly to the questionable word according2 as1 ,we are usually estimated accordingly to our company4-- ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #abg4 ,accordingly to the forms in which they are employed4--,ib41 p4 #acg4 ,accordingly to the above principles1 the adjective ,,according 7or agreeable7 is frequently1 but improperly1 substituted for the adverb ,,accordingly 7or agreeably47--,ib41 p4 #ade4 ,the word contrary he does not notice2 but1 on the same principle1 he would doubtless say1 ,he dares not act contrarily to his instructions4 ,we say indeed1 ,he acted agreeably to his instructions2--and not1 ,he acted agreeable to his instructions4 ,it must also be admitted1 that the adverbs accordingly and contrarily are both of them good ,english words4 ,if these were adopted1 where the character of according and contrary is disputable1 there would indeed be no longer any occasion to call these latter either adverbs or prepositions4 ,but the fact is1 that no good writers have yet preferred them1 in such phrases2 and the adverbial ending ly gives an additional syllable to a word that seems already quite too long4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,instead is reckoned an adverb by some1 a preposition by others2 and a few write instead-of with a needless hyphen4 ,the best way of settling the grammatical question respecting this term1 is1 to write the noun stead as a separate word1 governed by in4 ,bating the respect that is due to anomalous usage1 there would be more propriety in compounding in quest of1 in lieu of1 and many similar phrases4 ,for stead is not always followed by of1 nor always preceded by in1 nor always made part of a compound4 ,we say1 in our stead1 in your stead1 in their stead1 c42 but lieu1 which has the same meaning as stead1 is much more limited in construction4 ,examples3 ,in the stead of sinners1 ,he1 a divine and human person1 suffered4--,barnes's ,notes4 ,christ suffered in the place and stead of sinners4--,ib4 ,for1 in its primary sense1 is pro1 loco alterius1 in the stead or place of another4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,if it may stand him more in stead to lie4 --,milt41 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 i1 l4 #dgc4 ,but here thy sword can do thee little stead4 --,id41 ,comus1 l4 #faa4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,from forth and from out are two poetical phrases1 apparently synonymous1 in which there is a fanciful transposition of the terms1 and perhaps a change of forth and out from adverbs to prepositions4 ,each phrase is equivalent in meaning to out of or out from4 ,forth1 under other circumstances1 is never a preposition2 though out1 perhaps1 may be4 ,we speak as familiarly of going out doors1 as of going up stairs1 or down cellar4 ,hence from out may be parsed as a complex preposition1 though the other phrase should seem to be a mere example of hyperbaton3 ,i saw from out the wave her structures rise4--,byron4 ,peeping from forth their alleys green4--,collins4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,out of and as to1 says one grammarian1 are properly prepositions1 although they are double words4 ,they may be called compound prepositions4--,cooper's ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,i have called the complex prepositions double rather than compound1 because several of the single prepositions are compound words2 as1 into1 notwithstanding1 overthwart1 throughout1 upon1 within1 without4 ,and even some of these may follow the preposition from2 as1 ,if he shall have removed from within the limits of this state4 ,but in and to1 up and on1 with and in1 are not always compounded when they come together1 because the sense may positively demand that the former be taken as an adverb1 and the latter only as a preposition3 as1 ,i will come in to him1 and will sup with him4--,rev41 iii1 #bj4 ,a statue of ,venus was set up on ,mount ,calvary4--,m',ilvaine's ,lectures1 p4 #ccb4 ,the troubles which we meet with in the world4--,blair4 ,and even two prepositions may be brought together without union or coalescence2 because the object of the first one may be expressed or understood before it3 as1 ,the man whom you spoke within the street2--,the treatment you complain of on this occasion2--,the house that you live in in the summer2--,such a dress as she had on in the evening4 ,,obs4 #ba4--,some grammarians assume1 that1 ,two prepositions in immediate succession require a noun to be understood between them2 as1 ',hard by1 a cottage chimney smokes1 ,from betwixt two aged oaks4'--',the mingling notes came softened from below4'--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #aje4 ,this author would probably understand here--,from the space betwixt two aged oaks2--came softened from the region below us4 ,but he did not consider all the examples that are included in his proposition2 nor did he rightly regard even those which he cites4 ,the doctrine will be found a very awkward one in practice2 and an other objection to it is1 that most of the ellipses which it supposes1 are entirely imaginary4 ,if there were truth in his assumption1 the compounding of prepositions would be positively precluded4 ,the terms over-against and round-about are sometimes written with the hyphen1 and perhaps it would be well if all the complex prepositions were regularly compounded2 but1 as ,i before suggested1 such is not the present fashion of writing them1 and the general usage is not to be controlled by what any individual may think4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,instances may1 doubtless1 occur1 in which the object of a preposition is suppressed by ellipsis1 when an other preposition follows1 so as to bring together two that do not denote a compound relation1 and do not1 in any wise1 form one complex preposition4 ,of such suppression1 the following is an example2 and1 ,i think1 a double one3 ,they take pronouns after instead of before them4--,fowler1 ,e4 ,gram41 #eba4 ,this may be interpreted to mean1 and probably does mean--,they take pronouns after them in stead of taking them before them4 ,,obs4 #bc4--;,in some instances1 the words in1 on1 of1 for1 to1 with1 and others commonly reckoned prepositions1 are used after infinitives or participles1 in a sort of adverbial construction1 because they do not govern any objective2 yet not exactly in the usual sense of adverbs1 because they evidently express the relation between the verb or participle and a nominative or objective going before4 ,examples3 ,houses are built to live in1 and not to look on2 therefore let use be preferred before uniformity1 except where both may be had4--,ld4 ,kames4 ,these are not mysteries for ordinary readers to be let into4--,,addison3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,let4 ,heaven is worth dying for1 though earth is not worth living for4--,r4 ,hall4 ,what6 have ye not houses to eat and to drink in8--#a ,cor41 xi1 #bb4 ,this is a very peculiar idiom of our language2 and if we say1 ,have ye not houses in which to eat and to drink8 we form an other which is not much less so4 ,greek3 ,greek3 ,m gar oikias ouk echete eis to esthiein kai pinein2 ,latin3 ,num enim domos non habetis ad manducandum et bibendum8--,leusden4 ,n'avez vous pas des maisons pour manger et pour boire8--,french ,bible4#cae ,,obs4 #bd4--;,in ,,obs4 #ajth1 of ,chapter ,fourth1 on ,adjectives1 it was shown that words of place1 7such as1 above1 below1 beneath1 under1 and the like17 are sometimes set before nouns in the character of adjectives1 and not of prepositions3 as1 ,in the above list1--,from the above list4--,bullions'1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,to the class of adjectives also1 rather than to that of adverbs1 may some such words be referred1 when1 without governing the objective case1 they are put after nouns to signify place3 as1 ,the way of life is above to the wise1 that he may depart from hell beneath4--,prov41 xv1 #bd4 ,of any thing that is in heaven above1 or that is in the earth beneath4--,exod41 xx1 #d4 ,say first1 of ,god above or man below1 ,what can we reason but from what we know8--,pope4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,prepositions4 ,the following are the principal prepositions1 arranged alphabetically3 ,aboard1 about1 above1 across1 after1 against1 along1 amid or amidst1 among or amongst1 around1 at1 athwart2--,bating1 before1 behind1 below1 beneath1 beside or besides1 between or betwixt1 beyond1 by2--,concerning2--,down1 during2--,ere1 except1 excepting2--,for1 from2--,in1 into2--,mid or midst2--,notwithstanding2--,of1 off1#caf on1 out1 over1 overthwart2--,past1 pending2--,regarding1 respecting1 round2--,since2--,through1 throughout1 till1 to1 touching1 toward or towards2--,under1 underneath1 until1 unto1 up1 upon2--,with1 within1 without4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,grammarians differ considerably in their tables of the ,english prepositions4 ,nor are they all of one opinion1 concerning either the characteristics of this part of speech1 or the particular instances in which the acknowledged properties of a preposition are to be found4 ,some teach that1 ,every preposition requires an objective case after it4--,lennie1 p4 #ej2 ,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,in opposition to this1 ,i suppose that the preposition to may take an infinitive verb after it2 that about also may be a preposition1 in the phrase1 about to write2 that about1 above1 after1 against1 by1 for1 from1 in1 of1 and some other prepositions1 may govern participles1 as such2 7i4 e4 without making them nouns1 or cases27 and1 lastly1 that after a preposition an adverb is sometimes construed substantively1 and yet is indeclinable2 as1 for once1 from afar1 from above1 at unawares4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the writers just quoted1 proceed to say3 ,when a preposition does not govern an objective case1 it becomes an adverb2 as1 ',he rides about4' ,but in such phrases as1 cast up1 hold out1 fall on1 the words up1 out1 and on1 must be considered as a part of the verb1 rather than as prepositions or adverbs4--,lennie's ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ej2 ,bullions's1 p4 #ei2 his ,analyt4 and ,p4 ,gram41 p4 #aji4 ,both these sentences are erroneous3 the one1 more particularly so1 in expression2 the other1 in doctrine4 ,as the preposition is chiefly distinguished by its regimen1 it is absurd to speak of it as governing nothing2 yet it does not always govern the objective case1 for participles and infinitives have no cases4 ,about1 up1 out1 and on1 as here cited1 are all of them adverbs2 and so are all other particles that thus qualify verbs1 without governing any thing4 ,l4 ,murray grossly errs when ha assumes that1 ,the distinct component parts of such phrases as1 to cast up1 to fall on1 to bear oat1 to give over1 c41 are no guide to the sense of the whole4 ,surely1 to cast up is to cast somehow1 though the meaning of the phrase may be to compute4 ,by this author1 and some others1 all such adverbs are absurdly called prepositions1 and are also as absurdly declared to be parts of the preceding verbs6 ,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aag2 ,w4 ,allen's1 #agi2 ,kirkham's1 #ie2 ,r4 ,g4 ,smith's1 #ic2 ,fisk's1 #hf2 ,butler's1 #fc2 ,wells's1 #adf4 ,,obs4 #c--;,in comparing the different ,english grammars now in use1 we often find the primary distinction of the parts of speech1 and every thing that depends upon it1 greatly perplexed by the fancied ellipses1 and forced constructions1 to which their authors resort4 ,thus ,kirkham3 ,prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs1 when their nouns are understood4 ',he rides about2' that is1 about the town1 country1 or something else4 ',she was near the act or misfortune of falling2' ',but do not after that time or event lay the blame on me4' ',he came down the ascent from the hill2' ',they lifted him up the ascent out of the pit4' ',the angels above2'--above us--',above these lower heavens1 to us invisible1 or dimly seen4'--,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,the errors of this passage are almost as numerous as the words2 and those to which the doctrine leads are absolutely innumerable4 ,that up and down1 with verbs of motion1 imply ascent and descent1 as wisely and foolishly imply wisdom and folly1 is not to be denied2 but the grammatical bathos of coming down the ascent from the hill of science1 should startle those whose faces are directed upward6 ,downward ascent is a movement worthy only of ,kirkham1 and his ,irish rival1 ,joseph ,w4 ,wright4 ,the brackets here used are ,kirkham's1 not mine4 ,,obs4 #d4--,some of the prepositions1 says ,l4 ,murray1 have the appearance and effect of conjunctions3 as1 ',after their prisons were thrown open1' c4 ',before ,i die2' ',they made haste to be prepared against their friends arrived3' but if the noun time1 which is understood1 be added1 they will lose their conjunctive form3 as1 ',after the time when their prisons1' c4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #aai4 ,here1 after1 before1 and against1 are neither conjunctions nor prepositions1 but conjunctive adverbs of time1 referring to the verbs which follow them1 and also1 when the sentences are completed1 to others antecedent4 ,the awkward addition of the time when1 is a sheer perversion4 ,if after1 before1 and the like1 can ever be adverbs1 they are so here1 and not conjunctions1 or prepositions4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,but the great ,compiler proceeds3 ,the prepositions1 after1 before1 above1 beneath1 and several others1 sometimes appear to be adverbs1 and may be so considered3 as1 ',they had their reward soon after2' ',he died not long before2' ',he dwells above2' but if the nouns time and place be added1 they will lose their adverbial form3 as1 ',he died not long before that time1' c4--,ib4 ,now1 ,i say1 when any of the foregoing words appear to be adverbs1 they are adverbs1 and1 if adverbs1 then not prepositions4 ,but to consider prepositions to be adverbs1 as ,murray here does1 or seems to do2 and to suppose the ,,nouns time ,,and place to be understood in the several examples here cited1 as he also does1 or seems to do2 are singly such absurdities as no grammarian should fail to detect1 and together such a knot of blunders1 as ought to be wondered at1 even in the ,compiler's humblest copyist4 ,in the following text1 there is neither preposition nor ellipsis3 ,above1 below1 without1 within1 around1 ,confus'd1 unnumber'd multitudes are found4--,pope1 on ,fame4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,it comports with the name and design of this work1 which is a broad synopsis of grammatical criticism1 to notice here one other absurdity2 namely1 the doctrine of sentential nouns4 ,there is something of this in several late grammars3 as1 ,the prepositions1 after1 before1 ere1 since1 till1 and until1 frequently govern sentential nouns2 and after1 before1 since1 notwithstanding1 and some others1 frequently govern a noun or pronoun understood4 ,a preposition governing a sentential noun1 is1 by ,murray and others1 considered a conjunction2 and a preposition governing a noun understood1 an adverb4--,j4 ,l4 ,,parkhurst3 in ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #abc4 ,example3 ',he will1 before he dies1 sway the sceptre4' ,he dies is a sentential noun1 third person1 singular number2 and is governed by before2 before he dies1 being equivalent in meaning to before his death4--,sanborn1 ,gram41 p4 #agf4 ',after they had waited a long time1 they departed4' ,after waiting4--,ib4 ,this last solution supposes the phrase1 waiting a long time1 or at least the participle waiting1 to be a noun2 for1 upon the author's principle of equivalence1 they had waited1 will otherwise be a sentential participle--a thing however as good and as classical as the other6 ,,obs4 #g4--;,if a preposition can ever be justly said to take a sentence for its object1 it is chiefly in certain ancient expressions1 like the following3 ,for in that he died1 he died unto sin once2 but in that he liveth1 he liveth unto ,god4--,rom41 vi1 #aj4 ,my ,spirit shall not always strive with man1 for that he also is flesh4--,gen41 vi1 #c4 ,for1 after that1 in the wisdom of ,god1 the world by wisdom knew not ,god1 it pleased ,god by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe4--#a ,cor41 i1 #ba4 ,here1 in1 for1 and after1 are all followed by the word that2 which ,tooke1 ,webster1 ,frazee1 and some others1 will have to be a substitute1 or pronoun1 representing the sentence which follows it1 and governed by the preposition4 ,but that1 in this sense1 is usually1 and perhaps more properly1 reckoned a conjunction4 ,and if we take it so1 in1 for1 and after1 7unless the latter be an adverb17 must either be reckoned conjunctions also1 or be supposed to govern sentences4 ,the expressions however are little used2 because in that is nearly equivalent to as2 for that can be better expressed by because2 and after that1 which is equivalent to ,greek3 epeide1 postquam1 may well be rendered by the term1 seeing that1 or since4 ,before that ,philip called thee1 is a similar example2 but that is here needless1 and before may be parsed as a conjunctive adverb of time4 ,i have one example more3 ,but1 besides that he attempted it formerly with no success1 it is certain the ,venetians keep too watchful an eye1 c4--,addison4 ,this is good ,english1 but the word besides if it be not a conjunction1 may as well be called an adverb1 as a preposition4 ,,obs4 #h4--,there are but few words in the list of prepositions1 that are not sometimes used as being of some other part of speech4 ,thus bating1 excepting1 concerning1 touching1 respecting1 during1 pending1 and a part of the compound notwithstanding1 are literally participles2 and some writers1 in opposition to general custom1 refer them always to their original class4 ,unlike most other prepositions1 they do not refer to place1 but rather to action1 state1 or duration2 for1 even as prepositions1 they are still allied to participles4 ,yet to suppose them always participles1 as would ,dr4 ,webster and some others1 is impracticable4 ,examples3 ,they speak concerning virtue4--,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,here concerning cannot be a participle1 because its antecedent term is a verb1 and the meaning is1 they speak of virtue4 ,they are bound during life4 that is1 durante vit1 life continuing1 or1 as long as life lasts4 ,so1 ,notwithstanding this1 i4e41 hoc non obstante1 this not hindering4 ,here the nature of the construction seems to depend on the order of the words4 ,since he had succeeded1 notwithstanding them1 peaceably to the throne4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #ca4 ,this is a correct ,english idiom1 ,dr4 ,lowth's criticism1 to the contrary notwithstanding4--,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,in the phrase1 notwithstanding them1 the former word is clearly a preposition governing the latter2 but ,dr4 ,webster doubtless supposed the word criticism to be in the nominative case1 put absolute with the participle3 and so it would have been1 had he written not withstanding as two words1 like non obstante2 but the compound word notwithstanding is not a participle1 because there is no verb to notwithstand4 ,but notwithstanding1 when placed before a nominative1 or before the conjunction that1 is a conjunction1 and1 as such1 must be rendered in ,latin by tamen1 yet1 quamvis1 although1 or nihilominus1 nevertheless4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,for1 when it signifies because1 is a conjunction3 as1 ,boast not thyself of to-morrow2 for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth4--,prov41 xxvii1 #a4 ,for has this meaning1 and1 according to ,dr4 ,johnson1 is a conjunction1 when it precedes that2 as1 ,yet for that the worst men are most ready to remove1 ,i would wish them chosen by discretion of wise men4--,spenser4 ,the phrase1 as ,i have before suggested1 is almost obsolete2 but ,murray1 in one place1 adopts it from ,dr4 ,beattie3 ,for that those parts of the verb are not properly called tenses4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,how he would have parsed it1 does not appear4 ,but both words are connectives4 ,and1 from the analogy of those terms which serve as links to other terms1 ,i should incline to take for that1 in that1 after that1 and besides that1 7in which a known conjunction is put last17 as complex conjunctions2 and also1 to take as for1 as to1 and because of1 7in which a known preposition is put last17 as complex prepositions4 ,but there are other regular and equivalent expressions that ought in general to be preferred to any or all of these4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,several words besides those contained in the list above1 are 7or have been7 occasionally employed in ,english as prepositions3 as1 ,a1 7chiefly used before participles17 abaft1 adown1 afore1 aloft1 aloof1 alongside1 anear1 aneath1 anent1 aslant1 aslope1 astride1 atween1 atwixt1 besouth1 bywest1 cross1 dehors1 despite1 inside1 left-hand1 maugre1 minus1 onto1 opposite1 outside1 per1 plus1 sans1 spite1 thorough1 traverse1 versus1 via1 withal1 withinside4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,dr4 ,lowth says1 ,the particle a before participles1 in the phrases a coming1 a going1 a walking1 a shooting1 c4 and before nouns1 as a-bed1 a-board1 a-shore1 a-foot1 c4 seems to be a true and genuine preposition1 a little disguised by familiar use and quick pronunciation4 ,dr4 ,wallis supposes it to be the preposition at4 ,i rather think it is the preposition on4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fe2 ,churchill's1 #bfh4 ,there is no need of supposing it to be either4 ,it is not from on2 for in ,saxon it sometimes accompanied on3 as in the phrase1 on weoruld2 that is1 on to ages2 or1 as ,wickliffe rendered it1 into worldis2 or1 as our version has it1 for ever4 ,see ,luke1 i1 #ee4 ,this preposition was in use long before either a or an1 as an article1 appeared in its present form in the language2 and1 for ought ,i can discover1 it may be as old as either on or at4 ,an1 too1 is found to have had at times the sense and construction of in or on2 and this usage is1 beyond doubt1 older than that which makes it an article4 ,on1 however1 was an exceedingly common preposition in ,saxon1 being used almost always where we now put on1 in1 into1 upon1 or among1 and sometimes1 for with or by2 so1 sometimes1 where a was afterwards used3 thus1 ,what in the ,saxon ,gospel of ,john1 is1 ',ic wylle gan on fixoth1' is1 in the ,english version1 ',i go a fishing4' ,chap1 xxi1 ver4 #c4 ,see ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fe2 ,churchill's1 #bfi4 ,and a is now sometimes equivalent to on2 as1 ,he would have a learned ,university make ,barbarisms a purpose4--,bentley1 ,diss4 on ,phalaris1 p4 #bbc4 ,that is1--on purpose4 ,how absurdly then do some grammarians interpret the foregoing text6--,i go on a fishing4--,alden's ,gram41 p4 #aag4 ,i go on a fishing voyage or business4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bba2 ,merchant's1 #aja4 ,it may not be improper1 says ,churchill in another place1 to observe here1 that the preposition on1 is too frequently pronounced as if it were the vowel a1 in ordinary conversation2 and this corruption is has become so prevalent1 that ,i have even met with 'laid it a oneside' in a periodical publication4 ,it should have been 'on one side1' if the expression were meant to be particular2 'aside1' if general4--,new ,gram41 p4 #cde4 ,by these writers1 a is also supposed to be sometimes a corruption of of3 as1 ,much in the same manner1 ,thomas of ,becket1 by very frequent and familiar use1 became ,thomas ,becket2 and one of the clock1 or perhaps on the clock1 is written one o'clock1 but pronounced one a clock4 ,the phrases with a before a participle are out of use in the solemn style2 but still prevail in familiar discourse4 ,they are established by long usage1 and good authority2 and there seems to be no reason1 why they should be utterly rejected4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,much in the same manner1 ,john of ,nokes1 and ,john of ,styles1 become ,john a ,nokes1 and ,john a ,styles3 and one of the clock1 or rather on the clock1 is written one o'clock1 but pronounced one a clock4 ,the phrases with a before participles1 are out of use in the solemn style2 but still prevail in familiar discourse4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #bfi4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the following are examples of the less usual prepositions1 a1 and others that begin with a3 ,and he set--three thousand and six hundred overseers to set the people a work4--#b ,chron41 ii1 #ah4 ,who goeth a warfare any time at his own charges8--#a ,cor41 ix1 #g4 ,and the mixed multitude that was among them fell a lusting4--,num41 xi1 #d4 ,and sweet ,billy ,dimond1 a patting his hair up4 --,feast of the ,poets1 p4 #ag4 ,the god fell a laughing to see his mistake4 --,ib41 p4 #ah4 ,you'd have thought 'twas the bishops or judges a coming4 --,ib41 p4 #bb4 ,a place on the lower deck1 abaft the mainmast4--,gregory's ,dict4 ,a moment gazed adown the dale4--,scott1 ,l4 ,l41 p4 #aj4 ,adown ,strath-,gartney's valley broad4--,ib41 p4 #hd4 ,for afore the harvest1 when the bud is perfect1 c4--,isaiah1 xviii1 #e4 ,where the great luminary aloof the vulgar constellations thick1--,see ,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 iii1 l4 #egf4 ,the great luminary aloft the vulgar constellations thick4--,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,aloft4 ,captain ,falconer having previously gone alongside1 the ,constitution4--,newspaper4 ,seventeen ships sailed for ,new ,england1 and aboard these above fifteen hundred persons4--,robertson's ,amer41 ii1 #dbi4 ,there is a willow grows askant the brook3 ,or1 as in some editions3 ,there is a willow grows aslant the brook4--,,shak41 ,hamlet1 ,act iv1 #g4 ,aslant the dew-bright earth4--,thomson4 ,swift as meteors glide aslope a summer eve4--,fenton4 ,aneath the heavy rain4--,james ,hogg1 ,with his magic spectacles astride his nose4--,merchant's ,criticisms4 ,atween his downy wings be furnished1 there4 --,wordsworth's ,poems1 p4 #adg4 ,and there a season atween ,june and ,may4 --,castle of ,indolence1 ,c4 i1 st4 #b4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,the following are examples of rather unusual prepositions beginning with b1 c1 or d2 ,or where wild-meeting oceans boil besouth ,magellan4--,burns4 ,whereupon grew that by-word1 used by the ,irish1 that they dwelt by-west the law1 which dwelt beyond the river of the ,barrow4--,,davies3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,here ,johnson calls by-west a noun substantive1 and ,webster1 as improperly1 marks it for an adverb4 ,no hyphen is needed in byword or bywest4 ,the first syllable of the latter is pronounced be1 and ought to be written so1 if besouth is right4 ,from ,cephalonia cross the surgy main ,philtius late arrived1 a faithful swain4 --,pope1 ,odys41 ,b4 xx1 l4 #bcd4 ,and cross their limits cut a sloping way1 ,which the twelve signs in beauteous order sway4 --,dryden's ,virgil4 ,a fox was taking a walk one night cross a village4--,l',estrange4 ,the enemy had cut down great trees cross the ways4--,knolles4 ,,dehors1 prep4 ,fr4 ,without3 as1 'dehors the land4' ,blackstone4--,worcester's ,dict41 #hvo4 ,you have believed1 despite too our physical conformation4--,bulwer4 ,and ,roderick shall his welcome make1 ,despite old spleen1 for ,douglas' sake4 --,scott1 ,l4 ,l41 ,c4 ii1 st4 #bf4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,the following quotations illustrate further the list of unusual prepositions3 ,and she would be often weeping inside the room while ,george was amusing himself without4--,anna ,ross1 p4 #ha4 ,several nuts grow closely together1 inside this prickly covering4--,jacob ,abbot4 ,an other boy asked why the peachstone was not outside the peach4--,id4 ,as if listening to the sounds withinside it4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #bad4 ,sir ,knight1 you well might mark the mound1 ,left hand the town4--,scott's ,marmion4 ,thus ,butler1 maugre his wicked intention1 sent them home again4--,sewel's ,hist41 p4 #bef4 ,and1 maugre all that can be said in its favour4--,stone1 on ,freemasonry1 p4 #aba4 ,and1 maugre the authority of ,sterne1 ,i even doubt its benevolence4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #bi4 ,i through the ample air in triumph high ,shall lead ,hell captive maugre ,hell4 --,milton's ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iii1 l4 #bee4 ,when ,mr4 ,seaman arose in the morning1 he found himself minus his coat1 vest1 pocket-handkerchief1 and tobacco-box4--,newspaper4 ,throw some coals onto the fire4--,,forby3 ,worcester's ,dict41 w4 ,onto4 ,flour1 at #d per barrel4--,preston's ,book-,keeping4 ,which amount1 per invoice1 to #djjj4--;,ib4 ,to ,smiths is the substantive ,smiths1 plus the preposition to4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #cc4 ,the ,mayor of ,lynn versus ,turner4--,cowper's ,reports1 p4 #hf4 ,slaves were imported from ,africa1 via ,cuba4--,society in ,america1 i1 #cbg4 ,pending the discussion of this subject1 a memorial was presented4--,gov4 ,everett4 ,darts his experienced eye and soon traverse ,the whole battalion views their order due4--,milton4 ,because1 when thorough deserts vast ,and regions desolate they past4--,hudibras4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,minus1 less1 plus1 more1 per1 by1 versus1 towards1 or against1 and vi1 by the way of1 are ,latin words2 and it is not very consistent with the purity of our tongue1 to use them as above4 ,sans1 without1 is ,french1 and not now heard with us4 ,afore for before1 atween for between1 traverse for across1 thorough for through1 and withal for with1 are obsolete4 ,withal was never placed before its object1 but was once very common at the end of a sentence4 ,i think it not properly a preposition1 but rather an adverb4 ,it occurs in ,shakspeare1 and so does sans2 as1 ,i did laugh1 sans intermission1 an hour by his dial4 --,as ,you ,like ,it4 ,i pr'ythee1 whom doth he trot withal8 --,ib4 ,sans teeth1 sans eyes1 sans taste1 sans every thing4 --,ib4 ,,obs4 #af4--,of the propriety and the nature of such expressions as the following1 the reader may now judge for himself3 ,in consideration of what passes sometimes within-side of those vehicles4--,spectator1 ,no4 #ecc4 ,watch over yourself1 and let nothing throw you off from your guard4--,district ,school1 p4 #ed4 ,the windows broken1 the door off from the hinges1 the roof open and leaky4--,ib41 p4 #ga4 ,he was always a shrewd observer of men1 in and out of power4--,knapp's ,life of ,burr1 p4 viii4 ,who had never been broken in to the experience of sea voyages4--,timothy ,flint4 ,and there came a fire out from before the ,lord4--,leviticus1 ix1 #bd4 ,because eight readers out of ten1 it is believed1 forget it4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #cb4 ,fifty days after the ,passover1 and their coming out of ,egypt4--,watts's ,script4 ,hist41 p4 #eg4 ,as the mountains are round about ,jerusalem1 so the ,lord is round about his people4--,psal41 cxxv1 #b4 ,literally1 ',i proceeded forth from out of ,god and am come4'--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #afa4 ,but he that came down from 7or from out of7 heaven4--,ibid4 ,here none the last funereal rights receive2 ,to be cast forth the camp1 is all their friends can give4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 vi1 #aff4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,x4--,,etymological4 ,in the ,tenth ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and the classes and modifications of the ,,articles1 ,,nouns1 ,,adjectives1 ,,pronouns1 ,,verbs1 ,,participles1 ,,adverbs1 ,,conjunctions1 and ,,prepositions4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,tenth ,praxis1 are1 two for an article1 six for a noun1 three for an adjective1 six for a pronoun1 seven for a verb finite1 five for an infinitive1 two for a participle1 two 7and sometimes three7 for an adverb1 two for a conjunction1 one for a preposition1 and one for an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil4--,maxims4 ,never is an adverb of time4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 #b4 ,adverbs of time are those which answer to the question1 ,when8 ,how long8 ,how soon8 or1 ,how often8 including these which ask4 ,adventure is a regular active-intransitive verb1 from adventure1 adventured1 adventuring1 adventured2 found in the imperative mood1 present tense1 second person1 singular 7or it may be plural7 number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,a regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,an active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action that has no person or thing for its object4 #d4 ,the imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding1 exhorting1 entreating1 or permitting4 #e4 ,the present tense is that which expresses what now exists1 or is taking place4 #f4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,on is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,too is an adverb of degree4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 #b4 ,adverbs of decree are those which answer to the question1 ,how much8 ,how little8 or to the idea of more or less4 ,near is a common adjective1 of the positive degree2 compared1 near1 nearer1 #b4sic--,,kth nearest or next4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,the positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form4 ,an is the indefinite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the indefinite article is an or a1 which denotes one thing of a kind1 but not any particular one4 ,approach is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,to is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,what is a relative pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4 #b4 ,a relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase1 and connects different clauses of a sentence4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or stats of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,is is an irregular neuter verb1 from be1 was1 being1 been2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and singular number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,a neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion1 but simply being1 or a state of being4 #d4 ,the indicative mood is that form of a verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 #e4 ,the present tense is that which expresses what now exists1 or is taking place4 #f4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #g4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 ,evil is a common adjective1 of the positive degree2 compared irregularly1 bad1 evil1 or ill1 worse1 worst4 #a4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses quality4 #b4 ,a common adjective is any ordinary epithet1 or adjective denoting quality or situation4 #c4 ,the positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,my ,lord1 ,i do here1 in the name of all the learned and polite persons of the nation1 complain to your ,lordship1 as first minister1 that our language is imperfect2 that its daily improvements are by no means in proportion to its daily corruptions2 that the pretenders to polish and refine it1 have chiefly multiplied abuses and absurdities2 and that1 in many instances1 it offends against every part of grammar4--,dean ,swift1 to the ,earl of ,oxford4 ,swift must be allowed to have been a good judge of this matter2 to which he was himself very attentive1 both in his own writings1 and in his remarks upon those of his friends3 ,he is one of the most correct1 and perhaps he is the best1 of our prose writers4 ,indeed the justness of this complaint1 as far as ,i can find1 hath never yet been questioned2 and yet no effectual method hath hitherto been taken to redress the grievance which was the object of it4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 iv4 ,the only proper use to be made of the blemishes which occur in the writings of such authors1 as ,addison and ,swift--authors whose 'faults are overbalanced by high beauties'-- is1 to point out to those who apply themselves to the study of composition1 some of the rules which they ought to observe for avoiding such errors2 and to render them sensible of the necessity of strict attention to language and style4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bcc4 ,thee1 therefore1 and with thee myself ,i weep1 ,for thee and me ,i mourn in anguish deep4--,pope's ,homer4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,the southern corner of ,europe1 comprehended between the thirty-sixth and fortieth degrees of latitude1 bordering on ,epirus and ,macedonia towards the north1 and on other sides surrounded by the sea1 was inhabited1 above eighteen centuries before the ,christian era1 by many small tribes of hunters and shepherds1 among whom the ,pelasgi and ,hellenes were the most numerous and powerful4--,gillies1 ,gr41 p4 #ab4 ,in a vigorous exertion of memory1 ideal presence is exceedingly distinct3 thus1 when a man1 entirely occupied with some event that made a deep impression1 forgets himself1 he perceives every thing as passing before him1 and has a consciousness of presence1 similar to that of a spectator4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #hh4 ,each planet revolves about its own axis in a given time2 and each moves round the sun1 in an orbit nearly circular1 and in a time proportioned to its distance4 ,their velocities1 directed by an established law1 are perpetually changing by regular accelerations and retardations4--,ib41 i1 #bga4 ,you may as well go about to turn the sun to ice by fanning in his face with a peacock's feather4--,shak4 ,ch4 ,justice4 ,i sent for you1 when there were matters against you for your life1 to come speak with me4 ,falstaff4 ,as ,i was then advised by my learned counsel in the laws of this land-service1 ,i did not come4--,id41 #b4 ,hen4 ,,iv1 ,act i1 ,sc4 #b4 ,it is surprising to see the images of the mind stamped upon the aspect2 to see the cheeks take the die of the passions and appear in all the colors of thought4--,collier4 ----------,even from out thy slime ,the monsters of the deep are made4--,byron4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,with a mind weary of conjecture1 fatigued by doubt1 sick of disputation1 eager for knowledge1 anxious for certainty1 and unable to attain it by the best use of my reason in matters of the utmost importance1 ,i have long ago turned my thoughts to an impartial examination of the proofs on which revealed religion is grounded1 and ,i am convinced of its truth4--,bp4 ,watson's ,apology1 p4 #fi4 ,the sceptre shall not depart from ,judah1 nor a lawgiver from between his feet1 until ,shiloh come2 and unto him shall the gathering of the people be4--,gen41 xlix1 #aj4 ,again1 ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time1 thou shalt not forswear thyself1 but shalt perform unto the ,lord thine oaths4 ,but ,i say unto you1 ,swear not at all3 neither by heaven2 for it is ,god's throne3 nor by the earth2 for it is his footstool3 neither by ,jerusalem2 for it is the city of the great ,king4 ,neither shalt thou swear by thy head2 because thou canst not make one hair white or black4--,matt41 v1 #cc--cf4 ,refined manners1 and polite behaviour1 must not be deemed altogether artificial3 men who1 inured to the sweets of society1 cultivate humanity1 find an elegant pleasure in preferring others1 and making them happy1 of which the proud1 the selfish1 scarcely have a conception4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aje4 ,bacchus1 that first from out the purple grape ,crush'd the sweet poison of misused wine4--,milton4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,respecting ,,prepositions4 ,nouns are often formed by participles4--,l4 ,murray's ,index1 ,octavo ,gram41 ii1 #bij4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the relation here intended1 between are formed and participles1 is not well signified by the preposition by4 ,but1 according to ,observation #gth1 on this part of speech1 ,the prepositions have1 from their own nature1 or from custom1 such an adaptation to particular terms and relations1 that they can seldom be used one for an other without manifest impropriety4 ,this relation would be better expressed by from2 thus1 ,nouns are often formed from participles4 ,what tenses are formed on the perfect participle8--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,which tense is formed on the present8--,ibid4 ,when a noun or pronoun is placed before a participle1 independently on the rest of the sentence1 c4--,ib41 p4 #aej2 ,murray1 #ade2 and others4 ,if the addition consists in two or more words4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agf2 ,ingersoll's1 #agg4 ,the infinitive mood is often made absolute1 or used independently on the rest of the sentence4--,mur41 p4 #ahd2 ,ing41 #bdd2 and others4 ,for the great satisfaction of the reader1 we shall present him with a variety of false constructions4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ahi4 ,for your satisfaction1 ,i shall present you with a variety of false constructions4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #beh4 ,i shall here present you with a scale of derivation4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,these two manners of representation in respect of number4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ae2 ,churchill's1 #eg2 ,there are certain adjectives1 which seem to be derived without any variation from verbs4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,or disqualify us for receiving instruction or reproof of others4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bec4 ,for being more studious than any other pupil of the school4--,ib41 p4 #bbf4 ,from misunderstanding the directions1 we lost our way4--,ib41 p4 #bja4 ,these people reduced the greater part of the island to their own power4--,ib41 p4 #bfa4cag ,the principal accent distinguishes one syllable in a word from the rest4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bcf4 ,just numbers are in unison to the human mind4--,ib41 p4 #bih4 ,we must accept of sound instead of sense4--,ib41 p4 #bih4 ,also1 instead for consultation1 he uses consult4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,this ablative seems to be governed of a preposition understood4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bfh4 ,that my father may not hear on't by some means or other4--,ib41 p4 #beg4 ,and besides1 my wife would hear on't by some means4--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,for insisting in a requisition is so odious to them4--,robertson's ,amer41 i1 #bjf4 ,based in the great self-evident truths of liberty and equality4--,scholar's ,manual4 ,very little knowledge of their nature is acquired by the spelling book4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,they do not cut it off3 except in a few words2 as1 due1 duly1 c4--,ib41 p4 #bd4 ,whether passing in such time1 or then finished4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,it hath disgusted hundreds of that confession4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #bfi4 ,but they have egregiously fallen in that inconveniency4--,ib41 iii1 #gc4 ,for is not this to set nature a work8--,ib41 i1 #bgj4 ,and surely that which should set all its springs a-work1 is ,god4--,,atterbury3 in ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bih4 ,he could not end his treatise without a panegyric of modern learning4--,,temple3 ib41 p4 #aaj4 ,these are entirely independent on the modulation of the voice4--,walker's ,elocution1 p4 #cjh4 ,it is dear of a penny4 ,it is cheap of twenty pounds4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bgd4 ,it will be despatched1 in most occasions1 without resting4--,locke4 '#j1 the pain the bliss in dying4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #abi4 ,when he is presented with the objects or the facts4--,smith's ,productive ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,i will now present you with a synopsis4--,ib41 p4 #be4 ,the conjunction disjunctive connects sentences1 by expressing opposition of meaning in various degrees4--,ib41 p4 #ch4 ,i shall now present you with a few lines4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram1 p4 #ac4 ,common names of ,substantives are those1 which stand for things generally4--,ib41 p4 #ca4 ,adjectives in the ,english language admit no variety in gender1 number1 or case whatever1 except that of the degrees of comparison4--,ib41 p4 #dh4 ,participles are adjectives formed of verbs4--,ib41 p4 #fc4 ,i do love to walk out of a fine summer's evening4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 ,an ,ellipsis1 when applied to grammar1 is the elegant omission of one or more words in a sentence4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #ii4 ,the prefix to is generally placed before verbs in the infinitive mood1 but before the following verbs it is properly omitted2 7viz47 bid1 make1 see1 dare1 need1 hear1 feel1 and let2 as1 ,he bid me do it2 ,he made me learn2 c4--,ib41 ,stereotype ,edition1 p4 #ia2 ,old ,edition1 #he4 ,the infinitive sometimes follows than1 after a comparison2 as1 ,i wish nothing more1 than to know his fate4--,ib41 p4 #ib4 ,see ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 i1 #ahd4 ,or by prefixing the adverbs more or less1 in the comparative1 and most or least1 in the superlative4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun4--,ib41 p4 #ag2 ,comly1 #ae4 ,in monosyllables the ,comparative is regularly formed by adding r or er4--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,he has particularly named these1 in distinction to others4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 vi4 ,to revive the decaying taste of antient ,literature4--,ib41 p4 xv4 ,he found the greatest difficulty of writing4--,,hume3 in ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aei4 ,and the tear that is wip'd with a little address ,may be followed perhaps with a smile4 ,webster's ,american ,spelling-,book1 p4 #gh2 and ,murray's ,e4 ,reader1 p4 #bab4 ,,chapter ,,xi--,,interjections4 ,an ,interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind3 as1 ,oh6 alas6 ah6 poh6 pshaw6 avaunt6 aha6 hurrah6 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,of pure interjections but few are admitted into books4 ,unimpassioned writings reject this part of speech altogether4 ,as words or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling than to express thought1 they seldom have any definable signification4 ,their use also is so variable1 that there can be no very accurate classification of them4 ,some significant words1 perhaps more properly belonging to other classes1 are sometimes ranked with interjections1 when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected manner2 as1 strange6 prodigious6 indeed6 ,wells says1 ,other parts of speech1 used by way of exclamation1 are properly regarded as interjections2 as1 hark6 surprising6 mercy6--,school ,gram41 #ahdf1 p4 #aaj4 ,this is an evident absurdity2 because it directly confounds the classes which it speaks of as being different4 ,nor is it right to say1 ,other parts of speech are frequently used to perform the office of interjections4--,wells1 #ahej1 p4 #abj4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the word interjection comes to us from the ,latin name interjectio1 the root of which is the verb interjicio1 to throw between1 to interject4 ,interjections are so called because they are usually thrown in between the parts of discourse1 without any syntactical connexion with other words4 ,dr4 ,lowth1 in his haste1 happened to describe them as a kind of natural sounds thrown in between the parts of a sentence2 and this strange blunder has been copied into almost every definition that has been given of the ,interjection since4 ,see ,murray's ,grammar and others4 ,webster's ,dictionary defines it as1 ,a word thrown in between words connected in construction2 but of all the parts of speech none are less frequently found in this situation4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the following is a fair sample of ,smith's ,new ,grammar1--i4e41 of ,english ,grammar on the ,productive ,system1--a new effort of quackery to scarf up with cobwebs the eyes of common sense3 ,q4 ,when ,i exclaim1 ',oh6 ,i have ruined my friend1' ',alas6 ,i fear for life1' which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences1 to express passion or feeling8 ,ans4 ,oh6 ,alas6 ,q4 ,what does interjection mean8 ,ans4 ,thrown between4 ,q4 ,what name1 then1 shall we give such words as oh6 alas6 c48 ,ans4 ,,interjections4 ,q4 ,what1 then1 are interjections8 ,ans4 ,interjections are words thrown in between the parts of sentences1 to express the passions or sudden feelings of the speaker4 ,q4 ,how may an interjection generally be known8 ,ans4 ,by its taking an exclamation point after it3 as1 ',oh6 ,i have alienated my friend4'--,r4 ,c4 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,of the interjection1 this author gives1 in his examples for parsing1 fifteen other instances2 but nothing can be more obvious1 than that not more than one of the whole fifteen stands either between sentences or between the parts of any sentence6 7,see ,new ,gram41 pp4 #dj and #if47 ,can he be a competent grammarian1 who does not know the meaning of between2 or who1 knowing it1 misapplies so very plain a word8 ,,obs4 #d4--,the ,interjection1 which is idly claimed by sundry writers to have been the first of words at the origin of language1 is now very constantly set down1 among the parts of speech1 as the last of the series4 ,but1 for the name of this the last of the ten sorts of words1 some of our grammarians have adopted the term exclamation4 ,of the old and usual term interjection1 a recent writer justly says1 ,this name is preferable to that of exclamation1 for some exclamations are not interjections1 and some interjections are not exclamations4--,,gibbs3 ,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #ccc4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,interjections4 ,the following are the principal interjections1 arranged according to the emotions which they are generally intended to indicate3--#a4 ,of joy2 eigh6 hey6 io6--#b4 ,of sorrow2 oh6 ah6 hoo6 alas6 alack6 lackaday6 welladay6 or welaway6--#c4 ,of wonder2 heigh6 ha6 strange6 indeed6--#d4 ,of wishing1 earnestness1 or vocative address2 7often with a noun or pronoun in the nominative absolute27 ,o6--#e4 ,of praise2 well-done6 good6 bravo6--#f4 ,of surprise with disapproval2 whew6 hoity-toity6 hoida6 zounds6 what6--#g4 ,of pain or fear2 oh6 ooh6 ah6 eh6 ,o dear6--#h4 ,of contempt2 fudge6 pugh6 poh6 pshaw6 pish6 tush6 tut6 humph6--#i4 ,of aversion2 foh6 faugh6 fie6 fy6 foy6#cah--aj4 ,of expulsion2 out6 off6 shoo6 whew6 begone6 avaunt6 aroynt6--#aa4 ,of calling aloud2 ho6 soho6 what-ho6 hollo6 holla6 hallo6 halloo6 hoy6 ahoy6--#ab4 ,of exultation2 ah6 aha6 huzza6 hey6 heyday6 hurrah6--#ac4 ,of laughter2 ha1 ha1 ha2 he1 he1 he2 te-hee1 te-hee4--#ad4 ,of salutation2 welcome6 hail6 all-hail6--#ae4 ,of calling to attention2 ho6 lo6 la6 law6#cai look6 see6 behold6 hark6--#af4 ,of calling to silence2 hush6 hist6 whist6 'st6 aw6 mum6--#ag4 ,of dread or horror2 oh6 ha6 hah6 what6--#ah4 ,of languor or weariness2 heigh-ho6 heigh-ho-hum6--#ai4 ,of stopping2 hold6 soft6 avast6 whoh6--#bj4 ,of parting2 farewell6 adieu6 good-by6 good-day6--#ba4 ,of knowing or detecting2 oho6 ahah6 ay-ay6--#bb4 ,of interrogating2 eh8 ha8 hey8#cbj ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,with the interjections1 may perhaps be reckoned hau and gee1 the imperative words of teamsters driving cattle2 and other similar sounds1 useful under certain circumstances1 but seldom found in books4 ,besides these1 and all the foregoing1 there are several others1 too often heard1 which are unworthy to be considered parts of a cultivated language4 ,the frequent use of interjections savours more of thoughtlessness than of sensibility4 ,philosophical writing and dispassionate discourse exclude them altogether4 ,yet are there several words of this kind1 which in earnest utterance1 animated poetry1 or impassioned declamation1 are not only natural1 but exceedingly expressive3 as1 ,lift up thy voice1 ,o daughter of ,gallim2 cause it to be heard unto ,laish1 ,o poor ,anathoth4--,isaiah1 x1 #cj4 ,alas1 alas1 that great city ,babylon1 that mighty city6 for in one hour is thy judgement come4--,rev41 xviii1 #aj4 ,ah me6 forbear1 returns the queen1 forbear2 ,oh6 talk not1 talk not of vain beauty's care4 --,odyssey1 ,b4 xviii1 l4 #caj4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,interjections1 being in general little else than mere natural voices or cries1 must of course be adapted to the sentiments which are uttered with them1 and never carelessly confounded one with an other when we express them on paper4 ,the adverb ay is sometimes improperly written for the interjection ah2 as1 ay me6 for ah me6 and still oftener we find oh1 an interjection of sorrow1 pain1 or surprise1#cba written in stead of ,o1 the proper sign of wishing1 earnestness1 or vocative address3 as1 ,oh ,happiness6 our being's end and aim6 --,pope1 ,ess4 ,ep4 iv1 l4 #a4 ,and peace1 oh ,virtue6 peace is all thy own4 --,id41 ib41 ,ep4 iv1 l4 #hb4 ,oh stay1 ,o pride of ,greece6 ,ulysses1 stay6 ,o cease thy course1 and listen to our lay6 --,odys41 ,b4 xii1 #a #bbb4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the chief characteristics of the interjection are independence1 exclamation1 and the want of any definable signification4 ,yet not all the words or signs which we refer to this class1 will be found to coincide in all these marks of an interjection4 ,indeed the last1 7the want of a rational meaning17 would seem to exclude them from the language2 for words must needs be significant of something4 ,hence many grammarians deny that mere sounds of the voice have any more claim to be reckoned among the parts of speech1 than the neighing of a horse1 or the lowing of a cow4 ,there is some reason in this2 but in fact the reference which these sounds have to the feelings of those who utter them1 is to some extent instinctively understood2 and does constitute a sort of significance1 though we cannot really define it4 ,and1 as their use in language1 or in connexion with language1 makes it necessary to assign them a place in grammar1 it is certainly more proper to treat them as above1 than to follow the plan of the ,greek grammarians1 most of whom throw all the interjections into the class of adverbs4 ,,obs4 #d4--,significant words uttered independently1 after the manner of interjections1 ought in general1 perhaps1 to be referred to their original classes2 for all such expressions may be supposed elliptical3 as1 ,order6 gentlemen1 order6 i4e41 ,come to order1--or1 ,keep order4 ,silence6 i4e41 ,preserve silence4 ,out6 out6 i4e41 ,get out1--or1 ,clear out6 7,see ,obs4 #eth and #fth1 upon ,adverbs47 ,charge1 ,chester1 charge6 ,on1 ,stanley1 on6 ,were the last words of ,marmion4--,scott4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in some instances1 interjections seem to be taken substantively and made nouns2 as1 ,i may sit in a corner1 and cry hey-ho for a husband4--,shak4 ,so1 according to ,james ,white1 in his ,essay on the ,verb1 is the word fie1 in the following example3 ,if you deny me1 fie upon your law4--,,shak43 ,white's ,verb1 p4 #afc4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,xi4--,,etymological4 ,in the ,eleventh ,praxis1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech1 and ,,all their classes and modifications4 ,the definitions to be given in the ,eleventh ,praxis1 are1 two for an article1 six for a noun1 three for an adjective1 six for a pronoun1 seven for a verb finite1 five for an infinitive1 two for a participle1 two 7and sometimes three7 for an adverb1 two for a conjunction1 one for a preposition1 and two for an interjection4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,o6 sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos6--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #ib4 ,o is an interjection1 indicating earnestness4 #a4 ,an interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind4 #b4 ,the interjection of wishing1 earnestness1 or vocative address1 is ,o4 ,sooner is an adverb of time1 of the comparative degree2 compared1 soon1 sooner1 soonest4 #a4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4 #b4 ,adverbs of time are those which answer to the question1 ,when8 ,how long8 ,how soon8 or1 ,how often8 including these which ask4 #c4 ,the comparative degree is that which is more or less than something contrasted with it4 ,shall is an auxiliary to fall4 #a4 ,an auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb1 to express some particular mode and time of the being1 action1 or passion4 ,the is the definite article4 #a4 ,an article is the word the1 an1 or a1 which we put before nouns to limit their signification4 #b4 ,the definite article is the1 which denotes some particular thing or things4 ,earth is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,and is a copulative conjunction4 #a4 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction1 and to show the dependence of the terms so connected4 #b4 ,a copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition1 a cause1 a consequence1 or a supposition4 ,stars is a common noun1 of the third person1 plural number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the plural number is that which denotes more than one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb4 ,fall1 or ,shall fall1 is an irregular active-intransitive verb1 from fall1 fell1 falling1 fallen2 found in the indicative mood1 first-future tense1 third person1 and plural number4 #a4 ,a verb is a word that signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 #b4 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4 #c4 ,an active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object4 #d4 ,the indicative mood is that form of the verb1 which simply indicates or declares a thing1 or asks a question4 #e4 ,the first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter4 #f4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #g4 ,the plural number is that which denotes more than one4 ,into is a preposition4 #a4 ,a preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other1 and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun4 ,chaos is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned4 #b4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things4 #c4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4 #d4 ,the singular number is that which denotes but one4 #e4 ,the neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female4 #f4 ,the objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which usually denotes the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parsing4 ,ah6 ,st4 ,anthony preserve me6--,ah--ah--eh--eh6--,why--why--after all1 your hand is not so co-o-o-old1 neither4 ,of the two1 it is rather warmer than my own4 ,can it be1 though1 that you are not dead8 ,not ,i4--,,moliere3 in ,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #bcb4 ,i'll make you change your cuckoo note1 you old philosophical humdrum1 you--,beats him--,i will--,beats him4 ,i'll make you say somewhat else than1 ',all things are doubtful2 all things are uncertain2'--,beats him--,i will1 you old fusty pedant4 ,ah6--oh6--ehl--,what1 beat a philosopher6--,ah6--oh6--eh6--,,moliere3 ib41 p4 #bdg4 ,what6 will these hands never be clean8--,no more of that1 my lord2 no more of that4 ,you mar all with this starting4 99 99 99 ,here is the smell of blood still4--,all the perfumes of ,arabia will not sweeten this little hand4 ,oh6 oh6 oh6--,shak41 ,macbeth1 ,act ,v1 ,sc4 #a4 ,ha6 at the gates what grisly forms appear6 ,what dismal shrieks of laughter wound the ear6--,merry4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 ,yet this may be the situation of some now known to us4--,o frightful thought6 ,o horrible image6 ,forbid it1 ,o ,father of mercy6 ,if it be possible1 let no creature of thine ever be the object of that wrath1 against which the strength of thy whole creation united1 would stand but as the moth against the thunderbolt6--,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #bhi4 ,if it be so1 our ,god1 whom we serve1 is able to deliver us from the burning fiery furnace2 and he will deliver us out of thine hand1 ,o king4 ,but if not1 be it known unto thee1 ,o king1 that we will not serve thy gods1 nor worship the golden image which thou hast set up4--,daniel1 iii1 #ag and #ah4 ,grant me patience1 just ,heaven6--,of all the cants which are canted in this canting world--though the cant of hypocrites may be the worst--the cant of criticism is the most tormenting6--,sterne4 ,ah1 no6 ,achilles meets a shameful fate1 ,oh6 how unworthy of the brave and great4--,pope4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,parsing4 ,o let not thy heart despise me6 thou whom experience has not taught that it is misery to lose that which it is not happiness to possess4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,disguise thyself as thou wilt1 still1 ,slavery6 still thou art a bitter draught2 and though thousands in all ages have been made to drink of thee1 thou art no less bitter on that account4--,sterne4 ,put it out of the power of truth to give you an ill character2 and if any body reports you not to be an honest or a good man1 let your practice give him the lie4 ,this is all very feasible4--,antoninus4 ,oh that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brains6 that we should1 with joy1 pleasance1 revel1 and applause1 transform ourselves into beasts6--,shakspeare4 ,all these afar off stood1 crying1 ,alas6 ,alas6 and wept1 and gnashed their teeth1 and groaned2 ,and with the owl1 that on her ruins sat1 ,made dolorous concert in the ear of ,night4--,pollok4 ,snatch'd in thy prime6 alas1 the stroke were mild1 ,had my frail form obey'd the fate's decree6 ,blest were my lot1 ,o ,cynthio6 ,o my child6 ,had ,heaven so pleas'd1 and ,i had died for thee6--,shenstone4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,errors ,,respecting ,,interjections4 ,of chance or change1 oh let not man complain4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the interjection oh1 a sign of sorrow1 pain1 or surprise1 is here used to indicate mere earnestness4 ,but1 according to the list of interjections1 or ,,obs4 #b;d under it1 the interjection of wishing1 earnestness1 or vocative address1 is ,o1 and not oh4 ,therefore1 oh should here be ,o2 thus1 ,of chance or change1 ,o let not man complain4--,beattie's ,minstrel1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #a4 ,o thou persecutor6 ,oh ye hypocrites4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #ii2 et al4 ,oh6 thou1 who touchedst ,isaiah's hallowed lips with fire4--,ib41 7,key17 p4 #aig4 ,oh6 happy we1 surrounded by so many blessings4--,ib41 7,exercises17 p4 #ach4 ,oh6 thou1 who art so unmindful of thy duty4--,ib41 7,key17 p4 #aif4 ,if ,i am wrong1 oh teach my heart ,to find that better way4--,pope's ,works4 ,heus6 evocate hue ,davum4 ,ter4 ,hoe6 call ,davus out hither4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #aee4 ,it was represented by an analogy1 7,oh1 how inadequate67 which was borrowed from the religion of paganism4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bha4 ,oh that ,ishmael might live before thee6--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,gen41 xvii1 #ah4 ,and he said unto him1 ,oh let not the ,lord be angry1 and ,i will speak4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,gen41 xviii1 #cj4 ,and he said1 ,oh let not the ,lord be angry4--,,id41 and ,,scott',s3 ib41 ver4 #cb4 ,oh1 my lord1 let thy servant1 ,i pray thee1 speak a word4--,,friends' ,,bible1 and ,,alger',s3 ,gen41 xliv1 #ah4 ,oh1 ,virtue6 how amiable thou art6 ,i fear1 alas6 for my life4--,fisk's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,ay me1 they little know ,how dearly ,i abide that boast so vain4--,milton's ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #hf4 ,oh6 that ,i had digged myself a cave4--,,fletcher3 in ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,o1 my good lord6 thy comfort comes too late4--,,shak43 ib41 p4 #gh4 ,the vocative takes no article2 it is distinguished thus3 ,o ,pedro1 ,oh ,peter6 ,o ,dios1 ,oh ,god6--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,oh1 o6 ,but1 the relative is always the same4--,cobbett's ,eng4 ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #abg4 ,oh1 oh6 ,but1 the relative is always the same4--,id41 ,edition of #ahcb1 p4 #aaf4 ,ah hail1 ye happy men6--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,oh that ,i had wings like a dove6--,,friends' ,,bible1 and ,,alger',s3 ,ps41 lv1 #f4 ,oh ,glorious hope6 ,o ,blessed abode6--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ahc4 ,alas1 ,friends1 how joyous is your presence4--,rev4 ,t4 ,smith's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,oh1 blissful days6 ,ah me6 how soon ye pass6--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part ,i1 p4 #af2 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #bi4 ,oh golden days6 oh bright unvalued hours6 ,what bliss 7did ye but know that bliss7 were yours6--,barbauld4 ,ay me6 what perils do eviron ,the man that meddles with cold iron4--,hudibras4 ,,chapter ,,xii4--,,questions4 ,,order ,,of ,,rehearsal1 ,,and ,,method ,,of ,,examination4 ,,part ,,second1 ,,etymology4 ,fist ,the following questions refer almost wholly to the main text of the ,etymology of this work1 and are such as every student should be able to answer with readiness and accuracy1 before he proceeds to any subsequent part of the study or the exercises of ,english grammar4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 #a4 ,of what does ,etymology treat8 #b4 ,what is meant by the term1 ,parts of ,speech8 #c4 ,what are ,classes1 under the parts of speech8 #d4 ,what are ,modifications8 #e4 ,how many and what are the parts of speech8 #f4 ,what is an article8 #g4 ,what is a noun8 #h4 ,what is an adjective8 #i4 ,what is a pronoun8 #aj4 ,what is a verb8 #aa4 ,what is a participle8 #ab4 ,what is an adverb8 #ac4 ,what is a conjunction8 #ad4 ,what is a preposition8 #ae4 ,what is an interjection8 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is ,parsing8 and what relation does it bear to grammar8 #b4 ,what is a ,praxis8 and what is said of the word8 #c4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,first ,,praxis8 #d4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #e4 ,how is the following example parsed8 ,the patient ox submits to the yoke1 and meekly performs the labour required of him4 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,first ,chapter1 or the ,first ,praxis4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,articles4 #a4 ,what is an ,,article8 #b4 ,are an and a different articles1 or the same8 #c4 ,when ought an to be used1 and what are the examples8 #d4 ,when should a be used1 and what are the examples8 #e4 ,what form of the article do the sounds of w and y require8 #f4 ,can you repeat the alphabet1 with an or a before the name of each letter8 #g4 ,will you name the ten parts of speech1 with an or a before each name8 #h4 ,when does a common noun not admit an article8 #i4 ,how is the sense of nouns commonly made indefinitely partitive8 #aj4 ,does the mere being of a thing demand the use of articles8 #aa4 ,can articles ever be used when we mean to speak of a whole species8 #ab4 ,but how does an or a commonly limit the sense8 #ac4 ,and how does the commonly limit the sense8 #ad4 ,which number does the limit1 the singular or the plural8 #ae4 ,when is the required before adjectives8 #af4 ,why is an or a not applicable to plurals8 #ag4 ,what is said of an or a before an adjective of number8 #ah4 ,when1 or how often1 should articles be inserted8 #ai4 ,what is said of needless articles8 #bj4 ,what is the effect of putting one article for the other1 and how shall we know which to choose8 #ba4 ,how are the two articles distinguished in grammar8 #bb4 ,which is the definite article1 and what does it denote8 #bc4 ,which is the indefinite article1 and what does it denote8 #bd4 ,what modifications have the articles8 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,second ,,praxis8 #b4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example parsed8 ,the task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class1 is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road4 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,second ,chapter1 or the ,second ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the five lessons of bad ,english1 with which the ,second ,chapter concludes4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,nouns4 #a4 ,what is a ,,noun1 and what are the examples given8 #b4 ,into what general classes are nouns divided8 #c4 ,what is a proper noun8 #d4 ,what is a common noun8 #e4 ,what particular classes are included among common nouns8 #f4 ,what is a collective noun8 #g4 ,what is an abstract noun8 #h4 ,what is a verbal or participial noun8 #i4 ,what modifications have nouns8 #aj4 ,what are ,persons1 in grammar8 #aa4 ,how many persons are there1 and what are they called8 #ab4 ,what is the first person8 #ac4 ,what is the second person8 #ad4 ,what is the third person8 #ae4 ,what are ,numbers1 in grammar8 #af4 ,how many numbers are there1 and what are they called8 #ag4 ,what is the singular number8 #ah4 ,what is the plural number8 #ai4 ,how is the plural number of nouns regularly formed8 #bj4 ,how is the regular plural formed without increase of syllables8 #ba4 ,how is the regular plural formed when the word gains a syllable8 ,,lesson ,,vi--,,nouns4 #a4 ,what are ,genders1 in grammar8 #b4 ,how many genders are there1 and what are they called8 #c4 ,what is the masculine gender8 #d4 ,what is the feminine gender8 #e4 ,what is the neuter gender8 #f4 ,what nouns1 then1 are masculine8 what1 feminine8 and what1 neuter8 #g4 ,what inflection of ,english nouns regularly changes their gender8 #h4 ,on what are the different genders founded1 and to what parts of speech do they belong8 #i4 ,when the noun is such as may be applied to either sex1 how is the gender usually determined8 #aj4 ,what principle of universal grammar determines the gender when both sexes are taken together8 #aa4 ,what is said of the gender of nouns of multitude8 #ab4 ,under what circumstances is it common to disregard the distinction of sex8 #ac4 ,in how many ways are the sexes distinguished in grammar8 #ad4 ,when the gender is figurative1 how is it indicated8 #ae4 ,what are ,cases1 in grammar8 #af4 ,how many cases are there1 and what are they called8 #ag4 ,what is the nominative case8 #ah4 ,what is the subject of a verb8 #ai4 ,what is the possessive case8 #bj4 ,how is the possessive case of nouns formed8 #ba4 ,what is the objective case8 #bb4 ,what is the object of a verb1 participle1 or preposition8 #bc4 ,what two cases of nouns are alike in form1 and how are they distinguished8 #bd4 ,what is the declension of a noun8 #be4 ,how do you decline the nouns1 friend1 man1 fox1 and fly8 ,,lesson ,,vii--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,third ,,praxis8 #b4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example to be parsed8 ,the writings of ,hannah ,more appear to me more praise-worthy than ,scott's4 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,third ,chapter1 or the ,third ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the three lessons of bad ,english1 with which the ,third ,chapter concludes4 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,adjectives4 #a4 ,what is an ,,adjective1 and what are the examples given8 #b4 ,into what classes may adjectives be divided8 #c4 ,what is a common adjective8 #d4 ,what is a proper adjective8 #e4 ,what is a numeral adjective8 #f4 ,what is a pronominal adjective8 #g4 ,what is a participial adjective8 #h4 ,what is a compound adjective8 #i4 ,what modifications have adjectives8 #aj4 ,what is comparison1 in grammar8 #aa4 ,how many and what are the degrees of comparison8 #ab4 ,what is the positive degree8 #ac4 ,what is the comparative degree8 #ad4 ,what is the superlative degree8 #ae4 ,what adjectives cannot be compared8 #af4 ,what adjectives are compared by means of adverbs8 #ag4 ,how are adjectives regularly compared8 #ah4 ,what principles of spelling must be observed in the comparing of adjectives8 #ai4 ,to what adjectives is the regular method of comparison1 by er and est1 applicable8 #bj4 ,is there any other method of expressing the degrees of comparison8 #ba4 ,how are the degrees of diminution1 or inferiority1 expressed8 #bb4 ,has the regular method of comparison any degrees of this kind8 #bc4 ,do we ever compare by adverbs those adjectives which can be compared by er and est8 #bd4 ,how do you compare good8 bad1 evil1 or ill8 little8 much8 many8 #be4 ,how do you compare far8 near8 fore8 hind8 in8 out8 up8 low8 late8 #bf4 ,what words want the positive8 #bg4 ,what words want the comparative8 ,,lesson ,,ix4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,fourth ,,praxis8 #b4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example parsed8 ,the best and most effectual method of teaching grammar1 is precisely that of which the careless are least fond3 teach learnedly1 rebuking whatsoever is false1 blundering1 or unmannerly4 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,fourth ,chapter1 or the ,fourth ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the three lesons of bad ,english1 with which the ,fourth ,chapter concludes4 ,,lesson ,x4--,,pronouns4 #a4 ,what is a ,,pronoun1 and what is the example given8 #b4 ,how many pronouns are there8 #c4 ,how are pronouns divided8 #d4 ,what is a personal pronoun8 #e4 ,how many and what are the simple personal pronouns8 #f4 ,how many and what are the compound personal pronouns8 #g4 ,what is a relative pronoun8 #h4 ,which are the relative pronouns8 #i4 ,what peculiarity has the relative what8 #aj4 ,what is an interrogative pronoun8 #aa4 ,which are the interrogative pronouns8 #ab4 ,do who1 which1 and what1 all ask the same question8 #ac4 ,what modifications have pronouns8 #ad4 ,why are not these things defined under the head of pronouns8 #ae4 ,what is the declension of a pronoun8 #af4 ,how do you decline the pronoun ,i8 ,thou8 ,he8 ,she8 ,it8 #ag4 ,what is said of the compound personal pronouns8 #ah4 ,how do you decline the pronoun ,myself8 ,thyself8 ,himself8 ,herself8 ,itself8 #ai4 ,are the interrogative pronouns declined like the simple relatives8 #bj4 ,how do you decline ,who8 ,which8 ,what8 ,that8 ,as8 #ba4 ,have the compound relative pronouns any declension8 #bb4 ,how do you decline ,whoever8 ,whosoever8 ,whichever8 ,whichsoever8 ,whatever8 ,whatsoever8 ,,lesson ,,xi4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,fifth ,,praxis8 #b4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example parsed8 ,nay but1 ,o man1 who art thou that repliest against ,god8 ,shall the thing formed say to him that formed it1 ,why hast thou made me thus8 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,fifth ,chapter1 or the ,fifth ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the three lessons of bad ,english1 with which the ,fifth ,chapter concludes4 ,,lesson ,,xii4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what is a ,,verb1 and what are the examples given8 #b4 ,why are verbs called by that name8 #c4 ,respecting an ,english verb1 what things are to be sought in the first place8 #d4 ,what is the ,present8 #e4 ,what is the ,preterit8 #f4 ,what is the ,imperfect ,participle8 #g4 ,what is the ,perfect ,participle8 #h4 ,how are verbs divided1 with respect to their form8 #i4 ,what is a regular verb8 #aj4 ,what is an irregular verb8 #aa4 ,what is a redundant verb8 #ab4 ,what is a defective verb8 #ac4 ,how are verbs divided1 with respect to their signification8 #ad4 ,what is an active-transitive verb8 #ae4 ,what is an active-intransitive verb8 #af4 ,what is a passive verb8 #ag4 ,what is a neuter verb8 #ah4 ,what modifications have verbs8 #ai4 ,what are ,moods1 in grammar8 #bj4 ,how many moods are there1 and what are they called8 #ba4 ,what is the infinitive mood8 #bb4 ,what is the indicative mood8 #bc4 ,what is the potential mood8 #bd4 ,what is the subjunctive mood8 #be4 ,what is the imperative mood8 ,,lesson ,,xiii4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what are ,tenses1 in grammar8 #b4 ,how many tenses are there1 and what are they called8 #c4 ,what is the present tense8 #d4 ,what is the imperfect tense8 #e4 ,what is the perfect tense8 #f4 ,what is the pluperfect tense8 #g4 ,what is the first-future tense8 #h4 ,what is the second-future tense8 #i4 ,what are the ,person and ,number of a verb8 #aj4 ,how many persons and numbers belong to verbs8 #aa4 ,why are not these things defined under the head of verbs8 #ab4 ,how are the second and third persons singular distinctively formed8 #ac4 ,how are the person and number of a verb ascertained1 where no peculiar ending is employed to mark them8 #ad4 ,what is the conjugation of a verb8 #ae4 ,what are the ,,principal ,,parts in the conjugation of a verb8 #af4 ,what is a verb called which wants some of these parts8 #ag4 ,what is an auxiliary1 in grammar8 #ah4 ,what verbs are used as auxiliaries8 #ai4 ,what are the inflections of the verb do1 in its simple tenses8 #bj4 ,what are the inflections of the verb be1 in its simple tenses8 #ba4 ,what are the inflections of the verb have1 in its simple tenses8 #bb4 ,what are the inflections and uses of shall and will8 #bc4 ,what are the inflections and uses of may8 #bd4 ,what are the inflections and uses of can8 #be4 ,what are the uses of must1 which is uninflected8 #bf4 ,to what style is the inflecting of shall1 will1 may1 can1 should1 would1 might1 and could1 now restricted8 ,,lesson ,,xiv4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what is the simplest form of an ,english conjugation8 #b4 ,what is the first example of conjugation8 #c4 ,what are the principal parts of the verb ,,love8 #d4 ,how many and what tenses has the infinitive mood8--the indicative8--the potential8--the subjunctive8--the imperative8 #i4 ,what is the verb ,,love in the ,infinitive1 present8--perfect8-- ,indicative1 present8--imperfect8--perfect8--pluperfe ct8--first-future8-- second-future8--,potential1 present8--imperfect8--perfect8--pluperfe ct8-- ,subjunctive1 present8--imperfect8--,imperative1 present8 #bd4 ,what are its participles8 ,,lesson ,,xv4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what is the synopsis of the verb ,,love1 in the first person singular8--second person singular1 solemn style8--third person singular8--first person plural8--second person plural8--third person plural8 #g4 ,if the second person singular of this verb be used familiarly1 how should it be formed8 ,,lesson ,,xvi4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what is the second example of conjugation8 #b4 ,what are the principal parts8 #c4 ,how is the verb ,,see conjugated throughout8 #d4 ,how do you form a synopsis of the verb see1 with the pronoun ,i8 thou8 he8 we8 you8 they8 ,,lesson ,,xvii4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what is the third example of conjugation8 #b4 ,what are the principal parts8 #c4 ,how is the verb ,,be conjugated8 #d4 ,how do you form a synopsis of the verb be1 with the nominative ,i8 thou8 he8 we8 you8 they8 the man8 the men8 ,,lesson ,,xviii4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what is the compound form of conjugating active or neuter verbs8 #b4 ,what peculiar meaning does this form convey8 #c4 ,what is the fourth example of conjugation8 #d4 ,what are the principal parts of the simple verb ,,read8 #e4 ,how is the verb ,,read conjugated in the compound form8 #f4 ,how do you form a synopsis of the verb ,,be ,,reading1 with the nominative ,i8 thou8 he8 we8 you8 they8 the boy8 the boys8 ,,lesson ,,xix4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,how are passive verbs formed8 #b4 ,what is the fifth example of conjugation8 #c4 ,how is the passive verb ,,be ,,loved conjugated throughout8 #d4 ,how do you form a synopsis of the verb ,,be ,,loved1 with the nominative ,i8 thou8 he8 we8 you8 they8 the child8 the children8 ,,lesson ,,xx4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,how is a verb conjugated negatively8 #b4 ,how is the form of negation exemplified by the verb love in the first person singular8 #c4 ,what is the form of negation for the solemn style1 second person singular8 #d4 ,what is the form for the familiar style8 #e4 ,what is the negative form of the verb love with the pronoun he8 #f4 ,how is the verb conjugated interrogatively8 #g4 ,what is the interrogative form of the verb love with the pronoun ,i8 #h4 ,what is the form of question in the solemn style1 with this verb in the second person singular8 #i4 ,how are such questions asked in the familiar style8 #aj4 ,what is the interrogative form of the verb love with the pronoun he8 #aa4 ,how is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively8 #ab4 ,how is the negative question exemplified in the first person plural8 #ac4 ,how is the negative question exemplified in the second person plural8 #ad4 ,how is the like synopsis formed in the third person plural8 ,,lesson ,,xxi4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what is an irregular verb8 #b4 ,how many simple irregular verbs are there8 #c4 ,what are the principal parts of the following verbs3 ,arise1 be1 bear1 beat1 begin1 behold1 beset1 bestead1 bid1 bind1 bite1 bleed1 break1 breed1 bring1 buy1 cast1 chide1 choose1 cleave1 cling1 come1 cost1 cut1 do1 draw1 drink1 drive1 eat1 fall1 feed1 feel1 fight1 find1 flee1 fling1 fly1 forbear1 forsake1 get1 give1 go1 grow1 have1 hear1 hide1 hit1 hold1 hurt1 keep1 know1 lead1 leave1 lend1 let1 lie1 lose1 make1 meet1 outdo1 put1 read1 rend1 rid1 ride1 ring1 rise1 run1 say1 see1 seek1 sell1 send1 set1 shed1 shoe1 shoot1 shut1 shred1 shrink1 sing1 sink1 sit1 slay1 sling1 slink1 smite1 speak1 spend1 spin1 spit1 spread1 spring1 stand1 steal1 stick1 sting1 stink1 stride1 strike1 swear1 swim1 swing1 take1 teach1 tear1 tell1 think1 thrust1 tread1 wear1 win1 write8 ,,lesson ,,xxii4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what is a redundant verb8 #b4 ,how many redundant verbs are there8 #c4 ,what are the principal parts of the following verbs3 ,abide1 awake1 belay1 bend1 bereave1 beseech1 bet1 betide1 blend1 bless1 blow1 build1 burn1 burst1 catch1 clothe1 creep1 crow1 curse1 dare1 deal1 dig1 dive1 dream1 dress1 dwell1 freeze1 geld1 gild1 gird1 grave1 grind1 hang1 heave1 hew1 kneel1 knit1 lade1 lay1 lean1 leap1 learn1 light1 mean1 mow1 mulet1 pass1 pay1 pen1 plead1 prove1 quit1 rap1 reave1 rive1 roast1 saw1 seethe1 shake1 shape1 shave1 shear1 shine1 show1 sleep1 slide1 slit1 smell1 sow1 speed1 spell1 spill1 split1 spoil1 stave1 stay1 string1 strive1 strow1 sweat1 sweep1 swell1 thrive1 throw1 wake1 wax1 weave1 wed1 weep1 wet1 whet1 wind1 wont1 work1 wring8 #d4 ,what is a defective verb8 #e4 ,what verbs are defective8 ,,lesson ,,xxiii4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,sixth ,,praxis8 #b4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example parsed8 ,the freedom of choice seems essential to happiness2 because1 properly speaking1 that is not our own which is imposed upon us4 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,sixth ,chapter1 or the ,sixth ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the three lessons of bad ,english1 with which the ,sixth ,chapter concludes4 ,,lesson ,,xxiv4--,,participles4 #a4 ,what is a ,,participle1 and how is it generally formed8 #b4 ,how many kinds of participles are there1 and what are they called8 #c4 ,what is the imperfect participle8 #d4 ,what is the perfect participle8 #e4 ,what is the preperfect participle8 #f4 ,how is the first or imperfect participle formed8 #g4 ,how is the second or perfect participle formed8 #h4 ,how is the third or preperfect participle formed8 #i4 ,what are the participles of the following verbs1 according to the simplest form of conjugation3 ,repeat1 study1 return1 mourn1 seem1 rejoice1 appear1 approach1 suppose1 think1 set1 come1 rain1 stand1 know1 deceive8 ,,lesson ,,xxv4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,seventh ,,praxis8 #b4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example parsed3 ,religion1 rightly understood and practised1 has the purest of all joys attending it4 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,seventh ,chapter1 or the ,seventh ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the three lessons of bad ,english1 with which the ,seventh ,chapter concludes4 ,,lesson ,,xxvi4--,,adverbs4 #a4 ,what is an ,,adverb1 and what is the example given8 #b4 ,to what general classes may adverbs be reduced8 #c4 ,what are adverbs of time8 #d4 ,what are adverbs of place8 #e4 ,what are adverbs of degree8 #f4 ,what are adverbs of manner8 #a4 ,what are conjunctive adverbs8 #h4 ,are all the conjunctive adverbs included in the first four classes8 #i4 ,how may the adverbs of time be subdivided8 #aj4 ,how may the adverbs of place be subdivided8 #aa4 ,how may the adverbs of degree be subdivided8 #ab4 ,how may the adverbs of manner be subdivided8 #ac4 ,what modifications have adverbs8 #ad4 ,how do we compare well1 badly or ill1 little1 much1 far1 and forth8 #ae4 ,of what degree is the adverb rather8 #af4 ,what is said of the comparison of adverbs by more and most1 less and least8 ,,lesson ,,xxvii4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,eighth ,,praxis8 #b4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example parsed8 ,when was it that ,rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind8 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,eighth ,chapter1 or the ,eighth ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the lesson of bad ,english1 with which the ,eighth ,chapter concludes4 ,,lesson ,,xxviii4--,,conjunctions4 #a4 ,what is a ,,conjunction1 and what is the example given8 #b4 ,have we any connective words besides the conjunctions8 #c4 ,how do relative pronouns differ from other connectives8 #d4 ,how do conjunctive adverbs differ from other connectives8 #e4 ,how do conjunctions differ from other connectives8 #f4 ,how do prepositions differ from other connectives8 #g4 ,how are the conjunctions divided8 #h4 ,what is a copulative conjunction8 #i4 ,what is a disjunctive conjunction8 #aj4 ,what are corresponsive conjunctions8 #aa4 ,which are the copulative conjunctions8 #ab4 ,which are the disjunctive conjunctions8 #ac4 ,which are the corresponsive conjunctions8 ,,lesson ,,xxix4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,ninth ,,praxis8 #b4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example parsed8 ,if thou hast done a good deed1 boast not of it4 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,ninth ,chapter1 or the ,ninth ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the lesson of bad ,english1 with which the ,ninth ,chapter concludes4 ,,lesson ,,xxx4--,,prepositions4 #a4 ,what is a ,,preposition1 and what is the example given8 #b4 ,are the prepositions divided into classes8 #c4 ,have prepositions any grammatical modifications8 #d4 ,how are the prepositions arranged in the list8 #e4 ,what are the prepositions beginning with a8--with b8--with c8--with d8--with e8--with f8--with i8--with m8--with n8--with o8--with p8--with r8--with s8--with t8--with u8--with w8 #ba4 ,does this list contain all the words that are ever used in ,english as prepositions8 ,,lesson ,,xxxi4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,tenth ,,praxis8 #b4 ,how many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example parsed8 ,never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil8 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,tenth ,chapter1 or the ,tenth ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the lesson of bad ,english1 with which the ,tenth ,chapter concludes4 ,,lesson ,,xxxii4--,,interjections4 #a4 ,what is an ,,interjection1 and what are the examples given8 #b4 ,why are interjections so called8 #c4 ,how are the interjections arranged in the list8 #d4 ,what are the interjections of joy8--of praise8--of sorrow8--of wonder8--of wishing or earnestness8--of pain or fear8--of contempt8--of aversion8--of calling aloud8--of exultation8--of laughter8--of salutation8--of calling to attention8--of calling to silence8--of surprise or horror8--of languor8--of stopping8--of parting8--of knowing or detecting8--of interrogating8 ,,lesson ,,xxxiii4--,,parsing4 #a4 ,what is required of the pupil in the ,,eleventh ,,praxis8 ,how many definitions are here given for each part of speech8 #c4 ,how is the following example parsed8 ,o6 sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos6 ,now parse1 in like manner1 the three lessons of the ,eleventh ,chapter1 or the ,eleventh ,praxis2 and then1 if you please1 you may correct orally the lesson of bad ,english1 with which the ,eleventh ,chapter concludes4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4--,,for ,,writing4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,etymology4 ,when the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of speech1 and their classes and modifications1 and has been sufficiently exercised in etymological parsing and correcting1 he should write out the following exercises2 for speech and writing afford us different modes of testing the proficiency of students1 and exercises in both are necessary to a complete course of ,english ,grammar4 ,,exercise ,i4--,,articles4 #a4 ,prefix the definite article to each of the following nouns3 path1 paths2 loss1 losses2 name1 names2 page1 pages2 want1 wants2 doubt1 doubts2 votary1 votaries4 #b4 ,prefix the indefinite article to each of the following nouns3 age1 error1 idea1 omen1 urn1 arch1 bird1 cage1 dream1 empire1 farm1 grain1 horse1 idol1 jay1 king1 lady1 man1 novice1 opinion1 pony1 quail1 raven1 sample1 trade1 uncle1 vessel1 window1 youth1 zone1 whirlwind1 union1 onion1 unit1 eagle1 house1 honour1 hour1 herald1 habitation1 hospital1 harper1 harpoon1 ewer1 eye1 humour4 #c4 ,insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases3 ,george ,second--fair appearance--part first--reasons most obvious--good man--wide circle--man of honour--man of world--old books--common people--same person--smaller piece--rich and poor--first and last--all time--great excess--nine muses--how rich reward--so small number--all ancient writers--in nature of things--much better course4 #d4 ,insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the following phrases3 new name--very quick motion--other sheep--such power--what instance--great weight--such worthy cause--to great difference--high honour--humble station--universal law--what strange event--so deep interest--as firm hope--so great wit--humorous story--such person--few dollars--little reflection4 ,,exercise ,,ii4--,,nouns4 #a4 ,write the plurals of the following nouns3 town1 country1 case1 pin1 needle1 harp1 pen1 sex1 rush1 arch1 marsh1 monarch1 blemish1 distich1 princess1 gas1 bias1 stigma1 wo1 grotto1 folio1 punctilio1 ally1 duty1 toy1 money1 entry1 valley1 volley1 half1 dwarf1 strife1 knife1 roof1 muff1 staff1 chief1 sheaf1 mouse1 penny1 ox1 foot1 erratum1 axis1 thesis1 criterion1 bolus1 rebus1 son-in-law1 pailful1 man-servant1 fellow-citizen4 #b4 ,write the feminines corresponding to the following nouns3 earl1 friar1 stag1 lord1 duke1 marquis1 hero1 executor1 nephew1 heir1 actor1 enchanter1 hunter1 prince1 traitor1 lion1 arbiter1 tutor1 songster1 abbot1 master1 uncle1 widower1 son1 landgrave4 #c4 ,write the possessive case singular1 of the following nouns3 table1 leaf1 boy1 torch1 park1 porch1 portico1 lynx1 calf1 sheep1 wolf1 echo1 folly1 cavern1 father-in-law1 court-martial1 precipice1 countess1 lordship4 #d4 ,write the possessive case plural1 of the following nouns3 priest1 tutor1 scholar1 mountain1 city1 courtier1 judge1 citizen1 woman1 servant1 writer1 grandmother4 #e4 ,write the possessive case1 both singular and plural1 of the following nouns3 body1 fancy1 lady1 attorney1 negro1 nuncio1 life1 brother1 deer1 child1 wife1 goose1 beau1 envoy1 distaff1 hero1 thief1 wretch4 ,,exercise ,,iii4--,,adjectives4 #a4 ,annex a suitable noun to each of the following adjectives1 without repeating any word3 good1 great1 tall1 wise1 strong1 dark1 dangerous1 dismal1 drowsy1 twenty1 true1 difficult1 pale1 livid1 ripe1 delicious1 stormy1 rainy1 convenient1 heavy1 disastrous1 terrible1 necessary4 ,thus--good manners1 c4 #b4 ,place a suitable adjective before each of the following nouns1 without repeating any word3 man1 son1 merchant1 work1 fence1 fear1 poverty1 picture1 prince1 delay1 suspense1 devices1 follies1 actions4 ,thus--wise man1 c4 #c4 ,write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared by inflection1 or change of form3 black1 bright1 short1 white1 old1 high1 wet1 big1 few1 lovely1 dry1 fat1 good1 bad1 little1 much1 many1 far1 true1 just1 vast4 #d4 ,write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared1 using the adverbs of increase3 delightful1 comfortable1 agreeable1 pleasant1 fortunate1 valuable1 wretched1 vivid1 timid1 poignant1 excellent1 sincere1 honest1 correct4 #e4 ,write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared1 using the comparative adverbs of inferiority or diminution3 objectionable1 formidable1 forcible1 comely1 pleasing1 obvious1 censurable1 prudent1 imprudent1 imperfect1 pleasant1 unpleasant4 ,,exercise ,,iv4--,,pronouns4 #a4 ,write the nominative plural of the following pronouns3 ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 it1 who1 which1 what1 that1 as4 #b4 ,write the objective singular of the following pronouns3 ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 it1 who1 which1 what1 that1 as4 #c4 ,write the following words in their customary and proper forms3 he's1 her's1 it's1 our's1 your's1 their's1 who's1 myself1 hisself1 theirselves4 #d4 ,write together in declension the following pronouns1 according to the agreement of each two3 ,i myself1 thou thyself1 he himself1 she herself it itself4 #e4 ,rewrite the following sentences1 and make them good ,english3 ,nor is the criminal binding any thing3 but was1 his self1 being bound4--,wrights ,gram41 p4 #aic4 ,the writer surely did not mean1 that the work was preparing its self4--,ib4 ,may1 or can1 in its self1 denotes possibility4--,ib41 p4 #baf4 ,consequently those in connection with the remaining pronouns respectively1 should be written1--he1 his self2--she1 her self2--ye or you1 your selves2 they1 their selves4--,ib41 p4 #aed4 ,lest their beacons be lost to the view1 and their selves wrecked on the shoals of destruction4--,ib41 p4 #aee4 ,in the regal style1 as generally in the second person1 the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun1 ourself4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,each has it's peculiar advantages4--,ib41 p4 #bhc4 ,who his ownself bare our sins in his own body on the tree4--,the ,friend1 iv1 #cjb4 ,it is difficult to look inwardly on oneself4--,journal of ,n4 ,y4 ,lit4 ,convention4 p4 #bhg4 ,,exercise ,v4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,write the four principal parts of each of the following verbs3 slip1 thrill1 caress1 force1 release1 crop1 try1 die1 obey1 delay1 destroy1 deny1 buy1 come1 do1 feed1 lie1 say1 huzza1 pretend1 deliver1 arrest4 #b4 ,write the following preterits1 each in its appropriate form3 exprest1 stript1 dropt1 jumpt1 prest1 topt1 whipt1 linkt1 propt1 fixt1 crost1 stept1 distrest1 gusht1 confest1 snapt1 skipt1 kist1 discust1 tackt4 #c4 ,write the following verbs in the indicative mood1 present tense1 second person singular3 move1 strive1 please1 reach1 confess1 fix1 deny1 survive1 know1 go1 outdo1 close1 lose1 pursue1 defend1 surpass1 conquer1 deliver1 enlighten1 protect1 polish4 #d4 ,write the following verbs in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person singular3 leave1 seem1 search1 impeach1 fear1 redress1 comply1 bestow1 do1 woo1 sue1 view1 allure1 rely1 beset1 release1 be1 bias1 compel1 degrade1 efface1 garnish1 handle1 induce4 #e4 ,write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood1 present tense1 in the three persons singular3 serve1 shun1 turn1 learn1 find1 wish1 throw1 dream1 possess1 detest1 disarm1 allow1 pretend1 expose1 alarm1 deprive1 transgress4 ,,exercise ,,vi4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb amuse1 conjugated affirmatively4 #b4 ,write a synopsis of the second person singular of the neuter verb sit1 conjugated affirmatively in the solemn style4 #c4 ,write a synopsis of the third person singular of the active verb speak1 conjugated affirmatively in the compound form4 #d4 ,write a synopsis of the first person plural of the passive verb be reduced1 conjugated affirmatively4 #e4 ,write a synopsis of the second person plural of the active verb lose1 conjugated negatively4 #f4 ,write a synopsis of the third person plural of the neuter verb stand1 conjugated interrogatively4 #g4 ,write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb derive1 conjugated interrogatively and negatively4 ,,exercise ,,vii4--,,participles4 #a4 ,write the simple imperfect participles of the following verbs3 belong1 provoke1 degrade1 impress1 fly1 do1 survey1 vie1 coo1 let1 hit1 put1 defer1 differ1 remember4 #b4 ,write the perfect participles of the following verbs3 turn1 burn1 learn1 deem1 crowd1 choose1 draw1 hear1 lend1 sweep1 tear1 thrust1 steal1 write1 delay1 imply1 exist4 #c4 ,write the preperfect participles of the following verbs3 depend1 dare1 deny1 value1 forsake1 bear1 set1 sit1 lay1 mix1 speak1 sleep1 allot4 #d4 ,write the following participles each in its appropriate form3 dipt1 deckt1 markt1 equipt1 ingulft1 embarrast1 astonisht1 tost1 embost1 absorpt1 attackt1 gasht1 soakt1 hackt4 #e4 ,write the regular participles which are now generally preferred to the following irregular ones3 blent1 blest1 clad1 curst1 diven1 drest1 graven1 hoven1 hewn1 knelt1 leant1 leapt1 learnt1 lit1 mown1 mulct1 past1 pent1 quit1 riven1 roast1 sawn1 sodden1 shaven1 shorn1 sown1 striven1 strown1 sweat1 swollen1 thriven1 waxen4 #f4 ,write the irregular participles which are commonly preferred to the following regular ones3 abided1 bended1 builded1 bursted1 catched1 creeped1 dealed1 digged1 dwelled1 freezed1 grinded1 knitted1 layed1 meaned1 payed1 reaved1 slided1 speeded1 splitted1 stringed1 sweeped1 throwed1 weaved1 weeped1 winded4 ,,exercise ,,viii4--,,adverbs1 c4 #a4 ,compare the following adverbs3 soon1 often1 long1 fast1 near1 early1 well1 badly or ill1 little1 much1 far1 forth4 #b4 ,place the comparative adverbs of increase before each of the following adverbs3 purely1 fairly1 sweetly1 earnestly1 patiently1 completely1 fortunately1 profitably1 easily4 #c4 ,place the comparative adverbs of diminution before each of the following adverbs3 secretly1 slily1 liberally1 favourably1 powerfully1 solemnly4 #d4 ,insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following dashes3 ,love--fidelity are inseparable4 ,be shy of parties--factions4 ,do well--boast not4 ,improve time--it flies4 ,there would be few paupers--no time were lost4 ,be not proud--thou art human4 ,i saw--it was necessary4 ,wisdom is better--wealth4 ,neither he--,i can do it4 ,wisdom--folly governs us4 ,take care--thou fall4 ,though ,i should boast--am ,i nothing4 #e4 ,insert suitable prepositions in place of the following dashes3 ,plead--the dumb4 ,qualify thyself--action--study4 ,think often--the worth--time4 ,live--peace--all men4 ,keep--compass4 ,jest not--serious subjects4 ,take no part--slander4 ,guilt starts--its own shadow4 ,grudge not--giving4 ,go not--sleep--malice4 ,debate not--temptation4 ,depend not--the stores--others4 ,contend not--trifles4 ,many fall--grasping--things--their reach4 ,be deaf--detraction4 #f4 ,correct the following sentences1 and adapt the interjections to the emotions expressed by the other words3 ,aha6 aha6 ,i am undone4 ,hey6 io6 ,i am tired4 ,ho6 be still4 ,avaunt6 this way4 ,ah6 what nonsense4 ,heigh-ho6 ,i am delighted4 ,hist6 it is contemptible4 ,oh6 for that sympathetic glow6 ,ah6 what withering phantoms glare6 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,syntax4 ,syntax treats of the relation1 agreement1 government1 and arrangement1 of words in sentences4 ,the relation of words is their reference to other words1 or their dependence according to the sense4 ,the agreement of words is their similarity in person1 number1 gender1 case1 mood1 tense1 or form4 ,the government of words is that power which one word has over an other1 to cause it to assume some particular modification4 ,the arrangement of words is their collocation1 or relative position1 in a sentence4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,sentences4 ,a ,sentence is an assemblage of words1 making complete sense1 and always containing a nominative and a verb2 as1 ,reward sweetens labour4 ,the principal parts of a sentence are usually three2 namely1 the ,,subject1 or nominative1--the attribute1 or finite ,,verb1--and the case put after1 or the ,,object#cbb governed by the verb3 as1 ,crimes deserve punishment4 ,the other or subordinate parts depend upon these1 either as primary or as secondary adjuncts2 as1 ,high crimes justly deserve very severe punishments4 ,sentences are usually said to be of two kinds1 simple and compound4#cbc ,a simple sentence is a sentence which consists of one single assertion1 supposition1 command1 question1 or exclamation2 as1 ,david and ,jonathan loved each other4--,if thine enemy hunger4--,do violence to no man4--,am ,i not an apostle8--#a ,cor41 ix1 #a4 ,what immortal glory shall ,i have acquired6--,,hooke3 ,mur4 ,seq41 p4 #ga4 ,a compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more simple ones either expressly or tacitly connected2 as1 ,send men to ,joppa1 and call for ,simon1 whose surname is ,peter2 who shall tell thee words1 whereby thou and all thy house shall be saved4--,acts1 xi1 #ac4 ,the more the works of ,cowper are read1 the more his readers will find reason to admire the variety and the extent1 the graces and the energy1 of his literary talents4--,,hayley3 ,mur4 ,seq41 p4 #bej4 ,a clause1 or member1 is a subdivision of a compound sentence2 and is itself a sentence1 either simple or compound3 as1 ,if thine enemy be hungry1 give him bread to eat2 if he be thirsty1 give him water to drink4--,prov41 xxv1 #ba4cbd ,a phrase is two or more words which express some relation of different ideas1 but no entire proposition2 as1 ,by the means appointed4--,to be plain with you4--,having loved his own4 ,words that are omitted by ellipsis1 and that are necessarily understood in order to complete the construction1 7and only such17 must be supplied in parsing4 ,the leading principles to be observed in the construction of sentences1 are embraced in the following twenty-four rules1 which are arranged1 as nearly as possible1 in the order of the parts of speech4 ,,the ,,rules ,,of ,,syntax4 ,,rule ,i4--,,articles4 ,articles relate to the nouns which they limit4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,nominatives4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,apposition4 ,a ,noun or a personal ,pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun1 is put1 by apposition1 in the same case4 ,,rule ,,iv4--,,possessives4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the name of the thing possessed4 ,,rule ,v4--,,objectives4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,same ,,cases4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive1 agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing4 ,,rule ,,vii4--,,objectives4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun made the object of a preposition1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,,rule ,,viii4--,,nom4 ,,absolute4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun is put absolute in the nominative1 when its case depends on no other word4 ,,rule ,,ix4--,,adjectives4 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns4 ,,rule ,x4--,,pronouns4 ,a ,pronoun must agree with its antecedent1 or the noun or pronoun which it represents1 in person1 number1 and gender4 ,,rule ,,xi--,,pronouns4 ,when the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 the ,pronoun must agree with it in the plural number4 ,,rule ,,xii4--,,pronouns4 ,when a ,pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and1 it must agree with them jointly in the plural1 because they are taken together4 ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,pronouns4 ,when a ,pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor1 it must agree with them singly1 and not as if taken together4 ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,finite ,,verbs4 ,every finite ,verb must agree with its subject1 or nominative1 in person and number4 ,,rule ,,xv4--,,finite ,,verbs4 ,when the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 the ,verb must agree with it in the plural number4 ,,rule ,,xvi4--,,finite ,,verbs4 ,when a ,verb has two or more nominatives connected by and1 it must agree with them jointly in the plural1 because they are taken together4 ,,rule ,,xvii4--,,finite ,,verbs4 ,when a ,verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor1 it must agree with them singly1 and not as if taken together4 ,,rule ,,xviii4--,,infinitives4 ,the ,infinitive ,mood is governed in general by the preposition ,,to1 which commonly connects it to a finite verb4 ,,rule ,,xix4--,,infinitives4 ,the active verbs1 bid1 dare1 feel1 hear1 let1 make1 need1 see1 and their participles1 usually take the ,infinitive after them without the preposition ,,to4 ,,rule ,,xx4--,,participles4 ,participles relate to nouns or pronouns1 or else are governed by prepositions4 ,,rule ,,xxi4--,,adverbs4 ,adverbs relate to verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 or other adverbs4 ,,rule ,,xxii4--,,conjunctions4 ,conjunctions connect words1 sentences1 or parts of sentences4 ,,rule ,,xxiii4--,,prepositions4 ,prepositions show the relations of words1 and of the things or thoughts expressed by them4 ,,rule ,,xxiv4--,,interjections4 ,interjections have no dependent construction2 they are put absolute1 either alone1 or with other words4 ,,general ,,or ,,critical ,,observations ,,on ,,syntax4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,an explanation of the relation1 agreement1 government1 and arrangement1 of words in sentences1 constitutes that part of grammar which we call ,syntax4 ,but many grammarians1 representing this branch of their subject as consisting of two parts only1 concord and government say little or nothing of the relation and arrangement of words1 except as these are involved in the others4 ,the four things are essentially different in their nature1 as may be seen by the definitions given above1 yet not so distinct in practice that they can well be made the basis of any perfect division of the rules of syntax4 ,i have therefore1 on this occasion1 preferred the order of the parts of speech2 each of which will form a chapter in the ,syntax of this work1 as each forms a chapter in the ,etymology4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,agreement and concord are one and the same thing4 ,relation and agreement1 though different1 may yet coincide1 and be taken together4 ,the latter is moreover naturally allied to the former4 ,seven of the ten parts of speech are1 with a few exceptions1 incapable of any agreement2 of these the relation and use must be explained in parsing2 and all requisite agreement between any of the rest1 is confined to words that relate to each other4 ,for one word may relate to an other and not agree with it2 but there is never any necessary agreement between words that have not a relation one to the other1 or a connexion according to the sense4 ,any similarity happening between unconnected words1 is no syntactical concord1 though it may rank the terms in the same class etymologically4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,from these observations it may be seen1 that the most important and most comprehensive principle of ,english syntax1 is the simple ,relation of words1 according to the sense4 ,to this head alone1 ought to be referred all the rules of construction by which our articles1 our nominatives1 our adjectives1 our participles1 our adverbs1 our conjunctions1 our prepositions1 and our interjections1 are to be parsed4 ,to the ordinary syntactical use of any of these1 no rules of concord1 government1 or position1 can at all apply4 ,yet so defective and erroneous are the schemes of syntax which are commonly found in our ,english grammars1 that no rules of simple relation1 none by which any of the above-named parts of speech can be consistently parsed1 are in general to be found in them4 ,if there are any exceptions to this censure1 they are very few1 and in treatises still marked with glaring defects in regard to the syntax of some of these parts of speech4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,grammarians1 of course1 do not utter falsehoods intentionally2 but it is lamentable to see how often they pervert doctrine by untruths uttered ignorantly4 ,it is the design of this pandect1 to make every one who reads it1 an intelligent judge of the perversions1 as well as of the true doctrines1 of ,english grammar4 ,the following citations will show him the scope and parts which have commonly been assigned to our syntax3 ,the construction of sentences depends principally upon the concord or agreement1 and the regimen or government1 of words4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fh2 ,churchill's1 #abj4 ,words in sentences have a twofold relation to one another2 namely1 that of ,concord or ,agreement2 and that of ,government or ,influence4--,dr4 ,adam's ,latin and ,english ,grammar1 p4 #aea4 ,the third part of ,grammar is ,,syntax1 which treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence4--,e4 ,g4 ,greene's ,grammatical ,text-,book1 p4 #ae4 ,syntax principally consists of two parts1 ,concord and ,government4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #adb2 ,ingersoll's1 #agj2 ,alger's1 #ea2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #aai2 and many others4 ,syntax consists of two parts1 ,concord and ,government4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #age2 ,wright's1 #abd4 ,the ,rules of ,syntax may all be included under three heads1 ,concord1 ,government1 and ,position4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,position means the place which a word occupies in a sentence4--,ib4 ,these rules may be mostly ranked under the two heads of agreement and government2 the remainder may be termed miscellaneous4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,syntax treats of the agreement1 government and proper arrangement of words in a sentence4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,this last-named author1 in touching the text of my books1 has often corrupted it1 as he does here2 but my definitions of the tenses he copied without marring them much4 ,the borrowing occurred as early as #ahbh1 and ,i add this notice now1 lest any should suppose me the plagiarist4 ,,obs4 #e4--,most of our ,english grammars have more rules of syntax than are needed1 and yet are very deficient in such as are needed4 ,to say1 as some do1 that articles1 adjectives1 and participles1 agree with nouns1 is to teach ,greek or ,latin syntax1 and not ,english4 ,to throw1 as ,nutting does1 the whole syntax of adverbs into a remark on such a rule of agreement1 is to choose disorder for its own sake4 ,to say1 with ,frost1 ,hall1 ,smith1 ,perley1 ,kirkham1 ,sanborn1 ,rand1 and others1 ,the nominative case governs the verb in number and person1 and again1 ,a verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person1 is to confound the meaning of government and agreement1 to say the same thing in different words1 and to leave the subject of a verb still without a rule3 for rules of government are applicable only to the words governed1 and nothing ever agrees with that which governs it4#cbe ,to say1 with ,murray and others1 ,participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived1 is to say nothing by which either verbs or participles may be parsed1 or any of their errors corrected3 those many grammarians1 therefore1 who make this their only rule for participles1 leave them all without any syntax4 ,to say1 with ,murray1 ,alger1 and others1 ,adverbs1 though they have no government of case1 tense1 c41 require an appropriate situation in the sentence1 is to squander words at random1 and leave the important question unanswered1 ,to what do adverbs relate8 ,to say again1 with the same gentlemen1 ,conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs1 and cases of nouns and pronouns1 is to put an ungrammatical1 obscure1 and useless assertion1 in the place of an important rule4 ,to say merely1 ,prepositions govern the objective case1 is to rest all the syntax of prepositions on a rule that never applies to them1 but which is meant only for one of the constructions of the objective case4 ,to say1 as many do1 ,interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them1 and the nominative case of the second1 is to tell what is utterly false as the words stand1 and by no means true in the sense which the authors intend4 ,finally1 to suppose1 with ,murray1 that1 the ,interjection does not require a distinct1 appropriate rule1 is in admirable keeping with all the foregoing quotations1 and especially with his notion of what it does require2 namely1 the objective case of the first person3 but who dares deny that the following exclamation is good ,english8 ,o wretched we6 why were we hurried down ,this lubric and adulterate age6--,dryden4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the truth of any doctrine in science1 can be nothing else than its conformity to facts1 or to the nature of things2 and chiefly by what he knows of the things themselves1 must any one judge of what others say concerning them4 ,erroneous or inadequate views1 confused or inconsistent statements1 are the peculiar property of those who advance them2 they have1 in reality1 no relationship to science itself1 because they originate in ignorance2 but all science is knowledge--it is knowledge methodized4 ,what general rules are requisite for the syntactical parsing of the several parts of speech in ,english1 may be seen at once by any one who will consider for a moment the usual construction of each4 ,the correction of false syntax1 in its various forms1 will require more--yes1 five times as many2 but such of these as answer only the latter purpose1 are1 ,i think1 better reserved for notes under the principal rules4 ,the doctrines which ,i conceive most worthy to form the leading canons of our syntax1 are those which are expressed in the twenty-four rules above4 ,if other authors prefer more1 or fewer1 or different principles for their chief rules1 ,i must suppose1 it is because they have studied the subject less4 ,biased1 as we may be1 both by our knowledge and by our ignorance1 it is easy for men to differ respecting matters of expediency2 but that clearness1 order1 and consistency1 are both expedient1 and requisite1 in didactic compositions1 is what none can doubt4 ,,obs4 #g4--,those ,english grammarians who tell us1 as above1 that syntax is divided into parts1 or included under a certain number of heads1 have almost universally contradicted themselves by treating the subject without any regard to such a division2 and1 at the same time1 not a few have somehow been led into the gross error of supposing broad principles of concord or government where no such things exist4 ,for example1 they have invented general ,,rules like these3 ,the adjective agrees with its noun in number1 case1 and gender4--,bingham's ,english ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,interjections govern the nominative case1 and sometimes the objective3 as1 ',o thou6 alas me6'--,ib41 p4 #dc4 ,adjectives agree with their nouns in number4--,wilbur and ,livingston's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,participles agree with their nouns in number4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,every adjective agrees in number with some substantive expressed or understood4-- ,hiley's ,gram41 ,rule #hth1 p4 #gg4 ,the article ,,the agrees with nouns in either number3 as1 ,the wood1 the woods4--,bucke's ,classical ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 p4 #hd4 ,o6 oh6 ah6 require the accusative case of a pronoun in the first person after them3 as ',ah me6' ,but when the second person is used1 it requires a nominative case3 as1 ',o thou6'--,ib41 p4 #hg4 ,two or more ,nominatives in the singular number1 connected by the ,conjunction or1 nor1 ,,either1 ,,neither1 govern a singular ,verb4 ,but ,pronouns singular1 of different persons1 joined by or1 ,,either1 nor1 ,,neither1 govern a plural ,verb4--,ib41 p4 #id4 ,one ,nominative frequently governs many ,verbs4--,ib41 p4 #ie4 ,participles are sometimes governed by the article4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aib4 ,an adverb1 an adjective1 or a participle1 may involve in itself the force of a preposition1 and govern the objective case4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ii4 ,the nominative case governs the verb4 #cbf--;,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #cb2 ,kirkham's1 #agf2 and others4 ,the nominative case comes before the verb4--,bingham's ,gram41 p4 #ch2 ,wilbur and ,livingston's1 #bc4 ,the ,verb ,,to ,,be1 always governs a ,nominative1 unless it be of the ,infinitive ,mood4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #id4 ,a verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb1 noun1 adjective1 participle1 or pronoun4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ahg4 ,or1 7as a substitute for the foregoing rule17 say1 according to this author3 ,a verb in the infinitive mood1 refers to some noun or pronoun1 as its subject or actor4--,ib41 p4 #ahh4 ,now what does he know of ,english grammar1 who supposes any of these rules to be worthy of the place which they hold1 or have held1 in the halls of instruction8 ,,obs4 #h4--;,it is a very common fault with the compilers of ,english grammars1 to join together in the same rule the syntax of different parts of speech1 uniting laws that must ever be applied separately in parsing4 ,for example3 ,,rule ,,xi4 ,articles and adjectives relate to nouns expressed or understood2 and the adjectives this1 that1 one1 two1 must agree in number with the nouns to which they relate4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,now1 in parsing an article1 why should the learner have to tell all this story about adjectives8 ,such a mode of expressing the rule1 is certainly in bad taste2 and1 after all1 the syntax of adjectives is not here comprised1 for they often relate to pronouns4 ,,rule ,,iii4 ,every adjective and participle belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,here a compiler who in his etymology supposes participles to be verbs1 allows them no other construction than that of adjectives4 ,his rule implicitly denies that they can either be parts of their verbs in the formation of tenses1 or be governed by prepositions in the character of gerunds4 ,to suppose that a noun may govern the objective case1 is both absurd in itself1 and contrary to all authority2 yet1 among his forty-nine rules1 this author has the following3 ,,rule ,,xxv4 ,a participial noun is sometimes governed by a preposition1 and may govern an objective case2 as1 ',george is too fond of wasting time in trifles4'--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,here again is the fault of which ,i am speaking1 two rules in one2 and this fault is combined with an other still worse4 ,wasting is a participle1 governed by of2 and time is a noun1 governed by wasting4 ,the latter is a declinable word1 and found in the objective case2 the former is indeclinable1 and found in no case4 ,it is an error to suppose that cases are the only things which are susceptible of being governed2 nor is the brief rule1 ,prepositions govern the objective case1 so very clear a maxim as never to be misapprehended4 ,if the learner infer from it1 that all prepositions must necessarily govern the objective case1 or that the objective case is always governed by a preposition1 he will be led into a great mistake4 ,,obs4 #i4--,this error of crowding things together1 is still more conspicuous in the following examples3 ,,rule ,,iv4 ,every article1 adjective1 and participle1 must qualify some noun1 or pronoun1 either expressed or understood4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,,rule ,,ix4 ,the objective case is governed by a transitive verb or a preposition1 usually coming before it4--,ib41 p4 #ih4 ,here an author who separates participles from verbs1 has attempted first to compress the entire syntax of three different parts of speech into one short rule2 and1 secondly1 to embrace all the forms of dependence1 incident to objective nouns and pronouns1 in an other as short4 ,this brevity is a poor exchange for the order and distribution which it prevents--especially as none of its objects are here reached4 ,articles do not relate to pronouns1 unless the obsolete phrase the which is to be revived2#cbg participles have other constructions than those which adjectives admit2 there are exceptions to the rules which tie articles to nouns1 and adjectives to nouns or pronouns2 and the objective case may not only be governed by a participle1 but may be put in apposition with an other objective4 ,the objective case in ,english usually stands for the ,latin genitive1 dative1 accusative1 and ablative2 hence any rule that shall embrace the whole construction of this one case1 will be the sole counterpart to four fifths of all the rules in any code of ,latin syntax4 ,for ,i imagine the construction of these four oblique cases1 will be found to occupy at least that proportion of the syntactical rules and notes in any ,latin grammar that can be found4 ,such rules1 however1 are often placed under false or equivocal titles2#cbh as if they contained the construction of the governing words1 rather than that of the governed4 ,and this latter error1 again1 has been transferred to most of our ,english grammars1 to the exclusion of any rule for the proper construction of participles1 of adverbs1 of conjunctions1 of prepositions1 or of interjections4 ,see the syntax of ,murray and his copyists1 whose treatment of these parts of speech is noticed in the fifth observation above4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,it is doubtless most convenient1 that1 in all rules for the construction of cases1 nouns and pronouns be taken together2 because the very same doctrines apply equally well to both1 and a case is as distinct a thing in the mind1 as a part of speech4 ,this method1 therefore1 ,i have myself pursued2 and it has indeed the authority of all grammarians--not excepting those who violate its principles by adopting two special rules for the relative pronoun1 which are not needed4 ,these special rules1 which ,i shall notice again hereafter1 may be seen in ,murray's ,rule #fth1 which is double1 and contains them both4 ,the most complex rule that ,i have admitted1 is that which embraces the government of objectives by verbs and participles4 ,the regimen by verbs1 and the regimen by participles1 may not improperly be reckoned distinct principles2 but the near alliance of participles to their verbs1 seems to be a sufficient reason for preferring one rule to two1 in this instance4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,an other common fault in the treatment of this part of grammar1 is the practice of making many of the rules double1 or even triple1 in their form4 ,of ,l4 ,murray's twenty-two rules1 for instance1 there are six which severally consist of two distinct paragraphs2 and one is composed of three such parts1 with examples under each4 ,five others1 though simple in their form1 are complex in their doctrine1 and liable to the objections which have been urged above against this characteristic4 ,these twelve1 therefore1 ,i either reject entirely from my catalogue1 or divide and simplify to fit them for their purpose4 ,in short1 by comparing the twenty-two rules which were adopted by this popular grammarian1 with the twenty-four which are given in this work1 the reader may see1 that twelve of the former have pleased me too little to have any place at all among the latter1 and that none of the remaining ten have been thought worthy to be copied without considerable alteration4 ,nor are the rules which ,i adopt1 more nearly coincident with those of any other writer4 ,i do not proffer to the schools the second-hand instructions of a mere compiler4 ,in his twenty-two rules1 independently of their examples1 ,hurray has used six hundred and seventeen words1 thus giving an average of twenty-eight to each rule2 whereas in the twenty-four rules which are presented above1 the words are but four hundred and thirty-six1 making the average less than nineteen4 ,and yet ,i have not only divided some of his propositions and extended others1 but1 by rejecting what was useless or erroneous1 and filling up the deficiencies which mark his code1 ,i have delivered twice the amount of doctrine in two thirds of the space1 and furnished eleven important rules which are not contained in his grammar4 ,thus much1 in this place1 to those who so frequently ask1 ,wherein does your book differ from ,murray's8 ,,obs4 #ab4--,of all the systems of syntax1 or of grammar1 which it has been my fortune to examine1 a book which was first published by ,robinson and ,franklin of ,new ,york in #ahci1 a fair-looking duodecimo volume of #chd pages1 under the brief but rather ostentatious title1 ,,the ,,grammar of the ,english ,language is1 ,i think1 the most faulty1--the most remarkable for the magnitude1 multitude1 and variety1 of its strange errors1 inconsistencies1 and defects4 ,this singular performance is the work of ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce1 an itinerant lecturer on grammar1 who dates his preface at ,rome1 ,n4 ,y41 ,december #bith1 #ahch4 ,its leading characteristic is boastful innovation2 it being fall of acknowledged contempt for the works of other writers4--,p4 #cgi4 ,it lays claim to singularity as a merit1 and boasts of a new thing under the sun--in a theory ,,radically ,,new1 a ,grammar of the ,english ,language2 something which ,i believe1 says the author1 has ,,never ,,before ,,been ,,found4--,p4 #i4 ,the old scholastic notion1 that because ,custom is the arbitress of speech1 novelty is excluded from grammar1 this hopeful reformer thoroughly condemns2 repudiating this sentiment to the full extent of it1 7ib47 and writing his theory as though he had never seen a book1 entitled an ,english ,grammar4--,ib4 ,and1 for all the ends of good learning1 it would have been as well or better1 if he never had4 ,his passion for novelty has led him not only to abandon or misapply1 in an unprecedented degree1 the usual terms of the art1 but to disregard in many instances its most unquestionable principles1 universal as well as particular4 ,his parts of speech are the following ten3 ,names1 ,substitutes1 ,asserters1 ,adnames1 ,modifiers1 ,relatives1 ,connectives1 ,interrogatives1 ,repliers1 and ,exclamations4--,the ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,his names are nouns2 his substitutes are pronouns1 and any adjectives whose nouns are not expressed2 his asserters are verbs and participles1 though the latter assert nothing2 his adnames are articles1 adjectives whose nouns or pronouns are expressed1 and adverbs that relate to adjectives2 his modifiers are such adverbs as modify the sense or sound of a whole sentence2 his relatives are prepositions1 some of which govern no object2 his connectives are conjunctions1 with certain adverbs and phrases2 his interrogatives and repliers are new parts of speech1 very lamely explained2 his exclamations are interjections1 and phrases used independently2 as1 ,o hapless choice6--,the ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,in parsing1 he finds a world of accommodatives2 as1 ,john is more than five years older than ,william4--,ib4 p4 #bjb4 ,here he calls the whole phrase more than five years a secondary adname i4 e41 adjective4 ,but1 in the phrase1 more than five years afterwards1 he would call the same words a secondary modifier2 i4 e41 adverb4--,ib41 p4 #bjc4 ,and1 in the phrase1 more than five years before the war1 he would call them a secondary relative2 i4 e41 preposition4--,ib41 p4 #bjd4 ,and so of other phrases innumerable4 ,his cases are five1 two of which are new1 the ,independent and the ,twofold case4 ,his independent case is sometimes the nominative in form1 as thou and she2 7p4 #fb27 sometimes the objective1 as1 me and him2 7p4 #fb and p4 #aii27 sometimes erroneously supposed to be the subject of a finite verb2 while his nominative is sometimes as erroneously said to have no verb4 ,his code of syntax has two sorts of rules1 ,analytical and ,synthetical4 ,the former are professedly seventeen in number2 but1 many of them consisting of two1 three1 or four distinct parts1 their real number is more properly thirty-four4 ,the latter are reckoned forty-five2 but if we count their separate parts1 they are fifty-six3 and these with the others make ninety4 ,i shall not particularize their faults4 ,all of them are whimsically conceived and badly written4 ,in short1 had the author artfully designed to turn ,english grammar into a subject of contempt and ridicule1 by as ugly a caricature of it as he could possibly invent1 he could never have hit the mark more exactly than he has done in this new theory--this rash production1 on which he so sincerely prides himself4 ,alone as he is1 in well-nigh all his opinions1 behold how prettily he talks of ,,common ,,sense1 the only sure foundation of any theory6 and says1 ,on this imperishable foundation--this rock of eternal endurance--,i rear my superstructure1 the edifice of scientific truth1 the temple of ,grammatical consistency6--,peirce's ,preface1 p4 #g4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,for the teaching of different languages1 it has been thought very desirable to have a ,series of grammars1 ,greek1 ,latin1 ,english1 c41 all1 so far as general principles are concerned1 upon the same plan1 and as nearly in the same words as the genius of the languages would permit4--,see ,bullions's ,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 pp4 iv and vi4 ,this scheme necessarily demands a minute comparison not only of the several languages themselves1 but also of the various grammars in which their principles1 whether general or particular1 are developed4 ,for by no other means can it be ascertained to what extent uniformity of this kind will be either profitable to the learner1 or consistent with truth4 ,some books have been published1 which1 it is pretended1 are thus accommodated to one an other1 and to the languages of which they treat4 ,but1 in view of the fact1 that the ,latin or the ,greek grammars now extant1 7to say nothing of the ,french1 ,spanish1 and others17 are almost as various and as faulty as the ,english1 ,i am apprehensive that this is a desideratum not soon to be realized1--a design more plausible in the prospectus1 than feasible in the attempt4 ,at any rate1 the grammars of different languages must needs differ as much as do the languages themselves1 otherwise some of their principles will of course be false2 and we have already seen that the nonobservance of this has been a fruitful source of error in respect to ,english syntax4 ,the achievement1 however1 is not altogether impossible1 if a man of competent learning will devote to it a sufficient degree of labour4 ,but the mere revising or altering of some one grammar in each language1 can scarcely amount to any thing more than a pretence of improvement4 ,waiving the pettiness of compiling upon the basis of an other man's compilation1 the foundation of a good grammar for any language1 must be both deeper and broader than all the works which ,professor ,bullions has selected to build upon3 for the ,greek1 than ,dr4 ,moor's ,elementa ,lingu1 ,grc2 for the ,latin1 than ,dr4 ,adam's ,rudiments of ,latin and ,english ,grammar2 for the ,english1 than ,murray's ,english ,grammar1 or ,lennie's ,principles of ,english ,grammar2 which last work1 in fact1 the learned gentleman preferred1 though he pretends to have mended the code of ,murray4 ,but1 certainly1 ,lennie never supposed himself a copyist of ,murray2 nor was he to much extent an imitator of him1 either in method or in style4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,we have1 then1 in this new ,american form of ,the ,principles of ,english ,grammar1 ,lennie's very compact little book1 altered1 enlarged1 and bearing on its title-page 7which is otherwise in the very words of ,lennie7 an other author's name1 and1 in its early editions1 the false and self-accusing inscription1 7,,on ,,the ,,plan ,,of ,,murray',s ,,grammar47 ,and this work1 claiming to have been approved by the most competent judges1 now challenges the praise not only of being better adapted to the use of academies and schools than any yet published but of so presenting the rules and principles of general grammar1 as that they may apply to1 and be in perfect harmony with1 the grammars of the dead languages-- ,recommendations1 p4 iv4 ,these are admirable professions for a critical author to publish2 especially1 as every rule or principle of ,general ,grammar1 condemning as it must whoever violates it1 cannot but be in perfect harmony with every thing that is true4 ,in this model for all grammars1 ,latin1 ,greek1 c41 the doctrines of punctuation1 of abbreviations1 and of capital letters1 and also sections on the rhetorical divisions of a discourse1 the different kinds of composition1 the different kinds of prose composition1 and the different kinds of poetry1 are made parts of the ,syntax2 while his hints for correct and elegant writing1 and his section on the composition of letters and themes1 which other writers suppose to belong rather to syntax1 are here subjoined as parts of ,prosody4 ,in the exercises for parsing appended to his ,etymology1 the ,doctor furnishes twenty-five ,rules of ,syntax1 which1 he says1 are not intended to be committed to memory1 but to be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them4--,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,then1 for his syntax proper1 he copies from ,lennie1 with some alterations1 thirty-four other rules1 nine of which are double1 and all are jumbled together by both authors1 without any regard to the distinction of concord and government1 so common in the grammars of the dead languages1 and even1 so far as ,i can discover1 without any principle of arrangement whatever4 ,they profess indeed to have placed those rules first1 which are eaisest sic--,,kth to learn1 and oftenest to be applied2 but the syntax of articles1 which even on this principle should have formed the first of the series1 is placed by ,lennie as the thirty-fourth rule1 and by his amender as the thirty-second4 ,to all this complexity the latter adds twenty-two ,special ,rules1 with an abundance of ,notes ,observations and ,remarks distinguished by these titles1 on some principle which no one but the author can understand4 ,lastly1 his method of syntactical parsing is not only mixed up with etymological questions and answers1 but his directions for it1 with their exemplification1 are perplexingly at variance with his own specimen of the performance4 ,see his book1 pages #aca and #acc4 ,so much for this grand scheme4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,strictures like the foregoing1 did they not involve the defence of grammar itself1 so as to bear upon interests more important than the success or failure of an elementary book1 might well be withheld through motives of charity1 economy1 and peace4 ,there is many a grammar now extant1 concerning which a truly critical reader may know more at first sight1 than ever did he that made it4 ,what such a reader will be inclined to rate beneath criticism1 an other perhaps will confidently pronounce above it4 ,if my remarks are just1 let the one approve them for the other's sake4 ,for what becomes of the teaching of grammar1 when that which is received as the most excellent method1 must be exempted from censure by reason of its utter worthlessness8 ,and what becomes of ,universal ,syntax1 when the imperfect systems of the ,latin and ,greek grammars1 in stead of being amended1 are modelled to the grossest faults of what is worthless in our own8#cbi ,,obs4 #af4--,what arrangement of ,latin or ,greek syntax may be best in itself1 ,i am not now concerned to show4 ,lily did not divide his1 as others have divided the subject since2 but first stated briefly his three concords1 and then proceeded to what he called the construction of the several parts of speech1 taking them in their order4 ,the three concords of ,lily are the following3 7#a47 ,of the ,nominative and ,verb2 to which the accusative before an infinitive1 and the collective noun with a plural verb1 are reckoned exceptions2 while the agreement of a verb or pronoun with two or more nouns1 is referred to the figure syllepsis4 7#b47 ,of the ,substantive and ,adjective2 under which the agreement of participles1 and of some pronouns1 is placed in the form of a note4 7#c47 ,of the ,relative and ,antecedent2 after which the two special rules for the cases of relatives are given as underparts4 ,dr4 ,adam divided his syntax into two parts2 of ,simple ,sentences1 and of ,compound ,sentences4 ,his three concords are the following3 7#a47 ,of one ,substantive with an ,other2 which construction is placed by ,lily and many others among the figures of syntax1 and is called apposition4 7#b47 ,of an ,adjective with a ,substantive2 under which principle1 we are told to take adjective pronouns and participles4 7#c47 ,of a ,verb with a ,nominative2 under which1 the collective noun with a verb of either number1 is noticed in an observation4 ,the construction of relatives1 of conjunctions1 of comparatives1 and of words put absolute1 this author reserves for the second part of his syntax2 and the agreement of plural verbs or pronouns with joint nominatives or antecedents1 which ,ruddiman places in an observation on his four concords1 is here absurdly reckoned a part of the construction of conjunctions4 ,various divisions and subdivisions of the ,latin syntax1 with special dispositions of some particular principles of it1 may be seen in the elaborate grammars of ,despauter1 ,prat1 ,ruddiman1 ,grant1 and other writers4 ,and here it may be proper to observe1 that1 the mixing of syntax with etymology1 after the manner of ,ingersoll1 ,kirkham1 ,r4 ,w4 ,green1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,sanborn1 ,felton1 ,hazen1 ,parkhurst1 ,parker and ,fox1 ,weld1 and others1 is a modern innovation1 pernicious to both2 either topic being sufficiently comprehensive1 and sufficiently difficult1 when they are treated separately2 and each having1 in some instances1 employed the pens of able writers almost to the exclusion of the other4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,the syntax of any language must needs conform to the peculiarities of its etymology1 and also be consistent with itself2 for all will expect better things of a scholar1 than to lay down positions in one part of his grammar1 that are irreconcilable with what he has stated in an other4 ,the ,english language1 having few inflections1 has also few concords or agreements1 and still fewer governments4 ,articles1 adjectives1 and participles1 which in many other languages agree with their nouns in gender1 number1 and case1 have usually1 in ,english1 no modifications in which they can agree with their nouns4 ,yet ,lowth says1 ,the adjective in ,english1 having no variation of gender and number1 cannot but agree with the substantive in these respects4--,short ,introd4 to ,gram41 p4 #hf4 ,what then is the agreement of words8 ,can it be anything else than their similarity in some common property or modification8 ,and is it not obvious1 that no two things in nature can at all agree1 or be alike1 except in some quality or accident which belongs to each of them8 ,yet how often have ,murray and others1 as well as ,lowth1 forgotten this6 ,to give one instance out of many3 ,gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns1 he1 she1 it4--,murray1 ,j4 ,peirce1 ,flint1 ,lyon1 ,bacon1 ,russell1 ,fisk1 ,maltby1 ,alger1 ,miller1 ,merchant1 ,kirkham1 and other careless copyists4 ,yet1 according to these same gentlemen1 ,gender is the distinction of nouns1 with regard to sex2 and1 ,pronouns must always agree with their antecedents1 and the nouns for which they stand1 in gender4 ,now1 not one of these three careless assertions can possibly be reconciled with either of the others6 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,government has respect only to nouns1 pronouns1 verbs1 participles1 and prepositions2 the other five parts of speech neither govern nor are governed4 ,the governing words may be either nouns1 or verbs1 or participles1 or prepositions2 the words governed are either nouns1 or pronouns1 or verbs1 or participles4 ,in parsing1 the learner must remember that the rules of government are not to be applied to the governing words1 but to those which are governed2 and which1 for the sake of brevity1 are often technically named after the particular form or modification assumed2 as1 possessives1 objectives1 infinitives1 gerundives4 ,these are the only things in ,english1 that can properly be said to be subject to government2 and these are always so1 in their own names2 unless we except such infinitives as stand in the place of nominatives4 ,gerundives are participles governed by prepositions2 but1 there being little or no occasion to distinguish these from other participles1 we seldom use this name4 ,the ,latin ,gerund differs from a participle1 and the ,english ,gerundive differs from a participial noun4 ,the participial noun may be the subject or the object of a verb1 or may govern the possessive case before it1 like any other noun2 but the true ,english gerundive1 being essentially a participle1 and governing an object after it1 like any other participle1 is itself governed only by a preposition4 ,at least1 this is its usual and allowed construction1 and no other is acknowledged to be indisputably right4 ,,obs4 #ai4--,the simple ,relations of words in ,english1 7or those several uses of the parts of speech which we may refer to this head17 are the following nine3 7#a47 ,of ,articles to nouns1 by ,rule #ast2 7#b47 ,of ,nominatives to verbs1 by ,rule #b;d2 7#c47 ,of ,nominatives absolute or independent1 by ,rule #hth2 7#d47 ,of ,adjectives to nouns or pronouns1 by ,rule #ith2 7#e47 ,of ,participles to nouns or pronouns1 by ,rule #bjth2 7#f47 ,of ,adverbs to verbs1 participles1 c41 by ,rule #bast2 7#g47 ,of ,conjunctions as connecting words1 phrases1 or sentences1 by ,rule #bbnd2 7#h47 ,of ,prepositions as showing the relations of things1 by ,rule #bc;d2 7#i47 ,of ,interjections as being used independently1 by ,rule #bdth4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,the syntactical ,agreements in ,english1 though actually much fewer than those which occur in ,latin1 ,greek1 or ,french1 may easily be so reckoned as to amount to double1 or even triple1 the number usually spoken of by the old grammarians4 ,the twenty-four rules above1 embrace the following ten heads1 which may not improperly be taken for so many distinct concords3 7#a47 ,of a ,noun or ,pronoun in direct apposition with another1 by ,rule #c;d2 7#b47 ,of a ,noun or ,pronoun after a verb or participle not transitive1 by ,rule #fth2 7#c47 ,of a ,pronoun with its antecedent1 by ,rule #ajth2 7#d47 ,of a ,pronoun with a collective noun1 by ,rule #aath2 7#e47 ,of a ,pronoun with joint antecedents1 by ,rule #abth2 7#f47 ,of a ,pronoun with disjunct antecedents1 by ,rule #acth2 7#g47 ,of a ,verb with its nominative1 by ,rule #adth2 7#h47 ,of a ,verb with a collective noun1 by ,rule #aeth2 7#i47 ,of a ,verb with joint nominatives1 by ,rule #afth2 7#aj47 ,of a ,verb with disjunct nominatives1 by ,rule #agth4 ,to these may be added two other special concords1 less common and less important1 which will be explained in notes under the rules3 7#aa47 ,of one ,verb with an other1 in mood1 tense1 and form1 when two are connected so as to agree with the same nominative2 7#ab47 ,of ,adjectives that imply unity or plurality1 with their nouns1 in number4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,again1 by a different mode of reckoning them1 the concords or the general principles of agreement1 in our language1 may be made to be only three or four2 and some of these much less general1 than they are in other languages3 7#a47 ,words in apposition agree in case1 according to ,rule #c;d2 of which principle1 ,rule #fth may be considered a modification4 7#b47 ,pronouns agree1 with their nouns1 in person1 number1 and gender1 according to ,rule #ajth2 of which principle1 ,rules #aath1 #abth1 and #acth1 may be reckoned modifications4 7#c47 ,verbs agree with their nominatives1 in person and number1 according to ,rule #adth2 of which principle ,rules #aeth1 #afth1 and #agth1 and the occasional agreement of one verb with an other1 may be esteemed mere modifications4 7#d47 ,some adjectives agree with their nouns in number4 ,these make up the twelve concords above enumerated4 ,,obs4 #bb4--,the rules of ,government in the best ,latin grammars are about sixty2 and these are usually distributed 7though not very properly7 under three heads2 #a4 ,of ,nouns4 #b4 ,of ,verbs4 #c4 ,of ,words indeclinable4-- ,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #agj4 ,regimen est triplex3 #a4 ,nominum4 #b4 ,verborum4 #c4 ,vocum indeclinabilium4--,ruddiman's ,gram41 p4 #ach4 ,this division of the subject brings all the titles of the rules wrong4 ,for example1 if the rule be1 ,active verbs govern the accusative case1 this is not properly the government of verbs but rather the government of the accusative by verbs4 ,at least1 such titles are equivocal1 and likely to mislead the learner4 ,the governments in ,english are only seven1 and these are expressed1 perhaps with sufficient distinctness1 in six of the foregoing rules3 7#a47 ,of ,possessives by nouns1 in ,rule #dth2 7#b47 ,of ,objectives by verbs1 in ,rule #eth2 7#c47 ,of ,objectives by participles1 in ,rule #eth2 7#d47 ,of ,objectives by prepositions1 in ,rule #gth2 7#e47 ,of ,infinitives by the preposition to1 in ,rule #ahth2 7#f47 ,of ,infinitives by the verbs bid1 dare1 c41 in ,rule #aith2 7#g47 ,of ,participles by prepositions1 in ,rule #bjth4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,the ,arrangement of words1 7which will be sufficiently treated of in the observations hereafter to be made on the several rules of construction17 is an important part of syntax1 in which not only the beauty but the propriety of language is intimately concerned1 and to which particular attention should therefore be paid in composition4 ,but it is to be remembered1 that the mere collocation of words in a sentence never affects the method of parsing them3 on the contrary1 the same words1 however placed1 are always to be parsed in precisely the same way1 so long as they express precisely the same meaning4 ,in order to show that we have parsed any part of an inverted or difficult sentence rightly1 we are at liberty to declare the meaning by any arrangement which will make the construction more obvious1 provided we retain both the sense and all the words unaltered2 but to drop or alter any word1 is to pervert the text under pretence of resolving it1 and to make a mockery of parsing4 ,grammar rightly learned1 enables one to understand both the sense and the construction of whatsoever is rightly written2 and he who reads what he does not understand1 reads to little purpose4 ,with great indignity to the muses1 several pretenders to grammar have foolishly taught1 that1 ,in parsing poetry1 in order to come at the meaning of the author1 the learner will find it necessary to transpose his language4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ,see also the books of ,merchant1 ,wilcox1 ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce1 ,hull1 ,smith1 ,felton1 and others1 to the same effect4 ,to what purpose can he transpose the words of a sentence1 who does not first see what they mean1 and how to explain or parse them as they stand8 ,,obs4 #bd4--;,errors innumerable have been introduced into the common modes of parsing1 through a false notion of what constitutes a simple sentence4 ,lowth1 ,adam1 ,murray1 ,gould1 ,smith1 ,ingersoll1 ,comly1 ,lennie1 ,hiley1 ,bullions1 ,wells1 and many others1 say1 ,a simple sentence has in it but one subject1 and one finite verb3 as1 ',life is short4'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,in accordance with this assertion1 some assume1 that1 ,every nominative has its own verb expressed or understood2 and that1 ,every verb 7except in the infinitive mood and participle7 has its own nominative expressed or understood4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,the adopters of these dogmas1 of course think it right to supply a nominative whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every finite verb1 and a verb whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every nominative4 ,this mode of interpretation not only precludes the agreement of a verb with two or more nominatives1 so as to render nugatory two of the most important rules of these very gentlemen's syntax2 but1 what is worse1 it perverts many a plain1 simple1 and perfect sentence1 to a form which its author did not choose1 and a meaning which he never intended4 ,suppose1 for example1 the text to be1 ,a good constitution and good laws make good subjects4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #aeb4 ,does not the verb make agree with constitution and laws1 taken conjointly8 and is it not a perversion of the sentence to interpret it otherwise8 ,away then with all this needless subaudition6 ,but while we thus deny that there can be a true ellipsis of what is not necessary to the construction1 it is not to be denied that there are true ellipses1 and in some men's style very many4 ,the assumption of ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce1 that no correct sentence is elliptical1 and his impracticable project of a grammar founded on this principle1 are among the grossest of possible absurdities4 ,,obs4 #be4--;,dr4 ,wilson says1 ,there may be several subjects to the same verb1 several verbs to the same subject1 or several objects to the same verb1 and the sentence be simple4 ,but when the sentence remains simple1 the same verb must be differently affected by its several adjuncts1 or the sense liable to be altered by a separation4 ,if the verb or the subject be affected in the same manner1 or the sentence is resolvable into more1 it is compounded4 ,thus1 ',violet1 indigo1 blue1 green1 yellow1 orange1 and red1 mixed in due proportion1 produce white1' is a simple sentence1 for the subject is indivisible4 ,but1 ',violet1 indigo1 blue1 green1 yellow1 orange1 and red1 are refrangible rays of light1' is a compound sentence1 and may be separated into seven4--,essay on ,gram41 p4 #ahf4 ,the propriety of the distinction here made1 is at least questionable2 and ,i incline to consider the second example a simple sentence1 as well as the first2 because what the writer calls a separation into seven1 involves a change of are to is1 and of rays to ray1 as well as a sevenfold repetition of this altered predicate1 is a refrangible ray of light4 ,but the parser1 in interpreting the words of others1 and expounding the construction of what is written1 has no right to alter anything in this manner4 ,nor do ,i admit that he has a right to insert or repeat anything needlessly2 for the nature of a sentence1 or the syntax of some of its words1 may often be altered without change of the sense1 or of any word for an other3 as1 ',a wall seven feet high2' that is1 ',a wall which is seven feet high4'--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aji4 ',he spoke and acted prudently2' that is1 ',he spoke prudently1 and he acted prudently4'--,ibid4 ',he spoke and acted wisely2' that is1 ',he spoke wisely1 and he acted wisely4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bai2 ,alger's1 #gj3 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #ahc2 ,weld's1 #aib2 and others4 ,by this notion of ellipsis1 the connexion or joint relation of words is destroyed4 ,,obs4 #bf4--;,dr4 ,adam1 who thought the division of sentences into simple and compound1 of sufficient importance to be made the basis of a general division of syntax into two parts1 has defined a simple sentence to be1 that which has but one nominative1 and one finite verb2 and a compound sentence1 that which has more than one nominative1 or one finite verb4 ,and of the latter he gives the following erroneous and self-contradictory account3 ,a compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences or phrases1 and is commonly called a ,period4 ,the parts of which a compound sentence consists1 are called ,members or ,clauses4 ,in every compound sentence there are either several subjects and one attribute1 or several attributes and one subject1 or both several subjects and several attributes2 that is1 there are either several nominatives applied to the same verb1 or several verbs applied to the same nominative1 or both4 ,every verb marks a judgment or attribute1 and every attribute must have a subject4 ,there must1 therefore1 be in every sentence or period1 as many propositions as there are verbs of a finite mode4 ,sentences are compounded by means of relatives and conjunctions2 as1 ,happy is the man who loveth religion1 and practiseth virtue4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bjb2 ,gould's1 #aii2 and others4 ,,obs4 #bg4--,now if every compound sentence consists of such parts1 members1 or clauses1 as are in themselves sentences1 either simple or compound1 either elliptical or complete2 it is plain1 in the first place1 that the term phrases is misapplied above1 because a phrase is properly only a part of some simple sentence4 ,and if a simple sentence is that which has but one nominative and one finite verb1 and a compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences1 it follows1 since all sentences are either simple or compound1 that1 in no sentence1 can there be either several nominatives applied to the same verb1 or several verbs applied to the same nominative4 ,what1 therefore1 this author regarded as the characteristic of all compound sentences1 is1 according to his own previous positions1 utterly impossible to any sentence4 ,nor is it less repugnant to his subsequent doctrine1 that1 ,sentences are compounded by means of relatives and conjunctions2 for1 according to his notion1 ,a conjunction is an indeclinable word1 which serves to join sentences together4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #adi4 ,it is assumed1 that1 ,in every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative expressed or understood4--,ib41 p4 #aea4 ,now if there happen to be two nominatives to one verb1 as when it was said1 ,even the winds and the sea obey him2 this cannot be anything more than a simple sentence2 because one single verb is a thing indivisible1 and how can we suppose it to form the most essential part of two different sentences at once8 ,,obs4 #bh4--,the distinction1 or real difference1 between those simple sentences in which two or more nominatives or verbs are taken conjointly1 and those compound sentences in which there is an ellipsis of some of the nominatives or verbs1 is not always easy to be known or fixed2 because in many instances1 a supposed ellipsis1 without at all affecting the sense1 may obviously change the construction1 and consequently the nature of the sentence4 ,for example3 ,and they all forsook him1 and they all fled4--,mark1 xiv1 #ej4 ,some will say1 that the words in brackets are here understood4 ,i may deny it1 because they are needless2 and nothing needless can form a true ellipsis4 ,to the supplying of useless words1 if we admit the principle1 there may be no end2 and the notion that conjunctions join sentences only1 opens a wide door for it4 ,for example3 ,and that man was perfect and upright1 and one that feared ,god1 and eschewed evil4--,job1 i1 #a4 ,no additional words will make this clause any plainer1 and none are really necessary to the construction2 yet some grammarians will parse it with the following impletions1 or more3 ,and that man was a perfect man1 and he was an upright man1 and he was one man that feared ,god1 and that eschewed evil things4 ,it is easy to see how this liberty of interpretation1 or of interpolation1 will change simple sentences to compound sentences1 as well as alter the nature and relation of many particular words2 and at the same time1 it takes away totally those peculiarities of construction by which ,dr4 ,adam and others would recognize a sentence as being compound4 ,what then8 are there not two kinds of sentences8 ,yes1 truly2 but these authors are wrong in their notions and definitions of both4 ,joint nominatives or joint verbs may occur in either2 but they belong primarily to some simple sentences1 and only for that reason are found in any that are compound4 ,a sentence1 too1 may possibly be made compound1 when a simple one would express the whole meaning as well or better2 as1 ,and ,david smote the ,philistines from ,geba until thou come to ,gazer4--#b ,sam41 v1 #be4 ,here1 if we omit the words in ,italics1 the sentence will become simple1 not elliptical4 ,,the ,,analyzing ,,of ,,sentences4 ,to analyze a sentence1 is1 to resolve it into some species of constituent parts1 but most properly into words1 its first significant elements1 and to point out their several relations and powers in the given connexion4 ,the component parts of a sentence are members1 clauses1 phrases1 or words4 ,some sentences1 which are short and simple1 can only be divided into their words2 others1 which are long and complex1 may be resolved into parts again and again divisible4 ,of analysis applicable to sentences1 there are several different methods2 and1 so far as their difference may compatibly aid the application of different principles of the science of grammar1 there may be an advantage in the occasional use of each4 ,,first ,,method ,,of ,,analysis4 ,sentences not simple may be reduced to their constituent members1 clauses1 or simple sentences2 and the means by which these are united1 may be shown4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,analyzed4 ,even the ,atheist1 who tells us that the universe is self-existent and indestructible--even he1 who1 instead of seeing the traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties1 sees nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty dimensions of materialism--even he1 who would despoil creation of its ,god1 cannot look upon its golden suns1 and their accompanying systems1 without the solemn impression of a magnificence that fixes and overpowers him4--,,dr4 ,,chalmers1 ,discourses on ,revelation and ,astronomy1 p4 #bca4 ,,analysis4--,this is a compound sentence1 consisting of three complex members1 which are separated by the two dashes4 ,the three members are united in one sentence1 by a suspension of the sense at each dash1 and by two virtual repetitions of the subject1 ,atheist through the pronoun he1 put in the same case1 and representing this noun4 ,the sense mainly intended is not brought out till the period ends4 ,each of the three members is complex1 because each has not only a relative clause1 commencing with who1 but also an antecedent word which makes sense with cannot look1 c4 ,the first of these relative clauses involves also a subordinate1 supplementary clause1--the universe is self-existent and indestructible--introduced after the verb tells by the conjunction that4 ,the last phrase1 without the solemn impression1 c41 which is subjoined by without to cannot look1 embraces likewise a subordinate1 relative clause1--that fixes and overpowers him1--which has two verbs2 the whole1 antecedent and all1 being but an adjunct of an adjunct1 yet an essential element of the sentence4 ,,second ,,method ,,of ,,analysis4 ,simple sentences1 or the simple members of compound sentences1 may be resolved into their ,,principal and their ,,subordinate ,,parts2 the subject1 the verb1 and the case put after or governed by the verb1 being first pointed out as ,,the ,,principal ,,parts2 and the other words being then detailed as ,,adjuncts to these1 according to ,,the ,,sense1 or as adjuncts to adjuncts4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,analyzed4 ,fear naturally quickens the flight of guilt4 ,rasselas could not catch the fugitive1 with his utmost efforts2 but1 resolving to weary1 by perseverance1 him whom he could not surpass in speed1 he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course4--,,dr4 ,,johnson1 ,rasselas1 p4 #bc4 ,,analysis4--,the first period here is a simple sentence4 ,its principal parts are--,fear1 quickens1 flight2 ,fear being the subject1 quickens the verb1 and flight the object4 ,fear has no adjunct2 naturally is an adjunct of quickens2 the and of guilt are adjuncts of flight4 ,the second period is composed of several clauses1 or simple members1 united4 ,the first of these is also a simple sentence1 having1 three principal parts--,rasselas1 could catch1 and fugitive2 the subject1 the verb1 and its object1 in their order4 ,not is added to could catch1 reversing the meaning2 the is an adjunct to fugitive2 with joins its phrase to could not catch2 but his and utmost are adjuncts of efforts4 ,the word but connects the two chief members as parts of one sentence4 ,resolving to weary is an adjunct to the pronoun he1 which stands before pressed4 ,by perseverance1 is an adjunct to weary4 ,him is governed by weary1 and is the antecedent to whom4 ,whom he could not surpass in speed1 is a relative clause1 or subordinate simple member1 having three principal parts--he1 could surpass1 and whom4 ,not and in speed are adjuncts to the verb could surpass4 ,he pressed on is an other simple member1 or sentence1 and the chief clause here used1 the others being subjoined to this4 ,its principal parts are two1 he and pressed2 the latter taking the particle on as an adjunct1 and being intransitive4 ,the words dependent on the nominative he1 7to wit1 resolving1 c417 have already been mentioned4 ,till is a conjunctive adverb of time1 connecting the concluding clause to pressed on4 ,the foot of the mountain stopped his course1 is a subordinate clause and simple member1 whose principal parts are--the subject foot1 the verb stopped1 and the object course4 ,the adjuncts of foot are the and of the mountain2 the verb in this sentence has no adjunct but course1 which is better reckoned a principal word2 lastly1 his is an adjunct to course1 and governed by it4 ,,third ,,method ,,of ,,analysis4 ,sentences may be partially analyzed by a resolution into their ,,subjects and their ,,predicates1 a method which some late grammarians have borrowed from the logicians2 the grammatical subject with its adjuncts1 being taken for the logical subject2 and the finite verb1 which some call the grammatical predicate#ccj being1 with its subsequent case and the adjuncts of both1 denominated the predicate1 or the logical predicate4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,analyzed4 ,such is the emptiness of human enjoyment1 that we are always impatient of the present4 ,attainment is followed by neglect1 and possession1 by disgust4 ,few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking4 ,from the first hint that wakens the fancy1 to the hour of actual execution1 all is improvement and progress1 triumph and felicity4--,,dr4 ,,johnson1 ,rambler4 ,,analysis4--,here the first period is a compound sentence1 containing two clauses1--which are connected by that4 ,in the first clause1 emptiness is the grammatical subject1 and the emptiness of human enjoyment is the logical4 ,is some would call the grammatical predicate1 and ,such is1 or is such1 the logical2 but the latter consists1 as the majority teach1 of the copula is1 and the attribute1 or predicate1 such4 ,in the second clause1 7which explains the import of ,such17 the subject is we2 which is unmodified1 and in which therefore the logical form and the grammatical coincide and are the same4 ,are may here be called the grammatical predicate2 and are always impatient of the present1 the logical4 ,the second period1 too1 is a compound sentence1 having two clauses1 which are connected by and4 ,attainment is the subject of the former2 and1 is followed by neglect is the predicate4 ,in the latter1 possession alone is the subject2 and1 is followed by disgust1 is the predicate2 the verb is followed being understood at the comma4 ,the third period1 likewise1 is a compound1 having three parts1 with the two connectives than and which4 ,here we have moments for the first grammatical subject1 and ,few moments for the logical2 then1 are for the grammatical predicate1 and are more pleasing for the logical3 or1 if we choose to say so1 for the copula and the attribute4 ,than those1 is an elliptical member1 meaning1 than are those moments1 or1 than those moments are pleasing2 both subject and predicate are wholly suppressed1 except that those is reckoned a part of the logical subject4 ,in which is an adjunct of is concerting1 and serves well to connect the members1 because which represents those1 i4e4 those moments4 ,mind1 or the mind1 is the next subject of affirmation2 and is concerting1 or1 is concerting measures for a new undertaking1 is the predicate or matter affirmed4 ,lastly1 the fourth period1 like the rest1 is compound4 ,the phrases commencing with ,from and to1 describe a period of time1 and are adjuncts of the verb is4 ,the former contains a subordinate relative clause1 of which that 7representing hint7 is the subject1 and wakens1 or wakens the fancy1 the predicate4 ,of the principal clause1 the word all1 taken as a noun1 is the subject1 whether grammatical or logical2 and the copula1 or grammatical predicate1 is1 becomes1 with its adjuncts and the nominatives following1 the logical predicate4 ,,fourth ,,method ,,of ,,analysis4 ,all syntax is founded on the ,,relation of words one to an other1 and the ,,connexion of clauses and phrases1 according to ,,the ,,sense4 ,hence sentences may be1 in some sort1 analyzed1 and perhaps profitably1 by the tracing of such relation or connexion1 from link to link1 through a series of words1 beginning and ending with such as are somewhat remote from each other1 yet within the period4 ,thus3-- ,,examples ,,analyzed4 #a4 ,swift would say1 ',the thing has not life enough in it to keep it sweet2' ,johnson1 ',the creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction4'--,,matt4 ,,harrison1 on the ,english ,language1 p4 #ajb4 ,,analysis4--,what is the general sense of this passage8 and what1 the chain of connexion between the words ,swift and putrefaction8 ,the period is designed to show1 that ,swift preferred words of ,saxon origin2 and ,johnson1 of ,latin4 ,it has in contrast two cordinate members1 tacitly connected3 the verb would say being understood after ,johnson1 and perhaps also the particle but1 after the semicolon4 ,swift is the subject of would say2 and would say introduces the clause after it1 as what would be said4 ,the relates to thing2 thing is the subject of has2 has1 which is qualified by not1 governs life2 life is qualified by the adjective enough1 and by the phrase1 in it2 enough is the prior term of to2 to governs keep2 keep governs it1 which stands for the thing2 and it1 in lieu of the thing1 is qualified by sweet4 ,the chief members are connected either by standing in contrast as members1 or by but1 understood before ,johnson4 ,johnson is the subject of would say1 understood3 and this would say1 again introduces a clause1 as what would be said4 ,the relates to creature2 creature is the subject of possesses2 possesses1 which is qualified by not1 governs vitality2 vitality is qualified by sufficient2 sufficient is the prior term of to2 to governs preserve2 preserve governs it1 and is the prior term of from2 and from governs putrefaction4 #b4 ,there is one ,being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security1 which nothing about us can give1 and which nothing about us can take away4--,,greenwood2 ,wells's ,school ,gram41 p4 #aib4cca ,,analysis4--,what is the general structure of this passage8 and what1 the chain of connexion between the words away and is8 ,the period is a complex sentence1 having four clauses1 all connected together by relatives2 the second1 by whom1 to the first and chief clause1 ,there is one ,being2 the third and the fourth1 to the second1 by which and which2 but the last two1 having the same antecedent1 security1 and being cordinate1 are also connected one to the other by and4 ,as to the chain of connexion1 ,away relates to can take2 can take agrees with its nominative nothing1 and governs which2 which represents security2 security is governed by finding2 finding is governed by of2 of refers back to conviction2 conviction is governed by with2 with refers back to can look2 can look agrees with we1 and is1 in sense1 the antecedent of to2 to governs whom2 whom represents ,being2 and ,being is the subject of is4 ,,fifth ,,method ,,of ,,analysis4 ,the best and most thorough method of analysis is that of ,,complete ,,syntactical ,,parsing2 a method which1 for the sake of order and brevity1 should ever be kept free from all mixture of etymological definitions or reasons1 but which may be preceded or followed by any of the foregoing schemes of resolution1 if the teacher choose to require any such preliminary or subsidiary exposition4 ,this method is fully illustrated in the ,twelfth ,praxis below4 ,,observations ,,on ,,methods ,,of ,,analysis4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the almost infinite variety in the forms of sentences1 will sometimes throw difficulty in the way of the analyzer1 be his scheme or his skill what it may4 ,the last four or five observations of the preceding series have shown1 that the distinction of sentences as simple or compound1 which constitutes the chief point of the ,first ,method of ,analysis above1 is not always plain1 even to the learned4 ,the definitions and examples which ,i have given1 will make it generally so2 and1 where it is otherwise1 the question or puzzle1 it is presumed1 cannot often be of much practical importance4 ,if the difference be not obvious1 it can hardly be a momentous error1 to mistake a phrase for an elliptical clause1 or to call such a clause a phrase4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the ,second ,method above is1 ,i think1 easier of application than any of the rest2 and1 if other analysis than the regular method of parsing seem desirable1 this will probably be found as useful as any4 ,there is1 in many of our popular grammars1 some recognition of the principles of this analysis--some mention of the principal parts of a sentence1 in accordance with what are so called above1--and also1 in a few1 some succinct account of the parts called adjuncts2 but there seems to have been no prevalent practice of applying these principles1 in any stated or well-digested manner4 ,lowth1 ,murray1 ,alger1 ,w4 ,allen1 ,hart1 ,hiley1 ,ingersoll1 ,wells1 and others1 tell of these ,,principal ,,parts2--,lowth calling them1 the agent1 the attribute1 and the object2 7,gram41 p4 #gb27--,murray1 and his copyists1 ,alger1 ,ingersoll1 and others1 calling them1 the subject1 the attribute1 and the object2--,hiley and ,hart calling them1 the subject or nominative1 the attribute or verb1 and the object2--,allen calling them1 the nominative1 the verb1 and 7if the verb is active17 the accusative governed by the verb2 and also saying1 ,the nominative is sometimes called the subject2 the verb1 the attribute2 and the accusative1 the object2--,wells calling them1 the subject or nominative1 the verb1 and the object2 and also recognizing the adjuncts1 as a species which embraces all the words of a simple sentence 1 except the principal parts2--yet not more than two of them all appearing to have taken any thought1 and they but little1 about the formal application of their common doctrine4 ,in ,allen's ,english ,grammar1 which is one of the best1 and likewise in ,wells's1 which is equally prized1 this reduction of all connected words1 or parts of speech1 into the principal parts and the adjuncts1 is fully recognized2 the adjuncts1 too1 are discriminated by ,allen1 as either primary or secondary1 nor are their more particular species or relations overlooked2 but ,i find no method prescribed for the analysis intended1 except what ,wells adopted in his early editions but has since changed to an other or abandoned1 and no other allusion to it by1 ,allen1 than this ,note1 which1 with some appearance of intrusion1 is appended to his ,method of ,parsing the ,infinitive ,mood3--,the pupil may now begin to analyse analyze the sentences1 by distinguishing the principal words and their adjuncts4--,w4 ,allen's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #beh4 ,,obs4 #c4--,these authors in general1 and many more1 tell us1 with some variation of words1 that the agent1 subject1 or nominative1 is that of which something is said1 affirmed1 or denied2 that the attribute1 verb1 or predicate1 is that which is said1 affirmed1 or denied1 of the subject2 and that the object1 accusative1 or case sequent1 is that which is introduced by the finite verb1 or affected by the action affirmed4 ,lowth says1 ,in ,english the nominative case1 denoting the agent1 usually goes before the verb1 or attribution2 and the objective case1 denoting the object1 follows the verb active4--,short ,introd41 p4 #gb4 ,murray copies1 but not literally1 thus3 ,the nominative denotes the subject1 and usually goes before the verb 1 or attribute2 and the word or phrase1 denoting the object1 follows the verb3 as1 ',a wise man governs his passions4' ,here1 a wise man is the subject2 governs1 the attribute1 or thing affirmed2 and his passions1 the object4--,murray's ,octavo1 p4 #adb2 ,duodecimo1 #aaf4 ,to include thus the adjuncts with their principals1 as the logicians do1 is here manifestly improper2 because it unites what the grammatical analyzer is chiefly concerned to separate1 and tends to defeat the main purpose for which ,,the ,,principal ,,parts are so named and distinguished4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the ,third ,method of ,analysis1 described above1 is an attempt very briefly to epitomize the chief elements of a great scheme1--to give1 in a nutshell1 the substance of what our grammarians have borrowed from the logicians1 then mixed with something of their own1 next amplified with small details1 and1 in some instances1 branched out and extended to enormous bulk and length4 ,of course1 they have not failed to set forth the comparative merits of this scheme in a sufficiently favourable light4 ,the two ingenious gentlemen who seem to have been chiefly instrumental in making it popular1 say in their preface1 ,the rules of syntax contained in this work result directly from the analysis of propositions1 and of compound sentences2 and for this reason the student should make himself perfectly familiar with the sections relating to subject and predicate1 and should be able readily to analyze sentences1 whether simple or compound1 and to explain their structure and connection4 99 99 99 ,this exercise should always precede the more minute and subsidiary labor of parsing4 ,if the latter be conducted1 as it often is1 independently of previous analysis1 the principal advantage to be derived from the study of language1 as an intellectual exercise1 will inevitably be lost4--,latin ,grammar of ,andrews and ,stoddard1 p4 vi4 ,n4 ,butler1 who bestows upon this subject about a dozen duodecimo pages1 says in his preface1 ,the rules for the analysis of sentences1 which is a very useful and interesting exercise1 have been taken from ,andrews' and ,stoddard's ,latin ,grammar1 some changes and additions being made4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 iv4#ccb ,,obs4 #e4--,wells1 in the early copies of his ,school ,grammar1 as has been hinted1 adopted a method of analysis similar to the ,second one prescribed above2 yet referred1 even from the first1 to ,andrews and ,stoddard's ,latin ,grammar1 and to ,de ,sacy's ,general ,grammar1 as if these were authorities for what he then inculcated4 ,subsequently1 he changed his scheme1 from that of ,parts ,principal and ,adjuncts1 to one of ,subjects and ,predicates1 either grammatical or logical1 also either simple or compound2--to one resembling ,andrews and ,stoddard's1 yet differing from it1 often1 as to what constitutes a grammatical predicate2--to one resenbling sic--,,kth the ,third ,method above1 yet differing from it1 7as does ,andrews and ,stoddard's17 in taking the logical subject and predicate before the grammatical4 ,the chapter on ,analysis1 said he then1 has been ,revised and enlarged with great care1 and will be found to embody all the most important principles on this subject 4 which are contained in the works of ,de ,sacy1 ,andrews and ,stoddard1 ,khner1 ,crosby1 and ,crane4 ,it is gratifying to observe that the attention of teachers is now so generally directed to this important mode of investigating the structure of our language1 in connection with the ordinary exercises of etymological and syntactical parsing4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 ,new ,ed41 #ahej1 p4 iv4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,in view of the fact1 that ,wells's chief mode of sentential analysis had just undergone an almost total metamorphosis1 a change plausible perhaps1 but of doubtful utility1--that1 up to the date of the words just cited1 and afterwards1 so far and so long as any copies of his early ,thousands remain in use1 the author himself has earnestly directed attention to a method which he now means henceforth to abandon1--in this view1 the praise and gratulation expressed above seem singular4 ,if it has been found practicable1 to slide the attention of teachers1 and their approbation too1 adroitly over from one important mode of investigating the structure of our language1 to an other2--if it is gratifying to observe1 that the direction thus given to public opinion sustains itself so well1 and is so generally acquiesced in2--if it is proved1 that the stereotyped praise of one system of analysis may1 without alteration1 be so transferred to an other1 as to answer the double purpose of commending and superseding2--it is not improbable that the author's next new plates will bear the stamp of yet other most important principles of analysis4 ,this process is here recommended to be used in connection with the ordinary exercises of etymological and syntactical parsing1--exercises1 which1 in ,wells's ,grammar1 are generally1 and very improperly1 commingled2 and if1 to these1 may be profitably conjoined either his present or his former scheme of analysis1 it were well1 had he somewhere put them together and shown how4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,but there are other passages of the ,school ,grammar1 so little suited to this notion of connection that one can hardly believe the word ought to be taken in what seems its only sense4 ,advanced classes should attend less to the common ,order of ,parsing1 and more to the ,analysis of language4--,wells's ,grammar1 #c;d ,thousand1 p4 #abe2 #aacth ,thousand1 p4 #acb4 ,this implies1 what is probably true of the etymological exercise1 that parsing is more rudimental than the other forms of analysis4 ,it also intimates1 what is not so clear1 that pupils rightly instructed must advance from the former to the latter1 as to something more worthy of their intellectual powers4 ,the passage is used with reference to either form of analysis adopted by the author4 ,so the following comparison1 in which ,parsing is plainly disparaged1 stands permanently at the head of the chapter on ,analysis1 to commend first one mode1 and then an other3 ,it is particularly desirable that pupils should pass as early as practicable from the formalities of common ,,parsing1 to the more important exercise of ,,analyzing critically the structure of language4 ,the mechanical routine of technical parsing is peculiarly liable to become monotonous and dull1 while the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence1 is adapted to call the mind of the learner into constant and vigorous action1 and can hardly fail of exciting the deepest interest1--,wells's ,gram41 #c;d ,th41 p4 #aha2 #aacth ,th41 p4 #ahd4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,an ill scheme of parsing1 or an ill use of a good one1 is almost as unlucky in grammar1 as an ill method of ciphering1 or an ill use of a good one1 would be in arithmetic4 ,from the strong contrast cited above1 one might suspect that1 in selecting1 devising1 or using1 a technical process for the exercising of learners in the principles of etymology and syntax1 this author had been less fortunate than the generality of his fellows4 ,not only is it implied1 that parsing is no critical analysis1 but even what is set in opposition to the mechanical routine1 may very well serve for a definition of ,syntactical ,parsing--the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence6 ,if this practice1 well ordered1 can be at once interesting and profitable to the learner1 so may parsing4 ,nor1 after all1 is even this author's mode of parsing1 defective though it is in several respects1 less important to the users of his book1 or less valued by teachers1 than the analysis which he sets above it4 ,,obs4 #i4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 a public teacher in ,boston1 who1 in answer to a supposed demand for a more philosophical plan of teaching the ,english language1 has entered in earnest upon the ,analysis of ,sentences1 having devoted to one method of it more than the space of two hundred duodecimo pages1 speaks of analysis and of parsing1 thus3 ,the resolving of a sentence into its elements1 or of any complex element into the parts which compose it1 is called analysis4--,greene's ,analysis1 p4 #ad4 ,parsing consists in naming a part of speech1 giving its modifications1 relation1 agreement or dependence1 and the rule for its construction4 ,analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence4 ,analysis should precede parsing4--,ib41 p4 #bf4 ,a large proportion of the elements of sentences are not single words1 but combinations or groups of words4 ,these groups perform the office of the substantive1 the adjective1 or the adverb1 and1 in some one of these relations1 enter in as the component parts of a sentence4 ,the pupil who learns to determine the elements of a sentence1 must1 therefore1 learn the force of these combinations before he separates them into the single words which compose them4 ,this advantage is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing4--,ib41 p4 #c4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,on these passages1 it may be remarked in the first place1 that the distinction attempted between analysis and parsing is by no means clear1 or well drawn4 ,nor indeed could it be2 because parsing is a species of analysis4 ,the first assertion would be just as true as it is now1 were the former word substituted for the latter3 thus1 ,the resolving of a sentence into its elements1 or of any complex element into the parts which compose it1 is called parsing4 ,next1 the ,parsing spoken of in the second sentence1 is ,syntactical ,parsing only2 and1 without a limitation of the species1 neither this assertion nor the one concerning precedence is sufficiently true4 ,again1 the suggestion1 that1 ,analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence1 has nothing distinctive in it2 and1 without some idea of the author's peculiar system of elements1 previously impressed upon the mind1 is scarcely1 if at all1 intelligible4 ,lastly1 that a pupil must understand a sentence1--or1 what is the same thing1 learn the force of the words combined1--before he can be sure of parsing each word rightly1 is a very plain and certain truth2 but what advantage over parsing this truth gives to the lesser analysis1 which deals with groups1 it is not easy to discover4 ,if the author had any clear idea of this advantage1 he has conveyed no such conception to his readers4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,greene's ,analysis is the most expanded form of the ,third ,method above4#ccc ,its nucleus1 or germinating kernel1 was the old partition of subject and predicate1 derived from the art of logic4 ,its chief principles may be briefly stated thus3 ,sentences1 which are simple1 or complex1 or compound1 are made up of words1 phrases1 and clauses--three grand classes of elements1 called the first1 the second1 and the third class4 ,from these1 each sentence must have two elements2 the ,subject1 or ,substantive element1 and the ,predicate1 or ,predicative element1 which are principal2 and a sentence may have five1 the subordinates being the ,adjective element1 the ,objective element1 and the ,adverbial element4 ,the five elements have sundry modifications and subdivisions4 ,each of the five may1 like a sentence1 be simple1 or complex1 or compound2 and each may be of any of the three grand classes4 ,the development of this scheme forms a volume1 not small4 ,the system is plausible1 ingenious1 methodical1 mostly true1 and somewhat elaborate2 but it is neither very useful nor very accurate4 ,it seems too much like a great tree1 beautiful1 symmetrical1 and full of leaves1 but raised or desired only for fruit1 yet bearing little1 and some of that little not of good quality1 but knurly or bitter4 ,the chief end of a grammar1 designed for our tongue1 is1 to show what is1 and what is not1 good ,english4 ,to this end1 the system in question does not appear to be well adapted4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,dr4 ,bullions1 the projector of the ,series of ,grammars1 ,english1 ,latin1 and ,greek1 all on the same plan1 inserted in his ,latin ,grammar1 of #ahda1 a short sketch of the new analysis by subjects and predicates1 grammatical and logical1 the scheme used by ,andrews and ,stoddard2 but his ,english ,grammar1 which appeared in #ahcd1 was too early for this new and improved method of investigating language4 ,in his later ,english ,grammar1 of #ahdi1 however1 paying little regard to sameness of plan or conformity of definitions1 he carefully devoted to this matter the space of fifteen pages1 placing the topic1 not injudiciously1 in the first part of his syntax1 and referring to it thus in his ,preface3 ,the subject of ,,analysis1 wholly omitted in the former work1 is here introduced in its proper place2 and to an extent in accordance with its importance4-- ,bullions1 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,in applying any of the different methods of analysis1 as a school exercise1 it will in general perhaps be best to use each separately2 the teacher directing which one is to be applied1 and to what examples4 ,the selections prepared for the stated praxes of this work1 will be found as suitable as any4 ,analysis of sentences is a central and essential matter in the teaching or the study of grammar2 but the truest and the most important of the sentential analyses is parsing2 which1 because it is a method distinguished by a technical name of its own1 is not commonly denominated analysis4 ,the relation which other methods should bear to parsing1 is1 as we have seen1 variously stated by different authors4 ,etymological parsing and ,syntactical are1 or ought to be1 distinct exercises4 ,the former1 being the most simple1 the most elementary1 and also requisite to be used before the pupil is prepared for the latter1 should1 without doubt1 take precedence of all the rest1 and be made familiar in the first place4 ,those who say1 ,analysis should precede parsing1 will scarcely find the application of other analysis practicable1 till this is somewhat known4 ,but ,syntactical ,parsing being1 when complete in form1 the most thorough process of grammatical resolution1 it seems proper to have introduced the other methods before it1 as above4 ,it can hardly be said that any of these are necessary to this exercise1 or to one an other2 yet in a full course of grammatical instruction1 each may at times be usefully employed4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,dr4 ,bullions suggests1 that1 ,analysis should precede ,syntactical parsing1 because1 till we know the parts and elements of a sentence1 we can not understand their relations1 nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole4--,analytical and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,this reason is entirely fictitious and truthless2 for the words of a sentence are intuitively known to be its parts and elements2 and1 to understand their relations1 is as necessary to one form of analysis as to another2 but1 intelligently to combine them1 is no part of the parser's duty3 this belongs to the writer2 and where he has not done it1 he must be criticised and censured1 as one that knows not well what he says4 ,in ,w4 ,allen's ,grammar1 as in ,wells's1 ,syntactical parsing and ,etymological are not divided4 ,wells intersperses his ,exercises in ,parsing1 at seven points of his ,syntax1 and places the chapter on ,analysis1 at the end of it4 ,allen treats first of the several parts of grammar1 didactically2 then presents a series of exercises adapted to the various heads of the whole4 ,at the beginning of these1 are fourteen ,methods of ,parsing1 which show1 successively1 the properties and construction of his nine parts of speech2 and1 at the ninth method1 which resolves infinitives1 it is proposed that the pupil begin to apply a method of analysis similar to the ,second one above4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,xii4--,,syntactical4 ,the grand clew to all syntactical parsing is ,,the ,,sense2 and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the authors meaning1 so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous1 in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved4 ,in all complete syntactical parsing1 it is required of the pupil--to distinguish the different parts of speech and their classes2 to mention their modifications in order2 to point out their relation1 agreement1 or government2 and to apply the ,rules of ,syntax4 ,thus3-- ,,example ,,parsed4 ,a young man studious to know his duty1 and honestly bent on doing it1 will find himself led away from the sin or folly in which the multitude thoughtlessly indulge themselves2 but1 ah6 poor fallen human nature6 what conflicts are thy portion1 when inclination and habit--a rebel and a traitor--exert their sway against our only saving principle6--,g4 ,brown4 ,a is the indefinite article3 and relates to man1 or young man2 according to ,rule #ast1 which says1 ,articles relate to the nouns which they limit4 ,because the meaning is--a man--a young man4 ,young is a common adjective1 of the positive degree1 compared regularly1 young1 younger1 youngest3 and relates to man2 according to ,rule #ith1 which says1 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns4 ,because the meaning is--young man4 ,man is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case3 and is the subject of will find2 according to ,rule #b;d1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4 ,because the meaning is--man will find4 ,studious is a common adjective1 compared by means of the adverbs2 studious1 more studious1 most studious2 or1 studious1 less studious1 least studious3 and relates to man2 according to ,rule #ith1 which says1 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns4 ,because the meaning is--man studious4 ,to is a preposition3 and shows the relation between studious and know2 according to ,rule #bc;d1 which says1 ,prepositions show the relations of words1 and of the things or thoughts expressed by them4 ,because the meaning is--studious to know4 ,know is an irregular active-transitive verb1 from know1 knew1 knowing1 known2 found in the infinitive mood1 present tense--no person1 or number3 and is governed by to2 according to ,rule #ahth1 which says1 ,the infinitive mood is governed in general by the preposition ,,to1 which commonly connects it to a finite verb4 ,because the meaning is--to know4 ,his is a personal pronoun1 representing man1 in the third person1 singular number1 and masculine gender2 according to ,rule #ajth1 which says1 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent1 or the noun or pronoun which it represents1 in person1 number1 and gender3 and is in the possessive case1 being governed by duty2 according to ,rule #dth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the name of the thing possessed4 ,because the meaning is--his duty2--i4 e41 the young man's duty4 ,duty is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case3 and is governed by know2 according to ,rule #eth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,because the meaning is--to know his duty4 ,and is a copulative conjunction3 and connects the phrase which follows it1 to that which precedes2 according to ,rule #bb;d1 which says1 ,conjunctions connect words1 sentences1 or parts of sentences4 ,because the meaning is--studious to know his duty1 and honestly bent1 c4 ,honestly is an adverb of manner3 and relates to bent2 according to ,rule #bast1 which says1 ,adverbs relate to verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 or other adverbs4 ,because the meaning is--honestly bent4 ,bent is a perfect participle1 from the redundant active-transitive verb1 bend1 bent or bended1 bending1 bent or bended3 and relates to man2 according to ,rule #bjth1 which says1 ,participles relate to nouns or pronouns1 or else are governed by prepositions4 ,because the meaning is--man bent4 ,on is a preposition3 and shows the relation between bent and doing2 according to ,rule #bc;d1 which says1 ,prepositions show the relations of words1 and of the things or thoughts expressed by them4 ,because the meaning is--bent on doing4 ,doing is an imperfect participle1 from the irregular active-transitive verb1 do1 did1 doing1 done3 and is governed by on2 according to ,rule #bjth1 which says1 ,participles relate to nouns or pronouns1 or else are governed by prepositions4 ,because the meaning is--on doing4 ,it is a personal pronoun1 representing duty1 in the third person1 singular number1 and neuter gender2 according to ,rule #ajth1 which says1 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent1 or the noun or pronoun which it represents1 in person1 number1 and gender3 and is in the objective case1 being governed by doing2 according to ,rule #eth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,because the meaning is--doing it2--i4 e41 doing his duty4 ,will find is an irregular active-transitive verb1 from find1 found1 finding1 found2 found in the indicative mood1 first-future tense1 third person1 and singular number3 and agrees with its nominative man2 according to ,rule #adth1 which says1 ,every finite verb must agree with its subject1 or nominative1 in person and number4 ,because the meaning is--man will find4 ,himself is a compound personal pronoun1 representing man1 in the third person1 singular number1 and masculine gender2 according to ,rule #ajth1 which says1 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent1 or the noun or pronoun which it represents1 in person1 number1 and gender2 and is in the objective case1 being governed by will find2 according to ,rule #eth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,because the meaning is--will find himself2--i4 e41 his own mind or person4 ,led is a perfect participle1 from the irregular active-transitive verb1 lead1 led1 leading1 led3 and relates to himself2 according to ,rule #bjth1 which says1 ,participles relate to nouns or pronouns1 or else are governed by prepositions4 ,because the meaning is--himself led4 ,away is an adverb of place3 and relates to led2 according to ,rule #bast1 which says1 ,adverbs relate to verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 or other adverbs4 ,because the meaning is--led away4 ,from is a preposition3 and shows the relation between led and sin or folly2 according to ,rule #bc;d1 which says1 ,prepositions show the relations of words1 and of the things or thoughts expressed by them4 ,because the meaning is--led from sin or folly4 ,the is the definite article3 and relates to sin and folly2 according to ,rule #ast1 which says1 ,articles relate to the nouns which they limit4 ,because the meaning is--the sin or folly4 ,sin is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case3 and is governed by from2 according to ,rule #gth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,because the meaning is--from sin4 ,or is a disjunctive conjunction3 and connects sin and folly2 according to ,rule #bb;d1 which says1 ,conjunctions connect words1 sentences1 or parts of sentences4 ,because the meaning is--sin or folly4 ,folly is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case2 and is connected by or to sin1 and governed by the same preposition from2 according to ,rule #gth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,because the meaning is--from sin or folly4 ,in is a preposition3 and shows the relation between indulge and which2 according to ,rule #bc;d1 which says1 ,prepositions show the relations of words1 and of the things or thoughts expressed by them4 ,because the meaning is--indulge in which--or1 which they indulge in4 ,which is a relative pronoun1 representing sin or folly1 in the third person1 singular number1 and neuter gender2 according to ,rule #acth1 which says1 ,when a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor1 it must agree with them singly1 and not as if taken together3 and is in the objective case1 being governed by in2 according to ,rule #gth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,because the meaning is--in which2--i4 e41 in which sin or folly4 ,the is the definite article3 and relates to multitude2 according to ,rule #ast1 which says1 ,articles relate to the nouns which they limit4 ,because the meaning is--the multitude4 ,multitude is a common noun1 collective1 of the third person1 conveying the idea of plurality1 masculine gender1 and nominative case3 and is the subject of indulge2 according to ,rule #b;d1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4 ,because the meaning is--multitude indulge4 ,thoughtlessly is an adverb of manner3 and relates to indulge2 according to ,rule #bast1 which says1 ,adverbs relate to verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 or other adverbs4 ,because the meaning is--thoughtlessly indulge4 ,indulge is a regular active-transitive verb1 from indulge1 indulged1 indulging1 indulged2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and plural number3 and agrees with its nominative multitude2 according to ,rule #aeth1 which says1 ,when the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 the verb must agree with it in the plural number4 ,because the meaning is--multitude indulge4 ,themselves is a compound personal pronoun1 representing multitude1 in the third person1 plural number1 and masculine gender2 according to ,rule #aath1 which says1 ,when the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number3 and is in the objective case1 being governed by indulge2 according to ,rule #eth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,because the meaning is--indulge themselves2--i4 e41 the individuals of the multitude indulge themselves4 ,but is a disjunctive conjunction3 and connects what precedes and what follows2 according to ,rule #bb;d1 which says1 ,conjunctions connect words1 sentences1 or parts of sentences4 ,because the meaning is--,a young man1 c41 but1 ah6 c4 ,ah is an interjection1 indicating sorrow3 and is used independently2 according to ,rule #bdth1 which says1 ,interjections have no dependent construction2 they are put absolute1 either alone1 or with other words4 ,because the meaning is--ah6--unconnected with the rest of the sentence4 ,poor is a common adjective1 of the positive degree1 compared regularly1 poor1 poorer1 poorest3 and relates to nature2 according to ,rule #ith1 which says1 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns4 ,because the meaning is--poor human nature4 ,fallen is a participial adjective1 compared 7perhaps7 by adverbs3 and relates to nature2 according to ,rule #ith1 which says1 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns4 ,because the meaning is--fallen nature4 ,human is a common adjective1 not compared3 and relates to nature2 according to ,rule #ith1 which says1 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns4 ,because the meaning is--human nature4 ,nature is a common noun1 of the second person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case3 and is put absolute by direct address2 according to ,rule #hth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative1 when its case depends on no other word4 ,because the meaning is--poor fallen human nature6--the noun being unconnected with any verb4 ,what is a pronominal adjective1 not compared3 and relates to conflicts2 according to ,rule #ith1 which says1 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns4 ,because the meaning is--what conflicts4 ,conflicts is a common noun1 of the third person1 plural number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case3 and is the subject of are2 according to ,rule #b;d1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4 ,because the meaning is--conflicts are4 ,are is an irregular neuter verb1 from be1 was1 being1 been2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and plural number3 and agrees with its nominative conflicts2 according to ,rule #adth1 which says1 ,every finite verb must agree with its subject1 or nominative1 in person and number4 ,because the meaning is--conflicts are4 ,thy is a personal pronoun1 representing nature1 in the second person1 singular number1 and neuter gender2 according to ,rule #ajth1 which says1 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent1 or the noun or pronoun which it represents1 in person1 number1 and gender3 and is in the possessive case1 being governed by portion2 according to ,rule #dth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the name of the thing possessed4 ,because the meaning is--thy portion4 ,portion is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case3 and is put after are1 in agreement with conflicts2 according to ,rule #fth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive1 agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing4 ,because the meaning is--conflicts are thy portion4 ,when is a conjunctive adverb of time3 and relates to the two verbs1 are and exert2 according to ,rule #bast1 which says1 ,adverbs relate to verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 or other adverbs4 ,because the meaning is--what conflicts are thy portion1 when inclination and habit exert1 c4 ,inclination is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case3 and is one of the subjects of exert2 according to ,rule #b;d1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4 ,because the meaning is--inclination and habit exert4 ,and is a copulative conjunction3 and connects inclination and habit2 according to ,rule #bb;d1 which says1 ,conjunctions connect words1 sentences1 or parts of sentences4 ,because the meaning is--inclination and habit4 ,habit is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case3 and is one of the subjects of exert2 according to ,rule #b;d1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4 ,because the meaning is--inclination and habit exert4 ,a is the indefinite article3 and relates to rebel2 according to ,rule #ast1 which says1 ,articles relate to the nouns which they limit4 ,because the meaning is--a rebel4 ,rebel is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case3 and is put in apposition with inclination2 according to ,rule #c;d1 which says1 ,a noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun1 is put1 by apposition1 in the same case4 ,because the meaning is--inclination1 a rebel4 ,and is a copulative conjunction3 and connects rebel and traitor2 according to ,rule #bb;d1 which says1 ,conjunctions connect words1 sentences1 or parts of sentences4 ,because the meaning is--a rebel and a traitor4 ,a is the indefinite article3 and relates to traitor2 according to ,rule #ast1 which says1 ,articles relate to the nouns which they limit4 ,because the meaning is--a traitor4 ,traitor is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case3 and is put in apposition with habit2 according to ,rule #c;d1 which says1 ,a noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun1 is put1 by apposition1 in the same case4 ,because the meaning is--habit1 a traitor4 ,exert is a regular active-transitive verb1 from exert1 exerted1 exerting1 exerted2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and plural number3 and agrees with its two nominatives inclination and habit2 according to ,rule #afth1 which says1 ,when a verb has two or more nominatives connected by and1 it must agree with them jointly in the plural1 because they are taken together4 ,because the meaning is--inclination and habit exert4 ,their is a personal pronoun1 representing inclination and habit1 in the third person1 plural number1 and neuter gender2 according to ,rule #abth1 which says1 ,when a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and1 it must agree with them jointly in the plural1 because they are taken together3 and is in the possessive case1 being governed by sway2 according to ,rule #dth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the name of the thing possessed4 ,because the meaning is--their sway2--i4 e41 the sway of inclination and habit4 ,sway is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case2 and is governed by exert2 according to ,rule #eth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,because the meaning is--exert sway4 ,against is a preposition3 and shows the relation between exert and principle2 according to ,rule #bc;d1 which says1 ,prepositions show the relations of words1 and of the things or thoughts expressed by them4 ,because the meaning is--exert against principle4 ,our is a personal pronoun1 representing the speakers1 in the first person1 plural number1 and masculine gender2 according to ,rule #ajth1 which says1 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent1 or the noun or pronoun which it represents1 in person1 number1 and gender3 and is in the possessive case1 being governed by principle2 according to ,rule #dth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the name of the thing possessed4 ,because the meaning is--our principle2--i4 e41 the speakers' principle4 ,only is a pronominal adjective1 not compared3 and relates to principle2 according to ,rule #ith1 which says1 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns4 ,because the meaning is--only principle4 ,saving is a participial adjective1 compared by adverbs when it means frugal1 but not compared in the sense here intended3 and relates to principle2 according to ,rule #ith1 which says1 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns4 ,because the meaning is--saving principle4 ,principle is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case3 and is governed by against2 according to ,rule #gth1 which says1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,because the meaning is--against principle4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,articles4 ,in ,english heroic verse1 the capital pause of every line1 is determined by the sense to be after the fourth1 the fifth1 the sixth or the seventh syllable4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #aje4 ,when1 in considering the structure of a tree or a plant1 we observe how all the parts1 the roots1 the stem1 the bark1 and the leaves1 are suited to the growth and nutriment of the whole2 when we survey all the parts and members of a living animal2 or when we examine any of the curious works of art--such as a clock1 a ship1 or any nice machine2 the pleasure which we have in the survey1 is wholly founded on this sense of beauty4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #di4 ,it never can proceed from a good taste1 to make a teaspoon resemble the leaf of a tree2 for such a form is inconsistent with the destination of a teaspoon4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cea4 ,in an epic poem1 a history1 an oration1 or any work of genius1 we always require a fitness1 or an adjustment of means to the end which the author is supposed to have in view4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ej4 ,rhetoric1 ,logic1 and ,grammar1 are three arts that should always walk hand in hand4 ,the first is the art of speaking eloquently2 the second1 that of thinking well2 and the third1 that of speaking with propriety4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #aad4 ,spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees1 ,rock'd in the cradle of the western breeze4--,cowper4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,nouns4 ,there goes a rumour that ,i am to be banished4 ,and let the sentence come1 if ,god so will4 ,the other side of the sea is my ,father's ground1 as well as this side4--,rutherford4 ,gentlemen1 there is something on earth greater than arbitrary or despotic power4 ,the lightning has its power1 and the whirlwind has its power1 and the earthquake has its power4 ,but there is something among men more capable of shaking despotic power than lightning1 whirlwind1 or earthquake2 that is--the threatened indignation of the whole civilized world4--,daniel ,webster4 ,and ,isaac sent away ,jacob2 and he went to ,padan ,aram1 unto ,laban1 son of ,bethuel the ,syrian1 and brother of ,rebecca1 ,jacob's and ,esau's mother4--,see ,gen41 xxviii1 #e4 ,the purpose you undertake is dangerous4 ,why that is certain3 it is dangerous to take a cold1 to sleep1 to drink2 but ,i tell you1 my ,lord fool1 out of this nettle danger1 we pluck this flower safety4--,shakespeare4 ,and towards the ,jews alone1 one of the noblest charters of liberty on earth--,magna ,charta1 the ,briton's boast--legalized an act of injustice4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #gd4 ,were ,demosthenes's ,philippics spoken in a ,british assembly1 in a similar conjuncture of affairs1 they would convince and persuade at this day4 ,the rapid style1 the vehement reasoning1 the disdain1 anger1 boldness1 freedom1 which perpetually animate them1 would render their success infallible over any modern assembly4 ,i question whether the same can be said of ,cicero's orations2 whose eloquence1 however beautiful1 and however well suited to the ,roman taste1 yet borders oftener on declamation1 and is more remote from the manner in which we now expect to hear real business and causes of importance treated4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bdh4 ,in fact1 every attempt to present on paper the splendid effects of impassioned eloquence1 is like gathering up dewdrops1 which appear jewels and pearls on the grass1 but run to water in the hand2 the essence and the elements remain1 but the grace1 the sparkle1 and the form1 are gone4--,montgomery's ,life of ,spencer4 ,as in life true dignity must be founded on character1 not on dress and appearance2 so in language the dignity of composition must arise from sentiment and thought1 not from ornament4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #add4 ,and man1 whose heaven-erected face the smiles of love adorn1 ,man's inhumanity to man makes countless thousands mourn4 --,burns4 ,ah wretched man6 unmindful of thy end6 ,a moment's glory6 and what fates attend4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 xvii1 l4 #bca4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,adjectives4 ,embarrassed1 obscure1 and feeble sentences1 are generally1 if not always1 the result of embarrassed1 obscure1 and feeble thought4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abj4 ,upon this ground1 we prefer a simple and natural1 to an artificial and affected style2 a regular and well-connected story1 to loose and scattered narratives2 a catastrophe which is tender and pathetic1 to one which leaves us unmoved4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,a thorough good taste may well be considered as a power compounded of natural sensibility to beauty1 and of improved understanding4--,ib41 p4 #ah4 ,of all writings1 ancient or modern1 the sacred ,scriptures afford us the highest instances of the sublime4 ,the descriptions of the ,deity1 in them1 are wonderfully noble2 both from the grandeur of the object1 and the manner of representing it4--,ib41 p4 #cf4 ,it is not the authority of any one person1 or of a few1 be they ever so eminent1 that can establish one form of speech in preference to another4 ,nothing but the general practice of good writers and good speakers can do it4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ajg4 ,what other means are there to attract love and esteem so effectual as a virtuous course of life8 ,if a man be just and beneficent1 if he be temperate1 modest1 and prudent1 he will infallibly gain the esteem and love of all who know him4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #afg4 ,but there are likewise1 it must be owned1 people in the world1 whom it is easy to make worse by rough usage1 and not easy to make better by any other4--,abp4 ,seeker4 ,the great comprehensive truth written in letters of living light on every page of our history--the language addressed by every past age of ,new ,england to all future ages1 is this3 ,human happiness has no perfect security but freedom2--freedom1 none but virtue2--virtue1 none but knowledge3 and neither freedom1 nor virtue1 nor knowledge1 has any vigour or immortal hope1 except in the principles of the ,christian faith1 and in the sanctions of the ,christian religion4--,president ,quincy4 ,for bliss1 as thou hast part1 to me is bliss2 ,tedious1 unshared with thee1 and odious soon4 --,p4 ,lost1 ,b4 ix1 l4 #hhj4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,pronouns4 ,there is but one governor whose sight we cannot escape1 whose power we cannot resist3 a sense of ,his presence and of duty to ,him1 will accomplish more than all the laws and penalties which can be devised without it4--,woodbridge1 ,lit4 ,c41 p4 #aed4 ,every voluntary society must judge who shall be members of their body1 and enjoy fellowship with them in their peculiar privileges4--,watts4 ,poetry and impassioned eloquence are the only sources from which the living growth of a language springs2 and even if in their vehemence they bring down some mountain rubbish along with them1 this sinks to the bottom1 and the pure stream flows along over it4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #fde4 ,this use is bounded by the province1 county1 or district1 which gives name to the dialect1 and beyond which its peculiarities are sometimes unintelligible1 and always ridiculous4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afc4 ,every thing that happens1 is both a cause and an effect2 being the effect of what goes before1 and the cause of what follows4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #big4 ,withhold not good from them to whom it is due1 when it is in the power of thine hand to do it4--,prov41 iii1 #bg4 ,yet there is no difficulty at all in ascertaining the idea4 99 99 99 ,by reflecting upon that which is myself now1 and that which was myself twenty years ago1 ,i discern they are not two1 but one and the same self4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bga4 ,if you will replace what has been long expunged from the language1 and extirpate what is firmly rooted1 undoubtedly you yourself become an innovator4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afg2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cfd4 ,to speak as others speak1 is one of those tacit obligations1 annexed to the condition of living in society1 which we are bound in conscience to fulfill1 though we have never ratified them by any express promise2 because1 if they were disregarded1 society would be impossible1 and human happiness at an end4--,see ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aci4 ,in ,england thou was in current use until1 perhaps1 near the commencement of the seventeenth century1 though it was getting to be regarded as somewhat disrespectful4 ,at ,walter ,raleigh's trial1 ,coke1 when argument and evidence failed him1 insulted the defendant by applying to him the term thou4 ',all that ,lord ,cobham did1' he cried1 'was at thy instigation1 thou viper6 for ,i thou thee1 thou traitor6'--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #bbj4 ,th' ,egyptian crown ,i to your hands remit2 ,and with it take his heart who offers it4--,shakspeare4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,verbs4 ,sensuality contaminates the body1 depresses the understanding1 deadens the moral feelings of the heart1 and degrades man from his rank in the creation4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 p4 #bca4 ,when a writer reasons1 we look only for perspicuity2 when he describes1 we expect embellishment2 when he divides1 or relates1 we desire plainness and simplicity4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #add4 ,livy and ,herodotus are diffuse2 ,thucydides and ,sallust are succinct2 yet all of them are agreeable4--,ib41 p4 #agh4 ,whenever petulant ignorance1 pride1 malice1 malignity1 or envy1 interposes to cloud or sully his fame1 ,i will take upon me to pronounce that the eclipse will not last long4--,dr4 ,delany4 ,she said she had nothing to say1 for she was resigned1 and ,i knew all she knew that concerned us in this world2 but she desired to be alone1 that in the presence of ,god only1 she might without interruption do her last duty to me4--,spect41 ,no4 #ebj4 ,wisdom and truth1 the offspring of the sky1 are immortal2 while cunning and deception1 the meteors of the earth1 after glittering for a moment1 must pass away4--,robert ,hall4 ,see1 ,i have this day set thee over the nations1 and over the kingdoms1 to root out1 and to pull down1 and to destroy1 and to throw down1 to build1 and to plant4--,jeremiah1 i1 #aj4 ,god might command the stones to be made bread1 or the clouds to rain it2 but he chooses rather to leave mankind to till1 to sow1 to reap1 to gather into barns1 to grind1 to knead1 to bake1 and then to eat4--,london ,quarterly ,review4 ,eloquence is no invention of the schools4 ,nature teaches every man to be eloquent1 when he is much in earnest4 ,place him in some critical situation1 let him have some great interest at stake1 and you will see him lay hold of the most effectual means of persuasion4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bce4 ,it is difficult to possess great fame and great ease at the same time4 ,fame1 like fire1 is with difficulty kindled1 is easily increased1 but dies away if not continually fed4 ,to preserve fame alive1 every enterprise ought to be a pledge of others1 so as to keep mankind in constant expectation4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ej4 ,pope1 finding little advantage from external help1 resolved thenceforward to direct himself1 and at twelve formed a plan of study which he completed with little other incitement than the desire of excellence4--,johnson's ,lives of ,poets1 p4 #dih4 ,loose1 then1 from earth the grasp of fond desire1 ,weigh anchor1 and some happier clime explore4--,young4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,participles4 ,the child1 affrighted with the view of his father's helmet and crest1 and clinging to the nurse2 ,hector1 putting off his helmet1 taking the child into his arms1 and offering up a prayer for him2 ,andromache1 receiving back the child with a smile of pleasure1 and at the same instant bursting into tears2 form the most natural and affecting picture that can possibly be imagined4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dce4 ,the truth of being1 and the truth of knowing are one2 differing no more than the direct beam and the beam reflected4--,ld4 ,bacon4 ,verbs denote states of being1 considered as beginning1 continuing1 ending1 being renewed1 destroyed1 and again repeated1 so as to suit any occasion4--,william ,ward's ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,we take it for granted1 that we have a competent knowledge and skill1 and that we are able to acquit ourselves properly1 in our own native tongue2 a faculty1 solely acquired by use1 conducted by habit1 and tried by the ear1 carries us on without reflection4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 vi4 ,i mean the teacher himself2 who1 stunned with the hum1 and suffocated with the closeness of his school-room1 has spent the whole day in controlling petulance1 exciting indifference to action1 striving to enlighten stupidity1 and labouring to soften obstinacy4--,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,the inquisitive mind1 beginning with criticism1 the most agreeable of all amusements1 and finding no obstruction in its progress1 advances far into the sensitive part of our nature2 and gains imperceptibly a thorough knowledge of the human heart1 of its desires1 and of every motive to action4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #db4 ,they please1 are pleased2 they give to get esteem2 ,till1 seeming blest1 they grow to what they seem4--,goldsmith4 ,,lesson ,,vii4--,,adverbs4 ,how cheerfully1 how freely1 how regularly1 how constantly1 how unweariedly1 how powerfully1 how extensively1 he communicateth his convincing1 his enlightening1 his heart-penetrating1 warming1 and melting2 his soul-quickening1 healing1 refreshing1 directing1 and fructifying influence6--,brown's ,metaphors1 p4 #if4 ,the passage1 ,i grant1 requires to be well and naturally read1 in order to be promptly comprehended2 but surely there are very few passages worth comprehending1 either of verse or prose1 that can be promptly understood1 when they are read unnaturally and ill4--,thelwall's ,lect4 ,they waste life in what are called good resolutions--partial efforts at reformation1 feebly commenced1 heartlessly conducted1 and hopelessly concluded4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #bfb4 ,a man may1 in respect of grammatical purity1 speak unexceptionably1 and yet speak obscurely and ambiguously2 and though we cannot say1 that a man may speak properly1 and at the same time speak unintelligibly1 yet this last case falls more naturally to be considered as an offence against perspicuity1 than as a violation of propriety4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ajd4 ,ye are witnesses1 and ,god also1 how holily and justly and unblamably we behaved ourselves among you that believe4--#a ,thes41 ii1 #aj4 ,the question is not1 whether they know what is said of ,christ in the ,scriptures2 but whether they know it savingly1 truly1 livingly1 powerfully4--,penington's ,works1 iii1 #bh4 ,how gladly would the man recall to life ,the boy's neglected sire6 a mother too1 ,that softer friend1 perhaps more gladly still1 ,might he demand them at the gates of death6--,cowper4 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,conjunctions4 ,every person's safety requires that he should submit to be governed2 for if one man may do harm without suffering punishment1 every man has the same right1 and no person can be safe4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ch4 ,when it becomes a practice to collect debts by law1 it is a proof of corruption and degeneracy among the people4 ,laws and courts are necessary1 to settle controverted points between man and man2 but a man should pay an acknowledged debt1 not because there is a law to oblige him1 but because it is just and honest1 and because he has promised to pay it4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,the liar1 and only the liar1 is invariably and universally despised1 abandoned1 and disowned4 ,it is therefore natural to expect1 that a crime thus generally detested1 should be generally avoided4--,hawkesworth4 ,when a man swears to the truth of his tale1 he tacitly acknowledges that his bare word does not deserve credit4 ,a swearer will lie1 and a liar is not to be believed even upon his oath2 nor is he believed1 when he happens to speak the truth4--,red ,book1 p4 #ajh4 ,john ,adams replied1 ',i know ,great ,britain has determined on her system1 and that very determination determines me on mine4 ,you know ,i have been constant and uniform in opposition to her measures4 ,the die is now cast4 ,i have passed the ,rubicon4 ,sink or swim1 live or die1 survive or perish with my country1 is my unalterable determination4'--,,seward',s ,life of ,john ,quincy ,adams1 p4 #bf4 ,i returned1 and saw under the sun that the race is not to the swift1 nor the battle to the strong1 neither yet bread to the wise1 nor yet riches to men of understanding1 nor yet favour to men of skill2 but time and chance happen to them all4--,ecclesiastes1 ix1 #aa4 ,little1 alas6 is all the good ,i can2 ,a man oppress'd1 dependent1 yet a man4--,pope1 ,odys41 ,b4 xiv1 p4 #gj4 ,,lesson ,,ix4--,,prepositions4 ,he who legislates only for a party1 is engraving his name on the adamantine pillar of his country's history1 to be gazed on forever as an object of universal detestation4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #dja4 ,the ,greek language1 in the hands of the orator1 the poet1 and the historian1 must be allowed to bear away the palm from every other known in the world2 but to that only1 in my opinion1 need our own yield the precedence4--,barrow's ,essays1 p4 #ia4 ,for my part1 ,i am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly to the method of investigation1 is incomparably the best2 since1 not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths1 it leads to the stock on which they grew4--,burke1 on ,taste1 p4 #cg4 ,better--on which truths grow4 ,all that ,i have done in this difficult part of grammar1 concerning the proper use of prepositions1 has been to make a few general remarks upon the subject2 and then to give a collection of instances1 that have occurred to me1 of the improper use of some of them4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,this is not an age of encouragement for works of elaborate research and real utility4 ,the genius of the trade of literature is necessarily unfriendly to such productions4--,thelwall's ,lect41 p4 #ajb4 ,at length1 at the end of a range of trees1 ,i saw three figures seated on a bank of moss1 with a silent brook creeping at their feet4--,steele4 ,thou rather1 with thy sharp and sulph'rous bolt1 ,splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak4--,shakspeare4 ,,lesson ,x4--,,interjections4 ,hear the word of the ,lord1 ,o king of ,judah1 that sittest upon the throne of ,david2 thou1 and thy servants1 and thy people1 that enter in by these gates3 thus saith the ,lord1 ,execute ye judgement and righteousness1 and deliver the spoiled out of the hand of the oppressor4--,jeremiah1 xxii1 #b1 #c4 ,therefore1 thus saith the ,lord concerning ,jehoiakim the son of ,josiah king of ,judah1 ,they shall not lament for him1 saying1 ,ah my brother6 or1 ,ah sister6 they shall not lament for him1 saying1 ,ah lord6 or1 ,ah his glory6 ,he shall be buried with the burial of an ass1 drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of ,jerusalem4--,jer41 xxii1 #ah1 #ai4 ,o thou afflicted1 tossed with tempest1 and not comforted1 behold1 ,i will lay thy stones with fair colours1 and lay thy foundations with sapphires4--,isaiah1 liv1 #aa4 ,o prince6 ,o friend6 lo6 here thy ,medon stands2 ,ah6 stop the hero's unresisted hands4 --,pope1 ,odys41 ,b4 xxii1 l4 #dag4 ,when1 lo6 descending to our hero's aid1 ,jove's daughter ,pallas1 war's triumphant maid6 --,ib41 ,b4 xxii1 l4 #bbb4 ,o friends6 oh ever exercised in care6 ,hear ,heaven's commands1 and reverence what ye hear6 --,ib41 ,b4 xii1 l4 #cbd4 ,too daring prince6 ah1 whither dost thou run8 ,ah1 too forgetful of thy wife and you6 --,pope's ,iliad1 ,b4 vi1 l4 #eaj4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,articles4 ,in this chapter1 and those which follow it1 the ,rules of ,syntax are again exhibited1 in the order of the parts of speech1 with ,examples1 ,exceptions1 ,observations1 ,notes1 and ,false ,syntax4 ,the ,notes are all of them1 in form and character1 subordinate rules of syntax1 designed for the detection of errors4 ,the correction of the ,false ,syntax placed under the rules and notes1 will form an oral exercise1 similar to that of parsing1 and perhaps more useful4#ccd ,,rule ,i4--,,articles4 ,articles relate to the nouns which they limit3#cce as1 ,at a little distance from the ruins of the abbey1 stands an aged elm4 ,see the blind beggar dance1 the cripple sing1 ,the sot a hero1 lunatic a king4--,pope's ,essay1 ,ep4 ii1 l4 #bfh4 ,,exception ,,first4 ,the definite article used intensively1 may relate to an adjective or adverb of the comparative or the superlative degree2 as1 ,a land which was the mightiest4--,byron4 ,the farther they proceeded1 the greater appeared their alacrity4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,he chooses it the rather--,cowper4 ,see ,obs4 #ajth1 below4 ,,exception ,,second4 ,the indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to what seems a plural adjective of number2 as1 ,thou hast a few names even in ,sardis4--,rev41 iii1 #d4 ,there are a thousand things which crowd into my memory4--,spectator1 ,no4 #dfh4 ,the centurion commanded a hundred men4--,webster4 ,see ,etymology1 ,articles1 ,obs4 #bf4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,i4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the article is a kind of index1 usually pointing to some noun2 and it is a general1 if not a universal1 principle1 that no one noun admits of more than one article4 ,hence1 two or more articles in a sentence are signs of two or more nouns2 and hence too1 by a very convenient ellipsis1 an article before an adjective is often made to relate to a noun understood2 as1 ,the grave people rebuke the gay people1 and the gay people mock the grave people4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #ajc4 ,the wise persons shall inherit glory4--,prov41 iii1 #ce4 ,the vile person will talk villainy4--,coleridge's ,lay ,sermons1 p4 #aje3 see ,isaiah1 xxxii1 #f4 ,the testimony of the ,lord is sure1 making wise the simple ones4--,psal41 xix1 #g4 ,the ,old ,testament and the ,new ,testament are alike authentic4--,the animal world and the vegetable world are adapted to each other4--,an epic poem and a dramatic poem are the same in substance4--,ld4 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bgd4 ,the neuter verb is conjugated like the active verb4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ii4 ,each section is supposed to contain a heavy portion and a light portion2 the heavy portion being the accented syllable1 and the light portion the unaccented syllable4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #cfd4 ,,obs4 #b4--,our language does not1 like the ,french1 require a repetition of the article before every noun in a series2 because the same article may serve to limit the signification of several nouns1 provided they all stand in the same construction4 ,hence the following sentence is bad ,english3 ,the understanding and language have a strict connexion4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #cef4 ,the sense of the former noun only was meant to be limited4 ,the expression therefore should have been1 ,language and the understanding have a strict connexion1 or1 ,the understanding has a strict connexion with language4 ,in some instances1 one article seems to limit the sense of several nouns that are not all in the same construction1 thus3 ,as it proves a greater or smaller obstruction to the speaker's or writer's aim4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bjj4 ,that is--to the aim of the speaker or the writer4 ,it is1 in fact1 the possessive1 that limits the other nouns2 for1 a man's foes means1 the foes of a man2 and1 man's wisdom1 means1 the wisdom of man4 ,the governing noun cannot have an article immediately before it4 ,yet the omission of articles1 when it occurs1 is not properly by ellipsis1 as some grammarians declare it to be2 for there never can be a proper ellipsis of an article1 when there is not also an ellipsis of its noun4 ,ellipsis supposes the omitted words to be necessary to the construction1 when they are not so to the sense2 and this1 it would seem1 cannot be the case with a mere article4 ,if such a sign be in any wise necessary1 it ought to be used2 and if not needed in any respect1 it cannot be said to be understood4 ,the definite article being generally required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns1 we in this case repeat it before every term in a series2 as1 ,they are singled out from among their fellows1 as the kind1 the amiable1 the sweet-tempered1 the upright4--,dr4 ,chalmers4 ,the great1 the gay1 shall they partake ,the heav'n that thou alone canst make8--,cowper4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the article precedes its noun1 and is never1 by itself1 placed after it2 as1 ,passion is the drunkenness of the mind4--,southey4 ,when an adjective likewise precedes the noun1 the article is usually placed before the adjective1 that its power of limitation may extend over that also2 as1 ,a concise writer compresses his thoughts into the fewest possible words4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #agf4 ,the private path1 the secret acts of men1 ,if noble1 far the noblest of their lives4--,young4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the relative position of the article and the adjective is seldom a matter of indifference4 ,thus1 it is good ,english to say1 both the men1 or1 the two men2 but we can by no means say1 the both men or1 two the men4 ,again1 the two phrases1 half a dollar1 and a half dollar1 though both good1 are by no means equivalent4 ,of the pronominal adjectives1 some exclude the article2 some precede it2 and some follow it1 like other adjectives4 ,the word same is seldom1 if ever used without the definite article or some stronger definitive before it2 as1 ,on the same day1--in that same hour1--,these same gentlemen4 ,after the adjective both1 the definite article may be used1 but it is generally unnecessary1 and this is a sufficient reason for omitting it3 as1 ,the following sentences will fully exemplify1 to the young grammarian1 both the parts of this rule4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #aib4 ,say1 both parts4 ,the adjective few may be used either with or without an article1 but not with the same import3 as1 ,the few who were present1 were in the secret2 i4 e41 ,all then present knew the thing4 ,few that were present1 were in the secret2 i4e41 ,not many then present knew the thing4 ,when ,i say1 ',there were few men with him1' ,i speak diminutively1 and mean to represent them as inconsiderable2 whereas1 when ,i say1 ',there were a few men with him1' ,i evidently intend to make the most of them4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aga4 ,see ,etymology1 ,articles1 ,obs4 #bh4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the pronominal adjectives which exclude the article1 are any1 each1 either1 every1 much1 neither1 no1 or none1 some1 this1 that1 these1 those4 ,the pronominal adjectives which precede the article1 are all1 both1 many1 such1 and what2 as1 ,all the world1--,both the judges1--,many a#ccf mile1--,such a chasm1--,what a freak4 ,in like manner1 any adjective of quality1 when its meaning is limited by the adverb too1 so1 as1 or how1 is put before the article2 as1 ,too great a study of strength1 is found to betray writers into a harsh manner4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #agi4 ,like many an other poor wretch1 ,i now suffer all the ill consequences of so foolish an indulgence4 ,such a gift is too small a reward for so great a labour4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,here flows as clear a stream as any in ,greece4 ,how beautiful a prospect is here6--,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #eb4 ,the pronominal adjectives which follow the article1 are few1 former1 first1 latter1 last1 little1 one1 other1 and same2 as1 ,an author might lean either to the one style or to the other1 and yet be beautiful4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #agi4 ,many1 like few1 sometimes follows the article2 as1 ,the many favours which we have received4--,in conversation1 for many a man1 they say1 a many men4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,in this order of the words1 a seems awkward and needless2 as1 ,told of a many thousand warlike ,french4--,shak4 ,,obs4 #f4--,when the adjective is preceded by any other adverb than too1 so1 as1 or how1 the article is almost always placed before the adverb3 as1 ,one of the most complete models2--,an equally important question2--,an exceedingly rough passage2--,a very important difference4 ,the adverb quite1 however1 may be placed either before or after the article1 though perhaps with a difference of construction3 as1 ,this is quite a different thing2--or1 ,this is a quite different thing4 ,finding it quite an other thing2--or1 ,finding it a quite other thing4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #aec4 ,sometimes two adverbs intervene between the article and the adjective2 as1 ,we had a rather more explicit account of the ,novii4--,philol4 ,museum1 i1 #deh4 ,but when an other adverb follows too1 so1 as1 or how1 the three words should be placed either before the article or after the noun2 as1 ,who stands there in so purely poetical a light4--,ib41 i1 #ddi4 ,better1 perhaps3 ,in a light so purely poetical4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the definitives this1 that1 and some others1 though they supersede the article an or a1 may be followed by the adjective one2 for we say1 this one thing1 but not1 this a thing4 ,yet1 in the following sentence1 this and a being separated by other words1 appear to relate to the same noun3 ,for who is able to judge this thy so great a people8--#a ,kings1 iii1 #i4 ,but we may suppose the noun people to be understood after this4 ,again1 the following example1 if it is not wrong1 has an ellipsis of the word use after the first a3 ,for highest cordials all their virtue lose1 ,by a too frequent and too bold a use4--,pomfret4 ,,obs4 #h4--,when the adjective is placed after the noun1 the article generally retains its place before the noun1 and is not repeated before the adjective3 as1 ,a man ignorant of astronomy2--,the primrose pale4 ,in ,greek1 when an adjective is placed after its noun1 if the article is applied to the noun1 it is repeated before the adjective2 as1 ,greek3 ,h polis h megal1--,the city the great2 i4e41 ,the great city4 #ccg ,,obs4 #i4--;,articles1 according to their own definition and nature1 come before their nouns2 but the definite article and an adjective seem sometimes to be placed after the noun to which they both relate3 as1 ,section the ,fourth2--,henry the ,eighth4 ,such examples1 however1 may possibly be supposed elliptical2 as1 ,section1 the fourth division of the chapter2--,henry1 the eighth king of that name3 and1 if they are so1 the article1 in ,english1 can never be placed after its noun1 nor can two articles ever properly relate to one noun1 in any particular construction of it4 ,priestley observes1 ,some writers affect to transpose these words1 and place the numeral adjective first2 as1 ',the first ,henry4' ,hume's ,history1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dig4 ,this construction is common with this writer1 but there seems to be a want of dignity in it4--,rudiments of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,dr4 ,webster cites the word ,great1 in ,alexander the ,great as a name1 or part of a name2 that is1 he gives it as an instance of cognomination4 ,see his ,american ,dict41 #hvo4 ,and if this is right1 the article may be said to relate to the epithet only1 as it appears to do4 ,for1 if the word is taken substantively1 there is certainly no ellipsis2 neither is there any transposition in putting it last1 but rather1 as ,priestley suggests1 in putting it first4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the definite article is often prefixed to comparatives and superlatives2 and its effect is1 as ,murray observes1 7in the words of ,lowth17 to mark the degree the more strongly1 and to define it the more precisely3 as1 ',the more ,i examine it1 the better ,i like it4' ',i like this the least of any4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cc2 ,lowth's1 #ad4 ,for neither if we eat1 are we the better2 neither if we eat not1 are we the worse4--#a ,cor41 viii1 #h4 ,one is not the more agreeable to me for loving beef1 as ,i do2 nor the less agreeable for preferring mutton4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cfe4 ,they are not the men in the nation1 the most difficult to be replaced4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,in these instances1 the article seems to be used adverbially1 and to relate only to the adjective or adverb following it4 7,see observation fourth1 on the ,etymology of ,adverbs47 ,yet none of our grammarians have actually reckoned the an adverb4 ,after the adjective1 the noun might perhaps be supplied2 but when the word the is added to an adverb1 we must either call it an adverb1 or make an exception to ,rule #ast above3 and if an exception is to be made1 the brief form which ,i have given1 cannot well be improved4 ,for even if a noun be understood1 it may not appear that the article relates to it1 rather than to the degree of the quality4 ,thus3 ,the deeper the well1 the clearer the water4 ,this ,dr4 ,ash supposes to mean1 ,the deeper well the well is1 the clearer water the water is4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ajg4 ,but does the text specify a particular deeper well or clearer water8 ,i think not4 ,to what then does the refer1 but to the proportionate degree of deeper and clearer8 ,,obs4 #aa4--,the article the is sometimes elegantly used1 after an idiom common in the ,french language1 in lieu of a possessive pronoun2 as1 ,he looked him full in the face2 i4 e4 in his face4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,men who have not bowed the knee to the image of ,baal4--,rom41 xi1 #d4 ,that is1 their knees4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the article an or a1 because it implies unity1 is applicable to nouns of the singular number only2 yet a collective noun1 being singular in form1 is sometimes preceded by this article even when it conveys the idea of plurality and takes a plural verb3 as1 ,there are a very great number of adverbs ending in ly4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #fc4 ,a plurality of them are sometimes felt at the same instant4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aad4 ,in support of this construction1 it would be easy to adduce a great multitude of examples from the most reputable writers2 but still1 as it seems not very consistent1 to take any word plurally after restricting it to the singular1 we ought rather to avoid this if we can1 and prefer words that literally agree in number3 as1 ,of adverbs there are very many ending in ly--,more than one of them are sometimes felt at the same instant4 ,the word plurality1 like other collective nouns1 is literally singular3 as1 ,to produce the latter1 a plurality of objects is necessary4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bbd4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,respecting the form of the indefinite article1 present practice differs a little from that of our ancient writers4 ,an was formerly used before all words beginning with h1 and before several other words which are now pronounced in such a manner as to require a3 thus1 we read in the ,bible1 ,an help1--an house1--an hundred1--an one1--an ewer1--an usurer2 whereas we now say1 ,a help1--a house1--a hundred1--a one1--a ewer1--a usurer4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,before the word humble1 with its compounds and derivatives1 some use an1 and others1 a2 according to their practice1 in this instance1 of sounding or suppressing the aspiration4 ,webster and ,jameson sound the h1 and consequently prefer a2 as1 ,but a humbling image is not always necessary to produce that effect4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bje4 ,o what a blessing is a humble mind6--,christian ,experience1 p4 #cdb4 ,but ,sheridan1 ,walker1 ,perry1 ,jones1 and perhaps a majority of fashionable speakers1 leave the h silent1 and would consequently say1 ,an humbling image1--an humble mind1--c4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,an observance of the principles on which the article is to be repeated or not repeated in a sentence1 is of very great moment in respect to accuracy of composition4 ,these principles are briefly stated in the notes below1 but it is proper that the learner should know the reasons of the distinctions which are there made4 ,by a repetition of the article before several adjectives in the same construction1 a repetition of the noun is implied2 but without a repetition of the article1 the adjectives1 in all fairness of interpretation1 are confined to one and the same noun3 as1 ,no figures will render a cold or an empty composition interesting4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #acd4 ,here the author speaks of a cold composition and an empty composition as different things4 ,the metaphorical and the literal meaning are improperly mixed4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cci4 ,here the verb are has two nominatives1 one of which is expressed1 and the other understood4 ,but the third and the last of these forms are seldom used4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #ahf4 ,here the verb are used has two nominatives1 both of which are understood2 namely1 the third form1 and the last form4 ,again3 ,the original and present signification is always retained4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #adi4 ,here one signification is characterized as being both original and present4 ,a loose and verbose manner never fails to create disgust4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bfa4 ,that is1 one manner1 loose and verbose4 ,to give a short and yet clear and plain answer to this proposition4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ecc4 ,that is1 one answer1 short1 clear1 and plain2 for the conjunctions in the text connect nothing but the adjectives4 ,,obs4 #af4--,to avoid repetition1 even of the little word the1 we sometimes1 with one article1 join inconsistent qualities to a plural noun2--that is1 when the adjectives so differ as to individualize the things1 we sometimes make the noun plural1 in stead of repeating the article3 as1 ,the north and south poles2 in stead of1 ,the north and the south pole4--,the indicative and potential moods2 in stead of ,the indicative and the potential mood4--,the ,old and ,new ,testaments2 in stead of1 ,the ,old and the ,new ,testament4 ,but1 in any such case1 to repeat the article when the noun is made plural1 is a huge blunder2 because it implies a repetition of the plural noun4 ,and again1 not to repeat the article when the noun is singular1 is also wrong2 because it forces the adjectives to coalesce in describing one and the same thing4 ,thus1 to say1 ,the north and south pole is certainly wrong1 unless we mean by it1 one pole1 or slender stick of wood1 pointing north and south2 and again1 to say1 ,the north and the south poles1 is also wrong1 unless we mean by it1 several poles at the north and others at the south4 ,so the phrase1 ,the ,old and ,new ,testament is wrong1 because we have not one ,testament that is both ,old and ,new2 and again1 ,the ,old and the ,new ,testaments1 is wrong1 because we have not several ,old ,testaments and several ,new ones3 at least we have them not in the ,bible4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,sometimes a noun that admits no article1 is preceded by adjectives that do not describe the same thing2 as1 ,never to jumble metaphorical and plain language together4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #adf4 ,this means1 metaphorical language and plain language2 and1 for the sake of perfect clearness1 it would perhaps be better to express it so4 ,for as intrinsic and relative beauty must often be blended in the same building1 it becomes a difficult task to attain both in any perfection4--,karnes1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ccj4 ,that is1 intrinsic beauty and relative beauty must often be blended2 and this phraseology would be better4 ,in correspondence to that distinction of male and female sex4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #gd4 ,this may be expressed as well or better1 in half a dozen other ways2 for the article may be added1 or the noun may be made plural1 with or without the article1 and before or after the adjectives4 ,they make no distinction between causes of civil and criminal jurisdiction4-- ,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cjb4 ,this means--between causes of civil and causes of criminal jurisdiction2 and1 for the sake of perspicuity1 it ought to have been so written1--or1 still better1 thus3 ,they make no distinction between civil causes and criminal4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,i4 ,,note ,i4--,when the indefinite article is required1 a should always be used before the sound of a consonant1 and an1 before that of a vowel2 as1 ,with the talents of an angel1 a man may be a fool4--,young4 ,,note ,,ii4--,the article an or a must never be so used as to relate1 or even seem to relate1 to a plural noun4 ,the following sentence is therefore faulty3 ,i invited her to spend a day in viewing a seat and gardens4--,rambler1 ,no4 #cd4 ,say1 a seat and its gardens4 ,,note ,,iii4--,when nouns are joined in construction1 with different adjuncts1 different dependence1 or positive contrast1 the article1 if it belong at all to the latter1 must be repeated4 ,the following sentence is therefore inaccurate3 ,she never considered the quality1 but merit of her visitors4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,say1 the merit4 ,so the article in brackets is absolutely necessary to the sense and propriety of the following phrase1 though not inserted by the learned author3 ,the ,latin introduced between the ,conquest and the reign of ,henry the ,eighth4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 p4 #db4 ,,note ,,iv4--,when adjectives are connected1 and the qualities belong to things individually different1 though of the same name1 the article should be repeated3 as1 ,a black and a white horse2--i4 e41 two horses1 one black and the other white4 ,the north and the south line2--i4 e41 two lines1 running east and west4 ,,note ,v4--,when adjectives are connected1 and the qualities all belong to the same thing or things1 the article should not be repeated3 as1 ,a black and white horse2--i4 e41 one horse1 piebald4 ,the north and south line2--i4 e41 one line1 running north and south1 like a meridian4 ,,note ,,vi4--,when two or more individual things of the same name are distinguished by adjectives that cannot unite to describe the same thing1 the article must be added to each if the noun be singular1 and to the first only if the noun follow them in the plural3 as1 ,the nominative and the objective case2 or1 ,the nominative and objective cases4--,the third1 the fifth1 the seventh1 and the eighth chapter2 or1 ,the third1 fifth1 seventh1 and eighth chapters4 #cch ,,note ,,vii4--,when two phrases of the same sentence have any special correspondence with each other1 the article1 if used in the former1 is in general required also in the latter3 as1 ,for ye know neither the day nor the hour4--,matt41 xxv1 #ac4 ,neither the cold nor the fervid are formed for friendship4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bji4 ,the vail of the temple was rent in twain1 from the top to the bottom4--,matt41 xxvii1 #ea4 ,,note ,,viii4--,when a special correspondence is formed between individual epithets1 the noun which follows must not be made plural2 because the article1 in such a case1 cannot be repeated as the construction of correspondents requires4 ,thus1 it is improper to say1 ,both the first and second editions or1 ,both the first and the second editions for the accurate phrase1 ,both the first and the second edition2 and still worse to say1 ,neither the ,old nor ,new ,testaments or1 ,neither the ,old nor the ,new ,testaments for the just expression1 ,neither the ,old nor the ,new ,testament4 ,yet we may say1 ,neither the old nor the new statutes or1 ,both the early and the late editions2 for here the epithets severally apply to more than one thing4 ,,note ,,ix4--,in a series of three or more terms1 if the article is used with any1 it should in general be added either to every one1 or else to the first only4 ,the following phrase is therefore inaccurate3 ,through their attention to the helm1 the sails1 or rigging4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aa4 ,say1 the rigging4 ,,note ,x4--,as the article an or a denotes one thing of a kind1 it should not be used as we use the1 to denote emphatically a whole kind2 and again1 when the species is said to be of the genus1 no article should be used to limit the latter4 ,thus some will say1 ,a jay is a sort of a bird2 whereas they ought to say1 ,the jay is a sort of bird4 ,because it is absurd to suggest1 that one jay is a sort of one bird4 ,yet we may say1 ,the jay is a bird1 or1 ,a jay is a bird2 because1 as every species is one under the genus1 so every individual is one under both4 ,,note ,,xi4--,the article should not be used before the names of virtues1 vices1 passions1 arts1 or sciences1 in their general sense2 before terms that are strictly limited by other definitives2 or before any noun whose signification is sufficiently definite without it3 as1 ,falsehood is odious4--,iron is useful4--,beauty is vain4--,admiration is useless1 when it is not supported by domestic worth--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cj4 ,,note ,,xii4--,when titles are mentioned merely as titles2 or names of things1 merely as names or words2 the article should not be used before them3 as1 ,he is styled ,marquis2 not1 the ,marquis1 or1 a ,marquis1--,ought a teacher to call his pupil ,master8--,thames is derived from the ,latin name ,tamesis4 ,,note ,,xiii4--,when a comparison or an alternative is made with two nouns1 if both of them refer to the same subject1 the article should not be inserted before the latter2 if to different subjects1 it should not be omitted3 thus1 if we say1 ,he is a better teacher than poet1 we compare different qualifications of the same man2 but if we say1 ,he is a better teacher than a poet1 we speak of different men1 in regard to the same qualification4 ,,note ,,xiv4--,the definite article1 or some other definitive1 7as this1 that1 these1 those17 is generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun who or which in a restrictive clause2 as1 ,all the men who were present1 agreed to it4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,the thoughts which passion suggests are always plain and obvious ones4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfh4 ,the things which are impossible with men1 are possible with ,god4--,luke1 xviii1 #bg4 ,see ,etymology1 ,chap4 ,v1 ,obs4 #bfth1 c41 on ,classes of ,pronouns4 ,,note ,,xv4--,the article is generally required in that construction which converts a participle into a verbal or participial noun2 as1 ,the completing of this1 by the working-out of sin inherent1 must be by the power and spirit of ,christ in the heart4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,they shall be an abhorring unto all flesh4--,isaiah1 lxvi1 #bd4 ,for the dedicating of the altar4--,numb41 vii1 #aa4 ,,note ,,xvi4--,the article should not be added to any participle that is not taken in all other respects as a noun2 as1 ,for the dedicating the altar4--,he made a mistake in the giving out the text4 ,expunge the1 and let dedicating and giving here stand as participles only2 for in the construction of nouns1 they must have not only a definitive before them1 but the preposition of after them4 ,,note ,,xvii4--,the false syntax of articles properly includes every passage in which there is any faulty insertion1 omission1 choice1 or position1 of this part of speech4 ,for example3 ,when the verb is a passive1 the agent and object change places4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,better3 ,when the verb is passive1 the agent and the object change places4 ,comparisons used by the sacred poets1 are generally short4--,russell's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,better3 ,the comparisons1 c4 ,pronoun means for noun1 and is used to avoid the too frequent repetition of the noun4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,say rather3 ,the pronoun is put for a noun1 and is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of the noun4 ,or3 ,the word ,,pronoun means for noun2 and a pronoun is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of some noun4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,i4 ,fist,the examples of ,false ,syntax placed under the rules and notes1 are to be corrected orally by the pupil1 according to the formules given1 or according to others framed in like manner1 and adapted to the several notes4 ,,examples ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,an ,,or ,a4 ,i have seen an horrible thing in the house of ,israel4--,hosea1 vi1 #aj4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the article an is used before horrible1 which begins with the sound of the consonant h4 ,but1 according to ,note #ast1 under ,rule #ast1 ,when the indefinite article is required1 a should always be used before the sound of a consonant1 and an1 before that of a vowel4 ,therefore1 an should be a2 thus1 ,i have seen a horrible thing in the house of ,israel4 ,there is an harshness in the following sentences4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ahh4 ,indeed1 such an one is not to be looked for4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bg4 ,if each of you will be disposed to approve himself an useful citizen4--,ib41 p4 #bfc4 ,land with them had acquired almost an ,european value4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cbe4 ,he endeavoured to find out an wholesome remedy4--,neef's ,method of ,ed41 p4 #c4 ,at no time have we attended an ,yearly ,meeting more to our own satisfaction4--,the ,friend1 v1 #bbd4 ,addison was not an humourist in character4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #cjc4 ,ah me6 what an one was he8--,lily's ,gram41 p4 #di4 ,he was such an one as ,i never saw4--,ib4 ,no man can be a good preacher1 who is not an useful one4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bhc4 ,an usage which is too frequent with ,mr4 ,addison4--,ib41 p4 #bjj4 ,nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of an horse4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #bih4 ,an universality seems to be aimed at by the omission of the article4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,architecture is an useful as well as a fine art4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cce4 ,because the same individual conjunctions do not preserve an uniform signification4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,such a work required the patience and assiduity of an hermit4--,johnson's ,life of ,morin4 ,resentment is an union of sorrow with malignity4--,rambler1 ,no4 #ahe4 ,his bravery1 we know1 was an high courage of blasphemy4--,pope4 ,hyssop2 a herb of bitter taste4--,pike's ,heb4 ,lex41 p4 #c4 ,on each enervate string they taught the note ,to pant1 or tremble through an ,eunuch's throat4--,pope4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,an ,,or ,a ,,with ,,plurals4 ,at a sessions of the court in ,march1 it was moved1 c4--,hutchinson's ,hist4 of ,mass41 i1 #fa4 ,i shall relate my conversations1 of which ,i kept a memoranda4--,duchess ,d',abrantes1 p4 #bf4 ,i took another dictionary1 and with a scissors cut out1 for instance1 the word ,,abacus4--,a4 ,b4 ,johnson's ,plan of a ,dict41 p4 #ab4 ,a person very meet seemed he for the purpose1 of a forty-five years old4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #cch4 ,and it came to pass about an eight days after these sayings4--,luke1 ix1 #bh4 ,there were slain of them upon a three thousand men4--#a ,mac41 iv1 #ae4 ,until ,i had gained the top of these white mountains1 which seemed another ,alps of snow4--,addison1 ,tat41 ,no4 #afa4 ,to make them a satisfactory amends for all the losses they had sustained4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 p4 #ahg4 ,as a first fruits of many more that shall be gathered4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ejf4 ,it makes indeed a little amends1 by inciting us to oblige people4--,sheffield's ,works1 ii1 #bbi4 ,a large and lightsome backstairs leads up to an entry above4--,ib41 p4 #bfj4 ,peace of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afb2 ,smith's1 #ach4 ,with such a spirit and sentiments were hostilities carried on4--,robertson's ,america1 i1 #aff4 ,in the midst of a thick woods1 he had long lived a voluntary recluse4--,g4 ,b4 ,the flats look almost like a young woods4--,morning ,chronicle4 ,as we went on1 the country for a little ways improved1 but scantily4--,essex ,county ,freeman1 ,vol4 ii1 ,no4 #aa4 ,whereby the ,jews were permitted to return into their own country1 after a seventy years captivity at ,babylon4--,rollin's ,an4 ,hist41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bj4 ,he did riot go a great ways into the country4--,gilbert's ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,a large amends by fortune's hand is made1 ,and the lost ,punic blood is well repay'd4--,rowe's ,lucan1 iv1 #abda4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,nouns ,,connected4 ,as where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds and odour of flowers4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aag4 ,the last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent1 and softness of its pause4--,ib41 ii1 #aac4 ,before the use of the loadstone or knowledge of the compass4--,dryden4 ,the perfect participle and imperfect tense ought not to be confounded4--,murray's ,gram41 ii1 #bib4 ,in proportion as the taste of a poet1 or orator1 becomes more refined4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bg4 ,a situation can never be intricate1 as long as there is an angel1 devil1 or musician1 to lend a helping hand4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bhe4 ,avoid rude sports3 an eye is soon lost1 or bone broken4--,not a word was uttered1 nor sign given4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #abe4 ,i despise not the doer1 but deed4--,ibid4 ,for the sake of an easier pronunciation and more agreeable sound4--,lowth4 ,the levity as well as loquacity of the ,greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history4-- ,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #aae4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,adjectives ,,connected4 ,it is proper that the vowels be a long and short one4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cbg4 ,whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or short time before4--,ib41 p4 #gj2 ,fisk's1 #gb4 ,there are three genders1 ,masculine1 ,feminine1 and ,neuter4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,the numbers are two2 ,singular and ,plural4--,ib41 p4 #hj2 ,gould's1 #gg4 ,the persons are three2 ,first1 ,second1 and ,third4--,adam1 et al4 ,nouns and pronouns have three cases2 the nominative1 possessive1 and objective4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #ai2 ,ingersoll's1 #ba4 ,verbs have five moods2 namely1 the ,indicative1 ,potential1 ,subjunctive1 ,imperative1 and ,infinitive4-- ,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ce2 ,lennie's1 #bj4 ,how many numbers have pronouns8 ,two1 the singular and plural4--,bradley's ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,to distinguish between an interrogative and exclamatory sentence4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bhj2 ,comly's1 #afc2 ,ingersoll's1 #bib4 ,the first and last of which are compounded members4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #abc4 ,in the last lecture1 ,i treated of the concise and diffuse1 the nervous and feeble manner4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ahc4 ,the passive and neuter verbs1 ,i shall reserve for some future conversation4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,there are two voices2 the ,active and ,passive4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #ei2 ,gould's1 #hg4 ,whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,to feel the force of a compound1 or derivative word4--,town's ,analysis1 p4 #d4 ,to preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aej2 ,ingersoll's1 #bcc4 ,e has a long and short sound in most languages4-- ,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #ac4 ,when the figurative and literal sense are mixed and jumbled together4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aea4 ,the ,hebrew1 with which the ,canaanitish and ,phoenician stand in connection4--,,conant3 ,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 p4 #bh4 ,the languages of ,scandinavia proper1 the ,norwegian and ,swedish4--,fowler1 ib41 p4 #ca4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,adjectives ,,connected4 ,the path of truth is a plain and a safe path--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bcf4 ,directions for acquiring a just and a happy elocution4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #add4 ,its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,how can it choose but wither in a long and a sharp winter4--,cowley's ,pref41 p4 vi4 ,into a dark and a distant unknown4--,chalmers1 on ,astronomy1 p4 #bcj4 ,when the bold and the strong enslaved his fellow man4--,chazotte's ,essay1 p4 #ba4 ,we now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accurate and a perfect sentence4 --,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cjf4 ,and hence arises a second and a very considerable source of the improvement of taste4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ah4 ,novelty produces in the mind a vivid and an agreeable emotion4--,ib41 p4 #ej4 ,the deepest and the bitterest feeling still is1 the separation4-- ,dr4 ,m',rie4 ,a great and a good man looks beyond time4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #abe4 ,they made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance4 --,ib4 ,the light and the worthless kernels will float4--,ib4 ,i rejoice that there is an other and a better world4--,ib4 ,for he is determined to revise his work1 and present to the publick another and a better edition4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,he hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an independent authority4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agb3 see ,priestley's1 #adg4 ,there is however another and a more limited sense4--,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bcb4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,articles ,,or ,,plurals4 ,this distinction forms1 what are called the diffuse and the concise styles4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #agf4 ,two different modes of speaking1 distinguished at first by the denominations of the ,attic and the ,asiatic manners4--,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hc4 ,but the great design of uniting the ,spanish and the ,french monarchies under the former was laid4-- ,bolingbroke1 on ,history1 p4 #ahj4 ,in the solemn and the poetic styles1 it do or did is often rejected4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #fh4 ,they cannot be at the same time in the objective and the nominative cases4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aea2 ,ingersoll's1 #bci2 ,r4 ,g4 ,smith's1 #abg4 ,they are named the ,,positive1 the ,,comparative1 and the ,,superlative degrees4--,smart's ,accidence1 p4 #bg4 ,certain ,adverbs are capable of taking an ,inflection1 namely1 that of the comparative and the superlative degrees4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #cba4 ,in the subjunctive mood1 the present and the imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ahg2 ,fisk's1 #aca4 ,the imperfect1 the perfect1 the pluperfect1 and the first future tenses of this mood1 are conjugated like the same tenses of the indicative4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,what rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person8--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,nouns are sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter verb to be1 or after an active-intransitive or passive verb4--,ib41 p4 #ee4 ,the verb varies its endings in the singular in order to agree in form with the first1 second1 and third person of its nominative4--,ib41 p4 #dg4 ,they are identical in effect1 with the radical and the vanishing stresses4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #cci4 ,in a sonnet the first1 fourth1 fifth1 and eighth line rhyme to each other3 so do the second1 third1 sixth1 and seventh line2 the ninth1 eleventh1 and thirteenth line2 and the tenth1 twelfth1 and fourteenth line4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #caa4 ,the iron and the golden ages are run2 youth and manhood are departed4--,wright's ,athens1 p4 #gd4 ,if1 as you say1 the iron and the golden ages are past1 the youth and the manhood of the world4--,ib4 ,an ,exposition of the ,old and ,new ,testament4--,matthew ,henry's ,title-page4 ,the names and order of the books of the ,old and ,new ,testament4--,friends' ,bible1 p4 #b2 ,bruce's1 p4 #b2 et al4 ,in the second and third person of that tense4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,and who still unites in himself the human and the divine natures4--,gurney's ,evidences1 p4 #ei4 ,among whom arose the ,italian1 the ,spanish1 the ,french1 and the ,english languages4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aaa4 ,whence arise these two1 the singular and the plural ,numbers4--,burn's ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,correspondent ,,terms4 ,neither the definitions1 nor examples1 are entirely the same with his4--,ward's ,pref4 to ,lily's ,gram41 p4 vi4 ,because it makes a discordance between the thought and expression4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bd4 ,between the adjective and following substantive4--,ib4 ii1 #ajd4 ,thus1 ,athens became both the repository and nursery of learning4--,chazotte's ,essay1 p4 #bh4 ,but the ,french pilfered from both the ,greek and ,latin4--,ib41 p4 #ajb4 ,he shows that ,christ is both the power and wisdom of ,god4--,the ,friend1 x1 #dad4 ,that he might be ,lord both of the dead and living4--,rom41 xiv1 #i4 ,this is neither the obvious nor grammatical meaning of his words4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bji4 ,sometimes both the accusative and infinitive are understood4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aee2 ,gould's1 #aeh4 ,in some cases we can use either the nominative or accusative promiscuously4--,adam1 p4 #aef2 ,gould1 #aei4 ,both the former and latter substantive are sometimes to be understood4--,adam1 p4 #aeg2 ,gould1 #afj4 ,many whereof have escaped both the commentator and poet himself4--,pope4 ,the verbs must and ought have both a present and past signification4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,how shall we distinguish between the friends and enemies of the government8--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ceb4 ,both the ecclesiastical and secular powers concurred in those measures4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bfj4 ,as the period has a beginning and end within itself it implies an inflexion4--,adams's ,rhet41 ii1 #bde4 ,such as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory4--,kames1 on ,crit41 ii1 #ci4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,correspondence ,,peculiar4 ,when both the upward and the downward slides occur in pronouncing a syllable1 they are called a ,circumflex or ,wave4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 pp4 #ge and #ajd4 ,the word that is used both in the nominative and objective cases4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,but all the other moods and tenses of the verbs1 both in the active and passive voices1 are conjugated at large4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ha4 ,some writers on ,grammar object to the propriety of admitting the second future1 in both the indicative and subjunctive moods4--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,the same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods1 in the same sentence1 and in the same circumstances1 seems to be a great impropriety4--,ib41 p4 #bjg4 ,the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods in this tense4--,ib41 p4 #bjh4 ,i doubt of his capacity to teach either the ,french or ,english languages4--,chazotte's ,essay1 p4 #g4 ,it is as necessary to make a distinction between the active transitive and the active intransitive forms of the verb1 as between the active and passive forms4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #ac4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,a ,,series ,,of ,,terms4 ,as comprehending the terms uttered by the artist1 the mechanic1 and husbandman4--,chazotte's ,essay1 p4 #bd4 ,they may be divided into four classes--the ,humanists1 ,philanthropists1 ,pestalozzian and the ,productive ,schools4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 iii4 ,verbs have six tenses1 the ,present1 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 the ,pluperfect1 and the ,first and ,second ,future tenses4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ach2 ,l4 ,murray's1 #fh2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #bg2 ,alger's1 #bh4 ,is is an irregular verb neuter1 indicative mood1 present tense1 and the third person singular4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #b4 ,should give is an irregular verb active1 in the potential mood1 the imperfect tense1 and the first person plural4--,ibid4 ,us is a personal pronoun1 first person plural1 and in the objective case4--,ibid4 ,them is a personal pronoun1 of the third person1 the plural number1 and in the objective case4--,ibid4 ,it is surprising that the ,jewish critics1 with all their skill in dots1 points1 and accents1 never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation1 of admiration1 or a parenthesis4--,wilson's ,hebrew ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,the fifth1 sixth1 seventh1 and the eighth verse4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bfc4 ,substitutes have three persons2 the ,first1 ,second1 and the ,third4--,ib41 p4 #cd4 ,john's is a proper noun1 of the masculine gender1 the third person1 singular number1 possessive case1 and governed by wife1 by ,rule ,i4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,nouns in the ,english language have three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and objective4--,barrett's ,gram41 p4 #ac2 ,alexander's1 #aa4 ,the ,potential mood has four tenses1 viz4 the ,present1 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 and ,pluperfect4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,where ,science1 ,law1 and ,liberty depend1 ,and own the patron1 patriot1 and the friend4--,savage1 to ,walpole4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,species ,,and ,,genus4 ,a pronoun is a part of speech put for a noun4--,paul's ,accidence1 p4 #aa4 ,a verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense4--,ib41 p4 #ae4 ,a participle is a part of speech derived of a verb4--,ib41 p4 #ch4 ,an adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs to declare their signification4--,ib41 p4 #dj4 ,a conjunction is a part of speech that joineth sentences together4--,ib41 p4 #da4 ,a preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,an interjection is a part of speech which betokeneth a sudden motion or passion of the mind4--,ib41 p4 #dd4 ,an enigma or riddle is also a species of allegory4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aea2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cdc4 ,we may take from the ,scriptures a very fine example of an allegory4--,ib43 ,blair1 #aea2 ,mur41 #cda4 ,and thus have you exhibited a sort of a sketch of art4--,,harris3 in ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #agf4 ,we may 'imagine a subtle kind of a reasoning1' as ,mr4 ,harris acutely observes4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,but1 before entering on these1 ,i shall give one instance of a very beautiful metaphor1 that ,i may show the figure to full advantage4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #adc4 ,aristotle1 in his ,poetics1 uses metaphor in this extended sense1 for any figurative meaning imposed upon a word2 as a whole put for the part1 or a part for a whole2 the species for the genus1 or a genus for the species4--,ib41 p4 #adb4 ,it shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,cleon was another sort of a man4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #abd4 ,to keep off his right wing1 as a kind of a reserved body4--,ib41 ii1 #ab4 ,this part of speech is called a verb4--,mack's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,what sort of a thing is it8--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,what sort of a charm do they possess8--,bullions's ,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,dear ,welsted1 mark1 in dirty hole1 ,that painful animal1 a ,mole4--,note to ,dunciad1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #bjg4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,articles ,,not ,,requisite4 ,either thou or the boys were in the fault4--,comly's ,key1 in ,gram41 p4 #agd4 ,it may1 at the first view1 appear to be too general4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bbb2 ,ingersoll's1 #bge4 ,when the verb has a reference to future time4--,ib43 ,m41 p4 #bjg2 ,ing41 #bfd4 ,no2 they are the language of imagination rather than of a passion4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #afe4 ,the dislike of the ,english ,grammar1 which has so generally prevailed1 can only be attributed to the intricacy of syntax4--,russell's ,gram41 p4 iv4 ,is that ornament in a good taste8--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cbf4 ,there are not many fountains in a good taste4--,ib41 ii1 #cbi4 ,and ,i persecuted this way unto the death4--,acts1 xxii1 #d4 ,the sense of the feeling can1 indeed1 give us the idea of extension4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aif4 ,the distributive adjective pronouns1 each1 every1 either1 agree with the nouns1 pronouns1 and verbs1 of the singular number only4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afe2 ,lowth's1 #hi4 ,expressing by one word1 what might1 by a circumlocution1 be resolved into two or more words belonging to the other parts of speech4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #hd4 ,by the certain muscles which operate all at the same time4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,it is sufficient here to have observed thus much in the general concerning them4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aab4 ,nothing disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cai4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,titles ,,and ,,names4 ,he is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #abf4 ,cromwell assumed the title of a ,protector4--,ib4 ,her father is honoured with the title of an ,earl4--,ib4 ,the chief magistrate is styled a ,president4--,ib4 ,the highest title in the state is that of the ,governor4--,ib4 ,that boy is known by the name of the ,idler4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bje4 ,the one styled the ,mufti1 is the head of the ministers of law and religion4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #cfj4 ,banging all that possessed them under one class1 he called that whole class a tree4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #gc4 ,for the oak1 the pine1 and the ash1 were names of whole classes of objects4--,ib41 p4 #gc4 ,it is of little importance whether we give to some particular mode of expression the name of a trope1 or of a figure4--,ib41 p4 #acc4 ,the collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all combinations1 and has been doomed to peculiar reprobation under the name of an hiatus4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bag4 ,we hesitate to determine1 whether the ,tyrant alone1 is the nominative1 or whether the nominative includes the spy4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #bdf4 ,hence originated the customary abbreviation of twelve months into a twelve-month2 seven nights into se'night2 fourteen nights into a fortnight4--,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #aje4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,comparisons ,,and ,,alternatives4 ,he is a better writer than a reader4--,w4 ,allen's ,false ,syntax1 ,gram41 p4 #ccb4 ,he was an abler mathematician than a linguist4--,ib4 ,i should rather have an orange than apple4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #abf4 ,he was no less able a negotiator1 than a courageous warrior4--,smollett's ,voltaire1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aha4 ,in an epic poem we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a sonnet or epigram4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ahf4 ,that figure is a sphere1 or a globe1 or a ball4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #beh4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiv4--,,antecedents ,,to ,,who ,,or ,,which4 ,carriages which were formerly in use1 were very clumsy4--,inst41 p4 #abf4 ,the place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at that time4--,ib4 ,questions which a person asks himself in contemplation1 ought to be terminated by points of interrogation4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bgi2 ,comly's1 #afb2 ,ingersoll's1 #bia4 ,the work is designed for the use of persons1 who may think it merits a place in their ,libraries4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo41 p4 iii4 ,that persons who think confusedly1 should express themselves obscurely1 is not to be wondered at4--,ib41 p4 #bih4 ,grammarians who limit the number to two1 or at most to three1 do not reflect4--,ib41 p4 #ge4 ,substantives which end in ian1 are those that signify profession4--,ib41 p4 #acb4 ,to these may be added verbs1 which chiefly among the poets govern the dative4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #agj2 ,gould's1 #aga4 ,consonants are letters1 which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,to employ the curiosity of persons who are skilled in grammar4--,murray's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 iii4 ,this rule refers only to nouns and pronouns1 which have the same bearing or relation4--,ib41 i1 p4 #bjd4 ,so that things which are seen1 were not made of things which do appear4--,heb41 xi1 #c4 ,man is an imitative creature2 he may utter sounds1 which he has heard4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,but men1 whose business is wholly domestic1 have little or no use for any language but their own4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #e4 ,,under ,,note ,,xv4--,,participial ,,nouns4 ,great benefit may be reaped from reading of histories4--,sewel's ,hist41 p4 iii4 ,and some attempts were made towards writing of history4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #aaj4 ,it is ,invading of the ,priest's ,office for any other to ,offer it4--,right of ,tythes1 p4 #bjj4 ,and thus far of forming of verbs4--,walker's ,art of ,teaching1 p4 #ce4 ,and without shedding of blood is no remission4--,heb41 ix1 #bb4 ,for making of measures we have the best method here in ,england4--,printer's ,gram4 ,this is really both admitting and denying1 at once4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #gb4 ,and hence the origin of making of parliaments4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ga4 ,next thou objectest1 that having of saving light and grace presupposes conversion4 ,but that ,i deny3 for1 on the contrary1 conversion presupposeth having light and grace4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #adc4 ,they cried down wearing of rings and other superfluities as we do4--,ib41 i1 #bcf4 ,whose adorning1 let it not be that outward adorning of plaiting the hair1 and of wearing of gold1 or of putting on of apparel4--#a ,peter1 iii1 #c4 ,in spelling of derivative ,words1 the ,primitive must be kept whole4--,british ,gram41 p4 #ej2 ,buchanan's ,syntax1 #i4 ,and the princes offered for dedicating of the altar4--,numbers1 vii1 #aj4 ,boasting is not only telling of lies1 but also many unseemly truths4--,sheffield's ,works1 ii1 #bdd4 ,we freely confess that forbearing of prayer in the wicked is sinful4--,barclay1 i1 #caf4 ,for revealing of a secret1 there is no remedy4--,inst4 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #abf4 ,he turned all his thoughts to composing of laws for the good of the state4--,rollin's ,ancient ,hist41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ch4 ,,under ,,note ,,xvi4--,,participles1 ,,not ,,nouns4 ,it is salvation to be kept from falling into a pit1 as truly as to be taken out of it after the falling in4--,barclay1 i1 #baj4 ,for in the receiving and embracing the testimony of truth1 they felt eased4--,ib41 i1 #dfi4 ,true regularity does not consist in the having but a single rule1 and forcing every thing to conform to it4--,philol4 ,museum1 i1 #ffd4 ,to the man of the world1 this sound of glad tidings appears only an idle tale1 and not worth the attending to4--,life of ,tho4 ,say1 p4 #add4 ,to be the deliverer of the captive ,jews1 by the ordering their temple to be re-built1 c4--,rollin1 ii1 #abd4 ,and for the preserving them from being defiled4--,n4 ,e4 ,discipline1 p4 #acc4 ,a wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #hj4 ,hirsutus had no other reason for the valuing a book4--,rambler1 ,no4 #agg2 ,wright's ,gram41 p4 #aij4 ,to the being heard with satisfaction1 it is necessary that the speaker should deliver himself with ease4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #aad4 ,and to the being well heard1 and clearly understood1 a good and distinct articulation contributes more1 than power of voice4--,ib41 p4 #aag4 ,potential means the having power or will2 ,as1 ,if you would improve1 you should be still4 --,tobitt's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,,under ,,note ,,xvii4--,,various ,,errors4 ,for the same reason1 a neuter verb cannot become a passive4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,the period is the whole sentence complete in itself4--,ib41 p4 #aae4 ,the colon or member is a chief constructive part1 or greater division of a sentence4--,ib4 ,the semicolon or half member1 is a less constructive part or subdivision1 of a sentence or member4--,ib4 ,a sentence or member is again subdivided into commas or segments4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,the first error that ,i would mention1 is1 a too general attention to the dead languages1 with a neglect of our own4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #c4 ,one third of the importations would supply the demands of people4--,ib41 p4 #aai4 ,and especially in grave stile4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #gb4 ,by too eager pursuit1 he ran a great risk of being disappointed4--,murray's ,key1 ,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bja4 ,letters are divided into vowels and consonants4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #g2 and others4 ,consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels4--,ib41 i1 #h2 and others4 ,the first of these forms is most agreeable to the ,english idiom4--,ib41 i1 #agf4 ,if they gain1 it is a too dear rate4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ejd4 ,a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun1 to prevent a too frequent repetition of it4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,this vulgar error might perhaps arise from a too partial fondness for the ,latin4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 iv4 ,the groans which a too heavy load extorts from her4--,hitchcock1 on ,dyspepsy1 p4 #ej4 ,the numbers of a verb are1 of course1 singular and plural4--,bucke's ,gram4 p4 #eh4 ,to brook no meanness1 and to stoop to no dissimulation1 are the indications of a great mind4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bcf4 ,this mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave style4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aih4 ,this use of the word rather suits familiar and low style4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,according to the nature of the composition the one or other may be predominant4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajb4 ,yet the commonness of such sentences prevents in a great measure a too early expectation of the end4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #daa4 ,an eulogy or a philippie may be pronounced by an individual of one nation upon the subject of another4--,adams's ,rhet41 i1 #bih4 ,a ,french sermon1 is for most part1 a warm animated exhortation4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bhh4 ,i do not envy those who think slavery no very pitiable a lot4--,channing1 on ,emancipation1 p4 #eb4 ,the auxiliary and principal united1 constitute a tense4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #ge4 ,there are some verbs which are defective with respect to persons4--,ib41 i1 #aji4 ,in youth1 the habits of industry are most easily acquired4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bce4 ,apostrophe 7'7 is used in place of a letter left out4--,bullions's ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #aef4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,cases1 ,,or ,,nouns4 ,the rules for the construction of ,nouns1 or ,cases1 are seven2 hence this chapter1 according to the order adopted above1 reviews the series of rules from the second rule to the eighth1 inclusively4 ,though ,nouns are here the topic1 all these seven rules apply alike to ,nouns and to ,pronouns2 that is1 to all the words of our language which are susceptible of ,cases4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,nominatives4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case3 as1 ,the ,pharisees also1 who were covetous1 heard all these things2 and they derided him4--,luke1 xvi1 #ad4 ,but where the meekness of self-knowledge veileth the front of self-respect1 there look thou for the man whom none can know but they will honour4--,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #ff4 ,dost thou mourn ,philander's fate8 ,i know thou sayst it3 says thy life the same8 --,young1 ,n4 ii1 l4 #bb4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,ii4 ,,obs4 #a4--,to this rule1 there are no exceptions2 and nearly all nominatives1 or far the greater part1 are to be parsed by it4 ,there are however four different ways of disposing of the nominative case4 ,first1 it is generally the subject of a verb1 according to ,rule #b;d4 ,secondly1 it may be put in apposition with an other nominative1 according to ,rule #c;d4 ,thirdly1 it may be put after a verb or a participle not transitive1 according to ,rule #fth4 ,fourthly1 it may be put absolute1 or may help to form a phrase that is independent of the rest of the sentence1 according to ,rule #hth4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the subject1 or nominative1 is generally placed before the verb2 as1 ,peace dawned upon his mind4--,johnson4 ,what is written in the law8--,bible4 ,but1 in the following nine cases1 the subject of the verb is usually placed after it1 or after the first auxiliary3 #a4 ,when a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case2 as1 ,shall mortals be implacable8--,hooke4 ,what art thou doing8--,id4 ,how many loaves have ye8--,bible4 ,are they ,israelites8 so am ,i4--,ib4 #b4 ,when the verb is in the imperative mood2 as1 ,go thou--,come ye ,but1 with this mood1 the pronoun is very often omitted and understood2 as1 ,philip saith unto him1 ,come and see--,john1 i1 #df4 ,and he saith unto them1 ,be not affrighted4--,mark1 xvi1 #e4 #c4 ,when an earnest wish1 or other strong feeling1 is expressed2 as1 ,may she be happy6--,how were we struck6--,young4 ,not as the world giveth1 give ,i unto you4--,bible4 #d4 ,when a supposition is made without the conjunction if2 as1 ,had they known it2 for1 ,if they had known it4--,were it true2 for1 ,if it were true4--,could we draw by the covering of the grave2 for1 ,if we could draw1 c4 #e4 ,when neither or nor1 signifying and not1 precedes the verb2 as1 ,this was his fear2 nor was his apprehension groundless4--,ye shall not eat of it1 neither shall ye touch it4--,gen41 iii1 #c4 #f4 ,when1 for the sake of emphasis1 some word or words are placed before the verb1 which more naturally come after it2 as1 ,here am ,i4--,narrow is the way4--,silver and gold have ,i none2 but such as ,i have1 give ,i thee4--,bible4 #g4 ,when the verb has no regimen1 and is itself emphatical2 as1 ,echo the mountains round4--,thomson4 ,after the ,light ,infantry marched the ,grenadiers1 then followed the ,horse4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #ga4 #h4 ,when the verbs1 say1 answer1 reply1 and the like1 introduce the parts of a dialogue2 as1 ',son of affliction1' said ,omar1 'who art thou8' ',my name1' replied the stranger1 'is ,hassan4'--,dr4 ,johnson4 #i4 ,when the adverb there precedes the verb2 as1 ,there lived a man4--,montgomery4 ,in all worldly joys1 there is a secret wound4--,owen4 ,this use of there1 the general introductory adverb of place1 is idiomatic1 and somewhat different from the use of the same word in reference to a particular locality2 as1 ,because there was not much water there4--,john1 iii1 #bc4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,in exclamations1 and some other forms of expression1 a few verbs are liable to be suppressed1 the ellipsis being obvious2 as1 ,how different is this from the philosophy of ,greece and ,rome6--,,dr4 ,,beattie3 ,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #abg4 ,what a lively picture is here of the most disinterested and active benevolence6--,,hervey3 ib41 p4 #id4 ,when ,adam spake thus to ,eve4--,,milton3 ,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 iv1 l4 #faj4 ,,obs4 #d4--,though we often use nouns in the nominative case to show whom we address1 yet the imperative verb takes no other nominative of the second person1 than the simple personal pronoun1 thou1 ye1 or you1 expressed or understood4 ,it would seem that some1 who ought to know better1 are liable to mistake for the subject of such a verb1 the noun which we put absolute in the nominative by direct address4 ,of this gross error1 the following is an example3 ,study boys4 ,in this sentence1 7says its author17 study is a verb of the second person1 plural number1 and agrees with its nominative case1 boys--according to the rule3 ,a verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person4 ,boys is a noun of the second person1 plural number1 masculine gender1 in the nominative case to the verb study4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ag4cci ,now the fact is1 that this laconic address1 of three syllables1 is written wrong2 being made bad ,english for want of a comma between the two words4 ,without this mark1 boys must be an objective1 governed by study2 and with it1 a nominative1 put absolute by direct address4 ,but1 in either case1 study agrees with ye or you understood1 and has not the noun for its subject1 or nominative4 ,,obs4 #e4--,some authors say1 and if the first person be no exception1 say truly3 ,the nominative case to a verb1 unless it be a pronoun1 is always of the third person4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,but ,w4 ,b4 ,fowle will have all pronouns to be adjectives4 ,consequently all his verbs1 of every sort1 agree with nouns expressed or understood4 ,this1 and every other absurd theory of language1 can easily be made out1 by means of a few perversions1 which may be called corrections1 and a sufficient number of interpolations1 made under pretence of filling up ellipses4 ,thus1 according to this author1 ,they fear1 means1 ,they things spoken of fear4--,true ,eng4 ,gram41 p1 #cc4 ,and1 ,john1 open the door1 or1 ,boys1 stop your noise1 admits no comma4 ,and1 ,be grateful1 ye children1 and1 ,be ye grateful children1 are1 in his view1 every way equivalent3 the comma in the former being1 in his opinion1 needless4 ,see ib41 p4 #ci4 ,,obs4 #f4--,though the nominative and objective cases of nouns do not differ in form1 it is nevertheless1 in the opinion of many of our grammarians1 improper to place any noun in both relations at once1 because this produces a confusion in the syntax of the word4 ,examples3 ,he then goes on to declare that there are1 and distinguish of1 four manners of saying ,per se4--,walker's ,treatise of ,particles1 p4 xii4 ,better3 ,he then proceeds to show1 that per se is susceptible of four different senses4 ,in just allegory and similitude there is always a propriety1 or1 if you choose to call it1 congruity1 in the literal sense1 as well as a distinct meaning or sentiment suggested1 which is called the figurative sense4--,campbell's ,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #bia4 ,better3 ,in just allegory or similitude1 there is always a propriety--or1 if you choose to call it so1 a congruity--in the literal sense1 c4 ,it must then be meant of his sins who makes1 not of his who becomes1 the convert4--,atterbury's ,sermons1 i1 #b4 ,better3 ,it must then be meant of his sins who makes the convert1 not of his who becomes converted4 ,eye hath not seen1 nor ear heard1 neither have entered into the heart of man1 the things which ,god hath prepared for them that love him4--#a ,cor41 ii1 #i4 ,a more regular construction would be3 ,eye hath not seen1 nor ear heard1 neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive1 the things which ,god hath prepared for them that love him4 ,the following example1 from ,pope1 may perhaps be conceded to the poet1 as an allowable ellipsis of the words a friend1 after is3 ,in who obtain defence1 or who defend2 ,in him who is1 or him who finds1 a friend4 --,essay on ,man1 ,ep4 iv1 l4 #fj4 ,dr4 ,lowth cites the last three examples1 without suggesting any forms of correction2 and says of them1 ,there seems to be an impropriety in these sentences1 in which the same noun stands in a double capacity1 performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective case4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,he should have said--of both the nominative and the objective case4 ,dr4 ,webster1 citing the line1 ,in him who is1 and him who finds1 a friend1 adds1 ,lowth condemns this use of the noun in the nominative and objective at the same time2 but without reason1 as the cases are not distinguished in ,english4--,improved ,gram41 p4 #age4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,in ,latin and ,greek1 the accusative before the infinitive1 is often reckoned the subject of the latter verb2 and is accordingly parsed by a sort of exception to the foregoing rule--or rather1 to that general rule of concord which the grammarians apply to the verb and its nominative4 ,this construction is translated into ,english1 and other modern tongues1 sometimes literally1 or nearly so1 but much oftener1 by a nominative and a finite verb4 ,example3 ,greek3 ,eipen auton phonthnai4--,mark1 x1 #di4 ,ait illum vocari4--,leusden4 ,jussit eum vocari4--,beza4 ,prcepit illum vocari4--,vulgate4 ,he commanded him to be called4--,english ,bible4 ,he commanded that he should be called4--,milnes's ,gr4 ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,il dit qu'on l'appelt4--,french ,bible4 ,he bid that somebody should call him4 ,il commanda qu'on le ft venir4--,nouveau ,test41 ,paris1 #ahab4 ,he commanded that they should make him come2 that is1 lead him1 or bring him4 ,il commanda qu'on l'appelt4--,de ,sacy's ,n4 ,test4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,in ,english1 the objective case before the infinitive mood1 although it may truly denote the agent of the infinitive action1 or the subject of the infinitive passion1 is nevertheless taken as the object of the preceding verb1 participle1 or preposition4 ,accordingly our language does not admit a literal translation of the above-mentioned construction1 except the preceding verb be such as can be interpreted transitively4 ,gaudeo te valere1 ,i am glad that thou art well1 cannot be translated more literally2 because1 ,i am glad thee to be well1 would not be good ,english4 ,aiunt regem adventare1 ,they say the king is coming1 may be otherwise rendered ,they declare the king to be coming2 but neither version is entirely literal2 the objective being retained only by a change of aiunt1 say1 into such a verb as will govern the noun4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the following sentence is a literal imitation of the ,latin accusative before the infinitive1 and for that reason it is not good ,english3 ,but experience teacheth us1 both these opinions to be alike ridiculous4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bfb4 ,it should be1 ,but experience teaches us1 that both these opinions are alike ridiculous4 ,the verbs believe1 think1 imagine1 and others expressing mental action1 ,i suppose to be capable of governing nouns or pronouns in the objective case1 and consequently of being interpreted transitively4 ,hence ,i deny the correctness of the following explanation3 ,,rule ,,xxiv4 ,the objective case precedes the infinitive mode2 as1 ',i believe your brother to be a good man4' ,here believe does not govern brother1 in the objective case1 because it is not the object after it4 ,brother1 in the objective case1 third person singular1 precedes the neuter verb to be1 in the infinitive mode1 present time1 third person singular4--,s4 ,barrett's ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,this author teaches that1 ,the infinitive mode agrees with the objective case in number and person4--,ibid4 ,which doctrine is denied2 because the infinitive has no number or person1 in any language4 ,nor do ,i see why the noun brother1 in the foregoing example1 may not be both the object of the active verb believe1 and the subject of the neuter infinitive to be1 at the same time2 for the subject of the infinitive1 if the infinitive can be said to have a subject1 is not necessarily in the nominative case1 or necessarily independent of what precedes4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,there are many teachers of ,english grammar1 who still adhere to the principle of the ,latin and ,greek grammarians1 which refers the accusative or objective to the latter verb1 and supposes the former to be intransitive1 or to govern only the infinitive4 ,thus ,nixon3 ,the objective case is frequently put before the infinitive mood1 as its subject2 as1 ',suffer me to depart4' #cdj--;,english ,parser1 p4 #cd4 ,when an objective case stands before an infinitive mood1 as ',i understood it to be him1' ',suffer me to depart1' such objective should be parsed1 not as governed by the preceding verb1 but as the objective case before the infinitive2 that is1 the subject of it4 ,the reason of this is--the former verb can govern one object only1 and that is 7in such sentences7 the infinitive mood2 the intervening objective being the subject of the infinitive following1 and not governed by the former verb2 as1 in that instance1 it would be governing two objects4--,ib41 ,note4#cda ,,obs4 #aa4--,the notion that one verb governs an other in the infinitive1 just as a transitive verb governs a noun1 and so that it cannot also govern an objective case1 is not only contradictory to my scheme of parsing the infinitive mood1 but is also false in itself1 and repugnant to the principles of ,general ,grammar4 ,in ,greek and ,latin1 it is certainly no uncommon thing for a verb to govern two cases at once2 and even the accusative before the infinitive is sometimes governed by the preceding verb1 as the objective before the infinitive naturally is in ,english4 ,but1 in regard to construction1 every language differs more or less from every other2 hence each must have its own syntax1 and abide by its own rules4 ,in regard to the point here in question1 the reader may compare the following examples3 ,greek3 ,echo anagkn exelthein4--,luke1 xiv1 #ah4 ,habeo necesse exire4--,leusden4 ,english3 ,i have occasion to go away4 ,again3 ,greek3 ,o echon hota akouein1 akoueto4--,luke1 xiv1 #ce4 ,habens aures audiendi1 audiat4--,leusden4 ,qui habet aures ad audiendum1 audiat4--,beza4 ,english3 ,he that hath ears to hear1 let him hear4 ,but our most frequent use of the infinitive after the objective1 is in sentences that must not be similarly constructed in ,latin or ,greek2#cdb as1 ,and he commanded the porter to watch4--,mark1 xiii1 #cd4 ,and he delivered ,jesus to be crucified4--,mark1 xv1 #ae4 ,and they led him out to crucify him4--,mark1 xv1 #bj4 ,we heard him say4--,mark1 xiv1 #eh4 ,that ,i might make thee know4--,prov41 xxii1 #ba4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,if our language does really admit any thing like the accusative before the infinitive1 in the sense of a positive subject at the head of a clause1 it is only in some prospective descriptions like the following3 ,let certain studies be prescribed to be pursued during the freshman year2 some of these to be attended to by the whole class2 with regard to others1 a choice to be allowed2 which1 when made by the student1 7the parent or guardian sanctioning it17 to be binding during the freshman year3 the same plan to be adopted with regard to the studies of the succeeding years4--,,gallaudet3 ,journal of the ,n4 ,y4 ,literary ,convention1 p4 #aah4 ,here the four words1 some1 choice1 which1 and plan1 may appear to a ,latinist to be so many objectives1 or accusatives1 placed before infinitives1 and used to describe that state of things which the author would promote4 ,if objectives they are1 we may still suppose them to be governed by let1 would have1 or something of the kind1 understood3 as1 ,let some of these be attended to2 or1 ,some of these ,i would have to be attended to1 c4 ,the relative which might with more propriety be made nominative1 by changing to be binding to shall be binding2 and as to the rest1 it is very doubtful whether they are not now nominatives1 rather than objectives4 ,the infinitive1 as used above1 is a mere substitute for the ,latin future participle2 and any ,english noun or pronoun put absolute with a participle1 is in the nominative case4 ,english relatives are rarely1 if ever1 put absolute in this manner3 and this may be the reason why the construction of which1 in the sentence above1 seems awkward4 ,besides1 it is certain that the other pronouns are sometimes put absolute with the infinitive2 and that1 in the nominative case1 not the objective3 as1 ,and ,i to be a corporal in his field1 ,and wear his colours like a tumbler's hoop6 ,what8 ,i6 ,i love6 ,i sue6 ,i seek a wife6--,shak41 ,love's ,labour ,lost4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4 ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,a ,,finite ,,verb4 ,the whole need not a physician1 but them that are sick4--,bunyan's ,law and ,gr41 p4 iv4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the objective pronoun them is here made the subject of the verb need1 understood4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d1 ,a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4 ,therefore1 them should be they2 thus1 ,the whole need not a physician1 but they that are sick4 ,he will in no wise cast out whomsoever cometh unto him4--,robert ,hall ,he feared the enemy might fall upon his men1 whom he saw were off their guard4--,hutchinson's ,massachusetts1 ii1 #acc4 ,whomsoever shall compel thee to go a mile1 go with him twain4--,dymond's ,essays1 p4 #dh4 ,the idea's of the author have been conversant with the faults of other writers4--,swift's ,t4 ,t41 p4 #ee4 ,you are a much greater loser than me by his death4--,swift to ,pope1 l4 #fc4 ,such peccadillo's pass with him for pious frauds4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #bgi4 ,in whom ,i am nearly concerned1 and whom ,i know would be very apt to justify my whole procedure4--,ib41 i1 #efj4 ,do not think such a man as me contemptible for my garb4--,addison4 ,his wealth and him bid adieu to each other4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ajg4 ,so that1 ',he is greater than me1' will be more grammatical than1 ',he is greater than ,i4'--,ib41 p4 #ajf4 ,the ,jesuits had more interests at court than him4--,,smollett3 in ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #ajf4cdc ,tell the ,cardinal that ,i understand poetry better than him4--,id41 ib4 ,an inhabitant of ,crim ,tartary was far more happy than him4--,id41 ib4 ,my father and him have been very intimate since4--,fair ,american1 ii1 #ec4 ,who was the agent1 and whom the object struck or kissed8--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,to find the person whom he imagined was concealed there4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #bbe4 ,he offered a great recompense to whomsoever would help him4--,,hume3 in ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,they would be under the dominion1 absolute and unlimited1 of whomsoever might exercise the right of judgement4--,gov4 ,haynes's ,speech1 in #ahcb4 ,they had promised to accept whomsoever should be born in ,wales4--,stories by ,croker4 ,we sorrow not as them that have no hope4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #bg4 ,if he suffers1 he suffers as them that have no hope4--,ib41 p4 #cb4 ,we acknowledge that he1 and him only1 hath been our peacemaker4--,gratton4 ,and what can be better than him that made it8--,jenks's ,prayers1 p4 #cbi4 ,none of his school-fellows is more beloved than him4--,cooper's ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,solomon1 who was wiser than them all4--,watson's ,apology1 p4 #gf4 ,those whom the ,jews thought were the last to be saved1 first entered the kingdom of ,god4--,eleventh ,hour1 ,tract1 ,no4 #d4 ,a stone is heavy1 and the sand weighty2 but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both4--,prov41 xxvii1 #c4 ,a man of business1 in good company1 is hardly more insupportable than her they call a notable woman4--,steele1 ,sped4 ,the king of the ,sarmatians1 whom we may imagine was no small prince1 restored him a hundred thousand ,roman prisoners4--,life of ,antoninus1 p4 #hc4 ,such notions would be avowed at this time by none but rosicrucians1 and fanatics as mad as them4--,bolingbroke's ,ph4 ,tr41 p4 #bd4 ,unless1 as ,i said1 ,messieurs1 you are the masters1 and not me4--,,basil ,,hall3 ,harrison's ,e4 ,lang41 p4 #agc4 ,we had drawn up against peaceable travellers1 who must have been as glad as us to escape4--,,burnes',s ,,travels3 ibid4 ,stimulated1 in turn1 by their approbation1 and that of better judges than them1 she turned to their literature with redoubled energy4--,,quarterly ,,review3 ,life of ,h4 ,more3 ibid4 ,i know not whom else are expected4--,,scott',s ,,pirate3 ibid4 ,he is great1 but truth is greater than us all4--,horace ,mann1 in ,congress1 #ahej4 ,him ,i accuse has entered4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #dhb3 see ,shakspeare's ,coriolanus1 ,act ,v1 sc4 #e4 ,scotland and thee did each in other live4 --,dryden's ,po41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bbj4 ,we are alone2 here's none but thee and ,i4 --,shak41 #b ,hen4 ,,vi4 ,me rather had1 my heart might feel your love1 ,than my unpleas'd eye see your courtesy4 --,idem3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,tell me1 in sadness1 whom is she you love8 --,id41 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,a4 ,i1 sc4 #a4 ,better leave undone1 than by our deeds acquire ,too high a fame1 when him we serve's away4 --,shak41 ,ant4 and ,cleop4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,apposition4 ,a ,noun or a personal ,pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun1 is put1 by apposition1 in the same case3 as1 ,but it is really ,i1 your old friend and neighbour41 ,piso1 late a dweller upon the ,coelian hill1 who am now basking in the warm skies of ,palmyra4--,zenobia4 ,but he1 our gracious ,master1 kind as just1 ,knowing our frame1 remembers we are dust4--,barbauld4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,iii4 ,,obs4 #a--;,apposition is that peculiar relation which one noun or pronoun bears to an other1 when two or more are placed together in the same case1 and used to designate the same person or thing3 as1 ,cicero the orator2--,the prophet ,joel2--,he of ,gath1 ,goliah2--,which ye yourselves do know2--,to make him king2--,to give his life a ransom for many2--,i made the ground my bed2--,i1 thy schoolmaster2--,we the ,people of the ,united ,states4 ,this placing-together of nouns and pronouns in the same case1 was reckoned by the old grammarians a figure of syntax2 and from them it received1 in their elaborate detail of the grammatical and rhetorical figures1 its present name of apposition4 ,they reckoned it a species of ellipsis1 and supplied between the words1 the participle being1 the infinitive to be1 or some other part of their substantive verb3 as1 ,cicero being the orator2--,to make him to be king2--,i who am thy schoolmaster4 ,but the later ,latin grammarians have usually placed it among their regular concords2 some calling it the first concord1 while others make it the last1 in the series2 and some1 with no great regard to consistency1 treating it both as a figure and as a regular concord1 at the same time4 ,,obs4 #b4--,some ,english grammarians teach1 that the words in the cases preceding and following the verb to be1 may be said to be in apposition to each other4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aha2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #aee2 ,fisk's1 #abf2 ,ingersoll's1 #adf2 ,merchant's1 #ia4 ,but this is entirely repugnant to the doctrine1 that apposition is a figure2 nor is it at all consistent with the original meaning of the word apposition2 because it assumes that the literal reading1 when the supposed ellipsis is supplied1 is apposition still4 ,the old distinction1 however1 between apposition and same cases1 is generally preserved in our grammars1 and is worthy ever to be so4 ,the rule for same cases applies to all nouns or pronouns that are put after verbs or participles not transitive1 and that are made to agree in case with other nouns or pronouns going before1 and meaning the same thing4 ,but some teachers who observe this distinction with reference to the neuter verb be1 and to certain passive verbs of naming1 appointing1 and the like1 absurdly break it down in relation to other verbs1 neuter or active-intransitive4 ,thus ,nixon3 ,nouns in apposition are in the same case2 as1 ',hortensius died a martyr2' ',sydney lived the shepherd's friend4'--,english ,parser1 p4 #ee4 ,it is remarkable that all this author's examples of nominatives in apposition1 7and he gives eighteen in the exercise17 are precisely of this sort1 in which there is really no apposition at all4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,in the exercise of parsing1 rule third should be applied only to the explanatory term2 because the case of the principal term depends on its relation to the rest of the sentence1 and comes under some other rule4 ,in certain instances1 too1 it is better to waive the analysis which might be made under rule third1 and to take both or all the terms together1 under the rule for the main relation4 ,thus1 the several proper names which distinguish an individual1 are always in apposition1 and should be taken together in parsing2 as1 ,william ,pitt--,marcus ,tullius ,cicero4 ,it may1 ,i think1 be proper to include with the personal names1 some titles also2 as1 ,lord ,bacon--,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,william ,e4 ,russell and ,jonathan ,ware1 7two ,american authors of no great note17 in parsing the name of ,george ,washington1 absurdly take the former word as an adjective belonging to the latter4 ,see ,russell's ,gram41 p4 #ajj2 and ,ware's1 #ag4 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith does the same1 both with honorary titles1 and with baptismal or ,christian names4 ,see his ,new ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,and one ,english writer1 in explaining the phrases1 ,john ,wickliffe's influence1 ,robert ,bruce's exertions1 and the like1 will have the first nouns to be governed by the last1 and the intermediate ones to be distinct possessives in apposition with the former4 ,see ,nixon's ,english ,parser1 p4 #ei4 ,wm4 ,b4 ,fowle1 in his ,true ,english ,grammar1 takes all titles1 all given names1 all possessives1 and all pronouns1 to be adjectives4 ,according to him1 this class embraces more than half the words in the language4 ,a later writer than any of these says1 ,the proper noun is philosophically an adjective4 ,nouns common or proper1 of similar or dissimilar import1 may be parsed as adjectives1 when they become qualifying or distinguishing words2 as1 ,president ,madison1--,doctor ,johnson1--,mr4 ,webster1--,esq4 ,carleton1--,miss ,gould1--,professor ,ware1--lake ,erie1--the ,pacific ocean1--,franklin ,house1--,union street4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,i dissent from all these views1 at least so far as not to divide a man's name in parsing it4 ,a person will sometimes have such a multitude of names1 that it would be a flagrant waste of time1 to parse them all separately3 for example1 that wonderful doctor1 ,paracelsus1 who called himself1 ,aureolus ,philippus ,theophrastus ,bombastus ,paracelsus de ,hoenheim4--,univ4 ,biog4 ,dict4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,a very common rule for apposition in ,latin1 is this3 ,substantives signifying the same thing1 agree in case4--,adam's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #aef4 ,the same has also been applied to our language3 ,substantives denoting the same person or thing1 agree in case4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,this rule is1 for two reasons1 very faulty3 first1 because the apposition of pronouns seems not to be included it2 secondly1 because two nouns that are not in the same case1 do sometimes signify or denote the same thing4 ,thus1 the city of ,london1 means only the city ,london2 the land of ,egypt1 is only ,egypt2 and the person of ,richard is ,richard himself4 ,dr4 ,webster defines apposition to be1 ,the placing of two nouns in the same case1 without a connecting word between them4--,octavo ,dict4 ,this1 too1 excludes the pronouns1 and has exceptions1 both various and numerous4 ,in the first place1 the apposition may be of more than two nouns1 without any connective2 as1 ,ezra the priest1 the scribe of the law4--,ezra1 vii1 #ba4 ,secondly1 two nouns connected by a conjunction1 may both be put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun2 as1 ,god hath made that same ,jesus1 whom ye have crucified1 both ,lord and ,christ4--,acts1 ii1 #cf4 ,who made me a judge or a divider over you4--,luke1 xii1 #ad4 ,thirdly1 the apposition may be of two nouns immediately connected by and1 provided the two words denote but one person or thing2 as1 ,this great philosopher and statesman was bred a printer4 ,fourthly1 it may be of two words connected by as1 expressing the idea of a partial or assumed identity2 as1 ,yet count him not as an enemy1 but admonish him as a brother4--#b ,thess41 iii1 #ae4 ,so that he1 as ,god1 sitteth in the temple of ,god4--,ib41 ii1 #d4 ,fifthly1 it may perhaps be of two words connected by than2 as1 ,he left them no more than dead men4--,law and ,grace1 p4 #bh4 ,lastly1 there is a near resemblance to apposition1 when two equivalent nouns are connected by or2 as1 ,the back of the hedgehog is covered with prickles1 or spines4--,webster's ,dict4 ,,obs4 #e4--,to the rule for apposition1 as ,i have expressed it1 there are properly no exceptions4 ,but there are many puzzling examples of construction under it1 some of which are but little short of exceptions2 and upon such of these as are most likely to embarrass the learner1 some further observations shall be made4 ,the rule supposes the first word to be the principal term1 with which the other word1 or subsequent noun or pronoun1 is in apposition2 and it generally is so3 but the explanatory word is sometimes placed first1 especially among the poets2 as1 ,from bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd1 ,child of the sun1 refulgent ,summer comes4--,thomson4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the pronouns of the first and second persons are often placed before nouns merely to distinguish their person2 as1 ,i ,john saw these things4--,bible4 ,but what is this to you receivers8--,clarkson's ,essay on ,slavery1 p4 #ajh4 ,his praise1 ye brooks1 attune4--,thomson4 ,in this case of apposition1 the words are in general closely united1 and either of them may be taken as the explanatory term4 ,the learner will find it easier to parse the noun by rule third2 or both nouns1 if there be two3 as1 ,i thy father-in-law ,jethro am come unto thee4--,exod41 xviii1 #f4 ,there are many other examples1 in which it is of no moment1 which of the terms we take for the principal2 and to all such the rule may be applied literally3 as1 ,thy son ,benhadad king of ,syria hath sent me to thee4--#b ,kings1 viii1 #i4 ,,obs4 #g4--,when two or more nouns of the possessive case are put in apposition1 the possessive termination added to one1 denotes the case of both or all2 as1 ,for ,herodias' sake1 his brother ,philip's wife--,matt41 xiv1 #c2 ,mark1 vi1 #ag4 ,here wife is in apposition with ,herodias'1 and brother with ,philip's2 consequently all these words are reckoned to be in the possessive case4 ,the ,greek text1 which is better1 stands essentially thus3 ,for the sake of ,herodias1 the wife of ,philip his brother4 ,for ,jacob my servant's sake1 and ,israel mine elect4--,isaiah1 xlv1 #d4 ,here1 as ,jacob and ,israel are only different names for the same person or nation1 the four nouns in ,italics are1 according to the rule1 all made possessives by the one sign used2 but the construction is not to be commended3 it would be better to say1 ,for the sake of ,jacob my servant1 and ,israel mine elect4 ,with ,hyrcanus the high priest's consent4--,wood's ,dict41 w4 ,herod4 ,i called at ,smith's1 the bookseller2 or1 at ,smith the bookseller's4-- ,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aje4 ,two words1 each having the possessive sign1 can never be in apposition one with the other2 because that sign has immediate reference to the governing noun expressed or understood after it2 and if it be repeated1 separate governing nouns will be implied1 and the apposition will be destroyed4#cdd ,,obs4 #h4--;,if the foregoing remark is just1 the apposition of two nouns in the possessive case1 requires the possessive sign to be added to that noun which immediately precedes the governing word1 whether expressed or understood1 and positively excludes it from the other4 ,the sign of the case is added1 sometimes to the former1 and sometimes to the latter noun1 but never to both3 or1 if added to both1 the two words are no longer in apposition4 ,example3 ,and for that reason they ascribe to him a great part of his father ,nimrod's1 or ,belus's actions4--,rollin's ,an4 ,hist41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #f4 ,here father and ,nimrod's are in strict apposition2 but if actions governs ,belus's1 the same word is implied to govern ,nimrod's1 and the two names are not in apposition1 though they are in the same case and mean the same person4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,dr4 ,priestley says1 ,some would say1 ',i left the parcel at ,mr4 ,smith's1 the bookseller2' others1 'at ,mr4 ,smith the bookseller's2' and perhaps others1 at ',mr4 ,smith's the bookseller's4' ,the last of these forms is most agreeable to the ,latin idiom1 but the first seems to be more natural in ours2 and if the addition consist consists1 says ,murray1 of two or more words1 the case seems to be very clear2 as1 ',i left the parcel at ,mr4 ,smith's the bookseller and stationer2' i4 e4 at ,mr4 ,smith's1 who is a bookseller and stationer4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,here the examples1 if rightly pointed1 would all be right2 but the ellipsis supposed1 not only destroys the apposition1 but converts the explanatory noun into a nominative4 ,and in the phrase1 at ,mr4 ,smiths1 the bookseller's1 there is no apposition1 except that of ,mr4 with ,smith's2 for the governing noun house or store is understood as clearly after the one possessive sign as after the other4 ,churchill imagines that in ,murray's example1 ,i reside at ,lord ,stormont's1 my old patron and benefactor1 the last two nouns are in the nominative after who was understood2 and also erroneously suggests1 that their joint apposition with ,stormont's might be secured1 by saying1 less elegantly1 ,i reside at ,lord ,stormont's1 my old patron and benefactor's4-- ,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #bhe4 ,lindley ,murray1 who tacitly takes from ,priestley all that is quoted above1 except the term ,mr41 and the notion of an ellipsis of who is1 assumes each of the three forms as an instance of apposition1 but pronounces the first only to be correct and proper4 ,if1 then1 the first is elliptical1 as ,priestley suggests1 and the others are ungrammatical1 as ,murray pretends to prove1 we cannot have in reality any such construction as the apposition of two possessives2 for the sign of the case cannot possibly be added in more than these three ways4 ,but ,murray does not adhere at all to his own decision1 as may be seen by his subsequent remarks and examples1 on the same page2 as1 ,the emperor ,leopold's2--,dionysius the tyrant's2--,for ,david my servant's sake2--,give me here ,john the ,baptist's head2--,paul the apostle's advice4 ,see ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #agf2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #aej2 and others4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,an explanatory noun without the possessive sign1 seems sometimes to be put in apposition with a pronoun of the possessive case2 and1 if introduced by the conjunction as1 it may either precede or follow the pronoun3 thus1 ,i rejoice in your success as an instructer4-- ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bdd4 ,as an author1 his ',adventurer' is his capital work4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #cbi4 ,thus shall mankind his guardian care engage1 ,the promised father of a future age4--,pope4 ,but possibly such examples may be otherwise explained on the principle of ellipsis2 as1 ,he being the promised father1 c4 ,as he was an author1 c4 ,as you are an instructer4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,when a noun or pronoun is repeated for the sake of emphasis1 or for the adding of an epithet1 the word which is repeated may properly be said to be in apposition with that which is first introduced2 or1 if not1 the repetition itself implies sameness of case3 as1 ,they have forsaken me1 the fountain of living waters1 and hewed them out cisterns1 broken cisterns1 that can hold no water4--,jer41 ii1 #ac4 ,i find the total of their hopes and fears ,dreams1 empty dreams4--,cowper's ,task1 p4 #ga4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,a noun is sometimes put1 as it were1 in apposition to a sentence2 being used 7perhaps elliptically7 to sum up the whole idea in one emphatic word1 or short phrase4 ,but1 in such instances1 the noun can seldom be said to have any positive relation that may determine its case2 and1 if alone1 it will of course be in the nominative1 by reason of its independence4 ,examples3 ,he permitted me to consult his library--a kindness which ,i shall not forget4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,i have offended reputation--a most unnoble swerving4--,shakspeare4 ,i want a hero1--an uncommon want4--,byron4 ,lopez took up the sonnet1 and after reading it several times1 frankly acknowledged that he did not understand it himself2 a discovery which the poet probably never made before4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bhj4 ,in ,christian hearts ,o for a pagan zeal6 ,a needful1 but opprobrious prayer6--,young1 ,n4 ix1 l4 #iie4 ,great standing miracle1 that ,heav'n assign'd ,its only thinking thing this turn of mind4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,a distributive term in the singular number1 is frequently construed in apposition with a comprehensive plural2 as1 ,they reap vanity1 every one with his neighbour4--,bible4 ,go ye every man unto his city4--,ibid4 ,so likewise with two or more singular nouns which are taken conjointly2 as1 ,the ,son and ,spirit have each his proper office4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #afc4 ,and sometimes a plural word is emphatically put after a series of particulars comprehended under it2 as1 ,ambition1 interest1 glory1 all concurred4--,letters on ,chivalry1 p4 #aa4 ,royalists1 republicans1 churchmen1 sectaries1 courtiers1 patriots1 all parties concurred in the illusion4--,hume's ,history1 ,vol4 viii1 p4 #gc4 ,the foregoing examples are plain1 but similar expressions sometimes require care1 lest the distributive or collective term be so placed that its construction and meaning may be misapprehended4 ,examples3 ,we have turned every one to his own way4--,isaiah1 liii1 #f4 ,better3 ,we have every one turned to his own way4 ,for in many things we offend all4--,james1 iii1 #b4 ,better3 ,for in many things we all offend4 ,the latter readings doubtless convey the true sense of these texts4 ,to the relation of apposition1 it may be proper also to refer the construction of a singular noun taken in a distributive sense and repeated after by to denote order2 as1 ,they went out one by one4--,bible4 ,our whole company1 man by man1 ventured in4--,goldsmith4 ,to examine a book1 page by page2 to search a place1 house by house4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,so too1 perhaps1 when the parts of a thing explain the whole2 as1 ,but those that sleep1 and think not on their sins1 ,pinch them1 arms1 legs1 backs1 shoulders1 sides1 and shins4 --,shak4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,to express a reciprocal action or relation1 the pronominal adjectives each other and one an other are employed3 as1 ,they love each other2--,they love one an other4 ,the words1 separately considered1 are singular2 but1 taken together1 they imply plurality2 and they can be properly construed only after plurals1 or singulars taken conjointly4 ,each other is usually applied to two persons or things2 and one an other1 to more than two4 ,the impropriety of applying them otherwise1 is noticed elsewhere2 7see1 in ,part ,,ii1 ,obs4 #aeth1 on the ,classes of ,adjectives27 so that we have here to examine only their relations of case4 ,the terms1 though reciprocal and closely united1 are seldom or never in the same construction4 ,if such expressions be analyzed1 each and one will generally appear to be in the nominative case1 and other in the objective2 as1 ,they love each other2 i4 e4 each loves the other4 ,they love one an other2 i4 e4 any or every one loves any or every other4 ,each and one 7--if the words be taken as cases1 and not adjectively--7 are properly in agreement or apposition with they1 and other is governed by the verb4 ,the terms1 however1 admit of other constructions2 as1 ,be ye helpers one of an other4--,bible4 ,here one is in apposition with ye1 and other is governed by of4 ,ye are one an other's joy4--,ib4 ,here one is in apposition with ye1 and other's is in the possessive case1 being governed by joy4 ,love will make you one an other's joy4 ,here one is in the objective case1 being in apposition with you1 and other's is governed as before4 ,men's confidence in one an other2--,their dependence one upon an other4 ,here the word one appears to be in apposition with the possessive going before2 for it has already been shown1 that words standing in that relation never take the possessive sign4 ,but if its location after the preposition must make it objective1 the whole object is the complex term1 one an other4 ,grudge not one against an other4--,james1 v1 #i4 ,ne vous plaignez point les uns des autres4--,french ,bible4 ,ne suspirate alius adversus alium4--,beza4 ,ne ingemiscite adversus alii alios4--,leusden4 ,greek3 ,m stenazete kat halllon4--,greek ,new ,testament4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,the construction of the ,latin terms alius alium1 alii alios1 c41 with that of the ,french l'un l'autre1 l'un de l'autre1 c41 appears1 at first view1 sufficiently to confirm the doctrine of the preceding observation2 but1 besides the frequent use1 in ,latin and ,greek1 of a reciprocal adverb to express the meaning of one an other or each other1 there are1 from each of these languages1 some analogical arguments for taking the ,english terms together as compounds4 ,the most common term in ,greek for one an other1 7,greek3 ,halllon1 dat4 ,greek3 halllois1 ais1 ois1 acc4 ,greek3 halllous3 ab ,greek3 hallos1 alius17 is a single derivative word1 the case of which is known by its termination2 and each other is sometimes expressed in ,latin by a compound3 as1 ,et osculantes se alterutrum1 fleverunt pariter4--,vulgate4 ,that is3 ,and kissing each other1 they wept together4 ,as this text speaks of but two persons1 our translators have not expressed it well in the common version3 ,and they kissed one an other1 and wept one with an other--#a ,sam41 xx1 #da4 ,alter-utrum is composed of a nominative and an accusative1 like each-other2 and1 in the nature of things1 there is no reason why the former should be compounded1 and the latter not4 ,ordinarily1 there seems to be no need of compounding either of them4 ,but some examples occur1 in which it is not easy to parse each other and one an other otherwise than as compounds3 as1 ,he only recommended this1 and not the washing of one another's feet4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #adc4 ,the ,temple late two brother sergeants saw1 ,who deem'd each other oracles of law4--,pope1 ,b4 ii1 ,ep4 #b4cde ,,obs4 #af4--,the common and the proper name of an object are very often associated1 and put in apposition2 as1 ,the river ,thames1--,the ship ,albion1--,the poet ,cowper--,lake ,erie1--,cape ,may--,mount ,atlas4 ,but1 in ,english1 the proper name of a place1 when accompanied by the common name1 is generally put in the objective case1 and preceded by of2 as1 ,the city of ,new ,york1--,the land of ,canaan1--,the island of ,cuba1--,the peninsula of ,yucatan4 ,yet in some instances1 even of this kind1 the immediate apposition is preferred2 as1 ,that the city ,sepphoris should be subordinate to the city ,tiberias4--,life of ,josephus1 p4 #adb4 ,in the following sentence1 the preposition of is at least needless3 ,the law delighteth herself in the number of twelve2 and the number of twelve is much respected in holy writ4--,coke1 on ,juries4 ,two or three late grammarians1 supposing of always to indicate a possessive relation between one thing and an other1 contend that it is no less improper1 to say1 ,the city of ,london1 the city of ,new ,haven1 the month of ,march1 the islands of ,cuba and ,hispaniola1 the towns of ,exeter and ,dover1 than to say1 ,king of ,solomon1 ,titus of the ,roman ,emperor1 ,paul of the apostle1 or1 ,cicero of the orator4--,see ,barrett's ,gram41 p4 #aja2 ,emmons's1 #af4 ,i cannot but think there is some mistake in their mode of finding out what is proper or improper in grammar4 ,emmons scarcely achieved two pages more1 before he forgot his criticism1 and adopted the phrase1 in the city of ,new ,haven4--,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,when an object acquires a new name or character from the action of a verb1 the new appellation is put in apposition with the object of the active verb1 and in the nominative after the passive3 as1 ,they named the child ,john2--,the child was named ,john4--,they elected him president2--,he was elected president4 ,after the active verb1 the acquired name must be parsed by ,rule #c;d2 after the passive1 by ,rule #fth4 ,in the following example1 the pronominal adjective some1 or the noun men understood after it1 is the direct object of the verb gave1 and the nouns expressed are in apposition with it3 ,and he gave some1 apostles2 and some1 prophets2 and some1 evangelists2 and some1 pastors and teachers--,ephesians1 iv1 #aa4 ,that is1 ,he bestowed some men as apostles2 and some as prophets2 and some as evangelists2 and some as pastors and teachers4 ,the common reader might easily mistake the meaning and construction of this text in two different ways2 for he might take some to be either a dative case1 meaning to some persons1 or an adjective to the nouns which are here expressed4 ,the punctuation1 however1 is calculated to show that the nouns are in apposition with some1 or some men1 in what the ,latins call the accusative1 case4 ,but the version ought to be amended by the insertion of as1 which would here be an express sign of the apposition intended4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,some authors teach that words in apposition must agree in person1 number1 and gender1 as well as in case2 but such agreement the following examples show not to be always necessary3 ,the ,franks1 a people of ,germany4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram4 ,the ,kenite tribe1 the descendants of ,hobab4--,milman's ,hist4 of the ,jews4 ,but how can you a soul1 still either hunger or thirst8--,lucian's ,dialogues1 p4 #ad4 ,who seized the wife of me his host1 and fled4--,ib41 p4 #af4 ,thy gloomy grandeurs 7,nature's most august4 ,inspiring aspect67 claim a grateful verse4--,young1 ,n4 ix1 l4 #eff4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4 ,,errors ,,of ,,words ,,in ,,apposition4 ,now1 therefore1 come thou1 let us make a covenant1 ,i and thou4--,gen41 xxxi1 #dd4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronouns ,i and thou1 of the nominative case1 are here put in apposition with the preceding pronoun us1 which is objective4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d1 ,a noun or a personal pronoun1 used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun1 is put1 by apposition1 in the same case4 ,therefore1 ,i and thou should be thee and me2 7the first person1 in our idiom1 being usually put last27 thus1 ,now1 therefore1 come thou1 let us make a covenant1 thee and me4 ,now1 therefore1 come thou1 we will make a covenant1 thee and me4--,variation of ,gen4 ,the word came not to ,esau1 the hunter1 that stayed not at home2 but to ,jacob1 the plain man1 he that dwelt in tents4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,not to every man1 but to the man of ,god1 7i4 e47 he that is led by the spirit of ,god4--,barclays ,works1 i1 #bff4 ,for1 admitting ,god to be a creditor1 or he to whom the debt should be paid1 and ,christ he that satisfies or pays it on behalf of man the debtor1 this question will arise1 whether he paid that debt as ,god1 or man1 or both8--,wm4 ,penn4 ,this ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 the heavenly ,man1 the ,emmanuel1 ,god with us1 we own and believe in3 he whom the high priests raged against1 c4--,george ,fox4 ,christ1 and ,him crucified1 was the ,alpha and ,omega of all his addresses1 the fountain and foundation of his hope and trust4--,experience of ,paul1 p4 #cii4 ',christ and ,him crucified' is the head1 and only head1 of the church4--,denison's ,sermon4 ,but if ',christ and ,him crucified' are the burden of the ministry1 such disastrous results are all avoided4--,ib4 ,he never let fall the least intimation1 that himself1 or any other person1 whomsoever1 was the object of worship4--,hannah ,adams's ,view1 p4 #bej4 ,let the elders that rule well1 be counted worthy of double honour1 especially they who labour in the word and doctrine4--#a ,tim41 v1 #ag4 ,our ,shepherd1 him who is styled ,king of saints1 will assuredly give his saints the victory4--,sermon4 ,it may seem odd to talk of we subscribers--,fowlers ,true ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,and they shall have none to bury them1 them1 their wives1 nor their sons1 nor their daughters2 for ,i will pour their wickedness upon them4--,jeremiah1 xiv1 #af4 ,yet ,i supposed it necessary to send to you ,epaphroditus1 my brother1 and companion in labour1 and fellow-soldier1 but your messenger1 and he that ministered to my wants4--,philippians1 ii1 #be4 ,amidst the tumult of the routed train1 ,the sons of false ,antimachus were slain2 ,he1 who for bribes his faithless counsels sold1 ,and voted ,helen's stay for ,paris' gold4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 xi4 l4 #afa4 ,see the vile ,king his iron sceptre bear-- ,his only praise attends the pious ,heir2 ,he1 in whose soul the virtues all conspire1 ,the best good son1 from the worst wicked sire4 --,,dr4 ,,lowth3 ,union ,poems1 p4 #ai4 ,then from thy lips poured forth a joyful song ,to thy ,redeemer6--yea1 it poured along ,in most melodious energy of praise1 ,to ,god1 the ,saviour1 he of ancient days4 --,arm ,chair1 p4 #ae4 ,,rule ,,iv4--,,possessives4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the name of the thing possessed3 as1 ,god's mercy prolongs man's life4--,allen4 ,theirs is the vanity1 the learning thine2 ,touched by thy hand1 again ,rome's glories shine4--,pope4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,iv4 ,,obs4 #a4--,though the ordinary syntax of the possessive case is sufficiently plain and easy1 there is perhaps1 among all the puzzling and disputable points of grammar1 nothing more difficult of decision1 than are some questions that occur respecting the right management of this case4 ,that its usual construction is both clearly and properly stated in the foregoing rule1 is what none will doubt or deny4 ,but how many and what exceptions to this rule ought to be allowed1 or whether any are justly demanded or not1 are matters about which there may be much diversity of opinion4 ,having heretofore published the rule without any express exceptions1 ,i am not now convinced that it is best to add any2 yet are there three different modes of expression which might be plausibly exhibited in that character4 ,two of these would concern only the parser2 and1 for that reason1 they seem not to be very important4 ,the other involves the approval or reprehension of a great multitude of very common expressions1 concerning which our ablest grammarians differ in opinion1 and our most popular digest plainly contradicts itself4 ,these points are2 first1 the apposition of possessives1 and the supposed ellipses which may affect that construction2 secondly1 the government of the possessive case after is1 was1 c41 when the ownership of a thing is simply affirmed or denied2 thirdly1 the government of the possessive by a participle1 as such--that is1 while it retains the government and adjuncts of a participle4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the apposition of one possessive with an other1 7as1 ,for ,david my servant's sake17 might doubtless be consistently made a formal exception to the direct government of the possessive by its controlling noun4 ,but this apposition is only a sameness of construction1 so that what governs the one1 virtually governs the other4 ,and if the case of any noun or pronoun is known and determined by the rule or relation of apposition1 there can be no need of an exception to the foregoing rule for the purpose of parsing it1 since that purpose is already answered by rule third4 ,if the reader1 by supposing an ellipsis which ,i should not1 will resolve any given instance of this kind into something else than apposition1 ,i have already shown him that some great grammarians have differed in the same way before4 ,useless ellipses1 however1 should never be supposed2 and such perhaps is the following3 ,at ,mr4 ,smith's who is the bookseller4--,see ,dr4 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,in all our ,latin grammars1 the verb sum1 fui1 esse1 to be1 is said 7though not with strict propriety7 sometimes to signify possession1 property1 or duty1 and in that sense to govern the genitive case3 as1 ,est regis2--,it is the king's4--,hominis est errare2--,it is man's to err4--,pecus est ,meliboelig2i2--,the flock is ,meliboeus's4 ,and sometimes1 with like import1 this verb1 expressed or understood1 may govern the dative2 as1 ,ego sum dilecto meo1 et dilectus meus est mihi4--,vulgate4 ,i am my beloved's1 and my beloved is mine4--,solomon's ,song1 vi1 #c4 ,here1 as both the genitive and the dative are expressed in ,english by the possessive1 if the former are governed by the verb1 there seems to be precisely the same reason from the nature of the expression1 and an additional one from analogy1 for considering the latter to be so too4 ,but all the annotators upon the ,latin syntax suggest1 that the genitive thus put after sum or est1 is really governed1 not by the verb1 but by some noun understood2 and with this idea1 of an ellipsis in the construction1 all our ,english grammarians appear to unite4 ,they might not1 however1 find it very easy to tell by what noun the word beloved's or mine is governed1 in the last example above2 and so of many others1 which are used in the same way3 as1 ,there shall nothing die of all that is the children's of ,israel4--,exod41 ix1 #d4 ,the ,latin here is1 ,ut nihil omnino pereat ex his qu pertinent ad filios ,israel4--,vulgate4 ,that is1--of all those which belong to the children of ,israel4 ,for thou art ,freedom's now--and ,fame's1 ,one of the few1 the immortal names1 ,that were not born to die4--,,halleck3 ,marco ,bozzaris4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,although the possessive case is always intrinsically an adjunct and therefore incapable of being used or comprehended in any sense that is positively abstract2 yet we see that there are instances in which it is used with a certain degree of abstraction1--that is1 with an actual separation from the name of the thing possessed2 and that accordingly there are1 in the simple personal pronouns1 7where such a distinction is most needed17 two different forms of the case2 the one adapted to the concrete1 and the other to the abstract construction4 ,that form of the pronoun1 however1 which is equivalent in sense to the concrete and the noun1 is still the possessive case1 and nothing more2 as1 ,all mine are thine1 and thine are mine4--,john1 xvii1 #aj4 ,for if we suppose this equivalence to prove such a pronoun to be something more than the possessive case1 as do some grammarians1 we must suppose the same thing respecting the possessive case of a noun1 whenever the relation of ownership or possession is simply affirmed or denied with such a noun put last3 as1 ,for all things are yours2 and ye are ,christ's2 and ,christ is ,god's4--#a ,cor41 iii1 #ba4 ,by the second example placed under the rule1 ,i meant to suggest1 that the possessive case1 when placed before or after this verb1 7be17 might be parsed as being governed by the nominative2 as we may suppose theirs to be governed by vanity1 and thine by learning1 these nouns being the names of the things possessed4 ,but then we encounter a difficulty1 whenever a pronoun happens to be the nominative2 as1 ,therefore glorify ,god in your body1 and in your spirit1 which are ,god's--#a ,cor41 vi1 #bj4 ,here the common resort would be to some ellipsis2 and yet it must be confessed1 that this mode of interpretation cannot but make some difference in the sense3 as1 ,if ye be ,christ's1 then are ye ,abraham's seed4--,gal41 iii1 #bi4 ,here some may think the meaning to be1 ,if ye be ,christ's seed1 or children4 ,but a truer version of the text would be1 ,if ye are of ,christ1 then are ye ,abraham's seed4--,que si vous tes ,christ1 vous tes done la posterit d',abraham4--,french ,bible4 ,,obs4 #e4--,possession is the having of something1 and if the possessive case is always an adjunct1 referring either directly or indirectly to that which constitutes it a possessive1 it would seem but reasonable1 to limit the government of this case to that part of speech which is understood substantively--that is1 to the name of the thing possessed4 ,yet1 in violation of this restriction1 many grammarians admit1 that a participle1 with the regimen and adjuncts of a participle1 may govern the possessive case2 and some of them1 at the same time1 with astonishing inconsistency1 aver1 that the possessive case before a participle converts the latter into a noun1 and necessarily deprives it of its regimen4 ,whether participles are worthy to form an exception to my rule or not1 this palpable contradiction is one of the gravest faults of ,l4 ,murray's code of syntax4 ,after copying from ,lowth the doctrine that a participle with an article before it becomes a noun1 and must drop the government and adjuncts of a participle1 this author informs us1 that the same principles are applicable to the pronoun and participle3 as1 ,much depends on their observing of the rule1 and error will be the consequence of their neglecting of it2 in stead of1 their observing the rule1 and their neglecting it4 ,and this doctrine he applies1 with yet more positiveness1 to the noun and participle2 as if the error were still more glaring1 to make an active participle govern a possessive noun2 saying1 ,we shall perceive this more clearly1 if we substitute a noun for the pronoun3 as1 ',much depends upon ,tyro's observing of the rule1' c42 which is the same as1 ',much depends on ,tyro's observance of the rule4' ,but1 as this construction sounds rather harshly1 it would1 in general1 be better to express the sentiment in the following1 or some other form3 ',much depends on the rule's being observed2 and error will be the consequence of its being neglected8 or--'on observing the rule2 and--of neglecting it4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aic2 ,ingersoll's1 #aii2 and others4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,here it is assumed1 that their observing the rule1 or ,tyro's observing the rule1 is an ungrammatical phrase2 and1 several different methods being suggested for its correction1 a preference is at length given to what is perhaps not less objectionable than the original phrase itself4 ,the last form offered1 on observing the rule1 c41 is indeed correct enough in itself2 but1 as a substitute for the other1 it is both inaccurate and insufficient4 ,it merely omits the possessive case1 and leaves the action of the participle undetermined in respect to the agent4 ,for the possessive case before a real participle1 denotes not the possessor of something1 as in other instances1 but the agent of the action1 or the subject of the being or passion2 and the simple question here is1 whether this extraordinary use of the possessive case is1 or is not1 such an idiom of our language as ought to be justified4 ,participles may become nouns1 if we choose to use them substantively2 but can they govern the possessive case before them1 while they govern also the objective after them1 or while they have a participial meaning which is qualified by adverbs8 ,if they can1 ,lowth1 ,murray1 and others1 are wrong in supposing the foregoing phrases to be ungrammatical1 and in teaching that the possessive case before a participle converts it into a noun2 and if they cannot1 ,priestley1 ,murray1 ,hiley1 ,wells1 ,weld1 and others1 are wrong in supposing that a participle1 or a phrase beginning with a participle1 may properly govern the possessive case4 ,compare ,murray's seventh note under his ,rule #ajth1 with the second under his ,rule #adth4 ,the same contradiction is taught by many other compilers4 ,see ,smith's ,new ,grammar1 pp4 #aeb and #afb2 ,comly's ,gram41 #ia and #ajh2 ,ingersoll's1 #ahj and #aii4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,concerning one of the forms of expression which ,murray approves and prefers1 among his corrections above1 the learned doctors ,lowth and ,campbell appear to have formed very different opinions4 ,the latter1 in the chapter which1 in his ,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 he devotes to disputed points in syntax1 says3 ,there is only one other observation of ,dr4 ,lowth1 on which1 before ,i conclude this article1 ,i must beg leave to offer some remarks4 ',phrases like the following1 though very common1 are improper3 ,much depends upon the rule's being observed2 and error will be the consequence of its being neglected4 ,for here is a noun and a pronoun representing it1 each in the possessive case1 that is1 under the government of another noun1 but without other noun to govern it3 for being observed1 and being neglected1 are not nouns3 nor can you supply the place of the possessive case by the preposition of before the noun or pronoun4'#cdf ,for my part1 continues ,campbell1 notwithstanding what is here very speciously urged1 ,i am not satisfied that there is any fault in the phrases censured4 ,they appear to me to be perfectly in the idiom of our tongue1 and such as on some occasions could not easily be avoided1 unless by recurring to circumlocution1 an expedient which invariably tends to enervate the expression4--,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 ,b4 ii1 ,ch4 iv1 p4 #bcd4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,dr4 ,campbell1 if ,i understand his argument1 defends the foregoing expressions against the objections of ,dr4 ,lowth1 not on the ground that participles as such may govern the possessive case1 but on the supposition that as the simple active participle may become a noun1 and in that character govern the possessive case1 so may the passive participle1 and with equal propriety1 notwithstanding it consists of two or more words1 which must in this construction be considered as forming one compound noun4 ,i am not sure that he means to confine himself strictly to this latter ground1 but if he does1 his position cannot be said in any respect to contravene my rule for the possessive case4 ,i do not1 however1 agree with him1 either in the opinion which he offers1 or in the negative which he attempts to prove4 ,in view of the two examples1 ,much depends upon the rule's being observed1 and1 ,much depends upon their observing of the rule1 he says3 ,now1 although ,i allow both the modes of expression to be good1 ,i think the first simpler and better than the second4 ,then1 denying all faults1 he proceeds3 ,let us consider whether the former be liable to any objections1 which do not equally affect the latter4 ,but in his argument1 he considers only the objections offered by ,lowth1 which indeed he sufficiently refutes4 ,now to me there appear to be other objections1 which are better founded4 ,in the first place1 the two sentences are not equivalent in meaning2 hence the preference suggested by this critic and others1 is absurd4 ,secondly1 a compound noun formed of two or three words without any hyphen1 is at best such an anomaly1 as we ought rather to avoid than to prefer4 ,if these considerations do not positively condemn the former construction1 they ought at least to prevent it from displacing the latter2 and seldom is either to be preferred to the regular noun1 which we can limit by the article or the possessive at pleasure3 as1 ,much depends on an observance of the rule4--,much depends on their observance of the rule4 ,now these two sentences are equivalent to the two former1 but not to each other2 and1 vice versa3 that is1 the two former are equivalent to these1 but not to each other4#cdg ,,obs4 #i4--;,from ,dr4 ,campbell's commendation of ,lowth1 as having given some excellent directions for preserving a proper distinction between the noun and the gerund1--that is1 between the participial noun and the participle1--it is fair to infer that he meant to preserve it himself2 and yet1 in the argument above mentioned1 he appears to have carelessly framed one ambiguous or very erroneous sentence1 from which1 as ,i imagine1 his views of this matter have been misconceived1 and by which ,murray and all his modifiers have been furnished with an example wherewith to confound this distinction1 and also to contradict themselves4 ,the sentence is this3 ,much will depend on your pupil's composing1 but more on his reading frequently4--,philos4 of ,rhet41 p4 #bce4 ,volumes innumerable have gone abroad1 into our schools and elsewhere1 which pronounce this sentence to be correct and proper4 ,but after all1 what does it mean8 ,does the adverb frequently qualify the verb will depend expressed in the sentence8 or will depend understood after more8 or both8 or neither8 ,or does this adverb qualify the action of reading8 or the action of composing8 or both8 or neither8 ,but composing and reading1 if they are mere nouns1 cannot properly be qualified by any adverb2 and1 if they are called participles1 the question recurs respecting the possessives4 ,besides1 composing1 as a participle1 is commonly transitive2 nor is it very fit for a noun1 without some adjunct4 ,and1 when participles become nouns1 their government 7it is said7 falls upon of1 and their adverbs are usually converted into adjectives2 as1 ,much will depend on your pupil's composing of themes2 but more1 on his frequent reading4 ,this may not be the author's meaning1 for the example was originally composed as a mere mock sentence1 or by way of experiment2 and one may doubt whether its meaning was ever at all thought of by the philosopher4 ,but1 to make it a respectable example1 some correction there must be2 for1 surely1 no man can have any clear idea to communicate1 which he cannot better express1 than by imitating this loose phraseology4 ,it is scarcely more correct1 than to say1 ,much will depend on an author's using1 but more on his learning frequently4 ,yet is it commended as a model1 either entire or in part1 by ,murray1 ,ingersoll1 ,fisk1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,cooper1 ,lennie1 ,hiley1 ,bullions1 ,c4 ,adams1 ,a4 ,h4 ,weld1 and ,i know not how many other school critics4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,that singular notion1 so common in our grammars1 that a participle and its adjuncts may form one name or substantive phrase1 and so govern the possessive case1 where it is presumed the participle itself could not1 is an invention worthy to have been always ascribed to its true author4 ,for this doctrine1 as ,i suppose1 our grammarians are indebted to ,dr4 ,priestley4 ,in his grammar it stands thus3 ,when an entire clause of a sentence1 beginning with a participle of the present tense1 is used as one name1 or to express one idea1 or circumstance1 the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case4 ,thus1 instead of saying1 ,what is the meaning of this lady holding up her train1 i4 e4 what is the meaning of the lady in holding up her train1 we may say1 ,what is the meaning of this lady's holding up her train2 just as we say1 ,what is the meaning of this lady's dress1 c4 ,so we may either say1 ,i remember it being reckoned a great exploit2 or1 perhaps more elegantly1 ,i remember its being reckoned1 c4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,now1 to say nothing of errors in punctuation1 capitals1 c41 there is scarcely any thing in all this passage1 that is either conceived or worded properly4 ,yet1 coining from a ,doctor of ,laws1 and ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 it is readily adopted by ,murray1 and for his sake by others2 and so1 with all its blunders1 the vain gloss passes uncensured into the schools1 as a rule and model for elegant composition4 ,dr4 ,priestley pretends to appreciate the difference between participles and participial nouns1 but he rather contrives a fanciful distinction in the sense1 than a real one in the construction4 ,his only note on this point1--a note about the horse running to-day1 and the horse's running to-day1--,i shall leave till we come to the syntax of participles4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,having prepared the reader to understand the origin of what is to follow1 ,i now cite from ,l4 ,murray's code a paragraph which appears to be contradictory to his own doctrine1 as suggested in the fifth observation above2 and not only so1 it is irreconcilable with any proper distinction between the participle and the participial noun4 ,when an entire clause of a sentence1 beginning with a participle of the present tense1 is used as one name1 or to express one idea or circumstance1 the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case2 thus1 instead of saying1 ',what is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily8' that is1 ',what is the reason of this person1 in dismissing his servant so hastily8' we may say1 and perhaps ought to say1 ',what is the reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily8' ,just as we say1 ',what is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant8' ,so also1 we say1 ',i remember it being reckoned a great exploit2' or more properly1 ',i remember its being reckoned1' c4 ,the following sentence is correct and proper3 ',much will depend on the pupil's composing1 but more on his reading frequently4' ,it would not be accurate to say1 ',much will depend on the pupil composing4' c4 ,we also properly say2 ',this will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently2' instead of1 ',of the pupil composing frequently4' ,the participle1 in such constructions1 does the office of a substantive2 and it should therefore have a ,,correspondent ,,regimen4--,murray's ,gram41 ,rule #ajth1 ,note #g2 ,ingersoll's1 p4 #ahj2 ,fisk's1 #ajh2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #aeb2 ,alger's1 #fa2 ,merchant's1 #hd4 ,see also ,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #aej2 ,abridged ,ed41 #aag4cdh ,,obs4 #ab4--,now1 if it were as easy to prove that a participle1 as such1 or 7what amounts to the same thing7 a phrase beginning with a participle1 ought never to govern the possessive case1 as it is to show that every part and parcel of the foregoing citations from ,priestley1 ,murray1 and others1 is both weakly conceived and badly written1 ,i should neither have detained the reader so long on this topic1 nor ever have placed it among the most puzzling points of grammar4 ,let it be observed1 that what these writers absurdly call an entire ,,clause of a sentence1 is found on examination to be some short ,,phrase1 the participle with its adjuncts1 or even the participle alone1 or with a single adverb only2 as1 holding up her train1--dismissing his servant so hastily1--composing1--reading frequently1--composing frequently4 ,and each of these1 with an opposite error as great1 they will have to be one name1 and to convey but one idea2 supposing that by virtue of this imaginary oneness1 it may govern the possessive case1 and signify something which a lady1 or a person1 or a pupil1 may consistently possess4 ,and then1 to be wrong in every thing1 they suggest that any noun on which such a participle1 with its adjuncts1 depends1 may be put in the genitive case2 whereas1 such a change is seldom1 if ever1 admissible1 and in our language1 no participle ever can depend on any other than the nominative or the objective case4 ,every participle so depending is an adjunct to the noun2 and every possessive1 in its turn1 is an adjunct to the word which governs it4 ,in respect to construction1 no terms differ more than a participle which governs the possessive case1 and a participle which does not4 ,these different constructions the contrivers of the foregoing rule1 here take to be equivalent in meaning2 whereas they elsewhere pretend to find in them quite different significations4 ,the meaning is sometimes very different1 and sometimes very similar2 but seldom1 if ever1 are the terms convertible4 ,and even if they were so1 and the difference were nothing1 would it not be better to adhere1 where we can1 to the analogy of ,general ,grammar8 ,in ,greek and ,latin1 a participle may agree with a noun in the genitive case2 but1 if we regard analogy1 that genitive must be ,englished1 not by the possessive case1 but by of and the objective2 as1 ,greek3 ',epe dokimn ztete to 'en 'emo lalontos ,christo4--,quandoquidem experimentum quritis in me loquentis ,christi4--,beza4 ,since ye seek a proof of ,christ speaking in me4--#b ,cor41 xiii1 #c4 ,we might here1 perhaps1 say1 of ,christ's speaking in me1 but is not the other form better8 ,the ,french version is1 ,puisque vous cherchez une preuve que ,christ parle par moi2 and this1 too1 might be imitated in ,english3 ,since ye seek a proof that ,christ speaks by me4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,as prepositions very naturally govern any of our participles except the simple perfect1 it undoubtedly seems agreeable to our idiom not to disturb this government1 when we would express the subject or agent of the being1 action1 or passion1 between the preposition and the participle4 ,hence we find that the doer or the sufferer of the action is usually made its possessor1 whenever the sense does not positively demand a different reading4 ,against this construction there is seldom any objection1 if the participle be taken entirely as a noun1 so that it may be called a participial noun2 as1 ,much depends on their observing of the rule4--,lowth1 ,campbell1 and ,l4 ,murray4 ,on the other hand1 the participle after the objective is unobjectionable1 if the noun or pronoun be the leading word in sense2 as1 ,it would be idle to profess an apprehension of serious evil resulting in any respect from the utmost publicity being given to its contents4--,london ,eclectic ,review1 #ahaf4 ,the following is a beautiful instance of the sound of words corresponding to motion4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #ccc4 ,we shall discover many things partaking of both those characters4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #ahb4 ,to a person following the vulgar mode of omitting the comma4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cfe4 ,but1 in comparing the different constructions above noticed1 writers are frequently puzzled to determine1 and frequently too do they err in determining1 which word shall be made the adjunct1 and which the leading term4 ,now1 wherever there is much doubt which of the two forms ought to be preferred1 ,i think we may well conclude that both are wrong2 especially1 if there can easily be found for the idea an other expression that is undoubtedly clear and correct4 ,examples3 ,these appear to be instances of the present participle being used passively4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,these are examples of the past participle being applied in an active sense4--,ib41 #fd4 ,we have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acd2 ,murray's1 #aih2 ,ingersoll's1 #bjf2 ,fisk's1 #adj2 ,smith's1 #afe4 ,by a noun1 pronoun1 or adjective1 being prefixed to the substantive4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ci2 also ,ingersoll's1 ,fisk's1 ,alger's1 ,maltby's1 ,merchant's1 ,bacon's1 and others4 ,here1 if their own rule is good for any thing1 these authors ought rather to have preferred the possessive case2 but strike out the word being1 which is not necessary to the sense1 and all question about the construction vanishes4 ,or if any body will justify these examples as they stand1 let him observe that there are others1 without number1 to be justified on the same principle2 as1 ,much depends on the rule being observed4--,much will depend on the pupil composing frequently4 ,again3 ,cyrus did not wait for the ,babylonians coming to attack him4--,rollin1 ii1 #hf4 ,cyrus did not wait for the ,babylonians' coming to attack him4 ,that is--for their coming1 and not1 for them coming2 but much better than either3 ,cyrus did not wait for the ,babylonians to come and attack him4 ,again3 ,to prevent his army's being enclosed and hemmed in4--,rollin1 ii1 #hi4 ,to prevent his army being enclosed and hemmed in4 ,both are wrong4 ,say1 ,to prevent his army from being enclosed and hemmed in4 ,again3 ,as a sign of ,god's fulfilling the promise4--,rollin1 ii1 #bc4 ,as a sign of ,god fulfilling the promise4 ,both are objectionable4 ,say1 ,as a sign that ,god would fulfill the promise4 ,again3 ,there is affirmative evidence for ,moses's being the author of these books4--,bp4 ,watson's ,apology1 p4 #bh4 ,the first argument you produce against ,moses being the author of these books4--,ib41 p4 #bi4 ,both are bad4 ,say1--for ,moses as being the author1--against ,moses as being the author1 c4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,now1 although thousands of sentences might easily be quoted1 in which the possessive case is actually governed by a participle1 and that participle not taken in every respect as a noun2 yet ,i imagine1 there are1 of this kind1 few examples1 if any1 the meaning of which might not be better expressed in some other way4 ,there are surely none among all the examples which are presented by ,priestley1 ,murray1 and others1 under their rule above4 ,nor would a thousand such as are there given1 amount to any proof of the rule4 ,they are all of them unreal or feigned sentences1 made up for the occasion1 and1 like most others that are produced in the same way1 made up badly--made up after some ungrammatical model4 ,if a gentleman could possibly demand a lady's meaning in such an act as the holding-up of her train1 he certainly would use none of ,priestley's three questions1 which1 with such ridiculous and uninstructive pedantry1 are repeated and expounded by ,latham1 in his ,hand-,book1 #dha2 but would probably say1 ,madam1 what do you mean by holding up your train8 ,it was folly for the doctor to ask an other person1 as if an other could guess her meaning better than he4 ,the text with the possessive is therefore not to be corrected by inserting a hyphen and an of1 after ,murray's doctrine before cited2 as1 ,what is the meaning of this lady's holding-up of her train8 ,murray did well to reject this example1 but as a specimen of ,english1 his own is no better4 ,the question which he asks1 ought to have been1 ,why did this person dismiss his servant so hastily8 ,fisk has it in the following form3 ,what is the reason of this person's dismissing his servant so hastily8--,english ,grammar ,simplified1 p4 #ajh4 ,this amender of grammars omits the of which ,murray and others scrupulously insert to govern the noun servant1 and boldly avows at once1 what their rule implies1 that1 ,participles are sometimes used both as verbs and as nouns at the same time2 as1 ',by the mind's changing the object1' c4--,ib41 p4 #acd2 so ,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,but he errs as much as they1 and contradicts both himself and them4 ,for one ought rather to say1 ,by the mind's changing of the object2 else changing1 which does the office of a noun1 has not truly a correspondent regimen4 ,yet of is useless after dismissing1 unless we take away the adverb by which the participle is prevented from becoming a noun4 ,dismissing of his servant so hastily1 is in itself an ungrammatical phrase2 and nothing but to omit either the preposition1 or the two adverbs1 can possibly make it right4 ,without the latter1 it may follow the possessive2 but without the former1 our most approved grammars say it cannot4 ,some critics1 however1 object to the of1 because the dismissing is not the servant's act2 but this1 as ,i shall hereafter show1 is no valid objection3 they stickle for a false rule4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,thus these authors1 differing from one an other as they do1 and each contradicting himself and some of the rest1 are1 as it would seem1 all wrong in respect to the whole matter at issue4 ,for whether the phrase in question be like ,priestley's1 or like ,murray's1 or like ,fisk's1 it is still1 according to the best authorities1 unfit to govern the possessive case2 because1 in stead of being a substantive1 it is something more than a participle1 and yet they take it substantively4 ,they form this phrase in many different fashions1 and yet each man of them pretends that what he approves1 is just like the construction of a regular noun3 ,just as we say1 ',what is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant4'--,murray1 ,fisk1 and others4 ,just as we say1 ',what is the meaning of this lady's dress1' c4--,priestley4 ,the meaning of a lady's dress1 forsooth6 ,the illustration is worthy of the doctrine taught4 ,an entire clause of a sentence substantively possessed1 is sufficiently like the meaning of a lady's dress1 c4 ,cobbett despised andsoforths1 for their lack of meaning2 and ,i find none in this one1 unless it be1 of tinsel and of fustian4 ,this gloss therefore ,i wholly disapprove1 judging the position more tenable1 to deny1 if we consequently must1 that either a phrase or a participle1 as such1 can consistently govern the possessive case4 ,for whatever word or term gives rise to the direct relation of property1 and is rightly made to govern the possessive case1 ought in reason to be a noun--ought to be the name of some substance1 quality1 state1 action1 passion1 being1 or thing4 ,when therefore other parts of speech assume this relation1 they naturally become nouns2 as1 ,against the day of my burying4--,john1 xii1 #g4 ,till the day of his showing unto ,israel4--,luke1 i1 #hj4 ,by my own showing4--,cowper1 ,life1 p4 #bb4 ,by a fortune of my own getting4--,ib4 ,let your yea be yea1 and your nay nay4--,james1 v1 #ab4 ,prate of my whereabout4--,shah4 ,,obs4 #af4--,the government of possessives by entire clauses or substantive phrases1 as they are sometimes called1 ,i am persuaded1 may best be disposed of1 in almost every instance1 by charging the construction with impropriety or awkwardness1 and substituting for it some better phraseology4 ,for example1 our grammars abound with sentences like the following1 and call them good ,english3 7#a47 ,so we may either say1 ',i remember it being reckoned a great exploit2' or perhaps more elegantly1 ',i remember its being reckoned a great exploit4'--,priestley1 ,murray1 and others4 ,here both modes are wrong2 the latter1 especially2 because it violates a general rule of syntax1 in regard to the case of the noun exploit4 ,say1 ,i remember it was reckoned a great exploit4 ,again3 7#b47 ,we also properly say1 ',this will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agi2 and others4 ,better1 ,this will be the effect1 if the pupil compose frequently4 ,but this sentence is fictitious1 and one may doubt whether good authors can be found who use compose or composing as being intransitive4 7#c47 ,what can be the reason of the committee's having delayed this business8--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bbc4 ,say1 ,why have the committee delayed this business8 7#d47 ,what can be the cause of the parliament's neglecting so important a business8--,ib41 p4 #aie4 ,say1 ,why does the parliament neglect so important a business8 7#e47 ,the time of ,william's making the experiment1 at length arrived4--,ib41 p4 #aie4 ,say1 ,the time for ,william to make the experiment1 at length arrived4 7#f47 ,i hope this is the last time of my acting so imprudently4--,ib41 p4 #bfc4 ,say1 ,i hope ,i shall never again act so imprudently4 7#g47 ,if ,i were to give a reason for their looking so well1 it would be1 that they rise early4--,ib41 p4 #bfc4 ,say1 ,i should attribute their healthful appearance to their early rising4 7#h47 ,the tutor said1 that diligence and application to study were necessary to our becoming good scholars4--,cooper's ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,here is an anomaly in the construction of the noun scholars4 ,say1 ,the tutor said1 that diligent application to study was necessary to our success in learning4 7#i47 ,the reason of his having acted in the manner he did1 was not fully explained4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bfc4 ,this author has a very singular mode of giving ,,strength to weak sentences4 ,the faulty text here was4 ,the reason why he acted in the manner he did1 was not fully explained4--,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #aca4 ,this is much better than the other1 but ,i should choose to say4 ,the reason of his conduct was not fully explained4 ,for1 surely1 the one idea or circumstance of his having acted in the manner in which he did act1 may be quite as forcibly named by the one word conduct1 as by all this verbiage1 this substantive phrase1 or entire clause1 of such cumbrous length4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,the foregoing observations tend to show1 that the government of possessives by participles1 is in general a construction little to be commended1 if at all allowed4 ,i thus narrow down the application of the principle1 but do not hereby determine it to be altogether wrong4 ,there are other arguments1 both for and against the doctrine1 which must be taken into the account1 before we can fully decide the question4 ,the double construction which may be given to infinitive verbs2 the ,greek idiom which allows to such verbs an article before them and an objective after them2 the mixed character of the ,latin gerund1 part noun1 part verb2 the use or substitution of the participle in ,english for the gerund in ,latin2--all these afford so many reasons by analogy1 for allowing that our participle--except it be the perfect--since it participates the properties of a verb and a noun1 as well as those of a verb and an adjective1 may unite in itself a double construction1 and be taken substantively in one relation1 and participially in an other4 ,accordingly some grammarians so define it2 and many writers so use it2 both parties disregarding the distinction between the participle and the participial noun1 and justifying the construction of the former1 not only as a proper participle after its noun1 and as a gerundive after its preposition2 not only as a participial adjective before its noun1 and as a participial noun1 in the regular syntax of a noun2 but also as a mixed term1 in the double character of noun and participle at once4 ,nor are these its only uses2 for1 after an auxiliary1 it is the main verb2 and in a few instances1 it passes into a preposition1 an adverb1 or something else4 ,thus have we from the verb a single derivative1 which fairly ranks with about half the different parts of speech1 and takes distinct constructions even more numerous2 and yet these authors scruple not to make of it a hybridous thing1 neither participle nor noun1 but constructively both4 ,but this1 says ,lowth1 is inconsistent2 let it be either the one or the other1 and abide by its proper construction4--,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,and so say ,i--as asserting the general principle1 and leaving the reader to judge of its exceptions4 ,because1 without this mongrel character1 the participle in our language has a multiplicity of uses unparalleled in any other2 and because it seldom happens that the idea intended by this double construction may not be otherwise expressed more elegantly4 ,but if it sometimes seem proper that the gerundive participle should be allowed to govern the possessive case1 no exception to my rule is needed for the parsing of such possessive2 because whatever is invested with such government1 whether rightly or wrongly1 is assumed as the name of something possessed4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,the reader may have observed1 that in the use of participial nouns1 the distinction of voice in the participle is sometimes disregarded4 ,thus1 ,against the day of my burying1 means1 ,against the day of my being buried4 ,but in this instance the usual noun burial or funeral would have been better than either3 ,against the day of my burial4 ,i4 e41 ,in diem funerationis me4--,beza4 ,in diem sepultur me4--,leusden4 ,greek3 ',eis tn hmran to entaphiasmo mou4--,john1 xii1 #g4 ,in an other text1 this noun is very properly used for the ,greek infinitive1 and the ,latin gerund2 as1 ,for my burial4--,matt41 xxvi1 #ab4 ,ad funerandum me4--,beza4 ,ad sepeliendum me4--,leusden4 ,literally3 ,for burying me4 ,greek3 ,prs t entaphisai me4 ,nearly3 ,for to have me buried4 ,not all that is allowable1 is commendable2 and if either of the uncompounded terms be found a fit substitute for the compound participial noun1 it is better to dispense with the latter1 on account of its dissimilarity to other nouns3 as1 ,which only proceed upon the question's being begged4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #cfa4 ,better1 ,which only proceed upon a begging of the question4 ,the king's having conquered in the battle1 established his throne4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #abh4 ,better1 ,the king's conquering in the battle2 for1 in the participial noun1 the distinction of tense1 or of previous completion1 is as needless as that of voice4 ,the fleet's having sailed prevented mutiny4--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,better1 ,the sailing of the fleet1--or1 ,the fleet's sailing c4 ,the prince's being murdered excited their pity4--,ibid4 ,better1 ,the prince's murder excited their indignation4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,in some instances1 as it appears1 not a little difficulty is experienced by our grammarians1 respecting the addition or the omission of the possessive sign1 the terminational apostrophic s1 which in nouns is the ordinary index of the possessive case4 ,let it be remembered that every possessive is governed1 or ought to be governed1 by some noun expressed or understood1 except such as 7without the possessive sign7 are put in apposition with others so governed2 and for every possessive termination there must be a separate governing word1 which1 if it is not expressed1 is shown by the possessive sign to be understood4 ,the possessive sign itself may and must be omitted in certain cases2 but1 because it can never be inserted or discarded without suggesting or discarding a governing noun1 it is never omitted by ellipsis1 as ,buchanan1 ,murray1 ,nixon1 and many others1 erroneously teach4 ,the four lines of ,note #b;d below1 are sufficient to show1 in every instance1 when it must be used1 and when omitted2 but ,murray1 after as many octavo pages on the point1 still leaves it perplexed and undetermined4 ,if a person knows what he means to say1 let him express it according to the ,note1 and he will not fail to use just as many apostrophes and ,esses as he ought4 ,how absurd then is that common doctrine of ignorance1 which ,nixon has gathered from ,allen and ,murray1 his chief oracles6 ,if several nouns in the genitive case1 are immediately connected by a conjunction1 the apostrophic s is annexed to the last1 but understood to the rest2 as1 ,neither ,john 7i4 e4 ,john's7 nor ,eliza's books4--,english ,parser1 p4 #aae4 ,the author gives fifteen other examples like this1 all of them bad ,english1 or at any rate1 not adapted to the sense which he intends6 ,,obs4 #bj4--,the possessive case generally comes immediately before the governing noun1 expressed or understood2 as1 ,all nature's difference keeps all nature's peace4--,pope4 ,lady6 be thine 7i4 e41 thy walk7 the ,christian's walk4--,chr4 ,observer4 ,some of schylus's plays and ,euripides's plays are opened in this manner4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dei4 ,and in this order one possessive sometimes governs an other3 as1 ,peter's wife's mother2--,paul's sister's son4--,bible4 ,but1 to this general principle of arrangement1 there are some exceptions3 as1 #a4 ,when the governing noun has an adjective1 this may intervene2 as1 ,flora's earliest smells4--,milton4 ,of man's first disobedience4--,id4 ,in the following phrase from the ,spectator1 ,of ,will's last night's lecture1 it is not very clear1 whether ,will's is governed by night's or by lecture2 yet it violates a general principle of our grammar1 to suppose the latter2 because1 on this supposition1 two possessives1 each having the sign1 will be governed by one noun4 #b4 ,when the possessive is affirmed or denied2 as1 ,the book is mine1 and not ,john's4 ,but here the governing noun may be supplied in its proper place2 and1 in some such instances1 it must be1 else a pronoun or the verb will be the only governing word3 as1 ,ye are ,christ's disciples1 or people2 and ,christ is ,god's son4--,st4 ,paul4 ,whether this phraseology is thus elliptical or not1 is questionable4 ,see ,obs4 #dth1 in this series4 #c4 ,when the case occurs without the sign1 either by apposition or by connexion2 as1 ,in her brother ,absalom's house4--,bible4 ,david and ,jonathan's friendship4--,allen4 ,adam and ,eve's morning hymn4--,dr4 ,ash4 ,behold the heaven1 and the heaven of heavens1 is the ,lord's thy ,god4--,deut411 x1 #ad4 ,for peace and quiet's sake4--,cowper4 ,to the beginning of ,king ,james the ,first's reign4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #cb4 ,,obs4 #ba--,the possessive case is in general 7though not always7 equivalent to the preposition of and the objective2 as1 ,of ,judas ,iscariot1 ,simon's son4--,john1 xiii1 #b4 ,to ,judas ,iscariot1 the son of ,simon4--,ib41 xiii1 #bf4 ,on account of this one-sided equivalence1 many grammarians erroneously reckon the latter to be a genitive case as well as the former4 ,but they ought to remember1 that the preposition is used more frequently than the possessive1 and in a variety of senses that cannot be interpreted by this case2 as1 ,of some of the books of each of these classes of literature1 a catalogue will be given at the end of the work4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agh4 ,murray calls this a laborious mode of expression1 and doubtless it might be a little improved by substituting in for the third of2 but my argument is1 that the meaning conveyed cannot be expressed by possessives4 ,the notion that of forms a genitive case1 led ,priestley to suggest1 that our language admits a double genitive2 as1 ,this book of my friend's4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,it is a discovery of ,sir ,isaac ,newton's4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,this exactness of his4--,,sterne3 ib4 ,the doctrine has since passed into nearly all our grammars2 yet is there no double case here1 as ,i shall presently show4 ,,obs4 #bb4--,where the governing noun cannot be easily mistaken1 it is often omitted by ellipsis3 as1 ,at the alderman's house2--,st4 ,paul's church2--,a book of my brother's books2--,a subject of the emperor's subjects2--,a friend of mine2 i4 e41 one of my friends4 ,shall we say that ,sacrificing was a pure invention of ,adam's1 or of ,cain or ,abel's8--,leslie1 on ,tythes1 p4 #ic4 ,that is--of ,adam's inventions1 or of ,cain or ,abel's inventions4 ,the ,rev4 ,david ,blair1 unable to resolve this phraseology to his own satisfaction1 absurdly sets it down among what he calls ,,erroneous ,,or ,,vulgar ,,phrases4 ,his examples are these3 ,a poem of ,pope's2--,a soldier of the king's2--,that is a horse of my father's4--,blair's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,he ought to have supplied the plural nouns1 poems1 soldiers1 horses4 ,this is the true explanation of all the double genitives which our grammarians discover2 for when the first noun is partitive1 it naturally suggests more or other things of the same kind1 belonging to this possessor2 and when such is not the meaning1 this construction is improper4 ,in the following example1 the noun eyes is understood after his3 ,ev'n his1 the warrior's eyes1 were forced to yield1 ,that saw1 without a tear1 ,pharsalia's field4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 viii1 l4 #add4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,when two or more nouns of the possessive form are in any way connected1 they usually refer to things individually different but of the same name2 and when such is the meaning1 the governing noun1 which we always suppress somewhere to avoid tautology1 is understood wherever the sign is added without it2 as1 ,a father's or mother's sister is an aunt4--,dr4 ,webster4 ,that is1 ,a father's sister or a mother's sister is an aunt4 ,in the same commemorative acts of the senate1 were thy name1 thy father's1 thy brother's1 and the emperor's4--,zenobia1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bca4 ,from ,stiles's pocket into ,nokes's pocket4 --,hudibras1 ,b4 iii1 ,c4 iii1 l4 #gae4 ,add ,nature's1 ,custom's1 ,reason's1 ,passion's strife4 --,pope1 ,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 vi1 p4 #chc4 ,it will be observed that in all these examples the governing noun is singular2 and1 certainly1 it must be so1 if1 with more than one possessive sign1 we mean to represent each possessor as having or possessing but one object4 ,if the noun be made plural where it is expressed1 it will also be plural where it is implied4 ,it is good ,english to say1 ,a father's or mother's sisters are aunts2 but the meaning is1 ,a father's sisters or a mother's sisters are aunts4 ,but a recent school critic teaches differently1 thus3 ,when different things of the same name belong to different possessors1 the sign should be annexed to each2 as1 ,adams's1 ,davies's1 and ,perkins' ,arithmetics2 i4 e41 three different books4--,spencer's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,here the example is fictitious1 and has almost as many errors as words4 ,it would be much better ,english to say1 ,adams's1 ,davies's1 and ,perkins's ,arithmetic2 though the objective form with of would1 perhaps1 be still more agreeable for these peculiar names4 ,spencer1 whose ,grammar abounds with useless repetitions1 repeats his note elsewhere1 with the following illustrations3 ,e4 g4 ,olmstead's and ,comstock's ,philosophies4 ,gould's ,adam's ,latin ,grammar4--,ib41 p4 #ajf4 ,the latter example is no better suited to his text1 than ,peter's wife's mother2 and the former is fit only to mean1 ,olmstead's ,philosophies and ,comstock's ,philosophies4 ,to speak of the two books only1 say1 ,olmstead's ,philosophy and ,comstock's4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,the possessive sign is sometimes annexed to that part of a compound name1 which is1 of itself1 in the objective case2 as1 ,at his father-in-law's residence4 ,here1 ,at the residence of his father-in-law1 would be quite as agreeable2 and1 as for the plural1 one would hardly think of saying1 ,men's wedding parties are usually held at their fathers-in-law's houses4 ,when the compound is formed with of1 to prevent a repetition of this particle1 the possessive sign is sometimes added as above2 and yet the hyphen is not commonly inserted in the phrase1 as ,i think it ought to be4 ,examples3 ,the duke of ,bridgewater's canal2--,the bishop of ,landaff's excellent book2--,the ,lord mayor of ,london's authority2--,the captain of the guard's house4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agf4 ,the ,bishop of ,cambray's writings on eloquence4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cde4 ,the bard of ,lomond's lay is done4--,queen's ,wake1 p4 #ii4 ,for the kingdom of ,god's sake4--,luke1 xviii1 #bi4 ,of the children of ,israel's half4--,numbers1 xxxi1 #cj4 ,from these examples it would seem1 that the possessive sign has a less intimate alliance with the possessive case1 than with the governing noun2 or1 at any rate1 a dependence less close than that of the objective noun which here assumes it4 ,and since the two nouns here so intimately joined by of1 cannot be explained separately as forming two cases1 but must be parsed together as one name governed in the usual way1 ,i should either adopt some other phraseology1 or write the compound terms with hyphens1 thus3 ,the ,duke-of-,bridgewater's canal2--,the ,bishop-of-,landaff's excellent book2--,the ,bard-of- ,lomond's lay is done4 ,but there is commonly some better mode of correcting such phrases4 ,with deference to ,murray and others1 ,the ,king of ,great ,britain's prerogative1 #cdi is but an untoward way of saying1 ,the prerogative of the ,british ,king2 and1 ,the ,lord mayor of ,london's authority1 may quite as well be written1 ,the authority of ,london's ,lord ,mayor4 ,blair1 who for brevity robs the ,archbishop of half his title1 might as well have said1 ,fenelon's writings on eloquence4 ,propter regnum ,dei1 might have been rendered1 ,for the kingdom of ,god2--,for the sake of the kingdom of ,god2--or1 ,for the sake of ,god's kingdom4 ,and in lieu of the other text1 we might say1 ,of the ,israelites' half4 ,,obs4 #be4--,little explanatory circumstances1 says ,priestley1 are particularly awkward between the genitive case1 and the word which usually follows it2 as1 ',she began to extol the farmer's1 as she called him1 excellent understanding4' ,harriet ,watson1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bg4--,priestley's ,gram41 p #agd4 ,murray assumes this remark1 and adds respecting the example1 ,it ought to be1 'the excellent understanding of the farmer1 as she called him4' --,murray's ,gram41 p4 #age4 ,intersertions of this kind are as uncommon as they are uncouth4 ,murray1 it seems1 found none for his ,exercises1 but made up a couple to suit his purpose4 ,the following might have answered as well for an other3 ,monsieur ,d'acier observes1 that ,zeno's 7the ,founder of the ,sect17 opinion was ,fair and ,defensible in these ,points4--,colliers ,antoninus1 p4 ii4 ,,obs4 #bf4--;,it is so usual a practice in our language1 to put the possessive sign always and only where the two terms of the possessive relation meet1 that this ending is liable to be added to any adjunct which can be taken as a part of the former noun or name2 as1 7#a47 ,the court-martial's violent proceedings4 ,here the plural would be courts-martial2 but the possessive sign must be at the end4 7#b47 ,in ,henry the ,eighth's time4--,walker's ,key1 ,introd41 p4 #aa4 ,this phrase can be justified only by supposing the adjective a part of the name4 ,better1 ,in the time of ,henry the ,eighth4 7#c47 ,and strengthened with a year or two's age4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #f4 ,here two's is put for two years2 and1 ,i think1 improperly2 because the sign is such as suits the former noun1 and not the plural4 ,better1 ,and strengthened with a year's age or more4 ,the word two however is declinable as a noun1 and possibly it may be so taken in ,locke's phrase4 7#d47 ,this rule is often infringed1 by the case absolute's not being properly distinguished from certain forms of expression apparently similar to it4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aee2 ,fisk's1 #aac2 ,ingersoll's1 #baj4 ,here the possessive sign1 being appended to a distinct adjective1 and followed by nothing that can be called a noun1 is employed as absurdly as it well can be4 ,say1 ,this rule is often infringed by an improper use of the nominative absolute2 for this is precisely what these authors mean4 7#e47 ,the participle is distinguished from the adjective by the former's expressing the idea of time1 and the latter's denoting only a quality--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fe2 ,fisk's1 #hb2 ,ingersoll's1 #de2 ,emmons's1 #fd2 ,alger's1 #bh4 ,this is liable to nearly the same objections4 ,say1 ,the participle differs from an adjective by expressing the idea of time1 whereas the adjective denotes only a quality4 7#f47 ,the relatives that and as differ from who and which in the former's not being immediately joined to the governing word4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #adj4 ,this is still worse1 because former's1 which is like a singular noun1 has here a plural meaning2 namely1 in the former terms' not being1 c4 ,say--in that the former never follow the governing word4 ,,obs4 #bg4--,the possessive termination is so far from being liable to suppression by ellipsis1 agreeably to the nonsense of those interpreters who will have it to be understood wherever the case occurs without it1 that on the contrary it is sometimes retained where there is an actual suppression of the noun to which it belongs4 ,this appears to be the case whenever the pronominal adjectives former and latter are inflected1 as above4 ,the inflection of these1 however1 seems to be needless1 and may well be reckoned improper4 ,but1 in the following line1 the adjective elegantly takes the sign2 because there is an ellipsis of both nouns2 poor's being put for poor man's1 and the governing noun joys being understood after it3 ,the rich man's joys increase1 the poor's decay4--,goldsmith4 ,so1 in the following example1 guilty's is put for guilty person's3 ,yet1 wise and righteous ever1 scorns to hear ,the fool's fond wishes1 or the guilty's prayer4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 v1 l4 #aee4 ,this is a poetical license2 and others of a like nature are sometimes met with4 ,our poets use the possessive case much more frequently than prose writers1 and occasionally inflect words that are altogether invariable in prose2 as1 ,eager that last great chance of war he waits1 ,where either's fall determines both their fates4 --,ibid41 ,b4 vi1 l4 #ac4 ,,obs4 #bh4--,to avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds1 the s of the possessive singular is sometimes omitted1 and the apostrophe alone retained to mark the case3 as1 ,for conscience' sake4--,bible4 ,moses' minister4--,ib4 ,felix' room4--,ib4 ,achilles' wrath4--,pope4 ,shiraz' walls4--,collins4 ,epicurus' sty4--,beattie4 ,douglas' daughter4--,scott4 ,for ,douglas' sake4--,ib4 ,to his mistress' eyebrow4--,shak4 ,this is a sort of poetic license1 as is suggested in the #afth ,observation upon the ,cases of ,nouns1 in the ,etymology4 ,but in prose the elision should be very sparingly indulged2 it is in general less agreeable1 as well as less proper1 than the regular form4 ,where is the propriety of saying1 ,hicks' ,sermons1 ,barnes' ,notes1 ,kames' ,elements1 ,adams' ,lectures1 ,josephus' ,works1 while we so uniformly say1 in ,charles's reign1 ,st4 ,james's ,palace1 and the like8 ,the following examples are right3 ,at ,westminster and ,hicks's ,hall4--,hudibras4 ,lord ,kames's ,elements of ,criticism4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #cca4 ,of ,rubens's allegorical pictures4--,hazlitt4 ,with respect to ,burns's early education4--,dugald ,stewart4 ,isocrates's pomp2--,demosthenes's life4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bdb4 ,the repose of ,epicurus's gods4--,wilson's ,heb4 ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,to ,douglas's obscure abode4--,scott1 ,l4 ,l41 ,c4 iii1 st4 #bh4 ,such was the ,douglas's command4--,id41 ib41 ,c4 ii1 st4 #cf4 ,,obs4 #bi4--,some of our grammarians1 drawing broad conclusions from a few particular examples1 falsely teach as follows3 ,when a singular noun ends in ss1 the apostrophe only is added2 as1 ',for goodness' sake3' except the word witness2 as1 ',the witness's testimony4' ,when a noun in the possessive case ends in ence1 the s is omitted1 but the apostrophe is retained2 as1 ',for conscience' sake4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #di2 ,hamlin's1 #af2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #dg4cej ,of principles or inferences very much like these1 is the whole system of ,inductive ,grammar essentially made up4 ,but is it not plain that heiress's1 abbess's1 peeress's1 countess's1 and many other words of the same form1 are as good ,english as witness's8 ,did not ,jane ,west write justly1 ,she made an attempt to look in at the dear dutchess's8--,letters to a ,lady1 p4 #ie4 ,does not the ,bible speak correctly of an ass's head1 sold at a great price8--#b ,kings1 vi1 #be4 ,is ,burns also wrong1 about miss's fine lunardi1 and miss's bonnet8--,poems1 p4 #dd4 ,or did ,scott write inaccurately1 whose guide ,led slowly through the pass's jaws8--,lady of the ,lake1 p4 #aba4 ,so much for the ss2 nor is the rule for the termination ence1 or 7as ,smith has it7 nce1 more true4 ,prince's and dunce's are as good possessives as any2 and so are the following3 ,that vice should triumph1 virtue vice obey2 ,this sprung some doubt of ,providence's sway4--,parnell4 ,and sweet ,benevolence's mild command4--,lord ,lyttleton4 ,i heard the lance's shivering crash1 ,as when the whirlwind rends the ash4--,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,,obs4 #cj4--,the most common rule now in use for the construction of the possessive case1 is a shred from the old code of ,latin grammar3 ,one substantive governs another1 signifying a different thing1 in the possessive or genitive case4--,l4 ,murray's ,rule ,x4 ,this canon not only leaves occasion for an additional one respecting pronouns of the possessive case1 but it is also obscure in its phraseology1 and too negligent of the various modes in which nouns may come together in ,english4 ,all nouns used adjectively1 and many that are compounded together1 seem to form exceptions to it4 ,but who can limit or enumerate these exceptions8 ,different combinations of nouns have so often little or no difference of meaning1 or of relation to each other1 and so frequently is the very same vocal expression written variously by our best scholars1 and ablest lexicographers1 that in many ordinary instances it seems scarcely possible to determine who or what is right4 ,thus1 on the authority of ,johnson1 one might write1 a stone's cast1 or stone's throw2 but ,webster has it1 stones-cast1 or stones-throw2 ,maunder1 stonecast1 stonethrow2 ,chalmers1 stonescast2 ,worcester1 stone's-cast4 ,so ,johnson and ,chalmers write stonesmickle1 a bird2 ,webster has it1 stone's-mickle2 yet1 all three refer to ,ainsworth as their authority1 and his word is stone-smickle3 ,littleton has it stone-smich4 ,johnson and ,chalmers write1 popeseye and sheep's eye2 ,walker1 ,maunder1 and ,worcester1 popeseye and sheep's-eye2 ,scott has pope's-eye and sheepseye2 ,webster1 pope's-eye and sheep's-eye1 bird-eye1 and birds-eye4 ,ainsworth has goats beard1 for the name of a plant2 ,johnson1 goatbeard2 ,webster1 goat-beard and goats-beard4 ,ainsworth has prince's feather1 for the amaranth2 ,johnson1 ,chalmers1 ,walker1 and ,maunder1 write it princes-feather2 ,webster and ,worcester1 princes'-feather2 ,bolles has it princesfeather3 and here they are all wrong1 for the word should be prince's-feather4 ,there are hundreds more of such terms2 all as uncertain in their orthography as these4 ,,obs4 #ca4--,while discrepances like the foregoing abound in our best dictionaries1 none of our grammars supply any hints tending to show which of these various forms we ought to prefer4 ,perhaps the following suggestions1 together with the six ,rules for the ,figure of ,words1 in ,part ,first1 may enable the reader to decide these questions with sufficient accuracy4 7#a47 ,two short radical nouns are apt to unite in a permanent compound1 when the former1 taking the sole accent1 expresses the main purpose or chief characteristic of the thing named by the latter2 as1 teacup1 sunbeam1 daystar1 horseman1 sheepfold1 houndfish1 hourglass4 7#b47 ,temporary compounds of a like nature may be formed with the hyphen1 when there remain two accented syllables2 as1 castle-wall1 bosom-friend1 fellow-servant1 horse-chestnut1 goat-marjoram1 marsh-marigold4 7#c47 ,the former of two nouns1 if it be not plural1 may be taken adjectively1 in any relation that differs from apposition and from possession2 as1 ,the silver cup1--,the parent birds1--,my pilgrim feet1--,thy hermit cell1--,two brother sergeants4 7#d47 ,the possessive case and its governing noun1 combining to form a literal name1 may be joined together without either hyphen or apostrophe3 as1 tradesman1 ratsbane1 doomsday1 kinswoman1 craftsmaster4 7#e47 ,the possessive case and its governing noun1 combining to form a metaphorical name1 should be written with both apostrophe and hyphen2 as1 ,job's-tears1 ,jew's-ear1 bear's-foot1 colts-tooth1 sheep's-head1 crane's-bill1 crab's-eyes1 hound's-tongue1 king's-spear1 lady's-slipper1 lady's-bedstraw1 c4 7#f47 ,the possessive case and its governing noun1 combining to form an adjective1 whether literal or metaphorical1 should generally be written with both apostrophe and hyphen2 as1 ,neats-foot oil1--,calfs-foot jelly1--,a carp's-tongue drill1--,a bird's-eye view1--,the states'-rights' party1--,a camel's-hair shawl4 ,but a triple compound noun may be formed with one hyphen only3 as1 ,in doomsday-book2 7--,joh4 ,dict427 ,an armsend-lift4 ,cardell1 who will have all possessives to be adjectives1 writes an example thus3 ,john's camel's hair girdle4--,elements of ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,that is as if ,john's camel had a hair girdle6 7#g47 ,when the possessive case and its governing noun merely help to form a regular phrase1 the compounding of them in any fashion may be reckoned improper2 thus the phrases1 a day's work1 at death's door1 on ,new ,year's ,day1 a new year's gift1 ,all ,souls' ,day1 ,all ,saints' ,day1 ,all ,fools' ,day1 the saints' bell1 the heart's blood1 for dog's meat1 though often written otherwise1 may best stand as they do here4 ,,obs4 #cb4--,the existence of a permanent compound of any two words1 does not necessarily preclude the use of the possessive relation between the same words4 ,thus1 we may speak of a horse's shoe or a goat's skin1 notwithstanding there are such words as horseshoe and goatskin4 ,e4g41 ,that preach ye upon the housetops4--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,matt41 x1 #bg4 ,unpeg the basket on the house's top4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #bch4 ,webster defines frostnail1 7which1 under the word cork1 he erroneously writes frost nail17 ,a nail driven into a horse-shoe1 to prevent the horse from slipping on ice4 ,worcester has it1 ,a nail driven into a horse's shoe1 to prevent his slipping on the ice4 ,johnson1 ,a nail with a prominent head driven into the horse's shoes1 that it may pierce the ice4 ,maunder1 ,a nail with a sharp head driven into the horses' shoes in frosty weather4 ,none of these descriptions is very well written4 ,say rather1 ,a spur-headed nail driven into a horse's shoe to prevent him from slipping4 ,there is commonly some difference1 and sometimes a very great one1 between the compound noun and the possessive relation1 and also between the radical compound and that of the possessive4 ,thus a harelip is not a hare's lip1 nor is a headman a headsman1 or heart-ease heart's-ease4 ,so1 according to the books1 a cat-head1 a cat's-head1 and a cat's head1 are three very different things2 yet what ,webster writes1 cat-tail1 ,johnson1 cats-tail1 ,walker and others1 cats-tail1 means but the same thing1 though not a cat's tail4 ,johnson's kingspear1 ,jews-ear1 lady-mantle1 and lady-bedstraw1 are no more proper1 than ,webster's bear's-wort1 lion's foot1 lady's mantle1 and lady's bed-straw4 ,all these are wrong4 ,,obs4 #cc4--,particular examples1 both of proper distinction1 and of blind irregularity1 under all the heads above suggested1 may be quoted and multiplied indefinitely1 even from our highest literary authorities2 but1 since nothing can be settled but by the force of principles1 he who would be accurate1 must resort to rules1--must consider what is analogical1 and1 in all doubtful cases1 give this the preference4 ,but1 in grammar1 particular analogies are to be respected1 as well as those which are more general4 ,for example1 the noun side1 in that relation which should seem to require the preceding noun to be in the possessive case1 is usually compounded with it1 the hyphen being used where the compound has more than two syllables1 but not with two only2 as1 bedside1 hillside1 roadside1 wayside1 seaside1 river-side1 water-side1 mountain-side4 ,some instances of the separate construction occur1 but they are rare3 as1 ,and her maidens walked along by the river's side4--,exodus1 ii1 #e4 ,after this noun also1 the possessive preposition of is sometimes omitted2 as1 ,on this side the river27--,bible27 ,on this side ,trent4--,cowell4 ,better1 ,on this side of the river1 c4 ,blind ,bartimeus sat by the highway side1 begging4--,mark1 x1 #df4 ,here ,alger more properly writes highway-side4 ,in ,rev41 xiv1 #bjth1 we have the unusual compound1 horse-bridles4 ,the text ought to have been rendered1 even unto the horses' bridles4 ,latin1 usque ad frnos equorum4 ,greek1 ,greek3 achri ton chalinon ton hippon4 ,,obs4 #cd4--;,correlatives1 as father and son1 husband and wife1 naturally possess each other2 hence such combinations as father's son1 and son's father1 though correct enough in thought1 are redundant in expression4 ,the whole and a part are a sort of correlatives1 but the whole seems to possess its parts1 more properly than any of the parts1 the whole4 ,yet we seldom put the whole in the possessive case before its part1 or parts1 but rather express the relation by of2 as1 a quarter of a dollar1 rather than1 a dollar's quarter4 ,after the noun half1 we usually suppress this preposition1 if an article intervene2 as1 half a dollar1 rather than1 half of a dollar1 or a dollar's half4 ,so we may say1 half the way1 for half of the way2 but we cannot say1 half us for half of us4 ,in the phrase1 a half dollar1 the word half is an adjective1 and a very different meaning is conveyed4 ,yet the compounds half-pint and half-penny are sometimes used to signify1 the quantity of half a pint1 the value of half a penny4 ,in weight1 measure1 or time1 the part is sometimes made possessive of the whole2 as1 a pound's weight1 a yard's length1 an hour's time4 ,on the contrary1 we do not say1 weight's pound1 length's yard1 or time's hour2 nor yet1 a pound of weight1 a yard of length2 and rarely do we say1 an hour of time4 ,pound and yard having other uses1 we sometimes say1 a pound in weight1 a yard in length2 though scarcely1 an hour in time4 ,,obs4 #ce4--;,between a portion of time and its correlative action1 passion1 or being1 the possessive relation is interchangeable2 so that either term may be the principal1 and either1 the adjunct3 as1 ,three years' hard work1 or1 ,three years of hard work4 ,sometimes we may even put either term in either form2 as1 ,during the ten years' war1--,during the ten years of war1--,during the war of ten years1--,during the war's ten years4 ,hence some writers1 not perceiving why either word should make the other its governed adjunct1 place both upon a par1 as if they were in apposition2 as1 ,three days time4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aef4 ,by a few years preparation4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cda4 ,of forty years planting4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,an account1 of five years standing4 ,if these phrases were correct1 it would also be correct to say1 one day time1--one year preparation1--one year planting1--of one year standing2 but all these are manifestly bad ,english2 and1 by analogy1 so are the others4 ,,obs4 #cf4--;,any noun of weight1 measure1 or time1 put immediately before an other1 if it be not in the possessive case1 will naturally be understood adjectively2 as1 ,no person can1 by words only1 give to an other an adequate idea of a pound weight1 or a foot rule4--,gregory's ,dict4 ,this phraseology can1 with propriety1 refer only to the weight or the rule with which we weigh or measure2 it cannot signify a pound in weight1 or a foot in length1 though it is very probable that the author intended the latter4 ,when the noun times is used before an other noun by way of multiplication1 there may be supposed an ellipsis of the preposition of between the two1 just as when we divide by the word half2 as1 ,an hour is sixty times the length of a minute4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,thirty seconds are half the length of a minute4 ,that is1--half of the length1--sixty times of the length4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,iv4 ,,note ,i4--,in the syntax of the possessive case1 its appropriate form1 singular or plural1 should be observed1 agreeably to the sense and declension of the word4 ,thus1 write ,john's1 men's1 hers1 its1 ours1 yours1 theirs2 and not1 ,johns1 mens'1 her's1 it's1 our's1 your's1 their's4 ,,note ,,ii4--,when nouns of the possessive case are connected by conjunctions or put in apposition1 the sign of possession must always be annexed to such1 and such only1 as immediately precede the governing noun1 expressed or understood2 as1 ,john and ,eliza's teacher is a man of more learning than ,james's or ,andrew's--,for ,david my servant's sake4--,bible4 ,for my sake and the gospel's4--,ib4 ,lost in love's and friendship's smile4--,scott4 ,,note ,,iii4--,the relation of property may also be expressed by the preposition of and the objective2 as1 ,the will of man1 for man's will4 ,of these forms1 we should adopt that which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable2 and1 by the use of both1 avoid an unpleasant repetition of either4 ,,note ,,iv4--,a noun governing the possessive plural1 should not1 by a forced agreement1 be made plural1 when its own sense does not require it2 as1 ,for our parts1--,were ,i in your places3 for we may with propriety say1 ,our part1 your place1 or your condition2 as well as1 ,our desire1 your intention1 their resignation4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afi4 ,a noun taken figuratively may also be singular1 when the literal meaning would require the plural3 such expressions as1 their face1--their neck1--their hand1--their head1--their heart1--our mouth1--our life1--are frequent in the ,scriptures1 and not improper4 ,,note ,v4--,the possessive case should not be needlessly used before a participle that is not taken in other respects as a noun4 ,the following phrase is therefore wrong3 ,adopted by the ,goths in their pronouncing the ,greek4--,walker's ,key1 p4 #ag4 ,expunge their4 ,again3 ,here we speak of their becoming both in form and signification passive4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bbf4 ,say rather1 ,here we speak of them as becoming passive1 both in form and signification4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,iv4 ,,examples ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,the ,,possessive ,,form4 ,mans chief good is an upright mind4 ,see ,brown's ,institutes of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #agi4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the noun mans1 which is intended for the possessive singular of man1 has not the appropriate form of that case and number4 ,but1 according to ,note #ast under ,rule #dth1 ,in the syntax ef the possessive case1 its appropriate form1 singular or plural1 should be observed1 agreeably to the sense and declension of the word4 ,therefore1 mans should be maris1 with the apostrophe before the s2 thus1 ,man's chief good is an upright mind4 ,the translator of ,mallets ,history has the following note1--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bfc4 ,the act1 while it gave five years full pay to the officers1 allowed but one year's pay to the privates4--,ib41 p4 #ahd4 ,for the study of ,english is preceded by several years attention to ,latin and ,greek4--,ib41 p4 #g4 ,the first1 the ,court ,baron1 is the freeholders or freemens court4--,coke1 ,litt41 p4 #gd4 ,i affirm1 that ,vaugelas' definition labours under an essential defect4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afc4 ,i affirm1 that ,vangelas's definition labours under an essential defect4--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 ,fourth ,amer4 ,ed41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cfj4cea ,there is a chorus in ,aristophane's plays4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dhj4 ,it denotes the same perception in my mind as in their's4--,duncan's ,logic1 p4 #fe4 ,this afterwards enabled him to read ,hicke's ,saxon ,grammar4--,life of ,dr4 ,murray1 p4 #gf4 ,i will not do it for tens sake4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ef4 ,i arose1 and asked if those charming infants were her's4--,werter1 p4 #ba4 ,they divide their time between milliners shops and taverns4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #fe4 ,the angels adoring of ,adam is also mentioned in the ,talmud4--,sale's ,koran1 p4 #f4 ,quarrels arose from the winners insulting of those who lost4--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,the vacancy1 occasioned by ,mr4 ,adams' resignation4--,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 i1 p4 vii4 ,read for instance ,junius' address1 commonly called his letter to the king4--,ib41 i1 #bbe4 ,a perpetual struggle against the tide of ,hortensius' influence4--,ib41 ii1 #bc4 ,which1 for distinction sake1 ,i shall put down severally4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cjb4 ,the fifth case is in a clause signifying the matter of ones fear4--,ib41 p4 #cab4 ,and they took counsel1 and bought with them the potters' field4--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,matt41 xxvii1 #g4 ,arise for thy servant's help1 and redeem them for thy mercy's sake4--,jenks's ,prayers1 p4 #bfe4 ,shall not their cattle1 and their substance1 and every beast of their's be ours8--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,gen41 xxxiv1 #bc4 ,and every beast of their's1 be our's8--,,friends' ,,bible3 ib4 ,it's regular plural1 bullaces1 is used by ,bacon4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bac4 ,mordecai walked every day before the court of the womens house4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,esther1 ii1 #aa4 ,behold1 they that wear soft clothing are in king's houses4--,,ib4 and ,,friends' ,,bible3 ,matt41 xi1 #h3 also ,webster's ,imp4 ,gram41 p4 #agc4 ,then ,jethro1 ,moses' father-in-law1 took ,zipporah1 ,moses' wife1 and her two sons2 and ,jethro1 ,moses' father-in-law1 came1 with his sons and his wife1 unto ,moses4--,,alger',s ,,bible1 and ,,the ,,friends'3 ,exod41 xviii1 #b--f4 ,king ,james' translators merely revised former translations4--,rev4 ,b4 ,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #acg4 ,may they be like corn on houses tops4--,white1 on the ,english ,verb41 p4 #afj4 ,and for his ,maker's image sake exempt4 --,par4 ,lost1 ,b4 xi1 l4 #ead4 ,by all the fame acquir'd in ten years war4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 i1 l4 #fgd4 ,nor glad vile poets with true critics gore4 --,pope's ,dunicad1 sic--,,kth p4 #age4 ,man only of a softer mold is made1 ,not for his fellow's ruin1 but their aid4 --,dryden's ,poems1 p4 #ib4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,possessives ,,connected4 ,it was necessary to have both the physician1 and the surgeon's advice4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,this out-side fashionableness of the ,taylor on ,tire-woman's making4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #di4 ,some pretending to be of ,paul's party1 others of ,apollos1 others of ,cephas1 and others1 pretending yet higher1 to be of ,christ's4--,woods ,dict41 w4 ,apollos4 ,nor is it less certain that ,spenser's and ,milton's spelling agrees better with our pronunciation4-- ,philol4 ,museum1 i1 #ffa4 ,law's1 ,edwards'1 and ,watts' surveys of the ,divine ,dispensations4--,burgh's ,dignity1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aic4 ,and who was ,enoch's ,saviour1 and the ,prophets8--,bayly's ,works1 p4 #fjj4 ,without any impediment but his own1 or his parents or guardians will4--,literary ,convention1 p4 #ade4 ,james relieves neither the boy#ceb nor the girl's distress4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #aaf4 ,john regards neither the master nor the pupil's advantage4--,ib41 p4 #aag4 ,you reward neither the man nor the woman's labours4--,ib4 ,she examines neither ,james nor ,john's conduct4-- ,ib4 ,thou pitiest neither the servant nor the master's injuries4--,ib4 ,we promote ,england or ,ireland's happiness4--,ib4 ,were ,cain and ,abel's occupation the same8--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #agi4 ,were ,cain's and ,abel's occupations the same8--,ib4 ,what was ,simon's and ,andrew's employment8-- ,author4 ,till he can read himself ,sanctii ,minerva with ,scioppius and ,perizonius's ,notes4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #bie4 ,and love's and friendship's finely--pointed dart ,falls blunted from each indurated heart4--,goldsmith4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,choice ,,of ,,forms4 ,but some degree of trouble is all men's portion4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bah2 ,merchant's1 #aig4 ,with his father's and mother's names upon the blank leaf4--,corner-,stone1 p4 #add4 ,the general1 in the army's name1 published a declaration4--,,hume3 in ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,the ,commons' vote4--,id1 ib4 ,the ,lords' house4--,id41 ib4 ,a collection of writers faults4--,,swift3 ib41 p4 #fh4 ,after ten years wars4--,id41 ib4 ,professing his detestation of such practices as his predecessors4--,notes to the ,dunciad4 ,by that time ,i shall have ended my years office4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ajd4 ,for ,herodias' sake1 his brother ,philip's wife4--,mark1 vi1 #ag4 ,for ,herodias's sake1 his brother ,philip's wife4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #aid4 ,i endure all things for the elect's sakes1 that they may also obtain salvation4--,,friends' ,,bible3 #b ,tim41 ii1 #aj4 ,for the elects' sakes4--,,scott',s ,,bible4 ,for the elect's sake4--,,alger',s ,,bible1 and ,,bruce',s4 ,he was ,louis the ,sixteenth's son's heir4--,w4 ,allen's ,exercises1 ,gram41 p4 #cbi4 ,the throne we honour is the choice of the people4--,an account of the proceedings of the court of ,alexander4--,an excellent tutor of a person of fashion's child6--,gil ,bias1 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #bj4 ,it is curious enough1 that this sentence of the ,bishop is1 itself1 ungrammatical6--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #bja4 ,the troops broke into ,leopold the emperor's palace4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #ei4 ,the meeting was called by ,eldon the judge's desire4--,ibid4 ,peter's1 ,john's1 and ,andrew's occupation was that of fishermen4--,brace's ,gram41 p4 #gi4 ,the venerable president of the ,royal ,academy's debility has lately increased4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,nouns ,,with ,,possessives ,,plural4 ,god hath not given us our reasons to no purpose4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dif4 ,for our sakes1 no doubt1 this is written4--#a ,cor41 ix1 #aj4 ,are not health and strength of body desirable for their own sakes8--,hermes1 p4 #bif2 ,murray's ,gram41 #bhi4 ,some sailors who were boiling their dinners upon the shore4--,day's ,sandford and ,merton1 p4 #ii4 ,and they in their turns were subdued by others4--,pinnock's ,geography1 p4 #ab4 ,industry on our parts is not superseded by ,god's grace4--,arrowsmith4 ,their ,healths perhaps may be pretty well secur'd4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #ea4 ,though he was rich1 yet for our sakes he became poor4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #baa4 ,it were to be wished1 his correctors had been as wise on their parbs4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #fj4 ,the ,arabs are commended by the ancients for being most exact to their words1 and respectful to their kindred4--,sale's ,koran4 ,that is1 as a reward of some exertion on our parts4--,gurney's ,evidences1 p4 #hf4 ,so that it went ill with ,moses for their sakes4--,psalms1 cvi1 #cb4 ,all liars shall have their parts in the burning lake4--,watts1 p4 #cc4 ,for our own sakes as well as for thine4--,pref4 to ,waller's ,poems1 p4 #c4 ,by discover- ing their abilities to detect and amend errors4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 #aa1 p4 iv4 ,this world ,i do renounce2 and1 in your sights1 ,shake patiently my great affliction off4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #bhf ,if your relenting angers yield to treat1 ,pompey and thou1 in safety1 here may meet4--,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 iii1 l4 #ejj4 ,,under ,,note ,y4--,,possessives ,,with ,,participles4 ,this will encourage him to proceed without his acquiring the prejudice4--,smith's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,and the notice which they give of an action's being completed or not completed4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #gb2 ,alger's1 #cj4 ,some obstacle or impediment that prevents its taking place4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ch2 ,alex4 ,murray's1 #cg4 ,they have apostolical authority for their so frequently urging the seeking of the ,spirit4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 xii1 p4 #ed4 ,here then is a wide field for reason's exerting its powers in relation to the objects of taste4-- ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ah4 ,now this they derive altogether from their having a greater capacity of imitation and description4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,this is one clear reason of their paying a greater attention to that construction4 --,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,the dialogue part had also a modulation of its own1 which was capable of its being set to notes4--,ib41 p4 #dga4 ,what is the reason of our being often so frigid and unpersuasive in public discourse8--,ib41 p4 #ccd4 ,which is only a preparation for his leading his forces directly upon us4--,ib41 p4 #bfd4 ,the nonsense about which's relating to things only1 and having no declension1 needs no refutation4--,fowle's ,true ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,who1 upon his breaking it open1 found nothing but the following inscription4--,rollin1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cc4 ,a prince will quickly have reason to repent his having exalted one person so high4--,id41 ii1 #aaf4 ,notwithstanding it's being the immediate subject of his discourse4-- ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bid4 ,with our definition of its being synonymous with time4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #bi4 ,it will considerably increase the danger of our being deceived4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bic4 ,his beauties can never be mentioned without their suggesting his blemishes also4-- ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ddb4 ,no example has ever been adduced of a man's conscientiously approving of an action1 because of its badness4--,gurney's ,evidences1 p4 #ij4 ,the last episode of the angel's shewing ,adam the fate of his posterity1 is happily imagined4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #deb4 ,and the news came to my son1 of his and the bride being in ,dublin4--,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #dd4 ,there is no room for the mind's exerting any great effort4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cb4 ,one would imagine1 that these criticks never so much as heard of ,homer's having written first4--,pope's ,preface to ,homer4 ,condemn the book1 for its not being a geography4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cag4 ,there will be in many words a transition from their being the figurative to their being the proper signs of certain ideas4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cbb4 ,the doctrine of the ,pope's being the only source of ecclesiastical power4--,religious ,world1 ii1 #bij4 ,this has been the more expedient from the work's being designed for the benefit of private learners4--,murray's ,exercises1 ,introd41 p4 v4 ,this was occasioned by the ,grammar's having been set up1 and not admitting of enlargement4--,ib41 ,advertisement1 p4 ix4 ,,rule ,v4--,,objectives4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle1 is governed by it in the objective case3 as1 ,i found her assisting him--,having finished the work1 ,i submit it4 ,preventing fame1 misfortune lends him wings1 ,and ,pompey's self his own sad story brings4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 viii1 l4 #ff4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,v4 ,,obs4 #a4--,to this rule there are no exceptions2 but to the old one adopted by ,murray and others1 ,active verbs govern the objective case1 there are more than any writer will ever think it worth his while to enumerate4 ,in point of brevity1 the latter has the advantage1 but in nothing else2 for1 as a general rule for ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns1 this old brief assertion is very defective2 and1 as a rule for ,,the ,,syntax ,,of ,,verbs1 under which head it has been oftener ranked1 it is entirely useless and inapplicable4 ,as there are four different constructions to which the nominative case is liable1 so there are four in which the objective may be found2 and two of these are common to both2 namely1 apposition1 and sameness of case4 ,every objective is governed by some verb or participle1 according to ,rule #eth1 or by some preposition1 according to ,rule #gth2 except such as are put in apposition with others1 according to ,rule #c;d1 or after an infinitive or a participle not transitive1 according to ,rule #fth3 as1 ,mistaking one for the other1 they took him1 a sturdy fellow1 called ,red ,billy1 to be me4 ,here is every construction which the objective case can have2 except1 perhaps1 that in which1 as an expression of time1 place1 measure1 or manner1 it is taken after the fashion of an adverb1 the governing preposition being suppressed1 or1 as some say1 no governing word being needed4 ,of this exception1 the following quotations may serve for examples3 ,it holds on by a single button round my neck1 cloak-fashion--,,edgeworth',s ,castle ,rackrent4 p4 #ag4 ,a man quite at leisure to parse all his words1 would have said1 in the fashion of a cloak4 ,again3 ,he does not care the rind of a lemon for her all the while4--,ib41 p4 #ajh4 ,we turn our eyes this way or that way4--,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #agb2 ,frazee's ,gram41 #aeg4 ,among his instances of the objective case restrictive1 or of the noun used in the objective1 without a governing word1 ,dr4 ,bullions gives this3 ,let us go home ,but1 according to the better opinion of ,worcester1 home is here an adverb1 and not a noun4 ,see ,obs4 #fth on ,rule #gth4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the objective case generally follows the governing word3 as1 ,and ,joseph knew his brethren1 but they knew not him--,gen41 xlii1 #h4 ,but when it is emphatic1 it often precedes the nominative2 as1 ,me he restored to mine office1 and him he hanged4--,gen41 xli1 #ac4 ,john have ,i beheaded4--,luke1 ix1 #i4 ,but me ye have not always4--,matt41 xxvi1 #aa4 ,him walking on a sunny hill he found4--,milton4 ,in poetry1 the objective is sometimes placed between the nominative and the verb2 as1 ,his daring foe securely him defied4--,milton4 ,much he the place admired1 the person more4--,id4 ,the broom its yellow leaf shed4--,langhorne4 ,if the nominative be a pronoun which cannot be mistaken for an objective1 the words may possibly change places2 as1 ,silver and gold have ,i none4--,acts1 iii1 #f4 ,created thing nought valued he nor shunn'd4--,milton1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #fgi4 ,but such a transposition of two nouns can scarcely fail to render the meaning doubtful or obscure2 as1 ,this pow'r has praise1 that virtue scarce can warm1 ,till fame supplies the universal charm4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,a relative or an interrogative pronoun is commonly placed at the head of its clause1 and of course it precedes the verb which governs it2 as1 ,i am ,jesus1 whom thou persecutest4--,acts1 ix1 #e4 ,which of the prophets have not your fathers persecuted8--,ib41 vii1 #eb4 ,before their ,clauses plac'd1 by settled use1 ,the ,relatives these ,clauses introduce4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #hf4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,every active-transitive verb or participle has some noun or pronoun for its object1 or some pronominal adjective which assumes the relation of the objective case4 ,though verbs are often followed by the infinitive mood1 or a dependent clause1 forming a part of the logical predicate2 yet these terms1 being commonly introduced by a connecting particle1 do not form such an object as is contemplated in our definition of a transitive verb4 ,its government of the objective1 is the only proper criterion of this sort of verb4 ,if1 in the sentence1 ,boys love to play1 the former verb is transitive1 as several respectable grammarians affirm2 why not also in a thousand others2 as1 ,boys like to play2--,boys delight to play2--,boys long to play2--,the boys seem to play2--,the boys cease to play2--,the boys ought to play2--,the boys go out to play2--,the boys are gone out to play2--,the boys are allowed to play2 and the like8 ,the construction in all is precisely the same1 and the infinitive may follow one kind of verb just as well as an other4 ,how then can the mere addition of this mood make any verb transitive8 or where1 on such a principle1 can the line of distinction for transitive verbs be drawn8 ,the infinitive1 in fact1 is governed by the preposition to2 and the preceding verb1 if it has no other object1 is intransitive4 ,it must1 however1 be confessed that some verbs which thus take the infinitive after them1 cannot otherwise be intransitive2 as1 ,a great mind disdains to hold any thing by courtesy4--,johnson's ,life of ,swift4 ,they require to be distinguished by a comma4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bgb4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,a transitive verb1 as ,i have elsewhere shown1 may both govern the objective case1 and be followed by an infinitive also2 as1 ,what have ,i to do with thee8--,john1 ii1 #d4 ,this question1 as one would naturally take it1 implies1 ,i have nothing to do with thee2 and1 by analogy1 what is governed by have1 and not by do2 so that the latter verb1 though not commonly intransitive1 appears to be so here4 ,indeed the infinitive mood is often used without an objective1 when every other part of the same verb would require one4 ,maunder's rule is1 ,transitive verbs and participles govern either the objective case or the infinitive mode4--,comprehensive ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,murray teaches1 not only that1 ,the infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in the objective case2 as1 ',boys love to play2' but that1 ,the participle with its adjuncts1 may be considered as a substantive phrase in the objective case1 governed by the preposition or verb2 as1 ',he studied to avoid expressing himself too severely4'--,see his ,octavo ,gram41 pp4 #ahd and #aid4 ,and again3 ,part of a sentence1 as well as a noun or pronoun1 may be said to be in the objective case1 or to be put objectively1 governed by the active verb2 as1 ',we sometimes see virtue in distress1 but we should consider how great will be her ultimate reward4' ,sentences or phrases under this circumstance1 may be termed objective sentences or phrases4--,ib41 p4 #ahj4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,if we admit that sentences1 parts of sentences1 infinitives1 participles with their adjuncts1 and other phrases1 as well as nouns and pronouns1 may be in the objective case2 it will be no easy matter1 either to define this case1 or to determine what words do1 or do not1 govern it4#cec ,the construction of infinitives and participles will be noticed hereafter4 ,but on one of ,murray's examples1 ,i would here observe1 that the direct use of the infinitive for an objective noun is a manifest ,grecism2 as1 ,for to will is present with me2 but to perform that which is good1 ,i find not4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ahd4 ,that is1 the performance of that which is good1 ,i find not4 ,or perhaps we may supply a noun after the verb1 and take this text to mean1 ,but to perform that which is good1 ,i find not the ability4 ,our ,bible has it1 ,but how to perform that which is good4 ,i find not2 as if the manner in which he might do good1 was what the apostle found not3 but ,murray cites it differently1 omitting the word how1 as we see above4 ,all active verbs to which something is subjoined by when1 where1 whence1 how1 or why1 must be accounted intransitive1 unless we suppose them to govern such nouns of time1 place1 degree1 manner1 or cause1 as correspond to these connectives2 as1 ,i know why she blushed4 ,here we might supply the noun reason1 as1 ,i know the reason why she blushed2 but the word is needless1 and ,i should rather parse know as being intransitive4 ,as for virtue in distress1 if this is an objective phrase1 and not to be analyzed1 we have millions of the same sort2 but1 if one should say1 ,virtue in distress excites pity1 the same phrase would demonstrate the absurdity of ,murray's doctrine1 because the two nouns here take two different cases4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the word that1 which is often employed to introduce a dependent clause1 is1 by some grammarians1 considered as a pronoun1 representing the clause which follows it2 as1 ,i know that ,messias cometh4--,john1 iv1 #be4 ,this text they would explain to mean1 ,messias cometh1 ,i know that2 and their opinion seems to be warranted both by the origin and by the usual import of the particle4 ,but1 in conformity to general custom1 and to his own views of the practical purposes of grammatical analysis1 the author has ranked it with the conjunctions4 ,and he thinks it better1 to call those verbs intransitive1 which are followed by that and a dependent clause1 than to supply the very frequent ellipses which the other explanation supposes4 ,to explain it as a conjunction1 connecting an active-transitive verb and its object1 as several respectable grammarians do1 appears to involve some inconsistency4 ,if that is a conjunction1 it connects what precedes and what follows2 but a transitive verb should exercise a direct government1 without the intervention of a conjunction4 ,on the other hand1 the word that has not1 in any such sentence1 the inherent nature of a pronoun4 ,the transposition above1 makes it only a pronominal adjective2 as1 ,messias cometh1 ,i know that fact4 ,and in many instances such a solution is impracticable2 as1 ,the people sought him1 and came unto him1 and stayed him1 that he should not depart from them4--,luke1 iv1 #db4 ,here1 to prove that to be a pronoun1 the disciples of ,tooke and ,webster must resort to more than one imaginary ellipsis1 and to such inversion as will scarcely leave the sense in sight4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,in some instances the action of a transitive verb gives to its direct object an additional name1 which is also in the objective case1 the two words being in apposition2 as1 ,thy saints proclaim thee king4--,cowper4 ,and ,god called the firmament ,heaven4--,bible4 ,ordering them to make themselves masters of a certain steep eminence4--,rollin1 ii1 #fg4 ,and1 in such a construction1 the direct object is sometimes placed before the verb2 though the name which results from the action1 cannot be so placed3 as1 ,and ,simon he surnamed ,peter4--,mark1 iii1 #ae4 ,him that overcometh will ,i make a pillar in the temple of my ,god4--,rev41 iii1 #ab4 ,some grammarians seem not to have considered this phraseology as coming within the rule of apposition4 ,thus ,webster3 ,we have some verbs which govern two words in the objective case2 as1 ',did ,i request thee1 maker1 from my clay ,to mold me man8'--,milton1 #aj1 #gdd4 ',god seems to have made him what he was4'--,life of ,cowper4#ced--,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #agj4 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #abj4 ,see also ,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #aed2 ,abridged ,ed41 p4 #aai2 and ,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #dej4 ,so ,murray3 ,some of our verbs appear to govern two words in the objective case2 as1 ',the ,author of my being formed me man4'--',they desired me to call them brethren4'--',he seems to have made him what he was4' --,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ahc4 ,yet this latter writer says1 that in the sentence1 ,they appointed me executor1 and others like it1 the verb to be is understood4--,ib41 p4 #ahb4 ,these then1 according to his own showing1 are instances of apposition2 but ,i pronounce then such1 without either confounding same cases with apposition1 or making the latter a species of ellipsis4 ,see ,obs4 #ast and #b;d1 under ,rule #c;d4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,in general1 if not always1 when a verb is followed by two objectives which are neither in apposition nor connected by a conjunction1 one of them is governed by a preposition understood2 as1 ,i paid to him the money--,they offered to me a seat--,he asked of them the question--,i yielded1 and unlock'd to her all my heart4--,milton4 ,in expressing such sentences passively1 the object of the preposition is sometimes erroneously assumed for the nominative2 as1 ,he was paid the money1 in stead of1 ,the money was paid to him4--,i was offered a seat1 in stead of1 ,a seat was offered to me4 ,this kind of error is censured by ,murray more than once1 and yet he himself has1 in very many instances1 fallen into it4 ,his first criticism on it1 is in the following words3 ,we sometimes meet with such expressions as these3 ',they were asked a question2' ',they were offered a pardon2' ',he hath been left a great estate by his father4' ,in these phrases1 verbs passive are made to govern the objective case4 ,this license is not to be approved4 ,the expressions should be3 ',a question was put to them2' ',a pardon was offered to them2' ',his father left him a great estate4'--,l4 ,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ahc4 ,see ,obs4 #ab1 below4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,in the ,latin syntax1 verbs of asking and teaching are said to govern two accusatives2 as1 ,posce ,deum veniam1 ,beg pardon of ,god4--,grant's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #bjg4 ,docuit me grammaticam1 ,he taught me grammar4--,grant1 ,adam1 and others4 ,and again3 ,when a verb in the active voice governs two cases1 in the passive it retains the latter case2 as1 ,doceor grammaticam1 ,i am taught grammar4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #agg4 ,these writers however suggest1 that in reality the latter accusative is governed1 not by the verb1 but by a preposition understood4 ',poscere deos veniam is 'to ask the gods for pardon4'--,barnes's ,philological ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,in general the ,english idiom does not coincide with what occurs in ,latin under these rules4 ,we commonly insert a preposition to govern one or the other of the terms4 ,but we sometimes leave to the verb the objective of the person1 and sometimes that of the thing2 and after the two verbs ask and teach1 we sometimes seem to leave both3 as1 ,when thou dost ask me blessing1 ,i'll kneel down1 and ask of thee forgiveness4-- ,shakspeare4 ,in long journeys1 ask your master leave to give ale to the horses4--,swift4 ,and he asked them of their welfare4--,gen41 xliii1 #bg4 ,they asked of him the parable4--,mark1 iv1 #aj4 7,interrogrunt eum de parabol4--,beza47 ,and asking them questions--,luke1 ii1 #df4 ,but teach them thy sons4--,deut41 iv1 #i4 ,teach them diligently unto thy children--,ib41 vi1 #g4 ',ye shall teach them your children4--,ib41 xi1 #ai4 ,shall any teach ,god knowledge8--,job1 xxi1 #bb4 ,i will teach you the fear of the ,lord4--,psal1 xxxiv1 #aa4 ,he will teach us of his ways4--,isaiah1 ii1 #c2 ,micah1 iv1 #b4 ,let him that is taught in the word1 communicate4--,gal41 vi1 #f4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,after a careful review of the various instances in which more than one noun or pronoun may possibly be supposed to be under the government of a single active verb in ,english1 ,i incline to the opinion that none of our verbs ought to be parsed as actually governing two cases1 except such as are followed by two objectives connected by a conjunction4 ,consequently ,i do not admit1 that any passive verb can properly govern an objective noun or pronoun4 ,of the ancient ,saxon dative case1 and of what was once considered the government of two cases1 there yet appear some evident remains in our language2 as1 ,give him bread to eat4--,bread shall be given him--,bible4 ,but here1 by almost universal consent1 the indirect object is referred to the government of a preposition understood2 and in many instances this sort of ellipsis is certainly no elegance3 as1 ,give to truth and virtue the same arms which you give to vice and falsehood1 and the former are likely to prevail4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bce4 ,the questionable expression1 ,ask me blessing1 if interpreted analogically1 must mean1 ,ask for me a blessing1 which is more correct and explicit2 or1 if me be not supposed a dative1 7and it does not appear to be so1 above17 the sentence is still wrong1 and the correction must be1 ,ask of me a blessing1 or1 ,ask my blessing4 ,so1 ,ask your master leave1 ought rather to be1 ,ask of your master leave1 ,ask your master for leave1 or1 ,ask your master's leave4 ,the example from ,mark ought to be1 ,they asked him about the parable4 ,again1 the elliptical sentence1 ,teach them thy sons1 is less perspicuous1 and therefore less accurate1 than the full expression1 ,teach them to thy sons4 ,to teach is to tell things to persons1 or to instruct persons in things2 to ask is to request or demand things of or from persons1 or to interrogate or solicit persons about or for things4 ,these verbs cannot be proved to govern two cases in ,english1 because it is more analogical and more reasonable to supply a preposition1 7if the author omits it17 to govern one or the other of the objects4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,some writers erroneously allow passive verbs to govern the objective in ,english1 not only where they imagine our idiom to coincide with the ,latin1 but even where they know that it does not4 ,thus ,dr4 ,crombie3 ,whatever is put in the accusative case after the verb1 must be the nominative to it in the passive voice1 while the other case is retained under the government of the verb1 and cannot become its nominative4 ,thus1 ',i persuade you to this or of this1 ',persuadeo hoc tibi4 ,here1 the person persuaded is expressed in the dative case1 and cannot1 therefore1 be the nominative to the passive verb4 ,we must1 therefore1 say1 ,hoc tibi persuadetur1 ',you are persuaded of this2' not1 ,tu persuaderis4 ',he trusted me with this affair1' or ',he believed me in this1' ,hoc mihi credidit4--,passively1 ,hoc mihi creditum est4 ',i told you this1' ,hoc tibi dixi4 ',,you ,,were ,,told ,,this1' ,hoc tibi dictum est2 not1 ,tu dictus es4 ,no1 surely3 for1 ',tu dictus es1' means1 ',you were called1' or1 ',thou art reputed2'--and1 if followed by any case1 it must be the nominative4' ,it is the more necessary to attend to this rule1 and to these distinctions1 as the idioms of the two languages do not always concur4 ,thus1 ,hoc tibi dictum est1 means not only ',this was told to you1' but ',,you ,,were ,,told ,,this4' ,liber mihi apatre promissus est1 means both ',a book was promised 7to7 me by my father1' and ',i ,,was ,,promised ,a ,,book4' ,is primum rogatua est sententiam1 ',he was first asked for his opinion1' and ',an opinion was first asked of him2' in which last the accusative of the person becomes1 in ,latin1 the nominative in the passive voice4 ,see ,grants ,latin ,gram41 p4 #baj4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,murray's second censure upon passive government1 is this3 ,the following sentences1 which give to the passive voice the regimen of an active verb1 are very irregular1 and by no means to be imitated4 ',the bishops and abbots were allowed their seats in the house of lords4' ',thrasea was forbidden the presence of the emperor4' ',he was shown that very story in one of his own books4'#cee ,these sentences should have been3 ',the bishops and abbots were allowed to have 7or to take7 their seats in the house of lords2' or1 ',seats in the house of lords were allowed to the bishops and abbots3' ',thrasea was forbidden to approach the presence of the emperor2' or1 ',the presence of the emperor was forbidden to ,thrasea3' ',that very story was shown to him in one of his own books4'--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bbc4 ,see ,obs4 #h1 above4 ,one late grammarian1 whose style is on the whole highly commendable for its purity and accuracy1 forbears to condemn the phraseology here spoken of2 and1 though he does not expressly defend and justify it1 he seems disposed to let it pass1 with the license of the following canon4 ,for convenience1 it may be well to state it as a rule1 that--,passive verbs govern an objective1 when the nominative to the passive verb is not the proper object of the active voice4--,barnard's ,analytic ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,an other asserts the government of two cases by very many of our active verbs1 and the government of one by almost any passive verb1 according to the following rules3 ,verbs of teaching1 giving1 and some others of a similar nature1 govern two objectives1 the one of a person and the other of a thing2 as1 ,he taught me grammar3 ,his tutor gave him a lesson3 ,he promised me a reward4 ,a passive verb may govern an objective1 when the words immediately preceding and following it1 do not refer to the same thing2 as1 ,henry was offered a dollar by his father to induce him to remain4--,j4 ,m4 ,putnam's ,gram41 pp4 #aaj and #aab4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,the common dogmas1 that an active verb must govern an object1 and that a neuter or intransitive verb must not1 amount to nothing as directions to the composer2 because the classification of verbs depends upon this very matter1 whether they have1 or have not1 an object after them2 and no general principle has been1 or can be1 furnished beforehand1 by which their fitness or unfitness for taking such government can be determined4 ,this must depend upon usage1 and usage must conform to the sense intended4 ,very many verbs--probably a vast majority--govern an object sometimes1 but not always3 many that are commonly intransitive or neuter1 are not in all their uses so2 and many that are commonly transitive1 have sometimes no apparent regimen4 ,the distinction1 then1 in our dictionaries1 of verbs active and neuter1 or transitive and intransitive1 serves scarcely any other purpose1 than to show how the presence or absence of the objective case1 affects the meaning of the word4 ,in some instances the signification of the verb seems almost merged in that of its object2 as1 to lay hold1 to make use1 to take care4 ,in others1 the transitive character of the word is partial2 as1 ,he paid my board2 ,i told you so4 ,some verbs will govern any objective whatever2 as1 to name1 to mention4 ,what is there that cannot be named or mentioned8 ,others again are restricted to one noun1 or to a few2 as1 to transgress a law1 or rule4 ,what can be transgressed1 but a law1 a limit1 or something equivalent8 ,some verbs will govern a kindred noun1 or its pronoun1 but scarcely any other2 as1 ,he lived a virtuous life4--,hear1 ,i pray you1 this dream which ,i have dreamed--,gen41 xxxvii1 #f4 ,i will also command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it4--,isaiah1 v1 #f4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,our grammarians1 when they come to determine what verbs are properly transitive1 and what are not so1 do not in all instances agree in opinion4 ,in short1 plain as they think the matter1 they are much at odds4 ,many of them say1 that1 ,in the phrases1 ',to dream a dream1' ',to live a virtuous life1' ',to run a race1' ',to walk a horse1' ',to dance a child1' the verbs assume a transitive character1 and in these cases may be denominated active4--,see ,guy's ,gram41 p4 #ba2 ,murray's1 #ahj2 ,ingersoll's1 #ahc2 ,fisk's1 #abc2 ,smith's1 #aec4 ,this decision is undoubtedly just2 yet a late writer has taken a deal of pains to find fault with it1 and to persuade his readers1 that1 ,no verb is active in any sense1 or under any construction1 that will not1 in every sense1 permit the objective case of a personal pronoun after it4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #agd4 ,wells absurdly supposes1 ,an intransitive verb may be used to govern an objective4--,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,some imagine that verbs of mental action1 such as conceive1 think1 believe1 c41 are not properly transitive2 and1 if they find an object after such a verb1 they choose to supply a preposition to govern it3 as1 ,i conceived it 7of it7 in that light4--,guy's ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,did you conceive 7of7 him to be me8--,ib41 p4 #bh4 ,with this idea1 few will probably concur4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,we sometimes find the pronoun me needlessly thrown in after a verb that either governs some other object or is not properly transitive1 at least1 in respect to this word2 as1 ,it ascends me into the brain2 dries me there all the foolish1 dull1 and crudy vapours4--,shakspeare's ,falstaff4 ,then the vital commoners and inland petty spirits muster me all to their captain1 the heart4--,id4 ,this is a faulty relic of our old ,saxon dative case4 ,so of the second person2 ,fare you well1 ,falstaff4--,shak4 ,here you was written for the objective case1 but it seems now to have become the nominative to the verb fare4 ,fare thee well4--,w4 ,scott4 ,farewell to thee4--,id4 ,these expressions were once equivalent in syntax2 but they are hardly so now2 and1 in lieu of the former1 it would seem better ,english to say1 ,fare thou well4 ,again3 ,turn thee aside to thy right hand or to thy left1 and lay thee hold on one of the young men1 and take thee his armour4--#b ,sam41 ii1 #ba4 ,if any modern author had written this1 our critics would have guessed he had learned from some of the ,quakers to misemploy thee for thou4 ,the construction is an imitation of the ,french reciprocal or reflected verbs4 ,it ought to be thus3 ,turn thou aside to thy right hand or to thy left1 and lay hold on one of the young men1 and take to thyself his armour4 ,so of the third person3 ,the king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous enemies4--,,hume3 ,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ahj4 ,here both of the pronouns are worse than useless1 though ,murray discerned but one error4 ,good ,margaret1 run thee into the parlour2 ,there thou shalt find my cousin ,beatrice4--,,shak43 ,much ,ado4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,v4 ,,note ,i4--,those verbs or participles which require a regimen1 or which signify action that must terminate transitively1 should not be used without an object2 as1 ,she affects kindness1 in order to ingratiate herself with you4--,i must caution you1 at the same time1 against a servile imitation of any author whatever4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aib4 ,,note ,,ii4--,those verbs and participles which do not admit an object1 or which express action that terminates in themselves1 or with the doer1 should not be used transitively2 as1 ,the planters grow cotton4 ,say raise1 produce1 or cultivate4 ,dare you speak lightly of the law1 or move that1 in a criminal trial1 judges should advance one step beyond what it permits them to go8--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bgh4 ,say1--beyond the point to which it permits them to go4 ,,note ,,iii4--,no transitive verb or participle should assume a government to which its own meaning is not adapted2 as1 ,thou is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--personal1 it personates 'man4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aca4 ,say1 ,it represents man4 ,where a string of such sentences succeed each other4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #afh4 ,say1 ,where many such sentences come in succession4 ,,note ,,iv4--,the passive verb should always take for its subject or nominative the direct object of the active-transitive verb from which it is derived2 as1 7,active17 ,they denied me this privilege4 7,passive17 ,this privilege was denied me2 not1 ,i was denied this privilege3 for me may be governed by to understood1 but privilege cannot1 nor can any other regimen be found for it4 ,,note ,v4--,passive verbs should never be made to govern the objective case1 because the receiving of an action supposes it to terminate on the subject or nominative4#cef ,errors3 ,sometimes it is made use of to give a small degree of emphasis4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aig4 ,say1 ,sometimes it is used1 c4 ,his female characters have been found fault with as insipid4--,hazlitt's ,lect41 p4 #aaa4 ,say1--have been censured2 or1--have been blamed1 decried1 dispraised1 or condemned4 ,,note ,,vi4--,the perfect participle1 as such1 should never be made to govern any objective term2 because1 without an active auxiliary1 its signification is almost always passive3 as1 ,we shall set down the characters made use of to represent all the elementary sounds4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #e2 ,fisk's1 #cd4 ,say1--the characters employed1 or used4 ,,note ,,vii4--,as the different cases in ,english are not always distinguished by their form1 care must be taken lest their construction be found equivocal1 or ambiguous2 as1 ,and we shall always find our sentences acquire more vigour and energy when thus retrenched4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aaa4 ,say1 ,we shall always find that our sentences acquire more vigour1 c42 or1 ,we shall always find our sentences to acquire more vigour and energy when thus retrenched4 ,,note ,,viii4--,in the language of our ,bible1 rightly quoted or printed1 ye is not found in the objective case1 nor you in the nominative2 scriptural texts that preserve not this distinction of cases1 are consequently to be considered inaccurate4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,v4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,the ,,objective ,,form4 ,who should ,i meet the other day but my old friend6--,spectator1 ,no4 #cb4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronoun who is in the nominative case1 and is used as the object of the active-transitive verb should meet4 ,but1 according to ,rule #eth1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,therefore1 who should be whom2 thus1 ,whom should ,i meet1 c4 ,let not him boast that puts on his armour1 but he that takes it off4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #bfb4 ,let none touch it1 but they who are clean4--,sale's ,koran1 #ie4 ,let the sea roar1 and the fullness thereof2 the world1 and they that dwell therein4--,psalms1 xcviii1 #g4 ,pray be private1 and careful who you trust4--,mrs4 ,goffe's ,letter4 ,how shall the people know who to entrust with their property and their liberties8-- ,district ,school1 p4 #cja4 ,the chaplain entreated my comrade and ,i to dress as well as possible4--,world ,displayed1 i1 #afc4 ,he that cometh unto me1 ,i will in no wise cast out4--,tract1 ,no4 #c1 p4 #f4 ,who1 during this preparation1 they constantly and solemnly invoke4--,hope of ,israel1 p4 #hd4 ,whoever or whatever owes us1 is ,debtor2 whoever or whatever we owe1 is ,creditor4--,marsh's ,book-,keeping1 p4 #bc4 ,declaring the curricle was his1 and he should have who he chose in it4--,anna ,ross1 p4 #adg4 ,the fact is1 ,burke is the only one of all the host of brilliant contemporaries who we can rank as a first-rate orator4--,the ,knickerbocker1 ,may1 #ahcc4 ,thus you see1 how naturally the ,fribbles and the ,daffodils have produced the ,messalina's of our time3--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #ec4 ,they would find in the ,roman list both the ,scipio's4--,ib41 ii1 #gf4 ,he found his wife's clothes on fire1 and she just expiring4--,new-,york ,observer4 ,to present ye holy1 unblameable1 and unreproveable in his sight4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #cec4 ,let the distributer do his duty with simplicity2 the superintendent1 with diligence2 he who performs offices of compassion1 with cheerfulness4--,stuart's ,romans1 xii1 #i4 ,if the crew rail at the master of the vessel1 who will they mind8--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ajf4 ,he having none but them1 they having none but hee4--,,drayton',s ,polyolbion4 ,thou1 nature1 partial nature1 ,i arraign6 ,of thy caprice maternal ,i complain6--,burns's ,poems1 p4 #ej4 ,nor knows he who it is his arms pursue ,with eager clasps1 but loves he knows not who4--,addison's1 p4 #bah4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,of ,,verbs ,,transitive4 ,when it gives that sense1 and also connects1 it is a conjunction4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,though thou wilt not acknowledge1 thou canst not deny the fact4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bji4 ,they specify1 like many other adjectives1 and connect sentences4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,the violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and obscure1 that it is safer to err by too many short sentences4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cab4 ,a few ,exercises are subjoined to each important definition1 for him to practice upon as he proceeds in committing4--,nutting's ,gram41 #c;d ,ed41 p4 vii4 ,a verb signifying actively governs the accusative4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aga2 ,gould's1 #agb2 ,grant's1 #aii2 and others4 ,or1 any word that will conjugate1 is a verb4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,in these two concluding sentences1 the author1 hastening to finish1 appears to write rather carelessly4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #baf4 ,he simply reasons on one side of the question1 and then finishes4--,ib41 p4 #cjf4 ,praise to ,god teaches to be humble and lowly ourselves4--,,atterbury3 ib41 p4 #cjd4 ,this author has endeavored to surpass4--,green's ,inductive ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,idleness and plezure fateeg az soon az bizziness4--,noah ,webster's ,essays1 p4 #djb4 ,and1 in conjugating1 you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,he said ,virginia would have emancipated long ago4--,the ,liberator1 ix1 #cc4 ,and having in a readiness to revenge all disobedience4--#b ,cor41 x1 #f4 ,however1 in these cases1 custom generally determines4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ej4 ,in proof1 let the following cases demonstrate4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,we must surprise1 that he should so speedily have forgotten his first principles4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 ,how should we surprise at the expression1 ',this is a soft question6'--,ib41 p4 #bai4 ,and such as prefer1 can parse it as a possessive adjective4--,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,to assign all the reasons1 that induced to deviate from other grammarians1 would lead to a needless prolixity4--,alexander's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,the ,indicative mood simply indicates or declares4--,farnum's ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,verbs ,,intransitive4 ,in his seventh chapter he expatiateth himself at great length4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #cej4 ,he quarrelleth my bringing some testimonies of antiquity1 agreeing with what ,i say4--,ib41 iii1 #cgc4 ,repenting him of his design4--,hume's ,hist41 ii1 #ef4 ,henry knew1 that an excommunication could not fail of operating the most dangerous effects4--,ib41 ii1 #afe4 ,the popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject4--,mrs4 ,macaulay's ,hist41 iii1 #agg4 ,he is always master of his subject2 and seems to play himself with it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dde4 ,but as soon as it comes the length of disease1 all his secret infirmities shew themselves4--,ib41 p4 #bef4 ,no man repented him of his wickedness4--,jeremiah1 viii1 #f4 ,go thee one way or other1 either on the right hand1 or on the left4--,ezekiel1 xxi1 #af4 ,he lies him down by the rivers side4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ii4 ,my desire has been for some years past1 to retire myself to some of our ,american plantations4--,cowley's ,pref4 to his ,poems1 p4 vii4 ,i fear me thou wilt shrink from the payment of it4--,zenobia1 i1 #gf4 ,we never recur an idea1 without acquiring some combination4--,rippingham's ,art of ,speaking1 p4 xxxii4 ,yet more2 the stroke of death he must abide1 ,then lies him meekly down fast by his brethren's side4--,milton4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,of ,,verbs ,,misapplied4 ,a parliament forfeited all those who had borne arms against the king4--,hume's ,hist41 ii1 #bbc4 ,the practice of forfeiting ships which had been wrecked4--,ib41 i1 #ejj4 ,the nearer his military successes approached him to the throne4--,ib41 v1 #chc4 ,in the next example1 you personifies ladies1 therefore it is plural4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,the first its personates vale2 the second its represents stream4--,ib41 p4 #ajc4 ,pronouns do not always avoid the repetition of nouns4--,ib41 p4 #if4 ,very is an adverb of comparison1 it compares the adjective good4--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,you will please to commit the following paragraph4--,ib41 p4 #adj4 ,even the ,greek and ,latin passive verbs require an auxiliary to conjugate some of their tenses4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ajj4 ,the deponent verbs1 in ,latin1 require also an auxiliary to conjugate several of their tenses4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,i have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs1 as any body has done since4--,ib41 p4 #ade4 ,a uniform variety assumes as many set forms as ,proteus had shapes4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #gb4 ,when words in apposition follow each other in quick succession4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #eg4 ,where such sentences frequently succeed each other4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cdi4 ,wisdom leads us to speak and act what is most proper4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ii2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cjc4 ,jul4 ,art thou not ,romeo1 and a ,montague8 ,rom4 ,neither1 fair saint1 if either thee dislike4--,shak4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,passive ,,verbs4 ,we too must be allowed the privilege of forming our own laws4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,for we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet1 c4--,ib41 p4 #bei2 ,kirkham's ,elocution1 #adc2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #caj4 ,by what code of morals am ,i denied the right and privilege8--,dr4 ,bartlett's ,lect41 p4 #d4 ,the children of ,israel have alone been denied the possession of it4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #fh4 ,at ,york fifteen hundred ,jews were refused all quarter4--,ib41 p4 #gc4 ,he would teach the ,french language in three lessons1 provided he was paid fifty-five dollars in advance4--,chazotte's ,essay1 p4 #d4 ,and when he was demanded of the ,pharisees1 when the kingdom of ,god should come4--,luke1 xvii1 #bj4 ,i have been shown a book4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cib4 ,john ,horne ,tooke was refused admission only because he had been in holy orders4--,diversions of ,purley1 i1 #fj4 ,mr4 ,horne ,tooke having taken orders1 he was refused admission to the bar4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,its reference to place is lost sight of4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,what striking lesson are we taught by the tenor of this history8--,bush's ,questions1 p4 #ga4 ,he had been left1 by a friend1 no less than eighty thousand pounds4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aab4 ,where there are many things to be done1 each must be allowed its share of time and labour4--,johnson's ,pref4 to ,dict41 p4 xiii4 ,presenting the subject in a far more practical form than it has been heretofore given4--,kirkham's ,phrenology1 p4 v4 ,if a being of entire impartiality should be shown the two companies4--,scott's ,pref4 to ,bible1 p4 vii4 ,he was offered the command of the ,british army4--,grimshaw's ,hist41 p4 #ha4 ,who had been unexpectedly left a considerable sum4--,johnson's ,life of ,goldsmith4 ,whether a maid or a widow may be granted such a privilege4--,spectator1 ,no4 #ecf4 ,happily all these affected terms have been denied the public suffrage4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aii4 ,let him next be shewn the parsing table4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 viii4 ,thence1 he may be shown the use of the ,analyzing ,table4--,ib41 p4 ix4 ,pittacus was offered a great sum of money4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bbh4 ,he had been allowed more time for study4--,ib41 p4 #bbi4 ,if the walks were a little taken care of that lie between them4--,addison's ,spect41 ,no4 #dad4 ,suppose ,i am offered an office or a bribe4--,pierpont's ,discourse1 ,jan4 #bg1 #ahci4 ,am ,i one chaste1 one last embrace deny'd8 ,shall ,i not lay me by his clay-cold side8 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 ix1 l4 #ajc4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,passive ,,verbs ,,transitive4 ,the preposition to is made use of before nouns of place1 when they follow verbs and participles of motion4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bjc2 ,ingersoll's1 #bca2 ,greenlef's1 #ce2 ,fisk's1 #adc2 ,smith's1 #agj2 ,guy's1 #ij2 ,fowler's1 #eee4 ,they were refused entrance into the house4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bjd4 ,their separate signification has been lost sight of4--,horne ,tooke1 ii1 #dbb4 ,but1 whenever ye is made use of1 it must be in the nominative1 and never in the objective1 case4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #eh4 ,it is said1 that more persons than one are paid handsome salaries1 for taking care to see acts of parliament properly worded4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ccd4 ,the following ,rudiments of ,english ,grammar1 have been made use of in the ,university of ,pennsylvania4--,,dr4 ,,rogers3 in ,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,it never should be lost sight of4--,newman's ,rhetoric1 p4 #ai4 ,a very curious fact hath been taken notice of by those expert metaphysicians4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bha4 ,the archbishop interfered that ,michelet's lectures might be put a stop to4--,the ,friend1 ix1 #cgh4 ,the disturbances in ,gottengen have been entirely put an end to4--,daily ,advertiser4 ,besides those that are taken notice of in these exceptions4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,as one1 two1 or three auxiliary verbs are made use of4--,ib41 p4 #bd4 ,the arguments which have been made use of4--,addison's ,evidences1 p4 #cb4 ,the circumstance is properly taken notice of by the author4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bag4 ,patagonia has never been taken possession of by any ,european nation4--,cumming's ,geog41 p4 #fb4 ,he will be found fault withal no more1 i4 e4 not hereafter4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bbf4 ,the thing was to be put an end to somehow4--,leigh ,hunt's ,byron1 p4 #ae4 ,in #agih1 the ,papal ,territory was taken possession of by the ,french4--,pinnock's ,geog41 p4 #bbc4 ,the idea has not for a moment been lost sight of by the ,board4--,common ,school ,journal1 i1 #cg4 ,i shall easily be excused the labour of more transcription4--,johnson's ,life of ,dryden4 ,if ,i may be allowed that expression4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bei1 and #bhh4 ,if without offence ,i may be indulged the observation4--,ib41 p4 #bie4 ,there are other characters1 which are frequently made use of in composition4-- ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bhj2 ,ingersoll's1 #bic4 ,such unaccountable infirmities might be in many1 perhaps in most1 cases got the better of4--,seattle's ,moral ,science1 i1 #aec4 ,which ought never to be had recourse to4--,ib41 i1 #ahf4 ,that the widows may be taken care of4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dii4 ,other cavils will yet be taken notice of4--,pope's ,pref4 to ,homer4 ,which implies1 that all ,christians are offered eternal salvation4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #adi4 ,yet even the dogs are allowed the crumbs which fall from their master's table4--,campbell's ,gospels1 ,matt41 xv4 #bg4 ,for we say the light within must be taken heed unto4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #adh4 ,this sound of a is taken notice of in ,steele's ,grammar4--,walker's ,dict41 p4 #bb4 ,one came to be paid ten guineas for a pair of silver buckles4--,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #ajd4 ,let him1 therefore1 be carefully shewn the application of the several questions in the table4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #h1 ,after a few times1 it is no longer taken notice of by the hearers4--,sheridan's ,lect41 p4 #ahb4 ,it will not admit of the same excuse1 nor be allowed the same indulgence1 by people of any discernment4--,ibid4 ,inanimate things may be made property of4--,beanie's ,m4 ,sci41 p4 #cee4 ,and1 when he's bid a liberaller price1 ,will not be sluggish in the work1 nor nice4--,butler's ,poems1 p4 #afb4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,of ,,perfect ,,participles4 ,all the words made use of to denote spiritual and intellectual things1 are in their origin metaphors4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #chj4 ,a reply to an argument commonly made use of by unbelievers4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bic4 ,it was heretofore the only form made use of in the preter tenses4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,of the points1 and other characters made use of in writing4--,ib41 p4 xv4 ,if thy be the personal pronoun made use of4--,walker's ,dict4 ,the ,conjunction is a word made use of to connect sentences4--,burn's ,gram41 p4 #bh4 ,the points made use of to answer these purposes are the four following4--,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #fg4 ,incense signifies perfumes exhaled by fire1 and made use of in religious ceremonies4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #aga4 ,in most of his orations1 there is too much art2 even carried the length of ostentation4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bdf4 ,to illustrate the great truth1 so often lost sight of in our times4--,common ,school ,journal1 ,i1 #hh4 ,the principal figures1 made use of to affect the heart1 are ,exclamation1 ,confession1 ,deprecation1 ,commination1 and ,imprecation4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #acc4 ,disgusted at the odious artifices made use of by the ,judge4--,junius1 p4 #ac4 ,the whole reasons of our being allotted a condition1 out of which so much wickedness and misery would in fact arise4--,butler's ,analogy p4 #aji4 ,some characteristieal circumstance being generally invented or laid hold of4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bdf4 ,and by is likewise us'd with ,names that shew ,the ,means made use of1 or the ,method how4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #aje4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,constructions ,,ambiguous4 ,many adverbs admit of degrees of comparison as well as adjectives4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,but the author1 who1 by the number and reputation of his works1 formed our language more than any one1 into its present state1 is ,dryden4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ahj4 ,in some ,states1 ,courts of ,admiralty have no juries1 nor ,courts of ,chancery at all4--,webster's ,essays1 p1 #adf4 ,i feel myself grateful to my friend4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bgf4 ,this requires a writer to have1 himself1 a very clear apprehension of the object he means to present to us4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #id4 ,sense has its own harmony1 as well as sound4--lb41 p4 #abg4 ,the apostrophe denotes the omission of an i which was formerly inserted1 and made an addition of a syllable to the word4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #fg4 ,there are few1 whom ,i can refer to1 with more advantage than ,mr4 ,addison4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aci4 ,,death1 in theology1 is a perpetual separation from ,god1 and eternal torments4--,webster's ,dict4 ,that could inform the traveler as well as the old man himself6--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cde4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,ye ,,and ,,you ,,in ,,scripture4 ,ye daughters of ,rabbah1 gird ye with sackcloth4--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,jer41 xlix1 #c4 ,wash ye1 make you clean4--,brown's ,concordance1 w4 ,wash4 ,strip ye1 and make ye bare1 and gird sackcloth upon your loins4--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,isaiah1 xxxii1 #aa4 ,you are not ashamed that you make yourselves strange to me4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,job1 xix1 #c4 ,you are not ashamed that ye make yourselves strange to me4--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ib4 ,if you knew the gift of ,god4--,brown's ,concordance1 w4 ,knew4 ,depart from me1 ye workers of iniquity1 ,i know ye not4--,penington's ,works1 ii1 #abb4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,same ,,cases4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive1 agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing3 as1 ,it is ,i4--,these are they4--,the child was named ,john4--,it could not be he4--,the ,lord sitteth ,king forever4--,psalms1 xxix1 #aj4 ,what war could ravish1 commerce could bestow1 ,and he return'd a friend1 who came a foe4 --,pope1 ,ep4 iii1 l4 #bjf4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,vi4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,active-transitive verbs1 and their imperfect and preperfect participles1 always govern the objective case2 but active-intransitive1 passive1 and neuter verbs1 and their participles1 take the same case after as before them1 when both words refer to the same thing4 ,the latter are rightly supposed not to govern#ceg any case2 nor are they in general followed by any noun or pronoun4 ,but1 because they are not transitive1 some of them become connectives to such words as are in the same case and signify the same thing4 ,that is1 their finite tenses may be followed by a nominative1 and their infinitives and participles by a nominative or an objective1 agreeing with a noun or a pronoun which precedes them4 ,the cases are the same1 because the person or thing is one2 as1 ,i am he4--,thou art ,peter4--,civil government being the sole object of forming societies1 its administration must be conducted by common consent4--,jefferson's ,notes1 p4 #abi4 ,identity is both the foundation and the characteristic of this construction4 ,we chiefly use it to affirm or deny1 to suggest or question1 the sameness of things2 but sometimes figuratively1 to illustrate the relations of persons or things by comparison3#ceh as1 ,i am the true vine1 and my ,father is the husbandman4--,john1 xv1 #a4 ,i am the vine1 ye are the branches4--,john1 xv1 #e4 ,even the names of direct opposites1 are sometimes put in the same case1 under this rule2 as1 ,by such a change thy darkness is made light1 ,thy chaos order1 and thy weakness might4--,cowper1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hh4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,in this rule1 the terms after and preceding refer rather to the order of the sense and construction1 than to the mere placing of the words2 for the words in fact admit of various positions4 ,the proper subject of the verb is the nominative to it1 or before it1 by ,rule #b;d2 and the other nominative1 however placed1 is understood to be that which comes after it1 by ,rule #fth4 ,in general1 however1 the proper subject precedes the verb1 and the other word follows it1 agreeably to the literal sense of the rule4 ,but when the proper subject is placed after the verb1 as in certain instances specified in the second observation under ,rule #b;d1 the explanatory nominative is commonly introduced still later2 as1 ,but be thou an example of the believers4--#a ,tim4 iv1 #ab4 ,but what6 is thy servant a dog8--#b ,kings1 viii1 #ac4 ,and so would ,i1 were ,i ,parmenio4--,goldsmith4 ,o ,conloch's daughter6 is it thou8--,ossian4 ,but in the following example1 on the contrary1 there is a transposition of the entire lines1 and the verb agrees with the two nominatives in the latter3 ,to thee were solemn toys or empty show1 ,the robes of pleasure and the veils of wo4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,in interrogative sentences1 the terms are usually transposed1#cei or both are placed after the verb2 as1 ,am ,i a ,jew8--,john1 xviii1 #ce4 ,art thou a king then8--,ib41 ver4 #cg4 ,what is truth8--,ib41 ver4 #ch4 ,who art thou8--,ib41 i1 #ai4 ,art thou ,elias8--,ib41 i1 #ba4 ,tell me1 ,alciphron1 is not distance a line turned endwise to the eye8--,berkley's ,dialogues1 p4 #afa4 ,whence1 and what art thou1 execrable shape8--,milton4 ,art thou that traitor angel8 art thou he8--,idem4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,in a declarative sentence also1 there may be a rhetorical or poetical transposition of one or both of the terms3 as1 ,and ,i thy victim now remain4--,francis's ,horace1 ii1 #de4 ,to thy own dogs a prey thou shalt be made4--,pope's ,homer1 ,i was eyes to the blind1 and feet was ,i to the lame4--,job1 xxix1 #ae4 ,far other scene is ,thrasymen now4--,byron4 ,in the following sentence1 the latter term is palpably misplaced3 ,it does not clearly appear at first what the antecedent is to they4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bah4 ,say rather3 ,it does not clearly appear at first1 what is the antecedent to the pronoun they4 ,in examples transposed like the following1 there is an elegant ellipsis of the verb to which the pronoun is nominative2 as1 am1 art1 c4 ,when pain and anguish wring the brow1 ,a ministering angel thou4--,scott's ,marmion4 ,the forum's champion1 and the people's chief1 ,her new-born ,numa thou--with reign1 alas6 too brief4--,byron4 ,for this commission'd1 ,i forsook the sky-- ,nay1 cease to kneel--thy fellow-servant ,i4--,parnell4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in some peculiar constructions1 both words naturally come before the verb2 as1 ,i know not who she is4--,who did you say it was8--,i know not how to tell thee who ,i am4--,romeo4 ,inquire thou whose son the stripling is4--#a ,sam41 xvii1 #ef4 ,man would not be the creature which he now is4--,blair4 ,i could not guess who it should be4--,addison4 ,and they are sometimes placed in this manner by hyberbaton sic--,,kth1 or transposition2 as1 ,yet he it is4--,young4 ,no contemptible orator he was4--,dr4 ,blair4 ,he it is to whom ,i shall give a sop4--,john1 xiii1 #bf4 ,and a very noble personage ,cato is4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #deg4 ,clouds they are without water4--,jude1 #ab4 ,of worm or serpent kind it something looked1 ,but monstrous1 with a thousand snaky heads4--,pollok1 ,b4 i1 l4 #ahc4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,as infinitives and participles have no nominatives of their own1 such of them as are not transitive in their nature1 may take different cases after them2 and1 in order to determine what case it is that follows them1 the learner must carefully observe what preceding word denotes the same person or thing1 and apply the principle of the rule accordingly4 ,this word being often remote1 and sometimes understood1 the sense is the only clew to the construction4 ,examples3 ,who then can bear the thought of being an outcast from his presence8--,addison4 ,here outcast agrees with who1 and not with thought4 ,i cannot help being so passionate an admirer as ,i am4--,steele4 ,here admirer agrees with ,i4 ,to recommend what the soberer part of mankind look upon to be a trifle4--,steele4 ,here trifle agrees with what as relative1 the objective governed by upon4 ,it would be a romantic madness1 for a man to be a lord in his closet4--,id4 ,here madness is in the nominative case1 agreeing with it2 and lord1 in the objective1 agreeing with man4 ,to affect to be a lord in one's closet1 would be a romantic madness4 ,in this sentence also1 lord is in the objective1 after to be2 and madness1 in the nominative1 after would be4 ',my dear ,tibullus6' ,if that will not do1 ,let me be ,horace1 and be ,ovid you4--,pope1 ,b4 ii1 ,ep4 ii1 #adc4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,an active-intransitive or a neuter participle in ing1 when governed by a preposition1 is often followed by a noun or a pronoun the case of which depends not on the preposition1 but on the case which goes before4 ,example3 ,the ,jews were in a particular manner ridiculed for being a credulous people4--,addison's ,evidences1 p4 #bh4 ,here people is in the nominative case1 agreeing with ,jews4 ,again3 ,the learned pagans ridiculed the ,jews for being a credulous people4 ,here people is in the objective case1 because the preceding noun ,jews is so4 ,in both instances the preposition for governs the participle being1 and nothing else4 ,the atrocious crime of being a young man1 ,i shall neither attempt to palliate or deny4--,,pitt3 ,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hb2 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene's1 #agd4 ,sanborn has this text1 with nor for or4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #aij4 ,this example has been erroneously cited1 as one in which the case of the noun after the participle is not determined by its relation to any other word4 ,sanborn absurdly supposes it to be in the nominative independent4 ,bullions as strangely tells us1 it may correctly be called the objective indefinite--like me in the following example3 ,he was not sure of its being me4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,this latter text ,i take to be bad ,english4 ,it should be1 ,he was not sure of it as being me2 or1 ,he was not sure that it was ,i4 ,but1 in the text above1 there is an evident transposition4 ,the syntactical order is this3 ,i shall neither deny nor attempt to palliate the atrocious crime of being a young man4 ,the words man and ,i refer to the same person1 and are therefore in the same case1 according to the rule which ,i have given above4 ,,obs4 #h4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 in his late ,grammar1 improperly denominates this case after the participle being1 the predicate-nominative1 and imagines that it necessarily remains a nominative even when the possessive case precedes the participle4 ,if he were right in this1 there would be an important exception to ,rule #fth above4 ,but so singularly absurd is his doctrine about abridged predicates1 that in general the abridging shows an increase of syllables1 and often a conversion of good ,english into bad4 ,for example3 ,it the predicate remains unchanged in the nominative1 when1 with the participle of the copula1 it becomes a verbal noun1 limited by the possessive case of the subject2 as1 ',that he was a foreigner prevented his election1'',his being a foreigner prevented his election4'--,greene's ,analysis1 p4 #afi4 ,here the number of syllables is unaltered2 but foreigner is very improperly called a verbal noun1 and an example which only lacks a comma1 is changed to what ,wells rightly calls an anomalous expression1 and one wherein that author supposes foreigner and his to be necessarily in the same case4 ,but ,greene varies this example into other abridged forms1 thus3 ,i knew that he was a foreigner1 ,i knew his being1 or of his being a foreigner4 ,the fact that he was a foreigner1 of his being a foreigner1 was undeniable4 ,when he was first called a foreigner1 on his being first called a foreigner1 his anger was excited4--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,all these changes enlarge1 rather than abridge1 the expression2 and1 at the same time1 make it questionable ,english1 to say the least of it4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,in some examples1 the adverb there precedes the participle1 and we evidently have nothing by which to determine the case that follows2 as1 ,these judges were twelve in number4 ,was this owing to there being twelve primary deities among the ,gothic nations8--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bfc4 ,say rather3 ,was this because there were twelve primary deities among the ,gothic nations8 ,how many are injured by ,adam's fall1 that know nothing of there ever being such a man in the world6--,barclay's ,apology1 p4 #ahe4 ,say rather1--who know not that there ever was such a man in the world6 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,in some other examples1 we find a possessive before the participle1 and a doubtful case after it2 as1 ,this our ,saviour himself was pleased to make use of as the strongest argument of his being the promised ,messiah--,addison's ,evidences1 p4 #ha4 ,but my chief affliction consisted in my being singled out from all the other boys1 by a lad about fifteen years of age1 as a proper object upon whom he might let loose the cruelty of his temper4--,cowper's ,memoir1 p4 #ac4 ,greek3 ,tou patros ontos onou euthus hypemnsth4 ,he had some sort of recollection of his father's being an ass--,collectanea ,grca ,minora1 ,not1 p4 #g4 ,this construction1 though not uncommon1 is anomalous in more respects than one4 ,whether or not it is worthy to form an exception to the rule of same cases1 or even to that of possessives1 the reader may judge from the observations made on it under the latter4 ,i should rather devise some way to avoid it1 if any can be found--and ,i believe there can2 as1 ,this our ,saviour himself was pleased to advance as the strongest proof that he was the promised ,messiah4--,but my chief affliction consisted in this1 that ,i was singled out1 c4 ,the story of the mule is1 ,he seemed to recollect on a sudden that his father was an ass4 ,this is the proper meaning of the ,greek text above2 but the construction is different1 the ,greek nouns being genitives in apposition4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,a noun in the nominative case sometimes follows a finite verb1 when the equivalent subject that stands before the verb1 is not a noun or pronoun1 but a phrase or a sentence which supplies the place of a nominative2 as1 ,that the barons and freeholders derived their authority from kings1 is wholly a mistake4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bgg4 ,to speak of a slave as a member of civil society1 may1 by some1 be regarded a solecism4--,stroud's ,sketch1 p4 #fe4 ,here mistake and solecism are as plainly nominatives1 as if the preceding subjects had been declinable words4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,when a noun is put after an abstract infinitive that is not transitive1 it appears necessarily to be in the objective case1#cfj though not governed by the verb2 for if we supply any noun to which such infinitive may be supposed to refer1 it must be introduced before the verb by the preposition for3 as1 ,to be an ,englishman in ,london1 a ,frenchman in ,paris1 a ,spaniard in ,madrid1 is no easy matter2 and yet it is necessary4--,home's ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #hi4 ,that is1 ,for a traveller to be an ,englishman in ,london1 c4 ,it is certainly as easy to be a scholar1 as a gamester4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #dbe4 ,that is1 ,it is as easy for a young man to be a scholar1 as it is for him to be a gamester4 ,to be an eloquent speaker1 in the proper sense of the word1 is far from being a common or easy attainment4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccg4 ,here attainment is in the nominative1 after is--or1 rather after being1 for it follows both2 and speaker1 in the objective after to be4 ,it is almost as hard a thing for a man to be a poet in despite of fortune1 as it is for one to be a poet in despite of nature4--,cowley's ,preface to his ,poems1 p4 vii4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,where precision is necessary1 loose or abstract infinitives are improper2 as1 ,but to be precise1 signifies1 that they express that idea1 and no more4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #id2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cja2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #fd4 ,say rather3 ,but1 for an author's words to be precise1 signifies1 that they express his exact idea1 and nothing more or less4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,the principal verbs that take the same case after as before them1 except those which are passive1 are the following3 to be1 to stand1 to sit1 to lie1 to live1 to grow1 to become1 to turn1 to commence1 to die1 to expire1 to come1 to go1 to range1 to wander1 to return1 to seem1 to appear1 to remain1 to continue1 to reign4 ,there are doubtless some others1 which admit of such a construction2 and of some of these1 it is to be observed1 that they are sometimes transitive1 and govern the objective3 as1 ,to commence a suit4--,johnson4 ,o continue thy loving kindness unto them4--,psalms1 xxxvi1 #aj4 ,a feather will turn the scale4--,shak4 ,return him a trespass offering4--#a ,samuel4 ,for it becomes me so to speak4--,dryden4 ,but their construction with like cases is easily distinguished by the sense2 as1 ,when ,i commenced author1 my aim was to amuse4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bhf4 ,men continue men's destroyers4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #ef4 ',tis most just1 that thou turn rascal--,shak41 ,timon of ,athens4 ,he went out mate1 but he returned captain4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ahb4 ,after this event he became physician to the king4--,ib4 ,that is1 ,when ,i began to be an author1 c4 ,ev'n mean self-love becomes1 by force divine1 ,the scale to measure others' wants by thine4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,the common instructions of our ,english grammars1 in relation to the subject of the preceding rule1 are exceedingly erroneous and defective4 ,for example3 ,the verb ,,to ,,be1 has always a nominative case after it1 unless it be in the infinitive mode4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,the verb ,,to ,,be requires the same case after it as before it4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,the verb ,,to ,,be1 through all its variations1 has the same case after it1 expressed or understood1 as that which next precedes it4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aha2 ,alger's1 #fb2 ,merchant's1 #ia2 ,putnam's1 #aaf2 ,smith's1 #ig2 and many others4 ,the verb ,,to ,,be has usually the same case after it1 as that which immediately precedes it4--,hall's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,neuter verbs have the same case after them1 as that which next precedes them4--,folker's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,passive verbs which signify naming1 and others of a similar nature1 have the same case before and after them4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ahb4 ,a ,noun or ,pronoun used in predication with a verb1 is in the ,independent ,case4 ,,examples--',thou art a scholar4' ',it is ,i4' ',god is love4'--,s4 ,w4 ,clark's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #adi4 ,so many and monstrous are the faults of these rules1 that nothing but very learned and reverend authority1 could possibly impose such teaching anywhere4 ,the first1 though written by ,lowth1 is not a whit wiser than to say1 ,the preposition to has always an infinitive mood after it1 unless it be a preposition4 ,and this latter absurdity is even a better rule for all infinitives1 than the former for all predicated nominatives4 ,nor is there much more fitness in any of the rest4 ,the verb ,,to ,,be1 through all1 or even in any1 of its parts1 has neither always nor usually a case expressed or understood after it2 and1 even when there is a noun or a pronoun put after it1 the case is1 in very many instances1 not to be determined by that which next or immediately precedes the verb4 ,examples3 ,a sect of freethinkers is a sum of ciphers4--,bentley4 ,and ,i am this day weak1 though anointed king4--#b ,sam41 iii1 #ci4 ,what made ,luther a great man1 was his unshaken reliance on ,god4--,kortz's ,life of ,luther1 p4 #ac4 ,the devil offers his service2 ,he is sent with a positive commission to be a lying spirit in the mouth of all the prophets4--,calvin's ,institutes1 p4 #aca4 ,it is perfectly certain that in these four texts1 the words sum1 king1 reliance1 and spirit1 are nominatives1 after the verb or participle2 and not objectives1 as they must be1 if there were any truth in the common assertion1 that the two cases1 which1 in the construction of the sentence1 are the next before and after it1 must always be alike4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ih4 ,not only may the nominative before the verb be followed by an objective1 but the nominative after it may be preceded by a possessive2 as1 ,amos1 the herdsman of ,tekoa1 was not a prophet's son4--,it is the king's chapel1 and it is the king's court4--,amos1 vii1 #ac4 ,how ignorant then must that person be1 who cannot see the falsity of the instructions above cited6 ,how careless the reader who overlooks it6 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,vi4 ,,note ,i4--,the putting of a noun in an unknown case after a participle or a participial noun1 produces an anomaly which it seems better to avoid2 for the cases ought to be clear1 even in exceptions to the common rules of construction4 ,examples3 7#a47 ,,widowhood1 n4 ,the state of being a widow4--,webster's ,dict4 ,say rather1 ,,widowhood1 n4 ,the state of a widow4--,johnson1 ,walker1 ,worcester4 7#b47 ,i had a suspicion of the fellow's being a swindler_/ ,say rather1 ,i had a suspicion that the fellow was a swindler4 7#c47 ,to prevent its being a dry detail of terms4--,buck4 ,better1 ,to prevent it from being a dry detail of terms4 #cfa ,,note ,,ii4--,the nominative which follows a verb or participle1 ought to accord in signification1 either literally or figuratively1 with the preceding term which is taken for a sign of the same thing4 ,errors3 7#a47 ,to be convicted of bribery1 was then a crime altogether unpardonable4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bfe4 ,to be convicted of a crime1 is not the crime itself2 say1 therefore1 ,bribery was then a crime altogether unpardonable4 7#b47 ,the second person is the object of the ,imperative4--,murray's ,gram41 ,index1 ii1 #bib4 ,say rather1 ,the second person is the subject of the imperative2 for the object of a verb is the word governed by it1 and not its nominative4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,vi4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,of ,,proper ,,identity4 ,who would not say1 ',if it be me1' rather than1 ,if it be ,i8--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aje4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronoun me1--which comes after the neuter verb be1 is in the objective case1 and does not agree with the pronoun it1 the verb's nominative1#cfb which refers to the same thing4 ,but1 according to ,rule #fth1 ,a noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive1 agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing4 ,therefore1 me should be ,i2 thus1 ,who would not say1 ',if it be ,i1' rather than1 ',if it be me8' ,who is there8 ,it is me4--,priestley1 ib41 p4 #ajd4 ,it is him4--,id41 ib41 #ajd4 ,are these the houses you were speaking of8 ,yes1 they are them4--,id41 ib41 #ajd4 ,it is not me you are in love with4--,addison's ,spect41 ,no4 #bij2 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ajd2 and ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bjc4 ,it cannot be me4--,,swift3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,to that which once was thee4--,,prior3 ib41 #ajd4 ,there is but one man that she can have1 and that is me4--,,clarissa3 ib41 #ajd4 ,we enter1 as it were1 into his body1 and become1 in some measure1 him4--,,adam ,,smith3 ib41 p4 #aje4 ,art thou proud yet8 ,ay1 that ,i am not thee4--,shak41 ,timon4 ,he knew not whom they were4--,milnes1 ,greek ,gram41 p4 #bcd4 ,who do you think me to be8--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,whom do men say that ,i1 the ,son of man1 am8--,matt41 xvi1 #ac4 ,but whom say ye that ,i am8--,ib41 xvi1 #ae4--,whom think ye that ,i am8 ,i am not he4--,acts1 xiii1 #be4 ,no2 ,i am mistaken2 ,i perceive it is not the person whom ,i supposed it was4--,winter in ,london1 ii1 #ff4 ,and while it is ,him ,i serve1 life is not without value4--,zenobia1 i1 #gf4 ,without ever dreaming it was him4--,life of ,charles ,,xii1 p4 #bga4 ,or he was not the illiterate personage whom he affected to be4--,montgomery's ,lect4 ,yet was he him1 who was to be the greatest apostle of the ,gentiles4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #edj4 ,sweet was the thrilling ecstacy2 ,i know not if 'twas love1 or thee4--,queen's ,wake1 p4 #ad4 ,time was1 when none would cry1 that oaf was me4--,dryden1 ,prol4 ,no matter where the vanquish'd be1 nor whom4--,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 i1 l4 #fgf4 ,no1 ,i little thought it had been him4--,life of ,oration4 ,that reverence and godly fear1 whose object is ',him who can destroy both body and soul in hell4'--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #cab4 ,it is us that they seek to please1 or rather to astonish4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #bh4 ,let the same be she that thou hast appointed for thy servant ,isaac4--,gen41 xxiv1 #ad4 ,although ,i knew it to be he4--,dickens's ,notes1 p4 #i4 ,dear gentle youth1 is't none but thee8--,dorset's ,poems1 p4 #d4 ,whom do they say it is8--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #dic4 ,these are her garb1 not her2 they but express ,her form1 her semblance1 her appropriate dress4--,hannah ,more4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,the ,,case ,,doubtful4 ,i had no knowledge of there being any connexion between them4--,stone1 on ,freemasonry1 p4 #be4 ,to promote iniquity in others1 is nearly the same as being the actors of it ourselves4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #agj4 ,it must arise from feeling delicately ourselves4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccj2 ,murray's ,gram41 #bdh4 ,by reason of there not having been exercised a competent physical power for their enforcement4--,mass4 ,legislature1 #ahci4 ,,pupilage1 n4 ,the state of being a scholar4--,johnson1 ,walker1 ,webster1 ,worcester4 ,then the other part's being the definition would make it include all verbs of every description4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cdc4 ,john's being my friend1#cfc saved me from inconvenience4--,ib41 p4 #bja4 ,william's having become a judge1 changed his whole demeanor4--,ib41 p4 #bja4 ,william's having been a teacher1 was the cause of the interest which he felt4--,ib41 p4 #baf4 ,the being but one among many stifleth the chidings of conscience4--,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #aca4 ,as for its being esteemed a close translalation sic--,,kth1 ,i doubt not many have been led into that error by the shortness of it4--,pope's ,pref4 to ,homer4 ,all presumption of death's being the destruction of living beings1 must go upon supposition that they are compounded1 and so discerptible4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #fc4 ,this argues rather their being proper names4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #chb4 ,but may it not be retorted1 that its being a gratification is that which excites our resentment8--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ade4 ,under the common notion1 of its being a system of the whole poetical art4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dja4 ,whose time or other circumstances forbid their becoming classical scholars4--,literary ,convention1 p4 #aac4 ,it would preclude the notion of his being a merely fictitious personage4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #ddf4 ,for1 or under pretence of their being heretics or infidels4--,the ,catholic ,oath2 ,geo4 ,,iii1 #cast4 ,we may here add ,dr4 ,home's sermon on ,christ's being the ,object of religious ,adoration4--,relig4 ,world1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bjj4 ,to say nothing of ,dr4 ,priestley's being a strenuous advocate1 c4--,ib41 ii1 #bjg4 ,by virtue of ,adam's being their public head4--,ib41 ii1 #bcc4 ,objections against there being any such moral plan as this4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #eg4 ,a greater instance of a man's being a blockhead4--,spect41 ,no4 #ebj4 ,we may insure or promote its being a happy state of existence to ourselves4--,gurney's ,evidences1 p4 #hf4 ,by its often falling a victim to the same kind of unnatural treatment4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #da4 ,their appearing foolishness is no presumption against this4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ahi4 ,but what arises from their being offences2 i4 e4 from their being liable to be perverted4--,ib41 p4 #ahe4 ,and he entered into a certain man's house1 named ,justus1 one that worshipped ,god4--,acts1 xviii1 #g4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,false ,,identification4 ,but to be popular1 he observes1 is an ambiguous word4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cjg4 ,the infinitive mood1 or part of a sentence1 is often the nominative case to a verb4--,l4 ,murray's ,index1 ,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bij4 ,when any person1 in speaking1 introduces his own name1 it is the first person2 as1 ',i1 ,james1 of the city of ,boston4'--,r4 ,c4 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,the name of the person spoken to1 is the second person2 as1 ',james1 come to me4'--,ibid4 ,the name of the person or thing spoken of1 or about1 is the third person2 as1 ',james has come4'--,ibid4 ,the object of a passive verb is always its subject or nominative case4--,ib41 p4 #fb4 ,when a noun is in the nominative case to an active verb1 it is the actor4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,and the person commanded1 is its nominative4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #abj4 ,the first person is that who speaks4--,pasquier's ,lvizac1 p4 #ia4 ,the ,conjugation of a ,verb is its different variations or inflections throughout the ,moods and ,tenses4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,the first person is the speaker4 ,the second person is the one spoken to4 ,the third person is the one spoken of4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part i1 p4 #f2 ,hiley's1 #ah4 ,the first person is the one that speaks1 or the speaker4--,sanborn's ,gram41 pp4 #bc and #ge4 ,the second person is the one that is spoken to1 or addressed4--,ibid4 ,the third person is the one that is spoken of1 or that is the topic of conversation4--,ibid4 ,i1 is the first person ,singular4 ,we1 is the first person ,plural4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ea2 ,alger's1 ,ingersoll's1 and many others4 ,thou1 is the second person ,singular4 ,ye or you1 is the second person ,plural4--,ibid4 ,he1 she1 or it1 is the third person ,singular4 ,they1 is the third person ,plural4--,ibid4 ,the nominative case is the actor1 or subject of the verb4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,the noun ,john is the actor1 therefore ,john is in the nominative case4--,ibid4 ,the actor is always the nominative case4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,the nominative case is always the agent or actor4--,mack's ,gram41 p4 #fg4 ,tell the part of speech each name is4--,j4 ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,what number is boy8 ,why8 ,what number is pens8 ,why8--,ib41 p4 #bg4 ,the speaker is the first person1 the person spoken to1 the second person1 and the person or thing spoken of1 is the third person4--,ib41 p4 #bf4 ,what nouns are masculine gender8 ,all males are masculine gender4--,ib41 p4 #bh4 ,an interjection is a sudden emotion of the mind4--,barrett's ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,,rule ,,vii4--,,objectives4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun made the object of a preposition1 is governed by it in the objective case3 as1 ,the temple of fame stands upon the grave3 the flame that burns upon its altars1 is kindled from the ashes of great men--,hazlitt4 ,life is ,his gift1 from whom whate'er life needs1 ,with ev'ry good and perfect gift1 proceeds4--,cowper1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ie4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,vii4 ,,obs4 #a4--,to this rule there are no exceptions2 for prepositions1 in ,english1 govern no other case than the objective4#cfd ,but the learner should observe that most of our prepositions may take the imperfect participle for their object1 and some1 the pluperfect1 or preperfect2 as1 ,on opening the trial they accused him of having defrauded them4--,a quick wit1 a nice judgment1 c41 could not raise this man above being received only upon the foot of contributing to mirth and diversion4--,steele4 ,and the preposition to is often followed by an infinitive verb2 as1 ,when one sort of wind is said to whistle1 and an other to roar2 when a serpent is said to hiss1 a fly to buzz1 and falling timber to crash2 when a stream is said to flow1 and hail to rattle2 the analogy between the word and the thing signified1 is plainly discernible4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ee4 ,but let it not be supposed that participles or infinitives1 when they are governed by prepositions1 are therefore in the objective case2 for case is no attribute of either of these classes of words3 they are indeclinable in ,english1 whatever be the relations they assume4 ,they are governed as participles1 or as infinitives1 and not as cases4 ,the mere fact of government is so far from creating the modification governed1 that it necessarily presupposes it to exist1 and that it is something cognizable in etymology4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the brief assertion1 that1 ,prepositions govern the objective case1 which till very lately our grammarians have universally adopted as their sole rule for both terms1 the governing and the governed1--the preposition and its object1--is1 in respect to both1 somewhat exceptionable1 being but partially and lamely applicable to either4 ,it neither explains the connecting nature of the preposition1 nor applies to all objectives1 nor embraces all the terms which a preposition may govern4 ,it is true1 that prepositions1 when they introduce declinable words1 or words that have cases1 always govern the objective2 but the rule is liable to be misunderstood1 and is in fact often misapplied1 as if it meant something more than this4 ,besides1 in no other instance do grammarians attempt to parse both the governing word and the governed1 by one and the same rule4 ,i have therefore placed the objects of this government here1 where they belong in the order of the parts of speech1 expressing the rule in such terms as cannot be mistaken2 and have also given1 in its proper place1 a distinct rule for the construction of the preposition itself4 ,see ,rule #bc;d4 ,,obs4 #c4--,prepositions are sometimes elliptically construed with adjectives1 the real object of the relation being thought to be some objective noun understood3 as1 in vain1 in secret1 at first1 on high2 i4 e4 in a vain manner1 in secret places1 at the first time1 on high places4 ,such phrases usually imply time1 place1 degree1 or manner1 and are equivalent to adverbs4 ,in parsing1 the learner may supply the ellipsis4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,in some phrases1 a preposition seems to govern a perfect participle2 but these expressions are perhaps rather to be explained as being elliptical3 as1 ,to give it up for lost2--,to take that for granted which is disputed4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aji4 ,that is1 perhaps1 ,to give it up for a thing lost2--,to take that for a thing granted1 c4 ,in the following passage the words ought and should are employed in such a manner that it is difficult to say to what part of speech they belong3 ,it is that very character of ought and should which makes justice a law to us2 and the same character is applicable to propriety1 though perhaps more faintly than to justice4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bhf4 ,the meaning seems to be1 ,it is that very character of being owed and required1 that makes justice a law to us2 and this mode of expression1 as it is more easy to be parsed1 is perhaps more grammatical than his ,lordship's4 ,but1 as preterits are sometimes put by enallage for participles1 a reference of them to this figure may afford a mode of explanation in parsing1 whenever they are introduced by a preposition1 and not by a nominative3 as1 ,a kind of conquest ,csar made here2 but made not here his brag ,of1 came1 and saw1 and overcame--,shak41 ,cymb41 iii1 #a4 ,that is1--of having come1 and seen1 and overcome4 ,here1 however1 by assuming that a sentence is the object of the preposition1 we may suppose the pronoun ,i to be understood1 as ego is in the bulletin referred to1 ,veni1 vidi1 vici4 ,for1 as a short sentence is sometimes made the subject of a verb1 so is it sometimes made the object of a preposition2 as1 ,earth's highest station ends in1 'here he lies2' ,and 'dust to dust1' concludes her noblest song4--,young4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in some instances1 prepositions precede adverbs2 as1 at once1 at unawares1 from thence1 from above1 till now1 till very lately1 for once1 for ever4 ,here the adverb1 though an indeclinable word1 appears to be made the object of the preposition4 ,it is in fact used substantively1 and governed by the preposition4 ,the term forever is often written as one word1 and1 as such1 is obviously an adverb4 ,the rest are what some writers would call adverbial phrases2 a term not very consistent with itself1 or with the true idea of parsing4 ,if different parts of speech are to be taken together as having the nature of an adverb1 they ought rather to coalesce and be united2 for the verb to parse1 being derived from the ,latin pars1 a part1 implies in general a distinct recognition of the elements or words of every phrase or sentence4 ,,obs4 #f4--,nouns of time1 measure1 distance1 or value1 have often so direct a relation to verbs or adjectives1 that the prepositions which are supposed to govern them1 are usually suppressed2 as1 ,we rode sixty miles that day4 ,that is1--through sixty miles on that day4 ,the country is not a farthing richer4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #abb4 ,that is1--richer by a farthing4 ,the error has been copied times without number4--,ib41 p4 #bha4 ,that is1--on or at times innumerable4 ,a row of columns ten feet high1 and a row twice that height1 require different proportions4 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cdd4 ,that is1--high to ten feet1 and1 a row of twice that height4 ,altus sex pedes1 ,high on or at six feet4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist of ,europ4 ,lang41 ii1 #aej4 ,all such nouns are in the objective case1 and1 in parsing them1 the learner may supply the ellipsis2#cfe or1 perhaps it might be as well1 to say1 as do ,b4 ,h4 ,smart and some others1 that the noun is an objective of time1 measure1 or value1 taken adverbially1 and relating directly to the verb or adjective qualified by it4 ,such expressions as1 ,a board of six feet long1--,a boy of twelve years old1 are wrong4 ,either strike out the of1 or say1 ,a board of six feet in length1--,a boy of twelve years of age2 because this preposition is not suited to the adjective1 nor is the adjective fit to qualify the time or measure4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,after the adjectives like1 near1 and nigh1 the preposition to or unto is often understood2#cff as1 ,it is like to or unto silver4--,allen4 ,how like the former4--,dryden4 ,near yonder copse4--,goldsmith4 ,nigh this recess4--,garth4 ,as similarity and proximity are relations1 and not qualities1 it might seem proper to call like1 near1 and nigh1 prepositions2 and some grammarians have so classed the last two4 ,dr4 ,johnson seems to be inconsistent in calling near a preposition1 in the phrase1 ,so near thy heart1 and an adjective1 in the phrase1 ,being near their master4 ,see his ,quarto ,dict4 ,i have not placed them with the prepositions1 for the following four reasons3 7#a47 ,because they are sometimes compared2 7#b47 ,because they sometimes have adverbs evidently relating to them2 7#c47 ,because the preposition to or unto is sometimes expressed after them2 and 7#d47 ,because the words which usually stand for them in the learned languages1 are clearly adjectives4#cfg ,but like1 when it expresses similarity of manner1 and near and nigh1 when they express proximity of degree1 are adverbs4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the word worth is often followed by an objective1 or a participle1 which it appears to govern2 as1 ,if your arguments produce no conviction1 they are worth nothing to me4--,beattie4 ,to reign is worth ambition4--,milton4 ,this is life indeed1 life worth preserving4--,addison4 ,it is not easy to determine to what part of speech worth here belongs4 ,dr4 ,johnson calls it an adjective1 but says nothing of the object after it1 which some suppose to be governed by of understood4 ,in this supposition1 it is gratuitously assumed1 that worth is equivalent to worthy1 after which of should be expressed2 as1 ,whatsoever is worthy of their love1 is worth their anger4--,denham4 ,but as worth appears to have no certain characteristic of an adjective1 some call it a noun1 and suppose a double ellipsis2 as1 ',my knife is worth a shilling2' i4 e4 ',my knife is of the worth of a shilling4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #afc4 ',the book is worth that sum2' that is1 ',the book is 7the7 worth 7of7 that sum2' ',it is worth while2' that is1 ',it is 7the7 worth 7of the7 while4'--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #ed4 ,this is still less satisfactory2#cfh and as the whole appears to be mere guess-work1 ,i see no good reason why worth is not a preposition1 governing the noun or participle4#cfi ,if an adverb precede worth1 it may as well be referred to the foregoing verb1 as when it occurs before any other preposition3 as1 ,it is richly worth the money4--,it lies directly before your door4 ,or if we admit that an adverb sometimes relates to this word1 the same thing may be as true of other prepositions2 as1 ,and this is a lesson which1 to the greatest part of mankind1 is1 ,i think1 very well worth learning4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cjc4 ,he sees let down from the ceiling1 exactly over his head1 a glittering sword1 hung by a single hair4--,murray's ,e4 ,reader1 p4 #cc4 ,see ,exception #c;d to ,rule #bast4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,both ,dr4 ,johnson and ,horne ,tooke1 7who never agreed if they could help it17 unite in saying that worth1 in the phrases1 ,wo worth the man1--,wo worth the day1 and the like1 is from the imperative of the ,saxon verb wyrthan or weorthan1 to be2 i4 e41 ,wo be to the man1 or1 ,wo betide the man1 c4 ,and the latter affirms1 that1 as the preposition by is from the imperative of beon1 to be1 so with1 7though admitted to be sometimes from withan1 to join17 is often no other than this same imperative verb wyrth or worth3 if so1 the three words1 by1 with1 and worth1 were originally synonymous1 and should now be referred at least to one and the same class4 ,the dative case1 or oblique object1 which they governed as ,saxon verbs1 becomes their proper object1 when taken as ,english prepositions2 and in this also they appear to be alike4 ,worth1 then1 when it signifies value1 is a common noun2 but when it signifies equal in value to1 it governs an objective1 and has the usual characteristics of a preposition4 ,instances may perhaps be found in which worth is an adjective1 meaning valuable or useful1 as in the following lines3 ,they glow'd1 and grew more intimate with ,god1 ,more worth to men1 more joyous to themselves4 --,young1 ,n4 ix1 l4 #ihh4 ,in one instance1 the poet ,campbell appears to have used the word worthless as a preposition3 ,eyes a mutual soul confessing1 ,soon you'll make them grow ,dim1 and worthless your possessing1 ,not with age1 but woe6 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,after verbs of giving1 paying1 procuring1 and some others1 there is usually an ellipsis of to or for before the objective of the person2 as1 ,give to him water to drink4--,buy for me a knife4--,pay to them their wages4 ,so in the exclamation1 ,wo is me6 meaning1 ,wo is to me6 ,this ellipsis occurs chiefly before the personal pronouns1 and before such nouns as come between the verb and its direct object2 as1 ,whosoever killeth you1 will think that he doeth to ,god service4--,john1 xvi1 #b4 ,who brought to her masters much gain by soothsaying4--,acts1 xvi1 #af4 ,because he gave not to ,god the glory4--,ib41 xii1 #bc4 ,give to me leave to allow to myself no respite from labour4--,spect41 ,no4 #ded4 ,and the sons of ,joseph1 which were born to him in ,egypt1 were two souls4--,gen41 xlvi1 #bg4 ,this elliptical construction of a few objectives1 is what remains to us of the ancient ,saxon dative case4 ,if the order of the words be changed1 the preposition must be inserted2 as1 ,pray do my service to his majesty4--,shak4 ,the doctrine inculcated by several of our grammarians1 that1 ,verbs of asking1 giving1 teaching1 and some others1 are often employed to govern two objectives1 7,wells1 #bae17 ,i have1 under a preceding rule1 discountenanced2 preferring the supposition1 which appears to have greater weight of authority1 as well as stronger support from reason1 that1 in the instances cited in proof of such government1 a preposition is1 in fact1 understood4 ,upon this question of ellipsis1 depends1 in all such instances1 our manner of parsing one of the objective words4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,in dates1 as they are usually written1 there is much abbreviation2 and several nouns of place and time are set down in the objective case1 without the prepositions which govern them3 as1 ,new ,york1 ,wednesday1 #bjth ,october1 #ahcj4--;,journal of ,literary ,convention4 ,that is1 ,at ,new ,york1 on ,wednesday1 the #bjth day of ,october1 in the year #ahcj4 ,,note ,,to ,,rule ,,vii4 ,an objective noun of time or measure1 if it qualifies a subsequent adjective1 must not also be made an adjunct to a preceding noun2 as1 ,to an infant of only two or three years old4--,dr4 ,wayland4 ,expunge of1 or for old write of age4 ,the following is right3 ,the vast army of the ,canaanites1 nine hundred chariots strong1 covered the level plain of ,esdraelon4--,milman's ,jews1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aei4 ,see ,obs4 #fth above4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,vii4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,of ,,the ,,objective ,,in ,,form4 ,but ,i do not remember who they were for4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #bfe4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronoun who is in the nominative case1 and is made the object of the preposition for4 ,but1 according to ,rule #gth1 ,a noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition1 is governed by it in the objective case4 ,therefore1 who should be whom2 thus1 ,but ,i do not remember whom they were for4 ,but if you can't help it1 who do you complain of8--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #acg4 ,who was it from8 and what was it about8--,edgeworth's ,frank1 p4 #gb4 ,i have plenty of victuals1 and1 between you and ,i1 something in a corner4--,day's ,sandford and ,merton4 ,the upper one1 who ,i am now about to speak of4--,hunt's ,byron1 p4 #caa4 ,and to poor we1 thine enmity's most capital4--,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #bja4 ,which thou dost confess1 were fit for thee to use1 as they to claim4--,ib41 p4 #aif4 ,to beg of thee1 it is my more dishonour1 than thou of them4--,ib41 p4 #aig4 ,there are still a few who1 like thou and ,i1 drink nothing but water4--,gil ,blas1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ajd4 ,thus1 ,i shall fall2 ,thou shalt love thy neighbour2 ,he shall be rewarded1 express no resolution on the part of ,i1 thou1 he4--,lennie's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bb2 ,bullions's1 #cb4 ,so saucy with the hand of she here--,what's her name8--,shak41 ,ant4 and ,cleop41 ,act iii1 ,sc4 #aa4 ,all debts are cleared between you and ,i4--,id41 ,merchant of ,venice1 ,act iii1 ,sc4 #b4 ,her price is paid1 and she is sold like thou4--,milman's ,fall of ,jerusalem4 ,search through all the most flourishing era's of ,greece4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #af4 ,the family of the ,rudolph's had been long distinguished4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #ed4 ,it will do well enough for you and ,i4--,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #abj4 ,the public will soon discriminate between him who is the sycophant1 and he who is the teacher4--,chazotte's ,essay1 p4 #aj4 ,we are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to4--,locke4 ,what do you call it8 and who does it belong to8--,collier's ,cebes4 ,he had received no lessons from the ,socrates's1 the ,plato's1 and the ,confucius's of the age4--,hatter's ,letters4 ,i cannot tell who to compare them to4--,bunyan's ,p4 ,p41 p4 #abh4 ,i see there was some resemblance betwixt this good man and ,i4--,pilgrim's ,progress1 p4 #bih4 ,they by that means have brought themselves into the hands and house of ,i do not know who4--,ib41 p4 #aif4 ,but at length she said there was a great deal of difference between ,mr4 ,cotton and we4--,hutchinson's ,mass41 ii1 #dcj4 ,so you must ride on horseback after we4 #cgj--,,mrs4 ,,gilpin3 ,cowper1 i1 #bge4 ,a separation must soon take place between our minister and ,i4--,werter1 p4 #aji4 ,when she exclaimed on ,hastings1 you1 and ,i4--,shakspeare4 ,to who8 to thee8 ,what art thou8--,id4 ,that they should always bear the certain marks who they came from4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bba4 ,this life has joys for you and ,i1 ,and joys that riches ne'er could buy4--,burns4 ,,under ,,the ,,note--,,of ,,time ,,or ,,measure4 ,such as almost every child of ten years old knows4--,town's ,analysis1 p4 #d4 ,one winter's school of four months1 will carry any industrious scholar1 of ten or twelve years old1 completely through this book4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,a boy of six years old may be taught to speak as correctly1 as ,cicero did before the ,roman ,senate4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bg4 ,a lad of about twelve years old1 who was taken captive by the ,indians4--,ib41 p4 #bce4 ,of nothing else but that individual white figure of five inches long which is before him4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bhh4 ,where lies the fault1 that boys of eight or ten years old1 are with great difficulty made to understand any of its principles4--,guy's ,gram41 p4 v4 ,where language of three centuries old is employed4--,booth's ,introd4 to ,dict41 p4 #ba4 ,let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high4--,esther1 v4 #ad4 ,i say to this child of nine years old bring me that hat1 he hastens and brings it me4--,osborn's ,key1 p4 #c4 ,he laid a floor twelve feet long1 and nine feet wide2 that is1 over the extent of twelve feet long1 and of nine feet wide4--,merchants ,school ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,the ,goulah people are a tribe of about fifty thousand strong4--,examiner1 ,no4 #ga4 ,,rule ,,viii4--,,nom4 ,,absolute4 ,a ,noun or a ,pronoun is put absolute in the nominative1 when its case depends on no other word3 as1 ,he failing1 who shall meet success8--,your fathers1 where are they8 and the prophets1 do they live forever8--,zech41 i1 #e4 ,or ,i only and ,barnabas1 have not we power to forbear working8--#a ,cor41 ix1 #f4 ,nay but1 ,o man1 who art thou that repliest against ,god8--,rom41 ix1 #bj4 ,o rare we6--,cowper4 ,miserable they6--,thomson4 ,the hour conceal'd1 and so remote the fear1 ,death still draws nearer1 never seeming near4--,pope4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,viii4 ,,obs4 #a4--,many grammarians make an idle distinction between the nominative absolute and the nominative independent1 as if these epithets were not synonymous2 and1 at the same time1 they are miserably deficient in directions for disposing of the words so employed4 ,their two rules do not embrace more than one half of those frequent examples in which the case of the noun or pronoun depends on no other word4 ,of course1 the remaining half cannot be parsed by any of the rules which they give4 ,the lack of a comprehensive rule1 like the one above1 is a great and glaring defect in all the ,english grammars that the author has seen1 except his own1 and such as are indebted to him for such a rule4 ,it is proper1 however1 that the different forms of expression which are embraced in this general rule1 should be discriminated1 one from an other1 by the scholar3 let him therefore1 in parsing any nominative absolute1 tell how it is put so2 whether with a participle1 by direct address1 by pleonasm1 or by exclamation4 ,for1 in discourse1 a noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative1 after four modes1 or under the following four circumstances3 7of which ,murray's case absolute1 or nominative absolute1 contains only the first37 ,i4 ,when1 with a participle1 it is used to express a cause1 or a concomitant fact2 as1 ,i say1 this being so1 the law being broken1 justice takes place4--,law and ,grace1 p4 #bg4 ,pontius ,pilate being governor of ,judea1 and ,herod being tetrarch of ,galilee1 and his brother ,philip tetrarch of ,iturea4 c4--,luke1 iii1 #a4 ,i being in the way1 the ,lord led me to the house of my master's brethren4--,gen41 xxiv1 #bg4 ---------,while shame1 thou looking on1 ,shame to be overcome or overreach'd1 ,would utmost vigor raise4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 ix1 #a1 #cab4 ,,ii4 ,when1 by direct address1 it is put in the second person1 and set off from the verb1 by a comma or an exclamation point2 as1 ,at length1 ,seged1 reflect and be wise4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,it may be1 drunkard1 swearer1 liar1 thief1 thou dost not think of this4--,law and ,grace1 p4 #bg4 ,this said1 he form'd thee1 ,adam6 thee1 ,o man6 ,dust of the ground1 and in thy nostrils breath'd ,the breath of life4--,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 vii1 l4 #ebd4 ,,iii4 ,when1 by pleonasm1 it is introduced abruptly for the sake of emphasis1 and is not made the subject or the object of any verb2 as1 ,he that hath1 to him shall be given4--,mark1 iv1 #be4 ,he that is holy1 let him be holy still4--,rev41 xxii1 #aa4 ,gad1 a troop shall overcome him4--,gen41 xlix1 #ai4 ,the north and the south1 thou hast created them4--,psalms1 lxxxix1 #ab4 ,and they that have believing masters1 let them not despise them4--#a ,tim41 vi1 #b4 ,and the leper in whom the plague is1 his clothes shall be rent1 and his head bare4--,levit41 xiii1 #de4 ,they who serve me with adoration1--,i am in them1 and they are in me4--,r4 ,w4 ,,emerson3 ,liberator1 ,no4 #iif4 -------------------------,what may this mean1 ,that thou1 dead corse1 again in complete steel1 ,revisitst thus the glimpses of the moon1 ,making night hideous2 and1 we fools of nature1#cga ,so horribly to shake our disposition ,with thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls8--,shak4 ,hamlet4 ,,iv4 ,when1 by mere exclamation1 it is used without address1 and without other words expressed or implied to give it construction2 as1 ,and the ,lord passed by before him1 and proclaimed1 the ,lord1 the ,lord ,god1 merciful and gracious1 long-suffering1 and abundant in goodness and truth4 ,exodus1 xxxiv1 #f4 ,o the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of ,god6--,rom41 xi1 #cc4 ,i should not like to see her limping back1 ,poor beast6--,southey4 ,oh6 deep enchanting prelude to repose1 ,the dawn of bliss1 the twilight of our woes6--,campbell4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the nominative put absolute with a participle1 is often equivalent to a dependent clause commencing with when1 while1 if1 since1 or because4 ,thus1 ,i being a child1 may be equal to1 ,when ,i was a child1 or1 ,because ,i was a child4 ,here1 in lieu of the nominative1 the ,greeks used the genitive case1 and the ,latins1 the ablative4 ,thus1 the phrase1 ,greek3 ,kai hystersantos oinou1 ,and the wine failing1 is rendered by ,montanus1 ,et deficiente vino2 but by ,beza1 ,et cum defecisset vinum2 and in our ,bible1 ,and when they wanted wine4--,john1 ii1 #c4 ,after a noun or a pronoun thus put absolute1 the participle being is frequently understood1 especially if an adjective or a like case come after the participle2 as1 ,they left their bones beneath unfriendly skies1 ,his worthless absolution being all the prize4 --,cowper1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hd4 ,alike in ignorance1 his reason ------ such1 ,whether he thinks too little or too much4--,pope1 on ,man4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the case which is put absolute in addresses or invocations1 is what in the ,latin and ,greek grammars is called the ,vocative4 ,richard ,johnson says1 ,the only use of the ,vocative ,case1 is1 to call upon a ,person1 or a thing put ,personally1 which we speak to1 to give notice to what we direct our ,speech2 and this is therefore1 properly speaking1 the only ,case absolute or independent which we may make use of without respect to any other ,word4--,gram4 ,commentaries1 p4 #aca4 ,this remark1 however1 applies not justly to our language2 for1 with us1 the vocative case1 is unknown1 or not distinguished from the nominative4 ,in ,english1 all nouns of the second person are either put absolute in the nominative1 according to ,rule #hth1 or in apposition with their own pronouns placed before them1 according to ,rule #c;d3 as1 ,this is the stone which was set at nought of you builders4--,acts1 iv1 #aa4 ,how much rather ought you receivers to be considered as abandoned and execrable6--,clarkson's ,essay1 p4 #aad4 ,peace6 minion1 peace6 it boots not me to hear ,the selfish counsel of you hangers-on4 --,brown's ,inst41 p4 #ahi4 ,ye ,sylphs and ,sylphids1 to your chief give ear2 ,fays1 ,faries1 ,genii1 ,elves1 and ,dmons1 hear6 --,pope1 ,r4 ,l41 ii1 #gd4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the case of nouns used in exclamations1 or in mottoes and abbreviated sayings1 often depends1 or may be conceived to depend1 on something understood2 and1 when their construction can be satisfactorily explained on the principle of ellipsis1 they are not put absolute1 unless the ellipsis be that of the participle4 ,the following examples may perhaps be resolved in this manner1 though the expressions will lose much of their vivacity3 ,a horse6 a horse6 my kingdom for a horse6--,shak4 ,and he said unto his father1 ,my head6 my head6--#b ,kings1 iv1 #ai4 ,and ,samson said1 ,with the jaw-bone of an ass1 heaps upon heaps1 with the jaw of an ass1 have ,i slain a thousand men4--,judges1 xv1 #af4 ,ye have heard that it hath been said1 ,an eye for an eye1 and a tooth for a tooth4--,matt41 v1 #ch4 ,peace1 be still4--,mark1 iv1 #ci4 ,one ,god1 world without end4 ,amen4--,com4 ,prayer4 ,my fan1 let others say1 who laugh at toil2 ,fan6 hood6 glove6 scarf6 is her laconic style4--,young4 ,,obs4 #e4--,such ,expressions as1 ,hand to ,hand1 ,face to ,face1 ,foot to ,foot1 are of the nature of ,adverbs1 and are of elliptical ,construction3 ,for the ,meaning is1 ,hand ,,opposed to ,hand1 c4--,w4 ,ward's ,gram41 p4 #ajj4 ,this learned and ingenious author seems to suppose the former noun to be here put absolute with a participle understood2 and this is probably the best way of explaining the construction both of that word and of the preposition that follows it4 ,so ,samson's phrase1 heaps upon heaps1 may mean1 heaps being piled upon heaps2 and ,scott's1 man to man1 and steel to steel1 may be interpreted1 man being opposed to man1 and steel being opposed to steel3 ,now1 man to man1 and steel to steel1 ,a chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel4--,lady of the ,lake4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,cobbett1 after his own hasty and dogmatical manner1 rejects the whole theory of nominatives absolute1 and teaches his soldiers1 sailors1 apprentices1 and ploughboys1 that1 ,the supposition1 that there can be a noun1 or pronoun1 which has reference to no verb1 and no preposition1 is certainly a mistake4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #bja4 ,to sustain his position1 he lays violent hands upon the plain truth1 and even trips himself up in the act4 ,thus3 ,for want of a little thought1 as to the matter immediately before us1 some grammarians have found out 'an absolute case1' as they call it2 and ,mr4 ,lindley ,murray gives an instance of it in these words3 ',shame being lost1 all virtue is lost4' ,the full meaning of this sentence is this3 ',it being1 or the state of things being such1 that shame is lost1 all virtue is lost4'--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #aia4 ,again3 ,there must1 you will bear in mind1 always be a verb expressed or understood4 ,one would think1 that this was not the case in some instances3 as1 ',sir1 ,i beg you to give me a bit of bread4' ,the sentence which follows the ,sir1 is complete2 but the ,sir appears to stand wholly without connexion4 ,however1 the full meaning is this3 ',i beg you1 who are a ,sir1 to give me a bit of bread4' ,now1 if you take time to reflect a little on this matter1 you will never be puzzled for a moment by those detached words1 to suit which grammarians have invented vocative cases and cases absolute1 and a great many other appellations1 with which they puzzle themselves1 and confuse and bewilder and torment those who read their books4--,ib41 ,let4 xix1 #bbe and #bbf4 ,all this is just like ,cobbett4 ,but1 let his admirers reflect on the matter as long as they please1 the two independent nominatives it and state1 in the text1 ,it being1 or the state of things being such1 will forever stand a glaring confutation both of his doctrine and of his censure3 the case absolute is there still6 ,he has1 in fact1 only converted the single example into a double one6 ,,obs4 #g4--,the ,irish philologer1 ,j4 ,w4 ,wright1 is even more confident than ,cobbett1 in denouncing the case absolute2 and more severe in his reprehension of ,grammarians in general1 and ,lowth and ,murray in particular1 for entertaining the idea of such a case4 ,surprise must cease1 says he1 on an acquaintance with the fact1 that persons who imbibe such fantastical doctrine should be destitute of sterling information on the subject of ,english grammar4--,the ,english language is a stranger to this case4 ,we speak thus1 with confidence1 conscious of the justness of our opinion3--an opinion1 not precipitately formed1 but one which is the result of mature and deliberate inquiry4 ',shame being lost1 all virtue is lost3' ,the meaning of this is1--',when shame is being lost1 all virtue is lost4' ,here1 the words is being lost form the true present tense of the passive voice2 in which voice1 all verbs1 thus expressed1 are unsuspectedly situated3 thus1 agreeing with the noun shame1 as the nominative of the first member of the sentence4--,wright's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #aib4 ,with all his deliberation1 this gentleman has committed one oversight here1 which1 as it goes to contradict his scheme of the passive verb1 some of his sixty venerable commenders ought to have pointed out to him4 ,my old friend1 the ,professor of ,elocution in ,columbia ,college1 who finds by this work of superior excellence1 that the nature of the verb1 the most difficult part of grammar1 has been1 at length1 satisfactorily explained1 ought by no means1 after his very attentive examination of the book1 to have left this service to me4 ,in the clause1 all virtue is lost1 the passive verb is lost has the form which ,murray gave it--the form which1 till within a year or two1 all men supposed to be the only right one2 but1 according to this new philosophy of the language1 all men have been as much in error in this matter1 as in their notion of the nominative absolute4 ,if ,wright's theory of the verb is correct1 the only just form of the foregoing expression is1 all virtue is being lost4 ,if this central position is untenable1 his management of the nominative absolute falls of course4 ,to me1 the inserting of the word being into all our passive verbs1 seems the most monstrous absurdity ever broached in the name of grammar4 ,the threescore certifiers to the accuracy of that theory1 have1 ,i trow1 only recorded themselves as so many ignoramuses2 for there are more than threescore myriads of better judgements against them4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,viii4 ,,nouns ,,or ,,pronouns ,,put ,,absolute4 ,him having ended his discourse1 the assembly dispersed4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #aij4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronoun him1 whose case depends on no other word1 is in the objective case4 ,but1 according to ,rule #hth1 ,a noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative1 when its case depends on no other word4 ,therefore1 him should be he2 thus1 ,he having ended his discourse1 the assembly dispersed4 ,me being young1 they deceived me4--,inst4 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aij4 ,them refusing to comply1 ,i withdrew4--,ib4 ,thee being present1 he would not tell what he knew4--,ib4 ,the child is lost2 and me1 whither shall ,i go8--,ib4 ,oh6 happy us1 surrounded with so many blessings4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #ahg2 ,merchant's1 #aig2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #if2 ,farnum's1 #fc4 ',thee1 too6 ,brutus1 my son6' cried ,csar1 overcome4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #aij4 ,thee6 ,maria6 and so late6 and who is thy companion8--,new-,york ,mirror1 ,vol4 x1 p4 #cec4 ,how swiftly our time passes away6 and ah6 us1 how little concerned to improve it6--,comly's ,gram41 ,key1 p4 #aib4 ,there all thy gifts and graces we display1 ,thee1 only thee1 directing all our way4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,adjectives4 ,the syntax of the ,english ,adjective is fully embraced in the following brief rule1 together with the exceptions1 observations1 and notes1 which are1 in due order1 subjoined4 ,,rule ,,ix4--,,adjectives4 ,adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns3 as1 ,miserable comforters are ye all--,job1 xvi1 #b4 ,no worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high desires and powers of an immortal spirit4--,blair4 ,whatever faction's partial notions are1 ,no hand is wholly innocent in war4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 vii1 l4 #aia4 ,,exception ,,first4 ,an adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence which is made the subject of an intervening verb2 as1 ,to insult the afflicted1 is impious--,dillwyn4 ,that he should refuse1 is not strange--,to err is human4 ,murray says1 ,human belongs to its substantive 'nature' understood4--,gram41 p4 #bcc4 ,from this ,i dissent4 ,,exception ,,second4 ,in combined arithmetical numbers1 one adjective often relates to an other1 and the whole phrase1 to a subsequent noun2 as1 ,one thousand four hundred and fifty-six men4--,six dollars and eighty-seven and a half cents for every five days' service4--,in the one hundred and twenty-second year4--,one seven times more than it was wont to be heated4--,daniel1 iii1 #ai4 ,,exception ,,third4 ,with an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract1 an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly2 7that is1 without reference to any particular noun1 pronoun1 or other subject27 as1 ,to be sincere1 is to be wise1 innocent1 and safe4--,hawkesworth4 ,capacity marks the abstract quality of being able to receive or hold4--,crabb's ,synonymes4 ,indeed1 the main secret of being sublime1 is to say great things in few and plain words4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #bae4 ,concerning being free from sin in heaven1 there is no question4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #dcg4 ,better3 ,concerning freedom from sin1 c4 ,,exception ,,fourth4 ,adjectives are sometimes substituted for their corresponding abstract nouns2 7perhaps1 in most instances1 elliptically1 like ,greek neuters27 as1 ,the sensations of sublime and beautiful are not always distinguished by very distant boundaries4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dg4 ,that is1 of sublimity and beauty4 ,the faults opposite to the sublime are chiefly two3 the frigid1 and the bombast--,ib41 p4 #dd4 ,better3 ,the faults opposite to sublimity1 are chiefly two2 frigidity and bombast4 ,yet the ruling character of the nation was that of barbarous and cruel4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #bf4 ,that is1 of barbarity and cruelty4 ,in a word1 agreeable and disagreeable are qualities of the objects we perceive1 c4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #ii4 ,polished1 or refined1 was the idea which the author had in view4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bai4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,ix4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,adjectives often relate to nouns or pronouns understood2 as1 ,a new sorrow recalls all the former sorrows4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ca4 ,the place ,farthest from him is best4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l4 ,to whom they all gave heed1 from the least person to the greatest person4--,acts1 viii1 #aj4 ,the ,lord your ,god is ,god of gods1 and ,lord of lords1 a great ,god1 a mighty ,god1 and a terrible ,god4--,deut41 x1 #ag4 ,every one can distinguish an angry from a placid1 a cheerful from a melancholy1 a thoughtful from a thoughtless1 and a dull from a penetrating1 countenance4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #aib4 ,here the word countenance is understood seven times2 for eight different countenances are spoken of4 ,he came unto his own possessions1 and his own men received him not4--,john1 i1 #aa4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,cooper1 has it3 ,he came unto his own 7creatures17 and his own 7creatures7 received him not4--,pl4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,this ambitious editor of ,virgil1 abridger of ,murray1 expounder of the ,bible1 and author of several new and improved grammars1 7of different languages17 should have understood this text1 notwithstanding the obscurity of our version4 ,greek3 ,eis ta idia lthe4 kai oi idioi auton ou parelabon4--,in propria venit1 et proprii eum non receperunt4--,montanus4 ,ad sua venit1 et sui eum non exceperunt4--,beza4 ,il est venu chez soi2 et les siens ne l'ont point reu4--,french ,bible4 ,sometimes the construction of the adjective involves an ellipsis of several words1 and those perhaps the principal parts of the clause2 as1 ,the sea appeared to be agitated more than in that degree which is usual4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bag4 ,during the course of the sentence1 the scene should be changed as little as in the least possible degree4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajg2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cab4 ,presumptuous man6 the reason wouldst thou find1 ,why thou art form'd so weak1 so little1 and so blind --,pope4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,because qualities belong only to things1 most grammarians teach1 that1 ,adjectives are capable of being added to nouns only4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #bf4 ,or1 as ,murray expresses the doctrine3 ,every adjective1 and every adjective pronoun1 belongs to a substantive1 expressed or understood4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #afa4 ,the adjective always relates to a substantive4--,ib41 p4 #afi4 ,this teaching1 which is alike repugnant to the true definition of an adjective1 to the true rule for its construction1 and to all the exceptions to this rule1 is but a sample of that hasty sort of induction1 which is ever jumping to false conclusions for want of a fair comprehension of the facts in point4 ,the position would not be tenable1 even if all our pronouns were admitted to be nouns1 or substantives2 and1 if these two parts of speech are to be distinguished1 the consequence must be1 that ,murray supposes a countless number of unnecessary and absurd ellipses4 ,it is sufficiently evident1 that in the construction of sentences1 adjectives often relate immediately to pronouns1 and only through them to the nouns which they represent4 ,examples3 ,i should like to know who has been carried off1 except poor dear me4--,byron4 ,to poor us there is not much hope remaining4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p #bjd4 ,it is the final pause which alone1 on many occasions1 marks the difference between prose and verse4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bfj4 ,and sometimes after them both4--,ib41 p4 #aif4 ,all men hail'd me happy4--,milton4 ,to receive unhappy me4--,dryden4 ,superior to them all4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dai4 ,they returned to their own country1 full of the discoveries which they had made4--,ib41 p4 #cej4 ,all ye are brethren4--,matt41 xxiii1 #h4 ,and him only shalt thou serve4--,matt41 iv1 #aj4 ,go wiser thou1 and in thy scale of sense ,weigh thy opinion against ,providence4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #c4--,when an adjective follows a finite verb1 and is not followed by a noun1 it generally relates to the subject of the verb2 as1 ,i am glad that the door is made wide4--,an unbounded prospect doth not long continue agreeable4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bdd4 ,every thing which is false1 vicious1 or unworthy1 is despicable to him1 though all the world should approve it4--,spectator1 ,no4 #ebj4 ,here false1 vicious1 and unworthy1 relate to which2 and despicable relates to thing4 ,the practice of ,murray and his followers1 of supplying a substantive in all such cases1 is absurd4 ,when the ,adjective forms the ,attribute of a ,proposition1 it belongs to the noun or pronoun which serves as the ,subject of the ,proposition1 and cannot be joined to any other noun1 since it is of the ,subject that we affirm the quality expressed by this ,adjective4--,de ,sacy1 on ,general ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,in some peculiar phrases1 however1 such as1 to fall short of1 to make bold with1 to set light by1 the adjective has such a connexion with the verb1 that it may seem questionable how it ought to be explained in parsing4 ,examples3 7#a47 ,this latter mode of expression falls short of the force and vehemence of the former4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cec4 ,some will suppose the word short to be here used adverbially1 or to qualify falls only2 but perhaps it may as well be parsed as an adjective1 forming a predicate with falls1 and relating to mode1 the nominative4 7#b47 ,and that ,i have made so bold with thy glorious ,majesty4--,jenks's ,prayers1 p4 #aef4 ,this expression is perhaps elliptical3 it may mean1 that ,i have made myself so bold1 c4 7#c47 ,cursed be he that setteth light by his father or his mother3 and all the people shall say1 ,amen4--,deut41 xxvii1 #af4 ,this may mean1 that setteth light esteem or estimation1 c4 ,,obs4 #d4--,when an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle1 the noun or pronoun to which it relates1 is sometimes before it1 and sometimes after it1 and often considerably remote2 as1 ,a real gentleman cannot but practice those virtues which1 by an intimate knowledge of mankind1 he has found to be useful to them4--,he a melancholy enthusiast thinks himself obliged in duty to be sad and disconsolate4--,addison4 ,he is scandalized at youth for being lively1 and at childhood for being playful4--,id4 ,but growing weary of one who almost walked him out of breath1 he left him for ,horace and ,anacreon4--,steele4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,adjectives preceded by the definite article1 are often used1 by ellipsis1 as nouns2 as1 the learned1 for learned men4 ,such phrases usually designate those classes of persons or things1 which are characterized by the qualities they express2 and this1 the reader must observe1 is a use quite different from that substitution of adjectives for nouns1 which is noticed in the fourth exception above4 ,in our language1 the several senses in which adjectives may thus be taken1 are not distinguished with that clearness which the inflections of other tongues secure4 ,thus1 the noble1 the vile1 the excellent1 or the beautiful1 may be put for three extra constructions3 first1 for noble persons1 vile persons1 c42 secondly1 for the noble man1 the vile man1 c42 thirdly1 for the abstract qualities1 nobility1 vileness1 excellence1 beauty4 ,the last-named usage forms an exception to the rule2 in the other two the noun is understood1 and should be supplied by the parser4 ,such terms1 if elliptical1 are most commonly of the plural number1 and refer to the word persons or things understood2 as1 ,the careless and the imprudent1 the giddy and the fickle1 the ungrateful and the interested1 everywhere meet us4--,blair4 ,here the noun persons is to be six times supplied4 ,wherever there is taste1 the witty and the humorous make themselves perceived4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ba4 ,here the author meant1 simply1 the qualities wit and humour1 and he ought to have used these words1 because the others are equivocal1 and are more naturally conceived to refer to persons4 ,in the following couplet1 the noun places or things is understood after open1 and again after covert1 which last word is sometimes misprinted coverts3 ,together let us beat this ample field1 ,try what the open1 what the covert1 yield4--,pope1 on ,man4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the adjective1 in ,english1 is generally placed immediately before its noun2 as1 ,vain man6 is grandeur given to gay attire8--,beattie4 ,those adjectives which relate to pronouns1 most commonly follow them2 as1 ,they left me weary on a grassy turf4--,milton4 ,but to both these general rules there are many exceptions2 for the position of an adjective may be varied by a variety of circumstances1 not excepting the mere convenience of emphasis3 as1 ,and ,jehu said1 ,unto which of all us8--#b ,kings1 ix1 #e4 ,in the following instances the adjective is placed after the word to which it relates3 #a4 ,when other words depend on the adjective1 or stand before it to qualify it2 as1 ,a mind conscious of right1--,a wall three feet thick1--,a body of troops fifty thousand strong4 #b4 ,when the quality results from an action1 or receives its application through a verb or participle2 as1 ,virtue renders life happy4--,he was in ,tirzah1 drinking himself drunk in the house of ,arza4--#a ,kings1 xvi1 #i4 ,all men agree to call vinegar sour1 honey sweet1 and aloes bitter4--,burke1 on ,taste1 p4 #ch4 ,god made thee perfect1 not immutable4--,milton4 #c4 ,when the quality excites admiration1 and the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive2 as1 ,goodness infinite1--,wisdom unsearchable4--,murray4 #d4 ,when a verb comes between the adjective and the noun2 as1 ,truth stands independent of all external things4--,burgh4 ,honour is not seemly for a fool4--,solomon4 #e4 ,when the adjective is formed by means of the prefix a2 as1 afraid1 alert1 alike1 alive1 alone1 asleep1 awake1 aware1 averse1 ashamed1 askew4 ,to these may be added a few other words2 as1 else1 enough1 extant1 extinct1 fraught1 pursuant4 #f4 ,when the adjective has the nature1 but not the form1 of a participle2 as1 ,a queen regnant1--,the prince regent1--,the heir apparent1--,a lion1 not rampant1 but couchant or dormant--,for the time then present4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,in some instances1 the adjective may either precede or follow its noun2 and the writer may take his choice1 in respect to its position3 as1 #a4 ,in poetry--provided the sense be obvious2 as1 ------------------,wilt thou to the isles ,atlantic1 to the rich ,hesperian clime1 ,fly in the train of ,autumn8 --,akenside1 ,p4 of ,i41 ,book i1 p4 #bg4 -----------------------------,wilt thou fly ,with laughing ,autumn to the ,atlantic isles1 ,and range with him th' ,hesperian field8 --,id4 ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #abj4 #b4 ,when technical usage favours one order1 and common usage an other2 as1 ,a notary public1 or1 ,a public notary2--,the heir presumptive1 or1 ,the presumptive heir4--,see ,johnson's ,dict41 and ,webster's4 #c4 ,when an adverb precedes the adjective2 as1 ,a ,being infinitely wise1 or1 ,an infinitely wise ,being4 ,murray1 ,comly1 and others1 here approve only the former order2 but the latter is certainly not ungrammatical4 #d4 ,when several adjectives belong to the same noun2 as1 ,a woman1 modest1 sensible1 and virtuous1 or1 ,a modest1 sensible1 and virtuous woman4 ,here again1 ,murray1 ,comly1 and others1 approve only the former order2 but ,i judge the latter to be quite as good4 #e4 ,when the adjective is emphatic1 it may be foremost in the sentence1 though the natural order of the words would bring it last2 as1 ,weighty is the anger of the righteous4--,bible4 ,blessed are the pure in heart4--,ib4 ,great is the earth1 high is the heaven1 swift is the sun in his course4--#a ,esdras1 iv1 #cd4 ,the more laborious the life is1 the less populous is the country4--,goldsmith's ,essays1 p4 #aea4 #f4 ,when the adjective and its noun both follow a verb as parts of the predicate1 either may possibly come before the other1 yet the arrangement is fixed by the sense intended3 thus there is a great difference between the assertions1 ,we call the boy good1 and1 ,we call the good boy ,,obs4 #h4--;,by an ellipsis of the noun1 an adjective with a preposition before it1 is sometimes equivalent to an adverb2 as1 ,in particular2 that is1 ,in a particular manner2 equivalent to particularly4 ,so in general is equivalent to generally4 ,it has already been suggested1 that1 in parsing1 the scholar should here supply the ellipsis4 ,see ,obs4 #c;d1 under ,rule vii4 ,,obs4 #i4--,though ,english adjectives are1 for the most part1 incapable of any agreement1 yet such of them as denote unity or plurality1 ought in general to have nouns of the same number3 as1 this man1 one man1 two men1 many men4#cgb ,in phrases of this form1 the rule is well observed2 but in some peculiar ways of numbering things1 it is commonly disregarded2 for certain nouns are taken in a plural sense without assuming the plural termination4 ,thus people talk of many stone of cheese1--many sail of vessels1--many stand of arms1--many head of cattle1--many dozen of eggs1--many brace of partridges1--many pair of shoes4 ,so we read in the ,bible of two hundred pennyworth of bread1 and twelve manner of fruits4 ,in all such phraseology1 there is1 in regard to the form of the latter word1 an evident disagreement of the adjective with its immediate noun2 but sometimes1 7where the preposition of does not occur17 expressions that seem somewhat like these1 may be elliptical3 as when historians tell of many thousand foot 7soldiers71 or many hundred horse 7troops74 ,to denote a collective number1 a singular adjective may precede a plural one2 as1 ,one hundred men1--,every six weeks4 ,and to denote plurality1 the adjective many may1 in like manner1 precede an or a with a singular noun2 as1 ,the ,odyssey entertains us with many a wonderful adventure1 and many a landscape of nature4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dcf4 ,there starts up many a writer4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #cjf4 ,full many a flower is born to blush unseen1 ,and waste its sweetness on the desert air4--,gray4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,though this and that cannot relate to plurals1 many writers do not hesitate to place them before singulars taken conjointly1 which are equivalent to plurals2 as1 ,this power and will do necessarily produce that which man is empowered to do4--,sale's ,koran1 i1 #bbi4 ,that sobriety and self-denial which are essential to the support of virtue4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bah4 ,this modesty and decency were looked upon by them as a law of nature4--,rollin's ,hist41 ii1 #de4 ,here the plural forms1 these and those1 cannot be substituted2 but the singular may be repeated1 if the repetition be thought necessary4 ,yet1 when these same pronominal adjectives are placed after the nouns to suggest the things again1 they must be made plural2 as1 ,modesty and decency were thus carefully guarded1 for these were looked upon as being enjoined by the law of nature4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,in prose1 the use of adjectives for adverbs is improper2 but1 in poetry1 an adjective relating to the noun or pronoun1 is sometimes elegantly used in stead of an adverb qualifying the verb or participle2 as2 ,gradual sinks the breeze ,into a perfect calm4--,thomson's ,seasons1 p4 #cd4 ,to ,thee ,i bend the knee2 to ,thee my thoughts ,continual climb4--,ib41 p4 #dh4 ,as on he walks ,graceful1 and crows defiance4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,as through the falling glooms ,pensive ,i stray4--,ib41 p4 #hj4 ,they1 sportive1 wheel2 or1 sailing down the stream1 ,are snatch'd immediate by the quick-eyed trout4--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,incessant still you flow4--,ib41 p4 #ia4 ,the shatter'd clouds ,tumultuous rove1 the interminable sky ,sublimer swells4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,in order to determine1 in difficult cases1 whether an adjective or an adverb is required1 the learner should carefully attend to the definitions of these parts of speech1 and consider whether1 in the case in question1 quality is to be expressed1 or manner3 if the former1 an adjective is always proper2 if the latter1 an adverb4 ,that is1 in this case1 the adverb1 though not always required in poetry1 is specially requisite in prose4 ,the following examples will illustrate this point3 ,she looks cold2--,she looks coldly on him4--,i sat silent2--,i sat silently musing4--,stand firm2 maintain your cause firmly4 ,see ,etymology1 ,chap1 viii1 ,obs4 #dth1 #eth1 #fth1 and #gth1 on the ,modifications of ,adverbs4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,in ,english1 an adjective and its noun are often taken as a sort of compound term1 to which other adjectives may be added2 as1 ,an old man2 a good old man2 a very learned1 judicious1 good old man4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afi2 ,brit4 ,gram41 #aie2 ,buchanan's1 #gi4 ,of an other determinate positive new birth1 subsequent to baptism1 we know nothing4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #ahc4 ,when adjectives are thus accumulated1 the subsequent ones should convey such ideas as the former may consistently qualify1 otherwise the expression will be objectionable4 ,thus the ordinal adjectives1 first1 second1 third1 next1 and last1 may qualify the cardinal numbers1 but they cannot very properly be qualified by them4 ,when1 therefore1 we specify any part of a series1 the cardinal adjective ought1 by good right1 to follow the ordinal1 and not1 as in the following phrase1 be placed before it3 ,in reading the nine last chapters of ,john4--,fuller4 ,properly speaking1 there is but one last chapter in any book4 ,say1 therefore1 the last nine chapters2 for1 out of the twenty-one chapters in ,john1 a man may select several different nines4 7,see ,etymology1 ,chap1 iv1 ,obs4 #gth1 on the ,degrees of ,comparison47 ,when one of the adjectives merely qualifies the other1 they should be joined together by a hyphen2 as1 ,a red-hot iron4--,a dead-ripe melon4 ,and when both or all refer equally and solely to the noun1 they ought either to be connected by a conjunction1 or to be separated by a comma4 ,the following example is therefore faulty3 ,it is the business of an epic poet1 to form a probable interesting tale4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dbg4 ,say1 probable and interesting2 or else insert a comma in lieu of the conjunction4 ,around him wide a sable army stand1 ,a low-born1 cell-bred1 selfish1 servile band4 --,dunciad1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #cee4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,dr4 ,priestley has observed3 ,there is a remarkable ambiguity in the use of the negative adjective no2 and ,i do not see1 says he1 how it can be remedied in any language4 ,if ,i say1 ',no laws are better than the ,english1' it is only my known sentiments that can inform a person whether ,i mean to praise1 or dispraise them4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acf4 ,it may not be possible to remove the ambiguity from the phraseology here cited1 but it is easy enough to avoid the form1 and say in stead of it1 ,the ,english laws are worse than none1 or1 ,the ,english laws are as good as any2 and1 in neither of these expressions1 is there any ambiguity1 though the other may doubtless be taken in either of these senses4 ,such an ambiguity is sometimes used on purpose3 as when one man says of an other1 ,he is no small knave2 or1 ,he is no small fool4 ,there liv'd in primo ,georgii 7they record7 ,a worthy member1 no small fool1 a lord4--,pope1 p4 #dji4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,ix4 ,,note ,i4--,adjectives that imply unity or plurality1 must agree with their nouns in number3 as1 ,that sort1 those sorts2--,this hand1 these hands4 #cgc ,,note ,,ii4--,when the adjective is necessarily plural1 or necessarily singular1 the noun should be made so too3 as1 ,twenty pounds not1 ,twenty pound2--,four feet long1 not1 ,four foot long2--,one session not1 ,one sessions4 ,,note ,,iii4--,the reciprocal expression1 one an other1 should not be applied to two objects1 nor each other1 or one the other1 to more than two2 as1 ,verse and prose1 on some occasions1 run into one another1 like light and shade4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgg2 ,jamieson's1 #bih4 ,say1 into each other ,for mankind have always been butchering each other--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #aea4 ,say1 one an other ,see ,etymology1 ,chap1 iv1 ,obs4 #aeth1 #afth1 #agth1 and #ahth1 on the ,classes of ,adjectives4 ,,note ,,iv4--,when the comparative degree is employed with than1 the latter term of comparison should never include the former2 nor the former the latter3 as1 ,iron is more useful than all the metals--,all the metals are less useful than iron4 ,in either case1 it should be1 all the other metals1 ,,note ,v4--,when the superlative degree is employed1 the latter term of comparison1 which is introduced by of1 should never exclude the former2 as1 ,a fondness for show1 is1 of all other follies1 the most vain4 ,here the word other should be expunged2 for this latter term must include the former3 that is1 the fondness for show must be one of the follies of which it is the vainest4 ,,note ,,vi4--,when equality is denied1 or inequality affirmed1 neither term of the comparison should ever include the other2 because every thing must needs be equal to itself1 and it is absurd to suggest that a part surpasses the whole3 as1 ,no writings whatever abound so much with the bold and animated figures1 as the sacred books4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dad4 ,say1 ,no other writings whatever2 because the sacred books are writings ,see ,etymology1 ,chap1 iv1 ,obs4 #fth1 on ,regular ,comparison4 ,,note ,,vii4--,comparative terminations1 and adverbs of degree1 should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison2 and all double comparatives and double superlatives should be avoided3 as1 ,so universal a complaint3 say rather1 ,so general4--,some less nobler plunder3 say1 less noble--,the most straitest sect3 expunge most4 ,see ,etymology1 ,chap1 iv1 from ,obs4 #eth to ,obs4 #acth1 on ,irregular ,comparison4#cgd ,,note ,,viii4--,when adjectives are connected by and1 or1 or nor1 the shortest and simplest should in general be placed first2 as1 ,he is older and more respectable than his brother4 ,to say1 more respectable and older would be obviously inelegant1 as possibly involving the inaccuracy of more older4 ,,note ,,ix4--,when one adjective is superadded to an other without a conjunction expressed or understood1 the most distinguishing quality must be expressed next to the noun1 and the latter must be such as the former may consistently qualify2 as1 ,an agreeable young man1 not1 ,a young agreeable man4--,the art of speaking1 like all other practical arts1 may be facilitated by rules1--,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #aj4 ,example of error3 ,the ,anglo-,saxon language possessed1 for the two first persons1 a ,dual number4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #ahej1 p4 #ei4 ,say1 the first two persons2 for the second of three can hardly be one of the first2 and two first with the second and third added1 will clearly make more than three4 ,see ,obs4 #abth1 above4 ,,note ,x4--,in prose1 the use of adjectives for adverbs1 is a vulgar error2 the adverb alone being proper1 when manner or degree is to be expressed1 and not quality2 as1 ,he writes elegant2 say1 elegantly4--,it is a remarkable good likeness2 say1 remarkably good4 ,,note ,,xi4--,the pronoun them should never be used as an adjective1 in lieu of those3 say1 ,i bought those books2 not1 them books4 ,this also is a vulgar error1 and chiefly confined to the conversation of the unlearned4#cge ,,note ,,xii4--,when the pronominal adjectives1 this and that1 or these and those1 are contrasted2 this or these should represent the latter of the antecedent terms1 and that or those the former3 as1 ,and1 reason raise o'er instinct as you can1 ,in this 'tis ,god directs1 in that 'tis man4--,pope4 ,farewell my friends6 farewell my foes6 ,my peace with these1 my love with those6--,burns4 ,,note ,,xiii4--,the pronominal adjectives either and neither1 in strict propriety of syntax1 relate to two things only2 when more are referred to1 any and none1 or any one and no one1 should be used in stead of them3 as1 ,any of the three1 or1 ,any one of the three2 not1 ,either of the three4--,none of the four1 or1 ,no one of the four2 not1 ,neither of the four4 #cgf ,,note ,,xiv4--,the adjective whole must not be used in a plural sense1 for all2 nor less1 in the sense of fewer2 nor more or most1 in any ambiguous construction1 where it may be either an adverb of degree1 or an adjective of number or quantity3 as1 ,almost the whole inhabitants were present4--,,hume3 see ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aij4cgg ,say1 ,almost all the inhabitants4 ,no less than three dictionaries have been published to correct it4--,dr4 ,webster4 ,say1 ,no fewer4 ,this trade enriched some people more than them4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bae4 ,this passage is not clear in its import3 it may have either of two meanings4 ,say1 ,this trade enriched some other people1 besides them4 ,or1 ,this trade enriched some others more than it did them4 ,,note ,,xv4--,participial adjectives retain the termination1 but not the government of participles2 when1 therefore1 they are followed by the objective case1 a preposition must be inserted to govern it3 as1 ,the man who is most sparing of his words1 is generally most deserving of attention4 ,,note ,,xvi4--,when the figure of any adjective affects the syntax and sense of the sentence1 care must be taken to give to the word or words that form1 simple or compound1 which suits the true meaning and construction4 ,examples3 ,he is forehead bald1 yet he is clean4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,lev41 xiii1 #da4 ,say1 forehead-bald41--,,alger',s ,,bible1 and ,,scott',s4 ,from such phrases as1 ',new ,england scenery1' convenience requires the omission of the hyphen4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,this is a false notion4 ,without the hyphen1 the phrase properly means1 ,new scenery in ,england2 but ,new-,england scenery is scenery in ,new ,england4 ',many coloured wings1' means many wings which are coloured2 but 'many-coloured wings' means wings of many colours4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,ix4 ,,examples ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,agreement ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,i am not recommending these kind of sufferings to your liking4--,,bp4 ,,sherlock3 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the adjective these is plural1 and does not agree with its noun kind1 which is singular4 ,but1 according to ,note #ast under ,rule #ith3 ,adjectives that imply unity or plurality1 must agree with their nouns in number4 ,therefore1 these should be this2 thus1 ,i am not recommending this kind of sufferings4 ,i have not been to ,london this five years4--,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ,these kind of verbs are more expressive than their radicals4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #afc4 ,few of us would be less corrupted than kings are1 were we1 like them1 beset with flatterers1 and poisoned with that vermin4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ff4 ,but it seems this literati had been very ill rewarded for their ingenious labours4--,roderick ,random1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #hg4 ,if ,i had not left off troubling myself about those kind of things4--,swift4 ,for these sort of things are usually join'd to the most noted fortune4--,bacon's ,essays1 p4 #aja4 ,the nature of that riches and long-suffering is1 to lead to repentance4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #chj4 ,i fancy they are these kind of gods1 which ,horace mentions4--,addison1 on ,medals1 p4 #gd4 ,during that eight days they are prohibited from touching the skin4--,hope of ,israel1 p4 #gh4 ,besides1 he had not much provisions left for his army4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #hf4 ,are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than that of amassing wealth1 and of acquiring glory1 credit1 and dignities8--,ib41 p4 #aib4 ,it distinguisheth still more remarkably the feelings of the former from that of the latter4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 xvii4 ,and this good tidings of the reign shall be published through all the world4--,campbell's ,gospels1 ,matt41 xxiv1 #ad4 ,this twenty years have ,i been with thee4--,gen41 xxxi1 #ch4 ,in these kind of expressions some words seem to be understood4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #agi4 ,he thought these kind of excesses indicative of greatness4--,hunt's ,byron1 p4 #aag4 ,these sort of fellows are very numerous4--,spect41 ,no4 #dhf4 ,whereas these sort of men cannot give account of their faith4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ddd4 ,but the question is1 whether that be the words4--,ib41 iii1 #cba4 ,so that these sort of ,expressions are not properly ,optative4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bgf4 ,many things are not that which they appear to be4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #agf4 ,so that every possible means are used4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 iv4 ,we have strict statutes1 and most biting laws1 ,which for this nineteen years we have let sleep4--,shak4 ,they could not speak2 and so ,i left them both1 ,to bear this tidings to the bloody king4--,id41 ,richard ,,iii4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,fixed ,,numbers4 ,why1 ,i think she cannot be above six foot two inches high4--,spect41 ,no4 #ecc4 ,the world is pretty regular for about forty rod east and ten west4--,ib41 ,no4 #ece4 ,the standard being more than two foot above it4--,,bacon3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,standard4 ,supposing 7among other ,things7 he saw two ,suns1 and two ,thebes4--,bacon's ,wisdom1 p4 #be4 ,on the right hand we go into a parlour thirty three foot by thirty nine4--,sheffield's ,works1 ii1 #beh4 ,three pound of gold went to one shield4--#a ,kings1 x1 #ag4 ,such an assemblage of men as there appears to have been at that sessions4--,the ,friend1 x1 #chi4 ,and1 truly1 he hath saved me this pains4--,barclay's ,works1 ii1 #bff4 ,within this three mile may you see it coming4--,,shak43 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,mile4 ,most of the churches1 not all1 had one or more ruling elder4--,hutchinson's ,hist4 of ,mass41 i1 #cge4 ,while a ,minute ,philosopher1 not six foot high1 attempts to dethrone the ,monarch of the universe4--,berkley's ,alciphron1 p4 #aea4 ,the wall is ten foot high4--,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #ej4 ,the stalls must be ten foot broad4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bja4 ,a close prisoner in a room twenty foot square1 being at the north side of his chamber1 is at liberty to walk twenty foot southward1 not to walk twenty foot northward4--,,locke3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,northward4 ,nor1 after all this pains and industry1 did they think themselves qualified4--,columbian ,orator1 p4 #ac4 ,no less than thirteen gypsies were condemned at one ,suffolk assizes1 and executed4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ccc4 ,the king was petitioned to appoint one1 or more1 person1 or persons4--,,macaulay3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aid4 ,he carries weight6 he rides a race6 ',tis for a thousand pound6--,cowper's ,poems1 i1 #bgi4 ,they carry three tire of guns at the head1 and at the stern there are two tire of guns4--,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,galleass4 ,the verses consist of two sort of rhymes4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #aab4 ,a present of #dj camel's load of the most precious things of ,syria4--,wood's ,dict41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #afb4 ,a large grammar1 that shall extend to every minuti4--,s4 ,barrett's ,gram41 ,tenth ,ed41 ,pref41 p4 iii4 ,so many spots1 like nves on ,venus' soil1 ,one jewel set off with so many foil4--,dryden4 ,for1 of the lower end1 two handful ,it had devour'd1 it was so manful4--,hudibras1 i1 #cfe4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,of ,,reciprocals4 ,that shall and will might be substituted for one another4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aca4 ,we use not shall and will promiscuously for one another4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #aaj4 ,but ,i wish to distinguish the three high ones from each other also4--,fowle's ,true ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,or on some other relation1 which two objects bear to one another4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #adb4 ,yet the two words lie so near to one another in meaning1 that in the present case1 any one of them1 perhaps1 would have been sufficient4--,ib41 p4 #bjc4 ,both orators use great liberties with one another4--,ib41 p4 #bdd4 ,that greater separation of the two sexes from one another4--,ib41 p4 #dff4 ,most of whom live remote from each other4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ci4 ,teachers like to see their pupils polite to each other4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #bh4 ,in a little time1 he and ,i must keep company with one another only4--,spect41 ,no4 #dgd4 ,thoughts and circumstances crowd upon each other4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #cb4 ,they cannot see how the ancient ,greeks could understand each other4--,literary ,convention1 p4 #if4 ,the spirit of the poet1 the patriot1 and the prophet1 vied with each other in his breast4--,hazlitt's ,lect41 p4 #aab4 ,athamas and ,ino loved one another4--,classic ,tales1 p4 #ia4 ,where two things are compared or contrasted to one another4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aai4 ,where two things are compared1 or contrasted1 with one another4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cbd4 ,in the classification of words1 almost all writers differ from each other4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 iv4 ,i will not trouble thee1 my child4 ,farewell2 ,we'll no more meet2 no more see one another4--,shak4 ,lear4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,comparatives4 ,errours in ,education should be less indulged than any4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 iv4 ,this was less his case than any man's that ever wrote4--,pref4 to ,waller4 ,this trade enriched some people more than it enriched them4 #cgh--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bae4 ,the ,chaldee alphabet1 in which the ,old ,testament has reached us1 is more beautiful than any ancient character known4--,wilson's ,essay1 p4 #e4 ,the ,christian religion gives a more lovely character of ,god1 than any religion ever did4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #afi4 ,the temple of ,cholula was deemed more holy than any in ,new ,spain4--,robertson's ,america1 ii1 #dgg4 ,cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind than ever was writ4--,pope4 ,shakspeare is more faithful to the true language of nature1 than any writer4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfh4 ,one son ,i had--one1 more than all my sons1 the strength of ,troy4--,cowper's ,homer4 ,now ,israel loved ,joseph more than all his children1 because he was the son of his old age4--,gen41 xxxvii1 #c4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,of ,,superlatives4 ,of all other simpletons1 he was the greatest4--,nutting's ,english ,idioms4 ,of all other beings1 man has certainly the greatest reason for gratitude4--,ibid41 ,gram41 p4 #aaj4 ,this lady is the prettiest of all her sisters4--,peyton's ,elements of ,eng4 ,lang41 p4 #ci4 ,the relation which1 of all others1 is by far the most fruitful of tropes1 ,i have not yet mentioned4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ada4 ,he studied ,greek the most of any nobleman4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bca4 ,and indeed that was the qualification of all others most wanted at that time4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ii1 #ce4 ,yet we deny that the knowledge of him1 as outwardly crucified1 is the best of all other knowledge of him4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #add4 ,our ideas of numbers are of all others the most accurate and distinct4--,duncan's ,logic1 p4 #ce4 ,this indeed is of all others the case when it can be least necessary to name the agent4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhet41 i1 #bca4 ,the period1 to which you have arrived1 is perhaps the most critical and important of any moment of your lives4--,ib41 i1 #cid4 ,perry's royal octavo is esteemed the best of any pronouncing ,dictionary yet known4--,red ,book1 p4 x4 ,this is the tenth persecution1 and of all the foregoing1 the most bloody4--,sammes's ,antiquities1 ,chap4 xiii4 ,the ,english tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery1 of any language in the world4--,see ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest ,invention of any writer whatever4--,pope's ,preface to ,homer4 ,in a version of this particular work1 which most of any other seems to require a venerable antique cast4--,ib4 ,because ,i think him the best informed of any naturalist who has ever written4-- ,jefferson's ,notes1 p4 #hb4 ,man is capable of being the most social of any animal4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #ade4 ,it is of all others that which most moves us4--,ib41 p4 #aeh4 ,which of all others1 is the most necessary article4--,ib41 p4 #aff4 ,quoth he 'this gambol thou advisest1 ,is1 of all others1 the unwisest4'--,hudibras1 iii1 #caf4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,inclusive ,,terms4 ,noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #aja4 ,i think it superior to any work of that nature we have yet had4--,dr4 ,blair's ,rec4 in ,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cjj4 ,we have had no grammarian who has employed so much labour and judgment upon our native language1 as the author of these volumes4--,british ,critic1 ib41 ii1 #bii4 ,no persons feel so much the distresses of others1 as they who have experienced distress themselves4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo41 p4 #bbg4 ,never was any people so much infatuated as the ,jewish nation4--,ib41 p4 #ahe2 ,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,no tongue is so full of connective particles as the ,greek4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #he4 ,never sovereign was so much beloved by the people4--,murray's ,exercises1 ,r4 xv1 p4 #fh4 ,no sovereign was ever so much beloved by the people4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bjb4 ,nothing ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her child4--,ib41 p4 #bjc2 ,merchant's1 #aie4 ,of all the figures of speech1 none comes so near to painting as metaphor4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #adb2 ,jamieson's1 #adi4 ,i know none so happy in his metaphors as ,mr4 ,addison4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aej4 ,of all the ,english authors1 none is so happy in his metaphors as ,addison4--,jamieson's1 ,rhet41 p4 #aeg4 ,perhaps no writer in the world was ever so frugal of his words as ,aristotle4--,blair1 p4 #agg2 ,jamieson1 #bea4 ,never was any writer so happy in that concise spirited style as ,mr4 ,pope4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #djc4 ,in the harmonious structure and disposition of periods1 no writer whatever1 ancient or modern1 equals ,cicero4--,blair1 #aba2 ,jamieson1 #abc4 ,nothing delights me so much as the works of nature4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aej4 ,no person was ever so perplexed as he has been to-day4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #baf4 ,in no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word only4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,for nothing is so tiresome as perpetual uniformity4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajb4 ,no writing lifts exalted man so high1 ,as sacred and soul-moving poesy4--,sheffield4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,extra ,,comparisons4 ,how much more are ye better than the fowls6--,luke1 xii1 #bd4 ,do not thou hasten above the ,most ,highest4--#b ,esdras1 iv1 #cd4 ,this word peer is most principally used for the nobility of the realm4--,cowell4 ,because the same is not only most universally received1 c4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ddg4 ,this is1 ,i say1 not the best and most principal evidence4--,ib41 iii1 #da4 ,offer unto ,god thanksgiving1 and pay thy vows unto the ,most ,highest4--,the ,psalter1 ,ps4 #a1 #ad4 ,the holy place of the tabernacle of the ,most ,highest4--,ib41 ,ps4 xlvi1 #d4 ,as boys should be educated with temperance1 so the first greatest lesson that should be taught them is to admire frugality4--,goldsmith's ,essays1 p4 #aeb4 ,more universal terms are put for such as are more restricted4--,brown's ,metaphors1 p4 #aa4 ,this was the most unkindest cut of all4--,dodd's ,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #bea2 ,singer's ,shak41 ii1 #bfd4 ,to take the basest and most poorest shape4--,dodd's ,shak41 p4 #bfa4 ,i'll forbear3 and am fallen out with my more headier will4--,ib41 p4 #bfb4 ,the power of the ,most ,highest guard thee from sin4--,percival1 on ,apostolic ,succession1 p4 #ij4 ,which title had been more truer1 if the dictionary had been in ,latin and ,welch4--,,verstegan3 ,harrison's ,e4 ,lang41 p4 #bed4 ,the waters are more sooner and harder frozen1 than more further upward1 within the inlands4--,id41 ib4 ,at every descent1 the worst may become more worse4--,h4 ,,mann3 ,louisville ,examiner1 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #adi4 ,or as a moat defensive to a house ,against the envy of less happier lands4--,shakspeare4 ,a dreadful quiet felt1 and worser far ,than arms1 a sullen interval of war4--,dryden4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,adjectives ,,connected4 ,it breaks forth in its most energetick1 impassioned1 and highest strain4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #ff4 ,he has fallen into the most gross and vilest sort of railing4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #bfa4 ,to receive that more general and higher instruction which the public affords4--,district ,school1 p4 #bha4 ,if the best things have the perfectest and best operations4--,,hooker3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,it became the plainest and most elegant1 the most splendid and richest1 of all languages4--,see ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,but the most frequent and the principal use of pauses1 is1 to mark the divisions of the sense4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cca2 ,murray's ,gram41 #bdh4 ,that every thing belonging to ourselves is the perfectest and the best4--,clarkson's ,prize ,essay1 p4 #ahi4 ,and to instruct their pupils in the most thorough and best manner4--,report of a ,school ,committee4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,adjectives ,,superadded4 ,the ,father is figured out as an old venerable man4--,dr4 ,brownlee's ,controversy4 ,there never was exhibited such another masterpiece of ghostly assurance4--,id4 ,after the three first sentences1 the question is entirely lost4--,spect41 ,no1 #dgf4 ,the four last parts of speech are commonly called particles4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,the two last chapters will not be found deficient in this respect4--,student's ,manual1 p4 #f4 ,write upon your slates a list of the ten first nouns4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #he4 ,we have a few remains of other two ,greek poets in the pastoral style1 ,moschus and ,bion4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cic4 ,the nine first chapters of the book of ,proverbs are highly poetical4--,ib41 p4 #dag4 ,for of these five heads1 only the two first have any particular relation to the sublime4--,ib41 p4 #ce4 ,the resembling sounds of the two last syllables give a ludicrous air to the whole4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #fi4 ,the three last are arbitrary4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,but in the phrase ',she hangs the curtains1' the verb hangs is a transitive active verb4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,if our definition of a verb1 and the arrangement of transitive or intransitive active1 passive1 and neuter verbs1 are properly understood4--,ib41 #aeth ,ed41 p4 #cj4 ,these two last lines have an embarrassing construction4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #afj4 ,god was provoked to drown them all1 but ,noah and other seven persons4--,wood's ,dict41 ii1 #abi4 ,the six first books of the neid are extremely beautiful4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #bg4 ,a few more instances only can be given here4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aca4 ,a few more years will obliterate every vestige of a subjunctive form4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,some define them to be verbs devoid of the two first persons4--,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #bje4 ,in such another ,essay-tract as this4--,white's ,english ,verb1 p4 #cjb4 ,but we fear that not such another man is to be found4--,,rev4 ,,ed4 ,,irving3 on ,horne's ,psalms1 p4 xxiii4 ,oh such another sleep1 that ,i might see ,but such another man6--,,shak41 ,antony and ,cleopatra4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,adjectives ,,for ,,adverbs4 ,the is an article1 relating to the noun balm1 agreeable to ,rule #aa4--;,comly's ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,wise is an adjective relating to the noun man's1 agreeable to ,rule #aath4--,ibid41 #abth ,ed41 often4 ,to whom ,i observed1 that the beer was extreme good4--,goldsmith's ,essays1 p4 #abg4 ,he writes remarkably elegant4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ,john behaves truly civil to all men4--,ib41 p4 #aec4 ,all the sorts of words hitherto considered have each of them some meaning1 even when taken separate4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 i1 #dd4 ,he behaved himself conformable to that blessed example4--,sprat's ,sermons1 p4 #hj4 ,marvellous graceful4--,clarendon1 ,life1 p4 #ah4 ,the ,queen having changed her ministry suitable to her wisdom4--,swift1 ,exam41 ,no4 #ba4 ,the assertions of this author are easier detected4--,swift3 censured in ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,the characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no stronger than that4--,bentley3 ibid4 ,if one author had spoken nobler and loftier than an other4--,id41 ib4 ,xenophon says express4--,id41 ib4 ,i can never think so very mean of him4--,id41 ib4 ,to convince all that are ungodly among them1 of all their ungodly deeds1 which they have ungodly committed4--,jude1 #aeth3 ib4 ,i think it very masterly written4--,swift to ,pope1 ,let4 #gd3 ib4 ,the whole design must refer to the golden age1 which it lively represents4--,addison1 on ,medals3 ib4 ,agreeable to this1 we read of names being blotted out of ,god's book4--,,burder3 approved in ,webster's ,impr4 ,gram41 p4 #ajg2 ,frazee's1 #adj2 ,maltby's1 #ic4 ,agreeable to the law of nature1 children are bound to support their indigent parents4--,webster's ,impr4 ,gram41 p4 #aji4 ,words taken independent of their meaning are parsed as nouns of the neuter gender4--,maltby's ,gr41 #if4 ,conceit in weakest bodies strongest works4--,beaut4 of ,shak41 p4 #bcf4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,them ,,for ,,those4 ,though he was not known by them letters1 or the name ,christ4--,wm4 ,bayly's ,works1 p4 #id4 ,in a gig1 or some of them things4--,edgeworth's ,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #ce4 ,when cross-examined by them lawyers4--,ib41 p4 #ih4 ,as the custom in them cases is4--,ib41 p4 #aja4 ,if you'd have listened to them slanders4--,ib41 p4 #aae4 ,the old people were telling stories about them fairies1 but to the best of my judgment there's nothing in it4--,ib41 p4 #ahh4 ,and is it not a pity that the ,quakers have no better authority to substantiate their principles than the testimony of them old ,pharisees8--,hibbard's ,errors of the ,quakers1 p4 #ajg4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,this ,,and ,,that4 ,hope is as strong an incentive to action1 as fear3 this is the anticipation of good1 that of evil4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #ace4 ,the poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy2 but we should not therefore account those happy1 and these miserable4--,ib4 ,ellen and ,margaret fearfully1 ,sought comfort in each other's eye2 ,then turned their ghastly look each one1 ,this to her sire1 that to her son4 ,scott's ,lady of the ,lake1 ,canto ii1 ,stanza #bi4 ,six youthful sons1 as many blooming maids1 ,in one sad day beheld the ,stygian shades2 ,these by ,apollo's silver bow were slain1 ,those ,cynthia's arrows stretched upon the plain4 --,pope1 ,il41 xxiv1 #gfj4 ,memory and forecast just returns engage1 ,this pointing back to youth1 that on to age4 --,see ,key4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,either ,,and ,,neither4 ,these make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind2 truth1 duty1 and interest4 ,but the arguments directed towards either of them are generically distinct4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cah4 ,a thousand other deviations may be made1 and still either of them may be correct in principle4 ,for these divisions and their technical terms1 are all arbitrary4--,r4 ,w4 ,green's ,inductive ,gram41 p4 vi4 ,thus it appears1 that our alphabet is deficient1 as it has but seven vowels to represent thirteen different sounds2 and has no letter to represent either of five simple consonant sounds4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,then neither of these five verbs can be neuter4--,oliver ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cdc4 ,and the asserter is in neither of the four already mentioned4--,ib41 p4 #cef4 ,as it is not in either of these four4--,ib41 p4 #cef4 ,see whether or not the word comes within the definition of either of the other three simple cases4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,neither of the ten was there4--,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,here are ten oranges1 take either of them4--,ib41 p4 #ajb4 ,there are three modes1 by either of which recollection will generally be supplied2 inclination1 practice1 and association4--,rippingham's ,art of ,speaking1 p4 xxix4 ,words not reducible to either of the three preceding heads4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 pp4 #cce and #cdj4 ,now a sentence may be analyzed in reference to either of these four classes4--,ib41 p4 #egg4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiv4--,,whole1 ,,less1 ,,more1 ,,and ,,most4 ,does not all proceed from the law1 which regulates the whole departments of the state8--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bgh4 ,a messenger relates to ,theseus the whole particulars4--,kames4 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cac4 ,there are no less than twenty dipthhongs sic--,,kth in the ,english language4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 xii4 ,the ,redcross ,knight runs through the whole steps of the ,christian life4--,spectator ,no4 #edj4 ,there were not less than fifty or sixty persons present4--,teachers' ,report4 ,greater experience1 and more cultivated society1 abate the warmth of imagination1 and chasten the manner of expression4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aeb2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cea4 ,by which means knowledge1 much more than oratory1 is become the principal requisite4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bed4 ,no less than seven illustrious cities disputed the right of having given birth to the greatest of poets4--,lemp4 ,dict41 n4 ,homer4 ,temperance1 more than medicines1 is the proper means of curing many diseases4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bbb4 ,i do not suppose1 that we ,britons want genius1 more than our neighbours4--,ib41 p4 #bae4 ,in which he saith1 he has found no less than twelve untruths4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dfj4 ,the several places of rendezvous were concerted1 and the whole operations fixed4--,,hume3 see ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aij4 ,in these rigid opinions the whole sectaries concurred4--,id41 ib4 ,out of whose modifications have been made most complex modes4--,,locke3 ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,the ,chinese vary each of their words on no less than five different tones4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #eh4 ,these people1 though they possess more shining qualities1 are not so proud as he is1 nor so vain as she4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #baa4 ',tis certain1 we believe ourselves more1 after we have made a thorough ,inquiry into the ,thing4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #bdd4 ,as well as the whole ,course and ,reasons of the ,operation4--,ib4 ,those rules and principles which are of most practical advantage4--,newman's ,rhet41 p4 #d4 ,and there shall be no more curse4--,rev41 xxii1 #c4 ,and there shall be no more death4--,rev41 xxi1 #d4 ,but in recompense1 we have more pleasing pictures of ancient manners4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dcf4 ,our language has suffered more injurious changes in ,america1 since the ,british army landed on our shores1 than it had suffered before1 in the period of three centuries4--,webster's ,essays1 ,ed4 of #agij1 p4 #if4 ,the whole conveniences of life are derived from mutual aid and support in society4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aff4 ,,under ,,note ,,xv4--,,participial ,,adjectives4 ,to such as think the nature of it deserving their attention4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #hd4 ,in all points1 more deserving the approbation of their readers4--,keepsake1 #ahcj4 ,but to give way to childish sensations was unbecoming our nature4--,lempriere's ,dict41 n4 ,zeno4 ,the following extracts are deserving the serious perusal of all4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #ace4 ,no inquiry into wisdom1 however superficial1 is undeserving attention4--,bulwer's ,disowned1 ii1 #ie4 ,the opinions of illustrious men are deserving great consideration4--,porter's ,family ,journal1 p4 #c4 ,and resolutely keeps its laws1 ,uncaring consequences4--,burns's ,works1 ii1 #dc4 ,this is an item that is deserving more attention4--,goodell's ,lectures4 ,leave then thy joys1 unsuiting such an age1 ,to a fresh comer1 and resign the stage4--,dryden4 ,,under ,,note ,,xvi4--,,figure ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,the tall dark mountains and the deep toned seas4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bgh4 ,o6 learn from him ,to station quick eyed ,prudence at the helm4--,,anon43 ,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,he went in a one horse chaise4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,it ought to be1 'in a one horse chaise4'--,dr4 ,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #ccd4 ,these are marked with the above mentioned letters4--,folker's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,a many headed faction4--,ware's ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,lest there should be no authority in any popular grammar for the perhaps heaven inspired effort4--,fowle's ,true ,english ,gram41 ,part #b;d1 p4 #be4 ,common metre stanzas consist of four ,iambic lines2 one of eight1 and the next of six syllables4 ,they were formerly written in two fourteen syllable lines4--,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,short metre stanzas consist of four ,iambic lines2 the third of eight1 and the rest of six syllables4--,ibid4 ,particular metre stanzas consist of six ,iambic lines2 the third and sixth of six syllables1 the rest of eight4--,ibid4 ,hallelujah metre stanzas consist of six ,iambic lines2 the last two of eight syllables1 and the rest of six4--,ibid4 ,long metre stanzas are merely the union of four ,iambic lines1 of ten syllables each4--,ibid4 ,a majesty more commanding than is to be found among the rest of the ,old ,testament poets4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dah4 ,you sulphurous and thought executed fires1 ,vaunt couriers to oak cleaving thunderbolts1 ,singe my white head6 ,and thou1 all shaking thunder ,strike flat the thick rotundity o' the world6--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #bfd4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,pronouns4 ,the rules for the agreement of ,pronouns with their antecedents are four2 hence this chapter extends from the tenth rule to the thirteenth1 inclusively4 ,the cases of ,pronouns are embraced with those of nouns1 in the seven rules of the third chapter4 ,,rule ,x4--,,pronouns4 ,a ,pronoun must agree with its antecedent1 or the noun or pronoun which it represents1 in person1 number1 and gender3#cgi as1 ,this is the friend of whom ,i spoke2 he has just arrived4--,this is the book which ,i bought2 it is an excellent work4--,ye1 therefore1 who love mercy1 teach your sons to love it too4--,cowper4 ,speak thou1 whose thoughts at humble peace repine1 ,shall ,wolsey's wealth with ,wolsey's end be thine8--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,,exception ,,first4 ,when a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite1 or unknown to the speaker1 this rule is not strictly applicable2 because the person1 number1 and gender1 are rather assumed in the pronoun1 than regulated by an antecedent3 as1 ,i do not care who knows it4--,steele4 ,who touched me8 ,tell me who it was4--,we have no knowledge how1 or by whom1 it is inhabited4--,,abbot3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,,exception ,,second4 ,the neuter pronoun it may be applied to a young child1 or to other creatures masculine or feminine by nature1 when they are not obviously distinguishable with regard to sex2 as1 ,which is the real friend to the child1 the person who gives it the sweetmeats1 or the person who1 considering only its health1 resists its importunities8--,opis4 ,he loads the animal he is showing me1 with so many trappings and collars1 that ,i cannot distinctly view it--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cja4 ,the nightingale sings most sweetly when it sings in the night4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #eb4 ,,exception ,,third4 ,the pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any antecedent1 and is sometimes a mere expletive1 and sometimes the representative of an action expressed afterwards by a verb2 as1 ,whether she grapple it with the pride of philosophy4--,chalmers4 ,seeking to lord it over ,god's heritage4--,the ,friend1 vii1 #bec4 ,it is not for kings1 ,o ,lemuel1 it is not for kings to drink wine1 nor for princes strong drink4--,prov41 xxxi1 #d4 ,having no temptation to it1 ,god cannot act unjustly without defiling his nature4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 #aa4 ,come1 and trip it as you go1 ,on the light fantastic toe4--,milton4 ,,exception ,,fourth4 ,a singular antecedent with the adjective many1 sometimes admits a plural pronoun1 but never in the same clause2 as1 ,hard has been the fate of many a great genius1 that while they have conferred immortality on others1 they have wanted themselves some friend to embalm their names to posterity4--,welwood's ,pref4 to ,rowe's ,lucan4 ,in ,hawick twinkled many a light1 ,behind him soon they set in night4--,w4 ,scott4 ,,exception ,,fifth4 ,when a plural pronoun is put by enallag for the singular1 it does not agree with its noun in number1 because it still requires a plural verb2 as1 ,we ,lindley ,murray have followed those authors1 who appear to have given them the most natural and intelligible distribution4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bi4 ,we shall close our remarks on this subject1 by introducing the sentiments of ,dr4 ,johnson respecting it4--,ib4 ,my lord1 you know ,i love you--,shakspeare4 ,,exception ,,sixth4 ,the pronoun sometimes disagrees with its antecedent in one sense1 because it takes it in an other2 as1 ,i have perused ,mr4 ,johnson's ,grammatical ,commentaries1 and find it#chj a very laborious1 learned1 and useful ,work4--,tho4 ,knipe1 ,d4 ,d4 ,lamps is of the plural number1 because it means more than one4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,man is of the masculine gender1 because it is the name of a male4--,ib4 ,the ,utica ,sentinel says it has not heard whether the wounds are dangerous4--,evening ,post4 7,better3 ,the editor of the ,utica ,sentinel says1 he has not heard1 c47 ,there is little ,benjamin with their ruler4--,psalms1 lxviii1 #bg4 ,her end when emulation misses1 ,she turns to envy1 stings1 and hisses4--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #dae4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,x4 ,,obs4 #a4--,respecting a pronoun1 the main thing is1 that the reader perceive clearly for what it stands2 and next1 that he do not misapprehend its relation of case4 ,for the sake of completeness and uniformity in parsing1 it is1 ,i think1 expedient to apply the foregoing rule not only to those pronouns which have obvious antecedents expressed1 but also to such as are not accompanied by the nouns for which they stand4 ,even those which are put for persons or things unknown or indefinite1 may be said to agree with whatever is meant by them2 that is1 with such nouns as their own properties indicate4 ,for the reader will naturally understand something by every pronoun1 unless it be a mere expletive1 and without any antecedent4 ,for example3 ,it would depend upon who the forty were4--,trial at ,steubenville1 p4 #ej4 ,here who is an indefinite relative1 equivalent to what persons2 of the third person1 plural1 masculine2 and is in the nominative case after were1 by ,rule #fth4 ,for the full construction seems to be this3 ,it would depend upon the persons who the forty were4 ,so which1 for which person1 or which thing1 7if we call it a pronoun rather than an adjective17 may be said to have the properties of the noun person or thing understood2 as1 ,his notions fitted things so well1 ,that which was which he could not tell4--,hudibras4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the pronoun we is used by the speaker or writer to represent himself and others1 and is therefore plural4 ,but it is sometimes used1 by a sort of fiction1 in stead of the singular1 to intimate that the speaker or writer is not alone in his opinions2 or1 perhaps more frequently1 to evade the charge of egotism2 for this modest assumption of plurality seems most common with those who have something else to assume3 as1 ,and so lately as #ahji1 ,pope ,pius ,,vii1 in excommunicating his 'own dear son1' ,napoleon1 whom he crowned and blessed1 says3 ',we1 unworthy as we are1 represent the ,god of peace4'--,dr4 ,brownlee4 ,the coat fits us as well as if we had been melted and poured into it4--,prentice4 ,monarchs sometimes prefer we to ,i1 in immediate connexion with a singular noun2 as1 ,we ,alexander1 ,autocrat of all the ,russias4--,we the ,emperor of ,china1 c4--,economy of ,human ,life1 p4 vi4 ,they also employ the anomalous compound ourself1 which is not often used by other people2 as1 ,witness ourself at ,westminster1 #bh day of ,april1 in the tenth year of our reign4 ,,charles4 ,cs4 ,what touches us ourself1 shall be last serv'd4 --,shak41 ,j4 ,c41 ,act iii1 ,sc4 #a4 ,ourself to hoary ,nestor will repair4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 x1 l4 #fe4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the pronoun you1 though originally and properly plural1 is now generally applied alike to one person or to more4 ,several observations upon this fashionable substitution of the plural number for the singular1 will be found in the fifth and sixth chapters of ,etymology4 ,this usage1 however it may seem to involve a solecism1 is established by that authority against which the mere grammarian has scarcely a right to remonstrate4 ,alexander ,murray1 the schoolmaster1 observes1 ,when language was plain and simple1 the ,english always said thou1 when speaking to a single person4 ,but when an affected politeness1 and a fondness for continental manners and customs began to take place1 persons of rank and fashion said you in stead of thou4 ,the innovation gained ground1 and custom gave sanction to the change1 and stamped it with the authority of law4--,english ,gram41 ,third ,edition1 #agic1 p4 #ajg4 ,this respectable grammarian acknowledged both thou and you to be of the second person singular4 ,i do not1 however1 think it necessary or advisable to do this1 or to encumber the conjugations1 as some have done1 by introducing the latter pronoun1 and the corresponding form of the verb1 as singular4#cha ,it is manifestly better to say1 that the plural is used for the singular1 by the figure ,enallag4 ,for if you has literally become singular by virtue of this substitution1 we also is singular for the same reason1 as often as it is substituted for ,i2 else the authority of innumerable authors1 editors1 compilers1 and crowned1 heads1 is insufficient to make it so4 ,and again1 if you and the corresponding form of the verb are literally of the second person singular1 7as ,wells contends1 with an array of more than sixty names of ,english grammarians to prove it17 then1 by their own rule of concord1 since thou and its verb are still generally retained in the same place by these grammarians1 a verb that agrees with one of these nominatives1 must also agree with the other2 so that you hast and thou have1 you seest and thou see1 may be1 so far as appears from their instructions1 as good a concord as can be made of these words6 ,,obs4 #d4--,the putting of you for thou has introduced the anomalous compound yourself1 which is now very generally used in stead of thyself4 ,in this instance1 as in the less frequent adoption of ourself for myself1 ,fashion so tramples upon the laws of grammar1 that it is scarcely possible to frame an intelligible exception in her favour4 ,these pronouns are essentially singular1 both in form and meaning2 and yet they cannot be used with ,i or thou1 with me or thee1 or with any verb that is literally singular2 as1 ,i ourself am4 but1 on the contrary1 they must be connected only with such plural terms as are put for the singular2 as1 ,we ourself are king4--,undoubtedly you yourself become an innovator4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cfd2 ,campbell's ,rhet41 #afg4 ,try touch1 or sight1 or smell2 try what you will1 ,you strangely find nought but yourself alone4 --,pollok1 ,c4 of ,t41 ,b4 i1 l4 #afb4 ,,obs4 #e4--,such terms of address1 as your ,majesty1 your ,highness1 your ,lordship1 your ,honour1 are sometimes followed by verbs and pronouns of the second person plural1 substituted for the singular2 and sometimes by words literally singular1 and of the third person1 with no other figure than a substitution of who for which3 as1 ,wherein your ,lordship1 who shines with so much distinction in the noblest assembly in the world1 peculiarly excels--,dedication of ,sale's ,koran4 ,we have good cause to give your ,highness the first place2 who1 by a continued series of favours have obliged us1 not only while you moved in a lower orb1 but since the ,lord hath called your ,highness to supreme authority4--,massachusetts to ,cromwell1 in #afed4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the general usage of the ,french is like that of the ,english1 you for thou2 but ,spanish1 ,portuguese1 or ,german politeness requires that the third person be substituted for the second4 ,and when they would be very courteous1 the ,germans use also the plural for the singular1 as they for thou4 ,thus they have a fourfold method of addressing a person3 as1 they1 denoting the highest degree of respect2 he1 a less degree2 you1 a degree still less2 and thou1 none at all1 or absolute reproach4 ,yet1 even among them1 the last is used as a term of endearment to children1 and of veneration to ,god6 ,thou1 in ,english1 still retains its place firmly1 and without dispute1 in all addresses to the ,supreme ,being2 but in respect to the first person1 an observant clergyman has suggested the following dilemma3 ,some men will be pained1 if a minister says we in the pulpit2 and others will quarrel with him1 if he says ,i4--,abbott's ,young ,christian1 p4 #bfh4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,any extensive perversion of the common words of a language from their original and proper use1 is doubtless a matter of considerable moment4 ,these changes in the use of the pronouns1 being some of them evidently a sort of complimentary fictions1 some religious people have made it a matter of conscience to abstain from them1 and have published their reasons for so doing4 ,but the moral objections which may lie against such or any other applications of words1 do not come within the grammarian's province4 ,let every one consider for himself the moral bearing of what he utters3 not forgetting the text1 ,but ,i say unto you1 that every idle word that men shall speak1 they shall give account thereof in the day of judgement3 for by thy words thou shalt be justified1 and by thy words thou shalt be condemned4--,matt41 xii1 #cf and #cg4 ,what scruples this declaration ought to raise1 it is not my business to define4 ,but if such be ,god's law1 what shall be the reckoning of those who make no conscience of uttering continually1 or when they will1 not idle words only1 but expressions the most absurd1 insignificant1 false1 exaggerated1 vulgar1 indecent1 injurious1 wicked1 sophistical1 unprincipled1 ungentle1 and perhaps blasphemous1 or profane8 ,,obs4 #h4--,the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents1 it is necessary to observe1 is liable to be controlled or affected by several of the figures of rhetoric4 ,a noun used figuratively often suggests two different senses1 the one literal1 and the other tropical2 and the agreement of the pronoun must be sometimes with this1 and sometimes with that1 according to the nature of the trope4 ,if the reader be unacquainted with tropes and figures1 he should turn to the explanation of them in ,part ,fourth of this work2 but almost every one knows something about them1 and such as must here be named1 will perhaps be made sufficiently intelligible by the examples4 ,there seems to be no occasion to introduce under this head more than four2 namely1 personification1 metaphor1 metonymy1 and synecdoche4 ,,obs4 #i4--,when a pronoun represents the name of an inanimate object personified1 it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative1 and not in the literal sense2 as1 ,there were others whose crime it was rather to neglect ,reason than to disobey her4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,penance dreams her life away4--,rogers4 ,grim ,darkness furls his leaden shroud4--,id4 ,here if the pronoun were made neuter1 the personification would be destroyed2 as1 ,by the progress which ,england had already made in navigation and commerce1 it was now prepared for advancing farther4--,robertson's ,america1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cda4 ,if the pronoun it was here intended to represent ,england1 the feminine she would have been much better2 and1 if such was not the author's meaning1 the sentence has some worse fault than the agreement of a pronoun with its noun in a wrong sense4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,when the antecedent is applied metaphorically1 the pronoun usually agrees with it in its literal1 and not in its figurative sense2 as1 ,pitt was the pillar which upheld the state4--,the monarch of mountains rears his snowy head4--,the stone which the builders rejected4--,matt41 xxi1 #db4 ,according to this rule1 which would be better than whom1 in the following text3 ,i considered the horns1 and1 behold1 there came up among them an other little horn1 before whom there were three of the first horns plucked up by the roots4--,daniel1 vii1 #h4 ,in ,rom41 ix1 #cc1 there is something similar3 ,behold1 ,i lay in ,sion a stumbling-stone and rock of offence3 and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed4 ,here the stone or rock is a metaphor for ,christ1 and the pronoun him may be referred to the sixth exception above2 but the construction is not agreeable1 because it is not regular3 it would be more grammatical1 to change on him to thereon4 ,in the following example1 the noun wolves1 which literally requires which1 and not who1 is used metaphorically for selfish priests2 and1 in the relative1 the figurative or personal sense is allowed to prevail3 ,wolves shall succeed for teachers1 grievous wolves1 ,who all the sacred mysteries of ,heaven ,to their own vile advantages shall turn4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 xii1 l4 #ejh4 ,this seems to me somewhat forced and catachrestical4 ,so too1 and worse1 the following2 which makes a star rise and speak3 ,so spake our ,morning ,star then in his rise1 ,and looking round on every side beheld ,a pathless desert1 dusk with horrid shades4 --,id41 ,p4 ,r41 ,b4 i1 l4 #bid4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,when the antecedent is put by metonymy for a noun of different properties1 the pronoun sometimes agrees with it in the figurative1 and sometimes in the literal sense2 as1 ,when ,israel was a child1 then ,i loved him1 and called my son out of ,egypt4 ,as they called them1 so they went from them3 i4 e41 ,when ,moses and the prophets called the ,israelites1 they often refused to hear3 they sacrificed unto ,baalim1 and burnt incense to graven images4 ,i taught ,ephraim also to go1 taking them by their arms2 but they knew not that ,i healed them4--,hosea1 xi1 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,the mixture and obscurity which are here1 ought not to be imitated4 ,the name of a man1 put for the nation or tribe of his descendants1 may have a pronoun of either number1 and a nation may be figuratively represented as feminine2 but a mingling of different genders or numbers ought to be avoided3 as1 ,moab is spoiled1 and gone up out of her cities1 and his chosen young men are gone down to the slaughter4--,jeremiah1 xlviii1 #ae4 ,the wolf1 who say that from the nightly fold1 ,fierce drags the bleating prey1 ne'er drunk her milk1 ,nor wore her warming fleece4--,thomson's ,seasons4 ,that each may fill the circle mark'd by ,heaven1 ,who sees with equal eye1 as ,god of all1 ,a hero perish or a sparrow fall4--,pope's ,essay on ,man4 ,and heaven behold its image in his breast4--,ib4 ,such fate to suffering worth is given1 ,who long with wants and woes has striven4--,burns4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,when the antecedent is put by synecdoche for more or less than it literally signifies1 the pronoun agrees with it in the figurative1 and not in the literal sense2 as1 ,a dauntless soul erect1 who smiled on death4--,thomson ,but to the generous still improving mind1 ,that gives the hopeless heart to sing for joy1 ,to him the long review of ordered life ,is inward rapture only to be felt4--,id4 ,seasons4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,pronouns usually follow the words which they represent2 but this order is sometimes reversed3 as1 ,whom the cap fits1 let him put it on4--,hark6 they whisper2 angels say1 c4--,pope4 ,thou1 ,o ,lord1 art a ,god full of compassion4--,old ,test4 ,and in some cases of apposition1 the pronoun naturally comes first2 as1 ,i ,tertius--,ye lawyers4 ,the pronoun it1 likewise1 very often precedes the clause or phrase which it represents2 as1 ,is it not manifest1 that the generality of people speak and write very badly8--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afj2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #ceh4 ,this arrangement is too natural to be called a transposition4 ,the most common form of the real inversion is that of the antecedent and relative in poetry2 as1 ,who stops to plunder at this signal hour1 ,the birds shall tear him1 and the dogs devour4 --,,pope3 ,iliad1 xv1 #djj4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,a pronoun sometimes represents a phrase or a sentence2 and in this case the pronoun is always in the third person singular neuter3 as1 ,surely the ,lord is in this place1 and ,i knew it not4--,gen41 xxviii1 #aj4 ,yet men can go on to vilify or disregard ,christianity2 which is to talk and act as if they had a demonstration of its falsehood4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bfi4 ,when it is asked wherein personal identity consists1 the answer should be the same as if it were asked1 wherein consists similitude or equality4--,ib41 p4 #bgj4 ,also1 that the soul be without knowledge1 it is not good4--,prov41 xix1 #b4 ,in this last example1 the pronoun is not really necessary4 ,that the soul be without knowledge1 is not good4--,jenks's ,prayers1 p4 #add4 ,sometimes an infinitive verb is taken as an antecedent2 as1 ,he will not be able to think1 without which it is impertinent to read2 nor to act1 without which it is impertinent to think4--,bolingbroke1 on ,history1 p4 #ajc4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,when a pronoun follows two words1 having a neuter verb between them1 and both referring to the same thing1 it may represent either of them1 but not often with the same meaning3 as1 #a4 ,i am the man1 who command4 ,here1 who command belongs to the subject ,i1 and the meaning is1 ,i who command1 am the man4 7,the latter expression places the relative nearer to its antecedent1 and is therefore preferable47 #b4 ,i am the man who commands4 ,here1 who commands belongs to the predicate man1 and the meaning is1 ,i am the commander4 ,again3 ,i perceive thou art a pupil1 who possessest good talents4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #acf4 ,here the construction corresponds not to the perception1 which is1 of the pupil's talents4 ,say1 therefore1 ,i perceive thou art a pupil possessing 7or1 who possesses7 good talents4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,after the expletive it1 which may be employed to introduce a noun or a pronoun of any person1 number1 or gender1 the above-mentioned distinction is generally disregarded2 and the relative is most commonly made to agree with the latter word1 especially if this word be of the first or the second person3 as1 ,it is no more ,i that do it4--,rom41 vii1 #bj4 ,for it is not ye that speak4--,matt41 x1 #bj4 ,the propriety of this construction is questionable4 ,in the following examples1 the relative agrees with the it1 and not with the subsequent nouns3 ,it is the combined excellencies of all the denominations that gives to her her winning beauty and her powerful charms4--,bible ,society's ,report1 #ahch1 p4 #hi4 ,it is purity and neatness of expression which is chiefly to be studied4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bga4 ,it is not the difficulty of the language1 but on the contrary the simplicity and facility of it1 that occasions this neglect4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 vi4 ,it is a wise head and a good heart that constitutes a great man4--,child's ,instructor1 p4 #bb4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,the pronoun it very frequently refers to something mentioned subsequently in the sentence2 as1 ,it is useless to complain of what is irremediable4 ,this pronoun is a necessary expletive at the commencement of any sentence in which the verb is followed by a phrase or a clause which1 by transposition1 might be made the subject of the verb2 as1 ,it is impossible to please every one4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram4 ,it was requisite that the papers should be sent4--,ib4 ,the following example is censured by the ,rev4 ,matt4 ,harrison3 ,it is really curious1 the course which balls will sometimes take4--,abernethy's ,lectures4 ,this awkward expression1 says the critic1 might have been avoided by saying1 ',the course which balls will sometimes take is really curious4'--,harrison1 on the ,english ,language1 p4 #adg4 ,if the construction is objectionable1 it may1 in this instance1 be altered thus3 ,it is really curious1 to observe the course which balls will sometimes take6 ,so1 it appears1 we may avoid a pleonasm by an addition4 ,but he finds a worse example3 saying1 ,again1 in an article from the ',new ,monthly1' ,no4 #ajc1 we meet with the same form of expression1 but with an aggravated aspect3--',it is incredible1 the number of apothecaries' shops1 presenting themselves4' ,it would be quite as easy to say1 ',the number of apothecaries' shops1 presenting themselves1 is incredible4' --,ib41 p4 #adg4 ,this1 too1 may take an infinitive1 to tell1 or to behold2 for there is no more extravagance in doubting one's eyes1 than in declaring one's own statement incredible4 ,but ,i am not sure that the original form is not allowable4 ,in the following line1 we seem to have something like it3 ,it curled not ,tweed alone1 that breeze4--,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,relative and interrogative pronouns are placed at or near the beginning of their own clauses2 and the learner must observe that1 through all their cases1 they almost invariably retain this situation in the sentence1 and are found before their verbs even when the order of the construction would reverse this arrangement3 as1 ,he who preserves me1 to whom ,i owe my being1 whose ,i am1 and whom ,i serve1 is eternal4--,murray1 p4 #aei4 ,he whom you seek4--,lowth4 ,the good must merit ,god's peculiar care2 ,but who1 but ,god1 can tell us who they are8--,pope4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,a relative pronoun1 being the representative of some antecedent word or phrase1 derives from this relation its person1 number1 and gender1 but not its case4 ,by taking an other relation of case1 it helps to form an other clause2 and1 by retaining the essential meaning of its antecedent1 serves to connect this clause to that in which the antecedent is found4 ,no relative1 therefore1 can ever be used in an independent simple sentence1 or be made the subject of a subjunctive verb1 or be put in apposition with any noun or pronoun2 but1 like other connectives1 this pronoun belongs at the head of a clause in a compound sentence1 and excludes conjunctions1 except when two such clauses are to be joined together1 as in the following example3 ,i should be glad1 at least1 of an easy companion1 who may tell me his thoughts1 and to whom ,i may communicate mine4--,goldsmith's ,essays1 p4 #aif4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,the two special rules commonly given by the grammarians1 for the construction of relatives1 are not only unnecessary1#chb but faulty4 ,i shall notice them only to show my reasons for discarding them4 ,with whom they originated1 it is difficult to say4 ,paul's ,accidence has them1 and if ,dean ,colet1 the supposed writer1 did not take them from some earlier author1 they must have been first taught by him1 about the year #aeaj2 and it is certain that they have been copied into almost every grammar published since4 ,the first one is faulty1 because1 ,when there cometh no nominative case between the relative and the verb1 the relative shall not always be the nominative case to the verb2 as may be seen by the following examples3 ,many are the works of human industry1 which to begin and finish are say is hardly granted to the same man4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,adv4 to ,dict4 ,they aim at his removal2 which there is reason to fear they will effect4--,which to avoid1 ,i cut them off4--,shak41 ,hen4 ,,iv4 ,the second rule is faulty1 because1 ,when there cometh a nominative case between the relative and the verb1 the relative shall not always be such case as the verb will have after it2 as may be seen by the following examples3 ,the author has not advanced any instances1 which he does not think are pertinent4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aib4 ,which we have reason to think was the case with the ,greek and ,latin4--,ib41 #aab4 ,is this your son1 who ye say was born blind8--,john1 ix1 #ai4 ,the case of the relative cannot be accurately determined by any rules of mere location4 ,it may be nominative to a verb afar off1 or it may be objective with a verb immediately following2 as1 ,which ,i do not find that there ever was4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 p4 #ca4 ,and our chief reason for believing which is that our ancestors did so before us4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #fda4 ,both these particular rules are useless1 because the general rules for the cases1 as given in chapter third above1 are applicable to relatives1 sufficient to all the purpose1 and not liable to any exceptions4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,in syntactical parsing1 each word1 in general1 is to be resolved by some one rule2 but the parsing of a pronoun commonly requires two2 one for its agreement with the noun or nouns for which it stands1 and an other for its case4 ,the rule of agreement will be one of the four which are embraced in this present chapter2 and the rule for the case will be one of the seven which compose chapter third4 ,so that the whole syntax of pronouns requires the application of eleven different rules1 while that of nouns or verbs is embraced in six or seven1 and that of any other part of speech1 in one only4 ,in respect to their cases1 relatives and interrogatives admit of every construction common to nouns1 or to the personal pronouns1 except apposition4 ,this is proved by the following examples3 #a4 ,nominatives by ,rule #b;d3 ,i who write2--,thou who writest2--,he who writes2--,the animal which runs4--,dr4 ,adam4 ,he that spareth his rod1 hateth his son4--,solomon4 ,he who does any thing which he knows is wrong1 ventures on dangerous ground4--,what will become of us without religion8--,blair4 ,here ,i determined to wait the hand of death2 which1 ,i hope1 when at last it comes1 will fall lightly upon me4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,what is sudden and unaccountable1 serves to confound4--,crabb4 ,they only are wise1 who are wise to salvation4--,goodwin4 #b4 ,nominatives by ,rule #fth3 7i4e41 words parsed as nominatives after the verbs1 though mostly transposed37 ,who art thou8--,bible4 ,what were we8--,ib4 ,do not tell them who ,i am4--,let him be who he may1 he is not the honest fellow that he seemed4--,the general conduct of mankind is neither what it was designed1 nor what it ought to be4 #c4 ,nominatives absolute by ,rule #hth3 ,there are certain bounds to imprudence1 which being transgressed1 there remains no place for repentance in the natural course of things4--,bp4 ,butler4 ,which being so1 it need not be any wonder1 why ,i should4--,walker's ,particles1 ,pref41 p4 xiv4 ,he offered an apology1 which not being admitted1 he became submissive4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bjb4 ,this construction of the relative is a ,latinism1 and very seldom used by the best ,english writers4 #d4 ,possessives by ,rule #dth3 ,the chief man of the island1 whose name was ,publius4--,acts4 ,despair1 a cruel tyrant1 from whose prisons none can escape4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,to contemplate on ,him whose yoke is easy and whose burden is light4--,steele4 #e4 ,objectives by ,rule #eth3 ,those whom she persuaded4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,the cloak that ,i left at ,troas4--,st4 ,paul4 ,by the things which he suffered4--,id4 ,a man whom there is reason to suspect4--,what are we to do8--,burke4 ,love refuses nothing that love sends4--,gurnall4 ,the first thing1 says he1 is1 to choose some maxim or point of morality2 to inculcate which1 is to be the design of his work4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dba4 ,whomsoever you please to appoint4--,lowth4 ,whatsover sic--,,kth he doeth1 shall prosper4--,bible4 ,what we are afraid to do before men1 we should be afraid to think before ,god4--,sibs4 ,shall ,i hide from ,abraham that thing which ,i do8--,gen41 xviii1 #cb4 ,shall ,i hide from ,abraham what ,i am going to do8--,call imperfection what thou fanciest such4--,pope4 #f4 ,objectives by ,rule #fth3 7i4e41 pronouns parsed as objectives after neuter verbs1 though they stand before them37 ,he is not the man that ,i took him to be4--,whom did you suppose me to be8--,if the lad ever become what you wish him to be4 #g4 ,objectives by ,rule #gth3 ,to whom shall we go8--,bible4 ,the laws by which the world is governed1 are general4--,bp4 ,butler4 ,whom he looks upon as his defender4--,addison4 ,that secret heaviness of heart which unthinking men are subject to4--,id4 ,i cannot but think the loss of such talents as the man of whom ,i am speaking was master of1 a more melancholy instance4--,steele4 ,grammar is the solid foundation upon which all other science rests4--,buchanan's ,eng4 ,synt41 p4 xx4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,in familiar language1 the relative of the objective case is frequently understood2 as1 ,the man whom ,i trust4--,cowper4 ,here is the letter which ,i received4 ,so in the following sentences3 ,this is the man they hate4 ,these are the goods they bought4 ,are these the ,gods they worship8 ,is this the woman you saw8--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,this ellipsis seems allowable only in the familiar style4 ,in grave writing1 or deliberate discourse1 it is much better to express this relative4 ,the omission of it is often attended with some obscurity2 as1 ,the next error that ,i shall mention 1 is a capital one4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #aeg4 ,it is little that we know of the divine perfections4--,scougal1 p4 #id4 ,the faith which we give to memory1 may be thought1 on a superficial view1 to be resolvable into consciousness1 as well as that which we give to the immediate impressions of sense4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ec4 ,we speak that which we do know1 and testify that which we have seen4--,john1 iii1 #aa4 ,the omission of a relative in the nominative case1 is almost always inelegant2 as1 ,this is the worst thing that could happen4--,there were several things which brought it upon me4--,pilgrim's ,progress1 p4 #afb4 ,the latter ellipsis may occur after but or than1 and it is also sometimes allowed in poetry2 as1 ,there is ,no person of reflection but who must be sensible1 that an incident makes a stronger impression on an eye-witness1 than when heard at second hand4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #beg4 ,in this 'tis ,god directs1 in that 'tis man4--,pope1 on ,man4 ,abuse on all he lov'd1 or lov'd him1 spread4--,id41 to ,arbuthnot4 ,there's nothing blackens like the ink of fools4--,id41 to ,augustus4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,the antecedent is sometimes suppressed1 especially in poetry2 as1 ,who will1 may be a judge4--,churchill4 ,how shall ,i curse him or them whom ,god hath not cursed8--,numbers1 xxiii1 #h4 ,there are1 indeed1 some persons who seem disposed to extend her authority much farther4--,campbell's ,philosophy of ,rhet41 p4 #ahg4 ,he ,who lives to nature1 rarely can be poor2 ,he ,who lives to fancy1 never can be rich4--,young4 ,serious should be an author's final views2 ,they ,who write for pure amusement1 ne'er amuse4--,id4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,which1 as well as who1 was formerly applied to persons2 as1 ,our ,father which art in heaven4--,bible4 ,pray for them which despitefully use you4--,luke1 vi1 #bh4 ,and1 as to the former example here cited1 some ,british critics1 still preferring the archaism1 have accused ,the ,americans of poor criticism1 in that they have changed which into who1 as being more consonant to the rules of ,grammar4 ,falsely imagining1 that which and who1 with the same antecedent1 can be of different genders1 they allege1 that1 ,the use of the neuter pronoun carried with it a certain vagueness and sublimity1 not inappropriate in reminding us that our worship is addressed to a ,being1 infinite1 and superior to all distinctions applicable to material objects4--,men and ,manners in ,america3 quoted and endorsed by the ,,rev4 ,,matt4 ,,harrison1 in his treatise on the ,english ,language1 p4 #aia4 ,this is all fancy2 and1 in my opinion1 absurd4 ,it is just like the religious prejudice which could discern a singular propriety in the double superlative most highest4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bh4 ,but which may still be applied to a young child1 if sex and intelligence be disregarded2 as1 ,the child which died4 ,or even to adults1 when they are spoken of without regard to a distinct personality or identity2 as1 ,which of you will go8--,crabb knoweth not which is which1 himself or his parodist4--,leigh ,hunt4 ,,obs4 #be4--;,a proper name taken merely as a name1 or an appellative taken in any sense not strictly personal1 must be represented by which1 and not by who2 as1 ,herod--which is but an other name for cruelty4--,in every prescription of duty1 ,god proposeth himself as a rewarder2 which he is only to those that please him4--,dr4 ,j4 ,owen4 ,which would perhaps be more proper than whom1 in the following passage3 ,they did not destroy the nations1 concerning whom the ,lord commanded them4--,psalms1 cvi1 #cd4 ,dr4 ,blair has preferred it in the following instance3 ,my lion and my pillar are sufficiently interpreted by the mention of ,achilles and the minister1 which ,i join to them4--,lectures1 p4 #aea4 ,he meant1 whose names ,i connect with theirs2 and not1 that he joined the person of ,achilles to a lion1 or that of a minister to a pillar4 ,,obs4 #bf4--,when two or more relative clauses pertain to the same antecedent1 if they are connected by a conjunction1 the same relative ought to be employed in each1 agreeably to the doctrine of the seventh note below2 but if no conjunction is expressed or understood between them1 the pronouns ought rather to be different2 as1 ,there are many things that you can speak of1 which cannot be seen4--,r ,w4 ,green's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,this distinction is noticed in the fifth chapter of ,etymology1 ,obs4 #bith1 on the ,classes of ,pronouns4 ,dr4 ,priestley says1 ,whatever relative be used1 in a series of clauses1 relating to the same antecedent1 the same ought to be used in them all4 ',it is remarkable1 that ,holland1 against which the war was undertaken1 and that1 in the very beginning1 was reduced to the brink of destruction1 lost nothing4'--,universal ,history1 ,vol4 #be1 p4 #aag4 ,it ought to have been1 and which in the very beginning4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,l4 ,murray1 7as ,i have shown in the ,introduction1 ,ch4 x1 #bb17 assumes all this1 without references2 adding as a salvo the word generally1 which merely impairs the certainty of the rule3--the same relative ought generally to be used in them all4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,and1 of who and that1 ,cobbett says3 ,either may do2 but both never ought to be relatives of the same antecedent in the same sentence4--,gram41 #bjb4 ,the inaccuracy of these rules is as great as that of the phraseology which is corrected under them4 ,in the following sentence1 the first relative only is restrictive1 and consequently the other may be different3 ,these were the officers that were called ,homotimoi1 and who signalized themselves afterwards so gloriously upon all occasions4--,rollin's ,hist41 ii1 #fb4 ,see also in ,rev41 x1 #fth1 a similar example without the conjunction4 ,,obs4 #bg4--;,in conversation1 the possessive pronoun your is sometimes used in a droll way1 being shortened into your in pronunciation1 and nothing more being meant by it1 than might be expressed by the article an or a3 as1 ,rich honesty dwells1 like your miser1 sir1 in a poor house2 as1 your pearl in your foul oyster4--,shakspeare4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,x4 ,,note #a4--;,a pronoun should not be introduced in connexion with words that belong more properly to the antecedent1 or to an other pronoun2 as1 ,and then there is good use for ,pallas her glass4--,bacon's ,wisdom1 p4 #bb4 ,say--for ,pallas's glass4 ,my banks they are furnish'd with bees1 ,whose murmur invites one to sleep4--,shenstone1 p4 #bhd4 ,this last instance1 however1 is only an example of pleonasm2 which is allowable and frequent in animated discourse1 but inelegant in any other4 ,our grammarians have condemned it too positively4 ,it occurs sundry times in the ,bible2 as1 ,know ye that the ,,lord he is ,god4--,psalms1 c1 #c4 ,,note ,,ii4--,a change of number in the second person1 or even a promiscuous use of ye and you in the same case and the same style1 is inelegant1 and ought to be avoided2 as1 ,you wept1 and ,i for thee--,harry1 said my lord1 don't cry2 ,i'll give you something towards thy loss4--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #bfg4 ,ye sons of sloth1 you offspring of darkness1 awake from your sleep4--,brown's ,metaphors1 p4 #if4 ,our poets have very often adopted the former solecism1 to accommodate their measure1 or to avoid the harshness of the old verb in the second person singular3 as1 ,thy heart is yet blameless1 ,o fly while you may6--,queen's ,wake1 p4 #df4 ,oh6 ,peggy1 ,peggy1 when thou goest to brew1 ,consider well what you're about to do4--,king's ,poems1 p4 #eid4 ,as in that lov'd ,athenian bower1 ,you learn'd an all-commanding power1 ,thy mimic soul1 ,o nymph endear'd6 ,can well recall what then it heard4--,collins1 ,ode to ,music4 ,,note ,,iii4--,the relative who is applied only to persons1 and to animals or things personified2 and which1 to brute animals and inanimate things spoken of literally3 as1 ,the judge who presided2--,the old crab who advised the young one2--,the horse which ran away2--,the book which was given me4 ,,note ,,iv4--,nouns of multitude1 unless they express persons directly as such1 should not be represented by the relative who3 to say1 ,the family whom ,i visited1 would hardly be proper2 that would here be better4 ,when such nouns are strictly of the neuter gender1 which may represent them2 as1 ,the committees which were appointed4 ,but where the idea of rationality is predominant1 who or whom seems not to be improper2 as1 ,the conclusion of the ,iliad is like the exit of a great man out of company whom he has entertained magnificently4--,cowper4 ,a law is only the expression of the desire of a multitude who have power to punish4--,brown's ,philosophy of the ,mind4 ,,note ,v4--,in general1 the pronoun must so agree with its antecedent as to present the same idea1 and never in such a manner as to confound the name with the thing signified1 or any two things with each other4 ,examples3 ,jane is in the nominative case1 because it leads the sentence4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,here it represents the word ,jane and not the person ,jane4 ,what mark or sign is put after master to show that he is in the possessive case8 ,spell it--,ib41 p4 #cb4 ,here the word master is most absurdly confounded with the man2 and that to accommodate grammar to a child's comprehension6 ,,note ,,vi4--,the relative that may be applied either to persons or to things4 ,in the following cases1 it is more appropriate than who1 whom1 or which2 and ought to be preferred1 unless it be necessary to use a preposition before the relative3--7#a47 ,after an adjective of the superlative degree1 when the relative clause is restrictive2#chc as1 ,he was the first that came4--,he was the fittest person that could then be found4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #dbb4 ,the ,greeks were the greatest reasoners that ever appeared in the world4--,,beattie3 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #abg4 7#b47 ,after the adjective same1 when the relative clause is restrictive2 as1 ,he is the same man that you saw before4-- ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aja2 ,murray's1 #aef2 ,campbell's ,rhet41 #dbb4 7#c47 ,after the antecedent who2 as1 ,who that is a sincere friend to it1 can look with indifference upon attempts to shake the foundation of the fabric8--,washington4 7#d47 ,after two or more antecedents that demand a relative adapted both to persons and to things2 as1 ,he spoke largely of the men and things that he had seen4--,when some particular person or thing is spoken of1 that ought to be more distinctly marked4-- ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ea4 7#e47 ,after an unlimited antecedent which the relative clause is designed to restrict2 as1 ,thoughts that breathe1 and words that burn4--,gray4 ,music that accords with the present tone of mind1 is1 on that account1 doubly agreeable4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #caa4 ,for ,theocritus descends sometimes into ideas that are gross and mean4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cic4 7#f47 ,after any antecedent introduced by the expletive it2 as1 ,it is you that suffer4--,it was ,i1 and not he1 that did it4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,it was not he#chd that they were so angry with4--,murray's ,exercises1 ,r4 #ag4 ,it was not ,gavius alone that ,verres meant to insult4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cbe4 7#g47 ,and1 in general1 wherever the propriety of who or which is doubtful2 as1 ,the little child that was placed in the midst4 ,,note ,,vii4--,when two or more relative clauses connected by a conjunction have a similar dependence in respect to the antecedent1 the same pronoun must be employed in each2 as1 ,o thou1 who art1 and who wast1 and who art to come6--,and they shall spread them before the sun1 and the moon1 and all the host of heaven1 whom they have loved1 and whom they have served1 and after whom they have walked1 and whom they have sought1 and whom they have worshiped4--,jer41 viii1 #b4 ,,note ,,viii4--,the relative1 and the preposition governing it1 should not be omitted1 when they are necessary to the sense intended1 or to a proper connexion of the parts of the sentence2 as1 ,he is still in the situation you saw him4 ,better thus3 ,he is still in the situation in which you saw him4 ,,note ,,ix4--,after certain nouns1 of time1 place1 manner1 or cause1 the conjunctive adverbs when1 where1 whither1 whence1 how1 and why1 are a sort of special relatives2 but no such adverb should be used where a preposition and a relative pronoun would better express the relation of the terms3 as1 ,a cause where justice is so much concerned4 ,say1 ,a cause in which4 ,see ,etymology1 ,obs4 #fth1 #gth1 and #hth1 on the ,classes of ,adverbs4 ,,note ,x4--,where a pronoun or a pronominal adjective will not express the meaning clearly1 the noun must be repeated1 or inserted in stead of it3 as1 ,we see the beautiful variety of colour in the rainbow1 and are led to consider the cause of it4 ,say1--the cause of that variety2 because the it may mean the variety1 the colour1 or the rainbow4 ,,note ,,xi4--,to prevent ambiguity or obscurity1 the relative should1 in general1 be placed as near as possible to the antecedent4 ,the following sentence is therefore faulty3 ,he is like a beast of prey1 that is void of compassion4 ,better thus3 ,he that is void of compassion1 is like a beast of prey4 ,,note ,,xii4--,the pronoun what should never be used in stead of the conjunction that2 as1 ,think no man so perfect but what he may err4 ,this is a vulgar fault4 ,say1--but that he may err4 ,,note ,,xiii4--,a pronoun should never be used to represent an adjective1--except the pronominal adjectives1 and others taken substantively2 because a pronoun can neither express a concrete quality as such1 nor convert it properly into an abstract3 as1 ,be attentive2 without which you will learn nothing4 ,better thus3 ,be attentive2 for without attention you will learn nothing4 ,,note ,,xiv4--,though the relative which may in some instances stand for a phrase or a sentence1 it is seldom1 if ever1 a fit representative of an indicative assertion2 as1 ,the man opposed me1 which was anticipated4-- ,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #abg4 ,say1--but his opposition was anticipated4 ,or3 ,the man opposed me1 as was anticipated4 ,or3--as ,i expected he would4 ,again3 ,the captain disobeys orders1 which is punished4--,ib41 p4 #abh4 ,this is an other factitious sentence1 formed after the same model1 and too erroneous for correction3 none but a conceited grammatist could ever have framed such a construction4 ,,note ,,xv4--,the possessive pronouns1 my1 thy1 his1 her1 its1 c41 should be inserted or repeated as often as the sense or construction of the sentence requires them2 their omission1 like that of the articles1 can scarcely in any instance constitute a proper ellipsis3 as1 ,of ,princeton and vicinity4--,say1 ,of ,princeton and its vicinity4 ,the man and wife4--,say1 ,the man and his wife4 ,many verbs vary both their signification and construction4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #agj2 ,gould's1 #aga4 ,say1--and their construction4 ,,note ,,xvi4--,in the correcting of any discord between the antecedent and its pronoun1 if the latter for any sufficient reason is most proper as it stands1 the former must be changed to accord with it3 as1 ,let us discuss what relates to each particular in their order3--its order4-- ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aic4 ,better thus3 ,let us discuss what relates to the several particulars1 in their order4 ,for the order of things implies plurality4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,x4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,of ,,agreement ,the subject is to be joined with his predicate4--,,bp4 ,,wilkins3 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronoun his is of the masculine gender1 and does not correctly represent its antecedent noun subject1 which is of the third person1 singular1 neuter4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ajth1 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent1 or the noun or pronoun which it represents1 in person1 number1 and gender4 ,therefore1 his should be its2 thus1 ,the subject is to be joined with its predicate4 ,every one must judge of their own feelings4--,byron's ,letters4 ,every one in the family should know their duty4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,to introduce its possessor into 'that way in which it should go4'--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 v4 ,do not they say1 every true believer has the ,spirit of ,god in them8--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #chh4 ,there is none in their natural state righteous1 no not one4--,wood's ,dict4 of ,bible1 ii1 #abi4 ,if ye were of the world1 the world would love his own4--,john1 xv1 #ai4 ,his form had not yet lost all her original brightness4--,milton4 ,no one will answer as if ,i were their friend or companion4--,steele1 ,spect41 ,no4 #ecd4 ,but in lowliness of mind let each esteem other better than themselves4-- ,philippians1 ii1 #c4 ,and let none of you imagine evil in your hearts against his neighbour4--,zechariah1 viii1 #ag4 ,for every tree is known by his own fruit4--,luke1 vi1 #dd4 ,but she fell to laughing1 like one out of their right mind4--,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #ea4 ,now these systems1 so far from having any tendency to make men better1 have a manifest tendency to make him worse4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #abh4 ,and nobody else would make that city their refuge any more4--,josephus's ,life1 p4 #aeh4 ,what is quantity1 as it respects syllables or words8 ,it is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it4--,bradley's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,in such expressions the adjective so much resembles an adverb in its meaning1 that they are usually parsed as such4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,the tongue is like a race-horse2 which runs the faster the less weight it carries4--,,addison3 ,joh4 ,dict42 ,murray's ,key1 ,rule #h4 ,as two thoughtless boys were trying to see which could lift the greatest weight with their jaws1 one of them had several of his firm-set teeth wrenched from their sockets4--,newspaper4 ,everybody nowadays publishes memoirs2 everybody has recollections which they think worthy of recording4--,duchess ,d',abrantes1 p4 #be4 ,every body trembled for themselves or their friends4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #aga4 ,a steed comes at morning3 no rider is there2 ,but its bridle is red with the sign of despair4--,campbell4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,pronouns ,,wrong ,,or ,,needless4 ,charles loves to study2 but ,john1 alas6 he is very idle4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,or what man is there of you1 whom if his son ask bread1 will he give him a stone8--,matt41 vii1 #i4 ,who1 in stead of going about doing good1 they are perpetually intent upon doing mischief4-- ,tillotson4 ,whom ye delivered up1 and denied him in the presence of ,pontius ,pilate4--,acts1 iii1 #ac4 ,whom1 when they had washed1 they laid her in an upper chamber4--,acts1 ix1 #cg4 ,then ,manasseh knew that the ,lord he was ,god4--#b ,chron41 xxxiii1 #ac4 ,whatever a man conceives clearly1 he may1 if he will be at the trouble1 put it into distinct propositions1 and express it clearly to others4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bic4 ,but to that point of time which he has chosen1 the painter being entirely confined1 he cannot exhibit various stages of the same action4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #eb4 ,it is without any proof at all what he subjoins4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #cja4 ,george ,fox his ,testimony concerning ,robert ,barclay4--,ib41 i1 #aaa4 ,according to the author of the ,postscript his advice4--,ib41 iii1 #bfc4 ,these things seem as ugly to the ,eye of their ,meditations1 as those thiopians pictur'd in ,nemesis her ,pitcher4--,bacon's ,wisdom of the ,ancients1 p4 #di4 ,moreover1 there is always a twofold ,condition propounded with ,sphynx her nigma's4--,ib41 p4 #gc4 ,whoever believeth not therein1 they shall perish4--,sale's ,koran1 p4 #bj4 ,when1 at ,sestius his entreaty1 ,i had been at his house4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ei4 ,there high on ,sipylus his shaggy brow1 ,she stands1 her own sad monument of woe4 --,pope's ,homer1 ,b4 xxiv1 l4 #ggg4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,change ,,of ,,number4 ,so will ,i send upon you famine1 and evil beasts1 and they shall bereave thee4--,ezekiel1 v1 #ag4 ,why do you plead so much for it8 why do ye preach it up8--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ahj4 ,since thou hast decreed that ,i shall bear man1 your darling4--,edward's ,first ,lesson in ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,you have my book and ,i have thine2 i4e4 thy book4--,chandler's ,gram41 #ahba1 p4 #bb4 ,neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what you are4--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,return1 thou backsliding ,israel1 saith the ,lord1 and ,i will not cause mine anger to fall upon you4--,jeremiah1 iii1 #ab4 ,the ,almighty1 unwilling to cut thee off in the fullness of iniquity1 has sent me to give you warning4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #bgh4 ,wert thou born only for pleasure8 were you never to do any thing8--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #fc4 ,thou shalt be required to go to ,god1 to die1 and give up your account4--,,barnes',s ,,notes3 on ,luke1 xii1 #bj4 ,and canst thou expect to behold the resplendent glory of the ,creator8 would not such a sight annihilate you8--,milton4 ,if the prophet had commanded thee to do some great thing1 would you have refused8--,common ,school ,journal1 i1 #hj4 ,art thou a penitent8 ,evince your sincerity by bringing forth fruits meet for repentance4--,christian's ,vade-,mecum1 p4 #aag4 ,i will call thee my dear son3 ,i remember all your tenderness4-- ,classic ,tales1 p4 #h4 ,so do thou1 my son3 open your ears1 and your eyes4--,wright's ,athens1 p4 #cc4 ,i promise you1 this was enough to discourage thee4--,pilgrim's ,progress1 p4 #ddf4 ,ere you remark an other's sin1 ,bid thy own conscience look within4--,gay4 ,permit that ,i share in thy woe1 ,the privilege can you refuse8--,perfect's ,poems1 p4 #f4 ,ah6 ,strephon1 how can you despise ,her who without thy pity dies8--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #cdj4 ,thy verses1 friend1 are ,kidderminster stuff1 ,and ,i must own1 you've measur'd out enough4--,shenstone4 ,this day1 dear ,bee1 is thy nativity2 ,had ,fate a luckier one1 she'd give it ye4--,swift4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,who ,,and ,,which4 ,exactly like so many puppets1 who are moved by wires4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfb4 ,they are my servants1 which ,i brought forth out of the land of ,egypt4--,leviticus1 xxv1 #db4 ,behold ,i and the children which ,god hath given me4--,heb41 ii1 #ac2 ,webster's ,bible1 and others4 ,and he sent ,eliakim which was over the household1 and ,shebna the scribe4--#b ,kings1 xix1 #b4 ,in a short time the streets were cleared of the corpses who filled them4--,m',ilvaine's ,led41 p4 #daa4 ,they are not of those which teach things which they ought not1 for filthy lucre's sake4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dce4 ,as a lion among the beasts of the forest1 as a young lion among the flocks of sheep2 who1 if he go through1 both treadeth down and teareth in pieces4--,micah1 v1 #h4 ,frequented by every fowl whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water4--,rasselas1 p4 #aj4 ,he had two sons1 one of which was adopted by the family of ,maximus4--,lempriere1 w4 mytius4 ,and the ants1 who are collected by the smell1 are burned by fire4--,the ,friend1 xii1 #di4 ,they being the agents1 to which this thing was trusted4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #aci4 ,a packhorse who is driven constantly forwards and backwards to market4--,,locke3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,by instructing children1 the affection of which will be increased4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #acf4 ,he had a comely young woman which travelled with him4--,hutchinson's ,hist41 i1 #bi4 ,a butterfly1 which thought himself an accomplished traveller1 happened to light upon a beehive4--,inst41 p4 #adc4 ,it is an enormous elephant of stone1 who disgorges from his uplifted trunk a vast but graceful shower4--,zenobia1 i1 #aej4 ,he was met by a dolphin1 who sometimes swam before him1 and sometimes behind him4--,edward's ,first ,lessons in ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,that ,csar's horse1 who1 as fame goes1 ,had corns upon his feet and toes1 ,was not by half so tender-hooft1 ,nor trod upon the ground so soft4--,hudibras1 p4 #f4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,nouns ,,of ,,multitude4 ,he instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him4--,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #eb4 ,the court1 who gives currency to manners1 ought to be exemplary4--,ibid4 ,nor does he describe classes of sinners who do not exist4--,anti-,slavery ,magazine1 i1 #bg4 ,because the nations among whom they took their rise1 were not savage4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,among nations who are in the first and rude periods of society4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #fj4 ,the martial spirit of those nations1 among whom the feudal government prevailed4--,ib41 p4 #cgd4 ,france who was in alliance with ,sweden4--,smollett's ,voltaire1 vi1 #ahg4 ,that faction in ,england who most powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions4--,mrs4 ,macaulay's ,hist41 iii1 #ba4 ,we may say1 the crowd1 who was going up the street4'--,cobbett's ,gram41 #bjd4 ,such members of the ,convention who formed this ,lyceum1 as have subscribed this ,constitution4--,new-,york ,lyceum4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,confusion ,,of ,,senses4 ,the possessor shall take a particular form to show its case4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ec4 ,of which reasons the principal one is1 that no ,noun1 properly so called1 implies its own ,presence4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #gf4 ,boston is a proper noun1 which distinguishes it from other cities4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,conjunction means union1 or joining together4 ,it is used to join or unite either words or sentences4--,ib41 p4 #bj4 ,the word interjection means thrown among4 ,it is interspersed among other words to express sudden or strong emotion4--,ib41 p4 #ba4 ,in deed1 or in very deed1 may better be written separately1 as they formerly were4--,cardell's ,gram41 #abmo1 p4 #hi4 ,alexander1 on the contrary1 is a particular name1 and is restricted to distinguish him alone4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #be4 ,as an indication that nature itself had changed her course4--,hist4 of ,america1 p4 #i4 ,of removing from the ,united ,states and her territories the free people of colour4--,jenifer4 ,so that gh may be said not to have their proper sound4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #aj4 ,are we to welcome the loathsome harlot1 and introduce it to our children8--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #afg4 ,the first question is this1 ',is reputable1 national1 and present use1 which1 for brevity's sake1 ,i shall hereafter simply denominate good use1 always uniform in her decisions8--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aga4 ,time is always masculine1 on account of its mighty efficacy4 ,virtue is feminine from its beauty1 and its being the object of love4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cg2 ,blair's1 #abe2 ,sanborn's1 #ahi2 ,emmons's1 #ac2 ,putnam's1 #be2 ,fisk's1 #eg2 ,ingersoll's1 #bf2 ,greenleaf's1 #ba4 ,see also ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #gf4 ,when you speak to a person or thing1 it is in the second person4--,bartlett's ,manual1 ,part ii1 p4 #bg4 ,you now know the noun1 for it means name4--,ibid4 ,t4 ,what do you see8 ,p4 ,a book4 ,t4 ,spell it4--,r4 ,w4 ,green's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,t4 ,what do you see now8 ,p4 ,two books4 ,t4 ,spell them4--,ibid4 ,if the ,united ,states lose her rights as a nation4--,liberator1 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #bd4 ,when a person or thing is addressed or spoken to1 it is in the second person4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,when a person or thing is spoken of1 it is in the third person4--,ibid4 ,the ox1 that ploughs the ground1 has the same plural termination also1 oxen4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,hail1 happy ,states6 thine is the blissful seat1 ,where nature's gifts and art's improvements meet4 ,,everett3 ,columbian ,orator1 p4 #bci4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,the ,,relative ,,that4 7#a47 ,this is the most useful art which men possess4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bge4 ,the earliest accounts which history gives us concerning all nations1 bear testimony to these facts4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgi2 ,jamieson's1 #cjj4 ,mr4 ,addison was the first who attempted a regular inquiry into the pleasures of taste4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bh4 ,one of the first who introduced it was ,montesquieu4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #abe4 ,massillon is perhaps the most eloquent writer of sermons which modern times have produced4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bhi4 ,the greatest barber who ever lived1 is our guiding star and prototype4--,hart's ,figaro1 ,no4 #f4 7#b47 ,when prepositions are subjoined to nouns1 they are generally the same which are subjoined to the verbs1 from which the nouns are derived4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aeg4 ,the same proportions which are agreeable in a model1 are not agreeable in a large building4--,kames1 ,,el of ,crit41 ii1 #cdc4 ,the same ornaments1 which we admire in a private apartment1 are unseemly in a temple4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #abh4 ,the same whom ,john saw also in the sun4--,milton4 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iii1 l4 #fbc4 7#c47 ,who can ever be easy1 who is reproached with his own ill conduct8--,thomas ,kempis1 p4 #gb4 ,who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green8--,inst41 p4 #adc4 ,who who has either sense or civility1 does not perceive the vileness of profanity8 7#d47 ,the second person denotes the person or thing which is spoken to4--,compendium in ,kirkham's ,gram4 ,the third person denotes the person or thing which is spoken of4--,ibid4 ,a passive verb denotes action received or endured by the person or thing which is its nominative4--,ibid1 and ,gram41 p4 #aeg4 ,the princes and states who had neglected or favoured the growth of this power4--,bolingbroke1 on ,history1 p4 #bbb4 ,the nominative expresses the name of the person1 or thing which acts1 or which is the subject of discourse4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 7#e47 ,authors who deal in long sentences1 are very apt to be faulty4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajh4 ,writers who deal in long sentences1 are very apt to be faulty4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cac4 ,the neuter gender denotes objects which are neither male nor female4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,the neuter gender denotes things which have no sex4--,kirkham's ,compendium4 ,nouns which denote objects neither male nor female1 are of the neuter gender4--,wells's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #di4 ,objects and ideas which have been long familiar1 make too faint an impression to give an agreeable exercise to our faculties4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ej4 ,cases which custom has left dubious1 are certainly within the grammarian's province4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afd4 ,substantives which end in ery1 signify action or habit4--,ib41 p4 #acb4 ,after all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar accurate1 c4--,ib41 p4 #cf4 ,possibly1 all which ,i have said1 is known and taught4--,a4 ,b4 ,johnson's ,plan of a ,dict41 p4 #ae4 7#f47 ,it is a strong and manly style which should chiefly be studied4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bfa4 ,it is this which chiefly makes a division appear neat and elegant4--,ib41 p4 #cac4 ,i hope it is not ,i with whom he is displeased4--,murray's ,key1 ,r4 #ag4 ,when it is this alone which renders the sentence obscure4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bdb4 ,this sort of full and ample assertion1 'it is this which1' is fit to be used when a proposition of importance is laid down4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aig4 ,she is the person whom ,i understood it to have been4 ,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aha4 ,was it thou1 or the wind1 who shut the door8--,inst41 p4 #adc4 ,it was not ,i who shut it4--,ib4 7#g47 ,he is not the person who it seemed he was4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aha2 ,ingersoll's1 p4 #adg4 ,he is really the person who he appeared to be4--,same4 ,she is not now the woman whom they represented her to have been4--,same4 ,an only child1 is one who has neither brother nor sister2 a child alone1 is one who is left by itself--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ih2 ,jamieson's1 #ga2 ,murray's ,gram4 #cjc4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,relative ,,clauses ,,connected4 7#a47 ,a ,substantive1 or ,noun1 is the name of a thing2 of whatever we conceive in any way to subsist1 or of which we have any notion4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 7#b47 ,a ,substantive or noun is the name of any thing that exists1 or of which we have any notion4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bg2 ,alger's1 #ae2 ,bacon's1 #i2 ,e4 ,dean's1 #h2 ,a4 ,flint's1 #aj2 ,folker's1 #e2 ,hamlin's1 #i2 ,ingersoll's1 #ad2 ,merchant's1 #be2 ,pond's1 #ae2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #aj2 ,rand's1 #i2 ,russell's1 #i2 ,t4 ,smith's1 #ab2 and others4 7#c47 ,a substantive or noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing that exists1 or of which we can have an idea4--,frost's ,el4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #f4 7#d47 ,a noun is the name of anything that exists1 or of which we form an idea4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 7#e47 ,a ,noun is the name of any person1 place1 object1 or thing1 that exists1 or which we may conceive to exist4--,d4 ,c4 ,allen's ,grammatic ,guide1 p4 #ai4 7#f47 ,the name of every thing that exists1 or of which we can form any notion1 is a noun4--,fisk's ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ef4 7#g47 ,an allegory is the representation of some one thing by an other that resembles it1 and which is made to stand for it4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cda4 7#h47 ,had he exhibited such sentences as contained ideas inapplicable to young minds1 or which were of a trivial or injurious nature4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 v4 7#i47 ,man would have others obey him1 even his own kind2 but he will not obey ,god1 that is so much above him1 and who made him4--,penn's ,maxims4 7#aj47 ,but what we may consider here1 and which few ,persons have taken ,notice of1 is1 c4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #aag4 7#aa47 ,the ,compiler has not inserted such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse1 and which are improperly terminated by t1 instead of ed4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ajg2 ,fisk's1 #ha2 ,hart's1 #fh2 ,ingersoll's1 #ajd2 ,merchant's1 #fc4 7#ab47 ,the remaining parts of speech1 which are called the indeclinable parts1 or that admit of no variations1 will not detain us long4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #hd4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,the ,,relative ,,and ,,preposition4 ,in the temper of mind he was then4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #ed4 ,to bring them into the condition ,i am at present4--,spect41 ,no4 #ebj4 ,in the posture ,i lay4--,swift's ,gulliver4 ,in the sense it is sometimes taken4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ebg4 ,tools and utensils are said to be right1 when they serve for the uses they were made4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ii4 ,if1 in the extreme danger ,i now am1 ,i do not imitate the behaviour of those1 c4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #aic4 ,news was brought1 that ,darius was but twenty miles from the place they then were4--,ib41 ii1 #aac4 ,alexander1 upon hearing this news1 continued four days in the place he then was4--,ib41 ii1 #aac4 ,to read1 in the best manner it is now taught4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bdf4 ,it may be expedient to give a few directions as to the manner it should be studied4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,participles are words derived from verbs1 and convey an idea of the acting of an agent1 or the suffering of an object1 with the time it happens4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ej4 ,had ,i but serv'd my ,god with half the zeal ,i serv'd my king1 he would not in mine age ,have left me naked to mine enemies4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #agc4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,adverbs ,,for ,,relatives4 ,in compositions where pronunciation has no place4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aja4 ,they framed a protestation1 where they repeated their claims4--,hume's ,hist4 ,which have reference to ,substances1 where ,sex never had existence4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #dc4 ,which denote substances where sex never had existence4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ch2 ,fisk's1 #eg4 ,there is no rule given how truth may be found out4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #afj4 ,the nature of the objects whence they are taken4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #afe4 ,that darkness of character1 where we can see no heart4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bcf4 ,the states where they negotiated4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #aei4 ,till the motives whence men act be known4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #bfb4 ,he assigns the principles whence their power of pleasing flows4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ai4 ,but ,i went on1 and so finished this ,history in that form as it now appears4--,sewel's ,preface1 p4 v4 ,by prepositions we express the cause why1 the instrument by which1 wherewith1 or the manner how a thing is done4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #abh2 ,john ,burn's1 #aba4 ,they are not such in the language whence they are derived4--,town's ,analysis1 p4 #ac4 ,i find it very hard to persuade several1 that their passions are affected by words from whence they have no ideas4--,burke1 on the ,sublime1 p4 #ie4 ,the known end1 then1 why we are placed in a state of so much affliction1 hazard1 and difficulty1 is our improvement in virtue and piety4--,butler's ,anal41 p4 #aji4 ,yet such his acts1 as ,greeks unborn shall tell1 ,and curse the battle where their fathers fell4 --,pope1 ,il41 ,b4 x1 ,i4 #fa4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,repeat ,,the ,,noun4 ,youth may be thoughtful1 but it is not very common4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #he4 ,a proper name is that given to one person or thing4--,bartlett's ,school ,manual1 ii1 #bg4 ,a common name is that given to many things of the same sort4--,ibid4 ,this rule is often violated2 some instances of which are annexed4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #adi2 ,ingersoll's1 #bcg4 ,this is altogether careless writing4 ,it renders style often obscure1 always embarrassed and inelegant4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajf4 ,every inversion which is not governed by this rule1 will be disrelished by every one of taste4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #fb4 ,a proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #i2 ,alger's1 #aa2 ,bacon's1 #h2 ,merchant's1 #i2 ,hiley's1 #c2 and others4 ,an improper ,diphthong is one in which only one of the two ,vowels is sounded4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 ,jacob1 and his descendants1 are called ,hebrews4--,wood's ,dict4 ,every word in our language1 of more than one syllable1 has one of them distinguished from the rest in this manner4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bcf4 ,two consonants proper to begin a word must not be separated2 as1 fa-ble1 sti-fle4 ,but when they come between two vowels1 and are such as cannot begin a word1 they must be divided2 as1 ut-most1 un-der4--,ib41 p4 #bb4 ,shall the intellect alone feel no pleasures in its energy1 when we allow them to the grossest energies of appetite and sense8--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bih2 ,murray's ,gram41 #bhi4 ,no man hath a propensity to vice as such3 on the contrary1 a wicked deed disgusts him1 and makes him abhor the author4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #ff4 ,the same that belong to nouns1 belong also to pronouns4--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,what is ,language8 ,it is the means of communicating thoughts from one to another4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,a simple word is that which is not made up of more than one4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #d2 ,gould's1 p4 #d4 ,a compound word is that which is made up of two or more words4--,ib4 ,when a conjunction is to be supplied1 it is called ,asyndeton4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bce4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,place ,,of ,,the ,,relative4 ,it gives a meaning to words1 which they would not have4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bdd4 ,there are many words in the ,english language1 that are sometimes used as adjectives1 and sometimes as adverbs4--,ib41 p4 #aad4 ,which do not more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind1 than the auxiliaries do which are used to form the potential mood4--,ib41 p4 #fg4 ,these accents make different impressions on the mind1 which will be the subject of a following speculation4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ajh4 ,and others very much differed from the writer's words1 to whom they were ascribed4--,pref4 to ,lily's ,gram41 p4 xii4 ,where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated1 an easy fall will be proper4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bej2 ,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 #afg4 ,there is an ellipsis of the verb in the last clause1 which1 when you supply1 you find it necessary to use the adverb not4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #agf2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cfh4 ,study is singular number1 because its nominative ,i is1 with which it agrees4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,john is the person1 or1 thou art who is in error4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #acf4 ,for he hath made him to be sin for us1 who knew no sin4--#b ,cor41 v1 #ba4 ,take that of me1 my friend1 who have the power ,to seal the accuser's lips4--,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #bfh4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,what ,,for ,,that4 ,i had no idea but what the story was true4--,browns ,inst41 p4 #add4 ,the post-boy is not so weary but what he can whistle4--,ib4 ,he had no intimation but what the men were honest4--,ib4 ,neither ,lady ,haversham nor ,miss ,mildmay will ever believe1 but what ,i have been entirely to blame4--,see ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,i am not satisfied1 but what the integrity of our friends is more essential to our welfare than their knowledge of the world4--,ibid4 ,there is1 indeed1 nothing in poetry1 so entertaining or descriptive1 but what a didactic writer of genius may be allowed to introduce in some part of his work4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dja4 ,brasidas1 being bit by a mouse he had catched1 let it slip out of his fingers3 ',no creature1 7says he17 is so contemptible but what may provide for its own safety1 if it have courage4'--,,plutarch3 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ha4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,adjectives ,,for ,,antecedents4 ,in narration1 ,homer is1 at all times1 remarkably concise1 which renders him lively and agreeable4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dce4 ,it is usual to talk of a nervous1 a feeble1 or a spirited style2 which are plainly the characters of a writer's manner of thinking4--,ib41 p4 #ib4 ,it is too violent an alteration1 if any alteration were necessary1 which none is4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 p4 #acd4 ,some men are too ignorant to be humble1 without which1 there can be no docility4--,berkley's ,alciphron1 p4 #che4 ,judas declared him innocent2 which he could not be1 had he in any respect deceived the disciples4--,porteus4 ,they supposed him to be innocent1 which he certainly was not4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ej2 ,emmons's1 #be4 ,they accounted him honest1 which he certainly was not4--,fetch's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,be accurate in all you say or do2 for it is important in all the concerns of life4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #ade4 ,every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked2 which indeed he is1 if the law is just4--,ib4 ,to be pure in heart1 pious1 and benevolent1 which all may be1 constitutes human happiness4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bcb4 ,to be dexterous in danger1 is a virtue2 but to court danger to show it1 is weakness4--,penn's ,maxims4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiv4--,,sentences ,,for ,,antecedents4 ,this seems not so allowable in prose2 which the following erroneous examples will demonstrate4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #age4 ,the accent is laid upon the last syllable of a word2 which is favourable to the melody4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #hf4 ,every line consists of ten syllables1 five short and five long2 from which there are but two exceptions1 both of them rare4--,ib41 ii1 #hi4 ,the soldiers refused obedience1 which has been explained4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #abh4 ,csar overcame ,pompey1 which was lamented4--,ib4 ,the crowd hailed ,william1 which was expected4--,ib4 ,the tribunes resisted ,scipio1 which was anticipated4--,ib4 ,the censors reproved vice1 which was admired4--,ib4 ,the generals neglected discipline1 which has been proved4--,ib4 ,there would be two nominatives to the verb was1 which is improper4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bje2 ,gould's1 #bjb4 ,his friend bore the abuse very patiently2 which served to increase his rudeness3 it produced1 at length1 contempt and insolence4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ej2 ,emmons's1 #be4 ,almost all compounded sentences1 are more or less elliptical2 some examples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bag2 ,guy's1 #ij2 ,r ,g4 ,smith's1 #ahj2 ,ingersoll's1 #aec2 ,fisk's1 #add2 ,j4 ,m4 ,putnam's1 #acg2 ,weld's1 #aij1 ,weld's ,imp4 ,ed41 #bad4 ,,under ,,note ,,xv4--,,repeat ,,the ,,pronoun4 ,in things of ,nature's workmanship1 whether we regard their internal or external structure1 beauty and design are equally conspicuous4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bfi4 ,it puzzles the reader1 by making him doubt whether the word ought to be taken in its proper or figurative sense4--,ib41 ii1 #bca4 ,neither my obligations to the muses1 nor expectations from them1 are so great4--,cowley's ,preface4 ,the ,fifth ,annual ,report of the ,anti-,slavery ,society of ,ferrisburgh and vicinity4--,liberator1 ix1 #fi4 ,meaning taste in its figurative as well as proper sense4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cfj4 ,every measure in which either your personal or political character is concerned4--,junius1 ,let4 ix4 ,a jealous1 righteous ,god has often punished such in themselves or offspring4--,extracts1 p4 #agi4 ,hence their civil and religious history are inseparable4--,milman's ,jews1 i1 #g4 ,esau thus carelessly threw away both his civil and religious inheritance4--,ib41 i1 #bd4 ,this intelligence excited not only our hopes1 but fears likewise4--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #agj4 ,in what manner our defect of principle and ruling manners have completed the ruin of the national spirit of union4--,brown's ,estimate1 i1 #gg4 ,considering her descent1 her connexion1 and present intercourse4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #he4 ,his own and wife's wardrobe are packed up in a firkin4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part i1 p4 #gc4 ,,under ,,note ,,xvi4--,,change ,,the ,,antecedent4 ,the sound of e and o long1 in their due degrees1 will be preserved1 and clearly distinguished4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bdb4 ,if any person should be inclined to think1 c41 the author takes the liberty to suggest to them1 c4--,ib41 ,pref41 p4 iv4 ,and he walked in all the ways of ,asa his father2 he turned not aside from it4--#a ,kings1 xxii1 #dc4 ,if ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brother their trespasses4--,matt41 xviii1 #ce4 ,nobody ever fancied they were slighted by him1 or had the courage to think themselves his betters4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #h4 ,and ,rebekah took goodly raiment of her eldest son ,esau1 which were with her in the house1 and put them upon ,jacob her younger son4--,gen41 xxvii1 #ae4 ,where all the attention of man is given to their own indulgence4-- ,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #aha4 ,the idea of a father is a notion superinduced to the substance1 or man--let man be what it will4--,locke's ,essay1 i1 #bai4 ,leaving every one to do as they list4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dfj4 ,each body performed his part handsomely4--,j4 ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,this block of marble rests on two layers of stone1 bound together with lead1 which1 however1 has not prevented the ,arabs from forcing out several of them4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part i1 p4 #gb4 ,love gives to every power a double power1 ,above their functions and their offices4--,shakspeare4 ,,rule ,,xi4--,,pronouns4 ,when the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 the ,pronoun must agree with it in the plural number3 as1 ,the council were divided in their sentiments4--,the ,christian world are beginning to awake out of their slumber4--,c4 ,simeon4 ,whatever ,adam's posterity lost through him1 that and more they gain in ,christ4--,j4 ,phipps4 ,to this1 one pathway gently-winding leads1 ,where march a train with baskets on their heads4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 xviii1 l4 #feg4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xi4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the collective noun1 or noun of multitude1 being a name that signifies many1 may in general be taken in either of two ways1 according to the intention of the user3 that is1 either with reference to the aggregate as one thing1 in which sense it will accord with the neuter pronoun it or which2 or with reference to the individuals1 so as to accord with a plural pronoun they1 their1 them1 or who1 masculine1 or feminine1 as the individuals of the assemblage may happen to be4 ,the noun itself1 being literally singular both in form and in fact1 has not unfrequently some article or adjective before it that implies unity2 so that the interpretation of it in a plural sense by the pronoun or verb1 was perhaps not improperly regarded by the old grammarians as an example of the figure syllepsis34as1 ,liberty should reach every individual of a people1 as they all share one common nature4--,spectator1 ,no4 #bhg4 ,thus urg'd the chief2 a generous troop appears1 ,who spread their bucklers and advance their spears4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 xi1 l4 #gbj4 ,,obs4 #b4--,many of our grammarians say1 ,when a noun of multitude is preceded by a definitive word1 which clearly limits the sense to an aggregate with an idea of unity1 it requires a verb and pronoun to agree with it in the singular number4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aec2 ,ingersoll's1 #bdi2 ,fisk's1 #abb2 ,fowler's1 #ebh4 ,but this principle1 ,i apprehend1 cannot be sustained by an appeal to general usage4 ,the instances in practice are not few1 in which both these senses are clearly indicated with regard to the same noun2 as1 ,each ,house shall keep a journal of its proceedings1 and from time to time publish the same1 excepting such parts as may in their judgement require secrecy4--,constitution of the ,united ,states1 ,art4 i1 ,sec4 #e4 ,i mean that part of mankind who are known by the name of women's men1 or beaux4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #ecf4 ,a set of men who are common enough in the world4--,ibid4 ,it is vain for a people to expect to be free1 unless they are first willing to be virtuous4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #cig4 ,for this people's heart is waxed gross1 and their ears are dull of hearing1 and their eyes they have closed4--,matt41 xiii1 #ae4 ,this enemy had now enlarged their confederacy1 and made themselves more formidable than before4--,life of ,antoninus1 p4 #fb4 ,thus from the tents the fervent legion swarms2 ,so loud their clamour1 and so keen their arms4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 xvi1 l4 #cbj4 ,,obs4 #c4--,most collective nouns of the neuter gender1 may take the regular plural form1 and be represented by a pronoun in the third person1 plural1 neuter2 as1 ,the nations will enforce their laws4 ,this construction comes under ,rule #ajth1 as does also the singular1 ,the nations will enforce its laws2 for1 in either case1 the agreement is entirely literal4 ,half of ,murray's ,rule #dth is therefore needless4 ,to ,rule #aath above1 there are properly no exceptions2 because the number of the pronoun is itself the index to the sense in which the antecedent is therein taken4 ,it does not follow1 however1 but that there may be violations of the rule1 or of the notes under it1 by the adoption of one number when the other would be more correct1 or in better taste4 ,a collection of things inanimate1 as a fleet1 a heap1 a row1 a tier1 a bundle1 is seldom1 if ever1 taken distributively1 with a plural pronoun4 ,for a further elucidation of the construction of collective nouns1 see ,rule #aeth1 and the observations under it4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xi4 ,,note ,i4--,a collective noun conveying the idea of unity1 requires a pronoun in the third person1 singular1 neuter2 as1 ,when a legislative body makes laws1 it acts for itself only2 but when it makes grants or contracts1 it acts as a party4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #dj4 ,a civilized people has no right to violate its solemn obligations1 because the other party is uncivilized4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #cad4 ,,note ,,ii4--,when a collective noun is followed by two or more words which must each in some sense agree with it1 uniformity of number is commonly preferable to diversity1 and especially to such a mixture as puts the singular both before and after the plural2 as1 ,that ingenious nation who have done so much honour to modern literature1 possesses1 in an eminent degree1 the talent of narration4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cfd4 ,better3 which has done4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xi4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,plurality4 ,the jury will be confined till it agrees on a verdict4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #ade4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronoun it is of the singular number1 and does not correctly represent its antecedent jury1 which is a collective noun conveying rather the idea of plurality4 ,but1 according to ,rule #aath1 ,when the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number4 ,therefore1 it should be they2 thus1 ,the jury will be confined till they agree on a verdict4 ,and mankind directed its first cares towards the needful4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #aad4 ,it is difficult to deceive a free people respecting its true interest4--,life of ,charles ,,xii1 p4 #fg4 ,all the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers1 but his follies and vices are innumerable4--,swift4 ,every sect saith1 ',give me liberty3' but give it him1 and to his power1 he will not yield it to any body else4--,oliver ,cromwell4 ,behold1 the people shall rise up as a great lion1 and lift up himself as a young lion4--,numbers1 xxiii1 #bd4 ,for all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth4--,gen41 vi1 #ab4 ,there happened to the army a very strange accident1 which put it in great consternation4--,goldsmith4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,unity4 ,the meeting went on in their business as a united body4--,foster's ,report1 i1 #fi4 ,every religious association has an undoubted right to adopt a creed for themselves4--,gould's ,advocate1 iii1 #dje4 ,it would therefore be extremely difficult to raise an insurrection in that ,state against their own government4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ajd4 ,the mode in which a ,lyceum can apply themselves in effecting a reform in common schools4--,new ,york ,lyceum4 ,hath a nation changed their gods1 which are yet no gods8--,jeremiah1 ii1 #aa4 ,in the holy scriptures each of the twelve tribes of ,israel is often called by the name of the patriarch1 from whom they descended4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhet41 ii1 #cca4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,uniformity ,,of ,,number4 ,a nation1 by the reparation of their own wrongs1 achieves a triumph more glorious than any field of blood can ever give4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams4 ,the ,english nation1 from which we descended1 have been gaining their liberties inch by inch4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #de4 ,if a ,yearly ,meeting should undertake to alter its fundamental doctrines1 is there any power in the society to prevent their doing so8--,foster's ,report1 i1 #if4 ,there is a generation that curseth their father1 and doth not bless their mother4--,proverbs1 xxx1 #aa4 ,there is a generation that are pure in their own eyes1 and yet is not washed from their filthiness4--,ib41 xxx1 #ab4 ,he hath not beheld iniquity in ,jacob1 neither hath he seen perverseness in ,israel3 the ,lord his ,god is with him1 and the shout of a king is among them4--,numb41 xxiii1 #ba4 ,my people hath forgotten me1 they have burnt incense to vanity4--,jer41 xviii1 #ae4 ,when a quarterly meeting hath come to a judgment respecting any difference1 relative to any monthly meeting belonging to them1 c4--,extracts1 p4 #aie2 ,n4 ,e4 ,discip41 p4 #aah4 ,the number of such compositions is every day increasing1 and appear to be limited only by the pleasure or conveniency of the writer4--,booth's ,introd4 to ,dict41 p4 #cg4 ,the church of ,christ hath the same power now as ever1 and are led by the same ,spirit into the same practices4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dgg4 ,the army1 whom the chief had thus abandoned1 pursued meanwhile their miserable march4--,lockhart's ,napoleon1 ii1 #afe4 ,,rule ,,xii4--,,pronouns4 ,when a ,pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and1 it must agree with them jointly in the plural1 because they are taken together3 as1 ,minos and ,thales sung to the lyre the laws which they composed4--,,strabo3 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgi4 ,saul and ,jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives1 and in their death they were not divided4--#b ,sam41 i1 #bc4 ,rhesus and ,rhodius then unite their rills1 ,caresus roaring down the stony hills4--,pope1 ,il41 ,b4 xii1 l4 #ag4 ,,exception ,,first4 ,when two or more antecedents connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing1 they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name1 and do not require a plural pronoun2 as1 ,this great philosopher and statesman continued in public life till his eighty-second year4--,the same ,spirit1 light1 and life1 which enlighteneth1 also sanctifieth1 and there is not an other4--,penington4 ,my ,constantius and ,philetus confesseth me two years older when ,i writ it4--,cowley's ,preface4 ,remember these1 ,o ,jacob and ,israel6 for thou art my servant4--,isaiah1 xliv1 #ba4 ,in that strength and cogency which renders eloquence powerful4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #beb4 ,,exception ,,second4 ,when two antecedents connected by and are emphatically distinguished1 they belong to different propositions1 and1 if singular1 do not require a plural pronoun2 as1 ,the butler1 and not the baker1 was restored to his office4--,the good man1 and the sinner too1 shall have his reward4--,truth1 and truth only1 is worth seeking for its own sake4--,it is the sense in which the word is used1 and not the letters of which it is composed1 that determines what is the part of speech to which it belongs4--,cobbett's ,gram41 #acj4 ,,exception ,,third4 ,when two or more antecedents connected by and are preceded by the adjective each1 every1 or no1 they are taken separately1 and do not require a plural pronoun2 as1 ,every plant and every tree produces others after its own kind4--,it is the cause of every reproach and distress which has attended your government4--,junius1 ,let4 xxxv4 ,but if the latter be a collective noun1 the pronoun may be plural2 as1 ,each minister and each church act according to their own impressions4--,dr4 ,m',cartee4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xii4 ,,obs4 #a4--,when the antecedents are of different persons1 the first person is preferred to the second1 and the second to the third2 as1 ,john1 and thou1 and ,i1 are attached to our country4--,john and thou are attached to your country4--,the ,lord open some light1 and show both you and me our inheritance6--,baxter4 ,thou and thy sons with thee shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood4--,numbers1 xviii1 #a4 ,for all are friends in heaven2 all faithful friends2 ,and many friendships in the days of ,time ,begun1 are lasting here1 and growing still3 ,so grows ours evermore1 both theirs and mine4 --,pollok1 ,c4 of ,t41 ,b4 v1 l4 #cce4 ,,obs #b4--,the gender of pronouns1 except in the third person singular1 is distinguished only by their antecedents4 ,in expressing that of a pronoun which has antecedents of different genders1 the masculine should be preferred to the feminine1 and the feminine to the neuter4 ,the parser of ,english should remember1 that this is a principle of ,general ,grammar4 ,,obs #c4--,when two words are taken separately as nominatives1 they ought not to be united in the same sentence as antecedents4 ,in the following example1 therefore1 them should be it3 ,the first has a lenis1 and the other an asper over them4--,printer's ,gram41 p4 #bdf4 ,better thus3 ,the first has a lenis over it1 and the other an asper4 ,,obs4 #d4--,nouns that stand as nominatives or antecedents1 are sometimes taken conjointly when there is no conjunction expressed2 as1 ,the historian1 the orator1 the philosopher1 address themselves primarily to the understanding3 their direct aim is1 to inform1 to persuade1 to instruct4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgg4 ,the copulative and may here be said to be understood1 because the verb and the pronouns are plural2 but it seems better in general1 either to introduce the connective word1 or to take the nouns disjunctively3 as1 ,they have all the copiousness1 the fervour1 the inculcating method1 that is allowable and graceful in an orator2 perhaps too much of it for a writer4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cdc4 ,to this1 however1 there may be exceptions1--cases in which the plural form is to be preferred1--especially in poetry2 as1 ,faith1 justice1 heaven itself1 now quit their hold1 ,when to false fame the captive heart is sold4--,brown1 on ,satire4 ,,obs4 #e4--,when two or more antecedents connected by and are nominally alike1 one or more of them may be understood2 and1 in such a case1 the pronoun must still be plural1 as agreeing with all the nouns1 whether expressed or implied3 as1 ,but intellectual and moral culture ought to go hand in hand2 they will greatly help each other4--,dr4 ,weeks4 ,here they stands for intellectual culture and moral culture4 ,the following example is incorrect3 ,the ,commanding and ,unlimited mode may be used in an absolute sense1 or without a name or substitute on which it can depend4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,change it to they1 or and to or4 ,see ,note #fth to ,rule #afth4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xii4 ,,pronouns ,,with ,,antecedents ,,connected ,,by ,,and4 ,discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #adf4 ,,formule--,not proper1 because the pronoun itself is of the singular number1 and does not correctly represent its two antecedents discontent and sorrow1 which are connected by and1 and taken conjointly4 ,but1 according to ,rule #abth1 ,when a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and1 it must agree with then1 jointly in the plural1 because they are taken together4 ,therefore1 itself should be themselves2 thus1 ,discontent and sorrow manifested themselves in his countenance4 ,both conversation and public speaking became more simple and plain1 such as we now find it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ei4 ,idleness and ignorance1 if it be suffered to proceed1 c4--,,johnson3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ahf4 ,avoid questions and strife2 it shows a busy and contentious disposition4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,to receive the gifts and benefits of ,god with thanksgiving1 and witness it blessed and sanctified to us by the word and prayer1 is owned by us4--,barclays ,works1 i1 #bac4 ,both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose between his duty and his reputation4--,junius1 p4 #i4 ,all the sincerity1 truth1 and faithfulness1 or disposition of heart or conscience to approve it1 found among rational creatures1 necessarily originate from ,god4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 #ab4 ,your levity and heedlessness1 if it continue1 will prevent all substantial improvement4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #adg4 ,poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems it oppressive4--,ib4 ,good sense and refined policy are obvious to few1 because it cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection4--,ib4 ,avoid haughtiness of behaviour1 and affectation1 of manners3 it implies a want of solid merit4--,ib4 ,if love and unity continue1 it will make you partakers of one an other's joy4--,ib4 ,suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter3 it will destroy1 like a canker1 every germ of friendship4--,ib4 ,hatred and animosity are inconsistent with ,christian charity2 guard1 therefore1 against the slightest indulgence of it4--,ib4 ,every man is entitled to liberty of conscience1 and freedom of opinion1 if he does not pervert it to the injury of others4--,ib4 ,with the azure and vermilion ,which is mix'd for my pavilion4--,byron's ,manfred1 p4 #i4 ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,pronouns4 ,when a ,pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor1 it must agree with them singly1 and not as if taken together3 as2 ,james or ,john will favour us with his company4--,neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its votaries4 ,what virtue or what mental grace1 ,but men unqualified and base ,will boast it their possession8--,cowper1 on ,friendship4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xiii4 ,,obs4 #a4--,when two or more singular antecedents are connected by or or nor1 the pronoun which represents them1 ought in general to be singular1 because or and nor are disjunctives2 and1 to form a complete concord1 the nouns ought also to be of the same person and gender1 that the pronoun may agree in all respects with each of them4 ,but when plural nouns are connected in this manner1 the pronoun will of course be plural1 though it still agrees with the antecedents singly2 as1 ,neither riches nor honours ever satisfy their pursuers4 ,sometimes1 when different numbers occur together1 we find the plural noun put last1 and the pronoun made plural after both1 especially if this noun is a mere substitute for the other2 as1 ,what's justice to a man1 or laws1 ,that never comes within their claws4--,hudibras4 ,,obs4 #b4--,when antecedents of different persons1 numbers1 or genders1 are connected by or or nor1 they cannot very properly be represented by any pronoun that is not applicable to each of them4 ,the following sentences are therefore inaccurate2 or at least they contradict the teachings of their own authors3 ,either thou or ,i am greatly mistaken1 in our judgment on this subject4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #ahd ,your character1 which ,i1 or any other writer1 may now value ourselves by 7upon7 drawing4--,,swift3 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,either you or ,i will be in our place in due time4--,coopers ,gram41 p4 #abg4 ,but different pronouns may be so connected as to refer to such antecedents taken separately2 as1 ,by requiring greater labour from such slave or slaves1 than he or she or they are able to perform4--,prince's ,digest4 ,or1 if the gender only be different1 the masculine may involve the feminine by implication2 as1 ,if a man smite the eye of his servant1 or the eye of his maid1 that it perish1 he shall let him go free for his eye's sake4--,exodus1 xxi1 #bf4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,it is however very common to resort to the plural number in such instances as the foregoing1 because our plural pronouns are alike in all the genders2 as1 ,when either man or woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a ,nazarite4--,numbers1 vi1 #b4 ,then shalt thou bring forth that man or that woman unto thy gates1 and shalt stone them with stones1 till they die4--,deut41 xvii1 #e4 ,not on outward charms could he or she build their pretensions to please4--,opie1 on ,lying1 p4 #adh4 ,complimenting either man or woman on agreeable qualities which they do not possess1 in hopes of imposing on their credulity4--,ib41 p4 #ajh4 ,avidien1 or his wife1 7no matter which17 sell their presented partridges and fruits4--,pope1 ,sat4 ii1 l4 #ej4 ,beginning with ,latin or ,greek hexameter1 which are the same4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #gi4 ,did ever ,proteus1 ,merlin1 any witch1 ,transform themselves so strangely as the rich8 --,pope1 ,ep4 i1 l4 #aeb4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,from the observations and examples above1 it may be perceived1 that whenever there is a difference of person1 number1 or gender1 in antecedents connected disjunctively1 there is an inherent difficulty respecting the form of the pronoun personal4 ,the best mode of meeting this inconvenience1 or of avoiding it by a change of the phraseology1 may be different on different occasions4 ,the disjunctive connexion of explicit pronouns is the most correct1 but it savours too much of legal precision and wordiness to be always eligible4 ,commonly an ingenious mind may invent some better expression1 and yet avoid any syntactical anomaly4 ,in ,latin1 when nouns are connected by the conjunctions which correspond to or or nor1 the pronoun or verb is so often made plural1 that no such principle as that of the foregoing ,rule1 or of ,rule #agth1 is taught by the common grammars of that language4 ,how such usage can be logically right1 however1 it is difficult to imagine4 ,lowth1 ,murray1 ,webster1 and most other ,english grammarians1 teach1 that1 ,the conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that of the copulative2 and1 as the verb1 noun1 or pronoun1 is referred to the preceding terms taken separately1 it must be in the singular number4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ge2 ,l4 ,murray's1 #aea2 ,churchill's1 #adb2 ,w4 ,allen's1 #acc2 ,lennie's1 #hc2 and many others4 ,if there is any allowable exception to this principle1 it is for the adoption of the plural when the concord cannot be made by any one pronoun singular2 as1 ,if ,i value my friend's wife or son upon account of their connexion with him4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #gc4 ,do not drink wine nor strong drink1 thou nor thy sons with thee1 when ye go into the tabernacle of the congregation4--,levit41 x1 #h4 ,these examples1 though they do not accord with the preceding rule1 seem not to be susceptible of any change for the better4 ,there are also some other modes of expression1 in which nouns that are connected disjunctively1 may afterwards be represented together2 as ,foppery is a sort of folly much more contagious ,,than pedantry2 but as they result alike from affectation1 they deserve alike to be proscribed4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bag4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xiii4 ,,pronouns ,,with ,,antecedents ,,connected ,,by ,,or ,,or ,,nor4 ,neither prelate nor priest can give their flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors4--,dr4 ,brownlee4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronoun their is of the plural number1 and does not correctly represent its two antecedents prelate and priest1 which are connected by nor1 and taken disjunctively4 ,but1 according to ,rule #acth1 ,when a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor1 it must agree with them singly1 and not as if taken together4 ,therefore1 their should be his2 thus1 ,neither prelate nor priest can give his flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors4 ,and is there a heart of parent or of child1 that does not beat and burn within them8--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #cfg4 ,this is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for their service to the body4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #agh4 ,if thy hand or thy foot offend thee1 cut them off1 and cast them from thee4--,matt41 xviii1 #h4 ,the same might as well be said of ,virgil1 or any great author1 whose general character will infallibly raise many casual additions to their reputation4--,pope's ,pref4 to ,homer4 ,either ,james or ,john1 one of them1 will come4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,even a rugged rock or barren heath1 though in themselves disagreeable1 contribute by contrast to the beauty of the whole4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #ahe4 ,that neither ,count ,rechteren nor ,monsieur ,mesnager had behaved themselves right in this affair4--,spect41 ,no4 #dha4 ,if an ,aristotle1 a ,pythagoras1 or a ,galileo1 suffer for their opinions1 they are 'martyrs4'--,gospel its own ,witness1 p4 #hj4 ,if an ox gore a man or a woman1 that they die2 then the ox shall be surely stoned4--,exodus1 xxi1 #bh4 ,she was calling out to one or an other1 at every step1 that a ,habit was ensnaring them4--,,dr4 ,,johnson3 ,murray's ,sequel1 #aha4 ,here is a ,task put upon ,children1 that neither this ,author1 nor any other have yet undergone themselves4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #afb4 ,hence1 if an adjective or participle be subjoined to the verb1 when of the singular number1 they will agree both in gender and number with the collective noun4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #aed2 ,gould's1 #aeh4 ,and if you can find a diphthong1 or a triphthong1 be pleased to point them out too4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,and if you can find a diphthong1 or a triphthong1 a trissyllable1 or a polysyllable1 point them respectively out4--,ib41 p4 #be4 ,the false refuges in which the atheist or the sceptic have intrenched themselves4--,christian ,spect41 viii1 #ahe4 ,while the man or woman thus assisted by art expects their charms will be imputed to nature alone4--,opie1 #ada4 ,when you press a watch1 or pull a clock1 they answer your question with precision2 for they repeat exactly the hour of the day1 and tell you neither more nor less than you desire to know4--,bolingbroke1 on ,history1 p4 #ajb4 ,not the ,mogul1 or ,czar of ,muscovy1 ,not ,prester ,john1 or ,cham of ,tartary1 ,are in their houses ,monarch more than ,i4 --,,king3 ,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #fac4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,verbs4 ,in this work1 the syntax of ,verbs is embraced in six consecutive rules1 with the necessary exceptions1 notes1 and observations1 under them2 hence this chapter extends from the fourteenth to the twentieth rule in the series4 ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,finite ,,verbs4 ,every finite ,verb must agree with its subject1 or nominative1 in person and number3 as1 ,i know2 thou knowst1 or knowest2 he knows1 or knoweth--,the bird flies2 the birds fly4 ,our fathers' fertile fields by slaves are till'd1 ,and ,rome with dregs of foreign lands is fill'd4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 vii1 l4 #fjj4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xiv4 ,,obs4 #a4--,to this general rule for the verb1 there are properly no exceptions2#che and all the special rules that follow1 which prescribe the concord of verbs in particular instances1 virtually accord with it4 ,every finite verb1 7that is1 every verb not in the infinitive mood17 must have some noun1 pronoun1 or phrase equivalent1 known as the subject of the being1 action1 or passion2#chf and with this subject1 whether expressed or understood1 the verb must agree in person and number4 ,the infinitive mood1 as it does not unite with a nominative to form an assertion1 is of course exempt from any such agreement4 ,these may be considered principles of ,universal ,grammar4 ,the ,greeks1 however1 had a strange custom of using a plural noun of the neuter gender1 with a verb of the third person singular2 and in both ,greek and ,latin1 the infinitive mood with an accusative before it was often equivalent to a finite verb with its nominative4 ,in ,english we have neither of these usages2 and plural nouns1 even when they denote no absolute plurality1 7as shears1 scissors1 trowsers1 pantaloons1 tongs17 require plural verbs or pronouns3 as1 ,your shears come too late1 to clip the bird's wings4--,,sidney3 ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,,obs4 #b4--,when a book that bears a plural title1 is spoken of as one thing1 there is sometimes presented an apparent exception to the foregoing rule2 as1 ,the ,pleasures of ,memory was published in the year #agib1 and became at once popular4--,allan ,cunningham4 ,the ',sentiments of a ,church-of-,england ,man' is written with great coolness1 moderation1 ease1 and perspicuity4--,johnson's ,life of ,swift4 ,the ',pleasures of ,hope' is a splendid poem2 it was written for perpetuity4--,samuel ,l4 ,knapp4 ,in these instances1 there is1 ,i apprehend1 either an agreement of the verb1 by the figure syllepsis1 with the mental conception of the thing spoken of2 or an improper ellipsis of the common noun1 with which each sentence ought to commence2 as1 ,the poem entitled1--,the work entitled1 c4 ,but the plural title sometimes controls the form of the verb2 as1 ,my ,lives are reprinting4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,in the figurative use of the present tense for the past or imperfect1 the vulgar have a habit of putting the third person singular with the pronoun ,i2 as1 ,thinks ,i to myself4--,rev4 ,j4 ,marriott4 ,o1 says ,i1 ,jacky1 are you at that work8--,day's ,sandford and ,merton4 ,huzza6 huzza6 ,sir ,condy ,rackrent forever1 was the first thing ,i hears in the morning4--,edgeworth's ,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #ig4 ,this vulgarism is to be avoided1 not by a simple omission of the terminational s1 but rather by the use of the literal preterit3 as1 ,thought ,i to myself2--,o1 said ,i2--,the first thing ,i heard4 ,the same mode of correction is also proper1 when1 under like circumstances1 there occurs a disagreement in number2 as1 ,after the election was over1 there comes shoals of people from all parts4--,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #ajc4 ,didn't ye hear it8 says they that were looking on4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 ,write1 there came1--said they4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,it has already been noticed1 that the article a1 or a singular adjective1 sometimes precedes an arithmetical number with a plural noun2 as1 ,a thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday4--,psalms1 xc1 #d4 ,so we might say1 ,one thousand years are1--,each thousand years are--,every thousand years are1 c4 ,but it would not be proper to say1 ,a thousand years is1 or1 ,every thousand years is2 because the noun years is plainly plural1 and the anomaly of putting a singular verb after it1 is both needless and unauthorized4 ,yet1 to this general rule for the verb1 the author of a certain ,english ,grammar on the ,productive ,system1 7a strange perversion of ,murray's compilation1 and a mere catch-penny work1 now extensively used in ,new ,england17 is endeavouring to establish1 by his own bare word1 the following exception3 ,every is sometimes associated with a plural noun1 in which case the verb must be singular2 as1 ',every hundred years constitutes a century4'--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,his reason is this2 that the phrase containing the nominative1 signifies a single period of time1 and is1 therefore1 in reality singular4--,ib4 ,cutler also1 a more recent writer1 seems to have imbibed the same notion2 for he gives the following sentence as an example of false construction3 ,every hundred years are called a century4--,cutler's ,grammar and ,parser1 p4 #ade4 ,but1 according to this argument1 no plural verb could ever be used with any definite number of the parts of time2 for any three years1 forty years1 or threescore years and ten1 are as single a period of time1 as every hundred years1 every four years1 or every twenty-four hours4 ,nor is it true1 that1 ,every is sometimes associated with a plural noun2 for every years or every hours1 would be worse than nonsense4 ,i1 therefore1 acknowledge no such exception2 but1 discarding the principle of the note1 put this author's pretended corrections among my quotations of false syntax4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,different verbs always have different subjects1 expressed or understood2 except when two or more verbs are connected in the same construction1 or when the same word is repeated for the sake of emphasis4 ,but let not the reader believe the common doctrine of our grammarians1 respecting either the ellipsis of nominatives or the ellipsis of verbs4 ,in the text1 ,the man was old and crafty1 ,murray sees no connexion of the ideas of age and craftiness1 but thinks the text a compound sentence1 containing two nominatives and two verbs2 i4e41 ,the man was old1 and the man was crafty4 #chg ,and all his other instances of the ellipsis of the verb are equally fanciful6 ,see his ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bai2 ,duodecimo1 #age4 ,in the text1 ,god loves1 protects1 supports1 and rewards the rights1 there are four verbs in the same construction1 agreeing with the same nominative1 and governing the same object2 but ,buchanan and others expound it1 ,god loves1 and ,god protects1 and ,god supports1 and ,god rewards the righteous4--,english ,syntax1 p4 #gf2 ,british ,gram41 #aib4 ,this also is fanciful and inconsistent4 ,if the nominative is here elegantly understood to each verb1 so is the objective1 which they do not repeat4 ,and again1 they immediately add1 the verb is often understood to its noun or nouns2 as1 ,he dreams of gibbets1 halters1 racks1 daggers1 c4 i4e4 ,he dreams of gibbets1 and he dreams of halters1 c4--,same works and places4 ,in none of these examples is there any occasion to suppose an ellipsis1 if we admit that two or more words can be connected in the same construction6 ,,obs4 #f4--,verbs in the imperative mood commonly agree with the pronoun thou1 ye1 or you1 understood after them2 as1 ,heal ye the sick1 cleanse ye the lepers1 raise ye the dead1 cast ye out devils4--,matt41 x1 #h4 ,trust ,god and be doing1 and leave the rest with him4--,dr4 ,sibs4 ,when the doer of a thing must first proceed to the place of action1 we sometimes use go or come before an other verb1 without any conjunction between the two2 as1 ,son1 go work to-day in my vineyard4--,matt41 xxi1 #bh4 ,come see a man who has told me all things that ever ,i did4--,john1 iv1 #bi4 ,he ordered his soldiers to go murder every child about ,bethlehem1 or near it4--,wood's ,dict4 of ,bible1 w4 ,herod4 ,take a present in thine hand1 and go meet the man of ,god4--#b ,kings1 viii1 #h4 ,i will go see if he be at home4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #afi4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the place of the verb has reference mainly to that of the subject with which it agrees1 and that of the object which it governs2 and as the arrangement of these1 with the instances in which they come before or after the verb1 has already been noticed1 the position of the latter seems to require no further explanation4 ,see ,obs4 #b;d under ,rule #b;d1 and ,obs4 #b;d under ,rule #eth4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the infinitive mood1 a phrase1 or a sentence1 7and1 according to some authors1 the participle in ing1 or a phrase beginning with this participle17 is sometimes the proper subject of a verb1 being equivalent to a nominative of the third person singular2 as1 ,to play is pleasant4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,to write well1 is difficult2 to speak eloquently1 is still more difficult4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ha4 ,to take men off from prayer1 tends to irreligiousness1 is granted4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #bad4 ,to educate a child perfectly1 requires profounder thought1 greater wisdom1 than to govern a state4--,channing's ,self-,culture1 p4 #cj4 ,to determine these points1 belongs to good sense4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cba4 ,how far the change would contribute to his welfare1 comes to be considered4--,id41 ,sermons4 ,that too much care does hurt in any of our tasks1 is a doctrine so flattering to indolence1 that we ought to receive it with extreme caution4--,life of ,schiller1 p4 #adh4 ,that there is no disputing about taste1 is a saying so generally received as to have become a proverb4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cfj4 ,for what purpose they embarked1 is not yet known4--,to live in sin and yet to believe the forgiveness of sin1 is utterly impossible4--,dr4 ,j4 ,owen4 ,there shallow draughts intoxicate the brain1 ,but drinking largely sobers us again4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the same meaning will be expressed1 if the pronoun it be placed before the verb1 and the infinitive1 phrase1 or santance1 after it2 as1 ,it is pleasant to play1--,it is difficult to write well2 c4 ,the construction of the following sentences is rendered defective by the omission of this pronoun3 ,why do ye that which it is not lawful to do on the sabbath days8--,luke1 vi1 #b4 ,the show-bread1 which it is not lawful to eat1 but for the priests only4--,ib41 vi1 #d4 ,we have done that which it was our duty to do4--,ib41 xvii1 #aj4 ,here the relative which ought to be in the objective case1 governed by the infinitives2 but the omission of the word it makes this relative the nominative to is or was1 and leaves to do and to eat without any regimen4 ,this is not ellipsis1 but error4 ,it is an accidental gap into which a side piece falls1 and leaves a breach elsewhere4 ,the following is somewhat like it1 though what falls in1 appears to leave no chasm3 ,from this deduction1 it may be easily seen how it comes to pass1 that personification makes so great a figure4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aee4 ,whether the author had any meaning in this expression1 or what it was1 it is not easy to determine4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bih4 ,that warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body1 and shorten its duration1 it is very reasonable to believe4--,ib41 p4 #add4 ,these also need the pronoun1 though ,murray thought them complete without it4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,when the infinitive mood is made the subject of a finite verb1 it is most commonly used to express action or state in the abstract2 as1 ,to be contents his natural desire4--,pope4 ,here to be stands for simple existence2 or if for the existence of the ,indian1 of whom the author speaks1 that relation is merely implied4 ,to define ridicule1 has puzzled and vexed every critic4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #cjj4 ,here to define expresses an action quite as distinct from any agent1 as would the participial noun2 as1 ,the defining of ridicule1 c4 ,in connexion with the infinitive1 a concrete quality may also be taken as an abstract2 as1 ,to be good is to be happy4 ,here good and happy express the quality of goodness and the state of happiness considered abstractly2 and therefore these adjectives do not relate to any particular noun4 ,so also the passive infinitive1 or a perfect participle taken in a passive sense2 as1 ,to be satisfied with a little1 is the greatest wisdom4--,to appear discouraged1 is the way to become so4 ,here the satisfaction and the discouragement are considered abstractly1 and without reference to any particular person4 7,see ,obs4 #abth and #acth on ,rule #fth47 ,so too1 apparently1 the participles doing and suffering1 as well as the adjective weak1 in the following example3 ,fallen ,cherub1 to be weak is miserable1 ,doing or suffering4--,milton's ,paradise ,lost4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,when the action or state is to be expressly limited to one class of beings1 or to a particular person or thing1 without making the verb finite2 the noun or pronoun may be introduced before the infinitive by the preposition for3 as1 ,for men to search their own glory1 is not glory4--,prov41 xxv1 #bg4 ,for a prince to be reduced by villany sic--,,kth to my distressful circumstances1 is calamity enough4--,translation of ,sallust4 ,for holy persons to be humble1 is as hard1 as for a prince to submit himself to be guided by tutors4--,,taylor3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acb2 ,murray's1 #ahd4 ,but such a limitation is sometimes implied1 when the expression itself is general2 as1 ,not to know me1 argues thyself unknown4--,milton4 ,that is1 ,for thee not to know me4 ,the phrase is put far1 ,thy ignorance of me2 for an other's ignorance would be no argument in regard to the individual addressed4 ,i1 to bear this1 that never knew but better1 is some burden4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #cbg4 ,here the infinitive to bear1 which is the subject of the verb is1 is limited in sense by the pronoun ,i1 which is put absolute in the nominative1 though perhaps improperly2 because1 ,for me to bear this1 c41 will convey the same meaning1 in a form much more common1 and perhaps more grammatical4 ,in the following couplet1 there is an ellipsis of the infinitive2 for the phrase1 fool with fool1 means1 for fool to contend with fool1 or1 for one fool to contend with an other3 ,blockheads with reason wicked wits abhor1 ,but fool with fool is barb'rous civil war4 --,pope1 ,dunciad1 ,b4 iii1 l4 #age4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the objective noun or pronoun thus introduced by for before the infinitive1 was erroneously called by ,priestley1 the subject of the affirmation2 7,gram41 p4 #acb27 and ,murray1 ,ingersoll1 and others1 have blindly copied the blunder4 ,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ahd2 ,ingersoll's1 #bdd4 ,again1 ,ingersoll says1 ,the infinitive mood1 or part of a sentence1 is sometimes the subject of a verb1 and is1 therefore1 its ,,nominative4--,conversations on ,english ,gram41 p4 #bdf4 ,to this erroneous deduction1 the phraseology used by ,murray and others too plainly gives countenance3 ,the infinitive mood1 or part of a sentence1 is sometimes put as the nominative case to the verb4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #add2 ,fisk's1 #abc2 ,kirkham's1 #ahh2 ,lennie's1 #ii2 ,bullions's1 #hi2 and many more4 ,now the objective before the infinitive may not improperly be called the subject of this form of the verb1 as the nominative is1 of the finite2 but to call it the subject of the affirmation1 is plainly absurd2 because no infinitive1 in ,english1 ever expresses an affirmation4 ,and again1 if a whole phrase or sentence is made the subject of a finite verb1 or of an affirmation1 no one word contained in it1 can singly claim this title4 ,nor can the whole1 by virtue of this relation1 be said to be in the nominative case2 because1 in the nature of things1 neither phrases nor sentences are capable of being declined by cases4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,any phrase or sentence which is made the subject of a finite verb1 must be taken in the sense of one thing1 and be spoken of as a whole2 so that the verb's agreement with it1 in the third person singular1 is not an exception to ,rule #adth1 but a construction in which the verb may be parsed by that rule4 ,for any one thing merely spoken of1 is of the third person singular1 whatever may be the nature of its parts4 ,not every phrase or sentence1 however1 is fit to be made the subject of a verb2--that is1 if its own import1 and not the mere expression1 is the thing whereof we affirm4 ,thus ,dr4 ,ash's example for this very construction1 a sentence made the subject of a verb1 is1 ,i think1 a palpable solecism3 ,the ,king and ,queen appearing in public was the cause of my going4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #eb4 ,what is here before the verb was1 is no sentence2 but a mere phrase1 and such a one as we should expect to see used independently1 if any regard were had to its own import4 ,the ,doctor would tell us what was the cause of his going3 and here he has two nominatives1 which are equivalent to the plural they2 q4d41 ,they appearing in public was the cause4 ,but such a construction is not ,english4 ,it is an other sample of the false illustration which grammar receives from those who invent the proof-texts which they ought to quote4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,one of ,murray's examples of what he erroneously terms nominative sentences1 i4e41 sentences or clauses constituting the subject of an affirmation1 is the following3 ,a desire to excel others in learning and virtue 1 is commendable4--,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #add4 ,here the verb is agrees regularly with the noun desire1 and with that only2 the whole text being merely a simple sentence1 and totally irrelevant to the doctrine which it accompanies4#chh ,but the great ,compiler supposes the adjuncts of this noun to be parts of the nominative1 and imagines the verb to agree with all that precedes it4 ,yet1 soon after1 he expends upon the ninth rule of ,webster's ,philosophical ,grammar a whole page of useless criticism1 to show that the adjuncts of a noun are not to be taken as parts of the nominative2 and that1 when objectives are thus subjoined1 the assertion grammatically respects the first nouns only4--,ib41 p4 #adh4 ,i say useless1 because the truth of the doctrine is so very plain4 ,some1 however1 may imagine an example like the following to be an exception to it2 but ,i do not1 because ,i think the true nominative suppressed3 ,by force they could not introduce these gods2 ,for ten to one in former days was odds4--,dryden's ,poems1 p4 #ch4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,dr4 ,webster's ninth rule is this3 ,when the nominative consists of several words1 and the last of the names is in the plural number1 the verb is commonly in the plural also2 as1 ',a part of the exports consist of raw silk4' ',the number of oysters increase4' ,,goldsmith4 ',such as the train of our ideas have lodged in our memories4' ,,locke4 ',the greater part of philosophers have acknowledged the excellence of this government4' ,,anacharsis4--,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #adf2 ,impr4 ,gram41 #ajj4 ,the last of these examples ,murray omits2 the second he changes thus3 ,a number of men and women were present4 ,but all of them his reasoning condemns as ungrammatical4 ,he thinks them wrong1 upon the principle1 that the verbs1 being plural1 do not agree with the first nouns only4 ,webster1 on the contrary1 judges them all to be right2 and1 upon this same principle1 conceives that his rule must be so too4 ,he did not retract or alter the doctrine after he saw the criticism1 but republished it verbatim1 in his ,improved ,grammar1 of #ahca4 ,both err1 and neither convinces the other4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,in this instance1 as ,webster and ,murray both teach erroneously1 whoever follows either1 will be led into many mistakes4 ,the fact is1 that some of the foregoing examples1 though perhaps not all1 are perfectly right2 and hundreds more1 of a similar character1 might be quoted1 which no true grammarian would presume to condemn4 ,but what have these to do with the monstrous absurdity of supposing objective adjuncts to be parts of the actual nominative8 ,the words1 part1 number1 train and the like1 are collective nouns2 and1 as such1 they often have plural verbs in agreement with them4 ,to say1 ,a number of men and women were present1 is as correct as to say1 ,a very great number of our words are plainly derived from the ,latin4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #hf4 ,murray's criticism1 therefore1 since it does not exempt these examples from the censure justly laid upon ,webster's rule1 will certainly mislead the learner4 ,and again the rule1 being utterly wrong in principle1 will justify blunders like these3 ,the truth of the narratives have never been disputed2--,the virtue of these men and women are indeed exemplary4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,in one of his notes1 ,murray suggests1 that the article an or a before a collective noun must confine the verb to the singular number2 as1 ,a great number of men and women was collected4--,ib41 p4 #aec4 ,but this doctrine he sometimes forgot or disregarded2 as1 ,but if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are thrown into one general group4--,ib41 p4 #bhd2 ,comly1 #aff2 ,fisk1 #afj2 ,ingersoll1 #bie4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,cobbett1 in a long paragraph1 7the #bdeth of his ,english ,grammar17 stoutly denies that any relative pronoun can ever be the nominative to a verb2 and1 to maintain this absurdity1 he will have the relative and its antecedent to be always alike in case1 the only thing in which they are always independent of each other4 ,to prove his point1 he first frames these examples3 ,the men who are here1 the man who is here2 the cocks that crow1 the cock that crows2 and then asks1 ,now1 if the relative be the nominative1 why do the verbs change1 seeing that here is no change in the relative8 ,he seems ignorant of the axiom1 that two things severally equal to a third1 are also equal to each other3 and accordingly1 to answer his own question1 resorts to a new principle3 ,the verb is continually varying4 ,why does it vary8 ,because it disregards the relative and goes and finds the antecedent1 and accommodates its number to that4--,ibid4 ,to this wild doctrine1 one erratic ,irishman yields a full assent2 and1 in one ,american grammatist1 we find a partial and unintentional concurrence with it4#chi ,but the fact is1 the relative agrees with the antecedent1 and the verb agrees with the relative3 hence all three of the words are alike in person and number4 ,but between the case of the relative and that of the antededent sic--,,kth1 there never is1 or can be1 in our language1 any sort of connexion or interference4 ,the words belong to different clauses2 and1 if both be nominatives1 they must be the subjects of different verbs3 or1 if the noun be sometimes put absolute in the nominative1 the pronoun is still left to its own verb4 ,but ,cobbett concludes his observation thus3 ,you will observe1 therefore1 that1 when ,i1 in the etymology and syntax as relating to relative pronouns1 speak of relatives as being in the nominative case1 ,i mean1 that they relate to nouns or to personal pronouns1 which are in that case4 ,the same observation applies to the other cases4--,ib41 #bde4 ,this suggestion betrays in the critic an unaccountable ignorance of his subject4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,nothing is more certain1 than that the relatives1 who1 which1 what1 that1 and as1 are often nominatives1 and the only subjects of the verbs which follow them3 as1 ,the ,lord will show who are his1 and who is holy4--,numbers1 xvi1 #e4 ,hardly is there any person1 but who1 on such occasions1 is disposed to be serious4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfi4 ,much of the merit of ,mr4 ,addison's ,cato depends upon that moral turn of thought which distinguishes it4--,ib41 #dfi4 ,admit not a single word but what is necessary4--,ib41 p4 #cac4 ,the pleader must say nothing but what is true2 and1 at the same time1 he must avoid saying any thing that will hurt his cause4--,ib41 #cac4 ,i proceed to mention such as appear to me most material4--,ib41 p4 #abe4 ,after but or than1 there is sometimes an ellipsis of the relative1 and perhaps also of the antecedent2 as1 ,there is no heart but must feel them4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfi4 ,there is no one but must be sensible of the extravagance4--,ib41 p4 #dgi4 ,since we may date from it a more general and a more concerted opposition to ,france than there had been before4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #bac4 ,that is1 than what there had been before2--or1 than any opposition which there had been before4 ,john has more fruit than can be gathered in a week4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 pp4 #aif and #cca4 ,i suppose this sentence to mean1 ,john has more fruit than what can be gathered in a week4 ,but the author of it denies that it is elliptical1 and seems to suppose that can be gathered agrees with ,john4 ,part of his comment stands thus3 ,the above sentence--',john has more fruit than can be gathered in a week'--in every respect full and perfect--must1 to be grammatical6 according to all the 'old theories1' stand1 ,john has more fruit than that fruit is which1 or which fruit can be gathered in a week666--,ib41 #cca4 ,what shall be done with the headlong critic who thus mistakes exclamation points for arguments1 and multiplies his confidence in proportion to his fallacies and errors8 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,in a question1 the nominative ,i or thou put after the verb1 controls the agreement1 in preference to the interrogative who1 which1 or what1 put before it2 as1 ,who am ,i8 ,what am ,i8 ,who art thou8 ,what art thou8 ,and1 by analogy1 this seems to be the case with all plurals2 as1 ,who are we8 ,who are you8 ,who are they8 ,what are these8 ,but sometimes the interrogative pronoun is the only nominative used2 and then the verb1 whether singular or plural1 must agree with this nominative1 in the third person1 and not1 as ,cobbett avers1 with an antecedent understood3 as1 ,who is in the house8 ,who are in the house8 ,who strikes the iron8 ,who strike the iron8 ,who was in the street8 ,who were in the street8--,cobbett's ,gram41 #bde4 ,all the interrogative pronouns may be used in either number1 but1 in examples like the following1 ,i imagine the singular to be more proper than the plural3 ,what have become of our previous customs8--,hunt's ,byron1 p4 #aba4 ,and what have become of my resolutions to return to ,god8--,young ,christian1 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ia4 ,when two nominatives of different properties come after the verb1 the first controls the agreement1 and neither the plural number nor the most worthy person is always preferred2 as1 ,is it ,i8 ,is it thou8 ,is it they8 ,,obs4 #bj4--,the verb after a relative sometimes has the appearance of disagreeing with its nominative1 because the writer and his reader disagree in their conceptions of its mood4 ,when a relative clause is subjoined to what is itself subjunctive or conditional1 some writers suppose that the latter verb should be put in the subjunctive mood2 as1 ,if there be any intrigue which stand separate and independent4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #deg4 ,the man also would be of considerable use1 who should vigilantly attend to every illegal practice that were beginning to prevail4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aga4 ,but ,i have elsewhere shown1 that relatives1 in ,english1 are not compatible with the subjunctive mood2 and it is certain1 that no other mood than the indicative or the potential is commonly used after them4 ,say therefore1 ,if there be any intrigue which stands1 c4 ,in assuming to himself the other text1 ,murray's says1 ,that man also would be of considerable use1 who should vigilantly attend to every illegal practice that was beginning to prevail4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #cff4 ,but this seems too positive4 ,the potential imperfect would be better3 viz41 that might begin to prevail4 ,,obs4 #ba4--,the termination st or est1 with which the second person singular of the verb is formed in the indicative present1 and1 for the solemn style1 in the imperfect also2 and the termination s or es1 with which the third person singular is formed in the indicative present1 and only there2 are signs of the mood and tense1 as well as of the person and number1 of the verb4 ,they are not applicable to a future uncertainty1 or to any mere supposition in which we would leave the time indefinite and make the action hypothetical2 because they are commonly understood to fix the time of the verb to the present or the past1 and to assume the action as either doing or done4 ,for this reason1 our best writers have always omitted those terminations1 when they intended to represent the action as being doubtful and contingent as well as conditional4 ,and this omission constitutes the whole formal difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood4 ,the essential difference has1 by almost all grammarians1 been conceived to extend somewhat further2 for1 if it were confined strictly within the limits of the literal variation1 the subjunctive mood would embrace only two or three words in the whole formation of each verb4 ,after the example of ,priestley1 ,dr4 ,murray1 ,a4 ,murray1 ,harrison1 ,alexander1 and others1 ,i have given to it all the persons of the two simple tenses1 singular and plural2 and1 for various reasons1 ,i am decidedly of the opinion1 that these are its most proper limits4 ,the perfect and pluperfect tenses1 being past1 cannot express what is really contingent or uncertain2 and since1 in expressing conditionally what may or may not happen1 we use the subjunctive present as embracing the future indefinitely1 there is no need of any formal futures for this mood4 ,the comprehensive brevity of this form of the verb1 is what chiefly commends it4 ,it is not an elliptical form of the future1 as some affirm it to be2 nor equivalent to the indicative present1 as others will have it2 but a true subjunctive1 though its distinctive parts are chiefly confined to the second and third persons singular of the simple verb3 as1 ,though thou wash thee with nitre4--,jer41 ii1 #bb4 ,it is just1 ,o great king6 that a murderer perish4--,corneille4 ,this single crime1 in my judgment1 were sufficient to condemn him4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #hb4 ,beware that thou bring not my son thither4--,,bible3 ,ward's ,gram41 p4 #abh4 ,see that thou tell no man4--,id41 ib4 ,these examples can hardly be resolved into any thing else than the subjunctive mood4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xiv4 ,,note ,i4--,when the nominative is a relative pronoun1 the verb must agree with it in person and number1 according to the pronoun's agreement with its true antecedent or antecedents4 ,example of error3 ,the second book of the neid is one of the greatest masterpieces that ever was executed by any hand4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dci4 ,here the true antecedent is masterpieces1 and not the word one2 but was executed is singular1 and by any hand implies but one agent4 ,either say1 ,it is one of the greatest masterpieces that ever were executed2 or else1 ,it is the greatest masterpiece that ever was executed by any hand4 ,but these assertions differ much in their import4 ,,note ,,ii4--,the adjuncts of the nominative do not control its agreement with the verb2 as1 ,six months' interest was due4 ,the progress of his forces was impeded4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aca4 ,the ship1 with all her furniture1 was destroyed4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,all appearances of modesty are favourable and prepossessing4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cjh4 ,the power of relishing natural enjoyments is soon gone4--,fuller1 on the ,gospel1 p4 #ace4 ,i1 your master1 command you 7not commands7-- ,latham's ,hand-,book1 p4 #ccj4cij ,,note ,,iii4--,any phrase1 sentence1 mere word1 or other sign1 taken as one whole1 and made the subject of an assertion1 requires a verb in the third person singular2 as1 ,to lie is base4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,when1 to read and write1 was of itself an honorary distinction4--,hazlitt's ,lect41 p4 #dj4 ,to admit a ,god and then refuse to worship him1 is a modern and inconsistent practice4--,fuller1 on the ,gospel1 p4 #cj4 ,we is a personal pronoun4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bbg4 ,th has two sounds4--,ib41 p4 #afa4 ,the 's is annexed to each4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,ld4 stands for lord4--,webster's ,american ,dict41 #hvo4 ,,note ,,iv4--,the pronominal adjectives1 each1 one1#cia either1 and neither1 are always in the third person singular2 and1 when they are the leading words in their clauses1 they require verbs and pronouns to agree with them accordingly3 as1 ,each of you is entitled to his share4--,let no one deceive himself4 ,,note ,v4--,a neuter or a passive verb between two nominatives should be made to agree with that which precedes it2#cib as1 ,words are wind3 except when the terms are transposed1 and the proper subject is put after the verb by question or hyperbaton2 as1 ,his pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky4--,bible4 ,who art thou8--,ib4 ,the wages of sin is death4--,ib4 ,murray1 ,comly1 and others4 ,but1 of this last example1 ,churchill says1 ,wages are the subject1 of which it is affirmed1 that they are death4--,new ,gram41 p4 #cad4 ,if so1 is ought to be are2 unless ,dr4 ,webster is right1 who imagines wages to be singular1 and cites this example to prove it so4 ,see his ,improved ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,,note ,,vi4--,when the verb cannot well be made singular1 the nominative should be made plural1 that they may agree3 or1 if the verb cannot be plural1 let the nominative be singular4 ,example of error3 ,for every one of them know their several duties4--,hope of ,israel1 p4 #gb4 ,say1 ,for all of them know their several duties4 ,,note ,,vii4--,when the verb has different forms1 that form should be adopted1 which is the most consistent with present and reputable usage in the style employed3 thus1 to say familiarly1 ,the clock hath stricken2--,thou laughedst and talkedst1 when thou oughtest to have been silent2--,he readeth and writeth1 but he doth not cipher1 would be no better1 than to use don't1 won't1 can't1 shan't1 and didn't1 in preaching4 ,,note ,,viii4--,every finite verb not in the imperative mood1 should have a separate nominative expressed2 as1 ,i came1 ,i saw1 ,i conquered3 except when the verb is repeated for the sake of emphasis1 or connected to an other in the same construction1 or put after but or than2 as1 ,not an eminent orator has lived but is an example of it4--,ware4 ,where more is meant than meets the ear4--,milton's ,allegro4 7,see ,obs4 #eth and ,obs4 #ahth above47 ,they bud1 blow1 wither1 fall1 and die4--,watts4 ,that evermore his teeth they chatter1 ,chatter1 chatter1 chatter still4--,wordsworth4 ,,note ,,ix4--,a future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present2 and a mere supposition1 with indefinite time1 by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect2 but a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact1 requires the indicative mood3#cic as1 ,if thou forsake him1 he will cast thee off forever4--,bible4 ,if it were not so1 ,i would have told you4--,ib4 ,if thou went1 nothing would be gained4--,though he is poor1 he is contented4--,though he was rich1 yet for your sakes he became poor4--#b ,cor41 viii1 #i4 ,,note ,x4--,in general1 every such use or extension of the subjunctive mood1 as the reader will be likely to mistake for a discord between the verb and its nominative1 ought to be avoided as an impropriety3 as1 ,we are not sensible of disproportion1 till the difference between the quantities compared become the most striking circumstance4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cda4 ,say rather1 becomes2 which is indicative4 ,till the general preference of certain forms have been declared4--,priestley's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 xvii4 ,say1 has been declared2 for preference is here the nominative1 and ,dr4 ,priestley himself recognizes no other subjunctive tenses than the present and the imperfect2 as1 ,if thou love1 ,if thou loved4--,ib41 p4 #af4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xiv4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,verb ,,after ,,the ,,nominative4 ,before you left ,sicily1 you was reconciled to ,verres4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #ai4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the passive verb was reconciled is of the singular number1 and does not agree with its nominative you1 which is of the second person plural4 ,but1 according to ,rule #adth1 ,every finite verb must agree with its subject1 or nominative1 in person and number4 ,therefore1 was reconciled should be were reconciled2 thus1 ,before you left ,sicily1 you were reconciled to ,verres4 ,knowing that you was my old master's good friend4--,spect41 ,no4 #eag4 ,when the judge dare not act1 where is the loser's remedy8--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #aca4 ,which extends it no farther than the variation of the verb extend4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #baa4 ,they presently dry without hurt1 as myself hath often proved4--,roger ,williams4 ,whose goings forth hath been from of old1 from everlasting4--,keith's ,evidences4 ,you was paid to fight against ,alexander1 not to rail at him4--,porter's ,analysis1 p4 #gj4 ,where more than one part of speech is almost always concerned4--,churchill's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 viii4 ,nothing less than murders1 rapines1 and conflagrations1 employ their thoughts4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #age4 ,i wondered where you was1 my dear4--,lloyd's ,poems1 p4 #ahe4 ,when thou most sweetly sings4--,drummond of ,hawthornden4 ,who dare1 at the present day1 avow himself equal to the task8--,music of ,nature1 p4 #aa4 ,every body are very kind to her1 and not discourteous to me4--,byron's ,letters4 ,as to what thou says respecting the diversity of opinions4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #de4 ,thy nature1 immortality1 who knowest8--,everest's ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,the natural distinction of sex in animals gives rise to what1 in grammar1 is called genders4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,some pains has likewise been taken4--,scott's ,pref4 to ,bible4 ,and many a steed in his stables were seen4--,penwarne's ,poems1 p4 #ajh4 ,they was forced to eat what never was esteemed food4--,josephus's ,jewish ,war1 ,b4 i1 ,ch4 i1 #g4 ,this that yourself hath spoken1 ,i desire that they may take their oaths upon4--,hutchinson's ,mass41 ii1 #dce4 ,by men whose experience best qualify them to judge4--,committee on ,literature1 ,n4 ,y4 ,legislature4 ,he dare venture to kill and destroy several other kinds of fish4--,johnson's ,dict1 w4 ,perch4 ,if a gudgeon meet a roach1 ,he dare not venture to approach4--,,swift3 ,ib41 w4 ,roach4 ,which thou endeavours to establish unto thyself4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #afd4 ,but they pray together much oftener than thou insinuates4--,ib41 i1 #bae4 ,of people of all denominations1 over whom thou presideth4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #aih4 ,i can produce ladies and gentlemen whose progress have been astonishing4--,chazotte1 on ,teaching ,lang41 p4 #fb4 ,which of these two kinds of vice are more criminal8--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #aae4 ,every twenty-four hours affords to us the vicissitudes of day and night4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,every four years adds another day4--,ib4 ,every error ,i could find1 ,have my busy muse employed4--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #cce4 ,a studious scholar deserve the approbation of his teacher4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bbf4 ,perfect submission to the rules of a school indicate good breeding4--,ib41 p4 #cg4 ,a comparison in which more than two is concerned4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,by the facilities which artificial language afford them4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,now thyself hath lost both lop and top4--,,spenser3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,lop4 ,glad tidings is brought to the poor4--,campbell's ,gospels3 ,luke1 vii1 #bc4 ,upon which1 all that is pleasurable1 or affecting in elocution1 chiefly depend4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #abi4 ,no pains has been spared to render this work complete4--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 iv4 ,the ,united ,states contains more than a twentieth part of the land of this globe4--,,de ,,witt ,,clinton3 ,cobb's ,n4 ,amer4 ,reader1 p4 #agc4 ,i am mindful that myself is 7or am7 strong4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #ejj4 ,myself is 7not am7 weak2 thyself is 7not art7 weak4--,ib41 #dgi4 ,how pale each worshipful and reverend guest ,rise from a clergy or a city feast6--,pope1 ,sat4 ii1 l4 #ge4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,verb ,,before ,,the ,,nominative4 ,where was you born8 ,in ,london4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #acc4 ,there is frequent occasions for commas4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #bha4 ,there necessarily follows from thence1 these plain and unquestionable consequences4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aia4 ,and to this impression contribute the redoubled effort4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #aab4 ,or if he was1 was there no spiritual men then8--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #hf4 ,so by these two also is signified their contrary principles4--,ib41 iii1 #bjj4 ,in the motions made with the hands1 consist the chief part of gesture in speaking4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccf4 ,dare he assume the name of a popular magistrate8--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #adj4 ,there was no damages as in ,england1 and so ,scott lost his wager4--,byron4 ,in fact there exists such resemblances4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #fd4 ,to him giveth all the prophets witness4--,crewdson's ,beacon1 p4 #gi4 ,that there was so many witnesses and actors4--,addison's ,evidences1 p4 #cg4 ,how does this man's definitions stand affected8--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #acf4 ,whence comes all the powers and prerogatives of rational beings8--,ib41 p4 #add4 ,nor does the ,scriptures cited by thee prove thy intent4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #aee4 ,nor do the ,scripture cited by thee prove the contrary4--,ib41 i1 #baa4 ,why then cite thou a ,scripture which is so plain and clear for it8--,ib41 i1 #afc4 ,but what saith the ,scriptures as to respect of persons among ,christians8--,ib41 i1 #djd4 ,but in the mind of man1 while in the savage state1 there seems to be hardly any ideas but what enter by the senses4--,robertson's ,america1 i1 #bhi4 ,what sounds have each of the vowels8--,griscom's ,questions4 ,out of this has grown up aristocracies1 monarchies1 despotisms1 tyrannies4--,brownson's ,elwood1 p4 #bbb4 ,and there was taken up1 of fragments that remained to them1 twelve baskets4-- ,luke1 ix1 #ag4 ,there seems to be but two general classes4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,hence arises the six forms of expressing time4--,ib41 p4 #cg4 ,there seems to be no other words required4--,chandler's ,gram41 p4 #bh4 ,if there is two1 the second increment is the syllable next the last4--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 #abth ,ed41 p4 #bha4 ,hence arises the following advantages4--,id41 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 #ahdi1 p4 #fg4 ,there is no data by which it can be estimated4--,j4 ,c4 ,calhoun's ,speech1 ,march #d1 #ahej4 ,to this class belong the ,chinese language1 in which we have nothing but naked roots4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 p4 #bg4 ,there was several other grotesque figures that presented themselves4-- ,spect41 ,no4 #agc4 ,in these consist that sovereign good which ancient sages so much extol4--,percival's ,tales1 ii1 #bba4 ,here comes those ,i have done good to against my will4--,shak41 ,shrew4 ,where there is more than one auxiliary4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,on me to cast those eyes where shine nobility4 --,,sidney3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,here's half-pence in plenty1 for one you'll have twenty4 --,swift's ,poems1 p4 #cdg4 ,ah1 ,jockey1 ill advises thou1 ,i wis1 ,to think of songs at such a time as this4 --,churchill1 p4 #ah4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,the ,,relative ,,and ,,verb4 ,thou who loves us1 wilt protect us still4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fg4 ,to use that endearing language1 ,our ,father1 who is in heaven--,bates's ,doctrines1 p4 #ajc4 ,resembling the passions that produceth these actions4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aeg4 ,except dwarf1 grief1 hoof1 muff1 c4 which takes s to make the plural4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,as the cattle that goeth before me and the children be able to endure4-- ,gen4 xxxiii1 #ad ,where is the man who dare affirm that such an action is mad8--,werter4 ,the ninth book of ,livy affords one of the most beautiful exemplifications of historical painting1 that is any where to be met with4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cfj4 ,in some studies too1 that relate to taste and fine writing1 which is our object1 c4--,ib41 p4 #cdi4 ,of those affecting situations1 which makes man's heart feel for man4--,ib41 p4 #dfd4 ,we see very plainly1 that it is neither ,osmyn1 nor ,jane ,shore1 that speak4--,ib41 p4 #dfh4 ,it should assume that briskness and ease1 which is suited to the freedom of dialogue4--,ib41 p4 #dfi4 ,yet they grant1 that none ought to be admitted into the ministry1 but such as is truly pious4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #adg4 ,this letter is one of the best that has been written about ,lord ,byron4--,hunt's ,byron1 p4 #aai4 ,thus1 besides what was sunk1 the ,athenians took above two hundred ships4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #ajb4 ,to have made and declared such orders as was necessary4--,hutchinson's ,hist41 i1 #dgj4 ,the idea of such a collection of men as make an army4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #bag4 ,i'm not the first that have been wretched4--,southern's ,in4 ,ad41 ,act #b4 ,and the faint sparks of it1 which is in the angels1 are concealed from our view4--,calvin's ,institutes1 ,b4 i1 ,ch4 #aa4 ,the subjects are of such a nature1 as allow room for much diversity of taste and sentiment4--,blair's ,rhet41 ,pref41 p4 #e4 ,it is in order to propose examples of such perfection1 as are not to be found in the real examples of society4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #af4 ,i do not believe that he would amuse himself with such fooleries as has been attributed to him4--,ib41 p4 #bah4 ,that shepherd1 who first taughtst the chosen seed4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bch4 ,with respect to the vehemence and warmth which is allowed in popular eloquence4-- ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bfa4 ,ambition is one of those passions that is never to be satisfied4--,home's ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #cf4 ,thou wast he that leddest out and broughtest in ,israel4--#b ,samuel1 v1 #b2 and #a ,chron41 xi1 #b4 ,art thou the man of ,god that camest from ,judah8--#a ,kings1 xiii1 #ad4 ,how beauty is excell'd by manly grace ,and wisdom1 which alone is truly fair4--,milton1 ,b4 iv1 l4 #dij4 ,what art thou1 speak1 that on designs unknown1 ,while others sleep1 thus range the camp alone8--,pope1 ,il41 x1 #ij4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,nominative ,,with ,,adjuncts4 ,the literal sense of the words are1 that the action had been done4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 i1 #fe4 ,the rapidity of his movements were beyond example4--,wells's ,hist41 p4 #afa4 ,murray's ,grammar1 together with his ,exercises and ,key1 have nearly superseded every thing else of the kind4--,,evan',s ,,rec43 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ii1 #cje4 ,the mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown4--,,hume3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aic4 ,the it1 together with the verb to be1 express states of being4--,cobbett's ,eng4 ,gram41 #aij4 ,hence it is1 that the profuse variety of objects in some natural landscapes1 neither breed confusion nor fatigue4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bff4 ,such a clatter of sounds indicate rage and ferocity4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #aie4 ,one of the fields make threescore square yards1 and the other only fifty-five4--,duncan's ,logic1 p4 #h4 ,the happy effects of this fable is worth attending to4--,bailey's ,ovid1 p4 x4 ,yet the glorious serenity of its parting rays still linger with us4--,gould's ,advocate4 ,enough of its form and force are retained to render them uneasy4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #bfa4 ,the works of nature1 in this respect1 is extremely regular4--,dr4 ,pratt's ,werter4 ,no small addition of exotic and foreign words and phrases have been made by commerce4--,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #aj4 ,the dialect of some nouns are taken notice of in the notes4--,milnes1 ,greek ,gram41 p4 #bee4 ,it has been said1 that a discovery of the full resources of the arts1 afford the means of debasement1 or of perversion4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 xxvii4 ,by which means the ,order of the ,words are disturbed4--,holmes's ,rhet41 ,b4 i1 p4 #eg4 ,the twofold influence of these and the others require the asserter to be in the plural form4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bea4 ,and each of these afford employment4--,percival's ,tales1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #age4 ,the pronunciation of the vowels are best explained under the rules relative to the consonants4--,coar's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,the judicial power of these courts extend to all cases in law and equity4--,hall and ,baker's ,school ,hist41 p4 #bhf4 ,one of you have stolen my money4--,rational ,humorist1 p4 #de4 ,such redundancy of epithets1 instead of pleasing1 produce satiety and disgust4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bef4 ,it has been alleged1 that a compliance with the rules of ,rhetoric1 tend to cramp the mind4--,hiley's ,gram41 #c;d ,ed41 p4 #ahg4 ,each of these are presented to us in different relations--,hendrick's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #cd4 ,the past tense of these verbs1 should1 would1 might1 could1 are very indefinite with respect to time4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #cc2 #eth ,ed41 p4 #ca4 ,the power of the words1 which are said to govern this mood1 are distinctly understood4--,chandler's ,gram41 ,ed4 of #ahba1 p4 #cc4 ,and now1 at length1 the fated term of years ,the world's desire have brought1 and lo6 the ,god appears4 --,dr4 ,lowth1 on the ,genealogy of ,christ4 ,variety of ,numbers still belong ,to the soft ,melody of ,ode or ,song4 --,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #agj4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,composite ,,or ,,converted ,,subjects4 ,many are the works of human industry1 which to begin and finish are hardly granted to the same man4--,johnson1 ,adv4 to ,dict4 ,to lay down rules for these are as inefficacious4--,dr4 ,pratt's ,werter1 p4 #ai4 ,to profess regard1 and to act differently1 discover a base mind4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 p4 #bjf4 ,see also ,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 #hb and #aab2 ,lennie's1 #eh4 ,to magnify to the height of wonder things great1 new1 and admirable1 extremely please the mind of man4--,fisher's ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ,in this passage1 according as are used in a manner which is very common4--,webster's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #ahc4 ,a cause de are called a preposition2 a cause que1 a conjunction4--,,dr4 ,,webster3 ,knickerbocker1 #ahcf4 ,to these are given to speak in the name of the ,lord4--,the ,friend1 vii1 #bef4 ,while wheat has no plural1 oats have seldom any singular4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram4 #da4 ,he cannot assert that ll are inserted in fullness to denote the sound of u4--,cobb's ,review of ,webster1 p4 #aa4 ch have the power of k4--,gould's ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ti1 before a vowel1 and unaccented1 have the sound of si or ci4--,ibid4 ,in words derived from the ,french1 as chagrin1 chicanery1 and chaise1 ch are sounded like sh4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,but in the word schism1 schismatic1 c41 the ch are silent4--,ibid4 ,ph are always sounded like f1 at the beginning of words4--,bucke's ,gram4 ,ph have the sound of f as in philosophy4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #aa4 ,sh have one sound only as in shall4--,ib4 ,th have two sounds4--,ib4 ,sc have the sound of sk1 before a1 o1 u1 and r4--,ib4 ,aw1 have the sound of a in hall4--,bolles's ,spelling-,book1 p4 vi4 ,ew1 sound like u4--,ib4 ,ow1 when both sounded1 have the sound of ou4--,ib4 ,ui1 when both pronounced in one syllable sound like wi in languid4--,ib4 ,ui three several ,sorts of ,sound express1 ,as ,guile1 rebuild1 ,bruise and ,recruit confess4 --,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,each1 ,,one1 ,,either1 ,,and ,,neither4 ,when each of the letters which compose this word1 have been learned4--,dr4 ,weeks1 on ,orthog41 p4 #bb4 ,as neither of us deny that both ,homer and ,virgil have great beauties4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ba4 ,yet neither of them are remarkable for precision4--,ib41 p4 #ie4 ,how far each of the three great epic poets have distinguished themselves4--,ib41 p4 #dbg4 ,each of these produce a separate agreeable sensation4--,ib41 p4 #dh4 ,on the ,lord's day every one of us ,christians keep the sabbath4--,tr4 of ,irenus4 ,and each of them bear the image of purity and holiness4--,hope of ,israel1 p4 #ha4 ,were either of these meetings ever acknowledged or recognized8--,foster's ,report1 i1 #if4 ,whilst neither of these letters exist in the ,eugubian inscription4--,knight1 on ,greek ,alph41 p4 #abb4 ,and neither of them are properly termed indefinite4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,as likewise of the several subjects1 which have in effect each their verb4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #abj4 ,sometimes when the word ends in s1 neither of the signs are used4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,and as neither of these manners offend the ear4--,walker's ,dict41 ,pref41 p4 #e4 ,neither of these two ,tenses are confined to this signification only4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cci4 ,but neither of these circumstances are intended here4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ii1 #bcg4 ,so that all are indebted to each1 and each are dependent upon all4--,am4 ,bible ,society's ,rep41 #ahch1 p4 #hi4 ,and yet neither of them express any more action in this case than they did in the other4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bja4 ,each of these expressions denote action4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,neither of these moods seem to be defined by distinct boundaries4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,neither of these solutions are correct4-- ,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bcf4 ,neither bear any sign of case at all4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #bag4 ,each in their turn like ,banquo's monarchs stalk4--,byron4 ,and tell what each of them by th'other lose4--,shak41 ,cori41 iii1 #b4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,verb ,,between ,,two ,,nominatives4 ,the quarrels of lovers is a renewal of love4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #aef2 ,alexander's1 #di2 ,gould's1 #aei2 ,bullions's1 #bjf4 ,two dots1 one placed above the other1 is called ,sheva4--,dr4 ,wilson's ,heb4 ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,a few centuries1 more or less1 is a matter of small consequence4--,ib4 p4 #ca4 ,pictures were the first step towards the art of writing4 ,hieroglyphicks was the second step4--,parker's ,english ,composition1 p4 #bg4 ,the comeliness of youth are modesty and frankness2 of age1 condescension and dignity4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aff4 ,merit and good works is the end of man's motion4--,lord ,bacon4 ,divers philosophers hold that the lips is parcel of the mind4--,shakspeare4 ,the clothing of the natives were the skins of wild beasts4--,indian ,wars1 p4 #ib4 ,prepossessions in favor of our nativ town1 is not a matter of surprise4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bag4 ,two shillings and six pence is half a crown1 but not a half crown4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aej2 ,bicknell's1 ii1 #ec4 ,two vowels1 pronounced by a single impulse of the voice1 and uniting in one sound1 is called a dipthong4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,two or more sentences united together is called a ,compound ,sentence4--,p4 ,e4 ,day's ,district ,school ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,two or more words rightly put together1 but not completing an entire proposition1 is called a ,phrase4--,ibid4 ,but the common ,number of ,times are five4--,the ,british ,grammar1 p4 #abb4 ,technical terms1 injudiciously introduced1 is another source of darkness in composition4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ajg4 ,the ,united ,states is the great middle division of ,north ,america4--,morse's ,geog41 p4 #dd4 ,a great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it4--,,hume3 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ade2 ,ingersoll's1 #agb2 ,sanborn's1 #aib2 ,smith's1 #abc2 and others4 ,here two tall ships becomes the victor's prey4--,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #ajih4 ,the expenses incident to an outfit is surely no object4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 iii41 p4 #bjj4 ,perhaps their loves1 or else their sheep1 ,was all that did their silly thoughts so busy keep4--,milton4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,change ,,the ,,nominative4 ,much pains has been taken to explain all the kinds of words4--,infant ,school ,gram4 p4 #abh4 ,not less time than three years are spent in attaining this faculty4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #bh4 ,where this night are met in state ,many a friend to gratulate ,his wish'd presence4--,milton's ,comus4 l4 #idh4 ,peace6 my darling1 here's no danger1 ,here's no oxen near thy bed4--,watts4 ,but every one of these are mere conjectures1 and some of them very unhappy ones4--,coleridge's ,introduction1 p4 #fa4 ,the old theorists1 calling the ,interrogatives and ,repliers1 adverbs1 is only a part of their regular system of naming words4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cgd4 ,where a series of sentences occur1 place them in the order in which the facts occur4--,ib41 p4 #bfd4 ,and that the whole in conjunction make a regular chain of causes and effects4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bge4 ,the origin of the ,grecian1 and ,roman republics1 though equally involved in the obscurities and uncertainties of fabulous events1 present one remarkable distinction4--,adam's ,rhet41 i1 #ie4 ,in these respects1 mankind is left by nature an unformed1 unfinished creature4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #add4 ,the scripture are the oracles of ,god himself4--,,hooker3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,oracle4 ,and at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits4--,solomon's ,song1 vii1 #ac4 ,the preterit of pluck1 look1 and toss are1 in speech1 pronounced pluckt1 lookt1 tosst4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #ahej1 #fh4 ,severe the doom that length of days impose1 ,to stand sad witness of unnumber'd woes6--,melmoth4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,adapt ,,form ,,to ,,style4 #a4 ,forms not proper for the ,common or ,familiar ,style4 ,was it thou that buildedst that house8--,inst41 p4 #aea4 ,that boy writeth very elegantly4--,ib4 ,couldest not thou write without blotting thy book8--,ib4 ,thinkest thou not it will rain to-day8--,ib4 ,doth not your cousin intend to visit you8--,ib4 ,that boy hath torn my book4--,ib4 ,was it thou that spreadest the hay8--,ib4 ,was it ,james1 or thou1 that didst let him in8--,ib4 ,he dareth not say a word4--,ib4 ,thou stoodest in my way and hinderedst me4--,ib4 ,whom see ,i8--,whom seest thou now8--,whom sees he8--,whom lovest thou most8--,what dost thou to-day8--,what person seest thou teaching that boy8--,he hath two new knives4--,which road takest thou8--,what child teaches he8--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,thou1 who makest my shoes1 sellest many more4--,ib41 p4 #fg4 ,the ,english language hath been much cultivated during the last two hundred years4 ,it hath been considerably polished and refined4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 iii4 ,this stile is ostentatious1 and doth not suit grave writing4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,but custom hath now appropriated who to persons1 and which to things4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 ,the indicative mood sheweth or declareth2 as1 ,ego amo1 ,i love3 or else asketh a question2 as1 ,amas tu8 ,dost thou love8--,paul's ,accidence1 ,ed4 of #agic1 p4 #af4 ,though thou canst not do much for the cause1 thou mayst and shouldst do something4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,the support of so many of his relations1 was a heavy task2 but thou knowest he paid it cheerfully4--,murray's ,key1 ,r4 #a1 p4 #ahj4 ,it may1 and often doth1 come short of it4--,campbell's ,rhetoric1 p4 #afj4 ',twas thou1 who1 while thou seem'dst to chide1 ,to give me all thy pittance tried4--,mitford's ,blanch1 p4 #gh4 #b4 ,forms not proper for the ,solemn or ,biblical ,style4 ,the ,lord has prepaid his throne in the heavens2 and his kingdom rules over all4--,see ,key4 ,thou answer'd them1 ,o ,lord our ,god3 thou was a ,god that forgave them1 though thou took vengeance of their inventions4--,see ,key4 ,then thou spoke in vision to thy ,holy ,one1 and said1 ,i have laid help upon one that is mighty4--,see ,key4 ,so then1 it is not of him that wills1 nor of him that rules1 but of ,god that shows mercy2 who dispenses his blessings1 whether temporal or spiritual1 as seems good in his sight4--,see ,key4 ,thou1 the mean while1 was blending with my thought2 ,yea1 with my life1 and life's own secret joy4--,coleridge4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,express ,,the ,,nominative4 ,who is here so base1 that would be a bondman8--,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #bdi4 ,who is here so rude1 that would not be a ,roman8--,ib4 ,there is not a sparrow falls to the ground without his notice4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cjj4 ,in order to adjust them so1 as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength of the period4--,ib41 p4 #cbd2 ,blair's ,rhet41 #aah4 ,but1 sometimes1 there is a verb comest in4--,cobbett's ,english ,gram41 #bdh4 ,mr4 ,prince has a genius would prompt him to better things4--,spectator1 ,no4 #dff4 ,it is this removes that impenetrable mist4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #cfb4 ,by the praise is given him for his courage4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #bad4 ,there is no man would be more welcome here4--,steele1 ,spect41 ,no4 #edd4 ,between an antecedent and a consequent1 or what goes before1 and immediately follows4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ada4 ,and as connected with what goes before and follows4-- ,ib41 p4 #ced4 ,there is no man doth a wrong for the wrong's sake4--,lord ,bacon4 ,all the various miseries of life1 which people bring upon themselves by negligence and folly1 and might have been avoided by proper care1 are instances of this4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ajh4 ,ancient philosophers have taught many things in favour of morality1 so far at least as respect justice and goodness towards our fellow-creatures4--,gospel its own ,witness1 p4 #ef4 ,indeed1 if there be any such1 have been1 or appear to be of us1 as suppose1 there is not a wise man among us all1 nor an honest man1 that is able to judge betwixt his brethren2 we shall not covet to meddle in their matter4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ejd4 ,there were that drew back2 there were that made shipwreck of faith3 yea1 there were that brought in damnable heresies4--,ib41 i1 #dff4 ,the nature of the cause rendered this plan altogether proper1 and in similar situations is fit to be imitated4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bgd4 ,this is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined1 and was formerly very prevalent4-- ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,his roots are wrapped about the heap1 and seeth the place of stones4--,job1 viii1 #ag4 ,new ,york1 ,fifthmonth #c;d1 #ahbc4 ,dear friend1 ,am sorry to hear of thy loss2 but hope it may be retrieved4 ,should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power4 ,shall call to see thee to-morrow morning4 ,accept assurances of my regard4 ,a4 ,b4 ,new ,york1 ,may #c;d1 ,p4 ,m41 #ahbc4 ,dear ,sir1 ,have just received the kind note favoured me with this morning2 and cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you4 ,on further information1 find have not lost so much as at first supposed2 and believe shall still be able to meet all my engagements4 ,should1 however1 be happy to see you4 ,accept1 dear sir1 my most cordial thanks4 ,c4 ,d4--,see ,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #aea4 ,will martial flames forever fire thy mind1 ,and never1 never be to ,heaven resign'd8--,pope1 ,odys41 xii1 #ade4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,application ,,of ,,moods4 ,first ,clause of the ,note4--,for the ,subjunctive ,present4 ,he will not be pardoned1 unless he repents4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #aia4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the verb repents1 which is here used to express a future contingency1 is in the indicative mood4 ,but1 according to the first clause of ,note #ith to ,rule #adth1 ,a future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present4 ,therefore1 repents should be repent2 thus1 ,he will not be pardoned1 unless he repent4 ,if thou findest any kernelwort in this marshy meadow1 bring it to me4--,neef's ,method of ,teaching1 p4 #beh4 ,if thou leavest the room1 do not forget to shut that drawer4--,ib41 p4 #bdf4 ,if thou graspest it stoutly1 thou wilt not be hurt4--,ib41 p4 #aif4 ,on condition that he comes1 ,i will consent to stay4--,murray's ,exerc41 p4 #gd4 ,if he is but discreet1 he will succeed4--,inst41 p4 #aia4 ,take heed that thou speakest not to ,jacob4--,ib4 ,if thou castest me off1 ,i shall be miserable4-- ,ib4 ,send them to me1 if thou pleasest4--,ib4 ,watch the door of thy lips1 lest thou utterest folly4--,ib4 ,though a liar speaks the truth1 he will hardly be believed4--,common ,school ,manual1 ii1 #abd4 ,i will go unless ,i should be ill4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cjj4 ,if the word or words understood are supplied1 the true construction will be apparent4-- ,murray's ,exercises in ,parsing1 p4 #ba4 ,unless thou shalt see the propriety of the measure1 we shall not desire thy support4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bji4 ,unless thou shouldst make a timely retreat1 the danger will be unavoidable4--,ib41 p4 #bji4 ,we may live happily1 though our possessions are small4--,ib41 p4 #bjb4 ,if they are carefully studied1 they will enable the student to parse all the exercises4--,ib41 ,note1 p4 #afe4 ,if the accent is fairly preserved on the proper syllable1 this drawling sound will never be heard4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bdb4 ,one phrase may1 in point of sense1 be equivalent to another1 though its grammatical nature is essentially different4--,ib41 p4 #ajh4 ,if any man obeyeth not our word by this epistle1 note that man4--,dr4 ,webster's ,bible4 ,thy skill will be the greater1 if thou hittest it4--,putnam's ,analytical ,reader1 p4 #bjd4 ,thy skill will be the greater if thou hit'st it4--,cobb's ,n4 ,a4 ,reader1 p4 #cba4 ,we shall overtake him though he should run4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aac2 ,murray's1 #bjg2 ,smith's1 #agc4 ,we shall be disgusted if he gives us too much4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #chh4 ,what is't to thee1 if he neglect thy urn1 ,or without spices lets thy body burn8--,,dryden3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,what4 ,second ,clause of ,note ,,ix4--,for the ,subjunctive ,imperfect4 ,and so would ,i1 if ,i was he4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #aia4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the verb was1 which is here used to express a mere supposition1 with indefinite time1 is in the indicative mood4 ,but1 according to the second clause of ,note #ith to ,rule #adth1 ,a mere supposition1 with indefinite time1 is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect4 ,therefore1 was should be were2 thus1 ,and so would ,i1 if ,i were he4 ,if ,i was a ,greek1 ,i should resist ,turkish despotism4--,cardell's ,elements of ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,if he was to go1 he would attend to your business4--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,if thou feltest as ,i do1 we should soon decide4--,inst41 p4 #aia4 ,though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause1 it would but prove thee sincerely a fool4--,ib4 ,if thou lovedst him1 there would be more evidence of it4--,ib4 ,if thou couldst convince him1 he would not act accordingly4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bji4 ,if there was no liberty1 there would be no real crime4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #aah4 ,if the house was burnt down1 the case would be the same4--,foster's ,report1 i1 #hi4 ,as if the mind was not always in action1 when it prefers any thing6--,west1 on ,agency1 p4 #ch4 ,suppose ,i was to say1 ',light is a body4'--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #gh4 ,if either oxygen or azote was omitted1 life would be destroyed4--,gurney's ,evidences1 p4 #aee4 ,the verb dare is sometimes used as if it was an auxiliary4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acb4 ,a certain lady1 whom ,i could name1 if it was necessary4--,spectator1 ,no4 #ecf4 ,if the e was dropped1 c and g would assume their hard sounds4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #aj4 ,he would no more comprehend it1 than if it was the speech of a ,hottentot4--,neef's ,sketch1 p4 #aab4 ,if thou knewest the gift of ,god1 c4--,john1 iv1 #aj4 ,i wish ,i was at home4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bfj4 ,fact alone does not constitute right2 if it does1 general warrants were lawful4--,junius1 ,let4 xliv1 p4 #bje4 ,thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessest it4--,putnam's ,analytical ,reader1 p4 #bjb4 ,thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessedst it4--,cobb's ,n4 ,a4 ,reader1 p4 #cbj4 ,he fought as if he had contended for life4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,he fought as if he had been contending for his life4--,ib41 #ib4 ,the dewdrop glistens on thy leaf1 ,as if thou seem'st to shed a tear2 ,as if thou knew'st my tale of grief1 ,felt all my sufferings severe4--,alex4 ,letham4 ,last ,clause of ,note ,,ix4--,for the ,indicative ,mood4 ,if he know the way1 he does not need a guide4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #aia4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the verb know1 which is used to express a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact1 is in the subjunctive mood4 ,but1 according to the last clause of ,note #ith to ,rule #adth1 ,a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact1 requires the indicative mood4 ,therefore1 know should be knows2 thus1 ,if he knows the way1 he does not need a guide4 ,and if there be no difference1 one of them must be superfluous1 and ought to be rejected4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #adi4 ,i cannot say that ,i admire this construction1 though it be much used4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,we are disappointed1 if the verb do not immediately follow it4--,ib41 p4 #agg4 ,if it were they who acted so ungratefully1 they are doubly in fault4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bbc4 ,if art become apparent1 it disgusts the reader4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #hj4 ,though perspicuity be more properly a rhetorical than a grammatical quality1 ,i thought it better to include it in this book4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bch4 ,although the efficient cause be obscure1 the final cause of those sensations lies open4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bi4 ,although the barrenness of language1 and the want of words be doubtless one cause of the invention of tropes4--,ib41 p4 #ace4 ,though it enforce not its instructions1 yet it furnishes us with a greater variety4--,ib41 p4 #cec4 ,in other cases1 though the idea be one1 the words remain quite separate--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,though the ,form of our language be more simple1 and has that peculiar ,beauty4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 v4 ,human works are of no significancy till they be completed4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bde4 ,our disgust lessens gradually till it vanish altogether4--,ib41 i1 #cch4 ,and our relish improves by use1 till it arrive at perfection4--,ib41 i1 #cch4 ,so long as he keep himself in his own proper element4--,,coke3 ib41 i1 #bcc4 ,whether this translation were ever published or not ,i am wholly ignorant4--,sale's ,koran1 i1 #ac4 ,it is false to affirm1 ',as it is day1 it is light1' unless it actually be day4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bdf4 ,but we may at midnight affirm1 ',if it be day1 it is light4'--,ibid4 ,if the ,bible be true1 it is a volume of unspeakable interest4--,dickinson4 ,though he were a son1 yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered4--,heb41 v1 #h4 ,if ,david then call him ,lord1 how is he his son8--,matt41 xxii1 #de4 ',tis hard to say1 if greater want of skill ,appear in writing or in judging ill4--,pope1 ,ess4 on ,crit4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,false ,,subjunctives4 ,if a man have built a house1 the house is his4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #bhf4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the verb have built1 which extends the subjunctive mood into the perfect tense1 has the appearance of disagreeing with its nominative man4 ,but1 according to ,note #ajth to ,rule #adth1 ,every such use or extension of the subjunctive mood1 as the reader will be likely to mistake for a discord between the verb and its nominative1 ought to be avoided as an impropriety4 ,therefore1 have built should be has built2 thus1 ,if a man has built a house1 the house is his4 ,if ,god have required them of him1 as is the fact1 he has time4--,ib41 p4 #cea4 ,unless a previous understanding to the contrary have been had with the ,principal4--,berrian's ,circular1 p4 #e4 ,o if thou have ,hid them in some flowery cave4--,milton's ,comus1 l4 #bci4 ,o if ,jove's will ,have linked that amorous power to thy soft lay4--,milton1 ,sonnet #a4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood3 ,if thou love1 ,if thou loved1 ,if thou have loved1 ,if thou had loved1 ,if thou shall or will love1 ,if thou shall or will have loved4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ga2 ,cooper's ,murray1 #eh2 ,d4 ,adams's ,gram41 #dh2 and others4 ,till religion1 the pilot of the soul1 have lent thee her unfathomable coil4--,tupper's ,thoughts1 p4 #agj4 ,whether nature or art contribute most to form an orator1 is a trifling inquiry4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cch4 ,year after year steals something from us2 till the decaying fabric totter of itself1 and crumble at length into dust4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bbe4 ,if spiritual pride have not entirely vanquished humility4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #ahd4 ,whether he have gored a son1 or have gored a daughter4--,exodus1 xxi1 #ca4 ,it is doubtful whether the object introduced by way of simile1 relate to what goes before1 or to what follows4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #de4 ,and bridle in thy headlong wave1 ,till thou our summons answer'd have4--,milt41 ,comus1 l4 #hhg4 ,,rule ,,xv4--,,finite ,,verbs4 ,when the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 the ,verb must agree with it in the plural number3 as1 ,the council were divided4--,the college of cardinals are the electors of the pope4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #agf4 ,quintus ,curtius relates1 that a number of them were drowned in the river ,lycus4--,home's ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #abe4 ,yon host come learn'd in academic rules4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 vii1 #dja4 ,while heaven's high host on hallelujahs live4 --,young's ,n4 ,th41 iv1 #cgh4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xv4 ,,obs4 #a4--,to this rule there are no exceptions2 because1 the collective noun being a name which even in the singular number signifies many1 the verb which agrees with it1 can never properly be singular1 unless the collection be taken literally as one aggregate1 and not as conveying the idea of plurality4 ,thus1 the collective noun singular being in general susceptible of two senses1 and consequently admitting two modes of concord1 the form of the verb1 whether singular or plural1 becomes the principal index to the particular sense in which the nominative is taken4 ,after such a noun1 we can use either a singular verb1 agreeing with it literally1 strictly1 formally1 according to ,rule #adth2 as1 ,the whole number ,,was two thousand and six hundred2 or a plural one1 agreeing with it figuratively1 virtually1 ideally1 according to ,rule #aeth2 as1 ,the whole number ,,were two thousand and six hundred4--#b ,chron41 xxvi1 #ab4 ,so1 when the collective noun is an antecedent1 the relative having in itself no distinction of the numbers1 its verb becomes the index to the sense of all three2 as1 ,wherefore lift up thy prayer for the remnant that ,,is left4--,isaiah1 xxxvii1 #d4 ,wherefore lift up thy prayer for the remnant that ,,are left4--#b ,kings1 xix1 #d4 ,ordinarily the word remnant conveys no idea of plurality2 but1 it being here applied to persons1 and having a meaning to which the mere singular neuter noun is not well adapted1 the latter construction is preferable to the former4 ,the ,greek version varies more in the two places here cited2 being plural in ,isaiah1 and singular in ,kings4 ,the ,latin ,vulgate1 in both1 is1 pro reliquiis qu repert sunt3 i4e41 for the remains1 or remnants1 that are found4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,dr4 ,adam's rule is this3 ,a collective noun may be joined with a verb either of the singular or of the plural number2 as1 ,multitudo stat1 or stant2 the multitude stands1 or stand4--,latin and ,english ,gram4 ,to this doctrine1 ,lowth1 ,murray1 and others1 add3 ,yet not without regard to the import of the word1 as conveying unity or plurality of idea4--,lowth1 p4 #gd2 ,murray1 #aeb4 ,if these latter authors mean1 that collective nouns are permanently divided in import1 so that some are invariably determined to the idea of unity1 and others to that of plurality1 they are wrong in principle2 for1 as ,dr4 ,adam remarks1 ,a collective noun1 when joined with a verb singular1 expresses many considered as one whole2 but when joined with a verb plural1 it signifies many separately1 or as individuals4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,and if this alone is what their addition means1 it is entirely useless2 and so1 for all the purposes of parsing1 is the singular half of the rule itself4 ,kirkham divides this rule into two1 one for unity of idea1 and the other for plurality of idea1 shows how each is to be applied in parsing1 according to his systematick order2 and then1 turning round with a gallant tilt at his own work1 condemns both1 as idle fabrications1 which it were better to reject than to retain2 alleging that1 ,the existence of such a thing as 'unity or plurality of idea1' as applicable to nouns of this class1 is doubtful4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ei4cid ,how then shall a plural verb or pronoun1 after a collective noun1 be parsed1 seeing it does not agree with the noun by the ordinary rule of agreement8 ,will any one say1 that every such construction is bad ,english8 ,if this cannot be maintained1 rules eleventh and fifteenth of this series are necessary4 ,but when the noun conveys the idea of unity or takes the plural form1 the verb or pronoun has no other than a literal agreement by the common rule2 as1 ,a priesthood1 such as ,baal's was of old1 ,a people1 such as never was till now4--,cowper4 ,,obs4 #c4--,of the construction of the verb and collective noun1 a late ,british author gives the following account3 ,collective nouns are substantives which signify many in the singular number4 ,collective nouns are of two sorts3 #a4 ,those which cannot become plural like other substantives2 as1 nobility1 mankind1 c4 #b4 ,those which can be made plural by the usual rules for a substantive2 as1 ',a multitude1 multitudes2 a crowd1 crowds2' c4 ,substantives which imply plurality in the singular number1 and consequently have no other plural1 generally require a plural verb4 ,they are cattle1 cavalry1 clergy1 commonalty1 gentry1 laity1 mankind1 nobility1 peasantry people1 populace1 public1 rabble1 c4 2 as1 ',the public are informed4' ,collective nouns which form a regular plural1 such as1 number1 numbers2 multitude1 multitudes2 have1 like all other substantives1 a singular verb1 when they are in the singular number2 and a plural verb1 when they are in the plural number2 as1 ',a number of people is assembled2 ,numbers are assembled4'--',the fleet was dispersed2 a part of it was injured2 the several parts are now collected4'-- ,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #abj4 ,to this1 his main text1 the author appends a note1 from which the following passages are extracted3 ,there are few persons acquainted with ,grammar1 who may not have noticed1 in many authors as well as speakers1 an irregularity in supposing collective nouns to have1 at one time1 a singular meaning1 and consequently to require a singular verb2 and1 at an other time1 to have a plural meaning1 and therefore to require a plural verb4 ,this irregularity appears to have arisen from the want of a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun4 ,this defect the author has endeavoured to supply2 and1 upon his definition1 he has founded the two rules above4 ,it is allowed on all sides that1 hitherto1 no satisfactory rules have been produced to enable the pupil to ascertain1 with any degree of certainty1 when a collective noun should have a singular verb1 and when a plural one4 ,a rule that simply tells its examiner1 that when a collective noun in the nominative case conveys the idea of unity1 its verb should be singular2 and when it implies plurality1 its verb should be plural1 is of very little value2 for such a rule will prove the pupil's being in the right1 whether he should put the verb in the singular or the plural4--,ibid4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the foregoing explanation has many faults2 and whoever trusts to it1 or to any thing like it1 will certainly be very much misled4 ,in the first place1 it is remarkable that an author who could suspect in others the want of a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun1 should have hoped to supply the defect by a definition so ambiguous and ill-written as is the one above4 ,secondly1 his subdivision of this class of nouns into two sorts1 is both baseless and nugatory2 for that plurality which has reference to the individuals of an assemblage1 has no manner of connexion or affinity with that which refers to more than one such aggregate2 nor is there any interference of the one with the other1 or any ground at all for supposing that the absence of the latter is1 has been1 or ought to be1 the occasion for adopting the former4 ,hence1 thirdly1 his two rules1 7though1 so far as they go1 they seem not untrue in themselves17 by their limitation under this false division1 exclude and deny the true construction of the verb with the greater part of our collective nouns4 ,for1 fourthly1 the first of these rules rashly presumes that any collective noun which in the singular number implies a plurality of individuals1 is consequently destitute of any other plural2 and the second accordingly supposes that no such nouns as1 council1 committee1 jury1 meeting1 society1 assembly1 court1 college1 company1 army1 host1 band1 retinue1 train1 multitude1 number1 part1 half1 portion1 majority1 minority1 remainder1 set1 sort1 kind1 class1 nation1 tribe1 family1 race1 and a hundred more1 can ever be properly used with a plural verb1 except when they assume the plural form4 ,to prove the falsity of this supposition1 is needless4 ,and1 finally1 the objection which this author advances against the common rules1 is very far from proving them useless1 or not greatly preferable to his own4 ,if they do not in every instance enable the student to ascertain with certainty which form of concord he ought to prefer1 it is only because no rules can possibly tell a man precisely when he ought to entertain the idea of unity1 and when that of plurality4 ,in some instances1 these ideas are unavoidably mixed or associated1 so that it is of little or no consequence which form of the verb we prefer2 as1 ,behold1 the people ,,is one1 and they have all one language4--,gen41 xi1 #f4 ,well1 if a king's a lion1 at the least ,the people ,,are a many-headed beast4--,pope1 ,epist4 i1 l4 #abj4 ,,obs4 #e4--,lindley ,murray says1 ,on many occasions1 where a noun of multitude is used1 it is very difficult to decide1 whether the verb should be in the singular1 or in the plural number2 and this difficulty has induced some grammarians to cut the knot at once1 and to assert that every noun of multitude must always be considered as conveying the idea of unity4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,what these occasions1 or who these grammarians1 are1 ,i know not2 but it is certain that the difficulty here imagined does not concern the application of such rules as require the verb and pronoun to conform to the sense intended2 and1 where there is no apparent impropriety in adopting either number1 there is no occasion to raise a scruple as to which is right4 ,to cut knots by dogmatism1 and to tie them by sophistry1 are employments equally vain4 ,it cannot be denied that there are in every multitude both a unity and a plurality1 one or the other of which must be preferred as the principle of concord for the verb or the pronoun1 or for both4 ,nor is the number of nouns small1 or their use unfrequent1 which1 according to our best authors1 admit of either construction3 though ,kirkham assails and repudiates his own rules1 because1 ,their application is quite limited4--,grammar in ,familiar ,lectures1 p4 #ei4 ,,obs4 #f4--,murray's doctrine seems to be1 not that collective nouns are generally susceptible of two senses in respect to number1 but that some naturally convey the idea of unity1 others1 that of plurality1 and a few1 either of these senses4 ,the last1 which are probably ten times more numerous than all the rest1 he somehow merges or forgets1 so as to speak of two classes only3 saying1 ,some nouns of multitude certainly convey to the mind an idea of plurality1 others1 that of a whole as one thing1 and others again1 sometimes that of unity1 and sometimes that of plurality4 ,on this ground1 it is warrantable1 and consistent with the nature of things1 to apply a plural verb and pronoun to the one class1 and a singular verb and pronoun to the other4 ,we shall immediately perceive the impropriety of the following constructions3 ',the clergy has withdrawn itself from the temporal courts2' ',the assembly was divided in its opinion2' c4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,the simple fact is1 that clergy1 assembly1 and perhaps every other collective noun1 may sometimes convey the idea of unity1 and sometimes that of plurality2 but an opinion or a voluntary withdrawing is a personal act or quality2 wherefore it is here more consistent to adopt the plural sense and construction1 in which alone we take the collection as individuals1 or persons4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,although a uniformity of number is generally preferable to diversity1 in the construction of words that refer to the same collective noun3 and although many grammarians deny that any departure from such uniformity is allowable2 yet1 if the singular be put first1 a plural pronoun may sometimes follow without obvious impropriety3 as1 ,so ,judah was carried away out of their land4--#b ,kings1 xxv1 #ba4 ,israel is reproved and threatened for their impiety and idolatry4--,friends' ,bible1 ,hosea1 x4 ,there is the enemy who wait to give us battle4--,murray's ,introductory ,reader1 p4 #cf4 ,when the idea of plurality predominates in the author's mind1 a plural verb is sometimes used before a collective noun that has the singular article an or a2 as1 ,there are a sort of authors1 who seem to take up with appearances4-- ,addison4 ,here are a number of facts or incidents leading to the end in view4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bif4 ,there are a great number of exceedingly good writers among the ,french4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,there in the forum swarm a numerous train1 ,the subject of debate a townsman slain4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 xviii1 l4 #egh4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,collective nouns1 when they are merely partitive of the plural1 like the words sort and number above1 are usually connected with a plural verb1 even though they have a singular definitive2 as1 ,and this sort of adverbs commonly admit of ,comparison4--,buchanan's ,english ,syntax1 p4 #fd4 ,here1 perhaps1 it would be better to say1 ,adverbs of this sort commonly admit of comparison4 ,a part of the exports consist of raw silk4--,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #ajj4 ,this construction is censured by ,murray1 in his octavo ,gram41 p4 #adh2 where we are told1 that the verb should agree with the first noun only4 ,dr4 ,webster alludes to this circumstance1 in improving his grammar1 and admits that1 ,a part of the exports consists1 seems to be more correct4--,improved ,gram41 p4 #ajj4 ,yet he retains his original text1 and obviously thinks it a light thing1 that1 in some cases1 his rules or examples may not be vindicable4 7,see ,obs4 #adth1 #aeth1 and #afth1 on ,rule #adth1 of this code47 ,it would1 ,i think1 be better to say1 ,the exports consist partly of raw silk4 ,again3 ,a multitude of ,latin words have1 of late1 been poured in upon us4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #id4 ,better1 perhaps3 ,latin words1 in great multitude1 have1 of late1 been poured in upon us4 ,so3 ,for the bulk of writers are very apt to confound them with each other4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 ,better3 ,for most writers are very apt to confound them with each other4 ,in the following example1 7here cited as ,kames has it1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bdg17 either the verb is1 or the phrase1 ,there are some moveless men might as well have been used3 ,there are a sort of men1 whose visages ,do cream and mantle like a standing pond4--,shak4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,collections of things are much less frequently and less properly regarded as individuals1 or under the idea of plurality1 than collections of persons4 ,this distinction may account for the difference of construction in the two clauses of the following example2 though ,i rather doubt whether a plural verb ought to be used in the former3 ,the number of commissioned officers in the guards are to the marching regiments as one to eleven3 the number of regiments given to the guards1 compared with those given to the line1 is about three to one4--,junius1 p4 #adg4 ,whenever the multitude is spoken of with reference to a personal act or quality1 the verb ought1 as ,i before suggested1 to be in the plural number2 as1 ,the public are informed4--,the plaintiff's counsel have assumed a difficult task4--,the committee were instructed to prepare a remonstrance4 ,the ,english nation declare they are grossly injured by their representatives4--,junius1 p4 #adg4 ,one particular class of men are permitted to call themselves the ,king's friends4--,id41 p4 #agf4 ,the ,ministry have realized the compendious ideas of ,caligula4--,id41 p4 #agg4 ,it is in accordance with this principle1 that the following sentences have plural verbs and pronouns1 though their definitives are singular1 and perhaps ought to be singular3 ,so depraved were that people whom in their history we so much admire4--,,hume3 ,m',ilvaine's ,lect41 p4 #djj4 ,oh1 this people have sinned a great sin1 and have made them gods of gold4--,exodus1 xxxii1 #ca4 ,this people thus gathered have not wanted those trials4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dfj4 ,the following examples1 among others1 are censured by ,priestley1 ,murray1 and the copyists of the latter1 without sufficient discrimination1 and for a reason which ,i think fallacious2 namely1 because the ideas they represent seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind3--,the court of ,rome were not without solicitude4--,hume4 ,the house of ,lords were so much influenced by these reasons4--,id4 ,see ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ahh2 ,murray's1 #aeb2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #abi2 ,ingersoll's1 #bdh2 and others4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,in general1 a collective noun1 unless it be made plural in form1 no more admits a plural adjective before it1 than any other singular noun4 ,hence the impropriety of putting these or those before kind or sort2 as1 ,these kind of knaves ,i know4--,shakspeare4 ,hence1 too1 ,i infer that cattle is not a collective noun1 as ,nixon would have it to be1 but an irregular plural which has no singular2 because we can say these cattle or those cattle1 but neither a bullock nor a herd is ever called a cattle1 this cattle1 or that cattle4 ,and if cavalry1 clergy1 commonalty1 c41 were like this word1 they would all be plurals also1 and not substantives which imply plurality in the singular number1 and consequently have no other plural4 ,whence it appears1 that the writer who most broadly charges others with not understanding the nature of a collective noun1 has most of all misconceived it himself4 ,if there are not many clergies1 it is because the clergy is one body1 with one ,head1 and not because it is in a particular sense many4 ,and1 since the forms of words are not necessarily confined to things that exist1 who shall say that the plural word clergies1 as ,i have just used it1 is not good ,english8 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,if we say1 these people1 these gentry1 these folk1 we make people1 gentry1 and folk1 not only irregular plurals1 but plurals to which there are no correspondent singulars2 but by these phrases1 we must mean certain individuals1 and not more than one people1 gentry1 or folk4 ,but these names are sometimes collective nouns singular2 and1 as such1 they may have verbs of either number1 according to the sense2 and may also form regular plurals1 as peoples1 and folks2 though we seldom1 if ever1 speak of gentries2 and folks is now often irregularly applied to persons1 as if one person were a folk4 ,so troops is sometimes irregularly1 if not improperly1 put for soldiers1 as if a soldier were a troop2 as1 ,while those gallant troops1 by whom every hazardous1 every laborious service is performed1 are left to perish4--,junius1 p4 #adg4 ,in ,genesis1 xxvii1 #bith1 we read1 ,let people serve thee1 and nations bow down to thee4 ,but1 according to the ,vulgate1 it ought to be1 ,let peoples serve thee1 and nations bow down to thee2 according to the ,septuagint1 ,let nations serve thee1 and rulers bow down to thee4 ,among ,murray's instances of false syntax1 we find the text1 ,this people draweth near to me with their mouth1 c4--,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #di4 ,this is corrected in his ,key1 thus3 ,these people draw near to me with their mouth4--,ib41 ii1 #ahe4 ,the ,bible has it3 ,this people draw near me with their mouth4--,isaiah1 xxix1 #ac4 ,and again3 ,this people draweth nigh unto me with their mouth41--,matt41 xv1 #h4 ,dr4 ,priestley thought it ought to be1 ,this people draws nigh unto me with their mouths4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,the second evangelist omits some words3 ,this people honoureth me with their lips1 but their heart is far from me4--,mark1 vii1 #f4 ,in my opinion1 the plural verb is here to be preferred2 because the pronoun their is plural1 and the worship spoken of was a personal rather than a national act4 ,yet the adjective this must be retained1 if the text specify the ,jews as a people4 ,as to the words mouth and heart1 they are to be understood figuratively of speech and love2 and ,i agree not with ,priestley1 that the plural number must necessarily be used4 ,see ,note #dth to ,rule #dth4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,in making an assertion concerning a number or quantity with some indefinite excess or allowance1 we seem sometimes to take for the subject of the verb what is really the object of a preposition2 as1 ,in a sermon1 there may be from three to five1 or six heads4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cac4 ,in those of ,germany1 there are from eight to twelve professors4-- ,dwight1 ,lit4 ,convention1 p4 #ach4 ,about a million and a half was subscribed in a few days4--,n4 ,y4 ,daily ,advertiser4 ,about one hundred feet of the ,muncy dam has been swept off4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer4 ,upwards of one hundred thousand dollars have been appropriated4--,newspaper4 ,but ,i fear there are between twenty and thirty of them4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ii1 #dda4 ,besides which1 there are upwards of fifty smaller islands4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #cj4 ,on board of which embarked upwards of three hundred passengers4--,robertson's ,amer41 ii1 #dai4 ,the propriety of using above or upwards of for more than1 is questionable1 but the practice is not uncommon4 ,when there is a preposition before what seems at first to be the subject of the verb1 as in the foregoing instances1 ,i imagine there is an ellipsis of the word number1 amount1 sum or quantity2 the first of which words is a collective noun and may have a verb either singular or plural3 as1 ,in a sermon1 there may be any number from three to five or six heads4 ,this is awkward1 to be sure2 but what does the ,doctor's sentence mean1 unless it is1 that there may be an optional number of heads1 varying from three to six8 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,dr4 ,webster says1 ,when an aggregate amount is expressed by the plural names of the particulars composing that amount1 the verb may be in the singular number2 as1 ',there was more than a hundred and fifty thousand pounds sterling4' ,mavor's ,voyages4 ,to this he adds1 ,however repugnant to the principles of grammar this may seem at first view1 the practice is correct2 for the affirmation is not made of the individual parts or divisions named1 the pounds1 but of the entire sum or amount4--,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #adf2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #ajj4 ,the fact is1 that the ,doctor here1 as in some other instances1 deduces a false rule from a correct usage4 ,it is plain that either the word more1 taken substantively1 or the noun to which it relates as an adjective1 is the only nominative to the verb was4 ,mavor does not affirm that there were a hundred and fitly thousand pounds2 but that there was more--i4e41 more money than so many pounds are1 or amount to4 ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce1 too4 falls into a multitude of strange errors respecting the nature of more than1 and the construction of other words that accompany these4 ,see his ,analytical ,rules1 and the manner in which he applies them1 in ,the ,grammar1 p4 #aie et seq4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,among certain educationists1--grammarians1 arithmeticians1 schoolmasters1 and others1--there has been of late not a little dispute concerning the syntax of the phraseology which we use1 or should use1 in expressing multiplication1 or in speaking of abstract numbers4 ,for example3 is it better to say1 ,twice one is two1 or1 ,twice one are two8--,two times one is two1 or1 ,two times one are two8--,twice two is four1 or1 ,twice two are four8--,thrice one is or are1 three8--,three times one is1 or are1 three8--,three times naught is1 or are1 naught8--,thrice three is1 or are1 nine8--,three times four is1 or are1 twelve8--,seven times three make1 or makes1 twenty-one8--,three times his age do not1 or does not1 equal mine8--,three times the quantity is not1 or are not1 sufficient8--,three quarters of the men were discharged2 and three quarters of the money was1 or were1 sent back8--,as #b is to #d1 so is #f to #ab2 or1 ,as two are to four1 so are six to twelve8 ,,obs4 #ae4--,most of the foregoing expressions1 though all are perhaps intelligible enough in common practice1 are1 in some respect1 difficult of analysis1 or grammatical resolution4 ,i think it possible1 however1 to frame an argument of some plausibility in favour of every one of them4 ,yet it is hardly to be supposed1 that any teacher will judge them all to be alike justifiable1 or feel no interest in the questions which have been raised about them4 ,that the language of arithmetic is often defective or questionable in respect to grammar1 may be seen not only in many an ill choice between the foregoing variant and contrasted modes of expression1 but in sundry other examples1 of a somewhat similar character1 for which it may be less easy to find advocates and published arguments4 ,what critic will not judge the following phraseology to be faulty8 #d times two units is #h units1 and #d times #e tens is twenty tens4--,chase's ,common ,school ,arithmetic1 #ahdh1 p4 #db4 ,or this8 #a time #a is l4 #b times #a are #b2 #a time #d is #d1 #b times #d are #h4--,ray's ,arithmetic1 #ahec4 ,or this8 #h and #g is #ae1 #i's out leaves #f2 #c and #h is #aa1 #i's out leaves #b4--;,babcock's ,practical ,arithmetic1 #ahbi1 p4 #bb4 ,or this again8 #c times #c is #i1 and #b we had to carry is #aa4--;,ib41 p4 #bj4 ,,obs4 #af4--,there are several different opinions as to what constitutes the grammatical subject of the verb in any ordinary ,english expression of multiplication4 ,besides this1 we have some variety in the phraseology which precedes the verb2 so that it is by no means certain1 either that the multiplying terms are always of the same part of speech1 or that the true nominative to the verb is not essentially different in different examples4 ,some absurdly teach1 that an abstract number is necessarily expressed by a singular noun1 with only a singular meaning2 that such a number1 when multiplied1 is always1 of itself the subject of the assertion2 and1 consequently1 that the verb must be singular1 as agreeing only with this singular noun4 ,others1 not knowing how to parse separately the multiplying word or words and the number multiplied1 take them both or all together as the grammatical subject with which the verb must agree4 ,but1 among these latter expounders1 there are two opposite opinions on the very essential point1 whether this entire expression requires a singular verb or a plural one3--as1 whether we ought to say1 ,twice one is two1 or1 ,twice one are two2--,twice two is four1 or1 ,twice two are four2--,three times one is three1 or1 ,three times one are three2--,three times three is nine1 or1 ,three times three are nine4 ,others1 again1 according to ,dr4 ,bullions1 and possibly according to their own notion1 find the grammatical subject1 sometimes1 if not generally1 in the multiplying term only2 as1 perhaps1 is the case with those who write or speak as follows3 ,if we say1 ',three times one are three1' we make 'times' the subject of the verb4--,bullions1 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 #ahdi1 p4 #ci4 ,thus1 #b times #a are #b2 #b times #b are four2 #b times #c are #f4--;,chase's ,c4 ,s4 ,arith41 p4 #dc4 ,say1 #b times ,o are ,o2 #b times #a are #b4--,robinson's ,american ,arith41 #ahbe1 p4 #bd4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,dr4 ,bullions1 with a strange blunder of some sort in almost every sentence1 propounds and defends his opinion on this subject thus3 ,numeral adjectives1 being also names of numbers1 are often used as nouns1 and so have the inflection and construction of nouns3 thus1 by twos1 by tens1 by fifties4 ,two is an even number4 ,twice two is four4 ,four is equal to twice two4 ,in some arithmetics the language employed in the operation of multiplying--such as ',twice two are four1 twice three are six'--is incorrect4 ,it should be1 ',twice two is four1' c42 for the word two is used as a singular noun--the name of a number4 ,the adverb 'twice' is not in construction with it1 and consequently does not make it plural4 ,the meaning is1 ',the number two taken twice is equal to four4' ,for the same reason we should say1 ',three times two is six1' because the meaning is1 ',two taken three times is six4' ,if we say1 ',three times one are three1' we make 'times' the subject of the verb1 whereas the subject of the verb really is 'one1' and 'times' is in the objective of number 7#hbh74 #b3d33 #f3ab1 should be read1 ',as #b is to #d1 so is #f to #ab2' not ',as two are to four1 so are six to twelve4' ,but when numerals denoting more than one1 are used as adjectives1 with a substantive expressed or understood1 they must have a plural construction4--,bullions1 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 #ahdi1 p4 #ci4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,since nouns and adjectives are different parts of speech1 the suggestion1 that1 ,numeral adjectives are also names1 or nouns1 is1 upon the very face of it1 a flat absurdity2 and the notion that the name of a number above unity1 conveys only and always the idea of unity1 like an ordinary singular noun1 is an other4 ,a number in arithmetic is most commonly an adjective in grammar2 and it is always1 in form1 an expression that tells how many1 or--denotes how many things are spoken of4--,chase1 p4 #aa4 ,but the name of a number is also a number1 whenever it is not made plural in form4 ,thus four is a number1 but fours is not2 so ten is a number1 but tens is not4 ,arithmetical numbers1 which run on to infinity1 severally consist of a definite idea of how many2 each is a precise count by the unit2 one being the beginning of the series1 and the measure of every successive step4 ,grammatical numbers are only the verbal forms which distinguish one thing from more of the same sort4 ,thus the word fours or tens1 unless some arithmetical number be prefixed to it1 signifies nothing but a mere plurality which repeats indefinitely the collective idea of four or ten4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,all actual names of numbers calculative1 except one1 7for naught1 though it fills a place among numbers1 is1 in itself1 a mere negation of number2 and such terms as oneness1 unity1 duality1 are not used in calculation17 are collective nouns--a circumstance which seems to make the discussion of the present topic appropriate to the location which is here given it under ,rule #aeth4 ,each of them denotes a particular aggregate of units4 ,and if each1 as signifying one whole1 may convey the idea of unity1 and take a singular verb2 each1 again1 as denoting so many units1 may quite as naturally take a plural verb1 and be made to convey the idea of plurality4 ,for the mere abstractness of numbers1 or their separation from all particular objects1 by no means obliges us to limit them always to the construction with verbs singular4 ,if it is right to say1 ,two is an even number2 it is certainly no error to say1 ,two are an even number4 ,if it is allowable to say1 ,as #b is to #d1 so is #f to #ab2 it is as well1 if not better1 to say1 ,as two are to four1 so are six to twelve4 ,if it is correct to say1 ,four is equal to twice two2 it is quite as grammatical to say1 ,four are equal to twice two4 ,bullions bids say1 ,twice two is four1 and1 ,three times two is six2 but ,i very much prefer to say1 ,twice two are four1 and1 ,three times two are six4 ,the ,doctor's reasoning1 whereby he condemns the latter phraseology1 is founded only upon false assumptions4 ,this ,i expect to show2 and more--that the word which he prefers1 is wrong4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,as to what constitutes the subject of the verb in multiplication1 ,i have already noticed three different opinions4 ,there are yet three or four more1 which must not be overlooked in a general examination of this grammatical dispute4 ,dr4 ,bullions's notion on this point1 is stated with so little consistency1 that one can hardly say what it is4 ,at first1 he seems to find his nominative in the multiplicand1 used as a singular noun2 but1 when he ponders a little on the text1 ,twice two is four1 he finds the leading term not to be the word two1 but the word number1 understood4 ,he resolves1 indeed1 that no one of the four words used1 is in construction with any of the rest2 for he thinks1 ,the meaning is1 ',the number two taken twice is equal to four4' ,here1 then1 is a fourth opinion in relation to the subject of the verb3 it must be number understood4 ,again1 it is conceded by the same hand1 that1 ,when numerals denoting more than one1 are used as adjectives1 with a substantive expressed or understood1 they must have a plural construction4 ,now who can show that this is not the case in general with the numerals of multiplication8 ,to explain the syntax of ,twice two are four1 what can be more rational than to say1 ,the sense is1 ',twice two units1 or things1 are four8' ,is it not plain1 that twice two things1 of any sort1 are four things of that same sort1 and only so8 ,twice two duads are how many8 ,answer3 ,four duads1 or eight units4 ,here1 then1 is a fifth opinion1--and a very fair one too1--according to which we have for the subject of the verb1 not two nor twice nor twice two1 nor number1 understood before two1 but the plural noun units or things implied in or after the multiplicand4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,it is a doctrine taught by sundry grammarians1 and to some extent true1 that a neuter verb between two nominatives may agree with either of them4 7,see ,note #eth to ,rule #adth1 and the footnote47 ,when1 therefore1 a person who knows this1 meets with such examples as1 ,twice one are two2--,twice one unit are two units2--,thrice one are three2--he will of course be apt to refer the verb to the nominative which follows it1 rather than to that which precedes it2 taking the meaning to be1 ,two are twice one2--,two units are twice one unit2--,three are thrice one4 ,now1 if such is the sense1 the construction in each of these instances is right1 because it accords with such sense2 the interpretation is right also1 because it is the only one adapted to such a construction2 and we have1 concerning the subject of the verb1 a sixth opinion1--a very proper one too1--that it is found1 not where it is most natural to look for it1 in the expression of the factors1 but in a noun which is either uttered or implied in the product4 ,but1 no doubt1 it is better to avoid this construction1 by using such a verb as may be said to agree with the number multiplied4 ,again1 and lastly1 there may be1 touching all such cases as1 ,twice one are two1 a seventh opinion1 that the subject of the verb is the product taken substantively1 and not as a numeral adjective4 ,this idea1 or the more comprehensive one1 that all abstract numbers are nouns substantive1 settles nothing concerning the main question1 ,what form of the verb is required by an abstract number above unity8 ,if the number be supposed an adjective1 referring to the implied term units1 or things1 the verb must of course be plural2 but if it be called a collective noun1 the verb only follows and fixes the idea of plurality1 or the idea of unity1 as the writer or speaker chooses to adopt the one or the other4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,it is marvellous1 that four or five monosyllables1 uttered together in a common simple sentence1 could give rise to all this diversity of opinion concerning the subject of the verb2 but1 after all1 the chief difficulty presented by the phraseology of multiplication1 is that of ascertaining1 not the grammatical subject of the verb1 but the grammatical relation between the multiplier and the multiplicand--the true way of parsing the terms once1 twice1 three times1 c41 but especially the word times4 ,that there must be some such relation1 is obvious2 but what is it8 and how is it to be known8 ,to most persons1 undoubtedly1 ,twice two1 and1 ,three times two1 seem to be regular phrases1 in which the words cannot lack syntactical connexion2 yet ,dr4 ,bullions1 who is great authority with some thinkers1 denies all immediate or direct relation between the word two1 and the term before it1 preferring to parse both twice and three times as adjuncts to the participle taken1 understood4 ,he says1 ,the adverb 'twice' is not in construction with 'two1' and consequently does not make it plural4 ,his first assertion here is1 in my opinion1 untrue2 and the second implies the very erroneous doctrine1 that the word twice1 if it relate to a singular term1 will make it plural4 ,from a misconception like this1 it probably is1 that some who ought to be very accurate in speech1 are afraid to say1 ,twice one is two1 or1 ,thrice one is three1 judging the singular verb to be wrong2 and some there are who think1 that usage will not permit a careful scholar so to speak4 ,now1 analysis favours the singular form here2 and it is contrary to a plain principle of ,general ,grammar1 to suppose that a plural verb can be demanded by any phrase which is made collectively the subject of the assertion4 7,see ,note #c;d1 and ,obs4 #acth1 #adth1 #aeth1 and #afth1 under ,rule #adth47 ,are is1 therefore1 not required here2 and1 if allowable1 it is so only on the supposition that the leading nominative is put after it4 ,,obs4 #bc4--;,in ,blanchard's small ,arithmetic1 published in #ahed1 the following inculcations occur3 ,when we say1 #c times #d trees are #ab trees1 we have reference to the objects counted2 but in saying #c times #d is twelve1 we mean1 that #c times the number #d1 is the number #ab4 ,here we use #d and #ab1 not as numeral adjectives1 but as nouns1 the names of particular numbers1 and as such1 each conveys the idea of unity1 and the entire expression is the subject of is1 and conveys the idea of unity4--,p4 iv4 ,here we have1 with an additional error concerning the entire expression1 a repetition of ,dr4 ,bullions's erroneous assumption1 that the name of a particular number1 as being a singular noun1 must convey the idea of unity1 though the number itself be a distinct plurality4 ,these men talk as if there were an absurdity in affirming that the number #d is plural6 ,but1 if four be taken as only one thing1 how can three multiply this one thing into twelve8 ,it is by no means proper to affirm1 that1 ,every four1 taken three times1 is1 or are1 twelve2 for three instances1 or times1 of the figure #d1 or of the word four1 are only three #d's1 or three verbal fours4 ,and is it not because the number #d is plural--is in itself four units--and because the word four1 or the figure #d1 conveys explicitly the idea of this plurality1 that the multiplication table is true1 where it says1 #c times #d are #ab8 ,it is not right to say1 ,three times one quaternion is twelve2 nor is it quite unobjectionable to say1 with ,blanchard #c times the number #d1 is the number #ab4 ,besides1 this pretended interpretation explains nothing4 ,the syntax of the shorter text1 #c times #d is #ab1 is in no way justified or illustrated by it4 ,who does not perceive that the four here spoken of must be four units1 or four things of some sort2 and that no such four1 multiplied by #c1 or till #c times1 can convey the idea of unity1 or match a singular verb8 ,dr4 ,webster did not so conceive of this abstract number1 or of the entire expression in which it is multiplied2 for he says1 ,four times four amount to sixteen4--,american ,dict41 w4 ,time4 ,,obs4 #bd4--;,in fact no phrase of multiplication is of such a nature that it can1 with any plausibility be reckoned a composite subject of the verb4 ,once1 twice1 and thrice1 are adverbs2 and each of them may1 in general1 be parsed as relating directly to the multiplicand4 ,their construction1 as well as that of the plural verb1 is agreeable to the ,latin norm2 as1 when ,cicero says of somebody1 ,si1 bis bina quot essent1 didicisset1--,if he had learned how many twice two are4--,see ,ainsworth's ,dict41 w4 ,binus4 ,the phrases1 one time1 for once1 and two times for twice1 seem puerile expressions3 they are not often used by competent teachers4 ,thrice is a good word1 but more elegant than popular4 ,above twice1 we use the phrases1 three times1 four times1 and the like1 which are severally composed of a numeral adjective and the noun times4 ,if these words were united1 as some think they ought to be1 the compounds would be adverbs of time repeated2 as1 threetimes1 fourtimes1 c41 analogous to sometimes4 ,each word would answer1 as each phrase now does1 to the question1 ,how often8 ,these expressions are taken by some as having a direct adverbial relation to the terms which they qualify2 but they are perhaps most commonly explained as being dependent on some preposition understood4 ,see ,obs4 #ast on ,rule #eth1 and ,obs4 #fth on ,rule #gth4 ,,obs4 #be4--;,in multiplying one only1 it is evidently best to use a singular verb3 as1 ,twice naught is naught2--,three times one is three4 ,and1 in multiplying any number above one1 ,i judge a plural verb to be necessary3 as1 ,twice two are four2--,three times two are six2 because this number must be just so many in order to give the product4 ,dr4 ,bullions says1 ,we should say1 ',three times two is six1' because the meaning is1 ',two taken three times is six4' ,this is neither reasoning1 nor explanation1 nor good grammar4 ,the relation between two and three1 or the syntax of the word times1 or the propriety of the singular verb1 is no more apparent in the latter expression than in the former4 ,it would be better logic to affirm1 ,we should say1 ',three times two are six2' because the meaning is1 ',two 7units71 taken for1 to1 or till three times1 are six4' ,the preposition till1 or until1 is sometimes found in use before an expression of times numbered2 as1 ,how oft shall ,i forgive8 till seven times8 ,i say not unto thee1 ,until seven times2 but1 ,until seventy times seven4--,matt41 xviii1 #ba4 ,but here is still a difficulty with repect to the multiplying term1 or the word times4 ,for1 unless1 by an unallowable ellipsis1 seventy times seven1 is presumed to mean1 seventy times of seven1 the preposition ,until must govern1 not this noun times4 expressed1 but an other1 understood after seven2 and the meaning must be1 ,thou shalt forgive him until seventy-times seven times2 or--until seven times taken for1 to1 or till1 seventy times4 ,,obs4 #bf4--,with too little regard to consistency4 ,dr4 ,bullions suggests that when we make 'times' the subject of the verb1 it is not really such1 but is in the objective of number4 ,he is1 doubtless1 right in preferring to parse this word as an objective case1 rather than as a nominative1 in the construction to which he alludes2 but to call it an objective of number1 is an uncouth error1 a very strange mistake for so great a grammarian to utter3 there being in grammar no such thing as the objective of number3 nothing of the sort1 even under his own ,special ,rule1 to which he refers us for it6 ,and1 if such a thing there were1 so that a number could be put in the objective case without a governing word1 7see his #hbh17 the plural word times1 since it denotes no particular aggregate of units1 could never be an example of it4 ,it is true that times1 like days1 weeks1 and other nouns of time1 may be1 and often is1 in the objective case without a governing word expressed2 and1 in such instances1 it may be called the objective of repetition1 or of time repeated4 ,but the construction of the word appears to be such as is common to many nouns of time1 of value1 or of measure2 which1 in their relation to other words1 seem to resemble adverbs1 but which are usually said to be governed by prepositions understood3 as1 ,three days later2 i4e41 ,later by three days4--,three shillings cheaper2 i4e41 ,cheaper by three shillings4--,seven times hotter2 i4e41 ,hotter by seven times4--,four feet high2 i4e41 ,high to four feet4--,ten years old2 i4e41 ,old to ten years4--,five times ten2 i4e41 ,ten by five times2 or1 perhaps1 ,ten taken till five times4 ,,note ,,to ,,rule ,,xv4 ,a collective noun conveying the idea of unity1 requires a verb in the third person1 singular2 and generally admits also the regular plural construction3 as1 ,his army was defeated4--,his armies were defeated4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xv4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,plurality4 ,the gentry is punctilious in their etiquette4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the verb is is of the singular number1 and does not correctly agree with its nominative gentry1 which is a collective noun conveying rather the idea of plurality4 ,but1 according to ,rule #aeth1 ,when the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 the verb must agree with it in the plural number4 ,therefore1 is should be are2 thus1 ,the gentry are punctilious in their etiquette4 ,in ,france the peasantry goes barefoot1 and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes4--,,harvey3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ahh4 ,the people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow4--,see ,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #di4 ,my people is foolish1 they have not known me4--,jer41 iv1 #bb2 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,for the people speaks1 but does not write4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #fdf4 ,so that all the people that was in the camp1 trembled4--,exodus1 xix1 #af4 ,no company likes to confess that they are ignorant4--,student's ,manual1 p4 #bag4 ,far the greater part of their captives was anciently sacrificed4--,robertson's ,america1 i1 #cci4 ,above one half of them was cut off before the return of spring4--,ib41 ii1 #dai4 ,the other class1 termed ,figures of ,thought1 supposes the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #acc2 ,murray's ,gram41 #ccg4 ,a multitude of words in their dialect approaches to the ,teutonic form1 and therefore afford excellent assistance4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist of ,lang41 i1 #adh4 ,a great majority of our authors is defective in manner4--,james ,brown's ,crit4 ,the greater part of these new-coined words has been rejected4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ii1 #dde4 ,the greater part of the words it contains is subject to certain modifications and inflections4--,the ,friend1 ii1 #abc4 ,while all our youth prefers her to the rest4--,waller's ,poems1 p4 #ag4 ,mankind is appointed to live in a future state4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #eg4 ,the greater part of human kind speaks and acts wholly by imitation4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #afi4 ,the greatest part of human gratifications approaches so nearly to vice4--,ibid4 ,while still the busy world is treading o'er ,the paths they trod five thousand years before4--,young4 ,,under ,,the ,,note4--,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,unity4 ,in old ,english this species of words were numerous4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 ii1 #f4 ,and a series of exercises in false grammar are introduced towards the end4--,frost's ,el4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 iv4 ,and a jury1 in conformity with the same idea1 were anciently called homagium1 the homage1 or manhood4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bif4 ,with respect to the former1 there are indeed plenty of means4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cai4 ,the number of school districts have increased since the last year4--,governor ,throop1 #ahcb4 ,the ,yearly ,meeting have purchased with its funds these publications4--,foster's ,reports1 i1 #gf4 ,have the legislature power to prohibit assemblies8--,wm4 ,sullivan4 ,so that the whole number of the streets were fifty4--,rollin's ,ancient ,hist41 ii1 #h4 ,the number of inhabitants were not more than four millions4--,,smollett3 see ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aic4 ,the ,house of ,commons were of small weight4--,,hume3 ,ib41 p4 #ahh4 ,the assembly of the wicked have enclosed me4--,psal4 xxii1 #af2 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,every kind of convenience and comfort are provided4--,com4 ,school ,journal1 i1 #bd4 ,amidst the great decrease of the inhabitants of ,spain1 the body of the clergy have suffered no diminution2 but has rather been gradually increasing4--,payne's ,geog41 ii1 #dah4 ,small as the number of inhabitants are1 yet their poverty is extreme4--,ib41 ii1 #dag4 ,the number of the names were about one hundred and twenty4--,ware's ,gram41 p4 #ab2 see ,acts1 i1 #ae4 ,,rule ,,xvi4--,,finite ,,verbs4 ,when a ,verb has two or more nominatives connected by and1 it must agree with them jointly in the plural1 because they are taken together3 as1 ,true rhetoric and sound logic are very nearly allied4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aa4 ,aggression and injury in no case justify retaliation4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #djf4 ,judges and senates have been bought for gold1 ,esteem and love were never to be sold4--,pope4 ,,exception ,,first4 ,when two nominatives connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing1 they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name1 and do not require a plural verb2 as1 ,immediately comes a hue and cry after a gang of thieves4--,l',estrange4 ,the hue and cry of the country pursues him4--,junius1 ,letter xxiii4 ,flesh and blood i4 e4 man1 or man's nature1 hath not revealed it unto thee4--,matt41 xvi1 #ag4 ,descent and fall to us is adverse4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ii1 #gf4 ,this philosopher and poet was banished from his country4--,such a ,saviour and ,redeemer is actually provided for us4--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #chf4 ,let us then declare what great things our ,god and ,saviour has done for us4--,dr4 ,scott1 on ,luke viii4 ,toll1 tribute1 and custom1 was paid unto them4--,ezra1 iv1 #bj4 ,whose icy current and compulsive course ,ne'er feels retiring ebb1 but keeps due on4--,shakspeare4 ,,exception ,,second4 ,when two nominatives connected by and1 are emphatically distinguished1 they belong to different propositions1 and1 if singular1 do not require a plural verb2 as1 ,ambition1 and not the safety of the state1 was concerned4--,goldsmith4 ,consanguinity1 and not affinity1 is the ground of the prohibition4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cbd4 ,but a modification1 and oftentimes a total change1 takes place4--,maunder4 ,somewhat1 and1 in many circumstances1 a great deal too1 is put upon us4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ajh4 ,disgrace1 and perhaps ruin1 was the certain consequence of attempting the latter4--,robertson's ,america1 i1 #dcd4 ,ay1 and no too1 was no good divinity4--,shakespeare4 ,love1 and love only1 is the loan for love4--,young4 ,,exception ,,third4 ,when two or more nominatives connected by and are preceded by the adjective each1 every1 or no1 they are taken separately1 and do not require a plural verb2 as1 ,when no part of their substance1 and no one of their properties1 is the same4--,bp4 ,butler4 ,every limb and feature appears with its respective grace4--,steele4 ,every person1 and every occurrence1 is beheld in the most favourable light4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #aij4 ,each worm1 and each insect1 is a marvel of creative power4 ,whose every look and gesture was a joke ,to clapping theatres and shouting crowds4--,young4 ,,exception ,,fourth4 ,when the verb separates its nominatives1 it agrees with that which precedes it1 and is understood to the rest2 as1 ,the earth is the ,lord's1 and the fullness thereof4--,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #cf4 ,disdain forbids me1 and my dread of shame4--,milton4 ------,forth in the pleasing spring1 ,thy beauty walks1 thy tenderness1 and love4--,thomson4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xvi4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,according to ,lindley ,murray1 7who1 in all his compilation1 from whatever learned authorities1 refers us to no places in any book but his own47 ,dr4 ,blair observes1 that 'two or more substantives1 joined by a copulative1 must always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer1 to be placed in the plural number3' and this1 continues the great ,compiler1 is the general sentiment of ,english grammarians4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aej4 ,the same thing is stated in many other grammars3 thus1 ,ingersoll has the very same words1 on the #bchth page of his book2 and ,r4 ,c4 ,smith says1 ,dr4 ,blair very justly observes1 c4--,productive ,gram41 p4 #abf4 ,i therefore doubt not1 the learned rhetorician has somewhere made some such remark3 though ,i can neither supply the reference which these gentlemen omit1 nor vouch for the accuracy of their quotation4 ,but ,i trust to make it very clear1 that so many grammarians as hold this sentiment1 are no great readers1 to say the least of them4 ,murray himself acknowledges one exception to this principle1 and unconsciously furnishes examples of one or two more2 but1 in stead of placing the former in his ,grammar1 and under the rule1 where the learner would be likely to notice it1 he makes it an obscure and almost unintelligible note1 in the margin of his ,key1 referring by an asterisk to the following correction3 ,every man and every woman was numbered4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #aij4 ,to justify this phraseology1 he talks thus3 ,whatever number of nouns may be connected by a conjunction with the pronoun ,,every1 this pronoun is as applicable to the whole mass of them1 as to any one of the nouns2 and therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number1 and refers to the whole separately and individually considered4--,ib4 ,so much1 then1 for the pronoun ,,every6 ,but1 without other exceptions1 what shall be done with the following texts from ,murray himself8 ,the flock1 and not the fleece1 is1 or ought to be the object of the shepherd's care4--,ib41 ii1 #ahd4 ,this prodigy of learning1 this scholar1 critic1 and antiquary1 was entirely destitute of breeding and civility4--,ib41 ii1 #bag4 ,and1 in the following line1 what conjunction appears1 or what is the difference between horror and black despair4 that the verb should be made plural8 ,what black despair1 what horror1 fill his mind6--,ib41 ii1 #ahc4 ,what black despair1 what horror fills his heart6--,thomson4#cie ,,obs4 #b4--;,besides the many examples which may justly come under the four exceptions above specified1 there are several questionable but customary expressions1 which have some appearance of being deviations from this rule1 but which may perhaps be reasonably explained on the principle of ellipsis3 as1 ,all work and no play1 makes ,jack a dull boy4--,slow and steady often outtravels haste4--,dillwyn's ,reflections1 p4 #bc4 ,little and often fills the purse4--,treasury of ,knowledge1 ,part i1 p4 #ddf4 ,fair and softly goes far4 ,these maxims1 by universal custom1 lay claim to a singular verb2 and1 for my part1 ,i know not how they can well be considered either real exceptions to the foregoing rule1 or real inaccuracies under it2 for1 in most of them1 the words connected are not nouns2 and those which are so1 may not be nominatives4 ,and it is clear1 that every exception must have some specific character by which it may be distinguished2 else it destroys the rule1 in stead of confirming it1 as known exceptions are said to do4 ,murray appears to have thought the singular verb wrong2 for1 among his examples for parsing1 he has1 ,fair and softly go far1 which instance is no more entitled to a plural verb than the rest4 ,see his ,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #e4 ,why not suppose them all to be elliptical8 ,their meaning may be as follows3 ,to have all work and no play1 makes ,jack a dull boy4--,what is slow and steady1 often outtravels haste4--,to put in little and often1 fills the purse4--,what proceeds fair and softly1 goes far4 ,the following line from ,shakspeare appears to be still more elliptical3 ,poor and content is rich1 and rich enough4--,othello4 ,this may be supposed to mean1 ,he who is poor and content1 c4 ,in the following sentence again1 we may suppose an ellipsis of the phrase ,to have1 at the beginning2 though here1 perhaps1 to have pluralized the verb1 would have been as well3 ,one eye on death and one full fix'd on heaven1 ,becomes a mortal and immortal man4--,young4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the names of two persons are not unfrequently used jointly as the name of their story2 in which sense1 they must have a singular verb1 if they have any2 as1 ,prior's ,henry and ,emma contains an other beautiful example4--,jamieson's ,rhetoric1 p4 #agi4 ,i somewhat hesitate to call this an exception to the foregoing rule1 because here too the phraseology may be supposed elliptical4 ,the meaning is1 ,prior's little poem1 entitled1 ',henry and ,emma1' contains1 c42--or1 ,prior's story of ,henry and ,emma contains1 c4 ,and1 if the first expression is only an abbreviation of one of these1 the construction of the verb contains may be referred to ,rule #adth4 ,see ,exception #ast to ,rule #abth1 and ,obs4 #b;d on ,rule #adth4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the conjunction and1 by which alone we can with propriety connect different words to make them joint nominatives or joint antecedents1 is sometimes suppressed and understood2 but then its effect is the same1 as if it were inserted2 though a singular verb might sometimes be quite as proper in the same sentences1 because it would merely imply a disjunctive conjunction or none at all3 as1 ,the high breach of trust1 the notorious corruption1 are stated in the strongest terms4--,junius1 ,let4 xx4 ,envy1 self-will1 jealousy1 pride1 often reign there4--,abbott's ,corner ,stone1 p4 #aaa4 7,see ,obs4 #dth on ,rule #abth47 ,art1 empire1 earth itself1 to change are doomed4--,beattie4 ,her heart1 her mind1 her love1 is his alone4--,cowley4 ,in all the foregoing examples1 a singular verb might have been used without impropriety2 or the last1 which is singular1 might have been plural4 ,but the following couplet evidently requires a plural verb1 and is therefore correct as the poet wrote it2 both because the latter noun is plural1 and because the conjunction and is understood between the two4 ,yet a late grammarian1 perceiving no difference between the joys of sense and the pleasure of reason1 not only changes lie to lies1 but uses the perversion for a proof text1 under a rule which refers the verb to the first noun only1 and requires it to be singular4 ,see ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bej4 ,reason's whole pleasure1 all the joys of sense4 ,lie in three words--health1 peace1 and competence4 --,pope's ,ess41 ,ep4 iv1 l4 #hj4 ,,obs4 #e4--,when the speaker changes his nominative to take a stronger expression1 he commonly uses no conjunction2 but1 putting the verb in agreement with the noun which is next to it1 he leaves the other to an implied concord with its proper form of the same verb3 as1 ,the man whose designs1 whose whole conduct1 tends to reduce me to subjection1 that man is at war with me1 though not a blow has yet been given1 nor a sword drawn4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bfe4 ,all ,greece1 all the barbarian world1 is too narrow for this man's ambition4--,ibid4 ,this self-command1 this exertion of reason in the midst of passion1 has a wonderful effect both to please and to persuade4--,ib41 p4 #bfj4 ,in the mutual influence of body and soul1 there is a wisdom1 a wonderful wisdom1 which we cannot fathom4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aej4 ,if the principle here stated is just1 ,murray has written the following models erroneously3 ,virtue1 honour1 nay1 even self-interest1 conspire to recommend the measure4--,ib41 p4 #aej4 ,patriotism1 morality1 every public and private consideration1 demand our submission to just and lawful government4--,ibid4 ,in this latter instance1 ,i should prefer the singular verb demands2 and in the former1 the expression ought to be otherwise altered1 thus4 ,virtue1 honour1 and interest1 all conspire to recommend the measure4 ,or thus3 ,virtue1 honour--nay1 even self-interest1 recommends the measure4 ,on this principle1 too1 ,thomson was right1 and this critic wrong1 in the example cited at the close of the first observation above4 ,this construction is again recurred to by ,murray1 in the second chapter of his ,exercises2 where he explicitly condemns the following sentence because the verb is singular3 ,prudence1 policy1 nay1 his own true interest1 strongly recommends the line of conduct proposed to him4--,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bb4 ,,obs4 #f4--,when two or more nominatives are in apposition with a preceding one which they explain1 the verb must agree with the first word only1 because the others are adjuncts to this1 and not joint subjects to the verb2 as1 ,loudd1 the ancient ,lydda and ,diospolis1 appears like a place lately ravaged by fire and sword4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #ic4 ,beattie1 ,james1--a philosopher and poet1--was born in ,scotland1 in the year #agce4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #cjf4 ,for1 the quantity1 the length1 and shortness of our syllables1 is not1 by any means1 so fixed4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abd4 ,this principle1 like the preceding one1 persuades me again to dissent from ,murray1 who corrects or perverts the following sentence1 by changing originates to originate3 ,all that makes a figure on the great theatre of the world2 the employments of the busy1 the enterprises of the ambitious1 and the exploits of the warlike2 the virtues which form the happiness1 and the crimes which occasion the misery of mankind2 originates in that silent and secret recess of thought1 which is hidden from every human eye4--,see ,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aha2 or his ,duodecimo ,key1 p4 #ba4 ,the true subject of this proposition is the noun all1 which is singular2 and the other nominatives are subordinate to this1 and merely explanatory of it4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,dr4 ,webster says1 ,enumeration and addition of numbers are usually expressed in the singular number2 as1 two and two is four2 seven and nine is sixteen2 that is1 the sum of seven and nine is sixteen4 ,but modern usage inclines to reject the use of the verb in the singular number1 in these and similar phrases4--,improved ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,among its many faults1 this passage exhibits a virtual contradiction4 ,for what modern usage inclines to reject1 can hardly be the fashion in which any ideas are usually expressed4 ,besides1 ,i may safely aver1 that this is a kind of phraseology which all correct usage always did reject4 ,it is not only a gross vulgarism1 but a plain and palpable violation of the foregoing rule of syntax2 and1 as such it must be reputed1 if the rule has any propriety at all4 ,what enumeration has to do with it1 is more than ,i can tell4 ,but ,dr4 ,webster once admired and commended this mode of speech1 as one of the wonderful proofs of ingenuity in the framers of language2 and laboured to defend it as being correct upon principle2 that is1 upon the principle that the sum of is understood to be the subject of the affirmation1 when one says1 ,two and two is four1 in stead of1 ,two and two are four4--,see ,webster's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,this seems to me a wonderful proof of ignorance in a very learned man4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,in ,greek and ,latin1 the verb frequently agrees with the nearest nominative1 and is understood to the rest2 and this construction is sometimes imitated in ,english1 especially if the nouns follow the verb3 as1 ,greek3 ,nuni do ,,menei pistis1 elpis agape1 ta tria tanta4--,nunc vero manet fides1 spes1 charitas2 tria hc4--,now abideth faith1 hope1 charity2 these three4--#a ,cor41 xiii1 #ac4 ,and now abideth confession1 prayer1 and praise1 these three2 but the greatest of these is praise4--,,atterbury3 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cjj4 ,the propriety of this usage1 so far as our language is concerned1 ,i doubt4 ,it seems to open a door for numerous deviations from the foregoing rule1 and deviations of such a sort1 that if they are to be considered exceptions1 one can hardly tell why4 ,the practice1 however1 is not uncommon1 especially if there are more nouns than two1 and each is emphatic2 as1 ,wonderful was the patience1 fortitude1 self-denial1 and bravery of our ancestors4--,webster's ,hist4 of ,u4 ,s41 p4 #aah4 ,it is the very thing ,i would have you make out3 for therein consists the form1 and use1 and nature of language4--,berkley's ,alciphron1 p4 #afa4 ,there is the proper noun1 and the common noun4 ,there is the singular noun1 and the plural noun4--,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,from him proceeds power1 sanctification1 truth1 grace1 and every other blessing we can conceive4--,calvin's ,institutes1 ,b4 i1 ,ch4 #ac4 ,to what purpose cometh there to me incense from ,sheba1 and the sweet cane from a far country8--,jer41 vi1 #bj4 ,for thine is the kingdom1 and the power1 and the glory1 forever4--,matt41 vi1 #ac4 ,in all these instances1 the plural verb might have been used2 and yet perhaps the singular may be justified on the ground that there is a distinct and emphatic enumeration of the nouns4 ,thus1 it would be proper to say1 ,thine are the kingdom1 the power1 and the glory2 but this construction seems less emphatic than the preceding1 which means1 ,for thine is the kingdom1 thine is the power1 and thine is the glory1 forever2 and this repetition is still more emphatic1 and perhaps more proper1 than the elliptical form4 ,the repetition of the conjunction and1 in the original text as above1 adds time and emphasis to the reading1 and makes the singular verb more proper than it would otherwise be2 for which reason1 the following form1 in which the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,bullions has set the sentence down for bad ,english1 is in some sort a perversion of the ,scripture3 ,thine is the kingdom1 the power1 and the glory4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,,obs4 #i4--,when the nominatives are of different persons1 the verb agrees with the first person in preference to the second1 and with the second in preference to the third2 for thou and ,i1 or he1 thou1 and ,i1 are equivalent to we2 and thou and he are equivalent to you3 as1 ,why speakest thou any more of thy matters8 ,i have said1 thou and ,ziba divide the land4--#b ,sam41 xix4 #bi4 ,that is1 divide ye the land4 ,and live thou and thy children of the rest4--#b ,kings1 iv1 #g4 ,that ,i and thy people have found grace in thy sight4--,exodus1 xxxiii1 #af4 ,i and my kingdom are guiltless4--#b ,sam41 iii1 #bh4 ,i1 and you1 and ,piso perhaps too1 are in a state of dissatisfaction4--,zenobia1 i1 #aad4 ,then ,i1 and you1 and all of us1 fell down1 ,whilst bloody treason flourish'd over us4--,shak41 ,j4 ,csar4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,when two or more nominatives connected by and are of the same form but distinguished by adjectives or possessives1 one or more of them may be omitted by ellipsis1 but the verb must be plural1 and agree with them all2 as1 ,a literary1 a scientific1 a wealthy1 and a poor man1 were assembled in one room4--,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bfc4 ,here four different men are clearly spoken of4 ,else the rising and the falling emphasis are the same4--,knowles's ,elocutionist1 p4 #cc4 ,here the noun emphasis is understood after rising4 ,the singular and the plural form seem to be confounded4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,here the noun form is presented to the mind twice2 and therefore the article should have been repeated4 ,see ,obs4 #aeth on ,rule #ast4 ,my farm and ,william's are adjacent to each other4--,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bbj4 ,here the noun farm is understood after the possessive ,william's1 though the author of the sentence foolishly attempts to explain it otherwise4 ,seth's1 ,richard's and ,edmund's farms are those which their fathers left them4--,ib41 p4 #beg4 ,here the noun farms is understood after ,seth's1 and again after ,richard's2 so that the sentence is written wrong1 unless each man has more than one farm4 ,was not ,demosthenes's style1 and his master ,plato's1 perfectly ,attic2 and yet none more lofty8--,milnes's ,greek ,gram41 p4 #bda4 ,here style is understood after ,plato's2 wherefore was should rather be were1 or else and should be changed to as well as4 ,but the text1 as it stands1 is not much unlike some of the exceptions noticed above4 ,the character of a fop1 and of a rough warrior1 are no where more successfully contrasted4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bcf4 ,here the ellipsis is not very proper4 ,say1 the character of a fop1 and that of a rough warrior1 c4 ,again3 ,we may observe1 that the eloquence of the bar1 of the legislature1 and of public assemblies1 are seldom or ever found united to high perfection in the same person4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bef4 ,here the ellipsis cannot so well be avoided by means of the pronominal adjective that1 and therefore it may be thought more excusable2 but ,i should prefer a repetition of the nominative3 as1 ,we may observe1 that the eloquence of the bar1 the eloquence of the legislature1 and the eloquence of public assemblies1 are seldom if ever found united1 in any high degree1 in the same person4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,the conjunction as1 when it connects nominatives that are in apposition1 or significant of the same person or thing1 is commonly placed at the beginning of a sentence1 so that the verb agrees with its proper nominative following the explanatory word3 thus1 ,as a poet1 he holds a high rank4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #cee4 ,as a poet1 ,addison claims a high praise4--,ib41 p4 #cjd4 ,as a model of ,english prose1 his writings merit the greatest praise4--,ib41 p4 #cje4 ,but when this conjunction denotes a comparison between different persons or things signified by two nominatives1 there must be two verbs expressed or understood1 each agreeing with its own subject2 as1 ,such writers as he is1 have no reputation worth any man's envy4 #cif ,such men as he is be never at heart's ease ,whiles they behold a greater than themselves4--,shakspeare4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,when two nominatives are connected by as well as1 but1 or save1 they must in fact have two verbs1 though in most instances only one is expressed2 as1 ,such is the mutual dependence of words in sentences1 that several others1 as well as is the adjective1 are not to be used alone4--,dr4 ,wilson's ,essay1 p4 #ii4 ,the ,constitution was to be the one fundamental law of the land1 to which all1 as well ,states as people1 should submit4--,w4 ,i4 ,,bowditch3 ,liberator1 ,no4 #ihd4 ,as well those which history1 as those which experience offers to our reflection4-- ,bolingbroke1 on ,history1 p4 #he4 ,here the words offers to our reflection are understood after history4 ,none but ,he who discerns futurity1 could have foretold and described all these things4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #fb4 ,that there was in those times no other writer1 of any degree of eminence1 save he himself4--,pope's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #dc4 ,i do entreat you not a man depart1 ,save ,i alone1 till ,antony have spoke4--,shak41 ,j4 ,csar4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,some grammarians say1 that but and save1 when they denote exception1 should govern the objective case as prepositions4 ,but this idea is1 without doubt1 contrary to the current usage of the best authors1 either ancient or modern4 ,wherefore ,i think it evident that these grammarians err4 ,the objective case of nouns being like the nominative1 the point can be proved only by the pronouns2 as1 ,there is none but he alone4--,perkins's ,theology1 #afjh4 ,there is none other but he4--,mark1 xii1 #cb4 7,this text is good authority as regards the case1 though it is incorrect in an other respect3 it should have been1 ,there is none but he1 or else1 ,there is no other than he47 ,no man hath ascended up to heaven1 but he that came down from heaven4--,john1 iii1 #ac4 ,not that any man hath seen the father1 save he which is of ,god4--,john1 vi1 #df4 ,few can1 save he and ,i4--,byron's ,werner4 ,there is none justified1 but he that is in measure sanctified4--,isaac ,penington4 ,save1 as a conjunction1 is nearly obsolete4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,in ,rev41 ii1 #agth1 we read1 ,which no man knoweth1 saving he that receiveth it2 and again1 xiii1 #agth1 ,that no man might buy or sell1 save he that had the mark4 ,the following text is inaccurate1 but not in the construction of the nominative they3 ,all men cannot receive this saying1 save they to whom it is given4--,matt41 xix1 #aa4 ,the version ought to have been1 ,not all men can receive this saying1 but they only to whom it is given3 i4e41 they only can receive it1 to whom there is given power to receive it4 ,of but with a nominative1 examples may be multiplied indefinitely4 ,the following are as good as any3 ,there is no ,god but ,he4--,sale's ,koran1 p4 #bg4 ,the former none but ,he could execute4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #cag4 ,there was nobody at home but ,i4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ie4 ,a fact1 of which as none but he could be conscious1 so none but he could be the publisher of it4--,pope's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #aag4 ,few but they who are involved in the vices1 are involved in the irreligion of the times4--,brown's ,estimate1 i1 #aja4 ,i claim my right4 ,no ,grecian prince but ,i ,has power this bow to grant1 or to deny4 --,pope1 ,odys41 ,b4 xxi1 l4 #bgb4 ,thus she1 and none but she1 the insulting rage ,of heretics oppos'd from age to age4 --,dryden's ,poems1 p4 #ih4 ,in opposition to all these authorities1 and many more that might be added1 we have1 with now and then a text of false syntax1 the absurd opinion of perhaps a score or two of our grammarians2 one of whom imagines he has found in the following couplet from ,swift1 an example to the purpose2 but he forgets that the verb let governs the objective case3 ,let none but him who rules the thunder1 ,attempt to part these twain asunder4 --,perley's ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,it is truly a wonder1 that so many professed critics should not see the absurdity of taking but and save for prepositions1 when this can be done only by condemning the current usage of nearly all good authors1 as well as the common opinion of most grammarians2 and the greater is the wonder1 because they seem to do it innocently1 or to teach it childishly1 as not knowing that they cannot justify both sides1 when the question lies between opposite and contradictory principles4 ,by this sort of simplicity1 which approves of errors1 if much practised1 and of opposites1 or essential contraries1 when authorities may be found for them1 no work1 perhaps1 is more strikingly characterized1 than the popular ,school ,grammar of ,w4 ,h4 ,wells4 ,this author says1 ,the use of but as a preposition is approved by ,j4 ,e4 ,worcester1 ,john ,walker1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,picket1 ,hiley1 ,angus1 ,lynde1 ,hull1 ,powers1 ,spear1 ,farnum1 ,fowle1 ,goldsbury1 ,perley1 ,cobb1 ,badgley1 ,cooper1 ,jones1 ,davis1 ,beall1 ,hendrick1 ,hazen1 and ,goodenow4--,school ,gram41 #ahej1 p4 #agh4 ,but what if all these authors do prefer1 but him1 and save him1 where ten times as many would say1 but he1 save he8 ,is it therefore difficult to determine which party is right8 ,or is it proper for a grammarian to name sundry authorities on both sides1 excite doubt in the mind of his reader1 and leave the matter unsettled8 ,the use of but as a preposition1 he also states1 is discountenanced by ,g4 ,brown1 ,sanborn1 ,murray1 ,s4 ,oliver1 and several other grammarians4 7,see also an able article in the ,mass4 ,common ,school ,journal1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ai47--,school ,gram41 p4 #agh4 ,,obs4 #af4--,wells passes no censure on the use of nominatives after but and save2 does not intimate which case is fittest to follow these words2 gives no false syntax under his rule for the regimen of prepositions2 but inserts there the following brief remarks and examples3 ,,rem4 #c4--,the word save is frequently used to perform the office of a preposition2 as1 ',and all desisted1 all save him alone4'--,wordsworth4 ,,rem4 #d4--;,but is sometimes employed as a preposition1 in the sense of except2 as1 ',the boy stood on the burning deck1 ,whence all but him had fled4'--,hemans4--,ib41 p4 #afg4 ,now1 ,,but1 says ,worcester1 as well as ,tooke and others1 was originally bot1 contracted from be out2 and1 if this notion of its etymology is just1 it must certainly be followed by the nominative case1 rather than by the objective2 for the imperative be or be out governs no case1 admits no additional term but a nominative--an obvious and important fact1 quite overlooked by those who call but a preposition4 ,according to ,allen ,h4 ,weld1 but and save are commonly considered prepositions1 but are more commonly termed conjunctions6 ,this author repeats ,wells's examples of save him1 and but him1 as being right2 and mixes them with opposite examples of save he1 but he1 save ,i1 which he thinks to be more right6--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #ahg4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,professor ,fowler1 too1 an other author remarkable for a facility of embracing incompatibles1 contraries1 or dubieties1 not only condemns as false syntax the use of save for an exceptive conjunction4 7#ehg4 #bh17 but cites approvingly from ,latham the following very strange absurdity3 ,one and the same word1 in one and the same sentence1 may be a ,conjunction or a ,preposition1 as the case may be3 as ,all fled but ,john4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #eee4 ,this is equivalent to saying1 that one and the same sentence may be two different sentences2 may1 without error1 be understood in two different senses2 may be rightly taken1 resolved1 and parsed in two different ways6 ,nay1 it is equivalent to a denial of the old logical position1 that ,it is impossible for a thing to be and not be at the same time2 for it supposes but1 in the instance given1 to be at once both a conjunction and not a conjunction1 both a preposition and not a preposition1 as the case may be6 ,it is true1 that one and the same word may sometimes be differently parsed by different grammarians1 and possibly even an adept may doubt who or what is right4 ,but what ambiguity of construction1 or what diversity of interpretation1 proceeding from the same hand1 can these admissions be supposed to warrant8 ,the foregoing citation is a boyish attempt to justify different modes of parsing the same expression1 on the ground that the expression itself is equivocal4 ,all fled but ,john1 is thought to mean equally well1 ,all fled but he1 and1 ,all fled but him2 while these latter expressions are erroneously presumed to be alike good ,english1 and to have a difference of meaning corresponding to their difference of construction4 ,now1 what is equivocal1 or ambiguous1 being therefore erroneous1 is to be corrected1 rather than parsed in any way4 ,but ,i deny both the ambiguity and the difference of meaning which these critics profess to find among the said phrases4 ,john fled not1 but all the rest fled1 is virtually what is told us in each of them2 but1 in the form1 ,all fled but him1 it is told ungrammatically2 in the other two1 correctly4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,in ,latin1 cum with an ablative1 sometimes has1 or is supposed to have1 the force of the conjunction et with a nominative2 as1 ,dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur4--,,livy3 ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aca4 ,in imitation of this construction1 some ,english writers have substituted with for and1 and varied the verb accordingly2 as1 ,a long course of time1 with a variety of accidents and circumstances1 are requisite to produce those revolutions4--,,hume3 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aca2 ,ware's1 #ab2 ,priestley's1 #ahf4 ,this phraseology1 though censured by ,allen1 was expressly approved by ,priestley1 who introduced the present example1 as his proof text under the following observation3 ,it is not necessary that the two subjects of an affirmation should stand in the very same construction1 to require the verb to be in the plural number4 ,if one of them be made to depend upon the other by a connecting particle1 it may1 in some cases1 have the same force1 as if it were independent of it4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ahf4 ,lindley ,murray1 on the contrary1 condemns this doctrine1 and after citing the same example with others1 says3 ,it is however1 proper to observe that these modes of expression do not appear to be warranted by the just principles of construction4-- ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,he then proceeds to prove his point1 by alleging that the preposition governs the objective case in ,english1 and the ablative in ,latin1 and that what is so governed1 cannot be the nominative1 or any part of it4 ,all this is true enough1 but still some men who know it perfectly well1 will now and then write as if they did not believe it4 ,and so it was with the writers of ,latin and ,greek4 ,they sometimes wrote bad syntax2 and the grammarians have not always seen and censured their errors as they ought4 ,since the preposition makes its object only an adjunct of the preceding noun1 or of something else1 ,i imagine that any construction which thus assumes two different cases as joint nominatives or joint antecedents1 must needs be inherently faulty4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,dr4 ,adam simply remarks1 ,the plural is sometimes used after the preposition cum put for et2 as1 ,remo cum fratre ,quirinus jura dabunt4 ,virg4--,latin and ,english ,gram41 p4 #bjg2 ,gould's ,adam's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #bjd2 ,w4 ,allen's ,english ,gram41 #aca4 ,this example is not fairly cited2 though many have adopted the perversion1 as if they knew no better4 ,alexander has it in a worse form still3 ,quirinus1 cum fratre1 jura dabunt4--,latin ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,virgil's words are1 ,cana ,,fides1 et ,,vesta1 ,remo cum fratre ,quirinus1 ,jura dabunt4--neid1 ,b4 i1 l4 #bif4 ,nor is cum here put for et1 unless we suppose also an antiptosis of ,remo fratre for ,remus frater2 and then what shall the literal meaning be1 and how shall the rules of syntax be accommodated to such changes8 ,fair examples1 that bear upon the point1 may1 however1 be adduced from good authors1 and in various languages2 but the question is1 are they correct in syntax8 ,thus ,dr4 ,robertson3 ,the palace of ,pizarro1 together with the houses of several of his adherents1 were pillaged by the soldiers4-- ,hist4 of ,amer41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #acc4 ,to me1 this appears plainly ungrammatical2 and1 certainly1 there are ways enough in which it may be corrected4 ,first1 with the present connective retained1 were ought to be was4 ,secondly1 if were be retained1 together with ought to be changed to and1 or and also4 ,thirdly1 we may well change both1 and say1 ,the palace of ,pizarro1 as well as the houses of several of his adherents1 was pillaged by the soldiers4 ,again1 in ,mark1 ix1 #dth1 we read3 ,and there appeared unto them ,elias1 with ,moses2 and they were talking with ,jesus4 ,if this text meant that the three disciples were talking with ,jesus1 it would be right as it stands2 but ,st4 ,matthew has it1 ,and1 behold1 there appeared unto them ,moses and ,elias1 talking with him2 and our version in ,luke is1 ,and1 behold1 there talked with him two men1 which were ,moses and ,elias4--,chap4 ix1 #cj4 ,by these corresponding texts1 then1 we learn1 that the pronoun they1 which our translators inserted1 was meant for ,elias with ,moses2 but the ,greek verb for appeared1 as used by ,mark1 is singular1 and agrees only with ,elias4 ,greek3 ,kai ophth autois ,aelias sun ,mosei1 kai hsan syllalountes to ,isoy4--,et apparuit illis ,elias cum ,mose1 et erant colloquentes ,jesu4--,montanus4 ,et visus est eis ,elias cum ,mose1 qui colloquebantur cum ,jesu4--,beza4 ,this is as discrepant as our version1 though not so ambiguous4 ,the ,french ,bible avoids the incongruity3 ,et iis virent parotre ,moyse et ,elie1 qui s'entretenoient avec ,jsus4 ,that is1 ,and there appeared to them ,moses and ,elias1 who were talking with ,jesus4 ,perhaps the closest and best version of the ,greek would be1 ,and there appeared to them ,elias1 with ,moses2#cig and these two were talking with ,jesus4 ,there is1 in our ,bible1 an other instance of the construction now in question2 but it has no support from the ,septuagint1 the ,vulgate1 or the ,french3 to wit1 ,the second lot came forth to ,gedaliah1 who with his brethren and sons were twelve4--#a ,chron41 xxv1 #i4 ,better3 and he1 his brethren1 and his sons1 were twelve4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,cobbett1 who1 though he wrote several grammars1 was but a very superficial grammarian1 seems never to have doubted the propriety of putting with for and2 and yet he was confessedly not a little puzzled to find out when to use a singular1 and when a plural verb1 after a nominative with such a sort of addition made to it4 ,the #bdfth paragraph of his ,english ,grammar is a long and fruitless attempt to fix a rule for the guidance of the learner in this matter4 ,after dashing off a culpable example1 ,sidmouth1 with ,oliver the spye1 have brought ,brandreth to the block2 or1 as his late editions have it1 ,the ,tyrant1 with the ,spy1 have brought ,peter to the block4 ,he adds3 ,we hesitate which to employ1 the singular or the plural verb2 that is to say1 has or have4 ,the meaning must be our guide4 ,if we mean1 that the act has been done by the ,tyrant himself1 and that the spy has been a mere involuntary agent1 then we ought to use the singular2 but if we believe that the spy has been a co-operator1 an associate1 an accomplice1 then we must use the plural verb4 ,ay1 truly2 but must we not also1 in the latter case1 use and1 and not with8 ,after some further illustrations1 he says3 ,when with means along with1 together with1 in ,company with1 and the like1 it is nearly the same as and2 and then the plural verb must be used3 as1 ',he1 with his brothers1 are able to do much4' ,not1 'is able to do much4' ,if the pronoun be used instead of brothers1 it will be in the objective case3 ',he1 with them1 are able to do much4' ,but this is no impediment to the including of the noun 7represented by them7 in the nominative4 ,i wonder what would be an impediment to the absurdities of such a dogmatist6 ,the following is his last example3 ',zeal1 with discretion1 do much2' and not 'does much2' for we mean1 on the contrary1 that it does nothing4 ,it is the meaning that must determine which of the numbers we ought to employ4 ,this author's examples are all fictions of his own1 and such of them as here have a plural verb1 are wrong4 ,his rule is also wrong1 and contrary to the best authority4 ,st4 ,paul says to ,timothy1 ,godliness with contentment is great gain3--#a ,tim41 vi1 #f4 ,this text is right2 but ,cobbett's principle would go to prove it erroneous4 ,is he the only man who has ever had a right notion of its meaning8 or is he not rather at fault in his interpretations8 ,,obs4 #ba4--,there is one other apparent exception to ,rule #afth1 7or perhaps a real one17 in which there is either an ellipsis of the preposition with1 or else the verb is made singular because the first noun only is its true subject1 and the others are explanatory nominatives to which the same verb must be understood in the plural number2 as1 ,a torch1 snuff and all1 goes out in a moment1 when dipped in the vapour4--,,addison3 in ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,all4 ,down comes the tree1 nest1 eagles1 and all4--,see ,all1 ibidem4 ,here goes and comes are necessarily made singular1 the former agreeing with torch and the latter with tree2 and1 if the other nouns1 which are like an explanatory parenthesis1 are nominatives1 as they appear to me to be1 they must be subjects of go and come understood4 ,cobbett teaches us to say1 ,the bag1 with the guineas and dollars in it1 were stolen1 and not1 was stolen4 ,for1 says he1 if we say was stolen1 it is possible for us to mean1 that the bag only was stolen1--,english ,gram41 #bdf4 ,and ,i suppose he would say1 ,the bag1 guineas1 dollars1 and all1 were stolen1 and not1 was stolen2 for here a rule of syntax might be urged1 in addition to his false argument from the sense4 ,but the meaning of the former sentence is1 ,the bag was stolen1 with the guineas and dollars in it2 and the meaning of the latter is1 ,the bag was stolen1 guineas1 dollars1 and all4 ,nor can there be any doubt about the meaning1 place the words which way you will2 and whatever1 in either case1 may be the true construction of the words in the parenthetical or explanatory phrase1 they should not1 ,i think1 prevent the verb from agreeing with the first noun only4 ,but if the other nouns intervene without affecting this concord1 and without a preposition to govern them1 it may be well to distinguish them in the punctuation2 as1 ,the bag1 7guineas1 dollars1 and all17 was stolen4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xvi4 ,,note ,i4--,when the conjunction and between two nominatives appears to require a plural verb1 but such form of the verb is not agreeable1 it is better to reject or change the connective1 that the verb may stand correctly in the singular number2 as1 ,there is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bbd4 ,better3 ,there is a peculiar force1 as well as a peculiar beauty1 in this figure4 ,what means this restless stir and commotion of mind8--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bdb4 ,better3 ,what means this restless stir1 this commotion of mind8 ,,note ,,ii4--,when two subjects or antecedents are connected1 one of which is taken affirmatively1 and the other negatively1 they belong to different propositions2 and the verb or pronoun must agree with the affirmative subject1 and be understood to the other3 as ,diligent industry1 and not mean savings1 produces honourable competence4--,not a loud voice but strong proofs bring conviction4--,my poverty1 but not my will1 consents4--,shakespeare4 ,,note ,,iii4--,when two subjects or antecedents are connected by as well as1 but1 or save1 they belong to different propositions2 and1 7unless one of them is preceded by the adverb not17 the verb and pronoun must agree with the former and be understood to the latter3 as1 ,veracity1 as well as justice1 is to be our rule of life4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bhc4 ,the lowest mechanic1 as well as the richest citizen1 may boast that thousands of his fellow-creatures are employed for him4--,percival's ,tales1 ii1 #agg4 ,these principles1 as well as every just rule of criticism1 are founded upon the sensitive part of our nature4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 xxvi4 ,nothing but wailings was heard4--,none but thou can aid us4--,no mortal man1 save he1 c41 had e'er survived to say he saw4--,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,,note ,,iv4--,when two or more subjects or antecedents are preceded by the adjective each1 every1 or no1 they are taken separately2 and1 7except no be followed by a plural noun17 they require the verb and pronoun to be in the singular number3 as1 ,no rank1 no honour1 no fortune1 no condition in life1 makes the guilty mind happy4--,every phrase and every figure which he uses1 tends to render the picture more lively and complete4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #agi4 ,and every sense1 and every heart1 is joy4--,thomson4 ,each beast1 each insect1 happy in its own4--,pope4 ,,note ,v4--,when any words or terms are to be taken conjointly as subjects or antecedents1 the conjunction and1 7in preference to with1 or1 nor1 or any thing else17 must connect them4 ,the following sentence is therefore inaccurate2 with should be and2 or else were should be was3 ,one of them1 the wife of ,thomas ,cole1 with her husband1 were shot down1 the others escaped4--,hutchinson's ,hist41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #hf4 ,so1 in the following couplet1 or should be and1 or else engines should be engine3 ,what if the head1 the eye1 or ear repined1 ,to serve mere engines to the ruling mind8--,pope4 ,,note ,,vi4--,improper omissions must be supplied2 but when there occurs a true ellipsis in the construction of joint nominatives or joint antecedents1 the verb or pronoun must agree with them in the plural1 just as if all the words were expressed3 as1 ,the second and the third ,epistle of ,john are each but one short chapter4--,the metaphorical and the literal meaning are improperly mixed4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cci4 ,the ,doctrine of ,words1 separately consider'd1 and in a ,sentence1 are ,things distinct enough4--,brightland's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 iv4 ,better perhaps3 ,the doctrine of words separately considered1 and that of words in a sentence1 are things distinct enough4 ,the ,curii's and the ,camilli's little field1 ,to vast extended territories yield4--,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 i1 l4 #cbj4 ,,note ,,vii4--,two or more distinct subject phrases connected by and1 require a plural verb1 and generally a plural noun too1 if a nominative follow the verb2 as1 ,to be wise in our own eyes1 to be wise in the opinion of the world1 and to be wise in the sight of our ,creator1 are three things so very different1 as rarely to coincide4--,blair4 ',this picture of my friend1' and ',this picture of my friend's1' suggest very different ideas4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ga2 ,murray's1 i1 #agh4 ,read of this burgess--on the stone appear1 ,how worthy he6 how virtuous6 and how dear6--,crabbe4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xvi4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,the ,,verb ,,after ,,joint ,,nominatives4 ,so much ability and merit is seldom found4--,murray's ,key1 #abmo1 p4 #ah2 ,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #aij4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the verb is is in the singular number1 and does not correctly agree with its two nominatives1 ability and merit1 which are connected by and1 and taken conjointly4 ,but1 according to ,rule #afth1 ,when a verb has two or more nominatives connected by and1 it must agree with them jointly in the plural1 because they are taken together4 ,therefore1 is should be are2 thus1 ,so much ability and merit are seldom found4 ,or3 ,so much ability and so much merit are seldom found4 ,the syntax and etymology of the language is thus spread before the learner4--,bullions's ,english ,gram41 #b;d ,edition1 ,rec41 p4 iii4 ,dr4 ,johnson tells us1 that in ,english poetry the accent and the quantity of syllables is the same thing4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhet41 ii1 #bac4 ,their general scope and tendency1 having never been clearly apprehended1 is not remembered at all4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #abf4 ,the soil and sovereignty was not purchased of the natives4--,knapp's ,lect4 on ,amer4 ,lit41 p4 #ee4 ,the boldness1 freedom1 and variety of our blank verse1 is infinitely more favourable than rhyme1 to all kinds of sublime poetry4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dj4 ,the vivacity and sensibility of the ,greeks seems to have been much greater than ours4--,ib41 p4 #bec4 ,for sometimes the ,mood and ,tense is signified by the ,verb1 sometimes they are signified of the ,verb by something else4'--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bed4 ,the ,verb and the ,noun making a complete ,sense1 which the ,participle and the ,noun does not4--,ib41 p4 #bee4 ,the growth and decay of passions and emotions1 traced through all their mazes1 is a subject too extensive for an undertaking like the present4--,kames ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #ajh4 ,the true meaning and etymology of some of his words was lost4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alph41 p4 #cg4 ,when the force and direction of personal satire is no longer understood4--,junius1 p4 #e4 ,the frame and condition of man admits of no other principle4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #ed4 ,some considerable time and care was necessary4--,ib41 ii #aej4 ,in consequence of this idea1 much ridicule and censure has been thrown upon ,milton4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dbh4 ,with rational beings1 nature and reason is the same thing4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #aaa4 ,and the flax and the barley was smitten4--,exod41 ix1 #ca4 ,the colon1 and semicolon1 divides a period1 this with1 and that without a connective4--,j4 ,ware's ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,consequently wherever space and time is found1 there ,god must also be4--,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,as the past tense and perfect participle of love ends in ed1 it is regular4--,chandler's ,gram41 p4 #dj2 ,new ,edition1 p4 #ff4 ,but the usual arrangement and nomenclature prevents this from being readily seen4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,do and did simply implies opposition or emphasis4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,i and another make we1 plural3 ,thou and another is as much as ye3 ,he1 she1 or it and another make they--,ib41 p4 #abd4 ,i and another1 is as much as 7we7 the first ,person ,plural2 ,thou and another1 is as much as 7ye7 the second ,person ,plural2 ,he1 she1 or it1 and another1 is as much as 7they7 the third ,person ,plural4--,british ,gram41 p4 #aic2 ,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #gf4 ,god and thou art two1 and thou and thy neighbour are two4--,the ,love ,conquest1 p4 #be4 ,just as an and a has arisen out of the numeral one4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo4 #ahej1 #bjj4 ,the tone and style of each of them1 particularly the first and the last1 is very different4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bdf4 ,even as the roebuck and the hart is eaten4--,deut41 xiii1 #bb4 ,then ,i may conclude that two and three makes not five4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #ced4 ,which at sundry times thou and thy brethren hast received from us4--,ib41 i1 #afe4 ,two and two is four1 and one is five4--,,pope3 ,lives of the ,poets1 p4 #dij4 ,humility and knowledge with poor apparel1 excels pride and ignorance under costly array4--,day's ,gram41 ,parsing ,lesson1 p4 #ajj4 ,a page and a half has been added to the section on composition4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 #eth ,ed41 ,pref41 p4 vii4 ,accuracy and expertness in this exercise is an important acquisition4--,ib41 p4 #ga4 ,woods and groves are of thy dressing1 ,hill and dale doth boast thy blessing4--,milton's ,poems1 p4 #aci4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,the ,,verb ,,before ,,joint ,,nominatives4 ,there is a good and a bad1 a right and a wrong in taste1 as in other things4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ba4 ,whence has arisen much stiffness and affectation4--,ib41 p4 #acc4 ,to this error is owing1 in a great measure1 that intricacy and harshness1 in his figurative language1 which ,i before remarked4--,ib41 p4 #aej2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #aeg4 ,hence1 in his ,night ,thoughts1 there prevails an obscurity and hardness in his style4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aej4 ,there is1 however1 in that work much good sense1 and excellent criticism4--,ib41 p4 #dja4 ,there is too much low wit and scurrility in ,plautus4--,ib41 p4 #dha4 ,there is too much reasoning and refinement2 too much pomp and studied beauty in them4--,ib41 p4 #dfh4 ,hence arises the structure and characteristic expression of exclamation4--,rush on the ,voice1 p4 #bbi4 ,and such pilots is he and his brethren1 according to their own confession4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #cad4 ,of whom is ,hymeneus and ,philetus3 who concerning the truth have erred4--#b ,tim41 ii1 #ag4 ,of whom is ,hymeneus and ,alexander2 whom ,i have delivered unto ,satan4--#a ,tim41 i1 #bj4 ,and so was ,james and ,john1 the sons of ,zebedee4--,luke1 v1 #aj4 ,out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing4--,james1 iii1 #aj4 ,out of the mouth of the ,most ,high proceedeth not evil and good4--,lam41 iii1 #ch4 ,in which there is most plainly a right and a wrong4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bae4 ,in this sentence there is both an actor and an object4--,smith's ,inductive ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,in the breast-plate was placed the mysterious ,urim and ,thummim4--,milman's ,jews1 i1 #hh4 ,what is the gender1 number1 and person of those in the first8--,smith's ,productive ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,there seems to be a familiarity and want of dignity in it4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,it has been often asked1 what is ,latin and ,greek8--,literary ,convention1 p4 #bji4 ,for where does beauty and high wit ,but in your constellation meet8--,hudibras1 p4 #acd4 ,thence to the land where flows ,ganges and ,indus4--,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 ix1 l4 #ha4 ,on these foundations seems to rest the midnight riot and dissipation of modern assemblies4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #df4 ,but what has disease1 deformity1 and filth1 upon which the thoughts can be allured to dwell8--,johnson's ,life of ,swift1 p4 #dib4 ,how is the gender and number of the relative known8--,bullions1 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #cb4 ,high rides the sun1 thick rolls the dust1 ,and feebler speeds the blow and thrust4--,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,change ,,the ,,connective4 ,in every language there prevails a certain structure and analogy of parts1 which is understood to give foundation to the most reputable usage4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ij4 ,there runs through his whole manner1 a stiffness and affectation1 which renders him very unfit to be considered a general model4--,ib41 p4 #ajb4 ,but where declamation and improvement in speech is the sole aim--,ib41 p4 #beg4 ,for it is by these chiefly1 that the train of thought1 the course of reasoning1 and the whole progress of the mind1 in continued discourse of all kinds1 is laid open4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,in all writing and discourse1 the proper composition and structure of sentnences is of the highest importance4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aja4 ,here the wishful look and expectation of the beggar naturally leads to a vivid conception of that which was the object of his thoughts4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #chf4 ,who say1 that the outward naming of ,christ1 and signing of the cross1 puts away devils4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #adf4 ,by which an oath and penalty was to be imposed upon the members4--,junius1 p4 #f4 ,light and knowledge1 in what manner soever afforded us1 is equally from ,god4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bfd4 ,for instance1 sickness and untimely death is the consequence of intemperance4--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,when grief1 and blood ill-tempered vexeth him4--,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #bef4 ,does continuity and connexion create sympathy and relation in the parts of the body8--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #aaa4 ,his greatest concern1 and highest enjoyment1 was to be approved in the sight of his ,creator4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bbd4 ,know ye not that there is a prince and a great man fallen this day in ,israel8--#b ,sam1 iii1 #ch4 ,what is vice and wickedness8 ,no rarity1 you may depend on it4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ajg4 ,there is also the fear and apprehension of it4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #hg4 ,the apostrophe and s1 7's17 is an abbreviation for is1 the termination of the old ,english genitive4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,ti1 ce1 and ci1 when followed by a vowel1 usually has the sound of sh2 as in partial1 special1 ocean4--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,bitter constraint and sad occasion dear ,compels me to disturb your season due4--,milton's ,lycidas4 ,debauches and excess1 though with less noise1 ,as great a portion of mankind destroys4--,waller1 p4 #ee4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,affirmation ,,with ,,negation4 ,wisdom1 and not wealth1 procure esteem4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #aef4 ,prudence1 and not pomp1 are the basis of his fame4--,ib4 ,not fear1 but labour have overcome him4--,ib4 ,the decency1 and not the abstinence1 make the difference4--,ib4 ,not her beauty1 but her talents attracts attention4--,ib4 ,it is her talents1 and not her beauty1 that attracts attention4--,ib4 ,it is her beauty1 and not her talents that attract attention4--,ib4 ,his belly1 not his brains1 this impulse give3 ,he'll grow immortal2 for he cannot live4--,young1 to ,pope4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,as ,,well ,,as1 ,,but1 ,,or ,,save4 ,common sense as well as piety tell us these are proper4--,family ,commentary1 p4 #fd4 ,for without it the critic1 as well as the undertaker1 ignorant of any rule1 have nothing left but to abandon themselves to chance4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #db4 ,and accordingly hatred as well as love are extinguished by long absence4--,ib41 i1 #aac4 ,but at every turn the richest melody as well as the sublimest sentiments are conspicuous4--,ib41 ii1 #aba4 ,but it1 as well as the lines immediately subsequent1 defy all translation4--,coleridge's ,introduction1 p4 #if4 ,but their religion1 as well as their customs1 and manners1 were strangely misrepresented4--,,bolingbroke1 ,,on ,,history1 p4 #abc2 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aib2 ,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #dg4 ,but his jealous policy1 as well as the fatal antipathy of ,fonseca1 were conspicuous4--,robertson's ,america1 i1 #aia4 ,when their extent as well as their value were unknown4--,ib41 ii1 #ach4 ,the ,etymology1 as well as the ,syntax1 of the more difficult parts of speech are reserved for his attention at a later period4--,parker and ,fox's ,e4 ,gram41 ,part i1 p4 #c4 ,what ,i myself owe to him1 no one but myself know4--,see ,wright's ,athens1 p4 #if4 ,none1 but thou1 ,o mighty prince6 canst avert the blow4--,inst41 p4 #aef4 ,nothing1 but frivolous amusements1 please the indolent4--,ib4 ,nought1 save the gurglings of the rill1 were heard4--,g4 ,b4 ,all songsters1 save the hooting owl1 was mute4--,g4 ,b4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,each1 ,,every1 ,,or ,,no4 ,give every word1 and every member1 their due weight and force4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aaj4 ,and to one of these belong every noun1 and every third person of every verb4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,no law1 no restraint1 no regulation1 are required to keep him in bounds4--,literary ,convention1 p4 #bfj4 ,by that time1 every window and every door in the street were full of heads4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer1 ,no4 #ejc4 ,every system of religion1 and every school of philosophy1 stand back from this field1 and leave ,jesus ,christ alone1 the solitary example--,the ,corner ,stone1 p4 #ag4 ,each day1 and each hour1 bring their portion of duty4--,inst41 p4 #aef4 ,and every one that was in distress1 and every one that was in debt1 and every one that was discontented1 gathered themselves unto him4--#a ,sam41 xxii1 #b4 ,every private ,christian and member of the church ought to read and peruse the ,scriptures1 that they may know their faith and belief founded upon them4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #cdj4 ,and every mountain and island were moved out of their places4--,rev41 vi1 #ad4 ,no bandit fierce1 no tyrant mad with pride1 ,no cavern'd hermit rest self-satisfied4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,with1 ,,or1 c4 ,,for ,,and4 ,the side ,a1 with the sides ,b and ,c1 compose the triangle4--,tobitt's ,gram41 p4 #dh2 ,felch's1 #fi2 ,ware's1 #ab4 ,the stream1 the rock1 or the tree1 must each of them stand forth1 so as to make a figure in the imagination4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cij4 ,while this1 with euphony1 constitute1 finally1 the whole4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bic4 ,the bag1 with the guineas and dollars in it1 were stolen4--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #bdf4 ,sobriety1 with great industry and talent1 enable a man to perform great deeds4--,ib41 #bde4 ,the it1 together with the verb to be1 express states of being4--,ib41 #aij4 ,where ,leonidas the ,spartan king1 with his chosen band1 fighting for their country1 were cut off to the last man4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bjc4 ,and ,leah also1 with her children1 came near and bowed themselves4--,gen41 xxxiii1 #g4 ,the ,first or ,second will1 either of them1 by themselves coalesce with the ,third1 but not with each other4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #gd4 ,the whole must centre in the query1 whether ,tragedy or ,comedy are hurtful and dangerous representations8--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #bae4 ,grief as well as joy are infectious3 the emotions they raise in the spectator resemble them perfectly4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aeg4 ,but in all other words the ,qu are both sounded4--,ensell's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,qu 7which are always together7 have the sound of ku or k1 as in queen1 opaque4-- ,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,in this selection the ai form distinct syllables4--,walker's ,key1 p4 #bij4 ,and a considerable village1 with gardens1 fields1 c41 extend around on each side of the square4-- ,liberator1 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #adj4 ,affection1 or interest1 guide our notions and behaviour in the affairs of life2 imagination and passion affect the sentiments that we entertain in matters of taste4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aga4 ,she heard none of those intimations of her defects1 which envy1 petulance1 or anger1 produce among children4--,rambler1 ,no4 #ahi4 ,the ,king1 with the ,lords and ,commons1 constitute an excellent form of government4--,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #bdb4 ,if we say1 ',i am the man1 who commands you1' the relative clause1 with the antecedent man1 form the predicate4--,ib41 p4 #bff4 ,the spacious firmament on high1 ,with all the blue ethereal sky1 ,and spangled heav'ns1 a shining frame1 ,their great ,original proclaim4 --,,addison4 ,murray's ,key1 p4 #agd2 ,day's ,gram41 p4 #ib2 ,farnum's1 #ajf4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,elliptical ,,constructions4 ,there is a reputable and a disreputable practice4--,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cej4 ,this and this man was born in her4--,milton's ,psalms1 lxxxvii4 ,this and that man was born in her4--,psal4 lxxxvii1 #e4 ,this and that man was born there4--,hendrick's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,thus le in lego and legi seem to be sounded equally long4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bec2 ,gould's1 #bdc4 ,a distinct and an accurate articulation forms the groundwork of good delivery4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #be4 ,how is vocal and written language understood8--,c4 ,w4 ,sanders1 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #g4 ,the good1 the wise1 and the learned man is an ornament to human society4--,bartlett's ,reader4 ,on some points1 the expression of song and speech is identical4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #dbe4 ,to every room there was an open and secret passage4--,johnson's ,rasselas1 p4 #ac4 ,there iz such a thing az tru and false taste1 and the latter az often directs fashion1 az the former4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #dja4 ,there is such a thing as a prudent and imprudent institution of life1 with regard to our health and our affairs--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #baj4 ,the lot of the outcasts of ,israel and the dispersed of ,judah1 however different in one respect1 have in another corresponded with wonderful exactness4--,hope of ,israel1 p4 #cja4 ,on these final syllables the radical and vanishing movement is performed4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #fd4 ,to be young or old1 good1 just1 or the contrary1 are physical or moral events4--,,spurzheim3 ,felch's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,the eloquence of ,george ,whitfield and of ,john ,wesley was of a very different character each from the other4--,dr4 ,sharp4 ,the affinity of m for the series b1 and of n for the series t1 give occasion for other ,euphonic changes4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #gg4 ,pylades' soul and mad ,orestes'1 was ,in these1 if we believe ,pythagoras--,cowley's ,poems1 p4 #c4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,distinct ,,subject ,,phrases4 ,to be moderate in our views1 and to proceed temperately in the pursuit of them1 is the best way to ensure success4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bjf4 ,to be of any species1 and to have a right to the name of that species1 is all one4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #cjj4 ,with whom to will and to do is the same4--,jamieson's ,sacred ,history1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bb4 ,to profess1 and to possess1 is very different things4--,inst41 p4 #aef4 ,to do justly1 to love mercy1 and to walk humbly with ,god1 is duties of universal obligation4--,ib4 ,to be round or square1 to be solid or fluid1 to be large or small1 and to be moved swiftly or slowly1 is all equally alien from the nature of thought4--,ib4 ,the resolving of a sentence into its elements or parts of speech and stating the ,accidents which belong to these1 is called ,,parsing4--,bullion's ,pract4 ,lessons1 p4 #i4 ,to spin and to weave1 to knit and to sew1 was once a girl's employment2 but now to dress and catch a beau1 is all she calls enjoyment4--,lynn ,news1 ,vol4 #h1 ,no4 #a4 ,,rule ,,xvii4--,,finite ,,verbs4 ,when a ,verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor1 it must agree with them singly1 and not as if taken together3 as1 ,fear or jealousy affects him4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,nor eye1 nor listening ear1 an object finds3 creation sleeps4--,young4 ,neither character nor dialogue was yet understood4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,the wife1 where danger or dishonour lurks1 ,safest and seemliest by her husband stays4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ix1 #bfg4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xvii4 ,,obs4 #a4--,to this rule1 so far as its application is practicable1 there are properly no exceptions2 for1 or and nor being disjunctive conjunctions1 the nominatives are of course to assume the verb separately1 and as agreeing with each4 ,such agreement seems to be positively required by the alternativeness of the expression4 ,yet the ancient grammarians seldom1 if at all1 insisted on it4 ,in ,latin and ,greek1 a plural verb is often employed with singular nominatives thus connected2 as1 ,tunc nec mens mini1 nec color ,certa sede manent4--,,horace4 ,see ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,greek3 ,ean de adelphos adelph lumnoi huparchosi1 kai leipomenoi osi ts ephmerou trophs4--,james1 ii4 #ae4 ,and the best scholars have sometimes improperly imitated this construction in ,english2 as1 ,neither ,virgil nor ,homer were deficient in any of the former beauties4--,,dryden',s ,,preface3 ,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #afh4 ,neither ,saxon nor ,roman have availed to add any idea to his ,plato's categories4--,r4 ,w4 ,,emerson3 ,liberator1 ,no4 #iif4 ,he comes--nor want nor cold his course delay3 ,hide1 blushing ,glory6 hide ,pultowa's day4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,no monstrous height1 or breadth1 or length1 appear2 ,the whole at once is bold and regular4--,pope1 on ,crit41 l4 #bej4 ,,obs4 #b4--,when two collective nouns of the singular form are connected by or or nor1 the verb may agree with them in the plural number1 because such agreement is adapted to each of them1 according to ,rule #aeth2 as1 ,why mankind1 or such a part of mankind1 are placed in this condition4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bac4 ,but neither the ,board of ,control nor the ,court of ,directors have any scruples about sanctioning the abuses of which ,i have spoken4--,glory and ,shame of ,england1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #gj4 ,,obs4 #c4--,when a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers1 connected by or or nor1 an explicit concord with each is impossible2 because the verb cannot be of different persons or numbers at the same time2 nor is it so1 even when its form is made the same in all the persons and numbers3 thus1 ,i1 thou1 or he1 may affirm2 we1 ye1 or they1 may affirm4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #cf4 ,respecting the proper management of the verb when its nominatives thus disagree1 the views of our grammarians are not exactly coincident4 ,few however are ignorant enough1 or rash enough1 to deny that there may be an implicit or implied concord in such cases1--a zeugma of the verb in ,english1 as well as of the verb or of the adjective in ,latin or ,greek4 ,of this1 the following is a brief example3 ,but he nor ,i feel more4--,dr4 ,young1 ,night iii1 p4 #ce4 ,and ,i shall by-and-by add others--enough1 ,i hope1 to confute those false critics who condemn all such phraseology4 ,,obs4 #d4--,w4 ,allen's rule is this3 ,if the nominatives are of different numbers or persons1 the verb agrees with the last2 as1 he or his brothers were there2 neither you nor ,i am concerned4--,english ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,lindley ,murray1 and others1 say3 7#a47 ,when singular pronouns1 or a noun and pronoun1 of different persons1 are disjunctively connected1 the verb must agree with that person which is placed nearest to it3 as1 ',i or thou art to blame2' ',thou or ,i am in fault2' ',i1 or thou1 or he1 is the author of it2' ',george or ,i am the person4' ,but it would be better to say2 ',either ,i am to blame1 or thou art1' c4 7#b47 ,when a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun1 or pronoun1 and a plural one1 the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun3 as1 ',neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him2' ',i or they were offended by it4' ,but in this case1 the plural noun or pronoun1 when it can conveniently be done1 should be placed next to the verb4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aea2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #abh2 ,alger's ,gram41 #ed2 ,comly's1 #gh and #gi2 ,merchant's1 #hf2 ,picket's1 #age2 and many more4 ,there are other grammarians who teach1 that the verb must agree with the nominative which is placed next to it1 whether this be singular or plural2 as1 ,neither the servants nor the master is respected2--,neither the master nor the servants are respected4--,alexander ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,but if neither the writings nor the author is in existence1 the ,imperfect should be used4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ajg4 ,,obs4 #e4--,on this point1 a new author has just given us the following precept and criticism3 ,never connect by or1 or nor1 two or more names or substitutes that have the same asserter i4e4 verb depending on them for sense1 if when taken separately1 they require different forms of the asserters4 ,examples4 ',neither you nor ,i am concerned4 ,either he or thou wast there4 ,either they or he is faulty4' ,these examples are as erroneous as it would be to say1 ',neither you am concerned1 nor am ,i4' ',either he wast there1 or thou wast4' ',either they is faulty1 or he is4' ,the sentences should stand thus--',neither of us is concerned1' or1 'neither are you concerned1 nor am ,i4' ',either he was there1 or thou wast4' ',either they are faulty1 or he is4 ,they are1 however1 in all their impropriety1 writen sic--,,kth according to the principles of ,goold ,brown's grammar6 and the theories of most of the former writers4--,oliver ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #beb4 ,we shall see by-and-by who is right4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,cobbett also--while he approves of such ,english as1 ,he1 with them1 are able to do much1 for1 ,he and they are able to do much--condemns expressly every possible example in which the verb has not a full and explicit concord with each of its nominatives1 if they are connected by or or nor4 ,his doctrine is this3 ,if nominatives of different numbers present themselves1 we must not give them a verb which disagrees with either the one or the other4 ,we must not say3 ',neither the halter nor the bayonets are sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our rights4' ,we must avoid this bad grammar by using a different form of words3 as1 ',we are to be prevented from obtaining our rights by neither the halter nor the bayonets4' ,and1 why should we wish to write bad grammar1 if we can express our meaning in good grammar8--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #bdb4 ,this question would have more force1 if the correction here offered did not convey a meaning widely different from that of the sentence corrected4 ,but he goes on3 ,we cannot say1 ',they or ,i am in fault2 ,i1 or they1 or he1 is the author of it2 ,george or ,i am the person4' ,mr4 ,lindley ,murray says1 that we may use these phrases2 and that we have only to take care that the verb agree with that person which is placed nearest to it2 but1 he says also1 that it would be better to avoid such phrases by giving a different turn to our words4 ,i do not like to leave any thing to chance or to discretion1 when we have a clear principle for our guide4--,ib41 #bdc4 ,this author's clear principle is merely his own confident assumption1 that every form of figurative or implied agreement1 every thing which the old grammarians denominated zeugma1 is at once to be condemned as a solecism4 ,he is however supported by an other late writer of much greater merit4 ,see ,churchill's ,new ,gram41 pp4 #adb and #cab4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,if1 in lieu of their fictitious examples1 our grammarians would give us actual quotations from reputable authors1 their instructions would doubtless gain something in accuracy1 and still more in authority4 ,i or they were offended by it1 and1 ,i1 or thou1 or he1 is the author of it1 are expressions that ,i shall not defend4 ,they imply an egotistical speaker1 who either does not know1 or will not tell1 whether he is offended or not1--whether he is the author or not6 ,again1 there are expressions that are unobjectionable1 and yet not conformable to any of the rules just quoted4 ,that nominatives may be correctly connected by or or nor without an express agreement of the verb with each of them1 is a point which can be proved to as full certainty as almost any other in grammar2 ,churchill1 ,cobbett1 and ,peirce to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,but with which of the nominatives the verb shall expressly agree1 or to which of them it may most properly be understood1 is a matter not easy to be settled by any sure general rule4 ,nor is the lack of such a rule a very important defect1 though the inculcation of a false or imperfect one may be4 ,so judged at least the ancient grammarians1 who noticed and named almost every possible form of the zeugma1 without censuring any as being ungrammatical4 ,in the ,institutes of ,english ,grammar1 ,i noted first the usual form of this concord1 and then the allowable exceptions2 but a few late writers1 we see1 denounce every form of it1 exceptions and all3 and1 standing alone in their notions of the figure1 value their own authority more than that of all other critics together4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,in ,english1 as in other languages1 when a verb has discordant nominatives connected disjunctively1 it most commonly agrees expressly with that which is nearest1 and only by implication1 with the more remote2 as1 ,when some word or words are dependent on the attribute4--,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,to the first of these qualities1 dulness or refinements are dangerous enemies4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ae4 ,he hazards his own life with that of his enemy1 and one or both are very honorably murdered4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bce4 ,the consequence is1 that they frown upon everyone whose faults or negligence interrupts or retards their lessons4--,w4 ,c4 ,woodbridge3 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #aad4 ,good intentions1 or at least sincerity of purpose1 was never denied her4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #dc4 ,yet this proves not that either he or we judge them to be the rule4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #aeg4 ,first clear yourselves of popery before you or thou dost throw it upon us4--,ib41 i1 #afi4 ,is the gospel or glad tidings of this salvation brought nigh unto all8--,ib41 i1 #cfb4 ,being persuaded1 that either they1 or their cause1 is naught4--,ib41 i1 #ejd4 ,and the reader may judge whether he or ,i do most fully acknowledge man's fall4--,ib41 iii1 #ccb4 ,to do justice to the ,ministry1 they have not yet pretended that any one1 or any two1 of the three ,estates1 have power to make a new law1 without the concurrence of the third4--,junius1 ,letter xvii4 ,the forest1 or hunting-grounds1 are deemed the property of the tribe4--,robertson's ,america1 i1 #cac4 ,birth or titles confer no preminence4--,ib41 ii1 #ahd4 ,neither tobacco nor hides were imported from ,caraccas into ,spain4--,ib41 ii1 #ejg4 ,the keys or seed-vessel of the maple has two large side-wings4--,the ,friend1 vii1 #ig4 ,an example or two are sufficient to illustrate the general observation4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 i1 #eh4 ,not thou1 nor those thy factious arts engage1 ,shall reap that harvest of rebellious rage4--,dryden1 p4 #fj4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,but when the remoter nominative is the principal word1 and the nearer one is expressed parenthetically1 the verb agrees literally with the former1 and only by implication1 with the latter2 as1 ,one example1 7or ten17 says nothing against it4--,leigh ,hunt4 ,and we1 7or future ages17 may possibly have a proof of it4--,bp4 ,butler4 ,so1 when the alternative is merely in the words1 not in the thought1 the former term is sometimes considered the principal one1 and is therefore allowed to control the verb2 but there is always a harshness in this mixture of different numbers1 and1 to render such a construction tolerable1 it is necessary to read the latter term like a parenthesis1 and make the former emphatic3 as1 ,a parenthesis1 or brackets1 consists of two angular strokes1 or hooks1 enclosing one or more words4--,whiting's ,reader1 p4 #bh4 ,to show us that our own schemes1 or prudence1 have no share in our advancements4--,addison4 ,the ,mexican figures1 or picture-writing1 represent things1 not words2 they exhibit images to the eye1 not ideas to the understanding4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bdc2 ,english ,reader1 p4 xiii4 ,at ,travancore1 ,koprah1 or dried cocoa-nut kernels1 is monopolized by government4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,the ,scriptures1 or ,bible1 are the only authentic source4--,bp4 ,tomline's ,evidences4 ,nor foes nor fortune take this power away2 ,and is my ,abelard less kind than they8--,pope1 p4 #ccd4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,the ,english adjective being indeclinable1 we have no examples of some of the forms of zeugma which occur in ,latin and ,greek4 ,but adjectives differing in number1 are sometimes connected without a repetition of the noun2 and1 in the agreement of the verb1 the noun which is understood1 is less apt to be regarded than that which is expressed1 though the latter be more remote2 as1 ,there are one or two small irregularities to be noted4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,there are one or two persons1 and but one or two4--,hazlitt's ,lectures4 ,there are one or two others4--,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #bjf4 ,there are one or two4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cai4 ,there are one or more seminaries in every province4--,h4 ,e4 ,dwight3 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #acc4 ,whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered the nominative case4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aej4 ,so that1 ,i believe1 there is not more than one genuine example extant4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 p4 #aj4 ,there is1 properly1 no more than one pause or rest in the sentence4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cbi2 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abe4 ,sometimes a small letter or two is added to the capital4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bbc2 ,gould's1 #bhc4 ,among the examples in the seventh paragraph above1 there is one like this last1 but with a plural verb2 and if either is objectionable1 is should here be are4 ,the preceding example1 too1 is such as ,i would not imitate4 ,to ,l4 ,murray1 the following sentence seemed false syntax1 because one does not agree with persons3 ,he saw one or more persons enter the garden4--,murray's ,exercises1 ,rule #hth1 p4 #ed4 ,in his ,key1 he has it thus3 ,he saw one person1 or more than one1 enter the garden4--,oct4 ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ahi4 ,to me1 this stiff correction1 which many later grammarians have copied1 seems worse than none4 ,and the effect of the principle may be noticed in ,murray's style elsewhere2 as1 ,when a semicolon1 or more than one1 have preceded4--,octavo ,gram41 i1 p4 #bgg2 ,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #bhh4 ,here a ready writer would be very apt to prefer one of the following phrases3 ,when a semicolon or two have preceded1--,when one or two semicolons have preceded1--,when one or more semicolons have preceded4 ,it is better to write by guess1 than to become systematically awkward in expression4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,in ,greek and ,latin1 the pronoun of the first person1 according to our critics1 is generally#cih placed first2 as1 ,greek3 ,ego kai su ta dikaia poisomen4 ,xen4--,milnes's ,gr4 ,gram41 p4 #abj4 ,that is1 ,ego et tu justa faciemus4 ,again3 ,ego et ,cicero valemus4 ,cic4--,buchanan's ,pref41 p4 x2 ,adam's ,gram41 #bjf2 ,gould's1 #bjc4 ,i and ,cicero are well4--,ib4 ,but1 in ,english1 a modest speaker usually gives to others the precedence1 and mentions himself last2 as1 ,he1 or thou1 or ,i1 must go4--,thou and ,i will do what is right4--,cicero and ,i are well4--,dr4 ,adam4#cii ,yet1 in speaking of himself and his dependants1 a person most commonly takes rank before them2 as1 ,your inestimable letters supported myself1 my wife1 and children1 in adversity4--,lucien ,bonaparte1 ,charlemagne1 p4 v4 ,and ,i shall be destroyed1 ,i and my house4--,gen41 xxxiv1 #cj4 ,and in acknowledging a fault1 misfortune1 or censure1 any speaker may assume the first place2 as1 ,both ,i and thou are in the fault4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bjg4 ,both ,i and you are in fault4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 ix4 ,trusty did not do it2 ,i and ,robert did it4--,edgeworth's ,stories4 ,with critic scales1 weighs out the partial wit1 ,what ,i1 or you1 or he1 or no one writ4 --,lloyd's ,poems1 p4 #afb4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,according to the theory of this work1 verbs themselves are not unfrequently connected1 one to an other1 by and1 or1 or nor2 so that two or more of them1 being properly in the same construction1 may be parsed as agreeing with the same nominative3 as1 ,so that the blind and dumb man both spake and saw4--,matt41 xii1 #bb4 ,that no one might buy or sell4--,rev41 xiii1 #ag4 ,which see not1 nor hear1 nor know4--,dan41 v1 #bc4 ,we have certainly very many examples like these1 in which it is neither convenient nor necessary to suppose an ellipsis of the nominative before the latter verb1 or before all but the first1 as most of our grammarians do1 whenever they find two or more finite verbs connected in this manner4 ,it is true1 the nominative may1 in most instances1 be repeated without injury to the sense2 but this fact is no proof of such an ellipsis2 because many a sentence which is not incomplete1 may possibly take additional words without change of meaning4 ,but these authors1 7as ,i have already suggested under the head of conjunctions17 have not been very careful of their own consistency4 ,if they teach1 that1 ,every finite verb has its own separate nominative1 either expressed or implied1 which idea ,murray and others seem to have gathered from ,lowth2 or if they say1 that1 ,conjunctions really unite sentences1 when they appear to unite only words1 which notion they may have acquired from ,harris2 what room is there for that common assertion1 that1 ,conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs1 which is a part of ,murray's eighteenth rule1 and found in most of our grammars8 ,for no agreement is usually required between verbs that have separate nominatives2 and if we supply a nominative wherever we do not find one for each verb1 then in fact no two verbs will ever be connected by any conjunction4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,what agreement there must be1 between verbs that are in the same construction1 it is not easy to determine with certainty4 ,some of the ,latin grammarians tell us1 that certain conjunctions connect sometimes similar moods and tenses1 and sometimes similar moods but different tenses4 ,see ,prat's ,grammatica ,latina1 ,octavo1 ,part ii1 p4 #ie4 ,ruddiman1 ,adam1 and ,grant1 omit the concord of tenses1 and enumerate certain conjunctions which couple like cases and moods4 ,but all of them acknowledge some exceptions to their rules4 ,the instructions of ,lindley ,murray and others1 on this point1 may be summed up in the following canon3 ,when verbs are connected by a conjunction1 they must either agree in mood1 tense1 and form1 or have separate nominatives expressed4 ,this rule1 7with a considerable exception to it1 which other authors had not noticed47 was adopted by myself in the ,institutes of ,english ,grammar1 and also retained in the ,brief ,abstract of that work1 entitled1 ,the ,first ,lines of ,english ,grammar4 ,it there stands as the thirteenth in the series of principal rules2 but1 as there is no occasion to refer to it in the exercise of parsing1 ,i now think1 a less prominent place may suit it as well or better4 ,the principle may be considered as being less certain and less important than most of the usual rules of syntax3 ,i shall therefore both modify the expression of it1 and place it among the notes of the present code4 ,see ,notes #eth and #fth below4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,by the agreement of verbs with each other in form1 it is meant1 that the simple form and the compound1 the familiar form and the solemn1 the affirmative form and the negative1 or the active form and the passive1 are not to be connected without a repetition of the nominative4 ,with respect to our language1 this part of the rule is doubtless as important1 and as true1 as any other4 ,a thorough agreement1 then1 in mood1 tense1 and form1 is generally required1 when verbs are connected by and1 or1 or nor2 and1 under each part of this concord1 there may be cited certain errors which ought to be avoided1 as will by-and-by be shown4 ,but1 at the same time1 there seem to be many allowable violations of the rule1 some or other of which may perhaps form exceptions to every part of it4 ,for example1 the tense may be varied1 as it often is in ,latin2 thus1 ,as the general state of religion has been1 is1 or shall be1 affected by them4--,butlers ,analogy1 p4 #bda4 ,thou art righteous1 ,o ,lord1 which art1 and wast1 and shall be1 because thou hast judged thus4--,rev41 xvi1 #e4 ,in the former of these examples1 a repetition of the nominative would not be agreeable2 in the latter1 it would perhaps be an improvement3 as1 who art1 and who wast1 and who shalt be4 7,i here change the pronoun1 because the relative which is not now applied as above47 ,this dedication may serve for almost any book1 that has been1 or shall be published4--,campbell's ,rhet4 p4 #bjg2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bbb4 ,it ought to be1 'has been1 is1 or shall be1 published4'--,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #chc4 ,truth and good sense are firm1 and will establish themselves4--,blair's ,rhet4 p4 #bhf4 ,whereas ,milton followed a different plan1 and has given a tragic conclusion to a poem otherwise epic in its form4--,ib41 p4 #dbh4 ,i am certain1 that such are not1 nor ever were1 the tenets of the church of ,england4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #adh4 ,they deserve1 and will meet with1 no regard4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aji4 ,whoever thinks a faultless piece to see1 ,thinks what ne'er was1 nor is1 nor e'er shall be4 --,pope1 on ,crit4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,so verbs differing in mood or form may sometimes agree with the same nominative1 if the simplest verb be placed first--rarely1 ,i think1 if the words stand in any other order3 as1 ,one may be free from affectation and not have merit--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ahi4 ,there is1 and can be1 no other person4--,murray's ,key4 #hvo4 p4 #bbd4 ,to see what is1 and is allowed to be1 the plain natural rule4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bhd4 ,this great experiment has worked1 and is working1 well1 every way well--,,bradburn3 ,liberator1 ix4 #afb4 ,this edition of ,mr4 ,murray's works on ,english ,grammar1 deserves a place in ,libraries1 and will not fail to obtain it4--,,british ,,critic3 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ii1 #bii4 ,what nothing earthly gives1 or can destroy4--,pope4 ,some are1 and must be1 greater than the rest4--,id4 ,,obs4 #af4--,since most of the tenses of an ,english verb are composed of two or more words1 to prevent a needless or disagreeable repetition of auxiliaries1 participles1 and principal verbs1 those parts which are common to two or more verbs in the same sentence1 are generally expressed to the first1 and understood to the rest2 or reserved1 and put last1 as the common supplement of each2 as1 ,to which they do or can extend4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #gg4 ,he may1 as any one may1 if he will1 incur an infamous execution from the hands of civil justice4--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,all that has usurped the name of virtue1 and has deceived us by its semblance1 must be a mockery and a delusion4--,dr4 ,chalmers4 ,human praise1 and human eloquence1 may acknowledge it1 but the ,discerner of the heart never will acknowledge it4--,id4 ,we use thee not so hardly1 as prouder livers do use thee4--,shak4 ,which they might have foreseen and might have avoided4--,butler4 ,every sincere endeavour to amend1 shall be assisted1 shall be accepted1 and shall be rewarded4--,carter4 ,behold1 ,i thought1 ,he will surely come out to me1 and will stand and will call on the name of the ,lord his ,god1 and will strike his hand over the place1 and will recover the leper4--#b ,kings1 v1 #aa4 ,they mean to1 and will1 hear patiently4--,salem ,register4 ,that is1 ,they mean to hear patiently1 and they will hear patiently4 ,he can create1 and he destroy4--,bible4 ,that is1--and he can destroy4 ,virtue may be assail'd1 but never hurt1 ,surpris'd by unjust force1 but not inthrall'd4--,milton4 ,mortals whose pleasures are their only care1 ,first wish to be imposed on1 and then are4--,cowper4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,from the foregoing examples1 it may be seen1 that the complex and divisible structure of the ,english moods and tenses1 produces1 when verbs are connected together1 a striking peculiarity of construction in our language1 as compared with the nearest corresponding construction in ,latin or ,greek4 ,for we can connect different auxiliaries1 participles1 or principal verbs1 without repeating1 and apparently without connecting1 the other parts of the mood or tense4 ,and although it is commonly supposed that these parts are necessarily understood wherever they are not repeated1 there are sentences1 and those not a few1 in which we cannot express them1 without inserting also an additional nominative1 and producing distinct clauses2 as1 ,should it not be taken up and pursued8--,dr4 ,chalmers4 ,where thieves do not break through nor steal4--,matt41 vi1 #bj4 ,none present could either read or explain the writing-4--,wood's ,dict41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aei4 ,thus we sometimes make a single auxiliary an index to the mood and tense of more than one verb4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,the verb do1 which is sometimes an auxiliary and sometimes a principal verb1 is thought by some grammarians to be also fitly made a substitute for other verbs1 as a pronoun is for nouns2 but this doctrine has not been taught with accuracy1 and the practice under it will in many instances be found to involve a solecism4 ,in this kind of substitution1 there must either be a true ellipsis of the principal verb1 so that do is only an auxiliary2 or else the verb do1 with its object or adverb1 if it need one1 must exactly correspond to an action described before2 so that to speak of doing this or thus1 is merely the shortest way of repeating the idea3 as1 ,he loves not plays1 as thou dost4 ,antony4--,shak4 ,that is1 as thou dost love plays4 ,this fellow is wise enough to play the fool2 and1 to do that well1 craves a kind of wit4--,id4 ,here1 to do that1 is1 to play the fool4 ,i will not do it1 if ,i find thirty there4--,gen41 xviii1 #cj4 ,do what8 ,destroy the city1 as had been threatened4 ,where do is an auxiliary1 there is no real substitution2 and1 in the other instances1 it is not properly the verb do1 that is the substitute1 but rather the word that follows it--or perhaps1 both4 ,for1 since every action consists in doing something or in doing somehow1 this general verb do1 with this1 that1 it1 thus1 or so1 to identify the action1 may assume the import of many a longer phrase4 ,but care must be taken not to substitute this verb for any term to which it is not equivalent2 as1 ,the a is certainly to be sounded as the ,english do4--,walker's ,dict41 w4 ,a4 ,say1 as the ,english sound it2 for do is here absurd1 and grossly solecistical4 ,the duke had not behaved with that loyalty with which he ought to have done4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aaa2 ,murray's1 i1 #bab2 ,churchill's1 #cee2 ,fisk's1 #acg2 ,ingersoll's1 #bfi4 ,say1 with which he ought to have behaved2 for1 to have done with loyalty is not what was meant--far from it4 ,clarendon wrote the text thus3 ,the ,duke had not behaved with that loyalty1 as he ought to have done4 ,this should have been corrected1 not by changing as to with which1 but by saying--with that loyalty which he ought to have observed2 or1 which would have become him4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,it is little to the credit of our grammarians1 to find so many of them thus concurring in the same obvious error1 and even making bad ,english worse4 ,the very examples which have hitherto been given to prove that do may be a substitute for other verbs1 are none of them in point1 and all of them have been constantly and shamefully misinterpreted4 ,thus3 ,they do and did sometimes also supply the place of another verb1 and make the repetition of it1 in the same or a subsequent sentence1 unnecessary3 as1 ',you attend not to your studies as he does2' 7i4 e4 as he attends1 c47 ',i shall come if ,i can2 but if ,i do not1 please to excuse me2' 7i4 e4 if ,i come not47--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hh2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #hh2 ,ingersoll's1 #ace2 ,fisk's1 #gh2 ,a4 ,flint's1 #da2 ,hiley's1 #cj4 ,this remark1 but not the examples1 was taken from ,lowths ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,churchill varies it thus1 and retains ,lowth's example3 ,it i4 e41 do is used also1 to supply the place of another verb1 in order to avoid the repetition of it3 as1 ',he loves not plays1 ,as thou dost1 ,antony4' ,,shaks4--,new ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,greenleaf says1 ,to prevent the repetition of one or more verbs1 in the same1 or a following sentence1 we frequently make use of do ,,and did2 as1 ',jack learns the ,english language as fast as ,henry does2' that is1 'as fast as ,henry learns4' ',i shall come if ,i can2 but if ,i do not1 please to excuse me2' that is1 'if ,i come not4'--,gram4 ,simplified1 p4 #bg4 ,sanborn says1 ,do is also used instead of another verb1 and not unfrequently instead of both the verb and its object2 as1 'he loves work as well as you do2' that is1 as well as you love work4--,analyt4 ,gram41 p4 #aab4 ,now all these interpretations are wrong2 the word do1 dost1 or does1 being simply an auxiliary1 after which the principal verb 7with its object where it has one7 is understood4 ,but the first example is bad ,english1 and its explanation is still worse4 ,for1 ,as he attends1 c41 means1 ,as he attends to your studies6 ,and what good sense is there in this8 ,the sentence ought to have been1 ,you do not attend to your studies1 as he does to his4 ,that is--as he does attend to his studies4 ,this plainly shows that there is1 in the text1 no real substitution of does for attends4 ,so of all other examples exhibited in our grammars1 under this head3 there is nothing to the purpose1 in any of them2 the common principle of ellipsis resolves them all4 ,yet1 strange to say1 in the latest and most learned of this sort of text-books1 we find the same sham example1 fictitious and solecistical as it is1 still blindly repeated1 to show that does is not in its own place1 as an auxiliary1 but supplies the place of another verb4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo4 #ahej4 p4 #bfe4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xvii4 ,,note ,i4--,when a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers1#djj connected by or or nor1 it must agree with the nearest1 7unless an other be the principal term17 and must be understood to the rest1 in the person and number required2 as1 ,neither you nor ,i am concerned4--,w4 ,allen4 ,that neither they nor ye also die4--,numb41 xviii1 #c4 ,but neither god1 nor shrine1 nor mystic rite1 ,their city1 nor her walls1 his soul delight4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 x1 l4 #bf4 ,,note ,,ii4--,but1 since all nominatives that require different forms of the verb1 virtually produce separate clauses or propositions1 it is better to complete the concord whenever we conveniently can1 by expressing the verb or its auxiliary in connexion with each of them2 as1 ,either thou art to blame1 or ,i am4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,neither were their numbers1 nor was their destination1 known4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,so in clauses connected by and3 as1 ,but declamation is idle1 and murmurs fruitless4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #hb4 ,say1--and murmurs are fruitless4 ,,note ,,iii4--,in ,english1 the speaker should always mention himself last2 unless his own superior dignity1 or the confessional nature of the expression1 warrant him in taking the precedence3 as1 ,thou or ,i must go4--,he then addressed his discourse to my father and me4--,ellen and ,i will seek1 apart1 the refuge of some forest cell4--,scott4 ,see ,obs4 #aath above4 ,,note ,,iv4--,two or more distinct subject phrases connected by or or nor1 require a singular verb2 and1 if a nominative come after the verb1 that must be singular also3 as1 ,that a drunkard should be poor1 or that a fop should be ignorant1 is not strange4--,to give an affront1 or to take one tamely1 is no mark of a great mind4 ,so1 when the phrases are unconnected3 as1 ,to spread suspicion1 to invent calumnies1 to propagate scandal1 requires neither labour nor courage4--,rambler1 ,no4 #ahc4 ,,note ,v4--,in general1 when verbs are connected by and1 or1 or nor1 they must either agree in mood1 tense1 and form1 or the simplest in form must be placed first2 as1 ,so ,sennacherib king of ,assyria departed1 and went and returned1 and dwelt at ,nineveh4--,isaiah1 xxxvii1 #cg4 ,for if ,i be an offender1 or have committed any thing worthy of death1 ,i refuse not to die4--,acts1 xxv1 #aa4 ,,note ,,vi4--,in stead of conjoining discordant verbs1 it is in general better to repeat the nominative or insert a new one2 as1 ,he was greatly heated1 and he drank with avidity4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bja4 ,a person may be great or rich by chance2 but cannot be wise or good1 without taking pains for it4--,ib41 p4 #bjj4 ,say1--but no one can be wise or good1 without taking pains for it4 ,,note ,,vii4--,a mixture of the forms of the solemn style and the familiar1 is inelegant1 whether the verbs refer to the same nominative or have different ones expressed2 as1 ,what appears tottering and in hazard of tumbling1 produceth in the spectator the painful emotion of fear4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cef4 ,and the milkmaid singeth blithe1 ,and the mower whets his sithe4--,milton's ,allegro1 l4 #fe and #ff4 ,,note ,,viii4--,to use different moods under precisely the same circumstances1 is improper1 even if the verbs have separate nominatives2 as1 ,bating that one speak and an other answers1 it is quite the same4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cfh4 ,say1--that one speaks2 for both the speaking and the answering are assumed as facts4 ,,note ,,ix4--,when two terms are connected1 which involve different forms of the same verb1 such parts of the compound tenses as are not common to both forms1 should be inserted in full3 except sometimes after the auxiliary do2 as1 ,and then he falls1 as ,i do4--,shak4 ,that is1 as ,i do fall4 ,the following sentences are therefore faulty3 ,i think myself highly obliged to make his fortune1 as he has mine4--,spect41 ,no4 #dgd4 ,say1--as he has made mine4 ,every attempt to remove them1 has1 and likely will prove unsuccessful4--,gay's ,prosodical ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,say1--has proved1 and likely will prove1 unsuccessful4 ,,note ,x4--,the verb do must never be substituted for any term to which its own meaning is not adapted2 nor is there any use in putting it for a preceding verb that is equally short3 as1 ,when we see how confidently men rest on groundless surmises in reference to their own souls1 we cannot wonder that they do it in reference to others4--,simeon4 ,better3--that they so rest in reference to the souls of others2 for this repeats the idea with more exactness4 ,,note ,,xi4--,the preterit should not be employed to form the compound tenses of the verb2 nor should the perfect participle be used for the preterit or confounded with the present4 ,thus3 say1 ,to have gone1 not1 ,to have went2 and1 ,i did so1 not1 ,i done so2 or1 ,he saw them1 not1 ,he seen them4 ,again3 say not1 ,it was lift or hoist up2 but1 ,it was lifted or hoisted up4 ,,note ,,xii4--,care should be taken1 to give every verb or participle its appropriate form1 and not to confound those which resemble each other2 as1 to flee and to fly1 to lay and to lie1 to sit and to set1 to fall and to fell1 c4 ,thus3 say1 ,he lay by the fire2 not1 ,he laid by the fire2--,he has become rich2 not1 ,he is become rich2--,i would rather stay2 not1 ,i had rather stay4 ,,note ,,xiii4--,in the syntax of words that express time1 whether they be verbs1 adverbs1 or nouns1 the order and fitness of time should be observed1 that the tenses may be used according to their import4 ,thus3 in stead of1 ,i have seen him last week2 say1 ,i saw him last week2--and1 in stead of1 ,i saw him this week2 say1 ,i have seen him this week4 ,so1 in stead of1 ,i told you already2 or1 ,i have told you before2 say1 ,i have told you already2--,i told you before4 ,,note ,,xiv4--,verbs of commanding1 desiring1 expecting1 hoping1 intending1 permitting1 and some others1 in all their tenses1 refer to actions or events1 relatively present or future3 one should therefore say1 ,i hoped you would come2 not1 ,i hoped you would have come2--and1 ,i intended to do it2 not1 ,i intended to have done it2--c4 ,,note ,,xv4--,propositions that are as true now as they ever were or will be1 should generally be expressed in the present tense3 as1 ,he seemed hardly to know1 that two and two make four2 not1 made4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,he will tell you1 that whatever is1 is right4 ,sometimes the present tense is improper with the conjunction that1 though it would be quite proper without it2 as1 ,others said1 ,that it is ,elias4 ,and others said1 ,that it is a prophet4--,mark1 vi1 #ae4 ,here ,that should be omitted1 or else is should be was4 ,the capital ,t is also improper4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xvii4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,nominatives ,,connected ,,by ,,or4 ,we do not know in what either reason or instinct consist4--,rambler1 ,no4 #da4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the verb consist is of the plural number1 and does not correctly agree with its two nominatives1 reason and instinct1 which are connected by or1 and taken disjunctively4 ,but1 according to ,rule #agth1 ,when a verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor1 it must agree with them singly1 and not as if taken together4 ,therefore1 consist should be consists2 thus1 ,we do not know in what either reason or instinct consists4 ,a noun or a pronoun joined with a participle1 constitute a nominative case absolute4--,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #ej4 ,the relative will be of that case1 which the verb or noun following1 or the preposition going before1 use to govern4--,dr4 ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bjc4 ,which the verb or noun following1 or the preposition going before1 usually govern4--,gould's ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bjj4dja ,in the different modes of pronunciation which habit or caprice give rise to4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 p4 #ad4 ,by which he1 or his deputy1 were authorized to cut down any trees in ,whittlebury forest4--,junius1 p4 #bea4 ,wherever objects were to be named1 in which sound1 noise1 or motion were concerned1 the imitation by words was abundantly obvious4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ee4 ,the pleasure or pain resulting from a train of perceptions in different circumstances1 are a beautiful contrivance of nature for valuable purposes4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bfb4 ,because their foolish vanity or their criminal ambition represent the principles by which they are influenced1 as absolutely perfect4--,life of ,madame ,de ,stael1 p4 #b4 ,hence naturally arise indifference or aversion between the parties4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #cg4 ,a penitent unbeliever1 or an impenitent believer1 are characters no where to be found4--,tract1 ,no4 #ahc4 ,copying whatever is peculiar in the talk of all those whose birth or fortune entitle them to imitation4--,rambler1 ,no4 #aid4 ,where love1 hatred1 fear1 or contempt1 are often of decisive influence4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #aai4 ,a lucky anecdote1 or an enlivening tale relieve the folio page4--,d',israeli's ,curiosities1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ae4 ,for outward matter or event1 fashion not the character within4--,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #cg4 ,yet sometimes we have seen that wine1 or chance1 have warmed cold brains4--,dryden's ,poems1 p4 #gf4 ,motion is a ,genus2 ,flight1 a ,species2 this ,flight or that ,flight are ,individuals4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #ch4 ,when et1 aut1 vel1 sine1 or nec1 are joined to different members of the same sentence4--,adam's ,lat4 and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #bjf2 ,gould's ,lat4 ,gram41 #bjc2 ,grant's1 #bff4 ,wisdom or folly govern us4--,fisk's ,english ,gram41 #hd4 ,a or an are styled indefinite articles4--,folker's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,a rusty nail1 or a crooked pin1 shoot up into prodigies4--,spectator1 ,no4 #g4 ,are either the subject or the predicate in the second sentence modified8--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 p4 #egh1 #ehi4 ,praise from a friend1 or censure from a foe1 ,are lost on hearers that our merits know4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 x1 l4 #bic4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,nominatives ,,connected ,,by ,,nor4 ,neither he nor she have spoken to him4--,perrin's ,gram41 p4 #bcg4 ,for want of a process of events1 neither knowledge nor elegance preserve the reader from weariness4--,,johnson3 in ,crabb's ,syn41 p4 #eaa4 ,neither history nor tradition furnish such information4--,robertson's ,amer41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #b4 ,neither the form nor power of the liquids have varied materially4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alph41 p4 #af4 ,where neither noise nor motion are concerned4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ee4 ,neither ,charles nor his brother were qualified to support such a system4--,junius1 p4 #bej4 ,when1 therefore1 neither the liveliness of representation1 nor the warmth of passion1 serve1 as it were1 to cover the trespass1 it is not safe to leave the beaten track4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cha4 ,in many countries called ,christian1 neither ,christianity1 nor its evidence1 are fairly laid before men4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bfi4 ,neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #bj4 ,throughout this hymn1 neither ,apollo nor ,diana are in any way connected with the ,sun or ,moon4--,coleridge's ,introd41 p4 #aii4 ,of which1 neither he1 nor this ,grammar1 take any notice4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cdf4 ,neither their solicitude nor their foresight extend so far4--,robertson's ,amer41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bhg4 ,neither ,gomara1 nor ,oviedo1 nor ,herrera1 consider ,ojeda1 or his companion ,vespucci1 as the first discoverers of the continent of ,america4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dga4 ,neither the general situation of our colonies1 nor that particular distress which forced the inhabitants of ,boston to take up arms1 have been thought worthy of a moment's consideration4--,junius1 p4 #agd4 ,nor ,war nor ,wisdom yield our ,jews delight1 ,they will not study1 and they dare not fight4 --,crabbe's ,borough1 p4 #ej4 ,nor time nor chance breed such confusions yet1 ,nor are the mean so rais'd1 nor sunk the great4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 iii1 l4 #bac4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,nominatives ,,that ,,disagree4 ,the definite article the1 designates what particular thing or things is meant4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #bc and p4 #cc4 ,sometimes a word or words necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence1 is not expressed1 but omitted by ellipsis4--,burr's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,ellipsis1 or abbreviations1 is the wheels of language4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,the conditions or tenor of none of them appear at this day4--,hutchinson's ,hist4 of ,mass41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #af4 ,neither men nor money were wanting for the service4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bgi4 ,either our own feelings1 or the representation of those of others1 require frequent emphatic distinction4--,barber's ,exercises1 p4 #ac4 ,either ,atoms and ,chance1 or ,nature are uppermost3 now ,i am for the latter part of the disjunction1--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #aha4 ,their riches or poverty are generally proportioned to their activity or indolence4--,ross ,cox's ,narrative4 ,concerning the other part of him1 neither you nor he seem to have entertained an idea4--,bp4 ,horne4 ,whose earnings or income are so small4--,n4 ,e4 ,discipline1 p4 #acj4 ,neither riches nor fame render a man happy4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,the references to the pages1 always point to the first volume1 unless the ,exercises or ,key are mentioned4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bhc4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,complete ,,the ,,concord4 ,my lord1 you wrong my father2 nor he nor ,i are capable of harbouring a thought against your peace4--,walpole4 ,there was no division of acts2 no pauses or interval between them2 but the stage was continually full2 occupied either by the actors1 or the chorus4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfc4 ,every word ending in ,b1 ,p1 ,f1 as also many in ,v1 are of this order4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 i1 #gc4 ,as proud as we are of human reason1 nothing can be more absurd than the general system of human life and human knowledge4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #cdg4 ,by which the body of sin and death is done away1 and we cleansed4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #afe4 ,and those were already converted1 and regeneration begun in them4--,ib41 iii1 #dcc4 ,for ,i am an old man1 and my wife well stricken in years4--,luke1 i1 #ah4 ,who is my mother1 or my brethren8--,mark1 iii1 #cc4 ,lebanon is not sufficient to burn1 nor the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering4--,isaiah1 xl1 #af4 ,information has been obtained1 and some trials made4--,society in ,america1 i1 #cjh4 ,it is as obvious1 and its causes more easily understood4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #hd4 ,all languages furnish examples of this kind1 and the ,english as many as any other4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aeg4 ,the winters are long1 and the cold intense4--,morse's ,geog41 p4 #ci4 ,how have ,i hated instruction1 and my heart despised reproof6--,prov41 v1 #ab4 ,the vestals were abolished by ,theodosius the ,great1 and the fire of ,vesta extinguished4--,lempriere1 w4 ,vestales4 ,riches beget pride2 pride1 impatience4--,bullions's ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #hi4 ,grammar is not reasoning1 any more than organization is thought1 or letters sounds4--,enclytica1 p4 #ij4 ,words are implements1 and grammar a machine4--,ib41 p4 #ia4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,place ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,person4 ,i or thou art the person who must undertake the business proposed4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahd4 ,i and he were there4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,and we dreamed a dream in one night1 ,i and he4--,gen41 xli1 #aa4 ,if my views remain the same as mine and his were in #ahcc4--;,,goodell3 ,liberator1 ix1 #adh4 ,i and my father were riding out4--,inst41 p4 #aeh4 ,the premiums were given to me and ,george4--,ib4 ,i and ,jane are invited4--,ib4 ,they ought to invite me and my sister4--,ib4 ,i and you intend going4--,guy's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,i and ,john are going to ,town4--,british ,gram41 p4 #aic4 ,i1 and he are sick4 ,i1 and thou are well4--,james ,brown's ,american ,gram41 ,boston ,edition of #ahda1 p4 #abc4 ,i1 and he is4 ,i1 and thou art4 ,i1 and he writes4--,ib41 p4 #abf4 ,i1 and they are well4 ,i1 thou1 and she were walking4--,ib41 p4 #abg4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,distinct ,,subject ,,phrases4 ,to practise tale-bearing1 or even to countenance it1 are great injustice4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #aei4 ,to reveal secrets1 or to betray one's friends1 are contemptible perfidy4--,ib4 ,to write all substantives with capital letters1 or to exclude them from adjectives derived from proper names1 may perhaps be thought offences too small for animadversion2 but the evil of innovation is always something4--,dr4 ,barrow's ,essays1 p4 #hh4 ,to live in such families1 or to have such servants1 are blessings from ,god4--,family ,commentary1 p4 #fd4 ,how they portioned out the country1 what revolutions they experienced1 or what wars they maintained1 are utterly unknown4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #d4 ,to speak or to write perspicuously and agreeably1 are attainments of the utmost consequence to all who purpose1 either by speech or writing1 to address the public4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aa4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,make ,,the ,,verbs ,,agree4 ,doth he not leave the ninety and nine1 and goeth into the mountains1 and seeketh that which is gone astray8--,matt41 xviii1 #ab4 ,did he not fear the ,lord1 and besought the ,lord1 and the ,lord repented him of the evil which he had pronounced8--,jer41 xxvi1 #ai4 ,and dost thou open thine eyes upon such an one1 and bringest me into judgement with thee8--,job1 xiv1 #c4 ,if any man among you seem to be religious1 and bridleth not his tongue1 but deceiveth his own heart1 this man's religion is vain4--,james1 i1 #bf4 ,if thou sell aught unto thy neighbour1 or buyest aught of thy neighbour's hand1 ye shall not oppress one an other4--,leviticus1 xxv1 #ad4 ,and if thy brother that dwelleth by thee1 shall have become poor1 and be sold to thee1 thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond servant4--,,webster',s ,,bible3 ,lev41 xxv1 #ci4 ,if thou bring thy gift to the altar1 and there rememberest that thy brother hath aught against thee1 c4--,matt41 v1 #bc4 ,anthea was content to call a coach1 and crossed the brook4--,rambler1 ,no4 #cd4 ,it is either totally suppressed1 or appears in its lowest and most imperfect form4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bc4 ,but if any man be a worshiper of ,god1 and doeth his will1 him he heareth4--,john1 ix1 #ca4 ,whereby his righteousness and obedience1 death and sufferings without1 become profitable unto us1 and is made ours4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #afd4 ,who ought to have been here before thee1 and object1 if they had aught against me4--,acts1 xxiv1 #ai4 ,yes6 thy proud lords1 unpitied land1 shall see ,that man hath yet a soul1 and dare be free4--,campbell4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,use ,,separate ,,nominatives4 ,h is only an aspiration or breathing2 and sometimes at the beginning of a word is not sounded at all4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,man was made for society1 and ought to extend his good will to all men4--,ib41 p4 #ab2 ,murray's1 i1 #agj4 ,there is1 and must be1 a supreme being1 of infinite goodness1 power1 and wisdom1 who created and supports them4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #bja4 ,were you not affrighted1 and mistook a spirit for a body8--,watson's ,apology1 p4 #abb4 ,the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction than or as1 but agrees with the verb1 or is governed by the verb or the preposition1 expressed or understood4-- ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bad2 ,russell's1 #ajc2 ,bacon's1 #ea2 ,alger's1 #ga2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #agi4 ,he had mistaken his true interests1 and found himself forsaken4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bja4 ,the amputation was exceedingly well performed1 and saved the patient's life4--,ib41 p4 #aia4 ,the intentions of some of these philosophers1 nay1 of many 1 might have been1 and probably were good4--,ib41 p4 #baf4 ,this may be true1 and yet will not justify the practice4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cc4 ,from the practice of those who have had a liberal education1 and are therefore presumed to be best acquainted with men and things4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afa4 ,for those energies and bounties which created and preserve the universe4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhet41 i1 #cbg4 ,i shall make it once for all and hope it will be afterwards remembered4--,blair's ,lect41 p4 #de4 ,this consequence is drawn too abruptly1 and needed more explanation4--,ib41 p4 #bbi4 ,they must be used with more caution1 and require more preparation4-- ,ib41 p4 #aec4 ,the apostrophe denotes the omission of an i1 which was formerly inserted1 and made an addition of a syllable to the word4-- ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #fg4 ,the succession may be rendered more various or more uniform1 but in one shape or an other is unavoidable4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i4 #bec4 ,it excites neither terror nor compassion1 nor is agreeable in any respect4--,ib41 ii1 #bgg4 ,cheap vulgar arts1 whose narrowness affords ,no flight for thoughts1 but poorly stick at words4--,denham4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,mixture ,,of ,,different ,,styles4 ,let us read the living page1 whose every character delighteth and instructs us4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,for if it be in any degree obscure1 it puzzles1 and doth not please4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ceg4 ,when a speaker addresseth himself to the understanding1 he proposes the instruction of his hearers4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ac4 ,as the wine which strengthens and refresheth the heart4--,h4 ,adams's ,view1 p4 #bba4 ,this truth he wrappeth in an allegory1 and feigns that one of the goddesses had taken up her abode with the other4--,pope's ,works1 iii1 #df4 ,god searcheth and understands the heart4--,thomas ,kempis4 ,the grace of ,god1 that brings salvation hath appeared to all men4--,barclays ,works1 i1 #cff4 ,also we speak not in the words1 which man's wisdom teaches2 but which the ,holy ,ghost teacheth4--,ib41 i1 #chh4 ,but he hath an objection1 which he urgeth1 and by which he thinks to overturn all4--,ib41 iii1 #cbg4 ,in that it gives them not that comfort and joy which it giveth unto them who love it4--,ib41 i1 #adb4 ,thou here misunderstood the place and misappliedst it4--,ib41 iii1 #ch4 ,like the barren heath in the desert1 which knoweth not when good comes4--,friends' ,extracts1 p4 #abh2 ,n4 ,e4 ,discip41 p4 #ge4 ,it speaketh of the time past1 but shews that something was then doing1 but not quite finished4--,e4 ,devis's ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,it subsists in spite of them2 it advanceth unobserved4--,,pascal3 ,addison's ,evidences1 p4 #ag4 ,but where is he1 the ,pilgrim of my song8-- ,methinks he cometh late and tarries long4--,byron1 ,cant4 iv1 ,st4 #afd4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,confusion ,,of ,,moods4 ,if a man have a hundred sheep1 and one of them is gone astray1 c4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bbg with #aig4 ,as a speaker advances in his discourse1 especially if it be somewhat impassioned1 and increases in energy and earnestness1 a higher and louder tone will naturally steal upon him4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #fh4 ,if one man esteem a day above another1 and another esteemeth every day alike2 let every man be fully persuaded in his own mind4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dci4 ,if there be but one body of legislators1 it is no better than a tyranny2 if there are only two1 there will want a casting voice4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #bhg4 ,should you come up this way1 and ,i am still here1 you need not be assured how glad ,i shall be to see you4--,ld4 ,byron4 ,if he repent and becomes holy1 let him enjoy ,god and heaven4--,brownson's ,elwood1 p4 #bdh4 ,if thy fellow approach thee1 naked and destitute1 and thou shouldst say unto him1 ',depart in peace2 be you warmed and filled2' and yet shouldst give him not those things that are needful to him1 what benevolence is there in thy conduct8--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #ajh4 ,get on your nightgown1 lost occasion calls us4 ,and show us to be watchers4 --,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #bgh4 ,but if it climb1 with your assisting hands1 ,the ,trojan walls1 and in the city stands4 --,dryden's ,virgil1 ii1 #ade4 --------------------------,though ,heaven's king ,ride on thy wings1 and thou with thy compeers1 ,us'd to the yoke1 draw'st his triumphant wheels4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 iv1 l4 #igc4 ,us'd to the yoke1 draw'dst his triumphant wheels4 --,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,improper ,,ellipses4 ,indeed we have seriously wondered that ,murray should leave some things as he has4--,education ,reporter4 ,which they neither have nor can do4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #gc4 ,the ,lord hath1 and doth1 and will reveal his will to his people1 and hath and doth raise up members of his body1 c4--,ib41 i1 #dhd4 ,we see then1 that the ,lord hath1 and doth give such4--,ib41 i1 #dhd4 ,towards those that have or do declare themselves members4--,ib41 i1 #did4 ,for which we can1 and have given our sufficient reasons4--,ib41 i1 #ejg4 ,when we mention the several properties of the different words in sentences1 in the same manner as we have those of ,william's1 above1 what is the exercise called8--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,it is1 however to be doubted whether this peculiarity of the ,greek idiom1 ever has or will obtain extensively in the ,english4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,why did not the ,greeks and ,romans abound in auxiliary words as much as we8--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aaa4 ,who delivers his sentiments in earnest1 as they ought to be in order to move and persuade4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #aea4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,do1 ,,used ,,as ,a ,,substitute4 ,and ,i would avoid it altogether1 if it could be done4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #cf4 ,such a sentiment from a man expiring of his wounds1 is truly heroic1 and must elevate the mind to the greatest height that can be done by a single expression4--,ib41 i1 #bjd4 ,successive images making thus deeper and deeper impressions1 must elevate more than any single image can do4--,ib41 i1 #bje4 ,besides making a deeper impression than can be done by cool reasoning4--,ib41 ii1 #bgc4 ,yet a poet1 by the force of genius alone1 can rise higher than a public speaker can do4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cch4 ,and the very same reason that has induced several grammarians to go so far as they have done1 should have induced them to go farther4--,priestley's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 vii4 ,the pupil should commit the first section perfectly1 before he does the second part of grammar4-- ,bradley's ,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,the ,greek ch was pronounced hard1 as we now do in chord4--,booth's ,introd4 to ,dict41 p4 #fa4 ,they pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they do at other times4-- ,murray's ,eng4 ,reader1 p4 xi4 ,and give him the formal cool reception that ,simon had done4--,dr4 ,scott1 on ,luke1 vii4 ,i do not say1 as some have done4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #bga4 ,if he suppose the first1 he may do the last4--,barclay's ,works1 ii1 #djf4 ,who are now despising ,christ in his inward appearance1 as the ,jews of old did him in his outward4--,ib41 i1 #ejf4 ,that text of ,revelations must not be understood1 as he doth it4-- ,ib41 iii1 #cji4 ,till the mode of parsing the noun is so familiar to him1 that he can do it readily4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,perhaps it is running the same course which ,rome had done before4--,middleton's ,life of ,cicero4 ,it ought even on this ground to be avoided2 which may easily be done by a different construction4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cab4 ,these two languages are now pronounced in ,england as no other nation in ,europe does besides4--,creighton's ,dict41 p4 xi4 ,germany ran the same risk that ,italy had done4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #baa3 see ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aif4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,preterits ,,and ,,participles4 ,the ,beggars themselves will be broke in a trice4--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #cdg4 ,the hoop is hoist above his nose4--,ib41 p4 #djd4 ,my heart was lift up in the ways of the ,lord4 #b ,,chron4--,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,lift4 ,who sin so oft have mourned1 ,yet to temptation ran4--,burns4 ,who would not have let them appeared4--,steele4 ,he would have had you sought for ease at the hands of ,mr4 ,legality4--,pilgrim's ,progress1 p4 #ca4 ,from me his madding mind is start1 ,and wooes the widow's daughter of the glen4--,,spenser3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,glen4 ,the man has spoke1 and still speaks4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,for you have but mistook me all this while4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #aad4 ,and will you rent our ancient love asunder4--,ib41 p4 #eb4 ,mr4 ,birney has plead the inexpediency of passing such resolutions4-- ,liberator1 ,vol4 xiii1 p4 #aid4 ,who have wore out their years in such most painful ,labours4--,littleton's ,dict41 ,pref4 ,and in the conclusion you were chose probationer4--,spectator1 ,no4 #cb4 ,how she was lost1 took captive1 made a slave2 ,and how against him set that should her save4--,bunyan4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,verbs ,,confounded4 ,but ,moses preferred to wile away his time4--,parker's ,english ,composition1 p4 #ae4 ,his face shown with the rays of the sun4--,calvin's ,inst41 #dto1 p4 #gf4 ,whom they had sat at defiance so lately4-- ,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #cbj4 ,and when he was set1 his disciples came unto him4--,matt41 v1 #a4 ,when he was set down on the judgement-seat4-- ,ib41 xxvii1 #ai4 ,and when they had kindled a fire in the midst of the hall1 and were set down together1 ,peter sat down among them4--,luke1 xxii1 #ee4 ,so after he had washed their feet1 and had taken his garments1 and was set down again1 he said unto them1 ,know ye what ,i have done to you8--,john1 xiii1 #ab4 ,even as ,i also overcame1 and am set down with my ,father in his throne4--,rev41 iii1 #ba4 ,we have such an high priest1 who is set on the right hand of the throne of the ,majesty in the heavens4-- ,heb41 viii1 #a4 ,and is set down at the right hand of the throne of ,god4--,ib41 xii1 #b4djb ,he sat on foot a furious persecution4-- ,payne's ,geog41 ii1 #dah4 ,there layeth an obligation upon the saints1 to help such4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #chi4 ,there let him lay4--,byron's ,pilgrimage1 ,c4 iv1 st4 #ahj4 ,nothing but moss1 and shrubs1 and stinted trees1 can grow upon it4--,morse's ,geog41 p4 #dc4 ,who had lain out considerable sums purely to distinguish themselves4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #acb4 ,whereunto the righteous fly and are safe4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #adf4 ,he raiseth from supper1 and laid aside his garments4--,ib41 i1 #dch4 ,whither--,oh6 whither shall ,i fly8--,murray's ,english ,reader1 p4 #abc4 ,flying from an adopted murderer4--,ib41 p4 #abb4 ,to you ,i fly for refuge4--,ib41 p4 #abd4 ,the sign that should warn his disciples to fly from approaching ruin4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #fb4 ,in one she sets as a prototype for exact imitation4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 xxiii4 ,in which some only bleat1 bark1 mew1 winnow1 and bray1 a little better than others4--,ib41 p4 #ij4 ,who represented to him the unreasonableness of being effected with such unmanly fears4--,rollin's ,hist41 ii1 #ajf4 ,thou sawedst every action4--,guy's ,school ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,i taught1 thou taughtedst1 he or she taught4--,coar's ,gram41 p4 #gi4 ,valerian is taken by ,sapor and flead alive1 ,a4 ,d4 #bfj4--,lempriere's ,chron4 ,table1 ,dict41 p4 xix4 ,what a fine vehicle is it now become for all conceptions of the mind6--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aci4 ,what are become of so many productions8 --,volney's ,ruins1 p4 #h4 ,what are become of those ages of abundance and of life8--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #ajg4 ,the ,spartan admiral was sailed to the ,hellespont4--,goldsmiths ,greece1 i1 #aej4 ,as soon as he was landed1 the multitude thronged about him4--,ib41 i1 #afj4 ,cyrus was arrived at ,sardis4--,ib41 i1 #afa4 ,whose year was expired4--,ib41 i1 #afb4 ,it had better have been1 'that faction which4'--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,this people is become a great nation4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aec2 ,ingersoll's1 #bdi4 ,and here we are got into the region of ornament4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aha4 ,the ungraceful parenthesis which follows1 had far better have been avoided4--,ib41 p4 #bae4 ,who forced him under water1 and there held him until drounded4--,indian ,wars1 p4 #ee4 ,i had much rather be myself the slave1 ,and wear the bonds1 than fasten them on him4--,cowper4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,words ,,that ,,express ,,time4 ,i had finished my letter before my brother arrived4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aci4 ,i had written before ,i received his letter4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #hb4 ,from what has been formerly delivered4--,ib41 p4 #ahb4 ,arts were of late introduced among them4--,ib41 p4 #bde4 ,i am not of opinion that such rules can be of much use1 unless persons saw them exemplified4--,ib41 p4 #ccf4 ,if we use the noun itself1 we should say1 ',this composition is ,john's4' --,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agd4 ,but if the assertion referred to something1 that is not always the same1 or supposed to be so1 the past tense must be applied4--,ib41 p4 #aia4 ,they told him1 that ,jesus of ,nazareth passeth by4--,luke1 xviii1 #cg4 ,there is no particular intimation but that ,i continued to work1 even to the present moment4--,r4 ,w4 ,green's ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,generally1 as was observed already1 it is but hinted in a single word or phrase4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cf4 ,the wittiness of the passage was already illustrated4--,ib41 p4 #cf4 ,as was observed already4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,it was said already in general4--,ib41 p4 #ie4 ,as ,i hinted already4--,ib41 p4 #acd4 ,what ,i believe was hinted once already4--,ib41 p4 #adh4 ,it is obvious1 as hath been hinted formerly1 that this is but an artificial and arbitrary connexion4--,ib41 p4 #bhb4 ,they have done anciently a great deal of hurt4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #aji4 ,then said ,paul1 ,i knew not1 brethren1 that he is the ,high ,priest4--,dr4 ,webster's ,bible3 ,acts1 xxiii1 #e4 ,most prepositions originally denote the relation of place1 and have been thence transferred to denote by similitude other relations4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fe2 ,churchill's1 #aaf4 ,his gift was but a poor offering1 when we consider his estate4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aid4 ,if he should succeed1 and should obtain his end1 he will not be the happier for it4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #bjg4 ,these are torrents that swell to-day1 and have spent themselves by to-morrow4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bhf4 ,who have called that wheat to-day1 which they have called tares to-morrow4--,barclay's ,works1 iii4 #afh4 ,he thought it had been one of his tenants4--,ib41 i1 #aa4 ,but if one went unto them from the dead1 they will repent4--,luke1 xvi1 #cj4 ,neither will they be persuaded1 though one rose from the dead4--,ib41 verse #ca4 ,but it is while men slept that the archenemy has always sown his tares4--,the ,friend1 x1 #cea4 ,crescens would not fail to have exposed him4--,addison's ,evidences1 p4 #cj4 ,bent was his bow1 the ,grecian hearts to wound2 ,fierce as he mov'd1 his silver shafts resound4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 i1 l4 #fd4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiv4--,,verbs ,,of ,,commanding1 c4 ,had ,i commanded you to have done this1 you would have thought hard of it4--,g4 ,b4 ,i found him better than ,i expected to have found him4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #abf4 ,there are several smaller faults1 which ,i at first intended to have enumerated4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bdf4 ,antithesis1 therefore1 may1 on many occasions1 be employed to advantage1 in order to strengthen the impression which we intend that any object should make4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #afh4 ,the girl said1 if her master would but have let her had money1 she might have been well long ago4--,see ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #abg4 ,nor is there the least ground to fear1 that we should be cramped here within too narrow limits4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afc2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cfj4 ,the ,romans1 flushed with success1 expected to have retaken it4--,hooke's ,hist41 p4 #cg4 ,i would not have let fallen an unseasonable pleasantry in the venerable presence of ,misery1 to be entitled to all the wit that ever ,rabelais scattered4--,,sterne3 ,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #ed4 ,we expected that he would have arrived last night4--,inst4 p4 #aib4 ,our friends intended to have met us4--,ib4 ,we hoped to have seen you4--,ib4 ,he would not have been allowed to have entered4--,ib4 ,,under ,,note ,,xv4--,,permanent ,,propositions4 ,cicero maintained that whatsoever was useful was good4--,i observed that love constituted the whole moral character of ,god4--,dwight4 ,thinking that one gained nothing by being a good man4--,voltaire4 ,i have already told you that ,i was a gentleman4--,fontaine4 ,if ,i should ask1 whether ice and water were two distinct species of things4--,locke4 ,a stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse4--,murray's ,gram41 #abmo1 p4 #bfj4 ,the doctor affirmed1 that fever always produced thirst4--,inst41 p4 #aib4 ,the ancients asserted1 that virtue was its own reward4--,ib4 ,they should not have repeated the error1 of insisting that the infinitive was a mere noun4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bhh4 ,it was observed in ,chap4 ,,iii4 that the distinctive or had a double use4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,two young gentlemen1 who have made a discovery that there was no ,god4--,swift4 ,,rule ,,xviii4--,,infinitives4 ,the ,infinitive ,mood is governed in general by the preposition ,,to1 which commonly connects it to a finite verb3 as1 ,i desire ,,to learn4--,dr4 ,adam4 ,of me the ,roman people have many pledges1 which ,i must strive1 with my utmost endeavours1 ,,to preserve1 ,,to defend1 ,,to confirm1 and ,,to redeem4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #da4 ,what if the foot1 ordain'd the dust ,,to tread1 ,or hand ,,to toil1 aspir'd ,,to be the head8--,pope4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xviii4 ,,obs4 #a4--,no word is more variously explained by grammarians1 than this word ,,to1 which is put before the verb in the infinitive mood4 ,johnson1 ,walker1 ,scott1 ,todd1 and some other lexicographers1 call it an adverb2 but1 in explaining its use1 they say it denotes certain relations1 which it is not the office of an adverb to express4 7,see the word in ,johnson's ,quarto ,dictionary47 ,d4 ,st4 ,quentin1 in his ,rudiments of ,general ,grammar1 says1 ,to1 before a verb1 is an adverb2 and yet his ,adverbs are words that are joined to verbs or adjectives1 and express some circumstance or quality4 ,see pp4 #cc and #ci4 ,lowth1 ,priestley1 ,fisher1 ,l4 ,murray1 ,webster1 ,wilson1 ,s4 ,w4 ,clark1 ,coar1 ,comly1 ,blair1 ,felch1 ,fisk1 ,greenleaf1 ,hart1 ,weld1 ,webber1 and others1 call it a preposition2 and some of these ascribe to it the government of the verb1 while others do not4 ,lowth says1 ,the preposition ,,to1 placed before the verb1 makes the infinitive mood4--,short ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,now this1 says ,horne ,tooke1 is manifestly not so3 for ,,to placed before the verb loveth1 will not make the infinitive mood4 ,he would have said more truly1 that ,,to placed before some nouns1 makes verbs4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bhg4 ,,obs4 #b4--,skinner1 in his ,canones ,etymologici1 calls this ,,to an equivocal article1--,tooke1 ib41 i1 #bhh4 ,nutting1 a late ,american grammarian1 says3 ,the sign ,,to is no other than the ,greek article to2 as1 to agapan 1 to love2 or1 as some say1 it is the ,saxon do--,practical ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,thus1 by suggesting two false and inconsistent derivations1 though he uses not the name equivocal article1 he first makes the word an article1 and then equivocal--equivocal in etymology1 and of course in meaning4#djc ,nixon1 in his ,english ,parser1 supposes it to be1 unequivocally1 the ,greek article ,greek3 to1 the4 ,see the work1 p4 #hc4 ,d4 ,booth says1 ,to is1 by us1 applied to ,verbs2 but it was the neuter ,article 7the7 among the ,greeks4--,introd4 to ,analyt4 ,dict41 p4 #fj4 ,according to ,horne ,tooke1 ,minshew also distinguishes between the preposition ,,to1 and the sign of the infinitive ,,to4 ,of the former he is silent1 and of the latter he says3 ',to1 as to make1 to walk1 to do1 a ,grco articulo ,greek3 to4' ,but ,dr4 ,gregory ,sharpe is persuaded1 that our language has taken it from the ,hebrew4 ,and ,vossius derives the correspondent ,latin preposition ,,ad from the same source4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bic4 ,,obs4 #c4--,tooke also says1 ,i observe1 that ,junius and ,skinner and ,johnson1 have not chosen to give the slightest hint concerning the derivation of ,,to4--,ibid4 ,but1 certainly1 of his adverb ,,to1 ,johnson gives this hint3 ,,to1 ,saxon2 te1 ,dutch4 ,and ,webster1 who calls it not an adverb1 but a preposition1 gives the same hint of the source from which it comes to us4 ,this is as much as to say1 it is etymologically the old ,saxon preposition to--which1 truly1 it is--the very same word that1 for a thousand years or more1 has been used before nouns and pronouns to govern the objective case4 ,tooke himself does not deny this2 but1 conceiving that almost all particles1 whether ,english or any other1 can be traced back to ancient verbs or nouns1 he hunts for the root of this1 in a remoter region1 where he pretends to find that to has the same origin as do2 and though he detects the former in a ,gothic noun1 he scruples not to identify it with an auxiliary verb6 ,yet he elsewhere expressly denies1 that any words change their nature by use1 so as to belong sometimes to one part of speech1 and sometimes to another4--,div4 of ,pur41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #fh4 ,,obs #d4--;,from this1 the fair inference is1 that he will have both to and do to be nouns substantive still6 ,do 7the auxiliary verb1 as it has been called7 is derived from the same root1 and is indeed the same word as ,,to4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bij4 ,since ,,from means commencement or beginning1 ,,to must mean end or termination4--,ib41 i1 #bhc4 ,the preposition ,,to 7in ,dutch written ,,toe and ,,tot1 a little nearer to the original7 is the ,gothic substantive ,gothic3 taui or ,gothic3 tauhts1 i4 e4 act1 effect1 result1 consummation4 ,which ,gothic substantive is indeed itself no other than the past participle of the verb ,gothic3 taujan1 agere4 ,and what is done1 is terminated1 ended1 finished4--,ib41 i1 #bhe4 ,no wonder that ,johnson1 ,skinner1 and ,junius1 gave no hint of this derivation3 it is not worth the ink it takes1 if it cannot be made more sure4 ,but in showing its bearing on the verb1 the author not unjustly complains of our grammarians1 that3 ,of all the points which they endeavour to shuffle over1 there is none in which they do it more grossly than in this of the infinitive4--,ib41 i1 #bhg4 ,,obs4 #e4--,many are content to call the word ,,to a prefix1 a particle1 a little word1 a sign of the infinitive1 a part of the infinitive1 a part of the verb1 and the like1 without telling us whence it comes1 how it differs from the preposition to1 or to what part of speech it belongs4 ,it certainly is not what we usually call a prefix1 because we never join it to the verb2 yet there are three instances in which it becomes such1 before a noun3 viz41 to-day1 to-night1 to-morrow4 ,if it is a particle1 so is any other preposition1 as well as every small and invariable word4 ,if it is a little word1 the whole bigness of a preposition is unquestionably found in it2 and no word is so small but that it must belong to some one of the ten classes called parts of speech4 ,if it is a sign of the infinitive1 because it is used before no other mood2 so is it a sign of the objective case1 or of what in ,latin is called the dative1 because it precedes no other case4 ,if we suppose it to be a part of the infinitive1 or a part of the verb1 it is certainly no necessary part of either2 because there is no verb which may not1 in several different ways1 be properly used in the infinitive without it4 ,but if it be a part of the infinitive1 it must be a verb1 and ought to be classed with the auxiliaries4 ,dr4 ,ash accordingly placed it among the auxiliaries2 but he says1 7inaccurately1 however17 ,the auxiliary sign seems to have the nature of adverbs4--,grammatical ,institutes1 p4 #cc4 ,the auxiliary signs are1 to1 do1 did1 have1 had1 shall1 will1 may1 can1 must1 might1 c4--,ib41 p4 #ca4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,it is clear1 as ,i have already shown1 that the word to may be a sign of the infinitive1 and yet not be a part of it4 ,dr4 ,ash supposes1 it may even be a part of the mood1 and yet not be a part of the verb4 ,how this can be1 ,i see not1 unless the mood consists in something else than either the form or the parts of the verb4 ,this grammarian says1 ,in parsing1 every word should be considered as a distinct part of speech3 for though two or more words may be united to form a mode1 a tense1 or a comparison2 yet it seems quite improper to unite two or more words to make a noun1 a verb1 an adjective1 c4--,gram4 ,inst41 p4 #bh4 ,all the auxiliaries1 therefore1 and the particle to among them1 he parses separately2 but he follows not his own advice1 to make them distinct parts of speech2 for he calls them all signs only1 and signs are not one of his ten parts of speech4 ,and the participle too1 which is one of the ten1 and which he declares to be no part of the verb1 he parses separately2 calling it a verb1 and not a participle1 as often as it accompanies any of his auxiliary signs4 ,this is certainly a greater impropriety than there can be in supposing an auxiliary and a participle to constitute a verb2 for the mood and tense are the properties of the compound1 and ought not to be ascribed to the principal term only4 ,not so with the preposition to before the infinitive1 any more than with the conjunction if before the subjunctive4 ,these may well be parsed as separate parts of speech2 for these moods are sometimes formed1 and are completely distinguished in each of their tenses1 without the adding of these signs4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,after a careful examination of what others have taught respecting this disputed point in grammar1 ,i have given1 in the preceding rule1 that explanation which ,i consider to be the most correct and the most simple1 and also as well authorized as any4 ,who first parsed the infinitive in this manner1 ,i know not2 probably those who first called the to a preposition2 among whom were ,lowth and the author of the old ,british ,grammar4 ,the doctrine did not originate with me1 or with ,comly1 or with any ,american author4 ,in ,coar's ,english ,grammar1 published in ,london in #agif4 the phrase to trample is parsed thus3 ,to--,a preposition1 serving for a sign of the infinitive mood to the verb ,trample--,a verb neuter1 infinitive mood1 present tense1 governed by the preposition ,,to before it4 ,,rule4 ,the preposition to before a verb1 is the sign of the infinitive mood4 ,see the work1 p4 #bfc4 ,this was written by a gentleman who speaks of his long habit of teaching the ,latin ,tongue1 and who was certainly partial enough to the principles of ,latin grammar1 since he adopts in ,english the whole detail of ,latin cases4 ,,obs #h4--;,in ,fisher's ,english ,grammar1 ,london1 #ahjj1 7of which there had been many earlier editions17 we find the following rule of syntax3 ,when two principal ,verbs come together1 the latter of them expresses an unlimited ,sense1 with the ,preposition to before it2 as he loved to learn2 ,i chose to dance3 and is called the infinitive ,verb1 which may also follow a ,name or ,quality2 as1 a ,time to sing2 a ,book delightful to read4 ,that this author supposed the infinitive to be governed by to1 and not by the preceding verb1 noun1 or adjective1 is plain from the following note1 which he gives in his margin3 ,the ,scholar will best understand this1 by being told that infinite or invariable ,verbs1 having neither ,number1 ,person1 nor ,nominative ,word belonging to them1 are known or governed by the ,preposition ,,to coming before them4 ,the ,sign to is often understood2 as1 ,bid ,robert and his company 7to7 tarry4--,fisher's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the forms of parsing1 and also the rules1 which are given in the early ,english grammars1 are so very defective1 that it is often impossible to say positively1 what their authors did1 or did not1 intend to teach4 ,dr4 ,lowth's specimen of grammatical resolution contains four infinitives4 ,in his explanation of the first1 the preposition and the verb are parsed separately1 as above2 except that he says nothing about government4 ,in his account of the other three1 the two words are taken together1 and called a verb1 in the infinitive mode4 ,but as he elsewhere calls the particle to a preposition1 and nowhere speaks of any thing else as governing the infinitive1 it seems fair to infer1 that he conceived the verb to be the regimen of this preposition4#djd ,if such was his idea1 we have the learned ,doctor's authority in opposition to that of his professed admirers and copyists4 ,of these1 ,lindley ,murray is doubtless the most famous4 ,but ,murray's twelfth rule of syntax1 while it expressly calls to before the infinitive a preposition1 absurdly takes away from it this regimen1 and leaves us a preposition that governs nothing1 and has apparently nothing to do with the relation of the terms between which it occurs4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,many later grammarians1 perceiving the absurdity of calling to before the infinitive a preposition without supposing it to govern the verb1 have studiously avoided this name2 and have either made the little word a supernumerary part of speech1 or treated it as no part of speech at all4 ,among these1 if ,i mistake not1 are ,allen1 ,lennie1 ,bullions1 ,alger1 ,guy1 ,churchill1 ,hiley1 ,nutting1 ,mulligan1 ,spencer1 and ,wells4 ,except ,comly1 the numerous modifiers of ,murray's ,grammar are none of them more consistent1 on this point1 than was ,murray himself4 ,such of them as do not follow him literally1 either deny1 or forbear to affirm1 that to before a verb is a preposition2 and consequently either tell us not what it is1 or tell us falsely2 some calling it a part of the verb1 while they neither join it to the verb as a prefix1 nor include it among the auxiliaries4 ,thus ,kirkham3 ,to is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this mood2 thus1 to ride1 to rule2 but it should be parsed with the verb1 and as a part of it4--,gram4 in ,familiar ,lect41 p4 #acg4 ,so ,r4 ,c4 ,smith3 ,this little word to when used before verbs in this manner1 is not a preposition1 but forms a part of the verb1 and1 in parsing1 should be so considered4--,productive ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,how can that be a part of the verb1 which is a word used before it8 or how is to joined to the verb1 or made a part of it1 in the phrase1 to ride8 ,but ,smith does not abide by his own doctrine2 for1 in an other part of his book1 he adopts the phraseology of ,murray1 and makes to a preposition3 saying1 ,the preposition ,,to1 though generally used before the latter verb1 is sometimes properly omitted2 as1 ',i heard him say it2' instead of 'to say it4'--,productive ,gram41 p4 #aef4 ,see ,murray's ,rule #abth4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,most ,english grammarians have considered the word to as a part of the infinitive1 a part of the verb2 and1 like the teachers of ,latin1 have referred the government of this mood to a preceding verb4 ,but the rule which they give1 is partial1 and often inapplicable2 and their exceptions to it1 or the heterogeneous parts into which some of them divide it1 are both numerous and puzzling4 ,they teach that at least half of the ten different parts of speech frequently govern the infinitive3 if so1 there should be a distinct rule for each2 for why should the government of one part of speech be made an exception to that of an other8 and1 if this be done1 with respect to the infinitive1 why not also with respect to the objective case8 ,in all instances to which their rule is applicable1 the rule which ,i have given1 amounts to the same thing2 and it obviates the necessity for their numerous exceptions1 and the embarrassment arising from other constructions of the infinitive not noticed in them4 ,why then is the simplest solution imaginable still so frequently rejected for so much complexity and inconsistency8 ,or how can the more common rule in question be suitable for a child1 if its applicability depends on a relation between the two verbs1 which the preposition to sometimes expresses1 and sometimes does not8 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,all authors admit that in some instances1 the sign to is superfluous and improper1 the construction and government appearing complete without it2 and the ,rev4 ,peter ,bullions1 ,d4 ,d41 ,professor of ,languages in the ,albany ,academy1 has recently published a grammar1 in which he adopts the common rule1 ,one verb governs another in the infinitive mood2 as1 ,i desire to learn2 and then remarks1 ,the infinitive after a verb is governed by it only when the attribute expressed by the infinitive is either the subject or the object of the other verb4 ,in such expressions as ',i read to learn1' the infinitive is not governed by ',i read1' but depends on the phrase 'in order to' understood4--,bullions's ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aaj4 ,but1 ,i read 'in order to' to learn1 is not ,english2 though it might be1 if either to were any thing else than a preposition3 as1 ,now set to to learn your lesson4 ,this broad exception1 therefore1 which embraces well-nigh half the infinitives in the language1 though it contains some obvious truth1 is both carelessly stated1 and badly resolved4 ,the single particle to is quite sufficient1 both to govern the infinitive1 and to connect it to any antecedent term which can make sense with such an adjunct4 ,but1 in fact1 the reverend author must have meant to use the little word but once2 and also to deny that it is a preposition2 for he elsewhere says expressly1 though1 beyond question1 erroneously1 ,a preposition should never be used before the infinitive4--,ib41 p4 #ib4 ,and he also says1 ,the ,infinitive mood expresses a thing in a general manner1 without distinction of number1 person1 or time1 and commonly has ,,to before it4--,ib41 ,second ,edition1 p4 #ce4 ,now if ,,to is before the mood1 it is certainly not a part of it4 ,and again1 if this mood had no distinction of time1 our author's two tenses of it1 and his own two special rules for their application1 would be as absurd as is his notion of its government4 ,see his ,obs4 #f and #g1 ib41 p4 #abd4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,richard ,hiley1 too1 a grammarian of perhaps more merit1 is equally faulty in his explanation of the infinitive mood4 ,in the first place1 he absurdly says1 ,,to before the infinitive mood1 is considered as forming part of the verb2 but in every other situation it is a preposition4--,hiley's ,gram41 ,third ,edition1 p4 #bh4 ,to teach that a part of the verb stands before the mood1 is an absurdity manifestly greater1 than the very opposite notion of ,dr4 ,ash1 that what is not a part of the verb1 may yet be included in the mood4 ,there is no need of either of these false suppositions2 or of the suggestion1 doubly false1 that to in every other situation1 is a preposition4 ,what does preposition mean8 ,is to a preposition when it is placed after a verb1 and not a preposition when it is placed before it8 ,for example3 ,i rise to shut to the door4--,see ,luke1 xiii1 #be4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,in his syntax1 this author further says1 ,when two verbs come together1 the latter must be in the infinitive mood1 when it denotes the object of the former2 as1 ',study to improve4' ,this is his ,rule4 ,now look at his ,notes4 #a4 ,when the latter verb does not express the object1 but the end1 or something remote1 the word for1 or the words in order to1 are understood2 as1 ',i read to learn2' that is1 ',i read for to learn1' or1 'in order ,,to to learn4' ,the word for1 however1 is never1 in such instances1 expressed in good language4 #b4 ,the infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives1 substantives1 and participles2 but in this instance also1 a preposition is understood1 though never expressed2 as1 ',eager to learn2' that is1 'eager for to learn2' or1 'for learning2' ',a desire to improve2' that is1 'for to improve4'--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,here we see the origin of some of ,bullions's blunders4 ,to is so small a word1 it slips through the fingers of these gentlemen4 ,words utterly needless1 and worse than needless1 they foist into our language1 in instances beyond number1 to explain infinitives that occur at almost every breath4 ,their students must see that1 ,i read to learn1 and1 ,i study to improve1 with countless other examples of either sort1 are very different constructions1 and not to be parsed by the same rule6 ,and here the only government of the infinitive which ,hiley affirms1 is immediately contradicted by the supposition of a needless for understood4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,in all such examples as1 ,i read to learn1--,i strive to learn--,some eat to live1--,some live to eat1--,she sings to cheer him1--,i come to aid you1--,i go to prepare a place for you1--the action and its purpose are connected by the word to2 and if1 in the countless instances of this kind1 the former verbs do not govern the latter1 it is not because the phraseology is elliptical1 or ever was elliptical1#dje but because in no case is there any such government1 except in the construction of those verbs which take the infinitive after them without the preposition to4 ,professor ,bullions will have the infinitive to be governed by a finite verb1 when the attribute expressed by the infinitive is the subject of the other verb4 ,an infinitive may be made the subject of a finite verb2 but this grammarian has mistaken the established meaning of subject1 as well as of attribute1 and therefore written nonsense4 ,dr4 ,johnson defines his adverb ,,to1 ,a particle coming between two verbs1 and noting the second as the object of the first4 ,but of all the words which1 according to my opponents and their oracles1 govern the infinitive1 probably not more than a quarter are such verbs as usually have an object after them4 ,where then is the propriety of their notion of infinitive government8 ,and what advantage has it1 even where it is least objectionable8 ,,obs4 #af4--,take for an example of this contrast the terms1 ,strive to enter in--many will seek to enter in4--,luke1 xiii1 #bd4 ,why should it be thought more eligible to say1 that the verb strive or will seek governs the infinitive verb to enter2 than to say1 that to is a preposition1 showing the relation between strive and enter1 or between will seek and enter1 and governing the latter verb8 7,see the exact and only needful form for parsing any such term1 in the ,twelfth ,praxis of this work47 ,none1 ,i presume1 will deny1 that in the ,greek or the ,latin of these phrases1 the finite verbs govern the infinitive2 or that1 in the ,french1 the infinitive entrer is governed first by one preposition1 and then by an other4 ,contendite intrare--multi qurent intrare4--,montanus4 ,efforcez-vous d'entrer--plusieurs chercheront y entrer4--,french ,bible4 ,in my opinion1 to before a verb is as fairly a preposition as the ,french de or 2 and it is the main design of these observations1 while they candidly show the reader what others teach1 to prove it so4 ,the only construction which makes it any thing else1 is that which puts it after a verb or a participle1 in the sense of an adverbial supplement2 as1 ,the infernal idol is bowed down to4--,herald of ,freedom4 ,going to and fro4--,bible4 ,at length he came to4--,tell him to heave to4--,he was ready to set to4 ,with singular absurdness of opinion1 some grammarians call to a preposition1 when it thus follows a verb and governs nothing1 who resolutely deny it that name1 when it precedes the verb1 and requires it to be in the infinitive mood1 as in the last two examples4 ,now1 if this is not government1 what is8 ,and if to1 without government1 is not an adverb1 what is8 ,see ,obs4 #b;d on the ,list of ,prepositions4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,the infinitive thus admits a simpler solution in ,english1 than in most other languages2 because we less frequently use it without a preposition1 and seldom1 if ever1 allow any variety in this connecting and governing particle4 ,and yet in no other language has its construction given rise to a tenth part of that variety of absurd opinions1 which the defender of its true syntax must refute in ours4 ,in ,french1 the infinitive1 though frequently placed in immediate dependence on an other verb1 may also be governed by several different prepositions1 7as1 1 de1 pour1 sans1 aprs17 according to the sense4#djf ,in ,spanish and ,italian1 the construction is similar4 ,in ,latin and ,greek1 the infinitive is1 for the most part1 immediately dependent on an other verb4 ,but1 according to the grammars1 it may stand for a noun1 in all the six cases2 and many have called it an indeclinable noun4 ,see the ,port-,royal ,latin and ,greek grammars2 in which several peculiar constructions of the infinitive are referred to the government of a preposition--constructions that occur frequently in ,greek1 and sometimes even in ,latin4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,it is from an improper extension of the principles of these learned languages to ours1 that much of the false teaching which has so greatly and so long embarrassed this part of ,english grammar1 has been1 and continues to be1 derived4 ,a late author1 who supposes every infinitive to be virtually a noun1 and who thinks he finds in ours all the cases of an ,english noun1 not excepting the possessive1 gives the following account of its origin and nature3 ,this mood1 with almost all its properties and uses1 has been adopted into our language from the ancient ,greek and ,latin tongues4 99 99 99 ,the definite article ,greek3 t 1 the1 which they the ,greeks used before the infinitive1 to mark1 in an especial manner1 its nature of a substantive1 is evidently the same word that we use before our infinitive2 thus1 'to write1' signifies the writing2 that is1 the action of writing2--and when a verb governs an infinitive1 it only governs it as in the objective case4--,nixon's ,english ,parser1 p4 #hc4 ,but who will believe1 that our old ,saxon ancestors borrowed from ,greek or ,latin what is now our construction of the very root of the ,english verb1 when1 in all likelihood1 they could not read a word in either of those languages1 or scarcely knew the letters in their own1 and while it is plain that they took not thence even the inflection of a single branch of any verb whatever8 ,,obs4 #ai4--,the particle to1 being a very common preposition in the ,saxon tongue1 has been generally used before the ,english infinitive1 ever since the ,english language1 or any thing like it1 existed4 ,and it has always governed the verb1 not indeed as in the objective case1 for no verb is ever declined by cases1 but simply as the infinitive mood4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon version of the ,gospels1 which was made as early as the eleventh century1 the infinitive mood is sometimes expressed in this manner1 and sometimes by the termination on without the preposition4 ,dr4 ,johnson's ,history of the ,english ,language1 prefixed to his large ,dictionary1 contains1 of this version1 and of ,wickliffe's1 the whole of the first chapter of ,luke2 except that the latter omits the first four verses1 so that the numbers for reference do not correspond4 ,putting1 for convenience1 ,english characters for the ,saxon1 ,i shall cite here three examples from each2 and these1 if he will1 the reader may compare with the #aith1 the #ggth1 and the #gith verse1 in our common ,bible4 ,,saxon3 ,and ic eom asend with the sprecan4 and the this bodian4--,luc1 i1 #ai4 ,,wickliffe3 ,and ,y am sent to thee to speke and to evangelise to thee these thingis4--,luk1 i1 #ae4 ,,saxon3 ,to syllene his folce hle gewit on hyra synna forgyfnesse4--,luc1 i1 #gg4 ,,wickliffe3 ,to geve science of heelth to his puple into remissioun of her synnes4--,luk1 i1 #gc4 ,,saxon3 ,onlyhtan tham the on thystrum and on deathes sceade sittath4 ure fet to gereccenne on sibbe weg4--,luc1 i1 #gi4 ,,wickliffe3 ,to geve light to them that sitten in derknessis1 and in schadowe of deeth1 to dresse oure feet into the weye of pees4--,luk1 i1 #ge4 ,in ,anglo-,saxon1 says ,dr4 ,latham1 the dative of the infinitive verb ended in -nne1 and was preceded by the preposition to3 as1 ,to lufienne ad amandum to loving1 or to love2 ,to brnenne ad urendum to burning1 or to burn2 ,to syllanne ad dandum to giving1 or to give4--,hand-,book1 p4 #bje4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,such1 then1 has ever been the usual construction of the ,english infinitive mood2 and a wilder interpretation than that which supposes to an article1 and says1 to write signifies the writing1 cannot possibly be put upon it4 ,on this supposition1 ,i am going to write a letter1 is a pure ,grecism2 meaning1 ,i am going the writing a letter1 which is utter nonsense4 ,and further1 the infinitive in ,greek and ,latin1 as well as in ,saxon and ,english1 is always in fact governed as a mood1 rather than as a case1 notwithstanding that the ,greek article in any of its four different cases may1 in some instances1 be put before it2 for even with an article before it1 the ,greek infinitive usually retains its regimen as a verb1 and is therefore not a substantive1 or noun4 ,i am well aware that some learned critics1 conceiving that the essence of the verb consists in predication1 have plainly denied that the infinitive is a verb2 and1 because it may be made the subject of a finite verb1 or may be governed by a verb or a preposition1 have chosen to call it a mere noun substantive4 ,among these is the erudite ,richard ,johnson1 who1 with so much ability and lost labour1 exposed1 in his ,commentaries1 the errors and defects of ,lily's ,grammar and others4 ,this author adduces several reasons for his opinion2 one of which is the following3 ,thirdly1 it is found to have a ,preposition set before it1 an other sure sign of a ,substantive2 as1 ',ille nihil prter loqui1 et ipsum maledic et malign1 didicit4' ,liv4 l4 #de1 p4 #hhh4 ,that is1 ,he learned nothing but to speak1 and that slanderously and maliciously4 ',at si quis sibi beneficium dat1 nihil interest inter dare et accipere4' ,seneca1 de ,ben4 l4 #e1 c4 #aj4 ,that is1 ,if any one bestows a benefit on himself1 there is no difference between give and take2 #djg--or1 between bestowing and receiving4--,see ,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cdb4 ,but ,i deny that a preposition is a sure sign of a substantive4 7,see ,obs4 #b;d on the ,prepositions1 and also ,obs4 #ast on the ,list of ,prepositions1 in the tenth chapter of ,etymology47 ,and if we appeal to philological authorities1 to determine whether infinitives are nouns or verbs1 there will certainly be found more for the latter name1 than the former2 that is1 more in number1 if not in weight2 though it must be confessed1 that many of the old ,latin grammarians did1 as ,priscian tells us1 consider the infinitive a noun1 calling it ,nomen ,verbi1 the ,name of the ,verb4#djh ,if we appeal to reasons1 there are more also of these2--or at least as many1 and most of them better3 as1 #a4 ,that the infinitive is often transitive2 #b4 ,that it has tenses2 #c4 ,that it is qualified by adverbs1 rather than by adjectives2 #d4 ,that it is never declined like a noun2 #e4 ,that the action or state expressed by it1 is not commonly abstract1 though it may be so sometimes2 #f4 ,that in some languages it is the root from which all other parts of the verb are derived1 as it is in ,english4 ,,obs4 #ba4--,so far as ,i know1 it has not yet been denied1 that to before a participle is a preposition1 or that a preposition before a participle governs it2 though there are not a few who erroneously suppose that participles1 by virtue of such government1 are necessarily converted into nouns4 ,against this latter idea1 there are many sufficient reasons2 but let them now pass1 because they belong not here4 ,i am only going to prove1 in this place1 that to before the infinitive is just such a word as it is before the participle2 and this can be done1 call either of them what you will4 ,it is plain1 that if the infinitive and the participle are ever equivalent to each other1 the same word to before them both must needs be equivalent to itself4 ,now ,i imagine there are some examples of each equivalence2 as1 ,when we are habituated to doing or to do any thing wrong1 we become blinded by it4--,young ,christian1 p4 #cbf4 ,the lyre1 or harp1 was best adapted to accompanying or to accompany their declamations4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #ccf4 ,the new beginner should be accustomed to giving or to give all the reasons for each part of speech4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,which1 from infecting our religion and morals1 fell to corrupt say1 to corrupting our language4--,,swift3 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajh4 ,besides these instances of sameness in the particle1 there are some cases of constructional ambiguity1 the noun and the verb having the same form1 and the to not determining which is meant3 as1 ,he was inclined to sleep4--,it must be a bitter experience1 to be more accustomed to hate than to love4 ,here are double doubts for the discriminators3 their sign of the infinitive fails1 or becomes uncertain2 because they do not know it from a preposition4 ,cannot my opponents see in these examples an argument against the distinction which they attempt to draw between to and to8 ,an other argument as good1 is also afforded by the fact1 that our ancestors often used the participle after to1 in the very same texts in which we have since adopted the infinitive in its stead2 as1 ,and if yee wolen resceyue1 he is ,elie that is to comynge4--,matt41 xi1 #ad4 ,ihesu that delyueride us fro wraththe to comynge4--#a ,thes41 i1 #aj4 ,these1 and seventeen other examples of the same kind1 may be seen in ,tooke's ,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii4 pp4 #deg and #deh4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,dr4 ,james ,p4 ,wilson1 speaking of the ,english infinitive1 says3--,but if the appellation of mode be denied it1 it is then a verbal noun4 ,this is indeed its truest character1 because its idea ever represents an object of approach4 ,to supplies the defect of a termination characteristic of the infinitive1 precedes it1 and marks it either as that1 towards which the preceding verb is directed2#dji or it signifies act1 and shows the word to import an action4 ,when the infinitive is the expression of an immediate action1 which it must be1 after the verbs1 bid1 can1 dare1 do1 feel1 hear1 let1 make1 may1 must1 need1 see1 shall1 and will1 the preposition ,,to is omitted4--,essay on ,grammar1 p4 #abi4 ,that the truest character of the infinitive is that of a verbal noun1 is not to be conceded1 in weak abandonment of all the reasons for a contrary opinion1 until it can be shown that the action or being expressed by it1 must needs assume a substantive character1 in order to be that towards which the preceding verb is directed4 ,but this character is manifestly not supposable of any of those infinitives which1 according to the foregoing quotation1 must follow other verbs without the intervention of the preposition to3 as1 ,bid him come2--,he can walk4 ,and ,i see no reason to suppose it1 where the relation of the infinitive to an other word is not immediate but marked by the preposition1 as above described4 ,for example3 ,and he laboured till the going-down of the sun ,,to deliver him4--,dan41 vi1 #ad4 ,here deliver is governed by to1 and connected by it to the finite verb laboured2 but to tell us1 it is to be understood substantively rather than actively1 is an assumption as false1 as it is needless4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,to deny to the infinitive the appellation of mood1 no more makes it a verbal noun1 than does the ,doctor's solecism about what ,,its ,,idea ever represents4 ,the infinitive therefore1 as ,horne ,tooke observes1 appears plainly to be what the ,stoics called it1 the very verb itself1 pure and uncompounded4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bhf4 ,not indeed as including the particle to1 or as it stands in the ,english perfect tense1 but as it occurs in the simple root4 ,but ,i cited ,dr4 ,wilson1 as above1 not so much with a design of animadverting again on this point1 as with reference to the import of the particle to2 of which he furnishes a twofold explanation1 leaving the reader to take which part he will of the contradiction4 ,he at first conceives it to convey in general the idea of towards1 and to mark the infinitive as a term towards which something else is directed4 ,if this interpretation is the true one1 it is plain that to before a verb is no other than the common preposition to2 and this idea is confirmed by its ancient usage1 and by all that is certainly known of its derivation4 ,but if we take the second solution1 and say1 it signifies act1 we make it not a preposition1 but either a noun or a verb2 and then the question arises1 ,which of these is it8 ,besides1 what sense can there be1 in supposing to go to mean act go1 or to be equivalent to do go4#daj ,,obs4 #bd4--,though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to some finite verb1 yet it may be connected to almost all the other parts of speech1 or even to an other infinitive4 ,the preposition to being its only and almost universal index1 we seldom find any other preposition put before this2 unless the word about1 in such a situation1 is a preposition1 as ,i incline to think it is4#daa ,anciently1 the infinitive was sometimes preceded by for as well as to2 as1 ,i went up to ,jerusalem for to worship4--,acts1 xxiv1 #aa4 ,what went ye out for to see8--,luke1 vii1 #bf4 ,and stood up for to read4--,luke1 iv1 #af4 ,here modern usage rejects the former preposition3 the idiom is left to the uneducated4 ,but it seems practicable to subjoin the infinitive to every one of the ten parts of speech1 except the article3 as1 #a4 ,to a noun2 as1 ,if there is any precept to obtain felicity4--,hawkesworth4 ,it is high time to awake out of sleep4--,rom41 xiii1 #aa4 ,to flee from the wrath to come4--,matt41 iii1 #g4 #b4 ,to an adjective2 as1 ,he seemed desirous to speak1 yet unwilling to offend4--,hawkesworth4 ,he who is the slowest to promise1 is the quickest to perform4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ce4 #c4 ,to a pronoun2 as1 ,i discovered him to be a scholar4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ,is it lawful for us to give tribute to ,csar8--,luke1 xx1 #bb4 ,let me desire you to reflect impartially4--,,blair3 ,murray's ,eng4 ,reader1 p4 #gg4 ,whom hast thou then or what t' accuse8--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 iv1 #fg4 #d4 ,to a finite verb2 as1 ,then ,peter began to rebuke him4--,matt41 xvi1 #bb4 ,the ,son of man is come to seek and to save that which was lost4--,luke1 xix1 #aj4 #e4 ,to an other infinitive2 as1 ,to go to enter into ,egypt4--,jer41 xli1 #ag4 ,we are not often willing to wait to consider4--,j4 ,abbott4 ,for what had he to do to chide at me8--,shak4 #f4 ,to a participle2 as1 ,still threatening to devour me4--,milton4 ,or as a thief bent to unhoard the cash of some rich burgher4--,id4 #g4 ,to an adverb2 as1 ,she is old enough to go to school4--,i know not how to act4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,tell me when to come1 and where to meet you4--,he hath not where to lay his head4 #h4 ,to a conjunction2 as1 ,he knows better than to trust you4--,it was so hot as to melt these ornaments4--,many who praise virtue1 do no more than praise it4--,dr4 ,johnson4 #i4 ,to a preposition2 as1 ,i was about to write4--,rev41 x1 #d4 ,not for to hide it in a hedge4--,burns's ,poems1 p4 #db4 ,amatum iri1 ,to be about to be loved4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #ie4dab #aj4 ,to an interjection2 as1 ,o to forget her6--,young's ,night ,thoughts4 ,,obs4 #be4--,the infinitive is the mere verb1 without affirmation1 without person or number1 and therefore without the agreement peculiar to a finite verb4 7,see ,obs4 #hth on ,rule #b;d47 ,but1 in most instances1 it is not without limitation of the being1 action1 or passion1 to some particular person or persons1 thing or things1 that are said1 supposed1 or denied1 to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,whenever it is not thus limited1 it is taken abstractly1 and has some resemblance to a noun3 because it then suggests the being1 action1 or passion alone3 though1 even then1 the active infinitive may still govern the objective case2 and it may also be easy to imagine to whom or to what the being1 action1 or passion1 naturally pertains4 ,the uses of the infinitive are so many and various1 that it is no easy matter to classify them accurately4 ,the following are unquestionably the chief of the things for which it may stand3 #a4 ,for the supplement to an other verb1 to complete the sense2 as1 ,loose him1 and let him go4--,john1 xi1 #dd4 ,they that go to seek mixed wine4--,prov41 xxiii1 #cj4 ,his hands refuse to labour4--,ib41 xxi1 #be4 ,if you choose to have those terms4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #cgd4 ,how our old translators first struggled to express this4--,ib41 ii1 #def4 ,to any one who will please to examine our language4--,ib41 ii1 #ddd4 ,they are forced to give up at last4--,ib41 ii1 #cge4 ,which ought to be done4--,ib41 ii1 #dea4 ,which came to pass4--,acts1 xi1 #bh4 ,i dare engage to make it out4--,swift4 #b4 ,for the purpose1 or end1 of that to which it is added2 as1 ,each has employed his time and pains to establish a criterion4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #cgd4 ,i shall not stop now1 to assist in their elucidation4--,ib41 ii1 #ge4 ,our purposes are not endowed with words to make them known4--,ib41 ii1 #gd4 ,a ,,tool is some instrument taken up to work with4--,ib41 ii1 #ade4 ,labour not to be rich4--,prov41 xxiii1 #d4 ,i flee unto thee to hide me4--,ps41 cxliii1 #i4 ,evil shall hunt the violent man to overthrow him4--,ib41 cxl1 #aa4 #c4 ,for the object of an affection or passion2 as1 ,he loves to ride4--,i desire to hear her speak again4--,shale4 ,if we wish to avoid important error4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #c4 ,who rejoice to do evil4--,prov41 ii1 #ad4 ,all agreeing in earnestness to see him4--,shak4 ,our curiosity is raised to know what lies beyond4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cce4 #d4 ,for the cause of an affection or passion2 as1 ,i rejoice to hear it4--,by which ,i hope to have laid a foundation1 c4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cd4 ,for he made me mad1 to see him shine so brisk1 and smell so sweet4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #aah4 ,thou didst eat strange flesh1 which some did die to look on4--,ib41 p4 #ahb4 ,they grieved to see their best allies at variance4--,rev4 ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #afe4 #e4 ,for the subject of a proposition1 or the chief term in such subject2 as1 ,to steal is sinful4--,to do justice and judgement1 is more acceptable to the ,lord than sacrifice4--,prov41 xxi1 #c4 ,to do ,,right1 is1 to do that which is ordered to be done4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #g4 ,to go to law to plague a neighbour1 has in it more of malice1 than of love to justice4--,seattle's ,mor4 ,sci41 i1 #agg4 #f4 ,for the predicate of a proposition1 or the chief term in such predicate2 as1 ,to enjoy is to obey4--,pope4 ,the property of rain is to wet1 and fire1 to burn4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #ae4 ,to die is to be banished from myself4--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,the best way is1 to slander ,valentine4--,ib41 p4 #hc4 ,the highway of the upright is to depart from evil4--,prov41 xvi1 #ag4 #g4 ,for a coming event1 or what will be2 as1 ,a mutilated structure soon to fall4--,cowper4 ,he being dead1 and ,i speedily to follow him4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #aaa4 ,she shall rejoice in time to come4--,prov41 xxxi1 #be4 ,things present1 or things to come4--#a ,cor41 iii1 #bb4 #h4 ,for a necessary event1 or what ought to be2 as1 ,it is to be remembered4--,it is never to be forgotten4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #b4 ,an oversight much to be deplored4--,ib41 ii1 #dfj4 ,the sign is not to be used by itself1 or to stand alone2 but is to be joined to some other term4--,ib41 ii1 #cgb4 ,the ,lord's name is to be praised4--,ps41 cxiii1 #c4 #i4 ,for what is previously suggested by another word2 as1 ,i have faith to believe4--,the glossarist did well here not to yield to his inclination4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #cbi4 ,it is a good thing to give thanks unto the ,lord4--,ps41 xcii1 #a4 ,it is as sport to a fool to do mischief4--,prov41 x1 #bc4 ,they have the gift to know it4--,shak4 ,we have no remaining occupation but to take care of the public4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #eb4 #aj4 ,for a term of comparison or measure2 as1 ,he was so much affected as to weep4--,who could do no less than furnish him4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #djh4 ,i shall venture no farther than to explain the nature and convenience of these abbreviations4--,ib41 ii1 #dci4 ,i have already said enough to show what sort of operation that is4--,ib41 ii1 #ceh4 ,,obs4 #bf4--;,after dismissing all the examples which may fairly be referred to one or other of the ten heads above enumerated1 an observant reader may yet find other uses of the infinitive1 and those so dissimilar that they can hardly be reduced to any one head or rule2 except that all are governed by the preposition to1 which points towards or to the verb2 as1 ,a great altar to see to4--,joshua1 xxii1 #aj4 ,greek3 ,bomon megan tou idein4--,septuagint4 ,that is1 ,an altar great to behold4 ,altare infinit magnitudinis4--,vulgate4 ,un fort grand autel4--,french ,bible4 ,easy to be entreated4--,jos41 iii1 #ag4 ,there was none to help4--,ps41 cvii1 #ab4 ,he had rained down manna upon them to eat4--,ps41 lxxviii1 #bd4 ,remember his commandments to do them4--,ps41 viii1 #ah4 ,preserve thou those that are appointed to die4--,ps41 lxxix1 #aa4 ,as coals to burning coals1 and as wood to fire2 so is a contentious man to kindle strife4--,prov41 xxvi1 #ba4 ,these are far beyond the reach and power of any kings to do away4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #abf4 ,i know not indeed what to do with those words4--,ib41 ii1 #dda4 ,they will be as little able to justify their innovation4--,ib41 ii1 #ddh4 ,i leave you to compare them4--,ib41 ii1 #deh4 ,there is no occasion to attribute it4--,ib41 ii1 #cge4 ,there is no day for me to look upon4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #hb4 ,having no external thing to lose4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,i'll never be a gosling to obey instinct4--,ib41 p4 #bjj4 ,whereto serves mercy1 but to confront the visage of offence8--,ib41 p4 #bcc4 ,if things do not go to suit him4--,liberator1 ix1 #ahb4 ,and1 to be plain1 ,i think there is not half a kiss to choose1 who loves an other best4--,shak41 p4 #ia4 ,but to return to ,r4 ,johnson's instance of good man4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #cgj4 ,our common ,bibles have this text3 ,and a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon ,abimelech's head1 and all to break his skull4--,judges1 ix1 #ec4 ,perhaps the interpretation of this may be1 and so as completely to break his skull4 ,the octavo edition stereotyped by the ,bible ,association of ,friends in ,america1 has it1 and all-to brake his skull4 ,this1 most probably1 was supposed by the editors to mean1 and completely broke his skull2 but all-to is no proper compound word1 and therefore the change is a perversion4 ,the ,septuagint1 the ,vulgate1 and the common ,french version1 all accord with the simple indicative construction1 and broke his skull4 ,,obs4 #bg4--;,according to ,lindley ,murray1 ,the infinitive mood is often made absolute1 or used independently on say of the rest of the sentence1 supplying the place of the conjunction that with the potential mood3 as1 ',to confess the truth1 ,i was in fault2' ',to begin with the first2' ',to proceed2' ',to conclude2' that is1 ',that ,i may confess1' c4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ahd2 ,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #bdd4 ,some other compilers have adopted the same doctrine4 ,but on what ground the substitution of one mood for the other is imagined1 ,i see not4 ,the reader will observe that this potential mood is here just as much made absolute1 as is the infinitive2 for there is nothing expressed to which the conjunction that connects the one phrase1 or the preposition to the other4 ,but possibly1 in either case1 there may be an ellipsis of some antecedent term2 and surely1 if we imagine the construction to be complete without any such term1 we make the conjunction the more anomalous word of the two4 ,confession of the truth1 is here the aim of speaking1 but not of what is spoken4 ,the whole sentence may be1 ,in order to confess the truth1 ,i admit that ,i was in fault4 ,or1 ,in order that ,i may confess the truth1 ,i admit that ,i was in fault4 ,i do not deny1 that the infinitive1 or a phrase of which the infinitive is a part1 is sometimes put absolute2 for1 if it is not so in any of the foregoing examples1 it appears to be so in the following3 ,for every object has several faces1 so to speak1 by which it may be presented to us4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #da4 ,to declare a thing shall be1 long before it is in being1 and then to bring about the accomplishment of that very thing1 according to the same declaration2 this1 or nothing1 is the work of ,god4--,justin ,martyr4 ,to be1 or not to be2--that is the question4--,shakspeare4 ,to die2--to sleep2--,to sleep6 perchance1 to dream6--,id41 ,hamlet4 ,,obs4 #bh4--,the infinitive usually follows the word on which it depends1 or to which the particle to connects it2 but this order is sometimes reversed3 as1 ,to beg ,i am ashamed4--,luke1 xvi1 #c4 ,to keep them no longer in suspense1 ,i say plainly1 ,sir ,roger de ,coverly is dead4--,addison4 ,to suffer1 as to do1 ,our strength is equal4--,milton4 ,to catch your vivid scenes1 too gross her hand4--,thomson4 ,,obs4 #bi4--,though1 in respect to its syntax1 the infinitive is oftener connected with a verb1 a participle1 or an adjective1 than with a noun or a pronoun1 it should never be so placed that the reader will be liable to mistake the person to whom1 or the thing to which1 the being1 action1 or passion1 pertains4 ,examples of error3 ,this system will require a long time to be executed as it should be4--,journal of ,n4 ,y4 ,lit4 ,convention1 #ahcj1 p4 #ia4 ,it is not the time1 that is to be executed2 therefore say1 ,this system1 to be executed as it should be1 will require a long time4 ,he spoke in a manner distinct enough to be heard by the whole assembly4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aib4 ,this implies that the orator's manner was heard6 ,but the grammarian interprets his own meaning1 by the following alternative3 ,or--,he spoke distinctly enough to be heard by the whole assembly4--,ibid4 ,this suggests that the man himself was heard4 ,when they hit upon a figure that pleases them1 they are loth to part with it1 and frequently continue it so long1 as to become tedious and intricate4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cda4 ,is it the authors1 or their figure1 that becomes tedious and intricate8 ,if the latter1 strike out1 so long1 as to become1 and say1 till it becomes4 ,facts are always of the greatest consequence to be remembered during the course of the pleading4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bgb4 ,the rhetorician here meant3 ,the facts stated in an argument1 are always those parts of it1 which it is most important that the hearers should be made to remember4 ,,obs4 #cj4--;,according to some grammarians1 ,the ,infinitive of the verb to be1 is often understood2 as1 ',i considered it to be necessary to send the dispatches4'--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ,in this example1 as in thousands more1 of various forms1 the verb to be may be inserted without affecting the sense2 but ,i doubt the necessity of supposing an ellipsis in such sentences4 ,the adjective or participle that follows1 always relates to the preceding objective2 and if a noun is used1 it is but an other objective in apposition with the former3 as1 ,i considered it an imposition4 ,the verb to be1 with the perfect participle1 forms the passive infinitive2 and the supposition of such an ellipsis1 extensively affects one's mode of parsing4 ,thus1 ,he considered himself insulted1 ,i will suppose the work accomplished1 and many similar sentences1 might be supposed to contain passive infinitives4 ,allen says1 ,in the following construction1 the words in italics are 7elliptically7 passive infinitives2 ,i saw the bird caught1 and the hare killed2 we heard the letters read4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #afh4 ,dr4 ,priestley observes1 ,there is a remarkable ambiguity in the use of the participle preterite1 as the same word may express a thing either doing1 or done2 as1 ,i went to see the child dressed4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #abe4 ,if the ,doctor's participle is ambiguous1 ,i imagine that ,allen's infinitives are just as much so4 ,the participle which we denominate past1 often means an action whilst performing3 thus1 ,i saw the battle fought1 and the standard lowered4--,wilson's ,essay1 p4 #aeh4 ,sometimes1 especially in familiar conversation1 an infinitive verb is suppressed1 and the sign of it retained2 as1 ,they might have aided us2 they ought to have aided us4--,herald of ,freedom4 ,we have tried to like it1 but it's hard to4--,lynn ,news4 ,,obs4 #ca4--;,after the verb make1 some writers insert the verb be1 and suppress the preposition to2 as1 ,he must make every syllable1 and even every letter1 in the word which he pronounces1 be heard distinctly4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cbi2 ,murray's ,e4 ,reader1 p4 #i4 ,you must make yourself be heard with pleasure and attention4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #hd4 ,to make himself be heard by all4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cbh4 ,to make ourselves be heard by one4--,ibid4 ,clear enough to make me be understood4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #aih4 ,in my opinion1 it would be better1 either to insert the to1 or to use the participle only2 as1 ,the information which he possessed1 made his company to be courted4--,dr4 ,m',rie4 ,which will both show the importance of this rule1 and make the application of it to be understood4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajc4 ,or1 as in these brief forms3 ,to make himself heard by all4--,clear enough to make me understood4 ,,obs4 #cb4--;,in those languages in which the infinitive is distinguished as such by its termination1 this part of the verb may be used alone as the subject of a finite verb2 but in ,english it is always necessary to retain the sign to before an abstract infinitive1 because there is nothing else to distinguish the verb from a noun4 ,here we may see a difference between our language and the ,french1 although it has been shown1 that in their government of the infinitive they are in some degree analogous3--,,ha,r est un tourment2 ,,aimer est un besoin de l'me4--,m4 de ,sgur4 ,to hate is a torment2 to love is a requisite of the soul4 ,if from this any will argue that to is not here a preposition1 the same argument will be as good1 to prove that for is not a preposition when it governs the objective case2 because that also may be used without any antecedent term of relation3 as1 ,they are by no means points of equal importance1 for me to be deprived of your affections1 and for him to be defeated in his prosecution4--,anon41 in ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ,i said1 the sign to must always be put before an abstract infinitive3 but possibly a repetition of this sign may not always be necessary1 when several such infinitives occur in the same construction3 as1 ,but1 to fill a heart with joy1 restore content to the afflicted1 or relieve the necessitous1 these fall not within the reach of their five senses4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ff4 ,it may be too much to affirm1 that this is positively ungrammatical2 yet it would be as well or better1 to express it thus3 ,but to relieve the necessitous1 to restore content to the afflicted1 and to fill a heart with joy1 these full not within the reach of their five senses4 ,,obs4 #cc4--;,in the use of the ,english infinitive1 as well as of the participle in ing1 the distinction of voice is often disregarded2 the active form being used in what1 with respect to the noun before it1 is a passive sense3 as1 ,there's no time to waste4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,you are to blame4--,ib4 ,the humming-bird is delightful to look upon4--,ib4 ,what pain it was to drown4--,shak4 ,the thing's to do4--,id4 ,when deed of danger was to do4--,scott4 ,the evil ,i bring upon myself1 is the hardest to bear4--,home's ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #bg4 ,pride is worse to bear than cruelty4--,ib41 p4 #cg4 ,these are in fact active verbs1 and not passive4 ,we may suggest agents for them1 if we please2 as1 ,there is no time for us to waste4 ,that the simple participle in ing may be used passively1 has been proved elsewhere4 ,it seems sometimes to have no distinction of voice2 as1 ,what is worth doing1 is worth doing well4--,com4 ,maxim4 ,this is certainly much more agreeable1 than to say1 ,what is worth being done1 is worth being done well4 ,in respect to the voice of the infinitive1 and of this participle1 many of our grammarians are obviously hypercritical4 ,for example3 ,the active voice should not be used for the passive2 as1 ,i have work to do3 a house to sell1 to let1 instead of to be done1 to be sold1 to be let4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bbj4 ,active verbs are often used improperly with a passive signification1 as1 'the house is building1 lodgings to let1 he has a house to sell1 nothing is wanting2' in stead of 'the house is being built1 lodgings to be lett1 he has a house to be sold1 nothing is wanted4'--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,in punctuation1 orthography1 and the use of capitals1 here are more errors than it is worth while to particularize4 ,with regard to such phraseology as1 ,the house is being built1 see1 in ,part ,,ii1 sundry ,observations on the ,compound ,form of ,conjugation4 ,to say1 ,i have work to do1--,he has a house to sell1--or1 ,we have lodgings to let1 is just as good ,english1 as to say1 ,i have meat to eat4--,john1 iv1 #cb4 ,and who1 but some sciolist in grammar1 would1 in all such instances1 prefer the passive voice8 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xviii4 ,,infinitives ,,demanding ,,the ,,particle ,,to4 ,william1 please hand me that pencil4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,,formule--,not proper1 because the infinitive verb hand is not preceded by the preposition to4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ahth1 ,the preposition to governs the infinitive mood1 and commonly connects it to a finite verb4 ,therefore1 to should be here inserted2 thus1 ,william1 please to hand me that pencil4 ,please insert points so as to make sense4--,davis's ,gram41 p4 #abc4 ,i have known ,lords abbreviate almost the half of their words4--,cobbett's ,english ,gram41 #aec4 ,we shall find the practice perfectly accord with the theory4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 p4 #bc4 ,but it would tend to obscure1 rather than elucidate the subject4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,please divide it for them as it should be4--,willett's ,arith41 p4 #aic4 ,so as neither to embarrass1 nor weaken the sentence4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aaf2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cbb4 ,carry her to his table1 to view his poor fare1#dac and hear his heavenly discourse4--,,sherlock3 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aeg2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cdg4 ,that we need not be surprised to find this hold in eloquence4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #agd4 ,where he has no occasion either to divide or explain4--,ib41 p4 #cje4 ,and they will find their pupils improve by hasty and pleasant steps4--,russell's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 #d4 ,the teacher however will please observe1 c4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,please attend to a few rules in what is called syntax4--,ib41 p4 #abh4 ,they may dispense with the laws to favor their friends1 or secure their office4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ci4 ,to take back a gift1 or break a contract1 is a wanton abuse4--,ib41 p4 #da4 ,the legislature has nothing to do1 but let it bear its own price4--,ib41 p4 #cae4 ,he is not to form1 but copy characters4--,rambler1 ,no4 #abb4 ,i have known a woman make use of a shoeing-horn4--,spect41 ,no4 #ecf4 ,finding this experiment answer1 in every respect1 their wishes4--,sandford and ,merton1 p4 #ea4 ,in fine let him cause his argument conclude in the term of the question4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #ddc4 ,that he permitted not the winds of heaven ,visit her face too roughly4--,shakspeare1 ,hamlet4 ,,rule ,,xix4--,,infinitives4 ,the active verbs1 bid1 dare1 feel1 hear1 let1 make1 need1 see1 and their participles1 usually take the ,infinitive after them without the preposition to3 as1 ,if he bade thee depart1 how darest thou stay8--,i dare not let my mind be idle as ,i walk in the streets4--,cotton ,mather4 ,thy ,hector1 wrapt in everlasting sleep1 ,shall neither hear thee sigh1 nor see thee weep4 --,pope's ,homer4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xix4 ,,obs4 #a4--,respecting the syntax of the infinitive mood when the particle to is not expressed before it1 our grammarians are almost as much at variance1 as ,i have shown them to be1 when they find the particle employed4 ,concerning verbs governed by verbs1 ,lindley ,murray1 and some others1 are the most clear and positive1 where their doctrine is the most obviously wrong2 and1 where they might have affirmed with truth1 that the former verb governs the latter1 they only tell us that the preposition ,,to is sometimes properly omitted1--or that such and such verbs have commonly other verbs following them without the sign ,,to4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ahc2 ,alger's1 #fc2 ,w4 ,allen's1 #afg1 and others4 ,if these authors meant1 that the preposition to is omitted by ellipsis1 they ought to have said so4 ,then the many admirers and remodellers of ,murray's ,grammar might at least have understood him alike4 ,then1 too1 any proper definition of ellipsis must have proved both them and him to be clearly wrong about this construction also4 ,if the word to is really understood1 whenever it is omitted after bid1 dare1 feel1 c41 as some authors1 affirm1 then is it here the governing word1 if anywhere2 and this nineteenth rule1 however common1 is useless to the parser4#dad ,then1 too1 does no ,english verb ever govern the infinitive without governing also a preposition1 expressed or understood4 ,whatever is omitted by ellipsis1 and truly understood1 really belongs to the grammatical construction2 and therefore1 if inserted1 it cannot be actually improper1 though it may be unnecessary4 ,but all our grammarians admit1 that to before the infinitive is sometimes superfluous and improper4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ahc4 ,i imagine1 there cannot be any proper ellipsis of to before the infinitive1 except in some forms of comparison2 because1 wherever else it is necessary1 either to the sense or to the construction1 it ought to be inserted4 ,and wherever the to is rightly used1 it is properly the governing word2 but where it cannot be inserted without impropriety1 it is absurd to say1 that it is understood4 ,the infinitive that is put after such a verb or participle as excludes the preposition to1 is governed by this verb or participle1 if it is governed by any thing3 as1 ,to make them do1 undo1 eat1 drink1 stand1 move1 ,talk1 think1 and feel1 exactly as he chose4--,pollok1 p4 #fi4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,ingersoll1 who converted ,murray's ,grammar into ,conversations1 says1 ,i will just remark to you that the verbs in the infinitive mood1 that follow make1 need1 see1 bid1 dare1 feel1 hear1 let1 and their participles1 are always ,,governed by them4--,conv4 on ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #abj4 ,kirkham1 who pretended to turn the same book into ,familiar ,lectures1 says1 ,to1 the sign of the infinitive mood1 is often understood before the verb2 as1 ',let me proceed2' that is1 ,let me to proceed4--,gram4 in ,fam4 ,lect41 p4 #acg4 ,the lecturer1 however1 does not suppose the infinitive to be here governed by the preposition to1 or the verb let1 but rather by the pronoun me4 ,for1 in an other place1 he avers1 that the infinitive may be governed by a noun or a pronoun2 as1 ,let him do it4--,ib41 p4 #ahg4 ,now if the government of the infinitive is to be referred to the objective noun or pronoun that intervenes1 none of those verbs that take the infinitive after them without the preposition1 will usually be found to govern it1 except dare and need2 and if need1 in such a case1 is an auxiliary1 no government pertains to that4 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 an other modifier of ,murray1 having the same false notion of ellipsis1 says1 ,to1 the usual sign of this mood1 is sometimes understood2 as1 ',let me go1' instead of1 ',let me to go4'--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,according to ,murray1 whom these men profess to follow1 let1 in all these examples1 is an auxiliary1 and the verb that follows it1 is not in the infinitive mood1 but in the imperative4 ,so they severally contradict their oracle1 and all are wrong1 both he and they6 ,the disciples pretend to correct their master1 by supposing ,let me to go1 and ,let me to proceed1 good ,english6 ,,obs4 #c4--;,it is often impossible to say by what the infinitive is governed1 according to the instructions of ,murray1 or according to any author who does not parse it as ,i do4 ,nutting says1 ,the infinitive mode sometimes follows the comparative conjunctions1 as1 than1 and how1 ,,without ,,government4--,practical ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,murray's uncertainty#dae may have led to some part of this notion1 but the idea that how is a comparative conjunction1 is a blunder entirely new4 ,kirkham is so puzzled by the language of that eminent philologist1 that he bolts outright from the course of his guide1 and runs he knows not whither2 feigning that other able writers have well contended1 that this mood ,,is ,,not ,,governed by any particular word4 ,accordingly he leaves his pupils at liberty to reject the idea of government1 as applied to the verb in this mood2 and even frames a rule which refers it always ,to some noun or pronoun1 as its subject or actor4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ahh4 ,murray teaches that the object of the active verb sometimes governs the infinitive that follows it3 as1 ,they have a desire to improve4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ahd4 ,to what extent1 in practice1 he would carry this doctrine1 nobody can tell2 probably to every sentence in which this object is the antecedent term to the preposition to1 and perhaps further3 as1 ,i have a house to sell--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,i feel a desire to excel4 ,i felt my heart within me die4--,merrick4 ,,obs4 #d4--,nutting supposes that the objective case before the infinitive always governs it wherever it denotes the agent of the infinitive action2 as1 ,he commands me to write a letter4--,practical ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,nixon1 on the contrary1 contends1 that the finite verb1 in such a sentence1 can govern only one object1 and that this object is the infinitive4 ,the objective case preceding it1 he says1 is the subject or agent of that infinitive1 and not governed by the preceding verb4 ,his example is1 ,let them go4--,english ,parser1 p4 #ig4 ,in the examples1 ',he is endeavouring to persuade them to learn1'--',it is pleasant to see the sun1'--the pronoun them1 the adjective pleasant1 and the participle endeavouring1 ,i consider as governing the following verb in the infinitive mode4--,cooper's ,plain and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #add4 ,some erroneously say that pronouns govern the infinitive mode in such examples as this3 ',i expected him to be present4' ,we will change the expression3 ',he was expected to be present4' ,all will admit that to be is governed by was expected4 ,the same verb that governs it in the passive voice1 governs it in the active4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #add4 ,so do our professed grammarians differ about the government of the infinitive1 even in the most common constructions of it6 ,often1 however1 it makes but little difference in regard to the sense1 which of the two words is considered the governing or antecedent term2 but where the preposition is excluded1 the construction seems to imply some immediate influence of the finite verb upon the infinitive4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the extent of this influence1 or of such government1 has never yet been clearly determined4 ,this irregularity1 says ,murray1 extends only to active or neuter verbs3 'active and neuter verbs1' says ,fisk3 for all the verbs above mentioned1 when made passive1 require the preposition to before the following verb3 as1 ',he was seen to go2' ',he was heard to speak2' ',they were bidden to be upon their guard4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ahc4 ,fisk adds with no great accuracy ,in the past and future tenses of the active voice also1 these verbs generally require the sign to1 to be prefixed to the following verbs2 as1 ',you have dared to proceed without authority2' ',they will not dare to attack you4'--,gram4 ,simplified1 p4 #abe4 ,what these gentlemen here call neuter verbs1 are only the two words dare and need1 which are1 in most cases1 active1 though not always transitive2 unless the infinitive itself can make them so--an inconsistent doctrine of theirs which ,i have elsewhere refuted4 7,see ,obs4 #crd on ,rule #eth47 ,these two verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition1 only when they are intransitive2 while all the rest seem to have this power1 only when they are transitive4 ,if there are any exceptions1 they shall presently be considered4 ,a more particular examination of the construction proper for the infinitive after each of these eight verbs1 seems necessary for a right understanding of the rule4 ,,obs4 #f4--,of the verb ,,bid4 ,this verb1 in any of its tenses1 when it commands an action1 usually governs an object and also an infinitive1 which come together2 as1 ,thou bidst the world adore4--,thomson4 ,if the prophet had bid thee do some great thing4--#b ,kings1 v1 #ac4 ,but when it means1 to promise or offer1 the infinitive that follows1 must be introduced by the preposition to2 as1 ,he bids fair to excel them all--,perhaps no person under heaven bids more unlikely to be saved4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 vii4 ,and each bade high to win him4--,,granville3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,after the compound forbid1 the preposition is also necessary2 as1 ,where honeysuckles forbid the sun to enter4--,beauties of ,shak44 p4 #eg4 ,in poetry1 if the measure happens to require it1 the word to is sometimes allowed after the simple verb bid1 denoting a command2 as1 ,bid me to strike my dearest brother dead1 ,to bring my aged father's hoary head4--,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 i1 l4 #fgg4 ,,obs4 #g4--,of the verb ,,dare4 ,this verb1 when used intransitively1 and its irregular preterit durst1 which is never transitive1 usually take the infinitive after them without to2 as1 ,i dare do all that may become a man3 ,who dares do more1 is none4--,shakspeare4 ,if he durst steal any thing adventurously4--,id4 ,who durst defy th' ,omnipotent to arms4--,milton4 ,like one who durst his destiny control4--,dryden4 ,in these examples1 the former verbs have some resemblance to auxiliaries1 and the insertion of the preposition to would be improper4 ,but when we take away this resemblance1 by giving dare or dared1 an objective case1 the preposition is requisite before the infinitive2 as1 ,time6 ,i dare thee to discover ,such a youth or such a lover4--,dryden4 ,he dares me to enter the lists4--,fisk's ,gram41 p4 #abe4 ,so when dare itself is in the infinitive mood1 or is put after an auxiliary1 the preposition is not improper2 as1 ,and let a private man dare to say that it will4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #adg4 ,would its compiler dare to affront the ,deity8--,west's ,letters1 p4 #aea4 ,what power so great1 to dare to disobey8--,pope's ,homer4 ,some would even dare to die4--,bible4 ,what would dare to molest him8--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,do you dare to prosecute such a creature as ,vaughan8--,junius1 ,let4 xxxiii4 ,perhaps these examples might be considered good ,english1 either with or without the to2 but the last one would be still better thus3 ,dare you prosecute such a creature as ,vaughan8 ,dr4 ,priestley thinks the following sentence would have been better with the preposition inserted3 ,who have dared defy the worst4--,,harris3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acb4 ,to is sometimes used after the simple verb1 in the present tense2 as1 ,those whose words no one dares to repeat4--,opie1 on ,lying1 p4 #adg4 ,dare ,i to leave of humble prose the shore8 --,young1 p4 #cgg4 ,against heaven's endless mercies pour'd1 how dar'st thou to rebel8 --,id41 p4 #chj4 ,the man who dares to be a wretch1 deserves still greater pain4 --,id41 p4 #cha4 ,,obs4 #h4--,of the verb ,,feel4 ,this verb1 in any of its tenses1 may govern the infinitive without the sign to2 but it does this1 only when it is used transitively1 and that in regard to a bodily perception3 as1 ,i feel it move4--,i felt something sting me4 ,if we speak of feeling any mental affection1 or if we use the verb intransitively1 the infinitive that follows1 requires the preposition2 as1 ,i feel it to be my duty4--,i felt ashamed to ask4--,i feel afraid to go alone4--,i felt about1 to find the door4 ,one may say of what is painful to the body1 ,i feel it to be severe4 ,,obs4 #i4--,of the verb ,,hear4 ,this verb is often intransitive1 but it is usually followed by an objective case when it governs the infinitive2 as4 ,to hear a bird sing4--,webster4 ,you have never heard me say so4 ,for this reason1 ,i am inclined to think that those sentences in which it appears to govern the infinitive alone1 are elliptical2 as1 ,i have heard tell of such things4--,and ,i have heard say of thee1 that thou canst understand a dream to interpret it4--,gen1 xli1 #ae4 ,such examples may be the same as4 ,i have heard people tell1--,i have heard men say1 c4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,of the verb ,,let4 ,by many grammarians this verb has been erroneously called an auxiliary of the optative mood2 or1 as ,dr4 ,johnson terms it1 a sign of the optative mood3 though none deny1 that it is sometimes also a principal verb4 ,it is1 in fact1 always a principal verb2 because1 as we now apply it1 it is always transitive4 ,it commonly governs an objective noun or pronoun1 and also an infinitive without the sign to2 as1 ,rise up1 let us go4--,mark4 ,thou shalt let it rest4--,exodus4 ,but sometimes the infinitive coalesces with it more nearly than the objective1 so that the latter is placed after both verbs2 as1 ,the solution lets go the mercury4--,newton4 ,one lets slip out of his account a good part of that duration4--,locke4 ,back6 on your lives2 let be1 said he1 my prey4--,dryden4 ,the phrase1 let go1 is sometimes spoken for1 let go your hold2 and let be1 for let him be1 let it be1 c4 ,in such instances1 therefore1 the verb let is not really intransitive4 ,this verb1 even in the passive form1 may have the infinitive after it without the preposition to2 as1 ,nothing is let slip4--,walker's ,english ,particles1 p4 #afe4 ,they were let go in peace4--,acts1 xv1 #cc4 ,the stage was never empty1 nor the curtain let fall4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dei4 ,the pye's question was wisely let fall without a reply4--,l',estrange4 ,with respect to other passives1 ,murray and ,fisk appear to be right2 and sometimes the preposition is used after this one3 as1 ,there's a letter for you1 sir1 if your name be ,horatio1 as ,i am let to know it is4--,shakspeare4 ,let1 when used intransitively1 required the preposition to before the following infinitive2 as1 ,he would not let i4 e4 forbear to counsel the king4--,bacon4 ,but this use of let is now obsolete4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,of the verb ,,make4 ,this verb1 like most of the others1 never immediately governs an infinitive1 unless it also governs a noun or a pronoun which is the immediate subject of such infinitive2 as1 ,you make me blush4--,this only made the youngster laugh--,webster's ,spelling-,book4 ,which soon made the young chap hasten down4--,ib4 ,but in very many instances it is quite proper to insert the preposition where this verb is transitive2 as1 ,he maketh both the deaf to hear1 and the dumb to speak4--,mark1 vii1 #cg4 ,he makes the excellency of a sentence to consist in four things4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abb2 ,jamieson's1 #abd4 ,it is this that makes the observance of the dramatic unities to be of consequence4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfd4 ,in making some tenses of the ,english verb to consist of principal and auxiliary4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,when make is intransitive1 it has some qualifying word after it1 besides the sign of the infinitive2 as1--,i think he will make out to pay his debts4 ,formerly1 the preposition to was almost always inserted to govern the infinitive after make or made2 as1 ,lest ,i make my brother to offend4--#a ,cor41 viii1 #ac4 ,he made many to fall4--,jer41 xlvi1 #af4 ,yet1 in the following text1 it is omitted1 even where the verb is meant to be passive3 ,and it was lifted up from the earth1 and made stand upon the feet as a man4--,dan41 vii1 #d4 ,this construction is improper1 and not free from ambiguity2 because stand may be a noun1 and made1 an active verb governing it4 ,there may also be uncertainty in the meaning1 where the insertion of the preposition leaves none in the construction2 for made may signify either created or compelled1 and the infinitive after it1 may denote either the purpose of creation1 or the effect of any temporary compulsion3 as1 ,we are made to be serviceable to others4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #afg4 ,man was made to mourn4--,burns4 ,taste was never made to cater for vanity4--,blair4 ,the primitive word make seldom1 if ever1 produces a construction that is thus equivocal4 ,the infinitive following it without to1 always denotes the effect of the making1 and not the purpose of the maker2 as1 ,he made his son ,skjld be received there as king4--,north4 ,antiq41 p4 #ha4 ,but the same meaning may be conveyed when the to is used2 as1 ,the fear of ,god is freedom1 joy1 and peace2 ,and makes all ills that vex us here to cease4--,waller1 p4 #ef4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,of the verb ,,need4 ,i incline to think1 that the word need1 whenever it is rightly followed by the infinitive without to1 is1 in reality an auxiliary of the potential mood2 and that1 like may1 can1 and must1 it may properly be used1 in both the present and the perfect tense1 without personal inflection3 as1 ,he need not go1 ,he need not have gone2 where1 if need is a principal verb1 and governs the infinitive without to1 the expressions must be1 ,he needs not go1 ,he needed not go1 or1 ,he has not needed go4 ,but none of these three forms is agreeable2 and the last two are never used4 ,wherefore1 in stead of placing in my code of false syntax the numerous examples of the former kind1 with which the style of our grammarians and critics has furnished me1 ,i have exhibited many of them1 in contrast with others1 in the eighth and ninth observations on the ,conjugation of ,verbs2 in which observations1 the reader may see what reasons there are for supposing the word need to be sometimes an auxiliary and sometimes a principal verb4 ,because no other author has yet intentionally recognized the propriety of this distinction1 ,i have gone no farther than to show on what grounds1 and with what authority from usage1 it might be acknowledged4 ,if we adopt this distinction1 perhaps it will be found that the regular or principal verb need always requires1 or1 at least1 always admits1 the preposition to before the following infinitive2 as1 ,they need not to be specially indicated4--,adams's ,rhet41 i1 #cjb4 ,we need only to remark4--,ib41 ii1 #bbd4 ,a young man needed only to ask himself1 c4--,ib41 i1 #aag4 ,nor is it conceivable to me1 that the lightning of a ,demosthenes could need to be sped upon the wings of a semiquaver4--,ib41 ii1 #bbf4 ,but these people need to be informed4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bbj4 ,no man needed less to be informed4--,ib41 p4 #age4 ,we need only to mention the difficulty that arises4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cfb4 ,can there need to be argument to prove so plain a point8--,graham's ,lect4 ,moral instruction needs to have a more prominent place4--,dr4 ,weeks4 ,pride1 ambition1 and selfishness1 need to be restrained4--,id4 ,articles are sometimes omitted1 where they need to be used4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #aig4 ,whose power needs not to be dreaded4--,wilson's ,hebrew ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,a workman that needeth not to be ashamed4--#b ,tim41 ii1 #ae4 ,the small boys may have needed to be managed according to the school system4--,t4 ,d4 ,woolsey4 ,the difficulty of making variety consistent1 needs not to disturb him4--,rambler1 ,no4 #abb4 ,a more cogent proof needs not to be introduced4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,no person needs to be informed1 that you is used in addressing a single person4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,i hope ,i need not to advise you further4--,shak41 ,all's ,well4 ,nor me1 nor other god1 thou needst to fear1 ,for thou to all the heavenly host art dear4--,congreve4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,if need is ever an auxiliary1 the essential difference between an auxiliary and a principal verb1 will very well account for the otherwise puzzling fact1 that good writers sometimes inflect this verb1 and sometimes do not2 and that they sometimes use to after it1 and sometimes do not4 ,nor do ,i see in what other way a grammarian can treat it1 without condemning as bad ,english a great number of very common phrases which he cannot change for the better4 ,on this principle1 such examples as1 ,he need not proceed1 and ,he needs not to proceed1 may be perfectly right in either form2 though ,murray1 ,crombie1#daf ,fisk1 ,ingersoll1 ,smith1 ,c4 ,adams1 and many others1 pronounce both these forms to be wrong2 and unanimously1 7though contrary to what is perhaps the best usage17 prefer1 ,he needs not proceed4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahj4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,on questions of grammar1 the practice of authors ought to be of more weight1 than the dogmatism of grammarians2 but it is often difficult to decide well by either2 because errors and contradictions abound in both4 ,for example3 ,dr4 ,blair says1 7in speaking of the persons represented by ,i and thou17 ,their sex needs not be marked4--,rhet41 p4 #gi4 ,jamieson abridges the work1 and says1 needs not to be marked4--,gram4 of ,rhet41 p4 #bh4 ,dr4 ,lowth also says1 needs not be marked4--,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,churchill enlarges the work1 and says1 needs not to be marked4--,new ,gram41 p4 #gb4 ,lindley ,murray copies ,lowth1 and says1 needs not be marked4--,gram41 #abmo1 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ci2 #bc;d ,ed41 p4 #ea2 and perhaps all other editions4 ,he afterwards enlarges his own work1 and says1 needs not to be marked4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,but1 according to ,greenleaf they all express the idea ungrammatically2 the only true form being1 ,their sex need not be marked4 ,see ,gram4 ,simplified1 p4 #dh4 ,in the two places in which the etymology and the syntax of this verb are examined1 ,i have cited from proper sources more than twenty examples in which to is used after it1 and more than twenty others in which the verb is not inflected in the third person singular4 ,in the latter1 need is treated as an auxiliary2 in the former1 it is a principal verb1 of the regular construction4 ,if the principal verb need can also govern the infinitive without to1 as all our grammarians have supposed1 then there is a third form which is unobjectionable1 and my pupils may take their choice of the three4 ,but still there is a fourth form which nobody approves1 though the hands of some great men have furnished us with examples of it3 as1 ,a figure of thought need not to detort the words from their literal sense4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,lectures1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bed4 ,which a man need only to appeal to his own feelings immediately to evince4--,clarkson's ,prize-,essay on ,slavery1 p4 #ajf4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,webster and ,greenleaf seem inclined to justify the use of dare1 as well as of need1 for the third person singular4 ,their doctrine is this3 ,in popular practice it is used in the third person1 without the personal termination4 ,thus1 instead of saying1 ',he dares not do it2' ,,we generally say1 ',he dare not do it4' ,in like manner1 need1 when an active verb1 is regular in its inflections2 as1 ',a man needs more prudence4' ,but when intransitive1 it drops the personal terminations in the present tense1 and is followed by a verb without the prefix to2 as1 ',a man need not be uneasy4'--,greenleaf s ,grammar ,simplified1 p4 #ch2 ,webster's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #agh2 ,improved ,gram41 #abg4 ,each part of this explanation appears to me erroneous4 ,in popular practice1 one shall oftener hear1 ,he dares n't do it1 or even1 ,you dares n't do it1 than1 ,he dare not do it4 ,but it is only in the trained practice of the schools1 that he shall ever hear1 ,he needs n't do it1 or1 ,he needs not do it4 ,if need is sometimes used without inflection1 this peculiarity1 or the disuse of to before the subsequent infinitive1 is not a necessary result of its intransitive character4 ,and as to their latent nominative1 whereof there is no account1 or1 whereof there needs no account2 their fact1 of which there is no evidence1 or of which there needs no evidence2 ,i judge it a remarkable phenomenon1 that authors of so high pretensions1 could find1 in these transpositions1 a nominative to is1 but none to needs6 ,see a marginal note under ,rule #adth1 at p4 #egj4 ,,obs4 #af4--,of the verb ,,see4 ,this verb1 whenever it governs the infinitive without to1 governs also an objective noun or pronoun2 as1 ,see me do it4--,i saw him do it4--,murray4 ,whenever it is intransitive1 the following infinitive must be governed by to2 as1 ,i will see to have it done4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #ih2 ,greenleaf's1 #ch4 ,how could he see to do them8--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #dc4 ,in the following text1 see is transitive1 and governs the infinitive2 but the two verbs are put so far apart1 that it requires some skill in the reader to make their relation apparent3 ,when ye therefore shall see the abomination of desolation1 spoken of by ,daniel the prophet1 stand in the holy place1 c4--,matt41 xxiv1 #ae4 ,an other scripturist uses the participle1 and says--standing where it ought not1 c4--,mark1 xiii1 #ad4 ,the ,greek word is the same in both2 it is a participle1 agreeing with the noun for abomination4 ,sometimes the preposition to seems to be admitted on purpose to protract the expression3 as1 ,tranio1 ,i saw her coral lips to move1 ,and with her breath she did perfume the air4--,shak4 ,,obs #ag4--;,a few other verbs1 besides the eight which are mentioned in the foregoing rule and remarks1 sometimes have the infinitive after them without to4 ,w4 ,allen teaches1 that1 ,the sign to is generally omitted1 not only after these eight1 but also after eight others2 namely1 find1 have1 help1 mark1 observe1 perceive1 watch1 and the old preterit gan1 for began2 and sometimes after behold and know4--,elements of ,gram41 p4 #afg4 ,perhaps he may have found some instances of the omission of the preposition after all these1 but in my opinion his rule gives a very unwarrantable extension to this irregularity1 as ,murray calls it4 ,the usage belongs only to particular verbs1 and to them not in all their applications4 ,other verbs of the same import do not in general admit the same idiom4 ,but1 by a license for the most part peculiar to the poets1 the preposition to is occasionally omitted1 especially after verbs equivalent to those which exclude it2 as1 ,and force them sit4--,cowper's ,task1 p4 #df4 ,that is1 ,and make them sit4 ,according to ,churchill1 ,to use ought or cause in this manner1 is a ,scotticism3 as1 ',won't you cause them remove the hares8'--',you ought not walk4' ,,shak4--,new ,gram41 p4 #cag4 ,the verbs1 behold1 view1 observe1 mark1 watch1 and spy1 are only other words for see2 as1 ,there might you behold one joy crown an other4--,shak4 ,there ,i sat1 viewing the silver stream glide silently towards the tempestuous sea4--,walton4 ,i beheld ,satan as lightning fall from heaven4--,luke1 x1 #ah4 ,thy drowsy nurse hath sworn she did them spy ,come tripping to the room where thou didst lie4--,milton4 ------,nor with less dread the loud ,ethereal trumpet from on high 'gan blow4--,id41 ,p4 ,l41 vi1 #fj4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,after have1 help1 and find1 the infinitive sometimes occurs without the preposition to1 but much oftener with it2 as1 ,when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear distinct4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bbb4 ,certainly1 it is heaven upon earth1 to have a man's mind move in charity1 rest in ,providence1 and turn upon the poles of truth4--,ld4 ,bacon4 ,what wilt thou have me to do8--,acts1 ix1 #f4 ,he will have us to acknowledge him4--,scougal1 p4 #ajb4 ,i had to walk all the way4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,would you have them let go then8 ,no4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bdh4 ,according to ,allen's rule1 this question is ambiguous2 but the learned author explains it in ,latin thus3 ,placet igitur eos dimitti8 ,minim4 ,that is1 ,would you have them dismissed then8 ,no4 ,had he meant1 ,would you have them to let go then8 he would doubtless have said so4 ,kirkham1 by adding help to ,murray's list1 enumerates nine verbs which he will have to exclude the sign of the infinitive2 as1 ,help me do it4--,gram41 p4 #ahh4 ,but good writers sometimes use the particle to after this verb2 as1 ,and ,danby's matchless impudence helped to support the knave4--,,dryden3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,help4 ,dr4 ,priestley says1 ,it must1 ,i suppose1 be according to the ,scotch idiom that ,mrs4 ,macaulay omits it after the verb help3 ',to help carry on the new measures of the court4' ,history1 ,vol4 iv1 p4 #aej4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,you will find the difficulty disappear in a short time4--,cobbett's ,english ,gram41 #af4 ,we shall always find this distinction obtain4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bde4 ,here the preposition to might have been inserted with propriety4 ,without it1 a plural noun will render the construction equivocal4 ,the sentence1 ,you will find the difficulties disappear in a short time1 will probably be understood to mean1 ,you will find that the difficulties disappear in a short time4 ,i do not find him reject his authority4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #afg4 ,here too the preposition might as well have been inserted4 ,but1 as this use of the infinitive is a sort of ,latinism1 some critics would choose to say1 ,i do not find that he rejects his authority4 ,cyrus was extremely glad to find them have such sentiments of religion4--,rollin1 ii1 #aag4 ,here the infinitive may be varied either by the participle or by the indicative2 as1 to find them having1 or1 to find they had4 ,of the three expressions1 the last1 ,i think1 is rather the best4 ,,obs4 #ai4--,when two or more infinitives are connected in the same construction1 one preposition sometimes governs them both or all2 a repetition of the particle not being always necessary1 unless we mean to make the terms severally emphatical4 ,this fact is one evidence that to is not a necessary part of each infinitive verb1 as some will have it to be4 ,examples3 ,lord1 suffer me first ,,to go and bury my father4--,matt41 viii1 #ba4 ,to shut the door1 means1 ,,to throw or cast the door to4--,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #aje4 ,most authors expect the printer ,,to spell1 point1 and digest their copy1 that it may be intelligible to the reader4--,printer's ,grammar4 ,i'll not be made a soft and dull-eyed fool1 ,to shake the head1 relent1 and sigh1 and yield4--,shak4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,an infinitive that explains an other1 may sometimes be introduced without the preposition to2 because1 the former having it1 the construction of the latter is made the same by this kind of apposition3 as1 ,the most accomplished way of using books at present is1 ,,to serve them as some do lords2 learn their titles1 and1 then brag of their acquaintance4--,,swift3 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #aff4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,after than or as1 the sign of the infinitive is sometimes required1 and sometimes excluded2 and in some instances we can either insert it or not1 as we please4 ,the latter term of a comparison is almost always more or less elliptical2 and as the nature of its ellipsis depends on the structure of the former term1 so does the necessity of inserting or of omitting the sign of the infinitive4 ,examples3 ,no desire is more universal than is the desire to be exalted and honoured4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aig4 ,the difficulty is not so great to die for a friend1 as is the difficulty to find a friend worth dying for4--,id41 ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #db4 ,it is no more in one's power to love or not to love1 than it is in one's power to be in health or out of order4--,ib41 p4 #de4 ,men are more likely to be praised into virtue1 than they are likely to be railed out of vice4--,ib41 p4 #dh4 ,it is more tolerable to be always alone1 than it is tolerable never to be so4--,ib41 p4 #bf4 ,nothing is more easy than to do mischief is easy3 nothing is more difficult than to suffer without complaining is difficult4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,or3 than it is easy to do mischief3 c41 than it is difficult to suffer1 c4 ,it is more agreeable to the nature of most men to follow than it is agreeable to their nature to lead4--,ib41 p4 #ee4 ,in all these examples1 the preposition to is very properly inserted2 but what excludes it from the former term of a comparison1 will exclude it from the latter1 if such governing verb be understood there3 as1 ,you no more heard me say those words1 than you heard me talk ,greek4 ,it may be equally proper to say1 ,we choose rather to lead than follow1 or1 ,we choose rather to lead than to follow4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #cg4 ,the meaning in either case is1 ,we choose to lead rather than we choose to follow4 ,in the following example1 there is perhaps an ellipsis of to before cite3 ,i need do nothing more than simply cite the explicit declarations1 c4--,gurney's ,peculiarities1 p4 #d4 ,so in these3 ,nature did no more than furnish the power and means4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #adg4 ,to beg1 than work1 he better understands2 ,or we perhaps might take him off thy hands4 --,pope's ,odyssey1 xvii1 #bfj4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,it has been stated1 in ,obs4 #afth on ,rule #agth1 that good writers are apt to shun a repetition of any part common to two or more verbs in the same sentence2 and among the examples there cited is this3 ,they mean to1 and will1 hear patiently4--,salem ,register4 ,so one might say1 ,can a man arrive at excellence1 who has no desire to8--,i do not wish to go1 nor expect to4--,open the door1 if you are going to4 ,answer3 ,we want to1 and try to1 but can't4 ,such ellipses of the infinitive after to1 are by no means uncommon1 especially in conversation2 nor do they appear to me to be always reprehensible1 since they prevent repetition1 and may contribute to brevity without obscurity4 ,but ,dr4 ,bullions has lately thought proper to condemn them2 for such is presumed to have been the design of the following note3 ,to1 the sign of the infinitive1 should never be used for the infinitive itself4 ,thus1 ',i have not written1 and ,i do not intend to1' is a colloquial vulgarism for1 ',i have not written1 and ,i do not intend to write4'--,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #agi4 ,his ,exercises to be corrected1 here1 are these3 ,be sure to write yourself and tell him to4 ,and live as ,god designed me to4--,ib41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ahj4 ,it being manifest1 that to cannot be used for--7that is1 in place of--7what is implied after it1 this is certainly a very awkward way of hinting there should never be an ellipsis of the infinitive after to4 ,but1 from the false syntax furnished1 this appears to have been the meaning intended4 ,the examples are severally faulty1 but not for the reason suggested--not because to is used for write or live--not1 indeed1 for any one reason common to the three--but because1 in the first1 to write and have not written1 have nothing in common which we can omit2 in the second1 the mood of tell is doubtful1 and1 without a comma after yourself1 we cannot precisely know the meaning2 in the third1 the mood1 the person1 and the number of live1 are all unknown4 ,see ,note #ith to ,rule #agth1 above2 and ,note #b;d to the ,general ,rule1 below4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,of some infinitives1 it is hard to say whether they are transitive or intransitive2 as1 ,well1 then1 let us proceed2 we have other forced marches to make2 other enemies to subdue2 more laurels to acquire2 and more injuries to avenge4--,,bonaparte3 ,columbian ,orator1 p4 #acf4 ,these1 without ellipsis1 are intransitive2 but relatives may be inserted4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xix4 ,,infinitives ,,after ,,bid1 ,,dare1 ,,feel1 ,,hear1 ,,let1 c4 ,i dare not to proceed so hastily1 lest ,i should give offence4--,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #fc4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the preposition to is inserted before proceed1 which follows the active verb dare4 ,but1 according to ,rule #aith1 ,the active verbs1 bid1 dare1 feel1 hear1 let1 make1 need1 see1 and their participles1 usually take the infinitive after them without the preposition to2 and this is an instance in which the finite verb should immediately govern the infinitive4 ,therefore1 the to should be omitted2 thus1 ,i dare not proceed so hastily1 c4 ,their character is formed1 and made appear4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aae4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the preposition to is not inserted between made and appear1 the verb is made being passive4 ,but1 according to ,obs4 #eth and #ajth on ,rule #aith1 those verbs which in the active form govern the infinitive without to1 do not so govern it when they are made passive1 except the verb let4 ,therefore1 to should be here inserted2 thus1 ,their character is formed1 and made to appear4 ,let there be but matter and opportunity offered1 and you shall see them quickly to revive again4--,wisdom of the ,ancients1 p4 #ec4 ,it has been made appear1 that there is no presumption against a revelation4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #beb4 ,,manifest1 v4 t4 ,to reveal2 to make to appear2 to show plainly4--,webster's ,american ,dict4 ,let him to reign like unto good ,aurelius1 or let him to bleed like unto ,socrates4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #afi4 ,to sing ,i could not2 to complain ,i durst not4--,s4 ,fothergill4 ,if ,t4 ,m4 be not so frequently heard pray by them4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #acb4 ,how many of your own church members were never heard pray8--,ib41 iii1 #acc4 ,yea1 we are bidden pray one for another4--,ib41 iii1 #ade4 ,he was made believe that neither the king's death1 nor imprisonment would help him4--,sheffield's ,works1 ii1 #bha4 ,i felt a chilling sensation to creep over me4--,inst41 p4 #ahh4 ,i dare to say he has not got home yet4--,ib4 ,we sometimes see bad men to be honoured4--,ib4 ,i saw him to move4--,felch's ,comprehensive ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,for see thou1 ah6 see thou a hostile world to raise its terrours4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #afg4 ,but that he make him to rehearse so4--,lily's ,gram41 p4 xv4 ,let us to rise4--,fowle's ,true ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,scripture1 you know1 exhorts us to it2 ,bids us to 'seek peace1 and ensue it4'--,swift's ,poems1 p4 #ccf4 ,who bade the mud from ,dives' wheel ,to spurn the rags of ,lazarus8 ,come1 brother1 in that dust we'll kneel1 ,confessing ,heaven that ruled it thus4--,christmas ,book4 ,,chapter ,,vii--,,participles4 ,the true or regular syntax of the ,english ,participle1 as a part of speech distinct from the verb1 and not converted into a noun or an adjective1 is twofold2 being sometimes that of simple relation to a noun or a pronoun that precedes it1 and sometimes that of government1 or the state of being governed by a preposition4 ,in the former construction1 the participle resembles an adjective2 in the latter1 it is more like a noun1 or like the infinitive mood3 for the participle after a preposition is governed as a participle1 and not as a case4#dag ,to these two constructions1 some add three others less regular1 using the participle sometimes as the subject of a finite verb1 sometimes as the object of a transitive verb1 and sometimes as a nominative after a neuter verb4 ,of these five constructions1 the first two1 are the legitimate uses of this part of speech2 the others are occasional1 modern1 and of doubtful propriety4 ,,rule ,,xx4--,,participles4 ,participles relate to nouns or pronouns1 or else are governed by prepositions3 as1 ,elizabeth's tutor1 at one time paying her a visit1 found her employed in reading ,plato4--,hume4 ,i have no more pleasure in hearing a man attempting wit and failing1 than in seeing a man trying to leap over a ditch and tumbling into it4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,now1 rais'd on ,tyre's sad ruins1 ,pharaoh's pride ,soar'd high1 his legions threat'ning far and wide4--,dryden4 ,,exception ,,first4 ,a participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence1 of which it forms no part2 as1 ,i then quit the society2 to withdraw and leave them to themselves1 ,,appearing to me a duty4--,it is almost exclusively on the ground we have mentioned1 that we have heard his being continued in office ,,defended4--,professors' ,reasons1 p4 #bc4 7,better1 his continuance in office1 or1 the continuing of him in office4 ,see ,obs4 #ahth on ,rule #dth47 ,but ever to do ill our sole delight1 ,as being the contrary to his high will4--,milton4 ,,exception ,,second4 ,with an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract1 a participle is sometimes also taken abstractly2 7that is1 without reference to any particular noun1 pronoun1 or other subject27 as1 ,to seem compelled1 is disagreeable4--,to keep always praying aloud1 is plainly impossible4--,it must be disagreeable to be left pausing#dah on a word which does not1 by itself1 produce any idea4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cbc4 ,to praise him is to serve him1 and fulfill1 ,doing and suffering1 his unquestion'd will4 --,cowper1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hh4 ,,exception ,,third4 ,the participle is often used irregularly in ,english1 as a substitute for the infinitive mood1 to which it is sometimes equivalent without irregularity2 as1 ,i saw him enter1 or entering--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bcj4 ,he is afraid of trying1 or to try4--,ibid4 ,examples irregular3 ,sir1 said ,i1 if the case stands thus1 'tis dangerous drinking3 i4e41 to drink4--,collier's ,tablet of ,cebes4 ,it will be but ill venturing thy soul upon that3 i4e41 to venture4--,bunyan's ,law and ,grace1 p4 #bg4 ,describing a past event as present1 has a fine effect in language3 i4e41 to describe4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #ic4 ,in ,english likewise it deserves remarking3 i4e41 to be remarked4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bcb4 ,bishop ,atterbury deserves being particularly mentioned3 i4e41 to be particularly mentioned4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bia4 ,this1 however1 is in effect no more than enjoying the sweet that predominates3 i4e41 to enjoy4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #dc4 ,habits are soon assum'd2 but when we strive ,to strip them off1 'tis being flay'd alive4--,cowper1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dd ,,exception ,,fourth4 ,an other frequent irregularity in the construction of participles1 is the practice of treating them essentially as nouns1 without taking from them the regimen and adjuncts of participles2 as1 ,your having been well educated will be a great recommendation4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aga4 7,better3 ,your excellent education--or1 ,that you have been well educated1 will be1 c47 ,it arises from sublimity's expressing grandeur in its highest degree4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bi4 ,concerning the separating by a circumstance1 words intimately connected4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ajd4 ,as long as there is any hope of their keeping pace with them4--,literary ,convention1 p4 #aad4 ,which could only arise from his knowing the secrets of all hearts4--,west's ,letters to a ,young ,lady1 p4 #ahj4 ,but this again is talking quite at random4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #adf4 ,my being here it is1 that holds thee hence4--,shak4 ,such1 but by foils1 the clearest lustre see1 ,and deem aspersing others1 praising thee4--,savage1 to ,walpole4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xx4 ,,obs4 #a4--,to this rule1 ,i incline to think1 there are properly no other exceptions than the first two above2 or1 at least1 that we ought to avoid1 when we can1 any additional anomalies4 ,yet1 not to condemn with unbecoming positiveness what others receive for good ,english1 ,i have subjoined two items more1 which include certain other irregularities now very common1 that1 when examples of a like form occur1 the reader may parse them as exceptions1 if he does not choose to censure them as errors4 ,the mixed construction in which participles are made to govern the possessive case1 has already been largely considered in the observations on ,rule #dth4 ,murray1 ,allen1 ,churchill1 and many other grammarians1 great and small1 admit that participles may be made the subjects or the objects of verbs1 while they retain the nature1 government1 and adjuncts1 of participles2 as1 ,not attending to this rule1 is the cause of a very common error4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bjj2 ,comly's ,gram41 #ahh2 ,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 #agj4 ,polite is employed to signify their being highly civilized4'--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bai4 ,one abhors being in debt4--,ib41 p4 #ih2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #ga2 ,murray's ,gram41 #add4 ,who affected being a fine gentleman so unmercifully4--,spect41 ,no4 #dif4 ,the minister's being attached to the project1 prolonged their debate4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #gh4 ,it finds i4e41 the mind finds1 that acting thus would gratify one passion2 not acting1 or acting otherwise1 would gratify another4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aji4 ,but further1 cavilling and objecting upon any subject is much easier than clearing up difficulties4--,bp4 ,butler's ,charge to the ,clergy of ,durham1 #agea4 ,,obs4 #b4--,w4 ,allen observes1 ,the use of the participle as a nominative1 is one of the peculiarities of our language4--,elements of ,gram41 p4 #aga4 ,he might have added1 that the use of the participle as an objective governed by a verb1 as a nominative after a verb neuter1 or as a word governing the possessive1 is also one of the peculiarities of our language1 or at least an idiom adopted by no few of its recent writers4 ,but whether any one of these four modern departures from ,general ,grammar ought to be countenanced by us1 as an idiom that is either elegant or advantageous1 ,i very much doubt4 ,they are all however sufficiently common in the style of reputable authors2 and1 however questionable their character1 some of our grammarians seem mightily attached to them all4 ,it becomes me therefore to object with submission4 ,these mixed and irregular constructions of the participle1 ought1 in my opinion1 to be generally condemned as false syntax2 and for this simple reason1 that the ideas conveyed by them may generally1 if not always1 be expressed more briefly1 and more elegantly1 by other phraseology that is in no respect anomalous4 ,thus1 for the examples above3 ,inattention to this rule1 is the cause of a very common error4--,polite is employed to signify a high degree of civilization2 or1 that they are highly civilized4--,one abhors debt4--,who affected the fine gentleman so unmercifully4--,the minister's partiality to the project1 prolonged their debate4--,it finds i4e41 the mind finds1 that to act thus1 would gratify one passion2 and that not to act1 or to act otherwise1 would gratify another4--,but further1 to cavil and object1 upon any subject1 is much easier than to clear up difficulties4 ,are not these expressions much better ,english than the foregoing quotations8 ,and if so1 have we not reason to conclude that the adoption of participles in such instances is erroneous and ungrammatical8 ,,obs4 #c4--;,in ,obs4 #agth on ,rule #dth1 it was suggested1 that in ,english the participle1 without governing the possessive case1 is turned to a greater number and variety of uses1 than in any other language4 ,this remark applies mainly to the participle in ing4 ,whether it is expedient to make so much of one sort of derivative1 and endeavour to justify every possible use of it which can be plausibly defended1 is a question well worthy of consideration4 ,we have already converted this participle to such a multiplicity of purposes1 and into so many different parts of speech1 that one can well-nigh write a chapter in it1 without any other words4 ,this practice may have added something to the copiousness and flexibility of the language1 but it certainly has a tendency to impair its strength and clearness4 ,not every use of participles is good1 for which there may be found precedents in good authors4 ,one may run to great excess in the adoption of such derivatives1 without becoming absolutely unintelligible1 and without violating any rule of our common grammars4 ,for example1 ,i may say of somebody1 ,this very superficial grammatist1 supposing empty criticism about the adoption of proper phraseology to be a show of extraordinary erudition1 was displaying1 in spite of ridicule1 a very boastful turgid argument concerning the correction of false syntax1 and about the detection of false logic in debate4 ,now1 in what other language than ours1 can a string of words anything like the following1 come so near to a fair and literal translation of this long sentence8 ,this exceeding trifling witling1 considering ranting criticising concerning adopting fitting wording being exhibiting transcending learning1 was displaying1 notwithstanding ridiculing1 surpassing boasting swelling reasoning1 respecting correcting erring writing1 and touching detecting deceiving arguing during debating4 ,here are not all the uses to which our writers apply the participle in ing1 but there would seem to be enough1 without adding others that are less proper4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the active participles1 admitting1 allowing1 considering1 granting1 speaking1 supposing1 and the like1 are frequently used in discourse so independently1 that they either relate to nothing1 or to the pronoun ,i or we understood2 as1 ,granting this to be true1 what is to be inferred from it8--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aie4 ,this may be supposed to mean1 ,i1 granting this to be true1 ask what is to be inferred from it8 ,the very chin was1 modestly speaking1 as long as my whole face4--,addison4 ,here the meaning may be1 ,i1 modestly speaking1 say4 ,so of the following examples3 ,properly speaking1 there is no such thing as chance4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,because1 generally speaking1 the figurative sense of a word is derived from its proper sense4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aij4 ,but1 admitting that two or three of these offend less in their morals than in their writings1 must poverty make nonsense sacred8--,pope's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #g4 ,some grammarians suppose such participles to be put absolute in themselves1 so as to have no reference to any noun or pronoun2 others1 among whom are ,l4 ,murray and ,dr4 ,james ,p4 ,wilson1 suppose them to be put absolute with a pronoun understood4 ,on the former supposition1 they form an other exception to the foregoing rule2 on the latter1 they do not3 the participle relates to the pronoun1 though both be independent of the rest of the sentence4 ,if we supply the ellipsis as above1 there is nothing put absolute4 ,,obs4 #e4--,participles are almost always placed after the words on which their construction depends1 and are distinguished from adjectives by this position2 but when other words depend on the participle1 or when several participles have the same construction1 the whole phrase may come before the noun or pronoun3 as1 ,leaning my head upon my hand1 ,i began to figure to myself the miseries of confinement4--,sterne4 ,immured in cypress shades1 a sorcerer dwells4--,milton4 ,brib'd1 bought1 and bound1 they banish shame and fear2 ,tell you they're stanch1 and have a soul sincere4--,crabbe4 ,,obs4 #f4--,when participles are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb1 they become adjectives2 and1 as such1 they cannot govern an object after them4 ,the following construction is therefore inaccurate3 ,when ,caius did any thing unbecoming his dignity4--,jones's ,church ,history1 i1 #hg4 ,costly and gaudy attire1 unbecoming godliness4--,extracts1 p4 #ahe4 ,such errors are to be corrected by ,note #aeth to ,rule #ith1 or by changing the particle un to not3 as1 ,unbecoming to his dignity2 or1 ,not becoming his dignity4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,an imperfect or a preperfect participle1 preceded by an article1 an adjective1 or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case1 becomes a verbal or participial noun2 and1 as such1 it cannot with strict propriety1 govern an object after it4 ,a word which may be the object of the participle in its proper construction1 requires the preposition of1 to connect it with the verbal noun2 as1 #a4 ,,the ,,participle3 ,worshiping idols1 the ,jews sinned4--,thus worshiping idols1--,in worshiping idols1--or1 ,by worshiping idols1 they sinned4 #b4 ,,the ,,verbal ,,noun3 ,the worshiping of idols1--,such worshiping of idols1--or1 ,their worshiping of idols1 was sinful4--,in the worshiping of idols1 there is sin4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,it is commonly supposed that these two modes of expression are1 in very many instances1 equivalent to each other in meaning1 and consequently interchangeable4 ,how far they really are so1 is a question to be considered4 ,example3 ,but if candour be a confounding of the distinctions between sin and holiness1 a depreciating of the excellence of the latter1 and at the same time a diminishing of the evil of the former2 then it must be something openly at variance with the letter and the spirit of revelation4--,the ,friend1 iv1 #ajh4 ,here the nouns1 distinctions1 excellence1 and evil1 though governed by of1 represent the objects of the forenamed actions2 and therefore they might well be governed by confounding1 depreciating1 and diminishing1 if these were participles4 ,but if1 to make them such1 we remove the article and the preposition1 the construction forsakes our meaning2 for be confounding1 7be7 depreciating1 and 7be7 diminishing1 seem rather to be verbs of the compound form2 and our uncertain nominatives after be1 thus disappear in the shadow of a false sense4 ,but some sensible critics tell us1 that this preposition of should refer rather to the agent of the preceding action1 than to its passive object2 so that such a phrase as1 the teaching of boys1 should signify rather the instruction which boys give1 than that which they receive4 ,if1 for the sake of this principle1 or for any other reason1 we wish to avoid the foregoing phraseology1 the meaning may be expressed thus3 ,but if your candour confound the distinctions between sin and holiness2 if it depreciate the excellence of the latter1 and at the same time diminish the evil of the former2 then it must be something openly at variance with the letter and the spirit of revelation4 ,,obs4 #i4--,when the use of the preposition produces ambiguity or harshness1 let a better expression be sought4 ,thus the sentence1 ,he mentions ,newton's writing of a commentary1 is not entirely free from either of these faults4 ,if the preposition be omitted1 the word writing will have a double construction1 which is inadmissible1 or at least objectionable4 ,some would say1 ,he mentions ,newton writing a commentary4 ,this1 though not uncommon1 is still more objectionable because it makes the leading word in sense the adjunct in construction4 ,the meaning may be correctly expressed thus3 ,he mentions that ,newton wrote a commentary4 ,mr4 ,dryden makes a very handsome observation on ,ovid's writing a letter from ,dido to neas4--,spect41 ,no4 #fb2 ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bfe2 ,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bec4 ,here the word writing is partly a noun and partly a participle4 ,if we make it wholly a noun1 by saying1 on ,ovid's writing of a letter1 or wholly a participle1 by saying1 on ,ovid writing a letter2 it may be doubted1 whether we have effected any improvement4 ,and again1 if we adopt ,dr4 ,lowth's advice1 ,let it be either the one or the other1 and abide by its proper construction2 we must make some change2 and therefore ought perhaps to say2 on ,ovid's conceit of writing a letter from ,dido to neas4 ,this is apparently what ,addison meant1 and what ,dryden remarked upon2 the latter did not speak of the letter itself1 else the former would have said1 on ,ovid's letter from ,dido to neas4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,when a needless possessive1 or a needless article1 is put before the participle1 the correction is to be made1 not by inserting of1 but by expunging the article1 according to ,note #afth to ,rule #ast1 or the possessive1 according to ,note #eth to ,rule #dth4 ,example3 ,by his studying the ,scriptures he became wise4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #ia4 ,here his serves only to render the sentence incorrect2 yet this spurious example is presented by ,lennie to prove that a participle may take the possessive case before it1 when the preposition of is not admissible after it4 ,so1 in stead of expunging one useless word1 our grammarians often add an other and call the twofold error a correction2 as1 ,for his avoiding of that precipice1 he is indebted to his friend's care4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bja4 ,or worse yet3 ,it was from our misunderstanding of the directions that we lost our way4--,ibid4 ,here1 not our and of only1 but four other words1 are worse than useless4 ,again3 ,by the exercising of our judgment1 it is improved4 ,or thus3 ,by exercising our judgment1 it is improved4--,comly's ,key in his ,gram41 #abth ,ed41 p4 #ahh4 ,each of these pretended corrections is wrong in more respects than one4 ,say1 ,by exercising our judgement1 we improve it ,or1 ,our judgement is improved by being exercised ,again3 ,the loving of our enemies is a divine command2 ,or1 loving our enemies is a divine command4--,ibid4 ,both of these are also wrong4 ,say1 ',love your enemies1' is a divine command4 ,or1 ,we are divinely commanded to love our enemies4 ,some are apt to jumble together the active voice and the passive1 and thus destroy the unity even of a short sentence2 as1 ,by exercising our memories1 they are improved4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bbf and #aie4 ,the error might have been avoided by repeating the substantive4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,by admitting such violations of established grammatical distinctions1 confusion would be introduced4--,ib41 p4 #ahg4 ,in these instances1 we have an active participle without an agent2 and this1 by the preposition by1 is made an adjunct to a passive verb4 ,even the participial noun of this form1 though it actually drops the distinction of voice1 is awkward and apparently incongruous in such a relation4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,when the verbal noun necessarily retains any adjunct of the verb or participle1 it seems proper that the two words be made a compound by means of the hyphen3 as1 ,their hope shall be as the giving-up of the ghost4--,job1 xi1 #bj4 ,for if the casting-away of them be the reconciling of the world4--,rom41 xi1 #ae4 ,and the gathering-together of the waters called he seas4--,gen41 i1 #aj4 ,if he should offer to stop the runnings-out of his justice4--,law and ,grace1 p4 #bf4 ,the stopping-short before the usual pause in the melody1 aids the impression that is made by the description of the stone's stopping-short4'--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ajf4 ,i do not find these words united in the places referred to1 but this is nevertheless their true figure4 ,our authors and printers are lamentably careless1 as well as ignorant1 respecting the figure of words3 for which part of grammar1 see the whole of the third chapter1 in ,part ,first of this work2 also observations on the fourth rule of syntax1 from the #cjth to the #ceth4 ,as certain other compounds may sometimes be broken by tmesis1 so may some of these2 as1 ,not forsaking the assembling of ourselves together1 as the manner of some is4--,heb41 x1 #bc4 ,adverbs may relate to participles1 but nouns require adjectives4 ,the following phrase is therefore inaccurate3 ,for the more easily reading of large numbers4 ,yet if we say1 ,for reading large numbers the more easily1 the construction is different1 and not inaccurate4 ,some calculator1 ,i think1 has it1 ,for the more easily reading large numbers4 ,but ,hutton says1 ,for the more easy reading of large numbers4--,hutton's ,arith41 p4 #e2 so ,babcock's1 p4 #ab4 ,it would be quite as well to say1 ,for the greater ease in reading large numbers4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,many words of a participial form are used directly as nouns1 without any article1 adjective1 or possessive case before them1 and without any object or adjunct after them4 ,such is commonly the construction of the words spelling1 reading1 writing1 ciphering1 surveying1 drawing1 parsing1 and many other such names of actions or exercises4 ,they are rightly put by ,johnson among nouns derived from verbs2 for1 ,the name of the action is the same with the participle present1 as loving1 frighting1 fighting1 striking4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,thus3 ,i like writing4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aga4 ,he supposed1 with them1 that affirming and denying were operations of the mind4--,tooke's ,diversions1 i1 #ce4 ',not rendering1' said ,polycarp the disciple of ,john1 'evil for evil1 or railing for railing1 or striking for striking1 or cursing for cursing4--,dymond1 on ,war4 ,against this practice1 there is seldom any objection2 the words are wholly nouns1 both in sense and construction4 ,we call them participial nouns1 only because they resemble participles in their derivation2 or if we call them verbal nouns1 it is because they are derived from verbs4 ,but we too frequently find those which retain the government and the adjuncts of participles1 used as nouns before or after verbs2 or1 more properly speaking1 used as mongrels and nondescripts1 a doubtful species1 for which there is seldom any necessity1 since the infinitive1 the verbal or some other noun1 or a clause introduced by the conjunction that1 will generally express the idea in a better manner3 as1 ,exciting such disturbances1 is unlawful4 ,say rather1 ,to excite such disturbances1--,the exciting of such disturbances1--,the excitation of such disturbances1--or1 ,that one should excite such disturbances1 is unlawful4 ,,obs4 #ac4--,murray says1 ,the word the1 before the active participle1 in the following sentence1 and in all others of a similar construction1 is improper1 and should be omitted3 ',the advising1 or the attempting1 to excite such disturbances1 is unlawful4' ,it should be1 ',advising or attempting to excite disturbances4'--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #aie4 ,but1 by his own showing1 the present participle1 with the definite article the before it1 becomes a substantive4--,ib41 p4 #aib4 ,and substantives1 or nouns1 by an other of his notes1 can govern the infinitive mood1 just as well as participles2 or just as well as the verbs which he thinks would be very proper here2 namely1 ,to advise or attempt to excite such disturbances4--,ib41 p4 #aif4 ,it would be right to say1 ,any advice1 or attempt1 to excite such disturbances1 is unlawful4 ,and ,i see not that he has improved the text at all1 by expunging the article4 ,advising and attempting1 being disjunct nominatives to is1 are nothing but nouns1 whether the article be used or not2 though they are rather less obviously such without it1 and therefore the change is for the worse4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,lennie observes1 ,when a preposition--7he should have said1 ,when an other preposition--7 follows the participle1 of is inadmissible2 as1 ,his depending on promises proved his ruin4 ,his neglecting to study when young1 rendered him ignorant all his life4--,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 #eth ,ed41 p4 #fe2 #acth ,ed41 #ia4 ,here on and to1 of course1 exclude of2 but the latter may be changed to of1 which will turn the infinitive into a noun3 as1 ,his neglecting of study1 c4 ,depending and neglecting1 being equivalent to dependence and neglect1 are participial nouns1 and not participles4 ,professor ,bullions1 too1 has the same faulty remark1 examples and all2 7for his book1 of the same title1 is little else than a gross plagiarism from ,lennie's27 though he here forgets his other erroneous doctrines1 that1 ,a preposition should never be used before the infinitive1 and that1 ,active verbs do not admit a preposition after them4 ,see ,bullions's ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 pp4 #ia1 #ib1 and #ajg4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,the participle in ing is1 on many occasions1 equivalent to the infinitive verb1 so that the speaker or writer may adopt either1 just as he pleases3 as1 ,so their gerunds are sometimes found having or to have an absolute or apparently neuter signification4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bcd4 ,with tears that ceas'd not flowing or to flow4--,milton4 ,i would willingly have him producing produce1 or to produce his credentials4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #bgc4 ,there are also instances1 and according to my notion not a few1 in which the one is put improperly for the other4 ,the participle however is erroneously used for the infinitive much oftener than the infinitive for the participle4 ,the lawful uses of both are exceedingly numerous2 though the syntax of the participle1 strictly speaking1 does not include its various conversions into other parts of speech4 ,the principal instances of regular equivalence between infinitives and participles1 may be reduced to the following heads3 #a4 ,after the verbs see1 hear1 and feel1 the participle in ing1 relating to the objective1 is often equivalent to the infinitive governed by the verb2 as1 ,i saw him running--,i heard it howling4--,w4 ,allen4 ,i feel the wind blowing4 ,here the verbs1 run1 howl1 and blow1 might be substituted4 #b4 ,after intransitive verbs signifying to begin or to continue1 the participle in ing1 relating to the nominative1 may be used in stead of the infinitive connected to the verb2 as1 ,the ass began galloping with all his might4--,sandford and ,merton4 ,it commenced raining very hard4--,silliman4 ,the steamboats commenced running on ,saturday4--,daily ,advertiser4 ,it is now above three years since he began printing4--,dr4 ,adam's ,pref4 to ,rom4 ,antiq4 ,so when they continued asking him4--,john1 viii1 #g4 ,greek1 ,greek3 ,os epemenon erotontes auton4 ,latin1 ,cum ergo perseverarent interrogantes eum4--,vulgate4 ,cm autem perseverarent eum interrogare4--,beza4 ,then shall ye continue following the ,lord your ,god4--#a ,sam41 xii1 #ad4 ,eritis sequentes ,dominum ,deum vestrum4--,vulgate4 ,as she continued praying before the ,lord4--#a ,sam41 i1 #ab4 ,cm ilia multiplicaret preces coram ,domino4--,vulgate4 ,and they went on beating down one an other4--#b ,sam41 xiv1 #af4 ,make the members of them go on rising and growing in their importance4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aaf4 ,why do you keep teasing me8 #c4 ,after for1 in1 of1 or to1 and perhaps some other prepositions1 the participle may in most cases be varied by the infinitive1 which is governed by to only2 as1 ,we are better fitted for receiving the tenets and obeying the precepts of that faith which will make us wise unto salvation4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #ea4 ,that is--to receive the tenets and obey the precepts4 ,men fit for fighting1 practised in fighting1 proud of fighting1 accustomed to fighting4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,that is1 fit to fight1 c4 ,what is the right path1 few take the trouble of inquiring4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo4 ii1 #bce4 ,better1 perhaps3--few take the trouble to inquire4 ,,obs4 #af4--,one of our best grammarians says1 ,the infinitive1 in the following sentences1 should be exchanged for the participle3 ',i am weary to bear them4' ,is4 i1 #ad4 ',hast thou1 spirit1 perform'd to point the tempest8' ,shak4--,allen's ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,this suggestion implies1 that the participle would be here not only equivalent to the infinitive in sense1 but better in expression4 ,it is true1 the preposition to does not well express the relation between weary and bear2 and1 doubtless1 some regard should be had to the meaning of this particle1 whenever it is any thing more than an index of the mood4 ,but the critic ought to have told us how he would make these corrections4 ,for in neither case does the participle alone appear to be a fit substitute for the infinitive1 either with or without the to2 and the latter text will scarcely bear the participle at all1 unless we change the former verb2 as1 ,hast thou1 spirit1 done pointing the tempest8 ,the true meaning of the other example seems somewhat uncertain4 ,the ,vulgate has it1 ,laboravi sustinens1 ,i have laboured bearing them2 the ,french ,bible1 ,je suis las de les souffrir1 ,i am tired of bearing them2 the ,septuagint1 ,greek3 ,ouketi anso tas hamartias humon1 ,i will no more forgive your sins4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,in the following text1 the infinitive is used improperly1 nor would the participle in its stead make pure ,english3 ,i will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices or thy burnt-offerings1 to have been continually before me4--,ps4 #a4 #h4 ,according to the ,french version1 to have been should be which are2 but the ,septuagint and the ,vulgate take the preceding noun for the nominative1 thus3 ,i will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices1 but thy burnt-offerings are continually before me4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,as the preposition to before the infinitive shows the latter to be that towards which the preceding verb is directed1 verbs of desisting1 omitting1 preventing1 and avoiding1 are generally found to take the participle after them1 and not the infinitive2 because1 in such instances1 the direction of effort seems not to be so properly to1 or towards1 as from the action4#dai ,where the preposition from is inserted1 7as it most commonly is1 after some of these verbs47 there is no irregularity in the construction of the participle2 but where the participle immediately follows the verb1 it is perhaps questionable whether it ought to be considered the object of the verb1 or a mere participle relating to the nominative which precedes4 ,if we suppose the latter1 the participle may be parsed by the common rule2 if the former1 it must be referred to the third exception above4 ,for example3 #a4 ,after verbs of ,,desisting2 as1 ,the ,cryer used to proclaim1 ,,dixerunt1 i4 e4 ,they have done speaking4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #acb4 ,a friend is advised to put off making love to ,lalage4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #ddf4 ,he forbore doing so1 on the ground of expediency4--,the ,friend1 iv1 #ce4 ,and yet architects never give over attempting to reconcile these two incompatibles4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cch4 ,never to give over seeking and praying for it4--,n4 ,y4 ,observer4 ,do not leave off seeking4--,president ,edwards4 ,then ,satan hath done flattering and comforting4--,baxter4 ,the princes refrained talking4--,job1 xxix1 #i4 ,principes cessabant loqui4--,vulgate4 ,here it would be better to say1 ,the princes refrained from talking4 ,but ,murray says1 ,from seems to be superfluous after forbear3 as1 ',he could not forbear from appointing the pope1' c4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bjc4 ,but forbear to appoint would be a better correction2 for this verb is often followed by the infinitive2 as1 ,forbear to insinuate4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #fb4 ,and he forbare to go forth4--#a ,sam41 xxiii1 #ac4 ,the reader will observe1 that1 never to give over or not to leave off1 is in fact the same thing as to continue2 and ,i have shown by the analogy of other languages1 that after verbs of continuing the participle is not an object of government2 though possibly it may be so1 in these instances1 which are somewhat different4 #b4 ,after verbs of ,,omitting2 as1 ,he omits giving an account of them4--,tooke's ,diversions of ,purley1 i1 #bea4 ,i question the propriety of this construction2 and yet1 omits to give seems still more objectionable4 ,better1 ,he omits all account of them4 ,or1 ,he neglects to give1 or forbears to give1 any account of them4 ,l4 ,murray twice speaks of apologizing1 for the use he has made of his predecessors' labours1 and for omitting to insert their names4--,octavo ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 vii2 and ,note1 p4 #gc4 ,the phrase1 omitting to insert1 appears to me a downright solecism2 and the pronoun their is ambiguous1 because there are well-known names both for the men and for their labours1 and he ought not to have omitted either species wholly1 as he did4 ,yet they absolutely refuse doing so1 one with another4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bfd4 ,better1 refuse to do so4 ,i had as repeatedly declined going4--,leigh ,hunt's ,byron1 p4 #ae4 #c4 ,after verbs of ,,preventing2 as1 ,our sex are happily prevented from engaging in these turbulent scenes4--,west's ,letters to a ,lady1 p4 #gd4 ,to prevent our frail natures from deviating into bye paths write by-paths of error4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,prudence1 prevents our speaking or acting improperly4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ii2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cjc2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #gb4 ,this construction1 though very common1 is palpably wrong3 because its most natural interpretation is1 ,prudence improperly prevents our speech or action4 ,these critics ought to have known enough to say1 ,prudence prevents us from speaking or acting improperly4 ,this1 however1 doth not hinder pronunciation to borrow from singing4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #gj4 ,here the infinitive is used1 merely because it does not sound well to say1 from borrowing from singing2 but the expression might very well be changed thus1 from being indebted to singing4 ',this by no means hinders the book to be a useful one4'--,geddes4 ,it should be1 'from being4'--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cah4 #d4 ,after verbs of ,,avoiding3 as1 ,he might have avoided treating of the origin of ideas4--,tooke's ,diversions1 i1 #bh4 ,we may avoid talking nonsense on these subjects4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bha4 ,but carefully avoid being at any time ostentatious and affected4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bcc4 ,here ,i cannot avoid mentioning#dbj the assistance ,i have received4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 iv4 ,it is our duty to avoid leading others into temptation1--,west's ,letters1 p4 #cc4 ,nay1 such a garden should in some measure avoid imitating nature4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bea4 ,i can promise no entertainment to those who shun thinking4--,ib41 i1 #cf4 ,we cannot help being of opinion4--,,encyc4 ,,brit4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,i cannot help being of opinion4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #caa4 ,i cannot help mentioning here one character more4--,hughes4 ,spect41 ,no4 #eed4 ,these would sometimes very narrowly miss being catched away4--,steele4 ,carleton very narrowly escaped being taken4--,grimshaw's ,hist41 p4 #aaa4 ,better1 escaped from being taken2--or1 escaped capture4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,in sentences like the following1 the participle seems to be improperly made the object of the verb3 ,i intend doing it4--,i remember meeting him4 ,better1 ,i intend to do it4--,i remember to have met him4 ,according to my notion1 it is an error to suppose that verbs in general may govern participles4 ,if there are any proper instances of such government1 they would seem to be chiefly among verbs of quitting or avoiding4 ,and even here the analogy of ,general ,grammar gives countenance to a different solution2 as1 ,they left beating of ,paul4--,acts1 xxi1 #cb4 ,better1 ,they left beating ,paul2--or1 ,they quit beating ,paul4 ,greek1 ,greek3 ,epausanto tuptontes ton ,paulon4 ,latin1 ,cessaverunt percutientes ,paulum4--,montanus4 ,cessarunt coedere ,paulum4--,beza4 ,cessaverunt percutere ,paulum4--,vulgate4 ,it is true1 the ,english participle in ing differs in some respects from that which usually corresponds to it in ,latin or ,greek2 it has more of a substantive character1 and is commonly put for the ,latin gerund4 ,if this difference does not destroy the argument from analogy1 the opinion is still just1 that left and quit are here intransitive1 and that the participle beating relates to the pronoun they4 ,such is unequivocally the construction of the ,greek text1 and also of the literal ,latin of ,arias ,montanus4 ,but1 to the mere ,english grammarian1 this method of parsing will not be apt to suggest itself3 because1 at first sight1 the verbs appear to be transitive1 and the participle in ing has nothing to prove it an adjunct of the nominative1 and not the object of the verb--unless1 indeed1 the mere fact that it is a participle1 is proof of this4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,our great ,compiler1 ,murray1 not understanding this construction1 or not observing what verbs admit of it1 or require it1 has very unskillfully laid it down as a rule1 that1 ,the participle with its adjuncts1 may be considered as a substantive phrase in the objective case1 governed by the preposition or verb1 expressed or understood3 as1 ',by promising much and performing but little1 we become despicable4' ',he studied to avoid expressing himself too severely4'--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #aid4dba ,this very popular author seems never to have known that participles1 as such1 may be governed in ,english by prepositions4 ,and yet he knew1 and said1 that prepositions do not1 like articles and pronouns1 convert the participle itself into the nature of a substantive4--,ibid4 ,this he avouches in the same breath in which he gives that nature to a participle and its adverb6 ,for1 by a false comma after much1 he cuts his first substantive phrase absurdly in two2 and doubtless supposes a false ellipsis of by before the participle performing4 ,of his method of resolving the second example1 some notice has already been taken1 in ,observations #dth and #eth on ,rule #eth4 ,though he pretends that the whole phrase is in the objective case1 the truth is1 the assertion grammatically affects the first word only2 which in one aspect he regards as a noun1 and in an other as a participle3 whereas he himself1 on the preceding page1 had adopted from ,lowth a different doctrine1 and cautioned the learner against treating words in ing1 as if they were of an amphibious species1 partly nouns and partly verbs2 that is1 partly nouns and partly participles2 for1 according to ,murray1 ,lowth1 and many others1 participles are verbs4 ,the term1 substantive phrase1 itself a solecism1 was invented merely to cloak this otherwise bald inconsistency4 ,copying ,lowth again1 the great ,compiler defines a phrase to be two or more words rightly put together2 and1 surely1 if we have a well-digested system of grammar1 whatsoever words are rightly put together1 may be regularly parsed by it4 ,but how can one indivisible word be consistently made two different parts of speech at once8 ,and is not this the situation of every transitive participle that is made either the subject or the object of a verb8 ,adjuncts never alter either the nature or the construction of the words on which they depend2 and participial nouns differ from participles in both4 ,the former express actions as things2 the latter generally attribute them to their agents or recipients4 ,,obs4 #ba4--,the ,latin gerund is a kind of verbal noun1 partaking of the nature of a participle4--,webster's ,dict4 ,a gerund is a participial noun1 of the neuter gender1 and singular-number1 declinable like a substantive1 having no vocative1 construed like a substantive1 and governing the case of its verb4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,in the ,latin gerund thus defined1 there is an appearance of ancient classical authority for that amphibious species of words of which so much notice has already been taken4 ,our participle in ing1 when governed by a preposition1 undoubtedly corresponds very nearly1 both in sense and construction1 to this ,latin gerund2 the principal difference being1 that the one is declined1 like a noun1 and the other is not4 ,the analogy1 however1 is but lamely maintained1 when we come to those irregular constructions in which the participle is made a half-noun in ,english4 ,it is true1 the gerund of the nominative case may be made the subject of a verb in ,latin2 but we do not translate it by the ,english participle1 but rather by the infinitive1 or still oftener by the verb with the auxiliary must3 as1 ,vivendum est mihi rect1 ,i must live well4--,grant's ,l4 ,gram41 p4 #bcb4 ,this is better ,english than the nearer version1 ,living correctly is necessary for me2 and the exact imitation1 ,living is to me correctly1 is nonsense4 ,nor does the ,latin gerund often govern the genitive like a noun1 or ever stand as the direct object of a transitive verb1 except in some few doubtful instances about which the grammarians dispute4 ,for1 in fact1 to explain this species of words1 has puzzled the ,latin grammarians about as much as the ,english2 though the former do not appear to have fallen into those palpable self-contradictions which embarrass the instructions of the latter4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,dr4 ,adam says1 ,the gerund in ,english becomes a substantive1 by prefixing the article to it1 and then it is always to be construed with the preposition of2 as1 ',he is employed in writing letters1' or1 'in the writing of letters3' but it is improper to say1 'in the writing letters1' or1 'in writing of letters4'--,latin and ,english ,gram41 p4 #ahd4 ,this doctrine is also taught by ,lowth1 ,priestley1 ,murray1 ,comly1 ,chandler1 and many others2 most of whom extend the principle to all participles that govern the possessive case2 and they might as well have added all such as are made either the subjects or the objects of verbs1 and such as are put for nominatives after verbs neuter4 ,but ,crombie1 ,allen1 ,churchill1 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 ,hiley1 ,wells1 ,weld1 and some others1 teach that participles may perform these several offices of a substantive1 without dropping the regimen and adjuncts of participles4 ,this doctrine1 too1 ,murray and his copyists absurdly endeavour to reconcile with the other1 by resorting to the idle fiction of substantive phrases endued with all these powers3 as1 ,his being at enmity with ,csar was the cause of perpetual discord4--,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #bcg2 ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,another fault is allowing it to supersede the use of a point4-- ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cgb4 ,to be sure there is a possibility of some ignorant reader's confounding the two vowels in pronunciation4--,ib41 p4 #cge4 ,it is much better to avoid all such ,english as this4 ,say1 rather1 ,his enmity with ,csar was the cause of perpetual discord4--,an other fault is the allowing of it to supersede the use of a point4--,to be sure1 there is a possibility that some ignorant reader may confound the two vowels1 in pronunciation4 ,,obs4 #bc4--;,in ,french1 the infinitive is governed by several different prepositions1 and the gerundive by one only1 the preposition en1--which1 however1 is sometimes suppressed2 as1 en passant1 en faisant1--il alloit courant4--,trait des ,participes1 p4 #b4 ,in ,english1 the gerundive is governed by several different prepositions1 and the infinitive by one only1 the preposition to1--which1 in like manner1 is sometimes suppressed2 as1 to pass1 to do1--,i saw him run4 ,the difficulties in the syntax of the ,french participle in ant1 which corresponds to ours in ing1 are apparently as great in themselves1 as those which the syntax of the ,english word presents2 but they result from entirely different causes1 and chiefly from the liability there is of confounding the participle with the verbal adjective1 which is formed from it4 ,the confounding of it with the gerundive is now1 in either language1 of little or no consequence1 since in modern ,french1 as well as in ,english1 both are indeclinable4 ,for this reason1 ,i have framed the syntactical rule for participles so as to include under that name the gerund1 or gerundive1 which is a participle governed by a preposition4 ,the great difficulty with us1 is1 to determine whether the participle ought1 or ought not1 to be allowed to assume other characteristics of a noun1 without dropping those of a participle1 and without becoming wholly a noun4 ,the liability of confounding the ,english participle with the verbal or participial adjective1 amounts to nothing more than the occasional misnaming of a word in parsing2 or perhaps an occasional ambiguity in the style of some writer1 as in the following citation3 ,i am resolved1 'let the newspapers say what they please of canvassing beauties1 haranguing toasts1 and mobbing demireps1' not to believe one syllable4--,jane ,west's ,letters to a ,young ,lady1 p4 #gd4 ,from these words1 it is scarcely possible to find out1 even with the help of the context whether these three sorts of ladies are spoken of as the canvassers1 haranguers1 and mobbers1 or as being canvassed1 harangued1 and mobbed4 ,if the prolixity and multiplicity of these observations transcend the reader's patience1 let him consider that the questions at issue cannot be settled by the brief enunciation of loose individual opinions1 but must be examined in the light of all the analogies and facts that bear upon them4 ,so considerable are the difficulties of properly distinguishing the participle from the verbal adjective in ,french1 that that indefatigable grammarian1 ,girault ,du ,vivier1 after completing his ,grammaire des ,grammaires in two large octavo volumes1 thought proper to enlarge his instructions on this head1 and to publish them in a separate book1 7,trait des ,participes17 though we have it on his own authority1 that the rule for participles had already given rise to a greater number of dissertations and particular treatises than any other point in ,french grammar4 ,,obs4 #bd4--;,a participle construed after the nominative or the objective case1 is not in general equivalent to a verbal noun governing the possessive4 ,there is sometimes a nice distinction to be observed in the application of these two constructions4 ,for the leading word in sense1 should not be made the adjunct in construction4 ,the following sentences exhibit a disregard to this principle1 and are both inaccurate3 ,he felt his strength's declining4--,he was sensible of his strength declining4 ,in the former sentence1 the noun strength should be in the objective case1 governed by felt2 and in the latter1 it should rather be in the possessive1 governed by declining4 ,thus3 ,he felt his strength declining2 i4e41 felt it decline4--,he was sensible of his strength's declining2 i4e41 of its decline4 ,these two sentences state the same fact1 but1 in construction1 they are very different2 nor does it appear1 that where there is no difference of meaning1 the two constructions are properly interchangeable4 ,this point has already been briefly noticed in ,obs4 #abth and #acth on ,rule #dth4 ,but the false and discordant instructions which our grammarians deliver respecting possessives before participles2 their strange neglect of this plain principle of reason1 that the leading word in sense ought to be made the leading or governing word in the construction2 and the difficulties which they and other writers are continually falling into1 by talking their choice between two errors1 in stead of avoiding both3 these1 as well as their suggestions of sameness or difference of import between the participle and the participial noun1 require some farther extension of my observations in this place4 ,,obs4 #be4--,upon the classification of words1 as parts of speech1 distinguished according to their natures and uses1 depends the whole scheme of grammatical science4 ,and it is plain1 that a bad distribution1 or a confounding of such things as ought to be separated1 must necessarily be attended with inconveniences to the student1 for which no skill or learning in the expounder of such a system can ever compensate4 ,the absurdity of supposing with ,horne ,tooke1 that the same word can never be used so differently as to belong to different parts of speech1 ,i have already alluded to more than once4 ,the absolute necessity of classing words1 not according to their derivation merely1 but rather according to their sense and construction1 is too evident to require any proof4 ,yet1 different as are the natures and the uses of verbs1 participles1 and nouns1 it is no uncommon thing to find these three parts of speech confounded together2 and that too to a very great extent1 and by some of our very best grammarians1 without even an attempt on their part to distinguish them4 ,for instances of this glaring fault and perplexing inconsistency1 the reader may turn to the books of ,w4 ,allen and ,t4 ,o4 ,churchill1 two of the best authors that have ever written on ,english grammar4 ,of the participle the latter gives no formal definition1 but he represents it as a form1 in which the action denoted by the verb is capable of being joined to a noun as its quality1 or accident4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,again he says1 ,that the participle is a mere mode of the verb is manifest1 if our definition of a verb be admitted4--,ib41 p4 #bdb4 ,while he thus identifies the participle with the verb1 this author scruples not to make what he calls the imperfect participle perform all the offices of a noun3 saying1 ,frequently too it is used as a noun1 admits a preposition or an article before it1 becomes a plural by taking s at the end1 and governs a possessive case3 as1 ',he who has the comings in of a prince1 may be ruined by his own gaming1 or his wife's squandering4'--,ib41 p4 #add4 ,the plural here exhibited1 if rightly written1 would have the s1 not at the end1 but in the middle2 for comings-in1 7an obsolete expression for revenues17 is not two words1 but one4 ,nor are gaming and squandering1 to be here called participles1 but nouns4 ,yet1 among all his rules and annotations1 ,i do not find that ,churchill any where teaches that participles become nouns when they are used substantively4 ,the following example he exhibits for the express purpose of showing that the nominatives to is and may be are not nouns1 but participles3 ,walking is the best exercise1 though riding may be more pleasant4--,ib41 p4 #ada4 ,and1 what is far worse1 though his book is professedly an amplification of ,lowth's brief grammar1 he so completely annuls the advice of ,lowth concerning the distinguishing of participles from participial nouns1 that he not only misnames the latter when they are used correctly1 but approves and adopts well-nigh all the various forms of error1 with which the mixed and irregular construction of participles has filled our language3 of these forms1 there are1 ,i think1 not fewer than a dozen4 ,,obs4 #bf4--;,allen's account of the participle is no better than ,churchill's--and no worse than what the reader may find in many an ,english ,grammar now in use4 ,this author's fault is not so much a lack of learning or of comprehension1 as of order and discrimination4 ,we see in him1 that it is possible for a man to be well acquainted with ,english authors1 ancient as well as modern1 and to read ,greek and ,latin1 ,french and ,saxon1 and yet to falter miserably in describing the nature and uses of the ,english participle4 ,like many others1 he does not acknowledge this sort of words to be one of the parts of speech2 but commences his account of it by the following absurdity3 ,the participles are adjectives derived from the verb2 as1 pursuing1 pursued1 having pursued4--,elements of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,this definition not only confounds the participle with the participial adjective1 but merges the whole of the former species in a part of speech of which he had not even recognized the latter as a subdivision3 ,an adjective shows the quality of a thing4 ,adjectives may be reduced to five classes3 #a4 ,common--#b4 ,proper--#c4 ,numeral--#d4 ,pronominal--#e4 ,compound4--,ib41 p4 #dg4 ,now1 if participles are adjectives1 to which of these five classes do they belong8 ,but there are participial or verbal adjectives1 very many2 a sixth class1 without which this distribution is false and incomplete3 as1 a loving father2 an approved copy4 ,the participle differs from these1 as much as it does from a noun4 ,but says our author1 ,participles1 as simple adjectives1 belong to a noun2 as1 a loving father2 an approved copy2--as parts of the verb1 they have the same government as their verbs have2 as1 his father1 recalling the pleasures of past years1 joined their party4--,ib41 p4 #agj4 ,what confusion is this6 a complete jumble of adjectives1 participles1 and parts of verbs6 ,again3 ,present participles are often construed as substantives2 as1 early rising is conducive to health2 ,i like writing2 we depend on seeing you4--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,here rising and writing are nouns2 but seeing is a participle1 because it is active and governs you1 ,compare this second jumble with the definition above4 ,again he proceeds3 ,to participles thus used1 many of our best authors prefix the article2 as1 ',the being chosen did not prevent disorderly behaviour4' ,bp4 ,tomline4 ',the not knowing how to pass our vacant hours4' ,seed4--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,these examples ,i take to be bad ,english4 ,say rather1 ,the state of election did not prevent disorderly behaviour4--,the want of some entertainment for our vacant hours4 ,the author again proceeds3 ,if a noun limits the meaning of a participle thus used1 that noun is put in the genitive2 as1 your father's coming was unexected4--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,here coming is a noun1 and no participle at all4 ,but the author has a marginal note1 ,a possessive pronoun is equivalent to a genitive2 7ibid427 and he means to approve of possessives before active participles3 as1 ,some of these irregularities arise from our having received the words through a ,french medium4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,this brings us again to that difficult and apparently unresolvable problem1 whether participles as such1 by virtue of their mixed gerundive character1 can1 or cannot1 govern the possessive case2 a question1 about which1 the more a man examines it1 the more he may doubt4 ,,obs4 #bg4--;,but1 before we say any thing more about the government of this case1 let us look at our author's next paragraph on participles3 ,an active participle1 preceded by an article or by a genitive1 is elegantly followed by the preposition of1 before the substantive which follows it2 as1 the compiling of that book occupied several years2 his quitting of the army was unexpected4--,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aga4 ,here the participial nouns compiling and quitting are improperly called active participles1 from which they are certainly as fairly distinguished by the construction1 as they can be by any means whatever4 ,and this complete distinction the author considers at least an elegance1 if not an absolute requisite1 in ,english composition4 ,and he immediately adds3 ,when this construction produces ambiguity1 the expression must be varied4--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,this suggestion is left without illustration2 but it doubtless refers to one of ,murray's remarks1 in which it is said3 ,a phrase in which the article precedes the present participle and the possessive preposition follows it1 will not1 in every instance1 convey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and preposition4 ',he expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher1' is capable of a different sense from1 ',he expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher4'--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #aic2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's ,gram41 #afa2 ,ingersoll's1 #aii2 and others4 ,here may be seen a manifest difference between the verbal or participial noun1 and the participle or gerund2 but ,murray1 in both instances1 absurdly calls the word hearing a present participle2 and1 having robbed the former sentence of a needful comma1 still more absurdly supposes it ambiguous3 whereas the phrase1 in the hearing of the philosopher1 means only1 in the philosopher's hearing2 and not1 in hearing the philosopher1 or1 in hearing of the philosopher4 ,but the true question is1 would it be right to say1 ,he expressed the pleasure he had in the philosopher's hearing him8 ,for here it would be equivocal to say1 in the philosopher's hearing of him2 and some aver1 that of would be wrong1 in any such instance1 even if the sense were clear4 ,but let us recur to the mixed example from ,allen1 and compare it with his own doctrines4 ,to say1 from our having received of the words through a ,french medium1 would certainly be no elegance2 and if it be not an ambiguity1 it is something worse4 ,the expression1 then1 must be varied4 ,but varied how8 ,is it right without the of1 though contrary to the author's rule for elegance8 ,,obs4 #bh4--,the observations which have been made on this point1 under the rule for the possessive case1 while they show1 to some extent1 the inconsistencies in doctrine1 and the improprieties of practice1 into which the difficulties of the mixed participle have betrayed some of our principal grammarians1 bring likewise the weight of much authority and reason against the custom of blending without distinction the characteristics of nouns and participles in the same word or words2 but still they may not be thought sufficient to prove this custom to be altogether wrong2 nor do they pretend to have fully established the dogma1 that such a construction is in no instance admissible4 ,they show1 however1 that possessives before participles are seldom to be approved2 and perhaps1 in the present instance1 the meaning might be quite as well expressed by a common substantive1 or the regular participial noun3 as1 ,some of these irregularities arise from our reception of the words--or our receiving of the words--through a ,french medium4 ,but there are some examples which it is not easy to amend1 either in this way1 or in any other2 as1 ,the miscarriages of youth have very much proceeded from their being imprudently indulged1 or left to themselves4--,friends' ,n4 ,e4 ,discipline1 p4 #ac4 ,and there are instances too1 of a similar character1 in which the possessive case cannot be used4 ,for example3 ,nobody will doubt of this being a sufficient proof4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ff4 ,but instead of this being the fact of the case1 c4--,butlers ,analogy1 p4 #acg4 ,there is express historical or traditional evidence1 as ancient as history1 of the system of religion being taught mankind by revelation4--,ibid4 ,from things in it appearing to men foolishness4--,ib41 p4 #age4 ,as to the consistency of the members of our society joining themselves to those called free-masons4--,n4 ,e4 ,discip41 p4 #ea4 ,in either of these cases happening1 the person charging is at liberty to bring the matter before the church1 who are the only judges now remaining4--,ib41 p4 #cf2 ,extracts1 p4 #eg4 ,deriving its efficacy from the power of ,god fulfilling his purpose4--,religious ,world1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bce4 ,we have no idea of any certain portion of time intervening between the time of the action and the time of speaking of it4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #cc3 ,murray's1 i1 #gj2 ,emmons's1 #da2 and others4 ,the following example therefore1 however the participle may seem to be the leading word in sense1 is unquestionably wrong2 and that in more respects than one3 ,the reason and time of the ,son of ,god's becoming man4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 xxii4 ,many writers would here be satisfied with merely omitting the possessive sign2 as does ,churchill1 in the following example3 ,the chief cause of this appears to me to lie in grammarians having considered them solely as the signs of tense4--,new ,gram41 p4 #bdc4 ,but this sort of construction1 too1 whenever the noun before the participle is not the leading word in sense1 is ungrammatical4 ,in stead1 therefore1 of stickling for choice between two such errors1 we ought to adopt some better expression2 as1 ,the reason and time of the ,saviour's incarnation4--,the chief cause of this appears to me to be1 that grammarians have considered them solely as signs of tense4 ,,obs4 #bi4--;,it is certain that the noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of a participle1 cannot always be put in the genitive or possessive case2 for the sense intended sometimes positively forbids such a construction1 and requires the objective3 as1 ,a syllable consists of one or more letters forming one sound4--,allen's ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,the word representing or denoting would here be better than forming1 because the letters do not1 strictly speaking1 form the sound4 ,but chiefly let it be noticed1 that the word letters could not with any propriety have been put in the possessive case4 ,nor is it always necessary or proper1 to prefer that case1 where the sense may be supposed to admit it2 as1 ',the example which ,mr4 ,seyer has adduced1 of the gerund governing the genitive of the agent4' ,dr4 ,crombie4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bcg4 ,which possibly might have been prevented by parents doing their duty4--,n4 ,e4 ,discipline1 p4 #ahg4 ,as to the seeming contradiction of ,one being ,three1 and ,three ,one4--,religious ,world1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aac4 ,you have watched them climbing from chair to chair4--,,pierpont3 ,liberator1 ,vol4 x1 p4 #bb4 ,whether the world came into being as it is1 by an intelligent ,agent forming it thus1 or not4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #abi4 ,in the farther supposition of necessary agents being thus rewarded and punished4--,ib41 p4 #adj4 ,he grievously punished the ,israelites murmuring for want of water4--,leslie1 on ,tythes1 p4 #ba4 ,here too the words1 gerund1 parents1 ,one1 ,three1 them1 ,agent1 agents1 and ,israelites1 are rightly put in the objective case2 yet doubtless some will think1 though ,i do not1 that they might as well have been put in the possessive4 ,respectable writers sometimes use the latter case1 where the former would convey the same meaning1 and be more regular2 as1 ,which is used1 as active verbs often are1 without its regimen's being expressed4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #cjb4 ,omit the apostrophe and s2 and1 if you please1 the word being also4 ,the daily instances of men's dying around us4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aac4 ,say rather1--of men dying around us4 ,to prevent our rashly engaging in arduous or dangerous enterprises4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 #ag4 ,say1 ,to prevent us from1 c4 ,the following example is manifestly inconsistent with itself2 and1 in my opinion1 the three possessives are all wrong3 ,the kitchen too now begins to give 'dreadful note of preparation2' not from armourers accomplishing the knights1 but from the shop maid's chopping force meat1 the apprentice's cleaning knives1 and the journeyman's receiving a practical lesson in the art of waiting at table4--,west's ,letters to a ,lady1 p4 #ff4 ,it should be--not from armorers accomplishing the knights1 but from the shopmaid chopping forcemeat1 the apprentice cleaning knives1 and the journeyman receiving1 c4 ,the nouns are the principal words1 and the participles are adjuncts4 ,they might be separated by commas1 if semicolons were put where the commas now are4 ,,obs4 #cj4--,our authors1 good and bad1 critics and no critics1 with few exceptions1 write sometimes the objective case before the participle1 and sometimes the possessive1 under precisely the same circumstances2 as1 ,we should1 presently1 be sensible of the melody suffering4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abb4 ,we should1 presently1 be sensible of the melody's suffering4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cbg4 ,we shall presently be sensible of the melody suffering4--,murray's ,exercises1 #hvo1 p4 #fj4 ,we shall presently be sensible of the melody's suffering4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aie4 ,and ,i explain what is meant by the nominative case governing the verb1 and by the verb agreeing with its nominative case4--,rand's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,take the verb study1 and speak of ,john's studying his lesson1 at different times4--,ib41 p4 #ec4 ,the following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of the objective4--,j4 ,m4 ,putnam's ,gram41 p4 #aab4 ,the following are examples of an adverb's qualifying a whole sentence4--,ib41 p4 #abh4 ,where the noun is the name of a person1 the cases may also be distinguished by the nominative's answering to ,,who1 and the objective to ,,whom4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,this depends chiefly on their being more or less emphatic2 and on the vowel sound being long or short4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ahb4 ,when they speak of a monosyllable having the grave or the acute accent4--,walker's ,key1 p4 #cbh4 ,here some would erroneously prefer the possessive case before having2 but1 if any amendment can be effected it is only by inserting as there4 ,the event of ,maria's loving her brother4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,between that and the man being on it4--,ib41 p4 #ei4 ,the fact of ,james placing himself4--,ib41 p4 #aff4 ,the event of the persons' going4--,ib41 p4 #afe4 ,here persons' is carelessly put for person's1 i4e41 ,james's3 the author was parsing the puerile text1 ,james went into a store and placed himself beside ,horatio4--,ib41 p4 #afd4 ,and ,i may observe1 in passing1 that ,murray and ,blair are both wrong in using commas with the adverb presently above4 ,,obs4 #ca4--;,it would be easy to fill a page with instances of these two cases1 the objective and the possessive1 used1 as ,i may say1 indiscriminately2 nor is there any other principle by which we can determine which of them is right1 or which preferable1 than that the leading word in sense ought not to be made the adjunct in the construction1 and that the participle1 if it remain such1 ought rather to relate to its noun1 as being the adjunct1 than to govern it in the possessive1 as being the principal term4 ,to what extent either of these cases may properly be used before the participle1 or in what instances either of them may be preferable to the other1 it is not very easy to determine4 ,both are used a great deal too often1 filling with blemishes the style of many authors3 the possessive1 because the participle is not the name of any thing that can be possessed2 the objective1 because no construction can be right in which the relation of the terms is not formed according to the sense4 ,the former usage ,i have already criticised to a great extent4 ,let one example suffice here3 ,there can be no objection to a syllable's being long1 on the ground of its not being so long1 or so much protracted1 as some other long syllables are4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bdb4 ,some would here prefer syllable to syllable's1 but none would be apt to put it for its1 without some other change4 ,the sentence may be amended thus3 ,there can be no objection to a syllable as being long1 on the ground that it is not so long as some other syllables4 ,,obs4 #cb4--;,it should be observed1 that the use of as between the participle and the noun is very often better than either the adoption of the possessive sign1 or the immediate connexion of the two words2 as1 ,another point constantly brought into the investigation now1 is that of military success as forming a claim to civil position4--,boston ,daily ,advertiser4 ,concerning examples like the following1 it may be questioned1 whether the objective is proper or not2 whether the possessive would be preferable or not2 or whether a better construction than either may not be found3 ,there is scarce an instance of any one being chosen for a pattern4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cch4 ,instead of its authenticity being shaken1 it has been rendered more sure than ever4-- ,west's ,letters1 p4 #aig4 ,when there is no longer a possibility of a proper candidate being nominated by either party4--,liberator1 ,vol4 x4 p4 #i4 ,on the first stone being thrown1 it was returned by a fire of musketry4--,ib41 p4 #af4 ,to raise a cry about an innocent person being circumvented by bribery4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bgf4 ,whose principles forbid them taking part in the administration of the government4-- ,liberator1 ,vol4 x1 p4 #ae4 ,it can have no other ground than some such imagination1 as that of our gross bodies being ourselves4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aej4 ,in consequence of this revelation being made4--,ib41 p4 #afb4 ,if such relations between the participle and the objective be disapproved1 the substitution of the possessive case is liable to still stronger objections2 but both may be avoided1 by the use of the nominative or otherwise3 thus1 ,scarcely is any one ever chosen for a pattern4-- ,its authenticity1 in stead of being shaken1 has been rendered more sure than ever4--,when there is no longer a possibility that a proper candidate will be nominated by either party4--,as soon as the first stone was thrown1 there was returned a fire of musketry4--,to raise a cry1 as if an innocent person had been circumvented by bribery4-- ,whose principles forbid them to take part in the administration of the government4--,it can have no other ground than some such imagination1 as that our gross bodies are ourselves4--,in consequence of this revelation which is made4 ,,obs4 #cc4--;,a recent grammarian quotes ,dr4 ,crombie thus3 ,some late writers have discarded a phraseology which appears unobjectionable1 and substituted one that seems less correct2 and instead of saying1 ',lady ,macbeth's walking in her sleep is an incident full of tragic horror1' would say1 ',lady ,macbeth walking in her sleep is an incident full of tragic horror4' ,this seems to me an idle affectation of the ,latin idiom1 less precise than the common mode of expression1 and less consonant with the genius of our language2 for1 ask what was an incident full of tragic horror1 and1 according to this phraseology1 the answer must be1 ,lady ,macbeth2 whereas the meaning is1 not that ,lady ,macbeth1 but her walking in her sleep1 is an incident full of tragic horror4 ,this phraseology also1 in many instances1 conveys not the intended idea2 for1 as ,priestley remarks1 if it is said1 ',what think you of my horse's running to-day8' it is implied that the horse did actually run4 ,if it is said1 ',what think you of my horse running to-day8' it is intended to ask whether it be proper for my horse to run to-day4 ,this distinction1 though frequently neglected1 deserves attention2 for it is obvious that ambiguity may arise from using the latter only of these phraseologies to express both meanings4-- ,maunder's ,compendious ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #ae4 7,see ,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #bhh-bij47 ,to this1 before any comment is offered1 let me add an other quotation3 ,,rule4 ,a noun before the present participle is put in the possessive case2 as1 ,much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently4 ,sometimes1 however1 the sense forbids it to be put in the possessive case2 thus1 ,what do you think of my horse running to-day8 means1 ,do you think ,i should let him run8 but1 ,what do you think of my horse's running8 means1 he has run1 do you think he ran well8-- ,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #ia2 ,brace's ,gram41 #id4 ,see ,bullions's ,gram41 p4 #ajg2 ,hiley's1 #id2 ,murray's1 #hvo4 #aie3 ,ingersoll's1 #bja3 and many others4 ,,obs4 #cd4--;,any phraseology that conveys not the intended idea1 or that involves such an absurdity as that of calling a lady an incident is doubtless sufficiently reprehensible2 but1 compared with a rule of grammar so ill-devised as to mislead the learner nine times in ten1 an occasional ambiguity or solecism is a mere trifle4 ,the word walking1 preceded by a possessive and followed by a preposition1 as above1 is clearly a noun1 and not a participle2 but these authors probably intend to justify the use of possessives before participles1 and even to hold all phraseology of this kind unobjectionable4 ,if such is not their design1 they write as badly as they reason2 and if it is1 their doctrine is both false and inconsistent4 ,that a verbal noun may govern the possessive case1 is certainly no proof that a participle may do so too2 and1 if these parts of speech are to be kept distinct the latter position must be disallowed3 each must abide by its own construction1 as says ,lowth4 ,but the practice which these authors speak of1 as an innovation of some late writers1 and an idle affectation of the ,latin idiom1 is in fact a practice as different from the blunder which they quote1 or feign1 as their just correction of that blunder is different from the thousand errors or irregularities which they intend to shelter under it4 ,to call a lady an incident1 is just as far from any ,latin idiom1 as it is from good ,english2 whereas the very thing which they thus object to at first1 they afterwards approve in this text3 ,what think you of my horse running to-day8 ,this phraseology corresponds with the ,latin idiom2 and it is this1 that1 in fact1 they begin with pronouncing to be less correct than1 ,what think you of my horse's running to-day8 ,,obs4 #ce4--;,between these expressions1 too1 they pretend to fix a distinction of signification2 as1 if the horse's running to-day1 must needs imply a past action1 though1 7they suppose17 the pupil's composing frequently1 or1 the horse running to-day1 signifies a future one4 ,this distinction of time is altogether imaginary2 and the notion1 that to prefer the possessive case before participles1 is merely to withstand an error of some late writers1 is altogether false4 ,the instructions above cited1 therefore1 determine nothing rightly1 except the inaccuracy of one very uncommon form of expression4 ,for1 according to our best grammarians1 the simple mode of correction there adopted will scarcely be found applicable to any other text4 ,it will not be right where the participle happens to be transitive1 or even where it is qualified by an adverb4 ,from their subsequent examples1 it is plain that these gentlemen think otherwise2 but still1 who can understand what they mean by the common mode of expression8 ,what1 for instance1 would they substitute for the following very inaccurate expression from the critical belles-lettres of ,dr4 ,blair8 ,a mother accusing her son1 and accusing him of such actions1 as having first bribed judges to condemn her husband1 and having afterwards poisoned him1 were circumstances that naturally raised strong prejudices against ,cicero's client4--,blair's ,lectures1 p4 #bgd4 ,would they say4 ,a mother's accusing her son1 c41 were circumstances1 c48 ,is this their common mode of expression8 and if it is1 do they not make common what is no better ,english than the ,doctor's8 ,if1 to accuse a son1 and to accuse him greatly1 can be considered different circumstances of the same prosecution1 the sentence may be corrected thus3 ,a mother's accusing of her son1 and her charging of him with such actions1 as those of having first bribed judges to condemn her husband1 and having afterwards poisoned him1 were circumstances that naturally raised strong prejudices against ,cicero's client4 ,,obs4 #cf4--,on several occasions1 as in the tenth and twelfth observations on ,rule #dth1 and in certain parts of the present series1 some notice has been taken of the equivalence or difference of meaning1 real or supposed1 between the construction of the possessive1 and that of an other case1 before the participle2 or between the participial and the substantive use of words in ing4 ,dr4 ,priestley1 to whom1 as well as to ,dr4 ,lowth1 most of our grammarians are indebted for some of their doctrines respecting this sort of derivatives1 pretends to distinguish them1 both as constituting different parts of speech1 and as conveying different meanings4 ,in one place1 he says1 ,when a word ending in ing is preceded by an article1 it seems to be used as a noun2 and therefore ought not to govern an other word1 without the intervention of a preposition4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aeg4 ,and in an other3 ,many nouns are derived from verbs1 and end in ing1 like participles of the present tense4 ,the difference between these nouns and participles is often overlooked1 and the accurate distinction of the two senses not attended to4 ,if ,i say1 ,what think you of my horse's running to-day1 ,i use the ,,noun running1 and suppose the horse to have actually run2 for it is the same thing as if ,i had said1 ,what think you of the running of my horse4 ,but if ,i say1 ,what think you of my horse running to-day1 ,i use the ,,participle1 and ,i mean to ask1 whether it be proper that my horse should run or not3 which1 therefore1 supposes that he had not then run4--,ib41 p4 #abb4 ,whatever our other critics say about the horse running or the horse's running1 they have in general borrowed from ,priestley1 with whom the remark originated1 as it here stands4 ,it appears that ,crombie1 ,murray1 ,maunder1 ,lennie1 ,bullions1 ,ingersoll1 ,barnard1 ,hiley1 and others1 approve the doctrine thus taught1 or at least some part of it2 though some of them1 if not all1 thereby contradict themselves4 ,,ods4 #cg4--;,by the two examples here contrasted1 ,priestley designed to establish a distinction1 not for these texts only1 but for all similar expressions--a distinction both of the noun from the participle1 and of the different senses which he supposed these two constructions to exhibit4 ,in all this1 there is a complete failure4 ,yet with what remarkable ductility and implicitness do other professed critics take for granted what this superficial philologer so hastily prescribes6 ,by acknowledging with reference to such an application of them1 that the two constructions above are both good ,english1 our grammarians do but the more puzzle their disciples respecting the choice between them2 just as ,priestley himself was puzzled1 when he said1 ,so we may either say1 ,i remember it being reckoned1 a great exploit2 or1 perhaps more elegantly1 ,i remember its being reckoned1 c4--,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,murray and others omit this perhaps1 and while they allow both forms to be good1 decidedly prefer the latter2 but neither ,priestley1 nor any of the rest1 ever pretended to discern in these a difference of signification1 or even of parts of speech4 ,for my part1 in stead of approving either of these readings about the great exploit1 ,i have rejected both1 for reasons which have already been given2 and now as to the first two forms of the horserace question1 so far as they may strictly be taken for models1 ,i cannot but condemn them also1 and for the same reasons3 to which reasons may be joined the additional one1 that neither expression is well adapted to the sense which the author himself gives to it in his interpretation4 ,if the ,doctor designed to ask1 ,do you think my horse ran well to-day8 or1 ,do you think it proper for my horse to run to-day8 he ought to have used one or the other of these unequivocal and unobjectionable expressions4 ,there is in fact between the others1 no such difference of meaning as he imagines2 nor does he well distinguish the ,,noun running from the ,,participle runnning2 because he apparently allows the word1 in both instances1 to be qualified by the adverb to-day4#dbb ,,obs4 #ch4--;,it is clear1 that the participle in ing partakes sometimes the nature of its verb and an adjective2 so that it relates to a noun1 like an adjective1 and yet implies time1 and1 if transitive1 governs an object1 like a verb3 as1 ,horses running a race4 ,hence1 by dropping what here distinguishes it as a participle1 the word may become an adjective1 and stand before its noun2 as1 ,a running brook4 ,so1 too1 this participle sometimes partakes the nature of its verb and a noun2 so that it may be governed by a preposition1 like a noun1 though in itself it has no cases or numbers1 but is indeclinable3 as ,in running a race4 ,hence1 again1 by dropping what distinguishes it as a participle1 it may become a noun2 as1 ,running is a safer sport than wrestling4 ,now1 if to a participle we prefix something which makes it an adjective1 we also take away its regimen1 by inserting a preposition2 as1 ,a doctrine undeserving of praise1--,a man uncompromising in his principles4 ,so1 if we put before it an article1 an adjective1 or a possessive1 and thus give to the participle a substantive character or relation1 there is reason to think1 that we ought1 in like manner1 to take away its regimen1 and its adverb too1 if it have any1 and be careful also to distinguish this noun from the participial adjective2 as1 ,the running of a race1--,no racing of horses1--,your deserving of praise4--,a man's compromising of his principles4 ,with respect to the articles1 or any adjectives1 it seems now to be generally conceded1 that these are signs of substantives2 and that1 if added to participles1 they must cause them to be taken1 in all respects1 substantively4 ,but with respect to possessives before participles1 the common practice of our writers very extensively indulges the mixed construction of which ,i have said so much1 and concerning the propriety of which1 the opinions of our grammarians are so various1 so confused1 and so self-contradictory4 ,,obs4 #ci4--,though the participle with a nominative or an objective before it1 is not in general1 equivalent to the verbal noun or the mixed participle with a possessive before it2 and though the significations of the two phrases are often so widely different as to make it palpably absurd to put either for the other2 yet the instances are not few in which it makes little or no difference to the sense1 which of the two forms we prefer1 and therefore1 in these instances1 ,i would certainly choose the more simple and regular construction2 or1 where a better than either can readily be found1 reject both4 ,it is also proper to have some regard to the structure of other languages1 and to the analogy of ,general ,grammar4 ,if there be some late writers who are chargeable with an idle affectation of the ,latin idiom1 there are perhaps more who as idly affect what they suppose consonant with the genius of our language4 ,i allude to those who would prefer the possessive case in a text like the following3 ,wherefore is this noise of the city being in an uproar8'--#a ,kings1 i1 #da4 ,quid sibi vult clamor civitatis tumultuantis8--,vulgate4 ,greek3 ,gis h phon ts poleos chouss2--,septuagint4 ,literally3 ,what means the clamour of the city resounding8 ,que veut dire ce bruit de la ville qui est ainsi mue8--,french ,bible4 ,literally3 ,what means this noise of the city which is so moved8 ,better ,english3 ,what means this noise with which the city rings8 ,in the following example1 there is a seeming imitation of the foregoing ,latin or ,greek construction2 but it may well be doubted whether it would be any improvement to put the word disciples in the possessive case2 nor is it easy to find a third form which would be better than these3 ,their difficulties will not be increased by the intended disciples having ever resided in a ,christian country4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #aai4 ,,obs4 #dj4--;,it may be observed of these different relations between participles and other words1 that nouns are much more apt to be put in the nominative or the objective case1 than are pronouns4 ,for example3 ,there is no more of moral principle in the way of abolitionists nominating their own candidates1 than in that of their voting for those nominated by others4--,,gerrit ,,smith3 ,liberator1 ,vol4 ,x1 p4 #ag4 ,indeed1 a pronoun of the nominative or the objective case is hardly ever used in such a relation1 unless it be so obviously the leading word in sense1 as to preclude all question about the construction4#dbc ,and this fact seems to make it the more doubtful1 whether it be proper to use nouns in that manner4 ,but it may safely be held1 that if the noun can well be considered the leading word in sense1 we are at least under no necessity of subjecting it to the government of a mere participle4 ,if it be thought desirable to vary the foregoing example1 it may easily be done1 thus3 ,there is no more of moral principle to prevent abolitionists from nominating their own candidates1 than to prevent them from voting for those nominated by others4 ,the following example is much like the preceding1 but less justifiable3 ,we see comfort1 security1 strength1 pleasure1 wealth1 and prosperity1 all flowing from men combining together2 and misery1 weakness1 and poverty1 ensuing from their acting separately or in opposition to each other4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #acc4 ,say rather1--from men's combining-together1 or1 from the just combination of men in society2 and1--from their separate action1 or their opposition to one an other4 ,take an other example3 ,if illorum be governed here of negotii1 it must be in this order1 gratia negotii illorum videndi2 and this is1 for the sake of their business being seen1 and not1 for the sake of them being seen4--,johnson's ,grammatical ,commentaries1 p4 #ceb4 ,here the learned critic1 in disputing ,perizonius's resolution of the phrase1 illorum videndi grati has written disputable ,english4 ,but1 had he affected the ,latin idiom1 a nearer imitation of it would have been1--for the sake of their business's being seen1 and not for the sake of their being seen4 ,or nearer still1--for the sake of seeing of their business1 and not1 for the sake of seeing of them4 ,an elegant writer would be apt to avoid all these forms1 and say1--for the sake of seeing their business2 and1--for the sake of seeing them2 though the former phrase1 being but a version of bad ,latin1 makes no very good sense in any way4 ,,obs4 #da4--;,idioms1 or peculiarities of expression1 are never to be approved or valued1 but according to their convenience1 utility1 or elegance4 ,by this rule1 some phrases that are not positively barbarous1 may yet be ungrammatical1 and a construction that is sometimes allowable1 may yet be quite unworthy to be made or reckoned1 the common mode of expression4 ,thus1 in ,latin1 the infinitive verb is occasionally put for a noun1 and taken to signify a property possessed2 as1 ,tuum scire1 thy to know1 the same as tua scientia1 thy knowledge4 ,pers4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,so1 in ,english1 the participle in ing is often taken substantively1 when it does not actually become a substantive or noun2 as1 ,thy knowing this1--,our doing so4--,west4 ,such forms of speech1 because they are idiomatical1 seldom admit of any literal translation1 and are never naturalized by any transfer from one language or dialect into an other2 nor is it proper for grammarians to justify them1 in vernacular speech1 except as figures or anomalies that ought not to be generally imitated4 ,it cannot be truly affirmed1 that the genius of our language ever requires that participles1 as such1 should assume the relations of a noun1 or govern the possessive case2 nor1 on the other hand1 can it be truly denied1 that very excellent and learned writers do sometimes make use of such phraseology4 ,without disrespect to the many users and approvers of these anomalies1 ,i set down for bad ,english every mixed construction of the participle1 for which the language can furnish an equivalent expression that is more simple and more elegant4 ,the extent to which these comparative barbarisms now abound in ,english books1 and the ridiculous fondness for them1 which has been shown by some writers on ,english grammar1 in stead of amounting to any argument in their favour1 are in fact1 plain proofs of the necessity of an endeavour to arrest so obvious and so pernicious an innovation4 ,,obs4 #db4--;,a late author observes as follows3 ,that the ,english gerund1 participle1 or verbal noun1 in ing1 has both an active and a passive signification1 there can be little doubt4#dbd ,whether the ,latin gerund has precisely a similar import1 or whether it is only active1 it may be difficult1 and1 indeed1 after all1 it is not of much moment1 to ascertain4--,grant's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #bcd4 ,the gerund in ,latin most commonly governs the case of its own verb1 as does the active participle1 both in ,latin and ,english3 as1 ,efferor studio patres vestros videndi4 ,cic4 de sen4 #bc4--,lily's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,that is1 ,i am transported1 with a desire of seeing your fathers4 ,but sometimes we find the gerund taken substantively and made to govern the genitive4 ,or1--to adopt the language of an old grammarian3--,interdum non invenust additur gerundiis in di etiam genitivus pluralis3 ut1 ',quum illorum videndi grati me in forum contulissem4'--',novarum qui spectandi faciunt copiam4' ,ter4 ,heaut4 prol4 #bi4--,lily's ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,that is1 ,to gerunds in di there is sometimes not inelegantly added a genitive plural3 as1 ',when1 for the sake of seeing of them1 ,i went into the forum4'--',who present an opportunity of attending of new ones3' i4e41 new comedies4 ,here the of which is inserted after the participle to mark the genitive case which is added1 forms rather an error than an elegance1 though some ,english writers do now and then adopt this idiom4 ,the gerund thus governing the genitive1 is not analogous to our participle governing the possessive2 because this genitive stands1 not for the subject of the being or action1 but for what would otherwise be the object of the gerund1 or of the participle1 as may be seen above4 ,the objection to the participle as governing the possessive1 is1 that it retains its object or its adverb2 for when it does not1 it becomes fairly a noun1 and the objection is removed4 ,r4 ,johnson1 like many others1 erroneously thinks it a noun1 even when it governs an objective1 and has merely a preposition before it2 as1 ,for the sake of seeing them4 ,where seeing 7says he7 is a ,substantive4--,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cec4 ,,obs4 #dc4--;,if the ,latin gerund were made to govern the genitive of the agent1 and allowed at the same time to retain its government as a gerund1 it would then correspond in every thing but declension1 to the ,english participle when made to govern both the possessive case and the objective4 ,but ,i have before observed that no such analogy appears4 ,the following example has been quoted by ,seyer1 as a proof that the gerund may govern the genitive of the agent3 ,cujus autem in dicendo aliquid reprehensum est--,cic4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bcf4 ,that is1 7as ,i understand it17 ,but in whose speaking something is reprehended4 ,this seems to me a case in point2 though ,crombie and ,grant will not allow it to be so4 ,but a single example is not sufficient4 ,if the doctrine is true1 there must be others4 ,in this solitary instance1 it would be easier to doubt the accuracy even of ,cicero1 than to approve the notion of these two critics1 that cujus is here governed by aliquid1 and not by the gerund4 ,here1 says ,grant1 ,i am inclined to concur in opinion with ,dr4 ,crombie1 whose words ,i take the liberty to use1 ',that1 for the sake of euphony1 the gerund is sometimes found governing the genitive of the patient1 or subject say object of the action1 is unquestionable3 thus1 studio videndi patrum vestrorum4 ,that is1 literally1 ,by a desire of seeing of your fathers4 ,but ,i recollect no example1 where the gerund is joined with a possessive adjective1 or genitive of a noun substantive1 where the person is not the patient1 but the agent2 as1 dicendum meum1 ejus dicendum1 cujus dicendum4 ,that is1 my speaking1 his speaking1 whose speaking4 ,in truth1 these phraseologies appear to me1 not only repugnant to the idiom of the language1 but also unfavourable to precision and perspicuity4'--,grant's ,latin ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bcf4 ,,obs4 #dd4--,of that particular distinction between the participle and the participial noun1 which depends on the insertion or omission of the article and the preposition of1 a recent grammarian of considerable merit adopts the following views3 ,this double nature of the participle has led to much irregularity in its use4 ,thus we find1 'indulging which1' 'indulging of which1' 'the indulging which1' and 'the indulging of which1' used indiscriminately4 ,lowth very properly instructs us1 either to use both the article and the preposition with the participle2 as1 'the indulging of which3' or to reject both2 as1 'indulging which3' thus keeping the verbal and substantive forms distinct4 ,but he is wrong1 as ,dr4 ,crombie justly remarks1 in considering these two modes of expression as perfectly similar4 ,suppose ,i am told1 ',bloomfield spoke warmly of the pleasure he had in hearing ,fawcet3' ,i understand at once1 that the eloquence of ,fawcet gave ,bloomfield great pleasure4 ,but were it said1 ',bloomfield spoke warmly of the pleasure he had in the hearing of ,fawcet3' ,i should be led to conclude merely that the orator was within hearing1 when the poet spoke of the pleasure he felt from something1 about which ,i have no information4 ,accordingly ,dr4 ,crombie suggests as a general rule1 conducive at least to perspicuity1 and perhaps to elegance2 that1 when the noun connected with the participle is active1 or doing something1 the article should be inserted before the participle1 and the preposition after it2 and1 when the noun is passive1 or represents the object of an action1 both the article and the preposition should be omitted3#dbe agreeably to the examples just adduced4 ,it is true1 that when the noun following the participle denotes something incapable of the action the participle expresses1 no mistake can arise from using either form3 as1 ',the middle condition seems to be the most advantageously situate for the gaining of wisdom4 ,poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of our wants2 and riches1 upon enjoying our superfluities4' ,addison1 ,spect41 #dfd4 ,yet ,i cannot think it by any means a commendable practice1 thus to jumble together different forms2 and indeed it is certainly better1 as the two modes of expression have different significations1 to confine each to its distinct and proper use1 agreeably to ,dr4 ,crombie's rule1 even when no mistake could arise from interchanging them4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cai4 ,,obs4 #de4--,the two modes of expression which these grammarians would thus apply constantly to different uses1 on the supposition that they have always different significations1 are the same that ,lindley ,murray and his copyists suppose to be generally equivalent1 and concerning which it is merely admitted by the latter1 that they do not in every instance convey the same meaning4 7,see ,obs4 #bgth above47 ,if ,dr4 ,lowth considered them as perfectly similar1 he was undoubtedly very wrong in this matter3 though not more so than these gentlemen1 who resolve to interpret them as being perfectly and constantly dissimilar4 ,dr4 ,adam says1 ,there are1 both in ,latin and in ,english1 substantives derived from the verb1 which so much resemble the ,gerund in their signification1 that frequently they may be substituted in its place4 ,they are generally used1 however1 in a more undetermined sense than the ,gerund1 and in ,english1 have the article always#dbf prefixed to them4 ,thus1 with the gerund1 ,detector legendo ,ciceronem1 ,i am delighted with reading ,cicero4 ,but with the substantive1 ,delector lectione ,ciceronis1 ,i am delighted with the reading of ,cicero4--,lat4 and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,gerunds are so called because they1 as it were1 signify the thing in gerendo1 7anciently written gerundo17 in doing2 and1 along with the action1 convey an idea of the agent4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #gj2 ,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cec4 ,the reading of ,cicero1 does not necessarily signify an action of which ,cicero is the agent1 as ,crombie1 ,churchill1 and ,hiley choose to expound it2 and1 since the gerundive construction of words in ing ought to have a definite reference to the agent or subject of the action or being1 one may perhaps amend even some of their own phraseology above1 by preferring the participial noun3 as1 ,no mistake can arise from the using of either form4--,and riches turn our thoughts too much upon the enjoying of our superfluities4--,even when no mistake could arise from the interchanging of them4 ,where the agent of the action plainly appears1 the gerundive form is to be preferred on account of its brevity2 as1 ,by the observing of truth1 you will command respect2 or1 ,by observing truth1 c4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ahi4 ,here the latter phraseology is greatly preferable1 though this author did not perceive it4 ,i thought nothing was to be done by me before the giving of you thanks4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #fc4 ,say1--before giving you thanks2 for otherwise the word thanks has no proper construction1 the pronoun alone being governed by of--and here again is an error2 for you ought to be the object of to4 ,,obs4 #df4--;,in ,hiley's ,treatise1 a work far more comprehensive than the generality of grammars1 the established principles and best usages of the ,english ,participle are so adroitly summed up1 as to occupy only two pages1 one in ,etymology1 and an other in ,syntax4 ,the author shows how the participle differs from a verb1 and how from an adjective2 yet he neither makes it a separate part of speech1 nor tells us with what other it ought to be included4 ,in lieu of a general rule for the parsing of all participles1 he presents the remark1 ,active transitive participles1 like their verbs1 govern the objective case2 as1 ',i am desirous of hearing him2' ',having praised them1 he sat down4'--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,this is a rule by which one may parse the few objectives which are governed by participles2 but1 for the usual construction of participles themselves1 it is no rule at all2 neither does the grammar1 full as it is1 contain any4 ,hearing is here governed by of1 and ,having praised relates to he2 but this author teaches neither of these facts1 and the former he expressly contradicts by his false definition of a preposition4 ,in his first note1 is exhibited1 in two parts1 the false and ill-written rule which ,churchill quotes from ,crombie4 7#a47 ,when the noun1 connected with the participle1 is active or doing something1 the participle must have an article before it1 and the preposition of after it2 as1 ',in the hearing of the philosopher2' or1 ',in the philosopher's hearing2' ',by the preaching of ,christ2' or1 ',by ,christ's preaching4' ,in these instances1 says ,hiley1 the words hearing and preaching are substantives4 ,if so1 he ought to have corrected this rule1 which twice calls them participles2 but1 in stead of doing that1 he blindly adds1 by way of alternative1 two examples which expressly contradict what the rule asserts4 7#b47 ,but when the noun represents the object of an action1 the article and the preposition of must be omitted2 as1 ',in hearing the philosopher4'--,ib41 p4 #id4 ,if this principle is right1 my second note below1 and most of the corrections under it1 are wrong4 ,but ,i am persuaded that the adopters of this rule did not observe how common is the phraseology which it condemns2 as1 ,for if the casting-away of them be the reconciling of the world1 what shall the receiving of them be1 but life from the dead8--,rom41 xi1 #ae4 ,finally1 this author rejects the of which most critics insert when a possessive precedes the verbal noun2 justifies and prefers the mixed or double construction of the participle2 and1 consequently1 neither wishes nor attempts to distinguish the participle from the verbal noun4 ,yet he does not fail to repeat1 with some additional inaccuracy1 the notion1 that1 ,what do you think of my horse's running8 is different to say from1 ,what do you think of my horse running8--,ib41 p4 #id4 ,,obs4 #dg4--,that ,english books in general1 and the style of even our best writers1 should seldom be found exempt from errors in the construction of participles1 will not be thought wonderful1 when we consider the multiplicity of uses to which words of this sort are put1 and the strange inconsistencies into which all our grammarians have fallen in treating this part of syntax4 ,it is useless1 and worse than useless1 to teach for grammar any thing that is not true2 and no doctrine can be true of which one part palpably oversets an other4 ,what has been taught on the present topic1 has led me into a multitude of critical remarks1 designed both for the refutation of the principles which ,i reject1 and for the elucidation and defence of those which are presently to be summed up in notes1 or special rules1 for the correction of false syntax4 ,if my decisions do not agree with the teaching of our common grammarians1 it is chiefly because these authors contradict themselves4 ,of this sort of teaching ,i shall here offer but one example more1 and then bring these strictures to a close3 ,when present participles are preceded by an article1 or pronoun adjective1 they become nouns1 and must not be followed by objective pronouns1 or nouns without a preposition2 as1 the reading of many books wastes the health4 ,but such nouns1 like all others1 may be used without an article1 being sufficiently discovered by the following preposition2 as1 he was sent to prepare the way1 by preaching of repentance4 ,also an article1 or pronoun adjective1 may precede a clause1 used as a noun1 and commencing with a participle2 as1 his teaching children was necessary4--,dr4 ,wilson's ,syllabus of ,english ,gram41 p4 xxx4 ,here the last position of the learned doctor1 if it be true1 completely annuls the first2 or1 if the first be true1 the last must needs be false1 ,and1 according to ,lowth1 ,l4 ,murray1 and many others1 the second is as bad as either4 ,the bishop says1 concerning this very example1 that by the use of the preposition of after the participle preaching1 the phrase is rendered obscure and ambiguous3 for the obvious meaning of it1 in its present form1 is1 'by preaching concerning repentance1 or on that subject2' whereas the sense intended is1 'by publishing the covenant of repentance1 and declaring repentance to be a condition of acceptance with ,god4'--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,it ought to be1 'by the preaching of repentance2' or1 by preaching repentance4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aic4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xx4 ,,note ,i4--,active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived2 the preposition of1 therefore1 should never be used after the participle1 when the verb does not require it4 ,thus1 in phrases like the following1 of is improper3 ,keeping of one day in seven2--,by preaching of repentance2--,they left beating of ,paul4 ,,note ,,ii4--,when a transitive participle is converted into a noun1 of must be inserted to govern the object following2 as1 ,so that there was no withstanding of him4--,walker's ,particles4 p4 #beb4 ,the cause of their salvation doth not so much arise from their embracing of mercy1 as from ,god's exercising of it--,penington's ,works1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ia4 ,faith is the receiving of ,christ with the whole soul4--,baxter4 ,in thy pouring-out of thy fury upon ,jerusalem4--,ezekiel1 ix1 #h4 ,,note ,,iii4--,when the insertion of the word of1 to complete the conversion of the transitive participle into a noun1 produces ambiguity or harshness1 some better phraseology must be chosen4 ,example3 ,because the action took place prior to the taking place of the other past action4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,here the words prior and place have no regular construction2 and if we say1 prior to the taking of place of the other1 we make the jumble still worse4 ,say therefore1 ,because the action took place before the other past action2--or1 ,because the action took place previously to the other past action4 ,,note ,,iv4--,when participles become nouns1 their adverbs should either become adjectives1 or be taken as parts of such nouns1 written as compound words3 or1 if neither of these methods be agreeable1 a greater change should be made4 ,examples of error3 #a4 ,rightly understanding a sentence1 depends very much on a knowledge of its grammatical construction4--,comly's ,gram41 #abth ,ed41 p4 #h4 ,say1 ,the right understanding of a sentence1 c4 #b4 ,elopement is a running away1 or private departure4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book4 p4 #ajb4 ,write running-away as one word4 #c4 ,if they ,milton's descriptions have any faults1 it is their alluding too frequently to matters of learning1 and to fables of antiquity4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dea4 ,say1 ,if they have any fault1 it is that they allude too frequently1 c4 ,,note ,v4--,when the participle is followed by an adjective1 its conversion into a noun appears to be improper2 because the construction of the adjective becomes anomalous1 and its relation doubtful3 as1 ,when we speak of 'ambition's being restless' or1 'a disease's being deceitful4'--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cdf2 ,kirkham's1 p4 #bbd4 ,this ought to be1 ,when we speak of ambition as being restless1 or a disease as being deceitful2 but ,dr4 ,blair1 from whom the text originally came1 appears to have written it thus3 ,when we speak of ambition's being restless1 or a disease being deceitful4--,,lect4 xvi1 p4 #aee4 ,this is inconsistent with itself2 for one noun is possessive1 and the other1 objective4 ,,note ,,vi4--,when a compound participle is converted into a noun1 the hyphen seems to be necessary1 to prevent ambiguity2 but such compound nouns are never elegant1 and it is in general better to avoid them1 by some change in the expression4 ,example3 ,even as the being healed of a wound1 presupposeth the plaster or salve3 but not1 on the contrary2 for the application of the plaster presupposeth not the being healed4--,barclays ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #adc4 ,the phrase1 the being healed ought to mean only1 the creature healed2 and not1 the being-healed1 or the healing received1 which is what the writer intended4 ,but the simple word healing might have been used in the latter sense2 for1 in participial nouns1 the distinction of voice and of tense are commonly disregarded4 ,,note ,,vii4--,a participle should not be used where the infinitive mood1 the verbal noun1 a common substantive1 or a phrase equivalent1 will better express the meaning4 ,examples3 #a4 ,but placing an accent on the second syllable of these words1 would entirely derange them4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bci4 ,say rather1 ,but1 to place an accent--,but the placing of an accent--or1 ,but an accent placed on the second syllable of these words1 would entirely derange them4 #b4 ,to require their being in that case4--,ib41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ba4 ,say1 ,to require them to be in that case4 #c4 ,she regrets not having read it4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #baf4 ,say1 ,she regrets that she has not read it4 ,or1 ,she does not regret that she has read it4 ,for the text is equivocal1 and admits either of these senses4 ,,note ,,viii4--,a participle used for a nominative after be1 is1 was1 c41 produces a construction which is more naturally understood to be a compound form of the verb2 and which is therefore not well adapted to the sense intended1 when one tells what something is1 was1 or may be4 ,examples3 #a4 ,whose business is shoeing animals4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cfe4 ,say1 ,whose business it is1 to shoe animals2--or1 ,whose business is the shoeing of animals4 #b4 ,this was in fact converting the deposite to his own use4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 p4 #bjj4 ,say rather1 ,this was in fact a converting of the deposite to his own use4--,ib4 ,,note ,,ix4--,verbs of preventing should be made to govern1 not the participle in ing1 nor what are called substantive phrases1 but the objective case of a noun or pronoun2 and if a participle follow1 it ought to be governed by the preposition from3 as1 ,but the admiration due to so eminent a poet1 must not prevent us from remarking some other particulars in which he has failed4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dch4 ,examples of error3 #a4 ,i endeavoured to prevent letting him escape--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,say1--to prevent his escape4 #b4 ,to prevent its being connected with the nearest noun4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cfg4 ,say1 ,to prevent it from being connected1 c4 #c4 ,to prevent it bursting out with open violence4--,robertson's ,america1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #adf4 ,say1 ,to prevent it from bursting out1 c4 #d4 ,to prevent their injuring or murdering of others4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 #bf4 ,say rather1 ,to prevent them from injuring or murdering others4 ,,note ,x4--,in the use of participles and of verbal nouns1 the leading word in sense should always be made the leading or governing word in the construction2 and where there is reason to doubt whether the possessive case or some other ought to come before the participle1 it is better to reject both1 and vary the expression4 ,examples3 ,any person may easily convince himself of the truth of this1 by listening to foreigners conversing in a language which he does not understand4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cfa4 ,it is a relic of the ancient style abounding with negatives4--,ib41 p4 #cfg4 ,these forms are right2 though the latter might be varied1 by the insertion of which abounds for abounding4 ,but the celebrated examples before cited1 about the lady holding up her train1 or the lady's holding up her train1--the person dismissing his servant1 or the person's dismissing his servant1--the horse running to-day1 or the horse's running to-day1--and many others which some grammarians suppose to be interchangeable1 are equally bad in both forms4 ,,note ,,xi4--,participles1 in general1 however construed1 should have a clear reference to the proper subject of the being1 action1 or passion4 ,the following sentence is therefore faulty3 ,by establishing good laws1 our peace is secured4--,russell's ,gram41 p4 #hh2 ,folker's1 p4 #bg4 ,peace not being the establisher of the laws1 these authors should have said1 ,by establishing good laws1 we secure our peace4 ,there will be no danger of spoiling their faces1 or of gaining converts4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 p4 #bja4 ,this sentence is to me utterly unintelligible4 ,if the context were known1 there might possibly be some sense in saying1 ,they will be in no danger of spoiling their faces1 c4 ,the law is annulled1 in the very act of its being made4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bfg4 ,the act of ,,making a law1 is a phrase intelligible2 but1 the act of its ,,being ,,made1 is a downright solecism--a positive absurdity4 ,,note ,,xii4--,a needless or indiscriminate use of participles for nouns1 or of nouns for participles1 is inelegant1 if not improper1 and ought therefore to be avoided4 ,examples3 ,of denotes possession or belonging4-- ,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aah2 ,ingersoll's1 #ga4 ,the preposition of1 frequently implies possession1 property1 or belonging to4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #acg4 ,say1 ,of frequently denotes possession1 or the relation of property4 ,england perceives the folly of the denying of such concessions4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #adi4 ,expunge the and the last of1 that denying may stand as a participle4 ,,note ,,xiii4--,perfect participles being variously formed1 care should be taken to express them agreeably to the best usage1 and also to distinguish them from the preterits of their verbs1 where there is any difference of form4 ,example3 ,it would be well1 if all writers who endeavour to be accurate1 would be careful to avoid a corruption at present so prevalent1 of saying1 it was wrote1 for1 it was written2 he was drove1 for1 he was driven2 ,i have went1 for1 ,i have gone1 c41 in all which instances a verb is absurdly used to supply the proper participle1 without any necessity from the want of such word4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #ahf4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xx4 ,,examples ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,expunge ,,of4 ,in forming of his sentences1 he was very exact4--,error noticed by ,murray1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aid4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the preposition of is used after the participle forming1 whose verb does not require it4 ,but1 according to ,note #ast under ,rule #bjth1 ,active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived2 the preposition of1 therefore1 should not be used after the participle1 when the verb does not require it4 ,therefore1 of should be omitted2 thus1 ,in forming his sentences1 he was very exact4 ,for not believing of which ,i condemn them--,barclay's ,works1 iii4 #ced4 ,to prohibit his hearers from reading of that book4--,ib41 i1 #bbc4 ,you will please them exceedingly1 in crying down of ordinances4--,,mitchell3 ib41 i1 #bai4 ,the war-wolf subsequently became an engine for casting of stones1--,constable's ,miscellany1 xxi1 #aag4 ,the art of dressing of hides and working in leather was practised4--,ib41 xxi1 #aja4 ,in the choice they had made of him1 for restoring of order4--,rollin's ,hist41 ii1 #cg4 ,the ,arabians exercised themselves by composing of orations and poems4--,sale's ,koran1 p4 #ag4 ,behold1 the widow-woman was there gathering of sticks4--#a ,kings1 xvii1 #aj4 ,the priests were busied in offering of burnt-offerings4--#b ,chron41 xxxv1 #ad4 ,but ,asahel would not turn aside from following of him4--#b ,sam41 ii1 #ba4 ,he left off building of ,ramah1 and dwelt in ,tirzah4--#a ,kings1 xv1 #ba4 ,those who accuse us of denying of it1 belie us4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #bhj4 ,and breaking of bread from house to house4--,ib41 i1 #aib4 ,those that set about repairing of the walls4--,ib41 i1 #dei4 ,and secretly begetting of divisions4--,ib41 i1 #eba4 ,whom he had made use of in gathering of his church4--,ib41 i1 #ece4 ,in defining and distinguishing of the acceptions and uses of those particles4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ab4 ,in punishing of this1 we overthrow ,the laws of nations1 and of nature too4--,dryden1 p4 #ib4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,articles ,,require ,,of4 ,the mixing them makes a miserable jumble of truth and fiction4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ceg4 ,the same objection lies against the employing statues4--,ib41 ii1 #ceh4 ,more efficacious than the venting opulence upon the ,fine ,arts4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 viii4 ,it is the giving different names to the same object4--,ib41 ii1 #ai4 ,when we have in view the erecting a column4--,ib41 ii1 #ef4 ,the straining an elevated subject beyond due bounds1 is a vice not so frequent4--,ib41 i1 #bjf4 ,the cutting evergreens in the shape of animals is very ancient4--,ib41 ii1 #cbg4 ,the keeping juries1 without meet1 drink or fire1 can be accounted for only on the same idea4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cja4 ,the writing the verbs at length on his slate1 will be a very useful exercise4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,the avoiding them is not an object of any moment4--,sheridan's ,lect41 p4 #ahj4 ,comparison is the increasing or decreasing the ,signification of a ,word by degrees4--,british ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,comparison is the ,increasing or ,decreasing the ,quality by ,degrees4--,buchanan's ,english ,syntax1 p4 #bg4 ,the placing a ,circumstance before the ,word with which it is connected1 is the easiest of all ,inversion4--,ib41 p4 #adj4 ,what is emphasis8 ,it is the emitting a stronger and fuller sound of voice1 c4--,bradley's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,besides1 the varying the terms will render the use of them more familiar4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,and yet the confining themselves to this true principle1 has misled them6--,horne ,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ae4 ,what is here commanded1 is merely the relieving his misery4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #dag4 ,the accumulating too great a quantity of knowledge at random1 overloads the mind instead of adorning it4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #e4 ,for the compassing his point4--,rollin's ,hist41 ii1 #ce4 ,to the introducing such an inverted order of things4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ie4 ,which require only the doing an external action4--,ib41 p4 #ahe4 ,the imprisoning my body is to satisfy your wills4--,,geo4 ,,fox3 ,sewel's ,hist41 p4 #dg4 ,who oppose the conferring such extensive command on one person4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #acj4 ,luxury contributed not a little to the enervating their forces4--,sale's ,koran1 p4 #di4 ,the keeping one day of the week for a sabbath4--,barclay's ,works1 i4 #bjb4 ,the doing a thing is contrary to the forbearing of it4--,ib41 i1 #ebg4 ,the doubling the ,sigma is1 however1 sometimes regular4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 p4 #bi4 ,the inserting the common aspirate too1 is improper4--,ib41 p4 #acd4 ,but in ,spenser's time the pronouncing the ed seems already to have been something of an archaism4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #fef4 ,and to the reconciling the effect of their verses on the eye4--,ib41 i1 #fei4 ,when it was not in their power to hinder the taking the whole4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #aee4 ,he had indeed given the orders himself for the shutting the gates4--,ibid4 ,so his whole life was a doing the will of the ,father4--,penington1 iv1 #ii4 ,it signifies the suffering or receiving the action expressed4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,the pretended crime therefore was the declaring himself to be the ,son of ,god4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #baj4 ,parsing is the resolving a sentence into its different parts of speech4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,adjectives ,,require ,,of4 ,there is no expecting the admiration of beholders4--,baxter4 ,there is no hiding you in the house4--,shakspeare4 ,for the better regulating government in the province of ,massachusetts4--,british ,parliament4 ,the precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #f4 ,this state of discipline requires the voluntary foregoing many things which we desire1 and setting ourselves to what we have no inclination to4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aae4 ,this amounts to an active setting themselves against religion4--,ib41 p4 #bfd4 ,which engaged our ancient friends to the orderly establishing our ,christian discipline4--,n4 ,e4 ,discip41 p4 #aag4 ,some men are so unjust that there is no securing our own property or life1 but by opposing force to force4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 #bf4 ,an ,act for the better securing the ,rights and ,liberties of the ,subject4--,geo4 ,,iii1 #cast4 ,miraculous curing the sick is discontinued4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #acg4 ,it would have been no transgressing the apostle's rule4--,ib41 p4 #adf4 ,as far as consistent with the proper conducting the business of the ,house4--,elmore1 in ,congress1 #ahci4 ,because he would have no quarrelling at the just condemning them at that day4--,law and ,grace1 p4 #db4 ,that transferring this natural manner--will ensure propriety4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #cgb4 ,if a man were porter of hell-gate1 he should have old turning the key4--,macbeth1 ,act ii1 ,sc4 #c4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,possessives ,,require ,,of4 ,so very simple a thing as a man's wounding himself4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ig2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cag4 ,or with that man's avowing his designs4--,blair1 p4 #ajd2 ,murray1 p4 #cjh2 ,parker and ,fox1 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #hh4 ,on his putting the question4--,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aaa4 ,the importance of teachers' requiring their pupils to read each section many times over4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #afi4 ,politeness is a kind of forgetting one's self in order to be agreeable to others4--,ramsay's ,cyrus4 ,much1 therefore1 of the merit1 and the agreeableness of epistolary writing1 will depend on its introducing us into some acquaintance with the writer4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgj2 ,mack's ,dissertation in his ,gram41 p4 #age4 ,richard's restoration to respectability1 depends on his paying his debts4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #agf4 ,their supplying ellipses where none ever existed2 their parsing words of sentences already full and perfect1 as though depending on words understood4--,ib41 p4 #cge4 ,her veiling herself and shedding tears1 c41 her upbraiding ,paris for his cowardice1 c4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dcc4 ,a preposition may be known by its admitting after it a personal pronoun1 in the objective case4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bh2 ,alger's1 #ad2 ,bacon's1 #aj2 ,merchant's1 #ah2 and others4 ,but this forms no just objection to its denoting time4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,of men's violating or disregarding the relations which ,god has placed them in here4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #afd4 ,success1 indeed1 no more decides for the right1 than a man's killing his antagonist in a duel4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bie4 ,his reminding them4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #abc4 ,this mistake was corrected by his preceptor's causing him to plant some beans4--,ib41 p4 #bce4 ,their neglecting this was ruinous4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,that he was serious1 appears from his distinguishing the others as 'finite4'--,felch's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,his hearers are not at all sensible of his doing it4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #aai4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,change ,,the ,,expression4 ,an allegory is the saying one thing1 and meaning another2 a double-meaning or dilogy is the saying only one thing1 but having two in view4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dfa4 ,a verb may generally be distinguished1 by its making sense with any of the personal pronouns1 or the word to before it4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bh2 ,alger's1 #ac2 ,bacon's1 #aj2 ,comly's1 and many others4 ,a noun may1 in general1 be distinguished by its taking an article before it1 or by its making sense of itself4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #ag2 ,murray's1 #bg2 c4 ,an ,adjective may usually be known by its making sense with the addition of the word thing3 as1 a good thing2 a bad thing4--,same ,authors4 ,it is seen in the objective case1 from its denoting the object affected by the act of leaving4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,it is seen in the possessive case1 from its denoting the possessor of something4--,ibid4 ,the name man is caused by the adname whatever to be twofold subjective case1 from its denoting1 of itself1 one person as the subject of the two remarks4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,when1 as used in the last line1 is a connective1 from its joining that line to the other part of the sentence4--,ib41 p4 #ei4 ,from their denoting reciprocation4--,ib41 p4 #fd4 ,to allow them the making use of that liberty4--,sale's ,koran1 p4 #aaf4 ,the worst effect of it is1 the fixing on your mind a habit of indecision4--,todd's ,student's ,manual1 p4 #fj4 ,and you groan the more deeply1 as you reflect that there is no shaking it off4--,ib41 p4 #dg4 ,i know of nothing that can justify the having recourse to a ,latin translation of a ,greek writer4--,coleridge's ,introduction1 p4 #af4 ,humour is the making others act or talk absurdly4--,hazlitt's ,lectures4 ,there are remarkable instances of their not affecting each other4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aej4 ,the leaving ,csar out of the commission was not from any slight4--,life of ,cicero1 p4 #dd4 ,of the receiving this toleration thankfully ,i shall say no more4--,dryden's ,works1 p4 #hh4 ,henrietta was delighted with ,julia's working lace so very well4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bee4 ,and it is from their representing each two different words that the confusion has arisen4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #db4 schylus died of a fracture of his skull1 caused by an eagle's letting fall a tortoise on his head4--,biog4 ,dict4 ,he doubted their having it4--,felch's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,the making ourselves clearly understood1 is the chief end of speech4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #fh4 ,there is no discovering in their countenances1 any signs which are the natural concomitants of the feelings of the heart4--,ib41 p4 #afe4 ,nothing can be more common or less proper than to speak of a river's emptying itself4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ahf4 ,our not using the former expression1 is owing to this4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,disposal ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,to this generally succeeds the division1 or the laying down the method of the discourse4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #caa4 ,to the pulling down of strong holds4--#b ,cor41 x1 #d4 ,can a mere buckling on a military weapon infuse courage8--,brown's ,estimate1 i1 #fb4 ,living expensively and luxuriously destroys health4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bcd4 ,by living frugally and temperately1 health is preserved4--,ibid4 ,by living temperately1 our health is promoted4--,ib41 p4 #bbg4 ,by the doing away of the necessity4--,the ,friend1 xiii1 #aeg4 ,he recommended to them1 however1 the immediately calling of the whole community to the church4--,gregory's ,dict41 w4 ,ventriloquism4 ,the separation of large numbers in this manner certainly facilitates the reading them rightly4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cjc4 ,from their merely admitting of a twofold grammatical construction4--,philol4 ,museum1 i4 #djc4 ,his gravely lecturing his friend about it4--,ib41 i1 #dgh4 ,for the blotting out of sin4--,gurney's ,evidences1 p4 #adj4 ,from the not using of water4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ahi4 ,by the gentle dropping in of a pebble4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #abe4 ,to the carrying on a great part of that general course of nature4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #abg4 ,then the not interposing is so far from being a ground of complaint4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 ,the bare omission1 or rather the not employing of what is used4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ahj2 ,jamieson's1 #dh4 ,bringing together incongruous adverbs is a very common fault4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cbi4 ,this is a presumptive proof of its not proceeding from them4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ahf4 ,it represents him in a character to which the acting unjustly is peculiarly unsuitable4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cgb4 ,they will aim at something higher than merely the dealing out of harmonious sounds4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #fe4 ,this is intelligible and sufficient2 and going farther seems beyond the reach of our faculties4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #adg4 ,apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of the subject4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cdh2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #ahe4 ,even ,isabella was finally prevailed upon to assent to the sending out a commission to investigate his conduct4--,life of ,columbus4 ,for the turning away of the simple shall slay them4--,prov41 i1 #cb4 ,thick fingers always should command ,without the stretching out the hand4--,king's ,poems1 p4 #ehe4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,participles ,,with ,,adjectives4 ,is there any ,scripture speaks of the light's being inward8--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #cfg4 ,for ,i believe not the being positive therein essential to salvation4--,ib41 iii1 #ccj4 ,our not being able to act an uniform right part without some thought and care4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #abb4 ,upon supposition of its being reconcileable with the constitution of nature4--,ib41 p4 #abh4 ,upon account of its not being discoverable by reason or experience4--,ib41 p4 #agj4 ,upon account of their being unlike the known course of nature4--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,our being able to discern reasons for them1 gives a positive credibility to the history of them4--,ib41 p4 #agd4 ,from its not being universal4--,ib41 p4 #age4 ,that they may be turned into the passive participle in dus is no decisive argument in favour of their being passive4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bcc4 ,with the implied idea of ,st4 ,paul's being then absent from the ,corinthians4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #abc4 ,on account of its becoming gradually weaker1 until it finally dies away into silence4--,ib41 p4 #cb4 ,not without the author's being fully aware4--,ib41 p4 #hd4 ,being witty out of season1 is one sort of folly4--,sheffield's ,works1 ii4 #agb4 ,its being generally susceptible of a much stronger evidence4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ajb4 ,at least their being such rarely enhanceth our opinion1 either of their abilities or of their virtues4--,ib41 p4 #afb4 ,which were the ground of our being one4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #eac4 ,but they may be distinguished from it by their being intransitive4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #fj4 ,to distinguish the higher degree of our persuasion of a thing's being possible4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bcd4 ,his being idle1 and dishonest too1 ,was that which caus'd his utter overthrow4--,tobitt's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,compound ,,verbal ,,nouns4 ,when it denotes being subjected to the exertion of another4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #cg4 ,in a passive sense1 it signifies being subjected to the influence of the action4--,felch's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #fj4 ,the being abandoned by our friends is very deplorable4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #aha4 ,without waiting for their being attacked by the ,macedonians4--,ib41 ii1 #ig4 ,in progress of time1 words were wanted to express men's being connected with certain conditions of fortune4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ace4 ,our being made acquainted with pain and sorrow1 has a tendency to bring us to a settled moderation4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aba4 ,the chancellor's being attached to the king secured his crown2 ,the general's having failed in this enterprise occasioned his disgrace2 ,john's having been writing a long time had wearied him4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ff2 ,sanborn's1 #aga2 ,cooper's1 #if2 ,ingersoll's1 #df2 ,fisk's1 #hc2 and others4 ,the sentence should be1 ',john's having been writing a long time has wearied him4'--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ahf4 ,much depends on this rule's being observed4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #aie4 ,he mentioned a boy's having been corrected for his faults2 ,the boy's having been corrected is shameful to him4--,alger's ,gram41 p4 #fe2 ,merchant's1 #ic4 ,the greater the difficulty of remembrance is1 and the more important the being remembered is to the attainment of the ultimate end4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ij4 ,if the parts in the composition of similar objects were always in equal quantity1 their being compounded would make no odds4--,ib41 p4 #fe4 ,circumstances1 not of such importance as that the scope of the relation is affected by their being known4--,ib41 p4 #cgi4 ,a passive verb expresses the receiving of an action or the being acted upon2 as1 ',john is beaten'--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,so our ,language has another great ,advantage1 namely its not being diversified by ,genders4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,the having been slandered is no fault of ,peter4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,without being ,christ's friends1 there is no being justified4--,william ,penn4 ,being accustomed to danger1 begets intrepidity1 i4e4 lessens fear4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aab4 ,it is1 not being affected so and so1 but acting1 which forms those habits4--,ib41 p4 #aac4 ,in order to our being satisfied of the truth of the apparent paradox4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afd4 ,tropes consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive meaning4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #acb2 ,jamieson's1 #adj2 ,murray's ,gram41 #ccg2 ,kirkham's1 #bbb4 ,a ,trope consists in a word's being employed1 c4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,the scriptural view of our being saved from punishment4--,gurney's ,evidences1 p4 #abd4 ,to submit and obey1 is not a renouncing a being led by the ,spirit4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #edb4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,participles ,,for ,,infinitives1 ,c4 ,teaching little children is a pleasant employment4--,bartlett's ,school ,manual1 ii1 #fh4 ,denying or compromising principles of truth is virtually denying their divine ,author4--,reformer1 i1 #cd4 ,a severe critic might point out some expressions that would bear being retrenched4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bjf4 ,never attempt prolonging the pathetic too much4--,ib41 p4 #cbc4 ,i now recollect having mentioned a report of that nature4-- ,whiting's ,reader1 p4 #acb4 ,nor of the necessity which there is for their being restrained in them4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aaf4 ,but doing what ,god commands1 because he commands it1 is obedience1 though it proceeds from hope or fear4--,ib41 p4 #abd4 ,simply closing the nostrils does not so entirely prevent resonance4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #dhd4 ,yet they absolutely refuse doing so4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bfd4 ,but ,artaxerxes could not refuse pardoning him4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #agc4 ,doing them in the best manner is signified by the name of these arts4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #cfj4 ,behaving well for the time to come1 may be insufficient4 --,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aih4 ,the compiler proposed publishing that part by itself4--,dr4 ,adam1 ,rom4 ,antiq41 p4 v4 ,to smile upon those we should censure1 is bringing guilt upon ourselves4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #ajh4 ,but it would be doing great injustice to that illustrious orator to bring his genius down to the same level4--,ib41 p4 #bh4 ,doubting things go ill1 often hurts more than to be sure they do4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #bjc4 ,this is called straining a metaphor4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aej2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cda4 ,this is what ,aristotle calls giving manners to the poem4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dbg4 ,the painter's being entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen1 deprives him of the power of exhibiting various stages of the same action4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aie4 ,it imports retrenching all superfluities1 and pruning the expression4-- ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #id2 ,jamieson's1 #fd2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cja2 ,kirkham's1 #bbj4 ,the necessity for our being thus exempted is further apparent4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #dj4 ,her situation in life does not allow of her being genteel in every thing4--,ib41 p4 #eg4 ,provided you do not dislike being dirty when you are invisible4--,ib41 p4 #eh4 ,there is now an imperious necessity for her being acquainted with her title to eternity4--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ,discarding the restraints of virtue1 is misnamed ingenuousness4--,ib41 p4 #aje4 ,the legislature prohibits opening shop of a ,sunday4--,ib41 p4 #ff4 ,to attempt proving that any thing is right4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bef4 ,the comma directs making a pause of a second in duration1 or less4--,ib41 p4 #bhj4 ,the rule which directs putting other words into the place of it1 is wrong4--,ib41 p4 #cbf4 ,they direct calling the specifying adjectives or adnames adjective pronouns4-- ,ib41 p4 #cch4 ,william dislikes attending court4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,it may perhaps be worth while remarking that ,milton makes a distinction4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #fei4 ,professing regard1 and acting differently1 discover a base mind4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bjf2 ,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 pp4 #hb and #aab2 ,lennie's1 #eh4 ,professing regard and acting indifferently1 discover a base mind4--,weld's ,gram41 ,improved ,edition1 p4 #ei4 ,you have proved beyond contradiction1 that acting thus is the sure way to procure such an object4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ib4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,participles ,,after ,,be1 ,,is1 ,c4 ,irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cec2 ,kirkham's1 #bbe2 ,goldsbury's1 #ij4 ,irony is saying one thing and meaning the reverse of what that expression would represent4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cjc4 ,an ,irony is dissembling or changing the proper signification of a word or sentence to quite the contrary4--,fisher's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,irony is expressing ourselves contrary to what we mean4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bhj4 ,this is in a great ,measure delivering their own ,compositions4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 xxvi4 ,but purity is using rightly the words of the language4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ei4 ,but the most important object is settling the ,english quantity4--,walker's ,key4 p4 #ag4 ,when there is no affinity1 the transition from one meaning to another is taking a very wide step4-- ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bic4 ,it would be losing time to attempt further to illustrate it4--,ib41 p4 #gi4 ,this is leaving the sentence too bare1 and making it to be1 if not nonsense1 hardly sense4--,cobbett's ,gram41 #bbj4 ,this is requiring more labours from every private member4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #abj4 ,is not this using one measure for our neighbours1 and another for ourselves8--,ib41 p4 #bjj4 ,is it not charging ,god foolishly1 when we give these dark colourings to human nature8--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,this is not enduring the cross as a disciple of ,jesus ,christ1 but snatching at it like a partizan of ,swift's ,jack4--,ib41 p4 #age4 ,what is ,spelling8 ,it is combining letters to form syllables and words4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,it is choosing such letters to compose words1 c4--,ibid4 ,what is ,parsing8 7#a47 ,it is describing the nature1 use1 and powers of words4--,ib41 pp4 #bb and #aib4 7#b47 ,for parsing is describing the words of a sentence as they are used4--,ib41 p4 #aj4 7#c47 ,parsing is only describing the nature and relations of words as they are used4--,ib41 p4 #aa4 7#d47 ,parsing1 let the pupil understand and remember1 is describing facts concerning words2 or representing them in their offices and relations as they are4--,ib41 p4 #cd4 7#e47 ,parsing is resolving and explaining words according to the rules of grammar4--,ib41 p4 #cbf4 7#f47 ,parsing a word1 remember1 is enumerating and describing its various relations and qualities1 and its grammatical relations to other words in the sentence4--,ib41 p4 #cbe4 7#g47 ,for parsing a word is enumerating and describing its various properties and relations to the sentence4--,ib41 p4 #cbf4 7#h47 ,parsing a noun is telling of what person1 number1 gender1 and case1 it is2 and also telling all its grammatical relations in a sentence with respect to other words4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #af4 7#i47 ,parsing any part of speech is telling all its properties and relations4--,ibid4 7#aj47 ,parsing is resolving a sentence into its elements4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #ahej1 #ehh4 ,the highway of the righteous is1 departing from evil4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #afh4 ,besides1 the first step towards exhibiting truth should be removing the veil of error4--,ib41 p4 #cgg4 ,punctuation is dividing sentences and the words of sentences1 by pauses4--,ib41 p4 #bhj4 ,another fault is using the preterimperfect shook instead of the participle shaken--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bei4 ,her employment is drawing maps4--,alger's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,going to the play1 according to his notion1 is leading a sensual life1 and exposing ones self to the strongest temptations4 ,this is begging the question1 and therefor requires no answer4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #bag4 ,it is overvaluing ourselves to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aic2 ,ingersoll's1 #aii4 ,what is vocal language8 ,it is speaking2 or expressing ideas by the human voice4--,sanders1 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #g4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,verbs ,,of ,,preventing4 ,the annulling power of the constitution prevented that enactment's becoming a law4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bfg4 ,which prevents the manner's being brief4--,ib41 p4 #cfe4 ,this close prevents their bearing forward as nominatives4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #aec4 ,because this prevents its growing drowzy4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #e4 ,yet this does not prevent his being great4--,ib41 p4 #bg4 ,to prevent its being insipid4--,ib41 p4 #aab4 ,or whose interruptions did not prevent its being continued4--,ib41 p4 #afg4 ,this by no means prevents their being also punishments4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #abc4 ,this hinders not their being also1 in the strictest sense1 punishments4--,ibid41 ,the noise made by the rain and wind prevented their being heard4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aah4 ,he endeavoured to prevent its taking effect4--,ib41 i1 #abh4 ,so sequestered as to prevent their being explored4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #fb4 ,who prevented her making a more pleasant party4--,ib41 p4 #fe4 ,to prevent our being tossed about by every wind of doctrine4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,after the infirmities of age prevented his bearing his part of official duty4--,religious ,world1 ii1 #aic4 ,to prevent splendid trifles passing for matters of importance4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #caj4 ,which prevents his exerting himself to any good purpose4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 i1 #adf4 ,the want of the observance of this rule1 very frequently prevents our being punctual in our duties4--,student's ,manual1 p4 #fe4 ,nothing will prevent his being a student1 and his possessing the means of study4--,ib41 p4 #abg4 ,does the present accident hinder your being honest and brave8--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ea4 ,the e is omitted to prevent two es coming together4--,fowle's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,a pronoun is used for or in place of a noun4--to prevent repeating the noun4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,diversity in the style relieves the ear1 and prevents it being tired with the too frequent recurrence of the rhymes4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aff4 ,diversity in the style relieves the ear1 and prevents its being tired1 c4--,murray's ,gram41 i4 p4 #cfb4 ,timidity and false shame prevent our opposing vicious customs4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bcf2 ,sanborn's ,gram41 #aga2 ,merchant's1 #bje4 ,to prevent their being moved by such4-- ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aee4 ,some obstacle or impediment1 that prevents its taking place4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,which prevents our making a progress towards perfection4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #d4 ,this method of distinguishing words1 must prevent any regular proportion of time being settled4--,ib41 p4 #fg4 ,that nothing but affectation can prevent its always taking place4--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,this did not prevent ,john's being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated ,duke of ,normandy4--,,henry3 ,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #ahb2 his ,improved ,gram41 #acj2 ,sanborn's ,gram41 #ahi2 ,fowler's1 #hvo1 #ahej1 p4 #eda4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,the ,,leading ,,word ,,in ,,sense4 ,this would preclude the possibility of a nouns' or any other word's ever being in the possessive case4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cch4 ,a great part of our pleasure arises from the plan or story being well conducted4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ah1 ,and we have no reason to wonder at this being the case4--,ib41 p4 #bdi4 ,she objected only1 as ,cicero says1 to ,oppianicus having two sons by his present wife4--,ib41 p4 #bgd4 ,the ,britons being subdued by the ,saxons1 was a necessary consequence of their having called in these ,saxons1 to their assistance4--,ib41 p4 #cbi4 ,what he had there said1 concerning the ,saxons expelling the ,britons1 and changing the customs1 the religion1 and the language of the country1 is a clear and good reason for our present language being ,saxon rather than ,british4--,ib41 p4 #bcj4 ,the only material difference between them1 besides the one being short and the other being prolonged1 is1 that a metaphor always explains itself by the words that are connected with it4--,ib41 p4 #aea2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cdb4 ,the description of ,death's advancing to meet ,satan1 on his arrival4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #aef4 ,is not the bare fact of ,god being the witness of it1 sufficient ground for its credibility to rest upon8--,chalmers1 ,serm41 p4 #bhh4 ,as in the case of one entering upon a new study4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 i1 #gg4 ,the manner of these affecting the copula is called the imperative mode4--,,bp4 ,,wilkins3 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,we are freed from the trouble1 by our nouns having no diversity of endings4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #bj4 ,the ,verb is rather indicative of the actions being doing1 or done1 than the time when1 but indeed the ideas are undistinguishable4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #fi4 ,nobody would doubt of this being a sufficient proof4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ff4 ,against the doctrine here maintained1 of conscience being1 as well as reason1 a natural faculty4--,beattie's ,m4 ,sci41 i1 #bfc4 ,it is one cause of the ,greek and ,english languages being much more easy to learn1 than the ,latin4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,i have not been able to make out a solitary instance of such being the fact4--,liberator1 x1 #dj4 ,an angel's forming the appearance of a hand1 and writing the king's condemnation on the wall1 checked their mirth1 and filled them with terror4--,wood's ,dict41 w4 ,belshazzar4 ,the prisoners' having attempted to escape1 aroused the keepers4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ceg4 ,i doubt not1 in the least1 of this having been one cause of the multiplication of divinities in the heathen world4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aee4 ,from the general rule he lays down1 of the verbs being the parent word of all language4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bbg4 ,he was accused of himself being idle4--,felch's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #eb4 ,our meeting is generally dissatisfied with him so removing4--,wm4 ,edmondson4 ,the spectacle is too rare of men's deserving solid fame while not seeking it4--,prof4 ,bush's ,lecture on ,swedenborg4 ,what further need was there of an other priest rising8--,see ,key4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,reference ,,of ,,participles4 ,viewing them separately1 different emotions are produced4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cdd4 ,but leaving this doubtful1 another objection occurs4--,ib41 ii1 #ceh4 ,proceeding from one particular to another1 the subject grew under his hand4--,ib41 i1 #bg4 ,but this is still an interruption1 and a link of the chain broken4--,ib41 ii1 #cad4 ,after some days hunting1 ,cyrus communicated his design to his officers4--,rollin1 ii1 #ff4 ,but it is made1 without the appearance of making it in form4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ceh4 ,these would have had a better effect disjoined thus4--,ib41 p4 #aai2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cji4 ,an improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #i2 ,alger's1 #ab2 ,merchant's1 #i2 ,smith's1 #aah2 ,ingersoll's1 #d4 ,and being led to think of both together1 my view is rendered unsteady4-- ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ie2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cjb2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #ff4 ,by often doing the same thing1 it becomes habitual4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #beg4 ,they remain with us in our dark and solitary hours1 no less than when surrounded with friends and cheerful society4--,ib41 p4 #bch4 ,besides shewing what is right1 the matter may be further explained by pointing out what is wrong4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 viii4 ,the former teaches the true pronunciation of words1 comprising accent1 quantity1 emphasis1 pause1 and tone4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol41 i1 p4 #bce4 ,persons may be reproved for their negligence1 by saying2 ',you have taken great care indeed4'--,ib41 i1 #ced4 ,the words preceding and following it1 are in apposition to each other4--,ib41 ii1 p4 #bb4 ,having finished his speech1 the assembly dispersed4--,cooper's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,were the voice to fall at the close of the last line1 as many a reader is in the habit of doing4-- ,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #aja4 ,the misfortunes of his countrymen were but negatively the effects of his wrath1 by depriving them of his assistance4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bii4 ,taking them as nouns1 this construction may be explained thus4--,grant's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #bcc4 ,these have an active signification1 those which come from neuter verbs being excepted4--,ib41 p4 #bcc4 ,from the evidence of it not being universal4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #hd4 ,and this faith will continually grow1 by acquainting ourselves with our own nature4--,channing's ,self-,culture1 p4 #cc4 ,monosyllables ending with any consonant but f1 l1 or s1 and preceded by a single vowel1 never double the final consonant2 excepting add1 ebb1 c4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bc2 ,picket's1 #aj2 ,merchant's1 #ac2 ,ingersoll's1 #h2 ,fisk's1 #dd2 ,blair's1 #g4 ,the relation of being the object of the action is expressed by the change of the ,noun ,maria to ,mariam--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #ch4 ,in analyzing a proposition1 it is first to be divided into its logical subject and predicate4--,andrews and ,stoddard's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #bed4 ,in analyzing a simple sentence1 it should first be resolved into its logical subject and logical predicate4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #aacth ,ed41 p4 #ahi4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,of ,,participles ,,and ,,nouns4 ,the discovering passions instantly at their birth1 is essential to our well being4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #ceb4 ,i am now to enter on considering the sources of the pleasures of taste4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bh4 ,the varieties in using them are1 indeed many4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cai4 ,changing times and seasons1 removing and setting up kings1 belong to ,providence alone4--,ib41 ,key1 ii1 p4 #bjj4 ,adhering to the partitions seemed the cause of ,france1 accepting the will that of the house of ,bourbon4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #bdf4 ,another source of darkness in composing is1 the injudicious introduction of technical words and phrases4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bdg4 ,these are the rules of grammar1 by the observing of which1 you may avoid mistakes4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aib2 ,merchant's1 #ic2 ,fisk's1 #ace2 ,ingersoll's1 #aih4 ,by the observing of the rules you may avoid mistakes4--,alger's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,by the observing of these rules he succeeded4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,being praised was his ruin4--,ibid4 ,deceiving is not convincing4-- ,ibid4 ,he never feared losing a friend4--,ibid4 ,making books is his amusement4--,alger's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,we call it declining a noun4-- ,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,washington1 however1 pursued the same policy of neutrality1 and opposed firmly1 taking any part in the wars of ,europe4--,hall and ,baker's ,school ,hist41 p4 #bid4 ,the following is a note of ,interrogation1 or asking a question 7874--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #acb4 ,the following is a note of ,admiration1 or expressing wonder 7674--,ib4 ,omitting or using the article a forms a nice distinction in the sense4--,murray's ,gram41 ii1 #bhd4 ,placing the preposition before the word it governs is more graceful4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,assistance is absolutely necessary to their recovery1 and retrieving their affairs4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aig4 ,which termination1 ish1 when added to adjectives1 imports diminution1 or lessening the quality4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aca2 ,kirkham's1 #agb4 ,after what is said1 will it be thought refining too much to suggest1 that the different orders are qualified for different purposes8--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #aad4 ,who has nothing to think of but killing time4--,west's ,letters1 p4 #eh4 ,it requires no nicety of ear1 as in the distinguishing of tones1 or measuring time4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #fe4 ,the ,possessive ,case denotes possession1 or belonging to4--,hall's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,perfect ,,participles4 ,garcilasso was master of the language spoke by the ,incas4--,robertson's ,amer41 ii1 #dei4 ,when an interesting story is broke off in the middle4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bdd4 ,speaking of ,hannibal's elephants drove back by the enemy4--,ib41 ii1 #cb4 ,if ,du ,ryer had not wrote for bread1 he would have equalled them4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #aff4 ,pope describes a rock broke off from a mountain1 and hurling to the plain4--,kames1 ii1 #ajf4 ,i have wrote or have written1 ,thou hast wrote or hast written4 ,he hath or has wrote1 or hath or has written2 c4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #dg2 ,maltby's1 #dg4 ,this was spoke by a pagan4--,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #agd4 ,but ,i have chose to follow the common arrangement4--,ib41 p4 #aj4 ,the language spoke in ,bengal4--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,and sound ,sleep thus broke off1 with suddain ,alarms1 is apt enough to discompose any one4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cb4 ,this is not only the ,case of those ,open ,sinners1 before spoke of4--,right of ,tythes1 p4 #bf4 ,some ,grammarians have wrote a very perplexed and difficult doctrine on ,punctuation4--,ensell's ,gram41 p4 #cdj4 ,there hath a pity arose in me towards thee4--,sewel's ,hist41 fol41 p4 #cbd4 ,abel is the only man that has underwent the awful change of death4--,juvenile ,theatre1 p4 #d4 ,meantime1 on ,afric's glowing sands1 ,smote with keen heat1 the ,trav'ler stands4--,union ,poems1 p4 #hh4 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,adverbs4 ,the syntax of an ,adverb consists in its simple relation to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or whatever else it qualifies2 just as the syntax of an ,english ,adjective1 7except in a few instances17 consists in its simple relation to a noun or a pronoun4 ,,rule ,,xxi4--,,adverbs4 ,adverbs relate to verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 or other adverbs3 as1 ,any passion that habitually discomposes our temper1 or unfits us for properly discharging the duties of life1 has most certainly gained a very dangerous ascendency4--,blair4 ,how bless'd this happy hour1 should he appear1 ,dear to us all1 to me supremely dear6--,pope's ,homer4 ,,exception ,,first4 ,the adverbs yes1 ay1 and yea1 expressing a simple affirmation1 and the adverbs no and nay1 expressing a simple negation1 are always independent4 ,they generally answer a question1 and are equivalent to a whole sentence4 ,is it clear1 that they ought to be called adverbs8 ,no4 ,can honour set to a leg8 ,no4 ,or an arm8 ,no4 ,or take away the grief of a wound8 ,no4 ,honour hath no skill in surgery then8 ,no4--,,shak43 ,first ,part of ,hen4 ,,iv1 ,act v1 #a4 ,,exception ,,second4 ,the word amen1 which is commonly called an adverb1 is often used independently at the beginning or end of a declaration or a prayer2 and is itself a prayer1 meaning1 ,so let it be3 as1 ,surely1 ,i come quickly4 ,amen3 ,even so1 come ,lord ,jesus4--,rev41 xxii1 #bj4 ,when it does not stand thus alone1 it seems in general to be used substantively2 as1 ,the strangers among them stood on ,gerizim1 and echoed amen to the blessings4--,wood's ,dict4 ,these things saith the ,amen4--,rev41 iii1 #ad ,,exception ,,third4 ,an adverb before a preposition seems sometimes to relate to the latter1 rather than to the verb or participle to which the preposition connects its object2 as1 ,this mode of pronunciation runs considerably beyond ordinary discourse4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccd4 ,yea1 all along the times of the apostasy1 this was the thing that preserved the witnesses4--,penington's ,works1 ,vol4 iv1 p4 #ab4 ,see ,obs4 #hth on ,rule #gth4 ,right against the eastern gate1 ,where the great sun begins his state4--,milton1 ,l',allegro4 ,,exception ,,fourth4 ,the words much1 little1 far1 and all1 being originally adjectives1 are sometimes preceded by the negative not1 or 7except the last7 by such an adverb as too1 how1 thus1 so1 or as1 when they are taken substantively2 as1 ,not all that glitters1 is gold4--,too much should not be offered at once4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,thus far is consistent4--,ib41 p4 #afa4 ,thus far is right4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aja4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xxi4 ,,obs4 #a4--,on this rule of syntax1 ,dr4 ,adam remarks1 ,adverbs sometimes likewise qualify substantives2 and gives ,latin examples of the following import3 ,homer plainly an orator3--,truly ,metellus2--,to-morrow morning4 ,but this doctrine is not well proved by such imperfect phrases1 nor can it ever be very consistently admitted1 because it destroys the characteristic difference between an adjective and an adverb4 ,to-morrow is here an adjective2 and as for truly and plainly1 they are not such words as can make sense with nouns4 ,i therefore imagine the phrases to be elliptical3 ,ver ,metellus1 may mean1 ,this is truly ,metellus2 and ,homerus plan orator1 ,homer was plainly an orator4 ,so1 in the example1 ,behold an ,israelite indeed1 the true construction seems to be1 ,behold1 here is indeed an ,israelite2 for1 in the ,greek or ,latin1 the word ,israelite is a nominative1 thus3 ,ecce ver ,isralita4--,beza2 also ,montanus4 ,greek3 ,ide althos ',israaelits4--,greek ,testament4 ,behold appears to be here an interjection1 like ,ecce4 ,if we make it a transitive verb1 the reading should be1 ,behold a true ,israelite2 for the text does not mean1 ,behold indeed an ,israelite4 ,at least1 this is not the meaning in our version4 ,w4 ,h4 ,wells1 citing as authorities for the doctrine1 ,bullions1 ,allen and ,cornwell1 ,brace1 ,butler1 and ,webber1 has the following remark3 ,there are1 however1 certain forms of expression in which adverbs bear a special relation to nouns or pronouns2 as1 ',behold ,i1 even ,i1 do bring a flood of waters4'--,gen4 #f3 #ag4 ',for our gospel came not unto you in word only1 but also in power4'--#a ,thes4 #a3 #e4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #aef2 late ,ed41 #afh4 ,and again1 in his ,punctuation1 we find this3 ,when1 however1 the intervening word is an adverb1 the comma is more commonly omitted2 as1 ',it is labor only which gives a relish to pleasure4'--,ib41 p4 #agf4 ,from all this1 the doctrine receives no better support than from ,adam's suggestion above considered4 ,the word only is often an adjective1 and wherever its special relation is to a noun or a pronoun1 it can be nothing else4 ,even1 when it introduces a word repeated with emphasis1 is a conjunction4 ,,obs4 #b4--,when participles become nouns1 their adverbs are not unfrequently left standing with them in their original relation2 as1 ,for the fall and rising again of many in ,israel4--,luke1 ii1 #cd4 ,to denote the carrying forward of the action4--,barnard's ,gram41 p4 #eb4 ,but in instances like these1 the hyphen seems to be necessary4 ,this mark would make the terms rising-again and carrying-forward compound nouns1 and not participial nouns with adverbs relating to them4 ,there is no flying hence1 nor tarrying here4--,shak41 ,macbeth4 ,what6 in ill thoughts again8 men must endure ,their going hence1 ev'n as their coming hither4--,id4 ,,obs4 #c4--,whenever any of those words which are commonly used adverbially1 are made to relate directly to nouns or pronouns1 they must be reckoned adjectives1 and parsed by ,rule #ith4 ,examples3 ,the above verbs4--,dr4 ,adam4 ,to the above remarks4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cah4 ,the above instance4--,ib41 p4 #ddb4 ,after the above partial illustration4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 ii1 #fb4 ,the above explanation4--,cobbett's ,gram41 #bb4 ,for very age4--,zech41 viii1 #d4 ,from its very greatness4--,phil4 ,museum1 i1 #dca4 ,in his then situation4--,johnson's ,life of ,goldsmith4 ,this was the then state of ,popery4--,id41 ,life of ,dryden1 p4 #ahe4 ,the servant becomes the master of his once master4--,shillitoe4 ,time when is put in the ablative1 time how long is put in the accusative4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bja2 ,gould's1 #aih4 ,nouns signifying the time when or how long1 may be put in the objective case without a preposition4--,wilbur and ,livingston's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,i hear the far-off curfew sound4--,milton4 ,far on the thither side4--,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #eh4 ,my hither way4--,since my here remain in ,england4--,shak4 ,but short and seldom truce4--,fell4 ,an exceeding knave4--,pope4 ,according to my sometime promise4--,zenobia1 i1 #agf4 ,thine often infirmities4--,bible4 ,a far country4--,ib4 ,no wine1--,no new thing1--,no greater joy4--,ib4 ,nothing else4--,blair4 ,tomorrow noon4--,scott4 ,calamity enough4--,tr4 ,sallust4 ,for thou only art holy4--,rev41 xv1 #d4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,it is not my design to justify any uncouth substitution of adverbs for adjectives2 nor do ,i affirm that all the foregoing examples are indisputably good ,english1 though most of them are so2 but merely1 that the words1 when they are thus used1 are adjectives1 and not adverbs4 ,lindley ,murray1 and his copyists1 strongly condemn some of these expressions1 and1 by implication1 most or all of them2 but both he and they1 as well as others1 have repeatedly employed at least one of the very models they censure4 ,they are too severe on all those which they specify4 ,their objections stand thus2 ,such expressions as the following1 though not destitute of authority1 are very inelegant1 and do not suit the idiom of our language2 ',the then ministry1' for1 'the ministry of that time2' ',the above discourse1' for1 'the preceding discourse4'--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #aih2 ,crombie's1 #bid2 ,ingersoll's1 #bjf4 ,the following phrases are also exceptionable3 ',the then ministry2' ',the above argument4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aij4 ,adverbs used as adjectives1 as1 ',the above statement2' ',the then administration2' should be avoided4--,barnard's ,gram41 p4 #bhe4 ,when and then must not be used for nouns and pronouns2 thus1 ',since when1' 'since then1' 'the then ministry1' ought to be1 ',since which time1' 'since that time1' 'the ministry of that period4'--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,dr4 ,priestley1 from whom ,murray derived many of his critical remarks1 noticed these expressions2 and1 7as ,i suppose17 approvingly2 thus1 ,adverbs are often put for adjectives1 agreeably to the idiom of the ,greek tongue3 as1 ',the action was amiss4'--',the then ministry4'--',the idea is alike in both4'--,addison4 ',the above discourse4'--,harris4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 as may be seen above1 thought it not amiss to use then as ,priestley here cites it2 and for such a use of above1 we may quote the objectors themselves3 ,to support the above construction4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #adi2 ,ingersoll's1 p4 #bch4 ,in all the above instances4--,mur41 p4 #bjb2 ,ing41 #bcj4 ,to the above rule4--,mur41 p4 #bgj2 ,ing41 #bhc4 ,the same as the above4--,mur41 p4 #ff2 ,ing41 #df4 ,in such instances as the above4--,mur41 p4 #bd2 ,ing41 #i2 ,kirkham1 #bc4dbg ,,obs4 #e4--,when words of an adverbial character are used after the manner of nouns1 they must be parsed as nouns1 and not as adverbs2 as1 ,the ,son of ,god--was not yea and nay1 but in him was yea4--,bible4 ,for a great while to come4--,ib4 ,on this perhaps1 this peradventure infamous for lies4--,young4 ,from the extremest upward of thine head4--,shak4 ,there are upwards of fifteen millions of inhabitants4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bff4 ,information has been derived from upwards of two hundred volumes4--,worcester's ,hist41 p4 v4 ,an eternal now does always last--,cowley4 ,discourse requires an animated no4--,cowper4 ,their hearts no proud hereafter swelled4--,sprague4 ,an adverb after a preposition is used substantively1 and governed by the preposition2 though perhaps it is not necessary to call it a common noun3 as1 ,for upwards of thirteen years4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 xvi4 ,that thou mayst curse me them from thence4--,numb41 xxiii1 #bg4 ,yet for once we'll try4--,dr4 ,franklin4 ,but many take such terms together1 calling them adverbial phrases4 ,allen says1 ,two adverbs sometimes come together2 as1 ',thou hast kept the good wine until now4'--,gram41 p4 #agd4 ,but until is here more properly a preposition1 governing now4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,it is plain1 that when words of an adverbial form are used either adjectively or substantively1 they cannot be parsed by the foregoing rule1 or explained as having the ordinary relation of adverbs2 and if the unusual relation or character which they thus assume1 be not thought sufficient to fix them in the rank of adjectives or nouns1 the parser may describe them as adverbs used adjectively1 or substantively1 and apply the rule which their assumed construction requires4 ,but let it be remembered1 that adverbs1 as such1 neither relate to nouns1 nor assume the nature of cases3 but express the time1 place1 degree1 or manner1 of actions or qualities4 ,in some instances in which their construction may seem not to be reconcilable with the common rule1 there may be supposed an ellipsis of a verb or a participle3#dbh as1 ,from ,monday to ,saturday inclusively4--,webster's ,dict4 ,here1 the ,doctor ought to have used a comma after ,saturday2 for the adverb relates1 not to that noun1 but to the word reckoned1 understood4 ,it was well said by ,roscommon1 'too faithfully is pedantically4'--,com4 ,sch4 ,journal1 i1 #afg4 ,this saying ,i suppose to mean1 ,to do a thing too faithfully1 is1 to do it pedantically4 ,and1 ,i say truly1 if they had been mindful of that country from whence they came out1 they might have had opportunity to have returned4--,heb41 xi1 #ae4 ,,obs #g4--,to abbreviate expressions1 and give them vivacity1 verbs of self-motion 7such as go1 come1 rise1 get1 c47 are sometimes suppressed1 being suggested to the mind by an emphatic adverb1 which seems to be put for the verb1 but does in fact relate to it understood2 as1 ,i'll hence to ,london1 on a serious matter4--,shak4 ,supply go4 ,i'll in4 ,i'll in4 ,follow your friend's counsel4 ,i'll in--,id4 ,supply get4 ,away1 old man2 give me thy hand2 away4--,id4 ,supply come4 ,love hath wings1 and will away--,waller4 ,supply fly4 ,up1 up1 ,glentarkin6 rouse thee1 ho6--,scott4 ,supply spring4 ,henry the ,fifth is crowned2 up1 vanity6 ,supply stand4 ,down1 royal state6 all you sage counsellors1 hence6--,shak4 ,supply fall1 and get you4 ,but up1 and enter now into full bliss4--,milton4 ,supply rise4 ,,obs4 #h4--,we have1 on some occasions1 a singular way of expressing a transitive action imperatively1 or emphatically1 by adding the preposition with to an adverb of direction2 as1 up with it1 down with it1 in with it1 out with it1 over with it1 away with it1 and the like2 in which construction1 the adverb seems to be used elliptically as above1 though the insertion of the verb would totally enervate or greatly alter the expression4 ,examples3 ,she up with her fist1 and took him on the face4--,sydney1 in ,joh4 ,dictionary4 ,away with him6--,acts1 xxi1 #cf4 ,away with such a fellow from the earth4--,ib41 xxii1 #bb4 ,the calling of assemblies ,i cannot away with--,isaiah1 i1 #ac4 ,hence with denial vain1 and coy excuse4--,milton's ,comus4 ,ingersoll says1 ,sometimes a whole phrase is used as an interjection1 and we call such interjectional phrases3 as1 out upon him6--away with him6--,alas1 what wonder6 c4--,conversations on ,gram41 p4 #gi4 ,this method of lumping together several different parts of speech under the notion of one1 and calling the whole an adverbial phrase1 a substantive phrase1 or an interjectional phrase1 is but a forced put1 by which some grammarians would dodge certain difficulties which they know not how to meet4 ,it is directly repugnant to the idea of parsing2 for the parser ever deals with the parts of speech as such1 and not with whole phrases in the lump4 ,the foregoing adverbs when used imperatively1 have some resemblance to interjections2 but1 in some of the examples above cited1 they certainly are not used in this manner4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,a conjunctive adverb usually relates to two verbs at the same time1 and thus connects two clauses of a compound sentence2 as1 ,and the rest will ,i set in order when ,i come1--#a ,cor41 xi1 #cd4 ,here when is a conjunctive adverb of time1 and relates to the two verbs will set and come2 the meaning being1 ,and the rest will ,i set in order at the time at which ,i come4 ,this adverb when is often used erroneously in lieu of a nominative after is1 to which construction of the word1 such an interpretation as the foregoing would not be applicable2 because the person means to tell1 not when1 but what1 the thing is1 of which he speaks3 as1 ,another cause of obscurity is when the structure of the sentence is too much complicated1 or too artificial2 or when the sense is too long suspended by parentheses4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bdf4 ,here the conjunction that would be much better than when1 but the sentence might advantageously spare them both2 thus1 ,an other cause of obscurity is too much complication1 too artificial a structure of the sentence1 or too long a suspension of the sense by parenthesis4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,for the placing of adverbs1 no definite general rule can be given2 yet is there no other part of speech so liable to be misplaced4 ,those which relate to adjectives1 or to other adverbs1 with very few exceptions1 immediately precede them2 and those which belong to compound verbs1 are commonly placed after the first auxiliary2 or1 if they be emphatical1 after the whole verb4 ,those which relate to simple verbs1 or to simple participles1 are placed sometimes before and sometimes after them4 ,examples are so very common1 ,i shall cite but one3 ,a man may1 in respect to grammatical purity1 speak unexceptionably1 and yet speak obscurely1 or ambiguously2 and though we cannot say1 that a man may speak properly1 and at the same time speak unintelligibly1 yet this last case falls more naturally to be considered as an offence against perspicuity1 than as a violation of propriety4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bci4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,of the infinitive verb and its preposition to1 some grammarians say1 that they must never be separated by an adverb4 ,it is true1 that the adverb is1 in general1 more elegantly placed before the preposition than after it2 but1 possibly1 the latter position of it may sometimes contribute to perspicuity1 which is more essential than elegance3 as1 ,if any man refuse so to implore1 and to so receive pardon1 let him die the death4--,fuller1 on the ,gospel1 p4 #bji4 ,the latter word so1 if placed like the former1 might possibly be understood in a different sense from what it now bears4 ,but perhaps it would be better to say4 ,if any man refuse so to implore1 and on such terms to receive pardon1 let him die the death4 ,honour teaches us properly to respect ourselves4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #beb4 ,here it is not quite clear1 to which verb the adverb properly relates4 ,some change of the expression is therefore needful4 ,the right to place an adverb sometimes between to and its verb1 should1 ,i think1 be conceded to the poets3 as1 ,who dared to nobly stem tyrannic pride4--,,burns3 ,c4 ,sat4 ,n4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the adverb no is used independently1 only when it is equivalent to a whole sentence4 ,this word is sometimes an adverb of degree2 and as such it has this peculiarity1 that it can relate only to comparatives3 as1 ,no more1--,no better1--,no greater1--,no sooner4 ,when no is set before a noun1 it is clearly an adjective1 corresponding to the ,latin nullus2 as1 ,no clouds1 no vapours intervene4--,dyer4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 with no great accuracy1 remarks1 ,it seems an adjective in these phrases1 no longer1 no more1 no where2 though sometimes it may be so commodiously changed to not1 that it seems an adverb2 as1 ',the days are yet no shorter4'--,quarto ,dict4 ,and his first example of what he calls the adverb ,,no is this3 ',our courteous ,antony1 ,whom ne'er the word of no woman heard speak4' ,,shakspeare4--,ibid4 ,dr4 ,webster says1 ,when it precedes where1 as in no where1 it may be considered as adverbial1 though originally an adjective4--,octavo ,dict4 ,the truth is1 that no is an adverb1 whenever it relates to an adjective2 an adjective1 whenever it relates to a noun2 and a noun1 whenever it takes the relation of a case4 ,thus1 in what ,johnson cites from ,shakspeare1 it is a noun1 and not an adverb2 for the meaning is1 that a woman never heard ,antony speak the word of no--that is1 of negation4 ,and there ought to be a comma after this word1 to make the text intelligible4 ,to read it thus3 the word of no woman1 makes no an adjective4 ,so1 to say1 ,there are no abler critics than these1 is a very different thing from saying1 ,there are critics no abler than these2 because no is an adjective in the former sentence1 and an adverb in the latter4 ,somewhere1 nowhere1 anywhere1 else-where1 and everywhere1 are adverbs of place1 each of which is composed of the noun where and an adjective2 and it is absurd to write a part of them as compound words1 and the rest as phrases1 as many authors do4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,in some languages1 the more negatives one crowds into a sentence1 the stronger is the negation2 and this appears to have been formerly the case in ,english1 or in what was anciently the language of ,britain3 as1 ,he never yet no vilanie ne sayde in alle his lif unto no manere wight4--,chaucer4 ,ne ,i ne wol non reherce1 yef that ,i may4--,id4 ,give not me counsel2 nor let no comforter delight mine ear4--,shakspeare4 ,she cannot love1 nor take no shape nor project of affection4--,id4 ,among people of education1 this manner of expression has now become wholly obsolete2 though it still prevails1 to some extent1 in the conversation of the vulgar4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that the repetition of an independent negative word or clause yet strengthens the negation2 as1 ,no1 no1 no4--,no1 never4--,no1 not for an hour4--,gal41 ii1 #e4 ,there is none righteous1 no1 not one4--,rom41 iii1 #aj4 ,but two negatives in the same clause1 if they have any bearing on each other1 destroy the negation1 and render the meaning weakly affirmative2 as1 ,nor did they not perceive their evil plight4--,milton4 ,that is1 they did perceive it4 ',his language1 though inelegant1 is not ungrammatical2' that is1 it is grammatical4-- ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aih4 ,the term not only1 or not merely1 being a correspondent to but or but also1 may be followed by an other negative without this effect1 because the two negative words have no immediate bearing on each other2 as1 ,your brother is not only not present1 and not assisting in prosecuting your injuries1 but is now actually with ,verres4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p1 #ai4 ,in the latter we have not merely nothing1 to denote what the point should be2 but no indication1 that any point at all is wanting4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cgc4 ,so the word nothing1 when taken positively for nonentity1 or that which does not exist1 may be followed by an other negative2 as1 ,first1 seat him somewhere1 and derive his race1 ,or else conclude that nothing has no place4--,dryden1 p4 #ie4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,the common rule of our grammars1 ,two negatives1 in ,english1 destroy each other1 or are equivalent to an affirmative1 is far from being true of all possible examples4 ,a sort of informal exception to it1 7which is mostly confined to conversation17 is made by a familiar transfer of the word neither from the beginning of the clause to the end of it2 as1 ,but here is no notice taken of that neither--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #ccf4 ,that is1 ,but neither is any notice here taken of that4 ,indeed a negation may be repeated1 by the same word or others1 as often as we please1 if no two of the terms in particular contradict each other2 as1 ,he will never consent1 not he1 no1 never1 nor ,i neither4 ,he will not have time1 no1 nor capacity neither4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #ajc4 ,many terms and idioms may be common1 which1 nevertheless1 have not the general sanction1 no1 nor even the sanction of those that use them4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afj2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ceh4 ,and as to the equivalence spoken of in the same rule1 such an expression as1 ,he did not say nothing1 is in fact only a vulgar solecism1 take it as you will2 whether for1 ,he did not say anything1 or for1 ,he did say something4 ,the latter indeed is what the contradiction amounts to2 but double negatives must be shunned1 whenever they seem like blunders4 ,the following examples have1 for this reason1 been thought objectionable2 though ,allen says1 ,two negatives destroy each other1 or elegantly form an affirmation4--,gram41 p4 #agd4 ------------,nor knew ,i not ,to be both will and deed created free4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 v41 l4 #edh4 ,nor doth the moon no nourishment exhale ,from her moist continent to higher orbs4 --,ib41 ,b4 v1 l4 #dba4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,under the head of double negatives1 there appears in our grammars a dispute of some importance1 concerning the adoption of or or nor1 when any other negative than neither or nor occurs in the preceding clause or phrase3 as1 ,we will not serve thy gods1 nor worship the golden image4--,dan41 iii41 #ah4 ,ye have no portion1 nor right1 nor memorial in ,jerusalem4--,neh41 ii1 #bj4 ,there is no painsworthy difficulty nor dispute about them4--,horne ,tooke1 ,div41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dc4 ,so as not to cloud that principal object1 nor to bury it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aae2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cbb4 ,he did not mention ,leonora1 nor her father's death4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bfd4 ,thou canst not tell whence it cometh1 nor whither it goeth4--,ib41 p4 #bae4 ,the form of this text1 in ,john iii1 #hth4 is--,but canst not tell whence it cometh1 and whither it goeth2 which ,murray inserted in his exercises as bad ,english4 ,i do not see that the copulative and is here ungrammatical2 but if we prefer a disjunctive1 ought it not to be or rather than nor8 ,it appears to be the opinion of some1 that in ail these examples1 and in similar instances innumerable1 nor only is proper4 ,others suppose1 that or only is justifiable2 and others again1 that either or or nor is perfectly correct4 ,thus grammar1 or what should be grammar1 differs in the hands of different men6 ,the principle to be settled here1 must determine the correctness or incorrectness of a vast number of very common expressions4 ,i imagine that none of these opinions is warrantable1 if taken in all that extent to which each of them has been1 or may be1 carried4 ,,obs4 #af4--;,it was observed by ,priestley1 and after him by ,lindley ,murray1 from whom others again have copied the remark3 ,sometimes the particles or and nor1 may1 either of them1 be used with nearly equal propriety2 as1 ',the king1 whose character was not sufficiently vigorous1 nor decisive1 assented to the measure4'--,hume4 ,or would perhaps have been better1 but nor seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence1 and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression4-- ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ach2 ,murray's1 i1 #bab2 ,ingersoll's1 #bfh2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #agg4 ,the conjunction or might doubtless have been used in this sentence1 but not with the same meaning that is now conveyed2 for1 if that connective had been employed1 the adjective decisive would have been qualified by the adverb sufficiently1 and would have seemed only an alternative for the former epithet1 vigorous4 ,as the text now stands1 it not only implies a distinction between vigour of character and decision of character1 but denies the latter to the king absolutely1 the former1 with qualification4 ,if the author had meant to suggest such a distinction1 and also to qualify his denial of both1 he ought to have said--not sufficiently vigorous1 nor sufficiently decisive4 ,with this meaning1 however1 he might have used neither for not2 or with the former1 he might have used or for nor1 had he transposed the terms--was not decisive1 or sufficiently vigorous4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,in the tenth edition of ,john ,burn's ,practical ,grammar1 published at ,glasgow1 in #ahaj1 are the following suggestions3 ,it is not uncommon to find the conjunctions or and nor used indiscriminately2 but if there be any real distinction in the proper application of them1 it is to be wished that it were settled4 ,it is attempted thus3--,let the conjunction or be used simply to connect the members of a sentence1 or to mark distribution1 opposition1 or choice1 without any preceding negative particle2 and nor to mark the subsequent part of a negative sentence1 with some negative particle in the preceding part of it4 ,examples of ,,or3 ',recreation of one kind or other is absolutely necessary to relieve the body or mind from too constant attention to labour or study4'--',after this life1 succeeds a state of rewards or punishments4'--',shall ,i come to you with a rod1 or in love8' ,examples of ,,nor3 ',let no man be too confident1 nor too diffident of his own abilities4'--',never calumniate any man1 nor give the least encouragement to calumniators4'--',there is not a ,christian duty to which providence has not annexed a blessing1 nor any affliction for which a remedy is not provided4' ,if the above distinction be just1 the following passage seems to be faulty3 ',seasons return1 but not to me returns ,day1 or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn1 ,or sight of vernal bloom1 or summer's rose1 ,or flocks1 or herds1 or human face divine4' ,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iii1 l4 #dj4--;,burn's ,gr41 p4 #ajh4 ,,obs4 #ah4--,t4 ,o4 ,churchill1 whose ,grammar first appeared in ,london in #ahbc1 treats this matter thus3 ,as or answers to either1 nor1 a compound of not or ne or by contraction1 answers to neither1 a similar compound of not either ne either4 ,the latter however does not constitute that double use of the negative1 in which one1 agreeably to the principles of philosophical grammar1 destroys the other2 for a part of the first word1 neither1 cannot be understood before the second1 nor3 and for the same reason a part of it could not be understood before or1 which is sometimes improperly used in the second clause2 while the whole of it1 neither1 would be obviously improper before or4 ,on the other hand1 when not is used in the first clause1 nor is improper in the second2 since it would involve the impropriety of understanding not before a compound of not or ne with or4 ',i shall not attempt to convince1 nor to persuade you4--,what will you not attempt8--,to convince1 nor to persuade you4' ,the impropriety of nor in this answer is clear3 but the answer should certainly repeat the words not heard1 or not understood4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ccj4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,it is probable1 that the use of nor after not has been introduced1 in consequence of such improprieties as the following3 ',the injustice of inflicting death for crimes1 when not of the most heinous nature1 or attended with extenuating circumstances4' ,here it is obviously not the intention of the writer1 to understand the negative in the last clause3 and1 if this were good ,english1 it would be not merely allowable to employ nor after not1 to show the subsequent clause to be negative as well as the preceding1 but it would always be necessary4 ,in fact1 however1 the sentence quoted is faulty1 in not repeating the adverb when in the last clause2 'or when attended3' which would preclude the negative from being understood in it2 for1 if an adverb1 conjunction1 or auxiliary verb1 preceding a negative1 be understood in the succeeding clause1 the negative is understood also2 if it be repeated1 the negative must be repeated likewise1 or the clause becomes affirmative4--,ib41 p4 #ccj4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,this author1 proceeding with his remarks1 suggests forms of correction for several other common modes of expression1 which he conceives to be erroneous4 ,for the information of the student1 ,i shall briefly notice a little further the chief points of his criticism1 though he teaches some principles which ,i have not thought it necessary always to observe in writing4 ',and seemed not to understand ceremony1 or to despise it4' ,goldsmith4 ,here either ought to be inserted before not4 ',it is not the business of virtue1 to extirpate the affections of the mind1 but to regulate them4' ,addison4 ,the sentence ought to have been3 ',it is the business of virtue1 not to extirpate the affections of the mind1 but to regulate them4' ',i do not think1 that he was averse to the office2 nor do ,i believe1 that it was unsuited to him4' ,how much better to say3 ',i do not think1 that he was averse to the office1 or that it was unsuited to him6' ,for the same reason nor cannot follow never1 the negative in the first clause affecting all the rest4--,ib4 p4 #ccb4 ,nor is sometimes used improperly after no3 as1 ',i humbly however trust in ,god1 that ,i have hazarded no conjecture1 nor have given any explanation of obscure points1 inconsistent with the general sense of ,scripture1 which must be our guide in all dubious passages4' ,gilpin4 ,it ought to be3 'and have given no explanation2' or1 ',i have neither hazarded any conjecture1 nor given any explanation4' ,the use of or after neither is as common1 as that of nor after no or not4#dbi ',neither the pencil or poetry are adequate4' ,coxe4 ,properly1 ',neither the pencil nor poetry is adequate4' ',the vow of poverty allowed the ,jesuits individually1 to have no idea of wealth4' ,dornford4 ,we cannot allow a nonentity4 ,it should be3 'did not allow1 to have any idea4'--,ib41 p4 #ccc4 ,,obs4 #ba4--,thus we see that ,churchill wholly and positively condemns nor after not1 no1 or never2 while ,burn totally disapproves of or1 under the same circumstances4 ,both of these critics are wrong1 because each carries his point too far2 and yet it may not be right1 to suppose both particles to be often equally good4 ,undoubtedly1 a negation may be repeated in ,english without impropriety1 and that in several different ways3 as1 ,there is no living1 none1 if ,bertram be away4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #c4 ,great men are not always wise1 neither do the aged always understand judgement4--,job1 xxxii1 #i4 ,will he esteem thy riches8 no1 not gold1 nor all the forces of strength4--,job1 xxxiv4 #ai4 ,some sentences1 too1 require or1 and others nor1 even when a negative occurs in a preceding clause2 as1 ,there was none of you that convinced ,job1 or that answered his words4--,job1 xxxii1 #ab4 ,how much less to him that accepteth not the persons of princes nor regardeth the rich more than the poor4--,job1 xxxiv1 #ai4 ,this day is holy unto the ,lord your ,god2 mourn not1 nor weep4--,neh41 viii1 #i4 ,men's behaviour should be like their apparel1 not too straight or point-de-vise1 but free for exercise4--,ld4 ,bacon4 ,again1 the mere repetition of a simple negative is1 on some occasions1 more agreeable than the insertion of any connective2 as1 ,there is no darkness1 nor shadow of death1 where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves4--,job1 xxxiv1 #bb4 ,better3 ,there is no darkness1 no shadow of death1 wherein the workers of iniquity may hide themselves4 ,no place nor any object appears to him void of beauty4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bee4 ,better3 ,no place1 no object1 appears to him void of beauty4 ,that passage from ,milton which ,burn supposes to be faulty1 and that expression of ,addison's which ,churchill dislikes1 are1 in my opinion1 not incorrect as they stand2 though1 doubtless1 the latter admits of the variation proposed4 ,in the former1 too1 or may twice be changed to nor1 where the following nouns are nominatives2 but to change it throughout1 would not be well1 because the other nouns are objectives governed by of3 ,seasons return1 but not to me returns ,day1 nor the sweet approach of ev'n or morn1 ,nor sight of vernal bloom1 or summer's rose1 ,or flocks1 or herds1 or human face divine4 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,ever and never are directly opposite to each other in sense1 and yet they are very frequently confounded and misapplied1 and that by highly respectable writers2 as1 ,seldom1 or never can we expect1 c4--,blair's ,lectures1 p4 #cje4 ,and seldom1 or ever1 did any one rise1 c4--,ib41 p4 #bgb4 ,seldom1 or never1 is#dcj there more than one accented syllable in any ,english word4--,ib41 p4 #cbi4 ,which that of the present seldom or ever is understood to be4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #abj4 ,here never is right1 and ever is wrong4 ,it is time1 that is here spoken of2 and the affirmative ever1 meaning always1 or at any time1 in stead of being a fit alternative for seldom1 makes nonsense of the sentence1 and violates the rule respecting the order and fitness of time3 unless we change or to if1 and say1 seldom1 if ever4 ,but in sentences like the following1 the adverb appears to express1 not time1 but degree2 and for the latter sense ever is preferable to never1 because the degree ought to be possible1 rather than impossible3 ,ever so little of the spirit of martyrdom is always a more favourable indication to civilization1 than ever so much dexterity of party management1 or ever so turbulent protestation of immaculate patriotism4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #daa4 ,now let man reflect but never so little on himself4--,burlamaqui1 on ,law1 p4 #bi4 ,which will not hearken to the voice of charmers1 charming never so wisely4--,ps41 lviii1 #e4 ,the phrase ever so1 7which ought1 ,i think1 to be written as one word17 is now a very common expression to signify in whatsoever degree2 as1 everso little1--everso much1--everso wise1--everso wisely4 ,and it is manifestly this1 and not time1 that is intended by the false phraseology above2--a form of speech handed down by the best writers1 but lately accused1 ,i think with justice1 of solecism4 99 99 99 ,it can only be defended by supplying a very harsh and unprecedented ellipsis4--,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,never4 ,,obs4 #bc4--;,dr4 ,lowth seconds this opinion of ,johnson1 respecting the phrase1 never so wisely1 and says1 ,it should be1 'ever so wisely2' that is1 'how wisely soever4' ,to which he adds an other example somewhat different3 ',besides1 a slave would not have been admitted into that society1 had he had never such opportunities4' ,bentley4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aji4 ,this should be1 had he had everso excellent opportunities4 ,but ,churchill1 mistaking the common explanation of the meaning of everso for the manner of parsing or resolving it1 questions the propriety of the term1 and thinks it easier to defend the old phrase never so2 in which he supposes never to be an adverb of time1 and not to relate to so1 which is an adverb of degree2 saying1 ',be it never so true1' is resolvable into1 ',be it so true1 as never any thing was4'#dca ',i have had never so much trouble on this occasion1' may be resolved into1 ',i have never had so much trouble1 as on this occasion3' while1 ',i have had ever so much trouble on this occasion1 cannot be resolved1 without supplying some very harsh and unprecedented ellipsis indeed4--,new ,gram41 p4 #ccg1 ,why not8 ,i see no occasion at all for supposing any ellipsis4 ,ever is here an adverb of degree1 and relates to so2 or1 if we take everso as one word1 this too is an adverb of degree1 and relates to much3 because the meaning is--everso much trouble4 ,but the other phraseology1 even as it stands in ,churchill's explanations1 is a solecism still2 nor can any resolution which supposes never to be here an adverb of time1 be otherwise4 ,we cannot call that a grammatical resolution1 which makes a different sense from that which the writer intended3 as1 ,a slave would not have been admitted into that society1 had he never had such opportunities4 ,this would be ,churchill's interpretation1 but it is very unlike what ,bentley says above4 ,so1 ',i have never had so much trouble1' and1 ',i have had everso much trouble1' are very different assertions4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,on the word never1 ,dr4 ,johnson remarks thus3 ,it seems in some phrases to have the sense of an adjective1 meaning1 not any2 but in reality it is not ever3 as1 ',he answered him to never a word4' ,,matthew1 xxvii1 #ad4--,quarto ,dict4 ,this mode of expression was formerly very common1 and a contracted form of it is still frequently heard among the vulgar3 as1 ,because he'd ne'er an other tub4--,hudibras1 p4 #ajb4 ,that is1 ,because he had no other tub4 ,letter nor line know ,i never a one4--,scott's ,lay of ,l4 ,m41 p4 #bg4 ,this is what the common people pronounce ne'er a one1 and use in stead of neither or no one4 ,in like manner they contract ever a one into e'er a one2 by which they mean either or any one4 ,these phrases are the same that somebody--7,i believe it is ,smith1 in his ,inductive ,grammar--7 has ignorantly written ary one and nary one calling them vulgarisms4#dcb ,under this mode of spelling1 the critic had an undoubted right to think the terms unauthorized6 ,in the compounds of whoever or whoe'er1 whichever or whiche'er1 whatever or whate'er1 the word ever or e'er1 which formerly stood separate1 appears to be an adjective1 rather than an adverb2 though1 by becoming part of the pronoun1 it has now technically ceased to be either4 ,,obs4 #be4--,the same may be said of soever or soe'er1 which is considered as only a part of an other word even when it is written separately2 as1 ,on which side soever ,i cast my eyes4 ,in ,mark1 iii1 #bhth1 wherewithsoever is commonly printed as two words2 but ,alger1 in his ,pronouncing ,bible1 more properly makes it one4 ,dr4 ,webster1 in his grammars1 calls soever a ,,word2 but1 in his dictionaries1 he does not define it as such4 ,the word soever may be interposed between the attribute and the name2 'how clear soever this idea of infinity1'--'how remote soever it may seem4'--,,locke4--,webster's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #aed2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #ajg4 ,,soever1 so and ever1 found in compounds1 as in whosoever1 whatsoever1 wheresoever4 ,see these words4--,webster's ,dict41 #hvo4 ,,obs4 #bf4--,the word only1 7i4e41 onely1 or onelike17 when it relates to a noun or a pronoun1 is a definitive adjective1 meaning single1 alone1 exclusive of others2 as1 ,the only man1--,the only men1--,man only1--,men only1--,he only1--,they only4 ,when it relates to a verb or a participle1 it is an adverb of manner1 and means simply1 singly1 merely1 barely2 as1 ,we fancy that we hate flattery1 when we only hate the manner of it4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ch4 ,a disinterested love of one's country can only subsist in small republics4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,when it stands at the head of a clause1 it is commonly a connective word1 equivalent to but1 or except that2 in which sense1 it must be called a conjunction1 or at least a conjunctive adverb1 which is nearly the same thing2 as1 ,only they would that we should remember the poor4--,gal41 ii1 #aj4 ,for these signs are prepositions1 only they are of more constant use than the rest4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #abi4 ,,obs4 #bg4--;,among our grammarians1 the word only often passes for an adverb1 when it is in fact an adjective4 ,such a mistake in this single word1 has led ,churchill to say of the adverb in general1 ,it's place is for the most part before adjectives1 after nouns1 and after verbs2 c4--,new ,gram41 p4 #adg4 ,but1 properly1 the placing of adverbs has nothing to do with nouns1 because adverbs do not relate to nouns4 ,in this author's example1 ,his arm only was bare1 there is no adverb2 and1 where he afterwards speaks of the latitude allowable in the placing of adverbs1 alleging1 ,it is indifferent whether we say1 ',he bared his arm only2' or1 ',he bared only his arm1' the word only is an adjective1 in one instance1 if not in both4 ,with this writer1 and some others1 the syntax of an adverb centres mainly in the suggestion1 that1 ,it's propriety and force depend on it's position4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 ,illustration3 ,thus people commonly say2 ',i only spoke three words3' which properly implies1 that ,i1 and no other person1 spoke three words3 when the intention of the speaker requires3 ',i spoke only three words2 that is1 no more than three words4'--,ib41 p4 #cbg4 ,one might just as well say1 ,i spoke three words only4 ,but the interpretation above is hypercritical1 and contrary to that which the author himself gives in his note on the other example1 thus3 ,any other situation of the adverb would make a difference4 ',he only bared his arm2' would imply1 that he did nothing more than bare his arm4 ',only he bared his arm2' must refer to a preceding part of the sentence1 stating something1 to which the act of baring his arm was an exception2 as1 ',he did it in the same manner1 only he bared his arm4' ,if only were placed immediately before arm2 as1 ',he bared his only arm2' it would be an adjective1 and signify1 that he had but one arm4--,ib41 p4 #cbh4 ,now are not1 ,i only spoke three words1 and1 ,he only bared his arm1 analogous expressions8 ,is not the former as good ,english as the latter8 ,only1 in both1 is most naturally conceived to belong to the verb2 but either may be read in such a manner as to make it an adjective belonging to the pronoun4 ,,obs4 #bh4--,the term not but is equivalent to two negatives that make an affirmative2 as1 ,not but that it is a wide place4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #hi4 ,non quo non latus locus sit4--,cic4 ,ac41 iv1 #ab4 ,it has already been stated1 that cannot but is equal to must2 as1 ,it is an affection which cannot but be productive of some distress4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfa4 ,it seems questionable1 whether but is not here an adverb1 rather than a conjunction4 ,however this may be1 by the customary 7but faulty7 omission of the negative before but1 in some other sentences1 that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of only2 and it may1 when used with that signification1 be called an adverb4 ,thus1 the text1 ,he hath not grieved me but in part4 7#b ,cor41 ii1 #e17 might drop the negative not1 and still convey the same meaning3 ,he hath grieved me but in part2 i4e41 only in part4 ,in the following examples1 too1 but appears to be an adverb1 like only3 ,things but slightly connected should not be crowded into one sentence4--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 ,index4 ,the assertion1 however1 serves but to show their ignorance4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #if4 ,reason itself but gives it edge and power4--,pope4 ,born but to die1 and reasoning but to err4--,id4 ,,obs4 #bi4--;,in some constructions of the word but1 there is a remarkable ambiguity2 as1 ,there cannot be but one capital musical pause in a line4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ib4 ,a line admits but one capital pause4--,ibid4 ,thus does a great critic1 in the same paragraph1 palpably contradict himself1 and not perceive it4 ,both expressions are equivocal4 ,he ought rather to have said3 ,a line admits no more than one capital pause4--,there cannot be more than one capital musical pause in a line4 ,some would say--admits only one--there can be only one4 ,but here1 too1 is some ambiguity2 because only may relate either to one1 or to the preceding verb4 ,the use of only for but or except that1 is not noticed by our lexicographers2 nor is it1 in my opinion1 a practice much to be commended1 though often adopted by men that pretend to write grammatically3 as1 ,interrogative pronouns are the same as relative1 ,,only their antecedents cannot be determined till the answer is given to the question4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,a diphthong is always long2 as1 ,aurum1 ,csar1 c4 ,,only pr1 in composition before a vowel is commonly short4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bed2 ,gould's1 #bdf4 ,,obs4 #cj4--;,it is said by some grammarians1 that1 ,the adverb there is often used as an expletive1 or as a word that adds nothing to the sense2 in which case1 it precedes the verb and the nominative2 as1 ',there is a person at the door4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aig2 ,ingersoll's1 #bje2 ,greenleaf's1 #cc2 ,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #ec4 ,it is true1 that in our language the word there is thus used idiomatically1 as an introductory term1 when we tell what is taking1 or has taken1 place2 but still it is a regular adverb of place1 and relates to the verb agreeably to the common rule for adverbs4 ,in some instances it is even repeated in the same sentence1 because1 in its introductory sense1 it is always unemphatical2 as1 ,because there was pasture there for their flocks4--#a ,chron41 iv1 #da4 ,if there be indistinctness or disorder there1 we can have no success4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bga4 ,there1 there are schools adapted to every age4--,woodbridge1 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #gh4 ,the import of the word is more definite1 when emphasis is laid upon it2 but this is no good reason for saying1 with ,dr4 ,webster1 that it is without signification1 when it is without emphasis2 or1 with ,dr4 ,priestley1 that it seems to have no meaning whatever1 except it be thought to give a small degree of emphasis4--,rudiments of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,,obs4 #ca4--,the noun place itself is just as loose and variable in its meaning as the adverb there4 ,for example2 ,there is never any difference2 i4e41 ,no difference ever takes place4 ,shall we say that place1 in this sense1 is not a noun of place8 ,to take place1 is1 to occur somewhere1 or anywhere2 and the unemphatic word there is but as indefinite in respect to place1 as these other adverbs of place1 or as the noun itself4 ,s4 ,b4 ,goodenow accounts it a great error1 to say that there is an adverb of place1 when it is thus indefinite2 and he chooses to call it an indefinite pronoun1 as1 ',what is there here8'--',there is no peace4'--',what need was there of it8' ,see his ,gram41 p4 #c and p4 #aa4 ,in treating of the various classes of adverbs1 ,i have admitted and shown1 that here1 there1 and where1 have sometimes the nature of pronouns1 especially in such compounds as hereof1 thereof1 whereof2 but in this instance1 ,i see not what advantage there is in calling there a pronoun3 we have just as much reason to call here and where pronouns--and that1 perhaps1 on all occasions4 ,barnard says1 ,in the sentence1 ',there is one glory of the sun1' c41 the adverb there qualifies the verb is1 and seems to have the force of an affirmation1 like truly--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #bcd4 ,but an adverb of the latter kind may be used with the word there1 and ,i perceive no particular similarity between them3 as1 ,verily there is a reward for the righteous4--,psal41 lviii1 #aa4 ,truly there is a glory of the sun4 ,,obs4 #cb4--,there is a vulgar error of substituting the adverb most for almost1 as in the phrases1 most all1--most anywhere1--most every day1--which we sometimes hear for almost all1--almost anywhere1--almost every day4 ,the fault is gross1 and chiefly colloquial1 but it is sometimes met with in books2 as1 ,but thinking he had replied most too rashly1 he said1 ',i won't answer your question4'--,wagstaff's ,history of ,friends1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bjg4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xxi4 ,,note ,i4--,adverbs must be placed in that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable4 ,example of error3 ,we are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author1 though every word which he uses be not precise and exact4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ie2 ,jamieson's1 #ff4 ,murray says1--though every word which he uses is not precise and exact4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #cjb4 ,better3--though not every word which he uses1 is precise and exact4 ,,note ,,ii4--,adverbs should not be needlessly used for adjectives2 nor should they be employed when quality is to be expressed1 and not manner3 as1 ,that the now copies of the original text are entire4--,s4 ,fisher4 ,say1 the present copies1 or1 the existing copies4 ,the arrows of calumny fall harmlessly at the feet of virtue4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #afg2 ,merchant's ,gram41 #ahf2 ,ingersoll's1 #aj2 ,kirkham's1 #bd4 ,say1 fall harmless2 as in this example3 ,the impending black cloud1 which is regarded with so much dread1 may pass by harmless4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bfb4 ,,note ,,iii4--,with a verb of motion1 most grammarians prefer hither1 thither1 and whither1 to here1 there1 and where1 which are in common use1 and perhaps allowable1 though not so good2 as1 ,come hither1 ,charles1--or1 ,come here4 ,,note ,,iv4--,to the adverbs hence1 thence1 and whence1 the preposition from is frequently 7though not with strict propriety7 prefixed2 as1 from hence1 from whence4--,see ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #agd4 ,some critics1 however1 think this construction allowable1 notwithstanding the former word is implied in the latter4 ,see ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acd2 and ,l4 ,murray's1 p4 #aih4 ,it is seldom elegant to use any word needlessly4 ,,note ,v4--,the adverb how should not be used before the conjunction that1 nor in stead of it2 as1 ,he said how he would go4--,ye see how that not many wise men are called4 ,expunge how4 ,this is a vulgar error4 ,somewhat similar is the use of how for lest or that not2 as1 ,be cautious how you offend him1 i4e41 that you do not offend him4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #age4 ,,note ,,vi4--,the adverb when1 while1 or where1 is not fit to follow the verb is in a definition1 or to introduce a clause taken substantively2 because it expresses identity1 not of being1 but of time or place3 as1 ,concord1 is when one word agrees with another in some accidents4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aea2 ,gould's1 #aee4 ,say1 ,concord is the agreement of one word with an other in some accident or accidents4 ,,note ,,vii4--,the adverb no should not be used with reference to a verb or a participle4 ,such expressions as1 ,tell me whether you will go or no1 are therefore improper3 no should be not2 because the verb go is understood after it4 ,the meaning is1 ,tell me whether you will go or will not go2 but nobody would think of saying1 ,whether you will go or no go4 ,,note ,,viii4--,a negation1 in ,english1 admits but one negative word2 because two negatives in the same clause1 usually contradict each other1 and make the meaning affirmative4 ,the following example is therefore ungrammatical3 ,for my part1 ,i love him not1 nor hate him not4--,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #af4 ,expunge the last not1 or else change nor to and4 ,,note ,,ix4--,the words ever and never should be carefully distinguished according to their sense1 and not confounded with each other in their application4 ,example3 ,the ,lord reigneth1 be the earth never so unquiet4--,experience of ,st4 ,paul1 p4 #aie4 ,here1 ,i suppose1 the sense to require everso1 an adverb of degree3 ,be the earth everso unquiet4 ,that is1--unquiet in whatever degree4 ,,note ,x4--,adverbs that end in ly1 are in general preferable to those forms which1 for want of this distinction1 may seem like adjectives misapplied4 ,example3 ,there would be scarce any such thing in nature as a folio4--,addison4 ,better3--scarcely4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xxi4 ,,examples ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,the ,,placing ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,all that is favoured by good use1 is not proper to be retained4--,murray's ,gram41 ii1 p4 #bif4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the adverb not is not put in the most suitable place4 ,but1 according to ,note #ast under ,rule #bast1 ,adverbs must be placed in that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable4 ,the sentence will be improved by placing not before all2 thus1 ,not all that is favoured by good use1 is proper to be retained4 ,every thing favoured by good use1 is not on that account worthy to be retained4--,ib41 i1 #cfi2 ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #agi4 ,most men dream1 but all do not4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 i1 #gb4 ,by hasty composition1 we shall acquire certainly a very bad style4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aia4 ,the comparisons are short1 touching on one point only of resemblance4--,ib41 p4 #daf4 ,having had once some considerable object set before us4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,the positive seems improperly to be called a degree4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #fi2 ,gould's1 #fh4 ,in some phrases the genitive is only used4--,adam1 #aei2 ,gould1 #afa4 ,this blunder is said actually to have occurred4--,smith's ,inductive ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,but every man is not called ,james1 nor every woman ,mary4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,crotchets are employed for the same purpose nearly as the parenthesis4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #afg4 ,there is still a greater impropriety in a double comparative4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,we have often occasion to speak of time4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,the following sentence cannot be possibly understood4--,ib41 p4 #ajd4 ,the words must be generally separated from the context4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,words ending in ator have the accent generally on the penultimate4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bci4 ,the learned languages1 with respect to voices1 moods1 and tenses1 are1 in general1 differently constructed from the ,english tongue4--,ib41 i1 #aja4 ,adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express compendiously in one word1 what must otherwise have required two or more4--,ib41 i1 #aad4 ,but it is only so1 when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case4--,ib41 i1 #agd4 ,enter1 7says he7 boldly1 for here too there are gods4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #h4 ,for none work for ever so little a pittance that some cannot be found to work for less4--,sedgwick's ,economy1 p4 #aij4 ,for sinners also lend to sinners1 to receive as much again4--,luke1 vi1 #cd4 ,they must be viewed exactly in the same light4--,murray's ,gram41 ii1 #bd4 ,if he does but speak to display his abilities1 he is unworthy of attention4--,ib41 ,key1 ii1 #bjg4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,adverbs ,,for ,,adjectives4 ,motion upwards is commonly more agreeable than motion downwards4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dh4 ,there are but two ways possibly of justification before ,god4--,dr4 ,cox1 on ,quakerism1 p4 #dac4 ,this construction sounds rather harshly4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aid2 ,ingersoll's1 #aii4 ,a clear conception in the mind of the learner1 of regularly and well-formed letters4--,com4 ,school ,journal1 i1 #ff4 ,he was a great hearer of 99 99 99 ,attalus1 ,sotion1 ,papirius1 ,fabianus1 of whom he makes often mention4--,seneca's ,morals1 p4 #aa4 ,it is only the ,often doing of a thing that makes it a ,custom4--,divine ,right of ,tythes1 p4 #gb4 ,because ,w4 ,r4 takes oft occasion to insinuate his jealousies of persons and things4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #egj4 ,yet often touching will wear gold4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #ah4 ,uneducated persons frequently use an adjective1 when they ought to use an adverb3 as1 ',the country looks beautiful2' instead of beautifully4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #hd4 ,the adjective is put absolutely1 or without its substantive4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #eg4 ,a noun or pronoun in the second person1 may be put absolutely in the nominative case4--,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,a noun or pronoun1 when put absolutely with a participle1 c4--,ib41 p4 #dd2 ,jaudon's ,gram41 #ajh4 ,a verb in the infinitive mood absolute1 stands independently of the remaining part of the sentence4--,wilbur and ,livingston's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,at my return lately into ,england1 ,i met a book intituled3 ',the ,iron ,age4'--,cowley's ,preface1 p4 v4 ,but he can discover no better foundation for any of them1 than the practice merely of ,homer and ,virgil4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,criticism1 ,introd41 p4 xxv4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii--,,here ,,for ,,hither1 c4 ,it is reported that the governour will come here to-morrow4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aif4 ,it has been reported that the governour will come here to-morrow4--,ib41 ,key1 p4 #bbg4 ,to catch a prospect of that lovely land where his steps are tending4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #bdd4 ,plautus makes one of his characters ask another where he is going with that ,vulcan shut up in a horn2 that is1 with a lanthorn in his hand4--,adams's ,rhet4 ii1 #cca4 ,when we left ,cambridge1 we intended to return there in a few days4--,anonym4 ,duncan comes here to-night4--,shak41 ,macbeth4 ,they talked of returning here last week4--,j4 ,m4 ,putnam's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,from ,,hence1 c4 ,from hence he concludes that no inference can be drawn from the meaning of the word1 that a constitution has a higher authority than a law or statute4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #fg4 ,from whence we may likewise date the period of this event4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 p4 #bjb4 ,from hence it becomes evident1 that ,,language1 taken in the most comprehensive view1 implies certain ,sounds1 having certain ,meanings4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #cae4 ,they returned to the city from whence they came out4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,respecting ellipses1 some grammarians differ strangely in their ideas2 and from thence has arisen a very whimsical diversity in their systems of grammar4--,author4 ,what am ,i and from whence8 i4e4 what am ,i1 and from whence am ,i8--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #aga4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,the ,,adverb ,,how4 ,it is strange how a writer1 so accurate as ,dean ,swift1 should have stumbled on so improper an application of this particle4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aab4 ,ye know how that a good while ago ,god made choice among us1 c4--,acts1 xv1 #g4 ,let us take care how we sin2 i4e4 that we do not sin4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,we see by these instances1 how prepositions may be necessary to connect those words1 which in their signification are not naturally connected4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,know ye not your own selves1 how that ,jesus ,christ is in you1 except ye be reprobates8--#b ,cor41 xiii1 #e4 ,that thou mayest know how that the earth is the ,lord's4--,exod41 ix1 #bi4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,when1 ,,while1 ,,or ,,where4 ,ellipsis is when one or more words are wanting1 to complete the sense4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bce2 ,gould's1 p4 #bbi2 ,b4 ,f4 ,fisk's ,greek ,gram44 #ahd4 ,pleonasm is when a word more is added than is absolutely necessary to express the sense4--,same works4 ,hysteron proteron is when that is put in the former part of the sentence1 which1 according to the sense1 should be in the latter4--,adam1 p4 #bcg2 ,gould1 #bcj4 ,hysteron proteron1 n4 ,a rhetorical figure when that is said last which was done first4--,webster's ,dict4 ,a ,barbarism is when a foreign or strange word is made use of4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bdb2 ,gould's1 #bcd4 ,a ,solecism is when the rules of ,syntax are transgressed4--,iidem1 ib4 ,an ,idiotism is when the manner of expression peculiar to one language is used in another4--,iid41 ib4 ,tautology is when we either uselessly repeat the same words1 or repeat the same sense in different words4--,adam1 p4 #bdc2 ,gould1 #bch4 ,bombast is when high sounding words are used without meaning1 or upon a trifling occasion4--,iid41 ib4 ,amphibology is when1 by the ambiguity of the construction1 the meaning may be taken in two different senses4--,iid41 ib4 ,irony is when one means the contrary of what is said4--,adam1 p4 #bdg2 ,gould1 #bcg4 ,the ,periphrasis1 or ,circumlocution1 is when several words are employed to express what might be expressed in fewer4--,iid41 ib4 ,hyperbole is when a thing is magnified above the truth1--,adam1 p4 #bdi2 ,gould1 #bdj4 ,personification is when we ascribe life1 sentiments1 or actions1 to inanimate beings1 or to abstract qualities4--,iid41 ib4 ,apostrophe1 or ,address1 is when the speaker breaks off from the series of his discourse1 and addresses himself to some person present or absent1 living or dead1 or to inanimate nature1 as if endowed with sense and reason4--,iid41 ib4 ,a ,simile or ,comparison is when the resemblance between two objects1 whether real or imaginary1 is expressed in form4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bbc4 ,simile1 or ,comparison1 is when one thing is illustrated or heightened by comparing it to another4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bej2 ,gould's1 #bdj4 ,antithesis1 or ,opposition1 is when things contrary or different are contrasted1 to make them appear in the more striking light4--,iid41 ib4 ,description1 or ,imagery1 is when any thing is painted in a lively manner1 as if done before our eyes4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bej4 ,emphasis is when a particular stress is laid on some word in a sentence4--,ib4 ,epanorthosis1 or ,correction1 is when the speaker either recalls or corrects what he had last said4--,ib4 ,paralepsis1 or ,omission1 is when one pretends to omit or pass by1 what he at the same time declares4--,ib4 ,incrementum1 or ,climax in sense1 is when one member rises above another to the highest4--,ib41 p4 #bea4 ,a ,metonymy is where the cause is put for the effect1 or the effect for the cause2 the container for the thing contained2 or the sign for the thing signified4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bbc4 ,agreement is when one word is like another in number1 case1 gender1 or person4--,frost's ,gram41 p4 #dc2 ,greenleaf's1 #cb4 ,government is when one word causes another to be in some particular number1 person1 or case4--,webster's ,imp4 ,gram41 p4 #hi2 ,greenleaf's1 #cb2 ,frost's1 #dc4 ,fusion is while some solid substance is converted into a fluid by heat4--,b4 ,a ,proper ,diphthong is where both the ,vowels are sounded together2 as1 oi in ,voice1 ou in ,house4-- ,fisher's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,an ,improper ,diphthong is where the ,sound of but one of the two ,vowels is heard2 as e in ,people4--,ib41 p4 #aa4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,the ,,adverb ,,no ,,for ,,not4 ,an adverb is joined to a verb to show how1 or whether or no1 or when1 or where one is1 does1 or suffers4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #fb4 ,we must be immortal1 whether we will or no4--,maturin's ,sermons1 p4 #cc4 ,he cares not whether the world was made for ,csar or no4--,american ,quarterly ,review4 ,i do not know whether they are out or no4--,byron's ,letters4 ,whether it can be proved or no1 is not the thing4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #hd4 ,whether or no he makes use of the means commanded by ,god4--,ib411 p4 #afd4 ,whether it pleases the world or no1 the care is taken4-- ,l',estrange's ,seneca1 p4 #e4 ,how comes this to be never heard of nor in the least questioned1 whether the ,law was undoubtedly of ,moses's writing or no8--,bp4 ,tomline's ,evidences1 p4 #dd4 ,whether he be a sinner or no1 ,i know not4--,john1 ix1 #be4 ,can ,i make men live1 whether they will or no8--,shak4 ,can hearts1 not free1 be try'd whether they serve ,willing or no1 who will but what they must8--,milton1 ,p4 ,l4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,of ,,double ,,negatives4 ,we need not1 nor do not1 confine the purposes of ,god4--,bentley4 ,i cannot by no means allow him that4--,idem4 ,we must try whether or no we cannot increase the ,attention by the ,help of the ,senses4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #bfc4 ,there is nothing more admirable nor more useful4--,horne ,tooke1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bj4 ,and what in no time to come he can never be said to have done1 he can never be supposed to do4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cde4 ,no skill could obviate1 nor no remedy dispel1 the terrible infection4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #aad4 ,prudery cannot be an indication neither of sense nor of taste4--,spurzheim1 on ,education1 p4 #ba4 ,but that scripture1 nor no other1 speaks not of imperfect faith4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #agb4 ,but this scripture1 nor none other1 proves not that faith was or is always accompanied with doubting4--,ibid4 ,the light of ,christ is not nor cannot be darkness4--,ib41 p4 #beb4 ,doth not the ,scripture1 which cannot lie1 give none of the saints this testimony8--,ib41 p4 #cgi4 ,which do not continue1 nor are not binding4--,ib41 ,vol4 iii4 p4 #gi4 ,it not being perceived directly no more than the air4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cca4 ,let's be no ,stoics1 nor no stocks1 ,i pray4--,shak41 ,shrew4 ,where there is no marked nor peculiar character in the style4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #age4 ,there can be no rules laid down1 nor no manner recommended4--,sheridan's ,lect41 p4 #afc4 ,bates4 ',he hath not told his thought to the king8' ,k4 ,henry4 ',no2 nor it is not meet he should4'--,shak4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,ever ,,and ,,never4 ,the prayer of ,christ is more than sufficient both to strengthen us1 be we never so weak2 and to overthrow all adversary power1 be it never so strong4--,hooker4 ,he is like to have no share in it1 or to be ever the better for it4--,law and ,grace1 p4 #bc4 ,in some parts of ,chili1 it seldom or ever rains4--,willetts's ,geog4 ,if ,pompey shall but never so little seem to like it4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #cdf4 ,latin3 ',si ,pompeius paulum mod ostenderit sibi placere4' ,cic4 i1 #e4--;,ib4 ,though never such a power of dogs and hunters pursue him4--,walker1 ib4 ,latin3 ',quamlibet magn canum et venantium urgente vi4' ,plin4 l4 #ah1 c4 #af4--;,ib4 ,though you be never so excellent4--,walker1 ib4 ,latin3 ',quantumvis licet excellas4' ,cic4 de ,amic4--,ib4 ,if you do amiss never so little4--,walker1 ib4 ,latin3 ',si tantillum peccssis4' ,plaut4 ,rud4 #d1 #d--;,ib4 ,if we cast our eyes never so little down4--,walker1 ib4 ,latin3 ',si tantulum oculos dejecerimus4' ,cic4 #g4 ,ver4--,ib4 ,a wise man scorneth nothing1 be it never so small or homely4--,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #cg4 ,because they have seldom or ever an opportunity of learning them at all4--,clarkson's ,prize-,essay1 p4 #agj4 ,we seldom or ever see those forsaken who trust in ,god4--,atterbury4 ,where1 playing with him at bo-peep1 ,he solved all problems1 ne'er so deep4--,hudibras4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,of ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,one can scarce think that ,pope was capable of epic or tragic poetry2 but within a certain limited region1 he has been outdone by no poet4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #djc4 ,i1 who now read1 have near finished this chapter4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #hb4 ,and yet1 to refine our taste with respect to beauties of art or of nature1 is scarce endeavoured in any seminary of learning4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 viii4 ,by the ,numbers being confounded1 and the ,possessives wrong applied1 the ,passage is neither ,english nor ,grammar4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #abc4 ,the letter ,g is wrong named jee4--,creighton's ,dict41 p4 viii4 ,last2 ,remember that in science1 as in morals1 authority cannot make right1 what1 in itself1 is wrong4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #aid4 ,they regulate our taste even where we are scarce sensible of them4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #if4 ,slow action1 for example1 is imitated by words pronounced slow4--,ib41 ii1 #beg4 ,sure1 if it be to profit withal1 it must be in order to save4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #cff4 ,which is scarce possible at best4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #fg4 ,our wealth being near finished4--,,harris3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,conjunctions4 ,the syntax of ,conjunctions consists1 not 7as ,l4 ,murray and others erroneously teach7 in their power of determining the mood of verbs1 or the cases of nouns and pronouns1 but in the simple fact1 that they link together such and such terms1 and thus mark the connexions of human thought4--,beattie4 ,,rule ,,xxii4--,,conjunctions4 ,conjunctions connect words1 sentences1 or parts of sentences3 as1 ,let there be no strife1 ,i pray thee1 between me and thee1 and between my herdmen and thy herdmen2 for we are brethren4--,gen41 xiii1 #h4 ,ah6 if she lend not arms as well as rules4 ,what can she more than tell us we are fools8--,pope4 ,,exception ,,first4 ,the conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence which is made the subject or the object of a finite verb2#dcc as1 ,that mind is not matter1 is certain4 ,that you have wronged me1 doth appear in this4--,shak4 ,that time is mine1 ,o ,mead6 to thee1 ,i owe4--,young4 ,,exception ,,second4 ,when two corresponding conjunctions occur1 in their usual order1 the former should generally be parsed as referring to the latter1 which is more properly the connecting word2 as1 ,neither sun nor stars in many days appeared4--,acts1 xxvii1 #bj4 ,whether that evidence has been afforded or not1 is a matter of investigation4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #ah4 ,,exception ,,third4 ,either1 corresponding to or1 and neither1 corresponding to nor or not1 are sometimes transposed1 so as to repeat the disjunction or negation at the end of the sentence2 as1 ,where then was their capacity of standing1 or his either8--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #cei4 ,it is not dangerous neither4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #ace4 ,he is very tall1 but not too tall neither4--,spect41 ,no4 #dge4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xxii4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,conjunctions that connect particular words1 generally join similar parts of speech in a common dependence on some other term4 ,hence1 if the words connected be such as have cases1 they will of course be in the same case2 as1 ,for me and thee--,matt41 xvii1 #bg4 ,honour thy father and thy mother4--,ib41 xviii1 #ai4 ,here the latter noun or pronoun is connected by and to the former1 and governed by the same preposition or verb4 ,conjunctions themselves have no government1 unless the questionable phrase than whom may be reckoned an exception4 ,see ,obs4 #agth below1 and others that follow it4 ,,obs4 #b4--,those conjunctions which connect sentences or clauses1 commonly unite one sentence or clause to an other1 either as an additional assertion1 or as a condition1 a cause1 or an end1 of what is asserted4 ,the conjunction is placed between the terms which it connects1 except there is a transposition1 and then it stands before the dependent term1 and consequently at the beginning of the whole sentence3 as1 ,he taketh away the first1 that he may establish the second4--,heb41 x1 #i4 ,that he may establish the second1 he taketh away the first4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the term that follows a conjunction1 is in some instances a phrase of several words1 yet not therefore a whole clause or member1 unless we suppose it elliptical1 and supply what will make it such3 as1 ,and whatsoever ye do1 do it heartily1 ,,as to the ,lord1 ,,and not unto men--,col41 iii1 #bc4 ,if we say1 this means1 as doing it to the ,lord1 and not as doing it unto men1 the terms are still mere phrases2 but if we say1 the sense is1 as if ye did it to the ,lord1 and not as if ye did it unto men1 they are clauses1 or sentences4 ,churchill says1 ,the office of the conjunction is1 to connect one word with an other1 or one phrase with an other4--,new ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ,but he uses the term phrase in a more extended sense than ,i suppose it will strictly bear3 he means by it1 a clause1 or member2 that is1 a sentence which forms a part of a greater sentence4 ,,obs4 #d4--,what is the office of this part of speech1 according to ,lennie1 ,bullions1 ,brace1 ,hart1 ,hiley1 ,smith1 ,m',culloch1 ,webster1 ,wells1 and others1 who say that it joins words and sentences together1 7see ,errors on p4 #dcd of this work17 it is scarcely possible to conceive4 ,if they imagine it to connect words on the one side1 to sentences on the other2 this is plainly absurd1 and contrary to facts4 ,if they suppose it to join sentence to sentence1 by merely connecting word to word1 in a joint relation2 this also is absurd1 and self-contradictory4 ,again1 if they mean1 that the conjunction sometimes connects word with word1 and sometimes1 sentence with sentence2 this sense they have not expressed1 but have severally puzzled their readers by an ungrammatical use of the word and4 ,one of the best among them says1 ,in the sentence1 ',he and ,i must go1' the word and unites two sentences1 and thus avoids an unnecessary repetition2 thus instead of saying1 ',he must go1' ',i must go1' we connect the words ,he1 ,i1 as the same thing is affirmed of both1 namely1 must go4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ec4 ,here is the incongruous suggestion1 that by connecting words only1 the conjunction in fact connects sentences2 and the stranger blunder concerning those words1 that the same thing is affirmed of both1 namely1 that they must go4 ,whereas it is plain1 that nothing is affirmed of either3 for ,he and ,i must go1 only affirms of him and me1 that we must go4 ,and again it is plain1 that and here connects nothing but the two pronouns2 for no one will say1 that1 ,he and ,i must go together is a compound sentence1 capable of being resolved into two simple sentences2 and if1 ,he and ,i must go1 is compound because it is equivalent to1 ,he must go1 and ,i must go2 so is1 ,we must go1 for the same reason1 though it has but one nominative and one verb4 ,he and ,i were present1 is rightly given by ,hiley as an example of two pronouns connected together by and4 7,see his ,gram41 p4 #aje47 ,but1 of verbs connected to each other1 he absurdly supposes the following to be examples3 ,he spake1 and it was done4--,i know it1 and ,i can prove it4--,do you say so1 and can you prove it8--,ib4 ,here and connects sentences1 and not particular words4 ,,obs4 #e4--,two or three conjunctions sometimes come together2 as1 ,what rests1 but that the mortal sentence pass8--,milton4 ,nor yet that he should offer himself often4--,heb41 ix1 #be4 ,these may be severally parsed as connecting what precedes and what follows1 and the observant reader will not fail to notice1 that such combinations of connecting particles are sometimes required by the sense2 but1 since nothing that is needless1 is really proper1 conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated3 as1 ,but ,,and if that evil servant say in his heart1 c4--,matt41 xxiv1 #dh4 ,greek1 ,greek3 ,ean de eip o kakos donlos ekeinos1 c4 ,here is no and4 ,but ,,and if she depart4--#a ,cor41 vii1 #aa4 ,this is almost a literal rendering of the ,greek1 ,greek3 ,ean de kai choristh4--yet either but or and is certainly useless4 ,in several cases1 says ,priestley1 we content ourselves1 now1 with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors did say used4 ,example3 ',so ,,as that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers4' ,universal ,hist41 ,vol4 #bi1 p4 #eja4 ,so that would have been much easier1 and better4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aci4 ,some of the poets have often used the word that as an expletive1 to fill the measure of their verse2 as1 ,when that the poor have cried1 ,csar hath wept4--,shakspeare4 ,if that he be a dog1 beware his fangs4--,id4 ,that made him pine away and moulder1 ,as though that he had been no soldier4--,butler's ,poems1 p4 #afd4 ,,obs4 #f4--,w4 ,allen remarks1 that1 ,and is sometimes introduced to engage our attention to a following word or phrase2 as1 ',part pays1 and justly1 the deserving steer4' ,pope4 ',i see thee fall1 and by ,achilles' hand4' ,id4--,allen's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ahd4 ,the like idiom1 he says1 occurs in these passages of ,latin3 ',forsan et hc olim meminisse juvabit4' ,virg4 ',mors et fugacem persequitur virum4' ,hor4--,allen's ,gram41 p4 #ahd4 ,but it seems to me1 that and and et are here regular connectives4 ,the former implies a repetition of the preceding verb3 as1 ,part pays1 and justly pays1 the deserving steer4--,i see thee fall1 and fall by ,achilles' hand4 ,the latter refers back to what was said before3 thus1 ,perhaps it will also hereafter delight you to recount these evils4--,and death pursues the man that flees4 ,in the following text1 the conjunction is more like an expletive2 but even here it suggests an extension of the discourse then in progress3 ,lord1 and what shall this man do8--,john1 xxi1 #ba4 ,greek3 ,kurie1 outos de ti2--,domine1 hic autem quid8--,beza4 ,,obs4 #g4--,the conjunction as often unites words that are in apposition1 or in the same case2 as1 ,he offered himself ,,as a journeyman4--,i assume it ,,as a fact4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #id4 ,in an other example of the same kind1 the earth1 ,,as a common mother1 is animated to give refuge against a father's unkindness4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol ii1 p4 #afh4 ,and then to offer himself up ,,as a sacrifice and propitiation for them4--,scougal1 p4 #ii4 ,so1 likewise1 when an intransitive verb takes the same case after as before it1 by ,rule #fth2 as1 ,johnson soon after engaged ,,as usher in a school4--,l4 ,murray4 ,he was employed ,,as usher4 ,in all these examples1 the case that follows as1 is determined by that which precedes4 ,if after the verb engaged we supply himself1 usher becomes objective1 and is in apposition with the pronoun1 and not in agreement with ,johnson3 ,he engaged himself as usher4 ,one late writer1 ignorant or regardless of the analogy of ,general ,grammar1 imagines this case to be an objective governed by the conjunction as1 according to the following rule3 ,the conjunction as1 when it takes the meaning of for1 or in the character of1 governs the objective case2 as1 ,addison1 as a writer of prose1 is highly distinguished4--,j4 ,m4 ,putnam's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,s4 ,w4 ,clark1 in his grammar published in #ahdh1 sets as in his list of prepositions1 with this example3 ',that ,england can spare from her service such men as ,,him4'--,lord ,brougham4--,clark's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,and again3 ,when the second term of a ,comparison of equality is a ,noun1 or ,pronoun1 the ,preposition ,,as is commonly used4 ,example--',he hath died to redeem such a rebel as ,,me4'--,wesley4 ,undoubtedly1 ,wesley and ,brougham here erroneously supposed the as to connect words only1 and consequently to require them to be in the same case1 agreeably to ,,obs4 #ast1 above2 but a moment's reflection on the sense1 should convince any one1 that the construction requires the nominative forms he and ,i1 with the verbs is and am understood4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the conjunction as may also be used between an adjective or a participle and the noun to which the adjective or participle relates2 as1 ,it does not appear that brutes have the least reflex sense of actions ,,as distinguished from events2 or that will and design1 which constitute the very nature of actions ,,as such1 are at all an object of their perception4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bgg4 ,,obs4 #i4--;,as frequently has the force of a relative pronoun1 and when it evidently sustains the relation of a case1 it ought to be called1 and generally is called1 a pronoun1 rather than a conjunction2 as1 ,avoid such as are vicious1--,anon4 ,but as many as received him1 c4--,john1 i1 #ab4 ,we have reduced the terms into as small a number as was consistent with perspicuity and distinction4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 ix4 ,here as represents a noun1 and while it serves to connect the two parts of the sentence1 it is also the subject of a verb4 ,these being the true characteristics of a relative pronoun1 it is proper to refer the word to that class4 ,but when a clause or a sentence is the antecedent1 it is better to consider the as a conjunction1 and to supply the pronoun it1 if the writer has not used it2 as1 ,he is angry1 as it appears by this letter4 ,horne ,tooke says1 ,the truth is1 that ,,as is also an article2 and 7however and whenever used in ,english7 means the same as ,it1 or ,that1 or ,which4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bbc4 ,but what definition he would give to an article1 does not appear4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,in some examples1 it seems questionable whether as ought to be reckoned a pronoun1 or ought rather to be parsed as a conjunction after which a nominative is understood2 as1 ,he then read the conditions as follow4--,the conditions are as follow4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,the principal evidences on which this assertion is grounded1 are as follow4--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #aff4 ,the ,quiescent verbs are as follow4--,pike's ,heb4 ,lex41 p4 #ahd4 ,the other numbers are duplications of these1 and proceed as follow--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ce4 ,the most eminent of the kennel are bloodhounds1 which lead the van1 and are as follow4--,steele1 ,tattler1 ,no4 #fb4 ,his words are as follow4--,spect41 ,no4 #fb4 ,the words are as follow4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #eac4 ,the objections that are raised against it as a tragedy1 are as follow4--,gay1 ,pref4 to ,what d' ye call it4 ,the particulars are as follow4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,the principal interjections in ,english are as follow4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,in all these instances1 one may suppose the final clause to mean1 as they here follow2--or1 supposing as to be a pronoun1 one may conceive it to mean1 such as follow4 ,but some critical writers1 it appears1 prefer the singular verb1 as follows ,hear ,campbell3 ,when a verb is used impersonally1 it ought undoubtedly to be in the singular number1 whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or understood3 and when no nominative in the sentence can regularly be construed with the verb1 it ought to be considered as impersonal4 ,for this reason1 analogy as well as usage favour say favours this mode of expression1 ',the conditions of the agreement were as follows2' and not 'as follow4' ,a few late writers have inconsiderately adopted this last form through a mistake of the construction4 ,for the same reason we ought to say1 ',i shall consider his censures so far only as concerns my friend's conduct2' and not 'so far as concern4'--,philosophy of ,rhet41 p4 #bbi4 ,it is too much to say1 at least of one of these sentences1 that there is no nominative with which the plural verb can be regularly construed4 ,in the former1 the word as may be said to be a plural nominative2 or1 if we will have this to be a conjunction1 the pronoun they1 representing conditions1 may be regularly supplied1 as above4 ,in the latter1 indeed1 as is not a pronoun2 because it refers to so far1 which is not a noun4 ,but the sentence is bad ,english2 because the verb concern or concerns is improperly left without a nominative4 ,say therefore1 ',i shall consider his censures so far only as they concern my friend's conduct2'--or1 'so far only as my friend's conduct is concerned4' ,the following is an other example which ,i conceive to be wrong2 because1 with an adverb for its antecedent1 as is made a nominative3 ,they ought therefore to be uttered as quickly as is consistent with distinct articulation4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #gf4 ,say rather1 ,they ought therefore to be uttered with as much rapidity as is consistent with distinct articulation4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,lindley ,murray was so much puzzled with ,tooke's notion of as1 and ,campbell's doctrine of the impersonal verb1 that he has expressly left his pupils to hesitate and doubt1 like himself1 whether one ought to say as follows or as follow1 when the preceding noun is plural2 or--to furnish an alternative1 7if they choose it17 he shows them at last how they may dodge the question1 by adopting some other phraseology4 ,he begins thus3 ,grammarians differ in opinion1 respecting the propriety of the following modes of expression3 ',the arguments advanced were nearly as follows2' 'the positions were1 as appears1 incontrovertible4'-- ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #adf4 ,then follows a detail of suggestions from ,campbell and others1 all the quotations being anonymous1 or at least without definite references4 ,omitting these1 ,i would here say of the two examples given1 that they are not parallel instances4 ,for1 as follows1 refers to what the arguments were1--to the things themselves1 considered plurally1 and immediately to be exhibited2 wherefore the expression ought rather to have been1 as follow1 or1 as they here follow4 ,but1 as appears means as it appears1 or as the case now appears2 and one of these plain modes of expression would have been much preferable1 because the as is here evidently nothing but a conjunction4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the diversity of sentiment on this subject1 says ,l4 ,murray1 and the respectability of the different opponents1 will naturally induce the readers to pause and reflect1 before they decide4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #adg4 ,the equivalent expressions by means of which he proposes to evade at last the dilemma1 are the following3 ,the arguments advanced were nearly such as follow2--,the arguments advanced were nearly of the following nature2--,the following are nearly the arguments which were advanced2-- ,the arguments advanced were nearly those which follow3--,these1 or nearly these1 were the arguments advanced2--,the positions were such as appear incontrovertible2--,it appears that the positions were incontrovertible2 --,that the positions were incontrovertible1 is apparent2--,the positions were apparently incontrovertible2--,in appearance1 the positions were incontrovertible4--,ibid4 ,if to shun the expression will serve our turn1 surely here are ways enough6 ,but to those who pause and reflect with the intention to decide1 ,i would commend the following example3 ,reconciliation was offered1 on conditions as moderate as were consistent with a permanent union4--,murray's ,key1 under ,rule #a4 ,here ,murray supposes was to be wrong1 and accordingly changes it to were1 by the ,rule1 ,a verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person4 ,but the amendment is a pointed rejection of ,campbell's impersonal verb1 or verb which has no nominative2 and if the singular is not right here1 the rhetorician's respectable authority vouches only for a catalogue of errors4 ,again1 if this verb must be were in order to agree with its nominative1 it is still not clear that as1 is1 or ought to be1 the nominative2 because the meaning may perhaps be better expressed thus3--on conditions as moderate as any that were consistent with a permanent union4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,a late writer expresses his decision of the foregoing question thus3 ,of all the different opinions on a grammatical subject1 which have arisen in the literary world1 there scarcely appears one more indefensible than that of supposing as follows to be an impersonal verb1 and to be correctly used in such sentences as this4 ',the conditions were as follows4' ,nay1 we are told that1 ,a few late writers have adopted this form1 ',the conditions were as follow1' inconsiderately2 and1 to prove this charge of inconsiderateness1 the following sentence is brought forward3 ',i shall consider his censure censures is the word used by ,campbell and by ,murray so far only as concern my friend's conduct4' which should be1 it is added1 'as concerns1 and not as concern4' ,if analogy1 simplicity1 or syntactical authority1 is of any value in our resolution of the sentence1 ',the conditions were as follows1' the word as is as evident a relative as language can afford4 ,it is undoubtedly equivalent to that or which1 and relates to its antecedent those or such understood1 and should have been the nominative to the verb follow2 the sentence1 in its present form1 being inaccurate4 ,the second sentence is by no means a parallel one4 ,the word as is a conjunction2 and though it has1 as a relative1 a reference to its antecedent so1 yet in its capacity of a mere conjunction1 it cannot possibly be the nominative case to any verb4 ,it should be1 'it concerns4' ,whenever as relates to an adverbial antecedent2 as in the sentence1 ',so far as it concerns me1' it is merely a conjunction2 but when it refers to an adjective antecedent2 as in the sentence1 ',the business is such as concerns me2' it must be a relative1 and susceptible of case1 whether its antecedent is expressed or understood2 being1 in fact1 the nominative to the verb concerns4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #ade4 ,it will be perceived by the preceding remarks1 that ,i do not cite what is here said1 as believing it to be in all respects well said1 though it is mainly so4 ,in regard to the point at issue1 ,i shall add but one critical authority more3 ',the circumstances were as follows4' ,several grammarians and critics have approved this phraseology3 ,i am inclined1 however1 to concur with those who prefer 'as follow4'--,crombie1 on ,etym4 and ,synt41 p4 #chh4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,the conjunction that is frequently understood2 as1 ,it is seldom that their counsels are listened to4--,robertson's ,amer41 i1 #caf4 ,the truth is1 that grammar is very much neglected among us4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 vi4 ,the ,sportsman believes that there is ,good in his ,chace chase4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bif4 ,thou warnst me that ,i have done amiss2 ,i should have earlier looked to this4--,scott4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,after than or as1 connecting the terms of a comparison1 there is usually an ellipsis of some word or words4 ,the construction of the words employed may be seen1 when the ellipsis is supplied2 as1 ,they are stronger than we are4--,numb41 xiii4 #ca4 ,wisdom is better than weapons of war are4--,eccl41 ix1 #ah4 ,he does nothing who endeavours to do more than what is allowed to humanity4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,my punishment is greater than what ,i can bear4--,gen41 iv1 #ac4 ,ralph gave him more than ,i gave him4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cea4 ,ralph gave him more than he gave me4--,ibid4 ,revelation1 surely1 was never intended for such as he is4--,campbell's ,four ,gospels1 p4 iv4 ,let such as him sneer if they will4--,liberator1 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #ahb4 ,here him ought to be he1 according to ,rule #b;d1 because the text speaks of such as he is or was4 ',you were as innocent of it as me3' ',he did it as well as me4' ,in both places it ought to be ,i3 that is1 as ,i was1 as ,i did4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ceb4 ,rather let such poor souls as you and ,i ,say that the holidays are drawing nigh4--,swift4 ,,obs4 #af4--,the doctrine above stated1 of ellipses after than and as1 proceeds on the supposition that these words are conjunctions1 and that they connect1 not particular words merely1 but sentences1 or clauses4 ,it is the common doctrine of nearly all our grammarians1 and is doubtless liable to fewer objections than any other theory that ever has been1 or ever can be1 devised in lieu of it4 ,yet as is not always a conjunction2 nor1 when it is a conjunction1 does it always connect sentences2 nor1 when it connects sentences1 is there always an ellipsis2 nor1 when there is an ellipsis1 is it always quite certain what that ellipsis is4 ,all these facts have been made plain1 by observations that have already been bestowed on the word3 and1 according to some grammarians1 the same things may severally be affirmed of the word than4 ,but most authors consider than to be always a conjunction1 and generally1 if not always1 to connect sentences4 ,johnson and ,webster1 in their dictionaries1 mark it for an adverb2 and the latter says of it1 ,this word signifies also then1 both in ,english and ,dutch4--,webster's ,amer4 ,dict41 #hvo1 w4 ,than4 ,but what he means by also1 ,i know not2 and surely1 in no ,english of this age1 is than equivalent to then1 or then to than4 ,the ancient practice of putting then for than1 is now entirely obsolete2#dcd and1 as we have no other term of the same import1 most of our expositors merely explain than as a particle used in comparison4--,johnson1 ,worcester1 ,maunder4 ,some absurdly define it thus3 ,,than1 adv4 ,placed in comparison4--,walker1 7,rhym4 ,dict417 ,jones1 ,scott4 ,according to this definition1 than would be a participle6 ,but1 since an express comparison necessarily implies a connexion between different terms1 it cannot well be denied that than is a connective word2 wherefore1 not to detain the reader with any profitless controversy1 ,i shall take it for granted that this word is always a conjunction4 ,that it always connects sentences1 ,i do not affirm2 because there are instances in which it is difficult to suppose it to connect anything more than particular words3 as1 ,less judgement than wit is more sail than ballast4--,penn's ,maxims4 ,with no less eloquence than freedom4 ',pari eloquenti ac libertate4' ,tacitus4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bjj4 ,any comparison between these two classes of writers1 cannot be other than vague and loose4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cdg4 ,this far more than compensates all those little negligences4--,ib41 p4 #bjj4 ,remember ,handel8 ,who that was not born ,deaf as the dead to harmony1 forgets1 ,or can1 the more than ,homer of his age8--,cowper4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,when any two declinable words are connected by than or as1 they are almost always1 according to the true idiom of our language1 to be put in the same case1 whether we suppose an ellipsis in the construction of the latter1 or not2 as1 ,my ,father is greater than ,i4--,bible4 ,what do ye more than others8--,matt41 v1 #dg4 ,more men than women were there4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,entreat him as a father1 and the younger men as brethren4--#a ,tim41 v1 #a4 ,i would that all men were even as ,i myself4--#a ,cor41 vii1 #g4 ,simon1 son of ,jonas1 lovest thou me more than these8--,john1 xxi1 #ae4 ,this last text is manifestly ambiguous2 so that some readers will doubt whether it means--more than thou lovest these1 or--more than these love me4 ,is not this because there is an ellipsis in the sentence1 and such a one as may be variously conceived and supplied8 ,the original too is ambiguous1 but not for the same reason3 ,greek3 ,simon ,iona1 agapas me pleion touton2--,and so is the ,latin of the ,vulgate and of ,montanus3 ,simon ,jona1 diligis me plus his8 ,wherefore ,beza expressed it differently3 ,simon fili ,jon1 diligis me plus qum hi8 ,the ,french ,bible has it3 ,simon1 fils de ,jona1 m'aimes-tu plus que ne font ceux-ci8 ,and the expression in ,english should rather have been1 ,lovest thou me more than do these8 ,,obs4 #ah4--,the comparative degree1 in ,greek1 is said to govern the genitive case2 in ,latin1 the ablative3 that is1 the genitive or the ablative is sometimes put after this degree without any connecting particle corresponding to than1 and without producing a compound sentence4 ,we have examples in the phrases1 ,greek3 pleion touton and plus his1 above4 ,of such a construction our language admits no real example2 that is1 no exact parallel4 ,but we have an imitation of it in the phrase than whom1 as in this hackneyed example from ,milton3 ,which1 when ,belzebub perceived1 than whom1 ,satan except1 none higher sat1 c4--,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #cjj4 ,the objective1 whom1 is here preferred to the nominative1 who1 because the ,latin ablative is commonly rendered by the former case1 rather than by the latter3 but this phrase is no more explicable according to the usual principles of ,english grammar1 than the error of putting the objective case for a version of the ablative absolute4 ,if the imitation is to be judged allowable1 it is to us a figure of syntax--an obvious example of ,enallag1 and of that form of ,enallag1 which is commonly called ,antiptosis1 or the putting of one case for an other4 ,,obs4 #ai4--,this use of whom after than has greatly puzzled and misled our grammarians2 many of whom have thence concluded that than must needs be1 at least in this instance1 a preposition1#dce and some have extended the principle beyond this1 so as to include than which1 than whose with its following noun1 and other nominatives which they will have to be objectives2 as1 ,i should seem guilty of ingratitude1 than which nothing is more shameful4 ,see ,russell's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,washington1 than whose fame naught earthly can be purer4--,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bjd4 ,you have given him more than ,i4 ,you have sent her as much as he4--,buchanan's ,eng4 ,syntax1 p4 #aaf4 ,these last two sentences are erroneously called by their author1 false syntax2 not indeed with a notion that than and as are prepositions1 but on the false supposition that the preposition to must necessarily be understood between them and the pronouns1 as it is between the preceding verbs and the pronouns him and her4 ,but1 in fact1 ,you have given him more than ,i1 is perfectly good ,english2 the last clause of which plainly means--more than ,i have given him4 ,and1 ,you have sent her as much as he1 will of course be understood to mean--as much as he has sent her2 but here1 because the auxiliary implied is different from the one expressed1 it might have been as well to have inserted it3 thus1 ,you have sent her as much as he has4 ,she reviles you as much as he1 is also good ,english1 though found1 with the foregoing1 among ,buchanan's examples of false syntax4 ,,obs4 #bj4--,murray's twentieth ,rule of syntax avers1 that1 ,when the qualities of different things are compared1 the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction than or as1 but agrees with the verb1 c4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bad2 ,russell's ,gram41 #ajc2 ,bacon's1 #ea2 ,alger's1 #ga2 ,smith's1 #agi2 ,fisk's1 #ach4 ,to this rule1 the great ,compiler and most of his followers say1 that than whom is an exception4 or seems to form an exception2 to which they add1 that1 the phrase is1 however1 avoided by the best modern writers4--,murray1 i1 #bae4 ,this latter assertion ,russell conceives to be untrue3 the former he adopts2 and1 calling than whom an exception to the general rule1 says of it1 7with no great consistency17 ,here the conjunction than has certainly the force of a preposition1 and supplies its place by governing the relative4--,russell's ,abridgement of ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,but this is hardly an instance to which one would apply the maxim elsewhere adopted by ,murray3 ,exceptio probat regulam4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bje4 ,to ascribe to a conjunction the governing power of a preposition1 is a very wide step1 and quite too much like straddling the line which separates these parts of speech one from the other4 ,,obs4 #ba4--;,churchill says1 ,if there be no ellipsis to supply1 as sometimes happens when a pronoun relative occurs after than2 the relative is to be put in the objective case absolute3 as1 ',alfred1 than whom a greater king never reigned1 deserves to be held up as a model to all future sovereigns4'--,new ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,among his ,notes1 he has one with reference to this objective case absolute1 as follows3 ,it is not governed by the conjunction1 for on no other occasion does a conjunction govern any case2 or by any word understood1 for we can insert no word1 or words1 that will reconcile the phrase with any other rule of grammar3 and if we employ a pronoun personal instead of the relative1 as he1 which will admit of being resolved elliptically1 it must be put in the nominative case4--,ib41 p4 #ceb4 ,against this gentleman's doctrine1 one may very well argue1 as he himself does against that of ,murray1 ,russell1 and others2 that on no other occasion do we speak of putting the objective case absolute2 and if1 agreeably to the analogy of our own tongue1 our distinguished authors would condescend to say than who1#dcf surely nobody would think of calling this an instance of the nominative case absolute1--except perhaps one swaggering new theorist1 that most pedantic of all scoffers1 ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce4 ,,obs4 #bb4--,the sum of the matter is this3 the phrase1 than who1 is a more regular and more analogical expression than than whom2 but both are of questionable propriety1 and the former is seldom if ever found1 except in some few grammars2 while the latter1 which is in some sort a ,latinism1 may be quoted from many of our most distinguished writers4 ,and1 since that which is irregular cannot be parsed by rule1 if out of respect to authority we judge it allowable1 it must be set down among the figures of grammar2 which are1 all of them1 intentional deviations from the ordinary use of words4 ,one late author treats the point pretty well1 in this short hint3 ,after the conjunction than1 contrary to analogy1 whom is used in stead of who4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,an other gives his opinion in the following note3 ,when who immediately follows than1 it is used improperly in the objective case2 as1 ',alfred1 than whom a greater king never reigned2'--than whom is not grammatical4 ,it ought to be1 than who2 because who is the nominative to was understood4--,than whom is as bad a phrase as 'he is taller than him4' ,it is true that some of our best writers have used than whom2 but it is also true1 that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical2 then why not reject this too8--,lennie's ,grammar1 ,edition of #ahcj1 p4 #aje4 ,,obs4 #bc4--,on this point4 ,bullions and ,brace1 two ,american copyists and plagiarists of ,lennie1 adopt opposite notions4 ,the latter copies the foregoing note1 without the last sentence2 that is1 without admitting that than whom has ever been used by good writers4 ,see ,brace's ,gram41 p4 #ij4 ,the former says1 ,the relative usually follows than in the objective case1 even when the nominative goes before2 as1 ',alfred1 than whom a greater king never reigned4' ,this anomaly it is difficult to explain4 ,most probably1 than1 at first had the force of a preposition1 which it now retains only when followed by the relative4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 of #ahdc1 p4 #aab4 ,again3 ,a relative after than is put in the objective case2 as1 ',satan1 than whom none higher sat4' ,this anomaly has not been satisfactorily explained4 ,in this case1 some regard than as a preposition4 ,it is probably only a case of simple enallag--,bullions1 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 of #ahdi1 p4 #aia4 ,prof4 ,fowler1 in his great publication1 of #ahej1 says of this example1 ,the expression should be1 ,satan1 than who ,none higher sat4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #dhb1 ,note #b4 ,thus1 by one single form of antiptosis1 have our grammarians been as much divided and perplexed1 as were the ,latin grammarians by a vast number of such changes2 and1 since there were some among the latter1 who insisted on a total rejection of the figure1 there is no great presumption in discarding1 if we please1 the very little that remains of it in ,english4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,peirce's new theory of grammar rests mainly on the assumption1 that no correct sentence ever is1 or can be1 in any wise1 elliptical4 ,this is one of the ,two ,,grand ,,principles on which the author says his work is based4--,the ,grammar1 p4 #aj4 ,the other is1 that grammar cannot possibly be taught without a thorough reformation of its nomenclature1 a reformation involving a change of most of the names and technical terms heretofore used for its elucidation4 ,i do not give precisely his own words1 for one half of this author's system is expressed in such language as needs to be translated into ,english in order to be generally understood2 but this is precisely his meaning1 and in words more intelligible4 ,in what estimation he holds these two positions1 may be judged from the following assertion3 ,without these grand points1 no work1 whatever may be its pretensions1 can be ,a ,,grammar of the ,,language4--,ib4 ,it follows that no man who does not despise every other book that is called a grammar1 can entertain any favourable opinion of ,peirce's4 ,the author however is tolerably consistent4 ,he not only scorns to appeal1 for the confirmation of his own assertions and rules1 to the judgement or practice of any other writer1 but counsels the learner to spurn the idea of quoting1 either as proof or for defence1 the authority of any man4 ,see p4 #ac4 ,the notable results of these important premises are too numerous for detail even in this general pandect4 ,but it is to be mentioned here1 that1 according to this theory1 a nominative coming after than or as1 is in general to be accounted a nominative absolute2 that is1 a nominative which is independent of any verb2 or1 7as the ingenious author himself expresses it17 ,a word in the subjective case following another subjective1 and immediately preceded by than1 as1 or not1 may be used without an ,,asserter immediately depending on it for sense4--,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #aie4 ,see also his ,grammatical ,chart1 ,rule ,i1 ,part #b4 ,,obs4 #be4--,lowth1 ,priestley1 ,murray1 and most grammarians say1 that hypothetical1 conditional1 concessive1 or exceptive conjunctions2 as1 if1 lest1 though1 unless1 except2 require1 or govern the subjunctive mood4 ,but in this they are certainly wrong3 for1 as ,dr4 ,crombie rightly observes1 the verb is put in the subjunctive mood1 because the mood expresses contingency1 not because it follows the conjunction3 for these writers themselves allow1 that the same conjunctions are to be followed by the indicative mood1 when the verb is not intended to express a contingency4 ,in the following sentence3 ',though he be displeased at it1 ,i will bolt my door2 and let him break it open if he dare3' may we not as well affirm1 that and governs the imperative mood1 as that though and if govern the subjunctive8--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cba4 ,,obs4 #bf4--;,in the list of correspondents contained in ,note #gth below1 there are some words which ought not to be called conjunctions1 by the parser2 for the relation of a word as the proper correspondent to an other word1 does not necessarily determine its part of speech4 ,thus1 such is to be parsed as an adjective2 as1 sometimes as a pronoun2 so1 as a conjunctive adverb4 ,and only1 merely1 also1 and even1 are sometimes conjunctive adverbs2 as1 ,nor is this only a matter of convenience to the poet1 it is also a source of gratification to the reader4-- ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #aff4 ,murray's1 ,gram41 i1 #cfb4 ,professor ,bullions will have it1 that these adverbs may relate to nouns--a doctrine which ,i disapprove4 ,he says ,only1 solely1 chiefly1 merely1 too1 also1 and perhaps a few others1 are sometimes joined to substantives2 as1 ',not only the men1 but the women also were present4'--,english ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,only and also are here1 ,i think1 conjunctive adverbs2 but it is not the office of adverbs to qualify nouns2 and1 that these words are adjuncts to the nouns men and women1 rather than the verb were1 which is once expressed and once understood1 ,i see no sufficient reason to suppose4 ,some teachers imagine1 that an adverb of this kind qualifies the whole clause in which it stands4 ,but it would seem1 that the relation of such words to verbs1 participles1 or adjectives1 according to the common rule for adverbs1 is in general sufficiently obvious3 as1 ,the perfect tense not only refers to what is past1 but also conveys an allusion to the present time4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,is there any question about the true mode of parsing only and also here8 and have they not in the other sentence1 a relation similar to what is seen here8 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xxii4 ,,note ,i4--,when two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third1 they must both be such as will make sense with it4 ,thus1 in stead of saying1 ,he has made alterations and additions to the work1 say1 ,he has made alterations in the work1 and additions to it2 because the relation between alterations and work is not well expressed by to4 ,,note ,,ii4--,in general1 any two terms which we connect by a conjunction1 should be the same in kind or quality1 rather than different or heterogeneous4 ,example3 ,the assistance was welcome1 and seasonably afforded4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bdi4 ,better3 ,the assistance was welcome1 and it was seasonably afforded4 ,or3 ,the assistance was both seasonable and welcome4 ,,note ,,iii4--,the conjunctions1 copulative or disjunctive1 affirmative or negative1 must be used with a due regard to their own import1 and to the true idiom of the language4 ,thus1 say1 ,the general bent or turn of the language is towards the other form2 and not1 with ,lowth and ,churchill1 ,the general bent and turn of the language is towards the other form4--,short ,introd41 p4 #fj2 ,new ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,so1 say1 ,i cannot deny that there are perverse jades2 and not1 with ,addison1 ,i cannot deny but there are perverse jades4--,spect41 ,no4 #deg4 ,again1 say1 ,i feared that ,i should be deserted2 not1 lest ,i should be deserted4 ,,note ,,iv4--,after else1 other1#dcg otherwise1 rather1 and all ,english comparatives1 the latter term of an exclusive comparison should be introduced by the conjunction than--a word which is appropriated to this use solely3 as1 ,style is nothing else than that sort of expression which our thoughts most readily assume4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ib4 ,what we call fables or parables are no other than allegories4--,ib41 p4 #aea2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bdc4 ,we judge otherwise of them than of ourselves4--,r4 ,ainsworth4 ,the premeditation should be of things rather than of words4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bfb4 ,is not the life more than meat8--,com4 ,bible4 ,is not life a greater gift than food8--,campbell's ,gospels4 ,,note ,v4--,relative pronouns1 being themselves a species of connective words1 necessarily exclude conjunctions2 except there be two or more relative clauses to be connected together2 that is1 one to the other4 ,example of error3 ,the principal and distinguishing excellence of ,virgil1 and which1 in my opinion1 he possesses beyond all poets1 is tenderness4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dci4 ,better3 ,the principal and distinguishing excellence of ,virgil1 an excellence which1 in my opinion1 he possesses beyond all other poets1 is tenderness4 ,,note ,,vi4--,the word that1 7as was shown in the fifth chapter of ,etymology17 is often made a pronoun in respect to what precedes it1 and a conjunction in respect to what follows it--a construction which1 for its anomaly1 ought to be rejected4 ,for example3 ,in the mean time ,,that the ,muscovites were complaining to ,st4 ,nicholas1 ,charles returned thanks to ,god1 and prepared for new victories4--,life of ,charles ,,xii4 ,better thus3 ,while the ,muscovites were thus complaining to ,st4 ,nicholas1 ,charles returned thanks to ,god1 and prepared for new victories4 ,,note ,,vii4--,the words in each of the following pairs1 are the proper correspondents to each other2 and care should be taken1 to give them their right place in the sentence3 #a4 ,to though1 corresponds yet2 as1 ,though he were dead1 yet shall he live4--,john1 xi1 #be4 #b4 ,to whether1 corresponds or2 as1 ,whether it be greater or less4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #gg4 #c4 ,to either1 corresponds or2 as1 ,the constant indulgence of a declamatory manner1 is not favourable either to good composition1 or to good delivery4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccd4 #d4 ,to neither1 corresponds nor2 as1 ,john the ,baptist came neither eating bread nor drinking wine4--,luke1 vii1 #cc4 ,thou shalt neither vex a stranger nor oppress him4--,exod41 xxii1 #ba4 #e4 ,to both1 corresponds and2 as1 ,i am debtor both to the ,greeks and to the ,barbarians1 both to the wise and to the unwise4--,rom41 i1 #ad4 #f4 ,to such1 corresponds as2 7the former being a pronominal adjective1 and the latter a relative pronoun27 as1 ,an assembly such as earth saw never4--,cowper4 #g4 ,to such1 corresponds that2 with1 a finite verb following1 to express a consequence3 as1 ,the difference is such that all will perceive it4 #h4 ,to as1 corresponds as2 with an adjective or an adverb1 to express equality of degree3 as1 ,and he went out from his presence a leper as white as snow4--#b ,kings4 v4 #bg4 #i4 ,to as1 corresponds so2 with two verbs1 to express proportion or sameness3 as1 ,as two are to four1 so are six to twelve4--,as the tree falls1 so it must lie4 #aj4 ,so is used before as2 with an adjective or an adverb1 to limit the degree by comparison3 as1 ,how can you descend to a thing so base as falsehood8 #aa4 ,so is used before as2 with a negative preceding1 to deny equality of degree3 as1 ,no lamb was e'er so mild as he4--,langhorne4 ,relatives are not so useful in language as conjunctions4--,,beattie3 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #abf4 #ab4 ,to so1 corresponds as2 with an infinitive following1 to express a consequence3 as1 ,we ought1 certainly1 to read blank verse so as to make every line sensible to the ear--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccb4 #ac4 ,to so1 corresponds that2 with a finite verb following1 to express a consequence3 as1 ,no man was so poor that he could not make restitution4--,milman's ,jews1 i1 #aac4 ,so run that ye may obtain4--#a ,cor41 ix1 #bd4 #ad4 ,to not only1 or not merely1 corresponds but1 but also1 or but even2 as1 ,in heroic times1 smuggling and piracy were deemed not only not infamous1 but even absolutely honourable4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,these are questions1 not of prudence merely1 but of morals also4--,dymond's ,essay1 p4 #hb4 ,,note ,,viii4--,when correspondent conjunctions are used1 the verb1 or phrase1 that precedes the first1 applies also to the second2 but no word following the former1 can by virtue of this correspondence1 be understood after the latter4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cec4 ,such ellipses as the following ought therefore in general to be avoided3 ,tones are different both from emphasis and from pauses4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 i1 #bej4 ,though both the intention and the purchase are now past4--,ib41 ii1 #bd4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xxii4 ,,examples ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,two ,,terms ,,with ,,one4 ,the first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second4--,inst41 p4 #aga4 ,,formule1--,not proper1 because the preposition to is used with joint reference to the two adjectives different and inferior1 which require different prepositions4 ,but1 according to ,note #ast under ,rule #bb;d1 ,when two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third1 they must both be such as will make sense with it4 ,the sentence may be corrected thus3 ,the first proposal was essentially different from the second1 and inferior to it4 ,a neuter verb implies the state a subject is in1 without acting upon1 or being acted upon1 by another4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,i answer1 you may and ought to use stories and anecdotes4--,student's ,manual1 p4 #bbj4 ,,oracle1 n4 ,any person or place where certain decisions are obtained4--,webster's ,dict4 ,forms of government may1 and must be occasionally1 changed4--,ld4 ,lyttelton4 ,i have1 and pretend to be a tolerable judge4--,spect41 ,no4 #eee4 ,are we not lazy in our duties1 or make a ,christ of them8--,baxter's ,saints' ,rest4 ,they may not express that idea which the author intends1 but some other which only resembles1 or is a-kin to it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #id4 ,we may1 we ought therefore to read them with a distinguishing eye4--,ib41 p4 #ceb4 ,compare their poverty1 with what they might1 and ought to possess4--,sedgwick's ,econ41 p4 #ie4 ,he is a much better grammarian than they are4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #baa4 ,he was more beloved1 but not so much admired as ,cinthio4--,,addison1 ,,on ,,medals3 in ,priestly's ,gram41 p4 #bjj4 ,will it be urged1 that the four gospels are as old1 or even older than tradition8--,bolingb4 ,phil4 ,es41 iv1 #ai4 ,the court of ,chancery frequently mitigates1 and breaks the teeth of the common law4--,spectator1 ,no4 #efd2 ,ware's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,antony1 coming along side of her ship1 entered it without seeing or being seen by her4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 p4 #afj4 ,in candid minds1 truth finds an entrance1 and a welcome too4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #afh4 ,in many designs1 we may succeed and be miserable4--lb41 p4 #afi4 ,in many pursuits1 we embark with pleasure1 and land sorrowfully4--,ib41 p4 #agj4 ,they are much greater gainers than ,i am by this unexpected event4--lb41 p4 #baa4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,heterogeneous ,,terms4 ,athens saw them entering her gates and fill her academies4--,chazotte's ,essay1 p4 #cj4 ,we have neither forgot his past1 nor despair of his future success4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #aba4 ,her monuments and temples had long been shattered or crumbled into dust4--,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #ae4 ,competition is excellent1 and the vital principle in all these things4--,,dr4 ,,lieber3 ib41 p4 #fd4 ,whether provision should or not be made to meet this exigency4--,ib41 p4 #abh4 ,that our ,saviour was divinely inspired1 and endued with supernatural powers1 are positions that are here taken for granted4--,murray's ,gram41 i4 #bjf4 ,it would be much more eligible1 to contract or enlarge their extent1 by explanatory notes and observations1 than by sweeping away our ancient landmarks1 and setting up others4--,ib41 i4 p4 #cj4 ,it is certainly much better1 to supply the defects and abridge superfluities1 by occasional notes and observations1 than by disorganizing1 or altering a system which has been so long established4--,ib41 i1 #ei4 ,to have only one tune1 or measure1 is not much better than having none at all--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abf4 ,facts too well known and obvious to be insisted on4--,ib41 p4 #bcc4 ,in proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen1 and of a sublime kind4--,ib41 p4 #da4 ,if the description be too general1 and divested of circumstances4--,ibid4 ,he gained nothing further than to be commended4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #baj4 ,i cannot but think its application somewhat strained1 and out of place4--,,vethake3 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #bi4 ,two negatives in the same clause1 or referring to the same thing1 destroy each other1 and leave the sense affirmative4--,maunders ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,slates are stone and used to cover roofs of houses4--,webster's ,el4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #dg4 ,every man of taste1 and possessing an elevated mind1 ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he possesses4--,influence of ,literature4 ,vol4 ii1 p1 #abb4 ,they very seldom trouble themselves with ,enquiries1 or making useful observations of their own4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cgf4 ,we've both the field and honour won2 ,the foe is profligate1 and run4--,hudibras1 p4 #ic4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,import ,,of ,,conjunctions4 ,the is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #f2 ,bullions's1 #h2 ,brace's1 #i4 ,the definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cc2 ,ingersoll's1 #cc2 ,lowth's1 #ad2 ,fisk's1 #ec2 ,merchant's1 #bd2 and others4 ,conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mode or tense4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #acg4 ,conjunctions connect verbs in the same style1 and usually in the same mode1 tense1 or form4--,ib4 ,the ruins of ,greece and ,rome are but the monuments of her former greatness4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,in many of these cases1 it is not improbable1 but that the articles were used originally4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ,i cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #he4 ,i question not but my reader will be as much pleased with it4--,spect41 ,no4 #ece4 ,it is ten to one but my friend ,peter is among them4--,ib41 ,no4 #deg4 ,i doubt not but such objections as these will be made4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #afi4 ,i doubt not but it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 vi4 ,it is not improbable1 but that1 in time1 these different constructions may be appropriated to different uses4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aef4 ,but to forget or to remember at pleasure1 are equally beyond the power of man4--,idler1 ,no4 #gb4 ,the nominative case follows the verb1 in interrogative and imperative sentences4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bij4 ,can the fig-tree1 my brethren1 bear olive berries8 either a vine1 figs8--,james1 iii1 #ab4 ,whose characters are too profligate1 that the managing of them should be of any consequence4--,swift1 ,examiner1 ,no4 #bd4 ,you that are a step higher than a philosopher1 a divine2 yet have too much grace and wit than to be a bishop4--,pope1 to ,swift1 ,let4 #hj4 ,the terms rich or poor enter not into their language4--,robertson's ,america1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cad4 ,this pause is but seldom or ever sufficiently dwelt upon4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #aha4 ,there would be no possibility of any such thing as human life and human happiness4--,butler's ,anal41 p4 #aaj4 ,the multitude rebuked them1 because they should hold their peace4--,matt41 xx1 #ba4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,the ,,conjunction ,,than4 ,a metaphor is nothing else but a short comparison4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bdc2 ,gould's1 #bcf4 ,there being no other dictator here but use4-- ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afg4 ,this ,construction is no otherwise known in ,english but by supplying the first or second ,person ,plural4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 xi4 ,cyaxares was no sooner in the throne1 but he was engaged in a terrible war4--,rollin's ,hist41 ii1 #fb4 ,those classics contain little else but histories of murders4--,am4 ,museum1 v1 #ebf4 ,ye shall not worship any other except ,god4--,sale's ,koran1 p4 #ae4 ,their relation1 therefore1 is not otherwise to be ascertained but by their place4-- ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bfj4 ,for he no sooner accosted her1 but he gained his point4--,burder's ,hist41 i1 #f4 ,and all the modern writers on this subject have done little else but translate them4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccf4 ,one who had no other aim1 but to talk copiously and plausibly4-- ,ib41 p4 #cag4 ,we can refer it to no other cause but the structure of the eye4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,no more is required but singly an act of vision4-- ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aga4 ,we find no more in its composition1 but the particulars now mentioned4-- ,ib41 i1 #dh4 ,he pretends not to say1 that it hath any other effect but to raise surprise4--,ib41 ii1 #fa4 ,no sooner was the princess dead1 but he freed himself4--,johnson's ,sketch of ,morin4 ,ought is an imperfect verb1 for it has no other modification besides this one4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,the verb is palpably nothing else but the tie4--,neef's ,sketch1 p4 #ff4 ,does he mean that theism is capable of nothing else except being opposed to polytheism or atheism8--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajd4 ,is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being opposed to polytheism1 or atheism8--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cjg4 ,there is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant1 but by means of something already known--,,dr4 ,,johnson3 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #afc2 ,ingersoll's1 #bad4 ,o fairest flower1 no sooner blown but blasted6-- ,milton's ,poems1 p1 #acb4 ,architecture and gardening cannot otherwise entertain the mind1 but by raising certain agreeable emotions or feelings4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cah4 ,or1 rather1 they are nothing else but nouns4--,british ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,as if religion were intended ,for nothing else but to be mended4--,hudibras1 p4 #aa4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,relatives ,,exclude ,,conjunctions4 ,to prepare the ,jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him1 and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bad4 ,has this word which represents an action an object after it1 and on which it terminates8--,osborn's ,key1 p4 #c4 ,the stores of literature lie before him1 and from which he may collect1 for use1 many lessons of wisdom4-- ,knapp's ,lectures1 p4 #ca4 ,many and various great advantages of this ,grammar1 and which are wanting in others1 might be enumerated4-- ,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,about the time of ,solon1 the ,athenian legislator1 the custom is said to have been introduced1 and which still prevails1 of writing in lines from left to right4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ai4 ,the fundamental rule of the construction of sentences1 and into which all others might be resolved1 undoubtedly is1 to communicate1 in the clearest and most natural order1 the ideas which we mean to transfuse into the minds of others4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abj2 ,jamieson's1 #ajb4 ,he left a son of a singular character1 and who behaved so ill that he was put in prison4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bba4 ,he discovered some qualities in the youth1 of a disagreeable nature1 and which to him were wholly unaccountable4--,ib41 p4 #bac4 ,an emphatical pause is made1 after something has been said of peculiar moment1 and on which we want 'desire' ,m4 to fix the hearer's attention4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cca2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bdh4 ,but we have duplicates of each1 agreeing in movement1 though differing in measure1 and which make different impressions on the ear4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bei4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,of ,,the ,,word ,,that4 ,it will greatly facilitate the labours of the teacher1 at the same time that it will relieve the pupil of many difficulties4--,frost's ,el4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,at the same time that the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned1 it will be a proper time to study the whole ,grammar in course4--,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 ,revised ,ed41 p4 viii4 ,on the same ground that a participle and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense4--,,beattie3 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #gf4 ,on the same ground that the voices1 moods1 and tenses1 are admitted into the ,english tongue4--,ib41 p4 #aja4 ,the five examples last mentioned1 are corrected on the same principle that the preceding examples are corrected4--,ib41 p4 #ahf2 ,ingersoll's ,gram41 #bed4 ,the brazen age began at the death of ,trajan1 and lasted till the time that ,rome was taken by the ,goths4--,gould's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bgg4 ,the introduction to the ,duodecimo ,edition1 is retained in this volume1 for the same reason that the original introduction to the ,grammar1 is retained in the first volume4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 iv4 ,the verb must also be of the same person that the nominative case is4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,the adjective pronoun their1 is plural for the same reason that who is4--,ib41 p4 #hd4 ,the ,sabellians could not justly be called ,patripassians1 in the same sense that the ,noetians were so called4--,religious ,world1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #abb4 ,this is one reason that we pass over such smooth language1 without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bih4 ,the first place that both armies came in sight of each other was on the opposite banks of the river ,apsus4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 p4 #aah4 ,at the very time that the author gave him the first book for his perusal4--,campbell's ,rhetoric1 ,preface1 p4 iv4 ,peter will sup at the time that ,paul will dine4--,fosdick's ,de ,sacy1 p4 #ha4 ,peter will be supping at the time that ,paul will enter4--,ibid4 ,these1 at the same time that they may serve as models to those who may wish to imitate them1 will give me an opportunity to cast more light upon the principles of this book4--,ib41 p4 #aae4 ,time was1 like thee1 they life possest1 ,and time shall be1 that thou shalt rest4 --,,parnell2 ,mur4 ,seq41 p4 #bda4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,of ,,the ,,correspondents4 ,our manners should neither be gross1 nor excessively refined4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,a neuter verb expresses neither action or passion1 but being1 or a state of being4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cdb4 ,the old books are neither ,english grammars1 or grammars1 in any sense of the ,english ,language4--,ib41 p4 #cgh4 ,the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,the writer could not treat some topicks as extensively as was desirable4--,ib41 p4 #aj4 ,which would be a matter of such nicety1 as no degree of human wisdom could regulate4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bf4 ,no undertaking is so great or difficult which he cannot direct4--,duncan's ,cic41 p4 #abf4 ,it is a good which neither depends on the will of others1 nor on the affluence of external fortune4--,harris's ,hermes1 #bii2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bhi4 ,not only his estate1 his reputation too has suffered by his misconduct4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aej2 ,ingersoll's1 #bch4 ,neither do they extend as far as might be imagined at first view4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cej4 ,there is no language so poor1 but it hath two or three past tenses4--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,as far as this system is founded in truth1 language appears to be not altogether arbitrary in its origin4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,i have not that command of these convulsions as is necessary4--,spect41 ,no4 #dgd4 ,conversation with such who know no arts which polish life4--,ib41 ,no4 #dhj4 ,and which can be neither very lively or very forcible4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #gh4 ,to that degree as to give proper names to rivers4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist of ,lang41 i1 #cbg4 ,in the utter overthrow of such who hate to be reformed4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ddc4 ,but still so much of it is retained1 as greatly injures the uniformity of the whole4--,priestley's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 vii4 ,some of them have gone to that height of extravagance1 as to assert1 c4--,ib41 p4 #ia4 ,a teacher is confined--not more than a merchant1 and probably not as much4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #bg4 ,it shall not be forgiven him1 neither in this world1 neither in the world to come4--,matt41 xii1 #cb4 ,which no body presumes1 or is so sanguine to hope4--,swift1 ,drap4 ,let4 v4 ,for the torrent of the voice1 left neither time or power in the organs1 to shape the words properly4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #aah4 ,that he may neither unnecessarily waste his voice by throwing out too much1 or diminish his power by using too little4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,i have retained only such which appear most agreeable to the measures of ,analogy4--,littleton's ,dict41 ,pref4 ,he is both a prudent and industrious man4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,conjunctions either connect words or sentences4--,ib41 pp4 #ha and #aja4 ,such silly girls who love to chat and play1 ,deserve no care1 their time is thrown away4--,tobitt's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,vice is a monster of so frightful mien1 ,as to be hated needs but to be seen4--,,pope3 ,mur4 ,gram41 ii1 #ag4 ,justice must punish the rebellious deed3 ,yet punish so1 as pity shall exceed4--,,dryden3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,improper ,,ellipses4 ,that1 whose1 and as relate to either persons or things4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,which and what1 as adjectives1 relate either to persons or things4--,ib41 p4 #gj4 ,whether of a public or private nature4-- ,adam's ,rhet41 i1 #dc4 ,which are included both among the public and private wrongs4--,ib41 i1 #cjh4 ,i might extract both from the old and new testament numberless examples of induction4--,ib41 ii1 #ff4 ,many verbs are used both in an active and neuter signification4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #cj2 ,alger's1 #bf2 ,guy's1 #ba2 ,murray's1 #fj4 ,its influence is likely to be considerable1 both on the morals1 and taste of a nation4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgc4 ,the subject afforded a variety of scenes1 both of the awful and tender kind4--,ib41 p4 #dci4 ,restlessness of mind disqualifies us1 both for the enjoyment of peace1 and the performance of our duty4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #aff2 ,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,adjective ,pronouns are of a mixed nature1 participating the properties both of pronouns and adjectives4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #ee2 ,merchant's1 #dc2 ,flint's1 #bb4 ,adjective ,pronouns have the nature both of the adjective and the pronoun4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,pronominal adjectives are a kind of compound part of speech1 partaking the nature both of pronouns and adjectives4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,nouns are used either in the singular or plural number4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,the question is not1 whether the nominative or accusative ought to follow the particles than and as2 but1 whether these particles are1 in such particular cases1 to be regarded as conjunctions or prepositions4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bjd4 ,in ,english many verbs are used both as transitives and intransitives4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,he sendeth rain both on the just and unjust4--,guy's ,gram41 p4 #ef4 ,a foot consists either of two or three syllables4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aaf4 ,surely1 ,romans1 what ,i am now about to say1 ought neither to be omitted nor pass without notice4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #aif4 ,their language frequently amounts1 not only to bad sense1 but non-sense4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,hence arises the necessity of a social state to man both for the unfolding1 and exerting of his nobler faculties4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #adg4 ,whether the subject be of the real or feigned kind4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ded4 ,not only was liberty entirely extinguished1 but arbitrary power felt in its heaviest and most oppressive weight4--,ib41 p4 #bdi4 ,this rule is applicable also both to verbal ,critics and ,grammarians4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #add4 ,both the rules and exceptions of a language must have obtained the sanction of good usage4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,,chapter ,x4--,,prepositions4 ,the syntax of ,prepositions consists1 not solely or mainly in their power of governing the objective case1 7though this alone is the scope which most grammarians have given it17 but in their adaptation to the other terms between which they express certain relations1 such as appear by the sense of the words uttered4 ,,rule ,,xxiii4--,,prepositions4 ,prepositions show the relations of words1 and of the things or thoughts expressed by them3 as2 ,he came from ,rome to ,paris1 in the company of many eminent men1 and passed with them through many cities--,analectic ,magazine4 ,ah6 who can tell the triumphs of the mind1 ,by truth illumin'd1 and by taste refin'd8--,rogers4 ,,exception ,,first4 ,the preposition to1 before an abstract infinitive1 and at the head of a phrase which is made the subject of a verb1 has no proper antecedent term of relation2 as1 ,to learn to die1 is the great business of life4--,dillwyn4 ,nevertheless1 to abide in the flesh1 is more needful for you4--,,st4 ,,paul3 ,phil41 i1 #bd4 ,to be reduced to poverty1 is a great affliction4 ,too much to know1 is1 to know nought but fame2 ,and every godfather can give a name4--,shakspeare4 ,,exception ,,second4 ,the preposition for1 when it introduces its object before an infinitive1 and the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb1 has properly no antecedent term of relation2 as1 ,for us to learn to die1 is the great business of life4--,nevertheless1 for me to abide in the flesh1 is more needful for you4--,for an old man to be reduced to poverty is a very great affliction4 ,for man to tell how human life began1 ,is hard2 for who himself beginning knew8--,milton4 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xxiii4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,in parsing any ordinary preposition1 the learner should name the two terms of the relation1 and apply the foregoing rule1 after the manner prescribed in ,praxis #abth of this work4 ,the principle is simple and etymological1 being implied in the very definition of a preposition1 yet not the less necessary to be given as a rule of syntax4 ,among tolerable writers1 the prepositions exhibit more errors than any other equal number of words4 ,this is probably owing to the careless manner in which they are usually slurred over in parsing4 ,but the parsers1 in general1 have at least this excuse1 that their text-books have taught them no better2 they therefore call the preposition a preposition1 and leave its use and meaning unexplained4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,if the learner be at any loss to discover the true terms of relation1 let him ask and answer two questions3 first1 with the interrogative what before the preposition1 to find the antecedent2 and then1 with the same pronoun after the preposition1 to find the subsequent term4 ,these questions answered according to the sense1 will always give the true terms4 ,for example3 ,they dashed that rapid torrent through4--,scott4 ,ques4 ,what through8 ,ans4 ,dashed through4 ,ques4 ,through what8 ,ans4 ,through that torrent4 ,for the meaning is--,they dashed through that rapid torrent4 ,if one term is perfectly obvious1 7as it almost always is17 find the other in this way2 as1 ,day unto day uttereth speech1 and night unto night showeth knowledge4--,psal41 xix1 #b4 ,ques4 ,what unto day8 ,ans4 ,uttereth unto day4 ,ques4 ,what unto night8 ,ans4 ,showeth unto night ,for the meaning is--,day uttereth speech unto day1 and night showeth knowledge unto night4 ,to parse rightly1 is1 to understand rightly2 and what is well expressed1 it is a shame to misunderstand or misinterpret4 ,but sometimes the position of the two nouns is such1 that it may require some reflection to find either2 as1 ,or that choice plant1 so grateful to the nose1 ,which in ,i know not what far country grows4--,churchill1 p4 #ah4 ,,obs4 #c4--,when a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause1 the terms of relation1 if both are given1 are transposed2 as1 ,to a studious man1 action is a relief4--,burgh4 ,that is1 ,action is a relief to a studious man4 ,science they the ladies do not pretend ,,to4--,id4 ,that is1 ,they do not pretend to science4 ,until ,i have done that which ,i have spoken to thee ,,of4--,gen41 xxviii1 #ae4 ,the word governed by the preposition is always the subsequent term of the relation1 however it may be placed2 and if this be a relative pronoun1 the transposition is permanent4 ,the preposition1 however1 may be put before any relative1 except that and as2 and this is commonly thought to be its most appropriate place3 as1 ,until ,i have done that of which ,i have spoken to thee1 ,of the placing of it last1 ,lowth says1 ,this is an idiom which our language is strongly inclined to2 ,murray and others1 ,this is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined3 while they all add1 it prevails in common conversation1 and suits very well with the familiar style in writing2 but the placing of the preposition before the relative1 is more graceful1 as well as more perspicuous1 and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated style4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ie2 ,murray's1 #hvo1 p4 #bjj2 ,fisk's1 #ada2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smiths1 #afg2 ,ingersoll's1 #bbg2 ,churchill's4 #aej4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the terms of relation between which a preposition may be used1 are very various4 ,the former or antecedent term may be a noun1 an adjective1 a pronoun1 a verb1 a participle1 or an adverb3 and1 in some instances1 we find not only one preposition put before an other1 but even a conjunction or an interjection used on this side2 as1 ,because ,,of offences4--,alas ,,for him6--,the latter or subsequent term1 which is the word governed by the preposition1 may be a noun1 a pronoun1 a pronominal adjective1 an infinitive verb1 or an imperfect or preperfect participle3 and1 in some instances1 prepositions appear to govern adverbs1 or even whole phrases4 ,see the observations in the tenth chapter of ,etymology4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,both terms of the relation are usually expressed2 though either of them may1 in some instances1 be left out1 the other being given3 as1 7#a47 ,,the ,,former--,all shall know me1 reckoning ,,from the least to the greatest4--,heb41 viii1 #aa4 ,i say ,,in a word1 it would entirely defeat the purpose4--,blair4 ,when ,i speak of reputation1 ,i mean not only reputation ,,in regard to knowledge1 but reputation ,,in regard to the talent of communicating knowledge4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afc2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cfj4 7#b47 ,,the ,,latter--,opinions and ceremonies which they would die ,,for4--,locke4 ,,in those who obtain defence1 or in those who defend4--,pope4 ,others are more modest than what this comes ,,to4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ff4 ,,obs4 #f4--,the only proper exceptions to the foregoing rule1 are those which are inserted above1 unless the abstract infinitive used as a predicate is also to be excepted2 as1 ,in both1 to reason right1 is to submit4--,pope4 ,but here most if not all grammarians would say1 the verb is is the antecedent term1 or what their syntax takes to govern the infinitive4 ,the relation1 however1 is not such as when we say1 ,he is to submit2 that is1 ,he must submit1 or ought to submit2 but1 perhaps1 to insist on a different mode of parsing the more separable infinitive or its preposition1 would be a needless refinement4 ,yet some regard ought to be paid to the different relations which the infinitive may bear to this finite verb4 ,for want of a due estimate of this difference1 the following sentence is1 ,i think1 very faulty3 ,the great business of this life is to prepare1 and qualify us1 for the enjoyment of a better4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cgc4 ,if the author meant to tell what our great business in this life is1 he should rather have said3 ,the great business of this life is1 to prepare and qualify ourselves for the enjoyment of a better4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,in relation to the infinitive1 ,dr4 ,adam remarks1 that1 ,to in ,english is often taken absolutely2 as1 ,to confess the truth2 ,to proceed2 ,to conclude4--,latin and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #ahb4 ,but the assertion is not entirely true2 nor are his examples appropriate2 for what he and many other grammarians call the infinitive absolute1 evidently depends on something understood2 and the preposition is1 surely1 in no instance independent of what follows it1 and is therefore never entirely absolute4 ,prepositions are not to be supposed to have no antecedent term1 merely because they stand at the head of a phrase or sentence which is made the subject of a verb2 for the phrase or sentence itself often contains that term1 as in the following example3 ,in what way mind acts upon matter1 is unknown4 ,here in shows the relation between acts and way2 because the expression suggests1 that mind acts ,,in some way upon matter4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the second exception above1 wherever it is found applicable1 cancels the first2 because it introduces an antecedent term before the preposition to1 as may be seen by the examples given4 ,it is questionable too1 whether both of them may not also be cancelled in an other way2 that is1 by transposition and the introduction of the pronoun it for the nominative3 as1 ,it is a great affliction1 ,,to be reduced to poverty4--,it is hard ,,for man to tell how human life began4--,nevertheless it is more needful for you1 ,,that ,i should abide in the flesh4 ,we cannot so well say1 ,it is more needful for you1 ,,for me to abide in the flesh2 but we may say1 ,it is1 on your account1 more needful ,,for me to abide in the flesh4 ,if these1 and other similar examples1 are not to be accounted additional instances in which to and for1 and also the conjunction that1 are without any proper antecedent terms1 we must suppose these particles to show the relation between what precedes and what follows them4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the preposition 7as its name implies7 precedes the word which it governs4 ,yet there are some exceptions4 ,in the familiar style1 a preposition governing a relative or an interrogative pronoun1 is often separated from its object1 and connected with the other term of relation2 as1 ,whom did he speak to8 ,but it is more dignified1 and in general more graceful1 to place the preposition before the pronoun2 as1 ,to whom did he speak8 ,the relatives that and as1 if governed by a preposition1 must always precede it4 ,in some instances1 the pronoun must be supplied in parsing2 as1 ,to set off the banquet that or which he gives notice of4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #ded4 ,sometimes the objective word is put first because it is emphatical2 as1 ,this the great understand1 this they pique themselves upon4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ff4 ,prepositions of more than one syllable1 are sometimes put immediately after their objects1 especially in poetry2 as1 ,known all the world over4--,walker's ,particles p4 #bia4 ,the thing is known all ,lesbos over4--,ibid4 ,wild ,carron's lonely woods among4--,langhorne4 ,thy deep ravines and dells along4--,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,two prepositions sometimes come together2 as1 ,lambeth is over against ,westminster abbey4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aah4 ,and from before the lustre of her face1 ,white break the clouds away4--,thomson4 ,and the meagre fiend ,blows mildew from between his shrivell'd lips4--,cowper4 ,these1 in most instances1 though they are not usually written as compounds1 appear naturally to coalesce in their syntax1 as was observed in the tenth chapter of ,etymology1 and to express a sort of compound relation between the other terms with which they are connected4 ,when such is their character1 they ought to be taken together in parsing2 for1 if we parse them separately1 we must either call the first an adverb1 or suppose some very awkward ellipsis4 ,some instances however occur1 in which an object may easily be supplied to the former word1 and perhaps ought to be2 as1 ,he is at liberty to sell it at a price above a fair remuneration4-- ,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #beh4 ,and ,i wish they had been at the bottom of the ditch ,i pulled you out of1 instead of being upon my back4--,sandford and ,merton1 p4 #bi4 ,in such examples as the following1 the first preposition1 of1 appears to me to govern the plural noun which ends the sentence2 and the intermediate ones1 from and to1 to have both terms of their relation understood3 ,iambic verse consists of from two to six feet2 that is1 of from four to twelve syllables4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aai4 ,trochaic verse consists of from one to three feet4--,ibid4 ,the meaning is--,iambic verse consists of feet varying in number from two to six2 or 7it consists7 of syllables varying from four to twelve4--,trochaic verse consists of feet varying from one foot to three feet4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,one antecedent term may have several prepositions depending on it1 with one object after each1 or more than one after any1 or only one after both or all2 as1 ,a declaration for virtue and against vice4--,butler's ,anal41 p4 #aeg4 ,a positive law against all fraud1 falsehood1 and violence1 and for1 or in favour of1 all justice and truth4 ,for of him1 and through him1 and to him1 are all things4--,bible4 ,in fact1 not only may the relation be simple in regard to all or any of the words1 but it may also be complex in regard to all or any of them4 ,hence several different prepositions1 whether they have different antecedent terms or only one and the same1 may refer either jointly or severally to one object or to more4 ,this follows1 because not only may either antecedents or objects be connected by conjunctions1 but prepositions also admit of this construction1 with or without a connecting of their antecedents4 ,examples3 ,they are capable of1 and placed in1 different stations in the society of mankind4--,butler's ,anal41 p4 #aae4 ,our perception of vice and ill desert arises from1 and is the result of1 a comparison of actions with the nature and capacities of the agent4--,ib41 p4 #bgi4 ,and the design of this chapter is1 to inquire how far this is the case2 how far1 over and above the moral nature which ,god has given us1 and our natural notion of him1 as righteous governor of those his creatures to whom he has given this nature2 ,i say1 how far1 besides this1 the principles and beginnings of a moral government over the world may be discerned1 notwithstanding and amidst all the confusion and disorder of it4--,ib41 p4 #he4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the preposition into1 expresses a relation produced by motion or change2 and in1 the same relation1 without reference to motion as having produced it3 hence1 to walk into the garden1 and1 to walk in the garden1 are very different in meaning4 ,it is disagreeable to find a word split into two by a pause4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #hc4 ,this appears to be right in sense1 but because brevity is desirable in unemphatic particles1 ,i suppose most persons would say1 split in two4 ,in the ,bible we have the phrases1 rent in twain1--cut in pieces1--brake in pieces the rocks1--brake all their bones in pieces1--brake them to pieces1--broken to pieces1--pulled in pieces4 ,in all these1 except the first1 to may perhaps be considered preferable to in2 and into would be objectionable only because it is longer and less simple4 ,half of them dare not shake the snow from off their cassocks1 lest they shake themselves to pieces4--,,shak43 ,kames1 ii1 #bdf4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,between1 or betwixt1 is used in reference to two things or parties2 among1 or amongst1 amid1 or amidst1 in reference to a greater number1 or to something by which an other may be surrounded3 as1 ,thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear4--,byron4 ,the host between the mountain and the shore4--,id4 ,to meditate amongst decay1 and stand a ruin amidst ruins4--,id4 ,in the following examples1 the import of these prepositions is not very accurately regarded2 ,the ,greeks wrote in capitals1 and left no spaces between their words4--,wilson's ,essay1 p4 #f4 ,this construction may perhaps be allowed1 because the spaces by which words are now divided1 occur severally between one word and an other2 but the author might as well have said1 and left no spaces to distinguish their words4 ,there was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion1 an ass1 and a fox4--,l',estrange4 ,here by or among would1 ,i think1 be better than betwixt1 because the partners were more than two4 ,between two or more authors1 different readers will differ1 exceedingly1 as to the preference in point of merit4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afb2 ,jamieson's1 #dj2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cfj4 ,say1 ,concerning two or more authors1 because between is not consistent with the word more4 ,rising one among another in the greatest confusion and disorder4--,spect41 ,no4 #dgf4 ,say1 ,rising promiscuously1 or1 ,rising all at once2 for among is not consistent with the distributive term one an other4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,of two prepositions coming together between the same terms of relation1 and sometimes connected in the same construction1 ,i have given several plain examples in this chapter1 and in the tenth chapter of ,etymology1 a very great number1 all from sources sufficiently respectable4 ,but1 in many of our ,english grammars1 there is a stereotyped remark on this point1 originally written by ,priestley1 which it is proper here to cite1 as an other specimen of the ,doctor's hastiness1 and of the blind confidence of certain compilers and copyists3 ,two different prepositions must be improper in the same construction1 and in the same sentence3 as1 ,the combat between thirty ,britons1 against twenty ,english4 ,smollett's ,voltaire1 ,vol4 #b1 p4 #bib4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aef4 ,lindley ,murray and others have the same remark1 with the example altered thus3 ,the combat between thirty ,french against twenty ,english4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bjj2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #afg3 ,fisk's1 #adb2 ,ingersoll's1 #bbh4 ,w4 ,allen has it thus3 ,two different prepositions in the same construction are improper2 as1 a combat between twenty ,french against thirty ,english4--,elements of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #agi4 ,he gives the odds to the latter party4 ,hiley1 with no expense of thought1 first takes from ,murray1 as he from ,priestley1 the useless remark1 ,different relations1 and different senses1 must be expressed by different prepositions2 and then adds1 ,one relation must not1 therefore1 be expressed by two different prepositions in the same clause2 thus1 ',the combat between thirty ,french against thirty ,english1' should be1 ',the combat between thirty ,french and thirty ,english4'--,hiley's ,e4 ,gram41 p #ig4 ,it is manifest that the error of this example is not in the use of two prepositions1 nor is there any truth or fitness in the note or notes made on it by all these critics2 for had they said1 ,the combat of thirty ,french against twenty ,english1 there would still be two prepositions1 but where would be the impropriety1 or where the sameness of construction1 which they speak of8 ,between is incompatible with against1 only because it requires two parties or things for its own regimen2 as1 ,the combat between thirty ,frenchmen and twenty ,englishmen4 ,this is what ,smollett should have written1 to make sense with the word between4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,with like implicitness1 ,hiley excepted1 these grammarians and others have adopted from ,lowth an observation in which the learned doctor has censured quite too strongly the joint reference of different prepositions to the same objective noun3 to wit1 ,some writers separate the preposition from its noun1 in order to connect different prepositions to the same noun2 as1 ',to suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient of1 and antecedent to1 themselves4' ,bentley1 ,serm4 #f4 ,this construction1 whether in the familiar or the solemn style1 is always inelegant2 and should never be admitted1 but in forms of law1 and the like2 where fullness and exactness of expression must take place of every other consideration4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #if2 ,murray's1 i1 #bjj2 ,smith's1 #afg2 ,fisk's1 #ada2 ,ingersoll's1 #bbh2 ,alger's1 #fg2 ,picket's1 #bjg4 ,churchill even goes further1 both strengthening the censure1 and disallowing the exception3 thus1 ,this1 whether in the solemn or in the familiar style1 is always inelegant1 and should never be admitted4 ,it is an awkward shift for avoiding the repetition of a word1 which might be accomplished without it by any person who has the least command of language4--,new ,gram41 p4 #cda4 ,yet1 with all their command of language1 not one of these gentlemen has told us how the foregoing sentence from ,bentley may be amended2 while many of their number not only venture to use different prepositions before the same noun1 but even to add a phrase which puts that noun in the nominative case3 as1 ,thus1 the time of the infinitive may be before1 after1 or the same as1 the time of the governing verb1 according as the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before1 after1 or present with1 the thing denoted by the governing verb4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aia2 ,ingersoll's1 #bfj2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #aei4 ,,obs4 #af4--,the structure of this example not only contradicts palpably1 and twice over1 the doctrine cited above1 but one may say of the former part of it1 as ,lowth1 ,murray1 and others do1 7in no very accurate ,english17 of the text #a ,cor41 ii1 #i3 ,there seems to be an impropriety in this sentence1 in which the same noun serves in a double capacity1 performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bbd4 ,see also ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #gc2 ,ingersoll's1 #bgg2 ,fisk's1 #adi2 ,smith's1 #ahe4 ,two other examples1 exactly like that which is so pointedly censured above1 are placed by ,murray under his thirteenth rule for the comma2 and these likewise1 with all faithfulness1 are copied by ,ingersoll1 ,smith1 ,alger1 ,kirkham1 ,comly1 ,russell1 and ,i know not how many more4 ,in short1 not only does this rule of their punctuation include the construction in question2 but the following exception to it1 which is remarkable for its various faults1 or thorough faultiness1 is applicable to no other3 ,sometimes1 when the word with which the last preposition agrees1 is single1 it is better to omit the comma before it3 as1 ',many states were in alliance with1 and under the protection of ,rome4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bgb2 ,smith's1 #aij2 ,ingersoll's1 #bhd2 ,kirkham's1 #bae2 ,alger's1 #gi2 ,alden's1 #adi2 ,abel ,flint's1 #ajc2 ,russell's1 #aae4 ,but the blunders and contradictions on this point1 end not here4 ,dr4 ,blair happened most unlearnedly to say1 ,what is called splitting of particles1 or separating a preposition from the noun which it governs1 is always to be avoided4 ,as if ,i should say1 ',though virtue borrows no assistance from1 yet it may often be accompanied by1 the advantages of fortune4'--,lect4 ,,xii1 p4 #aab4 ,this too1 though the author himself did not always respect the rule1 has been thought worthy to be copied1 or stolen1 with all its faults6 ,see ,jamieson's ,rhetoric1 p4 #ic2 and ,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #cai4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,dr4 ,lowth says1 ,the noun aversion1 7that is1 a turning away17 as likewise the adjective averse1 seems to require the preposition from after it2 and not so properly to admit of to1 or for1 which are often used with it4--,gram41 p4 #ih4 ,but this doctrine has not been adopted by the later grammarians3 ,the words averse and aversion 7says ,dr4 ,campbell7 are more properly construed with to than with from4 ,the examples in favour of the latter preposition1 are beyond comparison outnumbered by those in favour of the former4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bja2 ,fisk's1 #adb2 ,ingersoll's1 #bbi4 ,this however must be understood only of mental aversion4 ,the expression of ,milton1 ,on the coast averse from entrance1 would not be improved1 if from were changed to to4 ,so the noun exception1 and the verb to except1 are sometimes followed by from1 which has regard to the ,latin particle ex1 with which the word commences2 but the noun at least is much more frequently1 and perhaps more properly1 followed by to4 ,examples3 ,objects of horror must be excepted from the foregoing theory4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bfh4 ,from which there are but two exceptions1 both of them rare4--,ib41 ii4 #hi4 ,to the rule that fixes the pause after the fifth portion1 there is one exception1 and no more4--,ib41 ii1 #hd4 ,no exception can be taken to the justness of the figure4--,ib41 ii1 #cg4 ,originally there was no exception from the rule4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,from this rule there is mostly an exception4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bfi4 ,but to this rule there are many exceptions4--,ib41 i4 #bdj4 ,they are not to be regarded as exceptions from the rule1--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cfc4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,after correcting the example4 ,he knows nothing on of it1 ,churchill remarks1 ,there seems to be a strange perverseness among the ,london vulgar in perpetually substituting on for of1 and of for on4--,new ,gram41 p4 #cde4 ,and among the expressions which ,campbell censures under the name of vulgarism1 are the following3 ',tis my humble request you will be particular in speaking to the following points4--,guardian1 ,no4 #eg4 ,the preposition ought to have been on4 ,precisely of the same stamp is the on't for of it1 so much used by one class of writers4--,philosophy of ,rhet41 p4 #bag4 ,so far as ,i have observed1 the use of of for on has never been frequent2 and that of on for of1 or on't for of it1 though it may never have been a polite custom1 is now a manifest archaism1 or imitation of ancient usage4 ,and so my young ,master1 whatever comes on't1 must have a ,wife look'd out for him4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cgh4 ,in ,saxon1 on was put for more than half a dozen of our present prepositions4 ,the difference between of and on or upon1 appears in general to be obvious enough2 and yet there are some phrases in which it is not easy to determine which of these words ought to be preferred3 as1 ,many things they cannot lay hold on at once4--,,hooker3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,uzzah put forth his hand to the ark of ,god1 and took hold of it4--#b ,,sam43 ib4 ,rather thou shouldst lay hold upon him4--,,ben ,,jonson3 ib4 ,let them find courage to lay hold on the occasion4--,,milton3 ib4 ,the hand is fitted to lay hold of objects4--,,ray3 ib4 ,my soul took hold on thee4--,,addison3 ib4 ,to lay hold of this safe1 this only method of cure4--,,atterbury3 ib4 ,and give fortune no more hold of him4--,,dryden3 ib4 ,and his laws take the surest hold of us4--,,tillotson3 ib4 ,it will then be impossible you can have any hold upon him4--,,swift3 ib4 ,the court of ,rome gladly laid hold on all the opportunities4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 p4 #aih4 ,then did the officer lay hold of him and execute him4--,ib41 ii1 #bai4 ,when one can lay hold upon some noted fact4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #caa4 ,but when we would lay firm hold of them4--,ib41 p4 #bh4 ,an advantage which every one is glad to lay hold of4--,ib41 p4 #ge4 ,to have laid fast hold of it in his mind4--,ib41 p4 #id4 ,i would advise them to lay aside their common-places1 and to think closely of their subject4--,ib41 p4 #cag4 ,did they not take hold of your fathers8--,zech41 i1 #f4 ,ten men shall take hold of the skirt of one that is a ,jew4--,ib41 viii1 #bc4 ,it is wrong to say1 either 'to lay hold of a thing1' or 'to take hold on it4'--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aja4 ,in the following couplet1 on seems to have been preferred only for a rhyme3 ,yet1 lo6 in me what authors have to brag on6 ,reduc'd at last to hiss in my own dragon4--,pope4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,in the allowable uses of prepositions1 there may perhaps be some room for choice2 so that what to the mind of a critic may not appear the fittest word1 may yet be judged not positively ungrammatical4 ,in this light ,i incline to view the following examples3 ,homer's plan is still more defective1 upon another account4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bii4 ,say--on an other account4 ,it was almost eight of the clock before ,i could leave that variety of objects4--,spectator1 ,no4 #ded4 ,present usage requires--eight o'clock4 ,the ,greek and ,latin writers had a considerable advantage above us4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aad4 ,the study of oratory has this advantage above that of poetry4--,ib41 p4 #cch4 ,a metaphor has frequently an advantage above a formal comparison4-- ,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aej4 ,this use of above seems to be a sort of ,scotticism3 an ,englishman1 ,i think1 would say--advantage over us1 c4 ,hundreds have all these crowding upon them from morning to night4-- ,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #cc4 ,better--from morning till night4 ,but ,horne ,tooke observes1 ,we apply ,,to indifferently to place or time2 but ,,till to time only1 and never to place4 ,thus we may say1 ',from morn ,,to night th' eternal larum rang2' or1 ',from morn ,,till night4' c4--,diversions of ,purley1 i1 #bhd4 ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xxiii4 ,,note ,i4--,prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language1 so as rightly to express the relations intended4 ,example of error3 ,by which we arrive to the last division4--,richard ,w4 ,green's ,gram41 p4 vii4 ,say1--arrive at4 ,,note ,,ii4--,those prepositions which are particularly adapted in meaning to two objects1 or to more1 ought to be confined strictly to the government of such terms only as suit them4 ,example of error3 ,what is ,person8 ,it is the medium of distinction between the speaker1 the object addressed or spoken to1 and the object spoken of4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,between three is an incongruity2 and the text here cited is bad in several other respects4 ,,note ,,iii4--,an ellipsis or omission of the preposition is inelegant1 except where long and general use has sanctioned it1 and made the relation sufficiently intelligible4 ,in the following sentence1 of is needed3 ,i will not flatter you1 that all ,i see in you is worthy love4-- ,shakspeare4 ,the following requires from3 ,ridicule is banished ,france1 and is losing ground in ,england4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #ajf4 ,,note ,,iv4--,the insertion of a preposition is also inelegant1 when the particle is needless1 or when it only robs a transitive verb of its proper regimen2 as1 ,the people of ,england may congratulate to themselves4--,,dryden3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #afc4 ,his servants ye are1 to whom ye obey4--,rom41 vi1 #af4 ,,note ,v4--,the preposition and its object should have that position in respect to other words1 which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable4 ,examples of error3 ,gratitude is a forcible and active principle in good and generous minds4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #afi4 ,better3 ,in good and generous minds1 gratitude is a forcible and active principle4 ,by a single stroke1 he knows how to reach the heart4-- ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dci4 ,better3 ,he knows how to reach the heart by a single stroke4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,rule ,,xxiii4 ,,examples ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,choice ,,of ,,prepositions4 ,you have bestowed your favours to the most deserving persons4--,swift1 on ,e4 ,tongue4 ,,formule4--,not proper because the relation between have bestowed and persons is not correctly expressed by the preposition to4 ,but1 according to ,note #ast under ,rule #bc;d1 ,prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language1 so as rightly to express the relations intended4 ,this relation would be better expressed by upon2 thus1 ,you have bestowed your favours upon the most deserving persons4 ,but to rise beyond that1 and overtop the crowd1 is given to few4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cea4 ,this also is a good sentence1 and gives occasion to no material remark4--,ib41 p4 #bja4 ,though ,cicero endeavours to give some reputation of the elder ,cato1 and those who were his cotemporaries4--,ib41 p4 #bde4 ,the change that was produced on eloquence1 is beautifully described in the ,dialogue4--,ib41 p4 #bdi4 ,without carefully attending to the variation which they make upon the idea4--,ib41 p4 #cfg4 ,all of a sudden1 you are transported into a lofty palace4--,hazlitt's ,lect41 p4 #gj4 ,alike independent on one another4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cih4 ,you will not think of them as distinct processes going on independently on each other1--,channing's ,self-,culture1 p4 #ae4 ,though we say1 to depend on1 dependent on1 and independent on1 we say1 independently of4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cdh4 ,independently on the rest of the sentence4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #gh2 ,guy's1 #hh2 ,murray's1 i1 #ade and #ahd2 ,ingersoll's1 #aej2 ,frost's1 #df2 ,fisk's1 #abe2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #aef2 ,gould's ,lat4 ,gram41 #bji2 ,nixon's ,parser1 #fe4 ,because they stand independent on the rest of the sentence4--,fisk's ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,when a substantive is joined with a participle in ,english independently in the rest of the sentence4--,adam's ,lat4 and ,eng4 ,gram41 ,boston ,ed4 of #ahjc1 p4 #bac2 ,albany ,ed4 of #ahbj1 p4 #aff4 ,conjunction1 comes of the two ,latin words con1 together1 and jungo1 to join4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,how different to this is the life of ,fulvia6--,addison's ,spect41 ,no4 #ae4 ,loved is a participle or adjective1 derived of the word love4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,but ,i would inquire at him1 what an office is8--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #dfc4 ,for the capacity is brought unto action4--,ib41 iii1 #dbj4 ,in this period1 language and taste arrive to purity4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #id4 ,and should you not aspire at distinction in the republick of letters4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,delivering you up to the synagogues1 and in prisons4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #ee4 ,one that is kept from falling in a ditch1 is as truly saved1 as he that is taken out of one4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #cab4 ,the best on it is1 they are but a sort of ,french ,hugonots4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #fb4 ,these last ,ten ,examples are indeed of a different ,nature to the former4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #ccc4 ,for the initiation of students in the principles of the ,english language4--,,annual ,,review3 ,murray's ,gram41 ii1 #bii4 ,richelieu profited of every circumstance which the conjuncture afforded1--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #agg4 ,in the names of drugs and plants1 the mistake in a word may endanger life4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #afe4 ,in order to the carrying on its several parts into execution4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aib4 ,his abhorrence to the superstitious figure4--,,hume3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #afd4 ,thy prejudice to my cause4--,,dryden3 ib41 p4 #afd4 ,which is found among every species of liberty4--,,hume3 ib41 p4 #afi4 ,in a hilly region to the north of ,jericho4--,milman's ,jews1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #h4 ,two or more singular nouns1 coupled with ,,and1 require a verb and pronoun in the plural4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,books should to one of these four ends conduce1 ,for wisdom1 piety1 delight1 or use4--,denham1 p4 #bci4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,two ,,objects ,,or ,,more4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons1 however1 soon quarrelled between themselves for precedence4--,constable's ,miscellany1 xx1 p4 #ei4 ,the distinctions between the principal parts of speech are founded in nature4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #g4 ,i think ,i now understand the difference between the active1 passive1 and neuter verbs4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #abd4 ,thus a figure including a space between three lines1 is the real as well as nominal essence of a triangle4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #cjc4 ,we must distinguish between an imperfect phrase1 a simple sentence1 and a compound sentence4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aag2 ,murray's1 i1 #bfg2 ,ingersoll's1 #bhj2 ,guy's1 #ig4 ,the ,jews are strictly forbidden by their law1 to exercise usury among one another4--,sale's ,koran1 p4 #agg4 ,all the writers have distinguished themselves among one another4--,addison4 ,this expression also better secures the systematic uniformity between the three cases4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ih4 ,when a disjunctive occurs between two or more ,infinitive ,modes1 or clauses1 the verb must be singular4-- ,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,several nouns or pronouns together in the same case1 not united by and1 require a comma between each4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aae4 ,the difference between the several vowels is produced by opening the mouth differently1 and placing the tongue in a different manner for each4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,thus feet composed of syllables1 being pronounced with a sensible interval between each1 make a more lively impression than can be made by a continued sound4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cb4 ,the superlative degree implies a comparison between three or more4--,smith's ,productive ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,they are used to mark a distinction between several objects4--,levizac's ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,omission ,,of ,,prepositions4 ,this would have been less worthy notice4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #aig4 ,but ,i passed it1 as a thing unworthy my notice4--,werter4 ,which1 in compliment to me1 perhaps1 you may1 one day1 think worthy your attention4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,to think this small present worthy an introduction to the young ladies of your very elegant establishment4-- ,ib41 p4 iv4 ,there are but a few miles portage4--,jefferson's ,notes on ,virginia1 p4 #ag4 ,it is worthy notice1 that our mountains are not solitary4--,ib41 p4 #bf4 ,it is of about one hundred feet diameter4-- ,ib41 #cc4 ,entering a hill a quarter or half a mile4--,ib41 p4 #dg4 ,and herself seems passing to that awful dissolution1 whose issue is not given human foresight to scan4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,it was of a spheroidical form1 of about forty feet diameter at the base1 and had been of about twelve feet altitude4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,before this it was covered with trees of twelve inches diameter1 and round the base was an excavation of five feet depth and width4--,ibid4 ,then thou mayest eat grapes thy fill at thine own pleasure4--,deut41 xxiii1 #bd4 ,then he brought me back the way of the gate of the outward sanctuary4--,ezekiel1 xliv1 #a4 ,they will bless ,god that he has peopled one half the world with a race of freemen4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #id4 ,what use can these words be1 till their meaning is known8--,town's ,analysis1 p4 #g4 ,the tents of the ,arabs now are black1 or a very dark colour4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #bfe4 ,they may not be unworthy the attention of young men4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #aeg4 ,the pronoun that is frequently applied to persons1 as well as things4-- ,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,and who is in the same case that man is4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,he saw a flaming stone1 apparently about four feet diameter4--,the ,friend1 vii1 #dji4 ,pliny informs us1 that this stone was the size of a cart4--,ibid4 ,seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of ,tiberius1 when the ,jews were expelled ,rome4--,seneca's ,morals1 p4 #aa4 ,i was prevented#dch reading a letter which would have undeceived me4--,hawkesworth1 ,adv41 ,no4 #ed4 ,if the problem can be solved1 we may be pardoned the inaccuracy of its demonstration4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #be4 ,the army must of necessity be the school1 not of honour1 but effeminacy4--,brown's ,estimate1 i4 #fe4 ,afraid of the virtue of a nation1 in its opposing bad measures4--,ib41 i1 #gc4 ,the uniting them in various ways1 so as to form words1 would be easy4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #cd4 ,i might be excused taking any more notice of it4--,watson's ,apology1 p4 #fe4 ,watch therefore2 for ye know not what hour your ,lord doth come4--,matt41 xxiv1 #db4 ,here1 not even infants were spared the sword4--,m',ilvaine's ,lectures1 p4 #cac4 ,to prevent men turning aside to corrupt modes of worship4--,calvin's ,institutes1 ,b4 ,i1 ,ch4 #ab1 ,sec4 #a4 ,god expelled them the ,garden of ,eden4--,burder's ,hist41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aj4 ,nor could he refrain expressing to the senate the agonies of his mind--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #abc4 ,who now so strenuously opposes the granting him any new powers4--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #abg4 ,that the laws of the censors have banished him the forum4--,ib41 p4 #adj4 ,we read not that he was degraded his office any other way4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #adi4 ,to all whom these presents shall come1 ,greeting4--,hutchinson's ,mass41 i1 #dei4 ,on the #ast1 ,august1 #ahcd4--;,british ,act for the ,abolition of ,slavery4 ,whether you had not some time in your life ,err'd in this point which now you censure him4--,shak4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,needless ,,prepositions4 ,and the apostles and elders came together to consider of this matter4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dha4 ,and the apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter4--,acts1 xv1 #f4 ,adjectives in our ,language have neither ,case1 ,gender1 nor ,number2 the only ,variation they have is by ,comparison4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ',it is to you1 that ,i am indebted for this privilege2' that is1 'to you am ,i indebted2' or1 ',it is to you to whom ,i am indebted4'--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bcb4 ,books is a noun1 of the third person1 plural number1 of neuter gender1-- ,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,brother's is a common substantive1 of the masculine gender1 the third person1 the singular number1 and in the possessive case4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bbi4 ,virtue's is a common substantive1 of the third person1 the singular number1 and in the possessive case4--,ib41 i1 #bbh4 ,when the authorities on one side greatly preponderate1 it is in vain to oppose the prevailing usage4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #agc2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cfg4 ,a captain of a troop of banditti1 had a mind to be plundering of ,rome4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ea4 ,and1 notwithstanding of its ,verbal power1 we have added the to and other signs of exertion4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #bh4 ,some of these situations are termed ,,cases1 and are expressed by additions to the ,noun instead of by separate words4--,ib41 p4 #cc4 ,is it such a fast that ,i have chosen1 that a man should afflict his soul for a day1 and to bow down his head like a bulrush8--,bacon's ,wisdom1 p4 #fe4 ,and this first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the accidental1 instead of1 by the necessary antecedent4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #ag4 ,at about the same time1 the subjugation of the ,moors was completed4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #bfi4 ,god divided between the light and between the darkness4-- ,burder's ,hist41 i1 #a4 ,notwithstanding of this1 we are not against outward significations of honour4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #bdb4 ,whether these words and practices of ,job's friends1 be for to be our rule4--,ib41 i1 #bdc4 ,such verb cannot admit of an objective case after it4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,for which ,god is now visibly punishing of these ,nations4--,right of ,tythes1 ,in this respect1 ,tasso yields to no poet1 except to ,homer4--,blair's ,rhet41 ,notwithstanding of the numerous panegyrics on the ancient ,english liberty4--,,hume3 ,priestley's ,gram41 ,their efforts seemed to anticipate on the spirit1 which became so general afterwards4--,id41 ib41 p4 #afg4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,the ,,placing ,,of ,,the ,,words4 ,but how short are my expressions of its excellency6--,baxter4 ,there is a remarkable union in his style1 of harmony with ease4--,blair's ,rhet41 ,it disposes in the most artificial manner1 of the light and shade1 for viewing every thing to the best advantage4--,aristotle too holds an eminent rank among didactic writers for his brevity4--,in an introduction1 correctness should be carefully studied in the expression4--,precision is to be studied1 above all things in laying down a method4--,which shall make the impression on the mind of something that is one1 whole and entire4--,at the same time1 there are some defects which must be acknowledged in the ,odyssey4--,beauties1 however1 there are1 in the concluding books1 of the tragic kind4--,these forms of conversation by degrees multiplied and grew troublesome4--,spectator1 ,no4 #aai4 ,when she has made her own choice1 for form's sake1 she sends a cong-d'-lire to her friends4--,let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand4--,let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him1 who1 in his hand1 holds the reins of the whole creation4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ec4 ,the most frequent measure next to this in ,english poetry is that of eight syllables4--,blair's ,gram41 ,to introduce as great a variety as possible of cadences4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 ,he addressed several exhortations to them suitable to their circumstances4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 ,habits must be acquired of temperance and self-denial4--,in reducing the rules prescribed to practice4--,murray's ,gram41 ,but these parts must be so closely bound together as to make the impression upon the mind1 of one object1 not of many4--,blair's ,rhet41 ,errors are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writer1 with respect to the use of shall and will--,butler's ,pract4 ,gram41 ,,chapter ,,xi--,,interjections4 ,interjections1 being seldom any thing more than natural sounds or short words uttered independently1 can hardly be said to have any syntax2 but since some rule is necessary to show the learner how to dispose of them in parsing1 a brief axiom for that purpose1 is here added1 which completes our series of rules3 and1 after several remarks on this canon1 and on the common treatment of ,interjections1 this chapter is made to embrace ,exercises upon all the other parts of speech1 that the chapters in the ,key may correspond to those of the ,grammar4 ,,rule ,,xxiv4--,,interjections4 ,interjections have no dependent construction2 they are put absolute1 either alone1 or with other words3 as1 ,o6 let not thy heart despise me4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,o cruel thou6--,pope1 ,odys41 ,b4 xii1 l4 #ccc4 ,ah wretched we1 poets of earth6--,cowley1 ,ah ,dennis6 ,gildon ah6 what ill-starr'd rage ,divides a friendship long confirm'd by age8 ,pope1 ,dunciad1 ,b4 iii1 ,,observations ,,on ,,rule ,,xxiv4 ,,obs4 #a4--,to this rule1 there are properly no exceptions4 ,though interjections are sometimes uttered in close connexion with other words1 yet1 being mere signs of passion or of feeling1 they seem not to have any strict grammatical relation1 or dependence according to the sense4 ,being destitute alike of relation1 agreement1 and government1 they must be used independently1 if used at all4 ,yet an emotion signified in this manner1 not being causeless1 may be accompanied by some object1 expressed either by a nominative absolute1 or by an adjective after for3 as1 ,alas6 poor ,yorick6--,shak4 ,here the grief denoted by alas1 is certainly for ,yorick2 as much so1 as if the expression were1 ,alas for poor ,yorick6 ,but1 in either case1 alas1 ,i think1 has no dependent construction2 neither has ,yorick1 in the former1 unless we suppose an ellipsis of some governing word4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the interjection ,o is common to many languages1 and is frequently uttered1 in token of earnestness1 before nouns or pronouns put absolute by direct address2 as1 ,arise1 ,o ,lord2 ,o ,god1 lift up thine hand4--,psalms1 x1 #ab4 ,o ye of little faith6--,matt41 vi1 #cj4 ,the ,latin and ,greek grammarians1 therefore1 made this interjection the sign of the vocative case2 which case is the same as the nominative put absolute by address in ,english4 ,but this particle is no positive index of the vocative2 because an independent address may be made without that sign1 and the ,o may be used where there is no address3 as1 ,o scandalous want6 ,o shameful omission6--,pray1 ,sir1 don't be uneasy4--,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #hf4 ,,obs4 #c4--,some grammarians ascribe to two or three of our interjections the power of governing sometimes the nominative case1 and sometimes the objective4 ,first1 ,,nixon2 in an exercise entitled1 ,,nominative ,,governed ,,by ,,an ,,interjection1 thus3 ,the interjections ,o6 ,oh6 and ,ah6 require after them the nominative case of a substantive in the second person2 as1 ',o thou persecutor6'--',o ,alexander6 thou hast slain thy friend4' ,o is an interjection1 governing the nominative case ,alexander4--,english ,parser1 ,again1 under the title1 ,,objective ,,case ,,governed ,,by ,,an ,,interjection1 he says3 ,the interjections ,o6 ,oh6 and ,ah6 require after them the objective case of a substantive in the first or third person2 as1 ',oh me6' ',oh the humiliations6' ,oh is an interjection1 governing the objective case humiliations4--,these two rules are in fact contradictory1 while each of them absurdly suggests that ,o1 oh1 and ah1 are used only with nouns4 ,so ,j4 ,m4 ,,putnam3 ,interjections sometimes govern an objective case2 as1 ,ah me6 ,o the tender ties6 ,o the soft enmity6 ,o me miserable6 ,o wretched prince6 ,o cruel reverse of fortune6 ,when an address is made1 the interjection does not perform the office of government4--,putnam's ,gram41 ,so ,,kirkham2 who1 under a rule quite different from these1 extends the doctrine of government to all interjections3 ,according to the genius of the ,english language1 transitive verbs and prepositions require the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them2 and this requisition is all that is meant by government1 when we say that these parts of speech govern the objective case4 ,,the ,,same ,,principle ,,applies ,,to ,,the ,,interjection4 ',interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them2 but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person2 as1 ,ah me6 ,oh thou6 ,o my country6' ,to say1 then1 that interjections require particular cases after them1 is synonymous with saying1 that they govern those cases2 and this office of the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs in the ,latin1 and many other languages4--,kirkham's ,gram41 ,according to this1 every interjection has as much need of an object after it1 as has a transitive verb or a preposition6 ,the rule has1 certainly1 no accordance with what occurs in ,latin1 or in any other language2 it is wholly a fabrication1 though found1 in some shape or other1 in well-nigh all ,english grammars4 ,,obs4 #d4--,l4 ,,murray',s doctrine on this point is thus expressed3 ,the interjections ,o6 ,oh6 and ,ah6 require the objective case of a pronoun in the first person after them1 as1 ',o me6 oh me6 ,ah me6' ,but the nominative case in the second person3 as1 ',o thou persecutor6' ',oh ye hypocrites6' ',o thou1 who dwellest1' c4--,octavo ,gram41 ,,ingersoll copies this most faulty note literally1 adding these words to its abrupt end1--i4 e41 to its inexplicable c4 used by ,murray2 because the first person is governed by a preposition understood3 as1 ',ah for me6' or1 ',o what will become of me6' c41 and the second person is in the nominative independent1 there being a direct address4--,conversations on ,e4 ,gram41 ,so we see that this grammarian and ,kirkham1 both modifiers of ,murray1 understand their master's false verb require very differently4 ,,lennie too1 in renouncing a part of ,murray's double or threefold error1 ,oh6 happy us6 for1 ,o happy we6 teaches thus3 ,interjections sometimes require the objective case after them1 but they never govern it4 ,in the first edition of this grammar1 says he1 ,i followed ,mr4 ,murray and others1 in leaving we1 in the exercises to be turned into us2 but that it should be we1 and not us1 is obvious2 because it is the nominative to are understood2 thus1 ,oh happy are we1 or1 ,oh we are happy1 7being7 surrounded with so many blessings4--,lennie's ,gram41 ,fifth ,edition1 ,twelfth1 ,here is an other solution of the construction of this pronoun of the first person1 contradictory alike to ,ingersoll's1 to ,kirkham's1 and to ,murray's2 while all are wrong1 and this among the rest4 ,the word should indeed be we1 and not us2 because we have both analogy and good authority for the former case1 and nothing but the false conceit of sundry grammatists for the latter4 ,but it is a nominative absolute1 like any other nominative which we use in the same exclamatory manner4 ,for the first person may just as well be put in the nominative absolute1 by exclamation1 as any other2 as1 ,behold ,i and the children whom ,god hath given me6--,heb41 ,ecce ego et pueri quos mihi dedit ,deus6--,beza4 ,o brave we6--,dr4 ,johnson1 often4 ,so ,horace3 ,o ego lvus1 c4--,ep4 ad ,pi41 #cja4 ,ah6 luckless ,i6 who purge in spring my spleen-- ,else sure the first of bards had ,horace been4 --,francis's ,hor41 ii1 #bji4 ,,obs4 #e4--,whether ,murray's remark above1 on ,o6 ,oh6 and ,ah6 was originally designed for a rule of government or not1 it is hardly worth any one's while to inquire4 ,it is too lame and inaccurate every way1 to deserve any notice1 but that which should serve to explode it forever4 ,yet no few1 who have since made ,english grammars1 have copied the text literally2 as they have1 for the public benefit1 stolen a thousand other errors from the same quarter4 ,the reader will find it1 with little or no change1 in ,smith's ,new ,grammar1 p4 #if and #acd2 ,alger's1 #ef2 ,allen's1 #aag2 ,russell's1 #ib2 ,blair's1 #ajj1 ,guy's1 #hi2 ,abel ,flint's1 #ei2 ,a ,teacher's1 #dc1 ,picket's1 #baj2 ,cooper's#dci ,murray1 #acf2 ,wilcox's1 #ie2 ,bucke's1 #hg2 ,emmons's1 #gg2 and probably in others4 ,lennie varies it indefinitely1 thus3 ,,rule4 ,the interjections ,oh6 and ,ah6 c4 generally require the objective case of the first personal pronoun1 and the nominative of the second2 as1 ,ah me6 ,o thou fool6 ,o ye hypocrites6--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #aaj2 ,brace's1 #hh4 ,m',culloch1 after ,crombie1 thus3 ,,rule ,,xx4 ,interjections are joined with the objective case of the pronoun of the first person1 and with the nominative of the pronoun of the second2 as1 ,ah me6 ,o ye hypocrites4--,manual of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ade2 and ,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #cae2 also ,fowler's ,e4 ,language1 p4 #efc4 ,hiley makes it a note1 thus3 ,the interjections4 ,o6 ,oh6 ,ah6 are followed by the objective case of a pronoun of the first person2 as1 ',oh me6' ',ah me6' but by the nominative case of the pronoun in the second person2 as1 ',o thou who dwellest4' --,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,this is what the same author elsewhere calls ,,the ,,government ,,of ,,interjections2 though1 like some others1 he had set it in the ,syntax of ,,pronouns4 ,see ,ib41 p4 #ajh4 ,murray1 in forming his own little ,abridgment1 omitted it altogether4 ,in his other grammars1 it is still a mere note1 standing where he at first absurdly put it1 under his rule for the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents4 ,by many of his sage amenders1 it has been placed in the catalogue of principal rules4 ,but1 that it is no adequate rule for interjections1 is manifest2 for1 in its usual form1 it is limited to three1 and none of these can ever1 with any propriety1 be parsed by it4 ,murray himself has not used it in any of his forms of parsing4 ,he conceived1 7as ,i hinted before in ,chapter #ast17 that1 ,the syntax of the ,interjection is of so very limited a nature1 that it does not require a distinct1 appropriate rule4--,octavo ,gram41 i4 #bbd4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,against this remark of ,murray's1 a good argument may be drawn from the ridiculous use which has been made of his own suggestion in the other place4 ,for1 though that suggestion never had in it the least shadow of truth1 and was never at all applicable either to the three interjections1 or to pronouns1 or to cases1 or to the persons1 or to any thing else of which it speaks1 it has not only been often copied literally1 and called a ,,rule of syntax1 but many have1 yet more absurdly1 made it a general canon which imposes on all interjections a syntax that belongs to none of them4 ,for example3 ,an interjection must be followed by the objective case of a pronoun in the first person2 and by a nominative of the second person2 as--,oh me6 ah me6 oh thou6 ,,ah hail1 ye happy men6--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,this is as much as to say1 that every interjection must have a pronoun or two after it6 ,again3 ,interjections must be followed by the objective case of the pronoun in the first person2 as1 ,o me6 ,ah me6 and by the nominative case of the second person2 as1 ,o thou persecutor6 ,oh ye hypocrites6--,merchant's ,murray1 p4 #hj2 ,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ii4 ,i imagine there is a difference between ,o and oh1#ddj and that this author1 as well as ,murray1 in the first and the last of these examples1 has misapplied them both4 ,again3 ,interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person1 and the nominative case of the second2 as1 ,ah me6 ,o thou--,frost's ,el4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,this1 too1 is general1 but equivocal2 as if one case or both were necessary to each interjection6 ,,obs4 #g4--,of nouns1 or of the third person1 the three rules last cited say nothing2#dda though it appears from other evidence1 that their authors supposed them applicable at least to some nouns of the second person4 ,the supposition however was quite needless1 because each of their grammars contains an other ,rule1 that1 ,when an address is made1 the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case independent2 which1 by the by1 is far from being universally true1 either of the noun or of the pronoun4 ,russell imagines1 ,the words depending upon interjections1 have so near a resemblance to those in a direct address1 that they may very properly be classed under the same general head1 and be parsed as being1 in the nominative case independent4 ,see his ,abridgment of ,murray's ,grammar1 p4 #ia4 ,he does not perceive that depending and independent are words that contradict each other4 ,into the same inconsistency1 do nearly all those gentlemen fall1 who ascribe to interjections a control over cases4 ,even ,kirkham1 who so earnestly contends that what any words require after them they must necessarily govern1 forgets his whole argument1 or justly disbelieves it1 whenever he parses any noun that is uttered with an interjection4 ,in short1 he applies his principle to nothing but the word me in the phrases1 ,ah me6 ,oh me6 and ,me miserable6 and even these he parses falsely4 ,the second person used in the vocative1 or the nominative put absolute by direct address1 whether an interjection be used or not1 he rightly explains as being in the nominative case independent2 as1 ,o ,jerusalem1 ,jerusalem6--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #acj4 ,o maid of ,inistore6--,ib41 p4 #aca4 ,but he is wrong in saying that1 ,whenever a noun is of the second person1 it is in the nominative case independent2 7,ib41 p4 #acj27 and still more so1 in supposing that1 ,the principle contained in the note which tells what interjections require1 proves that every noun of the second person is in the nominative case4--,ib41 p4 #afd4 ,a falsehood proves nothing but the ignorance or the wickedness of him who utters it4 ,he is wrong too1 as well as many others1 in supposing that this nominative independent is not a nominative absolute2 for1 ,the vocative is generally1 if not always1 absolute4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,but that nouns of the second person are not always absolute or independent1 nor always in the nominative case1 or the vocative1 appears1 ,i think1 by the following example3 ,this is the stone which was set at nought of you builders4--,acts1 iv1 ,,ii4 ,see ,obs4 #c;d on ,rule #hth4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the third person1 when uttered in exclamation1 with an interjection before it1 is parsed by ,kirkham1 not as being governed by the interjection1 either in the nominative case1 according to his own argument and own rule above cited1 or in the objective1 according to ,nixon's notion of the construction2 nor yet as being put absolute in the nominative1 as ,i believe it generally1 if not always is2 but as being the nominative to a verb understood2 as1 ',lo1' there is 'the poor ,indian6' '#j1 the pain' there is6 'the bliss' there is ',,in dying6'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #abi4 ,pope's text is1 ,oh the pain1 the bliss of dying6 and1 in all that is here changed1 the grammarian has perverted it1 if not in all that he has added4 ,it is an other principle of ,kirkham's ,grammar1 though a false one1 that1 ,nouns have but two persons1 the second and the third4--,p4 #cg4 ,so that1 these two being disposed of agreeably to his own methods above1 which appear to include the second and third persons of pronouns also1 there remains to him nothing but the objective of the pronoun of the first person to which he can suppose his other rule to apply2 and ,i have shown that there is no truth in it1 even in regard to this4 ,yet1 with the strongest professions of adhering to the principles1 and even to the language of ,lindley ,murray1 this gentleman1 by copying somebody else in preference to that eminent philologist1 has made himself one of those by whom ,murray's erroneous remark on ,o1 oh1 and ah1 with pronouns of the first and second persons1 is not only stretched into a rule for all interjections1 but made to include nouns of the second person1 and both nouns and pronouns of the third person3 as1 ,interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them1 but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person2 as1 ',ah6 me2 ,oh6 thou2 ,o6 virtue6'--,kirkham's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #acd2 ,stereotype ,ed41 p4 #agg4 ,see the same rule1 with examples and punctuation different1 in his ,stereotype ,edition1 p4 #afd2 ,comly's ,gram41 #aaf2 ,greenleaf's1 #cf2 and ,fisk's1 #add4 ,all these authors1 except ,comly1 who comes much nearest to the thing1 profess to present to us ,murray's ,grammar ,simplified2 and this is a sample of their work of simplification6--an ignorant piling of errors on errors6 ,o imitatores servum pecus6 ut mihi spe ,bilem1 spe jocum vestri movre tumultus6--,horace4 ,,obs4 #i4--,since so many of our grammarians conceive that interjections require or govern cases1 it may be proper to cite some who teach otherwise4 ,interjections1 in ,english1 have no government4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,interjections have no government1 or admit of no construction4--,coar's ,gram41 p4 #ahi4 ,interjections have no connexion with other word's4--,fuller's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,the interjection1 in a grammatical sense1 is totally unconnected with every other word in a sentence4 ,its arrangement1 of course1 is altogether arbitrary1 and cannot admit of any theory4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #hc4 ,interjections cannot properly have either concord or government4 ,they are only mere sounds excited by passion1 and have no just connexion with any other part of a sentence4 ,whatever case1 therefore1 is joined with them1 must depend on some other word understood1 except the vocative1 which is always placed absolutely4--,adam's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #aif2 ,gould's1 #aic4 ,if this is true of the ,latin language1 a slight variation will make it as true of ours4 ,interjections1 and phrases resembling them1 are taken absolutely2 as1 ,oh1 world1 thy slippery turns6 ,but the phrases ,oh me6 and ,ah me6 frequently occur4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #ahh4 ,this passage is1 in several respects1 wrong2 yet the leading idea is true4 ,the author entitles it1 ,,syntax ,,of ,,interjections1 yet absurdly includes in it ,i know not what phrases6 ,in the phrase1 thy slippery turns6 no word is absolute1 or taken absolutely but this noun turns2 and this1 without the least hint of its case1 the learned author will have us to understand to be absolute1 because the phrase resembles an interjection6 ,but the noun world which is also absolute1 and which still more resembles an interjection1 he will have to be so for a different reason--because it is in what he chooses to call the vocative case4 ,but1 according to custom1 he should rather have put his interjection absolute with the noun1 and written it1 ,o world1 and not1 ,oh1 world4 ,what he meant to do with ,oh me6 and ,ah me6 is doubtful4 ,if any phrases come fairly under his rule1 these are the very ones2 and yet he seems to introduce them as exceptions6 ,of these1 it can hardly be said1 that they frequently occur4 ,lowth notices only the latter1 which he supposes elliptical4 ,the former ,i do not remember to have met with more than three or four times2 except in grammars1 which in this case are hardly to be called authorities3 ,oh6 me1 how fared it with me then8--,job ,scott4 ,oh me6 all the horse have got over the river1 what shall we do8--,,walton3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,but when he was first seen1 oh me6 ,what shrieking and what misery6--,wordsworth's ,works1 p4 #aad4 ,,obs4 #aj4--,when a declinable word not in the nominative absolute1 follows an interjection1 as part of an imperfect exclamation1 its construction 7if the phrase be good ,english7 depends on something understood2 as1 ,ah me6--that is1 ,ah6 pity me2 or1 ,ah6 it grieves me2 or1 as some will have it1 7because the expression in ,latin is ,hei mihi67 ,ah for me6--,ingersoll4 ,ah6 wo is to me4--,lowth4 ,ah6 sorrow is to me4--,coar4 ,so of oh me6 for1 in these expressions1 if not generally1 oh and ah are exactly equivalent the one to the other4 ,as for ,o me it is now seldom met with1 though ,shakspeare has it a few times4 ,from these examples1 ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce erroneously imagines the independent case of the pronoun ,i to be me1 and accordingly parses the word without supposing an ellipsis2 but in the plural he makes that case to be we1 and not us4 ,so1 having found an example of ,ah ,him6 which1 according to one half of our grammarians1 is bad ,english1 he conceives the independent case of he to be him2 but in the plural1 and in both numbers of the words thou and she1 he makes it the nominative1 or the same in form as the nominative4 ,so builds he the temple of ,grammatical consistency6--,p4 #g4 ,nixon and ,cooper must of course approve of ,ah him6 because they assume that the interjection ah requires or governs the objective case of the third person4 ,others must condemn the expression1 because they teach that ah requires the nominative case of this person4 ,thus ,greenleaf sets down for false syntax1 ,o6 happy them1 surrounded with so many blessings6--,gram4 ,simplified1 p4 #dg4 ,here1 undoubtedly1 the word should be they2 and1 by analogy1 7if indeed the instances are analogous17 it would seem more proper to say1 ,ah he6 the nominative being our only case absolute4 ,but if any will insist that ,ah him6 is good ,english1 they must suppose that him is governed by something understood2 as1 ,ah6 ,i lament him2 or1 ,ah6 ,i mourn for him4 ,and possibly1 on this principle1 the example referred to may be most correct as it stands1 with the pronoun in the objective case3 ,ah ,him6 the first great martyr in this great cause4--,d4 ,,webster3 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #aii4 ,,obs4 #aa4--;,if we turn to the ,latin syntax1 to determine by analogy what case is used1 or ought to be used1 after our ,english interjections1 in stead of finding a perfect accordance between that syntax and the rule for which such accordance has been claimed1 we see at once an utter repugnance1 and that the pretence of their agreement is only a sample of ,kirkham's unconscionable pedantry4 ,the rule1 in all its modifications1 is based on the principle1 that the choice of cases depends on the distinction of persons--a principle plainly contrary to the usage of the ,latin classics1 and altogether untrue4 ,in ,latin1 some interjections are construed with the nominative1 the accusative1 or the vocative2 some1 only with the dative2 some1 only with the vocative4 ,but1 in ,english1 these four cases are all included in two1 the nominative and the objective2 and1 the case independent or absolute being necessarily the nominative1 it follows that the objective1 if it occur after an interjection1 must be the object of something which is capable of governing it4 ,if any disputant1 by supposing ellipses1 will make objectives of what ,i call nominatives absolute1 so be it2 but ,i insist that interjections1 in fact1 never require or govern one case more than an other4 ,so ,peirce1 and ,kirkham1 and ,ingersoll1 with pointed self-contradiction1 may continue to make the independent case1 whether vocative or merely exclamatory1 the subject of a verb1 expressed or understood2 but ,i will content myself with endeavouring to establish a syntax not liable to this sort of objection4 ,in doing this1 it is proper to look at all the facts which go to show what is right1 or wrong4 ,lo1 the poor ,indian6 is in ,latin1 ,ecce pauper ,indus6 or1 ,ecce pauperem ,indum6 ,this use of either the nominative or the accusative after ecce1 if it proves any thing concerning the case of the word ,indian1 proves it doubtful4 ,some1 it seems1 pronounce it an objective4 ,some1 like ,murray1 say nothing about it4 ,following the analogy of our own language1 ,i refer it to the nominative absolute1 because there is nothing to determine it to be otherwise4 ,in the examples4 ,heu me miserum6 ,ah wretch that ,i am6--7,grant's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #bfc47 and ,miser ego homo6 ,o wretched man that ,i am6--7,rom41 vii1 #bd17 if the word that is a relative pronoun1 as ,i incline to think it is1 the case of the nouns wretch and man does not depend on any other words1 either expressed or implied4 ,they are therefore nominatives absolute1 according to ,rule #hth1 though the ,latin words may be most properly explained on the principle of ellipsis4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,of some impenetrable blockhead1 ,horace1 telling how himself was vexed1 says3 ,o te1 ,bollane1 cerebri ,felicem6 aiebam tacitus4--,lib4 i1 ,sat4 ix1 #aa4 ,literally3 ,o thee1 ,bollanus1 happy of brain6 said ,i to myself4 ,that is1 ,o6 ,i envy thee1 c4 ,this shows that ,o does not require the nominative case of the second person after it1 at least1 in ,latin4 ,neither does oh or ah3 for1 if a governing word be suggested1 the objective may be proper2 as1 ,whom did he injure8 ,ah6 thee1 my boy8--or even the possessive2 as1 ,whose sobs do ,i hear8 ,oh6 thine1 my child8 ,kirkham tells us truly1 7,gram41 p4 #abf17 that the exclamation ,o my is frequently heard in conversation4 ,these last resemble ,lucan's use of the genitive1 with an ellipsis of the governing noun3 ,o miser sortis6 i4e41 ,o men of miserable lot6 ,in short1 all the ,latin cases as well as all the ,english1 may possibly occur after one or other of the interjections4 ,i have instanced all but the ablative1 and the following is literally an example of that1 though the word quanto is construed adverbially3 ,ah1 quanto satius est6--,ter4 ,and41 ii1 #a4 ,ah1 how much better it is6 ,i have also shown1 by good authorities1 that the nominative of the first person1 both in ,english and in ,latin1 may be properly used after those interjections which have been supposed to require or govern the objective4 ,but how far is analogy alone a justification8 ,is ,o thee good ,english1 because ,o te is good ,latin8 ,no3 nor is it bad for the reason which our grammarians assign1 but because our best writers never use it1 and because ,o is more properly the sign of the vocative4 ,the literal version above should therefore be changed2 as1 ,o ,bollanus1 thou happy numskull6 said ,i to myself4 ,,obs4 #ac--;,allen ,fisk1 author of ,adam's ,latin ,grammar ,simplified1 and of ,murray's ,english ,grammar ,simplified1 sets down for ,false ,syntax not only that hackneyed example1 ,oh6 happy we1 c41 but1 ,o6 ,you1 who love iniquity1 and1 ,ah6 you1 who hate the light4--,fisk's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #add4 ,but1 to imagine that either you or we is wrong here1 is certainly no sing of a great linguist2 and his punctuation is very inconsistent both with his own rule of syntax and with common practice4 ,an interjection set off by a comma or an exclamation point1 is of course put absolute singly1 or by itself4 ,if it is to be read as being put absolute with something else1 the separation is improper4 ,one might just as well divide a preposition from its object1 as an interjection from the case which it is supposed to govern4 ,yet we find here not only such a division as ,murray sometimes improperly adopted1 but in one instance a total separation1 with a capital following2 as1 ,o6 ,you1 who love iniquity1 for1 ,o you who love iniquity6 or ,o ye1 c4 ,if a point be here set between the two pronouns1 the speaker accuses all his hearers of loving iniquity2 if this point be removed1 he addresses only such as do love it4 ,but an interjection and a pronoun1 each put absolute singly1 one after the other1 seem to me not to constitute a very natural exclamation4 ,the last example above should therefore be1 ,ah6 you hate the light4 ,the first should be written1 ,o happy we6 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,in other grammars1 too1 there are many instances of some of the errors here pointed out4 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith knows no difference between ,o and oh2 takes ,oh6 happy us to be accurate ,english2 sees no impropriety in separating interjections from the pronouns which he supposes them to govern2 writes the same examples variously1 even on the same page2 inserts or omits commas or exclamation points at random2 yet makes the latter the means by which interjections are to be known6 ,see his ,new ,gram41 pp4 #dj1 #if and #acd4 ,kirkham1 who lays claim to a new system of punctuation1 and also stoutly asserts the governing power of interjections1 writes1 and rewrites1 and finally stereotypes1 in one part of his book4 ,ah me6 ,oh thou6 ,o my country6 and in an other1 ,ah6 me2 ,oh6 thou2 ,o6 virtue4 ,see ,obs4 #c;d and ,obs4 #hth above4 ,from such hands1 any thing new should be received with caution3 this last specimen of his scholarship has more errors than words4 ,,obs4 #ae4--,some few of our interjections seem to admit of a connexion with other words by means of a preposition or the conjunction that as1 ,o to forget her6--,young4 ,o for that warning voice6--,milton4 ,o that they were wise6--,deut41 xxxii1 #bi4 ,o that my people had hearkened unto me6--,ps41 lxxxi1 #ac1 ,alas for ,sicily6--,cowper4 ,o for a world in principle as chaste ,as this is gross and selfish6--,id4 ,hurrah for ,jackson6--,newspaper4 ,a bawd1 sir1 fy upon him6--,,shak43 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,and fy on fortune1 mine avowed foe6--,,spencer3 ib4 ,this connexion1 however1 even if we parse all the words just as they stand1 does not give to the interjection itself any dependent construction4 ,it appears indeed to refute ,jamieson's assertion1 that1 ,the interjection is totally unconnected with every other word in a sentence2 but ,i did not quote this passage1 with any averment of its accuracy2 and1 certainly1 many nouns which are put absolute themselves1 have in like manner a connexion with words that are not put absolute3 as1 ,o ,lord ,god of hosts1 hear my prayer2 give ear1 ,o ,god of ,jacob4 ,selah4--,ps41 lxxxiv1 #h4 ,but if any will suppose1 that in the foregoing examples something else than the interjection must be the antecedent term to the preposition or the conjunction1 they may consider the expressions elliptical3 though it must be confessed1 that much of their vivacity will be lost1 when the supposed ellipses are supplied3 as1 ,o6 ,i desire to forget her4--,o6 how ,i long for that warning voice6--,o6 how ,i wish that they were wise6--,alas6 ,i wail for ,sicily4--,hurrah6 ,i shout for ,jackson4--,fy6 cry out upon him4 ,lindley ,murray has one example of this kind1 and if his punctuation of it is not bad in all his editions1 there must be an ellipsis in the expression3 ,o6 for better times4--,octavo ,gram41 ii1 #f2 ,duodecimo ,exercises1 p4 #aj4 ,he also writes it thus3 ,o4 for better times4--,octavo ,gram41 i1 #abj2 ,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,according to common usage1 it should be1 ,o for better times6 ,,obs4 #af4--,the interjection may be placed at the beginning or the end of a simple sentence1 and sometimes between its less intimate parts2 but this part of speech is seldom1 if ever1 allowed to interrupt the connexion of any words which are closely united in sense4 ,murray's definition of an interjection1 as ,i have elsewhere shown1 is faulty1 and directly contradicted by his example3 ,o virtue6 how amiable thou art6--,octavo ,gram41 i1 #bh and #abh2 ii4 #b4 ,this was a favourite sentence with ,murray1 and he appears to have written it uniformly in this fashion2 which1 undoubtedly1 is altogether right1 except that the word virtue should have had a capital ,vee1 because the quality is here personified4 ,,obs4 #ag4--,misled by the false notion1 that the term interjection is appropriate only to what is thrown in between the parts of a sentence1 and perceiving that this is in fact but rarely the situation of this part of speech1 a recent critic1 7to whom ,i should owe some acknowledgements1 if he were not wrong in every thing in which he charges me with error17 not only denounces this name as barbarous1 preferring ,webster's loose term1 exclamation2 but avers1 that1 ,the words called interjection should never be so used--should always stand alone2 as1 ',oh6 virtue1 how amiable thou art4' ',oh8 ,absalom1 my son4' ,g4 ,brown1 continues he1 drags one into the middle of a sentence1 where it never belonged2 thus1 ',this enterprise1 alas6 will never compensate us for the trouble and expense with which it has been attended4' ,if ,g4 ,b4 meant the enterprize of studying grammar1 in the old theories1 his sentiment is very appropriate2 but his alas6 he should have known enough to have put into the right place3--before the sentence representing the fact that excites the emotion expressed by alas6 ,see on the ,chart part #c1 of ,,rule ,,xvii4 ,an exclamation must always precede the phrase or sentence describing the fact that excites the emotion to be expressed by the exclamation2 as3 ,alas6 ,i have alienated my friend6 ,oh6 ,glorious hope of bliss secure6--,oliver ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cge4 ,o ,glorious hope of bliss secure6--,ib41 p4 #ahd4 ,o glorious hope6--,ib41 p4 #cjd4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,i see no reason to believe1 that the class of words which have always1 and almost universally1 been called interjections1 can ever be more conveniently explained under any other name2 and1 as for the term exclamation1 which is preferred also by ,cutler1 ,felton1 ,spencer1 and ,s4 ,w4 ,clark1 it appears to me much less suitable than the old one1 because it is less specific4 ,any words uttered loudly in the same breath1 are an exclamation4 ,this name therefore is too general2 it includes other parts of speech than interjections2 and it was but a foolish whim in ,dr4 ,webster1 to prefer it in his dictionaries4 ,when ,david cried with a loud voice1 ,o my son ,absalom6 ,o ,absalom1 my son1 my son6 #ddb he uttered two exclamations1 but they included all his words4 ,he did not1 like my critic above1 set off his first word with an interrogation point1 or any other point4 ,but1 says ,peirce1 ,these words are used in exclaiming1 and are what all know them to be1 exclamations2 as ,i call them4 ,may ,i not call them what they are8--,ibid4 ,yes1 truly4 ,but to exclaim is to cry out1 and consequently every outcry is an exclamation2 though there are two chances to one1 that no interjection at all be used by the bawler4 ,as good an argument1 or better1 may be framed against every one of this gentleman's professed improvements in grammar2 and as for his punctuation and orthography1 any reader may be presumed capable of seeing that they are not fit to be proposed as models4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,i like my position of the word alas better than that which ,peirce supposes to be its only right place2 and1 certainly1 his rule for the location of words of this sort1 as well as his notion that they must stand alone1 is as false1 as it is new4 ,the obvious misstatement of ,lowth1 ,adam1 ,gould1 ,murray1 ,churchill1 ,alger1 ,smith1 ,guy1 ,ingersoll1 and others1 that1 ,interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence1 ,i had not only excluded from my grammars1 but expressly censured in them4 ,it was not1 therefore1 to prop any error of the old theorists1 that ,i happened to set one interjection where according to this new oracle1 it never belonged4 ,and if any body but he has been practically misled by their mistake1 it is not ,i1 but more probably some of the following authors1 here cited for his refutation3 ,i fear1 alas6 for my life4--,fisk's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,i have been occupied1 alas6 with trifles4--,murray's ,gr41 ,ex4 for ,parsing1 p4 #e2 ,guy's1 p4 #ef4 ,we eagerly pursue pleasure1 but1 alas6 we often mistake the road4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #dj1 ,to-morrow1 alas6 thou mayest be comfortless6--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ce4 ,time flies1 ,o6 how swiftly4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bbf4 ,my friend1 alas6 is dead4--,j4 ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,but ,john1 alas6 he is very idle4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,for pale and wan he was1 alas the while6--,,spenser3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,but yet1 alas6 ,o but yet1 alas6 our haps be but hard haps4--,,sydney3 ib4 ,nay1 7what's incredible17 alack6 ,i hardly hear a woman's clack4--,,swift3 ib4 ,thus life is spent 7oh fie upon't67 ,in being touch'd1 and crying--,don't6--,cowper1 i1 #bca4 ,for whom1 alas6 dost thou prepare ,the sweets that ,i was wont to share--,id41 i1 #bjc4 ,but here1 alas6 the difference lies4--,id41 i4 #ajj4 ,their names1 alas6 in vain reproach an age1 c4--,id41 i1 #hh4 ,what nature1 alas6 has denied1 c4--,id41 i1 #bce4 ,a4 ,hail ,sternhold1 then2 and ,hopkins1 hail6 ,b4 ,amen4--,id41 i #be4 ,these ,fate reserv'd to grace thy reign divine1 ,foreseen by me1 but ah6 withheld from mine6--,pope1 ,dun41 iii1 #bae4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,promiscuous4 ,fist ,the following examples of bad grammar1 being similar in their character to others already exhibited1 are to be corrected1 by the pupil1 according to formules previously given4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,any ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,such an one ,i believe yours will be proved to be4--,,peet3 ,farnum's ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,of the distinction between the imperfect and the perfect tenses1 it may be observed1 c4--,ainsworth's ,gram41 p4 #abb4 ,the subject is certainly worthy consideration4--,ib41 p4 #aag4 ,by this means all ambiguity and controversy is avoided on this point4--,bullions1 ,principles of ,eng4 ,gram41 #eth ,ed41 ,pref41 p4 vi4 ,the perfect participle in ,english has both an active and passive signification4--,ib41 p4 #eh4 ,the old house is at length fallen down4--,ib41 p4 #gh4 ,the king1 with the lords and commons1 constitute the ,english form of government4--,ib41 p4 #ic4 ,the verb in the singular agrees with the person next it4--,ib41 p4 #ie4 ,jane found ,seth's gloves in ,james' hat4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,charles' task is too great4--,ibid41 #ae4 ,the conjugation of a verb is the naming1 in regular order1 its several modes tenses1 numbers and persons4--,ib41 p4 #bd4 ,the long remembered beggar was his guest4--,ib41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #fe4 ,participles refer to nouns and pronouns4--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,f has an uniform sound in every position except in of4--,hallock's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ae4 ,there are three genders2 the masculine1 the feminine and neuter4--,ib41 p4 #dc4 ,when so that occur together1 sometimes the particle so is taken as an adverb4--,ib41 p4 #abd4 ,the definition of the articles show that they modify the words to which they belong4--,ib41 p4 #ach4 ,the auxiliaries shall1 will1 or should is implied4--,ib41 p4 #aib4 ,single rhyme trochaic omits the final short syllable4--,ib41 p4 #bdd4 ,agreeable to this1 we read of names being blotted out of ,god's book1--,,burder3 ib41 p4 #aef2 ,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 #aee2 ,improved ,gram41 #ajg4 ,the first person is the person speaking4--,goldsbury's ,common ,school ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,accent is the laying a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or syllable in a word4--,ib41 ,ed4 of #ahdb1 p4 #ge4 ,thomas' horse was caught4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,you was loved4--,ib41 p4 #de4 ,the nominative and objective end the same4--,rev4 ,t4 ,smith's ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,the number of pronouns1 like those of substantives1 are two1 the singular and the plural4--,ib41 p4 #bb4 ,i is called the pronoun of the first person1 which is the person speaking4--,frost's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,the essential elements of the phrase is an intransitive gerundive and an adjective4--,hazen's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,being rich is no justification for such impudence4--,ib41 p4 #ada4 ,his having been a soldier in the revolution is not doubted4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,catching fish is the chief employment of the inhabitants4 ,the chief employment of the inhabitants is catching fish4--,ib41 p4 #add4 ,the cold weather did not prevent the work's being finished at the time specified4--,ib41 p4 #ade4 ,the former viciousness of that man caused his being suspected of this crime4--,ib41 p4 #ade4 ,but person and number applied to verbs means1 certain terminations4--,barrett's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,robert fell a tree4--,ib41 p4 #fd4 ,charles raised up4--,ib41 p4 #fd4 ,it might not be an useless waste of time4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,neither will you have that implicit faith in the writings and works of others which characterise the vulgar1--,ib41 p4 #e4 ,i1 is the first person1 because it denotes the speaker4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,i would refer the student to ,hedges' or ,watts' ,logic4--,ib41 p4 #ae4 ,hedge's1 ,watt's1 ,kirwin's1 and ,collard's ,logic4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #aaf4 ,letters are called vowels which make a full and perfect sound of themselves4--,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,it has both a singular and plural construction4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,for he beholdest thy beams no more4--,ib41 p4 #acf4 ,to this sentiment the ,committee has the candour to incline1 as it will appear by their summing up4--,macpherson's ,ossian1 ,prelim4 ,disc41 p4 xviii4 ,this is reducing the point at issue to a narrow compass4--,ib41 p4 xxv4 ,since the ,english sat foot upon the soil4--,exiles of ,nova ,scotia1 p4 #ab4 ,the arrangement of its different parts are easily retained by the memory4--,hiley's ,gram41 #c;d ,ed41 p4 #bfb4 ,the words employed are the most appropriate which could have been selected4--,ib41 p4 #ahb4 ,to prevent it launching6--,ib41 p4 #ace4 ,webster has been followed in preference to others1 where it differs from them4--,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,exclamation and ,interrogation are often mistaken for one another4--,buchanan's ,e4 ,syntax1 p4 #afj4 ,when all nature is hushed in sleep1 and neither love nor guilt keep their vigils4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,when all nature's hushed asleep1 ,nor love1 nor guilt1 their vigils keep4--,ib41 p4 #ie4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,any ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,a ,,versifyer and ,,poet are two different ,things4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #afc4 ,those ,qualities will arise from the well expressing of the ,subject4--,ib41 p4 #afe4 ,therefore the explanation of network1 is taken no notice of here4--,mason's ,supplement1 p4 vii4 ,when emphasis or pathos are necessary to be expressed4--,humphrey's ,punctuation1 p4 #ch4 ,whether this mode of punctuation is correct1 and whether it be proper to close the sentence with the mark of admiration1 may be made a question4--,ib41 p4 #ci4 ,but not every writer in those days were thus correct4--,ib41 p4 #ei4 ,the sounds of ,a1 in ,english orthoepy1 are no less than four4--,ib41 p4 #fi4 ,our present code of rules are thought to be generally correct4-- ,ib41 p4 #gj4 ,to prevent its running into another4--,humphrey's ,prosody1 p4 #g4 ,shakespeare1 perhaps1 the greatest poetical genius which ,england has produced4--,ib41 p4 #ic4 ,this ,i will illustrate by example2 but prior to which a few preliminary remarks may be necessary4--,ib41 p4 #ajg4 ,all such are entitled to two accents each1 and some of which to two accents nearly equal4--,ib41 p4 #aji4 ,but some cases of the kind are so plain that no one need to exercise his judgment therein4--,ib41 p4 #abb4 ,i have forbore to use the word4--,ib41 p4 #abg4 ,the propositions1 ',he may study1' ',he might study1' ',he could study1' affirms an ability or power to study4--,hallock's ,gram4 of #ahdb1 p4 #gf4 ,the divisions of the tenses has occasioned grammarians much trouble and perplexity4--,ib41 p4 #gg4 ,by adopting a familiar1 inductive method of presenting this subject1 it may be rendered highly attractive to young learners4--,wells's ,sch4 ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #a2 #c;d1 #i2 #aacth1 #aa4 ,the definitions and rules of different grammarians were carefully compared with each other4--,ib41 ,preface1 p4 iii4 ,so as not wholly to prevent some sounds issuing4--,sheridan's ,elements of ,english1 p4 #fd4 ,letters of the ,alphabet not yet taken notice of4--,ib41 p4 #aa4 ,,it is sad1 ,,it is strange1 c41 seems to express only that the thing is sad1 strange1 c4--,the ,well-,wishers' ,gram41 p4 #fh4 ,,the ,,winning is easier than ,,the ,,preserving a conquest4--,ib41 p4 #fe4 ,the ,united ,states finds itself the owner of a vast region of country at the ,west4--,horace ,mann in ,congress1 #ahdh4 ,one or more letters placed before a word is a ,prefix4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,one or more letters added to a word is a ,suffix4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,two-thirds of my hair has fallen off4--,ib41 p4 #abf4 ',suspecting1' describes 'we1' by expressing1 incidentally1 an act of 'we4'--,ib41 p4 #acj4 ,daniel's predictions are now being fulfilled4--,ib41 p4 #acf4 ,his being a scholar1 entitles him to respect4--,ib41 p4 #ada4 ,i doubted his having been a soldier4--,ib41 p4 #adb4 ,taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief1 cannot be regarded as robbing him4--,ib41 p4 #abi4 ,i thought it to be him2 but it was not him4--,ib41 p4 #adi4 ,it was not me that you saw4--,ib41 p4 #adi4 ,not to know what happened before you was born1 is always to be a boy4--,ib41 p4 #adi4 ,how long was you going8 ,three days4--,ib41 #aeh4 ,the qualifying ,adjective is placed next the ,noun4--,ib41 p4 #afe4 ,all went but me4--,ib41 p4 #ic4 ,this is parsing their own language1 and not the author's4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #gc4 ,nouns which denote males1 are of the masculine gender4--,ib41 p4 #di4 ,nouns which denote females1 are of the feminine gender4--,ib41 p4 #di4 ,when a comparison is expressed between more than two objects of the same class1 the superlative degree is employed4--,ib41 p4 #acc4 ,where d or t go before1 the additional letter d or t1 in this contracted form1 coalesce into one letter with the radical d or t4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,write words which will show what kind of a house you live in--what kind of a book you hold in your hand--what kind of a day it is4--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,one word or more is often joined to nouns or pronouns to modify their meaning4--,ib41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #cj4 ,good is an adjective2 it explains the quality or character of every person or thing to which it is applied4--,ib41 p4 #cc2 ,abridg41 #cb4 ,a great public as well as private advantage arises from every one's devoting himself to that occupation which he prefers1 and for which he is specially fitted4--,,wayland3 ,wells's ,gram41 p4 #aba2 ,weld's1 #ahj4 ,there was a chance of his recovering his senses4 ,not thus3 ',there was a chance of him recovering his senses4' ,,macauley4--,see ,wells's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #aba2 #aacth1 #ace4 ,this may be known by its not having any connecting word immediately preceding it4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,edition1 p4 #aha4 ,there are irregular expressions occasionally to be met with1 which usage or custom rather than analogy1 sanction4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,he added an anecdote of ,quinn's relieving ,thomson from prison4--,ib41 p4 #aej4 ,the daily labor of her hands procure for her all that is necessary4--,ib41 p4 #ahb4 ,its being me1 need make no change in your determination4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #abh4 ,the classification of words into what is called the ,parts of ,speech4--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,such licenses may be explained under what is usually termed ,figures4--,ib41 p4 #bab4 ,liberal1 not lavish1 is kind nature's hands4--,ib41 p4 #aif4 ,they fall successive and successive live4--,ib41 p4 #bac4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,any ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,a figure of ,etymology is the intentional deviation in the usual form of a word4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,edition1 p4 #bac4 ,a figure of ,syntax is the intentional deviation in the usual construction of a word4--,ib41 #bac4 ,synecdoche is putting the name of the whole of anything for a part or a part for the whole4--,ib41 #bae4 ,apostrophe is turning off from the regular course of the subject to address some person or thing4--,ib41 #bae4 ,even young pupils will perform such exercises with surprising interest and facility1 and will unconsciously gain1 in a little time1 more knowledge of the structure of ,language than he can acquire by a drilling of several years in the usual routine of parsing4--,ib41 ,preface1 p4 iv4 ,a few ,rules of construction are employed in this ,part1 to guide in the exercise of parsing4--,ibidem4 ,the name of every person1 object1 or thing1 which can be thought of1 or spoken of1 is a noun4--,ib41 p4 #ah2 ,abridged ,ed41 #ai4 ,a dot1 resembling our period1 is used between every word1 as well as at the close of the verses4--,w4 ,day's ,punctuation1 p4 #af2 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,casting types in matrices was invented by ,peter ,schoeffer1 in #adeb4--;,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,on perusing it1 he said1 that1 so far from it showing the prisoner's guilt1 it positively established his innocence4--,ib41 p4 #cg4 ,by printing the nominative and verb in ,italic letters1 the reader will be able to distinguish them at a glance4--,ib41 p4 #gg4 ,it is well1 no doubt1 to avoid using unnecessary words4--,ib41 p4 #ii4 ,meeting a friend the other day1 he said to me1 ',where are you going8'--,ib41 p4 #abd4 ,john was first denied apples1 then he was promised them1 then he was offered them4--,lennie's ,gram41 #eth ,ed41 p4 #fb4 ,he was denied admission4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #adf4 ,they were offered a pardon4--,pond's ,murray1 p4 #aah2 ,wells1 #adf4 ,i was this day shown a new potatoe4--,,darwin3 ,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #agi2 ,imp4 ,gram41 #abh2 ,frazee's ,gram41 #aec2 ,weld's1 #aec4 ,nouns or pronouns which denote males are of the masculine gender4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #baa4 ,there are three degrees of comparison--the positive1 comparative1 and superlative4--,ib41 p4 #baf2 ,first ,les41 p4 #di4 ,the first two refer to direction2 the third1 to locality4--,ib41 ,gr41 p4 #ajc4 ,the following are some of the verbs which take a direct and indirect object4--,ib41 p4 #fb4 ,i was not aware of his being the judge of the ,supreme ,court4--,ib41 p4 #hf4 ,an indirect question may refer to either of the five elements of a declarative sentence4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,i am not sure that he will be present of his being present4--,ib41 p4 #afi4 ,we left on ,tuesday4--,ib41 p4 #ajc4 ,he left1 as he told me1 before the arrival of the steamer4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,we told him that he must leave ,we told him to leave4--,ib41 p4 #afh4 ,because he was unable to persuade the multitude1 he left in disgust4--,ib41 p4 #agb4 ,he left1 and took his brother with him4--,ib41 p4 #bed4 ,this stating1 or declaring1 or denying any thing1 is called the indicative mode1 or manner of speaking4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #gb2 ,abr4 ,ed41 #ei4 ,this took place at our friend ,sir ,joshua ,reynold's4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #aej2 ,imp4 ,ed41 #aed4 ,the manner of a young lady's employing herself usefully in reading will be the subject of another paper4--,ib41 #aej2 or #aed4 ,very little time is necessary for ,johnson's concluding a treaty with the bookseller4--,ib41 #aej2 or #aed4 ,my father is not now sick1 but if he was your services would be welcome4--,chandler's ,grammar1 #ahba1 p4 #ed4 ,when we begin to write or speak1 we ought previously to fix in our minds a clear conception of the end to be aimed at4--,blair's ,rhetoric1 p4 #aic4 ,length of days are in her right hand1 and in her left hand riches and honor4--,bullions's ,analytical and ,practical ,grammar1 #ahdi1 p4 #ei4 ,the active and passive present express different ideas4--,ib41 p4 #bce4 ,an ,improper ,diphthong1 or ,digraph1 is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels are sounded4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #aae4 ,the real origin of the words are to be sought in the ,latin4--,ib41 #abj4 ,what sort of an alphabet the ,gothic languages possess1 we know2 what sort of alphabet they require1 we can determine4--,ib41 #abg4 ,the ,runic ,alphabet whether borrowed or invented by the early ,goths1 is of greater antiquity than either the oldest ,teutonic or the ,moeso-,gothic ,alphabets4--,ib41 #abi4 ,common to the ,masculine and the ,neuter ,genders4--,ib41 #bbb4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon his was common to both the ,masculine and ,neuter ,genders4--,ib41 #bbb4 ,when time1 number1 or dimension are specified1 the adjective follows the substantive4--,ib41 #dei4 ,nor pain1 nor grief1 nor anxious fear ,invade thy bounds4--,ib41 #efc4 ,to ,brighton the ,pavilion lends a lath and plaster grace4--,ib41 #eij4 ,from this consideration nouns have been given but one person1 the ,,third4--,d4 ,c4 ,allen's ,grammatic ,guide1 p4 #aj4 ,for it seems to guard and cherish ,even the wayward dreamer--,i4--,home ,journal4 ,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,xiii4--,,syntactical4 ,in the following ,lessons1 are exemplified most of the ,exceptions1 some of the ,notes1 and many of the ,observations1 under the preceding ,rules of ,syntax2 to which ,exceptions1 ,notes1 or ,observations1 the learner may recur1 for an explanation of whatsoever is difficult in the parsing1 or peculiar in the construction1 of these examples or others4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,prose4 ,the higher a bird flies1 the more out of danger he is2 and the higher a ,christian soars above the world1 the safer are his comforts4--,sparke4 ,in this point of view1 and with this explanation1 it is supposed by some grammarians1 that our language contains a few ,impersonal ,verbs2 that is1 verbs which declare the existence of some action or state1 but which do not refer to any animate being1 or any determinate particluar subject4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aji4 ,thus in ,england and ,france1 a great landholder possesses a hundred times the property that is necessary for the subsistence of a family2 and each landlord has perhaps a hundred families dependent on him for subsistence4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #hg4 ,it is as possible to become pedantick by fear of pedantry1 as to be troublesome by ill timed civility4--,johnson's ,rambler1 ,no4 #agc4 ,to commence author1 is to claim praise2 and no man can justly aspire to honour1 but at the hazard of disgrace4--,ib41 ,no4 #ic4 ,for ministers to be silent in the cause of ,christ1 is to renounce it2 and to fly is to desert it4--,,south3 ,crabb's ,synonymes1 p4 #g4 ,such instances shew how much the sublime depends upon a just selection of circumstances2 and with how great care every circumstance must be avoided1 which by bordering in the least upon the mean1 or even upon the gay or the trifling1 alters the tone of the emotion4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dc4 ,this great poet and philosopher1 the more he contemplated the nature of the ,deity1 found that he waded but the more out of his depth1 and that he lost himself in the thought instead of finding an end to it4--,addison4 ,odin1 which in ,anglo-,saxon was ,woden1 was the supreme god of the ,goths1 answering to the ,jupiter of the ,greeks4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bfb4 ,because confidence1 that charm and cement of intimacy1 is wholly wanting in the intercourse4--,opie1 on ,lying1 p4 #adf4 ,objects of hearing may be compared together1 as also of taste1 of smell1 and of touch3 but the chief fund of comparison are objects of sight4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #acf4 ,the various relations of the various ,objects exhibited by this 7,i mean relations of near and distant1 present and absent1 same and different1 definite and indefinite1 c47 made it necessary that here there should not be one1 but many ,pronouns1 such as ,he1 ,this1 ,that1 ,other1 ,any1 ,some1 c4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #gb4 ,mr4 ,pope's ,ethical ,epistles deserve to be mentioned with signal honour1 as a model1 next to perfect1 of this kind of poetry4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #djb4 ,the knowledge of why they so exist1 must be the last act of favour which time and toil will bestow4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #bec4 ,it is unbelief1 and not faith1 that sinks the sinner into despondency4--,christianity disowns such characters4--,fuller1 on the ,gospel1 p4 #ada4 ,that ,god created the universe1 and that men are accountable for their actions1 are frequently mentioned by logicians1 as instances of the mind judging4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,prose4 ,to censure works1 not men1 is the just prerogative of criticism1 and accordingly all personal censure is here avoided1 unless where necessary to illustrate some general proposition4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,introduction1 p4 #bg4 ,there remains to show by examples the manner of treating subjects1 so as to give them a ridiculous appearance4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cjc4 ,the making of poetry1 like any other handicraft1 may be learned by industry4--,macpherson's ,preface to ,ossian1 p4 xiv4 ,whatever is found more strange or beautiful than was expected1 is judged to be more strange or beautiful than it is in reality4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bdc4 ,thus the body of an animal1 and of a plant1 are composed of certain great vessels2 these1 of smaller2 and these again1 of still smaller1 without end1 as far as we can discover4--,id41 ib41 p4 #bgj4 ,this cause of beauty1 is too extensive to be handled as a branch of any other subject3 for to ascertain with accuracy even the proper meaning of words1 not to talk of their figurative power1 would require a large volume2 an useful work indeed1 but not to be attempted without a large stock of time1 study1 and reflection4--,id41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #af4 ,o the hourly dangers that we here walk in6 ,every sense1 and member1 is a snare2 every creature1 and every duty1 is a snare to us4--,baxter1 ,saints's ,rest4 ,for a man to give his opinion of what he sees but in part1 is an unjustifiable piece of rashness and folly4--,addison4 ,that the sentiments thus prevalent among the early ,jews respecting the divine authority of the ,old ,testament were correct1 appears from the testimony of ,jesus ,christ and his apostles4--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #fi4 ,so in ,society we are not our own1 but ,christ's1 and the church's1 to good works and services1 yet all in love4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hd4 ,he ,dr4 ,johnson sat up in his bed1 clapped his hands1 and cried1 ',o brave we6'--a peculiar exclamation of his when he rejoices4-- ,boswell's ,life of ,johnson1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #ef4 ,single1 double1 and treble emphasis are nothing but examples of antithesis4--,knowles's ,elocutionist1 p4 xxviii4 ,the curious thing1 and what1 ,i would almost say1 settles the point1 is1 that we do ,horace no service1 even according to our view of the matter1 by rejecting the scholiast's explanation4 ,no two eggs can be more like each other than ,horace's ,malthinus and ,seneca's ,mecenas4-- ,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dgg4 ,acting1 conduct1 behaviour1 abstracted from all regard to what is1 in fact and event1 the consequence of it1 is itself the natural object of this moral discernment1 as speculative truth and say or falsehood is of speculative reason4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bgg4 ,to do what is right1 with unperverted faculties1 is ten times easier than to undo what is wrong4--,porter's ,analysis1 p4 #cg4 ,some natures the more pains a man takes to reclaim them1 the worse they are4--,l',,estrange3 ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,pains4 ,says ,john ,milton1 in that impassioned speech for the ,liberty of ,unlicensed ,printing1 where every word leaps with intellectual life1 ',who kills a man1 kills a reasonable creature1 ,god's image2 but who destroys a good book1 kills reason itself1 kills the image of ,god1 as it were1 in the eye4 ,many a man lives a burden upon the earth2 but a good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit1 embalmed and treasured up on purpose for a life beyond life6'--,louisville ,examiner1 ,june1 #ahej4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,prose4 ,the philosopher1 the saint1 or the hero--the wise1 the good1 or the great man--very often lies hid and concealed in a plebeian1 which a proper education might have disinterred and brought to light4--,addison4 ,the year before1 he had so used the matter1 that what by force1 what by policy1 he had taken from the ,christians above thirty small castles4--,knolles4 ,it is an important truth1 that religion1 vital religion1 the religion of the heart1 is the most powerful auxiliary of reason1 in waging war with the passions1 and promoting that sweet composure which constitutes the peace of ,god4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #aha4 ,pray1 sir1 be pleased to take the part of us beauties and fortunes into your consideration1 and do not let us be flattered out of our senses4 ,tell people that we fair ones expect honest plain answers1 as well as other folks4--,spectator1 ,no4 #ecd4 ,unhappy it would be for us1 did not uniformity prevail in morals3 that our actions should uniformly be directed to what is good and against what is ill1 is the greatest blessing in society2 and in order to uniformity of action1 uniformity of sentiment is indispensable4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cff4 ,thus the pleasure of all the senses is the same in all1 high and low1 learned and unlearned4--,burke1 on ,taste1 p4 #ci4 ,upwards of eight millions of acres have1 ,i believe1 been thus disposed of4--,society in ,america1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ccc4 ,the ,latin ,grammar comes something nearer1 but yet does not hit the mark neither4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bha4 ,of the like nature is the following inaccuracy of ,dean ,swift's4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aje4 ,thus1 ,sir1 ,i have given you my own opinion1 relating to this weighty affair1 as well as that of a great majority of both houses here4--,ib4 ,a foot is just twelve times as long as an inch2 and an hour is sixty times the length of a minute4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,what can we expect1 who come a gleaning1 not after the first reapers1 but after the very beggars8--,cowley's ,pref4 to ,poems1 p4 x4 ,in our ,lord's being betrayed into the hands of the chief-priests and scribes1 by ,judas ,iscariot2 in his being by them delivered to the ,gentiles2 in his being mocked1 scourged1 spitted on1 say spit upon1 and crucified2 and in his rising from the dead after three days2 there was much that was singular1 complicated1 and not to be easily calculated on before hand4--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #dj4 ,to be morose1 implacable1 inexorable1 and revengeful1 is one of the greatest degeneracies of human nature4--,dr4 ,j4 ,owen4 ,now1 says he1 if tragedy1 which is in its nature grand and lofty1 will not admit of this1 who can forbear laughing to hear the historian ,gorgias ,leontinus styling ,xerxes1 that cowardly ,persian king1 ,jupiter2 and vultures1 living sepulchres8--,holmes's ,rhetoric81 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #ad4 ,o let thy all-seeing eye1 and not the eye of the world1 be the star to steer my course by2 and let thy blessed favour1 more than the liking of any sinful men1 be ever my study and delight4--,jenks's ,prayers1 p4 #aef4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,prose4 ,o the ,hope of ,israel1 the ,saviour thereof in time of trouble1 why shouldest thou be as a stranger in the land1 and as a way-faring man1 that turneth aside to tarry for a night8--,jeremiah1 xiv1 #h4 ,when once the long-suffering of ,god waited in the days of ,noah1 while the ark was a preparing1 wherein few1 that is1 eight souls1 were saved4--#a ,peter1 iii1 #bj4 ,mercy and truth are met together2 righteousness and peace have kissed each other4--,psalms1 lxxxv1 #aj4 ,but in vain they do worship me1 teaching for doctrines the commandments of men4--,matt41 xv1 #i4 ,knowest thou not this of old1 since man was placed upon the earth1 that the triumphing of the wicked is short1 and the joy of the hypocrite but for a moment8--,job1 xx1 #d1 #e4 ,for now we see through a glass darkly2 but then1 face to face3 now ,i know in part2 but then shall ,i know even as also ,i am known4--#a ,cor41 xiii1 #ab4 ,for then the king of ,babylon's army besieged ,jerusalem3 and ,jeremiah the ,prophet was shut up in the court of the prison which was in the king of ,judah's house4--,jer41 xxxii1 #b4 ,for ,herod had laid hold on ,john1 and bound him1 and put him in prison1 for ,herodias' sake1 his brother ,philip's wife4--,matt41 xiv1 #c4 ,and now ,i have sent a cunning man1 endued with understanding1 of ,huram my father's1 the son of a woman of the daughters of ,dan4--#b ,chron41 ii1 #ac4 ,bring no more vain oblations3 incense is an abomination unto me2 the new moons and sabbaths1 the calling of assemblies1 ,i cannot away with3 it is iniquity even the solemn meeting4--,isaiah1 i1 #ac4 ,for ,i have heard the voice of the daughter of ,zion1 that bewaileth herself1 that spreadeth her hands1 saying1 ,woe is me now6 for my soul is wearied because of murderers4--,jer41 iv1 #ca4 ,she saw men portrayed upon the wall1 the images of the ,chaldeans portrayed with vermilion1 girded with girdles upon their loins1 exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads1 all of them princes to look to1 after the manner of the ,babylonians of ,chaldea1 the land of their nativity4--,ezekiel1 xxiii1 #ae4 ,and on them was written according to all the words which the ,lord spake with you in the mount1 out of the midst of the fire1 in the day of the assembly4--,deut41 ix1 #aj4 ,and he charged them that they should tell no man3 but the more he charged them1 so much the more a great deal they published it4--,mark1 vii1 #cf4 ,the results which ,god has connected with actions1 will inevitably occur1 all the created power in the universe to the contrary notwithstanding4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #e4 ,am ,i not an apostle8 am ,i not free8 have ,i not seen ,jesus ,christ our ,lord8 are not ye my work in the ,lord8 ,if ,i be not an apostle unto others1 yet doubtless ,i am to you2 for the seal of mine apostleship are ye in the ,lord4--#a ,cor41 ix1 #a1 #b4 ,not to insist upon this1 it is evident1 that formality is a term of general import4 ,it implies1 that in religious exercises of all kinds the outward and the inward man are at diametrical variance4--,chapman's ,sermons to ,presbyterians1 p4 #ced4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,verse4 ,see the sole bliss ,heaven could on all bestow1 ,which who but feels1 can taste1 but thinks1 can know2 ,yet1 poor with fortune1 and with learning blind1 ,the bad must miss1 the good1 untaught1 will find4--,pope4 ,there are1 who1 deaf to mad ,ambition's call1 ,would shrink to hear th' obstreperous trump of fame2 ,supremely blest1 if to their portion fall ,health1 competence1 and peace4--,beattie4 ,high stations tumult1 but not bliss1 create2 ,none think the great unhappy1 but the great4 ,fools gaze and envy3 envy darts a sting1 ,which makes a swain as wretched as a king4--,young4 ,lo1 earth receives him from the bending skies6 ,sink down1 ye mountains2 and1 ye valleys1 rise2 ,with heads declin'd1 ye cedars1 homage pay2 ,be smooth1 ye rocks2 ye rapid floods1 give way4--,pope4 ,amid the forms which this full world presents ,like rivals to his choice1 what human breast ,e'er doubts1 before the transient and minute1 ,to prize the vast1 the stable1 and sublime8--,akenside4 ,now fears in dire vicissitude invade2 ,the rustling brake alarms1 and quiv'ring shade3 ,nor light nor darkness brings his pain relief2 ,one shows the plunder1 and one hides the thief4--,johnson4 ,if ,merab's choice could have complied with mine1 ,merab1 my elder comfort1 had been thine3 ,and hers1 at last1 should have with mine complied1 ,had ,i not thine and ,michael's heart descried4--,cowley4 ,the people have as much a negative voice ,to hinder making war without their choice1 ,as kings of making laws in parliament3 ',no money' is as good as ',no assent4'--,butler4 ,full many a gem of purest ray serene ,the dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear2 ,full many a flower is born to blush unseen1 ,and waste its sweetness on the desert air4--,gray4 ,oh fool6 to think ,god hates the worthy mind1 ,the lover and the love of human kind1 ,whose life is healthful1 and whose conscience clear1 ,because he wants a thousand pounds a year4--,pope4 ,o ,freedom6 sovereign boon of ,heav'n1 ,great charter1 with our being given2 ,for which the patriot and the sage ,have plann'd1 have bled thro' ev'ry age6--,mallet4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,verse4 ,am ,i to set my life upon a throw1 ,because a bear is rude and surly8 ,no4--,cowper4 ,poor1 guiltless ,i6 and can ,i choose but smile1 ,when every coxcomb knows me by my style8--,pope4 ,remote from man1 with ,god he pass'd his days1 ,prayer all his business1 all his pleasure praise4--,parnell4 ,these are thy blessings1 ,industry6 rough power2 ,whom labour still attends1 and sweat1 and pain4--,thomson4 ,what ho6 thou genius of the clime1 what ho6 ,liest thou asleep beneath these hills of snow8--,dryden4 ,what6 canst thou not forbear me half an hour8 ,then get thee gone1 and dig my grave thyself4--,shak4 ,then palaces and lofty domes arose2 ,these for devotion1 and for pleasure those4--,blackmore4 ',tis very dangerous1 tampering with a muse2 ,the profit's small1 and you have much to lose4--,roscommon4 ,lucretius ,english'd6 't was a work might shake ,the power of ,english verse to undertake4--,otway4 ,the best may slip1 and the most cautious fall2 ,he's more than mortal1 that ne'er err'd at all4--,pomfret4 ,poets large souls heaven's noblest stamps do bear1 ,poets1 the watchful angels' darling care4--,stepney4 ,sorrow breaks reasons1 and reposing hours2 ,makes the night morning1 and the noon-tide night4--,shak4 ,nor then the solemn nightingale ceas'd warbling4--,milton4 ,and ,o1 poor hapless nightingale1 thought ,i1 ,how sweet thou singst1 how near the deadly snare6--,id4 ,he calls for famine1 and the meagre fiend ,blows mildew from between his shrivell'd lips4--,cowper4 ,if o'er their lives a refluent glance they cast1 ,theirs is the present who can praise the past4--,shenstone4 ,who wickedly is wise1 or madly brave1 ,is but the more a fool1 the more a knave4--,pope4 ,great eldest-born of ,dullness1 blind and bold6 ,tyrant6 more cruel than ,procrustes old2 ,who1 to his iron bed1 by torture1 fits1 ,their nobler part1 the souls of suffering wits4--,mallet4 ,parthenia1 rise4--,what voice alarms my ear8 ,away4 ,approach not4 ,hah6 ,alexis there6--,gay4 ,nor is it harsh to make1 nor hard to find ,a country with--ay1 or without mankind4--,byron4 ,a frame of adamant1 a soul of fire1 ,no dangers fright him1 and no labours tire4--,johnson4 ,now pall the tasteless meats1 and joyless wines1 ,and luxury with sighs her slave resigns4--,id4 ,seems8 madam2 nay1 it is3 ,i know not seems-- ,for ,i have that within which passes show4--,hamlet4 ,return8 said ,hector1 fir'd with stern disdain3 ,what6 coop whole armies in our walls again8--,pope4 ,he whom the fortune of the field shall cast ,from forth his chariot1 mount the next in haste4--,id4 ,yet here1 ,laertes8 aboard1 aboard1 for shame6--,shak4 ,justice1 most gracious ,duke2 ,o grant me justice6--,id4 ,but what a vengeance makes thee fly ,from me too1 as thine enemy8--,butler4 ,immortal ,peter6 first of monarchs6 ,he ,his stubborn country tam'd1 her rocks1 her fens1 ,her floods1 her seas1 her ill-submitting sons4--,thomson4 ,o arrogance6 ,thou liest1 thou thread1 thou thimble1 ,thou yard1 three-quarters1 half-yard1 quarter1 nail1 ,thou flea1 thou nit1 thou winter-cricket1 thou3-- ,brav'd in mine own house with a skein of thread6 ,away1 thou rag1 thou quantity1 thou remnant2 ,or ,i shall so be-mete thee with thy yard1 ,as thou shalt think on prating whilst thou liv'st4 ,,shak43 ,taming of the ,shrew1 ,act ,,iv1 ,sc #c4 ,,chapter ,,xii4--,,general ,,review4 ,this twelfth chapter of ,syntax is devoted to a series of lessons1 methodically digested1 wherein are reviewed and reapplied1 mostly in the order of the parts of speech1 all those syntactical principles heretofore given which are useful for the correction of errors4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,for ,a ,,general ,,review4 ,fist,the following examples of false syntax are arranged for a ,general ,review of the doctrines contained in the preceding ,rules and ,notes4 ,being nearly all of them exact quotations1 they are also a sort of syllabus of verbal criticism on the various works from which they are taken4 ,what corrections they are supposed to need1 may be seen by inspection of the twelfth chapter of the ,key4 ,it is here expected1 that by recurring to the instructions before given1 the learner who takes them as an oral exercise1 will ascertain for himself the proper form of correcting each example1 according to the particular ,rule or ,note under which it belongs4 ,when two or more errors occur in the same example1 they ought to be corrected successively1 in their order4 ,the erroneous sentence being read aloud as it stands1 the pupil should say1 first1 ,not proper1 because1 c4 ,and when the first error has thus been duly corrected by a brief and regular syllogism1 either the same pupil or an other should immediately proceed1 and say1 ,secondly1 ,not proper again1 because1 c4 ,and so of the third error1 and the fourth1 if there be so many4 ,in this manner1 a class may be taught to speak in succession without any waste of time1 and1 after some practice1 with a near approach to the ,,perfect ,,accuracy which is the great end of grammatical instruction4 ,when time cannot be allowed for this regular exercise1 these examples may still be profitably rehearsed by a more rapid process1 one pupil reading aloud the quoted false grammar1 and an other responding to each example1 by reading the intended correction from the ,key4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,articles4 ,and they took stones1 and made an heap4--,com4 ,bibles2 ,gen41 xxxi1 #df4 ,and ,i do know a many fools1 that stand in better place4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #dd4 ,it is a strong antidote to the turbulence of passion1 and violence of pursuit4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 xxiii4 ,the word news may admit of either a singular or plural application4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,he has earned a fair and a honorable reputation4--,ib41 p4 #adj4 ,there are two general forms1 called the solemn and familiar style4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #aji4 ,neither the article nor preposition may be omitted4--,wright's ,gram41 p #aij4 ,a close union is also observable between the ,subjunctive and ,potential ,moods4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,we should render service1 equally1 to a friend1 neighbour1 and an enemy4--,ib41 p4 #adj4 ,till an habit is obtained of aspirating strongly4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #di4 ,there is an uniform1 steady use of the same signs4--,ib41 p4 #afc4 ,a traveller remarks the most objects he sees4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #gb4 ,what is the name of the river on which ,london stands8 ,the ,thames4--,we sometimes find the last line of a couplet or triplet stretched out to twelve syllables4--,adam's ,lat4 and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #bhb4 ,nouns which follow active verbs1 are not in the nominative case4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,it is a solemn duty to speak plainly of wrongs1 which good men perpetrate4--,channing's ,emancip41 p4 #ga4 ,gathering of riches is a pleasant torment4--,treasury of ,knowledge1 ,dict41 p4 #ddf4 ,it the lamentation of ,helen for ,hector is worth the being quoted4--,coleridge's ,introd41 p4 #ajj4 ,council is a noun which admits of a singular and plural form4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #acg4 ,to exhibit the connexion between the ,old and the ,new ,testaments4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #be4 ,an apostrophe discovers the omission of a letter or letters4--,guy's ,gram1 p4 #ie4 ,he is immediately ordained1 or rather acknowledged an hero4--,pope1 ,preface to the ,dunciad4 ,which is the same in both the leading and following ,state4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #hf4 ,pronouns1 as will be seen hereafter1 have a distinct nominative1 possessive1 and objective case4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,a word of many syllables is called polysyllable4--,beck's ,outline of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,nouns have two numbers1 singular and plural4--,ib41 p4 #f4 ,they have three genders1 masculine1 feminine1 and neuter4--,ib41 p4 #f4 ,they have three cases1 nominative1 possessive1 and objective4--,ib41 p4 #f4 ,personal ,pronouns have1 like ,nouns1 two numbers1 singular and plural4 ,three genders1 masculine1 feminine1 and neuter4 ,two cases1 nominative and objective4--,ib41 p4 #aj4 ,he must be wise enough to know the singular from plural4--,ib41 p4 #bj4 ,though they may be able to meet the every reproach which any one of their fellows may prefer4--,chalmers1 ,sermons1 p4 #ajd4 ,yet for love's sake ,i rather beseech thee1 being such an one as ,paul the aged4--,ep4 to ,philemon1 #i4 ,being such one as ,paul the aged4--,dr4 ,webster's ,bible4 ,a people that jeoparded their lives unto the death4--,judges1 v1 #ah4 ,by preventing the too great accumulation of seed within a too narrow compass4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #ig4 ,who fills up the middle space between the animal and intellectual nature1 the visible and invisible world4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #eai4 ,the ,psalms abound with instances of an harmonious arrangement of the words4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cci4 ,on another table were an ewer and vase1 likewise of gold4--,n4 ,y4 ,mirror1 xi1 #cjg4 ,th is said to have two sounds sharp1 and flat4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,section 77 is used in subdividing of a chapter into lesser parts4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ,try it in a ,dog or an ,horse or any other ,creature4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #df4 ,but particularly in learning of ,languages there is least occasion for poseing of ,children4--,ib41 p4 #bif4 ,what kind of a noun is river1 and why8--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,is ,william's a proper or common noun8--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,what kind of an article1 then1 shall we call the8--,ib41 p4 #ac4 ,each burns alike1 who can1 or cannot write1 ,or with a rival's or an eunuch's spite4--,pope1 on ,crit41 l4 #cj4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,nouns1 ,,or ,,cases4 ,and there is stamped upon their ,imaginations ,idea's that follow them with ,terror and ,affrightment4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #bea4 ,there's not a wretch that lives on common charity1 but's happier than me4--,,venice ,,preserved3 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #fc4 ,but they overwhelm whomsoever is ignorant of them4--,common ,school ,journal1 i1#aae4 ,i have received a letter from my cousin1 she that was here last week4--,inst41 p4 #abi4 ,gentlemens ,houses are seldom without ,variety of ,company4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #ajg4 ,because ,fortune has laid them below the level of others1 at their ,masters feet4--,ib41 p4 #bba4 ,we blamed neither ,john nor ,mary's delay4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #aag4 ,the book was written by ,luther the reformer's order4--,ib41 p4 #ei4 ,i saw on the table of the saloon ,blair's ,sermons1 and somebody else 7,i forget who's7 sermons1 and a set of noisy children4--,lord ,byron's ,letters4 ,or saith he it altogether for our sakes8--#a ,cor41 ix1 #aj4 ,he was not aware of the duke's being his competitor4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #aij4 ,it is no condition of a word's being an adjective1 that it must be placed before a noun4--,,fowle3 ib41 p4 #aij4 ,though their ,reason corrected the wrong ,idea's they had taken in4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #bea4 ,it was him1 who taught me to hate slavery4--,morris1 in ,congress1 #ahci4 ,it is him and his kindred1 who live upon the labour of others4--,id41 ib4 ,payment of ,tribute is an ,acknowledgment of his being ,king to whom we think it ,due4--,right of ,tythes1 p4 #afa4 ,when we comprehend what we are taught4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,the following words1 and parts of words1 must be taken notice of4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,hence tears and commiseration are so often made use of4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bfi4 ,,john-,a-,,nokes1 n4 s4 ,a fictitious name1 made use of in law proceedings4--,chalmers1 ,eng4 ,dict4 ,the construction of ,matter1 and ,part taken hold of4--,b4 ,f4 ,fisk's ,greek ,gram41 p4 x4 ,and such other names1 as carry with them the ,idea's of some thing terrible and hurtful4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #bej4 ,every learner then would surely be glad to be spared the trouble and fatigue--,pike's ,hebrew ,lexicon1 p4 iv4 ',tis not the owning ones ,dissent from another1 that ,i speak against4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p #bfe4 ,a man that cannot ,fence will be more careful to keep out of ,bullies and ,gamesters ,company1 and will not be half so apt to stand upon ,punctilio's4--,ib41 p4 #ceg4 ,from such ,persons it is1 one may learn more in one ,day1 than in a ,years rambling from one ,inn to another4--,ib41 p4 #cgg4 ,a long syllable is generally considered to be twice the length of a short one4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aag4 ,i is of the first person1 and singular number2 ,thou is second per4 sing42 ,he1 ,she1 or ,it1 is third per4 sing42 ,we is first per4 plural2 ,ye or ,you is second per4 plural2 ,they is third per4 plural4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,this actor1 doer1 or producer of the action1 is the nominative4--,ib41 p4 #dc4 ,no ,body can think a ,boy of ,three or ,seven ,years old1 should be argued with1 as a grown ,man4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #abi4 ,this was in one of the ,pharisees' houses1 not1 in ,simon the leper's4--,hammond4 ,impossible6 it can't be me4--,swift4 ,whose grey top shall tremble1 ,him descending4--,dr4 ,bentley4 ,what gender is woman1 and why8--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,what gender1 then1 is man1 and why8--,ibid4 ,who is ,i2 who do you mean when you say ,i8--,r4 ,w4 ,green's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,it ,parnassus is a pleasant air1 but a barren soil4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #caa4 ,you may1 in three days time1 go from ,galilee to ,jerusalem4--,josephus1 ,vol4 #e1 p4 #agd4 ,and that which is left of the meat-offering shall be ,aaron's and his sons4--,,scott',s ,,bible1 and ,,bruce',s3 ,lev41 ii1 #aj4 ,see also ii1 #c4 ,for none in all the world1 without a lie1 ,can say that this is mine1 excepting ,i4--,bunyan4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,adjectives ,when he can be their ,remembrancer and ,advocate every ,assises and ,sessions4--,right of ,tythes1 p4 #bdd4 ,doing1 denotes all manner of action2 as1 to dance1 to play1 to write1 to read1 to teach1 to fight1 c4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,seven foot long1--eight foot long1--fifty foot long4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #bje4 ,nearly the whole of this twenty-five millions of dollars is a dead loss to the nation4--,fowler1 on ,tobacco1 p4 #af4 ,two negatives destroy one another4--,r4 ,w4 ,green's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,we are warned against excusing sin in ourselves1 or in each other4--,the ,friend1 iv1 #ajh4 ,the ,russian empire is more extensive than any government in the world4--,school ,geog4 ,you will always have the ,satisfaction to think it the ,money of all other the best laid out4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #ade4 ,there is no one passion which all mankind so naturally give into as pride4--,steele1 ,spect41 ,no4 #dfb4 ,o1 throw away the worser part of it4--,beauties of ,shak41 p #bcg4 ,he showed us a more agreeable and easier way4--,inst41 p4 #acd4 ,and the four last are to point out those further improvements4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #eb2 ,campbell's1 #ahg4 ,where he has not distinct and1 different clear ,idea's4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cec4 ,oh1 when shall we have such another ,rector of ,laracor6--,hazlitt's ,lect4 ,speech must have been absolutely necessary previous to the formation of society4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #b4 ,go and tell them boys to be still4--,inst41 p4 #ace4 ,wrongs are engraved on marble2 benefits1 on sand3 these are apt to be requited2 those1 forgot4--,b4 ,neither of these several interpretations is the true one4--,b4 ,my friend indulged himself in some freaks unbefitting the gravity of a clergyman4--,b4 ,and their ,pardon is ,all that either of their ,impropriators will have to plead4--,right of ,tythes1 p4 #aif4 ,but the time usually chosen to send young ,men abroad1 is1 ,i think1 of all other1 that which renders them least capable of reaping those ,advantages4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cgb4 ,it is a mere figment of the human imagination1 a rhapsody of the transcendent unintelligible4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #abj4 ,it contains a greater assemblage of sublime ideas1 of bold and daring figures1 than is perhaps any where to be met with4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #afb4 ,the order in which the two last words are placed1 should have been reversed4--,ib41 p4 #bjd4 ,the orders in which the two last words are placed1 should have been reversed4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #caj4 ,in ,demosthenes1 eloquence shown forth with higher splendour1 than perhaps in any that ever bore the name of an orator4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bdb4 ,the circumstance of his being poor is decidedly favorable4-- ,student's ,manual1 p4 #bhf4 ,the temptations to dissipation are greatly lessened by his being poor4--,ib41 p4 #bhg4 ,for with her death that tidings came4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #beg4 ,the next objection is1 that these sort of authors are poor4--,cleland4 ,presenting ,emma as ,miss ,castlemain to these acquaintance4--,opie's ,temper4 ,i doubt not but it will please more than the opera4--,spect41 ,no4 #bh4 ,the world knows only two1 that's ,rome and ,i4--,ben ,jonson4 ,i distinguish these two things from one another4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bi4 ,and in this case1 mankind reciprocally claim1 and allow indulgence to each other4--,sheridan's ,lect41 p4 #bi4 ,the six last books are said not to have received the finishing hand of the author4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dch4 ,the best executed part of the work1 is the first six books4--,ib41 p4 #ddg4 ,to reason how can we be said to rise8 ,so many cares attend the being wise4--,sheffield4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,pronouns4 ,once upon a time a goose fed its young by a pond side4--,goldsmith's ,essays1 p4 #age4 ,if either work have a sufficient degree of merit to recommend them to the attention of the public4--,walker's ,rhyming ,dict41 p4 iii4 ,now ,w4 ,mitchell his deceit is very remarkable4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #bfd ,my brother1 ,i did not put the question to thee1 for that ,i doubted of the truth of your belief4--,bunyan's ,p4 ,p41 p4 #aeh4 ,i had two elder brothers1 one of which was a lieutenant-colonel4--,robinson ,crusoe1 p4 #b4 ,though ,james is here the object of the action1 yet1 he is in the nominative case4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,here1 ,john is the actor2 and is known to be the nominative1 by its answering to the question1 ',who struck ,richard8'--,ib41 p4 #dc4 ,one of the most distinguished privileges which ,providence has conferred on mankind1 is the power of communicating their thoughts to one another4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #i4 ,with some of the most refined feelings which belong to our frame4--,ib41 p4 #ac4 ,and the same instructions which assist others in composing1 will assist them in judging of1 and relishing1 the beauties of composition4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,to overthrow all which had been yielded in favour of the army4--,mrs4 ,macaulay's ,hist41 i1 #cce4 ,let your faith stand in the ,lord ,god who changes not1 and that created all1 and gives the increase of all4--,friends' ,advices1 #afgf4 ,for it is1 in truth1 the sentiment or passion1 which lies under the figured expression1 that gives it any merit4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #acc4 ,verbs are words which affirm the being1 doing1 or suffering of a thing1 together with the time it happens4--,al4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,the ,byass will always hang on that side1 that nature first placed it4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #agg4 ,they should be brought to do the things are fit for them4--,ib41 p4 #agh4 ,various sources whence the ,english language is derived4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bhf4 ,this attention to the several cases1 when it is proper to omit and when to redouble the copulative1 is of considerable importance4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aac4 ,cicero1 for instance1 speaking of the cases where killing another is lawful in self defence1 uses the following words4--,ib41 p4 #aef4 ,but there is no nation1 hardly any person so phlegmatic1 as not to accompany their words with some actions and gesticulations1 on all occasions1 when they are much in earnest4--,ib41 p4 #cce4 ,william's is said to be governed by coat1 because it follows ,william's--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,there are many occasions in life1 in which silence and simplicity are true wisdom4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #aig4 ,in choosing umpires1 the avarice of whom is excited4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #aec4 ,the boroughs sent representatives1 which had been enacted4--,ib41 p4 #aed4 ,no man believes but what there is some order in the universe4--,anon4 ,the moon is orderly in her changes1 which she could not be by accident4--,id4 ,of ,sphynx her riddles1 they are generally two kinds4--,bacons ,wisdom1 p4 #gc4 ,they must generally find either their ,friends or ,enemies in ,power4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aff4 ,for of old1 every one took upon them to write what happened in their own time4--,josephus's ,jewish ,war1 ,pref41 p4 #d4 ,the ,almighty cut off the family of ,eli the high priest1 for its transgressions4--,see ,key4 ,the convention then resolved themselves into a committee of the whole4--,inst41 p4 #adf4 ,the severity with which this denomination was treated1 appeared rather to invite than to deter them from flocking to the colony4--,h4 ,adams's ,view1 p4 #ga4 ,many ,christians abuse the ,scriptures and the traditions of the apostles1 to uphold things quite contrary to it4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dfa4 ,thus1 a circle1 a square1 a triangle1 or a hexagon1 please the eye1 by their regularity1 as beautiful figures4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #df4 ,elba is remakable sic--,,kth for its being the place to which ,bonaparte was banished in #ahad4--,see ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #aij4 ,the editor has the reputation of his being a good linguist and critic4--,see ib4 ',tis a ,pride should be cherished in them4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #abi4 ,and to restore us the ,hopes of ,fruits1 to reward our ,pains in its season4--,ib41 p4 #acf4 ,the comick representation of ,death's victim relating its own tale4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,as for ,scioppius his ,grammar1 that doth wholly concern the ,latin ,tongue4--,,dr4 ,,wilkins3 ,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 i1 #g4 ,and chiefly thee1 ,o ,spirit1 who dost prefer ,before all temples the upright heart and pure1 ,instruct me1 for thou knowest4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,verbs4 ,and there was in the same country shepherds1 abiding in the field4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,luke1 ii4 #h4 ,whereof every one bear twins4--,,com4 ,,bible3 ,sol4 ,song1 iv1 #b4 ,whereof every one bare twins4--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ib4 ,whereof every one beareth twins4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ib4 ,he strikes out of his nature one of the most divine principles1 that is planted in it4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #aha4 ,genii1 denote rial spirits4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,in proportion as the long and large prevalence of such corruptions have been obtained by force4--,,bp4 ,,halifax3 ,brier's ,analogy1 p4 xvi4 ,neither of these are fix'd to a ,word of a general ,signification1 or proper ,name4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,of which a few of the opening lines is all ,i shall give4--,moore's ,life of ,byron4 ,the riches we had in ,england was the slow result of long industry and wisdom4--,,davenant3 ,webster's ,imp4 ,gram41 p4 #ba2 ,phil4 ,gram41 #bi4 ,the following expression appears to be correct3--',much publick thanks is due4'--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #bja4 ,he hath been enabled to correct many mistakes4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 x4 ,which road takest thou here8--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,learnest thou thy lesson8--,ib41 p4 #aje4 ,learned they their pieces perfectly8--,ibid4 ,thou learnedst thy task well4--,ibid4 ,there are some can't relish the town1 and others can't away with the country4--,,way ,,of ,,the ,,world3 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #cjd4 ,if thou meetest them1 thou must put on an intrepid mien4--,neef's ,method of ,ed41 p4 #bja4 ,struck with terror1 as if ,philip was something more than human4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bfe4 ,if the personification of the form of ,satan was admissible1 it should certainly have been masculine4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #agf4 ,if only one follow1 there seems to be a defect in the sentence4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,sir1 if thou have borne him hence1 tell me where thou hast laid him4--,john1 xx1 #ae4 ,blessed be the people that know the joyful sound4--,psalms1 lxxxix1 #ae4 ,every auditory take in good part those marks of respect and awe1 which are paid them by one who addresses them4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cjh4 ,private causes were still pleaded in the forum3 but the public was no longer interested2 nor any general attention drawn to what passed there4--,ib41 p4 #bdi4 ,nay1 what evidence can be brought to show1 that the ,inflection of the ,classic tongues were not originally formed out of obsolete auxiliary words8--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #aab4 ,if the student reflects1 that the principal and the auxiliary forms but one verb1 he will have little or no difficulty1 in the proper application of the present rule4--,ib41 p4 #ahc4 ,for the sword of the enemy and fear is on every side4--,jeremiah1 vi1 #bf4 ,even the ,stoics agree that nature and certainty is very hard to come at4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ga4 ,his politeness and obliging behaviour was changed4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ahf4 ,his politeness and obliging behaviour were changed4--,hume's ,hist41 ,vol4 vi1 p4 #ad4 ,war and its honours was their employment and ambition4--,goldsmith4 ,does a and an mean the same thing8--,r4 ,w4 ,green's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,when a number of words come in between the discordant parts1 the ear does not detect the error4--,cobbett's ,gram41 #ahe4 ,the sentence should be1 ',when a number of words comes in1' c4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #agj4 ,the nature of our language1 the accent and pronunciation of it1 inclines us to contract even all our regular verbs4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,the nature of our language1 together with the accent and pronunciation of it1 incline us to contract even all our ,regular ,verbs4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,prompt aid1 and not promises1 are what we ought to give4--,author4 ,the position of the several organs therefore1 as well as their functions are ascertained4--,medical ,magazine1 #ahcc1 p4 #e4 ,every private company1 and almost every public assembly1 afford opportunities of remarking the difference between a just and graceful1 and a faulty and unnatural elocution4--,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #i4 ,such submission1 together with the active principle of obedience1 make up the temper and character in us which answers to his sovereignty4-- ,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #abf4 ,in happiness1 as in other things1 there is a false and a true1 an imaginary and a real4--,fuller1 on the ,gospel1 p4 #acd4 ,to confound things that differ1 and to make a distinction where there is no difference1 is equally unphilosophical4--,author4 ,i know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows1 ,where ox-lips and the nodding violet grows4--,beaut4 of ,shak41 p4 #ea4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,verbs4 ,whose business or profession prevent their attendance in the morning4--,ogilby4 ,and no church or officer have power over one another4--,,lechford3 in ,hutchinson's ,hist41 i1 #cgc4 ,while neither reason nor experience are sufficiently matured to protect them4--,woodbridge4 ,among the ,greeks and ,romans1 every syllable1 or the far greatest number at least1 was known to have a fixed and determined quantity4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #chc4 ,among the ,greeks and ,romans1 every syllable1 or at least by far the greatest number of syllables1 was known to have a fixed and determined quantity4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #cjc4 ,their vanity is awakened and their passions exalted by the irritation1 which their self-love receives from contradiction4--,influence of ,literature1 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #bah4 ,i and he was neither of us any great swimmer4--,anon4 ,virtue1 honour1 nay1 even self-interest1 conspire to recommend the measure4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aej4 ,a correct plainness1 and elegant simplicity1 is the proper character of an introduction4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cjh4 ,in syntax there is what grammarians call concord or agreement1 and government4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #abh4 ,people find themselves able without much study to write and speak the ,english intelligibly1 and thus have been led to think rules of no utility4-- ,webster's ,essays1 p4 #f4 ,but the writer must be one who has studied to inform himself well1 who has pondered his subject with care1 and addresses himself to our judgment1 rather than to our imagination4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cec4 ,but practice hath determined it otherwise2 and has1 in all the languages with which we are much acquainted1 supplied the place of an interrogative mode1 either by particles of interrogation1 or by a peculiar order of the words in the sentence4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #hd4 ,if the ,lord have stirred thee up against me1 let him accept an offering4--#a ,sam41 xxvi1 #ai4 ,but if the priest's daughter be a widow1 or divorced1 and have no child1 and is returned unto her father's house1 as in her youth1 she shall eat of her father's meat4--,levit41 xxii1 #ac4 ,since we never have1 nor ever shall study your sublime productions4--,neef's ,sketch1 p4 #fb4 ,enabling us to form more distinct images of objects1 than can be done with the utmost attention where these particulars are not found4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #agd4 ,i hope you will consider what is spoke comes from my love4--,shak41 ,othello4 ,we will then perceive how the designs of emphasis may be marred1--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #djf4 ,i knew it was ,crab1 and goes me to the fellow that whips the dogs4--,,shak3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,,ale4 ,the youth was being consumed by a slow malady4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #aib4 ,if all men thought1 spoke1 and wrote alike1 something resembling a perfect adjustment of these points may be accomplished4-- ,ib41 p4 #bdj4 ,if you will replace what has been long since expunged from the language4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afg2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cfd4 ,as in all those faulty instances1 ,i have now been giving4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #adi4 ,this mood has also been improperly used in the following places4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #ahd4 ,he ,milton seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius1 and to know what it was that nature had bestowed upon him4--,johnson's ,life of ,milton4 ,of which ,i already gave one instance1 the worst1 indeed1 that occurs in all the poem4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cie4 ,it is strange he never commanded you to have done it4--,anon4 ,history painters would have found it difficult1 to have invented such a species of beings4--,,addison3 see ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,universal ,grammar cannot be taught abstractedly1 it must be done with reference to some language already known4--,lowth's ,preface1 p4 viii4 ,and we might imagine1 that if verbs had been so contrived1 as simply to express these1 no more was needful4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #hb4 ,to a writer of such a genius as ,dean ,swift1 the plain style was most admirably fitted4--,ib41 p4 #aha4 ,please excuse my son's absence4--,inst41 p4 #ahh4 ,bid the boys to come in immediately4--,ib4 ,gives us the secrets of his ,pagan hell1 ,where ghost with ghost in sad communion dwell4 --,crabbe's ,bor41 p4 #cjf4 ,alas6 nor faith1 nor valour now remain2 ,sighs are but wind1 and ,i must bear my chain4 --,walpole's ,catal41 p4 #aa4 ,,lesson ,,vii4--,,participles4 ,of which the ,author considers himself1 in compiling the present work1 as merely laying of the foundation-stone4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 ix4 ,on the raising such lively and distinct images as are here described4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #hi4 ,they are necessary to the avoiding ,ambiguities4-- ,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,there is no neglecting it without falling into a dangerous error4--,burlamaqui1 on ,law1 p4 #da4 ,the contest resembles ,don ,quixote's fighting windmills4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #fg4 ,that these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses1 is no proof of their having no particular time of their own4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aij4 ,to justify my not following the tract of the ancient rhetoricians4-- ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abb4 ,the putting letters together1 so as to make words1 is called spelling4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,what is the putting vowels and consonants together called8--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,nobody knows of their being charitable but themselves4--,fuller1 on the ,gospel1 p4 #bi4 ,payment was at length made1 but no reason assigned for its having been so long postponed4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #ahf2 ,kirkham's1 #aid2 ,ingersoll's1 #bed4 ,which will bear being brought into comparison with any composition of the kind4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cif4 ,to render vice ridiculous1 is doing real service to the world4--,ib41 p4 #dgf4 ,it is copying directly from nature2 giving a plain rehearsal of what passed1 or was supposed to pass1 in conversation4--,ib41 p4 #dcc4 ,propriety of pronunciation is giving to every word that sound1 which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bjj4 ,to occupy the mind1 and prevent our regretting the insipidity of an uniform plain4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cbi4 ,there are a hundred ways of any thing happening4--,steele4 ,tell me1 signor1 what was the cause of ,antonio's sending ,claudio to ,venice1 yesterday4--,bucke's ,gram41 p #ij4 ,looking about for an outlet1 some rich prospect unexpectedly opens to view4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ccd4 ,a hundred volumes of modern novels may be read1 without acquiring a new idea--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bi4 ,poetry admits of greater latitude than prose1 with respect to coining1 or1 at least1 new compounding words4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ic4 ,when laws were wrote on brazen tablets enforced by the sword4--,notes to the ,dunciad4 ,a pronoun1 which saves the naming a person or thing a second time1 ought to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #di4 ,the using a preposition in this case1 is not always a matter of choice4--,ib41 ii1 #cg4 ,to save multiplying words1 ,i would be understood to comprehend both circumstances4--,ib41 i1 #bai4 ,immoderate grief is mute3 complaining is struggling for consolation4--,ib41 i1 #cih4 ,on the other hand1 the accelerating or retarding the natural course1 excites a pain4--,ib41 i1 #bei4 ,human affairs require the distributing our attention4--,ib41 i1 #bfd4 ,by neglecting this circumstance1 the following example is defective in neatness4--,ib41 ii1 #bi4 ,and therefore the suppressing copulatives must animate a description4--,ib41 ii1 #cb4 ,if the laying aside copulatives give force and liveliness1 a redundancy of them must render the period languid4--,ib41 ii1 #cc4 ,it skills not asking my leave1 said ,richard4--,scott's ,crusaders4 ,to redeem his credit1 he proposed being sent once more to ,sparta4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #abi4 ,dumas relates his having given drink to a dog4--,dr4 ,stone1 on the ,stomach1 p4 #bd4 ,both are1 in a like way1 instruments of our receiving such ideas from external objects4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ff4 ,in order to your proper handling such a subject4--,spectator1 ,no4 #ecc4 ,for ,i do not recollect its being preceded by an open vowel4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 p4 #ef4 ,such is setting up the form above the power of godliness4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #gb4 ,i remember walking once with my young acquaintance4-- ,hunt's ,byron1 p #bg4 ,he ,lord ,byron did not like paying a debt4--,ib41 p4 #gd4 ,i do not remember seeing ,coleridge when ,i was a child4--,ib41 p4 #cah4 ,in consequence of the dry rot's having been discovered1 the mansion has undergone a thorough repair4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,i would not advise the following entirely the ,german system4--,,dr4 ,,lieber3 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #ff4 ,would it not be making the students judges of the professors8--,id41 ib41 p4 #d4 ,little time should intervene between their being proposed and decided upon4--,,prof4 ,,vethake3 ib41 p4 #ci4 ,it would be nothing less than finding fault with the ,creator4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,having once been friends is a powerful reason1 both of prudence and conscience1 to restrain us from ever becoming enemies4--,secker4 ,by using the word as a conjunction1 the ambiguity is prevented4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #baf4 ,he forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem1 ,but preaching ,jesus is not one of them4--,j4 ,taylor4 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,adverbs4 ,auxiliaries cannot only be inserted1 but are really understood1--,wright's ,gram41 p #bji4 ,he was since a hired ,scribbler in the ,daily ,courant4--,notes to the ,dunciad1 ii1 #bii4 ,in gardening1 luckily1 relative beauty need never stand in opposition to intrinsic beauty4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ccj4 ,i doubt much of the propriety of the following examples4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,and we see how far they have spread one of the worst ,languages possibly in this part of the world4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cda4 ,and in this manner to merely place him on a level with the beast of the forest4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,where1 ah6 where1 has my darling fled8--,anon4 ,as for this fellow1 we know not from whence he is4--,john1 ix1 #bi4 ,ye see then how that by works a man is justified1 and not by faith only4--,james1 ii1 #bd4 ,the ,mixt kind is where the poet speaks in his own person1 and sometimes makes other characters to speak4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bgf2 ,gould's1 #bfg4 ,interrogation is1 when the writer or orator raises questions and returns answers4--,fisher's ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,prevention is1 when an author starts an objection which he foresees may be made1 and gives an answer to it4--,ib41 p4 #aed4 ,will you let me alone1 or no8--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ahd4 ,neither man nor woman cannot resist an engaging exterior4-- ,chesterfield1 ,let4 lix4 ,though the ,cup be never so clean4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #fe4 ,seldom1 or ever1 did any one rise to eminence1 by being a witty lawyer4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bgb4 ,the second rule1 which ,i give1 respects the choice of subjects1 from whence metaphors1 and other figures1 are to be drawn4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #add4 ,in the figures which it uses1 it sets mirrors before us1 where we may behold objects1 a second time1 in their likeness4--,ib41 p4 #aci4 ,whose ,business is to seek the true measures of ,right and ,wrong1 and not the ,arts how to avoid doing the one1 and secure himself in doing the other4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cca4 ,the occasions when you ought to personify things1 and when you ought not1 cannot be stated in any precise rule4--,cobbett's ,eng4 ,gram41 #ahb4 ,they reflect that they have been much diverted1 but scarce can say about what4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aea4 ,the eyebrows and shoulders should seldom or ever be remarked by any perceptible motion4--,adams's ,rhet41 ii1 #chi4 ,and the left hand or arm should seldom or never attempt any motion by itself4--,ib41 ii1 #cia4 ,every speaker does not propose to please the imagination4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ajd4 ,and like ,gallio1 they care little for none of these things4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 x1 p4 #cea4 ,they may inadvertently be imitated1 in cases where the meaning would be obscure4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bgb4 ,nor a man cannot make him laugh4--,shak4 ,the ,athenians1 in their present distress1 scarce knew where to turn4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #aef4 ,i do not remember where ever ,god delivered his oracles by the multitude4--,locke4 ,the object of this government is twofold1 outwards and inwards4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #eec4 ,in order to rightly understand what we read4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cac4 ,that a design had been formed1 to forcibly abduct or kidnap ,morgan4--,stone1 on ,masonry1 p4 #daj4 ,but such imposture can never maintain its ground long4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aj4 ,but sure it is equally possible to apply the principles of reason and good sense to this art1 as to any other that is cultivated among men4--,ibid4 ,it would have been better for you1 to have remained illiterate1 and to have been even hewers of wood4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cgd4 ,dissyllables that have two vowels1 which are separated in the pronunciation1 have always the accent on the first syllable4--,ib41 i1 #bch4 ,and they all turned their backs without almost drawing a sword4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bbd4 ,the principle of duty takes naturally place of every other4--,ib41 i1 #cdb4 ,all that glitters is not gold4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,whether now or never so many myriads of ages hence4--,pres4 ,edwards4 ,england never did1 nor never shall1 ,lie at the proud foot of a conqueror4--,beaut4 of ,shak41 p4 #aji4 ,,lesson ,,ix4--,,conjunctions4 ,he readily comprehends the rules of ,syntax1 and their use and applicability in the examples before him4--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,the works of schylus have suffered more by time1 than any of the ancient tragedians4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dgj4 ,there is much more story1 more bustle1 and action1 than on the ,french theatre4--,ib41 p4 #dgh4 ,such an unremitted anxiety and perpetual application as engrosses our whole time and thoughts1 are forbidden4--,,soame ,,jenyns3 ,tract1 p4 #ab4 ,it seems to be nothing else but the simple form of the adjective4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #di4 ,but when ,i talk of ,reasoning1 ,i do not intend any other1 but such as is suited to the ,child's ,capacity4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #abi4 ,pronouns have no other use in language1 but to represent nouns4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p #hc4 ,the speculative relied no farther on their own judgment1 but to choose a leader1 whom they implicitly followed4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 xxv4 ,unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor1 bare1 forked animal as thou art4--,beaut4 of ,shak41 p4 #bff4 ,a ,parenthesis is a clause introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely1 and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bhj2 ,ingersoll's1 #bib2 ,smith's1 #aib2 ,alden's1 #afb2 ,a4 ,flint's1 #aad2 ,fisk's1 #aeh2 ,cooper's1 #ahg2 ,comly's1 #afc4 ,a ,caret1 marked thus is placed where some word happens to be left out in writing1 and which is inserted over the line4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bhb2 ,ingersoll's1 #bic2 and others4 ,at the time that ,i visit them they shall be cast down4--,jer41 vi1 #ae4 ,neither our virtues or vices are all our own4--,,dr4 ,,johnson3 ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #afg4 ,i could not give him an answer as early as he had desired4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bjj4 ,he is not as tall as his brother4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #abd4 ,it is difficult to judge when ,lord ,byron is serious or not4--,lady ,blessington4 ,some nouns are both of the second and third declension4--,gould's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,he was discouraged neither by danger or misfortune4--,wells's ,hist41 p4 #afa4 ,this is consistent neither with logic nor history4--,the ,dial1 i1 #fb4 ,parts of ,sentences are simple and compound4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,english verse is regulated rather by the number of syllables than of feet4--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ,i know not what more he can do1 but pray for him4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #adj4 ,whilst they are learning1 and apply themselves with ,attention1 they are to be kept in good ,humour4--,ib41 p4 #bie4 ,a man cannot have too much of it1 nor too perfectly4--,ib41 p4 #cbb4 ,that you may so run1 as you may obtain2 and so fight1 as you may overcome4--,wm4 ,penn4 ,it is the case of some1 to contrive false periods of business1 because they may seem men of despatch4--,lord ,bacon4 ',a tall man and a woman4' ,in this sentence there is no ellipsis2 the adjective or quality respect only the man4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,an abandonment of the policy is neither to be expected or desired4--,pres4 ,jackson's ,message1 #ahcj4 ,which can be acquired by no other means but frequent exercise in speaking4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cdd4 ,the chief and fundamental rules of syntax are common to the ,english as well as the ,latin tongue4--,ib41 p4 #ij4 ,then ,i exclaim1 that my antagonist either is void of all taste1 or that his taste is corrupted in a miserable degree4-- ,ib41 p4 #ba4 ,i cannot pity any one who is under no distress of body nor of mind4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #dd4 ,there was much genius in the world1 before there were learning or arts to refine it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cia4 ,such a ,writer can have little else to do1 but to new model the ,paradoxes of ancient ,scepticism4--,brown's ,estimate1 i1 #ajb4 ,our ideas of them being nothing else but a collection of the ordinary qualities observed in them4--,duncan's ,logic1 p4 #be4 ,a non-ens or a negative can neither give pleasure nor pain4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #fc4 ,so as they shall not justle and embarrass one another4--,blair's ,lectures1 p4 #cah4 ,he firmly refused to make use of any other voice but his own4-- ,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #aij4 ,your marching regiments1 ,sir1 will not make the guards their example1 either as soldiers or subjects4--,junius1 ,let4 #ce4 ,consequently1 they had neither meaning1 or beauty1 to any but the natives of each country4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #afa4 ,the man of worth1 and has not left his peer1 ,is in his narrow house for ever darkly laid4--,burns4 ,,lesson ,x4--,,prepositions4 ,these may be carried on progressively above any assignable limits4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bif4 ,to crowd in a single member of a period different subjects1 is still worse than to crowd them into one period4--,ib41 ii1 #bg4 ,nor do we rigidly insist for melodious prose4--,ib41 ii1 #gf4 ,the aversion we have at those who differ from us4--,ib41 ii1 #cfe4 ,for we cannot bear his shifting the scene every line4--,,ld4 ,,halifax3 ib41 ii1 #bac4 ,we shall find that we come by it the same way4--,locke4 ,to this he has no better defense than that4--,barnes's ,bed ,book1 p4 #cdg4 ,searching the person whom he suspects for having stolen his casket4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dgi4 ,who are elected as vacancies occur by the whole ,board4--,lit4 ,convention1 p4 #ha4 ,almost the only field of ambition of a ,german1 is science4--,,dr4 ,,lieber3 ib41 p4 #ff4 ,the plan of education is very different to the one pursued in the sister country4--,,dr4 ,,coley1 ib41 p4 #aig4 ,some writers on grammar have contended that adjectives relate to1 and modify the action of verbs4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,they are therefore of a mixed nature1 participating of the properties both of pronouns and adjectives4-- ,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #eg4 ,for there is no authority which can justify the inserting the aspirate or doubling the vowel4--,knight1 on ,greek ,alph41 p4 #eb4 ,the distinction and arrangement between active1 passive1 and neuter verbs4--,wright's ,gram1 p4 #agf4 ,and see thou a hostile world to spread its delusive snares4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #afg4 ,he may be precaution'd1 and be made see1 how those joyn in the ,contempt4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #aee4 ,the contenting themselves now in the want of what they wish'd for1 is a vertue4--,ib41 p4 #ahe4 ,if the ,complaint be of something really worthy your notice4--,ib41 p4 #aij4 ,true ,fortitude ,i take to be the quiet ,possession of a ,man's self1 and an undisturb'd doing his ,duty4--,ib41 p4 #bjd4 ,for the custom of tormenting and killing of ,beasts will1 by degrees1 harden their ,minds even towards ,men4--,ib41 p4 #baf4 ,children are whip'd to it1 and made spend many ,hours of their precious time uneasily in ,latin4--,ib41 p4 #bhi4 ,the ancient rhetoricians have entered into a very minute and particular detail of this subject2 more particular1 indeed1 than any other that regards language4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #abc4 ,but the one should not be omitted without the other4--,bullions's ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,in some of the common forms of speech1 the relative pronoun is usually omitted4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bah2 ,weld's1 #aia4 ,there are a great variety of causes1 which disqualify a witness from being received to testify in particular cases4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhet41 ii1 #ge4 ,aside of all regard to interest1 we should expect that1 c4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #hb4 ,my opinion was given on a rather cursory perusal of the book4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bjb4 ,and the next day1 he was put on board his ship4--,ib41 ii1 #bja4 ,having the command of no emotions but of what are raised by sight4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #cah4 ,did these moral attributes exist in some other being beside himself4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #afa4 ,he did not behave in that manner out of pride or contempt of the tribunal4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #aij4 ,these prosecutions of ,william seem to have been the most iniquitous measures pursued by the court4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aii2 ,priestley's ,gram41 #abf4 ,to restore myself into the good graces of my fair critics4--,dryden4 ,objects denominated beautiful1 please not in virtue of any one quality common to them all4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #df4 ,this would have been less worthy notice1 had not a writer or two of high rank lately adopted it4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #aig4 ,a ,grecian youth1 with talents rare1 ,whom ,plato's philosophic care1 c4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,,lesson ,,xi4--,,promiscuous4 ,to excel1 is become a much less considerable object4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cea4 ,my robe1 and my integrity to heaven1 is all ,i now dare call mine own4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #agc4 ,so thou the garland wear'st successively4--,ib41 p4 #acd4 ,for thou the garland wears successively4--,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #cda4 ,if that thou need'st a ,roman's1 take it forth4--,ib41 p4 #ceg4 ,if that thou be'st a ,roman1 take it forth4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #bef4 ,if thou provest this to be real1 thou must be a smart lad1 indeed4--,neef's ,method of ,teaching1 p4 #baj4 ,and another ,bridge of four hundred ,foot in ,length4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #bdb4 ,metonomy is putting one name for another on account of the near relation there is between them4--,fisher's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,an ,antonomasia is putting an appellative or common name for a proper name4--,ib41 p4 #aec4 ,its being me needs make no difference in your determination4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,the first and second page are torn4--,ib41 p4 #ade4 ,john's being from home occasioned the delay4--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,his having neglected opportunities of improvement1 was the cause of his disgrace4--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,he will regret his having neglected opportunities of improvement when it may be too late4--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,his being an expert dancer does not entitle him to our regard4--,ib41 p4 #hb4ddc ,csar went back to ,rome to take possession of the public treasure1 which his opponent1 by a most unaccountable oversight1 had neglected taking with him4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 p4 #aaf4 ,and ,csar took out of the treasury1 to the amount of three thousand pound weight of gold1 besides an immense quantity of silver4--,ibid4 ,rules and definitions1 which should always be clear and intelligible as possible1 are thus rendered obscure4--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,so much both of ability and merit is seldom found4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #agi4 ,if such maxims1 and such practices prevail1 what is become of decency and virtue8--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,especially if the subject require not so much pomp4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aag4 ,however1 the proper mixture of light and shade1 in such compositions2 the exact adjustment of all the figurative circumstances with the literal sense2 have ever been considered as points of great nicety4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cdc4 ,and adding to that hissing in our language1 which is taken so much notice of by foreigners4--,,addison3 ,,dr4 ,,coote3 ib41 i1 #ij4 ,speaking impatiently to servants1 or any thing that betrays unkindness or ill-humour1 is certainly criminal4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #ahc2 ,merchant's1 #aij4 ,there is here a fulness and grandeur of expression well suited to the subject4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bah4 ,i single ,strada out among the moderns1 because he had the foolish presumption to censure ,tacitus4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bfb4 ,i single him out among the moderns1 because1 c4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #aaf4 ,this is a rule not always observed1 even by good writers1 as strictly as it ought to be4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajc4 ,but this gravity and assurance1 which is beyond boyhood1 being neither wisdom nor knowledge1 do never reach to manhood4--,notes to the ,dunciad4 ,the regularity and polish even of a turnpike-road has some influence upon the low people in the neighbourhood4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ceh4 ,they become fond of regularity and neatness2 which is displayed1 first upon their yards and little enclosures1 and next within doors4--,ibid4 ,the phrase1 it is impossible to exist1 gives us the idea of it's being impossible for men1 or any body to exist4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,i'll give a thousand pound to look upon him4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #aea4 ,the reader's knowledge1 as ,dr4 ,campbell observes1 may prevent his mistaking it4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #agb2 ,crombie's1 #bec4 ,when two words are set in contrast or in opposition to one another1 they are both emphatic4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bdc4 ,the number of persons1 men1 women1 and children1 who were lost in the sea1 was very great4--,ib41 ii1 #bj4 ,nor is the resemblance between the primary and resembling object pointed out--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #agi4 ,i think it the best book of the kind which ,i have met with4--,,dr4 ,,mathews3 ,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,why should not we their ancient rites restore1 ,and be what ,rome or ,athens were before4--,roscommon1 p4 #bb4 ,,lesson ,,xii4--,,two ,,errors4 ,it is labour only which gives the relish to pleasure4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bcd4 ,groves are never as agreeable as in the opening of the spring4--,ib41 p4 #baf4 ,his ',philosophical ,inquiry into the origin of our ,ideas on the ,sublime and ,beautiful' soon made him known to the literati4--,biog4 ,rhet41 n4 ,burke4 ,an awful precipice or tower whence we look down on the objects which lie below4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cj4 ,this passage1 though very poetical1 is1 however1 harsh and obscure2 owing to no other cause but this1 that three distinct metaphors are crowded together4--,ib41 p4 #adi4 ,i propose making some observations4--,ib41 p4 #bhj4 ,i shall follow the same method here which ,i have all along pursued4--,ib41 p4 #cdf4 ,mankind never resemble each other so much as they do in the beginnings of society4--,ib41 p4 #chj4 ,but no ear is sensible of the termination of each foot1 in reading an hexameter line4--,ib41 p4 #chc4 ,the first thing1 says he1 which either a writer of fables1 or of heroic poems1 does1 is1 to choose some maxim or point of morality4--,ib41 p4 #dba4 ,the fourth book has been always most justly admired1 and abounds with beauties of the highest kind4--,ib41 p4 #dci4 ,there is no attempt towards painting characters in the poem4--,ib41 p4 #ddf4 ,but the artificial contrasting of characters1 and the introducing them always in pairs1 and by opposites1 gives too theatrical and affected an air to the piece4--,ib41 p4 #dgi4 ,neither of them are arbitrary nor local4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 p4 xxi4 ,if crowding figures be bad1 it is still worse to graft one figure upon another4--,ib41 ii1 #bcf4 ,the crowding withal so many objects together1 lessens the pleasure4--,ib41 ii1 #cbd4 ,this therefore lies not in the putting off the ,hat1 nor making of ,compliments4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #adi4 ,but the ,samaritan ,vau may have been used1 as the ,jews did the ,chaldaic1 both for a vowel and consonant4--,wilson's ,essay1 p4 #ai4 ,but if a solemn and familiar pronunciation really exists in our language1 is it not the business of a grammarian to mark both8--,walker's ,dict41 ,pref41 p4 #d4 ,by making sounds follow each other agreeable to certain laws4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #djf4 ,if there was no drinking intoxicating draughts1 there could be no drunkards4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #agh4 ,socrates knew his own defects1 and if he was proud of any thing1 it was in the being thought to have none4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #ahh4 ,lysander having brought his army to ,ephesus1 erected an arsenal for building of gallies4--,ib41 i1 #afa4 ,the use of these signs are worthy remark4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,he received me in the same manner that ,i would you4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,consisting both of the direct and collateral evidence4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bbd4 ,if any man or woman that believeth have widows1 let them relieve them1 and let not the church be charged4--#a ,tim41 v1 #af4 ,for mens sakes are beasts bred4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #aca4 ,from three a clock there was drinking and gaming4--,ib41 p4 #ada4 ,is this he that ,i am seeking of1 or no8--,ib41 p4 #bdh4 ,and for the upholding every one his own opinion1 there is so much ado4--,sewel's ,hist41 p4 #hji4 ,some of them however will be necessarily taken notice of4--,sale's ,koran1 p4 #ga4 ,the boys conducted themselves exceedingly indiscreet4--,merchant's ,key1 p4 #aie4 ,their example1 their influence1 their fortune1 every talent they possess1 dispense blessings on all around them4--,ib41 p4 #aig2 ,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bai4 ,the two ,reynolds reciprocally converted one another--,johnson's ,lives1 p4 #ahe4 ,the destroying the two last ,tacitus calls an attack upon virtue itself4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 p4 #aid4 ,monies is your suit4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #ch4 ,ch1 is commonly sounded like tch2 as in church2 but in words derived from the ,greek1 has the sound of k4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aa4 ,when one is obliged to make some utensil supply purposes to which they were not originally destined4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bbb4 ,but that a being baptized with water1 is a washing away of sin1 thou canst not from hence prove4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #aij4 ,being but spoke to one1 it infers no universal command4--,ibid4 ,for if the laying aside ,copulatives gives ,force and ,liveliness1 a ,redundancy of them must render the ,period languid4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #acd4 ,james used to compare him to a cat1 who always fell upon her legs4--,,adam',s ,,hist4 ,,of ,,eng43 ,crombie1 p4 #chd4 ,from the low earth aspiring genius springs1 ,and sails triumphant born on eagles wings4--,lloyd1 p4 #afb4 ,,lesson ,,xiii4--,,two ,,errors4 ,an ostentatious1 a feeble1 a harsh1 or an obscure style1 for instance1 are always faults4--,blair's ,rhet4 p4 #aij4 ,yet in this we find the ,english pronounce perfectly agreeable to rule4--,walker's ,dict41 p4 #b4 ,but neither the perception of ideas1 nor knowledge of any sort1 are habits1 though absolutely necessary to the forming of them4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aaa4 ,they were cast3 and an heavy fine imposed upon them4--,goldsmiths ,greece1 ii1 #cj4 ,without making this reflection1 he cannot enter into the spirit1 nor relish the composition of the author4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dej4 ,the scholar should be instructed relative to finding his words4--,osborn's ,key1 p4 #d4 ,and therefore they could neither have forged1 or reversified them4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alph41 p4 #cj4 ,a dispensary is the place where medicines are dispensed4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #agb4 ,both the connexion and number of words is determined by general laws4--,neef's ,sketch1 p4 #gc4 ,an ,anapsest has the two first syllables unaccented1 and the last accented3 as1 ',contravene1 acquisce4'--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bed4 ,an explicative sentence is1 when a thing is said to be or not to be1 to do or not to do1 to suffer or not to suffer1 in a direct manner4--,ib41 i1 #ada2 ,lowth's1 #hd4 ,,but is a conjunction1 in all cases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #aji4 ,he wrote in the king ,ahasuerus' name1 and sealed it with the king's ring4--,esther1 viii1 #aj4 ,camm and ,audland were departed the town before this time4--,sewel's ,hist41 p4 #ajj4 ,previous to their relinquishing the practice1 they must be convinced4--,dr4 ,webster1 on ,slavery1 p4 #e4 ,which he had thrown up previous to his setting out4--,grimshaw's ,hist4 ,u4 ,s41 p4 #hd4 ,he left him to the value of an hundred drachmas in ,persian money4--,spect41 ,no4 #ece4 ,all which the mind can ever contemplate concerning them1 must be divided between the three4--,cardell's ,philad4 ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,tom ,puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of any that has fallen under my observation4--,spect41 ,no4 #dgf4 ,when you have once got him to think himself made amends for his suffering1 by the praise is given him for his courage4--,locke1 on ,ed4 #aae4 ,in all matters where simple reason1 and mere speculation is concerned4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #acf4 ,and therefore he should be spared the trouble of attending to any thing else1 but his meaning4--,ib41 p4 #aje4 ,it is this kind of phraseology which is distinguished by the epithet idiomatical1 and hath been originally the spawn1 partly of ignorance1 and partly of affectation4--,campbell's ,rhet4 p4 #ahe4 ,murray has it--and which has been originally1 c4--,octavo ,gram4 i1 #cgj4 ,that neither the letters nor inflection are such as could have been employed by the ancient inhabitants of ,latium4--,knight1 ,gr4 ,alph4 p4 #ac1 ,in cases where the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms4--,murray's ,gram411 #aej4 ,but this people which know not the law1 are accursed4--,john1 vii1 #di4 ,and the magnitude of the chorusses have weight and sublimity4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #dbh4 ,dare he deny but there are some of his fraternity guilty8--,barclays ,works1 i1 #cbg4 ,giving an account of most1 if not all the papers had passed betwixt them4--,ib41 i1 #bce4 ,in this manner1 both as to parsing and correcting1 all the rules of syntax should be treated1 proceeding regularly according to their order4--,murray's ,exercises1 #abmo1 p4 x4 ,ovando was allowed a brilliant retinue and a body guard4--,sketch of ,columbus4 ,is it ,i or he whom you requested to go8--,kirkham's ,gram41 ,key1 p4 #bbf4 ,let thou and ,i go on4--,bunyan's ,p4 ,p41 p4 #aeh4 ,this ,i no-where affirmed2 and do wholly deny4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #ded4 ,but that ,i deny2 and remains for him to prove4--,ibid4 ,our country sinks beneath the yoke2 ,it weeps1 it bleeds1 and each new day a gash ,is added to her wounds4--,,shakspeare3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,beneath4 ,thou art the ,lord who didst choose ,abraham1 and broughtest him forth out of ,ur of the ,chaldees4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #ahi4 ,he is the exhaustless fountain1 from which emanates all these attributes1 that exists throughout this wide creation4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #aee4 ,i am he who have communed with the son of ,neocles2 ,i am he who have entered the gardens of pleasure4--,wright's ,athens1 p4 #ff4 ,such was in ancient times the tales received1 ,such by our good forefathers was believed4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 ix1 l4 #fje4 ,,lesson ,,xiv4--,,two ,,errors4 ,the noun or pronoun that stand before the active verb1 may be called the agent4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aba4 ,such seems to be the musings of our hero of the grammar-quill1 when he penned the first part of his grammar4--,merchant's ,criticisms4 ,two dots1 the one placed above the other 31 is called ,sheva1 and represents a very short e4--,wilson's ,hebrew ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,great has been1 and is1 the obscurity and difficulty1 in the nature and application of them4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ahd4 ,as two is to four1 so is four to eight4--,everest's ,gram41 p4 #bca4 ,the invention and use of it arithmetic reaches back to a period so remote as is beyond the knowledge of history4--,robertson's ,america1 i1 #bhh4 ,what it presents as objects of contemplation or enjoyment1 fills and satisfies his mind4--,ib41 i1 #cgg4 ,if he dare not say they are1 as ,i know he dare not1 how must ,i then distinguish8--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #caa4 ,he was now grown so fond of solitude that all company was become uneasy to him4--,life of ,cicero1 p4 #cb4 ,violence and spoil is heard in her2 before me continually is grief and wounds4--,jeremiah1 vi1 #g4 ,bayle's ,intelligence from the ,republic of ,letters1 which make eleven volumes in duodecimo1 are truly a model in this kind4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #fh4 ,to render pauses pleasing and expressive1 they must not only be made in the right place1 but also accompanied with a proper tone of voice4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bdi4 ,the opposing the opinions1 and rectifying the mistakes of others1 is what truth and sincerity sometimes require of us4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #baa4 ,it is very probable that this assembly was called1 to clear some doubt which the king had1 about the lawfulness of the ,hollanders' throwing off the monarchy of ,spain1 and withdrawing1 entirely1 their allegiance to that crown4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #aie4 ,naming the cases and numbers of a noun in their order is called declining it4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,the embodying them is1 therefore1 only collecting such component parts of words4--,town's ,analysis1 p4 #d4 ,the one is the voice heard at ,christ's being baptized2 the other1 at his being transfigured4--,barclays ,works1 i1 #bfg4 ,understanding the literal sense would not have prevented their condemning the guiltless4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #afh4 ,as if this were taking the execution of justice out of the hand of ,god1 and giving it to nature4--,ib41 p4 #aid4 ,they will say1 you must conceal this good opinion of yourself2 which yet is allowing the thing1 though not the showing it4--,sheffield's ,works1 ii1 #bdd4 ,so as to signify not only the doing an action1 but the causing it to be done4--,pike's ,hebrew ,lexicon1 p4 #ahj4 ,this1 certainly1 was both dividing the unity of ,god1 and limiting his immensity4--,calvin's ,institutes1 ,b4 i1 ,ch4 #ac4 ,tones being infinite in number1 and varying in almost every individual1 the arranging them under distinct heads1 and reducing them to any fixed and permanent rules1 may be considered as the last refinement in language4--,knight1 on ,gr4 ,alph41 p4 #af4 ,the fierce anger of the ,lord shall not return1 until he have done it1 and until he have performed the intents of his heart4--,jeremiah1 xxx1 #bd4 ,we seek for more heroic and illustrious deeds1 for more diversified and surprising events4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cgc4 ,we distinguish the ,genders1 or the ,male and ,female ,sex1 four different ,ways4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,thus1 ch and g1 are ever hard4 ,it is therefore proper to retain these sounds in ,hebrew names1 which have not been modernised1 or changed by public use4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,the ,substantive or noun is the name of any thing conceived to subsist1 or of which we have any notion4--,lindley ,murray's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #bf4 ,the ,,substantive1 or ,,noun2 being the name of any thing conceived to subsist1 or of which we have any notion4--,dr4 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,the ,noun is the name of any thing that exists1 or of which we have1 or can form1 an idea4--,maunders ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,a noun is the name of any thing in existence1 or of which we can form an idea4--,ib41 p4 #a4 7,see ,false ,syntax under ,note #gth to ,rule #ajth47 ,the next thing to be taken ,care of1 is to keep him exactly to speaking of ,truth4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #bed4 ,the material1 vegetable1 and animal world1 receive this influence according to their several capacities4--,the ,dial1 i1 #ei4 ,and yet1 it is fairly defensible on the principles of the schoolmen2 if that can be called principles which consists merely in words4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bgd4 ,art thou so bare and full of wretchedness1 ,and fears to die8 famine is in thy cheeks1 ,need and oppression starveth in thy eyes4--,beaut4 of ,shak41 p4 #cag4 ,,lesson ,,xv4--,,three ,,errors4 ,the silver age is reckoned to have commenced on the death of ,augustus1 and continued to the end of ,trajan's reign4--,gould's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bgg4 ,language is become1 in modern times1 more correct1 indeed1 and accurate4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #fe4 ,it is evident1 that words are most agreeable to the ear which are composed of smooth and liquid sounds1 where there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants4--,ib41 p4 #aba4 ,see ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cbe4 ,it would have had no other effect1 but to add a word unnecessarily to the sentence4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aid4 ,but as rumours arose of the judges having been corrupted by money in this cause1 these gave occasions to much popular clamour1 and had thrown a heavy odium on ,cluentius4--,ib41 p4 #bgc4 ,a ,participle is derived of a verb1 and partakes of the nature both of the verb and the adjective4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ci2 ,e4 ,devis's1 #i4 ,i will have learned my grammar before you learn your's4--,wilbur and ,liv4 ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,there is no earthly object capable of making such various and such forcible impressions upon the human mind as a complete speaker4--,perry's ,dict41 ,pref4 ,it was not the carrying the bag which made ,judas a thief and an hireling4--,south4 ,as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man1 so ,god and man is one ,christ4--,athanasian ,creed4 ,and ,i will say to them which were not my people1 ,thou art my people2 and they shall say1 ,thou art my ,god4--,hosea1 ii1 #bc4 ,where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated or emphatical1 an easy fall1 sufficient to show that the sense is finished1 will be proper4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bej4 ,each party produces words where the letter a is sounded in the manner they contend for4--,walker's ,dict41 p4 #a4 ,to countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions1 is scarcely one remove from actually committing them4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bcc4 ',to countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions1' is part of a sentence1 which is the nominative case to the verb 'is4'--,ibid4 ,what is called splitting of particles1 or separating a preposition from the noun which it governs1 is always to be avoided4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aab2 ,jamieson's1 #ic4 ,see ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cai4 ,there is1 properly1 no more than one pause or rest in the sentence1 falling betwixt the two members into which it is divided4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abe2 ,jamieson's1 #abf2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cbi4 ,going barefoot does not at all help on the way to heaven4--,steele1 ,spect41 ,no4 #dig4 ,there is no ,body but condemns this in others1 though they overlook it in themselves4--,locke1 on ,ed41 #ade4 ,in the same sentence1 be careful not to use the same word too frequently1 nor in different senses4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bif4 ,nothing could have made her so unhappy1 as marrying a man who possessed such principles4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bjj4 ,a warlike1 various1 and a tragical age is best to write of1 but worst to write in4--,cowley's ,pref41 p4 vi4 ,when thou instances ,peter his baptizing ,cornelius4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ahh4 ,to introduce two or more leading thoughts or agents1 which have no natural relation to1 or dependence on one another4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cac4 ,animals1 again1 are fitted to one another1 and to the elements where they live1 and to which they are as appendices4--,ibid4 ,this melody1 or varying the sound of each word so often1 is a proof of nothing1 however1 but of the fine ear of that people4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #e4 ,they can each in their turns be made use of upon occasion4--,duncan's ,logic1 p4 #aia4 ,in this reign lived the poet ,chaucer1 who1 with ,gower1 are the first authors who can properly be said to have written ,english4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #add4 ,in the translating these kind of expressions1 consider the ,,it ,,is1 as if it were they1 or they are4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #agi4 ,the chin has an important office to perform2 for upon its activity we either disclose a polite or vulgar pronunciation4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #bg4 ,for no other reason1 but his being found in bad company4--,webster's ,amer4 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #if4 ,it is usual to compare them in the same manner as ,polisyllables4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,the infinitive mood is recognised easier than any others1 because the preposition to precedes it4--,bucke's ,gram41 p1 #ie4 ,prepositions1 you recollect1 connect words as well as conjunctions3 how1 then1 can you tell the one from the other8--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,no kind of work requires so nice a touch1 ,and if well finish'd1 nothing shines so much --,sheffield1 ,duke of ,buck4 ,,lesson ,,xvi--,,three ,,errors4 ,it is the final pause which alone1 on many occasions1 marks the difference between prose and verse2 which will be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bfj4 ,i shall do all ,i can to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which ,i have4--,,guardian3 see ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bjg4 ,i shall do all ,i can1 to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which ,i have taken4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bae4 ,it is the nature of extreme self-lovers1 as they will set an house on fire1 and or an it were but to roast their eggs4--,ld4 ,bacon4 ,did ever man struggle more earnestly in a cause where both his honour and life are concerned8--,duncan's ,cicero1 p4 #ae4 ,so the rests and pauses1 between sentences and their parts1 are marked by points4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,yet the case and mode is not influenced by them1 but determined by the nature of the sentence4--,ib41 p4 #aac4 ,by not attending to this rule1 many errors have been committed3 a number of which is subjoined1 as a further caution and direction to the learner4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aad4 ,though thou clothest thyself with crimson1 though thou deckest thee with ornaments of gold1 though thou rentest thy face with painting1 in vain shalt thou make thyself fair4--,jeremiah1 iv1 #cj4 ,but that the doing good to others will make us happy1 is not so evident2 feeding the hungry1 for example1 or clothing the naked4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #afa4 ,there is no other ,god but him1 no other light but his4--,william ,penn4 ,how little reason to wonder1 that a perfect and accomplished orator1 should be one of the characters that is most rarely found8--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccg4 ,because they neither express doing nor receiving an action4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #ec4 ,to find the answers1 will require an effort of mind1 and when given1 will be the result of reflection1 showing that the subject is understood4--,ib41 p4 vii4 ,to say1 that 'the sun rises1' is trite and common2 but it becomes a magnificent image when expressed as ,mr4 ,thomson has done4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #acg4 ,the declining a word is the giving it different endings4--,ware's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,and so much are they for every one's following their own mind4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #dfb4 ,more than one overture for a peace was made1 but ,cleon prevented their taking effect4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #aba4 ,neither in ,english or in any other language is this word1 and that which corresponds to it in other languages1 any more an article1 than two1 three1 four4--,,dr4 ,,webster3 ,knickerbocker of #ahcf4 ,but the most irksome conversation of all others ,i have met within the neighbourhood1 has been among two or three of your travellers4--,spect41 ,no4 #dgd4 ,set down the two first terms of supposition under each other in the first place4--,smiley's ,arithmetic1 p4 #gi4 ,it is an useful rule too1 to fix our eye on some of the most distant persons in the assembly4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cbh4 ,he will generally please most1 when pleasing is not his sole nor chief aim4--,ib41 p4 #ccf4 ,at length1 the consuls return to the camp1 and inform them they could receive no other terms but that of surrendering their arms1 and passing under the yoke4--,ib41 p4 #cfj4 ,nor is mankind so much to blame1 in his choice thus determining him4--,,swift3 ,crombie's ,treatise1 p #cfj4 ,these forms are what is called ,number4--,fosdick's ,de ,sacy1 p4 #fb4 ,in languages which admit but two ,genders1 all ,nouns are either ,masculine or ,feminine1 even though they designate beings which are neither male or female4--,ib41 p4 #ff4 ,it is called a ,verb or ,word by way of eminence1 because it is the most essential word in a sentence1 without which the other parts of speech can form no complete sense4--,gould's ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,the sentence will consist of two members1 which are commonly separated from one another by a comma4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #g4 ,loud and soft in speaking1 is like the fort and piano in music1 it only refers to the different degrees of force used in the same key2 whereas high and low imply a change of key4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #aaf4 ,they are chiefly three3 the acquisition of knowledge2 the assisting the memory to treasure up this knowledge2 or the communicating it to others4--,ib41 p4 #aa4 ,these kind of knaves ,i know1 which in this plainness1 ,harbour more craft1 and more corrupter ends1 ,than twenty silly ducking observants4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #bfa4 ,,lesson ,,xvii4--,,many ,,errors4 ,a man will be forgiven1 even great errors1 in a foreign language2 but in his own1 even the least slips are justly laid hold of1 and ridiculed4--,american ,chesterfield1 p #hc4 ,let does not only express permission2 but praying1 exhorting1 commanding4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,let1 not only expresses permission1 but entreating1 exhorting1 commanding4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #hh2 ,ingersoll's1 #ace4 ,that death which is our leaving this world1 is nothing else but putting off these bodies4--,sherlock4 ,they differ from the saints recorded both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments4--,newton4 ,the nature therefore of relation consists in the referring or comparing two things one to another2 from which comparison1 one or both comes to be denominated--,locke's ,essay1 i1 #bbj4 ,it is not credible1 that there hath been any one who through the whole course of their lives will say1 that they have kept themselves undefiled with the least spot or stain of sin4--,witsius4 ,if acting conformably to the will of our ,creator2--if promoting the welfare of mankind around us2--if securing our own happiness2--are objects of the highest moment3--then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bgh2 ,comly's1 #afc2 ,ingersoll's1 #bia4 ,by the verb being in the plural number1 it is supposed that it has a plural nominative1 which is not the case4 ,the only nominative to the verb1 is1 the officer3 the expression his guard1 are in the objective case1 governed by the preposition with2 and they cannot consequently form the nominative1 or any part of it4 ,the prominent subject1 and the true nominative of the verb1 and to which the verb peculiarly refers1 is the officer4--,murray's ,parsing1 ,cr4 #hvo1 ii1 #bb4 ,this is another use1 that1 in my opinion1 contributes rather to make a man learned than wise2 and is neither capable of pleasing the understanding1 or imagination4--,,addison3 ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cec4 ,the work is a dull performance2 and is capable of pleasing neither the understanding1 nor the imagination4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #baj4 ,i would recommend the ,elements of ,english ,grammar1 by ,mr4 ,frost4 ,its plan is after ,murray1 but his definitions and language is simplified as far as the nature of the subject will admit1 to meet the understanding of children4 ,it also embraces more copious examples and exercises in ,parsing than is usual in elementary treatises4--,hall's ,lectures on ,school-,keeping1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #cg4 ,more rain falls in the first two summer months1 than in the first two winter ones3 but it makes a much greater show upon the earth1 in these than in those2 because there is a much slower evaporation4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #ahi4 ,see ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ij4 ,they often contribute also to the rendering some persons prosperous though wicked3 and1 which is still worse1 to the rewarding some actions though vicious1 and punishing other actions though virtuous4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #ib4 ,from hence1 to such a man1 arises naturally a secret satisfaction and sense of security1 and implicit hope of somewhat further4--,ib41 p4 #ic4 ,so much for the third and last cause of illusion that was taken notice of1 arising from the abuse of very general and abstract terms1 which is the principal source of all the nonsense that hath been vented by metaphysicians1 mystagogues1 and theologians4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #big4 ,as to those animals whose use is less common1 or who on account of the places which they inhabit1 fall less under our observation1 as fishes and birds1 or whom their diminutive size removes still further from our observation1 we generally1 in ,english1 employ a single ,noun to designate both ,genders1 ,masculine and ,feminine4--,fosdick's ,de ,sacy1 p4 #fg4 ,adjectives may always be distinguished by their being the word1 or words1 made use of to describe the quality1 or condition1 of whatever is mentioned4--,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,adverb signifies a word added to a verb1 participle1 adjective1 or other adverb1 to describe or qualify their qualities4--,ib41 p4 #fd4 ,the joining together two such grand objects1 and the representing them both as subject1 at one moment1 to the command of ,god1 produces a noble effect4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cg4 ,twisted columns1 for instance1 are undoubtedly ornamental2 but as they have an appearance of weakness1 they always displease when they are made use of to support any part of a building that is massy1 and that seems to require a more substantial prop4--,ib41 p4 #dj4 ,upon a vast number of inscriptions1 some upon rocks1 some upon stones of a defined shape1 is found an ,alphabet different from the ,greeks1 ,latins1 and ,hebrews1 and also unlike that of any modern nation4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 p4 #agf4 ,,lesson ,,xviii--,,many ,,errors4 ',the empire of ,blefuscu is an island situated to the northeast side of ,lilliput1 from whence it is parted only by a channel of #hjj yards wide4' ,gulliver's ,travels4 ,the ambiguity may be removed thus3--'from whence it is parted by a channel of #hjj yards wide only4'--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #dd4 ,the nominative case is usually the agent or doer1 and always the subject of the verb4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,there is an originality1 richness1 and variety in his ,spenser's allegorical personages1 which almost vies with the splendor of the ancient mythology4--,hazlitt's ,lect41 p4 #fh4 ,as neither the ,jewish nor ,christian revelation have been universal1 and as they have been afforded to a greater or less part of the world at different times2 so likewise1 at different times1 both revelations have had different degrees of evidence4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #baj4 ,thus we see1 that killing a man with a sword or a hatchet1 are looked upon as no distinct species of action3 but if the point of the sword first enter the body1 it passes for a distinct species1 called stabbing4--,locke's ,essay1 p4 #cad4 ,if a soul sin1 and commit a trespass against the ,lord1 and lie unto his neighbour in that which was delivered him to keep1 or hath deceived his neighbour1 or have found that which was lost1 and lieth concerning it1 and sweareth falsely2 in any of all these that a man doeth1 sinning therein1 then it shall be1 c4--,lev41 vi1 #b4 ,as the doing and teaching the commandments of ,god is the great proof of virtue1 so the breaking them1 and the teaching others to break them1 is the great proof of vice4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #bha4 ,in ,pope's terrific maltreatment of the latter simile1 it is neither true to mind or eye4--,coleridge's ,introd41 p4 #ad4 ,and the two brothers were seen1 transported with rage and fury1 endeavouring like ,eteocles and ,polynices to plunge their swords into each other's hearts1 and to assure themselves of the throne by the death of their rival4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 i1 #agf4 ,is it not plain1 therefore1 that neither the castle1 the planet1 nor the cloud1 which you see here1 are those real ones1 which you suppose exist at a distance8--,berkley's ,alciphron1 p #aff4 ,i have often wondered how it comes to pass1 that every ,body should love themselves best1 and yet value their neighbours ,opinion about themselves more than their own4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #bbf4 ,,virtue 7,greek3 ,aretahe1 ,virtus7 as well as most of its ,species1 are all ,feminine1 perhaps from their ,beauty and amiable appearance4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #ee4 ,virtue1 with most of its ,species1 are all ,feminine1 from their ,beauty and amiable ,appearance2 and so ,vice becomes ,feminine of ,course1 as being ,virtue's natural opposite4--,british ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,virtue1 with most of its ,species1 is ,feminine1 and so is ,vice1 for being ,virtue's opposite4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,from this deduction1 may be easily seen how it comes to pass1 that personification makes so great a figure in all compositions1 where imagination or passion have any concern4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aee4 ,an ,article is a word prefixed to a substantive to point them out1 and to show how far their signification extends4--,folker's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,all men have certain natural1 essential1 and inherent rights--among which are1 the enjoying and defending life and liberty2 acquiring1 possessing1 and protecting property2 and1 in a word1 of seeking and obtaining happiness4--,constitution of ,new ,hampshire4 ,from ,grammarians who form their ideas1 and make their decisions1 respecting this part of ,english ,grammar1 on the principles and construction of languages1 which1 in these points1 do not suit the peculiar nature of our own1 but differ considerably from it1 we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous1 or perfectly consistent1 and which will tend more to perplex than inform the learner4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fh2 ,hall's1 #ae4 ,there are1 indeed1 very few who know how to be idle and innocent1 or have a relish of any pleasures that are not criminal2 every diversion they take1 is at the expense of some one virtue or another1 and their very first step out of business is into vice or folly4--,,addison3 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bja4ddd ,hail1 holy love6 thou word that sums all bliss6 ,gives and receives all bliss3 fullest when most ,thou givest2 spring-head of all felicity6 --,pollok1 ,c4 of ,t41 ,b4 v1 #a1 #aic4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4--,,general ,,rule4 ,the following comprehensive canon for the correction of all sorts of nondescript errors in syntax1 and the several critical or general notes under it1 seem necessary for the completion of my design2 which is1 to furnish a thorough exposition of the various faults against which the student of ,english grammar has occasion to be put upon his guard4 ,,general ,,rule ,,of ,,syntax4 ,in the formation of sentences1 the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed2 and a regular1 clear1 and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout4 ,,critical ,,notes ,,to ,,the ,,general ,,rule4 ,,critical ,,note ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,words that may constitute different parts of speech1 must not be left doubtful as to their classification1 or to what part of speech they belong4 ,,critical ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,doubtful ,,reference4 ,the reference of words to other words1 or their syntactical relation according to the sense1 should never be left doubtful1 by any one who means to be understood4 ,,critical ,,note ,,iii4--,,of ,,definitions4 ,a definition1 in order to be perfect1 must include the whole thing1 or class of things1 which it pretends to define1 and exclude every thing which comes not under the name4 ,,critical ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,comparisons4 ,a comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common property in the things compared2 without which1 it becomes a solecism4 ,,critical ,,note ,v4--,,of ,,falsities4 ,sentences that convey a meaning manifestly false1 should be changed1 rejected1 or contradicted2 because they distort language from its chief end1 or only worthy use2 which is1 to state facts1 and to tell the truth4 ,,critical ,,note ,,vi4--,,of ,,absurdities4 ,absurdities1 of every kind1 are contrary to grammar1 because they are contrary to reason1 or good sense1 which is the foundation of grammar4 ,,critical ,,note ,,vii4--,,of ,,self-,,contradiction4 ,every writer or speaker should be careful not to contradict himself2 for what is self-contradictory1 is both null in argument1 and bad in style4 ,,critical ,,note ,,viii4--,,of ,,senseless ,,jumbling4 ,to jumble together words without care for the sense1 is an unpardonable negligence1 and an abuse of the human understanding4 ,,critical ,,note ,,ix4--,,of ,,words ,,needless4 ,words that are entirely needless1 and especially such as injure or encumber the expression1 ought in general to be omitted4 ,,critical ,,note ,x4--,,of ,,improper ,,omissions4 ,words necessary to the sense1 or even to the melody or beauty of a sentence1 ought seldom1 if ever1 to be omitted4 ,,critical ,,note ,,xi4--,,of ,,literary ,,blunders4 ,grave blunders made in the name of learning1 are the strongest of all certificates against the books which contain them unreproved4 ,,critical ,,note ,,xii4--,,of ,,perversions4 ,proof-texts in grammar1 if not in all argument1 should be quoted literally2 and even that which needs to be corrected1 must never be perverted4 ,,critical ,,note ,,xiii4--,,of ,,awkwardness4 ,awkwardness1 or inelegance of expression1 is a reprehensible defect in style1 whether it violate any of the common rules of syntax or not4 ,,critical ,,note ,,xiv4--,,of ,,ignorance4 ,any use of words that implies ignorance of their meaning1 or of their proper orthography1 is particularly unscholarlike2 and1 in proportion to the author's pretensions to learning1 disgraceful4 ,,critical ,,note ,,xv4--,,of ,,silliness4 ,silly remarks and idle truisms are traits of a feeble style1 and1 when their weakness is positive1 or inherent1 they ought to be entirely omitted4 ,,critical ,,note ,,xvi4--,,of ,,the ,,incorrigible4 ,passages too erroneous for correction1 may be criticised1 orally or otherwise1 and then passed over without any attempt to amend them4#dde ,,general ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,syntax4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,in the foregoing code of syntax1 the author has taken the parts of speech in their order1 and comprised all the general principles of relation1 agreement1 and government1 in twenty-four leading ,rules4 ,of these rules1 eight--7namely1 the #ast1 of ,articles2 the #dth1 of ,possessives2 the #ith1 of ,adjectives2 the #bjth1 of ,participles2 the #bast1 of ,adverbs2 the #bb;d1 of ,conjunctions2 the #bc;d1 of ,prepositions2 and the #bdth1 of ,interjections--7 are used only in parsing4 ,the remaining sixteen1 because they embrace principles that are sometimes violated in practice1 answer the double purpose of parsing and correcting4 ,the ,exceptions1 of which there are thirty-two1 7all occasionally applicable in parsing17 belong to nine different rules1 and refer to all the parts of speech1 except nouns and interjections4 ,the ,notes1 of which there are one hundred and fifty-two1 are subordinate rules of syntax1 not designed to be used in parsing1 but formed for the exposition and correction of so many different forms of false grammar4 ,the ,observations1 of which there are1 in this part of the work1 without the present series1 four hundred and ninety-seven1 are designed not only to defend and confirm the doctrines adopted by the author1 but to explain the arrangement of words1 and whatever is difficult or peculiar in construction4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the rules in a system of syntax may be more or less comprehensive1 as well as more or less simple or complex2 consequently they may1 without deficiency or redundance1 be more or less numerous4 ,but either complexity or vagueness1 as well as redundance or deficiency1 is a fault2 and1 when all these faults are properly avoided1 and the two great ends of methodical syntax1 parsing and correcting1 are duly answered1 perhaps the requisite number of syntactical rules1 or grammatical canons1 will no longer appear very indeterminate4 ,in the preceding chapters1 the essential principles of ,english syntax are supposed to be pretty fully developed2 but there are yet to be exhibited some forms of error1 which must be corrected under other heads or maxims1 and for the treatment of which the several dogmas of this chapter are added4 ,completeness in the system1 however1 does not imply that it must have shown the pupil how to correct every form of language that is amiss3 for there may be in composition many errors of such a nature that no rule of grammar can show1 either what should be substituted for the faulty expression1 or what fashion of amendment may be the most eligible4 ,the inaccuracy may be gross and obvious1 but the correction difficult or impossible4 ,because the sentence may require a change throughout2 and a total change is not properly a correction2 it is a substitution of something new1 for what was1 perhaps1 in itself incorrigible4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the notes which are above denominated ,critical or ,general1 are not all of them obviously different in kind from the other notes2 but they all are such as could not well have been placed in any of the earlier chapters of the book4 ,the ,general ,rule of ,syntax1 since it is not a canon to be used in parsing1 but one that is to be applied only in the correcting of false syntax1 might seem perhaps to belong rather to this order of notes2 but ,i have chosen to treat it with some peculiar distinction1 because it is not only more comprehensive than any other rule or note1 but is in one respect more important2 it is the rule which will be cited for the correction of the greatest number and variety of errors4 ,being designed to meet every possible form of inaccuracy in the mere construction of sentences1--or1 at least1 every corrigible solecism by which any principle of syntax can be violated1--it necessarily includes almost all the other rules and notes4 ,it is too broad to convey very definite instruction1 and therefore ought not in general to be applied where a more particular rule or note is clearly applicable4 ,a few examples1 not properly fitting under any other head1 will serve to show its use and application3 such examples are given1 in great abundance1 in the false syntax below4 ,if1 in some of the instances selected1 this rule is applied to faults that might as well have been corrected by some other1 the choice1 in such cases1 is deemed of little or no importance4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the imperfection of ancient writing1 especially in regard to division and punctuation1 has left the syntactical relation of words1 and also the sense of passages1 in no few instances1 uncertain2 and has consequently made1 where the text has been thought worthy of it1 an abundance of difficult work for translators1 critics1 and commentators4 ,rules of grammar1 now made and observed1 as they ought to be1 may free the compositions of this1 or a future age1 from similar embarrassments2 and it is both just and useful1 to test our authors by them1 criticising or correcting their known blunders according to the present rules of accurate writing4 ,but the readers and expounders of what has come to us from remote time1 can be rightly guided only by such principles and facts as have the stamp of creditable antiquity4 ,hence there are1 undoubtedly1 in books1 some errors and defects which have outlived the time in which1 and the authority b which1 they might have been corrected4 ,as we have no right to make a man say that which he himself never said or intended to say1 so we have in fact none to fix a positive meaning upon his language1 without knowing for a certainty what he meant by it4 ,reason1 or good sense1 which1 as ,i have suggested1 is the foundation of grammar and of all good writing1 is indeed a perpetual as well as a universal principle2 but1 since the exercises of our reason must1 from the very nature of the faculty1 be limited to what we know and understand1 we are not competent to the positive correction1 or to the sure translation1 of what is obscure and disputable in the standard books of antiquity4 ,,obs4 #e4--,let me cite an example3 ,for all this ,i considered in my heart1 even to declare all this1 that the righteous1 and the wise1 and their works1 are in the hand of ,god3 no man knoweth either love or hatred by all that is before them4 ,all things come alike to all4-- ,ecclesiastes1 ix1 #a4 ,here is1 doubtless1 one error which any ,english scholar may point out or correct4 ,the pronoun them should be him1 because its intended antecedent appears to be man1 and not the righteous and the wise1 going before4 ,but are there not other faults in the version8 ,the common ,french ,bible1 in this place1 has the following import3 ,surely ,i have applied my heart to all that1 and to unfold all this2 to wit1 that the righteous and the wise1 and their actions1 are in the hand of ,god and love and hatred2 and that men know nothing of all that which is before them4 ,all happens equally to all4 ,the ,latin ,vulgate gives this sense3 ,all these things have ,i considered in my heart1 that ,i might understand them accurately3 the righteous and the wise1 and their works1 are in the hand of ,god2 and yet man doth not know1 whether by love or by hatred lie may be worthy3 but all things in the future are kept uncertain1 so that all may happen alike to the righteous man and to the wicked4 ,in the ,greek of the ,septuagint1 the introductory members of this passage are left at the end of the preceding chapter1 and are literally thus3 that all this ,i received into my heart1 and my heart understood all this4 ,the rest1 commencing a new chapter1 is as follows3 ,for the righteous and the wise and their works are in the hand of ,god1 and indeed both love and hatred man knoweth not3 all things before their face are vanity to all4 ,now1 which of these several readings is the nearest to what ,solomon meant by the original text1 or which is the farthest from it1 and therefore the most faulty1 ,i leave it to men more learned than myself to decide2 but1 certainly1 there is no inspired authority in any of them1 but in so far as they convey the sense which he really intended4 ,and if his meaning had not been1 by some imperfection in the oldest expression we have of it1 obscured and partly lost1 there could be neither cause nor excuse for these discrepancies4 ,i say this with no willingness to depreciate the general authority of the ,holy ,scriptures1 which are for the most part clear in their import1 and very ably translated into ,english1 as well as into other languages4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,the ,,general ,,rule4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,articles4 7#a47 ,an article is a part of speech placed before nouns4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the article an is here inconsistent with the term part of speech2 for the text declares one thing of a kind to be the whole kind4 ,but1 according to the ,general ,rule of ,syntax1 ,in the formation of sentences1 the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed2 and a regular1 clear1 and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout4 ,the sentence may be corrected in two ways1 thus3 ,the article is a part of speech placed before nouns2--or better1 ,an article is a word placed before nouns4 #ddf 7#b47 ,an article is a part of speech used to limit nouns4--,gilbert's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 7#c47 ,an article is a part of speech set before nouns to fix their vague ,signification4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #ah4 7#d47 ,an adjective is a part of speech used to describe a noun4--,gilbert's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 7#e47 ,a pronoun is a part of speech used instead of a noun4--,ibid42 and ,weld's ,gram41 pp4 #cj and #ej2 ,abridg41 pp4 #bi and #df4 7#f47 ,a ,pronoun is a ,part of ,speech which is often used instead of a ,noun ,substantive common1 and supplies the ,want of a ,noun proper4--,british ,gram41 p4 #ajb2 ,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #bi4 7#g47 ,a verb is a part of speech1 which signifies to be1 to do1 or to be acted upon--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ag4 7#h47 ,a verb is a part of speech1 which signifies to be1 to act1 or to receive an action4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 7#i47 ,a verb is a part of speech by which any thing is asserted4--,weld's ,gram1 p4 #ej2 ,abridg41 #df and #eh4 7#aj47 ,a verb is a part of speech which expresses action1 or existence1 in a direct manner4--,gilbert's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 7#aa47 ,a participle is a part of speech derived from a verb1 and expresses action or existence in an indirect manner4--,ibid4 7#ab47 ,a ,participle is a ,part of ,speech derived from a ,verb1 and denotes being1 doing1 or suffering1 and implies ,time1 as a ,verb does4--,british ,gram41 p4 #aci2 ,buchanan's1 p4 #df4 ,an adverb is a part of speech used to add to the meaning of verbs1 adjectives1 and participles4--,gilbert's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 7#ad47 ,an adverb is an indeclinable part of speech1 added to a verb1 adjective1 or other adverb1 to express some circumstance1 quality1 or manner of their signification4-- ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #adb2 ,gould's1 #adg4 7#ae47 ,an ,adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb1 an ,adjective1 a ,participle1 and sometimes to another ,adverb1 to express the quality or circumstance of it4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #dg1 7#af47 ,an ,adverb is a part of speech joined to a ,verb1 ,adjective1 ,participle1 and sometimes to another ,adverb1 to express some circumstances respecting it4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 7#ag47 ,an ,adverb is a ,part of ,speech which is joined to a ,verb1 ,adjective1 ,participle1 or to another ,adverb to express some ,modification1 or ,circumstance1 ,quality1 or ,manner of their ,signification4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 7#ah47 ,an ,adverb is a part of speech added to a ,verb 7whence the name71 and sometimes even to another word4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 7#ai47 ,a conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences4--,gilbert's ,gram41 p4 #bj2 ,weld's1 #ea4 7#bj47 ,a ,conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #dc4 7#ba47 ,a ,conjunction is that part of speech which connect sentences1 or parts of sentences or single words4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #da4 7#bb47 ,a ,conjunction is a part of speech1 that is used principally to connect sentences1 so as1 out of two1 three1 or more1 sentences1 to make one4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #bh4 7#bc47 ,a ,conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences1 joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence3 it sometimes connects only words4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aah4 7#bd47 ,a ,conjunction is a ,part of ,speech which joins ,sentences together1 and shews the ,manner of their ,dependance upon one another4--,british ,gram41 p4 #afc2 ,buchanan's1 p4 #fd2 ,e4 ,devis's4 #ajc4 7#be47 ,a preposition is a part of ,speech used to show the relation between other words4--,gilbert's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 7#bf47 ,a ,preposition is a part of speech which serves to connect words and show the relation between them4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #db4 7#bg47 ,a preposition is a part of speech used to connect words and show their relation4--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #ea2 ,abridg4 #dg4 7#bh47 ,a preposition is that part of speech which shows the position of persons or things1 or the relation that one noun or pronoun bears toward another4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 7#bi47 ,a ,preposition is a ,part of ,speech1 which being added to any other ,parts of ,speech serves to shew their ,state1 ,relation or ,reference to each other4--,british ,gram41 p4 #afe2 ,buchanan's1 p4 #fe4 7#cj47 ,an interjection is a part of speech used to express sudden passion or emotion4--,gilbert's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 7#ca47 ,an interjection is a part of speech used in giving utterance to some sudden feeling or emotion4-- ,weld's ,gram41 pp4 #di and #ea2 ,abridg41 #dd and #dg4 7#cb47 ,an ,interjection is that part of speech which denotes any sudden affection or emotion of the mind4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #db4 7#cc7 ,an ,interjection is a ,part of ,speech thrown into discourse1 and denotes some sudden ,passion or ,emotion of the ,soul4--,british ,gram41 p4 #agb2 ,buchanan's1 p4 #fg4 7#cd47 ,a scene might tempt some peaceful sage ,to rear him a lone hermitage4 --,union ,poems1 p4 #hi4 7#ce47 ,not all the storms that shake the pole ,can e'er disturb thy halcyon soul1 ,and smooth th' unaltered brow4 --,day's ,gram41 p4 #gh2 ,e4 ,reader1 #bcj4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,nouns4 ,the thrones of every monarchy felt the shock4--,frelinghuysen4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the plural noun thrones has not a clear and regular construction1 adapted to the author's meaning4 ,but1 according to the ,general ,rule of ,syntax1 ,in the formation of sentences the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed2 and a regular1 clear1 and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout4 ,the sentence may be corrected thus3 ,the throne of every monarchy felt the shock4 ,these principles ought to be deeply impressed upon the minds of every ,american4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #dd4 ,the word church and shire are radically the same4--,ib41 p4 #bef4 ,they may not1 in their present form1 be readily accommodated to every circumstance belonging to the possessive cases of nouns4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ec4 ,will1 in the second and third person1 only foretels4--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods4--,ib41 p4 #bjh4 ,the very general approbation1 which this performance of ,walker has received from the public4--,ib41 p4 #bda4 ,lest she carry her improvements this way too far4--,,campbell3 ib41 p4 #cga4 ,charles was extravagant1 and by this means became poor and despicable4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahi4 ,we should entertain no prejudices against simple and rustic persons4--,ib41 p4 #bje4 ,these are indeed the foundations of all solid merit4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #age4 ,and his embellishment1 by means of musical cadence1 figures1 or other parts of speech4--,ib41 p4 #age4 ,if he is at no pains to engage us by the employment of figures1 musical arrangement1 or any other art of writing4--,ib41 p4 #aha4 ,the most eminent of the sacred poets are1 the ,author of the book of ,job1 ,david and ,isaiah4--,ib41 p4 #dah4 ,nothing1 in any poet1 is more beautifully described than the death of old ,priam4--,ib41 p4 #dci4 ,when two vowels meet together1 and are sounded at one breath1 they are called diphthongs4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,how many ss would goodness then end with8 ,three4--,ib41 p4 #cc4 ,birds is a noun1 the name of a thing or creature4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ec4 ,adam gave names to every living creature4--,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #e4 ,the steps of a stair ought to be accommodated to the human figure4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ccg4 ,nor ought an emblem more than a simile to be founded on low or familiar objects4--,ib41 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #ceg4 ,whatever the ,latin has not from the ,greek1 it has from the ,goth4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #dej4 ,the mint and secretary of state's offices are neat buildings4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 iv1 p4 #bff4 ,the scenes of dead and still life are apt to pall upon us4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #djg4 ,and ,thomas ,aquinas and ,duns ,scotus1 the angelical and the subtle doctors1 are the brightest stars in the scholastic constellation4--,literary ,hist41 p4 #bdd4 ,the ,english language has three methods of distinguishing the sex4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ch2 ,ingersoll's1 #bg2 ,alger's1 #af2 ,bacon's1 #ac2 ,fisk's1 #eh2 ,greenleaf's1 #ba4 ,the ,english language has three methods of distinguishing sex4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,in ,english there are the three following methods of distinguishing sex4--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,there are three ways of distinguishing the sex4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #aj2 ,picket's1 #bf2 ,bullions's1 #aj4 ,there are three ways of distinguishing sex4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,gender is distinguished in three ways4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,neither discourse in general1 nor poetry in particular1 can be called altogether imitative arts4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ea4 ,do we for this the gods and conscience brave1 ,that one may rule and make the rest a slave8 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #if4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,adjectives4 ,there is a deal of more heads1 than either heart or horns4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #bcd4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the adjective more has not a clear and regular construction1 adapted to the author's meaning4 ,but1 according to the ,general ,rule of ,syntax1 ,in the formation of sentences1 the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed2 and a regular1 clear1 and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout4 ,the sentence may be corrected thus3 ,there is a deal more of heads1 than of either heart or horns4 ,for1 of all villains1 ,i think he has the wrong name4--,bunyan's ,p4 ,p41 p4 #hf4 ,of all the men that ,i met in my pilgrimage1 he1 ,i think bears the wrong name4--,ib41 p4 #hd4 ,i am surprized to see so much of the distribution1 and technical terms of the ,latin grammar1 retained in the grammar of our tongue4--,priestley's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 vi4 ,nor did the ,duke of ,burgundy bring him the smallest assistance4--,,hume3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #agh4 ,else he will find it difficult to make one obstinate believe him4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #bdc4 ,are there any adjectives which form the degrees of comparison peculiar to themselves8--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #df4 ,yet the verbs are all of the indicative mood4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,the word candidate is in the absolute case4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aee4 ,an ,iambus has the first syllable unaccented1 and the latter accented4--,russell's ,gram41 p4 #ajh2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #ahh4 ,a ,dactyl has the first syllable accented1 and the two latter unaccented4--,l4 ,murray1 p4 #bec2 ,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 #agj2 ,smith's1 #ahh2 ,kirkham's1 #bai2 ,guy's1 #abj2 ,blair's1 #aah2 ,merchant's1 #afg2 ,russell's1 #aji4 ,it is proper to begin with a capital the first word of every book1 chapter1 letter1 note1 or any other piece of writing4--,l4 ,murray1 p4 #bhd2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #aib2 ,ingersoll's1 #bie2 ,comly's1 #aff2 ,merchant's1 #ad2 ,greenleaf's1 #db2 ,d4 ,c4 ,allen's1 #he2 ,fisk's1 #aei2 ,bullions's1 #aeh2 ,kirkham's1 #bai2 ,hiley's1 #aai2 ,weld's ,abridged1 #af2 ,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract41 #af2 ,fowler's ,e4 ,gr41 #fgd4 ,five and seven make twelve1 and one makes thirteen4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bbg4 ,i wish to cultivate a farther acquaintance with you4--,ib41 p4 #bgb4 ,let us consider the proper means to effect our purpose4--,ib41 p4 #bgf4 ,yet they are of such a similar nature1 as readily to mix and blend4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dh4 ,the ,latin is formed on the same model1 but more imperfect4--,ib41 p4 #hc4 ,i know very well how much pains have been taken4--,sir ,w4 ,temple4 ,the management of the breath requires a good deal of care4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cca4 ,because the mind1 during such a momentary stupefaction1 is in a good measure1 if not totally1 insensible4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bbb4 ,motives alone of reason and interest are not sufficient4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bcb4 ,to render the composition distinct in its parts1 and striking on the whole1--,ib41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ccc4 ,a and an are named indefinite because they denote some one thing of a kind4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,the is named definite1 because it points out some particular thing4--,ibid4 ,so much depends upon the proper construction of sentences1 that1 in every sort of composition1 we cannot be too strict in our attention to it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajc4 ,all sort of declamation and public speaking1 was carried on by them4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,the first has on many occasions1 a sublimity to which the latter never attains4--,ib41 p4 #ddj4 ,when the words therefore1 consequently1 accordingly1 and the like are used in connexion with other conjunctions1 they are adverbs4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,rude nations make little or no allusions to the productions of the arts4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aj4 ,while two of her maids knelt on either side of her4--,mirror1 xi1 #cjg4 ,the third personal pronouns differ from each other in meaning and use1 as follows4--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,it was happy for the state1 that ,fabius continued in the command with ,minucius3 the former's phlegm was a check upon the latter's vivacity4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #eg4 ,if it should be objected that the words must and ought1 in the preceding sentences1 are all in the present tense4--,ib41 p4 #ajh4 ,but it will be well if you turn to them1 every now and then4--,buckets ,classical ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,that every part should have a dependence on1 and mutually contribute to support each other4--,rollin's ,hist41 ii1 #aae4 ,the phrase1 ',good1 my ,lord1' is not common1 and low4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aaj4 ,that brother should not war with brother1 ,and worry and devour each other4--,cowper4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,pronouns4 ,if ,i can contribute to your and my country's glory4--,goldsmith4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pronoun your has not a clear and regular construction1 adapted to the author's meaning4 ,but1 according to the ,general ,rule of ,syntax1 ,in the formation of sentences1 the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed2 and a regular1 clear1 and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout4 ,the sentence1 having a doubtful or double meaning1 may be corrected in two ways1 thus3 ,if ,i can contribute to our country's glory2--or1 ,if ,i can contribute to your glory and that of my country4 ,as likewise of the several subjects1 which have in effect each their verb4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #abj4 ,he is likewise required to make examples himself4--,j4 ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,if the emphasis be placed wrong1 we shall pervert and confound the meaning wholly4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bdb4 ,if the emphasis be placed wrong1 we pervert and confound the meaning wholly4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccj4 ,it was this that characterized the great men of antiquity2 it is this1 which must distinguish moderns who would tread in their steps4--,ib41 p4 #cda4 ,i am a great enemy to implicit faith1 as well the ,popish as ,presbyterian1 who in that are much what alike4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #bhj4 ,will he thence dare to say the apostle held another ,christ than he that died8--,ib41 iii1 #dad4 ,what need you be anxious about this event8--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ahh4 ,if a substantive can be placed after the verb1 it is active4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ca ,when we see bad men honoured and prosperous in the world1 it is some discouragement to virtue4--,l4 ,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bbd4 ,it is a happiness to young persons1 when they are preserved from the snares of the world1 as in a garden enclosed4--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,the court of ,queen ,elizabeth1 which was but another name for prudence and economy4-- ,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,it is no wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of ,queen ,elizabeth1 who was but another name for prudence and economy4 ,here which ought to be used1 and not who4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ii2 ,fowler's1 #dhh4 ,better thus2 ,whose name was but another word for prudence1 c4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aeg2 ,fish's1 #aae2 ,ingersoll's1 #bba2 ,smith's1 #acc2 and others4 ,a ,defective verb is one that wants some of its parts4 ,they are chiefly the ,auxiliary and ,impersonal verbs4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ca2 ,old ,editions1 #cb4 ,some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have assigned to them4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #fg4 ,the ,personal ,pronouns give information which no other words are capable of conveying4--,m',culloch's ,gram41 p4 #cg1 ,when the article a1 an1 or the precedes the participle1 it also becomes a noun4-- ,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,there is a preference to be given to some of these1 which custom and judgment must determine4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ajg4 ,many writers affect to subjoin to any word the preposition with which it is compounded1 or the idea of which it implies4--,ib41 p4 #bjj2 ,priestley's ,gram41 #aeg4 ,say1 dost thou know ,tectidius8--,who1 the wretch ,whose lands beyond the ,sabines largely stretch8 --,dryden's ,,iv ,sat4 of ,pers4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,verbs4 ,we would naturally expect1 that the word depend1 would require from after it4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bja4 ,a dish which they pretend to be made of emerald4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aih4 ,for the very nature of a sentence implies one proposition to be expressed4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajf4 ,without a careful attention to the sense1 we would be naturally led1 by the rules of syntax1 to refer it to the rising and setting of the sun4--,ib41 p4 #aje4 ,for any rules that can be given1 on this subject1 are very general4--,ib41 p4 #abe4 ,he is in the right1 if eloquence were what he conceives it to be4--,ib41 p4 #bcd4 ,there ,i would prefer a more free and diffuse manner4--,ib41 p4 #agh4 ,yet that they also agreed and resembled one another1 in certain qualities4--,ib41 p4 #gc4 ,but since he must restore her1 he insists to have another in her place4--,ib41 p4 #dca4 ,but these are far from being so frequent or so common as has been supposed4--,ib41 p4 #dde4 ,we are not misled to assign a wrong place to the pleasant or painful feelings4 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,introd41 p4 xviii4 ,which are of greater importance than is commonly thought4--,vol4 ii1 p4 #ib4 ,since these qualities are both coarse and common1 lets find out the mark of a man of probity4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #dj4 ,cicero did what no man had ever done before him1 draw up a treatise of consolation for himself4--,life of ,cicero4 ,then there can be no other ,doubt remain of the ,truth4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #bde4 ,i have observed some satirists use the term4--,bullions's ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #gi4 ,such men are ready to despond1 or commence enemies4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #hc4 ,common nouns express names common to many things4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,to make ourselves be heard by one to whom we address ourselves4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cbh4 ,that1 in reading poetry1 he may be the better able to judge of its correctness1 and relish its beauties4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #beb4 ,on the stretch to comprehend1 and keep pace with the author4-- ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aej4 ,for it might have been sold for more than three hundred pence1 and have been given to the poor4--,mark1 xiv1 #e4 ,he is a beam that is departed1 and left no streak of light behind4--,,ossian3 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bfb4 ,no part of this incident ought to have been represented1 but reserved for a narrative4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bid4 ,the rulers and people debauching themselves1 brings ruin on a country4--,ware's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,when ,doctor1 ,miss1 ,master1 c41 is prefixed to a name1 the last of the two words is commonly made plural2 as1 the ,doctor ,nettletons--the two ,miss ,hudsons4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,wherefore that field was called1 ,the field of blood1 unto this day4--,matt41 xxvii1 #h4 ,to comprehend the situations of other countries1 which perhaps may be necessary for him to explore4--,brown's ,estimate1 ii1 #aaa4 ,we content ourselves1 now1 with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors did4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aci4 ,and who will be chiefly liable to make mistakes where others have been mistaken before them4--,ib41 p4 #aef4 ,the voice of nature and revelation unites4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 #c;d ,ed41 p4 #cjg4 ,this adjective you see we can't admit1 ,but changed to worse1 will make it just and fit4 --,tobitt's ,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,participles4 ,its application is not arbitrary1 depending on the caprice of readers4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bdf4 ,this is the more expedient1 from the work's being designed for the benefit of private learners4--,ib41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #afa4 ,a man1 he tells us1 ordered by his will1 to have erected for him a statue4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajf4 ,from some likeness too remote1 and laying too far out of the road of ordinary thought4--,ib41 p4 #adf4 ,money is a fluid in the commercial world1 rolling from hand to hand4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #abc4 ,he pays much attention to learning and singing songs4--,ib4 p4 #bdf4 ,i would not be understood to consider singing songs as criminal4--,it is a decided case by the ,great ,master of writing4--,preface to ,waller1 p4 #e4 ,did they ever bear a testimony against writing books8--,bates's ,misc4 ,repository4 ,exclamations are sometimes mistaking for interrogations4--,hist4 of ,printing1 #aggj4 ,which cannot fail proving of service4--,smith's ,printer's ,gram4 ,hewn into such figures as would make them easily and firmly incorporated4--,,beattie3 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #abf4 ,following the rule and example are practical inductive questions4--,j4 ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,i think there will be an advantage in my having collected examples from modern writings4--,priestley's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 xi4 ,he was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citizens4--,,hume3 p4 #afj4 ,the good lady was careful of serving me of every thing4--,no revelation would have been given1 had the light of nature been sufficient in such a sense1 as to render one not wanting and useless4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aee4 ,description1 again is the raising in the mind the conception of an object by means of some arbitrary or instituted symbols4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #eb4 ,disappointing the expectation of the hearers1 when they look for our being done4--,ib4 p4 #cbf4 ,there is a distinction which1 in the use of them1 is deserving of attention4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,a model has been contrived1 which is not very expensive1 and easily managed4--,education ,reporter4 ,the conspiracy was the more easily discovered1 from its being known to many4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #aia4 ,that celebrated work had been nearly ten years published1 before its importance was at all understood4--,ib4 p4 #bbj4 ,the sceptre's being ostensibly grasped by a female hand1 does not reverse the general order of ,government4--,west's ,letters to a ,lady1 p4 #dc4 ,i have hesitated signing the ,declaration of ,sentiments4--,liberator1 x1 #af4 ,the prolonging of men's lives when the world needed to be peopled1 and now shortening them when that necessity hath ceased to exist4--,brown's ,divinity1 p4 #g4 ,before the performance commences1 we have displayed the insipid formalities of the prelusive scene4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #bc4 ,it forbade the lending of money1 or sending goods1 or in any way embarking capital in transactions connected with that foreign traffic4--,,lord ,,brougham3 ,b4 and ,f4 ,anti-,slavery ,reporter1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bah4 ,even abstract ideas have sometimes conferred upon them the same important prerogative4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aga4 ,like other terminations1 ment changes y into i1 when preceded by a consonant4--,walker's ,rhyming ,dict41 p4 xiii2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bd3 ,ingersoll's1 #aa4 ,the term proper is from being proper1 that is1 peculiar to the individual bearing the name4 ,the term common is from being common to every individual comprised in the class4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #aci4 ,thus oft by mariners are shown 7,unless the men of ,kent are liars7 ,earl ,godwin's castles overflown1 ,and palace-roofs1 and steeple-spires4 --,swift1 p4 #cac4 ,,lesson ,,vii4--,,adverbs4 ,he spoke to every man and woman there4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bbj2 ,fisk's1 #adg4 ,thought and language act and react upon each other mutually4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abj2 ,murray's ,exercises1 #acc4 ,thought and expression act upon each other mutually4--,see ,murray's ,key1 p4 #bfd4 ,they have neither the leisure nor the means of attaining scarcely any knowledge1 except what lies within the contracted circle of their several professions4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cei4 ,before they are capable of understanding but little1 or indeed any thing of many other branches of education4--,olney's ,introd4 to ,geog41 p4 #e4 ,there is not more beauty in one of them than in another4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bge4 ,which appear not constructed according to any certain rule4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dg4 ,the vehement manner of speaking became not so universal4--,ib41 p4 #fa4 ,all languages1 however1 do not agree in this mode of expression4--,ib41 p4 #gg4 ,the great occasion of setting aside this particular day4--,,atterbury3 p4 #bid4 ,he is much more promising now than formerly4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #d4 ,they are placed before a participle1 independently on the rest of the sentence4--,ib41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ba4 ,this opinion appears to be not well considered4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aec2 ,ingersoll's1 #bdi4 ,precision in language merits a full explication2 and the more1 because distinct ideas are1 perhaps1 not commonly formed about it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #id4 ,in the more sublime parts of poetry1 he ,pope is not so distinguished4--,ib41 p4 #djc4 ,how far the author was altogether happy in the choice of his subject1 may be questioned4--,ib41 p4 #dej4 ,but here also there is a great error in the common practice4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #g4 ,this order is the very order of the human mind1 which makes things we are sensible of1 a means to come at those that are not so4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 ,foreman's ,version1 p4 #aac4 ,now1 ,who is not ,discouraged1 and ,fears ,want1 when he has no money8--,divine ,right of ,tythes1 p4 #bc4 ,which the ,authors of this work1 consider of but little or no use4--,wilbur and ,livingston's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,and here indeed the distinction between these two classes begins not to be clear4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aeb4 ,but this is a manner which deserves not to be imitated4--,ib41 p4 #ahj4 ,and in this department a person never effects so little1 as when he attempts too much4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #agc2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cfg4 ,the verb that signifies merely being1 is neuter4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,i hope not much to tire those whom ,i shall not happen to please4--,rambler1 ,no4 #a4 ,who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters1 and others very indistinctly4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #cb4 ,the learner may point out the active1 passive1 and neuter verbs in the following examples1 and state the reasons why4--,c4 ,adams's ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,these words are most always conjunctions4--,s4 ,barrett's ,revised ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,how fluent nonsense trickles from his tongue6 ,how sweet the periods1 neither said1 nor sung6--,dunciad4 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,conjunctions4 ,who at least either knew not1 nor loved to make1 a distinction4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,lang41 i1 #cbb4 ,it is childish in the last degree1 if this become the ground of estranged affection4--,l4 ,murray's ,key1 ii1 #bbh4 ,when the regular or the irregular verb is to be preferred1 p4 #ajg4--,murray's ,index1 ,gram41 ii1 #bif4 ,the books were to have been sold1 as this day4--,priestley's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ach4 ,do1 an if you will4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #aie4 ,if a man had a positive idea of infinite1 either duration or space1 he could add two infinites together4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #agd4 ,none shall more willingly agree and advance the same nor ,i4--,,earl ,,of ,,morton3 ,robertson's ,scotland1 ii1 #dbh4 ,that it cannot be but hurtful to continue it4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #aib4 ,a conjunction joins words and sentences4--,beck's ,gram41 pp4 #d and #be4 ,the copulative conjunction connects words and sentences together and continues the sense4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,the ,conjunction ,copulative serves to connect or continue a sentence1 by expressing an addition1 a supposition1 a cause1 c4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 i1 #abc4 ,all ,construction is either true or apparent2 or in other ,words just and figurative4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #acj2 ,british ,gram41 #bcd4 ,but the divine character is such that none but a divine hand could draw4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #gb4 ,who is so mad1 that1 on inspecting the heavens1 is insensible of a ,god8--,,cicero3--,dr4 ,gibbons4 ,it is now submitted to an enlightened public1 with little desire on the part of the ,author1 than its general utility4--,town's ,analysis1 #ith ,ed41 p4 #e4 ,this will sufficiently explain the reason1 that so many provincials have grown old in the capital without making any change in their original dialect4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #ea4 ,of these they had chiefly three in general use1 which were denominated accents1 and the term used in the plural number4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,and this is one of the chief reasons1 that dramatic representations have ever held the first rank amongst the diversions of mankind4--,ib41 p4 #ie4 ,which is the chief reason that public reading is in general so disgusting4--,ib41 p4 #if4 ,at the same time that they learn to read4--,ib41 p4 #if4 ,he is always to pronounce his words exactly with the same accent that he speaks them4--,ib41 p4 #ih4 ,in order to know what another knows1 and in the same manner that he knows it4--,ib41 p4 #acf4 ,for the same reason that it is in a more limited state assigned to the several tribes of animals4--,ib41 p4 #ade4 ,were there masters to teach this1 in the same manner as other arts are taught4--,ib41 p4 #afi4 ,whose own example strengthens all his laws2 ,and is himself that great ,sublime he draws4--,pope1 on ,crit41 l4 #fhj4 ,,lesson ,,ix4--,,prepositions4 ,the word so has1 sometimes1 the same meaning with also1 likewise1 the same4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acg4 ,the verb use relates not to pleasures of the imagination1 but to the terms of fancy and imagination1 which he was to employ as synonymous4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aig4 ,it never can view1 clearly and distinctly1 above one object at a time4--,ib41 p4 #id4 ,this figure ,euphemism is often the same with the ,periphrasis4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bdg2 ,gould's1 #bch4 ,all the between time of youth and old age4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #hc4 ,when one thing is said to act upon1 or do something to another4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,such a composition has as much of meaning in it1 as a mummy has life4--,journal of ,lit4 ,convention1 p4 #ha4 ,that young men of from fourteen to eighteen were not the best judges4--,ib41 p4 #acj4 ,this day is a day of trouble1 and of rebuke1 and blasphemy4--#b ,kings1 xix1 #c4 ,blank verse has the same pauses and accents with rhyme4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #aai4 ,in prosody1 long syllables are distinguished by 771 and short ones by what is called breve 774--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,sometimes both articles are left out1 especially in poetry4--,ib41 p4 #bf4 ,in the following example1 the pronoun and participle are omitted3 ,he being ',conscious of his own weight and importance1 the aid of others was not solicited4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bba4 ,he was an excellent person2 a mirror of ancient faith in early youth4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #agb4 ,the carrying on its several parts into execution4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #aib4 ,concord1 is the agreement which one word has over another1 in gender1 number1 case1 and person4--,folker's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,it might perhaps have given me a greater taste of its antiquities4--,,addison3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #afj4 ,to call of a person1 and to wait of him4--,priestley1 ib41 p4 #afa4 ,the great difficulty they found of fixing just sentiments4--,,hume3 ib41 p4 #afa4 ,developing the difference between the three4--,james ,brown's first ,american ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,when the substantive singular ends in x1 ch soft1 sh1 ss1 or s1 we add es in the plural4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,we shall present him with a list or specimen of them4--,ib41 p4 #acb4 ,it is very common to hear of the evils of pernicious reading1 of how it enervates the mind1 or how it depraves the principles4--,dymond's ,essays1 p4 #afh4 ,in this example1 the verb 'arises' is understood before 'curiosity' and 'knowledge4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bgd2 ,ingersoll's1 #bhf2 ,comly's1 #aee2 and others4 ,the connective is frequently omitted between several words4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,he shall expel them from before you1 and drive them from out of your sight4--,joshua1 xxiii1 #e4 ,who makes his sun shine and his rain to descend upon the just and the unjust4--,m',ilvaine's ,lectures1 p4 #daa4 ,,lesson ,x4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,this sentence violates the rules of grammar4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 ii1 pp4 #ai and #ba4 ,the words thou and shalt are again reduced to short quantities4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bdf4 ,have the greater men always been the most popular8 ,by no means4--,,dr4 ,,lieber3 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #fd4 ,st4 ,paul positively stated that1 'he who loves one another has fulfilled the law4'--,spurzheim1 on ,education1 p4 #bdh4 ,more than one organ is concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant4--,m',culloch's ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,if the reader will pardon my descending so low4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bj4 ,to adjust them so1 as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the grace of the period4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aah3 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cbd4 ,this class exhibits a lamentable want of simplicity and inefficiency4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #dha4 ,whose style flows always like a limpid stream1 where we see to the very bottom4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ic4 ,whose style flows always like a limpid stream1 through which we see to the very bottom4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bic4 ,we make use of the ellipsis4 #ddg--;,ib41 p4 #bag4 ,the ellipsis of the article is thus used4--,ib41 p4 #bag4 ,sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers3 as1 ',a magnificent house and gardens4'--,ib41 p4 #bah4 ,in some very emphatic expressions1 the ellipsis should not be used4--,ib41 #bah4 ,the ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner4--,ib41 #bah4 ,the following is the ellipsis of the pronoun4--,ib41 #bah4 ,the ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances4--,ib41 p4 #bai4 ,the ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner4--,ib41 #bai4 ,the following instances1 though short1 contain much of the ellipsis4--,ib41 #bbj4 ,if no emphasis be placed on any words1 not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless1 but the meaning often ambiguous4--,ib41 #bdb4 ,see ,hart's ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,if no emphasis be placed on any words1 not only is discourse1 rendered heavy and lifeless1 but the meaning left often ambiguous4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccj2 ,murray's ,eng4 ,reader1 p4 xi4 ,he regards his word1 but thou dost not regard it4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #abi2 his ,analytical and ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aif4 ,he regards his word1 but thou dost not3 i4e4 dost not regard it4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bai2 ,parker and ,fox's1 p4 #if2 ,weld's1 #aib4 ,i have learned my task1 but you have not2 i4e4 have not learned4--,ib41 ,mur41 #bai2 c4 ,when the omission of words would obscure the sentence1 weaken its force1 or be attended with an impropriety1 they must be expressed4--,ib41 p4 #bag2 ,weld's ,gram4 #aij4 ,and therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number1 and refers to the whole separately and individually considered4--,murray's ,gram4 #hvo1 ii1 #bd and #aij4 ,i understood him the best of all who spoke on the subject4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aib4 ,i understood him better than any other who spoke on the subject4--,ibid41 ,the roughness found on our entrance into the paths of virtue and learning1 grow smoother as we advance4--,ib41 p4 #aga4 ,the roughnesses1 c4--,murray's ,key1 #abmo1 p #h4 ,nothing promotes knowledge more than steady application1 and a habit of observation4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bfe4 ,virtue confers supreme dignity on man3 and should be his chief desire4--,ib41 p4 #aib2 and ,merchant's1 #aib4 ,the ,supreme author of our being has so formed the soul of man1 that nothing but himself can be its last1 adequate1 and proper happiness4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #dac2 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bac4 ,the inhabitants of ,china laugh at the plantations of our ,europeans2 because1 they say1 any one may place trees in equal rows and uniform figures4--,ad41 ,spect41 ,no4 #dad2 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bbb4 ,the divine laws are not reversible by those of men4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #afg4 ,in both of these examples1 the relative and the verb which was1 are understood4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bgc2 ,comly's1 #aeb2 ,ingersoll's1 #bhe4 ,the ,greek and ,latin languages1 though1 for many reasons1 they cannot be called dialects of one another1 are nevertheless closely connected4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,european ,lang41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ea4 ,to ascertain and settle which1 of a white rose or a red rose1 breathes the sweetest fragrance4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams1 ,orat41 #ahca4 ,to which he can afford to devote much less of his time and labour4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bed4 ,avoid extremes2 and shun the fault of such1 ,who still are pleas'd too little or too much4 --,pope1 on ,crit41 #a1 #chd4 ,,lesson ,,xi4--,,bad ,,phrases4 ,he had as good leave his vessel to the direction of the winds4--,,south3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,without good nature and gratitude1 men had as good live in a wilderness as in society4--,l',,estrange3 ib4 ,and for this reason such lines almost never occur together4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #che4 ,his being a great man did not make him a happy man4--,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #bhh4 ,let that which tends to the making cold your love be judged in all4--,s4 ,crisp4 ,it is worthy the observing1 that there is no passion in the mind of man so weak but it mates and masters the fear of death4--,bacon's ,essays1 p4 #d4 ,accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid1 and makes it more distinguished by the ear than the rest4--,sheridan's ,lect41 p4 #hj2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bdd4 ,before he proceeds to argue either on one side or other4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cac4 ,the change in general of manners throughout all ,europe4--,ib41 p4 #cge4 ,the sweetness and beauty of ,virgil's numbers1 throughout his whole works4--,ib41 p4 #ddj4 ,the ,french writers of sermons study neatness and elegance in laying down their heads4--,ib41 p4 #ac4 ,this almost never fails to prove a refrigerant to passion4--,ib41 p4 #cba4 ,at least their fathers1 brothers1 and uncles1 cannot1 as good relations and good citizens1 dispense with their not standing forth to demand vengeance4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aia4 ,alleging1 that their crying down the church of ,rome1 was a joining hand with the ,turks4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #bci4 ,to which is added the ,assembly of ,divines ,catechism4--,new-,england ,primer1 p4 #a4 ,this treachery was always present in both their thoughts4--,dr4 ,robertson4 ,thus far both their words agree4 7,convenient adhuo utriusqus verba4 ,plaut47--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #abe4 ,aparithmesis1 or ,enumeration1 is the branching out into several parts of what might be expressed in fewer words4--,gould's ,gram1 p4 #bda4 ,aparithmesis1 or ,enumeration1 is when what might be expressed in a few words1 is branched out into several parts4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bea4 ,which may sit from time to time where you dwell or in the neighbouring vicinity4--,taylor's ,district ,school1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #bha4 ,place together a large and a small sized animal of the same species4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bce4 ,the weight of the swimming body is equal to that of the weight1 of the quantity of fluid displaced by it4--,percival's ,tales1 ii1 #bac4 ,the ,subjunctive mood1 in all its tenses1 is similar to that of the ,optative4--,gwilt's ,saxon ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,no other feeling of obligation remains1 except that of fidelity4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #hb4 ,who asked him1 ',what could be the reason1 that whole audiences should be moved to tears1 at the representation of some story on the stage4'--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #age4 ,art not thou and you ashamed to affirm1 that the best works of the ,spirit of ,christ in his saints are as filthy rags8--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #agd4 ,a neuter verb becomes active1 when followed by a noun of the same signification with its own4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #abg4 ,but he has judged better1 in omitting to repeat the article the4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aid4 ,many objects please us as highly beautiful1 which have almost no variety at all4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,yet notwithstanding1 they sometimes follow them4--,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,for ,i know of nothing more material in all the whole ,subject1 than this doctrine of ,mood and ,tense4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bib4 ,it is by no means impossible for an errour to be got rid of or supprest4-- ,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #fdb4 ,these are things of the highest importance to the growing age4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bej4 ,he had better have omitted the word many4--,blair's ,rhet4 p4 #bje4 ,which had better have been separated4--,ib41 p4 #bbe4 ,figures and metaphors1 therefore1 should1 on no occasion be stuck on too profusely4--,ib41 p4 #add2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #aej4 ,metaphors1 as well as other figures1 should on no occasion1 be stuck on too profusely4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cch2 ,russell's1 #acf4 ,something like this has been reproached to ,tacitus4--,,bolingbroke3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #afd4 ,o thou1 whom all mankind in vain withstand1 ,each of whose blood must one day stain thy hand6 --,sheffield's ,temple of ,death4 ,,lesson ,,xii4--,,two ,,errors4#ddh ,pronouns are sometimes made to precede the things which they represent4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afj4 ,most prepositions originally denote the relation of place4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,which is applied to inferior animals and things without life4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bd2 ,pract4 ,lessons1 #cj4 ,what noun do they describe or tell the kind8--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,iron cannon1 as well as brass1 is now universally cast solid4--,jamieson's ,dict4 ,we have philosophers1 eminent and conspicuous1 perhaps1 beyond any nation4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bea4 ,this is a question about words alone1 and which common sense easily determines4--,ib41 p4 #cbj4 ,the low pitch of the voice is1 when he approaches to a whisper4--,ib41 p4 #cbh4 ,which1 as to the effect1 is just the same with using no such distinctions at all4--,ib41 p4 #cc4 ,these two systems1 therefore1 differ in reality very little from one another4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,it were needless to give many instances1 as they occur so often4--,ib41 p4 #aji4 ,there are many occasions when this is neither requisite nor would be proper4--,ib41 p4 #caa4 ,dramatic poetry divides itself into the two forms1 of comedy or tragedy4--,ib41 p4 #deb4 ,no man ever rhymed truer and evener than he4--,pref4 to ,waller1 p4 #e4 ,the ,doctor did not reap a profit from his poetical labours equal to those of his prose4--,johnson's ,life of ,goldsmith4 ,we will follow that which we found our fathers practice4--,sale's ,koran1 i1 #bh4 ,and ,i would deeply regret having published them4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 vii4 ,figures exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive1 than could be done by plain language4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bbb4 ,the allegory is finely drawn1 only the heads various4--,spect41 ,no4 #edj4 ,i should not have thought it worthy a place here4--,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #bai4 ,in this style1 ,tacitus excels all writers1 ancient and modern4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bfa4 ,no author1 ancient or modern1 possesses the art of dialogue equal to ,shakspeare4--,ib41 ii1 #bid4 ,the names of every thing we hear1 see1 smell1 taste1 and feel1 are nouns4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,what number are these boys8 these pictures8 c4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,this sentence is faulty1 somewhat in the same manner with the last4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bcj4 ,besides perspicuity1 he pursues propriety1 purity1 and precision1 in his language2 which forms one degree1 and no inconsiderable one1 of beauty4--,ib41 p4 #aha4 ,many critical terms have unfortunately been employed in a sense too loose and vague2 none more so1 than that of the sublime4--,ib41 p4 #ce4 ,hence1 no word in the language is used in a more vague signification than beauty4--,ib41 p4 #de4 ,but1 still1 he made use only of general terms in speech4--,ib41 p4 #gc4 ,these give life1 body1 and colouring to the recital of facts1 and enable us to behold them as present1 and passing before our eyes4--,ib41 p4 #cfj4 ,which carried an ideal chivalry to a still more extravagant height than it had risen in fact4--,ib41 p4 #cgd4 ,we write much more supinely1 and at our ease1 than the ancients4--,ib41 p4 #cea4 ,this appears indeed to form the characteristical difference between the ancient poets1 orators1 and historians1 compared with the modern4--,ib41 p4 #cej4 ,to violate this rule1 as is too often done by the ,english1 shews great incorrectness4-- ,ib41 p4 #dfc4 ,it is impossible1 by means of any study to avoid their appearing stiff and forced4--,ib41 p4 #cce4 ,besides its giving the speaker the disagreeable appearance of one who endeavours to compel assent4--,ib41 p4 #cbh4 ,and1 on occasions where a light or ludicrous anecdote is proper to be recorded1 it is generally better to throw it into a note1 than to hazard becoming too familiar4--,ib41 p4 #cei4 ,the great business of this life is to prepare1 and qualify us1 for the enjoyment of a better4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cgc4 ,in some dictionaries1 accordingly1 it was omitted2 and in others stigmatized as a barbarism4-- ,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #cbb4 ,you cannot see1 or think of1 a thing1 unless it be a noun4--,mack's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,the fleet are all arrived and moored in safety4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #ahe4 ,,lesson ,,xiii4--,,two ,,errors4 ,they have each their distinct and exactly-limited relation to gravity4--,hasler's ,astronomy1 p #bai4 ,but in cases which would give too much of the hissing sound1 the omission takes place even in prose4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #age4 ,after o it the w is sometimes not sounded at all2 sometimes like a single u4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,it is situation chiefly which decides of the fortunes and characters of men4--,,hume3 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aei4 ,it is situation chiefly which decides the fortune 7or1 concerning the fortune7 and characters of men4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bja4 ,the vice of covetousness is what enters deeper into the soul than any other4--,ib41 p4 #afg2 ,ingersoll's1 #aic2 ,fisk's1 #ajc2 ,campbell's ,rhet41 #bje4 ,covetousness1 of all vices1 enters the deepest into the soul4--,murray1 #afg2 and others4 ,covetousness is what of all vices enters the deepest into the soul4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bje4 ,the vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other4--,guardian1 ,no4 #ai4 ,would primarily denotes inclination of will2 and should1 obligation2 but they both vary their import1 and are often used to express simple event4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #dc2 ,murray's1 #hi2 ,fisk's1 #gh2 ,greenleaf's1 #bg4 ,but they both vary their import1 and are often used to express simple events4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #ci2 ,ingersoll's1 #acg4 ,but they vary their import1 and are often used to express simple event4--,abel ,flint's ,gram41 p #db4 ,a double conjunctive1 in two correspondent clauses of a sentence1 is sometimes made use of3 as1 ',had he done this1 he had escaped4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bac2 ,ingersoll's1 #bfi4 ,the pleasures of the understanding are preferable to those of the imagination1 or of sense4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aia4 ,claudian1 in a fragment upon the wars of the giants1 has contrived to render this idea of their throwing the mountains1 which is in itself so grand1 burlesque1 and ridiculous4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #db4 ,to which not only no other writings are to be preferred1 but even in divers respects not comparable4-- ,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ec4 ,to distinguish them in the understanding1 and treat of their several natures1 in the same cool manner as we do with regard to other ideas4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #acg4 ,for it has nothing to do with parsing1 or analyzing1 language4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,or3 ,for it has nothing to do with parsing1 or analyzing1 language4--,ib41 ,second ,edition1 p4 #af4 ,neither was that language the ,latin ever so vulgar in ,britain4--,,swift3 see ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bbh4 ,all that ,i propose is to give some openings into the pleasures of taste4--,ib41 p4 #bh4 ,but it would have been better omitted in the following sentences4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #baj4 ,but ,i think it had better be omitted in the following sentence4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #afb4 ,they appear1 in this case1 like excrescences jutting out from the body1 which had better have been wanted4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cbf4 ,and therefore1 the fable of the ,harpies1 in the third book of the neid1 and the allegory of ,sin and ,death1 in the second book of ,paradise ,lost1 had been better omitted in these celebrated poems4--,ib41 p4 #dcj4 ,ellipsis is an elegant ,suppression 7or the leaving out7 of a ,word1 or ,words in a ,sentence4--,british ,gram41 p4 #bcd2 ,buchanan's1 p4 #aca4 ,the article a or an had better be omitted in this construction4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #fg4 ,now suppose the articles had not been left out in these passages4--,burke's ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,to give separate names to every one of those trees1 would have been an endless and impracticable undertaking4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #gb4 ,ei1 in general1 sounds the same as long and slender a4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,when a conjunction is used apparently redundant it is called ,polysyndeton4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bcf2 ,gould's1 #bbi4 ,each1 every1 either1 neither1 denote the persons or things which make up a number1 as taken separately or distributively4-- ,m',culloch's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,the ,principal ,sentence must be expressed by verbs in the ,indicative1 ,imperative1 or ,potential ,modes4--,clark's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,hence he is diffuse1 where he ought to have been pressing4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bdf4 ,all manner of subjects admit of explaining comparisons4--,ib41 p4 #afd2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #afa4 ,the present or imperfect participle denotes action or being continued1 but not perfected4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,what are verbs8 ,those words which express what the nouns do--,fowle's ,true ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,of all those arts in which the wise excel1 ,nature's chief masterpiece is writing well4 --,j4 ,sheffield1 ,duke of ,buck4 ,such was that muse whose rules and practice tell ,nature's chief masterpiece is writing well4 --,pope1 on ,criticism4 ,,lesson ,,xiv4--,,three ,,errors4 ,in some words the metaphorical sense has justled out the original sense altogether1 so that in respect of it they are become obsolete4-- ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #cbc4 ,sure never any mortal was so overwhelmed with grief as ,i am at this present4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #ach4 ,all languages differ from each other in their mode of inflexion4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 v4 ,nouns and verbs are the only indispensable parts of speech--the one to express the subject spoken of1 and the other the predicate or what is affirmed of it4--,m',culloch's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,the words in italics of the three latter examples1 perform the office of substantives4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ff4 ,such a structure of a sentence is always the mark of careless writing4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bca4 ,nothing is frequently more hurtful to the grace or vivacity of a period1 than superfluous dragging words at the conclusion4--,ib41 p4 #bje4 ,when its substantive is not joined to it1 but referred to1 or understood4-- ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,yet they have always some substantive belonging to them1 either referred to1 or understood4--,ib41 #bd4 ,because they define and limit the extent of the common name1 or general term1 to which they either refer1 or are joined4'--,ib41 #bd4 ,every new object surprises1 terrifies1 and makes a strong impression on their mind4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #acf4 ,his argument required to have been more fully unfolded1 in order to make it be distinctly apprehended1 and to give it its due force4--,ib41 p4 #bcj4 ,participles which are derived from active verbs1 will govern the objective case1 the same as the verbs from which they are derived--,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,where1 contrary to the rule1 the nominative ,i precedes1 and the objective case whom follows the verb4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aha4 ,the same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods1 in the same sentence1 and in the same circumstances1 seems to be a great impropriety4--,ib41 p4 #bjg2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #agc3 see ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aje2 ,fisk's1 #abh2 and ,ingersoll's1 #bff4 ,a nice discernment1 and accurate attention to the best usage1 are necessary to direct us1 on these occasions4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #agj4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans1 the former especially1 were1 in truth1 much more musical nations than we2 their genius was more turned to delight in the melody of speech4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abc4 ,when the sense admits it1 the sooner a circumstance is introduced1 the better1 that the more important and significant words may possess the last place1 quite disencumbered4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 i1 p4 #cji2 ,parker and ,fox's1 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #hh4 ,when the sense admits it1 the sooner they are despatched1 generally speaking1 the better2 that the more important and significant words may possess the last place1 quite disencumbered4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aah4 ,see also ,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aja4 ,thus we find it1 both in the ,greek and ,latin tongues4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #gd4 ,a train of sentences1 constructed in the same manner1 and with the same number of members1 should never be allowed to succeed one another4--,ib41 p4 #ajb2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cjf2 ,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #hf4 ,i proceed to lay down the rules to be observed in the conduct of metaphors1 and which are much the same for tropes of every kind4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #adc4 ,by a proper choice of words1 we may produce a resemblance of other sounds which we mean to describe4--,ib41 p4 #abi2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cca4 ,the disguise can almost never be so perfect1 but it is discovered4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bei4 ,the sense admits of no other pause than after the second syllable 'sit1' which therefore must be the only pause made in the reading4--,ib41 p4 #ccc4 ,not that ,i believe ,north ,america to be peopled so late as the twelfth century1 the period of ,madoc's migration4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #bab4 ,money and commodities will always flow to that country1 where they are most wanted and will command the most profit4--,ib41 p4 #cjh4 ,that it contains no visible marks1 of articles1 which are the most important of all others1 to a just delivery4-- ,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #ac4 ,and of virtue1 from its beauty1 we call it a fair and favourite maid4--,mack's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,the definite article may agree with nouns in the singular and plural number4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #acj4 ,,lesson ,,xv4--,,many ,,errors4 7#a47 ,a compound word is included under the head of derivative words4-- ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bc4 7#b47 ,an ,apostrophe1 marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or shorten a word4 ,its chief use is to show the genitive case of nouns4--,ib41 p4 #bha4ddi 7#c47 ,a ,hyphen1 marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words4 ,it is also used when a word is divided4-- ,ib41 p4 #bhb4 7#d47 ,the ,acute ,accent1 marked thus 3 as1 ',fncy4' ,the ,grave thus as1 ',fvour'--,ib41 p4 #bhb4 7#e47 ,the stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscriminately4 ,in order to distinguish the one from the other1 some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the former1 and the acute on the latter4--,ib41 #bhb4 7#f47 ,a ,diresis1 thus marked 1 consists of two points placed over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong1 and parts them into syllables4--,ib41 #bhb4 7#g47 ,a ,section marked thus 1 is the division of a discourse1 or chapter1 into less parts or portions4--,ib41 #bhb4 7#h47 ,a ,paragraph denotes the beginning of a new subject1 or a sentence not connected with the foregoing4 ,this character is chiefly used in the ,old and in the ,new ,testaments4--,ib41 #bhb4 7#i47 ,a ,quotation 4 ,two inverted commas are generally placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage1 which is quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in his own words2 and two commas in their direct position1 are placed at the conclusion4--,ib41 #bhb4 7#aj47 ,a ,brace is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines1 which have the same rhyme4 ,braces are also used to connect a number of words with one common term1 and are introduced to prevent a repetition in writing or printing4--,ib41 p4 #bhc4 7#aa47 ,two or three asterisks generally denote the omission of some letters in a word1 or of some bold or indelicate expression1 or some defect in the manuscript4--,ib41 #bhc4 7#ab47 ,an ,ellipsis ---- is also used1 when some letters in a word1 or some words in a verse1 are omitted4--,ib41 #bhc4 7#ac47 ,an ,obelisk1 which is marked thus dagger1 and ,parallels thus 1 together with the letters of the ,alphabet1 and figures1 are used as references to the margin1 or bottom of the page4--,ib41 #bhc4 7#ad47 ,a note of interrogation should not be employed1 in cases where it is only said a question has been asked1 and where the words are not used as a question4 ',the ,cyprians asked me why ,i wept4'--,ib41 p4 #bgi2 ,comly1 #afc2 ,ingersoll1 #bia2 ,fisk1 #aeg2 ,flint1 #aac4 7#ae47 ,a point of interrogation is improper after sentences which are not questions1 but only expressions of admiration1 or of some other emotion4--,same authors and places4 7#af47 ,the parenthesis incloses in the body of a sentence a member inserted into it1 which is neither necessary to the sense1 nor at all affects the construction4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #abd4 7#ag47 ,simple members connected by relatives1 and comparatives1 are for the most part distinguished by a comma4 #dej--;,ib41 p4 #aba4 7#ah47 ,simple members of sentences connected by comparatives1 are1 for the most part1 distinguished by a comma4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p #bgb2 ,alden's1 #adh2 ,ingersoll's1 #bhd4 ,see the same words without the last two commas1 in ,comly's ,gram41 p4 #adi2 ,alger's1 #gi2 ,merchant's ,murray1 #adc3--;and this again1 with a different sense1 made by a comma before connected1 in ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #aij2 ,abel ,flint's1 #ajc4 7#ai47 ,simple members of sentences connected by comparatives1 are for the most part distinguished by the comma4--,russell's ,gram41 p4 #aae4 7#bj47 ,simple members of sentences1 connected by comparatives1 should generally be distinguished by a comma4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #aej4 7#ba47 ,simple members of sentences connected by than or so1 or that express contrast or comparison1 should1 generally1 be divided by a comma4--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #ahe4 7#bb47 ,simple members of sentences1 connected by comparatives1 if they be long1 are separated by a comma4--,cooper's ,new ,gram41 p4 #aie4 ,see the same without the first comma1 in ,cooper's ,murray1 p4 #ahc4 7#bc47 ,simple members of sentences connected by comparatives1 and phrases placed in opposition to1 or in contrast with1 each other1 are separated by commas4--,bullions1 p4 #aec2 ,hiley1 #aac4 7#bd47 ,on which ever word we lay the emphasis1 whether on the first1 second1 third1 or fourth1 it strikes out a different sense4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bdc4 7#be47 ,to inform those who do not understand sea phrases1 that1 ',we tacked to the larboard1 and stood off to sea1' would be expressing ourselves very obscurely4--,ib41 p4 #bif2 and ,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 7#bf47 ,of dissyllables1 which are at once nouns and verbs1 the verb has commonly the accent on the latter1 and the noun1 on the former syllable4--,murray1 p4 #bcg4 7#bg47 ,and this gives our language a superior advantage to most others1 in the poetical and rhetorical style4--,id4 ib41 p4 #ch2 ,ingersoll1 #bg2 ,fisk1 #eg4 7#bh47 ,and this gives the ,english an advantage above most other languages in the poetical and rhetorical style4--,lowth's ,gram1 p4 #ai4 7#bi47 ,the second and third scholar may read the same sentence2 and as many1 as it is necessary to learn it perfectly to the whole4--,osborn's ,key1 p4 #d4 7#cj47 ,bliss is the name in subject as a king1 ,in who obtain defence1 or who defend4 --,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #agh4 ,,lesson ,,xvi4--,,many ,,errors4 ,the ,japanese1 the ,tonquinese1 and the ,corceans1 speak different languages from one another1 and from the inhabitants of ,china1 but use1 with these last people1 the same written characters2 a proof that the ,chinese characters are like hieroglyphics1 independent of language4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ah4 ,the ,japanese1 the ,tonquinese1 and the ,corceans1 who speak different languages from one another1 and from the inhabitants of ,china1 use1 however1 the same written characters with them2 and by this means correspond intelligibly with each other in writing1 though ignorant of the language spoken in their several countries2 a plain proof1 c4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #fg4 ,the curved line is made square instead of round1 for the reason beforementioned4--,knight1 on the ,greek ,alphabet1 p4 #f4 ,every one should content himself with the use of those tones only that he is habituated to in speech1 and to give none other to emphasis1 but what he would do to the same words in discourse4 ,thus whatever he utters will be done with ease1 and appear natural4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #ajc4 ,stops1 or pauses1 are a total cessation of sound during a perceptible1 and in numerous compositions1 a measurable space of time4--,ib41 p4 #ajd4 ,pauses or rests1 in speaking and reading1 are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible1 and1 in many cases1 a measurable space of time4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bdh2 ,english ,reader1 p4 #ac2 ,goldsbury's ,gr41 #gf2 ,kirkham's1 #bjh2 ,felton's1 #acc2 et al4 ,nouns which express a small one of the kind are called ,diminutive ,nouns2 as1 lambkin1 hillock1 satchel1 gosling1 from lamb1 hill1 sack1 goose4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 #ahcg1 p4 #i4 ,what is the cause that nonsense so often escapes being detected1 both by the writer and by the reader8--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 xi1 and #bhj4 ,an ,interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion4 ,they are so called1 because they are generally thrown in between the parts of a sentence without reference to the structure of the other parts of it4--,m',culloch's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,ought 7in duty bound7 oughtest1 oughtedst1 are it's only inflections4--,mackintosh's ,gram41 p4 #afe4 ,but the arrangment1 government1 agreement1 and dependence of one word upon another1 are referred to our reason4--,osborn's ,key1 ,pref41 p4 #c4 ,me is a personal pronoun1 first person singular1 and the accusative case4--,guy's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,the substantive self is added to a pronoun2 as1 herself1 himself1 c42 and when thus united1 is called a reciprocal pronoun4--,ib41 p4 #ah4 ,one cannot avoid thinking that our author had done better to have begun the first of these three sentences1 with saying1 it is novelty which bestows charms on a monster1 c4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bjg4 ,the idea which they present to us of nature's resembling art1 of art's being considered as an original1 and nature as a copy1#dea seems not very distinct nor well brought out1 nor indeed very material to our author's purpose4--,ib41 p4 #bbj4 ,the present construction of the sentence1 has plainly been owing to hasty and careless writing4--,ib41 p4 #bbj4 ,adverbs serve to modify1 or to denote some circumstance of an action1 or of a quality1 relative to its time1 place1 order1 degree1 and the other properties of it1 which we have occasion to specify4--,ib41 p4 #hd4 ,the more that any nation is improved by science1 and the more perfect their language becomes1 we may naturally expect that it will abound more with connective particles4--,ib41 p4 #he4 ,mr4 ,greenleaf's book is by far the best adapted for learners of any that has yet appeared on the subject4--,,dr4 ,,feltus and ,,bp4 ,,onderdonk3 ,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,punctuation is the art of marking in writing the several pauses1 or rests1 between sentences1 and the parts of sentences1 according to their proper quantity or proportion1 as they are expressed in a just and accurate pronunciation4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,a compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones1 and separated by commas4--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #da2 ,allen ,fisk's1 #aee4deb ,simple sentences should be separated from each other by commas1 unless such sentences are connected by a conjunction3 as1 ',youth is passing away1 age is approaching and death is near4'--,hall's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,v has the sound of flat f1 and bears the same relation to it1 as b does to p1 d to t1 hard g to k1 and z to s4 ,it has one uniform sound4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ag2 ,fisk's1 #db4 ,v is flat f1 and bears the same relation to it as b does to p1 d to t1 hard g to k1 and z to s4 ,it is never irregular4--,walker's ,dict41 p4 #eb4 ,v has the sound of flat f2 and bears the same relation to it as z does to s4 ,it has one uniform sound4--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,the author is explaining the distinction1 between the powers of sense and imagination in the human mind4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cdc4 ,the author is endeavouring to explain a very abstract point1 the distinction between the powers of sense and imagination in the human mind4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #afd4 ,,he 7,anglo-,saxon he7 is a ,personal pronoun1 of the ,third ,person1 ,masculine ,gender 7,decline he71 of the singular number1 in the nominative case4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #ehi4 ,,false ,,syntax ,,under ,,the ,,critical ,,notes4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,the passive voice denotes a being acted upon4--,maunders ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the term being acted upon as here used1 suggests a doubt concerning its classification in parsing4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #ast1 ,words that may constitute different parts of speech1 must not be left doubtful as to their classification1 or to what part of speech they belong4 ,therefore1 the phraseology should be altered2 thus1 ,the passive voice denotes an action received4 ,or2 ,the passive voice denotes the receiving of an action4 ,milton1 in some of his prose works1 has very finely turned periods4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abg2 ,jamieson's1 #abi4 ,these will be found to be all1 or chiefly1 of that class4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cb4 ,all appearances of an author's affecting harmony1 are disagreeable4--,ib41 p4 #abg2 ,jamieson1 #abh4 ,some nouns have a double increase1 that is1 increase by more syllables than one2 as1 iter1 itineris4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bee2 ,gould's1 #bda4 ,the powers of man are enlarged by advancing cultivation4--,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #fb4 ,it is always important to begin well2 to make a favourable impression at first setting out4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cjg4 ,for if one take a wrong method at first setting out1 it will lead him astray in all that follows4--,ib41 #cac4 ,his mind is full of his subject1 and his words are all expressive4--,ib41 #agi4 ,how exquisitely is this all performed in ,greek6--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #dbb4 ,how little is all this to satisfy the ambition of an immortal soul6-- ,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bec4 ,so as to exhibit the object in its full and most striking point of view4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #da4 ,and that the author know how to descend with propriety to the plain1 as well as how to rise to the bold and figured style4--,ib41 p4 #dja4 ,the heart can only answer to the heart4--,ib41 p4 #bei4 ,upon its first being perceived4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bbi4 ,call for ,samson1 that he may make us sport4--,judges1 xvi1 #be4 ,and he made them sport4--,ibid4 ,the term suffer in this definition is used in a technical sense1 and means simply the receiving of an action1 or the being acted upon4--,bullions1 p4 #bi4 ,the ,text is what is only meant to be taught in ,schools4--,brightland1 ,pref41 p4 ix4 ,the perfect participle denotes action or being perfected or finished4-- ,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,from the intricacy and confusion which are produced by their being blended together4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ff4 ,this very circumstance of a word's being employed antithetically1 renders it important in the sentence4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #aba4 ,it the pronoun that is applied to both persons and things4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ec4 ,concerning us1 as being every where evil spoken of4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 vi4 ,every thing beside was buried in a profound silence4--,steele4 ,they raise more full conviction than any reasonings produce4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cfg4 ,it appears to me no more than a fanciful refinement4--,ib41 p4 #dcf4 ,the regular resolution throughout of a complete passage4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 vii4 ,the infinitive is known by its being immediately preceded by the word to4--,maunders ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,it will not be gaining much ground to urge that the basket1 or vase1 is understood to be the capital4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cef4 ,the disgust one has to drink ink in reality1 is not to the purpose where the subject is drinking ink figuratively4--,ib41 ii1 #bca4 ,that we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aaa4 ,being obliged to rest for a little on the preposition by itself4--,ib41 p4 #aab2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #ic4 ,being obliged to rest a little on the preposition by itself4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cai4 ,our days on the earth are as a shadow1 and there is none abiding4--#a ,chron41 xxix1 #ae4 ,there maybe a more particular expression attempted1 of certain objects1 by means of resembling sounds4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abi2 ,jamieson's1 #acj2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cca4 ,the right disposition of the shade1 makes the light and colouring strike the more4--,blair's ,rhet41 #add4 ,i observed that a diffuse style inclines most to long periods4--,ib41 p4 #agh4 ,their poor ,arguments1 which they only ,pickt up and down the ,highway --,divine ,right of ,tythes1 p4 iii4 ,which must be little1 but a transcribing out of their writings4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #cec4 ,that single impulse is a forcing out of almost all the breath4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #bed4 ,picini compares modulation to the turning off from a road4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #dje4 ,so much has been written1 on and off1 of almost every subject4--,the ,friend1 ii1 #aag4 ,by reading books written by the best authors1 his mind became highly improved4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bja4 ,for ,i never made the being richly provided a token of a spiritual ministry4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #dgj4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,doubtful ,,reference4 ,however disagreeable1 we must resolutely perform our duty4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aga4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the adjective disagreeable appears to relate to the pronoun we1 though such a relation was probably not intended by the author4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #b;d1 ,the reference of words to other words1 or their syntactical relation according to the sense1 should never be left doubtful1 by any one who means to be understood4 ,the sentence may be amended thus3 ,however disagreeable the task1 we must resolutely perform our duty4 ,the formation of verbs in ,english1 both regular and irregular1 is derived from the ,saxon4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,time and chance have an influence on all things human1 and on nothing more remarkably than on language4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ahj4 ,time and chance have an influence on all things human1 and on nothing more remarkable than on language4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #dg4 ,archytases being a virtuous man1 who happened to perish once upon a time1 is with him a sufficient ground1 c4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #dff4 ,he will be the better qualified to understand1 with accuracy1 the meaning of a numerous class of words1 in which they form a material part4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #abj4 ,we should continually have the goal in view1 which would direct us in the race4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #agb4 ,but ,addison's figures seem to rise of their own accord from the subject1 and constantly embellish it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aej2 ,jamieson's1 #aeg4 ,as far as persons and other animals and things that we can see go1 it is very easy to distinguish ,nouns4--,cobbett's ,gram41 #ad4 ,dissyllables ending in y1 e mute1 or accented on the last syllable1 may be sometimes compared like monosyllables4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,admitting the above objection1 it will not overrule the design4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #adj4 ,these philosophical innovators forget1 that objects are like men1 known only by their actions4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 i1 #cbf4 ,the connexion between words and ideas is arbitrary and conventional1 owing to the agreement of men among themselves4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #a4 ,the connexion between words and ideas may1 in general1 be considered as arbitrary and conventional1 owing to the agreement of men among themselves4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ec4 ,a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt1 and had great abilities to manage and multiply and defend his corruptions4--,swift4 ,they have no more control over him than any other men4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #cgb4 ,his old words are all true ,english1 and numbers exquisite4--,spectator1 ,no4 #edj4 ,it has been said1 that not only ,jesuits can equivocate4--,murray's ,exercises1 #hvo1 p4 #aba4 ,it has been said1 that ,jesuits can not only equivocate4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bec4 ,the nominative of the first and second person in ,latin is seldom expressed4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aed2 ,gould's1 #aeg4 ,some words are the same in both numbers4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #dj2 ,ingersoll's1 #ah2 ,fisk's1 #ei2 ,kirkham's1 #ci2 ,w4 ,allen's1 #db2 et al4 ,some nouns are the same in both numbers4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #bi2 ,smith's1 #de2 et al4 ,others are the same in both numbers2 as1 deer1 swine1 c4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,the following list denotes the sounds of the consonants1 being in number twenty-two4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #f2 ,fisk's1 #cf4 ,and is the ignorance of these peasants a reason for others to remain ignorant2 or to render the subject a less becoming inquiry8--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bic2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bhh4 ,he is one of the most correct1 and perhaps the best1 of our prose writers4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 iv41 ,the motions of a vortex and a whirlwind are perfectly similar4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aca4 ,what ,i have been saying throws light upon one important verse in the ,bible1 which ,i should like to have read4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #ahb4 ,when there are any circumstances of time1 place1 or other limitations1 which the principal object of our sentence requires to have connected with it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aae2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #ih2 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cbb4 ,interjections are words used to express emotion1 affection1 or passion1 and imply suddenness4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,but the genitive is only used to express the measure of things in the plural number4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bjj2 ,gould's1 #aih4 ,the buildings of the institution have been enlarged2 the expense of which1 added to the increased price of provisions1 renders it necessary to advance the terms of admission4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahc4 ,these sentences are far less difficult than complex4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene's ,analysis1 or ,grammar1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #agi4 ,far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife1 ,their sober wishes never learn'd to stray4--,gray's ,elegy4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,iii4--,,of ,,definitions4 7#a47 ,definition is such a description of things as exactly describes the thing and that thing only4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because this definition of a definition is not accurately adapted to the thing4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #c;d1 ,a definition1 in order to be perfect1 must include the whole thing1 or class of things1 which it pretends to define1 and exclude every thing which comes not under the name4 #dec ,the example may be amended thus3 ,a definition is a short and lucid description of a thing1 or species1 according to its nature and properties4 7#b47 ,language1 in general1 signifies the expression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds1 which are used as the signs of those ideas4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ec4 7#c47 ,a ,,word is an articulate sound used by common consent as the sign of an idea1--,bullions1 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gr41 p4 #ag4 7#d47 ,a word is a sound1 or combination of sounds1 which is used in the expression of thought--,hazen's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 7#e47 ,words are articulate sounds1 used as signs to convey our ideas4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #e4 7#f47 ,a word is a number of letters used together to represent some idea4--,hart's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bh4 7#g47 ,a ,word is a combination of letters1 used as the sign of an idea4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #i4 7#h47 ,a word is a letter or a combination of letters1 used as the sign of an idea4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 p4 #da4 7#i47 ,words are articulate sounds1 by which ideas are communicated4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #bh4 7#aj47 ,words are certain articulate sounds used by common consent as signs of our ideas4--,bullions1 ,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #f2 ,lat4 ,gram41 #f2 see ,lowth1 ,murray1 ,smith1 et al4 7#aa47 ,words are sounds used as signs of our ideas4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #cj4 7#ab47 ,orthography means word-making or spelling4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ai2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #da4 7#ac47 ,a vowel is a letter1 the name of which constitutes a full1 open sound4--,hazen's ,gram41 p4 #aj2 ,lennie's1 #e2 ,brace's1 #g4 7#ad47 ,spelling is the art of reading by naming the letters singly1 and rightly dividing words into their syllables4 ,or1 in writing1 it is the expressing of a word by its proper letters4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #e2 ,churchill's1 #bj4 7#ae47 ,spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables1 or of expressing a word by its proper letters4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ba2 ,ingersoll's1 #f2 ,merchant's1 #aj2 ,alger's1 #ab2 ,greenleaf's1 #bj2 and others4 7#af7 ,spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters2 or of rightly dividing words into syllables4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #h4 7#ag47 ,spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters1 and rightly dividing it into syllables4--,bullions's ,princ4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #b4 7#ah47 ,spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bc2 ,sanborn's1 p4 #bei4 7#ai47 ,a syllable is a sound either simple or compounded1 pronounced by a single impulse of the voice1 and constituting a word or part of a word4--,lowth1 p4 #e2 ,murray1 #ba2 ,ingersoll1 #f2 ,fisk1 #aa2 ,greenleaf1 #bj3 ,merchant1 #i2 ,alger1 #ab2 ,bucke1 #ae2 ,smith1 #aah2 et al4 7#bj47 ,a ,syllable is a complete ,sound uttered in one ,breath4--,british ,gram41 p4 #cb2 ,buchanan's1 #e4 7#ba47 ,a syllable is a distinct sound1 uttered by a single impulse of the voice4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 7#bb47 ,a ,syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a word1 or so much of it as can be sounded at once4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gr41 p4 #b4 7#bc47 ,a syllable is a word1 or part of a word1 or as much as can be sounded at once4--,picket's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 7#bd47 ,a diphthong is the union of two ,vowels1 both of which are pronounced as one3 as in bear and beat4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 7#be47 ,a diphthong consists of two vowels1 forming one syllable2 as1 ea1 in beat4--,guy's ,gram41 p4 #b4 7#bf47 ,a triphthong consists of three vowels forming one syllable2 as1 eau in beauty4--,ib4 7#bg47 ,but the ,triphthong is the union of three ,vowels1 pronounced as one4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 7#bh47 ,what is a ,noun ,substantive8 ,a ,noun ,substantive is the thing itself2 as1 a ,man1 a ,boy4--,british ,gram41 p4 #he2 ,buchanan's1 #bf4 7#bi47 ,an adjective is a word added to nouns to describe them4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #a4 7#cj47 ,an adjective is a word joined to a noun1 to describe or define it4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ea4 7#ca47 ,an adjective is a word used to describe or define a noun4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #b4 7#cb47 ,the adjective is added to the noun1 to express the quality of it--,murray's ,gram41 #abmo1 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #bg2 ,lowth1 p4 #f4 7#cc47 ,an adjective expresses the quality of the noun to which it is applied2 and may generally be known by its making sense in connection with it2 as1 ',a good man1' ',a genteel woman4'--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 7#cd47 ,an adverb is a word used to modify the sense of other words4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #b4 7#ce47 ,an adverb is a word joined to a verb1 an adjective1 or another adverb1 to modify or denote some circumstance respecting it4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ff2 ,lat4 ,gram41 #ahe4 7#cf47 ,a ,substantive or ,noun is a name given to every object which the senses can perceive2 the understanding comprehend2 or the imagination entertain4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 7#cg47 ,,gender means the distinction of nouns with regard to sex4--,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #i4 7#ch47 ,gender is a distinction of nouns with regard to sex4--,frost's ,gram41 p4 #g4 7#ci47 ,gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex4--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 7#dj47 ,gender is the distinction of nouns1 in regard to sex4--,cooper's ,murray1 #bd2 ,practical ,gram41 #ba4 7#da47 ,gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cg2 ,alger's1 #af2 ,bacon's1 #ab2 ,r4 ,g4 ,greene's1 #af2 ,bullions1 ,prin41 #eth ,ed41 #i2 his ,new ,gr41 #bb2 ,fisk's1 #ai2 ,hull's1 #i2 ,ingersoll's1 #ae4 7#db47 ,gender is the distinction of sex4--,alden's ,gram41 p4 #i2 ,comly's1 #bj2 ,dalton's1 #aa2 ,davenport's1 #ae2 ,j4 ,flint's1 #bh2 ,a4 ,flint's1 #aa2 ,greenleaf's1 #ba2 ,guy's1 #d2 ,hart's1 #cf2 ,hiley's1 #ab2 ,kirkham's1 #cd2 ,lennie's1 #aa2 ,picket's1 #be2 ,smith's1 #dc2 ,sanborn's1 #be2 ,wilcox's1 #h4 7#dc47 ,gender is the distinction of ,sex1 or the ,difference betwixt ,male and ,female4--,british ,gram41 p4 #id2 ,buchanan's1 #ah4 7#dd47 ,why are nouns divided into genders8 ,to distinguish their sexes4--,fowle's ,true ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #aj4 7#de47 ,what is meant by ,gender8 ,the different sexes4--,burn's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 7#df7 ,gender1 in grammar1 is a difference of termination1 to express distinction of sex4--,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p #cj2 ,improved ,gram41 #bb4 7#dg47 ,gender signifies a distinction of nouns1 according to the different sexes of things they denote4--,coar's ,gram41 p4 #b4 7#dh47 ,gender is the distinction occasioned by sex4 ,though there are but two sexes1 still nouns necessarily admit of four distinctions#ded of gender4--,hall's ,gram41 p4 #f4 7#di47 ,gender is a term which is employed for the distinction of nouns with regard to sex and species4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #da4 7#ej47 ,gender is a ,distinction of ,sex4--,fisher's ,gram41 p4 #ec4 7#ea47 ,,gender marks the distinction of ,sex4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 7#eb47 ,gender means the kind1 or sex4 ,there are four genders4--,parker and ,fox's1 ,part ,i1 p4 #g4 7#ec47 ,gender is a property of the noun which distinguishes sex4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #eg4 7#ed47 ,gender is a property of the noun or pronoun by which it distinguishes sex4--,weld's ,grammar ,abridged1 p4 #di4 7#ee47 ,case is the state or condition of a noun with respect to the other words in a sentence4--,bullion's1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #af2 his ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #ca4 7#ef47 ,case means the different state or situation of nouns with regard to other words4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 7#eg47 ,the cases of substantives signify their different terminations1 which serve to express the relation of one thing to another4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #abmo1 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ce4 7#eh47 ,government is the power which one part of speech has over another1 when it causes it or requires it to be of some particular person1 number1 gender1 case1 style1 or mode4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #abf2 see ,murray's ,gram41 #adb2 ,smith's1 #aai2 ,pond's1 #hh2 et al4 7#ei47 ,a simple sentence is a sentence which contains only one nominative case and one verb to agree with it4--,sanborn1 ib42 see ,murray's ,gram41 et al4 7#fj47 ,declension means putting a noun through the different cases4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #eh4 7#fa47 ,zeugma is when two or more substantives have a verb in common1 which is applicable only to one of them4--,b4 ,f4 ,fisk's ,greek ,gram41 p4 #ahe4 7#fb47 ,an ,irregular ,verb is that which has its passed tense and perfect participle terminating differently2 as1 smite1 smote1 smitten4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 7#fc47 ,personal pronouns are employed as substitutes for nouns that denote persons4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,comparisons4 ,we abound more in vowel and diphthong sounds1 than most languages4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #hi4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the terms we and languages1 which are here used to form a comparison1 express things which are totally unlike4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #dth1 ,a comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common property in the things compared2 without which1 it becomes a solecism4 ,therefore1 the expression ought to be changed2 thus1 ,our language abounds more in vowel and diphthong sounds1 than most other tongues4 ,or3 ,we abound more in vowel and diphthongal sounds1 than most nations4 ,a line thus accented1 has a more spirited air1 than when the accent is placed on any other syllable4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #hf4 ,homer introduceth his deities with no greater ceremony than as mortals2 and ,virgil has still less moderation4--,ib41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bhg4 ,which the more refined taste of later writers1 who had far inferior genius to them1 would have taught them to avoid4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bh4 ,the poetry1 however1 of the ,book of ,job1 is not only equal to that of any other of the sacred writings1 but is superior to them all1 except those of ,isaiah alone4--,ib41 p4 #dai4 ,on the whole1 ,paradise ,lost is a poem that abounds with beauties of every kind1 and that justly entitles its author to a degree of fame not inferior to any poet4--,ib41 p4 #deb4 ,most of the ,french writers compose in short sentences2 though their style in general1 is not concise2 commonly less so than the bulk of ,english writers1 whose sentences are much longer4--,ib41 p4 #agh4 ,the principles of the ,reformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to be easily eradicated4--,,hume3 ,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #bag4 ,whether they do not create jealousy and animosity more hurtful than the benefit derived from them4--,,dr4 ,j4 ,,leo ,,wolf3 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #bej4 ,the ,scotch have preserved the ancient character of their music more entire than any other country4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #dfa4 ,when the time or quantity of one syllable exceeds the rest1 that syllable readily receives the accent4--,rush1 on the ,voice1 p4 #bgg4 ,what then can be more obviously true than that it should be made as just as we can8--,dymond's ,essays1 p4 #aih4 ,it was not likely that they would criminate themselves more than they could avoid4--,clarkson's ,hist41 ,abridged1 p4 #gf4 ,their understandings were the most acute of any people who have ever lived4--,knapp's ,lectures1 p#cb4 ,the patentees have printed it with neat types1 and upon better paper than was done formerly4--,lily's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 xiii4 ,in reality1 its relative use is not exactly like any other word4--,felch's ,comprehensive ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,thus1 instead of two books1 which are required1 7the grammar and the exercises17 the learner finds both in one1 for a price at least not greater than the others4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 ,recom41 p4 iii2 ,new ,ed41 ,recom41 p4 #f4 ,they are not improperly regarded as pronouns1 though in a sense less strict than the others--,ib41 p4 #aii4 ,we have had the opportunity1 as will readily be believed1 of becoming conversant with the case much more particularly1 than the generality of our readers can be supposed to have had4--,the ,british ,friend1 #aamo1 #bith1 #ahde4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,v4--,,of ,,falsities4 ,the long sound of i is compounded of the sound of a1 as heard in ball1 and that of e1 as heard in be4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the sentence falsely teaches1 that the long sound of i is that of the diphthong heard in oil or boy4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #eth1 ,sentences that convey a meaning manifestly false1 should be changed1 rejected1 or contradicted2 because they distort language from its chief end1 or only worthy use2 which is1 to state facts1 and to tell the truth4 ,the error may be corrected thus3 ,the long sound of i is like a very quick union of the sound of a1 as heard in bar1 and that of e1 as heard in be4 ,the omission of a word necessary to grammatical propriety1 is called ,,ellipsis4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,every substantive is of the third person4--,alexander ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ia4 ,a noun1 when the subject is spoken to1 is in the second person2 and when spoken of1 it is in the third person2 but never in the first4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,with us1 no substantive nouns have gender1 or are masculine and feminine1 except the proper names of male and female creatures4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aef4 ,apostrophe is a little mark signifying that something is shortened2 as1 for ,william his hat1 we say1 ,william's hat4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,when a word beginning with a vowel is coupled with one beginning with a consonant1 the indefinite article must be repeated2 thus1 ',sir ,matthew ,hale was a noble and an impartial judge2' ',pope was an elegant and a nervous writer4'--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,w and y are consonants1 when they begin a word or syllable2 but in every other situation they are vowels4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #g3 ,bacon1 ,comly1 ,cooper1 ,fish1 ,ingersoll1 ,kirkham1 ,smith1 et al4 ,the is used before all adjectives and substantives1 let them begin as they will4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,prepositions are also prefixed to words in such manner1 as to coalesce with them1 and to become a part of them4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,but h is entirely silent at the beginning of syllables not accented1 as historian4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,any word that will make sense with to before it1 is a verb4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,verbs do not1 in reality1 express actions2 but they are intrinsically the mere names of actions4--,ib41 p4 #cg4 ,the nominative is the actor or subject1 and the active verb is the action performed by the nominative4--,ib41 p4 #de4 ,if1 therefore1 only one creature or thing acts1 only one action1 at the same instant1 can be done2 as1 the girl writes4--,ib41 #de4 ,the verb writes denotes but one action1 which the girl performs2 therefore the verb writes is of the singular number4--,ib41 #de4 ,and when ,i say1 ,two men walk1 is it not equally apparent1 that walk is plural1 because it expresses two actions8--,ib41 p4 #dg4 ,the subjunctive mood is formed by adding a conjunction to the indicative mood4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,the possessive case should always be distinguished by the apostrophe4-- ,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 ,rule #ddth1 p4 #di4 ',at these proceedings of the commons1'--,here of is the sign of the genitive or possessive case1 and commons is of that case1 governed of proceedings4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,here let it be observed again that1 strictly speaking1 no verbs have numbers nor persons1 neither have nouns nor pronouns persons1 when they refer to irrational creatures and inanimate things4--,s4 ,barrett's ,gram41 p4 #acf4 ,the noun or pronoun denoting the person or thing addressed or spoken to1 is in the nominative case independent4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 ,rule #hth1 p4 #dd4 ,every noun1 when addressed1 becomes of the second person1 and is in the nominative case absolute2 as--',paul1 thou art beside thyself4'--,jaudon's ,gram41 ,rule #aith1 p4 #ajh4 ,does the ,conjunction join ,words together8 ,no2 only ,sentences4--,british ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,no2 the ,conjunction only joins sentences together4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,every ,genitive has a ,noun to govern it1 expressed or understood2 as1 ,st4 ,james's1 ,palace is understood2 therefore one ,genitive cannot govern another4--,ib41 p4 #aaa4 ,every adjective1 and every adjective pronoun1 belongs to a substantive1 expressed or understood4-- ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afa2 ,bacon's1 #dh2 ,alger's1 #eg2 et al4 ,every adjective qualifies a substantive expressed or understood4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,every adjective belongs to some noun expressed or understood4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #acg4 ,adjectives must agree with the nouns1 which they qualify4--,fisk's ,murray1 p4 #aja4 ,the ,adjective must agree with its ,substantive in ,number4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,every adjective and participle belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,every ,verb of the ,infinitive ,mood1 supposes a verb before it expressed or understood4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,every ,adverb has its ,verb expressed or understood4--,ib41 p4 #id4 ,conjunctions which connect ,sentence to ,sentence1 are always placed betwixt the two ,propositions or ,sentences which they unite4--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,the words for all that1 seem to be too low4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bac4 ,for all that seems to be too low and vulgar4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aci4 ,the reader1 or hearer1 then1 understands from and1 that he is to add something4--,j4 ,brown's ,e4 ,syntax1 p4 #abd4 ,but and never1 never connects one thing with another thing1 nor one word with another word4--,ib41 p4 #abb4 ',six1 and six are twelve4' ,here it is affirmed that1 six is twelve6--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ',john1 and his wife have six children4' ,this is an instance of gross catachresis4 ,it is here affirmed that ,john has six children1 and that his wife has six children4--,ib41 p4 #abb4 ,nothing which is not right can be great4--,murray's ,exercises1 #hvo1 p4 #adf3 see ,rambler1 ,no4 #ahe4 ,nothing can be great which is not right4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bgg4 ,the highest degree of reverence should be paid to youth4--,ib41 p4 #bgh4 ,there is1 in many minds1 neither knowledge nor understanding4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aea2 ,russell's1 #hd2 ,alger's1 #ed2 ,bacon's1 #dg2 et al4 ,formerly1 what we call the objective cases of our pronouns1 were employed in the same manner as our present nominatives are4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #afd4 ,as it respects a choice of words and expressions1 no rules of grammar can materially aid the learner4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #bjb4 ,whatever exists1 or is conceived to exist1 is a ,noun4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #acg4 ,as all men are not brave1 brave is itself comparative4--,ib41 #aij4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,vi4--,,of ,,absurdities4 7#a47 ,and sometimes two unaccented syllables follow each other4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #chd4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the phrase1 follow each other1 is here an absurdity2 it being impossible for two things to follow each other1 except they alternate1 or whirl round4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #fth1 ,absurdities1 of every kind1 are contrary to grammar2 because they are contrary to reason1 or good sense1 which is the foundation of grammar4 ,therefore1 a different expression should here be chosen2 thus3 ,and sometimes two unaccented syllables come together4 ,or3 ,and sometimes one unaccented syllable follows an other4 7#b47 ,what nouns frequently succeed each other8--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 7#c47 ,words are derived from one another in various ways4--,ib41 p4 #bhh2 ,merchant's ,gram41 #gh2 ,weld's1 #b;d ,edition1 #bbb4 7#d47 ,prepositions are derived from the two ,latin words pr and pono1 which signify before and place4--,mack's ,gram41 p4 #hf4 7#e47 ,he was sadly laughed at for such conduct4--,bullion's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #gi4 7#f47 ,every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #bab4 7#g47 ,if he ,addison fails in anything1 it is in want of strength and precision1 which renders his manner not altogether a proper model4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ahg4 7#h47 ,indeed1 if ,horace be deficient in any thing1 it is in this1 of not being sufficiently attentive to juncture and connexion of parts4--,ib41 p4 #dja4 7#i47 ,the pupil is now supposed to be acquainted with the nine sorts of speech1 and their most usual modifications4--,taylor's ,district ,school1 p4 #bjd4 7#aj47 ,i could see1 hear1 taste1 and smell the rose4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #aef4 7#aa47 ,the triphthong iou is sometimes pronounced distinctly in two syllables2 as in bilious1 various1 abstemious4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ac2 ,walker's ,dict41 ,prin4 #bib1 p4 #cg4 7#ab47 ,the diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in proper names2 as in ,balaam1 ,canaan1 ,isaac2 but not in ,baal1 ,gaal4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 7#ac47 ,participles are sometimes governed by the article2 for the present participle1 with the definite article the before it1 becomes a substantive4--,ib41 p4 #aib4 7#ad47 ,words ending with y1 preceded by a consonant1 form the plurals of nouns1 the persons of verbs1 verbal nouns1 past participles1 comparatives and superlatives1 by changing y into i4--,walker's ,rhyming ,dict41 p4 viii2 ,murray's ,gram41 #bc2 ,merchant's ,murray1 #ac2 ,fisk's1 #dd2 ,kirkham's1 #bc2 ,greenleaf's1 #bj2 ,wright's ,gram41 #bh2 et al4 7#ae47 ,but y preceded by a vowel1 in such instances as the above1 is not changed2 as boy1 boys4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bd2 ,merchant's1 ,fisk's1 ,kirkham's1 ,greenleaf's1 et al4 7#af47 ,but when y is preceded by a vowel1 it is very rarely#dee changed in the additional syllable3 as coy1 coyly4--,murray's ,gram4 again1 p4 #bd2 ,merchant's1 #ad2 ,fisk's1 #de2 ,greenleaf's1 #bj2 ,wright's1 #bi2 et al4 7#ag47 ,but when y is preceded by a vowel1 in such instances1 it is very rarely changed into i2 as coy1 ,,coyless4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 7#ah47 ,sentences are of a twofold nature3 ,simple and ,compound4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #abc4 7#ai47 ,the neuter pronoun it is applied to all nouns and pronouns3 as1 ,it is he2 it is she2 it is they2 it is the land4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 7#bj47 ,it is and it was1 are often used in a plural construction2 as1 ',it was the heretics who first began to rail4'--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 7#ba47 ,it is and it was1 are often1 after the manner of the ,french1 used in a plural construction1 and by some of our best writers3 as1 ',it was the heretics that first began to rail4' ,smollett4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aij2 ,murray's1 #aeh2 ,smith's1 #acd2 ,ingersoll's1 #baj2 ,fisk's1 #aae2 et al4 7#bb47 w and y1 as consonants1 have one sound4--,town's ,spelling-,book1 p4 #i4 7#bc47 ,the conjunction as is frequently used as a relative4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 7#bd47 ,when several clauses succeed each other1 the conjunction may be omitted with propriety4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #ig4 7#be47 ,if1 however1 the members succeeding each other1 are very closely connected1 the comma is unnecessary3 as1 ',revelation tells us how we may attain happiness4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bgc2 ,merchant's1 #aea2 ,russell's1 #aae2 ,comly's1 #aeb2 ,alger's1 #hj2 ,smith's1 #aij2 et al4 7#bf47 ,the mind has difficulty in passing readily through so many different views given it1 in quick succession1 of the same object4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #adi4 7#bg47 ,the mind has difficulty in passing readily through many different views of the same object1 presented in quick succession4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cda4 7#bh47 ,adjective pronouns are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some distinct specification4--,kirkham's ,gram41 the ,compend1 or ,table4 7#bi47 ,a noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea#def1 must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural4--,ib41 pp4 #ei and #aha3 see also ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #gd2 ,l4 ,murray's1 #aeb2 ,comly's1 #hj2 ,lennie's1 #hg2 ,alger's1 #ed2 ,jaudon's1 #if2 ,alden's1 #ha2 ,parker and ,fox's1 ,i1 #gf2 ,,ii1 #bf2 and others4 7#cj47 ,a noun or pronoun signifying possession1 is governed by the noun it possesses4--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #ce4 7#ca47 ,a noun signifying possession1 is governed by the noun which it possesses4--,wilbur and ,livingston's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 7#cb47 ,a noun or pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun it possesses4--,goldsbury's ,gram41 p4 #fh4 7#cc47 ,the possessive case is governed by the person or thing possessed2 as1 'this is his book4'--,p4 ,e4 ,day's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 7#cd47 ,a noun or pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the noun which it possesses4--,kirkham's ,gram41 ,rule #abth1 pp4 #eb and #aha2 ,frazer's ,gram41 #ahdd1 p4 #be2 ,f4 ,h4 ,miller's1 #ba4 7#ce47 ,here the boy is represented as acting4 ,he is1 therefore1 in the nominative case4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #da4 7#cf47 ,some of the auxiliaries are themselves principal verbs1 as3 have1 do1 will1 and am1 or be4--,cooper's ,grammars1 both1 p4 #ej4 7#cg47 ,nouns of the male kind are masculine4 ,those of the female kind are feminine4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #f4 7#ch47 ',to-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's3' here to-day and yesterday are substantives4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aad2 ,ingersoll's1 #ej2 et al4 7#ci47 ,in this example1 to-day and yesterday are nouns in the possessive case4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 7#dj47 ,an ,indian in ,britain would be much surprised to stumble upon an elephant feeding at large in the open fields4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bai4 7#da47 ,if we were to contrive a new language1 we might make any articulate sound the sign of any idea3 there would be no impropriety in calling oxen men1 or rational beings by the name of oxen4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aci4 7#db47 ,all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other4--,ib41 p4 #bbb2 ,kirkham's1 #aic2 ,ingersoll's1 #bge2 ,goldsbury's1 #gd2 ,hiley's1 #aaj2 ,weld's1 #aic2 ,alger's1 #ga2 ,fisk's1 #adh2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #ie2 ,merchant's1 #aja2 ,merchant's ,murray1 #ie4 7#dc47 ,full through his neck the weighty falchion sped1 ,along the pavement roll'd the mutt'ring head4 --,odyssey1 xxii1 #cfe4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,vii4--,,of ,,self-,,contradiction4 7#a47 ,though the construction will not admit of a plural verb1 the sentence would certainly stand better thus3 ',the king1 the lords1 and the commons1 form an excellent constitution4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aea2 ,ingersoll's1 #bci4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the first clause here quoted is contradicted by the last4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #gth1 ,every writer or speaker should be careful not to contradict himself2 for what is self-contradictory1 is both null in argument1 and bad in style4 ,the following change may remove the discrepance3 ,though ',the king with the lords and commons1' must have a singular rather than a plural verb1 the sentence would certainly stand better thus3 ',the king1 the lords1 and the commons1 form an excellent constitution4' 7#b47 ,l has always a soft liquid sound2 as in love1 billow1 quarrel4 ,it is sometimes mute3 as in half1 talk1 psalm4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ad2 ,fisk's1 #dj4 7#c47 ,l has always a soft liquid sound2 as in love1 billow4 ,it is often silent2 as in half1 talk1 almond4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 7#d47 ,the words means and amends1 though formerly used in the singular1 as well as in the plural number1 are now1 by polite writers1 restricted to the latter4 ,our most distinguished modern authors say1 'by this means1' as well as1 by these means4'--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #aej4 7#e47 ',a friend exaggerates a man's virtues3 an enemy inflames his crimes4' ,better thus3 ',a friend exaggerates a man's virtues3 an enemy his crimes4'--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cbe4 ,a friend exaggerates a man's virtues1 an enemy inflames his crimes--,key1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #agc4 7#f47 ,the auxiliary have1 in the perfect tense of the subjunctive mood1 should be avoided4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,subjunctive ,mood1 ,perfect ,tense4 ,if ,i have loved1 ,if thou hast loved1 c4--p4 #ea4 7#g47 ,there is also an impropriety in governing both the indicative and subjunctive moods1 with the same conjunction2 as1 ',if a man have a hundred sheep1 and if one of them be gone astray1' c4 ,it should be1 and one of them is gone astray1 c4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 7#h47 ,the rising series of contrasts convey inexpressible dignity and energy to the conclusion4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #gi4 7#i47 ,a groan or a shriek is instantly understood1 as a language extorted by distress1 a language which no art can counterfeit1 and which conveys a meaning that words are utterly inadequate to express4--,porter's ,analysis1 p4 #abg4 ,a groan or shriek speaks to the ear1 as the language of distress1 with far more thrilling effect than words4 ,yet these may be counterfeited by art4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 7#aj47 ,these words book and pen cannot be put together in such a way as will constitute plurality4--,james ,brown's ,english ,syntax1 p4 #abe4 7#aa47 ,nor can the real pen1 and the real book be expressed in two words in such a manner as will constitute plurality in grammar4--,ibid4 7#ab47 ,our is an adjective pronoun of the possessive kind4 ,decline it4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bbg4 7#ac47 ,this and that1 and likewise their ,plurals1 are always opposed to each other in a ,sentence4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #ajc4 ,when this or that is used alone1 i4e4 not opposed to each other1 this is written or spoken of ,persons or ,things immediately present1 and as it were before our ,eyes1 or nearest with relation to ,place or ,time4 ,that is spoken or written of ,persons or ,things passed1 absent and distant in relation to ,time and ,place4--,ibid4 7#ad47 ,active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present participle to the auxiliary verb to be1 through all its variations4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aei4 ,be is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before the perfect participle of another verb1 but in every other situation1 it is a principal verb4--,ib41 p4 #aee4 7#ae47 ,a verb in the imperative mood1 is always of the second person4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #acf4 ,the verbs1 according to an idiom of our language1 or the poet's license1 are used in the imperative1 agreeing with a nominative of the first or third person4--,ib41 p4 #afd4 7#af47 ,personal ,pronouns are distinguished from the relative1 by their denoting the person of the nouns for which they stand4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,pronouns of the first person1 do not agree in person with the nouns they represent4--,ib41 p4 #ih4 7#ag47 ,nouns have three cases1 nominative1 possessive1 and objective4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,personal pronouns have1 like nouns1 two cases1 nominative and objective4--,ib41 p4 #aj4 7#ah474 ,in some instances the preposition suffers no change1 but becomes an adverb merely by its application3 as1 ',he was near falling4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 7#ai47 ,some nouns are used only in the plural2 as1 ashes1 literati1 minuti1 ,,sheep1 ,,deer4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,some nouns are the same in both numbers1 as1 alms1 couple1 ,,deer1 series1 species1 pair1 ,,sheep4--,ibid4 ,among the inferior parts of speech there are some pairs or couples--,ib41 p4 #id4 7#bj47 ,concerning the pronominal adjectives1 that can and can not1 may and may not1 represents its noun4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ccf4 7#ba47 ,the article a is in a few instances employed in the sense of a preposition2 as1 ,simon ,peter said ,i go a to fishing4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #agg2 ,abridg41 #abh4 ',to go a fishing2' i4e4 to go on a fishing voyage or business4--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #aib4 7#bb47 ,so also verbs1 really transitive1 are used intransitively1 when they have no object4--,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #fj4 7#bc47 ,when first young ,maro1 in his boundless mind1 ,a work t' outlast immortal ,rome design'd4 --,pope1 on ,crit41 l4 #acj4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,viii4--,,of ,,senseless ,,jumbling4 ,number distinguishes them viz41 nouns1 as one1 or many1 of the same kind1 called the singular and plural4--,dr4 ,blair's ,lectures on ,rhetoric1 p4 #gd4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the words of this text appear to be so carelessly put together1 as to make nothing but jargon1 or a sort of scholastic balderdash4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #hth1 ,to jumble together words without care for the sense1 is an unpardonable negligence1 and an abuse of the human understanding4 ,i think the learned author should rather have said3 ,there are two numbers called the singular and the plural1 which distinguish nouns as signifying either one thing1 or many of the same kind4 ,here the noun ,james ,munroe is addressed1 he is spoken to1 it is here a noun of the second person4--,mack's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,the number and case of a verb can never be ascertained until its nominative is known4--,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #cf4 ,a noun of multitude1 or signifying many1 may have the verb and pronoun agreeing with it either in the singular or plural number2 yet not without regard to the import of the word1 as conveying unity or plurality of idea4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ge2 ,murray's1 #aeb2 ,alger's1 #ed2 ,russell's1 #ee2 ,ingersoll's1 #bdh2 et al4 ,to express the present and past imperfect of the active and neuter verb1 the auxiliary do is sometimes used3 ,i do 7now7 love2 ,i did 7then7 love4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,if these are perfectly committed1 they will be able to take twenty lines for a lesson on the second day2 and may be increased each day4--,osborn's ,key1 p4 #d4 ,when c is joined with h 7ch71 they are generally sounded in the same manner3 as in ,charles1 church1 cheerfulness1 and cheese4 ,but foreign words 7except in those derived from the ,french1 as chagrin1 chicanery1 and chaise1 in which ch are sounded like sh7 are pronounced like k2 as in ,chaos1 character1 chorus1 and chimera4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,some substantives1 naturally neuter1 are1 by a figure of speech1 converted into the masculine or feminine gender4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cg2 ,comly's1 #bj2 ,bacon's1 #ac2 ,a ,teacher's1 #h2 ,alger's1 #af2 ,lennie's1 #aa2 ,fisk's1 #ef2 ,merchant's1 #bg2 ,kirkham's1 #ce2 et al4 ,words in the ,english language may be classified under ten general heads1 the names of which classes are usually termed the ten parts of speech4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ',mercy is the true badge of nobility4' ,nobility is a noun of multitude1 mas4 and fem4 gender1 third person1 sing4 and in the obj4 case1 and governed by 'of3' ,,rule #ca4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #afa4 gh1 are either silent1 or have the sound of f1 as in laugh4--,town's ,spelling-,book1 p4 #aj4 ,as many people as were destroyed1 were as many languages or dialects lost and blotted out from the general catalogue4--,chazotte's ,essay1 p4 #be4 ,the grammars of some languages contain a greater number of the moods1 than others1 and exhibit them in different forms4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo4 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ie4 ,a ,,comparison ,,or ,,simile1 is1 when the resemblance between two objects is expressed in form1 and generally pursued more fully than the nature of a metaphor admits4--,ib41 p4 #cdc4 ,in some dialects1 the word what is improperly used for that1 and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing4--,ib41 p4 #aef2 ,priestley's ,gram41 #ic2 ,smith's1 #acb2 ,merchant's1 #hg2 ,fisk's1 #aad2 ,ingersoll's1 #bbj2 et al4 ,brown makes great ado concerning the adname principles of preceding works1 in relation to the gender of pronouns4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cbc4 ,the nominative precedes and performs the action of the verb4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,the ,primitive are those which cannot receive more simple forms than those which they already possess4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #bh4 ,the long sound of i is always marked by the e final in monosyllables2 as1 thin1 thine2 except give1 live4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ac2 ,fisk's1 #ci2 et al4 ,but the third person or thing spoken of being absent1 and in many respects unknown1 it is necessary that it should be marked by a distinction of gender4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ba2 ,l4 ,murray's1 #ea2 et al4 ,each of the diphthongal letters was doubtless1 originally heard in pronouncing the words which contain them4 ,though this is not the case at present1 with respect to many of them1 these combinations still retain the name of diphthongs2 but1 to distinguish them1 they are marked by the term improper4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #i2 ,fisk's1 #cg2 et al4 ,a ,mode is the form of1 or manner of using a verb1 by which the being1 action1 or passion is expressed --,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,the word that is a demonstrative pronoun when it is followed immediately by a substantive1 to which it is either joined1 or refers1 and which it limits or qualifies4--,lindley ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,the guiltless woe of being past1 ,is future glory's deathless heir4--,sumner ,l4 ,fairfield4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,ix4--,,of ,,words ,,needless4 ,a knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing composition4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word composition is here needless4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #ith1 ,words that are entirely needless1 and especially such as injure or encumber the expression1 ought in general to be omitted4 ,the sentence would be better without this word1 thus3 ,a knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing4 ,and hence we infer1 that there is no other dictator here but use4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #db4 ,whence little else is gained1 except correct spelling and pronunciation4--,town's ,spelling-,book1 p4 #e4 ,the man who is faithfully attached to religion1 may be relied on1 with humble confidence4--,merchants ,school ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,shalt thou build me an house for me to dwell in8--#b ,sam41 vii1 #e4 ,the house was deemed polluted which was entered into by so abandoned a woman4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bgi4 ,the farther that he searches1 the firmer will be his belief4--,keith's ,evidences1 p4 #d4 ,i deny not1 but that religion consists in these things4--,barclays ,works1 i1 #cba4 ,except the king delighted in her1 and that she were called by name4--,esther1 ii1 #ad4 ,the proper method of reading these lines1 is to read them according as the sense dictates4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #chf4 ,when any words become obsolete1 or at least are never used1 except as constituting part of particular phrases1 it is better to dispense with their service entirely1 and give up the phrases4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ahe2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cgj4 ,those savage people seemed to have no element but that of war4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #baa4 ,man is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and in the nominative case4--,j4 ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,the orator1 according as circumstances require1 will employ them all4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bdg4 ,by deferring our repentance1 we accumulate our sorrows4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 p4 #aff4 ,there is no doubt but that public speaking became early an engine of government4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bde4 ,the different meaning of these two first words may not at first occur4--,ib41 p4 #bbe4 ,the sentiment is well expressed by ,plato1 but much better by ,solomon than him4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bad2 ,ingersoll's1 #bea2 ,smith's1 #agi2 et al4 ,they have had a greater privilege than we have had4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #baa4 ,every thing should be so arranged1 as that what goes before may give light and force to what follows4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #caa4 ,so as that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers4--,,univ4 ,,hist43 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aci4 ,they have taken another and a shorter cut4--,,south3 ,joh4 ,dict4 ,the ,imperfect ,tense of a regular verb is formed from the present by adding d or ed to the present2 as1 ',i loved4'--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,the pronoun their does not agree in gender or number with the noun 'man1' for which it stands4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ahb4 ,this mark denotes any thing of wonder1 surprise1 joy1 grief1 or sudden emotion4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,we are all accountable creatures1 each for himself4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bjd2 ,merchant's1 #aie4 ,if he has commanded it1 then ,i must obey4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 pp4 #aaj and #aab4 ,i now present him with a form of the diatonic scale4--,dr4 ,john ,barber's ,elocution1 p4 xi4 ,one after another of their favourite rivers have been reluctantly abandoned4--,hodgson's ,tour4 ,particular and peculiar are words of different import from each other4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aif4 ,some adverbs admit rules of comparison3 as ,soon1 sooner1 soonest4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,from having exposed himself too freely in different climates1 he entirely lost his health4--,murray's ,key4 p4 #bjj4 ,the ,verb must agree with its ,nominative before it in ,number and ,person4--,buchanan's ,syntax1 p4 #ic4 ,write twenty short sentences containing only adjectives4--,abbot's ,teacher1 p4 #ajb4 ,this general inclination and tendency of the language seems to have given occasion to the introducing of a very great corruption4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fj4 ,the second requisite of a perfect sentence1 is its ,unity4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #caa4 ,it is scarcely necessary to apologize for omitting to insert their names4--,ib41 p4 vii4 ,the letters of the ,english ,language1 called the ,english ,alphabet1 are twenty-six in number4--,ib41 p4 #b2 ,t4 ,smith's1 #e2 ,fisk's1 #aj2 ,alger's1 #i2 et al4 ,a writer who employs antiquated or novel phraseology1 must do it with design3 he cannot err from inadvertence as he may do it with respect to provincial or vulgar expressions4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ef4 ,the ,vocative case1 in some ,grammars1 is wholly omitted2 why1 if we must have cases1 ,i could never understand the propriety of4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,active verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb ,i have2 passive verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb ,i am4--,ib41 p4 #eg4 ,what word1 then1 may and be called8 ,a ,conjunction4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,have they ascertained the person who gave the information8--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,x4--,,of ,,improper ,,omissions4 ,all qualities of things are called adnouns1 or adjectives4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because this expression lacks two or three words which are necessary to the sense intended4 ,but according to ,critical ,note #ajth1 ,words necessary to the sense1 or even to the melody or beauty of a sentence1 ought seldom1 if ever1 to be omitted4 ,the sentence may be amended thus3 ,all words signifying concrete qualities of things1 are called adnouns1 or adjectives4 ,the--signifies the long or accented syllable1 and the breve indicates a short or unaccented syllable4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,whose duty is to help young ministers4--,n4 ,e4 ,discipline1 p4 #gh4 ,the passage is closely connected with what precedes and follows4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bee ,the work is not completed1 but soon will be4--,smith's ,productive ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,of whom hast thou been afraid or feared8--,isaiah1 lvii1 #aa4 ,there is a ,god who made and governs the world4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #bfc4 ,it was this made them so haughty4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ajb4 ,how far the whole charge affected him is not easy to determine4-- ,ib41 i1 p4 #ahi4 ,they saw1 and worshipped the ,god1 that made them4-- ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #aeg4 ,the errors frequent in the use of hyperboles1 arise either from overstraining1 or introducing them on unsuitable occasions4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bef4 ,the preposition in is set before countries1 cities1 and large towns2 as1 ',he lives in ,france1 in ,london1 or in ,birmingham4' ,but before villages1 single houses1 and cities which are in distant countries1 at is used2 as1 ',he lives at ,hackney4'--,ib41 p4 #bjd2 ,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 #fj2 ,ingersoll's1 #bcb2 ,smith's1 #agj2 ,fisk's1 #adc2 et al4 ,and1 in such recollection1 the thing is not figured as in our view1 nor any image formed4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hf4 ,intrinsic and relative beauty must be handled separately4--,ib41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ccf4 ,he should be on his guard not to do them injustice1 by disguising1 or placing them in a false light4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bgb4 ,in that work1 we are frequently interrupted by unnatural thoughts4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bge4 ,to this point have tended all the rules ,i have given4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abj4 ,to these points have tended all the rules which have been given4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cef4 ,language1 as written1 or oral1 is addressed to the eye1 or to the ear4--,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #aha4 ,he will learn1 ,sir1 that to accuse and prove are very different4--,walpole4 ,they crowded around the door so as to prevent others going out4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #ag4 ,one person or thing is singular number2 more than one person or thing is plural number4--,john ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,according to the sense or relation in which nouns are used1 they are in the ,,nominative or ,,possessive ,,case1 thus1 nom4 man2 poss4 man's4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,nouns or pronouns in the possessive case are placed before the nouns which govern them1 to which they belong4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #acj4 ,a teacher is explaining the difference between a noun and verb4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #gb4 ,and therefore the two ends1 or extremities1 must directly answer to the north and south pole4--,,harris3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,gnomon4 ,walks or walketh1 rides or rideth1 stands or standeth1 are of the third person singular4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,i grew immediately roguish and pleasant to a degree1 in the same strain4--,,swift3 ,tattler1 #ca4 ,an ,anapst has the first syllables unaccented1 and the last accented4-- ,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aai4 ,an ,anapst has the first two syllables unaccented1 and the last accented4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bai2 ,bullions's ,principles1 #agj4 ,an ,anapst has the two first syllables unaccented1 and the last accented4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bed2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #cje2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 #ahh2 ,guy's ,gram41 #abj2 ,merchant's1 #afg2 ,russell's1 #aji2 ,picket's1 #bbf4 ,but hearing and vision differ not more than words spoken and written4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,they are considered by some prepositions4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,when those powers have been deluded and gone astray4--,philological ,museum1 i1 #fdb4 ,they will soon understand this1 and like it4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #ib4 ,they have been expelled their native country ,romagna4--,leigh ,hunt1 on ,byron1 p4 #ah4 ,future time is expressed two different ways4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #hj2 ,gould's1 #gh4 ,such as the borrowing from history some noted event4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bhj4 ,every ,verb must agree with its ,nominative in ,number and ,person4--,burke's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,we are struck1 we know not how1 with the symmetry of any thing we see4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bfh4 ,under this head1 ,i shall consider every thing necessary to a good delivery4-- ,sheridan's ,lect41 p4 #bf4 ,a good ear is the gift of nature2 it may be much improved1 but not acquired by art4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bih4 ',truth1' ,a noun1 neuter1 singular1 the nominative4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ',possess1' ,a verb transitive1 present1 indicative active1--third person plural4--,ibid41 #gc4 ,fear is a noun1 neuter1 singular1 and is the nominative to 7or subject of7 is4--,id41 ib41 p4 #acc4 ,is is a verb1 intrans41 irregular--am1 was1 been2 it is in the present1 indicative1 third person singular1 and agrees with its nominative fear4 ,rule #a4 ',a verb agrees1' c4--,ibid41 #acc4 ,ae in ,glic1 has the sound of long a4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #bi4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xi4--,,of ,,literary ,,blunders4 ,repeat some adverbs that are composed of the article a and nouns4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the grammatist here mistakes for the article a1 the prefix or preposition a2 as in aside1 ashore1 afoot1 astray1 c4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #aath1 ,grave blunders made in the name of learning1 are the strongest of all certificates against the books which contain them unreproved4 ,the error should be corrected thus3 ,repeat some adverbs that are composed of the prefix a1 or preposition a1 and nouns4 ,participles are so called1 because derived from the ,latin word participium1 which signifies to partake4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,the possessive follows another noun1 and is known by the sign of 's or of4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,reciprocal pronouns are formed by adding self or selves to the possessive2 as1 myself1 yourselves4-- ,ib41 p4 #aj4 ,the word self1 and its plural selves1 must be considered nouns1 as they occupy the places of nouns1 and stand for the names of them4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,the ,dactyl1 rolls round1 expresses beautifully the majesty of the sun in his course4--,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #bca2 ,webster's ,imp4 ,gram41 p4 #afe2 ,frazee's ,imp4 ,gram41 p4 #aib4 ,prepositions govern the objective case2 as1 ,john learned his lesson4--,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,prosody primarily signified punctuation2 and as the name implies1 related to stopping by the way4--,hendrick's ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,on such a principle of forming modes1 there would be as many modes as verbs2 and instead of four modes1 we should have forty-three thousand1 which is the number of verbs in the ,english language1 according to ,lowth4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,the following phrases are elliptical3 ',to let out blood4' ',to go a hunting3' that is1' ,to go on a hunting excursion4'--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #abi4 ,in ,rhyme1 the last syllable of every two lines has the same sound4--,id41 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #abi4 ,the possessive case plural1 ending in es1 has the apostrophe1 but omits the s2 as1 ,eagles' wings4--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #fb2 ,abridg41 p4 #ed4 ,horses 7plural7 -mane1 should be written horses' mane4--,weld'1 ib41 pp4 #fb and #ed4 ,w takes its written form from the union of two v's1 this being the form of the ,roman capital letter which we call ,v4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #ahej1 p4 #aeg4 ,in the sentence1 ',i saw the lady who sings1' what word do ,i say sings8--,j4 ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,in the sentence1 'this is the pen which ,john made1' what word do ,i say ,john made8--,ibid4 ',that we fall into no sin3' no1 an adverb used idiomatically1 instead of we do not fall into any sin4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ',that all our doings may be ordered by thy governance3' all1 a pronoun used for the whole4--,ibid4 ',let him be made to study4' ,what causes the sign to to be expressed before study8 ,its being used in the passive voice after be made4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,the following ,verbs have neither ,preter-,tense nor ,passive-participle1 viz4 ,cast1 cut1 cost1 shut1 let1 bid1 shed1 hurt1 hit1 put1 c4-- ,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #fj4 ,the agreement1 which every word has with the others in person1 gender1 and case1 is called ,,concord2 and that power which one person of speech has over another1 in respect to ruling its case1 mood1 or tense1 is called ,,government4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,the word ticks tells what the noun watch does4-- ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,breve 77 marks a short vowel or syllable1 and the dash 7--7 a long4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aeg2 ,lennie1 #acg4 ,charles1 you1 by your diligence1 make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor4' ,the first you is used in the nom4 poss4 and obj4 case4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,ouy in bouy is a proper tripthong4 ,eau in flambeau is an improper tripthong4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bee4 ',while ,i of things to come1 ,as past rehearsing1 sing4' ,,pollok4 ,that is1 ',while ,i sing of things which are to come1 as one sings of things which are past rehearsing4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #afi4 ,a simple sentence has in it but one nominative1 and one neuter verb4--,folker's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,an ,irregular ,verb is that which has its passed tense and perfect participle terminating differently2 as1 smite1 smote1 smitten4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,but when the antecedent is used in a general sense1 a comma is properly inserted before the relative2 as1 ',there is no charm in the female sex1 which can supply the place of virtue4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bac4 ,two capitals in this way denote the plural number2 ,l4 ,d4 ,legis ,doctor2 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,legum ,doctor4--,gould's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bgd4 ,was any person besides the mercer present8 ,yes1 both he and his clerk4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahh4 ,adnoun1 or ,adjective1 comes from the ,latin1 ad and jicio1 to add to4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,another figure of speech1 proper only to animated and warm composition1 is what some critical writers call vision2 when1 in place of relating some thing that is past1 we use the present tense1 and describe it as actually passing before our eyes4 ,thus ,cicero1 in his fourth oration against ,cataline3 ',i seem to myself to behold this city1 the ornament of the earth1 and the capital of all nations1 suddenly involved in one conflagration4 ,i see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country4 ,the furious countenance of ,cethegus rises to my view1 while with a savage joy he is triumphing in your miseries4'--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aga4 ,vision is another figure of speech1 which is proper only in animated and warm composition4 ,it is produced when1 instead of relating something that is past1 we use the present tense1 c4-- ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ceb4 ,when several verbs follow one another1 having the same nominative1 the auxiliary is frequently omitted after the first through an ellipsis1 and understood to the rest2 as1 ',he has gone and left me2' that is1 ',he has gone1 and has left me4' --,comly's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,when ,i use the word pillar as supporting an edifice1 ,i employ it literally4--,hiley's ,gram41 #c;d ,ed41 p4 #acc4 ,the conjunction nor is often used for neither2 as1 ',simois nor ,xanthus shall be wanting there4'--,ib41 p4 #abi4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xii4--,,of ,,perversions4 ,in the beginning1 ,god created the heavens and the earth4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ccj2 ,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #agi2 ,melmoth1 on ,scripture1 p4 #af4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because this reading is false in relation to the word heavens2 nor is it usual to put a comma after the word beginning4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #abth1 ,proof-tests in grammar1 if not in all argument1 should be quoted literally2 and even that which needs to be corrected1 must never be perverted4 ,the authorized text is this3 ,in the beginning ,god created the heaven and the earth4--,gen41 i1 #a4 ,canst thou1 by searching1 find out the ,lord8--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cce4 ,great is the ,lord1 just and true are thy ways1 thou king of saints4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aga2 ,l4 ,murray's1 #afh2 ,merchant's1 #ij2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #ade2 ,ingersoll's1 #aid2 ,ensell's1 #ccj2 ,fisk's1 #ajd2 et al4 ,every one that saith unto me1 ,lord1 ,lord1 shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #acg4 ,though he was rich1 yet for our sakes he became poor4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #baa2 ,bullions's1 #aaa and #aac2 ,everest's1 #bcj2 ,smith's1 #agg2 et al4 ,whose foundation was overflown with a flood4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,job1 xxii1 #af4 ,take my yoke upon ye1 for my yoke is easy4--,the ,friend1 ,vol4 iv1 p4 #aej4 ,i will to prepare a place for you4--,weld's ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #fg4 ,ye who are dead hath he quickened4--lb41 p4 #ahi2 ,imp4 ,ed41 #aie4 ,go1 flee thee away into the land of ,judea4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #aae4 ,hitherto shalt thou come1 and no farther4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bbb4 ,thine is the day and night4--,brown's ,concordance1 p4 #hb4 ,faith worketh patience2 and patience1 experience2 and experience1 hope4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bhb4 ,soon shall the dust return to dust1 and the soul1 to ,god who gave it4 ,,bible4--,ib41 p4 #aff4 ,for1 in the end1 it biteth like a serpent1 and stingeth like an adder4 ,it will lead thee into destruction1 and cause thee to utter perverse things4 ,thou wilt be like him who lieth down in the midst of the sea4 ,,bible4--,ib41 p4 #afg4 ,the memory of the just shall be honored3 but the name of the wicked shall rot4 ,,bible4--,ib41 p4 #afh4 ,he that is slow in anger1 is better than the mighty4 ,he that ruleth his spirit1 is better than he that taketh a city4 ,,bible4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,the ,lord loveth whomsoever he correcteth2 as the father correcteth the son in whom he delighteth4 ,,bible4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,the first future tense represents what is to take place hereafter4 ,g4 ,b4--,ib41 p4 #cff4 ,teach me to feel another's wo2 and ,to hide what faults ,i see4--,ib41 p4 #aig4 ,thy speech bewrayeth thee2 for thou art a ,gallilean4--,murray's ,ex41 ii1 p4 #aah4 ,thy speech betrays thee2 for thou art a ,gallilean4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bej4 ,strait is the gate1 and narrow the way1 that leads to life eternal4--,ib41 ,key1 p4 #agb4 ,straight is the gate1 c4--,ib41 ,ex41 p4 #cf4 ',thou buildest the wall1 that thou mayst be their king4' ,neh41 vi1 #f4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #baj4 ',there is forgiveness with thee1 that thou mayst be feared4' ,psalms1 cxxx1 #d4--;,ib41 p4 #baj4 ,but yesterday1 the word1 ,cesar1 might ,have stood against the world4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #caf4 ,the northeast spends its rage4 ,,thomson4--,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,effusive4 ,tells how the drudging goblet swet4 ,,milton4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bfc4 ,and to his faithful servant hath in place ,bore witness gloriously4 ,,sam4 ,,agon4--,ib41 p4 #bff4 ,then1 if thou fallest1 ,o ,cromwell1 ,thou fallest a blessed martyr4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #aij4 ,i see the dagger-crest of ,mar1 ,i see the ,morays' silver star1 ,waves o'er the cloud of ,saxon war1 ,that up the lake came winding far6--,,scott4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,each bird1 and each insect1 is happy in its kind4--,ib41 p4 #he4 ,they who are learning to compose and arrange their sentences with accuracy and order1 are learning1 at the same time1 to think with accuracy and order4 ,,blair4--,ib41 p4 #agf2 ,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 ,title-page1 #hvo and #abmo4 ,we1 then1 as workers together with you1 beseech you also1 that ye receive not the grace of ,god in vain4--,james ,brown's ,eng4 ,syntax1 p4 #abi4 ,and on the bounty of thy goodness calls4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bdf4 ,knowledge dwells ,in heads replete with thoughts of other men2 ,wisdom1 in minds retentive to their own4 ,,cowper4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,oh6 let me listen to the word of life4 ,,thomson4--,ib41 p4 #aee4 ,save that from yonder ivy-mantled bower1 c4 ,,gray',s ,,elegy4--,tooke's ,div4 of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aaf4 ,weigh the mens wits against the ladies hairs4 ,,pope4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,weigh the men's wits against the women's hairs4 ,,pope4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bad4 ,prior to the publication of ,lowth's excellent little grammar1 the grammatical study of our own language1 formed no part of the ordinary method of instruction4 ,,hiley',s ,,preface4--,dr4 ,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 #ahdc1 p4 #ahi4 ,let there be no strife betwixt me and thee4--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,what6 canst thou not bear with me half an hour8--,,sharp4 --,ib41 p4 #ahe4 ,till then who knew the force of those dire dreams4--,,milton4 --,ib41 p4 #ahf4 ,in words1 as fashions1 the rule will hold1 ,alike fantastic1 if too new or old3 --,murray's ,gram41 p4 #acf4 ,be not the first1 by whom the new is tried1 ,nor yet the last1 to lay the old aside4 --,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xiii4--,,of ,,awkwardness4 ,they slew ,varus1 who was he that ,i mentioned before4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aid4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the phrase1 who was he that1 is here prolix and awkward4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #acth1 ,awkwardness1 or inelegance of expression1 is a reprehensible defect in style1 whether it violate any of the common rules of syntax or not4 ,this example may be improved thus3 ,they slew ,varus1 whom ,i mentioned before4 ,maria rejected ,valerius1 who was he that she had rejected before4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #agd4 ,the ,english in its substantives has but two different terminations for cases4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,socrates and ,plato were wise2 they were the most eminent philosophers of ,greece4--,ib41 p4 #age2 ,murray's ,gram41 #adi2 et al4 ,whether one person or more than one1 were concerned in the business1 does not yet appear4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahd4 ,and that1 consequently1 the verb and pronoun agreeing with it1 cannot with propriety1 be ever used in the plural number4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aec2 ,ingersoll's1 #bdi2 et al4 ,a second help may be the conversing frequently and freely with those of your own sex who are like minded4--,john ,wesley4 ,four of the semi-vowels1 namely1 l1 m1 n1 r1 are also distinguished by the name of liquids1 from their readily uniting with other consonants1 and flowing as it were into their sounds4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #h2 ,churchill's1 #e2 ,alger's1 #aa2 et al4 ,some conjunctions have their correspondent conjunctions belonging to them3 so that1 in the subsequent member of the sentence the latter answers to the former4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aji3 ,adam's1 #bji2 ,gould's1 #bje2 ,l4 ,murray's1 #baa2 ,ingersoll's1 #bfh2 ,fisk's1 #acg2 ,churchill's1 #aec2 ,fowler's1 #efb2 et al4 ,the mutes are those consonants1 whose sounds cannot be protracted4 ,the semi-vowels1 such whose sounds can be continued at pleasure1 partaking of the nature of vowels1 from which they derive their name4--,murray's ,gram41 p #i2 et al4 ,the pronoun of the third person1 of the masculine and feminine gender1 is sometimes used as a noun1 and regularly declined3 as1 ',the hes in birds4' ,,bacon4 ',the shes of ,italy4' ,,shak4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,the following examples also of separation of a preposition from the word which it governs1 is improper in common writings4--,c4 ,adams's ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,the word whose begins likewise to be restricted to persons1 but it is not done so generally but that good writers1 and even in prose1 use it when speaking of things4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ii2 ,l4 ,murray's1 #aeg2 ,fisk's1 #aae2 et al4 ,there are new and surpassing wonders present themselves to our views4--,sherlock4 ,inaccuracies are often found in the way wherein the degrees of comparison are applied and construed4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bjb4 ,inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of comparison are applied and construed4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afg2 ,smith's1 #add2 ,ingersoll's1 #aic2 et al4 ,the connecting circumstance is placed too remotely1 to be either perspicuous or agreeable4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agg4 ,those tenses are called simple tenses1 which are formed of the principal without an auxiliary verb4--,ib41 p4 #ia4 ,the nearer that men approach to each other1 the more numerous are their points of contact and the greater will be their pleasures or their pains4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bge4 ,this is the machine that he is the inventor of4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #abd4 ,to give this sentence the interrogative form1 it should be expressed thus4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bgi4 ,never employ those words which may be susceptible of a sense different from the sense you intend to be conveyed4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ,sixty pages are occupied in explaining what would not require more than ten or twelve to be explained according to the ordinary method4--,ib41 ,pref41 p4 ix4 ,the present participle in -ing always expresses an action1 or the suffering of an action1 or the being1 state1 or condition of a thing as continuing and progressive4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #eg4 ,the ,present participle of all active verbs#deg has an active signification2 as1 ,james is building the house4 ,in many of these1 however1 it has also a passive signification2 as1 the house was building when the wall fell4--,id41 ib41 #b;d or #dth ,ed41 p4 #eg4 ,previous to parsing this sentence1 it may be analyzed to the young pupil by such questions as the following1 viz4--,id41 ib41 p4 #gc4 ,subsequent to that period1 however1 attention has been paid to this important subject4--,ib41 ,new ,ed41 p4 #ahi2 ,hiley's ,preface1 p4 vi4 ,a definition of a word is an explanation in what sense the word is used1 or what idea or object we mean by it1 and which may be expressed by any one or more of the properties1 effects1 or circumstances of that object1 so as sufficiently to distinguish it from other objects4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #bde4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xiv4--,,of ,,ignorance4 ,what is an ,asserter8 ,it is the part of speech which asserts4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bj4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the term ,asserter which is here put for ,verb1 is both ignorantly misspelled1 and whimsically misapplied4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #adth1 ,any use of words that implies ignorance of their meaning1 or of their proper orthography1 is particularly unscholarlike2 and1 in proportion to the author's pretensions to learning1 disgraceful4 ,the errors here committed might have been avoided thus3 ,what is a verb8 ,it is a word which signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,or thus3 ,what is an assertor8 ,ans4 ',one who affirms positively2 an affirmer1 supporter1 or vindicator4'--,webster's ,dict4 ,virgil wrote the nead4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ef4 ,which1 to a supercilious or inconsiderate ,japaner1 would seem very idle and impertinent4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #bbe4 ,will not a look of disdain cast upon you1 throw you into a foment8--,life of ,th4 ,say1 p4 #adf4 ,it may be of use to the scholar1 to remark in this place1 that though only the conjunction if is affixed to the verb1 any other conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood1 may1 with equal propriety1 be occasionally annexed4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,when proper names have an article annexed to them1 they are used as common names4--,ib41 p4 #cf2 ,ingersoll's1 #be2 et al4 ,when a proper noun has an article annexed to it1 it is used as a common noun4--,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,seeming to disenthral the death-field of its terrors4--,ib41 p4 #aji4 ,for the same reason1 we might1 without any disparagement to the language1 dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ej4 ,it diminishes all possibility of being misunderstood4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #age4 ,approximation to excellence is all that we can expect4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,i have often joined in singing with musicianists at ,norwich4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #bgd4 ,when not standing in regular prosic order4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bha4 ,disregardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,others begin to talk before their mouths are open1 affixing the mouth-closing ,m to most of their words--as ,m-yes for ,yes4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #bh4 ,that noted close of his1 esse videatur1 exposed him to censure among his cotemporaries4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abg4 ,,own4 ,formerly1 a man's own was what he worked for1 own being a past participle of a verb signifying to work4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,as requires so3 expressing a comparison of quality3 as1 ',as the one dieth1 so dieth the other4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bab2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #agg2 and many others4 ,to obey our parents is a solemn duty4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part ,i1 p4 #fg4 ,most all the political papers of the kingdom have touched upon these things4--,h4 ,c4 ,,wright3 ,liberator1 ,vol4 xiv1 p4 #bb4 ,i shall take leave to make a few observations upon the subject4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 iii4 ,his loss ,i have endeavoured to supply1 as far as additional vigilance and industry would allow4--,ib41 p4 xi4 ,that they should make vegetation so exhuberant as to anticipate every want4--,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,the quotors which denote that one or more words are extracted from another author4--,day's ,district ,school ,gram41 p4 #aab4 ,ninevah and ,assyria were two of the most noted cities of ancient history4--,ib41 p4 #cb and p4 #hh4 ,ninevah1 the capital of ,assyria1 is a celebrated ancient city4--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,it may1 however1 be rendered definite by introducing some definition of time2 as1 yesterday1 last week1 c4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,the last is called heroic measure1 and is the same that is used by ,milton1 ,young1 ,thompson1 ,pollock1 c4--,id41 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #abi4 ,perrenial ones must be sought in the delightful regions above4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #aid4 ,intransitive verbs are those which are inseperable from the effect produced4--,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,femenine gender1 belongs to women1 and animals of the female kind4--,ib41 p4 #ae4 ,woe6 unto you scribes and pharasees4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,a pyrrick1 which has both its syllables short4--,ib41 p4 #aad4 ,what kind of ,jesamine8 a ,jesamine in flower1 or a flowery ,jesamine4--,barrett's ,gram41 #ajth ,ed41 p4 #ec4 ,language1 derived from 'lingu1' the tongue1 is the faculty of communicating our thoughts to each other1 by proper words1 used by common consent1 as signs of our ideas4--,ib41 p4 #i4 ,say none1 not nara--,staniford's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,,ary ,,one1 for either4--,pond's ,larger ,gram41 p4 #aid4 7,see ,obs4 #bdth1 on the ,syntax of ,adverbs1 and the ,note at the bottom of the page47 ,earth loses thy patron for ever and aye2 ,o sailor boy6 sailor boy6 peace to thy soul4 --,s4 ,barrett's ,gram41 #ahcg1 p4 #aaf4 ,his brow was sad1 his eye beneath1 ,flashed like a halcyon from its sheath4 --,liberator1 ,vol4 #ab1 p4 #bd4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xv4--,,of ,,silliness ,,and ,,truisms4 ,such is the state of man1 that he is never at rest4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #eg4 ,,formule4--,this is a remark of no wisdom or force1 because it would be nearer the truth1 to say1 ,such is the state of man1 that he must often rest1 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #aeth1 ,silly remarks and idle truisms are traits of a feeble style1 and when their weakness is positive1 or inherent1 they ought to be entirely omitted4 ,it is useless to attempt a correction of this example1 for it is not susceptible of any form worth preserving4 ,participles belong to the nouns or pronouns to which they relate4--,wells's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #aec4 ,though the measure is mysterious1 it is worthy of attention4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bba4 ,though the measure is mysterious1 it is not unworthy your attention4--,kirkham's ,gram41 pp4 #aig and #bbg4 ,the inquietude of his mind made his station and wealth far from being enviable4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bej4 ,by rules so general and comprehensive as these are 1 the clearest ideas are conveyed4--,ib41 p4 #bgc4 ,the mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the activity of its thoughts4--,ib41 p4 #ahe4 ,not having known1 or not having considered1 the measures proposed1 he failed of success4--,ib41 p4 #bjb4 ,not having known or considered the subject1 he made a crude decision4--,ib41 p4 #bge4 ,not to exasperate him1 ,i spoke only a very few words4--,ib41 p4 #beg4 ,these are points too trivial1 to be noticed4 ,they are objects with which ,i am totally unacquainted4--,ib41 p4 #bge4 ,before we close this section1 it may afford instruction to the learners1 to be informed1 more particularly than they have been4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aaj4 ,the articles are often properly omitted3 when used1 they should be justly applied1 according to their distinct nature4--,ib41 p4 #agj2 ,alger's1 #fj4 ,any thing1 which is done now1 is supposed to be done at the present time4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,any thing which was done yesterday is supposed to be done in past time4--,ib41 #cd4 ,any thing which may be done hereafter1 is supposed to be done in future time4--,ib41 #cd4 ,when the mind compares two things in reference to each other1 it performs the operation of comparing4--,ib41 p4 #bdd4 ,the persons1 with whom you dispute1 are not of your opinion4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #abd4 ,but the preposition at is always used when it follows the neuter ,verb in the same ,case3 as1 ',i have been at ,london4'--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #fj4 ,but the preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to be3 as1 ',i have been at ,london4'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bjc2 ,ingersoll's1 #bca2 ,fisk's1 #adc2 et al4 ,the article the has sometimes a different effect1 in distinguishing a person by an epithet4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,the article the has1 sometimes1 a fine effect1 in distinguishing a person by an epithet4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,some nouns have plurals belonging only to themselves4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,sentences are either simple or compound4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #fh4 ,all sentences are either simple or compound4--,gould's ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,the definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number4--,kirkham's ,gram41 ,rule #b;d1 p4 #aef4 ,where a riddle is not intended1 it is always a fault in allegory to be too dark4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aea2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cdc4 ,there may be an excess in too many short sentences also2 by which the sense is split and broken4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aja4 ,are there any nouns you cannot see1 hear1 or feel1 but only think of8 ,name such a noun4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,flock is of the singular number1 it denotes but one flock--and in the nominative case1 it is the active agent of the verb4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,the article ,,the agrees with nouns of the singular or plural number4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,the admiral bombarded ,algiers1 which has been continued4--,nixon's ,parser1 p4 #abh4 ,the world demanded freedom1 which might have been expected4--,ibid4 ,the past tense represents an action as past and finished1 either with or without respect to the time when4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,that boy rode the wicked horse4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,the snake swallowed itself4--,ib41 p4 #eg4 ,do is sometimes used when shall or should is omitted2 as1 'if thou do repent4'--,ib41 p4 #he4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,this mood has the tenses of the indicative4--,ib41 p4 #hg4 ,as nouns never speak1 they are never in the first person4--,davis's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,nearly all parts of speech are used more or less in an elliptical sense4--,day's ,district ,school ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,,rule4 ,no word in a period can have any greater extension than the other words or sections in the same sentence will give it4--,barrett's ,revised ,gram41 p4 #ch and p4 #dc4 ,words used exclusively as ,adverbs1 should not be used as adjectives4--,clark's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ,adjectives used in ,predication1 should not take the ,adverbial form4--,ib41 pp4 #afg and #agc4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xvi4--,,of ,,the ,,incorrigible4 ,and this state of things belonging to the painter governs it in the possessive case4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aie2 ,ingersoll's1 #bja2 et al4 ,,formule4--,this composition is incorrigibly bad4 ,the participle belonging which seems to relate to things1 is improperly meant to qualify state4 ,and the state of things1 7which state really belongs only to the things17 is absurdly supposed to belong to a person--i4 e41 to the painter4 ,then this man1 to whom the state of things is said to belong1 is forthwith called it1 and nonsensically declared to be in the possessive case4 ,but1 according to ,critical ,note #afth1 ,passages too erroneous for correction1 may be criticised1 orally or otherwise1 and then passed over without any attempt to amend them4 ,therefore1 no correction is attempted here4 ,nouns or pronouns1 following the verb to be2 or the words than1 but1 as2 or that answer the question who8 have the same case after as preceded them4--,beck's ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,the common gender is when the noun may be either masculine or feminine4--,frost's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,the possessive is generally pronounced the same as if the s were added4--,alden's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,for1 assuredly1 as soon as men had got beyond simple interjections1 and began to communicate themselves by discourse1 they would be under a necessity of assigning names to the objects they saw around them1 which in grammatical language1 is called the invention of substantive nouns4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #gb4 ,young children will learn to form letters as soon1 if not readier1 than they will when older4--,taylor's ,district ,school1 p4 #aei4 ,this comparing words with one another1 constitutes what is called the degrees of comparison4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,whenever a noun is immediately annexed to a preceding neuter verb1 it expresses either the same notion with the verb1 or denotes only the circumstance of the action4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,two or more nouns or pronouns joined singular together by the conjunction and1 must have verbs agreeing with them in the plural number4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #abi4 ,possessive and demonstrative pronouns agree with their nouns in number and case2 as1 'my brother1' 'this slate1 'these slates4'--,ib41 p4 #acj4 ,participles which have no relation to time are used either as adjectives or as substantives4--,maunder's ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,they are in use only in some of their times and modes2 and in some of them are a composition of times of several defective verbs1 having the same signification4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,when words of the possessive case that are in apposition1 follow one another in quick succession1 the possessive sign should be annexed to the last only1 and understood to the rest2 as1 ',for ,david1 my servant's sake4'--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,by this order1 the first nine rules accord with those which respect the rules of concord2 and the remainder include1 though they extend beyond the rules of government4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,own and self1 in the plural selves1 are joined to the possessives1 my1 our1 thy1 your1 his1 her1 their2 as1 my own hand1 myself1 yourselves2 both of them expressing emphasis or opposition1 as1 ',i did it my own self1' that is1 and no one else2 the latter also forming the reciprocal pronoun1 as1 'he hurt himself4'--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,a flowing copious style1 therefore1 is required in all public speakers2 guarding1 at the same time1 against such a degree of diffusion1 as renders them languid and tiresome2 which will always prove the case1 when they inculcate too much1 and present the same thought under too many different views4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #agg4 ,as sentences should be cleared of redundant words1 so also of redundant members4 ,as every word ought to present a new idea1 so every member ought to contain a new thought4 ,opposed to this1 stands the fault we sometimes meet with1 of the last member of a period being no other than the echo of the former1 or the repetition of it in somewhat a different form4 #deh--;,ib41 p4 #aaa4 ,which always refers grammatically to the substantive immediately preceding3 as1 ',it is folly to pretend1 by heaping up treasures1 to arm ourselves against the accidents of life1 which nothing can protect us against1 but the good providence of our heavenly ,father4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #caa2 ,maunder's1 p4 #ah2 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aje4 ,the ,english adjectives1 having but a very limited syntax1 is classed with its kindred article1 the adjective pronoun1 under the eighth rule4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #adc4 ,when a substantive is put absolutely1 and does not agree with the following verb1 it remains independent on the participle1 and is called the case absolute1 or the nominative absolute4--,ib41 p4 #aie4 ,it will1 doubtless1 sometimes happen1 that1 on this occasion1 as well as on many other occasions1 a strict adherence to grammatical rules1 would render the language stiff and formal3 but when cases of this sort occur1 it is better to give the expression a different turn1 than to violate grammar for the sake of ease1 or even of elegance4--,ib41 p4 #bjh4 ,number1 which distinguishes objects as singly or collectively1 must have been coeval with the very infancy of language--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #be4 ,the article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only1 individually or collectively4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agj2 and others4 ,no language is perfect because it is a human invention4--,parker and ,fox's ,grammar1 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #aab4 ,the participles1 or as they may properly be termed1 forms of the verb in the second infinitive1 usually precedes another verb1 and states some fact1 or event1 from which an inference is drawn by that verb2 as1 'the sun having arisen1 they departed4'--,day's ,grammar1 #bnd ,ed41 p4 #cf4 ,they must describe what has happened as having done so in the past or the present time1 or as likely to occur in the future4--,the ,well-,wishers' ,grammar1 ,introd41 p4 #e4 ,nouns are either male1 female1 or neither4--,fowle's ,common ,school ,grammar1 ,part ,second1 p4 #ab4 ,possessive ,adjectives express possession1 and distinguish nouns from each other by showing to what they belong2 as1 my hat1 ,john's hat4--,ib41 p4 #ca4 ,,promiscuous ,,examples ,,of ,,false ,,syntax4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,various ,,rules4 ,what is the reason that our language is less refined than that of ,italy1 ,spain1 or ,france8--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahe4 ,what is the reason that our language is less refined than that of ,france8--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ',i believe your ,lordship will agree with me1 in the reason why our language is less refined than those of ,italy1 ,spain1 or ,france4' ,,dean ,,swift4 ,even in this short sentence1 we may discern an inaccuracy--'why our language is less refined than those of ,italy1 ,spain1 or ,france2' putting the pronoun those in the plural1 when the antecedent substantive to which it refers is in the singular1 our language4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bbh4 ,the sentence might have been made to run much better in this way2 'why our language is less refined than the ,italian1 ,spanish1 or ,french4'--,ibid4 ,but when arranged in an entire sentence1 which they must be to make a complete sense1 they show it still more evidently4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,this is a more artificial and refined construction than that1 in which the common connective is simply made use of4--,ib41 p4 #abg4 ,we shall present the reader with a list of ,prepositions1 which are derived from the ,latin and ,greek languages4--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ,relatives comprehend the meaning of a pronoun and conjunction copulative4--,ib41 p4 #abf4 ,personal pronouns being used to supply the place of the noun1 are not employed in the same part of the sentence as the noun which they represent4--,ib41 p4 #aee2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's ,gram41 #aca4 ,there is very seldom any occasion for a substitute in the same part where the principal word is present4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,we hardly consider little children as persons1 because that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ih2 ,murray's1 #aeg2 ,smith's1 #acc2 and others4 ,the occasion of exerting each of these qualities is different4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ie2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cjb2 ,jamieson's ,rhet41 #ff4 ,i'll tell you who time ambles withal1 who time trots withal1 who time gallops withal and who he stands still withal4 ,i pray thee1 who doth he trot withal8--,shakspeare4 ,by greatness1 ,i do not only mean the bulk of any single object1 but the largeness of a whole view4--,addison4 ,the question may then be put1 ,what does he more than mean8--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajc4 ,the question might be put1 what more does he than only mean8--,ib41 p4 #bjd4 ,he is surprised to find himself got to so great a distance1 from the object with which he at first set out4--,ib41 p4 #ajh4 ,he is surprised to find himself at so great a distance from the object with which he sets out4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cac4 ,few precise rules can be given1 which will hold without exception in all cases4--,ib41 p4 #bfg2 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aae4 ,versification is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according to certain laws4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of syllables1 according to certain laws4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #beb2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #ahg2 and others4 ,charlotte1 the friend of ,amelia1 to whom no one imputed blame1 was too prompt in her own vindication4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bgc4 ,mr4 ,pitt1 joining the war party in #agic1 the most striking and the most fatal instance of this offence1 is the one which at once presents itself4--,brougham's ,sketches1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #eg4 ,to the framing such a sound constitution of mind4--,the ,american ,lady1 p4 #acb4 ',i beseech you1' said ,st4 ,paul to his ,ephesian converts1 'that ye walk worthy the vocation wherewith ye are called4'--,ib41 p4 #bjh4 ,so as to prevent its being equal to that4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #hh4 ,when speaking of an action's being performed4--,ib41 p4 #hi4 ,and1 in all questions of an action's being so performed1 est is added to the second person4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,no account can be given of this1 than that custom has blinded their eyes4--,dymond's ,essays1 p4 #bfi4 ,design1 or chance1 make other wive2 ,but nature did this match contrive4--,waller1 p4 #bd4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,various ,,rules4 ,i suppose each of you think it is your own nail4--,abbott's ,teacher1 p4 #eh4 ,they are useless1 from their being apparently based upon this supposition4--,ib41 p4 #ga4 ,the form and manner1 in which this plan may be adopted1 is various4--,ib41 p4 #hc4 ,making intellectual effort1 and acquiring knowledge1 are always pleasant to the human mind4--,ib41 p4 #he4 ,this will do more than the best lecture which ever was delivered4--,ib41 p4 #ij4 ,doing easy things is generally dull work4--,ib41 p4 #ib4 ,such is the tone and manner of some teachers4--,ib41 p4 #aah4 ,well1 the fault is1 being disorderly at prayer time4--,ib41 p4 #aec4 ,do you remember speaking on this subject in school8--,ib41 p4 #aed4 ,the course above recommended1 is not trying lax and inefficient measures4--,ib41 p4 #aef4 ,our community is agreed that there is a ,god4--,ib41 p4 #afc4 ,it prevents their being interested in what is said4--,ib41 p4 #age4 ,we will also suppose that ,i call another boy to me1 who ,i have reason to believe to be a sincere ,christian4--,ib41 p4 #ahj4 ,five minutes notice is given by the bell4--,ib41 p4 #baa4 ,the ,annals of ,education gives notice of it4--,ib41 p4 #bdj4 ,teacher's meetings will be interesting and useful4--,ib41 p4 #bdc4 ,she thought an half hour's study would conquer all the difficulties4--,ib41 p4 #beg4 ,the difference between an honest and an hypocritical confession4--,ib41 p4 #bfc4 ,there is no point of attainment where we must stop4--,ib41 p4 #bfg4 ,now six hours is as much as is expected of teachers4--,ib41 p4 #bfh4 ,how much is seven times nine8--,ib41 p4 #bib4 ,then the reckoning proceeds till it come to ten hundred4--,frost's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #agj4 ,your success will depend on your own exertions2 see1 then1 that you are diligent4--,ib41 p4 #adb4 ,subjunctive ,mood1 ,present ,tense3 ,if ,i am known1 ,if thou art known4 ,if he is known3 etc4--,ib41 p4 #ia4 ,if ,i be loved1 ,if thou be loved1 ,if he be loved2 c4--,ib41 p4 #he4 ,an ,interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion4 ,they are so called1 because they are generally thrown in between the parts of a sentence without any reference to the structure of the other parts of it4--,ib41 p4 #ce4 ,the ,cardinals are those which simplify or denote number2 as one1 two1 three4--,ib41 p4 #ca4 ,more than one organ is concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant4--,ib41 p4 #ba4 ,to extract from them all the ,terms we make use in our ,divisions and ,subdivisions of the ,art4--,holmes's ,rhetoric1 ,pref4 ,and there was written therein lamentations1 and mourning1 and woe4--,ezekiel1 ii1 #aj4 ,if ,i were to be judged as to my behaviour1 compared with that of ,john's4--,josephus1 ,vol4 #e1 p4 #agb4 ,when the preposition to signifies in order to1 it used to be preceded by for1 which is now almost obsolete2 ,what went ye out for to see4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acb4 ,this makes the proper perfect tense1 which1 in ,english1 is always expressed by the help of the auxiliary verb1 ',i have written4'--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #hb4 ,indeed1 in the formation of character1 personal exertion is the first1 the second1 and the third virtues4--,sanders1 ,spelling-,book1 p4 #ic4 ,the reducing them to the condition of the beasts that perish4--,dymond's ,essays1 p4 #fg4 ,yet this affords no reason to deny that the nature of the gift is not the same1 or that both are not divine4--,ib41 p4 #fh4 ,if ,god have made known his will4--,ib41 p4 #ih4 ,if ,christ have prohibited them1 i4e41 oaths1 nothing else can prove them right4--,ib41 p4 #aej ,that the taking them is wrong1 every man who simply consults his own heart1 will know4--,ib41 p4 #afc4 ,these evils would be spared the world1 if one did not write4--,ib41 p4 #afh4 ,it is in a great degree our own faults4--,ib41 p4 #bjj4 ,it is worthy observation that lesson-learning is nearly excluded4--,ib41 p4 #bab4 ,who spares the aggressor's life even to the endangering his own4--,ib41 p4 #bbg4 ,who advocates the taking the life of an aggressor4--,ib41 p4 #bbi4 ,and thence up to the intentionally and voluntary fraudulent4--,ib41 p4 #cah4 ',and the contention was so great among them1 that they departed asunder1 one from another4'--,acts1 xv4 #ci4--,rev4 ,matt4 ,harrison's ,english ,lang41 p4 #bce4 ,here the man is ,john1 and ,john is the man2 so the words are the imagination and the fancy1 and the imagination and the fancy are the words4--,harrison's ,e4 ,lang41 p4 #bbg4 ,the article1 which is here so emphatic in the ,greek1 is lost sight of in our translation4--,ib41 p4 #bbc4 ,we have no less than thirty pronouns4--,ib41 p4 #aff4 ,it will admit of a pronoun being joined to it4--,ib41 p4 #acg4 ,from intercourse and from conquest1 all the languages of ,europe participate with each other4--,ib41 p4 #ajd4 ,it is not always necessity1 therefore1 that has been the cause of our introducing terms derived from the classical languages4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,the man of genius stamps upon it any impression that he pleases4--,ib41 p4 #ij4 ,the proportion of names ending in son preponderate greatly among the ,dano-,saxon population of the ,north4--,ib41 p4 #dc4 ,as a proof of the strong similarity between the ,english and the ,danish languages4--,ib41 p4 #cg4 ,a century from the time that ,hengist and ,horsa landed on the ,isle of ,thanet4--,ib41 p4 #bg4 ,i saw the colours waving in the wind1 ,and they within1 to mischief how combin'd4--,bunyan4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,various ,,rules4 ,a ship expected3 of whom we say1 she sails well4--,ben ,jonson's ,gram41 ,chap4 #aj4 ,honesty is reckoned little worth4--,paul's ,accidence1 p4 #eh4 ,learn to esteem life as it ought4--,economy of ,human ,life1 p4 #aah4 ,as the soundest health is less perceived than the lightest malady1 so the highest joy toucheth us less deep than the smallest sorrow4--,ib41 p4 #aeb4 ,being young is no apology for being frivolous4--,whiting's ,elementary ,reader1 p4 #aag4 ,the porch was the same width with the temple4--,milman's ,jews1 ,vol4 i4 p4 #bjh4 ,the other tribes neither contributed to his rise or downfall4--,ib41 ,vol4 i4 p4 #afe4 ,his whole laws and religion would have been shaken to its foundation4--,ib41 ,vol4 i4 p4 #aji4 ,the ,english has most commonly been neglected1 and children taught only the ,latin syntax4--,lily's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 xi4 ,they are not taken notice of in the notes4--,ib41 p4 x4 ,he walks in righteousness1 doing what he would be done to4--,s4 ,fisher's ,works1 p4 #ad4 ,they stand independently on the rest of the sentence4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,my uncle1 with his son1 were in town yesterday4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,she with her sisters are well4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,his purse1 with its contents1 were abstracted from his pocket4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,the great constitutional feature of this institution being1 that directly the acrimony of the last election is over1 the acrimony of the next begins4--,dickens's ,notes1 p4 #bg4 ,his disregarding his parents' advice has brought him into disgrace4--,farnum's ,pract4 ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ai4 ,error3 ,can you tell me the reason of his father making that remark8--,ib41 p4 #ic4 ,cor43 ,can you tell me the reason of his father's making that remark8--,see ,farnum's ,gram41 ,rule #abth4 p4 #gf4 ,error3 ,what is the reason of our teacher detaining us so long8--,ib41 p4 #gf4 ,cor43 ,what is the reason of our teacher's detaining us so long8--,see ,ib4 ,error3 ,i am certain of the boy having said so4 ,correction3 ,i am certain of the boy's having said so4--,exercises in ,farnum's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,which means any thing or things before-named2 and that may represent any person or persons1 thing or things1 which have been speaking1 spoken to or spoken of4--,dr4 ,perley's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,a certain number of syllables connected1 form a foot4 ,they are called feet1 because it is by their aid that the voice1 as it were1 steps along4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #beb2 ,c4 ,adams's1 #aba4 ,asking questions with a principal verb--as1 ,teach ,i8 ,burns he1 c4 are barbarisms1 and carefully to be avoided4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #abb4 ,tell whether the #ahth1 #aith1 #bjth1 #bast1 #bb;d1 or #bc;d ,rules are to be used1 and repeat the ,rule4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part ,i1 p4 #d4 ,the resolution was adopted without much deliberation1 which caused great dissatisfaction4--,ib41 p4 #ga4 ,the man is now taken much notice of by the people thereabouts4--,edward's ,first ,lessons in ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,the sand prevents their sticking to one another4--,ib41 p4 #hd4 ,defective ,verbs are those which are used only in some of their moods and tenses4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ajh2 ,guy's1 #db2 ,russell's1 #df2 ,bacon's1 #db2 ,frost's1 #dj2 ,alger's1 #dg2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #dg2 ,goldsbury's1 #ed2 ,felton's1 #ei2 and others4 ,defective verbs are those which want some of their moods and tenses4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #dg2 ,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 #fe2 ,practical ,lessons1 #ge4 ,defective ,verbs want some of their parts4--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,a ,defective verb is one that wants some of its parts4--,bullions1 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 #ahdi1 p4 #aja4 ,to the irregular verbs are to be added the defective2 which are not only for the most part irregular1 but also wanting in some of their parts4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,to the irregular verbs are to be added the defective2 which are not only wanting in some of their parts1 but are1 when inflected1 irregular4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #aab4 ,when two or more nouns succeed each other in the possessive case4--,farnum's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 pp4 #bj and #fc4 ,when several short sentences succeed each other4--,ib41 p4 #aac4 ,words are divided into ten ,classes1 and are called ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4--,ainsworth's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,a ,passive ,verb has its agent or doer always in the objective case1 and is governed by a preposition4--,ib41 p4 #dj4 ,i am surprised at your negligent attention4 ,ib41 p4 #dc4 ,,singular3 ,thou lovest or you love4 ,you has always a plural verb4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,how do you know that love is the first person8 ,ans4 ,because we is the first personal pronoun4--,id41 ib41 p4 #dg2 ,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,the lowing herd wind slowly round the lea4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,iambic verses have every second1 fourth1 and other even syllables accented4--,ib41 p4 #agj4 ,contractions are often made in poetry1 which are not allowable in prose4--,ib41 p4 #agi4 ,yet to their general's voice they all obeyed4--,ib41 p4 #agi4 ,it never presents to his mind but one new subject at the same time4--,felton's ,gram41 #ast edition1 p4 #f4 ,when the name of a quality is abstracted1 that is separated from its substance1 it is called an abstract noun4--,ib41 p4 #i4 ,nouns are in the first person when speaking4--,ib41 p4 #i4 ,which of the two brothers are graduates8--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,i am a linen draper bold1 as you and all the world doth know4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,o the bliss1 the pain of dying6--,ib41 p4 #abg4 ,this do2 take you censers1 ,korah1 and all his company4--,numbers1 xvi1 #f4 ,there are two participles1--the present and perfect2 as1 reading1 having read4 ,transitive verbs have an active and passive participle4 ,examples3 ,,active1 ,present1 ,loving2 ,perfect1 ,having loved3 ,,passive1 ,present1 ,loved or being loved2 ,perfect1 ,having been loved4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene's ,analysis1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #bbe4 ,o heav'n1 in my connubial hour decree ,this man my spouse1 or such a spouse as he4--,pope4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,various ,,rules4 ,the ,past ,tenses represent a conditional past fact or event1 and of which the speaker is uncertain4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,care also should be taken that they are not introduced too abundantly4--,ib41 p4 #acd4 ,till they are become familiar to the mind4--,ib41 ,pref41 p4 v4 ,when once a particular arrangement and phraseology are become familiar to the mind4--,ib41 p4 vii4 ,i have furnished the student with the plainest and most practical directions which ,i could devise4--,ib41 p4 xiv4 ,when you are become conversant with the ,rules of ,grammar1 you will then be qualified to commence the study of ,style4--,ib41 p4 xxii4 ,c has a soft sound like s before e1 i1 and y1 generally4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,g before e1 i1 and y1 is soft2 as in genius1 ginger1 ,egypt4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,c before e1 i1 and y1 generally sounds soft like s4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,g is soft before e1 i1 and y1 as in genius1 ginger1 ,egypt4--,ib41 p4 #d4 ,as a perfect ,alphabet must always contain as many letters as there are elementary sounds in the language1 the ,english ,alphabet is therefore both defective and redundant4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #e4 ,common ,nouns are the names given to a whole class or species1 and are applicable to every individual of that class4--,ib41 p4 #aa4 ,thus an adjective has always a noun either expressed or understood4--,ib41 p4 #bj4 ,first1 let us consider emphasis2 by this1 is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice1 by which we distinguish the accented syllable of some word1 on which we design to lay particular stress1 and to shew how it effects the rest of the sentence4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccj4 ,by emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice1 by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular stress1 and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bdb4 ,such a simple question as this3 ',do you ride to town to-day1' is capable of no fewer than four different acceptations1 according as the emphasis is differently placed on the words4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccj2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bdb4 ,thus1 bravely1 or 'in a brave manner1' is derived from brave-like4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,in the same manner1 the different parts of speech are formed from each other generally by means of some affix4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,words derived from each other1 are always1 more or less1 allied in signification4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,when a noun of multitude conveys unity of idea the verb and pronoun should be singular4 ,but when it conveys plurality of idea1 the verb and pronoun must be plural4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,they have spent their whole time to make the sacred chronology agree with that of the profane4--,ib41 p4 #hg4 ',i have studied my lesson1 but you have not2' that is1 'but you have not studied it4'--,ib41 p4 #aji4 ,when words follow each other in pairs1 there is a comma between each pair4--,ib41 p4 #aab2 ,bullions1 #aeb2 ,lennie1 #acb4 ,when words follow each other in pairs1 the pairs should be marked by the comma4--,farnum's ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,his ',studies of ,nature1' is deservedly a popular work4--,univ4 ,biog4 ,dict41 n4 ,st4 ,pierre4 ',here lies his head1 a youth to fortune and to fame unknown4' ',youth1' here is in the possessive 7the sign being omitted71 and is in apposition with his4' ,the meaning is1 'the head of him1 a youth4' c4--,hart's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #abd4 ,the pronoun ,i1 and the interjection ,o1 should be written with a capital4--,weld's ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #af4 ,the pronoun ,i always should be written with a capital letter4--,ib41 p4 #fh4 ,he went from ,england to ,york4--,ib41 p4 #da4 ,an adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs1 adjectives and other adverbs1 to modify their meaning4--,ib41 p4 #ea2 ,abridged ,ed41 #df4 ,singular1 signifies 'one person or thing4' ,plural1 7,latin plus17 signifies 'more than one4'--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,when the present ends in e1 d only is added to form the ,imperfect and ,perfect participle4--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,,syn,,resis is the contraction of two syllables into one2 as1 ,seest for see-est1 drowned for drown-ed--,ib41 p4 #bac4 ,words ending in ee drop the final e on receiving an additional syllable beginning with e2 as1 see1 seest1 agree1 agreed4--,ib41 p1 #bbg4 ,monosyllables in f1 l1 or s1 preceded by a single vowel are doubled2 as1 staff1 grass1 mill4--,ib41 p4 #bbf4 ,words ending ie drop the e and take y2 as die1 dying4--,ib41 p4 #bbf4 ,one number may be used for another2 as1 we for ,i1 you for thou4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #aih4 ,,str,,ob,,ile1 n4 ,a pericarp made up of scales that lie over each other4 ,,smart4--,worcester's ,univ4 and ,crit4 ,dict4 ,yet ever from the clearest source have ran ,some gross allay1 some tincture of the man4--,dr4 ,lowth4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,various ,,rules4 ,the possessive case is always followed by the noun which is the name of the thing possessed1 expressed or understood4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #fa2 ,revised ,edition1 pp4 #fd and #hf4 ,hadmer of ,aggstein was as pious1 devout1 and praying a ,christian1 as were ,nelson1 ,washington1 or ,jefferson2 or as are ,wellington1 ,tyler1 ,clay1 or ,polk4--,h4 ,c4 ,,wright3 ,liberator1 ,vol4 xv1 p4 #ba4 ,a word in the possessive case is not an independent noun1 and cannot stand by its self4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #acj4 ,mary is not handsome1 but she is good-natured1 which is better than beauty4--,st4 ,quentin's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,after the practice of joining words together had ceased1 notes of distinction were placed at the end of every word4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bfg2 ,hallock's1 #bbd4 ,neither ,henry nor ,charles dissipate his time4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ',he had taken from the ,christians' abode thirty small castles4'--,knowles4--,ib41 p4 #fa4 ,in whatever character ,butler was admitted1 is unknown4--,ib41 p4 #fb4 ,how is the agent of a passive1 and the object of an active verb often left8--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,by subject is meant the word of which something is declared of its object4--,chandler's ,gram41 #ahba1 p4 #ajc4 ,care should also be taken that an intransitive verb is not used instead of a transitive3 as1 ,i lay1 7the bricks7 for1 ,i lie down2 ,i raise the house1 for ,i rise2 ,i sit down1 for1 ,i set the chair down1 c4--,ib41 p4 #aad4 ,on them depend the duration of our ,constitution and our country4--,j4 ,c4 ,calhoun at ,memphis4 ,in the present sentence neither the sense nor the measure require what4--,chandler's ,gram41 #ahba1 p4 #afd4 ,the ,irish thought themselves oppress'd by the ,law that forbid them to draw with their ,horses ,tails4--,brightland's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 iii4 ,so willingly are adverbs1 qualifying deceives4--,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #ij4 ,epicurus for experiment sake confined himself to a narrower diet than that of the severest prisons4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,derivative words are such as are compounded of other words1 as common-wealth1 good-ness1 false-hood4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,the distinction here insisted on is as old as ,aristotle1 and should not be lost sight of4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,the ,tenses of the ,subjunctive and the ,potential ,moods4--,ib41 p4 #hj4 ,a triphthong is a union of three vowels uttered in like manner3 as1 uoy in buoy4--,p4 ,davis's ,practical ,gram41 p4 xvi4 ,common nouns are the names of a species or kind4--,ib41 p4 #h4 ,the superlative degree is a comparison between three or more4--,ib41 p4 #ad4 ,an adverb is a word or phrase serving to give an additional idea of a verb1 and adjective1 article1 or another adverb4--,ib41 p4 #cf4 ,when several nouns in the possessive case succeed each other1 each showing possession of the same noun1 it is only necessary to add the sign of the possessive to the last3 as1 ,he sells men1 women1 and children's shoes4 ,dog4 cat1 and tiger's feet are digitated4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,a rail-road is making should be ,a rail-road is being made4 ,a school-house is building1 should be ,a school-house is being built4--,ib41 p4 #aac4 ,auxiliaries are not of themselves verbs2 they resemble in their character and use those terminational or other inflections in other languages1 which we are obliged to use in ours to express the action in the mode1 tense1 c41 desired4--,ib41 p4 #aeh4 ,please hold my horse while ,i speak to my friend4--,ib41 p4 #aei4 ,if ,i say1 ',give me the book1' ,i ask for some particular book4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,there are five men here4--,ib41 p4 #acd4 ,in the active the object may be omitted2 in the passive the name of the agent may be omitted4--,ib41 p4 #fc4 ,the ,progressive and the ,emphatic forms give in each case a different shade of meaning to the verb4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,that is a ,kind of a ,redditive ,conjunction1 when it answers to so and such4--,w4 ,ward's ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ,he attributes to negligence your failing to succeed in that business4--,smart's ,accidence1 p4 #cf4 ,does will and go express but our action8--,s4 ,barrett's ,revised ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,language is the principle vehicle of thought4 ,g4 ,,brown4--,james ,brown's ,english ,syntax1 p4 #c4 ,much is applied to things weighed or measured2 many1 to those that are numbered4 ,elder and eldest1 to persons only2 older and oldest1 either to persons or things4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bj2 ,pract4 ,les41 #be4 ,if there are any old maids still extant1 while mysogonists are so rare1 the fault must be attributable to themselves4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #bhf4 ,the second method used by the ,greeks1 has never been the practice of any part of ,europe4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #fd4 ,neither consonant1 nor vowel1 are to be dwelt upon beyond their common quantity1 when they close a sentence4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,,irony is a mode of speech expressing a sense contrary to that which the speaker or writer intends to convey4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #aif2 #aacth ,ed41 p4 #bab4 ,,irony is the intentional use of words in a sense contrary to that which the writer or speaker intends to convey4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #bae2 ,imp4 ,ed41 #baf4 ,the persons speaking1 or spoken to1 are supposed to be present4--,wells1 p4 #fh4 ,the persons speaking and spoken to are supposed to be present4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,a ,noun is a word used to express the name of an object4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 pp4 #df and #dg4 ,a syllable is a word1 or such a part of a word as is uttered by one articulation4--,weld's ,english ,gram41 p4 #ae2 ,abridged ,ed41 p4 #af4 ,thus wondrous fair2 thyself how wondrous then6 ,unspeakable1 who sits above these heavens4 --,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #aca4 ,and feel thy sovereign vital lamp2 but thou ,revisitest not these eyes1 that roll in vain4 --,felton's ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,before all temples the upright and pure4 --,butler's ,gram41 p4 #aie4 ,in forest wild1 in thicket1 break or den4 --,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #acj4 ,the rogue and fool by fits is fair and wise2 ,and e'en the best1 by fits1 what they despise4 --,pope's ,ess41 iii1 #bcc4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4--,,questions4 ,,order ,,of ,,rehearsal1 ,,and ,,method ,,of ,,examination4 ,,part ,,third1 ,,syntax4 ,fist,the following questions1 which embrace nearly all the important particulars of the foregoing code of ,syntax1 are designed not only to direct and facilitate class rehearsals1 but also to develop the acquirements of those who may answer them at examinations more public4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,definitions4 #a4 ,of what does ,syntax treat8 #b4 ,what is the relation of words8 #c4 ,what is the agreement of words8 #d4 ,what is the government of words8 #e4 ,what is the arrangement of words8 #f4 ,what is a sentence8 #g4 ,how many and what are the principal parts of a sentence8 #h4 ,what are the other parts called8 #i4 ,how many kinds of sentences are there8 #aj4 ,what is a simple sentence8 #aa4 ,what is a compound sentence8 #ab4 ,what is a clause1 or member8 #ac4 ,what is a phrase8 #ad4 ,what words must be supplied in parsing8 #ae4 ,how are the leading principles of syntax presented8 #af4 ,in what order are the rules of syntax arranged in this work8 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,the ,,rules4 #a4 ,to what do articles relate8 #b4 ,what case is employed as the subject of a finite verb8 #c4 ,what agreement is required between words in apposition8 #d4 ,by what is the possessive case governed8 #e4 ,what case does an active-transitive verb or participle govern8 #f4 ,what case is put after a verb or participle not transitive8 #g4 ,what case do prepositions govern8 #h4 ,when1 and in what case1 is a noun or pronoun put absolute in ,english8 #i4 ,to what do adjectives relate8 #aj4 ,how does a pronoun agree with its antecedent8 #aa4 ,how does a pronoun agree with a collective noun8 #ab4 ,how does a pronoun agree with joint antecedents8 #ac4 ,how does a pronoun agree with disjunct antecedents8 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,the ,,rules4 #ad4 ,how does a finite verb agree with its subject1 or nominative8 #ae4 ,how does a verb agree with a collective noun8 #af4 ,how does a verb agree with joint nominatives8 #ag4 ,how does a verb agree with disjunctive nominatives8 #ah4 ,what governs the infinitive mood8 #ai4 ,what verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition to8 #bj4 ,what is the regular construction of participles1 as such8 #ba4 ,to what do adverbs relate8 #bb4 ,what do conjunctions connect8 #bc4 ,what is the use of prepositions8 #bd4 ,what is the syntax of interjections8 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,the ,,rules4 #a4 ,what are the several titles1 or subjects1 of the twenty-four rules of syntax8 #b4 ,what says ,rule #ast of ,articles8 #c4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of ,nominatives8 #d4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of ,apposition8 #e4 ,what says ,rule #dth of ,possessives8 #f4 ,what says ,rule #eth of ,objectives8 #g4 ,what says ,rule #fth of ,same ,cases8 #h4 ,what says ,rule #gth of ,objectives8 #i4 ,what says ,rule #hth of the ,nominative ,absolute8 #aj4 ,what says ,rule #ith of ,adjectives8 #aa4 ,what says ,rule #ajth of ,pronouns8 #ab4 ,what says ,rule #aath of ,pronouns8 #ac4 ,what says ,rule #abth of ,pronouns8 #ad4 ,what says ,rule #acth of ,pronouns8 #ae4 ,what says ,rule #adth of ,finite ,verbs8 #af4 ,what says ,rule #aeth of ,finite ,verbs8 #ag4 ,what says ,rule #afth of ,finite ,verbs8 #ah4 ,what says ,rule #agth of ,finite ,verbs8 #ai4 ,what says ,rule #ahth of ,infinitives8 #bj4 ,what says ,rule #aith of ,infinitives8 #ba4 ,what says ,rule #bjth of ,participles8 #bb4 ,what says ,rule #bast of ,adverbs8 #bc4 ,what says ,rule #bb;d of ,conjunctions8 #bd4 ,what says ,rule #bc;d of ,prepositions8 #be4 ,what says ,rule #bdth of ,interjections8 ,,lesson ,v4--,,the ,,analyzing ,,of ,,sentences4 #a4 ,what is it1 to analyze a sentence8 #b4 ,what are the component parts of a sentence8 #c4 ,can all sentences be divided into clauses8 #d4 ,are there different methods of analysis1 which may be useful8 #e4 ,what is the first method of analysis1 according to this code of syntax8 #f4 ,how is the following example analyzed by this method8 ,even the ,atheist1 who tells us that the universe is self-existent and indestructible--even he1 who1 instead of seeing the traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties1 sees nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty dimensions of materialism--even he1 who would despoil creation of its ,god1 cannot look upon its golden suns1 and their accompanying systems1 without the solemn impression of a magnificence that fixes and overpowers him4 #g4 ,what is the second method of analysis8 #h4 ,how is the following example analyzed by this method8 ,fear naturally quickens the flight of guilt4 ,rasselas could not catch the fugitive1 with his utmost efforts2 but1 resolving to weary1 by perseverance1 him whom he could not surpass in speed1 he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course4 #i4 ,what is the third method of analysis8 #aj4 ,how is the following example analyzed by this method8 ,such is the emptiness of human enjoyment1 that we are always impatient of the present4 ,attainment is followed by neglect1 and possession1 by disgust4 ,few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking4 ,from the first hint that wakens the fancy1 to the hour of actual execution1 all is improvement and progress1 triumph and felicity4 #aa4 ,what is the fourth method of analysis8 #ab4 ,how are the following sentences analyzed by this method8 7#a47 ,swift would say1 ',the thing has not life enough in it to keep it sweet2' ,johnson1 ',the creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction4' 7#b47 ,there is one ,being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security1 which nothing about us can give1 and which nothing about us can take away4 #ac4 ,what is said of the fifth method of analysis8 ,now1 if the teacher choose to make use of any other method of analysis than full syntactical parsing1 he may direct his pupils to turn to the next selection of examples1 or to any other accurate sentences1 and analyze them according to the method chosen4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,of ,,parsing4 #a4 ,why is it necessary to observe the sense1 or meaning1 of what we parse8 #b4 ,what is required of the pupil in syntactical parsing8 #c4 ,how is the following long example parsed in ,praxis ,,xii8 ,a young man studious to know his duty1 and honestly bent on doing it1 will find himself led away from the sin or folly in which the multitude thoughtlessly indulge themselves2 but1 ah6 poor fallen human nature6 what conflicts are thy portion1 when inclination and habit--a rebel and a traitor--exert their sway against our only saving principle6 ,now parse1 in like manner1 and with no needless deviations from the prescribed forms1 the ten lessons of the ,twelfth ,praxis2 or such parts of those lessons as the teacher may choose4 ,,lesson ,,vii4--,,the ,,rules4 #a4 ,in what chapter are the rules of syntax first presented8 #b4 ,in what praxis are these rules first applied in parsing8 #c4 ,which of the ten parts of speech is left without any rule of syntax8 #d4 ,how many and which of the ten have but one rule apiece8 #e4 ,then1 of the twenty-four rules1 how many remain for the other three parts1--nouns1 pronouns1 and verbs8 #f4 ,how many of these seventeen speak of cases1 and therefore apply equally to nouns and pronouns8 #g4 ,which are these seven8 #h4 ,how many rules are there for the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents1 and which are they8 #i4 ,how many rules are there for finite verbs1 and which are they8 #aj4 ,how many are there for infinitives1 and which are they8 #aa4 ,what ten chapters of the foregoing code of syntax treat of the ten parts of speech in their order8 #ab4 ,besides the rules and their examples1 what sorts of matters are introduced into these chapters8 #ac4 ,how many of the twenty-four rules of syntax are used both in parsing and in correcting8 #ad4 ,of what use are those which cannot be violated in practice8 #ae4 ,how many such rules are there among the twenty-four8 #af4 ,how many and what parts of speech are usually parsed by such rules only8 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,the ,,notes4 #a4 ,what is the essential character of the ,notes which are placed under the rules of syntax8 #b4 ,are the different forms of false construction as numerous as these notes8 #c4 ,which exercise brings into use the greater number of grammatical principles1 parsing or correcting8 #d4 ,are the principles or doctrines which are applied in these different exercises usually the same1 or are they different8 #e4 ,in etymological parsing1 we use about seventy definitions2 can these be used also in the correcting of errors8 #f4 ,for the correcting of false syntax1 we have a hundred and fifty-two notes2 can these be used also in parsing8 #g4 ,how many of the rules have no such notes under them8 #h4 ,what order is observed in the placing of these notes1 if some rules have many1 and others few or none8 #i4 ,how many of them are under the rule for articles8 #aj4 ,how many of them refer to the construction of nouns8 #aa4 ,how many of them belong to the syntax of adjectives8 #ab4 ,how many of them treat of pronouns8 #ac4 ,how many of them regard the use of verbs8 #ad4 ,how many of them pertain to the syntax of participles8 #ae4 ,how many of them relate to the construction of adverbs8 #af4 ,how many of them show the application of conjunctions8 #ag4 ,how many of them expose errors in the use of prepositions8 #ah4 ,how many of them speak of interjections8 ,now correct orally the examples of ,false ,syntax placed under the several ,rules and ,notes2 or so many texts under each head as the teacher may think sufficient4 ,,lesson ,,ix4--,,the ,,exceptions4 #a4 ,in what exercise can there be occasion to cite and apply the ,exceptions to the rules of syntax8 #b4 ,are there exceptions to all the rules1 or to how many8 #c4 ,are there exceptions in reference to all the parts of speech1 or to how many of the ten8 #d4 ,do articles always relate to nouns8 #e4 ,can the subject of a finite verb be in any other case than the nominative8 #f4 ,are words in apposition always supposed to be in the same case8 #g4 ,is the possessive case always governed by the name of the thing possessed8 #h4 ,can an active-transitive verb govern any other case than the objective8 #i4 ,can a verb or participle not transitive take any other case after it than that which precedes it8 #aj4 ,can a preposition1 in ,english1 govern any other case than the objective8 #aa4 ,can the case absolute1 in ,english1 be any other than the nominative8 #ab4 ,does every adjective belong to a substantive1 expressed or understood1 as ,murray avers8 #ac4 ,can an adjective ever relate to any thing else than a noun or pronoun8 #ad4 ,can an adjective ever be used without relation to any noun1 pronoun1 or other subject8 #ae4 ,can an adjective ever be substituted for its kindred abstract noun8 #af4 ,are the person1 number1 and gender of a pronoun always determined by an antecedent8 #ag4 ,what pronoun is sometimes applied to animals so as not to distinguish their sex8 #ah4 ,what pronoun is sometimes an expletive1 and sometimes used with reference to an infinitive following it8 ,,lesson ,x4--,,the ,,exceptions4 #ai4 ,does a singular antecedent ever admit of a plural pronoun8 #bj4 ,can a pronoun agree with its antecedent in one sense and not in an other8 #ba4 ,if the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 must the pronoun always be plural8 #bb4 ,if there are two or more antecedents connected by and1 must the pronoun always be plural8 #bc4 ,if there are antecedents connected by or or nor1 is the pronoun always to take them separately8 #bd4 ,must a finite verb always agree with its nominative in number and person8 #be4 ,if the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 must the verb always be plural8 #bf4 ,if there are two or more nominatives connected by and1 must the verb always be plural8 #ba4 ,if there are nominatives connected by or or nor1 is the verb always to refer to them separately8 #bh4 ,does the preposition to before the infinitive always govern the verb8 #bi4 ,can the preposition to govern or precede any other mood than the infinitive8 #cj4 ,is the preposition to understood after bid1 dare1 feel1 and so forth1 where it is superfluous and improper8 #ca4 ,how many and what exceptions are there to rule #bjth1 concerning participles8 #cb4 ,how many and what exceptions are there to the rule for adverbs8 #cc4 ,how many and what exceptions are there to the rule for conjunctions8 #cd4 ,how many and what exceptions are there to the rule for prepositions8 #ce4 ,is there any exception to the #bdth rule1 concerning interjections8 ,,lesson ,,xi4--,,the ,,observations4 #a4 ,how many of the ten parts of speech in ,english are in general incapable of any agreement8 #b4 ,can there be a syntactical relation of words without either agreement or government8 #c4 ,is there ever any needful agreement between unrelated words8 #d4 ,is the mere relation of words according to the sense an element of much importance in ,english syntax8 #e4 ,what parts of speech have no other syntactical property than that of simple relation8 #f4 ,what rules of relation are commonly found in grammars8 #g4 ,of what parts is syntax commonly said to consist8 #h4 ,is it common to find in grammars1 the rules of syntax well adapted to their purpose8 #i4 ,can you specify some that appear to be faulty8 #aj4 ,wherein consists the truth of grammatical doctrine1 and how can one judge of what others teach8 #aa4 ,do those who speak of syntax as being divided into two parts1 ,concord and ,government1 commonly adhere to such division8 #ab4 ,what false concords and false governments are cited in ,obs4 #gth of the first chapter8 #ac4 ,is it often expedient to join in the same rule such principles as must always be applied separately8 #ad4 ,when one can condense several different principles into one rule1 is it not expedient to do so8 #ae4 ,is it ever convenient to have one and the same rule applicable to different parts of speech8 #af4 ,is it ever convenient to have rules divided into parts1 so as to be double or triple in their form8 #ag4 ,what instance of extravagant innovation is given in ,obs4 #abth of the first chapter8 ,,lesson ,,xii4--,,the ,,observations4 #ah4 ,can a uniform series of good grammars1 ,latin1 ,greek1 ,english1 c41 be produced by a mere revising of one defective book for each language8 #ai4 ,whose are ,the ,principles of ,english ,grammar which ,dr4 ,bullions has republished with alterations1 on the plan of ,murray's ,grammar8 #bj4 ,can praise and success entitle to critical notice works in themselves unworthy of it8 #ba4 ,do the ,latin grammarians agree in their enumeration of the concords in ,latin8 #bb4 ,what is said in ,obs4 #afth1 of the plan of mixing syntax with etymology8 #bc4 ,do not the principles of etymology affect those of syntax8 #bd4 ,can any words agree1 or disagree1 except in something that belongs to each of them8 #be4 ,how many and what parts of speech are concerned in government8 #bf4 ,are rules of government to be applied to the governing words1 or to the governed8 #bg4 ,what are gerundives8 #bh4 ,how many and what are the principles of syntax which belong to the head of simple relation8 #bi4 ,how many agreements1 or concords1 are there in ,english syntax8 #cj4 ,how many rules of government are there in the best ,latin grammars8 #ca4 ,what fault is there in the usual distribution of these rules8 #cb4 ,how many and what are the governments in ,english syntax8 #cc4 ,can the parsing of words be varied by any transposition which does not change their import8 #cd4 ,can the parsing of words be affected by the parser's notion of what constitutes a simple sentence8 #ce4 ,what explanation of simple and compound sentences is cited from ,dr4 ,wilson1 in ,obs4 #be8 #cf4 ,what notion had ,dr4 ,adam of simple and compound sentences8 #cg4 ,is this doctrine consistent either with itself or with ,wilson's8 #ch4 ,how can one's notion of ellipsis affect his mode of parsing1 and his distinction of sentences as simple or compound8 ,,lesson ,,xiii4--,,articles4 #a4 ,can one noun have more than one article8 #b4 ,can one article relate to more than one noun8 #c4 ,why cannot the omission of an article constitute a proper ellipsis8 #d4 ,what is the position of the article with respect to its noun8 #e4 ,what is the usual position of the article with respect to an adjective and a noun8 #f4 ,can the relative position of the article and adjective be a matter of indifference8 #g4 ,what adjectives exclude1 or supersede1 the article8 #h4 ,what adjectives precede the article8 #i4 ,what four adverbs affect the position of the article and adjective8 #aj4 ,do other adverbs come between the article and the adjective8 #aa4 ,can any of the definitives which preclude an or a1 be used with the adjective one8 #ab4 ,when the adjective follows its noun1 where stands the article8 #ac4 ,can the article in ,english1 ever be placed after its noun8 #ad4 ,what is the effect of the word the before comparatives and superlatives8 #ae4 ,what article may sometimes be used in lieu of a possessive pronoun8 #af4 ,is the article an or a always supposed to imply unity8 #ag4 ,respecting an or a1 how does present usage differ from the usage of ancient writers8 #ah4 ,can the insertion or omission of an article greatly affect the import of a sentence8 #ai4 ,by a repetition of the article before two or more adjectives1 what other repetition is implied8 #bj4 ,how do we sometimes avoid such repetition8 #ba4 ,can there ever be an implied repetition of the noun when no article is used8 ,,lesson ,,xiv4--,,nouns1 ,,or ,,cases4 #a4 ,in how many different ways can the nominative case be used8 #b4 ,what is the usual position of the nominative and verb1 and when is it varied8 #c4 ,with what nominatives of the second person1 does the imperative verb agree8 #d4 ,why is it thought improper to put a noun in two cases at once8 #e4 ,what case in ,latin and ,greek is reckoned the subject of the infinitive mood8 #f4 ,can this1 in general1 be literally imitated in ,english8 #g4 ,do any ,english authors adopt the ,latin doctrine of the accusative 7or objective7 before the infinitive8 #h4 ,is the objective1 when it occurs before the infinitive in ,english1 usually governed by some verb1 participle1 or preposition8 #i4 ,what is our nearest approach to the ,latin construction of the accusative before the infinitive8 #aj4 ,what is apposition1 and from whom did it receive this name8 #aa4 ,is there a construction of like cases1 that is not apposition8 #ab4 ,to which of the apposite terms is the rule for apposition to be applied8 #ac4 ,are words in apposition always to be parsed separately8 #ad4 ,wherein are the common rule and definition of apposition faulty8 #ae4 ,can the explanatory word ever be placed first8 #af4 ,is it ever indifferent1 which word be called the principal1 and which the explanatory term8 #ag4 ,why cannot two nouns1 each having the possessive sign1 be put in apposition with each other8 #ah4 ,where must the sign of possession be put1 when two or more possessives are in apposition8 #ai4 ,is it compatible with apposition to supply between the words a relative and a verb2 as1 ,at ,mr4 ,smith's who is the bookseller8 #bj4 ,how can a noun be1 or seem to be1 in apposition with a possessive pronoun8 #ba4 ,what construction is produced by the repetition of a noun or pronoun8 #bb4 ,what is the construction of a noun1 when it emphatically repeats the idea suggested by a preceding sentence8 ,,lesson ,,xv4--,,nouns1 ,,or ,,cases4 #bc4 ,can words differing in number be in apposition with each other8 #bd4 ,what is the usual construction of each other and one an other8 #be4 ,is there any argument from analogy for taking each other and one an other for compounds8 #bf4 ,do we often put proper nouns in apposition with appellatives8 #bg4 ,what preposition is often put between nouns that signify the same thing8 #bh4 ,when is an active verb followed by two words in apposition8 #bi4 ,does apposition require any other agreement than that of case8 #cj4 ,what three modes of construction appear like exceptions to ,rule #dth8 #ca4 ,in the phrase1 ,for ,david my servant's sake1 which word is governed by sake1 and which is to be parsed by the rule of apposition8 #cb4 ,in the sentence1 ,it is man's to err1 what is supposed to govern man's8 #cc4 ,does the possessive case admit of any abstract sense or construction8 #cd4 ,why is it reasonable to limit the government of the possessive to nouns only1 or to words taken substantive8 #ce4 ,does the possessive case before a real participle denote the possessor of something8 #cf4 ,what two great authors differ in regard to the correctness of the phrases1 upon the rule's being observed1 and of its being neglected8 #cg4 ,is either of them right in his argument8 #ch4 ,is the distinction between the participial noun and the participle well preserved by ,murray and his amenders8 #ci4 ,who invented the doctrine1 that a participle and its adjuncts may be used as one name and in that capacity govern the possessive8 #dj4 ,have any popular authors adopted this doctrine8 #da4 ,is the doctrine well sustained by its adopters1 or is it consistent with the analogy of general grammar8 #db4 ,when one doubts whether a participle ought to be the governing word or the adjunct1--that is1 whether he ought to use the possessive case before it or the objective1--what shall he do8 #dc1 ,what is objected to the sentences in which participles govern the possessive case1 and particularly to the examples given by ,priestley1 ,murray1 and others1 to prove such a construction right8 #dd4 ,do the teachers of this doctrine agree among themselves8 #de4 ,how does the author of this work generally dispose of such government8 #df4 ,does he positively determine1 that the participle should never be allowed to govern the possessive case8 ,,lesson ,,xvi4--,,nouns1 ,,or ,,cases4 #dg4 ,are the distinctions of voice and of time as much regarded in participial nouns as in participles8 #dh4 ,why cannot an omission of the possessive sign be accounted a true ellipsis8 #di4 ,what is the usual position of the possessive case1 and what exceptions are there8 #ej4 ,in what other form can the meaning of the possessive case be expressed8 #ea4 ,is the possessive often governed by what is not expressed8 #eb4 ,does every possessive sign imply a separate governing noun8 #ec4 ,how do compounds take the sign of possession8 #ed4 ,do we put the sign of possession always and only where the two terms of the possessive relation meet8 #ee4 ,can the possessive sign be ever rightly added to a separate adjective8 #ef4 ,what is said of the omission of s from the possessive singular on account of its hissing sound8 #eg4 ,what errors do ,kirkham1 ,smith1 and others1 teach concerning the possessive singular8 #eh4 ,why is ,murray's rule for the possessive case objectionable8 #ei4 ,do compounds embracing the possessive case appear to be written with sufficient uniformity8 #fj4 ,what rules for nouns coming together are inserted in ,obs4 #cast on ,rule #dth8 #fa4 ,does the compounding of words necessarily preclude their separate use8 #fb4 ,is there a difference worth notice1 between such terms or things as heart-ease and heart's-ease2 a harelip and a hare's lip2 a headman and a headsman2 a lady's-slipper and a lady's slipper8 #fc4 ,where usage is utterly unsettled1 what guidance should be sought8 #fd4 ,what peculiarities are noticed in regard to the noun side8 #fe4 ,what peculiarities has the possessive case in regard to correlatives8 #ff4 ,what is remarked of the possessive relation between time and action8 #fg4 ,what is observed of nouns of weight1 measure1 or time1 coming immediately together8 ,,lesson ,,xvii4--,,nouns1 ,,or ,,cases4 #fh4 ,are there any exceptions or objections to the old rule1 ,active verbs govern the objective case8 #fi4 ,of how many different constructions is the objective case susceptible8 #gj4 ,what is the usual position of the objective case1 and what exceptions are there8 #ga4 ,can any thing but the governing of an objective noun or pronoun make an active verb transitive8 #gb4 ,in the sentence1 ,what have ,i to do with thee8 how are have and do to be parsed8 #gc4 ,can infinitives1 participles1 phrases1 sentences1 and parts of sentences1 be really in the objective case8 #gd4 ,in the sentence1 ,i know why she blushed1 how is know to be parsed8 #ge4 ,in the sentence1 ,i know that ,messias cometh1 how are know and that to be parsed8 #gf4 ,in the sentence1 ,and ,simon he surnamed ,peter1 how are ,simon and ,peter to be parsed8 #gg4 ,in such sentences as1 ,i paid him the money1--,he asked them the question1 how are the two objectives to be parsed8 #gh4 ,does any verb in ,english ever govern two objectives that are not coupled8 #gi4 ,are there any of our passive verbs that can properly govern the objective case8 #hj4 ,is not our language like the ,latin1 in respect to verbs governing two cases1 and passives retaining the latter8 #ha4 ,how do our grammarians now dispose of what remains to us of the old ,saxon dative case8 #hb4 ,do any reputable writers allow passive verbs to govern the objective case8 #hc4 ,what says ,lindley ,murray about this passive government8 #hd4 ,why is the position1 ,active verbs govern the objective case1 of no use to the composer8 #he4 ,on what is the construction of same cases founded8 #hf4 ,does this construction admit of any variety in the position of the words8 #hg4 ,does an ellipsis of the verb or participle change this construction into apposition8 #hh4 ,is it ever right to put both terms before the verb8 #hi4 ,what kinds of words can take different cases after them8 #ij4 ,can a participle which is governed by a preposition1 have a case after it which is governed by neither8 #ia4 ,how is the word man to be parsed in the following example8 ,the atrocious crime of being a young man1 ,i shall neither attempt to palliate1 nor deny4 ,,lesson ,,xviii4--,,nouns1 ,,or ,,cases4 #ib4 ,in what kinds of examples do we meet with a doubtful case after a participle8 #ic4 ,is the case after the verb reckoned doubtful1 when the subject going before is a sentence1 or something not declinable by cases8 #id4 ,in the sentence1 ,it is certainly as easy to be a scholar1 as a gamester1 what is the case of scholar and gamester1 and why8 #ie4 ,are there any verbs that sometimes connect like cases1 and sometimes govern the objective8 #if4 ,what faults are there in the rules given by ,lowth1 ,murray1 ,smith1 and others1 for the construction of like cases8 #ig4 ,can a preposition ever govern any thing else than a noun or a pronoun8 #ih4 ,is every thing that a preposition governs1 necessarily supposed to have cases1 and to be in the objective8 #ii4 ,why or wherein is the common rule1 ,prepositions govern the objective case1 defective or insufficient8 #ajj4 ,in such phrases as in vain1 at first1 in particular1 how is the adjective to be parsed8 #aja4 ,in such expressions as1 ,i give it up for lost1--,i take it for granted1 how is the participle to be parsed8 #ajb4 ,in such phrases as1 at once1 from thence1 till now1 how is the latter word to be parsed8 #ajc4 ,what peculiarity is there in the construction of nouns of time1 measure1 distance1 or value8 #ajd4 ,what is observed of the words like1 near1 and nigh8 #aje4 ,what is observed of the word worth8 #ajf4 ,according to ,johnson and ,tooke1 what is worth1 in such phrases as1 ,wo worth the day8 #ajg4 ,after verbs of giving1 paying1 and the like1 what ellipsis is apt to occur8 #ajh4 ,what is observed of the nouns used in dates8 #aji4 ,what defect is observable in the common rules for the case absolute1 or the nominative independent8 #aaj4 ,in how many ways is the nominative case put absolute8 #aaa4 ,what participle is often understood after nouns put absolute8 #aab4 ,in how many ways can nouns of the second person be employed8 #aac4 ,what is said of nouns used in exclamations1 or in mottoes and abbreviated sayings8 #aad4 ,what is observed of such phrases as1 hand to hand1--face to face8 #aae4 ,what authors deny the existence of the case absolute8 ,,lesson ,,xix4--,,adjectives4 #a4 ,does the adjective frequently relate to what is not uttered with it8 #b4 ,what is observed of those rules which suppose every adjective to relate to some noun8 #c4 ,to what does the adjective usually relate1 when it stands alone after a finite verb8 #d4 ,where is the noun or pronoun1 when an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle8 #e4 ,what is observed of adjectives preceded by the and used elliptically8 #f4 ,what is said of the position of the adjective8 #g4 ,in what instances is the adjective placed after its noun8 #h4 ,in what instances may the adjective either precede or follow the noun8 #i4 ,what are the construction and import of the phrases1 in particular1 in general1 and the like8 #aj4 ,what is said of adjectives as agreeing or disagreeing with their nouns in number8 #aa4 ,what is observed of this and that as referring to two nouns connected8 #ab4 ,what is remarked of the use of adjectives for adverbs8 #ac4 ,how can one determine whether an adjective or an adverb is required8 #ad4 ,what is remarked of the placing of two or more adjectives before one noun8 #ae4 ,how can one avoid the ambiguity which ,dr4 ,priestley notices in the use of the adjective no8 ,,lesson ,,xx4--,,pronouns4 #a4 ,can such pronouns as stand for things not named1 be said to agree with the nouns for which they are substituted8 #b4 ,is the pronoun we singular when it is used in lieu of ,i8 #c4 ,is the pronoun you singular when used in lieu of thou or thee8 #d4 ,what is there remarkable in the construction of ourself and yourself8 #e4 ,of what person1 number1 and gender1 is the relative1 when put after such terms of address as1 your ,majesty1 your ,highness1 your ,lordship1 your ,honour8 #f4 ,how does the ,english fashion of putting you for thou1 compare with the usage of the ,french1 and of other nations8 #g4 ,do any imagine these fashionable substitutions to be morally objectionable8 #h4 ,what figures of rhetoric are liable to affect the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents8 #i4 ,how does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of personification8 #aj4 ,how does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metaphor8 #aa4 ,how does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metonymy8 #ab4 ,how does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of synecdoche8 #ac4 ,what is the usual position of pronouns1 and what exceptions are there8 #ad4 ,when a pronoun represents a phrase or sentence1 of what person1 number1 and gender is it8 #ae4 ,under what circumstances can a pronoun agree with either of two antecedents8 #af4 ,with what does the relative agree when an other word is introduced by the pronoun it8 #ag4 ,in the sentence1 ,it is useless to complain1 what does it represent8 #ah4 ,how are relative and interrogative pronouns placed8 #ai4 ,what are the chief constructional peculiarities of the relative pronouns8 #bj4 ,why does the author discard the two special rules commonly given for the construction of relatives8 ,,lesson ,,xxi4--,,pronouns4 #ba4 ,to what part of speech is the greatest number of rules applied in parsing8 #bb4 ,of the twenty-four rules in this work1 how many are applicable to pronouns8 #bc4 ,of the seven rules for cases1 how many are applicable to relatives and interrogatives8 #bd4 ,what is remarked of the ellipsis or omission of the relative8 #be4 ,what is said of the suppression of the antecedent8 #bf4 ,what is noted of the word which1 as applied to persons8 #bg4 ,what relative is applied to a proper noun taken merely as a name8 #bh4 ,when do we employ the same relative in successive clauses8 #bi4 ,what odd use is sometimes made of the pronoun your8 #cj4 ,under what figure of syntax did the old grammarians rank the plural construction of a noun of multitude8 #ca4 ,does a collective noun with a singular definitive before it ever admit of a plural verb or pronoun8 #cb4 ,do collective nouns generally admit of being made literally plural8 #cc4 ,when joint antecedents are of different persons1 with which person does the pronoun agree8 #cd4 ,when joint antecedents differ in gender1 of what gender is the pronoun8 #ce4 ,why is it wrong to say1 ,the first has a lenis1 and the other an asper over them8 #cf4 ,can nouns without and be taken jointly1 as if they had it8 #cg4 ,can singular antecedents be so suggested as to require a plural pronoun1 when only one of them is uttered8 #ch4 ,why do singular antecedents connected by or or nor appear to require a singular pronoun8 #ci4 ,can different antecedents connected by or be accurately represented by differing pronouns connected in the same way8 #dj4 ,why are we apt to use a plural pronoun after antecedents of different genders8 #da4 ,do the ,latin grammars teach the same doctrine as the ,english1 concerning nominatives or antecedents connected disjunctively8 ,,lesson ,,xxii4--,,verbs4 #a4 ,what is necessary to every finite verb8 #b4 ,what is remarked of such examples as this3 ,the ,pleasures of ,memory was published in #agjb8 #c4 ,what is to be done with ,thinks ,i to myself1 and the like8 #d4 ,is it right to say with ,smith1 ,every hundred years constitutes a century8 #e4 ,what needless ellipses both of nominatives and of verbs are commonly supposed by our grammarians8 #f4 ,what actual ellipsis usually occurs with the imperative mood8 #g4 ,what is observed concerning the place of the verb8 #h4 ,what besides a noun or a pronoun may be made the subject of a verb8 #i4 ,what is remarked of the faulty omission of the pronoun it before the verb8 #aj ,when an infinitive phrase is made the subject of a verb1 do the words remain adjuncts1 or are they abstract8 #aa4 ,how can we introduce a noun or pronoun before the infinitive1 and still make the whole phrase the subject of a finite verb8 #ab4 ,can an objective before the infinitive become the subject of the affirmation8 #ac4 ,in making a phrase the subject of a verb1 do we produce an exception to ,rule #adth8 #ad4 ,why is it wrong to say1 with ,dr4 ,ash1 ,the king and queen appearing in public was the cause of my going8 #ae4 ,what inconsistency is found in ,murray1 with reference to his nominative sentences8 #af4 ,what is ,dr4 ,webster's ninth rule of syntax8 #ag4 ,why did ,murray think all ,webster's examples under this rule bad ,english8 #ah4 ,why are both parties wrong in this instance8 #ai4 ,what strange error is taught by ,cobbett1 and by ,wright1 in regard to the relative and its verb8 #bj4 ,is it demonstrable that verbs often agree with relatives8 #ba4 ,what is observed of the agreement of verbs in interrogative sentences8 #bb4 ,do we ever find the subjunctive mood put after a relative pronoun8 #bc4 ,what is remarked of the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood1 and of the limits of the latter8 ,,lesson ,,xxiii4--,,verbs4 #bd4 ,in respect to collective nouns1 how is it generally determined1 whether they convey the idea of plurality or not8 #be4 ,what is stated of the rules of ,adam1 ,lowth1 ,murray1 and ,kirkham1 concerning collective nouns8 #bf4 ,what is ,nixon's notion of the construction of the verb and collective noun8 #bg4 ,does this author appear to have gained a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun8 #bh4 ,what great difficulty does ,murray acknowledge concerning nouns of multitude8 #bi4 ,does ,murray's notion1 that collective nouns are of different sorts1 appear to be consistent or warrantable8 #cj4 ,can words that agree with the same collective noun1 be of different numbers8 #ca4 ,what is observed of collective nouns used partitively8 #cb4 ,which are the most apt to be taken plurally1 collections of persons1 or collections of things8 #cc4 ,can a collective noun1 as such1 take a plural adjective before it8 #cd4 ,what is observed of the expressions1 these people1 these gentry1 these folk8 #ce4 ,what is observed of sentences like the following1 in which there seems to be no nominative3 ,there are from eight to twelve professors8 #cf4 ,what rule does ,dr4 ,webster give for such examples as the following3 ,there was more than a hundred and fifty thousand pounds8 #cg4 ,what grammarians teach1 that two or more nouns connected by and1 always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer1 to be in the plural number8 #ch4 ,does ,murray acknowledge or furnish any exceptions to this doctrine8 #ci4 ,on what principle can one justify such an example as this3 ,all work and no play1 makes ,jack a dull boy8 #dj4 ,what is remarked of instances like the following3 ,prior's ,henry and ,emma contains an other beautiful example8 #da4 ,what is said of the suppression of the conjunction and8 #db4 ,when the speaker changes his nominative1 to take a stronger one1 what concord has the verb8 #dc4 ,when two or more nominatives connected by and explain a preceding one1 what agreement has the verb8 #dd4 ,what grammarian approves of such expressions as1 ,two and two is four8 #de4 ,what is observed of verbs that agree with the nearest nominative1 and are understood to the rest8 #df4 ,when the nominatives connected are of different persons1 of what person is the verb8 ,,lesson ,,xxiv4--,,verbs4 #dg4 ,what is the syntax of the verb1 when one of its nominatives is expressed1 and an other or others implied8 #dh4 ,what is the syntax of the verb1 when there are nominatives connected by as8 #di4 ,what is the construction when two nominatives are connected by as well as1 but1 or save8 #ej4 ,can words connected by with be properly used as joint nominatives8 #ea4 ,does the analogy of other languages with ours prove any thing on this point8 #eb4 ,what does ,cobbett say about with put for and8 #ec4 ,what is the construction of such expressions as this3 ,a torch1 snuff and all1 goes out in a moment8 #ed4 ,does our rule for the verb and disjunct nominatives derive confirmation from the ,latin and ,greek syntax8 #ee4 ,why do collective nouns singular1 when connected by or or nor1 admit of a plural verb8 #ef4 ,in the expression1 ,i1 thou1 or he1 may affirm1 of what person and number is the verb8 #eg4 ,who says1 the verb agrees with the last nominative8 #eh4 ,what authors prefer the nearest person1 and the plural number8 #ei4 ,what authors prefer the nearest nominative1 whether singular or plural8 #fj4 ,what author declares it improper ever to connect by or or nor any nominatives that require different forms of the verb8 #fa4 ,what is ,cobbett's clear principle on this head8 #fb4 ,can a zeugma of the verb be proved to be right1 in spite of these authorities8 #fc4 ,when a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers1 connected by or or nor1 with which of them does it commonly agree8 #fd4 ,when does it agree with the remoter nominative8 #fe4 ,when a noun is implied in an adjective of a different number1 which word is regarded in the formation of the verb8 #ff4 ,what is remarked concerning the place of the pronoun of the first person singular8 #fg4 ,when verbs are connected by and1 or1 or nor1 do they necessarily agree with the same nominative8 #fh4 ,why is the thirteenth rule of the author's ,institutes and ,first ,lines not retained as a rule in this work8 #fi4 ,are verbs often connected without agreeing in mood1 tense1 and form8 ,,lesson ,,xxv4--,,verbs4 #gj4 ,what particular convenience do we find in having most of our tenses composed of separable words8 #ga4 ,is the connecting of verbs elliptically1 or by parts1 anything peculiar to our language8 #gb4 ,what faults appear in the teaching of our grammarians concerning do used as a substitute for other verbs8 #gc4 ,what notions have been entertained concerning the word to as used before the infinitive verb8 #gd4 ,how does ,dr4 ,ash parse to before the infinitive8 #ge4 ,what grammarians have taught that the preposition to governs the infinitive mood8 #gf4 ,does ,lowth agree with ,murray in the anomaly of supposing to a preposition that governs nothing8 #gg4 ,why do those teach just as inconsistently1 who forbear to call the to a preposition8 #gh4 ,what objections are there to the rule1 with its exceptions1 ,one verb governs an other in the infinitive mood8 #gi4 ,what large exception to this rule has been recently discovered by ,dr4 ,bullions8 #hj4 ,are the countless examples of this exception truly elliptical8 #ha4 ,is the infinitive ever governed by a preposition in ,french1 ,spanish1 or ,italian8 #hb4 ,what whimsical account of the ,english infinitive is given by ,nixon8 #hc4 ,how was the infinitive expressed in the ,anglo-,saxon of the eleventh century8 #hd4 ,what does ,richard ,johnson infer from the fact that the ,latin infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition8 #he4 ,what reasons can be adduced to show that the infinitive is not a noun8 #hf4 ,how can it be proved that to before the infinitive is a preposition8 #hg4 ,what does ,dr4 ,wilson say of the character and import of the infinitive8 #hh4 ,to what other terms can the infinitive be connected8 #hi4 ,what is the infinitive1 and for what things may it stand8 #ij4 ,do these ten heads embrace all the uses of the infinitive8 #ia4 ,what is observed of ,murray's infinitive made absolute8 #ib4 ,what is said of the position of the infinitive8 #ic4 ,is the infinitive ever liable to be misplaced8 ,,lesson ,,xxvi4--,,verbs4 #id4 ,what is observed of the frequent ellipses of the verb to be1 supposed by ,allen and others8 #ie4 ,what is said of the suppression of to and the insertion of be2 as1 ,to make himself be heard8 #if4 ,why is it necessary to use the sign to before an abstract infinitive1 where it shows no relation8 #ig4 ,what is observed concerning the distinction of voice in the simple infinitive and the first participle8 #ih4 ,what do our grammarians teach concerning the omission of to before the infinitive1 after bid1 dare1 feel1 c48 #ii4 ,how do ,ingersoll1 ,kirkham1 and ,smith1 agree with their master ,murray1 concerning such examples as1 ,let me go8 #ajj4 ,what is affirmed of the difficulties of parsing the infinitive according to the code of ,murray8 #aja4 ,how do ,nutting1 ,kirkham1 ,nixon1 ,cooper1 and ,sanborn1 agree with ,murray1 or with one an other1 in pointing out what governs the infinitive8 #ajb4 ,what do ,murray and others mean by neuter verbs1 when they tell us that the taking of the infinitive without to extends only to active and neuter verbs8 #ajc4 ,how is the infinitive used after bid8 #ajd4 ,how1 after dare8 #aje4 ,how1 after feel8 #ajf4 ,how1 after hear8 #ajg4 ,how1 after let8 #ajh4 ,how1 after make8 #aji4 ,how1 after need8 #aaj4 ,is need ever an auxiliary8 #aaa4 ,what errors are taught by ,greenleaf concerning dare and need or needs8 #aab4 ,what is said of see1 as governing the infinitive8 #aac4 ,do any other verbs1 besides these eight1 take the infinitive after them without to8 #aad4 ,how is the infinitive used after have1 help1 and find8 #aae4 ,when two or more infinitives occur in the same construction1 must to be used with each8 #aaf4 ,what is said of the sign to after than or as8 ,,lesson ,,xxvii4--,,participles4 #a4 ,what questionable uses of participles are commonly admitted by grammarians8 #b4 ,why does the author incline to condemn these peculiarities8 #c4 ,what is observed of the multiplicity of uses to which the participle in ing may be turned8 #d4 ,what is said of the participles which some suppose to be put absolute8 #e4 ,how are participles placed8 #f4 ,what is said of the transitive use of such words as unbecoming8 #g4 ,what distinction1 in respect to government1 is to be observed between a participle and a participial noun8 #h4 ,what shall we do when of after the participial noun is objectionable8 #i4 ,what is said of the correction of those examples in which a needless article or possessive is put before the participle8 #aj4 ,what is stated of the retaining of adverbs with participial nouns8 #aa4 ,can words having the form of the first participle be nouns1 and clearly known to be such1 when they have no adjuncts8 #ab4 ,what strictures are made on ,murray1 ,lennie1 and ,bullions1 with reference to examples in which an infinitive follows the participial noun8 #ac4 ,in what instances is the first participle equivalent to the infinitive8 #ad4 ,what is said of certain infinitives supposed to be erroneously put for participles8 #ae4 ,what verbs take the participle after them1 and not the infinitive8 #af4 ,what is said of those examples in which participles seem to be made the objects of verbs8 #ag4 ,what is said of the teaching of ,murray and others1 that1 ,the participle with its adjuncts may be considered as a substantive phrase8 #ah4 ,how does the ,english participle compare with the ,latin gerund8 #ai4 ,how do ,dr4 ,adam and others suppose the gerund in ,english to become a substantive1 or noun8 #bj4 ,how does the ,french construction of participles and infinitives compare with the ,english8 ,,lesson ,,xxviii4--,,participles4 #ba4 ,what difference does it make1 whether we use the possessive case before words in ing1 or not8 #bb4 ,what is said of the distinguishing or confounding of different parts of speech1 such as verbs1 participles1 and nouns8 #bc4 ,with how many other parts of speech does ,w4 ,allen confound the participle8 #bd4 ,how is the distinguishing of the participle from the verbal noun inculcated by ,allen1 and their difference of meaning by ,murray8 #be4 ,is it pretended that the authorities and reasons which oppose the mixed construction of participles1 are sufficient to prove such usage altogether inadmissible8 #bf4 ,is it proper to teach1 in general terms1 that the noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of a participle should be put in the possessive case8 #bg4 ,what is remarked of different cases used indiscriminately before the participle or verbal noun8 #bh4 ,what say ,crombie and others about this disputable phraseology8 #bi4 ,what says ,brown of this their teaching8 #cj4 ,how do ,priestley and others pretend to distinguish between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in ing8 #ca4 ,what does ,brown say of this doctrine8 #cb4 ,if when a participle becomes an adjective it drops its regimen1 should it not also drop it on becoming a noun8 #cc4 ,where the sense admits of a choice of construction in respect to the participle1 is not attention due to the analogy of general grammar8 #cd4 ,does it appear that nouns before participles are less frequently subjected to their government than pronouns8 #ce4 ,why must a grammarian discriminate between idioms1 or peculiarities1 and the common mode of expression8 #cf4 ,is the ,latin gerund1 like the verbal in ing1 sometimes active1 sometimes passive2 and when the former governs the genitive1 do we imitate the idiom in ,english8 #cg4 ,is it agreed among grammarians1 that the ,latin gerund may govern the genitive of the agent8 #ch4 ,what distinction between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in ing do ,crombie and others propose to make8 #ci4 ,how does this accord with the views of ,murray1 ,lowth1 ,adam1 and ,brown84 #dj4 ,how does ,hiley treat the ,english participle8 #da4 ,what further is remarked concerning false teaching in relation to participles8 ,,lesson ,,xxix4--,,adverbs4 #a4 ,what is replied to ,dr4 ,adam's suggestion1 ,adverbs sometimes qualify substantives8 #b4 ,do not adverbs sometimes relate to participial nouns8 #c4 ,if an adverbial word relates directly to a noun or pronoun1 does not that fact constitute it an adjective8 #d4 ,are such expressions as1 the then ministry1 the above discourse1 good ,english1 or bad--well authorized1 or not8 #e4 ,when words commonly used as adverbs assume the construction of nouns1 how are they to be parsed8 #f4 ,must not the parser be careful to distinguish adverbs used substantively or adjectively1 from such as may be better resolved by the supposing of an ellipsis8 #g4 ,how is an adverb to be parsed1 when it seems to be put for a verb8 #h4 ,how are adverbs to be parsed in such expressions as1 ,away with him8 #i4 ,what is observed of the relation of conjunctive adverbs1 and of the misuse of when8 #aj4 ,what is said in regard to the placing of adverbs8 #aa4 ,what suggestions are made concerning the word no8 #ab4 ,what is remarked of two or more negatives in the same sentence8 #ac4 ,is that a correct rule which says1 ,two negatives1 in ,english1 destroy each other1 or are equivalent to an affirmative8 #ad4 ,what is the dispute among grammarians concerning the adoption of or or nor after not or no8 #ae4 ,what fault is found with the opinion of ,priestley1 ,murray1 ,ingersoll1 and ,smith1 that either of them may be used with nearly equal propriety8 #af4 ,how does ,john ,burn propose to settle this dispute8 #ag4 ,how does ,churchill treat the matter8 #ah4 ,what does he say of the manner in which the use of nor after not has been introduced8 #ai4 ,what other common modes of expression are censured by this author under the same head8 #bj4 ,how does ,brown review these criticisms1 and attempt to settle the question8 #ba4 ,what critical remark is made on the misuse of ever and never8 #bb4 ,how does ,churchill differ from ,lowth respecting the phrase1 ever so wisely1 or never so wisely8 #bc4 ,what is observed of never and ever as seeming to be adjectives1 and being liable to contraction8 #bd4 ,what strictures are made on the classification and placing of the word only8 #be4 ,what is observed of the term not but1 and of the adverbial use of but8 #bf4 ,what is noted of the ambiguous use of but or only8 #bg4 ,what notions are inculcated by different grammarians about the introductory word there8 ,,lesson ,,xxx4--,,conjunctions4 #a4 ,when two declinable words are connected by a conjunction1 why are they of the same case8 #b4 ,what is the power1 and what the position1 of a conjunction that connects sentences or clauses8 #c4 ,what further is added concerning the terms which conjunctions connect8 #d4 ,what is remarked of two or more conjunctions coming together8 #e4 ,what is said of and as supposed to be used to call attention8 #f4 ,what relation of case occurs between nouns connected by as8 #g4 ,between what other related terms can as be employed8 #h4 ,what is as when it is made the subject or the object of a verb8 #i4 ,what questions are raised among grammarians1 about the construction of as follow or as follows1 and other similar phrases8 #aj4 ,what is said of ,murray's mode of treating this subject8 #aa4 ,has ,murray written any thing which goes to show whether as follows can be right or not1 when the preceding noun is plural8 #ab4 ,what is the opinion of ,nixon1 and of ,crombie8 #ac4 ,what conjunction is frequently understood8 #ad4 ,what is said of ellipsis after than or as8 #ae4 ,what is suggested concerning the character and import of than and as8 #af4 ,does than as well as as usually take the same case after it that occurs before it8 #ag4 ,is the ,greek or ,latin construction of the latter term in a comparison usually such as ours8 #ah4 ,what inferences have our grammarians made from the phrase than whom8 #ai4 ,is than supposed by ,murray to be capable of governing any other objective than whom8 #bj4 ,what grammarian supposes whom after than to be in the objective case absolute8 #ba4 ,how does the author of this work dispose of the example8 #bb4 ,what notice is taken of ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,grammar1 with reference to his manner of parsing words after than or as8 #bc4 ,what says ,churchill about the notion that certain conjunctions govern the subjunctive mood8 #bd4 ,what is said of the different parts of speech contained in the list of correspondents8 ,,lesson ,,xxxi4--,,prepositions4 #a4 ,what is said of the parsing of a preposition8 #b4 ,how can the terms of relation which pertain to the preposition be ascertained8 #c4 ,what is said of the transposition of the two terms8 #d4 ,between what parts of speech1 as terms of the relation1 can a preposition be used8 #e4 ,what is said of the ellipsis of one or the other of the terms8 #f4 ,is to before the infinitive to be parsed just as any other preposition8 #g4 ,what is said of ,dr4 ,adam's ,to taken absolutely8 #h4 ,what is observed in relation to the exceptions to ,rule #bc;d8 #i4 ,what is said of the placing of prepositions8 #aj4 ,what is told of two prepositions coming together8 #aa4 ,in how many and what ways does the relation of prepositions admit of complexity8 #ab4 ,what is the difference between in and into8 #ac4 ,what notice is taken of the application of between1 betwixt1 among1 amongst1 amid1 amidst8 #ad4 ,what erroneous remark have ,priestley1 ,murray1 and others1 about two prepositions in the same construction8 #ae4 ,what false doctrine have ,lowth1 ,murray1 and others1 about the separating of the preposition from its noun8 #af4 ,what is said of the prepositions which follow averse and aversion1 except and exception8 #ag4 ,what is remarked concerning the use of of1 to1 on1 and upon8 #ah4 ,can there be an inelegant use of prepositions which is not positively ungrammatical8 ,,lesson ,,xxxii4--,,interjections4 #a4 ,are all interjections to be parsed as being put absolute8 #b4 ,what is said of ,o and the vocative case8 #c4 ,what do ,nixon and ,kirkham erroneously teach about cases governed by interjections8 #d4 ,what say ,murray1 ,ingersoll1 and ,lennie1 about interjections and cases8 #e4 ,what is shown of the later teaching to which ,murray's erroneous and unoriginal remark about ,o1 oh1 and ah1 has given rise8 #f4 ,what notice is taken of the application of the rule for ,o1 oh1 and ah1 to nouns of the second person8 #g4 ,what is observed concerning the further extension of this rule to nouns and pronouns of the third person8 #h4 ,what authors teach that interjections are put absolute1 and have no government8 #i4 ,what is the construction of the pronoun in ,ah me6 ,ah him6 or any similar exclamation8 #aj4 ,is the common rule for interjections1 as requiring certain cases after them1 sustained by any analogy from the ,latin syntax8 #aa4 ,can it be shown1 on good authority1 that ,o in ,latin may be followed by the nominative of the first person or the accusative of the second8 #ab4 ,what errors in the construction and punctuation of interjectional phrases are quoted from ,fisk1 ,smith1 and ,kirkham8 #ac4 ,what is said of those sentences in which an interjection is followed by a preposition or the conjunction that8 #ad4 ,what is said of the place of the interjection8 #ae4 ,what says ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce about the name and place of the interjection8 #af4 ,what is offered in refutation of ,peirce's doctrine8 ,now parse the six lessons of the ,thirteenth ,praxis2 taking1 if the teacher please1 the ,italic or difficult words only2 and referring to the exceptions or observations under the rules1 as often as there is occasion4 ,then proceed to the correction of the eighteen lessons of ,false ,syntax contained in ,chapter ,twelfth1 or the ,general ,review4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiii4--,,general ,,rule4 #a4 ,why were the general rule and the general or critical notes added to the foregoing code of syntax8 #b4 ,what is the general rule8 #c4 ,how many are there of the general or critical notes8 #d4 ,what says ,critical ,note #ast of the parts of speech8 #e4 ,what says ,note #b;d of the doubtful reference of words8 #f4 ,what says ,note #c;d of definitions8 #g4 ,what says ,note #dth of comparisons8 #h4 ,what says ,note #eth of falsities8 #i4 ,what says ,note #fth of absurdities8 #aj4 ,what says ,note #gth of self-contradiction8 #aa4 ,what says ,note #hth of senseless jumbling8 #ab4 ,what says ,note #ith of words needless8 #ac4 ,what says ,note #ajth of improper omissions8 #ad4 ,what says ,note #aath of literary blunders8 #ae4 ,what says ,note #abth of literary perversions8 #af4 ,what says ,note #acth of literary awkwardness8 #ag4 ,what says ,note #adth of literary ignorance8 #ah4 ,what says ,note #aeth of literary silliness8 #ai4 ,what says ,note #afth of errors incorrigible8 #bj4 ,in what place are the rules1 exceptions1 notes1 and observations1 in the foregoing system of syntax1 enumerated and described8 #ba4 ,what suggestions are made in relation to the number of rules or notes1 and the completeness of the system8 #bb4 ,what is remarked on the place and character of the critical notes and the general rule8 #bc4 ,what is noted in relation to the unamendable imperfections sometimes found in ancient writings8 ,now correct--7or at least read1 and compare with the ,key--7 the sixteen lessons of ,false ,syntax1 arranged under appropriate heads1 for the application of the ,general ,rule2 the sixteen others adapted to the ,critical ,notes2 and the five concluding ones1 for which the rules are various4 ,,chapter ,,xv4--,,for ,,writing4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,syntax4 ,fist,when the pupil has been sufficiently exercised in syntactical parsing1 and has corrected orally1 according to the formulas given1 all the examples of false syntax designed for oral exercises1 or so many of them as may be deemed sufficient2 he should write out the following exercises1 correcting them according to the principles of syntax given in the rules1 notes1 and observations1 contained in the preceding chapters2 but omitting or varying the references1 because his corrections cannot be ascribed to the books which contain these errors4 ,,exercise ,i4--,,articles4 ,they are institutions not merely of an useless1 but of an hurtful nature4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cdd4 ,quintilian prefers the full1 the copious1 and the amplifying style4--,ib41 p4 #bdg4 ,the proper application of rules respecting style1 will always be best learned by the means of the illustration which examples afford4--,ib41 p4 #bbd4 ,he was even tempted to wish that he had such an one4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,every limb of the human body has an agreeable and disagreeable motion4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit4 i1 #bag4 ,to produce an uniformity of opinion in all men4--,ib41 ii4 #cfe4 ,a writer that is really an humourist in character1 does this without design4--,ib41 i4 #cjc4 ,addison was not an humourist in character4--,ib41 i4 #cjc4 ,it merits not indeed the title of an universal language4--,ib41 i4 #cec4 ,it is unpleasant to find even a negative and affirmative proposition connected4--,ib41 ii4 #be4 ,the sense is left doubtful by wrong arrangement of members4--,ib41 ii4 #dd4 ,as1 for example1 between the adjective and following substantive4--,ib41 ii4 #ajd4 ,witness the following hyperbole1 too bold even for an ,hotspur4--,ib41 #aic4 ,it is disposed to carry along the good and bad properties of one to another4--,ib41 ii4 #aig4 ,what a kind of a man such an one is likely to prove1 is easy to foresee4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #dg4 ,in propriety there cannot be such a thing as an universal grammar1 unless there were such a thing as an universal language4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #dg4 ,the very same process by which he gets at the meaning of any ancient author1 carries him to a fair and a faithful rendering of the scriptures of the ,old and ,new ,testament4--,chalmers1 ,sermons1 p4 #af4 ,but still a predominancy of one or other quality in the minister is often visible4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ai4 ,among the ancient critics1 ,longinus possessed most delicacy2 ,aristotle1 most correctness4--,ib41 p4 #bj4 ,he then proceeded to describe an hexameter and pentameter verse4--,ward's ,preface to ,lily1 p4 vi4 ,and ,alfred1 who was no less able a negotiator than courageous a warrior1 was unanimously chosen ,king4--,pinnock's ,geog41 p4 #bga4 ,an useless incident weakens the interest which we take in the action4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfj4 ,this will lead into some detail2 but ,i hope an useful one4--,ib41 p4 #bcd4 ,when they understand how to write ,english with due ,connexion1 ,propriety1 and ,order1 and are pretty well ,masters of a tolerable ,narrative ,stile1 they may be advanced to writing of ,letters4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #ccg4 ,the ,senate is divided into the ,select and ,great ,senate4--,hewitt's ,student-,life in ,germany1 p4 #bh4 ,we see a remains of this ceremonial yet in the public solemnities of the universities4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,where an huge pollard on the winter fire1 ,at an huge distance made them all retire4--,crabbe1 ,borough1 p4 #bji4 ,,exercise ,,ii4--,,nouns1 ,,or ,,cases4 ,childrens ,minds are narrow1 and weak1 and usually susceptible but of one ,thought at once4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #big4 ,rather for ,example sake1 than that ther is any ,great ,matter in it4--,right of ,tythes1 p4 xvii4 ,the more that any mans worth is1 the greater envy shall he be liable to4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #dfa4 ,he who works only for the common welfare is the most noble1 and no one1 but him1 deserves the name4-- ,spurzheim1 on ,ed41 p4 #ahb4 ,he then got into the carriage1 to sit with the man1 whom he had been told was ,morgan4--,stone1 on ,masonry1 p4 #dhj4 ,but1 for such footmen as thee and ,i are1 let us never desire to meet with an enemy4--,bunyan's ,p4 ,p41 p4 #aec4 ,one of them finds out that she is ,tibulluses ,nemesis4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ddf4 ,he may be employed in reading such easy books as ,corderius1 and some of ,erasmus' ,colloques1 with an ,english translation4--,burgh's ,dignity1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aej4 ,for my preface was to show the method of the priests of ,aberdeen's procedure against the ,quakers4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bce4 ,they signify no more against us1 than ,cochlus' lies against ,luther4--,ib41 i1 #bcf4 ,to justify ,moses his doing obeisance to his father in law4--,ib41 i1 #bda4 ,which sort of clauses are generally included between two comma's4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cjf4 ,between you and ,i1 she is but a cutler's wife4--,goldsmith's ,essays1 p4 #ahg4 ,in ,edward the third1 ,king of ,england's time4--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,the nominative case is the agent or doer4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,dog is in the nominative case1 because it is the agent1 actor1 or doer4--,ib4 ,the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading noun4--,ib4 ,the radical form of the principal verb is made use of4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,they would have the same right to be taken notice of by grammarians4--,ib41 p4 #cj4 ,i shall not quarrel with the friend of twelve years standing4-- ,liberator1 ix1 #ci4 ,if there were none living but him1 ,john would be against ,lilburne1 and ,lilburne against ,john4--,biog4 ,dict41 w4 ,lilburne4 ,when a personal pronoun is made use of to relate to them4--,cobbett's ,eng4 ,gram41 #agi4 ,the town was taken in a few hours time4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 p4 #abj4 ,you must not employ such considerations merely as those upon which the author here rests1 taken from gratitude's being the law of my nature4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bif4 ,our author's second illustration1 is taken from praise being the most disinterested act of homage4--,ib41 p4 #cja4 ,the first subdivision concerning praise being the most pleasant part of devotion1 is very just and well expressed4--,ib4 ,it was a cold thought to dwell upon its disburdening the mind of debt4--,ib4 ,the thought which runs through all this passage1 of man's being the priest of nature1 and of his existence being calculated chiefly for this end1 that he might offer up the praises of the mute part of the creation1 is an ingenious thought and well expressed4--,ib41 p4 #big4 ,the mayor of ,newyork's portrait4--,ware's ,english ,grammar1 p4 #i4 ,calm ,temperance1 whose blessings those partake ,who hunger1 and who thirst1 for scribbling sake4 --,pope1 ,dunciad1 i1 #ej4 ,,exercise ,,iii4--,,adjectives4 ,plumb down he drops ten thousand fathom deep4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 ii1 #a1 #icc4 ,in his ,night ,thoughts1 there is much energy of expression3 in the three first1 there are several pathetic passages4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #djc4 ,learn to pray1 to pray greatly and strong4--,the ,dial1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bae4 ,the good and the bad genius are struggling with one another4-- ,philological ,museum1 i1 #dij4 ,the definitions of the parts of speech1 and application of syntax1 should be given almost simultaneous4--,wilbur and ,livingston's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,i had studied grammar previous to his instructing me4--,ib41 p4 #ac4 ,so difficult it is to separate these two things from one another4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ib4 ,new words should never be ventured upon1 except by such whose established reputation gives them some degree of dictatorial power over language4--,ib41 p4 #id4 ,the verses necessarily succeed each other4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,they saw that it would be practicable to express1 in writing1 the whole combinations of sounds which our words require4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #fh4 ,there are some ,events1 the ,truth of which cannot appear to any1 but such whose ,minds are first qualify'd by some certain ,knowledge4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #bdb4 ,these ,sort of ,feet are in ,latin called ,iambics4--,fisher's ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,and the ,words are mostly so disposed1 that the ,accents may fall on every #b;d1 #dth1 #fth1 #hth1 and #ajth ,syllables4--,ib41 p4 #ace4 ,if the verse does not sound well and harmonious to the ear4--,ib41 p4 #acf4 ,i gat me men-singers and women-singers1 and the delights of the sons of men1 as musical instruments1 and that of all sorts4--,ecclesiastes1 ii1 #h4 ,no people have so studiously avoided the collision of consonants as the ,italians4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #ahc4 ,and these two subjects must destroy one another4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,duration and space are two things in some respects the most like1 and in some respects the most unlike to one another4--,ib41 p4 #ajc4 ,nothing ever affected him so much1 as this misconduct of his friend4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,to see the bearing of the several parts of speech on each other4--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,two or more adjectives following each other1 either with or without a conjunction1 qualify the same word4--,bullion's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,the two chapters which now remain1 are by far the most important of any4-- ,student's ,manual1 p4 #bic4 ,that has been the subject of no less than six negotiations4--,pres4 ,jackson's ,message1 #ahcj4 ,his gravity makes him work cautious4--,steele1 ,spect41 ,no4 #ecd4 ,grandeur1 being an extreme vivid emotion1 is not readily produced in perfection but by reiterated impressions4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #bjc4 ,every object appears less than when viewed separately and independent of the series4--,ib41 ii1 #ad4 ,an ,organ is the best of all other musical instruments4--,dilworth's ,english ,tongue1 p4 #id4 ,let such teach others who themselves excel1 ,and censure freely who have written well4--,pope1 on ,crit41 l4 #ae4 ,,exercise ,,iv4--,,pronouns4 ,you had musty victuals1 and he hath holp to eat it4--,,shak43 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,victuals4 ,sometime am ,i all wound with adders1 who1 with cloven tongues1 do hiss me into madness4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #fh4 ,when a letter or syllable is transposed1 it is called ,,metathesis4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bge4 ,when a letter or syllable is added to the beginning of a word1 it is called ,,prosthesis4--,ib4 ,if a letter or syllable be taken from the beginning of a word1 it is called ,,aph,,resis4--,ib4 ,we can examine few1 or rather no ,substances1 so far1 as to assure ourselves that we have a certain ,knowledge of most of its ,properties4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #bdd4 ,who do you dine with8--,fisher's ,gram41 p4 #ii4 ,who do you speak to8--,shakspeare4 ,all the objects of prayer are calculated to excite the most active and vivid sentiments1 which can arise in the heart of man4--,adams's ,rhet41 i1 #cbh4 ,it has been my endeavour to furnish you with the most useful materials1 which contribute to the purposes of eloquence4--,ib41 ii1 #bh4 ,all paraphrases are vicious3 it is not translating1 it is commenting4--,formey's ,belles-,lettres1 p4 #afc4 ,did you never bear false witness against thy neighbour8--,,sir ,w4 ,,draper3 ,junius1 p4 #dj4 ,and they shall eat up thine harvest and thy bread3 they shall eat up thy flocks and thine herds4--,jer41 v1 #ag4 ,he was the spiritual rock who miraculously supplied the wants of the ,israelites4-- ,gurney's ,evidences1 p4 #ec4 ,to cull from the mass of mankind those individuals upon which the attention ought to be most employed4-- ,rambler1 ,no4 #d4 ,his speech contains one of the grossest and most infamous calumnies which ever was uttered4--,merchant's ,gram4 ,key1 p4 #aih4 ,,strombus1 i4 m4 ,a shell-fish of the sea1 that has a leader whom they follow as their king4 ,plin4--,ainsworth's ,dict41 #dto4 ,whomsoever will1 let him come--,,morning ,,star3 ,lib41 xi1 #ac4 ,thy own words have convinced me 7stand a little more out of the sun if you please7 that thou hast not the least notion of true honour4--,fielding4 ,whither art going1 pretty ,annette8 ,your little feet you'll surely wet4--,l4 ,m4 ,child4 ,metellus1 who conquered ,macedon1 was carried to the funeral pile by his four sons1 one of which was the prtor4--,kennett's ,roman ,ant41 p4 #ccb4 ,that not a soldier which they did not know1 should mingle himself among them4-- ,josephus1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #agj4 ,the ,neuter ,gender denotes objects which are neither males nor females4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cg4 ,and hence it is1 that the most important precept1 which a rhetorical teacher can inculcate respecting this part of discourse1 is negative4--,adams's ,rhet41 ii1 #ig4 ,the meanest and most contemptible person whom we behold1 is the offspring of heaven1 one of the children of the ,most ,high4-- ,scougal1 p4 #ajb4 ,he shall sit next to ,darius1 because of his wisdom1 and shall be called ,darius his cousin4--#a ,esdras1 iii1 #g4 ,in #ageg1 he published his ',fleece2' but he did not long survive it4--,l4 ,murray1 ,seq41 p4 #beb4 ,the sun upon the calmest sea ,appears not half so bright as thee4--,prior4 ,,exercise ,v4--,,verbs4 ,the want of connexion here1 as well as in the description of the prodigies that accompanied the death of ,csar1 are scarce pardonable4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ch4 ,the causes of the original beauty of language1 considered as significant1 which is a branch of the present subject1 will be explained in their order4--,ib41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #f4 ,neither of these two ,definitions do rightly adjust the ,genuine signification of this ,tense4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bhj4 ,in the earnest hope that they may prove as beneficial to other teachers as they have to the author4--,john ,flint's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,and then an example is given showing the manner in which the pupil should be required to classify4--,ib41 p4 #c4 ,qu in ,english words are equivalent to kw4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #beh4 ,qu has the power of kw1 therefore quit doubles the final consonant in forming its preterite4--,ib41 p4 #ajc4 ,the word pronoun or substantive can be substituted1 should any teacher prefer to do it--,ib41 p4 #acb4 ,the three angles of a right-angled triangle were equal to two right angles in the days of ,moses1 as well as now4--,,goodell3 ,liberator1 ,vol4 xi1 p4 #d4 ,but now two paces of the vilest earth is room enough4--,beaut4 of ,shak41 p4 #abf4 ,latin and ,french1 as the ,world now goes1 is by every one acknowledged to be necessary4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cea4 ,these things1 that he will thus learn by sight1 and have by roat in his ,memory1 is not all1 ,i confess1 that he is to learn upon the ,globes4--,ib41 p4 #cba4 ,henry3 if ,john shall meet me1 ,i will hand him your note4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bfa4 ,they pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they do at other times4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cbi4 ,cato reminded him of many warnings he had gave him4--,goldsmith's ,rome1 i1 #aad4 ,the ,wages is small4 ,the ,compasses is broken4--,fisher's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,prepare thy heart for prayer1 lest thou temptest ,god4--,life of ,luther1 p4 #hc4 ,that a soldier should fly is a shameful thing4--,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,when there is two verbs which are together4--,woodworth's ,gram41 p4 #bg4 ,interjections are words used to express some passion of the mind2 and is followed by a note of admiration6--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #abf4 ,and the king said1 ,if he be alone1 there is tidings in his mouth4--#b ,samuel1 xviii1 #be4 ,the opinions of the few must be overruled1 and submit to the opinions of the many4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ef4 ,one of the principal difficulties which here occurs1 has been already hinted4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cia4 ,with milky blood the heart is overflown4--,thomson1 ,castle of ,ind4 ,no man dare solicit for the votes of hiz nabors4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #cdd4 ,yet they cannot1 and they have no right to exercise it4--,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,in order to make it be heard over their vast theatres4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dga4 ,sometimes1 however1 the relative and its clause is placed before the antecedent and its clause4--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bjj4 ,here thou1 great ,anna6 whom three realms obey1 ,does sometimes counsel take--and sometimes tea4 --,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #cba4 ,,exercise ,,vi4--,,participles4 ,on the other hand1 the degrading or vilifying an object1 is done successfully by ranking it with one that is really low4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #ej4 ,the magnifying or diminishing objects by means of comparison1 proceeds from the same cause4--,ib41 i1 #bci4 ,gratifying the affection will also contribute to my own happiness4--,ib41 i1 #ec4 ,the pronouncing syllables in a high or a low tone4--,ib41 ii1 #gg4 ,the crowding into one period or thought different figures of speech1 is not less faulty than crowding metaphors in that manner4--,ib41 ii1 #bcd4 ,to approve is acknowledging we ought to do a thing2 and to condemn is owning we ought not to do it4--,burlamaqui1 on ,law1 p4 #ci4 ,to be provoked that ,god suffers men to act thus1 is claiming to govern the word in his stead4--,secker4 ,let every subject be well understood before passing on to another4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,doubling the t in bigotted is apt to lead to an erroneous accentuation of the word on the second syllable4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,their compelling the man to serve was an act of tyranny4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ed4 ,one of the greatest misfortunes of the ,french tragedy is1 its being always written in rhyme4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dfi4 ,horace entitles his satire ',sermones1' and seems not to have intended rising much higher than prose put into numbers4--,ib41 p4 #djb4 ,feeding the hungry1 clothing the naked1 comforting the afflicted1 yield more pleasure than we receive from those actions which respect only ourselves4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bch4 ,but when we attempt to go a step beyond this1 and inquire what is the cause of regularity and variety producing in our minds the sensation of beauty1 any reason we can assign is extremely imperfect4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bi4 ,in an author's writing with propriety1 his being free of the two former faults seems implied4--,ib41 p4 #id4 ,to prevent our being carried away by that torrent of false and frivolous taste4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,when we are unable to assign the reasons of our being pleased4--,ib41 p4 #ae4 ,an adjective will not make good sense without joining it to a noun4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,what is said respecting sentences being inverted8--,ib41 p4 #ga4 ,though he admits of all the other cases1 made use of by the ,latins4--,bicknell's ,gram41 p4 viii4 ,this indeed1 is accounting but feebly for its use in this instance4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,the knowledge of what passes in the mind is necessary for the understanding the ,principles of ,grammar4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,by than's being used instead of as1 it is not asserted that the former has as much fruit as the latter4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bjg4 ,thus much for the ,settling your ,authority over your ,children4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #eh4 ,,exercise ,,vii4--,,adverbs4 ,there can scarce be a greater ,defect in a ,gentleman1 than not to express himself well either in ,writing or ,speaking4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cce4 ,she seldom or ever wore a thing twice in the same way4--,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #hd4 ,so can ,i give no reason1 nor ,i will not4--,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #de4 ,nor ,i know not where ,i did lodge last night4--,ib41 p4 #bgj4 ,it is to be presumed they would become soonest proficient in ,latin4--,burn's ,gram41 p4 xi4 ,the difficulty of which has not been a little increased by that variety4--,ward's ,pref4 to ,lily's ,gram41 p4 xi4 ,that full endeavours be used in every monthly meeting to seasonably end all business or cases that come before them4--,n4 ,e4 ,discipline1 p4 #dd4 ,in minds where they had scarce any footing before4--,spectator1 ,no4 #eff4 ,the negative form is when the adverb not is used4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,the interrogative form is when a question is asked4--,ibid4 ,the finding out the ,truth ought to be his whole ,aim4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #bci4 ,mention the first instance when that is used in preference to who1 whom1 or which4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,the plot was always exceeding simple4 ,it admitted of few incidents4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dgj4 ,their best tragedies make not a deep enough impression on the heart4--,ib41 p4 #dgb4 ,the greatest genius on earth1 not even a ,bacon1 can be a perfect master of every branch4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ac4 ,the verb ,,ought is only used in the indicative and subjunctive moods4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,it is still a greater deviation from congruity1 to affect not only variety in the words1 but also in the construction4-- ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bh4 ,it has besides been found that1 generally1 students attend those lectures more carefully for which they pay4--,dr4 ,lieber1 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #fe4 ,this book ,i obtained through a friend1 it being not exposed for sale4--,woolsey1 ib41 p4 #gf4 ,here there is no manner of resemblance but in the word drown4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #afc4 ,we have had often occasion to inculcate1 that the mind passeth easily and sweetly along a train of connected objects4--,ib41 ii1 #aig4 ,observe the periods when the most illustrious persons flourished4--,worcester's ,hist41 p4 iv4 ,for every horse is not called ,bucephalus1 nor every dog ,turk4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,one can scarce avoid smiling at the blindness of a certain critic4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #beg4 ,provided always1 that we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close1 so as to give a hardness and dryness to style4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ib2 ,blair's1 #aaa4 ,agreement is when one word is like another in number1 case1 gender or person4--,frost's ,gram41 p4 #dc4 ,government is when one word causes another to be in some particular number1 person or case4--,ibid4 ,it seems to be nothing more than the simple form of the adjective1 and to imply not either comparison or degree4--,murray's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #dg4 ,,exercise ,,viii4--,,conjunctions4 ,the ,indians had neither cows1 horses1 oxen1 or sheep4--,olney's ,introd4 to ,geog41 p4 #df4 ,who have no other object in view1 but1 to make a show of their supposed talents4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cdd4 ,no other but these1 could draw the attention of men in their rude uncivilized state4--,ib41 p4 #cgi4 ,that he shall stick at nothing1 nor nothing stick with him4--,pope4 ,to enliven it into a passion1 no more is required but the real or ideal presence of the object4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #aaj4 ,i see no more to be made of it but to-rest upon the final cause first mentioned4--,ib41 i1 #age4 ,no quality nor circumstance contributes more to grandeur than force4--,ib41 i1 #bae4 ,it being a quotation1 not from a poet nor orator1 but from a grave author1 writing an institute of law4--,ib41 i1 #bcc4 ,and our sympathy cannot be otherwise gratified but by giving all the succour in our power4--,ib41 i1 #cfb4 ,and to no verse1 as far as ,i know1 is a greater variety of time necessary4--,ib41 ii1 #gi4 ,english ,heroic verse admits no more but four capital pauses4--,ib41 ii1 #aje4 ,the former serves for no other purpose but to make harmony4--,ib41 #bca4 ,but the plan was not perhaps as new as some might think it4--,literary ,conv41 p4 #he4 ,the impression received would probably be neither confirmed or corrected4--,ib41 p4 #ahc4 ,right is nothing else but what reason acknowledges4--,burlamaqui1 on ,law1 p4 #cb4 ,though it should be of no other use but this4--,,bp4 ,,wilkins3 ,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ii1 #bg4 ,one hope no sooner dies in us but another rises up4--,spect41 ,no4 #ece4 ,this rule implies nothing else but the agreement of an adjective with a substantive4--,adams ,latin ,gram41 p4 #aef2 ,gould's1 #abi4 ,there can be no doubt but the plan of exercise pointed out at page #acb1 is the best that can be adopted4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 viii4 ,the exertions of this gentleman have done more than any other writer on the subject4--,,dr4 ,,abercrombie3 ,rec4 in ,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cjf4 ,no accidental nor unaccountable event ought to be admitted4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #bgc4 ,wherever there was much fire and vivacity in the genius of nations4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #e4 ,i aim at nothing else but your safety4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #ij4 ,there are pains inflicted upon man for other purposes except warning4--,wayland's ,moral ,sci41 p4 #abb4 ,of whom we have no more but a single letter remaining4--,campbell's ,pref4 to ,matthew4 ,the publisher meant no more but that ,w4 ,ames was the author4--,sewel's ,history1 ,preface1 p4 xii4 ,be neether bashful1 nor discuver uncommon solicitude4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #djc4 ,they put ,minos to death1 by detaining him so long in a bath1 till he fainted4-- ,lempriere's ,dict4 ,for who could be so hard-hearted to be severe8-- ,cowley4 ,he must neither be a panegyrist nor a satirist4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cec4 ,no man unbiassed by philosophical opinions1 thinks that life1 air1 or motion1 are precisely the same things4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,lang41 i1 #dbf4 ,which ,i had no sooner drank1 but ,i found a pimple rising in my forehead4--,,addison3 ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ahb4 ,this ,i view very important1 and ought to be well understood4--,osborn's ,key1 p4 #e4 ,so that neither emphases1 tones1 or cadences should be the same4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #e4 ,you said no more but that yourselves must be ,the judges of the scripture sense1 not we4--,dryden1 p4 #if4 ,,exercise ,,ix4--,,prepositions4 ,to be entirely devoid of relish for eloquence1 poetry1 or any of the fine arts1 is justly construed to be an unpromising symptom of youth4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ad4 ,well met1 ,george1 for ,i was looking of you4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #dda4 ,there is another fact worthy attention4--,channing's ,emancip41 p4 #di4 ,they did not gather of a ,lord's-day1 in costly temples4--,the ,dial1 ,no4 ii1 p4 #bji4 ,but certain ideas have1 by convention between those who speak the same language1 been agreed to be represented by certain articulate sounds4--,adams's ,rhet41 ii1 #bga4 ,a careful study of the language is previously requisite1 in all who aim at writing it properly4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ia4 ,he received his reward in a small place1 which he enjoyed to his death4--,notes to the ,dunciad1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #bhc4 ,gaddi1 the pupil of ,cimabue1 was not unworthy his master4--,literary ,history1 p4 #bfh4 ,it is a new1 and picturesque1 and glowing image1 altogether worthy the talents of the great poet who conceived it4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #ajj4 ,if the right does exist1 it is paramount his title4--,angell1 on ,tide ,waters1 p4 #bcg4 ,the most appropriate adjective should be placed nearest the noun4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #aid4 ,is not ,mr4 ,murray's octavo grammar more worthy the dignified title of a ',philosophical ,grammar8'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,if it shall be found unworthy the approbation and patronage of the literary public4--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,when the relative is preceded by two words referring to the same thing1 its proper antecedent is the one next it4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aja4 ,the magistrates commanded them to depart the city4--,sewel's ,hist41 p4 #ig4 ,mankind act oftener from caprice than reason4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bgb4 ,it can never view1 clearly and distinctly1 above one object at a time4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #fe4 ,the theory of speech1 or systematic grammar1 was never regularly treated as a science till under the ,macedonian kings4--,knight1 on ,greek ,alph41 p4 #ajf4 ,i have been at ,london a year1 and ,i saw the king last summer4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aih4 ,this is a crucifying of ,christ1 and a rebelling of ,christ4--,waldenfield4 ,there is another advantage worthy our observation4--,bolingbroke1 on ,hist41 p4 #bf4 ,certain conjunctions also require the subjunctive mood after them1 independently on the sense4--,grant's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,if the critical reader will think proper to admit of it at all4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aia4 ,it is the business of an epic poet to copy after nature4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dbg4 ,good as the cause is1 it is one from which numbers have deserted4-- ,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bbb4 ,in respect of the images it will receive from matter4--,spectator1 ,no4 #dac4 ,instead of following on to whither morality would conduct it4--,dymond's ,essays1 p4 #he4 ,a variety of questions upon subjects on which their feelings1 and wishes1 and interests1 are involved4--,ib41 p4 #adg4 ,in the ,greek1 ,latin1 ,saxon1 and ,german tongues1 some of these situations are termed ,,cases1 and are expressed by additions to the ,noun instead of by separate words and phrases4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #cc4 ,every teacher is bound during three times each week1 to deliver a public lecture1 gratis4--,howitt's ,student-,life in ,germany1 p4 #ce4 ,but the professors of every political as well as religious creed move amongst each other in manifold circles4--,ib41 p4 #aac4 ,,exercise ,x4--,,promiscuous4 ,the inseparable ,prepositions making no ,sense alone1 they are used only in ,composition4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,the ,english ,scholar learns little from the two last ,rules4--,ib41 ,pref41 p4 xi4 ,to prevent the body being stolen by the disciples4--,watson's ,apology1 p4 #abc4 ,to prevent the ,jews rejoicing at his death4--,wood's ,dict41 p4 #ehd4 ,after he had wrote the chronicles of the priesthood of ,john ,hyrcanus4--,whiston's ,josephus1 v1 #aie4 ,such words are sometimes parsed as a direct address1 than which1 nothing could be farther from the truth4--,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,the signs of the tenses in these modes are as follows4--,c4 ,adams's ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,the signs of the tenses in the ,potential mode are as follows4--,ibid4 ,and1 if more promiscuous examples be found necessary1 they may be taken from ,mr4 ,murray's ,english ,exercises4-- ,nesbit's ,parsing1 p4 xvi4 ,one is a numeral adjective1 the same as ten4--,ib41 p4 #ie4 ,nothing so much distinguishes a little mind as to stop at words4--,,montague3 ,letter-,writer1 p4 #abi4 ,but ,i say1 again1 ,what signifies words8--,id41 ib4 ,obedience to parents is a divine command1 given in both the ,old and the ,new ,testaments4--,nesbit's ,parsing1 p4 #bjg4 ,a ,compound ,subject is a union of several ,subjects to all which belong the same ,attribute4--,fosdick's ,de ,sacy1 on ,general ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,there are other languages in which the ,conjunctive does not prevent our expressing the subject of the ,conjunctive ,proposition by a ,pronoun4--,ib41 p4 #eh4 ,this distinction must necessarily be expressed by language1 but there are several different modes of doing it4--,ib41 p4 #fd4 ,this action may be considered with reference to the person or thing upon whom the action falls4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 ,there is nothing in the nature of things to prevent our coining suitable words4--,barnard's ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,what kind of a book is this8--,ib41 p4 #dc4 ,whence all but him had fled4--,ib41 p4 #eh4 ,person is a distinction between individuals1 as speaking1 spoken to1 or spoken of4--,ib41 p4 #aad4 ,he repented his having neglected his studies at college4--,emmons's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,what avails the taking so much medicine1 when you are so careless about taking cold8--,ib41 p4 #bi4 ,active transitive verbs are those where the action passes from the agent to the object4--,ib41 p4 #cc4 ,active intransitive verbs1 are those where the action is wholly confined to the agent or actor4--,ibid4 ,passive verbs express the receiving1 or suffering1 the action4--,ib41 p4 #cd4 ,the pluperfect tense expresses an action or event that passed prior or before some other period of time specified in the sentence4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,there is no doubt of his being a great statesman4--,ib41 p4 #fd4 ,herschell is the fartherest from the sun of any of the planets4--,fuller's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,there has not been introduced into the foregoing pages any reasons for the classifications therein adopted4--,ib41 p4 #hj4 ,there must be a comma before the verb1 as well as between each nominative case4--,ib41 p4 #ih4 ,yon1 with former and latter1 are also adjectives4--,brace's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,you was4--,ib41 p4 #cb4 ,if you was4--,ib41 p4 #ci4 ,two words which end in ly succeeding each other are indeed a little offensive to the ear4--,ib41 p4 #he2 ,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,is endless life and happiness despis'd8 ,or both wish'd here1 where neither can be found8--,young1 p4 #abd4 ,,exercise ,,xi4--,,promiscuous4 ,because any one of them is placed before a noun or pronoun1 as you observe ,i have done in every sentence4--,rand's ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,might accompany is a transitive verb1 because it expresses an action which effects the object me4--,gilbert's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,intend is an intransitive verb because it expresses an action which does not effect any object4--,ib41 p4 #ic4 ,charles and ,eliza were jealous of one another4--,j4 ,m4 ,putnam's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,thus one another include both nouns4--,ibid4 ,when the antecedent is a child1 that is elegantly used in preference to who1 whom1 or which4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,he can do no more in words1 but make out the expression of his will4--,bp4 ,wilkins4 ,the form of the first person plural of the imperative1 love we1 is grown obsolete4-- ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,excluding those verbs which are become obsolete4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,he who sighs for pleasure1 the voice of wisdom can never reach1 nor the power of virtue touch4--,wright's ,athens1 p4 #fd4 ,the other branch of wit in the thought1 is that only which is taken notice of by ,addison4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #cab4 ,when any measure of the ,chancellor was found fault with4--,professors' ,reasons1 p4 #ad4 ,whether was formerly made use of to signify interrogation4-- ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,under the article of ,pronouns the following words must be taken notice of4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,in a word1 we are afforded much pleasure1 to be enabled to bestow our most unqualified approbation on this excellent work4--,wright's ,gram41 ,rec41 p4 #d4 ,for ,recreation is not being ,idle1 as every one may observe4--,locke1 on ,ed41 p4 #cfe4 ,in the easier valuing and expressing that sum4--,dilworth's ,arith41 p4 #c4 ,addition is putting together of two or more numbers4-- ,alexander's ,arith41 p4 #h4 ,the reigns of some of our ,british ,queens may fairly be urged in proof of woman being capable of discharging the most arduous and complicated duties of government4--,west's ,letters to ,y4 ,l41 p4 #dc4 ,what is the import of that command to love such an one as ourselves8--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #bjf4 ,it should seem then the grand question was1 ,what is good8--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #big4 ,the rectifying bad habits depends upon our consciousness of them4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #cb4 ,to prevent our being misled by a mere name4-- ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afh4 ,i was refused an opportunity of replying in the latter review4--,fowle's ,true ,english ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,but how rare is such generosity and excellence as ,howard displayed6--,m',culloch's ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,the noun is in the ,nominative case when it is the name of the person or thing which acts or is spoken of4--,ib41 p4 #ed4 ,the noun is in the ,objective case when it is the name of the person or thing which is the object or end of an action or movement4--,ib41 p4 #ed4 ,to prevent their being erased from your memory4--,mack's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,pleonasm1 is when a superfluous word is introduced abruptly4--,ib41 p4 #fi4 ,man feels his weakness1 and to numbers run1 ,himself to strengthen1 or himself to shun4--,crabbe1 ,borough1 p4 #acg4 ,,exercise ,,xii4--,,two ,,errors4 ,independent on the conjunction1 the sense requires the subjunctive mood4--,grant's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,a ,verb in past time without a sign is ,imperfect tense4--,c4 ,adams's ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,new modelling your household and personal ornaments is1 ,i grant1 an indispensable duty4--,west's ,letters to ,y4 ,l41 p4 #eh4 ,for grown ladies and gentlemen learning to dance1 sing1 draw1 or even walk1 is now too frequent to excite ridicule4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,it is recorded that a physician let his horse bleed on one of the evil days1 and it soon lay dead4--,constable's ,miscellany1 xxi4 #ii4 ,as to the apostrophe1 it was seldom used to distinguish the genitive case till about the beginning of the present century1 and then seems to have been introduced by mistake4--,dr4 ,ash's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,one of the relatives only varied to express the three cases4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,what6 does every body take their morning draught of this liquor8--,collier's ,cebes4 ,here1 all things comes round1 and bring the same appearances a long with them4--,collier's ,antoninus1 p4 #ajc4 ,most commonly both the relative and verb are elegantly left out in the second member4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 ix4 ,a fair receipt of water1 of some thirty or forty foot square4--,bacon's ,essays1 p4 #abg4 ,the old know more indirect ways of outwiting others1 than the young4--,burgh's ,dignity1 i1 #fj4 ,the pronoun singular of the third person hath three genders4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,the preposition to is made use of before nouns of place1 when they follow verbs and participles of motion4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bjc4 ,it is called1 understanding human nature1 knowing the weak sides of men1 c4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #bhd4 ,neither of which are taken notice of by this ,grammar4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bgi4 ,but certainly no invention is entitled to such degree of admiration as that of language4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ed4 ,the ,indians1 the ,persians1 and ,arabians1 were all famous for their tales4--,ib41 p4 #cgd4 ,such a leading word is the preposition and the conjunction4-- ,felch's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,this1 of all others1 is the most encouraging circumstance in these times4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #cg4 ,the putting any constraint on the organs of speech1 or urging them to a more rapid action than they can easily perform in their tender state1 must be productive of indistinctness in utterance4--,ib41 p4 #ce4 ,good articulation is the foundation of a good delivery1 in the same manner as the sounding the simple notes in music1 is the foundation of good singing4--,ib41 p4 #cc4 ,the offering praise and thanks to ,god1 implies our having a lively and devout sense of his excellencies and of his benefits4--,,atterbury3 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bie4 ,the pause should not be made till the fourth or sixth syllable4--,blair1 ib41 p4 #ccc4 ,shenstone's pastoral ballad1 in four parts1 may justly be reckoned one of the most elegant poems of this kind1 which we have in ,english4--,ib41 p4 #cid4 ,what need ,christ to have died1 if heaven could have contained imperfect souls8--,baxter4 ,every person is not a man of genius1 nor is it necessary that he should4--,seattle's ,moral ,science1 i1 #fi4 ,they were alarmed from a quarter where they least expected4--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ii1 #f4 ,if thou more murmur'st1 ,i will rend an oak1 ,and peg thee in his knotty intrails4--,,shak43 ,white's ,verb1 p4 #id4 ,,exercise ,,xiii4--,,two ,,errors4 ,in consequence of this1 much time and labor are unprofitably expended1 and a confusion of ideas introduced into the mind1 which1 by never so wise a method of subsequent instruction1 it is very difficult completely to remove4--,grenville's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,so that the restoring a natural manner of delivery1 would be bringing about an entire revolution1 in its most essential parts4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #agj4 ',thou who loves us1 will protect us still3' here who agrees with thou1 and is nominative to the verb loves4--,alex4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fg4 ,the ,active voice signifies action2 the ,passive1 suffering1 or being the object of an action4--,adam's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #hj2 ,gould's1 #gg4 ,they sudden set upon him1 fearing no such thing4--,walker's ,particles1 p4 #beb4 ,that may be used as a pronoun1 an adjective1 and a conjunction1 depending on the office which it performs in the sentence4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aaj4 ,this is the distinguishing property of the church of ,christ from all other antichristian assemblies or churches4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #ecc4 ,my lords1 the course which the legislature formerly took with respect to the slave-trade1 appears to me to be well deserving the attention both of the government and your lordships4--,,brougham3 ,antislavery ,reporter1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bah4 ,we speak that we do know1 and testify that we have seen4--,john1 iii1 #aa4 ,this is a consequence ,i deny1 and remains for him to prove4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #cbi4 ,to back this1 ,he brings in the ,authority of ,accursius1 and ,consensius ,romanus1 to the latter of which he confesses himself beholding for this ,doctrine4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #cdc4 ,the compound tenses of the second order1 or those in which the participle present is made use of4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,to lay the accent always on the same syllable1 and the same letter of the syllable1 which they do in common discourse4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #gh4 ,though the converting the w into a v is not so common as the changing the v into a w4--,ib41 p4 #df4 ,nor is this all2 for by means of accent1 the times of pauses also are rendered quicker1 and their proportions more easily to be adjusted and observed4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,by mouthing1 is meant1 dwelling upon syllables that have no accent3 or prolonging the sounds of the accented syllables1 beyond their due proportion of time4--,ib41 p4 #gf4 ,taunt him with the license of ink2 if thou thou'st him thrice1 it shall not be amiss4--,,shak43 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,thou4 ,the eye that mocketh at his father1 and despiseth to obey his mother1 the ravens of the valley shall pick it out1 and the young eagles shall eat it4--,prov41 xxx1 #ag4 ,copying1 or merely imitating others1 is the death of arts and sciences4--,spurzheim1 on ,ed41 p4 #agj4 ,he is arrived at that degree of perfection1 as to surprise all his acquaintance4--,ensell's ,gram41 p4 #bif4 ,neither the ,king nor ,queen are gone4--,buchanan's ,e4 ,syntax1 p4 #aee4 ,many is pronounced as if it were wrote manny4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 with ,dict41 p4 #b4 ,and as the music on the waters float1 ,some bolder shore returns the soften'd note4 --,crabbe1 ,borough1 p4 #aah4 ,,exercise ,,xiv4--,,three ,,errors4 ,it appears that the ,temple was then a building1 because these ,tiles must be supposed to be for the covering it4--,johnson's ,gram4 ,com41 p4 #bha4 ,it was common for sheriffs to omit or excuse the not making returns for several of the boroughs within their counties4--,brown's ,estimate1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #acb4 ,the conjunction as when it is connected with the pronoun1 such1 many1 or same1 is sometimes called a relative pronoun4--,kirkham's ,gram41 the ,compend4 ,mr4 ,addison has also much harmony in his style2 more easy and smooth1 but less varied than ,lord ,shaftesbury4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abg2 ,jamieson's1 #abi4 ,a number of uniform lines having all the same pause1 are extremely fatiguing2 which is remarkable in ,french versification4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ajd4 ,adjectives qualify or distinguish one noun from another4--,fowle's ,true ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #ac4 ,the words one1 other1 and none1 are used in both numbers4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ajg4 ,a compound word is made up of two or more words1 usually joined by an hyphen1 as summer-house1 spirit-less1 school-master4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,there is an inconvenience in introducing new words by composition which nearly resembles others in use before2 as1 disserve1 which is too much like deserve4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,for even in that case1 the trangressing the limits in the least1 will scarce be pardoned4--,sheridan's ,lect41 p4 #aai4 ,what other are the foregoing instances but describing the passion another feels4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #chh4 ',two and three are five4' ,if each substantive is to be taken separately as a subject1 then 'two is five1' and 'three is five4'--,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,the article a joined to the simple pronoun other makes it the compound another4-- ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,the word another is composed of the indefinite article prefixed to the word other4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #eg2 et al4 ,in relating things that were formerly expressed by another person1 we often meet with modes of expression similar to the following4--,ib41 p4 #aia4 ,dropping one l prevents the recurrence of three very near each other4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bjb4 ,sometimes two or more genitive cases succeed each other2 as1 ',john's wife's father4'--,dalton's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,sometimes1 though rarely1 two nouns in the possessive case immediately succeed each other1 in the following form3 ',my friend's wife's sister4'--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,,exercise ,,xv4--,,many ,,errors4 ,number is of a two fold nature1--,singular and ,plural3 and comprehends1 accordingly to its application1 the distinction between them4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,the former1 ,figures of ,words1 are commonly called ,tropes1 and consists in a word's being employed to signify something1 which is different from its original and primitive meaning4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ccg4 ,the former1 figures of words1 are commonly called tropes1 and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive meaning4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #acb4 ,a particular number of connected syllables are called feet1 or measured paces4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,many poems1 and especially songs1 are written in the dactyl or anapstic measure1 some consisting of eleven or twelve syllables1 and some of less4--,ib41 p4 #aba4 ,a ,diphthong makes always a long ,syllable1 unless one of the vowels be droped4-- ,british ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,an ,adverb is generally employed as an attributive1 to denote some peculiarity or manner of action1 with respect to the time1 place1 or order1 of the noun or circumstance to which it is connected4-- ,wright's ,definitions1 ,philos4 ,gram41 pp4 #ce and #aad4 ,a ,verb expresses the action1 the suffering or enduring1 or the existence or condition of a noun4--,ib41 pp4 #ce and #fd4 ,these three adjectives should be written our's1 your's1 their's4--,fowle's ,true ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,never was man so teized1 or suffered half the uneasiness as ,i have done this evening4-- ,tattler1 ,no4 #afj2 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #bjj2 ,murray's1 i1 #bbc4 ,there may be reckoned in ,english four different cases1 or relations of a substantive1 called the subjective1 the possessive1 the objective1 and the absolute cases4--,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,to avoid the too often repeating the ,names of other ,persons or ,things of which we discourse1 the words he1 she1 it1 who1 what1 were invented4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,names which denote a number of the same things1 are called nouns of multitude4--,infant ,school ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,but lest he should think1 this were too slightly a passing over his matter1 ,i will propose to him to be considered these things following4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #dgb4 ,in the pronunciation of the letters of the ,hebrew proper names1 we find nearly the same rules prevail as in those of ,greek and ,latin4--,walker's ,key1 p4 #bbc4 ,the distributive pronominal adjectives each1 every1 either1 agree with the nouns1 pronouns1 and verbs of the singular number only4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,having treated of the different sorts of words1 and their various modifications1 which is the first part of ,etymology1 it is now proper to explain the methods by which one word is derived from another4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #acj4 ,,exercise ,,xvi4--,,many ,,errors4 ,a ,noun with its ,adjectives 7or any governing ,word with its ,attendants7 is one compound ,word1 whence the ,noun and ,adjective so joined1 do often admit another ,adjective1 and sometimes a third1 and so on2 as1 a ,man1 an old ,man1 a very good old ,man1 a very learned1 judicious1 sober ,man4--,british ,gram41 p4 #aie2 ,buchanan's1 #gi4 ,a substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word2 whence they often take another adjective1 and sometimes a third1 and so on3 as1 ',an old man2 a good old man2 a very learned1 judicious1 good old man4'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #afi2 ,ingersoll's1 #aie2 and others4 ,but though this elliptical style be intelligible1 and is allowable in conversation and epistolary writing1 yet in all writings of a serious or dignified kind1 is ungraceful4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aab4 ,there is no talent so useful towards rising in the world1 or which puts men more out of the reach of fortune1 than that quality generally possessed by the dullest sort of people1 and is1 in common language1 called discretion4--,,swift3 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aac4 ,which to allow1 is just as reasonable as to own1 that 'tis the greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manner maimed or distorted2 but that to lose the use only of one limb1 or to be impaired in some single organ or member1 is no ill worthy the least notice4-- ,,shaftesbury3 ib41 p4 #aae2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cbb4 ,if the singular nouns and pronouns1 which are joined together by a copulative conjunction1 be of several persons1 in making the plural pronoun agree with them in person1 the second person takes place of the third1 and the first of both4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aea2 et al4 ',the painter 99 99 99 cannot exhibit various stages of the same action4' ,in this sentence we see that the painter governs1 or agrees with1 the verb can1 as its nominative case4--,ib41 p4 #aie4 ,it expresses also facts which exist generally1 at all times1 general truths1 attributes which are permanent1 habits1 customary actions1 and the like1 without the reference to a specific time4--,ib41 p4 #gc2 ,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,the different species of animals may therefore be considered1 as so many different nations speaking different languages1 that have no commerce with each other2 each of which consequently understands none but their own4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #adb4 ,it is also important to understand and apply the principles of grammar in our common conversation2 not only because it enables us to make our language understood by educated persons1 but because it furnishes the readiest evidence of our having received a good education ourselves4--,frost's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,,exercise ,,xvii4--,,many ,,errors4 ,this faulty ,tumour in ,stile is like an huge unpleasant ,rock in a ,champion ,country1 that's difficult to be transcended4--,holmes's ,rhet41 ,book ii1 p4 #af4 ,for there are no ,pelops's1 nor ,cadmus's1 nor ,danaus's dwell among us4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,none of these1 except will1 is ever used as a principal verb1 but as an auxiliary to some principal1 either expressed or understood4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,nouns which signify either the male or female are common gender4--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,an ,adjective expresses the kind1 number1 or quality of a noun4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part ,i1 p4 #i4 ,there are six tenses2 the ,present1 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 the ,pluperfect1 the ,future1 and the ,future ,perfect tenses4--,ib41 p4 #ah4 ,my refers to the first person singular1 either gender4 ,our refers to the first person plural1 either gender4 ,thy refers to the second person singular1 either gender4 ,your refers to the second person plural1 either gender4 ,their refers to the third person plural1 either gender4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #ad4 ,good use1 which for brevity's sake1 shall hereafter include reputable1 national1 and present use1 is not always uniform in her decisions4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #dd4 ,nouns which denote but one object are considered in the singular number4--,edward's ,first ,lessons in ,gram41 p4 #ce4 ,if1 therefore1 the example of ,jesus should be plead to authorize accepting an invitation to dine on the sabbath1 it should be plead just as it was4--,barnes's ,notes3 on ,luke1 xiv1 #a4 ,the teacher will readily dictate what part may be omitted1 the first time going through it4--,ainsworth's ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,the contents of the following pages have been drawn chiefly1 with various modifications1 from the same source which has supplied most modern writers on this subject1 viz4 ,,lindley ,,murray',s ,,grammar4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,the term person in grammar distinguishes between the speaker1 the person or thing spoken to1 and the person or thing spoken of4--,ib41 p4 #i4 ,in my father's garden grow the ,maiden's ,blush and the ,prince' ,feather4--,felton1 ib41 p4 #ae4 ,a preposition is a word used to connect words with one another1 and show the relation between them4 ,they generally stand before nouns and pronouns4--,ib41 p4 #fj4 ,nouns or pronouns addressed are always either in the second person1 singular or plural4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,the plural ,,men not ending in s1 is the reason for adding the apostrophie's4--,t4 ,smith's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,pennies denote real coin2 pence1 their value in computation4-- ,hazen's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,we commence1 first1 with letters1 which is termed ,orthography2 secondly1 with words1 denominated ,etymology2 thirdly1 with sentences1 styled ,syntax2 fourthly1 with orations and poems1 called ,prosody4--,barrett's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,care must be taken1 that sentences of proper construction and obvious import be not rendered obscure by the too free use of the ellipsis4--,felton's ,grammar1 ,stereotype ,edition1 p4 #hj4 ,,exercise ,,xviii4--,,promiscuous4 ,tropes and metaphors so closely resemble each other that it is not always easy1 nor is it important to be able to distinguish the one from the other4--,parker and ,fox1 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #ff4 ,with regard to relatives1 it may be further observed1 that obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of them1 particularly of the pronouns ,,who1 and ,,they1 and ,,them1 and ,,theirs4 ,when we find these personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us1 we have often no method left1 but to throw the whole sentence into some other form4--,ib41 p4 #ij2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #caa2 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajf4 ,do scholars acquire any valuable knowledge1 by learning to repeat long strings of words1 without any definite ideas1 or several jumbled together like rubbish in a corner1 and apparently with no application1 either for the improvement of mind or of language8-- ,cutler's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 #e4 ,the being officiously good natured and civil are things so uncommon in the world1 that one cannot hear a man make professions of them without being surprised1 or at least1 suspecting the disinterestedness of his intentions4--,,fables3 ,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,irony is the intentional use of words to express a sense contrary to that which the speaker or writer means to convey4--,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #fh4 ,the term ,substantive is derived from substare1 to stand1 to distinguish it from an adjective1 which cannot1 like the noun1 stand alone4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,they have two numbers1 like nouns1 the singular and plural2 and three persons in each number1 namely1 ,i1 the first person1 represents the speaker4 ,thou1 the second person1 represents the person spoken to4 ,he1 she1 it1 the third person1 represents the person or thing spoken of4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,he1 ,she1 ,it1 is the ,third ,person singular2 but he with others1 she with others1 or it with others1 make each of them they1 which is the ,third ,person plural4--,white1 on the ,english ,verb1 p4 #ig4 ,the words had ,i been1 that is1 the ,third ,past ,tense of the ,verb1 marks the ,supposition1 as referring itself1 not to the ,present1 but to some former period of time4--,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun1 to avoid a too frequent repetition of the same word4--,frazee's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #abb4 ,that which he cannot use1 and dare not show1 ,and would not give--why longer should he owe8--,crabbe4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,prosody4 ,prosody treats of punctuation1 utterance1 figures1 and versification4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the word prosody1 7from the ,greek--,greek3 pros1 to1 and ,greek3 d1 song17 is1 with regard to its derivation1 exactly equivalent to accent1 or the ,latin accentus1 which is formed from ad1 to1 and cantus1 song3 both terms1 perhaps1 originally signifying a singing with1 or sounding to1 some instrument or voice4 ,,prosodia1 as a ,latin word1 is defined by ,littleton1 ,pars ,grammatic qu docet accentus1 h4 e4 rationem atollendi et depremendi syllabas1 tum quantitatem carundem4 ,and in ,english1 ,the art of ,,accenting1 or the rule of pronouncing syllables truly1 ,,long or ,,short4--,litt4 ,dict41 #dto4 ,this is a little varied by ,ainsworth thus3 ,the rule of ,,accenting1 or pronouncing syllables truly1 whether ,,long or ,,short4--,ains4 ,dict41 #dto4 ,accent1 in ,english1 belongs as much to prose as to poetry2 but some deny that in ,latin it belongs to either4 ,there is also much difficulty about the import of the word2 since some prosodists identify accent with tone2 some take it for the inflections of voice2 some call it the pitch of vocal sounds2 and some1 like the authors just cited1 seem to confound it with quantity1--,,long or ,,short4 #dei ,,obs4 #b4--,prosody1 says a late writer1 strictly denotes only that musical tone or melody which accompanies speech4 ,but the usage of modern grammarians justifies an extremely general application of the term4--,frost's ,practical ,grammar1 p4 #afj4 ,this remark is a note upon the following definition3 ,,prosody is that part of grammar which treats of the structure of ,poetical ,composition4--,ibid4 ,agreeably to this definition1 ,frost's ,prosody1 with all the generality the author claims for it1 embraces only a brief account of ,versification1 with a few remarks on ,poetical ,license4 ,of ,pronunciation and the ,figures of ,speech1 he takes no notice2 and ,punctuation1 which some place with ,orthography1 and others distinguish as one of the chief parts of grammar1 he exhibits as a portion of ,syntax4 ,not more comprehensive is this part of grammar1 as exhibited in the works of several other authors2 but1 by ,lindley ,murray1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 and some others1 both ,punctuation and ,pronunciation are placed here2 though no mention is made of the former in their subdivision of ,prosody1 which1 they not very aptly say1 consists of two parts1 ,pronunciation and ,versification4 ,dr4 ,bullions1 no less deficient in method1 begins with saying1 ,,prosody consists of two parts2 ,elocution and ,versification2 7,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #afc27 and then absurdly proceeds to treat of it under the following six principal heads3 viz41 ,elocution1 ,versification1 ,figures of ,speech1 ,poetic ,license1 ,hints for ,correct and ,elegant ,writing1 and ,composition4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,if1 in regard to the subjects which may be treated under the name of ,prosody1 the usage of modern grammarians justifies an extremely general application of the term1 such an application is certainly not less warranted by the usage of old authors4 ,but1 by the practice of neither1 can it be easily determined how many and what things ought to be embraced under this head4 ,of the different kinds of verse1 or the structure of ,poetical ,compostion1 some of the old prosodists took little or no notice2 because they thought it their chief business1 to treat of syllables1 and determine the orthopy of words4 ,the ,prosody of ,smetius1 dated #aeji1 7my edition of which was published in ,germany in #afia17 is in fact a pronouncing dictionary of the ,latin language4 ,after a brief abstract of the old rules of ,george ,fabricius concerning quantity and accent1 it exhibits1 in alphabetic order1 and with all their syllables marked1 about twenty-eight thousand words1 with a poetic line quoted against each1 to prove the pronunciation just4 ,the ,prosody of ,john ,genuensis1 an other immense work1 concluded by its author in #abhf1 improved by ,badius in #aejf1 and printed at ,lyons in #aead1 is also mainly a ,latin dictionary1 with derivations and definitions as in other dictionaries4 ,it is a folio volume of seven hundred and thirty closely-printed pages2 six hundred of which are devoted to the vocabulary1 the rest to orthography1 accent1 etymology1 syntax1 figures1 points--almost everything but versification4 ,yet this vast sum of grammar has been entitled ,prosody--,prosodia seu ,catholicon--,catholicon seu ,universale ,vocabularium ac ,summa ,grammatices4--,see pp4 #a and #e4 ,,chapter ,i--,,punctuation4 ,punctuation is the art of dividing literary composition1 by points1 or stops1 for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words2 and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading4 ,the following are the principal points1 or marks2 namely1 the ,comma 11 the ,semicolon 21 the ,colon 31 the ,period 41 the ,dash --1 the ,eroteme1 or ,note of ,interrogation 81 the ,ecphoneme1 or ,note of ,exclamation 61 and the ,curves1 or ,marks of ,parenthesis1 774 ,the ,comma denotes the shortest pause2 the ,semicolon1 a pause double that of the comma2 the ,colon1 a pause double that of the semicolon2 and the ,period1 or ,full ,stop1 a pause double that of the colon4 ,the pauses required by the other four1 vary according to the structure of the sentence1 and their place in it4 ,they may be equal to any of the foregoing4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech1 have1 in reality1 no definite and invariable proportions4 ,children are often told to pause at a comma while they might count one2 at a semicolon1 one1 two2 at a colon1 one1 two1 three2 at a period1 one1 two1 three1 four4 ,this may be of some use1 as teaching them to observe the necessary stops1 that they may catch the sense2 but the standard itself is variable1 and so are the times which good sense gives to the points4 ,as a final stop1 the period is immeasurable2 and so may be the pause after a question or an exclamation4 ,,obs4 #b4--,the first four points take their names from the parts of discourse1 or of a sentence1 which are distinguished by them4 ,the ,period1 or circuit1 is a complete round of words1 often consisting of several clauses or members1 and always bringing out full sense at the close4 ,the ,colon1 or member1 is the greatest division or limb of a period1 and is the chief constructive part of a compound sentence4 ,the ,semicolon1 half member1 or half limb1 is the greatest division of a colon1 and is properly a smaller constructive part of a compound sentence4 ,the ,comma1 or segment1 is a small part of a clause cut off1 and is properly the least constructive part of a compound sentence4 ,a simple sentence is sometimes a whole period1 sometimes a chief member1 sometimes a half member1 sometimes a segment1 and sometimes perhaps even less4 ,hence it may require the period1 the colon1 the semicolon1 the comma1 or even no point1 according to the manner in which it is used4 ,a sentence whose relatives and adjuncts are all taken in a restrictive sense1 may be considerably complex1 and yet require no division by points2 as1 ,thank him who puts me loath to this revenge ,on you who wrong me not for him who wrong'd4--,milton4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the system of punctuation now used in ,english1 is1 in its main features1 common to very many languages4 ,it is used in ,latin1 ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 ,portuguese1 ,dutch1 ,german1 and perhaps most of the tongues in which books are now written or printed4 ,the ,germans1 however1 make less frequent use of the comma than we2 and the ,spaniards usually mark a question or an exclamation doubly1 inverting the point at the beginning of the sentence4 ,in ,greek1 the difference is greater3 the colon1 expressed by the upper dot alone1 is the only point between the comma and the period2 the ecphoneme1 or note of exclamation1 is hardly recognized1 though some printers of the classics have occasionally introduced it2 and the eroteme1 or note of interrogation1 retains in that language its pristine form1 which is that of our semicolon4 ,in ,hebrew1 a full stop is denoted by a heavy colon1 or something like it2 and this is the only pointing adopted1 when the vowel points and the accents are not used4 ,,obs4 #d4--,though the points in use1 and the principles on which they ought to be applied1 are in general well fixed1 and common to almost all sorts of books2 yet1 through the negligence of editors1 the imperfections of copy1 the carelessness of printers1 or some other means1 it happens1 that different editions and different versions of the same work are often found pointed very variously4 ,this circumstance1 provided the sense is still preserved1 is commonly thought to be of little moment4 ,but all writers will do well to remember1 that they owe it to their readers1 to show them at once how they mean to be read2 and since the punctuation of the early printers was unquestionably very defective1 the republishers of ancient books should not be over scrupulous about an exact imitation of it2 they may1 with proper caution1 correct obvious faults4 ,,obs4 #e4--,the precise origin of the points1 it is not easy to trace in the depth of antiquity4 ,it appears probable1 from ancient manuscripts and inscriptions1 that the period is the oldest of them2 and it is said by some1 that the first system of punctuation consisted in the different positions of this dot alone4 ,but after the adoption of the small letters1 which improvement is referred to the ninth century1 both the comma and the colon came into use1 and also the ,greek note of interrogation4 ,in old books1 however1 the comma is often found1 not in its present form1 but in that of a straight stroke1 drawn up and down obliquely between the words4 ,though the colon is of ,greek origin1 the practice of writing it with two dots we owe to the ,latin authors1 or perhaps to the early printers of ,latin books4 ,the semicolon was first used in ,italy1 and was not adopted in ,england till about the year #afjj4 ,our marks for questions and exclamations were also derived from the same source1 probably at a date somewhat earlier4 ,the curves of the parenthesis have likewise been in use for several centuries4 ,but the clash is a more recent invention3 ,lowth1 ,ash1 and ,ward1--,buchanan1 ,bicknell1 and ,burn1--though they name all the rest1 make no mention of this mark2 but it appears by their books1 that they all occasionally used it4 ,,obs4 #f--,of the colon it may be observed1 that it is now much less frequently used than it was formerly2 its place being usurped1 sometimes by the semicolon1 and sometimes by the period4 ,for this ill reason1 some late grammarians have discarded it altogether4 ,thus ,felton3 ,the ,,colon is now so seldom used by good writers1 that rules for its use are unnecessary4--,concise ,manual of ,english ,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,so ,nutting3 ,it will be noticed1 that the colon is omitted in this system2 because it is omitted by the majority of the writers of the present age2 three points1 with the dash1 being considered sufficient to mark the different lengths of the pauses4--,practical ,grammar1 p4 #abj4 ,these critics1 whenever they have occasion to copy such authors as ,milton and ,pope1 do not scruple to mutilate their punctuation by putting semicolons or periods for all the colons they find4 ,but who cannot perceive1 that without the colon1 the semicolon becomes an absurdity8 ,it can no longer be a semicolon1 unless the half can remain when the whole is taken away6 ,the colon1 being the older point of the two1 and once very fashionable1 is doubtless on record in more instances than the semicolon2 and1 if now1 after both have been in common use for some hundreds of years1 it be found out that only one is needed1 perhaps it would be more reasonable to prefer the former4 ,should public opinion ever be found to coincide with the suggestions of the two authors last quoted1 there will be reason to regret that ,caxton1 the old ,english typographer of the fifteenth century1 who for a while successfully withstood1 in his own country1 the introduction of the semicolon1 had not the power to prevent it forever4 ,in short1 to leave no literary extravagance unbroached1 the latter point also has not lacked a modern impugner4 ,one of the greatest improvements in punctuation1 says ,justin ,brenan1 is the rejection of the eternal semicolons of our ancestors4 ,in latter times1 the semicolon has been gradually disappearing1 not only from the newspapers1 but from books4--,brenan's ,composition and ,punctuation familiarly ,explained1 p4 #ajj2 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,the colon and the semicolon are both useful1 and1 not unfrequently1 necessary2 and all correct writers will1 ,i doubt not1 continue to use both4 ,,obs4 #g--,since ,dr4 ,blair published his emphatic caution against too frequent a use of parentheses1 there has been1 if not an abatement of the kind of error which he intended to censure1 at least a diminution in the use of the curves1 the sign of a parenthesis4 ,these1 too1 some inconsiderate grammarians now pronounce to be out of vogue4 ,the parenthesis is now generally exploded as a deformity4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cfb4 ,the ,parenthesis1 77 has become nearly obsolete1 except in mere references1 and the like2 its place1 by modern writers1 being usually supplied by the use of the comma1 and the dash4--,nutting's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #abf2 ,frazee's ,improved ,grammar1 p4 #ahg4 ,more use may have been made of the curves than was necessary1 and more of the parenthesis itself than was agreeable to good taste2 but1 the sign being well adapted to the construction1 and the construction being sometimes sprightly and elegant1 there are no good reasons for wishing to discard either of them2 nor is it true1 that the former has become nearly obsolete4 ,,obs4 #h--,the name parenthesis is1 which literally means a putting-in-between1 is usually applied both to the curves1 and to the incidental clause which they enclose4 ,this twofold application of the term involves some inconvenience1 if not impropriety4 ,according to ,dr4 ,johnson1 the enclosed sentence alone is the parenthesis2 but ,worcester1 agreeably to common usage1 defines the word as meaning also the mark thus 774 ,but1 as this sign consists of two distinct parts1 two corresponding curves1 it seems more natural to use a plural name3 hence ,l4 ,murray1 when he would designate the sign only1 adopted a plural expression2 as1 the parenthetical characters1--the parenthetical marks4 ,so1 in another case1 which is similar3 the hooks in which words are included1 are commonly called crotchets or brackets2 though ,bucke1 in his ,classical ,grammar1 ,i know not why1 calls the two a ,crotchet2 7p4 #bc27 and ,webster1 in his octavo ,dictionary1 defines a ,bracket1 in printing1 as ,johnson does a ,crotchet by a plural noun3 hooks2 thus1 4 ,again1 in his grammars1 ,dr4 ,webster rather confusedly says3 ,the parenthesis 77 and hooks include a remark or clause1 not essential to the sentence in construction4--,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #bai2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,but1 in his ,dictionary1 he forgets both the hooks and the parenthesis that are here spoken of2 and1 with still worse confusion or inaccuracy1 says3 ,the parenthesis is usually included in hooks or curved lines1 thus1 774 ,here he either improperly calls these regular little curves hooks1 or erroneously suggests that both the hooks and the curves are usual and appropriate signs of the parenthesis4 ,in ,garner's quarto ,dictionary1 the ,french word ,crochet1 as used by printers1 is translated1 ,a brace1 a crotchet1 a parenthesis2 and the ,english word ,crotchet is defined1 ,the mark of a parenthesis1 in printing1 thus 4 ,but ,webster defines ,crotchet1 ,in printing1 a hook including words1 a sentence or a passage distinguished from the rest1 thus 4 ,this again is both ambiguous and otherwise inaccurate4 ,it conveys no clear idea of what a crotchet is4 ,one hook includes nothing4 ,therefore ,johnson said3 ,hooks in which words are included thus4 ,but if each of the hooks is a crotchet1 as ,webster suggests1 and almost every body supposes1 then both lexicographers are wrong in not making the whole expression plural3 thus1 ,crotchets1 in printing1 are angular hooks usually including some explanatory words4 ,but is this all that ,webster meant8 ,i cannot tell4 ,he may be understood as saying also1 that a ,crotchet is a sentence or a passage distinguished from the rest1 thus 2 and doubtless it would be much better to call a hint thus marked1 a crotchet1 than to call it a parenthesis1 as some have done4 ,in ,parker and ,fox's ,grammar1 and also in ,parker's ,aids to ,english ,composition1 the term ,brackets only is applied to these angular hooks2 and1 contrary to all usage of other authors1 so far as ,i know1 the name of ,crotchets is there given to the ,curves4 ,and then1 as if this application of the word were general1 and its propriety indisputable1 the pupil is simply told3 ,the curved lines between which a parenthesis is enclosed are called ,crotchets4--,gram41 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #cj2 ,aids1 p4 #dj4 ,called ,crotchets by whom8 ,that not even ,mr4 ,parker himself knows them by that name1 the following most inaccurate passage is a proof3 ,the note of admiration and interrogation1 as also the parenthesis1 the bracket1 and the reference marks1 are noted in the margin in the same manner as the apostrophe4--,aids1 p4 #cad4 ,in some late grammars1 7for example1 ,hazen's and ,day's17 the parenthetic curves are called the ,parentheses ,from this the student must understand that it always takes two parentheses to make one parenthesis6 ,if then it is objectionable1 to call the two marks a parenthesis1 it is much more so1 to call each of them by that name1 or both the parentheses4 ,and since ,murray's phrases are both entirely too long for common use1 what better name can be given them than this very simple one1 the ,curves8 ,,obs4 #i4--,the words eroteme and ecphoneme1 which1 like aposteme and philosopheme1 are orderly derivatives from ,greek roots#dfj1 ,i have ventured to suggest as fitter names for the two marks to which they are applied as above1 than are any of the long catalogue which other grammarians1 each choosing for himself have presented4 ,these marks have not unfrequently been called the interrogation and the exclamation2 which names are not very suitable1 because they have other uses in grammar4 ,according to ,dr4 ,blair1 as well as ,l4 ,murray and others1 interrogation and exclamation are passionate figures of rhetoric1 and oftentimes also plain unfigured expressions4 ,the former however are frequently and more fitly called by their ,greek names erotesis and ecphonesis1 terms to which those above have a happy correspondence4 ,by ,dr4 ,webster and some others1 all interjections are called exclamations2 and1 as each of these is usually followed by the mark of emotion1 it cannot but be inconvenient to call both by the same name4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,for things so common as the marks of asking and exclaiming1 it is desirable to have simple and appropriate names1 or at least some settled mode of denomination2 but1 it is remarkable1 that ,lindley ,murray1 in mentioning these characters six times1 uses six different modes of expression1 and all of them complex3 7#a47 ,notes of ,interrogation and ,exclamation4 7#b47 ,the point of ,interrogation18--,the point of ,exclamation16 7#c47 ,the ,interrogatory ,point4--,the ,exclamatory ,point4 7#d47 ,a note of interrogation1--,the note of exclamation4 7#e47 ,the interrogation and exclamation points4 7#f47 ,the points of ,interrogation and ,exclamation4--,murray1 ,flint1 ,ingersoll1 ,alden1 ,pond4 ,with much better taste1 some writers denote them uniformly thus3 7#g47 ,the ,note of ,interrogation1--,the ,note of ,exclamation4--,churchill1 ,hiley4 ,in addition to these names1 all of which are too long1 there may be cited many others1 though none that are unobjectionable3 7#h47 ,the ,interrogative sign1--,the ,exclamatory sign4--,peirce1 ,hazen4 7#i47 ,the ,mark of ,interrogation1--,the ,mark of ,exclamation4--,ward1 ,felton1 ,hendrick4 7#aj47 ,the ,interrogative point1--,the ,exclamation point4--,t4 ,smith1 ,alger4 7#aa47 ,the interrogation point1--,the exclamation point4--,webster1 ,st4 ,quentin1 ,s4 ,putnam4 7#ab47 ,a ,note of ,interrogation1--,a ,note of ,admiration4--,coar1 ,nutting4 7#ac47 ,the ,interrogative point1--,the ,note of ,admiration1 or of vocation4--,bucke4 7#ad47 ,interrogation 7871--,admiration 767 or ,exclamation4--,lennie1 ,bullions4 7#ae47 ,a ,point of ,interrogation1--,a ,point of ,admiration or ,exclamation4--,buchanan4 7#af47 ,the ,interrogation ,point 7871--,the ,admiration ,point 7674--,perley4 7#ag47 ,an interrogation 7871--,an exclamation 7674--,cutler4 7#ah47 ,the interrogator8--,the exclaimor6--,day's ,gram41 p4 #aab4 ,the putting of exclaimor for exclaimer1 like this author's changing of quoters to quotors1 as a name for the guillemets1 is probably a mere sample of ignorance4 7#ai47 ,question point1--,exclamation point4--,sanborn1 p4 #bgb4 ,,section ,i4--,,the ,,comma4 ,the ,comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence1 which are so nearly connected in sense1 as to be only one degree removed from that close connexion which admits no point4 ,,rule ,i4--,,simple ,,sentences4 ,a simple sentence does not1 in general1 admit the comma2 as1 ,the weakest reasoners are the most positive4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #bjb4 ,theology has not hesitated to make or support a doctrine by the position of a comma4--,tract on ,tone1 p4 #d4 ,then pain compels the impatient soul to seize ,on promis'd hopes of instantaneous ease4--,crabbe4 ,,exception4--,,long ,,simple ,,sentences4 ,when the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts1 or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative1 a comma should be placed immediately before the verb2 as1 ,confession of sin without amendment1 obtains no pardon4--,dillwyn's ,reflections1 p4 #f4 ,to be totally indifferent to praise or censure1 is a real defect in character4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bfh4 ,o that the tenor of my just complaint1#dfa ,were sculpt with steel in rocks of adamant6--,sandys4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,simple ,,members4 ,the simple members of a compound sentence1 whether successive or involved1 elliptical or complete1 are generally divided by the comma2 as1 #a4 ,here stand we both1 and aim we at the best4--,shak4 #b4 ,i1 that did never weep1 now melt in woe4--,id4 #c4 ,tide life1 tide death1 ,i come without delay4--,id4 #d4 ,i am their mother1 who shall bar me from them8--,id4 #e4 ,how wretched1 were ,i mortal1 were my state6--,pope4 #f4 ,go2 while thou mayst1 avoid the dreadful fate4--,id4 #g4 ,grief aids disease1 remember'd folly stings1 ,and his last sighs reproach the faith of kings4--,johnson4 ,,exception ,i4--,,restrictive ,,relatives4 ,when a relative immediately follows its antecedent1 and is taken in a restrictive sense1 the comma should not be introduced before it2 as1 ,for the things which are seen1 are temporal2 but the things which are not seen1 are eternal4--#b ,cor41 iv1 #ah4 ,a letter is a character that expresses a sound without any meaning4--,st4 ,quentin's ,general ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,,exception ,,ii4--,,short ,,terms ,,closely ,,connected4 ,when the simple members are short1 and closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb1 the comma is generally omitted2 as1 ,honest poverty is better than wealthy fraud4--,dillwyn's ,ref41 p4 #aa4 ,let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even or odd4--,,taylor3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,even4 ,it is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things4--,,campbell3 ,murray's ,gram41 p #cei4 ,,exception ,,iii4--,,elliptical ,,members ,,united4 ,when two simple members are immediately united1 through ellipsis of the relative1 the antecedent1 or the conjunction that1 the comma is not inserted2 as1 ,make an experiment on the first man you meet4--,berkley's ,alciphron1 p4 #abe4 ,our philosophers do infinitely despise and pity whoever shall propose or accept any other motive to virtue4--,ib41 p4 #abf4 ,it is certain we imagine before we reflect4--,ib41 p4 #cei4 ,the same good sense that makes a man excel1 ,still makes him doubt he ne'er has written well4--,young4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,more ,,than ,,two ,,words4 ,when more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction1 or in a joint dependence on some other term1 by conjunctions expressed or understood1 the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last2 and1 if they are nominatives before a verb1 the comma should follow the last also3#dfb as1 #a4 ,who1 to the enraptur'd heart1 and ear1 and eye1 ,teach beauty1 virtue1 truth1 and love1 and melody4--,beattie4 #b4 ,ah6 what avails 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,all that art1 fortune1 enterprise1 can bring1 ,if envy1 scorn1 remorse1 or pride1 the bosom wring8--,id44 #c4 ,women are soft1 mild1 pitiful1 and flexible2 ,thou1 stern1 obdurate1 flinty1 rough1 remorseless4--,shak4 #d4 ,she plans1 provides1 expatiates1 triumphs there4--,young4 #e4 ----,so eagerly the ,fiend ,o'er bog1 or steep1 through strait1 rough1 dense1 or rare1 ,with head1 hands1 wings1 or feet1 pursues his way1 ,and swims1 or sinks1 or wades1 or creeps1 or flies4--,milton4 ,,rule ,,iv4--,,only ,,two ,,words4 ,when only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction1 they should not be separated by the comma2 as1 ,it is a stupid and barbarous way to extend dominion by arms2 for true power is to be got by arts and industry--,spectator1 ,no4 #b4 ,despair and anguish fled the struggling soul4--,goldsmith4 ,,exception ,i4--,,two ,,words ,,with ,,adjuncts4 ,when the two words connected have several adjuncts1 or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both1 the comma is inserted2 as1 ,i shall spare no pains to make their instruction agreeable1 and their diversion useful4--,spectator1 ,no4 #aj4 ,who is applied to persons1 or things personified4--,bullions4 ,with listless eyes the dotard views the store1 ,he views1 and wonders that they please no more4--,johnson4 ,,exception ,,ii4--,,two ,,terms ,,contrasted4 ,when two connected words or phrases are contrasted1 or emphatically distinguished1 the comma is inserted2 as1 ,the vain are easily obliged1 and easily disobliged4--,kames4 ,liberal1 not lavish1 is kind ,nature's hand4--,beattie4 ',tis certain he could write1 and cipher too4--,goldsmith4 ,,exception ,,iii4--,,alternative ,,of ,,words4 ,when there is merely an alternative of names1 or an explanatory change of terms1 the comma is usually inserted2 as1 ,we saw a large opening1 or inlet4--,w4 ,allen4 ,have we not power to lead about a sister1 a wife1 as well as other apostles8--,cor41 ix1 #e4 ,,exception ,,iv4--,,conjunction ,,understood4 ,when the conjunction is understood1 the comma is inserted2 and1 if two separated words or terms refer alike to a third term1 the second requires a second comma3 as1 ,reason1 virtue1 answer one great aim4--,l4 ,murray1 ,gram41 p4 #bfi4 ,to him the church1 the realm1 their pow'rs consign4--,johnson4 ,she thought the isle that gave her birth4 ,the sweetest1 wildest land on earth4--,hogg4 ,,rule ,v4--,,words ,,in ,,pairs4 ,when successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions1 they should be separated in pairs by the comma2 as1 ,interest and ambition1 honour and shame1 friendship and enmity1 gratitude and revenge1 are the prime movers in public transactions4--,w4 ,allen4 ,but1 whether ingenious or dull1 learned or ignorant1 clownish or polite1 every innocent man1 without exception1 has as good a right to liberty as to life4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #cac4 ,then say how hope and fear1 desire and hate1 ,o'erspread with snares the crowded maze of fate4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,words ,,put ,,absolute4 ,nouns or pronouns put absolute1 should1 with their adjuncts1 be set off by the comma2 as1 ,the prince1 his father being dead1 succeeded4--,this done1 we parted4--,zaccheus1 make haste and come down4--,his proctorship in ,sicily1 what did it produce8--,cicero4 ,wing'd with his fears1 on foot he strove to fly1 ,his steeds too distant1 and the foe too nigh --,pope1 ,iliad1 xi1 #ddj4 ,,rule ,,vii4--,,words ,,in ,,apposition4 ,words in apposition1 7especially if they have adjuncts17 are generally set off by the comma2 as1 ,he that now calls upon thee1 is ,theodore1 the hermit of ,teneriffe4--,johnson4 ,,lowth1 ,dr4 ,robert1 bishop of ,london1 born in #agaj1 died in #aghg4--;,biog4 ,dict4 ,,home1 ,henry1 lord ,kames4--,ib4 ,what next ,i bring shall please thee1 be assur'd1 ,thy likeness1 thy fit help1 thy other self1 ,thy wish exactly to thy heart's desire4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 viii1 #dej4 ,and he1 their prince1 shall rank among my peers4--,byron4 ,,exception ,i4--,,complex ,,names4 ,when several words1 in their common order1 are used as one compound name1 the comma is not inserted2 as1 ,dr4 ,samuel ,johnson1--,publius ,gavius ,cosanus4 ,,exception ,,ii4--,,close ,,apposition4 ,when a common and a proper name are closely united1 the comma is not inserted2 as1 ,the brook ,kidron1--,the river ,don1--,the empress ,catharine1--,paul the ,apostle4 ,,exception ,,iii4--,,pronoun ,,without ,,pause4 ,when a pronoun is added to an other word merely for emphasis and distinction1 the comma is not inserted2 as1 ,ye men of ,athens1--,i myself1--,thou flaming minister1--,you princes4 ,,exception ,,iv4--,,names ,,acquired4 ,when a name acquired by some action or relation1 is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun1 the comma is not inserted2 as1 ,i made the ground my bed2--,to make him king2--,whom they revered as ,god2--,with modesty thy guide4--,pope4 ,,rule ,,viii4--,,adjectives4 ,adjectives1 when something depends on them1 or when they have the import of a dependent clause1 should1 with their adjuncts1 be set off by the comma2 as1 #a4 ----------------------------,among the roots ,of hazel1 pendent o'er the plaintive stream1 ,they frame the first foundation of their domes4--,thomson4 #b4 -------------------------,up springs the lark1 ,shrill-voic'd and loud1 the messenger of morn4--,id4 ,,exception4--,,adjectives ,,restrictive4 ,when an adjective immediately follows its noun1 and is taken in a restrictive sense1 the comma should not be used before it2 as1 ----,and on the coast averse ,from entrance or cherubic watch4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 ix1 l4 #fh4 ,,rule ,,ix4--,,finite ,,verbs4 ,where a finite verb is understood1 a comma is generally required2 as1 ,from law arises security2 from security1 curiosity2 from curiosity1 knowledge4--,murray4 ,else all my prose and verse were much the same2 ,this1 prose on stilts2 that1 poetry fallen lame4--,pope4 ,,exception4--,,very ,,slight ,,pause4 ,as the semicolon must separate the clauses when the comma is inserted by this rule1 if the pause for the omitted verb be very slight1 it may be left unmarked1 and the comma be used for the clauses2 as1 ,when the profligate speaks of piety1 the miser of generosity1 the coward of valour1 and the corrupt of integrity1 they are only the more despised by those who know them4--,comstock's ,elocution1 p4 #acb4 ,,rule ,x4--,,infinitives4 ,the infinitive mood1 when it follows a verb from which it must be separated1 or when it depends on something remote or understood1 is generally1 with its adjuncts1 set off by the comma2 as1 ,one of the greatest secrets in composition is1 to know when to be simple4--,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #aea4 ,to confess the truth1 ,i was much in fault4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bga4 ,the ,governor of all--has interposed1 ,not seldom1 his avenging arm1 to smite ,the injurious trampler upon nature's law4--,cowper4 ,,rule ,,xi4--,,participles4 ,participles1 when something depends on them1 when they have the import of a dependent clause1 or when they relate to something understood1 should1 with their adjuncts1 he set off by the comma2 as1 #a4 ,law is a rule of civil conduct1 prescribed by the supreme power in a state1 commanding what is right1 and prohibiting what is wrong4--,,blackstone3 ,beattie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #cdf4 #b4 ,young ,edwin1 lighted by the evening star1 ,lingering and list'ning wander'd down the vale4--,beattie4 #c4 ,united1 we stand2 divided1 we fall4--,motto4 #d4 ,properly speaking1 there is no such thing as chance4 ,,exception4--,,participles ,,restrictive4 ,when a participle immediately follows its noun1 and is taken in a restrictive sense1 the comma should not be used before it2 as1 ,a man renown'd for repartee1 ,will seldom scruple to make free ,with friendship's finest feeling4--,cowper4 ,,rule ,,xii4--,,adverbs4 ,adverbs1 when they break the connexion of a simple sentence1 or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context1 should1 with their adjuncts1 be set off by the comma2 as1 ,we must not1 however1 confound this gentleness with the artificial courtesy of the world4--,besides1 the mind must be employed4--,gilpin4 ,most unquestionably1 no fraud was equal to all this4--,lyttelton4 ,but1 unfortunately for us1 the tide was ebbing already4 ,when buttress and buttress1 alternately1 ,seem framed of ebon and ivory4--,scott's ,lay1 p4 #cc4 ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,conjunctions4 ,conjunctions1 when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them1 or when they introduce examples1 are generally set off by the comma2 as1 ,but1 by a timely call upon ,religion1 the force of ,habit was eluded4--,johnson4 ,they know the neck that joins the shore and sea1 ,or1 ah6 how chang'd that fearless laugh would be4--,crabbe4 ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,prepositions4 ,prepositions and their objects1 when they break the connexion of a simple sentence1 or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend1 are generally set off by the comma2 as1 ,fashion is1 for the most part1 nothing but the ostentation of riches4--,by reading1 we add the experience of others to our own4 ,in vain the sage1 with retrospective eye1 ,would from th' apparent ,what conclude the ,why4--,pope4 ,,rule ,,xv4--,,interjections4 ,interjections that require a pause1 though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme1 are sometimes set off by the comma2 as1 ,for1 lo1 ,i will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north4--,jeremiah1 i1 #ae4 ,o1 'twas about something you would not understand4--,columbian ,orator1 p4 #bba4 ,ha1 ha6 you were finely taken in1 then6--,aikin4 ,ha1 ha1 ha6 ,a facetious gentleman1 truly6--,id4 ,oh1 when shall ,britain1 conscious of her claim1 ,stand emulous of ,greek and ,roman fame8--,pope4 ,,rule ,,xvi4--,,words ,,repeated4 ,a word emphatically repeated1 is generally set off by the comma2 as1 ,happy1 happy1 happy pair6--,dryden4 ,ay1 ay1 there is some comfort in that4--,shak4 ,ah6 no1 no1 no4--,dryden4 ,the old oaken bucket1 the iron-bound bucket1 ,the moss-covered bucket1 which hung in the well6--,woodworth4 ,,rule ,,xvii4--,,dependent ,,quotations4 ,a quotation1 observation1 or description1 when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb1 7as1 say1 reply1 cry1 or the like17 is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma2 as1 ',the book of nature1' said he1 'is before thee4'--,hawkesworth4 ,i say unto all1 ,watch4--,mark4 ',the boy has become a man1' means1 'he has grown to be a man4' ',such conduct becomes a man1' means1 'such conduct befits him4'--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,while man exclaims1 ',see all things for my use6' ',see man for mine6' replies a pamper'd goose4--,pope4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,punctuation4--,,errors ,,concerning ,,the ,,comma4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,simple ,,sentences4 ,short1 simple sentences should not be separated by a comma4--,felton's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ace2 #c;d ,ed41 ,stereotyped1 p4 #acg4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because a needless comma is put after short1 the sentence being simple4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast for the ,comma1 ,a simple sentence does not1 in general1 admit the comma4 ,therefore1 this comma should be omitted2 thus1 ,short simple sentences should not be separated by a comma4 ,or1 much better3 ,a short simple sentence should rarely be divided by the comma4 ,for such sentences1 combined to form a period1 should generally be separated2 and even a single one may have some phrase that must be set off4 ,a regular and virtuous education1 is an inestimable blessing4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #agd4 ,such equivocal expressions1 mark an intention to deceive4--,ib41 p4 #bef4 ,they are1 ,this and that1 with their plurals these and those4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bf2 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #c4 ,a nominative case and a verb1 sometimes make a complete sentence2 as1 ,he sleeps4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,tense1 expresses the action connected with certain relations of time2 mood1 represents it as farther modified by circumstances of contingency1 conditionally1 c4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,the word ,noun1 means name4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,the present1 or active participle1 ,i explained then4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 ,are some verbs used1 both transitively and intransitively8--,cooper's ,pt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,blank verse1 is verse without rhyme4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #bdb4 ,a distributive adjective1 denotes each one of a number considered separately4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,and may at last my weary age1 ,find out the peaceful hermitage4 --,murray's ,gr41 #abmo1 p4 #bje2 #hvo1 #bee4 ,,under ,,the ,,exception ,,concerning ,,simple ,,sentences4 ,a noun without an ,article to limit it is taken in its widest sense4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #h2 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #aj4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma is here set before the verb is taken4 ,but1 according to the ,exception to ,rule #ast for the ,comma1 ,when the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts1 or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative1 a comma should be placed immediately before the verb4 ,therefore1 a comma should be here inserted2 thus1 ,a noun without an article to limit it1 is taken in its widest sense4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,to maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life marks a great mind4--,day's ,district ,school ,gram41 p4 #hd4 ,to love our ,maker supremely and our neighbor as ourselves comprehends the whole moral law4--,ibid4 ,to be afraid to do wrong is true courage4--,ib41 p4 #he4 ,a great fortune in the hands of a fool is a great misfortune4--,bullions1 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #hi4 ,that he should make such a remark is indeed strange4--,farnum1 ,practical ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,to walk in the fields and groves is delightful4--,id41 ib4 ,that he committed the fault is most certain4--,id41 ib4 ,names common to all things of the same sort or class are called ,common nouns2 as1 man1 woman1 day4--,bullions1 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #ab4 ,that it is our duty to be pious admits not of any doubt4--,id41 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,to endure misfortune with resignation is the characteristic of a great mind1--,id41 ib41 p4 #ha4 ,the assisting of a friend in such circumstances was certainly a duty4--,id41 ib41 #ha4 ,that a life of virtue is the safest is certain4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #afi4 ,a collective noun denoting the idea of unity should be represented by a pronoun of the singular number4--,ib41 p4 #afg4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,simple ,,members4 ,when the sun had arisen the enemy retreated4--,day's ,district ,school ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma here separates the two simple members which compose the sentence4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d1 ,the simple members of a compound sentence1 whether successive or involved1 elliptical or complete1 are generally divided by the comma4 ,therefore1 a comma should be inserted after arisen2 thus1 ,when the sun had arisen1 the enemy retreated4 ,if he become rich he may be less industrious4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,the more ,i study grammar the better ,i like it4--,id41 ib41 p4 #abg4 ,there is much truth in the old adage that fire is a better servant than master4--,id41 ib41 p4 #abh4 ,the verb do1 when used as an auxiliary gives force or emphasis to the expression4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,whatsoever it is incumbent upon a man to do it is surely expedient to do well4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhetoric1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #df4 ,the soul which our philosophy divides into various capacities1 is still one essence4--,channing1 on ,self-,culture1 p4 #ae4 ,put the following words in the plural and give the rule for forming it4--,bullions1 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #ai4 ,we will do it if you wish4--,id41 ib41 p4 #bi4 ,he who does well will be rewarded4--,id41 ib41 #bi4 ,that which is always true is expressed in the present tense4--,id41 ib41 p4 #aai4 ,an observation which is always true must be expressed in the present tense4--,id41 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #abc4 ,that part of orthography which treats of combining letters to form syllables and words is called ,,spelling4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,a noun can never be of the first person except it is in apposition with a pronoun of that person4--,ib41 p4 #ad4 ,when two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the same object they require a singular verb and pronoun4--,ib41 p4 #hj4 ,james has gone but he will return in a few days4--,ib41 #hi4 ,a pronoun should have the same person1 number1 and gender as the noun for which it stands4--,ib41 #hi and #hj4 ,though he is out of danger he is still afraid4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,she is his inferior in sense but his equal in prudence4--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,the man who has no sense of religion is little to be trusted4--,ib41 #ha4 ,he who does the most good has the most pleasure4--,ib41 #ha4 ,they were not in the most prosperous circumstances when we last saw them4--,ib41 #ha4 ,if the day continue pleasant ,i shall return4--,felton's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #bb2 ,ster4 ,ed41 #bd4 ,the days that are past are gone for ever4--,ib41 pp4 #hi and #ib4 ,as many as are friendly to the cause will sustain it4--,ib41 #hi and #ib4 ,such as desire aid will receive it4--,ib41 #hi and #ib4 ,who gave you that book which you prize so much8--,bullions1 ,pract4 ,lessons1 p4 #cb4 ,he who made it now preserves and governs it4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,shall he alone1 whom rational we call1 ,be pleased with nothing if not blessed with all8 --,felton's ,gram41 p4 #abf4 ,,under ,,the ,,exceptions ,,concerning ,,simple ,,members4 ,newcastle is the town1 in which ,akenside was born4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because a needless comma here separates the restrictive relative which from its antecedent town4 ,but1 according to ,exception #ast to ,rule #b;d1 ,when a relative immediately follows its antecedent1 and is taken in a restrictive sense1 the comma should not be introduced before it4 ,therefore1 this comma ,should be omitted2 thus1 ,newcastle is the town in which ,akenside was born4 ,the remorse1 which issues in reformation1 is true repentance4--,campbell's ,philos4 of ,rhet41 p4 #bee4 ,men1 who are intemperate1 are destructive members of community4--,alexander's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,an active-transitive verb expresses an action1 which extends to an object4--,felton's ,gram41 pp4 #af and #bb4 ,they1 to whom much is given1 will have much to answer for4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahh4 ,the prospect1 which we have1 is charming4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,he is the person1 who informed me of the matter4--,ib41 p4 #acd2 ,cooper's ,murray1 #abj4 ,these are the trees1 that produce no fruit4--,ib41 #acd2 and #abj4 ,this is the book1 which treats of the subject4--,ib41 #acd2 and #abj4 ,the proposal was such1 as pleased me4--,cooper1 ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,those1 that sow in tears1 shall reap in joy4--,id41 ib41 pp4 #aah and #abd2 and ,cooper's ,murray1 p4 #ada4 ,the pen1 with which ,i write1 makes too large a mark4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,modesty makes large amends for the pain1 it gives the persons1 who labour under it1 by the prejudice1 it affords every worthy person in their favour4--,ib41 p4 #hj4 ,irony is a figure1 whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our words express4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,catachresis is a figure1 whereby an improper word is used instead of a proper one4--,ib41 p4 #aji4 ,the man1 whom you met at the party1 is a ,frenchman4--,frost's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,words4 ,john1 ,james and ,thomas are here3 that is1 ,john and ,james1 c4--,cooper's ,plain and ,practical ,grammar1 p4 #aec4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma is here used after ,james1 or after ,thomas1 or again after ,john1 in the latter clause2 the three nouns being supposed to be in the same construction1 and all of them nominatives to the verb are4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d for the ,comma1 ,when more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction1 or in a joint dependence on some other term1 by conjunctions expressed or understood1 the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last2 and1 if they are nominatives before a verb1 the comma should follow the last also4 ,therefore1 the comma should be inserted after each2 thus1 ,john1 ,james1 and ,thomas1 are here3 that is1 ,john1 and ,james1 and ,thomas1 are here4#dfc ,adverbs modify verbs adjectives and other adverbs4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,to ,nouns belong ,person1 ,gender1 ,number and ,case4--,id41 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #ab4 ,wheat1 corn1 rye1 and oats are extensively cultivated4--,id41 ib41 p4 #ac4 ,in many1 the definitions1 rules and leading facts are prolix1 inaccurate and confused4--,finch's ,report on ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,most people consider it mysterious1 difficult and useless4--,ib41 p4 #c4 ,his father and mother1 and uncle reside at ,rome4--,farnum's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,the relative pronouns are who1 which and that4--,bullions1 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #bi4 ,that is sometimes a demonstrative1 sometimes a relative and sometimes a conjunction4--,id41 ib41 p4 #cc4 ,our reputation1 virtue1 and happiness greatly depend on the choice of our companions4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,the spirit of true religion is social1 kind and cheerful4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,do1 be1 have and will are sometimes principal verbs4--,ib41 p4 #bf4 ,john and ,thomas and ,peter reside at ,oxford4--,webster1 ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #adb2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,the most innocent pleasures are the most rational1 the most delightful and the most durable4--,id41 ib41 pp4 #bae and #aea4 ,love1 joy1 peace and blessedness are reserved for the good4--,id41 ib41 #bae and #aea4 ,the husband1 wife and children1 suffered extremely4--,murray's ,gram41 #dth ,am4 ,ed41 #hvo1 p4 #bfi4 ,the husband1 wife1 and children suffer extremely4--,sanborn's ,analytical ,gram41 p4 #bfh4 ,he1 you1 and ,i have our parts assigned us4--,ibid4 ,he moaned1 lamented1 tugged and tried1 ,repented1 promised1 wept and sighed4--,felton's ,gr41 p4 #ajh4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iv4--,,of ,,only ,,two ,,words4 ,disappointments derange1 and overcome1 vulgar minds4--,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #ae4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the two verbs here connected by and1 are needlessly separated from each other1 and from their object following4 ,but1 according to ,rule #dth1 ,when only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction1 they should not be separated by the comma4 ,therefore1 these two commas should be omitted2 thus1 ,disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds4 ,the hive of a city1 or kingdom1 is in the best condition1 when there is the least noise or buzz in it4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aga4 ,when a direct address is made1 the noun1 or pronoun1 is in the nominative case independent4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,the verbs love and teach1 make loved1 and taught1 in the imperfect and participle4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 ,neither poverty1 nor riches were injurious to him4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,thou1 or ,i am in fault4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #acf4 ,a verb is a word that expresses action1 or being4--,day's ,district ,school ,gram41 pp4 #aa and #fa4 ,the ,objective ,case denotes the object of a verb1 or a preposition4--,ib41 pp4 #ag and #ai4 ,verbs of the second conjugation may be either transitive1 or intransitive4--,ib41 p4 #da4 ,verbs of the fourth conjugation may be either transitive1 or intransitive4--,ib41 #da4 ,if a verb does not form its past indicative by adding d1 or ed to the indicative present1 it is said to be irregular4--,ib41 #da4 ,the young lady is studying rhetoric1 and logic4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,he writes1 and speaks the language very correctly4--,ib41 p4 #adh4 ,man's happiness1 or misery1 is1 in a great measure1 put into his own hands4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahc4 ,this accident1 or characteristic of nouns1 is called their ,gender4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 #ahdc1 p4 #aie4 ,grant that the powerful still the weak controul2 ,be ,man the ,wit1 and ,tyrant of the whole4 --,,pope3 ,brit4 ,poets1 vi1 #cge4 ,,under ,,exception ,i4--,,two ,,words ,,with ,,adjuncts4 ,franklin is justly considered the ornament of the new world and the pride of modern philosophy4--,day's ,district ,school ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the words ornament and pride1 each of which has adjuncts1 are here connected by and without a comma before it4 ,but1 according to ,exception #ast to ,rule #dth1 ,when the two words connected have several adjuncts1 or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both1 the comma is inserted4 ,therefore1 a comma should be set before and2 thus1 ,franklin is justly considered the ornament of the ,new ,world1 and the pride of modern philosophy4 ,levity and attachment to worldly pleasures1 destroy the sense of gratitude to him4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahc4 ,in the following ,exercise1 point out the adjectives and the substantives which they qualify4--,bullions1 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #ajj4 ,when a noun or pronoun is used to explain or give emphasis to a preceding noun or pronoun4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,superior talents and briliancy of intellect do not always constitute a great man4--,ib41 p4 #ib4 ,a word that makes sense after an article or the phrase speak of1 is a noun4--,bullions1 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #ab4 ,all feet used in poetry1 are reducible to eight kinds2 four of two syllables and four of three4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #abc4 ,he would not do it himself nor let me do it4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aac4dfd ,the old writers give examples of the subjunctive mode and give other modes to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ceb4 ,,under ,,exception ,,ii4--,,two ,,terms ,,contrasted4 ,we often commend as well as censure imprudently4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bad4 ,it is as truly a violation of the right of property1 to take little as to take much2 to purloin a book1 or a penknife1 as to steal money2 to steal fruit as to steal a horse2 to defraud the revenue as to rob my neighbour2 to overcharge the public as to overcharge my brother2 to cheat the postoffice as to cheat my friend4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 #ast ,edition1 p4 #bed4 ,the classification of verbs has been and still is a vexed question4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,grammar1 ,revised ,edition1 p4 #bjj4 ,names applied only to individuals of a sort or class and not common to all1 are called ,proper ,nouns4--,id41 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #ab4 ,a hero would desire to be loved as well as to be reverenced4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,death or some worse misfortune now divides them4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,alexander replied1 ',the world will not permit two suns nor two sovereigns4'--,goldsmith's ,greece1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aac4 ,from nature's chain1 whatever link you strike1 ,tenth or ten thousandth1 breaks the chain alike4 --,felton's ,gram41 p4 #aca4 ,,under ,,exception ,,iii4--,,alternative ,,of ,,words4 ,metre or ,measure is the number of poetical feet which a verse contains4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #abc4 ,the ,csura or division1 is the pause which takes place in a verse1 and which divides it into two parts4--,ib41 #abc4 ,it is six feet or one fathom deep4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,a ,,brace is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines which rhyme together4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,there are four principal kinds of ,english verse or poetical feet4--,ib41 p4 #adc4 ,the period or full stop denotes the end of a complete sentence4--,sanborn's ,analytical ,gram41 p4 #bga4 ,the scholar is to receive as many jetons or counters as there are words in the sentence4--,st4 ,quentin's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,that thing or the thing which purifies1 fortifies also the heart4--,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,that thing or the thing which would induce a laxity in public or private morals1 or indifference to guilt and wretchedness1 should be regarded as the deadly ,sirocco4--,ib41 #gd4 ,what is elliptically what thing or that thing which4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ii4 ,demonstrate means show or point out precisely4--,ib41 p4 #aci4 ,the man or that man1 who endures to the end1 shall be saved4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,,under ,,exception ,,iv4--,a ,,second ,,comma4 ,reason1 passion answer one great end4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aeb2 ,hiley's1 p4 #aab4 ,reason1 virtue answer one great aim4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #aid2 ,butler's1 #bjd4 ,every good gift1 and every perfect gift is from above4--,felton's ,gram41 p4 #ij4 ,every plant1 and every tree produces others after its kind4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #ia4 ,james1 and not ,john was paid for his services4--,ib41 #ia4 ,the single dagger1 or obelisk ,dagger is the second4--,ib41 p4 #aac4 ,it was ,i1 not he that did it4--,st4 ,quentin's ,gram41 p4 #aeb4 ,each aunt1 7and7 each cousin hath her speculation4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #aci4 ',i shall see you when you come1' is equivalent to ',i shall see you then1 or at that time when you come4'--,butler's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #aba4 ,let wealth1 let honour wait the wedded dame1 ,august her deed1 and sacred be her fame4--,pope1 p4 #ccd4 ,,under ,,rule ,v4--,,of ,,words ,,in ,,pairs4 ,my hopes and fears1 joys and sorrows centre in you4--,b4 ,,greenleaf3 ,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bfh4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma here separates the second pair of nominatives from the verb4 ,but1 according to ,rule #eth1 ,when successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions1 they should be separated in pairs by the comma4 ,therefore1 an other comma should be inserted after sorrows2 thus1 ,my hopes and fears1 joys and sorrows1 centre in you4 ,this mood implies possibility1 or liberty1 will1 or obligation4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,substance is divided into ,body1 and ,spirit into ,extended and ,thinking4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #bec4 ,these consonants1 d and t1 like p1 and b1 f1 and v1 k1 and hard g1 and s1 and z1 are letters of the same organ4--,walkers ,dict41 p4 #da3 ,principles1 ,no4 #ceh4 ,neither fig nor twist pigtail nor cavendish have passed my lips since1 nor ever shall they again4--,boston ,cultivator1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #cf4 ,the words ,,whoever1 or ,,whosoever1 ,,whichever1 or ,,whichsoever1 and ,,whatever1 or ,,whatsoever are called ,,compound ,,relative ,,pronouns4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,adjectives signifying profit or disprofit1 likeness or unlikeness govern the dative4--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 #abth ,ed41 #bae4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vi4--,,of ,,words ,,absolute4 ,thy rod and thy staff they comfort me4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma is here set after staff1 which1 with the noun rod1 is put absolute by pleonasm4 ,but1 according to ,rule #fth1 ,nouns or pronouns put absolute1 should1 with their adjuncts1 be set off by the comma4 ,therefore1 a comma should be here inserted2 thus1 ,thy rod and thy staff1 they comfort me4--,psalm xxiii1 #d4 ,depart ye wicked4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,he saith to his mother1 ,woman behold thy son4--,gurney's ,portable ,evidences1 p4 #dd4 ,thou ,god seest me4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #i2 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #ac4 ,thou1 ,god seest me4--,id41 ,e4 ,gram41 ,revised ,ed41 p4 #aie4 ,john write me a letter4 ,henry go home4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cef4 ,john2 write a letter4 ,henry2 go home4--,ib41 p4 #cag4 ,now1 ,g4 ,brown2 let us reason together4--,ib41 p4 #cbf4 ,smith3 ,you say on page #aa1 the objective case denotes the object4--,ib41 p4 #cdd4 ,gentlemen3 will you always speak as you mean8--,ib41 p4 #ceb4 ,john3 ,i sold my books to ,william for his brothers4--,ib41 p4 #dg4 ,walter and ,seth3 ,i will take my things1 and leave yours4--,ib41 p4 #fi4 ,henry3 ,julia and ,jane left their umbrella1 and took yours4--,ib41 p4 #gc4 ,john2 harness the horses and go to the mine for some coal4 ,william2 run to the store for a few pounds of tea4--,ib41 p4 #afj4 ,the king being dead the parliament was dissolved4--,chandler's ,gram41 p4 #aai4 ,cease fond nature1 cease thy strife1 ,and let me languish into life4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #agc4 ,forbear great man1 in arms renown'd1 forbear4--,ib41 p4 #agd4 ,eternal sunshine of the spotless mind1 ,each prayer accepted and each wish resign'd4--,hiley's ,gr41 p4 #abc4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vii4--,,words ,,in ,,apposition4 ,we the people of the ,united ,states1 in order to form a more perfect union1 establish justice1 c4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #bjj4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma is here set after the pronoun ,we1 with which the word people1 which has adjuncts1 is in apposition4 ,but1 according to ,rule #gth1 ,words in apposition1 7especially if they have adjuncts17 are generally set off by the comma4 ,therefore1 an other comma should be here inserted2 thus1 ,we1 the people of the ,united ,states1 c4 ,the ,lord1 the covenant ,god of his people requires it4--,anti-,slavery ,magazine1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #gc4 ,he as a patriot deserves praise4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #abd4 ,thomson the watchmaker and jeweller from ,london1 was of the party4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #abh4 ,every body knows that the person here spoken of by the name of the conqueror1 is ,william duke of ,normandy4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cc4 ,the words myself1 thyself1 himself1 herself1 and their plurals ourselves1 yourselves1 and themselves are called ,compound ,personal ,pronouns4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,for who to dumb forgetfulness a prey1 ,this pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd1 ,left the warm precincts of the cheerful day1 ,nor cast one longing1 ling'ring look behind8--,u4 ,poems1 p4 #fh4 ,,under ,,exceptions ,,concerning ,,apposition4 ,smith and ,williams' store2 ,nicholas1 the emperor's army4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,he was named ,william1 the conqueror4--,ib41 p4 #hj4 ,john1 the ,baptist1 was beheaded4--,ib41 p4 #hg4 ,alexander1 the coppersmith1 did me great harm4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #abf4 ,a nominative in immediate apposition2 as1 ',the boy1 ,henry1 speaks4'--,smart's ,accidence1 p4 #bi4 ,a noun objective can be in apposition with some other2 as1 ',i teach the boy1 ,henry4'--,ib41 p4 #cj4 ,,under ,,rule ,,viii4--,,of ,,adjectives4 ,but he found me1 not singing at my work ruddy with health vivid with cheerfulness2 but pale and dejected1 sitting on the ground1 and chewing opium4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the phrases1 ruddy with health1 and vivid with cheerfulness1 which begin with adjectives1 are not here commaed4 ,but1 according to ,rule #hth1 ,adjectives1 when something depends on them1 or when they have the import of a dependent clause1 should1 with their adjuncts1 be set off by the comma4 ,therefore1 two other commas should be here inserted2 thus1 ,but he found me1 not singing at my work1 ruddy with health1 vivid with cheerfulness2 but pale1 c4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,i looked up1 and beheld an inclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise1 but of a small extent4--,see ,key4 ,a is an article1 indefinite and belongs to 'book4'--,bullions1 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #aj4 ,the first expresses the rapid movement of a troop of horse over the plain eager for the combat4--,id41 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bif4 ,he 1 the ,indian chieftain1 ,king ,philip1 was a patriot1 attached to his native soil2 a prince true to his subjects and indignant of their wrongs2 a soldier daring in battle firm in adversity patient of fatigue1 of hunger1 of every variety of bodily suffering and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused4--,see ,key4 ,for thee1 who mindful of th' unhonour'd dead ,dost in these lines their artless tale relate4 --,union ,poems1 p4 #fh4 ,some mute inglorious ,milton here may rest3 ,some ,cromwell guiltless of his country's blood4 --,day's ,gram41 p4 #aag4 ,idle after dinner in his chair ,sat a farmer ruddy1 fat1 and fair4 --,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #abe4 ,,under ,,the ,,exception ,,concerning ,,adjectives4 ,when an attribute becomes a title1 or is emphatically applied to a name1 it follows it2 as ,charles1 the ,great2 ,henry1 the ,first2 ,lewis1 the ,gross4--,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #aec2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #ajg4 ,feed me with food1 convenient for me4--,cooper's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,the words and phrases1 necessary to exemplify every principle progressively laid down1 will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illustration of the principles to which they are referred4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 x4 ,the ,infinitive ,mode is that form of the verb which expresses action or being1 unlimited by person1 or number4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #ce4 ,a man1 diligent in his business1 prospers4--,frost's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,o wretched state6 oh bosom1 black as death6 --,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #aah4 ,o1 wretched state6 ,o1 bosom1 black as death6 --,singer's ,shak41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #did4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ix4--,,of ,,finite ,,verbs4 ,the ,singular denotes one2 the ,plural more than one4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ab2 ,pract4 ,lessons1 p4 #af2 ,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #g4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma is here set after ,plural1 where the verb denotes is understood4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ith1 ,where a finite verb is understood1 a comma is generally required4 ,therefore1 a comma should be inserted at the place mentioned2 thus1 ,the ,singular denotes one2 the ,plural1 more than one4 ,the comma represents the shortest pause2 the semicolon a pause longer than the comma2 the colon longer than the semicolon2 and the period longer than the colon4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,the comma represents the shortest pause2 the semicolon a pause double that of the comma2 the colon1 double that of the semicolon2 and the period1 double that of the colon4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aea2 ,pract4 ,lessons1 p4 #abg4 ,who is applied only to persons2 which to animals and things2 what to things only2 and that to persons1 animals1 and things4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,a or an is used before the singular number only2 the before either singular or plural4--,bullions1 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #aj4 ,homer was the greater genius2 ,virgil the better artist4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,homer was the greater genius1 ,virgil the better artist4--,,pope',s ,,preface3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vi1 p4 viii4 ,words are formed of syllables2 syllables of letters4--,st4 ,quentin's ,general ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,the ,conjugation of an active verb is styled the ,,active ,,voice2 and that of a passive verb the ,,passive ,,voice4--,frost's ,el4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,the ,,conjugation of an active verb is styled the ,,active ,,voice1 and that of a passive verb the ,,passive ,,voice4--,smith's ,new4 ,gram41 p4 #aga4 ,the possessive is sometimes called the genitive case2 and the objective the accusative4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #abmo1 p4 #dd4 ,benevolence is allied to few vices2 selfishness to fewer virtues4--,kames1 ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #dj4 ,orthography treats of ,letters1 ,etymology of ,words1 ,syntax of ,sentences1 and ,prosody of ,versification4--,hart's ,english ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,earth praises conquerors for shedding blood2 ,heaven those that love their foes1 and do them good4--,see ,key4 ,,under ,,rule ,x4--,,of ,,infinitives4 ,his business is to observe the agreement or disagreement of words4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,grammar1 ,revised ,edition1 p4 #ahi4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma here divides to observe from the preceding verb4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ajth1 ,the infinitive mood1 when it follows a verb from which it must be separated1 or when it depends on something remote or understood1 is generally1 with its adjuncts1 set off by the comma4 ,therefore1 a comma should be inserted after is2 thus1 ,his business is1 to observe the agreement or disagreement of words4 ,it is a mark of distinction to be made a member of this society4-- ,farnum's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #be2 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #bc4 ,to distinguish the conjugations let the pupil observe the following rules4--,day's ,d4 ,s4 ,gram41 p4 #dj4 ,he was now sent for to preach before the ,parliament4-- ,life of ,dr4 ,j4 ,owen1 p4 #ah4 ,it is incumbent on the young to love and honour their parents4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,it is the business of every man to prepare for death4--,id41 ib41 #hc4 ,it argued the sincerest candor to make such an acknowledgement4--,id41 ib41 p4 #aae4 ,the proper way is to complete the construction of the first member1 and leave that of the second understood4--,ib41 ib41 p4 #abe4 ,,enemy is a name4 ,it is a term of distinction given to a certain person to show the character in which he is represented4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,the object of this is to preserve the soft sound of c and g4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,the design of grammar is to facilitate the reading1 writing1 and speaking of a language4--,barrett's ,gram41 #ajth ,ed41 ,pref41 p4 iii4 ,four kinds of type are used in the following pages to indicate the portions that are considered more or less elementary4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xi4--,,of ,,participles4 ,the chancellor being attached to the king secured his crown4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the phrase1 being attached to the king1 is not commaed4 ,but1 according to ,rule #aath1 ,participles1 when something depends on them1 when they have the import of a dependent clause1 or when they relate to something understood1 should1 with their adjuncts1 be set off by the comma4 ,therefore1 two commas should be here inserted2 thus1 ,the chancellor1 being attached to the king1 secured his crown4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,the officer having received his orders1 proceeded to execute them4-- ,day's ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,thus used it is in the present tense4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 ,revised ,ed41 p4 #cc4 ,the ,imperfect tense has three distinct forms corresponding to those of the present tense4--,id41 ib41 p4 #dj4 ,every possessive case is governed by some noun denoting the thing possessed4--,id41 ib41 p4 #hg4 ,the word that used as a conjunction is preceded by a comma4--,id41 ib41 p4 #aed4 ,his narrative being composed upon such good authority1 deserves credit4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,the hen being in her nest1 was killed and eaten there by the eagle4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo4 p4 #beb4 ,pronouns being used instead of nouns are subject to the same modifications4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,when placed at the beginning of words they are consonants4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,man starting from his couch1 shall sleep no more4--,ib41 p4 #bbb4 ,his and her followed by a noun are possessive pronouns3 not followed by a noun they are personal pronouns4--,bullions1 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #cc4 ,he with viny crown advancing1 ,first to the lively pipe his hand addressed4--,id41 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,,under ,,the ,,exception ,,concerning ,,participles4 ,but when they convey the idea of many1 acting individually1 or separately1 they are of the plural number4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,two or more singular antecedents1 connected by and require verbs and pronouns of the plural number4--,ib41 pp4 #hj and #ia4 ,words ending in y1 preceded by a consonant1 change y into i when a termination is added4--,butlers ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,a noun1 used without an article to limit it1 is generally taken in its widest sense4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,two nouns1 meaning the same person or thing1 frequently come together4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,each one must give an account to ,god for the use1 or the abuse of the talents1 committed to him4--,coopers ,pl4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,two vowels1 united in one sound1 form a diphthong4--,frost's ,el4 of ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,three vowels1 united in one sound1 form a triphthong4--,ib4 ,any word1 joined to an adverb1 is a secondary adverb4--,barrett's ,revised ,gram41 p4 #fh4 ,the person1 spoken to1 is put in the ,second person4 ,the person1 spoken of1 in the ,third person4--,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,a man1 devoted to his business1 prospers4--,frost's ,pr4 ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xii4--,,of ,,adverbs4 ,so in indirect questions2 as1 ',tell me when he will come4'--,butler's ,gram41 p4 #aba4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the adverb ,so is not set off by the comma4 ,but according to ,rule #abth1 ,adverbs1 when they break the connexion of a simple sentence1 or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context1 should1 with their adjuncts1 be set off by the comma4 ,therefore1 a comma should be inserted after ,so2 thus1 ,so1 in indirect questions2 as1 c4 ,now when the verb tells what one person or thing does to another1 the verb is transitive4--,bullions1 ,pract4 ,les41 p #cg4 ,agreeably to your request ,i send this letter4--,id41 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,there seems therefore1 to be no good reason for giving them a different classification4--,id41 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aii4 ,again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchantman1 seeking goodly pearls4--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,matt41 xiii1 #de4 ,again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net1 that was cast into the sea4--,ib1 ib41 verse #dg4 ,cease however1 is used as a transitive verb by our best writers4--,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #aga4 ,time admits of three natural divisions1 namely3 ,present1 ,past1 and ,future4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,there are three kinds of comparison1 namely3 regular1 irregular1 and adverbial4--,ib41 p4 #ca4 ,there are five ,personal ,pronouns namely3 ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 and it4--,ib41 p4 #bb4 ,nouns have three cases1 viz4 the ,nominative1 ,possessive1 and ,objective4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #af2 ,p4 ,lessons1 p4 #ai4 ,hence in studying ,grammar1 we have to study words4--,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,participles like ,verbs relate to ,nouns and ,pronouns4--,miller's ,ready ,grammarian1 p4 #bc4 ,the time of the participle like that of the infinitive is estimated from the time of the leading verb4--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,the dumb shall sing the lame his crutch forego1 ,and leap exulting like the bounding roe4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #abc4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,of ,,conjunctions4 ,but he said1 ,nay2 lest while ye gather up the tares1 ye root up also the wheat with them4--,,friends' ,,bible1 and ,,smith',s3 ,matt41 xiii1 #bi4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma is inserted after lest4 ,but1 according to ,rule #acth1 ,conjunctions1 when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them1 or when they introduce examples1 are generally set off by the comma4 ,therefore1 a comma should be put after the word lest2 thus1 ,but he said1 ,nay2 lest1 while ye gather up the tares1 ye root up also the wheat with them4--,,scott',s ,,bible1 ,,alger',s1 ,,bruce',s4 ,their intentions were good2 but wanting prudence1 they missed the mark at which they aimed4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bba4 ,the verb be often separates the name from its attribute2 as war is expensive4-- ,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #aec4 ,either and or denote an alternative2 as ',i will take either road at your pleasure4'--,ib41 p4 #fc2 ,imp4 ,gram41 #de4 ,either is also a substitute for a name2 as ',either of the roads is good4'--,webster1 both ,grams41 #fc and #de4 ,but alas6 ,i fear the consequence4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,or if he ask a fish1 will he for a fish give him a serpent8--,scott's ,bible1 and ,smith's4 ,or if he shall ask an egg1 will he offer him a scorpion8--,smiths ,bible4 ,the infinitive sometimes performs the office of a nominative case1 as ',to enjoy is to obey4'--,,pope4--,cutler's ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,the plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular1 as book1 books4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,as ',i were to blame1 if ,i did it4'--,smart's ,accidence1 p4 #af4 ,or if it be thy will and pleasure ,direct my plough to find a treasure4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #abd4 ,or if it be thy will and pleasure1 ,direct my plough to find a treasure4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #ahe4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,of ,,prepositions4 ,pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender1 number1 and person4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 pp4 #ada and #adh2 ,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the preposition in has not the comma before it1 as the text requires4 ,but1 according to ,rule #adth1 ,prepositions and their objects1 when they break the connexion of a simple sentence1 or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend1 are generally set off by the comma4 ,therefore1 a comma should be here inserted2 thus1 ,pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand1 in gender1 number1 and person4 ,or the words may be transposed1 and the comma set before with2 thus1 ,pronouns agree in gender1 number1 and person1 with the nouns for which they stand4 ,in the first two examples the antecedent is person1 or something equivalent2 in the last it is thing4--,butler1 ib41 p4 #ec4 ,in what character he was admitted is unknown4--,ib41 p4 #ee4 ,to what place he was going is not known4--,ib41 p4 #ee4 ,in the preceding examples ,john1 ,csar1 and ,james are the subjects4--,ib41 p4 #ei4 ,yes is generally used to denote assent in the answer to a question4--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ,that in its origin is the passive participle of the ,anglo-,saxon verb thean1 to take--,ib41 p4 #abg4 ,but in all these sentences as and so are adverbs4--,ib41 p4 #abg4 ,after an interjection or exclamatory sentence is placed the mark of exclamation4--,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,intransitive verbs from their nature can have no distinction of voice4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,to the inflection of verbs belong ,voices1 ,moods1 ,tenses1 ,numbers1 and ,persons4--,id41 ib41 p4 #cc2 ,pract4 ,lessons1 p4 #da4 ,as and so in the antecedent member of a comparison are properly adverbs4--,id41 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,in the following ,exercise point out the words in apposition4--,id41 ,p4 ,lessons1 p4 #ajc4 ,in the following ,exercise point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor4-- ,id41 ib41 p4 #aje4 ,its is not found in the ,bible except by misprint4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #fh4 ,no one's interest is concerned except mine4--,ib41 p4 #gj4 ,in most of the modern languages there are four concords4--,st4 ,quentin's ,gen4 ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,in illustration of these remarks let us suppose a case4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,on the right management of the emphasis depends the life of pronunciation4-- ,ib41 p4 #agb2 ,murray's1 #hvo1 p4 #bdb4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xv4--,,of ,,interjections4 ,behold he is in the desert4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,matt41 xxiv1 #bf4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the interjection ,behold1 which has usually a comma after it in ,scripture1 has here no point4 ,but1 according to ,rule #aeth1 ,interjections that require a pause1 though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme1 are sometimes set off by the comma4 ,in this instance1 a comma should be used2 thus1 ,behold1 he is in the desert4--,common ,bible4 ,and ,lot said unto them1 ,oh not so my ,lord4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,gen41 xix1 #ah4 ,oh let me escape thither1 7is it not a little one87 and my soul shall live4--,,scott3 ,gen41 xix1 #bj4 ,behold6 ,i come quickly4--,,bible4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,lo6 ,i am with you always4--,day's ,gram41 pp4 #aj and #gc4 ,and lo6 ,i am with you always4--,ib41 pp4 #gh and #aaj4 ,and lo1 ,i am with you alway4--,,scott',s ,,bible1 and ,,bruce',s3 ,matt41 xxviii1 #bj4 ,ha6 ha6 ha6 how laughable that is4--,bullions1 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #hc4 ,interjections of ,laughter1--,ha6 he6 hi6 ho6--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #aba4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xvi4--,,of ,,words ,,repeated4 ,lend lend your wings6 ,i mount6 ,i fly6--,example varied4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the repeated word lend has here no comma4 ,but1 according to ,rule #afth1 ,a word emphatically repeated1 is generally set off by the comma4 ,in this instance1 a comma is required after the former lend1 but not after the latter2 thus1 ,lend1 lend your wings6 ,i mount6 ,i fly6--,pope's ,poems1 p4 #cag4 ,to bed to bed to bed4 ,there is a knocking at the gate4 ,come come come4 ,what is done cannot be undone4 ,to bed to bed to bed4--,see ,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #acj4 ,i will roar1 that the duke shall cry1 ,encore encore let him roar let him roar once more once more4--,see ib41 p4 #acf4 ,vital spark of heav'nly flame1 ,quit oh quit this mortal frame4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #abf4 ,vital spark of heav'nly flame1 ,quit1 oh quit1 this mortal frame6--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gr41 p4 #agb4 ,o the pleasing pleasing ,anguish1 ,when we love1 and when we languish4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #afa4 ,praise to ,god immortal praise ,for the love that crowns our days6--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #abd4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xvii4--,,of ,,dependent ,,quotations4 ,thus1 of an infant1 we say ',it is a lovely creature4'--,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because no comma is here inserted between say and the citation which follows4 ,but1 according to ,rule #agth1 ,a quotation1 observation1 or description1 when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb1 7as1 say1 reply1 cry1 or the like47 is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma4 ,therefore1 a comma should be put after say2 as1 ,thus1 of an infant1 we say1 ',it is a lovely creature4' ,no being can state a falsehood in saying ,i am2 for no one can utter it1 if it is not true4--,cardell's ,gram41 #ahmo1 p4 #aah4 ,i know they will cry out against this and say 'should he pay1 means if he should pay4'--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ceb4 ,for instance1 when we say 'the house is building1' the advocates of the new theory ask1 'building what8' ,we might ask in turn1 when you say 'the field ploughs well1' ploughs what8 ',wheat sells well1' sells what8 ,if usage allows us to say 'wheat sells at a dollar' in a sense that is not active1 why may it not also allow us to say 'wheat is selling at a dollar' in a sense that is not active8--,hart's ,english ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,man is accountable1 equals mankind are accountable4--,s4 ,barrett's ,revised ,gram41 p4 #cg4 ,thus1 when we say ',he may be reading1' may is the real verb2 the other parts are verbs by name only4--,smart's ,english ,accidence1 p4 #h4 ,thus we say an apple1 an hour1 that two vowel sounds may not come together4--,ib41 p4 #bg4 ,it would be as improper to say an unit1 as to say an youth2 to say an one1 as to say an wonder4--,ib41 p4 #bg4 ,when we say ',he died for the truth1' for is a preposition4--,ib41 p4 #bh4 ,we do not say ',i might go yesterday1' but ',i might have gone yesterday4'--,ib41 p4 #aa4 ,by student1 we understand one who has by matriculation acquired the rights of academical citizenship2 but1 by bursch1 we understand one who has already spent a certain time at the university4--,howitt's ,student-,life in ,germany1 p4 #bg4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,semicolon4 ,the ,semicolon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence1 which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the comma1 nor so little dependent as those which require the colon4 ,,rule ,i4--,,complex ,,members4 ,when two or more complex members1 or such clauses as require the comma in themselves1 are constructed into a period1 they are generally separated by the semicolon3 as1 ,in the regions inhabited by angelic natures1 unmingled felicity forever blooms2 joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream1 nor needs any mound to check its course4--,carter4 ,when the voice rises1 the gesture naturally ascends2 and when the voice makes the falling inflection1 or lowers its pitch1 the gesture follows it by a corresponding descent2 and1 in the level and monotonous pronunciation of the voice1 the gesture seems to observe a similar limitation1 by moving rather in the horizontal direction1 without much varying its elevation4--,comstock's ,elocution1 p4 #ajg4 ,the wide1 the unbounded prospect lies before me2 ,but shadows1 clouds1 and darkness1 rest upon it4--,addison4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,simple ,,members4 ,when two or more simple members1 or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision1 are constructed into a period2 if they require a pause greater than that of the comma1 they are usually separated by the semicolon3 as1 ,straws swim upon the surface2 but pearls lie at the bottom4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bgf4 ,every thing grows old2 every thing passes away2 every thing disappears4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aae4 ,alexander asked them the distance of the ,persian capital2 what forces the king of ,persia could bring into the field2 what the ,persian government was2 what was the character of the king2 how he treated his enemies2 what were the most direct ways into ,persia4--,whelpley's ,lectures1 p4 #age4 ,a longer care man's helpless kind demands2 ,that longer care contracts more lasting bands4--,pope4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,apposition1 ,c4 ,words in apposition1 in disjunct pairs1 or in any other construction1 if they require a pause greater than that of the comma1 and less than that of the colon1 may be separated by the semicolon3 as1 ,pronouns have three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,judge1 judgement2 lodge1 lodgement2 acknowledge1 acknowledgement4--,butler's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,do not the eyes discover humility1 pride2 cruelty1 compassion2 reflection1 dissipation2 kindness1 resentment8--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #aei4 ,this rule forbids parents to lie to children1 and children to parents2 instructors to pupils1 and pupils to instructors2 the old to the young1 and the young to the old2 attorneys to jurors1 and jurors to attorneys2 buyers to sellers1 and sellers to buyers4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #cjd4 ,make1 made2 have1 had2 pay1 paid2 say1 said2 leave1 left2 ,dream1 dreamt2 mean1 meant2 reave and bereave have reft4 --,ward's ,gr41 p4 #ff4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,punctuation4--,,errors ,,concerning ,,the ,,semicolon4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,complex ,,members4 ,the buds spread into leaves1 and the blossoms swell to fruit1 but they know not how they grow1 nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of the earth4--,day's ,e4 ,gr41 p4 #gb4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the two chief members which compose this period1 are separated only by the comma after fruit4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast for the ,semicolon1 ,when two or more complex members1 or such clauses as require the comma in themselves1 are constructed into a period1 they are generally separated by the semicolon4 ,therefore1 the pause after fruit should be marked by a semicolon4 ,but he used his eloquence chiefly against ,philip1 king of ,macedon1 and1 in several orations1 he stirred up the ,athenians to make war against him4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hd4 ,for the sake of euphony1 the n is dropped before a consonant1 and because most words begin with a consonant1 this of course is its more common form4'--,ib41 p4 #aib4 ,but if ,i say ',will a man be able to carry this burden8' it is manifest the idea is entirely changed1 the reference is not to number1 but to the species1 and the answer might be ',no2 but a horse will4'--,ib41 p4 #aic4 ,in direct discourse1 a noun used by a speaker or writer to designate himself1 is said to be of the first person--used to designate the person addressed1 it is said to be of the second person1 and when used to designate a person or thing spoken of1 it is said to be of the third person4--,ib41 p4 #aie4 ,vice stings us1 even in our pleasures1 but virtue consoles us1 even in our pains4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #hd4 ,vice is infamous though in a prince1 and virtue honorable though in a peasant4--,ib41 p4 #gb4 ,every word that is the name of a person or thing1 is a ,noun1 because ',a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing4'--,bullions1 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #hc4 ,this is the sword1 with which he did the deed1 ,and that the shield by which he was defended4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ef4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,simple ,,members4 ,a deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenancee sic--,,kth1 a chilling terror convulsed his frame2 his voice burst out at intervals into broken accents4--,principles of ,eloquence1 p4 #gc4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the first pause in this sentence is not marked by a suitable point4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d for the ,semicolon1 ,when two or more simple members1 or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision1 are constructed into a period2 if they require a pause greater than that of the comma1 they are usually separated by the semicolon4 ,therefore1 the comma after countenance should be changed to a semicolon4 ,the ,lacedemonians never traded--they knew no luxury--they lived in houses built of rough materials--they lived at public tables--fed on black broth1 and despised every thing effeminate or luxurious4--,whelpley's ,lectures1 p4 #afg4 ,government is the agent4 ,society is the principal4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #cgg4 ,the essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the ,noun and the ,verb1 to which was subsequently added1 the ,conjunction--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aia4 ,the first faint gleamings of thought in its mind are but the reflections from the parents' own intellect1--the first manifestations of temperament are from the contagious parental fountain1--the first aspirations of soul are but the warmings and promptings of the parental spirit4--,jocelyn's ,prize ,essay1 p4 #d4 ,older and oldest refer to maturity of age1 elder and eldest to priority of right by birth4 ,farther and farthest denote place or distance3 ,further and furthest1 quantity or addition4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #adh4 ,let the divisions be natural1 such as obviously suggest themselves to the mind1 and as may aid your main design1 and be easily remembered4--,goldsbury's ,manual of ,gram41 p4 #ia4 ,gently make haste1 of labour not afraid3 ,a hundred times consider what you've said4--,dryden's ,art of ,poetry4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,apposition1 c4 7#a47 ,adjectives are divided into two classes3 ,adjectives denoting quality1 and ,adjectives denoting number4--,frost's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the colon after the word classes1 is not the most suitable sign of the pause required4 ,but according to ,rule #c;d for the ,semicolon1 ,words in apposition1 in disjunct pairs1 or in any other construction if they require a pause greater than that of the comma1 and less than that of the colon1 maybe separated by the semicolon4 ,in this case1 the semicolon should have been preferred to the colon4 7#b47 ,there are two classes of adjectives--qualifying adjectives1 and limiting adjectives4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #cc4 7#c47 ,there are three ,genders1 the ,masculine1 the ,feminine1 and the ,neuter4-- ,frost's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #ea2 ,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ab2 ,alger's1 #af2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #ad3 ,murray's1 #hvo1 #cg2 and others4 7#d47 ,there are three genders3 the ,,masculine1 the ,,feminine1 and the ,,neuter4--,murray's ,gram41 #abmo4 p4 #ci2 ,jaudon's1 #be4 7#e47 ,there are three genders3 ,the ,masculine1 the ,feminine1 and the ,neuter4--,hendrick's ,gram41 p4 #ae4 7#f47 ,the ,singular denotes ,,one1 and the ,plural ,,more ,,than ,,one4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #dj4 7#g47 ,there are three ,cases viz41 the ,nominative1 the ,possessive1 and the ,objective--,hendrick's ,gram41 p4 #g4 7#h47 ,nouns have three cases1 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4-- ,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #da4 7#i47 ,in ,english1 nouns have three cases--the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #dg4 7#aj47 ,grammar is divided into four parts1 namely1 ,,orthography1 ,,etymology1 ,,syntax1 ,,prosody4--,ib41 p4 #da4 7#aa7 ,it is divided into four parts1 viz4 ,,orthography1 ,,etymology1 ,,syntax1 and ,,prosody4--,l4 ,murray's ,grammars all2 ,t4 ,smith's ,gram41 p4 #e4 7#ab47 ,it is divided into four parts3 viz4 ,orthography--,etymology--,syntax--,pros ody4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #c4 7#ac47 ,it is divided into four parts1 namely1 ,orthography4 ,etymology1 ,syntax and ,prosody4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #e4 7#ad47 ,it is divided into four parts3 viz4 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax and ,prosody4--,hendrick's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 7#ae47 ,grammar is divided into four parts3 viz4 ,orthography1 ,etymology4 ,syntax and ,prosody4--,chandler's ,gram41 p1 #ac4 7#af47 ,it is divided into four parts3 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #a2 ,frost's ,pract4 ,gram41 #ai4 7#ag47 ,english grammar has been usually divided into four parts1 viz3 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax and ,prosody4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ac4 7#ah47 ,temperance leads to happiness1 intemperance to misery4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #acg ,hart's1 #ahj4 7#ai47 ,a friend exaggerates a man's virtues1 an enemy his crimes4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #acg 7#bj47 ,a friend exaggerates a man's virtues3 an enemy his crimes4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo41 p4 #cbe 7#ba47 ,many writers use a plural noun after the second of two numeral adjectives1 thus1 ',the first and second pages are torn4'--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 #eth ,ed41 p4 #ade 7#bb47 ,of these1 the ,latin has six1 the ,greek1 five1 the ,german1 four1 the ,saxon1 six1 the ,french1 three1 c4--,id41 ib41 p4 #aif4 ,in 7ing7 it ends1 when doing is express'd1 ,in d1 t1 n1 when suffering's confess'd4 --,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,of ,,error4 ,in old books i is often used for j1 v for u1 vv for w1 and ii or ij for y4--,hart's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,the forming of letters into words and syllables is also called ,spelling4--,ib41 p4 #ba4 ,labials are formed chiefly by the lips1 dentals by the teeth1 palatals by the palate1 gutturals by the throat1 nasals by the nose1 and linguals by the tongue4--,ib41 p4 #be4 ,the labials are p1 b1 f1 v2 the dentals t1 d1 s1 z2 the palatals g soft and j2 the gutturals k1 q1 and c and g hard2 the nasals m and n2 and the linguals l and r4--,ib41 p4 #be4 ,thus1 'the man having finished his letter1 will carry it to the post office4'--,ib41 p4 #ge4 ,thus1 in the sentence 'he had a dagger concealed under his cloak1' concealed is passive1 signifying being concealed2 but in the former combination1 it goes to make up a form1 the force of which is active4--,ib41 p4 #ge4 ,thus1 in ,latin1 'he had concealed the dagger' would be 'pugionem abdiderat2' but 'he had the dagger concealed' would be 'pugionem abditum habebat4'-- ,ib41 p4 #ge4 ,here1 for instance1 means 'in this place1' now1 'at this time1' c4--,ib41 p4 #ij4 ,here when both declares the time of the action1 and so is an adverb1 and also connects the two verbs1 and so is a conjunction4--,ib41 p4 #ia4 ,these words were all no doubt originally other parts of speech1 viz43 verbs1 nouns1 and adjectives4--,ib41 p4 #ib4 ,the principal parts of a sentence are the subject1 the attribute1 and the object1 in other words the nominative1 the verb1 and the objective4-- ,ib41 p4 #ajd4 ,thus1 the adjective is connected with the noun1 the adverb with the verb or adjective1 pronouns with their antecedents1 c4--,ib41 p4 #ajd4 ,between refers to two1 among to more than two4--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ,at is used after a verb of rest1 to after a verb of motion4--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ,verbs are of three kinds1 ,active1 ,passive1 and ,neuter4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #ai2 ,bullions1 ,prin41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #bi ,verbs are divided into two classes3 ,transitive and ,intransitive4--,hendrick's ,gram41 p4 #bh ,the ,parts of ,speech in the ,english language are nine1 viz4 ,the ,article1 ,noun1 ,adjective1 ,pronoun1 ,verb1 ,adverb1 ,preposition4 ,interjection and ,conjunction4--,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #g ,of these the ,noun1 ,pronoun1 and ,verb are declined1 the rest are indeclinable4--,id41 ib41 p4 #g2 ,practical ,lessons1 p4 #i4 ,the first expression is called the ',active form4' ,the second the ',passive form4'--,welds ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #hc2 ,abridged1 p4 #ff4 ,o 'tis a godlike privilege to save1 ,and he that scorns it is himself a slave4--,cowper1 ,vol4 i41 p4 #abc ,,section ,,iii4--,,the ,,colon4 ,the ,colon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence1 which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the semicolon1 nor so little dependent as those which require the period4 ,,rule ,i4--,,additional ,,remarks4 ,when the preceding clause is complete in itself1 but is followed by some additional remark or illustration1 especially if no conjunction is used1 the colon is generally and properly inserted3 as1 ,avoid evil doers3 in such society1 an honest man may become ashamed of himself4--,see that moth fluttering incessantly round the candle3 man of pleasure1 behold thy image6--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #id4 ,some things we can1 and others we cannot do3 we can walk1 but we cannot fly4--,beanie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #aab4 ,remember ,heav'n has an avenging rod3 ,to smite the poor1 is treason against ,god4--,cowper4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,greater ,,pauses4 ,when the semicolon has been introduced1 or when it must be used in a subsequent member1 and a still greater pause is required within the period1 the colon should be employed3 as1 ,princes have courtiers1 and merchants have partners2 the voluptuous have companions1 and the wicked have accomplices3 none but the virtuous can have friends4--,unless the truth of our religion be granted1 a ,christian must be the greatest monster in nature3 he must at the same time be eminently wise1 and notoriously foolish2 a wise man in his practice1 and a fool in his belief3 his reasoning powers must be deranged by a constant delirium1 while his conduct never swerves from the path of propriety4--,principles of ,eloquence1 p4 #hj4 ,a decent competence we fully taste2 ,it strikes our sense1 and gives a constant feast3 ,more we perceive by dint of thought alone2 ,the rich must labour to possess their own4--,young4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,independent ,,quotations4 ,a quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction1 is generally preceded by the colon2 as1 ,in his last moments1 he uttered these words3 ',i fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury4'--,at this the king hastily retorted3 ',no put-offs1 my lord2 answer me presently4'--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cfg4 ,the father addressed himself to them to this effect3 ',o my sons1 behold the power of unity6'-- ,rippingham's ,art of ,speaking1 p4 #he4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,punctuation4--,,errors ,,concerning ,,the ,,colon4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,additional ,,remarks4 ,of is a preposition1 it expresses the relation between fear and ,lord4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the additional remark in this sentence is not sufficiently separated from the main clause1 by the comma after the word preposition4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast for the ,colon1 ,when the preceding clause is complete in itself1 but is followed by some additional remark or illustration1 especially if no conjunction is used1 the colon is generally and properly inserted4 ,therefore1 the colon should here be substituted for the comma4 ,wealth and poverty are both temptations to man2 that tends to excite pride1 this discontentment4--,id41 ib41 p4 #ic2 see also ,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #ha2 ,murray's1 #ef2 ,ingersoll's #fa2 ,alger's1 #be2 ,merchant's1 #dd2 ,hart's1 #acg2 et al4 ,religion raises men above themselves1 irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes2 this binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth1 that opens for them a prospect in the skies4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ih2 ,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,love not idleness1 it destroys many4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ga4 ,children1 obey your parents2 honour thy father and mother1 is the first commandment with promise4--,bullions1 ,pract4 ,lessons1 p4 #hh4 ,thou art my hiding place1 and my shield1 ,i hope in thy promises4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ef4 ,the sun shall not smite me by day nor the moon by night4 ,the ,lord will preserve from evil4 ,he will save my soul4--,,bible4--,ib41 p4 #eg4 ,here ,greece is assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered--the nations of antiquity--she is one of them4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #gi4 ,from short 7as usual7 and disturb'd repose ,i wake2 how happy they who wake no more6--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #baf4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,greater ,,pauses4 ,a taste of a thing1 implies actual enjoyment of it2 but a taste for it1 implies only capacity for enjoyment2 as1 ',when we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue1 we can have no relish for those of vice4'--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #adg4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pause after enjoyment is marked only by a semicolon4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d for the ,colon1 ,when the semicolon has been introduced1 or when it must be used in a subsequent member1 and a still greater pause is required within the period1 the colon should be employed4 ,therefore1 the second semicolon here should be changed to a colon4 ,the ,indicative mood simply declares a thing2 as1 ,he loves2 ,he is loved2 ,or1 it asks a question2 as1 ,lovest thou me8--,id41 ib41 p4 #ce2 ,pract4 ,lessons1 p4 #dc2 ,lennie's ,gr41 p4 #bj4 ,the ,indicative ,mood simply indicates or declares a thing3 as1 ',he loves1 he is loved3' or it asks a question3 as1 ',does he love8' ',is he loved8'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #fc2 #abmo1 p4 #fc4 ,the ,imperfect 7or ,past7 tense represents an action or event indefinitely as past2 as1 ,csar came1 and saw1 and conquered2 or it represents the action definitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain time1 now entirely past2 as1 ,my father was coming home when ,i met him4--,bullions1 ,p4 ,l41 p4 #de2 ,e4 ,gr41 #ci4 ,some nouns have no plural2 as1 gold1 silver1 wisdom1 health2 others have no singular2 as1 ashes1 shears1 tongs2 others are alike in both numbers2 as1 sheep1 deer1 means1 news--,day's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ae4 ,the same verb may be transitive in one sense1 and intransitive in another2 thus1 in the sentence1 ',he believes my story1' believes is transitive2 but in this phrase1 ',he believes in ,god1' it is intransitive4--,butler's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,let the divisions be distinct2 one part should not include another1 but each should have its proper place1 and be of importance in that place1 and all the parts well fitted together and united1 should present a whole4--,goldsbury's ,c4 ,s4 ,gram41 p4 #ia4 ,in the use of the transitive verb there are always three things implied1--the actor1 the act1 and the object acted upon4 ,in the use of the intransitive there are only two--the subject or thing spoken of1 and the state1 or action attributed to it4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram4 ,why labours reason8 instinct were as well2 ,instinct far better2 what can choose1 can err4 --,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 viii4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,independent ,,quotations4 ,the sentence may run thus2 ',he is related to the same person1 and is governed by him4'--,hart's ,gram4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the semicolon is here inserted1 in an unusual manner1 before a quotation not closely dependent4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d for the ,colon1 ,a quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction1 is generally preceded by the colon4 ,therefore1 the colon should be here preferred4 ,always remember this ancient proverb1 ',know thyself4'--,hallock's ,gram4 ,consider this sentence4 ,the boy runs swiftly4--,frazee's ,gram41 ,stereotype ,ed4 #ast ,ed4 ,the comparative is used thus2 ',greece was more polished than any other nation of antiquity4' ,the same idea is expressed by the superlative when the word other is left out4 ,thus1 ',greece was the most polished nation of antiquity'--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram4 see ,lennie's ,gram4 ,burke1 in his speech on the ,carnatic war1 makes the following allusion to the well known fable of ,cadmus's sowing dragon's teeth2--',every day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant1 the ,carnatic is a country that will soon recover1 and become instantly as prosperous as ever4 ,they think they are talking to innocents1 who believe that by the sowing of dragon's teeth1 men may come up ready grown and ready made4'--,hiley's ,gram41 see also ,hart's4 ,for sects he car'd not1 'they are not of us1 ,nor need we1 brethren1 their concerns discuss4'--,crabbe4 ,habit with him was all the test of truth1 ',it must be right3 ,i've done it from my youth4' ,questions he answered in as brief a way1 ',it must be wrong--it was of yesterday4'--,id41 ,borough4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,of ,,error4 ,this would seem to say1 ',i doubt nothing save one thing1 namely1 that he will fulfil his promise2' whereas1 that is the very thing not doubted4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram44 ,the common use of language requires that a distinction be made between morals and manners1 the former depend upon internal dispositions1 the latter on outward and visible accomplishments4--,beattie's ,moral ,science4 ,though ,i detest war in each particular fibre of my heart yet ,i honor the ,heroes among our fathers who fought with bloody hand3 ,peacemakers in a savage way they were faithful to their light2 the most inspired can be no more1 and we1 with greater light1 do1 it may be1 far less4--,parker's ,idea of a ,church4 ,the ,article the1 like a1 must have a substantive joined with it1 whereas that1 like one1 may have it understood2 thus1 speaking of books1 ,i may select one1 and say1 'give me that2' but not1 'give me the2' 'give me one2' but not 'give me a4'--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram44 ,the ,present tense has three distinct forms--the simple2 as1 ,i read2 the emphatic2 as1 ,i do read2 and the progressive2 as1 ,i am reading'4--,ib44 ,the tenses in ,english are usually reckoned six4 ,the ,present1 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 the ,pluperfect1 the ,future1 and the ,future ,perfect4--,ib44 ,there are three participles1 the ,present or ,active1 the ,perfect or ,passive1 and the ,compound ,perfect2 as1 loving1 loved1 having loved4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #b;d ,edition2 ,alger's2 ,fisk's2 ,bacon's4 ,the ,participles are three1 the ,present1 the ,perfect1 and the ,compound ,perfect2 as1 loving1 loved1 having loved4--,hart's ,gram44 ,will is conjugated regularly1 when it is a principal verb1 as1 present1 ,i will1 past1 ,i willed1 c4--,frazee's ,gram41 ,ster4 ,ed42 ,old ,ed4 ,and both sounds of x are compound1 one is that of gz1 and the other1 that of ks--,ib41 ,ster4 ,ed4 ,the man is happy3 he is benevolent3 he is useful4--,cooper's ,murray2 ,pl4 and ,pract4 ,gr4 ,the ,pronoun stands instead of the noun2 as1 ,the man is happy2 he is benevolent2 he is useful4'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed4 ,a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun1 to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word3 as1 ',the man is happy1' 'he is benevolent1' 'he is useful4'--,ib44 ,a pronoun is a word1 used in the room of a noun1 or as a substitute for one or more words1 as3 the man is happy2 he is benevolent2 he is useful4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram41 his ,abridg4 of ,mur4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class of beings1 or things1 as3 animal2 tree2 insect2 fish2 fowl--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram4 ,nouns have three persons3 the first2 the second2 and the third4--,ib4 7,eve7 so saying1 her rash hand in evil hour ,forth reaching to the fruit2 she pluck'd1 she ate ,earth felt the wound3 and nature from her seat1 ,sighing through all her works1 gave signs of wo1 ,that all was lost4--,cooper's ,pl4 and ,pr4 ,gram4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,the ,,period4 ,the ,period1 or ,full ,stop1 is used to mark an entire and independent sentence1 whether simple or compound4 ,,rule ,i4--,,distinct ,,sentences4 ,when a sentence1 whether long or short1 is complete in respect to sense1 and independent in respect to construction1 it should be marked with the period3 as1 ,every deviation from truth is criminal4 ,abhor a falsehood4 ,let your words be ingenuous4 ,sincerity possesses the most powerful charm4--,the force of a true individual is felt through every clause and part of a right book2 the commas and dashes are alive with it4--,r4 ,w4 ,emerson4 ,by frequent trying1 ,,troy was won4 ,all things1 by trying1 may be done4--,lloyd1 p4 #ahd4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,allied ,,sentences4 ,the period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connexion1 expressed by a personal pronoun1 a conjunction1 or a conjunctive adverb3 as1 ,the selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures4 ,they are confined to what affects his own interests4 ,he is obliged to repeat the same gratifications1 till they become insipid4 ,but the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity4--,blair4 ,and whether we shall meet again1 ,i know not4 ,therefore our everlasting farewell take4--,shak41 ,j4 ,c4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,abbreviations4 ,the period is generally used after abbreviations1 and very often to the exclusion of other points2 but1 as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause1 other points may properly follow it1 if the words written in full would demand them3 as1 ,a4 ,d4 for ,anno ,domini2--,pro tem4 for pro tempore2--,ult4 for ultimo2--i4e4 for id est1 that is2--,add41 ,spect1 ,no4 #bhe2 i4e41 ,addison1 in the ,spectator1 ,number #bheth4 ,consult the statute2 'quart4' ,i think1 it is1 ',edwardi sext41' or 'prim4 et quint4 ,eliz4'--,pope1 p4 #cii4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,it seems to be commonly supposed1 whether correctly or not1 that short sentences which are in themselves distinct1 and which in their stated use must be separated by the period1 may sometimes be rehearsed as examples1 in so close succession as not to require this point3 as1 ,but if thou wilt enter into life1 keep the commandments4 ,he saith unto him1 ,which8 ,jesus said1 ,thou shalt do no murder1 ,thou shalt not commit adultery1 ,thou shalt not steal1 ,thou shalt not bear false witness1 ,honour thy father and thy mother3 and1 ,thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself4--,,scott1 ,,alger1 ,,and ,,others3 ,matt41 xix1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai4 ,the following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns3--',my lesson is finished2 ,thy books are defaced2 ,he loves his studies2 ,she performs her duty2 ,we own our faults2 ,your situation is distressing2 ,i admire their virtues4'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ee4 ,what mode of pointing is best adapted to examples like these1 is made a very difficult question by the great diversity of practice in such cases4 ,the semicolon1 with guillemets1 or the semicolon and a dash1 with the quotation marks1 may sometimes be sufficient2 but ,i see no good reason why the period should not in general be preferred to the comma1 the semicolon1 or the colon1 where full and distinct sentences are thus recited4 ,the foregoing passage of ,scripture ,i have examined in five different languages1 ten different translations1 and seventeen different editions which happened to be at hand4 ,in these it is found pointed in twelve different ways4 ,in ,leusden's1 ,griesbach's1 and ,aitton's ,greek1 it has nine colons2 in ,leusden's ,latin from ,montanus1 eight2 in the common ,french version1 six2 in the old ,dutch1 five2 in our ,bibles1 usually one1 but not always4 ,in some books1 these commandments are mostly or wholly divided by periods2 in others1 by colons2 in others1 by semicolons2 in others1 as above1 by commas4 ,the first four are negative1 or prohibitory2 the other two1 positive1 or mandatory4 ,hence some make a greater pause after the fourth1 than elsewhere between any two4 ,this greater pause is variously marked by the semicolon1 the colon1 or the period2 and the others1 at the same time1 as variously1 by the comma1 the semicolon1 or the colon4 ,dr4 ,campbell1 in his ,four ,gospels1 renders and points the latter part of this passage thus3 ,jesus answered1 ',thou shalt not commit murder4 ,thou shalt not commit adultery4 ,thou shalt not steal4 ,thou shalt not give false testimony4 ,honour thy father and mother2 and love thy neighbour as thyself4 ,but the corresponding passage in ,luke1 xviii #bj1 he exhibits thus3 ,thou knowest the commandments4 ,do not commit adultery2 do not commit murder2 do not steal2 do not give false testimony2 honour thy father and thy mother4 ,this is here given as present advice1 referring to the commandments1 but not actually quoting them2 and1 in this view of the matter1 semicolons1 not followed by capitals may be right4 ,see the common reading under ,rule ,,xiv for ,capitals1 on page #aff4 ,,obs4 #b4--,letters written for numbers1 after the manner of the ,romans1 though read as words1 are never words in themselves2 nor are they1 except perhaps in one or two instances1 abbreviations of words4 ,c1 a hundred1 comes probably from ,centum2 and ,m1 a thousand1 is the first letter of ,mille2 but the others1 ,i1 ,v1 ,x1 ,l1 ,d1 and the various combinations of them all1 are direct numerical signs1 as are the ,arabic figures4 ,hence it is not really necessary that the period should be set after them1 except at the end of a sentence1 or where it is suitable as a sign of pause4 ,it is1 however1 and always has been1 a prevalent custom1 to mark numbers of this kind with a period1 as if they were abbreviations2 as1 ,while pope ,sixtus ,v4 who succeeded ,gregory ,,xiii4 fulminated the thunder of the church against the king of ,navarre4--,smollet's ,eng41 iii1 #hb4 ,the period is here inserted where the reading requires only the comma2 and1 in my opinion1 the latter point should have been preferred4 ,sometimes1 of late1 we find other points set after this period2 as1 ,otho ,,ii41 surnamed the ,bloody1 was son and successor of ,otho ,i42 he died in #ihc4--,univ4 ,biog4 ,dict4 ,this may be an improvement on the former practice1 but double points are not generally used1 even where they are proper2 and1 if the period is not indispensable1 a simple change of the point would perhaps sooner gain the sanction of general usage4 ,,obs4 #c4--,some writers1 judging the period to be wrong or needless in such cases1 omit it1 and insert only such points as the reading requires2 as1 ,for want of doing this1 ,judge ,blackstone has1 in ,book ,,iv1 ,chap4 #ag1 committed some most ludicrous errors4--,cobbett's ,gram41 ,let4 ,,xix1 #bea4 ,to insert points needlessly1 is as bad a fault as to omit them when they are requisite4 ,in ,wm4 ,day's ,punctuation ,reduced to a ,system1 7,london1 #ahdg17 we have the following obscure and questionable ,,rule3 ,besides denoting a grammatical pause1 the full point is used to mark contractions1 and is requisite after every abbreviated word1 as well as after numeral letters4--,page #ajb4 ,this seems to suggest that both a pause and a contraction may be denoted by the same point4 ,but what are properly called contractions1 are marked not by the period1 but by the apostrophe1 which is no sign of pause2 and the confounding of these with words abbreviated1 makes this rule utterly absurd4 ,as for the period after numeral letters1 if they really needed it at all1 they would need it severally1 as do the abbreviations2 but there are none of them1 which do not uniformly dispense with it1 when not final to the number2 and they may as well dispense with it1 in like manner1 whenever they are not final to the sentence4 ,,obs4 #d4--,of these letters1 ,day gives this account3 ,m4 denotes mille1 #a1jjj2 ,d41 dimidium mille1 half a thousand1 or #ejj2 ,c4 centum1 #ajj2 ,l4 represents the lower half of ,c41 and expresses #ej2 ,x4 resembles ,v4 ,v41 the one upright1 the other inverted1 and signifies #aj2 ,v4 stands for #e1 because its sister letter ,u is the fifth vowel2 and ,i4 signifies #a1 probably because it is the plainest and simplest letter in the alphabet4--,day's ,punctuation1 p4 #ajc4 ,there is some fancy in this4 ,dr4 ,adam says1 ,the letters employed for this purpose i4e41 to express numbers4 were ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,v4 ,x4--,latin and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #bhh4 ,and again3 ,a thousand is marked thus ,,ci,c-reverserd1 which in later times was contracted into ,m4 ,five hundred is marked thus1 ,i,c-reversed1 or by contraction1 ,d4--,ib4 ,day inserts periods thus3 ,,iv4 means #d2 ,,ix41 #i2 ,,xl41 #dj2 ,,xc41 #ij2 ,,cd41 #djj2 ,,cm41 #ijj4--,page #gjc4 ,and again3 #dto41 quarto1 the fourth of a sheet of paper2 #hvo41 octavo1 the eighth part of a sheet of paper2 #abmo41 duodecimo1 the twelfth of a sheet of paper2 ,n4 ,l41 #h41 #i'41 #aj''41 ,north latitude1 eight degrees1 nine minutes1 ten seconds4--,page #ajd4 ,but ,,iv may mean #d1 without the period2 #dto or #hvo has no more need of it than #dth or #hth2 and ,n4 ,l4 #h #i' #aj'' is an expression little to be mended by commas1 and not at all by additional periods4 ,,obs4 #e4--,to allow the period of abbreviation to supersede all other points wherever it occurs1 as authors generally have done1 is sometimes plainly objectionable2 but1 on the other hand1 to suppose double points to be always necessary wherever abbreviations or ,roman numbers have pauses less than final1 would sometimes seem more nice than wise1 as in the case of ,biblical and other references4 ,a concordance or a reference ,bible pointed on this principle1 would differ greatly from any now extant4 ,in such references1 numbers are very frequently pointed with the period1 with scarcely any regard to the pauses required in the reading2 as1 ,,diadem1 ,job #bi4 #ad4 ,isa4 #bh4 #e4 and #fb4 #c4 ,ezek4 #ba4 #bf4--;,brown's ,concordance4 ,where no vision is1 the people perish1 ,prov4 xxix4 #ah4 ,acts iv4 #ab4 ,rom4 x4 #ad4--;,brown's ,catechism1 p4 #ajd4 ,what ,i urge from #a4 ,pet4 #c4 #ba4 in my ,apology4--,barclay's ,works1 iii1 #dih4 ,i4 ,kings--,,ii4 ,kings4--,alger's ,bible1 p4 iv4 ,compare iii4 #de4 with #a4 ,cor4 iv4 #ac4--,scott's ,bible1 ,pref4 to ,lam4 ,jer4 ,hen4 v4 ,a4 #d4 ,sc4 #e4--;,butler's ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,see ,rule iii4 ,rem4 #aj4--;,ib41 p4 #afb4 ,some set a colon between the number of the chapter and that of the verse2 which mark serves well for distinction1 where both numbers are in ,arabic figures3 as1 ',he that formed the eye1 shall he not see8'--,ps4 #id3 #i4--,wells's ,gram41 p4 #abf4 ,he had only a lease-hold title to his service4 ,lev4 #be3 #ci1 ,exod4 #ba3 #b4--,true ,amer41 i4 #bi4 ,others adopt the following method which seems preferable to any of the foregoing3 ,isa4 ,iv1 #c2 ,ezek4 xviii1 #bj2 ,mic4 vi1 #g4--;,gurney's ,essays1 p4 #acc4 ,churchill1 who is uncommonly nice about his punctuation1 writes as follows3 ,luke4 vi1 #da1 #db4 ,see also ,chap4 xv1 #h2 and ,phil41 iii4 #ab4--,new ,gram41 p4 #cec4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,arabic figures used as ordinals1 or used for the numeral adverbs1 first1 or firstly1 secondly1 thirdly1 c41 are very commonly pointed with the period1 even where the pause required after them is less than a full stop2 as1 ,we shall consider these words1 #a4 as expressing resolution2 and #b4 as expressing futurity4--,butler's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,but the period thus followed by a small letter1 has not an agreeable appearance1 and some would here prefer the comma1 which is1 undoubtedly1 better suited to the pause1 ,a fitter practice1 however1 would be1 to change the expression thus3 ,we shall consider these words1 #ast1 as expressing resolution2 and1 #b;dly1 as expressing futurity4 ,,obs4 #g4--,names vulgarly shortened1 then written as they are spoken1 are not commonly marked with a period2 as1 ,ben for ,benjamin4 ,o ,,rare ,,ben ,,johnson6--,biog4 ,dict4 ,from whence the inference is plain1 ,your friend ,,mat ,,prior wrote with pain4 --,,lloyd3 ,b4 ,p41 ,vol4 viii1 p4 #ahh4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,punctuation4--,,errors ,,concerning ,,the ,,period4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,distinct ,,sentences4 ,the third person is the position of the name spoken of2 as1 ,paul and ,silas were imprisoned1 the earth thirsts1 the sun shines4--,frazee's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ba2 ,ster4 ,ed41 p4 #bc4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because three totally distinct sentences are here thrown together as examples1 with no other distinction than what is made by two commas4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast for the ,period1 ,when a sentence1 whether long or short1 is complete in respect to sense1 and independent in respect to construction1 it should be marked with the period4 ,therefore1 these commas should be periods2 and1 of course1 the first letter of each example must be a capital4 ,two and three and four make nine2 if he were here1 he would assist his father and mother1 for he is a dutiful son2 they live together1 and are happy1 because they enjoy each other's society2 they went to ,roxbury1 and tarried all night1 and came back the next day4--,goldsbury's ,parsing ,lessons in his ,manual of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,we often resolve1 but seldom perform2 she is wiser than her sister2 though he is often advised1 yet he does not reform2 reproof either softens or hardens its object2 he is as old as his classmates1 but not so learned2 neither prosperity1 nor adversity1 has improved him2 let him that standeth1 take heed lest he fall2 he can acquire no virtue1 unless he make some sacrifices4--,ibid4 ,down from his neck1 with blazing gems array'd1 ,thy image1 lovely ,anna6 hung portray'd1 ,th' unconscious figure1 smiling all serene1 ,suspended in a golden chain was seen1--,s4 ,barrett's ,e4 ,gr41 p4 #ib4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,allied ,,sentences4 ,this life is a mere prelude to another1 which has no limits1 it is a little portion of duration4 ,as death leaves us1 so the day of judgment will find us4--,merchant's ,school ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pause after limits1 which is sufficient for the period1 is marked only by the comma4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d1 ,the period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connexion1 expressed by a personal pronoun1 a conjunction1 or a conjunctive adverb4 ,it would improve the passage1 to omit the first comma1 change the second to a period1 and write the pronoun it with a capital4 ,judgment also might be bettered with an e1 and another is properly two words4 ,he went from ,boston to ,new ,york2 he went from ,boston2 he went to ,new ,york2 in walking across the floor1 he stumbled over a chair4--,goldsbury's ,manual of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,i saw him on the spot1 going along the road1 looking towards the house2 during the heat of the day1 he sat on the ground1 under the shade of a tree4--,id41 ib4 ,george came home1 ,i saw him yesterday1 here2 the word him1 can extend only to the individual ,george--,s4 ,barrett's ,e4 ,gram41 #ajth ,ed41 p4 #de4 ,commas are often used now1 where parentheses were formerly2 ,i cannot1 however1 esteem this an improvement4--,see the ,key4 ,thou1 like a sleeping1 faithless sentinel ,didst let them pass unnoticed1 unimproved1 ,and know1 for that thou slumb'rest on the guard1 ,thou shalt be made to answer at the bar ,for every fugitive4 --,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #bbb2 ,enfield's ,sp41 p4 #chj4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,abbreviations4 ,the term pronoun 7,lat pronomen7 strictly means a word used for1 or instead of a noun4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aih4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the syllable here put for the word ,latin1 is not marked with a period4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d1 ,the period is generally used after abbreviations1 and very often to the exclusion of other points2 but1 as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause1 other points may properly follow it1 if the words written in full would demand them4 ,in this instance1 a period should mark the abbreviation1 and a comma be set after of4 ,by analogy1 in stead is also more properly two words than one4 ,the period is also used after abbreviations2 as1 ,a4 ,d4 ,p4 ,s4 ,g4 ,w4 ,johnson4--,butler's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #baa4 ,on this principle of classification1 the later ,greek grammarians divided words into eight classes or parts of speech1 viz3 the ,article1 ,noun1 ,pronoun1 ,verb1 ,participle1 ,adverb1 ,preposition1 and ,conjunction4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aia4 ',metre is not confined to verse3 there is a tune in all good prose2 and ,shakspeare's was a sweet one4'--,epea ,pter1 ,,ii1 #fa4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,tooke's idea was probably just1 agreeing with ,aristotle's1 but not accurately expressed4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #che4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,tooke was educated at ,eton and at ,cambridge1 in which latter college he took the degree of ,a4 ,m2 being intended for the established church of ,england1 he entered into holy orders when young1 and obtained the living of ,brentford1 near ,london1 which he held ten or twelve years4--,div4 of ,purley1 #ast ,amer4 ,edition1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #fj4 ,i1 nor your plan1 nor book condemn1 ,but why your name1 and why ,a4 ,m6--,lloyd4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,of ,,error4 ,if thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath1 c4 ,isaiah4 lviii4 #g4--;,butler's ,gram41 p4 #fg4 ',he that hath eeris of herynge1 here he4 ,wiclif4 ,matt xi4--,butler's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,see ,general ,rules for ,spelling1 iii41 v41 and vii4--,butler's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ',false witnesses did rise up4' ,ps4 xxxv4 ii4--,butlers ,gram41 p4 #aje4 ,an explicative sentence is used for explaining4 ,an interrogative sentence for enquiring4 ,an imperative sentence for commanding4--,s4 ,barrett's ,prin4 of ,language1 p4 #hg4 ,in ,october1 corn is gathered in the field by men1 who go from hill to hill with baskets1 into which they put the ears2 ,susan labors with her needle for a livelihood2 notwithstanding his poverty1 he is a man of integrity4--,goldsbury's ,parsing1 ,manual of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fb4 ,a word of one syllable1 is called a monosyllable4 ,a word of two syllables2 a dissyllable4 ,a word of three syllables2 a trissyllable4 ,a word of four or more syllables2 a polysyllable4--,frazee's ,improved ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ae4 ,a word of one syllable1 is called a monosyllable4 ,a word of two syllables1 a dissyllable4 ,a word of three syllables1 a trissyllable4 ,a word of four or more syllables1 a polysyllable4--,frazee's ,improved ,gram41 ,ster4 ,ed41 p4 #ag4 ,if ,i say1 'if it did not rain1 ,i would take a walk2' ,i convey the idea that it does rain1 at the time of speaking1 ,if it rained1 or did it rain1 in the present time1 implies1 it does not rain2 ,if it did not rain1 or did it not rain1 in present time1 implies that it does rain2 thus in this peculiarity1 an affirmative sentence always implies a negation1 and a negative sentence an affirmation4--,frazee's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #fa2 ,ster4 ,ed41 #fb4 ,if ,i were loved1 and1 were ,i loved1 imply1 ,i am not loved2 if ,i were not loved1 and1 were ,i not loved1 imply1 ,i am loved2 a negative sentence implies an affirmation2 and an affirmative sentence implies a negation1 in these forms of the subjunctive4--,ib41 ,old ,ed41 p4 #gc2 ,ster4 ,ed41 #gb4 ,what is ,rule ,,iii48--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,how is ,rule ,,iii4 violated8--,ib41 p4 #aae4 ,how do you parse 'letter' in the sentence1 ',james writes a letter'8 ,ans4--',letter is a noun com41 of the ,,masc4 gend41 in the #c;d p41 sing4 num41 and objective case1 and is governed by the verb 'writes1' according to ,rule ,,iii41 which says4 ',a transitive verb1' c4--,ib41 p4 #aad4dfe ,creation sleeps4 ',t is as the general pulse ,of life stood still1 and nature made a pause2 ,an awful pause6 prophetic of her end1 ,and let her prophecy be soon fulfilled2 ,fate drop the curtain2 ,i can lose no more4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #baf4 ,,section ,v4--,,the ,,dash4 ,the ,dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or emphatic pause1 of variable length2 but sometimes it is a sign of faltering1 or of the irregular stops of one who hesitates in speaking3 as1 ,then1 after many pauses1 and inarticulate sounds1 he said3 ',he was very sorry for it1 was extremely concerned it should happen so--but--a--it was necessary--a--' ,here lord ,e------ stopped him short1 and bluntly demanded1 if his post were destined for an other4--,see ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #agj4 ,,rule ,i4--,,abrupt ,,pauses4 ,a sudden interruption1 break1 or transition1 should be marked with the dash2 as1 #a4 ',i must inquire into the affair2 and if'--',and if6' interrupted the farmer4 #b4 ,whom ,i--,but first 't is fit the billows to restrain4--,dryd4 ,virg4 #c4 ,,here ,,lies ,,the ,,great--,false marble6 where8 ,nothing but sordid dust lies here4--,young4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,emphatic ,,pauses4 ,to mark a considerable pause1 greater than the structure or the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require1 the dash may be employed2 as1 #a4 ,i pause for a reply4--,none8--,then none have ,i offended4--,i have done no more to ,csar1 than you should do to ,brutus4--,,shakspeare3 ,enfields ,speaker1 p4 #ahb4 #b4 ,tarry a little4 ,there is something else4-- ,this bond--doth give thee here--no jot of blood4 --,,id43 ,burgh's ,sp41 p4 #afg4 #c4 ,it thunders2--but it thunders to preserve4--,young4 #d4 ,behold the picture6--,is it like8--,like whom8--,cowper4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,faulty ,,dashes4 ,dashes needlessly inserted1 or substituted for other stops more definite1 are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation2 as1 ,here ,greece stands by itself as opposed to the other nations of antiquity--,she was none of the other nations--,she was more polished than they4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,here ,greece stands by herself1 as opposed to the other nations of antiquity4 ,she was none of the other nations3 ,she was more polished than they4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,if this colon is sufficient1 the capital after it is needless3 a period would1 perhaps1 be better4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the dash does not appear to be always a rhetorical stop1 or always intended to lengthen the pause signified by an other mark before it4 ,as one instance of a different design1 we may notice1 that it is now very often employed between a text and a reference2--i4e41 between a quotation and the name of the author of the book quoted2--in which case1 as ,wm4 ,day suggests1 it serves as a connecting mark for the two4--,day's ,punctuation1 p4 #aca4 ,but this usage1 being comparatively recent1 is1 perhaps1 not so general or so necessary1 that a neglect of it may properly be censured as false punctuation4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,an other peculiar use of the dash1 is its application to side-titles1 to set them off from other words in the same line1 as is seen often in this ,grammar as well as in other works4 ,day says of this1 ,when the substance of a paragraph is given as a side-head1 a dash is necessary to connect it with its relative matter4--,ibid4 ,wilson also approves of this usage1 as well as of the others here named2 saying1 ,the dash should be inserted between a title and the subject-matter1 and also between the subject-matter1 and the authority from which it is taken1 when they occur in the same paragraph4--,wilson's ,punctuation1 ,ed4 of #ahej1 p4 #aci4 ,,obs4 #c4--,the dash is often used to signify the omission of something2 and1 when set between the two extremes of a series of numbers1 it may represent all the intermediate ones2 as1 ,page #aj-ae2 i4 e41 ,page #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 c4 to #ae4--,matt1 vi1 #i-ad4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,punctuation4--,,errors ,,concerning ,,the ,,dash4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,abrupt ,,pauses4 ,and there is something in your very strange story1 that resembles 444 ,does ,mr4 ,bevil know your history particularly8--,see ,key4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the abrupt pause after resembles is here marked by three periods4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast for the ,dash4 ,a sudden interruption1 break1 or transition1 should be marked with the dash4 ,therefore1 the dash should be preferred to these points4 ,sir1 ,mr4 ,myrtle1 ,gentlemen6 ,you are friends2 ,i am but a servant4 ,but4--,see ,key4 ,another man now would have given plump into this foolish story2 but ,i8 ,no1 no1 your humble servant for that4--,see ,key4 ,do not plunge thyself too far in anger lest thou hasten thy trial2 which if ,lord have mercy on thee for a hen6--,see ,key4 ,but ere they came1 ,o1 let me say no more6 ,gather the sequel by that went before4--,see ,key4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,emphatic ,,pauses4 ,m1 ,malvolio2 ,m1 why1 that begins my name4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the pauses after ,m and ,malvolio seem not to be sufficiently indicated here4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d for the ,dash1 ,to mark a considerable pause1 greater than the structure of the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require1 the dash may be employed4 ,therefore1 a dash may be set after the commas and the semicolon1 in this sentence4 ,thus1 by the creative influence of the ,eternal ,spirit1 were the heavens and the earth finished in the space of six days1 so admirably finished1 an unformed chaos changed into a system of perfect order and beauty1 that the adorable ,architect himself pronounced it very good1 and all the sons of ,god shouted for joy4--,see ,key4 ,if ,i were an ,american1 as ,i am an ,englishman1 while a foreign troop remained in my country1 ,i ,,never would lay down my arms2 ,,never1 ,,never1 ,,never4--,columbian ,orator1 p4 #bfe4 ,madam1 yourself are not exempt in this1 ,nor your son ,dorset1 ,buckingham1 nor you4--,see ,key4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,faulty ,,dashes4 --,you shall go home directly1 ,le ,fevre1 said my uncle ,toby1 to my house1--and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the matter1--and we'll have an apothecary1--and the corporal shall be your nurse2--and ,i'll be your servant1 ,le ,fevre4--,,sterne3 ,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #cjf4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because all the dashes here quoted1 except perhaps the last1 are useless1 or obviously substituted for more definite marks4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d1 ,dashes needlessly inserted1 or substituted for other stops more definite1 are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation4 ,therefore1 the first of these should be simply expunged2 the second1 third1 and fourth1 with their commas1 should be changed to semicolons2 and the last1 with its semicolon1 may well be made a colon4 ,he continued--,inferior artists may be at a stand1 because they want materials4--,,harris3 ,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #aia4 ,thus1 then1 continued he--,the end in other arts is ever distant and removed4--,id41 ib4 ,the nouns must be coupled with and1 and when a pronoun is used it must be plural1 as in the example--,when the nouns are disjoined the pronoun must be singular4--,lennie's ,gram41 #eth ,ed41 p4 #eg4 ,opinion is a noun or substantive common1--of the singular number1--neuter gender1--nominative case1--and third person4--,wright's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #bbh4 ,the mountain--thy pall and thy prison--may keep thee2 ,i shall see thee no more2 but till death ,i will weep thee4 --,felton's ,gram41 p4 #adf4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,of ,,error ,if to accommodate man and beast1 heaven and earth2 if this be beyond me1 'tis not possible4--,what consequence then follows8 or can there be any other than this--if ,i seek an interest of my own1 detached from that of others2 ,i seek an interest which is chimerical1 and can never have existence4--,,harris3 ,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #aci4 ,again--,i must have food and clothing--,without a proper genial warmth1 ,i instantly perish--,am ,i not related1 in this view1 to the very earth itself8 ,to the distant sun1 from whose beams ,i derive vigour8--,id41 ib41 p4 #adj4 ,nature instantly ebb'd again--the film returned to its place--the pulse flutter'd--stopp'd--went on--throbb'd--stopp'd again--mov'd--stopp'd--shall ,i go on8--,no4--,,sterne3 ib41 p4 #cjg4 ,write ten nouns of the masculine gender4 ,ten of the feminine4 ,ten of the neuter4 ,ten indefinite in gender4--,pardon ,davis's ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,the ,infinitive ,mode has two tenses--the ,indicative1 six--the ,potential1 two--the ,subjunctive1 six1 and the ,imperative1 one4--,frazee's ,gram41 ,ster4 ,ed41 p4 #ci2 #ast ,ed41 #cg4 ,now notice the following sentences4 ,john runs1--boys run--thou runnest4--,ib41 ,ster4 ,ed41 p4 #ej2 #ast ,ed41 p4 #dh4 ,the ,pronoun sometimes stands for a name--sometimes for an adjective--a sentence--a part of a sentence--and1 sometimes for a whole series of propositions4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 #abmo1 p4 #cba4 ,the self-applauding bird1 the peacock1 see-- ,mark what a sumptuous pharisee is he6--,cowper1 i1 #di4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,the ,,eroteme4 ,the ,eroteme1 or ,note of ,interrogation1 is used to designate a question4 ,,rule ,i4--,,questions ,,direct4 ,questions expressed directly as such1 if finished1 should always be followed by the note of interrogation2 as1 ,was it possible that virtue so exalted should be erected upon injustice8 that the proudest and the most ambitious of mankind should be the great master and accomplished pattern of humility8 that a doctrine so pure as the ,gospel should be the work of an uncommissioned pretender8 that so perfect a system of morals should be established on blasphemy8--,jerningham's ,essay1 p4 #ha4 ,in life1 can love be bought with gold8 ,are friendship's pleasures to be sold8--,johnson4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,questions ,,united4 ,when two or more questions are united in one compound sentence1 the comma1 semicolon1 or dash1 is sometimes used to separate them1 and the eroteme occurs after the last only2 as1 #a4 ,when--under what administration--under what exigencies of war or peace--did the ,senate ever before deal with such a measure in such a manner8 ,never1 sir1 never4--,d4 ,webster1 in ,congress1 #ahdf4 #b4 ,canst thou1 and honour'd with a ,christian name1 ,buy what is woman-born1 and feel no shame2 ,trade in the blood of innocence1 and plead ,expedience as a warrant for the deed8--,cowper4 #c4 ,truths would you teach1 or save a sinking land8 ,all fear1 none aid you1 and few understand4--,pope4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,questions ,,indirect4 ,when a question is mentioned1 but not put directly as a question1 it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation2 as1 ,the ,cyprians asked me why ,i wept4--,murray4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the value of the eroteme as a sign of pause1 is stated very differently by different grammarians2 while many of the vast multitude1 by a strange oversight1 say nothing about it4 ,it is unquestionably variable1 like that of the dash1 or of the ecphoneme4 ,w4 ,h4 ,wells says1 ,the comma requires a momentary pause2 the semicolon1 a pause somewhat longer than the comma2 the colon1 a pause somewhat longer than the semicolon2 and the period1 a full stop4 ,the note of interrogation1 or the note of exclamation1 may take the place of ,,either of these1 and accordingly requires a pause of the same length as the point for which it is substituted4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 p4 #age4 ,this appears to be accurate in idea1 though perhaps hardly so in language4 ,lindley ,murray has stated it thus3 ,the interrogation and exclamation points are intermediate as to their quantity or time1 and may be equivalent in that respect to a semicolon1 a colon1 or a period1 as the sense may require4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bhj4 ,but ,sanborn1 in regard to his ,question ,point1 awkwardly says3 ,this pause is generally some longer than that of a period4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #bga4 ,buchanan1 as long ago as #agfg1 taught as follows3 ,the ,pause after the two ,points of ,interrogation and ,admiration ought to be equal to that of the ,period1 or a ,colon at least4--,english ,syntax1 p4 #afj4 ,and ,j4 ,s4 ,hart avers1 that1 ,a question is reckoned as equal to a complete sentence1 and the mark of interrogation as equal to a period4--,hart's ,english ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ,he says also1 that1 the first word after a note of interrogation should begin with a capital4--,ib41 p4 #afb4 ,in some instances1 however1 he1 like others1 has not adhered to these exceptionable principles1 as may be seen by the false grammar cited below4 ,,obs4 #b4--,sometimes a series of questions may be severally complete in sense1 so that each may require the interrogative sign1 though some or all of them may be so united in construction1 as not to admit either a long intermediate pause or an initial capital2 as1 ,is there no honor in generosity8 nor in preferring the lessons of conscience to the impulses of passion8 nor in maintaining the supremacy of moral principle1 and in paying reverence to ,christian truth8--,gannett4 ,true honour is manifested in a steady1 uniform train of actions1 attended by justice1 and directed by prudence4 ,is this the conduct of the duellist8 will justice support him in robbing the community of an able and useful member8 and in depriving the poor of a benefactor8 will it support him in preparing affliction for the widow's heart8 in filling the orphan's eyes with tears8--,jerningham's ,essay1 p4 #aac4 ,but1 in this latter example1 perhaps1 commas might be substituted for the second and fourth erotemes2 and the word will might1 in both instances1 begin with a capital4 ,,obs4 #c4--,when a question is mentioned in its due form1 it commonly retains the sign of interrogation1 though not actually asked by the writer2 and1 except perhaps when it consists of some little interrogative word or phrase1 requires the initial capital3 as1 ,to know when this point ought to be used1 do not say31 ',is a question asked8' but1 ',does the sentence ask a question8'--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cfh4 ,they put their huge inarticulate question1 ',what do you mean to do with us8' in a manner audible to every reflective soul in the kingdom4--,carlyle's ,past and ,present1 p4 #af4 ,an adverb may be generally known1 by its answering to the question1 ,how8 how much8 when8 or where8 as1 in the phrase1 ',he reads correctly1' the answer to the question1 ,how does he read8 is correctly4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bh4 ,this passage1 which1 without ever arriving at great accuracy1 has been altered by ,murray and others in ways innumerable1 is everywhere exhibited with five interrogation points4 ,but1 as to capitals and commas1 as well as the construction of words1 it would seem no easy matter to determine what impression of it is nearest right4 ,in ,flint's ,murray it stands thus3 ,an adverb may generally be known by its answering the question1 ,how8 ,how much8 ,when8 or ,where8 ,as in the phrase1 ',he reads correctly4 ,the answer to the question1 ',how does he read8' is1 'correctly4' ,such questions1 when the pause is slight1 do not1 however1 in all cases1 require capitals3 as1 ,rosal4 ,which of the visors was it1 that you wore8 ,biron4 ,where8 when8 what visor8 why demand you this8 ,shakspeare1 ,love's ,labour ,lost1 ,act ,v1 ,sc4 #b4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,a question is sometimes put in the form of a mere declaration2 its interrogative character depending solely on the eroteme1 and the tone1 or inflection of voice1 adopted in the utterance3 as1 ,i suppose1 ,sir1 you are his apothecary8--,,swift3 ,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #he4 ,i hope1 you have1 upon no account1 promoted sternutation by hellebore8--,id41 ib4 ,this priest has no pride in him8--,,singer',s ,,shak41 ,henry ,,viii1 ii1 #b4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,punctuation4--,,errors ,,concerning ,,the ,,eroteme4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,questions ,,direct4 ,when will his ear delight in the sound of arms4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 #abmo1 p4 #ei4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because here is a finished question with a period set after it4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast for the ,eroteme1 ,questions expressed directly as such1 if finished1 should always be followed by the note of interrogation4 ,therefore1 the eroteme1 or note of interrogation1 should here be substituted for the period4 ,when shall ,i1 like ,oscar1 travel in the light of my steel4--,ib41 p4 #ei4 ,will ,henry call on me while he shall be journeying ,south4--,peirce1 ib41 p4 #acc4 ,an ,interrogative ,pronoun is one that is used in asking a question2 as1 'who is he1 and what does he want8'--,day's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,who is generally used when we would inquire for some unknown person or persons2 as1 who is that man4--,ib41 p4 #bd4 ,our fathers1 where are they1 and the prophets1 do they live forever8--,ib41 p4 #aji4 ,it is true1 that some of our best writers have used than whom2 but it is also true1 that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical3 then why not reject this too4--,the sentences in the ,exercises with than who are correct as they stand4--,lennie's ,gram41 #eth ,ed41 #ahai1 p4 #gi4 ,when the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed to the neuter verb to be8 ,what does the combination form8--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,those adverbs which answer to the question where1 whither or whence1 are called adverbs of place4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,canst thou1 by searching1 find out ,god2 ,canst thou find out the ,almighty to perfection2 ,it is high as heaven1 what canst thou do8 deeper than hell1 what canst thou know8--,blair's ,rhet4 p4 #acb4 ,where1 where1 for shelter shall the guilty fly1 ,when consternation turns the good man pale4--,ib41 p4 #bbb4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,questions ,,united4 ,who knows what resources are in store8 and what the power of ,god may do for thee8 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because an eroteme is set after store1 where a comma would be sufficient4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d for the ,eroteme1 ,when two or more questions are united in one compound sentence1 the comma1 semicolon1 or dash1 is sometimes used to separate them1 and the eroteme occurs after the last only4 ,therefore1 the comma should here be preferred1 as the author probably wrote the text4 ,see ,key4 ,the ,lord is not a man that he should lie1 neither the son of man that he should repent4 ,hath he said it8 and shall he not do it8 ,hath he spoken it8 and shall he not make it good8--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cec2 #abmo1 #bgg2 ,hiley's1 #aci2 ,hart's1 #aha4 ,hath the ,lord said it8 and shall he not do it8 ,hath he spoken it8 and shall he not make it good8--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #aac2 ,bullions's1 #agf4 ,who calls the council1 states the certain day8 ,who forms the phalanx1 and who points the way4 --,brit4 ,poets1 vi1 #cgf4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,questions ,,indirect4 ,to be1 or not to be8--that is the question4--,enfield's ,sp41 p4 #cfg2 ,kirkham's ,eloc41 #abc4dff ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the note of interrogation is here set after an expression which has neither the form nor the nature of a direct question4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d for the ,eroteme1 ,when a question is mentioned1 but not put directly as a question1 it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation4 ,therefore1 the semicolon1 which seems adapted to the pause1 should here be preferred4 ,if it be asked1 why a pause should any more be necessary to emphasis than to an accent8 or why an emphasis alone1 will not sufficiently distinguish the members of sentences from each other1 without pauses1 as accent does words8 the answer is obvious2 that we are pre-acquainted with the sound of words1 and cannot mistake them when distinctly pronounced1 however rapidly2 but we are not pre-acquainted with the meaning of sentences1 which must be pointed out to us by the reader or speaker4--,sheridan's ,rhet4 ,gram41 p4 lvi4 ,cry1 ,by your ,priesthood tell me what you are8 --,,pope3 ,british ,poets1 ,london1 #ahjj1 ,vol4 vi1 p4 #daa4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,of ,,error4 ,who else can he be4 ,where else can he go4--,s4 ,barrett's ,gram41 #ahde1 p4 #ga4 ,in familiar language here1 there and where are used for hither1 thither and whither4--,n4 ,butler's ,gram41 p4 #ahc4 ,take1 for instance1 this sentence1 ',indolence undermines the foundation of virtue4'--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,take1 for instance1 the sentence before quoted4 ',indolence undermines the foundation of virtue4'--,ib41 p4 #aaj4 ,under the same head are considered such sentences as these1 'he that heareth1 let him hear1' ',gad1 a troop shall overcome him1' c4--,ib41 p4 #ajh4 ,,tenses are certain modifications of the verb which point out the distinctions of time4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ch2 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #dd4 ,calm was the day and the scene delightful4--,id4 ,e4 ,gr41 p4 #hj4 ,the capital letters used by the ,romans to denote numbers1 were ,c4 ,i4 ,l4 ,v4 ,x4 which are therefore called ,numeral ,letters4 ,i1 denotes one2 ,v1 five3 ,x1 ten2 ,l1 fifty2 and ,c1 a hundred4--,id41 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #ef4 ',i shall have written2' viz1 at or before some future time or event4--,id41 ib41 p4 #hi4 ,in ,latin words the liquids are l and r only4 ,in ,greek words l1 r1 m1 n4--,id41 ib41 p4 #bgg4 ,each legion was divided into ten cohorts1 each cohort into three maniples1 and each maniple into two centuries4--,id41 ib41 p4 #cjj4 ,of the ,roman literature previous to ,a4 ,u4 #ead scarcely a vestige remains4--,id41 ib41 p4 #cab4 ,and that1 which ,he delights in must be happy4 ,but when6--or where6--,this world was made for ,csar4 --,burgh's ,sp41 p4 #abb4 ,and that which he delights in must be happy4 ,but when1 or where8 ,this world was made for ,csar4 --,enfield's ,sp41 p4 #cba4 ,look next on greatness4 ,say1 where greatness lies8 ,where but among the heroes and the wise4 --,burgh's ,sp41 p4 #ia4 ,look next on greatness6 say where greatness lies4 ,where1 but among the heroes and the wise8 --,essay on ,man1 p4 #ea4 ,look next on ,greatness2 say where ,greatness lies3 ,where1 but among the ,heroes and the ,wise8 --,brit4 ,poets1 vi1 #chj4 ,,section ,,vii--,,the ,,ecphoneme4 ,the ,ecphoneme1 or ,note of ,exclamation1 is used to denote a pause with some strong emotion of admiration1 joy1 grief1 or other feeling2 and1 as a sign of great wonder1 it is sometimes1 though not very elegantly1 repeated3 as1 ,grammatical consistency666 ,what a gem6--,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ceb4 ,,rule ,i4--,,interjections1 c4 ,emphatic interjections1 and other expressions of great emotion1 are generally followed by the note of exclamation2 as1 ,hold6 hold6 ,is the devil in you8 ,oh6 ,i am bruised all over4--,,moliere3 ,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #bej4 ,and ,o6 till earth1 and seas1 and heav'n decay1 ,ne'er may that fair creation fade away6--,dr4 ,lowth4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,invocations4 ,after an earnest address or solemn invocation1 the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point2 as1 ,whereupon1 ,o king ,agrippa6 ,i was not disobedient unto the heavenly vision4--,acts1 xxvi1 #ai4 ,be witness thou1 immortal ,lord of all6 ,whose thunder shakes the dark arial hall4--,pope4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,exclamatory ,,questions4 ,words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question1 but without reference to an answer1 should be followed by the note of exclamation2 as1 ,how madly have ,i talked6--,young4 ,an ,author6 ',tis a venerable name6 ,how few deserve it1 and what numbers claim6 --,id41 ,br4 ,po41 viii1 #dja4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,punctuation4--,,errors ,,concerning ,,the ,,ecphoneme4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,interjections1 c4 7#a47 ,o that he were wise4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 ,,formule4 ,not proper1 because this strong wish1 introduced by ,o1 is merely marked with a period4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast for the ,ecphoneme1 ,emphatic interjections1 and other expressions of great emotion1 are generally followed by the note of exclamation4 ,therefore1 the pause after this sentence1 should be marked with the latter sign2 and1 if the ,o be read with a pause1 the same sign may be there also4 7#b47 ,o that his heart was tender4--,exercises1 ib41 p4 #aaa4 7#c47 ,oh1 what a sight is here6--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #dh4 7#d47 ,oh6 what a sight is here4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ga2 7,obs4 #b27 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #hc4 7#e47 ,o virtue6 ,how amiable thou art4--,id411 p4 #ga2 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #hb4 7#f47 ,o virtue6 how amiable thou art4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #aji4 7#g47 ,o1 virtue6 how amiable thou art4--,s4 ,putnam's ,gram41 p4 #ec4 7#h47 ,oh6 virtue1 how amiable thou art6--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #aia2 ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's1 #cge4 7#i47 ,o virtue6 how amiable thou art6--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #abf4 7#aj47 ,oh6 that ,i had been more diligent4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #afg2 see ,hiley's1 #aag4 7#aa47 ,o6 the humiliation to which vice reduces us4--,farnum's ,gram41 p4 #ab2 ,murray's ,ex41 p4 #e4 7#ab47 ,o6 that he were more prudent4--,farnum's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 7#ac47 ,ah6 me4--,p4 ,davis's ,gram41 p4 #gi4 7#ad47 ,ah me6--,ib41 p4 #abb4 7#ae47 ,lately alas ,i knew a gentle boy1 c4--,the ,dial1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ga4 7#af47 ,wo is me ,alhama4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #aij4 7#ag47 ,wo is me1 ,alhama4--,ibid41 #aacth ,thousand1 p4 #bjf4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,invocations4 ,weep on the rocks of roaring winds1 ,o maid of ,inistore4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aca2 ,cooper's ,plain and ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aeh4 ,,formule--,not proper1 because the emphatic address in this sentence1 is marked with a period after it4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d for the ,ecphoneme1 ,after an earnest address or solemn invocation1 the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point4 ,therefore1 this period should be changed to the latter sign4 ,cease a little while1 ,o wind2 stream1 be thou silent a while2 let my voice be heard around4 ,let my wanderer hear me4 ,salgar1 it is ,colma who calls4 ,here is the tree1 and the rock4 ,salgar1 my love1 ,i am here4 ,why delayest thou thy coming8 ,lo1 the calm moon comes forth4 ,the flood is bright in the vale4--,see ,key4 ,ah1 stay not1 stay not1 guardless and alone2 ,hector1 my lov'd1 my dearest1 bravest son4--,see ,key4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,exclamatory ,,questions4 ,how much better is wisdom than gold4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aec2 ,hiley1 p4 #aac4 ,,formule--,not proper1 because this exclamatory sentence is pointed with a period at the end4 ,but1 according to ,rule #c;d for the ,ecphoneme1 ,words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question1 but without reference to an answer1 should be followed by the note of exclamation4 ,therefore1 this period should be changed to the latter sign4 ,o virtue6 how amiable art thou4--,flint's ,murray1 p4 #ea4 ,at that hour1 ,o how vain was all sublunary happiness4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #gd4 ,alas6 how few and transitory are the joys which this world affords to man4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,oh6 how vain and transitory are all things here below4--,ib41 p4 #aaj4 ,and oh6 what change of state1 what change of rank1 ,in that assembly everywhere was seen4--,day's ,gram41 p4 #ab4 ,and ,o6 what change of state6 what change of rank6 ,in that assembly every where was seen6--,pollok1 ,b4 ix1 l4 #gha4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,of ,,error4 ,o shame6 where is thy blush4--,s4 ,barren's ,principles of ,language1 p4 #hf4 ,o shame1 where is thy blush2 ,john1 give me my hat4--,ib41 p4 #ih4 ,what6 is ,moscow in flames4--,ib41 p4 #hf4 ,ah6 what happiness awaits the virtuous4--,ib41 #hf4 ,ah1 welladay1--do what we can for him1 said ,trim1 maintaining his point1--the poor soul will die4--,,sterne3 ,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #cjf4 ,a well o'day6 do what we can for him1 said ,trim1 maintaining his point3 the poor soul will die--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #cdj4 ,will ,john return to-morrow4--,s4 ,barrett's ,gram41 ,tenth ,ed41 p4 #ee4 ,will not ,john return to-morrow4--,ib41 #ee4 ,john6 return to-morrow2 ,soldiers6 stand firm4--,ib41 #ee4 ,if mea which means my is an adjective in ,latin1 why may not my be so called in ,english1 and if my is an adjective1 why not ,barrett's--,ib41 p4 #ej4 ,oh8 ,absalom1 my son4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cge4 ,oh6 ,,star-,,eyed ,,science66 whither hast thou fled8--,ib41 p4 #cff4 ,why do you tolerate your own inconsistency1 by calling it the present tense6--,ib41 p4 #cfj4 ,thus the declarative mode may be used in asking a question2 as1 what man is frail4--,ib41 p4 #ceh4 ,what connexion has motive wish1 or supposition1 with the term subjunctive6--,ib41 p4 #cdh4 ,a grand reason1 truly6 for calling it a golden key4--,ib41 p4 #cdg4 ,what 'suffering'6 the man who can say this1 must be 'enduring4'--,ib41 p4 #cde4 ,what is ,brown's ,rule6 in relation to this matter8--,ib41 p4 #ccd4 ,alas6 how short is life4 ,thomas1 study your book4--,day's ,district ,school ,gram41 p4 #aji4 ,as1 'alas6' how short is life2 ,thomas1 study your book4'--,ib41 p4 #hb4 ,who can tell us who they are4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #agh4 ,lord have mercy on my son2 for he is a lunatic1 etc4--,felton's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ach2 ,ster4 ,ed41 #adj4 ,o1 ye wild groves1 ,o1 where is now your bloom6--,ib41 p4 #hh2 ,ster4 ,ed41 #ia4 ,o who of man the story will unfold6 --,farnum's ,gr41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ajd4 ,methought ,i heard ,horatio say to-morrow4 ,go to ,i will not hear of it--to-morrow4 --,hallock's ,gr41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #bba4 ,how his eyes languish8 how his thoughts adore ,that painted coat which ,joseph never wore8 --,love of ,fame1 p4 #ff4 ,,section ,,viii4--,,the ,,curves4 ,the ,curves1 or ,marks of ,parenthesis1 are used to distinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in between the parts of a sentence to which it does not properly belong2 as1 ,their enemies 7and enemies they will always have7 would have a handle for exposing their measures4--,walpole4 ,to others do 7the law is not severe7 ,what to thyself thou wishest to be done4--,beattie4 ,,obs4--,the incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone1 and faster than the principal sentence4 ,it always requires a pause as great as that of a comma1 or greater4 ,,rule ,i4--,,the ,,parenthesis4 ,a clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it1 and only such1 should be inclosed within curves1 as a parenthesis2 as1 ,for ,i know that in me1 7that is1 in my flesh17 dwelleth no good thing4--,rom41 vii1 #ah4 ,know then this truth1 7enough for man to know17 ,virtue alone is happiness below4--,pope4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,included ,,points4 ,the curves do not supersede other stops2 and1 as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it1 the same point should be included1 except when the sentences differ in form3 as1 #a4 ,now for a recompense in the same1 7,i speak as unto my children17 be ye also enlarged4--#b ,cor41 vi1 #ac4 #b4 ,man's thirst of happiness declares it is3 7,for nature never gravitates to nought37 ,that thirst unquench'd1 declares it is not here4--,young4 #c4 ,night visions may befriend3 7as sung above37 ,our waking dreams are fatal4 ,how ,i dreamt ,of things impossible6 7could sleep do more87 ,of joys perpetual in perpetual change6--,young4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,punctuation4--,,errors ,,concerning ,,the ,,curves4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,parenthesis4 ,another is composed of the indefinite article an1 which1 etymologically means one and other1 and denotes one other4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the parenthetic expression1 which etymologically means one1 is not sufficiently separated from the rest of the passage4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast for the ,curves1 ,a clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it1 and only such1 should be enclosed within curves1 as a parenthesis4 ,therefore1 the curves should be here inserted2 and also1 by ,rule #b;d1 a comma at the word one4 ,each mood has its peculiar ,tense1 ,tenses 7or ,times74--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the expression1 or ,times1 which has not the nature of a parenthesis1 is here marked with curves4 ,but1 according to ,rule #ast for the ,curves1 ,a clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it1 and only such1 should be enclosed within curves1 as a parenthesis4 ,therefore1 these marks should be omitted2 and a comma should be set after the word ,tenses1 by ,rule #c;d4 ,in some very ancient languages1 as the ,hebrew1 which have been employed chiefly for expressing plain sentiments in the plainest manner1 without aiming at any elaborate length or harmony of periods1 this pronoun the relative occurs not so often4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #abg4 ,before ,i shall say those ,things1 7,o conscript ,fathers7 about the ,public ,affairs1 which are to be spoken at this ,time2 ,i shall lay before you1 in few ,words1 the ,motives of the ,journey1 and the ,return4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #adi4 ,of well-chose ,words some take not care enough4 ,and think they should be 7like the ,subject7 rough4 --,ib41 p4 #agc4 ,then having shewed his wounds1 he'd sit 7him7 down4 --,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,included ,,points4 ,then ,jael smote the ,nail into his ,temples1 and fastened it to the ,ground3 7for he was fast asleep and weary7 so he died4 ,,old ,,test4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because this parenthesis is not marked as terminating with a pause equal to that which precedes it4 ,but1 according to ,rule #b;d above1 ,the curves do not supersede other stops2 and1 as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it1 the same point should be included1 except when the sentences differ in form4 ,therefore1 a colon should be inserted within the curve after weary4 ,every thing in the ,iliad has manners 7as ,aristotle expresses it7 that is1 every thing is acted or spoken4--,pope1 ,pref4 to ,homer1 p4 vi4 ,those nouns1 that end in f4 or fe 7except some few ,i shall mention presently71 form plurals by changing those letters into ves3 as1 thief1 thieves2 wife1 wives4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ce4 ,as1 requires as2 7expressing equality7 ,mine is as good as yours4 ,as1--so2 7expressing equality7 ,as the stars1 so shall thy seed be4 ,so1--as2 7with a negative expressing inequality7 ,he is not so wise as his brother4 ,so4--that2 7expressing consequence7 ,i am so weak that ,i cannot walk4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aac2 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #aab4 ,a captious question1 sir 7and yours is one17 ,deserves an answer similar1 or none4--,cowper1 ii4 #bbh4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,of ,,error4 ,whatever words the verb ,,to ,,be serves to unite referring to the same thing1 must be of the same case2 #fa1 as1 ,alexander is a student4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ge4 ,when the objective is a relative or interrogative1 it comes before the verb that governs it4 #dj1 ,r4 #i4 7,murray's #fth rule is unnecessary47--,id41 ib41 p4 #ij4 ,it is generally improper 7except in poetry17 to omit the antecedent to a relative2 and always to omit a relative when of the nominative case4--,id41 ib41 p4 #acj4 ,in every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative 7or subject7 expressed or understood4--,id41 ib41 p4 #hg2 ,pract4 ,lessons1 p4 #ia4 ,nouns and pronouns1 and especially words denoting time1 are often governed by prepositions understood2 or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives without a governing word1 #ej4 ,rem4 #f and ,rule2 as1 ,he gave 7to7 me a full account of the whole affair4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hj4 ,when should is used instead of ought1 to express present duty1 #bj1 #d1 it may be followed by the present2 as1 ',you should study that you may become learned4'--,id41 ib41 p4 #abc4 ,the indicative present is frequently used after the words1 when1 till1 before1 as soon as1 after1 to express the relative time of a future action2 7#bd1 ,i1 #d17 as1 ',when he comes1 he will be welcome4'--,id41 ib41 p4 #abd4 ,the relative is parsed by stating its gender1 number1 case1 and antecedent1 7the gender and number being always the same as those of the antecedent7 thus1 ',the boy who4' ',who' is a relative pronoun1 masculine1 singular1 the nominative1 and refers to 'boy' as its antecedent4--,bullions1 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #ca4 ,now1 now1 ,i seize1 ,i clasp thy charms1 ,and now you burst2 ah6 cruel from my arms4 ,here is an unnecessary change from the second person singular to the second plural4 ,it would have been better thus1 ,now1 now ,i seize1 ,i clasp your charms1 ,and now you burst2 ah6 cruel from my arms4 --,j4 ,burn's ,gram41 p4 #aic4 ,,section ,,ix4--,,the ,,other ,,marks4 ,there are also several other marks1 which are occasionally used for various purposes1 as follow3-- ,i4 ' ,the ,,apostrophe usually denotes either the possessive case of a noun1 or the elision of one or more letters of a word3 as1 ,the girl's regard to her parents' advice2--'gan1 lov'd1 e'en1 thro'2 for began1 loved1 even1 through4 ,it is sometimes used in pluralizing a mere letter or sign2 as1 ,two a's--three #f's4#dfg ,,ii4 - ,the ,,hyphen connects the parts of many compound words1 especially such as have two accents2 as1 ever-living4 ,it is also frequently inserted where a word is divided into syllables2 as1 con-tem-plate4 ,placed at the end of a line1 it shows that one or more syllables of a word are can led forward to the next line4 ,,iii4 ,the ,,di,,resis1 or ,,dialysis1 placed over either of two contiguous vowels1 shows that they are not a diphthong2 as1 ,dane1 arial4 ,,iv4 ' ,the ,,acute ,,accent marks the syllable which requires the principal stress in pronunciation2 as1 e'qual1 equal'ity4 ,it is sometimes used in opposition to the grave accent1 to distinguish a close or short vowel2 as1 ,fncy3 7,murray37 or to denote the rising inflection of the voice2 as1 ,is it h8 ,v4 ,the ,,grave ,,accent is used in opposition to the acute1 to distinguish an open or long vowel2 as1 ,fvour3 7,murray37 or to denote the falling inflection of the voice2 as1 ,ys2 it is h ,it is sometimes placed over a vowel to show that it is not to be suppressed in pronunciation2 as1 ,let me1 though in humble speech1 ,thy refind maxims teach4--,amer4 ,review1 ,may1 #ahdh4 ,,vi4 ,the ,,circumflex generally denotes either the broad sound of a or an unusual sound given to some other vowel2 as in ll1 hir1 machne4 ,some use it to mark a peculiar wave of the voice1 and when occasion requires1 reverse it2 as1 ,if you said so1 then ,i said s4 ,,vii4 ,the ,,breve1 or ,,stenotone1 is used to denote either the close1 short1 shut sound of a vowel1 or a syllable of short quantity2 as1 live1 to have life1--rav'en1 to devour1#dfh--;calamus1 a reed4 ,,viii4 ,the ,,macron1 or ,,macrotone1#dfi is used to denote either the open1 long1 primal sound of a vowel1 or a syllable of long quantity2 as1 live1 having life1--ra'ven1 a bird1--e'quine1 of a horse4 ,,ix4 ---- or 99 99 99 99 or 4444 ,the ,,ellipsis1 or ,,suppression1 denotes the omission of some letters or words3 as1 ,k--g1 for ,king2 c99999999d1 for coward2 d4444d1 for damned4 ,x4 ,the ,,caret1 used only in writing1 shows where to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted4 ,,xi ,the ,,brace serves to unite a triplet2 or1 more frequently1 to connect several terms with something to which they are all related4 ,,xii4 ,the ,,section marks the smaller divisions of a book or chapter2 and1 with the help of numbers1 serves to abridge references4 ,,xiii4 ,the ,,paragraph 7chiefly used in the ,bible7 denotes the commencement of a new subject4 ,the parts of discourse which are called paragraphs1 are1 in general1 sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line1 and carrying the first word a little forwards or backwards4 ,the paragraphs of books being in some instances numbered1 this character may occasionally be used1 in lieu of the word paragraph1 to shorten references4 ,,xiv4 ,the ,,guillemets1 or ,,quotation ,,points1 distinguish words that are exhibited as those of an other author or speaker4 ,a quotation within a quotation1 is usually marked with single points2 which1 when both are employed1 are placed within the others3 as1 ,and again he saith1 ',rejoice1 ye ,gentiles1 with his people4'--,rom41 xv1 #aj4 ,,xv4 ,the ,,crotchets1 or ,,brackets1 generally inclose some correction or explanation1 but sometimes the sign or subject to be explained2 as1 ,he ,mr4 ,maurice was of a different opinion4--,allen's ,gram41 p4 #bac4 ,,xvi4 ,fist ,the ,,index1 or ,,hand1 points out something remarkable1 or what the reader should particularly observe4 ,,xvii4 99 ,the ,,asterisk1 or ,,star1 ,dagger the ,,obelisk1 or ,,dagger1 ,double dagger the ,,diesis1 or ,,double ,,dagger1 and the ,,parallels1 refer to marginal notes4 ,the ,,section also 1 and the ,,paragraph 1 are often used for marks of reference1 the former being usually applied to the fourth1 and the latter to the sixth note on a page2 for1 by the usage of printers1 these signs are commonly introduced in the following order3 #a1 992 #b1 ,dagger2 #c1 ,double dagger2 #d1 2 #e1 2 #f1 2 #g1 99992 #h1 ,dagger,dagger2 c4 ,where many references are to be made1 the small letters of the alphabet1 or the numerical figures1 in their order1 may be conveniently used for the same purpose4 ,,xviii4 ,asterism ,the ,,asterism1 or ,,three ,,stars1 a sign not very often used1 is placed before a long or general note1 to mark it as a note1 without giving it a particular reference4 ,,xix4 1 ,the ,,cedilla is a mark borrowed from the ,french1 by whom it is placed under the letter c1 to give it the sound of s1 before a or o2 as in the words1 faade1 ,alenon4 ,in ,worcester's ,dictionary1 it is attached to three other letters1 to denote their soft sounds3 viz41 1,g as ,j2 1,s as ,z2 1x as gz4 ,fist,oral exercises in punctuation should not be confined to the correction of errors4 ,an application of its principles to points rightly inserted1 is as easy a process as that of ordinary syntactical parsing1 and perhaps as useful4 ,for this purpose1 the teacher may select a portion of this grammar1 or of any well-pointed book1 to which the foregoing rules and explanations may be applied by the pupil1 as reasons for the points that occur4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,punctuation4--,,mixed ,,examples ,,of ,,error4 ,the principal stops are the following3-- ,the ,comma 717 the semicolon 727 the colon 737 the period1 or fall stop 747 the note of interrogation 787 the note of exclamation 767 the parenthesis 77 and the dash 7--7 4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aea2 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #abg4 ,the modern punctuation in ,latin is the same as in ,english4 ,the marks employed1 are the ,comma 7172 ,semicolon 7272 ,colon 7372 ,period 7472 ,interrogation 7872 ,exclamation 7674--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game2 you chide me1 says the youth1 for a trifling fault4 ,custom1 replied the philosopher1 is no trifle4 ,and1 adds ,montagnie1 he was in the right2 for our vices begin in infancy4--,home's ,art of ,thinking1 7,n4 ,y4 #ahah17 p4 #ed4 ,a merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died8 ',my father1' says the skipper1 my grandfather1 and my great-grandfather1 were all drowned4 ',well1' replies the merchant1 and are not you afraid of being drowned too8'--,ib41 p4 #ace4 ,the use of inverted comma's derives from ,france1 where one ,guillemet was the author of them2 and as an acknowledgement for the improvement his countrymen call them after his name ,,guillemets4--,history of ,printing1 7,london1 #aggj17 p4 #bff4 ,this1 however1 is seldem sic--,,kth if ever done unless the word following the possessive begins with s2 thus we do not say1 'the prince' feather1' but1 'the prince's feather4'--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,and this phrase must mean the feather of the prince but princesfeather written as one word is the name of a plant3 a species of amaranth4--,see ,key4 ,bthius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honour his country could bestow4--,ingersoll's ,gram4 #abmo41 p4 #bgi4 ,boethius soon had1 c4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 ii41 p4 #hc4 ,when an example1 a quotation1 or a speech is introduced1 it is separated from the rest of the sentence either by a semicolon or a colon2 as1 ',the scriptures give us an amiable representation of the ,deity1 in these words2 ,god is love4'--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,either the colon or semicolon may be used when an example1 a quotation1 or a speech is introduced2 as1 ',always remember this ancient maxim2 ,know thyself4' ',the scriptures give us an amiable representation of the ,deity1 in these words3 ,god is love4'--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,the first word of a quotation1 introduced after a colon 1 must begin with a capital2 as1 always remember this ancient maxim3 ',know thyself4'-- ,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aei2 ,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,lennie has ,always with a capital4 ,the first word of a quotation1 introduced after a colon1 or when it is in a direct form3 as1 ',always remember this ancient maxim3 ,know thyself4' ',our great lawgiver says1 ,take up thy cross daily1 and follow me4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bhd4 #h4 ,the first word of a quotation1 introduced after a colon1 or when it is in a direct form4 ,,examples4--',always remember this ancient maxim1 ',know thyself4' ',our great ,lawgiver says1 ,take up thy cross daily1 and follow me4'--,weld's ,gram41 ,abridged41 p4 #ag ,tell me in whose house do you live4--,n4 ,butler's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,he1 that acts wisely1 deserves praise4--,ib41 p4 #ej ,he1 who steals my purse1 steals trash4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,the antecedent is sometimes omitted1 as1 ',who steals my purse1 steals trash2' that is1 he who1 or person who4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,thus1 ',whoever steals my purse steals trash2' ',whoever does no good does harm4'--,ib41 p4 #ec ,thus1 ',whoever sins will suffer4' ,this means that any one without exception who sins will suffer4--,ib41 p4 #ec4 ,letters form syllables1 syllables words1 words sentences1 and sentences1 combined and connected form discourse4--,cooper's ,plain and ,practical ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,a letter which forms a perfect sound1 when uttered by itself1 is called a vowel1 as3 a1 e1 i4--,ib41 p4 #a4 ,a proper noun is the name of an individual1 as3 ,john2 ,boston3 ,hudson2 ,america4--,ib41 p4 #ag4 ,many men have been capable of doing a wise thing1 more a cunning thing1 but very few a generous thing4--,p4 ,davis's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,in the place of an ellipsis of the verb a comma must be inserted4--,ib41 p4 #aba4 ,a common noun unlimited by an article is sometimes understood in its broadest acceptation3 thus1 ',fishes swim' is understood to mean all fishes4 ',man is mortal1' all men4--,ib41 p4 #ac4 ,thus those sounds formed principally by the throat are called gutturals4 ,those formed principally by the palate are called palatals4 ,those formed by the teeth1 dentals--those by the lips1 labials--those by the nose1 nasals1 c4--,p4 ,davis's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,some adjectives are compared irregularly2 as1 ,good1 better1 best4 ,bad1 worse1 worst4 ,little1 less1 least4--,felton's ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #fc2 ,ster4 ,ed41 p4 #ff4 ,under the fourth head of grammar1 therefore1 four topics will be considered1 viz4 ,,punctuation1 ,,orthoepy1 ,,figures1 and ,,versification4-- ,hart's ,gram41 p4 #afa4 ,direct her onward to that peaceful shore1 ,where peril1 pain and death are felt no more6 ,falconer's ,poems1 p4 #acf2 ,barrett's ,new ,gram41 p4 #id ,,bad ,,english ,,badly ,,pointed4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ,discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also1 and such1 too1 is often their origin and their end4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aia4 ,traverse1 7to cross47 ,to deny what the opposite party has alleged4 ,to traverse an indictment1 c4 is to deny it4--,id41 ib41 p4 #baf4 ,the ,ordinal numerals denote the order or succession in which any number of persons or things is mentioned1 as first1 second1 third1 fourth1 c4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,nouns have three persons1 ,,first1 ,,second1 and ,,third4 ,the ,first person is the speaker1 the ,second is the one spoken to1 the ,third is the one spoken of4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,nouns have three cases1 ,,nominative1 ,,possessive1 and ,,objective4 ,the relation indicated by the case of a noun includes three ideas1 viz3 those of subject1 object1 and ownership4--,ib41 p4 #de4 ,in speaking of animals that are of inferior size1 or whose sex is not known or not regarded1 they are often considered as without sex3 thus1 we say of a cat 'it is treacherous1' of an infant 'it is beautiful1' of a deer 'it was killed4'--,ib41 p4 #ci4 ,when this or these1 that or those1 refers to a preceding sentence2 this1 or these1 refers to the latter member or term2 that1 or those1 to the former4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #acf2 see ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,the rearing of them i4 e4 of plants became his first care1 their fruit his first food1 and marking their kinds his first knowledge4--,n4 ,butler's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,after the period used with abbreviations we should employ other points1 if the construction demands it2 thus1 after ,esq4 in the last example1 there should be1 besides a period1 a comma4--,ib41 p4 #bab4 ,in the plural1 the verb is the same in all the persons2 and hence the principle in ,rem4 #e1 under ,rule iii4 that the first or second person takes precedence1 is not applicable to verbs4--,ib41 p4 #aeh4 ,rex and ,tyrannus are of very different characters4 ,the one rules his people by laws to which they consent2 the other1 by his absolute will and power3 that is called freedom1 this1 tyranny4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aij4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 which can be known1 or mentioned1 as3 ,george2 ,london2 ,america2 goodness2 charity4--,cooper's ,plain and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,etymology treats of the classification of words2 their various modifications and derivations4--,day's ,school ,gram41 p4 #i4 ,to punctuate correctly implies a thorough acquaintance with the meaning of words and phrases1 as well as of all their corresponding connexions--,w4 ,day's ,punctuation1 p4 #ca4 ,all objects which belong to neither the male nor female kind are called neuter4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #eg4 ,all objects1 which belong to neither the male nor female kind1 are said to be of the neuter gender4--,weld's ,gram41 ,abridged1 p4 #ea4 ,the ,analysis of the ,sounds in the ,english language presented in the preceding statements are sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand4 ,those who wish to pursue it further can consult ,dr4 ,rush's admirable work1 ',the ,philosophy of the ,human ,voice4'--,fowlers ,e4 ,gram41 #ahej1 #fe4 ,nobody confounds the name of w or y with their sound or phonetic import4--,ib41 #gd4 ,order is ,heaven's first law2 and this confest1 ,some are and must be1 greater than the rest4--,ib41 p4 #if4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ,in adjectives of one syllable1 the ,comparative is formed by adding -er to the positive2 and the ,superlative by adding -est2 as1 sweet1 sweeter1 sweetest4--,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,in monosyllables the comparative is formed by adding er or r to the positive1 and the superlative by adding est or st2 as1 tall1 taller1 tallest2 wise1 wiser1 wisest4--,id41 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #bd4 ,by this method the confusion and unnecessary labor occasioned by studying grammars in these languages1 constructed on different principles is avoided1 the study of one is rendered a profitable introduction to the study of another1 and an opportunity is furnished to the enquiring student of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure1 and seeing at once wherein they agree1 and wherein they differ4--,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 ,pref4 to #eth ,ed41 p4 vii4 ,no larger portion should be assigned for each recitation than the class can easily master1 and till this is done1 a new portion should not be given out4--,id41 ib41 p4 viii4 ,the acquisitions made in every new lesson should be rivetted and secured by repeated revisals4--,id41 ib41 p4 viii4 ,the personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus2 ,i1 the first personal pronoun1 masculine 7or feminine71 singular1 the nominative4 ,his1 the third personal pronoun1 masculine1 singular1 the possessive1 c4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bc3 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #bh4 ,when the male and female are expressed by distinct terms2 as1 shepherd1 shepherdess1 the masculine term has also a general meaning1 expressing both male and female1 and is always to be used when the office1 occupation1 profession1 c41 and not the sex of the individual1 is chiefly to be expressed4 ,the feminine term is used only when the discrimination1 of sex is indispensably necessary4 ,thus1 when it is said 'the ,poets of this country are distinguished by correctness of taste1' the term ',poet' clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry4--,id41 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ab2 his ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 #bd4 ,nouns and pronouns1 connected by conjunctions1 must be in the same cases4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,verbs1 connected by conjunctions1 must be in the same moods and tenses1 and1 when in the subjunctive present1 they must be in the same form4--,ib41 p4 #aab4 ,this will habituate him to reflection--exercise his judgment on the meaning of the author1 and without any great effort on his part1 impress indelibly on his memory1 the rules which he is required to give4 ,after the exercises under the rule have been gone through as directed in the note page #if1 they may be read over again in a corrected state the pupil making an emphasis on the correction made1 or they may be presented in writing at the next recitation4--,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,ed4 ,revised and ,cor41 p4 viii4 ,man1 but for that1 no action could attend ,and but for this1 be thoughtful to no end4 --,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 ,pref4 p4 #e4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ',johnson the bookseller and stationer1' indicates that the bookseller and the stationer are epithets belonging to the same person2 'the bookseller and the stationer' would indicate that they belong to different persons4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #abg4 ,past is an adjective2 passed1 the past tense or perfect participle of the verb1 and they ought not1 as is frequently done1 to be confounded with each other4--,id41 ib41 p4 #adh4 ,not only the nature of the thoughts and sentiments1 but the very selection and arrangement of the words1 gives ,english poetry a character1 which separates it widely from common prose4--,id41 ib41 p4 #agh4 ,men of sound1 discriminating1 and philosophical minds--men prepared for the work by long study1 patient investigation1 and extensive acquirements1 have labored for ages to improve and perfect it1 and nothing is hazarded in asserting1 that should it be unwisely abandoned1 it will be long before another equal in beauty1 stability and usefulness1 be produced in its stead4--,id41 ib41 p4 #aia4 ,the ,article ,the1 on the other hand1 is used to restrict1 and is therefore termed ,definite4 ,its proper office is to call the attention to a particular individual or class1 or to any number of such1 and is used with nouns in either the singular or plural number4--,id41 ib41 p4 #aic4 ,hence also the infinitive mood1 a participle1 a member of a sentence1 or a proposition1 forming together the subject of discourse1 or the object of a verb or preposition1 and being the name of an act or circumstance1 are in construction1 regarded as nouns1 and are usually called 'substantive phrases2' as ',to play is pleasant1' ',his being an expert dancer is no recommendation1' ',let your motto be ,honesty is the best policy4'--,id41 ib41 p4 #aid4 ,in accordance with his definition1 ,murray has divided verbs into three classes1 ,active1 ,passive1 and ,neuter1 and includes in the first class transitive verbs only1 and in the last all verbs used intransitively--,id41 ib41 p4 #bjj4 ,moreover1 as the name of the speaker or the person spoken to is seldom expressed1 7the pronouns ,i and thou being used in its stead17 a noun is very seldom in the first person1 not often in the second1 and almost never in either1 unless it be a proper noun1 or a common noun personified4--,bullions1 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #ac4 ,in using the above exercises it will save much time1 which is all important1 if the pupil be taught to say every thing belonging to the nouns in the fewest words possible1 and to say them always in the same order as above4--,id41 ib41 p4 #ba4 ,in any phrase or sentence the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be found by prefixing the phrase ',what kind of1' to the noun in the form of a question2 as1 ,what kind of a horse8 ,what kind of a stone8 ,what kind of a way8 ,the word containing the answer to the question is an adjective4--,id41 ib41 p4 #bb4 ,in the following exercise let the pupil first point out the nouns1 and then the adjectives2 and tell how he knows them to be so4--,id41 ib41 p4 #bc4 ,in the following sentences point out the improper ellipsis4 ,show why it is improper1 and correct it4--,id41 ib41 p4 #abd4 ,,singular ,,pronouns4 ,,plural ,,pronouns4 #a4 ,i--am being smitten4 #a4 ,we--are being smitten4 #b4 ,thou--art being smitten4 #b4 ,ye or you--are being smitten4 #c4 ,he--is being smitten4 #c4 ,they--are being smitten4 ,wright's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #ih4 ,,chapter ,,ii--,,utterance4 ,utterance ,is the art or act of vocal expression4 ,it includes the principles of articulation1 of pronunciation1 and of elocution4 ,,section ,i4--,,of ,,articulation4 ,articulation is the forming of words2 by the voice1 with reference to their component letters and sounds4 ,,article ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,definition4 ,articulation differs from pronunciation1 in having more particular regard to the elements of words1 and in not embracing accent#dgj4 ,a recent author defines it thus3 ,,articulation is the act of forming1 with the organs of speech1 the elements of vocal language4--,comstock's ,elocution1 p4 #af4 ,and again3 ,a good articulation is the perfect utterance of the elements of vocal language4--,ibid4 ,an other describes it more elaborately thus3 ,,articulation1 in language1 is the forming of the human voice1 accompanied by the breath1 in some few consonants1 into the simple and compound sounds1 called vowels1 consonants1 and diphthongs1 by the assistance of the organs of speech2 and the uniting of those vowels1 consonants1 and diphthongs1 together1 so as to form syllables and words1 and constitute spoken language4--,bolles's ,dict41 ,introd41 p4 #g4 ,,article ,,ii--,,of ,,good ,,articulation4 ,correctness in articulation is of such importance1 that without it speech or reading becomes not only inelegant1 but often absolutely unintelligible4 ,the opposite faults are mumbling1 muttering1 mincing1 lisping1 slurring1 mouthing1 drawling1 hesitating1 stammering1 misreading1 and the like4 ,a good articulation consists in giving every letter in a syllable its due proportion of sound1 according to the most approved custom of pronouncing it2 and in making such a distinction between the syllables of which words are composed1 that the ear shall without difficulty acknowledge their number2 and perceive1 at once1 to which syllable each letter belongs4 ,where these points are not observed1 the articulation is proportionably defective4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,grammar1 p4 #ej4 ,distinctness of articulation depends1 primarily1 upon the ability to form the simple elements1 or sounds of letters1 by the organs of speech1 in the manner which the custom of the language demands2 and1 in the next place1 upon the avoidance of that precipitancy of utterance1 which is greater than the full and accurate play of the organs will allow4 ,if time be not given for the full enunciation of any word which we attempt to speak1 some of the syllables will of course be either lost by elision or sounded confusedly4 ,just articulation gives even to a feeble voice greater power and reach than the loudest vociferation can attain without it4 ,it delivers words from the lips1 not mutilated1 distorted1 or corrupted1 but as the acknowledged sterling currency of thought2--as beautiful coins newly issued from the mint1 deeply and accurately impressed1 perfectly finished1 neatly struck by the proper organs1 distinct1 sharp1 in due succession1 and of due weight4--,austin's ,chironomia1 p4 #ch4 ,,obs4--,the principles of articulation constitute the chief exercise of all those who are learning either to speak or to read4 ,so far as they are specifically taught in this work1 they will be found in those sections which treat of the powers of the letters4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,of ,,pronunciation4 ,pronunciation1 as distinguished from elocution1 or delivery1 is the utterance of words taken separately4 ,the correct pronunciation of words1 or that part of grammar which teaches it1 is frequently called ,orthopy4 ,pronunciation1 or orthopy1 requires a knowledge of the just powers of the letters in all their combinations2 of the distinction of quantity in vowels and syllables2 and of the force and seat of the accent4 ,,article ,i--,,of ,,the ,,powers ,,of ,,letters4 ,the ,,just ,,powers of the letters1 are those sounds which are given to them by the best readers4 ,these are to be learned1 as reading is learned1 partly from example1 and partly from such books as show or aid the pronunciation of words4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that considerable variety1 even in the powers of the letters1 is produced by the character and occasion of what is uttered4 ,it is noticed by ,walker1 that1 ,some of the vowels1 when neither under the accent1 nor closed by a consonant1 have a longer or a shorter1 an opener or a closer sound1 according to the solemnity or familiarity1 the deliberation or rapidity of our delivery4--,pronouncing ,dict41 ,preface1 p4 #d4 ,in cursory speech1 or in such reading as imitates it1 even the best scholars utter many letters with quicker and obscurer sounds than ought ever to be given them in solemn discourse4 ,in public speaking1 says ,rippingham1 every word should be uttered1 as though it were spoken singly4 ,the solemnity of an oration justifies and demands such scrupulous distinctness4 ,that careful pronunciation which would be ridiculously pedantic in colloquial intercourse1 is an essential requisite of good elocution4--,art of ,public ,speaking1 p4 xxxvii4 ,,article ,,ii--,,of ,,quantity4 ,,quantity1 or ,,time in pronunciation1 is the measure of sounds or syllables in regard to their duration2 and1 by way of distinction1 is supposed ever to determine them to be either long or short4#dga ,the absolute time in which syllables are uttered1 is very variable1 and must be different to suit different subjects1 passions1 and occasions2 but their relative length or shortness may nevertheless be preserved1 and generally must be1 especially in reciting poetry4 ,our long syllables are chiefly those which1 having sounds naturally capable of being lengthened at pleasure1 are made long by falling under some stress either of accent or of emphasis4 ,our short syllables are the weaker sounds1 which1 being the less significant words1 or parts of words1 are uttered without peculiar stress4 ,,obs4--,as quantity is chiefly to be regarded in the utterance of poetical compositions1 this subject will be farther considered under the head of ,versification4 ,,article ,,iii4--,,of ,,accent4 ,,accent1 as commonly understood1 is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some particular syllable of a word1 whereby that syllable is distinguished from and above the rest2 as1 gram'-mar1 gram-ma'-ri-an4 ,every word of more than one syllable1 has one of its syllables accented2 and sometimes a compound word has two accents1 nearly equal in force2 as1 e'ven-hand'ed1 home'-depart'ment4#dgb ,besides the chief or primary accent1 when the word is long1 for the sake of harmony or distinctness1 we often give a secondary or less forcible accent to an other syllable2 as1 to the last of tem'-per-a-ture'1 and to the second of in dem'-ni-fi-ca'-tion4 ,accent seems to be regulated1 in a great measure1 by etymology4 ,in words from the ,saxon1 the accent is generally on the root2 in words from the learned languages1 it is generally on the termination2 and if to these we add the different accent we lay on some words1 to distinguish them from others1 we seem to have the three great principles of accentuation2 namely1 the radical1 the terminational1 and the distinctive4--,walker's ,principles1 ,no4 #dia2 ,l4 ,murray's ,grammar1 #hvo1 p4 #bcf4 ,a full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds1 a clear articulation of the consonants1 a forcible and well-placed accent1 and a distinct utterance of the unaccented syllables1 distinguish the elegant speaker4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the pronunciation of the ,english language is confessedly very difficult to be mastered4 ,its rules and their exceptions are so numerous1 that few become thoroughly acquainted with any general system of them4 ,nor1 among the different systems which have been published1 is there any which is worthy in all respects to be accounted a ,,standard4 ,and1 if we appeal to custom1 the custom even of the best speakers is far from an entire uniformity4 ,perhaps the most popular directory on this subject is ,walker's ,critical ,pronouncing ,dictionary4 ,the ,principles of ,english ,pronunciation1 which this author has furnished1 occupy fifty-six closely-printed octavo pages1 and are still insufficient for the purpose of teaching our orthopy by rule4 ,they are1 however1 highly valuable1 and ought to be consulted by every one who wishes to be master of this subject4 ,in its vocabulary1 or stock of words1 this ,dictionary is likewise deficient4 ,other lexicographers have produced several later works1 of high value to the student2 and1 though no one has treated the subject of pronunciation so elaborately as did ,walker1 some may have given the results of their diligence in a form more useful to the generality of their consulters4 ,among the good ones1 is the ,universal and ,critical ,dictionary of ,joseph ,e4 ,worcester4 ,,obs4 #b4--,our modern accentuation of ,greek or ,latin words is regulated almost wholly by the noted rule of ,sanctius1 which ,walker has copied and ,englished in the ,introduction to his ,key1 and of which the following is a new version or paraphrase1 never before printed3 ,,rule ,,for ,,the ,,accenting ,,of ,,latin4 ,one syllable has stress of course1 ,and words of two the first enforce2 ,in longer words the penult guides1 ,its quantity the point decides2 ,if long1 'tis there the accent's due1 ,if short1 accent the last but two2 ,for accent1 in a ,latin word1 ,should ne'er go higher than the third4 ,this rule1 or the substance of it1 has become very important by long and extensive use2 but it should be observed1 that stress on monosyllables is more properly emphasis than accent2 and that1 in ,english1 the accent governs quantity1 rather than quantity the accent4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,of ,,elocution4 ,elocution is the graceful utterance of words that are arranged into sentences1 and that form discourse4 ,elocution requires a knowledge1 and right application1 of emphasis1 pauses1 inflections1 and tones4 ,,article ,i--,,of ,,emphasis4 ,,emphasis is the peculiar stress of voice which we lay upon some particular word or words in a sentence1 which are thereby distinguished from the rest as being more especially significant4#dgc ,as accent enforces a syllable1 and gives character to a word2 so emphasis distinguishes a word1 and often determines the import of a sentence4 ,the right placing of accent1 in the utterance of words1 is therefore not more important1 than the right placing of emphasis1 in the utterance of sentences4 ,if no emphasis be used1 discourse becomes vapid and inane2 if no accent1 words can hardly be recognized as ,english4 ,emphasis1 besides its other offices1 is the great regulator of quantity4 ,though the quantity of our syllable is fixed1 in words separately pronounced1 yet it is mutable1 when the words are arranged into sentences2 the long being changed into short1 the short into long1 according to the importance of the words with regard to meaning3 and1 as it is by emphasis only1 that the meaning can be pointed out1 emphasis must be the regulator of the quantity4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bdf4dgd ,emphasis changes1 not only the quantity of words and syllables1 but also1 in particular cases1 the sent of the accent4 ,this is demonstrable from the following examples3 ',he shall increase1 but ,i shall decrease4' ',there is a difference between giving and forgiving4' ',in this species of composition1 plausibility is much more essential than probability4' ,in these examples1 the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on syllables to which it does not commonly belong4--,ib41 p4 #bdg4 ,in order to know what words are to be made emphatic1 the speaker or reader must give constant heed to the sense of what he utters2 his only sure guide1 in this matter1 being a just conception of the force and spirit of the sentiment which he is about to pronounce4 ,he must also guard against the error of multiplying emphatic words too much2 for1 to overdo in this way1 defeats the very purpose for which emphasis is used4 ,to manage this stress with exact propriety1 is therefore one of the surest evidences both of a quick understanding1 and of a delicate and just taste4 ,,article ,,ii4--,,of ,,pauses4 ,pauses are cessations in utterance1 which serve equally to relieve the speaker1 and to render language intelligible and pleasing4 ,pauses are of three kinds3 first1 distinctive or sentential pauses1--such as form the divisions required by the sense2 secondly1 emphatic or rhetorical pauses1--such as particularly call the hearer's attention to something which has been1 or is about to be1 uttered2 and lastly1 poetical or harmonic pauses1--such as are peculiar to the utterance of metrical compositions4 ,the duration of the distinctive pauses should be proportionate to the degree of connexion between the parts of the discourse4 ,the shortest are long enough for the taking of some breath2 and it is proper1 thus to relieve the voice at every stop1 if needful4 ,this we may do1 slightly at a comma1 more leisurely at a semicolon1 still more so at a colon1 and completely at a period4 ,pauses1 whether in reading or in public discourse1 ought always to be formed after the manner in which we naturally form them in ordinary1 sensible conversation2 and not after the stiff1 artificial manner which many acquire at school1 by a mere mechanical attention to the common punctuation4 ,forced1 unintentional pauses1 which accidentally divide words that ought to be spoken in close connexion1 are always disagreeable2 and1 whether they arise from exhaustion of breath1 from a habit of faltering1 or from unacquaintance with the text1 they are errors of a kind utterly incompatible with graceful elocution4 ,emphatic or rhetorical pauses1 the kind least frequently used1 may be made immediately before1 or immediately after1 something which the speaker thinks particularly important1 and on which he would fix the attention of his audience4 ,their effect is similar to that of a strong emphasis2 and1 like this1 they must not be employed too often4 ,the harmonic pauses1 or those which are peculiar to poetry1 are of three kinds3 the final pause1 which marks the end of each line2 the csural or divisional pause1 which commonly divides the line near the middle2 and the minor rests1 or demi-csuras1 which often divide it still further4 ,in the reading of poetry1 these pauses ought to be observed1 as well as those which have reference to the sense2 for1 to read verse exactly as if it were prose1 will often rob it of what chiefly distinguishes it from prose4 ,yet1 at the same time1 all appearance of singsong1 or affected tone1 ought to be carefully guarded against4 ,,article ,,iii4--,,of ,,inflections4 ,,inflections are those peculiar variations of the human voice1 by which a continuous sound is made to pass from one note1 key1 or pitch1 into an other4 ,the passage of the voice from a lower to a higher or shriller note1 is called the rising or upward inflection4 ,the passage of the voice from a higher to a lower or graver note1 is called tbe falling or downward inflection4 ,these two opposite inflections may be heard in the following examples3 #a4 ,the rising1 ,do you mean to g8 #b4 ,the falling1 ,when will you g8 ,in general1 questions that may be answered by yes or no1 require the rising inflection2 while those which demand any other answer1 must be uttered with the falling inflection4 ,these slides of the voice are not commonly marked in writing1 or in our printed books2 but1 when there is occasion to note them1 we apply the acute accent to the former1 and the grave accent to the latter4#dge ,a union of these two inflections upon the same syllable1 is called a circumflex1 a wave1 or a circumflex inflection4 ,when the slide is first downward and then upward1 it is called the rising circumflex1 or the gravo-acute circumflex2 when first upward and then downward1 it is denominated the falling circumflex1 or the acuto-grave circumflex4 ,of these complex inflections of the voice1 the emphatic words in the following sentences may be uttered as examples3 ,and it shall go hard but ,i will se the information4--6 but he paused upon the brink4 ,when a passage is read without any inflection1 the words are uttered in what is called a monotone2 the voice being commonly pitched at a grum note1 and made to move for the time1 slowly and gravely1 on a perfect level4 ,rising inflections are far more numerous than falling inflections2 the former constitute the main body of oral language1 while the latter are employed for the purposes of emphasis1 and in the formation of cadences4 ,rising inflections are often emphatic2 but their emphasis is weaker than that of falling inflections4--,comstock's ,elocution1 p4 #ej4 ,writers on ,elocution have given numerous rules for the regulation of inflections2 but most of these rules are better calculated to make bad readers than good ones4 ,those founded on the construction of sentences might1 perhaps1 do credit to a mechanic1 but they certainly do none to an elocutionist4--,ib41 p4 #ea4 ,the reader should bear in mind that a falling inflection gives more importance to a word than a rising inflection4 ,hence it should never be employed merely for the sake of variety2 but for emphasis and cadences4 ,neither should a rising inflection be used for the sake of mere 'harmony1' where a falling inflection would better express the meaning of the author4 ,the sense should1 in all cases1 determine the direction of inflections4--,ib4 ,cadence is a fall of the voice1 which has reference not so much to pitch as to force1 though it may depress both2 for it seems to be generally contrasted with emphasis1#dgf and by some is reprehended as a fault4 ,support your voice steadily and firmly1 says ,rippingham1 and pronounce the concluding words of the sentence with force and vivacity1 rather than with a languid cadence4--,art of ,speaking1 p4 #ag4 ,the pauses which ,l4 ,murray denominates the suspending and the closing pause1 he seems to have discriminated chiefly by the inflections preceding them1 if he can be said to have distinguished them at all4 ,for he not only teaches that the former may sometimes be used at the close of a sentence1 and the latter sometimes where the sense is not completed2 but1 treating cadence merely as a defect1 adds the following caution3 ,the closing pause must not be confounded with that fall of the voice1 or cadence1 with which many readers uniformly finish a sentence4 ,nothing is more destructive of propriety and energy than this habit4 ,the tones and inflections of the voice at the close of a sentence1 ought to be diversified1 according to the general nature of the discourse1 and the particular construction and meaning of the sentence4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bej2 #abmo1 p4 #bjj4 ,,article ,,iv4--,,of ,,tones4 ,tones are those modulations of the voice which depend upon the feelings of the speaker4 ,they are what ,sheridan denominates the language of emotions4 ,and it is of the utmost importance1 that they be natural1 unaffected1 and rightly adapted to the subject and to the occasion2 for upon them1 in a great measure1 depends all that is pleasing or interesting in elocution4 ,how much of the propriety1 the force1 and the grace of discourse1 must depend on these1 will appear from this single consideration2 that to almost every sentiment we utter1 more especially to every strong emotion1 nature has adapted some peculiar tone of voice2 insomuch1 that he who should tell another that he was angry1 or much grieved1 in a tone that did not suit such emotions1 instead of being believed1 would be laughed at4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccc4 ,the different passions of the mind must be expressed by different tones of the voice4 ,love1 by a soft1 smooth1 languishing voice2 anger1 by a strong1 vehement1 and elevated voice2 joy1 by a quick1 sweet1 and clear voice2 sorrow1 by a low1 flexible1 interrupted voice2 fear1 by a dejected1 tremulous1 hesitating voice2 courage1 by a full1 bold1 and loud voice2 and perplexity1 by a grave and earnest voice4 ,in exordiums1 the voice should be low1 yet clear2 in narrations1 distinct2 in reasoning1 slow2 in persuasions1 strong3 it should thunder in anger1 soften in sorrow1 tremble in fear1 and melt in love4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aba4 ,,obs4--,walker observes1 in his remarks on the nature of ,accent and ,quantity1 ,as to the tones of the passions1 which are so many and various1 these1 in the opinion of one of the best judges in the kingdom1 are qualities of sound1 occasioned by certain vibrations of the organs of speech1 independent on say of high1 low1 loud1 soft1 quick1 slow1 forcible1 or feeble3 which last may not improperly be called different quantities of sound4--,walker's ,key1 p4 #cje4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,figures4 ,a ,figure1 in grammar1 is an intentional deviation from the ordinary spelling1 formation1 construction1 or application1 of words4 ,there are1 accordingly1 figures of ,orthography1 figures of ,etymology1 figures of ,syntax1 and figures of ,rhetoric4 ,when figures are judiciously employed1 they both strengthen and adorn expression4 ,they occur more frequently in poetry than in prose2 and several of them are merely poetic licenses4 ,,section ,i4--,,figures ,,of ,,orthography4 ,a ,figure of ,orthography is an intentional deviation from the ordinary or true spelling of a word4 ,the principal figures of ,orthography are two2 namely1 ,mi-me'-sis and ,ar'-cha-ism4 ,,explanations4 ,i4 ,mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mispronunciation of a word1 in which the error is mimicked by a false spelling1 or the taking of one word for another2 as1 ,maister1 says he1 have you any wery good weal in you vllet8--,columbian ,orator1 p4 #bib4 ,ay1 he was porn at ,monmouth1 captain ,gower4--,shak4 ,i will description the matter to you1 if you be capacity of it4--,id4 ,perdigious6 ,i can hardly stand4 --,,lloyd3 ,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 viii1 p4 #ahd4 ,,ii4 ,an ,archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to ancient usage1 and not according to our modern orthography2 as1 ,newe grene chese of smalle clammynes comfortethe a hotte stomake4--,t4 ,,paynel3 ,tooke's ,diversions1 ii1 #acb4 ,he hath holpen his servant ,israel4--,luke1 i1 #ed4 ,with him was rev'rend ,contemplation pight1 ,bow-bent with eld1 his beard of snowy hue4--,beattie4 ,,obs4--,among the figures of this section1 perhaps we might include the foreign words or phrases which individual authors now and then adopt in writing ,english2 namely1 the ,scotticisms1 the ,gallicisms1 the ,latinisms1 the ,grecisms1 and the like1 with which they too often garnish their ,english style4 ,but these1 except they stand as foreign quotations1 in which case they are exempt from our rules1 are in general offences against the purity of our language2 and it may therefore be sufficient1 just to mention them here1 without expressly putting any of them into the category of grammatical figures4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,figures ,,of ,,etymology4 ,a ,figure of ,etymology is an intentional deviation from the ordinary formation of a word4 ,the principal figures of ,etymology are eight2 namely1 ,a-phoer'-e-sis1 ,pros'-the-sis1 ,syn'-co-pe1 ,a-poc'-o-pe1 ,par-a-go'-ge1 ,di-oer'-e-sis1 ,syn-oer'-e-sis1 and ,tme'-sis4 ,,explanations4 ,i4 ,aphresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of a word3 as1 'gainst1 for against2 'gan1 for began2 'neath1 for beneath2 'thout1 for without4 ,,ii4 ,prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a word3 as1 adown1 for down2 appaid1 for paid2 bestrown1 for strown2 evanished1 for vanished2 yclad1 for clad4 ,,iii4 ,syn'cop is the elision of some of the middle letters of a word3 as1 med'cine1 for medicine2 e'en1 for even2 o'er1 for over2 conq'ring1 for conquering2 se'nnight1 for sevennight4 ,,iv4 ,apoc'op is the elision of some of the final letters of a word3 as1 tho' for though2 th'1 for the2 t'other1 for the other2 thro'1 for through4 ,v4 ,parago'g is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a word3 as1 ,johnny1 for ,john2 deary1 for dear2 withouten1 for without4 ,,vi4 ,diresis is the separating of two vowels that might be supposed to form a diphthong3 as1 coperate1 not cooperate2 aronaut1 not ronaut2 or'thopy1 not orthoepy4 ,,vii4 ,synresis is the sinking of two syllables into one3 as1 seest1 for sest2 tacked1 for tack-ed2 drowned1 for drown-ed2 spoks't1 for spok-est2 show'dst1 for show-edst2 'tis1 for it is2 ,i'll1 for ,i will4 ,,viii4 ,tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound1 or between two words which should be united if they stood together3 as1 ,on which side soever4--,rolla4 ,to us ward2 ,to ,god ward4--,bible4 ,the assembling of ourselves together4--,id4 ,with what charms soe'er she will4--,cowper4 ,so new a fashion'd robe4--,shak4 ,lament the live day long4--,burns4 ,,obs4--,in all our pronunciation1 except that of the solemn style1 such verbal or participial terminations as can be so uttered1 are usually sunk by synresis into mere modifications of preceding syllables4 ,the terminational consonants1 if not uttered with one vowel1 must be uttered with an other4 ,when1 therefore1 a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation1 7whether retained in writing or not17 the consonants connected with it1 necessarily fall into an other syllable3 thus1 tried1 triest1 sued1 suest1 loved1 lovest1 mov'd1 mov'st1 are monosyllables2 and studied1 studiest1 studi'dst1 argued1 arguest1 argu'dst1 are dissyllables2 except in solemn discourse1 in which the e is generally retained and made vocal4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,figures ,,of ,,syntax4 ,a ,figure of ,syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words4 ,the principal figures of ,syntax are five2 namely1 ,el-lip'-sis1 ,ple'-o-nasm1 ,syl-lep'-sis1 ,en-al'-la-ge1 and ,hy-per'-ba-ton4 ,,explanations4 ,i4 ,ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construction1 but not necessary to convey the meaning4 ,such words are said1 in technical phrase1 to be understood2#dgg because they are received as belonging to the sentence1 though they are not uttered4 ,of compound sentences1 a vast many are more or less elliptical2 and sometimes1 for brevity's sake1 even the most essential parts of a simple sentence1 are suppressed2#dgh as1 ,but more of this hereafter4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #gg4 ,this means1 ,but ,i shall say more of this hereafter4 ,prythee1 peace4--,shak4 ,that is1 ,i pray thee1 hold thou thy peace4 ,there may be an omission of any of the parts of speech1 or even of a whole clause1 when this repeats what precedes2 but the omission of mere articles or interjections can scarcely constitute a proper ellipsis1 because these parts of speech1 wherever they are really necessary to be recognized1 ought to be expressed4 ,,examples ,,of ,,ellipsis ,,supplied4 #a4 ,of the ,,article3--,a man and a woman4--,the day1 the month1 and the year4--,she gave me an apple and a pear1 for a fig and an orange4--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #agj4 #b4 ,of the ,,noun3--,the common law and the statute law4--,the twelve apostles4--,the same man is he4--,one book of my books4--,a dozen bottles of wine4--,conscience1 ,i say2 not thine own conscience1 but the conscience of the other4--#a ,cor41 x1 #bi4 ,every moment subtracts from our lives what it adds to our lives4--,dillwyn's ,ref41 p4 #h4 ,bad actions mostly lead to worse actions4--,ib41 p4 #e4 #c4 ,of the ,,adjective3--,there are subjects proper for the one1 and not proper for the other4--,kames4 ,a just weight and a just balance are the ,lord's4--,prov41 xvi1 #aa4 ,true ellipses of the adjective alone1 are but seldom met with4 #d4 ,of the ,,pronoun3--,leave thou there thy gift before the altar1 and go thou thy way2 first be thou reconciled to thy brother1 and then come thou and offer thou thy gift1--,matt41 v1 #bd4 ,love ye your enemies1 bless ye them that curse you1 do ye good to them that hate you4--,ib41 v4 #dd4 ,chastisement does not always immediately follow error1 but it sometimes comes when it is least expected4-- ,dillwyn1 ,ref41 p4 #ca4 ,men generally put a greater value upon the favours which they bestow1 than upon those which they receive4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #dh4 ,wisdom and worth were all that he had4--,allen's ,gram41 p4 #bid4 #e4 ,of the ,,verb3--,the world is crucified unto me1 and ,i am crucified unto the world4--,gal41 vi1 #ad4 ,hearts should not differ1 though heads may1 differ4--,dillwyn1 p4 #aa4 ,are ye not much better than they are8--,matt41 vi1 #bf4 ,tribulation worketh patience2 and patience worketh experience2 and experience worketh hope4--,romans1 v1 #d4 ,wrongs are engraved on marble2 benefits are engraved on sand4--,art of ,thinking1 p4 #da4 ,to whom thus ,eve1 yet sinless spoke4--,milton4 #f4 ,of the ,,participle3--,that being o'er1 they part4--,animals of various natures1 some adapted to the wood1 and some adapted to the wave4--,melmoth1 on ,scripture1 p4 #ac4 ,his knowledge being measured to his state and place1 ,his time being a moment1 and a point being his space4--,pope4 #g4 ,of the ,,adverb3--,he can do this independently of me1 if not independently of you4 ,she shows a body rather than a life2 ,a statue1 rather than a breather4 --,shak41 ,ant4 and ,cleo41 iii1 #c4 #h4 ,of the ,,conjunction3--,but the fruit of the ,spirit is love1 and joy1 and peace1 and long suffering1 and gentleness1 and goodness1 and faith1 and meekness1 and temperance4--,gal41 v1 #bb4 ,the repetition of the conjunction is called ,polysyndeton2 and the omission of it1 ,asyndeton4 #i4 ,of the ,,preposition3--,it shall be done on this very day4--,we shall set off at some time in next month4--,he departed from this life4--,he gave to me a book4--,we walked through a mile4--,he was banished from the kingdom4--,w4 ,allen4 ,he lived like to a prince4--,wells4 #aj4 ,of the ,,interjection3--,oh6 the frailty1 oh6 the wickedness of men4--,alas for ,mexico6 and alas for many of her invaders6 #aa4 ,of ,,phrases or ,,clauses3--,the active commonly do more than they are bound to do2 the indolent commonly do less than they are bound to do4--,young men1 angry1 mean less than they say2 old men1 angry1 mean more than they say4--,it is the duty of justice1 not to injure men2 it is the duty of modesty1 not to offend them4--,w4 ,allen4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,grammarians in general treat of ellipsis without defining it2 and exhibit such rules and examples as suppose our language to be a hundred-fold more elliptical than it really is4#dgi ,this is a great error1 and only paralleled by that of a certain writer elsewhere noticed1 who denies the existence of all ellipsis whatever4 7,see ,syntax1 ,obs4 #bdth on ,rule #bb;d47 ,some have defined this figure in a way that betrays a very inaccurate notion of what it is3 as1 ,,ellipsis is when one or more words are wanting to complete the sense4--,adam's ,lat4 and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #bce2 ,gould's1 #bbi4 ,,ellipsis is the omission of one or more words necessary to complete the sense4--,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bfe4 ,these definitions are decidedly worse than none2 because1 if they have any effect1 they can only mislead4 ,they absurdly suggest that every elliptical sentence lacks a part of its own meaning6 ,ellipsis is1 in fact1 the mere omission or absence of certain suggested words2 or of words that may be spared from utterance1 without defect in the sense4 ,there never can be an ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary to the construction or necessary to the sense2 for to say what we mean and nothing more1 never can constitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of words4 ,as a figure of ,syntax1 therefore1 the ellipsis can only be of such words as are so evidently suggested to the reader1 that the writer is as fully answerable for them as if he had written them4 ,,obs4 #b4--,to suppose an ellipsis where there is none1 or to overlook one where it really occurs1 is to pervert or mutilate the text1 in order to accommodate it to the parser's or reader's ignorance of the principles of syntax4 ,there never can be either a general uniformity or a self-consistency in our methods of parsing1 or in our notions of grammar1 till the true nature of an ellipsis is clearly ascertained2 so that the writer shall distinguish it from a blundering omission that impairs the sense1 and the reader or parser be barred from an arbitrary insertion of what would be cumbrous and useless4 ,by adopting loose and extravagant ideas of the nature of this figure1 some pretenders to learning and philosophy have been led into the most whimsical and opposite notions concerning the grammatical construction of language4 ,thus1 with equal absurdity1 ,cardell and ,sherman1 in their ,philosophic ,grammars1 attempt to confute the doctrines of their predecessors1 by supposing ellipses at pleasure4 ,and while the former teaches1 that prepositions do not govern the objective case1 but that every verb is transitive1 and governs at least two objects1 expressed or understood1 its own and that of a preposition3 the latter1 with just as good an argument1 contends that no verb is transitive1 but that every objective case is governed by a preposition expressed or understood4 ,a world of nonsense for lack of a definition6 ,,ii4 ,,pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words2 as1 ,but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil1 thou shalt not eat of it4--,gen41 ii1 #ag4 ,this figure is allowable only1 when1 in animated discourse1 it abruptly introduces an emphatic word1 or repeats an idea to impress it more strongly2 as1 ,he that hath ears to hear1 let him hear4--,bible4 ,all ye inhabitants of the world1 and dwellers on the earth4--,id4 ,there shall not be left one stone upon another that shall not be thrown down4--,id4 ,i know thee who thou art4--,id4 ,a ,pleonasm1 as perhaps in these instances1 is sometimes impressive and elegant2 but an unemphatic repetition of the same idea1 is one of the worst faults of bad writing4 ,,obs4--,strong passion is not always satisfied with saying a thing once1 and in the fewest words possible2 nor is it natural that it should be4 ,hence repetitions indicative of intense feeling may constitute a beauty of the highest kind1 when1 if the feeling were wanting1 or supposed to be so1 they would be reckoned intolerable tautologies4 ,the following is an example1 which the reader may appreciate the better1 if he remembers the context3 ,at her feet he bowed1 he fell1 he lay down2 at her feet he bowed1 he fell2 where he bowed1 there he fell down dead4--,judges1 v1 #bg4 ,,iii4 ,,syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a word1 or the mental conception of the thing spoken of1 and not according to the literal or common use of the term2 it is therefore in general connected with some figure of rhetoric3 as ,the ,word was made flesh1 and dwelt amongst us1 and we beheld his glory4--,john1 i1 #ad4 ,then ,philip went down to the city of ,samaria1 and preached ,christ unto them4--,acts1 viii1 #e4 ,the city of ,london have expressed their sentiments with freedom and firmness4--,junius1 p4 #aei4 ,and ,i said to backsliding ,israel1 after she had done all these things1 ,turn thou unto me2 but she returned not3 and her treacherous sister ,judah saw it4--,jer41 iii1 #g4 ,and he surnamed them ,boanerges1 which is1 ,the sons of thunder4--,mark1 iii1 #ag4 ,while ,evening draws her crimson curtains round4--,thomson1 p4 #fc4 ,the ,thunder raises his tremendous voice4--,id41 p4 #aac4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,to the parser1 some explanation of that agreement which is controlled by tropes1 is often absolutely necessary2 yet1 of our modern grammarians1 none appear to have noticed it2 and1 of the oldest writers1 few1 if any1 have given it the rank which it deserves among the figures of syntax4 ,the term ,syllepsis literally signifies conception1 comprehension1 or taking-together4 ,under this name have been arranged1 by the grammarians and rhetoricians1 many different forms of unusual or irregular agreement2 some of which are quite too unlike to be embraced in the same class1 and not a few1 perhaps1 too unimportant or too ordinary to deserve any classification as figures4 ,i therefore omit some forms of expression which others have treated as examples of ,syllepsis1 and define the term with reference to such as seem more worthy to be noticed as deviations from the ordinary construction of words4 ,dr4 ,webster1 allowing the word two meanings1 explains it thus3 ,,syllepsis1 n4 ,gr4 syllpsis4 #a4 ,in grammar1 a figure by which we conceive the sense of words otherwise than the words import1 and construe them according to the intention of the author2 otherwise called substitution4#dhj #b4 ,the agreement of a verb or adjective1 not with the word next to it1 but with the most worthy in the sentence4--,american ,dict4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,in short1 ,syllepsis is a conception of which grammarians have conceived so variously1 that it has become doubtful1 what definition or what application of the term is now the most appropriate4 ,dr4 ,prat1 in defining it1 cites one notion from ,sanctius1 and adds an other of his own1 thus3 ,,syllepsis1 id est1 ,conceptio1 est quoties ,generibus1 aut ,numeris videntur voces discrepare4 ,sanct4 l4 #d4 c4 #aj4 ,vel sit ,comprehensio indignioris sub digniore4--,prat's ,lat4 ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #afd4 ,john ,grant ranks it as a mere form or species of ,ellipsis1 and expounds it thus3 ,syllepsis is when the adjective or verb1 joined to different substantives1 agrees with the more worthy4--,institutes of ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #cba4 ,dr4 ,littleton describes it thus3 ,,sylllepsis sic--,,kth1--,a ,grammatical figure where two ,nominative ,cases singular of different persons are joined to a ,verb plural4--,latin ,dict41 #dto4 ,by ,dr4 ,morell it is explained as follows3 ,,syllepsis1--,a grammatical figure1 where one is put for many1 and many for one1 ,lat4 ,conceptio4--,morell's ,ainsworth's ,dict41 #dto1 ,index ,vitand4 ,,iv4 ,enllag is the use of one part of speech1 or of one modification1 for an other4 ,this figure borders closely upon solecism2 and1 for the stability of the language1 it should be sparingly indulged4 ,there are1 however1 several forms of it which can appeal to good authority3 as1 #a4 ,you know that you are ,brutus1 that say this4--,shak4 #b4 ,they fall successively1 and successively rise4--,pope4 #c4 ,than whom who a fiend more fell is nowhere found4--,thomson4 #d4 ,sure some disaster has befell befallen4--,gay4 #e4 ,so furious was that onset's shock1 ,destruction's gates at once unlock unlocked4--,hogg4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,enallage is a ,greek word1 signifying commutation1 change1 or exchange4 ,enallage1 in a general sense1 is the change of words1 or of their accidents1 one for another4--,grant's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #cbb4 ,the word ,antimeria1 which literally expresses change of parts1 was often used by the old grammarians as synonymous with ,enallage2 though1 sometimes1 the former was taken only for the substitution of one part of speech for an other1 and the latter1 only1 or more particularly1 for a change of modification--as of mood for mood1 tense for tense1 or number for number4 ,the putting of one case for an other1 has also been thought worthy of a particular name1 and been called ,antiptosis4 ,but ,enallage1 the most comprehensive of these terms1 having been often of old applied to all such changes1 reducing them to one head1 may well be now defined as above1 and still applied1 in this way1 to all that we need recognize as figures4 ,the word ,enallaxis1 preferred by some1 is of the same import4 ,,enallaxis1 so called by ,longinus1 or ,,enallage1 is an ,exchange of ,cases1 ,tenses1 ,persons1 ,numbers1 or ,genders4--,holmes's ,rhet41 ,book i1 p4 #eg4 ,an ,,enallaxis changes1 when it pleases1 ,tenses1 or ,persons1 ,genders1 ,numbers1 ,cases4--,ib41 ,b4 ii1 p4 #ej4 ,,obs4 #b4--,our most common form of ,enallage is that by which a single person is addressed in the plural number4 ,this is so fashionable in our civil intercourse1 that some very polite grammarians improperly dispute its claims to be called a figure2 and represent it as being more ordinary1 and even more literal than the regular phraseology2 which a few of them1 as we have seen1 would place among the archaisms4 ,the next in frequency1 7if indeed it can be called a different form17 is the practice of putting we for ,i1 or the plural for the singular in the first person4 ,this has never yet been claimed as literal and regular syntax1 though the usages differ in nothing but commonness2 both being honourably authorized1 both still improper on some occasions1 and1 in both1 the ,enallage being alike obvious4 ,other varieties of this figure1 not uncommon in ,english1 are the putting of adjectives for adverbs1 of adverbs for nouns1 of the present tense for the preterit1 and of the preterit for the perfect participle4 ,but1 in the use of such liberties1 elegance and error sometimes approximate so nearly1 there is scarcely an obvious line between them1 and grammarians consequently disagree in making the distinction4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,deviations of this kind are1 in general1 to be considered solecisms2 otherwise1 the rules of grammar would be of no use or authority4 ,despauter1 an ancient ,latin grammarian1 gave an improper latitude to this figure1 or to a species of it1 under the name of ,antiptosis2 and ,behourt and others extended it still further4 ,but ,sanctius says1 ,antiptosi grammaticorum nihil imperitius1 quod figmentum si esset verum1 frustra qureretur1 quem casum verba regerent4 ,and the ,messieurs ,de ,port ,royal reject the figure altogether4 ,there are1 however1 some changes of this kind1 which the grammarian is not competent to condemn1 though they do not accord with the ordinary principles of construction4 ,v4 ,hyperbaton is the transposition of words2 as1 ,he wanders earth around4--,cowper ,rings the world with the vain stir4--,id4 ,whom therefore ye ignorantly worship1 him declare ,i unto you4--,acts1 xvii1 #bc4 ',happy'1 says ,montesquieu1 'is that nation whose annals are tiresome4'--,corwin1 in ,congress1 #ahdg4 ,this figure is much employed in poetry4 ,a judicious use of it confers harmony1 variety1 strength1 and vivacity upon composition4 ,but care should be taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity1 absurdity or solecism4 ,,obs4--,a confused and intricate arrangement of words1 received from some of the ancients the name of ,syn'chysis1 and was reckoned by them among the figures of grammar4 ,by some authors1 this has been improperly identified with ,hyper'baton1 or elegant inversion2 as may be seen under the word ,synchysis in ,littleton's ,dictionary1 or in ,holmes's ,rhetoric1 at page #ehth4 ,synchysis literally means confusion1 or commixtion2 and1 in grammar1 is significant only of some poetical jumble of words1 some verbal kink or snarl1 which cannot be grammatically resolved or disentangled3 as1 ,is piety thus and pure devotion paid8 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 xi1 l4 #deb4 ,an ass will with his long ears fray ,the flies that tickle him away2 ,but man delights to have his ears ,blown maggots in by flatterers4 --,butler's ,poems1 p4 #afa4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,figures ,,of ,,rhetoric4 ,a ,figure of ,rhetoric is an intentional deviation from the ordinary application of words4 ,several of this kind of figures are commonly called ,tropes1 i4e41 turns2 because certain words are turned from their original signification to an other4#dha ,numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction1 occur in almost every kind of composition4 ,they are mostly founded on some similitude or relation of things1 which1 by the power of imagination1 is rendered conducive to ornament or illustration4 ,the principal figures of ,rhetoric are sixteen2 namely1 ,sim'-i-le1 ,met'-a-phor1 ,al'-le-gor-y1 ,me-ton'-y-my1 ,syn-ec'-do-che1 ,hy-per'-bo-le1 ,vis'-ion1 ,a-pos'-tro-phe1 ,per-son'-i-fi-ca'-tion1 ,er-o-te'-sis1 ,ec-pho-ne'-sis1 ,an-tith'-e-sis1 ,cli'-max1 ,i'-ro-ny1 ,a-poph'-a-sis1 and ,on-o-ma-to-poe'-ia4 ,,explanations4 ,i4 ,a ,simile is a simple and express comparison2 and is generally introduced by like1 as1 or so3 as1 ,such a passion is like falling in love with a sparrow flying over your head2 you have but one glimpse of her1 and she is out of sight4--,colliers ,antoninus4 ,therefore they shall be as the morning cloud1 and as the early dew that passeth away2 as the chaff that is driven with the whirlwind out of the floor1 and as the smoke out of the chimney4--,hosea1 xiii4 ,at first1 like thunder's distant tone1 ,the rattling din came rolling on4--,hogg4 ,man1 like the generous vine1 supported lives2 ,the strength he gains1 is from th' embrace he gives4--,pope4 ,,obs4--,comparisons are sometimes made in a manner sufficiently intelligible1 without any express term to point them out4 ,in the following passage1 we have a triple example of what seems the ,simile1 without the usual sign--without like1 as1 or so3 ,away with all tampering with such a question6 ,away with all trifling with the man in fetters6 ,give a hungry man a stone1 and tell what beautiful houses are made of it2--give ice to a freezing man1 and tell him of its good properties in hot weather2--throw a drowning man a dollar1 as a mark of your good will2--but do not mock the bondman in his misery1 by giving him a ,bible when he cannot read it4--,,frederick ,,douglass3 ,liberty ,bell1 #ahdh4 ,,ii4 ,a ,metaphor is a figure that expresses or suggests the resemblance of two objects by applying either the name1 or some attribute1 adjunct1 or action1 of the one1 directly to the other2 as1 #a4 ,the ,,lord is my rock1 and my fortress4--,psal41 xviii #a4 #b4 ,his eye was morning's brightest ray4--,hogg4 #c4 ,an angler in the tides of fame4--,id41 ,q4 ,w4 #d4 ,beside him sleeps the warrior's bow4--,langhorne4 #e4 ,wild fancies in his moody brain ,gambol'd unbridled and unbound4--,hogg1 ,q4 ,w4 #f4 ,speechless1 and fix'd in all the death of wo4--,thomson4 ,,obs4--,a ,metaphor is commonly understoood sic--,,kth to be only the tropical use of some single word1 or short phrase2 but there seem to be occasional instances of one sentence1 or action1 being used metaphorically to represent an other4 ,the following extract from the ,london ,examiner has several figurative expressions1 which perhaps belong to this head3 ,in the present age1 nearly all people are critics1 even to the pen1 and treat the gravest writers with a sort of taproom familiarity4 ,if they are dissatisfied1 they throw a short and spent cigar in the face of the offender2 if they are pleased1 they lift the candidate off his legs1 and send him away with a hearty slap on the shoulder4 ,some of the shorter1 when they are bent to mischief1 dip a twig in the gutter1 and drag it across our polished boots3 on the contrary1 when they are inclined to be gentle and generous1 they leap boisterously upon our knees1 and kiss us with bread-and-butter in their mouths4--,,walter ,,savage ,,landor4 ,,iii4 ,an ,allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events1 designed to represent and illustrate important realities4 ,thus the ,psalmist represents the ,jewish nation under the symbol of a vine3 ,thou hast brought a vine out of ,egypt3 thou hast cast out the heathen1 and planted it4 ,thou preparedst room before it1 and didst cause it to take deep root2 and it filled the land4 ,the hills were covered with the shadow of it1 and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars4--,psalms1 lxxx1 #h-aj4 ,,obs4--,the ,allegory1 agreeably to the foregoing definition of it1 includes most of those similitudes which in the ,scriptures are called parables2 it includes also the better sort of fables4 ,the term allegory is sometimes applied to a true history in which something else is intended1 than is contained in the words literally taken4 ,see an instance in ,galatians1 iv1 #bd4 ,in the ,scriptures1 the term fable denotes an idle and groundless story3 as1 in #a ,timothy1 iv1 #g2 and #b ,peter1 i1 #af4 ,it is now commonly used in a better sense4 ,a fable may be defined to be an analogical narrative1 intended to convey some moral lesson1 in which irrational animals or objects are introduced as speaking4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bhj4 ,,iv4 ,a ,metonymy is a change of names between things related4 ,it is founded1 not on resemblance1 but on some such relation as that of cause and effect1 of progenitor and posterity1 of subject and adjunct1 of place and inhabitant1 of container and thing contained1 or of sign and thing signified3 as1 7#a47 ,god is our salvation2 i4e41 ,saviour4 7#b47 ,hear1 ,o ,israel2 i4e4 ,o ye descendants of ,israel4 7#c47 ,he was the sigh of her secret soul2 i4e41 the youth she loved4 7#d47 ,they smote the city2 i4e41 the citizens4 7#e47 ,my son1 give me thy heart2 i4e41 affection4 7#f47 ,the sceptre shall not depart from ,judah2 i4e41 kingly power4 7#g47 ,they have ,moses and the prophets2 i4e41 their writings4 ,see ,luke1 xvi1 #bi4 ,v4 ,synecdoche1 7that is1 ,comprehension17 is the naming of a part for the whole1 or of the whole for a part2 as1 7#a47 ,this roof i4e41 house protects you4 7#b47 ,now the year i4e41 summer is beautiful4 7#c47 ,a sail i4e41 a ship or vessel passed at a distance4 7#d47 ,give us this day our daily bread2 i4e41 food4 7#e47 ,because they have taken away my ,lord1 i4e41 the body of ,jesus1 and ,i know not where they have laid him4--,john4 7#f47 ,the same day there were added unto them about three thousand souls2 i4e41 persons4--,acts4 7#g47 ,there went out a decree from ,csar ,augustus1 that all the world i4e41 the ,roman empire should be taxed4--,luke1 ii1 #a4 ,,vi4 ,hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration1 in which the imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth2 as1 ,my little finger shall be thicker than my father's loins4--#b ,chron41 x1 #aj4 ,when ,i washed my steps with butter1 and the rock poured me out rivers of oil4--,job1 xxix1 #f4 ,the sky shrunk upward with unusual dread1 ,and trembling ,tiber div'd beneath his bed4--,dryden4 ,,vii4 ,vision1 or ,imagery1 is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination1 as actually before his eyes1 and present to his senses2 as1 ,i see the dagger-crest of ,mar6 ,i see the ,moray's silver star ,wave o'er the cloud of ,saxon war1 ,that up the lake comes winding far6--,scott1 ,l4 ,l41 vi1 #ae4 ,,viii4 ,apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the subject1 into an animated address2 as1 ,death is swallowed up in victory4 ,o ,death6 where is thy sting8 ,o ,grave6 where is thy victory8--#a ,cor41 xv1 #ee4 ,,ix4 ,personification is a figure by which1 in imagination1 we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities2 as1 #a4 ,the ,worm1 aware of his intent1 ,harangued him thus1 right eloquent4--,cowper4 #b4 ,lo1 steel-clad ,war his gorgeous standard rears6--,rogers4 #c4 ,hark6 ,truth proclaims1 thy triumphs cease6--,idem4 ,x4 ,erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of interrogation1 not to express a doubt1 but1 in general1 confidently to assert the reverse of what is asked2 as1 ,hast thou an arm like ,god8 or canst thou thunder with a voice like him8--,job1 xl1 #i4 ,he that planted the ear1 shall he not hear8 he that formed the eye1 shall he not see8--,psalms1 xciv1 #i4 ,,xi4 ,ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation1 denoting some violent emotion of the mind2 as1 ,o liberty6--,o sound once delightful to every ,roman ear6--,o sacred privilege of ,roman citizenship6--once sacred--now trampled upon4--,cicero4 ,and ,i said1 ,o that ,i had wings like a dove6 for then would ,i fly away1 and be at rest4--,psalms1 lv1 #f4 ,,xii4 ,antithesis is a placing of things in opposition1 to heighten their effect by contrast2 as1 ,i will talk of things heavenly1 or things earthly2 things moral1 or things evangelical2 things sacred1 or things profane2 things past1 or things to come2 things foreign1 or things at home2 things more essential1 or things circumstantial2 provided that all be done to our profit4--,bunyan1 ,p4 ,p41 p4 #ij4 ,contrasted faults through all his manners reign2 ,though poor1 luxurious2 though submissive1 vain2 ,though grave1 yet trifling2 zealous1 yet untrue2 ,and e'en in penance1 planning sins anew4--,goldsmith4 ,,xiii4 ,climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance by successive steps1 to rise gradually to what is more and more important and interesting1 or to descend to what is more and more minute and particular2 as1 ,and besides this1 giving all diligence1 add to your faith1 virtue2 and to virtue1 knowledge2 and to knowledge1 temperance2 and to temperance1 patience2 and to patience1 godliness2 and to godliness1 brotherly kindness2 and to brotherly kindness1 charity4--#b ,peter1 i1 #e4 ,,xiv4 ,irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood2 as1 ,we have1 to be sure1 great reason to believe the modest man would not ask him for a debt1 when he pursues his life4--,cicero4 ,no doubt but ye are the people1 and wisdom shall die with you4--,job1 xii1 #b4 ,they must esteem learning very much1 when they see its professors used with such little ceremony6--,goldsmith's ,essays1 p4 #aej4 ,,xv4 ,apophasis1 or ,paralipsis1#dhb is a figure in which the speaker or writer pretends to omit what at the same time he really mentions2 as1 ,i ,paul have written it with mine own hand1 ,i will repay it2 albeit ,i do not say to thee1 how thou owest unto me even thine own self besides4--,philemon1 #ai4 ,,xvi4 ,onomatopoeia is the use of a word1 phrase1 or sentence1 the sound of which resembles1 or intentionally imitates1 the sound of the thing signified or spoken of3 as1 ,of a knocking at the door1 ,rat a tat tat4--,j4 ,w4 ,,gibbs3 in ,fowler's ,gram41 p4 #ccd4 ,ding-dong6 ding-dong6 ,merry1 merry1 go the bells1 ,ding-dong6 ding-dong6--,h4 ,k4 ,white4 ,bow'wow n4 ,the loud bark of a dog4 ,booth4--,worcester's ,dict4 ,this is often written separately2 as1 ,bow wow4--,fowler's ,gram41 p4 #ccd4 ,the imitation is better with three sounds3 ,bow wow wow4 ,the following verses have been said to exhibit this figure3 ,but when loud surges lash the sounding shore1 ,the hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar4 --,pope1 on ,crit41 l4 #cfi4 ,,obs4--,the whole number of figures1 which ,i have thought it needful to define and illustrate in this work1 is only about thirty4 ,these are the chief of what have sometimes been made a very long and minute catalogue4 ,in the hands of some authors1 ,rhetoric is scarcely anything else than a detail of figures2 the number of which1 being made to include almost every possible form of expression1 is1 according to these authors1 not less than two hundred and forty4 ,of their names1 ,john ,holmes gives1 in his index1 two hundred and fifty-three2 and he has not all that might be quoted1 though he has more than there are of the forms named1 or the figures themselves4 ,to find a learned name for every particular mode of expression1 is not necessarily conducive to the right use of language4 ,it is easy to see the inutility of such pedantry2 and ,butler has made it sufficiently ridiculous by this caricature3 ,for all a rhetorician's rules ,teach nothing but to name his tools4--,hudibras1 ,p4 i1 ,c4 i1 l4 #ij4 ,,section ,v4--,,examples ,,for ,,parsing4 ,,praxis ,,xiv4--,,prosodical4 ,in the ,fourteenth ,praxis1 are exemplified the several ,figures of ,orthography1 of ,etymology1 of ,syntax1 and of ,rhetoric1 which the parser may name and define2 and by it the pupil may also be exercised in relation to the principles of ,punctuation1 ,utterance1 ,analysis1 or whatever else of ,grammar1 the examples contain4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,figures ,,of ,,orthography4 ,,mimesis ,,and ,,archaism4 ,i ax'd you what you had to sell4 ,i am fitting out a wessel for ,wenice1 loading her with warious keinds of prowisions1 and wittualling her for a long woyage2 and ,i want several undred weight of weal1 wenison1 c41 with plenty of inyons and winegar1 for the preserwation of ealth4--,columbian ,orator1 p4 #bib4 ,god bless you1 and lie still quiet 7says ,i7 a bit longer1 for my shister's afraid of ghosts1 and would die on the spot with the fright1 was she to see you come to life all on a sudden this way without the least preparation4--,edgeworth's ,castle ,rackrent1 p4 #adc4 ,none else are so desperately evill1 as they that may bee good and will not3 or have beene good and are not4--,rev4 ,john ,rogers1 #afbj4 ,a ,carpenter finds his work as hee left it1 but a ,minister shall find his sett back4 ,you need preach continually4--,id4 ,here whilom ligg'd th' ,esopus of his age1 ,but call'd by ,fame1 in soul ypricked deep4--,thomson4 ,it was a fountain of ,nepenthe rare1 ,whence1 as ,dan ,homer sings1 huge pleasaunce grew4--,id4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,figures ,,of ,,etymology4 ,,aph,,resis1 ,,prosthesis1 ,,syncope1 ,,apocope1 ,,paragoge1 ,,di,,resis1 ,,syn,,resis1 ,,and ,,tmesis4 ,bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast1 ,burst down like torrent from its crest4--,scott4 ',tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap ,kind nature's bounties1 o'er the globe diffus'd4--,dyer4 ,alas6 alas6 how impotently true ,th' arial pencil forms the scene anew4--,cawthorne4 ,here a deformed monster joy'd to won1 ,which on fell rancour ever was ybent4--,lloyd4 ,withouten trump was proclamation made4--,thomson4 ,the gentle knight1 who saw their rueful case1 ,let fall adown his silver beard some tears4 ',certes1' quoth he1 'it is not e'en in grace1 ,t' undo the past and eke your broken years4--,id4 ,vain tamp'ring has but foster'd his disease2 ',tis desp'rate1 and he sleeps the sleep of death4--,cowper4 ',i have a pain upon my forehead here'-- ',why that's with watching2 'twill away again4'--,shakspeare4 ,i'll to the woods1 among the happier brutes2 ,come1 let's away2 hark6 the shrill horn resounds4--,smith4 ,what prayer and supplication soever be made4--,bible4 ,by the grace of ,god1 we have had our conversation in the world1 and more abundantly to you ward4--,ib4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,figures ,,of ,,syntax4 ,,figure ,i4--,,ellipsis4 ,and now he faintly kens the bounding fawn1 ,and -- villager -- abroad at early toil4--,beattie4 ,the cottage curs at -- early pilgrim bark4--,id4 ',tis granted1 and no plainer truth appears1 ,our most important -- are our earliest years4--,cowper4 ,to earn her aid1 with fix'd and anxious eye1 ,he looks on nature's -- and on fortune's course4--,akenside4 ,for longer in that paradise to dwell1 ,the law -- ,i gave to nature him forbids4--,milton4 ,so little mercy shows -- who needs so much4--,cowper4 ,bliss is the same -- in subject1 as -- in king2 ,in -- who obtain defence1 and -- who defend4--,pope4 ,man made for kings6 those optics are but dim ,that tell you so--say rather1 they -- for him4--,cowper4 ,man may dismiss compassion from his heart1 ,but ,god will never -------4--,id4 ,vigour -- from toil1 from trouble patience grows4--,beattie4 ,where now the rill melodious1 -- pure1 and cool1 ,and meads1 with life1 and mirth1 and beauty crown'd8--,id4 ,how dead the vegetable kingdom lies6 ,how dumb the tuneful ------------6--,thomson4 ,self-love and ,reason to one end aspire1 ,pain -- their aversion1 pleasure -- their desire2 ,but greedy that its object would devour1 ,this -- taste the honey1 and not wound the flower4--,pope4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,figures ,,of ,,syntax4 ,,figure ,,ii4--,,pleonasm4 ,according to their deeds1 accordingly he will repay1 fury to his adversaries1 recompense to his enemies2 to the islands he will repay recompense4--,isaiah1 lix1 #ah4 ,open to me1 my sister1 my love1 my dove1 my undefiled3 for my head is filled with dew1 and my locks with the drops of the night4--,song of ,sol41 v1 #b4 ,thou hast chastised me1 and ,i was chastised1 as a bullock unaccustomed to the yoke3 turn thou me1 and ,i shall be turned2 for thou art the ,lord my ,god4--,jer41 xxxi1 #ah4 ,consider the lilies of the field how they grow4--,matt41 vi1 #bh4 ,he that glorieth1 let him glory in the ,lord4--#b ,cor41 x1 #ag4 ,he too is witness1 noblest of the train ,that wait on man1 the flight-performing horse4--,cowper4 ,,figure ,,iii4--,,syllepsis4 ',thou art ,simon the son of ,jona3 thou shalt be called ,cephas3' which is1 by interpretation a stone4--,john1 i1 #db4 ,thus saith the ,lord of hosts1 ',behold1 ,i will break the bow of ,elam1 the chief of their might4'--,jer41 xlix1 #ce4 ,behold1 ,i lay in ,sion a stumbling-stone and rock of offence3 and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed4--,rom41 ix1 #cc4 ,thus ,conscience pleads her cause within the breast1 ,though long rebell'd against1 not yet suppressed4--,cowper4 ,knowledge is proud that he has learn'd so much2 ,wisdom is humble that he knows no more4--,id4 ,for those the race of ,israel oft forsook ,their living strength1 and unfrequented left ,his righteous altar1 bowing lowly down ,to bestial gods4--,milton1 ,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 i1 l4 #dcb4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,figures ,,of ,,syntax4 ,,figure ,,iv4--,,enallage4 ,let me tell you1 ,cassius1 you yourself ,are much condemned to have an itching palm1 ,to sell and mart your offices for gold4--,shakspeare4 ,come1 ,philomelus2 let us instant go1 ,o'erturn his bow'rs1 and lay his castle low4--,thomson4 ,then palaces shall rise2 the joyful son ,shall finish what the short-liv'd sire begun--,pope4 ,such was that temple built by ,solomon1 ,than whom none richer reign'd o'er ,israel4--,author4 ,he spoke3 with fatal eagerness we burn1 ,and quit the shores1 undestin'd to return4--,day4 ,still as he pass'd1 the nations he sublimes4--,thomson4 ,sometimes1 with early morn1 he mounted gay4--,id4 ',i've lost a day'--the prince who nobly cried1 ,had been an emperor without his crown4--,young4 ,,figure ,v4--,,hyperbaton4 ,such resting found the sole of unblest feet4--,milton4 ,yet1 though successless1 will the toil delight4--,thomson4 ,where1 'midst the changeful scen'ry ever new1 ,fancy a thousand wondrous forms descries4--,beattie4 ,yet so much bounty is in ,god1 such grace1 ,that who advance his glory1 not their own1 ,them he himself to glory will advance4--,milton4 ,no quick reply to dubious questions make2 ,suspense and caution still prevent mistake4--,denham4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,figures ,,of ,,rhetoric4 ,,figure ,i4--,,simile4 ,human greatness is short and transitory1 as the odour of incense in the fire4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,terrestrial happiness is of short continuance3 the brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel1 the fragrant flower is passing away in its own odours4--,id4 ,thy nod is as the earthquake that shakes the mountains2 and thy smile1 as the dawn of the vernal day4--,id4 ,plants rais'd with tenderness are seldom strong2 ,man's coltish disposition asks the thong2 ,and1 without discipline1 the fav'rite child1 ,like a neglected forester1 runs wild4--,cowper4 ,as turns a flock of geese1 and1 on the green1 ,poke out their foolish necks in awkward spleen1 7,ridiculous in rage67 to hiss1 not bite1 ,so war their quills1 when sons of dullness write4--,young4 ,who can unpitying see the flowery race1 ,shed by the morn1 their new-flush'd bloom resign1 ,before th' unbating beam8 ,so fade the fair1 ,when fevers revel through their azure veins4--,thomson4 ,,figure ,,ii4--,,metaphor4 ,cathmon1 thy name is a pleasant gale4--,ossian4 ,rolled into himself he flew1 wide on the bosom of winds4 ,the old oak felt his departure1 and shook its whistling head4--,id4 ,carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good1 as he acquired the power2 as the hand of time scattered snow upon his head1 the freeziny influence sic--,,kth extended to his bosom4--,hawkesworth4 ,the sun grew weary of gilding the palaces of ,morad2 the clouds of sorrow gathered round his head2 and the tempest of hatred roared about his dwelling4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,,lesson ,,vii4--,,figures ,,of ,,rhetoric4 ,,figure ,,iii4--,,allegory4 ,but what think ye8 ,a certain man had two sons2 and he came to the first1 and said1 ',son1 go work to-day in my vineyard4' ,he answered and said1 ',i will not2' but afterward he repented1 and went4 ,and he came to the second1 and said likewise4 ,and he answered and said1 ',i go1 sir2' and went not4 ,whether of them twain did the will of his father8 ,they say unto him1 ',the first4'--,matt41 xxi1 #bh-ca4 ,,figure ,,iv4--,,metonymy4 ,swifter than a whirlwind1 flies the leaden death4--,hervey4 ',be all the dead forgot1' said ,foldath's bursting wrath4 ',did not ,i fail in the field8'--,ossian4 ,their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke4--,gray4 ,firm in his love1 resistless in his hate1 ,his arm is conquest1 and his frown is fate4--,day4 ,at length the world1 renew'd by calm repose1 ,was strong for toil2 the dappled morn arose4--,parnell4 ,what modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme1 ,the mole's dim curtain and the lynx's beam6 ,of hearing1 from the life that fills the flood1 ,to that which warbles through the vernal wood6--,pope4 ,,figure ,v4--,,synecdoche4 ',twas then his threshold first receiv'd a guest4--,parnell4 ,for yet by swains alone the world he knew1 ,whose feet came wand'ring o'er the nightly dew4--,id4 ,flush'd by the spirit of the genial year1 ,now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom ,shoots1 less and less1 the live carnation round4--,thomson4 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,figures ,,of ,,rhetoric4 ,,figure ,,vi4--,,hyperbole4 ,i saw their chief1 tall as a rock of ice2 his spear1 the blasted fir2 his shield the rising moon2 he sat on the shore1 like a cloud of mist on the hill4--,ossian4 ,at which the universal host up sent ,a shout1 that tore ,hell's concave1 and beyond ,frighted the reign of ,chaos and old ,night4--,milton4 ,will all great ,neptune's ocean wash this blood ,clean from my hand8 ,no2 this my hand will rather ,the multitudinous seas incarnadine1 ,making the green one red6--,shakspeare4 ,,figure ,,vii4--,,vision4 ,how mighty is their defence who reverently trust in the arm of ,god6 ,how powerfully do they contend who fight with lawful weapons6 ,hark6 ',tis the voice of eloquence1 pouring forth the living energies of the soul2 pleading1 with generous indignation and holy emotion1 the cause of injured humanity against lawless might1 and reading the awful destiny that awaits the oppressor6--,i see the stern countenance of despotism overawed6 ,i see the eye fallen1 that kindled the elements of war6 ,i see the brow relaxed1 that scowled defiance at hostile thousands6 ,i see the knees tremble1 that trod with firmness the embattled field6 ,fear has entered that heart which ambition had betrayed into violence6 ,the tyrant feels himself a man1 and subject to the weakness of humanity6--,behold6 and tell me1 is that power contemptible which can thus find access to the sternest hearts8--,author4 ,,figure ,,viii4--,,apostrophe4 ,yet still they breathe destruction1 still go on1 ,inhumanly ingenious to find out ,new pains for life1 new terrors for the grave2 ,artificers of death6 ,still monarchs dream ,of universal empire growing up ,from universal ruin4 ,blast the design1 ,great ,god of ,hosts6 nor let thy creatures fall ,unpitied victims at ,ambition's shrine4--,porteus4 ,,lesson ,,ix4--,,figures ,,of ,,rhetoric4 ,,figure ,,ix4--,,personification4 ,hail1 sacred ,polity1 by ,freedom rear'd6 ,hail1 sacred ,freedom1 when by ,law restrain'd6 ,without you1 what were man8 ,a grov'ling herd1 ,in darkness1 wretchedness1 and want1 enchain'd4--,beattie4 ,let cheerful ,mem'ry1 from her purest cells1 ,lead forth a godly train of ,virtues fair1 ,cherish'd in early youth1 now paying back ,with tenfold usury the pious care4--,porteus4 ,,figure ,x4--,,erotesis4 ,he that chastiseth the heathen1 shall not he correct8 ,he that teacheth man knowledge1 shall not he know8--,psalms1 xciv1 #aj4 ,can the ,ethiopian change his skin1 or the leopard his spots8 then may ye also do good1 that are accustomed to do evil4--,jeremiah1 xiii1 #bc4 ,,figure ,,xi4--,,ecphonesis4 ,o that my head were waters1 and mine eyes a fountain of tears1 that ,i might weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people6 ,o that ,i had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men1 that ,i might leave my people1 and go from them6--,jeremiah1 ix1 #a4 ,,figure ,,xii4--,,antithesis4 ,on this side1 modesty is engaged2 on that1 impudence3 on this1 chastity2 on that1 lewdness3 on this1 integrity2 on that1 fraud3 on this1 piety2 on that1 profaneness3 on this1 constancy2 on that1 fickleness3 on this1 honour2 on that1 baseness3 on this1 moderation2 on that1 unbridled passion4--,cicero4 ,she1 from the rending earth1 and bursting skies1 ,saw gods descend1 and fiends infernal rise2 ,here fix'd the dreadful1 there the blest abodes2 ,fear made her devils1 and weak hope her gods4--,pope4 ,,lesson ,x4--,,figures ,,of ,,rhetoric4 ,,figure ,,xiii4--,,climax4 ,virtuous actions are necessarily approved by the awakened conscience2 and when they are approved1 they are commended to practice2 and when they are practised1 they become easy2 and when they become easy1 they afford pleasure2 and when they afford pleasure1 they are done frequently2 and when they are done frequently1 they are confirmed by habit3 and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature4--,inst41 p4 #bdf4 ,weep all of every name3 begin the wo1 ,ye woods1 and tell it to the doleful winds2 ,and doleful winds1 wail to the howling hills2 ,and howling hills1 mourn to the dismal vales2 ,and dismal vales1 sigh to the sorrowing brooks2 ,and sorrwing brooks1 weep to the weeping stream2 ,and weeping stream1 awake the groaning deep2 ,and let the instrument take up the song1 ,responsive to the voice--harmonious wo6--,pollok1 ,b4 vi1 l4 #aae4 ,,figure ,,xiv4--,,irony4 ,and it came to pass at noon1 that ,elijah mocked them1 and said1 ',cry aloud2 for he is a god3 either he is talking1 or he is pursuing1 or he is in on a journey1 or peradventure he sleepeth1 and must be awaked6' --#a ,kings1 xviii1 #bg4 ,after the number of the days in which ye searched the land1 even forty days1 each day for a year1 shall ye bear your iniquities1 even forty years2 and ye shall know my breach of promise4--,numbers1 xiv1 #cd4 ,some lead a life unblamable and just1 ,their own dear virtue their unshaken trust2 ,they never sin--or if 7as all offend7 ,some trivial slips their daily walk attend1 ,the poor are near at hand1 the charge is small1 ,a slight gratuity atones for all4--,cowper4 ,,figure ,,xv4--,,apophasis1 ,,or ,,paralipsis4 ,i say nothing of the notorious profligacy of his character2 nothing of the reckless extravagance with which he has wasted an ample fortune2 nothing of the disgusting intemperance which has sometimes caused him to reel in our streets2--but ,i aver that he has not been faithful to our interests1--has not exhibited either probity or ability in the important office which he holds4 ,,figure ,,xvi4--,,onomatopoeia4 ,fist,the following lines1 from ,swift's ,poems1 satirically mimick the imitative music of a violin4 ,now slowly move your fiddle-stick2 ,now1 tantan1 tantantivi1 quick2 ,now trembling1 shivering1 quivering1 quaking1 ,set hoping hearts of ,lovers aching4 ,now sweep1 sweep the deep4 ,see ,celia1 ,celia dies1 ,while true ,lovers' eyes ,weeping sleep1 ,sleeping weep1 ,weeping sleep1 ,bo-peep1 bo-peep4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,versification4 ,versification is the forming of that species of literary composition which is called verse2 that is1 poetry1 or poetic numbers4 ,,section ,i4--,,of ,,verse4 ,verse1 in opposition to prose1 is language arranged into metrical lines of some determinate length and rhythm--language so ordered as to produce harmony1 by a due succession of poetic feet1 or of syllables differing in quantity or stress4 ,,definitions ,,and ,,principles4 ,the rhythm of verse is its relation of quantities2 the modulation of its numbers2 or1 the kind of metre1 measure1 or movement1 of which it consists1 or by which it is particularly distinguished4 ,the quantity of a syllable1 as commonly explained1 is the relative portion of time occupied in uttering it4 ,in poetry1 every syllable is considered to be either long or short4 ,a long syllable is usually reckoned to be equal to two short ones4 ,in the construction of ,english verse1 long quantity coincides always with the primary accent1 generally also with the secondary1 as well as with emphasis2 and short quantity1 as reckoned by the poets1 is found only in unaccented syllables1 and unemphatical monosyllabic words4#dhc ,the quantity of a syllable1 whether long or short1 does not depend on what is called the long or the short sound of a vowel or diphthong1 or on a supposed distinction of accent as affecting vowels in some cases and consonants in others1 but principally on the degree of energy or loudness with which the syllable is uttered1 whereby a greater or less portion of time is employed4 ,the open vowel sounds1 which are commonly but not very accurately termed long1 are those which are the most easily protracted1 yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest syllables2 while1 on the other hand1 no vowel sound1 that occurs under the usual stress of accent or of emphasis1 is either so short in its own nature1 or is so quickly joined to the succeeding letter1 that the syllable is not one of long quantity4 ,most monosyllables1 in ,english1 are variable in quantity1 and may be made either long or short1 as strong or weak sounds suit the sense and rhythm2 but words of greater length are1 for the most part1 fixed1 their accented syllables being always long1 and a syllable immediately before or after the accent almost always short4 ,one of the most obvious distinctions in poetry1 is that of rhyme and blank verse4 ,rhyme is a similarity of sound1 combined with a difference3 occurring usually between the last syllables of different lines1 but sometimes at other intervals2 and so ordered that the rhyming syllables begin differently and end alike4 ,blank verse is verse without rhyme4 ,the principal rhyming syllables are almost always long4 ,double rhyme adds one short syllable2 triple rhyme1 two4 ,such syllables are redundant in iambic and anapestic verses2 in lines of any other sort1 they are generally1 if not always1 included in the measure4 ,a ,stanza is a combination of several verses1 or lines1 which1 taken together1 make a regular division of a poem4 ,it is the common practice of good versifiers1 to form all stanzas of the same poem after one model4 ,the possible variety of stanzas is infinite2 and the actual variety met with in print is far too great for detail4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,verse1 in the broadest acceptation of the term1 is poetry1 or metrical language1 in general4 ,this1 to the eye1 is usually distinguished from prose by the manner in which it is written and printed4 ,for1 in very many instances1 if this were not the case1 the reader would be puzzled to discern the difference4 ,the division of poetry into its peculiar lines1 is therefore not a mere accident4 ,the word verse1 from the ,latin versus1 literally signifies a turning4 ,each full line of metre is accordingly called a verse2 because1 when its measure is complete1 the writer turns to place another under it4 ,a verse1 then1 in the primary sense of the word with us1 is1 ,a line consisting of a certain succession of sounds1 and number of syllables4--,johnson1 ,walker1 ,todd1 ,bottes1 and others4 ,or1 according to ,webster1 it is1 ,a poetic line1 consisting of a certain number of long and short syllables1 disposed according to the rules of the species of poetry which the author intends to compose4--,see ,american ,dict41 #hvo4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,if to settle the theory of ,english verse on true and consistent principles1 is as difficult a matter1 as the manifold contrarieties of doctrine among our prosodists would indicate1 there can be no great hope of any scheme entirely satisfactory to the intelligent examiner4 ,the very elements of the subject are much perplexed by the incompatible dogmas of authors deemed skillful to elucidate it4 ,it will scarcely be thought a hard matter to distinguish true verse from prose1 yet is it not well agreed1 wherein the difference consists3 what the generality regard as the most essential elements or characteristics of the former1 some respectable authors dismiss entirely from their definitions of both verse and versification4 ,the existence of quantity in our language2 the dependence of our rhythms on the division of syllables into long and short2 the concurrence of our accent1 7except in some rare and questionable instances17 with long quantity only2 the constant effect of emphasis to lengthen quantity2 the limitation of quantity to mere duration of sound2 the doctrine that quantity pertains to all syllables as such1 and not merely to vowel sounds2 the recognition of the same general principles of syllabication in poetry as in prose2 the supposition that accent pertains not to certain letters in particular1 but to certain syllables as such2 the limitation of accent to stress1 or percussion1 only2 the conversion of short syllables into long1 and long into short1 by a change of accent2 our frequent formation of long syllables with what are called short vowels2 our more frequent formation of short syllables with what are called long or open vowels2 the necessity of some order in the succession of feet or syllables to form a rhythm2 the need of framing each line to correspond with some other line or lines in length2 the propriety of always making each line susceptible of scansion by itself3 all these points1 so essential to a true explanation of the nature of ,english verse1 though1 for the most part1 well maintained by some prosodists1 are nevertheless denied by some1 so that opposite opinions may be cited concerning them all4 ,i would not suggest that all or any of these points are thereby made doubtful2 for there may be opposite judgements in a dozen cases1 and yet concurrence enough 7if concurrence can do it7 to establish them every one4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,an ingenious poet and prosodist now living1#dhd ,edgar ,allan ,poe1 7to whom ,i owe a word or two of reply17 in his ,notes upon ,english ,verse1 with great self-complacency1 represents1 that1 ,while much has been written upon the structure of the ,greek and ,latin rhythms1 comparatively nothing has been done as regards the ,english2 that1 ,it may be said1 indeed1 we are without a treatise upon our own versification2 that ,the very best definition of versification#dhe to be found in any of our ordinary treatises on the topic1 has not a single point which does not involve an error2 that1 ,a leading deft in each of these treatises is the confining of the subject to mere versification1 while metre1 or rhythm1 in general1 is the real question at issue2 that1 ,versification is not the art1 but the act'--of making verses2 that1 ,a correspondence in the length of lines is by no means essential2 that ,harmony produced by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity1 does not include melody2 that ,a regular alternation1 as described1 forms no part of the principle of metre3 that ,there is no necessity of any regularity in the succession of feet2 that1 ,by consequence1 he ventures to dispute the essentiality of any alternation1 regular or irregular1 of syllables long and short3 that1 ,for anything more intelligible or more satisfactory than this definition i4 e41 ,g4 ,brown's former definition of versification1 we shall look in vain in any published treatise upon the subject2 that1 ,so general and so total a failure can be referred only to some radical misconception2 that1 ,the word verse is derived 7through versus from the ,latin verto1 ,i turn17 and 99 99 99 99 it can be nothing but this derivation1 which has led to the error of our writers upon prosody2 that1 ,it is this which has seduced them into regarding the line itself--the versus1 or turning--as an essential1 or principle of metre2 that1 ,hence the term versification has been employed as sufficiently general1 or inclusive1 for treatises upon rhythm in general2 that1 ,hence1 also1 comes the precise catalogue of a few varieties of ,english lines1 when these varieties are1 in fact1 almost without limit2 that1 ,i1 the aforesaid ,edgar ,allan ,poe1 shall dismiss entirely1 from the consideration of the principle of rhythm1 the idea of versification1 or the construction of verse2 that1 ,in so doing1 we shall avoid a world of confusion2 that1 ,verse is1 indeed1 an afterthought1 or an embellishment1 or an improvement1 rather than an element of rhythm2 that1 ,this fact has induced the easy admission1 into the realms of ,poesy1 of such works as the ',tlmaque' of ,fenelon2 because1 forsooth1 ,in the elaborate modulation of their sentences1 ,,they ,,fulfil ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,metre4--,the ,pioneer1 a ,literary and ,critical ,magazine 7,boston1 ,march1 #ahdc17 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ajb to #aje4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,holding these things in view1 continues this sharp connoisseur1 the prosodist who rightly examines that which constitutes the external1 or most immediately recognisable1 form of ,poetry1 will commence with the definition of ,rhythm4 ,now rhythm1 from the ,greek ,greek3 arithmos1 number1 is a term which1 in its present application1 very nearly conveys its own idea4 ,no more proper word could be employed to present the conception intended2 for rhythm1 in prosody1 is1 in its last analysis1 identical with time in music4 ,for this reason1 says he1 ,i have used1 throughout this article1 as synonymous with rhythm1 the word metre from ,greek3 metron1 measure4 ,either the one or the other may be defined as the arrangement of words into two or more consecutive1 equal1 pulsations of time4 ,these pulsations are feet4 ,two feet1 at least1 are requisite to constitute a rhythm2 just as1 in mathematics1 two units are necessary to form a number4#dhf ,the syllables of which the foot consists1 when the foot is not a syllable in itself1 are subdivisions of the pulsations4 ,no equality is demanded in these subdivisions4 ,it is only required that1 so far as regards two consecutive feet at least1 the sum of the times of the syllables in one1 shall be equal to the sum of the times of the syllables in the other4 ,beyond two pulsations there is no necessity for equality of time4 ,all beyond is arbitrary or conventional4 ,a third or fourth pulsation may embody half1 or double1 or any proportion of the time occupied in the two first4 ,rhythm being thus understood1 the prosodist should proceed to define versification as the making of verses1 and verse as the arbitrary or conventional isolation of rhythm into masses of greater or less extent4--,ib41 p4 #aje4 ,,obs4 #e4--,no marvel that all usual conceptions and definitions of rhythm1 of versification1 and of verse1 should be found dissatisfactory to the critic whose idea of metre is fulfilled by the pompous prose of ,fenelon's ,tlmaque4 ,no right or real examination of this matter can ever make the most immediately recognizable form of poetry to be any thing else than the form of verse--the form of writing in specific lines1 ordered by number and chime of syllables1 and not squared by gage of the composing-stick4 ,and as to the derivation and primitive signification of rhythm1 it is plain that in the extract above1 both are misrepresented4 ,the etymology there given is a gross error2 for1 the ,greek ,greek3 arithmos1 number1 would make1 in ,english1 not rhythm1 but arithm1 as in arithmetic4 ,between the two combinations1 there is the palpable difference of three or four letters in either six2 for neither of these forms can be varied to the other1 but by dropping one letter1 and adding an other1 and changing a third1 and moving a fourth4 ,rhythm is derived1 not thence1 but from the ,greek ,greek3 rhythmos2 which1 according to the lexicons1 is a primitive word1 and means1 rhythmus1 rhythm1 concinnity1 modulation1 measured tune1 or regular flow1 and not number4 ,,obs4 #f4--,rhythm1 of course1 like every other word not misapplied1 conveys its own idea2 and that1 not qualifiedly1 or very nearly1 but exactly4 ,that this idea1 however1 was originally that of arithmetical number1 or is nearly so now1 is about as fanciful a notion1 as the happy suggestion added above1 that rhythm in lieu of arithm or number1 is the fittest of words1 because rhythm in prosody is time in music6 ,without dispute1 it is important to the prosodist1 and also to the poet or versifier1 to have as accurate an idea as possible of the import of this common term1 though it is observable that many of our grammarians make little or no use of it4 ,that it has some relation to numbers1 is undeniable4 ,but what is it8 ,poetic numbers1 and numbers in arithmetic1 and numbers in grammar1 are three totally different sorts of things4 ,rhythm is related only to the first4 ,of the signification of this word1 a recent expositor gives the following brief explanation3 ,,rhythm1 n4 ,metre2 verse2 numbers4 ,proportion applied to any motion whatever4--,bolles's ,dictionary1 #hvo4 ,to this definition1 ,worcester prefixes the following3 ,the consonance of measure and time in poetry1 prose composition1 and music2--also in dancing4--,universal and ,critical ,dict4 ,in verse1 the proportion which forms rhythm--that is1 the chime of quantities--is applied to the sounds of syllables4 ,sounds1 however1 may be considered as a species of motion1 especially those which are rhythmical or musical4#dhg ,it seems more strictly correct1 to regard rhythm as a property of poetic numbers1 than to identify it with them4 ,it is their proportion or modulation1 rather than the numbers themselves4 ,according to ,dr4 ,webster1 ,,rhythm1 or ,,rhythmus1 in music is variety in the movement as to quickness or slowness1 or length and shortness of the notes2 or rather the proportion which the parts of the motion have to each other4--,american ,dict4 ,the last analysis of rhythm can be nothing else than the reduction of it to its least parts4 ,and if1 in this reduction1 it is identical with time1 then it is here the same thing as quantity1 whether prosodical or musical2 for1 ,the time of a note1 or syllable1 is called quantity4 ,the time of a rest is also called quantity2 because rests1 as well as notes are a constituent of rhythm4--,comstock's ,elocution1 p4 #fd4 ,but rhythm is1 in fact1 neither time nor quantity2 for the analysis which would make it such1 destroys the relation in which the thing consists4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,of ,,accent ,,and ,,quantity4 ,accent and ,quantity have already been briefly explained in the second chapter of ,prosody1 as items coming under the head of ,pronunciation4 ,what we have to say of them here1 will be thrown into the form of critical observations2 in the progress of which1 many quotations from other writers on these subjects1 will be presented1 showing what has been most popularly taught4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,accent and quantity are distinct things2#dhh the former being the stress1 force1 loudness1 or percussion of voice1 that distinguishes certain syllables from others2 and the latter1 the time1 distinguished as long or short1 in which a syllable is uttered4 ,but1 as the great sounds which we utter1 naturally take more time than the small ones1 there is a necessary connexion between quantity and accent in ,english1--a connexion which is sometimes expounded as being the mere relation of cause and effect2 nor is it in fact much different from that4 ,as no utterance can be agreeable to the ear1 which is void of proportion2 and as all quantity1 or proportion of time in utterance1 depends upon a due observation of the accent2 it is a matter of absolute necessity to all1 who would arrive at a good and graceful delivery1 to be master of that point4 ,nor is the use of accent in our language confined to quantity alone2 but it is also the chief mark by which words are distinguished from mere syllables4 ,or rather ,i may say1 it is the very essence of words1 which without that1 would be only so many collections of syllables4--,sheridan's ,lectures on ,elocution1 p4 #fa4 ,as no utterance which is void of proportion1 can be agreeable to the ear2 and as quantity1 or proportion of time in utterance1 greatly depends on a due attention to the accent2 it is absolutely necessary for every person1 who would attain a just and pleasing delivery1 to be master of that point4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bda2 #abmo1 #aid4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,in the first observation on ,prosody1 at page #ggj1 and in its marginal notes1 was reference made to the fact1 that the nature and principles of accent and quantity are involved in difficulty1 by reason of the different views of authors concerning them4 ,to this source of embarrassment1 it seems necessary here again to advert2 because it is upon the distinction of syllables in respect to quantity1 or accent1 or both1 that every system of versification1 except his who merely counts1 is based4 ,and further1 it is not only requisite that the principle of distinction which we adopt should be clearly made known1 but also proper to consider which of these three modes is the best or most popular foundation for a theory of versification4 ,whether or wherein the accent and quantity of the ancient languages1 ,latin and ,greek1 differed from those of our present ,english1 we need not now inquire4 ,from the definitions which the learned lexicographers ,littleton and ,ainsworth give to prosodia1 prosody1 it would seem that1 with them1 the art of accenting was nothing else than the art of giving to syllables their right quantity1 whether long or short4 ,and some have charged it as a glaring error1 long prevalent among ,english grammarians1 and still a fruitful source of disputes1 to confound accent with quantity in our language4#dhi ,this charge1 however1 there is reason to believe1 is sometimes1 if not in most cases1 made on grounds rather fanciful than real2 for some have evidently mistaken the notion of concurrence or coincidence for that of identity4 ,but1 to affirm that the stress which we call accent1 coincides always and only with long quantity1 does not necessarily make accent and quantity to be one and the same thing4 ,the greater force or loudness which causes the accented syllable to occupy more time than any other1 is in itself something different from time4 ,besides1 quantity is divisible1--being either long or short3 these two species of it are acknowledged on all sides1 and some few prosodists will have a third1 which they call common4 #dij ,but1 of our ,english accent1 the word being taken in its usual acceptation1 no such division is ever1 with any propriety1 made2 for even the stress which we call secondary accent1 pertains to long syllables rather than to short ones2 and the mere absence of stress1 which produces short quantity1 we do not call accent4#dia ,,obs4 #c4--,the impropriety of affirming quantity to be the same as accent1 when its most frequent species occurs only in the absence of accent1 must be obvious to every body2 and those writers who anywhere suggest this identity1 must either have written absurdly1 or have taken accent in some sense which includes the sounds of our unaccented syllables4 ,the word sometimes means1 ,the modulation of the voice in speaking4--,worcester's ,dict41 w4 ,accent4 ,in this sense1 the lighter as well as the more impressive sounds are included2 but still1 whether both together1 considered as accents1 can be reckoned the same as long and short quantities1 is questionable4 ,some say1 they cannot2 and insist that they are yet as different1 as the variable tones of a trumpet1 which swell and fall1 are different from the merely loud and soft notes of the monotonous drum4 ,this illustration of the easy ,distinction betwixt ,quantity and ,accent is cited with commendation1 in ,brightland's ,grammar1 on page #aegth2#dib the author of which grammar1 seems to have understood ,accent1 or ,accents1 to be the same as ,inflections--though these are still unlike to quantities1 if he did so4 7,see an explanation of ,inflections in ,chap4 ,,ii1 ,sec4 iii1 ,art4 #c1 above47 ,his exposition is this3 ,accent is the rising and falling of the ,voice1 above or under its usual ,tone4 ,there are three ,sorts of ,accents1 an ,acute1 a ,grave1 and an ,inflex1 which is also call'd a ,circumflex4 ,the ,acute1 or ,sharp1 naturally raises the ,voice2 and the ,grave1 or ,base1 as naturally falls it4 ,the ,circumflex is a kind of ,undulation1 or ,waving of the ,voice4--,brightland's ,gram41 ,seventh ,ed41 ,lond41 #agdf1 p4 #aef4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,dr4 ,johnson1 whose great authority could not fail to carry some others with him1 too evidently identifies accent with quantity1 at the commencement of his ,prosody4 ,,pronunciation is just1 says he1 when every letter has its proper sound1 and when every syllable has its proper accent1 or which in ,english versification is the same1 its proper quantity4-- ,johnson's ,gram41 before ,dict41 #dto1 p4 #ac2 ,john ,burn's ,gram41 p4 #bdj2 ,jones's ,prosodial ,gram41 before ,dict41 p4 #aj4 ,now our most common notion of accent--the sole notion with many--and that which the accentuation of ,johnson himself everywhere inculcates--is1 that it belongs not to every syllable1 but only to some particular syllables1 being either a stress of voice on a certain syllable1 or a small mark to denote such stress4--,see ,scott's ,dict41 or ,worcester's4 ,but ,dr4 ,johnson1 in the passage above1 must have understood the word accent agreeably to his own imperfect definition of it2 to wit1 as the sound given to the syllable pronounced4--,joh4 ,dict4 ,an unaccented syllable must have been to him a syllable unpronounced4 ,in short he does not appear to have recognized any syllables as being unaccented4 ,the word unaccented had no place in his lexicography1 nor could have any without inconsistencey4 sic--,,kth ,it was unaptly added to his text1 after sixty years1 by one of his amenders1 ,todd or ,chalmers2 who still blindly neglected to amend his definition of accent4 ,in these particulars1 ,walker's dictionaries exhibit the same deficiencies as ,johnson's2 and yet no author has more frequently used the words accent and unaccented1 than did ,walker4#dic ,mason's ,supplement1 first published in #ahja1 must have suggested to the revisers of ,johnson the addition of the latter term1 as appears by the authority cited for it3 ,,una',,ccented1 adj4 ,not accented4 ',it being enough to make a syllable long1 if it be accented1 and short1 if it be unaccented4' ,harris's ,philological ,inquiries4--,mason's ,sup4 ,,obs4 #e--,this doctrine of ,harris's1 that long quantity accompanies the accent1 and unaccented syllables are short1 is far from confounding or identifying accent with quantity1 as has already been shown2 and1 though it plainly contradicts some of the elementary teaching of ,johnson1 ,sheridan1 ,walker1 ,murray1 ,webster1 ,latham1 ,fowler1 and others1 in regard to the length or shortness of certain syllables1 it has been clearly maintained by many excellent authors1 so that no opposite theory is better supported by authority4 ,on this point1 our language stands not alone2 for the accent controls quantity in some others4#did ,g ,h4 ,noehden1 a writer of uncommon ability1 in his ,german ,grammar for ,englishmen1 defines accent to be1 as we see it is in ,english1 that stress which marks a particular syllable in speaking2 and recognizing1 as we do1 both a full accent and a partial one1 or demi-accent1 presents the syllables of his language as being of three conditions3 the accented1 which cannot be used otherwise than as long2 the half-accented which must be regarded as ambiguous1 or common2 and the accentless1 which are in their nature short4--,see ,noehden's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,his middle class1 however1 our prosodists in general very properly dispense with4 ,in ,fiske's ,history of ,greek ,literature1 which is among the additions to the ,manual of ,classical ,literature from the ,german of ,eschenburg1 are the following passages3 ,the tone i4e4 accent in ,greek is placed upon short syllables as well as long2 in ,german1 it accompanies regularly only long syllables4--,in giving an accent to a syllable in an ,english word we thereby render it a long syllable1 whatever may be the sound given to its vowel1 and in whatever way the syllable may be composed2 so that as above stated in relation to the ,german1 an ,english accent1 or stress in pronunciation1 accompanies only a long syllable4--,manual of ,class4 ,lit41 p4 #dcg4 ,with these extracts1 accords the doctrine of some of the ablest of our ,english grammarians4 ,in the ,english ,pronunciation1 says ,william ,ward1 there is a certain ,stress of the ,voice laid on some one syllable at least1 of every ,word of two or more ,syllables2 and that ,syllable on which the ,stress is laid may be considered long4 ,our ,grammarians have agreed to consider this ,stress of the ,voice as the ,accent in ,english2 and therefore the ,accent and long ,quantity coincide in our ,language4--,ward's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,as to the vowel sounds1 with the quantity of which many prosodists have greatly puzzled both themselves and their readers1 this writer says1 they may be made as long1 or as short1 as the ,speaker pleases4--,ib41 p4 #d4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,from the absurd and contradictory nature of many of the principles usually laid down by our grammarians1 for the discrimination of long quantity and short1 it is quite apparent1 that but very few of them have well understood either the distinction itself or their own rules concerning it4 ,take ,fisher for an example4 ,in ,fisher's ,practical ,grammar1 first published in ,london in #agec1--;a work not unsuccessful1 since ,wells quotes the #bhth edition as appearing in #agie1 and this was not the last--we find1 in the first place1 the vowel sounds distinguished as long or short thus3 ,q4 ,how many ,sounds has a ,vowel8 ,a4 ,two in general1 viz4 #a4 ,a ,,long ,,sound1 ,when the ,syllable ends with a ,vowel1 either in ,monosyllables1 or in ,words of more ,syllables2 as1 take1 we1 ,i1 go1 nil2 or1 as1 ,nature1 ,nero1 ,nitre1 ,novice1 ,nuisance4 #b4 ,a ,,short ,,sound1 ,when the ,syllable ends with a ,consonant1 either in ,monosyllables1 or others2 as ,hat1 her1 bit1 rob1 ,tun2 or1 as ,barber1 bitten1 ,button4--,see p4 #e4 ,to this rule1 the author makes needless exceptions of all such words as balance and banish1 wherein a single consonant between two vowels goes to the former2 because1 like ,johnson1 ,murray1 and most of our old grammarians1 he divides on the vowel2 falsely calls the accented syllable short2 and imagines the consonant to be heard twice1 or to have a double ,accent4 ,on page #ceth1 he tells us that1 ,long and short ,vowels1 and long and short ,syllables1 are synonimous --synonymous1 from ,greek3 synonymos-- ,terms2 and so indeed have they been most erroneously considered by sundry subsequent writers2 and the consequence is1 that all who judge by their criteria1 mistake the poetic quantity1 or prosodical value1 of perhaps one half the syllables in the language4 ,let each syllable be reckoned long that ends with a ,vowel1 and each short that ends with a ,consonant1 and the decision will probably be oftener wrong than right2 for more syllables end with consonants than with vowels1 and of the latter class a majority are without stress and therefore short4 ,thus the foregoing principle1 contrary to the universal practice of the poets1 determines many accented syllables to be short2 as the first in barber1 bitten1 button1 balance1 banish2-- and many unaccented ones to be long2 as the last in sofa1 specie1 noble1 metre1 sorrow1 daisy1 valley1 nature1 native2 or the first in around1 before1 delay1 divide1 remove1 seclude1 obey1 cocoon1 presume1 propose1 and other words innumerable4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,fisher's conceptions of accent and quantity1 as constituting prosody1 were much truer to the original and etymological sense of the words1 than to any just or useful view of ,english versification3 in short1 this latter subject was not even mentioned by him2 for prosody1 in his scheme1 was nothing but the right pronunciation of words1 or what we now call orthopy4 ,this part of his ,grammar commences with the following questions and answers3 ,q4 ,what is the ,meaning of the ,word ,,prosody8 ,a4 ,it is a ,word borrowed from the ,greek2 which1 in ,latin1 is rendered ,accentus1 and in ,english ,accent4 ,q4 ,what do you mean by ,accent8 ,a4 ,accent originally signified a ,modulation of the ,voice1 or chanting to a musical ,instrument2 but is now generally used to signify ,due ,pronunciatian1 i4e4 the pronouncing of a syllable according to its ,quantity1 7whether it be long or short17 with a stronger ,force or ,stress of ,voice than the other ,syllables in the same ,word2 as1 a in able1 o in above1 c4 ,q4 ,what is ,quantity8 ,a4 ,quantity is the different ,measure of ,time in pronouncing ,syllables1 from whence they are called long or short4 ,q4 ,what is the ,proportion between a long and a short ,syllable8 ,a4 ,two to one2 that is1 a long ,syllable is twice as long in pronouncing as a short one2 as1 ,hate1 ,hat4 ,this mark 77 set over a ,syllable1 shows that it is long1 and this 77 that it is short2 as1 record1 record4 ,q4 ,how do you know long and short ,syllables8 ,a4 ,a ,syllable is long or short according to the ,situation of the ,vowel1 i4e4 it is generally long when it ends with a ,vowel1 and short when with a ,consonant2 as1 ,fa- in ,favour1 and ,man- in ,manner4--,fisher's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,now one grand mistake of this is1 that it supposes syllabication to fix the quantity1 and quantity to determine the accent2 whereas it is plain1 that accent controls quantity1 so far at least that1 in the construction of verse1 a syllable fully accented cannot be reckoned short4 ,and this mistake is practical2 for we see1 that1 in three of his examples1 out of the four above1 the author himself misstates the quantity1 because he disregards the accent3 the verb re-cord'1 being accented on the second syllable1 is an iambus2 and the nouns rec'-ord and man'-ner1 being accented on the first1 are trochees2 and just as plainly so1 as is the word favour4 ,but a still greater blunder here observable is1 that1 as a due pronunciation necessarily includes the utterance of every syllable1 the explanation above stolidly supposes all our syllables to be accented1 each according to its ,quantity1 7whether it be long or short17 and each with a stronger ,force or ,stress of ,voice1 than the other ,syllables6 ,absurdity akin to this1 and still more worthy to be criticised1 has since been propagated by ,sheridan1 by ,walker1 and by ,lindley ,murray1 with a host of followers1 as ,alger1 ,d4 ,blair1 ,comly1 ,cooper1 ,cutler1 ,davenport1 ,felton1 ,fowler1 ,frost1 ,guy1 ,jaudon1 ,parker and ,fox1 ,picket1 ,pond1 ,putnam1 ,russell1 ,smith1 and others4 ,,obs4 #h4--,sheridan was an able and practical teacher of ,english pronunciation1 and one who appears to have gained reputation by all he undertook1 whether as an actor1 as an elocutionist1 or as a lexicographer4 ,his publications that refer to that subject1 though now mostly superseded by others of later date1 are still worthy to be consulted4 ,the chief of them are1 his ,lectures on ,elocution1 his ,lectures on the ,art of ,reading1 his ,rhetorical ,grammar1 his ,elements of ,english1 and his ,english ,dictionary4 ,his third lecture on ,elocution1 and many pages of the ,rhetorical ,grammar1 are devoted to accent and quantity--subjects which he conceived to have been greatly misrepresented by other writers up to his time4#die ,to this author1 as it would seem1 we owe the invention of that absurd doctrine1 since copied into a great multitude of our ,english grammars1 that the accent on a syllable of two or more letters1 belongs1 not to the whole of it1 but only to some ,,one ,,letter2 and that according to the character of this letter1 as vowel or consonant1 the same stress serves to lengthen or shorten the syllable's quantity6 ,of this matter1 he speaks thus3 ,the great distinction of our accent depends upon its seat2 which may be either upon a vowel or a consonant4 ,upon a vowel1 as in the words1 glry1 fther1 hly4 ,upon a consonant1 as in the words1 hab'it1 bor'row1 bat'tle4 ,when the accent is on the vowel1 the syllable is long2 because the accent is made by dwelling upon the vowel4 ,when it is on the consonant1 the syllable is short2#dif because the accent is made by passing rapidly over the vowel1 and giving a smart stroke of the voice to the following consonant4 ,obvious as this point is1 it has wholly escaped the observation of all our grammarians and compilers of dictionaries2 who1 instead of examining the peculiar genius of our tongue1 implicitly and pedantically have followed the ,greek method of always placing the accentual mark over a vowel4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,the author's reprehension of the old mode of accentuation1 is not without reason2 but his great distinction of short and long syllables is only fit to puzzle or mislead the reader4 ,for it is plain1 that the first syllables of hab'it1 bor'row1 and bat'tle1 are twice as long as the last2 and1 in poetry1 these words are trochees1 as well as the other three1 glo'ry1 fa'ther1 and ho'ly4 ,,obs4 #i4--,the only important distinction in our accent1 is that of the primary and the secondary1 the latter species occurring when it is necessary to enforce more syllables of a word than one2 but ,sheridan1 as we see above1 after rejecting all the old distinctions of rising and falling1 raising and depressing1 acute and grave1 sharp and base1 long and short1 contrived a new one still more vain1 which he founded on that of vowels and consonants1 but referred to time1 or quantity4 ,he recognized1 in fact1 a vowel accent and a consonant accent2 or1 in reference to quantity1 a lengthening accent and a shortening accent4 ,the discrimination of these was with him ,,the ,,great ,,distinction of our accent4 ,he has accordingly mentioned it in several different places of his works1 and not always with that regard to consistency which becomes a precise theorist4 ,it led him to new and variant ways of defining accent2 some of which seem to imply a division of consonants from their vowels in utterance1 or to suggest that syllables are not the least parts of spoken words4 ,and no sooner has he told us that our accent is but one single mode of distinguishing a syllable1 than he proceeds to declare it two4 ,compare the following citations3 ,as the pronunciation of ,english words is chiefly regulated by accent1 it will be necessary to have a precise idea of that term4 ,accent with us means no more than a certain stress of the voice upon one letter of a syllable1 which distinguishes it from all the other letters in a word4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,again3 ,accent1 in the ,english language1 means a certain stress of the voice upon a particular letter of a syllable which distinguishes it from the rest1 and1 at the same time1 distinguishes the syllable itself to which it belongs from the others which compose the word4--,same work1 p4 #ej4 ,again3 ,but as our accent consists in stress only1 it can just as well be placed on a consonant as on a vowel4--,same1 p4 #ea4 ,again3 ,by the word accent1 is meant the stress of the voice on one letter in a syllable4--,sheridan's ,elements of ,english1 p4 #ee4 ,again3 ,the term accent with us has no reference to inflexions of the voice1 or musical notes1 but only means a peculiar manner of distinguishing one syllable of a word from the rest1 denominated by us accent2 and the term for that reason is used by us in the singular number4--,this distinction is made by us in two ways2 either by dwelling longer upon one syllable than the rest2 or by giving it a smarter percussion of the voice in utterance4 ,of the first of these1 we have instances in the words1 glory1 father1 holy2 of the last1 in bat'tle1 hab'it1 bor'row4 ,so that accent1 with us1 is not referred to tune1 but to time2 to quantity1 not quality2 to the more equable or precipitate motion of the voice1 not to the variation of notes or inflexions4--,sheridan's ,lectures on ,elocution1 p4 #ef2 ,flint's ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,how precise was ,sheridan's idea of accent1 the reader may well judge from the foregoing quotations2 in four of which1 he describes it as a certain stress1 the stress1 and stress only1 which enforces some letter2 while1 in the other1 it is whimsically made to consist in two different modes of pronouncing syllables--namely1 with equability1 and with precipitance--with dwelling longer1 and with smarter percussion--which terms the author very improperly supposes to be opposites3 saying1 ,for the two ways of distinguishing syllables by accent1 as mentioned before1 are directly opposite1 and produce quite contrary effects2 the one1 by dwelling on the syllable1 necessarily makes it long2 the other1 by the smart percussion--of the voice1 as necessarily makes it short--,ib41 p4 #eg4 ,now it is all a mistake1 however common1 to suppose that our accent1 consisting as it does1 in stress1 enforcement1 or percussion of voice1 can ever shorten the syllable on which it is laid2 because what increases the quantum of a vocal sound1 cannot diminish its length2 and a syllable accented will always be found longer as well as louder1 than any unaccented one immediately before or after it4 ,though weak sounds may possibly be protracted1 and shorter ones be exploded loudly1 it is not the custom of our speech1 so to deal with the sounds of syllables4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,sheridan admitted that some syllables are naturally and necessarily short1 but denied that any are naturally and necessarily long4 ,in this1 since syllabic length and shortness are relative to each other1 and to the cause of each1 he was1 perhaps1 hardly consistent4 ,he might have done better1 to have denied both1 or neither4 ,bating his new division of accent to subject it sometimes to short quantity1 he recognized very fully the dependence of quantity1 long or short1 whether in syllables or only in vowels1 upon the presence or absence of accent or emphasis4 ,in this he differed considerably from most of the grammarians of his day2 and many since have continued to uphold other views4 ,he says1 ,it is an infallible rule in our tongue that no vowel ever has a long sound in an unaccented syllable4--,lectures on ,elocution1 p4 #fj4 ,again3 ,in treating of the simple elements or letters1 ,i have shown that some1 both vowels and consonants1 are naturally short2 that is1 whose sounds cannot possibly be prolonged2 and these are the short or shut sounds of e1 i1 and u1 of vocal sounds2 and three pure mutes1 k1 p1 t1 of the consonant2 as in the words beck1 lip1 cut4 ,i have shown also1 that the sounds of all the other vowels1 and of the consonant semivowels1 may be prolonged to what degree we please2 but at the same time it is to be observed1 that all these may also be reduced to a short quantity1 and are capable of being uttered in as short a space of time as those which are naturally short4 ,so that they who speak of syllables as absolutely in their own nature long1 the common cant of prosodians1 speak of a nonentity3 for though1 as ,i have shown above1 there are syllables absolutely short1 which cannot possibly be prolonged by any effort of the speaker1 yet it is in his power to shorten or prolong the others to what degree he pleases4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,gram41 p4 #eb4 ,and again3 ,i have already mentioned that when the accent is on the vowel1 it of course makes the syllable long2 and when the accent is on the consonant1 the syllable may be either long or short1 according to the nature of the consonant1 or will of the speakers4 ,and as all unaccented syllables are short1 the quantity of our syllables is adjusted by the easiest and simplest rule in the world1 and in the exactest proportion4--,lect4 on ,elocution1 p4 #ff4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,this praise of our rule for the adjustment of quantity1 would have been much more appropriate1 had not the rule itself been greatly mistaken1 perplexed1 and misrepresented by the author4 ,if it appear1 on inspection1 that beck1 lip1 cut1 and the like syllables1 are twice as long when under the accent1 as they are when not accented1 so that1 with a short syllable annexed or a long one prefixed1 they may form trochees2 then is it not true1 that such syllables are either always necessarily and inherently short1 or always1 by the smart percussion of the voice1 as necessarily made short2 both of which inconsistent ideas are above affirmed of them4 ,they may not be so long as some other long syllables2 but1 if they are twice as long as the accompanying short ones1 they are not short4 ,and1 if not short1 then that remarkable distinction in accent1 which assumes that they are so1 is as needless as it is absurd and perplexing4 ,now let the words1 beck'on1 lip'ping1 cut'ter1 be properly pronounced1 and their syllables be compared with each other1 or with those of lim'beck1 fil'lip1 ,dra'cut2 and it cannot but be perceived1 that beck1 lip1 and cut1 like other syllables in general1 are lengthened by the accent1 and shortened only in its absence2 so that all these words are manifestly trochees1 as all similar words are found to be1 in our versification4 ,to suppose as many words as we hear accents1 or that it is the laying of an accent on one syllable1 which constitutes a word1 and then say1 that no unaccented syllable or vowel is ever to be accounted long1 as this enthusiastic author does in fact1 is to make strange scansion of a very large portion of the trissyllables and polysyllables which occur in verse4 ,an other great error in ,sheridan's doctrine of quantity1 is his notion that all monosyllables1 except a few small particles1 are accented2 and that their quantity is determined to be long or short by the seat or the mode of the accent1 as before stated4 ,now1 as our poetry abounds with monosyllables1 the relative time of which is adjusted by emphasis and cadence1 according to the nature and importance of the terms1 and according to the requirements of rhythm1 with no reference to this factitious principle1 no conformity thereto but what is accidental1 it cannot but be a puzzling exercise1 when these difficulties come to be summed up1 to attempt the application of a doctrine so vainly conceived to be the easiest and simplest rule in the world6 ,,obs4 #ac4--,lindley ,murray's principles of accent and quantity1 which later grammarians have so extensively copied1 were mostly extracted from ,sheridan's2 and1 as the compiler appears to have been aware of but few1 if any1 of his predecessor's errors1 he has adopted and greatly spread well-nigh all that have just been pointed out2 while1 in regard to some points1 he has considerably increased the number4 ,his scheme1 as he at last fixed it1 appears to consist essentially of propositions already refuted1 or objected to1 above2 as any reader may see1 who will turn to his definition of accent1 and his rules for the determination of quantity4 ,in opposition to ,sheridan1 who not very consistently says1 that1 ,all unaccented syllables are short1 this author appears to have adopted the greater error of ,fisher1 who supposed that the vowel sounds called long and short1 are just the same as the long and short syllabic quantities4 ,by this rule1 thousands of syllables will be called long1 which are in fact short1 being always so uttered in both prose and poetry2 and1 by the other1 some will occasionally be called short1 which are in fact long1 being made so by the poet1 under a slight secondary accent1 or perhaps none4 ,again1 in supposing our numerous monosyllables to be accented1 and their quantity to be thereby fixed1 without excepting the particles1 such as a1 the1 to1 in1 c41 which were excepted by ,sheridan1 ,murray has much augmented the multitude of errors which necessarily flow from the original rule4 ,this principle1 indeed1 he adopted timidly2 saying1 as though he hardly believed the assertion true3 ,and some writers assert1 that every monosyllable of two or more letters1 has one of its letters thus distinguished4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bcf2 #abmo1 #ahi4 ,but still he adopted it1 and adopted it fully1 in his section on ,quantity2 for1 of his twelve words1 exemplifying syllabic time so regulated1 no fewer than nine are monosyllables4 ,it is observable1 however1 that1 in some instances1 it is not one letter1 but two1 that he marks2 as in the words1 mood1 house4--,ib41 p4 #bci2 #abmo1 #aib4 ,and again1 it should be observed1 that generally1 wherever he marks accent1 he follows the old mode1 which ,sheridan and ,webster so justly condemn2 so that1 even when he is speaking of the accent on the consonant1 the sign of stress1 as that of time1 is set over a vowel3 as1 ,sdly1 rbber4--,ib41 #hvo1 #bdj2 #abmo1 #aic4 ,so in his ,spelling-,book1 where words are often falsely divided3 as1 ,v nice1 for ,ven'-ice2 ,h no ver1 for ,han'o-ver2 c4--,see p4 #aja4 ,,obs4 #ad4--;,in consideration of the great authority of this grammarian1 now backed by a score or two of copyists and modifiers1 it may be expedient to be yet more explicit4 ,of accent ,murray published about as many different definitions1 as did ,sheridan2 which1 as they show what notions he had at different times1 it may not be amiss for some1 who hold him always in the right1 to compare4 ,in one1 he describes it thus3 ,accent signifies that stress of the voice1 which is laid on one syllable1 to distinguish it from the rest4--,murray's ,spelling-,book1 p4 #ach4 ,he should here have said1 7as by his examples it would appear that he meant17 on one syllable of a word2 for1 as the phrase now stands1 it may include stress on a monosyllable in a sentence2 and it is a matter of dispute1 whether this can properly be called accent4 ,walker and ,webster say1 it is emphasis1 and not accent4 ,again1 in an other definition1 which was written before he adopted the notion of accent on consonants1 of accent on monosyllables1 or of accent for quantity in the formation of verse1 he used these words3 ,accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain vowel or syllable in a word1 that it may be better heard than the rest1 or distinguished from them2 as1 in the word presme1 the stress of the voice must be on the second syllable1 sme1 which takes the accent4--,murray's ,gram41 ,second ,edition1 #abmo1 p4 #afa4 ,in this edition1 which was published at ,york1 in #agif1 his chief rules of quantity say nothing about accent1 but are thus expressed3 #a4 ,a vowel or syllable is long1 when the vowel or vowels contained in it are slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters2 as1 ',fall1 bale1 mood1 house1 feature4' #b4 ,a syllable is short1 when the vowel is quickly joined to the succeeding letter2 as1 'art1 bonnet1 hunger4'--,ib41 p4 #aff4 ,besides the absurdity of representing a vowel as having vowels contained in it1 these rules are made up of great faults4 ,they confound syllabic quantities with vowel sounds4 ,they suppose quantity to be1 not the time of a whole syllable1 but the quick or slow junction of some of its parts4 ,they apply to no syllable that ends with a vowel sound4 ,the former applies to none that ends with one consonant only2 as1 mood or the first of feat-ure4 ,in fact1 it does not apply to any of the examples given2 the final letter in each of the other words being silent4 ,the latter rule is worse yet3 it misrepresents the examples2 for bonnet and hunger are trochees1 and art1 with any stress on it1 is long4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,in all late editions of ,l4 ,murray's ,grammar1 and many modifications of it1 accent is defined thus3 ,accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice1 on a certain letter ,,or syllable in a word1 that it may be better heard than the rest1 or distinguished from them2 as1 in the word presme1 the stress of the voice must be on the letter u1 ,,and the second syllable1 sume1 which takes the accent4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bce2 #abmo1 #ahh2 #ahmo1 #eg2 ,alger's1 #gb2 ,bacon's1 #eb2 ,comly's1 #afh2 ,cooper's1 #agf2 ,davenport's1 #aba2 ,felton's1 #acd2 ,frost's ,el41 #ej2 ,fisk's1 #cb2 ,merchant's1 #ade2 ,parker and ,fox's1 iii1 #dd2 ,pond's1 #aig2 ,putnam's1 #if2 ,russell's1 #ajf2 ,r4 ,o4 ,smith's1 #ahf4 ,here we see a curious jumble of the common idea of accent1 as stress laid on some particular syllable of a word1 with ,sheridan's doctrine of accenting always a particular letter of a syllable1--an idle doctrine1 contrived solely for the accommodation of short quantity with long1 under the accent4 ,when this definition was adopted1 ,murray's scheme of quantity was also revised1 and materially altered4 ,the principles of his main text1 to which his copiers all confine themselves1 then took the following form3 ,the quantity of a syllable1 is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it4 ,it is considered as ,,long or ,,short4 ,a vowel or syllable is long1 when the accent is on the vowel2 which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters3 as1 ',fall1 bale1 mood1 house1 feature4' ,a syllable is short1 when the accent is on the consonant2 which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter3 as1 'ant1 bonnet1 hunger4' ,a long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing it3 thus1 ',mate' and ',note' should be pronounced as slowly again as ',mat' and ',not4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bci2 #abmo1 #aib2 #ahmo1 #eg2 ,alger's1 #gb2 ,d4 ,c4 ,allen's1 #hf2 ,bacon's1 #eb2 ,comly's1 #afh2 ,cooper's1 #agf2 ,cutler's1 #afe2 ,davenport's1 #aba2 ,felton's1 #acd2 ,frost's ,el41 #ej2 ,fisk's1 #cb2 ,maltby's1 #aae2 ,parker and ,fox's1 iii1 #dg2 ,pond's1 #aih2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #if2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #ahg2 ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith's1 #fh4 ,here we see a revival and an abundant propagation of ,sheridan's erroneous doctrine1 that our accent produces both short quantity and long1 according to its seat2 and since none of all these grammars1 but the first two of ,murray's1 give any other rules for the discrimination of quantities1 we must infer1 that these were judged sufficient4 ,now1 of all the principles on which any have ever pretended to determine the quantity of syllables1 none1 so far as ,i know1 are more defective or fallacious than these4 ,they are liable to more objections than it is worth while to specify4 ,suffice it to observe1 that they divide certain accented syllables into long and short1 and say nothing of the unaccented2 whereas it is plain1 and acknowledged even by ,murray and ,sheridan themselves1 that in ant1 bonnet1 hunger and the like1 the unaccented syllables are the only short ones3 the rest can be1 and here are1 lengthened4#dig ,,obs4 #af4--,the foregoing principles1 differently expressed1 and perchance in some instances more fitly1 are found in many other grammars1 and in some of the very latest2 but they are everywhere a mere dead letter1 a record which1 if it is not always untrue1 is seldom understood1 and never applied in any way to practice4 ,the following are examples3 7#a47 ,in a long syllable1 the vowel is accented2 in a short syllable 1 the consonant2 as 1 roll1 poll2 top1 cut4--,rev4 ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #bbb4 7#b47 ,a syllable or word is long1 when the accent is on the vowel3 as no1 line1 la1 me2 and short1 when on the consonant3 as not1 lin1 ,latin1 met4--,s4 ,barrett's ,grammar1 7,principles of ,language17 p4 #aab4 7#c47 ,a syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel1 as1 ,pall1 sale1 mouse1 creature4 ,a syllable is short when the accent is placed on the consonant2 as great1 letter1 master4--,rev4 ,d4 ,blair's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aag4 7#d47 ,when the stress is on the vowel1 the measure of quantity is long3 as1 ,mte1 fte1 complin1 plyful1 un der mne4 ,when the stress is on a consonant1 the quantity is short3 as1 ,mat1 fat1 com pel1 progress1 dis mantle4--,pardon ,davis's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #abe4 7#e47 ,the quantity of a syllable is considered as long or short4 ,it is long when the accent is on the vowel2 as1 ,fall1 bale1 mood1 house1 feature4 ,it is short when the accent is placed on the consonant2 as1 ,master1 letter4--,guy's ,school ,gram41 p4 #aah2 ,picket's ,analytical ,school ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #bbd4 7#f47 ,a syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel2 and short1 when the accent is on the consonant4 ,a long syllable requires twice the time in pronouncing it that a short one does4 ,long syllables are marked thus 2 as1 tube2 short syllables1 thus 2 as1 man4--,hiley's ,english ,gram41 p4 #abj4 7#g47 ,when the accent is on a vowel1 the syllable is generally long2 as alehouse1 amusement1 features4 ,but when the accent is on a consonant1 the syllable is mostly short2 as1 hap'py1 man'ner4 ,a long syllable requires twice as much time in the pronunciation1 as a short one2 as1 hate1 hat2 note1 not2 cane1 can2 fine1 fin4--,jaudon's ,union ,gram41 p4 #agc4 7#h47 ,if the syllable be long1 the accent is on the vowel2 as1 in bale1 mood1 education2 c4 ,if short1 the accent is on the consonant2 as1 in ant1 bonnet1 hunger1 c4--,merchant's ,american ,school ,gram41 p4 #ade4 ,the quantity of our unaccented syllables1 none of these authors1 except ,allen1 thought it worth his while to notice4 ,but among their accented syllables1 they all include words of one syllable1 though most of them thereby pointedly contradict their own definitions of accent4 ,to find in our language no short syllables but such as are accented1 is certainly a very strange and very great oversight4 ,frazee says1 ,the pronunciation of an accented syllable requires double the time of that of an unaccented one4--,frazee's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #ahj4 ,if so1 our poetical quantities are greatly misrepresented by the rules above cited4 ,allen truly says1 ,unaccented syllables are generally short2 as1 retrn1 trner4-- ,elements of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bbb4 ,but how it was ever found out1 that in these words we accent only the vowel u1 and in such as hunter and bluntly1 some one of the consonants only1 he does not inform us4 ,,obs4 #ag4--;,as might be expected1 it is not well agreed among those who accent single consonants and vowels1 what particular letter should receive the stress and the mark4 ,the word or syllable ant1 for example1 is marked ant by ,alger1 ,bacon1 and others1 to enforce the n2 ant by ,frost1 ,putnam1 and others1 to enforce the t2 ant by ,murray1 ,russell1 and others1 to show1 as they say1 the accent on the consonant6 ,but1 in ,a,,ntler1 ,dr4 ,johnson accented the a2 and1 to mark the same pronunciation1 ,worcester now writes1 ,,ant,,ler2 while almost any prosodist1 in scanning1 would mark this word antler and call it a trochee4#dih ,churchill1 who is in general a judicious observer1 writes thus3 ,the leading feature in the ,english language1 on which it's melody both in prose and verse chiefly depends1 is it's accent4 ,every word in it of more than one syllable has one of it's syllables distinguished by this from the rest2 the accent being in some cases on the vowel1 in others on the consonant that closes the syllable2 on the vowel1 when it has it's long sound2 on the consonant1 when the vowel is short4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #aha4 ,but to this1 as a rule of accentuation1 no attention is in fact paid nowadays4 ,syllables that have long vowels not final1 very properly take the sign of stress on or after a consonant or a mute vowel2 as1 angel1 chamber1 slayer1 beadroll1 sleazy1 sleeper1 sleeveless1 lively1 mindful1 slightly1 sliding1 boldness1 grossly1 wholly1 useless4--,see ,worcester's ,dict4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,it has been seen1 that ,murray's principles of quantity were greatly altered by himself1 after the first appearance of his grammar4 ,to have a full and correct view of them1 it is necessary to notice something more than his main text1 as revised1 with which all his amenders content themselves1 and which he himself thought sufficient for his ,abridgement4 ,the following positions1 which1 in some of his revisals1 he added to the large grammar1 are therefore cited3-- 7#a47 ,unaccented syllables are generally short3 as1 'admre1 bldness1 snner4' ,but to this rule there are many exceptions3 as1 'lso1 xile1 gngrene1 mpire1 foretste1' c4 7#b47 ,when the accent is on the consonant1 the syllable is often more or less short1 as it ends with a single consonant1 or with more than one3 as1 ',sdly1 rbber2 persst1 mtchless4' 7#c47 ,when the accent is on a semi-vowel1 the time of the syllable may be protracted1 by dwelling upon the semi-vowel3 as1 ',cur1 can1 fulfil' but when the accent falls on a mute1 the syllable cannot be lengthened in the same manner3 as1 ',bbble1 cptain1 ttter4'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bdj2 #abmo1 #aic4 7#d47 ,in this work1 and in the author's ,spelling-book1 the vowels e and o1 in the first syllable of such words as1 behave1 prejudge1 domain1 propose2 and in the second syllable of such as pulley1 turkey1 borrow1 follow2 are considered as long vowels4 ,the second syllables in such words as1 baby1 spicy1 holy1 fury1 are also considered as long syllables4--,ib41 #hvo1 p4 #bda4 7#e47 ,in the words scarecrow1 wherefore1 both the syllables are unquestionably long1 but not of equal length4 ,we presume therefore1 that the syllables under consideration1 i4e41 those which end with the sound of e or o without accent1 may also be properly styled long syllables1 though their length is not equal to that of some others4--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bda4 ,,obs4 #ai4--,sheridan's infallible rule1 that no vowel ever has a long sound in an unaccented syllable1 is in striking contrast with three of these positions1 and the exact truth of the matter is with neither author4 ,but1 for the accuracy of his doctrine1 ,murray appeals to the authority of the judicious ,walker1 which he thinks sufficient to prove any syllable long whose vowel is called so2 while the important distinction suggested by ,walker1 in his ,principles1 ,no4 #ebi1 between the length or shortness of the vowels1 and that quantity which constitutes poetry1 is entirely overlooked4 ,it is safe to affirm1 that all the accented syllables occurring in the examples above1 are long2 and all the unaccented ones1 short3 for ,murray's long syllables vary in length1 and his short ones in shortness1 till not only the just proportion1 but the actual relation1 of long and short1 is evidently lost with some of them4 ,does not match in matchless1 sad in sadly1 or bub in bubble1 require more time1 than so in also1 key in turkey1 or ly in holy8 ,if so1 four of the preceding positions are very faulty4 ,and so1 indeed1 is the remaining one2 for where is the sense of saying1 that when the accent falls on a mute1 the syllable cannot be lengthened by dwelling upon the semi-vowel8 ,this is an apparent truism1 and yet not true4 ,for a semivowel in the middle or at the beginning of a syllable1 may lengthen it as much as if it stood at the end4 ,cur and can1 here given as protracted syllables1 are certainly no longer by usage1 and no more susceptible of protraction1 than mat and not1 art and ant1 which are among the author's examples of short quantity4 ,and if a semivowel accented will make the syllable long1 was it not both an error and a self-contradiction1 to give bonnet and hunger as examples of quantity shortened by the accent8 ,the syllable man has two semivowels2 and the letter l1 as in ful fil1 is the most sonorous of consonants2 yet1 as we see above1 among their false examples of short syllables accented1 different authors have given the words man and manner1 dismantle and com pel1 master and letter1 with sundry other sounds which may easily be lengthened4 ,sanborn says1 ,the breve distinguishes a short syllable2 as1 manner4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #bgc4 ,parker and ,fox say1 ,the ,breve 7thus 7 is placed over a vowel to indicate its short sound2 as1 ,st4 ,helena4--,english ,gram41 ,part iii1 p4 #ca4 ,both explanations of this sign are defective2 and neither has a suitable example4 ,the name ,st4 ,hlena1 as pronounced by ,worcester1 and as commonly heard1 is two trochees2 but ,helena1 for ,helen1 having the penult short1 takes the accent on the first syllable1 which is thereby made long1 though the vowel sound is called short4 ,even ,dr4 ,webster1 who expressly notes the difference between long and short vowels and long and short syllables1 allows himself1 on the very same page1 to confound them3 so that1 of his three examples of a short syllable1--that1 not1 melon1--all are erroneous2 two being monosyllables1 which any emphasis must lengthen2 and the third1--the word melon1--with the first syllable marked short1 and not the last6 ,see ,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #aeg4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,among the latest of our ,english ,grammars1 is ,chandler's new one of #ahdg4 ,the ,prosody of this work is fresh from the mint2 the author's old grammar of #ahba1 which is the nucleus of this1 being confined to ,etymology and ,syantax4 sic--,,kth ,if from anybody the public have a right to expect correctness in the details of grammar1 it is from one who has had the subject so long and so habitually before him4 ,accent says this author1 is the stress on a syllable1 or letter4--,chandler's ,common ,school ,gram41 p4 #ahh4 ,now1 if our less prominent words and syllables require any force at all1 a definition so loose as this1 may give accent to some words1 or to all2 to some syllables1 or to all2 to some letters1 or to all--except those which are silent6 ,and1 indeed1 whether the stress which distinguishes some monosyllables from others1 is supposed by the writer to be accent1 or emphasis1 or both1 it is scarcely possible to ascertain from his elucidations4 ,the term emphasis1 says he1 is used to denote a fuller sound of voice after certain words that come in antithesis2 that is1 contrast4 ',he can write1 but he cannot read4' ,here1 read and write are antithetical 7that is1 in contrast71 and are accented1 or emphasized4--,p4 #ahi4 ,the word after here may be a misprint for the word upon2 but no preposition really suits the connexion3 the participle impressing or affecting would be better4 ,of quantity1 this work gives the following account3 ,the quantity of a syllable is that time which is required to pronounce it4 ,a syllable may be long or short4 ,hate is long1 as the vowel a is elongated by the final e2 hat is short1 and requires about half the time for pronunciation which is used for pronouncing hate4 ,so of ate1 at2 bate1 bat2 cure1 cur4 ,though unaccented syllables are usually short1 yet many of those which are accented are short also4 ,the following are short3 dvent1 sinner1 supper4 ,in the following1 the unaccented syllables are long3 lso1 xile1 gngrene1 mpire4 ,it maybe remarked1 that the quantity of a syllable is short when the accent is on a consonant2 as1 art1 bonnet1 hunger4 ,the hyphen 7-71 placed over a syllable1 denotes that it is long3 nture4 ,the breve 77 over a syllable1 denotes that it is short2 as1 detrct4--,chandler's ,common ,school ,gram41 p4 #ahi4 ,this scheme of quantity is truly remarkable for its absurdity and confusion4 ,what becomes of the elongating power of e1 without accent or emphasis1 as in juncate1 palate1 prelate8 ,who does not know that such syllables as at1 bat1 and cur are often long in poetry8 ,what more absurd1 than to suppose both syllables short in such words as1 advent1 sinner1 supper1 and then give sermon1 filter1 spirit1 gather1 and the like1 for regular trochees1 with the first syllable long1 and the second short1 as does this author8 ,what more contradictory and confused1 than to pretend that the primal sound of a vowel lengthens an unaccented syllable1 and accent on the consonant shortens an accented one1 as if in lso the first syllable must be short and the second long1 and then be compelled1 by the evidence of one's senses to mark echo as a trochee1 and dtract as an iambus8 ,what less pardonable misnomer1 than for a great critic to call the sign of long quantity a hyphen8 ,,obs4 #ba4--,the following suggestions found in two of ,dr4 ,webster's grammars1 are not far from the truth3 ,most prosodians who have treated particularly of this subject1 have been guilty of a fundamental error1 in considering the movement of ,english verse as depending on long and short syllables1 formed by long and short vowels4 ,this hypothesis has led them into capital mistakes4 ,the truth is1 many of those syllables which are considered as long in verse1 are formed by the shortest vowels in the language2 as1 strength1 health1 grand4 ,the doctrine that long vowels are necessary to form long syllables in poetry is at length exploded1 and the principles which regulate the movement of our verse1 are explained2 viz4 accent and emphasis4 ,every emphatical word1 and every accented syllable1 will form what is called in verse1 a long syllable4 ,the unaccented syllables1 and unemphatical monosyllabic words1 are considered as short syllables4--,webster's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #bbb2 ,improved ,gram41 #aeh4 ,is it not remarkable1 that1 on the same page with this passage1 the author should have given the first syllable of melon as an example of short quantity8 ,,obs4 #bb4--;,if the principle is true1 which every body now takes for granted1 that the foundation of versifying is some distinction pertaining to syllables2 it is plain1 that nothing can be done towards teaching the ,art of ,measuring ,verses1 till it be known upon what distinction in syllables our scheme of versification is based1 and by what rule or rules the discrimination is1 or ought to be1 made4 ,errors here are central1 radical1 fundamental4 ,hence the necessity of these present disquisitions4 ,without some effectual criticism on their many false positions1 prosodists may continue to theorize1 dogmatize1 plagiarize1 and blunder on1 as they have done1 indefinitely1 and knowledge of the rhythmic art be in no degree advanced by their productions1 new or old4 ,for the supposition is1 that in general the consulters of these various oracles are persons more fallible still1 and therefore likely to be misled by any errors that are not expressly pointed out to them4 ,in this work1 it is assumed1 that quantity1 not laboriously ascertained by a great variety of rules applied from the ,greek and ,latin ,prosody1 but discriminated on principles of our own--quantity1 dependent in some degree on the nature and number of the letters in a syllable1 but still more on the presence or absence of stress--is the true foundation of our metre4 ,it has already been stated1 and perhaps proved1 that this theory is as well supported by authority as any2 but1 since ,lindley ,murray1 persuaded wrong by the positiveness of ,sheridan1 exchanged his scheme of feet formed by quantities1 for a new one of feet formed by accents--or1 rather1 for an impracticable mixture of both1 a scheme of supposed duplicates of each foot--it has been becoming more and more common for grammarians to represent the basis of ,english versification to be1 not the distinction of long and short quantities1 but the recurrence of accent at certain intervals4 ,such is the doctrine of ,butler1 ,felton1 ,fowler1 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 ,hart1 ,hiley1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,weld1 ,wells1 and perhaps others4 ,but1 in this1 all these writers contradict themselves2 disregard their own definitions of accent2 count monosyllables to be accented or unaccented2 displace emphasis from the rank which ,murray and others give it1 as the great regulator of quantity2 and suppose the length or shortness of syllables not to depend on the presence or absence of either accent or emphasis2 and not to be of much account in the construction of ,english verse4 ,as these strictures are running to a great length1 it may be well now to introduce the poetic feet1 and to reserve1 for notes under that head1 any further examination of opinions as to what constitutes the foundation of verse4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,of ,,poetic ,,feet4 ,a verse1 or line of poetry41 consists of successive combinations of syllables1 called feet4 ,a poetic foot1 in ,english1 consists either of two or of three syllables1 as in the following examples3 #a4 ,can ty -rants but by ty -rants con -quered be8--,byron4 #b4 ,holy1 holy1 holy6 all the saints a -dore thee4--,heber4 #c4 ,and the breath of the ,de -ity cir -cled the room4--,hunt4 #d4 ,hail to the chief who in triumph ad -vances6--,scott4 ,,explanations ,,and ,,definitions4 ,poetic feet being arbitrary combinations1 contrived merely for the measuring of verses1 and the ready ascertainment of the syllables that suit each rhythm1 there is among prosodists a perplexing diversity of opinion1 as to the number which we ought to recognize in our language4 ,some will have only two or three2 others1 four2 others1 eight2 others1 twelve4 ,the dozen are all that can be made of two syllables and of three4 ,latinists sometimes make feet of four syllables1 and admit sixteen more of these1 acknowledging and naming twenty-eight in all4 ,the principal ,english feet are the ,iambus1 the ,trochee1 the ,anapest1 and the ,dactyl4 #a4 ,the ,iambus1 or ,iamb1 is a poetic foot consisting of a short syllable and a long one2 as1 betray1 confess1 demand1 intent1 degree4 #b4 ,the ,trochee1 or ,choree1 is a poetic foot consisting of a long syllable and a short one2 as1 hateful1 pettish1 legal1 measure1 holy4 #c4 ,the ,anapest is a poetic foot consisting of two short syllables and one long one2 as1 contravene1 acquiesce1 importune4 #d4 ,the ,dactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long syllable and two short ones2 as1 labourer1 possible1 wonderful4 ,these are our principal feet1 not only because they are oftenest used1 but because each kind1 with little or no mixture1 forms a distinct order of numbers1 having a peculiar rhythm4 ,of verse1 or poetic measure1 we have1 accordingly1 four principal kinds1 or orders2 namely1 ,iambic1 ,trochaic1 ,anapestic1 and ,dactylic2 as in the four lines cited above4 ,the more pure these several kinds are preserved1 the more exact and complete is the chime of the verse4 ,but exactness being difficult1 and its sameness sometimes irksome1 the poets generally indulge some variety2 not so much1 however1 as to confound the drift of the rhythmical pulsations3 or1 if ever these be not made obvious to the reader1 there is a grave fault in the versification4 ,the secondary feet1 if admitted at all1 are to be admitted only1 or chiefly1 as occasional diversifications4 ,of this class of feet1 many grammarians adopt four2 but they lack agreement about the selection4 ,brightland took the ,spondee1 the ,pyrrhic1 the ,moloss1 and the ,tribrach4 ,to these1 some now add the other four2 namely1 the ,amphibrach1 the ,amphimac1 the ,bacchy1 and the ,antibacchy4 ,few1 if any1 of these feet are really necessary to a sufficient explanation of ,english verse2 and the adopting of so many is liable to the great objection1 that we thereby produce different modes of measuring the same lines4 ,but1 by naming them all1 we avoid the difficulty of selecting the most important2 and it is proper that the student should know the import of all these prosodical terms4 #e4 ,a ,spondee is a poetic foot consisting of two long syllables2 as1 cold night1 poor souls1 amen1 shrovetide4 #f4 ,a ,pyrrhic is a poetic foot consisting of two short syllables2 as1 presumpt-uous1 perpet-ual1 unhap-pily1 inglo-rious4 #g4 ,a ,moloss is a poetic foot consisting of three long syllables2 as1 ,death's pale horse1--great white throne1--deep damp vault4 #h4 ,a ,tribrach is a poetic foot consisting of three short syllables2 as1 prohib-itory1 unnat-urally1 author-itative1 innum-erable4 #i4 ,an ,amphibrach is a poetic foot of three syllables1 having both sides short1 the middle long2 as1 imprudent1 consider1 transported4 #aj4 ,an ,amphimac1 ,amphimacer1 or ,cretic1 is a poetic foot of three syllables1 having both sides long1 the middle short2 as1 windingsheet1 life-estate1 soul-diseased4 #aa4 ,a ,bacchy is a poetic foot consisting of one short syllable and two long ones2 as1 the whole world1--a great vase1--of pure gold4 #ab4 ,an ,antibacchy1 or ,hypobacchy1 is a poetic foot consisting of two long syllables and a short one2 as1 knight-service1 globe-daisy1 grape-flower1 gold-beater4 ,among the variegations of verse1 one emphatic syllable is sometimes counted for a foot4 ,when a single syllable is thus taken by itself1 it is called a ,csura1 which is commonly a long syllable4 #dii ,,for ,,example3-- ,keeping time1 time1 time1 ,in a sort of ,runic rhyme1 ,to the tintin -nabu -lation that so musi -cally wells ,from the bells1 bells1 bells1 bells1 ,bells1 bells1 bells4 --,,edgar ,a4 ,,poe3 ,union ,magazine1 for ,nov4 #ahdi2 ,literary ,world1 ,no4 #adc4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,in defining our poetic feet1 many late grammarians substitute the terms accented and unaccented for long and short1 as did ,murray1 after some of the earlier editions of his grammar2 the only feet recognized in his second edition being the ,iambus1 the ,trochee1 the ,dactyl1 and the ,anapest1 and all these being formed by quantities only4 ,this change has been made on the supposition1 that accent and long quantity1 as well as their opposites1 nonaccent and short quantity1 may oppose each other2 and that the basis of ,english verse is not1 like that of ,latin or ,greek poetry1 a distinction in the time of syllables1 not a difference in quantity1 but such a course of accenting and nonaccenting as overrides all relations of this sort1 and makes both length and shortness compatible alike with stress or no stress4 ,such a theory1 ,i am persuaded1 is untenable4 ,great authority1 however1 may be quoted for it1 or for its principal features4 ,besides the several later grammarians who give it countenance1 even the judicious ,walker1 who1 in his ,pronouncing ,dictionary1 as before cited1 very properly suggests a difference between that quantity which constitutes poetry1 and the mere length or shortness of vowels1 when he comes to explain our ,english accent and quantity1 in his ,observations on the ,greek and ,latin ,accent and ,quantity1 finds accent perfectly compatible with either long or short quantity2 7,key1 p4 #cab27 repudiates that vulgar accent of ,sheridan and others1 which is only a greater force upon one syllable than another2 7,key1 p4 #cac27 prefers the doctrine which makes the elevation or depression of the voice inseparable from accent2 7,key1 p4 #cad27 holds that1 unaccented vowels are frequently pronounced long when the accented vowels are short2 7,key1 p4 #cab27 takes long or short vowels and long or short syllables to be things everywhere tantamount2 saying1 ,we have no conception of quantity arising from any thing but the nature of the vowels1 as they are pronounced long or short2 7ibid427 and again3 ,such long quantity as consonants may produce with a close or short vowel1 an ,english ear has not the least idea of4 ,unless the sound of the vowel be altered1 we have not any conception of a long or short syllable4--,walker's ,key1 p4 #cbb2 and ,worcester's ,octavo ,dict41 p4 #ice4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,in the opinion of ,murray1 ,walker's authority should be thought sufficient to settle any question of prosodial quantities4 ,but1 it is added1 there are some critical writers1 who dispute the propriety of his arrangement4--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bda4 ,and well there may be2 not only by reason of the obvious incorrectness of the foregoing positions1 but because the great orthopist is not entirely consistent with himself4 ,in his ,preparatory ,observations1 which introduce the very essay above cited1 he avers that1 the different states of the voice1 which are indicated by the comparative terms high and low1 loud and soft1 quick and slow1 forcible and feeble1 may not improperly be called quantities of sound4--,walker's ,key1 p4 #cje4 ,whoever thinks this1 certainly conceives of quantity as arising from several other things than the nature of the vowels4 ,even ,humphrey1 with whom1 ,quantity differs materially from time1 and who defines it1 the weight1 or aggregate quantum of sounds1 may find his questionable and unusual conception of it included among these4 ,,obs4 #c4--,walker must have seen1 as have the generality of prosodists since1 that such a distinction as he makes between long syllables and short1 could not possibly be the basis of ,english versification1 or determine the elements of ,english feet2 yet1 without the analogy of any known usage1 and contrary to our customary mode of reading the languages1 he proposes it as applicable--and as the only doctrine conceived to be applicable--to ,greek or ,latin verse4 ,ignoring all long or short quantity not formed by what are called long or short vowels1#ejj he suggests1 as a last refuge1 7#be17 the very doubtful scheme of reading ,latin and ,greek poetry with the vowels conformed1 agreeably to this ,english sense of long and short vowel sounds1 to the ancient rules of quantity4 ,of such words as fallo and ambo1 pronounced as we usually utter them1 he says1 nothing can be more evident than the long quantity of the final vowel though without the accent1 and the short quantity of the initial and accented syllable4--,obs4 on ,greek and ,lat4 ,accent1 #bc2 ,key1 p4 #cca4 ,now the very reverse of this appears to me to be evident4 ,the a1 indeed1 may be close or short1 while the o1 having its primal or name sound1 is called long2 but the first syllable1 if fully accented1 will have twice the time of the second2 nor can this proportion be reversed but by changing the accent1 and misplacing it on the latter syllable4 ,were the principle true1 which the learned author pronounces so evident1 these1 and all similar words1 would constitute iambic feet2 whereas it is plain1 that in ,english they are trochees2 and in ,latin1--where o final is common1--either trochees or spondees4 ,the word ambo1 as every accurate scholar knows1 is always a trochee1 whether it be the ,latin adjective for both1 or the ,english noun for a reading desk1 or pulpit4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the names of our poetic feet are all of them derived1 by change of endings1 from similar names used in ,greek1 and thence also in ,latin2 and1 of course1 ,english words and ,greek or ,latin1 so related1 are presumed to stand for things somewhat similar4 ,this reasonable presumption is an argument1 too often disregarded by late grammarians1 for considering our poetic feet to be quantitative1 as were the ancient1--not accentual only1 as some will have them1--nor separately both1 as some others absurdly teach4 ,but1 whatever may be the difference or the coincidence between ,english verse and ,greek or ,latin1 it is certain1 that1 in our poetic division of syllables1 strength and length must always concur1 and any scheme which so contrasts accent with long quantity1 as to confound the different species of feet1 or give contradictory names to the same foot1 must be radically and grossly defective4 ,in the preceding section it has been shown1 that the principles of quantity adopted by ,sheridan1 ,murray1 and others1 being so erroneous as to be wholly nugatory1 were as unfit to be the basis of ,english verse1 as are ,walker's1 which have just been spoken of4 ,but1 the puzzled authors1 instead of reforming these their elementary principles1 so as to adapt them to the quantities and rhythms actually found in our ,english verse1 have all chosen to assume1 that our poetical feet in general differ radically from those which the ancients called by the same names2 and yet the coincidence found--the exact sameness of nature acknowledged--is sagely said by some of them to duplicate each foot into two distinct sorts for our especial advantage2 while the difference1 which they presume to exist1 or which their false principles of accent and quantity would create1 between feet quantitative and feet accentual1 7both of which are allowed to us17 would implicate different names1 and convert foot into foot--iambs1 trochees1 spondees1 pyrrhics1 each species into some other--till all were confusion6 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in ,lindley ,murray's revised scheme of feet1 we have first a paragraph from ,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,grammar1 suggesting that the ancient poetic measures were formed of syllables divided into long and short1 and affirming1 what is not very true1 that1 for the forming of ours1 ,in ,english1 syllables are divided into accented and unaccented4--,rhet4 ,gram41 p4 #fd2 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 #bec2 ,hart's ,gram41 #ahb2 and others4 ,now some syllables are accented1 and others are unaccented2 but syllables singly significant1 i4e41 monosyllables1 which are very numerous1 belong to neither of these classes4 ,the contrast is also comparatively new2 our language had much good poetry1 long before accented and unaccented were ever thus misapplied in it4 ,murray proceeds thus3 ,when the feet are formed by accent on vowels1 they are exactly of the same nature as ancient feet1 and have the same just quantity in their syllables4 ,so that1 in this respect1 we have all that the ancients had1 and something which they had not4 ,we have in fact duplicates of each foot1 yet with such a difference1 as to fit them for different purposes1 to be applied at our pleasure4--,ib41 p4 #bec4 ,again3 ,we have observed1 that ,english verse is composed of feet formed by accent2 and that when the accent falls on vowels1 the feet are equivalent to those formed by quantity4--,ib41 p4 #beh4 ,and again3 ,from the preceding view of ,english versification1 we may see what a copious stock of materials it possesses4 ,for we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet1 in our heroic measure1 but we have1 as before observed1 duplicates of each1 agreeing in movement1 though differing in measure1#eja and which make different impressions on the ear2 an opulence peculiar to our language1 and which may be the source of a boundless variety4--,ib41 p4 #bei4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,if it were not dullness to overlook the many errors and inconsistencies of this scheme1 there should be thought a rare ingenuity in thus turning them all to the great advantage and peculiar riches of the ,english tongue6 ,besides several grammatical faults1 elsewhere noticed1 these extracts exhibit1 first1 the inconsistent notion--of duplicates with a difference2 or1 as ,churchill expresses it1 of two distinct species of each foot2 7,new ,gram41 p4 #ahi27 and here we are gravely assured withal1 that these different sorts1 which have no separate names1 are sometimes forsooth1 exactly of the same nature6 ,secondly1 it is incompatibly urged1 that1 ,english verse is composed of feet formed by accent1 and at the same time shown1 that it partakes largely of feet formed by quantity4 ,thirdly1 if we have all that the ancients had1 of poetic feet1 and duplicates of each1 which they had not we are encumbered with an enormous surplus2 for1 of the twenty-eight ,latin feet1#ejb mentioned by ,dr4 ,adam and others1 ,murray never gave the names of more than eight1 and his early editions acknowledged but four1 and these single1 not duplicates--unigenous1 not severally of two species4 ,fourthly1 to suppose a multiplicity of feet to be a copious stock of materials for versification1 is as absurd as to imagine1 in any other case1 a variety of measures to be materials for producing the thing measured4 ,fifthly1 our heroic measure is iambic pentameter1 as ,murray himself shows2 and1 to give to this1 all the ancient poetic feet1 is to bestow most of them where they are least needed4 ,sixthly1 feet differing in measure1 so as to make different impressions on the ear1 cannot well be said to agree in movement1 or to be exactly of the same nature6 ,,obs4 #g4--,of the foundation of metre1 ,wells has the following account3 ,the quantity of a syllable is the relative time occupied in its pronunciation4 ,a syllable may be long in quantity1 as fate2 or short1 as let4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans based their poetry on the quantity of syllables2 but modern versification depends chiefly upon accent1 the quantity of syllables being almost wholly disregarded4--,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ahe4 ,again3 ,versification is a measured arrangement of words1 in which the accent is made to recur at certain regular intervals4 ,this definition applies only to modern verse4 ,in ,greek and ,latin poetry1 it is the regular recurrence of long syllables1 according to settled laws1 which constitutes verse4--,ib41 p4 #ahf4 ,the contrasting of ancient and modern versification1 since ,sheridan and ,murray each contrived an example of it1 has become very common in our grammars1 though not in principle very uniform2 and1 however needless where a correct theory prevails1 it is1 to such views of accent and quantity as were adopted by these authors1 and by ,walker1 or their followers1 but a necessary counterpart4 ,the notion1 however1 that ,english verse has less regard to quantity than had that of the old ,greeks or ,romans1 is a mere assumption1 originating in a false idea of what quantity is2 and1 that ,greek or ,latin verse was less accentual than is ours1 is another assumption1 left proofless too1 of what many authors disbelieve and contradict4 ,wells's definition of quantity is similar to mine1 and perhaps unexceptionable2 and yet his idea of the thing1 as he gives us reason to think1 was very different1 and very erroneous4 ,his examples imply1 that1 like ,walker1 he had no conception of quantity arising from any thing but the nature of the vowels1--no conception of a long or a short syllable without what is called a long or a short vowel sound4 ,that the ,greeks and ,romans based their poetry on quantity of that restricted sort1--on such quantity as fate and let may serve to discriminate1--is by no means probable2 nor would it be more so1 were a hundred great modern masters to declare themselves ignorant of any other4 ,the words do not distinguish at all the long and short quantities even of our own language2 much less can we rely on them for an idea of what is long or short in other tongues4 ,being monosyllables1 both are long with emphasis1 both short without it2 and1 could they be accented1 accent too would lengthen1 as its absence would shorten both4 ,in the words phosphate and streamlet1 we have the same sounds1 both short2 in lettuce and fateful1 the same1 both long4 ,this cannot be disproved4 ,and1 in the scansion of the following stanza from ,byron1 the word ,let twice used1 is to be reckoned a long syllable1 and not 7as ,wells would have it7 a short one3 ,cavalier6 and man of worth6 ,let these words of mine go forth2 ,let the ,moorish ,monarch know1 ,that to him ,i nothing owe3 ,wo is me1 ,alhama6 ,,obs4 #h4--;,in the ,english grammars of ,allen ,h4 ,weld1 works remarkable for their egregious inaccuracy and worthlessness1 yet honoured by the ,boston school committee of #ahdh and '#i1 the author is careful to say1 ,accent should not be confounded with emphasis4 ,emphasis is a stress of voice on a word in a sentence1 to mark its importance4 ,accent is a stress of voice on a syllable in a word4 ,yet1 within seven lines of this1 we are told1 that1 ,a verse consists of a certain number of accented and unaccented syllables1 arranged according to certain rules4--,weld's ,english ,grammar1 #b;d ,edition1 p4 #bjg2 ,abridged ,edition1 p4 #acg4 ,a doctrine cannot be contrived1 which will more evidently or more extensively confound accent with emphasis1 than does this6 ,in ,english verse1 on an average1 about three quarters of the words are monosyllables1 which1 according to ,walker1 have no accent1 certainly none distinguishable from emphasis2 hence1 in fact1 our syllables are no more divided into accented and unaccented as ,sheridan and ,murray would have them1 than into emphasized and unemphasized1 as some others have thought to class them4 ,nor is this confounding of accent with emphasis at all lessened or palliated by teaching with ,wells1 in its justification1 that1 ,the term accent is also applied1 in poetry1 to the stress laid on monosyllabic words4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ahe2 #aacth ,ed41 #bgc4 ,what better is this1 than to apply the term emphasis to the accenting of syllables in poetry1 or to all the stress in question1 as is virtually done in the following citation8 ,in ,english1 verse is regulated by the emphasis1 as there should be one emphatic syllable in every foot2 for it is by the interchange of emphatick and non-emphatick syllables1 that verse grateful to the ear is formed4--,thomas ,coar's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aif4 ,in ,latin poetry1 the longer words predominate1 so that1 in ,virgil's verse1 not one word in five is a monosyllable2 hence accent1 if our use of it were adjusted to the ,latin quantities1 might have much more to do with ,latin verse than with ,english4 ,with the following lines of ,shakspeare1 for example1 accent has1 properly speaking1 no connexion2 ,good friend1 thou hast no cause to say so yet2 ,but thou shalt have2 and creep time ne'er so slow1 ,yet it shall come1 for me to do thee good4 ,i had a thing to say1--,but let it go4--,king ,john1 ,act iii1 ,sc4 #c4 ,,obs4 #i4--,t4 ,o4 ,churchill1 after stating that the ,greek and ,latin rhythms are composed of syllables long and short1 sets ours in contrast with them thus3 ,these terms are commonly employed also in speaking of ,english verse1 though it is marked1 not by long and short1 but by accented and unaccented syllables2 the accented syllables being accounted long2 the unaccented1 short4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ahc4 ,this1 though far from being right1 is very different from the doctrine of ,murray or ,sheridan2 because1 in practice1 or the scansion of verses1 it comes to the same results as to suppose all our feet to be formed by quantity4 ,to account syllables long or short and not believe them to be so1 is a ridiculous inconsistency3 it is a shuffle in the name of science4 ,,obs4 #aj4--;,churchill1 though not apt to be misled by others' errors1 and though his own scanning has no regard to the principle1 could not rid himself of the notion1 that the quantity of a syllable must depend on the vowel sound4 ,accordingly he says1 ,mr4 ,murray justly observes1 that our accented syllables1 or those reckoned long31 may have either a long or a short vowel sound1 so that we have two distinct species of each foot4--,new ,gram41 p4 #ahi4 ,the obvious impossibility of two distinct species in one1--or1 as ,murray has it1 of duplicates fitted for different purposes1--should have prevented the teaching and repeating of this nonsense1 propound it who might4 ,the commender himself had not such faith in it as is here implied4 ,in a note1 too plainly incompatible with this praise1 he comments thus3 ,mr4 ,murray adds1 that this is 'an opulence peculiar to our language1 and which may be the source of a boundless variety3' a point1 on which1 ,i confess1 ,i have long entertained doubts4 ,i am inclined to suspect that the ,english mode of reading verse is analogous to that of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans4 ,dion4 ,hal41 de ,comp41 ,verb4 xi1 speaks of the rhythm of verse differing from the proper measure of the syllables1 and often reversing it3 does not this imply1 that the ancients1 contrary to the opinion of the learned author of ,metronariston1 read verse as we do8--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #cic1 note #cbi4 ,,obs4 #aa4--,the nature1 chief sources1 and true distinction of quantity1 at least as it pertains to our language1 ,i have set forth with clearness1 first in the short chapter on ,utterance1 and again1 more fully in this1 which treats of ,versification2 but that the syllables1 long and short1 of the old ,greek and ,latin poets1 or the feet they made of them1 are to be expounded on precisely the same principles that apply to ours4 ,i have not deemed it necessary to affirm or to deny4 ,so far as the same laws are applicable1 let them be applied4 ,this important property of syllables1--their quantity1 or relative time1--which is the basis of all rhythm1 is1 as my readers have seen1 very variously treated1 and in general but ill appreciated1 by our ,english prosodists1 who ought1 at least in this their own province1 to understand it all alike1 and as it is2 and so common among the erudite is the confession of ,walker1 that the accent and quantity of the ancients are1 to modern readers1 obscure and mysterious1 that it will be taken as a sign of arrogance and superficiality1 to pretend to a very certain knowledge of them4 ,nor is the difficulty confined to ,latin and ,greek verse3 the poetry of our own ancestors1 from any remote period1 is not easy of scansion4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 in his ,history of the ,english ,language1 gave examples1 with this remark3 ,of the ,saxon poetry some specimen is necessary1 though our ignorance of the laws of their metre and the quantities of their syllables1 which it would be very difficult1 perhaps impossible1 to recover1 excludes us from that pleasure which the old bards undoubtedly gave to their contemporaries4 ,,obs4 #ab4--,the imperfect measures of the father of ,english poetry1 are said by ,dryden to have been adapted to the ears of the rude age which produced them4 ,the verse of ,chaucer1 says he1 ,i confess1 is not harmonious to us2 but it is like the eloquence of one whom ,tacitus commends1 it was auribus istius temporis accommodata3' they who lived with him1 and sometime after him1 thought it musical2 and it continues so even in our judgment1 if compared with the numbers of ,lidgate and ,gower1 his contemporaries3 there is the rude sweetness of a ,scotch tune in it1 which is natural and pleasing1 though not perfect4 ,it is true1 ,i cannot go so far as he who published the last edition of him2 for he would make us believe that the fault is in our ears1 and that there were really ten syllables in a verse where we find but nine3 but this opinion is not worth confuting2 it is so gross and obvious an error1 that common sense 7which is a rule in every thing but matters of faith and revelation7 must convince the reader that equality of numbers in every verse1 which we call ,heroic1 was either not known1 or not always practised in ,chaucer's age4 ,it were an easy matter to produce some thousands of his verses1 which are lame for want of half a foot1 and sometimes a whole one1 and which no pronunciation can make otherwise4 ,we can only say1 that he lived in the infancy of our poetry1 and that nothing is brought to perfection at the first4--,british ,poets1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #aga4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,dryden appears to have had more faith in the ears of his own age than in those of an earlier one2 but ,poe1 of our time1 himself an ingenious versifier1 in his ,notes upon ,english ,verse1 conveys the idea that all ears are alike competent to appreciate the elements of metre4 ,quantity1 according to his dogmatism1 is a point in the investigation of which the lumber of mere learning may be dispensed with1 if ever in any4 ,its appreciation says he1 is universal4 ,it appertains to no region1 nor race1 nor era in especial4 ,to melody and to harmony the ,greeks hearkened with ears precisely similar to those which we employ1 for similar purposes1 at present2 and a pendulum at ,athens would have vibrated much after the same fashion as does a pendulum in the city of ,penn4--,the ,pioneer1 ,vol4 i4 p4 #ajc4 ,supposing here not even the oscillations of the same pendulum to be more uniform than are the nature and just estimation of quantity the world over1 this author soon after expounds his idea of the thing as follows3 ,i have already said that all syllables1 in metre1 are either long or short4 ,our usual prosodies maintain that a long syllable is equal1 in its time1 to two short ones2 this1 however1 is but an approach to the truth4 ,it should be here observed that the quantity of an ,english syllable has no dependence upon the sound of its vowel or dipthong diphthong1 but depends chiefly upon accentuation4 ,monosyllables are exceedingly variable1 and1 for the most part1 may be either long or short1 to suit the demand of the rhythm4 ,in polysyllables1 the accented ones say1 syllables are always long1 while those which immediately precede or succeed them1 are always short4 ,emphasis will render any short syllable long4--,ibid41 p4 #aje4 ,in penning the last four sentences1 the writer must have had ,brown's ,institutes of ,english ,grammar before him1 and open at page #bce4 ,,obs4 #ad4--,sheridan1 in his ,rhetorical ,grammar1 written about #aghj1 after asserting that a distinction of accent1 and not of quantity1 marks the movement of ,english verse1 proceeds as follows3 ,from not having examined the peculiar genius of our tongue1 our ,prosodians have fallen into a variety of errors2 some having adopted the rules of our neighbours1 the ,french2 and others having had recourse to those of the ancients2 though neither of them1 in reality1 would square with our tongue1 on account of an essential difference between them4 ,he means1 between each language and ours1 and should have said so4 ,with regard to the ,french1 they measured verses by the number of syllables whereof they were composed1 on account of a constitutional defect in their tongue1 which rendered it incapable of numbers formed by poetic feet4 ,for it has neither accent nor quantity suited to the purpose2 the syllables of their words being for the most part equally accented2 and the number of long syllables being out of all proportion greater than that of the short4 ,hence for a long time it was supposed1 as it is by most people at present1 that our verses were composed1 not of feet1 but syllables2 and accordingly they are denominated verses often1 eight1 six1 or four syllables1 even to this day4 ,thus have we lost sight of the great advantage which our language has given us over the ,french1 in point of poetic numbers1 by its being capable of a geometrical proportion1 on which the harmony of versification depends2 and blindly reduced ourselves to that of the arithmetical kind which contains no natural power of pleasing the ear4 ,and hence like the ,french1 our chief pleasure in verse arises from the poor ornament of rhyme4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,,obs4 #ae4--;,in a recent work on this subject1 ,sheridan is particularly excepted1 and he alone1 where ,hallam1 ,johnson1 ,lord ,kames1 and other ,prosodians in general1 are charged with astonishing ignorance of the first principles of our verse2 and1 at the same time1 he is as particularly commended of having especially insisted on the subject of ,quantity4--,everett's ,english ,versification1 ,preface1 p4 #f4 ,that the rhetorician was but slenderly entitled to these compliments1 may plainly appear from the next paragraph of his ,grammar just cited2 for therein he mistakingly represents it as a central error1 to regard our poetic feet as being formed by quantity at all4 ,some few of our ,prosodians1 says he1 finding this to be an error1 and that our verses were really composed of feet1 not syllables1 without farther examination1 boldly applied all the rules of the ,latin prosody to our versification2 though scarce any of them answered exactly1 and some of them were utterly incompatible with the genius of our tongue4 ,thus because the ,roman feet were formed by quantity1 they asserted the same of ours1 denominating all the accented syllables long2 whereas ,i have formerly shewn1 that the accent1 in some cases1 as certainly makes the syllable on which it is laid1 short1 as in others it makes it long4 ,and their whole theory of quantity1 borrowed from the ,roman1 in which they endeavour to establish the proportion of long and short1 as immutably fixed to the syllables of words constructed in a certain way1 at once falls to the ground2 when it is shewn1 that the quantity of our syllables is perpetually varying with the sense1 and is for the most part regulated by ,,emphasis3 which has been fully proved in the course of ,lectures on the ,art of reading ,verse2 where it has been also shewn1 that this very circumstance has given us an amazing advantage over the ancients in the point of poetic numbers4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,,obs4 #af4--,the lexicographer here claims to have shewn or proved1 what he had only affirmed1 or asserted4 ,erroneously taking the quality of the vowel for the quantity of the syllable1 he had suggested1 in his confident way1 that short quantity springs from the accenting of consonants1 and long quantity1 from the accenting of vowels--a doctrine which has been amply noticed and refuted in a preceding section of the present chapter4 ,nor is he1 in what is here cited1 consistent with himself4 ,for1 in the first place1 nothing comes nearer than this doctrine of his1 to an endeavour to establish the proportion of long and short1 as immutably fixed to the syllables of words constructed in a certain way6 ,next1 although he elsewhere contrasts accent and emphasis1 and supposes them different1 he either confounds them in reference to verse1 or contradicts himself by ascribing to each the chief control over quantity4 ,and1 lastly1 if our poetic feet are not quantitative1 not formed of syllables long and short1 as were the ,roman1 what advantage over the ancients1 can we derive from the fact1 that quantity is regulated by stress1 whether accent or emphasis8 ,,obs4 #ag4--,we have1 ,i think1 no prosodial treatise of higher pretensions than ,erastus ,everett's ,system of ,english ,versification1 first published in #ahdh4 ,this gentleman professes to have borrowed no idea but what he has regularly quoted4 ,he mentions this1 that it may not be supposed that this work is a compilation4 ,it will be seen1 says he1 how great a share of it is original2 and the author1 having deduced his rules from the usage of the great poets1 has the best reason for being confident of their correctness4--,preface1 p4 #e4 ,of the place to be filled by this ,system1 he has the following conception3 ,it is thought to supply an important desideratum4 ,it is a matter of surprise to the foreign student1 who attempts the study of ,english poetry and the structure of its verse1 to find that we have no work on which he can rely as authority on this subject4 ,in the other modern languages1 the most learned philologers have treated of the subject of versification1 in all its parts4 ,in ,english alone1 in a language which possesses a body of poetical literature more extensive1 as well as more valuable than any other modern language1 not excepting the ,italian1 the student has no rules to guide him1 but a few meagre and incorrect outlines appended to elementary text-books4 ,then follows this singularly inconsistent exception3 ,we must except from this remark two works1 published in the latter part of the sixteenth century4 ,but as they were written before the poetical language of the ,english tongue was fixed1 and as the rules of verse were not then settled1 these works can be of little practical utility4--,preface1 p4 #a4 ,the works thus excepted as of reliable authority without practical utility1 are a short tract by ,gascoyne1 doubtless ,george ,gascoigne's ',notes of ,instruction concerning the making of ,verse or ,rhyme in ,english1' published in #aege1 and ,webbe's ',discourse of ,english ,poetry1' dated #aehf1 neither of which does the kind exceptor appear to have ever seen6 ,mention is next made1 successively1 of ,dr4 ,carey1 of ,dryden1 of ,dr4 ,johnson1 of ,blair1 and of ,lord ,kames4 ,to these guides1 or at least to the last two1 the author is indebted for many valuable hints2 yet he scruples not to say1 ,blair betrays a paucity of knowledge on this subject2--,lord ,kames has slurred over the subject of ,quantity1 and shown an unpardonable ignorance of the first principles of ,quantity in our verse2--and1 ,even ,dr4 ,johnson speaks of syllables in such a manner as would lead us to suppose that he was in the same error as ,kames4 ,these inaccuracies1 it is added1 can be accounted for only from the fact that ,prosodians have not thought ,quantity of sufficient importance to merit their attention4--,see ,preface1 p4 #d-f4 ,,obs4 #ah4--;,everett's ,versification consists of seventeen chapters1 numbered consecutively1 but divided into two parts1 under the two titles ,quantity and ,construction4 ,its specimens of verse are numerous1 various1 and beautiful4 ,its modes of scansion--the things chiefly to be taught--though perhaps generally correct1 are sometimes questionable1 and not always consonant with the writer's own rules of quantity4 ,from the citations above1 one might expect from this author such an exposition of quantity1 as nobody could either mistake or gainsay2 but1 as the following platform will show1 his treatment of this point is singularly curt and incomplete4 ,he is so sparing of words as not even to have given a definition of quantity4 ,he opens his subject thus3 ,,versification is the proper arrangement of words in a line according to their quantity1 and the disposition of these lines in couplets1 stanzas1 or in blank verse1 in such order1 and according to such rules1 as are sanctioned by usage4--,a ,,foot is a combination of two or more syllables1 whether long or short4--,a ,,line is one foot1 or more than one4--,the ,,quantity of each word depends on its accent4 ,in words of more than one syllable1 all accented syllables are long1 and all unaccented syllables are short4 ,monosyllables are long or short1 according to the following ,rules3--#ast4 ,all ,nouns1 ,adjectives1 ,verbs1 and ,participles are long4--#bnd4 ,the articles are always short4--#crd1 ,the ,pronouns are long or short1 according to emphasis4--#dth4 ,interjections and ,adverbs are generally long1 but sometimes made short by emphasis4--#eth4 ,prepositions and ,conjunctions are almost always short1 but sometimes made long by emphasis4--,english ,versification1 p4 #ac4 ,none of these principles of quantity are unexceptionable2 and whoever follows them implicitly1 will often differ not only from what is right1 but from their author himself in the analysis of verses4 ,nor are they free from important antagonisms4 ,emphasis1 as here spoken of1 not only clashes with accent1 but contradicts itself1 by making some syllables long and some short2 and1 what is more mysteriously absurd1 the author says1 ,it frequently happens that syllables long by ,,quantity become short by ,,emphasis4--,everett's ,eng4 ,versif41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ii4 ,of this1 he takes the first syllable of the following line1 namely1 the word bids1 to be an example3 ,bids me live but to hope for posterity's praise4 ,,obs4 #ai4--;,in the ,american ,review1 for ,may1 #ahdh1 ,everett's ,system of ,versification is named as an apology and occasion--not for a critical examination of this or any other scheme of prosody--but for the promulgation of a new one1 a rival theory of ,english metres1 the principles and laws of which the writer promises1 at an other time more fully to develop4 ,the article referred to is entitled1 ,the ,art of ,measuring ,verses4 ,the writer1 being designated by his initials1 ,j4 ,d4 ,w41 is understood to be ,james ,d4 ,whelpley1 editor of the ,review4 ,believing ,everett's principal doctrines to be radically erroneous1 this critic nevertheless excuses them1 because he thinks we have nothing better6 ,the views supported in the work itself1 says his closing paragraph1 are not1 indeed1 such as we would subscribe to1 nor can we admit the numerous analyses of the ,english metres which it contains to be correct2 yet1 as it is as complete in design and execution as anything that has yet appeared on the subject1 and well calculated to excite the attention1 and direct the inquiries1 of ,english scholars1 to the study of our own metres1 we shall even pass it by without a word of criticism4--,american ,review1 ,new ,series1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dib4 ,,obs4 #bj4--;,everett1 although1 as we have seen1 he thought proper to deny that the student of ,english versification had any well authorized rules to guide him1 still argues that1 ,the laws of our verse are just as fixed1 and may be as clearly laid down1 if we but attend to the usage of the great ,poets1 as are the laws of our syntax4--,preface1 p4 #g4 ,but this critic1 of the ,american ,review1 ingenious though he is in many of his remarks1 flippantly denies that our ,english ,prosody has either authorities or principles which one ought to respect2 and accordingly cares so little whom he contradicts1 that he is often inconsistent with himself4 ,here is a sample3 ,as there are no established authorities in this art1 and1 indeed1 no acknowledged principles--every rhymester being permitted to invent his own method1 and write by instinct or imitation--the critic feels quite at liberty to say just what he pleases1 and offer his private observations as though these were really of some moment4--,am4 ,rev41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dhd4 ,in respect to writing1 to invent1 and to imitate1 are repugnant ideas2 and so are1 after a method1 and by instinct4 ,again1 what sense is there in making the liberty of publishing one's private observations to depend on the presumed absence of rivals8 ,that the author did not lack confidence in the general applicability of his speculations1 subversive though they are of the best and most popular teaching on this subject1 is evident from the following sentence3 ,we intend1 also1 that if these principles1 with the others previously expressed1 are true in the given instances1 they are equally true for all languages and all varieties of metre1 even to the denial that any poetic metres1 founded on other principles1 can properly exist4--,ib41 p4 #dia ,,obs4 #ba4--;,j4 ,d4 ,w4 is not one of those who discard quantity and supply accent in expounding the nature of metre2 and yet he does not coincide very nearly with any of those who have heretofore made quantity the basis of poetic numbers4 ,his views of the rhythmical elements being in several respects peculiar1 ,i purpose briefly to notice them here1 though some of the peculiarities of this new ,art of ,measuring ,verses1 should rather be quoted under the head of ,scanning1 to which they more properly belong4 ,of every species of beauty1 says this author1 and more especially of the beauty of sounds1 continuousness is the first element2 a succession of pulses of sound becomes agreeable1 only when the breaks or intervals cease to be heard4 ,again3 ,quantity1 or the division into measures of time1 is a second element of verse2 each line must be stuffed out with sounds1 to a certain fullness and plumpness1 that will sustain the voice1 and force it to dwell upon the sounds4--,rev41 p4 #dhe4 ,the first of these positions is subsequently contradicted1 or very largely qualified1 by the following3 ,so1 the line of significant sounds1 in a verse1 is also marked by accents1 or pulses1 and divided into portions called feet4 ,these are necessary and natural for the very simple reason that continuity by itself is tedious2 and the greatest pleasure arises from the union of continuity with variety4 ,that is1 with interruption1 as he elsewhere calls it6 ,in the line1 ',full mny a tle ther msic tlls1' there are at least four accents or stresses of the voice1 with faint pauses after them1 just enough to separate the continuous stream of sound into these four parts1 to be read thus3 ,fullman--yataleth--eirmus--ictells1#ejc by which1 new combinations of sound are produced1 of a singularly musical character4 ,it is evident from the inspection of the above line1 that the division of the feet by the accents is quite independent of the division of words by the sense4 ,the sounds are melted into continuity1 and re-divided again in a manner agreeable to the musical ear4--,ib41 p4 #dhf4 ,undoubtedly1 the due formation of our poetic feet occasions both a blending of some words and a dividing of others1 in a manner unknown to prose2 but still we have the authority of this writer1 as well as of earlier ones1 for saying1 ,good verse requires to be read with the natural quantites sic--,,kth of the syllables1 7p4 #dhg17 a doctrine with which that of the redivision appears to clash4 ,if the example given be read with any regard to the csural pause1 as undoubtedly it should be1 the th of their cannot be joined1 as above1 to the word tale2 nor do ,i see any propriety in joining the s of music to the third foot rather than to the fourth4 ,can a theory which turns topsyturvy the whole plan of syllabication1 fail to affect the natural quantities of syllables8 ,,obs4 #bb--;,different modes of reading verse1 may1 without doubt1 change the quantities of very many syllables4 ,hence a correct mode of reading1 as well as a just theory of measure1 is essential to correct scansion1 or a just discrimination of the poetic feet4 ,it is a very common opinion1 that ,english verse has but few spondees2 and the doctrine of ,brightland has been rarely disputed1 that1 ,heroic ,verses consist of five short1 and five long ,syllables intermixt1 but not so very strictly as never to alter that order4--,gram41 #gth ,ed41 p4 #afj4ejd ,j4 ,d4 ,w41 being a heavy reader1 will have each line so stuffed out with sounds1 and the consonants so syllabled after the vowels1 as to give to our heroics three spondees for every two iambuses2 and lines like the following1 which1 with the elisions1 ,i should resolve into four iambuses1 and without them1 into three iambuses and one anapest1 he supposes to consist severally of four spondees3-- ',when coldness wraps this suffering clay1 ,ah6 whither strays the immortal mind8' ,these are to be read1 according to this prosodian1 ,whencoldn--esswrapsth--issuff'r--ingcla y1 ,ah6 whith--erstraysth'--immort--almind8 ,the verse1 he contends1 is perceived to consist of six probably he meant to say eight heavy syllables1 each composed of a vowel followed by a group of consonantal sounds1 the whole measured into four equal feet4 ,the movement is what is called spondaic1 a spondee being a foot of two heavy sounds4 ,the absence of short syllables gives the line a peculiar weight and solemnity suited to the sentiment1 and doubtless prompted by it4--,american ,review1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dhg4 ,of his theory1 he subsequently says3 ,it maintains that good ,english verse is as thoroughly quantitative as the ,greek1 though it be much more heavy and spondaic4--,ib41 p4 #dia4eje ,,obs4 #bc--;,for the determining of quantities and feet1 this author borrows from some old ,latin grammar three or four rules1 commonly thought inapplicable to our tongue1 and1 mixing them up with other speculations1 satisfies himself with stating that the ,art of ,measuring ,verses requires yet the production of many more such6 ,but1 these things being the essence of his principles1 it is proper to state them in his own words3 ,a short vowel sound followed by a double consonantal sound1 usually makes a long quantity2#ejf so also does a long vowel like y in beauty1 before a consonant4 ,the metrical accents1 which often differ from the prosaic1 mostly fall upon the heavy sounds2 which must also be prolonged in reading1 and never slurred or lightened1 unless to help out a bad verse4 ,in our language the groupings of the consonants furnish a great number of spondaic feet1 and give the language1 especially its more ancient forms1 as in the verse of ,milton and the prose of ,lord ,bacon1 a grand and solemn character4 ,one vowel followed by another1 unless the first be naturally made long in the reading1 makes a short quantity1 as in the old4 ,so1 also1 a short vowel followed by a single short consonant1 gives a short time or quantity1 as in t give4 ,fist ,a great variety of rules for the detection of long and short quantities have yet to be invented1 or applied from the ,greek and ,latin prosody4 ,in all languages they are of course the same1 making due allowance for difference of organization2 but it is as absurd to suppose that the ,greeks should have a system of prosody differing in principle from our own1 as that their rules of musical harmony should be different from the modern4 ,both result from the nature of the ear and of the organ of speech1 and are consequently the same in all ages and nations4--,am4 ,rev41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dhh4 ,,obs4 #bd4--,,quantity is here represented as time only4 ,in this author's first mention of it1 it is called1 rather less accurately1 the division into measures of time4 ,with too little regard for either of these conceptions1 he next speaks of it as including both time and accent4 ,but ,i have already shown that accents or stresses cannot pertain to short syllables1 and therefore cannot be ingredients of quantity4 ,the whole article lacks that clearness which is a prime requisite of a sound theory4 ,take all of the writer's next paragraph as an example of this defect3 ,the two elements of musical metre1 time and accent1 both together constituting quantity1 are equally elements of the metre of verse4 ,each iambic foot or metre1 is marked by a swell of the voice1 concluding abruptly in an accent1 or interruption1 on the last sound of the foot2 or1 omit this 'or3' it is improper1 in metres of the trochaic order1 in such words as dandy1 handy1 bottle1 favor1 labor1 it the foot begins with a heavy accented sound1 and declines to a faint or light one at the close4 ,the line is thus composed of a series of swells or waves of sound1 concluding and beginning alike4 ,the accents1 or points at which the voice is most forcibly exerted in the feet1 being the divisions of time1 by which a part of its musical character is given to the verse1 are usually made to coincide1 in our language1 with the accents of the words as they are spoken2 which coincidence diminishes the musical character of our verse4 ,in ,greek hexameters and ,latin hexameters1 on the contrary1 this coincidence is avoided1 as tending to monotony and a prosaic character4--,ibid4 ,,obs4 #be4--,the passage just cited represents accent or accents not only as partly constituting quantity1 but as being1 in its or their turn1 the divisions of time2--as being also stops1 pauses1 or interruptions of sound else continuous2--as being of two sorts1 metrical and prosaic1 which usually coincide1 though it is said1 they often differ1 and their interference is very frequent2--as being the points of stress in the feet1 but not always such in the words1 of verse2--as striking different feet differently1 each iambic foot on the latter syllable and every trochee on the former1 yet causing1 in each line1 only such waves of sound as conclude and begin alike2--as coinciding with the long quantities and the prosaic accents1 in iambics and trochaics1 yet not coinciding with these always2--as giving to verse a part of its musical character1 yet diminishing that character1 by their usual coincidence with the prose accents2--as being kept distinct in ,latin and ,greek1 the metrical from the prosaic and their coincidence avoided1 to make poetry more poetical1--though the old prosodists1 in all they say of accents1 acute1 grave1 and circumflex1 give no hint of this primary distinction6 ,in all this elementary teaching1 there seems to be a want of a clear1 steady1 and consistent notion of the things spoken of4 ,the author's theory led him to several strange combinations of words1 some of which it is not easy1 even with his whole explanation before us1 to regard as other than absurd4 ,with a few examples of his new phraseology1 ,italicized by myself1 ,i dismiss the subject3 ,it frequently happens that word and verse accent fall differently4--,p4 #dhi4 ,the verse syllables1 like the verse feet1 differ in the prosaic and the metrical reading of the line4--,ib4 ,if we read it by the prosaic syllabication1 there will be no possibility of measuring the quantities4--,ib4 ,the metrical are perfectly distinct from the prosaic properties of verse4--,ib4 ,it may be called an iambic dactyl1 formed by the substitution of two short for one long time in the last portion of the foot4 ,iambic spondees and dactyls are to be distinguished by the metrical accent falling on the last syllable4--,p4 #dia4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,the ,,kinds ,,of ,,verse4 ,the principal kinds of verse1 or orders of poetic numbers1 as has already been stated1 are four2 namely1 ,iambic1 ,trochaic1 ,anapestic1 and ,dactylic4 ,besides these1 which are sometimes called the simple orders being unmixed1 or nearly so1 some recognize several ,composite orders or 7with a better view of the matter7 several kinds of mixed verse1 which are said to constitute the ,composite order4 ,in these1 one of the four principal kinds of feet must still be used as the basis1 some other species being inserted therewith1 in each line or stanza1 with more or less regularity4 ,,principles ,,and ,,names4 ,the diversification of any species of metre1 by the occasional change of a foot1 or1 in certain cases1 by the addition or omission of a short syllable1 is not usually regarded as sufficient to change the denomination1 or stated order1 of the verse2 and many critics suppose some variety of feet1 as well as a studied diversity in the position of the csural pause1 essential to the highest excellence of poetic composition4 ,the dividing of verses into the feet which compose them1 is called ,scanning1 or ,scansion4 ,in this1 according to the technical language of the old prosodists1 when a syllable is wanting1 the verse is said to be catalectic2 when the measure is exact1 the line is acatalectic2 when there is a redundant syllable1 it forms hypermeter4 ,since the equal recognition of so many feet as twelve1 or even as eight1 will often produce different modes of measuring the same lines2 and since it is desirable to measure verses with uniformity1 and always by the simplest process that will well answer the purpose2 we usually scan by the principal feet1 in preference to the secondary1 where the syllables give us a choice of measures1 or may be divided in different ways4 ,a single foot1 especially a foot of only two syllables1 can hardly be said to constitute a line1 or to have rhythm in itself2 yet we sometimes see a foot so placed1 and rhyming as a line4 ,lines of two1 three1 four1 five1 six1 or seven feet1 are common2 and these have received the technical denominations of dim'eter1 trim'eter1 tetram'eter1 pentam'eter1 hexam'eter1 and heptam'eter4 ,on a wide page1 iambics and trochaics may possibly be written in octom'eter2 but lines of this measure1 being very long1 are mostly abandoned for alternate tetrameters4 ,,order ,i4--,,iambic ,,verse4 ,in ,iambic verse1 the stress is laid on the even syllables1 and the odd ones are short4 ,any short syllable added to a line of this order1 is supernumerary2 iambic rhymes1 which are naturally single1 being made double by one1 and triple by two4 ,but the adding of one short syllable1 which is much practised in dramatic poetry1 may be reckoned to convert the last foot into an amphibrach1 though the adding of two cannot4 ,iambics consist of the following measures3-- ,,measure ,i4--,,iambic ,,of ,,eight ,,feet1 ,,or ,,octometer4 ,psalm ,,xlvii1 #a and #b4 ,o all ye peo -ple1 clap your hands1 and with trium -phant voi -ces sing2 ,no force the might -y power withstands of ,god1 the u -niver -sal ,king4 ,see the ,psalms of ,david1 in ,metre1 p4 #ed4 ,each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to1 or exchanged for1 a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines1 rhyming alternately1 and each commencing with a capital2 but sometimes1 the second line and the fourth are still commenced with a small letter3 as1 ,your ut -most skill in praise be shown1 for ,him who all the world commands1 ,who sits upon his right -eous throne1 and spreads his sway o'er heath -en lands4 ,ib41 verses #g and #h2 ,edition bound with ,com4 ,prayer1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahai4 ,an other ,example4 ,the hour is come --the cher -ish'd hour1 ,when from the bus -y world set free1 ,i seek at length my lone -ly bower1 ,and muse in si -lent thought on thee4 ,,theodore ,,hook',s ,,remains3 ,the ,examiner1 ,no4 #hb4 ,,measure ,,ii4--,,iambic ,,of ,,seven ,,feet1 ,,or ,,heptameter4 ,example ,i4--,hat-,brims4 ,it's odd how hats expand their brims as youth begins to fade1 ,as if when life had reached its noon1 it want -ed them for shade4 ,,oliver ,,wendell ,,holmes3 ,from a ,newspaper4 ,example ,,ii4--,psalm ,,xlii1 #a4 ,as pants the hart for cool -ing streams1 when heat -ed in the chase2 ,so longs my soul1 ,o ,god1 for thee1 and thy refresh -ing grace4 ,,episcopal ,,psalm-,,book3 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,allen's ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #bbg4 ,example ,,iii4--,the ,shepherd's ,hymn4 ,oh1 when ,i rove the des -ert waste1 and 'neath the hot sun pant1 ,the ,lord shall be my ,shep -herd then1 he will not let me want2 ,he'll lead me where the past -ures are of soft and shad -y green1 ,and where the gen -tle wa -ters rove1 the qui -et hills between4 ,and when the sav -age shall pursue1 and in his grasp ,i sink1 ,he will prepare the feast for me1 and bring the cool -ing drink1 ,and save me harm -less from his hands1 and strength -en me in toil1 ,and bless my home and cot -tage lands1 and crown my head with oil4 ,with such a ,shep -herd to protect1 to guide and guard me still1 ,and bless my heart with ev -'ry good1 and keep from ev -'ry ill1 ,surely ,i shall not turn aside1 and scorn his kind -ly care1 ,but keep the path he points me out1 and dwell for ev -er there4 ,w4 ,,gilmore ,,simms3 ,north ,american ,reader1 p4 #cgf4 ,example ,,iv4--,the ,far1 ,far ,fast4--,first six ,lines4 ,it was a dream of earl -y years1 the long -est and the last1 ,and still it ling -ers bright and lone amid the drear -y past2 ,when ,i was sick and sad at heart and faint with grief and care1 ,it threw its ra -diant smile athwart the shad -ows of despair3 ,and still when falls the hour of gloom upon this way -ward breast1 ,unto ,,the ,,far1 ,,far ,,east ,i turn for sol -ace and for rest4 ,edinburgh ,journal2 and ,the ,examiner1 ,example ,v4--,lament of the ,slave4--,eight ,lines from thirty-four4 ,behold the sun which gilds yon heaven1 how love -ly it appears6 ,and must it shine to light a world of war -fare and of tears8 ,shall hu -man pas -sion ev -er sway this glo -rious world of ,god1 ,and beau -ty1 wis -dom1 hap -piness1 sleep with the tram -pled sod8 ,shall peace ne'er lift her ban -ner up1 shall truth and rea -son cry1 ,and men oppress them down with worse than an -cient tyr -anny8 ,shall all the les -sons time has taught1 be so long taught in vain2 ,and earth be steeped in hu -man tears1 and groan with hu -man pain8 ,,alonzo ,,lewis3 ,freedom's ,amulet1 ,dec4 #f1 #ahdh4 ,example ,,vi4--,greek ,funeral ,chant4--,first four of sixty-four ,lines4 ,a wail was heard around the bed1 the death -bed of the young2 ,amidst her tears1 the ,fu -neral ,chant a mourn -ful moth -er sung4 ',i-an -this dost thou sleep8-- ,thou sleepst6-- but this is not the rest1 ,the breath -ing1 warm1 and ros -y calm1 ,i've pil -low'd on my breast6' ,,felicia ,,hemans3 ,poetical ,works1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cg4 ,everett observes1 ,the ,iliad was translated into this measure by ,,chapman1 and the neid by ,,phaer4--,eng4 ,versif41 p4 #fh4 ,prior1 who has a ballad of one hundred and eighty such lines1 intimates in a note the great antiquity of the verse4 ,measures of this length1 though not very uncommon1 are much less frequently used than shorter ones4 ,a practice has long prevailed of dividing this kind of verse into alternate lines of four and of three feet1 thus3-- ,to such as fear thy ho -ly name1 myself ,i close -ly join2 ,to all who their obe -dient wills to thy commands resign4 ,psalms with ,com4 ,prayer3 ,psalm cxix1 #fc4 ,this1 according to the critics1 is the most soft and pleasing of our lyric measures4 ,with the slight change of setting a capital at the head of each line1 it becomes the regular ballad-metre of our language4 ,being also adapted to hymns1 as well as to lighter songs1 and1 more particularly1 to quaint details of no great length1 this stanza1 or a similar one more ornamented with rhymes1 is found in many choice pieces of ,english poetry4 ,the following are a few popular examples3-- ,when all thy mer -cies1 ,o my ,god6 ,my ris -ing soul surveys1 ,transport -ed with the view ,i'm lost ,in won -der1 love1 and praise4 ,addison's ,hymn of ,gratitude4 ,john ,gil -pin was a cit -izen ,of cred -it and renown1 ,a train -band cap -tain eke was he ,of fam -ous ,lon -don town4 ,cowper's ,poems1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bge4 ,god pros -per long our no -ble king1 ,our lives and safe -ties all2 ,a wo -ful hunt -ing once there did ,in ,chev -y ,chase befall1 ,later ,reading of ,chevy ,chase4 ,turn1 ,an -geli -na1 ev -er dear1 ,my charm -er1 turn to see ,thy own1 thy long -lost ,ed -win here1 ,restored to love and thee4 ,goldsmith's ,poems1 p4 #fg4 ',come back6 come back6' he cried in grief1 ,across this storm -y water3 ',and ,i'll forgive your ,high -land chief1 ,my daugh -ter6--oh my daughter6 ',twas vain3 the loud waves lashed the shore1 ,return or aid preventing3-- ,the wa -ters wild went o'er his child1-- ,and he was left lamenting4--,campbell's ,poems1 p4 #aaj4 ,the rhyming of this last stanza is irregular and remarkable1 yet not unpleasant4 ,it is contrary to rule1 to omit any rhyme which the current of the verse leads the reader to expect4 ,yet here the word shore ending the first line1 has no correspondent sound1 where twelve examples of such correspondence had just preceded2 while the third line1 without previous example1 is so rhymed within itself that one scarcely perceives the omission4 ,double rhymes are said by some to unfit this metre for serious subjects1 and to adapt it only to what is meant to be burlesque1 humorous1 or satiric4 ,the example above does not confirm this opinion1 yet the rule1 as a general one1 may still be just4 ,ballad verse may in some degree imitate the language of a simpleton1 and become popular by clownishness1 more than by elegance3 as1 ,father and ,i went down to the camp ,along with cap -tain ,goodwin1 ,and there we saw the men and boys ,as thick as hast -y pudding2 ,and there we saw a thun -dering gun1-- ,it took a horn of powder1-- ,it made a noise like fa -ther's gun1 ,only a na -tion louder4 ,original ,song of ,yankee ,doodle4 ,even the line of seven feet may still be lengthened a little by a double rhyme3 as1 ,how gay -ly1 o -ver fell and fen1 yon sports -man light is dashing6 ,and gay -ly1 in the sun -beams bright1 the mow --er's blade is flashing6 ,of this length1 ,t4 ,o4 ,churchill reckons the following couplet2 but by the general usage of the day1 the final ed is not made a separate syllable3-- ,with hic and hoec1 as ,pris -cian tells1 sacer -dos was decli -ned2 ,but now its gen -der by the pope far bet -ter is defi -ned4 ,churchill's ,new ,grammar1 p4 #ahh4 ,,measure ,,iii4--,,iambic ,,of ,,six ,,feet1 ,,or ,,hexameter4 ,example ,i4--,a ,couplet4 ,so va -rying still their moods1 observ -ing yet in all ,their quan -tities1 their rests1 their cen -sures met -rical4 ,,michael ,,drayton3 ,johnson's ,quarto ,dict41 w4 ,quantity4 ,example ,,ii4--,from a ,description of a ,stag-,hunt4 ,and through the cumb -rous thicks1 as fear -fully he makes1 ,he with his branch -ed head the ten -der sap -lings shakes1 ,that sprink -ling their moist pearl do seem for him to weep2 ,when aft -er goes the cry1 with yell -ings loud and deep1 ,that all the for -est rings1 and ev -ery neigh -bouring place3 ,and there is not a hound but fall -eth to the chase4 ,,drayton3 ,three ,couplets from twenty-three1 in ,everett's ,versif41 p4 #ff4 ,example ,,iii4--,an ,extract from ,shakespeare4 ,if love make me forsworn1 how shall ,i swear to love8 ,o1 nev -er faith could hold1 if not to beau -ty vow'd3 ,though to myself forsworn1 to thee ,i'll con -stant prove2 ,those thoughts1 to me like oaks1 to thee like o -siers bow'd4 ,study his bi -as leaves1 and makes his book thine eyes1 ,where all those pleas -ures live1 that art can com -prehend4 ,if knowl -edge be the mark1 to know thee shall suffice2 ,well learn -ed is that tongue that well can thee commend2 ,all ig -norant that soul that sees thee with' out wonder2 ,which is to me some praise1 that ,i thy parts admire3 ,thine eye ,jove's light -ning seems1 thy voice his dread -ful thunder1 ,which 7not to an -ger bent7 is mu -sic and sweet fire4 ,celes -tial as thou art1 ,o1 do not love that wrong1 ,to sing the heav -ens' praise with such an earth -ly tongue4 ,the ,passionate ,pilgrim1 ,stanza ,,ix2 ,,singer',s ,,shak41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #eid4 ,example ,,iv4--,the ,ten ,commandments ,versified4 ,adore no ,god besides me1 to provoke mine eyes2 ,nor wor -ship me in shapes and forms that men devise2 ,with rev 'rence use my name1 nor turn my words to jest2 ,observe my sab -bath well1 nor dare profane my rest2 ,honor and due obe -dience to thy pa -rents give2 ,nor spill the guilt -less blood1 nor let the guilt -y live2#ejg ,preserve thy bod -y chaste1 and flee th' unlaw -ful bed2 ,nor steal thy neigh -bor's gold1 his gar -ment1 or his bread2 ,forbear to blast his name with false -hood or deceit2 ,nor let thy wish -es loose upon his large estate4 ,,dr4 ,,isaac ,,watts3 ,lyric ,poems1 p4 #df4 ,this verse1 consisting1 when entirely regular1 of twelve syllables in six iambs1 is the ,alexandrine2 said to have been so named because it was first used in a poem called ,alexander4--,worcester's ,dict4 ,such metre has sometimes been written1 with little diversity1 through an entire ,english poem1 as in ,drayton's ,polyolbion2 but1 couplets of this length being generally esteemed too clumsy for our language1 the ,alexandrine has been little used by ,english versifiers1 except to complete certain stanzas beginning with shorter iambics1 or1 occasionally1 to close a period in heroic rhyme4 ,french heroics are similar to this2 and if1 as some assert1 we have obtained it thence1 the original poem was doubtless a ,french one1 detailing the exploits of the hero ,alexandre4 ,the phrase1 an ,alexandrine verse1 is1 in ,french1 un vers ,alexandrin4 ,dr4 ,gregory1 in his ,dictionary of ,arts and ,sciences1 copies ,johnson's ,quarto ,dictionary1 which says1 ,,alexandrine1 a kind of verse borrowed from the ,french1 first used in a poem called ,alexander4 ,they ,alexandrines consist1 among the ,french1 of twelve and thirteen syllables1 in alternate couplets2 and1 among us1 of twelve4 ,dr4 ,webster1 in his ,american ,dictionary1 improperly 7as ,i think7 gives to the name two forms1 and seems also to acknowledge two sorts of the ,english verse3 ,,alexan',,drine1 or ,,alexan',,drian1 n4 ,a kind of verse1 consisting of twelve syllables1 or of twelve and thirteen alternately4 ,the ,pet-,lamb1 a modern pastoral1 by ,wordsworth1 has sixty-eight lines1 all probably meant for ,alexandrines2 most of which have twelve syllables1 though some have thirteen1 and others1 fourteen4 ,but it were a great pity1 that versification so faulty and unsuitable should ever be imitated4 ,about half of the said lines1 as they appear in the poet's royal octave1 or the ,first ,complete ,american1 from the ,last ,london ,edition1 are as sheer prose as can be written1 it being quite impossible to read them into any proper rhythm4 ,the poem being designed for children1 the measure should have been reduced to iambic trimeter1 and made exact at that4 ,the story commences thus3-- ,the dew was fall -ing fast1 the stars began to blink2 ,i heard a voice2 it said1 ',drink1 pret -ty crea -ture1 drink6' ,and1 look -ing o'er the hedge1 before me ,i espied ,a snow -white moun -tain ,lamb with a ,maid -en at its side4 ,all this is regular1 with the exception of one foot2 but who can make any thing but prose of the following8 ,thy limbs will shortly be twice as stout as they are now1 ,then ,i'll yoke thee to my cart like a pony in the plough4 ,here thou needest not dread the raven in the sky2 ,night and day thou art safe1--our cottage is hard by4 ,,wordsworth',s ,poems1 ,new-,haven ,ed41 #ahcf1 p4 #d4 ,in some very ancient ,english poetry1 we find lines of twelve syllables combined in couplets with others of fourteen2 that is1 six iambic feet are alternated with seven1 in lines that rhyme4 ,the following is an example1 taken from a piece of fifty lines1 which ,dr4 ,johnson ascribes to the ,earl of ,surry1 one of the wits that flourished in the reign of ,henry ,,viii3-- ,such way -ward wayes hath ,love1 that most part in discord1 ,our willes do stand1 whereby our hartes but sel -dom do accord2 ,decyte is hys delighte1 and to begyle and mocke1 ,the sim ple hartes which he doth strike with fro -ward di -vers stroke4 ,he caus -eth th' one to rage with gold -en burn -ing darte1 ,and doth allay with lead -en cold1 again the oth -er's harte2 ,whose gleames of burn -ing fyre and eas -y sparkes of flame1 ,in bal -ance of une -qual weyght he pon -dereth by ame4 ,see ,johnson's ,quarto ,dict41 ,history of the ,eng4 ,lang41 p4 #d4 ,,measure ,,iv4--,,iambic ,,of ,,five ,,feet1 ,,or ,,pentameter4 ,example ,i4--,hector to ,andromache4 ,androm -ache6 my soul's far bet -ter part1 ,why with untime -ly sor -rows heaves thy heart8 ,no hos -tile hand can an -tedate my doom1 ,till fate condemns me to the si -lent tomb4 ,fix'd is the term to all the race of earth2 ,and such the hard conditi -on of our birth1 ,no force can then resist1 no flight can save2 ,all sink alike1 the fear -ful and the brave4 ,,pope',s ,,homer3 ,iliad1 ,b4 vi1 l4 #fbd-fcb4 ,example ,,ii4--,angels' ,worship4 ,no soon -er had th' ,almight -y ceas'd but all ,the mul -titude of an -gels with a shout ,loud as from num -bers with' -out num -ber1 sweet ,as from blest voi -ces ut ter ing joy1 heav'n rung ,with ju -bilee1 and loud hosan -nas fill'd ,th' eter -nal re -gions2 low -ly rev -erent ,tow'rds ei -ther throne they bow1 and to the ground ,with sol -emn ad -ora -tion down they cast ,their crowns inwove with am -arant and gold4 ,,milton3 ,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 iii1 l4 #cdd4 ,example ,,iii4--,deceptive ,glosses4 ,the world is still deceiv'd with or -nament4 ,in law1 what plea so taint -ed and corrupt1 ,but1 be -ing sea -son'd with a gra -cious voice1 ,obscures the show of e -vil8 ,in religion1 ,what dam --ned er -ror1 but some so -ber brow ,will bless it1 and approve it with a text1 ,hiding the gross -ness with fair or -nament8 ,,shakspeare3 ,merch4 of ,venice1 ,act iii1 ,sc4 #b4 ,example ,,iv4--,praise ,god4 ,ye head -long tor -rents1 rap -id1 and profound2 ,ye soft -er floods1 that lead the hu -mid maze ,along the vale2 and thou1 majes -tic main1 ,a se -cret world of won -ders in thyself1 ,sound ,his stupen -dous praise2 whose great -er voice ,or bids you roar1 or bids your roar -ings fall4 ,,thomson3 ,hymn to the ,seasons4 ,example ,v4--,the ,christian ,spirit4 ,like him the soul1 thus kin -dled from above1 ,spreads wide her arms of u -niver -sal love2 ,and1 still enlarg'd as she receives the grace1 ,includes crea -tion in her close embrace4 ,behold a ,chris -tian6 and without the fires ,the found -er of that name alone inspires1 ,though all accom -plishment1 all knowl -edge meet1 ,to make the shin -ing prod -igy complete1 ,whoev -er boasts that name-- behold a cheat6 ,,cowper3 ,charity2 ,poems1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ace4 ,example ,,vi4--,to ,london4 ,ten right -eous would have sav'd a cit -y once1 ,and thou hast man -y right -eous4--,well for thee-- ,that salt preserves thee2 more corrupt -ed else1 ,and there -fore more obnox -ious1 at this hour1 ,than ,sod -om in her day had pow'r to be1 ,for whom ,god heard his ,abr' -ham plead in vain4 ,,idem3 ,the ,task1 ,book iii1 at the end4 ,this verse1 the iambic pentameter1 is the regular ,english heroic--a stately species1 and that in which most of our great poems are composed1 whether epic1 dramatic1 or descriptive4 ,it is well adapted to rhyme1 to the composition of sonnets1 to the formation of stanzas of several sorts2 and yet is1 perhaps1 the only measure suitable for blank verse--which latter form always demands a subject of some dignity or sublimity4 ,the ,elegiac ,stanza1 or the form of verse most commonly used by elegists1 consists of four heroics rhyming alternately2 as1 ,thou knowst how trans -port thrills the ten -der breast1 ,where love and fan -cy fix their ope -ning reign2 ,how na -ture shines in live -lier col -ours dress'd1 ,to bless their un -ion1 and to grace their train4 ,,shenstone3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #ajf4 ,iambic verse is seldom continued perfectly pure through a long succession of lines4 ,among its most frequent diversifications1 are the following2 and others may perhaps be noticed hereafter3-- 7#a47 ,the first foot is often varied by a substitutional trochee2 as1 ,bacchus1 that first from out the pur -ple grape ,crush'd the sweet poi -son of mis-us -ed wine1 ,after the ,tus -can mar -iners transform'd1 ,coasting the ,tyr -rhene shore1 as the winds listed1 ,on ,cir -ce's isl -and fell4 ,who knows not ,circe1 ,the daugh -ter of the sun8 whose charm -ed cup ,whoev -er tast -ed1 lost his up -right shape1 ,and down -ward fell into a grov -elling swine4 ,,milton3 ,comus2 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #adg4 7#b47 ,by a synresis of the two short syllables1 an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iambus2 or a dactyl1 for a trochee4 ,this occurs chiefly where one unaccented vowel precedes an other in what we usually regard as separate syllables1 and both are clearly heard1 though uttered perhaps in so quick succession that both syllables may occupy only half the time of a long one4 ,some prosodists1 however1 choose to regard these substitutions as instances of trissyllabic feet mixed with the others2 and1 doubtless1 it is in general easy to make them such1 by an utterance that avoids1 rather than favours1 the coalescence4 ,the following are examples3-- ,no rest3 through man -y a dark and drear -y vale ,they pass'd1 and man -y a re -gion dol -orous1 ,o'er man -y a fro -zen1 man -y a fi -ery ,alp4 --,,milton3 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #fah4 ,rejoice ye na -tions1 vin -dicate the sway ,ordain'd for com -mon hap -piness4 ,wide1 o'er ,the globe terra -queous1 let ,britan -nia pour ,the fruits of plen -ty from her co -pious horn4 --,,dyer3 ,fleece1 ,b4 iv1 l4 #feh4 ,myriads of souls that knew one pa -rent mold1 ,see sad -ly sev er'd by the laws of chance6 ,myriads1 in time's peren -nial list enroll'd1 ,forbid by fate to change one tran -sient glance6 ,,shenstone3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #aji4 7#c47 ,in plays1 and light or humorous descriptions1 the last foot of an iambic line is often varied or followed by an additional short syllable2 and1 sometimes1 in verses of triple rhyme1 there is an addition of two short syllables1 after the principal rhyming syllable4 ,some prosodists call the variant foot1 in die former instance1 an amphibrach1 and would probably1 in the latter1 suppose either an additional pyrrhic1 or an amphibrach with still a surplus syllable2 but others scan1 in these cases1 by the iambus only1 calling what remains after the last long syllable hypermeter2 and this is1 ,i think1 the better way4 ,the following examples show these and some other variations from pure iambic measure3-- ,example ,i4--,grief4 ,each sub stance of a grief hath twen -ty shadows1 ,which show like grief itself1 but are not so3 ,for sor -row's eye1 glazed with blind -ing tears1 ,divides one thing entire to man --y objects2 ,like per -spectives1 which1 right -ly gaz'd upon1 ,show noth -ing but confu -sion2 ey'd awry1 ,distin -guish form3 so your sweet maj -esty1 ,looking awry upon your lord's departure1 ,finds shapes of grief1 more than himself1 to wail2 ,which1 look'd on as it is1 is nought but shadows4 ,,shakspeare3 ,richard ,,ii1 ,act ii1 ,sc4 #b4 ,example ,,ii4--,a ,wish to ,please4 ,o1 that ,i had the art of eas -y writing ,what should be eas -y read -ing could ,i scale ,parnas -sus1 where the ,mus -es sit inditing ,those pret -ty po -ems nev -er known to fail1 ,how quick -ly would ,i print 7the world delighting7 ,a ,gre -cian1 ,syr -ian1 or ,assy -ian tale2 ,and sell you1 mix'd with west -ern sen -timentalism1 ,some sam -ples of the fin -est ,o -rientalism4 ,,lord ,,byron3 ,beppo1 ,stanza ,,xlviii4 ,,measure ,v4--,,iambic ,,of ,,four ,,feet1 ,,or ,,tetrameter4 ,example ,i4--,presidents of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,first stands the loft -y ,wash -ington1 ,that no -ble1 great1 immor -tal one2 ,the eld -er ,ad -ams next we see2 ,and ,jef -ferson comes num -ber three2 ,then ,mad -ison is fourth1 you know2 ,the fifth one on the list1 ,monroe2 ,the sixth an ,ad -ams comes again2 ,and ,jack -son1 sev -enth in the train2 ,van ,bu -ren1 eighth upon the line2 ,and ,har -rison counts num -ber nine2 ,the tenth is ,ty -ler1 in his turn2 ,and ,polk1 elev -enth1 as we learn2 ,the twelfth is ,tay -lor1 peo -ple say2 ,the next we learn some fu -ture day4 ,,anonymous3 ,from ,newspaper1 #ahdi4 ,example ,,ii4--,the ,shepherd ,bard4 ,the bard on ,ett -rick's moun tain green ,in ,na -ture's bo -som nursed had been1 ,and oft had marked in for -est lone ,her beau -ties on her moun -tain throne2 ,had seen her deck the wild -wood tree1 ,and star with snow -y gems the lea2 ,in love -liest col -ours paint the plain1 ,and sow the moor with pur -ple grain2 ,by gold -en mead and moun -tain sheer1 ,had viewed the ,ett -rick wav -ing clear1 ,where shad -owy flocks of pur -est snow ,seemed graz -ing in a world below4 ,,james ,,hogg3 ,the ,queen's ,wake1 p4 #gf4 ,example ,,iii4--,two ,stanzas from ,eighteen1 ,addressed to the ,ettrick ,shepherd4 ,o ,shep -herd6 since 'tis thine to boast ,the fas -cinat -ing pow'rs of song1 ,far1 far above the count -less host1 ,who swell the ,mus -es' sup -pliant throng1 ,the ,,gift ,,of ,,god distrust no more1 ,his in -spira -tion be thy guide2 ,be heard thy harp from shore to shore1 ,thy song's reward thy coun -try's pride4 ,b4 ,,barton3 ,verses prefixed to the ,queen's ,wake4 ,example ,,iv4--,elegiac ,stanzas1 in ,iambics of ,four feet and ,three4 ,o for a dirge6 ,but why complain8 ,ask rath -er a trium -phal strain ,when ,,fer ,,mor',s race is run2 ,a gar -land of immor -tal boughs ,to bind around the ,chris -tian's brows1 ,whose glo -rious work is done4 ,we pay a high and ho -ly debt2 ,no tears of pas -sionate regret ,shall stain this vo -tive lay2 ,ill-wor -thy1 ,beau -mont6 were the grief ,that flings itself on wild relief ,when ,saints have passed away4 ,w4 ,,wordsworth3 ,poetical ,works1 ,first complete ,amer4 ,ed41 p4 #bjh4 ,this line1 the iambic tetrameter1 is a favourite one1 with many writers of ,english verse1 and has been much used1 both in couplets and in stanzas4 ,butler's ,hudibras1 ,gay's ,fables1 and many allegories1 most of ,scott's poetical works1 and some of ,byron's1 are written in couplets of this measure4 ,it is liable to the same diversifications as the preceding metre4 ,the frequent admission of an additional short syllable1 forming double rhyme1 seems admirably to adapt it to a familiar1 humorous1 or burlesque style4 ,the following may suffice for an example3-- ,first1 this large par -cel brings you tidings ,of our good ,dean's eter -nal chidings2 ,of ,nel -ly's pert -ness1 ,rob -in's leasings1 ,and ,sher -idan's perpet -ual teasings4 ,this box is cramm'd on ev -ery side ,with ,stel -la's mag -iste -rial pride4 ,,dean ,,swift3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #ccd4 ,the following lines have ten syllables in each1 yet the measure is not iambic of five feet1 but that of four with hypermeter3-- ,there was an an -cient sage philosopher1 ,who had read ,al -exan -der ,ross over4--,butler's ,hudibras4 ,i'll make them serve for per -pendiculars1 ,as true as e'er were us'd by bricklayers4 --,ib41 ,part ii1 ,c4 iii1 l4 #ajbj4 ,,measure ,,vi4--,,iambic ,,of ,,three ,,feet1 ,,or ,,trimeter4 ,example4--,to ,evening4 ,now teach me1 maid compos'd ,to breathe some soft -en'd strain4--,collins1 p4 #ci4 ,this short measure has seldom1 if ever1 been used alone in many successive couplets2 but it is often found in stanzas1 sometimes without other lengths1 but most commonly with them4 ,the following are a few examples3-- ,example ,i4--,two ancient ,stanzas1 out of ,many1 ,this while we are abroad1 ,shall we not touch our lyre8 ,shall we not sing an ode8 ,shall now that ho -ly fire1 ,in us1 that strong -ly glow'd1 ,in this cold air1 expire8 ,though in the ut -most peak1 ,a while we do remain1 ,amongst the moun -tains bleak1 ,expos'd to sleet and rain1 ,no sport our hours shall break1 ,to ex -ercise our vein4 ,,drayton3 ,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #ac2 ,john ,burn's1 p4 #bdd4 ,example ,,ii4--,acis and ,galatea4 ,for us the zeph -yr blows1 ,for us distils the dew1 ,for us unfolds the rose1 ,and flow'rs display their hue2 ,for us the win -ters rain1 ,for us the sum -mers shine1 ,spring swells for us the grain1 ,and au -tumn bleeds the vine4 ,,john ,,gay3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #cgf4 ,example ,,iii4--,mene1 ,mene1 ,tekel1 ,upharsin4 ,the king was on his throne1 ,the sa -traps thronged the hall2 ,a thou -sand bright lamps shone ,o'er that high fes -tival4 ,a thou -sand cups of gold1 ,in ,ju -dah deemed divine-- ,jeho -vah's ves -sels1 hold ,the god -less ,hea -then's wine6 ,in that same hour and hall1 ,the fin -gers of a hand ,came forth against the wall1 ,and wrote as if on sand3 ,the fin -gers of a man1-- ,a sol -ita -ry hand ,along the let -ters ran1 ,and traced them like a wand4 ,,lord ,,byron3 ,vision of ,belshazzar4 ,example ,,iv4--,lyric ,stanzas4 ,descend1 celes -tial fire1 ,and seize me from above1 ,melt me in flames of pure desire1 ,a sac -rifice to love4 ,let joy and wor -ship spend ,the rem -nant of my days1 ,and to my ,god1 my soul ascend1 ,in sweet perfumes of praise4 ,,watts3 ,poems sacred to ,devotion1 p4 #ej4 ,example ,v4--,lyric ,stanzas4 ,i would begin the mu -sic here1 ,and so my soul should rise3 ,o for some heav'n -ly notes to bear ,my spir -it to the skies6 ,there1 ye that love my say -iour1 sit1 ,there ,i would fain have place ,amongst your thrones or at your feet1 ,so ,i might see his face4 ,,watts3 ,same work1 ,hor ,lyric1 p4 #ga4 ,example ,,vi4--,england's ,dead4 ,the hur -ricane hath might ,along the ,in -dian shore1 ,and far1 by ,gan -ges' banks at night1 ,is heard the ti -ger's roar4 ,but let the sound roll on6 ,it hath no tone of dread ,for those that from their toils are gone2-- ,there slum -ber ,eng -land's dead4 ,,hemans3 ,poetical ,works1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #fa4 ,the following examples have some of the common diversifications already noticed under the longer measures3-- ,example ,i4--,languedocian ,air4 ,love is a hunt -er boy1 ,who makes young hearts his prey2 ,and in his nets of joy ,ensnares them night and day4 ,in vain conceal'd they lie1 ,love tracks them ev' -ry where2 ,in vain aloft they fly1 ,love shoots them fly -ing there4 ,but 'tis his joy most sweet1 ,at earl -y dawn to trace ,the print of ,beau -ty's feet1 ,and give the trem -bler chase4 ,and most he loves through snow ,to track those foot -steps fair1 ,for then the boy doth know1 ,none track'd before him there4 ,,moore',s ,melodies and ,national ,airs1 p4 #bgd4 ,example ,,ii4--,from a ,portuguese ,air4 ,flow on1 thou shin -ing river1 ,but ere thou reach the sea1 ,seek ,el -la's bower1 and give her ,the wreaths ,i fling o'er thee4 ,but1 if in wand' -ring thither1 ,thou find she mocks my pray'r1 ,then leave those wreaths to wither ,upon the cold bank there4 ,,moore3 ,same ,volume1 p4 #bfa4 ,example ,,iii4--,resignation4 ,o ,res -igna -tion6 yet unsung1 ,untouch'd by for -mer strains2 ,though claim -ing ev -ery mu -se's smile1 ,and ev -ery po -et's pains6 ,all oth -er du -ties cres -cents are ,of vir -tue faint -ly bright2 ,the glo -rious con -summa -tion1 thou1 ,which fills her orb with light6 ,,young3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 viii1 p4 #cgg4 ,,measure ,,vii4--,,iambic ,,of ,,two ,,feet1 ,,or ,,dimeter4 ,example--,a ,scolding ,wife4 #a4 ,there was a man ,whose name was ,dan1 ,who sel -dom spoke2 ,his part -ner sweet ,he thus did greet1 ,without a joke2 #b4 ,my love -ly wife1 ,thou art the life ,of all my joys2 ,without thee1 ,i ,should sure -ly die ,for want of noise4 #c4 ,o1 prec -ious one1 ,let thy tongue run ,in a sweet fret2 ,and this will give ,a chance to live1 ,a long time yet4 #d4 ,when thou dost scold ,so loud and bold1 ,i'm kept awake2 ,but if thou leave1 ,it will me grieve1 ,till life forsake4 #e4 ,then said his wife1 ,i'll have no strife ,with you1 sweet ,dan2 ,as 'tis your mind1 ,i'll let you find ,i am your man4 #f4 ,and fret ,i will1 ,to keep you still ,enjoy -ing life2 ,so you may be ,content with me1 ,a scold -ing wife4 ,,anonymous3 ,cincinnati ,herald1 #ahdd4 ,iambic dimeter1 like the metre of three iambs1 is much less frequently used alone than in stanzas with longer lines2 but the preceding example is a refutation of the idea1 that no piece is ever composed wholly of this measure1 or that the two feet cannot constitute a line4 ,in ,humphrey's ,english ,prosody1 on page #afth1 is the following paragraph2 which is not only defective in style1 but erroneous in all its averments3-- ,poems are never composed of lines of two - feet metre1 in succession3 they combinations of two feet are only used occasionally in poems1 hymns1 odes1 c4 to diversify the metre2 and are1 in no case1 lines of poetry1 or verses2 but hemistics1 hemistichs1 or half lines4 ,the shortest metre of which iambic verse is composed1 in lines successively1 is that of three feet2 and this is the shortest metre which can be denominated lines1 or verses2 and this is not frequently used4 ,in ballads1 ditties1 hymns1 and versified psalms1 scarcely any line is more common than the iambic trimeter1 here denied to be frequently used2 of which species1 there are about seventy lines among the examples above4 ,dr4 ,young's poem entitled ,resignation1 has eight hundred and twenty such lines1 and as many more of iambic tetrameter4 ,his ,ocean has one hundred and forty-five of the latter1 and two hundred and ninety-two of the species now under consideration2 i4e41 iambic dimeter4 ,but how can the metre which predominates by two to one1 be called1 in such a case1 an occasional diversification of that which is less frequent8 ,lines of two iambs are not very uncommon1 even in psalmody2 and1 since we have some lines yet shorter1 and the lengths of all are determined only by the act of measuring1 there is1 surely1 no propriety in calling dimeters hemistichs1 merely because they are short4 ,the following are some examples of this measure combined with longer ones3-- ,example ,i4--,from ,psalm ,,cxlviii4 #a1 #b4 ,ye bound -less realms of joy1 ,exalt your ,ma -ker's fame2 ,his praise your songs employ ,above the star -ry frame3 ,your voi -ces raise1 ,ye ,cher -ubim1 ,and ,ser -aphim1 ,to sing his praise4 #c1 #d4 ,thou moon1 that rul'st the night1 ,and sun1 that guid'st the day1 ,ye glitt' -ring stars of light1 ,to him your hom -age pay3 ,his praise declare1 ,ye heavens above1 ,and clouds that move ,in liq -uid air4 ,the ,book of ,psalms in ,metre1 7with ,com4 ,prayer17 #ahai4 ,example ,,ii4--,from ,psalm ,,cxxxvi4 ,to ,god the might -y ,lord1 your joy -ful thanks repeat2 ,to him due praise afford1 as good as he is great3 ,for ,god does prove ,our con -stant friend1 ,his bound -less love ,shall nev -er end4--,ib41 p4 #afd4 ,example ,,iii4--,gloria ,patri4 ,to ,god the ,fa -ther1 ,son1 ,and ,spir -it ev -er bless'd1 ,eter -nal ,three in ,one1 ,all wor -ship be address'd2 ,as here -tofore ,it was1 is now1 ,and shall be so ,for ev -ermore4--,ib41 p4 #agi4 ,example ,,iv4--,part of ,psalm ,,iii4 ,o ,lord1 how man -y are my foes6 ,how man -y those ,that now in arms against me rise6 ,many are they ,that of my life distrust -fully thus say3 ',no help for him in ,god there lies4' ,but thou1 ,lord1 art my shield my glory2 ,thee1 through my story1 ,th' exalt -er of my head ,i count2 ,aloud ,i cried ,unto ,jeho -vah1 he full soon replied1 ,and heard me from his ho -ly mount4 ,,milton3 ,psalms ,versified1 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #afa4 ,example ,v4--,six ,lines of an ,air4 ,as when the dove ,laments her love ,all on the na -ked spray2 ,when he returns1 ,no more she mourns1 ,but loves the live -long day4 ,,john ,,gay3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #cgg4 ,example ,,vi4--,four ,stanzas of an ,ode4 ,,xxviii4 ,gold pleas -ure buys2 ,but pleas -ure dies1 ,too soon the gross fruiti -on cloys3 ,though rapt -ures court1 ,the sense is short2 ,but vir -tue kin -dles liv -ing joys3 ,,xxix4 ,joys felt alone6 ,joys ask'd of none6 ,which ,time's and ,for -tune's ar -rows miss2 ,joys that subsist1 ,though fates resist1 ,an un -preca -rious1 end -less bliss6 ,,xxx4 ,the soul refin'd ,is most inclin'd ,to ev -ery mor -al ex -cellence2 ,all vice is dull1 ,a knave's a fool2 ,and ,vir -tue is the child of ,sense4 ,,xxxi4 ,the vir -tuous mind ,nor wave1 nor wind1 ,nor civ -il rage1 nor ty -rant's frown1 ,the shak -en ball1 ,nor plan -ets' fall1 ,from its firm ba -sis can dethrone4 ,,young',s ,,ocean3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 viii1 p #bgg4 ,there is a line of five syllables and double rhyme1 which is commonly regarded as iambic dimeter with a supernumerary short syllable2 and which1 though it is susceptible of two other divisions into two feet1 we prefer to scan in this manner1 because it usually alternates with pure iambics4 ,twelve such lines occur in the following extract3-- ,,love ,,transitory ,could ,love for ever ,run like a river1 ,and ,time's endeavour ,be tried in vain1-- ,no oth -er pleasure ,with this could measure2 ,and like a treasure ,we'd hug the chain4 ,but since our sighing ,ends not in dying1 ,and1 formed for flying1 ,love plumes his wing2 ,then for this reason ,let's love a season2 ,but let that season ,be on -ly spring4 ,,lord ,,byron3 ,see ,everett's ,versification1 p4 #ai2 ,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fej4 ,,measure ,,viii4--,,iambic ,,of ,,one ,,foot1 ,,or ,,monometer4 ,the shortest form of the ,english ,iambic1 says ,lindley ,murray1 consists of an ,iambus with an additional short syllable3 as1 ,disdaining1 ,complaining1 ,consenting1 ,repenting4 ,we have no poem of this measure1 but it may be met with in stanzas4 ,the ,iambus1 with this addition1 coincides with the ,amphibrach4--,murray's ,gram41 #abmo1 p4 #bjd2 #hvo1 p4 #bed4 ,this1 or the substance of it1 has been repeated by many other authors4 ,everett varies the language and illustration1 but teaches the same doctrine4 ,see ,e4 ,versif41 p4 #ae4 ,now there are sundry examples which may be cited to show1 that the iambus1 without any additional syllable1 and without the liability of being confounded with an other foot1 may1 and sometimes does1 stand as a line1 and sustain a regular rhyme4 ,the following pieces contain instances of this sort3-- ,example ,i4--,how to ,keep ,lent4 ,is this a ,fast1 to keep ,the lard -er lean ,and clean ,from fat of neats and sheep8 ,is it to quit the dish ,of flesh1 yet still ,to fill ,the plat -ter high with fish8 ,is it to fast an hour1 ,or ragg'd to go1 ,or show ,a down -cast look and sour8 ,no3--',tis a ,fast to dole ,thy sheaf of wheat1 ,and meat1 ,unto the hun -gry soul4 ,it is to fast from strife1 ,from old debate1 ,and hate2 ,to cir -cumcise thy life2 ,to show a heart grief-rent2 ,to starve thy sin1 ,not bin3 ,ay1 that's to keep thy ,lent4 ,,robert ,,herrick3 ,clapp's ,pioneer1 p4 #dh4 ,example ,,ii4--,to ,mary ,ann4 ,this singular arrangement of seventy-two separate iambic feet1 ,i find without intermediate points1 and leave it so4 ,it seems intended to be read in three or more different ways1 and the punctuation required by one mode of reading would not wholly suit an other4 ,your face ,your tongue ,your wit ,so fair ,so sweet ,so sharp ,first bent ,then drew ,then hit ,mine eye ,mine ear ,mine heart ,mine eye ,mine ear ,mine heart ,to like ,to learn ,to love ,your face ,your tongue ,your wit ,doth lead ,doth teach ,doth move ,your face ,your tongue ,your wit ,with beams ,with sound ,with art ,doth blind ,doth charm ,doth rule ,mine eye ,mine ear ,mine heart ,mine eye ,mine ear ,mine heart ,with life ,with hope ,with skill ,your face ,your tongue ,your wit ,doth feed ,doth feast ,doth fill ,o face ,o tongue ,o wit ,with frowns ,with cheek ,with smart ,wrong not ,vex not ,wound not ,mine eye ,mine ear ,mine heart ,this eye ,this ear ,this heart ,shall joy ,shall bend ,shall swear ,your face ,your tongue ,your wit ,to serve ,to trust ,to fear4 ,,anonymous3 ,sundry ,american ,newspapers1 in #ahdi4 ,example ,,iii4--,umbrellas4 ,the late ,george ,canning1 of whom ,byron said that 'it was his happiness to be at once a wit1 poet1 orator1 and statesman1 and excellent in all1' is the author of the following clever jeu d' esprit3 except three lines here added in brackets3 ,i saw a man with two umbrellas1 7,one of the lon --gest kind of fellows17 ,when it rained1 ,meet a lady ,on the shady ,side of thirty -three1 ,minus one of these rain -dispellers4 ',i see1' ,says she1 ',your qual -ity of mer -cy is not strained4' ,not slow to comprehend an inkling1 ,his eye with wag -gish hu -mour twinkling4 ,replied he1 ',ma'am1 ,be calm2 ,this one under my arm ,is rotten1 ,and can -not save you from a sprinkling4 ,besides to keep you dry1 ',tis plain that you as well as ,i1 ',can lift your cotton4' ,see ,the ,essex ,county ,freeman1 ,vol4 i1 ,no4 #a4 ,example ,,iv4--,shreds of a ,song4 ,i4 ,,spring4 ,the cuck --oo then1 on ev --ery tree1 ,mocks mar --ried men1 for thus sings he1 ,cuckoo'2 ,cuckoo'1 cuckoo'1-- ,o word of fear1 ,unpleas -ing to a mar -ried ear6 ,,ii4 ,,winter4 ,when blood is nipp'd1 and ways be foul1 ,then night -ly sings the star -ing owl1 ,to-who2 ,to-whit1 to-who1 a mer -ry note1 ,while greas -y ,joan doth keel the pot4 --,,shakspeare3 ,love's ,labour's ,lost1 ,act v1 ,sc4 #b4 ,example ,v4--,puck's ,charm4 ,when he has uttered the fifth line1 he squeezes a juice on ,lysander's eyes4 ,on the ground1 ,sleep sound2 ,i'll apply ,to your eye1 ,gentle lover1 remedy4 ,when thou wak'st1 ,thou tak'st ,true delight ,in the sight ,of thy former lady's eye4 #ejh ,,idem3 ,midsummer-,night's ,dream1 ,act iii1 ,sc4 #b4 ,,order ,,ii4--,,trochaic ,,verse4 ,in ,trochaic verse1 the stress is laid on the odd syllables1 and the even ones are short4 ,single-rhymed trochaic omits the final short syllable1 that it may end with a long one2 for the common doctrine of ,murray1 ,chandler1 ,churchill1 ,bullions1 ,butler1 ,everett1 ,fowler1 ,weld1 ,wells1 ,mulligan1 and others1 that this chief rhyming syllable is additional to the real number of feet in the line1 is manifestly incorrect4 ,one long syllable is1 in some instances1 used as a foot2 but it is one or more short syllables only1 that we can properly admit as hypermeter4 ,iambics and trochaics often occur in the same poem2 but1 in either order1 written with exactness1 the number of feet is always the number of the long syllables4 ,examples from ,gray's ,bard4 7#a47 ,ruin seize thee1 ruthless king6 ,confu -sion on thy ban -ners wait1 ,though1 fann'd by ,con -quest's crim -son wing4 ,they mock the air with i -dle state4 ,helm1 nor hauberk's twisted mail1 ,nor e'en thy vir -tues1 ty -rant1 shall avail4 7#b47 ,weave the warp1 and weave the woof1 ,the wind -ing-sheet of ,ed -ward's race4 ,give am -ple room1 and verge enough1 ,the char -acters of hell to trace4 ,mark the year1 and mark the night1 ,when ,sev -ern shall re-ech -o with affright4 ,the ,bard1 a ,pindaric ,ode2 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #bha and #bhb4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,trochaic verse without the final short syllable1 is the same as iambic would be without the initial short syllable2--it being quite plain1 that iambic1 so changed1 becomes trochaic1 and is iambic no longer4 ,but trochaic1 retrenched of its last short syllable1 is trochaic still2 and can no otherwise be made iambic1 than by the prefixing of a short syllable to the line4 ,feet1 and the orders of verse1 are distinguished one from an other by two things1 and in general by two only2 the number of syllables taken as a foot1 and the order of their quantities4 ,trochaic verse is always as distinguishable from iambic1 as iambic is from any other4 ,yet have we several grammarians and prosodies who contrive to confound them--or who1 at least1 mistake catalectic trochaic for catalectic iambic2 and that too1 where the syllable wanting affects only the last foot1 and makes it perhaps but a common and needful csura4 ,,obs4 #b4--,to suppose that iambic verse may drop its initial short syllable1 and still be iambic1 still be measured as before1 is not only to take a single long syllable for a foot1 not only to recognize a pedal csura at the beginning of each line1 but utterly to destroy the only principles on which iambics and trochaics can be discriminated4 ,yet ,hiley1 of ,leeds1 and ,wells1 of ,andover1 while they are careful to treat separately of these two orders of verse1 not only teach that any order may take at the end an additional syllable1 but also suggest that the iambic may drop a syllable from the first foot1 without diminishing the number of feet1--without changing the succession of quantities1--without disturbing the mode of scansion6 ,sometimes1 say they1 7in treating of iambics17 a syllable is cut off from the first foot2 as1 ,prise to ,gd1 immr -tal prise1 ,fr the lve that crwns our dys4--,,barbauld4 ,hiley's ,e4 ,gram41 ,third ,edition1 ,london1 p4 #abd2 ,wells's1 ,third ,edition1 p4 #aih4 ,,obs4 #c4--,now this couplet is the precise exemplar1 not only of the thirty-six lines of which it is a part1 but also of the most common of our trochaic metres2 and if this may be thus scanned into iambic verse1 so may all other trochaic lines in existence3 distinction between the two orders must then be worse than useless4 ,but ,i reject this doctrine1 and trust that most readers will easily see its absurdity4 ,a prosodist might just as well scan all iambics into trochaics1 by pronouncing each initial short syllable to be hypermeter4 ,for1 surely1 if deficiency may be discovered at the beginning of measurement1 so may redundance4 ,but if neither is to be looked for before the measurement ends1 7which supposition is certainly more reasonable17 then is the distinction already vindicated1 and the scansion above-cited is shown to be erroneous4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,but there are yet other objections to this doctrine1 other errors and inconsistencies in the teaching of it4 ,exactly the same kind of verse as this1 which is said to consist of four iambuses from one of which a syllable is cut off1 is subsequently scanned by the same authors as being composed of three trochees and an additional syllable2 as1 ',haste thee1 ,nymph1 and bring with thee ,jest and youthful ,jolli -ty4'--,,milton4 ,wells's ,school ,grammar1 p4 #bjj4 ,vital spark of heav'nly flme1 ,quit oh quit this mortal frame4 #eji--,,pope4 ,hiley's ,english ,grammar1 p4 #abf4 ,there is1 in the works here cited1 not only the inconsistency of teaching two very different modes of scanning the same species of verse1 but in each instance the scansion is wrong2 for all the lines in question are trochaic of four feet1--single-rhymed1 and1 of course1 catalectic1 and ending with a csura1 or elision4 ,in no metre that lacks but one syllable1 can this sort of foot occur at the beginning of a line2 yet1 as we see1 it is sometimes imagined to be there1 by those who have never been able to find it at the end1 where it oftenest exists6 ,,obs4 #e4--;,i have hinted1 in the main paragraph above1 that it is a common error of our prosodists1 to underrate1 by one foot1 the measure of all trochaic lines1 when they terminate with single rhyme2 an error into which they are led by an other as gross1 that of taking for hypermeter1 or mere surplus1 the whole rhyme itself1 the sound or syllable most indispensable to the verse4 7,for rhyme the rudder is of verses1 ,with which1 like ships1 they steer their courses47--,hudibras4 ,iambics and trochaics1 of corresponding metres1 and exact in them1 agree of course in both the number of feet and the number of syllables2 but as the former are slightly redundant with double rhyme1 so the latter are deficient as much1 with single rhyme2 yet1 the number of feet may1 and should1 in these cases1 be reckoned the same4 ,an estimable author now living says1 ,trochaic verse1 with an additional long syllable1 is the same as iambic verse1 without the initial short syllable4--,n4 ,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aic4 ,this instruction is not quite accurate4 ,nor would it be right1 even if there could be iambic verse without the initial short syllable1 and if it were universally true1 that1 ,trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable4--,ibid4 ,for the addition and subtraction here suggested1 will inevitably make the difference of a foot1 between the measures or verses said to be the same6 ,,obs4 #f4--;,i doubt1 says ,t4 ,o4 ,churchill1 whether the trochaic can be considered as a legitimate ,english measure4 ,all the examples of it given by ,johnson have an additional long syllable at the end3 but these are iambics1 if we look upon the additional syllable to be at the beginning1 which is much more agreeable to the analogy of music4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #cij4 ,this doubt1 ridiculous as must be all reasoning in support of it1 the author seriously endeavours to raise into a general conviction that we have no trochaic order of verse6 ,it can hardly be worth while to notice here all his remarks4 ,an additional long syllable ,johnson never dreamed of--at the end--at the beginning--or anywhere else4 ,for he discriminated metres1 not by the number of feet1 as he ought to have done1 but by the number of syllables he found in each line4 ,his doctrine is this3 ,our iambick measure comprises verses--,of four syllables1--,of six1--,of eight1--,of ten4 ,our trochaick measures are--,of three syllables1--,of five1--,of seven4 ,these are the measures which are now in use1 and above the rest those of seven1 eight and ten syllables4 ,our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes of twelve syllables1 as ,drayton's ,polyolbion2 and of fourteen1 as ,chapman's ,homer4 ,we have another measure very quick and lively1 and therefore much used in songs1 which may be called the anapestick4 ',may ,i gvern my pssion with bsolute swy1 ,and grow wiser and btter as life wears awy4' ,dr4 ,pope4 ,in this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot1 2 as 1 ',when prsent we lve1 and when bsent agre1 ,i th'nk not of ,i'ris 4 nor ,i'ris of m4' ,dryden4 ,these measures are varied by many combinations1 and sometimes by double endings1 either with or without rhyme1 as in the heroick measure4 '',tis the divinity that stirs within us1 ',tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter44' ,addison4 ,so in that of eight syllables1 ',they neither added nor confounded1 ,they neither wanted nor abounded4' ,prior4 ,in that of seven1 ',for resistance ,i could fear none1 ,but with twenty ships had done1 ,what thou1 brave and happy ,vernon1 ,hast achieved with six alone4' ,glover4 ,to these measures and their laws1 may be reduced every species of ,english verse4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,grammar of the ,english ,tongue1 p4 #ad4 ,see his ,quarto ,dict4 ,here1 except a few less important remarks1 and sundry examples of the metres named1 is ,johnson's whole scheme of versification4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,how1 when a prosodist judges certain examples to have an additional long syllable at the end1 he can look upon the additional syllable to be at the beginning1 is a matter of marvel2 yet1 to abolish trochaics1 ,churchill not only does and advises this1 but imagines short syllables removed sometimes from the beginning of lines2 while sometimes he couples final short syllables with initial long ones1 to make iambs1 and yet does not always count these as feet in the verse1 when he has done so6 ,johnson's instructions are both misunderstood and misrepresented by this grammarian4 ,i have therefore cited them the more fully4 ,the first syllable being retrenched from an anapest1 there remains an iambus4 ,but what countenance has ,johnson lent to the gross error of reckoning such a foot an anapest still8--or to that of commencing the measurement of a line by including a syllable not used by the poet8 ,the preceding stanza from ,glover1 is trochaic of four feet2 the odd lines full1 and of course making double rhyme2 the even lines catalectic1 and of course ending with a long syllable counted as a foot4 ,johnson cited it merely as an example of double endings imagining in it no additional syllable1 except perhaps the two which terminate the two trochees1 fear none and ,vernon4 ,these1 it may be inferred1 he improperly conceived to be additional to the regular measure2 because he reckoned measures by the number of syllables1 and probably supposed single rhyme to be the normal form of all rhyming verse4 ,,obs4 #h4--,there is false scansion in many a school grammar1 but perhaps none more uncouthly false1 than ,churchill's pretended amendments of ,johnson's4 ,the second of these--wherein the old seven-foot iambic is professedly found in two lines of ,glover's trochaic tetrameter--,i shall quote3-- ,in the anapstic measure1 ,johnson himself allows1 that a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot2 yet he gives as an example of trochaics with an additional syllable at the end of the even lines a stanza1 which1 by adopting the same principle1 would be in the iambic measure3 ,for resis- tance ,i could fear none1 ,but with twen ty ships had done1 ,what thou1 brave and hap py ,ver- non1 ,hast achiev'd with six alone4 ,in fact1 the second and fourth lines here stamp the character of the measure2 ,fist which is the old seven-foot iambic broken into four and three1 ,,with ,,an ,,additional ,,syllable ,,at ,,the ,,beginning4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #cia4 ,after these observations and criticisms concerning the trochaic order of verse1 ,i proceed to say1 trochaics consist of the following measures1 or metres3-- ,,measure ,i4--,,trochaic ,,of ,,eight ,,feet1 ,,or ,,octometer4 ,example ,i4--,the ,raven--,first ,two out of ,eighteen ,stanzas4 #a4 ,once up -on a midnight dreary1 while ,i pondered1 weak and weary1 ,over many a quaint and curious volume of for -gotten lore1 ,while ,i nodded1 nearly napping1 sudden -ly there came a tapping1 ,as of some one gently rapping1 rapping at my chamber door4 '',tis some visit -or1' ,i muttered1 'tapping at my chamber door-- ,only this1 and nothing more4 #b4 ,ah6 dis -tinctly ,i re -member it was in the bleak ,de -cember1 ,and each separate dying ember wrought its ghost up -on the floor2 ,eager -ly ,i wished the morrow2 vainly had ,i tried to borrow ,from my books sur -cease of sorrow-- sorrow for the lost ,le -nore-- ,for the rare and radiant maiden1 whom the angels name ,le -nore-- ,nameless here for ever -more4 ,,edgar ,a4 ,,poe3 ,american ,review for ,february1 #ahde4 ,double rhymes being less common than single ones1 in the same proportion1 is this long verse less frequently terminated with a full trochee1 than with a single long syllable counted as a foot4 ,the species of measure is1 however1 to be reckoned the same1 though catalectic4 ,by ,lindley ,murray1 and a number who implicitly re-utter what he teaches1 the verse of six trochees1 in which are twelve syllables only1 is said to be the longest ,trochaic line that our language admits4--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #beg2 ,weld's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #baa4 ,the examples produced here will sufficiently show the inaccuracy of their assertion4 ,example ,,ii4--,the ,shadow of the ,obelisk4--,last two ,stanzas4 ,herds are feeding in the ,forum1 as in old ,e -vander's time3 ,tumbled from the steep ,tar -peian every pile that sprang sub -lime4 ,strange6 that what seemed most in -constant should the most a -biding prove2 ,strange6 that what is hourly moving no mu -tation can re -move3 ,ruined lies the cirque6 the chariots1 long a -go1 have ceased to roll-- ,e'en the ,obe -lisk is broken --but the shadow still is whole4 #i4 ,out a --las6 if mightiest empires leave so little mark be -hind1 ,how much less must heroes hope for1 in the wreck of human kind6 ,less than e'en this darksome picture1 which ,i tread be -neath my feet1 ,copied by a lifeless moonbeam on the pebbles of the street2 ,since if ,csar's best am -bition1 living1 was1 to be re -nowned1 ,what shall ,cassar leave be -hind him1 save the shadow of a sound8 ,t4 ,w4 ,,parsons3 ,lowell and ,carter's ,pioneer1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #abj4 ,example ,,iii4--,the ,slaves of ,martinique4--,nine ,couplets out of ,thirty-six4 ,beams of noon1 like burning lances1 through the tree-tops flash and glisten1 ,as she stands be -fore her lover1 with raised face to look and listen4 ,dark1 but comely1 like the maiden in the ancient ,jewish song1 ,scarcely has the toil of task-fields done her graceful beauty wrong4 ,he1 the strong one1 and the manly1 with the vassal's garb and hue1 ,holding still his spirit's birthright1 to his higher nature true2 ,hiding deep the strengthening purpose of a freeman in his heart1 ,as the ,greegree holds his ,fetish from the white man's gaze a -part4 ,ever foremost of the toilers1 when the driver's morning horn ,calls a -way to stifling millhouse1 or to fields of cane and corn2 ,fall the keen and burning lashes never on his back or limb2 ,scarce with look or word of censure1 turns the driver unto him4 ,yet his brow is always thoughtful1 and his eye is hard and stern2 ,slavery's last and humblest lesson he has never deigned to learn4 ,and1 at evening when his comrades dance be -fore their master's door1 ,folding arms and knitting forehead1 stands he silent ever -more4 ,god be praised for every instinct which re -bels a -gainst a lot ,where the brute sur -vives the human1 and man's upright form is not6 --,j4 ,g4 ,,whittier3 ,national ,era1 and other ,newspapers1 ,jan4 #ahdh4 ,example ,,iv4--,the ,present ,crisis--,two ,stanzas out of sixteen4 ,once to every man and nation comes the moment to de -cide1 ,in the strife of ,truth with ,falsehood1 for the good or evil side2 ,some great cause1 ,god's new ,mes -siah1 offering each the bloom or blight1 ,parts the goats up -on the left hand1 and the sheep up -on the right1 ,and the choice goes by for -ever 'twixt that darkness and that light4 ,have ye chosen1 ,o my people1 on whose party ye shall stand1 ,ere the ,doom from its worn sandals shakes the dust a -gainst our land8 ,though the cause of evil prosper1 yet the ,truth a -lone is strong1 ,and1 al beit she wander outcast now1 ,i see a -round her throng ,troops of beauti -ful tall angels to en -shield her from all wrong4 ,,james ,,russell ,,lowell3 ,liberator1 ,september #dth1 #ahdf4 ,example ,v4--,the ,season of ,love4--,a short ,extract4 ,in the ,spring1 a fuller crimson comes up -on the robin's breast2 ,in the ,spring1 the wanton lapwing gets him -self an other crest2 ,in the ,spring1 a livelier iris changes on the burnished dove2 ,in the ,spring1 a young man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love4 ,then her cheek was pale1 and thinner than should be for one so young2 ,and her eyes on all my motions1 with a mute ob -servance1 hung4 ,and ,i said1 ',my cousin ,amy1 speak1 and speak the truth to me2 ,trust me1 cousin1 all the current of my being sets to thee4' ,poems by ,,alfred ,,tennyson1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ce4 ,trochaic of eight feet1 as these sundry examples will suggest1 is much oftener met with than iambic of the same number2 and yet it is not a form very frequently adopted4 ,the reader will observe that it requires a considerable pause after the fourth foot2 at which place one might divide it1 and so reduce each couplet to a stanza of four lines1 similar to the following examples3-- ,,part ,,of ,a ,,song1 ,,in ,,dialogue4 ,,sylvia4 ,corin1 cease this idle teasing2 ,love that's forc'd is harsh and sour2 ,if the lover be dis -pleasing1 ,to per -sist dis -gusts the more4 ,,corin4 ',tis in vain1 in vain to fly me1 ,sylvia1 ,i will still pur -sue2 ,twenty thousand times de -ny me1 ,i will kneel and weep a -new4 ,,sylvia4 ,cupid ne'er shall make me languish1 ,i was born a -verse to love2 ,lovers' sighs1 and tears1 and anguish1 ,mirth and pastime to me prove4 ,,corin4 ,still ,i vow with patient duty ,thus to meet your proudest scorn2 ,you for unre -lenting beauty ,i for constant love was born4 ,poems by ,,anna ,l,,titia ,,barbauld1 p4 #ef4 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,charity ,,hymn4 #a4 ,lord of life1 all praise ex -celling1 thou1 in glory uncon -fin'd1 ,deign'st to make thy humble dwelling with the poor of humble mind4 #b4 ,as thy love1 through all cre -ation1 beams like thy dif -fusive light2 ,so the scorn'd and humble station shrinks be -fore thine equal sight4 #c4 ,thus thy care1 for all pro -viding1 warm'd thy faithful prophet's tongue2 ,who1 the lot of all de -ciding1 to thy chosen ,israel sung3 #d4 ',when thine harvest yields thee pleasure1 thou the golden sheaf shalt bind2 ,to the poor be -longs the treasure of the scatter'd ears be -hind4' ,psalms and ,hymns of the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church1 ,hymn ,,lv4 ,a still more common form is that which reduces all these tetrameters to single rhymes1 preserving their alternate succession4 ,in such metre and stanza1 is ,montgomery's ,wanderer of ,switzerland1 a ,poem1 in ,six ,parts1 and with an aggregate of eight hundred and forty-four lines4 ,example3-- #a4 ',wanderer1 whither wouldst thou roam8 ,to what region far a -way1 ,bend thy steps to find a home1 ,in the twilight of thy day8' #b4 ',in the twilight of my day1 ,i am hastening to the west2 ,there my weary limbs to lay1 ,where the sun re -tires to rest4 #c4 ,far be -yond the ,at -lantic floods1 ,stretched be -neath the evening sky1 ,realms of mountains1 dark with woods1 ,in ,co -lumbia's bosom lie4 #d4 ,there1 in glens and caverns rude1 ,silent since the world be -gan1 ,dwells the virgin ,soli -tude1 ,unbe -trayed by faithless man3 #e4 ,where a tyrant never trod1 ,where a slave was never known1 ,but where nature worships ,god ,in the wilder -ness a -lone4 #f4 ,thither1 thither would ,i roam2 ,there my children may be free2 ,i for them will find a home2 ,they shall find a grave for me4' ,first six stanzas of ,part ,,vi1 pp4 #ga and #gb4 ,,measure ,,ii4--,,trochaic ,,of ,,seven ,,feet1 ,,or ,,heptameter4 ,example4--,psalm ,,lxx1#eaj ,versified4 ,hasten1 ,lord1 to rescue me1 and set me safe from trouble2 ,shame thou those who seek my soul1 re -ward their mischief double4 ,turn the taunting scorners back1 who cry1 ',a -ha6' so loudly2 ,backward in con -fusion hurl the foe that mocks me proudly4 ,then in thee let those re -joice1 who seek thee1 self-de -nying2 ,all who thy sal -vation love1 thy name be glory -fying4 ,so let ,god be magni -fied4 ,but ,i am poor and needy3 ,hasten1 ,lord1 who art my ,helper2 let thine aid be speedy4 ,this verse1 like all other that is written in very long lines1 requires a csural pause of proportionate length2 and it would scarcely differ at all to the ear1 if it were cut in two at the place of this pause--provided the place were never varied4 ,such metre does not appear to have been at any time much used1 though there seems to be no positive reason why it might not have a share of popularity4 ,to commend our versification for its boundless variety1 and at the same time exclude from it forms either unobjectionable or well authorized1 as some have done1 is plainly inconsistent4 ,full trochaics have some inconvenience1 because all their rhymes must be double2 and1 as this inconvenience becomes twice as much when any long line of this sort is reduced to two short ones1 there may be a reason why a stanza precisely corresponding to the foregoing couplets is seldom seen4 ,if such lines be divided and rhymed at the middle of the fourth foot1 where the csural pause is apt to fall1 the first part of each will be a trochaic line of four feet1 single-rhymed and catalectic1 while the rest of it will become an iambic line of three feet1 with double rhyme and hypermeter4 ,such are the prosodial characteristics of the following lines2 which1 if two were written as one1 would make exactly our full trochaic of seven feet1 the metre exhibited above3-- ,whisp'ring1 heard by wakeful maids1 ,to whom the night stars guide us1 ,stolen walk1 through moonlight shades1 ,with those we love beside us--,moore's ,melodies1 p4 #bgf4 ,but trochaic of seven feet may also terminate with single rhyme1 as in the following couplet1 which is given anonymously1 and1 after a false custom1 erroneously1 in ,n4 ,butler's recent ,grammar1 as trochaic of six feet1 with an additional long syllable3-- ,night and morning were at meeting over ,water -loo2 ,cocks had sung their earliest greeting2 faint and low they crew4 #eaa ,in ,frazee's ,grammar1 a separate line or two1 similar in metre to these1 and rightly reckoned to have seven feet1 and many lines1 7including those above from ,tennyson1 which ,w4 ,c4 ,fowler erroneously gives for ,heptameter17 being a foot longer1 are presented as trochaics of eight feet2 but ,everett1 the surest of our prosodists1 remaining1 like most others1 a total stranger to our octometers1 and too little acquainted with trochaic heptameters to believe the species genuine1 on finding a couple of stanzas in which two such lines are set with shorter ones of different sorts1 and with some which are defective in metre1 sagely concludes that all lines of more than six trochees must necessarily be condemned as prosodial anomalies4 ,it may be worth while to repeat the said stanzas here1 adding such corrections and marks as may suggest their proper form and scansion4 ,but since they commence with the shorter metre of six trochees only1 and are already placed under that head1 ,i too may take them in the like connexion1 by now introducing my third species of trochaics1 which is ,everett's tenth4 ,,measure ,,iii4--,,trochaic ,,of ,,six ,,feet1 ,,or ,,hexameter4 ,example4--,health4 ,up the dewy mountain1 ,health is bounding lightly2 ,on her brows a garland1 twin'd with richest posies3 ,gay is she1 e -late with hope1 and smiling sprighthly2 ,redder is her cheek1 and sweeter than the rose is4 ,g4 ,,brown3 ,the ,institutes of ,english ,grammar1 p4 #beh4 ,this metre appears to be no less rare than the preceding2 though1 as in that case1 ,i know no good reason why it may not be brought into vogue4 ,professor ,john ,s4 ,hart says of it3 ,this is the longest ,trochaic verse that seems to have been cultivated4--,hart's ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #ahg4 ,the seeming of its cultivation he doubtless found only in sundry modern grammars4 ,johnson1 ,bicknell1 ,burn1 ,coar1 ,ward1 ,adam1--old grammarians1 who vainly profess to have illustrated every species of ,english verse1--make no mention of it2 and1 with all the grammarians who notice it1 one anonymous couplet1 passing from hand to hand1 has everywhere served to exemplify it4 ,of this1 the line of six ,trochees1 ,everett says3 ,this measure is languishing1 and rarely used4 ,the following example is often cited3 ',on a mountain1 stretched be -neath a hoary willow1 ,lay a shepherd swain1 and view'd the rolling billow4'#eab ,again3 ,we have the following from ,,bishop ,,heber3-- ',holy1 holy holy6 all the saints a -dore thee1 ,casting down their golden crowns a -round the glassy sea2 ,cheru -bim and sera -phim are1 falling down be -fore thee1 ,which wert1 and art1 and ev -ermore shalt be6 ,holy1 holy1 holy6 though the darkness hide thee1 ,though the eye of sinful man thy glory may not see1 ,only thou1 ,o ,god1 art holy2 there is none be -side thee1 ,perfect in pow'r1 in love1 and pu -rity4' ,only the first and the third lines of these stanzas are to our purpose1 remarks the prosodist4 ,that is1 only these he conceived to be lines of six ,trochees4 ,but it is plain1 that the third line of the first stanza1 having seven long syllables1 must have seven feet1 and cannot be a trochaic hexameter2 and1 since the third below should be like it in metre1 one can hardly forbear to think the words which ,i have inserted in brackets1 were accidentally omitted4 ,further3 ,it is worthy of remark1 says he1 that the second line of each of these stanzas is composed of six ,trochees and an additional long syllable4 ,as its corresponding line is an ,iambic1 and as the piece has some licenses in its construction1 it is far safer to conclude that this line is an anomaly than that it forms a distinct species of verse4 ,we must therefore conclude that the tenth the metre of six trochees is the longest species of ,trochaic line known to ,english verse4--,everett's ,versification1 pp4 #ie and #if4 ,this1 in view of the examples above1 of our longer trochaics1 may serve as a comment on the author's boast1 that1 having deduced his rules from the usage of the great poets1 he has the best reason for being confident of their correctness4--,ibid41 ,pref41 p4 #e4 ,trochaic hexameter1 too1 may easily be written with single rhyme2 perhaps more easily than a specimen suited to the purpose can be cited from any thing already written4 ,let me try3-- ,example ,i4--,the ,sorcerer4 ,lonely in the forest1 subtle from his birth1 ,lived a necro -mancer1 wondrous son of earth4 ,more of him in -quire not1 than ,i choose to say2 ,nymph or dryad bore him-- else 'twas witch or fay2 ,ask you who his father8-- haply he might be ,wood-god1 satyr1 sylvan2 --such his pedi -gree4 ,reared mid fauns and fairies1 knew he no com -peers2 ,neither cared he for them1 saving ghostly seers4 ,mistress of the black-art1 wizard gaunt and grim1 ,nightly on the hill-top1 read the stars to him4 ,these were welcome teachers2 drank he in their lore2 ,witchcraft so en -ticed him1 still to thirst for more4 ,spectres he would play with1 phantoms raise or quell2 ,gnomes from earth's deep centre knew his potent spell4 ,augur or a -ruspex had not half his art2 ,master deep of magic1 spirits played his part2 ,demons1 imps in -fernal1 conjured from be -low1 ,shaped his grand en -chantments with im -posing show4 ,example ,,ii4--,an ,example of ,hart's1 ,corrected ,where the wood is waving1 shady1 green1 and high1 ,fauns and dryads1 nightly1 watch the starry sky4 ,see ,hart's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ahg2 or the citation thence below4 ,a couplet of this sort might easily be reduced to a pleasant little stanza1 by severing each line after the third foot1 thus3-- ,hearken6 hearken6 hear ye2 ,voices meet my ear4 ,listen1 never fear ye2 ,friends--or foes--are near4 ,friends6 ,so -ho6 they're shouting4-- ,ho6 so -ho1 a -hoy6-- ',tis no ,indian1 scouting4 ,cry1 so -ho6 with joy4 ,but a similar succession of eleven syllables1 six long and five short1 divided after the seventh1 leaving two iambs to form the second or shorter line1--7since such a division produces different orders and metres both1--7 will1 ,i think1 retain but little resemblance in rhythm to the foregoing1 though the actual sequence of quantities long and short is the same4 ,if this be so1 the particular measure or correspondent length of lines is more essential to the character of a poetic strain than some have supposed4 ,the first four lines of the following extract are an example relevant to this point3-- ,ariel's ,song4 ,come un -to these yellow sands1 ,and then take hands3 ,court'sied when you have and kiss'd1 7,the wild waves whist17 ,foot it featly here and there2 ,and1 sweet sprites1 the burden bear4 ,,singer',s ,,shakspeare3 ,tempest1 ,act i1 ,sc4 #b4 ,,measure ,,iv4--,,trochaic ,,of ,,five ,,feet1 ,,or ,,pentameter ,example ,i4--,double ,rhymes and ,single1 ,alternated4 ,mountain winds6 oh6 whither do ye call me8 ,vainly1 vainly1 would my steps pur -sue3 ,chains of care to lower earth en -thrall me1 ,wherefore thus my weary spirit woo8 ,oh6 the strife of this di -vided being6 ,is there peace where ye are borne1 on high8 ,could we soar to your proud eyries fleeing1 ,in our hearts1 would haunting memories die8 ,,felicia ,,hemans3 ,to the ,mountain ,winds3 ,everet's ,versif41 p4 #ie4 ,example ,,ii--,rhymes ,otherwise ,arranged4 ,then1 me -thought1 ,i heard a hollow sound1 ,gathering up from all the lower ground3 ,narrowing in to where they sat as -sembled1 ,low vo -luptuous music1 winding1 trembled4 ,,alfred ,,tennyson3 ,frazee's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #ahd2 ,fowler's1 #feg4 ,this measure1 whether with the final short syllable or without it1 is said1 by ,murray1 ,everett1 and others1 to be very uncommon4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 and the other old prosodists named with him above1 knew nothing of it4 ,two couplets1 exemplifying it1 now to be found in sundry grammars1 and erroneously reckoned to differ as to the number of their feet1 were either selected or composed by ,murray1 for his ,grammar1 at its origin--or1 if not then1 at its first reprint1 in #agif4 ,they are these3-- 7#a47 ,all that walk on foot or ride in chariots1 ,all that dwell in pala -ces or garrets4 ,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #abmo1 #age2 #hvo1 #beg2 ,chandler's1 #aif2 ,churchill's1 #ahg2 ,hiley's1 #abf2 et al4 7#b47 ,idle after dinner1 in his chair1 ,sat a farmer1 ruddy1 fat1 and fair4 ,murray1 same places2 ,n4 ,butler's ,gr41 p4 #aic2 ,hallock's1 #bdd2 ,hart's1 #ahg2 ,weld's1 #baa2 et al4 ,richard ,hiley most absurdly scans this last couplet1 and all verse like it1 into the ,heroic measure1 or a form of our iambic pentameter2 saying1 ,sometimes a syllable is cut off from the first foot2 as1 ,i -dle af -ter dinn -ner in his chair 1 ,sat a far -mer 1 rud -d1 fat1 and fair4 ,hiley's ,english ,grammar1 ,third ,edition1 p4 #abe4 ,j4 ,s4 ,hart1 who1 like many others1 has mistaken the metre of this last example for ,trochaic ,tetrameter1 with a surplus syllable1 after repeating the current though rather questionable assertion1 that1 this measure is very uncommon1 proceeds with our ,trochaic ,pentameter1 thus3 ,this species is likewise uncommon4 ,it is composed of five trochees2 as1 ,in the dark and green and gloomy valley1 ,satyrs by the brooklet love to dally4 ,and again3 ,fist ,the ,,same with an ,,additional accented syllable2 as1 ,where the wood is waving green and high1 ,fauns and ,dryads watch the starry sky4 ,hart's ,english ,grammar1 ,first ,edition1 p4 #ahg4 ,these examples appear to have been made for the occasion2 and the latter1 together with its introduction1 made unskillfully4 ,the lines are of five feet1 and so are those about the ruddy farmer2 but there is nothing additional in either case2 for1 as pentameter1 they are all catalectic1 the final short syllable being dispensed with1 and a csura preferred1 for the sake of single rhyme1 otherwise not attainable4 ,five trochees and a rhyming syllable will make trochaic hexameter1 a measure perhaps more pleasant than this4 ,see examples above4 ,,measure ,v4--,,trochaic ,,of ,,four ,,feet1 ,,or ,,tetrameter4 ,example ,i4--,a ,mournful ,song4 #a4 ,raving winds a -round her blowing1 ,yellow leaves the woodlands strewing1 ,by a river hoarsely roaring1 ,isa -bella strayed de -ploring4 ',farewell hours that late did measure ,sunshine days of joy and pleasure2 ,hail1 thou gloomy night of sorrow1 ,cheerless night that knows no morrow4 #b4 ,o'er the past too fondly wandering1 ,on the hopeless future pondering1 ,chilly grief my life-blood freezes1 ,fell de -spair my fancy seizes4 ,life1 thou soul of every blessing1 ,load to misery most dis -tressing1 ,o how gladly ,i'd re -sign thee1 ,and to dark ob -livion join thee4' ,,robert ,,burns3 ,select ,works1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aca ,example ,,ii4--,a ,song ,petitionary4 ,powers ce -lestial1 whose pro -tection ,ever guards the virtuous fair1 ,while in distant climes ,i wander1 ,let my ,mary be your care3 ,let her form so fair and faultless1 ,fair and faultless as your own2 ,let my ,mary's kindred spirit ,draw your choicest influence down4 ,make the gales you waft a -round her ,soft and peaceful as her breast2 ,breathing in the breeze that fans her1 ,soothe her bosom into rest3 ,guardian angels1 ,o pro -tect her1 ,when in distant lands ,i roam2 ,to realms unknown while fate exiles me1 ,make her bosom still my home4 ,,burns',s ,,songs1 ,same ,volume1 p4 #afe4 ,example ,,iii4--,song of ,juno and ,ceres4 ,ju4 ,honour1 riches1 marriage -blessing1 ,long con -tinuance1 and in -creasing1 ,hourly joys be still up -on you6 ,juno sings her blessings on you4 ,cer4 ,earth's in -crease1 and foison plenty2 ,barns and garners never empty2 ,vines with clust'ring bunches growing2 ,plants with goodly burden bowing2 ,spring come to you1 at the farthest1 ,in the very end of harvest6 ,scarci -ty and want shall shun you2 ,ceres' blessing so is on you4 ,,shakspeare3 ,tempest1 ,act iv1 ,sc4 #a4 ,example ,,iv4--,on the ,vowels4 ,we are little airy creatures1 ,all of diff'rent voice and features2 ,one of us in glass is set1 ,one of us you'll find in jet2 ,t'other you may see in tin1 ,and the fourth a box with -in2 ,if the fifth you should pur -sue1 ,it can never fly from you4 ,,swift3 ,johnson's ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #cdc4 ,example ,v4--,use ,time for ,good4 ,life is short1 and time is swift2 ,roses fade1 and shadows shift2 ,but the ocean and the river ,rise and fall and flow for ever2 ,bard6 not vainly heaves the ocean2 ,bard6 not vainly flows the river2 ,be thy song1 then1 like their motion1 ,blessing now1 and blessing ever4 ,,ebenezer ,,elliot3 ,from a ,newspaper4 ,example ,,iv4sic for ,,vi--,,kth--,the ,turkish ,lady--,first ,four ,stanzas4 #a4 ',twas the hour when rites un -holy ,called each ,paynim voice to pray'r1 ,and the star that faded slowly1 ,left to dews the freshened air4 #b4 ,day her sultry fires had wasted1 ,calm and sweet the moonlight rose2 ,e'en a captive's spirit tasted ,half ob -livion of his woes4 #c4 ,then 'twas from an ,emir's palace ,came an eastern lady bright2 ,she1 in spite of tyrants jealous1 ,saw and loved an ,english knight4 #d4 ',tell me1 captive1 why in anguish ,foes have dragged thee here to dwell ,where poor ,christians1 as they languish4 ,hear no sound of sabbath bell8' ,,thomas ,,campbell3 ,poetical ,works1 p4 #aae4 ,example ,,vii4--,the ,palmer's ,morning ,hymn4 ,lauded be thy name for ever1 ,thou1 of life the guard and giver6 ,thou canst guard thy creatures sleeping1 ,heal the heart long broke with weeping1 ,rule the ouphes and elves at will ,that vex the air or haunt the hill1 ,and all the fu -ry sub -ject keep ,of boil -ing cloud and chaf -ed deep6 ,i have seen1 and well ,i know it6 ,thou hast done1 and ,thou wilt do it6 ,god of stillness and of motion6 ,of the rainbow and the ocean6 ,of the mountain1 rock1 and river6 ,blessed be ,thy name for ever6 ,i have seen thy wondrous might ,through the shadows of this night6 ,thou1 who slumber'st not1 nor sleepest6 ,blest are they thou kindly keepest6 ,spirits1 from the ocean under1 ,liquid flame1 and levell'd thunder1 ,need not waken nor a -larm them-- ,all com -bined1 they cannot harm them4 ,god of evening's yellow ray1 ,god of yonder dawning day1 ,thine the flaming sphere of light6 ,thine the darkness of the night6 ,thine are all the gems of even1 ,god of angels6 ,god of heaven6 ,,james ,,hogg3 ,mador of the ,moor1 ,poems1 p4 #bjf4 ,example ,,viii--,a ,short ,song1 of ,two ,stanzas4 ,stay1 my charmer1 can you leave me8 ,cruel1 cruel1 to de -ceive me6 ,well you know how much you grieve me3 ,cruel charmer1 can you go8 ,cruel charmer1 can you go8 ,by my love1 so ill re -quited2 ,by the faith you fondly plighted2 ,by the pangs of lovers slighted2 ,do not1 do not leave me so6 ,do not1 do not leave me so6 ,,robert ,,burns3 ,select ,works1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #abi4 ,example ,,ix4--,lingering ,courtship4 #a4 ,never wedding1 ever wooing1 ,still lovelorn heart pur -suing1 ,read you not the wrong you're doing1 ,in my cheek's pale hue8 ,all my life with sorrow strewing1 ,wed1 or cease to woo4 #b4 ,rivals banish'd1 bosoms plighted1 ,still our days are disu -nited2 ,now the lamp of hope is lighted1 ,now half quench'd ap -pears1 ,damp'd1 and wavering1 and be -nighted1 ,midst my sighs and tears4 #c4 ,charms you call your dearest blessing1 ,lips that thrill at your ca -ressing1 ,eyes a mutual soul con -fessing1 ,soon you'll make them grow ,dim1 and worthless your pos -sessing1 ,not with age1 but woe6 ,,campbell3 ,everett's ,system of ,versification1 p4 #ia4 ,example ,x4--,boadicea--,four ,stanzas from ,eleven4 #a4 ,when the ,british warrior queen1 ,bleeding from the ,roman rods1 ,sought1 with an in -dignant mien1 ,counsel of her country's gods1 #b4 ,sage be -neath the spreading oak1 ,sat the ,druid1 hoary chief2 ,every burning word he spoke ,full of rage1 and full of grief4 #c4 ,princess6 if our aged eyes ,weep up -on thy matchless wrongs1 ',tis be -cause re -sentment ties ,all the terrors of our tongues4 #d4 ,,rome ,,shall ,,perish-- write that word ,in the blood that she hath spilt2 ,perish1 hopeless and ab -horr'd1 ,deep in ruin as in guilt4 ,,william ,,cowper3 ,poems1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bdd4 ,example ,,xi--,the ,thunder ,storm--,two ,stanzas from ,ten4 ,now in deep and dreadful gloom1 ,clouds on clouds por -tentous spread1 ,black as if the day of doom ,hung o'er ,nature's shrinking head3 ,lo6 the lightning breaks from high1 ,god is coming6 --,god is nigh6 ,hear ye not his chariot wheels1 ,as the mighty thunder rolls8 ,nature1 startled ,nature reels1 ,from the centre to the poles3 ,tremble6 --,ocean1 ,earth1 and ,sky6 ,tremble6 --,god is passing by6 ,j4 ,,montgomery3 ,wanderer of ,switzerland1 and other ,poems1 p4 #acj4 ,example ,,xii4--,the ,triumphs of ,owen1 ,king of ,north ,wales4#eac ,owen's praise de -mands my song1 ,owen swift and ,owen strong2 ,fairest flow'r of ,roderick's stem1 ,gwyneth's shield1 and ,britain's gem4 ,he nor heaps his brooded stores1 ,nor the whole pro -fusely pours2 ,lord of every regal art1 ,liberal hand and open heart4 ,big with hosts of mighty name1 ,squadrons three a -gainst him came2 ,this the force of ,eirin hiding1 ,side by side as proudly riding1 ,on her shadow long and gay1 ,lochlin ploughs the watery way3 ,there the ,norman sails a -far ,catch the winds1 and join the war2 ,black and huge1 a -long they sweep1 ,burthens of the angry deep4 ,dauntless on his native sands1 ,the ,drag -on-son of ,mo -na stands2#ead ,in glit -tering arms and glo -ry drest1 ,high he rears his ruby crest4 ,there the thundering stroke be -gin1 ,there the press1 and there the din2 ,taly -malfra's rocky shore ,echoing to the battle's roar2 ,where his glowing eyeballs turn1 ,thousand banners round him burn4 ,where he points his purple spear1 ,hasty1 hasty rout is there1 ,marking with in -dignant eye ,fear to stop1 and shame to fly4 ,there ,con -fusion1 ,terror's child1 ,conflict fierce1 and ,ruin wild1 ,ago -ny1 that pants for breath1 ,despair1 and ,,hon -,,oura -,,ble ,,death4 ,,thomas ,,gray3 ,johnson's ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #bhe4 ,example ,,xiii4--,grongar ,hill4--,first ,twenty-six ,lines4 ,silent ,nymph1 with curious eye1 ,who1 the purple eve1 dost lie ,on the mountain's lonely van1 ,beyond the noise of bus -y man2 ,painting fair the form of things1 ,while the yellow linnet sings2 ,or the tuneful nightin -gale ,charms the forest with her tale2 ,come1 with all thy various hues1 ,come1 and aid thy sister ,muse4 ,now1 while ,phoebus1 riding high1 ,gives lus -tre to the land and sky1 ,grongar ,hill in -vites my song2 ,draw the landscape bright and strong2 ,grongar1 in whose mossy cells1 ,sweetly -musing ,quiet dwells2 ,grongar1 in whose silent shade1 ,for the modest ,muses made1 ,so oft ,i have1 the eve -ning still1 ,at the fountain of a rill1 ,sat up -on a flowery bed1 ,with my hand be -neath my head1 ,while stray'd my eyes o'er ,tow -y's flood1 ,over mead and over wood1 ,from house to house1 from hill to hill1 ,till ,con -templa -tion had her fill4 ,,john ,,dyer3 ,johnson's ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #fe4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,this is the most common of our trochaic measures2 and it seems to be equally popular1 whether written with single rhyme1 or with double2 in stanzas1 or in couplets2 alone1 or with some intentional intermixture4 ,by a careful choice of words and style1 it may be adapted to all sorts of subjects1 grave1 or gay2 quaint1 or pathetic2 as may the corresponding iambic metre1 with which it is often more or less mingled1 as we see in some of the examples above4 ,milton's ,l',allegro1 or ,gay ,mood1 has one hundred and fifty-two lines2 ninety-eight of which are iambics2 fifty-four trochaic tetrameters2 a very few of each order having double rhymes4 ,these orders the poet has not--very ingeniously alternated as ,everett avers2 but has simply interspersed1 or commingled1 with little or no regard to alternation4 ,his ,il ,penseroso1 or ,grave ,mood1 has twenty-seven trochaic tetrameters1 mixed irregularly with one hundred and forty-nine iambics4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,everett1 who divides our trochaic tetrameters into two species of metre1 imagines that the catalectic form1 or that which is single-rhymed1 has a solemn effect1--imparts to all pieces more dignity than any of the other short measures1--that no trivial or humorous subject should be treated in this measure1--and that1 besides dignity1 it imparts an air of sadness to the subject4--,english ,verses41 p4 #hg4 ,our line of four trochees he supposes to be difficult of construction1--not of very frequent occurrence1--the most agreeable of all the trochaic measures1--remarkably well adapted to lively subjects1--and peculiarly expressive of the eagerness and fickleness of the passion of love4--,ib41 p4 #ij4 ,these pretended metrical characteristics seem scarcely more worthy of reliance1 than astrological predictions1 or the oracular guessings of our modern craniologists4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,dr4 ,campbell repeats a suggestion of the older critics1 that gayety belongs naturally to all trochaics1 as such1 and gravity or grandeur1 as naturally1 to iambics2 and he attempts to find a reason for the fact2 while1 perhaps1 even here--more plausible though the supposition is--the fact may be at least half imaginary4 ,the iambus1 says he1 is expressive of dignity and grandeur2 the trochee1 on the contrary1 according to ,aristotle1 7,rhet4 ,lib4 ,ill17 is frolicsome and gay4 ,it were difficult to assign a reason of this difference that would be satisfactory2 but of the thing itself1 ,i imagine1 most people will be sensible on comparing the two kinds together4 ,i know not whether it will be admitted as a sufficient reason1 that the distinction into metrical feet hath a much greater influence in poetry on the rise and fall of the voice1 than the distinction into words2 and if so1 when the cadences happen mostly after the long syllables1 the verse will naturally have an air of greater gravity than when they happen mostly after the short4--,campbell's ,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #ced4 ,,measure ,,vi4--,,trochaic ,,of ,,three ,,feet1 ,,or ,,trimeter4 ,example ,i4--,youth and ,age ,contrasted4 ,crabbed age and youth ,cannot live to -gether2 ,youth is full of pleasance1 ,age is full of care3 ,youth1 like summer morn1 ,age1 like winter weather2 ,youth1 like summer1 brave2 ,age1 like winter1 bare4 ,youth is full of sport1 ,age's breath is short1 ,youth is nimble1 age is lame2 ,youth is hot and bold1 ,age is weak and cold2 ,youth is wild1 and age is tame4 ,the ,passionate ,pilgrim2 ,,singer',s ,,shakspeare1 ,vol4 ii p4 #eid4 ,example ,,ii--,common ,sense and ,genius4 #c4 ,while ,i touch the string1 ,wreathe my brows with laurel2 ,for the tale ,i sing1 ,has1 for once1 a moral6 #d4 ,common ,sense went on1 ,many wise things saying2 ,while the light that shone1 ,soon set ,genius straying4 #e4 ,one his eye ne'er rais'd ,from the path be -fore him2 ,t' other idly gaz'd ,on each night-cloud o'er him4 #f4 ,while ,i touch the string1 ,wreathe my brows with laurel2 ,for the tale ,i sing1 ,has1 for once1 a moral6 #g4 ,so they came1 at last1 ,to a shady river2 ,common ,sense soon pass'd ,safe1--as he doth ever4 #h4 ,while the boy whose look ,was in heav'n that minute1 ,never saw the brook1-- ,but tum -bled head -long in it4 ,six ,stanzas from ,twelve4--,,moore',s ,,melodies1 p4 #bga4 ,this short measure is much oftener used in stanzas1 than in couplets4 ,it is1 in many instances1 combined with some different order or metre of verse1 as in the following3-- ,example ,,iii4--,part of a ,song4 ,go where glory waits thee1 ,but while fame e -lates thee1 ,oh6 still remem -ber me4 ,when the praise thou meetest1 ,to thine ear is sweetest1 ,oh6 then remem -ber me4 ,other arms may press thee1 ,dearer friends ca -ress thee1 ,all the joys that bless thee1 ,sweeter far may be3 ,but when friends are nearest1 ,and when joys are dearest1 ,oh6 then remem -ber me4 ,when1 at eve1 thou rovest1 ,by the star thou lovest1 ,oh6 then remem -ber me4 ,think when home re -turning1 ,bright we've seen it burning2 ,oh6 thus remem -ber me4 ,oft as summer closes1 ,when thine eye re -poses ,on its ling'ring roses1 ,once so loved by thee1 ,think of her who wove them1 ,her who made thee love them2 ,oh6 then remem -ber me4 ,,moore',s ,melodies1 ,songs1 and ,airs1 p4 #ajg4 ,example ,,iv4--,from an ,ode to the ,thames4 ,on thy shady margin1 ,care its load dis -charging1 ,is lull'd to gen -tle rest3 ,britain thus dis -arming1 ,nothing her a -larming1 ,shall sleep on ,c -sar's breast4 ,see ,,rowe',s ,,poems3 ,johnson's ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 iv1 p4 #eh4 ,example ,v4--,the ,true ,poet--,first ,two of ,nine ,stanzas4 #a4 ,poet of the heart1 ,delving in its mine1 ,from man -kind a -part1 ,yet where jewels shine2 ,heaving upward to the light1 ,precious wealth that charms the sight2 #b4 ,toil thou still1 deep down1 ,for earth's hidden gems2 ,they shall deck a crown1 ,blaze in dia -dems2 ,and when thy hand shall fall to rest1 ,brightly jewel beauty's breast4 ,,jane ,b4 ,,locke3 ,n4 ,y4 ,evening ,post2 ,the ,examiner1 ,no4 #ih4 ,example ,,vi4--,summer ,longings--,first ,two of ,five ,stanzas4 ,ah6 my heart is ever waiting1 ,waiting for the ,may1-- ,waiting for the pleasant rambles ,where the fragrant hawthorn brambles1 ,with the woodbine alter -nating1 ,scent the dewy way4 ,ah6 my heart is weary waiting1 ,waiting for the ,may4 ,ah6 my heart is sick with longing1 ,longing for the ,may1-- ,longing to e -scape from study1 ,to the young face fair and ruddy1 ,and the thousand charms be -longing ,to the ,summer's day4 ,ah6 my heart is sick with longing1 ,longing for the ,may4 ,d4 ,f4 ,m4 ,c43 ,dublin ,university ,magazine2 ,liberator1 ,no4 #ieb4 ,,measure ,,vii4--,,trochaic ,,of ,,two ,,feet1 ,,or ,,dimeter4 ,example ,i4--,three ,short ,excerpts4 #a4 ,my flocks feed not1 ,my ewes breed not1 ,my rams speed not1 ,all is amiss3 ,love's de -nying1 ,faith's de -fying1 ,heart's re -nying1 ,causer of this4 #b4 ,in black mourn ,i1 ,all fears scorn ,i1 ,love hath lorn me1 ,living in thrall3 ,heart is bleeding1 ,all help needing4 7,cruel speeding17 ,fraughted with gall4 #c4 ,clear wells spring not4 ,sweet birds sing not1 ,loud bells ring not ,cheerfully2 ,herds stand weeping1 ,flocks all sleeping1 ,nymphs back creeping ,fearfully4 ,,shakspeare3 ,the ,passionate ,pilgrim4 ,see ,sec4 xv4 ,example ,,ii4--,specimen with ,single ,rhyme4 ,to ,quinbus ,flestrin1 the ,man-,mountain ,a ,,lilliputian ,,ode ,i4 ,in a -maze1 ,lost1 ,i gaze4 ,can our eyes ,reach thy size8 ,may my lays ,swell with praise1 ,worthy thee1 ,worthy me6 ,muse1 in -spire ,all thy fire6 ,bards of old ,of him told1 ,when they said ,atlas' head ,propp'd the skies3 ,see6 and believe your eyes6 ,,ii4 ,see him stride ,valleys wide3 ,over woods1 ,over floods1 ,when he treads1 ,mountains' heads ,groan and shake3 ,armies quake1 ,lest his spurn ,over -turn ,man and steed3 ,troops1 take heed6 ,left and right ,speed your flight6 ,lest an host ,beneath his foot be lost4 ,,iii4 ,turn'd a -side ,from his hide1 ,safe from wound1 ,darts re -bound4 ,from his nose1 ,clouds he blows2 ,when he speaks1 ,thunder breaks6 ,when he eats1 ,famine threats6 ,when he drinks1 ,neptune shrinks6 ,nigh thy ear1 ,in mid air1 ,on thy hand1 ,let me stand4 ,so shall ,i 7,lofty poet67 touch the sky4 ,,john ,,gay3 ,johnson's ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #cgf4 ,example ,,iii4--,two ,feet with ,four4 ,oh1 the pleasing1 pleasing anguish1 ,when we love1 and when we languish6 ,wishes rising6 ,thoughts sur -prising6 ,pleasure courting6 ,charms trans -porting6 ,fancy viewing ,joys en -suing6 ,oh1 the pleasing1 pleasing anguish6 ,,addison',s ,rosamond1 ,act i1 ,scene #f4 ,example ,,iv4--,lines of ,three ,syllables with ,longer ,metres4 #a4 ,,with ,,trochaics4 ,or we sometimes pass an hour ,under a green willow1 ,that de -fends us from the shower1 ,making earth our pillow2 ,where we may ,think and pray1 ,be'fore death ,stops our breath3 ,other joys1 ,are but toys1 ,and to be la -mented4 #eae #b4 ,,with ,,iambics4 ,what sounds were heard1 ,what scenes appear'd1 ,o'er all the drear -y coasts6 ,dreadful gleams1 ,dismal screams1 ,fires that glow1 ,shrieks of wo1 ,sullen moans1 ,hollow groans1 ,and cries of tor -tur'd ghosts6 ,,pope3 ,johnson's ,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 vi1 p4 #cae4 ,example ,v4--,the ,shower4--,in ,four ,regular ,stanzas4 #a4 ,in a valley that ,i know-- ,happy scene6 ,there are meadows sloping low1 ,there the fairest flowers blow1 ,and the brightest waters flow4 ,all se -rene2 ,but the sweetest thing to see1 ,if you ask the dripping tree1 ,or the harvest -hoping swain1 ,is the ,rain4 #b4 ,ah1 the dwellers of the town1 ,how they sigh1-- ,how un -grateful -ly they frown1 ,when the cloud-king shakes his crown1 ,and the pearls come pouring down ,from the sky6 ,they de -scry no charm at all ,where the sparkling jewels fall1 ,and each moment of the shower1 ,seems an hour6 #c4 ,yet there's something very sweet ,in the sight1 ,when the crystal currents meet ,in the dry and dusty street1 ,and they wrestle with the heat1 ,in their might6 ,while they seem to hold a talk ,with the stones a -long the walk1 ,and re -mind them of the rule1 ,to 'keep cool6' #d4 ,ay1 but in that quiet dell1 ,ever fair1 ,still the ,lord doth all things well1 ,when his clouds with blessings swell1 ,and they break a brimming shell ,on the air2 ,there the shower hath its charms1 ,sweet and welcome to the farms ,as they listen to its voice1 ,and re -joice6 ,rev4 ,,ralph ,,hoyt',s ,poems3 ,the ,examiner1 ,nov4 #f1 #ahdg4 ,example ,,vi4--,a ,good ,name8--,two ,beautiful ,little ,stanzas4 #a4 ,children1 choose it1 ,don't re -fuse it1 ',tis a precious dia -dem2 ,highly prize it1 ,don't de -spise it1 ,you will need it when you're men4 #b4 ,love and cherish1 ,keep and nourish1 ',tis more precious far than gold2 ,watch and guard it1 ,don't dis -card it1 ,you will need it when you're old4 ,the ,family ,christian ,almanac1 for #ahej1 p4 #bj4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,trochaics of two feet1 like those of three1 are1 more frequently than otherwise1 found in connexion with longer lines1 as in some of the examples above cited4 ,the trochaic line of three syllables1 which our prosodists in general describe as consisting1 not of two feet2 but of one ,trochee and a long syllable1 may1 when it stands alone1 be supposed to consist of one amphimac2 but1 since this species of foot is not admitted by all1 and is reckoned a secondary one by those who do admit it1 the better practice is1 to divide even the three syllables into two feet1 as above4 ,,obs4 #b4--,murray1 ,hart1 ,weld1 and many others1 erroneously affirm1 that1 ,the shortest ,trochaic verse in our language1 consists of one ,trochee and a long syllable4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bef2 ,hart's1 ,first ,edition1 p4 #ahf2 ,weld's1 ,second ,edition1 p4 #baj4 ,the error of this will be shown by examples below--examples of true ,trochaic ,monometer1 and not of ,dimeter mistaken for it1 like ,weld's1 ,hart's1 or ,murray's4 ,,obs4 #c4--,these authors also aver1 that1 ,this measure is defective in dignity1 and can seldom be used on serious occasions4--,same places4 ,trochaic of two feet--is likewise so brief1 that1 in their opinion1 it is rarely used for any very serious purpose4--,same places4 ,whether the expression of love1 or of its disappointment1 is any very serious purpose or not1 ,i leave to the decision of the reader4 ,what lack of dignity or seriousness there is1 in several of the foregoing examples1 especially the last two1 ,i think it not easy to discover4 ,,measure ,,viii4--,,trochaic ,,of ,,one ,,foot1 ,,or ,,monometer4 ,examples with ,longer ,metres4 #a4 ,,with ,,iambics4 ,from walk to walk1 from shade to shade1 ,from stream to purl -ing stream convey'd1 ,through all the ma -zes of the grove1 ,through all the ming -ling tracks ,i rove1 ,turning1 ,burning1 ,changing1 ,ranging1 ,full of grief and full of love4 ,,addison',s ,rosamond1 ,act ,i1 ,sc4 #d3 ,everett's ,versification1 p4 #ha4 #b4 ,,with ,,anapestics1 c4 ,to love and to languish1 ,to sigh and complain1 ,how cruel's the anguish6 ,how torment -ing the pain6 ,suing1 ,pursuing1 ,flying1 ,denying1 ,o the curse of disdain6 ,how torment -ing's the pain6 ,,geo4 ,,granville3 ,br4 ,poets1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #ca4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the metres acknowledged in our ordinary schemes of prosody1 scarcely amount1 with all their boundless variety1 to more than one half1 or three quarters1 of what may be found in actual use somewhere4 ,among the foregoing examples1 are some which are longer1 and some which are shorter1 than what are commonly known to our grammarians2 and some1 also1 which seem easily practicable1 though perhaps not so easily quotable4 ,this last trochaic metre1 so far as ,i know1 has not been used alone1--that is1 without longer lines1--except where grammarians so set examples of it in their prosodies4 ,,obs4 #b4--,trochaic of ,one foot1 as well as ,iambic of ,one foot1 was1 ,i believe1 first recognized1 prosodically1 in ,brown's ,institutes of ,english ,grammar1 a work first published in #ahbc4 ,since that time1 both have obtained acknowledgement in sundry schemes of versification1 contained in the new grammars2 as in ,farnum's1 and ,hallock's1 of #ahdb2 in ,pardon ,davis's1 of #ahde2 in ,s4 ,w4 ,clark's1 and ,s4 ,s4 ,greene's1 of #ahdh2 in ,professor ,fowler's1 of #ahej4 ,wells1 in his ,school ,grammar1 of #ahdf1 and ,d4 ,c4 ,allen1 in an other1 of #ahdg1 give to the length of lines a laxity positively absurd3 ,rhymed verses1 say they1 may consist of any number of syllables4--,wells1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ahg2 late ,ed41 #bjd2 ,allen1 p4 #hh4 ,everett has recognized ,the line of a single ,trochee1 though he repudiates some long measures that are much more extensively authorized4 ,,order ,,iii4--,,anapestic ,,verse4 ,in full ,anapestic verse1 the stress is laid on every third syllable1 the first two syllables of each foot being short4 ,the first foot of an anapestic line1 may be an iambus4 ,this is the most frequent diversification of the order4 ,but1 as a diversification1 it is1 of course1 not regular or uniform4 ,the stated or uniform adoption of the iambus for a part of each line1 and of the anapest for the residue of it1 produces verse of the ,composite ,order4 ,as the anapest ends with a long syllable1 its rhymes are naturally single2 and a short syllable after this1 producing double rhyme1 is1 of course1 supernumerary3 so are the two1 when the rhyme is triple4 ,some prosodists suppose1 a surplus at the end of a line may compensate for a deficiency at the beginning of the next line2 but this ,i judge to be an error1 or at least the indulgence of a questionable license4 ,the following passage has two examples of what may have been meant for such compensation1 the author having used a dash where ,i have inserted what seems to be a necessary word3-- ,apol -lo smil'd shrewd -ly1 and bade him sit down1 ,with ',well1 ,mr4 ,scott1 you have man -aged the town2 ,now pray1 copy less-- have a lit -tle temer -ity-- ,and ,try if you can't also man -age poster -ity4 ,for ,all you add now only les -sens your cred -it2 ,and how could you think1 too1 of tak -ing to ed -ite8' ,,leigh ,,hunt',s ,feast of the ,poets1 page #bj4 ,the anapestic measures are few2 because their feet are long1 and no poet has chosen to set a great many in a line4 ,possibly lines of five anapests1 or of four and an initial iambus1 might be written2 for these would scarcely equal in length some of the iambics and trochaics already exhibited4 ,but ,i do not find any examples of such metre4 ,the longest anapestics that have gained my notice1 are of fourteen syllables1 being tetrameters with triple rhyme1 or lines of four anapests and two short surplus syllables4 ,this order consists therefore of measures reducible to the following heads3-- ,,measure ,i4--,,anapestic ,,of ,,four ,,feet1 ,,or ,,tetrameter4 ,example ,i4--,a ,postscript4--,an ,example with ,hypermeter4 ,lean ,tom1 when ,i saw him1 last week1 on his horse awry1 ,threaten'd loud -ly to turn me to stone with his sor -cery4 ,but1 ,i think1 little ,dan1 that1 in spite of what our foe says1 ,he will find ,i read ,ov -id and his ,metamor -phoses4 ,for1 omit -ting the first1 7where ,i make a compar -ison1 ,with a sort of allu -sion to ,put -land or ,har -rison17 ,yet1 by my descrip -tion1 you'll find he in short is ,a pack and a gar -ran1 a top and a tor -toise4 ,so ,i hope from hencefor -ward you ne'er will ask1 can ,i maul ,this teas -ing1 conceit -ed1 rude1 in -solent an -imal8 ,and1 if this rebuke might be turn'd to his ben -efit1 7,for ,i pit -y the man17 ,i should be glad then of it ,,swift',s ,,poems3 ,johnson's ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #cbd4 ,example ,,ii4--,the ,feast of the ,poets4--,first ,twelve ,lines4 ,t' other day1 as ,apol -lo sat pitch -ing his darts ,through the clouds of ,novem -ber1 by fits and by starts1 ,he began to consid -er how long it had been ,since the bards of ,old ,eng -land had all been rung in4 ',i think1' said the god1 recollect -ing1 7and then ,he fell twid -dling a sun -beam as ,i may my pen17 ',i think-- let me see-- yes1 it is1 ,i declare1 ,as long ago now as that ,buck -ingham there2 ,and yet ,i can't see why ,i've been so remiss1 ,unless it may be-- and it cer -tainly is1 ,that since ,dry -den's fine ver -ses and ,mil -ton's sublime1 ,i have fair -ly been sick of their sing -song and rhyme4' ,,leigh ,,hunt3 ,poems1 ,new-,york ,edition1 of #ahad4 ,example ,,iii4--,the ,crowning of ,four ,favourites4 ,then1 ',come1' cried the god in his el -egant mirth1 ',let us make us a heav'n of our own upon earth1 ,and wake1 with the lips that we dip in our bowls1 ,that divin -est of mu -sic--conge -nial souls4' ,so say -ing1 he led through the din -ing-room door1 ,and1 seat -ing the po -ets1 cried1 ',lau -rels for four6' ,no soon -er demand -ed1 than1 lo6 they were there1 ,and each of the bards had a wreath in his hair4 ,tom ,camp -bell's with wil -low and pop -lar was twin'd1 ,and ,south -ey's1 with moun -tain-ash1 pluck'd in the wind2 ,and ,scott's1 with a heath from his old garden stores1 ,and1 with vine -leaves and jump -up-and-kiss -me1 ,tom ,moore's4 ,,leigh ,,hunt3 from line #ccj to line #cdb4 ,example ,,iv4--,glenara4--,first ,two of ,eight ,stanzas4 ,o heard ye yon pi -broch sound sad in the gale1 ,where a band cometh slow -ly with weep -ing and wail6 ',tis the chief of ,glena -ra laments for his dear2 ,and her sire1 and the peo -ple1 are called to her bier4 ,glena -ra came first with the mourn -ers and shroud2 ,her kins -men1 they fol -lowed1 but mourned not aloud2 ,their plaids all their bo -soms were fold -ed around2 ,they marched all in si -lence--they looked on the ground4 ,t4 ,,campbell',s ,poetical ,works1 p4 #aje4 ,example ,v4--,lochiel's ,warning4--,ten ,lines from ,eighty-six4 ',tis the sun -set of life gives me mys -tical lore1 ,and com -ing events cast their shad -ows before4 ,i tell thee1 ,cullo -den's dread ech -oes shall ring ,with the blood -hounds that bark for thy fu -gitive king4 ,lo6 anoint -ed by ,heav'n with the vi -als of wrath1 ,behold1 where he flies on his des -olate path6 ,now1 in dark -ness and bil -lows he sweeps from my sight2 ,rise6 rise6 ye wild tem -pests1 and cov -er his flight6 ',tis fin -ished4 ,their thun -ders are hushed on the moors2 ,cullo -den is lost1 and my coun -try deplores4--,ib41 p4 #hi4 ,example ,,vi4--,the ,exile of ,erin4--,the ,first of ,five ,stanzas4 ,there came to the beach a poor ,ex -ile of ,e -rin1 ,the dew on his thin robe was heav -y and chill2 ,for his coun -try he sighed1 when at twi -light repair -ing ,to wan -der alone by the wind -beaten hill4 ,but the day -star attract -ed his eye's sad devo -tion1 ,for it rose o'er his own native isle of the o -cean1 ,where once1 in the fire of his youth -ful emo tion1 ,he sang the bold an -them of ,e -rin go bragh4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,example ,,vii4--,the ,poplar ,field4 ,the pop -lars are fell'd1 farewell to the shade1 ,and the whis -pering sound of the cool colonnade2 ,the winds play no lon -ger and sing in the leaves1 ,nor ,ouse on his bo -som their im -age receives4 ,twelve years have elaps'd1 since ,i last took a view ,of my fa -vourite field1 and the bank where they grew2 ,and now in the grass behold they are laid1 ,and the tree is my seat that once lent me a shade4 ,the black -bird has fled to anoth -er retreat1 ,where the ha -zels afford him a screen from the heat1 ,and the scene1 where his mel -ody charm'd me before1 ,resounds with his sweet -flowing dit -ty no more4 ,my fu -gitive years are all hast -ing away1 ,and ,i must ere long lie as low -ly as they1 ,with a turf on my breast1 and a stone at my head1 ,ere anoth -er such grove shall arise in its stead4 ',tis a sight to engage me1 if an -y thing can1 ,to muse on the per -ishing pleas -ures of man2 ,though his life be a dream1 his enjoy -ments1 ,i see1 ,have a be -ing less dur -able e -ven than he4 ,,cowper',s ,poems1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #beg4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,everett avers1 that1 ,the purely ,anapestic measure is more easily constructed than the ,trochee1 ,trochaic1 and of much more frequent occurrence4--,english ,versification1 p4 #ig4 ,both parts of this assertion are at least very questionable2 and so are this author's other suggestions1 that1 ,the ,anapest is necessarily the vehicle of gayety and joy2 that1 ,whenever this measure is employed in the treating of sad subjects1 the effect is destroyed2 that1 ,whoever should attempt to write an elegy in this measure1 would be sure to fail2 that1 ,the words might express grief1 but the measure would express joy2 that1 ,the ,anapest should never be employed throughout a long piece2 because buoyancy of spirits can never be supposed to last1--sadness never leaves us1 ,,but joy remains but for a moment2 and1 again1 because1 the measure is exceedingly monotonous4--,ibid41 pp4 #ig and #ih4 ,,obs4 #b4--,most anapestic poetry1 so far as ,i know1 is in pieces of no great length2 but ,leigh ,hunt's ,feast of the ,poets1 which is thrice cited above1 though not a long poem1 may certainly be regarded as a long piece1 since it extends through fifteen pages1 and contains four hundred and thirty-one lines1 all1 or nearly all1 of anapestic tetrameter4 ,and1 surely1 no poet had ever more need of a metre well suited to his purpose1 than he1 who1 intending a critical as well as a descriptive poem1 has found so much fault with the versification of others4 ,pope1 as a versifier1 was regarded by this author1 not only as no master of his art1 but as a very indifferent practiser4--,notes on the ,feast of the ,poets1 p4 #ce4 ,his monotonous and cloying use of numbers1 with that of ,darwin1 ,goldsmith1 ,johnson1 ,haley1 and others of the same school1 is alleged to have wrought a general corruption of taste in respect to versification--a fashion that has prevailed1 not temporarily1 ,but ever since ,pope spoil'd the ears of the town ,with his cuckoo-song verses1 half up and half down--,ib4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,excessive monotony is thus charged by one critic upon all verse of the purely ,anapestic measure2 and1 by an other1 the same fault is alleged in general terms against all the poetry of the school of ,pope1 well-nigh the whole of which is iambic4 ,the defect is probably in either case1 at least half imaginary2 and1 as for the inherent joyousness of anapestics1 that is perhaps not less ideal4 ,father ,humphrey says1 ,anapstic and amphibrachic verse1 being similar in measure and movement1 are pleasing to the ear1 and well adapted to cheerful and humourous compositions2 and sometimes to elegiac compositions1 and subjects important and solemn4--,humphrey's ,english ,prosody1 p4 #ag4 ,,obs4 #d4--,the anapest1 the dactyl1 and the amphibrach1 have this in common1--that each1 with one long syllable1 takes two short ones4 ,hence there is a degree of similarity in their rhythms1 or in their several effects upon the ear2 and consequently lines of each order1 7or of any two1 if the amphibrachic be accounted a separate order17 are sometimes commingled4 ,but the propriety of acknowledging an order of ,amphibrachic verse1 as does ,humphrey1 is more than doubtful2 because1 by so doing1 we not only recognize the amphibrach as one of the principal feet1 but make a vast number of lines ambiguous in their scansion4 ,for our ,amphibrachic order will be made up of lines that are commonly scanned as anapestics--such anapestics as are diversified by an iambus at the beginning1 and sometimes also by a surplus short syllable at the end2 as in the following verses1 better divided as in the sixth example above3-- ,there came to the beach a poor ,exile of ,erin ,the dew on his thin robe was heavy and chill3 ,for his coun -try he sighed1 when at twi -light repair -ing ,to wander alone by the wind-beat -en hill4 ,,measure ,,ii4--,,anapestic ,,of ,,three ,,feet1 ,,or ,,trimeter4 ,example ,i4--,alexander ,selkirk4--,first ,two ,stanzas4 ,i4 ,i am mon -arch of all ,i survey1 ,my right there is none to dispute2 ,from the cen -tre all round to the sea1 ,i am lord of the fowl and the brute4 ,o ,sol -itude6 where are the charms ,that sa -ges have seen in thy face8 ,better dwell in the midst of alarms1 ,than reign in this hor -rible place4 ,,ii4 ,i am out of human -ity's reach1 ,i must fin -ish my jour -ney alone1 ,never hear the sweet mu -sic of speech1 ,i start at the sound of my own4 ,the beasts that roam o -ver the plain1 ,my form with indif -ference see2 ,they are so unacquaint -ed with man1 ,their tame -ness is shock -ing to me4 ,,cowper',s ,poems1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aii4 ,example ,,ii4--,catharina4--,two ,stanzas from ,seven4 ,,iv4 ,though the pleas -ures of ,lon -don exceed ,in num -ber the days of the year1 ,cathari -na1 did noth -ing impede1 ,would feel herself hap -pier here2 ,for the close -woven arch -es of limes ,on the banks of our riv -er1 ,i know1 ,are sweet -er to her many times ,than aught that the cit -y can show4 ,v4 ,so it is1 when the mind is endued ,with a well -judging taste from above2 ,then1 wheth -er embel -lish'd or rude1 ',tis na -ture alone that we love4 ,the achieve -ments of art may amuse1 ,may e -ven our won -der excite1 ,but groves1 hills1 and val -leys1 diffuse ,a last -ing1 a sa -cred delight4 ,,cowper',s ,poems1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bcb4 ,example ,,iii4--,a ,pastoral ,ballad4--,two ,stanzas from ,twenty-seven4 7#h47 ,not a pine in my grove is there seen1 ,but with ten -drils of wood -bine is bound2 ,not a beech 's more beau -tiful green1 ,but a sweet -briar twines it around1 ,not my fields in the prime of the year ,more charms than my cat -tle unfold2 ,not a brook that is lim -pid and clear1 ,but it glit -ters with fish -es of gold4 7#i7 ,one would think she might like to retire ,to the bow'r ,i have la -bour'd to rear2 ,not a shrub that ,i heard her admire1 ,but ,i hast -ed and plant -ed it there4 ,o how sud -den the jes -samine strove ,with the li -lac to ren -der it gay6 ,alread -y it calls for my love1 ,to prune the wild branch -es away4 ,,shenstone3 ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #aci4 ,anapestic lines of four feet and of three are sometimes alternated in a stanza1 as in the following instance3-- ,example ,,iv4--,the ,rose4 ,the rose had been wash'd1 just wash'd in a show'r1 ,which ,ma -ry to ,an -na convey'd2 ,the plen -tiful moist -ure encum -ber'd the flow'r1 ,and weigh'd down its beau -tiful head4 ,the cup was all fill'd1 and the leaves were all wet1 ,and it seem'd to a fan -ciful view1 ,to weep for the buds it had left1 with regret1 ,on the flour -ishing bush where it grew4 ,i hast -ily seized it1 unfit as it was ,for a nose -gay1 so drip -ping and drown'd1 ,and1 swing -ing it rude -ly1 too rude -ly1 alas6 ,i snapp'd it1--it fell to the ground4 ,and such1 ,i exclaim'd1 is the pit -iless part ,some act by the del -icate mind1 ,regard -less of wring -ing and break -ing a heart ,alread -y to sor -row resign'd4 ,this el -egant rose1 had ,i shak -en it less1 ,might have bloom'd with its own -er a while2 ,and the tear that is wip'd with a lit -tle address1 ,may be fol -low'd perhaps by a smile4 ,,cowper3 ,poems1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #baf2 ,english ,reader1 p4 #bab4 ,,measure ,,iii4--,,anapestic ,,of ,,two ,,feet1 ,,or ,,dimeter4 ,example ,i4--,lines with ,hypermeter and ,double ,rhyme4 ,,coronach1 ,,or ,,funeral ,,song4 #a4 ,he is gone on the mount -ain ,he is lost to the for -est ,like a sum -mer-dried foun -tain ,when our need was the sor -est4 ,the font1 reappear -ing1 ,from the rain -drops shall bor -row1 ,but to us comes no cheer -ing1 ,do ,dun -can no mor -row6 #b4 ,the hand of the reap -er ,takes the ears that are hoar -y1 ,but the voice of the weep -er ,wails man -hood in glo -ry2 ,the au -tumn winds rush -ing1 ,waft the leaves that are sear -est1 ,but our flow'r was in flush -ing1 ,when blight -ing was near -est4 ,,walter ,,scott3 ,lady of the ,lake1 ,canto iii1 ,st4 #af4 ,example ,,ii4--,exact ,lines of ,two ,anapests4 ,prithee1 ,cu -pid1 no more ,hurl thy darts at threescore2 ,to thy girls and thy boys1 ,give thy pains and thy joys2 ,let ,sir ,trust -y and me ,from thy frol -ics be free4 ,,addison3 ,rosamond1 ,act ii1 ,scene #b2 ,ev4 ,versif41 p4 #ajj4 ,example ,,iii--,an ,ode1 from the ,french of ,malherbe4 ,this ,an -na so fair1 ,so talk'd of by fame1 ,why dont she appear8 ,indeed1 she's to blame6 ,lewis sighs for the sake ,of her charms1 as they say2 ,what excuse can she make ,for not com -ing away8 ,if he does not possess1 ,he dies with despair2 ,let's give him redress1 ,and go find out the fair ,cette ,anne si belle1 ,qu'on vante si fort1 ,pourquoi ne vient elle8 ,vraiment1 elle a tort6 ,son ,louis soupire1 ,aprs ses appas2 ,que veut elle dire1 ,qu'elle ne vient pas8 ,s'il ne la possde1 ,il s'en va mourir2 ,donnons y remde1 ,allons la qurir4 ,,william ,,king1 ,,ll4 ,d43 ,johnson's ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #eij4 ,example ,,iv4--',tis the ,last ,rose of ,summer4 #a4 ',tis the last rose of sum -mer1 ,left bloom -ing alone2 ,all her love -ly compan -ions ,are fad -ed and gone2 ,no flow'r of her kin -dred1 ,no rose -bud is nigh1 ,to give back her blush -es1 ,or give sigh for sigh4 #b4 ,i'll not leave thee1 thou lone one6 ,to pine on the stem6 ,since the love -ly are sleep -ing1 ,go1 sleep thou with them2 ,thus kind -ly ,i scat -ter ,thy leaves o'er thy bed1 ,where thy mates of the gar -den ,lie scent -less and dead4 #c4 ,so1 soon may ,i fol -low1 ,when friend -ships decay1 ,and1 from love's shining cir -cle1 ,the gems drop away2 ,when true hearts lie with -er'd1 ,and fond ones are flown1 ,oh6 who would inhab -it ,this bleak world alone 8 ,t4 ,,moore3 ,melodies1 ,songs1 and ,airs1 p4 #aga4 ,example ,v4--,nemesis ,calling up the ,dead ,astarte4 ,shadow6 or spir -it6 ,whatev -er thou art1 ,which still doth inher -it ,the whole or a part ,of the form of thy birth1 ,of the mould of thy clay1 ,which return'd to the earth1 ,re-appear to the day6 ,bear what thou bor -est1 ,the heart and the form1 ,and the as -pect thou wor -est ,redeem from the worm6 ,appear6--,appear6--,appear6 ,,lord ,,byron3 ,manfred1 ,act ii1 ,sc4 #d4 ,example ,,vi4--,anapestic ,dimeter with ,trimeter4 ,,first ,,voice4 ,make room for the com -bat1 make room2 ,sound the trum -pet and drum2 ,a fair -er than ,ve -nus prepares ,to encoun -ter a great -er than ,mars4 ,make room for the com -bat1 make room2 ,sound the trum -pet and drum4 ,,second ,,voice4 ,give the word to begin1 ,let the com -batants in1 ,the chal -lenger en -ters all glo rious2 ,but ,love has decreed1 ,though ,beau -ty may bleed1 ,yet ,beau -ty shall still be victo -rious4 ,,george ,,granville3 ,johnson's ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #eh4 ,example ,,vii4--,anapestic ,dimeter with ,tetrameter4 ,,air4 ,let the pipe's merry notes aid the skill of the voice2 ,for our wish -es are crown'd1 and our hearts shall rejoice4 ,rejoice1 and be glad2 ,for1 sure1 he is mad1 ,who1 where mirth1 and good hum -mour1 and har -mony's found1 ,never catch -es the smile1 nor lets pleas -ure go round4 ,let the stu -pid be grave1 ',tis the vice of the slave2 ,but can nev -er agree ,with a maid -en like me1 ,who is born in a coun -try that's hap -py and free4 ,,lloyd3 ,johnson's ,british ,poets1 ,vol4 viii1 p1 #agh4 ,,measure ,,iv4--,,anapestic ,,of ,,one ,,foot1 ,,or ,,monometer4 ,this measure is rarely if ever used except in connexion with longer lines4 ,the following example has six anapestics of two feet1 and two of one2 but the latter1 being verses of double rhyme1 have each a surplus short syllable2 and four of the former commence with the iambus3-- ,example ,i4--,a ,song in a ,drama4 ,now1 mor -tal1 prepare1 ,for thy fate is at hand2 ,now1 mor -tal1 prepare1 ,and surren -der4 ,for ,love shall arise1 ,whom no pow'r can withstand1 ,who rules from the skies ,to the cen -tre4 ,,granville1 ,,viscount ,,lansdowne3 ,joh4 ,brit4 ,poets1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #di4 ,the following extract1 7which is most properly to be scanned as anapestic1 though considerably diversified17 has two lines1 each of which is pretty evidently composed of a single anapest3-- ,example ,,ii4--,a ,chorus in the ,same4 ,let trum -pets and tym -bals1 ,let ata --bals and cym -bals1 ,let drums and let haut -boys give o -ver2 ,but let flutes1 ,and let lutes ,our pas -sions excite ,to gent -ler delight1 ,and ev -ery ,mars be a lov -er4 ,ib41 p4 #ef4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,that a single anapest1 a single foot of any kind1 or even a single long syllable1 may be1 and sometimes is1 in certain rather uncommon instances1 set as a line1 is not to be denied4 ,dr4 ,caustic1 or ,t4 ,g4 ,fessenden1 in his satirical ,directions for ,doing ,poetry1 uses in this manner the monosyllables1 ,whew1 ,say1 and ,dress and also the iambs1 ,the gay and1 ,all such1 rhyming them with something less isolated4 ,,obs4 #b4--,many of our grammarians give anonymous examples of what they conceive to be ,anapestic ,monometer1 or the line of one anapest1 while others--7as ,allen1 ,bullions1 ,churchill1 and ,hiley--7 will have the length of two anapests to be the shortest measure of this order4 ,prof4 ,hart says1 ,the shortest anapstic verse is a single anapst2 as1 ',in a sweet ,resonance1 ,all their feet ,in the dance ,all the night ,tinkled light4' ,this measure1 it is added1 is1 however1 ambiguous2 for by laying an accent on the first1 as well as the third syllable1 we may generally make it a trochaic4--,hart's ,english ,gram41 p4 #ahh4 ,the same six versicles are used as an example by ,prof4 ,fowler1 who1 without admitting any ambiguity in the measure1 introduces them1 rather solecistically1 thus3 ,each of the following lines consist of a single ,anapest4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #fid4 ,,obs4 #c4--,verses of three syllables1 with the second short1 the last long1 and the first common1 or variable1 are1 it would seem1 doubly doubtful in scansion2 for1 while the first syllable1 if made short1 gives us an anapest1 to make it long1 gives either an amphimac or what is virtually two trochees4 ,for reasons of choice in the latter case1 see ,observation #ast on ,trochaic ,dimeter4 ,for the fixing of variable quantities1 since the case admits no other rule1 regard should be had to the analogy of the verse1 and also to the common principles of accentuation4 ,it is doubtless possible to read the six short lines above1 into the measure of so many anapests2 but1 since the two monosyllables ,in and ,all are as easily made long as short1 whoever considers the common pronunciation of the longer words1 ,resonance and ,tinkled1 may well doubt whether the learned professors have1 in this instance1 hit upon the right mode of scansion4 ,the example may quite as well be regarded either as ,trochaic ,dimeter1 cataletic1 or as ,amphimacric ,monometer1 acatalectic4 ,but the word resonance1 being accented usually on the first syllable only1 is naturally a dactyl2 and1 since the other five little verses end severally with a monosyllable1 which can be varied in quantity1 it is possible to read them all as being dactylics2 and so the whole may be regarded as trebly doubtful with respect to the measure4 ,,obs4 #d4--,l4 ,murray says1 ,the shortest anapstic verse must be a single anapst2 as1 ,but in vain ,they complain4 ,and then he adds1 ,this measure is1 however1 ambiguous2 for1 by laying the stress of the voice on the first and third syllables1 we might make a trochaic4 ,and therefore the first and simplest form of our genuine ,anapstic verse1 is made up of two anapsts4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #beg2 #abmo1 p4 #bjg4 ,this conclusion is utterly absurd1 as well as completely contradictory to his first assertion4 ,the genuineness of this small metre depends not at all on what may be made of the same words by other pronunciation2 nor can it be a very natural reading of this passage1 that gives to ,but and ,they such emphasis as will make them long4 ,,obs4 #e4--,yet ,chandler1 in his improved grammar of #ahdg1 has not failed to repeat the substance of all this absurdity and self-contradiction1 carefully dressing it up in other language1 thus3 ,verses composed of single ,anapsts are frequently found in stanzas of songs2 and the same is true of several of the other kinds of feet2 but we may consider the first i4e41 shortest form of anapstic verse as consisting of two ,anapsts4--,chandler's ,common ,school ,gram41 p4 #aif4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,everett1 speaking of anapestic lines1 says1 ,the first and shortest of these is composed of a single ,anapest following an ,iambus4--,english ,versification1 p4 #ii4 ,this not only denies the existence of ,anapestic ,monometer1 but improperly takes for the ,anapestic verse what is1 by the statement itself1 half ,iambic1 and therefore of the ,composite ,order4 ,but the false assertion is plainly refuted even by the author himself and on the same page4 ,for1 at the bottom of the page1 he has this contradictory note3 ,it has been remarked 7#ae7 that though the ,iambus with an additional short syllable is the shortest line that is known to ,iambic verse1 there are isolated instances of a single ,iambus1 and even of a single long syllable4 ,there are examples of lines made up of a single ,anapest1 as the following example will show3-- ',jove in his chair1 ,of the sky lord mayor1 ,with his nods ,men and gods ,keeps in awe2 ,when he winks1 ,heaven shrinks2 99 99 99 99 ,cock of the school1 ,he bears despotic rule2 ,his word1 ,though absurd1 ,must be law4 ,even ,fate1 ,though so great1 ,must not prate2 ,his bald pate ,jove would cuff1 ,he's so bluff1 ,for a straw4 ,cowed deities1 ,like mice in cheese1 ,to stir must cease ,or gnaw4' ,o',,hara3--,midas1 ,act i1 ,sc4 #a4--;,everett's ,versification1 p4 #ii ,,order ,,iv4--,,dactylic ,,verse4 ,in pure ,dactylic verse1 the stress is laid on the first syllable of each successive three2 that is1 on the first1 the fourth1 the seventh1 and the tenth syllable of each line of four feet4 ,full dactylic generally forms triple rhyme4 ,when one of the final short syllables is omitted1 the rhyme is double2 when both1 single4 ,these omissions are here essential to the formation of such rhymes4 ,dactylic with double rhyme1 ends virtually with a trochee2 dactylic with single rhyme1 commonly ends with a csura2 that is1 with a long syllable taken for a foot4 ,dactylic with single rhyme is the same as anapestic would be without its initial short syllables4 ,dactylic verse is rather uncommon2 and1 when employed1 is seldom perfectly pure and regular4 ,,measure ,i4--,,dactylic ,,of ,,eight ,,feet1 ,,or ,,octometer4 ,example4--,nimrod4 ,nimrod the hunter was mighty in hunting1 and famed as the ruler of cities of yore2 ,babel1 and ,erech1 and ,accad1 and ,calneh1 from ,shinar's fair region his name afar bore4 ,,measure ,,ii4--,,dactylic ,,of ,,seven ,,feet1 ,,or ,,heptameter4 ,example4--,christ's ,kingdom4 ,out of the kingdom of ,christ shall be gathered1 by angels o'er ,satan vic -torious1 ,all that of -fendeth1 that lieth1 that faileth to honour his name ever glorious4 ,,measure ,,iii4--,,dactylic ,,of ,,six ,,feet1 ,,or ,,hexameter4 ,example ,i4--,time in ,motion4 ,time1 thou art ever in motion1 on wheels of the days1 years1 and ages2 ,restless as waves of the ocean1 when ,eurus or ,boreas rages4 ,example ,,ii4--,where1 is ,grand-,pr8 ,this is the forest pri -meval2 but where are the hearts that be -neath it ,leap'd like the roe1 when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman8 ,where is the thatch-roofd village1 the home of ,a -cadian farmers8 ,h4 ,w4 ,,longfellow3 ,evangeline1 ,part i1 l4 #g--i4 ,,measure ,,iv4--,,dactylic ,,of ,,five ,,feet1 ,,or ,,pentameter4 ,example4--,salutation to ,america4 ,land of the beautiful1 beautiful1 land of the free1 ,land of the negro-slave1 negro-slave1 land of the chivalry1 ,often my heart had turned1 heart had turned1 longing to thee2 ,often had mountain-side1 mountain-side1 broad lake1 and stream1 ,gleamed on my waking thought1 waking thought1 crowded my dream4 ,now thou dost welcome me1 welcome me1 from the dark sea1 ,land of the beautiful1 beautiful1 land of the free1 ,land of the negro-slave1 negro-slave1 land of the chivalry4 ,,measure ,v4--,,dactylic ,,of ,,four ,,feet1 ,,or ,,tetrameter4 ,example #a--,the ,soldier's ,wife4 ,weary way -wanderer1 languid and sick at heart1 ,travelling painfully over the rugged road1 ,wild-visaged ,wanderer6 ,god help thee1 wretched one6 ,sorely thy little one drags by thee barefooted2 ,cold is the baby that hangs at thy bending back1 ,meagre1 and livid1 and screaming for misery4 ,woe-begone mother1 half anger1 half agony1 ,over thy shoulder thou lookest to hush the babe1 ,bleakly the blinding snow beats in thy haggard face4 ,ne'er will thy husband re -turn from the war again1 ,cold is thy heart1 and as frozen as ,charity6 ,cold are thy children4--,now ,god be thy comforter6 ,,robert ,,southey3 ,poems1 ,philad41 #ahdc1 p4 #bej4 ,example ,,ii4--,boys4--,a ,dactylic ,stanza4 ,boys will an -ticipate1 lavish1 and dissipate ,all that your busy pate hoarded with care2 ,and1 in their foolishness1 passion1 and mulishness1 ,charge you with churlishness1 spurning your pray'r4 ,example ,,iii--,labour4--,the ,first of ,five ,stanzas4 ,pause not to dream of the future be -fore us2 ,pause not to weep the wild cares that come o'er us3 ,hark1 how ,cre -ation's deep1 musical chorus1 ,uninter -mitting1 goes up into ,heaven6 ,never the ocean-wave falters in flowing2 ,never the little seed stops in its growing2 ,more and more richly the rose-heart keeps glowing1 ,till from its nourishing stem it is riven4 ,,frances ,s4 ,,osgood3 ,clapp's ,pioneer1 p4 #id4 ,example ,,iv4--,boat ,song4--,first ,stanza of ,four4 ,hail to the chief who in triumph ad -vances6 ,honour'd and bless'd be the ever-green pine6 ,long may the tree in his banner that glances1 ,flourish1 the shelter and grace of our line6 ,heaven send it happy dew1 ,earth lend it sap anew1 ,gayly to bourgeon1 and broadly to grow1 ,while ev'ry ,highland glen ,sends our shout back agen1 ',roderigh ,vich ,alpine ,dhu1 ho6 ieroe6' ,,walter ,,scott3 ,lady of the ,lake1 ,c4 ii1 ,st4 #ai4 ,,measure ,,vi4--,,dactylic ,,of ,,three ,,feet1 ,,or ,,trimeter4 ,example4--,to the ,katydid4 ,ka-ty-did1 ,ka-ty-did1 sweetly sing1-- ,sing to thy loving mates near to thee2 ,summer is come1 and the trees are green1-- ,summer's glad season so dear to thee4 ,cheerily1 cheerily1 insect1 sing2 ,blithe be thy notes in the hickory2 ,every bough shall an answer ring1 ,sweeter than trumpet of victory4 ,,measure ,,vii4--,,dactylic ,,of ,,two ,,feet1 ,,or ,,dimeter4 ,example ,i4--,the ,bachelor4--,four ,lines from ,many4 ,free from sa -tiety1 ,care1 and anx -iety1 ,charms in va -riety1 ,fall to his share4--,,anon43 ,newspaper4 ,example ,,ii4--,the ,pibroch4--,sixteen ,lines from ,forty4 ,pibroch of ,donuil ,dhu1 ,pibroch of ,donuil1 ,wake thy wild voice anew4 ,summon ,clan -,conuil4 ,come away1 come away6 ,hark to the summons6 ,come in your war-array1 ,gentles and commons6 ,come as the winds come1 when ,forests are rended2 ,come as the waves come1 when ,navies are stranded2 ,faster come1 faster come1 ,faster and faster6 ,chief1 vassal1 page1 and groom1 ,tenant and master4--,w4 ,,scott4 ,example ,,iii4--,my ,boy4 ',there is even a happiness that makes the heart afraid4'--,,hood4 #a4 ,one more new claimant for ,human fra -ternity1 ,swelling the flood that sweeps ,on to e -ternity2 ,i who have filled the cup1 ,tremble to think of it2 ,for1 be it what it may1 ,i must yet drink of it4 #b4 ,room for him into the ,ranks of hu -manity2 ,give him a place in your ,kingdom of vanity6 ,welcome the stranger with ,kindly af -fection2 ,hopefully1 trustfully1 ,not with de -jection4 #c4 ,see1 in his waywardness ,how his fist doubles2 ,thus pugi -listical1 ,daring life's troubles3 ,strange that the neophyte ,enters ex -istence ,in such an attitude1 ,feigning re -sistance4 #d4 ,could he but have a glimpse ,into fu -turity1 ,well might he fight against ,farther ma -turity2 ,yet does it seem to me ,as if his purity ,were against sinfulness ,ample se -curity4 #e4 ,incompre -hensible1 ,budding im -mortal1 ,thrust all a -mazedly ,under life's portal2 ,born to a destiny ,clouded in mystery1 ,wisdom it -self cannot ,guess at its history4 #f4 ,something too much of this ,timon-like croaking2 ,see his face wrinkle now1 ,laughter pro -voking4 ,now he cries lustily-- ,bravo1 my hearty one6 ,lungs like an orator ,cheering his party on4 #g4 ,look how his merry eyes ,turn to me pleadingly6 ,can we help loving him-- ,loving ex -ceedingly8 ,partly with hopefulness1 ,partly with fears1 ,mine1 as ,i look at him1 ,moisten with tears4 #h4 ,now then to find a name2-- ,where shall we search for it8 ,turn to his ancestry1 ,or to the church for it8 ,shall we en -dow him with ,title he -roic1 ,after some warrior1 ,poet1 or stoic8 #i4 ,one aunty says he will ,soon 'lisp in numbers1' ,turning his thoughts to rhyme1 ,e'en in his slumbers2 ,watts rhymed in babyhood1 ,no blemish spots his fame-- ,christen him even so3 ,young ,mr4 ,watts his name4 ,,anonymous3 ,knickerbocker1 and ,newspapers1 #ahdi4 ,,measure ,,viii4--,,dactylic ,,of ,,one ,,foot1 ,,or ,,monometer4 ,fearfully1 ,tearfully4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,a single dactyl1 set as a line1 can scarcely be used otherwise than as part of a stanza1 and in connexion with longer verses4 ,the initial accent and triple rhyme make it necessary to have something else with it4 ,hence this short measure is much less common than the others1 which are accented differently4 ,besides1 the line of three syllables1 as was noticed in the observations on ,anapestic ,monometer1 is often peculiarly uncertain in regard to the measure which it should make4 ,a little difference in the laying of emphasis or accent may1 in many instances1 change it from one species of verse to an other4 ,even what seems to be dactylic of two feet1 if the last syllable be sufficiently lengthened to admit of single rhyme with the full metre1 becomes somewhat doubtful in its scansion2 because1 in such case1 the last foot maybe reckoned an amphimac1 or amphimacer4 ,of this1 the following stanzas from ,barton's lines to the ,gallic ,eagle1 7or to ,bonaparte on ,st4 ,helena17 though different from all the rest of the piece1 may serve as a specimen3-- ,far from the battle's shock1 ,fate hath fast bound thee2 ,chain'd to the rugged rock1 ,waves warring round thee4 ,now1 for the trumpet's sound1 ,sea-birds are shrieking2 ,hoarse on thy rampart's bound1 ,billows are breaking4 ,,obs4 #b4--,this may be regarded as verse of the ,composite ,order2 and1 perhaps1 more properly so1 than as ,dactylic with mere incidental variations4 ,lines like those in which the questionable foot is here ,italicized1 may be united with longer dactylics1 and thus produce a stanza of great beauty and harmony4 ,the following is a specimen4 ,it is a song1 written by ,i know not whom1 but set to music by ,dempster4 ,the twelfth line is varied to a different measure4 ,,address ,,to ,,the ,,skylark4 ,bird of the wilderness1 ,blithesome and cumberless1 ,light be thy matin o'er moorland and lea2 ,emblem of happiness1 ,blest is thy dwelling-place2 ,o6 to a -bide in the desert with thee6 ,wild is thy lay1 and loud1 ,far on the downy cloud2 ,love gives it energy1 love gave it birth3 ,where1 on thy dewy wing1 ,where art thou journeying8 ,thy lay is in heav -en1 thy love is on earth4 ,o'er moor and mountain green1 ,o'er fell and fountain sheen1 ,o'er the red streamer that heralds the day2 ,over the cloudlet dim1 ,over the rainbow's rim1 ,musical cherub1 hie1 hie thee a -way4 ,then1 when the gloamin comes1 ,low in the heather blooms4 ,sweet will thy welcome and bed of love be4 ,emblem of happiness1 ,blest is thy dwelling-place2 ,o6 to a -bide in the desert with thee6 ,,obs4 #c4--;,it is observed by ,churchill1 7,new ,gram41 p4 #chg17 that1 ,shakspeare has used the dactyl1 as appropriate to mournful occasions4 ,the chief example which he cites1 is the following3-- ,midnight1 as -sist our moan1 ,help us to sigh and groan ,heavily1 heavily4 ,graves1 yawn and yield your dead1 ,till death be uttered ,heavily1 heavily4--,much ,ado1 ,v1 #c ,,obs4 #d4--,these six lines of ,dactylic 7or ,composite7 ,dimeter are subjoined by the poet to four of ,trochaic ,tetrameter4 ,there does not appear to me to be any particular adaptation of either measure to mournful subjects1 more than to others2 but later instances of this metre may be cited1 in which such is the character of the topic treated4 ,the following long example consists of lines of two feet1 most of them dactylic only2 but1 of the seventy-six1 there are twelve which may be otherwise divided1 and as many more which must be1 because they commence with a short syllable4 ,,the ,,bridge ,,of ,,sighs4--,,by ,,thomas ,,hood4 ,one more un -fortunate1 ,weary of breath1 ,rashly im -portunate1 ,gone to her death6 ,take her up tenderly1 ,lift her with care2 ,fashioned so slenderly1 ,young1 and so fair6 ,look at her garments ,clinging like cerements1 ,whilst the wave constantly ,drips from her clothing2 ,take her up instantly1 ,loving1 not loathing4 ,touch her not scornfully2 ,think of her mournfully1 ,gently1 and humanly2 ,not of the stains of her3 ,all that re -mains of her ,now1 is pure womanly4 ,make no deep scrutiny ,into her mutiny1 ,rash and un -dutifull2 ,past all dis -honour1 ,death has left on her ,only the beautiful4 ,still1 for all slips of hers1-- ,one of ,eve's family1-- ,wipe those poor lips of hers1 ,oozing so clammily4 ,loop up her tresses1 ,escaped from the comb1-- ,her fair auburn tresses2 ,whilst wonderment guesses1 ,where was her home8 ,who was her father8 ,who was her mother8 ,had she a sister8 ,had she a brother8 ,was there a dearer one ,yet1 than all other8 ,alas1 for the rarity ,of ,christian charity ,under the sun6 ,o1 it was pitiful6 ,near a whole city full1 ,home she had none4 ,sisterly1 brotherly1 ,fatherly1 motherly1 ,feelings had changed2 ,love1 by harsh evidence1 ,thrown from its eminence ,even ,god's providence ,seeming e -stranged4 ,where the lamps quiver ,so far in the river1 ,with many a light1 ,from window and casement1 ,from garret to basement1 ,she stood1 with amazement1 ,houseless1 by night4 ,the bleak wind of ,march ,made her tremble and shiver2 ,but not the dark arch1 ,or the black-flowing river3 ,mad from life's history1 ,glad to death's mystery1 ,swift to be hurled1-- ,anywhere1 anywhere1 ,out of the world6 ,in she plung'd boldly1-- ,no matter how coldly ,the rough river ran1-- ,over the brink of it3 ,picture it1 think of it1 ,dissolute man6 ,clapp's ,pioneer1 p4 #ed4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,as each of our principal feet1--the ,iambus1 the ,trochee1 the ,anapest1 and the ,dactyl1--has always one1 and only one long syllable2 it should follow1 that1 in each of our principal orders of verse1--the ,iambic1 the ,trochaic1 the ,anapestic1 and the ,dactylic1--any line1 not diversified by a secondary foot1 must be reckoned to contain just as many feet as long syllables4 ,so1 too1 of the ,amphibrach1 and any line reckoned ,amphibrachic4 ,but it happens1 that the common error by which single-rhymed ,trochaics have so often been counted a foot shorter than they are1 is also extended by some writers to single-rhymed ,dactylics--the rhyming syllable1 if long1 being esteemed supernumerary6 ,for example1 three dactylic stanzas1 in each of which a pentameter couplet is followed by a hexameter line1 and this again by a heptameter1 are introduced by ,prof4 ,hart thus3 ,the ,dactylic ,tetrameter1 ,pentameter1 and ,hexameter1 with the additional or hypermeter syllable1 are all found combined in the following extraordinary specimen of versification4 99 99 99 ,this is the only specimen of ,dactylic hexameter or even pentameter verse that the author recollects to have seen4 ,,lament ,,of ,,adam4 ,glad was our meeting3 thy glittering bosom ,i heard1 ,beating on mine1 like the heart of a timorous bird2 ,bright were thine eyes as the stars1 and their glances were radiant as gleams ,falling from eyes of the angels1 when singing by ,eden's pur -pureal streams4 ,happy as seraphs were we1 for we wander'd a -lone1 ,trembling with passionate thrills1 when the twilight had flown3 ,even the echo was silent3 our kisses and whispers of love ,languish'd un -heard and un -known1 like the breath of the blossoming buds of the grove4 ,life hath its pleasures1 but fading are they as the flowers2 ,sin hath its sorrows1 and sadly we turn'd from those bowers2 ,bright were the angels be -hind with their falchions of heavenly flame6 ,dark was the desolate desert be -fore us1 and darker the depth of our shame6 --,,henry ,b4 ,,hirst3 ,hart's ,english ,grammar1 p4 #aij4 ,,obs4 #f4--,of ,dactylic verse1 our prosodists and grammarians in general have taken but very little notice2 a majority of them appearing by their silence1 to have been utterly ignorant of the whole species4 ,by many1 the dactyl is expressly set down as an inferior foot1 which they imagine is used only for the occasional diversification of an iambic1 trochaic1 or anapestic line4 ,thus ,everett3 ,it is never used except as a secondary foot1 and then in the first place of the line4--,english ,versification1 p4 #abb4 ,on this order of verse1 ,lindley ,murray bestowed only the following words3 ,the ,,dactylic measure being very uncommon1 we shall give only one example of one species of it3-- ,from the low pleasures of this fallen nature1 ,rise we to higher1 c4--,gram41 #abmo1 p4 #bjg2 #hvo1 p4 #beg4 ,read this example with we rise for ,rise we1 and all the poetry of it is gone6 ,humphrey says1 ,dactyle verse is seldom used1 as remarked heretofore2 but is used occasionally1 and has three metres2 viz4 of #b1 #c1 and #d feet4 ,specimens follow4 #b feet4 ,free from anxiety4 #c feet4 ,singing most sweetly and merrily4 #d feet4 ,dactylic measures are wanting in energy4--,english ,prosody1 p4 #ah4 ,here the prosodist has made his own examples2 and the last one1 which unjustly impeaches all dactylics1 he has made very badly--very prosaically2 for the word ,dactylic1 though it has three syllables1 is properly no dactyl1 but rather an amphibrach4 ,,obs4 #g4--;,by the ,rev4 ,david ,blair1 this order of poetic numbers is utterly misconceived and misrepresented4 ,he says of it1 ,,dactylic verse consists of a short syllable1 with one1 two1 or three feet1 and a long syllable2 as1 ',distracted with woe1 ',i'll rush on the foe4' ,,addison4--,blair's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #aai4 ',ye shepherds so cheerful and gay1 ',whose flocks never carelessly roam2 ',should ,corydon's happen to stray1 ',oh6 call the poor wanderers home4' ,,shenstone4--,ib41 p4 #abj4 ,it is manifest1 that these lines are not dactylic at all4 ,there is not a dactyl in them4 ,they are composed of iambs and anapests4 ,the order of the versification is ,anapestic2 but it is here varied by the very common diversification of dropping the first short syllable4 ,the longer example is from a ballad of #baf lines1 of which #ii are thus varied1 and #aag are full anapestics4 ,,obs4 #h4--,the makers of school-books are quite as apt to copy blunders1 as to originate them2 and1 when an error is once started in a grammar1 as it passes with the user for good learning1 no one can guess where it will stop4 ,it seems worth while1 therefore1 in a work of this nature1 to be liberal in the citation of such faults as have linked themselves1 from time to time1 with the several topics of our great subject4 ,it is not probable1 that the false scansion just criticised originated with ,blair2 for the ,comprehensive ,grammar1 a ,british work1 republished in its third edition1 by ,dobson1 of ,philadelphia1 in #aghi1 teaches the same doctrine1 thus3 ,dactylic measure may consist of one1 two1 or three ,dactyls1 introduced by a feeble syllable1 and terminated by a strong one2 as1 ,my dear ,irish folks1 ,come leave off your jokes1 ,and buy up my halfpence so fine2 ,so fair and so bright1 ,they'll give you de -light3 ,ob -serve how they glister and shine4 ,,swift4 ,a cobler there was and he liv'd in a stall1 ,which serv'd him for kitchen1 for parlour and hall2 ,no coin in his pocket1 no care in his pate2 ,no am -bition he had1 and no duns at his gate4 --,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,to this1 the author adds1 ,dactylic measure becomes ,anapestic by setting off an ,iambic foot in the beginning of the line4--,ib4 ,these verses1 all but the last one1 unquestionably have an iambic foot at the beginning2 and1 for that reason1 they are not1 and by no measurement can be1 dactylics4 ,the last one is purely anapestic4 ,all the divisional bars1 in either example1 are placed wrong4 ,,order ,v4--,,composite ,,verse4 ,composite verse is that which consists of various metres1 or different feet1 combined1--not accidentally1 or promiscuously1 but by design1 and with some regularity4 ,in ,composite verse1 of any form1 the stress must be laid rhythmically1 as in the simple orders1 else the composition will be nothing better than unnatural prose4 ,the possible variety of combinations in this sort of numbers is unlimited2 but1 the pure and simple kinds being generally preferred1 any stated mixture of feet is comparatively uncommon4 ,certain forms which may be scanned by other methods1 are susceptible also of division as ,composites4 ,hence there cannot be an exact enumeration of the measures of this order1 but instances1 as they occur1 may be cited to exemplify it4 ,example ,i4--,from ,swift's ,irish ,feast4 ,o',rourk's noble fare will ne'er be forgot1 ,by those who were there1 or those who were not4 ,his rev -els to keep1 we sup and we dine ,on sev -en score sheep1 fat bul -locks1 and swine4 ,usquebaugh to our feast in pails was brought up1 ,an hun -dred at least1 and a mad -der our cup4 ,o there is the sport6 we rise with the light1 ,in disor -derly sort1 from snor -ing all night4 ,o how was ,i trick'd6 my pipe it was broke1 ,my pock -et was pick'd1 ,i lost my new cloak4 ,i'm ri -fled1 quoth ,nell1 of man -tle and kerch -er3 ,why then fare them well1 the de'il take the search -er4 ,johnson's ,works of the ,poets1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #caj4 ,here the measure is tetrameter2 and it seems to have been the design of the poet1 that each hemistich should consist of one iamb and one anapest4 ,such1 with a few exceptions1 is the arrangement throughout the piece2 but the hemistichs which have double rhyme1 may each be divided into two amphibrachs4 ,in ,everett's ,versification1 at p4 #ajj1 the first six lines of this example are broken into twelve1 and set in three stanzas1 being given to exemplify ,the ,line of a single ,anapest preceded by an ,iambus1 or what he improperly calls ,the first and shortest species of ,anapestic lines4 ,his other instance of the same metre is also ,composite verse1 rather than ,anapestic1 even by his own showing4 ,in the following example1 says he1 we have this measure alternating with ,amphibrachic lines3 ,example ,,ii4--,from ,byron's ,manfred4 ,the ,captive ,usurper1 ,hurl'd down from the throne4 ,lay buried in torpor1 ,forgotten and lone2 ,i broke through his slumbers1 ,i shiv -er'd his chain1 ,i leagued him with numbers-- ,he's ,ty -rant again6 ,with the blood of a mill -ion he'll an -swer my care1 ,with a na -tion's destruc -tion--his flight and despair4 --,act ii1 ,sc4 #c4 ,here the last two lines1 which are not cited by ,everett1 are pure anapestic tetrameters2 and it may be observed1 that1 if each two of the short lines were printed as one1 the eight which are here scanned otherwise1 would become four of the same sort1 except that these would each begin with an iambus4 ,hence the specimen sounds essentially as anapestic verse4 ,example ,,iii4--,woman on the ,field of ,battle4 ,gentle and lovely form1 ,what didst thou here1 ,when the fierce battle storm ,bore down the spear8 ,banner and shiver'd crest1 ,beside thee strown1 ,tell that a -midst the best ,thy work was done6 ,low lies the stately head1 ,earth-bound the free3 ,how gave those haughty dead ,a place to thee8 ,slumb'rer6 thine early bier ,friends should have crown'd1 ,many a flow'r and tear ,shedding around4 ,soft voices1 dear and young1 ,mingling their swell1 ,should o'er thy dust have sung ,earth's last farewell4 ,sisters a -bove the grave ,of thy repose ,should have bid vi'lets wave ,with the white rose4 ,now must the trumpet's note4 ,savage and shrill1 ,for requi'm o'er thee float1 ,thou fair and still6 ,and the swift charger sweep1 ,in full career1 ,trampling thy place of sleep-- ,why cam'st thou here8 ,why8--,ask the true heart why ,woman hath been ,ever1 where brave men die1 ,unshrink -ing seen4 ,unto this harvest ground1 ,proud reap -ers came1 ,some for that stirring sound1 ,a warr -ior's name3 ,some for the stormy play1 ,and joy of strife1 ,and some to fling away ,a wea -ry life4 ,but thou1 pale sleeper1 thou1 ,with the slight frame1 ,and the rich locks1 whose glow ,death can -not tame2 ,only one thought1 one pow'r1 ,thee could have led1 ,so through the tempest's hour ,to lift thy head6 ,only the true1 the strong1 ,the love whose trust ,woman's deep soul too long ,pours on the dust4 ,,hemans3 ,poetical ,works1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aeg4 ,here are fourteen stanzas of composite dimeter1 each having two sorts of lines2 the first sort consisting1 with a few exceptions1 of a dactyl and an amphimac2 the second1 mostly1 of two iambs2 but1 in some instances1 of a trochee and an iamb2--the latter being1 in such a connexion1 much the more harmonious and agreeable combination of quantities4 ,example ,,iv4--,airs from a ,serenata4 ,air #a4 ,love sounds the alarm1 ,and fear is a-flying2 ,when beau -ty's the prize1 ,what mor -tal fears dy -ing8 ,in defence of my treas -ure1 ,i'd bleed at each vein2 ,without her no pleas -ure2 ,for life is a pain4 ,air #b4 ,consid -er1 fond shep -herd1 ,how fleet -ing's the pleas -ure1 ,that flat -ters our hopes ,in pursuit of the fair3 ,the joys that attend it1 ,by mo -ments we meas -ure2 ,but life is too lit -tle ,to meas -ure our care4 ,,gay',s ,,poems3 ,johnson's ,works of the ,poets1 ,vo,l vii1 p4 #cgh4 ,these verses are essentially either anapestic or amphibrachic4 ,the anapest divides two of them in the middle2 the amphibrach will so divide eight4 ,but either division will give many iambs4 ,by the present scansion1 the first foot is an iamb in all of them but the two anapestics4 ,example ,v4--,the ,last ,leaf4 #a4 ,i saw him once before ,as he pass -ed by the door1 ,and again ,the pave -ment stones resound ,as he tot -ters o'er the ground ,with his cane4 #b4 ,they say that in his prime1 ,ere the prun -ing knife of ,time ,cut him down1 ,not a bet -ter man was found ,by the cri -er on his round ,through the town4 #c4 ,but now he walks the streets1 ,and he looks at all he meets ,so forlorn2 ,and he shakes his fee -ble head1 ,that it seems as if he said1 ,they are gone4 #d4 ,the mos -sy mar -bles rest ,on the lips that he has press'd ,in their bloom2 ,and the names he lov'd to hear ,have been carv'd for man -y a year ,on the tomb4 #e4 ,my grand -mamma has said1-- ,poor old ,la -dy6 she is dead ,long ago1-- ,that he had a ,ro -man nose1 ,and his cheek was like a rose ,in the snow4 #f4 ,but now his nose is thin1 ,and it rests upon his chin ,like a staff2 ,and a crook is in his back ,and a mel -anchol -y crack ,in his laugh4 #g4 ,i know it is a sin ,for me thus to sit and grin ,at him here2 ,but the old three-cor -ner'd hat1 ,and the breech -es1 and all that1 ,are so queer6 #h4 ,and if ,i should live to be ,the last leaf upon the tree ,in the spring1-- ,let them smile1 as ,i do now1 ,at the old forsak -en bough ,where ,i cling4 ,,oliver ,w4 ,,holmes3 ,the ,pioneer1 #ahdc1 p4 #ajh4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,composite verse1 especially if the lines be short1 is peculiarly liable to uncertainty1 and diversity of scansion2 and that which does not always abide by one chosen order of quantities1 can scarcely be found agreeable2 it must be more apt to puzzle than to please the reader4 ,the eight stanzas of this last example1 have eight lines of iambic trimeter2 and1 since seven times in eight1 this metre holds the first place in the stanza1 it is a double fault1 that one such line seems strayed from its proper position4 ,it would be better to prefix the word ,now to the fourth line1 and to mend the forty-third thus3-- ,and should ,i live to be-- ,the trissyllabic feet of this piece1 as ,i scan it1 are numerous2 being the sixteen short lines of monometer1 and the twenty-four initial feet of the lines of seven syllables4 ,every one of the forty--7except the thirty-sixth1 ,the last leaf--7 begins with a monosyllable which may be varied in quantity2 so that1 with stress laid on this monosyllable1 the foot becomes an amphimac2 without such stress1 an anapest4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,i incline to read this piece as composed of iambs and anapests2 but ,e4 ,a4 ,poe1 who has commended the effective harmony of these lines1 and called the example an excellently well conceived and well managed specimen of versification1 counts many syllables long1 which such a reading makes short1 and he also divides all but the iambics in a way quite different from mine1 thus3 ,let us scan the first stanza4 ',i saw him once before ,as he passed by the door1 ,and a- gain ,the pave- ment stones resound ,as he totters o'er the ground ,with his cane4' ,this1 says he1 is the general scansion of the poem4 ,we have first three iambuses4 ,the second line shifts the rhythm into the trochaic1 giving us three trochees1 with a csura equivalent1 in this case1 to a trochee4 ,the third line is a trochee and equivalent csura4--,,poe',s ,,notes ,,upon ,,english ,,verse3 ,pioneer1 p4 #aji4 ,these quantities are the same as those by which the whole piece is made to consist of iambs and amphimacs4 ,,obs4 #c4--;,in its rhythmical effect upon the ear1 a supernumerary short syllable at the end of a line1 may sometimes1 perhaps1 compensate for the want of such a syllable at the beginning of the next line1 as may be seen in the fourth example above2 but still it is unusual1 and seems improper1 to suppose such syllables to belong to the scansion of the subsequent line2 for the division of lines1 with their harmonic pauses1 is greater than the division of feet1 and implies that no foot can ever actually be split by it4 ,poe has suggested that the division into lines may be disregarded in scanning1 and sometimes must be4 ,he cites for an example the beginning of ,byron's ,bride of ,abydos1--a passage which has been admired for its easy flow1 and which1 he says1 has greatly puzzled those who have attempted to scan it4 ,regarding it as essentially anapestic tetrameter1 yet as having some initial iambs1 and the first and fifth lines dactylic1 ,i shall here divide it accordingly1 thus3-- ,know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle ,are em -blems of deeds that are done in their clime-- ,where the rage of the vul -ture1 the love of the tur -tle1 ,now melt into soft -ness1 now mad -den to crime8 ,know ye the land of the cedar and vine4 ,where the flow'rs ever blos -som1 the beams ever shine1 ,and the light wings of ,zeph -yr1 oppress'd with perfume1 ,wax faint o'er the gar -dens of ,gul in her bloom8 ,where the cit -ron and ol -ive are fair -est of fruit1 ,and the voice of the night -ingale nev -er is mute8 ,where the vir -gins are soft as the ros -es they twine1 ,and all1 save the spir -it of man1 is divine8 ',tis the land of the ,east- 't is the clime of the ,sun-- ,can he smile on such deeds as his chil -dren have done8 ,oh1 wild as the ac -cents of lov -ers' farewell1 ,are the hearts that they bear1 and the tales that they tell4 ,,obs4 #d4--,these lines this ingenious prosodist divides not thus1 but1 throwing them together like prose unpunctuated1 finds in them a regular succession of dactylic rhythms1 varied only at three points by equivalent spondees1 and separated into two distinct divisions by equivalent terminating csuras4 ,he imagines that1 ,by all who have ears--not over long--this will be acknowledged as the true and the sole true scansion4--,e4 ,a4 ,poe3 ,pioneer1 p4 #ajg4 ,so it may1 for aught ,i know2 but1 having dared to show there is an other way quite as simple and plain1 and less objectionable1 ,i submit both to the judgement of the reader3-- ,know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime where the rage of the vulture the love of the turtle now melt into softness now madden to crime4 ,know ye the land of the cedar and vine where the flow'rs ever blossom the beams ever shine where the light wings of zephyr op -press'd with per -fume wax faint o'er the gardens of ,gul in her bloom where the citron and olive are fairest of fruit and the voice of the nightingale never is mute where the virgins are soft as the roses they twine and all save the spirit of man is di- vine 'tis the land of the ,east 'tis the clime of the ,sun can he smile on such deeds as his children have done oh wild as the accents of lovers' fare- well are the hearts that they bear and the tales that they tell4--,ib4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,in the sum and proportion of their quantities1 the anapest1 the dactyl1 and the amphibrach1 are equal1 each having two syllables short to one long2 and1 with two short quantities between two long ones1 lines may be tolerably accordant in rhythm1 though the order1 at the commencement1 be varied1 and their number of syllables be not equal4 ,of the following sixteen lines1 nine are pure anapestic tetrameters2 one may be reckoned dactylic1 but it may quite as well be said to have a trochee1 an iambus1 and two anapests or two amphimacs2 one is a spondee and three anapests2 and the rest may be scanned as amphibrachics ending with an iambus1 but are more properly anapestics commencing with an iambus4 ,like the preceding example from ,byron1 they lack the uniformity of proper composites1 and are rather to be regarded as anapestics irregularly diversified4 ,,the ,,albatross4 ',tis said the ,albatross never rests4--,buffon4 ,where the fath -omless waves in magnif -icence toss1 ,homeless and high soars the wild ,albatross2 ,unwea -ried1 undaunt -ed1 unshrink -ing1 alone1 ,the o -cean his em -pire1 the tem -pest his throne4 ,when the ter -rible whirl -wind raves wild o'er the surge1 ,and the hur -ricane howls out the mar -iner's dirge1 ,in thy glo -ry thou spurn -est the dark -heaving sea1 ,proud bird of the o -cean-world1 home -less and free4 ,when the winds are at rest1 and the sun in his glow1 ,and the glit -tering tide sleeps in beau -ty below1 ,in the pride of thy pow -er trium -phant above1 ,with thy mate thou art hold -ing thy rev -els of love4 ,untir -ed1 unfet -tered1 unwatched1 unconfined1 ,be my spir -it like thee1 in the world of the mind2 ,no lean -ing for earth1 e'er to wea -ry its flight1 ,and fresh as thy pin -ions in re -gions of light4 ,,samuel ,,daly ,,langtree3 ,north ,american ,reader1 p4 #ddc4 ,,obs4 #f4--;,it appears that the most noted measures of the ,greek and ,latin poets were not of any simple order1 but either composites1 or mixtures too various to be called composites4 ,it is not to be denied1 that we have much difficulty in reading them rhythmically1 according to their stated feet and scansion2 and so we should have1 in reading our own language rhythmically1 in any similar succession of feet4 ,noticing this in respect to the ,latin ,hexameter1 or ,heroic verse1 ,poe says1 ,now the discrepancy in question is not observable in ,english metres2 where the scansion coincides with the reading1 so far as the rhythm is concerned--that is to say1 if we pay no attention to the sense of the passage4 ,but these facts indicate a radical difference in the genius of the two languages1 as regards their capacity for modulation4 ,in truth1 99 99 99 the ,latin is a far more stately tongue than our own4 ,it is essentially spondaic2 the ,english is as essentially dactylic4--,pioneer1 p4 #aaj4 7,see the marginal note in #c;d4 at ,obs4 #bb;d1 above47 ,notwithstanding this difference1 discrepance1 or difficulty1 whatever it may be1 some of our poets have1 in a few instances1 attempted imitations of certain ,latin metres2 which imitations it may be proper briefly to notice under the present head4 ,the ,greek or ,latin ,hexameter line has1 of course1 six feet1 or pulsations4 ,according to the ,prosodies1 the first four of these may be either dactyls or spondees2 the fifth is always1 or nearly always1 a dactyl2 and the sixth1 or last1 is always a spondee3 as1 ,ludere qu vel -lem cala -mo per -misit a -gresti4--,virg4 ,infan- dum1 ,re -gina1 ju -bes reno -vare do -lorem4--,id4 ,of this sort of verse1 in ,english1 somebody has framed the following very fair example3-- ,man is a complex1 compound compost1 yet is he ,god-born4 ,,obs4 #g4--,of this species of versification1 which may be called ,mixed or ,composite ,hexameter1 the most considerable specimen that ,i have seen in ,english1 is ,longfellow's ,evangeline1 a poem of one thousand three hundred and eighty-two of these long lines1 or verses4 ,this work has found admirers1 and not a few2 for1 of these1 nothing written by so distinguished a scholar could fail3 but1 surely1 not many of the verses in question exhibit truly the feet of the ancient ,hexameters2 or1 if they do1 the ancients contented themselves with very imperfect rhythms1 even in their noblest heroics4 ,in short1 ,i incline to the opinion of ,poe1 that1 ,nothing less than the deservedly high reputation of ,professor ,longfellow1 could have sufficed to give currency to his lines as to ,greek ,hexameters4 ,in general1 they are neither one thing nor another4 ,some few of them are dactylic verses--,english dactylics4 ,but do away with the division into lines1 and the most astute critic would never have suspected them of any thing more than prose4--,pioneer1 p4 #aaa4 ,the following are the last ten lines of the volume1 with such a division into feet as the poet is presumed to have contemplated3-- ,still stands the forest pri -meval2 but under the shade of its branches ,dwells an -other race1 with other customs and language4 ,only a -long the shore of the mournful and misty ,at -lantic ,linger a few ,a -cadian peasants1 whose fathers from exile ,wandered back to their native land to die in its bosom4 ,in the fisherman's cot the wheel and the loom are still busy2 ,maidens still wear their ,norman caps and their kirtles of homespun1 ,and by the evening fire re -peat ,e -vangeline's story1 ,while from its rocky caverns the deep-voiced1 neighbouring ocean ,speaks1 and in accents dis -consolate answers the wail of the forest4 ,,henry ,w4 ,,longfellow3 ,evangeline1 p4 #afb4 ,,obs4 #h4--;,an other form of verse1 common to the ,greeks and ,romans1 which has sometimes been imitated--or1 rather1 which some writers have attempted to imitate--in ,english1 is the line or stanza called ,sapphic1 from the inventress1 ,sappho1 a ,greek poetess4 ,the ,sapphic verse1 according to ,fabricius1 ,smetius1 and all good authorities1 has eleven syllables1 making five feet--the first a trochee1 the second a spondee1 the third a dactyl1 and the fourth and fifth trochees4 ,the ,sapphic stanza1 or what is sometimes so called1 consists of three ,sapphic lines and an ,adonian1 or ,adonic1--this last being a short line composed of a dactyl and a spondee4 ,example from ,horace3-- ,inte -ger vi -t1 scele -risque purus ,non e -get ,mau -ri jacu -lis ne -qu' arcu1 ,nec ven -ena -tis gravi -d sa -gittis1 ,fusce1 pha -retra4 ,to arrange eleven syllables in a line1 and have half or more of them to form trochees1 is no difficult matter2 but1 to find rhythm in the succession of a trochee1 a spondee1 and a dactyl1 as we read words1 seems hardly practicable4 ,hence few are the ,english ,sapphics1 if there be any1 which abide by the foregoing formule of quantities and feet4 ,those which ,i have seen1 are generally1 if not in every instance1 susceptible of a more natural scansion as being composed of trochees1 with a dactyl1 or some other foot of three syllables1 at the beginning of each line4 ,the csural pause falls sometimes after the fourth syllable1 but more generally1 and much more agreeably1 after the fifth4 ,let the reader inspect the following example1 and see if he do not agree with me in laying the accent on only the first syllable of each foot1 as the feet are here divided4 ,the accent1 too1 must be carefully laid4 ,without considerable care in the reading1 the hearer will not suppose the composition to be any thing but prose3-- ,,the ,,widow4--7,,in ,,sapphics47 ,cold was the night-wind1 drifting fast the snow fell1 ,wide were the downs1 and shelter -less and naked1 ,when a poor ,wanderer struggled on her journey1 ,weary and way-sore4 ,drear were the downs1 more dreary her re -flections2 ,cold was the night-wind1 colder was her bosom2 ,she had no home1 the world was all be -fore her2 ,she had no shelter4 ,fast o'er the heath a chariot rattlee by her2 ',pity me6' feebly cried the lonely wanderer2 ',pity me1 strangers6 lest1 with cold and hunger1 ,here ,i should perish4 ',once ,i had friends1--though now by all for -saken6 ',once ,i had parents1 --they are now in heaven6 ',i had a home once1 --,i had once a husband-- ,pity me1 strangers6 ',i had a home once1 --,i had once a husband-- ',i am a widow1 poor and broken -hearted6' ,loud blew the wind2 un -heard was her com -plaining2 ,on drove the chariot4 ,then on the snow she laid her down to rest her2 ,she heard a horseman2 ',pity me6' she groan'd out2 ,loud was the wind2 un -heard was her com -plaining2 ,on went the horseman4 ,worn out with anguish1 toil1 and cold1 and hunger1 ,down sunk the ,wanderer2 sleep had seized her senses2 ,there did the traveller find her in the morning2 ,god had re -leased her4 ,,robert ,,southey3 ,poems1 ,philad41 #ahdc1 p4 #bea4 ,among the lyric poems of ,dr4 ,watts1 is one1 entitled1 ,,the ,,day ,,of ,,judgement2 an ,ode attempted in ,english ,sapphic4 ,it is perhaps as good an example as we have of the species4 ,it consists of nine stanzas1 of which ,i shall here cite the first three1 dividing them into feet as above3-- ,when the fierce ,north ,wind1 with his airy forces1 ,rears up the ,baltic to a foaming fury2 ,and the red lightning with a storm of hail comes ,rushing a -main down2 ,how the poor sailors stand a -maz'd and tremble6 ,while the hoarse thunder1 like a bloody trumpet1 ,roars a loud onset to the gaping waters1 ,quick to de -vour them4 ,such shall the noise be1 and the wild dis -order1 7,if things e -ternal may be like these earthly17 ,such the dire terror1 when the great ,arch -angel ,shakes the cre -ation4--,hor ,lyric1 p4 #fg4 ,these lines1 says ,humphrey1 who had cited the first four1 are good ,english ,sapphics1 and contain the essential traits of the original as nearly as the two languages1 ,greek and ,english1 correspond to each other4 ,this stanza1 together with the poem1 from which this was taken1 may stand for a model1 in our ,english compositions4--,humphrey's ,e4 ,prosody1 p4 #ai4 ,this author erroneously supposed1 that the trissyllabic foot1 in any line of the ,sapphic stanza1 must occupy the second place3 and1 judging of the ancient feet and quantities by what he found1 or supposed he found1 in the ,english imitations1 and not by what the ancient prosodists say of them1 yet knowing that the ancient and the modern ,sapphics are in several respects unlike1 he presented forms of scansion for both1 which are not only peculiar to himself1 but not well adapted to either4 ,we have1 says he1 no established rule for this kind of verse1 in our ,english compositions1 which has been uniformly adhered to4 ,the rule for which1 in ,greek and ,latin verse1 as far as ,i can ascertain1 was this3 a trochee1 a moloss1 a pyrrhic1 a trochee1 and a spondee2 and sometimes1 occasionally1 a trochee1 instead of a spondee1 at the end4 ,but as our language is not favourable to the use of the spondee and moloss1 the moloss is seldom or never used in our ,english ,sapphics2 but1 instead of which1 some other trissyllable foot is used4 ,also1 instead of the spondee1 a trochee is commonly used2 and sometimes a trochee instead of the pyrrhic1 in the third place4 ,as some prescribed rule1 or model for imitation1 may be necessary1 in this case1 ,i will cite a stanza from one of our best ,english poets1 which may serve for a model4 ',when the fierce north-wind1 with his airy forces 1 ,rears up the ,baltic to a foaming fury2 ,and the red lightning with a storm of hail comes ,rushing amain down4'--,watts4--,ib41 p4 #ai4 ,,obs4 #ab4--;,in the ,works of ,george ,canning1 a small book published in #ahbi1 there is a poetical dialogue of nine stanzas1 entitled1 ,the ,friend of ,humanity and the ,knife-,grinder1 said to be a burlesque on ,mr4 ,southey's ,sapphics4 ,the metre appears to be near enough like to the foregoing4 ,but these verses ,i divide1 as ,i have divided the others1 into trochees with initial dactyls4 ,at the commencement1 the luckier party salutes the other thus3-- ',needy knife -grinder6 whither are you going8 ,rough is the road1 your wheel is out of order-- ,bleak blows the blast2--your hat has got a hole in't1 ,so have your breeches6 ',weary knife -grinder6 little think the proud ones ,who in their coaches roll a -long the turnpike-- ,road1 what hard work 'tis1 crying all day1 ',knives and ,scissors to grind ,o6'--,p4 #dd4 ,,obs4 #ac4--;,among the humorous poems of ,thomas ,green ,fessenden1 published under the sobriquet of ,dr4 ,caustic1 or ,christopher ,caustic1 ,m4 ,d41 may be seen an other comical example of ,sapphics1 which extends to eleven stanzas4 ,it describes a contra-dance1 and is entitled1 ,horace ,surpassed4 ,the conclusion is as follows3-- ,willy ,wagnimble dancing with ,flirtilla1 ,almost as light as air-balloon inflated1 ,rigadoons around her1 'till the lady's heart is ,forced to surrender4 ,benny ,bamboozle cuts the drollest capers1 ,just like a camel1 or a hippopot'mus2 ,jolly ,jack ,jumble makes as big a rout as ,forty ,dutch horses4 ,see ,angelina lead the mazy dance down2 ,never did fairy trip it so fantastic2 ,how my heart flutters1 while my tongue pronounces1 ',sweet little seraph6' ,such are the joys that flow from contra-dancing1 ,pure as the primal happiness of ,eden1 ,love1 mirth1 and music1 kindle in accordance ,raptures extatic4--,poems1 p4 #bjh4 ,,section ,v4--,,oral ,,exercises4 ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction4 ,,false ,,prosody1 ,,or ,,errors ,,of ,,metre4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,restore ,,the ,,rhythm4 ,the lion is laid down in his lair4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,,formule4--,not proper1 because the word lion1 here put for ,cowper's word beast destroys the metre1 and changes the line to prose4 ,but1 according to the definition given on p4 #hbg1 ,verse1 in opposition to prose1 is language arranged into metrical lines of some determinate length and rhythm--language so ordered as to produce harmony by a due succession of poetic feet4 ,this line was composed of one iamb and two anapests2 and1 to such form1 it should be restored1 thus3 ,the beast is laid down in his lair4--,cowper's ,poems1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bja4 ,where is thy true treasure8 ,gold says1 not in me4 --,hallock's ,gram41 #ahdb1 p4 #ff4 ,canst thou grow sad1 thou sayest1 as earth grows bright8 --,frazee's ,gram41 #ahde1 p4 #adj4 ,it must be so1 ,plato1 thou reasonest well4 --,wells's ,gram41 #ahdf1 p4 #abb4 ,slow rises merit1 when by poverty depressed4 --,ib41 p4 #aie2 ,hiley1 #acb2 ,hart1 #agi4 ,rapt in future times1 the bard begun4 --,wells's ,gram41 #ahdf1 p4 #aec4 ,is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens ,to wash it white as snow8 ,whereunto serves mercy1 ,but to confront the visage of offence6 --,hallock's ,gram41 #ahdb1 p4 #aah4 ,look6 in this place ran ,cassius's dagger through4 --,kames1 ,el4 of ,cr41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #gd4 ----,when they list their lean and flashy songs1 ,harsh grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw4 --,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #ace4 ,did not great ,julius bleed for justice's sake8 --,dodd's ,beauties of ,shak41 p4 #bec4 ,did not great ,julius bleed for justice sake8 --,singer's ,shakspeare1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bff4 ,may ,i1 unblam'd1 express thee8 ,since ,god is light4 --,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bij4 ,or hearest thou1 rather1 pure ethereal stream6 --#b;d ,perversion1 ib4 ,republics2 kingdoms2 empires1 may decay2 ,princes1 heroes1 sages1 sink to nought4 --,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bhg4 ,thou bringest1 gay creature as thou art1 ,a solemn image to my heart4 --,e4 ,j4 ,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #aig4 ,know thyself presume not ,god to scan2 ,the proper study of mankind is ,man4 --,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bhe4 ,raised on a hundred pilasters of gold4 --,charlemagne1 ,c4 i1 ,st4 #dj4 ,love in ,adalgise's breast has fixed his sting4 --,ib41 ,c4 i1 ,st4 #cj4 ,thirty days hath ,september1 ,april1 ,june1 and ,november1 ,february twenty-eight alone1 ,all the rest thirty and one4 ,colet's ,grammar1 or ,paul's ,accidence4 ,lond41 #agic1 p4 #ge4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,restore ,,the ,,rhythm4 ',twas not the fame of what he once had been1 ,or tales in old records and annals seen4 --,rowe's ,lucan1 ,b4 i1 l4 #bgd4 ,and ,asia now and ,afric are explor'd1 ,for high-priced dainties1 and citron board4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 i1 l4 #caa4 ,who knows not1 how the trembling judge beheld ,the peaceful court with arm'd legions fill'd8 --,eng4 ,poets2 ib41 ,b4 i1 l4 #egh4 ,with thee the ,scythian wilds we'll wander o'er1 ,with thee burning ,libyan sands explore4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 i1 l4 #ffa4 ,hasty and headlong different paths they tread1 ,as blind impulse and wild distraction lead4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 i1 l4 #heh4 ,but ,fate reserv'd to perform its doom1 ,and be the minister of wrath to ,rome4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #acf4 ,thus spoke the youth4 ,when ,cato thus exprest ,the sacred counsels of his most inmost breast4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #dce4 ,these were the strict manners of the man1 ,and this the stubborn course in which they ran2 ,the golden mean unchanging to pursue1 ,constant to keep the proposed end in view4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #ehj4 ,what greater grief can a ,roman seize1 ,than to be forc'd to live on terms like these6 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #ghb4 ,he views the naked town with joyful eyes1 ,while from his rage an arm'd people flies4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #hhj4 ,for planks and beams he ravages the wood1 ,and the tough bottom extends across the flood4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #ajdj4 ,a narrow pass the horned mole divides1 ,narrow as that where ,euripus' strong tides ,beat on ,euboean ,chalcis' rocky sides4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #ajie4 ,no force1 no fears their hands unarm'd bear1 ,but looks of peace and gentleness they wear4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 iii1 l4 #aab4 ,the ready warriors all aboard them ride1 ,and wait the return of the retiring tide4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #gaf4 ,he saw those troops that long had faithful stood1 ,friends to his cause1 and enemies to good1 ,grown weary of their chief1 and satiated with blood4 --,eng4 ,poets3 ib41 ,b4 v1 l4 #ccg4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,questions4 ,,order ,,of ,,rehearsal1 ,,and ,,method ,,of ,,examination4 ,,part ,,fourth1 ,,prosody4 ,fist,the following questions call the attention of the student to the main doctrines in the foregoing code of ,prosody1 and embrace or demand those facts which it is most important for him to fix in his memory2 they may1 therefore1 serve not only to aid the teacher in the process of examining his classes1 but also to direct the learner in his manner of preparation for recital4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,of ,,punctuation4 #a4 ,of what does ,prosody treat8 #b4 ,what is ,punctuation8 #c4 ,what are the principal points1 or marks8 #d4 ,what pauses are denoted by the first four points8 #e4 ,what pauses are required by the other four8 #f4 ,what is the general use of the ,comma8 #g4 ,how many rules for the ,comma are there1 and what are their heads8 #h4 ,what says ,rule #ast of ,simple ,sentences8 #i4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of ,simple ,members8 #aj4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of ,more than ,two ,words8 #aa4 ,what says ,rule #dth of ,only ,two ,words8 #ab4 ,what says ,rule #eth of ,words in ,pairs8 #ac4 ,what says ,rule #fth of ,words put ,absolute8 #ad4 ,what says ,rule #gth of ,words in ,apposition8 #ae4 ,what says ,rule #hth of ,adjectives8 #af4 ,what says ,rule #ith of ,finite ,verbs8 #ag4 ,what says ,rule #ajth of ,infinitives8 #ah4 ,what says ,rule #aath of ,participles8 #ai4 ,what says ,rule #abth of ,adverbs8 #bj4 ,what says ,rule #acth of ,conjunctions8 #ba4 ,what says ,rule #adth of ,prepositions8 #bb4 ,what says ,rule #aeth of ,interjections8 #bc4 ,what says ,rule #afth of ,words ,repeated8 #bd4 ,what says ,rule #agth of ,dependent ,quotations8 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,of ,,the ,,comma4 #a4 ,how many exceptions1 or forms of exception1 are there to ,rule #ast for the comma8 #b4--to ,rule #b;d8 #c4--to ,rule #c;d8 #d4--to ,rule #dth8 #e4--to ,rule #eth8 #f4--to ,rule #fth8 #g4--to ,rule #gth8 #h4--to ,rule #hth8 #i4--to ,rule #ith8 #aj4--to ,rule #ajth8 #aa4--to ,rule #aath8 #ab4--to ,rule #abth8 #ac4--to ,rule #acth8 #ad4--to ,rule #adth8 #ae4--to ,rule #aeth8 #af4--to ,rule #afth8 #ag4--to ,rule #agth8 #ah4 ,what says the ,exception to ,rule #ast of a ,long ,simple ,sentence8 #ai4 ,what says ,exception #ast to ,rule #b;d of ,restrictive ,relatives8 #bj4 ,what says ,exception #b;d to ,rule #b;d of ,short ,terms closely ,connected8 #ba4 ,what says ,exception #c;d to ,rule #b;d of ,elliptical ,members ,united8 #bb4 ,what says ,exception #ast to ,rule #dth of ,two ,words with ,adjuncts8 #bc4 ,what says ,exception #b;d to ,rule #dth of ,two ,terms ,contrasted8 #bd4 ,what says ,exception #c;d to ,rule #dth of a mere ,alternative of ,words8 #be4 ,what says ,exception #dth to ,rule #dth of ,conjunctions ,understood8 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,of ,,the ,,comma4 #a4 ,what rule speaks of the separation of ,words in ,apposition8 #b4 ,what says ,exception #ast to ,rule #gth of ,complex ,names8 #c4 ,what says ,exception #b;d to ,rule #gth of ,close ,apposition8 #d4 ,what says ,exception #c;d to ,rule #gth of a ,pronoun without a ,pause8 #e4 ,what says ,exception #dth to ,rule #gth of ,names ,acquired8 #f4 ,what says the ,exception to ,rule #hth of ,adjectives ,restrictive8 #g4 ,what is the rule which speaks of a finite ,verb ,understood8 #h4 ,what says the ,exception to ,rule #ith of a ,very ,slight ,pause8 #i4 ,what is the ,rule for the pointing of ,participles8 #aj4 ,what says the ,exception to ,rule #aath of ,participles ,restrictive8 ,now1 if you please1 you may correct orally1 according to the formules given1 some or all of the various examples of ,false ,punctuation1 which are arranged under the rules for the ,comma in ,section ,first4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,of ,,the ,,semicolon4 #a4 ,what is the general use of the ,semicolon8 #b4 ,how many rules are there for the ,semicolon8 #c4 ,what are their heads8 #d4 ,what says ,rule #ast of ,complex ,members8 #e4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of ,simple ,members8 #f4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of ,apposition1 c48 ,now1 if you please1 you may correct orally1 according to the formules given1 some or all of the various examples of ,false ,punctuation1 which are arranged under the rules for the ,semicolon in ,section ,second4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,of ,,the ,,colon4 #a4 ,what is the general use of the ,colon8 #b4 ,how many rules are there for the ,colon8 #c4 ,what are their heads8 #d4 ,what says ,rule #ast of ,additional ,remarks8 #e4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of ,greater ,pauses8 #f4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of ,independent ,quotations8 ,now1 if you please1 you may correct orally1 according to the formules given1 some or all of the various examples of ,false ,punctuation1 which are arranged under the rules for the ,colon in ,section ,third4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,of ,,the ,,period4 #a4 ,what is the general use of the ,period8 #b4 ,how many rules are there for the ,period8 #c4 ,what are their heads8 #d4 ,what says ,rule #ast of ,distinct ,sentences8 #e4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of ,allied ,sentences8 #f4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of ,abbreviations8 ,now1 if you please1 you may correct orally1 according to the formules given1 some or all of the various examples of ,false ,punctuation1 which are arranged under the rules for the ,period in ,section ,fourth4 ,,lesson ,,vii4--,,of ,,the ,,dash4 #a4 ,what is the general use of the ,dash8 #b4 ,how many rules are there for the ,dash8 #c4 ,what are their heads8 #d4 ,what says ,rule #ast of ,abrupt ,pauses8 #e4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of ,emphatic ,pauses8 #f4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of ,faulty ,dashes8 ,now1 if you please1 you may correct orally1 according to the formules given1 some or all of the various examples of ,false ,punctuation1 which are arranged under the rules for the ,dash in ,section ,fifth4 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,of ,,the ,,eroteme4 #a4 ,what is the use of the ,eroteme1 or ,note of ,interrogation8 #b4 ,how many rules are there for this mark8 #c4 ,what are their heads8 #d4 ,what says ,rule #ast of ,questions ,direct8 #e4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of ,questions ,united8 #f4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of ,questions ,indirect8 ,now1 if you please1 you may correct orally1 according to the formules given1 some or all of the various examples of ,false ,punctuation1 which are arranged under the rules for the ,eroteme in ,section ,sixth4 ,,lesson ,,ix--,,of ,,the ,,ecphoneme4 #a4 ,what is the use of the ,ecphoneme1 or ,note of ,exclamation8 #b4 ,how many rules are there for this mark8 #b4 ,what are their heads8 #d4 ,what says ,rule #ast of ,interjections8 #e4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of ,invocations8 #f4 ,what says ,rule #c;d of ,exclamatory ,questions8 ,now1 if you please1 you may correct orally1 according to the formules given1 some or all of the various examples of ,false ,punctuation1 which are arranged under the rules for the ,ecphoneme in ,section ,seventh4 ,,lesson ,x4--,,of ,,the ,,curves4 #a4 ,what is the use of the ,curves1 or ,marks of ,parenthesis8 #b4 ,how many rules are there for the ,curves8 #c4 ,what are their titles1 or heads8 #d4 ,what says ,rule #ast of the ,parenthesis8 #e4 ,what says ,rule #b;d of ,included ,points8 ,now1 if you please1 you may correct orally1 according to the formules given1 some or all of the various examples of ,false ,punctuation1 which are arranged under the rules for the ,curves in ,section ,eighth4 ,,lesson ,,xi4--,,of ,,the ,,other ,,marks4 #a4 ,what is the use of the ,apostrophe8 #b4 ,what is the use of the ,hyphen8 #c4 ,what is the use of the ,diresis1 or ,dialysis8 #d4 ,what is the use of the ,acute ,accent8 #e4 ,what is the use of the ,grave ,accent8 #f4 ,what is the use of the ,circumflex8 #g4 ,what is the use of the ,breve1 or ,stenotone8 #h4 ,what is the use of the ,macron1 or ,macrotone8 #i4 ,what is the use of the ,ellipsis1 or ,suppression8 #aj4 ,what is the use of the ,caret8 #aa4 ,what is the use of the ,brace8 #ab4 ,what is the use of the ,section8 #ac4 ,what is the use of the ,paragraph8 #ad4 ,what is the use of the ,guillemets1 or ,quotation ,points8 #ae4 ,how do we mark a quotation within a quotation8 #af4 ,what is the use of the ,crotchets1 or ,brackets8 #ag4 ,what is the use of the ,index1 or ,hand8 #ah4 ,what are the six ,marks of ,reference in their usual order8 #ai4 ,how can references be otherwise made8 #bj4 ,what is the use of the ,asterism1 or the ,three ,stars8 #ba4 ,what is the use of the ,cedilla8 ,having correctly answered the foregoing questions1 the pupil should be taught to apply the principles of punctuation2 and1 for this purpose1 he may be required to read a portion of some accurately pointed book1 or may be directed to turn to the ,fourteenth ,praxis1 beginning on p4 #hba1--;and to assign a reason for every mark he finds4 ,,lesson ,,xii4--,,of ,,utterance4 #a4 ,what is ,utterance8 #b4 ,what does it include8 #c4 ,what is articulation8 #d4 ,how does articulation differ from pronunciation8 #e4 ,how does ,comstock define it8 #f4 ,what1 in his view1 is a good articulation8 #g4 ,how does ,bolles define articulation8 #h4 ,is a good articulation important8 #i4 ,what are the faults opposite to it8 #aj4 ,what says ,sheridan1 of a good articulation8 #aa4 ,upon what does distinctness depend8 #ac4 ,why is just articulation better than mere loudness8 #ac4 ,do we learn to articulate in learning to speak or read8 ,,lesson ,,xiii4--,,of ,,pronunciation4 #a4 ,what is pronunciation8 #b4 ,what is it that is called ,orthopy8 #c4 ,what knowledge does pronunciation require8 #d4 ,what are the just powers of the letters8 #e4 ,how are these learned8 #f4 ,are the just powers of the letters in any degree variable8 #g4 ,what is quantity8 #h4 ,are all long syllables equally long1 and all short ones equally short8 #i4 ,what has stress of voice to do with quantity8 #aj4 ,what is accent8 #aa4 ,is every word accented8 #ab4 ,do we ever lay two equal accents on one word8 #ac4 ,have we more than one sort of accent8 #ad4 ,can any word have the secondary accent1 and not the primary8 #ae4 ,can monosyllables have either8 #af4 ,what regulates accent8 #ag4 ,what four things distinguish the elegant speaker8 ,,lesson ,,xiv4--,,of ,,elocution4 #a4 ,what is elocution8 #b4 ,what does elocution require8 #c4 ,what is emphasis8 #d4 ,what comparative view is taken of accent and emphasis8 #e4 ,how does ,l4 ,murray connect emphasis with quantity8 #f4 ,does emphasis ever affect accent8 #g4 ,what is the guide to a right emphasis8 #h4 ,can one read with too many emphases8 #i4 ,what are pauses8 #aj4 ,how many and what kinds of pauses are there8 #aa4 ,what is said of the duration of pauses1 and the taking of breath8 #ab4 ,after what manner should pauses be made8 #ac4 ,what pauses are particularly ungraceful8 #ad4 ,what is said of rhetorical pauses8 #ae4 ,how are the harmonic pauses divided8 #af4 ,are such pauses essential to verse8 ,,lesson ,,xv4--,,of ,,elocution4 #ag4 ,what are inflections8 #ah4 ,what is called the rising or upward inflection8 #ai4 ,what is called the falling or downward inflection8 #bj4 ,how are these inflections exemplified8 #ba4 ,how are they used in asking questions8 #bb4 ,what is said of the notation of them8 #bc4 ,what constitutes a circumflex8 #bd4 ,what constitutes the rising1 and what the falling1 circumflex8 #be4 ,can you give examples8 #bf4 ,what constitutes a monotone1 in elocution8 #bg4 ,which kind of inflection is said to be most common8 #bh4 ,which is the best adapted to strong emphasis8 #bi4 ,what says ,comstock of rules for inflections8 #cj4 ,is the voice to be varied for variety's sake8 #ca4 ,what should regulate the inflections8 #cb4 ,what is cadence8 #cc4 ,what says ,rippingham about it8 #cd4 ,what says ,murray8 #ce4 ,what are tones8 #cf4 ,why do they deserve particular attention8 #cg4 ,what says ,blair about tones8 #ch4 ,what says ,hiley8 ,,lesson ,,xvi4--,,of ,,figures4 #a4 ,what is a ,figure in grammar8 #b4 ,how many kinds of figures are there8 #c4 ,what is a figure of orthography8 #d4 ,what are the principal figures of orthography8 #e4 ,what is ,mimesis8 #f4 ,what is an ,archaism8 #g4 ,what is a figure of etymology8 #h4 ,how many and what are the figures of etymology8 #i4 ,what is ,aphresis8 #aj4 ,what is ,prosthesis8 #aa4 ,what is ,syncope8 #ab4 ,what is ,apocope8 #ac4 ,what is ,paragoge8 #ad4 ,what is ,diresis8 #ae4 ,what is ,synresis8 #af4 ,what is ,tmesis8 #ag4 ,what is a figure of syntax8 #ah4 ,how many and what are the figures of syntax8 #ai4 ,what is ,ellipsis1 in grammar8 #bj4 ,are sentences often elliptical8 #ba4 ,what parts of speech can be omitted1 by ellipsis8 #bb4 ,what is ,pleonasm8 #bc4 ,when is this figure allowable8 #bd4 ,what is ,syllepsis8 #be4 ,what is ,enallage8 #bf4 ,what is ,hyperbaton8 #bg4 ,what is said of this figure8 ,,lesson ,,xvii4--,,of ,,figures4 #bh4 ,what is a figure of rhetoric8 #bi4 ,what peculiar name have some of these8 #cj4 ,do figures of rhetoric often occur8 #ca4 ,on what are they founded8 #cb4 ,how many and what are the principal figures of rhetoric8 #cc4 ,what is a ,simile8 #cd4 ,what is a ,metaphor8 #ce4 ,what is an ,allegory8 #cf4 ,what is a ,metonymy8 #cg4 ,what is ,synecdoche8 #ch4 ,what is ,hyperbole8 #ci4 ,what is ,vision8 #dj4 ,what is ,apostrophe8 #da4 ,what is ,personification8 #db4 ,what is ,erotesis8 #dc4 ,what is ,ecphonesis8 #dd4 ,what is ,antithesis8 #de4 ,what is ,climax8 #df4 ,what is ,irony8 #dg4 ,what is ,apophasis1 or ,paralipsis8 #dh4 ,what is ,onomatopoeia8 ,now1 if you please1 you may examine the quotations adopted for the ,fourteenth ,praxis1 and may name and define the various figures of grammar which are contained therein4 ,,lesson ,,xviii4--,,of ,,versification4 #a4 ,what is ,versification8 #b4 ,what is verse1 as distinguished from prose8 #c4 ,what is the rhythm of verse8 #d4 ,what is the quantity of a syllable8 #e4 ,how are poetic quantities denominated8 #f4 ,how are they proportioned8 #g4 ,what quantity coincides with accent or emphasis8 #h4 ,on what but the vowel sound does quantity depend8 #i4 ,does syllabic quantity always follow the quality of the vowels8 #aj4 ,where is quantity variable1 and where fixed1 in ,english8 #aa4 ,what is rhyme8 #ab4 ,what is blank verse8 #ac4 ,what is remarked concerning the rhyming syllables8 #ad4 ,what is a stanza8 #ae4 ,what uniformity have stanzas8 #af4 ,what variety have they8 ,,lesson ,,xix4--,,of ,,versification4 #ag4 ,of what does a verse consist8 #ah4 ,of what does a poetic foot consist8 #ai4 ,how many feet do prosodists recognize8 #bj4 ,what are the principal feet in ,english8 #ba4 ,what is an ,iambus8 #bb4 ,what is a ,trochee8 #bc4 ,what is an ,anapest8 #bd4 ,what is a ,dactyl8 #be4 ,why are these feet principal8 #bf4 ,what orders of verse arise from these8 #bg4 ,are these kinds to be kept separate8 #bh4 ,what is said of the secondary feet8 #bi4 ,how many and what secondary feet are explained in this code8 #cj4 ,what is a ,spondee8 #ca4 ,what is a ,pyrrhic8 #cb4 ,what is a ,moloss8 #cc4 ,what is a ,tribrach8 #cd4 ,what is an ,amphibrach8 #ce4 ,what is an ,amphimac8 #cf4 ,what is a ,bacchy8 #cg4 ,what is an ,antibachy8 #ch4 ,what is a ,csura8 ,,lesson ,,xx4--,,of ,,versification4 #ci4 ,what are the principal kinds1 or orders1 of verse8 #dj4 ,what other orders are there8 #da4 ,does the composite order demand any uniformity8 #db4 ,do the simple orders admit any diversity8 #dc4 ,what is meant by scanning or scansion8 #dd4 ,what mean the technical words1 catalectic1 acatalectic1 and hypermeter8 #de4 ,in scansion1 why are the principal feet to be preferred to the secondary8 #df4 ,can a single foot be a line8 #dg4 ,what are the several combinations that form dimeter1 trimeter1 tetrameter1 pentameter1 hexameter1 heptameter1 and octometer8 #dh4 ,what syllables have stress in a pure iambic line8 #di4 ,what are the several measures of iambic verse8 #ej4 ,what syllables have stress in a pure trochaic line8 #ea4 ,can it be right1 to regard as hypermeter the long rhyming syllables of a line8 #eb4 ,is the number of feet in a line to be generally counted by that of the long syllables8 #ec4 ,what are the several measures of trochaic verse8 ,,lesson ,,xxi4--,,of ,,versification4 #ed4 ,what syllables have stress in a pure anapestic line8 #ee4 ,what variation may occur in the first foot8 #ef4 ,is this frequent8 #eg4 ,is it ever uniform8 #eh4 ,what is the result of a uniform mixture8 #ei4 ,is the anapest adapted to single rhyme8 #fj4 ,may a surplus ever make up for a deficiency8 #fa4 ,why are the anapestic measures few8 #fb4 ,how many syllables are found in the longest8 #fc4 ,what are the several measures of anapestic verse8 #fd4 ,what syllables have stress in a pure dactylic line8 #fe4 ,with what does single-rhymed dactylic end8 #ff4 ,is dactylic verse very common8 #fg4 ,what are the several measures of dactylic verse8 #fh4 ,what is composite verse8 #fi4 ,must composites have rhythm8 #gj4 ,are the kinds of composite verse numerous8 #ga4 ,why have we no exact enumeration of the measures of this order8 #gb4 ,does this work contain specimens of different kinds of composite verse8 ,it may now be required of the pupil to determine1 by reading and scansion1 the metrical elements of any good ,english poetry which may be selected for the purpose--the feet being marked by pauses1 and the long syllables by stress of voice4 ,he may also correct orally the few ,errors of ,metre which are given in the ,fifth ,section of ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,for ,,writing4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,prosody4 ,fist ,when the pupil can readily answer all the questions on ,prosody1 and apply the rules of punctuation to any composition in which the points are rightly inserted1 he should write out the following exercises1 supplying what is required1 and correcting what is amiss4 ,or1 if any teacher choose to exercise his classes orally1 by means of these examples1 he can very well do it2 because1 to read words1 is always easier than to write them1 and even points or poetic feet may be quite as readily named as written4 ,,exercise ,i4--,,punctuation4 ,copy the following sentences1 and insert the ,,comma where it is requisite4 ,,examples ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,simple ,,sentences4 ,the dogmatist's assurance is paramount to argument4 ,the whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing4 ,the fieldmouse builds her garner under ground4 ,,exc4--,the first principles of almost all sciences are few4 ,what he gave me to publish was but a small part4 ,to remain insensible to such provocation is apathy4 ,minds ashamed of poverty would be proud of affluence4 ,to be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character4--,wilson's ,punctuation1 p4 #ch4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,simple ,,members4 ,i was eyes to the blind and feet was ,i to the lame4 ,they are gone but the remembrance of them is sweet4 ,he has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune4 ,the mind though free has a governor within itself4 ,they ,i doubt not oppose the bill on public principles4 ,be silent be grateful and adore4 ,he is an adept in language who always speaks the truth4 ,the race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong4 ,,exc4 ,i4--,he that has far to go should not hurry4 ,hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed4 ,feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share4 ,the love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul4--,wilson's ,punctuation1 p4 #ch4 ,,exc4 ,,ii4--,a good name is better than precious ointment4 ,thinkst thou that duty shall have dread to speak8 ,the spleen is seldom felt where ,flora reigns4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,words4 ,the city army court espouse my cause4 ,wars pestilences and diseases are terrible instructors4 ,walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden4 ,wit spirits faculties but make it worse4 ,men wives and children stare cry out and run4 ,industry1 honesty1 and temperance are essential to happiness4--,wilson's ,punctuation1 p4 #bi4 ,honor1 affluence1 and pleasure seduce the heart4--,ib41 p4 #ca4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iv4--,,of ,,two ,,terms ,,connected4 ,hope and fear are essentials in religion4 ,praise and adoration are perfective of our souls4 ,we know bodies and their properties most perfectly4 ,satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable4 ,slowly and sadly we laid him down4 ,,exc4 ,i4--,god will rather look to the inward motions of the mind than to the outward form of the body4 ,gentleness is unassuming in opinion and temperate in zeal4 ,,exc4 ,,ii4--,he has experienced prosperity and adversity4 ,all sin essentially is and must be mortal4 ,reprove vice but pity the offender4 ,,exc4 ,,iii4--,one person is chosen chairman or moderator4 ,duration or time is measured by motion4 ,the governor or viceroy is chosen annually4 ,,exc4 ,,iv4--,reflection reason still the ties improve4 ,his neat plain parlour wants our modern style4 ,we are fearfully wonderfully made4 ,,under ,,rule ,v4--,,of ,,words ,,in ,,pairs4 ,i inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated4 ,seed-time and harvest cold and heat summer and winter day and night shall not cease4 ,,exercise ,,ii4--,,punctuation4 ,copy the following sentences1 and insert the ,,comma where it is requisite4 ,,examples ,,under ,,rule ,,vi4--,,of ,,words ,,put ,,absolute4 ,the night being dark they did not proceed4 ,there being no other coach we had no alternative4 ,remember my son that human life is the journey of a day4 ,all circumstances considered it seems right4 ,he that overcometh to him will ,i give power4 ,your land strangers devour it in your presence4 ,ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity6 ,with heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay2 ,be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way6 ,,under ,,rule ,,vii4--,,of ,,words ,,in ,,apposition4 ,now ,philomel sweet songstress charms the night4 ',tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day4 ,the evening star love's harbinger appears4 ,the queen of night fair ,dian smiles serene4 ,there is yet one man ,micaiah the son of ,imlah4 ,our whole company man by man ventured down4 ,as a work of wit the ,dunciad has few equals4 ,in the same temple the resounding wood ,all vocal beings hymned their equal ,god4 ,,exc4 ,i4--,the last king of ,rome was ,tarquinius ,superbus4 ,bossuet highly eulogizes ,maria ,theresa of ,austria4 ,no emperor has been more praised than ,marcus ,aurelius1 ,antoninus4 ,,exc4 ,,ii4--,for he went and dwelt by the brook ,cherith4 ,remember the example of the patriarch ,joseph4 ,the poet1 ,milton1 excelled in prose as well as in verse4 ,,exc4 ,,iii4--,i wisdom dwell with prudence4 ,ye fools be ye of an understanding heart4 ,i tell you that which you yourselves do know4 ,,exc4 ,,iv4--,i crown thee king of intimate delights ,i count the world a stranger for thy sake4 ,and this makes friends such miracles below4 ,god has pronounced it death to taste that tree4 ,grace makes the slave a freeman4 ,,under ,,rule ,,viii4--,,of ,,adjectives4 ,deaf with the noise ,i took my hasty flight4 ,him piteous of his youth soft disengage4 ,i played a while obedient to the fair4 ,love free as air spreads his light wings and flies4 ,physical science separate from morals parts with its chief dignity4 ,then active still and unconfined his mind ,explores the vast extent of ages past4 ,but there is yet a liberty unsung ,by poets and by senators unpraised4 ,,exc4--,i will marry a wife beautiful as the ,houries4 ,he was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions4 ,these are the persons1 anxious for the change4 ,are they men worthy of confidence and support8 ,a man1 charitable beyond his means1 is scarcely honest4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ix4--,,of ,,finite ,,verbs4 ,poverty wants some things--avarice all things4 ,honesty has one face--flattery two4 ,one king is too soft and easy--an other too fiery4 ,mankind's esteem they court--and he his own3 ,theirs the wild chase of false felicities2 ,his the compos'd possession of the true4 ,,exercise ,,iii4--,,punctuation4 ,copy the following sentences1 and insert the ,,comma where it is requisite4 ,,examples ,,under ,,rule ,x4--,,of ,,infinitives4 ,my desire is to live in peace4 ,the great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts4 ,to strengthen our virtue ,god bids us trust in him4 ,i made no bargain with you to live always drudging4 ,to sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew4 ,to proceed my own adventure was still more laughable4 ,we come not with design of wasteful prey ,to drive the country force the swains away4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xi4--,,of ,,participles4 ,having given this answer he departed4 ,some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain4 ,eased of her load subjection grows more light4 ,death still draws nearer never seeming near4 ,he lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his blood4 ,kind is fell ,lucifer compared to thee4 ,man considered in himself is helpless and wretched4 ,like scattered down by howling ,eurus blown4 ,he with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave4 ,youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood4 ,,exc4--,he kept his eye fixed on the country before him4 ,they have their part assigned them to act4 ,years will not repair the injuries done by him4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xii4--,,of ,,adverbs4 ,yes we both were philosophers4 ,however ,providence saw fit to cross our design4 ,besides ,i know that the eye of the public is upon me4 ,the fact certainly is much otherwise4 ,for nothing surely can be more inconsistent4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,of ,,conjunctions4 ,for in such retirement the soul is strengthened4 ,it engages our desires2 and in some degree satisfies them also4 ,but of every ,christian virtue piety is an essential part4 ,the ,english verb is variable--as love lovest loves4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,of ,,prepositions4 ,in a word charity is the soul of social life4 ,by the bowstring ,i can repress violence and fraud4 ,some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity4 ,with regard to morality ,i was not indifferent4 ,of all our senses sight is the most perfect and delightful4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xv4--,,of ,,interjections4 ,behold ,i am against thee ,o inhabitant of the valley6 ,o it is more like a dream than a reality1 ,some wine ho6 ,ha ha ha2 some wine eh8 ,when lo the dying breeze begins to fail1 ,and flutters on the mast the flagging sail4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xvi4--,,of ,,words ,,repeated4 ,i would never consent never never never4 ,his teeth did chatter chatter chatter still4 ,come come come--to bed to bed to bed4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xvii4--,,of ,,dependent ,,quotations4 ,he cried ',cause every man to go out from me4' ',almet' said he 'remember what thou hast seen4' ,i answered ',mock not thy servant who is but a worm before thee4' ,,exercise ,,iv4--,,punctuation4 ,i4 ,,the ,,semicolon4--,copy the following sentences1 and insert the ,comma and the ,,semicolon where they are requisite4 ,,examples ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,compound ,,members4 ',man is weak' answered his companion 'knowledge is more than equivalent to force4' ,to judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the past for all judgement is compartive sic--,,kth and of the future nothing can be known4 ',contentment is natural wealth' says ,socrates to which ,i shall add 'luxury is artificial poverty4' ,converse and love mankind might strongly draw ,when love was liberty and nature law4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,simple ,,members4 ,be wise to-day 'tis madness to defer4 ,the present all their care the future his4 ,wit makes an enterpriser sense a man4 ,ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within4 ,song soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe4 ,here an enemy encounters there a rival supplants him4 ,our answer to their reasons is2 ',no' to their scoffs nothing4 ,here subterranean works and cities see ,there towns aerial on the waving tree4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,apposition4 ,in ,latin there are six cases namely the nominative the genitive the dative the accusative the vocative and the ablative4 ,most ,english nouns form the plural by taking s2 as boy boys nation nations king kings bay bays4 ,bodies are such as are endued with a vegetable soul as plants a sensitive soul as animals or a rational soul as the body of man4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,colon4--,copy the following sentences1 and insert the ,comma1 the ,semicolon1 and the ,,colon1 where they are requisite4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,additional ,,remarks4 ,indulge not desires at the expense of the slightest article of virtue pass once its limits and you fall headlong into vice4 ,death wounds to cure we fall we rise we reign4 ,beware of usurpation ,god is the judge of all4 ,bliss6--there is none but unprecarious bliss ,that is the gem sell all and purchase that4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,greater ,,pauses4 ,i have the world here before me ,i will review it at leisure surely happiness is somewhere to be found4 ,a melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when he cannot obtain it afflicts himself with absurd penances but the holiness of ,st4 ,paul consisted in the simplicity of a pious life4 ,observe his awful portrait and admire ,nor stop at wonder imitate and live4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,independent ,,quotations4 ,such is our ,lord's injunction ',watch and pray4' ,he died praying for his persecutors ',father forgive them they know not what they do4' ,on the old gentleman's cane was inscribed this motto ',festina lente4' ,,iii4--,,the ,,period4--,copy the following sentences1 and insert the ,comma1 the ,semicolon1 the ,colon1 and the ,,period1 where they are requisite4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,distinct ,,sentences4 ,then appeared the sea and the dry land the mountains rose and the rivers flowed the sun and moon began their course in the skies herbs and plants clothed the ground the air the earth and the waters were stored with their respective inhabitants at last man was made in the image of ,god ,in general those parents have most reverence who most deserve it for he that lives well cannot be despised ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,allied ,,sentences4 ,civil accomplishments frequently give rise to fame but a distinction is to be made between fame and true honour the statesman the orator or the poet may be famous while yet the man himself is far from being honoured ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,abbreviations4 ,glass was invented in ,england by ,benalt a monk ,a ,d #ffd ,the ,roman era ,u ,c commenced ,a ,c #agec years ,here is the ,literary ,life of ,s ,t ,coleridge ,esq ,,plato a most illustrious philosopher of antiquity died at ,athens #cdh ,b ,c aged #ha his writings are very valuable his language beautiful and correct and his philosophy sublime--,see ,univ4 ,biog4 ,dict4 ,,exercise ,v4--,,punctuation4 ,i4 ,,the ,,dash4--,copy the following sentences1 and insert1 in their proper places1 the ,,dash1 and such other points as are necessary4 ,,examples ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,abrupt ,,pauses4 ,you say famous very often and ,i don't know exactly what it means a famous uniform famous doings ,what does famous mean ,o why famous means ,now don't you know what famous means ,it means ,it is a word that people say ,it is the fashion to say it ,it means it means famous4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,emphatic ,,pauses4 ,but this life is not all there is there is full surely another state abiding us ,and if there is what is thy prospect ,o remorseless obdurate ,thou shalt hear it would be thy wisdom to think thou now nearest the sound of that trumpet which shall awake the dead ,return ,o yet return to the ,father of mercies and live ,the future pleases ,why ,the present pains ,but that's a secret yes which all men know ,,ii4 ,,the ,,eroteme4--,copy the following sentences1 and insert rightly the ,,eroteme1 or ,,note ,,of ,,interrogation1 and such other points as are necessary4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,questions ,,direct4 ,does ,nature bear a tyrant's breast ,is she the friend of stern control ,wears she the despot's purple vest ,or fetters she the freeborn soul ,why should a man whose blood is warm within ,sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster ,who art thou courteous stranger and from whence ,why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,questions ,,united4 ,who bid the stork ,columbus-like explore ,heav'ns not his own and worlds unknown before ,who calls the council states the certain day ,who forms the phalanx and who points the way ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,questions ,,indirect4 ,they asked me who ,i was and whither ,i was going4 ,st4 ,paul asked king ,agrippa if he believed the prophets8 ,but he did not wait for an answer4 ,ask of thy mother ,earth why oaks are made ,taller and stronger than the weeds they shade ,,iii4 ,,the ,,ecphoneme4--,copy the following sentences1 and insert rightly the ,,ecphoneme1 or ,,note ,,of ,,exclamation1 and such other points as are necessary4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,interjections4 ,oh talk of hypocrisy after this ,most consummate of all hypocrites ,after instructing your chosen official advocate to stand forward with such a defence such an exposition of your motives to dare utter the word hypocrisy and complain of those who charged you with it ,brougham ,alas how is that rugged heart forlorn ,behold the victor vanquish'd by the worm ,bliss sublunary ,bliss proud words and vain ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,invocations4 ,o ,popular ,applause what heart of man ,is proof against thy sweet seducing charms ,more than thy balm ,o ,gilead heals the wound ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,exclamatory ,,questions4 ,with what transports of joy shall ,i be received ,in what honour in what delightful repose shall ,i pass the remainder of my life ,what immortal glory shall ,i have acquired ,hooke's ,roman ,history4 ,how often have ,i loiter'd o'er thy green ,where humble happiness endear'd each scene ,,iv4--,,the ,,curves4--,copy the following sentences1 and insert rightly the ,,curves1 or ,,marks ,,of ,,parenthesis1 and such other points as are necessary4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,parenthesis4 ,and all the question wrangle e'er so long ,is only this ,if ,god has plac'd him wrong ,and who what ,god foretells who speaks in things ,still louder than in words shall dare deny ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,included ,,points4 ,say was it virtue more though ,heav'n ne'er gave ,lamented ,digby sunk thee to the grave ,where is that thrift that avarice of time ,o glorious avarice thought of death inspires ,and oh the last last what can words express ,thought reach the last last silence of a friend ,,exercise ,,vi4--,,punctuation4 ,copy the following ,,mixed ,,examples1 and insert the points which they require4 ,as one of them opened his sack he espied his money ,they cried out the more exceedingly ,crucify him ,the soldiers' counsel was to kill the prisoners ,great injury these vermin mice and rats do in the field ,it is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him ,peace of all worldly blessings is the most valuable ,by this time the very foundation was removed ,the only words he uttered were ,i am a ,roman citizen ,some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm ,how then must ,i determine ,have ,i no interest ,if ,i have not ,i am stationed here to no purpose ,harris ,in the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and miserable as to have no parallel in story ,dionysius the tyrant of ,sicily was far from being happy ,i ask now ,verres what thou hast to advance ,excess began and sloth sustains the trade ,fame can never reconcile a man to a death bed ,they that sail on the sea tell of the danger ,be doers of the word and not hearers only ,the storms of wintry time will quickly pass ,here ,hope that smiling angel stands ,disguise ,i see thou art a wickedness ,there are no tricks in plain and simple faith ,true love strikes root in reason passion's foe ,two gods divide them all ,pleasure and ,gain ,i am satisfied ,my son has done his duty ,remember ,almet the vision which thou hast seen ,i beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise ,the knowledge which ,i have received ,i will communicate ,but ,i am not yet happy and therefore ,i despair ,wretched mortals said ,i to what purpose are you busy ,bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue ,in a word he views men as the clear sunshine of charity ,this being the case ,i am astonished and amazed ,these men approached him and saluted him king ,excellent and obliging sages these undoubtedly ,yet at the same time the man himself undergoes a change ,one constant effect of idleness is to nourish the passions ,you heroes regard nothing but glory ,take care lest while you strive to reach the top you fall ,proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition ,nay some awe of religion may still subsist ,then said he ,lo ,i come to do thy will ,o ,god ,bible ,as for me behold ,i am in your hand ,ib4 ,can any hide himself in secret places that ,i shall not see him saith the ,lord ,jer xxiii #bd ,now ,i ,paul myself beseech you ,now for a recompense in the same ,i speak as unto my children be ye also enlarged #b ,cor vi #ac ,he who lives always in public cannot live to his own soul whereas he who retires remains calm ,therefore behold ,i even ,i will utterly forget you ,this text speaks only of those to whom it speaks ,yea he warmeth himself and saith ,aha ,i am warm ,king ,agrippa believest thou the prophets ,,exercise ,,vii4--,,punctuation4 ,copy the following ,,mixed ,,examples1 and insert the points which they require4 ,to whom can riches give repute or trust ,content or pleasure but the good and just ,pope ,to him no high no low no great no small ,he fills he bounds connects and equals all ,id ,reasons whole pleasure all the joys of sense ,lie in three words health peace and competence ,id ,not so for once indulged they sweep the main ,deaf to the call or hearing hear in vain ,anon ,say will the falcon stooping from above ,smit with her varying plumage spare the dove ,pope ,throw ,egypts by and offer in its stead ,offer the crown on ,berenices head ,id ,falsely luxurious will not man awake ,and springing from the bed of sloth enjoy ,the cool the fragrant and the silent hour ,thomson ,yet thus it is nor otherwise can be ,so far from aught romantic what ,i sing ,young ,thyself first know then love a self there is ,of virtue fond that kindles at her charms ,id ,how far that little candle throws his beams ,so shines a good deed in a naughty world ,shakspeare ,you have too much respect upon the world ,they lose it that do buy it with much care ,id ,how many things by season seasoned are ,to their right praise and true perfection ,id ,canst thou descend from converse with the skies ,and seize thy brothers throat ,for what a clod ,young ,in two short precepts all your business lies ,would you be great--be virtuous and be wise ,denham ,but sometimes virtue starves while vice is fed ,what then is the reward of virtue bread ,pope ,a life all turbulence and noise may seem ,to him that leads it wise and to be praised ,but wisdom is a pearl with most success ,sought in still waters and beneath clear skies ,cowper ,all but the swellings of the softened heart ,that waken not disturb the tranquil mind ,thomson ,inspiring ,god who boundless spirit all ,and unremitting energy pervades ,adjusts sustains and agitates the whole ,id ,ye ladies for indifferent in your cause ,i should deserve to forfeit all applause ,whatever shocks or gives the least offence ,to virtue delicacy truth or sense ,try the criterion tis a faithful guide ,nor has nor can have ,scripture on its side4 ,cowper ,,exercise ,,viii4--,,scanning4 ,divide the following ,,verses into the feet which compose them1 and distinguish by marks the long and the short syllables4 ,example ,i4--,our ,daily ,paths--,by ,f4 ,hemans4 ,there's ,beauty all around our paths1 if but our watchful eyes ,can trace it 'midst familiar things1 and through their lowly guise2 ,we may find it where a hedgerow showers its blossoms o'er our way1 ,or a cottage-window sparkles forth in the last red light of day4 ,example ,,ii4--,fetching ,water--,anonymous4 ,early on a sunny morning1 while the lark was singing sweet1 ,came1 beyond the ancient farmhouse1 sounds of lightly-tripping feet4 ',twas a lowly cottage maiden1 going1--why1 let young hearts tell1-- ,with her homely pitcher laden1 fetching water from the well4 ,example ,,iii4--,deity4 ,alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills ,and all immensity of space thy presence fills3 ,for thou alone art ,god2--as ,god thy saints adore thee2 ,jehovah is thy name2--they have no gods before thee4--,g4 ,brown4 ,example ,,iv4--,impenitence4 ,the impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers1 ,dishonours that goodness which seeks to restore2 ,as the sands of the desert are water'd by showers4 ,yet barren and fruitless remain as before4--,g4 ,brown4 ,example ,v4--,piety4 ,holy and pure are the pleasures of piety1 ,drawn from the fountain of mercy and love2 ,endless1 exhaustless1 exempt from satiety1 ,rising unearthly1 and soaring above4--,g4 ,brown4 ,example ,,vi4--,a ,simile4 ,the bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead1 ,oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head4--,g4 ,brown4 ,example ,,vii4--,a ,simile4 ,yet to their general's voice they soon obey'd ,innumerable4 ,as when the potent rod ,of ,amram's son1 in ,egypt's evil day1 ,wav'd round the coast1 up call'd a pitchy cloud ,of locusts1 warping on the eastern wind1 ,that o'er the realm of impious ,pharaoh hung ,like night1 and darken'd all the land of ,nile4--,milton4 ,example ,,viii4--,elegiac ,stanza4 ,thy name is dear--'tis virtue balm'd in love2 ,yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings4 ,ah6 wo the day1 our hearts were doom'd to prove1 ,that fondest love but points affliction's stings6--,g4 ,brown4 ,example ,,ix4--,cupid4 ,zephyrs1 moving bland1 and breathing fragrant ,with the sweetest odours of the spring1 ,o'er the winged boy1 a thoughtless vagrant1 ,slumb'ring in the grove1 their perfumes fling4--,g4 ,brown4 ,example ,x4--,divine ,power4 ,when the winds o'er ,gennesaret roar'd1 ,and the billows tremendously rose1 ,the ,saviour but utter'd the word1 ,they were hush'd to the calmest repose4--,g4 ,brown4 ,example ,,xi4--,invitation4 ,come from the mount of the leopard1 spouse1 ,come from the den of the lion2 ,come to the tent of thy shepherd1 spouse1 ,come to the mountain of ,zion4--,g4 ,brown4 ,example ,,xii4--,admonition4 ,in the days of thy youth1 ,remember thy ,god3 ,o6 forsake not his truth1 ,incur not his rod4--,g4 ,brown4 ,example ,,xiii4--,commendation4 ,constant and duteous1 ,meek as the dove1 ,how art thou beauteous1 ,daughter of love6--,g4 ,brown4 ,,exercise ,,ix4--,,scanning4 ,mark the feet and syllables which compose the following lines--or mark a sample of each metre4 ,edwin1 an ,ode4 ,i4 ,,strophe4 ,led by the pow'r of song1 and nature's love1 ,which raise the soul all vulgar themes above1 ,the mountain grove ,would ,edwin rove1 ,in pensive mood1 alone2 ,and seek the woody dell1 ,where noontide shadows fell1 ,cheering1 ,veering1 ,mov'd by the zephyr's swell4 ,here nurs'd he thoughts to genius only known1 ,when nought was heard around ,but sooth'd the rest profound ,of rural beauty on her mountain throne4 ,nor less he lov'd 7rude nature's child7 ,the elemental conflict wild2 ,when1 fold on fold1 above was pil'd ,the watery swathe1 careering on the wind4 ,such scenes he saw ,with solemn awe1 ,as in the presence of the ,eternal ,mind4 ,fix'd he gaz'd1 ,tranc'd and rais'd1 ,sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefin'd4 ,,ii4 ,,antistrophe ,reckless of dainty joys1 he finds delight ,where feebler souls but tremble with affright4 ,lo6 now1 within the deep ravine1 ,a black impending cloud ,infolds him in its shroud1 ,and dark and darker glooms the scene4 ,through the thicket streaming1 ,lightnings now are gleaming2 ,thunders rolling dread1 ,shake the mountain's head2 ,nature's war ,echoes far1 ,o'er ether borne1 ,that flash ,the ash ,has scath'd and torn6 ,now it rages2 ,oaks of ages1 ,writhing in the furious blast1 ,wide their leafy honours cast2 ,their gnarled arms do force to force oppose ,deep rooted in the crevic'd rock1 ,the sturdy trunk sustains the shock1 ,like dauntless hero firm against assailing foes4 ,,iii4 ,,epode4 '#j ,thou who sitst above these vapours dense1 ,and rul'st the storm by thine omnipotence6 ,making the collied cloud thy ear1 ,coursing the winds1 thou rid'st afar1 ,thy blessings to dispense4 ,the early and the latter rain1 ,which fertilize the dusty plain1 ,thy bounteous goodness pours4 ,dumb be the atheist tongue abhorr'd6 ,all nature owns thee1 sovereign ,lord6 ,and works thy gracious will2 ,at thy command the tempest roars1 ,at thy command is still4 ,thy mercy o'er this scene sublime presides2 ',tis mercy forms the veil that hides ,the ardent solar beam2 ,while1 from the volley'd breast of heaven1 ,transient gleams of dazzling light1 ,flashing on the balls of sight1 ,make darkness darker seem4 ,thou mov'st the quick and sulphurous leven-- ,the tempest-driven ,cloud is riven2 ,and the thirsty mountain-side ,drinks gladly of the gushing tide4' ,so breath'd young ,edwin1 when the summer shower1 ,from out that dark o'erchamb'ring cloud1 ,with lightning flash and thunder loud1 ,burst in wild grandeur o'er his solitary bower4--,g4 ,brown4 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,part ,,fourth4 ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,improprieties ,,for ,,correction1 ,,contained ,,in ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,english ,,grammars1 ,,and ,,designed ,,for ,,oral ,,exercises ,,under ,,all ,,the ,,rules ,,and ,,notes ,,of ,,the ,,work4 ,fist,the various examples of error which are exhibited for oral correction1 in the ,grammar of ,english ,grammars1 are all here explained1 in their order1 by full amended readings1 sometimes with authorities specified1 and generally with references of some sort4 ,they are intended to be corrected orally by the pupil1 according to the formules given under corresponding heads in the ,grammar4 ,some portion1 at least1 under each rule or note1 should be used in this way2 and the rest1 perhaps1 may be read and compared more simply4 ,,the ,,key4--,,part ,i4--,,orthography4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,of ,,letters4 ,,corrections ,,respecting ,,capitals4 ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,books4 ,many a reader of the ,bible knows not who wrote the ,acts of the ,apostles--,g4 ,b4 ,the sons of ,levi1 the chief of the fathers1 were written in the book of the ,chronicles4--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,neh41 xii1 #bc4 ,are they not written in the book of the ,acts of ,solomon8--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,i ,kings1 xi1 #da4 ,are they not written in the book of the ,chronicles of the ,kings of ,israel8--,,alger ,,corrected3 ,i ,kings1 xxii1 #ci4 ,are they not written in the book of the ,chronicles of the ,kings of ,judah4--,see ,,alger3 ib41 ver4 #de4 ,which were written in the law of ,moses1 and in the prophets1 and in the ,psalms4--,,alger1 ,,et ,,al43 ,luke1 xxiv1 #dd4 ,the narrative of which maybe seen in ,josephus's ,history of the ,jewish ,war--,dr4 ,scott cor4 ,obs4--,the word in ,josephus is ,war1 not ,wars4--,g4 ,brown4 ,this ,history of the ,jewish ,war was ,josephus's first work1 and published about ,a4 ,d4 #ge4--,whiston cor4 ',i have read1' says ,photius1 'the ,chronology of ,justus of ,tiberias4'--,id4 ,a ,philosophical ,grammar1 written by ,james ,harris1 ,esquire4--,murray cor4 ,the reader is referred to ,stroud's ,sketch of the ,slave ,laws--,a4 ,s4 ,mag4 cor4 ,but ,god has so made the ,bible that it interprets itself4--,idem4 ,in #aefb1 with the help of ,hopkins1 he completed the ,psalter4--,gardiner cor4 ,gardiner says this of ,sternhold2 of whom the ,universal ,biographical ,dictionary and the ,american ,encyclopedia affirm1 that he died in #aedi4--;,g4 ,b4 ,the title of a book1 to wit3 ',english ,grammar in ,familiar ,lectures1' c4--,kirkham cor4 ,we had not1 at that time1 seen ,mr4 ,kirkham's ',grammar in ,familiar ,lectures4'--,id4 ,when you parse1 you may spread the ,compendium before you4--,id4 right4#eaf ,whenever you parse1 you may spread the ,compendium before you4--,id4 cor4 ,adelung was the author of a ,grammatical and ,critical ,dictionary of the ,german ,language1 and other works4 ,biog4 ,dict4 cor4 ,alley1 ,william1 author of ',the ,poor ,man's ,library1' and a translation of the ,pentateuch1 died in #aegj4--;,id4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,first ,,words4 ,depart instantly2--,improve your time2--,forgive us our sins4--,murray corrected4 ,,examples3--,gold is corrupting2--,the sea is green2--,a lion is bold4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,again3 ,it may rain2--,he may go or stay2--,he would walk22--,they should learn4--,iidem4 ,again3 ,oh6 ,i have alienated my friend2--,alas6 ,i fear for life4--,iidem4 ,see ,alger's ,gram41 p4 #ej4 ,again3 ,he went from ,london to ,york2--,she is above disguise2 ,they are supported by industry4--,iidem4 ,on the foregoing examples1 ,i have a word to say4 ,they are better than a fair specimen of their kind4 ,our grammars abound with worse illustrations4 ,their models of ,english are generally spurious quotations4 ,few of their proof-texts have any just parentage4 ,goose-eyes are abundant1 but names scarce4 ,who fathers the foundlings8 ,nobody4 ,then let their merit be nobody's1 and their defects his who could write no better4--,author4 ,goose-eyes6 says a bright boy2 pray1 what are they8 ,does this ,mr4 ,author make new words when he pleases8 ,dead-eyes are in a ship4 ,they are blocks1 with holes in them4 ,but what are goose-eyes in grammar8 ,,answer3 ,goose-eyes are quotation points4 ,some of the ,germans gave them this name1 making a jest of their form4 ,the ,french call them guillemets1 from the name of their inventor4--,author4 ,it is a personal pronoun1 of the third person singular4--,comly cor4 ,ourselves is a personal pronoun1 of the first person plural4--,id4 ,thee is a personal pronoun1 of the second person singular4--,id4 ,contentment is a common noun1 of the third person singular4--,id4 ,were is a neuter verb1 of the indicative mood1 imperfect tense4--,id4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,deity4 ,o thou ,dispenser of life6 thy mercies are boundless4--,allen cor4 ,shall not the ,judge of all the earth do right8--,,alger1 ,,friends1 ,,et ,,al43 ,gen41 xviii1 #be4 ,and the ,spirit of ,god moved upon the face of the waters4--,,scott1 ,,alger1 ,,friends1 ,,et ,,al43 ,gen41 i1 #b4 ,it is the gift of ,him1 who is the great ,author of good1 and the ,father of mercies4--,murray cor4 ,this is thy ,god that brought thee up out of ,egypt4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,neh41 ix1 #ah4 ,for the ,,lord is our defence2 and the ,holy ,one of ,israel is our ,king4--,psal44 lxxxix1 #ah4 ,by making him the responsible steward of ,heaven's bounties4--,a4 ,s4 ,mag4 cor4 ,which the ,lord1 the righteous ,judge1 shall give me at that day4--,,alger3 #b ,tim41 iv1 #h4 ,the cries of them 444 entered into the ears of the ,lord of ,sabaoth4--,,alger1 ,,friends3 ,james1 v1 #d4 ,in ,horeb1 the ,deity revealed himself to ,moses1 as the ,eternal ',i ,,am1' the ,self-existent ,one2 and1 after the first discouraging interview of his messengers with ,pharaoh1 he renewed his promise to them1 by the awful name1 ,,jehovah--a name till then unknown1 and one which the ,jews always held it a fearful profanation to pronounce4--,g4 ,brown4 ,and ,god spake unto ,moses1 and said unto him1 ,i am the ,,lord3 and ,i appeared unto ,abraham1 unto ,isaac1 and unto ,jacob1 by the name of ,god ,almighty2 but by my name ,,jehovah was ,i not known to them4--,,scott1 ,,alger1 ,,friends3 ,exod41 vi1 #b4 ,thus saith the ,,lord#eag the ,king of ,israel1 and his ,redeemer the ,,lord of hosts2 ,i am the ,first1 and ,i am the ,last2 and besides me there is no ,god4--,see ,isa41 xliv1 #f4 ,his impious race their blasphemy renew'd1 ,and nature's ,king1 through nature's optics view'd4--,dryden cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iv4--,,of ,,proper ,,names4 ,islamism prescribes fasting during the month ,ramadan4--,balbi cor4 ,near ,mecca1 in ,arabia1 is ,jebel ,nor1 or the ,mountain of ,light1 on the top of which the ,mussulmans erected a mosque1 that they might perform their devotions where1 according to their belief1 ,mohammed received from the angel ,gabriel the first chapter of the ,koran4--,g4 ,brown4 ,in the ,kaaba at ,mecca there is a celebrated block of volcanic basalt1 which the ,mohammedans venerate as the gift of ,gabriel to ,abraham1 but their ancestors once held it to be an image of ,remphan1 or ,saturn2 so 'the image which fell down from ,jupiter1' to share with ,diana the homage of the ,ephesians1 was probably nothing more than a meteoric stone4--,id4 ,when the ,lycaonians at ,lystra took ,paul and ,barnabas to be gods1 they called the former ,mercury1 on account of his eloquence1 and the latter ,jupiter1 for the greater dignity of his appearance4--,id4 ,of the writings of the apostolic fathers of the first century1 but few have come down to us2 yet we have in those of ,barnabas1 ,clement of ,rome1 ,hermas1 ,ignatius1 and ,polycarp1 very certain evidence of the authenticity of the ,new ,testament1 and the ,new ,testament is a voucher for the ,old4--,id4 ,it is said by ,tatian1 that ,theagenes of ,rhegium1 in the time of ,cambyses1 ,stesimbrotus the ,thracian1 ,antimachus the ,colophonian1 ,herodotus of ,halicarnassus1 ,dionysius the ,olynthian1 ,ephorus of ,cum1 ,philochorus the ,athenian1 ,metaclides and ,chamleon the ,peripatetics1 and ,zenodotus1 ,aristophanes1 ,callimachus1 ,crates1 ,eratosthenes1 ,aristarchus1 and ,apollodorus1 the grammarians1 all wrote concerning the poetry1 the birth1 and the age of ,homer4--,see ,coleridge's ,introd41 p4 #eg4 ,yet1 for aught that now appears1 the life of ,homer is as fabulous as that of ,hercules2 and some have even suspected1 that1 as the son of ,jupiter and ,alcmena has fathered the deeds of forty other ,herculeses1 so this unfathered son of ,critheis1 ,themisto1 or whatever dame--this ,melesigenes1 ,monides1 ,homer--the blind schoolmaster1 and poet1 of ,smyrna1 ,chios1 ,colophon1 ,salamis1 ,rhodes1 ,argos1 ,athens1 or whatever place--has1 by the help of ,lycurgus1 ,solon1 ,pisistratus1 and other learned ancients1 been made up of many poets or ,homers1 and set so far aloft and aloof on old ,parnassus1 as to become a god in the eyes of all ,greece1 a wonder in those of all ,christendom4--,g4 ,brown4 ,why so sagacious in your guesses8 ,your ,effs1 and ,tees1 and ,ars1 and ,esses8--,swift corrected4 ,,under ,,rule ,v4--,,of ,,titles4 ,the king has conferred on him the title of ,duke4--,murray cor4 ,at the court of ,queen ,elizabeth4--,priestley's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ii2 see ,bullions's1 p4 #bd4 ,the laws of nature are1 truly1 what ,lord ,bacon styles his aphorisms1 laws of laws4--,murray cor4 ,sixtus the ,fourth was1 if ,i mistake not1 a great collector of books4--,id4 ,who at that time made up the court of ,king ,charles the ,second--,id4 ,in case of his ,majesty's dying without issue4--,kirkham cor4 ,king ,charles the ,first was beheaded in #afdi4--,w4 ,allen cor4 ,he can no more impart1 or 7to use ,lord ,bacon's word7 transmit convictions4--,kirkham cor4 ,i reside at ,lord ,stormont's1 my old patron and benefactor4 ,better3 ,i reside with ,lord ,stormont1 my old patron and benefactor4--,murray cor4 ,we staid a month at ,lord ,lyttelton's1 the ornament of his country4 ,much better3 ,we stayed a month at the seat of ,lord ,lyttelton1 who is the ornament of his country4--,id4 ,whose prerogative is it8 ,it is the ,king-of-,great- ,britain's2 #eah--,that is the ,duke-of-,bridgewater's canal2--,the ,bishop-of-,landaff's excellent book2--,the ,lord ,mayor-of-,london's authority4--,id4 7,see ,murray's ,note #dth on his ,rule #ajth47 ,why call ye me1 ,lord1 ,lord1 and do not the things which ,i say8--,luke1 vi1 #df4 ,and of them he chose twelve1 whom also he named ,apostles4--,,alger1 ,,friends1 ,,et ,,al43 ,luke1 vi1 #ac4 ,and forthwith he came to ,jesus1 and said1 ,hail1 ,master2 and kissed him4--,matt41 xxvi1 #di4 ,and he said1 ,nay1 ,father ,abraham3 but if one went unto them from the dead1 they would repent4--,bible cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vi4--,,of ,,one ,,capital4 ,fallriver1 a village in ,massachusetts1 population 7in #ahcj7 #c1dca4--,williams cor4 ,dr4 ,anderson died at ,westham1 in ,essex1 in #ahjh4--;,biog4 ,dict4 cor4 ,madriver1 the name of two towns in ,clark and ,champaign counties1 ,ohio4--,williams cor4 ,whitecreek1 a town of ,washington county1 ,new ,york4--,id4 ,saltcreek1 the name of four towns in different parts of ,ohio4--,id4 ,saltlick1 a town of ,fayette county1 ,pennsylvania4--,id4 ,yellowcreek1 a town of ,columbiana county1 ,ohio4--,id4 ,whiteclay1 a hundred of ,newcastle county1 ,delaware4-- ,id4 ,newcastle1 a town and half-shire of ,newcastle county1 ,delaware4--,id4 ,singsing1 a village of ,westchester county1 ,new ,york1 situated in the town of ,mountpleasant4--,id4 ,westchester1 a county of ,new ,york3 ,east ,chester and ,west ,chester are towns in ,westchester county4--,id4 ,westtown1 a village of ,orange county1 ,new ,york4--,id4 ,whitewater1 a town of ,hamilton county1 ,ohio4--,worcester's ,gaz4 ,whitewater ,river1 a considerable stream that rises in ,indiana1 and flowing southeasterly unites with the ,miami in ,ohio4--,see ib4 ,blackwater1 a village of ,hampshire1 in ,england1 and a town in ,ireland4--,see ib4 ,blackwater1 the name of seven different rivers1 in ,england1 ,ireland1 and the ,united ,states4--,see ib4 ,redhook1 a town of ,dutchess county1 ,new ,york1 on the ,hudson4--,williams cor4 ,kinderhook1 a town of ,columbia county1 ,new ,york1 on the ,hudson4--,williams right4 ,newfane1 a town of ,niagara county1 ,new ,york4--,williams cor4 ,lakeport1 a town of ,chicot county1 ,arkansas4--,id4 ,moosehead ,lake1 the chief source of the ,kennebeck1 in ,maine4--,id4 7,see ,worcester's ,gaz47 ,macdonough1 a county of ,illinois1 population 7in #ahcj7 #b1iei4--,williams's ,univ4 ,gaz41 p #djh4 ,macdonough1 a county of ,illinois1 with a court-house at ,macomb4--,williams cor4 ,halfmoon1 the name of two towns in ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania2 also of two bays in the ,west ,indies4--,s4 ,williams's ,univ4 ,gaz4 ,leboeuf1 a town of ,erie county1 ,pennsylvania1 near a small lake of the same name4--,see ib4 ,charlescity1 ,jamescity1 ,eiizabethcity1 names of counties in ,virginia1 not cities1 nor towns4--,see ,univ4 ,gaz41 p4 #djd4eai ,the superior qualities of the waters of the ,frome1 here called ,stroudwater4--,balbi cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vii4--,,of ,,two ,,capitals4 ,the ,forth rises on the north side of ,ben ,lomond1 and runs easterly4--,glasgow ,geog41 #hvo1 corrected4 ,the red granite of ,ben ,nevis is said to be the finest in the world4--,id4 ,ben ,more1 in ,perthshire1 is #c1iae feet above the level of the sea4--,id4 ,the height of ,ben ,cleagh is #b1dbj feet4--,id4 ,in ,sutherland and ,caithness1 are ,ben ,ormod1 ,ben ,clibeg1 ,ben ,grin1 ,ben ,hope1 and ,ben ,lugal4--,glas4 ,geog4 right4 ,ben ,vracky is #b1gef feet high2 ,ben ,ledi1 #c1jji2 and ,ben ,voirloich1 #c1cjj4--;,glas4 ,geog4 cor4 ,the river ,dochart gives the name of ,glen ,dochart to the vale through which it runs4--,id4 ,about ten miles from its source1 it the ,tay diffuses itself into ,loch ,dochart4--,glasgow ,geog41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cad4 ,,lakes3--,loch ,ard1 ,loch ,achray1 ,loch ,con1 ,loch ,doine1 ,loch ,katrine1 ,loch ,lomond1 ,loch ,voil4--,scott corrected4 ,,glens3--,glen ,finlas1 ,glen ,fruin1 ,glen ,luss1 ,ross ,dhu1 ,leven ,glen1 ,strath ,endrick1 ,strath ,gartney4 ,strath ,ire4--,id4 ,,mountains3--,ben ,an1 ,ben ,harrow1 ,ben ,ledi1 ,ben ,lomond1 ,ben ,voirlich1 ,ben ,venue1 or1 7as some spell it17 ,ben ,ivenew4--,id4#ebj ,fenelon died in #agae1 deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the ,low ,countries4--,murray cor4 ,and ,pharaoh ,necho#eba made ,eliakim1 the son of ,josiah1 king4--,see ,,alger3 #b ,kings1 xiii1 #cd4 ,those who seem so merry and well pleased1 call her ,good ,fortune2 but the others1 who weep and wring their hands1 ,bad ,fortune4--,collier cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,viii4--,,of ,,compounds4 ,when ,joab returned1 and smote ,edom in the ,valley of ,salt--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,ps4 lx1 title4 ,then ,paul stood in the midst of ,mars ,hill1 and said1 c4--,scott cor4 ,and at night he went out1 and abode in the mount that is called the ,mount of ,olives4--,bible cor4 ,abgillus1 son of the king of the ,frisii1 surnamed ,prester ,john1 was in the ,holy ,land with ,charlemagne4--,u4 ,biog4 ,dict4 cor4 ,cape ,palmas1 in ,africa1 divides the ,grain ,coast from the ,ivory ,coast4--,dict4 of ,geog4 cor4 ,the ,north ,esk1 flowing from ,loch ,lee1 falls into the sea three miles north of ,montrose4--,id4 ,at ,queen's ,ferry1 the channel of the ,forth is contracted by promontories on both coasts4--,id4 ,the ,chestnut ,ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the ,alleghanies1 and ,laurel ,ridge1 ten miles further west4--,balbi cor4 ,washington ,city1 the metropolis of the ,united ,states of ,america4--,williams1 ,u4 ,caz41 p4 #chj4 ,washington ,city1 in the ,district of ,columbia1 population 7in #ahcj7 #ah1hbf4--,williams cor4 ,the loftiest peak of the ,white ,mountains1 in ,new ,hampshire1 is called ,mount ,washington4--,g4 ,brown4 ,mount's ,bay1 in the west of ,england1 lies between the ,land's ,end and ,lizard ,point4--,id4 ,salamis1 an island of the ,egean ,sea1 off the southern coast of the ancient ,attica4--,dict4 of ,geog4 ,rhodes1 an island of the ,egean ,sea1 the largest and most easterly of the ,cyclades4--,id4 cor4 ,but he overthrew ,pharaoh and his host in the ,red ,sea4--,,scott3 ,ps4 cxxxvi1 #ae4 ,but they provoked him at the sea1 even at the ,red ,sea4--,,alger1 ,,friends3 ,ps4 cvi1 #g4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ix4--,,of ,,apposition4 ,at that time1 ,herod the tetrarch heard of the fame of ,jesus4--,,scott1 ,,friends1 ,,et ,,al43 ,matt41 xiv1 #a4 ,who has been more detested than ,judas the traitor8--,g4 ,brown4 ,st4 ,luke the evangelist was a physician of ,antioch1 and one of the converts of ,st4 ,paul4--,id4 ,luther1 the reformer1 began his bold career by preaching against papal indulgences4--,id4 ,the poet ,lydgate was a disciple and admirer of ,chaucer3 he died in #addj4--;,id4 ,the grammarian ,varro1 'the most learned of the ,romans1'#ebb wrote three books when he was eighty years old4--,id4 ,john ,despauter1 the great grammarian of ,flanders1 whose works are still valued1 died in #aebj4--;,id4 ,nero1 the emperor and tyrant of ,rome1 slew himself to avoid a worse death4--,id4 ,cicero the orator1 'the ,father of his ,country1' was assassinated at the age of #fd4--;,id4 ,euripides1 the ,greek tragedian1 was born in the island of ,salamis1 ,b4 ,c4 #dgf4--;,id4 ,i will say unto ,god my rock1 ,why hast thou forgotten me8--,,alger1 ,,et ,,al43 ,ps4 xlii1 #i4 ,staten ,island1 an island of ,new ,york1 nine miles below ,new ,york city4--,williams cor4 ,when the son of ,atreus1 king of men1 and the noble ,achilles first separated4--,coleridge cor4 ,hermes1 his patron-god1 those gifts bestow'd1 ,whose shrine with weanling lambs he wont to load4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,x4--,,of ,,personifications4 ,but ,wisdom is justified of all her children4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,luke1 vii1 #ce4 ,fortune and the ,church are generally put in the feminine gender3 that is1 when personified4 ,go to your ,natural ,religion2 lay before her ,mahomet and his disciples4--,bp4 ,sherlock4 ,o ,death6 where is thy sting8 ,o ,grave6 where is thy victory4--,pope3 #a ,cor41 xv1 #ee2 ,merchant's ,gram41 p4 #agb4 ,ye cannot serve ,god and ,mammon4--,matt41 vi1 #bd4 ,ye cannot serve ,god and ,mammon--,see ,luke1 xvi1 #ac4 ,this house was built as if ,suspicion herself had dictated the plan4--,rasselas4 ,poetry distinguishes herself from ,prose1 by yielding to a musical law4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #eja4 ,my beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions3 ',my name is ,religion4 ,i am the offspring of ,truth and ,love1 and the parent of ,benevolence1 ,hope1 and ,joy4 ,that monster1 from whose power ,i have freed you1 is called ,superstition3 she is called the child of ,discontent1 and her followers are ,fear and ,sorrow4'--,e4 ,carter4 ,neither ,hope nor ,fear could enter the retreats2 and ,habit had so absolute a power1 that even ,conscience1 if ,religion had employed her in their favour1 would not have been able to force an entrance4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,in colleges and halls in ancient days1 ,there dwelt a sage called ,discipline4--,cowper4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xi4--,,of ,,derivatives4 ,in ,english1 ,i would have ,gallicisms avoided4--,felton4 ,sallust was born in ,italy1 #he years before the ,christian era4--,murray cor42 ,dr4 ,doddridge was not only a great man1 but one of the most excellent and useful ,christians1 and ,christian ministers4--,id4 ,they corrupt their style with untutored ,anglicisms--,milton4 ,albert of ,stade1 author of a chronicle from the creation to #abhf1 a ,benedictine of the #acth century4--,biog4 ,dict4 cor4 ,graffio1 a ,jesuit of ,capua in the #afth century1 author of two volumes on moral subjects4--,id4 ,they ,frenchify and ,italianize words whenever they can4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #hf4 ,he who sells a ,christian1 sells the grace of ,god4--,mag4 cor4 ,the first persecution against the ,christians1 under ,nero1 began ,a4 ,d4 #fd4--;,gregory cor4 ,p4 ,rapin1 the ,jesuit1 uniformly decides in favour of the ,roman writers4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bdh4 ,the ,roman poet and ,epicurean philosopher ,lucretius has said1 c4--,cohen cor4 ,spell ,calvinistic1 ,atticism1 ,gothicism1 ,epicurism1 ,jesuitism1 ,sabianism1 ,socinianism1 ,anglican1 ,anglicism1 ,anglicize1 ,vandalism1 ,gallicism1 and ,romanize4--,webster cor4 ,the large ,ternate bat4--,id4 and ,bolles cor4 ,church-ladders are not always mounted best ,by learned clerks1 and ,latinists profess'd--,cowper cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xii4--,,of ,i ,,and ,o4 ,fall back1 fall back2 ,i have not room3--,o6 methinks ,i see a couple whom ,i should know4--,lucian4 ,nay1 ,i live as ,i did1 ,i think as ,i did1 ,i love you as ,i did2 but all these are to no purpose2 the world will not live1 think1 or love1 as ,i do4--,swift to ,pope4 ,whither1 ,o6 whither shall ,i fly8 ,o wretched prince6 ,o cruel reverse of fortune6 ,o father ,micipsa6 is this the consequence of thy generosity8--,tr4 of ,sallust4 ,when ,i was a child1 ,i spake as a child1 ,i understood as a child1 ,i thought as a child2 but when ,i became a man1 ,i put away childish things4--#a ,cor41 xiii1 #aa4 ,and ,i heard1 but ,i understood not2 then said ,i1 ,o my ,lord1 what shall be the end of these things8--,dan41 xii1 #h4 ,here am ,i2 ,i think ,i am very good1 and ,i am quite sure ,i am very happy1 yet ,i never wrote a treatise in my life4--,few ,days in ,athens1 p4 #abg4 ,singular1 ,vocative1 ,o master6 ,plural1 ,vocative1 ,o masters6--,bicknell cor4 ,i1 ,i am he2 ,o father6 rise1 behold ,thy son1 with twenty winters now grown old6 --,pope's ,odyssey1 ,b4 #bd1 l4 #cge4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,of ,,poetry4 ,reason's whole pleasure1 all the joys of sense1 ,lie in three words--health1 peace1 and competence2 ,but health consists with temperance alone1 ,and peace1 ,o ,virtue6 peace is all thy own4--,pope4 ,observe the language well in all you write1 ,and swerve not from it in your loftiest flight4 ,the smoothest verse and the exactest sense ,displease us1 if ill ,english give offence3 ,a barbarous phrase no reader can approve2 ,nor bombast1 noise1 or affectation love4 ,in short1 without pure language1 what you write ,can never yield us profit or delight4 ,take time for thinking2 never work in haste2 ,and value not yourself for writing fast4--,dryden4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,of ,,examples4 ,the word rather is very properly used to express a small degree or excess of a quality2 as1 ',she is rather profuse in her expenses4'--,murray cor4 ,neither imports not either2 that is1 not one nor the other3 as1 ',neither of my friends was there4'--,id4 ,when we say1 ',he is a tall man1'--',this is a fair day1' we make some reference to the ordinary size of men1 and to different weather4--,id4 ,we more readily say1 ',a million of men1' than1 ',a thousand of men4'--,id4 ,so in the instances1 ',two and two are four2'--',the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books4'--,id4 ,the adjective may frequently either precede or follow the verb3 as1 ',the man is happy2' or1 ',happy is the man2'--',the interview was delightful2' or1 ',delightful was the interview4'--,id4 ,if we say1 ',he writes a pen2'--',they ran the river2'--',the tower fell the ,greeks2'--',lambeth is ,westminster ,abbey2'--we speak absurdly2 and1 it is evident1 there is a vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word3 as thus1 ',he writes with a pen2'--',they ran towards the river2'--',the tower fell upon the ,greeks2'--',lambeth is over against ,westminster ,abbey4'--,id4 ,let me repeat it2--,he only is great1 who has the habits of greatness4--,id4 ,i say not unto thee1 ,until seven times2 but1 ,until seventy times seven4--,matt41 xviii1 #bb4 ,the ,panther smil'd at this2 and1 ',when1' said she1 ',were those first councils disallow'd by me8'--,dryd4 cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xv4--,,of ,,chief ,,words4 ,the supreme council of the nation is called the ,divan4--,balbi cor4 ,the ,british ,parliament is composed of ,king1 ,lords1 and ,commons4--,comly's ,gram41 p4 #abi2 and ,jaudon's1 #abg4 ,a popular orator in the ,house of ,commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he pleases4--,see ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afi2 ,murray's ,gram41 #cfd4 ,they may all be taken together1 as one name2 as1 ',the ,house of ,commons4'--,merchant cor4 ,intrusted to persons in whom the ,parliament could confide4--,murray cor4 ,for ',the ,lords' ,house1' it were certainly better to say1 ',the ,house of ,lords2' and1 in stead of ',the ,commons' vote1' to say4 ',the vote of the ,commons4'--,id4 and ,priestley cor4 ,the ,house of ,lords were so much influenced by these reasons4--,iidem4 ,rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes2 ,figures of ,words1 and ,figures of ,thought4 ,the former1 ,figures of ,words1 are commonly called ,tropes4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ccg4 ,perhaps1 ,figures of ,imagination1 and ,figures of ,passion1 might be a more useful distribution4--,ib4 ,hitherto we have considered sentences1 under the heads of ,perspicuity1 ,unity1 and ,strength4--,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cef4 ,the word is then depos'd2 and1 in this view1 ,you rule the ,scripture1 not the ,scripture you4--,dryd4 cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xvi4--,,of ,,needless ,,capitals4 ,be of good cheer2 it is ,i2 be not afraid4--,,friends' ,,bible1 ,,and ,,scott',s3 ,matt41 xiv1 #bg4 ,between passion and lying1 there is not a finger's breadth4--,mur4 cor4 ,can our solicitude alter the course1 or unravel the intricacy1 of human events8 ,the last edition was carefully compared with the original manuscript4--,id4 ,and the governor asked him1 saying1 ,art thou the king of the ,jews8--,,scott3 ,matt41 xxvii1 #aa4 ,let them be turned back for a reward of their shame1 that say1 ,aha1 aha6--,,scott ,,et ,,al43 ,ps41 lxx1 #c4 ,let them be desolate for a reward of their shame1 that say unto me1 ,aha1 aha6--,,iidem3 ,ps41 xl1 #ae4 ,what think ye of ,christ8 whose son is he8 ,they say unto him1 ,the son of ,david4 ,he saith unto them1 ,how then doth ,david in spirit call him ,lord8--,,alger3 ,matt41 xxii1 #db1 #dc4 ,among all things in the universe1 direct your worship to the greatest4 ,and which is that8 ,it is that ,being who manages and governs all the rest4--,collier's ,antoninus cor4 ,as for modesty and good faith1 truth and justice1 they have left this wicked world and retired to heaven2 and now what is it that can keep you here8--,idem4 ,if pulse of verse a nation's temper shows1 ,in keen iambics ,english metre flows4--,brightland cor4 ,,promiscuous ,,corrections ,,respecting ,,capitals4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,come1 gentle ,spring1 ethereal mildness1 come4--,thomson's ,seasons1 p4 #bi4 ,as1 ,he is the ,cicero of his age2--,he is reading the ,lives of the ,twelve ,csars2--or1 if no particular book is meant1--the lives of the twelve ,csars2 7as it is in ,fisk's ,grammar1 p4 #eg27 for the sentence1 as it stands in ,murray1 is ambiguous4 ,in the ,history of ,henry the ,fourth1 by ,father ,daniel1 we are surprised at not finding him the great man4--,smollett's ,voltaire1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #hb4 ,do not those same poor peasants use the lever1 and the wedge1 and many other instruments8--,harris and ,mur4 cor4 ,arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of liquors2 geometry1 for the measuring of estates2 astronomy1 for the making of almanacs2 and grammar1 perhaps1 for the drawing of bonds and conveyances4--,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bhh4 ,the ,history of the ,wars of ,flanders1 written in ,latin by ,famianus ,strada1 is a book of some note4--,blair cor4 ,william is a noun4 ,why8 ,was is a verb4 ,why8 ,a is an article4 ,why8 ,very is an adverb4 ,why8 c4--,merchant cor4 ,in the beginning was the ,word1 and that ,word was with ,god1 and ,god was that ,word4--,see ,gospel of ,john1 i1 #a4 ,the ,greeks are numerous in ,thessaly1 ,macedonia1 ,romelia1 and ,albania4--,balbi's ,geog41 p4 #cfj4 ,he the ,grand ,seignior is styled by the ,turks1 ,sultan1 ,mighty1 or ,padishah1 ,lord4--,balbi cor4 ,i will ransom them from the power of the grave2 ,i will redeem them from death4 ,o ,death6 ,i will be thy plague2 ,o ,grave6 ,i will be thy destruction4--,bible cor4 ,silver and gold have ,i none2 but such as ,i have1 give ,i unto thee4--,see ,acts1 iii1 #f4 ,return1 we beseech thee1 ,o ,god of hosts6 look down from heaven1 and behold1 and visit this vine4--,see ,psalm lxxx1 #ad4 ,in the ,attic commonwealth1 it was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #caf4 ,they assert1 that in the phrases1 ',,give me that1'--',this is ,john's1' and1 ',such were some of you1'--the words in ,italics are pronouns2 but that1 in the following phrases1 they are not pronouns3 ',this book is instructive2'--',some boys are ingenious2'--',my health is declining2'--',our hearts are deceitful4'--,murray partly corrected4#ebc ,and the coast bends again to the northwest1 as far as ,farout ,head4--,geog4 cor4 ,dr4 ,webster1 and other makers of spelling-books1 very improperly write ,sunday1 ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 ,thursday1 ,friday1 and ,saturday1 without capitals4--,g4 ,brown4 ,the commander in chief of the ,turkish navy is styled the ,capitan ,pacha4--,balbi cor4 ,shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the ,father of spirits1 and live8--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,heb41 xii1 #i4 ,he ,dr4 ,beattie was more anxious to attain the character of a ,christian hero4--,murray cor4 ,beautiful for situation1 the joy of the whole earth1 is ,mount ,zion4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #cic4 ,the ,lord is my helper1 and ,i will not fear what man shall do unto me4--,,alger1 ,,friends1 ,,et ,,al43 ,heb41 xiii1 #f4 ,make haste to help me1 ,o ,,lord my salvation4--,,iidem3 ,psalms1 xxxviii1 #bb4 ,the city which thou seest1 no other deem ,than great and glorious ,rome1 queen of the earth4 --,paradise ,regained1 ,b4 iv4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,that range of hills1 known under the general name of ,mount ,jura4--,account of ,geneva4 ,he rebuked the ,red ,sea also1 and it was dried up4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,ps4 cvi1 #i4 ,jesus went unto the ,mount of ,olives4--,bible cor4 ,milton's book in reply to the ,defence of the ,king1 by ,salmasius1 gained him a thousand pounds from the ,parliament1 and killed his antagonist with vexation4--,g4 ,b4 ,mandeville1 ,sir ,john1 an ,englishman famous for his travels1 born about #acjj1 died in #acgb4--;,b4 ,dict4 cor4 ,ettrick ,pen1 a mountain in ,selkirkshire1 ,scotland1 height #b1bjj feet4--,g4 ,geog4 cor4 ,the coast bends from ,dungsby ,head1 in a northwest direction1 to the promontory of ,dunnet ,head4--,id4 ,general ,gaines ordered a detachment of nearly #cjj men1 under the command of ,major ,twiggs1 to surround and take an ,indian village1 called ,fowltown1 about fourteen miles from ,fort ,scott4--,cohen ,cor4 ,and he took the damsel by the hand1 and said unto her1 ',talitha1 cumi4'--,bible ,editors cor4 ,on religious subjects1 a frequent adoption of ,scripture language is attended with peculiar force4--,murray cor4 ,contemplated with gratitude to their ,author1 the ,giver of all good4--,id4 ,when he1 the ,spirit of truth1 is come1 he will guide you into all the truth1--,,scott1 ,,alger1 ,,et ,,al43 ,john1 xvi1 #ac4 ,see the ,lecture on ,verbs1 ,rule ,,xv1 ,note #dth4--,fisk cor4 ,at the commencement of ,lecture #b;d1 ,i informed you that ,etymology treats1 thirdly1 of derivation4--,kirkham cor4 ,this #hth ,lecture is a very important one4--,id4 ,now read the #aath and #abth lectures1 four or five times over4--,id4 ,in #ageb1 he ,henry ,home was advanced to the bench1 under the title of ,lord ,kames4--,murray cor4 ,one of his maxims was1 ',know thyself4'--,lempriere cor4 ,good ,master1 what good thing shall ,i do1 that ,i may have eternal life8--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,matt41 xix1 #af4 ,his best known works1 however1 ,john ,almon's are1 ',anecdotes of the ,life of the ,earl of ,chatham1' #b vols4 #dto1 #c vols4 #hvo2 and ',biographical1 ,literary1 and ,political ,anecdotes of several of the ,most ,eminent ,persons of the ,present ,age2 never before printed1' #c vols4 #hvo1 #agig4--;,biog4 ,dict4 cor4 ,o gentle ,sleep1 ,nature's soft nurse1 how have ,i frighted thee8--,,shak43 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #age4 ,and peace1 ,o ,virtue6 peace is all thy own4--,pope et al4 cor4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,fenelon united the characters of a nobleman and a ,christian pastor4 ,his book entitled1 ',an ,explication of the ,maxims of the ,saints1 concerning the ,interior ,life1' gave considerable offence to the guardians of orthodoxy4--,murray cor4 ,when ,natural ,religion1 who before was only a spectator1 is introduced as speaking by the ,centurion's voice4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cdg4 ,you cannot deny1 that the great ,mover and ,author of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men1 by the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs1 which have no similitude to1 or connexion with1 the things signified4--,berkley cor4 ,the name of this letter is ,double-u1 its form1 that of a double ,v4--,dr4 ,wilson cor4 ,murray1 in his ,spelling-,book1 wrote ,charlestown with a hyphen and two capitals4--,g4 ,brown4 ,he also wrote ,european without a capital4--,id4 ,they profess themselves to be ,pharisees1 who are to be heard and not imitated4--,calvin cor4 ,dr4 ,webster wrote both ,newhaven and ,new ,york with single capitals4--,g4 ,brown4 ,gay ,head1 the west point of ,martha's ,vineyard4--,williams cor4 ,write ,crab ,orchard1 ,egg ,harbour1 ,long ,island1 ,perth ,amboy1 ,west ,hampton1 ,little ,compton1 ,new ,paltz1 ,crown ,point1 ,fell's ,point1 ,sandy ,hook1 ,port ,penn1 ,port ,royal1 ,porto ,bello1 and ,porto ,rico4'--,g4 ,brown4 ,write the names of the months3 ,january1 ,february1 ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 ,august1 ,september1 ,october1 ,november1 ,december4--,id4 ,write the following names and words properly3 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 ,thursday1 ,friday1 ,saturday1 ,saturn2--,christ1 ,christian1 ,christmas1 ,christendom1 ,michaelmas1 ,indian1 ,bacchanals2--,east ,hampton1 ,omega1 ,johannes1 ,aonian1 ,levitical1 ,deuteronomy1 ,european4--,id4 ,eight letters in some syllables we find1 ,and no more syllables in words are join'd4--,brightland cor4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,of ,,syllables4 ,,corrections ,,of ,,false ,,syllabication4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,consonants4 #a4 ,correction of ,murray1 in words of two syllables3 civ-il1 col-our1 cop-y1 dam-ask1 doz-en1 ev-er1 feath-er1 gath-er1 heav-en1 heav-y1 hon-ey1 lem-on1 lin-en1 mead-ow1 mon-ey1 nev-er1 ol-ive1 or-ange1 oth-er1 pheas-ant1 pleas-ant1 pun-ish1 rath-er1 read-y1 riv-er1 rob-in1 schol-ar1 shov-el1 stom-ach1 tim-id1 whith-er4 #b4 ,correction of ,murray1 in words of three syllables3 ben-e-fit1 cab-i-net1 can-is-ter1 cat-a-logue1 char-ac-ter1 char-i-ty1 cov-et-ous1 dil-i-gence1 dim-i-ty1 el-e-phant1 ev-i-dent1 ev-er-green1 friv-o-lous1 gath-er-ing1 gen-er-ous1 gov-ern-ess1 gov-ern-or1 hon-est-y1 kal-en-dar1 lav-en-der1 lev-er-et1 lib-er-al1 mem-or-y1 min-is-ter1 mod-est-ly1 nov-el-ty1 no-bod-y1 par-a-dise1 pov-er-ty1 pres-ent-ly1 prov-i-dence1 prop-er-ly1 pris-on-er1 rav-en-ous1 sat-is-fy1 sev-er-al1 sep-ar-ate1 trav-el-ler1 vag-a-bond2--con-sid-er1 con-tin-ue1 de-liv-er1 dis-cov-er1 dis-fig-ure1 dis-hon-est1 dis-trib-ute1 in-hab-it1 me-chan-ic1 what-ev-er2--rec-om-mend1 ref-u-gee1 rep-ri-mand4 #c4 ,correction of ,murray1 in words of four syllables3 cat-er-pil-lar1 char-i-ta-ble1 dil-i-gent-ly1 mis-er-a-ble1 prof-it-a-ble1 tol-er-a-ble2--be-nev-o-lent1 con-sid-er-ate1 di-min-u-tive1 ex-per-i-ment1 ex-trav-a-gant1 in-hab-i-tant1 no-bil-i-ty1 par-tic-u-lar1 pros-per-i-ty1 ri-dic-u-lous1 sin-cer-i-ty2--dem-on-stra-tion1 ed-u-ca-tion1 em-u-la-tion1 ep-i-dem-ic1 mal-e-fac-tor1 man-u-fac-ture1 mem-o-ran-dum1 mod-er-a-tor1 par-a-lyt-ic1 pen-i-ten-tial1 res-ig-na-tion1 sat-is-fac-tion1 sem-i-co-lon4 #d4 ,correction of ,murray1 in words of five syllables3 a-bom-i-na-ble1 a-poth-e-ca-ry1 con-sid-er-a-ble1 ex-plan-a-to-ry1 pre-par-a-to-ry2-- ac-a-dem-i-cal1 cu-ri-os-i-ty1 ge-o-graph-i-cal1 man-u-fac-tor-y1 sat-is-fac-tor-y1 mer-i-to-ri-ous2--char-ac-ter-is-tic1 ep-i-gram-mat-ic1 ex-per-i-ment-al1 pol-y-syl-la-ble1 con-sid-er-a-tion4 #e4 ,correction of ,murray1 in the division of proper names3 ,hel-en1 ,leon-ard1 ,phil-ip1 ,rob-ert1 ,hor-ace1 ,thom-as2--,car-o-line1 ,cath-a-rine1 ,dan-i-el1 ,deb-o-rah1 ,dor-o-thy1 ,fred-er-ick1 ,is-a-bel1 ,jon-a-than1 ,lyd-i-a1 ,nich-o-las1 ,ol-i-ver1 ,sam-u-el1 ,sim-e-on1 ,sol-o-mon1 ,tim-o-thy1 ,val-en-tine2--,a-mer-i-ca1 ,bar-thol-o-mew1 ,e-liz-a-beth1 ,na-than-i-el1 ,pe-nel-o-pe1 ,the-oph-i-lus4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 #a4 ,correction of ,webster1 by ,rule #ast3--ca-price1 e-steem1 dis-e-steem1 o-blige2--a-zure1 ma-tron1 pa-tron1 pha-lanx1 si-ren1 trai-tor1 tren-cher1 bar-ber1 bur-nish1 gar-nish1 tar-nish1 var-nish1 mar-ket1 mus-ket1 pam-phlet2--bra-ver-y1 kna-ver-y1 sla-ver-y1 e-ven-ing1 sce-ner-y1 bri-ber-y1 ni-ce-ty1 chi-ca-ner-y1 ma-chin-er-y1 im-a-ger-y2--a-sy-lum1 ho-ri-zon1--fin-an-cier1 her-o-ism1 sar-do-nyx1 scur-ri-lous1--co-me-di-an1 pos-te-ri-or4 #b4 ,correction of ,webster1 by ,rule #b;d3 o-yer1 fo-li-o1 ge-ni-al1 ge-ni-us1 ju-ni-or1 sa-ti-ate1 vi-ti-ate2--am-bro-si-a1 cha-me-le-on1 par-he-li-on1 con-ve-ni-ent1 in-ge-ni-ous1 om-nis-ci-ence1 pe-cu-li-ar1 so-ci-a-ble1 par-ti-al-i-ty1 pe-cu-ni-a-ry2--an-nun-ci-ate1 e-nun-ci-ate1 ap-pre-ci-ate1 as-so-ci-ate1 ex-pa-ti-ate1 in-gra-ti-ate1 in-i-ti-ate1 li-cen-ti-ate1 ne-go-ti-ate1 no-vi-ti-ate1 of-fi-ci-ate1 pro-pi-ti-ate1 sub-stan-ti-ate4 #c4 ,correction of ,cobb and ,webster1 by each other1 under ,rule #c;d3 dress-er1 hast-y1 past-ry1 seiz-ure1 roll-er1 jest-er1 weav-er1 vamp-er1 hand-y1 dross-y1 gloss-y1 mov-er1 mov-ing1 ooz-y1 full-er1 trust-y1 weight-y1 nois-y1 drows-y1 swarth-y4--,webster4 ,again3 east-ern1 ful-ly1 pul-let1 ril-let1 scant-y1 need-y4--,cobb4 #d4 ,correction of ,webster and ,cobb1 under ,rule #dth3 a-wry1 a-thwart1 pros-pect-ive1 pa-ren-the-sis1 re-sist-i-bil-i-ty1 hem-i-spher-ic1 mon-o-stich1 hem-i-stich1 to-wards4 #e4 ,correction of the words under ,rule #eth2 ,eng-land1 an oth-er1#ebd ,beth-es-da1 ,beth-ab-a-ra4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 #a4 ,correction of ,cobb1 by ,rule #c;d3 bend-er1 bless-ing1 brass-y1 chaff-y1 chant-er1 clasp-er1 craft-y1 curd-y1 fend-er1 film-y1 fust-y1 glass-y1 graft-er1 grass-y1 gust-y1 hand-ed1 mass-y1 musk-y1 rust-y1 swell-ing1 tell-er1 test-ed1 thrift-y1 vest-ure4 #b4 ,corrections of ,webster1 mostly by ,rule #ast3 bar-ber1 bur-nish1 bris-ket1 can-ker1 char-ter1 cuc-koo1 fur-nish1 gar-nish1 guilt-y1 han-ker1 lus-ty1 por-tal1 tar-nish1 tes-tate1 tes-ty1 trai-tor1 trea-ty1 var-nish1 ves-tal1 di-ur-nal1 e-ter-nal1 in-fer-nal1 in-ter-nal1 ma-ter-nal1 noc-tur-nal1 pa-ter-nal4 #c4 ,corrections of ,webster1 mostly by ,rule #ast3 ar-mor-y1 ar-ter-y1 butch-er-y1 cook-er-y1 eb-on-y1 em-er-y1 ev-er-y1 fel-on-y1 fop-per-y1 frip-per-y1 gal-ler-y1 his-tor-y1 liv-er-y1 lot-ter-y1 mock-er-y1 mys-ter-y1#ebe nun-ner-y1 or-rer-y1 pil-lor-y1 quack-er-y1 sor-cer-y1 witch-er-y4 #d4 ,corrections of ,cobb1 mostly by ,rule #ast3 an-kle1 bas-ket1 blan-ket1 buc-kle1 cac-kle1 cran-kle1 crin-kle1 ,eas-ter1 fic-kle1 frec-kle1 knuc-kle1 mar-ket1 mon-key1 por-tress1 pic-kle1 poul-tice1 pun-cheon1 quad-rant1 quad-rate1 squad-ron1 ran-kle1 shac-kle1 sprin-kle1 tin-kle1 twin-kle1 wrin-kle4 #e4 ,corrections of ,emerson1 by ,rules #ast and #c;d3 as-cribe1 blan-dish1 branch-y1 cloud-y1 dust-y1 drear-y1 e-ven-ing1 fault-y1 filth-y1 frost-y1 gaud-y1 gloom-y1 health-y1 heark-en1 heart-y1 hoar-y1 leak-y1 loun-ger1 marsh-y1 might-y1 milk-y1 naught-y1 pass-ing1 pitch-er1 read-y1 rock-y1 speed-y1 stead-y1 storm-y1 thirst-y1 thorn-y1 trust-y1 vest-ry1 west-ern1 wealth-y4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,of ,,words4 ,,corrections ,,respecting ,,the ,,figure1 ,,or ,,form1 ,,of ,,words4 ,,rule ,i4--,,compounds4 ,professing to imitate ,timon1 the manhater4--,goldsmith corrected4 ,men load hay with a pitchfork4--,webster cor4 ,a peartree grows from the seed of a pear4--,id4 ,a toothbrush is good to brush your teeth4--,id4 ,the mail is opened at the post-office4--,id4 ,the error seems to me twofold4--,sanborn cor4 ,to prengage means to engage beforehand4--,webster cor4 ,it is a mean act to deface the figures on a milestone4--,id4 ,a grange is a farm1 with its farm- house4--,id4 ,it is no more right to steal apples or watermelons1 than to steal money4--,id4 ,the awl is a tool used by shoemakers and harness-makers4--,id4 ,twenty-five cents are equal to one quarter of a dollar4--,id4 ,the blowing-up of the ,fulton at ,new ,york1 was a terrible disaster4--,id4 ,the elders also1 and the bringers-up of the children1 sent to ,jehu4--,,alger1 ,,friends1 ,,et ,,al43 #b ,kings1 x1 #e4 ,not with eyeservice as menpleasers4--,col41 iii1 #bb4 ,a good-natured and equitable construction of cases4--,ash cor4 ,and purify your hearts1 ye double-minded4--,james1 iv1 #h4 ,it is a mean-spirited action to steal2 i4e41 ,to steal is a mean-spirited action4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,there is1 indeed1 one form of orthography which is akin to the subjunctive mood of the ,latin tongue4--,booth cor4 ,to bring him into nearer connexion with real and everyday life4--,philological ,museum1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dei4 ,the commonplace1 stale declamation of its revilers would be silenced4--,id4 cor4 ,she ,cleopatra formed a very singular and unheard-of project4--,goldsmith cor4 ,he ,william ,tell had many vigilant1 though feeble-talented and mean-spirited enemies4--,r4 ,vaux cor4 ,these old-fashioned people would level our psalmody1 c4--,gardiner cor4 ,this slow-shifting scenery in the theatre of harmony4--,id4 ,so we are assured from ,scripture itself4--,harris cor4 ,the mind1 being disheartened1 then betakes itself to trifling4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,whosesoever sins ye remit1 they are remitted unto them4--,bible cor4 ,tarry we ourselves how we will4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,manage your credit so1 that you need neither swear yourself1 nor seek a voucher4--,collier cor4 ,whereas song never conveys any of the abovenamed sentiments4--,dr4 ,rush cor4 ,i go on horseback4--,guy cor4 ,this requires purity1 in opposition to barbarous1 obsolete1 or new-coined words4--,adam cor4 ,may the ploughshare shine4--,white cor4 ,whichever way we consider it4--,locke cor4 ,where'er the silent e a place obtains1 ,the voice foregoing1 length and softness gains4--,brightland cor4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,simples4 ,it qualifies any of the four parts of speech above named4--,kirkham cor4 ,after a while they put us out among the rude multitude4--,fox cor4 ,it would be a shame1 if your mind should falter and give in4--,collier cor4 ,they stared a while in silence one upon an other4--,johnson cor4 ,after passion has for a while exercised its tyrannical sway4--,murray cor4 ,though set within the same general frame of intonation4--,rush cor4 ,which do not carry any of the natural vocal signs of expression4--,id4 ,the measurable constructive powers of a few associable constituents4--,id4 ,before each accented syllable or emphatic monosyllabic word4--,id4 ,one should not think too favourably of one's self4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aed4 ,know ye not your own selves1 how that ,jesus ,christ is in you8--#b ,cor41 xiii1 #e4 ,i judge not my own self1 for ,i know nothing of my own self4--,see #a ,cor41 iv1 #c4 ,though they were in such a rage1 ,i desired them to tarry a while4--,josephus cor4 ,a1 in stead of an1 is now used before words beginning with u long4--,murray cor4 ,john will have earned his wages by next new year's day4--,id4 ,a new year's gift is a present made on the first day of the year4--,johnson et al4 cor4 ,when he sat on the throne1 distributing new year's gifts4--,id4 ,st4 ,paul admonishes ,timothy to refuse old wives' fables4--,see #a ,tim41 iv1 #g4 ,the world1 take it all together1 is but one4--,collier cor4 ,in writings of this stamp1 we must accept of sound in stead of sense4--,murray cor4 ,a male child1 a female child2 male descendants1 female descendants4--,goldsbury et al4 cor4 ,male servants1 female servants2 male relations1 female relations4--,felton cor4 ,reserved and cautious1 with no partial aim1 ,my muse e'er sought to blast an other's fame4--,lloyd cor4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,the ,,sense4 ,our discriminations of this matter have been but four-footed instincts4--,rush cor4 ,he is in the right1 7says ,clytus17 not to bear free-born men at his table4--,goldsmith cor4 ,to the short-seeing eye of man1 the progress may appear little4--,the ,friend cor4 ,knowledge and virtue are1 emphatically1 the stepping-stones to individual distinction4--,town cor4 ,a tin-peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels4--,webster cor4 ,the beams of a wooden house are held up by the posts and joists4--,id4 ,what you mean by future-tense adjective1 ,i can easily understand4--,tooke cor4 ,the town has been for several days very well-behaved4--,spectator cor4 ,a rounce is the handle of a printing-press4--,webster cor4 ,the phraseology which we call thee-and-thouing or1 better1 thoutheeing1 is not in so common use with us1 as the tutoyant among the ,french4--,walker cor4 ,hunting and other outdoor sports1 are generally pursued4--,balbi cor4 ,come unto me1 all ye that labor and are heavy-laden4--,scott et al4 cor4 ,god so loved the world1 that he gave his only-begotten ,son to save it4--,see ,,alger',s ,,bible1 and ,,friends'3 ,john1 iii1 #af4 ,jehovah is a prayer-hearing ,god3 ,nineveh repented1 and was spared4--,observer cor4 ,these are well-pleasing to ,god1 in all ranks and relations4--,barclay cor4 ,whosoever cometh anything near unto the tabernacle4--,bible cor4 ,the words coalesce1 when they have a long-established association4--,mur4 cor4 ,open to me the gates of righteousness3 ,i will go into them4--,,modern ,,bible3 ,ps4 cxviii1 #ai4 ,he saw an angel of ,god coming in to him4--,acts1 x1 #c4 ,the consequences of any action are to be considered in a twofold light4--,wayland cor4 ,we commonly write twofold1 threefold1 fourfold1 and so on up to tenfold1 without a hyphen2 and1 after that1 we use one4--,g4 ,brown4 ,when the first mark is going off1 he cries1 ,turn6 the glassholder answers1 ,done6--,bowditch cor4 ,it is a kind of familiar shaking-hands 7or shaking of hands7 with all the vices4--,maturin cor4 ,she is a good-natured woman2--,james is self-opinionated2--,he is broken-hearted4--,wright cor4 ,these three examples apply to the present-tense construction only4--,id4 ,so that it was like a game of hide-and-go-seek4--,gram4 cor4 ,that lowliness is young ambition's ladder1 ,whereto the climber-upward turns his face4--,shak4 ,,rule ,,iv4--,,ellipses4 ,this building serves yet for a schoolhouse and a meeting-house4--,g4 ,brown4 ,schoolmasters and schoolmistresses1 if honest friends1 are to be encouraged4--,discip4 cor4 ,we never assumed to ourselves a faith-making or a worship-making power4--,barclay cor4 ,potash and pearlash are made from common ashes4--,webster cor4 ,both the ten-syllable and the eight-syllable verses are iambics4--,blair cor4 ,i say to myself1 thou say'st to thyself1 he says to himself1 c4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,or those who have esteemed themselves skillful1 have tried for the mastery in two-horse or four-horse chariots4--,ware cor4 ,i remember him barefooted and bareheaded1 running through the streets4--,edgeworth cor4 ,friends have the entire control of the schoolhouse and dwelling-house4 ,or3--of the schoolhouses and dwelling-houses ,or3--of the schoolhouse and the dwelling-houses ,or3--of the schoolhouses and the dwelling-house4 ,or3--of the school1 and of the dwelling-houses4 ,for the sentence here to be corrected is so ambiguous1 that any of these may have been the meaning intended by it4--,the ,friend cor4 ,the meeting is held at the first-mentioned place in ,firstmonth2 at the last-mentioned1 in ,secondmonth2 and so on4--,id4 ,meetings for worship are held1 at the same hour1 on ,firstday and ,fourthday4 ,or3--on ,firstdays and ,fourthdays4--,id4 ,every part of it1 inside and outside1 is covered with gold leaf4--,id4 ,the ,eastern ,quarterly ,meeting is held on the last ,seventhday in ,secondmonth1 ,fifthmonth1 ,eighthmonth1 and ,eleventhmonth4--,id4 ,trenton ,preparative ,meeting is held on the third ,fifthday in each month1 at ten o'clock2 meetings for worship are held1 at the same hour1 on ,firstdays and ,fifthdays4--,id4 ,ketch1 a vessel with two masts1 a mainmast and a mizzenmast4--,webster cor4 ,i only mean to suggest a doubt1 whether nature has enlisted herself either as a ,cis-,atlantic or as a ,trans-,atlantic partisan4--,jefferson cor4 ,by large hammers1 like those used for paper-mills and fulling-mills1 they beat their hemp4--,johnson cor4 ,,ant-,,hill1 or ,,ant-,,hillock1 n4 ,a small protuberance of earth1 formed by ants1 for their habitation4-- ,id4 ,it became necessary to substitute simple indicative terms called pronames or pronouns4 ,obscur'd1 where highest woods1 impenetrable ,to light of star or sun1 their umbrage spread4--,milton cor4 ,,rule ,v4--,,the ,,hyphen4 ,evil-thinking2 a noun1 compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle thinking2 singular number2 c4--,churchill cor4 ,evil-speaking2 a noun1 compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle speaking4--,id4 ,i am a tall1 broad-shouldered1 impudent1 black fellow4--,spect1 or ,joh4 cor4 ,ingratitude6 thou marble-hearted fiend4--,shak4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,a popular license is indeed the many-headed tyranny4--,sydney or ,joh4 cor4 ,he from the many-peopled city flies4--,sandys or ,joh4 cor4 ,he many-languaged nations has surveyed4--,pope or ,joh4 cor4 ,the horse-cucumber is the large green cucumber1 and the best for the table4--,mort4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,the bird of night did sit1 even at noon-day1 upon the market-place4--,shak4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,these make a general gaol-delivery of souls not for punishment4--,south or ,joh4 cor4 ,thy air1 thou other gold-bound brow1 is like the first4--,shak4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,his person was deformed to the highest degree2 flat-nosed and blobber-lipped4--,l',estr4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,he that defraudeth the labourer of his hire1 is a blood-shedder4--,ecclus41 xxxiv1 #bb4 ,bloody-minded1 adj41 from bloody and mind2 ,cruel1 inclined to bloodshed4--,johnson cor4 ,blunt-witted lord1 ignoble in demeanour4--,shak4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,a young fellow1 with a bob-wig and a black silken bag tied to it4--,spect4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,i have seen enough to confute all the bold-faced atheists of this age4--,bramhall or ,joh4 cor4 ,before milk-white1 now purple with love's wound4--,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,bolt4 ,for what else is a red-hot iron than fire8 and what else is a burning coal than red-hot wood8--,newton or ,joh4 cor4 ,poll-evil is a large swelling1 inflammation1 or imposthume1 in the horse's poll1 or nape of the neck1 just between the ears4--,far4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,quick-witted1 brazen-fac'd1 with fluent tongues1 ,patient of labours1 and dissembling wrongs4--,dryden cor4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,no ,,hyphen4 ,from his fond parent's eye a teardrop fell4--,snelling cor4 ,how great1 poor jackdaw1 would thy sufferings be6--,id4 ,placed1 like a scarecrow in a field of corn4--,id4 ,soup for the almshouse at a cent a quart4--,id4 ,up into the watchtower get1 and see all things despoiled of fallacies4--,donne or ,joh4 cor4 ,in the daytime she ,fame sitteth in a watchtower1 and flieth most by night4--,bacon or ,joh4 cor4 ,the moral is the first business of the poet1 as being the groundwork of his instruction4--,dryd4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,madam's own hand the mousetrap baited4--,prior or ,joh4 cor4 ,by the sinking of the airshaft1 the air has liberty to circulate4--,ray or ,joh4 cor4 ,the multiform and amazing operations of the airpump and the loadstone4--,watts or ,joh4 cor4 ,many of the firearms are named from animals4--,johnson cor4 ,you might have trussed him and all his apparel into an eelskin--,shak4 or ,joh4 cor4 ,they may serve as landmarks1 to show what lies in the direct way of truth4--,locke or ,joh4 cor4 ,a packhorse is driven constantly in a narrow lane and dirty road4--,locke or ,joh4 cor4 ,a millhorse1 still bound to go in one circle4--,sidney or ,joh4 cor4 ,of singing birds1 they have linnets1 goldfinches1 ruddocks1 ,canary birds1 blackbirds1 thrushes1 and divers others4--,carew or ,joh4 cor4 ,cartridge1 a case of paper or parchment filled with gunpowder2 or1 rather1 containing the entire charge of a gun4--,joh4 cor4 ,deep night1 dark night1 the silent of the night1 ,the time of night when ,troy was set on fire1 ,the time when screechowls cry1 and bandogs howl4 ,,shakspeare3 in ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,screechowl4 ,,promiscuous ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,figure ,,of ,,words4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,they that live in glass houses1 should not throw stones4--,adage4 ,if a man profess ,christianity in any manner or form whatsoever4--,watts cor4 ,for ,cassius is aweary of the world4 ,better3 ,for ,cassius is weary of the world4--,shak4 cor4 ,by the coming-together of more1 the chains were fastened on4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,unto the carrying-away of ,jerusalem captive in the fifth month4--,bible cor4 ,and the goings-forth of the border shall be to ,zedad4--,id4 ,and the goings-out of it shall be at ,hazar ,enan4--,see ,walker's ,key ,for the taking-place of effects1 in a certain particular series4--,west cor4 ,the letting-go of which was the occasion of all that corruption4--,owen cor4 ,a falling-off at the end1 is always injurious4--,jamieson cor4 ,as all holdings-forth were courteously supposed to be trains of reasoning4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,whose goings-forth have been from of old1 from everlasting4--,bible cor4 ,sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive4--,bradley cor4 ,it is very plain1 that ,i consider man as visited anew4--,barclay cor4 ,nor do ,i anywhere say1 as he falsely insinuates4--,id4 ,everywhere1 anywhere1 elsewhere1 somewhere1 nowhere--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aae4 ,the world hurries off apace1 and time is like a rapid river4--,collier cor4 ,but to new-model the paradoxes of ancient skepticism4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,the southeast winds from the ocean invariably produce rain4--,webster cor4 ,northwest winds from the highlands produce cold clear weather4--,id4 ,the greatest part of such tables would be of little use to ,englishmen4--,priestley cor4 ,the ground-floor of the east wing of ,mulberry-street meeting-house was filled4--,the ,friend cor4 ,prince ,rupert's ,drop4 ,this singular production is made at the glasshouses4--,barnes cor4 ,the lights and shades1 whose well-accorded strife ,gives all the strength and colour of our life4--,pope4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,in the twenty-seventh year of ,asa king of ,judah1 did ,zimri reign seven days in ,tirzah4--,bible cor4 ,in the thirty-first year of ,asa king of ,judah1 began ,omri to reign over ,israel4--,id4 ,he cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a rule-of-three sum4 ,better--a sum in the rule of three4--,qr4 ,rev4 cor4 ,the best cod are those known under the name of ,isle-of-,shoals dun-fish4--,balbi cor4 ,the soldiers1 with downcast eyes1 seemed to beg for mercy4--,goldsmith cor4 ,his head was covered with a coarse1 wornout piece of cloth4--,id4 ,though they had lately received a reinforcement of a thousand heavy-armed ,spartans4--,id4 ,but he laid them by unopened2 and1 with a smile1 said1 ',business to-morrow4'--,id4 ,chester ,monthly ,meeting is held at ,moorestown1 on the ,thirdday following the second ,secondday--,the ,friend cor4 ,eggharbour ,monthly ,meeting is held on the first ,secondday4--,id4 ,little-,eggharbour ,monthly ,meeting is held at ,tuckerton on the second ,fifthday in each month4--,id4 ,at three o'clock1 on ,firstday morning1 the #bdth of ,eleventhmonth1 #ahcd1 c4--,id4 ,in less than one fourth part of the time usually devoted4--,kirkham cor4 ,the pupil will not have occasion to use it one tenth part so much4--,id4 ,the painter dips his paintbrush in paint1 to paint the carriage4--,id4 ,in an ancient ,english version of the ,new ,testament4--,id4 ,the little boy was bareheaded4--,red ,book cor4 ,the man1 being a little short-sighted1 did not immediately know him4--,id4 ,picture-frames are gilt with gold4--,id4 ,the parkkeeper killed one of the deer4--,id4 ,the fox was killed near the brickkiln4--,id4 ,here comes ,esther1 with her milkpail--,id4 ,the cabinet-maker would not tell us4--,id4 ,a fine thorn-hedge extended along the edge of the hill4--,id4 ,if their private interests should be everso little affected4--,id4 ,unios are fresh-water shells1 vulgarly called fresh-water clams4--,id4 ,did not each poet mourn his luckless doom1 ,jostled by pedants out of elbow-room4--,lloyd cor4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,the captive hovers a while upon the sad remains4--,johnson cor4 ,constantia saw that the hand-writing agreed with the contents of the letter4--,id4 ,they have put me in a silk night-gown1 and a gaudy foolscap--,id4 ,have you no more manners than to rail at ,hocus1 that has saved that clod-pated1 numb-skulled ninny-hammer of yours from ruin1 and all his family8--,id4 ,a noble1 7that is1 six shillings and eight pence17 is paid1 and usually hath been paid4--,id4 ,the king of birds1 thick-feathered1 and with full-summed wings1 fastened his talons east and west4--,id4 ,to-morrow4 ,this--supposing morrow to mean morning1 as it did originally--is an idiom of the same kind as to-night1 to-day4--,johnson cor4 ,to-day goes away1 and to-morrow comes4--,id4 ,young children1 who are tried in ,gocarts1 to keep their steps from sliding4--,id4 ,which1 followed well1 would demonstrate them but goers-backward--,id4 ,heaven's golden-winged herald late he saw1 to a poor ,galilean virgin sent4--,id4 ,my pent-house eyebrows and my shaggy beard offend your sight4--,id4 ,the hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good horseflesh4--,id4 ,a broad-brimmed hat ensconsed each careful head4--,snelling cor4 ,with harsh vibrations of his three-stringed lute4--,id4 ,they magnify a hundred-fold an author's merit4--,id4 ,i'll nail them fast to some oft-opened door4--,id4 ,glossed over only with saintlike show1 still thou art bound to vice4--,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,saintlike4 ,take of aqua-fortis two ounces1 of quicksilver two drachms4--,id4 cor4 ,this rainbow never appears but when it rains in the sunshine4--,id4 cor4 ,not but there are1 who merit other palms2 ,hopkins and ,sternhold glad the heart with psalms4--,pope4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,of ,,spelling4 ,,corrections ,,of ,,false ,,spelling4 ,,rule ,i4--,,final ,f1 ,l1 ,,or ,s4 ,he will observe the moral law1 in his conduct4--,webster corrected4 ,a cliff is a steep bank1 or a precipitous rock4--,walker cor4 ,a needy man's budget is full of schemes4--,maxim cor4 ,few large publications1 in this country1 will pay a printer4--,n4 ,webster cor4 ,i shall1 with cheerfulness1 resign my other papers to oblivion4--,id4 ,the proposition was suspended till the next session of the legislature4--,id4 ,tenants for life will make the most of lands for themselves4--,id4 ,while every thing is left to lazy negroes1 a state will never be well cultivated4--,id4 ,the heirs of the original proprietors still hold the soil4--,id4 ,say my annual profit on money loaned shall be six per cent4--,id4 ,no man would submit to the drudgery of business1 if he could make money as fast by lying still4--,id4 ,a man may as well feed himself with a bodkin1 as with a knife of the present fashion4--,id4 ,the clothes will be ill washed1 the food will be badly cooked2 you will be ashamed of your wife1 if she is not ashamed of herself4--,id4 ,he will submit to the laws of the state while he is a member of it4--,id4 ,but will our sage writers on law forever think by tradition8--,id4 ,some still retain a sovereign power in their territories4--,id4 ,they sell images1 prayers1 the sound of bells1 remission of sins1 c4--,perkins cor4 ,and the law had sacrifices offered every day1 for the sins of all the people4--,id4 ,then it may please the ,lord1 they shall find it to be a restorative4--,id4 ,perdition is repentance put off till a future day4--,maxim cor4 ,the angels of ,god1 who will good and cannot will evil1 have nevertheless perfect liberty of will4--,perkins cor4 ,secondly1 this doctrine cuts off the excuse of all sin4--,id4 ,knell1 the sound of a bell rung at a funeral4--,dict4 cor4 ,if gold with dross or grain with chaff you find1 ,select--and leave the chaff and dross behind4--,g4 ,brown4 ,,rule ,,ii4--,,other ,,finals4 ,the mob hath many heads1 but no brains4--,maxim cor4 ,clam2 to clog with any glutinous or viscous matter4--,see ,webster's ,dict4 ,whur2 to pronounce the letter r with too much force4 ,flip2 a mixed liquor1 consisting of beer and spirit sweetened4 ,glyn2 a hollow between two mountains1 a glen4--,see ,walker's ,dict4 ,lam1 or belam2 to beat soundly with a cudgel or bludgeon4--,see ,red ,book4 ,bun2 a small cake1 a simnel1 a kind of sweet bread4--,see ,webster's ,dict4 ,brunet1 or ,brunette2 a woman with a brown complexion4--,see ib41 and ,scott's ,dict4 ,wadset2 an ancient tenure or lease of land in the ,highlands of ,scotland4--,webster cor4 ,to dod sheep1 is to cut the wool away about their tails4--,id4 ,in aliquem arietare4 ,cic4 ,to run full butt at one4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,neither your policy nor your temper would permit you to kill me4--,phil4 ,mu4 cor4 ,and admit none but his own offspring to fulfill them4--,id4 ,the sum of all this dispute is1 that some make them ,participles4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,as the whistling winds1 the buzz and hum of insects1 the hiss of serpents1 the crash of falling timber4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cca4 ,van2 to winnow1 or a fan for winnowing4--,see ,scott4 ,creatures that buzz1 are very commonly such as will sting4--,g4 ,brown4 ,beg1 buy1 or borrow2 but beware how yon find4--,id4 ,it is better to have a house to let1 than a house to get4 ,let not your tongue cut your throat4--,precept cor4 ,a little wit will save a fortunate man4--,adage cor4 ,there is many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip4--,id4 ,mothers' darlings make but milksop heroes4--,id4 ,one eye-witness is worth ten hearsays4--,id4 ,the judge shall job1 the bishop bite the town1 ,and mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown4 ,,pope3 in ,johnson's ,dict41 w4 ,job4 ,,rule ,,iii4--,,doubling4 ,friz1 to curl2 frizzed1 curled2 frizzing1 curling4--,webster cor4 ,the commercial interests served to foster the principles of ,whiggism4--,payne cor4 ,their extreme indolence shunned every species of labour4--,robertson cor4 ,in poverty and strippedness1 they attend their little meetings4--,the ,friend cor4 ,in guiding and controlling the power you have thus obtained4--,abbott cor4 ,i began1 ,thou begannest or beganst1 ,he began1 c4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,why does began change its ending2 as1 ,i began1 ,thou begannest or beganst8--,id4 ,truth and conscience cannot be controlled by any methods of coercion4--,hints cor4 ,dr4 ,webster nodded1 when he wrote knit1 knitter1 and knitting-needle1 without doubling the t4--,g4 ,brown4 ,a wag should have wit enough to know when other wags are quizzing him4 ,bonny2 handsome1 beautiful1 merry4--,walker cor4 ,coquettish2 practising coquetry2 after the manner of a jilt4--,see ,worcester4 ,pottage2 a species of food made of meat and vegetables boiled to softness in water4--,see ,johnson's ,dict4 ,pottager2 7from pottage27 a porringer1 a small vessel for children's food4 ,compromit1 compromitted1 compromitting2 manumit1 manumitted1 manumitting4--,webster cor4 ,inferrible2 that may be inferred or deduced from premises4--,walker4 ,acids are either solid1 liquid1 or gasseous4--,gregory cor4 ,the spark will pass through the interrupted space between the two wires1 and explode the gasses4--,id4 ,do we sound gasses and gasseous like cases and caseous8 ,no3 they are more like glasses and osseous4--,g4 ,brown4 ,i shall not need here to mention ,swimming1 when he is of an age able to learn4--,locke cor4 ,why do lexicographers spell thinnish and mannish with two ,ens1 and dimmish and rammish with one ,em1 each8--,g4 ,brown4 ,gas forms the plural regularly1 gasses4--,peirce cor4 ,singular1 gas2 ,plural1 gasses4--,clark cor4 ,these are contractions from shedded1 bursted4--,hiley cor4 ,the ,present ,tense denotes what is occurring at the present time4--,day cor4 ,the verb ending in eth is of the solemn or antiquated style2 as1 ,he loveth1 ,he walketh1 ,he runneth4--,davis cor4 ,thro' ,freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings1 ,degrading nobles and controlling kings4--,johnson4 ,,rule ,,iv--,,no ,,doubling4 ,a bigoted and tyrannical clergy will be feared4--,see ,johnson1 ,walker1 c4 ,jacob worshiped his ,creator1 leaning on the top of his staff4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #afe4 ,for it is all marvellously destitute of interest4--,see ,johnson1 ,walker1 and ,worcester4 ,as1 box1 boxes2 church1 churches2 lash1 lashes2 kiss1 kisses2 rebus1 rebuses4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #dj4 ,gossiping and lying go hand in hand4--,see ,webster's ,dict41 and ,worcester's1 w4 ,gossiping4 ,the substance of the ,criticisms on the ,diversions of ,purley was1 with singular industry1 gossiped by the present precious ,secretary at of war1 in ,payne the bookseller's shop4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ahg4 ,worship makes worshiped1 worshiper1 worshiping2 gossip1 gossiped1 gossiper1 gossiping2 fillip1 filliped1 filliper1 filliping4--,web4 ,dict4 ,i became as fidgety as a fly in a milk-jug4--,see ib4 ,that enormous error seems to be riveted in popular opinion4 ,whose mind is not biased by personal attachments to a sovereign4--,see ib4 ,laws against usury originated in a bigoted prejudice against the ,jews4--,webster cor4 ,the most critical period of life is usually between thirteen and seventeen4--,id4 ,generalissimo1 the chief commander of an army or military force4--,every ,dict4 ,tranquilize1 to quiet1 to make calm and peaceful4--,webster's ,dict4 ,pommelled1 beaten1 bruised2 having pommels1 as a sword-hilt4--,webster et al4 cor4 ,from what a height does a jeweller look down upon his shoemaker6--,red ,book cor4 ,you will have a verbal account from my friend and fellow traveller4--,id4 ,i observe that you have written the word counselled with one l only4--,ib4 ,they were offended at such as combated these notions4--,robertson cor4 ,from libel1 come libelled1 libeller1 libelling1 libellous2 from grovel1 grovelled1 groveller1 grovelling2 from gravel1 gravelled1 and gravelling4--,webster cor4 ,woolliness1 the state of being woolly4--,worcester's ,dict4 ,yet he has spelled chapelling1 bordeller1 medalist1 metaline1 metalist1 metalize1 clavellated1 etc1 with ll1 contrary to his rule4--,webster cor4 ,again1 he has spelled cancellation and snivelly with single l1 and cupellation1 pannellation wittolly1 with ll4--,id4 ,oily1 fatty1 greasy1 containing oil1 glib4--,walker cor4 ,medalist1 one curious in medals2 ,metalist1 one skilled in metals4--,walker's ,rhym4 ,dict4 ,he is benefited4--,webster4 ,they travelled for pleasure4--,clark cor4 ,without you1 what were man8 ,a grovelling herd1 ,in darkness1 wretchedness1 and want enchain'd4--,beattle cor4 ,,rule ,v4--,,final ,,ck4 ,he hopes1 therefore1 to be pardoned by the critic4--,kirkham corrected4 ,the leading object of every public speaker should be1 to persuade4--,id4 ,may not four feet be as poetic as five2 or fifteen feet as poetic as fifty8--,id4 ,avoid all theatrical trick and mimicry1 and especially all scholastic stiffness4--,id4 ,no one thinks of becoming skilled in dancing1 or in music1 or in mathematics1 or in logic1 without long and close application to the subject4--,id4 ,caspar's sense of feeling1 and susceptibility of metallic and magnetic excitement1 were also very extraordinary4--,id4 ,authorship has become a mania1 or1 perhaps ,i should say1 an epidemic4--,id4 ,what can prevent this republic from soon raising a literary standard8--,id4 ,courteous reader1 you may think me garrulous upon topics quite foreign to the subject before me4--,id4 ,of the ,tonic1 ,subtonic1 and ,atonic elements4--,id4 ,the subtonic elements are inferior to the tonics1 in all the emphatic and elegant purposes of speech4--,id4 ,the nine atonics and the three abrupt subtonics cause an interruption to the continuity of the syllabic impulse4 #ebf--;,id4 ,on scientific principles1 conjunctions and prepositions are not one and the same part of speech4--,id4 ,that some inferior animals should be able to mimick human articulation1 will not seem wonderful4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,when young1 you led a life monastic1 ,and wore a vest ecclesiastic2 ,now1 in your age1 you grow fantastic4--,denham's ,poems1 p4 #bce4 ,,rule ,,vi4--,,retaining4 ,fearlessness2 exemption from fear1 intrepidity4--,johnson cor4 ,dreadlessness2 fearlessness1 intrepidity1 undauntedness4--,id4 ,regardlessly1 without heed2 ,regardlessness1 heedlessness4--,id4 ,blamelessly1 innocently2 ,blamelessness1 innocence4--,id4 ,that is better than to be flattered into pride and carelessness4--,id4 ,good fortunes began to breed a proud recklessness in them4--,id4 ,see whether he lazily and listlessly dreams away his time4--,id4 ,it maybe1 the palate of the soul is indisposed by listlessness or sorrow4--,id4 ,pitilessly1 without mercy2 ,pitilessness1 unmercifulness4--,id4 ,what say you to such as these8 abominable1 accordable1 agreeable1 etc4-- ,tooke cor4 ,artlessly2 naturally1 sincerely1 without craft4--,johnson cor4 ,a chillness1 or shivering of the body1 generally precedes a fever4--,see ,webster4 ,smallness2 littleness1 minuteness1 weakness4--,walker's ,dict41 et al4 ,galless1 adj4 ,free from gall or bitterness4--,webster cor4 ,tallness2 height of stature1 upright length with comparative slenderness4--,webster's ,dict4 ,willful2 stubborn1 contumacious1 perverse1 inflexible4--,see ib4 ,he guided them by the skillfulness of his hands4--,see ib4 ,the earth is the ,lord's1 and the fullness thereof4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,ps4 xxiv1 #a4 ,what is now1 is but an amassment of imaginary conceptions4--,glanville cor4 ,embarrassment2 perplexity1 entanglement4--,walker4 ,the second is slothfulness1 whereby they are performed slackly and carelessly4-- ,perkins cor4 ,installment2 induction into office1 part of a large sum of money1 to be paid at a particular time4--,see ,webster's ,dict4 ,inthrallment2 servitude1 slavery1 bondage4--,ib4 ,i1 who at some times spend1 at others spare1 ,divided between carelessness and care4--,pope cor4 ,,rule ,,vii4--,,retaining4 ,shall1 on the contrary1 in the first person1 simply foretells4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #da2 ,comly's1 #ch2 ,cooper's1 #ea2 ,lennie's1 #bf4 ,there are a few compound irregular verbs1 as befall1 bespeak1 c4--,ash cor4 ,that we might frequently recall it to our memory4--,calvin cor4 ,the angels exercise a constant solicitude that no evil befall us4--,id4 ,inthrall2 to enslave1 to shackle1 to reduce to servitude4--,johnson4 ,he makes resolutions1 and fulfills them by new ones4--,see ,webster4 ,to enroll my humble name upon the list of authors on ,elocution4--,see ,webster4 ,forestall2 to anticipate1 to take up beforehand4--,johnson4 ,miscall2 to call wrong1 to name improperly4--,webster4 ,bethrall2 to enslave1 to reduce to bondage4--,id4 ,befall2 to happen to1 to come to pass4--,walkers ,dict4 ,unroll2 to open what is rolled or convolved4--,webster's ,dict4 ,counterroll2 to keep copies of accounts to prevent frauds4--,see ib4 ,as ,sisyphus uprolls a rock1 which constantly overpowers him at the summit4--,g4 ,brown4 ,unwell2 not well1 indisposed1 not in good health4--,webster4 ,undersell2 to defeat by selling for less1 to sell cheaper than an other4--,johnson4 ,inwall2 to enclose or fortify with a wall4--,id4 ,twibill2 an instrument with two bills1 or with a point and a blade2 a pickaxe1 a mattock1 a halberd1 a battleaxe4--,dict4 cor4 ,what you miscall their folly1 is their care4--,dryden cor4 ,my heart will sigh when ,i miscall it so4--,shak4 cor4 ,but if the arrangement recalls one set of ideas more readily than an other4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ccd4 ',tis done2 and since 'tis done1 'tis past recall ,and since 'tis past recall1 must be forgotten4--,dryden cor4 ,,rule ,,viii4--,,final ,,ll4 ,the righteous is taken away from the evil to come4--,isaiah1 lvii1 #a4 ,patrol2 to go the rounds in a camp or garrison1 to march about and observe what passes4--,see ,joh4 ,dic4 ,marshal2 the chief officer of arms1 one who regulates rank and order4--,see ib4 ,weevil2 a destructive grub that gets among corn4--,see ib4 ,it much excels all other studies and arts4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,it is essential to all magnitudes1 to be in one place4--,perkins cor4 ,by nature ,i was thy vassal1 but ,christ hath redeemed me4--,id4 ,some being in want1 pray for temporal blessings4--,id4 ,and this the ,lord doth1 either in temporal or in spiritual benefits4--,id4 ,he makes an idol of them1 by setting his heart on them4 ,this trial by desertion serveth for two purposes4--,id4 ,moreover1 this destruction is both perpetual and terrible4--,id4 ,giving to several men several gifts1 according to his good pleasure4 ,until2 to some time1 place1 or degree1 mentioned4--,see ,dict4 ,annul2 to make void1 to nullify1 to abrogate1 to abolish4--,see ,dict4 ,nitric acid combined with argil1 forms the nitrate of argil4--,gregory cor4 ,let modest ,foster1 if he will1 excel ,ten metropolitans in preaching well4--,pope cor4 ,,rule ,,ix4--,,final ,e4 ,adjectives ending in able signify capacity2 as1 comfortable1 tenable1 improvable4--,priestly cor4 ,their mildness and hospitality are ascribable to a general administration of religious ordinances4-- ,webster cor4 ,retrench as much as possible without obscuring the sense4--,j4 ,brown cor4 ,changeable1 subject to change2 ,unchangeable1 immutable4--,walker cor4 ,tamable1 susceptive of taming2 ,untamable1 not to be tamed4--,id4 ,reconcilable1 ,unreconcilable1 ,reconcilableness2 ,irreconcilable1 ,irreconcilably1 ,irreconcilableness4--,johnson cor4 ,we have thought it most advisable to pay him some little attention4-- ,merchant cor4 ,provable1 that may be proved2 ,reprovable1 blamable1 worthy of reprehension4--,walker cor4 ,movable and ,immovable1 ,movably and ,immovably1 ,movables and ,removal1 ,movableness and ,improvableness1 ,unremovable and ,unimprovable1 ,unremovably and ,removable1 ,provable and ,approvable1 ,irreprovable and ,reprovable1 ,unreprovable and ,improvable1 ,unimprovableness and ,improvably4--,johnson cor4 ,and with this cruelty you are chargeable in some measure yourself4--,collier cor4 ,mothers would certainly resent it1 as judging it proceeded from a low opinion of the genius of their sex4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,tithable1 subject to the payment of tithes2 ,salable1 vendible1 fit for sale2 ,losable1 possible to be lost2 ,sizable1 of reasonable bulk or size4--,see ,webster's ,dict4 ,when he began this custom1 he was puting and very tender4--,locke cor4 ,the plate1 coin1 revenues1 and movables1 ,whereof our uncle ,gaunt did stand possess'd4--,shak4 cor4 ,,rule ,x4--,,final ,e4 ,diversely2 in different ways1 differently1 variously4--,see ,walker's ,dict4 ,the event thereof contains a wholesome instruction4--,bacon cor4 ,whence ,scaliger falsely concluded that ,articles were useless4--,brightland cor4 ,the child that we have just seen is wholesomely fed4--,murray cor4 ,indeed1 falsehood and legerdemain sink the character of a prince4--,collier cor4 ,in earnest1 at this rate of management1 thou usest thyself very coarsely4--,id4 ,to give them an arrangement and a diversity1 as agreeable as the nature of the subject would admit4--,murray cor4 ,alger's ,grammar is only a trifling enlargement of ,murray's little ,abridgement4--,g4 ,brown4 ,you ask whether you are to retain or to omit the mute e in the words1 judgement1 abridgement1 acknowledgement1 lodgement1 adjudgement1 and prejudgement4--,red ,book cor4 ,fertileness1 fruitfulness2 fertilely1 fruitfully1 abundantly4--,johnson cor4 ,chastely1 purely1 without contamination2 ,chasteness1 chastity1 purity4--,id4 ,rhymester1 n4 ,one who makes rhymes2 a versifier2 a mean poet4--,walker1 ,chalmers1 ,maunder1 ,worcester4 ,it is therefore a heroical achievement to disposess sic--,,kth this imaginary monarch4--,berkley cor4 ,whereby is not meant the present time1 as he imagines1 but the time past4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,so far is this word from affecting the noun1 in regard to its definiteness1 that its own character of definiteness or indefiniteness1 depends upon the name to which it is prefixed4--,webster cor4 ,satire1 by wholesome lessons1 would reclaim1 ,and heal their vices to secure their fame --,brightland cor4 ,,rule ,,xi4--,,final ,y4 ,solon's the veriest fool in all the play4--,dryden cor4 ,our author prides himself upon his great sliness and shrewdness4--,merchant cor4 ,this tense1 then1 implies also the signification of debeo4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,that may be applied to a subject1 with respect to something accidental4--,id4 ,this latter author accompanies his note with a distinction4--,id4 ,this rule is defective1 and none of the annotators have sufficiently supplied its deficiencies4--,id4 ,though the fancied supplement of ,sanctius1 ,scioppius1 ,vossius1 and ,mariangelus1 may take place4--,ib4 ,yet1 as to the commutableness of these two tenses1 which is denied likewise1 they the foregoing examples are all one 2 i4e41 exactly equivalent--,id4 ,both these tenses may represent a futurity1 implied by the dependence of the clause4--,id4 ,cry1 cries1 crying1 cried1 crier1 decrial2 ,shy1 shier1 shiest1 shily1 shiness2 ,fly1 flies1 flying1 flier1 high-flier2 ,sly1 slier1 sliest1 slily1 sliness2 ,spy1 spies1 spying1 spied1 espial2 ,dry1 drier1 driest1 drily1 driness4--,cobb1 ,webster1 and ,chalmers cor4 ,i would sooner listen to the thrumming of a dandizette at her piano4--,kirkham cor4 ,send her away2 for she crieth after us4--,matt41 v1 #bc4 ,,ivied1 a4 overgrown with ivy4--,cobb's ,dict41 and ,maunders4 ,some drily plain1 without invention's aid1 ,write dull receipts how poems may be made4--,pope cor4 ,,rule ,,xii4--,,final ,y4 ,the gayety of youth should be tempered by the precepts of age4--,murray cor4 ,in the storm of #agjc1 two thousand stacks of chimneys were blown down in and about ,london4--,red ,book cor4 ,and the vexation was not abated by the hackneyed plea of haste4--,id4 ,the fourth sin of our days is lukewarmness4--,perkins cor4 ,god hates the workers of iniquity1 and destroys them that speak lies4--,id4 ,for1 when he lays his hand upon us1 we may not fret4--,id4 ,care not for it2 but if thou mayst be free1 choose it rather4--,id4 ,alexander ,severus saith1 ',he that buyeth1 must sell2 ,i will not suffer buyers and sellers of offices4'--,id4 ,with these measures1 fell in all moneyed men4--,see ,johnson's ,dict4 ,but rattling nonsense in full volleys breaks4--,murray's ,reader1 q4 ,pope4 ,valleys are the intervals betwixt mountains4--,woodward cor4 ,the ,hebrews had fifty-two journeys or marches4--,wood cor4 ,it was not possible to manage or steer the galleys thus fastened together4--,goldsmith cor4 ,turkeys were not known to naturalists till after the discovery of ,america4--,gregory cor4 ,i would not have given it for a wilderness of monkeys4--,,shak43 in ,johnson's ,dict4 ,men worked at embroidery1 especially in abbeys4--,constable cor4 ,by which all purchasers or mortgagees may be secured of all moneys they lay out4--,temple cor4 ,he would fly to the mines or the galleys1 for his recreation4--,south cor4 ,here pulleys make the pond'rous oak ascend4--,gay cor4 ------,you need my help1 and you say1 ,shylock1 we would have moneys4--,shak4 cor4 ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,ize ,,and ,,ise4 ,will any able writer authorize other men to revise his works8--,g4 ,b4 ,it can be made as strong and expressive as this ,latinized ,english4--,murray cor4 ,governed by the success or failure of an enterprise4--,id4 ,who have patronized the cause of justice against powerful oppressors4--,id41 et al4 ,yet custom authorizes this use of it4--,priestley cor4 ,they surprise myself1 999999992 and ,i even think the writers themselves will be surprised4--,id4 ,let the interest rise to any sum which can be obtained4--,webster cor4 ,to determine what interest shall arise on the use of money4--,id4 ,to direct the popular councils and check any rising opposition1--,id4 ,five were appointed to the immediate exercise of the office4--,id4 ,no man ever offers himself as a candidate by advertising4--,id4 ,they are honest and economical1 but indolent1 and destitute of enterprise4--,id4 ,i would1 however1 advise you to be cautious4--,id4 ,we are accountable for what we patronize in others4--,murray cor4 ,after he was baptized1 and was solemnly admitted into the office4--,perkins cor4 ,he will find all1 or most1 of them1 comprised in the exercises4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,a quick and ready habit of methodizing and regulating their thoughts4--,id4 ,to tyrannize over the time and patience of his readers4--,kirkham cor4 ,writers of dull books1 however1 if patronized at all1 are rewarded beyond their deserts4--,id4 ,a little reflection will show the reader the reason for emphasizing the words marked4--,id4 ,the ,english ,chronicle contains an account of a surprising cure4--,red ,book cor4 ,dogmatize1 to assert positively2 ,dogmatizer1 an assertor1 a magisterial teacher4--,chalmers cor4 ,and their inflections might now have been easily analyzed4--,murray cor4 ,authorize1 disauthorize1 and unauthorized2 ,temporize1 contemporize1 and extemporize4--,walker cor4 ,legalize1 equalize1 methodize1 sluggardize1 womanize1 humanize1 patronize1 cantonize1 gluttonize1 epitomize1 anatomize1 phlebotomize1 sanctuarize1 characterize1 synonymize1 recognize1 detonize1 colonize4--,id4 cor4 ,this beauty sweetness always must comprise1 ,which from the subject1 well express'd1 will rise4--,brightland cor4 ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,compounds4 ,the glory of the ,lord shall be thy rear-ward4--,,scott1 ,,alger3 ,isa41 lviii1 #h4 ,a mere van-courier to announce the coming of his master4--,tooke cor4 ,the party-coloured shutter appeared to come close up before him4--,kirkham cor4 ,when the day broke upon this handful of forlorn but dauntless spirits4--,id4 ,if1 upon a plumtree1 peaches and apricots are engrafted1 nobody will say they are the natural growth of the plumtree4'--,berkley cor4 ,the channel between ,newfoundland and ,labrador is called the ,straits of ,belleisle4--,worcester cor4 ,there being nothing that more exposes to the headache3--or1 7perhaps more accurately17 headake4--,locke cor4 ,and1 by a sleep1 to say we end the heartache3--or1 heartake4--,shak4 cor4 ,he that sleeps1 feels not the toothache3--or1 toothake4--,id4 ,that the shoe must fit him1 because it fitted his father and grandfather4--,phil4 ,museum cor4 ,a single word misspelled or misspelt in a letter is sufficient to show that you have received a defective education4--,c4 ,bucke cor4 ,which misstatement the committee attributed to a failure of memory4--,professors cor4 ,then he went through the ,banqueting-,house to the scaffold4--,smollet cor4 ,for the purpose of maintaining a clergyman and a schoolmaster4--,webster cor4 ,they however knew that the lands were claimed by ,pennsylvania4--,id4 ,but if you ask a reason1 they immediately bid farewell to argument4--,barnes cor4 ,whom resist1 steadfast in the faith4--,alger's ,bible4 ,and they continued steadfastly in the apostles' doctrine4--,id4 ,beware lest ye also fall from your own steadfastness4--,ib4 ,galiot1 or ,galliot1 a ,dutch vessel carrying a main-mast and a mizzen-mast4--,webster cor4 ,infinitive1 to overflow2 ,preterit1 overflowed2 ,participle1 overflowed4--,cobbett cor4 ,after they have misspent so much precious time4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,some say1 'two handsful2 some1 'two handfuls2 and others1 'two handful4' ,the second expression is right4--,g4 ,brown4 ,lapful1 as much as the lap can contain4--,webster cor4 ,dareful1 full of defiance4--,walker cor4 ,the road to the blissful regions is as open to the peasant as to the king4--,mur4 cor4 ,misspell is misspelled or misspelt in every dictionary which ,i have seen4--,barnes cor4 ,downfall2 ruin1 calamity1 fall from rank or state4--,johnson cor4 ,the whole legislature likewise acts as a court4--,webster cor4 ,it were better a millstone were hanged about his neck4--,perkins cor4 ,plumtree1 a tree that produces plums2 ,hogplumtree1 a tree4--,webster cor4 ,trissyllables ending in re or le1 accent the first syllable4--,murray cor4 ,it happened on a summer's holyday1 ,that to the greenwood shade he took his way4--,dryden4 ,,rule ,,xv4--,,usage4 ,nor are the moods of the ,greek tongue more uniform4--,murray cor4 ,if we analyze a conjunctive preterit1 the rule will not appear to hold4--,priestley cor4 ,no landholder would have been at that expense4--,id4 ,i went to see the child whilst they were putting on its clothes4--,id4 ,this style is ostentatious1 and does not suit grave writing4--,id4 ,the king of ,israel and ,jehoshaphat the king of ,judah1 sat each on his throne4--#a ,kings1 xxii1 #aj2 #b ,chron41 xviii1 #i4 ,lysias1 speaking of his friends1 promised to his father never to abandon them4--,murray cor4 ,some1 to avoid this error1 run into its opposite4--,churchill cor4 ,hope1 the balm of life soothes us under every misfortune4--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #ahb4 ,any judgement or decree might be heard and reversed by the legislature4--,n4 ,webster cor4 ,a pathetic harangue will screen from punishment any knave4--,id4 ,for the same reason the women would be improper judges4--,id4 ,every person is indulged in worshiping as he pleases4--,id4 ,most or all teachers are excluded from genteel company4--,id4 ,the ,christian religion1 in its purity1 is the best institution on earth4--,id4 ,neither clergymen nor human laws have the least authority over the conscience4--,id4 ,a guild is a society1 fraternity1 or corporation4--,barnes cor4 ,phillis was not able to untie the knot1 and so she cut it4--,id4 ,an acre of land is the quantity of one hundred and sixty perches4--,id4 ,ochre is a fossil earth combined with the oxyd of some metal4--,id4 ,genii1 when denoting arial spirits2 geniuses1 when signifying persons of genius4--,murray cor42 also ,frost2 also ,nutting4 ,acrisius1 king of ,argos1 had a beautiful daughter1 whose name was ,dane4--,classic ,tales cor4 ,pheton was the son of ,apollo and ,clymene4--,id4--,but1 after all1 ,i may not have reached the intended goal4--,buchanan cor4 ',pittacus was offered a large sum4' ,better3 ',to ,pittacus was offered a large sum4'--,kirkham cor4 ,king ,micipsa charged his sons to respect the senate and people of ,rome4--,id4 ,for example3 ',galileo greatly improved the telescope4'--,id4 ,cathmor's warriors sleep in death4--,macpherson's ,ossian4 ,for parsing will enable you to detect and correct errors in composition4--,kirkham cor4 ,o'er barren mountains1 o'er the flow'ry plain1 ,extends thy uncontrolled and boundless reign4--,dryden cor4 ,,promiscuous ,,corrections ,,of ,,false ,,spelling4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,a bad author deserves better usage than a bad critic4--,pope 7or ,johnson7 cor4 ,produce a single passage1 superior to the speech of ,logan1 a ,mingo chief1 to ,lord ,dunmore1 governor of this state4--,jefferson's ,notes1 p4 #id4 ,we have none synonymous to supply its place4--,jamieson cor4 ,there is a probability that the effect will be accelerated4--,id4 ,nay1 a regard to sound has controlled the public choice4--,id4 ,though learnt better1 learned from the uninterrupted use of guttural sounds4--,id4 ,it is by carefully filing off all roughness and all inequalities1 that languages1 like metals1 must be polished4--,id4 ,that ,i have not misspent my time in the service of the community4--,buchanan cor4 ,the leaves of maize are also called blades4--,webster cor4 ,who boast that they know what is past1 and can foretell what is to come4--,robertson cor4 ,its tasteless dullness is interrupted by nothing but its perplexities4--,abbott1 right4 ,sentences constructed with the ,johnsonian fullness and swell4--,jamieson1 right4 ,the privilege of escaping from his prefatory dullness and prolixity4--,kirkham1 right4 ,but1 in poetry1 this characteristic of dullness attains its full growth4--,id4 corrected4 ,the leading characteristic consists in an increase of the force and fullness4--,id cor4 ,the character of this opening fullness and feebler vanish4--,id4 cor4 ,who1 in the fullness of unequalled power1 would not believe himself the favourite of ,heaven8--,id4 right4 ,they mar one an other1 and distract him4--,philol4 ,mus4 cor4 ,let a deaf worshiper of antiquity and an ,english prosodist settle this4--,rush cor4 ,this ,philippic gave rise to my satirical reply in self-defence4--,merchant cor4 ,we here saw no innuendoes1 no new sophistry1 no falsehoods4--,id4 ,a witty and humorous vein has often produced enemies4--,murray cor4 ,cry hollo6 to thy tongue1 ,i pray thee3#ebg it curvets unseasonably4--,shak4 cor4 ,i said1 in my sliest manner1 ',your health1 sir4'--,blackwood cor4 ,and attorneys also travel the circuit in pursuit of business4--,barnes cor4 ,some whole counties in ,virginia would hardly sell for the value of the debts due from the inhabitants4--,webster cor4 ,they were called the ,court of ,assistants1 and exercised all powers1 legislative and judicial4--,id4 ,arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of liquors4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #bie4 ,most of the inflections may be analyzed in a way somewhat similar4--,murray cor4 ,to epithets allots emphatic state1 ,while principals1 ungrac'd1 like lackeys wait4 --,t4 ,o4 ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cbf4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,hence less is a privative suffix1 denoting destitution2 as in fatherless1 faithless1 penniless4--,webster cor4 ,bay2 red1 or reddish1 inclining to a chestnut colour4--,id4 ,to mimick1 to imitate or ape for sport2 a mimic1 one who imitates or mimicks4--,id4 ,counterroll1 a counterpart or copy of the rolls2 ,counterrollment1 a counter account4--,id4 ,millennium1 from mille and annus1 the thousand years during which ,satan shall be bound4--,see ,johnson's ,dict4 ,millennial1 like septennial1 decennial1 c41 pertaining to the millennium1 or to a thousand years4--,see ,worcester's ,dict4 ,thralldom2 slavery1 bondage1 a state of servitude4--,webster's ,dict4 ,brier1 a prickly bush2 ,briery1 rough1 prickly1 full of briers2 ,sweetbrier1 a fragrant shrub4--,see ,ainsworth's ,dict41 ,scott's1 ,gobb's1 and others4 ,will1 in the second and third persons1 barely foretells4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,and therefore there is no word false1 but what is distinguished by ,italics4--,id4 ,what should be repeated1 is left to their discretion4--,id4 ,because they are abstracted or separated from material substances4--,id4 ,all motion is in time1 and therefore1 wherever it exists1 implies time as its concomitant4-- ,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #ie4 ,and illiterate grown persons are guilty of blamable spelling4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,they will always be ignorant1 and of rough1 uncivil manners4--,webster cor4 ,this fact will hardly be believed in the northern states4--,id4 ,the province1 however1 was harassed with disputes4--,id4 ,so little concern has the legislature for the interest of learning4--,id4 ,the gentlemen will not admit that a schoolmaster can be a gentleman4--,id4 ,such absurd quid-pro-quoes cannot be too strenuously avoided4--,churchill cor4 ,when we say of a man1 ',he looks slily2' we signify1 that he takes a sly glance or peep at something4--,id4 ,peep2 to look through a crevice2 to look narrowly1 closely1 or slily--,webster cor4 ,hence the confession has become a hackneyed proverb4--,wayland cor4 ,not to mention the more ornamental parts of gilding1 varnish1 c4--,tooke cor4 ,after this system of self-interest had been riveted4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,prejudice might have prevented the cordial approbation of a bigoted ,jew4--,dr4 ,scott cor4 ,all twinkling with the dewdrop sheen1 ,the brier-rose fell in streamers green4--,sir ,w4 ,scott cor4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,the infinitive mood has1 commonly1 the sign to before it4--,harrison cor4 ,thus1 it is advisable to write singeing1 from the verb to singe1 by way of distinction from singing1 the participle of the verb to sing4--,id4 ,many verbs form both the preterit tense and the preterit participle irregularly4--,id4 ,much must be left to every one's taste and judgement4--,id4 ,verses of different lengths1 intermixed1 form a ,pindaric poem4--,priestley cor4 ,he'll surprise you4--,frost cor4 ,unequalled archer6 why was this concealed8-- ,knowles4 ,so gayly curl the waves before each dashing prow4--,byron cor4 ,when is a diphthong called a proper diphthong8--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,how many ,esses would the word then end with8 ,three2 for it would be goodness's4--,id4 ,qu4 ,what is a triphthong8 ,ans4 ,a triphthong is a coalition of three vowels in one syllable4--,bacon cor4 ,the verb1 noun1 or pronoun1 is referred to the preceding terms taken separately4--,murray4 ,the cubic foot of matter which occupies the centre of the globe4--,cardell cor4 ,the wine imbibes oxygen1 or the acidifying principle1 from the air4--,id4 ,charcoal1 sulphur1 and nitre1 make gunpowder4--,id4 ,it would be readily understood1 that the thing so labelled was a bottle of ,madeira wine4--,id4 ,they went their ways1 one to his farm1 an other to his merchandise4--,matt41 xxii1 #e4 ,a diphthong is the union of two vowels1 both in one syllable4--,russell cor4 ,the professors of the ,mohammedan religion are called ,mussulmans4--,maltby cor4 ,this shows that let is not a mere sign of the imperative mood1 but a real verb4--,id4 ,those preterits and participles which are first mentioned in the list1 seem to be the most eligible4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ajg2 ,fisk's1 #ha2 ,ingersoll's1 #ajc4 ,monosyllables1 for the most part1 are compared by er and est1 and dissyllables1 by more and most4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,this termination1 added to a noun or an adjective1 changes it into a verb3 as1 modern1 to modernize2 a symbol1 to symbolize4-- ,churchill cor4 ,an ,abridgement of ,murray's ,grammar1 with additions from ,webster1 ,ash1 ,tooke1 and others4--,maltby's ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,for the sake of occupying the room more advantageously1 the subject of ,orthography is merely glanced at4--,nutting cor4 ,so contended the accusers of ,galileo4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,murray says1 ,they were travelling post when he met them4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #fi4 ,they fulfill the only purposes for which they were designed4--,peirce cor4--,see ,webster's ,dict4 ,on the fulfillment of the event4--,peirce1 right4 ,fullness consists in expressing every idea4--,id4 ,consistently with fullness and perspicuity4--,peirce cor4 ,the word veriest is a regular adjective2 as1 ',he is the veriest fool on earth4'--,wright cor4 ,the sound will recall the idea of the object4--,hiley cor4 ,formed for great enterprises4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,the most important rules and definitions are printed in large type1 ,italicized4--,hart cor4 ,,hamleted1 a41 accustomed to a hamlet1 countrified4--,webster1 and ,worcester4 ,singular1 spoonful1 cupful1 coachful1 handful2 plural1 spoonfuls1 cupfuls1 coachfuls1 handfuls4--,worcester's ,universal and ,critical ,dictionary4 ,between superlatives and following names1 ,of1 by grammatic right1 a station claims4--,brightland cor4 ,,the ,,key4--,,part ,,ii4--,,etymology4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,the first chapter of ,etymology1 as it exhibits only the distribution of words into the ten ,parts of ,speech1 contains no false grammar for correction4 ,and it may be here observed1 that as mistakes concerning the forms1 classes1 or modifications of words1 are chiefly to be found in sentences1 rather than in any separate exhibition of the terms2 the quotations of this kind1 with which ,i have illustrated the principles of etymology1 are many of them such as might perhaps with more propriety be denominated false syntax4 ,but1 having examples enough at hand to show the ignorance and carelessness of authors in every part of grammar1 ,i have thought it most advisable1 so to distribute them as to leave no part destitute of this most impressive kind of illustration4 ,the examples exhibited as false etymology1 are as distinct from those which are called false syntax1 as the nature of the case will admit4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,articles4 ,,corrections ,,respecting ,a1 ,,an1 ,,and ,,the4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,articles ,,adapted4 ,honour is a useful distinction in life4--,milnes cor4 ,no writer1 therefore1 ought to foment a humour of innovation4--,jamieson cor4 ,conjunctions generally require a situation between the things of which they form a union4--,id4 ,nothing is more easy than to mistake a u for an a4--,tooke cor4 ,from making so ill a use of our innocent expressions4--,penn cor4 ,to grant thee a heavenly and incorruptible crown of glory4--,sewel cor4 ,it in no wise follows1 that such a one was able to predict4--,id4 ,with a harmless patience1 they have borne most heavy oppressions4--,id4 ,my attendance was to make me a happier man4--,spect4 cor4 ,on the wonderful nature of a human mind4--,id4 ,i have got a hussy of a maid1 who is most craftily given to this4--,id4 ,argus is said to have had a hundred eyes1 some of which were always awake4--,stories cor4 ,centiped1 having a hundred feet2 centennial1 consisting of a hundred years4--,town cor4 ,no good man1 he thought1 could be a heretic4--,gilpin cor4 ,as1 a ,christian1 an infidel1 a heathen4--,ash cor4 ,of two or more words1 usually joined by a hyphen4--,blair cor4 ,we may consider the whole space of a hundred years as time present4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ach4 ,in guarding against such a use of meats and drinks4--,ash cor4 ,worship is a homage due from man to his ,creator4--,monitor cor4 ,then a eulogium on the deceased was pronounced4--,grimshaw cor4 ,but for ,adam there was not found a help meet for him4--,bible cor4 ,my days are consumed like smoke1 and my bones are burned as a hearth4--,id4 ,a foreigner and a hired servant shall not eat thereof4--,id4 ,the hill of ,god is as the hill of ,bashan2 a high hill1 as the hill of ,bashan4--,id4 ,but ,i do declare it to have been a holy offering1 and such a one too as was to be once for all4--,penn cor4 ,a hope that does not make ashamed those that have it4--,barclay cor4 ,where there is not a unity1 we may exercise true charity4--,id4 ,tell me1 if in any of these such a union can be found8--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,such holy drops her tresses steeped1 ,though 'twas a hero's eye that weeped4--,sir ,w4 ,scott cor4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,articles ,,inserted4 ,this veil of flesh parts the visible and the invisible world4--,sherlock cor4 ,the copulative and the disjunctive conjunctions operate differently on the verb4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,every combination of a preposition and an article with the noun4--,id4 ,either signifies1 'the one or the other3' neither imports1 'not either2' that is1 'not the one nor the other4'--,id4 ,a noun of multitude may have a pronoun or a verb agreeing with it1 either of the singular number or of the plural4--,bucke cor4 ,the principal copulative conjunctions are1 and1 as1 both1 because1 for1 if1 that1 then1 since4--,id4 ,the two real genders are the masculine and the feminine4--,id4 ,in which a mute and a liquid are represented by the same character1 th4--,gardiner cor4 ,they said1 ,john the ,baptist hath sent us unto thee4--,bible cor4 ,they indeed remember the names of an abundance of places4--,spect4 cor4 ,which created a great dispute between the young and the old men4--,goldsmith cor4 ,then shall be read the ,apostles' or the ,nicene ,creed4--,com4 ,prayer cor4 ,the rules concerning the perfect tenses and the supines of verbs are ,lily's4--,k4 ,henry's ,gr4 cor4 ,it was read by the high and the low1 the learned and the illiterate4--,dr4 ,johnson cor4 ,most commonly1 both the pronoun and the verb are understood4--,buchanan cor4 ,to signify the thick and the slender enunciation of tone4--,knight cor4 ,the difference between a palatial and a guttural aspirate is very small4--,id4 ,leaving it to waver between the figurative and the literal sense4--,jamieson cor4 ,whatever verb will not admit of both an active and a passive signification4--,alex4 ,murray cor4 ,the is often set before adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree4--,id4 and ,kirkham cor4 ,lest any should fear the effect of such a change1 upon the present or the succeeding age of writers4--,fowle cor4 ,in all these measures1 the accents are to be placed on the even syllables2 and every line is1 in general1 the more melodious1 as this rule is the more strictly observed4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,how many numbers do nouns appear to have8 ,two3 the singular and the plural4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,how many persons8 ,three2 the first1 the second1 and the third4--,id4 ,how many cases8 ,three2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,id4 ,ah6 what avails it me1 the flocks to keep1 ,who lost my heart while ,i preserv'd the sheep3--or1 my sheep4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,articles ,,omitted4 ,the negroes are all descendants of ,africans4--,morse cor4 ,sybarite was applied as a term of reproach to a man of dissolute manners4--,id4 ,the original signification of knave was boy4--,webster cor4 ,the meaning of these will be explained1 for greater clearness and precision4--,bucke cor4 ,what sort of noun is man8 ,a noun substantive1 common4--,buchanan cor4 ,is what ever used as three kinds of pronoun8--,kirkham's ,question cor4 ,answer3 ,no2 as a pronoun1 it is either relative or interrogative4--,g4 ,brown4 ,they delighted in having done it1 as well as in the doing of it4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,both parts of this rule are exemplified in the following sentences4--,murray cor4 ,he has taught them to hope for an other and better world4--,knapp cor4 ,it was itself only preparatory to a future1 better1 and perfect revelation4--,keith cor4 ,es then makes an other and distinct syllable4--,brightland cor4 ,the eternal clamours of a selfish and factious people4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,to those whose taste in elocution is but little cultivated4--,kirkham cor4 ,they considered they had but a sort of gourd to rejoice in4--,bennet cor4 ,now there was but one such bough1 in a spacious and shady grove4--,bacon cor4 ,now the absurdity of this latter supposition will go a great way towards making a man easy4--,collier cor4 ,this is true of mathematics1 with which taste has but little to do4--,todd cor4 ,to stand prompter to a pausing yet ready comprehension4--,rush cor4 ,such an obedience as the yoked and tortured negro is compelled to yield to the whip of the overseer4--,chalmers cor4 ,for the gratification of a momentary and unholy desire4--,wayland cor4 ,the body is slenderly put together2 the mind1 a rambling sort of thing4--,collier cor4 ,the only nominative to the verb1 is officer4--,murray cor4 ,and though in general it ought to be admitted1 c4--,blair cor4 ,philosophical writing admits of a polished1 neat1 and elegant style4--,id4 ,but notwithstanding this defect1 ,thomson is a strong and beautiful describer4--,id4 ,so should he be sure to be ransomed1 and many poor men's lives should be saved4--,shak4 cor4 ,who felt the wrong1 or feared it1 took alarm1 ,appealed to law1 and ,justice lent her arm4--,pope cor4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,articles ,,changed4 ,to enable us to avoid too frequent a repetition of the same word4--,bucke cor4 ,the former is commonly acquired in a third part of the time4--,burn cor4 ,sometimes an adjective becomes a substantive2 and1 like other substantives1 it may have an adjective relating to it3 as1 ',the chief good4'--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,an articulate sound is a sound of the human voice1 formed by the organs of speech4--,id4 ,a tense is a distinction of time3 there are six tenses4--,maunder cor4 ,in this case1 an ellipsis of the last article would be improper4--,l4 ,hurray cor4 ,contrast always has the effect to make each of the contrasted objects appear in a stronger light4--,id4 et al4 ,these remarks may serve to show the great importance of a proper use of the articles4--,lowth et al4 cor4 ',archbishop ,tillotson1' says the author of a history of ,england1 'died in this year4'--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,pronouns are used in stead of substantives1 to prevent too frequent a repetition of them4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,,that1 as a relative1 seems to be introduced to prevent too frequent a repetition of ,,who and ,,which4--,id4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun1 to prevent too frequent a repetition of it4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,,that is often used as a relative1 to prevent too frequent a repetition of ,,who and ,,which4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,his knees smote one against the other4--,logan cor4 ,they stand now on one foot1 then on the other4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,the ,lord watch between thee and me1 when we are absent one from the other4--,bible cor4 ,some have enumerated ten parts of speech1 making the participle a distinct part4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,nemesis rides upon a hart because the hart is a most lively creature4--,bacon cor4 ,the transition of the voice from one vowel of the diphthong to the other4--,dr4 ,wilson cor4 ,so difficult it is1 to separate these two things one from the other4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,without a material breach of any rule4--,id4 ,the great source of looseness of style1 in opposition to precision1 is an injudicious use of what are termed synonymous words4--,blair cor42 also ,murray4 ,sometimes one article is improperly used for the other4--,sanborn cor4 ,satire of sense1 alas6 can ,sporus feel8 ,who breaks a butterfly upon the wheel8--,pope cor4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,he hath no delight in the strength of a horse4--,maturin cor4 ,the head of it would be a universal monarch4--,butler cor4 ,here they confound the material and the formal object of faith4--,barclay cor4 ,the ,irish ,celtic and the ,scottish ,celtic are one language2 the ,welsh1 the ,cornish1 and the ,armorican1 are an other4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,in a uniform and perspicuous manner4--,id4 ,,scripture1 n4 ,appropriately1 and by way of distinction1 the books of the ,old and the ,new ,testament2 the ,bible4--,webster cor4 ,in two separate volumes1 entitled1 ',the ,old and ,new ,testaments4'--,wayland cor4 ,the ,scriptures of the ,old and the ,new ,testament1 contain a revelation from ,god4--,id4 ,q has always a u after it2 which1 in words of ,french origin1 is not sounded4--,wilson cor4 ,what should we say of such a one8 that he is regenerate8 ,no4--,hopkins cor4 ,some grammarians subdivide the vowels into simple and compound4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,emphasis has been divided into the weaker and the stronger emphasis4--,id4 ,emphasis has also been divided into the superior and the inferior emphasis4--,id4 ,pronouns must agree with their antecedents1 or the nouns which they represent1 in gender1 number1 and person4--,merchant cor4 ,the adverb where is often used improperly1 for a relative pronoun and a preposition3 as1 ,words where in which the h is not silent4--,murray1 p4 #ca4 ,the termination ish imports diminution1 or a lessening of the quality4--,merchant cor4 ,in this train1 all their verses proceed3 one half of a line always answering to the other4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,to a height of prosperity and glory1 unknown to any former age4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,hwilc1 who1 which1 such as1 such a one1 is declined as follows4--,gwilt cor4 ,when a vowel precedes the y1 s only is required to form the plural2 as1 day1 days4--,bucke cor4 ,he is asked what sort of word each is2 whether a primitive1 a derivative1 or a compound4--,british ,gram4 cor4 ,it is obvious1 that neither the second1 the third1 nor the fourth chapter of ,matthew1 is the first2 consequently1 there are not 'four first chapters4'--,churchill cor4 ,some thought1 which a writer wants the art to introduce in its proper place4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,groves and meadows are the most pleasing in the spring4--,id4 ,the conflict between the carnal and the spiritual mind1 is often long4--,gurney cor4 ,a ,philosophical ,inquiry into the ,origin of our ,ideas of the ,sublime and the ,beautiful--,burke cor4 ,silence1 my muse6 make not these jewels cheap1 ,exposing to the world too large a heap4--,waller cor4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,nouns4 ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,modifications ,,of ,,nouns4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,numbers4 ,all the ablest of the ,jewish rabbies acknowledge it4--,wilson cor4 ,who has thoroughly imbibed the system of one or other of our ,christian rabbies4--,campbell cor4 ,the seeming singularities of reason soon wear off4--,collier cor4 ,the chiefs and arikies1 or priests1 have the power of declaring a place or object taboo4--,balbi cor4 ,among the various tribes of this family1 are the ,pottawatomies1 the ,sauks and ,foxes1 or ,saukies and ,ottogamies4--,id4 ,the ,shawnees1 ,kickapoos1 ,menom'onies1 ,miamies1 and ,delawares1 are of the same region4--,id4 ,the ,mohegans and ,abenaquies belonged also to this family4--,id4 ,one tribe of this family1 the ,winnebagoes1 formerly resided near lake ,michigan4--,id4 ,the other tribes are the ,ioways1 the ,otoes1 the ,missouries1 the ,quapaws4--,id4 ,the great ,mexican family comprises the ,aztecs1 the ,toltecs1 and the ,tarascoes4--,id4 ,the ,mulattoes are born of negro and white parents2 the ,zamboes1 of ,indians and ,negroes4--,id4 ,to have a place among the ,alexanders1 the ,csars1 the ,louises1 or the ,charleses1--the scourges and butchers of their fellow-creatures4--,burgh cor4 ,which was the notion of the ,platonic philosophers and the ,jewish rabbies4--,id4 ,that they should relate to the whole body of virtuosoes4--,cobbeti cor4 ,what thanks have ye8 for sinners also love those that love them4--,bible cor4 ,there are five ranks of nobility2 dukes1 marquises1 earls1 viscounts1 and barons4--,balbi cor4 ,acts which were so well known to the two ,charleses4--,payne cor4 ,courts-martial are held in all parts1 for the trial of the blacks4--,observer cor4 ,it becomes a common noun1 and may have the plural number2 as1 the two ,davids1 the two ,scipios1 the two ,pompeys4--,staniford cor4 ,the food of the rattlesnake is birds1 squirrels1 hares1 rats1 and reptiles4--,balbi cor4 ,and let fowls multiply in the earth4--,bible cor4 ,then we reached the hillside1 where eight buffaloes were grazing4--,martineau cor4 ,,corset1 n4 a bodice for a woman4--,worcester cor4 ,as1 the ,bees1 the ,cees1 the ,double-ues4--,peirce cor4 ,simplicity is the mean between ostentation and rusticity4--,pope cor4 ,you have disguised yourselves like tipstaffs4--,gil ,bias cor4 ,but who1 that has any taste1 can endure the incessant quick returns of the alsoes1 and the likewises1 and the moreovers1 and the howevers1 and the notwithstandings8--,campbell cor4 ,sometimes1 in mutual sly disguise1 ,let ays seem noes1 and noes seem ays4--,gay cor4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,cases4 ,for whose name's sake1 ,i have been made willing4--,penn cor4 ,be governed by your conscience1 and never ask any body's leave to be honest4--,collier cor4 ,to overlook nobody's merit or misbehaviour4-- ,id4 ,and ,hector at last fights his way to the stern of ,ajax's ship4--,coleridge cor4 ,nothing is lazier1 than to keep one's eye upon words without heeding their meaning4--,museum cor4 ,sir ,william ,jones's division of the day4--,id4 ,i need only refer here to ,voss's excellent account of it4--,id4 ,the beginning of ,stesichorus's palinode has been preserved4--,id4 ,though we have ,tibullus's elegies1 there is not a word in them about ,glycera4--,id4 ,that ,horace was at ,thaliarchus's country-house4--,id4 ,that ,sisyphus's foot-tub should have been still in existence4--,id4 ,how everything went on in ,horace's closet1 and ,mecenas's antechamber4--,id4 ,who1 for elegant brevity's sake1 put a participle for a verb4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,the country's liberty being oppressed1 we have no more to hope4--,id4 ,a brief but true account of this people's principles4--,barclay cor4 ,as1 ,the ,church's peace1 or1 ,the peace of the ,church2 ,virgil's neid1 or1 ,the neid of ,virgil4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,as1 ,virgil's neid1 for1 ,the neid of ,virgil2 ,the ,church's peace1 for1 ,the peace of the ,church4--,buchanan cor4 ,which1 with ,hubner's ,compend1 and ,well's ,geographia ,classica1 will be sufficient4--,burgh cor4 ,witness ,homer's speaking horses1 scolding goddesses1 and ,jupiter enchanted with ,venus's girdle4--,id4 ,dr4 ,watts's ,logic may with success be read to them and commented on4--,id4 ,potter's ,greek1 and ,kennet's ,roman ,antiquities1 ,strauchius's and ,helvicus's ,chronology4--,id4 ,,sing4 ,alice's friends1 ,felix's property2 ,,plur4 ,the ,alices' friends1 the ,felixes' property4--,peirce cor4 ,such as ,bacchus's company--at ,bacchus's festivals4--,ainsworih cor4 ,burns's inimitable ,tam o' ,shanter turns entirely upon such a circumstance4--,scott cor4 ,nominative1 men2 ,genitive1 or ,possessive1 men's2 ,objective1 men4--,cutler cor4 ,men's happiness or misery is mostly of their own making4--,locke cor4 ,that your son's clothes be never made strait1 especially about the breast4--,id4 ,children's minds are narrow and weak4--,id4 ,i would not have little children much tormented about punctilios1 or niceties of breeding4--,id4 ,to fill his head with suitable ideas4--,id4 ,the ,burgusdisciuses and the ,scheiblers did not swarm in those days1 as they do now4--,id4 ,to see the various ways of dressing--a calf's head6--,shenstone cor4 ,he puts it on1 and for decorum's sake ,can wear it e'en as gracefully as she4--,cowper cor4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,simon the wizard was of this religion too--,bunyan cor4 ,,mammodies1 n4 ,coarse1 plain1 ,india muslins4--,webster cor4 ,go on from single persons to families1 that of the ,pompeys for instance4--,collier cor4 ,by which the ancients were not able to account for phenomena4--,bailey cor4 ,after this ,i married a woman who had lived at ,crete1 but a ,jewess by birth4--,josephus cor4 ,the very heathens are inexcusable for not worshiping him4--,todd cor4 ,such poems as ,camoens's ,lusiad1 ,voltaire's ,henrinde1 c4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,my learned correspondent writes a word in defence of large scarfs4--,sped4 cor4 ,the forerunners of an apoplexy are dullness1 vertigoes1 tremblings4--,arbuthnot cor4 ,vertigo1 in ,latin1 changes the o into ines1 making the plural vertigines3 not so1 in ,english4--,churchill cor4 ,noctambulo1 in ,latin1 changes the o into ones1 making the plural noctambulones3 not so in ,english4--,id4 ,what shall we say of noctambuloes8 ,it is the regular ,english plural4--,g4 ,brown4 ,in the curious fretwork of rocks and grottoes4--,blair cor4 ,wharf makes the plural wharfs1 according to the best usage4--,g4 ,brown4 ,a few cents' worth of macaroni supplies all their wants4--,balbi cor4 ,c sounds hard1 like k1 at the end of a word or syllable4--,blair cor4 ,by which the virtuosoes try ,the magnitude of every lie4--,butler cor4 ,quartoes1 octavoes1 shape the lessening pyre4--,pope cor4 ,perching within square royal roofs--,sidney cor4 ,similes should1 even in poetry1 be used with moderation4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,similes should never be taken from low or mean objects4--,id4 ,it were certainly better to say1 ',the ,house of ,lords1' than1 ',the ,lords' ,house4'--,murray cor4 ,read your answers4 ,units' figure8 ',five4' ,tens'8 ',six4' ,hundreds'8 ',seven4'--,abbott cor4 ,alexander conquered ,darius's army4--,kirkham cor4 ,three days' time was requisite1 to prepare matters4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,so we say1 that ,cicero's style and ,sallust's were not one2 nor ,csar's and ,livy's2 nor ,homer's and ,hesiod's2 nor ,herodotus's and ,thucydides's2 nor ,euripides's and ,aristophanes's2 nor ,erasmus's and ,budus's4--,puttenham cor4 ,,lex 7i4e41 legs1 a law17 is no other than our ancestors' past participle loeg1 laid down--,tooke cor4 ,achaia's sons at ,ilium slain for the ,atridoe's sake4--,cowper cor4 ,the corpses of her senate manure the fields of ,thessaly4--,addison cor4 ,poisoning1 without regard of fame or fear2 ,and spotted corpses load the frequent bier4--,dryden cor4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,adjectives4 ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,forms ,,of ,,comparison1 c4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,degrees4 ,i have the real excuse of the most honest sort of bankrupts4--,cowley corrected4 ,the most honourable part of talk1 is1 to give the occasion4--,bacon cor4 ,to give him one of the most modest of his own proverbs4--,barclay cor4 ,our language is now1 certainly1 more proper and more natural1 than it was formerly4--,burnet cor4 ,which will be of the greatest and most frequent use to him in the world4--,locke cor4 ,the same is notified in the most considerable places in the diocese4--,whitgift cor4 ,but it was the most dreadful sight that ever ,i saw4--,bunyan cor4 ,four of the oldest1 soberest1 and discreetest of the brethren1 chosen for the occasion1 shall regulate it4--,locke cor4 ,nor can there be any clear understanding of any ,roman author1 especially of more ancient time1 without this skill4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,far the most learned of the ,greeks4--,id4 ,the more learned thou art1 the humbler be thou4--,id4 ,he is none of the best1 or most honest4--,id4 ,the most proper methods of communicating it to others4--,burn cor4 ,what heaven's great ,king hath mightiest to send against us4--,milton cor4 ,benedict is not the most unhopeful husband that ,i know4--,shakspeare cor4 ,that he should immediately do all the meanest and most trifling things himself4--,ray cor4 ,i shall be named among the most renowned of women4--,milton cor4 ,those have the most inventive heads for all purposes4--,ascham cor4 ,the more wretched are the contemners of all helps4--,b4 ,johnson cor4 ,i will now deliver a few of the most proper and most natural considerations that belong to this piece4--,wotton cor4 ,the most mortal poisons practised by the ,west ,indians1 have some mixture of the blood1 fat1 or flesh of man4--,bacon cor4 ,he so won upon him1 that he rendered him one of the most faithful and most affectionate allies the ,medes ever had4--,rollin cor4 ',you see before you1' says he to him1 'the most devoted servant1 and the most faithful ally1 you ever had4'--,id4 ,i chose the most flourishing tree in all the park4--,cowley cor4 ,which he placed1 ,i think1 some centuries earlier than did ,julius ,africanus afterwards4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,the ,tiber1 the most noted river of ,italy4--,littleton cor4 ,to farthest shores th' ambrosial spirit flies4--,pope4 ----,that what she wills to do or say1 ,seems wisest1 worthiest1 discreetest1 best4--,milton cor4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,during the first three or four years of its existence4--,taylor cor4 ,to the first of these divisions1 my last ten lectures have been devoted4--,adams cor4 ,there are1 in the twenty-four states1 not fewer than sixty thousand common schools4--,j4 ,o4 ,taylor cor4 ,i know of nothing which gives teachers more trouble1 than this want of firmness4--,id4 ,i know of nothing else that throws such darkness over the line which separates right from wrong4--,id4 ,none need this purity and this simplicity of language and thought1 more than does the instructor of a common school4--,id4 ,i know of no other periodical that is so valuable to the teacher1 as the ,annals of ,education4--,id4 ,are not these schools of the highest importance8 ,should not every individual feel a deep interest in their character and condition8--,id4 ,if instruction were made a liberal profession1 teachers would feel more sympathy for one an other4--,id4 ,nothing is more interesting to children1 than novelty1 or change4--,id4 ,i know of no other labour which affords so much happiness as the teacher's4--,id4 ,their school exercises are the most pleasant and agreeable duties1 that they engage in4--,id4 ,i know of no exercise more beneficial to the pupil than that of drawing maps4--,id4 ,i know of nothing in which our district schools are more defective1 than they are in the art of teaching grammar4--,id4 ,i know of no other branch of knowledge1 so easily acquired as history4--,id4 ,i know of no other school exercise for which pupils usually have such an abhorrence1 as for composition4--,id4 ,there is nothing belonging to our fellow-men1 which we should respect more sacredly than their good name4--,id4 ,surely1 never any other creature was so unbred as that odious man4--,congreve cor4 ,in the dialogue between the mariner and the shade of the deceased4--,phil4 ,museum cor4 ,these master-works would still be less excellent and finished4--,id4 ,every attempt to staylace the language of polished conversation1 renders our phraseology inelegant and clumsy4--,id4 ,here are a few of the most unpleasant words that ever blotted paper4--,shakespeare cor4 ,with the most easy and obliging transitions4--,broome cor4 ,fear is1 of all affections1 the least apt to admit any conference with reason4--,hooker cor4 ,most chymists think glass a body less destructible than gold itself4--,boyle cor4 ,to part with unhacked edges1 and bear back our barge undinted4--,shak4 cor4 ,erasmus1 who was an unbigoted ,roman ,catholic1 was transported with this passage4--,addison cor4 ,there are no fewer than five words1 with any of which the sentence might have terminated4--,campbell cor4 ,the ones preach ,christ of contention2 but the others1 of love4 ,or1 ,the one party preach1 c4--,bible cor4 ,hence we find less discontent and fewer heart-burnings1 than where the subjects are unequally burdened4--,h4 ,home1 ,ld4 ,kames1 cor4 ,the serpent1 subtlest beast of all the field4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 ix1 l4 #hf4 ,thee1 ,serpent1 subtlest beast of all the field1 ,i knew1 but not with human voice indued4 --,id41 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 ix1 l4 #efj4 ,how much more grievous would our lives appear4 ,to reach th' eight-hundredth1 than the eightieth year6 --,denham cor4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,brutus engaged with ,aruns2 and so fierce was the attack1 that they pierced each other at the same time4--,lempriere cor4 ,her two brothers were1 one after the other1 turned into stone4--,kames cor4 ,nouns are often used as adjectives2 as1 ,a gold ring1 a silver cup4--,lennie cor4 ,fire and water destroy each other--,wanostrocht cor4 ,two negatives1 in ,english1 destroy each other1 or are equivalent to an affirmative4--,lowth1 ,murray1 et al4 cor4 ,two negatives destroy each other1 and are generally equivalent to an affirmative4--,kirkham and ,felton cor4 ,two negatives destroy each other1 and make an affirmative4--,flint cor4 ,two negatives destroy each other1 being equivalent to an affirmative4--,frost cor4 ,two objects1 resembling each other1 are presented to the imagination4--,parker cor4 ,mankind1 in order to hold converse with one an other1 found it necessary to give names to objects4--,kirkham cor4 ,derivative words are formed from their primitives in various ways4--,cooper cor4 ,there are many different ways of deriving words one from an other4--,murray cor4 ,when several verbs have a joint construction in a sentence1 the auxiliary is usually expressed with the first only4--,frost cor4 ,two or more verbs1 having the same nominative case1 and coming in immediate succession1 are also separated by the comma4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,two or more adverbs1 coming in immediate succession1 must be separated by the comma4--,iidem4 ,if1 however1 the two members are very closely connected1 the comma is unnecessary4--,iidem4 ,gratitude1 when exerted towards others1 naturally produces a very pleasing sensation in the mind of a generous man4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,several verbs in the infinitive mood1 coming in succession1 and having a common dependence1 are also divided by commas4--,comly cor4 ,the several words of which it consists1 have so near a relation one to an other4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,when two or more verbs1 or two or more adverbs1#ebh occur in immediate succession1 and have a common dependence1 they must be separated by the comma4--,comly cor4 ,one noun frequently follows an other1 both meaning the same thing4--,sanborn cor4 ,and these two tenses may thus answer each other4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,or some other relation which two objects bear to each other4--,jamieson cor4 ,that the heathens tolerated one an other is allowed4--,a4 ,fuller cor4 ,and yet these two persons love each other tenderly4--,e4 ,reader cor4 ,in the six hundred and first year4--,bible cor4 ,nor is this arguing of his1 any thing but a reiterated clamour4--,barclay cor4 ,in several of them the inward life of ,christianity is to be found4--,ib4 ,though ,alvarez1 ,despauter1 and others1 do not allow it to be plural4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,even the most dissipated and shameless blushed at the sight4--,lempriere cor4 ,we feel a higher satisfaction in surveying the life of animals1 than in contemplating that of vegetables4-- ,jamieson cor4 ,but this man is so full-fraught with malice4--,barclay cor4 ,that ,i suggest some things concerning the most proper means4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,so1 hand in hand1 they passed1 the loveliest pair ,that ever yet in love's embraces met4--,milton cor4 ,aim at supremacy2 without such height1 ,will be for thee no sitting1 or not long4--,id4 cor4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,pronouns4 ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,forms ,,and ,,uses ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,relatives4 ,while we attend to this pause1 every appearance of singsong must be carefully avoided4--,murray cor4 ,for thou shalt go to all to whom ,i shall send thee4--,bible cor4 ,ah6 how happy would it have been for me1 had ,i spent in retirement these twenty-three years during which ,i have possessed my kingdom4--,sanborn cor4 ,in the same manner in which relative pronouns and their antecedents are usually parsed4--,id4 ,parse or explain all the other nouns contained in the examples1 after the very manner of the word which is parsed for you4--,id4 ,the passive verb will always have the person and number that belong to the verb be1 of which it is in part composed4--,id4 ,you have been taught that a verb must always agree in person and number with it subject or nominative4--,id4 ,a relative pronoun1 also1 must always agree in person1 in number1 and even in gender1 with its antecedent4--,id4 ,the answer always agrees in case with the pronoun which asks the question4--,id4 ,one sometimes represents an antecedent noun1 in the definite manner of a personal pronoun4 #ebi--;,id4 ,the mind1 being carried forward to the time at which the event is to happen1 easily conceives it to be present4 ,,save and ,,saving are seldom to be parsed in the manner in which ,,except and ,,excepting are commonly explained4--,id4 ,adverbs qualify verbs1 or modify their meaning1 as adjectives qualify nouns and describe things4--,id4 ,the third person singular of verbs1 terminates in s or es1 like the plural number of nouns4--,id4 ,he saith further3 that1 ',the apostles did not baptize anew such persons as had been baptized with the baptism of ,john4'--,barclay cor4 ,for we who live1--or1 ,for we that are alive1 are always delivered unto death for ,jesus' sake4--,bible cor4 ,for they who believe in ,god1 must be careful to maintain good works4--,barclay cor4 ,nor yet of those who teach things that they ought not1 for filthy lucre's sake4--,id4 ,so as to hold such bound in heaven as they bind on earth1 and such loosed in heaven as they loose on earth4--,id4 ,now1 if it be an evil1 to do any thing out of strife2 then such things as are seen so to be done1 are they not to be avoided and forsaken8--,id4 ,all such as do not satisfy themselves with the superfices of religion4--,id4 ,and he is the same in substance1 that he was upon earth1--the same in spirit1 soul1 and body4--,id4 ,and those that do not thus1 are such1 as the ,church of ,rome can have no charity for4 ,or3 ,and those that do not thus1 are persons toward whom the ,church of ,rome can have no charity4--,id4 ,before his book1 he places a great list of what he accounts the blasphemous assertions of the ,quakers4--,id4 ,and this is what he should have proved4--,id4 ,three of whom were at that time actual students of philosophy in the university4--,id4 ,therefore it is not lawful for any whomsoever 99 99 99 to force the consciences of others4--,id4 ,why were the former days better than these8--,bible cor4 ,in the same manner in which--or1 better1 ,just as--the term my depends on the name books4--,peirce cor4 ,just as the term ,,house depends on the preposition to1 understood after the adjective ,,near4--,id4 ,james died on the day on which ,henry returned4--,id4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,declensions4 ,,other makes the plural ,,others1 when it is found without its substantive4--,priestley cor4 ,but his1 hers1 ours1 yours1 and theirs1 have evidently the form of the possessive case4--,lowth cor4 ,to the ,saxon possessive cases1 hire1 ure1 eower1 hira1 7that is1 hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs17 we have added the s1 the characteristic of the possessive case of nouns4--,id4 ,upon the name of ,jesus ,christ our ,lord1 both theirs and ours4--,friends cor4 ,in this place1 ,his is clearly preferable either to ,her or to ,its4--,harris cor4 ,that roguish leer of yours makes a pretty woman's heart ache4--,addison cor4 ,lest by any means this liberty of yours become a stumbling-block4--,bible cor4 ,first person3 ,sing4 ,i1 my or mine1 me2 ,plur4 we1 our or ours1 us4--,wilbur and ,livingston cor4 ,second person3 ,sing1 thou1 thy or thine1 thee2 ,plur4 ye or you1 your or yours1 you4--,iid4 ,third person3 ,sing1 she1 her or hers1 her2 ,plur4 they1 their or theirs1 them4--,iid4 ,so shall ye serve strangers in a land that is not yours4--,,alger1 ,,bruce1 ,,et ,,al42 ,jer41 v1 #ai4 ,second person1 ,singular3 ,nom4 thou1 ,poss4 thy or thine1 ,obj4 thee4--,frost cor4 ,second person1 ,dual2 ,nom4 ,gyt1 ye two2 ,gen4 ,incer1 of you two2 ,dat4 ,inc1 incrum1 to you two2 ,acc4 ,inc1 you two2 ,voc4 ,eala inc1 ,o ye two2 ,abl4 ,inc1 incrum1 from you two4--,gwilt cor4 ,second person1 ,plural3 ,nom4 ,ge1 ye2 ,gen4 ,eower1 of you2 ,dat4 ,eow1 to you2 ,acc4 ,eow1 you2 ,voc ,eala ge1 ,o ye2 ,abl4 ,eow1 from you4--,id4 ,these words are1 mine1 thine1 his1 hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 and whose4--,cardell cor4 ,this house is ours1 and that is yours4 ,theirs is very commodious4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,and they shall eat up thy harvest1 and thy bread2 they shall eat up thy flocks and thy herds4--,bible cor4 ,whoever and ,whichever are thus declined3 ,sing4 ,nom4 whoever1 ,poss4 whosever1 ,obj4 whomever2 ,plur4 ,nom4 whoever1 ,poss4 whosever1 ,obj4 whomever4 ,sing4 ,nom4 whichever1 ,poss4 7wanting17 ,obj4 whichever2 ,plur4 ,nom4 whichever1 ,poss4 7wanting17 ,obj4 whichever4--,cooper cor4 ,the compound personal pronouns are thus declined3 ,sing4 ,nom4 myself1 ,poss4 7wanting17 ,obj4 myself2 ,plur4 ,nom4 ourselves1 ,poss4 7wanting17 ,obj4 ourselves4 ,sing4 ,nom4 thyself or yourself1 ,poss4 7wanting17 ,obj4 thyself1 c4--,perley cor4 ,every one of us1 each for himself1 laboured to recover him4--,sidney cor4 ,unless when ideas of their opposites manifestly suggest themselves4--,wright cor4 ,it not only exists in time1 but is itself time4 ,a position which the action itself will palpably confute4--,id4 ,a difficulty sometimes presents itself4--,id4 ,they are sometimes explanations in themselves4--,id4 ,ours1 ,yours1 ,theirs1 ,hers1 ,its4--,barrett cor4 ,theirs1 the wild chase of false felicities2 ,his1 the composed possession of the true4 --,young1 ,n4 ,th41 ,n4 viii1 l4 #aajj4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,it is the boast of ,americans1 without distinction of parties1 that their government is the most free and perfect that exists on the earth4--,dr4 ,allen cor4 ,children that are dutiful to their parents1 enjoy great prosperity4--,sanborn cor4 ,the scholar that improves his time1 sets an example worthy of imitation4--,id4 ,nouns and pronouns that signify the same person1 place1 or thing1 agree in case4--,cooper cor4 ,an interrogative sentence is one that asks a question4--,id4 ,in the use of words and phrases that in point of time relate to each other1 the order of time should be duly regarded4--,id4 ,the same observations that show the effect of the article upon the participle1 appear to be applicable also to the pronoun and participle4--,murray cor4 ,the reason why they have not the same use of them in reading1 may be traced to the very defective and erroneous method in which the art of reading is taught4--,id4 ,ever since reason began to exert her powers1 thought1 during our waking hours1 has been active in every breast1 without a moment's suspension or pause4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,in speaking of such as greatly delight in the same4--,pope cor4 ,except him to whom the king shall hold out the golden sceptre1 that he may live4--,bible cor4 ,but the same day on which ,lot went out of ,sodom1 it rained fire and brimstone from heaven1 and destroyed them all4--,bible cor4 ,in the next place1 ,i will explain several constructions of nouns and pronouns1 that have not yet come under our notice4--,kirkham cor4 ,three natural distinctions of time are all that can exist4--,hall cor4 ,we have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct2 and these seem to be sufficient1 and not more than sufficient4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,the parenthesis encloses a phrase or clause that may be omitted without materially injuring the connexion of the other members4--,hall cor4 ,consonants are letters that cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel4--,bucke cor4 ,words are not mere sounds1 but sounds that convey a meaning to the mind4--,id4 ,nature's postures are always easy2 and1 what is more1 nothing but your own will can put you out of them4--,collier cor4 ,therefore ought we to examine our own selves1 and prove our own selves4--,barclay cor4 ,certainly1 it had been much more natural1 to have divided ,active verbs into ,immanent1 or those whose action is terminated within itself1 and ,transient1 or those whose action is terminated in something without itself4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,this is such an advantage as no other lexicon will afford4--,dr4 ,taylor cor4 ,for these reasons1 such liberties are taken in the ,hebrew tongue1 with those words which are of the most general and frequent use4--,pike cor4 ,while we object to the laws which the antiquarian in language would impose on us1 we must also enter our protest against those authors who are too fond of innovations4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,verbs4 ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,forms ,,of ,,verbs4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,preterits4 ,in speaking on a matter which touched their hearts4--,phil4 ,museum cor4 ,though ,horace published it some time after4--,id4 ,the best subjects with which the ,greek models furnished him4--,id4 ,since he attached no thought to it4--,id4 ,by what slow steps the ,greek alphabet reached its perfection4--,id4 ,because ,goethe wished to erect an affectionate memorial4--,id4 ,but the ,saxon forms soon dropped away4--,id4 ,it speaks of all the towns that perished in the age of ,philip4--,id4 ,this enriched the written language with new words4--,id4 ,he merely furnished his friend with matter for laughter4--,id4 ,a cloud arose1 and stopped the light4--,swift cor4 ,she slipped spadillo in her breast4--,id4 ,i guessed the hand4--,id4 ,the tyrant stripped me to the skin2 ,my skin he flayed1 my hair he cropped2 ,at head and foot my body lopped4--,id4 ,i see the greatest owls in you1 ,that ever screeched or ever flew4--,id4 ,i sat with delight1 ,from morning till night4--,id4 ,dick nimbly skipped the gutter4--,id4 ,in at the pantry door this morn ,i slipped4--,id4 ,nobody living ever touched me1 but you4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,present1 ,i ship2 ,preterit1 ,i shipped2 ,perf4 ,participle1 shipped4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,then the king arose1 and tore his garments4--,bible cor4 ,when he lifted up his foot1 he knew not where he should set it next4--,bunyan cor4 ,he lifted up his spear against eight hundred1 whom he slew at one time4--,bible cor4 ,upon this chaos rode the distressed ark4--,burnet cor4 ,on whose foolish honesty1 my practices rode easy4--,shakspeare cor4 ,that form of the first or primogenial ,earth1 which rose immediately out of chaos4--,burnet cor4 ,sir1 how came it1 you have helped to make this rescue8--,shak4 cor4 ,he swore he would rather lose all his father's images1 than that table4--,peacham cor4 ,when our language dropped its ancient terminations4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,when themselves they vilified4--,milton cor4 ,but ,i chose rather to do thus4--,barclay cor4 ,when he pleaded 7or pled7 against the parsons4--,hist4 cor4 ,and he that saw it1 bore record4 ,or3 ,and he that saw it1 bare record4--,john1 xix1 #ce4 ,an irregular verb has one more variation2 as1 drive1 drivest1 driveth1 drives1 drove1 drovest1 driving1 driven4--,matt4 ,harrison cor4 ,beside that village1 ,hannibal pitched his camp4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,he fetched it from ,tmolus4--,id4 ,he supped with his morning-gown on4--,id4 ,there stamped her sacred name4--,barlow cor4 ,fix'd#ecj on the view the great discoverer stood2 ,and thus address'd the messenger of good4--,barlow cor4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,three freemen were on trial--or1 were receiving their trial--at the date of our last information4--,editor cor4 ,while the house was building1 many of the tribe arrived4--,cox cor4 ,but a foundation has been laid in ,zion1 and the church is built--7or1 continues to be built--7 upon it4--,the ,friend cor4 ,and one fourth of the people are receiving education4--,e4 ,i4 ,mag4 cor4 ,the present tense1 or that form of the verb which expresses what is now doing4--,beck cor4 ,a new church1 called the ,pantheon1 is about being completed1 in an expensive style4--,thompson cor4 ,when ,i last saw him1 he had grown considerably4--,murray cor4 ,i know what a rugged and dangerous path ,i have got into4--,duncan cor4 ,you might as well preach ease to one on the rack4--,locke cor4 ,thou hast heard me1 and hast become my salvation4--,bible cor4 ,while the ,elementary ,spelling-,book was preparing 7or1 was in progress of preparation7 for the press4--,cobb cor4 ,language has become1 in modern times1 more correct4--,jamieson cor4 ,if the plan has been executed in any measure answerable to the author's wishes4--,robbins cor4 ,the vial of wrath is still pouring out on the seat of the beast4--,christian ,ex4 cor4 ,christianity had become the generally-adopted and established religion of the whole ,roman ,empire4--,gurney cor4 ,who wrote before the first century had elapsed4--,id4 ,the original and analogical form has grown quite obsolete4--,lowth cor4 ,their love1 and their hatred1 and their envy1 have perished4--,murray cor4 ,the poems had got abroad1 and were in a great many hands4--,waller cor4 ,it is more harmonious1 as well as more correct1 to say1 ',the bubble is ready to burst4'--,cobbett cor4 ,i drove my suitor from his mad humour of love4--,shak4 cor4 ,se viriliter expedivit4--,cic4 ,he has played the man4--,walker cor4 ,wilt thou kill me1 as thou didst the ,egyptian yesterday8--,bible cor4 ,and we1 methought1 or thought ,i looked up to him from our hill--,cowley cor4 ,i fear thou dost not think so much of the best things as thou ought4--,memoir cor4 ,when this work was commenced4--,wright cor4 ,exercises and a ,key to this work are about being prepared4--,id4 ,james is loved by ,john4--,id4 ,or that which is exhibited4--,id4 ,he was smitten4--,id4 ,in the passive voice we say1 ',i am loved4'--,id4 ,subjunctive ,mood3 ,if ,i be smitten1 ,if thou be smitten1 ,if he be smitten4--,id4 ,i shall not be able to convince you how superficial the reformation is4--,chalmers cor4 ,i said to myself1 ,i shall be obliged to expose the folly4--,chazotte cor4 ,when ,clodius1 had he meant to return that day to ,rome1 must have arrived4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams cor4 ,that the fact has been done1 is doing1 or will be done4--,peirce cor4 ,am ,i to be instructed8--,wright cor4 ,i choose him4--,id4 ,john1 who respected his father1 was obedient to his commands4--,barrett cor4 ,the region echoes to the clash of arms4--,beattie cor4 ,and sitst on high1 and mak'st creation's top ,thy footstool2 and beholdst below thee--all4--,pollok cor4 ,and see if thou canst punish sin and let ,mankind go free4 ,thou failst--be not surprised4--,idem4 ,,lesson ,,iii--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,what follows1 might better have been wanting altogether4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,this member of the sentence might much better have been omitted altogether4--,id4 ,one or the other of them1 therefore1 might better have been omitted4--,id4 ,the whole of this last member of the sentence might better have been dropped4--,id4 ,in this case1 they might much better be omitted4--,id4 ,he might better have said 'the productions4'--,id4 ,the ,greeks ascribed the origin of poetry to ,orpheus1 ,linus1 and ,musus4--,id4 ,it was noticed long ago1 that all these fictitious names have the same number of syllables4--,phil4 ,museum cor4 ,when ,i found that he had committed nothing worthy of death1 ,i determined to send him4--,bible cor4 ,i would rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my ,god4--,id4 ,as for such1 ,i wish the ,lord would open their eyes4 ,or1 better3 ,may the ,lord open 7or1 ,i pray the ,lord to open7 their eyes4--,barclay cor4 ,it would have made our passage over the river very difficult4--,walley cor4 ,we should not have been able to carry our great guns4--,id4 ,others would have questioned our prudence1 if we had4--,id4 ,beware thou be not ,,bec,,sared2 i4e41 ,beware that thou do not dwindle--or1 lest thou dwindle--into a mere ,csar4--,harris cor4 ,thou raisedst 7or1 familiarly1 thou raised7 thy voice to record the stratagems of needy heroes4--,arbuthnot cor4 ,life hurries off apace2 thine is almost gone already4--,collier cor4 ',how unfortunate has this accident made me6' cries such a one4--,id4 ,the muse that soft and sickly woos the ear4--,pollok cor4 ,a man might better relate himself to a statue4--,bacon cor4 ,i heard thee say but now1 thou liked not that4--,shak4 cor4 ,in my whole course of wooing1 thou criedst1 7or1 familiarly1 thou cried17 ,indeed6--,id4 ,but our ears have grown familiar with ',i have wrote1 ',i have drank1' c41 which are altogether as ungrammatical4--,lowth et al4 cor4 ,the court was in session before ,sir ,roger came--,addison cor4 ,she needs--7or1 if you please1 need1--7 be no more with the jaundice possessed--,swift cor4 ,besides1 you found fault with our victuals one day when you were here4--,id4 ,if spirit of other sort1 ,so minded1 hath 7or has7 o'erleaped these earthy bounds4--,milton cor4 ,it would have been more rational to have forborne this4--,barclay cor4 ,a student is not master of it till he has seen all these4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,the said justice shall summon the party4--,brevard cor4 ,now what has become of thy former wit and humour8--,spect4 cor4 ,young stranger1 whither wanderst thou8--,burns cor4 ,,subj4 ,pres4 ,if ,i love1 ,if thou love1 ,if he love4 ,imp4 ,if ,i loved1 ,if thou loved1 ,if he loved4--,merchant cor4 ,,subj4 ,if ,i do not love1 ,if thou do not love1 ,if he do not love4--,id4 ,if he has committed sins1 they shall be forgiven him4--,bible cor4 ,subjunctive ,mood of the verb to call1 second person singular3 ,if thou call1 7rarely1 ,if thou do call17 ,if thou called4--,hiley cor4 ,subjunctive ,mood of the verb to love1 second person singular3 ,if thou love1 7rarely1 ,if thou do love17 ,if thou loved4--,bullions cor4 ,i was2 thou wast2 he1 she1 or it1 was3 ,we1 you or ye1 they1 were4--,white cor4 ,i taught1 thou taughtest1 7familiarly1 thou taught17 he taught4-- ,coar cor4 ,we say1 ',if it rain1' ',suppose it rain8' ',lest it rain1' ',unless it rain4' ,this manner of speaking is called the ,,subjunctive ,,mood4--,weld cor4 ,he has arrived at what is deemed the age of manhood4--,priestley cor4 ,he might much better have let it alone4--,tooke cor4 ,he were better without it4 ,or3 ,he would be better without it4--,locke cor4 ,hadst thou not been by4 ,or3 ,if thou hadst not been by4 ,or1 in the familiar style3 ,had not thou been by1--,shak4 cor4 ,i learned geography4 ,thou learned arithmetic4 ,he learned grammar4--,fuller cor4 ,till the sound has ceased4--,sheridan cor4 ,present1 die2 ,preterit1 died2 ,perf4 ,participle1 died4--,six ,english ,grammars corrected4 ,thou bow'dst thy glorious head to none1 fear'dst none4 ,or3-- ,thou bowed thy glorious head to none1 feared none4 --,pollok cor4 ,thou lookst upon thy boy as though thou guess'd it4 --,knowles cor4 ,as once thou slept1 while she to life was formed4 --,milton cor4 ,who finds the partridge in the puttock's nest1 ,but may imagine how the bird was killed8 --,shak4 cor4 ,which might have well become the best of men4 --,idem cor4 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,participles4 ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,forms ,,of ,,participles4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,irregulars4 ,many of your readers have mistaken that passage4--,steele cor4 ,had not my dog of a steward run away4--,addison cor4 ,none should be admitted1 except he had broken his collarbone thrice4--,id4 ,we could not know what was written at twenty4--,waller cor4 ,i have written1 thou hast written1 he has written2 we have written1 you have written1 they have written4--,ash cor4 ,as if ,god had spoken his last words there to his people4--,barclay cor4 ,i had like to have come in that ship myself4--,observer cor4 ,our ships and vessels being driven out of the harbour by a storm4--,hutchinson cor4 ,he will endeavour to write as the ancient author would have written1 had he written in the same language4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,when his doctrines grew too strong to be shaken by his enemies4--,atterbury cor4 ,the immortal mind that hath forsaken her mansion4--,milton cor4 ,grease that's sweated 7or sweat7 from the murderer's gibbet1 throw into the flame4--,shak4 cor4 ,the court also was chidden 7or chid7 for allowing such questions to be put4--,stone cor4 ,he would have spoken4--,milton cor4 ,words interwoven 7or interweaved7 with sighs found out their way4--,id4 ,those kings and potentates who have strived 7or striven47--,id4 ,that even ,silence was taken4--,id4 ,and envious ,darkness1 ere they could return1 had stolen them from me4--,id4 ,i have chosen this perfect man4--,id4 ,i shall scarcely think you have swum in a gondola4--,shak4 cor4 ,the fragrant brier was woven 7or weaved7 between4--,dryden cor4 ,then finish what you have begun4--,id4 ,but now the years a numerous train have run4--,pope cor4 ,repeats your verses written 7or writ7 on glasses4--,prior cor4 ,who by turns have risen4--,id4 ,which from great authors ,i have taken4--,id4 ,even there he should have fallen4--,id4 ,the sun has ris'n1 and gone to bed4 ,just as if ,partridge were not dead4--,swift cor4 ,and1 though no marriage words are spoken1 ,they part not till the ring is broken4--,swift cor4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,regulars4 ,when the word is stripped of all the terminations4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,forgive him1 ,tom2 his head is cracked4--,swift cor4 ,for 'tis the sport1 to have the engineer hoised 7or hoisted7 with his own petar4--,shak4 cor4 ,as great as they are1 ,i was nursed by their mother4--,swift cor4 ,if he should now be cried down since his change4--,id4 ,dipped over head and ears--in debt4--,id4 ,we see the nation's credit cracked4--,id4 ,because they find their pockets picked4--,id4 ,o what a pleasure mixed with pain6--,id4 ,and only with her brother linked4--,id4 ,because he ne'er a thought allowed1 ,that might not be confessed4--,id4 ,my love to ,sheelah is more firmly fixed4--,id4 ,the observations annexed to them will be intelligible4--,phil4 ,mus4 cor4 ,those eyes are always fixed on the general principles4--,id4 ,laborious conjectures will be banished from our commentaries4--,id4 ,tiridates was dethroned1 and ,phraates was reestablished1 in his stead4--,id4 ,a ,roman who was attached to ,augustus4--,id4 ,nor should ,i have spoken of it1 unless ,baxter had talked about two such4--,id4 ,and the reformers of language have generally rushed on4--,id4 ,three centuries and a half had then elapsed since the date1--,ib4 ,of such criteria1 as has been remarked already1 there is an abundance4--,id4 ,the ,english have surpassed every other nation in their services4--,id4 ,the party addressed is next in dignity to the speaker4--,harris cor4 ,to which we are many times helped4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,but for him1 ,i should have looked well enough to myself4--,id4 ,why are you vexed1 ,lady8 why do frown8--,milton cor4 ,obtruding false rules pranked in reason's garb4--,id4 ,but1 like ,david equipped in ,saul's armour1 it is encumbered and oppressed4--,campbell cor4 ,and when their merchants are blown up1 and cracked1 ,whole towns are cast away in storms1 and wrecked4--,butler cor4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,the lands are held in free and common soccage4--,trumbull cor4 ,a stroke is drawn under such words4--,cobbett's ,gr41 #ast ,ed4 ,it is struck even1 with a strickle4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,whilst ,i was wandering1 without any care1 beyond my bounds4--,id4 ,when one would do something1 unless hindered by something present4--,b4 ,johnson cor4 ,it is used potentially1 but not so as to be rendered by these signs4--,id4 ,now who would dote upon things hurried down the stream thus fast8--,collier cor4 ,heaven hath timely tried their growth4--,milton cor4 ,o6 ye mistook1 ye should have snatched his wand4--,id4 ,of true virgin here distressed4--,id4 ,so that they have at last come to be substituted in the stead of it4--,barclay cor4 ,though ye have lain among the pots4--,bible cor4 ,and1 lo6 in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked off4--,scott's ,bible1 and ,alger's4 ,brutus and ,cassius ,have ridden1 7or rode17 like madmen1 through the gates of ,rome4--,shak4 cor4 ,he shall be spit upon4--,bible cor4 ,and are not the countries so overflowed still situated between the tropics8--,bentley4 ,not tricked and frounced as she was wont1 ,but kerchiefed in a comely cloud4--,milton cor4 ,to satisfy his rigour1 ,satisfied never4--,id4 ,with him there crucified4--,id4 ,th' earth cumbered1 and the wing'd air darked with plumes4--,id4 ,and now their way to ,earth they had descried4--,id4 ,not so thick swarmed once the soil ,bedropped with blood of ,gorgon4--,id4 ,and in a troubled sea of passion tossed4--,id4 ,the cause1 alas6 is quickly guessed4--,swift cor4 ,the kettle to the top was hoised1 or hoisted4--,id4 ,in chains thy syllables are linked4--,id4 ,rather than thus be overtopped1 ,would you not wish their laurels cropped4--,id4 ,the ,,hyphen1 or ,,conjoiner1 is a little line drawn to connect words1 or parts of words4--,cobbett cor4 ,in the other manners of dependence1 this general rule is sometimes broken4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,some intransitive verbs may be rendered transitive by means of a preposition prefixed to them4--,grant cor4 ,whoever now should place the accent on the first syllable of ,valerius1 would set every body a laughing4--,j4 ,walker cor4 ,being mocked1 scourged1 spit upon1 and crucified4--,gurney cor4 ,for rhyme in ,greece or ,rome was never known1 ,till barb'rous hordes those states had overthrown4--,roscommon cor4 ,in my own ,thames may ,i be drowned1 ,if e'er ,i stoop beneath the crowned4 ,or thus3-- ,in my own ,thames may ,i be drown'd dead1 ,if e'er ,i stoop beneath a crown'd head4--,swift cor4 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,adverbs4 ,,corrections ,,respecting ,,the ,,forms ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,we can much more easily form the conception of a fierce combat4--,blair corrected4 ,when he was restored agreeably to the treaty1 he was a perfect savage4--,webster cor4 ,how ,i shall acquit myself suitably to the importance of the trial4--,duncan cor4 ,can any thing show your ,holiness how unworthily you treat mankind8--,spect4 cor4 ,in what other1 consistently with reason and common sense1 can you go about to explain it to him8--,lowth cor4 ,agreeably to this rule1 the short vowel ,sheva has two characters4--,wilson cor4 ,we shall give a remarkably fine example of this figure4--,see ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aef4 ,all of which is most abominably false4--,barclay cor4 ,he heaped up great riches1 but passed his time miserably4--,murray cor4 ,he is never satisfied with expressing any thing clearly and simply4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,attentive only to exhibit his ideas clearly and exactly1 he appears dry4--,id4 ,such words as have the most liquids and vowels1 glide the most softly4 ,or3 ,where liquids and vowels most abound1 the utterance is softest4--,id4 ,the simplest points1 such as are most easily apprehended4--,id4 ,too historical to be accounted a perfectly regular epic poem4--,id4 ,putting after them the oblique case1 agreeably to the ,french construction4--,priestley cor4 ,where the train proceeds with an extremely slow pace4--,kames cor4 ,so as scarcely to give an appearance of succession4--,id4 ,that concord between sound and sense1 which is perceived in some expressions1 independently of artful pronunciation4--,id4 ,cornaro had become very corpulent1 previously to the adoption of his temperate habits4--,hitchcock cor4 ,bread1 which is a solid1 and tolerably hard1 substance4--,day cor4 ,to command every body that was not dressed as finely as himself4--,id4 ,many of them have scarcely outlived their authors4--,j4 ,ward cor4 ,their labour1 indeed1 did not penetrate very deeply4--,wilson cor4 ,the people are miserably poor1 and subsist on fish4--,hume cor4 ,a scale1 which ,i took great pains1 some years ago1 to make4--,bucke cor4 ,there is no truth on earth better established than the truth of the ,bible4--,taylor cor4 ,i know of no work more wanted than the one which ,mr4 ,taylor has now furnished4--,dr4 ,nott cor4 ,and therefore their requests are unfrequent and reasonable4--,taylor cor4 ,questions are more easily proposed1 than answered rightly4--,dillwyn cor4 ,often reflect on the advantages you possess1 and on the source from which they are all derived4--,murray cor4 ,if there be no special rule which requires it to be put further forward4--,milnes cor4 ,the masculine and the neuter have the same dialect in all the numbers1 especially when they end alike4--,id4 ,and children are more busy in their play ,than those that wiseliest pass their time away4--,butler cor4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,conjunctions4 ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,conjunctions4 ,a ,verb is so called from the ,latin verbum1 a word4--,bucke cor4 ,references are often marked by letters or figures4--,adam and ,gould cor4 7#a47 ,a ,conjunction is a word which joins words or sentences together4--,lennie1 ,bullions and ,brace1 cor4 7#b47 ,a ,conjunction is used to connect words or sentences together4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 7#c47 ,a ,conjunction is used to connect words or sentences4--,maunder cor4 7#d47 ,conjunctions are words used to join words or sentences4--,wilcox cor4 7#e47 ,a ,conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences4--,m',culloch1 ,hart1 and ,day1 cor4 7#f47 ,a ,conjunction joins words or sentences together4--,macintosh and ,hiley cor4 7#g47 ,the ,conjunction joins words or sentences together4--,l4 ,murray cor4 7#h47 ,conjunctions connect words or sentences to each other4--,wright cor4 7#i47 ,conjunctions connect words or sentences4--,wells and ,wilcox cor4 7#aj47 ,the conjunction is a part of speech1 used to connect words or sentences4--,weld cor4 7#aa47 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences together4--,fowler cor4 7#ab47 ,connectives are particles that unite words or sentences in construction4--,webster cor4 ,english ,grammar is miserably taught in our district schools2 the teachers know little or nothing about it4--,j4 ,o4 ,taylor cor4 ,lest1 instead of preventing diseases1 you draw them on4--,locke cor4 ,the definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,when nouns naturally neuter are assumed to be masculine or feminine4--,murray cor4 ,this form of the perfect tense represents an action as completely past1 though often as done at no great distance of time1 or at a time not specified4--,id4 ,the ,copulative ,conjunction serves to connect words or clauses1 so as to continue a sentence1 by expressing an addition1 a supposition1 a cause1 or a consequence4--,id4 ,the ,disjunctive ,conjunction serves1 not only to continue a sentence by connecting its parts1 but also to express opposition of meaning1 either real or nominal4--,id4 ,if we open the volumes of our divines1 philosophers1 historians1 or artists1 we shall find that they abound with all the terms necessary to communicate the observations and discoveries of their authors4--,id4 ,when a disjunctive conjunction occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one1 the verb is made to agree with the plural noun or pronoun4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,pronouns must always agree with their antecedents1 or the nouns for which they stand1 in gender and number4--,murray cor4 ,neuter verbs do not express action1 and consequently do not govern nouns or pronouns4--,id4 ,and the auxiliary of the past imperfect as well as of the present tense4--,id4 ,if this rule should not appear to apply to every example that has been produced1 or to others which might be cited4--,id4 ,an emphatical pause is made1 after something of peculiar moment has been said1 on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention4--,murray and ,hart cor4 ,an imperfect#eca phrase contains no assertion1 and does not amount to a proposition1 or sentence4--,murray cor4 ,the word was in the mouth of every one1 yet its meaning may still be a secret4--,id4 ,this word was in the mouth of every one1 and yet1 as to its precise and definite idea1 this may still be a secret1--,harris cor4 ,it cannot be otherwise1 because the ,french prosody differs from that of every other ,european language4--,smollet cor4 ,so gradually that it may be engrafted on a subtonic4--,rush cor4 ,where the ,chelsea and ,malden bridges now are4 ,or better3 ,where the ,chelsea or the ,malden bridge now is4--,judge ,parker cor4 ,adverbs are words added to verbs1 to participles1 to adjectives1 or to other adverbs4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,i could not have told you who the hermit was1 or on what mountain he lived4--,bucke cor4 ,,am and ,,be 7for they are the same verb7 naturally1 or in themselves1 signify being4--,brightland cor4 ,words are signs1 either oral or written1 by which we express our thoughts1 or ideas4--,mrs4 ,bethune cor4 ,his fears will detect him1 that he shall not escape4--,comly cor4 ,whose is equally applicable to persons and to things--,webster cor4 ,one negative destroys an other1 so that two are equivalent to an affirmative4--,bullions cor4 ,no sooner does he peep into the world1 ,than he has done his do4--,hudibras cor4 ,,chapter ,x4--,,prepositions4 ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,prepositions4 ,nouns are often formed from participles4--,l4 ,murray corrected4 ,what tenses are formed from the perfect participle8--,ingersoll cor4 ,which tense is formed from the present1 or root of the verb8--,id4 ,when a noun or a pronoun is placed before a participle1 independently of the rest of the sentence4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cdh4 ,if the addition consists of two or more words4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,the infinitive mood is often made absolute1 or used independently of the rest of the sentence4--,lowth's ,gram41 #hj2 ,churchill's1 #adc2 ,bucke's1 #if2 ,merchant's1 #ib4 ,for the great satisfaction of the reader1 we shall present a variety of false constructions4--,murray cor4 ,for your satisfaction1 ,i shall present you a variety of false constructions4-- ,ingersoll cor4 ,i shall here present to you a scale of derivation4-- ,bucke cor4 ,these two manners of representation in respect to number4--,lowth and ,churchill cor4 ,there are certain adjectives which seem to be derived from verbs1 without any variation4--,lowth cor4 ,or disqualify us for receiving instruction or reproof from others4--,murray cor4 ,for being more studious than any other pupil in the school4-- ,id4 ,misunderstanding the directions1 we lost our way4--,id4 ,these people reduced the greater part of the island under their own power4-- ,id4 ,the principal accent distinguishes one syllable of a word from the rest4--,id4 ,just numbers are in unison with the human mind4--,id4 ,we must accept of sound in stead of sense4--,id4 ,also1 in stead of consultation1 he uses consult4--,priestley cor4 ,this ablative seems to be governed by a preposition understood4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,lest my father hear of it1 by some means or other4--,id4 ,and1 besides1 my wife would hear of it by some means4--,id4 ,for insisting on a requisition so odious to them4--,robertson cor4 ,based on the great self-evident truths of liberty and equality4--,manual cor4 ,very little knowledge of their nature is acquired from the spelling-book4--,murray cor4 ,they do not cut it off3 except from a few words2 as1 due1 duly1 c4--,id4 ,whether passing at such time1 or then finished4--,lowth cor4 ,it hath disgusted hundreds with that confession4--,barclay cor4 ,but they have egregiously fallen into that inconveniency4--,id4 ,for is not this1 to set nature at work8--,id4 ,and1 surely1 that which should set all its springs at work1 is ,god4--,atterbury cor4 ,he could not end his treatise without a panegyrie on modern learning4--,temple cor4 ,these are entirely independent of the modulation of the voice4--,j4 ,walker cor4 ,it is dear at a penny4 ,it is cheap at twenty pounds4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,it will be despatched1 on most occasions1 without resting4--,locke cor4 ,oh the pain1 the bliss of dying6--,pope4 ,when the objects or the facts are presented to him4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,i will now present you a synopsis4--,id4 ,the disjunctive conjunction connects words or sentences1 and suggests an opposition of meaning1 more or less direct4--,id4 ,i shall now present to you a few lines4--,bucke cor4 ,common names1 or substantives1 are those which stand for things assorted4--,id4 ,adjectives1 in the ,english language1 are not varied by genders1 numbers1 or cases2 their only inflection is for the degrees of comparison4--,id4 ,participles are little more than adjectives formed from verbs4--,id4 ,i do love to walk out on a fine summer evening4--,id4 ,ellipsis1 when applied to grammar1 is the elegant omission of one or more words of a sentence4--,merchant cor4 ,the preposition to is generally required before verbs in the infinitive mood1 but after the following verbs it is properly omitted2 namely1 bid1 dare1 feel1 need1 let1 make1 hear1 see3 as1 ',he bid me do it2' not1 ',he bid me to do it4'--,id4 ,the infinitive sometimes follows than1 for the latter term of a comparison2 as1 ',murray should have known better than to write1 and ,merchant1 better than to copy1 the text here corrected1 or the ambiguous example they appended to it4'--,id4 ,or1 by prefixing the adverb more or less1 for the comparative1 and most or least1 for the superlative4--,id4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4--,id4 ,from monosyllables1 the comparative is regularly formed by adding r or er4--,perley cor4 ,he has particularly named these1 in distinction from others4--,harris cor4 ,to revive the decaying taste for ancient literature4--,id4 ,he found the greatest difficulty in writing4--,hume cor4 ,and the tear1 that is wiped with a little address1 ,may be followed perhaps by a smile4--,cowper1 i1 #baf4 ,,chapter ,,xi4--,,interjections4 ,,corrections ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,interjections4 ,of chance or change1 ,o let not man complain4--,beattie's ,minstrel1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #a4 ,o thou persecutor6 ,o ye hypocrites6--,russell's ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,o thou my voice inspire1 ,who touch'd ,isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire6--,pope's ,messiah4 ,o happy we6 surrounded by so many blessings6--,merchant cor4 ,o thou who art so unmindful of thy duty6--,id4 ,if ,i am wrong1 ,o teach my heart ,to find that better way4--,murray's ,reader1 p4 #bdh4 ,heus6 evocate huc ,davum4--,ter4 ,ho6 call ,davus out hither4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,it was represented by an analogy 7,o how inadequate67 which was borrowed from the ceremonies of paganism4--,murray cor4 ,o that ,ishmael might live before thee6--,friends' ,bible1 and ,scott's4 ,and he said unto him1 ,o let not the ,lord be angry1 and ,i will speak4--,alger's ,bible1 and ,scott's4 ,and he said1 ,o let not the ,lord be angry4--,alger2 ,gen41 xviii4 #cb4 ,o my ,lord1 let thy servant1 ,i pray thee1 speak a word4--,scott's ,bible4 ,o ,virtue6 how amiable thou art6--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #abh4 ,alas6 ,i fear for life4--,see ,ib4 ,ah me6 they little know ,how dearly ,i abide that boast so vain6--,see ,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,o that ,i had digged myself a cave6--,fletcher cor4 ,oh1 my good lord6 thy comfort comes too late4--,shak4 cor4 ,the vocative takes no article3 it is distinguished thus3 ,o ,pedro6 ,o ,peter6 ,o ,dios6 ,o ,god6--,bucke cor4 ,oho6 ,but1 the relative is always the same4--,cobbett cor4 ,all-hail1 ye happy men6--,jaudon cor4 ,o that ,i had wings like a dove6'--,scott's ,bible4 ,o glorious hope6 ,o bless'd abode6--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cjd4 ,welcome friends6 how joyous is your presence6--,t4 ,smith cor4 ,o blissful days6--but1 ah6 how soon ye pass6--,parker and ,fox cor4 ,o golden days6 ,o bright unvalued hours6-- ,what bliss1 did ye but know that bliss1 were yours6--,barbauld cor4 ,ah me6 what perils do environ ,the man that meddles with cold iron6--,hudibras cor4 ,,the ,,key4--,,part ,,iii4--,,syntax4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,sentences4 ,the first chapter of ,syntax1 being appropriated to general views of this part of grammar1 to an exhibition of its leading doctrines1 and to the several forms of sentential analysis1 with an application of its principal rules in parsing1 contains no false grammar for correction2 and has1 of course1 nothing to correspond to it1 in this ,key1 except the title1 which is here inserted for form's sake4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,articles4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,the ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,i4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,an ,,or ,a4 ,i have seen a horrible thing in the house of ,israel4--,bible cor4 ,there is a harshness in the following sentences4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aeb4 ,indeed1 such a one is not to be looked for4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,if each of you will be disposed to approve himself a useful citizen4--,id4 ,land with them had acquired almost a ,european value4--,webster cor4 ,he endeavoured to find out a wholesome remedy4--,neef cor4 ,at no time have we attended a yearly meeting more to our own satisfaction4--,the ,friend cor4 ,addison was not a humorist in character4--,kames cor4 ,ah me6 what a one was he6--,lily cor4 ,he was such a one as ,i never saw before--,id4 ,no man can be a good preacher1 who is not a useful one4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,a usage which is too frequent with ,mr4 ,addison4--,id4 ,nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of a horse4--,locke cor4 ,a universality seems to be aimed at by the omission of the article4--,priestley cor4 ,architecture is a useful as well as a fine art4--,kames cor4 ,because the same individual conjunctions do not preserve a uniform signification4-- ,nutting cor4 ,such a work required the patience and assiduity of a hermit4--,johnson cor4 ,resentment is a union of sorrow with malignity4--,id4 ,his bravery1 we know1 was a high courage of blasphemy4--,pope cor4 ,,hyssop2 an herb of bitter taste4--,pike cor4 ,on each enervate string they taught the note ,to pant1 or tremble through a eunuch's throat4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,an ,,or ,a ,,with ,,plurals4 ,at a session of the court1 in ,march1 it was moved1 c4--,hutchinson cor4 ,i shall relate my conversations1 of which ,i kept memoranda4--,d4 ,d',ab4 cor4 ,i took an other dictionary1 and with a pair of scissors cut out1 for instance1 the word ,,abacus4--,a4 ,b4 ,johnson cor4 ,a person very meet seemed he for the purpose1 and about forty-five years old4--,gardiner cor4 ,and it came to pass1 about eight days after these sayings4--,bible cor4 ,there were slain of them about three thousand men4--#a ,macc4 cor4 ,until ,i had gained the top of these white mountains1 which seemed other ,alps of snow4--,addison cor4 ,to make them satisfactory amends for all the losses they had sustained4--,goldsmith cor4 ,as a first-fruit of many that shall be gathered4--,barclay cor4 ,it makes indeed a little amend1 7or some amends17 by inciting us to oblige people4--,sheffield cor4 ,a large and lightsome back stairway 7or flight of backstairs7 leads up to an entry above4--,id4 ,peace of mind is an abundant recompense for any sacrifices of interest4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,with such a spirit1 and such sentiments1 were hostilities carried on4--,robertson cor4 ,in the midst of a thick wood1 he had long lived a voluntary recluse4--,g4 ,b4 ,the flats look almost like a young forest4--,chronicle cor4 ,as we went on1 the country for a little way improved1 but scantily4--,freeman cor4 ,whereby the ,jews were permitted to return into their own country1 after a captivity of seventy years at ,babylon4--,rollin cor4 ,he did not go a great way into the country4--,gilbert cor4 ,a large amend by fortune's hand is made1 ,and the lost ,punic blood is well repay'd4--,rowe cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,nouns ,,connected4 ,as where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds1 and the odour of flowers4--,kames cor4 ,the last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent1 and the softness of its pause4--,id4 ,before the use of the loadstone1 or the knowledge of the compass4--,dryden cor4 ,the perfect participle and the imperfect tense ought not to be confounded4--,murray cor4 ,in proportion as the taste of a poet or an orator becomes more refined4--,blair cor4 ,a situation can never be more intricate1 so long as there is an angel1 a devil1 or a musician1 to lend a helping hand4--,kames cor4 ,avoid rude sports3 an eye is soon lost1 or a bone broken4--,inst41 p4 #bfb4 ,not a word was uttered1 nor a sign given4--,ib4 ,i despise not the doer1 but the deed4--,ib4 ,for the sake of an easier pronunciation and a more agreeable sound4--,lowth cor4 ,the levity as well as the loquacity of the ,greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history4-- ,bolingbroke cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,adjectives ,,connected4 ,it is proper that the vowels be a long and a short one4--,murray cor4 ,whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or a short time before4--,id4 et al4 ,there are three genders2 the masculine1 the feminine1 and the neuter4--,adam cor4 ,the numbers are two2 the singular and the plural4--,id4 et al4 ,the persons are three2 the first1 the second1 and the third4--,iidem4 ,nouns and pronouns have three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4-- ,comly and ,ing4 cor4 ,verbs have five moods2 namely1 the infinitive1 the indicative1 the potential1 the subjunctive1 and the imperative4-- ,bullions et al4 cor4 ,how many numbers have pronouns8 ,two1 the singular and the plural4--,bradley cor4 ,to distinguish between an interrogative and an exclamatory sentence4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,the first and the last of which are compound members4--,lowth cor4 ,in the last lecture1 ,i treated of the concise and the diffuse1 the nervous and the feeble manner4--,blair cor4 ,the passive and the neuter verbs ,i shall reserve for some future conversation4--,ingersoll cor4 ,there are two voices2 the active and the passive4--,adam et al4 cor4 ,,whose is rather the poetical than the regular genitive of ,,which4--,johnson cor4 ,to feel the force of a compound or a derivative word4--,town cor4 ,to preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and the disjunctive conjunctions4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,e has a long and a short sound in most languages4--,bicknell cor4 ,when the figurative and the literal sense are mixed and jumbled together4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the ,hebrew1 with which the ,canaanitish and the ,phoenician stand in connexion4--,conant and ,fowler cor4 ,the languages of ,scandinavia proper1 the ,norwegian and the ,swedish4--,fowler cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,adjectives ,,connected4 ,the path of truth is a plain and safe path4--,murray cor4 ,directions for acquiring a just and happy elocution4--,kirkham cor4 ,its leading object is1 to adopt a correct and easy method4--,id4 ,how can it choose but wither in a long and sharp winter8--,cowley cor4 ,into a dark and distant unknown4--,dr4 ,chalmers cor4 ,when the bold and strong enslaved his fellow man4--,chazotte cor4 ,we now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accurate and perfect sentence4--,murray cor4 ,and hence arises a second and very considerable source of the improvement of taste4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,novelty produces in the mind a vivid and agreeable emotion4--,id4 ,the deepest and bitterest feeling still is that of the separation4--,dr4 ,m',rie cor4 ,a great and good man looks beyond time4--,see ,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bfc4 ,they made but a weak and ineffectual resistance4--,ib4 ,the light and worthless kernels will float4--,ib4 ,i rejoice that there is an other and better world4--,ib4 ,for he is determined to revise his work1 and present to the public an other and better edition4--,kirkham cor4 ,he hoped that this title would secure to him an ample and independent authority4--,l4 ,murray cor4 et al4 ,there is1 however1 an other and more limited sense4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,articles ,,or ,,plurals4 ,this distinction forms what are called the diffuse style and the concise4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,two different modes of speaking1 distinguished at first by the denominations of the ,attic manner and the ,asiatic4--,adams cor4 ,but the great design of uniting the ,spanish and ,french monarchies under the former1 was laid4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,in the solemn and poetic styles1 it do or did is often rejected4--,allen cor4 ,they cannot be1 at the same time1 in both the objective case and the nominative4 ,or3 ,they cannot be1 at the same time1 in both the objective and the nominative case4 ,or3 ,they cannot be1 at the same time1 in the nominative case1 and also in the objective4 ,or3 ,they cannot be1 at the same time1 in the nominative and objective cases4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #adh4 ,or1 better3 ,they cannot be1 at the same time1 in both cases1 the nominative and the objective4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,they are named the positive1 comparative1 and superlative degrees4--,smart cor4 ,certain adverbs are capable of taking an inflection2 namely1 that of the comparative and superlative degrees4--,fowler cor4 ,in the subjunctive mood1 the present and imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,the imperfect1 the perfect1 the pluperfect1 and the first-future tense1 of this mood1 are conjugated like the same tenses of the indicative4--,kirkham bettered4 ,what rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third persons8--,id4 ,nouns are sometimes in the nominative or the objective case after the neuter verb be1 or after an active-intransitive or a passive verb4 ,the verb varies its ending in the singular1 in order to agree with its nominative1 in the first1 second1 and third persons4--,id4 ,they are identical in effect with the radical and the vanishing stress4--,rush cor4 ,in a sonnet1 the first1 the fourth1 the fifth1 and the eighth line1 usually rhyme to one an other3 so do the second1 third1 sixth1 and seventh lines2 the ninth1 eleventh1 and thirteenth lines2 and the tenth1 twelfth1 and fourteenth lines4--,churchill cor4 ,the iron and golden ages are run2 youth and manhood are departed4--,wright cor4 ,if1 as you say1 the iron and the golden age are past1 the youth and the manhood of the world4--,id4 ,an ,exposition of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4--,henry cor4 ,the names and order of the books of the ,old and the ,new ,testament4--,bible cor4 ,in the second and third persons of that tense4--,murray cor4 ,and who still unites in himself the human and the divine nature4--,gurney cor4 ,among whom arose the ,italian1 ,spanish1 ,french1 and ,english languages4--,murray cor4 ,whence arise these two numbers1 the singular and the plural4--,burn cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,correspondent ,,terms4 ,neither the definitions nor the examples are entirely the same as his4--,ward cor4 ,because it makes a discordance between the thought and the expression4--,kames cor4 ,between the adjective and the following substantive4--,id4 ,thus ,athens became both the repository and the nursery of learning4--,chazotte cor4 ,but the ,french pilfered from both the ,greek and the ,latin4--,id4 ,he shows that ,christ is both the power and the wisdom of ,god4--,the ,friend cor4 ,that he might be ,lord both of the dead and of the living4--,bible cor4 ,this is neither the obvious nor the grammatical meaning of his words4--,blair cor4 ,sometimes both the accusative and the infinitive are understood4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,in some cases1 we can use either the nominative or the accusative1 promiscuously4--,iidem4 ,both the former and the latter substantive are sometimes to be understood4--,iidem4 ,many of which have escaped both the commentator and the poet himself4--,pope cor4 ,the verbs ,,must and ,,ought1 have both a present and a past signification4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,how shall we distinguish between the friends and the enemies of the government8--,dr4 ,webster cor4 ,both the ecclesiastical and the secular powers concurred in those measures4--,dr4 ,campbell cor4 ,as the period has a beginning and an end within itself1 it implies an inflection4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams cor4 ,such as ought to subsist between a principal and an accessory4--,ld4 ,kames cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,correspondence ,,peculiar4 ,when both the upward and the downward slide occur in the sound of one syllable1 they are called a ,,circumflex1 or ,,wave4--,kirkham cor4 ,the word ,,that is used both in the nominative and in the objective case4--,sanborn cor4 ,but in all the other moods and tenses1 both of the active and of the passive voice the verbs are conjugated at large4--,murray cor4 ,some writers on grammar1 admitting the second-future tense into the indicative mood1 reject it from the subjunctive4--,id4 ,after the same conjunction1 to use both the indicative and the subjunctive mood in the same sentence1 and under the same circumstances1 seems to be a great impropriety4--,id4 ,the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative mood in this tense4--,id4 ,i doubt of his capacity to teach either the ,french or the ,english language4--,chazotte cor4 ,it is as necessary to make a distinction between the active-transitive and the active-intransitive verb1 as between the active and the passive4--,nixon cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,a ,,series ,,of ,,terms4 ,as comprehending the terms uttered by the artist1 the mechanic1 and the husbandman4--,chazotte cor4 ,they may be divided into four classes2 the ,humanists1 the ,philanthropists1 the ,pestalozzians1 and the ,productives4--,smith cor4 ,verbs have six tenses2 the present1 the imperfect1 the perfect1 the pluperfect1 the first-future1 and the second-future4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,is it an irregular neuter verb from be1 was1 being1 been2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and singular number4--,murray cor4 ,,should ,,give is an irregular active-transitive verb from give1 gave1 given1 giving2 found in the potential mood1 imperfect tense1 first person1 and plural number4--,id4 ,,us is a personal pronoun1 of the first person1 plural number1 masculine gender1 and objective case4--,id4 ,,them is a personal pronoun1 of the third person1 plural number1 masculine gender1 and objective case4--,id4 ,it is surprising that the ,jewish critics1 with all their skill in dots1 points1 and accents1 never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation1 a point of admiration1 or a parenthesis4--,dr4 ,wilson cor4 ,the fifth1 sixth1 seventh1 and eighth verses4 ,or3 ,the fifth1 the sixth1 the seventh1 and the eighth verse4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,substitutes have three persons2 the ,first1 the ,second1 and the ,third4--,id4 ,,john',s is a proper noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and possessive case3 and is governed by ',,wife1' according to ,rule #dth1 which says1 c4--,smith cor4 ,nouns1 in the ,english language1 have three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,bar4 and ,alex4 cor4 ,the potential mood has four tenses2 viz41 the present1 the imperfect1 the perfect1 and the pluperfect4--,ingersoll cor4 ,where ,science1 ,law1 and ,liberty depend1 ,and own the patron1 patriot1 and friend4--,savage cor4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,species ,,and ,,genus4 ,the pronoun is a part of speech#ecb put for the noun4--,paul's ,ac4 cor4 ,the verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense4--,id4 ,the participle is a part of speech derived from the verb4--,id4 ,the adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 or other adverbs1 to declare their signification4--,id4 ,the conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together4--,id4 ,the preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts4--,id4 ,the interjection is a part of speech which betokens a sudden emotion or passion of the mind4--,id4 ,the enigma1 or riddle1 is also a species of allegory4--,blair and ,murray cor4 ,we may take from the ,scriptures a very fine example of the allegory4--,iidem4 ,and thus have you exhibited a sort of sketch of art4--,harris cor4 ,we may 'imagine a subtle kind of reasoning1' as ,mr4 ,harris acutely observes4--,churchill cor4 ,but1 before entering on these1 ,i shall give one instance of metaphor1 very beautiful1 7or1 one very beautiful instance of metaphor17 that ,i may show the figure to full advantage4--,blair cor4 ,aristotle1 in his ,poetics1 uses metaphor in this extended sense1 for any figurative meaning imposed upon a word2 as the whole put for a part1 or a part for the whole2 a species for the genus1 or the genus for a species4--,id4 ,it shows what kind of apple it is of which we are speaking4--,kirkham cor4 ,cleon was an other sort of man4--,goldsmith cor4 ,to keep off his right wing1 as a kind of reserved body4--,id4 ,this part of speech is called the verb4--,mack cor4 ,what sort of thing is it8--,hiley cor4 ,what sort of charm do they possess8--,bullions cor4 ,dear ,welsted1 mark1 in dirty hole1 ,that painful animal1 the mole4--,dunciad cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,articles ,,not ,,requisite4 ,either thou or the boys were in fault4--,comly cor4 ,it may1 at first view1 appear to be too general4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,when the verb has reference to future time4--,iidem4 ,no2 they are the language of imagination1 rather than of passion4--,blair cor4 ,the dislike of ,english ,grammar1 which has so generally prevailed1 can be attributed only to the intricacy of our syntax4--,russell cor4 ,is that ornament in good taste8--,kames cor4 ,there are not many fountains in good taste4 ,or3 ,not many fountains are ornamented in good taste4--,id4 ,and ,i persecuted this way unto death4--,bible cor4 ,the sense of feeling can1 indeed1 give us a notion of extension4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #daa4 ,the distributive adjectives1 each1 every1 either1 agree with nouns1 pronouns1 or verbs1 of the singular number only4--,murray cor4 ,expressing by one word1 what might1 by a circumlocution1 be resolved into two or more words belonging to other parts of speech4--,blair cor4 ,by certain muscles which operate in harmony1 and all at the same time4--,murray cor4 ,it is sufficient here to have observed thus much in general concerning them4--,campbell cor4 ,nothing disgusts us sooner than empty pomp of language4--,murray cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,titles ,,and ,,names4 ,he is entitled to the appellation of gentleman4--,g4 ,brown4 ,cromwell assumed the title of ,protector--,id4 ,her father is honoured with the title of ,earl4--,id4 ,the chief magistrate is styled ,president4-- ,id4 ,the highest title in the state is that of ,governor4--,id4 ,that boy is known by the name of ,idler4--,murray cor4 ,the one styled ,mufti1 is the head of the ministers of law and religion4--,balbi cor4 ,ranging all that possessed them under one class1 he called that whole class tree4--,blair cor4 ,for oak1 pine1 and ash1 were names of whole classes of objects4--,id4 ,it is of little importance whether we give to some particular mode of expression the name of trope1 or of figure4--,id4 ,the collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all combinations1 and has been doomed to peculiar reprobation under the name of hiatus4--,adams cor4 ,we hesitate to determine1 whether ,tyrant alone is the nominative1 or whether the nominative includes the word ,spy4--,cobbett cor4 ,hence originated the customary abbreviation of twelve months into twelvemonth2 of seven nights into sennight2 of fourteen nights into fortnight4--,webster cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,comparisons ,,and ,,alternatives4 ,he is a better writer than reader4--,w4 ,allen4 ,he was an abler mathematician than linguist4--,id4 ,i should rather have an orange than an apple4--,g4 ,brown4 ,he was no less able as a negotiator1 than courageous as a warrior4--,smollett cor4 ,in an epic poem1 we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a sonnet or an epigram4--,kames cor4 ,that figure is a sphere1 globe1 or ball4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #ceg4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiv4--,,antecedents ,,to ,,who ,,or ,,which4 ,the carriages which were formerly in use1 were very clumsy4--,key to ,inst4 ,the place is not mentioned by the geographers who wrote at that time4--,ib4 ,those questions which a person puts to himself in contemplation1 ought to be terminated with points of interrogation4-- ,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,the work is designed for the use of those persons who may think it merits a place in their libraries4--,mur4 cor4 ,that those who think confusedly1 should express themselves obscurely1 is not to be wondered at4--,id4 ,those grammarians who limit the number to two1 or three1 do not reflect4--,id4 ,the substantives which end in ian1 are those that signify profession4 ,or3 ,those substantives which end in ian1 are such as signify profession4--,id4 ,to these may be added those verbs which1 among the poets1 usually govern the dative4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,the consonants are those letters which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel4--,bucke cor4 ,to employ the curiosity of persons skilled in grammar3--of those who are skilled in grammar3--of persons that are skilled in grammar3--of such persons as are skilled in grammar3 or--of those persons who are skilled in grammar4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,this rule refers only to those nouns and pronouns which have the same bearing1 or relation4--,id4 ,so that the things which are seen1 were not made of things that do appear4--,bible cor4 ,man is an imitative creature2 he may utter again the sounds which he has heard4--,dr4 ,wilson cor4 ,but those men whose business is wholly domestic1 have little or no use for any language but their own4--,dr4 ,webster cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xv4--,,participial ,,nouns4 ,great benefit may be reaped from the reading of histories4--,sewel cor4 ,and some attempts were made towards the writing of history4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,it is an invading of the priest's office1 for any other to offer it--,leslie cor4 ,and thus far of the forming of verbs4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,and without the shedding of blood there is no remission4--,bible cor4 ,for the making of measures1 we have the best method here in ,england4--,printer's ,gram4 cor4 ,this is really both an admitting and a denying at once4--,butler cor4 ,and hence the origin of the making of parliaments4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,next thou objectest1 that the having of saving light and grace presupposes conversion4 ,but that ,i deny3 for1 on the contrary1 conversion presupposes the having of light and grace4--,barclay cor4 ,they cried down the wearing of rings and other superfluities1 as we do4--,id4 ,whose adorning1 let it not be that outward adorning1 of the plaiting of the hair1 and of the wearing of gold1 or of the putting-on of apparel4--,bible cor4 ,in the spelling of derivative words1 the primitives must be kept whole4--,brit4 ,gram4 and ,buchanan's cor4 ,and the princes offered for the dedicating of the altar4--,numb4 cor4 ,boasting is not only a telling of lies1 but also of many unseemly truths4--,sheffield cor4 ,we freely confess that the forbearing of prayer in the wicked is sinful4--,barclay cor4 ,for the revealing of a secret1 there is no remedy4--,g4 ,brown4 ,he turned all his thoughts to the composing of laws for the good of the ,state4--,rollin cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xvi4--,,participles1 ,,not ,,nouns4 ,it is salvation to be kept from falling into a pit1 as truly as to be taken out of it after falling in4--,barclay cor4 ,for in receiving and embracing the testimony of truth1 they felt their souls eased4--,id4 ,true regularity does not consist in having but a single rule1 and forcing every thing to conform to it4--,phil4 ,museum cor4 ,to the man of the world1 this sound of glad tidings appears only an idle tale1 and not worth attending to4--,say cor4 ,to be the deliverer of the captive ,jews1 by ordering their temple to be rebuilt1 c4--,rollin cor4 ,and for preserving them from being defiled4--,discip4 cor4 ,a wise man will forbear to show any excellence in trifles4--,kames cor4 ,hirsutus had no other reason for valuing a book4--,johnson1 and ,wright1 cor4 ,to being heard with satisfaction1 it is necessary that the speaker should deliver himself with ease4 ,perhaps better3 ,to be heard1 c4 ,or3 ,in order to be heard1 c4--,sheridan cor4 ,and1 to the end of being well heard and clearly understood1 a good and distinct articulation contributes more1 than can even the greatest power of voice4--,id4 ,potential purports1 having power or will2 ,as1 ,if you would improve1 you should be still4--,tobitt cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xvii4--,,various ,,errors4 ,for the same reason1 a neuter verb cannot become passive4--,lowth cor4 ,a period is a whole sentence complete in itself4--,id4 ,a colon1 or member1 is a chief constructive part1 or the greatest division1 of a sentence4--,id4 ,a semicolon1 or half-member1 is a smaller constructive part1 or a subdivision1 of a sentence or of a member4--,id4 ,a sentence or a member is again subdivided into commas1 or segments4--,id4 ,the first error that ,i would mention is1 too general an attention to the dead languages1 with a neglect of our own tongue4--,webster cor4 ,one third of the importations would supply the demands of the people4--,id4 ,and especially in a grave style4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #agh4 ,by too eager a pursuit1 he ran a great risk of being disappointed4--,murray cor4 ,the letters are divided into vowels and consonants4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,the consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels4--,iidem4 ,the first of these forms is the most agreeable to the ,english idiom4--,murray cor4 ,if they gain1 it is at too dear a rate4--,barclay cor4 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun1 to prevent too frequent a repetition of it4--,maunder cor4 ,this vulgar error might perhaps arise from too partial a fondness for the ,latin4--,ash cor4 ,the groans which too heavy a load extorts from her4--,hitchcock cor4 ,the numbers of a verb are1 of course1 the singular and the plural4--,bucke cor4 ,to brook no meanness1 and to stoop to no dissimulation1 are indications of a great mind4--,murray cor4 ,this mode of expression rather suits the familiar than the grave style4--,id4 ,this use of the word best suits a familiar and low style4--,priestley cor4 ,according to the nature of the composition1 the one or the other may be predominant4--,blair cor4 ,yet the commonness of such sentences prevents in a great measure too early an expectation of the end4--,campbell cor4 ,a eulogy or a philippic may be pronounced by an individual of one nation upon a subject of an other4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams cor4 ,a ,french sermon is1 for the most part1 a warm animated exhortation4--,blair cor4 ,i do not envy those who think slavery no very pitiable lot4--,channing cor4 ,the auxiliary and the principal united constitute a tense4--,murray cor4 ,there are some verbs which are defective with respect to the persons4--,id4 ,in youth1 habits of industry are the most easily acquired4--,id4 ,the apostrophe 7'7 is used in place of a letter left out4--,bullions cor4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,cases1 ,,or ,,nouns4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,ii2 ,,of ,,nominatives4 ,the whole need not a physician1 but they that are sick4--,bunyan cor4 ,he will in no wise cast out whosoever cometh unto him4 ,better3 ,he will in no wise cast out any that come unto him4--,hall cor4 ,he feared the enemy might fall upon his men1 who1 he saw1 were off their guard4--,hutchinson cor4 ,whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile1 go with him twain4--,matt41 v1 #da4 ,the ideas of the author have been conversant with the faults of other writers4--,swift cor4 ,you are a much greater loser than ,i1 by his death4 ,or3 ,thou art a much greater loser by his death than ,i4--,id4 ,such peccadilloes pass with him for pious frauds4--,barclay cor4 ,in whom ,i am nearly concerned1 and who1 ,i know1 would be very apt to justify my whole procedure4--,id4 ,do not think such a man as ,i contemptible for my garb4--,addison cor4 ,his wealth and he bid adieu to each other4--,priestley cor4 ,so that1 ',he is greater than ,i1' will be more grammatical than1 ',he is greater than me4'--,id4 ,the ,jesuits had more interests at court than he4--,id4 and ,smollett cor4 ,tell the ,cardinal that ,i understand poetry better than he4--,iid4 ,an inhabitant of ,crim ,tartary was far more happy than he4--,iid4 ,my father and he have been very intimate since4--,fair ,am4 cor4 ,who was the agent1 and who1 the object struck or kissed8--,mrs4 ,bethune cor4 ,to find the person who1 he imagined1 was concealed there4--,kirkham cor4 ,he offered a great recompense to whosoever would help him4 ,better3 ,he offered a great recompense to any one who would help him4--,hume and ,pr4 cor4 ,they would be under the dominion1 absolute and unlimited1 of whosoever 7or any one who7 might exercise the right of judgement4--,haynes cor4 ,they had promised to accept whosoever 7or any one who7 should be born in ,wales4--,croker cor4 ,we sorrow not as they that have no hope4--,maturin cor4 ,if he suffers1 he suffers as they that have no hope4--,id4 ,we acknowledge that he1 and he only1 hath been our peacemaker4--,gratton cor4 ,and what can be better than he that made it8--,jenks cor4 ,none of his school-fellows is more beloved than he4--,cooper cor4 ,solomon1 who was wiser than they all4--,watson cor4 ,those who the ,jews thought were the last to be saved1 first entered the kingdom of ,god4--,tract cor4 ,a stone is heavy1 and the sand weighty2 but a fool's wrath is heavier than both4--,bible cor4 ,a man of business1 in good company1 is hardly more insupportable1 than she whom they call a notable woman4--,steele cor4 ,the king of the ,sarmatians1 who we may imagine was no small prince1 restored to him a hundred thousand ,roman prisoners4--,life of ,anton4 cor4 ,such notions would be avowed at this time by none but rosicrucians1 and fanatics as mad as they4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bjc4 ,unless1 as ,i said1 ,messieurs1 you are the masters1 and not ,i4--,hall cor4 ,we had drawn up against peaceable travellers1 who must have been as glad as we to escape4--,burnes cor4 ,stimulated1 in turn1 by their approbation and that of better judges than they1 she turned to their literature with redoubled energy4--,quarterly ,rev4 cor4 ,i know not who else are expected4--,scott cor4 ,he is great1 but truth is greater than we all4 ,or3 ,he is great1 but truth is greater than any of us4--,h4 ,mann cor44 ,he ,i accuse has entered4 ,or1 by ellipsis of the antecedent1 thus3 ,whom ,i accuse has entered4--,fowler cor42 also ,shakspeare4 ,scotland and thou did each in other live4--,dryden cor4 ,we are alone2 here's none but thou and ,i4--,shak4 cor4 ,i rather would1 my heart might feel your love1 ,than my unpleas'd eye see your courtesy4--,shak4 cor4 ,tell me1 in sadness1 who is she you love8--,shak4 cor4 ,better leave undone1 than by our deeds acquire ,too high a fame1 when he we serve's away4--,shak4 cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,iii2 ,,of ,,apposition4 ,now1 therefore1 come thou1 let us make a covenant1 thee and me4--,bible cor4 ,now1 therefore1 come thou1 we will make a covenant1 thou and ,i4--,variation corrected4 ,the word came not to ,esau1 the hunter1 that stayed not at home2 but to ,jacob1 the plain man1 him that dwelt in tents4--,penn cor4 ,not to every man1 but to the man of ,god1 7i4e417 him that is led by the spirit of ,god4--,barclay cor4 ,for1 admitting ,god to be a creditor1 or him to whom the debt should be paid1 and ,christ him that satisfies or pays it on behalf of man the debtor1 this question will arise1 whether he paid that debt as ,god1 or man1 or both8--,penn cor4 ,this ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 the heavenly ,man1 the ,emmanuel1 ,god with us1 we own and believe in3 him whom the high priests raged against1 c4--,fox cor4 ,christ1 and ,he crucified1 was the ,alpha and ,omega of all his addresses1 the fountain and foundation of his hope and trust4--,exp4 cor4 ,christ1 and ,he crucified1 is the head1 and the only head1 of the church4--,denison cor4 ,but if ,christ1 and ,he crucified1 is the burden of the ministry1 such disastrous results are all avoided4--,id4 ,he never let fall the least intimation1 that himself1 or any other person whosoever1 was the object of worship4--,view cor4 ,let the elders that rule well1 be counted worthy of double honour1 especially them who labour in the word and doctrine4--,bible cor4 ,our ,shepherd1 he who is styled ,king of saints1 will assuredly give his saints the victory4--,sermon cor4 ,it may seem odd1 to talk of us subscribers4--,fowle cor4 ,and they shall have none to bury them3 they1 their wives1 nor their sons1 nor#ecc their daughters2 for ,i will pour their wickedness upon them4--,bible cor4 ,yet ,i supposed it necessary to send to you ,epaphroditus1 my brother1 and companion in labour1 and fellow-soldier1 but your messenger1 and him that ministered to my wants4--,bible cor4 ,amidst the tumult of the routed train1 ,the sons of false ,antimachus were slain2 ,him who for bribes his faithless counsels sold1 ,and voted ,helen's stay for ,paris' gold4--,pope cor4 ,see the vile ,king his iron sceptre bear-- ,his only praise attends the pious heir2 ,him in whose soul the virtues all conspire1 ,the best good son1 from the worst wicked sire4--,lowth cor4 ,then from thy lips poured forth a joyful song ,to thy ,redeemer6--yea1 it poured along ,in most melodious energy of praise1 ,to ,god1 the ,saviour1 him of ancient days4--,arm ,chair cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,iv2 ,,of ,,possessives4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,the ,,possessive ,,form4 ,man's chief good is an upright mind4--,key to ,inst4 ,the translator of ,mallet's ,history has the following note4--,webster cor4 ,the act1 while it gave five years' full pay to the officers1 allowed but one year's pay to the privates4--,id4 ,for the study of ,english is preceded by several years' attention to ,latin and ,greek4--,id4 ,the first1 the ,court-,baron1 is the freeholders' or freemen's court4--,coke cor4 ,i affirm that ,vaugelas's definition labours under an essential defect4--,campbell cor42 and also ,murray4 ,there is a chorus in ,aristophanes's plays4--,blair cor4 ,it denotes the same perception in my mind as in theirs4--,duncan cor4 ,this afterwards enabled him to read ,hickes's ,saxon ,grammar4--,life of ,dr4 ,mur4 cor4 ,i will not do it for ten's sake4--,ash cor4 ,or3 ,i will not destroy it for ten's sake4--,gen41 xviii1 #cb4 ,i arose1 and asked if those charming infants were hers4--,werter cor4 ,they divide their time between milliners' shops and the taverns4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,the angels' adoring of ,adam is also mentioned in the ,talmud4--,sale cor4 ,quarrels arose from the winners' insulting of those who lost4--,id4 ,the vacancy occasioned by ,mr4 ,adams's resignation4--,adv4 to ,adams's ,rhet4 cor4 ,read1 for instance1 ,junius's address1 commonly called his ,letter to the ,king4--,adams cor4 ,a perpetual struggle against the tide of ,hortensius's influence4--,id4 ,which1 for distinction's sake1 ,i shall put down severally4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,the fifth case is in a clause signifying the matter of one's fear4--,id4 ,and they took counsel1 and bought with them the potter's field4--,alger cor4 ,arise for thy servants' help1 and redeem them for thy mercy's sake4--,jenks cor4 ,shall not their cattle1 their substance1 and every beast of theirs1 be ours8--,,com4 ,,bible3 ,gen41 xxxiv1 #bc4 ,its regular plural1 bullaces1 is used by ,bacon4--,churchill cor4 ,mordecai walked every day before the court of the women's house4--,scott cor4 ,behold1 they that wear soft clothing1 are in kings' houses4--,alger's ,bible4 ,then ,jethro1 ,moses's father-in-law1 took ,zipporah1 ,moses's wife1 and her two sons2 and ,jethro1 ,moses's father-in-law1 came1 with his sons and his wife1 unto ,moses4--,scott's ,bible4 ,king ,james's translators merely revised former translations4--,frazee cor4 ,may they be like corn on houses' tops4--,white cor4 ,and for his ,maker's image' sake exempt4--,milton cor4 ,by all the fame acquired in ten years' war4--,rowe cor4 ,nor glad vile poets with true critics' gore4--,pope cor4 ,man only of a softer mold is made1 ,not for his fellows' ruin1 but their aid4--,dryden cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,possessives ,,connected4 ,it was necessary to have both the physician's and the surgeon's advice4--,l4 ,murray's ,false ,syntax1 ,rule #aj4 ,this outside fashionableness of the tailor's or the tirewoman's making4--,locke cor4 ,some pretending to be of ,paul's party1 others of ,apollos's1 others of ,cephas's1 and others1 7pretending yet higher17 to be of ,christ's4--,wood cor4 ,nor is it less certain1 that ,spenser and ,milton's spelling agrees better with our pronunciation4--,phil4 ,museum cor4 ,law's1 ,edwards's1 and ,watts's ,survey of the ,divine ,dispensations4 ,or thus3 ,law1 ,edwards1 and ,watts's1 ,surveys of the ,divine ,dispensations4--,burgh cor4 ,and who was ,enoch's ,saviour1 and the prophets'8--,bayly cor4 ,without any impediment but his own1 his parents'1 or his guardian's will4--,journal corrected4 ,james relieves neither the boy's nor the girl's distress4--,nixon cor4 ,john regards neither the master's nor the pupil's advantage4--,id4 ,you reward neither the man's nor the woman's labours4--,id4 ,she examines neither ,james's nor ,john's conduct4--,id4 ,thou pitiest neither the servant's nor the master's injuries4--,id4 ,we promote ,england's or ,ireland's happiness4--,id4 ,were ,cain's and ,abel's occupation the same8--,g4 ,brown4 ,were ,cain and ,abel's occupations the same8--,id4 ,what was ,simon and ,andrew's employment8--,id4 ,till he can read for himself ,sanctius's ,minerva with ,scioppius's and ,perizonius's ,notes4--,locke cor4 ,and love and friendship's finely-pointed dart ,falls blunted from each indurated heart4 ,or3-- ,and love's and friendship's finely-pointed dart ,fall blunted from each indurated heart4--,goldsmith cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,choice ,,of ,,forms4 ,but some degree of trouble is the portion of all men4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,with the names of his father and mother upon the blank leaf4--,abbott cor4 ,the general1 in the name of the army1 published a declaration4--,hume cor4 ,the vote of the ,commons4--,id4 ,the ,house of ,lords4--,id4 ,a collection of the faults of writers2--or1 ,a collection of literary faults4--,swift cor4 ,after ten years of wars4--,id4 ,professing his detestation of such practices as those of his predecessors4--,pope cor4 ,by that time ,i shall have ended my year of office4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,for the sake of ,herodias1 the wife of his brother ,philip4--,bible and ,mur4 cor4 ,i endure all things for the sake of the elect1 that they may also obtain salvation4--,bibles cor4 ,he was heir to the son of ,louis the ,sixteenth4--,w4 ,allen4 ,the throne we honour is the people's choice4--,rolla4 ,an account of the proceedings of ,alexander's court4--,inst4 ,an excellent tutor for the child of a person of fashion6--,gil ,blas cor4 ,it is curious enough1 that this sentence of the ,bishop's is1 itself1 ungrammatical4--,cobbett cor4 ,the troops broke into the palace of the ,emperor ,leopold4--,nixon cor4 ,the meeting was called by desire of ,eldon the ,judge4--,id4 ,the occupation of ,peter1 ,john1 and ,andrew1 was that of fishermen4--,murray's ,key1 ,r4 #aj4 ,the debility of the venerable president of the ,royal ,academy1 has lately increased4--,maunder cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,nouns ,,with ,,possessives ,,plural4 ,god hath not given us our reason to no purpose4--,barclay cor4 ,for our sake1 no doubt1 this is written4--,bible cor4 ,are not health and strength of body desirable for their own sake8--,harris and ,murray cor4 ,some sailors who were boiling their dinner upon the shore4--,day cor4 ,and they1 in their turn1 were subdued by others4--,pinnock cor4 ,industry on our part is not superseded by ,god's grace4--,arrowsmith cor4 ,their health perhaps may be pretty well secured4--,locke cor4 ,though he was rich1 yet for your sake he became poor4--,see #b ,cor41 viii1 #i4 ,it were to be wished1 his correctors had been as wise on their part4--,harris cor4 ,the ,arabs are commended by the ancients for being most exact to their word1 and respctful to their kindred4--,sale cor4 ,that is1 as a reward of some exertion on our part4--,gurney cor4 ,so that it went ill with ,moses for their sake4--,ps4 cor4 ,all liars shall have their part in the burning lake4--,watts cor4 ,for our own sake as well as for thine4--,pref4 to ,waller cor4 ,by discovering their ability to detect and amend errors4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,this world ,i do renounce2 and1 in your sight1 ,shake patiently my great affliction off4--,shak4 cor4 ,if your relenting anger yield to treat1 ,pompey and thou1 in safety1 here may meet4--,rowe cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,possessives ,,with ,,participles4 ,this will encourage him to proceed without acquiring the prejudice4--,smith cor4 ,and the notice which they give of an action as being completed or not completed4--,l4 ,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,some obstacle1 or impediment1 that prevents it from taking place4--,priestley and ,a4 ,mur4 cor4 ,they have apostolical authority for so frequently urging the seeking of the ,spirit4--,the ,friend cor4 ,here then is a wide field for reason to exert its powers in relation to the objects of taste4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,now this they derive altogether from their greater capacity of imitation and description4--,id4 ,this is one clear reason why they paid a greater attention to that construction4--,id4 ,the dialogue part had also a modulation of its own1 which was capable of being set to notes4--,id4 ,why are we so often frigid and unpersuasive in public discourse8--,id4 ,which is only a preparation for leading his forces directly upon us4--,id4 ,the nonsense about which1 as relating to things only1 and having no declension1 needs no refutation4--,fowle cor4 ,who1 upon breaking it open1 found nothing but the following inscription4--,rollin cor4 ,a prince will quickly have reason to repent of having exalted one person so high4--,id4 ,notwithstanding it is the immediate subject of his discourse4--,churchill cor4 ,with our definition of it1 as being synonymous with time4--,booth cor4 ,it will considerably increase our danger of being deceived4--,campbell cor4 ,his beauties can never be mentioned without suggesting his blemishes also4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,no example has ever been adduced1 of a man conscientiously approving an action1 because of its badness4 ,or3--of a man who conscientiously approved of an action because of its badness4--,gurney cor4 ,the last episode1 of the angel showing to ,adam the fate of his posterity1 is happily imagined4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,and the news came to my son1 that he and the bride were in ,dublin4--,m4 ,edgeworth cor4 ,there is no room for the mind to exert any great effort4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,one would imagine1 that these critics never so much as heard that ,homer wrote first4--,pope cor4 ,condemn the book1 for not being a geography2 or1--because it is not a geography4--,peirce cor4 ,there will be in many words a transition from being the figurative to being the proper signs of certain ideas4--,campbell cor4 ,the doctrine that the ,pope is the only source of ecclesiastical power4--,rel4 ,world cor4 ,this was the more expedient1 because the work was designed for the benefit of private learners4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,this was done1 because the ,grammar1 being already in type1 did not admit of enlargement4--,id4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,v2 ,,of ,,objectives4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,the ,,objective ,,form4 ,whom should ,i meet the other day but my old friend6--,spect4 cor4 ,let not him boast that puts on his armour1 but him that takes it off4--,barclay cor4 ,let none touch it1 but them who are clean4--,sale cor4 ,let the sea roar1 and the fullness thereof2 the world1 and them that dwell therein4--,ps4 cor4 ,pray be private1 and careful whom you trust4--,mrs4 ,goffe cor4 ,how shall the people know whom to entrust with their property and their liberties8--,j4 ,o4 ,taylor cor4 ,the chaplain entreated my comrade and me to dress as well as possible4--,world cor4 ,and him that cometh to me1 ,i will in no wise cast out4--,john1 vi1 #cg4 ,whom1 during this preparation1 they constantly and solemnly invoke4--,hope of ,is4 cor4 ,whoever or whatever owes us1 is ,debtor2 and whomever or whatever we owe1 is ,creditor4--,marsh cor4 ,declaring the curricle was his1 and he should have in it whom he chose4--,a4 ,ross cor4 ,the fact is1 ,burke is the only one of all the host of brilliant contemporaries1 whom we can rank as a first-rate orator4--,knickerb4 cor4 ,thus you see1 how naturally the ,fribbles and the ,daffodils have produced the ,messalinas of our time4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,they would find in the ,roman list both the ,scipios4--,id4 ,he found his wife's clothes on fire1 and her just expiring4--,observer cor4 ,to present you holy1 and unblamable1 and unreprovable in his sight4--,colossians1 i1 #bb4 ,let the distributer do his duty with simplicity2 the superintendent1 with diligence2 him who performs offices of compassion1 with cheerfulness4--,stuart cor4 ,if the crew rail at the master of the vessel1 whom will they mind8--,collier cor4 ,he having none but them1 they having none but him--,drayton cor4 ,thee1 ,nature1 partial ,nature1 ,i arraign2 ,of thy caprice maternal ,i complain4--,burns cor4 ,nor weens he who it is1 whose charms consume ,his longing soul1 but loves he knows not whom--,addison cor4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,of ,,verbs ,,transitive4 ,when it gives that sense1 and also connects sentences1 it is a conjunction4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,though thou wilt not acknowledge thyself to--be guilty1 thou canst not deny the fact stated4--,id4 ,they specify some object1 like many other adjectives1 and also connect sentences4--,kirkham cor4 ,a violation of this rule tends so much to perplex the reader and obscure the sense1 that it is safer to err by using too many short sentences4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,a few exercises are subjoined to each important definition1 for him the pupil to practise upon as he proceeds in committing the grammar to memory4--,nutting cor4 ,a verb signifying an action directly transitive1 governs the accusative4--,adam et al4 cor4 ,or1 any word that can be conjugated1 is a verb4--,kirkham cor4 ,in these two concluding sentences1 the author1 hastening to a close1 appears to write rather carelessly4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,he simply reasons on one side of the question1 and then leaves it4--,id4 ,praise to ,god teaches us to be humble and lowly ourselves4--,atterbury cor4 ,this author has endeavoured to surpass his rivals4--,r4 ,w4 ,green cor4 ,idleness and pleasure fatigue a man as soon as business4--,webster cor4 ,and1 in conjugating any verb1--or1 ,and in learning conjugations1 you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied4--,kirkham cor4 ,he said ,virginia would have emancipated her slaves long ago4--,lib4 cor4 ,and having a readiness--or1 ,and holding ourselves in readiness--or1 ,and being in readiness--to revenge all disobedience4--,bible cor4 ,however1 in these cases1 custom generally determines what is right4--,wright cor4 ,in proof1 let the following cases be taken4--,id4 ,we must marvel that he should so speedily have forgotten his first principles4--,id4 ,how should we wonder at the expression1 ',this is a soft question6' --,id4 ,and such as prefer this course1 can parse it as a possessive adjective4--,goodenow cor4 ,to assign all the reasons that induced the author to deviate from other grammarians1 would lead to a needless prolixity4--,alexander cor4 ,the ,indicative ,mood simply indicates or declares a thing4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,verbs ,,intransitive4 ,in his seventh chapter he expatiates at great length4--,barclay cor4 ,he quarrels with me for adducing some ancient testimonies agreeing with what ,i say4--,id4 ,repenting of his design4--,hume cor4 ,henry knew1 that an excommunication could not fail to produce the most dangerous effects4--,id4 ,the popular lords did not fail to enlarge on the subject1--,mrs4 ,macaulay cor4 ,he is always master of his subject1 and seems to play with it3 or1--seems to sport himself with it4--,blair cor4 ,but as soon as it amounts to real disease1 all his secret infirmities show themselves4--,id4 ,no man repented of his wickedness4--,bible cor4 ,go one way or other1 either on the right hand1 or on the left1--,id4 ,he lies down by the river's edge4 ,or3 ,he lays himself down on the river's brink--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,for some years past1 ,i have had an ardent wish to retire to some of our ,american plantations4--,cowley cor4 ,i fear thou wilt shrink from the payment of it4--,ware cor4 ,we never retain an idea1 without acquiring some combination4--,rippingham cor4 ,yet more2 the stroke of death he must abide1 ,then lies he meekly down1 fast by his brethren's side4 --,milton cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,of ,,verbs ,,misapplied4 ,the parliament confiscated the property of all those who had borne arms against the king4--,hume cor4 ,the practice of confiscating ships that had been wrecked'--,id4 ,the nearer his military successes brought him to the throne4 ,or3 ,the nearer1 through his military successes1 he approached the throne4--,id4 ,in the next example1 'you' represents 'ladies2' therefore it is plural4--,kirkham cor4 ,the first 'its' stands for 'vale2' the second 'its' represents 'stream'4-- ,id4 ,pronouns do not always prevent the repetition of nouns4--,id4 ,very is an adverb of degree2 it relates to the adjective good--,id4 ,you will please to commit to memory the following paragraph4--,id4 ,even the ,greek and ,latin passive verbs form some of their tenses by means of auxiliaries4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,the deponent verbs in ,latin also employ auxiliaries to form several of their tenses4--,id4 ,i have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs1 as any body has made since4--,id4 ,monotonous delivery assumes as many set forms1 as ever ,proteus did of fleeting shapes4--,kirkham cor4 ,when words in apposition are uttered in quick succession4--,nixon cor4 ,where many such sentences occur in succession4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,wisdom leads us to speak and do what is most proper4--,blair and ,l4 ,murray cor4 ,jul4 ,art thou not ,romeo1 and a ,montague8 ,rom4 ,neither1 fair saint1 if either thee displease4 ,or3-- ,neither1 fair saint1 if either thou dislike4--,shak4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,passive ,,verbs4 ,to us1 too1 must be allowed the privilege of forming our own laws4 ,or3 ,we too must have the privilege1 c4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,for not only is the use of all the ancient poetic feet allowed to us1 c4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,by what code of morals is the right or privilege denied me8--,bartlett cor4 ,to the children of ,israel alone1 has the possession of it been denied4--,keith cor4 ,at ,york1 all quarter was refused to fifteen hundred ,jews4--,id4 ,he would teach the ,french language in three lessons1 provided there were paid him fifty-five dollars in advance4--,prof4 ,chazotte cor4 ,and when it was demanded of him by the ,pharisees1 when the kingdom of ,god should come4 ,or3 ,and when the ,pharisees demanded of him1 c4--,bible cor4 ,a book has been shown me4--,dr4 ,campbell cor4 ,to ,john ,horne ,tooke admission was refused1 only because he had been in holy orders4--,w4 ,duane cor4 ,mr4 ,horne ,tooke having taken orders1 admission to the bar was refused him4--,churchill cor4 ,its reference to place is disregarded4--,dr4 ,bullions cor4 ,what striking lesson is taught by the tenor of this history8--,bush cor4 ,no less a sum than eighty thousand pounds had been left him by a friend4--,dr4 ,priestley cor4 ,where there are many things to be done1 there must be allowed to each its share of time and labour4--,dr4 ,johnson cor4 ,presenting the subject in a far more practical form1 than has heretofore been given it4--,kirkham cor4 ,if to a being of entire impartiality should be shown the two companies4--,dr4 ,scott cor4 ,the command of the ,british army was offered to him4--,grimshaw cor4 ,to whom a considerable sum had been unexpectedly left4--,johnson cor4 ,whether such a privilege may be granted to a maid or a widow4--,spect4 cor4 ,happily1 to all these affected terms1 the public suffrage has been denied4--,campbell cor4 ,let the parsing table next be shown him4--,nutting cor4 ,then the use of the analyzing table may be explained to him4--,id4 ,to ,pittacus there was offered a great sum of money4--,sanborn cor4 ,more time for study had been allowed him4--,id4 ,if a little care were bestowed on the walks that lie between them4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bbb4 ,suppose an office or a bribe be offered me4--,pierpont cor4 ,is then one chaste1 one last embrace denied8 ,shall ,i not lay me by his clay-cold side8--,rowe cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,of ,,passive ,,verbs ,,transitive4 ,the preposition ,,to is used before nouns of place1 when they follow verbs or participles of motion4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,they were not allowed to enter the house4--,mur4 cor4 ,their separate signification has been overlooked4--,tooke cor4 ,but1 whenever ,,ye is used1 it must be in the nominative case1 and not in the objective4--,cobbett cor4 ,it is said1 that more persons than one receive handsome salaries1 to see that acts of parliament are properly worded4--,churchill cor4 ,the following ,rudiments of ,english ,grammar have been used in the ,university of ,pennsylvania4--,dr4 ,rogers cor4 ,it never should be forgotten4-- ,newman cor4 ,a very curious fact has been noticed by those expert metaphysicians4--,campbell cor4 ,the archbishop interfered that ,michelet's lectures might be stopped4--,the ,friend cor4 ,the disturbances in ,gottengen have been entirely quelled4--,daily ,adv4 cor4 ,besides those which are noticed in these exceptions4--,priestley cor4 ,as one1 two1 or three auxiliary verbs are employed4--,id4 ,the arguments which have been used4--,addison cor4 ,the circumstance is properly noticed by the author4--,blair cor4 ,patagonia has never been taken into possession by any ,european nation4--,cumming cor4 ,he will be censured no more4--,walker cor4 ,the thing was to be terminated somehow4--,hunt cor4 ,in #agih1 the ,papal ,territory was seized by the ,french4--,pinnock cor4 ,the idea has not for a moment escaped the attention of the ,board4--,c4 ,s4 ,journal cor4 ,i shall easily be excused from the labour of more transcription4--,johnson cor4 ,if ,i may be allowed to use that expression4--,campbell cor4 ,if without offence ,i may make the observation4--,id4 ,there are other characters1 which are frequently used in composition4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,such unaccountable infirmities might be overcome1 in many cases1 and perhaps in most4--,beattie cor4 ,which ought never to be employed1 or resorted to4--,id4 ,that care may be taken of the widows4 ,or3 ,that the widows may be provided for4--,barclay cor4 ,other cavils will yet be noticed4--,pope cor4 ,which implies1 that to all ,christians is eternal salvation offered4--,west cor4 ,yet even the dogs are allowed to eat the crumbs which fall from their master's table4--,campbell cor4 ,for we say1 the light within must be heeded4--,barclay cor4 ,this sound of a is noticed in ,steele's ,grammar4--,j4 ,walker cor4 ,one came to receive ten guineas for a pair of silver buckles4--,m4 ,edgeworth cor4 ,let therefore the application of the several questions in the table be carefully shown to him4--,nutting cor4 ,after a few times1 it is no longer noticed by the hearers4--,sheridan cor4 ,it will not admit of the same excuse1 nor receive the same indulgence1 from people of any discernment4--,id4 ,of inanimate things1 property may be made4 ,or3 ,inanimate things may be made property2 i4e41 may become property4--,beattie cor4 ,and1 when some rival bids a higher price1 ,will not be sluggish in the work1 or nice4--,butler cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,of ,,perfect ,,participles4 ,all the words employed to denote spiritual or intellectual things1 are in their origin metaphors4--,dr4 ,campbell cor4 ,a reply to an argument commonly brought forward by unbelievers4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,it was once the only form used in the past tenses4--,dr4 ,ash cor4 ,of the points and other characters used in writing4--,id4 ,if ,,thy be the personal pronoun adopted4--,walker cor4 ,the ,conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences4--,burn cor4 ,the points which answer these purposes1 are the four following4--,harrison cor4 ,,incense signifies perfume exhaled by fire1 and used in religious ceremonies4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,in most of his orations1 there is too much art2 he carries it even to ostentation4--,blair cor4 ,to illustrate the great truth1 so often overlooked in our times4--,c4 ,s4 ,journal cor4 ,the principal figures calculated to affect the heart1 are ,exclamation1 ,confession1 ,deprecation1 ,commination1 and ,imprecation4--,formey cor4 ,disgusted at the odious artifices employed by the judge4--,junius cor4 ,all the reasons for which there was allotted to us a condition out of which so much wickedness and misery would in fact arise4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,some characteristical circumstance being generally invented or seized upon4--,ld4 ,kames cor4 ,and ,,by is likewise used with names that shew ,the method or the means of what we do4--,ward cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,of ,,constructions ,,ambiguous4 ,many adverbs admit of degrees of comparison1 as do adjectives4--,priestley cor4 ,but the author who1 by the number and reputation of his works1 did more than any one else1 to bring our language into its present state1 was ,dryden4--,blair cor4 ,in some states1 courts of admiralty have no juries1 nor do courts of chancery employ any at all4--,webster cor4 ,i feel grateful to my friend4--,murray cor4 ,this requires a writer to have in his own mind a very clear apprehension of the object which he means to present to us4--,blair cor4 ,sense has its own harmony1 which naturally contributes something to the harmony of sound4--,id4 ,the apostrophe denotes the omission of an i1 which was formerly inserted1 and which gave to the word an additional syllable4--,priestley cor4 ,there are few to whom ,i can refer with more advantage than to ,mr4 ,addison4--,blair cor4 ,,death1 7in theology17 is a perpetual separation from ,god1 a state of eternal torments4--,webster cor4 ,that could inform the traveller as well as could the old man himself6--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,of ,,ye ,,and ,,you ,,in ,,scripture4 ,ye daughters of ,rabbah1 gird you with sackcloth4--,,scott1 ,,friends1 and the ,,comprehensive ,,bible3 ,jer41 xlix1 #c4 ,wash you1 make you clean4--,,scott1 ,,alger1 ,,friends1 ,,et ,,al43 ,isaiah1 i1 #af4 ,strip you1 and make you bare1 and gird sackcloth upon your loins4--,,scott1 ,,friends1 ,,et ,,al43 ,isaiah1 xxxii1 #aa4 ,ye are not ashamed that ye make yourselves strange to me4--,,scott1 ,,bruce1 and ,,blayney3 ,job1 xix1 #c4 ,if ye knew the gift of ,god4 ,or3 ,if thou knew the gift of ,god4--,see ,john1 iv1 #aj4 ,depart from me1 ye workers of iniquity2 ,i know you not4--,penington cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,vi2 ,,of ,,same ,,cases4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,of ,,proper ,,identity4 ,who would not say1 ',if it be ,i1' rather than1 ',if it be me8--,priestley cor4 ,who is there8 ,it is ,i4--,id4 ,it is he4--,id4 ,are these the houses you were speaking of8 ,yes2 they are the same4--,id4 ,it is not ,i1 that you are in love with4--,addison cor4 ,it cannot be ,i4--,swift cor4 ,to that which once was thou4--,prior cor4 ,there is but one man that she can have1 and that man is myself4--,priestley cor4 ,we enter1 as it were1 into his body1 and become in some measure he4 ,or1 better3--and become in some measure identified with him4--,a4 ,smith and ,priestley cor4 ,art thou proud yet8 ,ay1 that ,i am not thou4--,shak4 cor4 ,he knew not who they were4--,milnes cor4 ,whom do you think me to be8--,dr4 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,who do men say that ,i1 the ,son of man1 am8--,bible cor4 ,but who say ye that ,i am8--,id4 ,who think ye that ,i am8 ,i am not he4--,id4 ,no2 ,i am in error2 ,i perceive it is not the person that ,i supposed it was4--,winter in ,london cor4 ,and while it is ,he that ,i serve1 life is not without value4--,ware cor4 ,without ever dreaming it was he4--,charles ,,xii cor4 ,or he was not the illiterate personage that he affected to be4--,montgom4 cor4 ,yet was he the man who was to be the greatest apostle of the ,gentiles4--,barclay cor4 ,sweet was the thrilling ecstacy2 ,i know not if 'twas love1 or thou4--,j4 ,hogg cor4 ,time was1 when none would cry1 that oaf was ,i4--,dryden cor4 ,no matter where the vanquished be1 or who4--,rowe cor4 ,no2 ,i little thought it had been he4--,gratton cor4 ,that reverence1 that godly fear1 which is ever due to ',him who can destroy both body and soul in hell4'--,maturin cor4 ,it is we that they seek to please1 or rather to astonish4--,j4 ,west cor4 ,let the same be her that thou hast appointed for thy servant ,isaac4--,bible cor4 ,although ,i knew it to be him4--,dickens cor4 ,dear gentle youth1 is't none but thou8--,dorset cor4 ,who do they say it is8--,fowler cor4 ,these are her garb1 not she2 they but express ,her form1 her semblance1 her appropriate dress4--,more cor4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,case ,,doubtful4 ,i had no knowledge of any connexion between them4--,col4 ,stone cor4 ,to promote iniquity in others1 is nearly the same thing1 as to be the actors of it ourselves4 7,that is1 ,for us to promote iniquity in others1 is nearly the same thing as for us to be the actors of it ourselves47--,murray cor4 ,it must arise from a delicate feeling in ourselves4--,blair and ,murray cor4 ,because there has not been exercised a competent physical power for their enforcement4--,mass4 ,legisl4 cor4 ,,pupilage1 n4 ,the state of a pupil1 or scholar4--,dictionaries cor4 ,then the other part1 being the definition1 would include all verbs1 of every description4--,peirce cor4 ,john's friendship for me saved me from inconvenience4--,id4 ,william's judgeship--or1 ,william's appointment to the office of judge1--changed his whole demeanour4--,id4 ,william's practical acquaintance with teaching1 was the cause of the interest he felt4--,id4 ,to be but one among many1 stifleth the chidings of conscience4--,tupper cor4 ,as for the opinion that it is a close translation1 ,i doubt not that many have been led into that error by the shortness of it4--,pope cor4 ,all presumption that death is the destruction of living beings1 must go upon the supposition that they are compounded1 and therefore discerptible4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,this argues rather that they are proper names4--,churchill cor4 ,but may it not be retorted1 that this gratification itself1 is that which excites our resentment8--,campbell cor4 ,under the common notion1 that it is a system of the whole poetical art4--,blair cor4 ,whose want of time1 or whose other circumstances1 forbid them to become classical scholars4--,lit4 ,jour4 cor4 ,it would prove him not to have been a mere fictitious personage4 ,or3 ,it would preclude the notion that he was merely a fictitious personage4--,phil4 ,mu4 cor4 ,for heresy1 or under pretence that they are heretics or infidels4--,oath cor4 ,we may here add ,dr4 ,horne's sermon on ,christ1 as being the ,object of religious adoration4--,rel4 ,world cor4 ,to say nothing of ,dr4 ,priestley1 as being a strenuous advocate1 c4--,id4 ,through the agency of ,adam1 as being their public head4 ,or3 ,because ,adam was their public head4--,id4 ,objections against the existence of any such moral plan as this4--,butler cor4 ,a greater instance of a man being a blockhead4--,spect4 cor4 ,we may insure or promote what will make it a happy state of existence to ourselves4--,gurney cor4 ,since it often undergoes the same kind of unnatural treatment4--,kirkham cor4 ,their apparent foolishness--,their appearance of foolishness--or1 ,that they appear foolishness1--is no presumption against this4--,butler cor4 ,but what arises from them as being offences2 i4e41 from their liability to be perverted4--,id4 ,and he went into the house of a certain man named ,justus1 one that worshiped ,god4--,acts cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,false ,,identification4 ,but popular1 he observes1 is an ambiguous word4--,blair cor4 ,the infinitive mood1 a phrase1 or a sentence1 is often made the subject of a verb4--,murray cor4 ,when any person1 in speaking1 introduces his name after the pronoun ,i1 it is of the first person2 as1 ',i1 ,james1 of the city of ,boston4'--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,the name of the person spoken to1 is of the second person2 as1 ',james1 come to me4'--,id4 ,the name of the person or thing merely spoken of1 or about1 is of the third person2 as1 ',james has come4'--,id4 ,the passive verb has no object1 because its subject or nominative always represents what is acted upon1 and the object of a verb must needs be in the objective case4--,id4 ,when a noun is in the nominative to an active verb1 it denotes the actor4--,kirkham cor4 ,and the pronoun ,,thou or ,,ye1 standing for the name of the person or persons commanded1 is its nominative4--,ingersoll cor4 ,the first person is that which denotes the speaker4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #cb4 ,the conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its different variations or inflections throughout the moods and tenses4--,wright cor4 ,the first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer4--,g4 ,,brown3 for the correction of ,parker and ,fox1 ,hiley1 and ,sanborn4 ,the second person is that which denotes the hearer1 or the person addressed4--,id43 for the same4 ,the third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4--,id43 for the same1 ,i is of the first person1 singular2 ,,we1 of the first person1 plural4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,,thou is of the second person1 singular2 ,,ye or ,you1 of the second person1 plural4--,iid4 ,,he1 ,,she1 or ,,it1 is of the third person1 singular2 ,,they1 of the third person1 plural4--,iid4 ,the nominative case denotes the actor1 and is the subject of the verb4--,kirkham cor4 ,john is the actor1 therefore the noun ,,john is in the nominative case4--,id4 ,the actor is always expressed by the nominative case1 unless the verb be passive4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,the nominative case does not always denote an agent or actor4--,mack cor4 ,in mentioning each name1 tell the part of speech4--,john ,flint cor4 ,of what number is boy8 ,why8--,id4 ,of what number is pens8 ,why8--,id4 ,the speaker is denoted by the first person2 the person spoken to is denoted by the second person2 and the person or thing spoken of is denoted by the third person4--,id4 ,what nouns are of the masculine gender8 ,the names of all males are of the masculine gender4--,id4 ,an interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind4--,g4 ,brown's ,grammars4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,vii2 ,,of ,,objectives4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,of ,,the ,,objective ,,in ,,form4 ,but ,i do not remember whom they were for4--,abbott cor4 ,but if you can't help it1 whom do you complain of8--,collier cor4 ,whom was it from8 and what was it about8--,m4 ,edgeworth cor4 ,i have plenty of victuals1 and1 between you and me1 something in a corner4--,day cor4 ,the upper one1 whom ,i am now about to speak of4--,leigh ,hunt cor4 ,and to poor us1 thy enmity is most capital4--,shak4 cor4 ,which1 thou dost confess1 'twere fit for thee to use1 as them to claim4 ,that is1--as for them to claim4--,id4 ,to beg of thee1 it is my more dishonour1 than thee of them4 ,that is1--than for thee to beg of them4--,id4 ,there are still a few1 who1 like thee and me1 drink nothing but water4--,gil ,bias cor4 ,thus1 ',i shall fall1'--',thou shalt love thy neighbour1'--',he shall be rewarded1'--express no resolution on the part of me1 thee1 or him4 ,or better3--on the part of the persons signified by the nominatives1 ,i1 ,thou1 ,he4--,lennie and ,bullions cor4 ,so saucy with the hand of her here--what's her name8--,shak4 cor4 ,all debts are cleared between you and me4--,id4 ,her price is paid1 and she is sold like thee4--,,harrison',s ,e4 ,lang41 p4 #agb4 ,search through all the most flourishing eras of ,greece4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,the family of the ,rudolphs has been long distinguished4--,the ,friend cor4 ,it will do well enough for you and me4--,edgeworth cor4 ,the public will soon discriminate between him who is the sycophant1 and him who is the teacher4--,chazotte cor4 ,we are still much at a loss to determine whom civil power belongs to4--,locke cor4 ,what do you call it8 and to whom does it belong8--,collier cor4 ,he had received no lessons from the ,socrateses1 the ,platoes1 and the ,confuciuses of the age4--,haller cor4 ,i cannot tell whom to compare them to4--,bunyan cor4 ,i see there was some resemblance betwixt this good man and me4--,id4 ,they1 by those means1 have brought themselves into the hands and house of ,i do not know whom4--,id4 ,but at length she said1 there was a great deal of difference between ,mr4 ,cotton and us4--,hutch4 ,hist4 cor4 ,so you must ride on horseback after us4--,mrs4 ,gilpin cor4 ,a separation must soon take place between our minister and me1--,werter cor4 ,when she exclaimed on ,hastings1 you1 and me4--,shak4 cor4 ,to whom8 to thee8 ,what art thou8--,id4 ,that they should always bear the certain marks of him from whom they came4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,this life has joys for you and me1 ,and joys that riches ne'er could buy4--,burns cor4 ,,under ,,the ,,note4--,,of ,,time ,,or ,,measure4 ,such as almost every child1 ten years old1 knows4--,town cor4 ,four months' schooling will carry any industrious scholar1 of ten or twelve years of age1 completely through this book4--,id4 ,a boy of six years of age may be taught to speak as correctly1 as ,cicero did before the ,roman senate4--,webster cor4 ,a lad about twelve years old1 who was taken captive by the ,indians4--,id4 ,of nothing else than that individual white figure of five inches in length1 which is before him4--,campbell cor4 ,where lies the fault1 that boys of eight or ten years of age are with great difficulty made to understand any of its principles8--,guy cor4 ,where language three centuries old is employed4--,booth cor4 ,let a gallows be made1 of fifty cubits in height4 ,or3 ,let a gallows fifty cubits high be made4--,bible cor4 ,i say to this child1 nine years old1 ',bring me that hat4' ,he hastens1 and brings it me4--,osborn cor4 ',he laid a floor1 twelve feet long1 and nine feet wide3' that is1 the floor was long to the extent of twelve feet1 and wide to the extent of nine feet4--,merchant cor4 ,the ,goulah people are a tribe of about fifty thousand in strength4 ,or3 ,the ,goulah people are a tribe about fifty thousand strong4--,examiner cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,viii2 ,,nom4 ,,absolute4 ,he having ended his discourse1 the assembly dispersed4--,inst4 of ,e4 ,g41 p4 #aij4 ,i being young1 they deceived me4--,ib41 p4 #bgi4 ,they refusing to comply1 ,i withdrew4--,ib4 ,thou being present1 he would not tell what he knew4--,ib4 ,the child is lost2 and ,i1 whither shall ,i go8--,ib4 ,o happy we6 surrounded with so many blessings4--,ib4 ',thou too6 ,brutus1 my son6' cried ,csar1 overcome4--,ib4 ,thou6 ,maria6 and so late6 and who is thy companion8--,mirror cor4 ,how swiftly our time passes away6 and ah6 we1 how little concerned to improve it6--,greenleaf's ,false ,syntax1 ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,there all thy gifts and graces we display1 ,thou1 only thou1 directing all our way4--,pope1 ,dunciad4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,adjectives4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,the ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,ix4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,of ,,agreement4 ,i am not recommending this kind of sufferings to your liking4--,sherlock cor4 ,i have not been to ,london these five years4--,webster cor4 ,verbs of this kind are more expressive than their radicals4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,few of us would be less corrupted than kings are1 were we1 like them1 beset with flatterers1 and poisoned with those vermin4--,kames cor4 ,but it seems these literati had been very ill rewarded for their ingenious labours4--,r4 ,random cor4 ,if ,i had not left off troubling myself about things of that kind4--,swift cor4 ,for things of this sort are usually joined to the most noted fortune4--,bacon cor4 ,the nature of those riches and that long-suffering1 is1 to lead to repentance4--,barclay cor4 ,i fancy it is this kind of gods1 that ,horace mentions4--,addison cor4 ,during those eight days1 they are prohibited from touching the skin4--,hope of ,is4 cor4 ,besides1 he had but a small quantity of provisions left for his army4--,goldsmith cor4 ,are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than those of amassing wealth1 and of acquiring glory1 credit1 and dignities8--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #aae4 ,it distinguishes still more remarkably the feelings of the former from those of the latter4--,kames cor4 ,and these good tidings of the reign shall be published through all the world4--,campbell cor4 ,these twenty years have ,i been with thee4--,gen4 cor4 ,in this kind of expressions1 some words seem to be understood4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,he thought this kind of excesses indicative of greatness4--,hunt cor4 ,this sort of fellows is very numerous4 ,or thus3 ,fellows of this sort are very numerous4--,spect4 cor4 ,whereas men of this sort cannot give account of their faith4 ,or3 ,whereas these men cannot give account of their faith4--,barclay cor4 ,but the question is1 whether those are the words4--,id4 ,so that expressions of this sort are not properly optative4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,many things are not such as they appear to be4--,sanborn cor4 ,so that all possible means are used4--,formey cor4 ,we have strict statutes1 and most biting laws1 ,which for these nineteen years we have let sleep4--,shak4 cor4 ,they could not speak1 and so ,i left them both1 ,to bear these tidings to the bloody king4--,shak4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,fixed ,,numbers4 ,why1 ,i think she cannot be above six feet two inches high4--,spect4 cor4 ,the world is pretty regular for about forty rods east and ten west4--,id4 ,the standard being more than two feet above it4--,bacon cor4 ,supposing1 among other things1 that he saw two suns1 and two ,thebeses4--,id4 ,on the right hand we go into a parlour thirty-three feet by thirty-nine4--,sheffield cor4 ,three pounds of gold went to one shield4--#a ,kings cor4 ,such an assemblage of men as there appears to have been at that session4--,the ,friend cor4 ,and1 truly1 he has saved me from this labour4--,barclay cor4 ,within these three miles may you see it coming4--,shak4 cor4 ,most of the churches1 not all1 had one ruling elder or more4--,hutch4 cor4 ,while a ,minute ,philosopher1 not six feet high1 attempts to dethrone the ,monarch of the universe4--,berkley cor4 ,the wall is ten feet high4--,harrison cor4 ,the stalls must be ten feet broad4--,walker cor4 ,a close prisoner in a room twenty feet square1 being at the north side of his chamber1 is at liberty to walk twenty feet southward1 not to walk twenty feet northward4--,locke cor4 ,nor1 after all this care and industry1 did they think themselves qualified4--,c4 ,orator cor4 ,no fewer than thirteen ,gypsies were condemned at one ,suffolk assize1 and executed4--,webster cor4 ,the king was petitioned to appoint one person or more4--,mrs4 ,macaulay cor4 ,he carries weight6 he rides a race6 ',tis for a thousand pounds4--,cowper cor4 ,they carry three tiers of guns at the head1 and at the stern1 two tiers--,joh4 ,dict4 cor4 ,the verses consist of two sorts of rhymes4--,formey cor4 ,a present of forty camel-loads of the most precious things of ,syria4--,wood's ,dict4 cor4 ,a large grammar1 that shall extend to every minutia--,s4 ,barrett cor4 ,so many spots1 like nves on ,venus' soil1 ,one gem set off with many a glitt'ring foil4--,dryden cor4 ,for1 off the end1 a double handful ,it had devour'd1 it was so manful4--,butler cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,of ,,reciprocals4 ,that shall and will might be substituted one for the other4--,priestley cor4 ,we use not shall and will promiscuously the one for the other4--,brightland cor4 ,but ,i wish to distinguish the three high ones from one an other also4--,fowle cor4 ,or on some other relation which two objects bear to each other4--,blair cor4 ,yet the two words lie so near to each other in meaning1 that1 in the present case1 perhaps either of them would have been sufficient4--,id4 ,both orators use great liberties in their treatment of each other4--,id4 ,that greater separation of the two sexes from each other4--,id4 ,most of whom live remote from one an other4--,webster cor4 ,teachers like to see their pupils polite to one an other--,id4 ,in a little time1 he and ,i must keep company with each other only4--,spect4 cor4 ,thoughts and circumstances crowd upon one an other4--,kames cor4 ,they cannot perceive how the ancient ,greeks could understand one an other4--,lit4 ,conv4 cor4 ,the poet1 the patriot1 and the prophet1 vied with one an other in his breast4--,hazlitt cor4 ,athamas and ,ino loved each other4--,c4 ,tales cor4 ,where two things are compared or contrasted one with the other4 ,or3 ,where two things1 are compared or contrasted with each other4--,blair and ,mur4 cor4 ,in the classification of words1 almost all writers differ from one an other4--,bullions cor4 ,i will not trouble thee1 my child4 ,farewell2 ,we'll no more meet2 we'll no more see each other4--,shak4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,comparatives4 ,errors in education should be less indulged than any others4--,locke cor4 ,this was less his case than any other man's that ever wrote4--,pref4 to ,waller cor4 ,this trade enriched some other people more than it enriched them4--,mur4 cor4 ,the ,chaldee alphabet1 in which the ,old ,testament has reached us1 is more beautiful than any other ancient character known4--,wilson cor4 ,the ,christian religion gives a more lovely character of ,god1 than any other religion ever did4--,murray cor4 ,the temple of ,cholula was deemed more holy than any other in ,new ,spain4--,robertson cor4 ,cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind than any other that ever was written--,pope cor4 ,shakspeare is more faithful to the true language of nature1 than any other writer4--,blair cor4 ,one son ,i had--one1 more than all my other sons1 the strength of ,troy4 ,or3 ,one son ,i had--one1 the most of all my sons1 the strength of ,troy4--,cowper cor4 ,now ,israel loved ,joseph more than all his other children1 because he was the son of his old age4--,bible cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,of ,,superlatives4 ,of all simpletons1 he was the greatest--,nutting cor4 ,of all beings1 man has certainly the greatest reason for gratitude4--,id4 ,this lady is prettier than any of her sisters4--,peyton cor4 ,the relation which1 of all the class1 is by far the most fruitful of tropes1 ,i have not yet mentioned4--,blair cor4 ,he studied ,greek the most of all noblemen4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,and indeed that was the qualification which was most wanted at that time4--,goldsmith cor4 ,yet we deny that the knowledge of him as outwardly crucified1 is the best of all knowledge of him4--,barclay cor4 ,our ideas of numbers are1 of all our conceptions1 the most accurate and distinct--,duncan cor4 ,this indeed is1 of all cases1 the one in which it is least necessary to name the agent--,j4 ,q4 ,adams cor4 ,the period to which you have arrived1 is perhaps the most critical and important moment of your lives4--,id4 ,perry's royal octavo is esteemed the best of all the pronouncing dictionaries yet known4--,d4 ,h4 ,barnes cor4 ,this is the tenth persecution1 and1 of all the ten the most bloody4--,sammes cor4 ,the ,english tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery1 of all the languages in the world4--,bucke cor4 ,of all writers whatever1 ,homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest ,invention4--,pope cor4 ,in a version of this particular work1 which1 more than any other1 seems to require a venerable1 antique cast4--,id4 ,because ,i think him the best-informed naturalist that has ever written4--,jefferson cor4 ,man is capable of being the most social of all animals4--,sheridan cor4 ,it is1 of all signs 7or expressions7 that which most moves us4--,id4 ,which1 of all articles1 is the most necessary4--,id4 ,quoth he1 ',this gambol thou advisest1 ,is1 of all projects1 the unwisest4'--,s4 ,butler cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,of ,,inclusive ,,terms4 ,noah and his family were the only antediluvians who survived the flood4--,webster cor4 ,i think it superior to any other grammar that we have yet had4--,blair cor4 ,we have had no other grammarian who has employed so much labour and judgement upon our native language1 as has the author of these volumes4--,british ,critic cor4 ,those persons feel most for the distresses of others1 who have experienced distresses themselves4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,never was any other people so much infatuated as the ,jewish nation4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,no other tongue is so full of connective particles as the ,greek4--,blair cor4 ,never was sovereign so much beloved by the people4 ,or3 ,never was any other sovereign so much beloved by his people4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,nothing else ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her child4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,of all the figures of speech1 no other comes so near to painting as does metaphor4--,blair et al4 cor4 ,i know no other writer so happy in his metaphors as is ,mr4 ,addison4--,blair cor4 ,of all the ,english authors1 none is more happy in his metaphors than ,addison4--,jamieson cor4 ,perhaps no other writer in the world was ever so frugal of his words as ,aristotle4--,blair and ,jamieson cor4 ,never was any other writer so happy in that concise and spirited style1 as ,mr4 ,pope4--,blair cor4 ,in the harmonious structure and disposition of his periods1 no other writer whatever1 ancient or modern1 equals ,cicero4--,blair and ,jamieson cor4 ,nothing else delights me so much as the works of nature4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,no person was ever more perplexed than he has been to-day4--,id4 ,in no other case are writers so apt to err1 as in the position of the word only4--,maunder cor4 ,for nothing is more tiresome than perpetual uniformity4--,blair cor4 ,naught else sublimes the spirit1 sets it free1 ,like sacred and soul-moving poesy4--,sheffield cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,extra ,,comparisons4 ,how much better are ye than the fowls6--,bible cor4 ,do not thou hasten above the ,most ,high4--,esdras cor4 ,this word1 ,,peer1 is principally used for the nobility of the realm4--,cowell cor4 ,because the same is not only most generally received1 c4--,barclay cor4 ,this is1 ,i say1 not the best and most important evidence4--,id4 ,offer unto ,god thanksgiving1 and pay thy vows unto the ,most ,high4--,the ,psalter cor4 ,the holy place of the tabernacle of the ,most ,high4--,id4 ,as boys should be educated with temperance1 so the first great lesson that should be taught them1 is1 to admire frugality4--,goldsmith cor4 ,more general terms are put for such as are more restricted4--,rev4 ,j4 ,brown cor4 ,this1 this was the unkindest cut of all4--,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #cec4 ,to take the basest and most squalid shape4--,shak4 cor4 ,i'll forbear3 ,i have fallen out with my more heady will4--,id4 ,the power of the ,most ,high guard thee from sin4--,percival cor4 ,which title had been more true1 if the dictionary had been in ,latin and ,welsh4--,verstegan cor4 ,the waters are frozen sooner and harder1 than further upward1 within the inlands4--,id4 ,at every descent1 the worst may become more depraved4--,mann cor4 ,or as a moat defensive to a house ,against the envy of less happy lands4--,shak4 cor4 ,a dreadful quiet felt1 and worse by far ,than arms1 a sullen interval of war4--,dryden cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,adjectives ,,connected4 ,it breaks forth in its highest1 most energetic1 and most impassioned strain4--,kirkham cor4 ,he has fallen into the vilest and grossest sort of railing4--,barclay cor4 ,to receive that higher and more general instruction which the public affords4--,j4 ,o4 ,taylor cor4 ,if the best things have the best and most perfect operations4--,hooker cor4 ,it became the plainest and most elegant1 the richest and most splendid1 of all languages4--,bucke cor4 ,but the principal and most frequent use of pauses1 is1 to mark the divisions of the sense4--,blair cor4 ,that every thing belonging to ourselves is the best and the most perfect4-- ,clarkson cor4 ,and to instruct their pupils in the best and most thorough manner4--,school ,committee cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,adjectives ,,superadded4 ,the ,father is figured out as a venerable old man4--,brownlee cor4 ,there never was exhibited an other such masterpiece of ghostly assurance4--,id4 ,after the first three sentences1 the question is entirely lost4--,spect4 cor4 ,the last four parts of speech are commonly called particles4--,al4 ,murray cor4 ,the last two chapters will not be found deficient in this respect4--,todd cor4 ,write upon your slates a list of the first ten nouns4--,j4 ,abbott cor4 ,we have a few remains of two other ,greek poets in the pastoral style1 ,moschus and ,bion4--,blair cor4 ,the first nine chapters of the book of ,proverbs are highly poetical4--,id4 ,for1 of these five heads1 only the first two have any particular relation to the sublime4--,id4 ,the resembling sounds of the last two syllables give a ludicrous air to the whole4--,kames cor4 ,the last three are arbitrary4--,id4 ,but in the sentence1 ',she hangs the curtains1' hangs is an active-transitive verb4--,comly cor4 ,if our definition of a verb1 and the arrangement of active-transitive1 active-intransitive1 passive1 and neuter verbs1 are properly understood4--,id4 ,these last two lines have an embarrassing construction4--,rush cor4 ,god was provoked to drown them all1 but ,noah and seven other persons4--,wood cor4 ,the first six books of the neid are extremely beautiful4--,formey cor4 ,only a few instances more can here be given4--,murray cor4 ,a few years more will obliterate every vestige of a subjunctive form4--,nutting cor4 ,some define them to be verbs devoid of the first two persons4--,crombie cor4 ,in an other such ,essay-tract as this4--,white cor4 ,but we fear that not an other such man is to be found4--,edward ,irving cor4 ,o for an other such sleep1 that ,i might see an other such man6 ,or1 to preserve poetic measure1 say3-- ,o for such sleep again1 that ,i might see ,an other such man1 though but in a dream6--,shak4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,adjectives ,,for ,,adverbs4 ,the is an article1 relating to the noun balm1 agreeably to ,rule #aath4--,comly cor4 ,wise is an adjective1 relating to the noun man's1 agreeably to ,rule #aath4--,id4 ,to whom ,i observed1 that the beer was extremely good4--,goldsmith cor4 ,he writes very elegantly4 ,or3 ,he writes with remarkable elegance4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,john behaves very civilly 7or1 with true civility7 to all men4--,id4 ,all the sorts of words hitherto considered1 have each of them some meaning1 even when taken separately4--,beattie cor4 ,he behaved himself conformably to that blessed example4--,sprat cor4 ,marvellously graceful4-- ,clarendon cor4 ,the ,queen having changed her ministry1 suitably to her wisdom4--,swift cor4 ,the assertions of this author are more easily detected4--,id4 ,the characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no more strongly than that4--,bentley cor4 ,if one author had spoken more nobly and loftily than an other4--,id4 ,xenophon says expressly4-- ,id4 ,i can never think so very meanly of him4--,id4 ,to convince all that are ungodly among them1 of all their ungodly deeds1 which they have impiously committed4--,bible cor4 ,i think it very ably written4 ,or3 ,i think it written in a very masterly manner4--,swift cor4 ,the whole design must refer to the golden age1 which it represents in a lively manner4--,addison cor4 ,agreeably to this1 we read of names being blotted out of ,god's book4--,burder et al4 cor4 ,agreeably to the law of nature1 children are bound to support their indigent parents4--,paley4 ,words taken independently of their meaning1 are parsed as nouns of the neuter gender4--,maltby cor4 ,conceit in weakest bodies strongliest works4--,shak4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,them ,,for ,,those4 ,though he was not known by those letters1 or the name ,,christ4--,bayly cor4 ,in a gig1 or some of those things4 ,better3 ,in a gig1 or some such vehicle4--,m4 ,edgeworth cor4 ,when cross-examined by those lawyers4--,same4 ,as the custom in those cases is4--,same4 ,if you had listened to those slanders4--,same4 ,the old people were telling stories about those fairies2 but1 to the best of my judgement1 there is nothing in them4--,same4 ,and is it not a pity that the ,quakers have no better authority to substantiate their principles1 than the testimony of those old ,pharisees8--,hibbard cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,this ,,and ,,that4 ,hope is as strong an incentive to action1 as fear3 that is the anticipation of good1 this of evil4--,inst41 p4 #bfe4 ,the poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy2 but we should not therefore account these happy1 and those miserable4--,inst41 p4 #bff4 ,ellen and ,margaret1 fearfully1 ,sought comfort in each other's eye2 ,then turned their ghastly look each one1 ,that to her sire1 this to her son4--,scott cor4 ,six youthful sons1 as many blooming maids1 ,in one sad day beheld the ,stygian shades2 ,those by ,apollo's silver bow were slain1 ,these ,cynthia's arrows stretch'd upon the plain4--,pope cor4 ,memory and forecast just returns engage1 ,that pointing back to youth1 this on to age4--,pope1 on ,man4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,either ,,and ,,neither4 ,these make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind2 namely1 truth1 duty1 and interest3 but the arguments directed towards any of them are generically distinct4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,a thousand other deviations may be made1 and still any of the accounts may be correct in principle2 for all these divisions1 and their technical terms1 are arbitrary4--,r4 ,w4 ,green cor4 ,thus it appears1 that our alphabet is deficient2 as it has but seven vowels to represent thirteen different sounds2 and has no letter to represent any of five simple consonant sounds4--,churchill cor4 ,then none of these five verbs can be neuter4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,and the assertor#ecd is in none of the four already mentioned4--,id4 ,as it is not in any of these four4--,id4 ,see whether or not the word comes within the definition of any of the other three simple cases4--,id4 ,no one of the ten was there4--,frazee cor4 ,here are ten oranges1 take any one of them4--,id4 ,there are three modes1 by any of which recollection will generally be supplied2 inclination1 practice1 and association4--,rippingham cor4 ,words not reducible to any of the three preceding heads4--,fowler cor4 ,now a sentence may be analyzed in reference to any of these four classes4--,id4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiv4--,,whole1 ,,less1 ,,more1 ,,and ,,most4 ,does not all proceed from the law1 which regulates all the departments of the state8--,blair cor4 ,a messenger relates to ,theseus all the particulars4--,ld4 ,kames cor4 ,there are no fewer than twenty-nine diphthongs in the ,english language4--,ash cor4 ,the ,redcross ,knight runs through all the steps of the ,christian life4--,spect4 cor4 ,there were not fewer than fifty or sixty persons present4--,mills and ,merchant cor4 ,greater experience1 and a more cultivated state of society1 abate the warmth of imagination1 and chasten the manner of expression4--,blair and ,murray cor4 ,by which means1 knowledge1 rather than oratory1 has become the principal requisite4--,blair cor4 ,no fewer than seven illustrious cities disputed the right of having given birth to the greatest of poets4--,lempriere cor4 ,temperance1 rather than medicines1 is the proper means of curing many diseases4--,murray cor4 ,i do not suppose1 that we ,britons are more deficient in genius than our neighbours4--,id4 ,in which1 he says1 he has found no fewer than twelve untruths4--,barclay cor4 ,the several places of rendezvous were concerted1 and all the operations were fixed4--,hume cor4 ,in these rigid opinions1 all the sectaries concurred4--,id4 ,out of whose modifications have been made nearly all complex modes4--,locke cor4 ,the ,chinese vary each of their words on no fewer than five different tones4--,blair cor4 ,these people1 though they possess brighter qualities1 are not so proud as he is1 nor so vain as she4--,murray cor4 ,it is certain1 that we believe our own judgements more firmly1 after we have made a thorough inquiry into the things4--,brightland cor4 ,as well as the whole course and all the reasons of the operation4--,id4 ,those rules and principles which are of the greatest practical advantage4--,newman cor4 ,and all curse shall be no more4--,rev4 cor4--7,see the ,greek47 ,and death shall be no more4--,id4 ,but1 in recompense1 we have pleasanter pictures of ancient manners4--,blair cor4 ,our language has suffered a greater number of injurious changes in ,america1 since the ,british army landed on our shores1 than it had suffered before1 in the period of three centuries4--,webster cor4 ,all the conveniences of life are derived from mutual aid and support in society4--,ld4 ,kames cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xv4--,,participial ,,adjectives4 ,to such as think the nature of it deserving of their attention4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,in all points1 more deserving of the approbation of their readers4--,keepsake cor4 ,but to give way to childish sensations1 was unbecoming to our nature4--,lempriere cor4 ,the following extracts are deserving of the serious perusal of all4--,the ,friend cor4 ,no inquiry into wisdom1 however superficial1 is undeserving of attention4--,bulwer cor4 ,the opinions of illustrious men are deserving of great consideration4--,porter cor4 ,and resolutely keep its laws4 ,uncaring for consequences4 ,or3--,not heeding consequences4--,burns cor4 ,this is an item that is deserving of more attention4--,goodell cor4 ,leave then thy joys1 unsuiting to such age3--,or1 ,leave then thy joys not suiting such an age1 ,to a fresh comer1 and resign the stage4--,dryden cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xvi4--,,figure ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,the tall dark mountains and the deep-toned seas4--,dana4 ,o6 learn from him ,to station quick-eyed ,prudence at the helm4--,frost cor4 ,he went in a one-horse chaise4--,david ,blair cor4 ,it ought to be1 'in a one-horse chaise4'--,crombie cor4 ,these are marked with the above-mentioned letters4--,folker cor4 ,a many-headed faction4--,ware cor4 ,lest there should be no authority in any popular grammar1 for the perhaps heaven-inspired effort4--,fowle cor4 ,common-metre stanzas consist of four iambic lines2 one of eight1 and the next of six syllables4 ,they were formerly written in two fourteen-syllable lines4--,goodenow cor4 ,short-metre stanzas consist of four iambic lines2 the third of eight1 the rest of six syllables4--,id4 ,particular-metre stanzas consist of six iambic lines2 the third and sixth of six syllables1 the rest of eight4--,id4 ,hallelujah-metre stanzas consist of six iambic lines2 the last two of eight syllables1 and the rest of six4--,id4 ,long-metre stanzas are merely the union of four iambic lines1 of ten syllables each4--,id4 ,a majesty more commanding than is to be found among the rest of the ,old-,testament poets4--,blair cor4 ,you1 sulphurous and thought-executed fires1 ,vaunt-couriers to oak-cleaving thunderbolts1 ,singe my white head6 ,and thou1 all-shaking thunder1 ,strike flat the thick rotundity o' th' world6--,lear1 ,act iii1 ,sc4 #b4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,pronouns4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,x ,,and ,,its ,,notes4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,of ,,agreement4 ,the subject is to be joined with its predicate4--,wilkins cor4 ,every one must judge of his own feelings4--,byron cor4 ,every one in the family should know his or her duty4--,penn cor4 ,to introduce its possessor into that way in which he should go4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,do not they say1 that every true believer has the ,spirit of ,god in him8--,barclay cor4 ,there is none in his natural state righteous2 no1 not one4--,wood cor4 ,if ye were of the world1 the world would love its own4--,bible cor4 ,his form had not yet lost all its original brightness4--,milton cor4 ,no one will answer as if ,i were his friend or companion4--,steele cor4 ,but1 in lowliness of mind1 let each esteem others better than himself4--,bible cor4 ,and let none of you imagine evil in his heart against his neighbour4--,id4 ,for every tree is known by its own fruit4--,id4 ,but she fell to laughing1 like one out of his right mind4--,m4 ,edgeworth cor4 ,now these systems1 so far from having any tendency to make men better1 have a manifest tendency to make them worse4--,wayland cor4 ,and nobody else would make that city his refuge any more4--,josephus cor4 ,what is quantity1 as it respects syllables or words8 ,it is the time which a speaker occupies in pronouncing them4--,bradley cor4 ,in such expressions1 the adjective so much resembles an adverb in its meaning1 that it is usually parsed as such4--,bullions cor4 ,the tongue is like a racehorse2 which runs the faster1 the less weight he carries4 ,or thus3 ,the tongue is like a racehorse2 the less weight it carries1 the faster it runs4--,addison1 ,murray1 et al4 cor4 ,as two thoughtless boys were trying to see which could lift the greatest weight with his jaws1 one of them had several of his firm-set teeth wrenched from their sockets4--,newspaper cor4 ,every body nowadays publishes memoirs2 every body has recollections which he thinks worthy of recording4--,duchess ,d',ab4 cor4 ,every body trembled1 for himself1 or for his friends4--,goldsmith cor4 ,a steed comes at morning3 no rider is there2 ,but his bridle is red with the sign of despair4--,campbell cor4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,pronouns ,,wrong--,,or ,,needless4 ,charles loves to study2 but ,john1 alas6 is very idle4--,merchant cor4 ,or what man is there of you1 who1 if his son ask bread1 will give him a stone8--,bible cor4 ,who1 in stead of going about doing good1 are perpetually intent upon doing mischief4--,tillotson cor4 ,whom ye delivered up1 and denied in the presence of ,pontius ,pilate4--,bible cor4 ,whom1 when they had washed her1 they laid in an upper chamber4--,id4 ,then ,manasseh knew that the ,lord was ,god4--,id4 ,whatever a man conceives clearly1 he may1 if he will be at the trouble1 put into distinct propositions1 and express clearly to others4--,see ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ic4 ,but the painter1 being entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen1 cannot exhibit various stages of the same action4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #aie4 ,what he subjoins1 is without any proof at all4--,barclay cor4 ,george ,fox's ,testimony concerning ,robert ,barclay4--,title cor4 ,according to the advice of the author of the ,postcript sic--,,kth4--,barclay cor4 ,these things seem as ugly to the eye of their meditations1 as those ,ethiopians that were pictured on ,nemesis's pitcher4--,bacon cor4 ,moreover1 there is always a twofold condition propounded with the ,sphynx's enigmas4--,id4 ,whoever believeth not therein1 shall perish4--,koran cor4 ,when1 at ,sestius's entreaty1 ,i had been at his house4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,there high on ,sipylus's shaggy brow1 ,she stands1 her own sad monument of wo4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,change ,,of ,,number4 ,so will ,i send upon you famine1 and evil beasts1 and they shall bereave you4--,bible cor4 ,why do you plead so much for it8 why do you preach it up8 ,or3 ,why do ye plead so much for it8 why do ye preach it up8--,barclay cor4 ,since thou hast decreed that ,i shall bear man1 thy darling4--,edward's ,gram4 cor4 ,you have my book1 and ,i have yours2 i4e41 your book4 ,or thus3 ,thou hast my book1 and ,i have thine2 i4e41 thy book4--,chandler cor4 ,neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what thou art4--,bullions cor4 ,return1 thou backsliding ,israel1 saith the ,lord1 and ,i will not cause mine anger to fall upon thee4--,bible cor4 ,the ,almighty1 unwilling to cut thee off in the fullness of iniquity1 has sent me to give thee warning4--,ld4 ,kames cor4 ,wast thou born only for pleasure8 wast thou never to do any thing8--,collier cor4 ,thou shalt be required to go to ,god1 to die1 and to give up thy account4--,barnes cor4 ,and canst thou expect to behold the resplendent glow of the ,creator8 would not such a sight annihilate thee8--,milton cor4 ,if the prophet had commanded thee to do some great thing1 wouldst thou have refused8--,c4 ,s4 ,journal cor4 ,art thou a penitent8 evince thy sincerity1 by bringing forth fruits meet for repentance4--,vade-,mecum cor4 ,i will call thee my dear son3 ,i remember all thy tenderness4--,c4 ,tales cor4 ,so do thou1 my son3 open thy ears1 and thy eyes4--,wright cor4 ,i promise you1 this was enough to discourage you4--,bunyan cor4 ,ere you remark an other's sin1 ,bid your own conscience look within4--,gay cor4 ,permit that ,i share in thy wo1 ,the privilege canst thou refuse8--,perfect cor4 ,ah6 ,strephon1 how canst thou despise ,her who1 without thy pity1 dies8--,swift cor4 ,thy verses1 friend1 are ,kidderminster stuff2 ,and ,i must own1 thou'st measured out enough4--,shenst4 cor4 ,this day1 dear ,bee1 is thy nativity2 ,had ,fate a luckier one1 she'd give it thee4--,swift cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,who ,,and ,,which4 ,exactly like so many puppets1 which are moved by wires4--,blair cor4 ,they are my servants1 whom ,i brought forth#ece out of the land of ,egypt4--,leviticus1 xxv1 #ee4 ,behold1 ,i and the children whom ,god hath given me4--,see ,isaiah1 viii1 #ah4 ,and he sent ,eliakim1 who was over the household1 and ,shebna the scribe4--,isaiah1 xxxvii1 #b4 ,in a short time the streets were cleared of the corpses which filled them4--,m',ilvaine cor4 ,they are not of those who teach things that they ought not1 for filthy lucre's sake4--,barclay cor4 ,as a lion among the beasts of the forest1 as a young lion among the flocks of sheep2 which1 if he go through1 both treadeth down and teareth in pieces4--,bible cor4 ,frequented by every fowl which nature has taught to dip the wing in water4--,johnson cor4 ,he had two sons1 one of whom was adopted by the family of ,maximus4--,lempriere cor4 ,and the ants1 which are collected by the smell1 are burned with fire4--,the ,friend cor4 ,they being the agents to whom this thing was trusted4--,nixon cor4 ,a packhorse which is driven constantly one way and the other1 to and from market4--,locke cor4 ,by instructing children1 whose affection will be increased4--,nixon cor4 ,he had a comely young woman1 who travelled with him4--,hutchinson cor4 ,a butterfly1 who thought himself an accomplished traveller1 happened to light upon a beehive4--,inst41 p4 #bfg4 ,it is an enormous elephant of stone1 which disgorges from his uplifted trunk a vast but graceful shower4--,ware cor4 ,he was met by a dolphin1 which sometimes swam before him1 and sometimes behind him4--,edward's ,gram4 cor4 ,that ,csar's horse1 which1 as fame goes1 ,had corns upon his feet and toes1 ,was not by half so tender-hoof'd1 ,nor trod upon the ground so soft4--,butler cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,nouns ,,of ,,multitude4 ,he instructed and fed the crowds that surrounded him4--,murray's ,key4 ,the court1 which gives currency to manners1 ought to be exemplary4 p4 #ahg4 ,nor does he describe classes of sinners that do not exist4--,mag4 cor4 ,because the nations among which they took their rise1 were not savage4--,murray cor4 ,among nations that are in the first and rude periods of society4--,blair cor4 ,the martial spirit of those nations among which the feudal government prevailed4--,id4 ,france1 which was in alliance with ,sweden4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ig4 ,that faction1 in ,england1 which most powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions4--,ib4 ,we may say1 'the crowd which was going up the street4'--,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 #bjd4 ,such members of the ,convention which formed this ,lyceum1 as have subscribed this ,constitution4--,n4 ,y4 ,lyceum cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,confusion ,,of ,,senses4 ,the name of the possessor shall take a particular form to show its case4--,kirkham cor4 ,of which reasons1 the principal one is1 that no noun1 properly so called1 implies the presence of the thing named4--,harris cor4 ,boston is a proper noun1 which distinguishes the city of ,boston from other cities4--,sanborn cor4 ,the word ,,conjunction means union1 or the act of joining together4 ,conjunctions are used to join or connect either words or sentences4--,id4 ,the word ,,interjection means the act of throwing between4 ,interjections are interspersed among other words1 to express strong or sudden emotion4--,id4 ,indeed is composed of in and deed4 ,the words may better be written separately1 as they formerly were4--,cardell cor4 ,alexander1 on the contrary1 is a particular name2 and is employed to distinguish an individual only4--,jamieson cor4 ,as an indication that nature itself had changed its course4 ,or3--that ,nature herself had changed her course4--,history cor4 ,of removing from the ,united ,states and their territories the free people of colour4--,jenifer cor4 ,so that gh may be said not to have its proper sound4 ,or thus3 ,so that the letters1 g and h1 may be said not to have their proper sounds4--,webster cor4 ,are we to welcome the loathsome harlot1 and introduce her to our children8--,maturin cor4 ,the first question is this3 ',is reputable1 national1 and present use1 which1 for brevity's sake1 ,i shall hereafter simply denominate good use1 always uniform1 i4 e41 undivided1 and unequivocal1 in its decisions8--,campbell cor4 ,in personifications1 ,time is always masculine1 on account of his mighty efficacy2 ,virtue1 feminine1 by reason of her beauty and loveliness4--,murray1 ,blair1 et al4 cor4 ,when you speak to a person or thing1 the noun or pronoun is in the second person4--,bartlett cor4 ,you now know the noun2 for noun means name4--,id4 ,t4 ,what do you see8 ,p4 ,a book4 ,t4 ,spell book4--,r4 ,w4 ,green cor4 ,t4 ,what do you see now8 ,p4 ,two books4 ,t4 ,spell books4--,id4 ,if the ,united ,states lose their rights as a nation4--,liberator cor4 ,when a person or thing is addressed or spoken to1 the noun or pronoun is in the second person4--,frost cor4 ,when a person or thing is merely spoken of1 the noun or pronoun is in the third person4--,id4 ,the word ,,ox also1 taking the same plural termination1 makes ,,oxen4--,bucke cor4 ,hail1 happy ,states6 yours is the blissful seat ,where nature's gifts and art's improvements meet4--,everett cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,the ,,relative ,,that4 7#a47 ,this is the most useful art that men possess4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the earliest accounts that history gives us1 concerning all nations1 bear testimony to these facts4--,blair et al4 cor4 ,mr4 ,addison was the first that attempted a regular inquiry into the pleasures of taste4--,blair cor4 ,one of the first that introduced it1 was ,montesquieu4--,murray cor4 ,massillon is perhaps the most eloquent sermonizer that modern times have produced4--,blair cor4 ,the greatest barber that ever lived1 is our guiding star and prototype4--,hart cor4 7#b47 ,when prepositions are subjoined to nouns1 they are generally the same that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bjj4 ,better thus3 ,the prepositions which are subjoined to nouns1 are generally the same that1 c4--,priestley cor4 ,the same proportions that are agreeable in a model1 are not agreeable in a large building4--,kames cor4 ,the same ornaments that we admire in a private apartment1 are unseemly in a temple4--,murray cor4 ,the same that ,john saw also in the sun4--,milton cor4 7#c47 ,who can ever be easy1 that is reproached with his own ill conduct8--,t4 ,kempis cor4 ,who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green8--,inst41 p4 #bfg4 ,who that has either sense or civility1 does not perceive the vileness of profanity8--,g4 ,brown4 7#d47 ,the second person denotes the person or thing that is spoken to4--,kirkham cor4 ,the third person denotes the person or thing that is spoken of4--,id4 ,a passive verb denotes action received1 or endured by the person or thing that is signified by its nominative4--,id4 ,the princes and states that had neglected or favoured the growth of this power4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,the nominative expresses the name of the person or thing that acts1 or that is the subject of discourse4--,hiley cor4 7#e47 ,authors that deal in long sentences1 are very apt to be faulty4--,blair cor4 ,writers that deal1 c4--,murray cor4 ,the neuter gender denotes objects that are neither male nor female4--,merchant cor4 ,the neuter gender denotes things that have no sex4--,kirkham cor4 ,nouns that denote objects neither male nor female1 are of the neuter gender4--,wells's ,gram4 of late1 p4 #ee4 ,better thus3 ,those nouns which denote objects that are neither male nor female1 are of the neuter gender4--,wells cor4 ,objects and ideas that have been long familiar1 make too faint an impression to give an agreeable exercise to our faculties4--,blair cor4 ,cases that custom has left dubious1 are certainly within the grammarian's province4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,substantives that end in ery1 signify action or habit4--,id4 ,after all that can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar accurate4--,id4 ,possibly1 all that ,i have said1 is known and taught4--,a4 ,b4 ,johnson cor4 7#f47 ,it is a strong and manly style that should chiefly be studied4--,blair cor4 ,it is this viz41 precision that chiefly makes a division appear neat and elegant4--,id4 ,i hope it is not ,i that he is displeased with4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,when it is this alone that renders the sentence obscure4--,campbell cor4 ,this sort of full and ample assertion1 ',it is this that1' is fit to be used when a proposition of importance is laid down4--,blair cor4 ,she is not the person that ,i understood it to have been4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,was it thou1 or the wind1 that shut the door8--,inst41 p4 #bfg4 ,it was not ,i that shut it4--,ib4 7#g47 ,he is not the person that he seemed to be4--,murray and ,ingersoll cor4 ,he is really the person that he appeared to be4--,iid4 ,she is not now the woman that they represented her to have been4--,iid4 ,an only child is one that has neither brother nor sister2 a child alone is one that is left by itself1 or unaccompanied4--,blair1 ,jam41 and ,mur41 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,relative ,,clauses ,,connected4 7#a47 ,a ,substantive1 or ,noun1 is the name of a thing2 7i4 e417 of whatever we conceive to subsist1 or of whatever we merely imagine4--,lowth cor4 7#b47 ,a ,substantive1 or ,noun1 is the name of any thing which exists1 or of which we have any notion4--,murray et al4 cor4 7#c47 ,a ,substantive1 or ,noun1 is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that exists1 or that we can have an idea of4--,frost cor4 7#d47 ,a noun is the name of any thing which exists1 or of which we form an idea4--,hallock cor4 7#e47 ,a ,noun is the name of any person1 place1 object1 or thing1 that exists1 or that we may conceive to exist4--,d4 ,c4 ,allen cor4 7#f47 ,the name of every thing which exists1 or of which we can form a notion1 is a noun4--,fisk cor4 7#g47 ,an allegory is the representation of some one thing by an other that resembles it1 and that is made to stand for it4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aej4 7#h47 ,had he exhibited such sentences as contained ideas inapplicable to young minds1 or such as were of a trivial or injurious nature4--,l4 ,murray cor4 7#i47 ,man would have others obey him1 even his own kind2 but he will not obey ,god1 who is so much above him1 and who made him4--,penn cor4 7#aj47 ,but what we may consider here1 and what few persons have noticed1 is1 c4--,brightland cor4 7#aa47 ,the compiler has not inserted those verbs which are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse1 and which are improperly terminated by t in stead of ed4--,murray1 ,fisk1 ,hart1 ,ingersoll et al41 cor4 7#ab47 ,the remaining parts of speech1 which are called the indeclinable parts1 and which admit of no variations1 7or1 being words that admit of no variations17 will not detain us long4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,the ,,relative ,,and ,,preposition4 ,in the temper of mind in which he was then4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,to bring them into the condition in which ,i am at present4--,add4 cor4 ,in the posture in which ,i lay4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,in the sense in which it is sometimes taken4--,barclay cor4 ,tools and utensils are said to be right1 when they answer well the uses for which they were made4--,collier cor4 ,if1 in the extreme danger in which ,i now am1 c4 ,or3 ,if1 in my present extreme danger1 c4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #aaf4 ,news was brought1 that ,dairus sic--,,kth was but twenty miles from the place in which they then were4--,goldsmith cor4 ,alexander1 upon hearing this news1 continued four days where he then was3 or--in the place in which he then was4--,id4 ,to read in the best manner in which reading is now taught4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,it may be expedient to give a few directions as to the manner in which it should be studied4--,hallock cor4 ,participles are words derived from verbs1 and convey an idea of the acting of an agent1 or the suffering of an object1 with the time at which it happens4 #ecf--;,a4 ,murray cor4 ,had ,i but serv'd my ,god with half the zeal ,with which ,i serv'd my king1 he would not thus1 ,in age1 have left me naked to my foes4--,shak4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,adverbs ,,for ,,relatives4 ,in compositions that are not designed to be delivered in public4--,blair cor4 ,they framed a protestation in which they repeated their claims4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #acc2 ,murray's1 #aig4 ,which have reference to inanimate substances1 in which sex has no existence4--,harris cor4 ,which denote substances in which sex never had existence4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,there is no rule given by which the truth may be found out4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,the nature of the objects from which they are taken4--,blair cor4 ,that darkness of character1 through which we can see no heart3 i4 e41 generous emotion4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the states with which or between which they negotiated4--,formey cor4 ,till the motives from which men act1 be known4--,beattie cor4 ,he assigns the principles from which their power of pleasing flows4--,blair cor4 ,but ,i went on1 and so finished this ,history1 in that form in which it now appears4--,sewel cor4 ,by prepositions we express the cause for which1 the instrument by which1 and the manner in which1 a thing is done4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,they are not such in the language from which they are derived4--,town cor4 ,i find it very hard to persuade several1 that their passions are affected by words from which they have no ideas4--,burke cor4 ,the known end1 then1 for which we are placed in a state of so much affliction1 hazard1 and difficulty1 is our improvement in virtue and piety4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,yet such his acts as ,greeks unborn shall tell1 ,and curse the strife in which their fathers fell4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,repeat ,,the ,,noun4 ,youth may be thoughtful1 but thoughtfulness in the young is not very common4--,webster cor4 ,a proper name is a name given to one person or thing4--,bartlett cor4 ,a common name is a name given to many things of the same sort4--,id4 ,this rule is often violated2 some instances of its violation are annexed4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,this is altogether careless writing4 ,such negligence respecting the pronouns1 renders style often obscure1 and always inelegant4--,blair cor4 ,every inversion which is not governed by this rule1 will be disrelished by every person of taste4--,kames cor4 ,a proper diphthong1 is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #ah4 ,an improper diphthong1 is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded4--,ib4 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 ,jacob1 and the descendants of ,jacob1 are called ,hebrews4--,wood cor4 ,in our language1 every word of more than one syllable1 has one of its syllables distinguished from the rest in this manner4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,two consonants proper to begin a word1 must not be separated2 as1 fa-ble1 sti-fle4 ,but when two consonants come between two vowels1 and are such as cannot begin a word1 they must be divided1 as1 ut-most1 un-der4--,id4 ,shall the intellect alone feel no pleasures in its energy1 when we allow pleasures to the grossest energies of appetite and sense8--,harris and ,murray cor4 ,no man has a propensity to vice as such3 on the contrary1 a wicked deed disgusts every one1 and makes him abhor the author4--,ld4 ,kames cor4 ,the same grammatical properties that belong to nouns1 belong also to pronouns4--,greenleaf cor4 ,what is language8 ,it is the means of communicating thoughts from one person to an other4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,a simple word is a word which is not made up of other words4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,a compound word is a word which is made up of two or more words4--,iid4 ,when a conjunction is to be supplied1 the ellipsis is called ,asyndeton4--,adam cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,place ,,of ,,the ,,relative4 ,it gives to words a meaning which they would not have4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,there are in the ,english language many words1 that are sometimes used as adjectives1 and sometimes as adverbs4--,id4 ,which do not more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind1 than do the auxiliaries which are used to form the potential mood4--,id4 ,these accents1 which will be the subject of a following speculation1 make different impressions on the mind4--,ld4 ,kames cor4 ,and others differed very much from the words of the writers to whom they were ascribed4--,john ,ward cor4 ,where there is in the sense nothing which requires the last sound to be elevated1 an easy fall will be proper4--,murray and ,bullions cor4 ,in the last clause there is an ellipsis of the verb2 and1 when you supply it1 you find it necessary to use the adverb not1 in lieu of no4--,campbell and ,murray cor4 ,study is of the singular number1 because the nominative ,i1 with which it agrees1 is singular4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,john is the person who is in error1 or thou art4--,wright cor4 ,for he hath made him1 who knew no sin1 to be sin for us4--,harrison's ,e4 ,lang41 p4 #aig4 ,my friend1 take that of me1 who have the power ,to seal th' accuser's lips4--,shakspeare cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,what ,,for ,,that4 ,i had no idea but that the story was true4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bfh4 ,the postboy is not so weary but that he can whistle4--,ib4 ,he had no intimation but that the men were honest4--,ib4 ,neither ,lady ,haversham nor ,miss ,mildmay will ever believe but that ,i have been entirely to blame4--,priestley cor4 ,i am not satisfied but that the integrity of our friends is more essential to our welfare than their knowledge of the world4--,id4 ,indeed1 there is in poetry nothing so entertaining or descriptive1 but that an ingenious didactic writer may introduce it in some part of his work4--,blair cor4 ,brasidas1 being bit by a mouse he had catched1 let it slip out of his fingers3 ',no creature1' says he1 'is so contemptible but that it may provide for its own safety1 if it have courage4'--,ld4 ,kames cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,adjectives ,,for ,,antecedents4 ,in narration1 ,homer is1 at all times1 remarkably concise1 and therefore lively and agreeable4--,blair cor4 ,it is usual to talk of a nervous1 a feeble1 or a spirited style2 which epithets plainly indicate the writer's manner of thinking4--,id4 ,it is too violent an alteration1 if any alteration were necessary1 whereas none is4--,knight cor4 ,some men are too ignorant to be humble2 and without humility there can be no docility4--,berkley cor4 ,judas declared him innocent2 but innocent he could not be1 had he in any respect deceived the disciples4--,porteus cor4 ,they supposed him to be innocent1 but he certainly was not so4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,they accounted him honest1 but he certainly was not so4--,felch cor4 ,be accurate in all you say or do2 for accuracy is important in all the concerns of life4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bfh4 ,every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked2 and indeed he is so1 if the law is just4--,ib4 ,to be pure in heart1 pious1 and benevolent1 7and all may be so17 constitutes human happiness4--,murray cor4 ,to be dexterous in danger1 is a virtue2 but to court danger to show our dexterity1 is a weakness4--,penn cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiv4--,,sentences ,,for ,,antecedents4 ,this seems not so allowable in prose2 which fact the following erroneous examples will demonstrate4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the accent is laid upon the last syllable of a word2 which circumstance is favourable to the melody4--,kames cor4 ,every line consists of ten syllables1 five short and five long2 from which rule there are but two exceptions1 both of them rare4--,id4 ,the soldiers refused obedience1 as has been explained4--,nixon cor4 ,caesar overcame ,pompey--a circumstance which was lamented4--,id4 ,the crowd hailed ,william1 agreeably to the expectations of his friends4--,id4 ,the tribunes resisted ,scipio1 who knew their malevolence towards him4--,id4 ,the censors reproved vice1 and were held in great honour4--,id4 ,the generals neglected discipline1 which fact has been proved4--,id4 ,there would be two nominatives to the verb was1 and such a construction is improper4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,his friend bore the abuse very patiently2 whose forbearance1 however1 served only to increase his rudeness2 it produced1 at length1 contempt and insolence4--,murray and ,emmons cor4 ,almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical2 and some examples of ellipsis may be found1 under nearly all the different parts of speech4--,murray1 ,guy1 ,smith1 ,ingersoll1 ,fisk1 et al4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xv4--,,repeat ,,the ,,pronoun4 ,in things of ,nature's workmanship1 whether we regard their internal or their external structure1 beauty and design are equally conspicuous4--,kames cor4 ,it puzzles the reader1 by making him doubt whether the word ought to be taken in its proper1 or in its figurative sense4--,id4 ,neither my obligations to the muses1 nor my expectations from them1 are so great4--,cowley cor4 ,the ,fifth ,annual ,report of the ,antislavery ,society of ,ferrisburgh and its vicinity4--,title cor4 ,meaning taste in its figurative as well as its proper sense4--,kames cor4 ,every measure in which either your personal or your political character is concerned4--,junius cor4 ,a jealous and righteous ,god has often punished such in themselves or in their offspring4--,extracts cor4 ,hence their civil and their religious history are inseparable4--,milman cor4 ,esau thus carelessly threw away both his civil and his religious inheritance4--,id4 ,this intelligence excited not only our hopes1 but our fears likewise4--,jaudon cor4 ,in what way our defect of principle1 and our ruling manners1 have completed the ruin of the national spirit of union4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,considering her descent1 her connexion1 and her present intercourse4--,webster cor4 ,his own and his wife's wardrobe are packed up in a firkin4--,parker and ,fox cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xvi4--,,change ,,the ,,antecedent4 ,the sounds of e and o long1 in their due degrees1 will be preserved1 and clearly distinguished4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,if any persons should be inclined to think1 c41 the author takes the liberty to suggest to them1 c4--,id4 ,and he walked in all the way of ,asa his father2 he turned not aside from it4--,bible cor4 ,if ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brethren their trespasses4--,id4 ,none ever fancied they were slighted by him1 or had the courage to think themselves his betters4--,collier cor4 ,and ,rebecca took some very good clothes of her eldest son ,esau's1 which were with her in the house1 and put them upon ,jacob her younger son4--,gen4 cor4 ,where all the attention of men is given to their own indulgence4--,maturin cor4 ,the idea of a father is a notion superinduced to that of the substance1 or man--let one's idea of man be what it will4--,locke cor4 ,leaving all to do as they list4--,barclay cor4 ,each person performed his part handsomely4--,j4 ,flint cor4 ,this block of marble rests on two layers of stones1 bound together with lead1 which1 however1 has not prevented the ,arabs from forcing out several of them4--,parker and ,fox cor4 ,love gives to all our powers a double power1 ,above their functions and their offices4 ,or3-- ,love gives to every power a double power1 ,exalts all functions and all offices4--,shak4 cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,xi2 ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,plurality4 ,the jury will be confined till they agree on a verdict4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #ade4 ,and mankind directed their first cares towards the needful4--,formey cor4 ,it is difficult to deceive a free people respecting their true interest4--,life of ,charles ,,xii cor4 ,all the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers1 but their follies and vices are innumerable4--,swift cor4 ,every sect saith1 ',give us liberty3' but give it them1 and to their power1 and they will not yield it to any body else4--,cromwell cor4 ,behold1 the people shall rise up as a great lion1 and lift up themselves as a young lion4--,bible cor4 ,for all flesh had corrupted their way upon the earth4--,id4 ,there happened to the army a very strange accident1 which put them in great consternation4--,goldsmith cor4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,unity4 ,the meeting went on with its business as a united body4--,foster cor4 ,every religious association has an undoubted right to adopt a creed for itself4--,gould cor4 ,it would therefore be extremely difficult to raise an insurrection in that state against its own government4--,dr4 ,webster cor4 ,the mode in which a lyceum can apply itself in effecting a reform in common schools4--,n4 ,y4 ,lyc4 cor4 ,hath a nation changed its gods1 which yet are no gods8--,jer4 cor4 ,in the holy ,scriptures1 each of the twelve tribes of ,israel is often called by the name of the patriarch from whom it descended4 ,or better3--from whom the tribe descended4--,adams cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,uniformity ,,of ,,number4 ,a nation1 by the reparation of the wrongs which it has done1 achieves a triumph more glorious than any field of blood can ever give4--,adams cor4 ,the ,english nation1 from whom we descended1 have been gaining their liberties inch by inch4--,webster cor4 ,if a ,yearly ,meeting should undertake to alter its fundamental doctrines1 is there any power in the society to prevent it from doing so8--,foster's ,rep4 cor4 ,there is#ecg a generation that curse their father1 and do not bless their mother4--,bible cor4 ,there is#ecg a generation that are pure in their own eyes1 and yet are not washed from their filthiness4--,id4 ,he hath not beheld iniquity in ,jacob1 neither hath he seen perverseness in ,israel3 the ,lord their ,god is with them1 and the shout of a king is among them4--,id4 ,my people have forgotten me1 they have burnt incense to vanity4--,id4 ,when a quarterly meeting has come to a judgement respecting any difference1 relative to any monthly meeting belonging to it c4--,discip4 cor4 ,the number of such compositions is every day increasing1 and it appears to be limited only by the pleasure or the convenience of writers4--,booth cor4 ,the ,church of ,christ has the same power now as ever1 and is led by the same spirit into the same practices4--,barclay cor4 ,the army1 whom their chief had thus abandoned1 pursued meanwhile their miserable march4 ,or thus3 ,the army1 which its chief had thus abandoned1 pursued meanwhile its miserable march4--,lockhart cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,xii2 ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,,antecedents ,,connected ,,by ,,and4 ,discontent and sorrow manifested themselves in his countenance4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #adf4 ,both conversation and public speaking became more simple and plain1 such as we now find them4--,blair cor4 ,idleness and ignorance1 if they be suffered to proceed1 c4--,johnson and ,priestley cor4 ,avoid questions and strife3 they show a busy and contentious disposition4--,penn cor4 ,to receive the gifts and benefits of ,god with thanksgiving1 and witness them blessed and sanctified to us by the word and prayer1 is owned by us4--,barclay cor4 ,both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose between their duty and their reputation4--,junius cor4 ,all the sincerity1 truth1 and faithfulness1 or disposition of heart or conscience to approve them1 found among rational creatures1 necessarily originate from ,god4--,rev4 ,j4 ,brown cor4 ,your levity and heedlessness1 if they continue1 will prevent all substantial improvement4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bfi4 ,poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems them oppressive4--,ib4 ,good sense and refined policy are obvious to few1 because they cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection4--,ib4 ,avoid haughtiness of behaviour1 and affectation of manners3 they imply a want of solid merit4--,ib4 ,if love and unity continue1 they will make you partakers of one an other's joy4--,ib4 ,suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter3 they will destroy1 like a canker1 every germ of friendship4--,ib4 ,hatred and animosity are inconsistent with ,christian charity3 guard1 therefore1 against the slightest indulgence of them4--,ib4 ,every man is entitled to liberty of conscience1 and freedom of opinion1 if he does not pervert them to the injury of others4--,ib4 ,with the azure and vermilion ,which are mix'd for my pavilion4--,byron cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,xiii2 ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,,antecedents ,,connected ,,by ,,or ,,or ,,nor4 ,neither prelate nor priest can give his flock or flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors4--,brownlee cor4 ,and is there a heart of parent or of child1 that does not beat and burn within him8-- ,maturin cor4 ,this is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for its service to the body4--,collier cor4 ,if thy hand or thy foot offend thee1 cut it off1 and cast it from thee4--,bible cor4 ,the same might as well be said of ,virgil1 or any great author2 whose general character will infallibly raise many casual additions to his reputation4--,pope cor4 ,either ,james or ,john1--one or the other1--will come4--,smith cor4 ,even a rugged rock or a barren heath1 though in itself disagreeable1 contributes1 by contrast1 to the beauty of the whole4--,kames cor4 ,that neither ,count ,rechteren nor ,monsieur ,mesnager had behaved himself right in this affair4--,spect4 cor4 ,if an ,aristotle1 a ,pythagoras1 or a ,galileo1 suffers for his opinions1 he is a 'martyr4'--,fuller cor4 ,if an ox gore a man or a woman1 that he or she die2 then the ox shall surely be stoned4--,exod4 cor4 ,she was calling out to one or an other1 at every step1 that a ,habit was ensnaring him4--,johnson cor4 ,here is a task put upon children1 which neither this author himself1 nor any other1 has yet undergone4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,hence1 if an adjective or a participle be subjoined to the verb when the construction is singular1 it will agree both in gender and in number with the collective noun4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,and if you can find a diphthong or a triphthong1 be pleased to point that out too4--,bucke cor4 ,and if you can find a trissyllable or a polysyllable1 point it out4--,id4 ,the false refuges in which the atheist or the sceptic has intrenched himself4--,chr4 ,spect4 cor4 ,while the man or woman thus assisted by art1 expects his charms or hers will be imputed to nature alone4--,opie cor4 ,when you press a watch1 or pull a clock1 it answers your question with precision2 for it repeats exactly the hour of the day1 and tells you neither more nor less than you desire to know4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,not the ,mogul1 or ,czar of ,muscovy1 ,not ,prester ,john1 or ,cham of ,tartary1 ,is in his mansion monarch more than ,i4--,king cor4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,verbs4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,xiv ,,and ,,its ,,notes4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,verb ,,after ,,the ,,nominative4 ,before you left ,sicily1 you were reconciled to ,verres4--,duncan cor4 ,knowing that you were my old master's good friend4--,spect4 cor4 ,when the judge dares not act1 where is the loser's remedy8--,webster cor4 ,which extends it no farther than the variation of the verb extends4--,mur4 cor4 ,they presently dry without hurt1 as myself have often proved4--,r4 ,williams cor4 ,whose goings-forth have been from of old1 from everlasting4--,micah1 v1 #b4 ,you were paid to fight against ,alexander1 not to rail at him4--,porter cor4 ,where more than one part of speech are almost always concerned4--,churchill cor4 ,nothing less than murders1 rapines1 and conflagrations1 employs their thoughts4 ,or3 ,no less things than murders1 rapines1 and conflagrations1 employ their thoughts4--,duncan cor4 ,i wondered where you were1 my dear4--,lloyd cor4 ,when thou most sweetly singst4--,drummond cor4 ,who dares1 at the present day1 avow himself equal to the task8--,gardiner cor4 ,every body is very kind to her1 and not discourteous to me4--,byron cor4 ,as to what thou sayst respecting the diversity of opinions4--,m4 ,b4 cor4 ,thy nature1 ,immortality1 who knows8--,everest cor4 ,the natural distinction of sex in animals1 gives rise to what1 in grammar1 are called genders4--,id4 ,some pains have likewise been taken4--,scott cor4 ,and many a steed in his stables was seen4--,penwarne cor4 ,they were forced to eat what never was esteemed food4--,josephus cor4 ,this that you yourself have spoken1 ,i desire that they may take their oaths upon4--,hutchinson cor4 ,by men whose experience best qualifies them to judge4--,committee cor4 ,he dares venture to kill and destroy several other kinds of fish4--,walton cor4 ,if a gudgeon meet a roach1 ,he ne'er will venture to approach4 ,or thus3 ,if a gudgeon meets a roach1 ,he dares not venture to approach4--,swift cor4 ,which thou endeavourst to establish to thyself4--,barclay cor4 ,but they pray together much oftener than thou insinuat'st4--,id4 ,of people of all denominations1 over whom thou presidest4--,n4 ,waln cor4 ,i can produce ladies and gentlemen whose progress has been astonishing4--,chazotte cor4 ,which of these two kinds of vice is the more criminal8--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,every twenty-four hours afford to us the vicissitudes of day and night4--,smith's ,false ,syntax1 ,new ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,or thus3 ,every period of twenty-four hours affords to us the vicissitudes of day and night4--,smith cor4 ,every four years add an other day4--,smith's ,false ,syntax1 ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,better thus3 ,every fourth year adds an other day4--,smith cor4 ,every error ,i could find1 ,has my busy muse employed4--,swift cor4 ,a studious scholar deserves the approbation of his teacher4--,sanborn cor4 ,perfect submission to the rules of a school indicates good breeding4--,id4 ,a comparison in which more than two are concerned4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #gh4 ,by the facilities which artificial language affords them4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,now thyself hast lost both lop and top4--,spencer cor4 ,glad tidings are brought to the poor4--,campbell cor4 ,upon which1 all that is pleasurable or affecting in elocution1 chiefly depends4--,sher4 cor4 ,no pains have been spared to render this work complete4--,bullions cor4 ,the ,united ,states contain more than a twentieth part of the land of this globe4--,clinton cor4 ,i am mindful that myself am strong4--,fowler cor4 ,myself am 7not is7 weak2--,thyself art 7not is7 weak4--,id4 ,how pale each worshipful and reverend guest ,rises from clerical or city feast6--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,verb ,,before ,,the ,,nominative4 ,where were you born8 ,in ,london4--,buchanan cor4 ,there are frequent occasions for commas4--,ingersoll cor4 ,there necessarily follow from thence these plain and unquestionable consequences4--,priestley cor4 ,and to this impression contributes the redoubled effort4--,kames cor4 ,or1 if he was1 were there no spiritual men then8--,barclay cor4 ,so1 by these two also1 are signified their contrary principles4--,id4 ,in the motions made with the hands1 consists the chief part of gesture in speaking4--,blair cor4 ,dares he assume the name of a popular magistrate8--,duncan cor4 ,there were no damages as in ,england1 and so ,scott lost his wager4--,byron cor4 ,in fact1 there exist such resemblances4--,kames cor4 ,to him give all the prophets witness4--,acts1 x1 #dc4 ,that there were so many witnesses and actors4--,addison cor4 ,how do this man's definitions stand affected8--,collier cor4 ,whence come all the powers and prerogatives of rational beings8--,id4 ,nor do the scriptures cited by thee prove thy intent4--,barclay cor4 ,nor does the scripture cited by thee prove the contrary4--,id4 ,why then citest thou a scripture which is so plain and clear for it8--,id4 ,but what say the ,scriptures as to respect of persons among ,christians8--,id4 ,but in the mind of man1 while in the savage state1 there seem to be hardly any ideas but what enter by the senses2--,robertson cor4 ,what sounds has each of the vowels8--,griscom cor4 ,out of this have grown up aristocracies1 monarchies1 despotisms1 tyrannies4--,brownson cor4 ,and there were taken up1 of fragments that remained to them1 twelve baskets4--,bible cor4 ,there seem to be but two general classes4--,day cor4 ,hence arise the six forms of expressing time4--,id4 ,there seem to be no other words required4--,chandler cor4 ,if there are two1 the second increment is the syllable next to the last4--,bullions cor4 ,hence arise the following advantages4--,id4 ,there are no data by which it can be estimated4--,calhoun cor4 ,to this class1 belongs the ,chinese language1 in which we have nothing but naked primitives4--,fowler cor4 ,fist ,nothing but naked roots is faulty2 because no word is a root1 except some derivative spring from it4--,g4 ,b4 ,there were several other grotesque figures that presented themselves4--,spect4 cor4 ,in these consists that sovereign good which ancient sages so much extol4--,percival cor4 ,here come those ,i have done good to against my will4--,shak4 cor4 ,where there are more than one auxiliary4 ,or3 ,where there are more auxiliaries than one4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,on me to cast those eyes where shines nobility4 --,sidney cor4 ,here are half-pence in plenty1 for one you'll have twenty4 --,swift cor4 ,ah1 ,jockey1 ill advisest thou4 ,i wis1 ,to think of songs at such a time as this4 --,churchill cor4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,the ,,relative ,,and ,,verb4 ,thou1 who lovest us1 wilt protect us still4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,to use that endearing language1 ',our ,father1 who art in heaven4'--,bates cor4 ,resembling the passions that produce these actions4--,kames cor4 ,except dwarf1 grief1 hoof1 muff1 c41 which take s to make the plural4--,ash cor4 ,as the cattle that go before me1 and the children1 be able to endure4--,gen4 cor4 ,where is the man who dares affirm that such an action is mad8--,dr4 ,pratt cor4 ,the ninth book of ,livy affords one of the most beautiful exemplifications of historical painting1 that are anywhere to be met with4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,in some studies1 too1 that relate to taste and fine writing1 which are our object1 c4--,id4 ,of those affecting situations which make man's heart feel for man4--,id4 ,we see very plainly1 that it is neither ,osmyn nor ,jane ,shore that speaks4--,id4 ,it should assume that briskness and ease which are suited to the freedom of dialogue4--,id4 ,yet they grant1 that none ought to be admitted into the ministry1 but such as are truly pious4--,barclay cor4 ,this letter is one of the best that have been written about ,lord ,byron4--,hunt cor4 ,thus1 besides what were sunk1 the ,athenians took above two hundred ships4--,goldsmith cor4 ,to have made and declared such orders as were necessary4--,hutchinson cor4 ,the idea of such a collection of men as makes an army4--,locke cor4 ,i'm not the first that has been wretched4--,southern cor4 ,and the faint sparks of it which are in the angels1 are concealed from our view4--,calvin cor4 ,the subjects are of such a nature1 as allows room 7or1 as to allow room7 for much diversity of taste and sentiment4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,it is in order to propose examples of such perfection1 as is not to be found in the real examples of society4--,formey cor4 ,i do not believe that he would amuse himself with such fooleries as have been attributed to him4--,id4 ,that shepherd1 who first taught the chosen seed4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 i1 l4 #h4 ,with respect to the vehemence and warmth which are allowed in popular eloquence4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,ambition is one of those passions that are never to be satisfied4--,home cor4 ,thou wast he that led out and brought in ,israel4--,bible cor4 ,art thou the man of ,god1 that came from ,judah8--,id4 ,how beauty is excell'd by manly grace ,and wisdom1 which alone are truly fair4--,milton cor4 ,what art thou1 speak1 that on designs unknown1 ,while others sleep1 thus roamst the camp alone8--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,nominative ,,with ,,adjuncts4 ,the literal sense of the words is1 that the action had been done4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,the rapidity of his movements was beyond example4--,wells cor4 ,murray's ,grammar1 together with his ,exercises and ,key1 has nearly superseded every thing else of the kind4--,murray's ,rec4 cor4 ,the mechanism of clocks and watches was totally unknown4--,hume cor4 ,the it1 together with the verb to be1 expresses a state of being4--,cobbett cor4 ,hence it is1 that the profuse variety of objects in some natural landscapes1 occasions neither confusion nor fatigue4--,kames cor4 ,such a clatter of sounds indicates rage and ferocity4--,gardiner cor4 ,one of the fields makes threescore square yards1 and the other1 only fifty-five4--,duncan cor4 ,the happy effects of this fable are worth attending to4--,bailey cor4 ,yet the glorious serenity of its parting rays1 still lingers with us4--,gould cor4 ,enough of its form and force is retained to render them uneasy4--,maturin cor4 ,the works of nature1 in this respect1 are extremely regular4--,pratt cor4 ,no small addition of exotic and foreign words and phrases1 has been made by commerce4--,bicknell cor4 ,the dialect of some nouns is noticed in the notes4--,milnes cor4 ,it has been said1 that a discovery of the full resources of the arts1 affords the means of debasement1 or of perversion4--,rush cor4 ,by which means1 the order of the words is disturbed4--,holmes cor4 ,the two-fold influence of these and the others1 requires the verb to be in the plural form4--,peirce cor4 ,and each of these affords employment4--,percival cor4 ,the pronunciation of the vowels is best explained under the rules relative to the consonants4--,coar cor4 ,the judicial power of these courts extends to all cases in law and equity4--,hall and ,baker cor4 ,one of you has stolen my money4--,humorist cor4 ,such redundancy of epithets1 in stead of pleasing1 produces satiety and disgust4--,kames cor4 ,it has been alleged1 that a compliance with the rules of ,rhetoric1 tends to cramp the mind4--,hiley cor4 ,each of these is presented to us in different relations4--,hendrick cor4 ,the past tense of these verbs1 7should1 would1 might1 could17 is very indefinite with respect to time4--,bullions cor4 ,the power of the words which are said to govern this mood1 is distinctly understood4--,chandler cor4 ,and now1 at length1 the fated term of years ,the world's desire hath brought1 and lo6 the ,god appears4 --,lowth cor4 ,variety of numbers still belongs ,to the soft melody of odes1 or songs4 --,brightland cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,composite ,,or ,,converted ,,subjects4 ,many are the works of human industry1 which to begin and finish1 is hardly granted to the same man4--,johnson cor4 ,to lay down rules for these1 is as inefficacious4--,pratt cor4 ,to profess regard and act injuriously1 discovers a base mind4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,to magnify to the height of wonder things great1 new1 and admirable1 extremely pleases the mind of man4--,fisher cor4 ,in this passage1 'according as' is used in a manner which is very common4--,webster cor4 ,a ,,cause ,,de1 is called a preposition2 ,a ,,cause ,,que1 a conjunction4--,webster cor4 ,to these it is given to speak in the name of the ,lord4--,the ,friend cor4 ,while wheat has no plural1 oats has seldom any singular4--,cobbett cor4 ,he cannot assert that ll 7i4e41 double ,ell7 is inserted in fullness to denote the sound of u--,cobb cor4 ,ch1 in ,latin1 has the power of k4--,gould cor4 ,ti1 before a vowel1 and unaccented1 has the sound of si or ci4--,id4 ,in words derived from ,french1 as chagrin1 chicanery1 and chaise1 ch is sounded like sh4--,bucke cor4 ,but1 in the words schism1 schismatic1 c41 the ch is silent4--,id4 ,ph1 at the beginning of words1 is always sounded like f4--,bucke cor4 ,ph has the sound of f as in philosophy4--,webster cor4 ,sh has one sound only1 as in shall4--,id4 ,th has two sounds4--,id4 ,sc1 before a1 o1 u1 or r1 has the sound of sk4--,id4 ,aw has the sound of a in hall4--,bolles cor4 ,ew sounds like u--,id4 ,ow1 when both vowels are sounded1 has the power of ou in thou4--,id4 ,ui1 when both vowels are pronounced in one syllable1 sounds like wi short1 as in languid4--,id4 ,ui three other sounds at least expresses1 ,as who hears ,,guile1 ,,rebuild1 and ,,bruise1 confesses4 --,brightland cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,each1 ,,one1 ,,either1 ,,and ,,neither4 ,when each of the letters which compose this word1 has been learned4--,dr4 ,weeks cor4 ,as neither of us denies that both ,homer and ,virgil have great beauties4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,yet neither of them is remarkable for precision4--,id4 ,how far each of the three great epic poets has distinguished himself4--,id4 ,each of these produces a separate1 agreeable sensation4--,id4 ,on the ,lord's day1 every one of us ,christians keeps the sabbath4--,tr4 of ,iren4 cor4 ,and each of them bears the image of purity and holiness4--,hope of ,is4 cor4 ,was either of these meetings ever acknowledged or recognized8--,foster cor4 ,whilst neither of these letters exists in the ,eugubian inscription4--,knight cor4 ,and neither of them is properly termed indefinite4--,dr4 ,wilson cor4 ,as likewise of the several subjects1 which have in effect their several verbs3 or1--each of which has in effect its own verb4--,lowth cor4 ,sometimes1 when the word ends in s1 neither of the signs is used4--,a4 ,mur4 cor4 ,and as neither of these manners offends the ear4--,j4 ,walker cor4 ,neither of these two tenses is confined to this signification only4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,but neither of these circumstances is intended here4--,tooke cor4 ,so that all are indebted to each1 and each is dependent upon all4--,bible ,rep4 cor4 ,and yet neither of them expresses any more action in this case1 than it did in the other4--,bullions cor4 ,each of these expressions denotes action4--,hallock cor4 ,neither of these moods seems to be defined by distinct boundaries4--,butler cor4 ,neither of these solutions is correct4--,bullions cor4 ,neither bears any sign of case at all4--,fowler cor4 ,each in his turn1 like ,banquo's monarchs1 stalks4 ,or3-- ,all in their turn1 like ,banquo's monarchs1 stalk4--,byron cor4 ,and tell what each doth by the other lose4--,shak4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,verb ,,between ,,two ,,nominatives4 ,the quarrels of lovers are but a renewal of love4--,adam et al4 cor4 ,two dots1 one placed above the other1 are called a ,sheva4--,wilson cor4 ,a few centuries more or less are a matter of small consequence4--,id4 ,pictures were the first step towards the art of writing2 hieroglyphics were the second step4--,parker cor4 ,the comeliness of youth is modesty and frankness2 of age1 condescension and dignity4 ,or1 much better3 ,the great ornaments of youth are1 c4--,murray cor4 ,merit and good works are the end of man's motion4--,bacon cor4 ,divers philosophers hold1 that the lips are parcel of the mind4--,shak4 cor4 ,the clothing of the natives was the skins of wild beasts4 ,or thus3 ,the clothes of the natives were skins of wild beasts4--,hist4 cor4 ,prepossessions in favour of our native town1 are not a matter of surprise4--,webster cor4 ,two shillings and sixpence are half a crown1 but not a half crown4--,priestley and ,bicknell cor4 ,two vowels1 pronounced by a single impulse of the voice1 and uniting in one sound1 are called a diphthong4--,cooper cor4 ,two or more sentences united together are called a ,compound ,sentence4--,day cor4 ,two or more words rightly put together1 but not completing an entire proposition1 are called a ,phrase4--,id4 ,but the common number of times is five4 ,or1 to state the matter truly3 ,but the common number of tenses is six4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,technical terms1 injudiciously introduced1 are an other source of darkness in composition4--,jamieson cor4 ,the ,united ,states are the great middle division of ,north ,america4--,morse cor4 ,a great cause of the low state of industry1 was the restraints put upon it4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aii2 ,churchill's1 #dad4 ,here two tall ships become the victor's prey4--,rowe cor4 ,the expenses incident to an outfit are surely no object4--,the ,friend cor4 ,perhaps their loves1 or else their sheep1 ,were all that did their silly thoughts so busy keep4--,milt4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,change ,,of ,,the ,,nominative4 ,much care has been taken1 to explain all the kinds of words4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gr4 cor4 ,not fewer years than three years1 are spent in attaining this faculty4 ,or1 perhaps better3 ,not less than three years' time1 is spent in attaining this faculty4 ,or thus3 ,not less time than three years1 is spent1 c4--,gardiner cor4 ,where this night are met in state ,many friends to gratulate ,his wish'd presence4--,milton cor4 ,peace6 my darling1 here's no danger1 ,here's no ox anear thy bed4--,watts cor4 ,but all of these are mere conjectures1 and some of them very unhappy ones4--,coleridge cor4 ,the old theorists' practice of calling the ,interrogatives and ,repliers ,,adverbs1 is only a part of their regular system of naming words4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,where several sentences occur1 place them in the order of the facts4--,id4 ,and that all the events in conjunction make a regular chain of causes and effects4--,kames cor4 ,in regard to their origin1 the ,grecian and ,roman republics1 though equally involved in the obscurities and uncertainties of fabulous events1 present one remarkable distinction4--,adams cor4 ,in these respects1 man is left by nature an unformed1 unfinished creature4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,the ,scriptures are the oracles of ,god himself4--,hooker cor4 ,and at our gates are all kinds of pleasant fruits4--,s4 ,song cor4 ,the preterits of pluck1 look1 and toss1 are1 in speech1 pronounced pluckt1 lookt1 tosst4--,fowler corrected4 ,severe the doom that days prolonged impose1 ,to stand sad witness of unnumbered woes6--,melmoth cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,forms ,,adapted ,,to ,,different ,,styles4 #a4 ,forms adapted to the ,common or ,familiar ,style4 ,was it thou#ech that built that house8--,brown's ,institutes1 ,key1 p4 #bgj4 ,that boy writes very elegantly4--,ib4 ,could not thou write without blotting thy book8--,ib4 ,dost not thou think--or1 ,don't thou think1 it will rain to-day8--,ib4 ,does not--or1 ,don't your cousin intend to visit you8--,ib4 ,that boy has torn my book4--,ib4 ,was it thou that spread the hay8--,ib4 ,was it ,james1 or thou1 that let him in8--,ib4 ,he dares not say a word4--,ib4 ,thou stood in my way and hindered me4--,ib4 ,whom do ,i see8--,whom dost thou see now8--,whom does he see8--,whom dost thou love most8--,what art thou doing to-day8--,what person dost thou see teaching that boy8--,he has two new knives4--,which road dost thou take8--,what child is he teaching8--,ingersoll cor4 ,thou1 who mak'st my shoes1 sellst many more4 ,or thus3 ,you1 who make my shoes1 sell many more4--,id4 ,the ,english language has been much cultivated during the last two hundred years4 ,it has been considerably polished and refined4--,lowth cor4 ,this style is ostentatious1 and does not suit grave writing4--,priestley cor4 ,but custom has now appropriated who to persons1 and which to things and brute animals4--,id4 ,the indicative mood shows or declares something2 as1 ,ego amo1 ,i love2 or else asks a question2 as1 ,amas tu8 ,dost thou love8--,paul's ,ac4 cor4 ,though thou cannot do much for the cause1 thou may and should do something4--,murray cor4 ,the support of so many of his relations1 was a heavy tax3 but thou knowst 7or1 you know7 he paid it cheerfully4--,id4 ,it may1 and often does1 come short of it4--,murrays ,gram41 p4 #cei4 ',twas thou1 who1 while thou seem'd to chide1 ,to give me all thy pittance tried4--,mitford cor4 #b4 ,forms adapted to the ,solemn or ,biblical ,style4 ,the ,lord hath prepared his throne in the heavens2 and his kingdom ruleth over all4--,psalms1 ciii1 #ai4 ,thou answeredst them1 ,o ,lord our ,god2 thou wast a ,god that forgave#eci them1 though thou tookest vengeance of their inventions4--,see ,psalms1 xcix1 #h4 ,then thou spakest in vision to thy ,holy ,one1 and saidst1 ,i have laid help upon one that is mighty4--,ib41 lxxxix1 #ai4 ',so then1 it is not of him that willeth1 nor of him that runneth1 but of ,god that showeth mercy2' who dispenseth his blessings1 whether temporal or spiritual1 as seemeth good in his sight4--,christian ,experience of ,st4 ,paul1 p4 #cdd2 see ,rom41 ix1 #af4 ,thou1 the mean while1 wast blending with my thought2 ,yea1 with my life1 and life's own secret joy4--,coleridge cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,express ,,the ,,nominative4 ,who is here so base1 that he would be a bondman8--,shak4 cor4 ,who is here so rude1 he would not be a ,roman8--,id4 ,there is not a sparrow which falls to the ground without his notice4 ,or better3 ,not a sparrow falls to the ground1 without his notice4--,murray cor4 ,in order to adjust them in such a manner as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength of the period4--,id4 and ,blair cor4 ,but sometimes there is a verb which comes in4 ,better3 ,but sometimes there is a verb introduced4--,cobbett cor4 ,mr4 ,prince has a genius which would prompt him to better things4--,spect4 cor4 ,it is this that removes that impenetrable mist4--,harris cor4 ,by the praise which is given him for his courage4--,locke cor4 ,there is no man who would be more welcome here4--,steele cor4 ,between an antecedent and a consequent1 or what goes before1 and what immediately follows4--,blair cor4 ,and as connected with what goes before and what follows4--,id4 ,no man doth a wrong for the wrong's sake4--,bacon cor4 ,all the various miseries of life1 which people bring upon themselves by negligence or folly1 and which might have been avoided by proper care1 are instances of this4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,ancient philosophers have taught many things in favour of morality1 so far at least as it respects justice and goodness towards our fellow-creatures4--,fuller cor4 ,indeed1 if there be any such1 who have been1 or who appear to be of us1 as suppose there is not a wise man among us all1 nor an honest man1 that is able to judge betwixt his brethren2 we shall not covet to meddle in their matters4--,barclay cor4 ,there were some that drew back2 there were some that made shipwreck of faith2 yea1 there were some that brought in damnable heresies4--,id4 ,the nature of the cause rendered this plan altogether proper2 and1 under similar circumstances1 the orator's method is fit to be imitated4--,blair cor4 ,this is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined1 and which was formerly very prevalent4--,churchill cor4 ,his roots are wrapped about the heap1 and he seeth the place of stones4--,bible cor4 ,new ,york1 ,fifthmonth #c;d1 #ahbc4 ,dear friend1 ,i am sorry to hear of thy loss2 but ,i hope it may be retrieved4 ,i should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power4 ,i shall call to see thee to-morrow morning4 ,accept assurances of my regard4 ,a4 ,b4 ,new ,york1 ,may #c;d1 ,p4 ,m41 #ahbc4 ,dear sir1 ,i have just received the kind note you favoured me with this morning2 and ,i cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you4 ,on further information1 ,i find ,i have not lost so much as ,i at first supposed2 and ,i believe ,i shall still be able to meet all my engagements4 ,i should1 however1 be happy to see you4 ,accept1 dear sir1 my most cordial thanks4 ,c4 ,d4 ,see ,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #bga4 ,will martial flames forever fire thy mind1 ,and wilt thou never be to ,heaven resign'd8--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,application ,,of ,,moods4 ,first ,clause of the ,note4--,the ,subjunctive ,present4 ,he will not be pardoned unless he repent4--,inst41 p4 #aia4 ,if thou find any kernelwort in this marshy meadow1 bring it to me4--,neef cor4 ,if thou leave the room1 do not forget to shut that drawer4--,id4 ,if thou grasp it stoutly1 thou wilt not be hurt3 or1 7familiarly17--thou will not be hurt4--,id4 ,on condition that he come1 ,i will consent to stay4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bjh4 ,if he be but discreet1 he will succeed4--,inst41 p4 #bhj4 ,take heed that thou speak not to ,jacob4--,gen41 xxxi1 #bd4 ,if thou cast me off1 ,i shall be miserable4--,inst41 p4 #bhj4 ,send them to me1 if thou please4--,ib4 ,watch the door of thy lips1 lest thou utter folly4--,ib4 ,though a liar speak the truth1 he will hardly be believed4--,bartlett cor4 ,i will go1 unless ,i be ill4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,if the word or words understood be supplied1 the true construction will be apparent4--,id4 ,unless thou see the propriety of the measure1 we shall not desire thy support4--,id4 ,unless thou make a timely retreat1 the danger will be unavoidable4--,id4 ,we may live happily1 though our possessions be small4--,id4 ,if they be carefully studied1 they will enable the student to parse all the exercises4--,id4 ,if the accent be fairly preserved on the proper syllable1 this drawling sound will never be heard4--,id4 ,one phrase may1 in point of sense1 be equivalent to an other1 though its grammatical nature be essentially different4--,id4 ,if any man obey not our word by this epistle1 note that man4--#b ,thess41 iii1 #ad4 ,thy skill will be the greater1 if thou hit it4--,putnam1 ,cobb1 or ,knowles1 cor4 ,we shall overtake him1 though he run4--,priestley et al4 cor4 ,we shall be disgusted1 if he give us too much4--,blair cor4 ,what is't to thee1 if he neglect thy urn1 ,or without spices let thy body burn8--,dryden cor4 ,second ,clause of ,note ,,ix4--,the ,subjunctive ,imperfect4#edj ,and so would ,i1 if ,i were he4--,inst41 p4 #aia4 ,if ,i were a ,greek1 ,i should resist ,turkish despotism4--,cardell cor4 ,if he were to go1 he would attend to your business4--,id4 ,if thou felt as ,i do1 we should soon decide4--,inst41 p4 #bhj4 ,though thou shed thy blood in the cause1 it would but prove thee sincerely a fool4--,ib4 ,if thou loved him1 there would be more evidence of it4--,ib4 ,if thou convinced him1 he would not act accordingly4--,murray cor4 ,if there were no liberty1 there would be no real crime4--,formey cor4 ,if the house were burnt down1 the case would be the same4--,foster cor4 ,as if the mind were not always in action1 when it prefers any thing4--,west cor4 ,suppose ,i were to say1 ',light is a body4'--,harris cor4 ,if either oxygen or azote were omitted1 life would be destroyed4--,gurney cor4 ,the verb dare is sometimes used as if it were an auxiliary4--,priestley cor4 ,a certain lady1 whom ,i could name1 if it were necessary4--,spect4 cor4 ,if the e were dropped1 c and g would assume their hard sounds4--,buchanan cor4 ,he would no more comprehend it1 than if it were the speech of a ,hottentot4--,neef cor4 ,if thou knew the gift of ,god1 c4--,bible cor4 ,i wish ,i were at home4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,fact alone does not constitute right3 if it did1 general warrants were lawful4--,junius cor4 ,thou lookst upon thy boy1 as though thou guessed it4--,putnam1 ,cobb1 or ,knowles1 cor4 ,he fought as if he contended for life4--,hiley cor4 ,he fought as if he were contending for his life4--,id4 ,the dewdrop glistens on thy leaf1 ,as if thou shed for me a tear2 ,as if thou knew my tale of grief1 ,felt all my sufferings severe4--,letham cor4 ,last ,clause of ,note ,,ix4--,the ,indicative ,mood4 ,if he knows the way1 he does not need a guide4--,inst41 p4 #aia4 ,and if there is no difference1 one of them must be superfluous1 and ought to be rejected4--,murray cor4 ,i cannot say that ,i admire this construction though it is much used4--,priestley cor4 ,we are disappointed1 if the verb does not immediately follow it4--,id4 ,if it was they1 that acted so ungratefully1 they are doubly in fault4--,murray cor4 ,if art becomes apparent1 it disgusts the reader4--,jamieson cor4 ,though perspicuity is more properly a rhetorical than a grammatical quality1 ,i thought it better to include it in this book4--,campbell cor4 ,although the efficient cause is obscure1 the final cause of those sensations lies open4--,blair cor4 ,although the barrenness of language1 or the want of words1 is doubtless one cause of the invention of tropes4--,id4 ,though it enforces not its instructions1 yet it furnishes a greater variety4--,id4 ,in other cases1 though the idea is one1 the words remain quite separate4--,priestley cor4 ,though the form of our language is more simple1 and has that peculiar beauty4--,buchanan cor4 ,human works are of no significancy till they are completed4--,kames cor4 ,our disgust lessens gradually till it vanishes altogether4--,id4 ,and our relish improves by use1 till it arrives at perfection4--,id4 ,so long as he keeps himself in his own proper element4--,coke cor4 ,whether this translation was ever published or not1 ,i am wholly ignorant4--,sale cor4 ,it is false to affirm1 ',as it is day1 it is light1' unless it actually is day4--,harris cor4 ,but we may at midnight affirm1 ',if it is day1 it is light4'--,id4 ,if the ,bible is true1 it is a volume of unspeakable interest4--,dickinson cor4 ,though he was a son1 yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered4--,bible cor4 ,if ,david then calleth 7or calls7 him ,lord1 how is he his son8--,id4 ',tis hard to say1 if greater want of skill ,appears in writing1 or in judging1 ill4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,false ,,subjunctives4 ,if a man has built a house1 the house is his4--,wayland cor4 ,if ,god has required them of him1 as is the fact1 he has time4--,id4 ,unless a previous understanding to the contrary has been had with the principal4--,berrian cor4 ,o6 if thou hast hid them in some flowery cave4--,milton cor4 ,o6 if ,jove's will has linked that amorous power to thy soft lay4--,id4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood3 ,if thou love1 ,if thou loved4--,dr4 ,priestley1 ,dr4 ,murray1 ,john ,burn1 ,david ,blair1 ,harrison1 and others4 ,till ,religion1 the pilot of the soul1 hath lent thee her unfathomable coil4--,tupper cor4 ,whether nature or art contributes most to form an orator1 is a trifling inquiry4--,blair cor4 ,year after year steals something from us1 till the decaying fabric totters of itself1 and at length crumbles into dust4--,murray cor4 ,if spiritual pride has not entirely vanquished humility4--,west cor4 ,whether he has gored a son1 or has gored a daughter4--,bible cor4 ,it is doubtful whether the object introduced by way of simile1 relates to what goes before or to what follows4--,kames cor4 ,and bridle in thy headlong wave1 ,till thou our summons answer'd hast4 ,or3-- ,and bridle in thy headlong wave1 ,till thou hast granted what we crave4--,milt4 cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,xv ,,and ,,its ,,note4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,plurality4 ,the gentry are punctilious in their etiquette4--,g4 ,b4 ,in ,france1 the peasantry go barefoot1 and the middle sort make use of wooden shoes4--,harvey cor4 ,the people rejoice in that which should cause sorrow4--,murray varied4 ,my people are foolish1 they have not known me4--,bible and ,lowth cor4 ,for the people speak1 but do not write4--,phil4 ,mu4 cor4 ,so that all the people that were in the camp1 trembled4--,bible cor4 ,no company like to confess that they are ignorant4--,todd cor4 ,far the greater part of their captives were anciently sacrificed4--,robertson cor4 ,more than one half of them were cut off before the return of spring4--,id4 ,the other class1 termed ,figures of ,thought1 suppose the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning4--,blair and ,mur4 cor4 ,a multitude of words in their dialect approach to the ,teutonic form1 and therefore afford excellent assistance4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,a great majority of our authors are defective in manner4--,j4 ,brown cor4 ,the greater part of these new-coined words have been rejected4--,tooke cor4 ,the greater part of the words it contains1 are subject to certain modifications or inflections4--,the ,friend cor4 ,while all our youth prefer her to the rest4--,waller cor4 ,mankind are appointed to live in a future state4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,the greater part of human kind speak and act wholly by imitation4--,rambler1 ,no4 #adf4 ,the greatest part of human gratifications approach so nearly to vice4--,id41 ,no4 #afj4 ,while still the busy world are treading o'er ,the paths they trod five thousand years before4--,young cor4 ,,under ,,the ,,note4--,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,unity4 ,in old ,english1 this species of words was numerous4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,and a series of exercises in false grammar is introduced towards the end4--,frost cor4 ,and a jury1 in conformity with the same idea1 was anciently called homagium1 the homage1 or manhood4--,webster cor4 ,with respect to the former1 there is indeed a plenty of means4--,kames cor4 ,the number of school districts has increased since the last year4--,throop cor4 ,the ,yearly ,meeting has purchased with its funds these publications4--,foster cor4 ,has the legislature power to prohibit assemblies8--,sullivan cor4 ,so that the whole number of the streets was fifty4--,rollin cor4 ,the number of inhabitants was not more than four millions4--,smollett cor4 ,the house of ,commons was of small weight4--,hume cor4 ,the assembly of the wicked hath 7or has7 inclosed me4--,psal4 cor4 ,every kind of convenience and comfort is provided4--,c4 ,s4 ,journal cor4 ,amidst the great decrease of the inhabitants in ,spain1 the body of the clergy has suffered no diminution2 but it has rather been gradually increasing4--,payne cor4 ,small as the number of inhabitants is1 yet their poverty is extreme4--,id4 ,the number of the names was about one hundred and twenty4--,ware and ,acts cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,xvi ,,and ,,its ,,notes4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself--,,the ,,verb ,,after ,,joint ,,nominatives4 ,so much ability and so much merit are seldom found4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,the etymology and syntax of the language are thus spread before the learner4--,bullions cor4 ,dr4 ,johnson tells us1 that1 in ,english poetry1 the accent and the quantity of syllables are the same thing4--,adams cor4 ,their general scope and tendency1 having never been clearly apprehended1 are not remembered at all4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the soil and sovereignty were not purchased of the natives4--,knapp cor4 ,the boldness1 freedom1 and variety1 of our blank verse1 are infinitely more favourable to sublimity of style1 than are the constraint and uniformity of rhyme4--,blair cor4 ,the vivacity and sensibility of the ,greeks seem to have been much greater than ours4--,id4 ,for sometimes the mood and tense are signified by the verb1 sometimes they are signified of the verb by something else4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,the verb and the noun making a complete sense1 whereas the participle and the noun do not4--,id4 ,the growth and decay of passions and emotions1 traced through all their mazes1 are a subject too extensive for an undertaking like the present4--,kames cor4 ,the true meaning and etymology of some of his words were lost4--,knight cor4 ,when the force and direction of personal satire are no longer understood4--,junius cor4 ,the frame and condition of man admit of no other principle4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,some considerable time and care were necessary4--,id4 ,in consequence of this idea1 much ridicule and censure have been thrown upon ,milton4--,blair cor4 ,with rational beings1 nature and reason are the same thing4--,collier cor4 ,and the flax and the barley were smitten4--,bible cor4 ,the colon and semicolon divide a period2 this with1 and that without1 a connective4--,ware cor4 ,consequently1 wherever space and time are found1 there ,god must also be4--,newton cor4 ,as the past tense and perfect participle of ,,love end in ,,ed1 it is regular4--,chandler cor4 ,but the usual arrangement and nomenclature prevent this from being readily seen4--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,do and did simply imply opposition or emphasis4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,i and an other make the plural ,,we2 thou and an other are equivalent to ,,ye2 he1 she1 or it1 and an other1 make ,,they4--,id4 ,i and an other or others are the same as ,,we1 the first person plural2 thou and an other or others are the same as ,,ye1 the second person plural2 he1 she1 or it1 and an other or others1 are the same as ,,they1 the third person plural4--,buchanan and ,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,god and thou are two1 and thou and thy neighbour are two4--,love ,conquest cor4 ,just as ,,an and ,a have arisen out of the numeral ,,one4--,fowler cor4 ,the tone and style of all of them1 particularly of the first and the last1 are very different4--,blair cor4 ,even as the roebuck and the hart are eaten4--,bible cor4 ,then ,i may conclude that two and three do not make five4--,barclay cor4 ,which1 at sundry times1 thou and thy brethren have received from us4--,id4 ,two and two are four1 and one is five3 i1 e41 and one1 added to four1 is five4--,pope cor4 ,humility and knowledge with poor apparel1 excel pride and ignorance under costly array4--,see ,murray's ,key1 ,rule #b;d4 ,a page and a half have been added to the section on composition4--,bullions cor4 ,accuracy and expertness in this exercise are an important acquisition4--,id4 ,woods and groves are of thy dressing1 ,hill and dale proclaim thy blessing4 ,or thus3-- ,hill and valley boast thy blessing4--,milton cor4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,the ,,verb ,,before ,,joint ,,nominatives4 ,there are a good and a bad1 a right and a wrong1 in taste1 as in other things4--,blair cor4 ,whence have arisen much stiffness and affectation4--,id4 ,to this error1 are owing1 in a great measure1 that intricacy and that harshness1 in his figurative language1 which ,i before noticed4--,blair and ,jamieson cor4 ,hence1 in his ,night ,thoughts1 there prevail an obscurity and a hardness of style4--,blair cor4 ,see ,jamieson's ,rhet41 p4 #afg4 ,there are1 however1 in that work1 much good sense and excellent criticism4--,blair cor4 ,there are too much low wit and scurrility in ,plautus4 ,or3 ,there is1 in ,plautus1 too much of low wit and scurrility4--,id4 ,there are too much reasoning and refinement1 too much pomp and studied beauty1 in them4 ,or3 ,there is too much of reasoning and refinement1 too much of pomp and studied beauty1 in them4--,id4 ,hence arise the structure and characteristic expression of exclamation4--,rush cor4 ,and such pilots are he and his brethren1 according to their own confession4--,barclay cor4 ,of whom are ,hymeneus and ,philetus2 who concerning the truth have erred4--,bible cor4 ,of whom are ,hymeneus and ,alexander2 whom ,i have delivered unto ,satan4--,id4 ,and so were ,james and ,john1 the sons of ,zebedee4--,id4 ,out of the same mouth1 proceed blessing and cursing4--,id4 ,out of the mouth of the ,most ,high1 proceed not evil and good4--,id4 ,in which there are most plainly a right and a wrong4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,in this sentence1 there are both an actor and an object4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,in the breastplate1 were placed the mysterious ,urim and ,thummim4--,milman cor4 ,what are the gender1 number1 and person1 of the pronoun#eda in the first example8--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,there seem to be a familiarity and a want of dignity in it4--,priestley cor4 ,it has been often asked1 what are ,latin and ,greek8--,lit4 ,journal cor4 ,for where do beauty and high wit1 ,but in your constellation1 meet8--,sam4 ,butler cor4 ,thence to the land where flow ,ganges and ,indus4--,milton cor4 ,on these foundations1 seem to rest the midnight riot and dissipation of modern assemblies4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,but what have disease1 deformity1 and filth1 upon which the thoughts can be allured to dwell8--,dr4 ,johnson cor4 ,how are the gender and number of the relative known8--,bullions cor4 ,high rides the sun1 thick rolls the dust1 ,and feebler speed the blow and thrust4--,scott cor4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,change ,,the ,,connective4 ,in every language1 there prevails a certain structure1 or analogy of parts1 which is understood to give foundation to the most reputable usage4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,there runs through his whole manner a stiffness1 an affectation1 which renders him ,shaftsbury very unfit to be considered a general model4--,id4 ,but where declamation for improvement in speech is the sole aim4--,id4 ,for it is by these1 chiefly1 that the train of thought1 the course of reasoning1 the whole progress of the mind1 in continued discourse of any kind1 is laid open4--,lowth cor4 ,in all writing and discourse1 the proper composition or structure of sentences is of the highest importance4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,here the wishful and expectant look of the beggar naturally leads to a vivid conception of that which was the object of his thoughts4--,campbell cor4 ,who say1 that the outward naming of ,christ1 with the sign of the cross1 puts away devils4--,barclay cor4 ,by which an oath with a penalty was to be imposed on the members4--,junius cor4 ,light1 or knowledge1 in what manner soever afforded us1 is equally from ,god4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,for instance1 sickness or untimely death is the consequence of intemperance4--,id4 ,when grief or blood ill-tempered vexeth him4 ,or3 ,when grief1 with blood ill-tempered1 vexes him--,shak4 cor4 ,does continuity1 or connexion1 create sympathy and relation in the parts of the body8--,collier cor4 ,his greatest concern1 his highest enjoyment1 was1 to be approved in the sight of his ,creator4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,know ye not that there is#edb a prince1 a great man1 fallen this day in ,israel8--,bible cor4 ,what is vice1 or wickedness8 ,no rarity1 you may depend on it4--,collier cor4 ,there is also the fear or apprehension of it4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,the apostrophe with s 7's7 is an abbreviation for is1 the termination of the old ,english genitive4--,bullions cor4 ,ti1 ce1 ,,or ci1 when followed by a vowel1 usually has the sound of sh2 as in partial1 ocean1 special4--,weld cor4 ,bitter constraint of sad occasion dear ,compels me to disturb your season due4--,milton cor4 ,debauch'ry1 or excess1 though with less noise1 ,as great a portion of mankind destroys4--,waller cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,affirmation ,,with ,,negation4 ,wisdom1 and not wealth1 procures esteem4--,inst41 ,key1 p4 #bgb4 ,prudence1 and not pomp1 is the basis of his fame4--,ib4 ,not fear1 but labour has overcome him4--,ib4 ,the decency1 and not the abstinence1 makes the difference4--,ib4 ,not her beauty1 but her talents attract attention4--,ib4 ,it is her talents1 and not her beauty1 that attract attention4--,ib4 ,it is her beauty1 and not her talents1 that attracts attention4--,ib4 ,his belly1 not his brains1 this impulse gives3 ,he'll grow immortal2 for he cannot live4 ,or thus3-- ,his bowels1 not his brains1 this impulse give3 ,he'll grow immortal2 for he cannot live4--,young cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,as ,,well ,,as1 ,,but1 ,,or ,,save4 ,common sense1 as well as piety1 tells us these are proper4--,fam4 ,com4 cor4 ,for without it the critic1 as well as the undertaker1 ignorant of any rule1 has nothing left but to abandon himself to chance4--,kames cor4 ,and accordingly hatred1 as well as love1 is extinguished by long absence'4--,id4 ,but at every turn the richest melody1 as well as the sublimest sentiments1 is conspicuous4--,id4 ,but it1 as well as the lines immediately subsequent1 defies all translation4--,coleridge cor4 ,but their religion1 as well as their customs and manners1 was strangely misrepresented4--,bolingbroke1 on ,history1 ,paris ,edition of #ahjh1 p4 #ic4 ,but his jealous policy1 as well as the fatal antipathy of ,fonseca1 was conspicuous4--,robertson cor4 ,when their extent1 as well as their value1 was unknown4--,id4 ,the etymology1 as well as the syntax1 of the more difficult parts of speech1 is reserved for his attention at a later period4--,parker and ,fox cor4 ,what ,i myself owe to him1 no one but myself knows4--,wright cor4 ,none1 but thou1 ,o mighty prince6 can avert the blow4--,inst41 ,key1 p4 #bgb4 ,nothing1 but frivolous amusements1 pleases the indolent4--,ib4 ,nought1 save the gurglings of the rill1 was heard4--,g4 ,b4 ,all songsters1 save the hooting owl1 were mute4--,g4 ,b4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,each1 ,,every1 ,,or ,,no4 ,give every word1 and every member1 its due weight and force4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #caf4 ,and to one of these belongs every noun1 and every third person of every verb4--,dr4 ,wilson cor4 ,no law1 no restraint1 no regulation1 is required to keep him within bounds4--,lit4 ,journal cor4 ,by that time1 every window and every door in the street was full of heads4--,observer cor4 ,every system of religion1 and every school of philosophy1 stands back from this field1 and leaves ,jesus ,christ alone1 the solitary example4 ,or3 ,all systems of religion1 and all schools of philosophy1 stand back from this field1 and leave ,jesus ,christ alone1 the solitary example4--,abbott cor4 ,each day1 and each hour1 brings its portion of duty4--,inst41 ,key1 p4 #bgb4 ,and every one that was in distress1 and every one that was in debt1 and every one that was discontented1 resorted unto him4--,bible cor4 ,every private ,christian1 every member of the church1 ought to read and peruse the ,scriptures1 that he may know his faith and belief to be founded upon them4--,barclay cor4 ,and every mountain and every island was moved out of its place4--,bible cor4 ,no bandit fierce1 no tyrant mad with pride1 ,no cavern'd hermit rests self-satisfied4--,pope4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,with1 ,,or1 c41 ,,for ,,and4 ,the sides1 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 compose the triangle4--,tobitt1 ,felch1 and ,ware cor4 ,the stream1 the rock1 and the tree1 must each of them stand forth1 so as to make a figure in the imagination4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,while this1 with euphony1 constitutes1 finally1 the whole4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,the bag1 with the guineas and dollars in it1 was stolen4--,cobbett cor4 ,sobriety1 with great industry and talent1 enables a man to perform great deeds4 ,or3 ,sobriety1 industry1 and talent1 enable a man to perform great deeds4--,id4 ,the it1 together with the verb1 expresses a state of being4--,id4 ,where ,leonidas the ,spartan king1 and his chosen band1 fighting for their country1 were cut off to the last man4--,kames cor44 ,and ,leah also1 and her children1 came near and bowed themselves4--,bible cor4 ,the ,first and the ,second will either of them1 by itself1 coalesce with the ,third1 but they do not coalesce with each other4--,harris cor4 ,the whole must centre in the query1 whether ,tragedy and ,comedy are hurtful and dangerous representations4--,formey cor4 ,both grief and joy are infectious3 the emotions which they raise in the spectator1 resemble them perfectly4--,kames cor4 ,but1 in all other words1 the q and u are both sounded4--,ensell cor4 ,q and u 7which are always together7 have the sound of kw1 as in queen2 or of k only1 as in opaque4 ,or1 better3 ,q has always the sound of k2 and the u which follows it1 that of w2 except in ,french words1 in which the u is silent4--,goodenow cor4 ,in this selection1 the a and i form distinct syllables4--,walker cor4 ,and a considerable village1 with gardens1 fields1 c41 extends around on each side of the square4--,lib4 cor4 ,affection and interest guide our notions and behaviour in the affairs of life2 imagination and passion affect the sentiments that we entertain in matters of taste4--,jamieson cor4 ,she heard none of those intimations of her defects1 which envy1 petulance1 and anger1 produce among children4--,johnson cor4 ,the ,king1 ,lords1 and ,commons1 constitute an excellent form of government4--,crombie et al4 cor4 ,if we say1 ',i am the man who commands you1' the relative clause1 with the antecedent man1 forms the predicate4--,crombie cor4 ,the spacious firmament on high1 ,the blue ethereal vault of sky1 ,and spangled heav'ns1 a shining frame1 ,their great ,original proclaim4--,addison cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,elliptical ,,constructions4 ,there are a reputable and a disreputable practice4 ,or3 ,there is a reputable1 and there is a disreputable practice4--,adams cor4 ,this man and this were born in her4--,milton cor4 ,this man and that were born in her4--,bible cor4 ,this and that man were born there4--,hendrick cor4 ,thus le in lego1 and le in legi1 seem to be sounded equally long4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,a distinct and an accurate articulation form the groundwork of good delivery4 ,or3 ,a distinct and accurate articulation forms the groundwork of good delivery4--,kirkham cor4 ,how are vocal and written language understood8--,sanders cor4 ,the good1 the wise1 and the learned man1 are ornaments to human society4 ,or3 ,the good1 wise1 and learned man is an ornament to human society4--,bartlett cor4 ,in some points1 the expression of song and that of speech are identical4--,rush cor4 ,to every room1 there were an open and a secret passage4--,johnson cor4 ,there are such things as a true and a false taste2 and the latter as often directs fashion1 as the former4--,webster cor4 ,there are such things as a prudent and an imprudent institution of life1 with regard to our health and our affairs4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,the lot of the outcasts of ,israel1 and that of the dispersed of ,judah1 however different in one respect1 have in an other corresponded with wonderful exactness4--,hope of ,israel cor4 ,on these final syllables1 the radical and the vanishing movement are performed4--,rush cor4 ,to be young or old1 and to be good1 just1 or the contrary1 are physical or moral events4--,spurzheim cor41 and ,felch4 ,the eloquence of ,george ,whitfield and that of ,john ,wesley were very different in character each from the other4--,dr4 ,sharp cor4 ,the affinity of m for the series beginning with b1 and that of n for the series beginning with t1 give occasion for other euphonic changes4--,fowler cor4 ,pylades' soul1 and mad ,orestes'1 were ,in these1 if right the ,greek philosopher4 ,or thus3-- ,pylades' and ,orestes' soul did pass ,to these1 if we believe ,pythagoras4 ,or1 without ellipsis3-- ,pylades and ,orestes' souls did pass ,to these1 if we believe ,pythagoras4--,cowley corrected4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,distinct ,,subject ,,phrases4 ,to be moderate in our views1 and to proceed temperately in the pursuit of them1 are the best ways to ensure success4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,to be of any species1 and to have a right to the name of that species1 are both one4--,locke cor4 ,with whom1 to will1 and to do1 are the same4--,dr4 ,jamieson cor4 ,to profess1 and to possess1 are very different things4--,inst41 ,key1 p4 #bgb4 ,to do justly1 to love mercy1 and to walk humbly with ,god1 are duties of universal obligation4--,ib4 ,to be round or square1 to be solid or fluid1 to be large or small1 and to be moved swiftly or slowly1 are all equally alien from the nature of thought4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,the resolving of a sentence into its elements1 or parts of speech1 and a stating of the accidents which belong to these1 are called ,,parsing4 ,or1 according to ,note #ast above3 ,the resolving of a sentence into its elements1 or parts of speech1 with a stating of the accidents which belong to these1 is called ,,parsing4--,bullions cor4 ,to spin and to weave1 to knit and to sew1 were once a girl's employments2 but now1 to dress1 and to catch a beau1 are all she calls enjoyments4--,kimball cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,xvii ,,and ,,its ,,notes4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,nominatives ,,connected ,,by ,,or4 ,we do not know in what either reason or instinct consists4--,johnson corrected4 ,a noun or a pronoun joined with a participle1 constitutes a nominative case absolute4--,bicknell cor4 ,the relative will be of that case which the verb or noun following1 or the preposition going before1 uses to govern3 or1--usually governs4--,adam1 ,gould1 et al41 cor4 ,in the different modes of pronunciation1 which habit or caprice gives rise to4--,knight cor4 ,by which he1 or his deputy1 was authorized to cut down any trees in ,whittlebury forest4--,junius cor4 ,wherever objects were named1 in which sound1 noise1 or motion1 was concerned1 the imitation by words was abundantly obvious4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the pleasure or pain resulting from a train of perceptions in different circumstances1 is a beautiful contrivance of nature for valuable purposes4--,kames cor4 ,because their foolish vanity1 or their criminal ambition1 represents the principles by which they are influenced1 as absolutely perfect4--,d4 ,boileau cor4 ,hence naturally arises indifference or aversion between the parties4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,a penitent unbeliever1 or an impenitent believer1 is a character nowhere to be found4--,tract cor4 ,copying whatever is peculiar in the talk of all those whose birth or fortune entitles them to imitation4--,johnson cor4 ,where love1 hatred1 fear1 or contempt1 is often of decisive influence4--,duncan cor4 ,a lucky anecdote1 or an enlivening tale1 relieves the folio page4--,d',israeli cor4 ,for outward matter or event fashions not the character within4 ,or3 7according to the antique style of this modern book of proverbs37--fashioneth not the character within4--,tupper cor4 ,yet sometimes we have seen that wine1 or chance1 has warmed cold brains4--,dryden cor4 ,motion is a genus2 flight1 a species2 this flight or that flight is an individual4--,harris cor4 ,when et1 aut1 vel1 sive1 or nec1 is repeated before different members of the same sentence4--,adam1 ,gould1 and ,grant1 cor4 ,wisdom or folly governs us4--,fisk cor4 ,a or an is styled the indefinite article--,folker cor4 ,a rusty nail1 or a crooked pin1 shoots up into a prodigy4--,spect4 cor4 ,is either the subject or the predicate in the second sentence modified8--,prof4 ,fowler cor4 ,praise from a friend1 or censure from a foe1 ,is lost on hearers that our merits know4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,the ,,rule ,,itself4--,,nominatives ,,connected ,,by ,,nor4 ,neither he nor she has spoken to him4--,perrin cor4 ,for want of a process of events1 neither knowledge nor elegance preserves the reader from weariness4--,johnson cor4 ,neither history nor tradition furnishes such information4--,robertson cor4 ,neither the form nor the power of the liquids has varied materially4--,knight cor4 ,where neither noise nor motion is concerned4--,blair cor4 ,neither ,charles nor his brother was qualified to support such a system4--,junius cor4 ,when1 therefore1 neither the liveliness of representation1 nor the warmth of passion serves1 as it were1 to cover the trespass1 it is not safe to leave the beaten track4--,campbell cor4 ,in many countries called ,christian1 neither ,christianity1 nor its evidence1 is fairly laid before men4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,neither the intellect nor the heart is capable of being driven4--,abbott cor4 ,throughout this hymn1 neither ,apollo nor ,diana is in any way connected with the ,sun or ,moon4--,coleridge cor4 ,of which1 neither he1 nor this grammar1 takes any notice4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,neither their solicitude nor their foresight extends so far4--,robertson cor4 ,neither ,gomara1 nor ,oviedo1 nor ,herrera1 considers ,ojeda1 or his companion ,vespucci1 as the first discoverer of the continent of ,america4--,id4 ,neither the general situation of our colonies1 nor that particular distress which forced the inhabitants of ,boston to take up arms1 has been thought worthy of a moment's consideration4--,junius cor4 ,nor war nor wisdom yields our ,jews delight1 ,they will not study1 and they dare not fight4--,crabbe cor4 ,nor time nor chance breeds such confusions yet1 ,nor are the mean so rais'd1 nor sunk the great4--,rowe cor4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,nominatives ,,that ,,disagree4 ,the definite article1 the1 designates what particular thing or things are meant4--,merchant cor4 ,sometimes a word1 or several words1 necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence1 are not expressed1 but are omitted by ellipsis4--,burr cor4 ,ellipsis1 7better1 ,ellipses17 or abbreviations1 are the wheels of language4--,maunder cor4 ,the conditions or tenor of none of them appears at this day4 ,or3 ,the tenor or conditions of none of them appear at this day4-- ,hutchinson cor4 ,neither men nor money was wanting for the service4 ,or3 ,neither money nor men were wanting for the service4--,id4 ,either our own feelings1 or the representation of those of others1 requires emphatic distinction to be frequent4--,dr4 ,barber cor4 ,either ,atoms and ,chance1 or ,nature1 is uppermost3 now ,i am for the latter part of the disjunction4--,collier cor4 ,their riches or poverty is generally proportioned to their activity or indolence4--,cox cor4 ,concerning the other part of him1 neither he nor you seem to have entertained an idea4--,horne cor4 ,whose earnings or income is so small4--,discip4 cor4 ,neither riches nor fame renders a man happy4--,day cor4 ,the references to the pages always point to the first volume1 unless the ,exercises or ,key is mentioned4 ,or1 better3--unless mention is made of the ,exercises or ,key4 ,or3 unless the ,exercises or ,key be named4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,complete ,,the ,,concord4 ,my lord1 you wrong my father2 neither is he1 nor am ,i1 capable of harbouring a thought against your peace4--,walpole cor4 ,there was no division of acts2 there were no pauses1 or intervals1 in the performance2 but the stage was continually full2 occupied either by the actors1 or by the chorus4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,every word ending in b1 p1 or f1 is of this order1 as also are many that end in v4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,proud as we are of human reason1 nothing can be more absurd than is the general system of human life and human knowledge4-- ,bolingbroke cor4 ,by which the body of sin and death is done away1 and we are cleansed4--,barclay cor4 ,and those were already converted1 and regeneration was begun in them4--,id4 ,for ,i am an old man1 and my wife is well advanced in years4--,bible cor4 ,who is my mother8 or who are my brethren8--,see ,matt41 xii1 #dh4 ,lebanon is not sufficient to burn1 nor are the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering4-- ,bible cor4 ,information has been obtained1 and some trials have been made4--,martineau cor4 ,it is as obvious1 and its causes are more easily understood4--,webster cor4 ,all languages furnish examples of this kind1 and the ,english contains as many as any other4--,priestley cor4 ,the winters are long1 and the cold is intense4--,morse cor4 ,how have ,i hated instruction1 and how hath my heart despised reproof6--,prov4 cor4 ,the vestals were abolished by ,theodosius the ,great1 and the fire of ,vesta was extinguished4--,lempriere cor4 ,riches beget pride2 pride begets impatience4--,bullions cor4 ,grammar is not reasoning1 any more than organization is thought1 or letters are sounds4--,enclytica cor4 ,words are implements1 and grammar is a machine4--,id4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,place ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,person4 ,thou or ,i must undertake the business4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,he and ,i were there4--,ash cor4 ,and we dreamed a dream in one night1 he and ,i4--,bible cor4 ,if my views remain the same as his and mine were in #ahcc4--;,goodell cor4 ,my father and ,i were riding out4--,inst41 ,key1 p4 #bgc4 ,the premiums were given to ,george and me4--,ib4 ,jane and ,i are invited4--,ib4 ,they ought to invite my sister and me4--,ib4 ,you and ,i intend to go4--,guy cor4 ,john and ,i are going to town4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,he and ,i are sick4--,james ,brown cor4 ,thou and ,i are well4--,id4 ,he and ,i are4--,id4 ,thou and ,i are4--,id4 ,he1 and ,i write4--,id4 ,they and ,i are well4--,id4 ,she1 and thou1 and ,i1 were walking4--,id4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,distinct ,,subject ,,phrases4 ,to practise tale-bearing1 or even to countenance it1 is great injustice4--,inst41 ,key1 p4 #bgc4 ,to reveal secrets1 or to betray one's friends1 is contemptible perfidy4--,id4 ,to write all substantives with capital letters1 or to exclude capitals from adjectives derived from proper names1 may perhaps be thought an offence too small for animadversion2 but the evil of innovation is always something4--,dr4 ,barrow cor4 ,to live in such families1 or to have such servants1 is a blessing from ,god4--,fam4 ,com4 cor4 ,how they portioned out the country1 what revolutions they experienced1 or what wars they maintained1 is utterly unknown4 ,or3 ,how they portioned out the country1 what revolutions they experienced1 and what wars they maintained1 are things utterly unknown4--,goldsmith cor4 ,to speak or to write perspicuously and agreeably1 is an attainment of the utmost consequence to all who purpose1 either by speech or by writing1 to address the public4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,make ,,the ,,verbs ,,agree4 ,doth he not leave the ninety and nine1 and go into the mountains1 and seek that which is gone astray8--,bible cor4 ,did he not fear the ,lord1 and beseech the ,lord1 and did not the ,lord repent of the evil which he had pronounced8--,id4 ,and dost thou open thine eyes upon such a one1 and bring me into judgement with thee8--,id4 ,if any man among you seemeth to be religious1 and bridleth not his tongue1 but deceiveth his own heart1 this man's religion is vain4--,id4 ,if thou sell aught unto thy neighbour1 or buy aught of thy neighbour's hand1 ye shall not oppress one an other4--,id4 ,and if thy brother that dwelleth by thee1 become poor1 and be sold to thee1 thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond-servant4--,id4 ,if thou bring thy gift to the altar1 and there remember that thy brother hath aught against thee1 c4--,id4 ,anthea was content to call a coach1 and so to cross the brook4 ,or3--and in that she crossed the brook4--,johnson cor4 ,it is either totally suppressed1 or manifested only in its lowest and most imperfect form4--,blair cor4 ,but if any man is a worshiper of ,god1 and doeth his will1 him he heareth4 ,or3 ,if any man be a worshiper of ,god1 and do his will1 him will he hear4--,bible cor4 ,whereby his righteousness and obedience1 death and sufferings without1 become profitable unto us1 and are made ours4--,barclay cor4 ,who ought to have been here before thee1 and to have objected1 if they had any thing against me4--,bible cor4 ,yes6 thy proud lords1 unpitied land1 shall see1 ,that man has yet a soul1 and dares be free4--,campbell cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,use ,,separate ,,nominatives4 ,h is only an aspiration1 or breathing2 and sometimes1 at the beginning of a word1 it is not sounded at all4--,lowth cor4 ,man was made for society1 and he ought to extend his good will to all men4--,id4 ,there is1 and must be1 a ,supreme ,being1 of infinite goodness1 power1 and wisdom1 who created1 and who supports them4--,beattie cor4 ,were you not affrighted1 and did you not mistake a spirit for a body8--,bp4 ,watson cor4 ,the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction than or as1 but it either agrees with the verb1 or is governed by the verb or the preposition1 expressed or understood4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,he had mistaken his true interest1 and he found himself forsaken4--,murray cor4 ,the amputation was exceedingly well performed1 and it saved the patient's life4--,id4 ,the intentions of some of these philosophers1 nay1 of many1 might have been1 and probably they were1 good4--,id4 ,this may be true1 and yet it will not justify the practice4--,webster cor4 ,from the practice of those who have had a liberal education1 and who are therefore presumed to be best acquainted with men and things4--,campbell cor4 ,for those energies and bounties which created1 and which preserve1 the universe4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams cor4 ,i shall make it once for all1 and ,i hope it will be remembered4--,blair cor4 ,this consequence is drawn too abruptly4 ,the argument needed more explanation4 ,or3 ,this consequence is drawn too abruptly1 and without sufficient explanation4--,id4 ,they must be used with more caution1 and they require more preparation4--,id4 ,the apostrophe denotes the omission of an i1 which was formerly inserted1 and which made an addition of a syllable to the word4--,priestley cor4 ,the succession may be rendered more various or more uniform1 but1 in one shape or an other1 it is unavoidable4--,kames cor4 ,it excites neither terror nor compassion2 nor is it agreeable in any respect4--,id4 ,cheap vulgar arts1 whose narrowness affords ,no flight for thoughts1--they poorly stick at words4--,denham cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,mixture ,,of ,,different ,,styles4 ,let us read the living page1 whose every character delights and instructs us4--,maunder cor4 ,for if it is in any degree obscure1 it puzzles1 and does not please4--,kames cor4 ,when a speaker addresses himself to the understanding1 he proposes the instruction of his hearers4--,campbell cor4 ,as the wine which strengthens and refreshes the heart4--,h4 ,adams cor4 ,this truth he wraps in an allegory1 and feigns that one of the goddesses had taken up her abode with the other4--,pope cor4 ,god searcheth and understandeth the heart4 ,or3 ,god searches and understands the heart4--,t4 4 ,kempis cor4 ,the grace of ,god1 that bringeth salvation1 hath appeared to all men4--,titus1 ii1 #aa4 ,which things also we speak1 not in the words which man's wisdom teacheth1 but which the ,holy ,ghost teacheth4--#a ,cor41 ii1 #ac4 ,but he has an objection1 which he urges1 and by which he thinks to overturn all4--,barclay cor4 ,in that it gives them not that comfort and joy which it gives to them who love it4--,id4 ,thou here misunderstood the place and misapplied it4 ,or3 ,thou here misunderstoodst the place and misappliedst it4--,id4 ,or3 7as many of our grammarians will have it37 ,thou here misunderstoodest the place and misappliedst it4--,id4 ,like the barren heath in the desert1 which knoweth not when good cometh4--,see ,jer41 xvii1 #f4 ,it speaks of the time past1 and shows that something was then doing1 but not quite finished4--,devis cor4 ,it subsists in spite of them2 it advances unobserved4--,pascal cor4 ,but where is he1 the pilgrim of my song8-- ,methinks he lingers late and tarries long4--,byron cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,confusion ,,of ,,moods4 ,if a man have a hundred sheep1 and one of them go 7or be gone7 astray1 c4--,matt41 xviii1 #ab4 ,or3 ,if a man has a hundred sheep1 and one of them goes 7or is gone7 astray1 c4 ,or3 ,if a man hath a hundred sheep1 and one of them goeth 7or is gone7 astray1 c4--,kirkham cor4 ,as a speaker advances in his discourse1 and increases in energy and earnestness1 a higher and a louder tone will naturally steal upon him4--,id4 ,if one man esteem one day above an other1 and an other esteem every day alike2 let every man be fully persuaded in his own mind4--,barclay cor4 ,see ,rom41 xiv1 #e4 ,if there be but one body of legislators1 it will be no better than a tyranny2 if there be only two1 there will want a casting voice4--,addison cor4 ,should you come up this way1 and ,i be still here1 you need not be assured how glad ,i should be to see you4--,byron cor4 ,if he repent and become holy1 let him enjoy ,god and heaven4--,brownson cor4 ,if thy fellow approach thee1 naked and destitute1 and thou say unto him1 ',depart in peace1 be warmed and filled1' and yet thou give him not those things which are needful to him1 what benevolence is there in thy conduct8--,kirkham cor4 ,get on your nightgown1 lest occasion call us1 ,and show us to be watchers4--,singer's ,shakspeare4 ,but if it climb1 with your assisting hand1 ,the ,trojan walls1 and in the city stand4--,dryden cor4 ----------------,though ,heaven's ,king ,ride on thy wings1 and thou with thy compeers1 ,used to the yoke1 draw his triumphant wheels4--,milton cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,improper ,,ellipses4 ,indeed we have seriously wondered that ,murray should leave some things as he has left them4--,reporter cor4 ,which they neither have done nor can do4--,barclay cor4 ,the ,lord hath revealed1 and doth and will reveal1 his will to his people2 and hath raised up1 and doth raise up1 members of his body1 c4--,id4 ,we see1 then1 that the ,lord hath given1 and doth give1 such4--,id4 ,towards those that have declared1 or do declare1 themselves members4--,id4 ,for which we can give1 and have given1 our sufficient reasons4--,id4 ,when we mention the several properties of the different words in sentences1 as we have mentioned those of the word ,william's above1 what is the exercise called8--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,it is however to be doubted1 whether this ,greek idiom ever has obtained1 or ever will obtain1 extensively1 in ,english4--,nutting cor4 ,why did not the ,greeks and ,romans abound in auxiliary words as much as we do8--,murray cor4 ,who delivers his sentiments in earnest1 as they ought to be delivered in order to move and persuade4--,kirkham cor4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,do1 ,,used ,,as ,a ,,substitute4 ,and ,i would avoid it altogether1 if it could be avoided4 ,or3 ,i would avoid it altogether1 if to avoid it were practicable4--,kames cor4 ,such a sentiment from a man expiring of his wounds1 is truly heroic2 and it must elevate the mind to the greatest height to which it can be raised by a single expression4--,id4 ,successive images1 thus making deeper and deeper impressions1 must elevate the mind more than any single image can4--,id4 ,besides making a deeper impression than can be made by cool reasoning4--,id4 ,yet a poet1 by the force of genius alone1 may rise higher than a public speaker can4 ,or3--than can a public speaker4--,blair cor4 ,and the very same reason that has induced several grammarians to go so far as they have gone1 should have induced them to go farther4--,priestley cor4 ,the pupil should commit the first section to memory perfectly1 before he attempts 7or enters upon7 the second part of grammar4--,bradley cor4 ,the ,greek ch was pronounced hard1 as we now pronounce it in chord4--,booth cor4 ,they pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they adopt 7or1 in a manner different from that which they are accustomed to use7 at other times4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,and give him the cool and formal reception that ,simon had given4--,scott cor4 ,i do not say1 as some have said4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,if he suppose the first1 he may the last4--,barclay cor4 ,who are now despising ,christ in his inward appearance1 as the ,jews of old despised him in his outward advent4--,id4 ,that text of ,revelations must not be understood as he understands it4--,id4 ,till the mode of parsing the noun is so familiar to him that he can parse it readily4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,perhaps it is running the same course that ,rome had run before4--,middleton cor4 ,it ought even on this ground to be avoided2 and it easily may be1 by a different construction4--,churchill cor4 ,these two languages are now pronounced in ,england as no other nation in ,europe pronounces them4--,creighton cor4 ,germany ran the same risk that ,italy had run4--,bolingbroke1 ,murray1 et al41 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,preterits ,,and ,,participles4 ,the beggars themselves will be broken in a trice4--,swift cor4 ,the hoop is hoisted above his nose4--,id4 ,and his heart was lifted up in the ways of the ,lord4--#b ,chron41 xvii1 #f4 ,who sin so oft have mourned1 ,yet to temptation run4--,burns cor4 ,who would not have let them appear4--,steele cor4 ,he would have had you seek for ease at the hands of ,mr4 ,legality4--,bunyan cor4 ,from me his madding mind is turned3 ,he woos the widow's daughter1 of the glen4--,spenser cor4 ,the man has spoken1 and he still speaks4--,ash cor4 ,for you have but mistaken me all this while4--,shak4 cor4 ,and will you rend our ancient love asunder8--,id4 ,mr4 ,birney has pled 7or pleaded7 the inexpediency of passing such resolutions4--,liberator cor4 ,who have worn out their years in such most painful labours4--,littleton cor4 ,and in the conclusion you were chosen probationer4--,spectator cor4 ,how she was lost1 ta'en captive1 made a slave2 ,and how against him set that should her save4--,bunyan cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,of ,,verbs ,,confounded4 ,but ,moses preferred to while away his time4--,parker cor4 ,his face shone with the rays of the sun4--,john ,allen cor4 ,whom they had set at defiance so lately4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,and when he had sat down1 his disciples came unto him4--,bible cor4 ,when he had sat down on the judgement-seat4 ,or3 ,while he was sitting on the judgement-seat4-- ,id4 ,and1 they having kindled a fire in the midst of the hall and sat down together1 ,peter sat down among them4--,id4 ,so1 after he had washed their feet1 and had taken his garments1 and had sat down again1or1 literally1'sitting down again1' he said to them1 ,do ye know what ,i have done to you8--,id4 ,even as ,i also overcame1 and sat down with my ,father in his throne4--,id4 ,or3 7rather less literally37 ,even as ,i have overcome1 and am sitting with my ,father on his throne4--,id4 ,we have such a high priest1 who sitteth on the right hand of the throne of the ,majesty in the heavens4--,id4 ,and is now sitting at the right hand of the throne of ,god4--,id4 ,he set on foot a furious persecution4-- ,payne cor4 ,there lieth 7or lies7 an obligation upon the saints to help such4--,barclay cor4 ,there let him lie4--,byron cor4 ,nothing but moss1 and shrubs1 and stunted trees1 can grow upon it4--,morse cor4 ,who had laid out considerable sums purely to distinguish themselves4-- ,goldsmith cor4 ,whereunto the righteous flee and are safe4--,barclay cor4 ,he rose from supper1 and laid aside his garments4--,id4 ,whither--oh6 whither--shall ,i flee8--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,fleeing from an adopted murderer4--,id4 ,to you ,i flee for refuge4--,id4 ,the sign that should warn his disciples to flee from the approaching ruin4-- ,keith cor4 ,in one she sits as a prototype for exact imitation4--,rush cor4 ,in which some only bleat1 bark1 mew1 whinny1 and bray1 a little better than others4--,id4 ,who represented to him the unreasonableness of being affected with such unmanly fears4--,rollin cor4 ,thou sawest every action4 ,or1 familiarly3 ,thou saw every action4--,guy cor4 ,i taught1 thou taughtest1 or taught1 he or she taught4--,coar cor4 ,valerian was taken by ,sapor and flayed alive1 ,a4 ,d4 #bfj4--,lempriere cor4 ,what a fine vehicle has it now become1 for all conceptions of the mind6--,blair cor4 ,what has become of so many productions8--,volney cor4 ,what has become of those ages of abundance and of life8--,keith cor4 ,the ,spartan admiral had sailed to the ,hellespont4--,goldsmith cor4 ,as soon as he landed1 the multitude thronged about him4--,id4 ,cyrus had arrived at ,sardis4--,id4 ,whose year had expired4--,id4 ,it might better have been1 'that faction which1' ,or2 ',that faction which1' would have been better4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aeg4 ,this people has become a great nation4--,murray and ,ingersoll cor4 ,and here we enter the region of ornament4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the ungraceful parenthesis which follows1 might far better have been avoided4 ,who forced him under water1 and there held him until he was drowned4--,hist4 cor4 ,i would much rather be myself the slave1 ,and wear the bonds1 than fasten them on him4--,cowper cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,words ,,that ,,express ,,time4 ,i finished my letter before my brother arrived4 ,or3 ,i had finished my letter when my brother arrived4--,kirkham cor4 ,i wrote before ,i received his letter4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,from what was formerly delivered4--,id4 ,arts were at length introduced among them4 ,or3 ,arts have been of late introduced among them4--,id4 ,but the latter reading suits not the ,doctor's context4 ,i am not of opinion that such rules can be of much use1 unless persons see them exemplified4 ,or3--could be1 and saw4--,id4 ,if we use the noun itself1 we say1 7or must say17 ',this composition is ,john's4' ,or3 ,if we used the noun itself1 we should say1 c4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,but if the assertion refer to something that was transient1 or to something that is not supposed to be always the same1 the past tense must be preferred3 as1 ,they told him that ,jesus of ,nazareth was passing by4--,luke and ,l4 ,murray cor4 ,there is no particular intimation but that ,i have continued to work1 even to the present moment4--,r4 ,w4 ,green cor4 ,generally1 as has been observed already1 it is but hinted in a single word or phrase4--,campbell cor4 ,the wittiness of the passage has been already illustrated4--,id4 ,as was observed before4--,id4 ,or3 ,as has been observed already--,id4 ,it has been said already in general terms4--,id4 ,as ,i hinted before4--,id4 ,or3 ,as ,i have hinted already4--,id4 ,what1 ,i believe1 was hinted once before4--,id4 ,it is obvious1 as was hinted formerly1 that this is but an artificial and arbitrary connexion4--,id4 ,they did anciently a great deal of hurt4-- ,bolingbroke cor4 ,then said ,paul1 ,i knew not1 brethren1 that he was the high priest4--,see ,acts1 xxiii1 #e2 ,webster cor4 ,most prepositions originally denoted the relations of place2 and from these they were transferred1 to denote1 by similitude1 other relations4--,lowth and ,churchill cor4 ,his gift was but a poor offering1 in comparison with his great estate4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,if he should succeed1 and obtain his end1 he would not be the happier for it4 ,or1 better3 ,if he succeed1 and fully attain his end1 he will not be the happier for it4--,id4 ,these are torrents that swell to-day1 and that will have spent themselves by to-morrow4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,who have called that wheat on one day1 which they have called tares on the next4--,barclay cor4 ,he thought it was one of his tenants4--,id4 ,but if one went unto them from the dead1 they would repent4--,bible cor4 ,neither would they be persuaded1 though one rose from the dead4--,id4 ,but it is while men sleep1 that the arch-enemy always sows his tares4--,the ,friend cor4 ,crescens would not have failed to expose him4--,addison cor4 ,bent is his bow1 the ,grecian hearts to wound2 ,fierce as he moves1 his silver shafts resound4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiv4--,,verbs ,,of ,,commanding1 ,c4 ,had ,i commanded you to do this1 you would have thought hard of it4--,g4 ,b4 ,i found him better than ,i expected to find him4--,l ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #ahg4 ,there are several smaller faults which ,i at first intended to enumerate4--,webster cor4 ,antithesis1 therefore1 may1 on many occasions1 be employed to advantage1 in order to strengthen the impression which we intend that any object shall make4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the girl said1 if her master would but have let her have money1 she might have been well long ago4--,priestley et al4 cor4 ,nor is there the least ground to fear that we shall here be cramped within too narrow limits4--,campbell cor4 ,the ,romans1 flushed with success1 expected to retake it4--,hooke cor4 ,i would not have let fall an unseasonable pleasantry in the venerable presence of ,misery1 to be entitled to all the wit that ever ,rabelais scattered4--,sterne cor4 ,we expected that he would arrive last night4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bhb4 ,our friends intended to meet us4--,ib4 ,we hoped to see you4--,ib4 ,he would not have been allowed to enter4--,ib4 ,,under ,,note ,,xv4--,,permanent ,,propositions4 ,cicero maintained1 that whatsoever is useful is good4--,g4 ,b4 ,i observed that love constitutes the whole moral character of ,god4--,dwight cor4 ,thinking that one gains nothing by being a good man4--,voltaire cor4 ,i have already told you1 that ,i am a gentleman4--,fontaine cor4 ,if ,i should ask1 whether ice and water are two distinct species of things4--,locke cor4 ,a stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this is verse4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 i1 #bfj4 ,the doctor affirmed that fever always produces thirst4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bhb4 ,the ancients asserted1 that virtue is its own reward4--,ib4 ,they should not have repeated the error1 of insisting that the infinitive is a mere noun4--,tooke cor4 ,it was observed in ,chap4 ,,iii1 that the distinctive ,,or has a double use4--,churchill cor4 ,two young gentlemen1 who have made a discovery that there is no ,god4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bjf4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,xviii2 ,,infinitives4 ,,instances ,,demanding ,,the ,,particle ,,to4 ,william1 please to hand me that pencil4--,smith cor4 ,please to insert points so as to make sense4--,p4 ,davis cor4 ,i have known lords to abbreviate almost half of their words4--,cobbett cor4 ,we shall find the practice perfectly to accord with the theory4--,knight cor4 ,but it would tend to obscure1 rather than to elucidate1 the subject4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,please to divide it for them1 as it should be divided--,j4 ,willetts cor4 ,so as neither to embarrass nor to weaken the sentence4--,blair and ,mur4 cor4 ,carry her to his table1 to view his poor fare1 and to hear his heavenly discourse4--,same4 ,that we need not be surprised to find this to hold i4e41 to find the same to be true1 or to find it so in eloquence4--,blair cor4 ,where he has no occasion either to divide or to explain the topic in debate4--,id4 ,and they will find their pupils to improve by hasty and pleasant steps4--,russell cor4 ,the teacher1 however1 will please to observe1 c4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gr4 cor4 ,please to attend to a few rules in what is called syntax4--,id4 ,they may dispense with the laws1 to favour their friends1 or to secure their office4--,webster cor4 ,to take back a gift1 or to break a contract1 is a wanton abuse4--,id4 ,the legislature has nothing to do1 but to let it bear its own price4--,id4 ,he is not to form1 but to copy characters4--,rambler cor4 ,i have known a woman to make use of a shoeing-horn4--,spect4 cor4 ,finding this experiment to answer1 in every respect1 their wishes4--,day cor4 ,in fine1 let him cause his arrangement to conclude in the term of the question4--,barclay cor4 ,that he permitted not the winds of heaven ,to visit her too roughly4 ,omit face1 to keep the measure3 or say1 ,that he did never let the winds of heaven ,visit her face too roughly4--,shak4 cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,,xix4--,,of ,,infinitives4 ,instances after ,bid1 ,dare1 ,feel1 ,hear1 ,let1 ,make1 ,need1 ,see4 ,i dare not proceed so hastily1 lest ,i give offence4--,see ,murray's ,key1 ,rule xii4 ,their character is formed1 and made to appear4--,butler cor4 ,let there be but matter and opportunity offered1 and you shall see them quickly revive again4--,bacon cor4 ,it has been made to appear1 that there is no presumption against a revelation4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,,manifest1 v4 t4 ,to reveal2 to make appear2 to show plainly4--,webster cor4 ,let him reign1 like good ,aurelius1 or let him bleed like ,seneca3 ,socrates did not bleed1 he was poisoned4--,kirkham's transposition of ,pope cor4 ,sing ,i could not2 complain ,i durst not4--,fothergill cor4 ,if ,t4 ,m4 be not so frequently heard to pray by them4--,barclay cor4 ,how many of your own church members were never heard to pray8--,id4 ,yea1 we are bidden to pray one for an other4--,id4 ,he was made to believe that neither the king's death nor his imprisonment would help him4--,sheffield cor4 ,i felt a chilling sensation creep over me4--,inst41 p4 #bgi4 ,i dare say he has not got home yet4--,ib4 ,we sometimes see bad men honoured4--,ib4 ,i saw him move--,felch cor4 ,for see thou1 ah6 see thou1 a hostile world its terrors raise4--,kirkham cor4 ,but that he make him rehearse so4--,lily cor4 ,let us rise4--,fowle cor4 ,scripture1 you know1 exhorts us to it2 ,it bids us 'seek peace1 and ensue it4'--,swift cor4 ,who bade the mud from ,dives' wheel ,bedash the rags of ,lazarus8 ,come1 brother1 in that dust we'll kneel1 ,confessing heaven that ruled it thus4--,christmas ,book cor4 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,participles4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,the ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xx4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,expunge ,,of4 ,in forming his sentences1 he was very exact4--,l4 ,murray4 ,for not believing which1 ,i condemn them4--,barclay cor4 ,to prohibit his hearers from reading that book4--,id4 ,you will please them exceedingly in crying down ordinances4--,mitchell cor4 ,the warwolf subsequently became an engine for casting stones4 ,or3--for the casting of stones4--,cons4 ,misc4 cor4 ,the art of dressing hides and working in leather was practised4--,id4 ,in the choice they had made of him for restoring order4--,rollin cor4 ,the ,arabians exercised themselves by composing orations and poems4--,sale cor4 ,behold1 the widow-woman was there1 gathering sticks4--,bible cor4 ,the priests were busied in offering burnt-offerings4--,id4 ,but ,asahel would not turn aside from following him4--,id4 ,he left off building ,ramah1 and dwelt in ,tirzah4--,id4 ,those who accuse us of denying it1 belie us4--,barclay cor4 ,and breaking bread from house to house4--,acts1 iv1 #df4 ,those that set about repairing the walls4--,barclay cor4 ,and secretly begetting divisions4--,id4 ,whom he has made use of in gathering his church4--,id4 ,in defining and distinguishing the acceptations and uses of those particles4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,in making this a crime1 we overthrow ,the laws of nations and of nature too4--,dryden cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,articles ,,require ,,of4 ,the mixing of them makes a miserable jumble of truth and fiction4--,kames cor4 ,the same objection lies against the employing of statues4--,id4 ,more efficacious than the venting of opulence upon the fine arts4--,id4 ,it is the giving of different names to the same object4--,id4 ,when we have in view the erecting of a column4--,id4 ,the straining of an elevated subject beyond due bounds1 is a vice not so frequent4--,id4 ,the cutting of evergreens in the shape of animals1 is very ancient4--,id4 ,the keeping of juries without meat1 drink1 or fire1 can be accounted for only on the same idea4--,webster cor4 ,the writing of the verbs at length on his slate1 will be a very useful exercise4--,beck cor4 ,the avoiding of them is not an object of any moment4--,sheridan cor4 ,comparison is the increasing or decreasing of the signification of a word by degrees4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,comparison is the increasing or decreasing of the quality by degrees4--,buchanan cor4 ,the placing of a circumstance before the word with which it is connected is the easiest of all inversion4--,id4 ,what is emphasis8 ,it is the emitting of a stronger and fuller sound of voice1 c4--,bradley cor4 ,besides1 the varying of the terms will render the use of them more familiar4--,a4 ,mur4 cor4 ,and yet the confining of themselves to this true principle1 has misled them4--,tooke cor4 ,what is here commanded1 is merely the relieving of his misery4--,wayland cor4 ,the accumulating of too great a quantity of knowledge at random1 overloads the mind in stead of adorning it4--,formey cor4 ,for the compassing of his point4--,rollin cor4 ,to the introducing of such an inverted order of things4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,which require only the doing of an external action4--,id4 ,the imprisoning of my body is to satisfy your wills4--,fox cor4 ,who oppose the conferring of such extensive command on one person4--,duncan cor4 ,luxury contributed not a little to the enervating of their forces4--,sale cor4 ,the keeping of one day of the week for a sabbath4--,barclay cor4 ,the doing of a thing is contrary to the forbearing of it4--,id4 ,the doubling of the ,sigma is1 however1 sometimes regular4--,knight cor4 ,the inserting of the common aspirate too1 is improper4--,id4 ,but in ,spenser's time the pronouncing of the ed as a separate syllable1 seems already to have been something of an archaism4--,phil4 ,mu4 cor4 ,and to the reconciling of the effect of their verses on the eye4--,id4 ,when it was not in their power to hinder the taking of the whole4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,he had indeed given the orders himself for the shutting of the gates4--,id4 ,so his whole life was a doing of the will of the ,father4--,penington cor4 ,it signifies the suffering or receiving of the action expressed4--,priestley cor4 ,the pretended crime therefore was the declaring of himself to be the ,son of ,god4--,west cor4 ,parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its different parts of speech4--,beck cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,adjectives ,,require ,,of4 ,there is no expecting of the admiration of beholders4--,baxter cor4 ,there is no hiding of you in the house4--,shak4 cor4 ,for the better regulating of government in the province of ,massachusetts4--,brit4 ,parl4 cor4 ,the precise marking of the shadowy boundaries of a complex government4--,adams cor4 ,this state of discipline requires the voluntary foregoing of many things which we desire1 and the setting of ourselves to what we have no inclination to4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,this amounts to an active setting of themselves against religion4--,id4 ,which engaged our ancient friends to the orderly establishing of our ,christian discipline4--,friends cor4 ,some men are so unjust that there is no securing of our own property or life1 but by opposing force to force4--,rev4 ,john ,brown cor4 ,an ,act for the better securing of the ,rights and ,liberties of the ,subject4--,geo4 ,,iii cor4 ,miraculous curing of the sick is discontinued4--,barclay cor4 ,it would have been no transgressing of the apostle's rule4--,id4 ,as far as consistent with the proper conducting of the business of the ,house4--,elmore cor4 ,because he would have no quarrelling at the just condemning of them at that day4 ,or3--at their just condemnation at that day4--,bunyan cor4 ,that transferring of this natural manner will insure propriety4--,rush cor4 ,if a man were porter of hell-gate1 he should have old i4e41 frequent turning of the key4--,singer's ,shakspeare cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,possessives ,,require ,,of4 ,so very simple a thing as a man's wounding of himself4--,dr4 ,blair cor41 and ,murray4 ,or with that man's avowing of his designs4--,blair1 ,mur41 et al4 cor4 ,on his putting of the question4--,adams cor4 ,the importance of teachers' requiring of their pupils to read each section many times over4--,kirkham cor4 ,politeness is a kind of forgetting of one's self1 in order to be agreeable to others4--,ramsay cor4 ,much1 therefore1 of the merit and the agreeableness of epistolary writing1 will depend on its introducing of us into some acquaintance with the writer4--,blair and ,mack cor4 ,richard's restoration to respectability depends on his paying of his debts4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,their supplying of ellipses where none ever existed2 their parsing of the words of sentences already full and perfect1 as though depending on words understood4--,id4 ,her veiling of herself1 and shedding of tears1 c41 her upbraiding of ,paris for his cowardice1 c4--,blair cor4 ,a preposition may be made known by its admitting of a personal pronoun after it1 in the objective case4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,but this forms no just objection to its denoting of time4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,of men's violating or disregarding of the relations in which ,god has here placed them4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,success1 indeed1 no more decides for the right1 than a man's killing of his antagonist in a duel4--,campbell cor4 ,his reminding of them4--,kirkham cor4 ,this mistake was corrected by his preceptor's causing of him to plant some beans4--,id4 ,their neglecting of this was ruinous4--,frost cor4 ,that he was serious1 appears from his distinguishing of the others as 'finite4'--,felch cor4 ,his hearers are not at all sensible of his doing of it4 ,or3--that he does it4--,sheridan cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,change ,,the ,,expression4 ,an allegory is a fictitious story the meaning of which is figurative1 not literal2 a double meaning1 or dilogy1 is the saying of only one thing1 when we have two in view4--,phil4 ,mu4 cor4 ,a verb may generally be distinguished by the sense which it makes with any of the personal pronouns1 or with the word ,,to1 before it4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,a noun may in general be distinguished by the article which comes before it1 or by the sense which it makes of itself4--,merchant et al4 cor4 ,an adjective may usually be known by the sense which it makes with the word thing2 as1 a good thing1 a bad thing4--,iid4 ,it is seen to be in the objective case1 because it denotes the object affected by the act of leaving4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,it is seen to be in the possessive case1 because it denotes the possessor of something4--,id4 ,the noun ,,man is caused by the adjective ,,whatever to seem like a twofold nominative1 as if it denoted1 of itself1 one person as the subject of the two remarks4--,id4 ,,when1 as used in the last line1 is a connective1 because it joins that line to the other part of the sentence4--,id4 ,because they denote reciprocation4--,id4 ,to allow them to make use of that liberty2--,to allow them to use that liberty2--or1 ,to allow them that liberty4--,sale cor4 ,the worst effect of it is1 that it fixes on your mind a habit of indecision4--,todd cor4 ,and you groan the more deeply1 as you reflect that you have not power to shake it off4--,id4 ,i know of nothing that can justify the student in having recourse to a ,latin translation of a ,greek writer4--,coleridge cor4 ,humour is the conceit of making others act or talk absurdly4--,hazlitt cor4 ,there are remarkable instances in which they do not affect each other4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,that ,csar was left out of the commission1 was not from any slight4--,life cor4 ,of the thankful reception of this toleration1 ,i shall say no more1 ,or3 ,of the propriety of receiving this toleration thankfully1 ,i shall say no more4--,dryden cor4 ,henrietta was delighted with ,julia's skill in working lace4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,and it is because each of them represents two different words1 that the confusion has arisen4--,booth cor4 schylus died of a fracture of his skull1 caused by an eagle's dropping of a tortoise on his head4 ,or3--caused by a tortoise which an eagle let fall on his head4--,biog4 ,dict4 cor4 ,he doubted whether they had it4--,felch cor4 ,to make ourselves clearly understood1 is the chief end of speech4--,sheridan cor4 ,one cannot discover in their countenances any signs which are the natural concomitants of the feelings of the heart4--,id4 ,nothing can be more common or less proper1 than to speak of a river as emptying itself4--,campbell cor4 ,our non-use of the former expression1 is owing to this4--,bullions cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,disposal ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,to this generally succeeds the division1 or the laying-down of the method of the discourse4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,to the pulling-down of strong holds4--,bible cor4 ,can a mere buckling-on of a military weapon infuse courage8--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,expensive and luxurious living destroys health4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,by frugal and temperate living1 health is preserved4 ,or3 ,by living frugally and temperately1 we preserve our health4--,id4 ,by the doing-away of the necessity4--,the ,friend cor4 ,he recommended to them1 however1 the immediate calling of--7or1 immediately to call--7 the whole community to the church4--,gregory cor4 ,the separation of large numbers in this manner1 certainly facilitates the right reading of them4--,churchill cor4 ,from their mere admitting of a twofold grammatical construction4--,phil4 ,mu4 cor4 ,his grave lecturing of his friend about it4--,id4 ,for the blotting-out of sin4--,gurney cor4 ,from the not-using of water4-- ,barclay cor4 ,by the gentle dropping-in of a pebble4--,sheridan cor4 ,to the carrying-on of a great part of that general course of nature4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,then the not-interposing is so far from being a ground of complaint4--,id4 ,the bare omission1 7or rather1 the not-employing17 of what is used4--,campbell and ,jamieson cor4 ,the bringing-together of incongruous adverbs is a very common fault4-- ,churchill cor4 ,this is a presumptive proof that it does not proceed from them4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,it represents him in a character to which any injustice is peculiarly unsuitable4--,campbell cor4 ,they will aim at something higher than a mere dealing-out of harmonious sounds4-- ,kirkham cor4 ,this is intelligible and sufficient2 and any further account of the matter seems beyond the reach of our faculties4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,apostrophe is a turning-off from the regular course of the subject4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,even ,isabella was finally prevailed upon to assent to the sending-out of a commission to investigate his conduct4--,life of ,columbus cor4 ,for the turning-away of the simple shall slay them4--,bible cor4 ,thick fingers always should command ,without extension of the hand4--,king cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,of ,,participles ,,with ,,adjectives4 ,is there any ,scripture which speaks of the light as being inward8--,barclay cor4 ,for ,i believe not positiveness therein essential to salvation4--,id4 ,our inability to act a uniformly right part without some thought and care4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,on the supposition that it is reconcilable with the constitution of nature4--,id4 ,on the ground that it is not discoverable by reason or experience4--,id4 ,on the ground that they are unlike the known course of nature4--,id4 ,our power to discern reasons for them1 gives a positive credibility to the history of them4--,id4 ,from its lack of universality4--,id4 ,that they may be turned into passive participles in dus1 is no decisive argument to prove them passive4--,grant cor4 ,with the implied idea that ,st4 ,paul was then absent from the ,corinthians4--,kirkham cor4 ,because it becomes gradually weaker1 until it finally dies away into silence4--,id4 ,not without the author's full knowledge4--,id4 ,wit out of season is one sort of folly4--,sheffield cor4 ,its general susceptibility of a much stronger evidence4-- ,campbell cor4 ,at least1 that they are such1 rarely enhances our opinion1 either of their abilities or of their virtues4--,id4 ,which were the ground of our unity4--,barclay cor4 ,but they may be distinguished from it by their intransitiveness4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,to distinguish the higher degree of our persuasion of a thing's possibility4--,churchill cor4 ,that he was idle1 and dishonest too1 ,was that which caused his utter overthrow4--,tobitt cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,of ,,compound ,,verbal ,,nouns4 ,when it denotes subjection to the exertion of an other4--,booth cor4 ,in the passive sense1 it signifies a subjection to the influence of the action4--,felch cor4 ,to be abandoned by our friends1 is very deplorable4--,goldsmith cor4 ,without waiting to be attacked by the ,macedonians4--,id4 ,in progress of time1 words were wanted to express men's connexion with certain conditions of fortune4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,our acquaintance with pain and sorrow has a tendency to bring us to a settled moderation4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,the chancellor's attachment to the king1 secured to the monarch his crown4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,the general's failure in this enterprise occasioned his disgrace4-- ,iid4 ,john's long application to writing had wearied him4--,iid4 ,the sentence may be1 ',john's long application to writing has wearied him4'--,wright cor4 ,much depends on the observance of this rule4-- ,l4 ,murray cor4 ,he mentioned that a boy had been corrected for his faults4--,alger and ,merchant cor4 ,the boy's punishment is shameful to him4--,iid4 ,the greater the difficulty of remembrance is1 and the more important the being-remembered is to the attainment of the ultimate end4--,campbell cor4 ,if the parts in the composition of similar objects were always in equal quantity1 their being-compounded 7or their compounding7 would make no odds4--,id4 ,circumstances1 not of such importance as that the scope of the relation is affected by their being-known--or1 by the mention of them4--,id4 ,a passive verb expresses the receiving of an action1 or represents its subject as being acted upon2 as1 ',john is beaten4'--,frost cor4 ,so our language has an other great advantage2 namely1 that it is little diversified by genders4--,buchanan cor4 ,the slander concerning ,peter is no fault of his4--,frost cor4 ,without faith in ,christ1 there is no justification4--,penn cor4 ,habituation to danger begets intrepidity2 i4e41 lessens fear4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,it is not affection of any kind1 but action that forms those habits4--,id4 ,in order that we may be satisfied of the truth of the apparent paradox4--,campbell cor4 ,a trope consists in the employing of a word to signify something that is different from its original or usual meaning4--,blair1 ,jamieson1 ,murray1 and ,kirkham cor42 also ,hiley4 ,the scriptural view of our salvation from punishment4--,gurney cor4 ,to submit and obey1 is not a renouncing of the ,spirit's leading4--,barclay cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,participles ,,for ,,infinitives1 c4 ,to teach little children is a pleasant employment4 ,or3 ,the teaching of little children1 c4--,bartlett cor4 ,to deny or compromise the principles of truth1 is virtually to deny their divine ,author4--,reformer cor4 ,a severe critic might point out some expressions that would bear retrenching--retrenchment--or1 to be retrenched4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,never attempt to prolong the pathetic too much4--,id4 ,i now recollect to have mentioned--7or1 that ,i mentioned--7 a report of that nature4--,whiting cor4 ,nor of the necessity which there is1 for their restraint--7or1 for them to be restrained--7 in them4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,but1 to do what ,god commands because he commands it1 is obedience1 though it proceeds from hope or fear4--,id4 ,simply to close the nostrils1 does not so entirely prevent resonance4--,gardiner cor4 ,yet they absolutely refuse to do so4--,harris cor4 ,but ,artaxerxes could not refuse to pardon him4--,goldsmith cor4 ,the doing of them in the best manner1 is signified by the names of these arts4--,rush cor4 ,to behave well for the time to come1 may be insufficient4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,the compiler proposed to publish that part by itself4--,adam cor4 ,to smile on those whom we should censure1 is1 to bring guilt upon ourselves4--,kirkham cor4 ,but it would be great injustice to that illustrious orator1 to bring his genius down to the same level4--,id4 ,the doubt that things go ill1 often hurts more1 than to be sure they do4--,shak4 cor4 ,this is called the straining of a metaphor4-- ,blair and ,murray cor4 ,this is what ,aristotle calls the giving of manners to the poem4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the painter's entire confinement to that part of time which he has chosen1 deprives him of the power of exhibiting various stages of the same action4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,it imports the retrenchment of all superfluities1 and a pruning of the expression4--,blair et al4 cor4 ,the necessity for us to be thus exempted is further apparent4--,jane ,west cor4 ,her situation in life does not allow her to be genteel in every thing4--,same4 ,provided you do not dislike to be dirty when you are invisible4--,same4 ,there is now an imperious necessity for her to be acquainted with her title to eternity4--,same4 ,disregard to the restraints of virtue1 is misnamed ingenuousness4--,same4 ,the legislature prohibits the opening of shops on ,sunday4--,same4 ,to attempt to prove that any thing is right4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,the comma directs us to make a pause of a second in duration1 or less4--,id4 ,the rule which directs us to put other words into the place of it1 is wrong4--,id4 ,they direct us to call the specifying adjectives1 or adnames1 adjective pronouns4--,id4 ,william dislikes to attend court4--,frost cor4 ,it may perhaps be worth while to remark1 that ,milton makes a distinction4--,phil4 ,mu4 cor4 ,to profess regard and act injuriously1 discovers a base mind4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,to profess regard and act indifferently1 discovers a base mind4--,weld cor4 ,you have proved beyond contradiction1 that this course of action is the sure way to procure such an object4--,campbell cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,participles ,,after ,,be1 ,,is1 c4 ,irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bce4 ,correct by this the four false definitions of ,irony cited from ,murray1 ,peirce1 ,fisher1 and ,sanborn4 ,this is1 in a great measure1 a delivering of their own compositions4--,buchanan cor4 ,but purity is a right use of the words of the language4--,jamieson cor4 ,but the most important object is the settling of the ,english quantity4--,walker cor4 ,when there is no affinity1 the transition from one meaning to an other is a very wide step taken4--,campbell cor4 ,it will be a loss of time1 to attempt further to illustrate it4--,id4 ,this leaves the sentence too bare1 and makes it to be1 if not nonsense1 hardly sense4--,cobbett cor4 ,this is a requiring of more labours from every private member4--,j4 ,west cor4 ,is not this1 to use one measure for our neighbours and an other for ourselves8--,same4 ,do we not charge ,god foolishly1 when we give these dark colourings to human nature8--,same4 ,this is not1 to endure the cross1 as a disciple of ,jesus ,christ2 but1 to snatch at it1 like a partisan of ,swift's ,jack4--,same4 ,what is spelling8 ,it is the combining of letters to form syllables and words4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,it is the choosing of such letters to compose words1 c4--,id4 ,what is parsing8 7#a47 ,it is a describing of the nature1 use1 and powers of words4--,id4 7#b47 ,for ,parsing is a describing of the words of a sentence as they are used4--,id4 7#c47 ,parsing is only a describing of the nature and relations of words as they are used4--,id4 7#d47 ,parsing1 let the pupil understand and remember1 is a statement of facts concerning words2 or a describing of words in their offices and relations as they are4--,id4 7#e47 ,parsing is the resolving and explaining of words according to the rules of grammar4--,id4 ,better3 ,parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence according to the definitions and rules of grammar4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bh4 7#f47 ,the parsing of a word1 remember1 is an enumerating and describing of its various qualities1 and its grammatical relations to other words in the sentence4--,peirce cor4 7#g47 ,for the parsing of a word is an enumerating and describing of its various properties1 and its relations to other words in the sentence4--,id4 7#h47 ,the parsing of a noun is an explanation of its person1 number1 gender1 and case2 and also of its grammatical relation in a sentence1 with respect to some other word or words4--,ingersoll cor4 7#i47 ,the parsing of any part of speech is an explanation of all its properties and relations4--,id4 7#aj47 ,parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its elements4--,fowler cor4 ,the highway of the upright is1 to depart from evil4--,prov41 xvi1 #ag4 ,besides1 the first step towards exhibiting the truth1 should be1 to remove the veil of error4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,punctuation is the dividing of sentences1 and the words of sentences1 by points for pauses4--,id4 ,an other fault is the using of the imperfect tense ,,shook in stead of the participle ,,shaken4--,churchill cor4 ,her employment is the drawing of maps4--,alger cor4 ,to go to the play1 according to his notion1 is1 to lead a sensual life1 and to expose one's self to the strongest temptations4 ,this is a begging of the question1 and therefore requires no answer4--,formey cor4 ,it is an overvaluing of ourselves1 to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities4--,comly's ,key1 in his ,gram41 p4 #ahh2 ,fisk's ,gram41 p4 #ace4 ,what is vocal language8 ,it is speech1 or the expressing of ideas by the human voice4--,c4 ,w4 ,sanders cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,verbs ,,of ,,preventing4 ,the annulling power of the constitution prevented that enactment from becoming a law4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,which prevents the manner from being brief4--,id4 ,this close prevents them from bearing forward as nominatives4--,rush cor4 ,because this prevents it from growing drowsy4--,formey cor4 ,yet this does not prevent him from being great4--,id4 ,to prevent it from being insipid4--,id4 ,or whose interruptions did not prevent its continuance4 ,or thus3 ,whose interruptions did not prevent it from being continued4--,id4 ,this by no means prevents them from being also punishments4--,wayland cor4 ,this hinders them not from being also1 in the strictest sense1 punishments4--,id4 ,the noise made by the rain and wind1 prevented them from being heard4--,goldsmith cor4 ,he endeavoured to prevent it from taking effect4--,id4 ,so sequestered as to prevent them from being explored4--,jane ,west cor4 ,who prevented her from making a more pleasant party4--,same4 ,to prevent us from being tossed about by every wind of doctrine4--,same4 ,after the infirmities of age prevented him from bearing his part of official duty4--,r4 ,adam cor4 ,to prevent splendid trifles from passing for matters of importance4--,kames cor4 ,which prevents him from exerting himself to any good purpose4--,beattie cor4 ,the nonobservance of this rule very frequently prevents us from being punctual in the performance of our duties4--,todd cor4 ,nothing will prevent him from being a student1 and possessing the means of study4--,id4 ,does the present accident hinder you from being honest and brave8--,collier cor4 ,the e is omitted to prevent two ,ees from coming together4--,fowle cor4 ,a pronoun is used for1 or in place of1 a noun1--to prevent a repetition of the noun4--,sanborn cor4 ,diversity in the style relieves the ear1 and prevents it from being tired with the frequent recurrence of the rhymes4--,campbell cor42 also ,murray4 ,timidity and false shame prevent us from opposing vicious customs4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,to prevent them from being moved by such4--,campbell cor4 ,some obstacle1 or impediment1 that prevents it from taking place4--,priestley cor4 ,which prevents us from making a progress towards perfection4--,sheridan cor4 ,this method of distinguishing words1 must prevent any regular proportion of time from being settled4--,id4 ,that nothing but affectation can prevent it from always taking place4--,id4 ,this did not prevent ,john from being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated ,duke of ,normandy4 ,or3 ,notwithstanding this1 ,john was acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated ,duke of ,normandy4--,henry1 ,webster1 ,sanborn1 and ,fowler cor4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,the ,,leading ,,word ,,in ,,sense4 ,this would make it impossible for a noun1 or any other word1 ever to be in the possessive case4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,a great part of our pleasure arises from finding the plan or story well conducted4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,and we have no reason to wonder that this was the case4--,id4 ,she objected only1 7as ,cicero says17 to ,oppianicus as having two sons by his present wife4--,id4 ,the subjugation of the ,britons by the ,saxons1 was a necessary consequence of their calling of these ,saxons to their assistance4--,id4 ,what he had there said concerning the ,saxons1 that they expelled the ,britons1 and changed the customs1 the religion1 and the language of the country1 is a clear and a good reason why our present language is ,saxon1 rather than ,british4--,id4 ,the only material difference between them1 except that the one is short and the other more prolonged1 is1 that a metaphor is always explained by the words that are connected with it4--,id4 et ,mur4 cor4 ,the description of ,death1 advancing to meet ,satan on his arrival4--,rush cor4 ,is not the bare fact1 that ,god is the witness of it1 sufficient ground for its credibility to rest upon8--,chalmers cor4 ,as in the case of one who is entering upon a new study4--,beattie cor4 ,the manner in which these affect the copula1 is called the imperative mood4--,wilkins cor4 ,we are freed from the trouble1 because our nouns have scarcely any diversity of endings4--,buchanan cor4 ,the verb is rather indicative of the action as being doing1 or done1 than of the time of the event2 but indeed the ideas are undistinguishable4--,booth cor4 ,nobody would doubt that this is a sufficient proof4--,campbell cor4 ,against the doctrine here maintained1 that conscience as well as reason1 is a natural faculty4--,beattie cor4 ,it is one cause why the ,greek and ,english languages are much more easy to learn1 than the ,latin4--,bucke cor4 ,i have not been able to make out a solitary instance in which such has been the fact4--,lib4 cor4 ,an angel1 forming the appearance of a hand1 and writing the king's condemnation on the wall1 checked their mirth1 and filled them with terror4--,wood cor4 ,the prisoners1 in attempting to escape1 aroused the keepers4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,i doubt not1 in the least1 that this has been one cause of the multiplication of divinities in the heathen world4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,from the general rule he lays down1 that the verb is the parent word of all language4--,tooke cor4 ,he was accused of being idle4 ,or3 ,he was accused of idleness4--,felch cor4 ,our meeting is generally dissatisfied with him for so removing4 ,or3 with the circumstances of his removal4--,edmondson cor4 ,the spectacle is too rare1 of men deserving solid fame while not seeking it4--,bush cor4 ,what further need was there that an other priest should rise8--,heb41 vii1 #aa4 ,,under ,,note ,,xi4--,,reference ,,of ,,participles4 ,viewing them separately1 we experience different emotions4 ,or3 ,viewed separately1 they produce different emotions4--,kames cor4 ,but1 this being left doubtful1 an other objection occurs4--,id4 ,as he proceeded from one particular to an other1 the subject grew under his hand4--,id4 ,but this is still an interruption1 and a link of the chain is broken4--,id4 ,after some days' hunting1--7or1 ,after some days spent in hunting17--,cyrus communicated his design to his officers4--,rollin cor4 ,but it is made1 without the appearance of being made in form4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,these would have had a better effect1 had they been disjoined1 thus4--,blair and ,murray cor4 ,in an improper diphthong1 but one of the vowels is sounded4--,murray1 ,alger1 et al4 cor4 ,and ,i being led to think of both together1 my view is rendered unsteady4--,blair1 ,mur41 and ,jam4 cor4 ,by often doing the same thing1 we make the action habitual4 ,or3 ,what is often done1 becomes habitual4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,they remain with us in our dark and solitary hours1 no less than when we are surrounded with friends and cheerful society4--,id4 ,besides showing what is right1 one may further explain the matter by pointing out what is wrong4--,lowth cor4 ,the former teaches the true pronunciation of words1 and comprises accent1 quantity1 emphasis1 pauses1 and tones4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,a person may reprove others for their negligence1 by saying1 ',you have taken great care indeed4'--,id4 ,the word preceding and the word following it1 are in apposition to each other4--,id4 ,he having finished his speech1 the assembly dispersed4--,cooper cor4 ,were the voice to fall at the close of the last line1 as many a reader is in the habit of allowing it to do4--,kirkham cor4 ,the misfortunes of his countrymen were but negatively the effects of his wrath1 which only deprived them of his assistance4--,kames cor4 ,taking them as nouns1 we may explain this construction thus4--,grant cor4 ,these have an active signification1 except those which come from neuter verbs4--,id4 ,from its evidence not being universal4 ,or3 ,from the fact that its evidence is not universal4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,and this faith will continually grow1 as we acquaint ourselves with our own nature4--,channing cor4 ,monosyllables ending with any consonant but f1 l1 or s1 never double the final consonant1 when it is preceded by a single vowel2 except add1 ebb1 c4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,or3 ,words ending with any consonant except f1 l1 or s1 do not double the final letter4 ,exceptions4 ,add1 ebb1 c4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #c4 7,see my #b;d ,rule for ,spelling1 of which this is a partial copy47 ,the relation of ,maria as being the object of the action1 is expressed by the change of the noun ,maria to ,mariam2 i4 e41 in the ,latin language4--,booth cor4 ,in analyzing a proposition1 one must first divide it into its logical subject and predicate4--,andrews and ,stoddard cor4 ,in analyzing a simple sentence1 one should first resolve it into its logical subject and logical predicate4--,wells cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xii4--,,of ,,participles ,,and ,,nouns4 ,the instant discovery of passions at their birth1 is essential to our well-being4--,kames cor4 ,i am now to enter on a consideration of the sources of the pleasures of taste4--,blair cor4 ,the varieties in the use of them are indeed many4--,murray cor4 ,the changing of times and seasons1 the removing and the setting-up of kings1 belong to ,providence alone4--,id4 ,adherence to the partitions1 seemed the cause of ,france2 acceptance of the will1 that of the house of ,bourbon4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,an other source of darkness in composition1 is the injudicious introduction of technical words and phrases4--,campbell cor4 ,these are the rules of grammar2 by observing which1 you may avoid mistakes4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,by observing the rules1 you may avoid mistakes4--,alger cor4 ,by observing these rules1 he succeeded4--,frost cor4 ,the praise bestowed on him was his ruin4--,id4 ,deception is not convincement4--,id4 ,he never feared the loss of a friend4--,id4 ,the making of books is his amusement4--,alger cor4 ,we call it the declining--7or1 the declension--7 of a noun4--,ingersoll cor4 ,washington1 however1 pursued the same policy of neutrality1 and opposed firmly the taking of any part in the wars of ,europe4--,hall and ,baker cor4 ,the following is a note of ,interrogation1 or of a question3 7874--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,the following is a note of ,admiration1 or of wonder3 7674--,id4 ,the use or omission of the article ,a forms a nice distinction in the sense4--,murray cor4 ,the placing of the preposition before the word1 which it governs1 is more graceful4--,churchill cor4 7,see ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #if2 ,murray's1 i1 #bjj2 ,fisk's1 #ada2 ,smith's1 #afg47 ,assistance is absolutely necessary to their recovery1 and the retrieving of their affairs4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,which termination1 ish1 when added to adjectives1 imports diminution1 or a lessening of the quality4--,mur4 and ,kirkham cor4 ,after what has been said1 will it be thought an excess of refinement1 to suggest that the different orders are qualified for different purposes8--,kames cor4 ,who has nothing to think of1 but the killing of time4--,west cor4 ,it requires no nicety of ear1 as in the distinguishing of tones1 or the measuring of time4--,sheridan cor4 ,the possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun1 which denotes possession1 or the relation of property4--,s4 ,r4 ,hall cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,xiii4--,,perfect ,,participles4 ,garcilasso was master of the language spoken by the ,incas4--,robertson cor4 ,when an interesting story is broken off in the middle4--,kames cor4 ,speaking of ,hannibal's elephants driven back by the enemy4--,id4 ,if ,du ,ryer had not written for bread1 he would have equalled them4--,formey cor4 ,pope describes a rock broken off from a mountain1 and hurling to the plain4--,kames cor4 ,i have written1 ,thou hast written1 ,he hath or has written2 c4--,ash and ,maltby cor4 ,this was spoken by a pagan4--,webster cor4 ,but ,i have chosen to follow the common arrangement4--,id4 ,the language spoken in ,bengal4--,id4 ,and sound sleep thus broken off with sudden alarms1 is apt enough to discompose any one4--,locke cor4 ,this is not only the case of those open sinners before spoken of4--,leslie cor4 ,some grammarians have written a very perplexed and difficult doctrine on ,punctuation4--,ensell cor4 ,there hath a pity arisen in me towards thee4--,g4 ,fox ,jun4 cor4 ,abel is the only man that has undergone the awful change of death4--,de ,genlis1 ,death of ,adam4 ,meantime1 on ,afric's glowing sands1 ,smit with keen heat1 the traveller stands4--,ode cor4 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,adverbs4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,the ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xxi4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,the ,,placing ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,not all that is favoured by good use1 is proper to be retained4--,l4 ,murray corrected4 ,not everything favoured by good use1 is on that account worthy to be retained4--,campbell cor4 ,most men dream1 but not all4--,beattie cor4 ,by hasty composition1 we shall certainly acquire a very bad style4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the comparisons are short1 touching on only one point of resemblance4--,id4 ,having once had some considerable object set before us4--,id4 ,the positive seems to be improperly called a degree4 #edc--;,adam and ,gould cor4 ,in some phrases1 the genitive only is used4--,iid4 ,this blunder is said to have actually occurred4--,smith cor4 ,but not every man is called ,james1 nor every woman1 ,mary4--,buchanan cor4 ,crotchets are employed for nearly the same purpose as the parenthesis4--,churchill cor4 ,there is a still greater impropriety in a double comparative4--,priestley cor4 ,we often have occasion to speak of time4--,lowth cor4 ,the following sentence cannot possibly be understood4--,id4 ,the words must generally be separated from the context4--,comly cor4 ,words ending in ator1 generally have the accent on the penultimate4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,the learned languages1 with respect to voices1 moods1 and tenses1 are1 in general1 constructed differently from the ,english tongue4--,id4 ,adverbs seem to have been originally contrived to express compendiously1 in one word1 what must otherwise have required two or more4--,id4 ,but it is so1 only when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case4--,id4 ',enter boldly1' says he1 'for here too there are gods4'--,harris cor4 ,for none ever work for so little a pittance that some cannot be found to work for less4--,sedgwick cor4 ,for sinners also lend to sinners1 to receive again as much4--,bible cor4 ,or1 as ,campbell has it in his version3--that they may receive as much in return4--,luke1 vi1 #cd4 ,they must be viewed in exactly the same light4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,if he speaks but to display his abilities1 he is unworthy of attention4--,id4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,adverbs ,,for ,,adjectives4 ,upward motion is commonly more agreeable than motion downward4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,there are but two possible ways of justification before ,god4--,cox cor4 ,this construction sounds rather harsh4--,mur4 and ,ing4 cor4 ,a clear conception1 in the mind of the learner1 of regular and well-formed letters4--,c4 ,s4 ,jour4 cor4 ,he was a great hearer of 99 99 99 ,attalus1 ,sotion1 ,papirius1 ,fabianus1 of whom he makes frequent mention4--,l',estrange cor4 ,it is only the frequent doing of a thing1 that makes it a custom4--,leslie cor4 ,because ,w4 ,r4 takes frequent occasion to insinuate his jealousies of persons and things4--,barclay cor4 ,yet frequent touching will wear gold4--,shak4 cor4 ,uneducated persons frequently use an adverb when they ought to use an adjective3 as1 ',the country looks beautifully2' in stead of beautiful4 #edd-- ,bucke cor4 ,the adjective is put absolute1 or without its substantive4--,ash cor4 ,a noun or a pronoun in the second person1 may be put absolute in the nominative case4--,harrison cor4 ,a noun or a pronoun1 when put absolute with a participle1 c4--,id4 and ,jaudon cor4 ,a verb in the infinitive mood absolute1 stands independent of the remaining part of the sentence4--,wilbur and ,liv4 cor4 ,at my late return into ,england1 ,i met a book entitled1 ',the ,iron ,age4'--,cowley cor4 ,but he can discover no better foundation for any of them1 than the mere practice of ,homer and ,virgil4--,kames cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,here ,,for ,,hither1 ,c4 ,it is reported1 that the governor will come hither to-morrow4--,kirkham cor4 ,it has been reported that the governor will come hither to-morrow4--,id4 ,to catch a prospect of that lovely land whither his steps are tending4--,maturin cor4 ,plautus makes one of his characters ask an other1 whither he is going with that ,vulcan shut up in a horn2 that is1 with a lantern in his hand4--,adams cor4 ,when we left ,cambridge we intended to return thither in a few days4--,anon4 cor4 ,duncan comes hither to-night4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cbc4 ,they talked of returning hither last week4--,see ,j4 ,m4 ,putnam's ,gram41 p4 #abi4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,from ,,hence1 ,c4 ,hence he concludes1 that no inference can be drawn from the meaning of the word1 that a constitution has a higher authority than a law or statute1--,webster cor4 ,whence we may likewise date the period of this event4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,hence it becomes evident that ,,language1 taken in the most comprehensive view1 implies certain sounds1 or certain written signs1 having certain meanings4--,harris cor4 ,they returned to the city whence they came out4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,respecting ellipses1 some grammarians differ strangely in their ideas2 and thence has arisen a very whimsical diversity in their systems of grammar4--,g4 ,brown4 ,what am ,i1 and whence8 ,that is1 ,what am ,i1 and whence am ,i8--,jaudon cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,the ,,adverb ,,how4 ,it is strange1 that a writer so accurate as ,dean ,swift1 should have stumbled on so improper an application of this particle4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,ye know1 that a good while ago ,god made choice among us1 c4--,bible cor4 ,let us take care lest we sin2 i4e41--that we do not sin4--,priestley cor4 ,we see by these instances1 that prepositions may be necessary1 to connect such words as are not naturally connected by their own signification4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,know ye not your own selves1 that ,jesus ,christ is in you1 except ye be reprobates8--,bible cor4 ,that thou mayst know that the earth is the ,lord's4--,id4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,when1 ,,while1 ,,or ,,where4 ,,ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construction1 but not requisite to complete the sense4--,adam1 ,gould1 and ,fisk1 cor4 ,,pleonasm is the insertion of some word or words more than are absolutely necessary either to complete the construction1 or to express the sense4--,iid4 cor4 ,,hysteron-,,proteron is a figure in which that is put in the former part of the sentence1 which1 according to the sense1 should be in the latter4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,,hysteron-,,proteron is a rhetorical figure in which that is said last1 which was done first4--,webster cor4 ,a ,,barbarism is a foreign or strange word1 an expression contrary to the pure idiom of the language4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,a ,,solecism is an impropriety in respect to syntax1 an absurdity or incongruity in speech4--,iid4 cor4 ,an ,,idiotism is a manner of expression peculiar to one language childishly transferred to an other4--,iid4 cor4 ,,tautology is a disagreeable repetition1 either of the same words1 or of the same sense in different words4--,iid4 cor4 ,,bombast1 or ,,fustian1 is an inflated or ambitious style1 in which high-sounding words are used1 with little or no meaning1 or upon a trifling occasion4--,iid4 cor4 ,,amphibology is ambiguity of construction1 phraseology which may be taken in two different senses4--,iid4 cor4 ,,irony is a figure in which one means the contrary of what is said4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,,periphrasis1 or ,,circumlocution1 is the use of several words1 to express what might be said in fewer4--,iid4 cor4 ,,hyperbole is a figure in which a thing is magnified above the truth4--,iid4 cor4 ,,personification is a figure which ascribes human life1 sentiments1 or actions1 to inanimate beings1 or to abstract qualities4--,iid4 cor4 ,,apostrophe is a turning from the tenor of one's discourse1 into an animated address to some person1 present or absent1 living or dead1 or to some object personified4--,iid4 cor4 ,a ,,simile is a simple and express comparison2 and is generally introduced by ,,like1 ,,as1 or so4--,g4 ,b41 ,inst41 p4 #bcc2 ,kirkham cor42 also ,adam and ,gould4 ,,antithesis is a placing of things in opposition1 to heighten their effect by contrast4--,inst41 p4 #bcd2 ,adam and ,gould corrected4 ,,vision1 or ,,imagery1 is a figure in which what is present only to the mind1 is represented as actually before one's eyes1 and present to the senses4--,g4 ,b42 ,adam cor4 ,,emphasis is a particular stress of voice laid on some word in a sentence4--,gould's ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bda4 ,,epanorthosis1 or ,,correction1 is the recalling or correcting by the speaker1 of what he last said4--,ibid4 ,,paralipsis1 or ,,omission1 is the pretending to omit or pass by1 what one at the same time declares4--,ibid4 ,,incrementum1 or ,,climax in sense1 is the rising of one member above an other to the highest4--,ibid4 ,,metonymy is a change of names3 as when the cause is mentioned for the effect1 or the effect for the cause2 the container for the thing contained1 or the sign for the thing signified4--,kirkham cor4 ,the ,agreement of words is their similarity in person1 number1 gender1 case1 mood1 tense1 or form4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #ajd4 ,the ,government of words is that power which one word has over an other1 to cause it to assume some particular modification4--,ib4 ,fusion is the converting of some solid substance into a fluid by heat4--,g4 ,b4 ,a proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded together2 as1 oi in voice1 ou in house4--,fisher cor4 ,an improper diphthong is a diphthong in which the sound of but one of the two vowels is heard2 as1 eo in people4--,id4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,the ,,adverb ,,no ,,for ,,not4 ,an adverb is added to a verb to show how1 or when1 or where1 or whether or not1 one is1 does1 or suffers4--,buchanan cor4 ,we must be immortal1 whether we will or not4--,maturin cor4 ,he cares not whether the world was made for ,csar or not4--,a4 ,q4 ,rev4 cor4 ,i do not know whether they are out or not4--,byron cor4 ,whether it can be proved or not1 is not the thing4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,whether he makes use of the means commanded by ,god1 or not4--,id4 ,whether it pleases the world or not1 the care is taken4--,l',estrange cor4 ,how comes this to be never heard of1 nor in the least questioned1 whether the ,law was undoubtedly of ,moses's writing or not8--,tomline cor4 ,whether he be a sinner or not1 ,i do not know4 ,or1 as the text is more literally translated by ,campbell3 ,whether he be a sinner1 ,i know not4--,bible cor4 ,can ,i make men live1 whether they will or not8--,shak4 cor4 ,can hearts not free1 be tried whether they serve ,willing or not1 who will but what they must8--,milton cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,of ,,double ,,negatives4 ,we need not1 nor do we1 confine the purposes of ,god4 ,or3 ,we need not1 and do not1 confine1 c4--,bentley cor4 ,i cannot by any means allow him that4--,id4 ,we must try whether or not we can increase the attention by the help of the senses4--,brightland cor4 ,there is nothing more admirable or more useful4--,tooke cor4 ,and what in time to come he can never be said to have done1 he can never be supposed to do4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,no skill could obviate1 no remedy dispel1 the terrible infection4--,goldsmith cor4 ,prudery cannot be an indication either of sense or of taste4--,spurzheim cor4 ,but neither that scripture1 nor any other1 speaks of imperfect faith4--,barclay cor4 ,but neither this scripture1 nor any other1 proves that faith was or is always accompanied with doubting4--,id4 ,the light of ,christ is not1 and cannot be1 darkness4--,id4 ,doth not the ,scripture1 which cannot lie1 give some of the saints this testimony8--,id4 ,which do not continue1 and are not binding4--,id4 ,it not being perceived directly1 any more than the air4--,campbell cor4 ,let us be no ,stoics1 and no stocks1 ,i pray4--,shak4 cor4 ,where there is no marked or peculiar character in the style4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,there can be no rules laid down1 nor any manner recommended4--,sheridan cor4 ,bates4 ',he hath not told his thought to the king8' ,k4 ,henry4 ',no2 and it is not meet he should4' ,or thus3 ',no2 nor is it meet he should4'--,shak4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ix4--,,ever ,,and ,,never4 ,the prayer of ,christ is more than sufficient both to strengthen us1 be we everso weak2 and to overthrow all adversary power1 be it everso strong4--,hooker cor4 ,he is like to have no share in it1 or to be never the better for it4 ,or3 ,he is not likely to have any share in it1 or to be ever the better for it4--,bunyan cor4 ,in some parts of ,chili it seldom or never rains4--,willetts cor4 ,if ,pompey shall but everso little seem to like it4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,though everso great a posse of dogs and hunters pursue him4--,id4 ,though you be everso excellent4--,id4 ,if you do amiss everso little4--,id4 ,if we cast our eyes everso little down4--,id4 ,a wise man scorneth nothing1 be it everso small or homely4--,m4 ,f4 ,tupper cor4 ,because they have seldom if ever an opportunity of learning them at all4--,clarkson cor4 ,we seldom or never see those forsaken who trust in ,god4--,atterbury cor4 ,where1 playing with him at bo-peep1 ,he solved all problems1 e'erso deep4--,s4 ,butler cor4 ,,under ,,note ,x4--,,of ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,one can scarcely think that ,pope was capable of epic or tragic poetry2 but1 within a certain limited region1 he has been outdone by no poet4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,i who now read1 have nearly finished this chapter4--,harris cor4 ,and yet1 to refine our taste with respect to beauties of art or of nature1 is scarcely endeavoured in any seminary of learning4--,kames cor4 ,the numbers being confounded1 and the possessives wrongly applied1 the passage is neither ,english nor grammar4--,buchanan cor4 ,the letter ,g is wrongly named ,jee4--,creighton cor4 ,lastly1 remember that in science1 as in morals1 authority cannot make right what in itself is wrong4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,they regulate our taste even where we are scarcely sensible of them4--,kames cor4 ,slow action1 for example1 is imitated by words pronounced slowly4--,id4 ,surely1 if it be to profit withal1 it must be in order to save4--,barclay cor4 ,which is scarcely possible at best4--,sheridan cor4 ,our wealth being nearly finished4--,harris cor4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,conjunctions4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,the ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xxii4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,of ,,two ,,terms ,,with ,,one4 ,the first proposal was essentially different from the second1 and inferior to it4--,inst4 ,a neuter verb expresses the state which a subject is in1 without acting upon any other thing1 or being acted upon by an other4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,i answer1 ,you may use stories and anecdotes1 and ought to do so4--,todd cor4 ,,oracle1 n4 ,any person from whom1 or place at which1 certain decisions are obtained4--,webster cor4 ,forms of government may1 and occasionally must1 be changed4--,lyttelton cor4 ,i have been1 and ,i still pretend to be1 a tolerable judge4--,sped4 cor4 ,are we not lazy in our duties1 or do we not make a ,christ of them8--,baxter cor4 ,they may not express that idea which the author intends1 but some other which only resembles it1 or is akin to it4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,we may therefore read them1 we ought to read them1 with a distinguishing eye4--,ib4 ,compare their poverty with what they might possess1 and ought to possess4--,sedgwick cor4 ,he is much better acquainted with grammar than they are4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,he was more beloved than ,cinthio1 but he was not so much admired4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bbb4 ,will it be urged1 that the four gospels are as old as tradition1 and even older8--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #bjg4 ,the court of chancery frequently mitigates and disarms the common law4--,spect4 and ,ware cor4 ,antony1 coming along side of her ship1 entered it without seeing her1 or being seen by her4--,goldsmith cor4 ,into candid minds1 truth enters as a welcome guest4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,there are many designs in which we may succeed1 to our ultimate ruin4--,id4 ,from many pursuits in which we embark with pleasure1 we are destined to land sorrowfully4--,id4 ,they gain much more than ,i1 by this unexpected event4--,id4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,heterogeneous ,,terms4 ,athens saw them entering her gates and filling her academies4--,chazotte cor4 ,neither have we forgot his past achievements1 nor do we despair of his future success4--,duncan cor4 ,her monuments and temples had long been shattered1 or had crumbled into dust4--,journal cor4 ,competition is excellent2 it is the vital principle in all these things4--,id4 ,whether provision should1 or should not1 be made1 in order to meet this exigency4--,ib44 ,that our ,saviour was divinely inspired1 and that he was endued with supernatural powers1 are positions that are here taken for granted4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,it would be much more eligible1 to contract or enlarge their extent by explanatory notes and observations1 than to sweep away our ancient landmarks and set up others4--,id4 ,it is certainly much better to supply defects and abridge superfluities by occasional notes and observations1 than to disorganize or greatly alter a system which has been so long established4--,id4 ,to have only one tune1 or measure1 is not much better than to have none at all4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,facts too well known and too obvious to be insisted on4--,id4 ,in proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen1 and are of a sublime kind4--,id4 ,if the description be too general1 and be divested of circumstances4--,id4 ,he gained nothing but commendation4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,i cannot but think its application somewhat strained and misplaced4--,vethake cor4 ,two negatives standing in the same clause1 or referring to the same thing1 destroy each other1 and leave the sense affirmative4--,maunder cor4 ,slates are thin plates of stone1 and are often used to cover the roofs of houses4--,webster cor4 ,every man of taste1 and of an elevated mind1 ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he possesses4--,translator of ,de ,stal cor4 ,they very seldom trouble themselves with inquiries1 or make any useful observations of their own4--,locke cor4 ,we've both the field and honour won2 ,our foes are profligate1 and run4--,s4 ,butler cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,import ,,of ,,conjunctions4 ,,the is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree4--,lennie1 ,bullions1 and ,brace cor4 ,the definite article ,,the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree4--,lowth4 ,murray1 et al1 cor4 ,conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mood and tense4 ,or1 more truly3 ,verbs connected by a conjunction1 are usually in the same mood and tense4--,sanborn cor4 ,conjunctions connect verbs in the same style1 and usually in the same mood1 tense1 and form4 ,or better3 ,verbs connected by a conjunction1 are usually of the same mood1 tense1 and form1 as well as style4--,id4 ,the ruins of ,greece or ,rome are but the monuments of her former greatness4--,p4 ,e4 ,day cor4 ,it is not improbably1 that in many of these cases the articles were used originally4--,priestley cor4 ,i cannot doubt that these objects are really what they appear to be4--,kames cor4 ,i question not that my reader will be as much pleased with it4--,spect4 cor4 ,it is ten to one that my friend ,peter is among them4--,id4 ,i doubt not that such objections as these will be made--,locke cor4 ,i doubt not that it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets4--,buchanan cor4 ,it is not improbable1 that in time these different constructions maybe appropriated to different uses4--,priestley cor4 ,but to forget and to remember at pleasure1 are equally beyond the power of man4--,idler cor4 ,the nominative case follows the verb1 in interrogative or imperative sentences4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,can the fig-tree1 my brethren1 bear olive berries8 or a vine1 figs8--,bible cor4 ,whose characters are too profligate for the managing of them to be of any consequence4--,swift cor4 ,you1 that are a step higher than a philosopher1 a divine1 yet have too much grace and wit to be a bishop4--,pope cor4 ,the terms rich and poor enter not into their language4--,robertson cor4 ,this pause is but seldom1 if ever1 sufficiently dwelt upon4 ,or3 ,this pause is seldom or never sufficiently dwelt upon4--,gardiner cor4 ,there would be no possibility of any such thing as human life or human happiness4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,the multitude rebuked them1 that they should hold their peace4--,bible cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,the ,,conjunction ,,than4 ,a metaphor is nothing else than a short comparison4 ,or3 ,a metaphor is nothing but a short comparison4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,there being no other dictator here than use4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #cfd4 ,this construction is no otherwise known in ,english1 than by supplying the first or the second person plural4--,buchanan cor4 ,cyaxares was no sooner on the throne1 than he was engaged in a terrible war4--,rollin cor4 ,those classics contain little else than histories of murders4--,am4 ,mu4 cor4 ,ye shall not worship any other than ,god4--,sale cor4 ,their relation1 therefore1 is not otherwise to be ascertained1 than by their place4--,campbell cor4 ,for he no sooner accosted her1 than he gained his point4--,burder cor4 ,and all the modern writers on this subject1 have done little else than translate them4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,one who had no other aim than to talk copiously and plausibly4--,id4 ,we can refer it to no other cause than the structure of the eye4--,id4 ,no more is required than singly an act of vision4--,kames cor4 ,we find no more in its composition1 than the particulars now mentioned4--,id4 ,he does not pretend to say1 that it has any other effect than to raise surprise4--,id4 ,no sooner was the princess dead1 than he freed himself4--,dr4 ,s4 ,johnson cor4 ,,ought is an imperfect verb1 for it has no modification besides this one4--,priestley cor4 ,the verb is palpably nothing else than the tie4--,neef cor4 ,does he mean that theism is capable of nothing else than of being opposed to polytheism or atheism8--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else than of being opposed to polytheism or atheism8--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,there is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant1 than by means of something already known4--,ingersoll's ,grammar1 ,titlepage3 ,dr4 ,johnson cor4 ,o fairest flower1 no sooner blown than blasted6--,milton cor4 ,architecture and gardening cannot otherwise entertain the mind1 than by raising certain agreeable emotions or feelings4--,kames cor4 ,or1 rather1 they are nothing else than nouns4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,as if religion were intended ,for nothing else than to be mended4--,s4 ,butler cor4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,relatives ,,exclude ,,conjunctions4 ,to prepare the ,jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than himself1 a teacher whose shoes he was not worthy to bear4--,anon1 or ,mur4 cor4 ,has this word1 which represents an action1 an object after it1 on which the action terminates8--,osborne cor4 ,the stores of literature lie before him1 from which he may collect for use many lessons of wisdom4-- ,knapp cor4 ,many and various great advantages of this grammar over others1 might be enumerated4--,greenleaf cor4 ,the custom which still prevails1 of writing in lines from left to right1 is said to have been introduced about the time of ,solon1 the ,athenian legislator4--,jamieson cor4 ,the fundamental rule for the construction of sentences1 the rule into which all others might be resolved1 undoubtedly is1 to communicate1 in the clearest and most natural order1 the ideas which we mean to express4--,blair and ,jamieson cor4 ,he left a son of a singular character1 who behaved so ill that he was put in prison4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,he discovered in the youth some disagreeable qualities which to him were wholly unaccountable4--,id4 ,an emphatical pause is made after something of peculiar moment has been said1 on which we wish to fix the hearer's attention4 ,or3 ,an emphatical pause is made after something has been said which is of peculiar moment1 and on which we wish to fix the hearer's attention4--,blair and ,murray cor4 ,but we have duplicates of each1 agreeing in movement1 though differing in measure1 and making different impressions on the ear1--,murray cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vi4--,,of ,,the ,,word ,,that4 ,it will greatly facilitate the labours of the teacher1 and1 at the same time1 it will relieve the pupil from many difficulties4--,frost cor4 ,while the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned1 it will be proper for him to study the whole grammar in course4--,bullions cor4 ,on the same ground on which a participle and an auxiliary are allowed to form a tense4--,beattie and ,murray cor4 ,on the same ground on which the voices1 moods1 and tenses1 are admitted into the ,english tongue4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the five examples last mentioned1 are corrected on the same principle that is applied to the errors preceding them4--,murray and ,ingersoll cor4 ,the brazen age began at the death of ,trajan1 and lasted till ,rome was taken by the ,goths4--,gould cor4 ,the introduction to the duodecimo edition is retained in this volume1 for the same reason for which the original introduction to the ,grammar is retained in the first volume4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the verb must also agree in person with its subject or nominative4--,ingersoll cor4 ,the personal pronoun ',,their' is plural for the same reason for which ',,who' is plural4--,id4 ,the ,sabellians could not justly be called ,patripassians1 in the same sense in which the ,notians were so called4--,r4 ,adam cor4 ,this is one reason why we pass over such smooth language without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the first place at which the two armies came within sight of each other1 was on the opposite banks of the river ,apsus4--,goldsmith cor4 ,at the very time at which the author gave him the first book for his perusal4--,campbell cor4 ,peter will sup at the time at which ,paul will dine4--,fosdick cor4 ,peter will be supping when ,paul will enter4--,id4 ,these1 while they may serve as models to those who may wish to imitate them1 will give me an opportunity to cast more light upon the principles of this book4--,id4 ,time was1 like thee1 they life possess'd1 ,and time shall be1 when thou shalt rest4--,parnell cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,vii4--,,of ,,the ,,correspondents4 ,our manners should be neither gross nor excessively refined4--,murray's ,key1 ii1 #afe4 ,a neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion1 but being1 or a state of being4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,the old books are neither ,english grammars1 nor in any sense grammars of the ,english language4--,id4 ,the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet so accurate and so much simplified as it may be4--,kirkham cor4 ,the writer could not treat some topics so extensively as it was desirable to treat them4--,id4 ,which would be a matter of such nicety1 that no degree of human wisdom could regulate it4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,no undertaking is so great or difficult1 that he cannot direct it4--,duncan cor4 ,it is a good which depends neither on the will of others1 nor on the affluence of external fortune4--,harris cor4 ,not only his estate1 but his reputation too1 has suffered by his misconduct4--,murray and ,ingersoll cor4 ,neither do they extend so far as might be imagined at first view4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,there is no language so poor1 but that it has 7or1 as not to have7 two or three past tenses4--,id4 ,so far as this system is founded in truth1 language appears to be not altogether arbitrary in its origin4--,id4 ,i have not such command of these convulsions as is necessary4 ,or3 ,i have not that command of these convulsions which is necessary4--,spect4 cor4 ,conversation with such as 7or1 those who7 know no arts that polish life4--,id4 ,and which cannot be either very lively or very forcible4--,jamieson cor4 ,to such a degree as to give proper names to rivers4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,in the utter overthrow of such as hate to be reformed4--,barclay cor4 ,but still so much of it is retained1 that it greatly injures the uniformity of the whole4--,priestley cor4 ,some of them have gone to such a height of extravagance1 as to assert1 c4--,id4 ,a teacher is confined1 not more than a merchant1 and probably not so much4--,abbott cor4 ,it shall not be forgiven him1 neither in this world1 nor in the world to come4 ,or3 ,it shall not be forgiven him1 either in this world1 or in the world to come4--,bible cor4 ,which nobody presumes1 or is so sanguine as to hope4--,swift cor4 ,for the torrent of the voice left neither time1 nor power in the organs1 to shape the words properly4--,sheridan cor4 ,that he may neither unnecessarily waste his voice by throwing out too much1 nor diminish his power by using too little4--,id4 ,i have retained only such as appear most agreeable to the measures of analogy4--,littleton cor4 ,he is a man both prudent and industrious4--,p4 ,e4 ,day cor4 ,conjunctions connect either words or sentences4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #afi4 ,such silly girls as love to chat and play1 ,deserve no care2 their time is thrown away4--,tobitt cor4 ,vice is a monster of so frightful mien1 ,that to be hated she but needs be seen4--,pope cor4 ,justice must punish the rebellious deed2 ,yet punish so that pity shall exceed4--,dryden cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,viii4--,,improper ,,ellipses4 ,,that1 ,,whose1 and ,,as1 relate either to persons or to things4 ,or better3--relate as well to persons as to things4--,sanborn cor4 ,,which and ,,what1 as adjectives1 relate either to persons or to things4 ,or better3--relate to persons as well as to things4--,id4 ,whether of a public or of a private nature4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams cor4 ,which are included among both the public and the private wrongs4--,id4 ,i might extract1 both from the ,old and from the ,new ,testament1 numberless examples of induction4--,id4 ,many verbs are used both in an active and in a neuter signification4 ,or thus3 ,many verbs are used in both an active and a neuter signification4--,lowth1 ,mur41 et al41 cor4 ,its influence is likely to be considerable1 both on the morals and on the taste of a nation4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the subject afforded a variety of scenes1 both of the awful and of the tender kind4--,id4 ,restlessness of mind disqualifies us both for the enjoyment of peace1 and for the performance of our duty4--,mur4 and ,ing4 cor4 ,pronominal adjectives are of a mixed nature1 participating the properties both of pronouns and of adjectives4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,pronominal adjectives have the nature both of the adjective and of the pronoun4--,frost cor4 ,or3 ,pronominal adjectives partake of the properties of both adjectives and pronouns4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,pronominal adjectives are a kind of compound part of speech1 partaking the nature both of pronouns and of adjectives4--,nutting cor4 ,nouns are used either in the singular or in the plural number4 ,or perhaps better3 ,nouns are used in either the singular or the plural number4--,david ,blair cor4 ,the question is not1 whether the nominative or the accusative ought to follow the particles ,,than and ,,as2 but1 whether these particles are1 in such particular cases1 to be regarded as conjunctions or as prepositions--,campbell cor4 ,in ,english1 many verbs are used both as transitives and as intransitives4--,churchill cor4 ,he sendeth rain both on the just and on the unjust4--,see ,matt41 v1 #de4 ,a foot consists either of two or of three syllables4--,david ,blair cor4 ,because they participate the nature both of adverbs and of conjunctions4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,surely1 ,romans1 what ,i am now about to say1 ought neither to be omitted1 nor to pass without notice4--,duncan cor4 ,their language frequently amounts1 not only to bad sense1 but to nonsense4--,kirkham cor4 ,hence arises the necessity of a social state to man1 both for the unfolding1 and for the exerting1 of his nobler faculties4--,sheridan cor4 ,whether the subject be of the real or of the feigned kind4--,dr4 ,h4 ,blair cor4 ,not only was liberty entirely extinguished1 but arbitrary power was felt in its heaviest and most oppressive weight4--,id4 ,this rule is also applicable both to verbal ,critics and to ,grammarians4--,hiley cor4 ,both the rules and the exceptions of a language must have obtained the sanction of good usage4--,id4 ,,chapter ,x4--,,prepositions4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,the ,,notes ,,to ,,rule ,,xxiii4 ,,under ,,note ,i4--,,choice ,,of ,,prepositions4 ,you have bestowed your favours upon the most deserving persons4--,swift corrected4 ,but1 to rise above that1 and overtop the crowd1 is given to few4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,this also is a good sentence 1 and gives occasion for no material remark4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bjc4 ,though ,cicero endeavours to give some reputation to the elder ,cato1 and those who were his contemporaries4 ,or3--to give some favourable account of the elder ,cato1 c4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the change that was produced in eloquence1 is beautifully described in the dialogue4--,id4 ,without carefully attending to the variation which they make in the idea4--,id4 ,all on a sudden1 you are transported into a lofty palace4--,hazlitt cor4 ,alike independent of one an other4 ,or3 ,alike independent one of an other4--,campbell cor4 ,you will not think of them as distinct processes going on independently of each other4--,channing cor4 ,though we say to depend on1 dependent on1 and dependence on1 we say1 independent of1 and independently of4--,churchill cor4 ,independently of the rest of the sentence4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #hj2 ,buchanan's1 #hc2 ,bullions's1 #aaj2 ,churchill's1 #cdh4ede ,because they stand independent of the rest of the sentence4--,allen ,fisk cor4 ,when a substantive is joined with a participle1 in ,english1 independently of the rest of the sentence4--,dr4 ,adam cor4 ,,conjunction comes from the two ,latin words con1 together1 and jungo1 to join4--,merchant cor4 ,how different from this is the life of ,fulvia6--,addison cor4 ,,loved is a participle or adjective1 derived from the word love4--,ash cor4 ,but ,i would inquire of him1 what an office is4--,barclay cor4 ,for the capacity is brought into action4--,id4 ,in this period1 language and taste arrive at purity4--,webster cor4 ,and1 should you not aspire to 7or after7 distinction in the republic of letters4--,kirkham cor4 ,delivering you up to the synagogues1 and into prisons4--,luke1 xxi1 #ab4 ,he that is kept from falling into a ditch1 is as truly saved1 as he that is taken out of one4--,barclay cor4 ,the best of it is1 they are but a sort of ,french ,hugonots4--,addison cor4 ,these last ten examples are indeed of a different nature from the former4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,for the initiation of students into the principles of the ,english language4--,ann4 ,rev4 cor4 ,richelieu profited by every circumstance which the conjuncture afforded4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,in the names of drugs and plants1 the mistake of a word may endanger life4--,merchant's ,key1 p4 #ahe4 ,or better3 ,in naming drugs or plants1 to mistake a word1 may endanger life4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,in order to the carrying of its several parts into execution4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,his abhorrence of the superstitious figure4--,priestley4 ,thy prejudice against my cause4--,id4 ,which is found in every species of liberty4--,hume cor4 ,in a hilly region on the north of ,jericho4--,milman cor4 ,two or more singular nouns coupled by ,,and require a verb or pronoun in the plural4--,lennie cor4 ,books should to one of these four ends conduce1 ,to wisdom1 piety1 delight1 or use4--,denham cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,ii4--,,two ,,objects ,,or ,,more4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons1 however1 soon quarrelled among themselves for precedence4--,const4 ,misc4 cor4 ,the distinctions among the principal parts of speech are founded in nature4--,webster cor4 ,i think ,i now understand the difference between the active verbs and those which are passive or neuter4--,ingersoll cor4 ,thus a figure including a space within three lines1 is the real as well as nominal essence of a triangle4--,locke cor4 ,we must distinguish between an imperfect phrase and a simple sentence1 and between a simple sentence and a compound sentence4--,lowth1 ,murray1 et al41 cor4 ,the ,jews are strictly forbidden by their law to exercise usury towards one an other4--,sale cor4 ,all the writers have distinguished themselves among themselves4--,addison cor4 ,this expression also better secures the systematic uniformity of the three cases4--,nutting cor4 ,when two or more infinitives or clauses are connected disjunctively as the subjects of an affirmation1 the verb must be singular4--,jaudon cor4 ,several nouns or pronouns together in the same case1 require a comma after each2 except the last1 which must sometimes be followed by a greater point4--,david ,blair cor4 ,the difference between one vowel and an other is produced by opening the mouth differently1 and placing the tongue in a different manner for each4--,churchill cor4 ,thus feet composed of syllables1 being pronounced with a sensible interval between one foot and an other1 make a more lively impression than can be made by a continued sound4--,kames cor4 ,the superlative degree implies a comparison1 sometimes between two1 but generally among three or more4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,they are used to mark a distinction among several objects4--,lvizac cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iii4--,,omission ,,of ,,prepositions4 ,this would have been less worthy of notice4--,churchill cor4 ,but ,i passed it1 as a thing unworthy of my notice4--,werter cor4 ,which1 in compliment to me1 perhaps you may one day think worthy of your attention4--,bucke cor4 ,to think this small present worthy of an introduction to the young ladies of your very elegant establishment4-- ,id4 ,there are but a few miles of portage4--,jefferson cor4 ,it is worthy of notice1 that our mountains are not solitary4--,id4 ,it is about one hundred feet in diameter4 #edf--;,id4 ,entering a hill a quarter or half of a mile4--,id4 ,and herself seems passing to an awful dissolution1 whose issue it is not given to human foresight to scan4--,id4 ,it was of a spheroidical form1 about forty feet in diameter at the base1 and had been about twelve feet in altitude4--,id4 ,before this1 it was covered with trees of twelve inches in diameter2 and1 round the base1 there was an excavation of five feet in depth and five in width4--,id4 ,then thou mayst eat grapes to thy fill1 at thine own pleasure4--,bible cor4 ,then he brought me back by the way of the gate of the outward sanctuary4--,id4 ,they will bless ,god1 that he has peopled one half of the world with a race of freemen4--,webster cor4 ,of what use can these words be1 till their meaning is known8--,town cor4 ,the tents of the ,arabs now are black1 or of a very dark colour4--,the ,friend cor4 ,they may not be unworthy of the attention of young men4--,kirkham cor4 ,the pronoun ,,that is frequently applied to persons as well as to things4--,merchant cor4 ,and 'who' is in the same case that 'man' is in4--,sanborn cor4 ,he saw a flaming stone1 apparently about four feet in diameter4--,the ,friend cor4 ,pliny informs us1 that this stone was of the size of a cart4--,id4 ,seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of ,tiberius1 when the ,jews were expelled from ,rome4--,l',estrange cor4 ,i was prevented from reading a letter which would have undeceived me4--,hawkesworth cor4 ,if the problem can be solved1 we may be pardoned for the inaccuracy of its demonstration4--,booth cor4 ,the army must of necessity be the school1 not of honour1 but of effeminacy4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,afraid of the virtue of a nation in its opposing of bad measures3 or1--in its opposition to bad measures4--,id4 ,the uniting of them in various ways1 so as to form words1 would be easy4--,gardiner cor4 ,i might be excused from taking any more notice of it4--,watson cor4 ,watch therefore2 for ye know not at what hour your ,lord will come4--,bible cor4 ,here1 not even infants were spared from the sword4--,m',ilvaine cor4 ,to prevent men from turning aside to false modes of worship4--,john ,allen cor4 ,god expelled them from the garden of ,eden4--,burder cor4 ,nor could he refrain from expressing to the senate the agonies of his mind4--,hume cor4 ,who now so strenuously opposes the granting to him of any new powers4--,duncan cor4 ,that the laws of the censors have banished him from the forum4--,id4 ,we read not that he was degraded from his office in any other way4--,barclay cor4 ,to all to whom these presents shall come1 greeting4--,hutchinson cor4 ,on the #ast of ,august1 #ahcd4--;,brit4 ,parl4 cor4 ,whether you had not some time in your life ,err'd in this point on which you censure him4--,shak4 cor4 ,,under ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,needless ,,prepositions4 ,and the apostles and elders came together to consider this matter4--,barclay cor42 also ,acts4 ,adjectives1 in our language1 have neither case1 nor gender1 nor number2 the only variation they have1 is comparison4--,buchanan cor4 ',it is to you that ,i am indebted for this privilege2' that is1 ',to you am ,i indebted2' or1 ',it is you to whom ,i am indebted4'--,sanborn cor4 ,,books is a common noun1 of the third person1 plural number1 and neuter gender4--,ingersoll cor4 ,,brother',s is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and possessive case4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,,virtue',s is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and possessive case4--,id4 ,when the authorities on one side greatly preponderate1 it is vain to oppose the prevailing usage4--,campbell and ,murray cor4 ,a captain of a troop of banditti1 had a mind to be plundering ,rome4--,collier cor4 ,and1 notwithstanding its verbal power1 we have added the ,,to and other signs of exertion4--,booth cor4 ,some of these situations are termed ,,cases1 and are expressed by additions to the noun1 in stead of separate words3 or1--and not by separate words4--,id4 ,is it such a fast that ,i have chosen1 that a man should afflict his soul for a day1 and bow down his head like a bulrush8--,bacon cor4 ,compare ,isa41 lviii1 #e4 ,and this first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the accidental in stead of the necessary antecedent4--,wayland cor4 ,about the same time1 the subjugation of the ,moors was completed4--,balbi cor4 ,god divided between the light and the darkness4--,burder cor4 ,notwithstanding this1 we are not against outward significations of honour4--,barclay cor4 ,whether these words and practices of ,job's friends1 ought to be our rule4--,id4 ,such verb cannot admit an objective case after it4--,lowth cor4 ,for which1 ,god is now visibly punishing these nations4--,c4 ,leslie cor4 ,in this respect1 ,tasso yields to no poet1 except ,homer4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,notwithstanding the numerous panegyrics on the ancient ,english liberty4--,hume cor4 ,their efforts seemed to anticipate the spirit which became so general afterwards4--,id4 ,,under ,,note ,v4--,,the ,,placing ,,of ,,the ,,words4 ,but how short of its excellency are my expressions6--,baxter cor4 ,in his style1 there is a remarkable union of harmony with ease4--,dr4 ,h4 ,blair cor4 ,it disposes of the light and shade in the most artificial manner1 that every thing may be viewed to the best advantage4--,id4 ,for brevity1 ,aristotle too holds an eminent rank among didactic writers4--,id4 ,in an introduction1 correctness of expression should be carefully studied4--,id4 ,in laying down a method1 one ought above all things to study precision4--,id4 ,which shall make on the mind the impression of something that is one1 whole1 and entire4--,id4 ,at the same time1 there are in the ,odyssey some defects which must be acknowledged4 ,or3 ,at the same time1 it must be acknowledged that there are some defects in the ,odyssey4--,id4 ,in the concluding books1 however1 there are beauties of the tragic kind4--,id4 ,these forms of conversation multiplied by degrees1 and grew troublesome4--,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 ii1 #dd4 ,when she has made her own choice1 she sends1 for form's sake1 a cong-d'lire to her friends4--,ib41 ii1 #df4 ,let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds in his hand the reins of the whole creation4--,spectator cor42 also ,kames4 ,next to this1 the measure most frequent in ,english poetry1 is that of eight syllables4--,david ,blair cor4 ,to introduce as great a variety of cadences as possible4-- ,jamieson cor4 ,he addressed to them several exhortations1 suitable to their circumstances4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,habits of temperance and self-denial must be acquired4--,id4 ,in reducing to practice the rules prescribed4--,id4 ,but these parts must be so closely bound together1 as to make upon the mind the impression of one object1 not of many4--,blair and ,mur4 cor4 ,errors with respect to the use of shall and will1 are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writers4--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,,chapter ,,xi4--,,promiscuous ,,exercises4 ,,corrections ,,of ,,the ,,promiscuous ,,examples4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,any ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,such a one1 ,i believe1 yours will be proved to be4--,peet and ,farnum cor4 ,of the distinction between the imperfect and the perfect tense1 it may be observed1 c4--,l4 ,ainsworth cor4 ,the subject is certainly worthy of consideration4--,id4 ,by this means1 all ambiguity and controversy on this point are avoided4--,bullions cor4 ,the perfect participle1 in ,english1 has both an active and a passive signification4 ,better3 ,the perfect participle1 in ,english1 has sometimes an active1 and sometimes a passive1 signification4--,id4 ,the old house has at length fallen down4--,id4 ,the king1 the lords1 and the commons1 constitute the ,english form of government4--,id4 ,the verb in the singular agrees with the person next to it4 ,better3 ,the singular verb agrees in person with that nominative which is next to it4--,id4 ,jane found ,seth's gloves in ,james's hat4--,o4 ,c4 ,felton cor4 ,charles's task is too great4--,id4 ,the conjugation of a verb is the naming of its several moods1 tenses1 numbers1 and persons1 in regular order4--,id4 ,the long-remembered beggar was his guest4--,id4 ,participles refer to nouns or pronouns4--,id4 ,f has a uniform sound1 in every position1 except in ,,of4 ,better3 ,f has one unvaried sound1 in every position1 except in ,,of4--,e4 ,j4 ,hallock cor4 ,there are three genders2 the masculine1 the feminine1 and the neuter4--,id4 ,when ,,so and ,,that occur together1 sometimes the particle ,,so is taken as an adverb4--,id4 ,the definition of the articles shows that they modify the import of the words to which they belong4--,id4 ,the auxiliary1 ,,shall1 ,,will1 or ,,should1 is implied4--,id4 ,single-rhymed trochaic omits the final short syllable4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bcg4 ,agreeably to this1 we read of names being blotted out of ,god's book4--,burder1 ,hallock1 and ,webster1 cor4 ,the first person is that which denotes the speaker4--,inst41 p4 #cb4 ,accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice1 on a certain letter or syllable in a word4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bce2 ,felton's1 #acd4 ,thomas's horse was caught4--,felton cor4 ,you were loved4--,id4 ,the nominative and the objective end alike4--,t4 ,smith cor4 ,the numbers of pronouns1 like those of substantives1 are two2 the singular and the plural4--,id4 ,i is called the pronoun of the first person1 because it represents the person speaking4--,frost cor4 ,the essential elements of the phrase are an intransitive gerundive and an adjective4--,hazen cor4 ,wealth is no justification for such impudence4--,id4 ,that he was a soldier in the revolution1 is not doubted4--,id4 ,fishing is the chief employment of the inhabitants4--,id4 ,the chief employment of the inhabitants1 is the catching of fish4--,id4 ,the cold weather did not prevent the work from being finished at the time specified4--,id4 ,the man's former viciousness caused him to be suspected of this crime4--,id4 ,but person and number1 applied to verbs1 mean certain terminations4--,barrett cor4 ,robert felled a tree4--,id4 ,charles raised himself up4--,id4 ,it might not be a useless waste of time4--,id4 ,neither will you have that implicit faith in the writings and works of others1 which characterizes the vulgar4--,id4 ,i is of the first person1 because it denotes the speaker4--,ib4 ,i would refer the student to ,hedge's or ,watts's ,logic4--,id4 ,hedge's ,watts's1 ,kirwin's1 and ,collard's ,logic4--,parker and ,fox cor4 ,letters that make a full and perfect sound of themselves1 are called vowels4 ,or3 ,the letters which make1 c4--,cutler cor4 ,it has both a singular and a plural construction4--,id4 ,for he beholds 7or beholdeth7 thy beams no more4--,id4 ,carthon4 ,to this sentiment the ,committee have the candour to incline1 as it will appear by their summing-up4--,macpherson cor4 ,this reduces the point at issue to a narrow compass4--,id4 ,since the ,english set foot upon the soil4--,exiles cor4 ,the arrangement of its different parts is easily retained by the memory4--,hiley cor4 ,the words employed are the most appropriate that could have been selected4--,id4 ,to prevent it from launching6--,id4 ,webster has been followed in preference to others1 where he differs from them4 ,or3 ,webster's ,grammar has been followed in preference to others1 where it differs from them4--,frazee cor4 ,exclamation and interrogation are often mistaken the one for the other4--,buchanan cor4 ,when all nature is hushed in sleep1 and neither love nor guilt keeps its vigils4--,felton cor4 ,or thus3-- ,when all nature's hush'd asleep4 ,nor love1 nor guilt1 doth vigils keep4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,any ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,a ,versifier and a ,poet are two different things4--,brightland cor4 ,those qualities will arise from the well-expressing of the subject4--,id4 ,therefore the explanation of ,,network is not noticed here4--,mason cor4 ,when emphasis or pathos is necessary to be expressed4--,humphrey cor4 ,whether this mode of punctuation is correct1 or whether it is proper to close the sentence with the mark of admiration1 may be made a question4--,id4 ,but not every writer in those days was thus correct4--,id4 ,the sounds of ,a1 in ,english orthoepy1 are no fewer than four4--,id4 ,our present code of rules is thought to be generally correct4 ,or3 ,the rules in our present code are thought to be generally correct4--,id4 ,to prevent it from running into an other--,id4 ,shakspeare1 perhaps1 the greatest poetical genius that ,england has produced4--,id4 ,this ,i will illustrate by example2 but1 before doing so1 a few preliminary remarks may be necessary4--,id4 ,all such are entitled to two accents each1 and some of them to two accents nearly equal4--,id4 ,but some cases of the kind are so plain1 that no one needs to exercise 7or1 need exercise7 his judgement therein4--,id4 ,i have forborne to use the word4--,id4 ,the propositions1 ',he may study1' ',he might study1' ',he could study1' affirm an ability or power to study4--,e4 ,j4 ,hallock cor4 ,the divisions of the tenses have occasioned grammarians much trouble and perplexity4--,id4 ,by adopting a familiar1 inductive method of presenting this subject1 one may render it highly attractive to young learners4--,wells cor4 ,the definitions and rules of different grammarians were carefully compared with one an other3 or--one with an other4--,id4 ,so as not wholly to prevent some sound from issuing4--,sheridan cor4 ,letters of the ,alphabet1 not yet noticed4--,id4 ',,it is sad1' ',,it is strange1' c41 seem to express only that the thing is sad1 strange1 c4--,well-,wishers cor4 ,the winning is easier than the preserving of a conquest4--,same4 ,the ,united ,states find themselves the owners of a vast region of country at the west4--,h4 ,mann cor4 ,one or more letters placed before a word are a prefix4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark cor4 ,one or more letters added to a word1 are a ,suffix4--,id4 ,two thirds of my hair have fallen off4 ,or3 ,my hair has1 two thirds of it1 fallen off4--,id4 ',suspecting' describes us1 the speakers1 by expressing1 incidentally1 an act of ours4--,id4 ,daniel's predictions are now about being fulfilled4 ,or thus3 ,daniel's predictions are now receiving their fulfillment--,id4 ,his scholarship entitles him to respect4--,id4 ,i doubted whether he had been a soldier4--,id4 ,the taking of a madman's sword to prevent him from doing mischief1 cannot be regarded as a robbery4--,id4 ,i thought it to be him2 but it was not he4--,id4 ,it was not ,i that you saw4--,id4 ,not to know what happened before you were born1 is always to be a boy4--,id4 ,how long were you going8 ,three days4--,id4 ,the qualifying adjective is placed next to the noun4--,id4 ,all went but ,i4--,id4 ,this is a parsing of their own language1 and not of the author's4--,wells cor4 ,those nouns which denote males1 are of the masculine gender4 ,or3 ,nouns that denote males1 are of the masculine gender4--,wells1 late ,ed4 ,those nouns which denote females1 are of the feminine gender4 ,or3 ,nouns that denote females1 are of the feminine gender4--,wells1 late ,ed4 ,when a comparison among more than two objects of the same class is expressed1 the superlative degree is employed4--,wells cor4 ,where d or t goes before1 the additional letter d or t1 in this contracted form1 coalesces into one letter with the radical d or t4--,dr4 ,johnson cor4 ,write words which will show what kind of house you live in--what kind of book you hold in your hand--what kind of day it is4--,weld cor4 ,one word or more are often joined to nouns or pronouns to modify their meaning4--,id4 ,good is an adjective2 it explains the quality or character of every person to whom1 or thing to which1 it is applied4 ,or3--of every person or thing that it is applied to4--,id4 ,a great public as well as private advantage arises from every one's devoting of himself to that occupation which he prefers1 and for which he is specially fitted4--,wayland1 ,wells1 and ,weld1 cor4 ,there was a chance for him to recover his senses4 ,or3 ,there was a chance that he might recover his senses4--,wells and ,macaulay cor4 ,this may be known by the absence of any connecting word immediately preceding it4--,weld cor4 ,there are irregular expressions occasionally to be met with1 which usage1 or custom1 rather than analogy1 sanctions4--,id4 ,he added an anecdote of ,quin relieving ,thomson from prison4 ,or3 ,he added an anecdote of ,quin as relieving ,thomson from prison4 ,or3 ,he added an anecdote of ,quin's relieving of ,thomson from prison4 ,or better3 ,he also told how ,quin relieved ,thomson from prison4--,id4 ,the daily labour of her hands procures for her all that is necessary4--,id4 ,that it is ,i1 should make no change in your determination4--,hart cor4 ,the classification of words into what are called the ,parts of ,speech4--,weld cor4 ,such licenses may be explained among what are usually termed ,figures4--,id4 ,liberal1 not lavish1 is kind ,nature's hand4--,beattie4 ,they fall successive1 and successive rise4--,pope4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,any ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,a ,figure of ,etymology is an intentional deviation from the usual form of a word4--,see ,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #bbi4 ,a ,figure of ,syntax is an intentional deviation from the usual construction of a word4--,see ,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bcj4 ,synecdoche is the naming of the whole of any thing for a part1 or a part for the whole4--,weld cor4 ,apostrophe is a turning-off#edg from the regular course of the subject1 to address some person or thing4--,id4 ,even young pupils will perform such exercises with surprising interest and facility1 and will unconsciously gain1 in a little time1 more knowledge of the structure of language1 than they can acquire by a drilling of several years in the usual routine of parsing4--,id4 ,a few rules of construction are employed in this part1 to guide the pupil in the exercise of parsing4--,id4 ,the name of any person1 object1 or thing1 that can be thought of1 or spoken of1 is a noun4--,id4 ,a dot1 resembling our period1 is used between every two words1 as well as at the close of each verse4--,w4 ,day cor4 ,the casting of types in matrices was invented by ,peter ,schoeffer1 in #adeb4--;,id4 ,on perusing it1 he said1 that1 so far was it from showing the prisoner's guilt that it positively established his innocence4--,id4 ,by printing the nominative and verb in ,italic letters1 we shall enable the reader to distinguish them at a glance4--,id4 ,it is well1 no doubt1 to avoid unnecessary words4--,id4 ,i meeting a friend the other day1 he said to me1 ',where are you going8'--,id4 ,to ,john1 apples were first denied2 then they were promised to him2 then they were offered to him4--,lennie cor4 ,admission was denied him4--,wells cor4 ,a pardon was offered to them4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ahc4 ,a new potato was this day shown me4--,darwin1 ,webster1 ,frazee1 and ,weld1 cor4 ,those nouns or pronouns which denote males1 are of the masculine gender4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 cor4 ,there are three degrees of comparison2 the positive1 the comparative1 and the superlative4--,id4 ,the first two refer to direction2 the third refers to locality4--,id4 ,the following are some of the verbs which take a direct and an indirect object4--,id4 ,i was not aware that he was the judge of the supreme court4--,id4 ,an indirect question may refer to any of the five elements of a declarative sentence4--,id4 ,i am not sure that he will be present4--,id4 ,we left ,new ,york on ,tuesday4--,id4 ,he left the city1 as he told me1 before the arrival of the steamer4--,id4 ,we told him that he must leave us2--,id4 ,we told him to leave us4--,id4 ,because he was unable to persuade the multitude1 he left the place1 in disgust4--,id4 ,he left the company1 and took his brother with him4--,id4 ,this stating1 or declaring1 or denying of any thing1 is called the indicative mood1 or manner of speaking4--,weld cor4 ,this took place at our friend ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds's4--,id4 ,the manner in which a young lady may employ herself usefully in reading1 will be the subject of an other paper4--,id4 ,very little time is necessary for ,johnson to conclude a treaty with the bookseller4--,id4 ,my father is not now sick2 but if he were1 your services would be welcome4--,chandler's ,common ,school ,gram41 ,ed4 of #ahdg1 p4 #gi4 ,before we begin to write or speak1 we ought to fix in our minds a clear conception of the end to be aimed at4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,length of days is in her right hand2 and1 in her left hand1 are riches and honour4--,see ,proverbs1 iii1 #af4 ,the active and the passive present express different ideas4--,bullions cor4 ,an ,improper ,diphthong1 7sometimes called a ,digraph17 is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded4--,fowler cor4 7,see ,g4 ,brown's definition47 ,the real origin of the words is to be sought in the ,latin4--,fowler cor4 ,what sort of alphabet the ,gothic languages possess1 we know2 what sort of alphabet they require1 we can determine4--,id4 ,the ,runic alphabet1 whether borrowed or invented by the early ,goths1 is of greater antiquity than either the oldest ,teutonic or the ,moeso-,gothic alphabet4--,id4 ,common to the masculine and neuter genders4--,id4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon1 ,,his was common to both the masculine and the ,neuter ,gender4--,id4 ,when time1 number1 or dimension1 is specified1 the adjective follows the substantive4--,id4 ,nor pain1 nor grief nor anxious fear1 ,invades thy bounds4--,id4 ,to ,brighton1 the ,pavilion lends a lath-and-plaster grace4--,fowler cor4 ,from this consideration1 ,i have given to nouns but one person1 the ,,third4--,d4 ,c4 ,allen cor4 ,for it seems to guard and cherish ,e'en the wayward dreamer--me4--,anon4 cor4 ,,chapter ,,xii4--,,general ,,review4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,all ,,the ,,preceding ,,rules ,,and ,,notes4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,articles4 ,and they took stones1 and made a heap4--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,gen41 xxxi1 #df4 ,and ,i do know many fools1 that stand in better place4--,shak4 cor4 ,it is a strong antidote to the turbulence of passion1 and the violence of pursuit4--,kames cor4 ,the word ,,news may admit of either a singular or a plural application4--,wright cor4 ,he has gained a fair and honourable reputation4--,id4 ,there are two general forms1 called the solemn and the familiar style4 ,or3--called the solemn and familiar styles4--,sanborn cor4 ,neither the article nor the preposition can be omitted4--,wright cor4 ,a close union is also observable between the subjunctive and the potential mood4--,id4 ,should we render service equally to a friend1 a neighbour1 and an enemy8--,id4 ,till a habit is obtained1 of aspirating strongly4--,sheridan cor4 ,there is a uniform1 steady use of the same signs4--,id4 ,a traveller remarks most of the objects which he sees4--,jamieson cor4 ,what is the name of the river on which ,london stands8 ,thames4--,g4 ,b4 ,we sometimes find the last line of a couplet or a triplet stretched out to twelve syllables4--,adam cor4 ,the nouns which follow active verbs1 are not in the nominative case4--,david ,blair cor4 ,it is a solemn duty to speak plainly of the wrongs which good men perpetrate4--,channing cor4 ,the gathering of riches is a pleasant torment4--,l4 ,cobb cor4 ,it is worth being quoted4 ,or better3 ,it is worth quoting4--,coleridge cor4 ,,council is a noun which admits of a singular and a plural form4--,wright cor4 ,to exhibit the connexion between the ,old ,testament and the ,new4--,keith cor4 ,an apostrophe discovers the omission of a letter or of letters4--,guy cor4 ,he is immediately ordained1 or rather acknowledged1 a hero4--,pope cor4 ,which is the same in both the leading and the following state4--,brightland cor4 ,pronouns1 as will be seen hereafter1 have three distinct cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,d4 ,blair cor4 ,a word of many syllables is called a polysyllable4--,beck cor4 ,nouns have two numbers2 the singular and the plural4--,id4 ,they have three genders2 the masculine1 the feminine1 and the neuter4--,id4 ,they have three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,id4 ,personal pronouns have1 like nouns1 two numbers2 the singular and the plural2--three genders2 the masculine1 the feminine1 and the neuter2--three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,id4 ,he must be wise enough to know the singular from the plural--,id4 ,though they may be able to meet every reproach which any one of their fellows may prefer4--,chalmers cor4 ,yet for love's sake ,i rather beseech thee1 being such a one as ,paul the aged4--,bible cor42 also ,webster4 ,a people that jeoparded their lives unto death4--,bible cor4 ,by preventing too great an accumulation of seed within too narrow a compass4--,the ,friend cor4 ,who fills up the middle space between the animal and the intellectual nature1 the visible and the invisible world4--,addison cor4 ,the ,psalms abound with instances of the harmonious arrangement of words4--,murray cor4 ,on an other table1 were a ewer and a vase1 likewise of gold4--,mirror cor4 ,,th is said to have two sounds1 a sharp and a flat4--,wilson cor4 ,the ,,section 77 is sometimes used in the subdividing of a chapter into lesser parts4--,brightland cor4 ,try it in a dog1 or a horse1 or any other creature4--,locke cor4 ,but particularly in the learning of languages1 there is the least occasion to pose children4--,id4 ,of what kind is the noun ,,river1 and why8--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,is ,,william',s a proper or a common noun8--,id4 ,what kind of article1 then1 shall we call the8 ,or better3 ,what then shall we call the article the8--,id4 ,each burns alike1 who can1 or cannot write1 ,or with a rival's1 or a eunuch's spite4--,pope cor4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,nouns1 ,,or ,,cases4 ,and there are stamped upon their imaginations ideas that follow them with terror and affright4--,locke cor4 ,there's not a wretch that lives on common charity1 but's happier than ,i4--,ven4 ,pres4 cor4 ,but they overwhelm every one who is ignorant of them4--,h4 ,mann cor4 ,i have received a letter from my cousin1 her that was here last week4--,inst41 p4 #abi4 ,gentlemen's houses are seldom without variety of company4--,locke cor4 ,because ,fortune has laid them below the level of others1 at their masters' feet4--,id4 ,we blamed neither ,john's nor ,mary's delay4--,nixon cor4 ,the book was written by order of ,luther the reformer4--,id4 ,i saw on the table of the saloon ,blair's sermons1 and somebody's else1 7,i forget whose17 and about the room a set of noisy children4--,byron cor4 ,or saith he it altogether for our sake8--,bible cor4 ,he was not aware that the ,duke was his competitor4--,sanborn cor4 ,it is no condition of an adjective1 that the word must be placed before a noun4 ,or3 ,it is no condition on which a word becomes an adjective1 that it must be placed before a noun4--,id41 and ,fowle cor4 ,though their reason corrected the wrong ideas which they had taken in4--,locke cor4 ,it was he that taught me to hate slavery4--,morris cor4 ,it is he and his kindred1 who live upon the labour of others4--,id4 ,payment of tribute is an acknowledgement of him as being ,king--7of him as ,king--or1 that he is ,king--7 to whom we think it due4--,c4 ,leslie cor4 ,when we comprehend what is taught us4--,ingersoll cor4 ,the following words1 and parts of words1 must be noticed4--,priestley cor4 ,hence tears and commiseration are so often employed4--,dr4 ,h4 ,blair cor4 ,,john-,a-,,nokes1 n4 ,a fictitious name used in law proceedings4--,a4 ,chalmers cor4 ,the construction of words denoting matter1 and the part grasped4--,b4 ,f4 ,fisk cor4 ,and such other names as carry with them the idea of something terrible and hurtful4--,locke cor4 ,every learner then would surely be glad to be spared from the trouble and fatigue4--,pike cor4 ,it is not the owning of one's dissent from an other1 that ,i speak against4--,locke cor4 ,a man that cannot fence1 will be more careful to keep out of bullies and gamesters' company1 and will not be half so apt to stand upon punctilios4--,id4 ,from such persons it is1 that one may learn more in one day1 than in a year's rambling from one inn to an other4--,id4 ,a long syllable is generally considered to be twice as long as a short one4--,d4 ,blair cor4 ,i is of the first person1 and the singular number4 ,,thou is of the second person singular4 ,,he1 ,,she1 or ,,it1 is of the third person singular4 ,,we is of the first person plural4 ,,ye or ,,you is of the second person plural4 ,,they is of the third person plural4--,kirkham cor4 ,this actor1 doer1 or producer of the action1 is denoted by some word in the nominative case4--,id4 ,nobody can think1 that a boy of three or seven years of age should be argued with as a grown man4--,locke cor4 ,this was in the house of one of the ,pharisees1 not in ,simon the leper's4--,hammond cor4 ,impossible6 it can't be ,i4--,swift cor4 ,whose grey top shall tremble1 ,he descending4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 xii1 #bbg4 ,of what gender is woman1 and why8--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,of what gender1 then1 is man1 and why8--,id4 ,who is this ,i2 whom do you mean when you say ,i8--,r4 ,w4 ,green cor4 ,it has a pleasant air1 but the soil is barren4--,locke cor4 ,you may1 in three days' time1 go from ,galilee to ,jerusalem4--,w4 ,whiston cor4 ,and that which is left of the meat-offering1 shall be ,aaron's and his sons'4--,,friends' ,,bible4 ,for none in all the world1 without a lie1 ,can say of this1 '',tis mine1' but ,bunyan1 ,i4--,bunyan cor4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,adjectives4 ,when he can be their remembrancer and advocate at all assizes and sessions4--,leslie cor4 ,,doing denotes every manner of action2 as1 to dance1 to play1 to write1 c4--,buchanan cor4 ,seven feet long1--eight feet long1--fifty feet long4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,nearly the whole of these twenty-five millions of dollars is a dead loss to the nation4--,fowler cor4 ,two negatives destroy each other4--,r4 ,w4 ,green cor4 ,we are warned against excusing sin in ourselves1 or in one an other4--,friend cor4 ,the ,russian empire is more extensive than any other government in the world4--,inst41 p4 #bfe4 ,you will always have the satisfaction to think it1 of all your expenses1 the money best laid out4--,locke cor4 ,there is no other passion which all mankind so naturally indulge1 as pride4--,steele cor4 ,o1 throw away the viler part of it4--,shak4 cor4 ,he showed us an easier and more agreeable way4--,inst41 p4 #bfe4 ,and the last four are to point out those further improvements4--,jamieson and ,campbell cor4 ,where he has not clear ideas1 distinct and different4--,locke cor4 ,oh1 when shall we have an other such ,rector of ,laracor6--,hazlitt cor4 ,speech must have been absolutely necessary previously to the formation of society4 ,or better thus3 ,speech must have been absolutely necessary to the formation of society4--,jamieson cor4 ,go and tell those boys to be still4--,inst41 p4 #bfe4 ,wrongs are engraved on marble2 benefits1 on sand3 those are apt to be requited2 these1 forgot4--,g4 ,b4 ,none of these several interpretations is the true one4--,g4 ,b4 ,my friend indulged himself in some freaks not befitting the gravity of a clergyman4--,g4 ,b4 ,and their pardon is all that any of their impropriators will have to plead4--,leslie cor4 ,but the time usually chosen to send young men abroad1 is1 ,i think1 of all periods1 that at which they are least capable of reaping those advantages4--,locke cor4 ,it is a mere figment of the human imagination1 a rhapsody of the transcendently unintelligible4--,jamieson cor4 ,it contains a greater assemblage of sublime ideas1 of bold and daring figures1 than is perhaps anywhere else to be met with4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the order in which the last two words are placed should have been reversed4--,dr4 ,blair cor42 also ,l4 ,murray4 ,in ,demosthenes1 eloquence shone forth with higher splendour1 than perhaps in any other that ever bore the name of orator4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the circumstance of his poverty 7or1 that he is poor7 is decidedly favourable4--,todd cor4 ,the temptations to dissipation are greatly lessened by his poverty4--,id4 ,for1 with her death1 those tidings came4--,shak4 cor4 ,the next objection is1 that authors of this sort are poor4--,cleland cor4 ,presenting ,emma1 as ,miss ,castlemain1 to these acquaintances3 or1--to these persons of her acquaintance4--,opie cor4 ,i doubt not that it will please more persons than the opera3 or1--that it will be more pleasing than the opera4--,spect4 cor4 ,the world knows only two2 these are ,rome and ,i4--,ben ,jonson cor4 ,i distinguish these two things from each other4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,and1 in this case1 mankind reciprocally claim and allow indulgence to one an other4--,sheridan cor4 ,the last six books are said not to have received the finishing hand of the author4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the best-executed part of the work1 is the first six books4--,id4 ,to reason how can we be said to rise8 ,so hard the task for mortals to be wise6--,sheffield cor4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,pronouns4 ,once upon a time1 a goose fed her young by a pond's side3 or--by a pondside4--,goldsmith cor4 7,see ,,obs4 #cc;d on ,rule #dth47 ,if either has a sufficient degree of merit to recommend it to the attention of the public4--,j4 ,walker cor4 ,now ,w4 ,mitchell's deceit is very remarkable4--,barclay cor4 ,my brother1 ,i did not put the question to thee1 for that ,i doubted of the truth of thy belief4--,bunyan cor4 ,i had two elder brothers1 one of whom was a lieutenant-colonel4--,de ,foe cor4 ,though ,james is here the object of the action1 yet the word ,james is in the nominative case4--,wright cor4 ,here ,john is the actor2 and the word ,john is known to be in the nominative1 by its answering to the question1 ',who struck ,richard8'--,id4 ,one of the most distinguished privileges that ,providence has conferred upon mankind1 is the power of communicating their thoughts to one an other4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,with some of the most refined feelings that belong to our frame4--,id4 ,and the same instructions that assist others in composing works of elegance1 will assist them in judging of1 and relishing1 the beauties of composition4--,id4 ,to overthrow all that had been yielded in favour of the army4--,macaulay cor4 ,let your faith stand in the ,lord ,god1 who changes not1 who created all1 and who gives the increase of all4--,friends cor4 ,for it is1 in truth1 the sentiment of passion which lies under the figured expression1 that gives it all its merit4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,verbs are words that affirm the being1 doing1 or suffering of a thing1 together with the time at which it happens4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,the bias will always hang on that side on which nature first placed it4--,locke cor4 ,they should be brought to do the things which are fit for them4--,id4 ,the various sources from which the ,english language is derived4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,this attention to the several cases in which it is proper to omit or to redouble the copulative1 is of considerable importance4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,cicero1 for instance1 speaking of the cases in which it is lawful to kill an other in self-defence1 uses the following words4--,id4 ,but there is no nation1 hardly are there any persons1 so phlegmatic as not to accompany their words with some actions1 or gesticulations1 whenever they are much in earnest4--,id4 ,william's is said to be governed by coat1 because coat follows ,william's ,or better3--because coat is the name of the thing possessed by ,william4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,in life1 there are many occasions on which silence and simplicity are marks of true wisdom4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,in choosing umpires whose avarice is excited4--,nixon cor4 ,the boroughs sent representatives1 according to law4--,id4 ,no man believes but that there is some order in the universe4--,g4 ,b4 ,the moon is orderly in her changes1 and she could not be so by accident4--,id4 ,the riddles of the ,sphynx 7or1 ,the ,sphynx's riddles7 are generally of two kinds4--,bacon cor4 ,they must generally find either their friends or their enemies in power4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,for1 of old1 very many took upon them to write what happened in their own time4--,whiston cor4 ,the ,almighty cut off the family of ,eli the high priest1 for their transgressions4--,the ,friend1 vii1 #aji4 ,the convention then resolved itself into a committee of the whole4--,inst41 p4 #bfi4 ,the severity with which persons of this denomination were treated1 appeared rather to invite them to the colony1 than to deter them from flocking thither4--,h4 ,adams cor4 ,many ,christians abuse the ,scriptures and the traditions of the apostles1 to uphold things quite contrary to them4--,barclay cor4 ,thus1 a circle1 a square1 a triangle1 or a hexagon1 pleases the eye by its regularity1 and is a beautiful figure4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,elba is remarkable for being the place to which ,bonaparte was banished in #ahad4--,olney's ,geog4 ,the editor has the reputation of being a good linguist and critic4--,rel4 ,herald4 ,it is a pride which should be cherished in them4--,locke cor4 ,and to restore to us the hope of fruits1 to reward our pains in their season4--,id4 ,the comic representation of ,death's victim relating his own tale4--,wright cor4 ,as for ,scioppius's ,grammar1 that wholly concerns the ,latin tongue4--,wilkins cor4 ,and chiefly ,thou1 ,o ,spirit1 that dost prefer ,before all temples th' upright heart and pure1 ,instruct me1 for ,thou knowst4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 i1 l4 #ag4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,verbs4 ,and there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the field4--,friends' ,bible2 also ,bruce's1 and ,alger's4 ,whereof every one bears or beareth twins4--,,bible ,,cor43 ,song1 vi1 #f4 ,he strikes out of his nature one of the most divine principles that are planted in it4--,addison cor4 ,,genii i4e41 the word ,,genii denotes arial spirits4--,wright cor4 ,in proportion as the long and large prevalence of such corruptions has been obtained by force4--,halifax cor4 ,neither of these is set before any word of a general signification1 or before a proper name4--,brightland cor4 ,of which1 a few of the opening lines are all ,i shall give4--,moore cor4 ,the wealth we had in ,england1 was the slow result of long industry and wisdom4 ,or3 ,the riches we had in ,england were1 c4--,davenant cor4 ,the following expression appears to be correct3 ',much public gratitude is due4' ,or this3 ',great public thanks are due4'---,wright cor4 ,he has been enabled to correct many mistakes4--,lowth cor4 ,which road dost thou take here8--,ingersoll cor4 ,dost thou learn thy lesson8--,id4 ,did they learn their pieces perfectly8--,id4 ,thou learned thy task well4--,id4 ,there are some who can't relish the town1 and others can't bear with the country4--,sir ,wilful cor4 ,if thou meet them1 thou must put on an intrepid mien4--,neef cor4 ,struck with terror1 as if ,philip were something more than human4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,if the personification of the form of ,satan were admissible1 the pronoun should certainly have been masculine4--,jamieson cor4 ,if only one follows1 there seems to be a defect in the sentence4--,priestley cor4 ,sir1 if thou hast borne him hence1 tell me where thou hast laid him4--,bible cor4 ,blessed are the people that know the joyful sound4--,id4 ,every auditory takes in good part those marks of respect and awe with which a modest speaker commences a public discourse4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,private causes were still pleaded in the forum2 but the public were no longer interested1 nor was any general attention drawn to what passed there4--,id4 ,nay1 what evidence can be brought to show1 that the inflections of the classic tongues were not originally formed out of obsolete auxiliary words8--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,if the student observe that the principal and the auxiliary form but one verb1 he will have little or no difficulty in the proper application of the present rule4--,id4 ,for the sword of the enemy1 and fear1 are on every side4--,bible cor4 ,even the ,stoics agree that nature1 or certainty1 is very hard to come at4--,collier cor4 ,his politeness1 his obliging behaviour1 was changed4 ,or thus3 ,his polite and obliging behaviour was changed4--,priestley and ,hume cor4 ,war and its honours were their employment and ambition4 ,or thus3 ,war was their employment2 its honours were their ambition4--,goldsmith cor4 ,do ,a and ,,an mean the same thing8--,r4 ,w4 ,green cor4 ,when several words come in between the discordant parts1 the ear does not detect the error4--,cobbett cor4 ,the sentence should be1 ',when several words come in1' c4--,wright cor4 ,the nature of our language1 the accent and pronunciation of it1 incline us to contract even all our regular verbs4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ajd4 ,or thus3 ,the nature of our language1--7that is1 the accent and pronunciation of it1--7 inclines us to contract even all our regular verbs4--,lowth cor4 ,the nature of our language1 together with the accent and pronunciation of it1 inclines us to contract even all our regular verbs4--,hiley cor4 ,prompt aid1 and not promises1 is what we ought to give4--,g4 ,b4 ,the position of the several organs1 therefore1 as well as their functions1 is ascertained4--,med4 ,mag4 cor4 ,every private company1 and almost every public assembly1 affords opportunities of remarking the difference between a just and graceful1 and a faulty and unnatural elocution4--,enfield cor4 ,such submission1 together with the active principle of obedience1 makes up in us the temper or character which answers to his sovereignty4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,in happiness1 as in other things1 there are a false and a true1 an imaginary and a real4--,a4 ,fuller cor4 ,to confound things that differ1 and to make a distinction where there is no difference1 are equally unphilosophical4--,g4 ,brown4 ,i know a bank wheron doth wild thyme blow1 ,where oxlips and the nodding violet grow4--,shak4 cor4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,verbs4 ,whose business or profession prevents their attendance in the morning4--,ogilby cor4 ,and no church or officer has power over an other4--,lechford cor4 ,while neither reason nor experience is sufficiently matured to protect them4--,woodbridge cor4 ,among the ,greeks and ,romans1 almost every syllable was known to have a fixed and determined quantity4 ,or thus3 ,among the ,greeks and ,romans1 all syllables1 7or at least the far greater number17 were known to have severally a fixed and determined quantity4--,blair and ,jamieson cor4 ,their vanity is awakened1 and their passions are exalted1 by the irritation which their self-love receives from contradiction4--,tr4 of ,mad4 ,de ,stal cor4 ,he and ,i were neither of us any great swimmer4--,anon4 ,virtue1 honour--nay1 even self-interest1 recommends the measure4--,l4 ,murray cor4 7,see ,obs4 #eth on ,rule #afth47 ,a correct plainness1 an elegant simplicity1 is the proper character of an introduction4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,in syntax1 there is what grammarians call concord or agreement1 and there is government4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,people find themselves able1 without much study1 to write and speak ,english intelligibly1 and thus are led to think that rules are of no utility4--,webster cor4 ,but the writer must be one who has studied to inform himself well1 who has pondered his subject with care1 and who addresses himself to our judgement1 rather than to our imagination4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,but practice has determined it otherwise2 and has1 in all the languages with which we are much acquainted1 supplied the place of an interrogative mood1 either by particles of interrogation1 or by a peculiar order of the words in the sentence4--,lowth cor4 ,if the ,lord hath stirred thee up against me1 let him accept an offering4--,bible cor4 ,but if the priest's daughter be a widow1 or divorced1 and have no child1 and she return unto her father's house1 as in her youth1 she shall eat of her father's meat4--,id4 ,since we never have studied1 and never shall study1 your sublime productions4--,neef cor4 ,enabling us to form distincter images of objects1 than can be formed1 with the utmost attention1 where these particulars are not found4--,kames cor4 ,i hope you will consider that what is spoken comes from my love4--,shak4 cor4 ,we shall then perceive how the designs of emphasis may be marred4--,rush cor4 ,i knew it was ,crab1 and went to the fellow that whips the dogs4--,shak4 cor4 ,the youth was consuming by a slow malady4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #fd2 ,ingersoll's1 #de2 ,fisk1 #hb4 ,if all men thought1 spoke1 and wrote alike1 something resembling a perfect adjustment of these points might be accomplished4--,wright cor4 ,if you will replace what has been1 for a long time expunged from the language4 ,or3 ,if you will replace what was long ago expunged from the language4--,campbell and ,murray cor4 ,as in all those faulty instances which ,i have just been giving4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,this mood is also used improperly in the following places4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,he seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius1 and to have known what it was that nature had bestowed upon him4--,johnson cor4 ,of which ,i have already given one instance1 the worst indeed that occurred in the poem4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,it is strange he never commanded you to do it4--,anon4 ,history painters would have found it difficult1 to invent such a species of beings4--,addison cor4 ,universal ,grammar cannot be taught abstractedly2 it must be explained with referenc sic--,,kth to some language already known4--,lowth cor4 ,and we might imagine1 that if verbs had been so contrived as simply to express these1 no other tenses would have been needful4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,to a writer of such a genius as ,dean ,swift's1 the plain style is most admirably fitted4--,id4 ,please to excuse my son's absence4--,inst41 p4 #bgi4 ,bid the boys come in immediately4--,ib4 ,gives us the secrets of his pagan hell1 ,where restless ghosts in sad communion dwell4--,crabbe cor4 ,alas6 nor faith nor valour now remains2 ,sighs are but wind1 and ,i must bear my chains4--,walpole cor4 ,,lesson ,,vii4--,,participles4 ,of which the author considers himself1 in compiling the present work1 as merely laying the foundation-stone4--,david ,blair cor4 ,on the raising of such lively and distinct images as are here described4--,kames cor4 ,they are necessary to the avoiding of ambiguities4--,brightland cor4 ,there is no neglecting of it without falling into a dangerous error4 ,or better3 ,none can neglect it without falling1 c4--,burlamaqui cor4 ,the contest resembles ,don ,quixote's fighting of 7or with7 windmills4--,webster cor4 ,that these verbs associate with other verbs in all the tenses1 is no proof that they have no particular time of their own4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,to justify myself in not following the track of the ancient rhetoricians4--,dr4 ,h4 ,blair cor4 ,the putting-together of letters1 so as to make words1 is called ,spelling4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,what is the putting-together of vowels and consonants called8--,id4 ,nobody knows of their charitableness1 but themselves4 ,or3 ,nobody knows that they are charitable1 but themselves4--,fuller cor4 ,payment was at length made1 but no reason was assigned for so long a postponement of it4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,which will bear to be brought into comparison with any composition of the kind4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,to render vice ridiculous1 is to do real service to the world4--,id4 ,it is a direct copying from nature1 a plain rehearsal of what passed1 or was supposed to pass1 in conversation4--,id4 ,propriety of pronunciation consists in giving to every word that sound which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bjj2 and again1 p4 #bai4 ,to occupy the mind1 and prevent us from regretting the insipidity of a uniform plain4--,kames cor4 ,there are a hundred ways in which any thing may happen4--,steele cor4 ,tell me1 seignior1 for what cause 7or why7 ,antonio sent ,claudio to ,venice yesterday4--,bucke cor4 ,as you are looking about for an outlet1 some rich prospect unexpectedly opens to view4--,kames cor4 ,a hundred volumes of modern novels may be read without communicating a new idea4 ,or thus3 ,a person may read a hundred volumes of modern novels without acquiring a new idea4--,webster cor4 ,poetry admits of greater latitude than prose1 with respect to the coining1 or at least the new compounding1 of words4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,when laws were written on brazen tablets1 and enforced by the sword4--,pope cor4 ,a pronoun1 which saves the naming of a person or thing a second time1 ought to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing4--,kames cor4 ,the using of a preposition in this case1 is not always a matter of choice4--,id4 ,to save the multiplying of words1 ,i would be understood to comprehend both circumstances4--,id4 ,immoderate grief is mute3 complaint is a struggle for consolation4--,id4 ,on the other hand1 the accelerating or the retarding of the natural course1 excites a pain4--,id4 ,human affairs require the distributing of our attention4--,id4 ,by neglecting this circumstance1 the author of the following example has made it defective in neatness4--,id4 ,and therefore the suppressing of copulatives must animate a description4--,id4 ,if the omission of copulatives gives force and liveliness1 a redundancy of them must render the period languid4--,id4 ,it skills not1 to ask my leave1 said ,richard4--,scott cor4 ,to redeem his credit1 he proposed to be sent once more to ,sparta4--,goldsmith cor4 ,dumas relates that he gave drink to a dog4--,stone cor4 ,both are1 in a like way1 instruments of our reception of such ideas from external objects4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,in order to your proper handling of such a subject4--,spect4 cor4 ,for ,i do not recollect it preceded by an open vowel4--,knight cor4 ,such is the setting up of the form above the power of godliness4--,barclay cor4 ,i remember that ,i was walking once with my young acquaintance4--,hunt cor4 ,he did not like to pay a debt4--,id4 ,i do not remember to have seen ,coleridge when ,i was a child4--,id4 ,in consequence of the dry rot discovered in it1 the mansion has undergone a thorough repair4--,maunder cor4 ,i would not advise the following of the ,german system in all its parts4--,lieber cor4 ,would it not be to make the students judges of the professors8--,id4 ,little time should intervene between the proposing of them and the deciding upon them4--,verthake sic--,,kth cor4 ,it would be nothing less than to find fault with the ,creator4--,lit4 ,journal cor4 ,that we were once friends1 is a powerful reason1 both of prudence and of conscience1 to restrain us from ever becoming enemies4--,secker cor4 ,by using the word as a conjunction1 we prevent the ambiguity4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,he forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem1 ,but faith in ,jesus has no part in them4--,j ,taylor cor4 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,adverbs4 ,auxiliaries not only can be inserted1 but are really understood4--,wright cor4 ,he was afterwards a hired scribbler in the ,daily ,courant4--,pope's ,annotator cor4 ,in gardening1 luckily1 relative beauty never need stand 7or1 perhaps better1 never needs to stand7 in opposition to intrinsic beauty4--,kames cor4 ,i much doubt the propriety of the following examples4--,lowth cor4 ,and we see how far they have spread1 in this part of the world1 one of the worst languages possible--,locke cor4 ,and1 in this manner1 merely to place him on a level with the beast of the forest4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,whither1 ah6 whither1 has my darling fled4--,anon4 ,as for this fellow1 we know not whence he is4--,bible cor4 ,ye see then1 that by works a man is justified1 and not by faith only4--,id4 ,the ,mixed kind is that in which the poet sometimes speaks in his own person1 and sometimes makes other characters speak4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,interrogation is a rhetorical figure in which the writer or orator raises questions1 and1 if he pleases1 returns answers4--,fisher cor4 ,prevention is a figure in which an author starts an objection which he foresees may be made1 and gives an answer to it4--,id4 ,will you let me alone1 or not8--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,neither man nor woman can resist an engaging exterior4-- ,chesterfield cor4 ,though the cup be everso clean4--,locke cor4 ,seldom1 or never1 did any one rise to eminence1 by being a witty lawyer4 ,or thus3 ,seldom1 if ever1 has any one risen to eminence1 by being a witty lawyer4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the second rule which ,i give1 respects the choice of the objects from which metaphors1 and other figures1 are to be drawn4--,id4 ,in the figures which it uses1 it sets mirrors before us1 in which we may behold objects reflected in their likeness4--,id4 ,whose business it is1 to seek the true measures of right and wrong1 and not the arts by which he may avoid doing the one1 and secure himself in doing the other4--,locke cor4 ,the occasions on which you ought to personify things1 and those on which you ought not1 cannot be stated in any precise rule4--,cobbett cor4 ,they reflect that they have been much diverted1 but scarcely can they say about what4--,kames cor4 ,the eyebrows and shoulders should seldom or never be remarked by any perceptible motion4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams cor4 ,and the left hand or arm should seldom or never attempt any motion by itself4--,id41 right4 ,not every speaker purposes to please the imagination4-- ,jamieson cor4 ,and1 like ,gallio1 they care for none of these things4 ,or3 ,and1 like ,gallio1 they care little for any of these things4--,s4 cor4 ,they may inadvertently be used where their meaning would be obscure4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,nor can a man make him laugh4--,shak4 cor4 ,the ,athenians1 in their present distress1 scarcely knew whither to turn4--,goldsmith cor4 ,i do not remember where ,god ever delivered his oracles by the multitude4--,locke cor4 ,the object of this government is twofold1 outward and inward4--,barclay cor4 ,in order rightly to understand what we read--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,that a design had been formed1 to kidnap or forcibly abduct ,morgan4--,col4 ,stone cor4 ,but such imposture can never long maintain its ground4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,but surely it is as possible to apply the principles of reason and good sense to this art1 as to any other that is cultivated among men4--,id4 ,it would have been better for you1 to have remained illiterate1 and even to have been hewers of wood4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,dissyllables that have two vowels which are separated in the pronunciation1 always have the accent on the first syllable4--,id4 ,and they all turned their backs1 almost without drawing a sword4 ,or3 ,and they all turned their backs1 scarcely venturing to draw a sword4--,kames cor4 ,the principle of duty naturally takes precedence of every other4--,id4 ,not all that glitters1 is gold4--,maunder cor4 ,whether now1 or everso many myriads of ages hence4--,edwards cor4 ,england never did1 nor ever shall1 ,lie at the proud foot of a conqueror4--,shak4 cor4 ,,lesson ,,ix4--,,conjunctions4 ,he readily comprehends the rules of syntax1 their use in the constructing of sentences1 and their applicability to the examples before him4--,greenleaf cor4 ,the works of schylus have suffered more by time1 than those of any other ancient tragedian4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,there is much more story1 more bustle1 and more action1 than on the ,french theatre4--,id4 7,see ,obs4 #hth on ,rule #afth47 ,such an unremitted anxiety1 or such a perpetual application1 as engrosses all our time and thoughts1 is forbidden4--,jenyns cor4 ,it seems to be nothing else than the simple form of the adjective4--,wright cor4 ,but when ,i talk of reasoning1 ,i do not intend any other than such as is suited to the child's capacity4--,locke cor4 ,pronouns have no other use in language1 than to represent nouns4--,jamieson cor4 ,the speculative relied no farther on their own judgement1 than to choose a leader1 whom they implicitly followed4--,kames cor4 ,unaccommodated man is no more than such a poor1 bare1 forked animal as thou art4--,shak4 cor4 ,a ,parenthesis is a suggestion which is introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely1 and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,the ,caret 7marked thus 7 is placed where something that happened to be left out1 is to be put into the line4--,iid4 ,when ,i visit them1 they shall be cast down4--,bible cor4 ,neither our virtues nor our vices are all our own4--,johnson and ,sanborn cor4 ,i could not give him so early an answer as he had desired4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,he is not so tall as his brother4--,nixon cor4 ,it is difficult to judge whether ,lord ,byron is serious or not4--,lady ,blessington cor4 ,some nouns are of both the second and the third declension4--,gould cor4 ,he was discouraged neither by danger nor by misfortune4--,wells cor4 ,this is consistent neither with logic nor with history4--,dial cor4 ,parts of sentences are either simple or compound4--,david ,blair cor4 ,english verse is regulated rather by the number of syllables1 than by feet3 or1--than by the number of feet4--,id4 ,i know not what more he can do1 than pray for him4--,locke cor4 ,whilst they are learning1 and are applying themselves with attention1 they are to be kept in good humour4--,id4 ,a man cannot have too much of it1 nor have it too perfectly4--,id4 ,that you may so run1 as to obtain2 and so fight1 as to overcome4 ,or thus3 ,that you may so run1 that you may obtain2 and so fight1 that you may overcome4--,penn cor4 ,it is the artifice of some1 to contrive false periods of business1 that they may seem men of despatch4--,bacon cor4 ',a tall man and a woman4' ,in this phrase1 there is no ellipsis2 the adjective belongs only to the former noun2 the quality respects only the man4--,ash cor4 ,an abandonment of the policy is neither to be expected nor to be desired4--,jackson cor4 ,which can be acquired by no other means than by frequent exercise in speaking4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the chief or fundamental rules of syntax are common to the ,english and the ,latin tongue4 ,or3--are applicable to the ,english as well as to the ,latin tongue4--,id4 ,then ,i exclaim1 either that my antagonist is void of all taste1 or that his taste is corrupted in a miserable degree4 ,or thus3 ,then ,i exclaim1 that my antagonist is either void of all taste1 or has a taste that is miserably corrupted4--,id4 ,i cannot pity any one who is under no distress either of body or of mind4--,kames cor4 ,there was much genius in the world1 before there were learning and arts to refine it4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,such a writer can have little else to do1 than to new-model the paradoxes of ancient scepticism4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,our ideas of them being nothing else than collections of the ordinary qualities observed in them4--,duncan cor4 ,a non-ens1 or negative1 can give neither pleasure nor pain4--,kames cor4 ,so that they shall not justle and embarrass one an other4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,he firmly refused to make use of any other voice than his own4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #aac4 ,your marching regiments1 sir1 will not make the guards their example1 either as soldiers or as subjects4--,junius cor4 ,consequently they had neither meaning nor beauty1 to any but the natives of each country4--,sheridan cor4 ,the man of worth1 who has not left his peer1 ,is in his narrow house forever darkly laid4--,burns cor4 ,,lesson ,x4--,,prepositions4 ,these may be carried on progressively beyond any assignable limits4--,kames cor4 ,to crowd different subjects into a single member of a period1 is still worse than to crowd them into one period4--,id4 ,nor do we rigidly insist on having melodious prose4--,id4 ,the aversion we have to those who differ from us4--,id4 ,for we cannot bear his shifting of the scene at every line4--,halifax cor4 ,we shall find that we come by it in the same way4--,locke cor4 ,against this he has no better defence than that4--,barnes cor4 ,searching the person whom he suspects of having stolen his casket4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,who1 as vacancies occur1 are elected by the whole ,board4--,lit4 ,jour4 cor4 ,almost the only field of ambition for a ,german1 is science4--,lieber cor4 ,the plan of education is very different from the one pursued in the sister country4--,coley cor4 ,some writers on grammar have contended1 that adjectives sometimes relate to verbs1 and modify their action4--,wilcox cor4 ,they are therefore of a mixed nature1 participating the properties both of pronouns and of adjectives4-- ,ingersoll cor4 ,for there is no authority which can justify the inserting of the aspirate or the doubling of the vowel4--,knight cor4 ,the distinction and arrangement of active1 passive1 and neuter verbs4-- ,wright cor4 ,and see thou a hostile world spread its delusive snares4--,kirkham cor4 ,he may be precautioned1 and be made to see how those join in the contempt4--,locke cor4 ,the contenting of themselves in the present want of what they wished for1 is a virtue4-- ,id4 ,if the complaint be about something really worthy of your notice4--,id4 ,true fortitude ,i take to be the quiet possession of a man's self1 and an undisturbed doing of his duty4--,id4 ,for the custom of tormenting and killing beasts1 will1 by degrees1 harden their minds even towards men4--,id4 ,children are whipped to it1 and made to spend many hours of their precious time uneasily at ,latin4--,id4 ,on this subject1 the ,harmony of ,periods1 the ancient rhetoricians have entered into a very minute and particular detail2 more particular1 indeed1 than on any other head that regards language4--,see ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abb4 ,but the one should not be omitted1 and the other retained4 ,or3 ,but the one should not be used without the other4--,bullions cor4 ,from some common forms of speech1 the relative pronoun is usually omitted4--,murray and ,weld cor4 ,there are very many causes which disqualify a witness for being received to testify in particular cases4--,adams cor4 ,aside from all regard to interest1 we should expect that1 c4--,webster cor4 ,my opinion was given after a rather cursory perusal of the book4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,and1 on the next day1 he was put on board of his ship4 ,or thus3 ,and1 the next day1 he was put aboard his ship4--,id4 ,having the command of no emotions1 but what are raised by sight4--,kames cor4 ,did these moral attributes exist in some other being besides himself4 ,or3--in some other being than himself4--,wayland cor4 ,he did not behave in that manner from pride1 or from contempt of the tribunal4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #aac4 ,these prosecutions against ,william seem to have been the most iniquitous measures pursued by the court4--,murray and ,priestley cor4 ,to restore myself to the good graces of my fair critics4--,dryden cor4 ,objects denominated beautiful1 please not by virtue of any one quality common to them all4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,this would have been less worthy of notice1 had not a writer or two of high rank lately adopted it4--,churchill cor4 ,a ,grecian youth1 of talents rare1 ,whom ,plato's philosophic care1 c4--,,whitehead3 ,e4 ,r41 p4 #aif4 ,,lesson ,,xi4--,,promiscuous4 ,to excel has become a much less considerable object4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,my robe1 and my integrity to ,heav'n1 are all ,i dare now call my own4--,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #cdg4 ,for thou the garland wearst successively4--,shak4 cor42 also ,enfield4 ,if then thou art a ,roman1 take it forth4--,id4 ,if thou prove this to be real1 thou must be a smart lad indeed4--,neef cor4 ,and an other bridge of four hundred feet in length4--,brightland cor4 ,,metonymy is the putting of one name for an other1 on account of the near relation which there is between them4--,fisher cor4 ,,antonomasia is the putting of an appellative or common name for a proper name4--,id4 ,that it is ,i1 should make no difference in your determination4--,bullions cor4 ,the first and second pages are torn4 ,or4 ,the first and the second page are torn4 ,or3 ,the first page and the second are torn4--,id4 ,john's absence from home occasioned the delay4--,id4 ,his neglect of opportunities for improvement1 was the cause of his disgrace4--,id4 ,he will regret his neglect of his opportunities for improvement1 when it is too late4--,id4 ,his expertness at dancing does not entitle him to our regard4--,id4 ,csar went back to ,rome1 to take possession of the public treasure1 which his opponent1 by a most unaccountable oversight1 had neglected to carry away with him4--,goldsmith cor4 ,and ,csar took out of the treasury1 gold to the amount of three thousand pounds' weight1 besides an immense quantity of silver4 #edh--;,id4 ,rules and definitions1 which should always be as clear and intelligible as possible1 are thus rendered obscure4--,greenleaf cor4 ,so much both of ability and of merit is seldom found4 ,or thus3 ,so much of both ability and merit is seldom found4#edi--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,if such maxims1 and such practices prevail1 what has become of decency and virtue8#eej--,murray's ,false ,syntax1 ii1 #fb4 ,or3 ,if such maxims and practices prevail1 what will become of decency and virtue8--,murray and ,bullions cor4 ,especially if the subject does not require so much pomp4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,however1 the proper mixture of light and shade in such compositions1--the exact adjustment of all the figurative circumstances with the literal sense1--has ever been found an affair of great nicety4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aea4 ,and adding to that hissing in our language1 which is so much noticed by foreigners4--,addison1 ,coote1 and ,murray1 cor4 ,to speak impatiently to servants1 or to do any thing that betrays unkindness1 or ill-humour1 is certainly criminal4 ,or better3 ,impatience1 unkindness1 or ill-humour1 is certainly criminal4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,here are a fullness and grandeur of expression1 well suited to the subject4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,i single out ,strada from among the moderns1 because he had the foolish presumption to censure ,tacitus4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,i single him out from among the moderns1 because1 c4--,bolingbroke cor4 ,this rule is not always observed1 even by good writers1 so strictly as it ought to be4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,but this gravity and assurance1 which are beyond boyhood1 being neither wisdom nor knowledge1 do never reach to manhood4--,pope cor4 ,the regularity and polish even of a turnpike-road1 have some influence upon the low people in the neighbourhood4--,kames cor4 ,they become fond of regularity and neatness2 and this improvement of their taste is displayed1 first upon their yards and little enclosures1 and next within doors4--,id4 ,the phrase1 'it is impossible to exist1' gives us the idea1 that it is impossible for men1 or any body1 to exist4--,priestley cor4 ,i'll give a thousand pounds to look upon him4--,shak4 cor4 ,the reader's knowledge1 as ,dr4 ,campbell observes1 may prevent him from mistaking it4--,crombie and ,murray cor4 ,when two words are set in contrast1 or in opposition to each other1 they are both emphatic4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the number of the persons--men1 women1 and children--who were lost in the sea1 was very great4 ,or thus3 ,the number of persons--men1 women1 and children--that were lost in the sea1 was very great4--,id4 ,nor is the resemblance between the primary and the resembling object pointed out4--,jamieson cor4 ,i think it the best book of the kind1 that ,i have met with4--,mathews cor4 ,why should not we their ancient rites restore1 ,and be what ,rome or ,athens was before8--,roscommon cor4 ,,lesson ,,xii4--,,two ,,errors4 ,it is labour only that gives relish to pleasure4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,groves are never more agreeable than in the opening of spring4--,id4 ,his ,philosophical ,inquiry into the ,origin of our ,ideas of the ,sublime and the ,beautiful1 soon made him known to the literati4--,see ,blair's ,lect41 pp4 #cd and #de4 ,an awful precipice or tower from which we look down on the objects which are below4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,this passage1 though very poetical1 is1 however1 harsh and obscure2 and for no other cause than this1 that three distinct metaphors are crowded together4--,id4 ,i purpose to make some observations4--,id4 ,i shall here follow the same method that ,i have all along pursued4--,id4 ,mankind at no other time resemble one an other so much as they do in the beginnings of society4--,id4 ,but no ear is sensible of the termination of each foot1 in the reading of a hexameter line4--,id4 ,the first thing1 says he1 that a writer either of fables or of heroic poems does1 is1 to choose some maxim or point of morality4--,id4 ,the fourth book has always been most justly admired1 and indeed it abounds with beauties of the highest kind4--,id4 ,there is in the poem no attempt towards the painting of characters4--,id4 ,but the artificial contrasting of characters1 and the constant introducing of them in pairs and by opposites1 give too theatrical and affected an air to the piece4--,id4 ,neither of them is arbitrary or local4--,kames cor4 ,if the crowding of figures is bad1 it is still worse to graft one figure upon an other4--,id4 ,the crowding-together of so many objects lessens the pleasure4--,id4 ,this therefore lies not in the putting-off of the hat1 nor in the making of compliments4--,locke cor4 ,but the ,samaritan ,vau may have been used1 as the ,jews used the ,chaldaic1 both for a vowel and for a consonant4--,wilson cor4 ,but if a solemn and a familiar pronunciation really exist in our language1 is it not the business of a grammarian to mark both8--,j4 ,walker cor4 ,by making sounds follow one an other agreeably to certain laws4--,gardiner cor4 ,if there were no drinking of intoxicating draughts1 there could be no drunkards4--,peirce cor4 ,socrates knew his own defects1 and if he was proud of any thing1 it was of being thought to have none4--,goldsmith cor4 ,lysander1 having brought his army to ,ephesus1 erected an arsenal for the building of galleys4--,id4 ,the use of these signs is worthy of remark4--,brightland cor4 ,he received me in the same manner in which ,i would receive you4 ,or thus3 ,he received me as ,i would receive you4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,consisting of both the direct and the collateral evidence4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,if any man or woman that believeth hath widows1 let him or her relieve them1 and let not the church be charged4--,bible cor4 ,for men's sake are beasts bred4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,from three o'clock1 there were drinking and gaming4--,id4 ,is this he that ,i am seeking1 or not8--,id4 ,and for the upholding of every one's own opinion1 there is so much ado4--,sewel cor4 ,some of them1 however1 will necessarily be noticed4--,sale cor4 ,the boys conducted themselves very indiscreetly4--,merchant cor4 ,their example1 their influence1 their fortune1--every talent they possess1--dispenses blessings on all persons around them4--,id4 and ,murray cor4 ,the two ,reynoldses reciprocally converted each other4--,johnson cor4 ,the destroying of the last two1 ,tacitus calls an attack upon virtue itself4--,goldsmith cor4 ,moneys are your suit4--,shak4 cor4 ,ch is commonly sounded like tch1 as in church2 but in words derived from ,greek1 it has the sound of k4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,when one is obliged to make some utensil serve for purposes to which it was not originally destined4--,campbell cor4 ,but that a baptism with water is a washing-away of sin1 thou canst not hence prove4--,barclay cor4 ,being spoken to but one1 it infers no universal command4--,id4 ,for if the laying-aside of copulatives gives force and liveliness1 a redundancy of them must render the period languid4--,buchanan cor4 ,james used to compare him to a cat1 which always falls upon her legs4--,adam cor4 ,from the low earth aspiring genius springs1 ,and sails triumphant borne on eagle's wings4--,lloyd cor4 ,,lesson ,,xiii4--,,two ,,errors ,an ostentatious1 a feeble1 a harsh1 or an obscure style1 for instance1 is always faulty4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,yet in this we find that the ,english pronounce quite agreeably to rule4 ,or thus3 ,yet in this we find the ,english pronunciation perfectly agreeable to rule4 ,or thus3 ,yet in this we find that the ,english pronounce in a manner perfectly agreeable to rule4--,j4 ,walker cor4 ,but neither the perception of ideas1 nor knowledge of any sort1 is a habit1 though absolutely necessary to the forming of habits4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,they were cast2 and a heavy fine was imposed upon them4--,goldsmith cor4 ,without making this reflection1 he cannot enter into the spirit of the author1 or relish the composition4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the scholar should be instructed in relation to the finding of his words4 ,or thus3 ,the scholar should be told how to find his words4--,osborn cor4 ,and therefore they could neither have forged1 nor have reversified them4--,knight cor4 ,a dispensary is a place at which medicines are dispensed to the poor4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,both the connexion and the number of words are determined by general laws4--,neef cor4 ,an ,anapest has the first two syllables unaccented1 and the last one accented2 as1 contravene1 acquisce4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,an explicative sentence is one in which a thing is said1 in a direct manner1 to be or not to be1 to do or not to do1 to suffer or not to suffer4--,lowth and ,mur4 cor4 ,,but is a conjunction whenever it is neither an adverb nor a preposition4 #eea--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,he wrote in the name of ,king ,ahasuerus1 and sealed the writing with the king's ring4--,bible cor4 ,camm and ,audland had departed from the town before this time4--,sewel cor4 ,before they will relinquish the practice1 they must be convinced4--,webster cor4 ,which he had thrown up before he set out4--,grimshaw cor4 ,he left to him the value of a hundred drachms in ,persian money4--,spect cor4 ,all that the mind can ever contemplate concerning them1 must be divided among the three4--,cardell cor4 ,tom ,puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants1 of all that have fallen under my observation4--,spect4 cor4 ,when you have once got him to think himself compensated for his suffering1 by the praise which is given him for his courage4--,locke cor4 ,in all matters in which simple reason1 or mere speculation is concerned4--,sheridan cor4 ,and therefore he should be spared from the trouble of attending to anything else than his meaning4--,id4 ,it is this kind of phraseology that is distinguished by the epithet idiomatical2 a species that was originally the spawn1 partly of ignorance1 and partly of affectation4--,campbell and ,murray cor4 ,that neither the inflection nor the letters are such as could have been employed by the ancient inhabitants of ,latium4--,knight cor4 ,in those cases in which the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,but these people who know not the law1 are accursed4--,bible cor4 ,and the magnitude of the choruses has weight and sublimity4--,gardiner cor4 ,dares he deny that there are some of his fraternity guilty8--,barclay cor4 ,giving an account of most1 if not all1 of the papers which had passed betwixt them4--,id4 ,in this manner1 as to both parsing and correcting1 should all the rules of syntax be treated1 being taken up regularly according to their order4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,to ,ovando were allowed a brilliant retinue and a body-guard4--,sketch cor4 ,was it ,i or he1 that you requested to go8--,kirkham cor4 ,let thee and me go on4--,bunyan cor4 ,this ,i nowhere affirmed2 and ,i do wholly deny it4--,barclay cor4 ,but that ,i deny2 and it remains for him to prove it4--,id4 ,our country sinks beneath the yoke3 ,she weeps1 she bleeds1 and each new day a gash ,is added to her wounds4--,shak4 cor4 ,thou art the ,lord who chose ,abraham and brought him forth out of ,ur of the ,chaldees4--,bible and ,mur4 cor4 ,he is the exhaustless fountain1 from which emanate all these attributes that exist throughout this wide creation4--,wayland cor4 ,i am he who has communed with the son of ,neocles2 ,i am he who has entered the gardens of pleasure4--,wright cor4 ,such were in ancient times the tales received1 ,such by our good forefathers were believed4--,rowe cor4 ,,lesson ,,xiv4--,,two ,,errors4 ,the noun or pronoun that stands before the active verb1 usually represents the agent4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,such seem to have been the musings of our hero of the grammar-quill1 when he penned the first part of his grammar4--,merchant cor4 ,two dots1 the one placed above the other 31 are called ,sheva1 and are used to represent a very short e4--,wilson cor4 ,great have been1 and are1 the obscurity and difficulty1 in the nature and application of them 3 i4e4--of natural remedies4--,butler cor4 ,as two are to four1 so are four to eight4--,everest cor4 ,the invention and use of arithmetic1 reach back to a period so remote1 as to be beyond the knowledge of history4-- ,robertson cor4 ,what it presents as objects of contemplation or enjoyment1 fill and satisfy his mind4--,id4 ,if he dares not say they are1 as ,i know he dares not1 how must ,i then distinguish8--,barclay cor4 ,he had now grown so fond of solitude1 that all company had become uneasy to him4--,life of ,cic4 cor4 ,violence and spoil are heard in her2 before me continually are grief and wounds4--,bible cor4 ,bayle's ,intelligence from the ,republic of ,letters1 which makes eleven volumes in duodecimo1 is truly a model in this kind4--,formey cor4 ,pauses1 to be rendered pleasing and expressive1 must not only be made in the right place1 but also be accompanied with a proper tone of voice4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,to oppose the opinions and rectify the mistakes of others1 is what truth and sincerity sometimes require of us4--,locke cor4 ,it is very probable1 that this assembly was called1 to clear some doubt which the king had1 whether it were lawful for the ,hollanders to throw off the monarchy of ,spain1 and withdraw entirely their allegiance to that crown4 ,or3--,about the lawfulness of the ,hollanders' rejection of the monarchy of ,spain1 and entire withdrawment of their allegiance to that crown4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,a naming of the numbers and cases of a noun in their order1 is called the declining of it1 or its declension4--,frost cor4 ,the embodying of them is1 therefore1 only a collecting of such component parts of words4--,town cor4 ,the one is the voice heard when ,christ was baptized2 the other1 when he was transfigured4--,barclay cor4 ,an understanding of the literal sense--or1 ,to have understood the literal sense1 would not have prevented them from condemning the guiltless4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,as if this were1 to take the execution of justice out of the hands of ,god1 and to give it to nature4--,id4 ,they will say1 you must conceal this good opinion of yourself2 which yet is an allowing of the thing1 though not of the showing of it4 ,or3--which yet is1 to allow the thing1 though not the showing of it4--,sheffield cor4 ,so as to signify not only the doing of an action1 but the causing of it to be done4--,pike cor4 ,this1 certainly1 was both a dividing of the unity of ,god1 and a limiting of his immensity4--,calvin cor4 ,tones being infinite in number1 and varying in almost every individual1 the arranging of them under distinct heads1 and the reducing of them to any fixed and permanent rules1 may be considered as the last refinement in language4--,knight cor4 ,the fierce anger of the ,lord shall not return1 until he hath done it1 and until he hath performed the intents of his heart4--,bible cor4 ,we seek for deeds more illustrious and heroic1 for events more diversified and surprising4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,we distinguish the genders1 or the male and the female sex1 in four different ways4--,buchanan cor4 ,thus1 ch and g are ever hard4 ,it is therefore proper to retain these sounds in those ,hebrew names which have not been modernized1 or changed by public use4--,dr4 ,wilson cor4 ,a ,substantive1 or ,noun1 is the name of any thing which is conceived to subsist1 or of which we have any notion4--,murray and ,lowth cor4 ,a ,noun is the name of any thing which exists1 or of which we have1 or can form1 an idea4--,maunder cor4 ,a ,noun is the name of any thing in existence1 or of any thing of which we can form an idea4--,id4 ,the next thing to be attended to1 is1 to keep him exactly to the speaking of truth4--,locke cor4 ,the material1 the vegetable1 and the animal world1 receive this influence according to their several capacities4--,dial cor4 ,and yet it is fairly defensible on the principles of the schoolmen2 if those things can be called principles1 which consist merely in words4--,campbell cor4 ,art thou so bare1 and full of wretchedness1 ,and fearst to die8 ,famine is in thy cheeks1 ,need and oppression starve in thy sunk eyes4--,shak4 cor4 ,,lesson ,,xv4--,,three ,,errors4 ,the silver age is reckoned to have commenced at the death of ,augustus1 and to have continued till the end of ,trajan's reign4--,gould cor4 ,language has indeed become1 in modern times1 more correct1 and more determinate4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,it is evident1 that those words are the most agreeable to the ear1 which are composed of smooth and liquid sounds1 and in which there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants4--,id4 ,it would have had no other effect1 than to add to the sentence an unnecessary word4--,id4 ,but as rumours arose1 that the judges had been corrupted by money in this cause1 these gave occasion to much popular clamour1 and threw a heavy odium on ,cluentius4--,id4 ,a ,participle is derived from a verb1 and partakes of the nature both of the verb and of an adjective4--,ash and ,devis cor4 ,i shall have learned my grammar before you will have learned yours4--,wilbur and ,livingston cor4 ,there is no other earthly object capable of making so various and so forcible impressions upon the human mind1 as a complete speaker4--,perry cor4 ,it was not the carrying of the bag1 that made ,judas a thief and a hireling4--,south cor4 ,as the reasonable soul and the flesh are one man1 so ,god and man are one ,christ4--,creed cor4 ,and ,i will say to them who were not my people1 ,ye are my people2 and they shall say1 ,thou art our ,god4--,bible cor4 ,where there is in the sense nothing that requires the last sound to be elevated or suspended1 an easy fall1 sufficient to show that the sense is finished1 will be proper4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,each party produce words in which the letter a is sounded in the manner for which they contend4--,j4 ,walker cor4 ,to countenance persons that are guilty of bad actions1 is scarcely one remove from an actual commission of the same crimes4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ',to countenance persons that are guilty of bad actions1' is a phrase or clause which is made the subject of the verb 'is4'--,id4 ,what is called the splitting of particles1--that is1 the separating of a preposition from the noun which it governs1 is always to be avoided4--,dr4 ,blair et al4 cor4 7,see ,obs4 #aeth on ,rule #bc;d47 ,there is properly but one pause1 or rest1 in the sentence2 and this falls betwixt the two members into which the sentence is divided4--,iid4 ,to go barefoot1 does not at all help a man on1 in the way to heaven4--,steele cor4 ,there is nobody who does not condemn this in others1 though many overlook it in themselves4--,locke cor4 ,be careful not to use the same word in the same sentence either too frequently or in different senses4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,nothing could have made her more unhappy1 than to have married a man of such principles4--,id4 ,a warlike1 various1 and tragical age is the best to write of1 but the worst to write in4--,cowley cor4 ,when thou instancest ,peter's babtizing sic--,,kth of ,cornelius4--,barclay cor4 ,to introduce two or more leading thoughts or topics1 which have no natural affinity or mutual dependence4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,animals1 again1 are fitted to one an other1 and to the elements or regions in which they live1 and to which they are as appendices4--,id4 ,this melody1 however1 or so frequent varying of the sound of each word1 is a proof of nothing1 but of the fine ear of that people4--,jamieson cor4 ,they can1 each in its turn1 be used upon occasion4--,duncan cor4 ,in this reign1 lived the poets ,gower and ,chaucer1 who are the first authors that can properly be said to have written ,english4--,bucke cor4 ,in translating expressions of this kind1 consider the phrase 'it is' as if it were they are4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,the chin has an important office to perform2 for1 by the degree of its activity1 we disclose either a polite or a vulgar pronunciation4--,gardiner cor4 ,for no other reason1 than that he was found in bad company4--,webster cor4 ,it is usual to compare them after the manner of polysyllables4--,priestley cor4 ,the infinitive mood is recognized more easily than any other1 because the preposition ,,to precedes it4--,bucke cor4 ,prepositions1 you recollect1 connect words1 and so do conjunctions3 how1 then1 can you tell a conjunction from a preposition8 ,or3--how1 then1 can you distinguish the former from the latter8--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,no kind of work requires a nicer touch1 ,and1 this well finish'd1 none else shines so much4 --,sheffield cor4 ,,lesson ,,xvi4--,,three ,,errors4 ,on many occasions1 it is the final pause alone1 that marks the difference between prose and verse3 this will be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,i shall do all ,i can to persuade others to take for their cure the same measures that ,i have taken for mine4--,guardian cor42 also ,murray4 ,it is the nature of extreme self-lovers1 that they will set a house on fire1 as it were1 but to roast their eggs4--,bacon cor4 ,did ever man struggle more earnestly in a cause in which both his honour and his life were concerned8--,duncan cor4 ,so the rests1 or pauses1 which separate sentences or their parts1 are marked by points4--,lowth cor4 ,yet the case and mood are not influenced by them1 but are determined by the nature of the sentence4--,id4 ,through inattention to this rule1 many errors have been committed3 several of which are here subjoined1 as a further caution and direction to the learner4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,though thou clothe thyself with crimson1 though thou deck thee with ornaments of gold1 though thou polish thy face with painting1 in vain shalt thou make thyself fair4 #eeb--;,bible cor4 ,but that the doing of good to others1 will make us happy1 is not so evident2 the feeding of the hungry1 for example1 or the clothing of the naked4 ,or3 ,but that1 to do good to others1 will make us happy1 is not so evident2 to feed the hungry1 for example1 or to clothe the naked4--,kames cor4 ,there is no other ,god than he1 no other light than his4 ,or3 ,there is no ,god but he1 no light but his4--,penn cor4 ,how little reason is there to wonder1 that a powerful and accomplished orator should be one of the characters that are most rarely found4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,because they express neither the doing nor the receiving of an action4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,to find the answers1 will require an effort of mind2 and1 when right answers are given1 they will be the result of reflection1 and show that the subject is understood4--,id4 ',the sun rises1' is an expression trite and common2 but the same idea becomes a magnificent image1 when expressed in the language of ,mr4 ,thomson4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the declining of a word is the giving of its different endings4 ,or3 ,to decline a word1 is to give it different endings4--,ware cor4 ,and so much are they for allowing every one to follow his own mind4--,barclay cor4 ,more than one overture for peace were made1 but ,cleon prevented them from taking effect4--,goldsmith cor4 ,neither in ,english1 nor in any other language1 is this word1 or that which corresponds to it in meaning1 any more an article1 than ,,two1 ,,three1 or ,,four4--,webster cor4 ,but the most irksome conversation of all that ,i have met with in the neighbourhood1 has been with two or three of your travellers4--,spect4 cor4 ,set down the first two terms of the supposition1 one under the other1 in the first place4--,smiley cor4 ,it is a useful practice too1 to fix one's eye on some of the most distant persons in the assembly4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,he will generally please his hearers most1 when to please them is not his sole or his chief aim4--,id4 ,at length1 the consuls return to the camp1 and inform the soldiers1 that they could obtain for them no other terms than those of surrendering their arms and passing under the yoke4--,id4 ,nor are mankind so much to blame1 in their choice thus determining them4--,swift cor4 ,these forms are what are called the ,numbers4 ,or3 ,these forms are called ,numbers4--,fosdick cor4 ,in those languages which admit but two genders1 all nouns are either masculine or feminine1 even though they designate beings that are neither male nor female4--,id4 ,it is called ,verb or ,word by way of eminence1 because it is the most essential word in a sentence1 and one without which the other parts of speech cannot form any complete sense4--,gould cor4 ,the sentence will consist of two members1 and these will commonly be separated from each other by a comma4--,jamieson cor4 ,loud and soft in speaking are like the fort and piano in music2 they only refer to the different degrees of force used in the same key3 whereas high and low imply a change of key4--,sheridan cor4 ,they are chiefly three3 the acquisition of knowledge2 the assisting of the memory to treasure up this knowledge2 and the communicating of it to others4--,id4 ,this kind of knaves ,i know1 who in this plainness ,harbour more craft1 and hide corrupter ends1 ,than twenty silly ducking observants4--,shak4 cor4 ,,lesson ,,xvii4--,,many ,,errors4 ,a man will be forgiven1 even for great errors1 committed in a foreign language2 but1 in the use he makes of his own1 even the least slips are justly pointed out and ridiculed4--,amer4 ,chesterfield cor4 ,,let expresses not only permission1 but entreaty1 exhortation1 and command4--,lowth cor42 also ,murray1 et al4 ,that death which is our leaving of this world1 is nothing else than the putting-off of these bodies4--,sherlock cor4 ,they differ from the saints recorded in either the ,old or the ,new ,testament4--,newton cor4 ,the nature of relation1 therefore1 consists in the referring or comparing of two things to each other2 from which comparison1 one or both come to be denominated4--,locke cor4 ,it is not credible1 that there is any one who will say1 that through the whole course of his life he has kept himself entirely undefiled1 without the least spot or stain of sin4--,witsius cor4 ,if to act conformably to the will of our ,creator1--if to promote the welfare of mankind around us1--if to secure our own happiness1 is an object of the highest moment2 then are we loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue4 ,or3 ,if1 to act conformably to the will of our ,creator1 to promote the welfare of mankind around us1 and to secure our own happiness1 are objects of the highest moment2 then1 c4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,the verb being in the plural number1 it is supposed1 that the officer and his guard are joint agents4 ,but this is not the case3 the only nominative to the verb is 'officer4' ,in the expression1 'with his guard1' the noun 'guard' is in the objective case1 being governed by the preposition with2 and consequently it cannot form the nominative1 or any part of it4 ,the prominent subject for the agreement1 the true nominative to the verb1 or the term to which the verb peculiarly refers1 is the word 'officer4'--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,this is an other use1 that1 in my opinion1 contributes to make a man learned rather than wise2 and is incapable of pleasing either the understanding or the imagination4--,addison cor4 ,the work is a dull performance2 and is incapable of pleasing either the understanding or the imagination4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,i would recommend the ',elements of ,english ,grammar1' by ,mr4 ,frost4 ,the plan of this little work is similar to that of ,mr4 ,l4 ,murray's smallest ,grammar2 but1 in order to meet the understanding of children1 its definitions and language are simplified1 so far as the nature of the subject will admit4 ,it also embraces more examples for ,parsing1 than are usual in elementary treatises4--,s4 ,r4 ,hall cor4 ,more rain falls in the first two summer months1 than in the first two months of winter2 but what falls1 makes a much greater show upon the earth1 in winter than in summer1 because there is a much slower evaporation4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,they often contribute also to render some persons prosperous1 though wicked2 and1 what is still worse1 to reward some actions1 though vicious2 and punish other actions1 though virtuous4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,hence1 to such a man1 arise naturally a secret satisfaction1 a sense of security1 and an implicit hope of somewhat further4--,id4 ,so much for the third and last cause of illusion1 that was noticed above2 which arises from the abuse of very general and abstract terms2 and which is the principal source of the abundant nonsense that has been vented by metaphysicians1 mystagogues1 and theologians4--,campbell cor4 ,as to those animals which are less common1 or which1 on account of the places they inhabit1 fall less under our observation1 as fishes and birds1 or which their diminutive size removes still further from our observation1 we generally1 in ,english1 employ a single noun to designate both genders1 the masculine and the feminine4--,fosdick cor4 ,adjectives may always be distinguished by their relation to other words3 they express the quality1 condition1 or number1 of whatever things are mentioned4--,emmons cor4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb2 and generally expresses time1 place1 degree1 or manner4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #bi4 ,the joining-together of two objects1 so grand1 and the representing of them both1 as subject at one moment to the command of ,god1 produce a noble effect4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,twisted columns1 for instance1 are undoubtedly ornamental2 but1 as they have an appearance of weakness1 they displease the eye1 whenever they are used to support any massy part of a building1 or what seems to require a more substantial prop4--,id4 ,in a vast number of inscriptions1 some upon rocks1 some upon stones of a defined shape1 is found an ,alphabet different from the ,greeks'1 the ,latins'1 and the ,hebrews'1 and also unlike that of any modern nation4--,w4 ,c4 ,fowler cor4 ,,lesson ,,xviii4--,,many ,,errors4 ,the empire of ,blefuscu is an island situated on the northeast side of ,lilliput1 from which it is parted by a channel of only #hjj yards in width4--,swift and ,kames cor4 ,the nominative case usually denotes the agent or doer2 and any noun or pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 is always in this case4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,there are1 in his allegorical personages1 an originality1 a richness1 and a variety1 which almost vie with the splendours of the ancient mythology4--,hazlitt cor4 ,as neither the ,jewish nor the ,christian revelation has been universal1 and as each has been afforded to a greater or a less part of the world at different times2 so likewise1 at different times1 both revelations have had different degrees of evidence4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,thus we see1 that1 to kill a man with a sword1 and to kill one with a hatchet1 are looked upon as no distinct species of action2 but1 if the point of the sword first enter the body1 the action passes for a distinct species1 called stabbing4--,locke cor4 ,if a soul sin1 and commit a trespass against the ,lord1 and lie unto his neighbour concerning that which was delivered him to keep1 or deceive his neighbour1 or find that which was lost1 and lie concerning it1 and swear falsely2 in any of all these that a man doeth1 sinning therein1 then it shall be1 c4--,bible cor4 ,as1 to do and teach the commandments of ,god1 is the great proof of virtue2 so1 to break them1 and to teach others to break them1 are the great proofs of vice4--,wayland cor4 ,the latter simile1 in ,pope's terrific maltreatment of it1 is true neither to the mind nor to the eye4--,coleridge cor4 ,and the two brothers were seen1 transported with rage and fury1 like ,eteocles and ,polynices1 each endeavouring to plunge his sword into the other's heart1 and to assure himself of the throne by the death of his rival4--,goldsmith cor4 ,is it not plain1 therefore1 that neither the castle1 nor the planet1 nor the cloud1 which you here see1 is that real one which you suppose to exist at a distance8--,berkley cor4 ,i have often wondered1 how it comes to pass1 that every body should love himself best1 and yet value his neighbours' opinion about himself more than his own4--,collier cor4 ,virtue1 7,greek3 ,aret1 ,virtus17 as well as most of its species1 when sex is figuratively ascribed to it1 is made feminine1 perhaps from its beauty and amiable appearance4--,harris cor4 ,virtue1 with most of its species1 is made feminine when personified2 and so is ,vice1 perhaps for being ,virtue's opposite4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor42 also ,buchanan4 ,from this deduction1 it may easily be seen1 how it comes to pass1 that personification makes so great a figure in all compositions in which imagination or passion has any concern4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,an ,article is a word placed before a noun1 to point it out as such1 and to show how far its signification extends4--,folker cor4 ,all men have certain natural1 essential1 and inherent rights2--among which are the rights of enjoying and defending life and liberty2 of acquiring1 possessing1 and protecting property2 and1 in a word1 of seeking and obtaining happiness4--,const4 of ,n4 ,h4 cor4 ,from those grammarians who form their ideas and make their decisions1 respecting this part of ,english grammar1 from the principles and construction of other languages1--of languages which do not in these points accord with our own1 but which differ considerably from it1--we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that will be neither perspicuous nor consistent1 and that will tend rather to perplex than to inform the learner4--,murray and ,hall cor4 ,indeed there are but very few who know how to be idle and innocent1 or who have a relish for any pleasures that are not criminal2 every diversion which the majority take1 is at the expense of some one virtue or other1 and their very first step out of business is into vice or folly4--,addison cor4 ,hail1 holy ,love6 thou bliss that sumst all bliss6 ,giv'st and receiv'st all bliss2 fullest when most ,thou giv'st2 spring-head of all felicity6--,pollok cor4 ,,chapter ,,xiii--,,general ,,rule4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,the ,,general ,,rule4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,articles4 7#a47 ,the article is a part of speech placed before nouns4 ,or thus3 ,an article is a word placed before nouns4--,comly cor4 7#b47 ,the article is a part of speech used to limit nouns4--,gilbert cor4 7#c47 ,an article is a word set before nouns to fix their vague signification4--,ash cor4 7#d47 ,the adjective is a part of speech used to describe something named by a noun4--,gilbert cor4 7#e47 ,a pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun4--,id4 and ,weld cor43 ,inst41 p4 #de4 7#f47 ,the pronoun is a part of speech which is often used in stead of a noun4--,brit4 ,gram4 and ,buchanan cor4 7#g47 ,a verb is a word which signifies to be1 to do1 or to be acted upon4--,merchant cor4 7#h47 ,the verb is a part of speech which signifies to be1 to act1 or to receive an action4--,comly cor4 7#i47 ,the verb is the part of speech by which any thing is asserted4--,weld cor4 7#aj47 ,the verb is a part of speech1 which expresses action or existence in a direct manner4--,gilbert cor4 7#aa47 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 and expresses action or existence in an indirect manner4--,id4 7#ab47 ,the participle is a part of speech derived from the verb1 and denotes being1 doing1 or suffering1 and implies time1 as a verb does4--,brit4 ,gram4 and ,buchanan cor4 7#ac47 ,the adverb is a part of speech used to add some modification to the meaning of verbs1 adjectives1 and participles4--,gilbert cor4 7#ad47 ,an adverb is an indeclinable word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb1 to express some circumstance1 accident1 or manner of its signification4--,adam and ,gould cor4 7#ae47 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 an adjective1 a participle1 or an other adverb1 to express the circumstance of time1 place1 degree1 or manner4--,dr4 ,ash cor4 7#af47 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 an adjective1 a participle1 or1 sometimes1 an other adverb1 to express some circumstance respecting the sense4--,beck cor4 7#ag47 ,the adverb is a part of speech1 which is added to verbs1 adjectives1 participles1 or to other adverbs1 to express some modification or circumstance1 quality or manner1 of their signification4--,buchanan cor4 7#ah47 ,the adverb is a part of speech which we add to the verb1 7whence the name17 to the adjective or participle likewise1 and sometimes even to an other adverb4--,bucke cor4 7#ai47 ,a conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences4--,gilbert and ,weld cor4 7#bj47 ,the conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together4--,ash cor4 7#ba47 ,the conjunction is that part of speech which connects sentences1 or parts of sentences1 or single words4--,d4 ,blair cor4 7#bb47 ,the conjunction is a part of speech that is used principally to connect sentences1 so as1 out of two1 three1 or more sentences1 to make one4--,bucke cor4 7#bc47 ,the conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words or sentences together2 but1 chiefly1 to join simple sentences into such as are compound4--,kirkham cor4 7#bd47 ,a conjunction is a word which joins words or sentences together1 and shows the manner of their dependence1 as they stand in connexion4--,brit4 ,gram4 et al4 cor4 7#be47 ,a preposition is a word used to show the relation between other words1 and govern the subsequent term4--,gilbert cor4 7#bf47 ,a preposition is a governing word which serves to connect other words1 and to show the relation between them4--,frost cor4 7#bg47 ,a preposition is a governing particle used to connect words and show their relation4--,weld cor4 7#bh47 ,the preposition is that part of speech which shows the various positions of persons or things1 and the consequent relations that certain words bear toward one an other4--,david ,blair cor4 7#bi47 ,the preposition is a part of speech1 which1 being added to certain other parts of speech1 serves to show their state of relation1 or their reference to each other4--,brit4 ,gram4 and ,buchanan cor4 7#cj47 ,the interjection is a part of speech used to express sudden passion or strong emotion4--,gilbert cor4 7#ca47 ,an interjection is an unconnected word used in giving utterance to some sudden feeling or strong emotion4--,weld cor4 7#cb47 ,the interjection is that part of speech which denotes any sudden affection or strong emotion of the mind4--,david ,blair cor4 7#cc47 ,an interjection is an independent word or sound thrown into discourse1 and denotes some sudden passion or strong emotion of the soul4--,brit4 ,gram4 and ,buchanan cor4 7#cd47 ,the scene might tempt some peaceful sage ,to rear a lonely hermitage4--,gent4 of ,aberdeen cor4 7#ce47 ,not all the storms that shake the pole1 ,can e'er disturb thy halcyon soul1 ,and smooth unalter'd brow4--,barbauld's ,poems1 p4 #db4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,nouns4 ,the throne of every monarchy felt the shock4--,frelinghuysen cor4 ,these principles ought to be deeply impressed upon the mind of every ,american4--,dr4 ,n4 ,webster cor4 ,the words ,,church and ,,shire are radically the same4--,id4 ,they may not1 in their present form1 be readily accommodated to every circumstance belonging to the possessive case of nouns4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,will1 in the second and third persons1 only foretells4--,id42 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #da4 ,which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative mood4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the very general approbation which this performance of ,walker's has received from the public4--,id4 ,lest she carry her improvements of this kind too far4 ,or thus3 ,lest she carry her improvements in this way too far4--,id4 and ,campbell cor4 ,charles was extravagant1 and by his prodigality became poor and despicable4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,we should entertain no prejudice against simple and rustic persons4--,id4 ,these are indeed the foundation of all solid merit4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,and his embellishment1 by means of figures1 musical cadences1 or other ornaments of speech4--,id4 ,if he is at no pains to engage us by the employment of figures1 musical arrangement1 or any other ornament of style4--,id4 ,the most eminent of the sacred poets1 are1 ,david1 ,isaiah1 and the author of the ,book of ,job4--,id4 ,nothing in any poem1 is more beautifully described than the death of old ,priam4--,id4 ,when two vowels meet together1 and are joined in one syllable1 they are called a diphthong4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,how many ,esses would goodness' then end with8 ,three2 as goodness's4--,id4 ,birds is a noun2 it is the common name of feathered animals4--,kirkham cor4 ,adam gave names to all living creatures4 ,or thus3 ,adam gave a name to every living creature4--,bicknell cor4 ,the steps of a flight of stairs ought to be accommodated to the human figure4 ,or thus3 ,stairs ought to be accommodated to the ease of the users4--,kames cor4 ,nor ought an emblem1 more than a simile1 to be founded on a low or familiar object4--,id4 ,whatever the ,latin has not from the ,greek1 it has from the ,gothic4--,tooke cor4 ,the mint1 and the office of the secretary of state1 are neat buildings4--,the ,friend cor4 ,the scenes of dead and still existence are apt to pall upon us4--,blair cor4 ,and ,thomas ,aquinas and ,duns ,scotus1 the angelical doctor and the subtle1 are the brightest stars in the scholastic constellation4--,lit4 ,hist4 cor4 ,the ,english language has three methods of distinguishing the sexes4--,murray et al4 cor42 also ,r4 ,c4 ,smith4 ,in ,english1 there are the three following methods of distinguishing the sexes4--,jaudon cor4 ,there are three ways of distinguishing the sexes4--,lennie et al4 cor42 also ,merchant4 ,the sexes are distinguished in three ways4--,maunder cor4 ,neither discourse in general1 nor poetry in particular1 can be called altogether an imitative art4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,do we for this the gods and conscience brave1 ,that one may rule and all the rest enslave8--,rowe cor4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,adjectives4 ,there is a deal more of heads1 than of either heart or horns4--,barclay cor4 ,for1 of all villains1 ,i think he has the most improper name4--,bunyan cor4 ,of all the men that ,i met in my pilgrimage1 he1 ,i think1 bears the wrongest name4--,id4 ,i am surprised to see so much of the distribution1 and so many of the technical terms1 of the ,latin grammar1 retained in the grammar of our tongue4--,priestley cor4 ,nor did the ,duke of ,burgundy bring him any assistance4--,hume and ,priestley cor4 ,else he will find it difficult to make an obstinate person believe him4--,brightland cor4 ,are there any adjectives which form the degrees of comparison in a manner peculiar to themselves8--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,yet all the verbs are of the indicative mood4--,lowth cor4 ,the word candidate is absolute1 in the nominative case4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,an ,iambus has the first syllable unaccented1 and the last accented4--,l4 ,murray1 ,d4 ,blair1 ,jamieson1 ,kirkham1 ,bullions1 ,guy1 ,merchant1 and others4 ,a ,dactyl has the first syllable accented1 and the last two syllables unaccented4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,it is proper to begin with a capital the first word of every book1 chapter1 letter1 note1 or#eec other piece of writing4--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #aie2 ,john ,flint's1 #aje4 ,five and seven make twelve1 and one more makes thirteen4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,i wish to cultivate a nearer acquaintance with you4--,id4 ,let us consider the means which are proper to effect our purpose4 ,or thus3 ,let us consider what means are proper to effect our purpose4--,id4 ,yet they are of so similar a nature as readily to mix and blend4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the ,latin is formed on the same model1 but is more imperfect4--,id4 ,i know very well how great pains have been taken4 ,or thus3 ,i know very well how much care has been taken4--,temple cor4 ,the management of the breath requires a great deal of care4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,because the mind1 during such a momentary stupefaction1 is1 in a great measure1 if not totally1 insensible4--,kames cor4 ,motives of reason and interest alone are not sufficient4--,id4 ,to render the composition distinct in its parts1 and on the whole impressive4--,id4 ,a and an are named the ,indefinite article1 because they denote indifferently any one thing of a kind4--,maunder cor4 ,the is named the ,definite article1 because it points out some particular thing or things4--,id4 ,so much depends upon the proper construction of sentences1 that1 in any sort of composition1 we cannot be too strict in our attention to it4 ,or3--that1 in every sort of composition1 we ought to be very strict in our attention to it4 ,or3--that1 in no sort of composition1 can we be too strict1 c4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,every sort of declamation and public speaking was carried on by them4 ,or thus3 ,all sorts of declamation and public speaking1 were carried on by them4--,id4 ,the former has1 on many occasions1 a sublimity to which the latter never attains4--,id4 ,when the words1 therefore1 consequently1 accordingly1 and the like1 are used in connexion with conjunctions1 they are adverbs4--,kirkham cor4 ,rude nations make few or no allusions to the productions of the arts4--,jamieson cor4 ,while two of her maids knelt on each side of her4 ,or1 if there were only two maids kneeling1 and not four3 ,while two of her maids knelt one on each side of her4--,mirror cor4 ,the personal pronouns of the third person1 differ from one an other in meaning and use1 as follows4--,bullions cor4 ,it was happy for the state1 that ,fabius continued in the command with ,minutius3 the phlegm of the former was a check on the vivacity of the latter4--,l4 ,murray and others cor43 see ,maunders ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,if it be objected1 that the words must and ought1 in the preceding sentences1 are both in the present tense4 ,or thus3 ,if it be objected1 that in all the preceding sentences the words must and ought are in the present tense4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,but it will be well1 if you turn to them now and then4 ,or3--if you turn to them occasionally4--,bucke cor4 ,that every part should have a dependence on1 and mutually contribute to support1 every other4--,rollin cor4 ,the phrase1 ',good1 my lord1' is not common1 and is low4 ,or3--is uncommon1 and low4--,priestley cor4 ,that brother should not war with brother1 ,and one devour or vex an other4--,cowper cor4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,pronouns4 ,if ,i can contribute to our country's glory4 ,or3--to your glory and that of my country4--,goldsmith cor4 ,as likewise of the several subjects1 which have in effect each its verb4--,lowth cor4 ,he is likewise required to make examples for himself4 ,or3 ,he himself is likewise required to make examples4--,j4 ,flint cor4 ,if the emphasis be placed wrong1 it will pervert and confound the meaning wholly4 ,or3 ,if the emphasis be placed wrong1 the meaning will be perverted and confounded wholly4 ,or3 ,if we place the emphasis wrong1 we pervert and confound the meaning wholly4--,l4 ,murray cor42 also ,dr4 ,blair4 ,it was this1 that characterized the great men of antiquity2 it is this1 that must distinguish the moderns who would tread in their steps4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,i am a great enemy to implicit faith1 as well the ,popish as the ,presbyterian2 for1 in that1 the ,papists and the ,presbyterians are very much alike4--,barclay cor4 ,will he thence dare to say1 the apostle held an other ,christ than him that died8--,id4 ,why need you be anxious about this event8 ,or3 ,what need have you to be anxious about this event8--,collier cor4 ,if a substantive can be placed after the verb1 the latter is active4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,to see bad men honoured and prosperous in the world1 is some discouragement to virtue4 ,or3 ,it is some discouragement to virtue1 to see bad men1 c4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,it is a happiness to young persons1 to be preserved from the snares of the world1 as in a garden enclosed4--,id4 ,at the court of ,queen ,elizabeth1 where all was prudence and economy4--,bullions cor4 ,it is no wonder1 if such a man did not shine at the court of ,queen ,elizabeth1 who was so remarkable for her prudence and economy4--,priestley1 ,murray1 et al cor4 ,a defective verb is a verb that wants some parts4 ,the defective verbs are chiefly the auxiliaries and the impersonal verbs4--,bullions cor4 ,some writers have given to the moods a much greater extent than ,i have assigned to them4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the personal pronouns give such information as no other words are capable of conveying4--,m',culloch cor4 ,when the article a1 an1 or the1 precedes the participle1 the latter also becomes a noun4--,merchant cor4 ,to some of these1 there is a preference to be given1 which custom and judgement must determine4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,many writers affect to subjoin to any word the preposition with which it is compounded1 or that of which it literally implies the idea4--,id4 and ,priestley cor4 ,say1 dost thou know ,vectidius8 ,whom1 the wretch ,whose lands beyond the ,sabines largely stretch8--,dryden cor4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,verbs4 ,we should naturally expect1 that the word depend would require from after it4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aeh4 ,a dish which they pretend is made of emerald4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,for the very nature of a sentence implies that one proposition is expressed4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #caa4 ,without a careful attention to the sense1 we should be naturally led1 by the rules of syntax1 to refer it to the rising and setting of the sun4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,for any rules that can be given1 on this subject1 must be very general4--,id4 ,he would be in the right1 if eloquence were what he conceives it to be4--,id4 ,there ,i should prefer a more free and diffuse manner4--,id4 ,yet that they also resembled one an other1 and agreed in certain qualities4--,id4 ,but1 since he must restore her1 he insists on having an other in her place4--,id4 ,but these are far from being so frequent1 or so common1 as they have been supposed to be4--,id4 ,we are not led to assign a wrong place to the pleasant or the painful feelings4--,kames cor4 ,which are of greater importance than they are commonly thought4--,id4 ,since these qualities are both coarse and common1 let us find out the mark of a man of probity4--,collier cor4 ,cicero did what no man had ever done before him2 he drew up a treatise of consolation for himself4--,biographer cor4 ,then there can remain no other doubt of the truth4--,brightland cor4 ,i have observed that some satirists use the term4 ,or3 ,i have observed some satirists to use the term4--,bullions cor4 ,such men are ready to despond1 or to become enemies4--,webster cor4 ,common nouns are names common to many things4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,to make ourselves heard by one to whom we address ourselves4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,that1 in reading poetry1 he may be the better able to judge of its correctness1 and may relish its beauties4 ,or3--and to relish its beauties4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,on the stretch to keep pace with the author1 and comprehend his meaning4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,for it might have been sold for more than three hundred pence1 and the money have been given to the poor4--,bible cor4 ,he is a beam that has departed1 and has left no streak of light behind4--,ossian cor4 ,no part of this incident ought to have been represented1 but the whole should have been reserved for a narrative4--,kames cor4 ,the rulers and people debauching themselves1 a country is brought to ruin4 ,or3 ,when the rulers and people debauch themselves1 they bring ruin on a country4--,ware cor4 ,when a title1 7as ,doctor1 ,miss1 ,master1 c417 is prefixed to a name1 the latter only1 of the two words1 is commonly varied to form the plural2 as1 ',the ,doctor ,nettletons1'--',the two ,miss ,hudsons4'--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,wherefore that field has been called1 ',the ,field of ,blood1' unto this day4--,bible cor4 ,to comprehend the situations of other countries1 which perhaps it may be necessary for him to explore4--,dr4 ,brown cor4 ,we content ourselves now with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors used4--,priestley cor4 ,and who will be chiefly liable to make mistakes where others have erred before them4--,id4 ,the voice of nature and that of revelation unite4 ,or3 ,revelation and the voice of nature unite4 ,or3 ,the voice of nature unites with revelation4 ,or3 ,the voice of nature unites with that of revelation4--,wayland cor4 ,this adjective1 you see1 we can't admit2 ,but1 changed to ',,worse1' the word is just and fit4--,tobitt cor4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,participles4 ,its application is not arbitrary1 or dependent on the caprice of readers4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,this is the more expedient1 because the work is designed for the benefit of private learners4--,id4 ,a man1 he tells us1 ordered by his will1 to have a statue erected for him4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,from some likeness too remote1 and lying too far out of the road of ordinary thought4--,id4 ,in the commercial world1 money is a fluid1 running from hand to hand4--,dr4 ,webster cor4 ,he pays much attention to the learning and singing of songs4--,id4 ,i would not be understood to consider the singing of songs as criminal4--,id4 ,it is a case decided by ,cicero1 the great master of writing4--,editor of ,waller cor4 ,did they ever bear a testimony against the writing of books8-- ,bates's ,rep4 cor4 ,exclamations are sometimes mistaken for interrogations4--,hist4 of ,print1 cor4 ,which cannot fail to prove of service4--,smith cor4 ,hewn into such figures as would make them incorporate easily and firmly4--,beat1 or ,mur4 cor4 ,after the rule and example1 there are practical inductive questions4--,j4 ,flint cor4 ,i think it will be an advantage1 that ,i have collected my examples from modern writings4--,priestley cor4 ,he was eager to recommend it to his fellow-citizens4--,id4 and ,hume cor4 ,the good lady was careful to serve me with every thing4--,id4 ,no revelation would have been given1 had the light of nature been sufficient1 in such a sense as to render one superfluous and useless4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,description1 again1 is a representation which raises in the mind the conception of an object1 by means of some arbitrary or instituted symbols4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,disappointing the expectation of the hearers1 when they look for an end4 ,or3--for the termination of our discourse4--,id4 ,there is a distinction1 which1 in the use of them1 is worthy of attention4-- ,maunder cor4 ,a model has been contrived1 which is not very expensive1 and which is easily managed4--,ed4 ,reporter cor4 ,the conspiracy was the more easily discovered1 because the conspirators were many4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,nearly ten years had that celebrated work been published1 before its importance was at all understood4--,id4 ,that the sceptre is ostensibly grasped by a female hand1 does not reverse the general order of government4--,west cor4 ,i have hesitated about signing the ,declaration of ,sentiments4--,lib4 cor4 ,the prolonging of men's lives when the world needed to be peopled1 and the subsequent shortening of them when that necessity had ceased4--,rev4 ,john ,brown cor4 ,before the performance commences1 we see displayed the insipid formalities of the prelusive scene4--,kirkham cor4 ,it forbade the lending of money1 or the sending of goods1 or the embarking of capital in anyway1 in transactions connected with that foreign traffic4--,brougham cor4 ,even abstract ideas have sometimes the same important prerogative conferred upon them4--,jamieson cor4 ,ment1 like other terminations1 changes y into i1 when the y is preceded by a consonant4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,the term ,,proper is from the ,french propre1 own1 or the ,latin proprius2 and a ,proper noun is so called1 because it is peculiar to the individual or family bearing the name4 ,the term ,,common is from the ,latin communis1 pertaining equally to several or many2 and a ,common noun is so called1 because it is common to every individual comprised in the class4--,fowler cor4 ,thus oft by mariners are showed 7,unless the men of ,kent are liars7 ,earl ,godwin's castles overflowed1 ,and palace-roofs1 and steeple- spires4--,swift cor4 ,,lesson ,,vii4--,,adverbs4 ,he spoke to every man and woman who was there4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,thought and language act and react upon each other4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #bfd4 ,thought and expression act and react upon each other4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cef4 ,they have neither the leisure nor the means of attaining any knowledge1 except what lies within the contracted circle of their several professions4--,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #afj4 ,before they are capable of understanding much1 or indeed any thing1 of most other branches of education4--,olney cor4 ,there is no more beauty in one of them1 than in an other4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,which appear to be constructed according to no certain rule4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the vehement manner of speaking became less universal4--,or better3--less general4--,id4 ,not all languages1 however1 agree in this mode of expression4 ,or3 ,this mode of expression1 however1 is not common to all languages4--,id4 ,the great occasion of setting apart this particular day4--,atterbury cor4 ,he is much more promising now1 than he was formerly4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,they are placed before a participle1 without dependence on the rest of the sentence4--,id4 ,this opinion does not appear to have been well considered4 ,or3 ,this opinion appears to have been formed without due consideration4--,id4 ,precision in language merits a full explication2 and merits it the more1 because distinct ideas are1 perhaps1 but rarely formed concerning it4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,in the more sublime parts of poetry1 he is less distinguished4 ,or3--he is not so highly distinguished4--,id4 ,whether the author was altogether happy in the choice of his subject1 may be questioned4--,id4 ,but1 with regard to this matter also1 there is a great error in the common practice4--,webster cor4 ,this order is the very order of the human mind1 which makes things we are sensible of1 a means to come at those that are not known4 ,or3--which makes things that are already known1 its means of finding out those that are not so4--,foreman cor4 ,now1 who is not discouraged1 and does not fear want1 when he has no money8--,c4 ,leslie cor4 ,which the authors of this work consider of little or no use4--,wilbur and ,liv4 cor4 ,and here indeed the distinction between these two classes begins to be obscure4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,but this is a manner which deserves to be avoided4 ,or3--which does not deserve to be imitated4--,id4 ,and1 in this department1 a person effects very little1 whenever he attempts too much4--,campbell and ,murray cor4 ,the verb that signifies mere being1 is neuter4--,ash cor4 ,i hope to tire but little those whom ,i shall not happen to please4--,rambler cor4 ,who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters1 and who pronounced others very indistinctly4--,sheridan cor4 ,the learner may point out the active1 passive1 and neuter verbs in the following examples1 and state the reasons for thus distinguishing them4 ,or3 ,the learner may point out the active1 the passive1 and the neuter verbs in the following examples1 and state the reasons for calling them so4--,c4 ,adams cor4 ,these words are almost always conjunctions4--,barrett cor4 ,how glibly nonsense trickles from his tongue6 ,how sweet the periods1 neither said nor sung6--,pope cor4 ,,lesson ,,viii4--,,conjunctions4 ,who1 at least1 either knew not1 or did not love to make1 a distinction4 ,or better thus3 ,who1 at least1 either knew no distinction1 or did not like to make any4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,it is childish in the last degree to let this become the ground of estranged affection4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,when the regular1 and when the irregular verb1 is to be preferred sic--,,kth1 p4 #ajg4--;,id4 ,the books were to have been sold this day4 ,or3--on this day4--,priestley cor4 ,do1 an you will4 ,or3 ,do1 if you will4--,shak4 cor4 ,if a man had a positive idea either of infinite duration or of infinite space1 he could add two infinites together4 ,or3 ,if a man had a positive idea of what is infinite1 either in duration or in space1 he could1 c4--,murray's proof-text cor4 ,none shall more willingly agree to and advance the same than ,i4--,morton cor4 ,that it cannot but be hurtful to continue it4--,barclay cor4 ,a conjunction joins words or sentences4--,beck cor4 ,the copulative conjunction connects words or sentences together1 and continues the sense4--,frost cor4 ,the copulative conjunction serves to connect words or clauses1 and continue a sentence1 by expressing an addition1 a cause1 or a supposition4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,all construction is either true or apparent2 or1 in other words1 either literal or figurative4--,buchanan and ,brit4 ,gram4 cor4 ,but the divine character is such as none but a divine hand could draw4 ,or3 ,but the divine character is such1 that none but a divine hand could draw it4--,a4 ,keith cor4 ,who is so mad1 that1 on inspecting the heavens1 he is insensible of a ,god8--,gibbons cor4 ,it is now submitted to an enlightened public1 with little further desire on the part of the author1 than for its general utility4--,town cor4 ,this will sufficiently explain why so many provincials have grown old in the capital without making any change in their original dialect4-- ,sheridan cor4 ,of these1 they had chiefly three in general use1 which were denominated ,,accents1 the term being used in the plural number4--,id4 ,and this is one of the chief reasons why dramatic representations have ever held the first rank amongst the diversions of mankind4--,id4 ,which is the chief reason why public reading is in general so disgusting4--,id4 ,at the same time in which they learn to read4 ,or3 ,while they learn to read4--,id4 ,he is always to pronounce his words with exactly the same accent that he uses in speaking4--,id4 ,in order to know what an other knows1 and in the same manner in which he knows it4--,id4 ,for the same reason for which it is1 in a more limited state1 assigned to the several tribes of animals4--,id4 ,were there masters to teach this1 in the same manner in which other arts are taught4 ,or3 ,were there masters to teach this1 as other arts are taught4--,id4 ,whose own example strengthens all his laws2 ,who is himself that great sublime he draws4--,pope cor4 ,,lesson ,,ix4--,,prepositions4 ,the word so has sometimes the same meaning as ,,also1 ,,likewise1 or ,,the ,,same4--,priestley cor4 ,the verb use relates not to 'pleasures of the imagination2' but to the terms fancy and imagination1 which he was to employ as synonymous4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,it never can view1 clearly and distinctly1 more than one object at a time4--,id4 ,this figure ,euphemism is often the same as the ,periphrasis4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,all the intermediate time between youth and old age4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,when one thing is said to act upon an other1 or do something to it4--,lowth cor4 ,such a composition has as much of meaning in it1 as a mummy has of life4 ,or3 ,such a composition has as much meaning in it1 as a mummy has life4--,lit4 ,conv4 cor4 ,that young men1 from fourteen to eighteen years of age1 were not the best judges4--,id4 ,this day is a day of trouble1 and of rebuke1 and of blasphemy4--,isaiah1 xxxvii1 #c4 ,blank verse has the same pauses and accents that occur in rhyme4--,kames cor4 ,in prosody1 long syllables are distinguished by the macron 772 and short ones by what is called the breve 774--,bucke cor4 ,sometimes both articles are left out1 especially from poetry4--,id4 ,from the following example1 the pronoun and participle are omitted4 ,or3 ,in the following example1 the pronoun and participle are not expressed4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,but the example was faulty4 ,say4 ,conscious of his weight and importance1--or1 ,being conscious of his own weight and importance1 he did not solicit the aid of others4--,id4 ,he was an excellent person2 even in his early youth1 a mirror of the ancient faith4--,id4 ,the carrying of its several parts into execution4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,concord is the agreement which one word has with an other1 in gender1 number1 case1 or person4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #adb4 ,it might perhaps have given me a greater taste for its antiquities4--,addison cor4 ,to call on a person1 and to wait on him4--,priestley cor4 ,the great difficulty they found in fixing just sentiments4--,id4 and ,hume cor4 ,developing the differences of the three4--,james ,brown cor4 ,when the singular ends in x1 ch soft1 sh1 ss1 or s1 we add es to form the plural4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,we shall present him a list or specimen of them4 ,it is very common to hear of the evils of pernicious reading1 how it enervates the mind1 or how it depraves the principles4--,dymond cor4 ,in this example1 the verb arises is understood before 'curiosity' and before 'knowledge4'--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,the connective is frequently omitted1 when several words have the same construction4--,wilcox cor4 ,he shall expel them from before you1 and drive them out from your sight4--,bible cor4 ,who makes his sun to shine and his rain to descend1 upon the just and the unjust4 ,or thus3 ,who makes his sun shine1 and his rain descend1 upon the just and the unjust4--,m',ilvaine cor4 ,,lesson ,x4--,,mixed ,,examples4 ,this sentence violates an established rule of grammar4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the words thou and shall are again reduced to syllables of short quantity4--,id4 ,have the greatest men always been the most popular8 ,by no means4--,lieber cor4 ,st4 ,paul positively stated1 that ',he that loveth an other1 hath fulfilled the law4'--,rom41 xiii1 #h4 ,more organs than one are concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant4--,m',culloch cor4 ,if the reader will pardon me for descending so low4--,campbell cor4 ,to adjust them in such a manner as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the grace of the period4 ,or3 ,to adjust them so1 that they shall consist equally1 c4--,dr4 ,blair and ,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,this class exhibits a lamentable inefficiency1 and a great want of simplicity4--,gardiner cor4 ,whose style1 in all its course1 flows like a limpid stream1 through which we see to the very bottom4--,dr4 ,blair cor42 also ,l4 ,murray4 ,we admit various ellipses4 ,or thus3 ,an ellipsis1 or omission1 of some words1 is frequently admitted4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,the ellipsis1 of articles may occur thus4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,sometimes the article a is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers2 as1 ',a magnificent house and gardens4'--,id4 ,in some very emphatical expressions1 no ellipsis should be allowed4--,id4 ,ellipses of the adjective may happen in the following manner4--,id4 ,the following examples show that there may be an ellipsis of the pronoun4--,id4 ,ellipses of the verb occur in the following instances4--,id4 ,ellipses of the adverb may occur in the following manner4--,id4 ,the following brief expressions are all of them elliptical4 #eed--;,id4 ,if no emphasis be placed on any words1 not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless1 but the meaning will often be left ambiguous4--,id42 also ,j4 ,s4 ,hart and ,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,he regards his word1 but thou dost not regard thine4--,bullions1 ,murray1 et al41 cor4 ,i have learned my task1 but you have not learned yours4--,iid4 ,when the omission of a word would obscure the sense1 weaken the expression1 or be attended with impropriety1 no ellipsis must be indulged4--,murray and ,weld cor4 ,and therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number1 and refers to them all separately and individually considered4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,he was to me the most intelligible of all who spoke on the subject4--,id4 ,i understood him better than ,i did any other who spoke on the subject4--,id4 ,the roughness found on the entrance into the paths of virtue and learning decreases as we advance4 ,or3 ,the roughnesses encountered in the paths of virtue and learning diminish as we advance4--,id4 ,there is nothing which more promotes knowledge1 than do steady application and habitual observation4--,id4 ,virtue confers on man the highest dignity of which he is capable2 it should therefore be the chief object of his desire4--,id4 and ,merchant cor4 ,the supreme ,author of our being has so formed the human soul1 that nothing but himself can be its last1 adequate1 and proper happiness4--,addison and ,blair cor4 ,the inhabitants of ,china laugh at the plantations of our ,europeans3 ',because1' say they1 'any one may place trees in equal rows and uniform figures4'--,iid4 ,the divine laws are not to be reversed by those of men4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,in both of these examples1 the relative which and the verb was are understood4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,the ,greek and ,latin languages1 though for many reasons they cannot be called dialects of one and the same tongue1 are nevertheless closely connected4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,to ascertain and settle whether a white rose or a red breathes the sweetest fragrance4 ,or thus3 ,to ascertain and settle which of the two breathes the sweeter fragrance1 a white rose or a red one4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams cor4 ,to which he can afford to devote but little of his time and labour4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,avoid extremes2 and shun the fault of such ,as still are pleased too little or too much4--,pope cor4 ,,lesson ,,xi4--,,of ,,bad ,,phrases4 ,he might as well leave his vessel to the direction of the winds4--,south cor4 ,without good-nature and gratitude1 men might as well live in a wilderness as in society4--,l',estrange cor4 ,and1 for this reason1 such lines very seldom occur together4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,his greatness did not make him happy4--,crombie cor4 ,let that which tends to cool your love1 be judged in all4--,crisp cor4 ,it is worth observing1 that there is no passion in the mind of man so weak but it mates and masters the fear of death4--,bacon cor4 ,accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid1 and makes it more audible than the rest4--,sheridan and ,murray cor4 ,before he proceeds to argue on either side4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the general change of manners1 throughout ,europe4--,id4 ,the sweetness and beauty of ,virgil's numbers1 through all his works4--,id4 ,the ,french writers of sermons1 study neatness and elegance in the division of their discourses4--,id4 ,this seldom fails to prove a refrigerant to passion4--,id4 ,but their fathers1 brothers1 and uncles1 cannot1 as good relations and good citizens1 excuse themselves for not standing forth to demand vengeance4--,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #aad4 ,alleging1 that their decrial of the church of ,rome1 was a uniting with the ,turks4--,barclay cor4 ,to which is added the ,catechism by the ,assembly of ,divines4--,n4 ,e4 ,prim4 cor4 ,this treachery was always present in the thoughts of both of them4-- ,robertson cor4 ,thus far their words agree4 ,or3 ,thus far the words of both agree4--,w4 ,walker cor4 ,aparithmesis is an enumeration of the several parts of what1 as a whole1 might be expressed in few words4--,gould cor4 ,aparithmesis1 or ,enumeration1 is a figure in which what might be expressed in a few words1 is branched out into several parts4--,dr4 ,adam cor4 ,which may sit from time to time1 where you dwell1 or in the vicinity4--,j4 ,o4 ,taylor cor4 ,place together a large-sized animal and a small one1 of the same species4 ,or3 ,place together a large and a small animal of the same species4--,kames cor4 ,the weight of the swimming body is equal to that of the quantity of fluid displaced by it4--,percival cor4 ,the ,subjunctive mood1 in all its tenses1 is similar to the ,optative4--,gwilt cor4 ,no feeling of obligation remains1 except that of an obligation to fidelity4--,wayland cor4 ,who asked him why whole audiences should be moved to tears at the representation of some story on the stage4--,sheridan cor4 ,are you not ashamed to affirm that the best works of the ,spirit of ,christ in his saints are as filthy rags8--,barclay cor4 ,a neuter verb becomes active1 when followed by a noun of kindred signification4--,sanborn cor4 ,but he has judged better in forbearing to repeat the article the4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,many objects please us1 and are thought highly beautiful1 which have scarcely any variety at all4--,id4 ,yet they sometimes follow them4--,emmons cor4 ,for ,i know of nothing more important in the whole subject1 than this doctrine of mood and tense4--,r4 ,johnson cor4 ,it is by no means impossible for an error to be avoided or suppressed4--,philol4 ,museum cor4 ,these are things of the highest importance to children and youth4--,murray cor4 ,he ought to have omitted the word many4 ,or3 ,he might better have omitted the word many4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,which might better have been separated4 ,or3 ,which ought rather to have been separated4--,id4 ,figures and metaphors1 therefore1 should never be used profusely4--,id4 and ,jam4 cor4 ,metaphors1 or other figures1 should never be used in too great abundance4--,murray and ,russell cor4 ,something like this has been alleged against ,tacitus4-- ,bolingbroke cor4 ,o thou1 whom all mankind in vain withstand1 ,who with the blood of each must one day stain thy hand6 --,sheffield cor4 ,,lesson ,,xii4--,,of ,,two ,,errors4 ,pronouns sometimes precede the terms which they represent4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,most prepositions originally denoted relations of place4--,lowth cor4 ,,which is applied to brute animals1 and to things without life4--,bullions cor4 ,what thing do they describe1 or of what do they tell the kind8--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,iron cannons1 as well as brass1 are now universally cast solid4--,jamieson cor4 ,we have philosophers1 more eminent perhaps than those of any other nation4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,this is a question about words only1 and one which common sense easily determines4--,id4 ,the low pitch of the voice1 is that which approaches to a whisper4--,id4 ,which1 as to the effect1 is just the same as to use no such distinctions at all4--,id4 ,these two systems1 therefore1 really differ from each other but very little4--,id4 ,it is needless to give many instances1 as examples occur so often4--,id4 ,there are many occasions on which this is neither requisite nor proper4--,id4 ,dramatic poetry divides itself into two forms1 comedy and tragedy4--,id4 ,no man ever rhymed with more exactness than he4 ,i4e41 than ,roscommon4--,editor of ,waller cor4 ,the ,doctor did not reap from his poetical labours a profit equal to that of his prose4--,johnson cor4 ,we will follow that which we find our fathers practised4 ,or3 ,we will follow that which we find to have been our fathers' practice4--,sale cor4 ,and ,i should deeply regret that ,i had published them4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,figures exhibit ideas with more vividness and power1 than could be given them by plain language4--,kirkham cor4 ,the allegory is finely drawn1 though the heads are various4--,spect4 cor4 ,i should not have thought it worthy of this place4 ,or3 ,i should not have thought it worthy of being placed here4--,crombie cor4 ,in this style1 ,tacitus excels all other writers1 ancient or modern4--,kames cor4 ,no other author1 ancient or modern1 possesses the art of dialogue so completely as ,shakspeare4-- ,id4 ,the names of all the things we see1 hear1 smell1 taste1 or feel1 are nouns4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,of what number are the expressions1 'these boys1' 'these pictures1' c48--,id4 ,this sentence has faults somewhat like those of the last4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,besides perspicuity1 he pursues propriety1 purity1 and precision1 in his language2 which qualities form one degree1 and no inconsiderable one1 of beauty4--,id4 ,many critical terms have unfortunately been employed in a sense too loose and vague2 none with less precision1 than the word sublime4--,id4 ,hence no word in the language is used with a more vague signification1 than the word beauty4--,id4 ,but still1 in speech1 he made use of general terms only4--,id4 ,these give life1 body1 and colouring1 to the facts recited2 and enable us to conceive of them as present1 and passing before our eyes4--,id4 ,which carried an ideal chivalry to a still more extravagant height1 than the adventurous spirit of knighthood had ever attained in fact4--,id4 ,we write much more supinely1 and with far less labour1 than did the ancients4--,id4 ,this appears indeed to form the characteristical difference between the ancient poets1 orators1 and historians1 and the modern4--,id4 ,to violate this rule1 as the ,english too often do1 shows great incorrectness4--,id4 ,it is impossible1 by means of any training1 to prevent them from appearing stiff and forced4--,id4 ,and it also gives to the speaker the disagreeable semblance of one who endeavours to compel assent4--,id4 ,and whenever a light or ludicrous anecdote is proper to be recorded1 it is generally better to throw it into a note1 than to run the hazard of becoming too familiar4--,id4 ,it is the great business of this life1 to prepare and qualify ourselves for the enjoyment of a better4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,from some dictionaries1 accordingly1 it was omitted2 and in others it is stigmatized as a barbarism4--,crombie cor4 ,you cannot see a thing1 or think of one1 the name of which is not a noun4--,mack cor4 ,all the fleet have arrived1 and are moored in safety4 ,or better3 ,the whole fleet has arrived1 and is moored in safety4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,,lesson ,,xiii4--,,of ,,two ,,errors4 ,they have severally their distinct and exactly-limited relations to gravity4--,hasler cor4 ,but where the additional s would give too much of the hissing sound1 the omission takes place even in prose4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,after o1 it the w is sometimes not sounded at all2 and sometimes it is sounded like a single u4--,lowth cor4 ,it is situation chiefly1 that decides the fortunes and characters of men4--,hume cor42 also ,murray4 ,the vice of covetousness is that vice which enters more deeply into the soul than any other4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,of all vices1 covetousness enters the most deeply into the soul4--,iid4 ,of all the vices1 covetousness is that which enters the most deeply into the soul4--,campbell cor4 ,the vice of covetousness is a fault which enters more deeply into the soul than any other4--,guardian cor4 ,,would primarily denotes inclination of will2 and ,,should1 obligation3 but they vary their import1 and are often used to express simple events4 ,or3--but both of them vary their import1 c4 ,or3--but both vary their import1 and are used to express simple events4--,lowth1 ,murray1 et al4 cor42 also ,comly and ,ingersoll2 likewise ,abel ,flint4 ,a double condition1 in two correspondent clauses of a sentence1 is sometimes made by the word ,,had2 as1 ',had he done this1 he had escaped4'--,murray and ,ingersoll cor4 ,the pleasures of the understanding are preferable to those of the imagination1 as well as to those of sense4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,claudian1 in a fragment upon the wars of the giants1 has contrived to render this idea of their throwing of the mountains1 which in itself has so much grandeur1 burlesque and ridiculous4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,to which not only no other writings are to be preferred1 but to which1 even in divers respects1 none are comparable4--,barclay cor4 ,to distinguish them in the understanding1 and treat of their several natures1 in the same cool manner that we use with regard to other ideas4--,sheridan cor4 ,for it has nothing to do with parsing1 or the analyzing of language4--,kirkham cor4 ,or3 ,for it has nothing to do with the parsing1 or analyzing1 of language4--,id4 ,neither has that language the ,latin ever been so common in ,britain4--,swift cor4 ,all that ,i purpose1 is1 to give some openings into the pleasures of taste4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,but the following sentences would have been better without it4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,but ,i think the following sentence would be better without it4 ,or3 ,but ,i think it should be expunged from the following sentence4-- ,priestley cor4 ,they appear1 in this case1 like ugly excrescences jutting out from the body4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,and therefore the fable of the ,harpies1 in the third book of the neid1 and the allegory of ,sin and ,death1 in the second book of ,paradise ,lost1 ought not to have been inserted in these celebrated poems4--,id4 ,ellipsis is an elegant suppression1 or omission1 of some word or words1 belonging to a sentence4--,brit4 ,gram4 and ,buchanan cor4 ,the article ,a or ,,an is not very proper in this construction4--,d4 ,blair cor4 ,now suppose the articles had not been dropped from these passages4--,bucke cor4 ,to have given a separate name to every one of those trees1 would have been an endless and impracticable undertaking4--,blair cor4 ,ei1 in general1 has the same sound as long and slender a4 ,or better3 ,ei generally has the sound of long or slender a4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,when a conjunction is used with apparent redundance1 the insertion of it is called ,polysyndeton4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,,each1 ,,every1 ,,either1 and ,,neither1 denote the persons or things that make up a number1 as taken separately or distributively4--,m',culloch cor4 ,the principal sentence must be expressed by a verb in the indicative1 imperative1 or potential mood--,s4 ,w4 ,clark cor4 ,hence he is diffuse1 where he ought to be urgent4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,all sorts of subjects admit of explanatory comparisons4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,the present or imperfect participle denotes being1 action1 or passion1 continued1 and not perfected4--,kirkham cor4 ,what are verbs8 ,those words which chiefly express what is said of things4--,fowle cor4 ,of all those arts in which the wise excel1 ,the very masterpiece is writing-well4--,sheffield cor4 ,such was that muse whose rules and practice tell1 ,that art's chief masterpiece is writing-well4--,pope cor4 ,,lesson ,,xiv4--,,of ,,three ,,errors4 ,from some words1 the metaphorical sense has justled out the original sense altogether2 so that1 in respect to the latter1 they have become obsolete4--,campbell cor4 ,surely1 never any other mortal was so overwhelmed with grief1 as ,i am at this present moment4--,sheridan cor4 ,all languages differ from one an other in their modes of inflection4--,bullions cor4 ,the noun and the verb are the only indispensable parts of speech3 the one1 to express the subject spoken of2 and the other1 the predicate1 or what is affirmed of the subject4--,m',culloch cor4 ,the words ,italicized in the last three examples1 perform the office of substantives4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,a sentence so constructed is always a mark of carelessness in the writer4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,nothing is more hurtful to the grace or the vivacity of a period1 than superfluous and dragging words at the conclusion4--,id4 ,when its substantive is not expressed with it1 but is referred to1 being understood4--,lowth cor4 ,yet they always have substantives belonging to them1 either expressed or understood4--,id4 ,because they define and limit the import of the common names1 or general terms1 to which they refer4--,id4 ,every new object surprises them1 terrifies them1 and makes a strong impression on their minds4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,his argument required a more full development1 in order to be distinctly apprehended1 and to have its due force4--,id4 ,those participles which are derived from active-transitive verbs1 will govern the objective case1 as do the verbs from which they are derived4--,emmons cor4 ,where1 in violation of the rule1 the objective case whom follows the verb1 while the nominative ,i precedes it4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,to use1 after the same conjunction1 both the indicative and the subjunctive mood1 in the same sentence1 and under the same circumstances1 seems to be a great impropriety4--,lowth1 ,murray1 et al4 cor4 ,a nice discernment of the import of words1 and an accurate attention to the best usage1 are necessary on these occasions4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans1 the former especially1 were1 in truth1 much more musical than we are2 their genius was more turned to take delight in the melody of speech4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,in general1 if the sense admits it early1 the sooner a circumstance is introduced1 the better2 that the more important and significant words may possess the last place1 and be quite disencumbered4--,murray et al4 cor42 also ,blair and ,jamieson4 ,thus we find it in both the ,greek and the ,latin tongue4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,several sentences1 constructed in the same manner1 and having the same number of members1 should never be allowed to come in succession4-- ,blair et al4 cor4 ,i proceed to lay down the rules to be observed in the conduct of metaphors2 and these1 with little variation1 will be applicable to tropes of every kind4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,by selecting words with a proper regard to their sounds1 we may often imitate other sounds which we mean to describe4--,dr4 ,blair and ,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,the disguise can scarcely be so perfect as to deceive4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the sense does not admit of any other pause1 than one after the second syllable 'sit2' this therefore must be the only pause made in the reading4--,id4 ,not that ,i believe ,north ,america to have been first peopled so lately as in the twelfth century1 the period of ,madoc's migration4--,webster cor4 ,money and commodities will always flow to that country in which they are most wanted1 and in which they will command the most profit4--,id4 ,that it contains no visible marks of certain articles which are of the utmost importance to a just delivery4--,sheridan cor4 ,and ,virtue1 from her beauty1 we call a fair and favourite maid4--,mack cor4 ,the definite article may relate to nouns of either number4--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,,lesson ,,xv4--,,of ,,many ,,errors4 7#a47 ,compound words are1 by ,l4 ,murray and others1 improperly included among the derivatives4--,l4 ,murray corrected4 7#b47 ,the ,apostrophe1 placed above the line1 thus '1 is used to abbreviate or shorten words4 ,but its chief use is1 to denote the possessive case of nouns4--,id4 7#c47 ,the ,hyphen1 made thus -1 connects the parts of compound words4 ,it is also used when a word is divided4--,id4 7#d47 ,the ,acute ,accent1 made thus 1 denotes the syllable on which stress is laid1 and sometimes also1 that the vowel is short3 as1 ',fncy4' ,the ,grave ,accent1 made thus 1 usually denotes1 7when applied to ,english words17 that the stress is laid where a vowel ends the syllable3 as1 ',fvour4'--,id4 7#e47 ,the stress is laid on long vowels or syllables1 and on short ones1 indiscriminately4 ,in order to distinguish the long or open vowels from the close or short ones1 some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave accent on the former1 and the acute on the latter4--,id4 7#f47 ,the ,diresis1 thus made 1 is placed over one of two contiguous vowels1 to show that they are not a diphthong4--,id4 7#g47 ,the ,section1 made thus 1 is sometimes used to mark the subdivisions of a discourse or chapter4--,id4 7#h47 ,the ,paragraph1 made thus 1 sometimes denotes the beginning of a new subject1 or of a passage not connected with the text preceding4 ,this character is now seldom used for such a purpose1 except in the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,or better3--except in the ,bible4--,id4 7#i47 ,the ,quotation ,points1 written thus 1 mark the beginning and the end of what is quoted or transcribed from some speaker or author1 in his own words4 ,in type1 they are inverted commas at the beginning1 apostrophes at the conclusion4--,id4 7#aj47 ,the ,brace was formerly used in poetry at the end of a triplet1 or where three lines rhymed together in heroic verse2 it also serves to connect several terms with one1 when the one is common to all1 and thus to prevent a repetition of the common term4--,id4 7#aa47 ,several asterisks put together1 generally denote the omission of some letters belonging to a word1 or of some bold or indelicate expression2 but sometimes they imply a defect in the manuscript from which the text is copied4--,id4 7#ab47 ,the ,ellipsis1 made thus ----1 or thus 999999991 is used where some letters of a word1 or some words of a verse1 are omitted4--,id4 7#ac47 ,the ,obelisk1 which is made thus ,obelisk2 and the ,parallels1 which are made thus 2 and sometimes the letters of the alphabet2 and also the ,arabic figures2 are used as references to notes in the margin1 or at the bottom1 of the page4--,id4 7#ad47 ,the note of interrogation should not be employed1 where it is only said that a question has been asked1 and where the words are not used as a question2 as1 ',the ,cyprians asked me why ,i wept4'--,id4 et al4 cor4 7#ae47 ,the note of interrogation is improper after mere expressions of admiration1 or of any other emotion1 though they may bear the form of questions4--,iid4 7#af47 ,the parenthesis incloses something which is thrown into the body of a sentence1 in an under tone2 and which affects neither the sense1 nor the construction1 of the main text4--,lowth cor4 7#ag47 ,simple members connected by a relative not used restrictively1 or by a conjunction that implies comparison1 are for the most part divided by the comma4--,id4 7#ah47 ,simple members1 or sentences1 connected as terms of comparison1 are for the most part separated by the comma4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 7#ai47 ,simple sentences connected by a comparative particle1 are for the most part divided by the comma4--,russell cor4 7#bj47 ,simple sentences or clauses connected to form a comparison1 should generally be parted by the comma4--,merchant cor4 7#ba47 ,the simple members of sentences that express contrast or comparison1 should generally be divided by the comma4--,jaudon cor4 7#bb47 ,the simple members of a comparative sentence1 when they are long1 are separated by a comma4--,cooper cor4 7#bc47 ,simple sentences connected to form a comparison1 or phrases placed in opposition1 or contrast1 are usually separated by the comma4--,hiley and ,bullions cor4 7#bd47 ,on whichever word we lay the emphasis1--whether on the first1 the second1 the third1 or the fourth1--every change of it strikes out a different sense4--,l4 ,murray cor4 7#be47 ,to say to those who do not understand sea phrases1 ',we tacked to the larboard1 and stood off to sea1' would give them little or no information4--,murray and ,hiley cor4 7#bf47 ,of those dissyllables which are sometimes nouns and sometimes verbs1 it may be observed1 that the verb is commonly accented on the latter syllable1 and the noun on the former4--,l4 ,murray cor4 7#bg47 ,and this gives to our language an advantage over most others1 in the poetical or rhetorical style4--,id4 et al4 cor4 7#bh47 ,and this gives to the ,english language an advantage over most others1 in the poetical and the rhetorical style4--,lowth cor4 7#bi47 ,the second and the third scholar may read the same sentence2 or as many may repeat the text1 as are necessary to teach it perfectly to the whole class4--,osborn cor4 7#cj47 ,bliss is the same1 in subject1 or in king1 ,in who obtain defence1 or who defend4 --,pope's ,essay on ,man1 ,,iv1 #eh4 ,,lesson ,,xvi4--,,of ,,many ,,errors4 ,the ,japanese1 the ,tonquinese1 and the ,coreans1 speak languages differing from one an other1 and from that of the inhabitants of ,china2 while all use the same written characters1 and1 by means of them1 correspond intelligibly with one an other in writing1 though ignorant of the language spoken by their correspondents3 a plain proof1 that the ,chinese characters are like hieroglyphics1 and essentially independent of language4--,jamieson cor42 also ,dr4 ,blair4 ,the curved line1 in stead of remaining round1 is changed to a square one1 for the reason before mentioned4--,knight cor4 ,every reader should content himself with the use of those tones only1 that he is habituated to in speech2 and should give to the words no other emphasis1 than what he would give to the same words1 in discourse4 ,or1 perhaps the author meant3--and should give to the emphatic words no other intonation1 than what he would give1 c4 ,thus1 whatever he utters1 will be delivered with ease1 and will appear natural4--,sheridan cor4 ,a stop1 or pause1 is a total cessation of sound1 during a perceptible1 and1 in musical or poetical compositions1 a measurable space of time4-- ,id4 ,pauses1 or rests1 in speaking or reading1 are total cessations of the voice1 during perceptible1 and1 in many cases1 measurable spaces of time4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,those derivative nouns which denote small things of the kind named by their primitives1 are called ,diminutive ,nouns3 as1 lambkin1 hillock1 satchel1 gosling2 from lamb1 hill1 sack1 goose4--,bullions cor4 ,why is it1 that nonsense so often escapes detection1 its character not being perceived either by the writer or by the reader8--,campbell cor4 ,an ,interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion4 ,interjections are so called1 because they are generally thrown in between the parts of discourse1 and have no reference to the structure of those parts4--,m',culloch cor4 ,the verb ,,ought has no other inflection than ,,oughtest1 and this is nearly obsolete4-- ,macintosh cor4 ,but the arrangement1 government1 and agreement of words1 and also their dependence upon others1 are referred to our reason4--,osborn cor4 ,,me is a personal pronoun1 of the first person1 singular number1 and objective case4--,guy cor4 ,the noun ,,self is usually added to a pronoun2 as1 herself1 himself1 c4 ,the compounds thus formed are called reciprocal pronouns4-- ,id4 ,one cannot but think1 that our author would have done better1 had he begun the first of these three sentences1 with saying1 ',it is novelty1 that bestows charms on a monster4'--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the idea which they present to us1 of nature resembling art1 of art considered as an original1 and nature as a copy1 seems not very distinct1 or well conceived1 nor indeed very material to our author's purpose4--,id4 ,this faulty construction of the sentence1 evidently arose from haste and carelessness4--,id4 ,adverbs serve to modify terms of action or quality1 or to denote time1 place1 order1 degree1 or some other circumstance which we have occasion to specify4--,id4 ,we may naturally expect1 that the more any nation is improved by science1 and the more perfect its language becomes1 the more will that language abound with connective particles4--,id4 ,mr4 ,greenleaf's book is far better adapted to the capacity of learners1 than any other that has yet appeared1 on the subject4--,feltus and ,onderdonk's false praise ,englished4 ,punctuation is the art of marking1 in writing or in print1 the several pauses1 or rests1 which separate sentences1 or the parts of sentences2 so as to denote their proper quantity or proportion1 as it is exhibited in a just and accurate delivery4--,lowth cor4 ,a compound sentence must generally be resolved into simple ones1 and these be separated by the comma4 ,or better3 ,a compound sentence is generally divided1 by the comma1 into its simple members4--,greenleaf and ,fisk cor4 ,simple sentences should in general be separated from one an other by the comma1 unless a greater point is required2 as1 ',youth is passing away1 age is approaching1 and death is near4'--,s4 ,r4 ,hall cor4 ,v has always one uniform sound1 which is that of f flattened1 as in thieve from thief3 thus v bears to f the same relation that b does to p1 d to t1 hard g to k1 or z to s4--,l4 ,murray and ,fisk cor42 also ,walker2 also ,greenleaf4 ,the author is explaining the difference between sense and imagination1 as powers of the human mind4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,or1 if this was the critic's meaning3 ,the author is endeavouring to explain a very abstract point1 the distinction between the powers of sense and those of imagination1 as two different faculties of the human mind4-- ,id42 also ,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,,he--7from the ,anglo-,saxon ,,he--7 is a personal pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4 ,decline ,,he4--,fowler cor4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,the ,,critical ,,notes4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,i4--,,of ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,the passive voice denotes an action received4 ,or3 ,the passive voice denotes the receiving of an action4--,maunder corrected4 ,milton1 in some of his prose works1 has many very finely-turned periods4--,dr4 ,blair and ,alex4 ,jam4 cor4 ,these will be found to be wholly1 or chiefly1 of that class4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,all appearances of an author's affecting of harmony1 are disagreeable4--,id4 and ,jam4 cor4 ,some nouns have a double increase2 that is1 they increase by more syllables than one3 as iter1 itineris4--,adam et al4 cor4 ,the powers of man are enlarged by progressive cultivation4--,gurney cor4 ,it is always important to begin well2 to make a favourable impression at the first setting out4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,for if one take a wrong method at his first setting-out1 it will lead him astray in all that follows4-- ,id4 ,his mind is full of his subject1 and all his words are expressive4-- ,id4 ,how exquisitely is all this performed in ,greek6--,harris cor4 ,how unworthy is all this to satisfy the ambition of an immortal soul6--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,so as to exhibit the object in its full grandeur1 and its most striking point of view4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,and that the author know how to descend with propriety to the plain style1 as well as how to rise to the bold and figured4-- ,id4 ,the heart alone can answer to the heart4-- ,id4 ,upon the first perception of it4 ,or3 ,as it is first perceived4--,harris cor4 ,call for ,samson1 that he may make sport for us4--,bible cor4 ,and he made sport before them4-- ,id4 ,the term 'to suffer1' in this definition1 is used in a technical sense2 and means simply1 to receive an action1 or to be acted upon4--,bullions cor4 ,the text only is what is meant to be taught in schools4--,brightland cor4 ,the perfect participle denotes action or existence perfected or finished4--,kirkham cor4 ,from the intricacy and confusion which are produced when they are blended together4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,this very circumstance1 that the word is employed antithetically renders it important in the sentence4--,kirkham cor4 ,it the pronoun that1 is applied both to persons and to things4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,concerning us1 as being everywhere traduced4--,barclay cor4 ,every thing else was buried in a profound silence4--,steele cor4 ,they raise fuller conviction1 than any reasonings produce4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,it appears to me nothing but a fanciful refinement4 ,or3 ,it appears to me nothing more than a fanciful refinement-- ,id4 ,the regular and thorough resolution of a complete passage4--,churchill cor4 ,the infinitive is distinguished by the word ,,to1 which immediately precedes it4--,maunder cor4 ,it will not be a gain of much ground1 to urge that the basket1 or vase1 is understood to be the capital4--,kames cor4 ,the disgust one has to drink ink in reality1 is not to the purpose1 where the drinking of it is merely figurative4-- ,id4 ,that we run not into the extreme of pruning so very closely4--,see ,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cah4 ,being obliged to rest for a little while on the preposition itself4 ,or3 ,being obliged to rest a while on the preposition itself4 ,or3 ,being obliged to rest for a moment on the preposition alone4--,blair and ,jam4 cor4 ,our days on the earth are as a shadow1 and there is no abiding4--,bible cor4 ,there may be attempted a more particular expression of certain objects1 by means of imitative sounds4--,blair1 ,jam41 and ,mur4 cor4 ,the right disposition of the shade1 makes the light and colouring the more apparent4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,i observe that a diffuse style is apt to run into long periods4-- ,id4 ,their poor arguments1 which they only picked up in the highways4--,leslie cor4 ,which must be little else than a transcribing of their writings4--,barclay cor4 ,that single impulse is a forcing-out of almost all the breath4 ,or3 ,that single impulse forces out almost all the breath4--,hush cor4 ,picini compares modulation to the turning-off from a road4--,gardiner cor4 ,so much has been written on and off almost every subject4--,sophist cor4 ,by the reading of books written by the best authors1 his mind became highly improved4 ,or3 ,by the study of the most instructive books1 his mind became highly improved4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,for ,i never made a rich provision a token of a spiritual ministry4--,barclay cor4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,ii4--,,of ,,doubtful ,,reference4 ,however disagreeable the task1 we must resolutely perform our duty4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the formation of all ,english verbs1 whether they be regular or irregular1 is derived from the ,saxon tongue4--,lowth cor4 ,time and chance have an influence on all things human1 and nothing do they affect more remarkably than language4--,campbell cor4 ,time and chance have an influence on all things human1 and on nothing a more remarkable influence than on language4--,jamieson cor4 ,that ,archytases1 who was a virtuous man1 happened to perish once upon a time1 is with him a sufficient ground4 c4--,phil ,mu4 cor4 ,he will be the better qualified to understand the meaning of the numerous words into which they enter as material parts4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,we should continually have the goal in view1 that it may direct us in the race4-- ,id4 ,but ,addison's figures seem to rise of their own accord from the subject and constantly to embellish it ,or3--and they constantly embellish it4--,blair and ,jam4 cor4 ,so far as they signify persons1 animals1 and things that we can see1 it is very easy to distinguish nouns4--,cobbett cor4 ,dissyllables ending in y or mute e1 or accented on the final syllable1 may sometimes be compared like monosyllables4--,frost cor4 ,if the foregoing objection be admitted1 it will not overrule the design4--,rush cor4 ,these philosophical innovators forget1 that objects1 like men1 are known only by their actions4--,dr4 ,murray cor4 ,the connexion between words and ideas1 is arbitrary and conventional2 it has arisen mainly from the agreement of men among themselves4--,jamieson cor4 ,the connexion between words and ideas1 may in general be considered as arbitrary and conventional1 or as arising from the agreement of men among themselves4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt1 and who had great abilities to manage and multiply and defend his corruptions4--,swift cor4 ,they have no more control over him than have any other men4--,wayland cor4 ,all his old words are true ,english1 and his numbers are exquisite4--,spect4 cor4 ,it has been said1 that not ,jesuits only can equivocate4--,mur4 in ,ex4 and ,key1 cor4 ,in ,latin1 the nominative of the first or second person1 is seldom expressed4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,some words have the same form in both numbers4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,some nouns have the same form in both numbers4--,merchant et al4 cor4 ,others have the same form in both numbers2 as1 deer1 sheep1 swine4--,frost cor4 ,the following list denotes the consonant sounds1 of which there are twenty-two4 ,or3 ,the following list denotes the twenty-two simple sounds of the consonants4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,and is the ignorance of these peasants a reason for other persons to remain ignorant2 or does it render the subject the less worthy of our inquiry8--,harris and ,mur4 cor4 ,he is one of the most correct1 and perhaps he is the best1 of our prose writers4--,lowth cor4 ,the motions of a vortex and of a whirlwind are perfectly similar4 ,or3 ,the motion of a vortex and that of a whirlwind are perfectly similar4--,jamieson cor4 ,what ,i have been saying1 throws light upon one important verse in the ,bible2 which verse ,i should like to hear some one read4--,abbott cor4 ,when there are any circumstances of time1 place1 and the like1 by which the principal terms of our sentence must be limited or qualified4--,blair1 ,jam4 and ,mur4 cor4 ,interjections are words that express emotion1 affection1 or passion1 and that imply suddenness4 ,or3 ,interjections express emotion1 affection1 or passion1 and imply suddenness4--,bucke cor4 ,but the genitive expressing the measure of things1 is used in the plural number only4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,the buildings of the institution have been enlarged2 and an expense has been incurred1 which1 with the increased price of provisions1 renders it necessary to advance the terms of admission4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,these sentences are far less difficult than complex ones4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene cor4 ,far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife ,they sober lived1 nor ever wished to stray4--,gray cor4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,iii4--,,of ,,definitions4 7#a47 ,a definition is a short and lucid description of a thing1 or species1 according to its nature and properties4--,g4 ,,brown3 ,rev4 ,david ,blair cor4 7#b47 ,language1 in general1 signifies the expression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds1 or written words1 which are used as the signs of those ideas4--,dr4 ,hugh ,blair cor4 7#c47 ,a word is one or more syllables used by common consent as the sign of an idea4--,bullions cor4 7#d47 ,a word is one or more syllables used as the sign of an idea1 or of some manner of thought4--,hazen cor4 7#e47 ,words are articulate sounds1 or their written signs1 used to convey ideas4--,hiley cor4 7#f47 ,a word is one or more syllables used orally or in writing1 to represent some idea4--,hart cor4 7#g47 ,a word is one or more syllables used as the sign of an idea4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark cor4 7#h47 ,a word is a letter or a combination of letters1 a sound or a combination of sounds1 used as the sign of an idea4--,wells cor4 7#i47 ,words are articulate sounds1 or their written signs1 by which ideas are communicated4--,wright cor4 7#aj47 ,words are certain articulate sounds1 or their written representatives1 used by common consent as signs of our ideas4--,bullions1 ,lowth1 ,murray1 et al4 cor4 7#aa47 ,words are sounds or written symbols used as signs of our ideas4--,w4 ,allen cor4 7#ab47 ,orthography literally means correct writing--,kirkham and ,smith cor4 ,the word orthography stands for different things3 as1 #a4 ,the art or practice of writing words with their proper letters2 #b4 ,that part of grammar which treats of letters1 syllables1 separate words1 and spelling4 7#ac47 ,a vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone4--,inst41 p4 #af2 ,hazen1 ,lennie1 and ,brace1 cor4 7#ad-ah47 ,spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters4--,g4 ,,brown3 ,lowth and ,churchill cor42 also ,murray1 ,ing4 et al42 also ,comly2 also ,bullions2 also ,kirkham and ,sanborn4 7#ai47 ,a syllable is one or more letters1 pronounced by a single impulse of the voice1 and constituting a word1 or part of a word4--,lowth1 ,mur41 et al41 cor4 7#bj47 ,a syllable is a letter or a combination of letters1 uttered in one complete sound4--,brit4 ,gram4 and ,buch4 cor4 7#ba47 ,a syllable is one or more letters representing a distinct sound1 or what is uttered by a single impulse of the voice4--,kirkham cor4 7#bb47 ,a syllable is so much of a word as is sounded at once1 whether it be the whole or a part4--,bullions cor4 7#bc47 ,a syllable is so many letters as are sounded at once2 and is either a word1 or a part of a word4--,picket cor4 7#bd47 ,a diphthong is a union of two vowels in one syllable1 as in bear and beat4--,bucke cor4 ,or3 ,a diphthong is the meeting of two vowels in one syllable4--,brit4 ,gram41 p4 #ae2 ,buchanan's1 #c4 7#be47 ,a diphthong consists of two vowels put together in one syllable2 as ea in beat1 oi in voice4--,guy cor4 7#bf47 ,a triphthong consists of three vowels put together in one syllable2 as1 eau in beauty4--,id4 7#bg47 ,but a triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable4--,bucke cor4 ,or3 ,a triphthong is the meeting of three vowels in one syllable4--,british ,gram41 p4 #ba2 ,buchanan's1 #c4 7#bh47 ,what is a noun8 ,a noun is the name of something2 as1 a man1 a boy4--,brit4 ,gram4 and ,buchanan cor4 7#bi47 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 to describe the object named or referred to4--,maunder cor4 7#cj47 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 to describe or define the object mentioned4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 7#ca47 ,an adjective is a word which1 without assertion or time1 serves to describe or define something2 as1 a good man1 every boy4--,wilcox cor4 7#cb47 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun1 and generally expresses a quality4--,mur4 and ,lowth cor4 7#cc47 ,an adjective expresses the quality1 not of the noun or pronoun to which it is applied1 but of the person or thing spoken of2 and it may generally be known by the sense which it thus makes in connexion with its noun2 as1 ',a good man1' ',a genteel woman4'--,wright cor4 7#cd47 ,an adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb4--,wilcox cor4 7#ce47 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb1 to modify the sense1 or denote some circumstance4--,bullions cor4 7#cf47 ,a substantive1 or noun1 is a name given to some object which the senses can perceive1 the understanding comprehend1 or the imagination entertain4--,wright cor4 7#cg-ed47 ,genders are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #ce3 ,bullions cor43 also ,frost2 also ,perley2 also ,cooper2 also ,l4 ,murray et al42 also ,alden et al42 also ,brit4 ,gram41 with ,buchanan2 also ,fowle2 also ,burn2 also ,webster2 also ,coar2 also ,hall2 also ,wright2 also ,fisher2 also ,w4 ,allen2 also ,parker and ,fox2 also ,weld2 also ,weld again4 7#ee and #ef47 ,a case1 in grammar1 is the state or condition of a noun or pronoun1 with respect to some other word in the sentence4--,bullions cor42 also ,kirkham4 7#eg47 ,cases are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #cf4 7#eh47 ,government is the power which one word has over an other1 to cause it to assume some particular modification4--,sanborn et al4 cor4 ,see ,inst41 p4 #ajd4 7#ei47 ,a simple sentence is a sentence which contains only one assertion1 command1 or question4--,sanborn et al4 cor4 7#fj47 ,declension means the putting of a noun or pronoun through the different cases and numbers4--,kirkham cor4 ,or better3 ,the declension of a word is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases4--,see ,inst41 p4 #cg4 7#fa47 ,zeugma is a figure in which two or more words refer in common to an other which literally agrees with only one of them4--,b4 ,f4 ,fish cor4 7#fb47 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed2 as1 smite1 smote1 smitten4--,inst41 p4 #ge4 7#fc74 ,a personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4--,inst41 p4 #df4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,iv4--,,of ,,comparisons4 ,our language abounds more in vowel and diphthong sounds1 than most other tongues4 ,or3 ,we abound more in vowel and diphthongal sounds1 than most nations4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,a line thus accented has a more spirited air1 than one which takes the accent on any other syllable4--,kames cor4 ,homer introduces his deities with no greater ceremony1 that what he uses towards mortals2 and ,virgil has still less moderation than he4--,id4 ,which the more refined taste of later writers1 whose genius was far inferior to theirs1 would have taught them to avoid4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,as a poetical composition1 however1 the ,book of ,job is not only equal to any other of the sacred writings1 but is superior to them all1 except those of ,isaiah alone4--,id4 ,on the whole1 ,paradise ,lost is a poem which abounds with beauties of every kind1 and which justly entitles its author to be equalled in fame with any poet4--,id4 ,most of the ,french writers compose in short sentences2 though their style1 in general1 is not concise2 commonly less so than that of most ,english writers1 whose sentences are much longer4--,id4 ,the principles of the ,reformation were too deeply fixed in the prince's mind1 to be easily eradicated4--,hume cor4 ,whether they do not create jealousy and animosity1 more than sufficient to counterbalance the benefit derived from them4--,leo ,wolf cor4 ,the ,scotch have preserved the ancient character of their music more entire1 than have the inhabitants of any other country4--,gardiner cor4 ,when the time or quantity of one syllable exceeds that of the rest1 that syllable readily receives the accent4--,rush cor4 ,what then can be more obviously true1 than that it should be made as just as we can make it4--,dymond cor4 ,it was not likely that they would criminate themselves more than1 they could not avoid4--,clarkson cor4 ,in their understandings they were the most acute people that have ever lived4--,knapp cor4 ,the patentees have printed it with neat types1 and upon better paper than was used formerly4--,john ,ward cor4 ,in reality1 its relative use is not exactly like that of any other word4--,felch cor4 ,thus1 in stead of having to purchase two books1--the ,grammar and the ,exercises1--the learner finds both in one1 for a price at most not greater than that of the others4--,alb4 ,argus cor4 ,they are not improperly regarded as pronouns1 though they are less strictly such than the others4--,bullions cor4 ,we have had1 as will readily be believed1 a much better opportunity of becoming conversant with the case1 than the generality of our readers can be supposed to have had4--,brit4 ,friend cor4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,v4--,,of ,,falsities4 ,the long sound of i is like a very quick union of the sound of a1 as heard in bar1 and that of e1 as heard in be4--,churchill cor4 ,the omission of a word necessary to grammatical propriety1 is of course an impropriety1 and not a true ellipsis4--,priestley cor4 ,not every substantive1 or noun1 is necessarily of the third person4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,a noun is in the third person1 when the subject is merely spoken of2 and in the second person1 when the subject is spoken to2 and in the first person1 when it names the speaker as such4--,nutting cor4 ,with us1 no nouns are literally of the masculine or the feminine gender1 except the names of male and female creatures4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the apostrophe is a little mark1 either denoting the possessive case of nouns1 or signifying that something is shortened3 as1 ',william's hat2'--'the learn'd1' for 'the learned4'--,inf4 ,s4 ,gram4 cor4 ,when a word beginning with a vowel coupled with one beginning with a consonant1 the indefinite article must not be repeated1 if the two words be adjectives belonging to one and the same noun2 thus1 ',sir ,matthew ,hale was a noble and impartial judge2'--',pope was an elegant and nervous writer4'--,maunder cor4#eee ,w and y are consonants1 when they precede a vowel heard in the same syllable3 in every other situation1 they are vowels4--,l4 ,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,see ,inst41 p4 #af4 ,the is not varied before adjectives and substantives1 let them begin as they will4--,bucke cor4 ,a few ,english prepositions1 and many which we have borrowed from other languages1 are often prefixed to words1 in such a manner as to coalesce with them1 and to become parts of the compounds or derivatives thus formed4--,lowth cor4 ,h1 at the beginning of syllables not accented1 is weaker1 but not entirely silent2 as in historian1 widowhood4--,rev4 ,d4 ,blair cor4 ,not every word that will make sense with to before it1 is a verb2 for to may govern nouns1 pronouns1 or participles4--,kirkham cor4 ,most verbs do1 in reality1 express actions2 but they are not intrinsically the mere names of actions3 these must of course be nouns4--,id4 ,the nominative denotes the actor or subject2 and the verb1 the action which is performed or received by this actor or subject4--,id4 ,but if only one creature or thing acts1 more than one action may1 at the same instant1 be done2 as1 ',the girl not only holds her pen badly1 but scowls and distorts her features1 while she writes4'--,id4 ,nor is each of these verbs of the singular number because it denotes but one action which the girl performs1 but because the subject or nominative is of the singular number1 and the words must agree4--,id4 ,and when ,i say1 ',two men walk1' is it not equally apparent1 that walk is plural because it agrees with men8--,id4 ,the subjunctive mood is formed by using the simple verb in a suppositive sense1 and without personal inflection4--,beck cor4 ,the possessive case of nouns1 except in instances of apposition or close connexion1 should always be distinguished by the apostrophe4--,frost cor4 ',at these proceedings of the ,commons3' ,here of is a sign of the objective case2 and ',commons' is of that case1 being governed by this preposition4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,here let it be observed again1 that1 strictly speaking1 all finite verbs have numbers and persons2 and so have nearly all nouns and pronouns1 even when they refer to irrational creatures and inanimate things4--,barrett cor4 ,the noun denoting the person or persons addressed or spoken to1 is in the nominative case independent3 except it be put in apposition with a pronoun of the second person2 as1 ',woe to you lawyers2'--',you political men are constantly manoeuvring4'--,frost cor4 ,every noun1 when used in a direct address and set off by a comma1 becomes of the second person1 and is in the nominative case absolute2 as1 ',paul1 thou art beside thyself4--,jaudon cor4 ,does the conjunction ever join words together8 ,yes2 the conjunction sometimes joins words together1 and sometimes sentences1 or certain parts of sentences4--,brit4 ,gram4 cor42 also ,buchanan4 ,every noun of the possessive form has a governing noun1 expressed or understood3 as1 ,st4 ,james's4 ,here ,palace is understood4 ,but one possessive may govern an other2 as1 ',william's father's house4'--,buchanan cor4 ,every adjective 7with the exceptions noted under ,rule #ith7 belongs to a noun or pronoun expressed or understood4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,not every adjective qualifies a substantive1 expressed or understood4--,bullions cor4 ,not every adjective belongs to a noun expressed or understood4--,ingersoll cor4 ,adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns1 and serve to describe things4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,english adjectives1 in general1 have no modifications in which they can agree with the nouns to which they relate4--,allen ,fisk cor4 ,the adjective1 if it denote unity or plurality1 must agree with its substantive in number4--,buchanan cor4 ,not every adjective and participle1 by a vast many1 belongs to some noun or pronoun1 expressed or understood4--,frost cor4 ,not every verb of the infinitive mood1 supposes a verb before it1 expressed or understood4--,buchanan cor4 ,nor has every adverb its verb1 expressed or understood2 for some adverbs relate to participles1 to adjectives1 or to other adverbs4--,id4 ,a conjunction that connects one sentence to an other1 is not always placed betwixt the two propositions or sentences which it unites4--,id4 ,the words for all that1 are by no means 'low2' but the putting of this phrase for yet or still1 is neither necessary nor elegant4--,l4 ,murray cor42 also ,dr4 ,priestley4 ,the reader or hearer then understands from ,,and1 that the author adds one proposition1 number1 or thing1 to an other4 ,thus ,,and often1 very often1 connects one thing with an other thing1 or one word with an other word4--,james ,brown cor4 ',six ,,and six are twelve4' ,here it is affirmed1 that the two sixes added together are twelve4--,id4 ',john ,,and his wife have six children4' ,this is an instance in which ,,and connects two nominatives in a simple sentence4 ,it is not here affirmed that ,john has six children1 and that his wife has six other children4--,id4 ,that ',nothing can be great which is not right1' is itself a great falsity3 there are great blunders1 great evils1 great sins4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the highest degree of reverence should be paid to the most exalted virtue or goodness4--,id4 ,there is in all minds some knowledge1 or understanding4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,formerly1 the nominative and objective cases of our pronouns1 were more generally distinguished in practice1 than they now are4--,kirkham cor4 ,as it respects a choice of words and expressions1 the just rules of grammar may materially aid the learner4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene cor4 ,the name of whatever exists1 or is conceived to exist1 is a noun4--,fowler cor4 ,as not all men are brave1 brave is itself distinctive4--,id4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,vi4--,,of ,,absurdities4 7#a47 ,and sometimes two unaccented syllables come together4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 7#b47 ,what nouns frequently stand together8 ,or3 ,what nouns are frequently used one after an other8--,sanborn cor4 7#c47 ,words are derived from other words in various ways4--,idem et al4 cor4 7#d47 ,the name ,,preposition is derived from the two ,latin words pr and pono1 which signify before and place4--,mack cor4 7#e47 ,he was much laughed at for such conduct4--,bullions cor4 7#f47 ,every pronominal adjective belongs to some noun1 expressed or understood4--,ingersoll cor4 7#g47 ,if he ,addison fails in any thing1 it is in strength and precision2 the want of which renders his manner not altogether a proper model4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 7#h47 ,indeed1 if ,horace is deficient in any thing his fault is this1 of not being sufficiently attentive to juncture1 or the connexion of parts4--,id4 7#i47 ,the pupil is now supposed to be acquainted with the ten parts of speech1 and their most usual modifications4--,taylor cor4 7#aj47 ,i could see1 feel1 taste1 and smell the rose4--,sanborn cor4 7#aa47 ,the vowels iou are sometimes pronounced distinctly in two syllables2 as in various1 abstemious2 but not in bilious4--,murray and ,walker cor4 7#ab47 ,the diphthong aa generally sounds like a short2 as in ,balaam1 ,canaan1 ,isaac2 in ,bal and ,gal1 we make no diphthong4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 7#ac47 ,participles cannot be said to be 'governed by the article2' for any participle1 with an article before it1 becomes a substantive1 or an adjective used substantively3 as1 the learning1 the learned4--,id4 7#ad47 ,from words ending with y preceded by a consonant1 we form the plurals of nouns1 the persons of verbs1 agent nouns1 perfect participles1 comparatives1 and superlatives1 by changing the y into i1 and adding es1 ed1 er1 eth1 or est4--,walker1 ,murray1 et al4 cor4 7#ae47 ,but y preceded by a vowel1 remains unchanged1 in the derivatives above named2 as1 boy1 boys4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 7#af47 ,but when the final y is preceded by a vowel1 it remains unchanged before an additional syllable2 as1 coy1 coyly4--,iid4 7#ag47 ,but y preceded by a vowel1 remains unchanged1 in almost all instances2 as1 coy1 coyly4--,kirkham cor4 7#ah47 ,sentences are of two kinds1 simple and compound4--,wright cor4 7#ai47 ,the neuter pronoun it may be employed to introduce a nominative of any person1 number1 or gender3 as1 ',it is he3'--',it is she2'--',it is they2'--',it is the land4'--,bucke cor4 7#bj and #ba47 ,it is and it was1 are always singular2 but they may introduce words of a plural construction3 as1 ',it was the heretics that first began to rail4' ,,smollett4--,merchant cor42 also ,priestley et al4 7#bb47 ,w and y1 as consonants1 have each of them one sound4--,town cor4 7#bc47 ,the word as is frequently a relative pronoun4--,bucke cor4 7#bd47 ,from a series of clauses1 the conjunction may sometimes be omitted with propriety4--,merchant cor4 7#be47 ,if1 however1 the two members are very closely connected1 the comma is unnecessary2 as1 ',revelation tells us how we may attain happiness4'--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 7#bf-bg47 ,the mind has difficulty in taking effectually1 in quick succession1 so many different views of the same object4--,dr4 ,blair cor42 also ,l4 ,mur4 7#bh47 ,pronominal adjectives are a kind of definitives1 which may either accompany their nouns1 or represent them understood4--,kirkham cor4 7#bi47 ,when the nominative or antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality1 the verb or pronoun must agree with it in the plural number4--,id4 et al4 cor4 7#cj-cd47 ,a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the name of the thing possessed4-- ,brown's ,inst41 p4 #agf2 ,greenleaf cor42 also ,wilbur and ,livingston2 also ,goldsbury2 also ,p4 ,e4 ,day2 also ,kirkham1 ,frazee1 and ,miller4 7#ce47 ,here the boy is represented as acting3 the word boy is therefore in the nominative case4--,kirkham cor4 7#cf47 ,do1 be1 have1 and will1 are sometimes auxiliaries1 and sometimes principal verbs4--,cooper cor4 7#cg47 ,names of males are masculine4 ,names of females are feminine4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aj2 ,beck cor4 7#ch47 ',to-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's4' ,here to-day's and yesterday's are substantives4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 7#ci47 ,in this example1 to-day's and yesterday's are nouns in the possessive case4--,kirkham cor4 7#dj47 ,an ,indian in ,britain would be much surprised to find by chance an elephant feeding at large in the open fields4--,kames cor4 7#da47 ,if we were to contrive a new language1 we might make any articulate sound the sign of any idea3 apart from previous usage1 there would be no impropriety in calling oxen men1 or rational beings oxen4--,l4 ,murray cor4 7#db47 ,all the parts of a sentence should form a consistent whole4--,id et al4 cor4 7#dc47 ,full through his neck the weighty falchion sped1 ,along the pavement rolled the culprit's head4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,vii4--,,of ,,self-,,contradiction4 7#a47 ,though ',the king1 with the lords and commons1' must have a singular rather than a plural verb1 the sentence would certainly stand better thus3 ',the king1 the lords1 and the commons1 form an excellent constitution4'--,mur4 and ,ing4 cor4 7#b-c47 ,l has a soft liquid sound2 as in love1 billow1 quarrel4 ,this letter is sometimes silent2 as in half1 task sic for 'talk'--,,kth1 psalm4--,mur4 and ,fisk cor42 also ,kirkham4 7#d47 ,the words means and amends1 though regularly derived from the singulars mean and amend1 are not now1 even by polite writers1 restricted to the plural number4 ,our most distinguished modern authors often say1 'by this means1' as well as1 'by these means4'--,wright cor4 7#e47 ,a friend exaggerates a man's virtues2 an enemy1 his crimes4--,mur4 cor4 7#f47 ,the auxiliary have1 or any form of the perfect tense1 belongs not properly to the subjunctive mood4 ,we suppose past facts by the indicative3 as1 ,if ,i have loved1 ,if thou hast loved1 c4--,merchant cor4 7#g47 ,there is also an impropriety in using both the indicative and the subjunctive mood with the same conjunction2 as1 ',if a man have a hundred sheep1 and one of them is gone astray1' c4 ,this is ,merchant's perversion of the text4 ,it should be1 'and one of them go astray3' or1 'be gone astray1' as in ,matt41 xviii4 #ab4--;,id4 7#h47 ,the rising series of contrasts conveys transcendent dignity and energy to the conclusion4--,jamieson cor4 7#i47 ,a groan or a shriek is instantly understood1 as a language extorted by distress1 a natural language which conveys a meaning that words are not adequate to express4 ,a groan or a shriek speaks to the ear with a far more thrilling effect than words3 yet even this natural language of distress may be counterfeited by art4--,dr4 ,porter cor4 7#aj47 ,if these words book and pen cannot be put together in such a way as will constitute plurality1 then they cannot be 'these words2' and then1 also1 one and one cannot be two4--,james ,brown cor4 7#aa47 ,nor can the real pen and the real book be added or counted together in words1 in such a manner as will not constitute plurality in grammar4--,id4 7#ab47 ,our is a personal pronoun1 of the possessive case4 ,murray does not decline it4--,mur4 cor4 7#ac47 ,this and that1 and their plurals these and those1 are often opposed to each other in a sentence4 ,when this or that is used alone1 i4e41 without contrast1 this is applied to what is present or near2 that1 to what is absent or distant4--,buchanan cor4 7#ad47 ,active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their imperfect participle to the auxiliary verb be1 through all its variations4--,be is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before either the perfect or the imperfect participle of an other verb2 but1 in every other situation1 it is a principal verb4--,kirkham cor4 7#ae47 ,a verb in the imperative mood is almost always of the second person4--,the verbs1 according to a foreign idiom1 or the poet's license1 are used in the imperative1 agreeing with a nominative of the first or third person4--,id4 7#af47 ,a personal pronoun1 is a pronoun that shows1 by its form1 of what person it is4--,pronouns of the first person do not disagree in person with the nouns they represent4--,id4 7#ag47 ,nouns have three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,personal pronouns have1 like nouns1 three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,beck cor4 7#ah47 ,in many instances the preposition suffers a change and becomes an adverb by its mere application4--,l4 ,murray cor4 7#ai47 ,some nouns are used only in the plural2 as1 ashes1 literati1 minuti4 ,some nouns have the same form in both numbers2 as1 sheep1 deer1 series1 species4 ,among the inferior parts of speech1 there are some pairs or couples4--,rev4 ,d4 ,blair cor4 7#bj47 ,concerning the pronominal adjectives1 that may1 or may not1 represent their nouns4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 7#ba47 ,the word a is in a few instances employed in the sense of a preposition2 as1 ',simon ,peter saith unto them1 ,i go a fishing2' i4 e41 ,i go to fishing4--,weld cor4 7#bb47 ,so1 too1 verbs that are commonly transitive1 are used intransitively1 when they have no object4--,bullions cor4 7#bc47 ,when first young ,maro1 in his boundless mind1 ,a work t' outlast imperial ,rome design'd4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,viii4--,,of ,,senseless ,,jumbling4 ,there are two numbers1 called the singular and the plural1 which distinguish nouns as signifying either one thing1 or many of the same kind4--,dr4 ,h4 ,blair cor4 ,here ,james ,monroe is addressed1 he is spoken to2 the name is therefore a noun of the second person4--,mack cor4 ,the number and person of an ,english verb can seldom be ascertained until its nominative is known4--,emmons cor4 ,a noun of multitude1 or a singular noun signifying many1 may have a verb or a pronoun agreeing with it in either number2 yet not without regard to the import of the noun1 as conveying the idea of unity or plurality4--,lowth et al4 cor4 ,to form the present tense and the past imperfect of our active or neuter verbs1 the auxiliary do1 and its preterit did1 are sometimes used3 as1 ,i do now love2 ,i did then love4--,lowth cor4 ,if these be perfectly committed to memory1 the learner will be able to take twenty lines for his second lesson1 and the task may be increased each day4--,osborn cor4 ,ch is generally sounded in the same manner as if it were tch3 as in ,charles1 church1 cheerfulness1 and cheese4 ,but1 in ,latin or ,greek words1 ch is pronounced like k3 as in ,chaos1 character1 chorus1 and chimera4 ,and1 in words derived from the ,french1 ch is sounded like sh3 as in ,chagrin1 chicanery1 and chaise4--,bucke cor4 ,some nouns literally neuter1 are made masculine or feminine by a figure of speech4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,in the ,english language1 words may be classified under ten general heads3 the sorts1 or chief classes1 of words1 are usually termed the ten parts of speech4--,nutting cor4 ',mercy is the true badge of nobility4' ,nobility is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case2 and is governed by of4--,kirkham cor4 ,gh is either silent1 as in plough1 or has the sound of f1 as in laugh4--,town cor4 ,many nations were destroyed1 and as many languages or dialects were lost and blotted out from the general catalogue4--,chazotte cor4 ,some languages contain a greater number of moods than others1 and each exhibits its own as forms peculiar to itself4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,a ,,simile is a simple and express comparison2 and is generally introduced by like1 as1 or so4--,id4 ,see ,inst41 p4 #bcc4 ,the word what is sometimes improperly used for the conjunction that4--,priestley1 ,murray1 et al41 cor4 ,brown makes no ado in condemning the absurd principles of preceding works1 in relation to the gender of pronouns4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,the nominative usually precedes the verb1 and denotes the agent of the action4--,wm4 ,beck cor4 ,primitive words are those which are not formed from other words more simple4--,wright cor4 ,in monosyllables1 the single vowel i always preserves its long sound before a single consonant with e final2 as in thine1 strive3 except in give and live1 which are short2 and in shire1 which has the sound of long e4--,l4 ,murray1 et al4 cor4 ,but the person or thing that is merely spoken of1 being frequently absent1 and perhaps in many respects unknown to the hearer1 it is thought more necessary1 that the third person should be marked by a distinction of gender4--,lowth1 ,mur41 et al41 cor4 ,both vowels of every diphthong were1 doubtless1 originally vocal4 ,though in many instances they are not so at present1 the combinations in which one only is heard1 still retain the name of diphthongs1 being distinguished from others by the term improper4--,l4 ,mur41 et al4 cor4 ,moods are different forms of the verb1 each of which expresses the being1 action1 or passion1 in some particular manner4--,inst41 p4 #cc2 ,a4 ,mur4 cor4 ,the word ,,that is a demonstrative adjective1 whenever it is followed by a noun to which it refers4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,the guilty soul by ,jesus wash'd1 ,is future glory's deathless heir4--,fairfield cor4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,ix4--,,of ,,words ,,needless4 ,a knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing4--,sanborn cor4 ,and hence we infer1 that there is no dictator here but use4--,jamieson cor4 ,whence little is gained1 except correct spelling and pronunciation4--,town cor4 ,the man who is faithfully attached to religion1 may be relied on with confidence4--,merchant cor4 ,shalt thou build me a house to dwell in8 ,or3 ,shalt thou build a house for me to dwell in8--,bible cor4 ,the house was deemed polluted which was entered by so abandoned a woman4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the farther he searches1 the firmer will be his belief4--,keith cor4 ,i deny not that religion consists in these things4--,barclay cor4 ,except the king delighted in her1 and she were called by name4--,bible cor4 ,the proper method of reading these lines1 is1 to read them as the sense dictates4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,when any words become obsolete1 or are used only in particular phrases1 it is better to dispense with their service entirely1 and give up the phrases4--,campbell and ,mur cor4 ,those savage people seemed to have no element but war4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,man is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and nominative case4--,j4 ,flint cor4 ,the orator1 as circumstances require1 will employ them all4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,by deferring repentence sic--,,kth1 we accumulate our sorrows4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,there is no doubt that public speaking became early an engine of government4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the different meanings of these two words1 may not at first occur4--,id4 ,the sentiment is well expressed by ,plato1 but much better by ,solomon4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,they have had a greater privilege than we4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,every thing should be so arranged1 that what goes before1 may give light and force to what follows4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,so that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers4--,hist4 cor4 ,they have taken an other and shorter cut4--,south cor4 ,the imperfect tense of a regular verb is formed from the present by adding d or ed2 as1 love1 loved4--,frost cor4 ,the pronoun their does not agree in number with the noun 'man'1 for which it stands4--,kirkham cor4 ,this mark 6 denotes wonder1 surprise1 joy1 grief1 or sudden emotion4--,bucke cor4 ,we all are accountable1 each for himself4--,l4 ,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,if he has commanded it1 ,i must obey4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,i now present him a form of the diatonic scale4--,barber cor4 ,one after an other1 their favourite rivers have been reluctantly abandoned4 ,or3 ,one after an other of their favourite rivers have they reluctantly abandoned4--,hodgson cor4 ,particular and peculiar are words of different import4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,some adverbs admit of comparison2 as1 soon1 sooner1 soonest4--,bucke cor4 ,having exposed himself too freely in different climates1 he entirely lost his health4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,the verb must agree with its nominative in number and person4--,buchanan cor4 ,write twenty short sentences containing adjectives4--,abbott cor4 ,this general tendency of the language seems to have given occasion to a very great corruption4-- ,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,the second requisite of a perfect sentence is unity4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,it is scarcely necessary to apologize for omitting their names4--,id4 ,the letters of the ,english alphabet are twenty-six4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,he who employs antiquated or novel phraseology1 must do it with design2 he cannot err from inadvertence1 as he may with respect to provincial or vulgar expressions4--,jamieson cor4 ,the vocative case1 in some grammars1 is wholly omitted2 why1 if we must have cases1 ,i could never understand4--,bucke cor4 ,active verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb have2 passive verbs1 with the auxiliary am or be4--,id4 ,what then may ,,and be called8 ,a conjunction4--,smith cor4 ,have they ascertained who gave the information8--,bullions cor4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,x4--,,of ,,improper ,,omissions4 ,all words signifying concrete qualities of things1 are called adnouns1 or adjectives4--,rev4 ,d4 ,blair cor4 ,the macron signifies a long or accented syllable1 and the breve indicates a short or unaccented syllable4--,id4 ,whose duty it is1 to help young ministers4--,friends cor4 ,the passage is closely connected with what precedes and what follows4--,phil4 ,mu4 cor4 ,the work is not completed1 but it soon will be4--,r4 ,c4 ,smith cor4 ,of whom hast thou been afraid1 or whom hast thou feared8--,bible cor4 ,there is a ,god who made1 and who governs1 the world4--,bp4 ,butler cor4 ,it was this that made them so haughty4--,goldsmith cor4 ,how far the whole charge affected him1 it is not easy to determine4--,id4 ,they saw these wonders of nature1 and worshiped the ,god that made them4--,bucke cor4 ,the errors frequent in the use of hyperboles1 arise either from overstraining them1 or from introducing them on unsuitable occasions4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,the preposition in is set before the names of countries1 cities1 and large towns2 as1 ',he lives in ,france1 in ,london1 or in ,birmingham4' ,but1 before the names of villages1 single houses1 or foreign cities1 at is used2 as1 ',he lives at ,hackney4'--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,and1 in such recollection1 the thing is not figured as in our view1 nor is any image formed4--,kames cor4 ,intrinsic beauty and relative beauty must be handled separately4--,id4 ,he should be on his guard not to do them injustice by disguising them or placing them in a false light4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,in perusing that work1 we are frequently interrupted by the author's unnatural thoughts4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,to this point have tended all the rules which ,i have just given4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,to this point have tended all the rules which have just been given4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,language1 as written1 or as oral1 is addressed to the eye1 or to the ear4--,journal cor4 ,he will learn1 ,sir1 that to accuse and to prove are very different4--,walpole cor4 ,they crowded around the door so as to prevent others from going out4--,abbott cor4 ,a word denoting one person or thing1 is of the singular number2 a word denoting more than one person or thing3 is of the plural number4--,j4 ,flint cor4 ,nouns1 according to the sense or relation in which they are used1 are in the nominative1 the possessive1 or the objective case3 thus1 ,nom4 man4 ,poss4 man's1 ,obj4 man4--,rev4 ,d4 ,blair cor4 ,nouns or pronouns in the possessive case are placed before the nouns which govern them1 and to which they belong4--,sanborn cor4 ,a teacher is explaining the difference between a noun and a verb4--,abbott cor4 ,and therefore the two ends1 or extremities1 must directly answer to the north and the south pole4--,harris cor4 ,,walks or ,,walketh1 ,,rides or ,,rideth1 and ,,stands or ,,standeth1 are of the third person singular4--,kirkham cor4 ,i grew immediately roguish and pleasant1 to a high degree1 in the same strain4--,swift cor4 ,an ,anapest has the first two syllables unaccented1 and the last one accented4--,rev4 ,d4 ,blair cor42 also ,kirkham et al42 also ,l4 ,mur4 et al4 ,but hearing and vision differ not more than words spoken and words written4 ,or3 ,but hearing and vision do not differ more than spoken words and written4--,wilson cor4 ,they are considered by some authors to be prepositions4--,cooper cor4 ,when those powers have been deluded and have gone astray4--,phil ,mu4 cor4 ,they will understand this1 and will like it4--,abbott cor4 ,they had been expelled from their native country ,romagna4--,hunt cor4 ,future time is expressed in two different ways4--,adam and ,gould cor4 ,such as the borrowing of some noted event from history4--,kames cor4 ,every finite verb must agree with its nominative in number and person4--,bucke cor4 ,we are struck1 we know not how1 with the symmetry of any handsome thing we see4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,under this head1 ,i shall consider every thing that is necessary to a good delivery4--,sheridan cor4 ,a good ear is the gift of nature2 it may be much improved1 but it cannot be acquired by art4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ',truth' is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4--,bullions cor4 by ,brown's ,form4 ',possess' is a regular active-transitive verb1 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and plural number4--,id4 ',fear' is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case3 and is the subject of is3 according to the ,rule which says1 ',a noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb1 must be in the nominative case4' ,because the meaning is--'fear is4'--,id4 ',is' is an irregular neuter verb1 from be1 was1 being1 been2 found in the indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 and singular number3 and agrees with its nominative fear2 according to the ,rule which says1 ',every finite verb must agree with its subject1 or nominative1 in person and number' ,because the meaning is--'fear is4'--,id4 ,ae in the word ,glic1 has the sound of long a4--,wells cor4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xi4--,,of ,,literary ,,blunders4 ,repeat some adverbs that are composed of the prefix or preposition a and nouns4--,kirkham cor4 ,participles are so called1 because they participate or partake the properties of verbs and of adjectives or nouns4 ,the ,latin word participium1 which signifies a participle1 is derived from participo1 to partake4--,merchant cor4 ,the possessive precedes an other noun1 and is known by the sign 's1 or by this '1 the apostrophe only4--,beck cor4 ,reciprocal pronouns1 or compound personal pronouns1 are formed by adding self or selves to the simple possessives of the first and second persons1 and to the objectives of the third person2 as1 myself1 yourselves1 himself1 themselves4--,id4 ,the word ,,self1 and its plural ,,selves1 when used separately as names1 must be considered as nouns2 but when joined to the simple pronouns1 they are not nouns1 but parts of the compound personal pronouns4--,wright cor4 ,the ,spondee 'rolls round1' expresses beautifully the majesty of the sun in his course4--,webster and ,frazee cor4 ,active-transitive verbs govern the objective case2 as1 ',john learned his lesson4'--,frazee cor4 ,prosody primarily signified accent1 or the modulation of the voice2 and1 as the name implies1 related to poetry1 or song4--,hendrick cor4 ,on such a principle of forming them1 there would be as many moods as verbs2 and1 in stead of four moods1 we should have four thousand three hundred1 which is the number of verbs in the ,english language1 according to ,lowth4 #eef--;,hallock cor4 ,the phrases1 ',to let out blood1'--',to go a hunting1' are not elliptical2 for out is needless1 and a is a preposition1 governing hunting4--,bullions cor4 ,in ,rhyme1 the last syllable of every line corresponds in sound with that of some other line or lines4--,id4 ,the possessive case plural1 where the nominative ends in s1 has the apostrophe only2 as1 ',eagles' wings1'--'lions' whelps1'--'bears' claws4'--,weld cor4 ',horses-manes1' plural1 should be written possessively1 'horses' manes3' one mane is never possessed by many horses4--,id4 ,w takes its usual form from the union of two ,vees1 ,v being the figure of the ,roman capital letter which was anciently called ,u4--,fowler cor4 ,in the sentence1 ',i saw the lady who sings1' what word is nominative to ,,sings8--,j4 ,flint cor4 ,in the sentence1 ',this is the pen which ,john made1' what word expresses the object of ,,made8--,id4 ',that we fall into no sin3' no is a definitive or pronominal adjective1 not compared1 and relates to sin4--,rev4 ,d4 ,blair cor4 ',that all our doings may be ordered by thy governance3' all is a pronominal adjective1 not compared1 and relates to doings4--,id4 ',let him be made to study4' ,why is the sign to expressed before study8 ,because be made is passive2 and passive verbs do not take the infinitive after them without the preposition to4--,sanborn cor4 ,the following verbs have both the preterit tense and the perfect participle like the present3 viz41 ,cast1 cut1 cost1 shut1 let1 bid1 shed1 hurt1 hit1 put1 c4--,buchanan cor4 ,the agreement which any word has with an other in person1 number1 gender1 or case1 is called ,,concord2 and the power which one word has over an other1 in respect to ruling its case1 mood1 or form1 is called ,,government4--,bucke cor4 ,the word ticks tells what the watch is doing4--,sanborn cor4 ,the ,breve 77 marks a short vowel or syllable1 and the ,macron 771 a long one4--,bullions and ,lennie cor4 ',charles1 you1 by your diligence1 make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor4' ,the first you is in the nominative case1 being the subject of the verb make4--,kirkham cor4 ,uoy in buoy is a proper triphthong2 eau in flambeau is an improper triphthong4--,sanborn cor4 ',while ,i of things to come1 ,as past rehearsing1 sing4'--,,pollok4 ,that is1 ',while ,i sing of things to come1 as if ,i were rehearsing things that are past4'--,kirkham cor4 ,a simple sentence usually has in it but one nominative1 and but one finite verb4--,folker cor4 ,an irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed4--,brown's ,inst41 p4 #ge4 ,but1 when the antecedent is used in a restricted sense1 a comma is sometimes inserted before the relative2 as1 ',there is no charm in the female sex1 which can supply the place of virtue4'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bgc4 ,or3 ,but1 when the antecedent is used in a restricted sense1 no comma is usually inserted before the relative2 as1 ',there is in the female sex no charm which can supply the place of virtue4'--,kirkham cor4 ,two capitals used in this way1 denote different words2 but one repeated1 marks the plural number3 as1 ,l4 ,d4 ,legis ,doctor2 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,legum ,doctor4--,gould cor4 ,was any person present besides the mercer8 ,yes2 his clerk4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the word adjective comes from the ,latin adjectivum2 and this1 from ad1 to1 and jacio1 ,i cast4--,kirkham cor4 ,vision1 or ,imagery1 is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination1 as actually before his eyes1 and present to his senses4 ,thus ,cicero1 in his fourth oration against ,cataline3 ',i seem to myself to behold this city1 the ornament of the earth1 and the capital of all nations1 suddenly involved in one conflagration4 ,i see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country4 ,the furious countenance of ,cethe'gus rises to my view1 while with savage joy he is triumphing in your miseries4'--,dr4 ,blair cor42 also ,l4 ,murray4 ,when two or more verbs follow the same nominative1 an auxiliary that is common to them both or all1 is usually expressed to the first1 and understood to the rest3 as1 ',he has gone and left me2' that is1 ',he has gone and has left me4'--,comly cor4 ,when ,i use the word pillar to denote a column that supports an edifice1 ,i employ it literally4--,hiley cor4 ,in poetry1 the conjunction nor is often used for neither2 as ',a stately superstructure1 that nor wind1 ,nor wave1 nor shock of falling years1 could move4'--,,pollok4--,id4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xii--,,of ,,perversions4 ,in the beginning ,god created the heaven and the earth4--,genesis1 i1 #a4 ,canst thou by searching find out ,god8--,job1 xi1 #g4 ,great and marvellous are thy works1 ,lord ,god ,almighty2 just and true are thy ways1 thou ,king of saints4--,rev41 xv4 #c4 ,not every one that saith unto me1 ,lord1 ,lord1 shall enter into the kingdom of heaven4--,matt41 vii1 #ba4 ,though he was rich1 yet for your sakes he became poor4--#b ,cor41 viii1 #i4 ,whose foundation was overthrown with a flood4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,job1 xxii1 #af4 ,take my yoke upon you1 and learn of me2 c4--,matt41 xi1 #bi4 ,i go to prepare a place for you4--,john1 xiv1 #b4 ,and you hath he quickened1 who were dead in trespasses and sins4--,ephesians1 ii1 #a4 ,go1 flee thee away into the land of ,judah4--,amos1 vii1 #ab2 ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 ,or3 ,go1 flee away into the land of ,judah4--,hart cor4 ,hitherto shalt thou come1 but no further4--,job1 xxxviii1 #aa4 ,the day is thine1 the night also is thine4--,psal41 lxxiv1 #af4 ,tribulation worketh patience2 and patience1 experience2 and experience1 hope4--,romans1 v1 #d4 ,then shall the dust return to the earth as it was2 and the spirit shall return unto ,god who gave it4--,ecclesiastes1 xii1 #g4 ,at the last it biteth like a serpent1 and stingeth like an adder4 ,thine eyes shall behold strange women1 and thine heart shall utter perverse things3 ,yea1 thou shalt be as he that lieth down in the midst of the sea4--,prov41 xxiii1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd4 ,the memory of the just is blessed2 but the name of the wicked shall rot4--,prov41 x1 #g4 ,he that is slow to anger1 is better than the mighty2 and he that ruleth his spirit1 than he that taketh a city4--,prov41 xvi1 #cb4 ,for whom the ,lord loveth1 he correcteth2 even as a father the son in whom he delighteth4--,prov41 iii1 #ab4 ,the first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter4--,brown's ,inst4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,teach me to feel another's woe1 ,to hide the fault ,i see4--,pope's ,univ4 ,prayer4 ,surely thou art one of them2 for thou art a ,galilean4--,mark1 xiv1 #gj4 ,surely thou also art one of them2 for thy speech bewrayeth thee4--,matt41 xxvi1 #gc4 ,strait is the gate1 and narrow is the way1 which leadeth unto life4--,matt41 vii1 #ad4 ,thou buildest the wall1 that thou mayest be their king4--,nehemiah1 vi1 #f4 ,there is forgiveness with thee1 that thou mayest be feared4--,psalms1 cxxx1 #d4 ,but yesterday1 the word of ,csar might ,have stood against the world4--,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #bej4 ,the ,north-,east spends his rage4--,thomson's ,seasons1 p4 #cd4 ,tells how the drudging goblin swet4--,milton's ,allegro1 l4 #aje4 ,and to his faithful champion hath in place ,borne witness gloriously4--,milton's ,sam4 ,agon41 l4 #ageb4 ,then1 if thou fall'st1 ,o ,cromwell1 ,thou fall'st a blessed martyr4--,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #agc4 ,better3 ,then1 if thou fall1 ,o ,cromwell6 thou fallst a blessed martyr4--,shak4 and ,kirk4 cor4 ,i see the dagger-crest of ,mar1 ,i see the ,moray's silver star1 ,wave o'er the cloud of ,saxon war1 ,that up the lake comes winding far6--,scott's ,lady of the ,lake1 p4 #afb4 ,each beast1 each insect1 happy in its own4--,pope1 on ,man1 ,ep4 i1 l4 #ahe4 ,and he that is learning to arrange his sentences with accuracy and order1 is learning1 at the same time1 to think with accuracy and order4--,blair's ,lect41 p4 #abj4 ,we1 then1 as workers together with him1 beseech you also that ye receive not the grace of ,god in vain4--#b ,cor41 vi1 #a4 ,and on the boundless of thy goodness calls4--,young's ,last ,day1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #cbj4 ,knowledge dwells ,in heads replete with thoughts of other men2 ,wisdom1 in minds attentive to their own4--,cowper's ,task1 ,b4 vi1 l4 #ij4 ,o6 let me listen to the words of life6--,thomson's ,paraphrase on ,matt4 vi4 ,save that1 from yonder ivy-mantled tower4 c4--,gray's ,elegy1 l4 #i4 ,weighs the men's wits against the ,lady's hair4--,pope's ,rape of the ,lock1 ,canto v1 l4 #gb4 ,till the publication of ,dr4 ,lowth's small ,introduction1 the grammatical study of our language formed no part of the ordinary method of instruction4--,hiley's ,preface1 p4 vi4 ,let there be no strife1 ,i pray thee1 between me and thee4--,gen41 xiii1 #h4 ,what6 canst thou not forbear me half an hour8--,shakspeare4 ,till then who knew the force of those dire arms8--,milton4 ,in words1 as fashions1 the same rule will hold2 ,alike fantastic1 if too new or old3 ,be not the first by whom the new are tried ,nor yet the last to lay the old aside4--,pope1 on ,criticism1 l4 #ccc4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xiii4--,,of ,,awkwardness4 ,they slew ,varus1 whom ,i mentioned before4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,maria rejected ,valerius1 whom she had rejected before4 ,or3 ,maria rejected ,valerius a second time4--,id4 ,in the ,english language1 nouns have but two different terminations for cases4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,socrates and ,plato were the wisest men1 and the most eminent philosophers in ,greece4--,buchanan's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 viii4 ,whether more than one were concerned in the business1 does not yet appear4 ,or3 ,how many were concerned in the business1 does not yet appear4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,and that1 consequently1 the verb or pronoun agreeing with it1 can never with propriety be used in the plural number4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,a second help may be1 frequent and free converse with others of your own sex who are like minded4--,wesley cor4 ,four of the semivowels1 namely1 l1 m1 n1 and r1 are termed ,,liquids1 on account of the fluency of their sounds4--,see ,brown's ,inst41 p4 #af4 ,some conjunctions are used in pairs1 so that one answers to an other1 as its regular correspondent4--,lowth et al4 cor4 ,the mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be protracted2 the semivowels have imperfect sounds of their own1 which can be continued at pleasure4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,,he and ,,she are sometimes used as nouns1 and1 as such1 are regularly declined3 as1 ',the hes in birds4'--,,bacon4 ',the shes of ,italy4'--,,shak4--,churchill cor4 ,the separation of a preposition from the word which it governs1 is censured by some writers1 as being improper4--,c4 ,adams cor4 ,the word ,,whose1 according to some critics1 should be restricted to persons2 but good writers still occasionally use it with reference to things4--,priestley et al4 cor4 ,new and surpassing wonders present themselves to our view4--,sherlock cor4 ,the degrees of comparison are often inaccurately applied and construed4--,alger's ,murray4 ,or3 ,passages are often found in which the degrees of comparison have not an accurate construction4--,campbell cor42 also ,murray et al4 ,the sign of possession is placed too far from the name1 to form a construction that is either perspicuous or agreeable4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the simple tenses are those which are formed by the principal verb without an auxiliary4--,id4 ,the more intimate men are1 the more they affect one another's happiness4--,id4 ,this is the machine that he invented4--,nixon cor4 ,to give this sentence the interrogative form1 we must express it thus4 ,or3 ,this sentence1 to have the interrogative form1 should be expressed thus4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,never employ words that are susceptible of a sense different from that which you intend to convey4--,hiley cor4 ,sixty pages are occupied in explaining what1 according to the ordinary method1 would not require more than ten or twelve4--,id4 ,the participle in ing always expresses action1 suffering1 or being1 as continuing1 or in progress4--,bullions cor4 ,the first participle of all active verbs1 has usually an active signification2 as1 ',james is building the house4' ,often1 however1 it takes a passive meaning2 as1 ',the house is building4'--,id4 ,previously to parsing this sentence1 the young pupil may be taught to analyze it1 by such questions as the following3 viz4--,id4 ,since that period1 however1 attention has been paid to this important subject4--,id4 and ,hiley cor4 ,a definition of a word is a brief explanation of what it means4--,g4 ,,brown3 ,hiley cor4 ,,under ,,critical ,,note ,,xiv4--,,of ,,ignorance4 ,what is a verb8 ,it is a word which signifies to be1 to act1 or to be acted upon4 ,or thus3 ,what is an assertor8 ,ans4 ',one who affirms positively2 an affirmer1 supporter1 or vindicator4'--,,webster',s ,,dict4--,peirce cor4 ,virgil wrote the neid4--,kirkham cor4 ,which1 to a supercilious or inconsiderate native of ,japan1 would seem very idle and impertinent4--,locke cor4 ,will not a look of disdain cast upon you throw you into a ferment8--,say cor4 ,though only the conjunction if is here set before the verb1 there are several others1 7as that1 though1 lest1 unless1 except17 which may be used with the subjunctive mood4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,when proper names have an article before them1 they are used as common names4--,id4 et al4 cor4 ,when a proper noun has an article before it1 it is used as a common noun4--,merchant cor4 ,seeming to rob the death-field of its terrors4--,id4 ,for the same reason1 we might1 without any detriment to the language1 dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular4--,kirkham cor4 ,it removes all possibility of being misunderstood4--,abbott cor4 ,approximation to perfection is all that we can expect4--,id4 ,i have often joined in singing with musicians at ,norwich4--,gardiner cor4 ,when not standing in regular prosaic order4 ,or3--in the regular order of prose4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire4--,kirkham cor4 ,others begin to talk before their mouths are open1 prefixing the mouth-closing ,m to most of their words2 as1 ',m-yes1' for ',yes4'--,gardiner cor4 ,that noted close of his 'esse videatur1' exposed him to censure among his contemporaries4--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,a man's own is what he has1 or possesses by right2 the word own being a past participle of the verb to owe1 which formerly signified to have or possess4--,kirkham cor4 ,as requires so2 expressing a comparison of manner2 as1 ',as the one dieth1 so dieth the other4'--,l4 ,mur4 et al4 cor4 ,to obey our parents1 is an obvious duty4--,parker and ,fox cor4 ,almost all the political papers of the kingdom have touched upon these things4--,h4 ,c4 ,wright cor4 ,i shall take the liberty to make a few observations on the subject4--,hiley cor4 ,his loss ,i have endeavoured to supply1 so far as by additional vigilance and industry ,i could4--,id4 ,that they should make vegetation so exuberant as to anticipate every want4--,frazee cor4 ,the guillemets1 or quotation points1 denote that one or more words are extracted from an other author4--,p4 ,e4 ,day cor4 ,nineveh1 the capital of ,assyria1 was one of the most noted cities of ancient times4--,id4 ,it may1 however1 be rendered definite by the mention of some particular time2 as1 yesterday1 last week1 c4--,bullions cor4 ,the last is called heroic measure1 and is the same that is used by ,milton1 ,young1 ,thomson1 ,pollok4 c4--,id4 ,perennial ones must be sought in the delightful regions above4--,hallock cor4 ,intransitive verbs are those which are inseparable from the effect produced4 ,or better3 ,intransitive verbs are those which express action without governing an object4--,cutler cor4 ,the ,feminine gender belongs to women1 and animals of the female kind4--,id4 ,wo unto you1 scribes and ,pharisees1 hypocrites6--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,luke1 xi1 #dd4 ,a pyrrhic1 which has both its syllables short4--,day cor4 ,what kind of jessamine8 ,a jessamine in flower1 or a flowery jessamine4--,barrett cor4 ,,language1 a word derived from ,,lingua1 the tongue1 now signifies any series of sounds or letters formed into words1 and used for the expression of thought4--,id4 ,see this ,gram4 of ,e4 ,grammars1 p4 #ade4 ,say 'none1' not 'ne'er a one4'--,staniford cor4 ',e'er a one1' is sometimes used for 'any' or 'either4'--,pond cor4 ,earth loses thy pattern for ever and aye2 ,o sailor-boy6 sailor-boy6 peace to thy soul4 --,dymond4 ,his brow was sad2 his eye beneath ,flashed like a falchion from its sheath4 --,longfellow's ,ballads1 p4 #abi4 ,fist ,the examples exhibited for exercises under ,critical ,notes #aeth and #afth1 being judged either incapable of correction1 or unworthy of the endeavour1 are submitted to the criticism of the reader1 without any attempt to amend them1 or to offer substitutes in this place4 ,,promiscuous ,,corrections ,,of ,,false ,,syntax4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ,why is our language less refined than that of ,italy1 ,spain1 or ,france8--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,why is our language less refined than the ,french8--,ingersoll cor4 ,i believe your ,lordship will agree with me1 in the reason why our language is less refined than that of ,italy1 ,spain1 or ,france4--,swift cor4 ,even in this short sentence1 'why our language is less refined than those of ,italy1 ,spain1 or ,france1' we may discern an inaccuracy2 the pronominal adjective 'those' is made plural1 when the substantive to which it refers1 or the thing for which it stands1 'the language of ,italy1 ,spain1 or ,france1' is singular4--,dr4 ,h4 ,blair cor4 ,the sentence would have run much better in this way3--'why our language is less refined than the ,italian1 the ,spanish1 or the ,french4'--,id4 ,but when arranged in an entire sentence1 as they must be to make a complete sense1 they show it still more evidently4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,this is a more artificial and refined construction1 than that in which the common connective is simply used4--,id4 ,i shall present to the reader a list of certain prepositions or prefixes1 which are derived from the ,latin and ,greek languages4--,id4 ,a relative sometimes comprehends the meaning of a personal pronoun and a copulative conjunction4--,id4 ,personal pronouns1 being used to supply the places of nouns1 are not often employed in the same clauses with the nouns which they represent4--,id4 and ,smith cor4 ,there is very seldom any occasion for a substitute where the principal word is present4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,we hardly consider little children as persons1 because the term person gives us the idea of reason1 or intelligence4--,priestley et al4 cor4 ,the occasions for exerting these two qualities are different4--,dr4 ,blair et al4 cor4 ,i'll tell you with whom time ambles withal1 with whom time trots withal1 with whom time gallops withal1 and with whom he stands still withal4 ,i pray thee1 with whom doth he trot withal8--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #abb4 ,by greatness1 ,i mean1 not the bulk of any single object only but the largeness of a whole view4--,addison cor4 ,the question may then be put1 ,what more does he than mean8--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,the question might be put1 ,what more does he than mean8--,id4 ,he is surprised to find himself at so great a distance from the object with which he set out4--,id42 also ,murray cor4 ,few rules can be given which will hold good in all cases4--,lowth and ,mur4 cor4 ,versification is the arrangement of words into metrical lines1 according to the laws of verse4--,johnson cor4 ,versification is the arrangement of words into rhythmical lines of some particular length1 so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,amelia's friend ,charlotte1 to whom no one imputed blame1 was too prompt in her own vindication4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,mr4 ,pitt's joining of the war party in #agic1 the most striking and the most fatal instance of this offence1 is the one which at once presents itself4--,brougham cor4 ,to the framing of such a sound constitution of mind4--,lady cor4 ',i beseech you1' said ,st4 ,paul to his ,ephesian converts1 'that ye walk worthy of the vocation wherewith ye are called4' --,see ,eph41 iv1 #a4 ,so as to prevent it from being equal to that4--,booth cor4 ,when speaking of an action as being performed4 ,or3 ,when speaking of the performance of an action4--,id4 ,and1 in all questions of actions being so performed1 est is added for the second person4--,id4 ,no account can be given of this1 but that custom has blinded their eyes4 ,or3 ,no other account can be given of this1 than that custom has blinded their eyes4--,dymond cor4 ,design1 or chance1 makes others wive2 ,but nature did this match contrive4--,waller cor4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ,i suppose each of you thinks it is his own nail4--,abbott cor4 ,they are useless1 because they are apparently based upon this supposition4--,id4 ,the form1 or manner1 in which this plan may be adopted is various4--,id4 ,the making of intellectual effort1 and the acquiring of knowledge1 are always pleasant to the human mind4--,id4 ,this will do more than the best lecture that ever was delivered4--,id4 ,the doing of easy things is generally dull work4--,id4 ,such are the tone and manner of some teachers4--,id4 ,well1 the fault is1 that some one was disorderly at prayer time4--,id4 ,do you remember to have spoken on this subject in school8--,id4 ,the course above recommended1 is not the trying of lax and inefficient measures--,id4 ,our community agree that there is a ,god4--,id4 ,it prevents them from being interested in what is said4--,id4 ,we will also suppose that ,i call an other boy to me1 whom ,i have reason to believe to be a sincere ,christian4--,id4 ,five minutes' notice is given by the bell4--,id4 ,the ,annals of ,education give notice of it4 ,or3 ,the work entitled ',annals of ,education' gives notice of it4--,id4 ,teachers' meetings will be interesting and useful4--,id4 ,she thought a half hour's study would conquer all the difficulties4--,id4 ,the difference between an honest and a hypocritical confession4--,id4 ,there is no point of attainment at which we must stop4--,id4 ,now six hours' service is as much as is expected of teachers4--,id4 ,how many are seven times nine8--,id4 ,then the reckoning proceeds till it comes to ten hundred4--,frost cor4 ,your success will depend on your own exertions2 see1 then1 that you be diligent4--,id4 ,subjunctive ,mood1 ,present ,tense3 ,if ,i be known1 ,if thou be known1 ,if he be known2 c4--,id4 ,if ,i be loved1 ,if thou be loved1 ,if he be loved2 c4--,frost right4 ,an ,interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion4 ,interjections are so called because they are generally thrown in between the parts of discourse1 without any reference to the structure of those parts4--,frost cor4 ,the ,cardinal numbers are those which simply tell how many2 as1 one1 two1 three4--,id4 ,more than one organ are concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant4 ,or thus3 ,more organs than one are concerned in the utterance of almost any consonant4--,id4 ,to extract from them all the terms which we use in our divisions and subdivisions of the art4--,holmes cor4 ,and there were written therein lamentations1 and mourning1 and woe4--,bible cor4 ,if ,i were to be judged as to my behaviour1 compared with that of ,john4--,whiston's ,jos4 cor4 ,the preposition to1 signifying in order to1 was anciently preceded by for2 as1 ',what went ye out for to see8'--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #ahd4 ,this makes the proper perfect tense1 which in ,english is always expressed by the auxiliary verb have2 as1 ',i have written4'--,dr4 ,blair cor4 ,indeed1 in the formation of character1 personal exertion is the first1 the second1 and the third virtue4--,sanders cor4 ,the reducing of them to the condition of the beasts that perish4--,dymond cor4 ,yet this affords no reason to deny that the nature of the gift is the same1 or that both are divine4 ,or3 ,yet this affords no reason to aver that the nature of the gift is not the same1 or that both are not divine4--,id4 ,if ,god has made known his will4--,id4 ,if ,christ has prohibited them1 nothing else can prove them right4--,id4 ,that the taking of them is wrong1 every man who simply consults his own heart1 will know4--,id4 ,from these evils the world would be spared1 if one did not write4--,id4 ,it is in a great degree our own fault4--,id4 ,it is worthy of observation1 that lesson-learning is nearly excluded4--,id4 ,who spares the aggressor's life1 even to the endangering of his own4--,id4 ,who advocates the taking of the life of an aggressor4--,id4 ,and thence up to the intentionally and voluntarily fraudulent4--,id4 ,and the contention was so sharp between them1 that they departed asunder one from the other4--,,scott',s1 ,,friends'1 ,,alger',s1 ,,bruce',s ,,bible1 ,,and ,,others3 ,acts1 xv1 #ci4 ,here the man is ,john1 and ,john is the man2 so the words are imagination and fancy2 but ,,the imagination and ,,the fancy are not words3 they are intellectual powers4--,rev4 ,m4 ,harrison cor4 ,the article1 which is here so emphatic in the ,greek1 is quite forgotten in our translation4--,id4 ,we have no fewer than twenty-four pronouns4--,id4 ,it will admit of a pronoun joined to it4--,id4 ,from intercourse and from conquest1 all the languages of ,europe participate one with an other4--,id4 ,it is not always necessity1 therefore1 that has been the cause of our introducing of terms derived from the classical languages4--,id4 ,the man of genius stamps upon it any impression that pleases him4 ,or3 any impression that he chooses4--,id4 ,the proportion of names ending in ,,son preponderates greatly among the ,dano-,saxon population of the ,north4--,id4 ,as a proof of the strong similarity between the ,english language and the ,danish4--,id4 ,a century from the time when 7or at which7 ,hengist and ,horsa landed on the ,isle of ,thanet4--,id4 ,i saw the colours waving in the wind1 ,and them within1 to mischief how combin'd4--,bunyan cor4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ,a ship excepted3 of which we say1 ',she sails well4'--,jonson cor4 ,honesty is reckoned of little worth4--,lily cor4 ,learn to esteem life as you ought4--,dodsley cor4 ,as the soundest health is less perceived than the lightest malady1 so the highest joy toucheth us less sensibly than the smallest sorrow4--,id4 ,youth is no apology for frivolousness4--,whiting cor4 ,the porch was of the same width as the temple4--,milman cor4 ,the other tribes contributed neither to his rise nor to his downfall4--,id4 ,his whole religion1 with all its laws1 would have been shaken to its foundation4--,id4 ,the ,english has most commonly been neglected1 and children have been taught only in the ,latin syntax4--,j4 ,ward cor4 ,they are not noticed in the notes4-- ,id4 ,he walks in righteousness1 doing what he would have others do to him4--,fisher cor4 ,they stand independent of the rest of the sentence4--,ingersoll cor4 ,my uncle and his son were in town yesterday4--,lennie cor4 ,she and her sisters are well4--,id4 ,his purse1 with its contents1 was abstracted from his pocket4--,id4 ,the great constitutional feature of this institution being1 that directly after the acrimony of the last election is over1 the acrimony of the next begins4--,dickens cor4 ,his disregarding of his parents' advice has brought him into disgrace4--,farnum cor4 ,can you tell me why his father made that remark8--,id4 ,why does our teacher detain us so long8--,id4 ,i am certain that the boy said so4--,id4 ,,which means any thing or things before named2 and ,,that may represent any person or persons1 thing or things1 that have been speaking1 spoken to1 or spoken of4--,perley cor4 ,a certain number of syllables occurring in a particular order1 form a foot4 ,poetic feet are so called because it is by their aid that the voice1 as it were1 steps along4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,questions asked by a principal verb only--as1 ',teach ,i8' ',burns he8' c41--are archaisms1 and now peculiar to the poets4--,a4 ,murray cor4 ,tell whether the #ahth1 the #aith1 the #bjth1 the #bast1 the #bb;d1 or the #bc;d rule is to be used1 and repeat the rule4--,parker and ,fox cor4 ,the resolution was adopted without much deliberation1 and consequently caused great dissatisfaction4 ,or3 ,the resolution1 which caused great dissatisfaction1 was adopted without much deliberation4-- ,iid4 ,the man is now much noticed by the people thereabouts4--,webb's ,edward's ,gram4 cor4 ,the sand prevents them from sticking to one an other4--,id4 ,defective verbs are those which are used only in some of the moods and tenses4--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #bi2 ,ingersoll's1 #aba2 ,smith's1 #ij2 ,merchant's1 #fd2 ,nutting's1 #fh2 ,l4 ,murray1 ,guy1 ,russell1 ,bacon1 ,frost1 ,alger1 ,s4 ,putnam1 ,goldsbury1 ,felton1 et al4 cor4 ,defective verbs are those which want some of the moods or tenses4--,lennie et al4 cor4 ,defective verbs want some of the parts common to other verbs4--,bullions cor4 ,a ,defective verb is one that wants some of the parts common to verbs4--,id4 ,to the irregular verbs may be added the defective2 which are not only irregular1 but also wanting in some parts4--,lowth cor4 ,to the irregular verbs may be added the defective2 which are not only wanting in some parts1 but are1 when inflected1 irregular4--,churchill cor4 ,when two or more nouns occur together in the possessive case4--,farnum cor4 ,when several short sentences come together--,id4 ,words are divided into ten classes1 called ,parts of ,speech4--,l4 ,ainsworth cor4 ,a passive verb has its agent or doer always in the objective case1 governed by a preposition4--,id4 ,i am surprised at your inattention4--,id4 ,,singular3 ,thou lovest1 not ,you love4 ,you has always a plural verb4--,bullions cor4 ,how do you know that love is of the first person8 ,ans4 ,because we1 the pronoun1 is of the first person4--,id4 and ,lennie cor4 ,the lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea4--,gray's ,elegy1 l4 #b3 ,bullions cor4 ,iambic verses have their second1 fourth1 and other even syllables accented4--,bullions cor4 ,contractions that are not allowable in prose1 are often made in poetry4--,id4 ,yet to their general's voice they soon obey'd-- ,milton4 ,it never presents to his mind more than one new subject at the same time4--,felton cor4 ,an abstract noun is the name of some particular quality considered apart from its substance4--,brown's ,inst4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,a noun is of the first person when it denotes the speaker4--,felton cor4 ,which of the two brothers is a graduate8-- ,hallock cor4 ,i am a linen-draper bold1 ,as all the world doth know4--,cowper4 ,oh the pain1 the bliss of dying6--,pope4 ,this do2 take to you censers1 thou1 ,korah1 and all thy company4--,bible cor4 ,there are three participles2 the imperfect1 the perfect1 and the preperfect3 as1 reading1 read1 having read4 ,transitive verbs have an active and passive participle3 that is1 their form for the perfect is sometimes active1 and sometimes passive2 as1 read1 or loved4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene cor4 ,o ,heav'n1 in my connubial hour decree ,my spouse this man1 or such a man as he4--,pope cor4 ,,lesson ,,iv4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ,the past tenses 7of ,hiley's subjunctive mood7 represent conditional past facts or events1 of which the speaker is uncertain4--,hiley cor4 ,care also should be taken that they be not introduced too abundantly4--,id4 ,till they have become familiar to the mind4 ,or3 ,till they become familiar to the mind4--,id4 ,when once a particular arrangement and phraseology have become familiar to the mind4--,id4 ,i have furnished the student with the plainest and most practical directions that ,i could devise4--,id4 ,when you are conversant with the ,rules of ,grammar1 you will be qualified to commence the study of ,style4--,id4 ,c before e1 i1 or y1 always has a soft sound1 like s4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,g before e1 i1 or y1 is generally soft2 as in genius1 ginger1 ,egypt4--,id4 ,c before e1 i1 or y1 always sounds soft1 like s4--,hiley cor4 ,g is generally soft before e1 i1 or y2 as in genius1 ginger1 ,egypt4--,id4 ,a perfect alphabet must always contain just as many letters as there are elementary sounds in the language3 the ,english alphabet1 having fewer letters than sounds1 and sometimes more than one letter for the same sound1 is both defective and redundant4--,id4 ,a common noun is a name1 given to a whole class or species1 and is applicable to every individual of that class4--,id4 ,thus an adjective has usually a noun either expressed or understood4--,id4 ,emphasis is extraordinary force used in the enunciation of such words as we wish to make prominent in discourse4 ,or3 ,emphasis is a peculiar stress of voice1 used in the utterance of words specially significant4--,dr4 ,h4 ,blair cor42 also ,l4 ,murray4 ,so simple a question as4 ',do you ride to town to-day8' is capable of as many as four different acceptations1 the sense varying as the emphasis is differently placed4--,iid4 ,thus1 bravely1 for 'in a brave manner4' is derived from brave-like4--,hiley cor4 ,in this manner1 several different parts of speech are often formed from one root by means of different affixes4--,id4 ,words derived from the same root1 are always more or less allied in signification4--,id4 ,when a noun of multitude conveys the idea of unity1 the verb and pronoun should be singular2 but when it conveys the idea of plurality1 the verb and pronoun must be plural4--,id4 ,they have spent their whole time to make the sacred chronology agree with the profane4--,id4 ,i have studied my lesson1 but you have not looked at yours4--,id4 ,when words are connected in pairs1 there is usually a comma after each pair4-- ,hiley1 ,bullions1 and ,lennie1 cor4 ,when words are connected in pairs1 the pairs should be marked by the comma4--,farnum cor4 ,his book entitled1 ',studies of ,nature1' is deservedly a popular work4--,biog4 ,dict4 cor4 ,here rests his head upon the lap of earth1 ,a youth to ,fortune and to ,fame unknown4--,,gray4 ',youth1' here1 is in the nominative case1 7the verb 'rests' being1 in this instance1 transitive17 and is the subject of the sentence4 ,the meaning is1 ',a youth here rests his head1' c4--,hart cor4 ,the pronoun ,i1 as well as the interjection ,o1 should be written with a capital4 ,or3 ,the pronoun ,i1 and the interjection ,o1 should be written with capitals--,weld cor4 ,the pronoun ,i should always be written with a capital4--,id4 ,he went from ,london to ,york4--,id4 ,an adverb is a word added to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb1 to modify its meaning4--,id4 7,see ,lesson #ast under the ,general ,rule47 ,,singular signifies1 'expressing only one2' denoting but one person or thing4 ,,plural1 7,latin pluralis1 from plus1 more17 signifies1 'expressing more than one4'--,weld cor4 ,when the present ends in e1 d only is added to form the imperfect tense and the perfect participle of regular verbs4--,id4 ,synresis is the contraction of two syllables into one2 as1 seest for sest1 drowned for drown-ed4--,id4 7,see ,brown's ,inst4 p4 #bcj47 ,words ending in ee are often inflected by mere consonants1 and without receiving an additional syllable beginning with e3 as1 see1 seest1 sees2 agree1 agreed1 agrees4--,weld cor4 ,in monosyllables1 final f1 l1 or s1 preceded by a single vowel1 is doubled2 as in staff1 mill1 grass4--,id4 ,before ing1 words ending in ie drop the e1 and change the i into y2 as1 die1 dying4--,id4 ,one number may be used for the other--or1 rather1 the plural may be used for the singular2 as1 we for ,i1 you for thou4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene cor4 ,,str,,ob',,ile1 n4 ,a pericarp made up of scales that lie one over an other4--,worcester cor4 ,yet ever1 from the clearest source1 hath run ,some gross alloy1 some tincture of the man4--,lowth cor4 ,,lesson ,v4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ,the possessive case is usually followed by a noun1 expressed or understood1 which is the name of the thing possessed4--,felton cor4 ,hadmer of ,aggstein was as pious1 devout1 and praying a ,christian1 as was ,nelson1 ,washington1 or ,jefferson2 or as is ,wellington1 ,tyler1 ,clay1 or ,polk4--,h4 ,c4 ,wright cor4 ,a word in the possessive case is not an independent noun1 and cannot stand by itself4--,j4 ,w4 ,wright cor4 ,mary is not handsome1 but she is good-natured2 and good-nature is better than beauty4--,st4 ,quentin cor4 ,after the practice of joining all words together had ceased1 a note of distinction was placed at the end of every word4--,l4 ,murray et al4 cor4 ,neither ,henry nor ,charles dissipates his time4--,hallock cor4 ',he had taken from the ,christians above thirty small castles4' ,,knolles3--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #bjj2 ,johnson's ,quarto ,dict41 w4 ,what4 ,in what character ,butler was admitted1 is unknown4 ,or3 ,in whatever character ,butler was admitted1 that character is unknown4--,hallock cor4 ,how are the agent of a passive and the object of an active verb often left8--,id4 ,by ,,subject1 is meant the word of whose object something is declared4 ,or3 ,by ,,subject1 is meant the word which has something declared of the thing signified4--,chandler cor4 ,care should also be taken that a transitive verb be not used in stead of a neuter or intransitive2 as1 lay for lie1 raise for rise1 set for sit1 c4--,id4 ,on them depends the duration of our ,constitution and our country4--,calhoun cor4 ,in the present sentence1 neither the sense nor the measure requires ,,what4--,chandler cor4 ,the ,irish thought themselves oppressed by the law that forbid them to draw with their horses' tails4--,brightland cor4 ,so and willingly are adverbs4 ,so is an adverb of degree1 and qualifies willingly4 ,willingly is an adverb of manner1 and qualifies deceives4--,cutler cor4 ,epicurus1 for experiment's sake1 confined himself to a narrower diet than that of the severest prisons4--,id4 ,derivative words are such as are formed from other words by prefixes or suffixes2 as1 injustice1 goodness1 falsehood4--,id4 ,the distinction here insisted on is as old as ,aristotle1 and should not be lost from sight4 ,or3 and it should still be kept in view4--,hart cor4 ,the ,tenses of the ,subjunctive and ,potential ,moods4 ,or3 ,the ,tenses of the ,subjunctive and the ,potential ,mood4--,id4 ,a triphthong is a union of three vowels1 uttered by a single impulse of the voice2 as1 uoy in buoy--,pardon ,davis cor4 ,a common noun is the name of a species or kind4--,id4 ,the superlative degree implies a comparison either between two or among more4--,id4 ,an adverb is a word serving to give an additional idea to a verb1 a participle1 an adjective1 or an other adverb4--,id4 ,when several nouns in the possessive case occur in succession1 each showing possession of things of the same sort1 it is generally necessary to add the sign of the possessive case to each of them3 as1 ',he sells men's1 women's1 and children's shoes4'--',dogs'1 cats'1 and tigers' feet are digitated4'--,id4 ',a rail-road is being made1' should be1 ',a railroad is making2' ',a school-house is being built1' should be1 ',a schoolhouse is building4'--,id4 ,auxiliaries are of themselves verbs2 yet they resemble1 in their character and use1 those terminational or other inflections which1 in other languages1 serve to express the action in the mood1 tense1 person1 and number desired4--,id4 ,please to hold my horse while ,i speak to my friend4--,id4 ,if ,i say1 ',give me the book1' ,i demand some particular book4--,noble ,butler cor4 ,here are five men4--,id4 ,after the active verb1 the object may be omitted2 after the passive1 the name of the agent may be omitted4--,id4 ,the ,progressive and ,emphatic forms give1 in each case1 a different shade of meaning to the verb4--,hart cor4 ,,that may be called a ,redditive ,conjunction1 when it answers to so or ,,such4--,ward cor4 ,he attributes to negligence your want of success in that business4--,smart cor4 ,do ,,will and ,,go express but one action8 ,or3 ,does 'will go' express but one action8--,barrett cor4 ,language is the principal vehicle of thought4--,g4 ,brown's ,inst41 ,pref41 p4 iii4 ,much is applied to things weighed or measured2 many1 to those that are numbered4 ,elder and eldest are applied to persons only2 older and oldest1 to either persons or things4--,bullions cor4 ,if there are any old maids still extant1 while misogynists are so rare1 the fault must be attributable to themselves4--,kirkham cor4 ,the second method1 used by the ,greeks1 has never been the practice of any other people of ,europe4--,sheridan cor4 ,neither consonant nor vowel is to be dwelt upon beyond its common quantity1 when it closes a sentence4 ,or3 ,neither consonants nor vowels are to be dwelt upon beyond their common quantity1 when they close a sentence4 ,or1 better thus3 ,neither a consonant nor a vowel1 when it closes a sentence1 is to be protracted beyond its usual length4--,id4 ,irony is a mode of speech1 in which what is said1 is the opposite of what is meant4--,mc,elligott's ,manual1 p4 #ajc4 ,the person speaking1 and the person or persons spoken to1 are supposed to be present4--,wells cor42 also ,murray4 ,a ,noun is a name1 a word used to express the idea of an object4--,wells cor4 ,a syllable is such a word1 or part of a word1 as is uttered by one articulation4--,weld cor4 ,thus wond'rous fair2 thyself how wond'rous then6 ,unspeakable1 who sitst above these heavens4--,milton1 ,b4 v1 l4 #aef4 ,and feel thy sovran vital lamp2 but thou ,revisitst not these eyes1 that roll in vain4--,id41 iii1 #bb4 ,before all temples th' upright heart and pure4--,id41 i1 #ah4 ,in forest wild1 in thicket1 brake1 or den4--,id41 vii1 #deh4 ,the rogue and fool by fits are fair and wise2 ,and e'en the best1 by fits1 what they despise4--,pope cor4 ,,the ,,key4--,,part ,,iv4--,,prosody4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,punctuation4 ,,section ,i4--,,the ,,comma4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,simple ,,sentences4 ,a short simple sentence should rarely be divided by the comma4--,felton cor4 ,a regular and virtuous education is an inestimable blessing4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,such equivocal expressions mark an intention to deceive4--,id4 ,they are this and that1 with their plurals these and those4--,bullions cor4 ,a nominative and a verb sometimes make a complete sentence2 as1 ,he sleeps4--,felton cor4 ,,tense expresses the action as connected with certain relations of time2 ,,mood represents it as further modified by circumstances of contingency1 conditionality1 c4--,bullions cor4 ,the word noun means name4--,ingersoll cor4 ,the present or active participle ,i explained then4--,id4 ,are some verbs used both transitively and intransitively8--,cooper cor4 ,blank verse is verse without rhyme4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #bce4 ,a distributive adjective denotes each one of a number considered separately4--,hallock cor4 ,and may at last my weary age ,find out the peaceful hermitage4 --,,milton3 ,ward's ,gr41 #aeh2 ,hiley's1 #abd4 ,,under ,,the ,,exception ,,concerning ,,simple ,,sentences4 ,a noun without an article to limit it1 is taken in its widest sense4--,lennie1 p4 #f4 ,to maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life1 marks a great mind4--,day cor4 ,to love our ,maker supremely and our neighbour as ourselves1 comprehends the whole moral law4--,id4 ,to be afraid to do wrong1 is true courage4--,id4 ,a great fortune in the hands of a fool1 is a great misfortune4--,bullions cor4 ,that he should make such a remark1 is indeed strange4--,farnum cor4 ,to walk in the fields and groves1 is delightful4--,id4 ,that he committed the fault1 is most certain4--,id4 ,names common to all things of the same sort or class1 are called ,common nouns2 as1 man1 woman1 day4--,bullions cor4 ,that it is our duty to be pious1 admits not of any doubt4--,id4 ,to endure misfortune with resignation1 is the characteristic of a great mind4--,id4 ,the assisting of a friend in such circumstances1 was certainly a duty4--,id4 ,that a life of virtue is the safest1 is certain4--,hallock cor4 ,a collective noun denoting the idea of unity1 should be represented by a pronoun of the singular number4--,id4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,simple ,,members4 ,when the sun had arisen1 the enemy retreated4--,day cor4 ,if he become rich1 he may be less industrious4--,bullions cor4 ,the more ,i study grammar1 the better ,i like it4--,id4 ,there is much truth in the old adage1 that fire is a better servant than master4--,id4 ,the verb do1 when used as an auxiliary1 gives force or emphasis to the expression4--,p4 ,e4 ,day cor4 ,whatsoever is incumbent upon a man to do1 it is surely expedient to do well4--,adams cor4 ,the soul1 which our philosophy divides into various capacities1 is still one essence4--,channing cor4 ,put the following words in the plural1 and give the rule for forming it4--,bullions cor4 ,we will do it1 if you wish4--,id4 ,he who does well1 will be rewarded4--,id4 ,that which is always true1 is expressed in the present tense4--,id4 ,an observation which is always true1 must be expressed in the present tense4--,id4 ,that part of orthography which treats of combining letters to form syllables and words1 is called ,,spelling4--,day cor4 ,a noun can never be of the first person1 except it is in apposition with a pronoun of that person4--,id4 ,when two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the same object1 they require a singular verb and pronoun4--,id4 ,james has gone1 but he will return in a few days4--,id4 ,a pronoun should have the same person1 number1 and gender1 as the noun for which it stands4--,id4 ,though he is out of danger1 he is still afraid4--,bullions cor4 ,she is his inferior in sense1 but his equal in prudence4--,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #f4 ,the man who has no sense of religion1 is little to be trusted4--,bullions cor4 ,he who does the most good1 has the most pleasure4--,id4 ,they were not in the most prosperous circumstances1 when we last saw them4--,id4 ,if the day continue pleasant1 ,i shall return4--,felton cor4 ,the days that are past1 are gone forever4--,id4 ,as many as are friendly to the cause1 will sustain it4--,id4 ,such as desire aid1 will receive it4--,id4 ,who gave you that book1 which you prize so much8--,bullions cor4 ,he who made it1 now preserves and governs it4--,id4 ,shall he alone1 whom rational we call1 ,be pleas'd with nothing1 if not blest with all8--,pope4 ,,under ,,the ,,exceptions ,,concerning ,,simple ,,members4 ,newcastle is the town in which ,akenside was born4--,bucke cor4 ,the remorse which issues in reformation1 is true repentance4--,campbell cor4 ,men who are intemperate1 are destructive members of community4-- ,alexander cor4 ,an active-transitive verb expresses an action which extends to an object4--,felton cor4 ,they to whom much is given1 will have much1 to answer for4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the prospect which we have1 is charming4--,cooper cor4 ,he is the person who informed me of the matter4--,id4 ,these are the trees that produce no fruit4--,id4 ,this is the book which treats of the subject4--,id4 ,the proposal was such as pleased me4--,id4 ,those that sow in tears1 shall reap in joy4--,id4 ,the pen with which ,i write1 makes too large a mark4--,ingersoll cor4 ,modesty makes large amends for the pain it gives the persons who labour under it1 by the prejudice it affords every worthy person1 in their favour4--,id4 ,irony is a figure whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our words express4--,bucke cor4 ,catachresis is a figure whereby an improper word is used in stead of a proper one4--,id4 ,the man whom you met at the party1 is a ,frenchman4--,frost cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,words4 ,john1 ,james1 and ,thomas1 are here3 that is1 ,john1 and ,james1 and ,thomas1 are here4--,cooper cor4 ,adverbs modify verbs1 adjectives1 and other adverbs4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,to ,nouns belong ,person1 ,gender1 ,number1 and ,case4--,id41 ib41 p4 #i4 ,wheat1 corn1 rye1 and oats1 are extensively cultivated4--,bullions cor4 ,in many1 the definitions1 rules1 and leading facts1 are prolix1 inaccurate1 and confused4--,finch cor4 ,most people consider it mysterious1 difficult1 and useless4--,id4 ,his father1 and mother1 and uncle1 reside at ,rome4--,farnum cor4 ,the relative pronouns are who1 which1 and that4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bc4 ,that is sometimes a demonstrative1 sometimes a relative1 and sometimes a conjunction4--,bullions cor4 ,our reputation1 virtue1 and happiness1 greatly depend on the choice of our companions4--,day cor4 ,the spirit of true religion is social1 kind1 and cheerful4--,felton cor4 ,do1 be1 have1 and will1 are sometimes principal verbs4--,id4 ,john1 and ,thomas1 and ,peter1 reside at ,oxford4--,webster cor4 ,the most innocent pleasures are the most rational1 the most delightful1 and the most durable4--,id4 ,love1 joy1 peace1 and blessedness1 are reserved for the good4--,id4 ,the husband1 wife1 and children1 suffered extremely4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the husband1 wife1 and children1 suffer extremely4--,sanborn cor4 ,he1 you1 and ,i1 have our parts assigned us4--,id4 ,he moaned1 lamented1 tugged1 and tried1 ,repented1 promised1 wept1 and sighed4--,cowper4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iv4--,,of ,,only ,,two ,,words4 ,disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,the hive of a city or kingdom1 is in the best condition1 when there is the least noise or buzz in it4--,id4 ,when a direct address is made1 the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case1 independent4--,ingersoll cor4 ,the verbs love and teach1 make loved and taught1 in the imperfect and participle4--,id4 ,neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aeb4 ,thou or ,i am in fault4--,id41 p4 #aeb4 ,a verb is a word that expresses action or being4--,p4 ,e4 ,day cor4 ,the ,objective ,case denotes the object of a verb or a preposition4--,id4 ,verbs of the second conjugation may be either transitive or intransitive4--,id4 ,verbs of the fourth conjugation may be either transitive or intransitive4--,id4 ,if a verb does not form its past indicative by adding d or ed to the indicative present1 it is said to be irregular4--,id4 ,the young lady is studying rhetoric and logic4--,cooper cor4 ,he writes and speaks the language very correctly4--,id4 ,man's happiness or misery is1 in a great measure1 put into his own hands4--,mur4 cor4 ,this accident or characteristic of nouns1 is called their ,gender4--,bullions cor4 ,grant that the powerful still the weak control2 ,be man the wit and tyrant of the whole4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,exception ,i4--,,two ,,words ,,with ,,adjuncts4 ,franklin is justly considered the ornament of the ,new ,world1 and the pride of modern philosophy4--,day cor4 ,levity1 and attachment to worldly pleasures1 destroy the sense of gratitude to ,him4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,in the following ,exercise1 point out the adjectives1 and the substantives which they qualify4--,bullions cor4 ,when a noun or pronoun is used to explain1 or give emphasis to1 a preceding noun or pronoun4--,day cor4 ,superior talents1 and brilliancy of intellect1 do not always constitute a great man4--,id4 ,a word that makes sense after an article1 or after the phrase speak of1 is a noun4--,bullions cor4 ,all feet used in poetry1 are reducible to eight kinds2 four of two syllables1 and four of three4--,hiley cor4 ,he would not do it himself1 not let me do it4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,the old writers give examples of the subjunctive mood1 and give other moods to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,,under ,,exception ,,ii4--,,two ,,terms ,,contrasted4 ,we often commend1 as well as censure1 imprudently4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,it is as truly a violation of the right of property1 to take a little1 as to take much2 to purloin a book or a penknife1 as to steal money2 to steal fruit1 as to steal a horse2 to defraud the revenue1 as to rob my neighbour2 to overcharge the public1 as to overcharge my brother2 to cheat the post-office1 as to cheat my friend4--,wayland cor4 ,the classification of verbs has been1 and still is1 a vexed question4--,bullions cor4 ,names applied only to individuals of a sort or class1 and not common to all1 are called ,proper nouns4--,id4 ,a hero would desire to be loved1 as well as to be reverenced4--,day cor4 ,death1 or some worse misfortune1 now divides them4 ,better3 ,death1 or some other misfortune1 soon divides them4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,alexander replied1 ',the world will not permit two suns1 nor two sovereigns4'--,goldsmith cor4 ,from nature's chain1 whatever link you strike1 ,tenth1 or ten-thousandth1 breaks the chain alike4--,pope4 ,,under ,,exception ,,iii4--,,of ,,an ,,alternative ,,of ,,words4 ,metre1 or ,measure1 is the number of poetical feet which a verse contains4--,hiley cor4 ,the ,csura1 or division1 is the pause which takes place in a verse1 and which divides it into two parts4--,id4 ,it is six feet1 or one fathom1 deep4--,bullions cor4 ,a ,brace is used in poetry1 at the end of a triplet1 or three lines which rhyme together4--,felton cor4 ,there are four principal kinds of ,english verse1 or poetical feet4--,id4 ,the period1 or full stop1 denotes the end of a complete sentence4--,sanborn cor4 ,the scholar is to receive as many jetons1 or counters1 as there are words in the sentence4--,st4 ,quentin cor4 ,that thing1 or the thing1 which purifies1 fortifies also the heart4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,that thing1 or the thing1 which would induce a laxity in public or private morals1 or indifference to guilt and wretchedness1 should be regarded as the deadly ,sirocco4--,id4 ,what is1 elliptically1 what thing1 or that thing which4--,sanborn cor4 ,demonstrate means show1 or point out precisely4--,id4 ,the man1 or that man1 who endures to the end1 shall be saved4--,hiley cor4 ,,under ,,exception ,,iv4--,,of ,a ,,second ,,comma4 ,that reason1 passion1 answer one great aim4--,,pope3 ,bullions and ,hiley cor4 ,reason1 virtue1 answer one great aim4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bfi2 ,cooper's ,murray1 #ahb2 ,comly1 #ade2 ,ingersoll1 #bhb2 ,sanborn1 #bfh2 ,kirkham1 #bab2 et al4 ,every good gift1 and every perfect gift1 is from above4--,james1 i1 #ag4 ,every plant1 and every tree1 produces others after its kind4--,day cor4 ,james1 and not ,john1 was paid for his services4--,id4 ,the single dagger1 or obelisk ,dagger1 is the second4--,id4 ,it was ,i1 not he1 that did it4--,st4 ,quentin cor4 ,each aunt1 each cousin1 hath her speculation4--,byron4 ',i shall see you when you come1' is equivalent to1 ',i shall see you then1 or at that time1 when you come4'--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,let wealth1 let honour1 wait the wedded dame2 ,august her deed1 and sacred be her fame4--,pope cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,v4--,,of ,,words ,,in ,,pairs4 ,my hopes and fears1 joys and sorrows1 centre in you4--,greenleaf or ,sanborn cor4 ,this mood implies possibility or liberty1 will or obligation4--,ingersoll cor4 ,substance is divided into body and spirit1 into extended and thinking4--,brightland cor4 ,these consonants1 d and t1 like p and b1 f and v1 k and hard g1 and s and z1 are letters of the same organ4--,j4 ,walker cor4 ,neither fig nor twist1 pigtail nor ,cavendish1 has passed my lips since2 nor ever shall again4--,cultivator cor4 ,the words whoever or whosoever1 whichever or whichsoever1 and whatever or whatsoever1 are called ,compound ,relative ,pronouns4--,day cor4 ,adjectives signifying profit or disprofit1 likeness or unlikeness1 govern the dative4--,bullions cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vi4--,,of ,,words ,,absolute4 ,thy rod and thy staff1 they comfort me4--,psalm xxiii #d4 ,depart1 ye wicked4--,j4 ,w4 ,wright cor4 ,he saith unto his mother4 ,woman1 behold thy son6--,john1 xix1 #bf4 ,thou1 ,god1 seest me4--,bullions cor4 ,john1 write me a letter4 ,henry1 go home4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor41 twice4 ,now1 ,g4 ,brown1 let us reason together4--,id4 ,mr4 ,smith1 you say1 on page #aath1 ',the objective case denotes the object'--,id4 ,gentlemen1 will you always speak as you mean8--,id4 ,john1 ,i sold my books to ,william1 for his brothers4--,id4 ,walter1 and ,seth1 ,i will take my things1 and leave yours4--,id4 ,henry1 ,julia and ,jane left their umbrella1 and took yours4--,id4 ,john1 harness the horses1 and go to the mine for some coal4--,id4 ,william1 run to the store1 for a few pounds of tea4--,id4 ,the king being dead1 the parliament was dissolved4--,chandler cor4 ,cease1 fond ,nature1 cease thy strife1 ,and let me languish into life4 --,pope1 ,brit4 ,poets1 vi1 #cag4 ,forbear1 great man1 in arms renown'd1 forbear4 --,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #abg4 ,eternal sunshine of the spotless mind6 ,each prayer accepted1 and each wish resign'd4 --,pope1 ,brit4 ,poets1 vi1 #cce4 ,,under ,,rule ,,vii4--,,of ,,words ,,in ,,apposition4 ,we1 the people of the ,united ,states1 in order to form a more perfect union1 establish justice1 c4--,constit4 of ,u4 ,s4 ,the ,lord1 the covenant ,god of his people1 requires it4--,a4 ,s4 ,mag4 cor4 ,he1 as a patriot1 deserves praise4--,hallock cor4 ,thomson1 the watchmaker and jeweller from ,london1 was of the party4--,bullions cor4 ,every body knows that the person here spoken of by the name of 'the ,conqueror1' is ,william1 duke of ,normandy4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,the words myself1 thyself1 himself1 herself1 itself1 and their plurals1 ourselves1 yourselves1 and themselves1 are called ,compound ,personal ,pronouns4--,day cor4 ,for who1 to dumb forgetfulness a prey1 ,this pleasing1 anxious being e'er resign'd1 ,left the warm precincts of the cheerful day ,nor cast one longing1 ling'ring look behind8--,,gray3 ,mur4 ,seq4 ,,under ,,the ,,exceptions ,,concerning ,,apposition4 ,smith ,williams's store2 ,nicholas the emperor's army4--,day cor4 ,he was named ,william the ,conqueror4--,id4 ,john the ,baptist was beheaded4--,id4 ,alexander the coppersmith did me much evil4--#b ,tim41 iv1 #ad4 ,a nominative in immediate apposition3 as1 ',the boy ,henry speaks4'--,smart cor4 ,a noun objective can be in apposition with some other2 as1 ',i teach the boy ,henry4'--,id4 ,,under ,,rule ,,viii4--,,of ,,adjectives4 ,but he found me1 not singing at my work1 ruddy with health1 vivid with cheerfulness2 but pale1 c4--,,dr4 ,,johnson3 ,murray's ,sequel1 p4 #d4 ,i looked up1 and beheld an inclosure1 beautiful as the gardens of paradise1 but of a small extent4--,,hawkesworth3 ib41 p4 #bj4 ,a is an article1 indefinite1 and belongs to 'book4'--,bullions cor4 ,the first expresses the rapid movement of a troop of horse over the plain1 eager for the combat4--,id4 ,he 1 the ,indian chieftain1 ,king ,philip1 was a patriot1 attached to his native soil2 a prince1 true to his subjects1 and indignant of their wrongs2 a soldier1 daring in battle1 firm in adversity1 patient of fatigue1 of hunger1 of every variety of bodily suffering1 and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused4--,w4 ,irving4 ,for thee1 who1 mindful of th' unhonour'd dead1 ,dost in these lines their artless tale relate4 --,,gray3 ,mur4 ,seq41 p4 #beh4 ,some mute inglorious ,milton here may rest2 ,some ,cromwell1 guiltless of his country's blood4 --,,gray3 ,enf4 ,sp41 p4 #bde4 ,idle after dinner 1 in his chair1 ,sat a farmer1 ruddy1 fat1 and fair4 --,murray's ,gram41 p4 #beg4 ,,under ,,the ,,exception ,,concerning ,,adjectives4 ,when an attribute becomes a title1 or is emphatically applied to a name1 it follows it3 as1 ,charles the ,great2 ,henry the ,first2 ,lewis the ,gross4--,webster cor4 ,feed me with food convenient for me4--,prov41 xxx1 #h4 ,the words and phrases necessary to exemplify every principle progressively laid down1 will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illustration of the principles to which they are referred4--,ingersoll cor4 ,the ,infinitive ,mood is that form of the verb which expresses being or action unlimited by person or number4--,day cor4 ,a man diligent in his business1 prospers4--,frost cor4 ,oh wretched state6 oh bosom black as death6 --,,shak43 ,enfield1 p4 #cfh4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ix4--,,of ,,finite ,,verbs4 ,the ,singular denotes one2 the ,plural1 more than one4--,bullions and ,lennie cor4 ,the ,comma represents the shortest pause2 the ,semicolon1 a pause longer than the comma2 the ,colon1 longer than the semicolon2 and the ,period1 longer than the colon4--,hiley cor4 ,the ,comma represents the shortest pause2 the ,semicolon1 a pause double that of the ,comma2 the ,colon1 double that of the semicolon2 and the ,period1 double that of the colon4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bff4 ,,who is applied only to persons2 ,,which1 to animals and things2 ,,what1 to things only2 and ,,that1 to persons1 animals1 and things4--,day cor4 ,a or an is used before the singular number only2 the1 before either singular or plural4--,bullions cor4 ,homer was the greater genius2 ,virgil1 the better artist4--,day cor42 also ,pope4 ,words are formed of syllables2 syllables1 of letters4--,st4 ,quentin cor4 ,the conjugation of an active verb is styled the ,,active ,,voice2 and that of a passive verb1 the ,,passive ,,voice4--,frost cor42 also ,smith3 ,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #gg4 ,the possessive is sometimes called the genitive case2 and the objective1 the accusative4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,benevolence is allied to few vices2 selfishness1 to fewer virtues4--,kames cor4 ,orthography treats of ,letters2 ,etymology1 of words2 ,syntax1 of ,sentences2 and ,prosody1 of ,versification4--,hart cor4 ,earth praises conquerors for shedding blood2 ,heaven1 those that love their foes1 and do them good4--,waller4 ,,under ,,rule ,x4--,,of ,,infinitives4 ,his business is1 to observe the agreement or disagreement of words4--,bullions cor4 ,it is a mark of distinction1 to be made a member of this society4--,farnum cor4 ,to distinguish the conjugations1 let the pupil observe the following rules4--,day cor4 ,he was now sent for1 to preach before the ,parliament4--,e4 ,williams cor4 ,it is incumbent on the young1 to love and honour their parents4--,bullions cor4 ,it is the business of every man1 to prepare for death4--,id4 ,it argued the sincerest candor1 to make such an acknowledgement4--,id4 ,the proper way is1 to complete the construction of the first member1 and leave that of the second elliptical4--,id4 ,,enemy is a name4 ,it is a term of distinction1 given to a certain person1 to show the character in which he is represented4--,peirce cor4 ,the object of this is1 to preserve the soft sounds of c and g4--,hart cor4 ,the design of grammar is1 to facilitate the reading1 writing1 and speaking of a language4--,barrett cor4 ,four kinds of type are used in the following pages1 to indicate the portions that are considered more or less elementary4--,hart cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xi4--,,of ,,participles4 ,the chancellor1 being attached to the king1 secured his crown4--,murray's ,grammar1 p4 #ff4 ,the officer1 having received his orders1 proceeded to execute them4--,day cor4 ,thus used1 it is in the present tense4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gr41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ce4 ,the imperfect tense has three distinct forms1 corresponding to those of the present tense4--,bullions cor4 ,every possessive case is governed by some noun1 denoting the thing possessed4--,id4 ,the word that1 used as a conjunction1 is generally preceded by a comma4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,his narrative1 being composed upon so good authority1 deserves credit4--,cooper cor4 ,the hen1 being in her nest1 was killed and eaten there by the eagle4--,murray cor4 ,pronouns1 being used in stead of nouns1 are subject to the same modifications4--,sanborn cor4 ,when placed at the beginning of words1 they are consonants4--,hallock cor4 ,man1 starting from his couch1 shall sleep no more4--,young4 ,his and her1 followed by a noun1 are possessive pronouns2 not followed by a noun1 they are personal pronouns4--,bullions cor4 ,he1 with viny crown advancing1 ,first to the lively pipe his hand address'd4--,collins4 ,,under ,,the ,,exception ,,concerning ,,participles4 ,but when they convey the idea of many acting individually1 or separately1 they are of the plural number4--,day cor4 ,two or more singular antecedents connected by and1 when they happen to introduce more than one verb and more than one pronoun1 require verbs and pronouns of the plural number4--,id4 ,words ending in y preceded by a consonant change y into i1 when a termination is added4--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,a noun used without an article to limit it1 is generally taken in its widest sense4--,ingersoll cor4 ,two nouns meaning the same person or thing1 frequently come together4--,bucke cor4 ,each one must give an account to ,god for the use1 or abuse1 of the talents committed to him4--,cooper cor4 ,two vowels united in one sound1 form a diphthong4--,frost cor4 ,three vowels united in one sound1 form a triphthong4--,id4 ,any word joined to an adverb1 is a secondary adverb4--,barrett cor4 ,the person spoken to1 is put in the ,second person2 the person spoken of1 in the ,third person4--,cutler cor4 ,a man devoted to his business1 prospers4--,frost cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xii4--,,of ,,adverbs4 ,so1 in indirect questions2 as1 ',tell me when he will come4'--,butler cor4 ,now1 when the verb tells what one person or thing does to an other1 it is transitive4--,bullions cor4 ,agreeably to your request1 ,i send this letter4--,id4 ,there seems1 therefore1 to be no good reason for giving them a different classification4--,id4 ,again1 the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant-man seeking good pearls4--,scott's ,bible1 ,smith's1 and ,bruce's4 ,again1 the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was cast into the sea4--,same4 ,cease1 however1 is used as a transitive verb by our best writers4--,webster cor4 ,time admits of three natural divisions2 namely1 ,present1 ,past1 and ,future4--,day cor4 ,there are three kinds of comparison2 namely1 ,regular1 ,irregular1 and ,adverbial--,id4 ,there are five personal pronouns2 namely1 ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 and it4--,id4 ,nouns have three cases3 viz41 the ,nominative1 the ,possessive1 and the ,objective4--,bullions cor4 ,hence1 in studying ,grammar1 we have to study words4--,frazee cor4 ,participles1 like verbs1 relate to nouns and pronouns4--,miller cor4 ,the time of the participle1 like that of the infinitive1 is estimated from the time of the leading verb4--,bullions cor4 ,the dumb shall sing1 the lame his crutch forego1 ,and leap exulting1 like the bounding roe4--,pope4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiii4--,,of ,,conjunctions4 ,but he said1 ,nay2 lest1 while ye gather up the tares1 ye root up also the wheat with them4--,scott's ,bible et al4 ,their intentions were good3 but1 wanting prudence1 they missed the mark at which they aimed4--,l4 ,mur4 cor4 ,the verb be often separates the name from its attribute2 as1 ',war is expensive4'--,webster cor4 ,either and or denote an alternative2 as1 ',i will take either road at your pleasure4'--,id4 ,either is also a substitute for a name2 as1 ',either of the roads is good4'--,id4 ,but1 alas6 ,i fear the consequence4--,day cor4 ,or1 if he ask a fish1 will he for a fish give him a serpent8--,luke1 xi1 #aa4 ,or1 if he shall ask an egg1 will he offer him a scorpion8--,,alger',s ,,bible3 ,luke1 xi1 #ab4 ,the infinitive sometimes performs the office of a nominative case2 as1 ',to enjoy is to obey4'--,,pope4--,cutler cor4 ,the plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular2 as1 book1 books4--,bullions1 ,p4 ,lessons1 p4 #af4 ,as1 ',i were to blame1 if ,i did it4'--,smart cor4 ,or1 if it be thy will and pleasure1 ,direct my plough to find a treasure4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xiv4--,,of ,,prepositions4 ,pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand1 in gender1 number1 and person4--,butler and ,bullions cor4 ,in the first two examples1 the antecedent is person1 or something equivalent2 in the last one1 it is thing4--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,in what character he was admitted1 is unknown4--,id4 ,to what place he was going1 is not known4--,id4 ,in the preceding examples1 ,john1 ,csar1 and ,james1 are the subjects4--,id4 ,yes is generally used to denote assent1 in answer to a question4--,id4 ,that1 in its origin1 is the passive participle of the ,anglo-,saxon verb thean1 thegan1 thicgan1 thicgean1 or thigan1 to take4--,id4 ,but1 in all these sentences1 as and so are adverbs4--,id4 ,after an interjection or an exclamatory sentence1 is usually placed the mark of exclamation4--,d4 ,blair cor4 ,intransitive verbs1 from their nature1 can have no distinction of voice4--,bullions cor4 ,to the inflection of verbs1 belong ,voices1 ,moods1 ,tenses1 ,numbers1 and ,persons4--,id4 ,as and so1 in the antecedent member of a comparison1 are properly ,adverbs4 ,better3 ,as ,,or so1 in the antecedent member of a comparison1 is properly an adverb4--,id4 ,in the following ,exercise1 point out the words in apposition4--,id4 ,in the following ,exercise1 point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor4--,id4 ,its is not found in the ,bible1 except by misprint4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #di4 ,no one's interest is concerned1 except mine4--,hallock cor4 ,in most of the modern languages1 there are four concords4--,st4 ,quentin cor4 ,in illustration of these remarks1 let us suppose a case4--,hart cor4 ,on the right management of the emphasis1 depends the life of pronunciation4--,j4 ,s4 ,hart and ,l4 ,murray cor4 ,see ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ccj4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xv4--,,of ,,interjections4 ,behold1 he is in the desert4--,friend's ,bible4 ,and ,lot said unto them1 ,oh1 not so1 my ,lord4--,alger's ,bible4 ,oh1 let me escape thither1 7is it not a little one87 and my soul shall live4--,friend's ,bible1 and ,alger's4 ,behold1 ,i come quickly4--,rev41 xxii1 #g4 ,lo1 ,i am with you always4--,day cor4 ,and1 lo1 ,i am with you alway4--,alger's ,bible3 ,day cor42 also ,scott and ,bruce4 ,ha1 ha1 ha2 how laughable that is6--,bullions cor4 ,interjections of laughter2 ha1 ha1 ,ha4--,wright cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xvi4--,,of ,,words ,,repeated4 ,lend1 lend your wings6 c4--,pope4 ,to bed1 to bed1 to bed4 ,there is a knocking at the gate4 ,come1 come1 come4 ,what is done1 cannot be undone4 ,to bed1 to bed1 to bed4--,,shakspeare3 ,burghs ,speaker1 p4 #acj4 ,i will roar1 that the duke shall cry1 ,encore1 encore1 let him roar1 let him roar1 once more1 once more4--,id41 ib41 p4 #acf4 ,vital spark of heavenly flame6 ,quit1 oh quit this mortal frame6--,pope4 ,o the pleasing1 pleasing anguish1 ,when we love1 and when we languish4--,addison4 ,praise to ,god1 immortal praise1 ,for the love that crowns our days6--,barbauld4 ,,under ,,rule ,,xvii4--,,of ,,dependent ,,quotations4 ,thus1 of an infant1 we say1 ',it is a lovely creature4'--,bullions cor4 ,no being can state a falsehood in saying1 ',i am2' for no one can utter this1 if it is not true4--,cardell cor4 ,i know they will cry out against this1 and say1 ',should he pay1' means1 ',if he should pay4'--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce cor4 ,for instance1 when we say1 ',the house is building1' the advocates of the new theory ask1--'building what8' ,we might ask in turn1 ,when you say1 ',the field ploughs well1'--ploughs what8 ',wheat sells well1'--sells what8 ,if usage allows us to say1 ',wheat sells at a dollar1' in a sense that is not active2 why may it not also allow us to say1 ',wheat is selling at a dollar' in a sense that is not active8--,hart cor4 ,man is accountable1' equals1 ',mankind are accountable4'--,barrett cor4 ,thus1 when we say1 ',he may be reading1' may is the real verb2 the other parts are verbs by name only4--,smart cor4 ,thus we say1 an apple1 an hour1 that two vowel sounds may not come together4--,id4 ,it would be as improper to say1 an unit1 as to say1 an youth2 to say1 an one1 as to say1 an wonder4--,id4 ,when we say1 ',he died for the truth1' for is a preposition4--,id4 ,we do not say1 ',i might go yesterday2' but1 ',i might have gone yesterday4'--,id4 ,by student1 we understand1 one who has by matriculation acquired the rights of academical citizenship2 but1 by bursch1 we understand1 one who has already spent a certain time at the university4--,howitt cor4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,semicolon4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,complex ,,members4 ,the buds spread into leaves1 and the blossoms swell to fruit2 but they know not how they grow1 nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of the earth4--,day cor4 ,but he used his eloquence chiefly against ,philip1 king of ,macedon2 and1 in several orations1 he stirred up the ,athenians to make war against him4--,bullions cor4 ,for the sake of euphony1 the n is dropped before a consonant2 and1 because most words begin with a consonant1 this of course is its more common form4--,id4 ,but if ,i say1 ',will a man be able to carry this burden8' it is manifest the idea is entirely changed2 the reference is not to number1 but to the species2 and the answer might be1 ',no2 but a horse will4'--,id4 ,in direct discourse1 a noun used by the speaker or writer to designate himself in the special relation of speaker or writer1 is said to be of the first person2 used to designate the person addressed1 it is said to be of the second person2 and1 when used to designate a person or thing merely spoken of1 it is said to be of the third person4--,id4 ,vice stings us1 even in our pleasures2 but virtue consoles us1 even in our pains4--,day cor4 ,vice is infamous1 though in a prince2 and virtue1 honourable1 though in a peasant4--,id4 ,every word that is the name of a person or thing1 is a noun2 because1 ',a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing4'--,bullions cor4 ,this is the sword with which he did the deed2 ,and that1 the shield by which he was defended4--,bucke cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,simple ,,members4 ,a deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenance2 a chilling terror convulsed his frame2 his voice burst out at intervals into broken accents4--,jerningham cor4 ,the ,lacedemonians never traded2 they knew no luxury2 they lived in houses built of rough materials2 they ate at public tables2 fed on black broth2 and despised every thing effeminate or luxurious4--,whelpley cor4 ,government is the agent2 society is the principal4--,wayland cor4 ,the essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the ,noun and the ,verb2 to which was subsequently added the ,conjunction4--,bullions cor4 ,the first faint gleamings of thought in its mind1 are but reflections from the parents' own intellect2 the first manifestations of temperament1 are from the contagious parental fountain2 the first aspirations of soul1 are but the warmings and promptings of the parental spirit4--,jocelyn cor4 ,older and oldest refer to maturity of age2 elder and eldest1 to priority of right by birth4 ,farther and farthest denote place or distance2 further and furthest1 quantity or addition4--,bullions cor4 ,let the divisions be natural2 such as obviously suggest themselves to the mind2 such as may aid your main design2 and such as may be easily remembered4--,goldsbury cor4 ,gently make haste1 of labour not afraid2 ,a hundred times consider what you've said4--,dryden cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,apposition1 ,c4 7#a47 ,adjectives are divided 1 in ,frost's ,practical ,grammar1 into two classes2 adjectives denoting quality1 and adjectives denoting number4--,frost cor4 7#b47 ,there are 1 according to some authors1 two classes of adjectives2 qualifying adjectives1 and limiting adjectives4--,n4 ,butler cor4 7#c-e47 ,there are three genders2 the masculine1 the feminine1 and the neuter4--,frost et al4 cor42 also ,l4 ,mur4 et al42 also ,hendrick3 ,inst41 p4 #ce4 7#f47 ,the ,singular denotes one2 the ,plural1 more than one4--,hart cor4 7#g47 ,there are three cases2 viz41 the ,nominative1 the ,possessive1 and the ,objective4--,hendrick cor4 7#h47 ,nouns have three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,kirkham cor4 7#i47 ,in ,english1 nouns have three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4--,smith cor4 7#aj47 ,grammar is divided into four parts2 namely1 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 ,prosody4--,hazen4 7#aa47 ,it is divided into four parts2 viz41 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 ,prosody4--,mur4 et al4 cor4 7#ab47 ,it is divided into four parts2 viz41 ,orthography4 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 ,prosody4--,bucke cor4 7#ac47 ,it is divided into four parts2 namely1 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4--,lennie1 ,bullions1 et al4 7#ad47 ,it is divided into four parts2 viz41 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4--,hendrick cor4 7#ae47 ,grammar is divided into four parts2 viz41 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4--,chandler cor4 7#af47 ,it is divided into four parts2 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4--,cooper and ,frost cor4 7#ag47 ,english ,grammar has been usually divided into four parts2 viz41 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4--,nutting cor4 7#ah47 ,temperance leads to happiness2 intemperance1 to misery4--,hiley and ,hart cor4 7#ai1 #bj47 ,a friend exaggerates a man's virtues2 an enemy1 his crimes4--,hiley cor42 also ,murray4 7#ba47 ,many writers use a plural noun after the second of two numeral adjectives2 thus1 ',the first and second pages are torn4'--,bullions cor4 7#bb47 ,of these1 i4 e41 of ,cases1 the ,latin has six2 the ,greek1 five2 the ,german1 four2 the ,saxon1 six2 the ,french1 three2 c4--,id4 ,in ing it ends1 when doing is expressed2 ,in d1 t1 n1 when suffering's confessed4--,brightland cor4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,corrected4 ,in old books1 i is often used for j2 v1 for u2 vv1 for w2 and ii or ij1 for y4--,hart cor4 ,the forming of letters into words and syllables1 is also called ,spelling4--,id4 ,labials are formed chiefly by the lips2 dentals1 by the teeth2 palatals1 by the palate2 gutturals1 by the throat2 nasals1 by the nose2 and linguals1 by the tongue4--,id4 ,the labials are p1 b1 f1 v2 the dentals1 t1 d1 s1 z2 the palatals1 g soft and j2 the gutturals1 k1 q1 and c and g hard2 the nasals1 m and n2 and the linguals1 l and r4--,id4 ,thus1 ',the man1 having finished his letter1 will carry it to the post-office4'--,id4 ,thus1 in the sentence1 ',he had a dagger concealed under his cloak1' concealed is passive1 signifying being concealed2 but1 in the former combination1 it goes to make up a form the force of which is active4--,id4 ,thus1 in ,latin1 ',he had concealed the dagger1' would be1 ',pugionem abdiderat2' but1 ',he had the dagger concealed1' would be1 ',pugionem abditum habebat4--,id4 ,here1 for instance1 means1 'in this place2' now1 'at this time2' c4--,id4 ,here when both declares the time of the action1 and so is an adverb2 and also connects the two verbs1 and so resembles a conjunction4--,id4 ,these words were all1 no doubt1 originally other parts of speech2 viz41 verbs1 nouns1 and adjectives4--,id4 ,the principal parts of a sentence1 are the subject1 the attribute1 and the object2 in other words1 the nominative1 the verb1 and the objective4--,id4 ,thus1 the adjective is connected with the noun2 the adverb1 with the verb or adjective2 the pronoun1 with its antecedent2 c4 ,between refers to two2 among1 to more than two4--,id4 ,at is used after a verb of rest2 to1 after a verb of motion4--,id4 ,verbs are of three kinds2 ,active1 ,passive1 and ,neuter4--,l4 ,murray4 ,active ,verbs are divided into two classes2 ,transitive and ,intransitive4--,hendrick cor4 ,the ,parts of ,speech1 in the ,english language1 are nine2 viz41 the ,article1 ,noun1 ,adjective1 ,pronoun1 ,verb1 ,adverb1 ,preposition1 ,interjection1 and ,conjunction4--,bullions cor4 ,see ,lennie4 ,of these1 the ,noun1 ,pronoun1 and ,verb1 are declined2 the rest are indeclinable4--,bullions1 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,the first expression is called 'the ,active form2' the second1 'the ,passive form4'--,weld cor4 ,o1 'tis a godlike privilege to save2 ,and he that scorns it1 is himself a slave4--,cowper cor4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,the ,,colon4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,additional ,,remarks4 ,of is a preposition3 it expresses the relation between fear and ,lord4--,bullions cor4 ,wealth and poverty are both temptations to man3 that tends to excite pride2 this1 discontentment4--,id4 et al cor4 ,religion raises men above themselves2 irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes3 this binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth2 that opens for them a prospect to the skies4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #ahi4 ,love not idleness3 it destroys many4--,ingersoll cor4 ,children1 obey your parents3 ',honour thy father and mother1' is the first commandment with promise4--,bullions cor4 ,thou art my hiding-place and my shield2 ,i hope in thy word4--,psalm cxix1 #aad4 ,the sun shall not smite thee by day1 nor the moon by night4 ,the ,lord shall preserve thee from all evil3 he shall preserve thy soul4--,psalm cxxi1 #f4 ,here to ,greece is assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered--the nations of antiquity3 she is one of them4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aad4 ,from short 7as usual7 and disturb'd repose1 ,i wake3 how happy they who wake no more6--,young1 ,n4 ,t41 p4 #c4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,greater ,,pauses4 ,a taste of a thing1 implies actual enjoyment of it2 but a tase sic--,,kth for it1 implies only capacity for enjoyment3 as1 ',when we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue1 we can have no relish for those of vice4'--,bullions cor4 ,the ,indicative mood simply declares a thing3 as1 ',he loves2' ',he is loved3' or it asks a question2 as1 ',lovest thou me8'--,id4 and ,lennie cor42 also ,murray4 ,the ,imperfect 7or ,past7 tense represents an action or event indefinitely as past2 as1 ',csar came1 and saw1 and conquered3' or it represents the action definitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain time now entirely past2 as1 ',my father was coming home when ,i met him4'--,bullions cor4 ,some nouns have no plural2 as1 gold1 silver1 wisdom3 others have no singular3 as1 ashes1 shears1 tongs3 others are alike in both numbers2 as1 sheep1 deer1 means1 news4--,day cor4 ,the same verb may be transitive in one sense1 and intransitive in an other3 thus1 in the sentence1 ',he believes my story1' believes is transitive2 but1 in this phrase1 ',he believes in ,god1' it is intransitive4--,butler cor4 ,let the divisions be distinct3 one part should not include an other1 but each should have its proper place1 and be of importance in that place2 and all the parts1 well fitted together and united1 should present a perfect whole4--,goldsbury cor4 ,in the use of the transitive verb1 there are always three things implied2 the actor1 the act1 and the object acted upon3 in the use of the intransitive1 there are only two2 the subject1 or the thing spoken of1 and the state or action attributed to it4--,bullions cor4 ,why labours reason8 instinct were as well2 ,instinct1 far better3 what can choose1 can err4--,young1 vii1 #fbb4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,independent ,,quotations4 ,the sentence may run thus3 ',he is related to the same person1 and is governed by him4'--,hart cor4 ,always remember this ancient proverb3 ',know thyself4'--,hallock cor4 ,consider this sentence3 ',the boy runs swiftly4'--,frazee cor4 ,the comparative is used thus3 ',greece was more polished than any other nation of antiquity4' ,the same idea is expressed by the superlative1 when the word other is left out3 thus1 ',greece was the most polished nation of antiquity4'--,bullions and ,lennie cor4 ,burke1 in his speech on the ,carnatic war1 makes the following allusion to the well known fable of ,cadmus sowing dragon's teeth3--',every day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant3 ',the ,carnatic is a country that will soon recover1 and become instantly as prosperous as ever4' ,they think they are talking to innocents1 who believe that by the sowing of dragon's teeth1 men may come up ready grown and ready made4'--,hiley and ,hart cor4 ,for sects he car'd not3 ',they are not of us1 ,nor need we1 brethren1 their concerns discuss4'--,crabbe cor4 ,habit1 with him1 was all the test of truth3 ',it must be right2 ,i've done it from my youth4' ,questions he answer'd in as brief a way3 ',it must be wrong2 it was of yesterday4'--,id4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,corrected4 ,this would seem to say1 ',i doubt nothing1 save one thing2 namely1 that he will fulfill his promise3' whereas that is the very thing not doubted4--,bullions cor4 ,the common use of language requires1 that a distinction be made between morals and manners3 the former depend upon internal dispositions2 the latter1 upon outward and visible accomplishments4--,beattie cor4 ,though ,i detest war in each particular fibre of my heart1 yet ,i honour the heroes among our fathers1 who fought with bloody hand4 ,peacemakers in a savage way1 they were faithful to their light3 the most inspired can be no more2 and we1 with greater light1 do1 it may be1 far less4--,t4 ,parker cor4 ,the article the1 like a1 must have a substantive joined with it2 whereas that1 like one1 may have it understood3 thus1 speaking of books1 ,i may select one1 and say1 ',give me that2' but not1 ',give me the2'--so ,i may say1 ',give me one2' but not1 ',give me a4'--,bullions cor4 ,the ,present tense has three distinct forms3 the simple2 as1 ,i read3 the emphatic2 as1 ,i do read3 and the progressive2 as1 ,i am reading4 ,or thus3 ,the ,present tense has three distinct forms2--the simple2 as1 ',i read2'--the emphatic2 as1 ',i do read2'--and the progressive2 as1 ',i am reading4'--,id4 ,the tenses in ,english are usually reckoned six3 the ,present1 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 the ,pluperfect1 the ,first-future1 and the ,second-future4--,id4 ,there are three participles2 the ,present or ,active1 the ,perfect or ,passive1 and the ,compound ,perfect3 as1 loving1 loved1 having loved4 ,or1 better3 ,there are three participles from each verb2 namely1 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 and the ,preperfect2 as1 turning1 turned1 having turned4--,murray et al4 cor4 ,the participles are three2 the ,present1 the ,perfect1 and the ,compound ,perfect3 as1 loving1 loved1 having loved4 ,better3 ,the participles of each verb are three2 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 and the ,preperfect3 as1 turning1 turned1 having turned4--,hart cor4 ,will is conjugated regularly1 when it is a principal verb3 as1 present1 ,i will2 past1 ,i willed2 c4--,frazee cor4 ,and both sounds of x are compound3 one is that of gz1 and the other1 that of ks4--,id4 ,the man is happy2 he is benevolent2 he is useful4--,l4 ,mur41 p4 #bh3 ,cooper cor4 ,the pronoun stands in stead of the noun3 as1 ',the man is happy2 he is benevolent2 he is useful4'--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,a ,pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun1 to prevent too frequent a repetition of it3 as1 ',the man is happy2 he is benevolent2 he is useful4'--,id4 ,a ,pronoun is a word used in the room of a noun1 or as a substitute for one or more words3 as1 ',the man is happy2 he is benevolent2 he is useful4'--,cooper cor4 ,a common noun is the name of a sort1 kind1 or class1 of beings or things2 as1 ,animal1 tree1 insect1 fish1 fowl4--,id4 ,nouns have three persons2 the first1 the second1 and the third4--,id4 ,so saying1 her rash hand in evil hour ,forth reaching to the fruit1 she pluck'd1 she eat3 ,earth felt the wound2 and ,nature from her seat1 ,sighing through all her works1 gave signs of woe1 ,that all was lost4--,,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,book ix1 l4 #ghj4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,the ,,period4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,distinct ,,sentences4 ,the third person is the position of a word by which an object is merely spoken of2 as1 ',paul and ,silas were imprisoned4'--',the earth thirsts4'--',the sun shines4'--,frazee cor4 ,two1 and three1 and four1 make nine4 ,if he were here1 he would assist his father and mother2 for he is a dutiful son4 ,they live together1 and are happy1 because they enjoy each other's society4 ,they went to ,roxbury1 and tarried all night1 and came back the next day4--,goldsbury cor4 ,we often resolve1 but seldom perform4 ,she is wiser than her sister4 ,though he is often advised1 yet he does not reform4 ,reproof either softens or hardens its object4 ,he is as old as his classmates1 but not so learned4 ,neither prosperity1 nor adversity1 has improved him4 ,let him that standeth1 take heed lest he fall4 ,he can acquire no virtue1 unless he make some sacrifices4--,id4 ,down from his neck1 with blazing gems array'd1 ,thy image1 lovely ,anna6 hung portray'd2 ,th' unconscious figure1 smiling all serene1 ,suspended in a golden chain was seen4--,falconer4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,allied ,,sentences4 ,this life is a mere prelude to an other which has no limits4 ,it is a little portion of duration4 ,as death leaves us1 so the day of judgement will find us4--,merchant cor4 ,he went from ,boston to ,new ,york4--,he went 7,i say7 from ,boston2 he went to ,new ,york4 ,in walking across the floor1 he stumbled over a chair4--,goldsbury corrected4 ,i saw him on the spot1 going along the road1 looking towards the house4 ,during the heat of the day1 he sat on the ground1 under the shade of a tree4--,goldsbury corrected4 ',george came home2 ,i saw him yesterday4' ,here the word him can extend only to the individual ,george4--,barrett corrected4 ,commas are often used now1 where parentheses were adopted formerly4 ,i cannot1 however1 esteem this an improvement4--,bucke's ,classical ,grammar1 p4 #bj4 ,thou1 like a sleeping1 faithless sentinel1 ,didst let them pass unnotic'd1 unimprov'd4 ,and know1 for that thou slumberst on the guard1 ,thou shalt be made to answer at the bar ,for every fugitive4--,,cotton3 ,hallock and ,enfield cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,abbreviations4 ,the term pronoun 7,lat4 pronomen7 strictly means a word used for1 or in stead of1 a noun4--,bullions corrected4 ,the period is also used after abbreviations2 as1 ,a4 ,d41 ,p4 ,s41 ,g4 ,w4 ,johnson4--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,on this principle of classification1 the later ,greek grammarians divided words into eight classes1 or parts of speech3 viz41 the ,article1 ,noun1 ,pronoun1 ,verb1 ,participle1 ,adverb1 ,preposition1 and ,conjunction4-- ,bullions cor4 ',metre ,melody is not confined to verse3 there is a tune in all good prose2 and ,shakspeare's was a sweet one4'--,epea ,pter41 ii1 #fa4 ,first ,american ,ed41 ii1 #ej4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,tooke's idea was probably just1 agreeing with ,aristotle's2 but 1 if so1 it is not accurately expressed4-- ,churchill cor4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,tooke was educated at ,eton and at ,cambridge1 in which latter college he took the degree of ,a4 ,m4 ,being intended for the established church of ,england1 he entered into holy orders when young2 and obtained the living of ,brentford1 near ,london1 which he held ten or twelve years4--,tooke's ,annotator cor4 ,i1 nor your plan1 nor book condemn2 ,but why your name8 and why ,a4 ,m48--,lloyd cor4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,corrected4 ,if thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath1 c4--,isaiah1 lviii1 #ac4 ,he that hath eeris of hervnge1 here he4--,,wickliffe3 ,matt41 xi1 #ae4 ,see ,general ,rules for ,spelling1 iii1 v1 and vii4--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,false witnesses did rise up4--,ps41 xxxv1 #aa4 ,an explicative sentence is used for explaining2 an interrogative sentence1 for inquiring2 an imperative sentence1 for commanding4-- ,barrett cor4 ,in ,october1 corn is gathered in the field by men1 who go from hill to hill with baskets1 into which they put the ears4--,susan labours with her needle for a livelihood4--,notwithstanding his poverty1 he is a man of integrity4--,golds1 cor4 ,a word of one syllable is called a monosyllable2 a word of two syllables1 a dissyllable2 a word of three syllables1 a trissyllable2 a word of four or more syllables1 a polysyllable4--,frazee cor4 ,if ,i say1 ',if it did not rain1 ,i would take a walk2' ,i convey the idea that it does rain at the time of speaking4 ',if it rained1' or1 ',did it rain1' in reference to the present time1 implies that it does not rain4 ',if it did not rain1' or1 ',did it not rain1' in reference to the present time1 implies that it does rain4 ,thus1 in this peculiar application1 an affirmative sentence always implies a negation2 and a negative sentence1 an affirmation4--,id4 ',if ,i were loved' and1 ',were ,i loved2' imply ,i am not loved3 ',if ,i were not loved1' and1 ',were ,i not loved1' imply ,i am loved4 ,a negative sentence implies an affirmation1 and an affirmative sentence implies a negation1 in these forms of the subjunctive4--,id4 ,what is ,rule ,,iii8--,hart cor4 ,how is ,rule ,,iii violated8--,id4 ,how do you parse letter in the sentence1 ',james writes a letter8' ,ans4 ,letter is a common noun1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and objective case2 and is governed by the verb writes1 according to ,rule ,,iii1 which says1 ',a transitive verb governs the objective case4'--,id4 ,creation sleeps4 ',tis as the gen'ral pulse ,of life stood still1 and nature made a pause2 ,an awful pause6 prophetic of her end4 ,and let her prophecy be soon fulfill'd3 ,fate1 drop the curtain2 ,i can lose no more4--,young4 ,,section ,v4--,,the ,,dash4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,abrupt ,,pauses4 ,and there is something in your very strange story1 that resembles--,does ,mr4 ,bevil know your history particularly8--,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #adi4 ,sir1--,mr4 ,myrtle--,gentlemen--,you are friends--,i am but a servant--,but----,ib41 p4 #aah4 ,an other man now would have given plump into this foolish story2 but ,i--,no1 no1 your humble servant for that4--,,garrick1 ,neck or ,nothing4 ,do not plunge thyself too far in anger1 lest thou hasten thy trial2 which if--,lord have mercy on thee for a hen6--,,shakspeare1 ,all's ,well4 ,but ere they came1--,o1 let me say no more6 ,gather the sequel by that went before4--,,idem1 ,com4 of ,errors4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,emphatic ,,pauses4 ,m1--,malvolio2--,m1--why1 that begins my name4--,,singer',s ,,shak41 ,twelfth ,night4 ,thus1 by the creative influence of the ,eternal ,spirit1 were the heavens and the earth finished in the space of six days--so admirably finished--an unformed chaos changed into a system of perfect order and beauty--that the adorable ,architect himself pronounced it very good1 and all the sons of ,god shouted for joy4--,historical ,reader1 p4 #aj4 ,if ,i were an ,american1 as ,i am an ,englishman1 while a foreign troop remained in my country1 ,i never would lay down my arms--never1 never1 never4--,pitt's ,speech4 ,madam1 yourself are not exempt in this1-- ,nor your son ,dorset2--,buckingham1 nor you4--,,shak4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,faulty ,,dashes4 ',you shall go home directly1 ,le ,fevre1' said my uncle ,toby1 'to my house2 and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the matter2 and we'll have an apothecary2 and the corporal shall be your nurse3 and ,i'll be your servant1 ,le ,fevre4'--,sterne cor4 ,he continued3 ',inferior artists may be at a stand1 because they want materials4'--,harris cor4 ,thus1 then1 continued he3 ',the end1 in other arts1 is ever distant and removed4'--,id4 ,the nouns must be coupled with and2 and when a pronoun is used1 it must be plural1 as in the example4 ,when the nouns are disjoined1 the pronoun must be singular4--,lennie cor4 ,opinion is a common noun1 or substantive1 of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case4--,wright cor4 ,the mountain1 thy pall and thy prison1 may keep thee2 ,i shall see thee no more1 but till death ,i will weep thee4 --,see ,felton's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,corrected4 ,if to accommodate man and beast1 heaven and earth--if this be beyond me1 'tis not possible4--,what consequence then follows8 ,or can there be any other than this8--if ,i seek an interest of my own1 detached from that of others1 ,i seek an interest which is chimerical1 and can never have existence4--,harris4 ,again3 ,i must have food and clothing4 ,without a proper genial warmth1 ,i instantly perish4 ,am ,i not related1 in this view1 to the very earth itself8--to the distant sun1 from whose beams ,i derive vigour8--,id4 ,nature instantly ebbed again2 the film returned to its place2 the pulse fluttered--stopped--went on--throbbed--stopped again--moved--stopped4-- ,shall ,i go on8--,no4--,sterne cor4 ,write ten nouns of the masculine gender2--ten of the feminine2--ten of the neuter2 ten indefinite in gender4--,davis cor4 ,the infinitive mood has two tenses2 the indicative1 six2 the potential1 four2 the subjunctive1 two2 and the imperative1 one4--,frazee cor4 ,now notice the following sentences3 ',john runs4'--',boys run4'--',thou runnest4'--,id4 ,the ,pronoun sometimes stands for a name2 sometimes for an adjective1 a sentence1 or a part of a sentence2 and1 sometimes1 for a whole series of propositions4--,peirce cor4 ,the self-applauding bird1 the peacock1 see2 ,mark what a sumptuous pharisee is he6--,cowper cor4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,the ,,eroteme4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,questions ,,direct4 ,when will his ear delight in the sound of arms8 ,when shall ,i1 like ,oscar1 travel in the light of my steel8--,ossian1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ceg4 ,will ,henry call on me1 while he shall be journeying south8--,peirce cor4 ,an ,interrogative ,pronoun is one that is used in asking a question2 as1 ',who is he8 and what does he want8'--,p4 ,e4 ,day cor4 ,who is generally used when we would inquire about some unknown person or persons2 as1 ',who is that man8'--,id4 ,your fathers1 where are they8 and the prophets1 do they live forever8--,zech41 i4 #e4 ,it is true1 that some of our best writers have used than whom2 but it is also true that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical3 then why not reject this too8--,the sentences in the exercises1 with than who1 are correct as they stand4--,lennie cor4 ,when the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed to the neuter verb to be1 what does the combination form8--,hallock cor4 ,those adverbs which answer to the question where8 whither8 or whence8 are called adverbs of place4--,id4 ,canst thou by searching find out ,god8 canst thou find out the ,almighty unto perfection8 ,it is as high as heaven2 what canst thou do8 deeper than hell2 what canst thou know8--,,scott1 ,,alger1 ,,bruce1 ,,and ,,others3 ,job1 xi1 #g and #h4 ,where1 where1 for shelter shall the wicked fly1 ,when consternation turns the good man pale8--,young4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,questions ,,united4 ,who knows what resources are in store1 and what the power of ,god may do for thee8--,,sterne3 ,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #cjg4 ,god is not a man1 that he should lie2 neither the son of man1 that he should repent3 hath he said1 and shall he not do it8 or hath he spoken1 and shall he not make it good8--,,scott',s ,,bible1 ,,alger',s1 ,,friends'1 ,,bruce',s1 ,,and ,,others3 ,numb41 xxiii1 #ai4 ,hath the ,lord said it1 and shall he not do it8 hath he spoken it1 and shall he not make it good8--,lennie and ,bullions cor4 ,who calls the council1 states the certain day1 ,who forms the phalanx1 and who points the way8--,pope's ,essay4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,questions ,,indirect4 ,to be1 or not to be2--that is the question4--,shak4 et al4 cor4 ,if it be asked1 why a pause should any more be necessary to emphasis than to an accent1--or why an emphasis alone will not sufficiently distinguish the members of sentences from each other1 without pauses1 as accent does words1--the answer is obvious3 that we are preacquainted with the sound of words1 and cannot mistake them when distinctly pronounced1 however rapidly2 but we are not preacquainted with the meaning of sentences1 which must be pointed out to us by the reader or speaker4--,sheridan cor4 ,cry1 ',by your priesthood1 tell me what you are4'--,pope cor4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,corrected4 ,who else can he be8--,barrett cor4 ,where else can he go8--,id4 ,in familiar language1 here1 there1 and where1 are used for hither1 thither1 and whither4--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,take1 for instance1 this sentence3 ',indolence undermines the foundation of virtue4'--,hart cor4 ,take1 for instance1 the sentence before quoted3 ',indolence undermines the foundation of virtue4'--,id4 ,under the same head1 are considered such sentences as these3 ',he that hath ears to hear1 let him hear4'--',gad1 a troop shall overcome him4'--,id4 ,tenses are certain modifications of the verb1 which point out the distinctions of time4--,bullions cor4 ,calm was the day1 and the scene1 delightful4--,id4 ,see ,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #e4 ,the capital letters used by the ,romans to denote numbers1 were ,c1 ,i1 ,l1 ,v1 ,x2 which are therefore called ,numeral ,letters4 ,i denotes one2 ,v1 five2 ,x1 ten2 ,l1 fifty2 and ,c1 a hundred4--,bullions cor4 ',i shall have written2' viz41 at or before some future time or event4--,id4 ,in ,latin words1 the liquids are l and r only2 in ,greek words1 l1 r1 m1 and n4--,id4 ,each legion was divided into ten cohorts2 each cohort1 into three maniples2 and each maniple1 into two centuries4--,id4 ,of the ,roman literature previous to ,a4 ,u4 #ead1 scarcely a vestige remains4--,id4 ,and that which ,he delights in1 must be happy4 ,but when8 or where8 ,this world was made for ,csar4--,,cato4 ,look next on greatness4 ,say where greatness lies4 ,where1 but among the heroes and the wise8--,pope4 ,,section ,,vii--,,the ,,ecphoneme4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,interjections1 c4 7#a47 ,o6 that he were wise6--,bullions cor4 7#b47 ,o6 that his heart were tender6--,see ,murray's ,ex4 or ,key1 under ,rule xix4 7#c and #d47 ,oh6 what a sight is here6--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ga2 7#cg27 ,pract4 ,les41 p4 #hb2 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 7#e-i47 ,o ,virtue6 how amiable thou art6--,farnum's ,gram41 p4 #ab2 ,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #aaa4 7#aj47 ,oh6 that ,i had been more diligent6--,hart cor42 and ,hiley4 7#aa47 ,o6 the humiliation to which vice reduces us6--,farnum and ,mur4 cor4 7#ab47 ,o6 that he were more prudent6--,farnum cor4 7#ac and #ad47 ,ah me6--,davis cor4 7#ae47 ,lately1 alas6 ,i knew a gentle boy1 c4--,dial cor4 7#af and #ag47 ,wo is me1 ,alhama6--,byron's ,poems3 ,wells cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,invocations4 ,weep on the rocks of roaring winds1 ,o maid of ,inistore6--,ossian4 ,cease a little while1 ,o wind6 stream1 be thou silent a while6 let my voice be heard around4 ,let my wanderer hear me6 ,salgar6 it is ,colma who calls4 ,here is the tree1 and the rock4 ,salgar1 my love6 ,i am here4 ,why delayest thou thy coming8 ,lo6 the calm moon comes forth4 ,the flood is bright in the vale4--,id41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cfi4 ,ah1 stay not1 stay not6 guardless and alone3 ,hector6 my lov'd1 my dearest1 bravest son6--,pope1 ,,ii41 xxii1 #fa4 ,,under ,,rule ,,iii4--,,of ,,exclamatory ,,questions4 ,how much better is wisdom than gold6--,see ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bgb4 ,o ,virtue6 how amiable art thou6--,see ,murray's ,grammar1 #b;d ,edition1 p4 #ie4 ,at that hour1 ,o how vain was all sublunary happiness6--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #aag2 see ,english ,reader1 p4 #ace4 ,alas6 how few and transitory are the joys which this world affords to man6--,p4 ,e4 ,day cor4 ,oh6 how vain and transitory are all things here below6--,id4 ,and ,o6 what change of state1 what change of rank1 ,in that assembly everywhere was seen6--,pollok cor42 also ,day4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,corrected4 ,o ,shame6 where is thy blush8--,shak4#eeg ,john1 give me my hat4--,barrett cor4 ,what6 is ,moscow in flames8--,id4 ,o6 what happiness awaits the virtuous6--,id4 ,ah1 welladay6 do what we can for him1 said ,trim1 maintaining his point1--the poor soul will die4--,sterne or ,enfield cor42 also ,kirkham4 ,will ,john return to-morrow8--,barrett cor4 ,will not ,john return to-morrow8--,id4 ,john1 return to-morrow4--,id4 ,soldiers1 stand firm4--,id4 ,if mea1 which means my1 is an adjective in ,latin1 why may not my be so called in ,english8 and if my is an adjective1 why not ,barrett's8--,id4 ,o ,absalom1 my son6--,see #b ,sam41 xix1 #d4 ,o star-eyed ,science6 whither hast thou fled8--,peirce cor4 ,why do you tolerate your own inconsistency1 by calling it the present tense8--,id4 ,thus the declarative mood i4e41 the indicative mood may be used in asking a question3 as1 ',what man is frail8'--,id4 ,what connection has motive1 wish1 or supposition1 with the the term subjunctive8--,id4 ,a grand reason1 truly1 for calling it a golden key6--,id4 ,what 'suffering' the man who can say this1 must be enduring6--,id4 ,what is ,brown's ,rule in relation to this matter8--,id4 ,alas6 how short is life6--,p4 ,e4 ,day cor4 ,thomas1 study your book4--,id4 ,who can tell us who they are8--,sanborn cor4 ,lord1 have mercy on my son2 for he is lunatic1 and sorely vexed4--,see ,matt41 xvii1 #ae4 ,o ye wild groves6 ,o where is now your bloom8--,felton cor4 ,o who of man the story will unfold8--,farnum cor44 ,methought ,i heard ,horatio say1 ,to-morrow4 ,go to--,i will not hear of it--to-morrow6--,,cotton4 ,how his eyes languish6 how his thoughts adore ,that painted coat which ,joseph never wore6 ,,section ,,viii4--,,the ,,curves4 ,,corrections ,,under ,,rule ,i4--,,of ,,parentheses4 ,another 1 better written as a phrase1 ,an other1 is composed of the indefinite article an1 7which etymologically means one17 and other2 and denotes one other4--,hallock cor4 ,each mood has its peculiar ,tense1 ,tenses1 or ,times4--,bucke cor4 ,in some very ancient languages1 7as the ,hebrew17 which have been employed chiefly for expressing plain sentiments in the plainest manner1 without aiming at any elaborate length or harmony of periods1 this pronoun the relative occurs not so often4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,before ,i shall say those things1 ,o ,conscript ,fathers6 about the public affairs1 which are to be spoken at this time2 ,i shall lay before you1 in few words1 the motives of the journey and the return4--,brightland cor4 ,of well-chose words some take not care enough1 ,and think they should be1 like the subject1 rough4--,id4 ,then1 having showed his wounds1 he'd sit him down4--,bullions cor4 ,,under ,,rule ,,ii4--,,of ,,included ,,points4 ,then ,jael smote the nail into his temples1 and fastened it into the ground3 7for he was fast asleep1 and weary37 so he died4--,,scott',s ,,bible3 ,judges1 iv1 #ba4 ,every thing in the ,iliad has manners1 7as ,aristotle expresses it17 that is1 every thing is acted or spoken4--,pope cor4 ,those nouns that end in f1 or fe4 7except some few which ,i shall mention presently17 form plurals by changing those letters into ves3 as1 thief1 thieves3 wife1 wives4--,bucke cor4 ,as requires as2 7expressing equality of degree27 thus1 ',mine is as good as yours4' ,as requires so2 7expressing equality or proportion27 thus1 ',as the stars1 so shall thy seed be4' ,so requires as2 7with a negative expressing inequality27 as1 ',he is not so wise as his brother4' ,so requires that2 7expressing a consequence37 as1 ',i am so weak that ,i cannot walk4' #eeh--;,bullions cor4 ,a captious question1 sir1 7and yours is one17 ,deserves an answer similar1 or none4--,cowper cor4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,corrected4 ,whatever words the verb ,,to ,,be serves to unite1 referring to the same thing1 must be of the same case2 7#fa27 as1 ',alexander is a student4'--,bullions cor4 ,when the objective is a relative or an interrogative1 it comes before the verb that governs it3 7#dj1 ,rule #i37 ,murray's #fth rule is unnecessary4--,id4 ,it is generally improper1 except in poetry1 to omit the antecedent to a relative2 and always1 to omit a relative1 when of the nominative case4--,id4 ,in every sentence1 there must be a verb and a nominative or subject1 expressed or understood4--,id4 ,nouns and pronouns1 and especially words denoting time1 are often governed by prepositions understood2 or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives1 without a governing word3 7#ej1 ,rem4 #f and ,rule37 as1 ',he gave to me a full account of the affair4'--,id4 ,when should is used in stead of ought1 to express present duty1 7#bj1 #d17 it may be followed by the present2 as1 ',you should study that you may become learned4'--,id4 ,the indicative present is frequently used after the words when1 till1 before1 as soon as1 after1 to express the relative time of a future action3 7#bd1 ,i1 #d27 as1 ',when he comes1 he will be welcome4'--,id4 ,the relative is parsed1 according to ,bullions1 by stating its gender1 number1 case1 and antecedent2 7the gender and number being always the same as those of the antecedent27 thus1 ',the boy who'--',who is a relative pronoun1 masculine1 singular1 the nominative2 and refers to 'boy' as its antecedent4--,id4 ',now1 now1 ,i seize1 ,i clasp thy charms2 ,and now you burst1 ah cruel6 from my arms4'--,pope4 ,here is an unnecessary change from the second person singular to the second person plural4 ,the text would have been better1 thus3-- ',now1 now1 ,i seize1 ,i clasp your charms2 ,and now you burst1 ah cruel6 from my arms4'--,john ,burn cor4 ,see ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ce2 ,churchill's1 #bic4 ,,section ,,ix4--,,all ,,points4 ,,mixed ,,examples ,,corrected4 ,the principal stops are the following3 the ,comma 11 the ,semicolon 21 the ,colon 31 the ,period1 or ,full ,stop 41 the ,note of ,interrogation 81 the ,note of ,exclamation 61 the ,parenthesis 771 and the ,dash --4--,bullions cor4 ,the modern punctuation in ,latin is the same as in ,english4 ,the chief marks employed are the ,comma 11 the ,semicolon 21 the ,colon 31 the ,period 41 the ,note of ,interrogation 81 the ,note of ,exclamation 7671 the ,parenthesis 771 and the ,dash --4--,id4 ,plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game1 ',you chide me1' says the youth1 'for a trifling fault4' ',custom1' replied the philosopher1 'is no trifle4' ',and1' adds ,montaigne1 'he was in the right2 for our vices begin in infancy4'--,home cor4 ,a merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died4 ',my father1' says the skipper1 'my grandfather1 and my great-grandfather1 were all drowned4' ',well1' replies the merchant1 'and are not you afraid of being drowned too8'--,id4 ,the use of inverted commas derives from ,france1 where one ,guillemet was the author of them2 and1 as an acknowledgement for the improvement1 his countrymen call them after his name1 ,,guillemets4--,hist4 cor4 ,this1 however1 is seldom if ever done1 unless the word following the possessive begins with s2 thus1 we do not say1 'the prince' feather2' but1 'the prince's feather4'--,bullions cor4 ,and this phrase must mean1 'the feather of the prince2' but 'prince's-feather1' written as one word1 and with both apostrophe and hyphen1 is the name of a plant1 a species of amaranth4--,g4 ,brown4 ,bothius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honours his country could bestow4--,ingersoll cor42 also ,l4 ,murray4 ,when an example1 a quotation1 or a speech1 is introduced1 it is separated from the rest of the sentence either by a comma or by a colon2 as1 ',the ,scriptures give us an amiable representation of the ,deity1 in these words3 ,god is love4'--,hiley cor4 ,either the colon or the comma may be used1 according to the nature of the case1 when an example1 a quotation1 or a speech1 is introduced2 as1 ',always remember this ancient maxim3 ,know thyself4'--',the ,scriptures give us an amiable representation of the ,deity1 in these words3 ,god is love4'--,bullions cor4 ,the first word of a quotation introduced after a colon1 or of any sentence quoted in a direct form1 must begin with a capital3 as1 ',always remember this ancient maxim3 ,know thyself4'--',our great lawgiver says1 ,take up thy cross daily1 and follow me4'--,bullions and ,lennie cor42 also ,l4 ,murray2 also ,weld4 ,see ,luke1 ix1 #bc4 ,tell me1 in whose house do you live8--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,he that acts wisely1 deserves praise4--,id4 ,he who steals my purse1 steals trash4--,id4 ,the antecedent is sometimes omitted2 as1 ',who steals my purse1 steals trash4'--,shak4 ,that is1 ',he who1' or1 ',the person who4'--,id4 ,thus1 ',whoever steals my purse1 steals trash2'--',whoever does no good1 does harm4'--,id4 ,thus1 ',whoever sins1 will suffer4' ,this means1 that any one1 without exception1 who sins1 will suffer4--,id4 ,letters form syllables2 syllables1 words2 words1 sentences2 and sentences1 combined and connected1 form discourse4--,cooper cor4 ,a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered by itself1 is called a vowel2 as1 a1 e1 i4--,id4 ,a proper noun is the name of an individual1 or of a particular people or place2 as1 ,john1 ,boston1 ,hudson1 ,america4--,id4 ,many men have been capable of doing a wise thing2 more1 a cunning thing2 but very few1 a generous thing4--,davis cor4 ,in the place of an ellipsis of the verb1 a comma must be inserted4--,id4 ,a common noun unlimited by an article1 is sometimes understood in its broadest acceptation3 thus1 ',fishes swim1' is understood to mean all fishes2 ',man is mortal1' all men4--,id4 ,thus1 those sounds formed principally by the throat1 are called gutturals2 those formed principally by the palate1 palatals2 those formed by the teeth1 dentals2 those by the lips1 labials2 and those by the nose1 nasals4--,davis cor4 ,some adjectives are compared irregularly3 as1 ,good1 letter1 best2 ,bad1 worse1 worst2 ,little1 less1 least4--,felton cor4 ,under the fourth head of grammar1 therefore1 four topics will be considered2 viz41 ,,punctuation1 ,,orthoepy sic--,,kth1 ,,figures1 and ,,versification4--,hart cor4 ,direct her onward to that peaceful shore1 ,where peril1 pain1 and death1 are felt no more6--,falconer cor4 ,,good ,,english ,,rightly ,,pointed4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ,discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also2 and such1 too1 are often their origin and their end4--,bullions cor4 ,,traverse1 literally to cross1 ,to deny what the opposite party has alleged4 ,to traverse an indictment1 or the like1 is to deny it4--,id4 ,the ,ordinal numerals denote the order1 or succession1 in which any number of persons or things are mentioned2 as1 first1 second1 third1 fourth1 c4--,hiley cor4 ,nouns have three persons2 the ,first1 the ,second1 and the ,third4 ,the ,first person is that which denotes the speaker3 the ,second is that which denotes the person or thing spoken to2 the ,third is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of4--,hart cor4 ,nouns have three cases2 the ,nominative1 the ,possessive1 and the ,objective4 ,the relations indicated by the cases of a noun1 include three distinct ideas2 viz41 those of subject1 object1 and ownership4--,id4 ,in speaking of animals that are of inferior size1 or whose sex is not known or not regarded1 we often treat them as without sex3 thus1 we say of a cat1 ',it is treacherous2' of an infant1 ',it is beautiful2' of a deer1 ',it was killed4'--,id4 ,when ,,this and ,,that1 or ,,these and ,,those1 refer to a preceding sentence2 ,,this or ,,these represents the latter member or term1 and ,,that or ,,those1 the former4--,churchill cor42 and ,lowth4 ,the rearing of them became his first care2 their fruit1 his first food2 and the marking of their kinds1 his first knowledge4--,n4 ,butler cor4 ,after the period used with abbreviations1 we should employ other points1 if the construction demands them2 thus1 after ',esq41' in the last example1 there should be1 besides the period1 a comma4--,id4 ,in the plural1 the verb has the same form in all the persons2 but still the principle in ,rem4 #e1 under ,rule iii1 that the first or second person takes precedence1 is applicable to verbs1 in parsing4--,id4 ,rex and ,tyrannus are of very different characters4 ,the one rules his people by laws to which they consent2 the other1 by his absolute will and power3 that government is called freedom2 this1 tyranny4--,l4 ,murray cor4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing1 that can be known or mentioned3 as1 ,george1 ,london1 ,america1 goodness1 charity4--,see ,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #ca4 ,etymology treats of the classification of words1 their various modifications1 and their derivation--,p4 ,e4 ,day cor4 ,to punctuate correctly1 implies a thorough acquaintance with the meaning of words and phrases1 as well as with all their corresponding connexions4--,w4 ,day cor4 ,all objects that belong to neither the male nor the female kind1 are said to be of the neuter gender1 except certain things personified4--,weld cor twice4 ,the ,analysis of the ,sounds in the ,english language1 presented in the preceding statements1 is sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand4 ,those who wish to pursue the subject further1 can consult ,dr4 ,rush's admirable work1 ',the ,philosophy of the ,human ,voice4'--,fowler cor4 ,nobody confounds the name of w or y with the sound of the letter1 or with its phonetic import4--,id4 ,fist ,this assertion is hardly true4 ,strange as such a blunder is1 it has actually occurred4 ,see1 in ,orthography1 ,obs4 #e1 on the ,classes of the ,letters1 at p4 #aef4--;,g4 ,b4 ,order is ,heav'n's first law2 and1 this confess'd1 ,some are1 and must be1 greater than the rest4--,pope4 ,,lesson ,,ii--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ,from adjectives of one syllable1 and some of two1 the comparative is formed by adding r or er to the positive2 and the superlative1 by adding st or est3 as1 sweet1 sweeter1 sweetest2 able1 abler1 ablest4--,bullions cor4 ,from monosyllables1 or from dissyllables ending with a vowel or the accent1 the comparative is formed by adding er or r to the positive2 and the superlative1 by adding est or st3 as1 tall1 taller1 tallest2 wise1 wiser1 wisest2 holy1 holier1 holiest2 complete1 completer1 completest4--,id4 ,by this method1 the confusion and unnecessary labour occasioned by studying grammars1 in these languages1 constructed on different principles1 are avoided2 the study of one is rendered a profitable introduction to the study of an other2 and an opportunity is furnished to the inquiring student1 of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure1 and of seeing at once wherein they agree1 and wherein they differ4--,id4 ,no larger portion should be assigned for each recitation1 than the class can easily master2 and1 till the previous lessons are well learned1 a new portion should not be given out4--,id4 ,the acquisitions made in every new lesson1 should be riveted and secured by repeated revisals4--,id4 ,the personal pronouns may be parsed briefly1 thus3 ',i is a personal pronoun1 of the first person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 7feminine1 if the speaker is a female17 and nominative case4' ',his is a personal pronoun1 of the third person1 singular number1 masculine gender1 and possessive case4'--,id4 ,when the male and the female are expressed by distinct terms1 as1 shepherd1 shepherdess1 the masculine term has also a general meaning1 expressing both male and female2 and is always to be used when the office1 occupation1 or profession1 and not the sex1 of the individual1 is chiefly to be expressed2 the feminine term being used only when the discrimination of sex is indispensably necessary4 ,thus1 when it is said1 ',the poets of this country are distinguished for correctness of taste1' the term 'poets' clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry4--,id4 ,nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions1 must be in the same case--,ingersoll cor4 ,verbs connected by and1 or1 or nor1 must generally be in the same mood and tense2 and1 when the tense has different forms1 they must be in the same form4--,id4 ,this will habituate him to reflection2 exercise his judgement on the meaning of the author2 and1 without any great effort on his part1 impress indelibly on his memory the rules which he is required to give4 ,after the exercises under any rule have been gone through1 agreeably to the direction in the note at the bottom of page #hhth1 they may be read over again in a corrected state1 the pupil making an emphasis on the correction made2 or they may be presented in writing1 at the next recitation4--,bullions cor4 ,man1 but for that1 no action could attend2 ,and1 but for this1 were active to no end4--,pope4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,under ,,various ,,rules4 ',johnson1 the bookseller and stationer' indicates that bookseller and stationer are terms belonging to the same person2 'the bookseller and the stationer1' would indicate that they belong to different persons4--,bullions cor4 ,past is commonly an adjective2 passed1 the past tense or perfect participle of the verb3 and they ought not 7as they frequently are7 to be confounded with each other4--,id4 ,not only the nature of the thoughts and sentiments1 but the very selection or arrangement of the words1 gives ,english poetry a character which separates it widely from common prose4--,id4 ,men of sound1 discriminating1 and philosophical minds--men prepared for the work by long study1 patient investigation1 and extensive acquirements--have laboured for ages to improve and perfect it2 and nothing is hazarded in asserting1 that1 should it be unwisely abandoned1 it will be long before an other1 equal in beauty1 stability1 and usefulness1 will be produced in its stead4--,id41 on the common system of ,english ,grammar4 ,the article the1 on the other hand1 is used to restrict2 and is therefore termed ,definite4 ,its proper office is1 to call the attention to a particular individual or class1 or to any number of such2 and accordingly it is used with nouns of either number1 singular or plural4--,id4 ,hence1 also1 the infinitive mood1 a participle with its adjuncts1 a member of a sentence1 or a whole proposition1 forming the subject of discourse1 or the object of a verb or preposition1 and being the name of an act or circumstance1 is1 in construction1 regarded as a noun2 and is usually called1 'a substantive phrase3' as1 ',to play1 is pleasant4'--',that he is an expert dancer1 is no recommendation4'--',let your motto be1 ,honesty is the best policy4'--,id4 ,in accordance with his definition1 ,murray has divided verbs into three classes3 ,active1 ,passive1 and ,neuter2--and included in the first class transitive verbs only2 and1 in the last1 all verbs used intransitively--,id4 ,moreover1 as the name of the speaker or that of the person spoken to is seldom expressed1 7the pronoun ,i being used for the former1 and ,,thou or ,,you for the latter17 a noun is very rarely in the first person2 not often in the second2 and hardly ever in either1 unless it is a proper noun1 or a common noun denoting an object personified4--,id4 ,in using the parsing exercises1 it will save much time1 7and this saving is all-important17 if the pupil be taught to say all things belonging to the noun1 in the fewest words possible2 and to say them always in the same order1 after the example above4--,id4 ,in any phrase or sentence1 the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be found by prefixing the phrase1 ',what kind of1' to the noun1 in the form of a question2 as1 ',what kind of horse8' ',what kind of stone8' ',what kind of way8' ,the word containing the answer to the question1 is an adjective4--,id4 ,in the following exercise1 let the pupil first point out the nouns1 and then the adjectives2 and tell how he knows them to be such4--,id4 ,in the following sentences1 point out the improper ellipses2 show why they are improper2 and correct them4--,id4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 #a4 ,i am smitten1 #a4 ,we are smitten1 #b4 ,thou art smitten1 #b4 ,you are smitten1 #c4 ,he is smitten2 #c4 ,they are smitten4--,wright cor4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,utterance4 ,the second chapter of ,prosody1 treating of articulation1 pronunciation1 elocution and the minor topics that come under ,utterance1 contains no exercises demanding correction in this ,key4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,figures4 ,in the third chapter of ,prosody1 the several ,figures of speech are explained2 and1 as the illustrations embrace no errors for correction1 nothing here corresponds to the chapter1 but the title4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,versification4 ,,false ,,prosody1 ,,or ,,errors ,,of ,,metre1 ,,corrected4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,rhythm ,,restored4 ,where thy true treasure8 ,gold says1 ',not in me4' --,young4 ,canst thou grow sad1 thou say'st1 as earth grows bright4 --,dana4 ,it must be so2--,plato1 thou reason'st well --,,cato3 ,enfield1 p4 #cba4 ,slow rises worth by poverty depressed4 --,wells's ,gram41 ,late ,ed41 p4 #baa4 ,rapt into future times1 the bard begun4 --,,pope4--,ib41 p4 #afe4 ,is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens ,to wash it white as snow8 ,whereto serves mercy ,but to confront the visage of offence8 --,shak41 ,hamlet4 ,look6 in this place ran ,cassius' dagger through4 --,id41 ,j4 ,csar4 ,and when they list1 their lean and flashy songs ,grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw4 --,milton1 ,lycidas4 ,did not great ,julius bleed for justice' sake8 --,dodd and ,shak4 cor4 ,may ,i express thee' unblam'd8 since ,god is light --,milton1 ,b4 iii1 l4 #c4 ,or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream8 --,id41 ,b4 iii1 l4 #g4 ,republics1 kingdoms1 empires1 may decay2 ,great princes1 heroes1 sages1 sink to nought4 --,peirce or ,la-,rue cor4 ,thou bringst1 gay creature as thou art1 ,a solemn image to my heart4 --,hallock cor4 ,know then thyself1 presume not ,god to scan2 ,the proper study of mankind is ,man4 --,pope1 on ,man1 ,ep4 ii1 l4 #a4 ,raised on pilasters high of burnished gold4 --,dr4 ,s4 ,butler cor4 ,love in ,adalgise' breast has fixed his sting4 --,id4 ,thirty days each have ,september1 ,april1 ,june1 and old ,november2 ,each of the rest has thirty-one1 ,bating ,february alone1 ,which has twenty-eight in fine1 ,till leap-year gives it twenty-nine4 --,dean ,colet cor4 ,,lesson ,,ii4--,,rhythm ,,restored4 ',twas not the fame of what he once had been1 ,or tales in records old and annals seen4 --,rowe cor4 ,and ,asia now and ,afric are explored ,for high-priced dainties and the citron board4 --,rowe cor4 ,who knows not how the trembling judge beheld ,the peaceful court with armed legions fill'd8 --,rowe cor4 ,with thee the ,scythian wilds we'll wander o'er1 ,with thee the burning ,libyan sands explore4 --,rowe cor4 ,hasty and headlong1 different paths they tread1 ,as impulse blind and wild distraction lead4 --,rowe cor4 ,but ,fate reserv'd him to perform its doom1 ,and be the minister of wrath to ,rome4 --,rowe cor4 ,thus spoke the youth4 ,when ,cato thus express'd ,the sacred counsels of his inmost breast4 --,rowe cor4 ,these were the rigid manners of the man1 ,this was the stubborn course in which they ran2 ,the golden mean unchanging to pursue1 ,constant to keep the purpos'd end in view4 --,rowe cor4 ,what greater grief can on a ,roman seize1 ,than to be forced to live on terms like these6 --,rowe cor4 ,he views the naked town with joyful eyes1 ,while from his rage an armed people flies4 --,rowe cor4 ,for planks and beams1 he ravages the wood1 ,and the tough oak extends across the flood4 --,rowe cor4 ,a narrow pass the horned mole divides4 ,narrow as that where strong ,euripus' tides ,beat on ,euboean ,chalcis' rocky sides4 --,rowe cor4 ,no force1 no fears their hands unarmed bear1--or1 ,no force1 no fears their hands unarm'd now bear1 ,but looks of peace and gentleness they wear4 --,rowe cor4 ,the ready warriors all aboard them ride1 ,and wait return of the retiring tide4 --,rowe cor4 ,he saw those troops that long had faithful stood1 ,friends to his cause1 and enemies to good1 ,grown weary of their chief1 and satiate with blood4 --,rowe cor4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,key4 ,,appendix ,i4 ,,to ,,part ,,first1 ,,or ,,orthography4 ,,of ,,the ,,sounds ,,of ,,the ,,letters4 ,in the first chapter of ,part ,i1 the powers of the letters1 or the elementary sounds of the ,english language1 were duly enumerated and explained2 for these1 as well as the letters themselves1 are few1 and may be fully stated in few words3 but1 since we often express the same sound in many different ways1 and also1 in some instances1 give to the same letter several different sounds1--or1 it may be1 no sound at all1--any adequate account of the powers of the letters considered severally according to usage1--that is1 of the sound or sounds of each letter1 with its mute positions1 as these occur in practice1--must1 it was thought1 descend to a minuteness of detail not desirable in the first chapter of ,orthography4 ,for this reason1 the following particulars have been reserved to be given here as an ,appendix1 pertaining to the ,first ,part of this ,english ,grammar4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,a proper discrimination of the different vowel sounds by the epithets most commonly used for this purpose1--such as long and short1 broad and slender1 open and close1 or open and shut1--is made difficult1 if not impossible1 by reason of the different1 and sometimes directly contradictory senses in which certain orthoepists sic--,,kth have employed such terms4 ,wells says1 ,vowel sounds are called open or close1 according to the relative size of the opening through which the voice passes in forming them4 ,thus1 a in father1 and o in nor1 are called open sounds1 because they are formed by a wide opening of the organs of speech2 while e in me1 and u in rule1 are called close sounds1 because the organs are nearly closed in uttering them4--,school ,grammar1 #ahej1 p4 #cb4 ,good use should fix the import of words4 ,how does the passage here cited comport with this hint of ,pope8 ,these equal syllables alone require1 ,though oft the ear the open vowels tire4 --,essay on ,criticism1 l4 #cdd4 ,,obs4 #b4--,walker1 too1 in his ,principles1 #fd and #fe1 on page #aith of his ,critical ,pronouncing ,dictionary1 mentions a similar distinction of vowels1 which arises from the different apertures of the mouth in forming them2 and says1 ,we accordingly find vowels denominated by the ,french1 ouvert and ferm2 by the ,italians1 aperto and chiuso2 and by the ,english 1 open and shut4 ,but whatever propriety there may be in the use of these terms in other languages1 it is certain they must be used with caution in ,english for fear of confounding them with long and short4 ,dr4 ,johnson and other grammarians call the a in father the open a3 which may1 indeed1 distinguish it from the slender a in paper2 but not from the broad a in water1 which is still more open4 ,each of these letters the seven vowels has a short sound1 which may be called a shut sound2 but the long sounds cannot be so properly denominated open as more or less broad2 that is1 the a in paper1 the slender sound2 the a in father1 the broadish or middle sound2 and the a in water1 the broad sound4 ,the same may be observed of the o4 ,this letter has three long sounds1 heard in move1 note1 nor2 which graduate from slender to broadish1 and broad 1 like those three sounds of the a4 ,the i also in mine may be called the broad i1 and that in machine1 the slender i2 though each of them is equally long2 and though these vowels that are long 1 may be said to be more or less open according to the different apertures of the mouth in forming them1 yet the short vowels cannot be said to be more or less shut2 for as short always implies shut 7except in verse17 though long does not always imply open1 we must be careful not to confound long and open1 and close and shut1 when we speak of the quantity and quality of the vowels4 ,the truth of it is1 continues he1 all vowels either terminate a syllable1 or are united with a consonant4 ,in the first case1 if the accent be on the syllable1 the vowel is long1 though it may not be open3 in the second case1 where a syllable is terminated by a consonant1 except that consonant be r1 whether the accent be on the syllable or not1 the vowel has its short sound1 which1 compared with its long one1 may be called shut3 but 1 as no vowel can be said to be shut that is not joined to a consonant1 all vowels that end syllables may be said to be open1 whether the accent be on them or not4--,crit4 ,pron4 ,dict41 ,new ,york1 #ahbg1 p4 #ai4 ,,obs4 #c4--,these suggestions of ,walker's1 though each in itself may seem clear and plausible1 are undoubtedly1 in several respects1 confused and self-contradictory4 ,open and shut are here inconsistently referred first to one principle of distinction1 and then to another2--first1 7as are open and close by ,wells17 to the relative size of the opening1 or to the different apertures of the mouth2 and then1 in the conclusion1 to the relative position of the vowels with respect to other letters4 ,these principles improperly give to each of the contrasted epithets two very different senses3 as1 with respect to aperture1 wide and narrow2 with respect to position1 closed and unclosed4 ,now1 that open may mean unclosed1 or close be put for closed1 is not to be questioned2 but that open is a good word for wide1 or that shut 7not to say close7 can well mean narrow1 is an assumption hardly scholarlike4 ,according to ,walker1 we must be careful not to confound open with long1 or shut with short1 or close with shut2 and yet1 if he himself does not1 in the very paragraph above quoted1 confound them all1--does not identify in sense1 or fail to distinguish1 the two words in each of these pairs1--,i know not who can need his caution4 ,if there are vowel sounds which graduate through several degrees of openness or broadness1 it would seem most natural to express these by regularly comparing the epithet preferred2 as1 open1 opener1 openest2 or broad1 broader1 broadest4 ,and again1 if all vowels that end syllables may be said to be open1 then it is not true1 that the long sounds of a in paper1 father1 water1 cannot be so denominated2 or that to call the a in father the open a1 may1 indeed1 distinguish it from the slender a in paper4 ,nor1 on this principle1 can it be said that the broad a in water is still more open2 for this a no more ends a syllable than the others4 ,if any vowel sound is to be called the open sound because the letter ends a syllable1 or is not shut by a consonant1 it is1 undoubtedly1 the primal and most usual sound1 as found in the letter when accented1 and not some other of rare occurrence4 ,,obs4 #d4--;,dr4 ,perley says1 ,it is greatly to be regretted that the different sounds of a vowel should be called by the names long1 short1 slender1 and broad1 which convey no idea of the nature of the sound1 for mat and not are as long in poetry as mate and note4 ,the first sound of a vowel1 as that of a in fate1 may be called open1 because it is the sound which the vowel generally has when it ends a syllable2 the second sound as that of a in fat1 may be called close1 because it is the sound which the vowel generally has when it is joined with a consonant following in the same syllable1 as fat-ten2 when there are more than two sounds of any vowel1 they may be numbered onward2 as #c far1 #d fall4--,perley's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 ,,obs4 #e4--,walker thought a long or short vowel sound essential to a long or short quantity in any syllable4 ,by this1 if he was wrong in it1 7as1 in the chapter on ,versification1 ,i have argued that he was17 he probably disturbed more the proper distinction of quantities1 than that of vowel sounds4 ,as regards long and short1 therefore1 ,perley's regret seems to have cause2 but1 in making the same objection to slender and broad1 he reasons illogically4 ,so far as his view is right1 however1 it coincides with the following earlier suggestion3 ,the terms long and short1 which are often used to denote certain vowel sounds2 being also used1 with a different import1 to distinguish the quantity of syllables1 are frequently misunderstood2 for which reason1 we have substituted for them the terms open and close2--the former1 to denote the sound usually given to a vowel when it forms or ends an accented syllable2 as1 ba1 be1 bi1 bo1 bu1 by2--the latter1 to denote the sound which the vowel commonly takes when closed by a consonant2 as1 ab1 eb1 ib1 ob1 ub--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #bhe4 ,i4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,a4 ,the vowel ,a has four sounds properly its own2 they are named by various epithets3 as1 #a4 ,the ,english1 open1 full1 long1 or slender a2 as in aid1 fame1 favour1 efficacious4 #b4 ,the ,french1 close1 curt1 short1 or stopped a2 as in bat1 banner1 balance1 carrying4 #c4 ,the ,italian1 broadish1 grave1 or middle a2 as in far1 father1 aha1 comma1 scoria1 sofa4 #d4 ,the ,dutch1 ,german1 ,old-,saxon1 or broad a2 as in wall1 haul1 walk1 warm1 water4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,concerning the number of sounds pertaining to the vowel a1 or to certain other particular letters1 and consequently in regard to the whole number of the sounds which constitute the oral elements of the ,english language1 our educational literati1--the grammarians1 orthoepists sic--,,kth1 orthographers1 elocutionists1 phonographers1 and lexicographers1--are found to have entertained and inculcated a great variety of opinions4 ,in their different countings1 the number of our phonical elements varies from twenty-six to more than forty4 ,wells says there are about forty elementary sounds4--,school ,gram41 #fd4 ,his first edition was more positive1 and stated them at forty-one4 ,see the last and very erroneous passage which ,i have cited at the foot of page #afb4 ,in ,worcester's ,universal and ,critical ,dictionary1 there appear to be noted several more than forty-one1 but ,i know not whether this author1 or ,walker either1 has anywhere told us how many of his marked sounds he considered to be severally different from all others4 ,sheridan and ,jones admitted twenty-eight4 ,churchill acknowledges1 as undisputed and indisputable1 only twenty-six2 though he enumerates1 ,of simple vowel sounds1 twelve1 or perhaps thirteen 7,new ,grammar1 p4 #e17 and says1 ,the consonant sounds in the ,english language1 are nineteen1 or rather twenty4--,p4 #ac4 ,,obs4 #b4--,thus1 while ,pitman1 ,comstock1 and others1 are amusing themselves with the folly of inventing new ,phonetic ,alphabets1 or of overturning all orthography to furnish a character for each of the #ch elementary sounds1 more or fewer1 one of the acutest observers among our grammarians can fix on no number more definite or more considerable than thirty-one1 thirty-two1 or thirty-three2 and the finding of these he announces with a perhaps1 and the admission that other writers object to as many as five of the questionable number4 ,churchill's vowel sounds1 he says1 may be found in the following words3 #a4 ,bate1 #b4 ,bat1 #c4 ,ball2 #d4 ,bet1 #e4 ,be2 #f4 ,bit2 #g4 ,bot1 #h4 ,bone1 #i4 ,boon2 #aj4 ,but1 #aa4 ,bull2 #ab4 ,lovely2 #ac4 ,wool4--,new ,grammar1 p4 #e4 ,to this he adds3 ,many of the writers on orthoepy sic--,,kth1 however1 consider the first and fourth of the sounds above distinguished as actually the same1 the former differing from the latter only by being lengthened in the pronunciation4 ,they also reckon the seventh sound1 to be the third shortened2 the twelfth1 the fifth shortened2 and the eleventh1 the ninth shortened4 ,some consider the fifth and sixth as differing only in length2 and most esteem the eleventh and thirteenth as identical4--,ib4 ,,obs4 #c4--,now1 it is plain1 that these six identifications1 or so many of them as are admitted1 must diminish by six1 or by the less number allowed1 the thirteen vowel sounds enumerated by this author4 ,by the best authorities1 ,w initial1 as in ,wool4 is reckoned a consonant2 and1 of course1 its sound is supposed to differ in some degree from that of oo in ,boon1 or that of u in ,bull1--the ninth sound or the eleventh in the foregoing series4 ,by ,walker1 ,murray1 and other popular writers1 the sound of y in ,lovely is accounted to be essentially the same as that of e in ,be4 ,the twelfth and the thirteenth1 then1 of this list1 being removed1 and three others added1--namely1 the a heard in far1 the i in fine1 and the u in fuse1--we shall have the fourteen vowel sounds which are enumerated by ,l4 ,murray and others1 and adopted by the author of the present work4 ,,obs4 #d4--,wells says1 ,a has six sounds3--#a4 ,long2 as in late4 #b4 ,grave2 as in father4 #c4 ,broad2 as in fall4 #d4 ,short2 as in man4 #e4 ,the sound heard in care1 hare4 #f4 ,intermediate between a in man and a in father2 as in grass1 pass1 branch4--,school ,grammar1 #ahej1 p4 #cc4 ,besides these six1 ,worcester recognizes a seventh sound1--the ,a obscure2 as in liar1 rival--,univ4 and ,crit4 ,dict41 p4 ix4 ,such a multiplication of the oral elements of our first vowel4--or1 indeed1 any extension of them beyond four1--appears to me to be unadvisable2 because it not only makes our alphabet the more defective1 but is unnecessary1 and not sustained by our best and most popular orthoepical sic--,,kth authorities4 ,the sound of a in liar1 7and in rival too1 if made obscure7 is a borrowed one1 pertaining more properly to the letter u4 ,in grass1 pass1 and branch1 properly uttered1 the a is essentially the same as in man4 ,in care and hare1 we have the first sound of a1 made as slender as the r will admit4 ,,obs4 #e4--;,concerning his fifth sound of a1 ,wells cites authorities thus3 ,walker1 ,webster1 ,sheridan1 ,fulton and ,knight1 ,kenrick1 ,jones1 and ,nares1 give a in care the long sound of a1 as in late4 ,page and ,day give it the short sound of a1 as in mat4 ,see ,page's ,normal ,chart1 and ,day's ,art of ,elocution4 ,worcester and ,perry make the sound of a in care a separate element2 and this distinction is also recognized by ,russell1 ,mandeville1 and ,wright4 ,see ,russell's ,lessons in ,enunciation1 ,mandeville's ,elements of ,reading and ,oratory1 and ,wright's ,orthography4--,wells's ,school ,grammar1 p4 #cd4 ,now the opinion that a in care has its long1 primal sound1 and is not properly a separate element1 is maintained also by ,murray1 ,hiley1 ,bullions1 ,scott1 and ,cobb2 and is1 undoubtedly1 much more prevalent than any other4 ,it accords1 too1 with the scheme of ,johnson4 ,to count this a by itself1 seems too much like a distinction without a difference4 ,,obs4 #f4--,on his sixth sound of a1 ,wells remarks as follows3 ,many persons pronounce this a incorrectly1 giving it either the grave or the short sound4 ,perry1 ,jones1 ,nares1 ,webster1 and ,day1 give to a in grass the grave sound1 as in father2 while ,walker1 ,jamieson1 and ,russell1 give it the short sound1 as in man4 ,but good speakers generally pronounce a in grass1 plant1 etc41 as a distinct element1 intermediate between the grave and the short sound4--,school ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,he also cites ,worcester and ,smart to the same effect2 and thinks1 with the latter1 ,there can be no harm in avoiding the censure of both parties by shunning the extreme that offends the taste of each4--,ib41 p4 #ce4 ,but ,i say1 that a needless multiplication of questionable vowel powers difficult to be discriminated1 is harm1 or a fault in teaching2 and1 where intelligent orthoepists sic--,,kth dispute whether words have the grave or the short sound of a1 how can others1 who condemn both parties1 acceptably split the difference1 and form a distinct element in the interval8 ,words are often mispronounced1 and the ,french or close a may be mistaken for the ,italian or broadish a1 and vice versa2 but1 between the two1 there does not appear to be room for an other distinguishable from both4 ,dr4 ,johnson says1 7inaccurately indeed17 ,a has three sounds1 the slender1 the open1 and the broad4 ,a slender is found in most words1 as face1 mane4 ,a open is the a of the ,italian1 or nearly resembles it2 as father1 rather1 congratulate1 fancy1 glass4 ,a broad resembles the a of the ,german2 as all1 wall1 call4 fist ,the short a approaches to the a open1 as grass4--,johnson's ,grammar1 in his ,quarto ,dictionary1 p4 #a4 ,thus the same word1 grass1 that serves ,johnson for an example of the short a is used by ,wells and ,worcester to exemplify the a intermediate2 while of the ,doctor's five instances of what he calls the a open1 three1 if not four1 are evidently such as nearly all readers nowadays would call close or short6 ,,obs4 #g4--,there are several grammarians who agree in ascribing to our first vowel five sounds1 but who nevertheless oppose one an other in making up the five4 ,thus1 according to ,hart1 ,a has five sounds of its own1 as in fate1 fare1 far1 fall1 fat1--,hart's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,according to ,w4 ,allen1 ,a has five sounds2--the long or slender1 as in cane2 the short or open1 as in can2 the middle1 as in arm2 the broad1 as in all2 and the broad contracted1 as in want4--,allen's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,p4 ,davis has the same sounds in a different order1 thus3 a as in mane1 mar1 fall1 mat1 what4--,davis's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 xvi4 ,mennye says1 ,a has five sounds2 as1 #a fame1 #b fat1 #c false1 #d farm1 #e beggar4--,mennye's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,here the fifth sound is the seventh of ,worcester1--the ,a obscure4 ,,diphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,a4 ,the only proper diphthong in which a is put first1 is the word ay1 meaning yes3 in which a has its middle sound1 as in ah1 and y is like open e1 or ee1 uttered feebly--ah-ee4 ,aa1 when pronounced as an improper diphthong1 and not as pertaining to two syllables1 usually takes the sound of close a2 as in ,balaam1 ,canaan1 ,isaac4 ,in many words1 as in ,bal1 ,gal1 ,gash1 the diresis occurs4 ,in baa1 the cry of a sheep1 we hear the ,italian sound of a2 and1 since we hear it but once1 one a or the other must be silent4 1 a ,latin improper diphthong1 common also in the ,anglo-,saxon1 generally has1 according to modern orthopists1 the sound of open e or ee2 as in ,csar1 nigma1 pan2--sometimes that of close or short e2 as in aphresis1 diresis1 et ctera4 ,some authors1 judging the a of this diphthong to be needless1 reject it1 and write ,cesar1 enigma1 c4 ,ai1 an improper diphthong1 generally has the sound of open or long a2 as in sail1 avail1 vainly4 ,in a final unaccented syllable1 it sometimes preserves the first sound of a2 as in chilblain1 mortmain3 but oftener takes the sound of close or short i2 as in certain1 curtain1 mountain1 villain4 ,in said1 saith1 again1 and against1 it takes the sound of close or short e2 and in the name ,britain1 that of close or short u4 ,ao1 an improper diphthong1 occurs in the word gaol1 now frequently written as it is pronounced1 jail2 also in gaoler1 which may be written jailer2 and in the compounds of gaol3 and1 again1 it is found in the adjective extraordinary1 and its derivatives1 in which1 according to nearly all orthopists1 the a is silent4 ,the name ,pharaoh1 is pronounced ,fa'ro4 ,au1 an improper diphthong1 is generally sounded like broad a2 as in cause1 caught1 applause4 ,before n and an other consonant1 it usually has the sound of grave or middle a2 as in aunt1 flaunt1 gaunt1 launch1 laundry4 ,so in laugh1 laughter1 and their derivatives4 ,gauge and gauger are pronounced gage and gager1 and sometimes written so4 ,aw1 an improper diphthong1 is always sounded like broad a2 as in draw1 drawn1 drawl4 ,ay1 an improper diphthong1 like ai1 has usually the sound of open or long a2 as in day1 pay1 delay3 in sayst and says1 it has the sound of close or short e4 ,,triphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,a4 ,awe is sounded au1 like broad a4 ,aye1 an adverb signifying always1 has the sound of open or long a only2 being different1 both in sound and in spelling1 from the adverb ay1 yes1 with which it is often carelessly confounded4 ,the distinction is maintained by ,johnson1 ,walker1 ,todd1 ,chalmers1 ,jones1 ,cobb1 ,maunder1 ,bolles1 and others2 but ,webster and ,worcester give it up1 and write ay1 or aye1 each sounded ah-ee1 for the affirmation1 and aye1 sounded a1 for the adverb of time3 ,ainsworth on the contrary has ay only1 for either sense1 and does not note the pronunciation4 ,,ii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,b4 ,the consonant ,b has but one sound2 as in boy1 robber1 cub4 ,b is silent before t or after m in the same syllable2 as in debt1 debtor1 doubt1 dumb1 lamb1 climb1 tomb4 ,it is heard in subtile1 fine2 but not in subtle1 cunning4 ,,iii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,c4 ,the consonant ,c has two sounds1 neither of them peculiar to this letter2 the one hard1 like that of k1 and the other soft1 or rather hissing1 like that of s4 ,c before a1 o1 u1 l1 r1 t1 or when it ends a syllable1 is generally hard1 like k2 as in can1 come curb1 clay1 crab1 act1 action1 accent1 flaccid4 ,c before e1 i1 or y1 is always soft1 like s2 as in cent1 civil1 decency1 acid4 ,in a few words1 c takes the flat sound of s1 like that of z2 as in discern1 suffice1 sacrifice1 sice4 ,c before ea1 ia1 ie1 io1 or eou1 when the accent precedes1 sounds like sh2 as in ocean1 special1 species1 gracious1 cetaceous4 ,c is silent in czar1 czarina1 victuals1 indict1 muscle1 corpuscle1 and the second syllable of ,connecticut4 ,ch is generally sounded like tch1 or tsh1 which is the same to the ear2 as in church1 chance1 child4 ,but in words derived from the learned languages1 it has the sound of k2 as in character1 scheme1 catechise1 chorus1 choir1 chyle1 patriarch1 drachma1 magna charta3 except in chart1 charter1 charity4 ,ch1 in words derived from the ,french1 takes the sound of sh2 as in chaise1 machine4 ,in ,hebrew words or names1 in general1 ch sounds like k2 as in ,chebar1 ,sirach1 ,enoch3 but in ,rachel1 cherub1 and cherubim1 we have ,anglicized the sound by uttering it as tch4 ,loch1 a ,scottish word1 sometimes also a medical term1 is heard as lok4 ,arch1 before a vowel1 is pronounced ark2 as in archives1 archangel1 archipelago3 except in arched1 archer1 archery1 archenemy4 ,before a consonant it is pronounced artch2 as in archbishop1 archduke1 archfiend4--,see ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,ch is silent in schism1 yacht1 and drachm4 ,in schedule1 some utter it as k2 others1 as sh2 and many make it mute3 ,i like the first practice4 ,,iv4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,d4 ,the general sound of the consonant ,d1 is that which is heard in dog1 eddy1 did4 ,d1 in the termination ed1 preceded by a sharp consonant1 takes the sound of t1 when the e is suppressed or unheard3 as in faced1 stuffed1 cracked1 tripped1 passed2 pronounced faste1 stuft1 cract1 tript1 past4 ,d before ia1 ie1 io1 or eou1 when the accent precedes1 generally sounds like j2 as in ,indian1 soldier1 tedious1 hideous4 ,so in verdure1 arduous1 education4 ,v4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,e4 ,the vowel ,e has two sounds properly its own1--and ,i incline to think1 three3-- #a4 ,the open1 long1 full1 or primal e2 as in me1 mere1 menial1 melodious4 #b4 ,the close1 curt1 short1 or stopped e2 as in men1 merry1 ebony1 strength4 #c4 ,the obscure or faint e2 as in open1 garden1 shovel1 able4 ,this third sound is scarcely perceptible1 and barely sufficient to articulate the consonant and form a syllable4 ,e final is mute and belongs to the syllable formed by the preceding vowel or diphthong2 as in age1 eve1 ice1 ore4 ,except--#a4 ,in the words1 be1 he1 me1 we1 she1 in which it has the open sound2 and the article the1 wherein it is open before a vowel1 and obscure before a consonant4 #b4 ,in ,greek and ,latin words1 in which it has its open sound1 and forms a distinct syllable1 or the basis of one2 as in ,penelope1 ,pasipha1 ,cyane1 ,gargaphi1 ,arsino1 apostrophe1 catastrophe1 simile1 extempore1 epitome4 #c4 ,in the terminations ere1 gre1 tre1 in which it has the sound of close or curt u1 heard before the r2 as in acre1 meagre1 centre4 ,mute e1 after a single consonant1 or after st or th1 generally preserves the open or long sound of the preceding vowel2 as in cane1 here1 pine1 cone1 tune1 thyme1 baste1 waste1 lathe1 clothe3 except in syllables unaccented2 as in the last of genuine2--and in a few monosyllables2 as bade1 are1 were1 gone1 shone1 one1 done1 give1 live1 shove1 love4 ,,diphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,e4 ,e before an other vowel1 in general1 either forms with it an improper diphthong1 or else belongs to a separate syllable4 ,we do not hear both vowels in one syllable1 except perhaps in eu or ew4 ,ea1 an improper diphthong1 mostly sounds like open or long e2 as in ear1 fear1 tea2 frequently like close or curt e2 as in head1 health1 leather3 sometimes1 like open or long a2 as in steak1 bear1 forswear3 rarely1 like middle a2 as in heart1 hearth1 hearken4 ,ea in an unaccented syllable1 sounds like close or curt u2 as in vengeance1 pageant4 ,ee1 an improper diphthong1 mostly sounds like one open or long e2 as in eel1 sheep1 tree1 trustee1 referee4 ,the contractions e'er and ne'er1 are pronounced air and nair1 and not like ear and near4 ,e'en1 however1 preserves the sound of open e4 ,been is most commonly heard with the curt sound of i1 bin4 ,ei1 an improper diphthong1 mostly sounds like the primal or long a2 as in reign1 veil3 frequently1 like open or long e2 as in deceit1 either1 neither1 seize3 sometimes1 like open or long i2 as in height1 sleight1 heigh-ho3 often1 in unaccented syllables1 like close or curt i2 as in foreign1 forfeit1 surfeit1 sovereign3 rarely1 like close e2 as in heifer1 nonpareil4 ,eo1 an improper diphthong1 in people1 sounds like open or long e2 in leopard and jeopard1 like close or curt e2 in yeoman1 according to the best usage1 like open or long o2 in ,george1 ,georgia1 georgic1 like close o2 in dungeon1 puncheon1 sturgeon1 c41 like close u4 ,in feoff1 and its derivatives1 the close or short sound of e is most fashionable2 but some prefer the long sound of e2 and some write the word fief4 ,feod1 feodal1 feodary1 feodatory1 are now commonly written as they are pronounced1 feud1 feudal1 feudary1 feudatory4 ,eu and ew are sounded alike1 and almost always with the diphthongal sound of open or long u2 as in feud1 deuce1 jewel1 dew1 few1 new4 ,these diphthongs1 when initial1 sound like yu4 ,nouns beginning with this sound1 require the article a1 and not an1 before them2 as1 ,a ,european1 a ewer4 ,after r or rh1 eu and ew are commonly sounded like oo2 as in drew1 grew1 screw1 rheumatism4 ,in sew and ,shrewsbury1 ew sounds like open o3 ,worcester1 however1 prefers the sound of oo in the latter word4 ,shew and strew1 having the same meaning as show and strow1 are sometimes1 by sameness of pronunciation1 made to be the same words2 and sometimes distinguished as different words1 by taking the sounds shu and stroo4 ,ey1 accented1 has the sound of open or long a2 as in bey1 prey1 survey3 unaccented1 it has the sound of open e2 as in alley1 valley1 money4 ,key and ley are pronounced kee1 lee4 ,,triphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,e4 ,eau1 a ,french triphthong1 sounds like open o2 as in beau1 flambeau1 portmanteau1 bureau3 except in beauty1 and its compounds1 in which it is pronounced like open u1 as if the word were written buty4 ,eou is a combination of vowels sometimes heard in one syllable1 especially after c or g2 as in crus-ta-ceous1 gor-geous4 ,walker1 in his ,rhyming ,dictionary1 gives one hundred and twenty words ending in eous1 in all of which he separates these vowels2 as in ex-tra-ne-ous4 ,and why1 in his ,pronouncing ,dictionary1 he gave us several such anomalies as fa-ba-ce-ous in four syllables and her-ba-ceous in three1 it is not easy to tell4 ,the best rule is this3 after c or g1 unite these vowels2 after the other consonants1 separate them4 ,ewe is a triphthong having the sound of yu1 and forming a word4 ,the vulgar pronunciation yoe should be carefully avoided4 ,eye is an improper triphthong which also forms a word1 and is pronounced like open i1 or the pronoun ,i4 ,,vi4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,f4 ,the consonant ,f has one unvaried sound1 which is heard in fan1 effort1 staff3 except of1 which1 when simple1 is pronounced ov4 ,,vii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,g4 ,the consonant ,g has two sounds2--the one hard1 guttural1 and peculiar to this letter2 the other soft1 like that of j4 ,g before a1 o1 u1 l1 r1 or at the end of a word1 is hard2 as in game1 gone1 gull1 glory1 grace1 log1 bog2 except in gaol4 ,g before e1 i1 or y1 is soft2 as in gem1 ginger1 elegy4 ,except--#a4 ,in get1 give1 gewgaw1 finger1 and a few other words4 #b4 ,when a syllable is added to a word ending in g3 as1 long1 longer2 fog1 foggy4 ,g is silent before m or n in the same syllable2 as in phlegm1 apothegm1 gnaw1 design4 ,g1 when silent1 usually lengthens the preceding vowel2 as in resign1 impregn1 impugn4 ,gh at the beginning of a word has the sound of g hard2 as in ghastly1 gherkin1 ,ghibelline1 ghost1 ghoul1 ghyll3 in other situations1 it is generally silent2 as in high1 mighty1 plough1 bough1 though1 through1 fight1 night1 bought4 ,gh final sometimes sounds like f2 as in laugh1 rough1 tough2 and sometimes1 like g hard2 as in burgh4 ,in hough1 lough1 shough1 it sounds like k1 or ck2 thus1 hock1 lock1 shock4 ,,viii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,h4 ,the sound of the consonant ,h1 7though articulate and audible when properly uttered17 is little more than an aspirate breathing4 ,it is heard in hat1 hit1 hot1 hut1 adhere4 ,h at the beginning of a word1 is always sounded2 except in heir1 herb1 honest1 honour1 hospital1 hostler1 hour1 humble1 humour1 with their compounds and derivatives4 ,h after r1 is always silent2 as in rhapsody1 rhetoric1 rheum1 rhubarb4 ,h final1 immediately following a vowel1 is always silent2 as in ah1 ,sarah1 ,nineveh1 ,shiloh4 ,,ix4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,i4 ,the vowel ,i has three sounds1 each very common to it1 and perhaps properly its own3-- #a4 ,the open1 long1 full1 or primal i2 as in life1 fine1 final1 time1 bind1 child1 sigh1 pint1 resign4 ,this is a diphthongal sound1 equivalent to the sounds of middle a and open e quickly united4 #b4 ,the close1 curt1 short1 or stopped i2 as in ink1 limit1 disfigure1 mimicking4 #c4 ,the feeble1 faint1 or slender i1 accentless2 as in divest1 doctrinal1 diversity4 ,this third sound is equivalent to that of open e1 or ee uttered feebly4 ,i generally has this sound when it occurs at the end of an unaccented syllable3 except at the end of ,latin words1 or of ancient names1 where it is open or long2 as in literati1 ,nervii1 ,eli1 ,levi4 ,in some words1 7principally from other modern languages17 i has the full sound of open e1 under the accent2 as in ,porto ,rico1 machine1 magazine1 antique1 shire4 ,accented i followed by a vowel1 has its open or primal sound2 and the vowels belong to separate syllables2 as in pliant1 diet1 satiety1 violet1 pious4 ,unaccented i followed by a vowel1 has its feeble sound2 as in expatiate1 obedient1 various1 abstemious4 ,,diphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,i4 ,i1 in the situation last described1 readily coalesces with the vowel which follows1 and is often sunk into the same syllable1 forming a proper diphthong3 as in fustian1 quotient1 question4 ,the terminations cion1 sion1 and tion1 are generally pronounced shun2 and cious and tious are pronounced shus4 ,ie is commonly an improper diphthong4 ,ie in die1 hie1 lie1 pie1 tie1 vie1 and their derivatives1 has the sound of open i4 ,ie in words from the ,french1 7as cap-a-pie1 ecurie1 grenadier1 siege1 bier17 has the sound of open e4 ,so1 generally1 in the middle of ,english roots2 as in chief1 grief1 thief2 but1 in sieve1 it has the sound of close or short i4 ,in friend1 and its derivatives or compounds1 it takes the sound of close e4 ,,triphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,i4 ,the triphthongs ieu and iew both sound like open or long u2 as in lieu1 adieu1 view4 ,the three vowels iou1 in the termination ious1 often fall into one syllable1 and form a triphthong4 ,there are two hundred and forty-five words of this ending2 and more than two hundred deriva- tives from them4 ,walker has several puzzling inconsistencies in their pronunciation2 such as fas-tid-i-ous and per-fid-ious1 con-ta-gi-ous and sac-ri-le-gious4 ,after c1 g1 t1 or x1 these vowels should coalesce3 as in gra-cious1 re-li-gious1 vex-a-tious1 ob-nox-ious1 and about two hundred other words4 ,after the other consonants1 let them form two syllables2 7except when there is a syn- seresis in poetry27 as in dw-bi-ou-s1 o-di-ous1 va-ri-ous1 en-vi-ous4 ,x4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,j4 ,the consonant ,j1 the tenth letter of the ,english alphabet1 has invariably the sound of soft g1 like the g in giant1 which some say is equivalent to the complex sound dzh2 as1 jade1 jet1 jilt1 joy1 justice1 jewel1 prejudice4 ,,xi4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,k4 ,the consonant ,k1 not silent1 has uniformly the sound of c hard2 and occurs where c would have its soft sound3 as in keep1 looking1 kind1 smoky4 ,k before n is silent2 as in knave1 know1 knuckle4 ,in stead of doubling c final1 we write ck2 as in lack1 lock1 luck1 attack4 ,in ,english words1 k is never doubled1 though two ,kays may come together in certain compounds2 as in brickkiln1 jackknife4 ,two ,kays1 belonging to different syllables1 also stand together in a few ,scripture names2 as in ,akkub1 ,bakbakkar1 ,bukki1 ,bukkiah1 ,habakkuk4 ,hakkoz1 ,ikkesh1 ,sukkiims4 ,c before k1 though it does not always double the sound which c or k in such a situation must represent1 always shuts or shortens the preceding vowel2 as in rack1 speck1 freckle1 cockle1 wicked4 ,,xii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,l4 ,the consonant ,l1 the plainest of the semivowels1 has a soft1 liquid sound2 as in line1 lily1 roll1 follow4 ,l is sometimes silent2 as in ,holmes1 alms1 almond1 calm1 chalk1 walk1 calf1 half1 could1 would1 should4 ,l1 too1 is frequently doubled where it is heard but once2 as in hill1 full1 travelled4 ,so any letter that is written twice1 and not twice sounded1 must there be once mute2 as the last in baa1 ebb1 add1 see1 staff1 egg1 all1 inn1 coo1 err1 less1 buzz4 ,,xiii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,m4 ,the consonant ,m is a semivowel and a liquid1 capable of an audible1 humming sound through the nose1 when the mouth is closed4 ,it is heard in map1 murmur1 mammon4 ,in the old words1 compt1 accompt1 comptroller1 7for count1 account1 controller17 the m is sounded as n4 ,m before n1 at the beginning of a word1 is silent2 as in ,mnason1 ,mnemosyne1 mnemonics4 ,,xiv4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,n4 ,the consonant ,n1 which is also a semivowel and a liquid1 has two sounds2--the first1 the pure and natural sound of n2 as in nun1 banner1 cannon2--the second1 the ringing sound of ng1 heard before certain gutturals2 as in think1 mangle1 conquer1 congress1 singing1 twinkling1 ,cen'chre4 ,the latter sound should be carefully preserved in all words ending in ing1 and in such others as require it4 ,the sounding of the syllable ing as if it were in1 is a vulgarism in utterance2 and the writing of it so1 is1 as it would seem by the usage of ,burns1 a ,scotticism4 ,n final preceded by m1 is silent2 as in hymn1 solemn1 column1 damn1 condemn1 autumn4 ,but this n becomes audible in an additional syllable2 as in autumnal1 condemnable1 damning4 ,,xv4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,o4 ,the vowel ,o has three different sounds1 which are properly its own3-- #a4 ,the open1 full1 primal1 or long o2 as in no1 note1 opiate1 opacity1 ,roman4 #b4 ,the close1 curt1 short1 or stopped o2 as in not1 nor1 torrid1 dollar1 fondle4 #c4 ,the slender or narrow o1 like oo2 as in prove1 move1 who1 to1 do1 tomb4 ,o1 in many words1 sounds like close or curt u2 as in love1 shove1 son1 come1 nothing1 dost1 attorney1 gallon1 dragon1 comfit1 comfort1 coloration4 ,one is pronounced wun2 and once1 wunce4 ,in the termination on immediately after the accent1 o is often sunk into a sound scarcely perceptible1 like that of obscure e2 as in mason1 person1 lesson4 ,,diphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,o4 ,oa1 an improper diphthong1 has the sound of open or long o2 as in boat1 coal1 roach1 coast1 coastwise3 except in broad and groat1 which have the sound of broad a4 ,oe1 an improper diphthong1 when final1 has the sound of open or long o3 as in doe1 foe1 throe3 except in canoe1 shoe1 pronounced canoo1 shoo4 ,,oe1 a ,latin diphthong1 generally sounds like open e2 as in ,antoeci1 foetus3 sometimes1 like close or curt e2 as in foetid1 foeticide4 ,but the ,english word fetid is often1 and perhaps generally1 written without the o4 ,oi is generally a proper diphthong1 uniting the sound of close o or broad a1 and that of open e2 as in boil1 coil1 soil1 rejoice4 ,but the vowels1 when they appear together1 sometimes belong to separate syllables2 as in ,stoic1 ,stoicism4 ,oi unaccented1 sometimes has the sound of close or curt i2 as in avoirdupois1 connoisseur1 tortoise4 ,oo1 an improper diphthong1 generally has the slender sound of o2 as in coo1 too1 woo1 fool1 room4 ,it has1 in some words1 a shorter or closer sound1 7like that of u in bull17 as in foot1 good1 wood1 stood1 wool2--that of close u in blood and flood2--and that of open o in door and floor4 ,derivatives from any of these1 sound as their primitives4 ,ou is generally a proper diphthong1 uniting the sound of close or curt o1 and that of u as heard in bull1--or u sounded as oo2 as in bound1 found1 sound1 ounce1 thou4 ,ou is also1 in certain instances1 an improper diphthong2 and1 as such1 it has six different sounds3--7l47 ,that of close or curt u2 as in rough1 tough1 young1 flourish4 7#b47 ,that of broad a2 as in ought1 bought1 thought4 7#c47 ,that of open or long o2 as in court1 dough1 four1 though4 7#d47 ,that of close or curt o2 as in cough1 trough1 lough1 shough3 which are1 ,i believe1 the only examples4 7#e47 ,that of slender o1 or oo2 as in soup1 you1 through4 7#f47 ,that of u in bull1 or of oo shortened2 only in would1 could1 should4 ,ow generally sounds like the proper diphthong ou1--or like a union of short o with oo2 as in brown1 dowry1 now1 shower3 but it is often an improper diphthong1 having only the sound of open or long o2 as in know1 show1 stow4 ,oy is a proper diphthong1 equivalent in sound to oi2 as in joy1 toy1 oyster4 ,,triphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,o4 ,o,eu is a ,french triphthong1 pronounced in ,english as oo1 and occurring in the word manoeuvre1 with its several derivatives4 ,owe is an improper triphthong1 and an ,english word1 in which the o only is heard1 and heard always with its long or open sound4 ,,xvi4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,p4 ,the consonant ,p1 when not written before h1 has commonly one peculiar sound2 which is heard in pen1 pine1 sup1 supper4 ,the word cupboard is usually pronounced kubburd4 ,p1 written with an audible consonant1 is sometimes itself silent2 as in psalm1 psalter1 pseudography1 psychology1 ptarmigan1 ptyalism1 receipt1 corps4 ,ph generally sounds like f2 as in philosophy4 ,in ,stephen and nephew1 ph has the sound of v4 ,the h after p1 is silent in diphthong1 triphthong1 naphtha1 ophthalmic2 and both the p and the h are silent in apophthegm1 phthisis1 phthisical4 ,from the last three words1 ph is sometimes dropped4 ,,xvii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,q4 ,the consonant ,q1 being never silent1 never final1 never doubled1 and not having a sound peculiar to itself1 is invariably heard1 in ,english1 with the power of k2 and is always followed by the vowel u1 which1 in words purely ,english1 is sounded like the narrow o1 or oo1--or1 perhaps1 is squeezed into the consonantal sound of w2--as in queen1 quaver1 quiver1 quarter1 request4 ,in some words of ,french origin1 the u after q is silent2 as in coquet1 liquor1 burlesque1 etiquette4 ,,xviii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,r4 ,the consonant ,r1 called also a semivowel and a liquid1 has usually1 at the beginning of a word1 or before a vowel1 a rough or pretty strong sound2 as in roll1 rose1 roam1 proudly1 prorogue4 ,in other positions1 it is said by many to be smooth or soft2 as in hard1 ford1 word4--,w4 ,allen4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the letter ,r turns the tip of the tongue up against or towards the roof of the mouth1 where the sound may be lengthened1 roughened1 trilled1 or quavered4 ,consequently1 this element may1 at the will of the speaker1 have more or less--little or nothing1 or even very much--of that peculiar roughness1 jar1 or whur1 which is commonly said to constitute the sound4 ,the extremes should here be avoided4 ,some readers very improperly omit the sound of r from many words to which it pertains2 pronouncing or as awe1 nor as knaw1 for as faugh1 and war as the first syllable of water4 ,on the other hand1 ,the excessive trilling of the r1 as practised by some speakers1 is a great fault4--,d4 ,p4 ,page4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,dr4 ,johnson1 in his ,grammar of the ,english ,tongue1 says1 ,r has the same rough snarling sound as in other tongues4--,p4 #c4 ,again1 in his ,quarto ,dictionary1 under this letter1 he says1 ,r is called the canine letter1 because it is uttered with some resemblance to the growl or snarl of a cur3 it has one constant sound in ,english1 such as it has in other languages2 as1 red1 rose1 more1 muriatick4 ,walker1 however1 who has a greater reputation as an orthoepist sic--,,kth1 teaches that1 ,there is a distinction in the sound of this letter1 which is1 says he1 in my opinion1 of no small importance2 and that is1 the distinction of the rough and the smooth r4 ,ben ,jonson1 continues he1 in his ,grammar1 says1 ',it is sounded firm in the beginning of words1 and more liquid in the middle and ends1 as in rarer1 riper2 and so in the ,latin4' ,the rough r is formed by jarring the tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth near the fore teeth3 the smooth r is a vibration of the lower part of the tongue1 near the root1 against the inward region of the palate1 near the entrance of the throat4--,walker's ,principles1 ,no4 #dai2 ,octavo ,dict41 p4 #dh4 ,,obs4 #c4--,wells1 with his characteristic indecision1 forbears all recognition of this difference1 and all intimation of the quality of the sound1 whether smooth or rough2 saying1 in his own text1 only this3 ,r has the sound heard in rare4--,school ,grammar1 p4 #dj4 ,then1 referring the student to sundry authorities1 he adds in a footnote certain quotations1 that are said to present a general view of the different opinions which exist among orthoepists respecting this letter4 ,and so admirably are these authorities or opinions balanced and offset1 one class against an other1 that it is hard to tell which has the odds4 ,first1 though it is not at all probable that ,wells's utterance of rare exhibits twice over the rough snarl of ,johnson's r1 the general view seems intended to confirm the indefinite teaching above1 thus3 ',r has one constant sound in ,english4'--,johnson4 ,the same view is adopted by ,webster1 ,perry1 ,kendrick1 ,sheridan1 ,jones1 ,jameson1 ,knowles1 and others4--,school ,grammar1 p4 #dj4 ,in counterpoise of these1 ,wells next cites about as many more--namely1 ,frazee1 ,page1 ,russell1 ,walker1 ,rush1 ,barber1 ,comstock1 and ,smart1--as maintaining or admitting that r has sometimes a rough sound1 and sometimes a smoother one4 ,,xix4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,s4 ,the consonant ,s has a sharp1 hissing1 or hard sound2 as in sad1 sister1 thus3 and a flat1 buzzing1 or soft sound1 like that of z2 as in rose1 dismal1 bosom1 husband4 ,s1 at the beginning of words1 or after any of the sharp consonants1 is always sharp2 as in see1 steps1 cliffs1 sits1 stocks1 smiths4 ,s1 after any of the flat mutes1 or at the end of words when not preceded by a sharp consonant1 is generally flat2 as in eyes1 trees1 beds1 bags1 calves4 ,but in the ,english termination ous1 or in the ,latin us1 it is sharp2 as joyous1 vigorous1 hiatus4 ,ss is generally sharp2 as in pass1 kiss1 harass1 assuage1 basset1 cassock1 remissness4 ,but the first two ,esses in possess1 or any of its regular derivatives1 as well as the two in dissolve1 or its proximate kin1 sound like two ,zees2 and the soft or flat sound is commonly given to each s in hyssop1 hussy1 and hussar4 ,in scissel1 scissible1 and scissile1 all the ,esses hiss2--in scissors1 the last three of the four are flat1 like z2--but in the middle of scissure and scission we hear the sound of zh4 ,s1 in the termination sion1 takes the sound of sh1 after a consonant2 as in aspersion1 session1 passion1 mission1 compulsion3 and that of zh1 after a vowel2 as in evasion1 elision1 confusion4 ,in the verb assure1 and each of its derivatives1 also in the nouns pressure and fissure1 with their derivatives1 we hear1 according to ,walker1 the sound of sh for each s1 or twice in each word2 but1 according to the orthopy of ,worcester1 that sound is heard only in the accented syllable of each word1 and the vowel in each unaccented syllable is obscure4 ,s is silent or mute in the words1 isle1 island1 aisle1 demesne1 corps1 and viscount4 ,,xx4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,t4 ,the general sound of the consonant ,t1 is heard in time1 letter1 set4 ,t1 immediately after the accent1 takes the sound of tch1 before u1 and generally also before eou2 as in nature1 feature1 virtue1 righteous1 courteous3 when s or x precedes1 it takes this sound before ia or io2 as in fustian1 bastion1 mixtion4 ,but the general or most usual sound of t after the accent1 when followed by i and an other vowel1 is that of sh2 as in creation1 patient1 cautious4 ,in ,english1 t is seldom1 if ever1 silent or powerless4 ,in depot1 however1 a word borrowed from the ,french1 we do not sound it2 and in chestnut1 which is a compound of our own1 it is much oftener written than heard4 ,in often and soften1 some think it silent2 but it seems rather to take here the sound of f4 ,in chasten1 hasten1 fasten1 castle1 nestle1 whistle1 apostle1 epistle1 bustle1 and similar words1 with their sundry derivatives1 the t is said by some to be mute2 but here it seems to take the sound of s2 for1 according to the best authorities1 this sound is beard twice in such words4 ,th1 written in ,greek by the character called ,theta1 7,greek3 th or ,o capital1 ,greek3 th or ,greek3 th small17 represents an elementary sound2 or1 rather1 two distinct elementary sounds1 for which the ,anglo-,saxons had different characters1 supposed by ,dr4 ,bosworth to have been applied with accurate discrimination of the hard or sharp sound of th1 from the soft or flat sound4--7,see ,bosworth's ,compendious ,anglo-,saxon ,dictionary1 p4 #bfh47 ,the ,english th is either sharp1 as in thing1 ethical1 thinketh2 or flat1 as in this1 whither1 thither4 ,th initial is sharp2 as in thought3 except in than1 that1 the1 thee1 their1 them1 then1 thence1 there1 these1 they1 thine1 this1 thither1 those1 thou1 thus1 thy1 and their compounds4--,w4 ,allen's ,grammar1 p4 #bb4 ,th final is also sharp2 as in south3 except in beneath1 booth1 with1 and several verbs formerly with th last1 but now frequently 7and more properly7 written with final e2 as loathe1 mouthe1 seethe1 soothe1 smoothe1 clothe1 wreathe1 bequeathe1 unclothe4 ,th medial is sharp1 too1 when preceded or followed by a consonant2 as in ,arthur1 ethnic1 swarthy1 athwart3 except in brethren1 burthen1 farther1 farthing1 murther1 northern1 worthy4 ,but th between two vowels1 is generally flat in words purely ,english2 as in gather1 neither1 whither3 and sharp in words from the learned languages2 as in atheist1 ether1 method--,see ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #bb4 ,th1 in ,thames1 ,thomas1 thyme1 asthma1 phthisis1 and their compounds1 is pronounced like t4--,ib4 ,,xxi4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,u4 ,the vowel ,u has three sounds which may be considered to be properly its own3-- #a4 ,the open1 long1 full1 primal1 or diphthongal u2 as in tube1 cubic1 juvenile4 #b4 ,the close1 curt1 short1 or stopped u2 as in tub1 butter1 justice1 unhung4 #c4 ,the middle u1 resembling a short or quick oo2 as in pull1 pulpit1 artful4 ,u forming a syllable by itself or ,u as naming itself is nearly equivalent in sound to you1 and requires the article a1 and not an1 before it2 as1 a ,u1 a union4 ,u sometimes borrows the sound of some other vowel2 for bury is pronounced berry1 and busy is pronounced bizzy4 ,so in the derivatives1 burial1 buried1 busied1 busily1 and the like4 ,the long or diphthongal u1 commonly sounded as yu1 or as ew in ewer1--or any equivalent diphthong or digraph1 as ue1 ui1 eu1 or ew4--when it follows r or rh1 assumes the sound of slender o or oo2 as in rude1 rhubarb1 rue1 rueful1 rheum1 fruit1 truth1 brewer4 ,,diphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,u4 ,u1 in the proper diphthongs1 ua1 ue1 ui1 uo1 uy1 has the sound of w or of oo feeble2 as in persuade1 query1 quell1 quiet1 languid1 quote1 obloquy4 ,ua1 an improper diphthong1 has the sound--#a4 ,of middle a2 as in guard1 guardian4 #b4 ,of close a2 as in guarantee1 piquant4 #c4 ,of obscure e2 as in victuals and its compounds or kindred4 #d4 ,of open u2 as in mantuamaker4 ,ue1 an improper diphthong1 has the sound--#a4 ,of open u2 as in blue1 ensue1 ague4 #b4 ,of close e2 as in guest1 guesser4 #c4 ,of close u2 as in leaguer4 ,ue final is sometimes silent2 as in league1 antique4 ,ui1 an improper diphthong1 has the sound--#a4 ,of open i2 as in guide1 guile4 #b4 ,of close i2 as in conduit1 circuit4 #c4 ,of open u2 as in juice1 sluice1 suit4 ,uo can scarcely be called an improper diphthong1 except1 perhaps1 after q in liquor1 liquorice1 liquorish1 where uor is heard as ur4 ,uy1 an improper diphthong1 has the sound--#a4 ,of open y2 as in buy1 buyer4 #b4 ,of feeble y1 or of ee feeble2 as in plaguy1 roguy4 ,,triphthongs ,,beginning ,,with ,u4 ,uai is pronounced nearly1 if not exactly1 like way2 as in guai-a-cum1 quail1 quaint4 ,uaw is sounded like wa in water2 as in squaw1 a female ,indian4 ,uay has the sound of way2 as in ,par-a-guay3 except in quay1 which nearly all our orthoepists pronounce kee4 ,uea and uee are each sounded wee2 as in queasy1 queer1 squeal1 squeeze4 ,uoi and woy are each sounded woi2 as in quoit1 buoy4 ,some say1 that1 as u1 in these combinations1 sounds like w1 it is a consonant2 others allege1 that w itself has only the sound of oo1 and is therefore in all cases a vowel4 ,u has1 certainly1 in these connexions1 as much of the sound of oo1 as has w2 and perhaps a little more4 ,,xxii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,v4 ,the consonant ,v always has a sound like that of f flattened2 as in love1 vulture1 vivacious4 ,in pure ,english1 it is never silent1 never final1 never doubled3 but it is often doubled in the dialect of ,craven2 and there1 too1 it is sometimes final4 ,,xxiii4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,w4 ,w1 when reckoned a consonant1 7as it usually is when uttered with a vowel that follows it17 has the sound heard at the beginning of wine1 win1 woman1 woody2 being a sound less vocal than that of oo1 and depending more upon the lips4 ,w before h1 is usually pronounced as if it followed the h2 as in what1 when1 where1 while3 but1 in who1 whose1 whom1 whole1 whoop1 and words formed from these1 it is silent4 ,before r1 in the same syllable1 it is also silent2 as in wrath1 wrench1 wrong4 ,so in a few other cases2 as in sword1 answer1 two4 ,w is never used alone as a vowel2 except in some ,welsh or foreign names1 in which it is equivalent to oo2 as in ,cwm ,cothy1 the name of a mountain in ,wales2 ,wkra the name of a small river in ,poland4--,see ,lockhart's ,napoleon1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ae4 ,in a diphthong1 when heard1 it has the power of u in bull1 or nearly that of oo2 as in new1 now1 brow1 frown4 ,aw and ow are frequently improper diphthongs1 the w being silent1 the a broad1 and the o long2 as in law1 flaw1--tow1 snow4 ,w1 when sounded before vowels1 being reckoned a consonant1 we have no diphthongs or triphthongs beginning with this letter4 ,,xxiv4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,x4 ,the consonant ,x has a sharp sound1 like ks2 as in ox3 and a flat one1 like gz2 as in example4 ,x is sharp1 when it ends an accented syllable2 as in exercise1 exit1 excellence3 or when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a consonant2 as in expand1 extreme1 expunge4 ,x unaccented is generally flat1 when the next syllable begins with a vowel2 as in exist1 exemption1 exotic4 ,x initial1 in ,greek proper names1 has the sound of z2 as in ,xanthus1 ,xantippe1 ,xenophon1 ,xerxes--,see ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,,xxv4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,y4 ,y1 as a consonant1 has the sound heard at the beginning of yarn1 young1 youth2 being rather less vocal than the feeble sound of i1 or of the vowel y1 and serving merely to modify that of a succeeding vowel1 with which it is quickly united4 ,y1 as a vowel1 has the same sounds as i3-- #a4 ,the open1 long1 full1 or primal y2 as in cry1 crying1 thyme1 cycle4 #b4 ,the close1 curt1 short1 or stopped y2 as in system1 symptom1 cynic4 #c4 ,the feeble or faint y1 accentless2 7like open e feeble27 as in cymar1 cycloidal1 mercy4 ,the vowels i and y have1 in general1 exactly the same sound under similar circumstances1 and1 in forming derivatives1 we often change one for the other3 as in city1 cities2 tie1 tying2 easy1 easily4 ,y1 before a vowel heard in the same syllable1 is reckoned a consonant2 we have1 therefore1 no diphthongs or triphthongs commencing with this letter4 ,,xxvi4 ,,of ,,the ,,letter ,z4 ,the consonant ,z1 the last letter of our alphabet1 has usually a soft or buzzing sound1 the same as that of s flat2 as in ,zeno1 zenith1 breeze1 dizzy4 ,before u primal or i feeble1 z1 as well as s flat1 sometimes takes the sound of zh1 which1 in the enumeration of consonantal sounds1 is reckoned a distinct element2 as in azure1 seizure1 glazier2 osier1 measure1 pleasure4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,appendix4 ,,appendix ,,ii4 ,,to ,,part ,,second1 ,,or ,,etymology4 ,,of ,,the ,,derivation ,,of ,,words4 ,derivation1 as a topic to be treated by the grammarian1 is a species of ,etymology1 which explains the various methods by which those derivative words which are not formed by mere grammatical inflections1 are deduced from their primitives4 ,most of those words which are regarded as primitives in ,english1 may be traced to ulterior sources1 and many of them are found to be compounds or derivatives in the other languages from which they have come to us4 ,to show the composition1 origin1 and literal sense of these1 is also a part1 and a highly useful part1 of this general inquiry1 or theme of instruction4 ,this species of information1 though insignificant in those whose studies reach to nothing better1--to nothing valuable and available in life1--is nevertheless essential to education and to science2 because it is essential to a right understanding of the import and just application of such words4 ,all reliable etymology1 all authentic derivation of words1 has ever been highly valued by the wise4 ,the learned ,james ,harris has a remark as follows3 ,how useful to ,,ethic ,,science1 and indeed to ,,knowledge in general1 a ,,grammatical ,,disquisition into the ,etymology and ,meaning of ,,words was esteemed by the chief and ablest ,philosophers1 may be seen by consulting ,plato in his ,cratylus2 ,xenophon's ,memorabilia1 ,,iv1 #e1 #f2 ,arrian4 ,epict4 ,i1 #ag2 ,,ii1 #aj2 ,marc4 ,anton4 ,,iii1 #aa2 c4--,see ,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #djg4 ,a knowledge of the ,saxon1 ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,french languages1 will throw much light on this subject1 the derivation of our modern ,english2 nor is it a weak argument in favour of studying these1 that our acquaintance with them1 whether deep or slight1 tends to a better understanding of what is borrowed1 and what is vernacular1 in our own tongue4 ,but etymological analysis may extensively teach the origin of ,english words1 their composition1 and the import of their parts1 without demanding of the student the power of reading foreign or ancient languages1 or of discoursing at all on ,general ,grammar4 ,and1 since many of the users of this work may be but readers of our current ,english1 to whom an unknown letter or a foreign word is a particularly uncouth and repulsive thing1 we shall here forbear the use of ,saxon characters1 and1 in our explanations1 not go beyond the precincts of our own language1 except to show the origin and primitive import of some of our definitive and connecting particles1 and to explain the prefixes and terminations which are frequently employed to form ,english derivatives4 ,the rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations1 to whom literature is unknown1 are among those transitory things which1 by the hand of time1 are irrecoverably buried in oblivion4 ,the fabric of the ,english language is undoubtedly of ,saxon origin2 but what was the particular form of the language spoken by the ,saxons1 when about the year #dej they entered ,britain1 cannot now be accurately known4 ,it was probably a dialect of the ,gothic or ,teutonic4 ,this ,anglo-,saxon dialect1 being the nucleus1 received large accessions from other tongues of the north1 from the ,norman ,french1 and from the more polished languages of ,rome and ,greece1 to form the modern ,english4 ,the speech of our rude and warlike ancestors thus gradually improved1 as ,christianity1 civilization1 and knowledge1 advanced the arts of life in ,britain2 and1 as early as the tenth century1 it became a language capable of expressing all the sentiments of a civilized people4 ,from the time of ,alfred1 its progress may be traced by means of writings which remain2 but it can scarcely be called ,english1 as ,i have shown in the ,introduction to this work1 till about the thirteenth century4 ,and for two or three centuries later1 it was so different from the modern ,english1 as to be scarcely intelligible at all to the mere ,english reader2 but1 gradually improving by means upon which we need not here dilate1 it at length became what we now find it1--a language copious1 strong1 refined1 impressive1 and capable1 if properly used1 of a great degree of beauty and harmony4 ,,section ,i4--,,derivation ,,of ,,the ,,articles4 #a4 ,for the derivation of our article ,,the1 which he calls an adjective1 ,dr4 ,webster was satisfied with giving this hint3 ,sax4 the2 ,dutch1 de4--,amer4 ,dict4 ,according to ,horne ,tooke1 this definite article of ours1 is the ,saxon verb ,,the1 imperative1 from ,,thean1 to take2 and is nearly equivalent in meaning to that or those1 because our that is the past participle of ,,thean1 and means taken4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #di4 ,but this is not very satisfactory4 ,examining ancient works1 we find the word1 or something resembling it1 or akin to it1 written in various forms1 as se1 see1 ye1 te1 de1 the1 th1 and others that cannot be shown by our modern letters2 and1 tracing it as one article1 or one and the same word1 through what we suppose to be the oldest of these forms1 in stead of accounting the forms as signs of different roots1 we should sooner regard it as originating in the imperative of ,,seon1 to see4 #b4 ,,an1 our indefinite article1 is the ,saxon oen1 ane1 an1 ,,one2 and1 by dropping n before a consonant1 becomes a4 ,gawin ,douglas1 an ancient ,english writer1 wrote ane1 even before a consonant2 as1 ,ane book1--,ane lang spere1--,ane volume4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,the words of ,tooke1 concerning the derivation of ,that and ,the1 as nearly as they can be given in our letters1 are these3 ,,that 7in the ,anglo-,saxon ,tht1 i4e4 ,thead1 ,theat7 means taken1 assumed2 being merely the past participle of the ,anglo-,saxon verb ,thean1 ,thegan1 ,thion1 ,thihan1 ,thicgan1 ,thigian2 sumere1 assumere1 accipere2 to ,,the1 to get1 to take1 to assume4 ',ill mote he ,,the ,that caused me ,to make myselfe a frere4'--,sir ,t4 ,more's ,workes1 pag4 #d4 ,,the 7our article1 as it is called7 is the imperative of the same verb ,thean3 which may very well supply the place of the correspondent ,anglo-,saxon article ,se1 which is the imperative of ,seon1 videre3 for it answers the same purpose in discourse1 to say4444 see man1 or take man4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #di4 ,,obs4 #b4--,now1 between ,tht and ,theat1 there is a considerable difference of form1 for and ea are not the same diphthong2 and1 in the identifying of so many infinitives1 as forming but one verb1 there is room for error4 ,nor is it half so probable that these are truly one root1 as that our article ,the is the same1 in its origin1 as the old ,anglo-,saxon ,se4 ,dr4 ,bosworth1 in his ,anglo-,saxon ,dictionary1 gives no such word as ,thean or ,thegan1 no such participle as ,thead or ,theat1 which derivative is perhaps imaginary2 but he has inserted together ,thicgan1 thicgean1 thigan1 to receive1 or take2 and separately1 ,theon1 to thrive1 or flourish1--,thihan1 to thrive1--and ,thion1 to flourish2 as well as the preterit ,theat1 howled1 from ,theotan1 to howl4 ,and is it not plain1 that the old verb ,,the1 as used by ,more1 is from ,theon1 to thrive1 rather than from ,thicgan1 to take8 ,ill mote he ,,the--,ill might he thrive1 not1 ,ill might he take4 ,,obs4 #c4--,professor ,hart says1 ,the word the was originally tht1 or that4 ,in course of time 1 it became abbreviated1 and the short form acquired1 in usage1 a shade of meaning different from the original long one4 ,that is demonstrative with emphasis2 the is demonstrative without emphasis4--,hart's ,e4 ,grammar1 p4 #cb4 ,this derivation of ,the is quite improbable2 because the shortening of a monosyllable of five letters by striking out the third and the fifth1 is no usual mode of abbreviation4 ,bosworth's ,dictionary explains ,,the as ,an indeclinable article1 often used for all the cases of ,se1 seo1 tht1 especially in adverbial expressions and in corrupt ,anglo-,saxon1 as in the ,chronicle after the year #aach4 ,,obs4 #d--;,dr4 ,latham1 in a section which is evidently neither accurate nor self-consistent1 teaches us--that there exist in the present ,english two powers of the word spelled t-h-e1 or of the so-called definite article2 then1 out of sixteen ,anglo-,saxon equivalents1 he selects two for the roots of this double-powered the2 saying1 ,hence the the that has originated out of the ,anglo-,saxon thy is one word2 whilst the the that has originated out of the ,anglo-,saxon the1 is another4 ,the latter is the common article3 the former the the in expressions like all the more1 all the better--more by all that1 better by all that1 and the ,latin phrases eo majus1 eo melius4--,latham's ,hand-,book1 p4 #aeh4 ,this double derivation is liable to many objections4 ,the ,hand-,book afterwards says1 ,that the1 in expressions like all the more1 all the better1 c41 is no article1 has already been shown4--,p4 #aif4 ,but in fact1 though the before comparatives or superlatives be no article1 ,dr4 ,latham's etymologies prove no such thing2 neither does he anywhere tell us what it is4 ,his examples1 too1 with their interpretations1 are all of them fictitious1 ambiguous1 and otherwise bad4 ,it is uncertain whether he meant his phrases for counterparts to each other or not4 ,if the means by that1 or thereby1 it is an adverb2 and so is its equivalent eo denominated by the ,latin grammarians4 ,see ,,obs4 #aj1 under ,rule ,i4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,derivation ,,of ,,nouns4 ,in ,english1 ,nouns are derived from nouns1 from adjectives1 from verbs1 or from participles4 ,i4 ,nouns are derived from ,nouns in several different ways3-- #a4 ,by the adding of ship1 dom1 ric1 wick1 or1 ate1 hood1 or head3 as1 fellow1 fellowship2 king1 kingdom2 bishop1 bishopric2 bailiff1 or baily1 bailiwick2 senate1 senator2 tetrarch1 tetrarchate2 child1 childhood2 ,god1 ,godhead4 ,these generally denote dominion1 office1 or character4 #b4 ,by the adding of ian3 as1 music1 musician2 physic1 physician2 theology1 theologian2 grammar1 grammarian2 college1 collegian4 ,these generally denote profession4 #c4 ,by the adding of r1 ry1 or ery3 as1 grocer1 grocery2 cutler1 cutlery2 slave1 slavery2 scene1 scenery2 fool1 foolery4 ,these sometimes denote state or habit2 sometimes1 an artificer's wares or shop4 #d4 ,by the adding of age or ade3 as1 patron1 patronage2 porter1 porterage2 band1 bandage2 lemon1 lemonade2 baluster1 balustrade2 wharf1 wharfage2 vassal1 vassalage4 #e4 ,by the adding of kin1 let1 ling1 ock1 el1 erel1 or et3 as1 lamb1 lambkin2 ring1 ringlet2 cross1 crosslet2 duck1 duckling2 hill1 hillock2 run1 runnel2 cock1 cockerel2 pistol1 pistolet2 eagle1 eaglet2 circle1 circlet4 ,all these denote little things1 and are called diminutives4 #f4 ,by the addition of ist3 as1 psalm1 psalmist2 botany1 botanist2 dial1 dialist2 journal1 journalist4 ,these denote persons devoted to1 or skilled in1 the subject expressed by the primitive4 #g4 ,by the prefixing of an adjective1 or an other noun1 so as to form a compound word3 as1 foreman1 broadsword1 statesman1 tradesman2 bedside1 hillside1 seaside2 bear-berry1 bear-fly1 bear-garden2 bear's-ear1 bear's-foot1 goat's-beard4 #h4 ,by the adoption of a negative prefix to reverse the meaning3 as1 order1 disorder2 pleasure1 displeasure2 consistency1 inconsistency2 capacity1 incapacity2 observance1 nonobservance2 resistance1 nonresistance2 truth1 untruth2 constraint1 unconstraint4 #i4 ,by the use of the prefix counter1 signifying against or opposite3 as1 attraction1 counter-attraction2 bond1 counter-bond2 current1 counter-current2 movement1 counter-movement4 #aj4 ,by the addition of ess1 ix1 or ine1 or the changing of masculines to feminines so terminating3 as1 heir1 heiress2 prophet1 prophetess2 abbot1 abbess2 governor1 governess2 testator1 testatrix2 hero1 heroine4 ,,ii4 ,nouns are derived from ,adjectives in several different ways3-- #a4 ,by the adding of ness1 ity1 ship1 dom1 or hood3 as1 good1 goodness2 real1 reality2 hard1 hardship2 wise1 wisdom2 free1 freedom2 false1 falsehood4 #b4 ,by the changing of t into ce or cy3 as1 radiant1 radiance2 consequent1 consequence2 flagrant1 flagrancy2 current1 currency2 discrepant1 discrepance1 or discrepancy4 #c4 ,by the changing of some of the letters1 and the adding of t or th3 as1 long1 length2 broad1 breadth2 wide1 width2 high1 height4 ,the nouns included under these three heads1 generally denote abstract qualities1 and are called abstract nouns4 #d4 ,by the adding of ard3 as1 drunk1 drunkard2 dull1 dullard4 ,these denote ill character4 #e4 ,by the adding of ist3 as1 sensual1 sensualist2 separate1 separatist2 royal1 royalist2 fatal1 fatalist4 ,these denote persons devoted1 addicted1 or attached1 to something4 #f4 ,by the adding of a1 the ,latin ending of neuter plurals1 to certain proper adjectives in an3 as1 ,miltonian1 ,miltoniana2 ,johnsonian1 ,johnsoniana4 ,these literally mean1 ,miltonian things1 sayings1 or anecdotes1 c42 and are words somewhat fashionable with the journalists1 and are sometimes used for titles of books that refer to table-talk4 ,,iii4 ,nouns are derived from ,verbs in several different ways3-- #a4 ,by the adding of ment1 ance1 ence1 ure1 or age3 as1 punish1 punishment2 abate1 abatement2 repent1 repentance2 condole1 condolence2 forfeit1 forfeiture2 stow1 stowage2 equip1 equipage2 truck1 truckage4 #b4 ,by a change of the termination of the verb1 into se1 ce1 sion1 tion1 ation1 or ition3 as1 expand1 expanse1 expansion2 pretend1 pretence1 pretension2 invent1 invention2 create1 creation2 omit1 omission2 provide1 provision2 reform1 reformation2 oppose1 opposition4 ,these denote either the act of doing1 or the thing done4 #c4 ,by the adding of er or or3 as1 hunt1 hunter2 write1 writer2 collect1 collector2 assert1 assertor2 instruct1 instructer1 or instructor4 ,these generally denote the doer4 ,to denote the person to whom something is done1 we sometimes form a derivative ending in ee3 as1 promisee1 mortgagee1 appellee1 consignee4 #d4 ,nouns and ,verbs are sometimes alike in orthography1 but different in pronunciation3 as1 a house1 to house2 a use1 to use2 a reb'el1 to rebel'2 a rec'ord1 to record'2 a cem'ent1 to cement'4 ,of such pairs1 it may often be difficult to say which word is the primitive4 #e4 ,in many instances1 nouns and verbs are wholly alike as to form and sound1 and are distinguished by their sense and construction only3 as1 love1 to love2 fear1 to fear2 sleep1 to sleep2--to revise1 a revise2 to rebuke1 a rebuke4 ,in these1 we have but the same word used differently4 ,,iv4 ,nouns are often derived from ,participles in ing2 as1 a meeting1 the understanding1 murmurings1 disputings1 sayings1 and doings3 and1 occasionally1 one is formed from such a word and an adverb or a perfect participle joined with it2 as1 ,the turning-away1--,his goings-forth1--,your having-boasted of it4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,derivation ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,in ,english1 ,adjectives are derived from nouns1 from adjectives1 from verbs1 or from participles4 ,i4 ,adjectives are derived from ,nouns in several different ways3-- #a4 ,by the adding of ous1 ious1 eous1 y1 ey1 ic1 al1 ical or ine3 7sometimes with an omission or change of some of the final letters37 as1 danger1 dangerous2 glory1 glorious2 right1 righteous2 rock1 rocky2 clay1 clayey2 poet1 poetic1 or poetical2 nation1 national2 method1 methodical2 vertex1 vertical2 clergy1 clerical2 adamant1 adamantine4 ,adjectives thus formed1 generally apply the properties of their primitives1 to the nouns to which they relate4 #b4 ,by the adding of ful3 as1 fear1 fearful2 cheer1 cheerful2 grace1 graceful2 shame1 shameful2 power1 powerful4 ,these come almost entirely from personal qualities or feelings1 and denote abundance4 #c4 ,by the adding of some3 as1 burden1 burdensome2 game1 gamesome2 toil1 toilsome4 ,these denote plenty1 but do not exaggerate4 #d4 ,by the adding of en3 as1 oak1 oaken2 silk1 silken2 wheat1 wheaten2 oat1 oaten2 hemp1 hempen4 ,here the derivative denotes the matter of which something is made4 #e4 ,by the adding of ly or ish3 as1 friend1 friendly2 gentleman1 gentlemanly2 child1 childish2 prude1 prudish4 ,these denote resemblance4 ,the termination ly signifies like4 #f4 ,by the adding of able or ible3 as1 fashion1 fashionable2 access1 accessible4 ,but these terminations are generally1 and more properly1 added to verbs4 ,see ,obs4 #agth1 #ahth1 c41 on the ,rules for ,spelling4 #g4 ,by the adding of less3 as1 house1 houseless2 death1 deathless2 sleep1 sleepless2 bottom1 bottomless4 ,these denote privation or exemption--the absence of what is named by the primitive4 #h4 ,by the adding of ed3 as1 saint1 sainted2 bigot1 bigoted2 mast1 masted2 wit1 witted4 ,these have a resemblance to participles1 and some of them are rarely used1 except when joined with some other word to form a compound adjective3 as1 three-sided1 bare-footed1 long-eared1 hundred-handed1 flat-nosed1 hard-hearted1 marble-hearted1 chicken-hearted4 #i4 ,adjectives coming from proper names1 take various terminations3 as1 ,america1 ,american2 ,england1 ,english2 ,dane1 ,danish2 ,portugal1 ,portuguese2 ,plato1 ,platonic4 #aj4 ,nouns are often converted into adjectives1 without change of termination3 as1 paper currency2 a gold chain2 silver knee-buckles4 ,,ii4 ,adjectives are derived from ,adjectives in several different ways3-- #a4 ,by the adding of ish or some3 as1 white1 whitish2 green1 greenish2 lone1 lonesome2 glad1 gladsome4 ,these denote quality with some diminution4 #b4 ,by the prefixing of dis1 in1 or un3 as1 honest1 dishonest2 consistent1 inconsistent2 wise1 unwise4 ,these express a negation of the quality denoted by their primitives4 #c4 ,by the adding of y or ly3 as1 swarth1 swarthy2 good1 goodly4 ,of these there are but few2 for almost all the derivatives of the latter form are adverbs4 ,,iii4 ,adjectives are derived from ,verbs in several different ways3-- #a4 ,by the adding of able or ible3 7sometimes with a change of some of the final letters37 as1 perish1 perishable2 vary1 variable2 convert1 convertible2 divide1 divisible1 or dividable4 ,these1 according to their analogy1 have usually a passive import1 and denote susceptibility of receiving action4 #b4 ,by the adding of ive or ory3 7sometimes with a change of some of the final letters37 as1 elect1 elective2 interrogate1 interrogative1 interrogatory2 defend1 defensive2 defame1 defamatory2 explain1 explanatory4 #c4 ,words ending in ate1 are mostly verbs2 but some of them may be employed as adjectives1 in the same form1 especially in poetry2 as1 reprobate1 complicate4 ,,iv4 ,adjectives are derived from ,participles1 not by suffixes1 but in these ways3-- #a4 ,by the prefixing of un1 meaning not2 as1 unyielding1 unregarded1 unreserved1 unendowed1 unendeared1 unendorsed1 unencountered1 unencumbered1 undisheartened1 undishonoured4 ,of this sort there are very many4 #b4 ,by a combining of the participle with some word which does not belong to the verb2 as1 way-faring1 hollow-sounding1 long-drawn1 deep-laid1 dear-purchased1 down-trodden4 ,these1 too1 are numerous4 #c4 ,participles often become adjectives without change of form4 ,such adjectives are distinguished from participles by their construction alone3 as1 ,a lasting ornament2--,the starving chymist2--,words of learned length2--,with counterfeited glee4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,derivation ,,of ,,the ,,pronouns4 ,i4 ,the ,english ,pronouns are all of ,saxon origin2 but1 in them1 our language differs very strikingly from that of the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,the following table compares the simple personal forms3-- ,eng4 ,i1 ,my or ,me2 ,we1 ,our or ,us4 ,mine1 ,ours1 ,sax4 ,ic1 ,min1 ,me or ,we1 ,ure or ,us4 ,mec2 ,user1 ,eng4 ,thou1 ,thy or ,thee2 ,ye1 ,your ,you4 ,thine1 or ,yours1 ,sax4 ,thu1 ,thin1 ,the or ,ge ,eower1 ,eow or ,thec2 ,eowie4 ,eng4 ,he1 ,his ,him2 ,they1 ,their or ,them4 ,theirs1 ,sax4 ,he1 ,his or ,him or ,hi or ,hira or ,heom or ,hys1 ,hine2 ,hig1 ,heora1 ,hi4 ,eng4 ,she1 ,her or ,her2 ,they1 ,their or ,them4 ,hers1 ,theirs1 ,sax4 ,heo1 ,hire or ,hi2 ,hi or ,hira or ,heom or ,hyre1 ,hig1 ,heora1 ,hi4 ,eng4 ,it1 ,its1 ,it2 ,they1 ,their or ,them4 ,theirs1 ,sax4 ,hit1 ,his or ,hit2 ,hi or ,hira or ,heom or ,hys1 ,hig1 ,heora1 ,hi4 ,here1 as in the personal pronouns of other languages1 the plurals and oblique cases do not all appear to be regular derivatives from the nominative singular4 ,many of these pronouns1 perhaps all1 as well as a vast number of other words of frequent use in our language1 and in that from which it chiefly comes1 were very variously written by the ,middle ,english1 ,old ,english1 ,semi-,saxon1 and ,anglo-,saxon authors4 ,he who traces the history of our language1 will meet with them under all the following forms1 7or such as these would be with ,saxon characters for the ,saxon forms17 and perhaps in more3-- #a4 ,i1 ,j1 ,y1 y1 i1 ay1 ic1 che1 ich1 ,ic2--,,my1 mi1 min1 ,,mine1 myne1 myn2--,,me1 mee1 me1 meh1 mec1 mech2--,,we1 wee1 ve2--,,our or ,,ours1 oure1 ure1 wer1 urin1 uren1 urne1 user1 usse1 usser1 usses1 ussum2--,us1 ous1 vs1 uss1 usic1 usich1 usig1 usih1 uz1 huz4 #b4 ,,thou1 thoue1 thow1 thowe1 thu1 tou1 to1 tu2--,,thy or ,,thine1 thi1 thyne1 thyn1 thin2--,,thee1 the1 theh1 thec2--,,ye1 yee1 yhe1 ze1 zee1 ge1 ghe2--,,your or ,,yours1 youre1 zour1 hure1 goure1 yer1 yower1 yowyer1 yorn1 yourn1 youre1 eower2--,you1 youe1 yow1 gou1 zou1 ou1 iu1 iuh1 eow1 iow1 geow1 eowih1 eowic1 iowih4 #c4 ,,he1 hee1 hie1 se2--,his1 hise1 is1 hys1 ys1 hyse1 hus2--,,him1 hine1 hiene1 hion1 hen1 hyne1 hym1 im2--,,they1 thay1 thei1 the1 tha1 thai1 thii1 yai1 hi1 hie1 heo1 hig1 hyg1 hy2--,,their or ,,theirs1 ther1 theyr1 theyrs1 thair1 thare1 theora1 hare1 here1 her1 hir1 hire1 hira1 hiora1 hiera1 heora1 hyra2--,,them1 thym1 theym1 thaym1 thaim1 thame1 tham1 em1 hem1 heom1 hiom1 eom1 hom1 him1 hi1 hig4 #d4 ,,she1 shee1 sche1 scho1 sho1 shoe1 sc1 seo1 heo1 hio1 hiu1 hoo1 hue2--,,her1 7possessive17 hur1 hir1 hire1 hyr1 hyre1 hyra1 hera2--,,her1 7objective17 hire1 hyre1 hur1 hir1 hi4 ,the plural forms of this feminine pronoun are like those of the masculine ,he2 but the ,well-,wishers to ,knowledge1 in their small ,grammar1 7erroneously1 as ,i suppose17 make hira masculine only1 and heora feminine only4 ,see their ,principles of ,grammar1 p4 #ch4 #e4 ,,it1 yt1 itt1 hit1 hyt1 hytt4 ,the possessive ,its is a modern derivative2 ,his or ,hys was formerly used in lieu of it4 ,the plural forms of this neuter pronoun1 ,it1 are like those of ,he and ,she4 ,according to ,horne ,tooke1 who declares hoet to have been one of its ancient forms1 this pronoun was merely the past participle of the verb ,,haitan1 htan1 nominare1 to name1 and literally signifies the said2 7,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #df2 ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #eg27 but ,dr4 ,alexander ,murray1 exhibiting it in an other form1 not adapted to this opinion1 makes it the neuter of a declinable adjective1 or pronoun1 inflected from the masculine1 thus3 ,he1 heo hita1 this--,hist4 of ,lang41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cae4 ,,ii4 ,the relatives and interrogatives are derived from the same source1 the ,anglo-,saxon tongue1 and have passed through similar changes1 or varieties in orthography2 but1 the common relative pronoun of the ,anglo-,saxons being like their article the1--or1 with the three genders1 se1 seo1 tht1--and not like our who1 which1 and what1 it is probable that the interrogative use of these words was the primitive one4 ,they have been found in all the following forms3-- #a4 ,,who1 ho1 hue1 wha1 hwa1 hua1 wua1 qua1 quha2--,,whose1 who's1 whos1 whois1 whoise1 wheas1 quhois1 quhais1 quhase1 hws2--,,whom1 whome1 quham1 quhum1 quhome1 hwom1 hwam1 hwm1 hwne1 hwone4 #b4 ,,which1 whiche1 whyche1 whilch1 wych1 quilch1 quilk1 quhilk1 hwilc1 hwylc1 hwelc1 whilk1 huilic1 hvilc4 ,for the ,anglo-,saxon forms1 ,dr4 ,bosworth's ,dictionary gives hwilc1 hwylc1 and hwelc2 but ,professor ,fowler's ,e4 ,grammar makes them huilic and hvilc4--,see p4 #bdj4 ,whilk1 or quhilk1 is a ,scottish form4 #c4 ,,what1 hwat1 hwet1 quhat1 hwt4 ,this pronoun1 whether relative or interrogative1 is regarded by ,bosworth and others as a neuter derivative from the masculine or femine sic--,,kth hwa1 who4 ,it may have been thence derived1 but1 in modern ,english1 it is not always of the neuter gender4 ,see the last note on page #cab4 #d4 ,,that1 ,anglo-,saxon ,tht4 ,tooke's notion of the derivation of this word is noticed above in the section on ,articles4 ,there is no certainty of its truth2 and our lexicographers make no allusion to it4 ,w4 ,allen reaffirms it4 ,see his ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--;,in the ,well-,wishers' ,grammar1 7p4 #ci17 as also in ,l4 ,murray's and some others1 the pronoun ,which is very strangely and erroneously represented as being always of the neuter gender4 7,see what is said of this word in the ,introduction1 ,chap4 ix1 #cb47 ,whereas it is the relative most generally applied to brute animals1 and1 in our common version of the ,bible1 its application to persons is peculiarly frequent4 ,fowler says1 ,in its origin it is a ,compound4--,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bdj4 ,taking its first ,anglo-,saxon form to be ,huilic1 he thinks it traceable to hwa1 who1 or its ablative hwi1 and lie1 like4--,ib4 ,if this is right1 the neuter sense is not its primitive import1 or any part of it4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,from its various uses1 the word ,that is called sometimes a pronoun1 sometimes an adjective1 and sometimes a conjunction2 but1 in respect to derivation1 it is1 doubtless1 one and the same4 ,as a relative pronoun1 it is of either number1 and has no plural form different from the singular2 as1 ,blessed is the man that heareth me4--,prov41 viii1 #cd4 ,blessed are they that mourn4--,matt41 v1 #d4 ,as an adjective1 it is said by ,tooke to have been formerly applied indifferently to plural nouns and to singular2 as1 ',into that holy orders4'--,dr4 ,martin4 ',at that dayes4'--,id4 ',that euyll aungels the denilles4'--,sir ,tho4 ,more4 ',this pleasure undoubtedly farre excelleth all that pleasures that in this life maie be obteined4'--,id4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 pp4 #dg and #dh4 ,the introduction of the plural form those1 must have rendered this usage bad ,english4 ,,section ,v4--,,derivation ,,of ,,verbs4 ,in ,english1 ,verbs are derived from nouns1 from adjectives1 or from verbs4 ,i4 ,verbs are derived from ,nouns in the following different ways3-- #a4 ,by the adding of ize1 ise1 en1 or ate3 as1 author1 authorize2 critic1 criticise2 length1 lengthen2 origin1 originate4 ,the termination ize is of ,greek origin1 and ise is most probably of ,french3 the former is generally preferable in forming ,english derivatives2 but both are sometimes to be used1 and they should be applied according to ,rule #acth for ,spelling4 #b4 ,some few verbs are derived from nouns by the changing of a sharp or hard consonant to a flat or soft one1 or by the adding of a mute e1 to soften a hard sound3 as1 advice1 advise2 price1 prize2 bath1 bathe2 cloth1 clothe2 breath1 breathe2 wreath1 wreathe2 sheath1 sheathe2 grass1 graze4 ,,ii4 ,verbs are derived from ,adjectives in the following different ways3-- #a4 ,by the adding of ize or en3 as legal1 legalize2 immortal1 immortalize2 civil1 civilize2 human1 humanize2 familiar1 familiarize2 particular1 particularize2 deaf1 deafen2 stiff1 stiffen2 rough1 roughen2 deep1 deepen2 weak1 weaken4 #b4 ,many adjectives become verbs by being merely used and inflected as verbs3 as1 warm1 to warm1 he warms2 dry1 to dry1 he dries2 dull1 to dull1 he dulls2 slack1 to slack1 he slacks2 forward1 to forward1 he forwards4 ,,iii4 ,verbs are derived from ,verbs in the following modes1 or ways3-- #a4 ,by the prefixing of dis or un to reverse the meaning3 as1 please1 displease2 qualify1 disqualify2 organize1 disorganize2 fasten1 unfasten2 muzzle1 unmuzzle2 nerve1 unnerve4 #b4 ,by the prefixing of a1 be1 for1 fore1 mis1 over1 out1 under1 up1 or with3 as1 rise1 arise2 sprinkle1 besprinkle2 bid1 forbid2 see1 foresee2 take1 mistake2 look1 overlook2 run1 outrun2 go1 undergo2 hold1 uphold2 draw1 withdraw4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,derivation ,,of ,,participles4 ,all ,english ,participles are derived from ,english verbs1 in the manner explained in ,chapter #gth1 under the general head of ,etymology2 and when foreign participles are introduced into our language1 they are not participles with us1 but belong to some other class of words1 or part of speech4 ,,section ,,vii4--,,derivation ,,of ,,adverbs4 #a4 ,in ,english1 many ,adverbs are derived from adjectives by the addition of ly3 which is an abbreviation for like1 and which1 though the addition of it to a noun forms an adjective1 is the most distinctive as well as the most common termination of our adverbs3 as1 candid1 candidly2 sordid1 sordidly2 presumptuous1 presumptuously4 ,most adverbs of manner are thus formed4 #b4 ,many adverbs are compounds formed from two or more ,english words2 as1 herein1 thereby1 to-day1 always1 already1 elsewhere1 sometimes1 wherewithal4 ,the formation and the meaning of these are1 in general1 sufficiently obvious4 #c4 ,about seventy adverbs are formed by means of the prefix1 or inseparable preposition1 a2 as1 ,abreast1 abroach1 abroad1 across1 afar1 afield1 ago1 agog1 aland1 along1 amiss1 atilt4 #d4 ,needs1 as an adverb1 is a contraction of need is2 prithee1 or pr'ythee1 of ,i pray thee2 alone1 of all one2 only1 of one-like2 anon1 of the ,saxon an on2 i4e41 in one instant2 never1 of ne ever2 i4e41 not ever4 ,prof4 ,gibbs1 in ,fowler's ,grammar1 makes needs the ,genitive case of the noun need4--,p4 #caa4 #e4 ,very is from the ,french veray1 or vrai1 true2 and this1 probably1 from the ,latin verus4 ,rather appears to be the regular comparative of the ancient rath1 soon1 quickly1 willingly2 which comes from the ,anglo-,saxon ,rathe1 or ,hrathe1 of one's own accord4--,bosworth4 ,but the parent language had also ,hrathre1 to a mind4--,id4 ,that is1 to one's mind1 or1 perhaps1 more willingly4 ,,observations4 ,,obs4 #a4--,many of our most common adverbs are of ,anglo-,saxon derivation1 being plainly traceable to certain very old forms1 of the same import1 which the etymologist regards but as the same words differently spelled3 as1 ,all1 eall1 eal1 or ll2 ,almost1 ealmst1 or lmst2 ,also1 ealswa1 or lswa2 ,else1 elles2 ,elsewhere1 elleshwr2 ,enough1 genog1 or genoh2 ,even1 euen1 efen1 or fen2 ,ever1 euer1 fer1 or fre2 ,downward1 duneweard2 ,forward1 forweard1 or foreweard2 ,homeward1 hamweard2 ,homewards1 hamweardes2 ,how1 hu2 ,little1 lytel2 ,less1 ls2 ,least1 lst2 ,no1 na2 ,not1 noht1 or nocht2 ,out1 ut1 or ute2 ,so1 swa2 ,still1 stille1 or stylle2 ,then1 thenne2 ,there1 ther1 thar1 thr2 ,thither1 thider1 or thyder2 ,thus1 thuss1 or thus2 ,together1 togdere1 or togdre2 ,too1 t2 ,when1 hwenne1 or hwnne2 ,where1 hwr2 ,whither1 hwider1 hwyder1 or hwyther2 ,yea1 ia1 gea1 or gee2 ,yes1 gese1 gise1 or gyse4 ,,obs4 #b4--;,according to ,horne ,tooke1 ,still and ,else are the imperatives ,stell and ,ales of their respective verbs ,stellan1 to put1 and ,alesan1 to dismiss4--,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aaa4 ,he afterwards repeats the doctrine thus3 ,still is only the imperative ,stell or ,steall1 of ,stellan or ,steallian1 ponere4--,ib41 p4 #adf4 ,this word ,else1 formerly written alles1 alys1 alyse1 elles1 ellus1 ellis1 ells1 els1 and now else2 is1 as ,i have said1 no other than ,ales or ,alys1 the imperative of ,alesan or ,alysan1 dimittere4--,ib41 p4 #adh4 ,these ulterior and remote etymologies are perhaps too conjectural4 ,,section ,,viii4--,,derivation ,,of ,,conjunctions4 ,the ,english ,conjunctions are mostly of ,anglo-,saxon origin4 ,the best etymological vocabularies of our language give us1 for the most part1 the same words in ,anglo-,saxon characters2 but ,horne ,tooke1 in his ,diversions of ,purley1 7a learned and curious work which the advanced student may peruse with advantage17 traces1 or professes to trace1 these and many other ,english particles1 to ,saxon verbs or participles4 ,the following derivations1 so far as they partake of such speculations1 are offered principally on his authority3-- #a4 ,,although1 signifying admit1 allow1 is from all and though2 the latter being supposed the imperative of ,thafian or ,thafigan1 to allow1 to concede1 to yield4 #b4 ,,an1 an obsolete or antiquated conjunction1 signifying if1 or grant1 is the imperative of the ,anglo-,saxon verb ,anan or ,unan1 to grant1 to give4 #c4 ,,and1 ,saxon1 ,and1 add1 is said by ,tooke to come from ,an-ad1 the imperative of ,ananad1 ,dare congeriem4--,d4 of ,p41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aaa4 ,that is1 ,to give the heap4 ,the truth of this1 if unapparent1 ,i must leave so4 #d4 ,,as1 according to ,dr4 ,johnson1 is from the ,teutonic als2 but ,tooke says that als itself is a contraction for all and the original particle es or as1 meaning it1 that1 or which4 #e4 ,,because1 from be and cause1 means by cause2 the be being written for by4 #f4 ,,both1 the two1 is from the pronominal adjective both2 which1 according to ,dr4 ,alexander ,murray1 is a contraction of the ,visigothic ,bagoth1 signifying doubled4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons wrote for it butu1 butwu1 buta1 and batwa2 i4 e41 ba1 both1 twa1 two4 #g4 ,,but1--7in ,saxon1 bute1 butan1 buton1 or butun--7 meaning except1 yet1 now1 only1 else than1 that not1 or on the contrary1--is referred by ,tooke and some others1 to two roots1--each of them but a conjectural etymon for it4 ,,but1 implying addition1 say they1 is from ,bot1 the imperative of ,botan1 to boot1 to add2 ,,but1 denoting exception1 is from ,be-utan1 the imperative of ,beon-utan1 to be out4--,see ,d4 of ,p41 ,vol4 i1 pp4 #aaa and #aee4 #h4 ,,either1 one of the two1 like the pronominal adjective ,,either1 is from the ,anglo-,saxon ther1 or ,egther1 a word of the same uses1 and the same import4 #i4 ,,eke1 also1 7now nearly obsolete17 is from ,eac1 the imperative of ,eacan1 to add4 #aj4 ,,even1 whether a noun1 an adjective1 an adverb1 or a conjunction1 appears to come from the same source1 the ,anglo-,saxon word ,efen or fen4 #aa4 ,,except1 which1 when used as a conjunction1 means unless1 is the imperative1 or 7according to ,dr4 ,johnson7 an ancient perfect participle1 of the verb to except4 #ab4 ,,for1 because1 is from the ,saxon preposition ,for2 which1 to express this meaning1 our ancestors combined with something else1 reducing to one word some such phrase as1 ,for that1 ,for this1 ,for this that2 as1 ,fortha1 ,fortham1 ,forthan1 ,forthamthe1 ,forthan the4--,see ,bosworth's ,dict4 #ac4 ,,if1 give1 grant1 allow1 is from ,gif1 the imperative of the ,anglo-,saxon ,gifan1 to give4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aaa4 #ad4 ,,lest1 that not1 dismissed1 is from ,lesed1 the perfect participle of ,lesan1 to dismiss4 #ae4 ,,neither1 not either1 is a union and contraction of ne either3 our old writers frequently used ne for not2 the ,anglo-,saxons likewise repeated it1 using ne--ne1 in lieu of our corresponsives neither--nor2 and our modern lexicographers still note the word1 in some of these senses4 #af4 ,,nor1 not other1 not else1 is supposed to be a union and contraction of ne or4 #ag4 ,,notwithstanding1 not hindering1 is an ,english compound of obvious formation4 #ah4 ,,or1 an alternative conjunction1 seems to be a word of no great antiquity4 ,it is supposed to be a contraction of other1 which ,johnson and his followers give1 in ,saxon characters1 either as its source1 or as its equivalent4 #ai4 ,,provided1 the perfect participle of the verb provide1 becomes occasionally a disjunctive conjunction1 by being used alone or with the particle that1 to introduce a condition1 a saving clause1 a proviso4 #bj4 ,,save1 anciently used with some frequency as a conjunction1 in the sense of but1 or except is from the imperative of the ,english verb save1 and is still occasionally turned to such a use by the poets4 #ba4 ,,seeing1 sometimes made a copulative conjunction1 is the imperfect participle of the verb see4 ,used at the head of a clause1 and without reference to an agent1 it assumes a conjunctive nature4 #bb4 ,,since is conjectured by ,tooke to be the participle of ,seon1 to see1 and to mean seeing1 seeing that1 seen that1 or seen as4--,diversions of ,p41 ,vol4 i1 pp4 #aaa and #bbj4 ,but ,johnson and others say1 it has been formed by contraction from sithence1 or sith thence1 from sithe1 ,sax4--,joh4 ,dict4 #bc4 ,,than1 which introduces the latter term of a comparison1 is from the ,gothic than1 or the ,anglo-,saxon thanne1 which was used for the same purpose4 #bd4 ,,that1 when called a conjunction1 is said by ,tooke to be etymologically the same as the adjective or pronoun ,,that1 the derivation of which is twice spoken of above2 but1 in ,todd's ,johnson's ,dictionary1 as abridged by ,chalmers1 ,,that1 the conjunction1 is referred to thatei1 ,gothic2 ,,that1 the pronoun1 to that1 thata1 ,gothic2 tht1 ,saxon2 dat1 ,dutch4 #be4 ,,then1 used as a conjunction1 is doubtless the same word as the ,anglo-,saxon ,thenne1 taken as an illative1 or word of inference4 #bf4 ,,though1 allow1 is from the imperative ,thaf1 or ,thafig1 of the verb ,thafian or ,thafigan1 to allow4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 pp4 #aaa and #aej4 #bg4 ,,unless1 except1 dismiss1 is from ,onles1 the imperative of ,onlesan1 to dismiss4--,ib4 #bh4 ,,whether1 a corresponsive conjunction1 which introduces the first term of an alternative1 is from the ,anglo-,saxon hwther1 which was used for the same purpose4 #bi4 ,,yet1 nevertheless1 is from ,get1 the imperative of ,getan1 to get4--,tooke4 ,,section ,,ix4--,,derivation ,,of ,,prepositions4 ,the following are the principal ,english ,prepositions1 explained in the order of the list3-- #a4 ,,aboard1 meaning on board of1 is from the prefix or preposition a and the noun board1 which here means the deck of a ship or vessel4 ,abord1 in ,french1 is approach1 arrival1 or a landing4 #b4 ,,about1 ,sax4 ,abtan1 or ,abton1 meaning around1 at circuit1 or doing1 is from the prefix a1 meaning at1 and the noun bout1 meaning a turn1 a circuit1 or a trial4 ,in ,french1 bout means end2 and about1 end1 or but-end4 #c4 ,,above1 ,sax4 ,abufan1 ,abufon1 ,a-be-ufan4 meaning over1 or1 literally1 at-by-over1 or at-by-top1 is from the ,saxon or ,old ,english a1 be1 and ufa1 or ufan1 said to mean high1 upwards1 or the top4 #d4 ,,across1 at cross1 athwart1 traverse1 is from the prefix a and the word cross4 #e4 ,,after1 ,sax4 fter1 or ftan1 meaning behind1 subsequent to1 is1 in form1 the comparative of aft1 a word common to seamen1 and it may have been thence derived4 #f4 ,,against1 opposite to1 is probably from the ,anglo-,saxon1 ,ongean1 or ,ongegen1 each of which forms means again or against4 ,as prefixes1 on and a are often equivalent4 #g4 ,,along1 i4e41 at-long1 meaning lengthwise of1 near to1 is formed from a and long4 #h4 ,,amid1 i4 e41 at mid or middle1 is from a and mid2 and ,,amidst 1 i4e41 at midst1 is from a and midst1 contracted from middest1 the superlative of mid4 #i4 ,,among1 mixed with1 is probably an abbreviation of amongst2 and ,,amongst1 according to ,tooke1 is from a and mongst1 or the older ,ge-meneged1 ,saxon for mixed1 mingled4 #aj4 ,,around1 about1 encircling1 is from a and round1 a circle1 or circuit4 #aa4 ,,at1 gone to1 is supposed by some to come from the ,latin ad2 but ,dr4 ,murray says1 ,we have in ,teutonic ,,at for ,,agt1 touching or touched1 joined1 at4--,hist4 of ,lang41 i1 #cdi4 #ab4 ,,athwart1 across1 is from a and thwart1 cross2 and this from the ,saxon ,thweor4 #ac4 ,,bating1 a preposition for except1 is the imperfect participle of bate1 to abate4 #ad4 ,,before1 i4e41 by-fore1 in front of1 is from the prefix be and the adjective fore4 #ae4 ,,behind1 i4e41 by-hind1 in rear of1 is from the prefix be and the adjective hind4 #af4 ,,below1 i4e41 by-low1 meaning under1 or beneath1 is from be and the adjective low4 #ag4 ,,beneath 1 ,sax4 or ,old ,eng4 ,beneoth1 is from be and neath1 or ,sax4 ,neothe1 low4 #ah4 ,,beside 1 i4e41 by-side1 is probably from be and the noun or adjective side4 #ai4 ,,besides 1 i4e41 by-sides1 is probably from be and the plural noun sides4 #bj4 ,,between1 ,sax4 ,betweonan1 or ,betwynan1 literally1 by-twain1 seems to have been formed from be1 by1 and twain1 two--or the ,saxon ,twegen1 which also means two1 twain4 #ba4 ,,betwixt1 meaning between1 ,sax4 ,betweox1 ,betwux1 ,betwyx1 ,betwyxt1 c41 is from be1 by1 and twyx1 originally a ,gothic word signifying two1 or twain4--,see ,tooke1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cbi4 #bb4 ,,beyond1 past1 ,sax4 ,begeond1 is from the prefix be1 by1 and yond1 ,sax4 ,geond1 past1 far4 #bc4 ,,by 1 ,sax4 ,be1 ,bi1 or ,big1 is affirmed by ,tooke to be the imperative ,byth1 of the ,anglo-,saxon verb ,beon1 to be4--,diversions of ,p41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cbf4 ,this seems to be rather questionable4 #bd4 ,,concerning1 the preposition1 is from the first participle of the verb concern4 #be4 ,,down1 the preposition1 is from the ,anglo-,saxon ,dune1 down4 #bf4 ,,during1 prep4 of time1 is from the first participle of an old verb dure1 to last1 formerly in use2 as1 ,while the world may dure4--,chaucer's ,knight's ,tale4 #bg4 ,,ere1 before1 prep4 of time1 is from the ,anglo-,saxon r1 a word of like sort4 #bh4 ,,except1 bating1 is from the imperative1 or 7according to ,dr4 ,johnson7 the ancient perfect participle of the verb to except2 and ,,excepting1 when a preposition1 is from the first participle of the same verb4 #bi4 ,,for1 because of1 is the ,anglo-,saxon preposition ,for1 a word of like import1 and supposed by ,tooke to have come from a ,gothic noun signifying cause1 or sake4 #cj4 ,,from1 in ,saxon1 ,fram1 is probably derived from the old adjective ,frum1 original4 #ca4 ,,in1 or the ,saxon ,in1 is the same as the ,latin in3 the ,greek is ,greek3 en2 and the ,french1 en4 #cb4 ,,into1 like the ,saxon ,into1 noting entrance1 is a compound of in and to4 #cc4 ,,mid and ,,midst1 as ,english prepositions1 are poetical forms used for ,amid and ,amidst4 #cd4 ,,notwithstanding1 not hindering1 is from the adverb not1 and the participle withstanding1 which1 by itself1 means hindering1 or preventing4 #ce4 ,,of is from the ,saxon ,of1 or ,af2 which is supposed by ,tooke to come from a noun signifying offspring4 #cf4 ,,off1 opposed to on1 ,dr4 ,johnson derives from the ,dutch af4 #cg4 ,,on1 a word very often used in ,anglo-,saxon1 is traced by some etymologists to the ,gothic ana1 the ,german an1 the ,dutch aan2 but no such derivation fixes its meaning4 #ch4 ,,out1 ,sax4 ,ut1 ,ute1 or ,utan1 when made a preposition1 is probably from the adverb or adjective ,out1 or the earlier ,ut2 and ,,out-,,of1 ,sax4 ,ut-of1 opposed to ,into1 is but the adverb ,out and the preposition ,of--usually written separately1 but better joined1 in some instances4 #ci4 ,,over1 above1 is from the ,anglo-,saxon ,ofer1 over2 and this1 probably1 from ,ufa1 above1 high1 or from the comparative1 ,ufera1 higher4 #dj4 ,,overthwart1 meaning across1 is a compound of over and thwart1 cross4 #da4 ,,past1 beyond1 gone by1 is a contraction from the perfect participle passed4 #db4 ,,pending1 during or hanging1 has a participial form1 but is either an adjective or a preposition3 we do not use pend alone as a verb1 though we have it in depend4 #dc4 ,,respecting1 concerning1 is from the first participle of the verb respect4 #dd4 ,,round1 a preposition for about or around1 is from the noun or adjective round4 #de4 ,,since is most probably a contraction of the old word ,sithence2 but is conjectured by ,tooke to have been formed from the phrase1 ,seen as4 #df4 ,,through 1 ,sax4 ,thurh1 or ,thurch1 seems related to ,thorough1 ,sax4 ,thuruh2 and this again to ,thuru1 or ,duru1 a ,door4 #dg4 ,,throughout1 quite through1 is an obvious compond of through and out4 #dh4 ,,till1 ,sax4 ,til or ,tille1 to1 until1 is from the ,saxon ,til or ,till1 an end1 a station4 #di4 ,,to1 whether a preposition or an adverb1 is from the ,anglo-,saxon particle ,to4 #ej4 ,,touching1 with regard to1 is from the first participle of the verb touch4 #ea4 ,,toward or ,,towards1 written by the ,anglo-,saxons ,toweard or ,toweardes1 is a compound of ,to and ,ward or ,weard1 a guard1 a look-out2 ,used in composition to express situation or direction4--,bosworth4 #eb4 ,,under1 ,gothic1 ,undar2 ,dutch1 ,onder1 beneath1 below1 is a common ,anglo-,saxon word1 and very frequent prefix1 affirmed by ,tooke to be nothing but on-neder1 a ,dutch compound on lower4--,see ,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cca4 #ec4 ,,underneath is a compound of under and neath1 low2 whence nether1 lower4 #ed4 ,,until is a compound from on or un1 and till1 or til1 the end4 #ee4 ,,unto1 now somewhat antiquated1 is formed1 not very analogically1 from un and to4 #ef4 ,,up is from the ,anglo-,saxon adjective1 ,up or ,upp1 high1 lofty4 #eg4 ,,upon1 which appears literally to mean high on1 is from two words up and on4 #eh4 ,,with comes to us from the ,anglo-,saxon ,with1 a word of like sort and import2 which ,tooke says is an imperative verb1 sometimes from ,withan1 to join1 and sometimes from ,wyrthan1 to be4--,see his ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bfb4 #ei4 ,,within 1 i4e41 by-in1 is from with and in3 ,sax4 ,withinnan1 ,binnan1 or ,binnon4 #fj4 ,,without 1 i4e41 by-out1 is from with and out3 ,sax4 ,withtan1 -ten1 -ton2 ,btan1 ,bton1 ,btun4 ,,observation4 ,in regard to some of our minor or simpler prepositions1 as of sundry other particles1 to go beyond the forms and constructions which present or former usage has at some period given them as particles1 and to ascertain their actual origin in something ulterior1 if such they had1 is no very easy matter2 nor can there be either satisfaction or profit in studying what one suspects to be mere guesswork4 ,how do you account for ,,in1 ,,out1 ,,on1 ,,off1 and ,,at8 says the friend of ,tooke1 in an etymological dialogue at ,purley4 ,the substance of his answer is1 ,the explanation and etymology of these words require a degree of knowledge in all the antient northern languages1 and a skill in the application of that knowledge1 which ,i am very far from assuming2 and though ,i am almost persuaded by some of my own conjectures concerning them1 ,i am not willing1 by an apparently forced and far-fetched derivation1 to justify your imputation of etymological legerdemain4--,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cgj4 ,,section ,x4--,,derivation ,,of ,,interjections4 ,those significant and constructive words which are occasionally used as ,interjections1 7such as ,good6 ,strange6 ,indeed617 do not require an explanation here2 and those mere sounds which are in no wise expressive of thought1 scarcely admit of definition or derivation4 ,the ,interjection ,,hey is probably a corruption of the adjective ,high2--,,alas is from the ,french ,hlas3--,,alack is probably a corruption of ,alas2--,,welaway or ,,wellaway1 7which is now corrupted into ,,welladay17 is said by some to be from the ,anglo-,saxon ,w-l-w1 i4e41 ,wo-lo-wo2--,,fie1 says ,tooke1 is the imperative of the ,gothic and ,anglo-,saxon verb ,fian1 to hate2--,heyday is probably from high day2--,,avaunt1 perhaps from the ,french avant1 before2--,,lo1 from look2--,,begone1 from be and gone2--,,welcome1 from well and come2--,,farewell1 from fare and well4 ,,section ,,xi--,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,prefixes4 ,in the formation of ,english words1 certain particles are often employed as prefixes2 which1 as they generally have some peculiar import1 may be separately explained4 ,a few of them are of ,anglo-,saxon origin1 or character2 and the greater part of these are still employed as separate words in our language4 ,the rest are ,latin1 ,greek1 or ,french prepositions4 ,the roots to which they are prefixed1 are not always proper ,english words4 ,those which are such1 are called ,,separable ,,radicals2 those which are not such1 ,,inseparable ,,radicals4 ,,class ,i--,,the ,,english ,,or ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,prefixes4 #a4 ,a1 as an ,english prefix1 signifies on1 in1 at1 or to3 as in a-board1 a-shore1 a-foot1 a-bed1 a-soak1 a-tilt1 a-slant1 a-far1 a-field2 which are equal to the phrases1 on board1 on shore1 on foot1 in bed1 in soak1 at tilt1 at slant1 to a distance1 to the fields4 ,the ,french 1 to1 is probably the same particle4 ,this prefix is sometimes redundant1 adding little or nothing to the meaning2 as in awake1 arise1 amend4 #b4 ,,be1 as a prefix1 signifies upon1 over1 by1 to1 at1 or for3 as in be-spatter1 be-cloud1 be-times1 be-tide1 be-howl1 be-speak4 ,it is sometimes redundant1 or merely intensive2 as in be-gird1 be-deck1 be-loved1 be-dazzle1 be-moisten1 be-praise1 be-quote4 #c4 ,,counter1 an ,english prefix1 allied to the ,french ,contre1 and the ,latin ,contra1 means against1 or opposite2 as in counter-poise1 counter-evidence1 counter-natural4 #d4 ,,for1 as a prefix1 unlike the common preposition ,for1 seems generally to signify from3 it is found in the irregular verbs for-bear1 for-bid1 for-get1 for-give1 for-sake1 for-swear2 and in for-bathe1 for-do1 for-pass1 for-pine1 for-say1 for-think1 for-waste1 which last are now disused1 the for in several being merely intensive4 #e4 ,,fore1 prefixed to a verb1 signifies before2 as in fore-know1 fore-tell3 prefixed to a noun1 it is usually an adjective1 and signifies anterior2 as in fore-side1 fore-part4 #f4 ,,half1 signifying one of two equal parts1 is much used in composition2 and1 often1 merely to denote imperfection3 as1 half-sighted1 seeing imperfectly4 #g4 ,,mis signifies wrong or ill2 as in mis-cite1 mis-print1 mis-spell1 mis-chance1 mis-hap4 #h4 ,,over denotes superiority or excess2 as in over-power1 over-strain1 over-large4 #i4 ,,out1 prefixed to a verb1 generally denotes excess2 as in out-do1 out-leap1 out-poise3 prefixed to a noun1 it is an adjective1 and signifies exterior2 as in out-side1 out-parish4 #aj4 ,,self generally signifies one's own person1 or belonging to one's own person2 but1 in self-same1 it means very4 ,we have many words beginning with ,self1 but most of them seem to be compounds rather than derivatives2 as1 self-love1 self-abasement1 self-abuse1 self-affairs1 self-willed1 self-accusing4 #aa4 ,,un denotes negation or contrariety2 as in un-kind1 un-load1 un-truth1 un-coif4 #ab4 ,,under denotes inferiority2 as in under-value1 under-clerk1 under-growth4 #ac4 ,,up denotes motion upwards2 as in up-lift3 sometimes subversion2 as in up-set4 #ad4 ,,with1 as a prefix1 unlike the common preposition ,with1 signifies against1 from1 or back2 as in with-stand1 with-hold1 with-draw1 with-stander1 with-holdment1 with-drawal4 ,,class ,,ii4--,,the ,,latin ,,prefixes4 ,the primitives or radicals to which these are prefixed1 are not many of them employed separately in ,english4 ,the final letter of the prefix ,ad1 ,con1 ,ex1 ,in1 ,ob1 or ,sub1 is often changed before certain consonants2 not capriciously1 but with uniformity1 to adapt or assimilate it to the sound which follows4 #a4 ,a1 ,,ab1 or ,,abs1 means ,from1 or ,away3 as1 a-vert1 to turn from1 or away2 ab-duce1 to lead from2 ab-duction1 a carrying-away2 ab-stract1 to draw from1 or away4 #b4 ,,ad1--forming ac1 af1 al1 an1 ap1 as1 at1--means ,to1 or ,at3 as1 ad-vert1 to turn to2 ac-cord1 to yield to2 af-flux1 a flowing-to2 al-ly1 to bind to2 an-nex1 to link to2 ap-ply1 to put to2 as-sume1 to take to2 at-test1 to witness to2 ad-mire1 to wonder at4 #c4 ,,ante means ,fore1 or ,before3 as1 ante-past1 a fore-taste2 ante-cedent1 foregoing1 or going before2 ante-mundane1 before the world2 ante-date1 to date before4 #d4 ,,circum means ,round1 ,around1 or ,about3 as circum-volve1 to roll round2 circum-scribe1 to write round2 circum-vent1 to come round2 circum-spect1 looking about one's self4 #e4 ,,con1--which forms com1 co1 col1 cor1--means ,together3 as1 con-tract1 to draw together2 compel1 to drive together2 co-erce1 to force together2 col-lect1 to gather together2 cor-rade1 to rub or scrape together2 con-junction1 a joining-together4 #f4 ,,contra1 or ,,contro1 means ,against1 or ,counter3 as1 contra-dict1 to speak against2 contra-vene1 to come against2 contra-mure1 countermure2 contro-vert1 to turn against4 #g4 ,,de means ,of1 ,from1 or ,down3 as1 de-note1 to be a sign of2 de-tract1 to draw from2 de-pend1 to hang down2 de-press1 to press down2 de-crease1 to grow down1 to grow less4 #h4 ,,dis1 or ,,di1 means ,away1 or ,apart3 as1 dis-pel1 to drive away2 dis-sect1 to cut apart2 di-vert1 to turn away4 #i4 ,e1 or ,ex1--making also ec1 ef1--means ,out3 as1 e-ject1 to cast out2 e-lect1 to choose out2 ex-clude1 to shut out2 ex-cite1 to summon out2 ec-stacy1 a raising out2 ef-face1 to blot out4 #aj4 ,,extra means ,beyond1 or ,out of3 as1 extra-vagant1 syllabled ex-trav'a-gant1 roving be-yond2 extra-vasate1 ex-trav'a-sate1 to flow out of the vessels2 extra-territorial1 being out of the territory4 #aa4 ,,in1--which makes also il1 im1 ir1--means ,in1 ,into1 or ,upon3 as1 in-spire1 to breathe in2 il-lude1 to draw in by deceit2 im-mure1 to wall in2 ir-ruption1 a rushing in2 in-spect1 to look into2 in-scribe1 to write upon2 in-sult1 to jump upon4 ,these syllables1 prefixed1 to ,english nouns or adjectives1 generally reverse their meaning2 as in in-justice1 il-legality1 im-partiality1 ir-religion1 ir-rational1 in-secure1 in-sane4 #ab4 ,,inter means ,between1 or ,in between3 as1 inter-sperse1 to scatter in between2 inter-jection1 something thrown in between2 inter-jacent1 lying between2 inter-communication1 communication between4 #ac4 ,,intro means ,in1 ,inwards1 or ,within3 as1 intro-duce1 to lead in2 intro-vert1 to turn inwards2 intro-spect1 to look within2 intro-mission1 a sending-in4 #ad4 ,,ob1--which makes also oc1 of1 op1--means ,against3 as1 ob-trude1 to thrust against2 oc-cur1 to run against2 of-fer1 to bring against2 op-pose1 to place against2 ob-ject1 to cast against4 #ae4 ,,per means ,through or ,by3 as1 per-vade1 to go through2 per-chance1 by chance2 per-cent1 by the hundred2 per-plex1 to tangle through1 or to entangle thoroughly4 #af4 ,,post means ,after3 as1 post-pone1 to place after2 post-date1 to date after4 #ag4 ,,pr1 or ,,pre1 means ,before3 as1 pre-sume1 to take before2 pre-position1 a placing-before1 or thing placed before2 pr-cognita1 things known before4 #ah4 ,,pro means ,for1 ,forth1 or ,forwards3 as1 pro-vide1 to take care for2 pro-duce1 to bring forth2 pro-trude1 to thrust forwards2 pro-ceed1 to go forward2 pro-noun1 for a noun4 #ai4 ,,preter means ,by1 ,past1 or ,beyond3 as1 preter-it1 bygone1 or gone by2 preter-imperfect1 past imperfect2 preter-natural1 beyond what is natural2 preter-mit1 to put by1 to omit4 #bj4 ,,re means ,again or ,back3 as1 re-view1 to view again2 re-pel1 to drive back4 #ba4 ,,retro means ,backwards1 ,backward1 or ,back3 as1 retro-active1 acting backwards2 retro-grade1 going backward2 retro-cede1 to cede back again4 #bb4 ,,se means ,aside or ,apart3 as1 se-duce1 to lead aside2 se-cede1 to go apart4 #bc4 ,,semi means ,half3 as1 semi-colon1 half a colon2 semi-circle1 half a circle4 #bd4 ,,sub1--which makes suf1 sug1 sup1 sur1 and sus1--means ,under1 and sometimes ,up3 as1 sub-scribe1 to write under2 suf-fossion1 an undermining2 sug-gest1 to convey under2 sup-ply1 to put under2 sur-reption1 a creeping-under2 sus-tain1 to hold up2 sub-ject1 cast under4 #be4 ,,subter means ,beneath3 as1 subter-fluous1 flowing beneath4 #bf4 ,,super means ,over or ,above3 as1 super-fluous1 flowing over2 super-natant1 swimming above2 super-lative1 carried over1 or carrying over2 super-vise1 to overlook1 to oversee4 #bg4 ,,trans1--whence ,,tran and ,,tra1--means ,beyond1 ,over1 ,to another state or place3 as1 trans-gress1 to pass beyond or over2 trans-cend1 to climb over2 trans-mit to send to an other place2 trans-form1 to change to an other shape2 tra-montane1 from beyond the mountains2 i4e41 ,trans-,alpine1 as opposed to ,cis-,alpine4 ,,class ,,iii4--,,the ,,greek ,,prefixes4 #a4 ,a and ,,an1 in ,greek derivatives1 denote privation3 as1 a-nomalous1 wanting rules2 an-ony-mous1 wanting name2 an-archy1 want of government2 a-cephalous1 headless4 #b4 ,,amphi means ,two1 ,both1 or ,double3 as1 amphi-bious1 living in two elements2 amphi-brach1 both sides short2 amphi-theatre1 a double theatre4 #c4 ,,anti means ,against3 as1 anti-slavery1 against slavery2 anti-acid1 against acidity2 anti-febrile1 against fever2 anti-thesis1 a placing-against4 #d4 ,,apo1 ,,aph1--,from3 as1 apo-strophe1 a turning-from2 aph-aeresis1 a taking from4 #e4 ,,dia1--,through3 as1 dia-gonal1 through the corners2 dia-meter1 measure through4 #f4 ,,epi1 ,,eph1--,upon3 as1 epi-demic1 upon the people2 eph-emera1 upon a day4 #g4 ,,hemi means ,half3 as1 hemi-sphere1 half a sphere2 hemi-stich1 half a verse4 #h4 ,,hyper means ,over3 as1 hyper-critical1 over-critical2 hyper-meter1 over measure4 #i4 ,,hypo means ,under3 as1 hypo-stasis1 substance1 or that which stands under2 hypo-thesis1 supposition1 or a placing-under2 hypo-phyllous1 under the leaf4 #aj4 ,,meta means ,beyond1 ,over1 ,to an other state or place3 as1 meta-morphose1 to change to an other shape2 meta-physics1 mental science1 as beyond or over physics4 #aa4 ,,para means ,against3 as1 para-dox1 something contrary to common opinion4 #ab4 ,,peri means ,around3 as1 peri-phery1 the circumference1 or measure round4 #ac4 ,,syn1--whence ,sym1 ,syl1--means ,together3 as1 syn-tax1 a putting-together2 sym-pathy1 a suffering-together2 syl-lable1 what we take together2 syn-thesis a placing-together4 ,,class ,,iv4--,,the ,,french ,,prefixes4 #a4 ,a is a preposition of very frequent use in ,french1 and generally means ,to4 ,i have suggested above that it is probably the same as the ,anglo-,saxon prefix a4 ,it is found in a few ,english compounds or derivatives that are of ,french1 and not of ,saxon origin3 as1 a-dieu1 to ,god2 i4e41 ,i commend you to ,god2 a-larm1 from alarme1 i e41 l'arme1 to arms4 #b4 ,,de means ,of or ,from3 as in de-mure1 of manners2 de-liver1 to ease from or of4 #c4 ,,demi means ,half3 as1 demi-man1 half a man2 demi-god1 half a god2 demi-devil1 half a devil2 demi-deify1 to half deify2 demi-sized1 half sized2 demi-quaver1 half a quaver4 #d4 ,,en1--which sometimes becomes em1--means ,in1 ,into1 or ,upon3 as1 en-chain1 to hold in chains2 em-brace1 to clasp in the arms2 en-tomb1 to put into a tomb2 em-boss1 to stud upon4 ,many words are yet wavering between the ,french and the ,latin orthography of this prefix3 as1 embody1 or imbody2 ensurance1 or insurance2 ensnare1 or insnare2 enquire1 or inquire4 #e4 ,,sur1 as a ,french prefix1 means ,upon1 ,over1 or ,after3 as1 sur-name1 a name upon a name2 sur-vey1 to look over2 sur-mount1 to mount over or upon2 sur-render1 to deliver over to others2 sur-feit1 to overdo in eating2 sur-vive1 to live after1 to over-live1 to outlive4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,appendix ,,appendix ,,iii ,,to ,,part ,,third1 ,,or ,,syntax4 ,,of ,,the ,,qualities ,,of ,,style4 ,style1 as a topic connected with syntax1 is the particular manner in which a person expresses his conceptions by means of language4 ,it is different from mere words1 different from mere grammar1 in any limited sense1 and is not to be regulated altogether by rules of construction4 ,it always has some relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking2 involves1 to some extent1 and shows his literary1 if not his moral1 character2 is1 in general1 that sort of expression which his thoughts most readily assume2 and1 sometimes1 partakes not only of what is characteristic of the man1 of his profession1 sect1 clan1 or province1 but even of national peculiarity1 or some marked feature of the age4 ,the words which an author employs1 may be proper in themselves1 and so constructed as to violate no rule of syntax1 and yet his style may have great faults4 ,in reviews and critical essays1 the general characters of style are usually designated by such epithets as these2--concise1 diffuse1--neat1 negligent1--terse1 bungling1--nervous1 weak1--forcible1 feeble1--vehement1 languid1--simple1 affected1--easy1 stiff1--pure1 barbarous1--perspicuous1 obscure1--elegant1 uncouth1--florid1 plain1--flowery1 artless1--fluent1 dry1--piquant1 dull1--stately1 flippant1--majestic1 mean1--pompous1 modest1--ancient1 modern4 ,a considerable diversity of style1 may be found in compositions all equally excellent in their kind4 ,and1 indeed1 different subjects1 as well as the different endowments by which genius is distinguished1 require this diversity4 ,but1 in forming his style1 the learner should remember1 that a negligent1 feeble1 affected1 stiff1 uncouth1 barbarous1 or obscure style is always faulty2 and that perspicuity1 ease1 simplicity1 strength1 neatness1 and purity1 are qualities always to be aimed at4 ,in order to acquire a good style1 the frequent practice of composing and writing something1 is indispensably necessary4 ,without exercise and diligent attention1 rules or precepts for the attainment of this object1 will be of no avail4 ,when the learner has acquired such a knowledge of grammar1 as to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking1 he should devote a stated portion of his time to composition4 ,this exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition1 in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them4 ,and if he has opportunity for reading1 he may1 by a diligent perusal of the best authors1 acquire both language and taste as well as sentiment2--and these three are the essential qualifications of a good writer4 ,in regard to the qualities which constitute a good style1 we can here offer nothing more than a few brief hints4 ,with respect to words and phrases1 particular attention should be paid to three things--purity1 propriety1 and precision2 and1 with respect to sentences1 to three others1--perspicuity1 unity1 and strength4 ,under each of these six heads1 we shall arrange1 in the form of short precepts1 a few of the most important directions for the forming of a good style4 ,,section ,i4--,,of ,,purity4 ,purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only1 as belong to the language which we write or speak4 ,its opposites are the faults aimed at in the following precepts4 ,,precept ,i4--,avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms3 such as the ,french words fraicheur1 hauteur1 delicatesse1 politesse1 noblesse2--the expression1 ,he repented himself2--or1 ,it serves to an excellent purpose4 ,,precept ,,ii4--,avoid obsolete or antiquated words1 except there be some special reason for their use3 that is1 such words as acception1 addressful1 administrate1 affamish1 affrontiveness1 belikely1 blusterous1 clergical1 cruciate1 rutilate1 timidous4 ,,precept ,,iii4--,avoid strange or unauthorized words3 such as1 flutteration1 inspectator1 judgematical1 incumberment1 connexity1 electerized1 martyrized1 reunition1 marvelize1 limpitude1 affectated1 adorement1 absquatulate4 ,of this sort is ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's assimilarity1 used on page #aith of his ,english ,grammar2 and still worse is ,jocelyn's irradicable1 for uneradicable1 used on page #eth of his ,prize ,essay on ,education4 ,,precept ,,iv4--,avoid bombast1 or affectation of fine writing4 ,it is ridiculous1 however serious the subject4 ,the following is an example3 ,personifications1 however rich the depictions1 and unconstrained their latitude2 analogies1 however imposing the objects of parallel1 and the media of comparison2 can never expose the consequences of sin to the extent of fact1 or the range of demonstration4--,anonymous4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,of ,,propriety4 ,propriety of language consists in the selection and right construction of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we intend to express by them4 ,impropriety embraces all those forms of error1 which1 for the purpose of illustration1 exercise1 and special criticism1 have been so methodically and so copiously posted up under the various heads1 rules1 and notes1 of this extensive ,grammar4 ,a few suggestions1 however1 are here to be set down in the form of precepts4 ,,precept ,i4--,avoid low and provincial expressions3 such as1 ,now1 says ,i1 boys2--,thinks ,i to myself2--,to get into a scrape2--,stay here while ,i come back2--,by jinkers2--,by the living jingoes4 ,,precept ,,ii4--,in writing prose1 avoid words and phrases that are merely poetical3 such as1 morn1 eve1 plaint1 corse1 weal1 drear1 amid1 oft1 steepy2--what time the winds arise4 ,,precept ,,iii4--,avoid technical terms3 except where they are necessary in treating of a particular art or science4 ,in technology1 they are proper4 ,,precept ,,iv4--,avoid the recurrence of a word in different senses1 or such a repetition of words as denotes paucity of language3 as1 ,his own reason might have suggested better reasons4--,gregory favoured the undertaking1 for no other reason than this2 that the manager1 in countenance1 favoured his friend4--,i want to go and see what he wants4 ,,precept ,v4--,supply words that are wanting3 thus1 instead of saying1 ,this action increased his former services1 say1 ,this action increased the merit of his former services4--,how many kinds of substantives are there8 ,two2 proper and common4--,see ,e4 ,devis's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,these changes should not be left to be settled by chance or by caprice1 but should be determined by the judicious application of the principles of ,orthography4--,see ,fowlers ,e4 ,gram41 #ahej1 p4 #agj4 ,,precept ,,vi4--,avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions3 as1 ,his memory shall be lost on the earth4--,i long since learned to like nothing but what you do4 ,,precept ,,vii4--,avoid unintelligible1 inconsistent1 or inappropriate expressions3 such as1 ,i have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion4--,these words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning4 ,,precept ,,viii4--,observe the natural order of things or events1 and do not put the cart before the horse3 as1 ,the scribes taught and studied the ,law of ,moses4--,they can neither return to nor leave their houses4--,he tumbled1 head over heels1 into the water4--',pat1 how did you carry that quarter of beef8' ',why1 ,i thrust it through a stick1 and threw my shoulder over it4' ,,section ,,iii4--,,of ,,precision4 ,precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words1 and adapting the expression exactly to the thought1 so as to say1 with no deficiency or surplus of terms1 whatever is intended by the author4 ,its opposites are noticed in the following precepts4 ,,precept ,i4--,avoid a useless tautology1 either of expression or of sentiment2 as1 ,when will you return again8--,we returned back home again4--,on entering into the room1 ,i saw and discovered he had fallen down on the floor and could not rise up4--,they have a mutual dislike to each other4--,whenever ,i go1 he always meets me there4--,where is he at8 ,in there4--,his faithfulness and fidelity should be rewarded4 ,,precept ,,ii4--,repeat words as often as an exact exhibition of your meaning requires them2 for repetition may be elegant1 if it be not useless4 ,the following example does not appear faulty3 ,moral precepts are precepts the reasons of which we see2 positive precepts are precepts the reasons of which we do not see4--,butler's ,analogy1 p4 #afe4 ,,precept ,,iii4--,observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous1 and employ those which are the most suitable2 as1 ,a diligent scholar may acquire knowledge1 gain celebrity1 obtain rewards1 win prizes1 and get high honour1 though he earn no money4 ,these six verbs have nearly the same meaning1 and yet no two of them can here be correctly interchanged4 ,,precept ,,iv4--,observe the proper form of each word1 and do not confound such as resemble each other4 ,professor ,j4 ,w4 ,gibbs1 of ,yale ,college1 in treating of the ,peculiarities of the ,cockney ,dialect1 says1 ,the ,londoner sometimes confounds two different forms2 as contagious for contiguous2 eminent for imminent2 humorous for humorsome2 ingeniously for ingenuously2 luxurious for luxuriant2 scrupulosity for scruple2 successfully for successively4--,see ,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #hg2 and ,pref41 p4 vi4 ,,precept ,v4--,think clearly1 and avoid absurd or incompatible expressions4 ,example of error3 ,to pursue those remarks1 would1 probably1 be of no further service to the learner than that of burdening his memory with a catalogue of dry and uninteresting peculiarities2 which may gratify curiosity1 without affording information adequate to the trouble of the perusal4--,wright's ,gram41 p4 #abb4 ,,precept ,,vi4--,avoid words that are useless2 and1 especially1 a multiplication of them into sentences1 members1 or clauses1 that may well be spared4 ,example3 ,if one could really be a spectator of what is passing in the world around us without taking part in the events1 or sharing in the passions and actual performance on the stage2 if we could set ourselves down1 as it were1 in a private box of the world's great theatre1 and quietly look on at the piece that is playing1 no more moved than is absolutely implied by sympathy with our fellow-creatures1 what a curious1 what an amusing1 what an interesting spectacle would life present4--,g4 ,p4 ,r4 ,,james3 ,the ,forger1 commencement of ,chap4 xxxi4 ,this sentence contains eighty-seven words1 of which sixty-one are entirely unnecessary to the expression of the author's idea1 if idea it can be called4--,holden's ,review4 ,,observation4 ,verbosity1 as well as tautology1 is not so directly opposite to precision1 as to conciseness1 or brevity4 ,from the manner in which lawyers usually multiply terms in order to express their facts precisely1 it would seem that1 with them1 precision consists rather in the use of many words than of few4 ,but the ordinary style of legal instruments no popular writer can imitate without becoming ridiculous4 ,a terse or concise style is very apt to be elliptical3 and1 in some particular instances1 must be so2 but1 at the same time1 the full expression1 perhaps1 may have more precision1 though it be less agreeable4 ,for example3 ,a word of one syllable1 is called a monosyllable2 a word of two syllables1 is called a dissyllable3 a word of three syllables1 is called a trisyllable3 a word of four or more syllables1 is called a polysyllable4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 ,better1 perhaps1 thus3 ,a word of one syllable is called a monosyllable2 a word of two syllables1 a dissyllable2 a word of three syllables1 a trissyllable2 and a word of four or more syllables1 a polysyllable4--,brown's ,institutes1 p4 #ag4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,of ,,perspicuity4 ,perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity4 ,it is a quality so essential to every kind of writing1 that for the want of it no merit of other name can compensate4 ,without this1 the richest ornaments of style1 only glimmer through the dark1 and puzzle in stead of pleasing the reader4--,dr4 ,blair4 ,perspicuity1 being the most important property of language1 and an exemption from the most embarrassing defects1 seems even to rise to a degree of positive beauty4 ,we are naturally pleased with a style that frees us from all suspense in regard to the meaning2 that carries us through the subject without embarrassment or confusion2 and that always flows like a limpid stream1 through which we can see to the very bottom4 ,many of the errors which have heretofore been pointed out to the reader1 are offences against perspicuity4 ,only three or four hints will here be added4 ,,precept ,i4--,place adjectives1 relative pronouns1 participles1 adverbs1 and explanatory phrases near enough to the words to which they relate1 and in a position which will make their reference clear4 ,the following sentences are deficient in perspicuity3 ,reverence is the veneration paid to superior sanctity1 intermixed with a certain degree of awe4--,unknown4 ,the ,romans understood liberty1 at least1 as well as we4--,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cjg4 ,taste was never made to cater for vanity4--,j4 ,q4 ,adams's ,rhet41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aai4 ,,precept ,,ii4--,in prose1 avoid a poetic collocation of words4 ,for example3 ,guard your weak side from being known4 ,if it be attacked1 the best way is1 to join in the attack4--,,kames3 ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #ge4 ,this maxim of prudence might be expressed more poetically1 but with some loss of perspicuity1 thus3 ,your weak side guard from being known4 ,attacked in this1 the assailants join4 ,,precept ,,iii4--,avoid faulty ellipses1 and repeat all words necessary to preserve the sense4 ,the following sentences require the words which are inserted in crotchets3 ,restlessness of mind disqualifies us1 both for the enjoyment of peace1 and for the performance of our duty4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #aff4 ,double ,comparatives and ,double ,superlatives should be avoided4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #ahej1 p4 #dhi4 ,,precept ,,iv4--,avoid the pedantic and sense-dimming style of charlatans and new theorists1 which often demands either a translation or a tedious study1 to make it at all intelligible to the ordinary reader4 ,for example3 ,,rule ,,xl ,part #c4 ,an intransitive or receptive asserter in the unlimited mode1 depending on a word in the possessive case1 may have1 after it1 a word in the subjective case1 denoting the same thing3 ,and1 when it acts the part of an assertive name1 depending on a relative1 it may have after it a word in the subjective case4 ,,examples3--,john's being my friend1 saved me from inconvenience4 ,seth ,hamilton was unhappy in being a slave to party prejudice4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 #ahci1 p4 #bja4 ,the meaning of this third part of a ,rule of syntax1 is1 in proper ,english1 as follows3 ,a participle not transitive1 with the possessive case before it1 may have after it a nominative denoting the same thing2 and also1 when a preposition governs the participle1 a nominative may follow1 in agreement with one which precedes4 ,in doctrine1 the former clause of the sentence is erroneous3 it serves only to propagate false syntax by rule4 ,see the former example1 and a note of mine1 referring to it1 on page #eca of this work4 ,,section ,v4--,,of ,,unity4 ,unity consists in avoiding needless pauses1 and keeping one object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph4 ,every sentence1 whether its parts be few or many1 requires strict unity4 ,the chief faults1 opposite to this quality of style1 are suggested in the following precepts4 ,,precept ,i4--,avoid brokenness1 hitching1 or the unnecessary separation of parts that naturally come together4 ,examples3 ,i was1 soon after my arrival1 taken out of my ,indian habit4--,addison1 ,tattler1 ,no4 #bdi4 ,better3 ,soon after my arrival1 ,i was taken out of my ,indian habit4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #cbf4 ,who can1 either in opposition1 or in the ministry1 act alone8--,ib4 ,better3 ,who can act alone1 either in opposition1 or in the ministry8--,ib4 ,i1 like others1 have1 in my youth1 trifled with my health1 and old age now prematurely assails me4--,ib41 p4 #cbg4 ,better3 ,like others1 ,i have trifled with my health1 and old age now prematurely assails me4 ,,precept ,,ii4--,treat different topics in separate paragraphs1 and distinct sentiments in separate sentences4 ,error3 ,the two volumes are1 indeed1 intimately connected1 and constitute one uniform system of ,english ,grammar4--,murray's ,preface1 p4 iv4 ,better thus3 ,the two volumes are1 indeed1 intimately connected4 ,they constitute one uniform system of ,english grammar4 ,,precept ,,iii4--,in the progress of a sentence1 do not desert the principal subjects in favour of adjuncts1 or change the scene unnecessarily4 ,example3 ,after we came to anchor1 they put me on shore1 where ,i was welcomed by all my friends1 who received me with the greatest kindness1 which was not then expected4 ,better3 ,the vessel having come to anchor1 ,i was put on shore2 where ,i was unexpectedly welcomed by all my friends1 and received with the greatest kindness4--,see ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ajg4 ,,precept ,,iv4--,do not introduce parentheses1 except when a lively remark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the principal subject4 ,example3 ,but 7saith he7 since ,i take upon me to teach the whole world1 7it is strange1 it should be so natural for this man to write untruths1 since ,i direct my ,theses only to the ,christian world2 but if it may render me odious1 such ,peccadillo's pass with him1 it seems1 but for ,pi ,fraudes37 ,i intended never to write of those things1 concerning which we do not differ from others4--,r4 ,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 iii4 p4 #bgi4 ,the parts of this sentence are so put together1 that1 as a whole1 it is scarcely intelligible4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,of ,,strength4 ,strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a sentence1 such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the best advantage1 and present every idea in its due importance4 ,perhaps it is essential to this quality of style1 that there be animation1 spirit1 and vigour of thought1 in all that is uttered4 ,a few hints concerning the ,strength of sentences1 will here be given in the form of precepts4 ,,precept ,i4--,avoid verbosity2 a concise style is the most favourable to strength4 ,examples3 ,no human happiness is so pure as not to contain any alloy4--,murray's ,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bgj4 ,better3 ,no human happiness is unalloyed4 ,he was so much skilled in the exercise of the oar1 that few could equal him4--,ib41 p4 #bga4 ,better3 ,he was so skillful at the oar1 that few could match him4 ,or thus3 ,at the oar1 he was rarely equalled4 ,the reason why they the pronouns are considered separately is1 because there is something particular in their inflections4-- ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,better3 ,the pronouns are considered separately1 because there is something peculiar in their inflections4 ,,precept ,,ii4--,place the most important words in the situation in which they will make the strongest impression4 ,inversion of terms sometimes increases the strength and vivacity of an expression3 as1 ,all these things will ,i give thee1 if thou wilt fall down and worship me4--,matt41 iv1 #i4 ,righteous art thou1 ,o ,lord1 and upright are thy judgements4--,psalms1 cxix1 #acg4 ,precious in the sight of the ,lord is the death of his saints4--,ps41 cxvi1 #ae4 ,,precept ,,iii4--,have regard also to the relative position of clauses1 or members2 for a weaker assertion should not follow a stronger2 and1 when the sentence consists of two members1 the longer should be the concluding one4 ,example3 ,we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions1 when they have forsaken us4 ,better3 ,when our passions have forsaken us1 we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them4--,see ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aag2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cbc4 ,,precept ,,iv4--,when things are to be compared or contrasted1 their resemblance or opposition will be rendered more striking1 if a pretty near resemblance in the language and construction of the two members1 be preserved4 ,example3 ,the wise man is happy1 when he gains his own approbation2 the fool1 when he recommends himself to the applause of those about him4 ,better3 ,the wise man is happy1 when he gains his own approbation2 the fool1 when he gains the applause of others4--,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cbd4 ,,precept ,v4--,remember that it is1 in general1 ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb1 a preposition1 or any inconsiderable word or phrase1 which may either be omitted or be introduced earlier4 ,for instance1 it is a great deal better to say1 ',avarice is a crime of which wise men are often guilty1' than to say1 ',avarice is a crime which wise men are often guilty of4'--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #aag2 ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #cbc4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,appendix4 ,,appendix ,,iv4 ,,to ,,part ,,fourth1 ,,or ,,prosody4 ,,of ,,poetic ,,diction4 ,poetry1 as defined by ,dr4 ,blair1 is the language of passion1 or of enlivened imagination1 formed1 most commonly1 into regular numbers4--,rhet41 p4 #cgg4 ,the style of poetry differs1 in many respects1 from that which is commonly adopted in prose4 ,poetic diction abounds in bold figures of speech1 and unusual collocations of words4 ,a great part of the figures1 which have been treated of in one of the chapters of ,prosody1 are purely poetical4 ,the primary aim of a poet1 is1 to please and to move2 and1 therefore1 it is to the imagination1 and the passions1 that he speaks4 ,he may also1 and he should1 have it in his view1 to instruct and to reform2 but it is indirectly1 and by pleasing and moving1 that such a writer accomplishes this end4 ,the exterior and most obvious distinction of poetry1 is versification3 yet there are some forms of verse so loose and familiar1 as to be hardly distinguishable from prose2 and there is also a species of prose1 so measured in its cadences1 and so much raised in its tone1 as to approach very nearly to poetic numbers4 ,this double approximation of some poetry to prose1 and of some prose to poetry1 not only makes it a matter of acknowledged difficulty to distinguish1 by satisfactory definitions1 the two species of composition1 but1 in many instances1 embarrasses with like difficulty the attempt to show1 by statements and examples1 what usages or licenses1 found in ,english works1 are proper to be regarded as peculiarities of poetic diction4 ,it is purposed here1 to enumerate sundry deviations from the common style of prose2 and perhaps all of them1 or nearly all1 may be justly considered as pertaining only to poetry4 ,,poetical ,,peculiarities4 ,the following are among the chief peculiarities in which the poets indulge1 and are indulged3-- ,i4 ,they not unfrequently omit the ,,articles1 for the sake of brevity or metre2 as1 ,what dreadful pleasure6 there to stand sublime1 ,like shipwreck'd mariner on desert coast6 --,beattie's ,minstrel1 p4 #ab4 ,sky lour'd1 and1 muttering thunder1 some sad drops ,wept at completing of the mortal sin4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 ix1 l4 #ajjb4 ,,ii4 ,they sometimes abbreviate common ,,nouns1 after a manner of their own3 as1 amaze1 for amazement2 acclaim1 for acclamation2 consult1 for consultation2 corse1 for corpse2 eve or even1 for evening2 fount1 for fountain2 helm1 for helmet2 lament1 for lamentation2 morn1 for morning2 plaint1 for complaint2 targe1 for target2 weal1 for wealth4 ,,iii4 ,by enallage1 they use verbal forms substantively1 or put verbs for nouns2 perhaps for brevity1 as above3 thus1 #a4 ,instant1 without disturb1 they took alarm4 --,p4 ,lost3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,aware4 #b4 ,the gracious ,judge1 without revile reply'd4 --,p4 ,lost1 ,b4 x1 l4 #aah4 #c4 ,if they were known1 as the suspect is great4 --,shakspeare4 #d4 ,mark1 and perform it3 seest thou8 for the fail ,of any point in't shall be death4 --,shakspeare4 ,,iv4 ,they employ several nouns that are not used in prose1 or are used but rarely2 as1 benison1 boon1 emprise1 fane1 guerdon1 guise1 ire1 ken1 lore1 meed1 sire1 steed1 welkin1 yore4 ,v4 ,they introduce the noun self after an other noun of the possessive case2 as1 #a4 ,affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb1 ,affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom4--,byron4 #b4 ,thoughtless of beauty1 she was beauty's self4--,thomson4 ,,vi4 ,they place before the verb nouns1 or other words1 that usually come after it2 and1 after it1 those that usually come before it3 as1 #a4 ,no jealousy their dawn of love o'ercast1 ,nor blasted were their wedded days with strife4 --,beattie4 #b4 ,no hive hast thou of hoarded sweets4 --,w4 ,allen's ,gram4 #c4 ,thy chain a wretched weight shall prove4 --,langhorne4 #d4 ,follows the loosen'd aggravated roar4 --,thomson4 #e4 ,that purple grows the primrose pale4 --,langhorne4 ,,vii4 ,they more frequently place ,,adjectives after their nouns1 than do prose writers2 as1 #a4 ,or where the gorgeous ,east1 with richest hand1 ,show'rs on her kings barbaric1 pearl and gold4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 ii1 l4 #b4 #b4 ,come1 nymph demure1 with mantle blue4 --,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #ahi4 #c4 ,this truth sublime his simple sire had taught4 --,beattie's ,minstrel1 p4 #ad4 ,,viii4 ,they ascribe qualities to things to which they do not literally belong2 as1 #a4 ,the ploughman homeward plods his weary way4 --,gray's ,elegy1 l4 #c4 #b4 ,or drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds4 --,ibidem1 l4 #h4 #c4 ,imbitter'd more and more from peevish day to day4 --,thomson4 #d4 ,all thin and naked1 to the numb cold night4 --,shakspeare4 ,,ix4 ,they use concrete terms to express abstract qualities2 7i4 e41 adjectives for nouns27 as1 #a4 ,earth's meanest son1 all trembling1 prostrate falls1 ,and on the boundless of thy goodness calls4 --,young4 #b4 ,meanwhile1 whate'er of beautiful or new1 ,sublime or dreadful1 in earth1 sea1 or sky1 ,by chance or search1 was offer'd to his view1 ,he scann'd with curious and romantic eye4 --,beattie4 #c4 ,won from the void and formless infinite4 --,milton4 #d4 ,to thy large heart give utterance due2 thy heart ,contains of good1 wise1 just1 the perfect shape4 --,id41 ,p4 ,r41 ,b4 iii1 l4 #aj4 ,x4 ,they often substitute quality for manner2 7i4 e41 adjectives for adverbs27 as1 #a4 ----,the stately-sailing swan ,gives out his snowy plumage to the gale1 ,and1 arching proud his neck1 with oary feet1 ,bears forward fierce1 and guards his osier isle4 --,thomson4 #b4 ,thither continual pilgrims crowded still4 --,id41 ,cos4 of ,ind41 i1 #h4 #c4 ,level at beauty1 and at wit2 ,the fairest mark is easiest hit4 --,butler's ,hudibras4 ,,xi4 ,they form new compound epithets1 oftener than do prose writers2 as1 #a4 ,in world-rejoicing state1 it moves sublime4 --,thomson4 #b4 ,the dewy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun4 --,idem4 #c4 ,by brooks and groves in hollow-whispering gales4 --,idem4 #d4 ,the violet of sky-woven vest4 --,langhorne4 #e4 ,a league from ,epidamnum had we sail'd1 ,before the always-wind-obeying deep ,gave any tragic instance of our harm4 --,shakspeare4 #f4 ',blue-eyed1 strange-voiced1 sharp-beaked1 ill-omened fowl1 ,what art thou8' ',what ,i ought to be1 an owl4' --,day's ,punctuation1 p4 #aci4 ,,xii4 ,they connect the comparative degree to the positive1 before a verb2 as1 #a4 ,near and more near the billows rise4 --,merrick4 #b4 ,wide and wider spreads the vale4 --,dyer's ,grongar ,hill4 #c4 ,wide and more wide1 the overflowings of the mind ,take every creature in1 of every kind4 --,pope4 #d4 ,thick and more thick the black blockade extends1 ,a hundred head of ,aristotle's friends4 --,id41 ,dunciad4 ,,xiii4 ,they form many adjectives in y1 which are not common in prose2 as1 ,the dimply flood1--dusky veil1--a gleamy ray1--heapy harvests1--moony shield1--paly circlet1--sheety lake1--stilly lake1--spiry temples1--steely casque1--steepy hill1--towery height1--vasty deep1--writhy snake4 ,,xiv4 ,they employ adjectives of an abbreviated form3 as1 dread1 for dreadful2 drear1 for dreary2 ebon1 for ebony2 hoar1 for hoary2 lone1 for lonely2 scant1 for scanty2 slope1 for sloping3 submiss1 for submissive2 vermil1 for vermilion2 yon1 for yonder4 ,,xv4 ,they employ several adjectives that are not used in prose1 or are used but seldom2 as1 azure1 blithe1 boon1 dank1 darkling1 darksome1 doughty1 dun1 fell1 rife1 rapt1 rueful1 sear1 sylvan1 twain1 wan4 ,,xvi4 ,they employ the personal ,,pronouns1 and introduce their nouns afterwards2 as1 #a4 ,it curl'd not ,tweed alone1 that breeze4 --,sir ,w4 ,scott4 #b4 ,what may it be1 the heavy sound ,that moans old ,branksome's turrets round8 --,idem1 ,lay1 p4 #ba4 #c4 ,is it the lightning's quivering glance1 ,that on the thicket streams2 ,or do they flash on spear and lance1 ,the sun's retiring beams --,idem1 ,l4 of ,l41 vi1 #ae4 ,,xvii4 ,they use the forms of the second person singular oftener than do others2 as1 #a4 ,yet ,i had rather1 if ,i were to chuse1 ,thy service in some graver subject use1 ,such as may make thee search thy coffers round1 ,before thou clothe my fancy in fit sound4 --,milton's ,works1 p4 #acc4 #b4 ,but thou1 of temples old1 or altars new1 ,standest alone--with nothing like to thee4 --,byron1 ,pilg41 iv1 #aed4 #c4 ,thou seest not all2 but piecemeal thou must break1 ,to separate contemplation1 the great whole4 --,id41 ib41 iv1 #aeg4 #d4 ,thou rightly deemst1 fair youth1 began the bard2 ,the form then sawst was ,virtue ever fair4 --,pollok1 ,c4 of ,t41 p4 #af4 ,,xviii4 ,they sometimes omit relatives that are nominatives2 7see ,obs4 #bb1 at p4 #eee27 as1 ,for is there aught in sleep can charm the wise8 --,thomson4 ,,xix4 ,they omit the antecedent1 or introduce it after the relative2 as1 #a4 ,who never fasts1 no banquet e'er enjoys1 ,who never toils or watches1 never sleeps4 --,armstrong4 #b4 ,who dares think one thing and an other tell1 ,my soul detests him as the gates of hell4 --,pope's ,homer4 ,,xx4 ,they remove relatives1 or other connectives1 into the body of their clauses2 as1 #a4 ,parts the fine locks1 her graceful head that deck4 --,darwin4 #b4 ,not half so dreadful rises to the sight ,orion's dog1 the year when autumn weighs4 --,pope1 ,iliad1 ,b4 xxii1 l4 #cg4 ,,xxi4 ,they make intransitive ,,verbs transitive1 changing their class2 as1 #a4 ----,a while he stands1 ,gazing the inverted landscape1 half afraid ,to meditate the blue profound below4 --,thomson4 #b4 ,still in harmonious intercourse1 they liv'd ,the rural day1 and talk'd the flowing heart4 --,idem4 #c4 ----,i saw and heard1 for we sometimes ,who dwell this wild1 constrain'd by want1 come forth4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,r41 ,b4 i1 l4 #ccj4 ,,xxii4 ,they make transitive verbs intransitive1 giving them no regimen2 as1 #a4 ,the soldiers should have toss'd me on their pikes1 ,before ,i would have granted to that act4 --,shakspeare4 #b4 ,this minstrel-god1 well-pleased1 amid the quire ,stood proud to hymn1 and tune his youthful lyre4 --,pope4 ,,xxiii4 ,they give to the imperative mood the first and the third person2 as1 #a4 ,turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight4 --,thomson4 #b4 ,be man's peculiar work his sole delight4 --,beattie4 #c4 ,and what is reason8 ,be she thus defin'd3 ,reason is upright stature in the soul4 --,young4 ,,xxiv4 ,they employ can1 could1 and would1 as principal verbs transitive2 as1 #a4 ,what for ourselves we can1 is always ours4 --,anon4 #b4 ,who does the best his circumstance allows1 ,does well1 acts nobly2 angels could no more4 --,young4 #c4 ,what would this man8 ,now upward will he soar1 ,and1 little less than angel1 would be more4 --,pope4 ,,xxv4 ,they place the infinitive before the word on which it depends2 as1 #a4 ,when first thy sire to send on earth ,virtue1 his darling child1 design'd --,gray4 #b4 ,as oft as ,i1 to kiss the flood1 decline2 ,so oft his lips ascend1 to close with mine4 --,sandys4 #c4 ,besides1 ,minerva1 to secure her care1 ,diffus'd around a veil of thicken'd air4 --,pope4 ,,xxvi4 ,they place the auxiliary verb after its principal1 by hyperbaton2 as1 #a4 ,no longer heed the sunbeam bright ,that plays on ,carron's breast he can --,langhorne4 #b4 ,follow ,i must1 ,i cannot go before4 --,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #adg4 #c4 ,the man who suffers1 loudly may complain2 ,and rage he may1 but he shall rage in vain4 --,pope4 ,,xxvii4 ,before verbs1 they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prefixes3 as1 bide1 or abide2 dim1 or bedim2 gird1 or begird2 lure1 or allure2 move1 or emove2 reave1 or bereave2 vails1 or avails2 vanish1 or evanish2 wail1 or bewail2 weep1 or beweep2 wilder1 or bewilder3-- #a4 ,all knees to thee shall bow1 of them that bide ,in heav'n1 or earth1 or under earth in hell4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iii1 l4 #cba4 #b4 ,of a horse1 ware the heels2 of a bull-dog1 the jaws2 ,of a bear1 the embrace2 of a lion1 the paws4 --,churchills ,cram41 p4 #bae4 ,,xxviii4 ,some few verbs they abbreviate3 as list1 for listen2 ope1 for open2 hark1 for hearken2 dark1 for darken2 threat1 for threaten2 sharp1 for sharpen4 ,,xxix4 ,they employ several verbs that are not used in prose1 or are used but rarely2 as1 appal1 astound1 brook1 cower1 doff1 ken1 wend1 ween1 trow4 ,,xxx4 ,they sometimes imitate a ,greek construction of the infinitive2 as1 #a4 ,who would not sing for ,lycidas8 he knew ,himself to sing1 and build the lofty rhyme4 --,milton4 #b4 ,for not1 to have been dipp'd in ,leth lake1 ,could save the son of ,thetis from to die4 --,spenser4 ,,xxxi4 ,they employ the ,,participles more frequently than prose writers1 and in a construction somewhat peculiar2 often intensive by accumulation3 as1 #a4 ,he came1 and1 standing in the midst1 explain'd ,the peace rejected1 but the truce obtain'd4 --,pope4 #b4 ,as a poor miserable captive thrall ,comes to the place where he before had sat ,among the prime in splendor1 now depos'd1 ,ejected1 emptied1 gaz'd1 unpitied1 shunn'd1 ,a spectacle of ruin or of scorn4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,r41 ,b4 i1 l4 #daa4 #c4 ,though from our birth the faculty divine ,is chain'd and tortured--cabin'd1 cribb'd1 confined4 --,byron1 ,pilg41 ,c4 iv1 ,st4 #abg4 ,,xxxii4 ,in turning participles to adjectives1 they sometimes ascribe actions1 or active properties1 to things to which they do not literally belong2 as1 ,the green leaf quivering in the gale1 ,the warbling hill1 the lowing vale4 --,,mallet3 ,union ,poems1 p4 #bf4 ,,xxxiii4 ,they employ several ,,adverbs that are not used in prose1 or are used but seldom2 as1 oft1 haply1 inly1 blithely1 cheerily1 deftly1 felly1 rifely1 starkly4 ,,xxxiv4 ,they give to adverbs a peculiar location in respect to other words2 as1 #a4 ,peeping from forth their alleys green4 --,collins4 #b4 ,erect the standard there of ancient ,night --,milton4 #c4 ,the silence often of pure innocence ,persuades1 when speaking fails4 --,shakspeare4 #d4 ,where ,universal ,love not smiles around4 --,thomson4 #e4 ,robs me of that which not enriches him4 --,shakspeare4 ,,xxxv4 ,they sometimes omit the introductory adverb there3 as1 ,was nought around but images of rest4 --,thomson4 ,,xxxvi4 ,they briefly compare actions by a kind of compound adverbs1 ending in like2 as1 ,who bid the stork1 ,columbus-like1 explore ,heavens not his own1 and worlds unknown before8 --,pope4 ,,xxxvii4 ,they employ the ,,conjunctions1 or--or1 and nor--nor1 as correspondents2 as1 #a4 ,or by the lazy ,scheldt or wandering ,po4 --,goldsmith4 #b4 ,wealth heap'd on wealth1 nor truth1 nor safety buys4 --,johnson4 #c4 ,who by repentance is not satisfied1 ,is nor of heaven1 nor earth2 for these are pleas'd4 --,shakspeare4 #d4 ,toss it1 or to the fowls1 or to the flames4 --,young1 ,n4 ,t41 p4 #aeg4 #e4 ,nor shall the pow'rs of hell1 nor wastes of time1 ,or vanquish1 or destroy4 --,gibbon's ,elegy on ,davies4 ,,xxxviii4 ,they oftener place ,,prepositions and their adjuncts1 before the words on which they depend1 than do prose writers2 as1 ,against your fame with fondness hate combines2 ,the rival batters1 and the lover mines4 --,dr4 ,johnson4 ,,xxxix4 ,they sometimes place a long or dissyllabic preposition after its object2 as1 #a4 ,when beauty1 ,eden's bowers within1 ,first stretched the arm to deeds of sin1 ,when passion burn'd and prudence slept1 ,the pitying angels bent and wept4 --,james ,hogg4 #b4 ,the ,muses fair1 these peaceful shades among1 ,with skillful fingers sweep the trembling strings4 --,lloyd4 #c4 ,where ,echo walks steep hills among1 ,list'ning to the shepherd's song4 --,j4 ,warton1 ,u4 ,poems1 p4 #cc4 ,,xl4 ,they have occasionally employed certain prepositions for which1 perhaps1 it would not be easy to cite prosaic authority2 as1 adown1 aloft1 aloof1 anear1 aneath1 askant1 aslant1 aslope1 atween1 atwixt1 besouth1 traverse1 thorough1 sans4 7,see ,obs4 #ajth1 and others1 at p4 #dda47 ,,xli4 ,they oftener employ ,,interjections than do prose writers2 as1 ,o let me gaze6--,of gazing there's no end4 ,o let me think6--,thought too is wilder'd here4 --,young4 ,,xlii4 ,they oftener employ ,,antiquated ,,words and modes of expression2 as1 #a4 ,withouten that1 would come an heavier bale4 --,thomson4 #b4 ,he was1 to weet1 a little roguish page1 ,save sleep and play1 who minded nought at all4 --,id4 #c4 ,not one eftsoons in view was to be found4 --,id4 #d4 ,to number up the thousands dwelling here1 ,an useless were1 and eke an endless task4 --,id4 #e4 ,of clerks good plenty here you mote espy4 --,id4 #f4 ,but these ,i passen by with nameless numbers moe4 --,id4 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,appendix ,,fourth ,,index ,,to ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,english ,,grammars4 ,asterism ,in the following ,index1 the page of the ,grammar is directly referred to3 ,obs4 or ,n4 before a numeral1 stands for ,observation or ,observations1 or for ,note or ,notes of the text3 ,r4 after a reference1 stands for ,,rule4 ,the small letter n41 with an asterisk or other mark affixed to it1 relates to a footnote with such mark in the ,grammar4 ,occasionally1 t41 m41 or b41 or u41 or l41 accompanies a reference1 to indicate the top1 middle1 or bottom1 or the upper or the lower half1 of the page referred to4 ,few abbreviations are employed beyond those of the ordinary grammatical terms4 ,the ,index is not intended to supersede the use of the ,table of ,contents1 which stands after the ,preface4 ,it is occupied wholly with the matter of the ,grammar proper2 hence there are in it no references to the ,introduction ,historical and ,critical1 which precedes the didactic portion of the work4 ,in the ,table before-mentioned must be sought the general division of ,english grammar1 and matters pertaining to praxis1 to examination1 and to the writing of exercises4 ,a4 ,a1 lett41 names itself --its plur4 --sounds properly its own --numb4 of sounds pertaining to1 orthopists differ concerning --diphthongs beginning with1 --triphth4 do4 --its true sound to be carefully preserved at end of words1 ,a1 as prep1 or prefix --before part1 in ing4 ,a and an1 in ,gr4 derivatives4 ,a or an1 art41 see ,an1 ,a ,abbreviations1 frequent in writt4 lang4 --rule of punct4 for4 ,c1 ,m1 ,d1 c41 as numerals1 see ,letters4 ,needless abbreviations1 to be avoided ,able1 ible1 class of adjectives in1 numerous in ,eng42 difficulty with resp4 to the prop4 form and signif4 of2 to what able most properly belongs --application of able to nouns1 its propriety doubtf4 --,able or ible1 prop4 application of1 how far determined from ,lat4 etymol4 --,able and ible1 words of the same meaning in1 how formed from different roots1 ,about1 with infin41 as substitute for ,lat4 fut4 part1 in rus --,about1 with of preced41 7,,of ,,about one hundred feet7 --,about1 derivat4 of1 from ,sax4 ,abrupt transitions in the ,bible ,absolute1 when1 and in what case1 a noun or a pron4 is put --,absol41 case1 defect of the common rule for --in how many ways the nom4 case is put --nom4 case put1 with part41 to what often equivalent2 what part4 frequently understood after nouns put --case1 its existence denied by what authors --words put1 punct4 of1 ,abstract numbers1 synt4 of the phraseology used in speaking of1 7,twice two ,,is four1 or ,twice two ,,are four7 ,absurd or incompatible expressions1 to be avoided ,absurdities of expression1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning ,acatalectic1 when a line is said to be ,accent and quantity1 critical observations on ,accent1 difficulty with respect to the import of the word --various definitions of1 cited --,accent1 confounded by some with emphasis --defined1 as commonly understood --chief or primary and secondary --,accent1 by what regulated --compared with emphasis --as affected by do4 --is distinct from quantity --as understood by ,,dr4 ,,joh4 --,,sherid4 teachings concerning2 mostly adopted by ,,murr4 --what lett4 of a word receives the mark of --stress on a monosyl4 more properly emphasis than --,accents1 more than one on a word --,,dr4 ,,adam',s view of ,accentuation1 modern1 of ,gr4 and ,lat4 words1 by what regulated2 ,,sanctius',s rule for1 new vers4 of ,according to1 as to1 resolved4 ,accordingly1 whether may be said for the questionable according ,accusative before infin41 in ,lat4 and ,gr41 of what reckoned the subject --whether the construc4 can in general be imitated in ,eng4 --who adopt the ,lat4 doctrine of --what our nearest approach to the ,lat4 construc4 of ,active1 in reference to verbs1 in what sense may be used ,active-transitive verb1 defined --,act4-trans4 verbs gov4 obj4 case --place of agent and object in respect to --,act4-trans4 verb1 or part41 has some noun or pron4 for its object --with two words in appos4 7,proclaim ,,thee ,,king17 --with do41 neither in appos4 nor connected by conjunc41 7,i paid ,,him the ,,money17 --with redund4 me1 thee1 you --should not be used without an object --should not assume a governm4 incompatible with its signif4 ,active-intransitive verb1 defined --,act4-intrans4 verb1 with prep4 and its object1 put in the pass4 form --in pass4 form with neut4 signif4 7,i ,,am ,,come17 --should not be used transitively ,addison1 undeservedly criticised by ,,blair1 for his frequent use of that1 as a relative ,addition1 enumeration1 of numbers1 by what number of the verb to be expressed ,address1 ordinary fashion of1 in ,eng41 the plur4 numb4 --has introduced the anomal4 compound yourself --,address1 direct1 nom4 absol4 by --terms of1 your ,majesty1 your ,highness1 c41 in what construc4 used --general usage of1 in ,fr42 in ,span41 ,portug41 or ,germ4 ,,adjectives1 ,etymol4 of --,classes of1 named and defined --,modifications of --,comparison of1 reg42 by adverbs2 irreg4 --,adjectives in able and ible1 7see ,able1 ,ible47 --,adjectives1 number of1 in ,eng4 --how have been otherwise called --how distinguished from nouns --other parts of speech may become --,,murr41 on nouns assuming the nature of --whether nouns plur4 can assume the character of --,adjectives that cannot be compared --that are compared by means of adverbs --7,see ,comparison1 ,comparative ,deg41 and ,superlative ,deg47 --,adjectives requiring the article the --denoting place or situation1 comparison of --become adverbs --use of1 for adv41 improper --with prep41 ellipt41 equivalent to adv4 --poet41 for nouns --do41 for adverbs --,adjectives1 ,synt4 of --do41 in what consists --to what relate --substituted ellipt4 for their abstr4 nouns --relate to nouns or pronouns understood --used with def4 art41 ellipt41 as nouns --two or more before a noun1 order of --two1 joined by hyphens --denoting unity or plurality1 how agree with their nouns --connected1 position of --differing in numb41 connected without repetition of noun 7,,one or more letters17 --much1 little1 c41 preceded by too1 how1 c41 taken substantively --,adjectives1 punct4 of --derivation of1 from nouns1 from adjectives1 c4 --poet4 peculiarities in respect to --,adjective1 taken abstractly with infin4 or part4 --following a finite verb1 without a noun --do4 an infin4 or a part4 --position of1 in ,eng4 --when may either precede or follow its noun --,whether adj4 or adv4 is required1 how determined --,adjective1 one superadded to an other1 without conjunc41 position of --when the figure of1 affects the sense1 what to be done --should not be represented by a pronoun --ellipsis of1 shown ,adjectives1 common1 probable numb4 of1 in ,eng4 --enumeration of1 according to their endings ,adjectives1 compound1 analogies of their formation1 traced --nouns derived from1 generally disapproved ,adjectives1 numeral1 kinds of1 named --,cardinal numb4 and its corresponding numeral1 what denote --,construction and figure of the numerals ,adjectives1 participial1 what words to be referred to the class of --cannot be construed to govern obj4 case ,adjectives1 pronominal1 list of --which1 sometimes used adverbially --which1 sometimes used partitively1 appar4 as nouns --without nouns expressed1 how parsed --distribution of1 by ,,church ,see ,other1 c4 ,adjectives1 proper1 peculiarities of1 considered --rule for initial capital in ,adjuncts of nominative in the agreement of a verb ,admitting1 allowing1 c41 appar4 independent1 to what may relate ,,adverbs1 ,etymol4 of --,adverb1 defined --,adverbs1 serve to abbreviate expression --other classes of words sometimes take the nature of --appar4 take the nat4 of other parts of speech --how distinguished from adjectives --,classes of1 named and defined --proper classification of1 by what indicated --of time1 place1 and manner1 with what connected2 of degree1 do4 --conjunctive 7see ,conjunctive ,adverb37 --,modifications of --number of1 in ,eng4 --,whether adverb or adjective required1 how determined --,adverbs1 ,synt4 of --in what do4 consists --to what relate --,adverb before a prep4 7,,considerably beyond17 --,adverbs1 whether sometimes qualify nouns --of participles which become nouns1 how managed --above1 then1 c41 as relating directly to a noun1 how parsed --,adverbs1 of degree1 to what adjectives not applicable --direct use of1 for pronouns1 inelegant --position of --needless use of1 for adjectives --hither1 c41 for here1 c41 with verb of motion --hence1 c41 with from prefixed --when1 c41 not to follow is in a definition 7,concord is ,,when1 c417 --ever and never1 to be carefully distinguished --in ly1 when preferable to other forms --,adverb1 appar4 made object of a prep4 7,at ,,once17 --emphatic1 with verb of self-motion suppressed 7,i'll ,,hence17 --,adverb ,,how1 misuse of 7,he said ,,how1 c417 --,,no1 not to be used in reference to a verb or a part4 --,adverbial form or character1 words of1 how parsed --,adverbs1 punct4 of --,adverb1 ellips4 of1 shown --,adverbs1 derivation of1 --many common ,eng41 of ,anglo-,sax4 origin --poet4 peculiarities in the use of --peculiar use of those of two syllables in ly1 by ,,milt4 and his contemporaries --,adverbial phrase1 a needless and improper designation in analysis ,affectation of fine writing1 ,,prec4 against ,ago and since1 difference between ,,agreement1 of words1 defined --with what synonymous --,agreement1 how many of the parts of speech in ,eng41 incapable of2 none necessary between words unrelated --as differing from relation --of words in the same construc41 not easy to determine --rules of1 as applied to articles1 impertinent --,agreements1 syntactical1 in ,eng41 specified --,agreement1 general principles of --figurative1 of pronouns with antecedents ,ah1 sometimes departs from usage ,alexandrine verse1 description of ,alias1 for the equivocal or1 use of1 in judicial proceedings ,all1 when may be reckoned a noun ,allegory1 defined --,allegory includes most parables of ,script41 and some fables ,alphabet1 ,eng41 names and plur4 numb4 of the letters --,hebrew1 names and characters of1 given1 --,greek1 do4 --,latin1 names of the letters of1 scarcely known even to the learned2 account of its letters --,a perfect alphabet in ,eng41 what it would effect --,letters of the alphabet1 when and how used in the sciences ,alphabetic writing1 its advantage over the syllabic ,ambiguous1 construc41 with respect to the class of a word --do41 with resp4 to the case of a word --expressions1 ,,prec4 against ,amen1 use and import of ,among and amongst1 amid and amidst1 different in sense and construc4 from between and betwixt --incompatible with the distributive one an other --derivation of1 from ,sax4 ,amphibrach1 defined ,amphimac1 amphimacer1 or ,cretic1 defined4 ,an1 conjunc41 obsolete for if 7,nay1 ,,an thou 'lt mouthe1 c41 ,,shak417 --derivation of1 from ,sax4 ,an1 a1 art41 one and the same --preferable form before a particular sound --,a or an before genus --how commonly limits the sense --belongs to sing4 numb4 only --with adjective of numb4 --its effect upon proper and common nouns --is without agreem4 --,whether an is from a or a from an --,an1 a1 origin of --of proportion --with numerals --by what definitives superseded --implies unity2 sometimes precedes collective noun conveying the idea of plurality --present usage of1 how differs from that of ancient writers --use of1 before humble1 and its compounds and derivatives --erroneous use of1 as relating to a plural --not to be used for the1 to denote emphat4 a whole kind ,analysis1 to analyze a sentence1 what --,analysis of sentences shown in five different methods2 which method ,,brown calls the best and most thorough --,analysis1 notices of the different methods of --importance of1 in teaching grammar2 the truest method of1 parsing ,anapest1 defined ,anapestic verse1 treated --what syll4 of1 has stress2 first foot of1 how may be varied --what variation of1 produces composite verse --whether a surplus syll4 in1 may compensate for a deficient one --what number of syllables in the longest measure of --,anapestic verse shown in its four measures --,anapestic1 measures1 why few --poetry1 pieces in general short --7instance of a long piece1 ,l4 ,,hunt',s ,feast of the ,poets17 ,and1 discriminated from or --when preferable to with1 or1 or nor --whether emphatic of word or phrase following it 7,part pays1 ,,and justly2 c41 ,,pope17 --derivation of1 from ,sax4 ,anglo-,saxon dialect1 and accessions thereto1 as forming the modern ,eng4 lang4 ,an other1 see ,other ,antecedent1 proper sense of the term --sometimes placed after its pronoun --sometimes doubly restricted --of pron41 applied figuratively --sing41 with the adj4 many1 and a plur4 pron4 --suppressed --,antecedents of different persons1 numbers1 and genders1 disjunctively connected1 how represented --joint1 agreem4 of pron4 in ellipt4 construct4 of ,antibacchy1 or hypobacchy1 defined ,antiquated words and modes of expression1 more frequent in poetry than in prose ,antithesis1 defined ,aorist1 or indefinite1 may be applied to imperf4 tense pot4 and subjunc4 ,aphresis1 defined ,apocope1 defined ,apophasis1 or paralipsis1 explained ,apostrophe1 mark1 what denotes2 for what sometimes used --at what period introduced into the poss4 case ,apostrophe1 figure1 defined ,apposition1 ,synt4 --agreement between words in --,apposition1 what1 and from whom received this name --different from same cases put after verbs and participles not trans42 false teachings of ,,murr4 et al4 hereon --the rule for1 to which apposed term applied2 whether words in1 should be parsed separately --common rule and definition of1 wherein faulty --which word of1 the explanatory term2 when explan4 word placed first --in what case of1 either word may be taken as the explan4 term1 --why two possessive words cannot be in --two or more nouns in1 where sign of possession put --whether compat4 with1 to supply relative and verb between the apposed words --,apposition1 appar41 of noun without poss4 sign1 with pron4 possess4 7,,your success as an ,,instructer17 --noun or pron4 emphat4 repeated 7,cisterns1 broken ,,cisterns1 c417 --appar41 of a noun to a sentence --of words differing in numb4 7,go ,,ye every ,,man17 --of proper nouns with appellatives 7,the river ,,thames17 --act4 verb followed by two words in --whether requires any other agreem4 than that of cases --words in1 punct4 of --of a common with a prop4 name1 use of capital lett4 ,archaism1 what ,aristotle1 division of the ,greek letters --what neoterics wiser than2 how considers the compounding or non-compounding of terms ,arithmetical numbers1 relation of the terms in ,,arrangement of words1 term defined --,arrang4 of words1 of what importance in synt42 whether it affects the method of parsing words ,,articles1 ,etymol4 of --,article1 defined --,article1 common noun without2 ,eng4 nouns without1 taken indefinitely partitive --words of mere being1 used without --,articles1 how often inserted --needless1 to be omitted --,classes of1 named and defined --,modificat4 7an short1 to a1 the only17 --,articles1 the frequent use of2 freq4 misapplication of --to be distinguished from adjectives1 and from each other --appar4 used for adverbs --,article1 ,eng41 its demonstrative character --do41 compared with the ,gr4 def4 art42 no rule for agreement of1 appropriate in ,eng4 --use of1 before names of rivers --,articles1 ,synt4 of --to what ,,relate --,article1 with the poss4 and its governing noun1 only one1 used --one noun admits of one1 only2 before an adj41 relates to a noun understood --why not repeated1 as in ,fr41 before every noun of a series2 why the omission of1 cannot constitute a proper ellips4 --position of1 with respect to its noun2 ditto1 with respect to an adj4 and noun --relative position of1 and adj41 not a matter of indifference --excluded by certain pronom4 adjectives2 what ones precede it2 its position in respect to an adj4 of quality1 limited by too1 so1 as1 or how --position of1 when an adj4 is preceded by another adv4 than too1 so1 as1 or how --do41 when an adj4 follows its noun --whether the insertion or the omission of1 can greatly affect the import of a sentence --,article1 repetition of1 with nouns connected --do4 with adjectives connected1 and1 oppos4 --added to each of two or more nouns sing41 or a plural put 7,,the nominative and ,,the objective ,,case1 or ,,the nominative and objective ,,cases17 --use of1 in special correspondence of phrases --do41 in correspondence peculiar --do41 in a series of terms --erroneous use of1 before the species1 for ,,the2 do41 when the species is said to be of the genus 7,a ,,jay is a sort of ,a ,,bird17 --not used before names of the virtues1 vices1 c41 before limited terms1 and before nouns of definite signif4 --do4 before titles or names mentioned merely as such --do4 before a part4 not taken as a noun --insertion or omission of1 with respect to a comparison or an alternation made with two nouns --required in the construc4 which converts a part4 into a verbal noun --,articles1 what the false synt4 of1 includes --,ellips4 of article1 shown --,articles1 derivation of --frequently omitted by the poets ,see also ,definite ,article1 and ,an1 ,a ,articulate or elementary sound1 nature of ,articulation1 as defined by ,,comst42 do4 by ,,bolles --,articulation1 how differs from pronunciation --the principles of1 what they constitute --a good one1 what1 in the view of ,,comst42 do41 in what consists1 according to ,,sherid42 do4 importance of2 do41 how delivers words ,as1 as subject or object of a verb1 its ,,class --with a clause or sentence as anteced41 do4 ,as1 as relative1 ,,webst4 absurd explanation of2 ,,chand4 do42 ,,bull4 denial --to what construc4 limited --peculiarities with respect to position --declined --derivation of1 from ,teuton41 ,,dr4 ,,joh4 --,as follow1 as follows1 c41 construction of2 ,,murr41 himself perplexed by ,,tooke and ,,campb41 delivers dubious instructions concerning --,opinion of ,,nix4 and ,,cromb4 concerning4 ,as1 as a conjunc41 uniting words in appos4 --between adj4 or part4 and its noun 7,actions ,,as such7 --with ellips4 of latter term of comparison 7,for such ,,as ,,he7 --,as and than1 character and import of --words connected by1 generally put in the same case --,as --as2 as --so2 so 7preceded by a negative17 --as2 so --as 7with an infin4 following27 correspondents ,asking and exclaiming1 simple and appropriate names for the marks of1 desirable ,aspirates1 see ,semivowels ,asterisk1 use of4 ,asterism1 do4 ,ate1 particular words ending in1 peculiarities of ,auxiliary1 defined --,auxiliary1 form of a verb1 when preferable to the simp4 --verbs1 are mostly defective --do41 are needful in the conjug4 of ,english verbs --do41 inflection of1 shown --,auxiliaries used as expletives --,auxiliary1 poet4 placed after verb ,averse1 aversion1 whether to be construed with from or to ,avoiding1 verbs of1 with part4 in stead of infin4 ,awkwardness1 literary1 ,crit4 ,n4 censuring ,ay1 ,i1 assentive adv4 --,ay1 sometimes improp4 written for ah ,b4 ,b1 its name and plur4 number --its sound --in what situations silent ,bacchy1 described ,,be1 how varied --,,conjugated1 affirmat4 --,use of the form be for the pres4 indic4 --,be1 ellips4 of the infin4 often needlessly supposed by ,,allen et al4 --whether it should be inserted after the verb make --,is1 contracted1 giving its nom4 the same form as that of the poss4 case 7,a ,,wit',s a feather1 c41 ,,pope7 ,become1 c41 whether they demand the auxiliary am or have ,besides1 prep41 in what cases proper to be used after else or other1 in lieu of than ,between1 cannot refer to more than two things --,between or betwixt1 how differs in use from among or amongst --,between1 betwixt1 derivation of1 from ,sax4 ,bible1 the ,holy1 application of the name --what is shown by ,italics in the text of --quotations in1 how indicated --abrupt transitions in --its general accuracy of lang4 --in the lang4 of1 ye and you1 in what constructions not found ,bid1 as commanding1 or as promising1 its construction with the infin4 ,blair1 ,dr41 unjustly censures ,addison's frequent use of that1 as a relative ,blank verse1 as distinguished from rhyme ,blunders1 as readily copied1 as originated1 by makers of school-books --literary1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning ,bombast1 as opposed to purity1 ,,prec4 against ,books1 mentioned by name1 rule for capitals ,both1 as conjunc41 corresponding to and --as adj4 --derivation of1 acc4 to ,,dr4 ,,murr4 ,brace1 its purpose ,breve1 or stenotone1 for what used ,brevity of expression1 sought in the ordinary business of life ,brokenness1 or hitching1 as a fault of style1 ,,prec4 censuring ,but1 save1 as well as1 construc4 of two nouns connected by --,but1 how has acquired the signif4 of only --in ambiguous construc4 7,there cannot be ,,but one1 c41 ,,kames7 --as used for that1 contrary to its import --derivation of1 from ,sax4 --,but and save1 whether they ever govern the obj4 case as prepositions --,cannot but1 construc4 and signif4 of --,not but1 to what equivalent1 and the class of but ,c4 ,c1 name and plur4 numb4 of --sounds of --where silent --with cedilla placed under 77 --written for a number --,ch1 sounds of --,arch1 sound of1 before a vowel1 and before a conson4 --,ck1 final1 for double c ,cadence1 explained --faulty1 precept against1 by ,,ripp4 --,,murr4 direction concerning ,cadmus1 carried the ,phoenician alphabet into ,greece ,csura1 signif4 and application of --,csural or divisional pause2 demi-csuras1 or minor rests2 7see ,pauses7 ,can1 verb1 varied --derivation and signif4 of --,can not and cannot1 with what distinction used --,cannot1 with a verb of avoiding1 or with ,,but --,can1 could1 would1 as principal verbs1 by poet4 use ,capital letters1 capitals1 for what used2 how marked for the printer1 in manuscript --what things are exhibited wholly in1 --,rules for the use of1 --use of1 in comp4 prop1 names1 --needless1 --lavish use of1 its effect1 --discrepancies with respect to1 abound in books4 ,cardinal numeral1 distinguished from its corresponding ordinal1 --should follow the ordinal1 in a specification of a part of a series1 7,the first ,,two174 ,caret1 in what used1 and for what purpose4 ,cases1 in grammar1 what1 --named and defined1 --nom4 and obj41 alike in form1 how distinguished1 --on what founded1 and to what parts of speech belong4 --7,see ,nominative ,case1 c47 --,cases1 whether infinitives1 participles1 c41 can take the nature of1 --what is the proper number of1 to be assigned to ,eng4 nouns1 --what authorities for the true doctrine of three1 --discordant doctrine of sundry grammarians concerning the numb1 of1 --,,webst4 and ,,murr4 opposite instructions concerning do4 --,cases1 whether personal pronouns have two1 only1 --rules for the construc4 of1 --whether a noun may be in two1 at once1 --whether ,eng4 verbs govern two1 --whether in ,eng41 as in ,lat41 when a verb governs two1 the pass4 retains the latter case4 --,cases1 same1 7see ,same ,cases47 --,cases1 what kinds of words take different1 after them4 --,case of noun or pron4 after part4 governed by prep41 whether undetermined2 err4 of ,,sanb4 and ,,bull4 hereon expos42 ,,gree4 false teaching1 do41 --doubtful1 after participles1 in what kind of examples found2 canon concerning do4 ,case1 technical term with printers1 7,letters of the lower case47 ,catachresis1 how commonly explained1 and what sort of fig4 ,catalectic1 when a measure is said to be4 ,cedilla1 from whom borrowed1 and how applied4 ,change1 of numb4 in the second pers41 ineleg41 --of the connective of two nominatives appar4 requiring a plur4 verb1 canon concerning4 --,changing the scene1 or deserting the principal subj41 in a sent41 ,,prec4 against4 ,chaucer's imperfect measures1 ,,dryden',s remarks on4 ,cherokee alphabet1 some account of4 ,cherubim and seraphim1 ,heb4 plurals1 sometimes mistaken for singulars4 ,chief terms1 or principal parts1 of a verb1 necessary to be first ascertained4 --,chief words may be distinguished by capitals4 ,circumflex1 inflection1 7see ,inflection17 --mark1 use of4 ,classes under the parts of speech1 what meant by4 ,classification of words1 explanations to assist beginners in making1 --,,dr4 ,,wilson',s observations on4 ,clause1 see ,member4 ,climax1 defined4 ,cognomination1 relation of the article1 in instances of1 7,alexander the ,great74 ,collective noun1 defined4 --,collective nouns1 forms of1 sing4 and plur42 how understood1 --gend4 of1 how determined1 --by what relative represented4 --,collec4 noun1 represented by plur4 pron41 --in what two ways may be taken1 and with what accord of pron42 the plur4 construc4 of1 under what fig4 of synt4 ranked by the old grammarians1 --whether with a sing4 definitive1 admits a plur4 verb or pronoun4 --,collec4 nouns generally admit of plur4 form4 --,collect4 noun1 represented by sing4 pron4 neut41 --uniformity of numb4 to be preserved in words constructed with1 --agreem4 of verb with1 --how determined whether it conveys the idea of plurality or not1 --strictures on the rules of ,,adam1 ,,lowth1 et4 al41 concerning1 --,,nix4 notion of the construc4 of verb and4 --,coll4 nouns1 partitive of plur41 construc4 of1 --as expressing collections of persons1 or coll4 of things1 which most often taken plurally1 --when not plur4 in form1 whether it admits of plur4 adj4 before it4 ,colon1 from what takes its name1 --for what used1 --in what year adopted in ,england1 --its utility maintained against some objectors1 --,rules for the use of1 --used by some between numb4 of chap4 and that of verse1 in quotations from the ,bible4 ,comma1 from what takes its name1 --what denotes1 --less common in ,germ4 than in ,eng41 --its ancient form1 --,rules for the use of1 --use of1 in a series of words4 ,commanding1 desiring1 expecting1 c41 verbs of1 to what actions or events1 refer4 ,commandments1 the ten1 how expressed as to forms of verb1 --by what points divided in books1 --example of1 versified in iamb4 hexameter1 by ,,dr4 ,,watts4 ,common gender1 unnecessary and improper term in ,eng4 gram4 ,common noun1 defined1 --when admits of no art41 --with def4 art4 sometimes becomes proper1 --by personif4 often do4 --,common nouns include the classes1 collective1 abstract1 and verbal4 --,common nouns1 their nature and numerical distribution1 as distinguished from proper4 ,comparative degree1 defined4 --,compar4 degree1 why ,,brown presents a new definit4 of1 in place of his former one1 --true nature of --whether always required in a comparison of two objects --with what construc4 proper in exclusive comparisons1 canon of ,,brown --,comparatives1 certain1 not construed with the conjunc4 than --double1 how to be considered and treated --,comparative terminations1 to what adjectives not to be applied --,compar4 degree in ,gr4 and in ,lat41 construc4 of --poet4 connected to the positive ,comparison1 defined --,comparison1 degrees of1 named and defined --what adjectives admit not of --,,church4 on the different1 7and ,,brown on ,,church47 --character of ,,brown',s definitions of2 do4 of those of ,,murr4 et al41 exhibited --,,murr4 definitions of1 criticised --relative nature of --,comparison1 regular --to what adjectives applicable --when preferable to the comparison by adverbs --,comparison1 ,,harr4 on the degrees of2 the positive a degree --7in oppos4 to ,,harr4 et al47 --,comparison of equality1 what2 sometimes involves solec41 7,nothing ,,so uncertain ,,as17 --,comparison of equality and of ineq41 canon on --,comparison1 adaptation of the terms of1 to the deg4 to be expressed --belongs chiefly to comm4 adjectives --,comparis41 irregular --,comparis41 whether to be mentioned in parsing adverbs --inclusive1 and exclusive --,comparisons1 extra1 their impropriety --,crit4 ,n4 on1 ,see also ,comparative ,degree1 and ,superlative ,degree4 ,comparison or contrast of things1 the resemblance or opposition how rendered more striking ,complex prepositions1 how may be formed ,composite orders of verse1 what uniformity of construc4 they require --,composite verse --description of2 why requires rhythm --kinds of1 unlimited2 which preferable --liable to doubtful scansion ,composition1 the frequent practice of1 necessary1 in order to acquire a good style1 ,composition of language1 two kinds of ,compound or progressive form of verb1 how made --exemplified in the verb ,,read1 conjugated1 what verbs do not admit of2 what it implies --verbs of1 having a pass4 signif4 ,compound word1 defined1 ,compounds1 permanent1 consolidated2 temporary1 formed by hyphen --,comp4 words1 not to be needlessly broken --two or more1 not to be split --when to be written with hyphen2 when without it --,compounding of words1 unsettled usage respecting2 manner of1 in ,lat4 and ,gr42 arbitrary practice of1 in ,eng41 its effect --does not necessarily preclude their separate use --propriety of1 sometimes difficult to decide --,compounds1 orthog4 of --,compounding the words of a reg4 phrase1 its impropriety --,compound adjectives1 see ,adjectives1 ,compound4 ,concord1 7see ,agreement47 --,concords and governments1 examples of false ones from the grammarians --in ,lat41 diversely enumerated by the ,lat4 grammarians ,concrete terms for abstract qualities1 poet4 use of ,confusion of senses1 in use of pron41 to be avoided ,conjugation of a verb1 defined --what some teachers choose to understand by --,conjugating a verb1 four ways of1 named --,conjugation of an ,eng4 verb1 what the simplest form of --,conjug4 of verbs1 shown in five ,examples --7,see also ,compound or ,progressive1 c47 --,conjugat4 negative1 how made1 interrogative1 do4 --interrog4 and negative1 do4 ,,conjunctions1 ,etymol4 of --,conjunction1 defined --,conjunctions1 how differ from other connectives --nature and office of2 ,r4 ,f4 ,,mott quot4 --nature of the connexions made by --how many in common use --how parsed --as connecting the same moods1 c41 strictures on the doctrine of ,,murr4 et al41 concerning --,conjunctions1 classes of1 named and defined --7,see ,copulative ,conjunction1 ,disjunc4 ,conj41 and ,corresp4 ,conjunc47 --,conjunctions1 ,list of --appar4 used as adverbs --peculiar phrases having the force of --importance of1 as copulative or as disjunctive1 to be carefully observed --,conjunctions1 ,synt4 of --do41 in what consists1 7,,murr4 et al4 teaching erron47 --what connect --declinable words connected by1 why in the same case --power and position of those that connect sentences or clauses --absurd and contradictory notions concerning the office of1 by ,,lenn41 ,,bull41 et al4 --two or three coming together1 how parsed --,conjunction1 followed by a phrase1 and not a whole member --connecting two terms to one --do4 two terms the same in kind or quality --,conjunctions1 to be used with due regard to import and idiom --punct4 of --ellips4 of1 shown --derivation of --are mostly of ,anglo-,sax4 origin --,h4 ,,tooke',s derivations of1 given --poet4 usage of or --or1 and nor --nor ,conjunctive adverbs1 what office perform2 what classes of words embrace --often relate equally to two verbs in different clauses --list of --whence1 whither1 c41 sometimes partake of the nature of pronouns ,connected terms1 two1 limited by a third1 what both must be --should be the same in kind or quality4 ,connected adjectives1 how should be placed4 ,connective words1 or connectives1 kinds of1 named --do41 how may be distinguished ,consonants1 divisions and subdivisions of --properties of1 as sharp1 flat1 labial1 c4 ,construing1 whether differs from parsing ,continuance of action1 see ,compound or ,progressive ,contractions1 in the orthog4 and the pronunciation of words --ocular1 in printing poetry1 not important ,correlatives1 combinations of1 7,father's son17 how to be regarded ,corresponding1 or corresponsive conjunctions1 in what manner used --named and exemplified in their several pairs --nature of the terms standing in the relat4 of --the former of two1 how parsed --,,church4 canon on the use of --,or --or1 and nor --nor1 by poet4 usage ,crotchets1 or brackets1 how used --confused and inaccurate teaching of ,,webst4 et al41 concerning ,cum with an ablative1 ,lat41 7,dux ,,cum aliquibus1 c417 the construc4 imitated in ,eng4 --canon on do4 ,curves1 or marks of parenthesis --have been in use for centuries --the use of1 not to be discarded --confused teaching of ,,webst4 et al41 respecting do4 --what used to distinguish --clause enclosed by1 how to be uttered2 pause of do4 --,rules for the application of ,customary actions require to be expressed by indic4 pres4 ,d4 ,d1 name and plur4 numb4 --sounds of --written for a number ,dactyl1 defined ,dactylic verse --stress1 on what syll4 laid2 what rhyme it generally forms --is not very common2 seldom pure and regular --shown in its eight measures --has been but little noticed by prosodists and grammarians --misconceived and misrepresented ,rev4 ,d4 ,,blair ,dare1 construc4 with infin4 foll4 --,use of the form ,,dare for the third pers4 sing4 ,dash1 the mark1 explanation of --,,lowth et al4 make no mention of --,rules for the application of --,dash1 needless1 how to be treated --between quotation and name of the author --applied to side-title --used to signify omission ,dates1 ordinarily abbreviated2 how best written --objectives in1 without their prepositions ,dative case1 faulty relic1 in ,eng41 of old ,sax41 7,it ascends ,,me into1 c41 ,,shak47 ,days of the week1 names of1 to be reckoned prop4 names1 and written with capital ,deaf and dumb --,the deaf and dumb1 to whom the letters represent no sounds1 learn to read and write2 what inferred herefrom ,defective verb1 what verb so called --which tenses of1 wanting --,defective verbs1 whether they should be reckoned a distinct class --may1 can1 must1 and shall1 not to be referred to the class of --will1 beware1 c41 construc4 and import of explained --,defec4 verbs1 ,list of ,definite article1 defined --,definite art41 its demonstrative character --used before names of rivers --do4 by way of eminence --no rule of agreem4 for1 in ,eng4 --prefixed as an adv41 to comparatives and superlatives --repeated before every term in a series of adjectives used ellipt4 as nouns --used for a poss4 pron41 7,full in ,,the face7 --position with respect to its noun --required before antecedent to a restricted relative4 ,see also ,the ,definition1 defined --,a perfect definition1 what --,definitions1 needful qualities of certain1 in gram4 --bad1 peculiar vice of --,crit4 ,n4 on ,definitives1 what1 in ,eng41 and how to be classed --example to show what is meant by --,definitive word required before antecedent to restricted relative ,degrees of comparison1 see ,comparison ,deity1 names of1 use of capitals in --in all languages1 masc42 direct names of1 do44 ,the sing4 numb1 universally employed in reference to the ,supreme ,being ,demonstratives1 from the class1 pronominal adjectives ,derivation1 as a topic of gram41 what explains --importance of --a knowledge of what languages will throw light on the subject of ,eng4 ,desiring1 verbs of2 see ,commanding ,desisting1 verbs of2 with part41 in stead of infin4 ,despauter1 7,despauterius ,joannes17 grammarian1 when died --his ,lat4 ,gram4 --his remark on the origin of using plur4 pron4 of second pers4 for sing4 --gives the rule that the verb governs the nominative before it ,diresis1 or dialysis1 mark1 place and use of --explained ,diesis1 or double dagger1 for what purpose used4 ,dimeter1 line1 iambic1 examples of --trochaic1 do4 --anapstic1 do4 --dactylic1 do4 ,diphthong1 defined --,diphthongs1 distinction of --enumeration and specification of the ,eng4 ,discourse1 or narration1 its nature and requirements ,disjunctive conjunction1 defined --,disjunctives1 ,list of --,disjunctive ,,or1 see ,or ,distance1 see ,time1 c4 ,distribution1 of words into classes1 a matter of some difficulty2 explanations concerning1 for learners --of verbs in ,lat41 grammarians have disputed respecting ,distributives1 of the class pronominal adjectives --,distributive term sing4 in apposit4 with a plur4 ,division1 literary1 see ,literary ,division ,do1 verb1 how varied3 --particular uses of --in what manner may be substituted for an other term ,double comparatives and double superlatives1 how may be regarded2 canon2 7,,lath4 and ,,child7 ,double negatives1 see ,negation1 and ,negatives ,doubling of the final consonant before additional syll42 not doubling1 before do4 --,double letter retained --,doubling1 certain letters incline to2 others1 do not ,doubtful case after a part41 in what kind of examples found2 the construc4 to be avoided ,drink1 verb1 grammarians greatly at variance respecting the pret4 and the perf4 part4 of ,dual number1 found in ,gr4 and in ,arab41 what denotes ,duplication1 see ,doubling ,du ,vivier1 ,g41 his ,grammaire des ,grammaires1 and his ,trait des ,participes1 a copious treatment of the ,fr4 participle ,e4 ,e1 7as ,a1 ,o1 ,i1 and ,u17 self-naming3 --how spoken and written --its plur4 --sounds properly its own --final1 mute1 and to what belongs2 exceptions --effect on preced4 vowel1 of e mute after a sing4 conson41 or after st1 or th --diphthongs beginning with --triphthongs do4 ,each1 pronom4 adj41 always of the third pers4 sing42 its agreements4 ,each other1 see ,other ,ecphoneme1 or note of exclamation --occasional introduction into the classics --diversely called by ,,murr4 et al4 --for what used1 and of what a sign --,rules for the application of ,ecphonesis1 defined ,either and neither1 pronom4 adjectives1 relate to two only --,m4 ,,harr4 on the illegit4 use of --their numb4 and pers42 what agreements they require1 when they are the leading words in their clauses --derivation of1 from the ,sax4 ,either --or1 neither --nor1 corresponsives3 --transposed1 with repeated disjunction or negat4 ,elegiac stanza1 description of ,elementary sound1 or elements of speech1 defined4 ,see ,sounds ,ellipsis1 figure defined --either not defined by grammarians in general1 or absurdly defined --frequent in comp4 sentences --to be supplied in parsing --supposed1 may change the construc4 without affecting the sense --the principle of1 as explaining several questionable but customary expressions1 7,fair and softly ,,goes far7 --,,murr4 on ,,the ellipsis --,ellipsis supplied1 ,,examples of --,needless ellipses1 the supposition of1 to be avoided --,ellipses1 faulty1 as opposed to perspicuity1 ,,prec4 against4 ,ellipsis1 or suppression1 mark of1 how figured1 and what used to denote ,elliptical construction of nouns1 7,a horse1 a horse1 c41 ,,shak47 ,elocution1 defined ,else1 other1 c41 with than1 in exclusive comparisons --,else or other1 sometimes construed with besides --,else1 derivation of ,emphasis1 defined3 --comparative view of accent and --as connected with quantity1 ,,murr4 --as affecting accent --what the guide to a right4 --,emphatic words1 not to be multiplied ,enallage1 defined --signif4 of the ,gr4 word --special application of the term --with what other terms synonymous --the most common forms of1 in ,eng4 --examples of1 how differ from solecisms --too much latitude was given to the fig4 by ,despauter1 and by others ,enallixis1 see ,enallage ,ending of a sentence with an adv41 a prep41 or any inconsid4 word or phrase1 ,,prec4 concerning ,english ,grammar1 see ,grammar ,english language1 some account of its origin --its character --its simplicity and facility asserted by ,,lowth --its chief defect1 according to ,,dr4 ,,joh4 ,enumeration of numbers1 see ,addition ,epicene nouns1 see ,generic ,names ,epithets1 new compound1 poets frequently form ,equivalence1 the argument of1 has often led into errors ,equivocal1 or ambiguous construc4 of cases1 to be avoided --of rel4 pron41 by misplacement --of prep4 with converted part41 how amended --of the word but1 7,there cannot be ,,but one1 c47 --of words1 leaving the classification doubtful1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning --,equiv41 or ambig4 expressions1 as opposed to propriety1 ,,prec4 against ,eroteme1 its form in ,greek --derivation2 fitness of the name --diversely called by ,,murr4 et al4 --its use --,rules for do4 --its value as a sign of pause --retained by a quoted question ,erotesis1 explained ,errors1 incorrigible1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning ,,etymology --,etymol41 of what treats --when and how should be taught --figures of1 term defined2 the principal do41 named and defined --,etymology and meaning of words1 ,,harris on the usefulness of disquisitions into ,ever1 contrac41 e'er2 so in comp4 rel4 pronouns --,ever a one1 contrac4 by the comm4 people into e'er a one --,ever and never1 opposite to each other in sense1 yet freq4 confounded and misapplied2 canon on the employment of --,ever so1 7prop41 everso17 signif4 of --,ever so wisely1 its propriety determined1 against the false phraseology never so wisely --,ever1 derivation of1 from ,sax4 ,example1 as used in teaching1 meaning of --,examples1 use of capitals in ,exception1 noun1 and except1 verb1 whether more properly followed by from or by to ,exclamation1 note of1 7see ,ecphoneme7 --,exclamation1 nom4 absolute by --the case of nouns used in ,exclusive and inclusive terms of a comparison ,exercise1 in grammar1 what ,expecting1 c41 verbs of1 see ,commanding ,extended compositions1 gradation of the parts in ,f4 ,f1 its name and plur4 numb4 --final in monosyllables1 to be doubled --formation of the plur4 of nouns in1 and in ff --its sound ,fable1 how may be defined --,what the term denotes in the ,scriptures ,fall short of1 make bold with1 c41 how the adjective in such phrases is to be explained in parsing ,false identification1 7under synt4 of ,,same ,,cases17 ,note exposing the error of ,falsities in sentences1 ,crit4 ,n4 directed against ,feel1 its construc4 with the infin4 ,few and many1 form and construc4 of4 ,fewer1 see ,little ,,figures1 treated --,figure1 in gram41 what --,figures1 distinctive names of some2 frequent occurrence of those of rhetoric --,figure of words1 signif4 of the term --,figure of words1 ,rules for --suggestions additional to do4 --unsettled and variable usage in that which relates to --,figure of orthog41 what2 what the principal figures of do4 --,figure of etymol41 what --,figures of etymol41 the principal1 named and defined --,figure of synt41 what --,figures of synt41 the principal1 named and defined --,figure of rhet41 what --,figures of rhet41 why certain are called tropes --on what mostly founded --the principal1 named and defined --affect the agreem4 of pronouns with their antecedents --,figures1 how many ,,brown deems it needful to define and illustrate --,figures1 definitions of sundry1 in the lang4 of authors1 corrected1 ,,key4 ,figures1 ,arabic1 in what cases pointed by some ,final f1 l1 or s1 in spelling2 other finals than1 in do4 --ck or c1 use of --ll1 to what confined --e of a primitive1 when omitted2 when retained --y of a prim4 word before a terminat41 how managed --ise or ize1 which termination to be taken --,finals1 what letters may assume the position of2 what may not1 and why ,finite verbs1 agreem4 of1 with subjects1 a principle of ,univ4 ,gram4 --,rules concerning --,fin4 verb understood1 punct4 of ,first words1 initial capital to --faulty practice of grammarians with respect to ,foot1 poetic1 see ,poetic ,feet ,foreign words or idioms1 unnecessary use of1 in opposition to purity ,for1 with all1 as equivalent to although --,for as much as1 c41 having the nature of conjunctions --,for that --,for1 with perf4 part41 7,,for lost7 --with ever --before ,,to and infin4 --as introducing its object before an infin44 ,for1 conj41 because1 from ,sax42 anc4 expressed for that ,forever1 or for ever1 its class ,former and latter1 nature and applic4 of ,forms of letters1 in type or character --,forms ,,of ,,verbs1 a knowledge of ,,the ,,true1 nothing more important in gram4 than ,forsooth1 signif4 and use of ,friends1 the ,society of2 their employment1 in familiar discourse1 of the sing4 pron4 of the second pers4 --generally neglect to compound their numeral names of the months and days --their misemployment of thee for thou --their manner of speaking1 different from the solemn style --examples of their manner of forming the verb with the pron4 thou2 their simplificat4 of the verb ,from1 derivation of1 from ,sax4 --,from forth1 from out1 construc4 of1 explained --,off from1 examp4 of the use of ,full1 in permanent compounds1 how written2 in temporary do41 do4 --compounds in1 7spoonful1 handful1 c417 how pluralized ,future1 contingency1 how best expressed ,future tense1 ,,first1 how formed1 and what expresses --,,second1 do41 do41 and how varied ,futurity1 often denoted by the infin41 7,the world ,,to ,,come7 ,g4 ,g1 its name and plur4 --its sounds --when silent --,gh1 sounds of1 and silence ,gardiner1 ,w41 his new analysis of the ,eng4 alphab41 noticed ,genders1 term defined --,genders1 the diff41 named and defined --on what founded1 and to what belong --,gender1 inconsistent views of1 as given by many of the grammarians2 ,,wells and ,,murr4 criticised --confounded with sex by some writers2 others otherwise confuse the matter --,common gender1 of the old grammarians1 the term objectionable with respect to ,eng4 --,gender1 how in many instances determined --figuratively ascribed1 how indicated --denoted by he and she prefixed to nouns --denied by ,,murr4 et al4 to pronouns of the first and second persons --of pron41 the preference of1 when joint antecedents are of different genders ,general truths and customary actions1 to be expressed by the indic4 pres4 ,generic names1 sense and construc4 of ,genitives1 double1 discovered by our grammarians1 the true explanation of all such ,gentile names1 nature and construc4 of ,german language1 form of its type --use of the comma less freq4 in1 than in ,eng4 ,gerund1 ,lat41 explanation of --what form of an ,eng4 participle corresponds to --,gerund in ,english1 how becomes a substantive1 according to ,,dr4 ,,adam et al41 ,gerundives1 what ,giving1 paying1 procuring1 c41 verbs of1 with ellips4 of to or for before the objective of the person ,,government1 of words1 defined --to what parts of speech has respect --the rules of1 whether to be applied to the governing or the governed words --do41 how many in the best ,lat4 grammars2 usual faults in the distribution of these --,governments in ,eng4 synt4 how many --false1 examples of1 cited from grammarians ,grecism1 literal1 in ,eng41 7,before ,abraham was1 ,i ,,am7 comp4 ,,grammar1 defined --,an ,english ,grammar1 what professes to be --,,english ,,grammar1 what in itself2 what knowledge implies --when worthy to be named a science --,grammar1 how to be taught1 and its principles how made known --the true principles of1 in whose possession --a rule of1 what --,grammar1 how divided2 its parts1 of what severally treat --what it requires --rightly learned1 what ability it confers --what many vain pretenders to1 have shown by their works --on questions of1 the practice of authors should have more weight than the dogmatism of grammarians4 ,grammars of different languages1 how far must needs differ2 strictures on those of ,,prof4 ,,bull41 ,a grammar designed for ,english1 the chief end of4 ,grammatical doctrine1 the truth of1 in what consists ,granting1 supposing1 c41 see ,admitting ,grave accent1 as opposed to acute --as preserving the vocality of e ,greek alphabet1 characters of1 shown and named ,guillemets1 or quotation points1 what words they distinguish --how applied to a quotation within a quotation --not used in our common ,bibles2 the defect in what measure relieved ,h4 ,h1 its name and plur4 numb4 --its sound --in what words silent --in what positions do4 --an used formerly before all words beginning with ,hand1 or index1 use of ,handwriting1 script letters in ,harmonical pauses1 see ,pauses ,have1 verb1 how varied --derivation of2 with perf4 part41 import of the tense --,had1 with better1 rather1 c41 before the infin4 ,he and she1 sometimes used as nouns --as prefixed to nouns to denote gend4 --whether to be connected by a hyphen to the nouns to which prefixed ,hear1 with objective1 and an infin4 without to --with infin4 alone1 perhaps ellipt1 7,i ,,have ,,heard ,,tell7 --,heard1 verb1 why irregular --its pronunc4 ,hebrew letters1 some account of2 names1 characters1 and significations of --whether they are1 or are not1 all consonants1 long a subject of dispute --,the ,hebrew names for the months1 were prop4 nouns --,hebrew1 what pointing adopted in ,hence1 thence1 whence1 with from prefixed4 ,i'll ,,hence1 see ,adverbs ,heptameter line1 iambic1 examples of --trochaic1 do --dactylic1 do4 ,here1 there1 where1 force of1 when compounded with prepositions --with verb of motion1 perh4 allowable for hither1 thither1 whither4 ,hereof1 thereof1 whereof1 placed after nouns1 what to be called4 ,herein1 therein1 c41 their class and nature ,heroic verse1 see ,pentameter ,heterogeneous terms1 in general1 two such not to be connected by a conjunc4 ,hexameter line1 iambic1 examples of --trochaic1 do --dactylic1 do4 ,hissing sounds1 concurrence of1 in forming the poss4 case1 how avoided ,hold1 noun1 after lay1 take1 c41 whether preferably construed with of1 on1 or upon ,hoping1 c41 verbs of1 see ,commanding ,how1 after nouns of manner1 its nature --not to be used before that1 or in stead of it --derivation of1 from ,anglo-,sax4 ,hyperbaton1 explained --its frequency in poetry2 how should be used --is diff4 from synchysis ,hyperbole1 defined --,hyperboles1 by what commonly expressed ,hypermeter1 meaning of1 in scansion ,hyphen1 its uses --present use in compound names --,rules for the insertion of1 in compounds --signif4 of the name --,hyphen1 abuse of --,,church1 on the use of1 in comp4 words --in the figure of an adj41 with a change of the synt4 and sense --necessary with a verbal noun and an adjunct --do4 with comp4 participles1 converted ,hypobacchy1 or antibacchy1 defined ,i4 ,i1 lett41 self-naming2 its plur4 --its usual sounds --diphthongs beginning with2 triphth4 do41 ,i1 pron4 with cap4 lett41 ,i1 as written for a number4 ,i1 adv41 see ,ay ,iambic verse1 treated --,iamb4 verse1 stress where laid in2 effect of a short syll4 added to a line of --shown in its eight measures --is seldom pure through a long succession of lines --some of its diversifications shown4 ,see also ,dimeter1 ,trimeter1 c4 ,iambus1 or iamb1 defined ,idea of unity1 and of plurality1 how formed ,identity of words1 the principle of1 considered --,identity1 proper1 ,,rule for1 7,same ,cases47 ,identification1 false1 ,n4 concerning ,idioms or peculiarities of expression1 when to be approved or valued ,if1 the ,biblical use of1 to express an emphat4 negation --its derivation from ,sax4 ,ignorance1 literary1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning ,imagery1 or ,vision1 explained ,imperative mood1 defined --,imperat4 mood1 why so called2 in what manner applied --its one tense1 and the import of do --its inflection shown in the verb ,,love1 conjugated --what nominatives only it takes --use of1 in the ,gr4 lang42 do41 in ,lat41 ,ital41 ,fr41 and ,span --may have all the persons and numbers --poet4 ,imperfect tense1 defined --,imperf4 tense1 the form1 how far applicable to the ,eng4 tense so called --in its simple form is the preterit --in the pot4 and subj4 moods1 an aorist --of the indic4 and the subj41 how distinguished --of the sub41 to express a mere supposition1 with indef4 time ,imperfect participle1 or first part41 defined --its form --,the first part41 has been variously called --why rightly termed imperfect participle --for what forms of the ,lat4 gram41 stands --is applicable to time pres41 past1 or fut42 is not always active1 even when derived from an act4 verb --may be turned to a multiplicity of uses --appar4 put absolute1 7,admitting1 --,allowing1 c47 --distinguished1 with respect to governm41 from a particip4 noun --as equivalent to infin4 mood2 heads of regular equivalence --how compares with the ,lat4 gerund --its nature and construc4 ,impersonal verbs1 so called1 their peculiarity of use --called monopersonal by some ,impropriety of language1 what embraces ,in and into1 difference between2 nature of the relation expressed by each2 derivation of1 from ,sax4 ,inclusive and exclusive terms of a comparison ,incorrigible errors1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning ,indefinite article1 see ,an1 ,a ,indefinite pronouns1 of the class pronom4 adjectives ,independent1 see ,absolute ,index1 or hand1 use of ,indicative mood1 defined --,indic4 mood1 why so called2 its nature and use --use of its pres4 tense --do4 of its form of the pluperf4 in lieu of the pot4 pluperf4 --wherein differs characteristically from the subj42 the two moods continually confounded by writers --,indic4 mood1 format1 and inflec4 of its tenses shown in the verb ,,love1 conjug4 --employed to express a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact ,inelegance of language1 see ,awkwardness4 ,infinitive mood1 defined --,infin4 mood1 so called in oppos4 to the other moods --usually distinguished by the prep4 to before it --its pres41 the ,,root1 or radical verb2 what time it expresses --archaic form in en --its two tenses shown in the verb ,,love1 conjug4 --,synt4 of --,infin4 mood1 by what governed2 7see ,to37 --true construc4 of1 explained by the #ahth ,rule of the ,synt4 --why simple of solution in ,eng42 whether ever governed by a prep1 in ,fr41 ,span41 or ,ital4 --whimsical account of1 given by ,,nix4 --how expressed in the ,anglo-,sax4 of the #aath century --why may not1 as some grammarians teach1 be considered a noun --,,dr4 ,,wils4 on the charac4 and import of --to what other terms may be connected --what in its nature1 and for what things chiefly may stand --taken abstractly1 as subject of finite verb --,loose infinitives1 improp4 in precise language --,infin4 mood1 position of --misplacement of1 to be avoided --distinction of voice in1 often disregarded1 7,you are to ,,blame27 hypercrit4 teachings of ,,sanb4 and ,,blair hereon --,infin41 after bid1 dare1 c41 without ,,to --whether used with ,,to after have1 help1 and find --,infin41 ,,by ,,what governed1 often imposs4 to say1 according to the instructions of ,,murr4 --,infinitives connected1 governed by one preposition --,infinitive1 ellipsis of1 after to1 whether to be approved --sometimes doubtful whether transitive or intransitive --in pause1 or in remote dependence1 punct4 of --poet4 placing of --,greek construc4 of1 in poetic use ,inflections1 defined --rising and falling1 explained2 do41 as applied to questions --notation of1 in writing and printing --the rising more numerous than the falling2 predominance of the rising in oral lang42 the falling1 for what used1 ,,comst4 --what kind of rules for1 have been given by writers --the rising and the falling1 to be used with prop4 discrimination2 what should determine the direction of --,inflection1 what constitutes the circumflex ,innovation extravagant1 into the system of synt4 or gram41 a particular instance of1 noticed ,inscriptions appear best in full capitals ,instead1 what reckoned1 and how best written ,intending1 c41 verbs of1 see ,commanding4 ,intensive nature of comparatives and superlatives1 ,a4 ,,murr4 ,interrogative pronouns1 defined --what they severally demand --their use and construc4 --in what differ from relatives --are always of the third pers4 --declined --their place in a sentence --their construc4 of cases1 to what similar ,interrogative sentences1 agreem4 of verbs in ,,interjections1 ,etymol4 of --,interjection1 defined --derivation and signif4 of the term2 ,,lowth',s error in describing the interjections --,interjections1 numb4 of1 in common use --,list of --,interjections1 the frequent use of1 an indication of thoughtlessness2 expressiveness of some interjections in earnest utterance1 c4 --should be discriminatively used --chief characteristics of2 referred to the class of adverbs by the ,gr4 grammarians --significant words uttered as1 7,out6 out67 --appar4 taken substantively --,synt4 of --absolute construc4 of --have no construc4 with cases1 as in ,lat4 and ,gr4 --appar41 sometimes connected to other words by a prep41 or by that --place of --punct4 of --ellips4 of1 shown --derivation of --frequency of1 in poet4 lang4 ,inversion of terms1 sometimes of advantage1 in respect to strength and vivacity of expression4 ,irony1 figure explained ,is being1 with a perf4 part41 or the subject of the ,,unco-,,passive form of verbs1 canvassed ,ise or ize1 which of these terminations to be taken in forming derivatives under ,deriv4 of ,verbs ,ish1 termination1 whether it may be accounted a degree of comparison ,it4 its chief use --declined --to what creatures may be applied --put for the distance1 7,how far do you call ,,it8 c41 ,,priestl417 --without definite reference to an anteced4 --as explet41 and referring to something expressed afterwards2 faulty omission of1 before verb1 in such construc4 --had formerly no variation of cases --its poss4 form ,,its1 for of it1 of recent origin1 and not found in the text of the common ,bible --wrongly excluded by some from the list of pers4 pronouns3 --its derivation from ,sax41 traced ,italic letters1 ,italics1 some account of --for what purpose used --how denoted in preparing manuscripts ,j4 ,j1 its name and plur4 numb4 --why never doubled --why never ends a word in ,eng4 --impropriety of dividing on the letter1 in syllabication --sounds of1 ,johnson1 ,dr4 ,s41 his authority in ,eng4 orthography ,joint nominatives1 agreem4 of verb with --whether words connected by with can be used as4 ,joint antecedents1 agreem4 of pron4 with --of different persons1 agreem4 of verb or pron4 with1 in ellipt4 construc4 ,jumbling together of the active voice and the passive1 the manner of some --,jumbling1 senseless1 ,crit4 ,n4 censuring ,k4 ,k1 its name and plur4 --in general1 not needed in words derived from the learned languages --its sounds --when silent --,two ,kays standing together ,kind1 sort1 with these or those improp4 preceding ,l4 ,l1 its name and plur4 numb4 --of the class liquids --final1 monosyllables ending in --final double1 to what words peculiar --its sound2 in what words silent --where doubled --written for a number ,labial letters1 how articulated ,language1 the primitive sense of the term1 what embraced2 signif4 of do41 as now used --in opposition to some grammarians1 ,,brown confines the term to speech and writing --loose explanations of the word by certain slack thinkers2 ,,webst4 notion of --,,sherid4 idea of2 ,,kirkh4 wild and contradictory teachings concerning --,language1 ,,propriety of1 in what consists2 ,,impropriety of1 what embraces --,,precision of1 in what consists2 ,precepts concerning its opposites --,language1 ,eng41 7see ,english ,language7 --,languages1 uniform ,,series ,,of ,,grammars for teaching the ,eng41 ,lat41 and ,gr41 that of ,,dr4 ,,bull41 noticed ,lay1 pay1 and say1 how written in the pret4 and the perf4 part4 ,leading principles in the construc4 of sentences1 in what embraced in the ,grammar ,least parts of language1 as written1 as spoken1 c41 what constituents so called ,legal phraseology1 in contrast with that of common life ,less1 improper use of1 for fewer1 7,no ,,less than three dictionaries1 ,,dr4 ,,webst47 ,lest1 use of1 for ,,that1 without due regard to its import1 7,i feared ,,lest1 c47 --derivation of1 from ,sax4 ,let1 verb1 its construc1 with an infin4 following ,,letters1 in the ,eng4 alphabet1 numb4 of1 and numb4 of sounds which they represent --a knowledge of1 in what consists --infinite variety in1 yet the letters always ,,the ,,same --different sorts of types1 or styles of1 used in ,eng4 --names of1 in ,eng42 do41 sing1 and plur4 --,classes of1 named and defined --powers of --the ,,just ,,powers of1 7see ,power7 --,forms of1 and their distinctions1 in the ,eng4 lang4 --different sorts of1 to be kept distinct --slanting strokes of the ,roman1 described --,italic1 chief use of --capital1 employment of --small1 do4 --,letters1 history of --the names of1 are words of a peculiar kind --the names and powers of1 not always identical --general neglect of learning to write the names of1 in ,eng4 --importance of learning to write do4 --erron4 teaching with respect to certain names of --,letters of the ,heb4 alphabet given1 with their names1 and the significations of do4 --of the ,gr4 alphabet1 with their names --of the ,lat4 alphab41 their names nearly lost --of do41 as now printed --,letters1 the twenty-six1 possible combinations and mutations of --of the alphab41 read by their names1 how taken --do41 written for numbers1 what their nature2 omission of period after such letters --,,day',s account of do4 --,letters1 the ,,sounds of1 treated --,letters1 the small1 period of their adoption --used for references --,letter1 definition of --,letter1 the sound of1 called its ,,power2 yet its power not necessarily identified with its sound --,a letter1 in what consists ,like1 near1 nigh1 appar41 prepositions2 why not placed by ,,brown with the prep4 ,lily1 ,w41 grammarian1 his arrangement of ,lat4 syntax ,lines1 poetic1 technical denominations of ,liquids1 what letters so called ,literary division of a work1 common order of1 downwards1 and throughout2 but all literary works not thus divided4 ,literary blunders1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning --awkwardness1 do4 --ignorance1 do4 --silliness1 do4 ,little1 lesser1 less1 different uses and import of --,little1 much1 c41 preceded by not1 too1 or other such adv41 how taken --,less1 improp4 used as an adj4 of number2 does not signify fewer2 not to be used in the sense of do4 --,less1 least1 adv41 to be parsed separately1 in the comparison of adjectives and adverbs ,,love1 verb active-trans41 ,,conjugated affirmatively --,,be ,,loved1 pass41 do4 --,,love1 conjug4 negatively --do41 interrogatively --do41 interrogatively and negatively ,low and provincial expressions1 use of1 as opp4 to purity1 ,,prec4 against ,ly1 most common terminal of ,eng4 adverbs2 added to nouns to form adjectives 7,i17 u2 #ajee1 b2 #ajec1 ,l3 --when adverbs ending in1 are preferable to those of other forms4 ,m4 ,m1 its name and plur4 numb41 --of the class liquids1 --its sounds1 --when silent1 --as written for a number4 ,macron1 or macrotone1 mark1 its use4 ,make1 verb1 whether to should be suppressed1 and be1 inserted1 after1 7,,make yourself ,,be heard1 ,,blair17 --its construc4 with infin4 following4 ,man and woman1 comp4 nouns in1 7man-servant1 woman-servant1 c417 how pluralized4 ,many a1 with noun sing4 represented by a plur4 pronoun4 ,marks1 or points1 used in literary composition1 the principal2 occasional4 ,see ,punctuation4 ,may1 verb1 how varied1 --derivation and uses of4 ,mean1 means1 use and construc4 of4 ,measure1 c41 see ,time4 ,measure1 poetical1 see ,verse4 ,melody or beauty of a sentence1 words necessary to1 rarely to be omitted4 ,member1 or clause1 defined4 --,memb4 and clause1 generally used as synonymous1 are discriminated by some1 --,clause and phrase1 confounded by some1 --,members1 simple1 of a sent41 punct4 of1 --complex1 do41 do41 --,members of a sentence1 arrangem4 of1 as affecting ,,strength4 ,metaphor1 defined1 --what commonly understood to be1 --agreem4 of pron4 with antecedent in cases of4 ,methinks1 explanation of2 the lexicographers on the word4 ,metonymy1 defined1 --,meton41 on what founded1 --agreem4 of pron4 with its antecedent1 in cases of4 ,metres1 more found in actual use1 than those acknowledged in the ordinary schemes of prosody4 ,metre1 see ,verse4 ,milton1 ,,murr4 proposed amendment of the unintelligible language of a certain passage of1 criticised1 --double solec4 in a pass1 of1 noticed1 --his poem1 ,l',allegro1 what its versificat42 what the management of the orders of its verse1 --do41 ,il ,penseroso1 what its extent and construction4 ,miss or ,misses1 ,mr4 or ,messrs41 what the proper applicat4 of1 when name and title are to be used together1 in a plur4 sense4 ,mistaken1 to be1 irregularity of the verb2 its import as applied to persons1 and as applied to things4 ,mimesis1 explained2 droll examples of4 ,minus1 plus1 versus1 vi1 ,lat41 use of1 in ,eng41 in partic4 constructions4 ,mixing of synt4 with etymol41 the manner of ,,ingers41 ,,kirkh41 et al41 censured4 ,mixture of the forms of style1 inelegance of4 ,modifications1 defined1 --sense of the term as employed by ,,brown4 ,moloss1 defined4 ,monometer1 scarcely constitutes a line1 yet is sometimes so placed4 --,monometer line1 iambic1 examples of1 --trochaic1 do41 --anapestic1 do41 --dactylic1 an examp4 of4 ,monopersonal verbs1 see ,impersonal ,verbs4 ,monotone1 what1 and how produced in elocution4 ,months and days1 names of1 appar4 proper names1 and require capitals1 --how best expressed in literary compositions4 ,moods of a verb1 term defined1 --the five1 named and defined1 --,mood1 or ,,mode1 the name4 ,see ,infinitive ,mood1 ,indic4 ,mood1 c4 ,more and most1 in ambiguous construction1 7,some people ,,more than them1 ,,murr417 --how parsed in comparisons of adjectives and adverbs4 ,moses1 in what characters1 is supposed to have written4 ,most1 for almost1 by vulgarism4 ,motion1 verbs of1 with hither1 c41 in stead of here4 ,much1 little1 all1 c41 as nouns1 --preceded by not1 too1 or other such adv41 --,this much1 in stead of thus much1 ,,dr4 ,,blair4 ,mulkey1 ,w41 strictures on his system of orthopy4 ,multiplication1 subject of the verb in1 see ,abstract ,numbers4 ,multiplicative numerals1 as running on in a series2 how written above decuple or tenfold4 ,multitude1 noun of1 see ,collective ,noun4 ,mute or silent1 epithet applied to what letters4 --,mutes1 what so reckoned2 of these1 which imperfect4 --,where a letter must be once mute4 ,my and mine1 thy and thine1 as duplicate forms of the poss4 case1 use of4 ,n4 ,n1 its name and plur4 numb41 --of the class liquids1 --its sounds1 --in what position silent4 ,name and title1 see ,proper ,names4 ,naming the letters of the alphab41 importance of4 ,narration1 see ,discourse4 ,nasals1 what consonants so called4 ,near and nigh1 see ,like4 ,need1 as an uninflected third pers4 sing4 of the verb1 --has perh4 become an auxiliary of the pot4 mood1 --to what tenses must be understood to belong1 if to be recognized as an auxil4 of the pot4 mood1 --that good writers sometimes inflect the verb1 and sometimes do not1 and that they sometimes use to after it1 and sometimes do not1 how may be accounted for --three authorized forms of expression1 with respect to the verb4 ,needs1 as an adv41 its composition ,needless1 mixing of characters in printing1 bad effect of --capitals2 effect of --articles1 to be omitted --ellipses1 the supposition of1 a common error among grammarians --use of participles for nouns1 or nouns for participles --words1 ineleg4 --possessive or art4 before a part41 how corrected --periods1 or other points1 after certain numeral expressions --abbreviations1 offend against taste --dashes inserted1 how to be treated ,negation1 expressed in the early ,eng4 by multiplied negatives2 such manner of expression now obsolete and improper --,effect on a negation1 of two negatives in the same clause ,negatives1 the comm4 rule of the grammars1 that two negatives1 in ,eng41 destroy each other1 or c41 whether a correct one ,neither1 see ,either ,neuter verb1 defined --,neuter verbs1 the active-trans4 verbs are so called in most grammars and dictionaries2 the absurdity of this --extent of this class of verbs2 their existence in any lang4 denied by some grammarians --,neut4 verb ,,be1 conjugated --,neuter verbs1 made from active-transitives1 7am come1 is gone1 c427 these called by some1 neuter passives --of passive form1 7am grown1 are flown1 c417 as errors of conjugat41 or of synt4 --do41 how may be distinguished from pass4 verbs --do41 ,,dr4 ,,priestl4 mistaken notions concerning their nature and propriety --,neut4 verbs1 and their participles1 take the same case after as before them --,neuter verb between two nominatives1 its agreem4 ,nevertheless1 its composition and class ,no or none1 pronom4 adj4 ,no1 as negative adj41 remarkable ambiguity in the use of1 noticed by ,,priestl41 7,no laws are better than the ,english27 how the ambiguity may be avoided --as a simple negation1 its construc4 --as an adv4 of deg41 relating only to comparatives1 7,,no more1 --,,no better7 --set before a noun1 is an adj41 corresponding to ,lat4 nullus --,in the phrases1 no longer1 no more1 no where1 ,,dr4 ,,joh4 appar4 suggests wrongly the class2 its true class according to its several relations --,no1 or an other independent negative1 repeated1 its effect --,no1 adv41 not to be used with reference to a verb or part4 --derivation of1 from ,anglo-,sax4 ,nominative case1 defined --,nom4 case1 how distinguished from the objective in nouns --as subj4 of a finite verb --different ways of using --,nominative and verb1 usual position of1 and when varied --,nom4 case and object41 at the same time1 noun placed in the relation of --,nom4 following a verb or part1 with what must accord in signif4 ,see also ,subject1 c4 ,nominative sentences1 examples of what ,,murr4 erron4 so terms2 the prop4 construc4 shown ,nor1 see ,or4 ,not1 its place in negative questions --how spoken in grave discourse1 and how ordinarily --vulg4 contractions of1 with certain verbs --used with other negatives --do4 with nor 7in stead of or7 following1 whether correctly1 or not --derivation of1 from ,anglo-,sax4 ,not but1 how resolved4 ,not only1 not merely1 to what are correspondents ,notwithstanding1 import and construc4 of2 misunderstood by ,,dr4 ,,webst4 --formation and signif4 of ,,nouns1 ,etymol4 of --,noun1 defined --,nouns1 ,classes of1 named and defined --,modifications of1 named --,persons of1 named and defined2 7see ,persons7 --,numbers of1 do42 7see ,plural ,number7 --,genders of1 do42 7see ,genders7 --,cases of1 do42 7see ,cases7 --,declension of --,nouns1 number of1 in ,eng4 --the sense of1 how made indefinitely partitive --examples of words commonly belonging to other classes1 used as --collective1 abstract1 and verbal or participial1 included among common nouns2 7see ,collective ,noun1 and ,particip4 ,noun7 --proper1 7see ,proper ,names7 --,nouns1 ,synt4 of --,noun1 why may not be put in the relation of two cases at once --taken figuratively sing4 for literally plur4 --required to be repeated1 or inserted1 in stead of a pronoun --ellips4 of1 shown --,nouns of time1 measure1 distance1 c41 7see ,time7 --,nouns1 derivation of1 from nouns1 adjectives1 verbs1 or participles --poet4 peculiarities of ,numbers1 the distinction of1 to what belongs1 and how applied4 7,see ,plural ,number47 ,numbers1 cardinal1 ordinal1 c41 7see ,cardinal ,numbers1 c47 --,numbers1 abstract1 expressions of multiplication in1 7,twice one ,,is two1 --,twice two ,,are four1 c417 seven different opinions of grammarians respecting1 examined by ,,brown2 who determines the prop4 forms of expression --,numbers1 expressed by letters1 how to be considered2 whether to be marked by the period --combined arithmetical1 one adjective relating to an other ,numerals1 numeral adjectives1 see ,adjectives1 ,numeral4 ,numerical figures used for references ,o4 ,o1 lett41 as ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 and ,u1 self-naming --its plural --formation of the plur4 of nouns in --sounds properly its own --where sounded as short u --do4 as obscure e --diphthongs beginning with --triphth4 do4 ,o1 interj41 with cap4 lett4 --what emotion indicates --differs from oh --as denoting earnestness1 before nouns or pronouns put absol4 by direct address2 is no positive index of the vocative --,o1 c41 ,,murr41 erron4 doctrine concerning1 to what teaching it has given rise --,o1 c41 with a case following1 ,lat4 construc4 of1 examined --,o1 not unfreq4 confounded with oh1 even by grammarians4 ,obelisk1 or dagger1 as mark of reference4 ,objective case1 defined --,obj4 case1 how distinguished from the nom4 in nouns --before the infin4 mood1 how taken in ,eng4 --as governed by active-trans4 verb or part4 --,active verbs govern the obj4 case1 ,,murr41 defect of this brief assertion2 its uselessness as a ,,rule for the syntax of verbs4 --,obj4 case1 of how many constructions susceptible --whether infinitives1 participles1 c41 can be in --two nouns in1 after a verb1 how parsed1 --,whether any verb in ,eng4 governs two objectives not coupled --,obj4 case as governed by passive verbs1 erron4 allowed by some --what verbs not to be employed without --,obj4 case as governed by prep4 --,prepositions gov4 the obj4 case1 why the brief assertion is exceptionable1 as the sole ,,rule1 in parsing prep4 ,obsolete or antiquated words1 use of1 as opposed to purity1 ,,prec4 against --,things obsolete in ,eng41 ,,dr4 ,,latham',s attempts to revive4 ,ocean1 figurative representation of1 as uttering his voice in tones of varied quantity4 ,octometer line1 may be reduced to tetrameter --iambic1 examples of --trochaic1 do --dactylic1 example of --,octometer1 trochaic1 rhyme and termination of2 its pauses1 and how may be divided2 the most common form of4 ,of and on or upon1 difference between4 ,old ,english1 characters of its alphabet1 shown --occasional use of do4 ,omissions of words that are needful to the sense1 ,crit4 ,n4 against4 ,omitting1 verbs of1 with part4 in stead of infin4 ,one1 employment of1 as a noun or as a substitute for a noun2 how classed by some grammarians --may be preceded by the articles1 or by adjectives --like ,fr4 on or l'on1 used indef4 for any person2 in this sense preferable to a pers4 pron4 applied indefinitely --,,church41 citation ridiculing the too frequent use of1 for pers4 pron4 --as pronom4 adj41 requires verb and pron4 in the third pers4 sing4 to agree with it4 ,one an other1 see ,other4 ,one1 or a unit1 whether it is a number4 ,only1 derivation of2 class and meaning of1 in its several different relations --strictures on the instructions of grammarians respecting the classification and placing of --ambiguous use of1 7as also of but17 --use of1 for but1 or except that1 not approved of by ,,brown --,not only1 not merely --but1 c41 correspondents4 ,onomatopoeia described and exemplified 7extr4 from ,,swift47 ,or1 as expressing an alternation of terms1 7,lat41 sive47 --in ,eng41 is frequently equivocal2 the ambiguity how avoided --,or1 perh4 contracted from other --,or and nor discriminated --,or1 nor1 grammarians dispute which of these words should be adopted after an other negative than neither or nor2 ,,murr41 following ,,priestl41 teaches that either word may be used with equal propriety2 ,,burn',s doctrine2 ,,brown1 after revising ,,church41 attempts to settle the question1 --,or ever1 7,,or ,,ever the earth was17 the term explained4 ,or or our1 terminat41 number of ,eng4 words in2 how many of these may be written with our2 ,,brown',s practice and views in respect to this matter4 ,oral spelling1 the advantage of1 to learners4 ,order of things or events1 the natural1 ,,prec4 directing the observance of1 in the use of lang4 ,orders of verse1 see ,verse4 ,ordinal numeral1 7see ,numerals47 --,ordinal adjectives may qualify card4 numbers2 cannot properly be qualified by do4 ,orthopy1 see ,pronunciation4 ,,orthography --,orthography1 of what treats --difficulties attending it in ,eng4 --,,dr4 ,,johnson',s improvements in --,,dr4 ,,webster',s do41 in a different direction --ignorance of1 with respect to any word used1 what betokens in the user 7,see also ,spelling47 ,orthography1 figures of1 ,,mimesis and ,,archaism --its substantive or pronominal character2 7with one47 how classed by some2 may be preceded by the articles --requires than before the latter term of an exclusive comparison2 yet sometimes perhaps better takes the prep4 besides4 ,each other one an other1 import and just application of1 --misapplication of1 frequent in books1 --,,dr4 ,,webst4 erron4 explanation of other1 as a correlative to each1 --,one and other1 frequently used as terms relative and partitive1 appar4 demanding a plur4 form1 --,an other1 in stead of another4 ,somehow or other1 somewhere or other1 how other is to be disposed of4 ,ought1 principal verb1 and not auxiliary1 as called by ,,murr4 et al41 --originally part of the verb to ,,owe2 now used as defec4 verb1 --its tense1 as limited by the infin4 which follows4 ,ourself1 anomalous form peculiar to the regal style1 --peculiar construc4 of4 ,own1 its origin and import2 its class and construc41 --strangely called a noun by ,,dr4 ,,joh4 ,p4 ,p1 its name and plur4 numb41 --its sound1 --when silent1 --,ph1 its sounds4 ,pairs1 words in1 punct4 of4 ,palatals1 what consonants so called4 ,parables1 in the ,scriptures1 see ,allegory4 ,paragoge1 explained4 ,paragraph mark1 for what used4 ,paralipsis1 or apophasis1 explained4 ,parallels1 as marks of reference4 ,parenthesis1 signif4 and twofold application of the term1 --,parenthesis1 marks of1 7see ,curves47 --,what clause to be inclosed within the curves as a ,,parenthesis1 and what should be its punct41 --,parentheses1 the introduction of1 as affecting unity4 ,parsing1 defined4 --,parsing1 its relation to grammar1 --what must be considered in1 --the distinction between etymological and syntactical1 to be maintained1 against ,,kirkh4 et al41 --character of the forms of etymological adopted by ,,brown1 --what implied in the right performance of1 --whether different from analysis1 --what to be supplied in4 --,parsing1 of a prep41 how performed1 --of a phrase1 implies its separation1 --the ,,rules ,,of ,,governm41 how to be applied in1 --of words1 is not varied by mere transposition4 --,parsing1 etymological and syntactical1 in what order to be taken1 --the ,,sense1 why necessary to be observed in2 what required of the pupil in syntactical1 --syntactical1 ,,example of4 --,parsing or ,,correcting1 which exercise perh4 the more useful4 ,participial adjectives1 see ,adjectives1 ,participial4 ,participial or verbal noun1 defined1 --how distinguished from the participle4 --,participial noun and participle1 the distinction between1 ill preserved by ,,murr4 and his amenders4 --,participial noun1 distinc4 of ,,voice in1 sometimes disregarded1 7,the day of my ,,burying17 --with ,,infin4 following1 strictures on ,,murr41 ,,lenn41 and ,,bull41 with respect to examples of4 ,,participles1 ,etymol4 of4 --,participle1 defined4 --,participles1 whether they ought to be called verbs1 --appropriate naming of the kinds of1 --often become adjectives1 --become adjectives by composition with something not belonging to the verb1 --number of1 simp4 and comp41 --imply time1 but do not divide it1 --retain the essential meaning of their verbs1 but differ from them in the formal1 --in ,eng41 from what derived1 --,h4 ,,tooke',s view of the time of2 with whom ,,brown differs4 --,participles1 ,classes of1 named and defined1 --7,see ,imperfect ,participle and ,perfect ,part47 --,participles1 grammarians differ in their opinion with respect to the time and voice of1 --how have been called and treated by some1 --explanation of the different1 --how distinguished from particip4 nouns1 --elegantly taken as plur4 nouns1 7,all his ,,redeemed17 --appar4 used for adverbs1 --some become prepositions4 --,participle and ,,adjuncts1 as forming one name1 and as such1 governing the poss41 whence the doctrine2 ,,priestl4 criticised2 ,,murr4 et al4 adopt ,,priestl4 doctrine1 which they badly sustain2 teachers of do4 disagree among themselves1 --governm4 of possessives by1 how ,,brown generally disposes of2 how determines with respect to such governm4 --,participles1 ,synt4 of1 --regular synt4 of1 twofold2 nature of the two constructions2 ,,other less regular constructions2 which two constructions of all1 are legitimate uses of the participle2 which constructions are of doubtf4 propriety4 --,participles1 to what ,,relate1 or in what state ,,governed4 --,participle1 as relating to a phrase or sentence1 --taken abstractly1 --irregularly used in ,eng4 as substitute for infin4 mood1 --in irreg4 and mixed construc4 --,participle1 transitive1 what case governs1 --nom4 absol4 with1 to what equivalent1 --each requires its appropriate ,,form1 --questionable uses of1 admitted by ,,murr4 et al42 why ,,brown is disposed to condemn these irregularities4 --,participle and particip4 noun1 distinction between1 with respect to governm4 --,participle in ing1 multiplied uses of1 lawful and forced1 illustrated1 --equivalence of do4 to infin4 mood1 instances of1 --every mixed construc4 of1 how regarded by ,,brown1 --the double nature of1 ,,cromb4 on2 his views1 how accord with those of ,,murr4 et al41 ,,hiley',s treatment of2 ,,brown',s strictures on do4 --,participles1 place of3 --active1 governm4 of4 --,participle1 trans41 converted to a noun3 --converted1 when the expression should be changed3 --followed by an adj41 its conversion into a noun appar4 improper3 --comp4 converted1 how managed3 --not to be used for infin41 or other more appropriate term3 --use of1 for a nominative after be1 is1 was1 c41 faulty3 --following a verb of preventing1 how to be managed4 --,participles1 converted1 disposal of their adverbs3 --must be construed with a regard to the leading word in sense3 --should have a clear reference to their subjects3 --needless use of1 for nouns1 to be avoided3 --punct4 of3 --derivation of3 --poet4 peculiarities in the use of4 ,parts of speech1 meaning of the term3 --,parts of speech1 named and defined3 --what explanations may aid learners to distinguish the different3 --why needful that learners be early taught to make for themselves the prop4 distribution of3 --,,wils4 on the distribution of3 --the preferable number with respect to2 the office of1 specifically stated4 --,the parts of speech1 passage exemplifying all4 --,examples of a partic4 part of speech accumulated in a sentence4 --,etymol4 and ,synt4 of the different parts of speech1 see ,article1 ,noun1 ,adjective1 c4 ,passions of the mind1 by what tones to be expressed4 ,passive verb1 defined4 --,pass4 verbs contrasted with active-trans1 verbs1 in respect to the object or the agent of the action2 their compos1 and construc43 --their ,,form in ,eng4 --,pass4 verb ,,be ,,loved1 conjug4 affirmatively4 --,pass4 verbs1 how distinguished from neuters of the same form3 --having active forms nearly equivalent to them1 7is rejoiced1 rejoices2 am resolved1 know1 c4173 --erroneously allowed by some to govern the obj4 case in ,eng42 ,,cromb4 in this category1 cited1 canon1 pseudo-canons4 --,pass4 verb1 what should always take for its subj4 or nom43 --takes the same case after as before it1 when both words refer to the same thing3 --between two nominatives1 with which should be made to agree1 7,words ,,are wind174 ,see ,unco-,passive1 c4 ,passive form of an active-intrans4 verb followed by a prep4 and its objective1 7,he ,,was ,,laughed ,,at174 ,passive sense of the act4 form of the verb1 7,the books continue ,,selling174 ,past for future1 see ,prophecy4 ,pauses1 term defined4 --,pauses1 kinds of1 named and explained3 --the distinctive1 duration of3 --after what manner should be formed3 --forced1 unintentional1 their effect3 --emphatic or rhetorical1 applicat4 and office of3 --harmonic1 kinds of2 these1 essential to verse4 --,pauses1 abrupt1 punct43 --emphatic1 do4 ,pedantic and sense-dimming style of charlatans c41 as offending against purity4 ,pentameter line1 iambic1 examples of3 --is the regular ,eng4 ,,heroic2 its quality and adaptation3 --embraces the elegiac stanza3 --trochaic1 example of1 said by ,,murr4 et al4 to be very uncommon2 was unknown to ,,dr4 ,,joh4 and other old prosodists3 --the two examples of4 in sundry grammars1 whence came2 a couplet of these scanned absurdly by ,,hil42 ,,hart mistakes the metre of do43 --dactylic1 example of1 7,salutation to ,america174 ,perfect1 adj41 whether admits of comparison2 why its comparis4 by adverbs not wholly inadmissible4 ,perfect definition1 what4 ,perfect participle1 or second part41 defined3 --its form3 --how has been variously called3 --its character and name as distinguished from the imperf4 part3 --why sometimes called the passive part42 why this name liable to objection3 --how may be distinguished from the preterit of the same form3 --should not be made to govern an objective term4 7,the characters ,,made ,,use ,,of1 ,,murr4173 --not to be used for the pret41 nor confounded with the pres43 --what care necessary in the employment of2 when to be distinguished from the preterits of their verbs4 ,perfect tense1 defined4 --,perf4 tense of indic41 as referring to time relatively fut4 ,period1 or full stop1 its pause4 --,period1 or circuit1 nature of4 --,period1 probably the oldest of the points2 how first used3 --how used in ,hebrew3 --what used to mark3 --,rules for the use of3 --not required when short sentences are rehearsed as examples3 --whether to be applied to letters written for numbers3 --with other points set after it3 --whether proper after ,arabic figures used as ordinals4 --,period of abbreviation1 whether always supersedes other points4 ,permanent propositions1 to be expressed in the pres4 tense4 ,permitting1 c41 verbs of1 see ,commanding4 ,personal pronoun1 defined4 --,personal pronouns1 simple1 numb1 and specificat4 of3 --declension of3 --often used in a reciprocal sense1 7,wash ,,you1 c4174 --7,see also ,it47 --,personal pronouns1 compound1 numb4 and specificat4 of4 #bih3 --explanat4 and declension of3 --,,church4 account of3 --of the first and second persons1 placed before nouns to distinguish their persons4 ,personification1 defined1 --,,murr4 definition of1 blamed1 --what constitutes the purest kind of1 --change of the gend4 of inanimate objects by1 --whether it always changes the gender of anteced4 term1 --agreem4 of pronouns with their antecedents in cases of1 --,rule for capitals in do41 --comp41 --,personifications1 ,,church1 on the determination of gender in1 --,personified objects1 names of1 put in the second pers41 and why1 --how pronouns agree with1 ,persons1 term defined1 --,persons1 named and defined1 --the distinction of1 on what founded1 --,persons1 numbers1 c41 character of ,,brown',s definitions of1 --,persons1 in gram41 nature of2 absurd teachings of some grammar-makers concerning1 --distinctions of1 in written lang41 --,person and number of a verb1 what1 --,persons1 second and third1 of a verb1 distinctive formations of1 --do41 in ,lat41 shown1 --,person1 nouns of the second1 in ,eng41 in how many ways can be employed1 --the third1 put with the pron4 ,i1 by vulgarism1 7,,thinks ,i to myself17 --the first1 place of1 --,persons1 whether the imperat4 mood may have three1 --connected antecedents of different1 agreem4 of pron4 with1 --connected nominatives of different1 agreem4 of verb with1 ,perspicuity1 as a quality of style1 in what consists1 --is essential in composition2 ,,blair quoted1 --the excellence of1 --,precepts aiming at offences against1 ,perversions of ,eng4 grammar1 the design1 in part1 of ,,brown',s code of synt1 is to make intelligent judges of1 --,perversions1 literary1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning1 ,phonetics1 phonography1 phonotopy1 ,,brown',s estimate of2 ,,dr4 ,,joh4 cited1 --account of1 --,,trench',s views of1 --,phonographic system of stenography1 its practical value2 phonotopy1 to what may be advantageously applied1 ,phrase1 defined1 --,phrase made the subject of a verb1 how to be taken1 --,phrases1 distinct1 conjunctively connected1 agreem4 of verb with1 --distinct1 disjunctively connected1 do41 --unconnected1 do41 --,,bad phrases1 examples of1 from authors1 --do41 corrected1 --,phrases or clauses1 ellips4 of1 shown1 --,adverbial phrase1 7so termed by some17 see ,adverb4 ,place or position of the different parts of speech1 see ,article1 ,noun1 ,adjective1 c4 ,pleonasm1 defined1 --,pleonasm1 when allowable with respect to a pron41 --in what instances impressive and elegant2 when1 the vice of ill writing1 --occurs sundry times in the ,bible1 ,pluperfect tense1 defined1 --,pluperf4 tense1 what implies when used conditionally2 what1 in the negative form of supposition1 --how formed in the indic4 mood2 do4 in the potential1 --indic4 form of1 put by enall4 for pluperf4 of the pot41 --,,pluperfect1 signif4 of the term2 several innovators 7as ,,bull41 ,,butl41 et al47 have been fain to discard it1 ,plural number1 of nouns1 how formed1 --of most nouns in ,eng41 is simple and regular1 --of nouns ending in a vowel preceded by a vowel1 --of do4 in y preceded by a consonant1 --of do4 in o preceded by a consonant1 --construc4 of1 when several persons of the same name are spoken of 7,the ,stuarts17 --of prop4 names1 its formation1 --of nouns in i1 o1 u1 or y1 preceded by a consonant1 --when name and title are to be used together1 7,the ,miss ,bells17 --of nouns in f1 --of nouns not formed in s or es1 --of compounds1 --of certain compound terms1 7,ave-,maries1 c417 --wanting to some nouns1 --of nouns of multitude1 --,plural1 nouns made so by nature or art1 --of foreign nouns1 #bec1 --improperly formed by adding apostrophic s1 --of mere characters1 how denoted1 ,plurality1 the idea of2 see ,unity1 c4 ,poetic feet1 treated1 --7,see ,iambus1 ,trochee1 c47 --,poetic foot1 of what consists1 --,poet4 feet1 number to be recognized in ,eng41 --principal ,eng41 named and defined1 --kinds of1 which form ,,orders ,,of ,,verse1 --what combinations of1 severally form dimeter1 trimeter1 c41 --7,see ,dimeter1 ,trimeter1 c47 --,poetic collocation of words1 in prose1 as offending against perspicuity1 ,,prec4 respecting1 --,poetic diction1 treated1 --in what abounds1 --,poetical ,peculiarities1 ,poetry1 as defined by ,,blair1 --character of its style1 --aim and end of1 --exterior distinction of1 --why difficult1 by a definition1 to be distinguished from prose1 --inept directions of some grammatists respecting the parsing of1 --,poetry1 every line in1 should begin with a capital1 ,points1 or stops1 the principal1 named1 and their forms shown1 --the purpose of1 --length of pauses denoted by1 --often variously used in different editions of the same work1 --origin of1 ,see ,punctuation4 ,points of the compass1 adjectives for2 modes of varying them1 ,possession1 relation of1 see ,property4 ,possessive case1 defined1 --,poss4 case1 how formed --disputes of the earlier grammarians respecting1 --,,card4 et al4 attempt to revive exploded error concerning1 --form of1 --origin of1 in ,eng41 --odd notions of some grammarians concerning the regular formation of --exceptions or irregularities in the formation of --,poss4 case1 ,,pei4 on1 criticised --,,ash and ,,priestl4 on the plur4 --use of the two forms of1 in pers4 pronouns --of the simp4 pers4 pronouns1 grammarians differ with respect to2 should not be considered mere adjectives --are pronom4 adjectives1 according to ,,dr4 ,,lowth and his followers1 --whose doctrine ,,brown canvasses1 also1 ,,webster',s1 ,,wilson',s1 ,,murray',s --,poss4 case1 its equivalence to of and the objective1 not a sameness of case1 7in oppos4 to ,nix47 --of pronouns1 not to be written with apostrophe --of nouns in appos41 application of the possessive sign to --by what governed --whether the rule for1 has true exceptions --appos4 of one with an other1 7,for ,,david my ,,servant',s sake17 the construc4 examined --appar4 in abstract construc41 7,all ,,mine are ,,thine17 --as governed by a part1 the construc4 examined2 ,,corol4 --why the governm4 of1 should be limited to nouns only --whether before a real part41 denotes the possession of something --,possessive sign1 omission o,l not a true ellips4 --always implies a governing word1 --how taken by compounds --liable to be added to adjunct of the former noun --whether it can be rightly added to separate adjectives1 7,the ,,guilty',s prayer17 --which noun of connected possessives takes --,poss4 case1 place and order of --generally equivalent to prep4 of and the objective1 --governed by something not expressed1 7,st4 ,paul's17 --,possessives1 connected1 how to be taken1 --,poss4 singular1 with s omitted1 7,for ,,conscience' sake7 --,poss4 case of nouns sing1 in ss1 false teaching of ,,kirkh4 et al41 respecting the formation of --,,murr4 rule for the construc4 of1 why objectionable1 --compounds embracing1 lack uniformity in writing1 --peculiarity of1 with respect to correlatives1 7,father's son17 --,possessive relation between a portion of time and its correlative action1 7,,three ,,years' hard work or1 ,three years ,,of ,,hard ,,work17 --,poss4 case1 appropriate form of1 to be observed1 --plural1 with a noun in forced agreem41 7,for ,,our ,,parts17 ib41 ,n4 iv3 --needless use of1 before a participle1 7,in ,,their pronouncing the ,greek17 --,possessive pronouns1 my1 thy1 his1 c41 how often should be inserted1 or repeated ,potential mood1 defined --,potential mood1 why so called2 by what signs distinguished1 --may1 like the indic41 be used in asking questions2 why by some included in the subj4 --in what tenses used2 nature of the imperf4 tense --formation and inflection of its tenses1 shown in the verb ,,love1 conjugated1 ,power of a letter1 the powers of the letters1 what meant by1 when spoken of1 --,the power of a letter is not its sound1 as ,,murr4 et al incorrectly teach --,the simple powers of the letters1 many irreconcileable doctrines have been advanced thereon2 ,,gardiner',s notions concerning1 stated in brief1 --,,rush',s explanations of1 his pretentious scheme of the alphab4 how estimated by ,,brown --,the just powers of the letters1 what1 and how are to be learned1 --,powers of the letters1 variable2 how become so2 ,,walk1 cited ,praxis1 defined2 lit4 signif4 of the word1 as from the ,gr4 ,precision1 as a quality of style1 in what consists1 --,precepts aiming at offences against --conciseness1 or brevity1 as opposed to ,prefixes1 their management in syllabication1 ,r43 --,explanation of --import and character of the particles used as1 in ,eng42 the roots to which prefixed1 not always proper ,eng4 words --,prefixes1 ,,eng4 or ,,anglo-,,sax41 --,prefixes1 poet1 usage with respect to1 ,preperfect participle1 defined --,preperf4 part41 its form --its nature and name1 ,,prepositions1 ,etymol4 of --,preposition defined --importance of a right use1 and a right explan4 of --,,harr4 explanation of1 as cited by ,,lowth1 stricture on ,,harr4 --its simplicity among the parts of speech2 how should be explained in parsing1 --no sufficient ,,rule for the synt4 of1 in most of the ,eng4 grammars1 ,prepositions and their objects1 as preceding the words on which they depend1 7,of man's first disobedience1 c41 ,sing ,,milc417 --,prepositions1 what it is1 to find the terms of relations of2 disput4 text cited in illustration --the special adaptation of2 example of misuse by ,,murr41 remarked on --,,harr41 on the purpose for which almost all prepositions were orig4 formed1 and on the nature of their relations2 his views controverted by ,,brown1 --,prepositions and their governed objects1 the true determination of2 examples of joint objects1 and of joint antecedents1 wrong views of ,,murr4 and his followers concerning this matter4 --,prepositions1 two connected1 for what different purposes used --two coming together1 7,,from ,,among the just17 --,prepositions complex1 what their character1 and how may be resolved2 are occasionally compounded by the hyphen --,prepositions1 how might be divided into classes2 the inutility in parsing of the division into separable and inseparable2 ,,hall',s absurd idea of a divis41 noticed --whether two in immediate succession require a noun to be understood between them1 7,,nutt47 --words commonly reckoned1 7in1 on1 of1 c417 used after infinitives or participles1 in adverbial construc41 7,houses to eat and drink ,,in7 --,prepositions1 ,list of --grammarians differ considerably in their tables of2 do4 concerning the characteristics of2 what ,,brown supposes1 in oppos4 to the assertion that ,every prep4 requires an obj4 case after it --,,lenn4 and ,,bull4 on prepositions becoming adverbs1 criticised --,,murr4 on prepositions appearing to be adverbs1 criticised --,preposition1 whether it can be justly said to take a sent4 for its object --,prepositions1 words in the list of1 sometimes used as other parts of speech --extension of the list of --examples of the less usual1 a1 and others beginning with a --do4 of unusual ones beginning with b1 c1 or d --unusual1 quotations illustrating further the list of --,preposition1 ,,rule of synt4 for the word governed by --,prepositions1 in ,eng41 govern no other case than the obj42 most1 may take the imperf4 part4 for their obj4 --,the brief assertion1 that ,prepositions govern the obj4 case1 wherein is exceptionable as the sole rule for both terms --,prepositions1 ellipt4 construc4 of1 with adjectives1 7in vain1 in secret1 c47 --sometimes appar4 govern adverbs --,preposition1 appar4 governing a perf4 part41 7,to give it up ,,for ,,lost7 --,prepositions1 ,synt4 of --do41 in what consists --what ,,relations1 show2 7see ,to and ,for7 --the parsing of2 why tolerable writers are liable to err most in their use of --,preposition1 the true terms of the relat4 of1 how may be discovered --when beginning or ending a sent4 or clause1 what the construc4 --the terms of relation of1 what may be2 both usually expressed --position of1 with respect to the governed word --,prepositions1 several1 dependent on one anteced4 term1 7,a declaration ,,for virtue and ,,against vice1 ,,butl47 --two coming together between the same terms of relat42 do4 in the same construc42 erron4 remark of ,,priestl41 ,,murr41 et al41 concerning the latter --,preposition1 the separating of1 from its noun1 false doctrine of ,,lowth1 ,,murr41 et al41 concerning --,prepositions1 prop1 choice of --do41 with respect to the allowable uses of --as adapted in meaning to two objects1 or to more --,preposition1 ellips4 or omiss4 of1 where ineleg4 --insertion of1 when do4 --,prep4 and its object1 position of1 in respect to other words --do41 punc4 of --,prep41 ellips4 of1 shown --,prepositions1 derivation of --poet4 usage with respect to ,present tense1 defined --,pres4 tense1 described --of the indic41 used to express general truths --deceased authors spoken of in1 and why --for the past1 by ,grecism2 in animated narrative1 for do41 by enall4 --of the indic4 and the subj41 when preceded by as soon as1 c41 to what time1 refers --of the infin41 what time is expressed by2 expedients used to express fut4 time by --of the ,,infinitive1 the ,,root1 or ,,radical ,,verb --of the subj41 its use1 and how considered by some --,pres4 tense1 sometimes improp4 with the conjunc4 that1 7,others said1 ,,that it is ,elias7 ,preter1 preterimperfect1 c41 disused terms for past1 imperfect1 c4 --,preter1 prefix1 its meaning ,preterit1 defined --,preterit1 described --its form and variations --present tendency to a reg4 orthog4 of1 to be encouraged --groundless rule of some1 for forming second pers4 of1 when the pres4 and the pret4 are alike --not to be used in forming the comp4 tenses of a verb ,preventing1 verbs of1 with part41 in stead of infin4 --what construc4 is proper for ,primitive word1 defined --,primitive words regarded as such in ,eng41 may generally be traced to ulterior sources ,principal parts1 of a verb1 7see ,chief ,terms7 --of a sent41 how many1 and what ,priscian1 ancient grammarian1 delivers the names of most of the ,lat4 letters ,progressive form of a verb1 see ,compound c4 ,pronominal adjectives1 see ,adjectives1 ,pronominal ,,pronouns1 ,etymol4 of --,pronoun1 definition of --,pronouns in ,eng41 number of1 and their variations --nature of the representation by2 are put substantively1 relatively1 or adjectively2 difference in these three modes of substitution --,classes of1 named1 and defined2 7see ,personal ,pronoun1 ,relative ,pron41 and ,interrogative ,pron47 --,pronouns1 compound1 constructional peculiarities of --,pronouns1 faultiness and discordance of most ,eng4 grammars1 with respect to the classification and treatment of2 specification of different modes of distribution by diff4 authors --,modifications of1 named2 these properties how distinguished in the personal pronouns2 do4 how ascertained in the relat4 and interrog4 pronouns --,declension of2 simp4 personals declined2 comp4 personals do42 comp4 relatives do4 --appar4 used for adverbs --,pronouns1 ,synt4 of --,pronoun1 agreem4 of1 with its anteced4 --do41 with anteced4 indefinite --plur41 put by enall4 for the sing41 agreem4 of --sometimes disagreeing with the anteced4 in one sense1 because taking it in an other --what the main point with respect to2 what application of the rule of agreem41 in parsing --,pronouns1 agreem4 of1 with their antecedents1 as affected by the figures of rhetoric --place of --,pronoun1 as representing a phrase or sentence --under what circumstances can agree with either of two antecedents --the parsing of1 commonly requiring the application of two rules --with suppressed anteced4 --needless introduction of1 7,,pallas1 ,,her glass1 ,,bacon7 --with change of numb4 in the second pers41 or promisc4 use of ye and you --must present the same idea as the anteced41 and never confound the name with the thing signified --employment of the same1 with respect to connected relative clauses --in what instances the noun must be repeated1 or inserted in stead of --should never be used to represent an adj41 7,be ,,attentive2 without ,,which1 c47 --change of anteced4 to accord with --agreem4 with collective nouns --do4 with joint antecedents --do4 with connected antecedents in apposition --do4 with connected antecedents emphat4 distinguished --do4 with connected antecedents preceded by each1 every1 or no --do4 with connected antecedents of different persons --agreeing with implied nominatives --agreem4 with disjunct antecedents --what agreem4 with disjunct4 antecedents of different persons1 numbers1 and genders --do4 with antecedents taken affirmatively and negatively --do4 with two antecedents connected by as well as1 c4 --ellips4 of1 shown --punct4 of1 without pause --,pronouns1 derivation of1 from ,sax4 --poet4 peculiarities of ,pronunciation1 importance of an early habit of distinct --how best taught to children --,pronunc41 as distinguished from elocution1 what2 how differs from articulation --,pronunc4 of the ,eng4 lang41 what knowledge requires2 its difficulties2 whether we have any system of1 worthy to be accounted a ,,standard ,proof-texts1 not to be perverted in the quotation1 ,crit4 ,n4 --not quoted1 but invented1 by some1 in their false illustrations of gram4 ,proper names begin with capitals --,comm4 and proper name associated1 how written --,prop4 names1 derivatives from1 do4 --7,names of ,deity1 see ,deity47 --,prop4 names1 application of rule concerning2 distinc4 between do4 and common appellatives --of places1 comparative difficulty of writing them --modern compound1 sparing use of hyphen in --,prop4 names1 what their relative importance in lang4 --structure and signif4 of2 how should be written --of plur4 form1 preceded by def4 art4 --,prop4 name1 with def4 art41 acquires the import of a comm4 --,proper1 from a comm4 noun personified --,prop4 names of individuals1 strictly used as such1 have no plur42 prop4 name1 how made plur41 and how then considered --when they form a plur41 how form it --of persons1 generally designate their sex --,prop4 name1 in appos4 with an appellative --represented by which1 7,herod --,,which is1 c47 --,prop4 name and title1 when taken together in a plur4 sense1 in what form to be written ,property1 the relation of1 how may be otherwise expressed than by the poss4 case ,prophecy1 the past tenses substituted for the fut41 in the lang4 of ,propositions1 permanent1 in what tense should be expressed ,propriety1 as a quality of style1 in what consists --its oppos41 impropriety1 what embraces --,precepts aiming at offences against ,prose and verse1 in the composition of lang41 how differ ,,prosody --,prosody1 of what subjects treats --etymol4 and signif4 of the word --,prosody1 meagrely and immethodically treated in the works of many grammarians --undetermined usage as to what things belong to2 how treated by some of the old prosodists2 account of ,,smetius',s treatise of2 do4 ,,genuensis',s ,prosthesis1 explained ,proverbs1 their elliptical character ,provincial expressions1 use of1 as opposed to purity ,,punctuation1 arranged under the head of ,prosody --,punct41 what --principal marks of1 named and shown2 what they severally denote --,,rules of3 for ,comma2 for ,semicolon2 for ,colon2 for ,period2 for ,dash2 for ,eroteme2 for ,ecphoneme2 for ,curves --description of the other marks of --7,see ,comma1 ,semicolon1 c47 --,punct41 the present system of1 in ,eng41 common to many languages --why often found diverse1 in diff4 editions and diff4 versions of the same work --duty of writers in respect to1 and of publishers in reproducing ancient books --some account of the orig4 and prog4 of --improvement in1 which is no improvement --confused and discordant explanations1 by some1 of certain of the marks of ,purity1 as a quality of style1 in what consists --,precepts aiming at offences against ,pyrrhic1 defined ,q4 ,q1 its name and plur4 numb4 --has no sound peculiar to itself2 its power --is always followed by u ,quakers1 or ,friends1 their style of address1 see ,friends ,qualities of style1 treated --,see ,style ,quantity1 or time in pronunciation1 explained --as defined by the lexicographers --its effect in the prolation of sounds --,,walker',s views of1 unsatisfac4 to ,,brown --as regulated by emphasis1 ,,murr4 --,quant4 of a syll41 how commonly explained --by what marks may be indicated --,quantities poetic1 how denominated1 and how proportioned --,what quantity coincides with accent or emphasis --,quantity1 on what depends --where variable1 and where fixed1 in ,eng4 --,crit4 observations on accent and quantity --,quantity1 its distinction from accent --,accent and quantity1 differing views of authors relative to --,quantity1 impropriety of affirming it to be the same as accent --,,dr4 ,,joh4 identification of accent with2 such1 also1 that of others2 7not so ,,harris27 ,,noehd4 rightly defines2 so ,,fisk1 7in ,eschenb4 ,man4 ,class4 ,lit417 et al4 --our grammarians seem not to have understood the distinc4 of long and short1 e4 g41 ,,fisher2 so ,,sherid41 ,,walk41 ,,murr41 et al4 --,,chand4 absurd and confused scheme of1 noticed --suggestion of ,,webst4 on1 approved ,questions1 can be asked only in the indic4 or the pot4 mood --direct1 to be marked by the eroteme --united1 how to be marked --indirect1 do4 --a series of1 how may be united and marked --exclamatory1 how to be marked --,question1 mentioned in due form1 how marked --declaratively put1 how uttered and marked --in ,spanish1 doubly marked1 7,quien llama827 in ,greek1 how ,quite1 with art4 and adj41 construc4 how differs according to position of art4 ,quotation1 direct1 first word of1 written with capital --,quotations of proof-texts1 c41 should be literally given --dependent1 separated from say1 c41 by comma --indep41 preceded by colon --,quotat4 within a quotat41 how usually marked ,quoth and quod1 signif4 and use of1 in ludicrous lang4 or in the old writers ,r4 ,r1 name and plur4 numb4 --of the class liquids --sound of2 do41 how can be varied in utterance --what faults to be avoided in do4 --,,dr4 ,,joh4 account of2 ,,walk4 do4 ,radicals1 separable and inseparable1 what are so called in ,eng4 derivation ,rath1 adv41 used only in the compar4 deg4 --,rather1 with the exclusive term of comparis4 introduced by than --derivation of ,reading1 to read1 in gram41 what the signif4 of --,,read1 verb1 ,,conjugated affirmatively in ,comp4 ,form ,reciprocal terms1 reciprocals1 what pronom4 adjectives may be so termed --,reciprocals1 ,,each ,,other1 ,,one ,,an ,,other1 their nature and import --misapplicat4 of1 frequent in books2 ,,webst4 errs in the signif4 and applicat4 of other4 ,see also ,other ,reciprocal or reflected verbs1 constructions in imitation of the ,french ,recurrence of a word in different senses1 a fault opposed to propriety ,redundant verb1 defined --,redund4 verbs1 why made a separate class --treated --,list of ,reference1 marks of1 ,,asterisk1 ,,obelisk1 c41 shown2 in what order are introduced --what other signs of1 may be used4 ,reference1 doubtful1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning ,reformers of the ,eng4 alphabet and orthog41 some account of ,rejoice1 resolve1 incline1 c41 import of1 in the pass4 form ,relations of things1 their infinitude and diversity2 the nature of ,,relation --,relation of words1 what --is diff4 from agreem41 but may coincide with it --,relation according to the sense1 an important principle in ,eng4 synt42 what rules of relation commonly found in the grammars --,simple relation1 what parts of speech have no other syntact4 property than2 what simp4 relations there are in ,eng4 --,relation1 with respect to a prep41 anteced4 term1 what may be2 subseq41 do4 --,relation1 do41 terms of1 to be named in parsing a prep42 how the terms may be ascertained by a learner --terms of1 to a prep41 may be transposed2 are very various2 both usually expressed ,relative pronouns1 defined --,relative pronouns1 and their compounds1 named2 declined --chief constructional peculiarities of --two faulty special rules given by the grammarians1 for construc4 of1 noticed --construc4 of1 with respect to ,,case --ellips4 of1 in famil4 lang41 7,the man ,i trust27 do41 poet4 --,relative and prep4 governing it1 when should not be omitted --,relative pron41 place of --clauses1 connected1 employment of1 with same pron4 in each --,rel4 pronouns1 exclude conjunctions --derivat4 of1 from ,sax4 --poet1 peculiarities with respect to4 ,see also ,who1 ,which1 c4 ,repetition1 of a noun or pronoun1 what construc4 it produces --of words1 emphatic1 punct4 --of words1 through paucity of lang42 against propriety --of do41 as demanded by precision --,repetitions1 see ,pleonasm ,restrictive and resumptive senses of the rel4 pronouns1 distinc4 between1 expl4 --,restrictive1 relation1 most approp4 expressed by the pron4 ,,that --admits not a comma before the relative --adj41 admits not a comma before it --part41 do4 ,rhetoric1 figure of1 defined --,figures of rhetoric1 see ,figures ,rhetorical pauses1 see ,pauses ,rhode ,island1 the name how acquired2 peculiarity of its application ,rhyme1 defined --,rhyming syllables1 their nature and quality ,rhythm1 of verse1 defined --,fancifully explained by ,e4 ,a4 ,,poe1 7who without intelligence derives the term from ,greek3 hurithmos7 --sense and signif4 of the word ,roman letters1 some account of ,rules1 of ,,relation1 what1 commonly found in grammars --of ,,synt41 those common in grammars ill adapted to their purpose2 examples of such --of do41 exposition of the faulty charac4 of those in ,eng4 grammars --,rules of grammar1 advantage of1 in the written language ,rush1 ,dr4 ,j41 his new doctrine of the vowels and consonants1 in oppos4 to the old1 how estimated by ,,brown --his doctrine of a duplicity of the vocal elements1 perstringed --his strange division of the vowels into two parts1 and conversion of most of them into diphthongs2 his enumeration and specification of the alphabetic elements ,s4 ,s1 its name and plur4 numb4 --final1 in monosyllables1 spell4 --of the poss4 case1 occas4 dropping of2 the elis4 how to be regarded1 and when to be allowed --its sounds --in what words silent --,ss1 sound of ,s or es1 verbal termin41 ,,dr4 ,,lowth',s account of ,sans1 from ,fr41 signif41 and where read ,sabaoth1 see ,deity ,same cases1 construc4 of --do41 on what founded --what position of the words1 admitted by the construc4 --,same case1 after what verbs1 except those which are pass41 taken --,same cases1 notice of the faulty rules given by ,,lowth1 ,,murr41 et al41 for the construc4 of ,sameness of signif41 what should be that of the nom4 following a verb or part4 --,sameness of words1 see ,identity ,sapphic1 verse1 described --stanza1 composition of2 examp4 from ,,hor4 --,sapphic verse1 difficulty of2 ,eng4 ,sapphics few2 scansion of2 ,the ,widow1 of ,,southey1 scanned --,eng4 ,sapphic1 ,,dr4 ,,watts',s ode1 7in part47 ,the ,day of ,judgement1 attempted in --,,humph4 on1 cited --,sapphics1 burlesque1 examples of ,save1 saving1 as denoting exception1 class and construc4 of --,save1 derivation of ,saxon1 alphabet1 some account of --lang41 its form about the year #dej2 do4 subsequently ,scanning1 or scansion1 explained --,why1 in scanning1 the principal feet are to be preferred to the secondary --,the poetry of the earliest ,eng4 poets1 not easy of scansion ,script letters1 the alphabet exhibited in --the forms of1 their adaptation to the pen ,scripture names1 many discrepancies in1 found in different editions of the ,bible4 ,scriptures1 see ,bible ,section1 mark1 uses of ,,see1 verb1 irreg41 act41 ,,conjugated affirmatively --takes infin4 without prep4 ,,to --its construc4 with infin4 without to ,seeing and provided1 as connectives1 their class ,seldom1 adv41 its comparison2 use of1 as an adj4 ,self1 in the format1 of the comp4 pers4 pronouns --,,church4 explan4 of --signif4 and use of --as an ,eng4 prefix --after a noun poss41 in poet4 diction ,self-contradiction1 ,crit4 ,n4 respecting ,self-naming letters ,semicolon1 point --for what purpose used --from what takes its name --when adopted in ,england --is useful and necessary1 though discarded by some late grammarians --,rules for the use of ,semivowel1 defined --,semivowels named2 nature of w and y2 sound of certain1 as aspirates ,sense and construc4 to be considered1 in joining together or writing separately words otherw4 liable to be misunderstood --,sense or meaning1 necessary to be observed in parsing ,senseless jumbling1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning ,sentence1 defined --,sentence1 its parts1 principal and subordinate --,sentences1 the two kinds of1 named and defined --whether a tripartite distribut4 of is expedient --,simple sent41 false notions amongst grammarians of what constitutes one2 the parsing of words not affected thereby --,sentences1 simp4 and comp41 ,,dr4 ,,wils4 explanation of --component parts of1 what these are --whether all1 can be divided into clauses --in what ,,five ,,ways1 can be analyzed --,sentences1 simp41 punct4 of1 --distinct1 do41 --allied1 do41 --short1 rehearsed in close succession1 how pointed4 ,series1 of terms1 proper use of the articles in1 --of words1 how to be commaed4 ,set and sit1 signif4 and employment of4 ,sex1 to what persons ascribed2 why a young child may be spoken of without distinc4 of1 --whether animals may be represented as of no1 --inanimate objects fig4 represented as having4 --,sexes1 distinction of1 by words1 in diff4 ways1 --denoted by terminat4 of words1 --designated by proper names4 ,shall1 verb1 how varied1 --original signif4 of1 --explet4 use of4 --,shall and will1 discriminative application of1 in the fut4 indic4 ,sheridan1 ,t41 actor and orthopist1 his literary reputation2 the worth of his writings4 ,side1 noun1 peculiarities of usage in regard to4 ,silent1 or mute1 when a letter is said to be4 ,silliness1 literary1 ,crit4 ,n4 concerning4 ,simile1 explained4 ,since1 improp4 use of1 for ago1 --derivation of1 from ,anglo-,sax4 ,sit and set1 use and signif4 of4 ,so1 as expressing the sense of a preced4 word or phrase1 --derivation of1 from ,sax4 --,so --as1 as --so1 correspondents4 ,soever or soe'er1 whether a word or only a part of an other word2 how explained by ,,webst4 ,solemn style1 as distinguished from the familiar1 --should not be displaced from the paradigms in a grammar1 --is not adapted to familiar discourse1 --pres4 and pret4 terminations of1 what1 and how uttered1 --examp4 of1 second pers4 sing41 negat41 throughout the verb ,,love1 conjugated4 ,some1 classed1 --vulg4 used for somewhat1 or in some degree1 7,,some longer1 ,,sanb474 ,somehow or other1 somewhere or other1 what the construc4 ,somewhere1 nowhere1 anywhere1 c41 their class1 and how should be written4 ,sort1 see ,kind4 ,sound1 of a letter1 commonly called its power1 --elementary1 of the voice1 defined4 --,sounds1 simp4 or primary1 numb4 in ,eng41 --elementary1 what meant by2 are few in numb42 their combinations may be innumerable4 --,vowel sounds1 or vocal elements1 how produced1 and where heard2 what those in ,eng41 and how may be modified in the format4 of syllables2 do41 how may be written1 and how uttered4 --,consonant sounds1 simp41 in ,eng41 how many1 and what2 by what letters marked2 in what words heard4 --,sounds1 long and short1 ,,signs used to denote them4 --,sounds1 a knowledge of1 how acquired1 --importance of being early taught to pronounce those of one's native lang4 --,passage exemplifying all the letters1 and all the ,,sounds1 in ,eng4 --,sounds of the ,letters1 treated4 ,speak1 to speak1 what is meant by4 ,speaker1 why often speaks of himself in the third pers41 --represents himself and others by we1 --in ,eng41 should mention himself last4 --,the elegant speaker1 by what distinguished4 ,species and figure of words1 what so called1 --unsettled usage of the lang4 with regard to what relates to the latter4 ,species and genus of things1 how admits limitation by the article4 ,,spelling1 defined4 --,spelling1 how to be acquired1 --cause of the difficulty of its acquisition1 --,rules for1 --usage1 as a law of1 --uniformity and consistency in1 how only can be attained4 --,the right spelling of a word1 what1 ,,philolog4 ,mus4 --,oral spelling1 how should be conducted4 --,charac4 of ,,brown',s rules for spelling4 ,spondee1 defined4 ,st1 unsyllab4 suffix1 whether1 wherever found1 is a modem contrac4 of the syllable est4 ,standards of ,english orthog41 the books proposed as such1 abound in errors and inconsistencies4 --,whether we have a system of ,eng4 ,,orthoepy worthy to be accounted a ,,standard4 ,stanza1 defined4 --,stanzas1 uniformity of1 in the same poem1 --varieties of1 --,elegiac stanza1 described4 --,stanzas1 lyric1 examples of1 --,a ,,good ,,name1 7two beautiful little stanzas1 ,,brown74 ,star1 or asterisk1 use of4 --,three stars1 or asterism1 ,stenotone1 or breve1 for what used4 ,stops1 in printing or writing1 see ,points4 ,strength1 as a quality of style1 in what consists1 --essentials of1 --,precepts aiming at offences against4 ,strew1 whether1 or not1 an other mode of spelling strow2 whether to be distinguished in utterance from do42 whether reg4 or irreg4 ,,style1 qualities of1 treated4 --,style1 as connected with synt41 what1 --differs from mere words and mere grammar2 not regulated entirely by rules of construc41 --what relation has to the author himself1 and what shows1 --general characters of1 by what epithets designated4 --,what must be remembered by the learner1 in forming his style2 a good style how acquired4 --,style1 solemn1 familiar1 c41 as used in gram41 what meant by4 --7,see ,solemn ,style47 ,subaudition1 meaning of the term4 ,subdisjunctive particle1 of the ,latins1 expressed in ,eng4 by or of alternat4 ,subject of a finite verb1 what1 and how may be known1 --must be the ,,nom4 ,,case1 --what besides a noun or pronoun may be4 --,subject phrases1 joint1 what agreements require4 --,subject and predicate1 in analysis4 ,see also ,nominative ,case4 ,subjunctive mood1 defined4 --,subj4 mood1 why so called2 what denotes1 --differing views of grammarians in regard to the numb4 and form of its tenses4 --,the true subj4 mood rejected by some late grammarians2 strictures on ,,wells4 --,,weld',s erroneous teaching respecting the subj41 noticed1 --,,chand4 do41 do4 --,chief characteristical diff4 between the indic4 and the subj4 mood4 --,subj4 mood described1 --its two tenses do41 and their forms shown1 in the verb ,,love1 conjugated1 --whether ever put after a rel4 pronoun1 --proper limits of1 --how properly employed4 --,false subj4 --,subj4 mood1 not necessarily governed by if1 lest1 c4 ,such1 corresponding to that1 with infin4 foll41 --with rel4 as following1 in stead of who or which4 ,sui generis1 what thing is thus designated4 ,superlative degree1 defined1 --,,brown',s definit4 of1 and of the other degrees1 new2 the faulty charac4 of those of ,,murr41 shown1 --the true nature of2 how may be used2 to what is applicable2 the explanations of1 by the copyists of ,,murr41 criticised1 --whether not applicable to two objects1 --when employed1 what construc4 of the latter term should follow4 --,double superlatives1 to be avoided4 --,superl4 termination1 contractions of4 ,supplied1 in parsing1 what must be4 ,see also ,ellipsis4 ,suppression1 mark of1 see ,ellipsis4 ,syllabic writing1 far inferior to the alphabetic1 ,,blair4 ,syllabication1 ,rules of1 --the doctrine of1 why attended with difficulty1 --object of2 ,,walk4 on2 strictures on ,,mulk4 rules of1 --which of the four purposes of1 is preferable in spelling-books and dictionaries1 --,,dr4 ,,lowth on1 --nature of ,,brown',s six ,rules of2 advantage of a system of1 founded on the pronunciat41 --,,lath4 and ,,fowl4 fictitious dilemmas in4 --,syllabication1 erroneous1 samples of1 from ,,murr41 ,,webst41 et al4 ,,syllables1 treated4 --,syllable defined4 --,syllable1 cannot be formed without a vowel1 --cannot be broken4 --,syllables1 numb4 of1 in a word1 --words denominated from their numb4 of1 --the ear chiefly directs in the division of words into4 --7,see ,syllabication47 --,syllable1 its quantity in poetry1 --do41 on what depends4 ,syllepsis1 explained1 --literal signif4 of the term2 extended applicat4 of do4 by the grammarians and rhetoricians2 ,,brown1 by his definition1 gives it a more restricted applicat42 disapproves of ,,webst4 explanat4 of the term1 --what definition or what applicat4 of the term is the most approp41 has become doubtful4 ,synresis1 explained4 ,synchysis1 what was so termed by some of the ancients2 is different from hyperbaton2 its import in gram42 its literal signif4 ,syncope1 explained4 ,synecdoche1 7comprehension17 explained4 --,synecd41 agreem4 of pron4 with anteced41 in cases of4 ,synonymous1 words so accounted1 ,,prec4 concerning the use of4 ,syntactical parsing1 see ,parsing4 ,,syntax4 --,synt41 of what treats1 --the relation of words1 the most important principle of2 defects of the grammars in treating of do41 --false exhibitions of grammarians with respect to the scope and parts of1 --character of the rules of1 found in most grammars1 --divided by some grammarians into concord and governm41 and yet treated by them without regard to such division1 --common fault of grammarians1 noticed1 of joining together diff4 parts of speech in the same rule of1 --do41 of making the rules of1 double or triple in their form1 --whether the principles of etymol4 affect those of4 --,all synt41 on what founded4 --,why ,,brown deemed it needful to add to his code of synt4 a ,,general ,,rule and ,,critical ,,notes4 ,figures of syntax4 ,t4 ,t1 name and plur4 numb4 of1 --substitution of1 for ed1 how far allowable1 --sounds of1 --is seldom silent2 in what words not sounded4 ,th1 7,greek3 ,th1 ,greek3 alt-th1 or ,greek3 alt#b-th1 ,gr417 what represents2 how was represented in ,anglo-,sax41 and to what sounds applied2 the two sounds of4 ,to a ,tee1 the colloq4 phrase1 explained4 ,tautology of expression or of sentiment1 a fault opposed to precision4 ,teacher1 what should be his aim with respect to gram4 ,technical terms1 unnec4 use of1 as opposed to propriety4 ,technically1 words and signs taken1 how to be construed4 ,tenses1 term defined4 --,tenses1 the difierent1 named and defined1 --whether the names of1 are approp41 or whether they should be changed1 --whether all express time with equal precision1 --who reckon only three1 and who two2 who still differently and variously name their tenses1 --,tenses1 past and present1 occurring together4 ,see ,present ,tense1 ,imperf4 ,tense1 c4 ,terminating a sentence with a prep4 or other small particle ,terminations1 of words1 separated in syllabicat4 --of verbs1 numb4 of different1 in each tense --of the ,eng4 verb2 ,,dr4 ,a4 ,,murr4 account of --tendency of the lang4 to lay aside the least agreeable --usage of famil4 discourse in respect to those of second pers4 sing4 --verbal or particip41 how are found written in old books --the only reg4 ones added to ,eng4 verbs2 utterance of ed and edst --ed1 participial1 and n1 verbal1 ,,walk4 on the contrac4 of --,termination t1 for ed1 forced and irreg4 ,terms of relation1 see ,relation4 ,tetrameter line1 iambic1 examples of --a favorite with many ,eng4 writers2 ,,butl4 ,hudib41 ,,gay',s ,fab41 and most of ,,scott',s poems1 writt4 in couplets of this meas4 --admits the doub4 rhyme adapted to familiar and burlesque style --trochaic1 examples of --character of do4 --,,everett',s fanciful notions about do4 --anapestic1 examples of --,l4 ,,hunt',s ,feast of the ,poets1 an extended examp4 of do4 --dactylic1 examples of ,than1 as1 with ellips4 in latter term of comparison --character and import of --declinable words connected by1 put in same case --,than ,,whom1 as ,gr4 genitive governed by comparat41 ,,milt4 --what grammarians have inferred from the phrase --,,murr4 expedient to dispose of do4 --,,church4 makes the rel4 in do4 the obj4 case absol41 --,,brown determines with respect to the construc4 --,than1 as demanded after else1 other1 c41 and ,eng4 comparatives --derivation of1 from ,goth4 or ,anglo-,sax4 ,that1 its class determined --its various uses --as ,,rel4 ,,pronoun1 to what applied --as used in anomalous construc41 --its peculiarity of construc4 as a relative --its especial use as the restrictive relative --the frequent employment of1 by ,addison1 wrongly criticised by ,,blair --as a relative1 in what cases more appropriate than who or which --,that1 ellipt41 repeating the import of the preceding words1 7,and ,,that1 --,greek3 kai tauta17 --,that1 in the phrases in that1 c41 how to be reckoned --,that1 as introducing a dependent clause1 how to be ranked --as introducing a sent4 made the subj4 or obj4 of a finite verb --its power at the head of a sent4 or clause --its derivation ,the1 before the species1 what may denote --how commonly limits the sense --applied to nouns of either numb4 --before what adjectives1 required --distinctive use of 7,the ,psalmist7 --as relating to comparatives and superlatives --used for poss4 pron4 --repetition of1 how avoided --derivation of1 from ,sax4 --pronunc4 of e in4 ,see also ,definite ,article4 ,them1 in vulg4 use as an adj41 for those ,thence1 c41 with from prefixed1 whether allowable ,there1 introductory and idiomatic1 notions of grammarians concerning2 its posit4 and use2 is a regular adv4 of place1 and not without signification1 --derivation of1 from ,anglo-,sax4 --poet4 omission of ,they1 put indefinitely for men or people ,this and that1 as explained by ,,church4 --placed before conjoint singulars1 7,,this ,,power ,,and ,,will do1 c417 --in contrasted terms ,three stars1 or asterism1 use of ,time1 the order and fitness of1 to be observed in constructions expressing it --nouns of1 with adv4 ,,when1 as a special relative1 following ,time1 measure1 or weight1 part made possessive of the whole1 7,an ,,hour',s time7 --noun of1 not poss41 immediately before an other1 7,a ,,pound ,,weight17 ,time1 place1 c41 the obj4 case in expressions of1 taken after the fashion of an adv4 ,time1 measure1 distance1 or value1 nouns of1 their peculiarity of construc42 the parsing of ,time1 obj4 noun of1 qualifying a subsequent adj41 7,a child ,,of ten years ,,old17 ,four times1 five times1 c41 how to be reckoned4 ,,times1 before an other noun1 by way of ,,multiplication1 the nature and construc4 of1 discussed2 decision4 ,times1 in what construc4 may be called the objective of repetition1 or of time repeated4 ,time in pronunciation1 or quantity ,titles1 of books1 are printed in capitals --of office1 c41 begin with do4 --merely mentioned as such1 are without art4 --,name and ,,title1 7see ,proper ,names47 ,side-titles1 use of dash in application to ,tmesis1 explained ,to1 as governing infin4 mood --do41 variously explained by grammarians --is a sign of inf41 but not a part of it --what ,,brown claims for his ,,rule respecting the infin4 as gov4 by the prep4 ,,to1 c42 he shows that the doctrine originated not with himself --,,to and the verb1 what ,,fisher 7anno #ahjj7 taught respecting2 what1 ,,lowth1 and what1 absurdly1 ,,murr41 his copyist --,to1 as governing infin41 traced from the ,sax4 to the ,eng4 of ,,wickl41 --,to1 before infin41 evasive teachings of the later grammarians concerning its class and construc4 --do41 how considered by most ,eng4 grammarians --do41 how proved to be a prep4 --do41 preceded by for1 anc4 --after what verbs1 omitted1 --whether to be repeated before infinitives in the same construe4 --sometimes required1 and sometimes excluded1 after than or as --whether it may be separated from its verb by an adv42 is placed more elegantly ,,after an adv41 7,,properly ,,to respect17 --in what cases has no prop1 antec4 term of relat4 --,to suppressed and be inserted after ,,make1 whether correctly --,to1 prep1 or adv41 from ,anglo-,sax4 --,to1 as prefix to noun1 7to-day1 to-night1 to-morrow174 ,tones of the voice1 what2 why deserving of j particular attention --what denominated by ,,sherid42 what should be their character --,,blair',s remark on2 ,,hil4 do4 --,tones of the passions1 ,,walk1 observation on4 ,topics1 different1 to be treated in separate paragraphs1 ,,prec4 of ,unity4 ,transposition1 of the terms of relat41 when a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause --rhetorical1 of words1 or hyperbaton4 ,tribrach1 defined4 ,trimeter line1 iambic1 the measure seldom used alone2 examples of1 --and do41 with diversifications --trochaic1 examples of --anapestic1 examples of --alternated with the tetram41 examp41 ,the ,rose1 of ,,cowp42 the same scanned --dactylic1 examples of4 ,triphthong1 defined --proper1 do41 the only1 in ,eng4 --improp41 do42 and the improp4 triphthongs named4 ,trochaic verse1 treated --,troch4 verse1 the stress in --nature of the single-rhymed2 error of ,,murr4 et al4 concerning the last syll4 in --how may be changed to coincide with other measures2 how is affected by retrenchment --confounded with iambic by several gramm4 and prosodists --,strictures on ,,church41 who doubts the existence of the troch4 ord4 of verse --,troch4 verse shown in its eight measures --,trochaics1 ,eng41 the ,,tetrameter the most common meas4 of --,,dr4 ,,campb4 on --,trochaic of ,one foot1 account of4 ,trochee1 or choree1 defined4 ,tropes1 what figures of rhetoric are so called2 signif4 of the term4 ,trow1 its signif41 and where occurs2 in what person and tenses read4 ,truisms and senseless remarks1 how to be dealt with in gram4 ,tutoyant1 to what extent prevalent among the ,french4 ,see ,youyouing1 c4 ,type or character1 two forms of the letters in every kind of4 ,u4 ,u1 lett41 which 7as ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 or ,o7 names itself --its plur4 numb4 --sounds properly its own --as self-naming1 to what equivalent2 requires art4 a1 and not an1 before it --pronounced with borrowed sound --long or diphthongal sound1 as yu2 sound of slender o or oo1 after r or rh4 ,unamendable imperfections sometimes found in ancient writings1 remarks in relation to4 ,unauthorized words1 use of1 as opposed to purity1 ,,prec4 concerning4 ,unbecoming1 adj41 from participle compounded1 error of using transitively words of this form2 such error how corrected4 ,uncertain1 the part of speech left1 see ,equivocal1 c4 ,unco-passive voice1 or form1 of the verb1 7,is being built17 the use of4 conflicts with the older and better usage of the lang4 --the subject of1 discussed by ,,brown --the true principle with respect to1 stated4 ,underlining words1 in preparing manuscripts1 to denote ,italics c4 ,understood1 words said1 in technical phrase1 to be1 what such1 7,lat41 subaudita7 ,ungrammatical language by which grammar itself is professedly taught1 sample from ,,murr42 from ,,pinneo2 et al4 e diversis1 ,gram4 of ,e4 ,gram41 passim4 ,unity1 as a quality of style1 in what consists --required by every sentence --,precepts aiming at offences against4 ,unity1 ,,the ,,idea ,,of1 how generally determined1 in respect to a collect4 noun1 whether it conveys such idea or not4 ,usage1 as a law of orthography for particular words --,usage1 as it has been1 and as it is1 the advantage of an exhibition of1 by the grammarian4 ,useless words1 employment of1 as opposed to precision4 ,,utterance1 treated --,utterance1 what1 and what includes4 ,v4 ,v1 name and plur4 of3 --written for a number3 --sound of1 ,value1 c41 nouns of1 see ,time4 ,verbal or participial noun1 7see ,participial1 c47 --,verbal forms used substantively1 by poet pecul4 ,,verbs1 ,etymol4 of2 --,verb1 defined3 --why so called3 --a perf4 definition of1 why difficult to form2 --,,chief ,,terms1 or ,,princip4 ,,parts1 of an ,eng4 verb1 named and defined4 --,verbs4 ,classes of1 with respect to their ,,form1 named and defined3 --do41 with respect to their signif41 do4 --7,see ,active-,transitive ,verb1 c47 ,verbs1 whole numb1 of1 in ,eng42 the regular1 far the most numerous2 account of the others --how divided with respect to signif4 in most grammars and dictionaries2 ,,brown',s division --divided by certain grammarians into act41 pass41 and neut4 --,,murr1 on the distribution of --,,nix4 on do4 --,verbs1 in ,lat41 grammarians of old differed respecting the distribut4 of --different methods of distribut4 of1 by several other authors1 noticed --,verbs1 most act41 may be used either as trans4 or as intrans4 --some may be used either in an act4 or a neut4 sense --act4 form of1 used in a pass4 sense2 so also ,,part4 in ing1 7,the books continue ,,selling7 --,verbs1 ,modifications of1 named --,moods of1 named and defined2 7see ,infinitive ,mood1 ,indic4 ,mood1 c47 --,tenses of1 named and defined2 7see ,present ,tense1 ,imperf4 ,tense1 c47 --,persons and numbers of1 what --,conjugations of --how principally conjugated --7,see ,conjugation7 --,verbs1 ,irreg41 ,list of --simp4 irreg41 numb4 of2 whence derived --,redundant1 ,list of --,defective1 do4 --,verbs irreg4 and redund41 of what character all former lists of1 have been --,verbs1 of asking and teaching1 construc4 of --whether any1 in ,eng41 can govern two cases --suppressed in exclamat4 c4 --,verbs1 ,synt4 of --,verbs requiring a regimen1 should not be used without an object --,verb1 ,,agreem4 of1 with its subject --do41 inferred --do41 by sylleps41 in plur41 title of a book --do41 in imperat4 mood --,verb of the third pers4 sing4 with a plur4 noun of the neut4 gend41 the use of1 a strange custom of the ,greeks2 such use not existent in ,eng4 --,verb1 ,,agreem4 of1 with infin4 phrase or sentence as subject --do41 with infin4 subject limited1 7,,for ,,men ,,to ,,search their own glory1 ,,is1 c47 --do41 with a nom4 in interrog4 sentences --do41 with a rel41 according to the true anteced4 of the pron42 7examp4 of error from ,,dr4 ,,blair7 --do41 with a nom4 limited by adjuncts --do41 with composite or converted subjects --do41 with each1 every1 one1 c41 as leading words --do41 by change of nominative --,verb1 the form of1 to be adapted to the style --when requires a separate nom4 expressed --,verb1 ,,agreem4 of1 with a nom4 noun collective --do41 with joint nominatives --do41 with two connected nominatives in appos4 --do41 with two conn4 nominatives emphatically distinguished --do41 with two conn4 nominatives preceded by each1 every1 or no --do41 with nearest of connected nominatives1 and understood to the rest2 whether the usage is proper in ,eng4 --do41 with connected nominatives of different persons --do41 with connected subjects1 one taken affirmat4 and the other negat4 --do41 with two subjects connected by as well as1 but1 or save --do41 with connected subjects preceded by each1 every1 or no --do41 in ellipt4 construc4 of joint nominatives --do41 with distinct subject phrases connected by and --do41 with disjunct4 nominatives --do41 with disagreeing nominatives connected disjunctively --do41 when connected nominatives require different forms of the verb --do41 with distinct phrases disjunct1 connected --,verbs1 connected by and1 or1 or nor1 how must agree --discordant1 how managed with respect to agreem4 --,verb1 mixture of the diff4 styles of1 ineleg4 --diff4 moods of1 not to be used under the same circumstances --when two connected terms require diff4 forms of1 what insertion is necessary --,verbs of commanding1 desiring1 expecting1 c41 to what actions or events refer --of desisting1 omitting1 c41 with a part4 following1 rather than an infin4 --of preventing1 what should be made to govern --,verb1 finite1 punc4 of --ellips4 of1 shown --derivation of1 from nouns1 adjectives1 and verbs --poet4 peculiarities in the use of ,verbosity1 as affecting strength ,verse1 in oppos4 to prose1 what --,blank verse1 as distinguished from rhyme --,verse1 general sense of the term2 its derivation and literal signif42 the visible form of verse --,verse1 as defined by ,,joh41 ,,walk41 et al42 do4 by ,,webst4 --,verse1 ,eng41 the difficulty of treating the subject of1 and from what this arises --,a verse1 or line of poetry1 of what consists --,verse1 or poetic measure1 the kinds1 or orders of1 named2 7see ,iambic ,verse1 ,trochaic ,verse1 c47 --,verse1 the proper reading of ,,versification1 treated --,versification1 defined --,versification1 ,,poe',s 7,e4 ,a47 notions concerning2 his censure of ,,brown',s former definition of2 his rejection of the idea of versif4 from the principle of rhythm2 his unfortunate derivat4 of rhythm from ,greek3 hurithmos1 and vain attempts to explain the term3 the farrago summarily disposed of by ,,brown --,,everett',s ,system of ,eng4 ,versification1 account of1 and strictures on ,vision1 or imagery1 explained ,vocative case of ,lat4 and ,gr4 gram41 not known in ,eng4 ,voice1 ,,active1 and ,,passive1 whether necessary terms in ,eng4 gram4 ,vowel1 defined --,vowels named --,w and ,y1 when vowels2 comp4 --,vowel sounds1 or vocal elements1 the different1 how produced --what are those in ,eng4 --how each may be variously expressed by letters2 notation of --,vowels1 two coming together1 where may be parted in syllabication4 ,w4 ,w1 its name and plur4 numb4 --simpler term than ,double-u perhaps desirable2 ,,dr4 ,,webst4 on the lett4 --,w1 when a vowel --with vowel foll41 sound of --before h1 how pronounced --in ,eng4 never used alone as a vowel --no diphthongs or triphth4 in ,eng41 beginning with4 ,wages1 noun1 plur4 by formation2 its construe1 with a verb4 ,walker1 ,j41 estimate of his ,critical ,pronouncing ,dictionary --in his lexicography how far followed ,,dr4 ,,joh4 ,was1 contrary to usage preferred by some to were1 in the imperf4 sing1 of the subj4 ,we1 plur41 as representing the speaker and others2 how sometimes used in stead of the sing42 sometimes preferred by monarchs to ,i4 ,webster1 ,dr4 ,n41 describes language as comprehending the voice of brutes --never named the ,eng4 letters rightly --his orthography as a standard2 do4 compared with that of ,,dr4 ,,joh4 --the result to himself of his various attempts to reform our orthog42 the value of his definitions4 ,weight1 measure1 c41 see ,time4 ,wert1 as used in lieu of wast --its mood not easy to determine2 authorities for a various use of4 ,what1 its class and nature --to what usually applied2 its twofold relat4 explained --its numb42 example of solec4 in the use of --as a mere adj41 or as a pron4 indef4 --its use both as an adj4 and as a relative at the same time2 do4 for who or which1 ludic4 and vulg4 --declined --how to be disposed of in etymolog4 parsing2 how to be parsed syntactically --how becomes an interj4 --used appar4 for an adv42 uttered exclamatorily before an adj41 to be taken as an adj41 7,,what ,,partial judges are our1 c417 --followed by that1 by way of pleonasm1 7,,what ,i tell you in darkness1 ,,that1 c417 --with but preceding1 7,to find a friend1 ,,but ,,what c417 --vulg4 use of1 for that --derivation of1 from ,sax41 shown4 ,whatever or whatsoever1 its peculiarities of construe41 the same as those of what2 its use in simp1 relation --its construc4 as a double relative2 whether it may be supposed ellipt4 --its declension4 ,when1 where1 or while1 in what instance not fit to follow the verb is --,when1 where1 whither1 as partaking of the nature of a pron42 construc1 of do41 with antecedent nouns of time1 c41 how far allowable --derivation of1 from ,anglo-,sax4 ,whether1 as an interrog4 pron42 as a disjunc4 conjunc4 --conjunc4 corresponsive to or --as do41 its derivation from ,sax4 ,which1 relative --its former use2 to what objects now confined --its use after a personal term taken by meton4 for a thing2 do41 as still applicable to persons --is of all the genders1 7in oppos4 to ,,murr41 ,,webst41 et4 al417 --is less approp4 than who1 in all personifications --its construc4 when taken in its discrim4 sense1 --how differs from the rel4 that --,,blair',s incorrect remarks respecting --,which1 as rel4 or interrog41 declined --,which1 sometimes takes whose for its poss41 --represents a prop4 name taken merely as a name1 7,herod --,,which is but1 c417 --do4 nouns of mult1 expressing persons1 when such are strictly of the neut4 gend41 7,the ,,committees ,,which c417 --in what cases is less approp4 than that --does not fitly represent an indicative assertion1 7',be ,,attentive1 without ,,which1 c417 --its ,sax4 derivation shown --,the which1 obsol41 --,which1 interrog41 what demands1 --to what objects applied --now used for the obsol4 whether4 ,whichever1 whichsoever1 signif4 and construc4 of --declension of4 ,who1 relative --to what usually applied --has superseded which1 formerly applied to persons1 7,our ,father ,,who art c417 --to be preferred to which1 in all personifications --how differs from the rel4 that --,who1 as rel4 or interrog41 declined1 --,whose1 use of1 for the defec4 poss41 of which --,than whom1 7see ,than47 --,who1 interrog41 what demands --may be the anteced4 of the rel4 that --,who1 derivation of1 from ,sax4 ,whoever1 and whoso or whosoever1 signif4 and construc4 of --declens4 of --,whoso and whatso1 antiq41 import and use of1 ,whole1 improp4 use of1 for all4 7,almost the ,,whole inhabitants1 ,,hume4174 ,why1 after nouns of cause1 7see ,when1 c47 --,why1 wherefore1 therefore1 their class4 ,will1 verb1 how varied --use of1 as a principal verb4 ,wis1 verb1 pret4 wist1 signif4 and use of --,had ,i wist1 ,with1 for and1 7see ,cum37 --added to adv4 of direc41 with emphat4 imperat4 7,up ,,with it74 ,withal its class and construc4 ,without1 obsol4 use of1 for unless or except4 ,withouten1 paragog4 and poet4 form4 ,withinside of ,won't1 whence formed2 its pronunc4 ,worcester1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,e41 his ,universal and ,critical ,dictionary ,,words1 treated4 --,word1 defined4 --,words distinguished1 and the divisions of1 defined4 --7,see ,compound ,word47 --,words1 ,rules for the figure of2 --simp41 when compounding is to be avoided --when to be joined1 or to be written separately --,words1 the nature of1 explained --the consid4 of1 as comm41 and as prop41 --brevity sought in the comm4 use of --the identity of1 in what consists --unsettled and variable usage with respect to the figure of --,words that may constitute diff4 parts of speech1 their construc4 not to be left doubtf4 --the reference of1 to other words1 do4 --senselessly jumbled1 charac4 of --entirely needless1 how to be disposed of --unintelligently misapplied1 what indicates1 --,words1 ,,punct4 of3 in pairs2 alternated2 put absol42 in appos42 repeated --,words1 derivation of1 treated --most of those regarded as primitives in ,eng41 may be traced to ulterior sources --the study of1 its importance --how the knowledge of1 may be promoted with respect to ,eng4 --,words1 the use of1 as affecting ,purity --do41 as affect4 ,propriety --do41 as affect4 ,precision --do41 as affect4 ,perspicuity --do41 as affect4 ,strength ,worshiper1 whether properly written with a single or a double p ,worth1 its class and construc4 ,worthy1 admits not ellips4 of prep1 of before obj4 following ,writing1 to write1 what meant by ,x4 ,x1 its name and plur4 num4 --format4 of the plur4 of nouns in --why never doubled --written for a number --its sounds ,y4 ,y1 its name and plur4 numb42 --borrowed first by the ,romans from the ,greeks1 by whom called ,ypsilon --in ,eng4 is either a vowel or a conson4 --classed with the semivowels --final1 changed or unchanged before terminations --do41 when1 by former practice1 retained in verbs ending in y1 before conson4 terminations --sounds of --in poet4 format4 of adjectives ,ye1 nom4 plur41 solemn style --its use as the obj4 case --as a mere explet4 in burlesque --its use in the lang4 of tragedy --used for thee --in the ,eng4 ,bible not found in the obj4 case --,ye and you1 promisc4 use of1 in the same case and the same style1 ineleg4 ,yes1 yea1 in a simp4 affirmation1 construc4 and class of --derivation of1 from ,anglo-,sax4 ,you1 use of1 for thou --,you1 with was1 7,,you ,,was ,,building17 approved by ,,dr4 ,,webst4 et al41 as the better form for the sing4 numb4 --,you1 and ,,verb ,,plur41 in reference to one person1 how to be treated in parsing4 ,your1 facet4 in conversation1 and how uttered 7,dwells1 like ,,your miser1 sir1 c41 ,,shak417 ,yourself1 its pecul4 of construc4 ,your ,majesty1 your ,highness1 c41 see ,address4 ,youyouing and theethouing1 history of ,z4 ,z1 its name and plur4 --has been called by several names2 ,,walk41 on the name --peculiarity of its ordinary form --its sounds described ,zeugma1 7i4e41 ,,jugatio1 vel ,,connexio1 ,sanct417 the various forms of1 were named and noticed1 but not censured1 by the ancient grammarians --constructions of adjectives1 referred to the figure1 7,,one or a ,,few judges172 do4 of verbs1 7,but ,,he ,,nor ,i ,,feel more1 ,,young17 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,index1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,english ,,grammars4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,ben ,jonson's notion of grammar1 and of its parts1 was as follows3 ,grammar is the art of true and well-speaking a language3 the writing is but an accident4 ,the ,parts of ,grammar are ,etymology which is _/ the true notation of words1 ,syntaxe _/ the right ordering of them4 ,a word is a part of speech or note1 whereby a thing is known or called2 and consisteth of one or more letters4 ,a letter is an indivisible part of a syllable1 whose prosody1 or right sounding1 is perceived by the power2 the orthography1 or right writing1 by the form4 ,prosody1 and ,orthography1 are not parts of grammar1 but diffused1 like blood and spirits1 through the whole4--,jonson's ,grammar1 ,book ,i4 #b ,horne ,tooke eagerly seized upon a part of this absurdity1 to prove that ,dr4 ,lowth1 from whom ,murray derived the idea1 was utterly unprepared for what he undertook in the character of a grammarian3 ,dr4 ,lowth1 when he undertook to write his ,introduction1 with the best intention in the world1 most assuredly sinned against his better judgment4 ,for he begins most judiciously1 thus--',universal grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages4 ,the grammar of any particular language1 applies those common principles to that particular language4' ,and yet1 with this clear truth before his eyes1 he boldly proceeds to give a particular grammar2 without being himself possessed of one single principle of universal grammar4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #bbd4 ,if ,dr4 ,lowth discredited his better judgement in attempting to write an ,english grammar1 perhaps ,murray1 and his weaker copyists1 have little honoured theirs1 in supposing they were adequate to such a work4 ,but ,i do not admit1 that either ,lowth or ,murray begins most judiciously1 in speaking of ,universal and ,particular grammar in the manner above cited4 ,the authors who have started with this fundamental blunder1 are strangely numerous4 ,it is found in some of the most dissimilar systems that can be named4 ,even ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce1 who has a much lower opinion of ,murray's ability in grammar than ,tooke had of ,lowth's1 adopts this false notion with all implicitness1 though he decks it in language more objectionable1 and scorns to acknowledge whence he got it4 ,see his ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,de ,suey1 in his ,principles of ,general ,grammar1 says1 ,all rules of ,syntax relate to two things1 ,agreement and ,government4--,foxdick's ,tr41 p4 #ajh4 ,and again3 ,none of these rules properly belong to ,general ,grammar1 as each language follows1 in regard to the rules of ,agreement and ,government1 a course peculiar to itself4--,ibid41 p4 #aji4 ,it is with ,construction i4e41 ,arrangement as with ,syntax4 ,it follows no general rule common to all languages4--,ibid4 ,according to these positions1 which ,i do not admit to be strictly true1 ,general or ,universal ,grammar has no principles of ,syntax at all1 whatever else it may have which ,particular ,grammar can assume and apply4 #c ,this verb do is wrong1 because to be contemned is passive4 #d ,a very good judge has left us his opinion and determination in this matter2 that he 'would take for his rule in speaking1 not what might happen to be the faulty caprice of the multitude1 but the consent and agreement of learned men4'--,creighton's ,dict41 p4 #ba4 ,the good judge here spoken of1 is ,quintilian2 whose words on the point are these3 ,necessarium est judicium1 constituendumque imprimis1 id ipsum quid sit1 quod consuetudinem vocemus4 99 99 99 ,in loquendo1 non1 si quid vitiose multis insederit1 pro regula sermonis1 amplendum est4 99 99 99 ,ergo consuetudinem sermonis1 vocabo consensum eruditorum sicut vivendi1 consenum honorum4--,de ,inst4 ,orat41 ,lib4 i4 ,cap4 #f1 p4 #eg4 #e ,the opinion of plenty is amongst the causes of want2 and the great quantity of books maketh a show rather of superfluity than lack2 which surcharge1 nevertheless1 is not to be removed by making no more books1 but by making more good books1 which1 as the serpent of ,moses1 might devour the serpents of the enchanters4--,bacon4 ,in point of style1 his lordship is here deficient2 and he has also mixed and marred the figure which he uses4 ,but the idea is a good one4 #f ,not1 ,oldham1 in ,hampshire1 as the ,universal ,biographical ,dictionary has it2 for ,oldham is in ,lancashire1 and the name of ,lily's birthplace has sometimes been spelled ,odiam4 #g ,there are other ,latin grammars now in use in ,england2 but what one is most popular1 or whether any regard is still paid to the ancient edict or not1 ,i cannot say4 ,dr4 ,adam1 in his preface1 dated #agic1 speaking of ,lily1 says3 ,his ,grammar was appointed1 by an act which is still in force1 to be taught in the established schools of ,england4 ,i have somehow gained the impression1 that the act is now totally disregarded4--,g4 ,brown4 #h ,for this there is an obvious reason1 or apology1 in what his biographer states1 as the humble origin of his ,grammar2 and it is such a reason as will go to confirm what ,i allege4 ,this famous compilation was produced at the request of two or three young teachers1 who had charge of a small female school in the neighbourhood of the author's residence3 and nothing could have been more unexpected to their friend and instructor1 than that he1 in consequence of this service1 should become known the world over1 as ,murray the ,grammarian4 ,in preparing the work1 and consenting to the publicaton1 he had no expectation that it would be read1 except by the school for which it was designed1 and two or three other schools conducted by persons who were also his friends4--,life of ,l ,murray1 p4 #bej4 #i ,grammatici namque auctoritas per se nulla est2 quom ex sola doctissimorum oraturum1 historicorum1 poetarum1 et aliorum ideonorum scriptorum observatione1 constet ortam esse veram grammaticam4 ,multa dicenda forent1 si grammatistarum ineptias refellere vellem3 sed nulla est gloria prterire asellos4--,,despauterii ,prf4 ,art4 ,versif41 fol4 iii1 #aeag4 #aj ,the ,latin word for participle is participium1 which makes participio in the dative or the ablative case2 but the ,latin word for partake is participo1 and not participio4--,g4 ,,brown4 #aa ,this sentence is manifestly bad ,english3 either the singular verb appears should be made plural1 or the plural noun investigations should be made singular4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ab ,what6 a book have no merit1 and yet be called for at the rate of sixty thousand copies a year6 ,what a slander is this upon the public taste6 ,what an insult to the understanding and discrimination of the good people of these ,united ,states6 ,according to this reasoning1 all the inhabitants of our land must be fools1 except one man1 and that man is ,,goold ,,brown6--,,kirkham1 in the ,knickerbocker1 ,oct4 #ahcg1 p4 #cfa4 ,well may the honest critic expect to be called a slanderer of the public taste1 and an insulter of the nation's understanding1 if both the merit of this vaunted book and the wisdom of its purchasers are to be measured and proved by the author's profits1 or the publisher's account of sales6 ,but1 possibly1 between the intrinsic merit and the market value of some books there may be a difference4 ,lord ,byron1 it is said1 received from ,murray his bookseller1 nearly ten dollars a line for the ,fourth ,canto of ,childe ,harold1 or about as much for every two lines as ,milton obtained for the whole of ,paradise ,lost4 ,is this the true ratio of the merit of these authors1 or of the wisdom of the different ages in which they lived8 #ac ,kirkham's real opinion of ,murray cannot be known from this passage only4 ,how able is that writer who is chargeable with the greatest want of taste and discernment8 ,in regard to the application of the final pause in reading blank verse1 nothing can betray a greater want of rhetorical taste and philosophical acumen1 than the directions of ,mr4 ,murray4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #ade4 ,kirkham is indeed no judge either of the merits1 or of the demerits1 of ,murray's writings2 nor is it probable that this criticism originated with himself4 ,but1 since it appears in his name1 let him have the credit of it1 and of representing the compiler whom he calls that able writer and that eminent philologist1 as an untasteful dunce1 and a teacher of nonsense3 ,to say that1 unless we 'make every line sensible to the ear1' we mar the melody1 and suppress the numbers of the poet1 is all nonsense4--,ibid4 ,see ,murray's ,grammar1 on ,poetical ,pauses2 #hvo1 p4 #bfj2 #abmo1 #baj4 #ad ,now1 in these instances1 ,i should be fair game1 were it not for the trifling difference1 that ,i happen to present the doctrines and notions of other writers1 and ,,not my own1 as stated by my learned censor4--,,kirkham1 in the ,knickerbocker1 ,oct4 #ahcg1 p4 #cfj4 ,if the instructions above cited are not his own1 there is not1 within the lids of either book1 a penny's worth that is4 ,his fruitful copy-rights are void in law3 the learned censor's pledge shall guaranty this issue4--,g4 ,b4 #ahch4 #ae ,i am sorry to observe that the gentleman1 ,phrenologist1 as he professes to be1 has so little reverence in his crown4 ,he could not read the foregoing suggestion without scoffing at it4 ,biblical truth is not powerless1 though the scornful may refuse its correction4--,g4 ,b4 #ahch4 #af ,every schoolboy is familiar with the following lines1 and rightly understands the words evil and good to be nouns1 and not adjectives4 ,the evil that men do1 lives after them2 ,the good is oft interred with their bones4--,,shakspeare4 ,julius ,csar1 ,act #c3 ,antony's ,funeral ,oration over ,csar's ,body4 ,kirkham has vehemently censured me for omitting the brackets in which he encloses the words that be supposes to be understood in this couplet4 ,but he forgets two important circumstances3 ,first1 that ,i was quoting1 not the bard1 but the grammatist2 ,second1 that a writer uses brackets1 to distinguish his own amendments of what he quotes1 and not those of an other man4 ,hence the marks which he has used1 would have been improper for me4 ,their insertion does not make his reading of the passage good ,english1 and1 consequently1 does not avert the point of my criticism4 ,the foregoing ,review of ,kirkham's ,grammar1 was published as an extract from my manuscript1 by the editors of the ,knickerbocker1 in their number for ,june1 #ahcg4 ,four months afterwards1 with friendships changed1 they gave1 him the justice of appearing in their pages1 in a long and virulent article against me and my works1 representing me1 with emphatic force1 as a knave1 a liar1 and a pedant4 ,the enmity of that effusion ,i forgave2 because ,i bore him no personal ill-will1 and was not selfish enough to quarrel for my own sake4 ,its imbecility clearly proved1 that in this critique there is nothing with which he could justly find fault4 ,perceiving that no point of this argument could be broken1 he changed the ground1 and satisfied himself with despising1 upbraiding1 and vilifying the writer4 ,of what use this was1 others may judge4 ,this extraordinary grammarian survived the publication of my criticism about ten years1 and1 it is charitably hoped1 died happily2 while ,i have had1 for a period somewhat longer1 all the benefits which his earnest castigation was fit to confer4 ,it is not perceived1 that what was written before these events1 should now be altered or suppressed by reason of them4 ,with his pretended defence1 ,i shall now concern myself no further than simply to deny one remarkable assertion contained in it2 which is this--that ,i1 ,goold ,brown1 at the funeral of ,aaron ,ely1 in #ahcj1 praised1 and highly praised1 this self-same ,grammar1 and declared it to be ',a ,,good ,,work6'--,,kirkham1 in the ,knickerbocker1 ,oct41 #ahcg1 p4 #cfb4 ,i treated him always courteously1 and1 on this solemn occasion1 walked with him without disputing on grammar2 but1 if this statement of his has any reasonable foundation1 ,i know not what it is4--,g4 ,b4 in #ahej4 #ag ,see ,notes to ,pope's ,dunciad1 ,book ,,ii1 verse #adj4 #ah ,a modern namesake of the ,doctor's1 the ,rev4 ,david ,blair1 has the following conception of the utility of these speculations3 ,to enable children to comprehend the abstract idea that all the words in a language consist but of nine kinds1 it will be found useful to explain how savage tribes ,,who having no language1 would first invent one1 beginning with interjections and nouns1 and proceeding from one part of speech to another1 as their introduction might successively be called for by necessity or luxury4--,blair's ,pract4 ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 vii4 #ai ,interjections1 ,i shewed1 or passionate exclamations1 were the first elements of speech4 ,men laboured to communicate their feelings to one another1 by those expressive cries and gestures which nature taught them4--,dr4 ,hugh ,blair's ,lectures1 p4 #eg4 #bj ,it is certain that the verb was invented before the noun1 in all the languages of which a tolerable account has been procured1 either in ancient or modern times4--,dr4 ,alex4 ,murray's ,history of ,european ,languages1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cbf4 #ba ,the ,greek of this passage1 together with a translation not very different from the foregoing1 is given as a marginal note1 in ,harris's ,hermes1 ,book ,,iii1 ,chap4 #c;d4 #bb ,the ,bible does not say positively that there was no diversity of languages before the flood2 but1 since the life-time of ,adam extended fifty-six years into that of ,lamech1 the father of ,noah1 and two hundred and forty-three into that of ,methuselah1 the father of ,lamech1 with both of whom ,noah was contemporary nearly six hundred years1 it is scarcely possible that there should have occurred any such diversity1 either in ,noah's day or before1 except from some extraordinary cause4 ,lord ,bacon regarded the multiplication of languages at ,babel as a general evil1 which had had no parallel but in the curse pronounced after ,adam's transgression4 ,when the language of all the earth was confounded1 ,noah was yet alive1 and he is computed to have lived #afb years afterwards2 but whether in his day1 or at how early a period1 grammar was thought of1 as a remedy for this evil1 does not appear4 ,bacon says1 ,concerning speech and words1 the consideration of them hath produced the science of grammar4 ,for man still striveth to redintegrate himself in those benedictions1 of which1 by his fault1 he hath been deprived2 and as he hath striven against the first general curse by the invention of all other arts1 so hath he striven to come forth from the second general curse1 which was the confusion of tongues1 by the art of grammar2 whereof the use in a mother tongue is small1 in a foreign tongue more1 but most in such foreign tongues as have ceased to be vulgar tongues1 and are turned only to learned tongues4--,see ,english ,journal of ,education1 ,vol4 viii1 p4 #ddd4 #bc ,it should be1 to all living creatures2 for each creature had1 probably1 but one name4--,g4 ,brown4 #bd ,some recent ,german authors of note suppose language to have sprung up among men of itself1 like spontaneous combustion in oiled cotton2 and seem to think1 that people of strong feelings and acute minds must necessarily or naturally utter their conceptions by words--and even by words both spoken and written4 ,frederick ,von ,schlegel1 admitting the spontaneous origin of language generally1 and referring speech to its original source--a deep feeling1 and a clear discriminating intelligence1 adds3 ,the oldest system of writing developed itself at the same time1 and in the same manner1 as the spoken language2 not wearing at first the symbolic form1 which it subsequently assumed in compliance with the necessities of a less civilized people1 but composed of certain signs1 which1 in accordance with the simplest elements of language1 actually conveyed the sentiments of the race of men then existing4--,millington's ,translation of ,schlegel's sthetic ,works1 p4 #dee4 #be ,modern ,europe owes a principal share of its enlightened and moral state to the restoration of learning3 the advantages which have accrued to history1 religion1 the philosophy of the mind1 and the progress of society2 the benefits which have resulted from the models of ,greek and ,roman taste--in short1 all that a knowledge of the progress and attainments of man in past ages can bestow on the present1 has reached it through the medium of philology4--,dr4 ,murray's ,history of ,european ,languages1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cce4 #bf ,the idea of ,god is a development from within1 and a matter of faith1 not an induction from without1 and a matter of proof4 ,when ,christianity has developed its correlative principles within us1 then we find evidences of its truth everywhere2 nature is full of them3 but we cannot find them before1 simply because we have no eye to find them with4--,h4 ,n4 ,,hudson3 ,democratic ,review1 ,may1 #ahde4 #bg ,so far as mind1 soul1 or spirit1 is a subject of natural science1 7under whatever name17 it may of course be known naturally4 ,to say to what extent theology may be considered a natural science1 or how much knowledge of any kind may have been opened to men otherwise than by words1 is not now in point4 ,dr4 ,campbell says1 ,under the general term physiology ,i also comprehend natural theology and psychology1 which1 in my opinion1 have been most unnaturally disjoined by philosophers4 ,spirit1 which here comprises only the ,supreme ,being and the human soul1 is surely as much included under the notion of natural object as a body is1 and is knowable to the philosopher purely in the same way1 by observation and experience4--,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #ff4 ,it is quite unnecessary for the teacher of languages to lead his pupils into any speculations on this subject4 ,it is equally foreign to the history of grammar and to the philosophy of rhetoric4 #bh ,except ye utter by the tongue words easy to be understood1 how shall it be known what is spoken8 for ye shall speak into the air4 ,there are1 it may be1 so many kinds of voices in the world1 and none of them is without signification4 ,therefore1 if ,i know not the meaning of the voice1 ,i shall be unto him that speaketh1 a barbarian2 and he that speaketh1 shall be a barbarian unto me4--#a ,cor41 xiv4 #i1 #aj1 #aa4 ,it is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things4 ,it may1 and often doth1 come short of it4 ,words may be remembered as sounds1 but they cannot be understood as signs1 whilst we remain unacquainted with the things signified4--,campbell's ,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #afj4 ,words can excite only ideas already acquired1 and if no previous ideas have been formed1 they are mere unmeaning sounds4--,spurzheim on ,education1 p4 #bjj4 #bi ,sheridan the elecutionist makes this distinction3 ,all that passes in the mind of man1 may be reduced to two classes1 which ,i call ideas and emotions4 ,by ideas1 ,i mean all thoughts which rise1 and pass in succession in the mind4 ,by emotions1 all exertions of the mind in arranging1 combining1 and separating its ideas2 as well as the effects produced on all the mind itself by those ideas2 from the more violent agitation of the passions1 to the calmer feelings produced by the operation of the intellect and the fancy4 ,in short1 thought is the object of the one2 internal feeling1 of the other4 ,that which serves to express the former1 ,i call the language of ideas2 and the latter1 the language of emotions4 ,words are the signs of the one3 tones1 of the other4 ,without the use of these two sorts of language1 it is impossible to communicate through the ear1 all that passes in the mind of man4--,sheridan's ,art of ,reading2 ,blair's ,lectures1 p4 #ccc4 #cj ,language is the great instrument1 by which all the faculties of the mind are brought forward1 moulded1 polished1 and exerted4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 xiv4 #ca ,it should be1 ,these are4--,g4 ,b4 #cb ,it should be1 ,they fitly represent4--,g4 ,b4 #cc ,this is badly expressed2 for1 according to his own deduction1 each part has but one sign4 ,it should be1 ,we express the several parts by as many several signs4--,g4 ,brown4 #cd ,it would be better ,english to say1 the instruments and the signs4--,g4 ,brown4 #ce ,good speakers do not pronounce above three syllables in a second of time2 and generally only two and a half1 taking in the necessary pauses4--,steele's ,melody of ,speech4 #cf ,the same idea is also conveyed in the following sentence from ,dr4 ,campbell3 ,whatever regards the analysis of the operations of the mind1 which is quicker than lightning in all her energies1 must in a great measure be abstruse and dark4--,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #bhi4 ,yet this philosopher has given it as his opinion1 that we really think by signs as well as speak by them4--,ib41 p4 #bhd4 ,to reconcile these two positions with each other1 we must suppose that thinking by signs1 or words1 is a process infinitely more rapid than speech4 #cg ,that generalization or abstraction which gives to similar things a common name1 is certainly no laborious exercise of intellect2 nor does any mind find difficulty in applying such a name to an individual by means of the article4 ,the general sense and the particular are alike easy to the understanding1 and ,i know not whether it is worth while to inquire which is first in order4 ,dr4 ,alexander ,murray says1 ,it must be attentively remembered1 that all terms run from a general to a particular sense4 ,the work of abstraction1 the ascent from individual feelings to classes of these1 was finished before terms were invented4 ,man was silent till he had formed some ideas to communicate2 and association of his perceptions soon led him to think and reason in ordinary matters4--,hist4 of ,european ,languages1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #id4 ,and1 in a note upon this passage1 he adds3 ,this is to be understood of primitive or radical terms4 ,by the assertion that man was silent till he had formed ideas to communicate1 is not meant1 that any of our species were originally destitute of the natural expressions of feeling or thought4 ,all that it implies1 is1 that man had been subjected1 during an uncertain period of time1 to the impressions made on his senses by the material world1 before he began to express the natural varieties of these by articulated sounds4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,though the abstraction which formed such classes1 might be greatly aided or supported by the signs2 yet it were absurd to suppose that the sign was invented1 till the sense demanded it4--,ib41 p4 #cii4 #ch ,dr4 ,alexander ,murray too1 ,in accounting for the frequent abbreviation of words1 seems to suggest the possibility of giving them the celerity of thought3 ,contraction is a change which results from a propensity to make the signs as rapid as the thoughts which they express4 ,harsh combinations soon suffer contraction4 ,very long words preserve only the principal1 that is1 the accented part4 ,if a nation accents its words on the last syllable1 the preceding ones will often be short1 and liable to contraction4 ,if it follow a contrary practice1 the terminations are apt to decay4--,history of ,european ,languages1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #agb4 #ci ,we cannot form a distinct idea of any moral or intellectual quality1 unless we find some trace of it in ourselves4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 ,part ,second1 ,natural ,theology1 ,chap4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #dbd4 #dj ,aristotle tells us that the world is a copy or transcript of those ideas which are in the mind of the first ,being1 and that those ideas which are in the mind of man1 are a transcript of the world4 ,to this we may add1 that words are the transcripts of those ideas which are in the mind of man1 and that writing or printing are is the transcript of words4--,addison1 ,spect41 ,no4 #aff4 #da ,bolingbroke on ,retirement and ,study1 ,letters on ,history1 p4 #cfd4 #db ,see this passage in ,the ,economy of ,human ,life1 p4 #aje--;a work feigned to be a compend of ,chinese maxims1 but now generally understood to have been written or compiled by ,robert ,dodsley1 an eminent and ingenious bookseller in ,london4 #dc ,those philosophers whose ideas of being and knowledge are derived from body and sensation1 have a short method to explain the nature of ,truth4--,it is a factitious thing1 made by every man for himself2 which comes and goes1 just as it is remembered and forgot2 which in the order of things makes its appearance the last of all1 being not only subsequent to sensible objects1 but even to our sensations of them6 ,according to this hypothesis1 there are many truths1 which have been1 and are no longer2 others1 that will be1 and have not been yet2 and multitudes1 that possibly may never exist at all4 ,but there are other reasoners1 who must surely have had very different notions2 those1 ,i mean1 who represent ,truth not as the last1 but as the first of beings2 who call it immutable1 eternal1 omnipresent2 attributes that all indicate something more than human4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #djc4 #dd ,of the best method of teaching grammar1 ,i shall discourse in an other chapter4 ,that methods radically different must lend to different results1 is no more than every intelligent person will suppose4 ,the formation of just methods of instruction1 or true systems of science1 is work for those minds which are capable of the most accurate and comprehensive views of the things to be taught4 ,he that is capable of originating and producing truth1 or true ideas1 if any but the ,divine ,being is so1 has surely no need to be trained into such truth by any factitious scheme of education4 ,in all that he thus originates1 he is himself a ,novum ,organon of knowledge1 and capable of teaching others1 especially those officious men who would help him with their second-hand authorship1 and their paltry catechisms of common-places4 ,i allude here to the fundamental principle of what in some books is called ,the ,productive ,system of ,instruction1 and to those schemes of grammar which are professedly founded on it4 ,we are told that1 ,the leading principle of this system1 is that which its name indicates--that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient of the ideas of others1 but as an agent capable of collecting1 and originating1 and producing most of the ideas which are necessary for its education1 when presented with the objects or the facts from which they may be derived4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 #e3 ,amer4 ,journal of ,education1 ,new ,series1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #f1 ,art4 #a4 ,it ought to be enough for any teacher1 or for any writer1 if he finds his readers or his pupils ready recipients of the ideas which he aims to convey4 ,what more they know1 they can never owe to him1 unless they learn it from him against his will2 and what they happen to lack1 of understanding or believing him1 may very possibly be more his fault than theirs4 #de ,lindley ,murray1 anonymously copying somebody1 ,i know not whom1 says3 ,words derive their meaning from the consent and practice of those who use them4 ,there is no necessary connexion between words and ideas4 ,the association between the sign and the thing signified1 is purely arbitrary4--,octavo ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aci4 ,the second assertion here made1 is very far from being literally true4 ,however arbitrary may be the use or application of words1 their connexion with ideas is so necessary1 that they cannot be words without it4 ,signification1 as ,i shall hereafter prove1 is a part of the very essence of a word1 the most important element of its nature4 ,and ,murray himself says1 ,the understanding and language have a strict connexion4--,ib41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cef4 ,in this1 he changes without amendment the words of ,blair3 ,logic and rhetoric have here1 as in many other cases1 a strict connexion4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #abj4 #df ,the language which is1 at present1 spoken throughout ,great ,britain1 is neither the ancient primitive speech of the island1 nor derived from it2 but is altogether of foreign origin4 ,the language of the first inhabitants of our island1 beyond doubt1 was the ,celtic1 or ,glic1 common to them with ,gaul2 from which country1 it appears1 by many circumstances1 that ,great ,britain was peopled4 ,this ,celtic tongue1 which is said to be very expressive and copious1 and is1 probably1 one of the most ancient languages in the world1 obtained once in most of the western regions of ,europe4 ,it was the language of ,gaul1 of ,great ,britain1 of ,ireland1 and very probably1 of ,spain also2 till1 in the course of those revolutions which by means of the conquests1 first1 of the ,romans1 and afterwards1 of the northern nations1 changed the government1 speech1 and1 in a manner1 the whole face of ,europe1 this tongue was gradually obliterated2 and now subsists only in the mountains of ,wales1 in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 and among the wild ,irish4 ,for the ,irish1 the ,welsh1 and the ,erse1 are no other than different dialects of the same tongue1 the ancient ,celtic4--,blair's ,rhetoric1 ,lect4 ,,ix1 p4 #he4 #dg ,with some writers1 the ,celtic language is the ,welsh2 as may be seen by the following extract3 ,by this he requires an ,impossibility1 since much the greater ,part of ,mankind can by no means spare #aj or #aa ,years of their ,lives in learning those dead ,languages1 to arrive at a perfect ,knowledge of their own4 ,but by this ,gentleman's way of ,arguing1 we ought not only to be ,masters of ,latin and ,greek1 but of ,spanish1 ,italian1 ,high- ,dutch1 ,low-,dutch1 ,french1 the ,old ,saxon1 ,welsh1 ,runic1 ,gothic1 and ,islandic2 since much the greater number of ,words of common and general ,use are derived from those ,tongues4 ,nay1 by the same way of ,reasoning we may prove1 that the ,romans and ,greeks did not understand their own ,tongues1 because they were not acquainted with the ,welsh1 or ancient ,celtic1 there being above #fbj radical ,greek ,words derived from the ,celtic1 and of the ,latin a much greater ,number4--,preface to ,brightland's ,grammar1 p4 #e4 #dh ,the author of this specimen1 through a solemn and sublime poem in ten books1 generally simplified the preterit verb of the second person singular1 by omitting the termination st or est1 whenever his measure did not require the additional syllable4 ,but his tuneless editors have1 in many instances1 taken the rude liberty both to spoil his versification1 and to publish under his name what he did not write4 ,they have given him bad prosody1 or unutterable harshness of phraseology1 for the sake of what they conceived to be grammar4 ,so ,kirkham1 in copying the foregoing passage1 alters it as he will2 and alters it differently1 when he happens to write some part of it twice3 as1 ,that morning1 thou1 that slumberedst not before1 ,nor slept1 great ,ocean6 laidst thy waves at rest1 ,and hushed thy mighty minstrelsy4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #bjc4 ,again3 ,that morning1 thou1 that slumberedst not before1 ,nor sleptst1 great ,ocean1 laidst thy waves at rest1 ,and hush'dst thy mighty minstrelsy4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #dd4 #di ,camenes1 the ,muses1 whom ,horace called ,camn4 ,the former is an ,english plural from the latter1 or from the ,latin word camena1 a muse or song4 ,these lines are copied from ,dr4 ,johnson's ,history of the ,english ,language2 their orthography is1 in some respects1 too modern for the age to which they are assigned4 #ej ,the ,saxon characters being known nowadays to but very few readers1 ,i have thought proper to substitute for them1 in the latter specimens of this chapter1 the ,roman2 and1 as the old use of colons and periods for the smallest pauses1 is liable to mislead a common observer1 the punctuation too has here been modernized4 #ea ,essay on ,language1 by ,william ,s4 ,cardell1 ,new ,york1 #ahbe1 p4 #b4 ,this writer was a great admirer of ,horne ,tooke1 from whom he borrowed many of his notions of grammar1 but not this extravagance4 ,speaking of the words right and just1 the latter says1 ,they are applicable only to man2 to whom alone language belongs1 and of whose sensations only words are the representatives4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #i4 #eb ,,cardell3 ,both ,grammars1 p4 #d4 #ec ,quoties dicimus1 toties de nobis judicatur4--,cicero4 ,as often as we speak1 so often are we judged4 #ed ,nor had he far to seek for the source of our impropriety in the use of words1 when he should reflect that the study of our own language1 has never been made a part of the education of our youth4 ,consequently1 the use of words is got wholly by chance1 according to the company that we keep1 or the books that we read4 ,,sheridan',s ,,elocution1 ,introd41 p4 viii1 dated ,july #aj1 #agfb1 #b;d ,amer4 ,ed4 #ee ,to ,write and ,speak correctly1 gives a ,grace1 and gains a favourable ,attention to what one has to say3 ,and since 'tis ,english1 that an ,english ,gentleman will have constant use of1 that is the ,language he should chiefly ,cultivate1 and wherein most care should be taken to polish and perfect his ,stile4 ,to speak or write better ,latin than ,english1 may make a ,man be talk'd of1 but he would find it more to his purpose to ,express himself well in his own ,tongue1 that he uses every moment1 than to have the vain ,commendation of others for a very insignificant quality4 ,this ,i find universally neglected1 and no care taken any where to improve ,young ,men in their own ,language1 that they may thoroughly understand and be ,masters of it4 ,if any one among us have a facility or purity more than ordinary in his ,mother ,tongue1 it is owing to ,chance1 or his ,genius1 or any thing1 rather than to his ,education or any care of his ,teacher4 ,to ,mind what ,english his ,pupil speaks or writes is below the ,dignity of one bred up amongst ,greek and ,latin1 though he have but little of them himself4 ,these are the learned ,languages fit only for learned ,men to meddle with and teach3 ,english is the ,language of the illiterate ,vulgar4--,locke1 on ,education1 p4 #cci2 ,fourth ,ed41 ,london1 #afii4 #ef ,a late author1 in apologizing for his choice in publishing a grammar without forms of praxis1 7that is1 without any provision for a stated application of its principles by the learner17 describes the whole business of ,parsing as a dry and uninteresting recapitulation of the disposal of a few parts of speech1 and their often times told positions and influence2 urges the unimportance of parsing1 generally2 and represents it to be only a finical and ostentatious parade of practical pedantry4--,wright's ,philosophical ,gram41 pp4 #bbd and #bbf4 ,it would be no great mistake to imagine1 that this gentleman's system of grammar1 applied in any way to practice1 could not fail to come under this unflattering description2 but1 to entertain this notion of parsing in general1 is as great an error1 as that which some writers have adopted on the other hand1 of making this exercise their sole process of inculcation1 and supposing it may profitably supersede both the usual arrangement of the principles of grammar and the practice of explaining them by definitions4 ,it is asserted in ,parkhurst's ,english ,grammar for ,beginners1 on the ,inductive ,method of ,instruction1 that1 to teach the child a definition at the outset1 is beginning at the wrong end2 that1 with respect to all that goes under the name of etymology in grammar1 it is learned chiefly by practice in parsing1 and scarcely at all by the aid of definitions4-- ,preface1 pp4 #e and #f4 #eg ,hesitation in speech may arise from very different causes4 ,if we do not consider this1 our efforts to remove it may make it worse4 ,in most instances1 however1 it may be overcome by proper treatment1 ,stammering1 says a late author1 is occasioned by an over-effort to articulate2 for when the mind of the speaker is so occupied with his subject as not to allow him to reflect upon his defect1 he will talk without difficulty4 ,all stammerers can sing1 owing to the continuous sound1 and the slight manner in which the consonants are touched in singing2 so a drunken man can run1 though he cannot walk or stand still4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #cj4 ,to think rightly1 is of knowledge2 to speak fluently1 is of nature2 ,to read with profit1 is of care2 but to write aptly1 is of practice4 ,book of ,thoughts1 p4 #adj4 #eh ,there is nothing more becoming to a ,gentleman1 or more useful in all the occurrences of life1 than to be able1 on any occasion1 to speak well1 and to the purpose4--,locke1 on ,education1 #aga4 ,but yet1 ,i think ,i may ask my reader1 whether he doth not know a great many1 who live upon their estates1 and so1 with the name1 should have the qualities of ,gentlemen1 who cannot so much as tell a story as they should2 much less speak clearly and persuasively in any business4 ,this ,i think not to be so much their fault1 as the fault of their education4--,they have been taught ,rhetoric1 but yet never taught how to express themselves handsomely with their tongues or pens in the language they are always to use2 as if the names of the figures that embellish the discourses of those who understood the art of speaking1 were the very art and skill of speaking well4 ,this1 as all other things of practice1 is to be learned1 not by a few1 or a great many rules given2 but by ,,exercise and ,,application according to ,,good ,,rules1 or rather ,,patterns1 till habits are got1 and a facility of doing it well4--,ib41 #ahi4 ,the forms of parsing and correcting which the following work supplies1 are patterns1 for the performance of these practical exercises2 and such patterns as ought to be implicitly followed1 by every one who means to be a ready and correct speaker on these subjects4 #ei ,the principal claimants of the ,inductive ,method of ,grammar1 are ,richard ,w4 ,green1 ,roswell ,c4 ,smith1 ,john ,l4 ,parkhurst1 ,dyor ,h4 ,sanborn1 ,bradford ,frazee1 and1 ,solomon ,barrett1 ,jr42 a set of writers1 differing indeed in their qualifications1 but in general not a little deficient in what constitutes an accurate grammarian4 #fj ,william ,c4 ,woodbridge edited the ,journal1 and probably wrote the article1 from which the author of ,english ,grammar on the ,productive ,system took his ,preface4 #fa ,many other grammars1 later than ,murray's1 have been published1 some in ,england1 some in ,america1 and some in both countries2 and among these there are1 ,i think1 a few in which a little improvement has been made1 in the methods prescribed for the exercises of parsing and correcting4 ,in most1 however1 nothing of the kind has been attempted4 ,and1 of the formularies which have been given1 the best that ,i have seen1 are still miserably defective1 and worthy of all the censure that is expressed in the paragraph above2 while others1 that appear in works not entirely destitute of merit1 are absolutely much worse than ,murray's1 and worthy to condemn to a speedy oblivion the books in which they are printed4 ,in lieu of forms of expression1 clear1 orderly1 accurate1 and full2 such as a young parser might profitably imitate2 such as an experienced one would be sure to approve2 what have we8 ,a chaos of half-formed sentences1 for the ignorant pupil to flounder in2 an infinite abyss of blunders1 which a world of criticism could not fully expose6 ,see1 for example1 the seven pages of parsing1 in the neat little book entitled1 ,a ,practical ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 by the ,rev4 ,david ,blair3 ,seventh ,edition3 ,london1 #ahae3 pp4 #di to #eg4 ,i cannot consent to quote more than one short paragraph of the miserable jumble which these pages contain4 ,yet the author is evidently a man of learning1 and capable of writing well on some subjects1 if not on this4 ,bless the ,lord1 ,o my soul6 ,form3 ,bless1 a verb1 7repeat #ig72 active 7repeat #ii72 active voice 7#ajb72 infinitive mood 7#ajg72 third person1 soul being the nominative 7#aah72 present tense 7#aaa72 conjugate the verb after the pattern 7#abi72 its object is ,lord 7#ii74--;,blair's ,gram41 p4 #ej4 ,of the paragraphs referred to1 ,i must take some notice3 #ajg4 ,the imperative mood commands or orders or intreats4--,ib41 p4 #ai4 #aah4 ,the second person is always the pronoun thou or you in the singular1 and ye or you in the plural4--,ib41 p4 #ba4 #aaa4 ,the imperative mood has no distinction of tense3 and the infinitive has no distinction of persons4--,ib41 p4 #bj4 ,now the author should have said3 ,bless is a redundant active-transitive verb1 from bless1 blessed or blest1 blessing1 blessed or blest2 found in the imperative mood1 present tense1 second person1 and singular number3 and1 if he meant to parse the word syntactically1 he should have added3 and agrees with its nominative thou understood2 according to the rule which says1 ',every finite verb must agree with its subject or nominative1 in person and number4' ,because the meaning is--,bless thou the ,lord4 ,this is the whole story4 ,but1 in the form above1 several things are false2 many1 superfluous2 some1 deficient2 several1 misplaced2 nothing1 right4 ,not much better are the models furnished by ,kirkham1 ,smith1 ,lennie1 ,bullions1 and other late authors4 #fb ,of ,dr4 ,bullions's forms of parsing1 as exhibited in his ,english ,grammar1 which is a modification of ,lennie's ,grammar1 it is difficult to say1 whether they are most remarkable for their deficiencies1 their redundancies1 or their contrariety to other teachings of the same author or authors4 ,both ,lennie and ,bullions adopt the rule1 that1 ,an ellipsis is not allowable when it would obscure the sentence1 weaken its force1 or be attended with an impropriety4--,l41 p4 #ia2 ,b41 p4 #acj4 ,and the latter strengthens this doctrine with several additional observations1 the first of which reads thus3 ,in general1 no word should be omitted that is necessary to the full and correct construction1 or even harmony of a sentence4--,bullions1 ,e4 ,gr41 #acj4 ,now the parsing above alluded to1 has been thought particularly commendable for its brevity--a quality certainly desirable1 so far as it consists with the end of parsing1 or with the more needful properties of a good style1 clearness1 accuracy1 ease1 and elegance4 ,but1 if the foregoing rule and observation are true1 the models furnished by these writers are not commendably brief1 but miserably defective4 ,their brevity is1 in fact1 such as renders them all bad ,english2 and not only so1 it makes them obviously inadequate to their purpose1 as bringing into use but a part of the principles which the learner had studied4 ,it consists only in the omission of what ought to have been inserted4 ,for example1 this short line1 ,i lean upon the ,lord1 is parsed by both of these gentlemen thus3 ,i1 the first personal pronoun1 masculine1 or feminine1 singular1 the nominative--lean1 a verb1 neuter1 first person singular1 present1 indicative--upon1 a preposition--the1 an article1 the definite--,lord1 a noun1 masculine1 singular1 the objective1 7governed by upon47--,lennie's ,principles of ,english ,gram41 p4 #ea2 ,bullions's1 #gd4 ,this is a little sample of their etymological parsing1 in which exercise they generally omit not only all the definitions or reasons of the various terms applied1 but also all the following particulars3 first1 the verb is1 and certain definitives and connectives1 which are necessary to the full and correct construction of their sentences2 secondly1 the distinction of nouns as proper or common2 thirdly1 the person of nouns1 first1 second1 or third2 fourthly1 the words1 number1 gender1 and case1 which are necessary to the sense and construction of certain words used2 fifthly1 the distinction of adjectives as belonging to different classes2 sixthly1 the division of verbs as being regular or irregular1 redundant or defective2 seventhly1 sometimes1 7,lennie excepted17 the division of verbs as active1 passive1 or neuter2 eighthly1 the words mood and tense1 which ,bullions1 on page #aca1 pronounces quite unnecessary1 and inserts in his own formule on page #acb2 ninthly1 the distinction of adverbs as expressing time1 place1 degree1 or manner2 tenthly1 the distinction of conjunctions as copulative or disjunctive2 lastly1 the distinction of interjections as indicating different emotions4 ,all these things does their completest specimen of etymological parsing lack1 while it is grossly encumbered with parentheses of syntax1 which must be omitted till the pupil get the rules of syntax4--,lennie1 p4 #ea4 ,it is also vitiated with several absurdities1 contradictions1 and improper changes of expression3 as1 ,his1 the third personal pronoun2 7,b41 p4 #bc27--me1 the first personal pronoun2 7,id41 #gd27--;,a1 ,the indefinite article2 7,id41 #gc27--;a1 an article1 the indefinite2 7,id41 #gd27--,when the verb is passive1 parse thus3 ',a verb active1 in the passive voice1 regular1 irregular1' c4--,bullions1 p4 #aca4 ,in stead of teaching sufficiently1 as elements of etymological parsing1 the definitions which belong to this exercise1 and then dismissing them for the principles of syntax1 ,dr4 ,bullions encumbers his method of syntactical parsing with such a series of etymological questions and answers as cannot but make it one of the slowest1 longest1 and most tiresome ever invented4 ,he thinks that the pupil1 after parsing any word syntactically1 should be requested to assign a reason for every thing contained in his statement6--,principles of ,e4 ,grammar1 p4 #aca4 ,and the teacher is to ask questions as numerous as the reasons6 ,such is the parsing of a text-book which has been pronounced superior to any other1 for use in our common schools--a complete grammar of the language1 and available for every purpose for which ,mr4 ,brown's can possibly be used4--,ralph ,k4 ,finch's ,report1 p1 #ab4 #fc ,there are many other critics1 besides ,murray and ,alger1 who seem not to have observed the import of after and before in connexion with the tenses4 ,dr4 ,bullions1 on page #acith of his ,english ,grammar1 copied the foregoing example from ,lennie1 who took it from ,murray4 ,even ,richard ,hiley1 and ,william ,harvey ,wells1 grammarians of more than ordinary tact1 have been obviously misled by the false criticism above cited4 ,one of ,hiley's ,rules of ,syntax1 with its illustration1 stands thus3 ,in the use of the different tenses1 we must particularly observe to use that tense which clearly and properly conveys the sense intended2 thus1 instead of saying1 ',after ,i visited ,europe1 ,i returned to ,america2' we should say1 ',after ,i had visited ,europe1 ,i returned to ,america4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ij4 ,upon this he thought it needful to comment thus3 ',after ,i visited ,europe1 ,i returned to ,america2' this sentence is incorrect2 visited ought to be had visited1 because the action implied by the verb visited ,,was ,,completed before the other past action returned4--,ib41 p4 #ia4 ,see nearly the same thing in ,wells's ,school ,grammar1 #ast ,edition1 p4 #aea2 but his later editions are wisely altered4 ,since visited and was completed are of the same tense1 the argument from the latter1 if it proves any thing1 proves the former to be right1 and the proposed change needless1 or perhaps worse than needless4 ,i visited ,europe before ,i returned to ,america1 or1 ,i visited ,europe1 and afterwards returned to ,america1 is good ,english1 and not to be improved by any change of tense2 yet here too we see the visiting was completed before the return1 or ,,had ,,been ,,completed at the time of the return4 ,i say1 ,the ,pluperfect ,tense is that which expresses what had taken place at some past time mentioned3 as1 ',i had seen him1 when ,i met you4' ,murray says1 ,the ,pluperfect ,tense represents a thing not only as past1 but also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence3 as1 ,i had finished my letter before he arrived4 ,hiley says1 ,the ,past-,perfect expresses an action or event which was past before some other past action or event mentioned in the sentence1 and to which it refers2 as1 ,i had finished my lessons before he came4 ,with this1 ,wells appears to concur1 his example being similar4 ,it seems to me1 that these last two definitions1 and their example too1 are bad2 because by the help of before or after1 the past before the past may be clearly expressed by the simple past tense3 as1 ,i finished my letter before he arrived4--,i finished my lessons before he came4 ,he arrived soon after ,i finished the letter4--,soon after it was completed1 he came in4 #fd ,samuel ,kirkham1 whose grammar is briefly described in the third chapter of this introduction1 boldly lays the blame of all his philological faults1 upon our noble language itself2 and even conceives1 that a well-written and faultless grammar cannot be a good one1 because it will not accord with that reasonless jumble which he takes every existing language to be6 ,how diligently he laboured to perfect his work1 and with what zeal for truth and accuracy1 may be guessed from the following citation3 ,the truth is1 after all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate1 they will still be found1 when critically examined by men of learning and science1 more or less exceptionable4 ,these exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the imperfections of the language4 ,language as well as every thing else of human invention1 will always be imperfect4 ,consequently1 a perfect system of grammatical principles1 would not suit it4 ,a perfect grammar will not be produced1 until some perfect being writes it for a perfect language2 and a perfect language will not be constructed1 until some super-human agency is employed in its production4 ,all grammatical principles and systems which are not perfect are exceptionable4--,kirkham's ,grammar1 p4 #ff4 ,the unplausible sophistry of these strange remarks1 and the palliation they afford to the multitudinous defects of the book which contains them1 may be left1 without further comment1 to the judgement of the reader4 #fe ,the phrase complex ideas1 or compound ideas1 has been used for the notions which we have of things consisting of different parts1 or having various properties1 so as to embrace some sort of plurality3 thus our ideas of all bodies and classes of things are said to be complex or compound4 ,simple ideas are those in which the mind discovers no parts or plurality3 such are the ideas of heat1 cold1 blueness1 redness1 pleasure1 pain1 volition1 c4 ,but some writers have contended1 that the composition of ideas is a fiction2 and that all the complexity1 in any case1 consists only in the use of a general term in lieu of many particular ones4 ,locke is on one side of this debate1 ,horne ,tooke1 on the other4 #ff ,dilworth appears to have had a true idea of the thing1 but he does not express it as a definition2 ,q4 ,is an ,unit of one1 a ,number8 ,a4 ,an ,unit is a number1 because it may properly answer the question how many6--,schoolmaster's ,assistant1 p4 #b4 ,a number in arithmetic1 and a number in grammar1 are totally different things4 ,the plural number1 as men or horses1 does not tell how many2 nor does the word singular mean one1 as the author of a recent grammar says it does4 ,the plural number is one number1 but it is not the singular4 ,the ,productive ,system teaches thus3 ,what does the word singular mean8 ,it means one4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #g4 #fg ,it is truly astonishing that so great a majority of our grammarians could have been so blindly misled1 as they have been1 in this matter2 and the more so1 because a very good definition of a ,letter was both published and republished1 about the time at which ,lowth's first appeared3 viz41 ,what is a letter8 ,a ,letter is the ,sign1 ,mark1 or ,character of a simple or uncompounded ,sound4 ,are ,letters ,sounds8 ,no4 ,letters are only the ,signs or ,symbols of ,sounds1 not the ,sounds themselves4--,the ,british ,grammar1 p4 #c4 ,see the very same words on the second page of ,buchanan's ,english ,syntax1 a work which was published as early as #agfg4 #fh ,in ,murray's octavo ,grammar1 this word is the in the first chapter1 and their in the second2 in the duodecimo1 it is their in both places4 #fi ,the definitions and the rules throughout the ,grammar1 are expressed with neatness and perspicuity4 ,they are as short and comprehensive as the nature of the subject would admit3 and they are well adapted both to the understanding and the memory of young persons4--,life of ,l4 ,murray1 p4 #bde4 ,it may truly be said that the language in every part of the work1 is simple1 correct1 and perspicuous4--,ib41 p4 #bdf4 #gj ,for this definition1 see ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #dj2 ,duodecimo1 #da2 ,smaller ,gram41 #ah2 ,alger's1 #ah2 ,bacon's1 #ae2 ,frost's1 #h1 ,ingersoll's1 #ag2 ,a ,teacher's1 #h2 ,maltby's1 #ad2 ,t4 ,h4 ,miller's1 #bj2 ,pond's1 #ah2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #ae2 ,russell's1 #aa2 ,merchant's ,murray1 #be2 and ,worcester's ,univ4 and ,crit4 ,dictionary4 ,many other grammarians have attempted to define number2 with what success a few examples will show3 7#a47 ,number is the distinction of one from many4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #dj2 ,merchant's ,school ,gram41 #bh2 ,greenleaf's1 #bb2 ,nutting's1 #ag2 ,picket's1 #ai2 ,d4 ,adams's1 #ca4 7#b47 ,number is the distinction of one from more4--,fisher's ,gram41 #ea2 ,alden's1 #g4 7#c47 ,number is the distinction of one from several or many4--,coar's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 7#d47 ,number is the distinction of one from more than one4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bd2 ,j4 ,flint's1 #bg2 ,wells's1 #eb4 7#e47 ,number is the distinction of one from more than one1 or many4--,grant's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #g4 7#f47 ,what is number8 ,number is the ,distinction of one1 from two1 or many4--,british ,gram41 p4 #hi2 ,buchanan's1 #af4 7#g47 ,you inquire1 ',what is number8' ,merely this3 the distinction of one from two1 or many4 ,greek substantives have three numbers4--,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,all these authors say1 that1 in ,english1 there are two numbers1 the singular and the plural4 ,according to their explanations1 then1 we have two distinctions of one from two1 several1 more1 or many2 and the ,greeks1 by adding a dual number1 have three6 ,which1 then1 of the two or three modifications or forms1 do they mean1 when they say1 ,number is the distinction c48 ,or1 if none of them1 what else is meant8 ,all these definitions had their origin in an old ,latin one1 which1 although it is somewhat better1 makes doubtful logic in its application3 ,,numerus est1 unius et multorum distinctio4 ,numeri igitur sunt duo2 ,singularis et ,pluralis4-- ,ruddiman's ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,this means3 7#h47 ,number is a distinction of one and many4 ,the numbers therefore are two2 the ,singular and the ,plural4 ,but we have yet other examples3 as1 7#i47 ,number is the distinction of objects1 as one or more4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,the distinction of objects as one1 is very much like the consideration of an object as more than one4 7#aj47 ,number distinguishes objects as one or more4--,cooper's ,murray1 p4 #ba2 ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ah4 ,that is1 number makes the plural to be either plural or singular for distinction's sake6 7#aa47 ,number is the distinction of nouns with regard to the objects signified1 as one or more4--,fisk's ,murray1 p4 #ai4 ,here1 too1 number has regard to the same confusion3 while1 by a gross error1 its distinction is confined to nouns only6 7#ab47 ,number is that property of a noun by which it expresses one or more than one4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ab2 ,analyt4 ,gram41 #be4 ,here again number is improperly limited to a noun2 and is said to be one sign of two1 or either of two1 incompatible ideas6 7#ac47 ,number shows how many are meant1 whether one or more4--,smith's new ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,this is not a definition1 but a false assertion1 in which ,smith again confounds arithmetic with grammar6 ,wheat and oats are of different numbers2 but neither of these numbers means a sum that may be counted1 or really shows how many are meant4 ,so of ,man in general1 ,horses in general1 c4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #gg4 7#ad47 ,number is the difference in a noun or pronoun1 to denote either a single thing or more than one4--,davenport's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,this excludes the numbers of a verb1 and makes the singular and the plural to be essentially one thing4 7#ae47 ,number is a modification of nouns and verbs1 c4 according as the thing spoken of is represented1 as1 one or more1 with regard to number4--,burn's ,gram41 p4 #cb4 ,this also has many faults1 which ,i leave to the discernment of the reader4 7#af47 ,what is number8 ,number shows the distinction of one from many4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #f4 ,this is no answer to the question asked2 besides1 it is obviously worse than the first form1 which has is1 for shows4 7#ag47 ,what is ,number8 ,it is the representation of objects with respect to singleness1 or plurality4 --,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #cd4 ,if there are two numbers1 they are neither of them properly described in this definition1 or in any of the preceding ones4 ,there is a gross misconception1 in taking each or either of them to be an alternate representation of two incompatible ideas4 ,and this sort of error is far from being confined to the present subject2 it runs through a vast number of the various definitions contained in our grammars4 7#ah47 ,number is the inflection of a noun1 to indicate one object or more than one4 ,or1 ,number is the expression of unity or of more than unity4--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,how hard this author laboured to think what number is1 and could not6 7#ai47 ,number is the distinction of unity and plurality4--,hart's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #dj1 ,why say1 distinction2 the numbers1 or distinctions1 being two8 7#bj47 ,number is the capacity of nouns to represent either one or more than one object4--,barrett's ,revised ,gram41 p4 #dj4 7#ba47 ,number is a property of the noun which denotes one or more than one4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ee4 7#bb47 ,number is a property of the noun or pronoun 1 by which it denotes one1 or more than one4--,weld's ,gram41 ,abridged ,ed41 p4 #di4 7#bc47 ,number is the property that distinguishes one from more than one4--,weld's ,gram41 ,improved ,ed41 p4 #fj4 ,this1 of course1 excludes the plural4 7#bd47 ,number is a modification of nouns to denote whether one object is meant1 or more than one4--,butler's ,gram41 p4 #ai4 7#be47 ,number is that modification of the ,noun which distinguishes one from more than one4--,spencer's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,now1 it is plain1 that not one of these twenty-five definitions comports with the idea that the singular is one number and the plural an other6 ,not one of them exhibits any tolerable approach to accuracy1 either of thought or of expression6 ,many of the grammarians have not attempted any definition of number1 or of the numbers1 though they speak of both the singular and the plural1 and perhaps sometimes apply the term number to the distinction which is in each3 for it is the property of the singular number1 to distinguish unity from plurality3 and of the plural1 to distinguish plurality from unity4 ,among the authors who are thus silent1 are ,lily1 ,colet1 ,brightland1 ,harris1 ,lowth1 ,ash1 ,priestly1 ,bicknell1 ,adam1 ,gould1 ,harrison1 ,comly1 ,jaudon1 ,webster1 ,webber1 ,churchill1 ,staniford1 ,lennie1 ,dalton1 ,blair1 ,cobbett1 ,cobb1 ,a4 ,flint1 ,felch1 ,guy1 ,hall1 and ,s4 ,w4 ,clark4 ,adam and ,gould1 however1 in explaining the properties of verbs1 say3 ,number marks how many we suppose to be1 to act1 or to suffer4--,a41 #hj2 ,g41 #gh4 #ga ,these are the parts of speech in some late grammars2 as1 ,barrett's1 of #ahed1 ,butler's1 ,covell's1 ,day's1 ,frazee's1 ,fowle's ,new1 ,spear's1 ,weld's1 ,wells's1 and the ,well-wishers'4 ,in ,frost's ,practical ,grammar1 the words of the language are said to be divided into eight classes1 and the names are given thus3 ,noun1 ,article1 ,pronoun1 ,verb1 ,adverb1 ,preposition1 ,conjunction1 and ,interjection4--,p4 #bi4 ,but the author afterwards treats of the ,adjective1 between the ,article and the ,pronoun1 just as if he had forgotten to name it1 and could not count nine with accuracy6 ,in ,perley's ,grammar1 the parts of speech are a different eight3 namely1 ,nouns1 ,adjectives1 ,verbs1 ,adverbs1 ,prepositions1 ,conjunctions1 ,interjections1 and ,particles6--,p4 #h4 ,s4 ,w4 ,clark has ,priestley's classes1 but calls ,interjections ,exclamations4 #gb ,felton1 who is confessedly a modifier of ,murray1 claims as a merit1 the rejection of several useless parts of speech yet acknowledges nine1 and treats of ten2 viz41 ,nouns1 ,pronouns1 ,verbs1 ,participles1 ,prepositions1 ,adjectives1 ,articles1 ,adverbs1 ,conjunctions1 ,exclamations4--,o4 ,c4 ,felton's ,gram4 p4 #e1 and p4 #i4 #gc ,quintilian is at fault here2 for1 in some of his writings1 if not generally1 ,aristotle recognized four parts of speech2 namely1 verbs1 nouns1 conjunctions1 and articles4 ,see ,aristot4 de ,poetica1 ,cap4 xx4 #gd ,as there are ten different characters or figures in arithmetic to represent all possible quantities1 there are also ten kinds of words or parts of speech to represent all possible sentences3 viz43 article1 noun1 adjective1 pronoun1 verb1 participle1 adverb1 preposition1 conjunction1 interjection4--,chauvier's ,punctuation1 p4 #ajd4 #ge ,the ,friend1 #ahbi1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aag4 #gf ,the ,friend1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aje4 #gg ,see the ,preface to my ,compendious ,english ,grammar in the ,american editions of the ,treasury of ,knowledge1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #h4 #gh ,some say that ,brightland himself was the writer of this grammar2 but to suppose him the sole author1 hardly comports with its dedication to the ,queen1 by her most ,obedient and ,dutiful ,subjects1 the ,authors2 or with the manner in which these are spoken of1 in the following lines1 by the laureate3 ,then say what ,thanks1 what ,praises must attend ,the ,gen'rous ,wits1 who thus could condescend6 ,skill1 that to ,art's sublimest ,orb can reach1 ,employ'd its humble ,elements to ,teach6 ,yet worthily ,esteem'd1 because we know ,to raise ,their ,country's ,fame they stoop'd so low4--,,tate4 #gi ,dr4 ,campbell1 in his ,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 page #aehth1 makes a difficulty respecting the meaning of this passage3 cites it as an instance of the misapplication of the term grammar2 and supposes the writer's notion of the thing to have been1 of grammar in the abstract1 an universal archetype by which the particular grammars of all different tongues ought to be regulated4 ,and adds1 ,if this was his meaning1 ,i cannot say whether he is in the right or in the wrong1 in this accusation4 ,i acknowledge myself to be entirely ignorant of this ideal grammar4 ,it would be more fair to suppose that ,dr4 ,swift meant by grammar the rules and principles according to which the ,english language ought to be spoken and written2 and1 7as ,i shall hereafter show17 it is no great hyperbole to affirm1 that every part of the code--nay1 well-nigh every one of these rules and principles--is1 in many instances1 violated1 if not by what may be called the language itself1 at least by those speakers and writers who are under the strongest obligations to know and observe its true use4 #hj ,the phrase of any is here erroneous4 ,these words ought to have been omitted2 or the author should have said--the least valuable of all his productions4 #ha ,this word latter should have been last2 for three works are here spoken of4 #hb ,with this opinion concurred the learned ,james ,white1 author of a ,grammatical ,essay on the ,english ,verb1 an octavo volume of more than three hundred pages1 published in ,london in #agfa4 ,this author says1 ,our ,essays towards forming an ,english ,grammar1 have not been very many3 from the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 to that of ,queen ,ann1 there are but ,two that the author of the ,present knows of3 one in ,english by the renown'd ,ben ,jonson1 and one in ,latin by the learn'd ,dr4 ,wallis4 ,in the reign of ,queen ,ann indeed1 there seems to have arisen a noble ,spirit of ingenious ,emulation in this ,literary way3 and to this we owe the treatises compos'd at that period for the use of schools1 by ,brightland1 ,greenwood1 and ,maittaire4 ,but1 since that time1 nothing hath appear'd1 that hath come to this ,essayist's knowledge1 deserving to be taken any notice of as tending to illustrate our ,language by ascertaining the ,grammar of it2 except ,anselm ,bayly's ,introduction to ,languages1 ,johnson's ,grammar prefix'd to the ,abridgement of his ,dictionary1 and the late ,dr4 ,ward's ,essays upon the ,english ,language4--,these are all the ,treatises he hath met with1 relative to this subject2 all which he hath perus'd very attentively1 and made the best use of them in his power4 ,but notwithstanding all these aids1 something still remains to be done1 at least it so appears to him1 preparatory to attempting with success the ,grammar of our ,language4 ,all our efforts of this kind seem to have been render'd ineffectual hitherto1 chiefly by the prevaliency of two false notions3 one of which is1 that our ,verbs have no ,moods2 and the other1 that our ,language hath no ,syntax4--,white's ,english ,verb1 p4 viii4 #hc ,a similar doctrine1 however1 is taught by no less an author than the ,rev4 ,alexander ,crombie1 ,,ll4 ,d41 who says1 in the first paragraph of his introduction1 ,,language consists of intelligible signs1 and is the medium1 by which the mind communicates its thoughts4 ,it is either articulate1 or inarticulate2 artificial1 or natural4 ,the former is peculiar to man2 the latter is common to all animals4 ,by inarticulate language1 we mean those instinctive cries1 by which the several tribes of inferior creatures are enabled to express their sensations and desires4 ,by articulate language is understood a system of expression1 composed of simple sounds1 differently modified by the organs of speech1 and variously combined4--,treatise on the ,etymology and ,syntax of the ,english ,language1 p4 #a4 ,see the same doctrine also in ,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,the language which is common to all animals1 can be no other than that in which sop's wolves and weasels1 goats and grasshoppers1 talked--a language quite too unreal for grammar4 ,on the other hand1 that which is composed of sounds only1 and not of letters1 includes but a mere fraction of the science4 #hd ,the pronoun whom is not properly applicable to beasts1 unless they are personified3 the relative which would therefore1 perhaps1 have been preferable here1 though whom has a better sound4--,g4 ,b4 #he ,the great difference between men and brutes1 in the utterance of sound by the mouth1 consists in the power of articulation in man1 and the entire want of it in brutes4--,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #h4 #hf ,strictly speaking1 an articulate sound is not a simple element of speech1 but rather a complex one1 whether syllable or word2 for articulate literally means jointed4 ,but our grammarians in general1 have applied the term to the sound of a letter1 a syllable1 or a word1 indiscriminately3 for which reason1 it seems not very suitable to be used alone in describing any of the three4 ,sheridan says1 ,the essence of a syllable consists in articulation only1 for every articulate sound of course forms a syllable4--,lectures on ,elocution1 p4 #fb4 ,if he is right in this1 not many of our letters--or1 perhaps more properly1 none of them--can singly represent articulate sounds4 ,the looseness of this term induces me to add or prefer an other4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,allen1 who comes as near as any of our grammarians1 to the true definition of a letter1 says3 #a4 ,the sounds used in language are called articulate sounds4 #b4 ,a letter is a character used in printing or writing1 to represent an articulate sound4--,allen's ,elements of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #b4 ,dr4 ,adam says3 #a4 ,a letter is the mark of a sound1 or of an articulation of sound4 #b4 ,a vowel is properly called a simple sound2 and the sounds formed by the concourse of vowels and consonants1 articulate sounds4--,latin and ,english ,gram41 pp4 #a and #b4 #hg ,of this sort of blunder1 the following false definition is an instance3 ,a ,vowel is a letter1 the name of which makes a full open sound4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #e2 ,brace's1 #g2 ,hazen's1 #aj4 ,all this is just as true of a consonant as of a vowel4 ,the comma too1 used in this sentence1 defeats even the sense which the writers intended4 ,it is surely no description either of a vowel or of a consonant1 to say1 that it is a letter1 and that the name of a letter makes a full open sound4 ,again1 a late grammarian teaches1 that the names of all the letters are nothing but ,roman capitals1 and then seems to inquire which of these names are vowels1 thus3 ,q4 ,how many letters are in the alphabet8 ,a4 ,twenty-six4 ,q4 ,what are their names8 ,a4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,k1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 ,r1 ,s1 ,t1 ,u1 ,v1 ,w1 ,x1 ,y1 ,z4 ,q4 ,which of these are called ,vowels8--,fowle's ,common ,school ,gram41 ,part ,first1 p4 #g4 ,if my worthy friend ,fowle had known or considered what are the names of the letters in ,english1 he might have made a better beginning to his grammar than this4 #hh ,by the colloquial phrase1 to a ,tee we mean1 to a nicety1 to a tittle1 a jot1 an iota4 ,had the ,british poet ,cawthorn1 himself a noted schoolmaster1 known how to write the name of ,t1 he would probably have preferred it in the following couplet3 ,and swore by ,varro's shade that he ,conceived the medal to a ,t4--,british ,poets1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4 #fe4 ,here the name would certainly be much fitter than the letter1 because the text does not in reality speak of the letter4 ,with the names of the ,greek letters1 the author was better acquainted2 the same poem exhibits two of them1 where the characters themselves are spoken of3 ,my eye can trace divinely true1 ,in this dark curve a little ,mu2 ,and here1 you see1 there seems to lie ,the ruins of a ,doric ,xi4--,ibidem4 ,the critical reader will see that seems should be seem1 to agree with its nominative ruins4 #hi ,lily1 reckoning without the ,h1 ,j1 or ,v1 speaks of the ,latin letters as twenty-two2 but says nothing concerning their names4 ,ruddiman1 ,adam1 ,grant1 ,gould1 and others1 who include the ,h1 ,j1 and ,v1 rightly state the number to be twenty-five2 but1 concerning their names1 are likewise entirely silent4 ,andrews and ,stoddard1 not admitting the ,k1 teach thus3 ,the letters of the ,latin language are twenty-four4 ,they have the same names as the corresponding characters in ,english4--,andrews and ,stoddard's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,a later author speaks thus3 ,the ,latin ,alphabet consists of twenty-five letters1 the same in name and form as the ,english1 but without the w4--,bullions's ,latin ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,it would probably be nearer to the truth1 to say1 ,the ,latin ,alphabet1 like the ,french1 has no ,w2 it consists of twenty-five letters1 which are the same in name and form as the ,french4 ,will it be pretended that the ,french names and the ,english do not differ8 #ij ,the ,scotch ,iz and the ,craven ,izzet1 if still in use anywhere1 are names strictly local1 not properly ,english1 nor likely to spread4 ,,izzet1 the letter ,z4 ,this is probably the corruption of izzard1 the old and common name for the letter1 though ,i know not1 says ,nares1 on what authority4--,glossary of ,craven1 w4 ,izzet4 ,z z1 zed1 more commonly called izzard or uzzard1 that is1 s hard4--,dr4 ,johnson's ,gram41 p4 #a4 ,and how she sooth'd me when with study sad ,i labour'd on to reach the final ,zad4--,crabbe's ,borough1 p4 #bbh4 #ia ,william ,bolles1 in his new ,dictionary1 says of the letter ,z3 ,its sound is uniformly that of a hard ,s4 ,the name1 however1 he pronounces as ,i do2 though he writes it not ,zee but z2 giving not the orthography of the name1 as he should have done1 but a mere index of its pronunciation4 ,walker proves by citations from ,professor ,ward and ,dr4 ,wallis1 that these authors considered the sharp or hissing sound of s the hard sound2 and the flat sound1 like that of z1 its soft sound4 ,see his ,dictionary1 #hvo1 p4 #ec4 #ib ,dr4 ,webster died in #ahdc4 ,most of this work was written while he was yet in vigour4 #ic ,this old definition ,john ,l4 ,parkhurst disputes3--says it is ambiguous2--questions whether it means1 that the name of such a letter1 or the simple sound1 requires a vowel6 ,if the latter1 says he1 the assertion is false4 ,the simple sounds1 represented by the consonants1 can be uttered separately1 distinctly1 and perfectly4 ,it can be done with the utmost ease1 even by a little child4--,parkhurst's ,inductive ,gram4 for ,beginners1 p4 #afd4 ,he must be one of these modern philosophers who delight to make mouths of these voiceless elements1 to show how much may be done without sound from the larynx4 #id ,this test of what is1 or is not1 a vowel sound or a consonant sound1 is often appealed to1 and is generally admitted to be a just one4 ,errors in the application of an or a are not unfrequent1 but they do not affect the argument4 ,it cannot be denied1 that it is proper to use a1 and not proper to use an1 before the initial sound of w or y with a vowel following4 ,and this rule holds good1 whether the sound be expressed by these particular letters1 or by others2 as in the phrases1 a wonder1 a one1 a yew1 a use1 a ewer1 a humour1 a yielding temper4 ,but ,i have heard it contended1 that these are vowel sounds1 notwithstanding they require a2 and that the w and y are always vowels1 because even a vowel sound 7it was said7 requires a and not an1 whenever an other vowel sound immediately follows it4 ,of this notion1 the following examples are a sufficient refutation3 an aronaut1 an arial tour1 an oeiliad1 an eyewink1 an eyas1 an iambus1 an osis1 an o'ersight1 an oil1 an oyster1 an owl1 an ounce4 ,the initial sound of yielding requires a1 and not an2 but those who call the y a vowel1 say1 it is equivalent to the unaccented long e4 ,this does not seem to me to be exactly true2 because the latter sound requires an1 and not a2 as1 ,athens1 as well as ,thebes1 had an ,etion4 #ie ,dr4 ,rush1 in his ,philosophy of the ,human ,voice1 has exhibited some acuteness of observation1 and has written with commendable originality4 ,but his accuracy is certainly not greater than his confidence4 ,on page #egth1 he says1 ,the m1 n1 and ng1 are purely nasal2 on page #djast1 ,some of the tonic elements1 and one of the subtonics1 are made by the assistance of the lips2 they are o-we1 oo-ze1 ou-r1 and m4 ,of the intrinsic value of his work1 ,i am not prepared or inclined to offer any opinion2 ,i criticise him only so far as he strikes at grammatical principles long established1 and worthy still to be maintained4 #if ,dr4 ,comstock1 by enumerating as elementary the sound of the diphthong ou1 as in our1 and the complex power of wh1 as in what1 7which sounds ought not to be so reckoned17 makes the whole number of vocal elements in ,english to be thirty-eight4 ,see ,comstock's ,elocution1 p4 #ai4 #ig ,this word is commonly heard in two syllables1 yune'yun2 but if ,walker is right in making it three1 yu'ne-un1 the sound of y consonant is heard in it but once4 ,worcester's notation is yun'yun4 ,the long sound of u is yu2 hence ,walker calls the letter1 when thus sounded1 a semi-consonant diphthong4 #ih ,children ought to be accustomed to speak loud1 and to pronounce all possible sounds and articulations1 even those of such foreign languages as they will be obliged to learn2 for almost every language has its particular sounds which we pronounce with difficulty1 if we have not been early accustomed to them4 ,accordingly1 nations who have the greatest number of sounds in their speech1 learn the most easily to pronounce foreign languages1 since they know their articulations by having met with similar sounds in their own language4--,spurzheim1 on ,education1 p4 #aei4 #ii ,if it be admitted that the two semivowels l and n have vocality enough of their own to form a very feeble syllable1 it will prove only that there are these exceptions to an important general rule4 ,if the name of ,haydn rhymes with maiden1 it makes one exception to the rule of writing2 but it is no part of the ,english language4 ,the obscure sound of which ,i speak1 is sometimes improperly confounded with that of short u2 thus a recent writer1 who professes great skill in respect to such matters1 says1 ,one of the most common sounds in our language is that of the vowel u1 as in the word urn1 or as the diphthong ea in the word earth1 for which we have no character4 ,writers have made various efforts to express it1 as in earth1 berth1 mirth1 worth1 turf1 in which all the vowels are indiscriminately used in turn4 ,fist ,this defect has led to the absurd method of placing the vowel after the consonants1 instead of between them1 when a word terminates with this sound2 as in the following1 ,bible1 pure1 centre1 circle1 instead of ,bibel1 puer1 center1 cirkel4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #dih4 ,it would be a great step towards perfection to spell our words as they are pronounced6--,ibid41 p4 #dii4 ,how often do the reformers of language multiply the irregularities of which they complain6 #ajj ,the number of simple sounds in our tongue is twenty-eight1 #i ,vowels and #ai ,consonants4 ,h is no letter1 but merely a mark of aspiration4--,jones's ,prosodial ,gram4 before his ,dict41 p4 #ad4 ,the number of simple vowel and consonant sounds in our tongue is twenty-eight1 and one pure aspiration h1 making in all twenty-nine4--,bolles's ,octavo ,dict41 ,introd41 p4 #i4 ,the number of letters in the ,english language is twenty-six2 but the number of elements is thirty-eight4--,comstock's ,elocution1 p4 #ah4 ,there are thirty-eight elements in the ,english alphabet1 and to represent those elements by appropriate characters1 we should have thirty-eight letters4 ,there is1 then1 a deficiency in our alphabet of twelve letters--and he who shall supply this imperfection1 will be one of the greatest benefactors of the human race4--,ib41 p4 #ai4 ,our alphabet is both redundant and defective4 ,c1 q1 and z1 are respectively represented by k or s1 k1 and ks1 or gz2 and the remaining twenty-three letters are employed to represent forty-one elementary sounds4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #cf4 ,the simple sounds were in no wise to be reckoned of any certain number3 by the first men they were determined to no more than ten1 as spine suppose2 as others1 fifteen or twenty2 it is however certain that mankind in general never exceed twenty simple sounds2 and of these only five are reckoned strictly such4--,bicknell's ,grammar1 ,part ii1 p4 #d4 #aja ,when these sounds are openly pronounced1 they produce the familiar assent ay3 which1 by the old ,english dramatic writers1 was often expressed by ,i4--,walker4 ,we still hear it so among the vulgar2 as1 ,i1 ,i1 sir1 presently6 for ,ay1 ay1 sir1 presently6 ,shakspeare wrote1 ,to sleepe1 perchance to dreame2 ,i1 there's the rub4 --,bucke's ,classical ,gram41 p4 #adc4 #ajb ,walker pronounces yew and you precisely alike1 yoo2 but1 certainly1 ew is not commonly equivalent to oo1 though some make it so3 thus ,gardiner1 in his scheme of the vowels1 says1 ew equals oo1 as in new1 noo4--,music of ,nature1 p4 #dhc4 ,noo for new1 is a vulgarism1 to my ear4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ajc ,as harmony is an inherent property of sound1 the ear should he first called to the attention of simple sounds2 though1 in reality1 all are composed of three1 so nicely blended as to appear but as one4--,gardiner's ,music of ,nature1 p4 #h4 ,every sound is a mixture of three tones2 as much as a ray of light is composed of three prismatic colours4--,ib41 p4 #chg4 #ajd ,the titulary name of the sacred volume is ,the ,holy ,bible4 ,the word ,scripture or ,scriptures is a common name for the writings contained in this inestimable volume1 and1 in the book itself1 is seldom distinguished by a capital2 but1 in other works1 it seems proper in general to write it so1 by way of eminence4 #aje ,benedictus es ,domine ,deus ,israel patris nostri ab eterno in eternum4--,vulgate4 ,o ,eternel6 ,dieu d',isral1 notre pre1 tu es bni de tout temps et toujours4--,common ,french ,bible4 ,greek3 ,eulogtos ei ,kyrie ho theos ,israel ho patr hmon apo tou aionos kai heos tou aionos4--,septuagint4 #ajf ,where the word ,see accompanies the reference1 the reader may generally understand that the citation1 whether right or wrong in regard to grammar1 is not in all respects exactly as it will be found in the place referred to4 ,cases of this kind1 however1 will occur but seldom2 and it is hoped the reasons for admitting a few1 will be sufficiently obvious4 ,brevity is indispensable2 and some rules are so generally known and observed1 that one might search long for half a dozen examples of their undesigned violation4 ,wherever an error is made intentionally in the ,exercises1 the true reading and reference are to be expected in the ,key4 #ajg ,et irritaverunt ascendentes in mare1 ,mare rubrum4--,latin ,vulgate1 folio1 ,psal4 cv1 #g4 ,this1 ,i think1 should have been ,mare ,rubrum1 with two capitals4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ajh ,the printers1 from the manner in which they place their types before them1 call the small letters lower-case letters1 or letters of the lower case4 #aji ,i imagine that plagues should here be plague1 in the singular number1 and not plural4 ,ero more ius1 o mors2 morsus tuus ero1 inferne4--,vulgate4 ,greek3 ,pou h dik sou1 thanate2 pou to kentron sou1 aid2--,septuagint1 ibid4 #aaj ,it is hoped that not many persons will be so much puzzled as are ,dr4 ,latham and ,professor ,fowler1 about the application of this rule4 ,in their recent works on ,the ,english ,language1 these gentlemen say1 ,in certain words of more than one syllable1 it is difficult to say to which syllable the intervening ,consonant belongs4 ,for instance1 does the v in river and the v in fever belong to the first or to the second syllable8 ,are the words to be divided thus1 ri-ver1 fe-ver8 or thus1 riv-er1 fev-er8--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #ahej1 #he2 ,latham's ,hand-,book1 p4 #ie4 ,now ,i suppose it plain1 that1 by the rule given above1 fever is to be divided in the former way1 and river in the latter2 thus1 fe-ver1 riv-er4 ,but this paragraph of ,latham's or ,fowler's is written1 not to disembarrass the learner1 but just as if it were a grammarian's business to confound his readers with fictitious dilemmas--and those expressed ungrammatically6 ,of the two ,vees1 so illogically associated in one question1 and so solecistically spoken of by the singular verb does1 one belongs to the former syllable1 and the other1 to the latter2 nor do ,i discover that it is difficult to say this1 or to be well assured that it is right4 ,what an admirable passage for one great linguist to steal from an other6 #aaa ,the usual rules for dividing words into syllables1 are not only arbitrary but false and absurd4 ,they contradict the very definition of a syllable given by the authors themselves4 99 99 99 99 ,a syllable in pronunciation is an indivisible thing2 and strange as it may appear1 what is indivisible in utterance is divided in writing3 when the very purpose of dividing words into syllables in writing1 is to lead the learner to a just pronunciation4--,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #aef2 ,philosophical ,gram41 #bba4 #aab ,this word1 like distich and monostich1 is from the ,greek stichos1 a verse2 and is improperly spelled by ,walker with a final k4 ,it should be hemistich1 with the accent on the first syllable4 ,see ,webster1 ,scott1 ,perry1 ,worcester1 and others4 #aac ,according to ,aristotle1 the compounding of terms1 or the writing of them as separate words1 must needs be a matter of great importance to the sense4 ,for he will have the parts of a compound noun1 or of a compound verb1 to be1 like other syllables1 destitute of any distinct signification in themselves1 whatever may be their meaning when written separately4 ,see his definitions of the parts of speech1 in his ,poetics1 ,chapter #bjth of the ,greek2 or ,goulston's ,version in ,latin1 ,chapter #abth4 #aad ,whether worshipper should follow this principle1 or not1 is questionable4 ,if ,dr4 ,webster is right in making worship a compound of worth and ship1 he furnishes a reason against his own practice of using a single p in worshiper1 worshiped1 and worshiping4 ,the ,saxon word appears to have been weorthscype4 ,but words ending in ship are derivatives1 rather than compounds2 and therefore they seem to belong to the rule1 rather than to the exception3 as1 ,so we fellowshiped him4--,herald of ,freedom3 ,liberator1 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #fh4 #aae ,when ee comes before e1 or may be supposed to do so1 or when ll comes before l1 one of the letters is dropped that three of the same kind may not meet3 as1 free1 freer1 freest1 freeth1 freed2 skill1 skilless2 full1 fully2 droll1 drolly4 ,and1 as burgess-ship1 hostess-ship1 and mistress-ship are derivatives1 and not compounds1 ,i think they ought to follow the same principle1 and be written burgesship1 hostesship1 mistresship4 ,the proper form of gall-less is perhaps more doubtful4 ,it ought not to be gallless1 as ,dr4 ,webster has it2 and galless1 the analogical form1 is yet1 so far as ,i know without authority4 ,but is it not preferable to the hyphened form1 with three ,ells1 which has authority8 ,,gall-,,less1 a4 ,without gall or bitterness4 ,cleaveland4--,chalmers1 ,bolles1 ,worcester4 ,ah6 mild and gall-less dove1 ,which dost the pure and candid dwellings love1 ,canst thou in ,albion still delight8--,cowley's ,odes4 ,worcester's ,dictionary has also the questionable word bellless4 ,treen1 for trees1 or for an adjective meaning a tree's1 or made of a tree1 is exhibited in several of our dictionaries1 and pronounced as a monosyllable3 but ,dr4 ,beattie1 in his ,poems1 p4 #hd1 has made it a dissyllable1 with three like letters divided by a hyphen1 thus3-- ,plucking from tree-en bough her simple food4 #aaf ,handiwork1 handicraft1 and handicraftsman1 appear to have been corruptly written for handwork1 handcraft1 and handcraftsman4 ,they were formerly in good use1 and consequently obtained a place in our vocabulary1 from which no lexicographer1 so far as ,i know1 has yet thought fit to discard them2 but1 being irregular1 they are manifestly becoming obsolete1 or at least showing a tendency to throw off these questionable forms4 ,handcraft and handcraftsman are now exhibited in some dictionaries1 and handiwork seems likely to be resolved into handy and work1 from which ,johnson supposes it to have been formed4 ,see ,psalm xix1 #a4 ,the text is varied thus3 ,and the firmament sheweth his handiwork4--,johnson's ,dict44 ,and the firmament sheweth his handy-work4--,scott's ,bible2 ,bruce's ,bible2 ,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,and the firmament showeth his handy work4--,alger's ,bible2 ,friends' ,bible2 ,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 #aag ,here a word1 formed from its root by means of the termination ize1 afterwards assumes a prefix1 to make a secondary derivative3 thus1 organ1 organize1 disorganize4 ,in such a case1 the latter derivative must of course be like the former2 and ,i assume that the essential or primary formation of both from the word organ is by the termination ize2 but it is easy to see that disguise1 demise1 surmise1 and the like1 are essentially or primarily formed by means of the prefixes1 dis1 de1 and sur4 ,as to advertise1 exercise1 detonize1 and recognize1 which ,i have noted among the exceptions1 it is not easy to discover by which method we ought to suppose them to have been formed2 but with respect to nearly all others1 the distinction is very plain2 and though there may be no natural reason for founding upon it such a rule as the foregoing1 the voice of general custom is as clear in this as in most other points or principles of orthography1 and1 surely1 some rule in this case is greatly needed4 #aah ,criticise1 with s1 is the orthography of ,johnson1 ,walker1 ,webster1 ,jones1 ,scott1 ,bolles1 ,chalmers1 ,cobb1 and others2 and so did ,worcester spell it in his ,comprehensive ,dictionary of #ahca1 but1 in his ,universal and ,critical ,dictionary of #ahdf1 he wrote it with z1 as did ,bailey in his folio1 about a hundred years ago4 ,here the z conforms to the foregoing rule1 and the s does not4 #aai ,like this1 the compound brim-full ought to be written with a hyphen and accented on the last syllable2 but all our lexicographers have corrupted it into brim'ful1 and1 contrary to the authorities they quote1 accented it on the first4 ,their noun brim'fulness1 with a like accent1 is also a corruption2 and the text of ,shakspeare1 which they quote for it1 is nonsense1 unless brim1 be there made a separate adjective3-- ,with ample and brimfulness of his force4--,johnson's ,dict4 et al4 ,with ample and brim fullness of his force1 would be better4 #abj ,according to ,littleton1 the coraliticus lapis was a kind of ,phrygian marble1 called ,coralius or by an other name ,sangarius4 ,but this substance seems to be different from all that are described by ,webster1 under the names of coralline1 corallinite1 and corallite4 ,see ,webster's ,octavo ,dict4 #aba ,the ,greek word for argil is ,greek3 argilos1 or ,greek3 argillos1 7from ,greek3 argos1 white17 meaning pure white earth2 and is as often spelled with one ,lamda as with two4 #abb ,dr4 ,webster1 with apparent propriety1 writes caviling and cavilous with one l1 like dialing and perilous2 but he has in general no more uniformity than ,johnson1 in respect to the doubling of l final4 ,he also1 in some instances1 accents similar words variously3 as1 cor'alliform1 upon the first syllable1 metal'liform1 upon the second2 cav'ilous and pap'illous1 upon the first1 argil'lous1 upon the second2 ax'illar1 upon the first1 medul'lar1 upon the second4 ,see ,webster's ,octavo ,dict4 #abc ,perry wrote crystaline1 crystalize1 crystalization1 metaline1 metalist1 metalurgist1 and metalurgy2 and these forms1 as well as crystalography1 metalic1 metalography1 and metaliferous1 are noticed and preferred by the authors of the ,red ,book1 on pp4 #bhh and #cjb4 #abd ,but if a diphthong precedes1 or the accent is on the preceding syllable1 the consonant remains single3 as1 to toil1 toiling2 to offer1 an offering4--,murray's ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bd2 ,walker's ,rhym4 ,dict41 ,introd41 p4 ix4 #abe ,johnson1 ,walker1 and ,webster1 all spell this word sep'ilible2 which is obviously wrong2 as is ,johnson's derivation of it from sepio1 to hedge in4 ,sepio would make1 not this word1 but sepibilis and sepible1 hedgeable4 #abf ,if the variable word control1 controul1 or controll1 is from con and troul or troll1 it should be spelled with ll1 by ,rule #gth1 and retain the ll by ,rule #fth4 ,dr4 ,webster has it so1 but he gives control also4 #abg ,ache1 and its plural1 aches1 appear to have been formerly pronounced like the name of the eighth letter1 with its plural1 ,aitch1 and ,aitches2 for the old poets made aches two syllables4 ,but ,johnson says of ache1 a pain1 it is now generally written ake1 and in the plural akes1 of one syllable4--,see his ,quarto ,dict4 ,so ,walker3 ,it is now almost universally written ake and akes4--,see ,walker's ,principles1 ,no4 #cee4 ,so ,webster3 ,ake1 less properly written ache4--,see his ,octavo ,dict4 ,but ,worcester seems rather to prefer ache4--,g4 ,b4 #abh ,this book has1 probably1 more recommenders than any other of the sort4 ,i have not patience to count them accurately1 but it would seem that more than a thousand of the great and learned have certified to the world1 that they never before had seen so good a spelling-book6 ,with personal knowledge of more than fifty of the signers1 ,g4 ,b4 refused to add his poor name1 being ashamed of the mischievous facility with which very respectable men had loaned their signatures4 #abi ,scrat1 for scratch4 ,the word is now obsolete1 and may be altered by taking ch in the correction4 #acj ,hairbrained1 adj4 ,this should rather be written harebrained2 unconstant1 unsettled1 wild as a hare4--,johnson's ,dict4 ,webster writes it harebrained1 as from hare and brain4 ,worcester1 too1 prefers this form4 #aca ,the whole number of verbs in the ,english language1 regular and irregular1 simple and compounded1 taken together1 is about #d1cjj4 ,see1 in ,dr4 ,ward's ,essays on the ,english language1 the catalogue of ,english verbs4 ,the whole number of irregular verbs1 the defective included1 is about #agf4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,philad41 #agii1 p4 #ei4 ,lindley ,murray copied the first and the last of these three sentences1 but made the latter number about #agg4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #aji2 ,duodecimo1 p4 #hh4 ,in the latter work1 he has this note3 ,the whole number of words1 in the ,english language1 is about thirty-five thousand4--,ib4 ,churchill says1 ,the whole number of verbs in the ,english language1 according to ,dr4 ,ward1 is about #d1cjj4 ,the irregulars1 including the auxilaries sic--,,kth1 scarcely exceed #bjj4--,new ,gram41 p4 #aac4 ,an other late author has the following enumeration3 ,there are in the ,english language about twenty thousand five hundred nouns1 forty pronouns1 eight thousand verbs1 nine thousand two hundred adnouns1 two thousand six hundred adverbs1 sixty-nine prepositions1 nineteen conjunctions1 and sixty-eight interjections2 in all1 above forty thousand words4--,rev4 ,david ,blair's ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,william ,ward1 ,m4 ,a41 in an old grammar undated1 which speaks of ,dr4 ,lowth's as one with which the public had very lately been favoured1 says3 ,there are four ,thousand and about ,five ,hundred ,verbs in the ,english language4--,ward's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #eb4 #acb ,these definitions are numbered here1 because each of them is the first of a series now begun4 ,in class rehearsals1 the pupils may be required to give the definitions in turn2 and1 to prevent any from losing the place1 it is important that the numbers be mentioned4 ,when all have become sufficiently familiar with the definitions1 the exercise may be performed without them4 ,they are to be read or repeated till faults disappear--or till the teacher is satisfied with the performance4 ,he may then save time1 by commanding his class to proceed more briefly2 making such distinctions as are required in the praxis1 but ceasing to explain the terms employed2 that is1 omitting all the definitions1 for brevity's sake4 ,this remark is applicable likewise to all the subsequent praxes of etymological parsing4 #acc ,the modifications which belong to the different parts of speech consist chiefly of the inflections or changes to which certain words are subject4 ,but ,i use the term sometimes in a rather broader sense1 as including not only variations of words1 but1 in certain instances1 their original forms1 and also such of their relations as serve to indicate peculiar properties4 ,this is no questionable license in the use of the term2 for when the position of a word modifies its meaning1 or changes its person or case1 this effect is clearly a grammatical modification1 though there be no absolute inflection4 ,lord ,kames observes1 ,that quality1 which distinguishes one genus1 one species1 or even one individual1 from an other1 is termed a modification3 thus the same particular that is termed a property or quality1 when considered as belonging to an individual1 or a class of individuals1 is termed a modification1 when considered as distinguishing the individual or the class from an other4--,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cib4 #acd ,wells1 having put the articles into the class of adjectives1 produces authority as follows3 ',the words a or an1 and the1 are reckoned by some grammarians a separate part of speech2 but1 as they in all respects come under the definition of the adjective1 it is unnecessary1 as well as improper1 to rank them as a class by themselves4'--,cannon4 ,to this he adds1 ,the articles are also ranked with adjectives by ,priestley1 ,e4 ,oliver1 ,bell1 ,elphinston1 ,m',culloch1 ,d',orsey1 ,lindsay1 ,joel1 ,greenwood4 ,smetham1 ,dalton1 ,king1 ,hort1 ,buchanan1 ,crane1 ,j4 ,russell1 ,frazee1 ,cutler1 ,perley1 ,swett1 ,day4 ,goodenow1 ,willard1 ,robbins1 ,felton1 ,snyder1 ,butler1 ,s4 ,barrett1 ,badgley1 ,howe1 ,whiting1 ,davenport1 ,fowle1 ,weld1 and others4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 p4 #fi4 ,in this way1 he may have made it seem to many1 that1 after thorough investigation1 he had decided the point discreetly1 and with preponderance of authority4 ,for it is claimed as a peculiar merit of this grammar1 that1 ,every point of practical importance is thoroughly investigated1 and reference is carefully made to the researches of preceding writers1 in all cases which admit of being determined by weight of authority4--,,william ,,russell1 on the cover4 ,but1 in this instance1 as in sundry others1 wherein he opposes the more common doctrine1 and cites concurrent authors1 both he and all his authorities are demonstrably to the wrong4 ,for how can they be right1 while reason1 usage1 and the prevailing opinion1 are still against them8 ,if we have forty grammars which reject1 the articles as a part of speech1 we have more than twice as many which recognize them as such2 among which are those of the following authors3 viz41 ,adam1 ,d4 ,adams1 ,ainsworth1 ,alden1 ,alger1 ,w4 ,allen1 ,ash1 ,bacon1 ,barnard1 ,beattie1 ,beck1 ,bicknell1 ,bingham1 ,blair1 ,j4 ,h4 ,brown1 ,bucke1 ,bullions1 ,burn1 ,burr1 ,chandler1 ,churchill1 ,coar1 ,cobbett1 ,cobbin1 ,comly1 ,cooper1 ,davis1 ,dearborn1 ,ensell1 ,everett1 ,farnum1 ,fisk1 ,a4 ,flint1 ,folker1 ,fowler1 ,frost1 ,r4 ,g4 ,greene1 ,greenleaf1 ,guy1 ,hall1 ,hallock1 ,hart1 ,harrison1 ,matt4 ,harrison1 ,hazen1 ,hendrick1 ,hiley1 ,hull1 ,ingersoll1 ,jaudon1 ,johnson1 ,kirkham1 ,latham1 ,lennie1 ,a4 ,lewis1 ,lowth1 ,maltby1 ,maunder1 ,mennye1 ,merchant1 ,t4 ,h4 ,miller1 ,murray1 ,nixon1 ,nutting1 ,parker and ,fox1 ,john ,peirce1 ,picket1 ,pond1 ,s4 ,putnam1 ,russell1 ,sanborn1 ,sanders1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith1 ,spencer1 ,tower1 ,tucker1 ,walker1 ,webber1 ,wilcox1 ,wilson1 ,woodworth1 ,j4 ,e4 ,worcester1 ,s4 ,worcester1 ,wright4 ,the articles characterize our language more than some of the other parts of speech1 and are worthy of distinction for many reasons1 one of which is the very great frequency of their use4 #ace ,in ,murray's ,abridgement1 and in his ,second ,edition1 #abmo1 the connective in this place is or2 and so is it given by most of his amenders2 as in ,alger's ,murray1 p4 #fh2 ,alden's1 #hi2 ,bacon's1 #dh2 ,cooper's1 #aaa2 ,a4 ,flint's1 #fe2 ,maltby's1 #fj2 ,miller's1 #fg2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #gd2 ,russell's1 #eb2 ,t4 ,smith's1 #fa4 ,all these1 and many more1 repeat both of these ill-devised rules4 #acf ,when this was written1 ,dr4 ,webster was living4 #acg ,in ,french1 the preposition 1 7to17 is always carefully distinguished from the verb a1 7has17 by means of the grave accent1 which is placed over the former for that purpose4 ,and in general also the ,latin word 1 7from17 is marked in the same way4 ,but1 with us1 no appropriate sign has hitherto been adopted to distinguish the preposition a from the article a2 though the ,saxon a1 7to17 is given by ,johnson with an acute1 even where no other a is found4 ,hence1 in their ignorance1 thousands of vulgar readers1 and among them the authors of sundry grammars1 have constantly mistaken this preposition for an article4 ,examples3 ,some adverbs are composed of the article a prefixed to nouns2 as a-side1 a-thirst1 a-sleep1 a-shore1 a-ground1 c4--,comly's ,gram41 p#fg4 ,repeat some adverbs that are composed of the article a and nouns4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #hi4 ,to go a fishing2 ,to go a hunting2 i4e4 to go on a fishing voyage or business2 to go on a hunting party4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bba2 ,fisk's1 #adg2 ,ingersoll's1 #aeg2 ,smith's1 #ahd2 ,bullions's1 #abi2 ,merchant's1 #aja2 ,weld's1 #aib1 and others4 ,that this interpretation is false and absurd1 may be seen at once by any body who can read ,latin2 for1 a hunting1 a fishing1 c41 are expressed by the supine in um3 as1 ,venatum ire4--,virg4 n4 ,i4e41 ,to go a hunting4 ,abeo piscatum4--,beza4 ,i4e4 ,i go a fishing4--,john1 xxi1 #c4 ,every school-boy ought to know better than to call this a an article4 ,a fishing is equivalent to the infinitive to fish4 ,for the ,greek of the foregoing text is ,greek3 ,hupgo hlieein1 which is rendered by ,montanus1 ,vado piscari2 i4e41 ,i go to fish4 ,one author ignorantly says1 ,the article a seems to have no particular meaning1 and is hardly proper in such expressions as these4 ',he went a-hunting1' ,she lies a-bed all day4'--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,no marvel that he could not find the meaning of an article in this a6 ,with doltish and double inconsistency1 ,weld first calls this ,the article a employed in the sense of a preposition1 7,e4 ,gram41 p4 #agg17 and afterwards adopts ,murray's interpretation as above cited6 ,some1 too1 have an absurd practice of joining this preposition to the participle2 generally with the hyphen1 but sometimes without3 thus1 ,a-,,going1 ,in motion2 as1 to set a mill agoing4--,webster's ,dict4 ,the doctor does not tell us what part of speech agoing is2 but1 certainly1 to set the mill to going1 expresses just the same meaning1 and is about as often heard4 ,in the burial-service of the ,common ,prayer ,book1 we read1 ,they are even as asleep2 but1 in the ninetieth ,psalm1 from which this is taken1 we find the text thus3 ,they are as a sleep2 that is1 as a dream that is fled4 ,now these are very different readings1 and cannot both he right4 #ach ,here the lexicographer forgets his false etymology of a before the participle1 and writes the words separately1 as the generality of authors always have done4 ,a was used as a preposition long before the article a appeared in the language2 and ,i doubt whether there is any truth at all in the common notions of its origin4 ,webster says1 ,in the words abed1 ashore1 c41 and before the participles acoming1 agoing1 ashooting1 he should have said1 'and before participles2 as1 a coming1 a going1 a shooting1' a has been supposed a contraction of on or at4 ,it may be so in some cases2 but with the participles1 it is sometimes a contraction of the ,saxon prefix ge1 and sometimes perhaps of the ,celtic ag4--,improved ,gram41 p4 #age4 ,see ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #bdd4 ,what admirable learning is this6 ,a1 forsooth1 is a contraction of ge6 ,and this is the doctor's reason for joining it to the participle6 #aci ,the following construction may he considered an archaism1 or a form of expression that is now obsolete3 ,you have bestowed a many of kindnesses upon me4--,walker's ,english ,particles1 p4 #bgh4 #adj ,if ,i or we is set before a name1 it the name is of the first person3 as1 ,i1 ,n-- ,n--1 declare2 we1 ,n-- and ,m-- do promise4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,nouns which relate to the person or persons speaking1 are said to be of the first person2 as1 ,i1 ,william1 speak to you4--,fowle's ,common ,school ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #bb4 ,the first person of nouns is admitted by ,ainsworth1 ,r4 ,w4 ,bailey1 ,barnard1 ,brightland1 ,j4 ,h4 ,brown1 ,bullions1 ,butler1 ,cardell1 ,chandler1 ,s4 ,w4 ,clark1 ,cooper1 ,day1 ,emmons1 ,farnum1 ,felton1 ,fisk1 ,john ,flint1 ,fowle1 ,frazee1 ,gilbert1 ,goldsbury1 ,r4 ,g4 ,greene1 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 ,hall1 ,hallock1 ,hamlin1 ,hart1 ,hendrick1 ,hiley1 ,perley1 ,picket1 ,pinneo1 ,russell1 ,sanborn1 ,sanders1 ,smart1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,spear1 ,weld1 ,wells1 ,wilcox1 and others4 ,it is denied1 either expressly or virtually1 by ,alger1 ,bacon1 ,comly1 ,davis1 ,dilworth1 ,greenleaf1 ,guy1 ,hazen1 ,ingersoll1 ,jaudon1 ,kirkham1 ,latham1 ,l4 ,murray1 ,maltby1 ,merchant1 ,miller1 ,nutting1 ,parkhurst1 ,s4 ,putnam1 ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith1 and others4 ,among the grammarians who do not appear to have noticed the persons of nouns at all1 are ,alden1 ,w4 ,allen1 ,d4 ,c4 ,allen1 ,ash1 ,bicknell1 ,bingham1 ,blair1 ,buchanan1 ,bucke1 ,burn1 ,burr1 ,churchill1 ,coar1 ,cobb1 ,dalton1 ,dearborn1 ,abel ,flint1 ,r4 ,w4 ,green1 ,harrison1 ,johnson1 ,lennie1 ,lowth1 ,mennye1 ,mulligan1 ,priestley1 ,staniford1 ,ware1 ,webber1 and ,webster4 #ada ,prof4 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene most absurdly and erroneously teaches1 that1 ,when the speaker wishes to represent himself1 he cannot use his name1 but must use some other word1 as1 ,i2 and when he wishes to represent the hearer1 he must use thou or you4--,greene's ,elements of ,e4 ,gram41 #ahec1 p4 xxxiv4 ,the examples given above sufficiently show the falsity of all this4 #adb ,in shoe and shoes1 canoe and canoes1 the o is sounded slenderly1 like oo2 but in doe or does1 foe or foes1 and the rest of the fourteen nouns above1 whether singular or plural1 it retains the full sound of its own name1 ,o4 ,whether the plural of two should be twoes as ,churchill writes it1 or twos1 which is more common1 is questionable4 ,according to ,dr4 ,ash and the ,spectator1 the plural of who1 taken substantively1 is whos4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #aca4 #adc ,there are some singular compounds of the plural word pence1 which form their own plurals regularly2 as1 sixpence1 sixpences4 ,if you do not all show like gilt twopences to me4--,,shakspeare4 ,the sweepstakes of which are to be composed of the disputed difference in the value of two doubtful sixpences4--,,goodell',s ,,lect43 ,liberator4 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #ade4 #add ,in the third canto of ,lord ,byron's ,prophecy of ,dante1 this noun is used in the singular number3-- ,and ocean written o'er would not afford ,space for the annal1 yet it shall go forth4 #ade ,they never yet had separated for their daylight beds1 without a climax to their orgy1 something like the present scene4--,the ,crock of ,gold1 p4 #ac4 ,and straps never called upon to diminish that long whity-brown interval between shoe and trowser4--,ib41 p4 #bd4 ,and he gave them victual in abundance4--#b ,chron41 xi1 #bc4 ,store of victual4--,ib41 verse #aa4 #adf ,the noun physic properly signifies medicine1 or the science of medicine3 in which sense1 it seems to have no plural4 ,but ,crombie and the others cite one or two instances in which physic and metaphysic are used1 not very accurately1 in the sense of the singular of physics and metaphysics4 ,several grammarians also quote some examples in which physics1 metaphysics1 politics1 optics1 and other similar names of sciences are used with verbs or pronouns of the singular number2 but ,dr4 ,crombie justly says the plural construction of such words1 is more common1 and more agreeable to analogy4--,on ,etym4 and ,syntax1 p4 #bg4 #adg ,benjamin ,franklin1 following the occupation of a compositor in a printing-office1 at a limited weekly wage1 c4--,chambers' ,edinburgh ,journal1 ,no4 #bcb4 ,,wage1 ,wages1 hire4 ,the singular number is still frequently used1 though ,dr4 ,johnson thought it obsolete4--,glossary of ,craven4 #ahbh4 #adh ,our lexicographers generally treat the word firearms as a close compound that has no singular4 ,but some write it with a hyphen1 as fire-arms4 ,in fact the singular is sometimes used1 but the way of writing it is unsettled4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 in his ,dictionary1 defines a carbine as1 a small sort of fire arm2 ,webster has it1 a short gun1 or fire arm2 ,worcester1 a small fire-arm2 ,cobb1 a sort of small firearms4 ,webster uses fire-arm1 in defining stock4 #adi ,but1 soon afterwards1 he made a glorious amend for his fault1 at the battle of ,plata4--,hist4 ,reader1 p4 #dh4 #aej ,there not a dreg of guilt defiles4--,watts's ,lyrics1 p4 #bg4 #aea ,in ,young's ,night ,thoughts1 7,n4 vii1 l4 #dge47 lee1 the singular of lees1 is found2 ,churchill says1 7,gram41 p4 #baa17 ,prior has used lee1 as the singular of lees2 ,webster and ,bolles have also both forms in their dictionaries3-- ,refine1 exalt1 throw down their poisonous lee1 ,and make them sparkle in the bowl of bliss4--,young4 #aeb ,the ',procrustean bed' has been a myth heretofore2 it promises soon to be a shamble and a slaughterhouse in reality4--,st4 ,louis ,democrat1 #ahee4 #aec ,j4 ,w4 ,wright remarks1 ,some nouns admit of no plural distinctions3 as1 wine1 wood1 beer1 sugar1 tea1 timber1 fruit1 meat1 goodness1 happiness1 and perhaps all nouns ending in ness4--,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #aci4 ,if this learned author had been brought up in the woods1 and had never read of ,murray's richer wines1 or heard of ,solomon's dainty meats1--never chaffered in the market about sugars and teas1 or read in ,isaiah that all our righteousnesses are as filthy rags1 or avowed1 like ,timothy1 a good profession before many witnesses1--he might still have hewed the timbers of some rude cabin1 and partaken of the wild fruits which nature affords4 ,if these nine plurals are right1 his assertion is nine times wrong1 or misapplied by himself seven times in the ten4 #aed ,i will not suppose it possible for my dear ,james to fall into either the company or the language of those persons who talk1 and even write1 about barleys1 wheats1 clovers1 flours1 grasses1 and malts4-- ,cobbett's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bi4 #aee ,it is a general rule1 that all names of things measured or weighed1 have no plural2 for in them not number1 but quantity1 is regarded3 as1 wool1 wine1 oil4 ,when we speak1 however1 of different kinds1 we use the plural3 as1 the coarser wools1 the richer wines1 the finer oils4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #da4 #aef ,so pains is the regular plural of pain1 and1 by ,johnson1 ,webster1 and other lexicographers1 is recognized only as plural2 but ,worcester inserts it among his stock words1 with a comment1 thus3 ,pains1 n4 ,labor2 work2 toil2 care2 trouble4 ,fist ,according to the best usage1 the word pains1 though of plural form1 is used in these senses as singular1 and is joined with a singular verb2 as1 ',the pains they had taken was very great4' ,clarendon4 ',no pains is taken4' ,pope4 ',great pains is taken4' ,priestley4 ',much pains4' ,bolingbroke4--,univ4 and ,crit4 ,dict4 ,the multiplication of anomalies of this kind is so undesirable1 that nothing short of a very clear decision of ,custom1 against the use of the regular concord1 can well justify the exception4 ,many such examples may be cited1 but are they not examples of false syntax8 ,i incline to think the best usage would still make all these verbs plural4 ,dr4 ,johnson cites the first example thus3 ,the pains they had taken were very great4 ,clarendon4--,quarto ,dict41 w4 ,pain4 ,and the following recent example is unquestionably right3 ,pains have been taken to collect the information required4--,president ,fillmore's ,message1 #aheb4 #aeg ,and the fish that is in the river shall die4--,exod41 vii1 #ah4 ,and the fish that was in the river died4--,ib41 #ba4 ,here the construction is altogether in the singular1 and yet the meaning seems to be plural4 ,this construction appears to be more objectionable1 than the use of the word fish with a plural verb4 ,the ,french ,bible here corresponds with ours3 but the ,latin ,vulgate1 and the ,greek ,septuagint1 have both the noun and the verb in the plural3 as1 ,the fishes that are in the river1--,the fishes that were1 c4 ,in our ,bible1 fowl1 as well fish1 is sometimes plural2 and yet both words1 in some passages1 have the plural form3 as1 ,and fowl that may fly1 c4--,gen41 i1 #bj4 ,i will consume the fowls of the heaven1 and the fishes of the sea4--,zeph41 i1 #c4 #aeh ,some authors1 when they give to mere words the construction of plural nouns1 are in the habit of writing them in the form of possessives singular2 as1 ,they have of late1 'tis true1 reformed1 in some measure1 the gouty joints and darning work of whereunto's1 whereby's1 thereof's1 therewith's1 and the rest of this kind4--,shaftesbury4 ,here1 says ,dr4 ,crombie1 the genitive singular is improperly used for the objective case plural4 ,it should be1 whereuntos1 wherebys1 thereofs1 therewiths4-- ,treatise on ,etym4 and ,synt41 p4 #cch4 ,according to our rules1 these words should rather be1 whereuntoes1 wherebies1 thereofs1 therewiths4 ,any word1 when used as the name of itself1 becomes a noun4--,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,but some grammarians say1 ,the plural of words1 considered as words merely1 is formed by the apostrophe and s2 as1 ',who1 that has any taste1 can endure the incessant1 quick returns of the also's1 and the likewise's1 and the moreover's1 and the however's1 and the notwithstanding's8'--,,campbell4--,wells 's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,practice is not altogether in favour of this principle1 and perhaps it would be better to decide with ,crombie that such a use of the apostrophe is improper4 #aei ,the ,supreme ,being 7,god1 ,greek3 ,theos1 ,deus1 ,dieu1 c47 is1 in all languages1 masculine2 in as much as the masculine sex is the superior and more excellent2 and as ,he is the ,creator of all1 the ,father of gods and men4--,harris's ,hermes1 p4 #ed4 ,this remark applies to all the direct names of the ,deity1 but the abstract idea of ,deity itself1 ,greek3 ,to ,theion1 ,numen1 ,godhead1 or ,divinity1 is not masculine1 but neuter4 ,on this point1 some notions have been published for grammar1 that are too heterodox to be cited or criticised here4 ,see ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bjh4 #afj ,that is1 we give them sex1 if we mean to represent them as persons4 ,in the following example1 a character commonly esteemed feminine is represented as neuter1 because the author would seem to doubt both the sex and the personality3 ,i don't know what a witch is1 or what it was then4--,n4 ,p4 ,rogers's ,writings1 p4 #aed4 #afa ,there is the same reason for doubling the t in cittess1 as for doubling the d in goddess4 ,see ,rule #c;d for ,spelling4 ,yet ,johnson1 ,todd1 ,webster1 ,bolles1 ,worcester1 and others1 spell it citess1 with one t4 ,cits and citesses raise a joyful strain4--,,dryden3 ,joh4 ,dict4 #afb ,but in the ,english we have no ,genders1 as has been seen in the foregoing ,notes4 ,the same may be said of ,cases4--,brightland's ,gram41 ,seventh ,edition1 ,lond41 #agdf1 p4 #he4 #afc ,the ,rev4 ,david ,blair so palpably contradicts himself in respect to this matter1 that ,i know not which he favours most1 two cases or three4 ,in his main text1 he adopts no objective1 but says3 ,according to the sense or relation in which nouns are used1 they are in the ,,nominative or the ,,possessive ,,case1 thus1 nom4 man2 poss4 man's4 ,to this he adds the following marginal note3 ,in the ,english language1 the distinction of the objective case is observable only in the pronouns4 ,cases being nothing but inflections1 where inflections do not exist1 there can be no grammatical distinction of cases1 for the terms inflection and case are perfectly synonymous and convertible4 ,as the ,english noun has only one change of termination1 so no other case is here adopted4 ,the objective case is noticed in the pronouns2 and in parsing nouns it is easy to distinguish subjects from objects4 ,a noun which governs the verb may be described as in the nominative case1 and one governed by the verb1 or following a preposition1 as in the objective case4--,blair's ,practical ,gram41 ,seventh ,edition1 ,london1 #ahae1 p4 #aa4 ,the terms inflection and case are not practically synonymous1 and never were so in the grammars of the language from which they are derived4 ,the man who rejects the objective case of ,english nouns1 because it has not a form peculiar to itself alone1 must reject the accusative and the vocative of all neuter nouns in ,latin1 for the same reason2 and the ablative1 too1 must in general be discarded on the same principle4 ,in some other parts of his book1 ,blair speaks of the objective case of nouns as familiarly as do other authors6 #afd ,this author says1 ,we choose to use the term subjective rather than nominative1 because it is shorter1 and because it conveys its meaning by its sound1 whereas the latter word means1 indeed1 little or nothing in itself4--,text-,book1 p4 #hh4 ,this appears to me a foolish innovation1 too much in the spirit of ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce1 who also adopts it4 ,the person who knows not the meaning of the word nominative1 will not be very likely to find out what is meant by subjective2 especially as some learned grammarians1 even such men as ,dr4 ,crombie and ,professor ,bullions1 often erroneously call the word which is governed by the verb its subject4 ,besides1 if we say subjective and objective1 in stead of nominative and objective1 we shall inevitably change the accent of both1 and give them a pronunciation hitherto unknown to the words4--,g4 ,,brown4 #afe ,the authorities cited by ,felch1 for his doctrine of possessive adnouns1 amount to nothing4 ,they are ostensibly two4 ,the first is a remark of ,dr4 ,adam's3 ',john's book was formerly written ,johnis book4 ,some have thought the 's a contraction of his1 but improperly4 ,others have imagined1 with more justness1 that1 by the addition of the 's1 the substantive is changed into a possessive adjective4'--,adam's ,latin and ,english ,grammar1 p4 #g4--;,felch's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,here ,dr4 ,adam by no means concurs with what these others have imagined2 for1 in the very same place1 he declares the possessive case of nouns to be their only case4 ,the second is a dogmatical and inconsistent remark of some anonymous writer in some part of the ,american ,journal of ,education1 a work respectable indeed1 but1 on the subject of grammar1 too often fantastical and heterodox4 ,felch thinks it not improper1 to use the possessive case before participles2 in which situation1 it denotes1 not the owner of something1 but the agent1 subject1 or recipient1 of the action1 being1 or change4 ,and what a jumble does he make1 where he attempts to resolve this ungrammatical construction6--telling us1 in almost the same breath1 that1 ,the agent of a nounal verb i4 e4 participle is never expressed1 but that1 ,sometimes it the nounal or gerundial verb is qualified1 in its nounal capacity1 by a possessive adnoun indicative of its agent as a verb2 as1 there is nothing like one's ,,being useful he doubted their ,,having it3 and then concluding1 ,hence it appears1 that the present participle may be used as agent or object1 and yet retain its character as a verb4--,felch's ,comprehensive ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,alas for the schools1 if the wise men of the ,east receive for grammar such utter confusion1 and palpable self-contradiction1 as this6 #aff ,a critic's accuracy is sometimes liable to be brought into doubt1 by subsequent alterations of the texts which1 he quotes4 ,many an error cited in this volume of criticism1 may possibly not be found in some future edition of the book referred to2 as several of those which were pointed out by ,lowth1 have disappeared from the places named for them4 ,churchill also cites this line as above2 7,new ,gram41 p4 #bad27 but1 in my edition of the ,odyssey1 by ,pope1 the reading is this3 ,by lov'd ,telemachus's blooming years6--,book xi1 ,l #hd4 #afg ,corpse forms the plural regularly1 corpses2 as in #b ,kings1 xix1 #ce3 ,in the morning1 behold1 they were all dead corpses4 #afh ,murray says1 ,an adjective put without a substantive1 with the definite article before it1 becomes a substantive in sense and meaning1 and is written as a substantive3 as1 ',providence rewards the good1 and punishes the bad4' ,if ,i understand this1 it is very erroneous1 and plainly contrary to the fact4 ,i suppose the author to speak of good persons and bad persons2 and1 if he does1 is there not an ellipsis in his language8 ,how can it be said1 that good and bad are here substantives1 since they have a plural meaning and refuse the plural form8 ,a word written as a substantive1 unquestionably is a substantive2 but neither of these is here entitled to that name4 ,yet ,smith1 and other satellites of ,murray1 endorse his doctrine2 and say1 that good and bad in this example1 and all adjectives similarly circumstanced1 may be considered nouns in parsing4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #eb4 ,an adjective with the definite article before it1 becomes a noun1 7of the third person1 plural number17 and must be parsed as such4--,r4 ,g4 ,greene's ,grammatical ,text-,book1 p4 #ee4 #afi ,here the word ,english appears to be used substantively1 not by reason of the article1 but rather because it has no article2 for1 when the definite article is used before such a word taken in the singular number1 it seems to show that the noun language is understood4 ,and it is remarkable1 that before the names or epithets by which we distinguish the languages1 this article may1 in many instances1 be either used or not used1 repeated or not repeated1 without any apparent impropriety3 as1 ,this is the case with the ,hebrew1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 p4 #ch4 ,better1 perhaps3 ,this is the case with the ,hebrew1 the ,french1 the ,italian1 and the ,spanish4 ,but we may say3 ,this is the case with ,hebrew1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish4 ,in the first of these forms1 there appears to be an ellipsis of the plural noun languages1 at the end of the sentence2 in the second1 an ellipsis of the singular noun language1 after each of the national epithets2 in the last1 no ellipsis1 but rather a substantive use of the words in question4 #agj ,the ,doctor may1 for aught ,i know1 have taken his notion of this noun1 from the language of ,dugald ,dalgetty1 boasting of his '#ejjj ,irishes' in the prison of ,argyle4 ,see ,letter of ,wendell ,phillips1 in the ,liberator1 ,vol4 xi1 p4 #baa4 #aga ,lindley ,murray1 or some ignorant printer of his octavo ,grammar1 has omitted this s2 and thereby spoiled the prosody1 if not the sense1 of the line3 ,of ,sericana1 where ,chinese drive1 c4 --,fourth ,american ,ed41 p4 #cde4 ,if there was a design to correct the error of ,milton's word1 something should have been inserted4 ,the common phrase1 the ,chinese1 would give the sense1 and the right number of syllables1 but not the right accent4 ,it would be sufficiently analogous with our mode of forming the words1 ,englishmen1 ,frenchmen1 ,scotchmen1 ,dutchmen1 and ,irishmen1 and perhaps not unpoetical1 to say3 ,of ,sericana1 where ,chinese-men drive1 ,with sails and wind1 their cany wagons light4 #agb ,the last six words are perhaps more frequently pronouns2 and some writers will have well-nigh all the rest to be pronouns also4 ,in like manner1 in the ,english1 there have been rescued from the adjectives1 and classed with the pronouns1 any1 aught1 each1 every1 many1 none1 one1 other1 some1 such1 that1 those1 this1 these2 and by other writers1 all1 another1 both1 either1 few1 first1 last1 neither1 and several4--,wilson's ,essay on ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,had the author said wrested1 in stead of rescued1 he would have taught a much better doctrine4 ,these words are what ,dr4 ,lowth correctly called ,pronominal ,adjectives4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bd4 ,this class of adjectives includes most of the words which ,murray1 ,lennie1 ,bullions1 ,kirkham1 and others1 so absurdly denominate ,adjective ,pronouns4 ,their ,distributive ,adjective ,pronouns1 each1 every1 either1 neither2 their ,demonstrative ,adjective ,pronouns1 this1 that1 these1 those2 and their ,indefinite ,adjective ,pronouns1 some1 other1 any1 one1 all1 such1 c41 are every one of them here2 for they all are ,adjectives1 and not ,pronouns4 ,and it is obvious1 that the corresponding words in ,latin1 ,greek1 or ,french1 are adjectives likewise1 and are1 for the most part1 so called2 so that1 from ,general ,grammar1 or the usages of other languages1 arises an argument for ranking them as adjectives1 rather than as pronouns4 ,but the learned ,dr4 ,bullions1 after improperly assuming that every adjective must express the quality of a noun1 and thence arguing that no such definitives can rightly be called adjectives1 most absurdly suggests1 that other languages1 or the usages of other languages1 generally assign to these ,english words the place of substitutes6 ,but so remarkable for self-contradiction1 as well as other errors1 is this gentleman's short note upon the classification of these words1 that ,i shall present the whole of it for the reader's consideration4 ,,note4 ,the distributives1 demonstratives1 and indefinites1 cannot strictly be called pronouns2 since they never stand instead of nouns1 but always agree with a noun expressed or understood3 ,neither can they be properly called adjectives1 since they never express the quality of a noun4 ,they are here classed with pronouns1 in accordance with the usages of other languages1 which generally assign them this place4 ,all these1 together with the possessives1 in parsing1 may with sufficient propriety be termed adjectives1 being uniformly regarded as such in syntax4--,bullions's ,principles of ,english ,gram41 p4 #bg4 7,see also his ,appendix ,,iii1 ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aii47 ,what a sample of grammatical instruction is here6 ,the pronominal adjectives cannot properly be called adjectives1 but they may with sufficient propriety be termed adjectives6 ,and so may the possessives1 or the personal pronouns in the possessive case6 ,here1 i4e41 in ,etymology1 they are all classed with pronouns2 but1 in ,syntax1 they are uniformly regarded as adjectives6 ,precious ,,model for the ,series of ,grammars1 ,english1 ,latin1 and ,greek1 all on ,,the ,,same ,,plan6 #agc ,some1 for somewhat1 or in some degree1 appears to me a vulgarism2 as1 ,this pause is generally some longer than that of a period4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #bga4 ,the word what seems to have been used adverbially in several different senses2 in none of which is it much to be commended3 as1 ,though ,i forbear1 what am ,i eased8--,job1 xvi1 #f4 ,what advantageth it me8--#a ,cor41 xv1 #cb4 ,here what1 means in what degree8 how much8 or wherein8 ,for what knowest thou1 ,o wife1 whether thou shalt save thy husband8--#a ,cor41 vii1 #af4 ,here how would have been better4 ,the enemy1 having his country wasted1 what by himself and what by the soldiers1 findeth succour in no place4--,spenser4 ,here what means partly2--wasted partly by himself and partly by the soldiers4 ,this use of what was formerly very common1 but is now1 ,i think1 obsolete4 ,what before an adjective seems sometimes to denote with admiration the degree of the quality2 and is called1 by some1 an adverb2 as1 ,what partial judges are our love and hate6--,dryden4 ,but here ,i take what to be an adjective2 as when we say1 such partial judges1 some partial judges1 c4 ,what need ,i be forward with ,death1 that calls not on me8--,shakspeare4 ,here what seems to be improperly put in place of why4 #agd ,dr4 ,blair1 in his ,lectures on ,rhetoric and ,belles-,lettres1 often uses the phrase this much2 but it is1 ,i think1 more common to say thus much1 even when the term is used substantively4 #age ,there seems to be no good reason for joining an and other3 on the contrary1 the phrase an other is always as properly two words1 as the phrase the other1 and more so4 ,the latter1 being long ago vulgarly contracted into t'other1 probably gave rise to the apparent contraction another2 which many people nowadays are ignorant enough to divide wrong1 and mispronounce4 ,see a-no-ther in ,murray's ,spelling-,book1 p4 #ga2 and a-noth-er in ,emerson's1 p4 #gf4 ,an here excludes any other article2 and both analogy and consistency require that the words be separated4 ,their union1 like that of the words the and other1 has led sometimes to an improper repetition of the article3 as1 ,another such a man1 for1 ,an other such man4--,bind my hair up4 ,an 'twas yesterday8 ,no1 nor the t'other day4--,,ben ,,jonson3 in ,joh4 ,dict4 ,he can not tell when he should take the tone1 and when the tother4--,,sir ,t4 ,,moore3 ,tooke's ,d4 ,p41 ,vol4 #ae1 p4 #ddh4 ,that is--when he should take the one and when the other4 ,besides1 the word other is declined1 like a noun1 and has the plural others2 but the compounding of another constrains our grammarians to say1 that this word has no plural4 ,all these difficulties will be removed by writing an other as two words4 ,the printers chiefly rule this matter4 ,to them1 therefore1 ,i refer it2 with directions1 not to unite these words for me1 except where it has been done in the manuscript1 for the sake of exactness in quotation4--,g4 ,,brown4 #agf ,this is a misapplication of the word between1 which cannot have reference to more than two things or parties3 the term should have been among4--,g4 ,,brown4 #agg ,i suppose that1 in a comparison of two1 any of the degrees may be accurately employed4 ,the common usage is1 to construe the positive with as1 the comparative with than1 and the superlative with of4 ,but here custom allows us also to use the comparative with of1 after the manner of the superlative2 as1 ,this is the better of the two4 ,it was but an odd whim of some old pedant1 to find in this a reason for declaring it ungrammatical to say ,this is the best of the two4 ,in one grammar1 ,i find the former construction condemned1 and the latter approved1 thus3 ,this is the better book of the two4 ,not correct1 because the comparative state of the adjective1 7better17 can not correspond with the preposition1 of4 ,the definite article1 the1 is likewise improperly applied to the comparative state2 the sentence should stand thus1 ,this is the best book of the two4--,chandler's ,gram41 ,ed4 of #ahba1 p4 #acj2 ,ed4 of #ahdg1 p4 #aea4 #agh ,this example appears to have been borrowed from ,campbell2 who1 however1 teaches a different doctrine from ,murray1 and clearly sustains my position2 ,both degrees are in such cases used indiscriminately4 ,we say rightly1 either ',this is the weaker of the two1' or--'the weakest of the two4'--,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #bjb4 ,how positively do some other men contradict this6 ,in comparing two persons or things1 by means of an adjective1 care must be taken1 that the superlative state be not employed3 ,we properly say1 ',john is the taller of the two2' but we should not say1 ',john is the tallest of the two4' ,the reason is plain3 we compare but two persons1 and must therefore use the comparative state4--,wright's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,rev4 ,matt4 ,harrison1 too1 insists on it1 that the superlative must have reference to more than two1 and censures ,dr4 ,johnson for not observing the rule4 ,see ,harrison's ,english ,language1 p4 #bee4 #agi ,l4 ,murray copied this passage literally1 7though anonymously17 as far as the colon2 and of course his book teaches us to account the termination ish1 in some sort1 a degree of comparison4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,but what is more absurd1 than to think of accounting this1 or any other suffix1 a degree of comparison8 ,the inaccuracy of the language is a sufficient proof of the haste with which ,johnson adopted this notion1 and of the blindness with which he has been followed4 ,the passage is now found in most of our ,english grammars4 ,sanborn expresses the doctrine thus3 ,adjectives terminating with ish1 denote a degree of comparison less than the positive2 as1 saltish1 whitish1 blackish4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,but who does not know1 that most adjectives of this ending are derived from nouns1 and are compared only by adverbs1 as childish1 foolish1 and so forth8 ,wilcox says1 ,words ending in ish1 generally express a slight degree2 as1 reddish1 bookish4--,practical ,gram41 p4 #ag4 ,but who will suppose that foolish denotes but a slight degree of folly1 or bookish but a slight fondness for books8 ,and1 with such an interpretation1 what must be the meaning of more bookish or most foolish8 #ahj ',a rodde shall come furth of the stocke of ,jesse4' ,primer1 ,hen4 ,,viii4--,craven ,glossary4 #aha ,midst is a contraction of the regular superlative middest1 used by ,spenser1 but now obsolete4 ,midst1 also1 seems to be obsolete as an adjective1 though still frequently used as a noun2 as1 ,in the midst4--,webster4 ,it is often a poetic contraction for the preposition amidst4 ,in some cases it appears to be an adverb4 ,in the following example it is equivalent to middlemost1 and therefore an adjective3 ,still greatest he the midst1 ,now dragon grown4--,paradise ,lost1 ,b4 x1 l4 #ebh4 #ahb ,what ,i here say1 accords with the teaching of all our lexicographers and grammarians1 except one dauntless critic1 who has taken particular pains to put me1 and some three or four others1 on the defensive4 ,this gentleman not only supposes less and fewer1 least and fewest1 to be sometimes equivalent in meaning1 but actually exhibits them as being also etymologically of the same stock4 ,less and least1 however1 he refers to three different positives1 and more and most1 to four4 ,and since1 in once instance1 he traces less and more1 least and most1 to the same primitive word1 it follows of course1 if he is right1 that more is there equivalent to less and most is equivalent to least6 ,the following is a copy of this remarkable ,,declension ,,on ,,indefinite ,,specifying ,,adnames1 and just one half of the table is wrong3 ,some1 more1 most2 ,some1 less1 least2 ,little1 less1 least2 ,few1 fewer or less1 fewest or least2 ,several1 more1 most2 ,much1 more1 most2 ,many1 more most4--,oliver ,b ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #add4 #ahc ,murray himself had the same false notion concerning six of these adjectives1 and perhaps all the rest2 for his indefinite andsoforths may embrace just what the reader pleases to imagine4 ,let the following paragraph be compared with the observations and proofs which ,i shall offer3 ,adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification1 do not properly admit of the superlative or the comparative form superadded3 such as1 ',chief1 extreme1 perfect1 right1 universal1 supreme1' c42 which are sometimes improperly written1 ',chiefest1 extremest1 perfectest1 rightest1 most universal1 most supreme1' c4 ,the following expressions are therefore improper4 ',he sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices2' ',the quarrel became so universal and national2' ',a method of attaining the rightest and greatest happiness4' ,the phrases1 so perfect1 so right1 so extreme1 so universal1 c41 are incorrect2 because they imply that one thing is less perfect1 less extreme1 c4 than another1 which is not possible4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #afg4 ,for himself1 a man may do as he pleases about comparing these adjectives2 but whoever corrects others1 on such principles as the foregoing1 will have work enough on his hands4 ,but the writer who seems to exceed all others1 in error on this point1 is ,joseph ,w4 ,wright4 ,in his ,philosophical ,grammar1 p4 #east1 this author gives a list of seventy-two adjectives1 which1 he says1 admit of no variation of state2 i4 e41 are not compared4 ,among them are round1 flat1 wet1 dry1 clear1 pure1 odd1 free1 plain1 fair1 chaste1 blind1 and more than forty others1 which are compared about as often as any words in the language4 ,dr4 ,blair is hypercritically censured by him1 for saying most excellent1 more false1 the chastest kind1 more perfect fuller1 more full1 fullest1 most full1 truest and most true2 ,murray1 for using quite wrong2 and ,cobbett1 for the phrase1 perfect correctness4 ,correctness1 says the critic1 does not admit of degrees of perfection4--,ib41 pp4 #adc and #aea4 ,but what does such a thinker know about correctness8 ,if this excellent quality cannot be perfect1 surely nothing can4 ,the words which ,dr4 ,bullions thinks it improper to compare1 because he judges them to have an absolute or superlative signification1 are true1 perfect1 universal1 chief1 extreme1 supreme1 c4--no body knows how many4 ,see ,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ai and p4 #aae4 #ahd ,the regular comparison of this word1 7like1 liker1 likest17 seems to be obsolete1 or nearly so4 ,it is seldom met with1 except in old books3 yet we say1 more like1 or most like1 less like1 or least like4 ,to say the flock with whom he is1 is likest to ,christ4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ahj4 ,of ,godlike pow'r8 for likest ,gods they seem'd4--,milton1 ,p4 ,l4 ,b4 vi1 l4 #cja4 #ahe ,this example1 and several others that follow it1 are no ordinary solecisms2 they are downright ,irish bulls1 making actions or relations reciprocal1 where reciprocity is utterly unimaginable4 ,two words can no more be derived from each other1 than two living creatures can have received their existence from each other4 ,so1 two things can never succeed each other1 except they alternate or move in a circle2 and a greater number in train can follow one an other only in some imperfect sense1 not at all reciprocal4 ,in some instances1 therefore1 the best form of correction will be1 to reject the reciprocal terms altogether--,g4 ,,brown4 #ahf ,this doctrine of punctuation1 if not absolutely false in itself1 is here very badly taught4 ,when only two words1 of any sort1 occur in the same construction1 they seldom require the comma2 and never can they need more than one1 whereas these grammarians1 by their plural word commas1 suggest a constant demand for two or more4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ahg ,some grammarians exclude the word it from the list of personal pronouns1 because it does not convey the idea of that personality which consists in individual intelligence4 ,on the other hand1 they will have who to be a personal pronoun1 because it is literally applied to persons only1 or intelligent beings4 ,but ,i judge them to be wrong in respect to both2 and1 had they given definitions of their several classes of pronouns1 they might perhaps have found out that the word it is always personal1 in a grammatical sense1 and who1 either relative or interrogative4 #ahh ,whoso and whatso are found in old authors1 but are now out of use4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #gf4 ,these antiquated words are equivalent in import to whosoever and whatsoever4 ,the former1 whoso1 being used many times in the ,bible1 and occasionally also by the poets1 as by ,cowper1 ,whittier1 and others1 can hardly be said to be obsolete2 though ,wells1 like ,churchill1 pronounced it so1 in his first edition4 #ahi ',the man is prudent which speaks little4' ,this sentence is incorrect1 because which is a pronoun of the neuter gender4--,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #ah4 ,which is also a relative1 but it is of the neuter gender4 ,it is also interrogative4--,webster's ,improved ,gram41 p4 #bf4 ,for oversights like these1 ,i cannot account4 ,the relative which is of all the genders1 as every body ought to know1 who has ever heard of the horse which ,alexander rode1 of the ass which spoke to ,balaam1 or of any of the animals and things which ,noah had with him in the ark4 #aij ,the word which also1 when taken in its discriminative sense 7i4e4 to distinguish some persons or things from others7 may have a construction of this sort2 and1 by ellipsis of the noun after it1 it may likewise bear a resemblance to the double relative what3 as1 ,i shall now give you two passages2 and request you to point out which words are mono-syllables1 which dis-syllables1 which tris-syllables1 and which poly-syllables4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,here1 indeed1 the word what might be substituted for which2 because that also has a discriminative sense4 ,either would be right2 but the author might have presented the same words and thoughts rather more accurately1 thus3 ,i shall now give you two passages2 and request you to point out which words are monosyllables2 which1 dissyllables2 which1 trissyllables2 and which1 polysyllables4 #aia ,the relative what1 being equivalent to that which1 sometimes has the demonstrative word that set after it1 by way of pleonasm2 as1 ,what ,i tell you in darkness1 that speak ye in light1 and what ye hear in the ear1 that preach ye upon the house-tops4--,matt41 x1 #bg4 ,in ,covell's ,digest1 this text is presented as false syntax1 under the new and needless rule1 ,double relatives always supply two cases4--,digest of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #adc4 ,in my opinion1 to strike out the word that1 would greatly weaken the expression3 and so thought our translators2 for no equivalent term is used in the original4 #aib ,as for ,butler's method of parsing these words by always recognizing a noun as being ,,understood before them1--a method by which1 according to his publishers notice1 ,the ordinary unphilosophical explanation of this class of words is discarded1 and a simple1 intelligible1 common-sense view of the matter now for the first time substituted1--,i know not what novelty there is in it1 that is not also just so much error4 ,compare1 says he1 these two sentences3 ',i saw whom ,i wanted to see2' ',i saw what ,i wanted to see4 ,if what in the latter is equivalent to that which or the thing which1 whom1 in the former is equivalent to him whom1 or the person whom4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,the former example being simply elliptical of the antecedent1 he judges the latter to be so too2 and infers1 that what is nothing more than a relative pronoun1 and includes nothing else4--,ib4 ,this conclusion is not well drawn1 because the two examples are not analogous2 and whoever thus finds that what is nothing more than a relative1 ought also to find it is something less1--a mere adjective4 ,i saw the person whom ,i wanted to see1 is a sentence that can scarcely spare the antecedent and retain the sense2 ,i saw what ,i wanted to see1 is one which cannot receive an antecedent1 without changing both the sense and the construction4 ,one may say1 ,i saw what things ,i wanted to see2 but this1 in stead of giving what an antecedent1 makes it an adjective1 while it retains the force of a relative4 ,or he may insert a noun before what1 agreeably to the solution of ,butler2 as1 ,i saw the things1 what ,i wanted to see3 or1 if he please1 both before and after2 as1 ,i saw the things1 what things ,i wanted to see4 ,but still1 in either case1 what is no simple relative2 for it here seems equivalent to the phrase1 so many as4 ,or1 again1 he may omit the comma1 and say1 ,i saw the thing what ,i wanted to see2 but this1 if it be not a vulgarism1 will only mean1 ,i saw the thing to be what ,i wanted to see4 ,so that this method of parsing the pronoun what1 is manifestly no improvement1 but rather a perversion and misinterpretation4 ,but1 for further proof of his position1 ,butler adduces instances of what he calls the relative ,,that with the antecedent omitted4 ,a few examples of this1 he says1 will help us to ascertain the nature of what4 ',we speak that we do know1' ,bible4 ,john1 iii1 #aa4 ',i am that ,i am4' ,bible4 ,exod41 iii1 #ad4 ',eschewe that wicked is4' ,gower4 ',is it possible he should know what he is1 and be that he is8' ,shakespeare4 ',gather the sequel by that went before4' ,id4 ,in these examples1 continues he1 that is a relative2 and is exactly synonymous with what4 ,no one would contend that that stands for itself and its antecedent at the same time4 ,the antecedent is omitted1 because it is indefinite1 ,,or ,,easily ,,supplied4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #eb2 ,bullions's ,analytical and ,practical ,gram41 p4 #bcc4 ,converted at his wisest age1 by these false arguments1 so as to renounce and gainsay the doctrine taught almost universally1 and hitherto spread industriously by himself1 in the words of ,lennie1 that1 ,what is a compound relative1 including both the relative and the antecedent1 ,dr4 ,bullions now most absurdly urges1 that1 ,the truth is1 what is a simple relative1 having1 wherever used1 like all other relatives1 ,,but ,,one ,,case2 but 99 99 99 that it always refers to a general antecedent1 omitted1 ,,but ,,easily ,,supplied by the mind1 though not ,,understood1 in the ordinary sense of that expression4--,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram4 of #ahdi1 p4 #ea4 ,accordingly1 though he differs from ,butler about this matter of the ordinary sense1 he cites the foregoing suggestions of this author1 with the following compliment3 ,these remarks appear to me just1 and conclusive on this point4--,ib41 p4 #bcc4 ,but there must1 ,i think1 be many to whon they will appear far otherwise4 ,these elliptical uses of that are all of them bad or questionable ,english2 because1 the ellipsis being such as may be supplied in two or three different ways1 the true construction is doubtful1 the true meaning not exactly determined by the words4 ,it is quite as easy and natural to take that to be here a demonstrative term1 having the relative which understood after it1 as to suppose it a relative1 with an antecedent to be supplied before it4 ,since there would not be the same uncertainty1 if what were in these cases substituted for that1 it is evident that the terms are not exactly synonymous2 but1 even if they were so1 exact synonymy would not evince a sameness of construction4 #aic ,see this erroneous doctrine in ,kirkham's ,grammar1 p4 #aab2 in ,wells's1 p4 #gd2 in ,sanborn's1 p4 #ga1 p4 #if1 and p4 #agg2 in ,cooper's1 p4 #ch2 in ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's1 p4 #gj4 ,these writers show a great fondness for this complex mode of parsing4 ,but1 in fact1 no pronoun1 not even the word what1 has any double construction of cases from a real or absolute necessity2 but merely because1 the noun being suppressed1 yet having a representative1 we choose rather to understand and parse its representative doubly1 than to supply the ellipsis4 ,no pronoun includes both the antecedent and the relative1 by virtue of its own composition1 or of its own derivation1 as a word4 ,no pronoun can properly be called compound merely because it has a double construction1 and is equivalent to two other words4 ,these positions1 if true1 as ,i am sure they are1 will refute sundry assertions that are contained in the above-named grammars4 #aid ,here the demonstrative word that1 as well as the phrase that matter1 which ,i form to explain its construction1 unquestionably refers back to ,judas's confession1 that he had sinned2 but still1 as the word has not the connecting power of a relative pronoun1 its true character is that of an adjective1 and not that of a pronoun4 ,this pronominal adjective is very often mixed with some such ellipsis1 and that to repeat the import of various kinds of words and phrases3 as1 ,god shall help her1 and that right early4--,psal41 xlvi1 #e4 ,nay1 ye do wrong1 and defraud1 and that your brethren4--l ,cor41 vi1 #h4 ,i'll know your business1 that ,i will4--,shakespeare4 #aie ,dr4 ,bullions has undertaken to prove1 ,that the word ,,as should not be considered a relative in any circumstances4 ,the force of his five great arguments to this end1 the reader may well conceive of1 when he has compared the following one with what is shown in the #bb;d and #bc;d observations above3 #c4 ,as can never be used as a substitute for another relative pronoun1 nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it4 ,if1 then1 it is a relative pronoun1 it is1 to say the least1 a very unaccommodating one4--,bullions's ,analytical and ,practical ,gram4 of #ahdi1 p4 #bcc4 #aif ,the latter part of this awkward and complex rule was copied from ,lowth's ,grammar1 p4 #aja4 ,dr4 ,ash's rule is1 ,pronouns must always agree with the nouns for which they stand1 or to which they refer1 in ,number1 person1 and gender4--,grammatical ,institutes1 p4 #ed4 ,i quote this exactly as it stands in the book3 the ,italics are his1 not mine4 ,roswell ,c4 ,smith appears to be ignorant of the change which ,murray made in his fifth rule3 for he still publishes as ,murray's a principle of concord which the latter rejected as early as #ahjf3 ,,rule ,v4 ,corresponding with ,murray's ,grammar1 ,,rule ,v4 ,pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand1 in gender1 number1 ,,and ,,person4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #acj4 ,so ,allen ,fisk1 in his ,murray's ,english ,grammar ,simplified1 p4 #aaa2 ,aaron ,m4 ,merchant1 in his ,abridgment of ,murray's ,english ,grammar1 ,revised1 ,enlarged and ,improved1 p4 #gi2 and the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,cooper1 in his ,abridgment of ,murray's ,english ,grammar1 p4 #aac2 where1 from the titles1 every reader would expect to find the latest doctrines of ,murray1 and not what he had so long ago renounced or changed4 #aig ,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ea2 #abmo1 #ea2 #ahmo1 #bb2 ,d4 ,adams's1 #cg2 ,alger's1 #ba2 ,bacon's1 #ai2 ,fisk's1 #bj2 ,kirkham's1 #ag2 ,merchant's ,murray1 #ce2 ,merchant's ,american ,gram41 #dj2 ,f4 ,h4 ,miller's ,gram41 #bf2 ,pond's1 #bh2 ,s4 ,putnam's1 #bb2 ,russell's1 #af2 ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith's1 #bb4 #aih ,dr4 ,crombie1 and some others1 represent ,i and thou1 with their inflections1 as being masculine and feminine4 ,lennie1 ,m',culloch1 and others1 represent them as being masculine or feminine4 ,but1 if either of them can have an antecedent that is neuter1 neither of these views is strictly correct4 7,see ,obs4 #eth1 above47 ,mackintosh says1 ,we use our1 your1 their1 in speaking of a thing or things belonging to plural nouns of any gender4--,essay on ,english ,gram41 p4 #adi4 ,so ,william ,barnes says1 ,i1 thou1 we1 ye or you1 and they1 are of all genders1-- ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #aif4 #aii ,it is perfectly plain1 then1 that my and mine are but different forms of the same word1 as are a and an4 ,mine1 for the sake of euphony1 or from custom1 stands for the possessive case without a noun2 but must be changed for my when the noun is expressed3 and my1 for a similar reason1 stands before a noun1 but must be changed for mine when the noun is dropped4 99 99 99 ,mine and my1 thine and thy1 will1 therefore1 be considered in this book1 as different forms of the possessive case from ,i and ,thou4 ,and the same rule will be extended to her and hers1 our and ours1 your and yours1 their and theirs4--,barnard's ,analytic ,grammar1 p4 #adb4 #bjj ,it has long been fashionable1 in the ordinary intercourse of the world1 to substitute the plural form of this pronoun for the singular through all the cases4 ,thus1 by the figure ,,enallage1 you are1 for instance1 is commonly put for thou art4 ,see ,observations #bjth and #bast1 below2 also ,figures of ,syntax1 in ,part ,,iv4 #bja ,the original nominative was ye1 which is still the only nominative of the solemn style2 and the original objective was you1 which is still the only objective that our grammarians in general acknowledge4 ,but1 whether grammatical or not1 ye is now very often used1 in a familiar way1 for the objective case4 7,see ,observations #bb;d and #bc;d1 upon the declensions of pronouns47 ,t4 ,dilworth gave both cases alike3 ,nom4 ,ye or you2 ,acc4 or ,obj4 ,ye or you4--,his ,new ,guide1 p4 #ih4 ,latham gives these forms3 ,nom4 ye or you2 ,obj4 you or ye4--,elementary ,gram41 p4 #ij4 ,dr4 ,campbell says1 ,i am inclined to prefer that use which makes ye invariably the nominative plural of the personal pronoun thou1 and you the accusative1 when applied to an actual plurality4--,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #agd4 ,professor ,fowler touches the case1 rather blindly1 thus3 ,instead of the true nominative ,,ye1 we use1 with few exceptions1 the objective case2 as1 ',,you speak2' ',,you two are speaking4' ,in this we substitute one case for another4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #dgh4 ,no other grammarian1 however1 discards you as a nominative of actual plurality2 and the present casual practice of putting ye in the objective1 has prevailed to some extent for at least two centuries3 as1 ,your change approaches1 when all these delights ,will vanish and deliver ye to woe4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ,b4 iv1 l4 #cfg4 #bjb ,dr4 ,young has1 in one instance1 and with very doubtful propriety1 converted this pronoun into the second person1 by addressing himself thus3-- ,o thou1 myself ,i abroad our counsels roam ,and1 like ill husbands1 take no care at home4 --,love of ,fame1 ,sat4 ,,ii1 l4 #bga4 #bjc ,the fashion of using the plural number for the singular1 or you for thou1 has also substituted yourself for thyself1 in common discourse4 ,in poetry1 in prayer1 in ,scripture1 and in the familiar language of the ,friends1 the original compound is still retained2 but the poets use either term1 according to the gravity or the lightness of their style4 ,but yourself1 like the regal compound ourself1 though apparently of the singular number1 and always applied to one person only1 is1 in its very nature1 an anomalous and ungrammatical word2 for it can neither mean more than one1 nor agree with a pronoun or a verb that is singular4 ,swift indeed wrote3 ,conversation is but carving2 carve for all1 yourself is starving4 ,but he wrote erroneously1 and his meaning is doubtful3 probably he meant1 ,to carve for all1 is1 to starve yourself4 ,the compound personals1 when they are nominatives before the verb1 are commonly associated with the simple2 as1 ,i myself also am a man4--,acts1 x1 #af4 ,that thou thyself art a guide4--,rom41 ii1 #ai4 ,if it stand1 as you yourself still do--,shakspeare4 ,that you yourself are much condemned4--,id4 ,and1 if the simple pronoun be omitted1 the compound still requires the same form of the verb2 as1 ,which way ,i fly is ,hell2 myself am ,hell4--,milton4 ,the following example is different3 ,i love mankind2 and in a monarchy myself is all that ,i can love4--,life of ,schiller1 ,follen's ,pref41 p4 x4 ,dr4 ,follen objects to the ,british version1 ,myself were all that ,i could love2 and1 if his own is good ,english1 the verb is agrees with all1 and not with myself4 ,is is of the third person3 hence1 myself is or1 yourself is1 cannot be good syntax2 nor does any one say1 yourself art1 or1 ourself am1 but rather1 yourself are3 as1 ,captain1 yourself are the fittest4--,dryden4 ,but to call this a concord1 is to turn a third part of the language upsidedown2 because1 by analogy1 it confounds1 to such extent at least1 the plural number with the singular through all our verbs2 that is1 if ourself and yourself are singulars1 and not rather plurals put for singulars by a figure of syntax4 ,but the words are1 in some few instances1 written separately2 and then both the meaning and the construction are different2 as1 ,your self is sacred1 profane it not4--,the ,dial1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #hf4 ,perhaps the word myself above ought rather to have been two words2 thus1 ,and1 in a monarchy1 my self is all that ,i can love4 ,the two words here differ in person and case1 perhaps also in gender2 and1 in the preceding instance1 they differ in person1 number1 gender1 and case4 ,but the compound always follows the person1 number1 and gender of its first part1 and only the case of its last4 ,the notion of some grammarians1 7to wit1 of ,wells1 and the sixty-eight others whom he cites for it17 that you and your are actually made singular by usage1 is demonstrably untrue4 ,do we1 our1 and us1 become actually singular1 as often as a king or a critic applies them to himself8 ,no3 for nothing can be worse syntax than1 we am1 we was1 or you was1 though some contend for this last construction4 #bjd ,whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which2 as1 ,a religion whose origin is divine4--,blair4 ,see ,observations #dth and #eth1 on the ,classes of ,pronouns4 #bje ,after but1 as in the following sentence1 the double relative what is sometimes applied to persons2 and it is here equivalent to the friend who3-- ,lorenzo1 pride repress2 nor hope to find ,a friend1 but what has found a friend in thee4--,young4 #bjf ,of all these compounds4 ,l4 ,murray very improperly says1 ,they are seldom used1 in modern style4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #ed2 also ,fisk's1 p4 #fe4 ,none of them are yet obsolete1 though the shorter forms seem to be now generally preferred4 ,the following suggestion of ,cobbett's is erroneous2 because it implies that the shorter forms are innovations and faults2 and because the author carelessly speaks of them as one thing only3 ,we sometimes omit the so1 and say1 whoever1 whomever1 whatever1 and even whosever4 ,it is a mere abbreviation4 ,the so is understood3 and1 it is best not to omit to write it4--,eng4 ,gram41 #bji4 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith dismisses the compound relatives with three lines2 and these he closes with the following notion3 ,they are not often used6--,new ,gram41 p4 #fa4 #bjg ,sanborn1 with strange ignorance of the history of those words1 teaches thus3 ,mine and thine appear to have been formed from my and thy by changing y into i and adding n1 and then subjoining e to retain the long sound of the vowel4--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #ib4 ,this false notion1 as we learn from his guillemets and a remark in his preface1 he borrowed from ,parkhurst's ,systematic ,introduction4 ,dr4 ,lowth says1 ,the ,saxon ,ic hath the possessive case ,min2 ,thu1 possessive ,thin2 ,he1 possessive ,his3 ,from which our possessive cases of the same pronouns are taken without alteration4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #bc4 #bjh ,latham1 with a singularity quite remarkable1 reverses this doctrine in respect to the two classes1 and says1 ,my1 thy1 our1 your1 her1 and their signify possession1 because they are possessive cases4 99 99 99 ,mine1 thine1 ours1 yours1 hers1 theirs1 signify possession for a different reason4 ,they partake of the nature of adjectives1 and in all the allied languages are declined as such4--,latham's ,elementary ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,weld1 like ,wells1 with a few more whose doctrine will be criticised by-and-by1 adopting here an other odd opinion1 takes the former class only for forms of the possessive case2 the latter he disposes of thus3 ,ours1 yours1 theirs1 hers1 and generally mine and thine1 are ,,possessive ,,pronouns1 used in either the nominative or objective case1--,weld's ,gram41 ,improved ,ed41 p4 #fh4 ,not only denying the possessives with ellipsis to be instances of the possessive case1 but stupidly mistaking at once two dissimilar things for a third which is totally unlike to either1--i4 e41 assuming together for substitution both an ellipsis of one word and an equivalence to two--7as some others more learned have very strangely done--7 he supposes all this class of pronouns to have forsaken every property of their legitimate roots1--their person1 their number1 their gender1 their case1--and to have assumed other properties1 such as belong to the thing possessed6 ,in the example1 ,your house is on the plain1 ours is on the hill1 he supposes ours to be of the third person1 singular number1 neuter gender1 and nominative case2 and not1 as it plainly is1 of the first person1 plural number1 masculine gender1 and possessive case4 ,such parsing should condemn forever any book that teaches it4 #bji ,this word should have been numerals1 for two or three reasons4 ,the author speaks of the numeral adjectives2 and to say the numbers must agree in number with their substantives1 is tautological--,g4 ,brown4 #baj ,cardell assails the common doctrine of the grammarians on this point1 with similar assertions1 and still more earnestness4 ,see his ,essay on ,language1 p4 #hj4 ,the notion that these pretended possessives are uniformly used as nominatives or objectives--though demonstrably absurd1 and confessedly repugnant to what is usually considered to be their true explanation--was adopted by ,jaudon1 in #ahab2 and has recently found several new advocates2 among whom are ,davis1 ,felch1 ,goodenow1 ,hazen1 ,smart1 ,weld1 and ,wells4 ,there is1 however1 much diversity1 as well as much inaccuracy1 in their several expositions of the matter4 ,smart inserts in his declensions1 as the only forms of the possessive case1 the words of which he afterwards speaks thus3 ,the following possessive cases of the personal pronouns1 7,see page vii17 must be called ,,personal ,,pronouns ,,possessive3 mine1 thine1 his1 hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs4 ,for these words are always used substantively1 so as to include the meaning of some noun in the third person singular or plural1 in the nominative or the objective ease4 ,thus1 if we are speaking of books1 and say 1 ',mine are here1' mine means my books1 ,fist and it must be deemed a personal pronoun possessive in the third person plural1 and nominative to the verb are4--,smart's ,accidence1 p4 xxii4 ,if to say1 these possessive cases must be called a class of pronouns1 used substantively1 and deemed nominatives or objectives1 is not absurd1 then nothing can be4 ,nor is any thing in grammar more certain1 than that the pronoun mine can only be used by the speaker or writer1 to denote himself or herself as the owner of something4 ,it is therefore of the first person1 singular number1 masculine 7or feminine7 gender1 and possessive case2 being governed by the name of the thing or things possessed4 ,this name is1 of course1 always known2 and1 if known and not expressed1 it is understood4 ,for sometimes a word is repeated to the mind1 and clearly understood1 where it cannot properly be expressed2 as1 ,and he came and sought fruit thereon1 and found none4--,luke1 xiii1 #f4 ,wells opposes this doctrine1 citing a passage from ,webster1 as above1 and also imitating his argument4 ,this author acknowledges three classes of pronouns--personal1 relative1 and interrogative2 and then1 excluding these words from their true place among personals of the possessive case1 absurdly makes them a supernumerary class of possessive nominatives or objectives6 ,mine1 thine1 his1 ours1 yours1 and theirs1 are ,,possessive ,,pronouns1 used in construction either as nominatives or objectives2 as1 ',your pleasures are past1 mine are to come4' ,here the word mine1 which is used as a substitute for my pleasures1 is the subject of the verb are4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ga2 #aac ,ed41 p4 #gh4 ,now the question to find the subject of the verb are1 is1 ,my what are to come8 ,ans4 pleasures4 ,but the author proceeds to argue in a note thus3 ,mine1 thine1 etc4 are often parsed as pronouns in the possessive case1 and governed by nouns understood4 ,thus1 in the sentence1 ',this book is mine1' the word mine is said to possess book4 ,that the word book is not here understood1 is obvious from the fact1 that1 when it is supplied1 the phrase becomes not 'mine book1' but 'my book1' the pronoun being changed from mine to my2 so that we are made1 by this practice1 to parse mine as possessing a word understood1 before which it cannot properly be used4 ,the word mine is here evidently employed as a substitute for the two words1 my and book4--,wells1 ibid4 ,this note appears to me to be1 in many respects1 faulty4 ,in the first place1 its whole design was1 to disprove what is true4 ,for1 bating the mere difference of person1 the author's example above is equal to this3 ,your pleasures are past1 ,w4 ,h4 ,wells's are to come4 ,the ellipsis of pleasures1 is evident in both4 ,but ellipsis is not substitution2 no1 nor is equivalence4 ,mine1 when it suggests an ellipsis of the governing noun1 is equivalent to my and that noun2 but certainly1 not a substitute for the two words4 ,it is a substitute1 or pronoun1 for the name of the speaker or writer2 and so is my2 both forms representing1 and always agreeing with1 that name or person only4 ,no possessive agrees with what governs it2 but every pronoun ought to agree with that for which it stands4 ,secondly1 if the note above cited does not aver1 in its first sentence1 that the pronouns in question are governed by nouns understood1 it comes much nearer to saying this1 than a writer should who meant to deny it4 ,in the third place1 the example1 ,this book is mine1 is not a good one for its purpose4 ,the word mine may be regularly parsed as a possessive1 without supposing any ellipsis2 for book1 the name of the thing possessed1 is given1 and in obvious connexion with it4 ,and further1 the matter affirmed is ownership1 requiring different cases2 and not the identity of something under different names1 which must be put in the same case4 ,in the fourth place1 to mistake regimen for possession1 and thence speak of one word as possessing an other1 a mode of expression occurring twice in the foregoing note1 is not only unscholarlike1 but positively absurd4 ,but1 possibly1 the author may have meant by it1 to ridicule the choice phraseology of the following ,rule3 ,a noun or pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the noun it possesses4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aha2 ,frazee's1 #ahdd1 p4 #be4 #baa ,in respect to the numbers1 the following text is an uncouth exception3 ,pass ye away1 thou inhabitant of ,saphir4--,micah1 i1 #aa4 ,the singular and the plural are here strangely confounded4 ,perhaps the reading should be1 ,pass thou away1 ,o inhabitant of ,saphir4 ,nor is the ,bible free from abrupt transitions from one number to the other1 or from one person to an other1 which are neither agreeable nor strictly grammatical2 as1 ,brethren1 if a man be overtaken in a fault1 ye which who are spiritual1 restore such an a one in the spirit of meekness2 considering thyself1 lest thou also be tempted4--,gal41 vi1 #a4 ,ye that put far away the evil day1 and cause the seat of violence to come near2 that lie upon beds of ivory1 and stretch themselves upon their couches1 c--,amos1 vi1 #i4 #bab ,the solemn style is used1 chiefly1 in the ,bible and in prayer4 ,the ,society of ,friends retain it in common parlance4 ,it consists in using thou in the singular number1 and ye in the plural1 instead of using you in both numbers as in the familiar style4 99 99 99 ,the third person singular of verbs ends with th or eth1 which affects only the present indicative1 and hath of the perfect4 ,the second person1 singular1 ends with st1 est1 or t only4--,sanborn's ,gram41 p4 #eh4 ,in the solemn and poetic styles1 mine1 thine1 and thy1 are used2 and ,,this is the style adopted by the ,friends' society4 ,in common discourse it appears very stiff and affected4--,bartlett's ,c4 ,s4 ,man'l1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #gb4 #bac ,and of the ,history of his being tost in a ,blanket1 he saith1 ',here1 ,scriblerus1 thou lessest in what thou assertest concerning the blanket3 it was not a blanket1 but a rug4--,curlliad1 p4 #be4--,notes to ,pope's ,dunciad1 ,b4 ii1 verse #c4 ,a vulgar idea solemnly expressed1 is ludicrous4 ,uttered in familiar terms1 it is simply vulgar3 as1 ,you lie1 ,scriblerus1 in what you say about the blanket4 #bad ,notwithstanding these verbal mistakes1 the ,bible1 for the size of it1 is the most accurate grammatical composition that we have in the ,english language4 ,the authority of several eminent grammarians might be adduced in support of this assertion1 but it may be sufficient to mention only that of ,dr4 ,lowth1 who says1 ',the present translation of the ,bible1 is the best standard of the ,english language4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #aff4 ,i revere the ,bible vastly too much to be pleased with an imitation of its peculiar style1 in any man's ordinary speech or writing4--,g4 ,,brown4 #bae ,ye1 except in the solemn style1 is obsolete2 but it is used in the language of tragedy1 to express contempt3 as1 ',when ye shall know what ,margaret knows1 ye may not be so thankful4' ,franklin4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #eg4 ,the second person plural had formerly ,,ye both in the nominative and the objective4 ,this form is now obsolete in the objective1 and nearly obsolete in the nominative4--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 #baf ,so has ,milton3-- ,to waste it all myself1 and leave ye none6 ,so disinherited how would you bless me6--,par4 ,lost1 ,b4 x1 l4 #hbj4 #bag ,the word what is a compound of two specifying adjectives1 each1 of course1 referring to a noun1 expressed or understood4 ,it is equivalent to the which2 that which2 which that2 or that that2 used also in the plural4 ,at different periods1 and in different authors1 it appears in the varying forms1 tha qua1 qua tha1 qu'tha1 quthat1 quhat1 hwat1 and what4 ,this word is found in other forms2 but it is needless to multiply them4--,cardell's ,essay on ,language1 p4 #hf4 #bah ,this author's distribution of the pronouns1 of which ,i have taken some notice in ,obs4 #ajth above1 is remarkable for its inconsistencies and absurdities4 ,first he avers1 ,pronouns are generally divided into three kinds1 the ,personal1 the ,adjective1 and the ,relative pronouns4 ,they are all known by the lists4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,these short sentences are far from being accurate1 clear1 or true4 ,he should have made the several kinds known1 by a good definition of each4 ,but this was work to which he did not find himself adequate4 ,and if we look to his lists for the particular words of each kind1 we shall get little satisfaction4 ,of the ,personal pronouns1 he says1 ,there are five of them2 ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 it4--,ib41 p4 #ig4 ,these are simple words1 and in their declension they are properly multiplied to forty4 7,see ,ib41 p4 #ii47 ,next he seems to double the number1 thus3 ,when self is added to the personal pronouns1 as himself1 myself1 itself1 themselves1 c4 they are called ,compound ,personal ,pronouns4--,ib41 p4 #ii4 ,then he asserts that mine1 thine1 his1 hers1 ours1 yours1 and theirs1 are compounds of ne or s with mi1 thi1 hi1 c43 that their application invariably gives them a compound character3 and that1 ,they may1 therefore1 be properly denominated ,compound ,personal ,pronouns4--,ib41 p4 #aja4 ,next he comes to his ,adjective pronouns2 and1 after proving that he has grossly misplaced and misnamed every one of them1 he gives his lists of the three kinds of these4 ,his ,relative pronouns are who1 which1 and that4 ,what is generally a compound relative4--,ib41 p4 #aaa4 ,the compounds of who1 which1 and what1 with ever or soever1 he calls compound pronouns1 but not compound relatives4--,ib41 pp4 #aaj and #aab4 ,lastly he discovers1 that1 ,truth and simplicity have been shamefully neglected in this his third section of pronouns2 that1 ,of the words called 'relatives1' who only is a pronoun1 and this is strictly personal2 that1 ,it ought to be classed with the personal pronouns2 and that1 ,which1 that1 and what1 are always adjectives4 ,they never stand for1 but always belong to nouns1 either expressed or implied4--,ib41 p4 #aad4 ,what admirable teachings are these6 #bai ,it is now proper to give some examples of the manner in which the learners should be exercised1 in order to improve their knowledge1 and to render it familiar to them4 ,this is called parsing4 ,the nature of the subject1 as well as the adaptation of it to learners1 requires that it should be divided into two parts3 viz4 parsing1 as it respects etymology alone2 and parsing1 as it respects both etymology and syntax4--,murray's ,gram41 ,octavo1 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #bbe4 ,how very little real respect for the opinions of ,murray1 has been entertained by these self-seeking magnifiers and modifiers of his work6 ,what ,murray calls ,syntactical ,parsing is sometimes called ,construing1 especially by those who will have ,parsing to be nothing more than an etymological exercise4 ,a late author says1 ,the practice of ,construing differs from that of parsing1 in the extension of its objects4 ,parsing merely indicates the parts of speech and their accidents1 but construing searches for and points out their syntactical relations4--,d4 ,blair's ,gram41 p4 #di4 ,here the distinction which ,murray judged to be necessary1 is still more strongly marked and insisted on4 ,and though ,i see no utility in restricting the word ,parsing to a mere description of the parts of speech with their accidents1 and no impropriety in calling the latter branch of the exercise ,syntactical ,parsing2 ,i cannot but think there is such a necessity for the division1 as forms a very grave argument against those tangled schemes of grammar which do not admit of it4 ,blair is grossly inconsistent with himself4 ,for1 after drawing his distinction between ,parsing and ,construing1 as above1 he takes no further notice of the latter2 but1 having filled up seven pages with his most wretched mode of ,,parsing1 adds1 in an emphatic note3 ,the ,teacher should direct the ,pupil to ,,construe1 ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,manner1 any passage from ,,my ,,class-,,book1 or other ,work1 at the rate of three or four lines per day4--,d4 ,blair's ,gram41 p4 #ef4 #bbj ,this is a comment upon the following quotation from ,milton1 where ,hers for ,his would be a gross barbarism3-- ,should intermitted vengeance arm again ,his red right hand to plague us4--,par4 ,lost1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #agd4 #bba ,the ,imperfect ,participle1 when simple1 or when taken as one of the four principal terms constituting the verb or springing from it1 ends always in ing4 ,but1 in a subsequent chapter1 ,i include under this name the first participle of the passive verb2 and this1 in our language1 is always a compound1 and the latter term of it does not end in ing3 as1 ,in all languages1 indeed1 examples are to be found of adjectives being compared whose signification admits neither intension nor remission4--,,crombie1 on ,etym4 and ,syntax1 p4 #ajf4 ,according to most of our writers on ,english grammar1 the ,present or ,imperfect ,participle ,passive is always a compound of being and the form of the perfect participle3 as1 being loved1 being seen4 ,but some represent it to have two forms1 one of which is always simple2 as1 ,,perfect ,,passive1 obeyed or being obeyed4--,sanborn's ,analytical ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,loved or being loved4--,parkhurst's ,grammar for ,beginners1 p4 #aa2 ,greene's ,analysis1 p4 #bbe4 ,loved1 or1 being loved4--,clark's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #hc4 ,i here concur with the majority1 who in no instance take the participle in ed or en1 alone1 for the ,present or ,imperfect4 #bbb ,in the following example1 he and she are converted into verbs2 as thou sometimes is1 in the writings of ,shakspeare1 and others3 ,is it not an impulse of selfishness or of a depraved nature to he and she inanimate objects8--,cutler's ,english ,gram41 p4 #af4 ,dr4 ,bullions1 who has heretofore published several of the worst definitions of the verb anywhere extant1 has now perhaps one of the best3 ,a ,,verb is a word used to express the act1 being1 or state of its subject4 --,analyt4 ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,yet it is not very obvious1 that he and she are here verbs under this definition4 ,dr4 ,mandeville1 perceiving that the usual definitions of the verb are extremely defective1 not long ago helped the schools to the following3 ,a verb is a word which describes the state or condition of a noun or pronoun in relation to time1--,course of ,reading1 p4 #bd4 ,now it is plain1 that under this definition too1 ,cutler's infinitives1 to he and she cannot be verbs2 and1 in my opinion1 very small is the number of words that can be4 ,no verb describes the state or condition of a noun or pronoun1 except in some form of parsing2 nor1 even in this sort of exercise1 do ,i find any verb which describes the state or condition of such a word in relation to time4 ,hence1 ,i can make of this definition nothing but nonsense4 ,against my definition of a verb1 this author urges1 that it excludes neuter verbs1 expresses no relation to subject or time1 and uses terms in a vague or contradictory sense4--,ib41 p4 #be4 ,the first and the last of these three allegations do not appear to be well founded2 and the second1 if infinitives are verbs1 indicates an excellence rather than a fault4 ,the definition assumes that the mind as well as the body may act or be acted upon4 ,for this cause1 ,dr4 ,mandeville1 who cannot conceive that to be loved is in any wise to be acted upon1 pronounces it fatally defective6 ,his argument is a little web of sophistry1 not worth unweaving here4 ,one of the best scholars cited in the reverend ,doctor's book says1 ,of mental powers we have no conception1 but as certain capacities of intellectual action4 ,and again1 he asks1 ,who can be conscious of judgment1 memory1 and reflection1 and doubt that man was made to act6--,,everett3 ,course of ,reading1 p4 #cbj4 #bbc ,dr4 ,johnson says1 ,english verbs are active1 as ,i love2 or neuter1 as ,i languish4 ,the neuters are formed like the actives4 ,the passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the substantive verb1 as ,i am loved4 ,he also observes1 ,most verbs signifying action may likewise signify condition or habit1 and become neuters2 as1 ,i love1 ,i am in love2 ,i strike1 ,i am now striking4--,gram4 with his ,quarto ,dict41 p4 #g4 #bbd ,the doctrine here referred to1 appears in both works in the very same words3 to wit1 ,english ,verbs are either ,active1 ,passive1 or ,neuter4 ,there are two sorts of ,active ,verbs1 viz4 active-transitive and active-intransitive ,verbs4--,british ,gram41 p4 #aec2 ,buchanan's1 #ef4 ,buchanan was in this case the copyist4 #bbe ,the distinction between verbs absolutely neuter1 as to sleep1 and verbs active intransitive1 as to walk1 though founded in ,,nature and ,,truth1 is of little use in grammar4 ,indeed it would rather perplex than assist the learner2 for the difference between verbs active and verbs neuter1 as transitive and intransitive1 is easy and obvious2 but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and those which are intransitively active is not always clear4 ,but however these latter may differ in nature1 the construction of them both is the same2 and grammar is not so much concerned with their real1 as with their grammatical properties4--,lowth's ,gram2 p4 #cj4 ,but are not ,,truth1 ,,nature1 and ,,reality1 worthy to be preferred to any instructions that contradict them8 ,if they are1 the good doctor and his worthy copyist have here made an ill choice4 ,it is not only for the sake of these properties1 that ,i retain a distinction which these grammarians1 and others above named1 reject2 but for the sake of avoiding the untruth1 confusion1 and absurdity1 into which one must fall by calling all active-intransitive verbs neuter4 ,the distinction of active verbs1 as being either transitive or intransitive1 is also necessarily retained4 ,but the suggestion1 that this distinction is more easy and obvious than the other1 is altogether an error4 ,the really neuter verbs1 being very few1 occasion little or no difficulty4 ,but very many active verbs1 perhaps a large majority1 are sometimes used intransitively2 and of those which our lexicographers record as being always transitive1 not a few are occasionally found without any object1 either expressed or clearly suggested3 as1 ,he convinces1 but he does not elevate nor animate1--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bdb4 ,the child imitates1 and commits to memory2 whilst the riper age digests1 and thinks independently4--,dr4 ,lieber1 ,lit4 ,conv41 p4 #cac4 ,of examples like these1 three different views maybe taken2 and it is very questionable which is the right one3 ,first1 that these verbs are here intransitive1 though they are not commonly so2 ,second1 that they are transitive1 and have objects understood2 ,third1 that they are used improperly1 because no determinate objects are given them4 ,if we assume the second opinion or the last1 the full or the correct expressions may be these3 ,he convinces the judgement1 but he does not elevate the imagination1 or animate the feelings4--,the child imitates others1 and commits words to memory2 whilst the riper age digests facts or truths1 and thinks independently4 ,these verbs are here transitive1 but are they so above8 ,those grammarians who1 supposing no other distinction important1 make of verbs but two classes1 transitive and intransitive1 are still as much at variance1 and as much at fault1 as others1 7and often more so17 when they come to draw the line of this distinction4 ,to require an objective1 to govern an objective1 to admit an objective1 and to have an objective1 are criterions considerably different4 ,then it is questionable1 whether infinitives1 participles1 or sentences1 must or can have the effect of objectives4 ,one author says1 ,if a verb has any objective case expressed1 it is transitive3 if it has none1 it is intransitive4 ,verbs which appear transitive in their nature1 may frequently be used intransitively4-- ,chandler's ,old ,gram41 p4 #cb2 his ,common ,school ,gram41 p4 #dh4 ,an other says1 ,a transitive verb asserts action which does or can1 terminate on some object4--,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #bi4 ,an other avers1 ,there are two classes of verbs perfectly distinct from each other1 viz3 ,those which do1 and those which do not1 govern an objective case4 ,and his definition is1 ,a ,transitive ,verb is one which requires an objective case after it4--,hart's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,both ,frazee and ,hart reckon the passive verb transitive6 ,and the latter teaches1 that1 ,transitive verbs in ,english1 are sometimes used without an objective case2 as1 ,the apple tastes sweet6--,hart's ,gram41 p1 #gc4 #bbf ,in the hands of some gentlemen1 the ,principles of ,latin ,grammar1 and the ,principles of ,english ,grammar1--are equally pliable1 or changeable2 and1 what is very remarkable1 a comparison of different editions will show1 that the fundamental doctrines of a whole ,series of ,grammars1 ,english1 ,latin1 and ,greek1 may so change in a single lustrum1 as to rest upon authorities altogether different4 ,dr4 ,bullions's grammars1 a few years ago1 like those of his great oracles1 ,adam1 ,murray1 and ,lennie1 divided verbs into three kinds1 ,active1 ,passive1 and ,neuter4 ,now they divide them into two only1 ,transitive and ,intransitive2 and absurdly aver1 that ,verbs in the passive form are really transitive as in the active form4--,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 #ahdc1 p4 #bjj4 ,now1 as if no verb could be plural1 and no transitive act could be future1 conditional1 in progress1 or left undone1 they define thus3 ,a ,transitive verb expresses an act done by one person or thing to another4--,ib41 p4 #bi2 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 #fj2 ,latin ,gram41 #gg4 ,now1 the division which so lately as #ahdb was pronounced by the ,doctor to be more useful than any other1 and advantageously accordant with most dictionaries of the ,english language1 7see his ,fourth ,edition1 p4 #cj17 is wholly rejected from this notable ,series4 ,now1 the vexed question about the classification of verbs1 which1 at some revision still later1 drew from this author whole pages of weak arguments for his faulty changes1 is complacently supposed to have been well settled in his favour6 ,of this matter1 now1 in #ahdi1 he speaks thus3 ,the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive has been so generally adopted and approved by the best grammarians1 that any discussion of the subject is now unnecessary4--,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #ei4 #bbg ,this late writer seems to have published his doctrine on this point as a novelty2 and several teachers ignorantly received and admired it as such3 ,i have briefly shown1 in the ,introduction to this work1 how easily they were deceived4 ,by this1 that ,question may be resolv'd1 whether every ,verb not ,passive governs always an ,accusative1 at least understood3 ',tis the ,opinion of some very able ,,grammarians1 but for our ,parts we don't think it4--,grammar published by ,john ,brightland1 #gth ,ed41 ,london1 #agdf1 p4 #aae4 #bbh ,upon this point1 ,richard ,johnson cites and criticises ,lily's system thus3 ',a ,verb ,neuter endeth in o or m1 and cannot take r to make him a ,passive2 as1 ,curro1 ,i run2 ,sum1 ,i am4'--,grammar1 ,eng4 p4 #ac4 ,this ,definition1 is founded upon the ,notion abovementioned1 viz4 ,that none but ,transitives are ,verbs ,active1 which is contrary to the reason of ,things1 and the common sense of ,mankind4 ,and what can shock a ,child more1 of any ,ingenuity1 than to be told1 ,that ,ambuto and ,curro are ,verbs ,neuter2 that is1 to speak according to the common ,apprehensions of ,mankind1 that they signifie neither to do1 nor suffer4--,johnson's ,grammatical ,commentaries1 #hvo1 ,london1 #agjf1 p4 #bgc4 #bbi ,murray says1 ,mood or ,mode is a particular form of the verb1 showing the manner in which the being1 action1 or passion is represented4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #fc4 ,by many grammarians1 the term ,mode is preferred to ,mood2 but the latter is1 for this use1 the more distinctive1 and by far the more common word4 ,in some treatises on grammar1 as well as in books of logic1 certain parts of speech1 as adjectives and adverbs1 are called ,modes1 because they qualify or modify other terms4 ,e4g41 ,thus all the parts of speech are reducible to four2 viz41 ,names1 ,verbs1 ,modes1 ,connectives4--,enclytica1 or ,universal ,gram41 p4 #h4 ,modes are naturally divided1 by their attribution to names or verbs1 into adnames and adverbs4--,ibid41 p4 #bd4 ,after making this application of the name modes1 was it not improper for the learned author to call the moods also modes8 #bcj ,we have1 in ,english1 no genuine subjunctive mood1 except the preterimperfect1 if ,i were1 if thou wert1 c4 of the verb to be4 ,see ,notes and ,observations on the ,third ,example of ,conjugation1 in this chapter4 ,the phrase termed the subjunctive mood1 is elliptical2 shall1 may1 c4 being understood3 as1 ',though hand 7shall7 join in hand1 the wicked shall not be unpunished4' ',if it 7may7 be possible1 live peaceably with all4' ,scriptures4--,rev4 ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #fa4 ,such expressions as1 ,if thou do love1 ,if he do love1 appear to disprove this doctrine4 ,see ,notes and ,remarks on the ,subjunctive of the ,first ,example conjugated below4 #bca ,mr4 ,murray has changed his opinion1 as often as ,laban changed ,jacob's wages4 ,in the edition we print from1 we find shall and will used in each person of the first and second future tenses of the subjunctive1 but he now states that in the second future tense1 shalt1 shall1 should be used instead of wilt1 will4 ,perhaps this is the only improvement he has made in his ,grammar since #agif4--,rev4 ,t4 ,smith's ,edition of ,lindley ,murray's ,english ,grammar1 p4 #fg4 #bcb ,notwithstanding this expression1 ,murray did not teach1 as do many modern grammarians1 that inflected forms of the present tense1 such as1 ,if he thinks so1 ,unless he deceives me1 ,if thou lov'st me1 are of the subjunctive mood2 though1 when he rejected his changeless forms of the other tenses of this mood1 he improperly put as many indicatives in their places4 ,with him1 and his numerous followers1 the ending determines the mood in one tense1 while the conjunction controls it in the other five6 ,in his syntax1 he argues1 that in cases wherein contingency and futurity do not occur1 it is not proper to turn the verb from its signification of present time1 nor to vary he means1 or to forbear to change its form or termination4 ,fist ,the verb would then be in the indicative mood1 whatever conjunctions might attend it4--,l4 ,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bjh3 #abmo1 p4 #afg4 #bcc ,some grammarians--7among whom are ,lowth1 ,dalton1 ,cobbett1 and ,cardell--7 recognize only three tenses1 or times1 of ,english verbs2 namely1 the present1 the past1 and the future4 ,a few1 like ,latham and ,child1 denying all the compound tenses to be tenses1 acknowledge only the first two1 the present and the past2 and these they will have to consist only of the simple or radical verb and the simple preterit4 ,some others1 who acknowledge six tenses1 such as are above described1 have endeavoured of late to change the names of a majority of them2 though with too little agreement among themselves1 as may be seen by the following citations3 7#a47 ,we have six tenses2 three1 the ,present1 ,past1 and ,future1 to represent time in a general way2 and three1 the ,present ,perfect1 ,past ,perfect1 and ,future ,perfect1 to represent the precise time of finishing the action4--,perley's ,gram41 #ahcd1 p4 #be4 7#b47 ,there are six tenses2 the present1 the past1 the present-perfect1 the past-perfect1 the future1 and the future-perfect4--,hiley's ,gram41 #ahdj1 p4 #bh4 7#c47 ,there are six tenses2 the ,present and ,present ,perfect1 the ,past and ,past ,perfect1 and the ,future and ,future ,perfect4--,farnum's ,gram41 #ahdb1 p4 #cd4 7#d47 ,the names of the tenses will then be1 ,present1 ,present ,perfect2 ,past1 ,past ,perfect2 ,future1 ,future ,perfect4 ,they are usually named as follows3 ,present1 ,perfect1 ,imperfect1 ,pluperfect1 ,future1 ,second ,future4--,n4 ,butler's ,gram1 #ahde1 p4 #fi4 7#e47 ,we have six tenses2--the present1 the past1 the future1 the present perfect1 the past perfect1 and the future perfect4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ahdf4 p4 #hb4 7#f47 ,the tenses in ,english are six--the ,present1 the ,present-perfect1 the ,past1 the ,past-perfect1 the ,future1 and the ,future-perfect4--,bullions's ,gram41 #ahdi4 p4 #ga4 7#g47 ,verbs have ,six ,tenses1 called the ,present1 the ,perfect-,present1 the ,past1 the ,perfect-,past1 the ,future1 and the ,perfect-,future4--,spencer's ,gram41 #aheb1 p4 #ec4 7#h47 ,there are six tenses3 the present1 past1 future1 present perfect1 past perfect1 and future perfect4--,covell's ,gram41 #ahec1 p4 #fb4 7#i47 ,the tenses are--the present1 the present perfect2 the past1 the past perfect2 the future1 the future perfect4--,s4 ,s4 ,greene's ,gram41 #ahec1 p4 #fe4 7#aj47 ,there are six tenses2 one present1 and but one1 three past1 and two future4 ,they are named thus3 ,the ,present1 the ,first ,past1 the ,second ,past1 the ,third ,past1 the ,first ,future1 the ,second ,future4--,for the sake of symmetry1 to call two of them present1 and two only past1 while one only is present1 and three are past tenses1 is to sacrifice truth to beauty4--,pinneo's ,gram41 #ahec1 pp4 #fi and #gj4 ,the old names1 imperfect1 perfect1 and pluperfect1 which1 in #ahde1 ,butler justly admitted to be the usual names of the three past tenses4 ,dr4 ,pinneo1 who dates his copy-right from #ahej1 most unwarrantably declares to be now generally discarded6--,analytical ,gram41 p4 #gf2 ,same ,revised1 p4 #ha4 ,these terms1 still predominant in use1 he strangely supposes to have been suddenly superseded by others which are no better1 if so good3 imagining that the scheme which ,perley or ,hiley introduced1 of two present1 two past1 and two future tenses1--a scheme which1 he says1 has no foundation in truth1 and is therefore to be rejected1--had prepared the way for the above-cited innovation of his own1 which merely presents the old ideas under new terms1 or terms partly new1 and wholly unlikely to prevail4 ,william ,ward1 one of the ablest of our old grammarians1 rejecting in #agfe the two terms imperfect and perfect1 adopted others which resemble ,pinneo's2 but few1 if any1 have since named the tenses as he did1 thus3 ,the ,present1 the ,first ,preterite1 the ,second ,preterite1 the ,pluperfect1 the ,first ,future1 the ,second ,future4--,ward's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 #bcd ,the infinitive mood1 as 'to shine1' may be called the name of the verb2 it carries neither time nor affirmation2 but simply expresses that attribute1 action1 or state of things1 which is to be the subject of the other moods and tenses4--,blair's ,lectures1 p4 #ha4 ,by the word subject the ,doctor does not here mean the nominative to the other moods and tenses1 but the material of them1 or that which is formed into them4 #bce ,some grammarians absurdly deny that persons and numbers are properties of verbs at all3 not indeed because our verbs have so few inflections1 or because these authors wish to discard the little distinction that remains2 but because they have some fanciful conception1 that these properties cannot pertain to a verb4 ,yet1 when they come to their syntax1 they all forget1 that if a verb has no person and number1 it cannot agree with a nominative in these respects4 ,thus ,,kirkham3 ,person1 strictly speaking1 is a quality that belongs not to verbs1 but to nouns and pronouns4 ,we say1 however1 that the verb must agree with its nominative in person1 as well as in number4--,gram4 in ,familiar ,lect41 p4 #df4 ,so ,j4 ,w4 ,,wright3 ,in truth1 number and person are not properties of verbs4 ,mr4 ,murray grants that1 'in philosophical strictness1 both number and person might 7say1 may7 be excluded from every verb1 as they are1 in fact1 the properties of substantives1 not a part of the essence of the verb4'--,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #fh4 ,this author's rule of syntax for verbs1 makes them agree with their nominatives1 not in person and number1 but in termination1 or else in nobody knows what3 ,a verb must vary its terminations1 so as to agree with the nominative to which it is connected4--,ib41 p4 #afh4 ,but ,murray's rule is1 ,a verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person3 and this doctrine is directly repugnant to that interpretation of his words above1 by which these gentlemen have so egregiously misled themselves and others4 ,undoubtedly1 both the numbers and the persons of all ,english verbs might be abolished1 and the language would still be intelligible4 ,but while any such distinctions remain1 and the verb is actually modified to form them1 they belong as properly to this part of speech as they can to any other4 ,de ,sacy says1 ,the distinction of number occurs in the verb2 and then adds1 yet this distinction does not properly belong to the verb1 as it signifies nothing which can be numbered4--,fosdick's ,version1 p4 #fd4 ,this deceptive reason is only a new form of the blunder which ,i have once exposed1 of confounding the numbers in grammar with numbers in arithmetic4 ,j4 ,m4 ,putnam1 after repeating what is above cited from ,murray1 adds3 ,the terms number and person1 as applied to the verb are figurative4 ,the properties which belong to one thing1 for convenience' sake are ascribed to another4--,gram41 p4 #di4 ,kirkham imagines1 if ten men build a house1 or navigate a ship round the world1 they perform just ten actions1 and no more4 ,common sense teaches you1 says he1 that there must be as many actions as there are actors2 and that the verb when it has no form or ending to show it1 is as strictly plural1 as when it has4 ,so1 in the phrase1 ',we walk1' the verb walk is of the first person1 because it expresses the actions performed by the speakers4 ,the verb1 then1 when correctly written1 always agrees1 in sense1 with its nominative in number and person4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #dg4 ,it seems to me1 that these authors do not very well know what persons or numbers1 in grammar1 are4 #bcf ,john ,despauter1 whose ample ,grammar of the ,latin language appeared in its third edition in #aeag1 represents this practice as a corruption originating in false pride1 and maintained by the wickedness of hungry flatterers4 ,on the twentieth leaf of his ,syntax1 he says1 ,videntur hodie ,christiani superbiores1 quam olim ethnici imperatores1 qui dii haberi voluerunt2 nam hi nunquam inviti audierunt pronomina tu1 tibi1 tuus4 ,qu si hodie alicui monachorum antistiti1 aut decano1 aut pontifici dicantur aut scribantur1 videbitur ita loquens aut scribens blasphemasse1 et anathemate dignus3 nec tamen ,abbas1 aut pontifex1 tam gr feret1 quam ,malchi1 aut famelici gnathones1 his assistentes1 et vociferantes1 ,sic loqueris1 aut scribis1 pontifici8 ,quintilianus et ,donatus dicunt barbarismum1 aut soloecismum esse1 siquis uni dicat4 ,salvete4 ,the learned ,erasmus also ridiculed this practice1 calling those who adopted it1 voscitatores1 or youyouers4 #bcg ,by a perversion of language the pronoun you is almost invariably used for the second person singular1 as well as plural2 always1 however1 retaining the plural verb2 as1 ',my friend1 you write a good hand4' ,thou is confined to a solemn style1 or to poetical compositions4--,chandler's ,grammar1 ,edition of #ahba1 p4 #da2 ,ed4 of #ahdg1 p4 #ff4 #bch ,in regard to the inflection of our verbs1 ,william ,b4 ,fowle1 who is something of an antiquarian in grammar1 and who professes now to be conservative of the popular system1 makes a threefold distinction of style1 thus3 ,english verbs have three ,styles1 or ,modes12 called the ,familiar1 the ,solemn1 and the ,ancient4 ,the familiar style1 or mode1 is that used in common conversation2 as1 you see1 he fears4 ,the solemn style1 or mode1 is that used in the ,bible1 and in prayer2 as1 ,thou seest1 he feareth4 ,the ancient style1 or mode1 now little used1 allows no change in the second and third person1 persons1 singular1 of the verb1 and generally follows the word if1 though1 lest1 or whether2 as1 if thou see2 though he fear2 lest he be angry2 whether he go or stay4--,fowle's ,common ,school ,grammar1 ,part ,second1 p4 #dd4 ,among his subsequent examples of the ,solemn style1 he gives the following3 ,thou lovest1 ,thou lovedst1 ,thou art1 ,thou wast1 ,thou hast1 ,thou hadst1 ,thou doest or dost1 ,thou didst4 ,and1 as corresponding examples of the ,ancient style1 he has these forms3 ,thou love1 ,thou loved1 ,thou or you be1 ,thou wert1 ,thou have1 ,thou had1 ,thou do1 ,thou did4--,ib41 pp4 #dd-ej4 ,this distinction and this arrangement do not appear to me to be altogether warranted by facts4 ,the necessary distinction of moods1 this author rejects2 confounding the ,subjunctive with the ,indicative1 in order to furnish out this useless and fanciful contrast of his ,solemn and ,ancient styles4 #bci ,in that monstrous jumble and perversion of ,murray's doctrines1 entitled1 ,english ,grammar on the ,productive ,system1 by ,roswell ,c4 ,smith1 you is everywhere preferred to thou1 and the verbs are conjugated without the latter pronoun4 ,at the close of his paradigms1 however1 the author inserts a few lines respecting these obsolete conjugations1 with the pronoun thou2 for a further account of which1 he refers the learner1 with a sneer1 to the common grammars in the schools4 ,see the work1 p4 #gi4 ,he must needs be a remarkable grammarian1 with whom ,scripture1 poetry1 and prayer1 are all obsolete6 ,again3 ,thou in the singular is obsolete1 except among the ,society of ,friends2 and ye is an obsolete plural6--,guy's ,school ,gram41 p4 #be4 ,in an other late grammar1 professedly constructed upon the basis of ,murray's1 by the ,rev4 ,charles ,adams1 ,a4 ,m41 ,principal of ,newbury ,seminary1 the second person singular is everywhere superseded by the plural2 the former being silently dropped from all his twenty pages of conjugations1 without so much as a hint1 or a saving clause1 respecting it2 and the latter1 which is put in its stead1 is falsely called singular4 ,by his pupils1 all forms of the verb that agree only with thou1 will of course be conceived to be either obsolete or barbarous1 and consequently ungrammatical4 ,whether or not the reverend gentleman makes any account of the ,bible or of prayer1 does not appear2 he cites some poetry1 in which there are examples that cannot be reconciled with his ,system of ,english ,grammar4 ,parkhurst1 in his late ,grammar for ,beginners1 tells us that1 ,such words as are used in the ,bible1 and not used in common books1 are called obsolete6--,p4 #adf4 ,among these1 he reckons all the distinctive forms of the second person singular1 and all the peculiarities which constitute what is commonly called the ,solemn ,style4--,ib41 p4 #adh4 ,yet1 with no great consistency1 he adds3 ,this style is always used in prayer1 and is frequently used in poetry4--,ibid4 ,joab ,brace1 ,jnr41 may be supposed to have the same notion of what is obsolete3 for he too has perverted all ,lennie's examples of the verb1 as ,smith and ,adams did ,murray's4 #bdj ,coar gives durst in the ,indicative mood1 thus3 ,i durst1 thou durst1 he durst2 c4--,coar's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aae4 ,but when he comes to wist1 he does not know what the second person singular should be1 and so he leaves it out3 ,i wist1 ------1 he wist2 we wist1 ye wist1 they wist4--,coar's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 #bda ,dr4 ,latham1 who1 oftener perhaps than any other modern writer1 corrupts the grammar of our language by efforts to revive in it things really and deservedly obsolete1 most strangely avers that ,the words thou and thee are1 except in the mouths of ,quakers1 obsolete4 ,the plural forms1 ye and you1 have replaced them4--,hand-,book1 p4 #bhd4 ,ignoring also any current or vital process of forming ,english verbs in the second person singular1 he gravely tells us that the old form1 as callest 7which is still the true form for the solemn style17 is becoming obsolete4--,ib41 p4 #baj4 ,in phrases like you are speaking1 c41 says he rightlier1 even when applied to a single individual1 the idea is really plural2 in other words1 the courtesy consists in treating one person as more than one1 and addressing him as such1 rather than in using a plural form in a singular sense4 ,it is certain that1 grammatically considered1 youthou is a plural1 since the verb with which it agrees is plural4--,ib41 p4 #afc4 ,if these things be so1 the ,english ,language owes much to the scrupulous conservatism of the ,quakers2 for1 had their courtesy consented to the grammar of the fashionables1 the singular number would now have had but two persons6 #bdb ,for the substitution of you for thou1 our grammarians assign various causes4 ,that which is most commonly given in modern books1 is certainly not the original one1 because it concerns no other language than ours3 ,in order to avoid the unpleasant formality which accompanies the use of thou with a correspondent verb1 its plural you1 is usually adopted to familiar conversation2 as1 ,charles1 will you walk8 instead of--wilt thou walk8 ,you read too fast1 instead of--thou readest too fast4--,jaudon's ,gram41 p4 #cc4 #bdc ,this position1 as may be seen above1 ,i do not suppose it competent for any critic to maintain4 ,the use of you for thou is no more contrary to grammar1 than the use of we for ,i2 which1 it seems1 is grammatical enough for all editors1 compilers1 and crowned heads1 if not for others4 ,but both are figures of syntax2 and1 as such1 they stand upon the same footing4 ,their only contrariety to grammar consists in this1 that the words are not the literal representatives of the number for which they are put4 ,but in what a posture does the grammarian place himself1 who condemns1 as bad ,english1 that phraseology which he constantly and purposely uses8 ,the author of the following remark1 as well as all who have praised his work1 ought immediately to adopt the style of the ,friends1 or ,quakers3 ,the word thou1 in grammatical construction1 is preferable to you1 in the second person singular3 however1 custom has familiarized the latter1 and consequently made it more general1 though ,,bad ,,grammar4 ,to say1 ',you are a man4' is ,,not ,,grammatical ,,language2 the word you having reference to a plural noun only4 ,it should be1 ',thou art a man4'--,wright's ,philosoph4 ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,this author1 like ,lindley ,murray and many others1 continually calls himself ,,we2 and it is probable1 that neither he1 nor any one of his sixty reverend commenders1 dares address any man otherwise than by the above-mentioned ,,bad ,,grammar6 #bdd ,we are always given to cut our words short2 and1 with very few exceptions1 you find people writing lov'd1 mov'd1 walk'd2 instead of loved1 moved1 walked4 ,they wish to make the pen correspond with the tongue4 ,from lov'd1 mov'd1 walk'd1 it is very easy to slide into lovt1 movt1 walkt4 ,and this has been the case with regard to curst1 dealt1 dwelt1 leapt1 helpt1 and many others in the last inserted list4 ,it is just as proper to say jumpt1 as it is to say leapt2 and just as proper to say walkt as either2 and thus we might go on till the orthography of the whole language were changed4 ,when the love of contraction came to operate on such verbs as to burst and to light1 it found such a clump of consonants already at the end of the words1 that1 it could add none4 ,it could not enable the organs even of ,english speech to pronounce burstedst1 lightedst4 ,it1 therefore1 made really short work of it1 and dropping the last syllable altogether1 wrote1 burst1 light1 rather1 lit in the past time and passive participle4--,cobbett's ,english ,gram41 #afi4 ,how could the man who saw all this1 insist on adding st for the second person1 where not even the d of the past tense could he articulated8 ,am ,i to be called an innovator1 because ,i do not like in conversation such new and unauthorized words as littest1 leaptest1 curstest2 or a corrupter of the language1 because ,i do not admire in poetry such unutterable monstrosities as1 light'dst1 leap'dst1 curs'dst8 ,the novelism1 with the corruption too1 is wholly theirs who stickle for these awkward forms4 #bde ,you were1 not you was1 for you was seems to be as ungrammatical1 as you hast would be4 ,for the pronoun you being confessedly plural1 its correspondent verb ought to be plural4--,john ,burn's ,gram41 #ajth ,ed41 ,p4 #gb4 #bdf ,among grammarians1 as well as among other writers1 there is some diversity of usage concerning the personal inflections of verbs2 while nearly all1 nowadays1 remove the chief occasion for any such diversity1 by denying with a fashionable bigotry the possibility of any grammatical use of the pronoun thou in a familiar style4 ,to illustrate this1 ,i will cite ,cooper and ,wells--two modern authors who earnestly agree to account you and its verb literally singular1 and thou altogether erroneous1 in common discourse3 except that ,wells allows the phrase1 ,if thou art1 for ,common style4--,school ,gram41 p4 #ajj4 #a4 ,cooper1 improperly referring all inflection of the verb to the grave or solemn style1 says3 ,in the colloquial or familiar style1 we observe no change4 ,the same is the case in the plural number4 ,he then proceeds thus3 ,in the second person of the present of the indicative1 in the solemn style1 the verb takes st or est2 and in the third person th or eth1 as3 thou hast1 thou lovest1 thou teachest2 he hath1 he loveth1 he goeth4 ,in the colloquial or familiar style1 the verb does not vary in the second person2 and in the third person1 it ends in s or es1 as3 he loves1 he teaches1 he does4 ,the indefinite1 i4 e4 the preterit1 in the second person singular of the indicative1 in the grave style1 ends in est1 as3 thou taughtest1 thou wentest4 ,fist ,but1 in those verbs1 where the sound of st will unite with the last syllable of the verb1 the vowel is omitted1 as3 thou lovedst1 thou heardst1 thou didst4--,cooper's ,murray1 p4 #fj2 ,plain and ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,this1 the reader will see1 is somewhat contradictory2 for the colloquial style varies the verb by s or es1 and taught'st may be uttered without the e4 ,as for lovedst1 ,i deny that any vowel is omitted from it2 but possibly one may be1 as lov'dst4 #b4 ,wells's account of the same thing is this3 ,in the simple form of the present and past indicative1 the second person singular of the solemn style ends regularly in st or est1 as1 thou seest1 thou hearest1 thou sawest1 thou heardest2 and the third person singular of the present1 in s or es1 as1 he hears1 he wishes1 and also in th or eth1 as1 he saith1 he loveth4 ,in the simple form of the present indicative1 the third person singular of the common or familiar style1 ends in s or es2 as1 he sleeps2 he rises4 ,the first person singular of the solemn style1 and the first and second persons singular of the common style1 have the same form as the three persons plural4--,wells's ,school ,grammar1 #ast ,ed4 p4 #hc2 #c;d ,ed4 p4 #hf4 ,this1 too1 is both defective and inconsistent4 ,it does not tell when to add est1 and when1 st only4 ,it does not show what the regular preterit1 as freed or loved1 should make with thou3 whether freedest and lovedest1 by assuming the syllable est2 fre-edst and lov-edst1 by increasing syllabically from assuming st only2 or freedst and lov'dst1 or lovedst1 still to be uttered as monosyllables4 ,it absurdly makes s or es a sign of two opposite styles4 7,see ,,obs4 #ith1 above47 ,and it does not except ,i am1 ,i was1 ,if ,i am1 ,if ,i was1 ,if thou art1 ,i am loved1 and so forth1 from requiring the same form1 are or were1 as the three persons plural4 ,this author prefers heardest2 the other1 heardst1 which ,i think better warranted3 ,and heardst thou why he drew his blade8 ,heardst thou that shameful word and blow ,brought ,roderick's vengeance on his foe8--,scott1 ,l4 ,l41 ,c4 v1 st4 #f4 #bdg ,better1 as ,wickliffe has it1 the day in which2 though1 after nouns of time1 the relative that is often used1 like the ,latin ablative quo or qu1 as being equivalent to in which or on which4 #bdh ,it is not a little strange1 that some men1 who never have seen or heard such words as their own rules would produce for the second person singular of many hundreds of our most common verbs1 will nevertheless pertinaciously insist1 that it is wrong to countenance in this matter any departure from the style of ,king ,james's ,bible4 ,one of the very rashest and wildest of modern innovators1--a critic who1 but for the sake of those who still speak in this person and number1 would gladly consign the pronoun thou1 and all its attendant verbal forms1 to utter oblivion1--thus treats this subject and me3 ,the ,quakers1 or ,friends1 however1 use thou1 and its attendant form of the asserter1 in conversation4 ,,for ,,their ,,benefit1 thou is given1 in this work1 in all the varieties of inflection2 7in some of which it could not properly be used in an address to the ,deity27 for ,,they ,,err ,,most ,,egregiously in the use of thou1 with the form of the asserter which follows he or they1 and are countenanced in their errors by ,g4 ,brown1 who1 instead of 'disburdening the language of #add1jjj useless distinctions1 increases their number just #add1jjj4--,oliver ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #he ,among people of sense1 converts are made by teaching1 and reasoning1 and proving2 but this man's disciples must yield to the balderdash of a false speller1 false quoter1 and false assertor6 ,this author says1 that dropt is the past tense of drop2 7p4 #aah27 let him prove1 for example1 that droptest is not a clumsy innovation1 and that droppedst is not a formal archaism1 and then tell of the egregious error of adopting neither of these forms in common conversation4 ,the following1 with its many common contractions1 is the language of ,,pope2 and ,i ask this1 or any other opponent of my doctrine1 ,,to ,,show ,,how ,,such ,,verbs ,,are ,,rightly ,,formed1 either for poetry or for conversation1 in the second person singular4 ,it fled1 ,i follow'd2 now in hope1 now pain2 ,it stopt1 ,i stopt2 it mov'd1 ,i mov'd again4 ,at last it fix't1'twas on what plant it pleas'd1 ,and where it fix'd1 the beauteous bird ,i seiz'd4 --,dunciad1 ,b4 ,,iv1 l4 #dbg4 #bdi ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,allen1 in his ,english ,grammar1 p4 #acb1 says3 ,yth and eth 7from the ,saxon la sic--,,kth7 were formerly1 plural terminations2 as1 ',manners makyth man4' ,william of ,wykeham's motto4 ',after long advisement1 they taketh upon them to try the matter4' ,stapleton's ,translation of ,bede4 ',doctrine and discourse maketh nature less importune4' ,bacon4 ,the use of eth as a plural termination of verbs1 was evidently earlier than the use of en for the same purpose4 ,even the latter is utterly obsolete1 and the former can scarcely have been ,english4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon verb lufian1 or lufigean1 to love1 appears to have been inflected with the several pronouns thus3 ,ic lufige1 ,thu lufast1 ,he lufath1 ,we lufiath1 ,ge lufiath1 ,hi lufiath4 ,the form in ,old ,english was this3 ,i love1 ,thou lovest1 ,he loveth1 ,we loven1 ,ye loven1 ,they loven4 ,dr4 ,priestley remarks1 7though in my opinion unadvisedly17 that1 ,nouns of a plural form1 but of a singular signification1 require a singular construction2 as1 mathematicks is a useful study4 ,this observation will likewise1 says he1 in some measure1 vindicate the grammatical propriety of the famous saying of ,william of ,wykeham1 ,manners maketh man4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ahi4 ,i know not what half-way vindication there can be1 for any such construction4 ,manners and mathematics are not nouns of the singular number1 and therefore both is and maketh are wrong4 ,i judge it better ,english to say1 ,mathematics are a useful study4--,manners make the man4 ,but perhaps both ideas may be still better expressed by a change of the nominative1 thus3 ,the study of mathematics is useful4--,behaviour makes the man4 #bej ,what the state of our literature would have been1 had no author attempted any thing on ,english grammar1 must of course be a matter of mere conjecture1 and not of any positive conviction4 ,it is my opinion1 that1 with all their faults1 most of the books and essays in which this subject has been handled1 have been in some degree beneficial1 and a few of them highly so2 and that1 without their influence1 our language must have been much more chaotic and indeterminable than it now is4 ,but a late writer says1 and1 with respect to some of our verbal terminations1 says wisely3 ,it is my sincere conviction that fewer irregularities would have crept into the language had no grammars existed1 than have been authorized by grammarians2 for it should be understood that the first of our grammarians1 finding that good writers differed upon many points1 instead of endeavouring to reconcile these discrepancies1 absolutely perpetuated them by citing opposite usages1 and giving high authorities for both4 ,to this we owe all the irregularity which exists in the personal terminations of verbs1 some of the best early writers using them promiscuously1 some using them uniformly1 and others making no use of them2 and really they are of no use but to puzzle children and foreigners1 perplex poets1 and furnish an awkward dialect to that exemplary sect of ,christians1 who in every thing else study simplicity4--,fowle's ,true ,e4 ,gram41 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #bf4 ,wells1 a still later writer1 gives this unsafe rule3 ,when the past tense is a monosyllable not ending in a single vowel1 the second person singular of the solemn style is generally formed by the addition of est2 as heardest1 fleddest1 tookest4 ,hadst1 wast1 saidst1 and didst1 are exceptions4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ajf2 #c;d ,ed41 p4 #aaj2 #aacth ,ed41 p4 #aae4 ,now the termination d or ed commonly adds no syllable2 so that the regular past tense of any monosyllabic verb is1 with a few exceptions1 a monosyllable still2 as1 freed1 feed1 loved1 feared1 planned1 turned3 and how would these sound with est added1 which ,lowth1 ,hiley1 ,churchill1 and some others erroneously claim as having pertained to such preterits anciently8 ,again1 if heard is a contraction of heared1 and fled1 of fleed1 as seems probable2 then are heardst and fledtst1 which are sometimes used1 more regular than heardest1 fleddest3 so of many other preterits4 #bea ,chaucer appears not to have inflected this word in the second person3 ,also ryght as thou were ensample of moche folde errour1 righte so thou must be ensample of manifold correction4--,testament of ,love4 ,rennin and crie as thou were wode4--,house of ,fame4 ,so others3 ,i wolde thou were cold or hoot4--,,wickliffe',s ,,version ,,of ,,the ,,apocalypse4 ,i wolde thou were cold or hote4--,,version ,,of ,,edward ,,vi3 ,tooke1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bgj4 ,see ,rev41 iii1 #ae3 ,i would thou wert cold or hot4--,,common ,,version4 #beb ,see evidence of the antiquity of this practice1 in the examples under the twenty-third observation above4 ,according to ,churchill1 it has had some local continuance even to the present time4 ,for1 in a remark upon ,lowth's contractions1 lov'th1 turn'th1 this author says1 ,these are still in use in some country places1 the third person singular of verbs in general being formed by the addition of the sound th simply1 not making an additional syllable4--,churchill's ,gram41 p4 #bee ,so the eth in the following example adds no syllable3-- ,death goeth about the field1 rejoicing mickle ,to see a sword that so surpass'd his sickle4 ,harrington's ,ariosto1 ,b4 xiii3 see ,singer's ,shak41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bif4 #bec ,the second person singular of the simple verb do1 is now usually written dost1 and read dust2 being permanently contracted in orthography1 as well as in pronunciation4 ,and perhaps the compounds may follow2 as1 ,thou undost1 outdost1 misdost1 overdost1 c4 ,but exceptions to exceptions are puzzling1 even when they conform to the general rule4 ,the ,bible has dost and doth for auxilliaries1 and doest and doeth for principal verbs4 #bed ,n4 ,butler avers1 ,the only regular terminations added to verbs are est1 s1 ed1 edst1 and ing4--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ha4 ,but he adds1 in a marginal note1 this information3 ,the third person singular of the present formerly ended in eth4 ,this termination is still sometimes used in the solemn style4 ,contractions sometimes take place2 as1 sayst for sayest4--,ibid4 ,this statement not only imposes a vast deal of needless irregularity upon the few inflections admitted by the ,english verb1 but is1 so far as it disagrees with mine1 a causeless innovation4 ,the terminations rejected1 or here regarded as irregular1 are d1 st1 es1 th1 and eth2 while edst1 which is plainly a combination of ed and st1--the past ending of the verb with the personal inflection1--is assumed to be one single and regular termination which ,i had overlooked6 ,it has long been an almost universal doctrine of our grammarians1 that regular verbs form their preterits and perfect participles by adding d to final e1 and ed to any other radical ending4 ,such is the teaching of ,blair1 ,brightland1 ,bullions1 ,churchill1 ,coar1 ,comly1 ,cooper1 ,fowle1 ,frazee1 ,ingersoll1 ,kirkham1 ,lennie1 ,murray1 ,weld1 ,wells1 ,sanborn1 and others1 a great multitude4 ,but this author alleges1 that1 ,loved is not formed by adding d to love1 but by adding ed1 and dropping e from love4--,butler's ,answer to ,brown4 ,any one is at liberty to think this1 if he will4 ,but ,i see not the use of playing thus with mute ,ees1 adding one to drop an other1 and often pretending to drop two under one apostrophe1 as in lov'd1 lov'st6 ,to suppose that the second person of the regular preterit1 as lovedst1 is not formed by adding st to the first person1 is contrary to the analogy of other verbs1 and is something worse than an idle whim4 ,and why should the formation of the third person be called irregular when it requires es1 as in flies1 denies1 goes1 vetoes1 wishes1 preaches1 and so forth8 ,in forming flies from fly1 ,butler changes y into ie1 on page #bjth1 adding s only2 and1 on page #aath1 into i only1 adding es4 ,uniformity would be better4 #bee ,cooper says1 ,the termination eth is commonly contracted into th1 to prevent the addition of a syllable to the verb1 as3 doeth1 doth4--,plain and ,practical ,gram41 p4 #ei4 ,this1 with reference to modern usage1 is plainly erroneous4 ,for1 when s or es was substituted for th or eth1 and the familiar use of the latter ceased1 this mode of inflecting the verb without increasing its syllables1 ceased also1 or at least became unusual4 ,it appears that the inflecting of verbs with th without a vowel1 as well as with st without a vowel1 was more common in very ancient times than subsequently4 ,our grammarians of the last century seem to have been more willing to encumber the language with syllabic endings1 than to simplify it by avoiding them4 ,see ,observations1 #bast1 #bb;d1 and #bc;d1 above4 #bef ,these are what ,william ,ward1 in his ,practical ,grammar1 written about #agfe1 denominated the ,,capital ,,forms1 or ,,roots1 of the ,english ,verb4 ,their number too is the same4 ,and these ,roots1 says he1 are considered as ,four in each verb2 although in many verbs two of them are alike1 and in some few three are alike4--,p4 #ej4 ,few modern grammarians have been careful to display these ,chief ,terms1 or ,principal ,parts1 properly4 ,many say nothing about them4 ,some speak of three1 and name them faultily4 ,thus ,wells3 ,the three principal parts of a verb are the present tense1 the past tense1 and the perfect participle4--,school ,gram41 #aacth ,ed41 p4 #ib4 ,now a whole tense is something more than one verbal form1 and ,wells's perfect participle includes the auxiliary having4 ,hence1 in stead of write1 wrote1 writing1 written1 7the true principal parts of a certain verb17 one might take1 under ,wells's description1 either of these threes1 both entirely false3 am writing1 did write1 and having written2 or1 do write1 wrotest1 and having written4 ,but writing1 being the root of the ,progressive ,form of the ,verb1 is far more worthy to be here counted a chief term1 than wrote1 the preterit1 which occurs only in one tense1 and never receives an auxiliary4 ,so of other verbs4 ,this sort of treatment of the ,principal ,parts1 is a very grave defect in sundry schemes of grammar4 #beg ,a grammarian should know better1 than to exhibit1 as a paradigm for school-boys1 such ,english as the following3 ,i do have1 ,thou dost have1 ,he does have3 ,we do have1 ,you do have1 ,they do have4--,everest's ,gram41 p4 #ajf4 ,i did have1 ,thou didst have1 ,he did have3 ,we did have1 ,you did have1 ,they did have4--,ib41 p4 #ajg4 ,i know not whether any one has yet thought of conjugating the verb be after this fashion2 but the attempt to introduce1 am being1 is being1 c41 is an innovation much worse4 #beh ,hiley borrows from ,webster the remark1 that1 ,need1 when intransitive1 is formed like an auxiliary1 and is followed by a verb1 without the prefix to2 as1 ',he need go no farther4'--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ij2 ,webster's ,imp4 ,gram41 p4 #abg2 ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #agh4 ,but he forbears to class it with the auxiliaries1 and even contradicts himself1 by a subsequent remark taken from ,dr4 ,campbell1 that1 for the sake of ,,analogy1 'he needs1' he dares1' are preferable to 'he need1' 'he dare1'--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #ade2 ,campbell's ,rhet41 p4 #age #bei ,this grammarian here uses need for the third person singular1 designedly1 and makes a remark for the justification of the practice2 but he neither calls the word an auxiliary1 nor cites any other than anonymous examples1 which are1 perhaps1 of his own invention4 #bfj ,the substantive form1 or1 as it is commonly termed1 infinitive mood1 contains at the same time the essence of verbal meaning1 and the literal ,,root on which all inflections of the verb are to be grafted4 ,this character being common to the infinitive in all languages1 it this mood ought to precede the other moods of verbs1 instead of being made to follow them1 as is absurdly practised in almost all grammatical systems4--,enclytica1 p4 #ad4 #bfa ,by this1 ,i mean1 that the verb in all the persons1 both singular and plural1 is the same in form4 ,but ,lindley ,murray1 when he speaks of not varying or not changing the termination of the verb1 most absurdly means by it1 that the verb is inflected1 just as it is in the indicative or the potential mood2 and when he speaks of changes or variations of termination1 he means1 that the verb remains the same as in the first person singular6 ,for example3 ,the second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive mood1 is also very frequently varied in its termination3 as1 ',if thou loved him truly1 thou wouldst obey him4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #bji4 ,the auxiliaries of the potential mood1 when applied to the subjunctive1 do not change the termination of the second person singular2 as1 ',if thou mayst or canst go4'--,ib41 p4 #baj4 ,some authors think1 that the termination of these auxiliaries should be varied3 as1 ,i advise thee1 that thou may beware4--,ib41 p4 #baj4 ,when the circumstances of contingency and futurity concur1 it is proper to vary the terminations of the second and third persons singular4--,ib41 #baj4 ,it may be considered as a rule1 that the changes of termination are necessary1 when these two circumstances concur4--,ib41 p4 #bjg4 ,it may be considered as a rule1 that no changes of termination are necessary1 when these two circumstances concur4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #bfd4 ,now ,murray and ,ingersoll here mean precisely the same thing6 ,whose fault is that8 ,if ,murray's1 he has committed many such4 ,but1 in this matter1 he is contradicted not only by ,ingersoll1 but1 on one occasion1 by himself4 ,for he declares it to be an opinion in which he concurs4 ,that the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood1 have no reference to change of termination4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #baa4 ,and yet1 amidst his strange blunders1 he seems to have ascribed the meaning which a verb has in this mood1 to the inflections which it receives in the indicative3 saying4 ,that part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the subjunctive mood1 has a future signification4 ,this is effected by varying the terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative6--,ib41 p4 #bjg4 ,but the absurdity which he really means to teach1 is1 that the subjunctive mood is derived from the indicative1--the primitive or radical verb1 from it's derivatives or branches6 #bfb ,wert is sometimes used in lieu of wast2 and1 in such instances1 both by authority and by analogy1 it appears to belong here1 if anywhere4 ,see ,,obs4 #b;d and #c;d1 below4 #bfc ,some grammarians1 regardless of the general usage of authors1 prefer was to were in the singular number of this tense of the subjunctive mood4 ,in the following remark1 the tense is named present and this preference is urged with some critical extravagance3 ,was1 though the past tense of the indicative mood1 expresses the present of the hypothetical2 as1 ',i wish that ,i was well4' ,the use of this hypothetical form of the subjunctive mood1 has given rise to a form of expression wholly unwarranted by the rules of grammar4 ,when the verb was is to be used in the present tense singular1 in this form of the subjunctive mood1 the ear is often pained with a plural were1 as1 ',were ,i your master'--',were he compelled to do it1' c4 ,this has become so common that some of the best grammars of the language furnish authority for the barbarism1 and even in the second person supply wert1 as a convenient accompaniment4 ,if such a conjugation is admitted1 we may expect to see ,shakspeare's 'thou beest' in full use4--,chandler's ,gram41 ,ed4 of #ahba1 p4 #ee4 ,in ,chandler's ,common ,school ,grammar1 of #ahdg1 the language of this paragraph is somewhat softened1 but the substance is still retained4 ,see the latter work1 p4 #hj4 #bfd ,if ,i were1 ,if thou were4 ,if he were4--,harrison's ,gram41 p4 #ca4 ,if1 or though1 ,i were loved4 ,if1 or though1 thou were1 or wert loved4 ,if1 or though1 he were loved4--,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part i1 p4 #fi4 ,if1 though1 c4 ,i were burned1 thou were burned or you were burned1 he were burned4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #ec4 ,though thou were4 ,some say1 'though thou wert4'--,mackintosh's ,gram41 p4 #agh4 ,if or though ,i were4 ,if or though thou were4 ,if or though he were4--,st4 ,quentin's ,general ,gram41 p4 #hf4 ,if ,i was1 ,thou wast1 or ,you was or were1 ,he was4 ,or thus3 ,if ,i were1 ,thou wert1 or you was or were1 ,he were4--,webster's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #ie2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,before1 c4 ,i be2 thou beest1 or you be2 he1 she1 or it1 be3 ,we1 you or ye1 they1 be4 ,,past ,,tense4 ,before1 c4 ,i were2 thou wert1 or you were2 he1 she1 or it1 were2 ,we1 you or ye1 they1 were4--,,white1 on the ,english ,verb1 p4 #eb4 #bfe ,the text in ,acts1 xxii1 #bjth1 ,i also was standing by1 and consenting unto his death1 ought rather to be1 ,i also stood by1 and consented to his death2 but the present reading is1 thus far1 a literal version from the ,greek1 though the verb kept1 that follows1 is not4 ,montanus renders it literally3 ,et ipse eram astans1 et consentiens interemptioni ejus1 et custodiens vestimenta interficientium illum4 ,beza makes it better ,latin thus3 ,ego quoque adstabam1 et una assentiebar cdi ipsius1 et custodiebam pallia eorum qui interimebant eum4 ,other examples of a questionable or improper use of the progressive form may occasionally be found in good authors2 as1 ,a promising boy of six years of age1 was missing by his parents4--,whittier1 ,stranger in ,lowell1 p4 #ajj4 ,missing1 wanting1 and willing1 after the verb to be1 are commonly reckoned participial adjectives2 but here was missing is made a passive verb1 equivalent to was missed1 which1 perhaps1 would better express the meaning4 ,to miss1 to perceive the absence of1 is such an act of the mind1 as seems unsuited to the compound form1 to be missing2 and1 if we cannot say1 ,the mother was missing her son1 ,i think we ought not to use the same form passively1 as above4 #bff ,some grammarians1 contrary to the common opinion1 suppose the verbs here spoken of1 to have1 not a passive1 but a neuter signification4 ,thus1 ,joseph ,guy1 ,jun41 of ,london3 ,active verbs often take a neuter sense2 as1 ,a house is building2 here1 is building is used in a neuter signification1 because it has no object after it4 ,by this rule are explained such sentences as1 ,application is wanting2 ,the grammar is printing2 ,the lottery is drawing2 ,it is flying1 c4--,guy's ,english ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,neuter1 here1 as in many other places1 is meant to include the active-intransitives4 ,is flying is of this class2 and is wanting1 corresponding to the ,latin caret1 appears to be neuter2 hut the rest seem rather to be passives4 ,tried1 however1 by the usual criterion1--the naming of the agent which1 it is said1 a verb passive necessarily implies1--what may at first seem progressive passives1 may not always be found such4 ,most verbs signifying action says ,dr4 ,johnson1 may likewise signify condition1 or habit1 and become neuters1 i4 e4 active-intransitives2 as ,i love1 ,i am in love2 ,i strike1 ,i am now striking4--,gram4 before ,quarto ,dict41 p4 #g4 ,so sell1 form1 make1 and many others1 usually transitive1 have sometimes an active-intransitive sense which nearly approaches the passive1 and of which are selling1 is forming1 are making1 and the like1 may be only equivalent expressions4 ,for example3 ,it is cold1 and ice forms rapidly--is forming rapidly--or is formed rapidly4--,here1 with little difference of meaning1 is the appearance of both voices1 the ,active and the ,passive2 while is forming1 which some will have for an example of the ,middle voice1 may be referred to either4 ,if the following passive construction is right1 is wanting or are wanting may be a verb of three or four different sorts3 ,reflections that may drive away despair1 cannot be wanting by him1 who considers1 c4--,johnson's ,rambler1 ,no4 #abi3 ,wright's ,gram41 p4 #aif4 #bfg ,dr4 ,bullions1 in his grammar of #ahdi1 says1 ,nobody would think of saying1 ',he is being loved'--',this result is being desired4'--,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #bcg4 ,but1 according to ,j4 ,w4 ,wright1 whose superiority in grammar has sixty-two titled vouchers1 this unheard-of barbarism is1 for the present passive1 precisely and solely what one ought to say6 ,nor is it1 in fact1 any more barbarous1 or more foreign from usage1 than the spurious example which the ,doctor himself takes for a model in the active voice3 ,i am loving4 ,thou art loving1 c2 ,i have been loving1 ,thou hast been loving1 c4--,a4 and ,p4 ,gr41 p4 #ib4 ,so3 ,james is loving me4--,ib41 p #bce4 #bfh ,the predicate in the form1 ',the house is being built1' would be1 according to our view1 ',,being ,,being built1' which is manifestly an absurd tautology4--,mulligan's ,gram41 #aheb1 p4 #aea4 #bfi ,suppose a criminal to be enduring the operation of binding3--,shall we say1 with ,mr4 ,murray1--',the criminal is binding8' ,if so1 ,,he ,,must ,,be ,,binding ,,something1--a circumstance1 in effect1 quite opposed to the fact presented4 ,shall we then say1 as he does1 in the present tense conjugation of his passive verb1--',the criminal is bound8' ,if so1 the action of binding1 which the criminal is suffering1 will be represented as completed1 --a position which the action its self will palpably deny4 ,see ,wright's ,phil4 ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,it is folly for a man to puzzle himself or others thus1 with fictitious examples1 imagined on purpose to make good usage seem wrong4 ,there is bad grammar enough1 for all useful purposes1 in the actual writings of valued authors2 but who can show1 by any proofs1 that the ,english language1 as heretofore written1 is so miserably inadequate to our wants1 that we need use the strange neologism1 ,the criminal is being bound1 or any thing similar8 #bgj ,it is a very strange event in the history of ,english grammar1 that such a controversy as this should have arisen2 but a stranger one still1 that1 after all that has been said1 more argument is needed4 ,some men1 who hope to be valued as scholars1 yet stickle for an odd phrase1 which critics have denounced as follows3 ,but the history of the language scarcely affords a parallel to the innovation1 at once unphilosophical and hypercritical1 pedantic and illiterate1 which has lately appeared in the excruciating refinement 'is being' and its unmerciful variations4 ,we hope1 and indeed believe1 that it has not received the sanction of any grammar adopted in our popular education1 as it certainly never will of any writer of just pretensions to scholarship4--,the ,true ,sun4 ,n4 ,y41 ,april #af1 #ahdf4 #bga ,education is a work of continuance1 yet completed1 like many others1 as fast as it goes on4 ,it is not1 like the act of loving or hating1 so complete at the first moment as not to admit the progressive form of the verb2 for one may say of a lad1 ,i am educating him for the law2 and possibly1 ,he is educating for the law2 though not so well as1 ,he is to be educated for the law4 ,but1 to suppose that is educated or are educated implies unnecessarily a cessation of the educating is a mistake4 ,that conception is right1 only when educated is taken adjectively4 ,the phrase1 those who are educated in our seminaries1 hardly includes such as have been educated there in times past3 much less does it apply to these exclusively1 as some seem to think4 ,being1 as inserted by ,southey1 is therefore quite needless3 so it is often1 in this new phraseology1 the best correction being its mere omission4 #bgb ,worcester has also this citation3 ,the ,eclectic ,review remarks1 ',that a need of this phrase1 or an equivalent one1 is felt1 is sufficiently proved by the extent to which it is used by educated persons and respectable writers4'--,gram4 before ,dict41 p4 xlvi4 ,sundry phrases1 equivalent in sense to this new voice1 have long been in use1 and are1 of course1 still needed2 something from among them being always1 by every accurate writer1 still preferred4 ,but this awkward innovation1 use it who will1 can no more be justified by a plea of need1 than can every other hackneyed solecism extant4 ,even the ,archbishop1 if quoted right by ,worcester1 has descended to uncouth ,english1 without either necessity or propriety1 having thereby only misexpounded a very common ,greek word--a perfect or pluperfect participle1 which means beaten1 struck1 or having been beaten--,g4 ,brown4 #bgc ,wells has also the following citations1 which most probably accord with his own opinions1 though the first is rather extravagant3 ,the propriety of these imperfect passive tenses has been doubted by almost all our grammarians2 though ,i believe but few of them have written many pages without condescending to make use of them4 ,dr4 ,beattie says1 ',one of the greatest defects of the ,english tongue1 with regard to the verb1 seems to be the want of an imperfect passive participle4' ,and yet he uses the imperfect participle in a passive sense as often as most writers4--,pickbourn's ,dissertation on the ,english ,verb4 ,several other expressions of this sort now and then occur1 such as the new-fangled and most uncouth solecism1 'is being done1' for the good old ,english idiomatic expression1 'is doing1'--an absurd periphrasis1 driving out a pointed and pithy turn of the ,english language4--,n4 ,a4 ,review4 ,see ,wells's ,grammar1 #ahej1 p4 #afa4 ,the term1 imperfect passive tenses1 seems not a very accurate one2 because the present1 the perfect1 c41 are included4 ,pickbourn applies it to any passive tenses formed from the simple imperfect participle2 but the phrase1 passive verbs in the progressive form1 would better express the meaning4 ,the term1 compound passive participle1 which ,wells applies above to being built1 being printed1 and the like1 is also both unusual and inaccurate4 ,most readers would sooner understand by it the form1 having been built1 having been printed1 c4 ,this author's mode of naming participles is always either very awkward or not distinctive4 ,his scheme makes it necessary to add here1 for each of these forms1 a third epithet1 referring to his main distinction of imperfect and perfect2 as1 the compound imperfect participle passive1 and the compound perfect participle passive4 ,what is being builded or being printed1 but an imperfect passive participle8 ,was this1 or something else1 the desideratum of ,beattie8 #bgd ,borne usually signifies carried2 born signifies brought forth4 ,j4 ,k4 ,worcester1 the lexicographer1 speaks of these two participles thus3 ,fist ,the participle born is used in the passive form1 and borne in the active form1 with reference to birth2 as1 ',he was born blind1' ,john ix42 ',the barren hath borne seven1' ,i ,sam4 ii4 ,this distinction between born and borne1 though not recognized by grammars1 is in accordance with common usage1 at least in this country4 ,in many editions of the ,bible it is recognized2 and in many it is not4 ,it seems to have been more commonly recognized in ,american1 than in ,english1 editions4--,worcester's ,universal and ,critical ,dict41 w4 ,bear4 ,in five1 out of seven good ,american editions of the ,bible among my books1 the latter text is1 ,the barren hath born seven2 in two1 it is as above1 hath borne4 ,in ,johnson's ,quarto ,dictionary1 the perfect participle of bear is given erroneously1 bore1 or born2 and that of forbear1 which should be forborne1 is found1 both in his columns and in his preface1 forborn4 #bge ,according to ,murray1 ,lennie1 ,bullions1 and some others1 to use begun for began or run for ran1 is improper2 but ,webster gives run as well as ran for the preterit1 and begun may be used in like manner1 on the authority of ,dryden1 ,pope1 and ,parnell4 #bgf ,and they shall pass through it1 hardly bestead1 and hungry4--,isaiah1 viii1 #ba4 #bgg ,brake for the preterit of ,break seems now obsolescent4--,dr4 ,crombie1 ,etymol4 and ,syntax1 p4 #aic4 ,some recent grammarians1 however1 retain it2 among whom are ,bullions and ,m',culloch4 ,wells retains it1 but marks it as1 ,obsolete2 as he does also the preterits bare1 clave1 drove1 gat1 slang1 spake1 span1 spat1 sware1 tare1 writ2 and the participles hoven1 loaden1 rid from ride1 spitten1 stricken1 and writ4 ,in this he is not altogether consistent4 ,forms really obsolete belong not to any modern list of irregular verbs2 and even such as are archaic and obsolescent1 it is sometimes better to omit4 ,if loaden1 for example1 is now out of use1 why should load1 unload1 and overload1 be placed1 as they are by this author1 among irregular verbs2 while freight and distract1 in spite of fraught and distraught1 are reckoned regular8 ,rid1 for rode or ridden1 though admitted by ,worcester1 appears to me a low vulgarism4 #bgh ,cleave1 to split1 is most commonly1 if not always1 irregular1 as above2 cleave1 to stick1 or adhere1 is usually considered regular1 but clave was formerly used in the preterit1 and clove still may be3 as1 ,the men of ,judah clave unto their king4--,samuel4 ,the tongue of the public prosecutor clove to the roof of his mouth4--,boston ,atlas1 #ahee4 #bgi ,respecting the preterit and the perfect participle of this verb1 drink1 our grammarians are greatly at variance4 ,dr4 ,johnson says1 preter4 drank or drunk2 part4 pass1 drunk or drunken4 ,dr4 ,webster3 pret4 and pp4 drank4 ,old pret4 and pp4 drunk2 pp4 drunken4 ,lowth3 pret4 drank2 part1 drunk or drunken4 ,so ,stamford4 ,webber1 and others4 ,murray has it3 ,imperf4 drank1 ,perf4 ,part1 drunk4 ,so ,comly1 ,lennie1 ,bullions1 ,blair1 ,butler4 ,frost1 ,felton1 ,goldsbury1 and many others4 ,churchill cites the text1 ,serve me till ,i have eaten and drunken2 and observes1 ,drunken is now used only as an adjective4 ,the impropriety of using the preterimperfect drank for the participle of this verb is very common4--,new ,gram41 p4 #bfa4 ,sanborn gives both forms for the participle1 preferring drank to drunk4 ,kirkham prefers drunk to drank2 but contradicts himself in a note1 by unconsciously making drunk an adjective3 ,the men were drunk2 i4 e4 inebriated4 ,the toasts were drank4--,gram41 p4 #adj4 ,cardell1 in his ,grammar1 gives1 drink1 drank1 drunk2 but in his story of ,jack ,halyard1 on page #ei1 he wrote1 had drinked3 and this1 according to ,fowle's ,true ,english ,grammar1 is not incorrect4 ,the preponderance of authority is yet in favour of saying1 had drunk2 but drank seems to be a word of greater delicacy1 and perhaps it is sufficiently authorized4 ,a hundred late writers may be quoted for it1 and some that were popular in the days of ,johnson4 ,in the choice of what is fit to be eaten and drank4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #ea4 ,which ,i had no sooner drank4--,addison1 ,tattler1 ,no4 #aca4 ,thy brother's blood the thirsty earth hath drank1 ,broach'd with the steely point of ,clifford's lance4--,shakspeare4 #bhj ,holden is not in general use2 and is chiefly employed by attorneys4--,crombie1 on ,etymology and ,synt41 p4 #aij4 ,wells marks this word as1 ,obsolescent4--,school ,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,l4 ,murray rejected it2 but ,lowth gave it alone1 as a participle1 and held only as a preterit4 #bha ,i have been found guilty of killing cats ,i never hurted4--,roderick ,random1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #h4 #bhb ,they keeped aloof as they passed her bye4--,j4 ,hogg1 ,pilgrims of the ,sun1 p4 #ai4 #bhc ,lie1 to be at rest1 is irregular1 as above2 but lie1 to utter falsehood1 is regular1 as follows3 lie1 lied1 lying1 lied4 ,thus said1 at least1 my mountain guide1 ,though deep1 perchance1 the villain lied4 --,scott's ,lady of the ,lake4 #bhd ,perhaps there is authority sufficient to place the verb rend among those which are redundant4 ,where'er its cloudy veil was rended4 --,whittier's ,moll ,pitcher4 ,mortal1 my message is for thee2 thy chain to earth is rended2 ,i bear thee to eternity2 prepare6 thy course is ended4 --,the ,amulet4 ,come as the winds come1 when forests are rended4 --,sir ,w4 ,scott4 ,the hunger pangs her sons which rended4 --,,new ,,quarterly ,,review3 ,examiner1 ,no4 #aai4 #bhe ,we find now and then an instance in which gainsay is made regular3 as1 ,it can neither be rivalled nor gainsayed4--,chapman's ,sermons to ,presbyterians1 p4 #cf4 ,perhaps it would be as well to follow ,webster here1 in writing rivaled with one l3 and the analogy of the simple verb say1 in forming this compound irregularly1 gainsaid4 ,usage warrants the latter1 however1 better than the former4 #bhf ,shoe1 shoed or shod1 shoeing1 shoed or shod4--,old ,gram41 by ,w4 ,ward1 p4 #fd2 and ,fowle's ,true ,english ,gram41 p4 #df4 #bhg ,a4 ,murray has rejected sung as the ,preterite1 and ,l4 ,murray has rejected sang4 ,each ,preterite1 however1 rests on good authority4 ,the same observation may be made1 respecting sank and sunk4 ,respecting the preterites which have a or u1 as slang1 or slung1 sank1 or sunk1 it would be better were the former only to be used1 as the ,preterite and ,participle would thus be discriminated4--,dr4 ,crombie1 on ,etymology and ,syntax1 p4 #aii4 ,the preterits which this critic thus prefers1 are rang1 sang1 stung1 sprang1 swang1 sank1 shrank1 slank1 stank1 swam1 and span for spun4 ,in respect to them all1 ,i think he makes an ill choice4 ,according to his own showing1 fling1 string1 and sting1 always make the preterit and the participle alike2 and this is the obvious tendency of the language1 in all these words4 ,i reject slang and span1 as derivatives from sling and spin2 because1 in such a sense1 they are obsolete1 and the words have other uses4 ,lindley ,murray1 in his early editions1 rejected sang1 sank1 slang1 swang1 shrank1 slank1 stank1 and span2 and1 at the same time1 preferred rang1 sprang1 and swam1 to rung1 sprung1 and swum4 ,in his later copies1 he gave the preference to the u1 in all these words2 but restored sang and sank1 which ,crombie names above1 still omitting the other six1 which did not happen to be mentioned to him4 #bhh ,sate for the preterit of sit1 and sitten for the perfect participle1 are1 in my opinion1 obsolete1 or no longer in good use4 ,yet several recent grammarians prefer sitten to sat2 among whom are ,crombie1 ,lennie1 ,bullions1 and ,m',culloch4 ,dr4 ,crombie says1 ,sitten1 though formerly in use1 is now obsolescent4 ,laudable attempts1 however1 have been made to restore it4--,on ,etymol4 and ,syntax1 p4 #aii4 ,lennie says1 ,many authors1 both here and in ,america1 use sate as the ,past time of sit2 but this is improper1 for it is apt to be confounded with sate to glut4 ,sitten and spitten are preferable to sat and spit1 though obsolescent4--,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #de4 ,bullions says1 ,sitten and spitten are nearly obsolete1 though preferable to sat and spit4--,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,m',culloch gives these verbs in the following form3 ,sit1 sat1 sitten or sat4 ,spit1 spit or spat1 spit or spitten4--,manual of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #fe4 #bhi ,he will find the political hobby which he has bestrided no child's nag4--,the ,vanguard1 a ,newspaper4 ,through the pressed nostril1 spectacle-bestrid4--,cowper4 ,a lank haired hunter strided4--,whittier's ,sabbath ,scene4 #bij ,in the age of ,pope1 writ was frequently used both for the participle and for the preterit of this verb4 ,it is now either obsolete or peculiar to the poets4 ,in prose it seems vulgar3 as1 ,he writ it1 at least1 published it1 in #afgj4--;,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #gg4 ,he1 who1 supreme in judgement1 as in wit1 ,might boldly censure1 as he boldly writ4--,pope1 ,ess4 on ,crit4 ,dr4 ,crombie remarked1 more than thirty years ago1 that1 ,wrote as the ,participle of ,write1 is generally disused1 and likewise writ4--,treatise on ,etym4 and ,synt41 p4 #bjb4 #bia ,a word is not necessarily ungrammatical by reason of having a rival form that is more common4 ,the regular words1 beseeched1 blowed1 bursted1 digged1 freezed1 bereaved1 hanged1 meaned1 sawed1 showed1 stringed1 weeped1 ,i admit for good ,english1 though we find them all condemned by some critics4 #bib ,and the man in whom the evil spirit was1 leapt on them4--,,friends' ,,bible3 ,acts1 xix1 #af4 ,in ,scott's ,bible1 and several others1 the word is leaped4 ,walker says1 ,the past time of this verb is generally heard with the diphthong short2 and if so1 it ought to be spelled leapt1 rhyming with kept4--,walker's ,pron4 ,dict41 w4 ,leap4 ,worcester1 who improperly pronounces leaped in two ways1 lept or lept1 misquotes ,walker1 as saying1 it ought to be spelled lept4--,universal and ,critical ,dict41 w4 ,leap4 ,in the solemn style1 leaped is1 of course1 two syllables4 ,as for leapedst or leaptest1 ,i know not that either can be found4 #bic ,acquit is almost always formed regularly1 thus3 acquit1 acquitted1 acquitting1 acquitted4 ,but1 like quit1 it is sometimes found in an irregular form also2 which1 if it be allowable1 will make it redundant3 as1 ,to be acquit from my continual smart4--,,spencer3 ,johnson's ,dict4 ,the writer holds himself acquit of all charges in this regard4--,judd1 on the ,revolutionary ,war1 p4 #e4 ,i am glad ,i am so acquit of this tinder-box4--,,shak4 #bid ,not know my voice6 ,o1 time's extremity6 ,hast thou so crack'd and splitted my poor tongue8 --,,shak43 ,com4 of ,er4 #bie ,whet is made redundant in ,webster's ,american ,dictionary1 as well as in ,wells's ,grammar2 but ,i can hardly affirm that the irregular form of it is well authorized4 #bif ,in ,s4 ,w4 ,clark's ,practical ,grammar1 first published in #ahdg--;a work of high pretensions1 and prepared expressly for the education of ,teachers--sixty-three out of the foregoing ninety-five ,redundant ,verbs1 are treated as having no regular or no irregular forms4 7#a47 ,the following twenty-nine are omitted by this author1 as if they were always regular2 belay1 bet1 betide1 blend1 bless1 curse1 dive1 dress1 geld1 lean1 leap1 learn1 mulet1 pass1 pen1 plead1 prove1 rap1 reave1 roast1 seethe1 smell1 spoil1 stave1 stay1 wake1 wed1 whet1 wont4 7#b47 ,the following thirty-four are given by him as being always irregular2 abide1 bend1 beseech1 blow1 burst1 catch1 chide1 creep1 deal1 freeze1 grind1 hang1 knit1 lade1 lay1 mean1 pay1 shake1 sleep1 slide1 speed1 spell1 spill1 split1 string1 strive1 sweat1 sweep1 thrive1 throw1 weave1 weep1 wet1 wind4 ,thirty-two of the ninety-five are made redundant by him1 though not so called in his book4 ,in ,wells's ,school ,grammar1 the #aacth ,thousand1 dated #ahej1 the deficiencies of the foregoing kinds1 if ,i am right1 are about fifty4 ,this author's ,list of ,irregular ,verbs has forty-four ,redundants1 to which he assigns a regular form as well as an irregular4 ,he is here about as much nearer right than ,clark1 as this number surpasses thirty-two1 and comes towards ninety-five4 ,the words about which they differ1 are--pen1 seethe1 and whet1 of the former number2 and catch1 deal1 hang1 knit1 spell1 spill1 sweat1 and thrive1 of the latter4 #big ,in the following example1 there is a different phraseology1 which seems not so well suited to the sense3 ,but we must be aware of imagining1 that we render style strong and expressive1 by a constant and multiplied use of epithets--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bhg4 ,here1 in stead of be aware1 the author should have said1 beware1 or be ware2 that is1 be wary1 or cautious2 for aware means apprised1 or informed1 a sense very different from the other4 #bih ,dr4 ,crombie contends that must and ought are used only in the present tense4 7,see his ,treatise1 p4 #bjd47 ,in this he is wrong1 especially with regard to the latter word4 ,lennie1 and his copyist ,bullions1 adopt the same notion2 but ,murray1 and many others1 suppose them to have both a present and a past signification4 #bii ,dr4 ,crombie says1 ,this ,verb1 as an auxiliary1 is inflexible2 thus we say1 'he will go2' and 'he wills to go4'--,treatise on ,etym4 and ,syntax1 p4 #bjc4 ,he should have confined his remarks to the familiar style1 in which all the auxiliaries1 except do1 be1 and have1 are inflexible4 ,for1 in the solemn style1 we do not say1 ,thou will go1 but1 ,thou wilt go4 #cjj ,,had-,i-,,wist4 ,a proverbial expression1 ,oh that ,i had known4 ,gower4--,chalmers's ,dict41 also ,webster's4 ,in this phrase1 which is here needlessly compounded1 and not very properly explained1 we see wist used as a perfect participle4 ,but the word is obsolete4 ,had ,i wist1 is therefore an obsolete phrase1 meaning4 ,if ,i had known1 or1 ,o that ,i had known4 #cja ,that is1 passive verbs1 as well as others1 have three participles for each2 so that1 from one active-transitive root1 there come six participles--three active1 and three passive4 ,those numerous grammarians who1 like ,lindley ,murray1 make passive verbs a distinct class1 for the most part1 very properly state the participles of a verb to be three2 but1 to represent the two voices as modifications of one species of verbs1 and then say1 ,the ,participles are three1 as many recent writers do1 is manifestly absurd3 because two threes should be six4 ,thus1 for example1 ,dr4 ,bullions3 ,in ,english 1 the transitive verb has always two voices1 the ,active and the ,passive4--,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #cc4 ,the ,participles are three1 3 the ,present1 the ,perfect1 and the ,compound ,perfect4--,ib41 p4 #eg4 ,again3 ,transitive verbs have two voices1 called the ,active and the ,passive4--,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,verbs have three participles--the present1 the past1 and the perfect2 as1 loving1 loved1 having loved1 in the active voice3 ,,and being loved1 loved1 having been loved1 in the passive4--,ib41 p4 #gf4 ,now either not all these are the participles of one verb1 or that verb has more than three4 ,take your choice4 ,redundant verbs usually have duplicate forms of all the participles except the ,imperfect ,active2 as1 lighting1 lighted or lit1 having lighted or having lit2 so again1 being lighted or being lit1 lighted or lit1 having been lighted or having been lit4 #cjb ,the diversity in the application of these names1 and in the number or nature of the participles recognized in different grammars1 is quite as remarkable as that of the names themselves4 ,to prepare a general synopsis of this discordant teaching1 no man will probably think it worth his while4 ,the following are a few examples of it3 #a4 ,how many ,participles1 are there2 ,there are two1 the ,active ,participle which ends in 7ing71 as burning1 and the ,passive ,participle which ends in 7ed7 as1 burned4--,the ,british ,grammar1 p4 #adj4 ,in this book1 the participles of ,be are named thus3 ,,active4 ,being4 ,,passive4 ,been1 having been4--,ib41 p4 #ach4 #b4 ,how many ,sorts of ,participles are there8 ,a4 ,two2 the ,active ,participle1 that ends always in ing2 as1 loving1 and the ,passive ,participle1 that ends always in ed1 t1 or n2 as1 loved1 taught1 slain4--,fisher's ,practical ,new ,gram41 p4 #ge4 #c4 ,,active ,,voice4 ,participles4 ,present1 calling4 ,past1 having called4 ,future1 being about to call4 ,,passive ,,voice4 ,present1 being called4 ,past1 having been called4 ,future1 being about to be called4--,ward's ,practical ,gram41 pp4 #ee and #ei4 #d4 ,,act4 ,present1 loving2 ,perfect1 loved2 ,past1 having loved4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ci4 ,the participles passive are not given by ,lowth2 but1 by inference from his rule for forming the passive verb1 they must be these3 ,present1 being loved2 ,perfect1 loved1 or been loved2 ,past1 having been loved4 ,see ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #dd4 #e4 ,,act4 ,v4 ,present1 ,loving4 ,past1 ,loved4 ,perfect1 ,having loved4 ,,pas4 ,v4 ,pres4 ,being loved4 ,past1 ,loved4 ,perf4 ,having been loved4--,lennie's ,gram41 pp4 #be and #cc2 ,greene's ,analysis1 p4 #bbe2 ,bullions's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 pp4 #hg and #ie4 ,this is ,bullions's revised scheme1 and much worse than his former one copied from ,murray4 #f4 ,,act4 ,present4 ,loving4 ,perfect4 ,loved4 ,compound ,perfect1 ,having loved4 ,,pas4 ,present4 ,being loved4 ,perfect or ,passive4 ,loved4 ,compound ,perfect4 ,having been loved4--,l4 ,murray's late editions1 pp4 #ih and #ii2 ,hart's ,gram41 pp4 #he and #hh2 ,bullions's ,principles of ,e4 ,gram41 pp4 #dg and #ee4 ,no form or name of the first participle passive was adopted by ,murray in his early editions4 #g4 ,,act4 ,present4 ,pursuing4 ,perfect4 ,pursued4 ,compound perfect4 ,having pursued4 ,,pas4 ,present and ,perfect4 ,pursued1 or being pursued4 ,compound ,perfect4 ,having been pursued4--,rev4 ,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 pp4 #hh and #ic4 ,here the first two passive forms1 and their names too1 are thrown together2 the former as equivalents1 the latter as coalescents4 #h4 ,,transitive4 ,pres4 ,loving1 ,perf4 ,having loved4 ,,passive4 ,pres4 ,loved or ,being loved1 ,perf4 ,having been loved4--,parkhurst's ,gram4 for ,beginners1 p4 #aaj4 ,here the second active form is wanting2 and the second passive is confounded with the first4 #i4 ,,act4 ,imperfect1 ,loving 2 ,perfect1 ,having loved 4 ,,pas4 ,imperfect1 ,being loved 2 ,perfect1 ,loved1 ,having been loved4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 pp4 #ii and #aja4 ,here1 too1 the second active is not given2 the third is called by the name of the second2 and the second passive is confounded with the third1 as if they were but forms of the same thing4 #aj4 ,,act4 ,imperfect1 7,present17 ,loving4 ,perfect4 ,having loved4 ,auxiliary ,perfect1 ,loved4 ,,pas4 ,imperfect1 7,present17 ,being loved4 ,perfect1 ,having been loved4 ,passive1 ,loved4--,n4 ,butler's ,pract4 ,gram41 pp4 #hd and #ia4 ,here the common order of most of the participles is very improperly disturbed1 and as many are misnamed4 #aa4 ,,act4 ,present1 ,loving 2 ,perfect1 ,loved 2 ,comp4 ,perf4 ,having loved 4 ,,pas4 ,present1 ,being loved 2 ,perfect1 ,loved1 or been loved 2 ,compound ,perfect1 ,having been loved4--,frazee's ,improved ,gram41 #fc and #gc4 ,here the second participle passive has two forms1 one of which1 been loved1 is not commonly recognized1 except as part of some passive verb or preperfect participle4 #ab4 ,,act4 ,v4 ,imperfect1 ,seeing4 ,perfect1 ,seen4 ,compound1 ,having seen4 ,,pas4 ,v4 ,preterimperfect1 ,being seen4 ,preterperfect1 ,having been seen4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ajb4 ,here the chief and radical passive participle is lacking1 and neither of the compounds is well named4 #ac4 ,,act4 ,present1 ,loving1 2 ,past1 ,loved1 2 ,com4 ,past1 ,having loved4 ,,pas4 ,present1 ,being loved4 2 ,past1 ,loved4 2 ,com4 ,past4 1 ,having been loved4--,felton's ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 of #ahdc1 pp4 #cg and #ej4 #ad4 ,,act4 ,present4 1 ,loving4 2 ,perfect4 1 ,loved4 2 ,compound ,perfect4 1 ,having loved4 ,,pas4 ,perfect or ,passive4 ,loved4 ,compound ,perfect4 ,having been loved4--,bicknell's ,gram4 ,lond41 #agij1 ,part ,i1 pp4 #ff and #gj2 ,l4 ,murray's #b;d ,edition1 ,york1 #agif1 pp4 #gb and #gg4 ,here ,being loved1 is not noticed4 #ae4 ,participles4 ,active ,voice4 ,present4 ,loving4 ,past4 ,loved1 or having loved4 ,participles4 ,passive ,voice4 ,present4 ,being loved4 ,past4 ,having been loved4--,john ,burn's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #gj4 ,here the chief ,passive term1 ,loved1 is omitted1 and two of the active forms are confounded4 #af4 ,present1 loving1 ,past1 loved1 ,compound1 having loved4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark's ,practical ,gram41 of #ahdh1 p4 #ga4 ,,act4 ,,voice4--,present 444 ,loving 2 ,compound 1 ,having loved444444 ,having been loving4--,ib41 p4 #ha4 ,,pas4 ,,voice4--,present44444 ,loved1 or1 being loved 2 ,compound44444 ,having been loved4--,ib41 p4 #hc4 ,the ,compound ,participle consists of the ,participle of a principal verb1 added to the word having1 or being1 or to the two words having been4 ,examples--,having loved--being loved--having been loved4--,ib41 p4 #ga4 ,here the second extract is deficient1 as may be seen by comparing it with the first2 and the fourth is grossly erroneous1 as is shown by the third4 ,the participles1 too1 are misnamed throughout4 ,the reader may observe that the punctuation of the foregoing examples is very discrepant4 ,i have1 in brackets1 suggested some corrections1 but have not attempted a general adjustment of it4 #cjc ,the most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make between the participles1 is1 that the one points to the continuation of the action1 passion1 or state denoted by the verb2 and the other1 to the completion of it4 ,thus1 the present participle signifies imperfect action1 or action begun and not ended3 as1 ',i am writing a letter4' ,the past participle signifies action perfected1 or finished3 as1 ',i have written a letter4'--',the letter is written4'--,murray's ,grammar1 #hvo1 p4 #fe4 ,the first participle expresses a continuation2 the other1 a completion4--,w4 ,allen's ,grammar1 #abmo1 ,london1 #ahac4 ,the idea which this participle e4g4 'tearing' really expresses1 is simply that of the continuance of an action in an incomplete or unfinished state4 ,the action may belong to time present1 to time past1 or to time future4 ,the participle which denotes the completion of an action1 as torn1 is called the perfect participle2 because it represents the action as perfect or finished4--,barnard's ,analytic ,gram41 p4 #ea4 ,emmons stealthily copies from my ,institutes as many as ten lines in defence of the term ',imperfect' and yet1 in his conjugations1 he calls the participle in ing1 ,present4 ,this seems inconsistent4 ,see his ,grammatical ,instructer1 p4 #fa4 #cjd ,the ancient termination 7from the ,anglo-,saxon7 was and2 as1 ',his schynand sword4' ,douglas4 ,and sometimes ende2 as1 ',she1 between the deth and life1 ,swounende lay full ofte4' ,gower4--,w4 ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,the present ,participle1 in ,saxon1 was formed by ande1 ende1 or onde2 and1 by cutting off the final e1 it acquired a ,substantive signification1 and extended the idea to the agent3 as1 alysende1 freeing1 and alysend1 a redeemer2 freonde1 loving or friendly1 and freond1 a lover or a friend4--,booth's ,introd4 to ,dict41 p4 #ge4 #cje ,william ,b4 ,fowle1 a modern disciple of ,tooke1 treats the subject of grammatical time rather more strangely than his master4 ,thus3 ,how many times or tenses have verbs8 ,two1 the present and the past1 ,to this he immediately adds in a note3 ,we do not believe in a past any more than a future tense of verbs4--,the ,true ,english ,gram41 p4 #cj4 ,so1 between these two authors1 our verbs will retain no tenses at all4 ,indeed1 by his two tenses1 ,fowle only meant to recognize the two simple forms of an ,english verb4 ,for he says1 in an other place1 ,we repeat our conviction that no verb in itself expresses time of any sort4--,ib41 p4 #fi1 #cjf ,,stone'-,,blind1 ,,stone'-,,cold1 and ,,stone'-,,dead1 are given in ,worcester's ,dictionary1 as compound adjectives2 and this is perhaps their best classification2 but1 if ,i mistake not1 they are usually accented quite as strongly on the latter syllable1 as on the former1 being spoken rather as two emphatic words4 ,a similar example from ,sigourney1 ,i saw an infant marble cold1 is given by ,frazee under this ,note3 ,adjectives sometimes belong to other adjectives2 as1 'red hot iron4'--,improved ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,but ,webster himself1 from whom this doctrine and the example are borrowed1 7see his ,rule ,,xix17 makes ,,red'-,,hot but one word in his ,dictionary2 and ,worcester gives it as one word1 in a less proper form1 even without a hyphen1 ,,red',,hot4 #cjg ,,of ,,enallage4--,the construction which may be reduced to this figure in ,english1 chiefly appears when one part of speech1 is used with the power and effect of another4--,ward's ,english ,gram41 p4 #aej4 #cjh ,forsooth is literally a word of affirmation or assent1 meaning for truth1 but it is now almost always used ironically3 as1 ,in these gentlemen whom the world forsooth calls wise and solid1 there is generally either a moroseness that persecutes1 or a dullness that tires you4--,home's ,art of ,thinking1 p4 #bd4 #cji ,in most instances1 however1 the words hereof1 thereof1 and whereof1 are placed after nouns1 and have nothing to do with any verb4 ,they are therefore not properly adverbs1 though all our grammarians and lexicographers call them so4 ,nor are they adjectives2 because they are not used adjectively1 but rather in the sense of a pronoun governed by of2 or1 what is nearly the same thing1 in the sense of the possessive or genitive case4 ,example3 ,and the fame hereof went abroad4--,matt41 ix1 #bf4 ,that is1 the fame of this miracle2 which last is a better expression1 the other being obsolete1 or worthy to be so1 on account of its irregularity4 #caj ,seldom is sometimes compared in this manner1 though not frequently2 as1 ,this kind of verse occurs the seldomest1 but has a happy effect in diversifying the melody4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #che4 ,in former days1 this word1 as well as its correlative often1 was sometimes used adjectively2 as1 ,thine often infirmities4--#a ,tim41 v1 #bc4 ,i hope ,god's ,book hath not been my seldomest lectures4--,queen ,elizabeth1 #aehe4 ,john ,walker has regularly compared the adverb forward3 in describing the latter ,l1 he speaks of the tip of the tongue as being brought a little forwarder to the teeth4--,pron4 ,dict41 ,principles1 ,no4 #ee4 #caa ,a few instances of the regular inflection of adverbs ending in ly1 may be met with in modern compositions1 as in the following comparisons3 ,as melodies will sometimes ring sweetlier in the echo4--,the ,dial1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #f4 ,i remember no poet whose writings would safelier stand the test4--,coleridge's ,biog4 ,lit41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ec4 #cab ,de ,sacy1 in his ,principles of ,general ,grammar1 calls the relative pronouns ,conjunctive ,adjectives4 ,see ,fosdick's ,translation1 p4 #eg4 ,he also says1 ,the words who1 which1 etc4 are not the only words which connect the function of a ,conjunction with another design4 ,there are ,conjunctive ,nouns and ,adverbs1 as well as ,adjectives2 and a characteristic of these words is1 that we can substitute for them another form of expression in which shall be found the words who1 which1 etc4 ,thus1 when1 where1 what1 how1 as1 and many others1 are ,conjunctive words3 as1 ',i shall finish when ,i please2' that is1 ',i shall finish at the time at which ,i please4'--',i know not where ,i am2' i4e4 ',i know not the place in which ,i am4'--,ib41 p4 #eh4 ,in respect to the conjunctive adverbs1 this is well enough1 so far as it goes2 but the word who appears to me to be a pronoun1 and not an adjective2 and of his ,conjunctive ,nouns1 he ought to have given us some examples1 if he knew of any4 #cac ,now the ,definition of a ,,conjunction is as follows--a ,part of ,speech1 void of ,signification itself1 but so formed as to help ,signification by making ,,two or more significant ,sentences to be ,,one significant ,sentence4--,harris's ,hermes1 #fth ,edition1 ,london1 p4 #bch4 #cad ,whether these1 or any other conjunctions that come together1 ought to ho parsed together1 is doubtful4 ,i am not in favour of taking any words together1 that can well be parsed separately4 ,goodenow1 who defines a phrase to be the union of two or more words having the nature and construcion sic--,,kth of a single word1 finds an immense number of these unions1 which he cannot1 or does not1 analyze4 ,as examples of a conjunctional phrase1 he gives as if and as though4--,gram41 p4 #be4 ,but when he comes to speak of ellipsis1 he says3 ,after the conjunctions than1 as1 but1 c41 some words are generally understood2 as1 ',we have more than that is which will suffice2' ',he acted as he would act if he were mad4'--,ib41 p4 #da4 ,this doctrine is plainly repugnant to the other4 #cae ,of the construction noticed in this observation1 the ,rev4 ,matt4 ,harrison cites a good example2 pronounces it elliptical2 and scarcely forbears to condemn it as bad ,english3 ,in the following sentence1 the relative pronoun is three times omitted3--',is there a ,god to swear by1 and is there none to believe in1 none to trust to8'--,letters and ,essays1 ,anonymous4 ,by1 in1 and to1 as prepositions1 stand alone1 denuded of the relatives to which they apply4 ,the sentence presents no attractions worthy of imitation4 ,it exhibits a license carried to the extreme point of endurance4--,harrison's ,english ,language1 p4 #aif4 #caf ,an ellipsis of from after the adverb off has caused the latter word sometimes to be inserted incorrectly among the prepositions4 ,ex4 'off 7from7 his horse4'--,hart's ,gram41 p4 #if4 ,off and on are opposites2 and1 in a sentence like the following1 ,i see no more need of inserting from after the former1 than to after the latter3 ,thou shalt not come down off that bed on which thou art gone up4--#b ,kings1 i1 #af4 #cag ,who consequently reduced the greatest part of the island ,,to their own power4--,swift1 on the ,english ,tongue4 ,we can say1 that one nation reduces another ,,to subjection4 ,but when dominion or power is used1 we always1 as so far as ,i know1 say1 reduce ,,under their power or dominion--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bbi4 #cah ,o foy1 don't misapprehend me2 ,i don't say so4--,,double ,,dealer3 ,kames1 ,el4 of ,crit41 i1 #cje4 #cai ,according to ,walker and ,webster1 la is pronounced law2 and1 if they are right in this1 the latter is only a false mode of spelling4 ,but ,i set down both1 because both are found in books1 and because ,i incline to think the former is from the ,french la1 which is pronounced lah4 ,johnson and ,webster make la and lo synonymous2 deriving lo from the ,saxon la1 and la either from lo or from the ,french la4 ,law1 how you joke1 cousin4--,columbian ,orator1 p4 #agh4 ,law me6 the very ghosts are come now6--,ibid4 ,law1 sister ,betty6 ,i am glad to see you6--,ibid4 ,la you6 ,if you speak ill of the devil1 ,how he takes it at heart6--,,shakespeare3 ,joh4 ,dict41 w4 ,la4 #cbj ,the interjection of interrogating1 being placed independently1 either after a question1 or after something which it converts into a question1 is usually marked with its own separate eroteme2 as1 ,but this is even so3 eh8--,newspaper4 ,is't not drown'd i' the last rain8 ,ha8--,shakespeare4 ,does ,bridget paint still1 ,pompey8 ,ha8--,id4 ,suits my complexion--hey1 gal8 so ,i think4--,yankee ,schoolmaster4 ,sometimes we see it divided only by a comma1 from the preceding question2 as1 ,what dost thou think of this doctrine1 ,friend ,gurth1 ha8--,,scott',s ,,ivanhoe3 ,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #bi4 #cba ,though oh and ah are most commonly used as signs of these depressing passions1 it must be confessed that they are sometimes employed by reputable writers1 as marks of cheerfulness or exultation2 as1 ,ah1 pleasant proof1 c4--,cowper's ,task1 p4 #agi4 ,merrily oh6 merrily oh6--,moore's ,tyrolese ,song4 ,cheerily oh6 cheerily oh6--,ib4 ,but even if this usage be supposed to be right1 there is still some difference between these words and the interjection ,o3 if there were not1 we might dispense with the latter1 and substitute one of the former2 but this would certainly change the import of many an invocation4 #cbb ,this position is denied by some grammarians4 ,one recent author says1 ,the object cannot properly be called one of the principal parts of a sentence2 as it belongs only to some sentences1 and then is dependent on the verb1 which it modifies or explains4--,goodenow's ,gram41 p4 #hg4 ,this is consistent enough with the notion1 that1 ,an infinitive1 with or without a substantive1 may be the object of a transitive verb2 as1 ',i wish to ride2' ',i wish you to ride4'--,ib41 p4 #cg4 ,or1 with the contrary notion1 that1 ,an infinitive may be the object of a preposition1 expressed or understood2 as1 ',i wish for you to ride4'--,ibid4 ,but if the object governed by the verb1 is always a mere qualifying adjunct1 a mere explanation of the attribute1 7,ib41 p4 #bh17 how differs it from an adverb8 ,adverbs are words added to verbs1 and sometimes to other words1 to qualify their meaning4--,ib41 p4 #bc4 ,and if infinitives and other mere adjuncts may be the objects which make verbs transitive1 how shall a transitive verb be known8 ,the fact is1 that the true object of the transitive verb is one of the principal parts of the sentence1 and that the infinitive mood cannot properly be reckoned such an object4 #cbc ,some writers distinguish sentences as being of three kinds1 simple1 and complex1 and compound2 but1 in this work1 care has not in general been taken to discriminate between complex sentences and compound4 ,a late author states the difference thus3 ,a sentence containing but one proposition is simple2 a sentence containing two propositions1 one of which modifies the other1 is complex2 a sentence containing two propositions which in no way modify each other1 is compound4--,greene's ,analysis1 p4 #c4 ,the term compound1 as applied to sentences1 is not usually so restricted4 ,an other1 using the same terms for a very different division1 explains them thus3 ,a ,simple ,sentence contains but one subject and one attribute2 as1 ',the sun shines4' ,a ,complex ,sentence contains two or more subjects of the same attribute1 or two or more attributes of the same subject2 as1 ',the sun and the stars shine4' ',the sun rises and sets4' ',the sun and the stars rise and set4' ,a ,compound ,sentence is composed of two or more simple or complex sentences united2 as1 ',the sun shines1 and the stars twinkle4' ',the sun rises and sets1 as the earth revolves4'--,pinneo's ,english ,teacher1 p4 #aj2 ,analytical ,gram41 pp4 #abh1 #adb1 and #adf4 ,this notion of a complex sentence is not more common than ,greene's2 nor is it yet apparent1 that the usual division of sentences into two kinds ought to give place to any tripartite distribution4 #cbd ,the terms clause and member1 in grammar1 appear to have been generally used as words synonymous2 but some authors have thought it convenient to discriminate them1 as having different senses4 ,hiley says1 ,those parts of a sentence which are separated by commas1 are called clauses2 and those separated by semicolons1 are called members4--,hiley' s ,gram41 p4 #ff4 ,w4 ,allen too confines the former term to simple members3 ,a compound sentence is formed by uniting two or more simple sentences2 as1 ,man is mortal1 and life is uncertain4 ,each of these simple sentences is called a clause4 ,when the members of a compound sentence are complex1 they are subdivided into clauses2 as1 ,virtue leads to honor1 and insures true happiness2 but vice degrades the understanding1 and is succeeded by infamy4--,allen's ,gram41 p4 #abh4 ,by some authors1 the terms clause and phrase are often carelessly confounded1 each being applied with no sort of regard to its proper import4 ,thus1 where ,l4 ,murray and his copyists expound their text about the pupil's composing frequently1 even the minor phrase1 composing frequently1 is absurdly called a clause2 an entire clause of a sentence4--,see ,murray's ,gram41 p4 #agi2 ,alger's1 #fa2 ,fisk's1 #ajh2 ,ingersoll's1 #ahj2 ,merchant's1 #hd2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #aeb2 ,weld's1 #b;d ,ed41 #aej4 ,the term sentence also is sometimes grossly misapplied4 ,thus1 by ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 the phrases ,james and ,william1 ,thomas and ,john1 and others similar1 are called sentences4--,smith's ,new ,gram41 pp4 #i and #aj4 ,so ,weld absurdly writes as follows2 ,a whole sentence is frequently the object of a preposition2 as1 ',the crime of being a young man4' ,being a young man1 is the object of the preposition of4--,weld's ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,edition1 p4 #db4 ,the phrase1 being a young man1 here depends upon of2 but this preposition governs nothing but the participle being4 ,the construction of the word man is explained below1 in ,obs4 #gth on ,rule #fth1 of ,same ,cases4 #cbe ,in the very nature of things1 all agreement consists in concurrence1 correspondence1 conformity1 similarity1 sameness1 equality2 but government is direction1 control1 regulation1 restrain1 influence1 authoritative requisition1 with the implication of inequality4 ,that these properties ought to be so far distinguished in grammar1 as never to be supposed to co-exist in the same terms and under the same circumstances1 must be manifest to every reasoner4 ,some grammarians who seem to have been not always unaware of this1 have nevertheless egregiously forgotten it at times4 ,thus ,nutting1 in the following remark1 expresses a true doctrine1 though he has written it with no great accuracy3 ,a word in parsing never governs the same word which it qualifies1 or with which it agrees4--,practical ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,yet1 in his syntax1 in which he pretends to separate agreement from government1 he frames his first rule under the better head thus3 ,the nominative case governs a verb4--,ib4 p4 #if4 ,lindsey ,murray recognizes no such government as this2 but seems to suppose his rule for the agreement of a verb with its nominative to be sufficient for both verb and nominative4 ,he appears1 however1 not to have known that a word does not agree syntactically with another that governs it2 for1 in his ,exercises1 he has given us1 apparently from his own pen1 the following untrue1 but otherwise not very objectionable sentence3 ,on these occasions1 the pronoun is governed by1 an consequently agrees with1 the preceding word4--,exercises1 #hvo1 ii1 #gd4 ,this he corrects thus3 ,on these occasions1 the pronoun is governed by the preceding word1 and consequently agrees with it4--,key1 #hvo1 ii1 #bjd4 ,the amendments most needed he overlooks2 for the thought is not just1 and the two verbs which are here connected with one and the same nominative1 are different in form4 ,see the same example1 with the same variation of it1 in ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #afg2 and1 without the change1 in ,ingersoll's1 p4 #bcc2 and ,fisk's1 #ada4 #cbf ,it has been the notion of some grammarians1 that the verb governs the nominative before it4 ,this is an old rule1 which seems to have been very much forgotten by modern authors2 though doubtless it is as true1 and as worthy to be perpetuated1 as that which supposes the nominative to govern the verb3 ,omne verbum personale finiti modi regit ante se expresse vel subaudite ejusdem numeri et person nominativum vel aliquid pro nominativo3 ut1 ego scribo1 tu legis1 ille auscultat4--,,despauterii ,,synt4 fol4 xvi4 ,this ,despauter was a laborious author1 who1 within fifty years after the introduction of printing1 complains that he found his task heavy1 on account of the immense number of books and opinions which he had to consult3 ,necdum tamen huic operi ultimam manum aliter imposui1 quam ,apelles olim picturis3 siquidem aptius exire1 quum in multis tum in hac arte est difficillimum1 propter librorum legendorum immensitatem1 et opinionum innumeram diversitatem4--,ibid41 ,epist4 ,apologetica1 ,a4 ,d4 #aeac4 ,but if1 for this reason1 the task was heavy then1 what is it now6 #cbg ,nutting's rule certainly implies that articles may relate to pronouns1 though he gives no example1 nor can he give any that is now good ,english2 but he may1 if he pleases1 quote some other modern grammatists1 who teach the same false doctrine3 as1 ,,rule ,,ii4 ,the article refers to its noun 7,,or ,,pronoun7 to limit its signification4--,r4 ,g4 ,greene's ,grammatical ,text-,book1 p4 #ah4 ,greene's two grammars are used extensively in the state of ,maine1 but they appear to be little known anywhere else4 ,this author professes to inculcate the principles established by ,lindley ,murray4 ,if veracity1 on this point1 is worth any thing1 it is a pity that in both books there are so many points which1 like the foregoing parenthesis1 belie this profession4 ,he followed here ,ingersoll's ,,rule ,,iv1 which is this3 ,the article refers to a noun ,,or ,,pronoun1 expressed or understood1 to limit its signification4-- ,conversations on ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ahe4 #cbh ,it is truly a matter of surprise to find under what titles or heads1 many of the rules of syntax have been set1 by some of the best scholars that have ever written on grammar4 ,in this respect1 the ,latin and ,greek grammarians are particularly censurable2 but it better suits my purpose to give an example or two from one of the ablest of the ,english4 ,thus that elegant scholar the ,rev4 ,w4 ,allen3 ,,syntax ,,of ,,nouns4 #cbe4 ,a verb agrees with its nominative case in number and person4--,elements of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #aca4 ,this is in no wise the syntax of ,nouns1 but rather that of the ,verb4 ,again3 ,,syntax ,,of ,,verbs4 #dje4 ,active ,verbs govern the accusative case2 as1 ,i love him4 ,we saw them4 ,god rules the world4--,ib41 p4 #afa4 ,this is not properly the syntax of ,verbs1 but rather that of ,nouns or ,pronouns in the accusative or objective case4 ,any one who has but the least sense of order1 must see the propriety of referring the rule to that sort of words to which it is applied in parsing1 and not some other4 ,verbs are never parsed or construed by the latter of these rules nor nouns by the former4 #cbi ,what the ,series of ,grammars1 ,english1 ,latin1 and ,greek1 ,,on ,,the ,,same ,,plan1 will ultimately be1--how many treatises for each or any of the languages it will probably contain1--what uniformity will be found in the distribution of their several sorts and sizes1--or what sameness they will have1 except that which is bestowed by the binders1--cannot yet be stated with any certainty4 ,it appears now1 in #ahej1 that the scheme has thus far resulted in the production of three remarkably different grammars1 for the ,english part of the series1 and two more1 a ,latin grammar and a ,greek1 which resemble each other1 or any of these1 as little4 ,in these works1 abound changes and discrepances1 sometimes indicating a great unsettlement of principles or plan1 and often exciting our wonder at the extraordinary variety of teaching1 which has been claimed to be1 as nearly in the same words as the as the genius of the languages would permit6 ,in what should have been uniform1 and easily might have been so1 these grammars are rather remarkably diverse6 ,uniformity in the order1 number1 or phraseology of the ,rules of ,syntax1 even for our own language1 seems scarcely yet to have entered this ,,same ,,plan at all6 ,the onward progress of ,english grammar1 or1 rather1 of the author's studies therein1 has already1 within fifteen years1 greatly varied1 from the first model of the ,series1 his own idea of a good grammar2 and1 though such changes bar consistency1 a future progress1 real or imaginary1 may likewise1 with as good reason1 vary it yet as much more4 ,in the preface to the work of #ahdj1 it is said3 ,this1 though not essentially different from the former1 is yet in some respects a new work4 ,it has been almost entirely rewritten4 ,and again3 ,the ,syntax is much fuller than in the former work2 and though the rules are not different1 they are arranged in a different order4 ,so it is proved1 that the model needed remodelling2 and that the ,syntax1 especially1 was defective1 in matter as well as in order4 ,the suggestions1 that the rules are not different1 and the works1 not essentially so1 will sound best to those who shall never compare them4 ,the old code has thirty-four chief1 and twenty-two special rules2 the new has twenty chief1 thirty-six special1 and one general rule4 ,among all these1 we shall scarcely find exact sameness preserved in so many as half a dozen instances4 ,of the old thirty-four1 fourteen only were judged worthy to remain as principal rules2 and two of these have no claim at all to such rank1 one of them being quite useless4 ,of the twenty now made chief1 five are new to the ,series of ,grammars1 and three of these exceedingly resemble as many of mine2 five are slightly altered1 and five greatly1 from their predecessors among the old3 one is the first half of an old rule2 one is an old subordinate rule1 altered and elevated2 and three are as they were before1 their numbers and relative positions excepted6 #ccj ,the grammatical predicate is a verb4--,butler's ,pract4 ,gram41 #ahde1 p4 #ace1 ,the grammatical predicate is a finite verb4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ahej1 p4 #ahe4 ,the grammatical predicate is either a verb alone1 or the copula sum some part of the verb be with a noun or adjective4--,andrews and ,stoddard's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #afc4 ,the predicate consists of two parts1--the verb1 or copula1 and that which is asserted by it1 called the attribute2 as ',snow is white4'--,greene's ,analysis4 p4 #ae4 ,the grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula not modified by other word4--,bullions1 ,analyt1 and ,pract4 ,gram41 ,p4 #abi4 ,the logical predicate is the grammatical1 with all the words or phrases that modify it4 ,ib4 p4 #acj4 ,the ,grammatical predicate is the word or words containing the simple affirmation1 made respecting the subject4--,bullions1 ,latin ,gram41 p4 #bfi4 ,every proposition necessarily consists of these three parts3 the subject1 the predicate1 and the copula2 but then it is not alike needful1 that they be all severally expressed in words2 because the copula is often included in the term of the predicate2 as when we say1 he sits1 which imports the same as1 he is sitting4--,duncan's ,logic1 p #aje4 ,in respect to this ,third ,method of ,analysis4 ,it is questionable1 whether a noun or an adjective which follows the verb and forms part of the assertion1 is to be included in the grammatical predicate or not4 ,wells says1 ,no3 ,it would destroy at once all distinction between the grammatical and the logical predicate4--,school ,gram41 p4 #ahe4 ,an other question is1 whether the copula 7is1 was or the like17 which the logicians discriminate1 should be included as part of the logical predicate1 when it occurs as a distinct word4 ,the prevalent practice of the grammatical analyzers is1 so to include it1--a practice which in itself is not very logical4 ,the distinction of subjects and predicates as grammatical and logical1 is but a recent one4 ,in some grammars1 the partition used in logic is copied without change1 except perhaps of words3 as ,there are1 in sentences1 a subject1 a predicate and a copula4 ,,jos4 ,r4 ,,chandler1 ,gram4 of #ahba1 p4 #aje2 ,gram4 of #ahdg1 p4 #aaf4 ,the logicians1 however1 and those who copy them1 may have been hitherto at fault in recognizing and specifying their copula4 ,mulligan forcibly argues that the verb of being is no more entitled to this name than is every other verb4 7,see his ,exposition1 #df47 ,if he is right in this1 the copula of the logicians 7an in my opinion1 his own also7 is a mere figment of the brain1 there being nothing that answers to the definition of the thing or to the true use of the word4 #cca ,i cite this example from ,wells1 for the purpose of explaining it without the several errors which that gentleman's ,model incidentally inculcates4 ,he suggests that and connects1 not the two relative clauses1 as such1 but the two verbs can give and can take2 and that the connexion between away and is must be traced through the former1 and its object which4 ,these positions1 ,i think1 are wrong4 ,he also uses here1 as elsewhere1 the expressions1 which relates it and1 which is related by1 each in a very unusual1 and perhaps an unauthorized1 sense4 ,his formule reads thus3 ,away modifies can take2 can take is ,,connected with can give by and2 ,,which is governed by ,,can ,,give1 and relates to security2 security is the object of finding1 which is ,,related ,,by of to conviction2 conviction is the object of with1 which ,,relates ,,it to can look2 to expresses the relation between whom and can look1 and whom relates to ,being1 which is the subject of is4 --,wells's ,school ,gram41 #aacth ,ed41 p4 #aib4 ,neither this nor the subsequent method has been often called analysis2 for1 in grammar1 each user of this term has commonly applied it to some one method only1--the method preferred by himself4 #ccb ,the possessive phrase here should be1 ,andrews and ,stoddard's1 as ,wells and others write it4 ,the adding of the apostrophe to the former name is wrong1 even by the better half of ,butler's own absurd and self-contradictory ,rule3 to wit1 ,when two or more nouns in the possessive case are connected by and1 the possessive termination should be added to each of them2 as1 ',these are ,john's and ,eliza's books4' ,but1 if objects are possessed in common by two or more1 and the nouns are closely connected without any intervening words1 the possessive termination is added to the last noun only2 as1 ',these are ,john and ,eliza's books4'--,butler's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #afc4 ,the sign twice used implies two governing nouns3 ,john's and ,eliza's books4 ,john's books and ,eliza's2 ,andrews' and ,stoddard's ,latin ,grammar1 ,andrews' 7or ,andrews's7 ,latin ,grammar and ,stoddard's #ccc ,in ,mulligan's recent ,exposition of the ,grammatical ,structure of the ,english ,language1--the work of an able hand1--this kind of ,analysis1 being most improperly pronounced the chief business of the grammarian1 is swelled by copious explanation under minute heads1 to a volume containing more than three times as much matter as ,greene's2 but1 since school-boys have little relish for long arguments1 and prolixity had here already reached to satiety and disgust1 it is very doubtful whether the practical utility of this ,improved ,method of ,teaching ,grammar1 will be greater in proportion to this increase of bulk4--,g4 ,b41 #ahec4 #ccd ,i will not take upon me to say1 whether we have any ,grammar that sufficiently instructs us by rule and example2 but ,i am sure we have none1 that in the manner here attempted1 teaches us what is right1 by showing what is wrong2 though this perhaps may prove the more useful and effectual method of ,instruction4--,lowth's ,gram41 ,pref41 p4 viii4 #cce ,with the possessive case and its governing noun1 we use but one article2 and sometimes it seems questionable1 to which of the two that article properly relates3 as1 ,this is one of the ,hebrews' children4--,exodus1 ii1 #f4 ,the sentence is plainly equivalent to the following1 which has two articles3 ,this is one of the children of the ,hebrews4 ,not because the one article is equivalent to the two1 or because it relates to both of the nouns2 but because the possessive relation itself makes one of the nouns sufficiently definite4 ,now1 if we change the latter construction back into the former1 it is the noun children that drops its article2 it is therefore the other to which the remaining article relates4 ,but we sometimes find examples in which the same analogy does not hold4 ,thus1 a summer's day means1 a day of summer2 and we should hardly pronounce it equivalent to the day of a summer4 ,so the questionable phrase1 a three days' journey1 means1 a journey of three days2 and1 whether the construction be right or wrong1 the article a cannot be said to relate to the plural noun4 ,possibly such a phrase as1 the three years' war1 might mean1 the war of three years2 so that the article must relate to the latter noun4 ,but in general it is the latter noun that is rendered definite by the possessive relation3 thus the phrase1 man's works is equivalent to the works of man1 not to works of the man2 so1 the man's works1 is equivalent1 not to the works of man1 but to the works of the man4 #ccf ,horne ,tooke says1 ,the use of ,a after the word ,,many is a corruption for of2 and has no connection whatever with the article ,a1 i4 e4 one4--,diversions of ,purley1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cbd4 ,with this conjecture of the learned etymologist1 ,i do not concur3 it is hardly worth while to state here1 what may he urged pro and con4 #ccg ,nothing can be more certain than that in ,greek syntax all words used for the purpose of definition1 either stand between the article and the noun1 or have their own article prefixed4 ,yet it may sometimes happen that an apposition with an article is parenthetically inserted instead of being affixed4--,j4 ,w4 ,,donaldson3 ,journal of ,philology1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #bbc4 #cch ,churchill rashly condemns this construction1 and still more rashly proposes to make the noun singular without repeating the article4 ,see his ,new ,gram41 p4 #caa4 ,but he sometimes happily forgets his own doctrine2 as1 ,in fact1 the second and fourth lines here stamp the character of the measure4--,ib41 p4 #cia4 ,o4 ,b4 ,peirce says1 ',joram's second and third daughters1' must mean1 if it means any thing1 his second daughters and third daughters2 and1 'the first and second verses4' if it means any thing1 must represent the first verses and the second verses4-- ,peirce's ,english ,gram41 p4 #bfc4 ,according to my notion1 this interpretation is as false and hypercritical1 as is the rule by which the author professes to show what is right4 ,he might have been better employed in explaining some of his own phraseology1 such as1 the indefinite-past and present of the declarative mode4--,ib41 p4 #ajj4 ,the critic who writes such stuff as this1 may well be a misinterpreter of good common ,english4 ,it is plain1 that the two examples which he thus distorts1 are neither obscure nor inelegant4 ,but1 in an alternative of single things1 the article must be repeated1 and a plural noun is improper2 as1 ,but they do not receive the ,nicene or the ,athanasian creeds4--,adam's ,religious ,world1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aje4 ,say1 creed4 ,so in an enumeration2 as1 ,there are three participles3 the present1 the perfect1 and the compound perfect participles--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #db4 ,expunge this last word1 participles4 ,sometimes a sentence is wrong1 not as being in itself a solecism1 but as being unadapted to the author's thought4 ,example3 ,other tendencies will be noticed in the ,etymological and ,syntactical part4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 ,n4 ,y41 #ahej1 p4 #ge4 ,this implies1 what appears not to be true1 that the author meant to treat ,etymology and ,syntax together in a single part of his work4 ,had he put an s to the noun part1 he might have been understood in either of two other ways1 but not in this4 ,to make sure of his meaning1 therefore1 he should have said--in the ,etymological ,part and the ,syntactical4 #cci ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce1 in his new theory of grammar1 not only adopts ,ingersoll's error1 but adds others to it4 ,he supposes no ellipsis1 and declares it grossly improper ever to insert the pronoun4 ,according to him1 the following text is wrong3 ,my son1 despise not thou the chastening of the ,lord4--,heb41 xii1 #e4 ,see ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #bee4 ,of this gentleman's book ,i shall say the less1 because its faults are so many and so obvious4 ,yet this is ,the ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 and claims to be the only work which is worthy to be called an ,english ,grammar4 ,the first and only ,grammar of the ,english ,language6--,ib41 p4 #aj4 ,in punctuation1 it is a very chaos1 as one might guess from the following ,rule3 ,a word of the second person1 and in the subjective case1 must have a semicolon after it2 as1 ,john2 hear me4--,id41 p4 #bhb4 ,behold his practice6 ,john1 beware4--,p4 #hd4 ,children1 study4--,p4 #hj4 ,henry2 study4--,p4 #bdi4 ,pupil3 parse4--,p4 #baa2 and many other places4 ,be thou1 or do thou be writing8 ,be ye or you1 or do ye or you be writing8--,p4 #aaj4 ,according to his ,rule1 this tense requires six semicolons2 but the author points it with two commas and two notes of interrogation6 #cdj ,in ,butler's ,practical ,grammar1 first published in #ahde1 this doctrine is taught as a novelty4 ,his publishers1 in their circular letter1 speak of it as one of the peculiar advantages of this grammar over preceding works1 and as an important matter1 heretofore altogether omitted by grammarians6 ,wells cites ,butler in support of his false principle3 ,a verb in the infinitive is often preceded by a noun or pronoun in the objective1 which has no direct dependence on any other word4 ,examples3--',columbus ordered a strong fortress of wood and plaster to be erected4'--,irving4 ',its favors here should make us tremble4'-- ,young4 ,see ,wells's ,school ,gram41 p4 #adg4 #cda ,sometimes indeed the verb hath two regimens1 and then the preposition is necessary to one of them2 as1 ',i address myself to my judges4'--,campbell's ,philosophy of ,rhetoric1 p4 #agh4 ,here the verb address governs the pronoun myself1 and is also the antecedent to the preposition to2 and the construction would be similar1 if the preposition governed the infinitive or a participle3 as1 ,i prepared myself to swim2 or1 ,i prepared myself for swimming4 ,but1 in any of these cases1 it is not very accurate to say1 the verb has two regimens2 for the latter term is properly the regimen of the preposition4 ,cardell1 by robbing the prepositions1 and supposing ellipses1 found two regimens for every verb4 ,w4 ,allen1 on the contrary1 7from whom ,nixon gathered his doctrine above17 by giving the accusative to the infinitive1 makes a multitude of our active-transitive verbs neuter4 ,see ,allen's ,gram41 p4 #aff4 ,but ,nixon absurdly calls the verb active-transitive1 because it governs the infinitive2 i4 e4 as he supposes--and1 except when to is not used1 erroneously supposes4 #cdb ,a certain new theorist1 who very innocently fogs himself and his credulous readers with a deal of impertinent pedantry1 after denouncing my doctrine that to before the infinitive is a preposition1 appeals to me thus3 ,let me ask you1 ,g4 ,b4--is not the infinitive in ,latin the same as in the ,english8 ,thus1 ,i desire to teach ,latin--,ego ,cupio docere4 ,i saw ,abel come--,ego videbam ,abelem venire4 ,the same principle is recognized by the ,greek grammars and those of most of the modern languages4--,o4 ,b4 ,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ceh4 ,of this gentleman ,i know nothing but from what appears in his book--a work of immeasurable and ill-founded vanity--a whimsical1 dogmatical1 blundering performance4 ,this short sample of his ,latin1 7with six puerile errors in seven words17 is proof positive that he knows nothing of that language1 whatever may be his attainments in ,greek1 or the other tongues of which he tells4 ,to his question ,i answer emphatically1 ,,no4 ,in ,latin1 ,one verb governs an other in the infinitive2 as1 ,cupio discere1 ,i desire to learn4--,adam's ,gram41 p4 #aha4 ,this government never admits the intervention of a preposition4 ,i saw ,abel come1 has no preposition2 but the ,latin of it is1 ,vidi ,abelem venientem1 and not what is given above2 or1 according to ,st4 ,jerome and others1 who wrote1 ,abel1 without declension1 we ought rather to say1 ,vidi ,abel venientem4 ,if they are right1 ,ego videbam ,abelem venire1 is every word of it wrong6 #cdc ,priestley cites these examples as authorities1 not as false syntax4 ,the errors which ,i thus quote at secondhand from other grammarians1 and mark with double references1 are in general such as the first quoters have allowed1 and made themselves responsible for2 but this is not the case in every instance4 ,such credit has sometimes1 though rarely1 been given1 where the expression was disapproved4--,g4 ,,brown4 #cdd ,lindley ,murray thought it not impracticable to put two or more nouns in apposition and add the possessive sign to each2 nor did he imagine there would often be any positive impropriety in so doing4 ,his words1 on this point1 are these3 ,on the other hand1 the application of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition1 would be generally harsh and displeasing1 and perhaps in some cases incorrect3 as1 ',the ,emperor's ,leopold's2 ,king ,george's2 ,charles's the ,second's2 ,the parcel was left at ,smith's1 the bookseller's and stationer's4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #agg4 ,whether he imagined any of these to be incorrect or not1 does not appear6 ,under the next rule1 ,i shall give a short note which will show them all to be so4 ,the author1 however1 after presenting these uncouth fictions1 which show nothing but his own deficiency in grammar1 has done the world the favour not to pronounce them very convenient phrases2 for he continues the paragraph as follows3 ,the rules which we have endeavoured to elucidate1 will prevent the inconveniences of both these modes of expression2 and they appear to be simple1 perspicuous1 and consistent with the idiom of the language4'--,ib4 ,this undeserved praise of his own rules1 he might as well have left to some other hand4 ,they have had the fortune1 however1 to please sundry critics1 and to become the prey of many thieves2 but are certainly very deficient in the three qualities here named2 and1 taken together with their illustrations1 they form little else than a tissue of errors1 partly his own1 and partly copied from ,lowth and ,priestley4 ,dr4 ,latham1 too1 and ,prof4 ,child1 whose erroneous teaching on this point is still more marvellous1 not only inculcate the idea that possessives in form may be in apposition1 but seem to suppose that two possessive endings are essential to the relation4 ,forgetting all such ,english as we have in the phrases1 ,john the ,baptist's head1--,for ,jacob my servant's sake1--,julius ,csar's ,commentaries1--they invent sham expressions1 too awkward ever to have come to their knowledge from any actual use1--such as1 ,john's the farmer's wife1--,oliver's the spy's evidence1--and then end their section with the general truth1 ,for words to be in apposition with each other1 they must be in the same case4--,elementary ,grammar1 ,revised ,edition1 p4 #aeb4 ,what sort of scholarship is that in which fictitious examples mislead even their inventors8 #cde ,in ,professor ,fowler's recent and copious work1 ,the ,english ,language in its ,elements and ,forms1 our present ,reciprocals are called1 not ,pronominal ,adjectives1 but ,pronouns1 and are spoken of1 in the first instance1 thus3 #bdh4 ,a ,,reciprocal ,,pronoun is one that implies the mutual action of different agents4 ,,each ,,other1 and ,,one ,,another1 are our reciprocal forms1 which are treated exactly as if they were compound pronouns1 taking for their genitives1 each other's1 one another's4 ,each other is properly used of two1 and one another of more4 ,the definition here given takes for granted what is at least disputable1 that each other1 or one another1 is not a phrase1 but is merely one pronoun4 ,but1 to none of his three important positions here taken1 does the author himself at all adhere4 ,in #dea1 at ,note #c1 he teaches thus3 ',they love each other4' ,here each is in the nominative case in apposition with they1 and other is in the objective case4 ',they helped one another4' ,here one is in apposition with they1 and another is in the objective case4 ,now1 by this mode of parsing1 the reciprocal terms are treated1 not as compound pronouns1 but as phrases consisting of distinct or separable words3 and1 as being separate or separable words1 whether they be ,adjectives or ,pronouns1 they conform not to his definition above4 ,out of the sundry instances in which1 according to his own showing1 he has misapplied one or the other of these phrases1 ,i cite the following3 7#a47 ,the two ideas of ,science and ,art differ from one another as the understanding differs from the will4--,fowler's ,gram41 #ahej1 #ahj4 ,say1--from each other2 or1--one from the other4 7#b47 ,,thou1 ,,thy1 ,,thee1 are etymologically related to each other4--,ib41 #baf4 ,say1--to one an other2 because there are more than two4 7#c47 ,till within some centuries1 the ,germans1 like the ,french and the ,english1 addressed each other in familiar conversation by the ,second ,person ,singular4--,ib41 #bba4 ,say1--addressed one an other4 7#d47 ,two sentences are1 on the other hand1 connected in the way of co-ordination 1 when they are not thus dependent one upon another4--,ib41 #ccb4 ,say1--upon each other2 or1--one upon the other2 because there are but two4 7#e47 ,these two rivers are at a great distance from one another4--,ib41 #fag4 ,say1--from each other2 or1--one from the other4 7#f47 ,the trees in the ,forest of ,bombast are close1 spreading1 and twined into each other4--,ib41 #fag4 ,say1--into one an other4 #cdf ,for this quotation1 ,dr4 ,campbell gives1 in his margin1 the following reference3 ,introduction1 c41 ,sentences1 ,note on the #fth ,phrase4 ,but in my edition of ,dr4 ,lowth's ,introduction to ,english ,grammar1 7a ,philadelphia edition of #agii17 ,i do not find the passage4 ,perhaps it has been omitted in consequence of ,campbell's criticism1 of which ,i here cite but a part4--,g4 ,,brown4 #cdg ,by some grammarians it is presumed to be consistent with the nature of participles to govern the possessive case2 and ,hiley1 if he is to be understood literally1 assumes it as an established principle1 that they all do so6 ,participles govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case1 and at the same time1 if derived from transitive verbs1 require the noun or pronoun following to be in the objective case1 without the intervention of the preposition of2 as ',much depends on ,william's observing the rule1 and error will be the consequence of his neglecting it2' or1 ',much will depend on the rule's being observed by ,william1 and error will be the consequence of its being neglected4'--,hiley's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,these sentences1 without doubt1 are nearly equivalent to each other in meaning4 ,to make them exactly so1 depends or will depend must be changed in tense1 and its being neglected must be its being neglected by him4 ,but who that has looked at the facts in the case1 or informed himself on the points here in dispute1 will maintain that either the awkward phraseology of the latter example1 or the mixed and questionable construction of the former1 or the extensive rule under which they are here presented1 is among the established principles and best usages of the ,english language8--,ib41 p4 #a4 #cdh ,what1 in ,weld's ,abridged ,edition1 is improperly called a participial noun1 was1 in his original work1 still more erroneously termed a participial clause4 ,this gentleman1 who has lately amended his general rule for possessives by wrongfully copying or imitating mine1 has also as widely varied his conception of the participial--object possessed2 but1 in my judgement1 a change still greater might not be amiss4 ,the possessive is often governed by a participial clause2 as1 much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently4 ,pupil's is governed by the clause1 'composing frequently4' ,,note4--,the sign 7's7 should be annexed to the word governed by the participial clause following it4--,weld's ,gram41 #b;d ,edition1 p4 #aej4 ,again3 ,the possessive is often governed by a participial noun2 as1 ,much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently4 ,pupil's is governed by the participial noun composing4 ,,note4--,the sign 7's7 should be annexed to the word governed by the participial noun following it4--,weld's ,gram41 ,abridged1 p4 #aag4 ,choosing the possessive case1 where1 both by analogy and by authority1 the objective would be quite as grammatical1 if not more so2 destroying1 as far as possible1 all syntactical distinction between the participle and the participial noun1 by confounding them purposely1 even in name2 this author1 like ,wells1 whom he too often imitates1 takes no notice of the question here discussed1 and seems quite unconscious that participles partly made nouns can produce false syntax4 ,to the foregoing instructions1 he subjoins the following comment1 as a marginal note3 ,the participle used as a noun1 still retains its verbal properties1 and may govern the objective case1 or be modified by an adverb or adjunct1 like the verb from which it is derived4--,ibid4 ,when one part of speech is said to be used as an other1 the learner may be greatly puzzled to understand to which class the given word belongs4 ,if the participle used as a noun1 still retains its verbal properties1 it is1 manifestly1 not a noun1 but a participle still2 not a participial noun1 but a nounal participle1 whether the thing be allowable or not4 ,hence the teachings just cited are inconsistent4 ,wells says1 ,participles are often used in the sense of nouns2 as1 ',there was again the smacking of whips1 the clattering of hoofs1 and the glittering of harness4'--,,irving4--,school ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,this is not well stated2 because these are participial nouns1 and not participles4 ,what ,wells calls participial nouns1 differ from these1 and are all spurious1 all mongrels1 all participles rather than nouns4 ,in regard to possessives before participles1 no instructions appear to be more defective than those of this gentleman4 ,his sole rule supposes the pupil always to know when and why the possessive is proper1 and only instructs him not to form it without the sign6 ,it is this3 ,when a noun or a pronoun1 preceding a participle used as a noun1 is properly in the possessive case1 the sign of possession should not be omitted4--,school ,gram41 p4 #aba4 ,all the examples put under this rule1 are inappropriate3 each will mislead the learner4 ,those which are called ,correct1 are1 ,i think erroneous2 and those which are called ,false ,syntax1 the adding of the possessive sign will not amend4 #cdi ,it is remarkable1 that ,lindley ,murray1 with all his care in revising his work1 did not see the inconsistency of his instructions in relation to phrases of this kind4 ,first he copies ,lowth's doctrine1 literally and anonymously1 from the ,doctor's #agth page1 thus3 ,when the thing to which another is said to belong1 is expressed by a circumlocution1 or by many terms1 the sign of the possessive case is commonly added to the last term3 as1 ',the king of ,great ,britain's dominions4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #de4 ,afterwards he condemns this3 ,the word in the genitive case is frequently ,,placed ,,improperly3 as1 ',this fact appears from ,dr4 ,pearson of ,birmingham's experiments4' ,it should be1 'from the experiments of ,dr4 ,pearson of ,birmingham4' --,ib41 p4 #age4 ,and again he makes it necessary3 ,a phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent1 as to admit of no pause before the conclusion1 necessarily requires the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase3 as1 ',whose prerogative is it8 ,it is the king of ,great ,britain's2' ',that is the duke of ,bridgewater's canal2' c4--,ib41 p4 #bgf4 ,is there not contradiction in these instructions8 #cej ,a late grammarian tells us3 ,in nouns ending in es and ss1 the other s is not added2 as1 ,charles' hat1 ,goodness' sake4--,wilcox's ,gram41 p4 #aa4 ,he should rather have said1 ,to nouns ending in es or ss1 the other s is not added4 ,but his doctrine is worse than his syntax2 and1 what is remarkable1 he himself forgets it in the course of a few minutes1 thus3 ,decline ,charles4 ,nom4 ,charles1 ,poss4 ,charles's1 ,obj4 ,charles4--,ib41 p4 #ab4 ,see the like doctrine in ,mulligan's recent work on the ,structure of ,language1 p4 #ahb4 #cea ,,vaugelas was a noted ,french critic1 who died in #afej4 ,in ,murray's ,grammar1 the name is more than once mistaken4 ,on page #ceith1 of the edition above cited1 it is printed ,vangelas--,g4 ,,brown4 #ceb ,nixon parses boy1 as being in the possessive case1 governed by distress understood2 and girl's1 as being coupled by nor to boy1 according to the ,rule1 ,conjunctions connect the same cases4 ,thus one word is written wrong2 the other1 parsed wrong3 and so of all his examples above4--,g4 ,,brown4 #cec ,wells1 whose ,grammar1 in its first edition1 divides verbs into transitive1 intransitive1 and passive2 but whose late edition absurdly make all passives transitive2 says1 in his third edition1 ,a transitive verb is a verb that has some noun or pronoun for its object2 7p4 #gh27 adopts1 in his syntax1 the old dogma1 ,transitive verbs govern the objective case2 7#c;d ,ed41 p4 #aed27 and to this rule subjoins a series of remarks1 so singularly fit to puzzle or mislead the learner1 and withal so successful in winning the approbation of committees and teachers1 that it may be worth while to notice most of them here4 ,,rem4 #a4--;,a sentence or phrase often supplies the place of a noun or pronoun in the objective case2 as1 ',you see how few of these men have returned4'--,wells' s ,school ,gram41 ,third ,thousand1 p4 #aed2 late ,ed4 #bae4 ,according to this1 must we not suppose verbs to be often transitive1 when not made so by the author's definition8 ,and if see is here transitive1 would not other forms1 such as are told1 have been told1 or are aware1 be just as much so1 if put in its place8 ,,rem4 #b4--;,an intransitive verb may be used to govern an objective1 when the verb and the noun depending upon it are of kindred signification2 as1 ',to live a blameless life2'--',to run a race4'--,ib4 ,here verbs are absurdly called intransitive1 when1 both in fact and by the foregoing definition1 they are clearly transitive2 or1 at least1 are1 by many teachers1 supposed to be so4 ,,rem4 #c4--;,idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which intransitive verbs are followed by objectives depending upon them2 as1 ',to look the subject fully in the face4'--,channing4 ',they laughed him to scorn4'--,matt4 #i3bd4 ',and talked the night away4'--,goldsmith4-- ,ib4 ,here again1 verbs evidently made transitive by the construction1 are1 with strange inconsistency1 called intransitive4 ,by these three remarks together1 the distinction between transitives and intransitives must needs be extensively obscured in the mind of the learner4 ,,rem4 #d4--,transitive verbs of asking1 giving1 teaching1 and some others1 are often employed to govern two objectives2 as1 ',ask him his opinion2'--',this experience taught me a valuable lesson4'--',spare me yet this bitter cup4'--,hemans4 ',i thrice presented him a kingly crown4'--,shakspeare4--,ib4 ,this rule not only jumbles together several different constructions1 such as would require different cases in ,latin or ,greek1 but is evidently repugnant to the sense of many of the passages to which it is meant to be applied4 ,wells thinks1 the practice of supplying a preposition1 is1 in many cases1 arbitrary1 and does violence to an important and well established idiom of the language4--,ib4 ,but how can any idiom be violated by a mode of parsing1 which merely expounds its true meaning8 ,if the dative case has the meaning of to1 and the ablative has the meaning of from1 how can they be expounded1 in ,english1 but by suggesting the particle1 where it is omitted8 ,for example3 ,spare me yet from this bitter cup4--,spare to me yet this joyous cup4 ,this author says1 ,the rule for the government of two objectives by a verb1 without the aid of a preposition1 is adopted by ,webster1 ,murray1 ,alexander1 ,frazee1 ,nutting1 ,perley1 ,goldsbury1 ,j4 ,m4 ,putnam1 ,hamlin1 ,flower1 ,crane1 ,brace1 and many others4--,ib4 ,yet1 if ,i mistake not1 the weight of authority is vastly against it4 ,such a rule as this1 is not extensively approved2 and even some of the names here given1 are improperly cited4 ,lindley ,murray's remark1 ,some of our verbs appear to govern two words in the objective case1 is applied only to words in apposition1 and wrong even there2 ,perley's rule is only of ,some verbs of asking and teaching2 and ,nutting's note1 ,it sometimes happens that one transitive verb governs two objective cases1 is so very loose1 that one can neither deny it1 nor tell how much it means4 ,,rem4 #e4--,verbs of asking1 giving1 teaching1 and some others1 are often employed in the passive voice to govern a noun or pronoun2 as1 ',he was asked his opinion4'--,johnson4 ',he had been refused shelter4'-- ,irving4--,ib41 p4 #aee1 #bae4 ,passive governing is not far from absurdity4 ,here1 by way of illustration1 we have examples of two sorts2 the one elliptical1 the other solecistical4 ,the former text appears to mean1 ,he was asked for1 his opinion2--or1 ,he was asked to give his opinion3 the latter should have been1 ,shelter had been refused him2--i4e41 to him4 ,of the seven instances cited by the author1 five at least are of the latter kind1 and therefore to be condemned2 and it is to be observed1 that when they are corrected1 and the right word is made nominative1 the passive government1 by ,wells's own showing1 becomes nothing but the ellipsis of a preposition4 ,having just given a rule1 by which all his various examples are assumed to be regular and right1 he very inconsistently adds this not3 ,this form of expression is anomalous1 and might1 in many cases1 be improved4 ,thus1 instead of saying1 ',he was offered a seat on the council1' it would be preferable to say ',a seat in the council was offered to him4'--,ib41 p4 #aee1 ,sec4 #bae4 ,by admitting here the ellipsis of the preposition to1 he evidently refutes the doctrine of his own text1 so far as it relates to passive government1 and1 by implication1 the doctrine of his fourth remark also4 ,for the ellipsis of to1 before him1 is just as evident in the active expression1 ,i thrice presented him a kingly crown1 as in the passive1 ,a kingly crown was thrice presented him4 ,it is absurd to deny it in either4 ,having offset himself1 ,wells as ingeniously balances his authorities1 pro and con2 but1 the elliptical examples being allowable1 he should not have said that ,i and others condemn this usage altogether4 ,,rem4 #f4--,the passive voice of a verb is sometimes used in connection with a preposition1 forming a compound passive verb2 as ',he was listened to4'--',nor is this to be scoffed at4'--',this is a tendency to be guarded against4'--',a bitter persecution was carried on4'--,hallam4-- ,ib41 p4 #aee1 ,sec4 #bae4 ,the words here called prepositions1 are adverbs4 ,prepositions they cannot be2 because they have no subsequent term4 ,nor is it either necessary or proper1 to call them parts of the verb3 was carried on1 is no more a compound verb1 than was carried off1 or was carried forward1 and the like4 ,,rem4 #g4--;,idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which a noun in the objective is preceded by a passive verb1 and followed by a preposition used adverbially4 ,,examples3 ',vocal and instrumental music were made use of4'--,addison4 ',the third1 fourth1 and fifth1 were taken possession of at half past eight4--,southey4 ',the ,pinta was soon lost sight of in the darkness of the night4'--,irving4--,ib41 p4 #aee1 ,sec4 #bae4 ,as it is by the manner of their use1 that we distinguish prepositions and adverbs1 it seems no more proper to speak of a preposition used adverbially1 than of an adverb used prepositionally4 ,but even if the former phrase is right and the thing conceivable1 here is no instance of it2 for of here modifies no verb1 adjective1 or adverb4 ,the construction is an unparsable synchysis1 a vile snarl1 which no grammarian should hesitate to condemn4 ,these examples may each be corrected in several ways3 #a4 ,say--were used2--were taken into possession2--was soon lost from sight4 #b4 ,say--,they made use of music1 both vocal and instrumental4--,of the third1 the fourth1 and the fifth1 they took possession at half past eight4--,of the ,pinta they soon list sight1 c4 #c4 ,say--,use was also made of both vocal and instrumental music4--,possession of the third1 the fourth1 and the fifth1 was taken at half past eight4--,the ,pinta soon disappeared in the darkness of the night4 ,here again1 ,wells puzzles his pupil1 with a note which half justifies and half condemns the awkward usage in question4 ,see ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #adg2 #c;d ,ed41 #aef2 late ,ed41 ,sec4 #bae4 ,,rem4 #h4--,there are some verbs which may be used either transitively or intransitively2 as1 ',he will return in a week1' ',he will return the book4'--,ib41 p4 #adg2 #aef2 c4 ,according to ,dr4 ,johnson1 this is true of most verbs1 and ,lindley ,murray asserts it of many4 ,there are1 ,i think1 but few which may not1 in some phraseology or other1 be used both ways4 ,hence the rule1 ,transitive verbs govern the objective case1 or1 as ,wells now has it1 ,transitive verbs1 in the active voice1 govern the objective case1 7,sec4 #bae17 rests only upon a distinction which itself creates1 between transitives and intransitives2 and therefore it amounts to little4 #ced ,to these examples1 ,webster adds two others1 of a different sort1 with a comment1 thus3 ',ask him his opinion8' ',you have asked me the news4' ,will it be said that the latter phrases are elliptical1 for 'ask of him his opinion8' ,i apprehend this to be a mistake4 ,according to the true idea of the government of a transitive verb1 him must be the object in the phrase under consideration1 as much as in this1 ',ask him for a guinea2' or in this1 'ask him to go4'--,ibid1 ut supra2 ,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #aeb2 ,fowler's1 p4 #dhj4 ,if1 for the reason here stated1 it is a mistake to supply of in the foregoing instances1 it does not follow that they are not elliptical4 ,on the contrary1 if they are analogous to1 ,ask him for a guinea2 or1 ,ask him to go2 it is manifest that the construction must be this3 ,ask him for his opinion2 or1 ,ask him to tell his opinion4 ,so that the question resolves itself into this3 ,what is the best way of supplying the ellipsis1 when two objectives thus occur after ask8--,g4 ,,brown4 #cee ,these examples ,murray borrowed from ,webster1 who published them1 with references1 under his #cdth ,rule4 ,with too little faith in the corrective power of grammar1 the ,doctor remarks upon the constructions as follows3 ,this idiom is outrageously anomalous1 but perhaps incorrigible4-- ,webster's ,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #ahj2 ,imp4 ,g41 #abh4 #cef ,this seems to be a reasonable principle of syntax1 and yet ,i find it contradicted1 or a principle opposite to it set up1 by some modern teachers of note1 who venture to justify all those abnormal phrases which ,i here condemn as errors4 ,thus ,fowler3 ,note #e4 ,when a ,verb with its ,accusative case1 is equivalent to a single verb1 it may take this accusative after it in the passive voice2 as1 ',this has been put an end to4'--,fowler's ,english ,language1 #hvo1 #eeb4 ,now what is this1 but an effort to teach bad ,english by rule8--and by such a rule1 too1 as is vastly more general than even the great class of terms which it was designed to include8 ,and yet this rule1 broad as it is1 does not apply at all to the example given6 ,for put an end1 without the important word to1 is not equivalent to stop or terminate4 ,nor is the example right4 ,one ought rather to say1 ,this has been ended2 or1 ,this has been stopped4 ,see the marginal ,note to ,obs4 #eth1 above4 #ceg ,some1 however1 have conceived the putting of the same case after the verb as before it1 to be government2 as1 ,neuter verbs occasionally govern either the nominative or the objective case1 after them4--,alexander's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,the verb to be1 always governs a ,nominative1 unless it be of the ,infinitive ,mood4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #id4 ,this latter assertion is1 in fact1 monstrously untrue1 and also solecistical4 #ceh ,not unfrequently the conjunction as intervenes between these same cases1 as it may also between words in apposition2 as1 ,he then is as the head1 and we as the members2 he the vine1 and we the branches4--,barclay's ,works1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #ahi4 #cei ',whose house is that8' ,this sentence1 before it is parsed1 should be transposed2 thus1 ',whose is that house8' ,the same observation applies to every sentence of a similar construction4--,chandler's old ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,this instruction is worse than nonsense2 for it teaches the pupil to parse every word in the sentence wrong6 ,the author proceeds to explain ,whose1 as qualifying house1 understood2 is1 as agreeing with its nominative1 house2 that1 as qualifying house2 and house1 as nominative case to the verb1 is4 ,nothing of this is true of the original question4 ,for1 in that1 ,whose is governed by house2 house is nominative after is2 is agrees with house understood2 and that relates to house understood4 ,the meaning is1 ,whose house is that house8 or1 in the order of a declarative sentence1 ,that house is whose house8 #cfj #a3 ,in ,latin1 the accusative case is used after such a verb1 because an other word in the same case is understood before it2 as1 ,facere qu libet1 ,,id est hominem esse regem4--,,sallust4 ,to do what he pleases1 ,,that is for a man to be a king4 ,if ,professor ,bullions had understood ,latin1 or ,greek1 or ,english1 as well as his commenders imagine1 he might have discovered what construction of cases we have in the following instances3 ,it is an honour for a man to be the author of such a work4--,bullions's ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #hb4 ,to be surety for a stranger 1 is dangerous4--,ib4 ,not to know what happened before you were born1 is to be always a child4--,ib4 ,nescire quid acciderit antequam natus es1 est semper esse puerum4--,ib4 ,greek3 ,esti tion aischron 444topon1 hon hmen pote kurioi phainesthai proiemenous4 ,it is a shame to be seen giving up countries of which we were once masters4--,,demosthenes3 ib4 ,what support these examples give to this grammarian's new notion of the objective indefinite or to his still later seizure of ,greene's doctrine of the predicate-nominative the learned reader may judge4 ,all the ,latin and ,greek grammarians suppose an ellipsis1 in such instances2 but some moderns are careless enough of that1 and of the analogy of ,general ,grammar in this case1 to have seconded the ,doctor in his absurdity4 ,see ,farnum's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #bc2 and ,s4 ,w4 ,clark's1 p4 #adi4 #b4 ,professor ,hart has an indecisive remark on this construction1 as follows3 ,sometimes a verb in the infinitive mood has a noun after it without any other noun before it2 as1 ',to be a good man1 is not so easy a thing as many people imagine4' ,here 'man' may be parsed as used indefinitely after the verb to be4 ,it is not easy to say in what case the noun is in such sentences4 ,the analogy of the ,latin would seem to indicate the objective4--,thus1 ',not to know what happened in past years1 is to be always a child1' ,latin1 'semper esse puerum4' ,in like manner1 in ,english1 we may say1 ',its being me1 need make no change in your determination4'--,hart's ,english ,gram41 p4 #abg4 #c4 ,these learned authors thus differ about what certainly admits of no other solution than that which is given in the ,observation above4 ,to parse the nouns in question1 as used indefinitely1 without case1 and to call them objectives indefinite1 without agreement or government1 are two methods equally repugnant to reason4 ,the last suggestion of ,hart's is also a false argument for a true position4 ,the phrases1 ,its being me1 and ,to be a good man1 are far from being constructed in like manner4 ,the former is manifestly bad ,english2 because its and me are not in the same case4 ,but ,s4 ,s4 ,greene would say1 ,its being ,i1 is right4 ,for in a similar instance1 he has this conclusion3 ,hence1 in abridging the following proposition1 ',i was not aware that it was he1' we should say 'of its being he1' not 'his' nor 'him4'--,greene's ,analysis1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #aga4 ,when being becomes a noun1 no case after it appears to be very proper2 but this author1 thus abridging four syllables into five1 produces an anomalous construction which it would be much better to avoid4 #cfa ,parkhurst and ,sanborn1 by what they call ,a ,,new ,,rule1 attempt to determine the doubtful or unknown case which this note censures1 and to justify the construction as being well-authorized and hardly avoidable4 ,their rule is this3 ,a noun following a neuter or a passive participial noun1 is in the nominative independent4 ,a noun or pronoun in the possessive case1 always precedes the participial noun1 either expressed or understood1 signifying the same thing as the noun does that follows it4 ,to this new and exceptionable' dogma1 ,sanborn adds3 ,this form of expression is one of the most common idioms of the language1 and in general composition cannot be well avoided4 ,in confirmation of the statement made1 various authorities are subjoined4 ,two grammarians only1 to our knowledge1 have remarked ,,oh this phraseology3 ',participles are sometimes preceded by a possessive case and followed by a nominative2 as1 ,there is no doubt of his being a great statesman4' ,b4 ,,greenleaf4 ',we sometimes find a participle that takes the same case after as before it1 converted into a verbal noun1 and the latter word retained unchanged in connexion with it2 as1 ,i have some recollection of his father's being a judge4' ,,goold ,,brown4--,sanborn's ,analytical ,gram41 p4 #ahi4 ,on what principle the words statesman and judge can be affirmed to be in the nominative case1 ,i see not2 and certainly they are not nominatives independent because the word being1 after which they stand1 is not itself independent4 ,it is true1 the phraseology is common enough to be good ,english3 but ,i dislike it2 and if this citation from me1 was meant for a confirmation of the reasonless dogmatism preceding1 it is not made with fairness1 because my opinion of the construction is omitted by the quoter4 ,see ,institutes of ,english ,gram41 p4 #afb4 ,in an other late grammar1--a shameful work1 because it is in great measure a tissue of petty larcenies from my ,institutes1 with alterations for the worse1--,i find the following absurd ,note1 or ,rule3 ,an infinitive or participle is often followed by a substantive explanatory of an indefinite person or thing4 ,the substantive is then in the objective case1 and may be called the objective after the infinitive1 or participle2 as1 ,it is an honor to be the author of such a work4 ,his being a great man1 did not make him a happy man4 ,by being an obedient child1 you will secure the approbation of your parents4--,farnum's ,practical ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #be4 ,the first of these examples is elliptical2 7see ,obs4 #abth above1 and the ,marginal ,note27 the second is bad ,english1--or1 at' any rate1 directly repugnant to the rule for same cases2 and the third parsed wrong by the rule3 child is in the nominative case4 ,see ,obs4 #gth above4 #cfb ,when the preceding case is not the verb's nominative this phrase must of course be omitted2 and when the word which is to be corrected1 does not literally follow the verb1 it may be proper to say1 constructively follows1 in lieu of the phrase1 comes after4 #cfc ,the author of this example supposes friend to be in the nominative case1 though ,john's is in the possessive1 and both words denote the same person4 ,but this is not only contrary to the general rule for the same cases1 but contrary to his own application of one of his rules4 ,example3 ,maria's duty1 as a teacher1 is1 to instruct her pupils4 ,here1 he says1 ,teacher is in the possessive case1 from its relation to the name ,maria1 denoting the same object4--,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #baa4 ,this explanation1 indeed1 is scarcely intelligible1 on account of its grammatical inaccuracy4 ,he means1 however1 that1 ,teacher is in the possessive case1 from its relation to the name ,maria's1 the two words denoting the same object4 ,no word can be possessive from its relation to the name ,maria1 except by standing immediately before it1 in the usual manner of possessives2 as1 ,sterne's ,maria4 #cfd ,dr4 ,webster1 who was ever ready to justify almost any usage for which he could find half a dozen respectable authorities1 absurdly supposes1 that who may sometimes be rightly preferred to whom1 as the object of a preposition4 ,his remark is this3 ,in the use of who as an interrogative1 there is an apparent deviation from regular construction--it being used without distinction of case2 as1 ',who do you speak to8' ',who is she married to8' ',who is this reserved for8' ',who was it made by8' ,this idiom is not merely colloquial3 it is found in the writings of our best authors4--,webster's ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #aid2 his ,improved ,gram41 p4 #acf4 ,in this phrase1 ',who do you speak to8' there is a deviation from regular construction2 but the practice of thus using who1 in certain familiar phrases1 seems to be established by the best authors4--,webster's ,rudiments of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #gb4 ,almost any other solecism may be quite as well justified as this4 ,the present work shows1 in fact1 a great mass of authorities for many of the incongruities which it ventures to rebuke4 #cfe ,grammarians differ much as to the proper mode of parsing such nouns4 ,wells says1 ,this is the case independent by ellipsis4--,school ,gram41 p4 #abc4 ,but the idea of such a case is a flat absurdity4 ,ellipsis occurs only where something1 not uttered1 is implied2 and where a preposition is thus wanting1 the noun is1 of course1 its object2 and therefore not independent4 ,webster1 with too much contempt for the opinion of ,lowth1 followed by the whole tribe of writers on this subject1 declares it a palpable error1 to suppose prepositions to be understood before these expressions2 and1 by two new rules1 his #bb;d and #bhth1 teaches1 that1 ,names of measure or dimension1 followed by an adjective1 and ,names of certain portions of time and space1 and especially words denoting continuance of time or progression1 are used without a governing word4--,philos4 ,gram41 pp4 #afe and #agb2 ,imp4 ,gram41 #aaf and #abb2 ,rudiments1 #fe and #fg4 ,but this is no account at all of the construction1 or of the case of the noun4 ,as the nominative1 or the case which we may use independently1 is never a subject of government1 the phrase1 without a governing word1 implies that the case is objective2 and how can this case be known1 except by the discovery of some governing word1 of which it is the object8 ,we find1 however1 many such rules as the following3 ,nouns of time1 distance1 and degree1 are put in the objective case without a preposition4--,nutting's ,gram41 p4 #ajj4 ,nouns which denote time1 quantity1 measure1 distance1 value1 or direction are often put in the objective case without a preposition4--,weld's ,gram41 p4 #aec2 ,abridged ,ed41 #aah4 ,numes signifying duration1 extension1 quantity1 quality1 and valuation1 are in the objective case without a governing word4--,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #aed4 ,bullions1 too1 has a similar rule4 ,to estimate these rules aright1 one should observe how often the nouns in question are found with a governing word4 ,weld1 of late1 contradicts himself by admitting the ellipsis2 and then1 inconsistently with his admission1 most absurdly denies the frequent use of the preposition with nouns of time1 quantity1 c4 ,before words of this description1 the ellipsis of a preposition is obvious4 ,but it is seldom proper to use the preposition before such words4--,weld's ,abridged ,edition1 p4 #aah4 #cff ,professor ,fowler absurdly says1 ,nigh1 near1 next1 like1 when followed by the objective case1 may be regarded either as ,prepositions or as ,adjectives1 to being understood4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 #deh1 ,note #g4 ,now1 to being understood1 it is plain that no one of these words can be accounted a preposition1 but by supposing the preposition to be complex1 and to be partly suppressed4 ,this can be nothing better than an idle whim2 and1 since the classification of words as parts of speech1 is always positive and exclusive1 to refer any particular word indecisively to either of two classes1 is certainly no better teaching1 than to say1 ,i do not know of which sort it is2 call it what you please6 ,with decision prompt enough1 but with too little regard to analogy or consistency1 ,latham and ,child say1 ,the adjective like governs a case1 and it is the only adjective that does so4--,elementary ,gram41 p4 #aee4 ,in teaching thus1 they seem to ignore these facts3 that near1 nigh1 or opposite1 might just as well be said to be an adjective governing a case2 and that the use of to or unto after like has been common enough to prove the ellipsis4 ,the ,bible has many examples2 as1 ,who is like to thee in ,israel8--#a ,samuel1 xxvi1 #ae4 ,hew thee two tables of stone like unto the first4--,exodus1 xxxiv1 #a2 and ,deut41 x1 #a4 ,but their great inconsistency here is1 that they call the case after like a dative--a case unknown to their etymology6 ,see ,gram4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bei4 ,in grammar1 a solitary exception or instance can scarcely be a true one4 #cfg ,the following examples may illustrate these points3 ,these verbs1 and all others like to them1 were like ,,timao4--,dr4 ,murray's ,hist4 of ,europ4 ,lang41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #abh4 ,the old ,german1 and even the modern ,german1 are much liker to the ,visigothic than they are to the dialect of the ,edda4--,ib41 i1 #ccj4 ,proximus finem1 nighest the end4--,ib41 ii1 #aej4 ,let us now come nearer to our own language4--,dr4 ,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #he4 ,this looks very like a paradox4--,,beattie3 ,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aac4 ,he was near to falling4--,ib41 p4 #aaf4 ,murray1 who puts near into his list of prepositions1 gives this example to show how prepositions become adverbs6 ,there was none ever before like unto it4--,stone1 on ,masonry1 p4 #e4 ,and earthly power doth then show likest ,god's1 ,when mercy seasons justice4--,beauties of ,shakspeare1 p4 #de4 #cfh ,wright's notion of this construction is positively absurd and self-contradictory4 ,in the sentence1 ,my cane is worth a shilling1 he takes the word worth to be a noun in apposition to the word shilling4 ,and to prove it so1 he puts the sentence successively into these four forms3 ,my cane is worth or value for a shilling2--,the worth or value of my cane is a shilling2--,my cane is a shilling's worth2--,my cane is the worth of a shilling4--,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #aej4 ,in all these transmutations1 worth is unquestionably a noun2 but1 in none of them1 is it in apposition with the word shilling2 and he is quite mistaken in supposing that they indispensably prove the word in question to be a noun4 ,there are other authors1 who1 with equal confidence1 and equal absurdity1 call worth a verb4 ,for example3 ,a noun1 which signifies the price1 is put in the objective case1 without a preposition2 as1 'my book is worth twenty shillings4' ,is worth is a neuter verb1 and answers to the latin sic--,,kth verb valet4--,barrett's ,gram41 p4 #ach4 ,i do not deny that the phrase is worth is a just version of the verb valet2 but this equivalence in import1 is no proof at all that worth is a verb4 ,prodest is a ,latin verb1 which signifies is profitable to2 but who will thence infer1 that profitable to is a verb8 #cfi ,in ,j4 ,r4 ,chandler's ,english ,grammar1 as published in #ahba1 the word worth appears in the list of prepositions3 but the revised list1 in his edition of #ahdg1 does not contain it4 ,in both books1 however1 it is expressly parsed as a preposition2 and1 in expounding the sentence1 ,the book is worth a dollar1 the author makes this remark3 ,worth has been called an adjective by some1 and a noun by others3 worth1 however1 in this sentence expresses a relation by value1 and is so far a preposition2 and no ellipsis1 which may be formed1 would change the nature of the word1 without giving the sentence a different meaning4--,chandler's ,gram41 ,old ,ed41 p4 #aee2 ,new ,ed41 p4 #aha4 #cgj ,cowper here purposely makes ,mrs4 ,gilpin use bad ,english2 but this is no reason why a school-boy may not be taught to correct it4 ,dr4 ,priestley supposed that the word we1 in the example1 ,to poor we1 thine enmity1 c41 was also used by ,shakespeare1 in a droll humorous way4--,gram41 p4 #ajc4 ,he surely did not know the connexion of the text4 ,it is in ,volumnia's pathetic speech to her victorious son4 ,see ,coriolanus1 ,act ,v1 ,sc4 #c4 #cga ,dr4 ,enfield misunderstood this passage2 and1 in copying it into his ,speaker1 7a very popular school-book17 he has perverted the text1 by changing we to us3 as if the meaning were1 ,making us fools of nature4 ,but it is plain1 that all fool's of nature6 must be fools of nature's own making1 and not persons temporarily frighted out of their wits by a ghost2 nor does the meaning of the last two lines comport with any objective construction of this pronoun4 ,see ,enfield's ,speaker1 p4 #hfd4 #cgb ,in ,clark's ,practical ,grammar1 of #ahdh1 is found this ,,note3 ,the ,noun should correspond in number with the ,adjectives4 ,,examples--,a two feet ruler4 ,a ten feet pole4--,p4 #afe4 ,these examples are wrong3 the doctrine is misapplied in both4 ,with this author1 a1 as well as two or ten1 is an adjective of number2 and1 since these differ in number1 what sort of concord or construction do the four words in each of these phrases make8 ,when a numeral and a noun are united to form a compound adjective1 we commonly1 if not always1 use the latter in its primitive or singular form3 as1 ,a twopenny toy1--a twofold error1--three-coat plastering1 say1 a twofoot rule1--a tenfoot pole2 which phrases are right2 while ,clark's are not only unusual1 but unanalogical1 ungrammatical4 #cgc ,certain adjectives that differ in number1 are sometimes connected disjunctively by or or than1 while the noun literally agrees with that which immediately precedes it1 and with the other merely by implication or supplement1 under the figure which is called zeugma3 as1 ,two or more nouns joined together by one or more copulative conjunctions4-- ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ge2 ,l4 ,murray's1 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ajf4 ,he speaks not to one or a few judges1 but to a large assembly4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #bhj4 ,more than one object at a time4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #cja4 ,see ,obs4 #ajth on ,rule #agth4 #cgd ,double comparatives and double superlatives1 such as1 ,the more serener spirit1--,the most straitest sect1--are noticed by ,latham and ,child1 in their syntax1 as expressions which we occasionally find1 even in good writers1 and are truly stated to be pleonastic2 but1 forbearing to censure them as errors1 these critics seem rather to justify them as pleonasms allowable4 ,their indecisive remarks are at fault1 not only because they are indecisive1 but because they are both liable and likely to mislead the learner4--,see their ,elementary ,grammar1 p4 #aee4 #cge ,the learned ,william ,b4 ,fowle strangely imagines all pronouns to be adjectives1 belonging to nouns expressed or understood after them2 as1 ,we kings require them 7subjects7 to obey us 7kings74--,the ,true ,english ,gram41 p4 #ba4 ,they grammarians1 i4 e4 those grammarians4 ,they is an other spelling of the1 and of course means this1 that1 these1 those1 as the case may be4--,ibid4 ,according to him1 then1 them grammarians1 for those grammarians1 is perfectly good ,english2 and so is they grammarians1 though the vulgar do not take care to vary this adjective1 as the case may be4 ,his notion of subjoining a noun to every pronoun1 is a fit counterpart to that of some other grammarians1 who imagine an ellipsis of a pronoun after almost every noun4 ,thus3 ,the personal ,relatives1 for the most part1 are suppressed when the ,noun is expressed3 as1 ,man 7he7 is the ,lord of this lower world4 ,woman 7she7 is the fairest ,part of the ,creation4 ,the ,palace 7it7 stands on a ,hill4 ,men and ,women 7they7 are rational ,creatures4--,british ,gram41 p4 #bcd2 ,buchanan's1 #aca4 ,it would have been worth a great deal to some men1 to have known what an ,ellipsis is2 and the man who shall yet make such knowledge common1 ought to be forever honoured in the schools4 #cgf ,an illegitimate and ungrammatical use of these words1 either and neither1 has lately been creeping into the language1 in the application of these terms to a plurality of objects3 as1 ',twenty ruffians broke into the house1 but neither of them could be recognized4' ',here are fifty pens1 you will find that either of them will do4'--,,matt4 ,,harrison1 on the ,english ,language1 p4 #aii4 ,either and neither1 applied to any number more than one of two objects1 is a mere solecism1 and one of late introduction4--,ib41 p4 #bjj4 ,say1 ,either ,,or neither1 c4--,g4 ,b4 #cgg ,dr4 ,priestley censures this construction1 on the ground1 that the word whole is an attribute of unity1 and therefore improperly added to a plural noun4 ,but1 in fact1 this adjective is not necessarily singular1 nor is all necessarily plural4 ,yet there is a difference between the words3 whole is equivalent to all only when the noun is singular2 for then only do entireness and totality coincide4 ,a man may say1 the whole thing1 when he means1 all the thing2 but he must not call all things1 whole things4 ,in the following example1 all is put for whole1 and taken substantively2 but the expression is a quaint one1 because the article and preposition seem needless3 ,which doth encompass and embrace the all of things4--,the ,dial1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #ei4 #cgh ,this is not a mere repetition of the last example cited under ,note #adth above2 but it is ,murray's interpretation of the text there quoted4 ,both forms are faulty1 but not in the same way4--,g4 ,,brown4 #cgi ,some authors erroneously say1 ,a personal pronoun does not always agree in person with its antecedent2 as1 ',john said1 ,i will do it4'--,goodenow's ,gram4 ,when ,i say1 ',go1 and say to those children1 you must come in1' you perceive that the noun children is of the third person1 but the pronoun you is of the second2 yet you stands for children1--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #ed4 ,here are different speakers1 with separate speeches2 and these critics are manifestly deceived by the circumstance4 ,it is not to be supposed1 that the nouns represented by one speaker's pronouns1 are to be found or sought in what an other speaker utters4 ,the pronoun ,i does not here stand for the noun ,john which is of the third person2 it is ,john's own word1 representing himself as the speaker4 ,the meaning is1 ,i myself1 ,john1 of the first person1 will do it4 ,nor does you stand for children as spoken of by ,ingersoll2 but for children of the second person1 uttered or implied in the address of his messenger3 as1 ,children1 you must come in4 #chj ,the propriety of this construction is questionable4 ,see ,obs4 #b;d on ,rule #adth4 #cha ,among the authors who have committed this great fault1 are1 ,alden1 ,w4 ,allen1 ,d4 ,c4 ,allen1 ,c4 ,adams1 the author of the ,british ,grammar1 ,buchanan1 ,cooper1 ,cutler1 ,davis1 ,dilworth1 ,felton1 ,fisher1 ,fowler1 ,frazee1 ,goldsbury1 ,hallock1 ,hull1 ,m',culloch1 ,morley1 ,pinneo1 ,j4 ,putnam1 ,russell1 ,sanborn1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,spencer1 ,weld1 ,wells1 ,webster1 and ,white4 ,you is plural1 whether it refer to only one individual1 or to more4--,dr4 ,crombie1 on ,etym4 and ,synt41 p4 #bdj4 ,the word you1 even when applied to one person1 is plural1 and should never he connected with a singular verb4--,alexander's ,gram41 p4 #ec2 ,emmons's1 #bf4 ,you is of the ,plural ,number1 even though used as the ,name of a single ,person4--,w4 ,ward's ,gram41 p4 #hh4 ,altho' the ,second ,person ,singular in both ,times be marked with thou1 to distinguish it from the ,plural1 yet we1 out of ,complaisance1 though we speak but to one particular ,person1 use the ,plural you1 and never thou1 but when we address ourselves to ,almighty ,god1 or when we speak in an emphatical ,manner1 or make a distinct and particular ,application to a ,person4--,british ,gram41 p4 #abf2 ,buchanan's1 #cg4 ,but you1 tho' applied to a single ,person1 requires a ,plural ,verb1 the same as ye2 as1 you love1 not you lovest or loves2 you were1 not you was or wast4--,buchanan's ,gram41 p4 #cg4 #chb ,mr4 ,murray's #fth ,rule is unnecessary4--,lennie's ,english ,gram41 p4 #ha2 ,bullions's1 p4 #ij4 ,the two rules of which ,i speak1 constitute ,murray's ,rule ,,vi2 ,alger's and ,bacon's ,rule ,,vi2 ,merchant's ,rule ,,ix2 ,ingersoll's ,rule ,,xii2 ,kirkham's ,rules ,,xv and ,,xvi2 ,jaudon's ,,xxi and ,,xxii2 ,crombie's ,x and ,,xi2 ,nixon's ,obs4 #hfth and #hgth3 and are found in ,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ajj2 ,churchill's1 #acf2 ,adam's1 #bjc2 ,w4 ,allen's1 #aef2 ,blair's1 #ge2 and many other books4 #chc ,this rule1 in all its parts1 is to be applied chiefly1 if not solely1 to such relative clauses as are taken in the restrictive sense2 for1 in the resumptive sense of the relative1 who or which may be more proper than that3 as1 ,abraham solemnly adjures his most faithful servant1 whom he despatches to ,charran on this matrimonial mission for his son1 to discharge his mission with all fidelity4--,milman's ,jews1 i1 #ba4 ,see ,etymology1 ,chap4 #eth1 ,obs4 #bc;d1 #bdth1 c41 on the ,classes of ,pronouns4 #chd ,murray imagined this sentence to be bad ,english4 ,he very strangely mistook the pronoun he for the object of the preposition with2 and accordingly condemned the text1 under the rule1 ,prepositions govern the objective case4 ,so of the following3 ,it is not ,i he is engaged with4--,murray's ,exercises1 ,r4 #ag4 ,better3 ,it is not ,i that he is engaged with4 ,here is no violation of the foregoing rule1 or of any other2 and both sentences1 with even ,murray's form of the latter1 are quite as good as his proposed substitutes3 ,it was not with him1 that they were so angry4--,murray's ,key1 p4 #ea4 ,it is not with me he is engaged4--,ib4 ,in these fancied corrections1 the phrases with him and with me have a very awkward and questionable position3 it seems doubtful1 whether they depend on was and is1 or on angry and engaged4 #che ,in their speculations on the personal pronouns1 grammarians sometimes contrive1 by a sort of abstraction1 to reduce all the persons to the third2 that is1 the author or speaker puts ,i1 not for himself in particular1 but for any one who utters the word1 and thou1 not for his particular hearer or reader1 but for any one who is addressed2 and1 conceiving of these as persons merely spoken of by himself1 he puts the verb in the third person1 and not in the first or second3 as1 ,i is the speaker1 thou is the hearer1 and he1 she1 or it1 is the person or thing spoken of4 ,all denote qualities of existence1 but such qualities as make different impressions on the mind4 ,i is the being of consciousness1 thou is the being of perception1 and he of memory4--,booth's ,introd41 p4 #dd4 ,this is such syntax as ,i should not choose to imitate2 nor is it very proper to say1 that the three persons in grammar denote qualities of existence4 ,but1 supposing the phraseology to be correct1 it is no real exception to the foregoing rule of concord2 for ,i and thou are here made to be pronouns of the third person4 ,so in the following example1 which ,i take to be bad ,english3 ,i1 or the person who speaks1 is the first person2 you1 is the second2 he1 she1 or it1 is the third person singular4--,bartlett's ,manual1 ,part ii1 p4 #gj4 ,again1 in the following2 which is perhaps a little better3 ,the person ',i' is spoken of as acted upon4--,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,edition1 p4 #bi4 ,but there is a manifest absurdity in saying1 with this learned ,professor of ,languages1 that the pronouns of the different persons are those persons3 as1 ,i is the first person1 and denotes the speaker4 ,thou is the second1 and denotes the person spoken to4--,ib41 p4 #bb4 #chf 7#a47 ,concerning the verb need1 ,dr4 ,webster has the following note3 ,in the use of this verb there is another irregularity1 which is peculiar1 the verb being without a nominative1 expressed or implied4 ',whereof here needs no account4'--,milt41 ,p4 ,l41 #d4 #bce4 ,there is no evidence of the fact1 and there needs none4 ,this is an established use of need4--,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #agh2 ,improved ,gram41 #abg2 ,greenleaf's ,gram4 ,simp41 p4 #ch2 ,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ecg4 ,established use8 ,to be sure1 it is an established use2 but the learned ,doctor's comment is a most unconscionable blunder1--a pedantic violation of a sure principle of ,universal ,grammar1--a perversion worthy only of the veriest ignoramus4 ,yet ,greenleaf profitably publishes it1 with other plagiarisms1 for ,grammar ,simplified6 ,now the verb needs1 like the ,latin eget1 signifying is necessary1 is here not active1 but neuter2 and has the nominative set after it1 as any verb must1 when the adverb there or here is before it4 ,the verbs lack and want may have the same construction1 and can have no other1 when the word there1 and not a nominative1 precedes them2 as1 ,peradventure there shall lack five of the fifty righteous4--,gen41 xviii1 #bh4 ,there is therefore neither irregularity1 nor any thing peculiar1 in thus placing the verb and its nominative4 7#b47 ,yet have we other grammarians1 who1 with astonishing facility1 have allowed themselves to be misled1 and whose books are now misleading the schools1 in regard to this very simple matter4 ,thus ,wells3 ,the transitive verbs need and want1 are sometimes employed in a general sense1 without a nominative1 expressed or implied4 ,examples3--',there needed a new dispensation4'--,caleb ,cushing4 ',there needs no better picture4'--,irving4 ',there wanted not patrons to stand up4'--,sparks4 ',nor did there want ,cornice1 or frieze4'--,milton4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ada3 #aacth ,ed41 p4 #aed4 ,in my edition of ,milton1 the text is1 ,nor did they want ,cornice or frieze4--,p4 ,l41 ,b4 i1 l4 #gae1 #gaf4 ,this reading makes want a transitive verb1 but the other makes it neuter1 with the nominative following it4 ,again1 thus ,weld3 ,a verb in the imperative mode1 and the transitive verbs need1 want1 and require1 sometimes appear to be used indefinitely1 without a nominative2 as1 let there be light2 ,there required haste in the business2 ,there needs no argument for proving1 c4 ,there wanted not men who would1 c4 ,the last expressions have an active form with a passive sense1 and should perhaps rather be considered elliptical than wanting a nominative2 as1 haste is required1 no argument is needed1 c4--,weld's ,english ,grammar ,illustrated1 p4 #adc4 ,is there anywhere1 in print1 viler pedantry than this8 ,the only elliptical example1 ,let there be light1--a kind of sentence from which the nominative is usually suppressed1--is here absurdly represented as being full1 yet without a subject for its verb2 while other examples1 which are full1 and in which the nominative must follow the verb1 because the adverb there precedes1 are first denied to have nominatives1 and then most bunglingly tortured with false ellipses1 to prove that they have them6 7#c47 ,the idea of a command wherein no person or thing is commanded1 seems to have originated with ,webster1 by whom it has been taught1 since #ahjg1 as follows3 ,in some cases1 the imperative verb is used without a definite nominative4--,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #ada2 ,imp4 ,gram41 #hf2 ,rudiments1 #fi4 ,see the same words in ,frazee's ,gram41 p4 #acc4 ,wells has something similar3 ,a verb in the imperative is sometimes used absolutely1 having no direct reference to any particular subject expressed or implied2 as1 ',and ,god said1 ,let there be light4'--,school ,gram41 p4 #ada4 ,but1 when this command was uttered to the dark waves of primeval chaos1 it must have meant1 ,do ye let light be there4 ,what else could it mean8 ,there may frequently be difficulty in determining what or who is addressed by the imperative let1 but there seems to be more in affirming that it has no subject4 ,nutting1 puzzled with this word1 makes the following dubious and unsatisfactory suggestion3 ,perhaps it may be1 in many cases1 equivalent to may2 or it may be termed itself an imperative mode impersonal2 that is1 containing a command or an entreaty addressed to no particular person4--,nutting's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #dg4 7#d47 ,these several errors1 about the ,imperative used ,absolutely1 with no subject addressed1 as in ,let there be light1 and the ,indicative verbs ,,need and ,,want1 employed without a nominative1 either expressed or implied1 are again carefully reiterated by the learned ,professor ,fowler1 in his great text-book of philology in its ,elements and ,forms1--called1 rather extravagantly1 an ,english ,grammar4 ,see1 in his edition of #ahej1 #eig1 ,note #c and ,note #g2 also #ebj1 ,note #b4 ,wells's authorities for ,imperatives ,absolute1 are1 ,frazee1 ,allen and ,cornwell1 ,nutting1 ,lynde1 and ,chapin2 and1 with reference to ,,need and ,,want1 he says1 ,see ,webster1 ,perley1 and ,ingersoll4--,school ,gram41 #ahej1 #bji4 7#e47 ,but1 in obvious absurdity most strangely overlooked by the writer1 all these blunderers are outdone by a later one1 who says3 ,need and dare are sometimes used in a general sense without a nominative3 as1 ',there needed no prophet to tell us that2' ',there wanted no advocates to secure the voice of the people4' ,it is better1 however1 to supply it1 as a nominative1 than admit an anomala4 ,sometimes1 when intransitive1 they have the plural form with a singular noun3 as1 ',he need not fear2' ',he dare not hurt you4'--,rev4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bailey's ,e4 ,gram41 #ahed1 p4 #abh4 ,the last example--,he dare--is bad ,english3 dare should be dares4 ,he need not fear1 if admitted to be right1 is of the potential mood2 in which no verb is inflected in the third person4 ,he1 too1 is not a noun2 nor can it ever rightly have a plural verb4 ,to supply it1 as a nominative1 where the verb is declared to be without a nominative1 and to make wanted an example of dare are blunders precisely worthy of an author who knows not how to spell anomaly6 #chg ,this interpretation1 and others like it1 are given not only by ,murray1 but by many other grammarians1 one of whom at least was earlier than he4 ,see ,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part i1 p4 #abc2 ,ingersoll's1 #aec2 ,guy's1 #ia2 ,alger's1 #gc2 ,merchant's1 #ajj2 ,picket's1 #baa2 ,fisk's1 #adf2 ,d4 ,adams's1 #ha2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #ahb4 #chh ,the same may be said of ,dr4 ,webster's nominative sentences2 three fourths of which are nothing but phrases that include a nominative with which the following verb agrees4 ,and who does not know1 that to call the adjuncts of any thing an essential part of it1 is a flat absurdity8 ,an adjunct is something added to another1 but not essentially a part of it4--,webster's ,dict4 ,but1 says the ,doctor1 ,attributes and other words often make an essential part of the nominative2 as1 ',our ,,ideas of eternity ,,can ,,be nothing but an infinite succession of moments of duration4'--,,locke4 ',a wise ,,son ,,maketh a glad father2 but a foolish ,,son ,,is the heaviness of his mother4' ,abstract the name from its attribute1 and the proposition cannot always be true4 ',,he that gathereth in summer is a wise son4' ,take away the description1 'that gathereth in summer1' and the affirmation ceases to be true1 or becomes inapplicable4 ,these sentences or clauses thus constituting the subject of an affirmation1 may be termed nominative sentences4--,improved ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,this teaching reminds me of the ,doctor's own exclamation3 ,what strange work has been made with ,grammar6--,ib41 p4 #id2 ,philos4 ,gram41 #ach4 ,in ,nesbit's ,english ,parsing1 a book designed mainly for a ,key to ,murray's ,exercises in ,parsing1 the following example is thus expounded3 ,the smooth stream1 the serene atmosphere1 and the mild zephyr1 are the proper emblems of a gentle temper1 and a peaceful life4--,murray's ,exercises1 p4 #h4 ,the smooth stream1 the serene atmosphere1 the mild zephyr1 is part of a sentence1 which is the nominative case to the verb 'are4' ,are is an irregular verb neuter1 in the indicative mood1 the present tense1 the third person plural1 and agrees with the aforementioned part of a sentence1 as its nominative case4--,introduction to ,english ,parsing1 p4 #acg4 ,on this principle of analysis1 all the rules that speak of the nominatives or antecedents connected by conjunctions1 may be dispensed with1 as useless2 and the doctrine1 that a verb which has a phrase or sentence for its subject1 must be singular1 is palpably contradicted1 and supposed erroneous6 #chi ,no ,relative can become a ,nominative to a ,verb4--,joseph ,w4 ,wright's ,philosophical ,grammar1 p4 #afb4 ,a personal pronoun becomes a nominative1 though a relative does not4--,ib41 p4 #aeb4 ,this teacher is criticised by the other as follows3 ,wright says that ',personal pronouns may be in the nominative case1' and that 'relative pronouns can not be4 ,yet he declines his relatives thus3 ',nominative case1 who2 possessive1 whose2 objective1 whom6--,oliver ,b4 ,peirce's ,grammar1 p4 #cca4 ,this latter author here sees the palpable inconsistency of the former1 and accordingly treats who1 which1 what1 whatever1 c41 as relative pronouns of the nominative case--or1 as he calls them1 connective substitutes in the subjective form2 but when what or whatever precedes its noun1 or when as is preferred to who or which1 he refers both verbs to the noun itself1 and adopts the very principle by which ,cobbet and ,wright erroneously parse the verbs which belong to the relatives1 who1 which1 and that3 as1 ,whatever man will adhere to strict principles of honesty1 will find his reward in himself4--,peirce's ,gram41 p4 #ee4 ,here ,peirce considers whatever to be a mere adjective1 and man the subject of will adhere and will find4 ,such persons as write grammar1 should themselves be grammarians4--,ib41 p4 #ccj4 ,here he declares as to be no pronoun1 but a modifying connective1 i4e41 conjunction2 and supposes persons to be the direct subject of write as well as of should be3 as if a conjunction could connect a verb and its nominative6 #cij ,dr4 ,latham1 conceiving that1 of words in apposition1 the first must always be the leading one and control the verb1 gives to his example an other form thus3 ,your master1 ,i1 commands you 7not command74--,ib4 ,but this ,i take to be bad ,english4 ,it is the opinion of many grammarians1 perhaps of most1 that nouns1 which are ordinarily of the third person1 may be changed in person1 by being set in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second4 ,but even if terms so used do not assimilate in person1 the first cannot be subjected to the third1 as above4 ,it must have the preference1 and ought to have the first place4 ,the following study-bred example of the ,doctor's1 is also awkward and ungrammatical3 ,i1 your master1 who commands you to make haste1 am in a hurry4--,hand-,book1 p4 #ccd4 #cia ,professor ,fowler says1 ,one when contrasted with other1 sometimes represents plural nouns2 as1 ',the reason why the one are ordinarily taken for real qualities1 and the other for bare powers1 seems to be4'--,,locke41 ,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 #ahej1 p4 #bdb4 ,this doctrine is1 ,i think1 erroneous2 and the example1 too1 is defective4 ,for1 if one may be plural1 we have no distinctive definition or notion of either number4 ,one and other are not here to be regarded as the leading words in their clauses2 they are mere adjectives1 each referring to the collective noun class or species1 understood1 which should have been expressed after the former4 ,see ,etym41 ,obs4 #ai1 p4 #bgf4 #cib ,dr4 ,priestley says1 ,it is a rule1 ,i believe1 in all grammars1 that when a verb comes between two nouns1 either of which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation1 that it may agree with either of them2 but some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it1 as also to that which stands next to the verb2 for if no regard be paid to these circumstances1 the construction will be harsh3 as1 ,minced pies was regarded as a profane and superstitious viand by the sectaries4 ,hume's ,hist4 ,a great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it4 ,ib4 ,by this term was understood1 such persons as invented1 or drew up rules for themselves and the world4--,english ,gram4 with ,notes1 p4 #ahi4 ,the ,doctor evidently supposed all these examples to be bad ,english1 or at least harsh in their construction4 ,and the first two unquestionably are so2 while the last1 whether right or wrong1 has nothing at all to do with his rule3 it has but one nominative1 and that appears to be part of a definition1 and not the true subject of the verb4 ,nor1 indeed1 is the first any more relevant2 because ,hume's viand cannot possibly be taken as the subject of the affirmation4 ,lindley ,murray1 who literally copies ,priestley's note1 7all but the first line and the last17 rejects these two examples1 substituting for the former1 ,his meat was locusts and wild honey1 and for the latter1 ,the wages of sin is death4 ,he very evidently supposes all three of his examples to be good ,english4 ,in this1 according to ,churchill1 he is at fault in two instances out of the three2 and still more so1 in regard to the note1 or rule1 itself4 ,in stead of being a rule in all grammars1 it is 7so far as ,i know7 found only in these authors1 and such as have implicitly copied it from ,murray4 ,among these last1 are ,alger1 ,ingersoll1 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith1 ,fisk1 and ,merchant4 ,churchill1 who cites it only as ,murray's1 and yet expends two pages of criticism upon it1 very justly says3 ,to make that the nominative case1 or subject of the affirmation1 which happens to stand nearest to the verb1 appears to me to be on a par with the blunder pointed out in note #bjdth2 that is1 of making the verb agree with an objective case which happens to stand nearer to it1 than its subject1 or nominative4-- ,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #cac4 #cic ,if the excellence of ,dryden's works was lessened by his indigence1 their number was increased4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,this is an example of the proper and necessary use of the indicative mood after an if1 the matter of the condition being regarded as a fact4 ,but ,dr4 ,webster1 who prefers the indicative too often1 has the following note upon it3 ,if ,johnson had followed the common grammars1 or even his own1 which is prefixed to his ,dictionary1 he would have written were--',if the excellence of ,dryden's works were lessened'--,fortunately this great man1 led by usage rather than by books1 wrote correct ,english1 instead of grammar4-- ,philosophical ,gram41 p4 #bch4 ,now this is as absurd1 as it is characteristic of the grammar from which it is taken4 ,each form is right sometimes1 and neither can be used for the other1 without error4 #cid ,taking this allegation in one sense1 the reader may see that ,kirkham was not altogether wrong here2 and that1 had he condemned the solecisms adopted by himself and others1 about unity of idea and plurality of idea1 in stead of condemning the things intended to be spoken of1 he might have made a discovery which would have set him wholly right4 ,see a footnote on page #gch1 under the head of ,absurdities4 #cie ,in his ,english ,reader1 7,part ,,ii1 ,chap4 #eth1 ,sec4 #gth17 ,murray has this line in its proper form1 as it here stands in the words of ,thomson2 but1 in his ,grammar1 he corrupted it1 first in his ,exercises1 and then still more in his ,key4 ,among his examples of ,false ,syntax it stands thus3 ,what black despair1 what horror1 fills his mind6 --,exercises1 ,rule #b4 ,so the error is propagated in the name of ,learning1 and this verse goes from grammar to grammar1 as one that must have a plural verb4 ,see ,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #bdb2 ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #abg2 ,fisk's ,gram41 p4 #abj2 ,weld's ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ahi2 ,imp4 ,ed41 p4 #aif4 #cif ,s4 ,w4 ,clark1 by reckoning as a preposition1 perverts the construction of sentences like this1 and inserts a wrong case after the conjunction4 ,see ,clark's ,practical ,grammar1 pp4 #ib and #agh2 also this ,syntax1 ,obs4 #f and ,obs4 #ah1 on ,conjunctions4 #cig ,murray gives us the following text for false grammar1 under the head of ,strength3 ,and ,elias with ,moses appeared to them4--,exercises1 #hvo1 p4 #ace4 ,this he corrects thus3 ,and there appeared to them ,elias with ,moses4--,key1 #hvo1 p4 #bff4 ,he omits the comma after ,elias1 which some copies of the ,bible contain1 and others do not4 ,whether he supposed the verb appeared to be singular or plural1 ,i cannot tell2 and he did not extend his quotation to the pronoun they1 which immediately follows1 and in which alone the incongruity lies4 #cih ,this order of the persons1 is not universally maintained in those languages4 ,the words of ,mary to her son1 ,thy father and ,i have sought thee sorrowing1 seem very properly to give the precedence to her husband2 and this is their arrangement in ,st4 ,luke's ,greek1 and in the ,latin versions1 as well as in others4 #cii ,the hackneyed example1 ,i and ,cicero are well1--,ego et ,cicero valemus--which makes such a figure in the grammars1 both ,latin and ,english1 and yet is ascribed to ,cicero himself1 deserves a word of explanation4 ,cicero the orator1 having with him his young son ,marcus ,cicero at ,athens1 while his beloved daughter ,tullia was with her mother in ,italy1 thus wrote to his wife1 ,terentia3 ,si tu1 et ,tullia1 lux nostra1 valetix2 ego1 et suavissimus ,cicero1 valemus4--,,epist4 ,,ad ,,fam4 ,lib4 xiv1 ,ep4 v4 ,that is1 ,if thou1 and ,tullia1 our joy1 are well2 ,i1 and the sweet lad ,cicero1 are likewise well4 ,this literal translation is good ,english1 and not to be amended by inversion2 for a father is not expected to give precedence to his child4 ,but1 when ,i was a boy1 the text and version of ,dr4 ,adam puzzled me not a little2 because ,i could not conceive how ,cicero could ever have said1 ,i and ,cicero are well4 ,the garbled citation is now much oftener read than the original4 ,see it in ,crombie's ,treatise1 p4 #bdc2 ,mc,culloch's ,gram41 p4 #aeh2 and others4 #djj ,two singulars connected by and1 when they form a part of such a disjunction1 are still equivalent to a plural2 and are to be treated as such1 in the syntax of the verb4 ,hence the following construction appears to be inaccurate3 ,a single consonant or a mute and a liquid before an accented vowel1 is joined to that vowel--,dr4 ,bullions1 ,lat4 ,gram4 p4 xi4 #dja ,murray the schoolmaster has it1 used to govern4--,english ,gram41 p4 #fd4 ,he puts the verb in a wrong tense4 ,dr4 ,bullions has it1 usually governs4--,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bjb4 ,this is right4--,g4 ,b4 #djb ,the two verbs to sit and to set are in general quite different in their meaning2 but the passive verb to be set sometimes comes pretty near to the sense of the former1 which is for the most part neuter4 ,hence1 we not only find the ,latin word sedeo1 to sit1 used in the sense of being set1 as1 ,ingens coena sedet1 ,a huge supper is set1 ,juv41 #b1 #aai2 but1 in the seven texts above1 our translators have used is set1 was set1 c41 with reference to the personal posture of sitting4 ,this1 in the opinion of ,dr4 ,lowth and some others1 is erroneous4 ,set1 says the ,doctor1 can be no part of the verb to sit4 ,if it belong to the verb to set1 the translation in these passages is wrong4 ,for to set1 signifies to place1 but without any designation of the posture of the person placed2 which is a circumstance of importance1 expressed by the original4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ec2 ,churchill's1 #bfe4 ,these gentlemen cite three of these seven examples1 and refer to the other four2 but they do not tell us how they would amend any of them--except that they prefer sitten to sat1 vainly endeavouring to restore an old participle which is certainly obsolete4 ,if any critic dislike my version of the last two texts1 because ,i use the present tense for what in the ,greek is the first aorist2 let him notice that this has been done in both by our translators1 and in one by those of the ,vulgate4 ,in the preceding example1 too1 the same aorist is rendered1 am set1 and by ,beza1 sedeo2 though ,montanus and the ,vulgate render it literally by sedi1 as ,i do by sat4 ,see ,key to ,false ,syntax1 ,rule ,,xvii1 ,note xii4 #djc ,nutting1 ,i suppose1 did not imagine the ,greek article1 ,greek3 to1 the1 and the ,english or ,saxon verb do1 to be equivalent or kindred words4 ,but there is no knowing what terms conjectural etymology may not contrive to identify1 or at least to approximate and ally4 ,the ingenious ,david ,booth1 if he does not actually identify do1 with ,greek3 to1 the1 has discovered synonymes sic--,,kth and cognates that are altogether as unapparent to common observers3 as1 ,it and the1 says he1 when ,gender is not attended to1 are synonymous4 ,each is expressive of ,being in general1 and when used ,verbally1 signifies to bring forth1 or to add to what we already see4 ,the1 it1 and1 add1 at1 to1 and do1 are kindred words4 ,they mark that an addition is made to some collected mass of existence4 ,to1 which literally signifies add1 7like at and the ,latin ad17 is merely a different pronunciation of do4 ,it expresses the junction of an other thing1 or circumstance1 as appears more evidently from its varied orthography of too4--,introd4 to ,analyt4 ,dict41 p4 #de4 ,horne ,tooke1 it seems1 could not persuade this author into his notion of the derivation and meaning of the1 it1 to1 or do4 ,but ,lindley ,murray1 and his followers1 have been more tractable4 ,they were ready to be led without looking4 ,to1 say they1 comes from ,saxon and ,gothic words1 which signify action1 effect1 termination1 to act1 c4--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ahc2 ,fisk's1 #ib4 ,what an admirable explanation is this6 and how prettily the great ,compiler says on the next leaf3 ,etymology1 when it is guided by judgment1 and when proper limits are set to it1 certainly merits great attention6--,ib41 p4 #ace4 ,according to his own express rules for interpreting a substantive without any article to limit it and the relative pronoun with a comma before it1 he must have meant1 that to comes from ,saxon and ,gothic words of every sort1 and that the words of these two languages signify action1 effect1 termination1 to act1 c4 ,the latter assertion is true enough3 but1 concerning the former1 a man of sense may demur4 ,nor do ,i see how it is possible not to despise such etymology1 be the interpretation of the words what it may4 ,for1 if to means action or to act1 then our little infinitive phrase1 to be1 must mean1 action be1 or to act be2 and what is this1 but nonsense8 #djd ,so1 from the following language of three modern authors1 one cannot but infer1 that they would parse the verb as governed by the preposition2 but ,i do not perceive that they anywhere expressly say so3 7#a47 ,the ,infinitive is the form of the supplemental verb that always has1 or admits1 the preposition ,,to before it2 as1 to move4 ,its general character is to represent the action in prospect1 or to do2 or in retrospect1 as to have done4 ,as a verb1 it signifies to do the action2 and as object of the preposition ,,to1 it stands in the place of a noun for the doing of it4 ,the infinitive verb and its prefix to are used much like a preposition and its noun object4--,felch's ,comprehensive ,gram41 p4 #fb4 7#b47 ,the action or other signification of a verb may be expressed in its widest and most general sense1 without any limitation by a person or agent1 but merely as the end or purpose of some other action1 state of being1 quality1 or thing2 it is1 from this want of limitation1 said to be in the ,infinitive mode2 and is expressed by the verb with the preposition ,,to before it1 to denote this relation of end or purpose2 as1 ',he came to see me2' ',the man is not fit die2' ',it was not right for him to do thus4'--,dr4 ,s4 ,webber's ,english ,gram41 p4 #ce4 7#c47 ,,rule #c4 ,a verb in the ,infinitive ,mode1 is the object of the preposition ,,to1 expressed or understood4--,s4 ,w4 ,clark's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #abg4 #dje ,rufus ,nutting1 ,a4 ,m41 a grammarian of some skill1 supposes that in all such sentences there was anciently an ellipsis1 not of the phrase in order to1 but of the preposition for4 ,he says1 ,considering this mode as merely a verbal noun1 it might be observed1 that the infinitive1 when it expresses the object1 is governed by a transitive verb2 and1 when it expresses the final cause1 is governed by an intransitive verb1 ,,or ,,anciently1 ,,by ,a ,,preposition ,,understood4 ,of the former kind--'he learns to read4' ,of the latter--'he reads to learn1' i4 e4 'for to learn4'--,practical ,gram41 p4 #aja4 ,if for was anciently understood in examples of this sort1 it is understood now1 and to a still greater extent2 because we do not now insert the word for1 as our ancestors sometimes did2 and an ellipsis can no otherwise grow obsolete1 than by a continual use of what was once occasionally omitted4 #djf 7#a47 ,la prposition1 est un mot indclinable1 plac devant les noms1 les pronoms1 et les verbes1 qu'elle rgit4--,the preposition is an indeclinable word placed before the nouns1 pronouns1 and verbs which it governs4--,perrin's ,grammar1 p4 #aeb4 7#b47 ,every verb placed immediately after an other verb1 or after a preposition1 ought to be put in the infinitive2 because it is then the regimen of the verb or preposition which precedes4--,see ,la ,grammaire des ,grammaires1 par ,girault ,du ,vivier1 p4 #ggd4 7#c47 ,the ,american translator of the ,elements of ,general ,grammar1 by the ,baron ,de ,sacy1 is naturally led1 in giving a version of his author's method of analysis1 to parse the ,english infinitive mood essentially as ,i do2 calling the word to a preposition1 and the exponent1 or sign1 of a relation between the verb which follows it1 and some other word which is antecedent to it4 ,thus1 in the phrase1 commanding them to use his power1 he says1 that 'to' is the ,exponent of a relation whose ,antecedent is 'commanding1' and whose ,consequent is 'use4'--,fosdick's ,de ,sacy1 p4 #aca4 ,in short1 he expounds the word to in this relation1 just as he does when it stands before the objective case4 ,for example1 in the phrase1 belonging to him alone3 'to1' ,exponent of a relation of which the ,antecedent is 'belonging1' and the ,consequent1 'him alone4'--,ib41 p4 #abf4 ,my solution1 in either case1 differs from this in scarcely any thing else than the choice of words to express it4 7#d47 ,it appears that1 in sundry dialects of the north of ,europe1 the preposition at has been preferred for the governing of the infinitive3 ,the use of at for to1 as the sign of the infinitive mode1 is ,norse1 not ,saxon4 ,it is the regular prefix in ,icelandic1 ,danish1 ,swedish1 and ,feroic4 ,it is also found in the northern dialects of the ,old ,english1 and in the particular dialect of ,westmoreland at the present day4--,fowler1 on the ,english ,language1 #hvo1 #ahej1 p4 #df4 #djg ,here is a literal version1 in which two infinitives are governed by the preposition between2 and though such a construction is uncommon1 ,i know not why it should be thought less accurate in the one language than in the other4 ,in some exceptive phrases1 also1 it seems not improper to put the infinitive after some other preposition than to2 as1 ,what can she do besides sing8--,what has she done1 except rock herself8 ,but such expressions1 if allowable1 are too unfrequent to be noticed in any general ,rule of syntax4 ,in the following example1 the word of pretty evidently governs the infinitive3 ,intemperance characterizes our discussions1 that is calculated to embitter in stead of conciliate4--,,cincinnati ,,herald3 ,liberator1 ,no4 #ihf4 #djh ,this doctrine has been lately revived in ,english by ,william ,b4 ,fowle1 who quotes ,dr4 ,rees1 ,beauze1 ,harris1 ,tracy1 and ,crombie1 as his authorities for it4 ,he is right in supposing the ,english infinitive to be generally governed by the preposition to1 but wrong in calling it a noun1 or the name of the verb1 except this phrase be used in the sense in which every verb may be the name of itself4 ,it is an error too1 to suppose with ,beauze1 that the infinitive never in any language refers to a subject or nominative2 or1 as ,harris has it1 that infinitives have no reference at all to persons or substances4 ,see ,fowle's ,true ,english ,gram41 ,part ii1 pp4 #gd and #ge4 ,for though the infinitive verb never agrees with a subject or nominative1 like a finite verb1 it most commonly has a very obvious reference to something which is the subject of the being1 action1 or passion1 which it expresses2 and this reference is one of the chief points of difference between the infinitive and a noun4 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene1 in a recent grammar1 absurdly parses infinitives as nouns1 and by the common rules for nouns1 though he begins with calling them verbs4 ,thus3 ,our honor is to be maintained4 ,to be maintained1 is a regular passive ,,verb1 infinitive mode1 present tense1 and is used as a ,,noun in the relation of predicate2 according to ,rule ,,ii4 ,a noun or pronoun used with the copula to form the predicate1 must be in the nominative case4--,greene's ,gram41 #ahdh4 p4 #ic4 7,see the ,rule1 ib4 p4 #bi47 ,this author admits1 ,the 'to' seems1 like the preposition1 to perform the office of a connective3 but then he ingeniously imagines1 ,the infinitive differs from the preposition and its object1 in that the 'to' is the only preposition used with the verb4 ,and so he concludes1 ,the two or more parts of the infinitive are taken together1 and1 thus combined1 may become a ,,noun in any relation4--,ib41 #ast ,edition1 p4 #hg4 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene will also have the infinitive to make the verb before it transitive2 for he says1 ,the only form of phrase used as the direct object of a transitive verb is the infinitive2 as1 ',we intend 7,what87 to leave town to-day3' ',they tried 7,what87 to conceal their fears4'--,ib41 p4 #ii4 ,one might as well find transitive verbs in these equivalents3 ,it is our purpose to leave town to-day4--,they endeavoured to conceal their fears4 ,or in this3--,they blustered to conceal their fears4 #dji ,it is remarkable that the ingenious ,j4 ,e4 ,worcester could discern nothing of the import of this particle before a verb4 ,he expounds it1 with very little consistency1 thus3 ,t1 or ,to1 ad4 ,a particle employed as the usual sign or prefix of the infinitive mood of the verb2 and it might1 in such use1 be deemed a syllable of the verb4 ,it is used merely as a sign of the infinitive1 without having any distinct or separate meaning3 as1 ',he loves to read4'--,univ4 and ,crit4 ,dict4 ,now is it not plain1 that the action expressed by read is that towards which the affection signified by loves is directed8 ,it is only because we can use no other word in lieu of this to1 that its meaning is not readily seen4 ,for calling it a syllable of the verb1 there is1 ,i think1 no reason or analogy whatever4 ,there is absurdity in calling it even a part of the verb4 #daj ,as there is no point of grammar on which our philologists are more at variance1 so there seems to be none on which they are more at fault1 than in their treatment of the infinitive mood1 with its usual sign1 or governing particle1 to4 ,for the information of the reader1 ,i would gladly cite every explanation not consonant with my own1 and show wherein it is objectionable2 but so numerous are the forms of error under this head1 that such as cannot be classed together1 or are not likely to be repeated1 must in general be left to run their course1 exempt from any criticism of mine4 ,of these various forms of error1 however1 ,i may here add an example or two4 7#a47 ,what is the meaning of the word to8 ,ans4 ,to means act4 ,,note4--,as our verbs and nouns are spelled in the same manner1 it was formerly thought best to prefix the word ,,to1 to words when used as verbs4 ,for there is no difference between the ,,noun1 love2 and the ,,verb1 to love2 but what is shown by the prefix ,,to1 which signifies act2 i4 e4 to act love4--,r4 ,w4 ,greene's ,inductive ,exercises in ,english ,grammar1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahbi1 p4 #eb4 ,now all this1 positive as the words are1 is not only fanciful1 but false1 utterly false4 ,to no more means act1 than from means act4 ,and if it did1 it could not be a sign of the infinitive1 or of a verb at all2 for1 act love1 is imperative1 and makes the word love a noun2 and so1 to act love1 7where love is also a noun17 must mean act act love1 which is tautological nonsense4 ,our nouns and verbs are not1 in general1 spelled alike2 nor are the latter1 in general1 preceded by to2 nor could a particle which may govern either1 have been specifically intended1 at first1 to mark their difference4 ,by some1 as we have seen1 it is argued from the very sign1 that the infinitive is always essentially a noun4 7#b47 ,the infinitive mode is the root or simple form of the verb1 used to express an action or state indefinitely2 as1 to hear1 to speak4 ,it is generally distinguished by the sign to4 ,when the particle to is employed in forming the infinitive1 it is to be regarded as a part of the verb4 ,in every other case it is a preposition4--,wells's ,school ,grammar1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #hj4 ,a ,preposition is a word which is used to express the relation of a noun or pronoun depending upon it1 to some other word in the sentence4--,ib41 pp4 #df and #ajh4 ,the passive form of a verb is sometimes used in connection with a preposition1 forming a compound passive verb4 ,examples3--',he was listened to without a murmur4'--,a4 ,h4 ,,everett4 ',nor is this enterprise to be scoffed at4'--,,channing4--,ib41 p4 #adf4 ,a verb in the infinitive usually relates to some noun or pronoun4 ,thus1 in the sentence1 ',he desires to improve1' the verb to improve relates to the pronoun he while it is governed by desires4--,ib41 p4 #aej4 ',the agent to a verb in the infinitive mode must be in the objective case4'--,,nutting4--,ib41 p4 #adh4 ,these citations from ,wells1 the last of which he quotes approvingly1 by way of authority1 are in many respects self-contradictory1 and in nearly all respects untrue4 ,how can the infinitive be only the root or simple form of the verb1 and yet consist generally of two distinct words1 and often of three1 four1 or five2 as1 to hear1--to have heard1--to be listened to1--to have been listened to8 ,how can to be a preposition in the phrase1 ,he was listened to1 and not so at all in to be listened to8 ,how does the infinitive express an action or state indefinitely1 if it usually relates to some noun or pronoun8 ,why must its agent be in the objective case1 if to improve relates to the pronoun he8 ,is to in every other case a preposition1 and not such before a verb or a participle8 ,must every preposition govern some noun or pronoun8 ,and yet are there some prepositions which govern nothing1 precede nothing8 ,the door banged to behind him4--,,blackwell3 ,prose ,edda1 #b4 ,what is to here8 7#c47 ,the preposition ,,to before a verb is the sign of the ,infinitive4--,weld's ,e4 ,gram41 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #gd4 ,the preposition is a part of speech used to connect words1 and show their relation4--,ib41 p4 #db4 ,the perfect infinitive is formed of the perfect participle and the auxiliary ,,have preceded by the preposition ,,to4--,ib41 p4 #if4 ,the infinitive mode follows a verb1 noun1 or adjective4--,ib41 pp4 #ge and #aff4 ,a verb in the ,infinitive may follow3 #a4 ,verbs or participles2 #b4 ,nouns or pronouns2 #c4 ,adjectives2 #d4 ,as or than2 #e4 ,adverbs2 #f4 ,prepositions2 #g4 ,the ,infinitive is often used independently2 #h4 ,the ,infinitive mode is often used in the office of a verbal noun1 as the nominative case to the verb1 and as the objective case after verbs and prepositions4--,ib41 p4 #afg4 ,these last two counts are absurdly included among what the ,infinitive may follow2 and is it not rather queer1 that this mood should be found to follow every thing else1 and not the preposition ,,to1 which comes before it1 and by which it is preceded8 ,this author adopts also the following absurd and needless rule3 ,the ,infinitive mode has an objective case before it when the word ,,that is omitted3 as1 ,i believe the sun to be the centre of the solar system2 ,i know him to be a man of veracity4--,ib41 p4 #afg2 ,abridged ,ed41 #abd4 7,see ,obs4 #ajth on ,rule #b;d1 above47 ,sun is here governed by believe2 and him1 by know2 and be1 in both instances1 by the preposition ,,to3 for this particle is not only the sign of the ,infinitive1 but its governing word1 answering well to the definition of a preposition above cited from ,weld4 #daa ,the infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition2 as1 ',the shipmen were about to flee4'--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #adi2 #c;d ,ed41 p4 #aeh4 ,wells has altered this1 and for preposition put adverb4--,ed4 of #ahej1 p4 #afc4 #dab ,some grammatists1 being predetermined that no preposition shall control the infinitive1 avoid the conclusion by absurdly calling ,,for1 a conjunction2 ,,about1 an adverb2 and ,,to--no matter what--but generally1 nothing4 ,thus3 ,the conjunction ,,for1 is inelegantly used before verbs in the infinitive mood2 as1 ',he came for to study ,latin4'--,greenleaf's ,gram41 p4 #ch4 ,the infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs2 as1 ',an object so high as to be invisible2' ',the army is about to march4'--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #ahh4 ,this is a note to that extra rule which ,kirkham proposes for our use1 if we reject the idea of government1 as applied to the verb in this mood6--,ib4 #dac ,after the word fare1 ,murray put a semicolon1 which shows that he misunderstood the mood of the verb hear4 ,it is not always necessary to repeat the particle to1 when two or more infinitives are connected2 and this fact is an other good argument against calling the preposition to a part of the verb4 ,but in this example1 and some others here exhibited1 the repetition is requisite4--,g4 ,b4 #dad ,the ,infinitive ,mood is not confined to a trunk or nominative1 and is always preceded by to1 expressed or implied4--,s4 ,barrett's ,gram41 #ahed1 p4 #dc4 #dae ,lindley ,murray1 and several of his pretended improvers1 say1 ,the infinitive sometimes follows the word ,,as3 thus1 ',an object so high as to be invisible4' ,the infinitive occasionally follows ,,than after a comparison2 as1 ',he desired nothing more than to know his own imperfections4'--,murray's ,gram41 #hvo1 p4 #ahd2 ,fisk's1 #abe2 ,alger's1 #fc2 ,merchant's1 #ib4 ,see this second example in ,weld's ,gram41 p4 #afg2 ,abridg41 #abd4 ,merchant1 not relishing the latter example1 changes it thus3 ,i wish nothing more1 than to know his fate4 ,he puts a comma after more1 and probably means1 ,i wish nothing else than to know his fate4 ,so does ,fisk1 in the other version3 and probably means1 ,he desired nothing else than to know his own imperfections4 ,but ,murray1 ,alger1 and ,weld1 accord in punctuation1 and their meaning seems rather to be1 ,he desired nothing more heartily than he desired to know his own imperfections4 ,and so is this or a similar text interpreted by both ,ingersoll and ,weld1 who suppose this infinitive to be governed by another verb1 understood3 as1 ',he desired nothing more than to see his friends2' that is1 'than he desired to see1' c4--,ingersoll's ,gram41 p4 #bdd2 ,weld's ,abridged1 #abd4 ,but obvious as is the ambiguity of this fictitious example1 in all its forms1 not one of these five critics perceived the fault at all4 ,again1 in their remark above cited1 ,ingersoll1 ,fisk1 and ,merchant1 put a comma before the preposition after1 and thus make the phrase1 after a comparison1 describe the place of the infinitive4 ,but ,murray and ,alger probably meant that this phrase should denote the place of the conjunction than4 ,the great ,compiler seems to me to have misused the phrase a comparison1 for1 an adjective or adverb of the comparative degree2 and the rest1 ,i suppose1 have blindly copied him1 without thinking or knowing what he ought to have said1 or meant to say4 ,either this1 or a worse error1 is here apparent4 ,five learned grammarians severally represent either than or the infinitive1 as being ,,after a comparison2 of which one is the copula1 and the other but the beginning of the latter term6 ,palpable as is the absurdity1 no one of the five perceives it6 ,and1 besides1 no one of them says any thing about the government of this infinitive1 except ,ingersoll1 and he supplies a verb4 ,than and as1 says ,greenleaf1 sometimes appear to govern the infinitive mood2 as1 ',nothing makes a man suspect much more1 than to know little2' ',an object so high as to be invisible4--,gram4 ,simp41 p4 #ch4 ,here is an other fictitious and ambiguous example1 in which the phrase1 to know little1 is the subject of makes understood4 ,nixon supposes the infinitive phrase after as to be always the subject of a finite verb understood after it2 as1 ,an object so high as to be invisible is or1 implies4 ,see ,english ,parser1 p4 #ajj4 #daf ,dr4 ,crombie1 after copying the substance of ,campbell's second ,canon1 that1 ,in doubtful cases analogy should be regarded1 remarks3 ,for the same reason1 'it needs' and 'he dares1' are better than 'he need' and 'he dare4'--,on ,etym4 and ,synt41 p4 #cbf4 ,dr4 ,campbell's language is somewhat stronger3 ,in the verbs to dare and to need1 many say1 in the third person present singular1 dare and need1 as 'he need not go3 he dare not do it4' ,others say1 dares and needs4 ,as the first usage is exceedingly irregular1 hardly any thing less than uniform practice could authorize it4--,philosophy of ,rhet41 p4 #age4 ,dare for dares ,i suppose to be wrong2 but if need is an auxiliary of the potential mood1 to use it without inflection1 is neither irregular1 nor at all inconsistent with the foregoing canon4 ,but the former critic notices these verbs a second time1 thus3 ',he dare not1' 'he need not1' may be justly pronounced solecisms1 for 'he dares1' 'he needs4'--,crombie1 on ,etym4 and ,synt41 p4 #cgh4 ,he also says1 ,the verbs bid1 dare1 need1 make1 see1 hear1 feel1 let1 are not followed by the sign of the infinitive4--,ib41 p4 #bgg4 ,and yet he writes thus3 ,these are truths1 of which1 ,i am persuaded1 the author1 to whom ,i allude1 needs not to be reminded4--,ib41 p4 #abc4 ,so ,dr4 ,bullions declares against need in the singular1 by putting down the following example as bad ,english3 ,he need not be in so much haste4--,bullions's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #acd4 ,yet he himself writes thus3 ,a name more appropriate than the term neuter1 need not be desired4--,ib41 p4 #aif4 ,a school-boy may see the inconsistency of this4 #dag ,some modern grammarians will have it1 that a participle governed by a preposition is a participial noun2 and yet1 when they come to parse an adverb or an objective following1 their noun becomes a participle again1 and not a noun4 ,to allow words thus to dodge from one class to an other1 is not only unphilosophical1 but ridiculously absurd4 ,among those who thus treat this construction of the participle1 the chief1 ,i think1 are ,butler1 ,hurt1 ,weld1 ,wells1 and ,s4 ,s4 ,greene4 #dah ,dr4 ,blair1 to whom ,murray ought to have acknowledged himself indebted for this sentence1 introduced a noun1 to which1 in his work1 this infinitive and these participles refer3 thus1 ,it is disagreeable for the mind to be left pausing on a word which does not1 by itself1 produce any idea4--,blair's ,rhetoric1 p4 #aah4 ,see ,obs4 #ajth and #aath on ,rule #adth4 #dai ,the perfect contrast between from and to1 when the former governs the participle and the latter the infinitive1 is an other proof that this to is the common preposition to4 ,for example1 ,these are the four spirits of the heavens1 which go forth from standing before the ,lord of all the earth4--,zech41 vi1 #e4 ,now if this were rendered which go forth to stand1 c41 it is plain that these prepositions would express quite opposite relations4 ,yet1 probably from some obscurity in the original1 the ,greek version has been made to mean1 going forth to stand2 and the ,latin1 which go forth1 that they may stand2 while the ,french text conveys nearly the same sense as ours1--which go forth from the place where they stood4 #dbj ,cannot1 with a verb of avoiding1 or with the negative but1 is equivalent to must4 ,such examples may therefore be varied thus3 ,i cannot but mention3 i4e41 ,i must mention4--,i cannot help exhorting him to assume courage4--,knox4 ,that is1 ,i cannot but exhort him4 #dba ,see the same thing in ,kirkham's ,gram4 p4 #ahi2 in ,ingersoll's1 p4 #bjj2 in ,smith's ,new ,grammar1 p4 #afb2 and in other modifications and mutilations of ,murray's work4 ,kirkham1 in an other place1 adopts the doctrine1 that1 ,participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case2 as1 ',in case of his majesty's dying without issue1 c42 ,upon ,god's having ended all his works1 c42 ,i remember its being reckoned a great exploit2 ,at my coming in he said1 c4--,kirkham's ,gram41 p4 #aha4 ,none of these examples are written according to my notion of elegance1 or of accuracy4 ,better3 ,in case his ,majesty die without issue4--,god having ended all his works4--,i remember it was reckoned a great exploit4--,at my entrance1 he said1 c4 #dbb ,we have seen that ,priestley's doctrine1 as well as ,lowth's1 is1 that when a participle is taken substantively1 it ought not to govern another word2 and1 for the same reason1 it ought not to have an adverb relating to it4 ,but many of our modern grammarians disregard these principles1 and do not restrict their participial nouns to the construction of nouns1 in either of these respects4 ,for example3 ,because one may say1 ,to read superficially1 is useless1 ,barnard supposes it right to say1 ,reading superficially is useless4 ,but the participle1 says he1 will also take the adjective2 as1 ',superficial reading is useless4'--,analytic ,gram41 p4 #bab4 ,in my opinion1 this last construction ought to be preferred2 and the second1 which is both irregular and unnecessary1 rejected4 ,again1 this author says3 ,we have laid it down as a rule1 that the possessive case belongs1 like an adjective1 to a noun4 ,what shall be said of the following8 ',since the days of ,samson1 there has been no instance of a man's accomplishing a task so stupendous4' ,the entire clause following man's1 is taken as a noun4 ',of a man's success in a task so stupendous4' would present no difficulty4 ,a part of a sentence1 or even a single participle1 thus often stands for a noun4 ',my going will depend on my father's giving his consent1' or 'on my father's consenting4' ,a participle thus used as a noun1 may be called a ,,participial ,,noun4--,ib41 p4 #aca4 ,i dislike this doctrine also4 ,in the first example1 man may well be made the leading word in sense2 and1 as such1 it must be in the objective case2 thus3 ,there has been no instance of a man accomplishing a task so stupendous4 ,it is also proper to say4 ,my going will depend on my father's consenting1 or1 on my father's consent4 ,but an action possessed by the agent1 ought not to be transitive4 ,if1 therefore1 you make this the leading idea1 insert of3 thus1 ,there has been no instance of a man's accomplishing of a task so stupendous4 ,my going will depend on my father's giving of his consent4--,my brother's acquiring of the ,french language will be a useful preparation for his travels4--,barnard's ,gram41 p4 #bbg4 ,if participial nouns retain the power of participles1 why is it wrong to say1 ,a superficial reading books is useless8 ,again1 ,barnard approves of the question1 ,what do you think of my horse's running to-day8 and adds1 ,between this form of expression and the following1 ',what do you think of my horse running to-day8' it is sometimes said1 that we should make a distinction2 because the former implies that the horse had actually run1 and the latter1 that it is in contemplation to have him do so4 ,the difference of meaning certainly exists2 but it would seem more judicious to treat the latter as an improper mode of speaking4 ,what can be more uncouth than to say1 ',what do you think of me going to ,niagara8' ,we should say my going1 notwithstanding the ambiguity4 ,we ought1 therefore1 to introduce something explanatory2 as1 ',what do you think of the propriety of my going to ,niagara8--,analytic ,gram41 p4 #bbg4 ,the propriety of a past action is as proper a subject of remark as that of a future one2 the explanatory phrase here introduced has therefore nothing to do with ,priestley's distinction1 or with the alleged ambiguity4 ,nor does the uncouthness of an objective pronoun with the leading word in sense improperly taken as an adjunct1 prove that a participle may properly take to itself a possessive adjunct1 and still retain the active nature of a participle4 #dbc ,the following is an example1 but it is not very intelligible1 nor would it be at all amended1 if the pronoun were put in the possessive case3 ,i sympathize with my sable brethren1 when ,i hear of them being spared even one lash of the cart-whip4--,,rev4 ,,dr4 ,,thompson3 ,garrison1 on ,colonization1 p4 #hj4 ,and this is an other1 in which the possessive pronoun would not be better3 ,but1 if the slaves wish1 to return to slavery1 let them do so2 not an abolitionist will turn out to stop them going back4--,antislavery ,reporter1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bbc4 ,yet it might be more accurate to say--to stop them from going back4 ,in the following example from the pen of ,priestley1 the objective is correctly used with as1 where some would be apt to adopt the possessive3 ,it gives us an idea of him1 as being the only person to whom it can be applied4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aea4 ,is not this better ,english than to say1 of his being the only person8 ,the following is from the pen of a good scholar3 ,this made me remember the discourse we had together1 at my house1 about me drawing constitutions1 not as proposals1 but as if fixed to the hand4--,,william ,,penn3 ,letter to ,algernon ,sidney1 ,oct4 #acth1 #afha4 ,here1 if me is objectionable1 my without of would be no less so4 ,it might be better grammar to say1 about my drawing of constitutions4 #dbd ,sometimes the passive form is adopted1 when there is no real need of it1 and when perhaps the active would be better1 because it is simpler2 as1 ,those portions of the grammar are worth the trouble of being committed to memory4--,dr4 ,barrow's ,essays1 p4 #aji4 ,better1 perhaps3--worth the trouble of committing to memory3 or1--worth the trouble committing them to memory4 ,again3 ,what is worth being uttered at all1 is worth being spoken in a proper manner4--,kirkham's ,elocution1 p4 #fh4 ,better1 perhaps3 ,what is worth uttering at all1 is worth uttering in a proper manner4--,g4 ,brown4 #dbe ,,rule4--,when the participle expresses something of which the noun following is the ,,doer1 it should have the article and preposition2 as1 ',it was said in the hearing of the witness4' ,when it expresses something of which the noun following is not the doer1 but the ,,object1 both should be omitted2 as1 ',the court spent some time in hearing the witness4'--,,bullions1 ,prin4 of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ajh2 ,analyt4 and ,pract4 ,gram41 #aha4 #dbf ,this doctrine is far from being true4 ,see ,obs4 #abth1 in this series1 above4--,g4 ,b4 #dbg ,dr4 ,webster considers the use of then and above as ,,adnouns1 i4 e41 adjectives1 to be 'well authorized and very convenient2' as1 the then ministry2 the above remarks4--,felch's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #ajh4 ,dr4 ,webster's remark is in the following words3 ,then and above are often used as ,,attributes3 i4 e41 adjectives2 as1 the then ministry2 the above remarks2 nor would ,i prescribe this use4 ,it is well authorized and very convenient4--,philos4 ,gram41 p4 #bde2 ,improved ,gram41 p4 #agf4 ,of this use of then1 ,dr4 ,crombie has expressed a very different opinion3 ,here then1 says he1 the adverb equivalent to at that time1 is solecistically employed as an adjective1 agreeing with ministry4 ,this error seems to gain ground2 it should therefore be vigilantly opposed1 and carefully avoided4--,on ,etym4 and ,synt41 p4 #dje4 #dbh ,w4 ,allen supposes1 ,an adverb sometimes qualifies a whole sentence3 as1 ,unfortunately for the lovers of antiquity1 no remains of ,grecian paintings have been preserved4--,elements of ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #agc4 ,but this example may be resolved thus3 ,it happens unfortunately for the lovers of antiquity1 that no remains of ,grecian paintings have been preserved4 #dbi ,this assertion of ,churchill's is very far from the truth4 ,i am confident that the latter construction occurs1 even among reputable authors1 ten times as often as the former can be found in any ,english books4--,g4 ,,brown4 #dcj ,should not the ,doctor have said1 are there more1 since more than one must needs be plural8 ,see ,obs4 #ajth on ,rule #agth4 #dca ,this degree of truth is impossible1 and therefore not justly supposable4 ,we have also a late ,american grammarian who gives a similar interpretation3 ',though never so justly deserving of it4' ,comber4 ,never is here an emphatic adverb2 as if it were said1 so justly as was never4 ,though well authorized1 it is disapproved by most grammarians of the present day2 and the word ever is used instead of never4--,felch's ,comp4 ,gram41 p4 #ajg4 ,the text here cited is not necessarily bad ,english as it stands2 but1 if the commenter has not mistaken its meaning1 as well as its construction1 it ought certainly to be1 ,though everso justly deserving of it4--,so justly as was never1 is a positive degree that is not imaginable2 and what is this but an absurdity8 #dcb ,since this remark was written1 ,i have read an other grammar1 7that of the ,rev4 ,charles ,adams17 in which the author sets down among the more frequent improprieties committed1 in conversation1 ',ary one' for either1 and 'nary one' for neither4--,adams's ,system of ,gram41 p4 #aaf4 ,eli ,gilbert too betrays the same ignorance4 ,among his ,improper ,pronunciations he puts down ,nary and ,ary and for ,corrections of them1 gives neither and either4--,gilbert's ,catechetical ,gram41 p4 #abh4 ,but these latter terms1 either and neither1 are applicable only to one of two things1 and cannot be used where many are spoken of2 as1 ,stealing her soul with many vows of faith1 ,and ne'er a true one4--,shakspeare4 ,what sense would there be in expounding this to mean1 ,and neither a true one8 ,so some men both write and interpret their mother tongue erroneously through ignorance4 ,but these authors condemn the errors which they here falsely suppose to be common4 ,what is yet more strange1 no less a critic than ,prof4 ,william ,c4 ,fowler1 has lately exhibited1 without disapprobation1 one of these literary blunders1 with sundry localisms1 7often descending to slang17 which1 he says1 are mentioned by ,mr4 ,bartlett1 in his valuable dictionary ,dictionary of ,americanisms4 ,the brief example1 which may doubtless be understood to speak for both phrases and both authors1 is this3 ,,ary either4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahej1 p4 #ib4 #dcc ,the conjunction that1 at the head of a sentence or clause1 enables us to assume the whole preposition as one thing2 as1 ,all arguments whatever are directed to prove one or other of these three things3 that something is true2 that it is morally right or fit2 or that it is profitable and good4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #cah4 ,here each that may be parsed as connecting its own clause to the first clause in the sentence2 or1 to the word things with which the three clauses are in a sort of apposition4 ,if we conceive it to have no such connecting power1 we must make this too an exception4 #dcd ,note4 ,then and than are distinct ,particles1 but use hath made the using of then for than after a ,comparative ,degree at least passable4 ,see ,butler's ,eng4 ,gram4 ,index4--,walker's ,eng4 ,particles1 ,tenth ,ed41 #afia1 p4 #ccc4 #dce ,when the relative who follows the preposition than1 it must be used as in the accusative case4--,bucke's ,gram41 p4 #ic4 ,dr4 ,priestley seems to have imagined the word than to be always a preposition2 for he contends against the common doctrine and practice respecting the case after it3 ,it is1 likewise1 said1 that the nominative case ought to follow the preposition than2 because the verb to be is understood after it2 ,as1 ,you are taller than he1 and not taller than him2 because at full length1 it would be1 ,you are taller than he is2 but since it is allowed1 that the oblique case should follow prepositions2 and since the comparative degree of an adjective1 and the particle than have1 certainly1 between them1 the force of a preposition1 expressing the relation of one word to another1 they ought to require the oblique case of the pronoun following4--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #aje4 ,if than were a preposition1 this reasoning would certainly be right2 but the ,doctor begs the question1 by assuming that it is a preposition4 ,william ,ward1 an other noted grammarian of the same age1 supposes that1 ,,me sapientior es1 may be translated1 ,thou art wiser ,,than ,,me4 ,he also1 in the same place1 avers1 that1 ,the best ,english ,writers have considered than as a ,sign of an oblique ,case2 as1 ',she suffers more ,,than ,,me4' ,swift1 i4e4 more than ,i suffer4 ',thou art a ,girl as much brighter ,,than ,,her1 ,as he was a ,poet sublimer ,,than ,,me4' ,prior4 i4e4 ,thou art a ,girl as much brighter than she was1 as he was a ,poet sublimer than ,i am4--,ward's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #aab4 ,these examples of the objective case after than1 were justly regarded by ,lowth as bad ,english4 ,the construction1 however1 has a modern advocate in ,s4 ,w4 ,clark1 who will have the conjunctions as1 but1 save1 saving1 and than1 as well as the adjectives like1 unlike1 near1 next1 nigh1 and opposite1 to be prepositions4 ,after a ,comparative the ,preposition than is commonly used4 ,example--,grammar is more interesting than all my other studies4--,clark's ,practical ,gram41 p4 #agh4 ,as1 like1 than1 c41 indicate a relation of comparison4 ,example ',thou hast been wiser all the while than me4' ,southey's ,letters4--,ib41 p4 #if4 ,here correct usage undoubtedly requires ,i1 and not me4 ,such at least is my opinion4 #dcf ,in respect to the case1 the phrase than who is similar to than he1 than they1 c41 as has been observed by many grammarians2 but1 since than is a conjunction1 and who or whom is a relative1 it is doubtful whether it can be strictly proper to set two such connectives together1 be the case of the latter which it may4 ,see ,note #eth1 in the present chapter1 below4 #dcg ,after else or other1 the preposition besides is sometimes used2 and1 when it recalls an idea previously suggested1 it appears to be as good as than1 or better3 as1 ,other words1 besides the preceding1 may begin with capitals4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i4 p4 #bhe4 ,or perhaps this preposition may be proper1 whenever else or other denotes what is additional to the object of contrast1 and not exclusive of it2 as1 ,when we speak of any other quantity besides bare numbers4--,tooke's ,diversions1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bae4 ,because he had no other father besides ,god4--,milton1 on ,christianity1 p4 #aji4 ,though we sometimes express an addition by more than1 the following example appears to me to be bad ,english1 and its interpretation still worse3 ',the secret was communicated to more men than him4' ,that is1 7when the ellipsis is duly supplied17 ',the secret was communicated to more persons than to him4'--,murray's ,key1 #abmo1 p4 #fa2 his ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bae2 ,ingersoll's ,gram41 #beb4 ,say rather1--to other men besides him4 ,nor1 again1 does the following construction appear to be right3 ,now shew me another ,popish rhymester but he4--,,dennis3 ,notes to the ,dunciad1 ,b4 ii1 l4 #bfh4 ,say rather1 ,now show me an other popish rhymester besides him4 ,or thus3 ,now show me any popish rhymester except him4 ,this too is questionable3 ,now pain must here be intended to signify something else besides warning4--,wayland's ,moral ,science1 p4 #aba4 ,if warning was here intended to be included with something else1 the expression is right2 if not1 besides should be than4 ,again3 ,there is seldom any other cardinal in ,poland but him4--,life of ,charles ,,xii4 ,here but him should be either besides him1 or than he2 for but never rightly governs the objective case1 nor is it proper after other4 ,many more examples1 besides the foregoing1 might have been adduced4--,nesbit's ,english ,parsing1 p4 xv4 ,here1 in fact1 no comparison is expressed2 and therefore it is questionable1 whether the word more is allowably used4 ,like else and other1 when construed with besides1 it signifies additional2 and1 as this idea is implied in besides1 any one of these adjectives going before is really pleonastic4 ,in the sense above noticed1 the word beside is sometimes written in stead of besides1 though not very often2 as1 ,there are other things which pass in the mind of man1 beside ideas4--,sheridan's ,elocution1 p4 #acf4 #dch ,a few of the examples under this head might be corrected equally well by some preceding note of a more specific character2 for a general note against the improper omission of prepositions1 of course includes those principles of grammar by which any particular prepositions are to be inserted4 ,so the examples of error which were given in the tenth chapter of ,etymology1 might nearly all of them have been placed under the first note in this tenth chapter of ,syntax4 ,but it was thought best to illustrate every part of this volume1 by some examples of false grammar1 out of the infinite number and variety with which our literature abounds4 #dci ,the ,rev4 ,joab ,goldsmith ,cooper1 ,a4 ,m41 was the author of two ,english grammars1 as well as of what he called ,a ,new and ,improved ,latin ,grammar1 with ,an ,edition of the ,works of ,virgil1 c41 all published in ,philadelphia4 ,his first grammar1 dated #ahbh1 is entitled1 ,an ,abridgment of ,murray's ,english ,grammar1 and ,exercises4 ,but it is no more an abridgement of ,murray's work1 than of mine2 he having chosen to steal from the text of my ,institutes1 or supply matter of his own1 about as often as to copy ,murray4 ,his second is the ,latin ,grammar4 ,his third1 which is entitled1 ,a ,plain and ,practical ,english ,grammar1 and dated #ahca1 is a book very different from the first1 but equally inaccurate and worthless4 ,in this book1 the syntax of interjections stands thus3 ,,rule #ba4 ,the interjections ,o1 oh and ah are followed by the objective case of a noun or pronoun1 as3 ',o me6 ah me6 oh me6' ,in the second person1 they are a mark or sign of an address1 made to a person or thing1 as3 ,o thou persecutor6 ,oh1 ye hypocrites6 ,o virtue1 how amiable thou art6--,page #aeg4 ,the inaccuracy of all this can scarcely be exceeded4 #ddj ,oh is used to express the emotion of pain1 sorrow1 or surprise4 ,o is used to express wishing1 exclamation1 or a direct address to a person4--,lennie's ,gram41 #abth ,ed41 p4 #aaj4 ,of this distinction our grammarians in general seem to have no conception2 and1 in fact1 it is so often disregarded by other authors1 that the propriety of it may be disputed4 ,since ,o and oh are pronounced alike1 or very nearly so1 if there is no difference in their application1 they are only different modes of writing the same word1 and one or the other of them is useless4 ,if there is a real difference1 as ,i suppose there is1 it ought to be better observed2 and ,o me6 and oh ye6 which ,i believe are found only in grammars1 should be regarded as bad ,english4 ,both ,o and oh1 as well as ah1 were used in ,latin by ,terence1 who was reckoned an elegant writer2 and his manner of applying them favours this distinction3 and so do our own dictionaries1 though ,johnson and ,walker do not draw it clearly1 for oh is as much an exclamation as ,o4 ,in the works of ,virgil1 ,ovid1 and ,horace1 we find ,o or o used frequently1 but nowhere oh4 ,yet this is no evidence of their sameness1 or of the uselessness of the latter2 but rather of their difference1 and of the impropriety of confounding them4 ,o1 oh1 ho1 and ah1 are ,french words as well as ,english4 ,boyer1 in his ,quarto ,dictionary1 confounds them all2 translating ,o6 only by ,oh6 ,,oh6 ou ,,ho6 by ,ho6 ,oh6 and ,,ah6 by ,oh6 alas6 well-a-day6 ough6 ,a6 ah6 hah6 ho6 ,he would have done better to have made each one explain itself2 and especially1 not to have set down ough6 and ,a6 as ,english words which correspond to the ,french ah6 #dda ,this silence is sufficiently accounted for by ,murray's2 of whose work1 most of the authors who have any such rule1 are either piddling modifiers or servile copyists4 ,and ,murray's silence on these matters1 is in part attributable to the fact1 that when he wrote his remark1 his system of grammar denied that nouns have any first person1 or any objective case4 ,of course he supposed that all nouns that were uttered after interjections1 whether they were of the second person or of the third1 were in the nominative case2 for he gave to nouns two cases only1 the nominative and the possessive4 ,and when he afterwards admitted the objective case of nouns1 he did not alter his remark1 but left all his pupils ignorant of the case of any noun that is used in exclamation or invocation4 ,in his doctrine of two cases1 he followed ,dr4 ,ash3 from whom also he copied the rule which ,i am criticising3 ,the ,interjections1 ,o1 ,oh1 and ,ah1 require the accusative case of a pronoun in the first ,person3 as1 ,o me1 ,oh me1 ,ah me3 ,but the ,nominative in the second3 as1 ,o thou1 ,o ye4--,ash's ,gram41 p4 #fj4 ,or perhaps he had ,bicknell's book1 which was later3 ,the interjections ,o1 oh1 and ah1 require the accusative case of a pronoun in the first person after them2 as1 ,o1 me6 ,oh1 me6 ,ah1 me6 ,but the nominative case in the second person2 as1 ,o1 thou that rulest6 ,o1 ye rulers of this land6--,the ,grammatical ,wreath1 ,part ,i1 p4 #aje4 #ddb ,see #b ,sam41 xix1 #d2 also xviii1 #cc4 ,peirce has many times misquoted this text1 or some part of it2 and1 what is remarkable1 he nowhere agrees either with himself or with the ,bible6 ,o6 ,absalom6 my son6--,gram41 p4 #bhc4 ,o ,absalom6 my son1 my son6 would to ,god ,i had died for thee4--,ib41 p4 #cjd4 ,pinneo also misquotes and perverts a part of it1 thus3 ,oh1 ,absalom6 my son--,primary ,gram41 ,revised ,ed41 p4 #eg4 #ddc ,of this example1 ,professor ,bullions says1 ,this will be allowed to be a correct ,english sentence1 complete in itself1 and requiring nothing to be supplied4 ,the phrase1 'being an expert dancer1' is the subject of the verb 'does entitle2' but the word 'dancer' in that phrase is neither the subject of any verb1 nor is governed by any word in the sentence4--,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #eb4 ,it is because this word cannot have any regular construction after the participle when the possessive case precedes1 that ,i deny his first proposition1 and declare the sentence not to be correct ,english4 ,but the ,professor at length reasons himself into the notion1 that this indeterminate predicate1 as he erroneously calls it1 is properly in the objective case1 and in parsing1 may correctly be called the objective indefinite2 of which case1 he says1 ,the following are also examples3 ',he had the honour of being a director for life4' ',by being a diligent student1 he soon acquired eminence in his profession4'--,ib41 p4 #hc4 ,but director and student are here manifestly in the nominative case3 each agreeing with the pronoun he1 which denotes the same person4 ,in the latter sentence1 there is a very obvious transposition of the first five words4 #ddd ,faulty as this example is1 ,dr4 ,blair says of it3 ,nothing can be more elegant1 or more finely turned1 than this sentence4 ,it is neat1 clear1 and musical4 ,we could hardly alter one word1 or disarrange one member1 without spoiling it4 ,few sentences are to be found1 more finished1 or more happy4--,lecture ,,xx1 p4 #bja4 ,see the six corrections suggested in my ,key1 and judge whether or not they spoil the sentence4--,g4 ,b4 #dde ,this ,note1 as well as all the others1 will by-and-by be amply illustrated by citations from authors of sufficient repute to give it some value as a grammatical principle3 but one cannot hope such language as is1 in reality1 incorrigibly bad1 will always appear so to the generality of readers4 ,tastes1 habits1 principles1 judgements1 differ2 and1 where confidence is gained1 many utterances are well received1 that are neither well considered nor well understood4 ,when a professed critic utters what is incorrect beyond amendment1 the fault is the more noteworthy1 as his professions are louder1 or his standing is more eminent4 ,in a recent preface1 deliberately composed for a very comprehensive work on ,english ,grammar1 and designed to allure both young and old to a thorough and extensive acquaintance with their mother tongue1--in the studied preface of a learned writer1 who has aimed to furnish not only a text-book for the higher institutions1 but also a reference-book for teachers1 which may give breadth and exactness to their views1--,i find a paragraph of which the following is a part3 ,unless men1 at least occasionally1 bestow their attention upon the science and the laws of the language1 they are in some danger1 amid the excitements of professional life1 of losing the delicacy of their taste and giving sanction to vulgarisms1 or to what is worse4 ,on this point1 listen to the recent declarations of two leading men in the ,senate of the ,united ,states1 both of whom understand the use of the ,english language in its power3 ',in truth1 ,i must say that1 in my opinion1 the vernacular tongue of the country has become greatly vitiated1 depraved1 and corrupted by the style of our ,congressional debates4' ,and the other1 in courteous response remarked1 ',there is such a thing as an ,english and a parliamentary vocabulary1 and ,i have never heard a worse1 when circumstances called it out1 on this side of ,billingsgate6'--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo4 #ahej1 ,pref41 p4 iv4 ,now of these two leading men1 the former was ,daniel ,webster1 who1 in a senatorial speech1 in the spring of #ahej1 made such a remark concerning the style of oratory used in ,congress4 ,but who replied1 or what idea the courteous response1 as here given1 can be said to convey1 ,i do not know4 ,the language seems to me both unintelligible and solecistical2 and1 therefore1 but a fair sample of the ,incorrigible4 ,some intelligent persons1 whom ,i have asked to interpret it1 think1 as ,webster had accused our ,congress of corrupting the ,english language1 the respondent meant to accuse the ,british ,parliament of doing the same thing in a greater degree1--of descending yet lower into the vileness of slang4 ,but this is hardly a probable conjecture4 ,webster might be right in acknowledging a very depraving abuse of the tongue in the two ,houses of ,congress2 but could it be courteous1 or proper1 for the answerer to jump the ,atlantic1 and pounce upon the ,english ,lords and ,commons1 as a set of worse corrupters8 ,the gentleman begins with saying1 ,there is such a thing--as if he meant to describe some one thing2 and proceeds with saying1 as an ,english and a parliamentary vocabulary1 in which phrase1 by repeating the article1 he speaks of two things--two vocabularies2 then goes on1 and ,i have never heard a worse6 ,a worse what8 ,does he mean a worse vocabulary8 ,if so1 what sense has vocabulary8 ,and1 again1 a worse than what8 ,where and what is this thing which is so bad that the leading ,senator has never heard a worse8 ,is it some vocabulary both ,english and parliamentary8 ,if so1 whose8 ,if not1 what else is it8 ,lest the wisdom of this oraculous declaration be lost to the public through the defects of its syntax1--and lest more than one rhetorical critic seem hereby in some danger of giving sanction to nonsense1--it may be well for ,professor ,fowler1 in his next edition1 to present some elucidation of this short but remarkable passage1 which he values so highly6 ,an other example1 in several respects still more remarkable1--a shorter one1 into which an equally successful professor of grammar has condensed a much greater number and variety of faults1--is seen in the following citation3 ,the verb is so called1 because it means word2 and as there can be no sentence without it1 it is called1 emphatically1 the word4--,pinneo's ,analytical ,gram41 p4 #ad4 ,this sentence1 in which1 perhaps1 most readers will discover no error1 has in fact faults of so many different kinds1 that a critic must pause to determine under which of more than half a dozen different heads of false syntax it might most fitly be presented for correction or criticism4 7#a47 ,it might be set down under my ,note #eth to ,rule #ajth2 for1 in one or two instances out of the three1 if not in all1 the pronoun it gives not the same idea as its antecedent4 ,the faults coming under this head might be obviated by three changes1 made thus3 ,the verb is so called1 because verb means word2 and1 as there can be no sentence without a verb1 this part of speech is called1 emphatically1 the word4 ,cobbett wisely says1 ,never put an it upon paper without thinking well of what you are about4--,e4 ,gram41 #aif4 ,but 7#b47 the erroneous text1 and this partial correction of it too1 might be put under my ,critical ,note #eth1 among ,falsities2 for1 in either form1 each member affirms what is manifestly untrue4 ,the term word has many meanings2 but no usage ever makes it1 emphatically or otherwise1 a name for one of the classes called parts of speech2 nor is there nowadays any current usage in which verb means word4 7#c47 ,this text might be put under ,critical ,note #fth1 among ,absurdities2 for whoever will read it1 as in fairness he should1 taking the pronoun it in the exact sense of its antecedent the verb1 will see that the import of each part is absurd--the whole1 a two-fold absurdity4 7#d47 ,it might be put under ,critical ,note #gth1 among ,self-,contradictions2 for1 to teach at once that the verb is so called1 and is called1 emphatically1 otherwise1--namely1 the word1--is1 to contradict one's self4 7#e47 ,it might be set down under ,critical ,note #ith1 among examples of ,words ,needless2 for the author's question is1 ,why is the verb so called8 and this may be much better answered in fewer words1 thus3 ,,the ,,verb is so called1 because in ,french it is called le verbe and in ,latin1 verbum1 which means word4 7#f47 ,it might be put under ,critical ,note #ajth1 as an example of ,improper ,omissions2 for it may be greatly bettered by the addition of some words1 thus3 ,the verb is so called1 because in ,french it is called le verbe1 and in ,latin1 verbum1 which means word3 as there can be no sentence without a verb1 this most important part of speech is called1 emphatically1 the verb1--q4d41 the word4 7#g47 ,it might be put under ,critical ,note #aath1 among ,literary ,blunders2 for there is at least one blunder in each of its members4 7#h47 ,it might be set down under ,critical ,note #acth1 as an example of ,awkwardness2 for it is but clumsy work1 to teach grammar after this sort4 7#i47 ,it might be given under ,critical ,note #afth1 as a sample of the ,incorrigible2 for it is scarcely possible to eliminate all its defects and retain its essentials4 ,these instances may suffice to show1 that even gross errors of grammar may lurk where they are least to be expected1 in the didactic phraseology of professed masters of style or oratory1 and may abound where common readers or the generality of hearers will discover nothing amiss4 #ddf ,as a mere assertion1 this example is here sufficiently corrected2 but1 as a definition1 7for which the author probably intended it17 it is deficient2 and consequently1 in that sense1 is still inaccurate4 ,i would also observe that most of the subsequent examples under the present head1 contain other errors than that for which they are here introduced2 and1 of some of them1 the faults are1 in my opinion1 very many3 for example1 the several definitions of an adverb1 cited below4 ,lindley ,murray's definition of this part of speech is not inserted among these1 because ,i had elsewhere criticised that4 ,so too of his faulty definition of a conjunction4 ,see the ,introduction1 ,chap4 ,x4 paragraphs #bf and #bh4 ,see also ,corrections in the ,key1 under ,note #ajth to ,rule #ast4 #ddg ,in his explanation of ,ellipsis1 ,lindley ,murray continually calls it the ellipsis1 and speaks of it as something that is used1--made use of1--applied1--contained in the examples2 which expressions1 referring1 as they there do1 to the mere absence of something1 appear to me solecistical4 ,the notion too1 which this author and others have entertained of the figure itself1 is in many respects erroneous2 and nearly all their examples for its illustration are either questionable as to such an application1 or obviously inappropriate4 ,the absence of what is needless or unsuggested1 is no ellipsis1 though some grave men have not discerned this obvious fact4 ,the nine solecisms here quoted concerning the ellipsis1 are all found in many other grammars4 ,see ,fisk's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #add2 ,guy's1 #ia2 ,ingersoll's1 #aec2 ,j4 ,m4 ,putnam's1 #acg2 ,r4 ,c4 ,smith's1 #ahj2 ,weld's1 #aij4 #ddh ,some of these examples do1 in fact1 contain more than two errors2 for mistakes in punctuation1 or in the use of capitals1 are not here reckoned4 ,this remark may also he applicable to some of the other lessons4 ,the reader may likewise perceive1 that where two1 three1 or more improprieties occur in one sentence1 some one or more of them may happen to be such1 as he can1 if he choose1 correct by some rule or note belonging to a previous chapter4 ,great labour has been bestowed on the selection and arrangement of these syntactical exercises2 but to give to so great a variety of literary faults1 a distribution perfectly distinct1 and perfectly adapted to all the heads assumed in this digest1 is a work not only of great labour1 but of great difficulty4 ,i have come as near to these two points of perfection in the arrangement1 as ,i well could4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ddi ,in ,murray's sixth chapter of ,punctuation1 from which this example1 and eleven others that follow it1 are taken1 there is scarcely a single sentence that does not contain many errors2 and yet the whole is literally copied in ,ingersoll's ,grammar1 p4 #bic2 in ,fisk's1 p4 #aei2 in ,abel ,flint's1 #aaf2 and probably in some others4 ,i have not always been careful to subjoin the great number of references which might be given for blunders selected from this hackneyed literature of the schools4 ,for corrections1 or improvements1 see the ,key4 #dej ,this example1 or ,l4 ,murray's miserable modification of it1 traced through the grammars of ,alden1 ,alger1 ,bullions1 ,comly1 ,cooper1 ,flint1 ,hiley1 ,ingersoll1 ,jaudon1 ,merchant1 ,russell1 ,smith1 and others1 will be found to have a dozen different forms--all of them no less faulty than the original--all of them obscure1 untrue1 inconsistent1 and almost incorrigible4 ,it is plain1 that a comma1 or one comma1 cannot divide more than two simple members2 and these1 surely1 cannot be connected by more than one relative1 or by more than one comparative2 if it be allowable to call than1 as1 or so1 by this questionable name4 ,of the multitude of errors into which these pretended critics have so blindly fallen1 ,i shall have space and time to point out only a very small part3 this text1 too justly1 may be taken as a pretty fair sample of their scholarship6 #dea ,the idea which is here spoken of1 ,dr4 ,blair discovers in a passage of ,addison's ,spectator4 ,it is1 in fact1 as here brought out by the critic1 a bald and downright absurdity4 ,dr4 ,campbell has criticised1 under the name of marvellous nonsense1 a different display of the same idea1 cited from ,de ,piles's ,principles of ,painting4 ,the passage ends thus3 ,in this sense it may be asserted1 that in ,rubens' pieces1 ,art is above ,nature1 and ,nature only a copy of that great master's works4 ,of this the critic says3 ,when the expression is stript of the absurd meaning1 there remains nothing but balderdash4--,philosophy of ,rhet41 p1 #bgh4 #deb ,all his rules for the comma1 ,fisk appears to have taken unjustly from ,greenleaf4 ,it is a double shame1 for a grammarian to steal what is so badly written6--,g4 ,,brown4 #dec ,bad definitions may have other faults than to include or exclude what they should not1 but this is their great and peculiar vice4 ,for example3 ,person is that property of nouns and pronouns which distinguishes the speaker1 the person or thing addressed1 and the person or thing spoken of4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 #ast ,ed41 p4 #ea2 #aacth ,ed41 p4 #eg4 ,see nearly the same words1 in ,weld's ,english ,gram41 p4 #fg2 and in his ,abridgement1 p4 #di4 ,the three persons of verbs are all improperly excluded from this definition2 which absurdly takes person to be one property that has all the effect of all the persons2 so that each person1 in its turn1 since each cannot have all this effect1 is seen to be excluded also3 that is1 it is not such a property as is described6 ,again3 ,an intransitive verb is a verb which does not have a noun or pronoun for its object4--,wells1 #ast ,ed41 p4 #gf4 ,according to ,dr4 ,johnson1 does not have1 is not a scholarly phrase2 but the adoption of a puerile expression is a trifling fault1 compared with that of including here all passive verbs1 and some transitives1 which the author meant to exclude2 to say nothing of the inconsistency of excluding here the two classes of verbs which he absurdly calls intransitive1 though he finds them followed by objectives depending upon them6--,id41 p4 #ade4 ,weld imitates these errors too1 on pp4 #gj and #aec4 #ded ,s4 ,r4 ,hall thinks it necessary to recognize four distinctions of the distinction occasioned by sex4 ,in general1 the other authors here quoted1 suppose that we have only three distinctions of the distinction of sex4 ,and1 as no philosopher has yet discovered more than two sexes1 some have thence stoutly argued1 that it is absurd to speak of more than two genders4 ,lily makes it out1 that in ,latin there are seven3 yet1 with no great consistency1 he will have a gender to be a or the distinction of sex4 ,,genus est sexus discretio4 ,et sunt genera numero septem4--,lilii ,gram41 p4 #aj4 ,that is1 ,,gender is the distinction of sex4 ,and the genders are seven in number4 ,ruddiman says1 ,,genus est1 discrimen nominis secundum sexum1 vel ejus in structur grammatic imitatio4 ,genera nominum sunt tria4--,ruddimanni ,gram41 p4 #d4 ,that is1 ,,gender is the diversity of the noun according to sex1 or it is the imitation of it in grammatical structure4 ,the genders of nouns are three4 ,these old definitions are no better than the newer ones cited above4 ,all of them are miserable failures1 full of faults and absurdities4 ,both the nature and the cause of their defects are in some degree explained near the close of the tenth chapter of my ,introduction4 ,their most prominent errors are these3 #a4 ,they all assume1 that gender1 taken as one thing1 is in fact two1 three1 or more1 genders1 #b4 ,nearly all of them seem to say or imply1 that words differ from one an other in sex1 like animals4 #c4 ,many of them expressly confine gender1 or the genders1 to nouns only4 #d4 ,many of them confessedly exclude the neuter gender1 though their authors afterwards admit this gender4 #e4 ,that of ,dr4 ,webster supposes1 that words differing in gender never have the same termination4 ,the absurdity of this may be shown by a multitude of examples3 as1 man and woman1 male and female1 father and mother1 brother and sister4 ,this is better1 but still not free from some other faults which ,i have mentioned4 ,for the correction of all this great batch of errors1 ,i shall simply substitute in the ,key one short definition1 which appears to me to be exempt from each of these inaccuracies4 #dee ,walker states this differently1 and even repeats his remark1 thus3 ,but y preceded by a vowel is never changed3 as coy1 coyly1 gay1 gayly4--,walker's ,rhyming ,dict41 p4x4 ,y preceded by a vowel is never changed1 as boy1 boys1 ,i cloy1 he cloys1 etc4--,ib41 p viii4 ,walker's twelve ,orthographical ,aphorisms1 which ,murray and others republish as their ,rules for ,spelling1 and which in stead of amending they merely corrupt1 happened through some carelessness to contain two which should have been condensed into one4 ,for words ending with y preceded by a consonant1 he has not only the absurd rule or assertion above recited1 but an other which is better1 with an exception or remark under each1 respecting y preceded by a vowel4 ,the grammarians follow him in his errors1 and add to their number3 hence the repetition1 or similarity1 in the absurdities here quoted4 ,by the term verbal nouns1 ,walker meant nouns denoting agents1 as carrier from carry2 but ,kirkham understood him to mean participial nouns1 as the carrying4 ,or rather1 he so mistook that able philologist ,murray2 for he probably knew nothing of ,walker in the matter2 and accordingly changed the word verbal to participial2 thus teaching1 through all his hundred editions1 except a few of the first1 that participial nouns from verbs ending in y preceded by a consonant1 are formed by merely changing the y into i4 ,but he seems to have known1 that this is not the way to form the participle2 though he did not know1 that coyless is not a proper ,english word4 #def ,the idea of plurality is not plurality of idea1 any more than the idea of wickedness1 or the idea of absurdity1 is absurdity or wickedness of idea2 yet1 behold1 how our grammarians copy the blunder1 which ,lowth 7perhaps7 first fell into1 of putting the one phrase for the other6 ,even ,professor ,fowler1 7as well as ,murray1 ,kirkham1 and others17 talks of having regard to unity or plurality of idea6--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #hvo4 #ahej1 #eac1--;,g4 ,,brown4 #deg ,in the ,doctor's ,new ,edition1 ,revised and ,corrected1 the text stands thus3 ,the ,present participle of ,,the ,,active ,,voice has an active signification2 as1 ,james is building the house4 ,in many of these1 however1 it has1 c4 ,here the first sentence is but an idle truism2 and the phrase1 ,in many of these1 for lack of an antecedent to these1 is utter nonsense4 ,what is in the active voice1 ought of course to be active in signification2 but1 in this author's present scheme of the verb1 we find the active voice1 in direct violation of his own definition of it1 ascribed not only to verbs and participles either neuter or intransitive1 but also1 as it would seem by this passage1 to many that are passive6--,g4 ,,brown4 #deh ,one objection to these passage is1 that they are examples of the very construction which they describe as a fault4 ,the first and second sentences ought to have been separated only by a semicolon4 ,this would have made them members of one and the same sentence4 ,can it be supported that one thought is sufficient for two periods1 or for what one chooses to point as such1 but not for two members of the same period8--,g4 ,,brown4 #dei 7#a47 ,accent is the tone with which one speaks4 ,for1 in speaking1 the voice of every man is sometimes more grave in the sound1 and at other times more acute or shrill4--,beattie's ,moral ,science1 p4 #be4 ,accent is the tone of the voice with which a syllable is pronounced4--,dr4 ,adam's ,latin and ,english ,gram41 p4 #bff4 7#b47 ,accent in a peculiar stress of the voice on some syllable in a word to distinguish it from the others4--,gould's ,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bdc4 7#c47 ,the tone by which one syllable is distinguished from another is the accent2 which is a greater stress and elevation of voice on that particular syllable4--,bicknell's ,eng4 ,gram41 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #aaa4 7#d47 ,quantity is the ,length or ,shortness of ,syllables2 and the ,proportion1 generally speaking1 betwixt a long and a short ,syllable1 is two to one2 as in ,music1 two ,quavers to one ,crotchet4--,accent is the rising and falling of the ,voice1 above or under its usual ,tone1 but an ,art of which we have little ,use1 and know less1 in the ,english ,tongue2 nor are we like to improve our ,knowledge in this ,particular1 unless the ,art of ,delivery or ,utterance were a little more study'd4--,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #aef4 7#e47 ,,accent1 s4 m4 7inflexion de la voix47 ,accent1 tone1 pronunciation4--,nouveau ,dictionnaire ,universel1 #dto1 ,tome ,premier1 sous le mot ,accent4 ,,accent1 subst4 7tone or inflection of the voice47 ,accent1 ton ou inflexion de voix4--,same ,work1 ,garner's ,new ,universal ,dictionary1 #dto1 under the word ,accent4 7#f47 ,the word accent is derived from the ,latin language and signifies the tone of the voice4--,parker and ,fox's ,english ,gram41 ,part ,,iii1 p4 #cb4 7#g47 ,the unity of the word consists in the tone or accent1 which binds together the two parts of the composition4--,fowler's ,e4 ,gram41 #cfj4 7#h47 ,the accent of the ancients is the opprobrium of modern criticism4 ,nothing can show more evidently the fallibility of the human faculties1 than the total ignorance we are in at present of the nature of the ,latin and ,greek accent4--,walker's ,principles1 ,no4 #dhf2 ,dict41 p4 #ec4 7#i47 ,it is not surprising1 that the accent and quantity of the ancients should be so obscure and mysterious1 when two such learned men of our own nation as ,mr4 ,foster and ,dr4 ,gaily1 differ about the very existence of quantity in our own language4--,walker's ,observations on ,accent1 c42 ,key1 p4 #caa4 7#aj47 ,what these accents are has puzzled the learned so much that they seem neither to understand each other nor themselves4--,walker's ,octavo ,dict41 w4 ,barytone4 7#aa47 ,the ancients designated the pitch of vocal sounds by the term accent2 making three kinds of accents1 the acute 771 the grave 771 and the circumflex 771 which signified severally the rise1 the fall1 and the turn of the voice1 or union of acute and grave on the same syllable4--,sargent's ,standard ,speaker1 p4 #ah4 #dfj ,interrogatio1 ,grc ,erotema1 ,accentum quoque transfert2 ut1 ,ter4 ,siccine ais ,parmen8 ,voss4 ,susenbr4--,prat's ,latin ,grammar1 #hvo1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #aij4 #dfa ,in regard to the admission of a comma before the verb1 by the foregoing exception1 neither the practice of authors nor the doctrine of punctuators is entirely uniform2 but1 where a considerable pause is1 and must be1 made in the reading1 ,i judge it not only allowable1 but necessary1 to mark it in writing4 ,in ,w4 ,day's ,punctuation ,reduced to a ,system1 a work of no inconsiderable merit1 this principle is disallowed2 and even when the adjunct of the nominative is a relative clause1 which1 by ,rule #b;d below and its first exception1 requires a comma after it but none before it1 this author excludes both1 putting no comma before the principal verb4 ,the following is an example3 ,but it frequently happens1 that punctuation is not made a prominent exercise in schools2 and the brief manner in which the subject is there dismissed has proved insufficient to impress upon the minds of youth a due sense of its importance4--,day's ,punctuation1 p4 #cb4 ,a pupil of mine would here have put a comma after the word dismissed4 ,so1 in the following examples1 after sake1 and after dispenses3 ,the vanity that would accept power for its own sake is the pettiest of human passions4--,ib41 p4 #ge4 ,the generous delight of beholding the happiness he dispenses is the highest enjoyment of man4--,ib41 p1 #ajj4 #dfb ,when several nominatives are connected1 some authors and printers put the comma only where the conjunction is omitted4 ,w4 ,day separates them all1 one from an other2 but after the last1 when this is singular before a plural verb1 he inserts no point4 ,example3 ,imagination is one of the principal ingredients which enter into the complex idea of genius2 but judgment1 memory1 understanding1 enthusiasm1 and sensibility are also included4--,day's ,punctuation1 p4 #eb4 ,if the points are to be put where the pauses naturally occur1 here should be a comma after sensibility2 and1 if ,i mistake not1 it would be more consonant with current usage to set one there4 ,john ,wilson1 however1 in a later work1 which is for the most part a very good one1 prefers the doctrine of ,day1 as in the following instance3 ,reputation1 virtue1 and happiness depend greatly on the choice of companions4--,wilson's ,treatise on ,punctuation1 p4 #cj4 #dfc ,some printers1 and likewise some authors1 suppose a series of words to require the comma1 only where the conjunction is suppressed4 ,this is certainly a great error4 ,it gives us such punctuation as comports neither with the sense of three or more words in the same construction1 nor with the pauses which they require in reading4 ,john1 ,james and ,thomas are here1 is a sentence which plainly tells ,john that ,james and ,thomas are here2 and which1 if read according to this pointing1 cannot possibly have any other meaning4 ,yet this is the way in which the rules of ,cooper1 ,felton1 ,frost1 ,webster1 and perhaps others1 teach us to point it1 when we mean to tell somebody else that all three are here6 ,in his pretended ,abridgment of ,murray's ,english ,grammar1 7a work abounding in small thefts from ,brown's ,institutes17 ,cooper has the following example3 ,john1 ,james or ,joseph intends to accompany me4--,page #abj4 ,here1 ,john being addressed1 the punctuation is right2 but1 to make this noun a nominative to the verb1 a comma must be put after each of the others4 ,in ,cooper's ,plain and ,practical ,grammar1 the passage is found in this form3 ,john1 ,james1 or ,joseph intends to accompany us4--,page #acb4 ,this pointing is doubly wrong2 because it is adapted to neither sense4 ,if the three nouns have the same construction1 the principal pause will be immediately before the verb2 and surely a comma is as much required by that pause1 as by the second4 ,see the ,note on ,rule #c;d1 above4 #dfd ,in punctuation1 the grammar here cited is unaccountably defective4 ,this is the more strange1 because many of its errors are mere perversions of what was accurately pointed by an other hand4 ,on the page above referred to1 ,dr4 ,bullions1 in copying from ,lennie's syntactical exercises a dozen consecutive lines1 has omitted nine needful commas1 which ,lennie had been careful to insert6 #dfe ,needless abbreviations1 like most that occur in this example1 are in bad taste1 and ought to be avoided4 ,the great faultiness of this text as a model for learners1 compels me to vary the words considerably in suggesting the correction4 ,see the ,key4--,g4 ,b4 #dff ,to be1 or not to be8--that's the question4--,hallock's ,gram41 p4 #bbj4 ,to be1 or not to be1 that is the question4--,singer's ,shak41 ii4 #dhh4 ,to be1 or not to be2 that is the ,question4--,ward's ,gram41 p #afj4 ,to be1 or not to be1 that is the ,question4--,brightland's ,gram41 p #bji4 ,to be1 or not to be8--,mandeville's ,course of ,reading1 p4 #ada4 ,to be or not to be6 ,that is the question4--,pinneo's ,gram41 p4 #agf4 ,to be--or not to be--that is the question----,burgh's ,speaker1 p4 #agi4 #dfg ,in the works of some of our older poets1 the apostrophe is sometimes irregularly inserted1 and perhaps needlessly1 to mark a prosodial synsresis1 or synalepha1 where no letter is cut off or left out2 as1 ,retire1 or taste thy folly'1 and learn by proof1 ,hell-born1 not to contend with spir'its of ,heaven4 --,milton1 ,p4 ,l41 ii1 #fhf4 ,in the following example1 it seems to denote nothing more than the open or long sound of the preceding vowel e3 ,that sleep and feeding may prorogue his honour1 ,even till a lethe'd dulness4 --,singer's ,shakspeare1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bhj4 #dfh ,the breve is properly a mark of short quantity1 only when it is set over an unaccented syllable or an unemphatic monosyllable1 as it often is in the scanning of verses4 ,in the examples above1 it marks the close or short power of the vowels2 but1 under the accent1 even this power may become part of a long syllable2 as it does in the word raven1 where the syllable rav1 having twice the length of that which follows1 must be reckoned long4 ,in poetry1 rav-en and ra-ven are both trochees1 the former syllable in each being long1 and the latter short4 #dfi #a4 ,the signs of long and short sounds1 and especially of the former1 have been singularly slow in acquiring appropriate names--or any appellatives suited to their nature1 or such as could obtain the sanction of general use4 ,the name breve1 from the ,french brve1 7which latter word came1 doubtless1 originally from the neuter of the ,latin adjective brevis1 short17 is now pretty generally applied to the one2 and the ,greek term macron1 long1 7also originally a neuter adjective17 is perhaps as common as any name for the other4 ,but these are not quite so well adapted to each other1 and to the things named1 as are the substitutes added above4 #b4 ,these signs are explained in our grammars under various names1 and often very unfit ones1 to say the least2 and1 in many instances1 their use is1 in some way1 awkwardly stated1 without any attempt to name them1 or more than one1 if either4 ,the ,rev4 ,t4 ,smith names them ,long 771 and ,short 774--,smith's ,murray1 p4 #gb4 ,churchill calls them ,the long and the short 4--,new ,gram41 p4 #agj4 ,gould calls them a horizontal line and a curved line4--,gould's ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #c4 ,coar says1 ,quantity is distinguished by the characters of - long1 and short4--,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #aig4 ,but1 in speaking of the signs1 he calls them1 ,a long syllable 1 and ,a short syllable 4--,gram41 pp4 #bbb and #bbh4 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene calls them the long sound1 and the breve or short sound4--,gram41 p4 #beg4 ,w4 ,allen says1 ,the long-syllable mark1 77 and the breve1 or short-syllable mark1 77 denote the quantity of words poetically employed4--,gram41 p4 #bae4 ,some call them the ,long ,accent1 and the ,short ,accent2 as does ,guy's ,gram41 p4 #ie4 ,this naming seems to confound accent with quantity4 ,by some1 the ,macron is improperly called a ,dash2 as by ,lennie1 p4 #acg2 by ,bullions1 p4 #aeg2 by ,hiley1 p4 #abc2 by ,butler1 p4 #bae4 ,some call it a small dash2 as does ,well's1 p4 #ahc2 so ,hiley1 p4 #aag4 ,by some it is absurdly named ,hyphen2 as by ,buchanan1 p4 #afb2 by ,alden1 p4 #afe2 by ,chandler1 #ahc2 by ,parker and ,fox1 iii1 #cf2 by ,jaudon1 #aic4 ,sanborn calls it the hyphen1 or macron4--,analyt4 ,gr41 p4 #bgi4 ,many1 who name it not1 introduce it to their readers by a this 1 or thus 2 as do ,alger1 ,blair1 ,dr4 ,adam1 ,comly1 ,cooper1 ,ingersoll1 ,l4 ,murray1 ,sanders1 ,wright1 and others6 #dgj ,as soon as language proceeds1 from mere articulation1 to coherency1 and connection1 accent becomes the guide of the voice4 ,it is founded upon an obscure perception of symmetry1 and proportion1 between the different sounds that are uttered4--,noehden's ,grammar of the ,german ,language1 p4 #ff4 #dga ,according to ,johnson1 ,walker1 ,webster1 ,worcester1 and perhaps all other lexicographers1 ,quantity1 in grammar1 is--,the measure of time in pronouncing a syllable4 ,and1 to this main idea1 are conformed1 so far as ,i know1 all the different definitions ever given of it by grammarians and critics1 except that which appeared in ,asa ,humphrey's ,english ,prosody1 published in #ahdg4 ,in this work--the most elaborate and the most comprehensive1 though not the most accurate or consistent treatise we have on the subject--,time and ,quantity are explained separately1 as being two distinct things2 and the latter is supposed not to have regard to duration1 but solely to the amount of sound given to each syllable4 ,this is not only a fanciful distinction1 but a radical innovation--and one which1 in any view1 has little to recommend it4 ,the author's explanations of both time and quantity--of their characteristics1 differences1 and subdivisions--of their relations to each other1 to poetic numbers1 to emphasis and cadence1 or to accent and non-accent--as well as his derivation and history of these technical terms1 time and quantity--are hardly just or clear enough to be satisfactory4 ,according to his theory1 ,poetic numbers are composed of long and short syllables alternately2 7page #e27 but the difference or proportion between the times of these classes of syllables he holds to be indeterminable1 because their lengths are various4 ,he began with destroying the proper distinction of quantity1 or time1 as being either long or short1 by the useless recognition of an indefinite number of intermediate lengths2 saying of our syllables at large1 some are ,,long1 some ,,short1 and some are of ,,intermediate ,,lengths2 as1 mat1 not1 con1 c4 are short sounds2 mate1 note1 cone1 and grave are long4 ,some of our diphthongal sounds are ,,longer ,,still2 as1 voice1 noise1 sound1 bound1 c4 ,,others are seen to be of ,,intermediate lengths4--,humphrey's ,prosody1 p4 #d4 ,on a scheme like this1 it must evidently be impossible to determine1 with any certainty1 either what syllables are long and what short1 or what is the difference or ratio between any two of the innumerable lengths of that time1 or quantity1 which is long1 short1 variously intermediate1 or longer still1 and again variously intermediate6 ,no marvel then that the ingenious author scans some lines in a manner peculiar to himself4 #dgb ,it was the doctrine of ,sheridan1 and perhaps of our old lexicographers in general1 that no ,english word can have more than one full accent2 but1 in some modern dictionaries1 as ,bolles's1 and ,worcester's1 many words are marked as if they had two2 and a few are given by ,bolles's as having three4 ,sheridan erroneously affirmed1 that every word has an accent1 even all monosyllables1 the particles alone excepted4--,lecture on ,elocution1 pp4 #fa and #ga4 ,and again1 yet more erroneously3 ,the essence of ,english words consisting in accent1 as that of syllables in articulation2 we know that there are as many syllables as we hear articulate sounds1 and as many words as we hear accents4-- ,ib41 p4 #gj4 ,yet he had said before1 in the same lecture3 ,the longer polysyllables1 have frequently two accents1 but one is so much stronger than the other1 as to shew that it is but one word2 and the inferior accent is always less forcible1 than any accent that is the single one in a word4--,ib41 p4 #ca4 ,wells defines accent as if it might lie on many syllables of a word2 but1 in his examples1 he places it on no more than one3 ,accent is the stress which is laid on one or more syllables of a word1 in pronunciation2 as1 reverberate1 undertake4--,wells's ,school ,gram41 p4 #ahe4 ,according to this loose definition1 he might as well have accented at least one other syllable in each of these examples2 for there seems1 certainly1 to be some little stress on ate and un4 ,for sundry other definitions of accent1 see ,chap4 ,,iv1 ,section #b;d1 of ,versification2 and the marginal note referring to ,obs4 #ast on ,prosody4 #dgc ,according to ,dr4 ,rush1 ,emphasis is--a stress of voice on one or more words of a sentence1 distinguishing them by intensity or peculiarity of meaning4--,philosophy of the ,voice1 p4 #bhb4 ,again1 he defines thus3 ,accent is the fixed but inexpressive distinction of syllables by quantity and stress3 alike both in place and nature1 whether the words are pronounced singly from the columns of a vocabulary1 or connectedly in the series of discourse4 ,emphasis may be defined to be the expressive but occasional distinction of a syllable1 and consequently of the whole word1 by one or more of the specific modes of time1 quality1 force1 or pitch4--,ibid4 #dgd #a4 ,this doctrine1 though true in its main intent1 and especially applicable to the poetic quantity of monosyllables1 7the class of words most frequently used in ,english poetry17 is1 perhaps1 rather too strongly stated by ,murray2 because it agrees not with other statements of his1 concerning the power of accent over quantity2 and because the effect of accent1 as a regulator of quantity1 may1 on the whole1 be as great as that of emphasis4 ,sheridan contradicts himself yet more pointedly on this subject2 and his discrepancies may have been the efficients of ,murray's4 ,the quantity of our syllables is perpetually varying with the sense1 and is for the most part regulated by ,,emphasis4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,gram41 p4 #fe4 ,again3 ,it is by the ,,accent chiefly that the quantity of our syllables is regulated4--,sheridan's ,lectures on ,elocution1 p4 #eg4 ,see ,chap4 ,,iv1 ,sec4 #b;d1 ,obs4 #a2 and marginal note on ,obs4 #h4 #b4 ,some writers erroneously confound emphasis with accent2 especially those who make accent1 and not quantity1 the foundation of verse4 ,contrary to common usage1 and to his own definition of accent1 ,wells takes it upon him to say1 ,the term accent is also applied1 in poetry1 to the stress laid on monosyllabic words2 as1 ',content is wealth1 the riches of the mind4'--,dryden4 --,wells's ,school ,grammar1 p4 #ahe4 ,it does not appear that stress laid on monosyllables is any more fitly termed accent1 when it occurs in the reading of poetry1 than when in the utterance of prose4 ,churchill1 who makes no such distinction1 thinks accent essential alike to emphasis and to the quantity of a long vowel1 and yet1 as regards monosyllables1 dependent on them both6 ,his words are these3 ,monosyllables are sometimes accented1 sometimes not4 ,this depends chiefly on their being more or less emphatic2 and on the vowel sound being long or short4 ,we cannot give emphasis to any word1 or it's its proper duration to a long vowel1 without accenting it4--,churchill's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ahb4 #dge ,not only are these inflections denoted occasionally by the accentual marks1 but they are sometimes expressly identified with accents1 being called by that name4 ,this practice1 however1 is plainly objectionable4 ,it confounds things known to be different1--mere stress with elevation or depression1--and may lead to the supposition1 that to accent a syllable1 is to inflect the voice upon it4 ,such indeed has been the guess of many concerning the nature of ,greek and ,latin accents1 but of the ,english accent1 the common idea is1 that it is only a greater force distinguishing some one syllable of a word from the rest4 ,walker1 however1 in the strange account he gives in his ,key1 of what we mean by the accent and quantity of our own language1 charges this current opinion with error1 dissenting from ,sheridan and ,nares1 who held it2 and1 having asserted1 that1 in speaking1 the voice is continually sliding upwards or downwards1 proceeds to contradict himself thus3 ,as high and low1 loud and soft1 forcible and feeble1 are comparative terms1 words of one syllable pronounced alone1 and without relation to other words or syllables1 cannot be said to have any ,,accent4 ,the only distinction to which such words are liable1 is an elevation or depression of voice1 when we compare the beginning with the end of the word or syllable4 ,thus a monosyllable1 considered singly1 rises from a lower to a higher tone in the question ,n8 which may therefore be called the acute ,,accent3 and falls from a higher to a lower tone upon the same word in the answer ,n1 which may therefore be called the grave ,,accent4--,walker's ,key1 p4 #caf4 ,thus he tells of different accents on a monosyllable1 which1 by his own showing1 cannot be said to have any accent6 and others read and copy the text with as little suspicion of its inconsistency6 ,see ,worcester's ,universal and ,critical ,dictionary1 p4 #icd4 #dgf ,in ,humphrey's ,english ,prosody1 cadence is taken for the reverse of accent1 and is obviously identified or confounded with short quantity1 or what the author inclines to call small quantity4 ,he defines it as follows3 ,cadence is the reverse or counterpart to accent2 a falling or depression of voice on syllables unaccented3 and by which the sound is shortened and depressed4--,p4 #c4 ,this is not exactly what is generally understood by the word cadence4 ,lord ,kames also contrasts cadence with accent2 but1 by the latter term1 he seems to have meant something different from our ordinary accent4 ,sometimes to humour the sense1 says he1 and sometimes the melody1 a particular syllable is sounded in a higher tone2 and this is termed accenting a syllable1 or gracing it with an accent4 ,opposed to the accent1 is the cadence1 which ,i have not mentioned as one of the requisites of verse1 because it is entirely regulated by the sense1 and hath no peculiar relation to verse4--,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #gh4 #dgg ,the ,latin term1 7made plural to agree with verba1 words17 is subaudita1 underheard--the perfect participle of subaudio1 to underhear4 ,hence the noun1 subauditio1 subaudition1 the recognition of ellipses4 #dgh ,thus1 in the ,proverbs of all ,languages1 many ,words are usually left to be supplied from the trite obvious ,nature of what they express2 as1 out of ,sight out of ,mind2 the more the merrier1 c4--,w4 ,ward's ,pract4 ,gram41 p4 #adg4 #dgi ,lindley ,murray and some others say1 ,as the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the ,english language1 numerous examples of it might be given4--,murray's ,gram41 p4 #bbj2 ,weld's1 #bib2 ,fisk's1 #adg4 ,they could1 without doubt1 have exhibited many true specimens of ,ellipsis2 but most of those which they have given1 are only fanciful and false ones2 and their notion of the frequency of the figure1 is monstrously hyperbolical4 #dhj ,who besides ,webster has called syllepsis substitution1 ,i do not know4 ,substitution and conception are terms of quite different import1 and many authors have explained syllepsis by the latter word4 ,dr4 ,webster gives to ,,substitution two meanings1 thus3 #a4 ,the act of putting one person or thing in the place of another to supply his or its place4--#b4 ,in grammar1 syllepsis1 or the use of one word for another4--,american ,dict41 #hvo4 ,this explanation seems to me inaccurate2 because it confounds both substitution and syllepsis with enallage4 ,it has signs of carelessness throughout2 the former sentence being both tautological and ungrammatical4--,g4 ,b4 #dha ,between ,tropes and ,figures1 some writers attempt a full distinction2 but this1 if practicable1 is of little use4 ,according to ,holmes1 ,,tropes affect only single ,words2 but ,,figures1 whole ,sentences4--,rhetoric1 ,b4 i1 p4 #bh4 ,the ,,chief ,,tropes in ,language1 says this author1 are seven2 a ,metaphor1 an ,allegory1 a ,metonymy1 a ,synecdoche1 an ,irony1 an ,hyperbole1 and a ,catachresis4--,ib41 p4 #cj4 ,the term ,figure or ,figures is more comprehensive than ,trope or ,tropes2 ,i have therefore not thought it expedient to make much use of the latter1 in either the singular or the plural form4 ,holmes's seven tropes are all of them defined in the main text of this section1 except ,catachresis1 which is commonly explained to be an abuse of a trope4 ,according to this sense1 it seems in general to differ but little from impropriety4 ,at best1 a ,catachresis is a forced expression1 though sometimes1 perhaps1 to be indulged where there is great excitement4 ,it is a sort of figure by which a word is used in a sense different from1 yet connected with1 or analogous to1 its own2 as1 ,and pity1 like a naked new-born babe1 ,striding the blast1 as heaven's cherubim ,hors'd upon the sightless couriers of the air1 ,shall blow the horrid deed in every eye1 ,that tears shall drown the wind4--,shak41 ,macbeth1 ,act i1 ,sc4 #g4 #dhb ,holmes1 in his ,art of ,rhetoric1 writes this word ,paraleipsis retaining the ,greek orthography4 ,so does ,fowler in his recent ,english ,grammar1 #fdf4 ,webster1 ,adam1 and some others1 write it ,paralepsis4 ,i write it as above on the authority of ,littleton1 ,ainsworth1 and some others2 and this is according to the analogy of the kindred word ellipsis1 which we never write either ellepsis1 or1 as the ,greek1 elleipsis4 #dhc ,to this principle there seems to be now and then an exception1 as when a weak dissyllable begins a foot in an anapestic line1 as in the following examples3-- ,i think--let me see--yes1 it is1 ,i declare1 ,as long ago now as that ,buckingham there4--,leigh ,hunt4 ,and ,thomson1 though best in his indolent fits1 ,either slept himself weary1 or blasted his wits4--,id4 ,here1 if we reckon the feet in question to be anapests1 we have dissyllables with both parts short4 ,but some1 accenting ago on the latter syllable1 and ,either on the former1 will call ago now a bacchy1 and ,either slept an amphimac3 because they make them such by their manner of reading4--,g4 ,b4 #dhd ,edgar ,a4 ,poe1 the author1 died at ,baltimore on ,sunday the #gth4--,daily ,evening ,traveller1 ,boston ,oct4 #i1 #ahdi4 ,this was eight or ten months after the writing of these observations4--,g4 ,b4 #dhe ,versification is the art of arranging words into lines of correspondent length1 so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity--,brown's ,institutes of ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #bce4 #dhf ,this appears to be an error2 for1 according to ,dilworth1 and other arithmeticians1 a unit is a number2 and so is it expounded by ,johnson1 ,walker1 ,webster1 and ,worcester4 ,see1 in the ,introduction1 a note at the foot of p4 #aag4 ,mulligan1 however1 contends still1 that one is no number2 and that1 to talk of the singular number is absurd--a contradiction in terms2--because1 in common discourse1 a number is always a plurality1 except--when it is number one6--,see ,grammatical ,structure of the ,e4 ,language1 #cc4 ,some prosodists have taught the absurdity1 that two feet are necessary to constitute a metre1 and have accordingly applied the terms1 monometer1 dimeter1 trimeter1 tetrameter1 pentameter1 and hexameter1--or so many of them as they could so misapply1--in a sense very different from the usual acceptation4 ,the proper principle is1 that1 ,one foot constitutes a metre4--,dr4 ,p4 ,wilson's ,greek ,prosody1 p4 #ec4 ,and verses are to be denominated ,monometer1 ,dimeter1 ,trimeter1 c41 according to ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,feet4--,see ib4 p4 #f4 ,but ,worcester's ,universal and ,critical ,dictionary has the following not very consistent explanations3 ,,monometer1 n4 ,one metre4 ,beck4 ,,dimeter1 n4 ,a poetic measure of four feet2 a series of two meters4 ,beck4 ,,trimeter1 a4 ,consisting of three poetical measures1 forming an iambic of six feet4 ,tyrwhitt4 ,,tetrameter1 n4 ,a ,latin or ,greek verse consisting of four feet2 a series of four metres4 ,,tetrameter1 a4 ,having four metrical feet4 ,tyrwhitt4 ,,pentameter1 n4 ,a ,greek or ,latin verse of five feet2 a series of five metres4 ,,pentameter1 a4 ,having five metrical feet4 ,warton4 ,,hexameter1 n4 ,a verse or line of poetry1 having six feet1 either dactyls or spondees2 the heroic1 and most important1 verse among the ,greeks and ,romans2--a rhythmical series of six metres4 ,,hexameter1 a4 ,having six metrical feet4 ,dr4 ,warton4 ,according to these definitions1 ,dimeter has as many feet as ,tetrameter2 and ,trimeter has as many as ,hexameter6 #dhg ,it is common1 at any rate1 for prosodists to speak of the movement of the voice1 as do ,sheridan1 ,murray1 ,humphrey1 and ,everett2 but ,kames1 in treating of the ,beauty of ,language from ,resemblance1 says ,there is no resemblance of sound to motion1 nor of sound to sentiment4--,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #fc4 ,this usage1 however1 is admitted by the critic1 had cited to show how1 causes that have no resemblance may produce resembling effects4--,ib4 #fd4 ,by a number of syllables in succession1 an emotion is sometimes raised extremely similar to that raised by successive motion3 which may be evident even to those who are defective in taste1 from the following fact1 that the term movement in all languages is equally applied to both4--,ib4 ii4 #ff4 #dhh ,from what has been said of accent and quantity in our own language1 we may conclude them to be essentially distinct and perfectly separable3 nor is it to be doubted that they were equally separable in the learned languages4--,walkers's ,observations on ,gr4 and ,lat4 ,accent and ,quantity1 #bj2 ,key1 p4 #cbf4 ,in the speculative essay here cited1 ,walker meant by accent the rising or the falling inflection1--an upward or a downward slide of the voice3 and by quantity1 nothing but the open or close sound of some vowel2 as of the a in scatter and in skater1 the initial syllables of which words be supposed to differ in quantity as much as any two syllables can6--,ib41 #bd2 ,key1 p4 #cca4 ,with these views of the things1 it is perhaps the less to be wondered at1 that ,walker1 who appears to have been a candid and courteous writer1 charges that excellent scholar ,mr4 ,forster--with a total ignorance of the accent and quantity of his own language1 7,ib41 ,note on #h2 ,key1 p4 #cag27 and1 in regard to accent1 ancient or modern1 elsewhere confesses his own ignorance1 and that of every body else1 to be as total4 ,see marginal note on ,obs4 #dth below4 #dhi 7#a47 ,we shall now take a view of sounds when united into syllables4 ,here a beautiful variation of quantity presents itself as the next object of our attention4 ,the knowledge of long and short syllables1 is the most excellent and most neglected quality in the whole art of pronunciation4 ,the disputes of our modern writers on this subject1 have arisen chiefly from an absurd notion that has long prevailed2 viz4 that there is no difference between the accent and the quantity1 in the ,english language2 that the accented syllables are always long1 and the unaccented always short4 ,an absurdity so glaring1 does not need refutation4 ,pronounce any one line from ,milton1 and the ear will determine whether or not the accent and quantity always coincide4 ,very seldom they do4--,,herries3 ,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #ajh4 7#b47 ,some of our ,moderns 7especially ,mr4 ,bishe1 in his ,art of ,poetry7 and lately ,mr4 ,mattaire1 in what he calls1 ,the ,english ,grammar1 erroneously use ,accent for ,quantity1 one signifying the ,length or ,shortness of a ,syllable1 the other the raising or falling of the ,voice in ,discourse4--,brightland's ,gram41 ,london1 #agdf1 p4 #aef4 7#c47 ,tempus cum accentu a nonnullis mal confunditur2 quasi idem sit acui et produci4 ,cum brevis autem syllaba acuitur1 elevatur quidem vox in e proferend1 sed tempus non augetur4 ,sic in voce hominibus acuitur mi2 at ni qu sequitur1 quam in efferendo moram postulat4--,lily's ,gram41 p4 #abe4 ,version3 ,by some persons1 time is improperly confounded with accent2 as if to acute and to lengthen were the same4 ,but when a short syllable is acuted1 the voice indeed is raised in pronouncing it1 but the time is not increased4 ,thus1 in the word hominibus1 mi as the acute accent2 but ni1 which follows1 demands equal slowness in the pronunciation4 ,to ,english ears1 this can hardly seem a correct representation2 for1 in pronouncing hominibus1 it is not mi1 but min1 that we accent2 and this syllable is manifestly as much longer than the rest1 as it is louder4 #dij 7#a47 ,syllables1 with respect to their quantity1 are either long1 short1 or common4--,gould's ,adam's ,lat4 ,gram41 p4 #bdc4 ,some syllables are common2 that is1 sometimes long1 and sometimes short4--,adam's ,lat4 and ,eng4 ,gram41 p4 #beb4 ,common is here put for variable1 or not permanently settled in respect to quantity3 in this sense1 from which no third species ought to be inferred1 our language is1 perhaps1 more extensively common than any other4 7#b47 ,most of our ,monosyllables either take this ,stress or not1 according as they are more or less emphatical2 and therefore ,english ,words of one ,syllable may be considered as common2 i4e4 either as long or short in certain ,situations4 ,these ,situations are chiefly determined by the ,pause1 or ,cesure1 of the ,verse1 and this ,pause by the ,sense4 ,and as the ,english abounds in ,monosyllables1 there is probably no ,language in which the ,quantity of ,syllables is more regulated by the ,sense than in ,english4--,w4 ,ward's ,gram41 ,ed4 of #agfe1 p4 #aef4 7#c47 ,bicknell's theory of quantity1 for which he refers to ,herries1 is this3 ,the ,english quantity is divided into long1 short1 and common4 ,the longest species of syllables are those that end in a vowel1 and are under the accent2 as1 mo in harmonious1 sole in console1 c4 ,when a monosyllable1 which is unemphatic1 ends in a vowel1 it is always short2 but when the emphasis is placed upon it1 it is always long4 ,short syllables are such as end in any of the six mutes2 as cut1 stop1 rapid1 rugged1 lock4 ,in all such syllables the sound cannot be lengthened3 they are necessarily and invariably short4 ,if another consonant intervenes between the vowel and mute1 as rend1 soft1 flask1 the syllable is rendered somewhat longer4 ,the other species of syllables called common1 are such as terminate in a half-vowel or aspirate4 ,for instance1 in the words run1 swim1 crush1 purl1 the concluding sound can be continued or shortened1 as we please4 ,this scheme of quantity1 it is added1 is founded on fact and experience4--,bicknell's ,gram41 ,part ii1 p4 #aji4 ,but is it not a fact1 that such words as cuttest1 stopping1 rapid1 rugged1 are trochees1 in verse8 and is not unlock an iambus8 ,and what becomes of syllables that end with vowels or liquids and are not accented8 #dia ,i do not say the mere absence of stress is never called accent2 for it is1 plainly1 the doctrine of some authors that the ,english accent differs not at all in its nature from the accent of the ancient ,greeks or ,romans1 which was distinguished as being of three sorts1 acute1 grave1 inflex2 that the stronger breathing1 or higher sound1 which distinguishes one syllable of a word from or above the rest1 is the acute accent only2 that the softer breathing1 or lower sound1 which belongs to an unacuted 7or unaccented7 syllable1 is the grave accent2 and that a combination of these two sounds1 or breathings1 upon one syllable1 constitutes the inflex or circumflex accent4 ,such1 ,i think1 is the teaching of ,rev4 ,william ,barnes2 who further says1 ,english verse is constructed upon sundry orders of acute and grave accents and matchings of rhymes1 while the poetic language of the ,romans and ,greeks is formed upon rules of the sundry clusterings of long and short syllables4--,philological ,grammar1 p4 #bfc4 ,this scheme is not wholly consistent1 because the author explains accent or accents as being applicable only to words of two or more syllables2 and it is plain1 that the accent which includes the three sorts above1 must needs be some other thing than what we call accent1 if this includes only the acute4 #dib ,sheridan used the same comparison1 ,to illustrate the difference between the accent of the ancients and that of ours our tongue4 ,our accent he supposed1 with ,nares and others1 to have no reference to inflections of the voice4--,see ,art of ,reading1 p4 #ge2 ,lectures on ,elocution1 p4 #ef2 ,walker's ,key1 p4 #cac4 #dic 7#a47 ,it may in some measure account for these remarkable omissions1 to observe that ,walker1 in his lexicography1 followed ,johnson in almost every thing but pronunciation4 ,on this latter subject1 his own authority is perhaps as great as that of any single author4 ,and here ,i am led to introduce a remark or two touching the accent and quantity with which he was chiefly concerned2 though the suggestions may have no immediate connexion with the error of confounding these properties4 7#b47 ,walker1 in his theory1 regarded the inflections of the voice as pertaining to accent1 and as affording a satisfactory solution of the difficulties in which this subject has been involved2 but1 as an ,english orthopist1 he treats of accent in no other sense1 than as stress laid on a particular syllable of a word--a sense implying contrast1 and necessarily dividing all syllables into accented and unaccented1 except monosyllables4 ,having acknowledged our total ignorance of the nature of the ,latin and ,greek accent1 he adds3 ,the accent of the ,english language1 which is constantly sounding in our ears1 and every moment open to investigation1 seems as much a mystery as that accent which is removed almost two thousand years from our view4 ,obscurity1 perplexity1 and confusion1 run through every treatise on the subject1 and nothing could be so hopeless as an attempt to explain it1 did not a circumstance present itself1 which at once accounts for the confusion1 and affords a clew to lead us out of it4 ,not one writer on accent has given such a definition of the voice as acquaints us with its essential properties4 99 99 99 ,but let us once divide the voice into its rising and falling inflections1 the obscurity vanishes1 and accent becomes as intelligible as any other part of language4 99 99 99 ,on the present occasion it will be sufficient to observe1 that the stress we call accent is as well understood as is necessary for the pronunciation of single words1 which is the object of this treatise4--,walker's ,dict41 p4 #ec1 ,princip4 #dhf1 #dhg1 #dhh4 7#c47 ,afterwards1 on introducing quantity1 as an orthopical topic1 he has the following remark3 ,in treating this part of pronunciation1 it will not be necessary to enter into the nature of that quantity which constitutes poetry2 the quantity here considered will be that which relates to words taken singly2 and this is nothing more than the length or shortness of the vowels1 either as they stand alone1 or as they are differently combined with the vowels or consonants4 ,ib41 p4 #fb1 ,princip4 #ebi4 ,here is suggested a distinction which has not been so well observed by grammarians and prosodists1 or even by ,walker himself1 as it ought to have been4 ,so long as the practice continues of denominating certain mere vowel sounds the long and the short1 it will be very necessary to notice that these are not the same as the syllabic quantities1 long and short1 which constitute ,english verse4 #did 7#a47 ,in the ,latin and ,greek languages1 this is not commonly supposed to be the case2 but1 on the contrary1 the quantity of syllables is professedly adjusted by its own rules independently of what we call accent2 and1 in our ,english pronunciation of these languages1 the accentuation of all long words is regulated by the quantity of the last syllable but one4 ,walker1 in the introduction to his ,key1 speaks of ,the ,english pronunciation of ,greek and ,latin as injurious to quantity4 ,and no one can deny1 that we often accent what are called short syllables1 and perhaps oftener leave unaccented such as are called long2 but1 after all1 were the quantity of ,latin and ,greek syllables always judged of by their actual time1 and not with reference to the vowel sounds called long and short1 these our violations of the old quantities would be found much fewer than some suppose they are4 7#b47 ,dr4 ,adam's view of the accents1 acute and grave1 appears to be peculiar2 and of a nature which may perhaps come nearer to an actual identity with the quantities1 long and short1 than any other4 ,he says1 #a4 ,the acute or sharp accent raises the voice in pronunciation1 and is thus marked 2 prfero1 prfer4 ,the ,english word is written1 not thus1 but with two ,effs1 proffer4--,g4 ,b4 #b4 ,the grave or base accent depresses the voice1 or keeps it in its natural tone2 and is thus marked 2 as1 doct4 ,fist ,this accent properly belongs to all syllables which have no other4 ,the accents are hardly ever marked in ,english books1 except in dictionaries1 grammars1 spelling-books1 or the like1 where the acute accent only is used4 ,the accents are likewise seldom marked in ,latin books1 unless for the sake of distinction2 as in these adverbs1 aliqu1 continu1 doct1 un1 c4--,adam's ,latin and ,english ,grammar1 p4 #bff4 7#c47 ,as stress naturally lengthens the syllables on which it falls1 if we suppose the grave accent to be the opposite of this1 and to belong to all syllables which have no peculiar stress1--are not enforced1 not acuted1 not circumflected1 not emphasized2 then shall we truly have an accent with which our short quantity may fairly coincide4 ,but ,i have said1 the mere absence of stress1 which produces short quantity1 we do not call accent2 and it may be observed1 that the learned improver of ,dr4 ,adam's ,grammar1 ,b4 ,a4 ,gould1 has totally rejected all that his predecessor taught concerning accent1 and has given an entirely different definition of the thing4 ,see marginal notes on page #gga1 above4 ,dr4 ,johnson also cites from ,holder a very different explanation of it1 as follows3 ,accent1 as in the ,greek names and usage1 seems to have regarded the tune of the voice2 the acute accent1 raising the voice in some certain syllables1 to a higher1 7i4e4 more acute7 pitch or tone2 and the grave1 depressing it lower2 ,fist and both having some emphasis1 i4e4 more vigorous pronunciation4 ,,holder4--,johnson's ,quarto ,dict41 w4 ,accent4 #die 7#a47 ,amongst them the ancients1 we know that accents were marked by certain inflexions inflections of the voice like musical notes2 and the grammarians to this day1 with great formality inform their pupils1 that the acute accent1 is the raising of the voice on a certain syllable2 the grave1 a depression of it2 and the circumflex1 a raising and depression both1 in one and the same syllable4 ,this jargon they constantly preserve1 though they have no sort of ideas annexed to these words2 for if they are asked to shew how this is to be done1 they cannot tell1 and their practice always belies their precept4--,sheridan's ,lectures on ,eloc41 p4 #ed4 7#b47 ,it is by the accent chiefly that the quantity of our syllables is regulated2 but not according to the mistaken rule laid down by all who have written on the subject1 that the accent always makes the syllable long2 than which there cannot be any thing more false4--,ib41 p4 #eg4 7#c47 ,and here ,i cannot help taking notice of a circumstance1 which shews in the strongest light1 the amazing deficiency of those1 who have hitherto employed their labours on that subject1 accent1 or pronunciation1 in point of knowledge of the true genius and constitution of our tongue4 ,several of the compilers of dictionaries1 vocabularies1 and spelling books1 have undertaken to mark the accents of our words2 but so little acquainted were they with the nature of our accent1 that they thought it necessary only to mark the syllable on which the stress is to be laid1 without marking the particular letter of the syllable to which the accent belongs4--,ib41 p4 #ei4 7#d47 ,the mind thus taking a bias under the prejudice of false rules1 never arrives at a knowledge of the true nature of quantity2 and accordingly we find that all attempts hitherto to settle the prosody of our language1 have been vain and fruitless4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,gram41 p4 #eb4 #dif ,in the following extract1 this matter is stated somewhat differently3 ,the quantity depends upon the seat of the accent1 whether it be on the vowel or on the consonant2 if on the vowel1 the syllable is necessarily long3 as it makes the vowel long2 if on the consonant1 it may be either long or short1 according to the nature of the consonant1 or the time taken up in dwelling upon it4--,sheridan's ,lectures on ,eloc41 p4 #eg4 ,this last clause shows the distinction to be a very weak one4--,g4 ,,brown4 #dig ,if the consonant be in its nature a short one1 the syllable is necessarily short4 ,if it be a long one1 that is1 one whose sound is capable of being lengthened1 it may be long or short at the will of the speaker4 ,by a short consonant ,i mean one whose sound cannot be continued after a vowel1 such as c or k p t1 as ac1 ap1 at--whilst that of long consonants can1 as1 el em en er ev1 c4--,sheridan's ,lectures on ,elocution1 p4 #eh4 ,sheridan here forgets that bor'row is one of his examples of short quantity4 ,murray admits that accent on a semi-vowel may make the syllable long2 and his semivowels are these3 f1 l1 m1 n1 r1 v1 s1 z1 x1 and c and g soft4 ,see his ,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bdj and p4 #h4 #dih ,on account of the different uses made of the breve1 the macron1 and the accents1 one grammarian has proposed a new mode of marking poetic quantities4 ,something of the kind might be useful2 but there seems to be a reversal of order in this scheme1 the macrotone being here made light1 and the stenotone dark and heavy4 ,long and short syllables have sometimes been designated by the same marks which are used for accent1 tones1 and the quality of the vowels2 but it will be better1 to prevent confusion1 to use different marks4 ,this mark may represent a long syllable1 and this a short syllable2 as1 ',at the close of the day when the hamlet is still4' --,perley's ,gram41 p4 #gc4 no over 'let'1 sic--,,kth #dii ,dr4 ,adam's ,gram41 p4 #bfg2 ,b4 ,a4 ,gould's1 #beg4 ,the ,latin word csura signifies a cutting1 or division4 ,this name is sometimes ,anglicized1 and written ,cesure4 ,see ,brightland's ,gram41 p4 #afa2 or ,worcester's ,dict41 w4 ,cesure4 #ejj ,as to the long quantity arising from the succession of two consonants1 which the ancients are uniform in asserting1 if it did not mean that the preceding vowel was to lengthen its sound1 as we should do by pronouncing the a in scatter as we do in skater1 7one who skates17 ,i have no conception of what it meant2 for if it meant that only the time of the syllable was prolonged1 the vowel retaining the same sound1 ,i must confess as ut er sic--,,kth an inability of comprehending this source of quantity in the ,greek and ,latin as in ,english4--,walker on ,gr4 and ,l4 ,accent1 #bd2 ,key1 p4 #cca4 ,this distinguished author seems unwilling to admit1 that the consonants occupy time in their utterance1 or that other vowel sounds than those which name the vowels1 can be protracted and become long2 but these are truths1 nevertheless2 and1 since every letter adds something to the syllable in which it is uttered1 it is by consequence a source of quantity1 whether the syllable be long or short4 #eja ,murray has here a marginal note1 as follows3 ,movement and measure are thus distinguished4 ,movement expresses the progressive order of sounds1 whether from strong to weak1 from long to short1 or vice versa4 ,measure signifies the proportion of time1 both in sounds and pauses4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #bei4 ,this distinction is neither usual nor accurate2 though ,humphrey adopts it1 with slight variations4 ,without some species of measure1--,iambic1 ,trochaic1 ,anapestic1 ,dactylic1 or some other1--there can be no regular movement1 no progressive order of sounds4 ,measure is therefore too essential to movement to be in contrast with it4 ,and the movement from strong to weak1 from long to short1 is but one and the same1 a trochaic movement2 its reverse1 the movement1 vice versa1 from weak to strong1 or from short to long1 is1 of course1 that of iambic measure4 ,but ,murray's doctrine is1 that strong and long1 weak and short1 may be separated2 that strong may be short1 and weak be long2 so that the movement from weak to strong may be from long to short1 and vice versa3 as if a trochaic movement might arise from iambic measure1 and an iambic movement from trochaic feet6 ,this absurdity comes of attempting to regulate the movement of verse by accent1 and not by quantity1 while it is admitted that quantity1 and not accent1 forms the measure1 which signifies the proportion of time4 ,the idea that pauses belong to measure1 is an other radical error of the foregoing note4 ,there are more pauses in poetry than in prose1 but none of them are properly parts of either4 ,humphrey says truly1 ,feet are the constituent parts of verse4--,english ,prosody1 p4 #h4 ,but ,l4 ,murray says1 ,feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse4--,octavo ,gram41 p4 #beb4 ,here ,sheridan gave bias4 ,intending to treat of verse1 and the pauses peculiarly belonging to it1 the ,csural pause and the ,final1 the rhetorician had improperly said1 ,the constituent parts of verse are1 feet1 and pauses4--,sheridan's ,rhetorical ,gram41 p4 #fd4 #ejb ,but as many ,ways as ,quantities may be varied by ,composition and ,transposition1 so many different ,feet have the ,greek ,poets contriv'd1 and that under distinct ,names1 from two to six ,syllables1 to the ,number of #abd4 ,but it is the ,opinion of some ,learned ,men in this ,way1 that ,poetic ,numbers may be sufficiently explain'd by those of two or three ,syllables1 into which the rest are to be resolv'd4--,brightland's ,grammar1 #gth ,ed41 p4 #afa4 #ejc ,,the ,,bells ,,of ,,st4 ,,petersburgh4 ,those ev'ning bells1 those ev'ning bells1 ,how many a tale their music tells6--,moore's ,melodies1 p4 #bfc4 ,this couplet1 like all the rest of the piece from which it is taken1 is iambic verse1 and to be divided into feet thus3-- ,those ev' -ning bells1 those ev' -ning bells1 ,how man -y a tale their mu -sic tells6 #ejd ,lord ,kames1 too1 speaking of ,english ,heroic verse1 says3 ,every line consists of ten syllables1 five short and five long2 from which rule there are but two exceptions1 both of them rare4--,elements of ,criticism1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #hi4 #eje ,the ,latin is a far more stately tongue than our own4 ,it is essentially spondaic2 the ,english is as essentially dactylic4 ,the long syllable is the spirit of the ,roman 7and ,greek7 verse2 the short syllable is the essence of ours4--,poe's ,notes upon ,english ,verse2 ,pioneer1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aaj4 ,we must search for spondaic words1 which1 in ,english1 are rare indeed4--,ib41 p4 #aaa4 #ejf ,there is a rule1 in ,latin prosody1 that a vowel before two consonants is long4 ,we moderns have not only no such rule1 but profess inability to comprehend its rationale4--,poe's ,notes3 ,pioneer1 p4 #aab4 #ejg ,the opponents of capital punishment will hardly take this for a fair version of the sixth commandment4--,g4 ,b4 #ejh ,these versicles1 except the two which are ,italicized1 are not iambic4 ,the others are partly trochaic2 and1 according to many of our prosodists1 wholly so2 but it is questionable whether they are not as properly amphimacric1 or ,cretic4 #eji ,see exercises in ,punctuation1 on page #ghf1 of this work4--,g4 ,b4 #eaj ,the ,seventieth ,psalm is the same as the last five verses of the ,fortieth1 except a few unimportant differences of words or points4 #eaa ,it is obvious1 that these two lines may easily be reduced to an agreeable stanza1 by simply dividing each after the fourth foot--,g4 ,b4 #eab ,in ,sanborn's ,analytical ,grammar1 on page #bgith1 this couplet is ascribed to ,pope2 but ,i have sought in vain for this quotation1 or any example of similar verse1 in the works of that poet4 ,the lines1 one or both of them1 appear1 without reference1 in ,l4 ,murray's ,grammar1 ,second ,edition1 #agif1 p4 #agf1 and in subsequent editions2 in ,w4 ,allen's1 p4 #bbe2 ,bullions's1 #agh2 ,n4 ,butler's1 #aib2 ,chandler's ,new1 #aif2 ,clark's1 #bja2 ,churchill's1 #ahg2 ,cooper's ,practical1 #ahe2 ,davis's1 #acg2 ,farnum's1 #ajf2 ,felton's1 #adb2 ,frazee's1 #ahd2 ,frost's1 #afd2 ,s4 ,s4 ,greene's1 #bej2 ,hallock's1 #bdd2 ,hart's1 #ahg2 ,hiley's1 #abg2 ,humphrey's ,prosody1 #ag2 ,parker and ,fox's ,gram41 ,part iii1 p4 #fj2 ,weld's1 #baa2 ,ditto ,abridged1 #ach2 ,wells's1 #bjj2 ,fowler's1 #feh2 and doubtless in many other such books4 #eac ,owen succeeded his father ,griffin in the principality of ,north ,wales1 ,a4 ,d4 #aabj4 ,this battle was fought near forty years afterwards4 ,north ,wales is called1 in the fourth line1 ',gwyneth2' and ',lochlin1' in the fourteenth1 is ,denmark4--,gray4 ,some say ,lochlin1 in the ,annals of ,ulster1 means ,norway4--,g4 ,b4 #ead ,the red dragon is the device of ,cadwallader1 which all his descendants bore on their banners4--,gray4 #eae ,this passage1 or some part of it1 is given as a trochaic example1 in many different systems of prosody4 ,everett ascribes it entire to ,john ,chalkhill2 and ,nutting1 more than twenty years before1 had attached the name of ,chalkhill to a part of it4 ,but the six lines of three syllables1 ,dr4 ,johnson1 in his ,grammar1 credits to ,walton's ,angler2 and ,bicknell1 too1 ascribes the same to ,walton4 ,the readings also have become various4 ,johnson1 ,bicknell1 ,burn1 ,churchill1 and ,nutting1 have ,here for ,where in the fifth line above2 and ,bicknell and ,burn have ,stop in the eighth line1 where the rest read ,stops4 ,nutting has1 for the ninth line1 ,others' joys1 and not1 ,other joys1 as have the rest4--,g4 ,b4 #eaf ,,obs4--,of this1 and of every other example which requires no amendment1 let the learner simply say1 after reading the passage1 ,this sentence is correct as it stands4--,g4 ,,brown4 #eag ,,observation4--,in the ,bible1 the word ,,lord1 whenever it stands for the ,hebrew name ,,jehovah1 not only commences with a full capital1 but has small or half capitals for the other letters2 and ,i have thought proper to print both words in that manner here4 ,in correcting the last example1 ,i follow ,dr4 ,scott's ,bible1 except in the word ,god1 which he writes with a small g4 ,several other copies have first and last with small initials1 which ,i think not so correct2 and some distinguish the word hosts with a capital1 which seems to be needless4 ,the sentence here has eleven capitals3 in the ,latin ,vulgate1 it has but six1 and one of them is for the last word1 ,deus1 ,god4--,g4 ,b4 #eah ,,obs4--,this construction ,i dislike4 ,without hyphens1 it is improper2 and with them it is not to be commended4 ,see ,syntax1 ,obs #bdth on ,rule ,,iv4--,g4 ,b4 #eai ,on the page here referred to1 the author of the ,gazetteer has written ,charles city1 c4 ,analogy requires that the words be compounded1 because they constitute three names which are applied to counties1 and not to cities4 #ebj ,,obs4--,the following words1 as names of towns1 come under ,rule #fth1 and are commonly found correctly compounded in the books of ,scotch geography and statistics2 ,strathaven1 ,stonehaven1 ,strathdon1 ,glenluce1 ,greenlaw1 ,coldstream1 ,lochwinnoch1 ,lochcarron1 ,loehmaber1 ,prestonpans1 ,prestonkirk1 ,peterhead1 ,queensferry1 ,newmills1 and many more like them4 #eba ,section ,,obs4--,this name1 in both the ,vulgate and the ,septuagint1 is ,pharao ,nechao1 with two capitals and no hyphen4 ,walker gives the two words separately in his ,key1 and spells the latter ,necho1 and not ,nechoh4 ,see the same orthography in ,jer41 xlvi1 #b4 ,in our common ,bibles1 many such names are needlessly1 if not improperly1 compounded2 sometimes with one capital1 and sometimes with two4 ,the proper manner of writing ,scripture names1 is too little regarded even by good men and biblical critics4 #ebb ,marcus ,terentius ,varro1 vir ,romanorum eruditissimus4--,,quintilian4 ,lib4 x1 ,cap4 #a1 p4 #egg4 #ebc ,,note4--,by this amendment1 we remove a multitude of errors1 but the passage is still very faulty4 ,what ,murray here calls phrases1 are properly sentences2 and1 in his second clause1 he deserts the terms of the first to bring in my1 our1 and also c41 which seem to be out of place there4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ebd ,an other is a phrase of two words1 which ought to be written separately4 ,the transferring of the n to the latter word1 is a gross vulgarism4 ,separate the words1 and it will be avoided4 #ebe ,mys-ter-y1 according to ,scott and ,cobb2 mys-te-ry1 according to ,walker and ,worcester4 #ebf ,kirkham borrowed this doctrine of ,tonics1 ,subtonics1 and ,atonies1 from ,rush3 and dressed it up in his own worse bombast4 ,see ,obs4 #ac and #ad1 on the ,powers of the ,letters4--,,gb4 #ebg ,there is1 in most ,english dictionaries1 a contracted form of this phrase1 written prithee1 or ,i prithee2 but ,dr4 ,johnson censures it as a familiar corruption1 which some writers have injudiciously used2 and1 as the abbreviation amounted to nothing but the slurring of one vowel sound into an other1 it has now1 ,i think1 very deservedly become obsolete4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ebh ,this is the doctrine of ,murray1 and his hundred copyists2 but it is by no means generally true4 ,it is true of adverbs1 only when they are connected by conjunctions2 and seldom applies to two words1 unless the conjunction which may be said to connect them1 be suppressed and understood4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ebi ,example3 ,imperfect articulation comes not so much from bad organs1 as from the abuse of good ones4--,porter's ,analysis4 ,here ones represents organs1 and prevents unpleasant repetition4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ecj ,from the force of habit1 or to prevent the possibility of a false pronunciation1 these ocular contractions are still sometimes carefully made in printing poetry2 but they are not very important1 and some modern authors1 or their printers1 disregard them altogether4 ,in correcting short poetical examples1 ,i shall in general take no particular pains to distinguish them from prose4 ,all needful contractions however will be preserved1 and sometimes also a capital letter1 to show where the author commenced a line4 #eca ,the word imperfect is not really necessary here2 for the declaration is true of any phrase1 as this name is commonly applied4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ecb ,a part of speech is a sort of words1 and not one word only4 ,we cannot say1 that every pronoun1 or every verb1 is a part of speech1 because the parts of speech are only ten4 ,but every pronoun1 verb1 or other word1 is a word2 and1 if we will refer to this genus1 there is no difficulty in defining all the parts of speech in the singular1 with an or a3 as1 ,a pronoun is a word put for a noun4 ,murray and others say1 ,an ,adverb is a part of speech1 c41 ,a ,conjunction is a part of speech1 c41 which is the same as to say1 ,one adverb is a sort of words1 c4 ,this is a palpable absurdity4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ecc ,the propriety of this conjunction1 nor1 is somewhat questionable3 the reading in both the ,vulgate and the ,septuagint is--they1 and their wives1 and their sons1 and their daughters4 #ecd ,all our lexicographers1 and all accurate authors1 spell this word with an o2 but the gentleman who has furnished us with the last set of new terms for the science of grammar1 writes it with an e1 and applies it to the verb and the participle4 ,with him1 every verb or participle is an asserter2 except when he forgets his creed1 as he did in writing the preceding example about certain verbs4 ,as he changes the names of all the parts of speech1 and denounces the entire technology of grammar1 perhaps his innovation would have been sufficiently broad1 had he for ,,the ,,verb1 the most important class of all1 adopted some name which he knew how to spell4--,g4 ,b4 #ece ,it would be better to omit the word forth1 or else to say--whom ,i brought forth from the land of ,egypt4 ,the phrase1 forth out of1 is neither a very common nor a very terse one4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ecf ,this doctrine1 that participles divide and specify time1 ,i have elsewhere shown to be erroneous4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ecg ,perhaps it would be as well or better1 in correcting these two examples1 to say1 ,there are a generation4 ,but the article a1 as well as the literal form of the noun1 is a sign of unity2 and a complete uniformity of numbers is not here practicable4 #ech ,though the pronoun thou is not much used in common discourse1 it is as proper for the grammarian to consider and show1 what form of the verb belongs to it when it is so used1 as it is for him to determine what form is adapted to any other pronoun1 when a difference of style affects the question4 #eci ,forgavest1 as the reading is in our common ,bible1 appears to be wrong2 because the relative that and its antecedent ,god are of the third person1 and not of the second4 #edj ,all the corrections under this head are directly contrary to the teaching of ,william ,s4 ,cardell4 ,oliver ,b4 ,peirce1 and perhaps some other such writers on grammar2 and some of them are contrary also to ,murray's late editions4 ,but ,i am confident that these authors teach erroneously2 that their use of indicative forms for mere suppositions that are contrary to the facts1 is positively ungrammatical2 and that the potential imperfect is less elegant1 in such instances1 than the simple subjunctive1 which they reject or distort4 #eda ,this is what ,smith must have meant by the inaccurate phrase1 those in the first4 ,for his first example is1 ,he went to school2 which contains only the one pronoun ,he4--,see ,smith's ,new ,gram41 p4 #ai4 #edb ,according to modern usage1 has would here be better than is1--though is fallen is still allowable4--,g4 ,,brown4 #edc ,from this opinion1 ,i dissent4 ,see ,obs4 #ast on the ,degrees of ,comparison1 and ,obs4 #dth on ,regular ,comparison1 in the ,etymology of this work1 at pp4 #bgi and #bhe4--;,g4 ,,brown4 #edd ,the country looks beautiful2' that is1 appears beautiful--is beautiful4 ,this is right1 and therefore the use which ,bucke makes of it1 may be fairly reversed4 ,but the example was ill chosen2 and ,i incline to think1 it may also be right to say1 ,the country looks beautifully2 for the quality expressed by beautiful1 is nothing else than the manner in which the thing shows to the eye4 ,see ,obs4 #aath on ,rule #ith4--,g4 ,,brown4 #ede ,many examples and authorities may be cited in favour of these corrections2 as1 ,he acted independently of foreign assistance4-- ,murray's ,key1 ,gram41 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bbb4 ,independently of any necessary relation4--,murray's ,gram41 ,vol4 i4 p4 #bge4 ,independently of this peculiar mode of construction4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #dgc4 ,independent of the will of the people4--,webster's ,essays1 p4 #ac4 ,independent one of an other4--,barclay's ,works1 i1 #hd4 ,the infinitive is often independent of the rest of the sentence4--,lennie's ,gram41 p4 #he4 ,some sentences are independent of each other4--,murray's ,gram41 i1 #bgg4 ,as if it were independent of it--,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #ahf4 ,independent of appearance and show4--,blair's ,rhet41 p4 #ac4 #edf ,the preposition of which ,jefferson uses before about1 appears to me to be useless4 ,it does not govern the noun diameter1 and is therefore no substitute for the in which ,i suppose to be wanting2 and1 as the preposition about seems to be sufficient between is and feet1 ,i omit the of4 ,so in other instances below4--,g4 ,,brown4 #edg ,murray1 ,jamieson1 and others1 have this definition with the article a1 and the comma1 but without the hyphen3 ,,apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course1 c4 ,see errors under ,note #dth to ,rule #bjth4 #edh ,this sentence may be written correctly in a dozen different ways1 with precisely the same meaning1 and very nearly the same words4 ,i have here made the noun gold the object of the verb took1 which in the original appears to govern the noun treasure1 or money1 understood4 ,the noun amount might as well be made its object1 by a suppression of the preposition to4 ,and again1 for pounds' weight1 we may say1 pounds in weight4 ,the words will also admit of many other positions4--,g4 ,,brown4 #edi ,see a different reading of this example1 cited as the first item of false syntax under ,rule #afth above1 and there corrected differently4 ,the words both of1 which make the difference1 were probably added by ,l4 ,murray in some of his revisals2 and yet it does not appear that this popular critic ever got the sentence right4--,g4 ,,brown4 #eej ,if such maxims1 and such practices prevail1 what has become of national liberty8--,hume's ,history4 ,vol4 vi1 p4 #bed2 ,priestley's ,gram41 p4 #abh4 #eea ,according to my notion1 but is never a preposition2 but there are some who think otherwise4--,g4 ,,brown4 #eeb ,cm vestieris te coccino1 cm ornata fueris monili aureo1 et pinxeris stibio oculos tuos1 frustra componris4--,vulgate4 ,greek3 ,en peribli kkkinon1 ka kosm'si ksmwi chryswi en egchrsi stbi tos ophthalmos sou es mtaion wrasms sou4--,septuagint4 ,quoique tu te revtes de pourpre1 que tu te pares d'ornemens d'or1 et que tu te peignes les yeux avec du fard1 tu t'embellis en vain4--,french ,bible4 #eec ,the word any is here omitted1 not merely because it is unnecessary1 but because every any other piece1--with which a score of our grammarians have pleased themselves1--is not good ,english4 ,the impropriety might perhaps be avoided1 though less elegantly1 by repeating the preposition1 and saying1--or of any other piece of writing4--,g4 ,,brown4 #eed ,this correction1 as well as the others which relate to what ,murray says of the several forms of ellipsis1 doubtless conveys the sense which he intended to express2 but1 as an assertion1 it is by no means true of all the examples which he subjoins1 neither indeed are the rest4 ,but that is a fault of his which ,i cannot correct4--,g4 ,,brown4 #eee ,the article may be repeated in examples like these1 without producing impropriety2 but then it will alter the construction of the adjectives1 and render the expression more formal and emphatic1 by suggesting a repetition of the noun4--,g4 ,,brown4 #eef ,the whole number of verbs in the ,english language1 regular and irregular1 simple and compounded1 taken together1 is about #dcjj4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #ei2 ,murray's1 #abmo1 p4 #ih2 #hvo1 p4 #aji2 et al4 #eeg ,in ,singer's ,shakspeare1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #die1 this sentence is expressed and pointed thus3 ,o1 shame6 where is thy blush8--,hamlet1 ,act ,,iii1 ,sc4 #d4 ,this is as if the speaker meant1 ,o6 it is a shame6 where is thy blush8 ,such is not the sense above2 for there ,shame is the person addressed4 #eeh ,if1 in each of these sentences1 the colon were substituted for the latter semicolon1 the curves might well be spared4 ,lowth has a similar passage1 which 7bating a needful variation of guillemets7 he pointed thus3 as ----1 as2 expressing a comparison of equality2 'as white as snow3' as ----1 so2 expressing a comparison sometimes of equality2 'as the stars1 so shall thy seed be2' that is1 equal in number3 but c4--,lowth's ,gram41 p4 #aji4 ,murray1 who broke this passage into paragraphs1 retained at first these semicolons1 but afterwards changed them all to colons4 ,of later grammarians1 some retain the former colon in each sentence2 some1 the latter2 and some1 neither4 ,hiley points thus3 ,as requires as1 expressing equality2 as1 ',he is as good as she4'--,hiley's ,e4 ,gram41 p4 #ajg4