file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #aaehg-;h4htm or #aaehg-;h4zip3 7http3_/_/www4ibiblio4org_/gutenberg_/#a _/a_/e_/h_/aaehg_/aaehg-;h_/#aaehg-;h4ht m7 or 7http3_/_/www4ibiblio4org_/gutenberg_/#a _/a_/e_/h_/aaehg_/aaehg-;h4zip7 ,,the ,,school ,,book ,,of ,,forestry ,by ,,charles ,,lathrop ,,pack ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,tree ,,association #aibb ,illustration3 ,,forest ,,fire ,,guard ,,stationed ,,in ,a ,,tree ,,top ,,the ,,author ,,gratefully ,,acknowledges ,,information ,,and ,,assistance ,,from ,,the ,,writings ,,and ,,reports ,,of ,,col4 ,w4,b4 ,,greeley1 ,u4,s4 ,,forester2 ,,col4 ,,henry ,s4 ,,graves1 ,,former ,u4,s4 ,,forester2 ,,gifford ,,pinchot1 ,,former ,u4,s4 ,,forester2 ,,dr4 ,b4,e4 ,,fernow1 ,,dr4 ,j4,w4 ,,toumey1 ,f4,w4 ,,besley1 ,w4,i4 ,,hutchinson1 ,r4,h4,d4 ,,boerker1 ,,prof4 ,,nelson ,c4 ,,brown1 ,,prof4 ,r4,s4 ,,hosmer1 ,e4,a4 ,,sterling1 ,r4,s4 ,,kellogg1 ,e4,t4 ,,allen1 ,s4 ,,gordon ,,dorrance1 ,,dr4 ,,hugh ,p4 ,,baker1 ,,alfred ,,gaskill1 ,j4,s4 ,,illick1 ,,and ,,many ,,other ,,leaders ,,in ,,forestry4 ,,the ,,part ,,of ,,good ,,citizens ,a people without children would face a hopeless future2 a country without trees is almost as helpless2 forests which are so used that they cannot renew themselves will soon vanish1 and with them all their benefits4 ,when you help to preserve our forests or plant new ones you are acting the part of good citizens4 --,,theodore ,,roosevelt4 ,,introduction ,our forests1 with their billions of trees1 are the backbone of agriculture1 the skeleton of lumbering1 and the heart of industry4 ,even now1 in spite of their depletion1 they are the cream of our natural resources4 ,they furnish wood for the nation1 pasture for thousands of cattle and sheep1 and water supply for countless cities and farms4 ,they are the dominions of wild life4 ,millions of birds1 game animals1 and fish live in the forests and the forest streams4 ,the time is coming when our forests will be the greatest playgrounds of ,america4 ,it is necessary that we preserve1 protect1 and expand our timberlands4 ,by so doing we shall provide for the needs of future generations4 ,the forest is one of the most faithful friends of man4 ,it provides him with materials to build homes4 ,it furnishes fuel4 ,it aids agriculture by preventing floods and storing the surplus rainfall in the soil for the use of farm crops4 ,it supplies the foundation for all our railroads4 ,it is the producer of fertile soils4 ,it gives employment to millions of workmen4 ,it is a resource which bountifully repays kind treatment4 ,it is the best organized feature of the plant world4 ,the forest is not merely a collection of different kinds of trees4 ,it is a permanent asset which will yield large returns over long periods when properly managed4 ,our forest fortune has been thoughtlessly squandered by successive generations of spendthrifts4 ,fortunately1 it is not too late to rebuild it through coperative effort4 ,the work has been well begun1 but it is a work of years1 and it is to the youth of the country that we must look for its continuous expansion and perpetuation4 ,a part of our effort must be directed toward familiarizing them with the needs and rewards of an intelligent forestry policy4 ,,contents ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i4 ,,how ,,trees ,,grow ,,and ,,multiply ,,ii4 ,,the ,,forest ,,families ,,iii4 ,,forests ,,and ,,floods ,,iv4 ,,wild ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,forest ,v4 ,,important ,,forest ,,trees ,,and ,,their ,,uses ,,vi4 ,,the ,,greatest ,,enemy ,,of ,,the ,,forest--,,fire ,,vii4 ,,insects ,,and ,,diseases ,,that ,,destroy ,,forests ,,viii4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,forestry ,,idea ,,ix4 ,,our ,,national ,,forests ,x4 ,,the ,,national ,,forests ,,of ,,alaska ,,xi4 ,,progress ,,in ,,state ,,forestry ,,xii4 ,,the ,,playgrounds ,,of ,,the ,,nation ,,xiii4 ,,solving ,,our ,,forestry ,,problems ,,xiv4 ,,why ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,should ,,practice ,,forestry ,,xv4 ,,why ,,the ,,lumberman ,,should ,,practice ,,forestry ,,xvi4 ,,why ,,the ,,farmer ,,should ,,practice ,,forestry ,,xvii4 ,,putting ,,wood ,,waste ,,to ,,work ,,xviii4 ,,wood ,,for ,,the ,,nation ,,illustrations ,forest ,fire ,guard ,stationed in a ,tree ,top ,section of a ,virgin ,forest ,the ,sequoias of ,california ,a ,forest ,ranger and ,his ,forest ,cabin ,pine ,which ,yields ,turpentine and ,timber ,forest ,fires ,destroy ,millions of ,dollars ,worth of ,timber ,every ,year ,blackened ,ruins of a ,fire ,swept ,forest ,forest ,management ,provides for ,cutting ,mature ,trees ,seed ,beds in a ,forest ,nursery ,sowing ,forest ,seed in an ,effort to ,grow a ,new ,forest ,a ,camping ,ground in a ,national ,forest ,good ,forests ,mean ,good ,hunting and ,fishing ,young ,white ,pine ,seeded from ,adjoining ,pine ,trees ,what ,some ,kinds of ,timber ,cutting ,do to a ,forest ,on ,poor ,soil ,trees are ,more ,profitable ,than ,farm ,crops ,a ,forest ,crop on its ,way to the ,market ,transcriber's note3 ,section of a ,virgin ,forest is the seventh 7not the second7 illustration in the book4 ,,chapter ,i ,,how ,,trees ,,grow ,,and ,,multiply ,the trees of the forest grow by forming new layers of wood directly under the bark4 ,trees are held upright in the soil by means of roots which reach to a depth of many feet where the soil is loose and porous4 ,these roots are the supports of the tree4 ,they hold it rigidly in position4 ,they also supply the tree with food4 ,through delicate hairs on the roots1 they absorb soil moisture and plant food from the earth and pass them along to the tree4 ,the body of the tree acts as a passage way through which the food and drink are conveyed to the top or crown4 ,the crown is the place where the food is digested and the regeneration of trees effected4 ,the leaves contain a material known as chlorophyll1 which1 in the presence of light and heat1 changes mineral substances into plant food4 ,chlorophyll gives the leaves their green color4 ,the cells of the plant that are rich in chlorophyll have the power to convert carbonic-acid gas into carbon and oxygen4 ,these cells combine the carbon and the soil water into chemical mixtures which are partially digested when they reach the crown of the tree4 ,the water1 containing salts1 which is gathered by the roots is brought up to the leaves4 ,here it combines with the carbonic-acid gas taken from the air4 ,under the action of chlorophyll and sunlight these substances are split up1 the carbon1 oxygen and hydrogen being combined into plant food4 ,it is either used immediately or stored away for future emergency4 ,trees breathe somewhat like human beings4 ,they take in oxygen and give off carbonic-acid gas4 ,the air enters the tree through the leaves and small openings in the bark1 which are easily seen in such trees as the cherry and birch4 ,trees breathe constantly1 but they digest and assimilate food only during the day and in the presence of light4 ,in the process of digestion and assimilation they give off oxygen in abundance1 but they retain most of the carbonic acid gas1 which is a plant food1 and whatever part of it is not used immediately is stored up by the tree and used for its growth and development4 ,trees also give off their excess moisture through the leaves and bark4 ,otherwise they would become waterlogged during periods when the water is rising rapidly from the roots4 ,after the first year1 trees grow by increasing the thickness of the older buds4 ,increase in height and density of crown cover is due to the development of the younger twigs4 ,new growth on the tree is spread evenly between the wood and bark over the entire body of the plant4 ,this process of wood production resembles a factory enterprise in which three layers of material are engaged4 ,in the first two of these delicate tissues the wood is actually made4 ,the inner side of the middle layer produces new wood while the outer side grows bark4 ,the third layer is responsible for the production of the tough1 outer bark4 ,year after year new layers of wood are formed around the first layers4 ,this first layer finally develops into heartwood1 which1 so far as growth is concerned1 is dead material4 ,its cells are blocked up and prevent the flow of sap4 ,it aids in supporting the tree4 ,the living sapwood surrounds the heartwood4 ,each year one ring of this sapwood develops4 ,this process of growth may continue until the annual layers amount to #ej or #ajj1 or more1 according to the life of the tree4 ,one can tell the age of a tree by counting the number of annual rings4 ,sometimes1 because of the interruption of normal growth1 two false rings may be produced instead of a single true ring4 ,however1 such blemishes are easy for the trained eye to recognize4 ,heartwood does not occur in all varieties of trees4 ,in some cases1 where both heartwood and sapwood appear1 it is difficult to distinguish between them as their colors are so nearly alike4 ,because it takes up so much moisture and plant food1 sapwood rots much more quickly than heartwood4 ,the sapwood really acts as a pipe line to carry water from the roots to the top of the tree4 ,in some of our largest trees the moisture is raised as high as #cjj feet or more through the sapwood4 ,strange though it may seem1 trees fight with each other for a place in the sunlight4 ,sprightly trees that shoot skyward at a swift pace are the ones that develop into the monarchs of the forest4 ,they excel their mates in growth because at all times they are exposed to plenty of light4 ,the less fortunate trees1 that are more stocky and sturdy1 and less speedy in their climb toward the sky1 are killed out in large numbers each year4 ,the weaker1 spindly trees of the forest1 which are slow growers1 often are smothered out by the more vigorous trees4 ,some trees are able to grow in the shade4 ,they develop near or under the large trees of the forest4 ,when the giants of the woodland die1 these smaller trees1 which previously were shaded1 develop rapidly as a result of their freedom from suppression4 ,in many cases they grow almost as large and high as the huge trees that they replace4 ,in our eastern forests the hemlock often follows the white pine in this way4 ,spruce trees may live for many years in dense shade4 ,then finally1 when they have access to plenty of light they may develop into sturdy trees4 ,a tree that is a pigmy in one locality may rank as a giant in another region due to different conditions of growth and climate4 ,for example1 the canoe birch at its northern limit is a runt4 ,it never grows higher than a few feet above the ground4 ,under the most favorable conditions in ,florida1 where this species thrives1 such trees often tower to a height of #abe feet4 ,in sheltered regions the seeds of trees may fall1 sprout and take root close to their parent trees4 ,as a rule1 the wind plays a prominent part in distributing seed in every section of the country4 ,pine and fir seeds are equipped with wings like those of a bird or an airplane4 ,they enable the seeds to fly long distances on the wind before they drop to the ground and are covered with leaves4 ,maple seeds fly by means of double-winged sails which carry them far afield before they settle4 ,ash seeds have peculiar appendages which act like a skate-sail in transporting them to distant sections4 ,cottonwood seeds have downy wings which aid their flight1 while basswood seeds are distributed over the country by means of parachute-like wings4 ,the pods of the locust tree fall on the frozen ground or snow crust and are blown long distances from their source4 ,on the other hand1 oak1 hickory1 and chestnut trees produce heavy seeds which generally remain where they fall4 ,squirrels are the most industrious foresters in the animal world4 ,each year they bury great quantities of tree seeds in hoards or caches hidden away in hollow logs or in the moss and leaves of the forest floor4 ,birds also scatter tree seed here1 there1 and everywhere over the forests and the surrounding country4 ,running streams and rivers carry seeds uninjured for many miles and finally deposit them in places where they sprout and grow into trees4 ,many seeds are carried by the ocean currents to distant foreign shores4 ,the decay of leaves and woodland vegetation forms rich and fertile soils in the forests1 in which conditions are favorable for the development of new tree growth4 ,when living tree seeds are exposed to proper amounts of moisture1 warmth and air in a fertile soil1 they will sprout and grow4 ,a root develops which pushes its way down into the soil1 while the leaf-bud of the plant1 which springs from the other end of the seed1 works its way upward toward the light and air4 ,this leafy part of the seed finally forms the stem of the tree4 ,but trees may produce plenty of seed and yet fail to maintain their proper proportion in the forest4 ,this results because much of the seed is unsound4 ,even where a satisfactory supply of sound fertile seed is produced1 it does not follow that the trees of that variety will be maintained in the forest1 as the seed supply may be scattered in unfavorable positions for germination4 ,millions of little seedlings1 however1 start to grow in the forest each year1 but only a small number survive and become large trees4 ,this is because so many of the seedlings are destroyed by forest fires1 cattle and sheep grazing1 unfavorable soil and weather conditions1 and many other causes4 ,beech and chestnut trees and others of the broad-leaved type reproduce by means of sprouts as well as by seed4 ,generally1 the young stumps of broad-leaved trees produce more sprouts than the stumps of older trees which have stood for some time4 ,among the cone-bearing trees reproduction by sprouts is rare4 ,the redwood of ,california is one of the few exceptions4 ,the pitch pine of the ,eastern ,states produces many sprouts1 few of which live and develop into marketable timber4 ,when trees are grown in nurseries1 the practice is to sow the seed in special beds filled with rich soil4 ,lath screens are used as shade4 ,they protect the young seedlings from the sun just as the parent trees would do in the forest4 ,the seedbeds are kept well cultivated and free of weeds so that the seedlings may have the best opportunities for rapid growth4 ,generally the seeds are sown in the spring between ,march and ,may4 ,such seeds as the elms and soft maples1 which ripen in the early summer1 are sown as soon as possible after they are gathered4 ,practical tests have shown that thick sowings of tree seeds give the best results4 ,there is little danger of weeds smothering out the seedlings under such conditions4 ,after the seed has germinated the beds may be thinned so that the seedlings will have more room to develop4 ,during the fall of the same year1 or in the following spring1 the seedlings should be transplanted to nursery rows4 ,thereafter it is customary to transplant the young trees at least once again during damp weather4 ,when the trees finally are robust and vigorous and have reached the age of two to five years1 they are dug up carefully and set out permanently4 ,the usual practice is to keep the seedlings one year in the seedbed and two years in the nursery rows before they are set out4 ,whether the transplanting should take place during the spring or fall depends largely on the climate and geography of the locality4 ,practical experience is the best guide in such matters4 ,some farmers and land owners are now interested in setting out hardwood forests for commercial purposes4 ,if they do not wish to purchase their seedlings from a reliable nursery-man1 they can grow them from carefully selected seed planted in well-prepared seedbeds4 ,the popular practice is to sow the seed in drills about #b to #c feet apart so that horses may be used for cultivation4 ,the seeds are sown to a depth of #b to #c times their thickness4 ,they are placed close enough in the drill so that from #ab to #ae seedlings to the linear foot result4 ,in order to hasten the sprouting of the seeds1 some planters soak them in cold water for several days before sowing4 ,in the case of such hard-coated seed as the black locust or honey locust1 it is best to soak them in hot water before planting4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,forest ,,families ,trees are as queer in picking out places to live and in their habits of growth as are the peoples of the various races which inhabit the world4 ,some trees do best in the icy northland4 ,they become weak and die when brought to warm climates4 ,others that are accustomed to tropical weather fail to make further growth when exposed to extreme cold4 ,the appearance of ,jack ,frost means death to most of the trees that come from near the equator4 ,even on the opposite slopes of the same mountain the types of trees are often very different4 ,trees that do well on the north side require plenty of moisture and cool weather4 ,those that prosper on south exposures are equipped to resist late and early frosts as well as very hot sunshine4 ,the moisture needs of different trees are as remarkable as their likes and dislikes for warmth and cold4 ,some trees attain large size in a swampy country4 ,trees of the same kind will become stunted in sections where dry weather persists4 ,in some parts of the ,united ,states forestry experts can tell where they are by the local tree growth4 ,for example1 in the extreme northern districts the spruce and the balsam fir are native4 ,as one travels farther south these give way to little ,jack pine and aspen trees4 ,next come the stately forests of white and ,norway pine4 ,sometimes a few slow-growing hemlock trees appear in the colder sections4 ,if one continues his journey toward the equator he will next pass through forests of broad-leaved trees4 ,they will include oak1 maple1 beech1 chestnut1 hickory1 and sycamore4 ,in ,kentucky1 which is a centre of the broad-leaved belt1 there are several hundred different varieties of trees4 ,farther south1 the cone-bearing species prevail4 ,they are followed in the march toward the ,gulf of ,mexico by the tropical trees of southern ,florida4 ,if one journeys west from the ,mississippi ,river across the ,great ,plains he finally will come to the ,rocky ,mountains1 where evergreen trees predominate4 ,if oak1 maple1 poplar1 or other broad-leaved trees grow in that region1 they occur in scattered stands4 ,in the eastern forests the trees are close together4 ,they form a leafy canopy overhead4 ,in the forests of the ,rockies the evergreens stand some distance apart so that their tops do not touch4 ,as a result1 these ,western forests do not shade the ground as well as those in the east4 ,this causes the soils of these forests to be much drier1 and also increases the danger from fire4 ,the forests of western ,washington and ,oregon1 unlike most timberlands of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region1 are as dense as any forests in the world4 ,even at midday it is as dark as twilight in these forests4 ,the trees are gigantic4 ,they tower #aej to #cjj feet above the ground4 ,their trunks often are #f feet or larger in diameter4 ,they make the trees of the eastern forests look stunted4 ,they are excelled in size only by the mammoth redwood trees of northern ,california and the giant ,sequoias of the southern ,sierras4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sequoias ,,of ,,california ,differences of climate have largely influenced tree growth and types in this country4 ,the distribution of tree families is changing all the time4 ,it shifts just as the climate and other conditions change4 ,trees constantly strive among themselves for control of different localities4 ,for a time one species will predominate4 ,then other varieties will appear and displace the ones already established4 ,the distribution of trees changes very remarkably from one century to another4 ,for example1 in some sections1 the red and black oaks are replacing the white oaks4 ,some trees are light-lovers4 ,they require much more sunlight than others that do well under heavy shade4 ,oak trees require plenty of light2 maples or beeches thrive on little light4 ,the seed of trees requiring little light may be scattered in a dense forest together with that of trees which need plenty of daylight in order to make normal growth4 ,the seedlings that like shade will develop under such conditions while those that need light will pine away and die4 ,gradually the shade-loving trees will replace the light-loving trees in such a forest stand4 ,even the different trees of the same family often strive with one another for light and moisture4 ,each tree differs from every other one in shape and size4 ,trees will adapt themselves to the light and moisture conditions to which they are exposed4 ,a tree that has access to plenty of moisture and sunlight grows evenly from the ground to its top with a bushy1 wide-spreading crown4 ,the same tree1 if it grows in the shade1 will reach a greater height but will have a small compact crown4 ,trees run a race in their rapidity of growth4 ,the winners get the desirable places in the sunlight and prosper4 ,the losers develop into stunted trees that often die1 due to lack of light exposure4 ,a better quality of lumber results from tall straight trees than that produced by the symmetrical1 branching trees4 ,that is why every forester who sets out trees tries to provide conditions which will make them grow tall and with the smallest possible covering of branches on the lower part of the trunks4 ,where trees are exposed to strong winds1 they develop deep and strong root systems4 ,they produce large and strong trunks that can bend and resist violent winds which sway and twist them in every direction4 ,such trees are much stronger and sturdier than those that grow in a sheltered forest4 ,the trees that are blown down in the forest provide space for the introduction and growth of new varieties4 ,these activities are constantly changing the type of tree growth in the forest4 ,our original forests which bordered the ,atlantic coast line when ,america was first settled1 were dense and impenetrable4 ,the colonists feared the forests because they sheltered the hostile ,indians who lurked near the white settlements4 ,in time this fear of the forest developed into hatred of the forest4 ,as a result1 the colonists cut trees as rapidly as they could4 ,in every way they fought back the wilderness4 ,they and their children's children have worked so effectively that the original wealth of woodlands has been depleted4 ,at present1 cleared fields and cutover areas abound in regions that at one time were covered with magnificent stands of timber4 ,in many sections of the country our forests are now so reduced that they are of little commercial importance4 ,however1 these areas are not yet entirely denuded4 ,predictions have been made frequently that our woodlands would soon disappear4 ,scientific foresters report that such statements are incorrect4 ,there are only a few districts in the country which probably will never again support much tree growth4 ,their denuded condition is due largely to the destruction of the neighboring mountain forests and to the activities of erosion4 ,under ordinary conditions1 natural reforestation will maintain a satisfactory tree growth on lands where a practical system of forest protection is practiced4 ,the complete removal of the forest is now accomplished only in fertile farming regions1 where the agricultural value of the land is too high to permit it to remain longer in forest cover4 ,even in the ,mississippi ,valley and the ,great ,lakes belts there are still large areas of forest land4 ,most of the farms have woodlots which provide fuel1 fencing1 and some lumber4 ,for the most part1 these farm woodlots are abused4 ,they have not been managed correctly4 ,fortunately1 a change for the better is now evident4 ,the farm woodlot owners are coming to appreciate the importance of protecting the trees for future use4 ,in some cases1 they are even replanting areas that have been cut over4 ,there are large tracts of sandy1 rocky and swampy land in these districts that are satisfactory for tree production4 ,in fact1 about all these fields are good for is the growing of timber4 ,campaigns are now under way to increase tree planting and develop the production of lands adapted for forestry which previously have been idle4 ,the ,united ,states of the future will not be a desert1 tree-less country4 ,however1 immediate measures to save our remaining trees must be developed4 ,the greater part of our virgin timber has already been felled4 ,the aftermath forests1 which succeed the virgin stand1 generally are inferior4 ,our supplies of ash1 black walnut and hickory1 once abundant1 are now seriously limited4 ,formerly1 these mixed forests covered vast stretches of country which today support only a scant crop of young trees which will not be ready for market for many years4 ,these second-growth stands will never approach in value or quality the original forests4 ,over large areas1 poplar1 white birch1 and ,jack pine trees now predominate on lands which formerly bore dense stands of white pine4 ,in many places1 scrubby underbrush and stunted trees occupy lands which heretofore have been heavy producers of marketable timber trees4 ,generally speaking1 farm lands should not be used for forestry purposes4 ,on the other hand1 some forest lands can be profitably cleared and used for agriculture4 ,for example1 settlers are felling trees and fighting stumps in northern ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1 and ,minnesota4 ,some of these virgin lands are valuable for farming purposes1 others are not4 ,it is preferable that they should produce farm crops instead of tree crops if the land is best adapted to agricultural use4 ,it is an economic necessity that all lands in this country best suited for farming purposes should be tilled4 ,our ever-increasing population demands that every acre of land useful for growing crops should be cleared and devoted to farming4 ,under such conditions1 the settlers should reserve sufficient woodlands for their home needs1 carefully distinguishing between the land that is best for agricultural purposes and the land that is best for forestry purposes1 and thus doubling their resources4 ,thoughtless lumbermen have pillaged millions of acres of our most productive forests4 ,the early lumbermen wasted our woodland resources4 ,they made the same mistakes as everyone else in the care and protection of our original forests4 ,the greatest blame for the wasting of our lumber resources rests with the ,state and ,federal authorities who permitted the depletion4 ,many of our lumbermen now appreciate the need of preserving and protecting our forests for future generations4 ,some of them have changed their policies and are now doing all in their power to aid forest conservation4 ,the ability of a properly managed forest to produce new crops of trees year after year promises us a future supply of wood sufficient for all our needs if only we will conserve our timberlands as they deserve4 ,it is our duty to handle the forests in the same way that fertile farming fields are managed4 ,that is to say1 they should be so treated that they will yield a profitable money crop every year without reducing their powers of future production4 ,private owners and farmers are coming slowly to realize the grave importance of preserving and extending our woodlands4 ,the public1 the ,state and the ,nation are now solidly behind the movement to improve our forestry and to safe-guard our forests4 ,several of the ,states1 including ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania1 have purchased large areas of timberlands for ,state forests4 ,these will be developed as future sources of lumber supply4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,forests ,,and ,,floods ,forests are necessary at the headwaters of streams4 ,the trees break the force of the rain drops1 and the forest floor1 acting as a large sponge1 absorbs rainfall and prevents run-off and floods4 ,unless there are forests at the sources of streams and rivers1 floods occur4 ,the spring uprisings of the ,mississippi1 ,ohio and ,missouri ,rivers are due largely to the lack of forests at their headwaters4 ,in the regions drained by these streams the run-off water is not absorbed as it should be4 ,it flows unimpeded from the higher levels to the river valleys4 ,it floods the river courses with so much water that they burst their banks and pour pell-mell over the surrounding country4 ,many floods which occur in the ,united ,states occur because we have cut down large areas of trees which formerly protected the sources of streams and rivers4 ,a grave danger that threatens western farming is that some time in the future the greater part of the vegetation and forest cover on the watersheds of that section may entirely disappear4 ,such a condition would cause floods after every heavy rain4 ,the available supplies of rainwater which are needed for the thirsty crops would be wasted as flood waters4 ,these floods would cause great damage in the valleys through which they rushed4 ,the freshets would be followed by periods of water famine4 ,the streams would then be so low that they could not supply the normal demands4 ,farmers would suffer on account of the lack of irrigation water4 ,towns and cities that depended on the mountain streams for their water supplies would be handicapped severely4 ,in a thousand and one ways1 a deficient water supply due to forest depletion would cause hardships and suffering in the regions exposed to such misfortune4 ,the important part which forests play in the development of our country is shown by the fact that from the streams of the ,national ,forests over #gjj western cities and towns1 with an aggregate population of nearly #b1ejj1jjj1 obtain their domestic water supply4 ,the forests include #abff irrigation projects and #cbe water-power plants1 in addition to many other power and irrigation companies which depend on the ,government timberlands for water conservation and the regulation of rain water run-off and stream flow4 ,the ,national ,forests aid greatly in conserving and making available for use the precious limited rainfall of the arid regions4 ,that is why settlers in irrigated districts are deeply interested in the cutting of timber in the ,federal woodlands4 ,destructive lumbering is never practiced in these forests4 ,in its place has been substituted a system of management that assures the continued preservation of the forest-cover4 ,uncle ,sam is paying special attention to the western water-sheds which supply reclamation and irrigation projects4 ,he understands that the ability of the forest to regulate stream flow is of great importance4 ,the irrigation farmers also desire a regular flow1 evenly distributed1 throughout the growing season4 ,one of the chief reasons for the establishment of the ,national ,forest was to preserve the natural conditions favorable to stream flow4 ,in a treeless country1 the rise of the streams is a very accurate measure of the rainfall4 ,in the region where forests are frequent1 an ordinary rain is scarcely noticed in its effect on the stream4 ,in a denuded district no natural obstacles impede the raindrops as they patter to the ground4 ,the surface of the soil is usually hard4 ,it is baked and dried out by the sun4 ,it is not in condition to absorb or retain much of the run-off water1 consequently1 the rain water finds little to stop it as it swirls down the slopes4 ,in torrents it rushes down the stream beds1 like sheets of water flowing down the steep roof of a house4 ,conditions are very different in a region where forest cover is abundant4 ,in the forests1 the tops of the trees catch much of the rain that falls4 ,the leaves1 twigs1 branches and trunks of the trees also soak up considerable moisture4 ,the amount of rainfall that directly strikes the ground is relatively small4 ,the upper layer of the forested ground consists of a network of shrubs1 and dead leaves1 branches1 and moss4 ,this forest carpet acts like an enormous sponge4 ,it soaks up the moisture which drops from the trees during a storm4 ,it can absorb and hold for a time a rainfall of four or five inches4 ,the water that finally reaches the ground sinks into the soil and is evaporated or runs off slowly4 ,the portion that is absorbed by the soil is taken up by the roots of the trees and plants or goes to supply springs and watercourses4 ,the power of the trees and forest soil to absorb water regulates the rate at which the rainfall is fed to the streams and rivers4 ,frequently it takes weeks and even months for all the waters of a certain rain to reach these streams4 ,this gradual supplying of water to the streams regulates their flow4 ,it prevents floods and freshets4 ,careful observation and measurements have shown that unforested regions will discharge rain water at least twice as fast as will forested districts4 ,the stealing of soil by erosion occurs where run-off waters are not obstructed by forest growth4 ,silt1 sand1 and every other kind of soil are swept from their natural positions and spritted away by the foaming waters as they surge down the steep slopes4 ,the stream or river which is flooded by these rushing waters roars down its narrow channel1 tearing loose and undermining the jutting banks4 ,in some cases1 it will break from its ordinary course to flood exposed fields and to carry away more soil4 ,as the speed of the stream increases its power to steal soil and carry it off is increased4 ,engineers report that the carrying power of a stream is increased #fd times when its rate of flow is doubled4 ,if the flow of a river is speeded up ten times1 this raging torrent will be able to carry one million times as much foreign material as it did when it was flowing at a normal rate of speed1 causing inexpressible damage and destruction of life and property4 ,the protection afforded by forests on the water-sheds of streams furnishing the domestic water supply for cities and towns is becoming more fully realized4 ,a large number of cities and towns have purchased and are maintaining municipal or communal forests for this very reason4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,wild ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,forest ,the forests of our country are the home and breeding grounds of hundreds of millions of birds and game animals1 which the forests provide with food and shelter4 ,if we had no forests1 many of these birds and animals would soon disappear4 ,the acorns and other nuts that the squirrels live upon are examples of the food that the forest provides for its residents4 ,in the clear1 cold streams of the forests there are many different kinds of fish4 ,if the forests were destroyed by cutting or fire many of the brooks and rivers would either dry up or the water would become so low that thousands of fish would die4 ,the most abundant game animals of forest regions are deer1 elk1 antelope and moose4 ,partridge1 grouse1 quail1 wild turkeys and other game birds are plentiful in some regions4 ,the best known of all the inhabitants of the woods are the squirrels4 ,the presence of these many birds and animals adds greatly to the attractiveness of the forest4 ,predatory animals1 such as wolves1 bears1 mountain lions1 coyotes and bobcats also live in the forest4 ,they kill much livestock each year in the mountain regions of the ,western ,states and they also prey on some species of bird life4 ,the ,federal and some ,state governments now employ professional hunters to trap and shoot these marauders4 ,each year the hunters kill thousands of predatory animals1 thus saving the farmers and cattle and sheep owners many thousands of dollars4 ,sportsmen are so numerous and hunting is so popular1 that game refuges have to be provided in the forests and parks4 ,were it not for these havens of refuge where hunting is not permitted1 some of our best known wild game and birds would soon be extinct4 ,there are more than #aa1fdj1fdh acres of forest land in the government game refuges4 ,california has #bb game refuges in her #ag ,national ,forests4 ,new ,mexico has #ai1 while ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,colorado1 ,washington and ,oregon also have set aside areas of government forest land for that purpose4 ,in establishing a game refuge1 it is necessary to pick out a large area of land that contains enough good feed for both the summer and winter use of the animals that will inhabit it4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,forest ,,ranger ,,and ,,his ,,forest ,,cabin ,livestock is sometimes grazed on game refuges1 but only in small numbers1 so that plenty of grass will be left for the support of the wild game4 ,the refuges are under the direction of the ,federal and the ,state game departments4 ,to perpetuate game animals and game birds1 it is not enough to pass game laws and forbid the shooting of certain animals and birds except at special times of the year2 it is also necessary to provide good breeding grounds for the birds and animals where they will not be molested or killed4 ,the game refuges provide such conditions4 ,the division of the range country into small farms and the raising of all kinds of crops have1 it is claimed1 done more to decrease our herds of antelope1 elk1 deer and other big game than have the rifles of the hunters4 ,the plow and harrow have driven the wild life back into the rougher country4 ,the snow becomes very deep in the mountains in the winter and the wild animals could not get food were it not for the game refuges in the low country4 ,in the ,yellowstone ,national ,park country great bands of elk come down from the mountains during severe winters and have to be fed on hay to keep them from starving1 as there is not sufficient winter range in this region to supply food for the thousands of elk4 ,where the elk are protected from hunters they increase rapidly4 ,this means that some of the surplus animals have to be killed1 otherwise1 the elk would soon be so numerous that they would seriously interfere with the grazing of domestic livestock4 ,in different sections of the elk country1 a count is made every few years on the breeding animals in each band4 ,whenever a surplus accumulates1 the state permits hunters to shoot some of the elk4 ,if the breeding herds get too small1 no hunting is allowed4 ,in this way1 a proper balance is maintained4 ,in many states the wild game birds and fur-bearing animals of the forests are protected by closed seasons during which hunting is not permitted4 ,it is realized that birds and animals are not only of interest to visitors to the forests1 but that they1 as well as the trees1 are a valuable forest product4 ,,chapter ,v ,,important ,,forest ,,trees ,,and ,,their ,,uses ,of our native trees1 the white pine is one of the best and most valuable4 ,it is a tall straight tree that grows to a height of #ajj to #aej feet4 ,it produces wood that is light in weight and easy to work because it is so soft4 ,at one time there were extensive pine forests in the northeastern states4 ,many of the trees were very large1 and occasionally one may still see pine stumps that are #e to #f feet in diameter4 ,white pine made fine lumber for houses and other buildings and this timber was among the first to be exhausted in the country4 ,spruce trees have long furnished the bulk of the woodpulp used in making our supplies of paper4 ,these trees live in the colder climates of the northern states4 ,they like to grow in low1 wet localities close to lakes or rivers4 ,the spruces generally do not grow higher than #ge-ajj feet4 ,the wood is soft like pine and even whiter in color4 ,the aboriginal ,indians used the roots of the spruce trees as thread1 twine and rope4 ,the cedar trees1 which are landmarks in many of our northern states1 yield light1 soft1 durable wood that is useful in making poles1 fence posts1 lead pencils and cedar chests4 ,the wood of the red cedar gives off a peculiar odor which is said to keep moths away from clothes stored in cedar chests1 but it is the close construction of the chest which keeps them out4 ,these trees are becoming scarce in all parts of the country4 ,cedars generally are small trees that grow slowly and live a long time4 ,the outside wood is white and the heartwood is red or yellow4 ,cedar posts last a long time and are excellent for use in farm fences4 ,chestnut blight1 which destroys entire forests of chestnut timber1 is gradually exhausting our supplies of this wood4 ,chestnut timber has long been used for railroad ties1 fence posts and in the manufacture of cheap furniture4 ,the wood is soft and brown in color4 ,the bark and wood are treated at special plants in such a way that an extract which is valuable for tanning leather is obtained4 ,chestnut trees are upstanding1 straight trees that tower #hj to #ajj feet above the ground4 ,the extinction of our chestnut forests threatens as no effectual control measures for checking the chestnut blight disease over large areas has yet been discovered4 ,the yellow poplar or tulip poplar furnishes timber for the manufacture of furniture1 paper1 the interior of railroad cars and automobiles4 ,the dugouts of the early settlers and ,indians were hewed out of poplar logs4 ,these boats were stronger than those made of canoe birch4 ,poplar wood is yellow in color and soft in texture4 ,the poplar is the largest broad-leaf tree in this country and the trees are of great size and height4 ,some specimens found in the mountains of the ,south have been over #bjj feet high and #h to #aj feet in diameter1 while poplars #abe to #aej feet high are quite common4 ,among our most useful and valuable trees are the white oak1 and its close kin1 the red oak1 which produce a brown-colored1 hard wood of remarkable durability4 ,the white oak is the monarch of the forest1 as it lives very long and is larger and stronger than the majority of its associates4 ,the timber is used for railroad ties1 furniture1 and in general construction work where tough1 durable lumber is needed4 ,many of our wooden ships have been built of oak4 ,the white oaks often grow as high as #ajj feet and attain massive dimensions4 ,the seeds of the white oaks are light brown acorns1 which are highly relished by birds and animals4 ,many southern farmers range their hogs in white oak forests so that the porkers can live on the acorn crop4 ,beech wood is strong and tough and is used in making boxes and barrels and casks for the shipment of butter1 sugar and other foods4 ,it makes axles and shafts for water-wheels that will last for many years4 ,the shoes worn by ,dutch children are generally made of beech4 ,the wood is red in color4 ,the beech tree is of medium size growing to a height of about #ge feet above the ground4 ,there is only one common variety of beech tree in this country4 ,hickory trees are very popular because they produce sweet1 edible nuts4 ,the hickory wood is exceedingly strong and tough and is used wherever stout material is needed4 ,for the spokes1 wheels and bodies of buggies and wagons1 for agricultural implements1 for automobile wheels and for handles1 hickory is unexcelled4 ,the shafts of golf clubs as well as some types of base-ball bats are made of hickory4 ,most hickory trees are easy to identify on account of their shaggy bark4 ,the nuts of the hickory1 which ripen in the autumn1 are sweet1 delicious and much in demand4 ,our native elm tree is stately1 reaching a height of #ajj feet and a diameter of #e to #f feet or more4 ,it is one of our best shade trees4 ,elm wood is light brown in color and very heavy and strong4 ,it is the best available wood for making wagon wheel hubs and is also used largely for baskets and barrels4 ,the rims of bicycle wheels generally are made of elm4 ,the canoe birch is a tree which was treasured by the early ,indians because it yielded bark for making canoes4 ,birch wood is used in making shoe lasts and pegs because of its strength and light weight1 and the millions of spools on which cotton is wound are made of birch wood4 ,school desks and church furniture1 also1 are made of birch4 ,the orange-colored inner bark of the birch tree is so fine and delicate that the early settlers could use it as they would paper4 ,no matter whether birch wood is green or dry1 it will burn readily4 ,the birch was the most useful tree of the forest to the ,indians4 ,its bark was used not only for making their canoes1 but also for building their wigwams4 ,they even dried and ground the inner bark into a flour which they used as a food4 ,the northern sugar maple is another tree which is a favorite in all sections where it is grown4 ,this tree yields a hard wood that is the best and toughest timber grown in some localities4 ,the trees grow to heights of #ge to #ajj feet and attain girths of #e to #i feet4 ,maple lumber is stout and heavy4 ,it makes fine flooring and is used in skating rinks and for bowling alleys4 ,many pianos are made of maple4 ,wooden dishes and rolling pins are usually made from maple wood4 ,during the spring of the year when the sap is flowing1 the average mature maple tree will yield from fifteen to twenty gallons of sap in a period of three to four weeks4 ,this sap is afterwards boiled down to maple syrup and sugar4 ,hemlock trees1 despite the fact that they rank among the most beautiful trees of the forest1 produce lumber which is suitable only for rough building operations4 ,the wood is brown and soft and will not last long when exposed to the weather4 ,it cracks and splits easily because it is so brittle4 ,hemlock is now of considerable importance as pulpwood for making paper4 ,for many years1 a material important for tanning leather has been extracted in large amounts from the bark of hemlock trees4 ,one of the most pleasing uses to which the balsam fir is put is as ,christmas trees4 ,sometimes it is used in making paper pulp4 ,the balsam fir seldom grows higher than #ej feet or thicker than #ab inches4 ,the leaves of this tree have a very sweet odor and are in demand at ,christmas time4 ,foresters and woodsmen often use balsam boughs to make their beds and pillows when camping in the woods4 ,illustration3 ,,pine ,,which ,,yields ,,turpentine ,,and ,,timber ,our native supplies of hardwoods and softwoods are used for general building purposes1 for farm repairs1 for railroad ties1 in the furniture and veneer industry1 in the handle industry1 and in the vehicle and agricultural implement industries4 ,on the average each ,american farmer uses about #b1jjj board feet of lumber each year4 ,new farm building decreased in the several years following the ,world ,war1 due to the high price of lumber and labor4 ,as a result of this lack of necessary building1 millions of dollars worth of farm machinery stood out in the weather4 ,livestock lacked stables in some sections4 ,very little building was done in that period in two hundred and fifty prosperous agricultural counties in thirty-two different states4 ,the railroads consume about #ae per cent4 of our total lumber cut4 ,they use between #ajj1jjj1jjj and #abe1jjj1jjj railroad ties a year4 ,it used to be that most of the cross-ties were of white oak cut close to the places where they were used4 ,now ,douglas fir1 southern pine and other woods are being used largely throughout the ,middle ,western and ,eastern ,states4 ,the supply of white oak ties is small and the prices are high4 ,some years ago1 when white oak was abundant1 the railroads that now are using other cross-ties would not have even considered such material for use in their roadbeds4 ,the fact that other ties are now being used emphasizes the fact that we are short on oak timber in the sections where this hardwood formerly was common4 ,the furniture industry uses hardwoods of superior grade and quality4 ,the factories of this industry have moved from region to region as the supply of hardwoods became depleted4 ,originally1 these factories were located in the ,northeastern ,states4 ,then1 as the supplies of hardwood timber in those sections gave out1 they moved westward4 ,they remained near the ,corn ,belt until the virgin hardwood forests of the ,middle ,west were practically exhausted4 ,the furniture industry is now largely dependent on what hardwoods are left in the remote sections of the ,southern ,appalachians and the lower ,mississippi ,valley4 ,when these limited supplies are used up1 there will be very little more old-growth timber in the country for them to use4 ,the furniture1 veneer1 handle1 vehicle1 automobile and agricultural implement industries all are in competition for hardwood timber4 ,the furniture industry uses #a1bej1jjj1jjj feet of high-grade hardwood lumber annually4 ,production of timber of this type for furniture has decreased as much as #ej per cent4 during the past few years4 ,it is now difficult for the furniture factories and veneer plants to secure enough raw materials4 ,facilities for drying the green lumber artificially are few4 ,it used to be that the hardwood lumber was seasoned for six to nine months before being sold4 ,furniture dealers now have to buy the material green from the sawmills4 ,competition has become so keen that buyers pay high prices4 ,they must have the material to keep their plants running and to supply their trade4 ,the veneer industry provides furniture manufacturers1 musical instrument factories1 box makers and the automobile industry with high-grade material4 ,the industry uses annually #ghj1jjj1jjj board feet of first quality hardwood cut from virgin stands of timber4 ,red gum and white oak are the hardwoods most in demand4 ,in the ,lake ,states1 a branch of the veneer industry which uses maple1 birch and basswood is located4 ,oak formerly was the most important wood used4 ,now red gum has replaced the oak1 as the supplies of the latter timber have dwindled4 ,at present there is less than one-fourth of a normal supply of veneer timber in sight4 ,even the supplies in the farmers' woodlands are being depleted4 ,the industry is now largely dependent on the timber of the southern ,mississippi ,valley4 ,the veneer industry requires best-grade material4 ,clear logs are demanded that are at least #af inches in diameter at the small end4 ,it is getting harder every year to secure such logs4 ,like the furniture industry1 the veneer mills lack adequate supplies of good timber4 ,no satisfactory substitutes for the hickory and ash used in the handle industry have yet been found4 ,about the only stocks of these timbers now left are in the ,southern ,states4 ,even in those parts the supplies are getting short and it is necessary to cut timber in the more remote sections distant from the railroad4 ,the ash shortage is even more serious than that of hickory timber4 ,the supplies of ash in the ,middle ,west ,states north of the ,ohio ,river are practically exhausted4 ,the demand for ash and hickory handles is larger even than before the ,world ,war4 ,the entire world depends on the ,united ,states for handles made from these woods4 ,handle dealers are now willing to pay high prices for ash and hickory timber4 ,some of them prepared for the shortage by buying tracts of hardwood timber4 ,when these reserves are cut over1 these dealers will be in the same position as the rest of the trade4 ,ash and hickory are in demand also by the vehicle and agricultural implement industries4 ,they also use considerable oak and compete with the furniture industry to secure what they need of this timber4 ,most of these plants are located in the ,middle ,west but they draw their timber chiefly from the ,south4 ,hickory is a necessary wood to the vehicle industry for use in spokes and wheels4 ,the factories exert every effort to secure adequate supplies of timber from the farm woodlands1 sawmills and logging camps4 ,the automobile industry now uses considerable hickory in the wheels and spokes of motor cars4 ,most of the stock used by the vehicle industry is purchased green4 ,neither the lumber nor vehicle industry is equipped with enough kilns for curing this green material4 ,the losses in working and manufacturing are heavy1 running as high as #dj per cent4 ,many substitutes for ash1 oak and hickory have been tried but they have failed to prove satisfactory4 ,on account of the shortage and the high prices of hickory1 vehicle factories are using steel in place of hickory wherever possible4 ,steel is more expensive but it can always be secured in quantity when needed4 ,furthermore1 it is durable and very strong4 ,thus we see that our resources of useful soft woods and hard woods have both been so diminished that prompt reforestation of these species is an urgent necessity4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,greatest ,,enemy ,,of ,,the ,,forest--,,fire ,our forests are exposed to destruction by many enemies1 the worst of which is fire4 ,from #h1jjj1jjj to #ab1jjj1jjj acres of forest lands annually are burned over by destructive fires4 ,these fires are started in many different ways4 ,they may be caused by sparks or hot ashes from a locomotive4 ,lightning strikes in many forests every summer1 particularly those of the ,western ,states1 and ignites many trees4 ,in the ,south people sometimes set fires in order to improve the grazing4 ,settlers and farmers who are clearing land often start big brush fires that get out of their control4 ,campers1 tourists1 hunters1 and fishermen are responsible for many forest fires by neglecting to extinguish their campfires4 ,sparks from logging engines also cause fires4 ,cigar and cigarette stubs and burning matches carelessly thrown aside start many forest fires4 ,occasionally fires are also maliciously set by evil-minded people4 ,the officers of the ,national ,forests in the ,west have become very expert in running down the people who set incendiary fires4 ,they collect evidence at the scene of the fire1 such as pieces of letters and envelopes1 matches1 lost handkerchiefs and similar articles4 ,they hunt for foot tracks and hoof marks4 ,they study automobile tire tracks4 ,they make plaster of ,paris impressions of these tracks4 ,they follow the tracks--sometimes ,indian fashion4 ,often there are peculiarities about the tracks which lead to the detection and punishment of the culprits4 ,a horse may be shod in an unusual manner2 a man may have peculiar hob nails or rubber heels on his boots or else his footprints may show some deformity4 ,the forest rangers play the parts of detectives very well4 ,this novel police work has greatly reduced the number of incendiary fires4 ,illustration3 ,,forest ,,fires ,,destroy ,,millions ,,of ,,dollars ,,worth ,,of ,,timber ,,every ,,year ,a forest fire may destroy in a few hours trees that required hundreds of years to grow4 ,a heavy stand of timber may be reduced to a desolate waste because some one forgot to put out a campfire4 ,occasionally large forest fires burn farm buildings and homes and kill hundreds of people4 ,during the dry summer season when a strong wind is blowing1 the fire will run for many miles4 ,it always leaves woe and desolation in its wake4 ,a mammoth forest fire in ,wisconsin many years ago burned over an area of two thousand square miles4 ,it killed about fourteen hundred people and destroyed many millions of dollars worth of timber and other property4 ,a big forest fire in ,michigan laid waste a tract forty miles wide and one hundred and eighty miles long4 ,more than four billion feet of lumber1 worth #aj1jjj1jjj1 was destroyed and several hundred people lost their lives4 ,in recent years1 a destructive forest fire in ,minnesota caused a loss of #be1jjj1jjj worth of timber and property4 ,there are several different kinds of forest fires4 ,some burn unseen two to four feet beneath the surface of the ground4 ,where the soil contains much peat1 these fires may persist for weeks or even months4 ,sometimes1 they do not give off any noticeable smoke4 ,their fuel is the decaying wood1 tree roots and similar material in the soil4 ,these underground fires can be stopped only by flooding the area or by digging trenches down to the mineral soil4 ,the most effectual way to fight light surface fires is to throw sand or earth on the flames4 ,where the fire has not made much headway1 the flames can sometimes be beaten out with green branches1 wet gunny sacks or blankets4 ,the leaves and debris may be raked away in a path so as to impede their advance4 ,usually in the hardwood forests1 there is not much cover1 such as dry leaves1 on the ground4 ,fires in these forests destroy the seedlings and saplings1 but do not usually kill the mature trees4 ,however1 they damage the base of the trees and make it easy for fungi and insects to enter4 ,they also burn the top soil and reduce the water-absorbing powers of the forest floor4 ,in thick1 dense evergreen forests where the carpet is heavy1 fires are much more serious4 ,they frequently kill the standing trees1 burning trunks and branches and even following the roots deep into the ground4 ,dead standing trees and logs aid fires of this kind4 ,the wind sweeps pieces of burning bark or rotten wood great distances to kindle new fires4 ,when they fall1 dead trees scatter sparks and embers over a wide belt4 ,fires also run along the tops of the coniferous trees high above the ground4 ,these are called crown-fires and are very difficult to control4 ,the wind plays a big part in the intensity of a forest fire4 ,if the fire can be turned so that it will run into the wind1 it can be put out more easily4 ,fires that have the wind back of them and plenty of dry fuel ahead1 speed on their way of destruction at a velocity of #e to #aj miles an hour1 or more4 ,they usually destroy everything in their course that will burn1 and waste great amounts of valuable timber4 ,wild animals1 in panic1 run together before the flames4 ,settlers and farmers with their families flee4 ,many are overtaken in the mad flight and perish4 ,the fierce fires of this type can be stopped only by heavy rain1 a change of wind1 or by barriers which provide no fuel and thus choke out the flames4 ,large fires are sometimes controlled by back-firing4 ,a back-fire is a second fire built and so directed as to run against the wind and toward the main fire4 ,when the two fires meet1 both will go out on account of lack of fuel4 ,when properly used by experienced persons1 back-fires are very effectual4 ,in inexperienced hands they are dangerous1 as the wind may change suddenly or they may be lighted too soon4 ,in such cases they often become as great a menace as the main fire4 ,another practical system of fighting fires is to make fire lines around the burning area4 ,these fire lines or lanes as they are sometimes called1 are stretches of land from which all trees and shrubs have been removed4 ,in the centre of the lines a narrow trench is dug to mineral soil or the lines are plowed or burned over so that they are bare of fuel4 ,such lines also are of value around woods and grain fields to keep the fire out4 ,they are commonly used along railroad tracks where locomotive sparks are a constant source of fire dangers4 ,our forests1 on account of their great size and the relatively small man force which guards them1 are more exposed to fire dangers than any other woodlands in the world4 ,the scant rainfall of many of the western states where great unbroken areas of forest are located increases the fire damages4 ,the fact that the western country in many sections is sparsely settled favors destruction by forest fires4 ,the prevalence of lightning in the mountains during the summer adds farther to the danger4 ,one of the most important tasks of the rangers in the ,federal forests is to prevent forest fires4 ,during the fire season1 extra forest guards are kept busy hunting for signs of smoke throughout the forests4 ,the lookouts in their high towers1 which overlook large areas of forest1 watch constantly for smoke1 and as soon as they locate signs of fire they notify the supervisor of the forest4 ,lookouts use special scientific instruments which enable them to locate the position of the fires from the smoke4 ,at the supervisor's headquarters and the ranger stations scattered through the forests1 equipment1 horses and automobiles are kept ready for instant use when a fire is reported4 ,telephone lines and radio sets are used to spread the news about fires that have broken out4 ,from five thousand to six thousand forest fires occur each year in the ,national ,forests of our country4 ,to show how efficient the forest rangers are in fighting fires1 it is worthy of note that by their prompt actions1 #hj per cent4 of these fires are confined to areas of less than ten acres each1 while only #bj per cent4 spread over areas larger than ten acres4 ,lightning causes from #be to #cj per cent4 of the fires4 ,the remaining #gj or #ge per cent4 are classed as man-caused fires1 which are set by campers1 smokers1 railroads1 brush burners1 sawmills and incendiaries4 ,the total annual loss from forest fires in the ,federal forests varies from a few hundred thousands of dollars in favorable years to several million in particularly bad fire seasons4 ,during the last few years1 due to efficient fire-fighting methods1 the annual losses have been steadily reduced4 ,the best way of fighting forest fires is to prevent them4 ,the forest officers do their best to reduce the chances for fire outbreak in the ,government woodlands4 ,they give away much dead timber that either has fallen or still is standing4 ,lumbermen who hold contracts to cut timber in the ,national ,forest are required to pile and burn all the slashings4 ,dry grass is a serious fire menace4 ,that is why grazing is encouraged in the forests4 ,rangers patrol the principal automobile roads to see that careless campers and tourists have not left burning campfires4 ,railroads are required to equip their locomotives with spark-arresters4 ,they also are obliged to keep their rights of way free of material which burns readily4 ,spark-arresters are required also on logging engines4 ,the ,national and ,state ,forests are posted with signs and notices asking the campers and tourists to be careful with campfires1 tobacco and matches4 ,advertisements are run in newspapers1 warning people to be careful so as not to set fire to the forests4 ,exhibits are made at fairs1 shows1 community meetings and similar gatherings1 showing the dangers from forest fires and how these destructive conflagrations may be controlled4 ,every possible means is used to teach the public to respect and protect the forests4 ,illustration3 ,,blackened ,,ruins ,,of ,a ,,fire-,,swept ,,forest ,for many years1 the ,united ,states ,forest ,service and ,state ,forestry ,departments have been keeping a record of forest fires and their causes4 ,studies have been made of the length and character of each fire season4 ,information has been gathered concerning the parts of the forest where lightning is most likely to strike or where campfires are likely to be left by tourists4 ,the spots or zones of greatest fire danger are located in this way and more forest guards are placed in these areas during the dangerous fire season4 ,careful surveys of this kind are aiding greatly in reducing the number of forest fires4 ,in trying to get all possible information about future weather conditions1 the ,forestry ,departments coperate with the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau4 ,when the experts predict that long periods of dry weather or dangerous storms are approaching1 the forest rangers are especially watchful1 as during such times1 the menace to the woods is greatest4 ,the rangers also have big fire maps which they hang in their cabins4 ,these maps show the location of dangerous fire areas1 roads1 trails1 lookout-posts1 cities1 towns and ranches1 sawmills1 logging camps1 telephone lines1 fire tool boxes and other data of value to fire fighters4 ,all this information is so arranged as to be readily available in time of need4 ,it shows where emergency fire fighters1 tools and food supplies can be secured1 and how best to attack a fire in any certain district4 ,a detailed plan for fighting forest fires is also prepared and kept on file at every ranger station4 ,the following are six rules which1 if put in practice1 will help prevent outbreaks of fires3 #a4 ,matches4--,be sure your match is out4 ,break it in two before you throw it away4 #b4 ,tobacco4--,throw pipe ashes and cigar or cigarette stubs in the dust of the road and stamp or pinch out the fire before leaving them4 ,don't throw them into the brush1 leaves or needles4 #c4 ,making camp4--,build a small campfire4 ,build it in the open1 not against a tree or log1 or near brush4 ,scrape away the trash from all around it4 #d4 ,leaving camp4--,never leave a campfire1 even for a short time1 without quenching it with water or earth4 ,be sure it is ,,out4 #e4 ,bonfires4--,never build bonfires in windy weather or where there is the slightest danger of their escaping from control4 ,don't make them larger than you need4 #f4 ,fighting fires4--,if you find a fire1 try to put it out4 ,if you can't1 get word of it to the nearest ,united ,states forest ranger or ,state fire warden at once4 ,remember minutes count in reporting forest fires4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,insects ,,and ,,diseases ,,that ,,destroy ,,forests ,forest insects and tree diseases occasion heavy losses each year among the standing marketable trees4 ,insects cause a total loss of more than #ajj1jjj1jjj annually to the forest products of the ,united ,states4 ,a great number of destructive insects are constantly at work in the forests injuring or killing live trees or else attacking dead timber4 ,forest weevils kill tree seeds and destroy the young shoots on trees4 ,bark and timber beetles bore into and girdle trees and destroy the wood4 ,many borers and timber worms infest logs and lumber after they are cut and before they are removed from the forest4 ,this scattered work of the insects here1 there1 and everywhere throughout the forests causes great damage4 ,different kinds of flies and moths deposit their eggs on the leaves of the trees4 ,after the eggs hatch1 the baby caterpillars feed on the tender1 juicy leaves4 ,some of the bugs destroy all the leaves and thus remove an important means which the tree has of getting food and drink4 ,wire worms attack the roots of the tree4 ,leaf hoppers suck on the sap supply of the leaves4 ,leaf rollers cause the leaves to curl up and die4 ,trees injured by fire fall easy prey before the attacks of forest insects4 ,it takes a healthy1 sturdy tree to escape injury by these pirates of the forests4 ,there are more than five hundred insects that attack oak trees and at least two hundred and fifty different species that carry on destruction among the pines4 ,insect pests have worked so actively that many forests have lost practically all their best trees of certain species4 ,quantities of the largest spruce trees in the ,adirondacks have been killed off by bark beetles4 ,the saw-fly worm has killed off most of the mature larches in these eastern forests4 ,as they travel over the ,national and ,state ,forests1 the rangers are always on the watch for signs of tree infection4 ,whenever they notice red-brown masses of pitch and sawdust on the bark of the trees1 they know that insects are busy there4 ,where the needles of a pine or spruce turn yellow or red1 the presence of bark beetles is shown4 ,signs of pitch on the bark of coniferous trees are the first symptoms of infection4 ,these beetles bore through the bark and into the wood4 ,there they lay eggs4 ,the parent beetles soon die but their children continue the work of burrowing in the wood4 ,finally1 they kill the tree by making a complete cut around the trunk through the layers of wood that act as waiters to carry the food from the roots to the trunk1 branches and leaves4 ,the next spring these young develop into full-grown beetles1 and come out from the diseased tree4 ,they then attack new trees4 ,when the forest rangers find evidences of serious infection1 they cut down the diseased trees4 ,they strip the bark from the trunk and branches and burn it in the fall or winter when the beetles are working in the bark and can be destroyed most easily4 ,if the infection of trees extends over a large tract1 and there is a nearby market for the lumber the timber is sold as soon as possible4 ,trap trees are also used in controlling certain species of injurious forest insects4 ,certain trees are girdled with an ax so that they will become weakened or die1 and thus provide easy means of entrance for the insects4 ,the beetles swarm to such trees in great numbers4 ,when the tree is full of insects1 it is cut down and burned4 ,in this way1 infections which are not too severe can often be remedied4 ,the bark-boring beetles are the most destructive insects that attack our forests4 ,they have wasted enormous tracts of pine timber throughout the southern states4 ,the eastern spruce beetle has destroyed countless feet of spruce4 ,the ,engelmann spruce beetle has devastated many forests of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the ,black ,hills beetle has killed billions of feet of marketable timber in the ,black ,hills of ,south ,dakota4 ,the hickory bark beetle1 the ,douglas fir beetle and the larch worm have been very destructive4 ,forest fungi cause most of the forest tree diseases4 ,a tree disease is any condition that prevents the tree from growing and developing in a normal1 healthy manner4 ,acid fumes from smelters1 frost1 sunscald1 dry or extremely wet weather1 all limit the growth of trees4 ,leaf diseases lessen the food supplies of the trees4 ,bark diseases prevent the movement of the food supplies4 ,sapwood ailments cut off the water supply that rises from the roots4 ,seed and flower diseases prevent the trees from producing more of their kind4 ,most of the tree parasites can gain entrance to the trees only through knots and wounds4 ,infection usually occurs through wounds in the tree trunk or branches caused by lightning1 fire1 or by men or animals4 ,the cone-bearing trees give off pitch to cover such wounds4 ,in this way they protect the injuries against disease infection4 ,the hardwood trees are unable to protect their wounds as effectively as the evergreens4 ,where the wound is large1 the exposed sapwood dies1 dries out1 and cracks4 ,the fungi enter these cracks and work their way to the heartwood4 ,many of the fungi cannot live unless they reach the heartwood of the tree4 ,fires wound the base and trunks of forest trees severely so that they are exposed to serious destruction by heartrot4 ,foresters try to locate and dispose of all the diseased trees in the ,state and ,government forests4 ,they strive to remove all the sources of tree disease from the woods4 ,they can grow healthy trees if all disease germs are kept away from the timberlands4 ,some tree diseases have become established so strongly in forest regions that it is almost impossible to drive them out4 ,for example1 chestnut blight is a fungous disease that is killing many of our most valuable chestnut trees4 ,the fungi of this disease worm their way through the holes in the bark of the trees1 and spread around the trunk4 ,diseased patches or cankers form on the limbs or trunk of the tree4 ,after the canker forms on the trunk1 the tree soon dies4 ,chestnut blight has killed most of the chestnut trees in ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania4 ,it is now active in ,virginia and ,west ,virginia and is working its way down into ,north and ,south ,carolina4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,a ,,virgin ,,forest ,diseased trees are a menace to the forest4 ,they rob the healthy trees of space1 light and food4 ,that is why it is necessary to remove them as soon as they are discovered4 ,in the smaller and older forests of ,europe1 tree surgery and doctoring are practised widely4 ,wounds are treated and cured and the trees are pruned and sprayed at regular intervals4 ,in our extensive woods such practices are too expensive4 ,all the foresters can do is to cut down the sick trees in order to save the ones that are sound4 ,there is a big difference between tree damages caused by forest insects and those caused by forest fungi and mistletoe4 ,the insects are always present in the forest4 ,however1 it is only occasionally that they concentrate and work great injury and damage in any one section4 ,at rare intervals1 some very destructive insects may centre their work in one district4 ,they will kill a large number of trees in a short time4 ,they continue their destruction until some natural agency puts them to flight4 ,the fungi1 on the other hand1 develop slowly and work over long periods4 ,sudden outbreaks of fungous diseases are unusual4 ,heavy snows1 lightning and wind storms also lay low many of the tree giants of the forest4 ,heavy falls of snow may weigh down the young1 tall trees to such an extent that they break4 ,lightning--it is worst in the hills and mountains of the western states--may strike and damage a number of trees in the same vicinity4 ,if these trees are not killed outright1 they are usually damaged so badly that forest insects and fungi complete their destruction4 ,big trees are sometimes uprooted during forest storms so that they fall on younger trees and cripple and deform them4 ,winds benefit the forests in that they blow down old trees that are no longer of much use and provide space for younger and healthier trees to grow4 ,usually the trees that are blown down have shallow roots or else are situated in marshy1 wet spots so that their root-hold in the soil is not secure4 ,trees that have been exposed to fire are often weakened and blown down easily4 ,where excessive livestock grazing is permitted in young forests considerable damage may result4 ,goats1 cattle and sheep injure young seedlings by browsing4 ,they eat the tender shoots of the trees4 ,the trampling of sheep1 especially on steep hills1 damages the very young trees4 ,on mountain sides the trampling of sheep frequently breaks up the forest floor of sponge-like grass and debris and thus aids freshets and floods4 ,in the ,alps of ,france sheep grazing destroyed the mountain forests and1 later on1 the grass which replaced the woods4 ,destructive floods resulted4 ,it has cost the ,french people many millions of dollars to repair the damage done by the sheep4 ,the ,federal ,government does its best to keep foreign tree diseases out of the ,united ,states4 ,as soon as any serious disease is discovered in foreign countries the ,secretary of ,agriculture puts in force a quarantine against that country4 ,no seed or tree stock can be imported4 ,furthermore1 all the new species of trees1 cuttings or plants introduced to this country are given thorough examination and inspection by government experts at the ports where the products are received from abroad4 ,all diseased trees are fumigated1 or if found diseased1 destroyed4 ,in this manner the ,government protects our country against new diseases which might come to our shores on foreign plants and tree stock4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,forestry ,,idea ,our forests of the ,new ,world were so abundant when the early settlers landed on the ,atlantic ,coast that it was almost impossible to find enough cleared land in one tract to make a #dj-;acre farm4 ,these thick1 dense timberlands extended westward to the prairie country4 ,it was but natural1 therefore1 that the forest should be considered by these pioneers as an obstacle and viewed as an enemy4 ,farms and settlements had to be hewed out of the timberlands1 and the forests seemed inexhaustible4 ,experts say that the original1 virgin forests of the ,united ,states covered approximately #hbb1jjj1jjj acres4 ,they are now shrunk to one-sixth of that area4 ,at one time they were the richest forests in the world4 ,today there are millions of acres which contain neither timber nor young growth4 ,considerable can be restored if the essential measures are started on a national scale4 ,such measures would insure an adequate lumber supply for all time to come4 ,rules and regulations concerning the cutting of lumber and the misuse of forests were suggested as early as the seventeenth century4 ,plymouth ,colony in #afbf passed an ordinance prohibiting the cutting of timber from the ,colony lands without official consent4 ,this is said to be the first conservation law passed in ,america4 ,william ,penn was one of the early champions of the ,woodman1 spare that tree slogan4 ,he ordered his colonists to leave one acre of forest for every five acres of land that were cleared4 ,in #agii ,congress set aside #bjj1jjj for the purchase of a small forest reserve to be used as a supply source of ship timbers for the ,navy4 ,about twenty-five years later1 it gave the ,president the power to call upon the ,army and ,navy whenever necessary to protect the live oak and red cedar timber so selected in ,florida4 ,in #ahbg1 the ,government started its first work in forestry4 ,it was an attempt to raise live oak in the ,southern ,states to provide ship timbers for the ,navy4 ,forty years later1 the ,wisconsin ,state ,legislature began to investigate the destruction of the forests of that state in order to protect them and prolong their life4 ,michigan and ,maine1 in turn1 followed suit4 ,these were some of the first steps taken to study our forests and protect them against possible extinction4 ,the purpose of the ,timber ,culture ,act passed by ,congress in #ahgc was to increase national interest in reforestation4 ,it provided that every settler who would plant and maintain #dj acres of timber in the treeless sections should be entitled to secure patent for #afj acres of the public domain--that vast territory consisting of all the states and territories west of the ,mississippi1 except ,texas1 as well as ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,florida1 ,alabama and ,mississippi4 ,this act1 as well as several ,state laws1 failed because the settlers did not know enough about tree planting4 ,the laws also were not effective because they did not prevent dishonest practices4 ,in #ahgf1 the first special agent in forestry was appointed by the ,commissioner of ,agriculture to study the annual consumption1 exportation and importation of timber and other forest products1 the probable supply for future wants1 and the means best adapted for forest preservation4 ,five years later1 the ,division of ,forestry was organized as a branch of the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,it was established in order to carry on investigations about forestry and how to preserve our trees4 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,mature ,,trees ,,and ,,leaving ,,seed ,,trees ,,to ,,insure ,a ,,second ,,crop ,for some nine years the ,division of ,forestry was nothing more than a department of information4 ,it distributed technical facts and figures about the management of private woodlands and collected data concerning our forest resources4 ,it did not manage any of the ,government timberlands because there were no forest reserves at that time4 ,it was not until #ahia that the first forest reserve1 the ,yellowstone ,park ,timberland ,reserve1 was created by special proclamation of ,president ,harrison4 ,later it became part of the ,national ,park reserves4 ,although the ,division of ,forestry had no special powers to oversee and direct the management of the forest reserves1 during the next six years a total of #dj1jjj1jjj acres of valuable timberland were so designated and set aside4 ,at the request of the ,secretary of the ,interior1 the ,national ,academy of ,sciences therefore worked out a basis for laws governing national forests4 ,congress enacted this law in #ahig4 ,thereafter the ,department of the ,interior had active charge of the timberlands4 ,at that time little was known scientifically about the ,american forests4 ,there were no schools of forestry in this country4 ,during the period #ahih-aijc1 several such schools were established4 ,president ,mc,kinley1 during his term of office1 increased the number of forest reserves from #bh to over #dj1 covering a total area of #cj1jjj1jjj acres4 ,president ,roosevelt added many millions of acres to the forest reserves1 bringing the net total to more than #aej1jjj1jjj acres1 including #aei different forests4 ,in #aije1 the administration of the forest reserves was transferred from the ,department of the ,interior to the ,department of ,agriculture1 and their name changed to ,national ,forests4 ,no great additions to the government timberlands have been made since that time4 ,small1 valuable areas have been added4 ,other undesirable tracts have been cut off from the original reserves4 ,the growth of the ,division of ,forestry1 now the ,united ,states ,forest ,service1 has been very remarkable since #ahih1 when it consisted of only a few scientific workers and clerks4 ,at present it employs more than #b1fjj workers1 which number is increased during the dangerous fire season to from #d1jjj to #e1jjj employees4 ,the annual appropriations have been increased from #bh1ejj to approximately #f1ejj1jjj4 ,the annual income from ,uncle ,sam's woodlands is also on the gain and now amounts to about #e1jjj1jjj yearly4 ,this income results largely from the sale of timber and the grazing of livestock on the ,national ,forests4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,our ,,national ,,forests ,our ,national ,forests include #adg distinct and separate bodies of timber in twenty-seven different states and in ,alaska and ,porto ,rico4 ,they cover more than #aef1jjj1jjj acres4 ,if they could be massed together in one huge area like the state of ,texas1 it would make easier the task of handling the forests and fighting fires4 ,the ,united ,states ,forest ,service1 which has charge of their management and protection1 is one of the largest and most efficient organizations of its kind in the world4 ,it employs expert foresters1 scientists1 rangers and clerks4 ,the business of running the forest is centred in eight district offices located in different parts of the country with a general headquarters at ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,these districts are in charge of district foresters and their assistants4 ,the district headquarters and the ,states that they look after are3 ,no4 #a4 ,northern ,district1 ,missoula1 ,montana4 7,montana1 northeastern ,washington1 northern ,idaho1 and northwestern ,south ,dakota47 ,no4 #b4 ,rocky ,mountain ,district1 ,denver1 ,colorado4 7,colorado1 ,wyoming1 the remainder of ,south ,dakota1 ,nebraska1 northern ,michigan1 and northern ,minnesota47 ,no4 #c4 ,southwestern ,district1 ,albuquerque1 ,new ,mexico4 7,most of ,arizona and ,new ,mexico47 ,no4 #d4 ,intermountain ,district1 ,ogden1 ,utah4 7,utah1 southern ,idaho1 western ,wyoming1 eastern and central ,nevada1 and northwestern ,arizona47 ,no4 #e4 ,california ,district1 ,san ,francisco1 ,california4 7,california and southwestern ,nevada47 ,no4 #f4 ,north ,pacific ,district1 ,portland1 ,oregon4 7,washington and ,oregon47 ,no4 #g4 ,eastern ,district1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 7,arkansas1 ,alabama1 ,florida1 ,oklahoma1 ,north ,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,tennessee1 ,virginia1 ,west ,virginia1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,maine1 and ,porto ,rico47 ,no4 #h4 ,alaska ,district1 ,juneau1 ,alaska4 7,alaska47 ,each of the ,national ,forests is under the direct supervision of a forest supervisor and is split up into from #e to #aj or more ranger districts4 ,each ranger district is in charge of a forest ranger who has an area of from #ajj1jjj to #bjj1jjj acres in his charge4 ,the ,national ,forests are1 for the most part1 located in the mountainous region of the ,west1 with small scattered areas in the ,lake ,states1 and the ,white ,mountains1 ,southern ,appalachians and ,ozarks of the ,eastern and ,southern ,states4 ,many of them are a wilderness of dense timber4 ,it is a huge task to protect these forests against the ravages of fire4 ,fire fighting takes precedence over all other work in the ,national ,forests4 ,lookout stations are established on high points to watch for signs of fire4 ,airplanes are used on fire patrol over great areas of forest4 ,where railroads pass through the ,national ,forests1 rangers operate motor cars and hand-cars over the tracks in their patrol work4 ,launches are used in ,alaska and on some of the forests where there are large lakes1 to enable the fire fighters and forest guardians to cover their beats quickly4 ,every year the ,national ,forests are being improved and made more accessible by the building of permanent roads1 trails and telephone lines4 ,special trails are built to and in the fire protection areas of remote sections4 ,a network of good roads is constructed in every forest to improve fire fighting activities as well as to afford better means of communication between towns1 settlements and farms4 ,the road and trail plan followed in the ,national ,forests is mapped out years in advance4 ,in the more remote sections1 trails are first constructed4 ,later1 these trails may be developed into wagon or motor roads4 ,congress annually appropriates large sums of money for the building of roads in the ,national ,forests4 ,over #be1jjj miles of roads and #ce1jjj miles of trails have already been constructed in these forests4 ,communication throughout the ,national ,forests is had by the use of the telephone and the radio or wireless telephone4 ,signalling by means of the heliograph is practiced on bright days in regions that have no telephones4 ,arrangements made with private telephone companies permit the forest officers to use their lines4 ,the efficient communication systems aid in the administration of the forests and speeds the work of gathering fire fighters quickly at the points where smoke is detected4 ,agricultural and forestry experts have surveyed the lands in the ,national ,forests4 ,thus they have prevented the use of lands for forestry purposes which are better adapted for farming4 ,since #aiaj1 more than #bf1ejj1jjj acres of lands have been excluded from the forests4 ,these lands were more useful for farming or grazing than for forestry4 ,practically all lands within the ,national ,forests have now been examined and classified4 ,at intervals ,congress has combined several areas of forest lands into single tracts4 ,government lands outside the ,national ,forests have also been traded for state or private lands within their boundaries4 ,thus the forests have been lined-up in more compact bodies4 ,careful surveys are made before such trades are closed to make sure that the land given to ,uncle ,sam is valuable for timber production and the protection of stream flow1 and that the ,government receives full value for the land that is exchanged4 ,the ,national ,forests contain nearly five hundred billion board feet of merchantable timber4 ,this is #bc per cent4 of the remaining timber in the country4 ,whenever the trees in the forest reach maturity they are sold and put to use4 ,all green trees to be cut are selected by qualified forest officers and blazed and marked with a ,u4,s4 ,this marking is done carefully so as to protect the forest and insure a future crop of trees on the area4 ,timber is furnished at low rates to local farmers1 settlers1 and stockmen for use in making improvements4 ,much fire wood and dead and down timber also is given away4 ,the removal of such material lessens the fire danger in the forest4 ,over a billion feet of timber1 valued at more than #c1jjj1jjj1 is sold annually from the ,national ,forests4 ,one generally does not think of meat1 leather and wool as forest crops4 ,nevertheless1 the ,national ,forests play an important part in the western livestock industry4 ,experts report that over one-fifth of the cattle and one-half of the sheep of the western states are grazed in the ,national ,forests4 ,these livestock are estimated to be worth nearly one-quarter billion dollars4 ,more than #i1ejj1jjj head of livestock are pastured annually under permit in the ,federal forests4 ,in addition1 some #d1jjj1jjj to #f1jjj1jjj calves and lambs are grazed free of charge4 ,illustration3 ,,seed ,,beds ,,in ,a ,,forest ,,nursery ,the ranges suitable for stock grazing are used to pasture sheep1 cattle1 horses1 hogs and goats4 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture decides what number and what kind of animals shall graze on each forest4 ,he regulates the grazing and prevents injury to the ranges from being overstocked with too many cattle and sheep4 ,the forest ranges are divided into grazing units4 ,generally1 the cattle and horses are grazed in the valleys and on the lower slopes of the mountain4 ,the sheep and goats are pastured on the high mountain sides and in the grassy meadows at or above timberline4 ,preferences to graze live stock on the forest ranges are for the most part granted to stockmen who own improved ranch property and live in or near one of the ,national ,forests4 ,the fee for grazing on forest ranges is based on a yearlong rate of #a4bj a head of cattle1 #a4ej for horses1 4#ij for hogs and 4#cj a head for sheep4 ,at times it is necessary1 for short periods1 to prohibit grazing on the ,government forest ranges4 ,for example1 when mature timber has been cut from certain areas1 it is essential that sheep be kept off such tracts until the young growth has made a good start in natural reforestation4 ,camping grounds needed for recreation purposes by the public are excluded from the grazing range4 ,if a shortage of the water supply of a neighboring town or city threatens1 or if floods or erosion become serious due to fire or overgrazing of the land1 the range is closed to live-stock and allowed to recuperate4 ,where artificial planting is practiced1 grazing is often forbidden until the young trees get a good start4 ,the total receipts which ,uncle ,sam collects from the #cj1jjj or more stockmen who graze their cattle and sheep on the ,national ,forests amount to nearly #b1ejj1jjj annually4 ,as a result of the teachings of the ,forest ,service1 the stockmen are now raising better livestock4 ,improved breeding animals are kept in the herds and flocks4 ,many of the fat stock now go directly from the range to the market4 ,formerly1 most of the animals had to be fed on corn and grain in some of the ,middle ,western ,states to flesh them for market4 ,experiments have been carried on which have shown the advantages of new feeding and herding methods4 ,the ranchers have banded together in livestock associations1 which coperate with the ,forest ,service in managing the forest ranges4 ,it costs about #e to sow one acre of ground to tree seed1 and approximately #aj an acre to set out seedling trees4 ,the seed is obtained from the same locality where it is to be planted4 ,in many instances1 cones are purchased from settlers who make a business of gathering them4 ,the ,federal foresters dry these cones in the sun and thresh out the seed1 which they then fan and clean4 ,if it is desired to store supplies of tree seed from year to year it is kept in sacks or jars1 in a cool1 dry place1 protected from rats and mice4 ,where seed is sown directly on the ground1 poison bait must be scattered over the area in order to destroy the gophers1 mice and chipmunks which otherwise would eat the seed4 ,sowing seed broadcast on unprepared land has usually failed unless the soil and weather conditions were just right4 ,for the most part1 setting out nursery seedlings has given better results than direct seeding4 ,two men can set out between five hundred and one thousand trees a day4 ,the ,national ,forests contain about one million acres of denuded forest lands4 ,much of this was cut-over and so severely burned before the creation of the forests that it bears no tree growth4 ,some of these lands will reseed themselves naturally while other areas have to be seeded or planted by hand4 ,in this way the lands that will produce profitable trees are fitted to support forest cover4 ,because the soils and climate of our ,national ,forests are different1 special experiments have been carried on in different places to decide the best practices to follow4 ,two method of reforestation are commonly practiced4 ,in some places1 the tree seed is sown directly upon the ground and1 thereafter1 may or may not be cultivated4 ,this method is limited to the localities where the soil and moisture conditions are favorable for rapid growth4 ,under the other plan1 the seedlings are grown in nurseries for several years under favorable conditions4 ,they are then moved to the field and set out in permanent plantations4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,national ,,forests ,,of ,,alaska ,there are two great ,national ,forests in ,alaska4 ,they cover #bj1egi1gdj acres or about #e-a_/b per cent4 of the total area of ,alaska4 ,the larger of these woodlands1 the ,tongass ,national ,forest1 is estimated to contain #gj1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet of timber ripe for marketing4 ,stands of #ajj1jjj board feet per acre are not infrequent4 ,this is the ,alaskan forest that will some day be shipping large amounts of timber to the ,states4 ,it has over #ab1jjj miles of shore line and ninety per cent4 of the usable timber is within two miles of tidewater4 ,this makes it easy to log the timber and load the lumber directly from the forests to the steamers4 ,this forest is #aejj miles closer to the mainland markets than is the other ,alaskan ,national ,forest4 ,in most of the ,national ,forests the rangers ride around their beats on horseback4 ,the foresters in the ,tongass use motor boats4 ,they travel in couples2 two men to a #ce-;foot boat1 which is provided with comfortable eating and sleeping quarters4 ,the rangers live on the boat all the time4 ,during the summer they work sixteen to twenty hours daily4 ,the days are long and the nights short1 and they must travel long distances between points of work4 ,on such runs one man steers the boat and watches the forested shoreline for three or four hours at a time1 while his mate reads or sleeps2 then they change off4 ,in this way1 they are able to make the most efficient use of the long periods of daylight4 ,the other big timberland in ,alaska is the ,chugach ,national ,forest4 ,it is a smaller edition of the ,tongass ,forest4 ,its trees are not so large and the stand of timber only about one-half as heavy as in the ,tongass4 ,experts estimate that it contains #g1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet of lumber4 ,western hemlock predominates4 ,there is also much spruce1 poplar and birch4 ,stands of #dj1jjj to #ej1jjj feet of lumber an acre are not unusual4 ,in the future1 the lumber of the ,chugach ,national ,forest will play an important part in the industrial life of ,alaska4 ,even now1 it is used by the fishing1 mining1 railroad and agricultural interests4 ,on account of its great distance from the markets of the ,pacific ,northwest it will be a long time before lumber from this forest will be exported4 ,the timber in the ,tongass ,national ,forest runs #fj per cent4 western hemlock and #bj per cent4 ,sitka spruce4 ,the other #bj per cent4 consists of western red cedar1 yellow cypress1 lodge-pole pine1 cottonwood and white fir4 ,the yellow cypress is very valuable for cabinet making4 ,all these species except the cedar are suitable for pulp manufacture4 ,peculiarly enough1 considerable of the lumber used in ,alaska for box shooks in the canneries and in building work is imported from the ,united ,states4 ,the local residents do not think their native timber is as good as that which they import4 ,alaska will probably develop into one of the principal paper sources of the ,united ,states4 ,our ,national ,forests in ,alaska contain approximately #ajj1jjj1jjj cords of timber suitable for paper manufacture4 ,experts report that these forests could produce #b1jjj1jjj cords of pulpwood annually for centuries without depletion4 ,about #f1jjj1jjj tons of pulpwood annually are now required to keep us supplied with enough paper4 ,the ,tongass ,national ,forest could easily supply one-third of this amount indefinitely4 ,this forest is also rich in water power4 ,it would take more than #bej1jjj horses to produce as much power as that which the streams and rivers of southern ,alaska supply4 ,the western hemlock and ,sitka spruce are the best for paper making4 ,the spruce trees are generally sound and of good quality4 ,the hemlock trees are not so good1 being subject to decay at the butts4 ,this often causes fluted trunks4 ,the butt logs from such trees usually are inferior4 ,this defect in the hemlock reduces its market value to about one-half that of the spruce for paper making4 ,some of the paper mills in ,british ,columbia are now using these species of pulpwood and report that they make high-grade paper4 ,the pulp logs are floated down to the paper mill4 ,in the mill the bark is removed from the logs4 ,special knives remove all the knots and cut the logs into pieces twelve inches long and six inches thick4 ,these sticks then pass into a powerful grinding machine which tears them into small chips4 ,the chips are cooked in special steamers until they are soft4 ,the softened chips are beaten to pieces in large vats until they form a pasty pulp4 ,the pulp is spread over an endless belt of woven wire cloth of small mesh4 ,the water runs off and leaves a sheet of wet pulp which then is run between a large number of heated and polished steel cylinders which press and dry the pulp into sheets of paper4 ,finally1 it is wound into large rolls ready for commercial use4 ,if a pulp and paper industry is built up in ,alaska1 it will be of great benefit to that northern country4 ,it will increase the population by creating a demand for more labor4 ,it will aid the farming operations by making a home market for their products4 ,it will improve transportation and develop all kinds of business4 ,altogether #dbj1jjj1jjj feet of lumber have been cut and sold from the national forests of ,alaska in the past ten years4 ,this material has been made into such products as piling1 saw logs and shingle bolts4 ,all this lumber has been used in ,alaska and none of it has been exported4 ,much of the timber was cut so that it would fall almost into tide-water4 ,then the logs were fastened together in rafts and towed to the sawmills4 ,one typical raft of logs contained more than #a1ejj1jjj feet of lumber4 ,it is not unusual for spruce trees in ,alaska to attain a diameter of from six to nine feet and to contain #aj1jjj or #ae1jjj feet of lumber4 ,southeastern ,alaska has many deep-water harbors which are open the year round4 ,practically all the timber in that section is controlled by the ,government and is within the ,tongass ,national ,forest4 ,this means that this important crop will be handled properly4 ,no waste of material will occur4 ,cutting will be permitted only where the good of the forest justifies such work4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,progress ,,in ,,state ,,forestry ,the rapid depletion and threatened exhaustion of the timber supply in the more thickly populated sections of the ,east has prompted several of the states to initiate action looking toward the conservation of their timber resources4 ,as far back as #ahhj1 a forestry commission was appointed in ,new ,hampshire to formulate a forest policy for the ,state4 ,vermont took similar action two years later1 followed within the next few years by many of the northeastern and lake states4 ,these commissions were mainly boards of inquiry1 for the purpose of gathering reliable information upon which to report1 with recommendations1 for the adoption of a state forest policy4 ,as a result of the inquiries1 forestry departments were established in a number of states4 ,the report of the ,new ,york ,commission of #ahhd resulted in forest legislation1 in #ahhe1 creating a forestry department and providing for the acquisition of state forests4 ,liberal appropriations were made from time to time for this purpose1 until now the state forests embrace nearly #b1jjj1jjj acres1 the largest of any single state4 ,new ,york state forests were created1 especially1 for the protection of the ,adirondack and ,catskill regions as great camping and hunting grounds1 and not for timber production4 ,the people of the state were so fearful that through political manipulation this vast forest resource might fall into the hands of the timber exploiters1 that a constitutional amendment was proposed and adopted1 absolutely prohibiting the cutting of green timber from the state lands4 ,thus1 while ,new ,york owns large areas of state forest land1 it is unproductive so far as furnishing timber supplies to the state is concerned4 ,it is held distinctly for the recreation it affords to campers and hunters1 and contains many famous summer resorts4 ,state forestry in ,pennsylvania began in #ahhg1 when a commission was appointed to study conditions1 resulting in the establishment of a ,commission of ,forestry in #ahie4 ,two years later1 an act was passed providing for the purchase of state forests4 ,at the present time1 ,pennsylvania has #a1bej1jjj acres of state forest land4 ,unlike those of ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania forests were acquired and are managed primarily for timber production1 although the recreational uses are not overlooked4 ,the large areas of state-owned lands in the ,lake ,states suitable1 mainly1 for timber growing1 enabled this section to create extensive state forests without the necessity of purchase as was the case in ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania4 ,as a result1 ,wisconsin has nearly #djj1jjj acres of state forest land1 ,minnesota1 about #ccj1jjj1 and ,michigan1 about #bjj1jjj acres4 ,south ,dakota1 with a relatively small area of forest land1 has set aside #hj1jjj acres for state forest4 ,a number of other states have initiated a policy of acquiring state forest lands1 notably1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,jersey1 ,maryland1 and ,indiana1 each with small areas1 but likely to be greatly increased within the next few years under the development of present policies4 ,other states are falling in line with this forward movement4 ,there are but #d1bcg1ehg acres in state forests in the ,united ,states4 ,this is only #a-a_/b per cent4 of the cut-over and denuded land in the country which is useful only for tree production4 ,the lack of funds prevents many states from embarking more extensively in this work4 ,many states set aside only a few thousand a year2 others1 that are more progressive and realize the need of forestry extension1 spend annually from one hundred thousand to five hundred thousand dollars4 ,foresters are1 generally1 agreed that as much as #be per cent4 of the forest land of every state should be publicly owned for producing large sized timber1 requiring seventy-five to one hundred years to grow1 and which the private owner would not be interested in producing4 ,national1 state1 or communal forests must supply it4 ,all of these combined comprise a very small part of the forests of most of the states1 so that much larger areas must be acquired by the states and the national government to safeguard our future timber supplies4 ,not less than thirty-two states are actually engaged in state forestry work4 ,many of them have well-organized forestry departments1 which1 in states like ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania1 having large areas of state forests1 are devoted largely to the care and protection of these lands4 ,in other states having no state forests1 the work is largely educational in character4 ,the most notable progress in forestry has been made in fire protection4 ,all states having forestry departments lay especial emphasis upon forest protection1 since it is recognized that only by protecting the forests from fire is it possible to succeed in growing timber crops4 ,in fact1 in most cases1 the prevention of fire in itself is sufficient to insure re-growth and productive forests4 ,pennsylvania is spending #ejj1jjj annually in protecting her forests from fire4 ,the coperation of the ,federal ,government1 under a provision of the ,weeks ,law which appropriates small sums of money for forest protection1 provided the state will appropriate an equal or greater amount1 has done much to encourage the establishment of systems of forest protection in many of the states4 ,illustration3 ,,sowing ,,forest ,,seed ,,in ,,an ,,effort ,,to ,,grow ,a ,,new ,,forest ,the enormous areas of denuded1 or waste land in the various states1 comprising more than #hj1jjj1jjj acres1 which can be made again productive only by forest planting1 present another big problem in state forestry4 ,many of the states have established state forestry nurseries for the growing of tree seedlings to plant up these lands4 ,the trees are either given away1 or sold at cost1 millions being distributed each year1 indicating a live interest and growing sentiment in re-foresting waste lands4 ,the appalling waste of timber resources through excessive and reckless cutting1 amounting to forest devastation1 is deplorable1 but we are helpless to prevent it4 ,since the bulk of woodlands are privately owned1 and there are no effective laws limiting the cutting of timber with a view to conserving the supply1 the only means of bringing about regulated cutting on private lands is through coperation with the owners4 ,this is being done in some of the states in a limited way1 through educational methods1 involving investigations1 reports1 demonstrations1 and other means of bringing improved forestry practices to the attention of existing owners and enlisting their coperation and support in forest conservation4 ,forestry in the state1 or in the nation1 seems to progress no more rapidly than the timber disappears2 in fact1 the individual states do not take precaution to conserve their timber supplies until exhaustion is threatened4 ,the damage has been largely done before the remedy is considered4 ,we are today paying a tremendous toll for our lack of foresight in these matters4 ,as a timber producing state becomes a timber importing state1 7a condition existing in most of the eastern and middle states7 we begin to pay a heavy toll in the loss of home industries dependent upon wood1 and also in heavy freight charges on lumber that we must import from distant points to supply our needs4 ,in many states1 the expenditure of an amount for reforestation and fire protection equal to this freight bill on imported lumber would make the state self-supporting in a decade1 instead of becoming worse off each year4 ,marked progress has been made along the lines indicated1 but few of the states have begun to measure up to their full responsibility in protecting their future timber supply4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,playgrounds ,,of ,,the ,,nation ,the public forests are steadily increasing in popularity as the playgrounds of the ,nation4 ,the woodlands offer splendid opportunities for camping1 hunting1 fishing and outdoor life4 ,millions of motorists now spend their vacations in the government and state forests4 ,railroads and automobiles make the forests accessible to all4 ,thousands of miles of improved motor highways lead into the very heart of the hills4 ,more than #e1ejj1jjj people annually visit the ,national ,forests4 ,of this number1 some #b1ejj1jjj are campers1 fishermen and hunters4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,camping ,,ground ,,in ,a ,,national ,,forest ,the forests provide cheap health insurance to all who will enjoy what they offer in sport and recreation4 ,for example1 over #a1jjj1jjj vacationists visit ,colorado's forests each year4 ,if each person spent but five days in the forests1 this would mean a total of #e1jjj1jjj days or #ej1jjj1jjj hours of rest and enjoyment4 ,recreation at the beaches and amusement parks costs at least fifty cents an hour4 ,applying that rate to the free fun which the people get out of the forests1 in ,colorado in one year the tourists1 campers and fishermen gained #be1jjj1jjj worth of pleasure from the forests4 ,the ,national and ,state ,forests furnish summer homes for thousands of people who live in the neighboring cities and towns4 ,regular summer home sites are laid off in many of the forests4 ,usually these individual sites cover about one-quarter acre or less4 ,they rent for #e to #be a year1 depending on the location4 ,a man can rent one of these camp grounds for a term of years4 ,he can build a summer cottage or bungalow on it4 ,there are no special rules about the size or cost of the houses4 ,uncle ,sam requires only that the cottages be sightly and the surroundings be kept clean and sanitary4 ,many of the cabins are built for #aej to #cjj4 ,some of them are more permanent and cost from #c1jjj to #e1jjj or #aj1jjj4 ,in the ,angeles ,national ,forest in southern ,california1 over sixteen hundred of these cottages are now in use and many more are being built4 ,where there are dead or mature trees in the forest1 near summer home sites1 timber can be purchased at low prices for use in building cottages4 ,even the people of small means can build cabins in the forests and enjoy living in the mountains during the heat of the summer4 ,these camps provide fine surroundings for the rompings and summer games of the children and young people4 ,in ,california a number of cities have set up municipal camps in the ,national ,forests4 ,at very low costs1 the city residents can spend their vacations at these camps4 ,tents and cottages are provided4 ,facilities for all kinds of games and sports furnish recreation4 ,each family may stay at the camp for two weeks4 ,the expenses are so low for meals and tents that the municipal camps furnish the best and cheapest vacation which the family of limited means can enjoy4 ,these camps are very popular4 ,wherever they have been tried1 they have been successful4 ,there are twelve municipal camps in ,california4 ,they cost #aej1jjj4 ,fine automobile camps are maintained along many of the important ,national and ,state ,forest highways for the use of tourists4 ,concrete fireplaces1 tables1 benches and running water are provided at these wayside camping places4 ,the tourists who carry their camp kits like to stop at these automobile camps4 ,they meet many other tourists and exchange information about the best trails to follow and the condition of the roads4 ,sometimes1 permanent cabins and shelters are provided for the use of the cross-country travelers4 ,the only rules are that care be exercised in the use of fire and the camping sites be kept in clean and sanitary condition4 ,all the forest roads are posted with many signs asking the tourists to be careful in the use of matches1 tobacco and camp fires1 so as not to start destructive forest fires4 ,in the ,federal and ,state forests hundreds of man-caused fires occur annually1 due to the neglect and carelessness of campers and tourists to put out their camp fires4 ,a single match or a cigarette stub tossed from a passing automobile may start a costly fire4 ,during the season from ,may to ,october1 the western forests usually are as dry as tinder4 ,rains are rare during that period4 ,a fire once started runs riot unless efficient control measures are used at once4 ,those interested in fishing and hunting usually can find plenty of chance to pursue their favorite sports in the ,national and ,state ,forests4 ,there is good fishing in the forest streams and lakes1 as the rangers1 working in coperation with ,federal and ,state hatcheries yearly restock important waters4 ,fishing and hunting in the ,national ,forests are regulated by the fish and game laws of that state in which the forests are located4 ,the killing of wild game is permitted during certain open seasons in most of the forest regions4 ,illustration3 ,,good ,,forests ,,mean ,,good ,,hunting ,,and ,,fishing ,the eastern forests in the ,white ,mountains1 the ,adirondacks1 and the ,appalachians1 are not1 for the most part1 as well developed as recreation grounds as are the western vacation lands4 ,however1 more interest is being taken each year in the outdoor life features of the eastern forests1 and ultimately they will be used on a large scale as summer camp grounds4 ,many hikers and campers now spend their annual vacations in these forests4 ,throughout the ,white ,mountain forest of ,new ,hampshire1 regular trails for walking parties have been made4 ,at frequent intervals simple camps for the use of travelers have been built by mountaineering clubs4 ,this forest1 located as it is near centres of large population is visited by a half-million tourists each season4 ,the ,pisgah ,national ,forest of ,north ,carolina is becoming a centre for automobile travel as it contains a fine macadam road4 ,the ,superior ,national ,forest of ,minnesota1 which covers #a1bej1jjj acres and contains #aej1jjj acres of lakes1 is becoming very popular4 ,it is called the land of ten thousand lakes4 ,one can travel in a canoe through this forest for a month at a time without passing over the same lake twice4 ,other popular national forests are the ,angeles in southern ,california1 the ,pike and ,colorado in ,colorado1 and the ,oregon and ,wenatchee--the ,pacific ,northwest4 ,visitors to these forests total more than #a1gej1jjj a year4 ,the western forests are also being used for winter sports4 ,they furnish excellent conditions for snow-shoe trips1 skiing and sledding4 ,the people who have camps on government land use their places for week-end excursions during the snow season when the roads are passable4 ,the ,white ,mountain ,national ,forest is used more for winter sports than any other government woodland4 ,at many of the towns of ,new ,hampshire and ,maine1 huge carnivals are held each winter4 ,championship contests in skiing1 snowshoeing1 skating1 ski jumping1 tobogganing and ski-joring are held4 ,snow sport games are also annual events in the ,routt1 ,leadville and ,pike ,national ,forests of ,colorado4 ,cross country ski races and ski-joring contests are also held4 ,in the ,truckee ,national ,forest of ,california1 dog-team races over courses of #be to #ej miles are held each winter4 ,about eighty per cent4 of the #e1ejj1jjj people who visit the ,national ,forests are automobile tourists4 ,the other twenty per cent4 consists of sportsmen interested in hunting1 fishing1 canoeing1 boating1 mountain climbing1 bathing1 riding and hiking4 ,in the ,pacific ,coast ,states there are a number of mountain climbing clubs whose members compete with each other in making difficult ascents4 ,the mountaineering clubs of ,portland1 ,oregon1 for example1 stage an interesting contest each summer in climbing ,mount ,hood1 one of the highest peaks in the country4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,solving ,,our ,,forestry ,,problems ,a system of forestry which will provide sufficient lumber for the needs of our country and keep our forest land productive must be built on the extension of our public forests4 ,our ,national ,forests are1 at present1 the one bright feature of future lumbering4 ,their tree crops will never be cut faster than they can be grown4 ,a balance between production and consumption will always be maintained4 ,our needs for more timber1 the necessity for protecting the headwaters of streams1 the demands for saving wild life1 and the playground possibilities of our forests justify their extension4 ,approximately eighty per cent of the ,american forests are now privately owned4 ,the chances are that most of these wooded tracts will always remain in the hands of private owners4 ,it is important that the production of these forests be kept up without injuring their future value4 ,we must prepare for the lumber demands of many years from now4 ,some method must be worked out of harnessing our idle forest lands and putting them to work growing timber4 ,any regulations that are imposed on the private owners of woodlands must be reasonable4 ,changes in our present methods of taxing timberlands must be made to encourage reforestation4 ,the public must aid the private individuals in fighting forest fires1 the greatest menace that modern forestry has to face4 ,a national policy is needed which will permit the private owner to grow trees which will give him fair and reasonable profit when sold4 ,the farmers of this country use about one-half of all the lumber consumed annually4 ,they own approximately #aia1jjj1jjj acres of timber in their farm woodlots4 ,if farmers would devote a little time and labor to the permanent upkeep and improvement of their timber1 they would aid in decreasing the danger of a future lumber famine4 ,if they would but keep track of the acreage production of their woodlands as closely as they do of their corn and wheat crops1 ,american forestry would benefit greatly4 ,between #aijh and #aiac1 the ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service established two forest experiment stations in ,california and one each in ,washington1 ,idaho1 ,colorado1 and ,arizona4 ,they devote the same degree of science and skill to the solution of tree growing and lumbering problems as the agricultural experiment stations give to questions of farm and crop management4 ,despite the fact that these forestry stations did fine work for the sections that they served1 recently a number of them had to close1 due to lack of funds4 ,congress does not yet realize the importance of this work4 ,more forest experiment stations are needed throughout the country4 ,such problems as what kinds of trees are best to grow1 must be solved4 ,of the #die species of trees in this country1 #abe are important commercially4 ,they all differ in their histories1 characteristics and requirements4 ,research and study should be made of these trees in the sections where they grow best4 ,our knowledge regarding tree planting and the peculiarities of the different species is1 as yet1 very meagre4 ,we must discover the best methods of cutting trees and of disposing of the slash4 ,we must investigate rates of growth1 yields and other problems of forest management4 ,we must study the effect of climate on forest fires4 ,we must continue experiments in order to develop better systems of fire protection4 ,we need more forest experiment stations to promote the production of more timber4 ,twenty of our leading industries utilize lumber as their most important raw material4 ,fifty-five different industries use specialized grades and quality of lumber in the manufacture of many products4 ,this use of lumber includes general mill work and planing mill products1 such as building crates and boxes1 vehicles1 railroad cars1 furniture1 agricultural implements and wooden ware4 ,our manufacturers make and use more than two hundred and seventy-five different kinds of paper1 including newsprint1 boxboard1 building papers1 book papers and many kinds of specialty papers4 ,the forest experiment stations would help solve the practical problems of these many industries4 ,they could work out methods by which to maintain our forests and still turn out the thirty-five to forty billion board feet of lumber used each year4 ,they are needed to determine methods of increasing our annual cut for pulp and paper4 ,they are necessary so that we can increase our annual output of poles1 pilings1 cooperage and veneer4 ,a forest experiment station is needed in the southern pine belt4 ,the large pine forests of ,dixieland have been shaved down from #acj1jjj1jjj acres to #bc1ejj1jjj acres4 ,in that region there are more than #cj1jjj1jjj acres of waste forest lands which should be reclaimed and devoted to the growing of trees4 ,eastern and middle western manufacturing and lumbering centres are interested in the restoring of the southern pine forests4 ,during the last score of years1 they have used two-thirds of the annual output of those forests4 ,in another ten to fifteen years home demand will use most of the pine cut in the ,south4 ,the ,east and ,middle ,west will then have to rely mostly on the ,pacific ,coast forests for their pine lumber4 ,the ,lake ,states need a forest experiment station to work out methods by which the white pine1 hemlock1 spruce1 beech1 birch and maple forests of that section can be renewed4 ,the ,lake ,states are now producing only one-ninth as much white pine as they were thirty years ago4 ,these states now cut only #c1ejj1jjj1jjj feet of all kinds of lumber annually4 ,their output is growing smaller each year4 ,wisconsin led the ,united ,states in lumber production in #aijj4 ,now she cuts less than the second-growth yield of ,maine4 ,michigan1 which led in lumber production before ,wisconsin1 now harvests a crop of white pine that is #ej per cent4 smaller than that of ,massachusetts4 ,experts believe that a forest experiment station in the ,lake ,states would stimulate production so that enough lumber could be produced to satisfy the local demands4 ,not least in importance among the forest regions requiring an experiment station are the ,new ,england ,states and northern and eastern ,new ,york4 ,in that section there are approximately #be1jjj1jjj acres of forest lands4 ,five and one-half million acres consist of waste and idle land4 ,eight million acres grow nothing but fuel-wood4 ,the rest of the timber tracts are not producing anywhere near their capacity4 ,new ,england produces #cj per cent4 and ,new ,york #ej per cent4 of our newsprint4 ,maine is the leading state in pulp production4 ,new ,england imports #ej per cent4 of her lumber1 while ,new ,york cuts less than one-half the timber she annually consumes4 ,another experiment station should be provided to study the forestry problems of ,pennsylvania1 southern and western ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,maryland1 ,new ,jersey and ,delaware4 ,at one time this region was the most important lumber centre of the ,united ,states4 ,pennsylvania spends #ajj1jjj1jjj a year in importing lumber which should be grown at home4 ,the denuded and waste lands at the headwaters of the ,allegheny ,river now extend over one-half million acres4 ,new ,jersey is using more than twenty times as much lumber as is produced in the state4 ,ohio is a centre for wood manufacturing industries1 yet her timber-producing possibilities are neglected1 as are those of other states needing wood for similar purposes4 ,european nations have spent large sums of money in investigating forestry problems to make timber producing economically feasible1 and have found that it paid4 ,in this country1 our forest experiment stations will have to deal with a timbered area twice that of all ,europe1 exclusive of ,russia4 ,that is why we shall need many of these stations to help solve the many questions of national welfare which are so dependent upon our forests4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,why ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,should ,,practice ,,forestry ,of late years the demand for lumber by the world trade has been very great4 ,most of the countries which have extensive forests are taking steps to protect their supplies4 ,they limit cutting and restrict exports of timber4 ,both ,new ,zealand and ,switzerland have passed laws of this kind4 ,sweden exports much lumber1 but by law forbids the cutting of timber in excess of the annual growth4 ,norway regulates private cutting4 ,england is planning to plant #a1ggj1jjj acres of new forest reserve4 ,this body of timber when ready for cutting1 would be sufficient to supply her home needs in time of emergency for at least three years4 ,france is enlarging her forest nurseries and protecting her timber in every possible way4 ,even ,russia1 a country with huge forest tracts1 is beginning to practice conservation4 ,russia now requires that all timber cut under concession shall be replaced by plantings of trees4 ,for many years1 the ,united ,states and ,china were the greatest wasters of forest resources under the sun4 ,now this country has begun to practice scientific forestry on a large scale so that ,china now has the worst-managed forests in the world4 ,japan1 on the other hand1 handles her forests efficiently and has established a national forestry school4 ,austria1 ,norway1 ,sweden and ,italy have devoted much time1 labor and money to the development of practical systems of forestry4 ,turkey1 ,greece1 ,spain and ,portugal1 all follow sane and sensible forestry practices4 ,even ,russia takes care of her national timberlands and annually draws enormous incomes from their maintenance4 ,france and ,germany both have highly successful forestry systems4 ,switzerland1 ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand are using their forests in a practical manner and saving sufficient supplies of wood for posterity4 ,history tells us that the forests first were protected as the homes of wild game4 ,little attention was paid to the trees in those days4 ,the forests were places to hunt and abodes devoted to wild animals4 ,scientific forestry was first studied and practised widely in the nineteenth century4 ,its development and expansion have been rapid4 ,germany still leads as one of the most prominent countries that practices efficient forestry4 ,german forests are now said to be worth more than #e1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,france has over #b1gej1jjj acres of fine publicly owned forests1 in addition to private forests1 which yield a net income of more than #b an acre a year to the government4 ,the ,french have led in extending reforestation on denuded mountain sides4 ,british ,india has well-managed forests which cover over #bjj1jjj square miles of area4 ,these timberlands return a net income of from #c1jjj1jjj to #d1jjj1jjj a year4 ,india now protects more than #ce1jjj square miles of forest against fire at an annual cost of less than half a cent an acre4 ,forest experts say that the ,united ,states1 which produces more than one-half of all the sawed timber in the world1 should pay more attention to the export lumber business4 ,such trade must be built up on the basis of a permanent supply of timber4 ,this means the practice of careful conservation and the replacement of forests that have been destroyed4 ,we can not export timber from such meagre reserves as the pine forests of the ,south1 which will not supply even the domestic needs of the region for much more than ten or fifteen years longer4 ,many of our timber men desire to develop extensive export trade4 ,our sawmills are large enough and numerous enough to cut much more timber annually than we need in this country4 ,however1 the danger is that we shall only abuse our forests the more and further deplete the timber reserves of future generations as a result of extensive export trade4 ,if such trade is developed on a large scale1 a conservative1 practical national forestry policy must be worked out1 endorsed and lived up to by every producing exporter4 ,the ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service reports that before the world war1 we were exporting annually #c1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet of lumber and sawlogs1 not including ties1 staves and similar material4 ,this material consisted of ,southern yellow pine1 ,douglas fir1 white oak1 redwood1 white pine1 yellow poplar1 cypress1 walnut1 hickory1 ash1 basswood and similar kinds of wood4 ,the exports were made up of #gi per cent4 softwoods and #ba per cent4 hardwoods4 ,the export trade consumed about #h-a_/b per cent4 of our annual lumber cut4 ,southern yellow pine was the most popular timber shipped abroad4 ,one-half of the total export was of this material4 ,during the four years before the war our imports of lumber from foreign countries amounted to about #a1bjj1jjj1jjj board feet of lumber and logs4 ,in #aiah1 imports exceeded exports by #ajj1jjj1jjj board feet4 ,in addition to this lumber1 we also shipped in1 largely from ,canada1 #a1cgj1jjj cords of pulp wood1 #eif1jjj tons of wood pulp1 #eaf1jjj tons of paper1 and close to a billion shingles4 ,some of the material1 such as wood pulp and paper1 also came from ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,germany1 ,spain1 the ,netherlands and the ,united ,kingdom4 ,as a result of the war1 ,european countries for several years can use #g1jjj1jjj1jjj feet of lumber a year above their normal requirements4 ,for housing construction1 ,england needs #b1jjj1jjj1jjj feet a year more than normally2 ,france1 #a1ejj1jjj1jjj feet2 ,italy1 #a1gej1jjj1jjj feet2 ,belgium and ,spain #gej1jjj1jjj feet apiece4 ,even before the war1 there was a great deficiency of timber in parts of ,europe4 ,it amounted to #af1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet a year and was supplied by ,russia1 the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,sweden1 ,austria-,hungary and a few other countries of western ,europe4 ,if we can regulate cutting and replenish our forests as they deserve1 there is a remarkable opportunity for us to build up a large and permanent export trade4 ,illustration3 ,,young ,,white ,,pine ,,seeded ,,from ,,adjoining ,,pine ,,trees ,the ,central and ,south ,american countries now have to depend on ,canada1 the ,united ,states and ,sweden for most of their softwoods4 ,unless they develop home forests by the practice of modern forestry1 they will always be dependent on imported timber of this type4 ,south ,africa and ,egypt are both heavy importers of lumber4 ,africa has large tropical forests but the timber is hard to get at and move4 ,china produces but little lumber and needs much4 ,she is developing into a heavy importing country4 ,japan grows only about enough timber to supply her home needs4 ,australia imports softwoods from the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,new ,zealand is in the market for ,douglas fir and hardwoods4 ,in the past1 our export lumber business has been second only to that of ,russia in total amount4 ,the value of the timber that we exported was larger than that of ,russia because much of our timber that was sent abroad consisted of the best grades of material grown in this country4 ,in the future1 we shall have to compete in the softwood export business with ,russia1 ,finland1 ,sweden1 ,norway and the various states of southeastern ,europe which sell lumber4 ,in the hardwood business1 we have only a limited number of rivals4 ,with the exception of a small section of eastern ,europe1 our hardwood forests are the finest in the ,temperate ,zone4 ,we export hickory1 black walnut1 yellow poplar1 white and red oak even to ,russia and ,sweden1 countries that are our keenest rivals in the softwood export business4 ,europe wants export lumber from our eastern states because the transportation costs on such material are low4 ,she does not like to pay heavy costs of hauling timber from the ,pacific ,coast to the ,atlantic seaboard and then have it reshipped by water4 ,our eastern forests are practically exhausted4 ,our supplies of export lumber except ,douglas fir are declining4 ,most of the kinds of export timber that ,europe wants we need right at home4 ,we have only about #beh1jjj1jjj1jjj feet of southern yellow pine left1 yet this material composes one-half of our annual shipments abroad4 ,we are cutting this material at the rate of #af1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet a year4 ,some authorities believe that our reserves will last only sixteen years unless measures to protect them are put into effect at once4 ,at the present rate of cutting long-leaf pine trees1 our outputs of naval stores including turpentine and rosin are dwindling4 ,we cannot afford to increase our export of southern yellow pine unless reforestation is started on all land suitable for that purpose4 ,our pine lands of the southern states must be restocked and made permanently productive4 ,then they could maintain the turpentine industry1 provide all the lumber of this kind we need for home use1 and supply a larger surplus for export4 ,although our supplies of ,douglas fir1 western white pine1 sugar pine and western yellow pine are still large1 they will have to bear an extra burden when all the southern pine is gone4 ,this indicates that the large supplies of these woods will not last as long as we would wish4 ,to prevent overtaxing their production1 it is essential that part of the load be passed to the southern pine cut-over lands4 ,by proper protection and renewal of our forests1 we can increase our production of lumber and still have a permanent supply4 ,the ,forest ,service estimates that by protecting our cut-over and waste lands from fire and practicing care to secure reproduction after logging on our remaining virgin forest land1 we can produce annually at least #bg1gej1jjj1jjj cubic feet of wood1 including #gj1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet of sawtimber4 ,such a production would meet indefinitely the needs of our growing population1 and still leave an amount of timber available for export4 ,our hardwoods need protection as well as our softwoods4 ,ten per cent of our yearly cut of valuable white oak is shipped overseas4 ,in addition we annually waste much of our best oak in the preparation of split staves for export4 ,at the present rate of cutting1 the supply1 it is said1 will not last more than twenty-five years4 ,we ship abroad about seven per cent4 of our poplar lumber4 ,our supplies of this material will be exhausted in about twenty years if the present rate of cutting continues4 ,we sell to foreign countries at least one-half of our cut of black walnut which will be exhausted in ten to twelve years unless present methods are reformed4 ,our supplies of hickory1 ash and basswood will be used up in twenty to thirty years4 ,we need all this hardwood lumber for future domestic purposes4 ,however1 the furniture factories of ,france1 ,spain and ,italy are behind on orders4 ,they need hardwood and much of our valuable hardwood timber is being shipped to ,europe4 ,experience has proved that correct systems of handling the private forests can not be secured by mere suggestions or education4 ,no ordinary method of public coperation has been worked out which produces the desired results4 ,it is necessary that suitable measures be adopted to induce private owners to preserve and protect their woodlands4 ,the timberlands must be protected against forest fires4 ,timber must be cut so as to aid natural reproduction of forest4 ,cut-over lands must be reforested4 ,if such methods were practiced1 and national1 state and municipal forests were established and extended1 our lumber problem would largely solve itself4 ,we not only should produce a large permanent supply of timber for domestic use1 but also should have great reserves available for export4 ,under such conditions1 the ,united ,states would become the greatest supply source in the world for lumber4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,why ,,the ,,lumberman ,,should ,,practice ,,forestry ,the lumber industry of this country can aid reforestation by practicing better methods4 ,it can harvest its annual crop of timber without injuring the future production of the forests4 ,it can limit forest fires by leaving the woods in a safe condition after it has removed the timber4 ,some private timber owners who make a living out of cutting lumber1 have even reached the stage where they are planting trees4 ,they are coming to appreciate the need for replacing trees that they cut down1 in order that new growth may develop to furnish future timber crops4 ,the trouble in this country has been that the lumbermen have harvested the crop of the forests in the shortest possible time instead of spreading out the work over a long period4 ,most of our privately owned forests have been temporarily ruined by practices of this sort4 ,the aim of the ordinary lumberman is to fell the trees and reduce them to lumber with the least labor possible4 ,he does not exercise special care as to how the tree is cut down4 ,he pays little attention to the protection of young trees and new growth4 ,he cuts the tree to fall in the direction that best serves his purpose1 no matter whether this means that the forest giant will crush and seriously cripple many young trees4 ,he wastes large parts of the trunk in cutting4 ,he leaves the tops and chips and branches scattered over the ground to dry out4 ,they develop into a fire trap4 ,as generally followed1 the ordinary method of lumbering is destructive of the forests4 ,it ravages the future production of the timberlands4 ,it pays no heed to the young growth of the forest4 ,it does not provide for the proper growth and development of the future forest4 ,our vast stretches of desolate and deserted cut-over lands are silent witnesses to the ruin which has been worked by the practice of destructive lumbering4 ,fortunately1 a change for the better is now developing4 ,with the last of our timberland riches in sight on the ,pacific ,coast1 the lumbering industry is coming to see that it must prepare for the future4 ,consequently1 operators are handling the woods better than ever before4 ,they now are trying to increase both the production and permanent value of the remaining forests4 ,they aim to harvest the tree yield more thoroughly and to extend their cuttings over many years4 ,they appreciate that it is necessary to protect and preserve the forest at the same time that profitable tree crops are being removed4 ,they see the need for saving and increasing young growth and for protecting the woodlands against fire4 ,if only these methods of forestry had been observed from the time the early settlers felled the first trees1 not only would our forests be producing at present all the lumber we could use1 but also the ,united ,states would be the greatest lumber-exporting country in the world4 ,illustration3 ,,what ,,some ,,kinds ,,of ,,timber ,,cutting ,,do ,,to ,a ,,forest ,it will never be possible to stop timber cutting entirely in this country1 nor would it be desirable to do so4 ,the demands for building material1 fuel1 wood pulp and the like are too great to permit of such a condition4 ,the ,nation would suffer if all forest cutting was suspended4 ,there is a vital need1 however1 of perpetuating our remaining forests4 ,wasteful lumbering practices should be stopped4 ,only trees that are ready for harvest should be felled4 ,they should be cut under conditions which will protect the best interests and production of the timberlands4 ,as a class1 our lumbermen are no more selfish or greedy than men in many other branches of business4 ,they have worked under peculiar conditions in the ,united ,states4 ,our population was small as compared with our vast forest resources4 ,conditions imposed in ,france and ,germany1 where the population is so dense that more conservative systems of lumbering are generally practiced1 were not always applicable in this country4 ,furthermore1 our lumbermen have known little about scientific forestry4 ,this science is comparatively new in ,america4 ,all our forestry schools are still in the early stages of their development4 ,as lumbermen learn more about the value of modern forestry they gradually are coming to practice its principles4 ,the early lumbermen often made mistakes in estimating the timber yields of the forests4 ,they also neglected to provide for the future production of the woodlands after the virgin timber was removed4 ,those who followed in their steps have learned by these errors what mistakes to avoid4 ,our lumbermen lead the world in skill and ingenuity4 ,they have worked out most efficient methods of felling and logging the trees4 ,many foreign countries have long practiced forestry and lumbering1 yet their lumbermen cannot compete with the ,americans when it comes to a matter of ingenuity in the woods4 ,american woods and methods of logging are peculiar4 ,they would no more fit under ,european forest conditions than would foreign systems be suitable in this country4 ,american lumbermen are slowly coming to devise and follow a combination method which includes all the good points of foreign forestry revised to apply to our conditions4 ,we can keep our remaining forests alive and piece out their production over a long period if we practice conservation methods generally throughout the country4 ,our remaining forests can be lumbered according to the rules of practical forestry without great expense to the owners4 ,in the long run1 they will realize much larger returns from handling the woods in this way4 ,this work of saving the forests should begin at once4 ,it should be practiced in every state4 ,our cut-over and idle lands should be put to work4 ,our forest lands should be handled just like fertile farming lands that produce big crops4 ,the farmer does not attempt to take all the fertility out of the land in the harvest of one bumper crop4 ,he handles the field so that it will produce profitable crops every season4 ,he fertilizes the soil and tills it so as to add to its productive power4 ,similarly1 our forests should be worked so that they will yield successive crops of lumber year after year4 ,lumbermen who own forests from which they desire to harvest a timber crop should first of all survey the woods1 or have some experienced forester do this work1 to decide on what trees should be cut and the best methods of logging to follow4 ,the trees to be cut should be selected carefully and marked4 ,the owner should determine how best to protect the young and standing timber during lumbering4 ,he should decide on what plantings he will make to replace the trees that are cut4 ,he should survey and estimate the future yield of the forest4 ,he should study the young trees and decide about when they will be ripe to cut and what they will yield4 ,from this information1 he can determine his future income from the forest and the best ways of handling the woodlands4 ,under present conditions in this country1 only those trees should be cut from our forests which are mature and ready for the ax4 ,this means that the harvest must be made under conditions where there are enough young trees to take the place of the full-grown trees that are removed4 ,cutting is best done during the winter when the trees are dormant4 ,if the cutting is performed during the spring or summer1 the bark1 twigs and leaves of the surrounding young growth may be seriously damaged by the falling trees4 ,the trees should be cut as low to the ground as is practicable1 as high stumps waste valuable timber4 ,care should be taken so that they will not break or split in falling4 ,trees should be dropped so that they will not crush young seedlings and sapling growth as they fall4 ,it is no more difficult or costly to throw a tree so that it will not injure young trees than it is to drop it anywhere without regard for the future of the forest4 ,directly after cutting1 the fallen timber should be trimmed so as to remove branches that are crushing down any young growth or seedling4 ,in some forests the young growth is so thick that it is impossible to throw trees without falling them on some of these baby trees which will spring back into place again if the heavy branches are removed at once4 ,the top of the tree should be trimmed so that it will lie close to the ground4 ,under such conditions it will rot rapidly and be less of a fire menace4 ,the dry tops of trees which lodge above the ground are most dangerous sources of fire as they burn easily and rapidly4 ,the lumbermen can also aid the future development of the forests by using care in skidding and hauling the logs to the yard or mill4 ,care should be exercised in the logging operations not to tear or damage the bark of trunks of standing timber4 ,if possible1 only the trees of unimportant timber species should be cut for making corduroy roads in the forests4 ,this will be a saving of valuable material4 ,in lumbering operations as practiced in this country1 the logs are usually moved to the sawmills on sleds or by means of logging railroads4 ,if streams are near by1 the logs are run into the water and floated to the mill4 ,if the current is not swift enough1 special dams are built4 ,then when enough logs are gathered for the drive1 the dam is opened and the captive waters flood away rapidly and carry the logs to the mill4 ,on larger streams and rivers1 the logs are often fastened together in rafts4 ,expert log drivers who ride on the tipping1 rolling logs in the raging river1 guide the logs on these drives4 ,on arrival at the sawmill1 the logs are reduced to lumber4 ,many different kinds of saws are used in this work4 ,one of the most efficient is the circular saw which performs rapid work4 ,it is so wide in bite1 however1 that it wastes much wood in sawdust4 ,for example1 in cutting four boards of one-inch lumber1 an ordinary circular saw wastes enough material to make a fifth board1 because it cuts an opening that is one-quarter of an inch in width4 ,band saws1 although they do not work at such high speed1 are replacing circular saws in many mills because they are less wasteful of lumber4 ,although sawmills try to prevent waste of wood by converting slabs and short pieces into laths and shingles1 large amounts of refuse1 such as sawdust1 slabs and edgings1 are burned each season4 ,as a rule1 only about one-third of the tree is finally used for construction purposes1 the balance being wasted in one way or another4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,why ,,the ,,farmer ,,should ,,practice ,,forestry ,the tree crop is a profitable crop for the average farmer to grow4 ,notwithstanding the comparatively sure and easy incomes which result from the farm woodlands that are well managed1 farmers as a class neglect their timber4 ,not infrequently they sell their timber on the stump at low rates through ignorance of the real market value of the wood4 ,in other cases1 they do not care for their woodlands properly4 ,they cut without regard to future growth4 ,they do not pile the slashings and hence expose the timber tracts to fire dangers4 ,they convert young trees into hewed crossties which would yield twice as great a return if allowed to grow for four or five years longer and then be cut as lumber4 ,just to show how a small tract of trees will grow into money if allowed to mature1 the case of a three-acre side-hill pasture in ,new ,england is interesting4 ,forty-four years ago the farmer who owned this waste land dug up fourteen hundred seedling pines which were growing in a clump and set them out on the sidehill4 ,twenty years later the farmer died4 ,his widow sold the three acres of young pine for #cjj4 ,fifteen years later the woodlot again changed hands for a consideration of #a1jjj1 a lumber company buying it4 ,today1 this small body of pine woods contains #ij1jjj board feet of lumber worth at least #a1ejj on the stump4 ,the farmer who set out the trees devoted about #ce worth of land and labor to the miniature forest4 ,within a generation this expenditure has grown into a valuable asset which yielded a return of #cd4ji a year on the investment4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,poor ,,soil ,,trees ,,such ,,as ,,these ,,are ,,more ,,profitable ,,than ,,farm ,,crops ,a ,new ,york farmer who plays square with his woodland realizes a continuous profit of #a a day from a #aae-;acre timber tract4 ,the annual growth of this well-managed farm forest is 4#fe cords of wood per acre1 equivalent to #ge cords of wood--mostly tulip poplar--a year4 ,the farmer's profit amounts to #d4fh a cord1 or a total of #cfd4ej from the entire timber tract4 ,over in ,new ,hampshire1 an associate sold a two-acre stand of white pine--this was before the inflated war prices were in force--for #b1jjj on the stump4 ,the total cut of this farm forest amounted to #bed cords equivalent to #agj1jjj board feet of lumber4 ,this was an average of about #he1jjj feet an acre4 ,the trees were between eighty and eighty-five years old when felled4 ,this indicates an annual growth on each acre of about #a1jjj feet of lumber4 ,the gross returns from the sale of the woodland crops amounted to #ab4bj an acre a year4 ,these1 of course1 are not average instances4 ,farmers should prize their woodlands because they provide building material for fences and farm outbuildings as well as for general repairs4 ,the farm woodland also supplies fuel for the farm house4 ,any surplus materials can be sold in the form of standing timber1 sawlogs1 posts1 poles1 crossties1 pulpwood1 blocks or bolts4 ,the farm forest also serves as a good windbreak for the farm buildings4 ,it supplies shelter for the livestock during stormy weather and protects the soil against erosion4 ,during slack times1 it provides profitable work for the farm hands4 ,there are approximately one-fifth of a billion acres of farm woodlands in the ,united ,states4 ,in the eastern ,united ,states there are about #afi1jjj1jjj acres of farmland forests4 ,if these woodlands could be joined together in a solid strip one hundred miles wide1 they would reach from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco4 ,they would amount to an area almost eight times as large as the combined forests of ,france which furnished the bulk of the timber used by the ,allies during the ,world ,war4 ,in the ,north1 the farm woodlands compose two-fifths of all the forests4 ,altogether there are approximately #ec1jjj1jjj acres of farm woodlots which yield a gross income of about #afb1jjj1jjj annually to their owners4 ,surveys show that in the ,new ,england ,states more than #fe per cent4 of the forested land is on farms1 while in ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,illinois and ,iowa from #hj to #ajj per cent4 of the timber tracts are on corn belt farms4 ,conditions in the ,south also emphasize the importance of farm woods1 as in this region there are more than #abe1jjj1jjj acres which yield an income of about #aej1jjj1jjj a year4 ,in fact the woodlands on the farms compose about #ej per cent4 of all the forest lands south of the ,mason-,dixon line4 ,in ,maryland1 ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,kentucky and ,oklahoma1 over #fj per cent4 of all the forest land is on farms4 ,the ,government says timber raising is very profitable in the ,eastern ,states because there is plenty of cheap land which is not suitable for farming1 while the rainfall is abundant and favors rapid tree growth4 ,furthermore1 there are many large cities which use enormous supplies of lumber4 ,the transportation facilities1 both rail and water1 are excellent4 ,this section is a long distance from the last of the virgin forests of the ,pacific ,coast country4 ,the farms that reported at the last census sold an average of about #hb worth of tree crop products a year4 ,new ,york1 ,north ,carolina1 ,virginia1 ,georgia1 ,tennessee1 ,alabama1 ,kentucky1 ,wisconsin and ,pennsylvania each sold over #ae1jjj1jjj worth of lumber and other forest products from their farm woodlots during a single season4 ,in #aiah the report showed that the farms of the country burn up about #gh1jjj1jjj cords of firewood annually1 equal to approximately #aa4e cords of fuel a farm4 ,the ,southern ,states burn more wood than the colder ,northern ,states4 ,in ,north ,carolina each farm consumes eighteen cords of fuel annually1 while the farms of ,south ,carolina and ,arkansas used seventeen cords apiece1 and those of ,mississippi1 ,georgia1 ,tennessee1 ,louisiana1 and ,kentucky from fifteen to sixteen cords4 ,even under these conditions of extensive cordwood use1 our farm woodlots are producing only about one-third to one-half of the wood supplies which they could grow if they were properly managed4 ,the farmer who appreciates the importance of caring for his home forests is always interested in knowing how much timber will grow on an acre during a period of twelve months4 ,the ,government reports that where the farm woodlots are fully stocked with trees and well-cared for1 an acre of hardwoods will produce from one-half to one cord of wood--a cord of wood is equal to about #ejj board feet of lumber4 ,a pine forest will produce from one to two cords of wood an acre4 ,the growth is greater in the warmer southern climate than it is in the ,north where the growing season is much shorter4 ,expert foresters say that posts and crossties can be grown in from ten to thirty years and that most of the rapid growing trees will make saw timber in between twenty and forty years4 ,after the farm woodland is logged1 a new stand of young trees will develop from seeds or sprouts from the stumps4 ,farmers find that it is profitable to harrow the ground in the cut-over woodlands to aid natural reproduction1 or to turn hogs into the timber tract to rustle a living as these animals aid in scattering the seed under favorable circumstances4 ,it is also noteworthy that the most vigorous sprouts come from the clean1 well-cut stumps from which the trees were cut during the late fall1 winter or early spring before the sap begins to flow4 ,the top of each stump should be cut slanting so that it will readily shed water4 ,the trees that reproduce by sprouts include the oak1 hickory1 basswood1 chestnut1 gum1 cottonwood1 willows and young short-leaf and pitch pines4 ,in order that the farm woodland may be kept in the best of productive condition1 the farmer should remove for firewood the trees adapted only for that purpose4 ,usually1 removing these trees improves the growth of the remaining trees by giving them better chances to develop4 ,trees should be cut whose growth has been stunted because trees of more rapid growth crowded them out4 ,diseased trees or those that have been seriously injured by insects should be felled4 ,in sections exposed to chestnut blight or gypsy moth infection1 it is advisable to remove the chestnut and birch trees before they are damaged seriously4 ,it is wise management to cut the fire-scarred trees as well as those that are crooked1 large-crowned and short-boled1 as they will not make good lumber4 ,the removal of these undesirable trees improves the forest by providing more growing space for the sturdy1 healthy trees4 ,sound dead trees as well as the slow-growing trees that crowd the fast growing varieties should be cut4 ,in addition1 where such less valuable trees as the beech1 birch1 black oak1 jack oak or black gum are crowding valuable trees like the sugar maples1 white or short-leaf pines1 yellow poplar or white oak1 the former species should be chopped down4 ,these cutting operations should be done with the least possible damage to the living and young trees4 ,the weed trees should be cut down1 just as the weeds are hoed out of a field of corn1 in order that the surviving trees may make better growth4 ,often the farmer errs in marketing his tree crops4 ,there have been numerous instances where farmers have been deluded by timber cruisers and others who purchased their valuable forest tracts for a mere fraction of what the woodlands were really worth4 ,the ,united ,states ,forest ,service and ,state ,forestry ,departments have investigated many of these cases and its experts advise farmers who are planning to sell tree crops to get prices for the various wood products from as many sawmills and wood-using plants as possible4 ,the foresters recommend that the farmers consult with their neighbors who have sold timber4 ,sometimes it may pay to sell the timber locally if the prices are right1 as then the heavy transportation costs are eliminated4 ,most states have state foresters who examine woodlands and advise the owner just what to do4 ,it pays to advertise in the newspapers and secure as many competitive bids as possible for the timber on the stump4 ,generally1 unless the prices offered for such timber are unusually high1 the farmer will get greater returns by logging and sawing the timber and selling it in the form of lumber and other wood products4 ,the farmer who owns a large forest tract should have some reliable and experienced timberman carefully inspect his timber and estimate the amount and value4 ,the owner should deal with only responsible buyers4 ,he should use a written agreement in selling timber1 particularly where the purchaser is to do the cutting4 ,the farm woodland owner must always bear in mind that standing timber can always be held over a period of low prices without rapid deterioration4 ,in selling lumber1 the best plan is to use the inferior timber at home for building and repair work and to market the best of the material4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,putting ,,wood ,,waste ,,to ,,work ,for many years technical studies of wood were neglected4 ,detailed investigations of steel1 concrete1 oil1 rubber and other materials were made but wood apparently was forgotten4 ,it has been only during the last decade since the establishment of the ,forest ,products ,laboratory of the ,united ,states ,forest ,service1 at ,madison1 ,wisconsin1 that tests and experiments to determine the real value of different woods have been begun4 ,one of the big problems of the government scientists at that station1 which is conducted in coperation with the ,university of ,wisconsin1 is to check the needless waste of wood4 ,by actual test they find out all about the wasteful practices of lumbering in the woods and mills4 ,then they try to educate and convert the lumbermen and manufacturers away from such practices4 ,the laboratory experts have already performed more than #ejj1jjj tests with #adi different kinds of native woods4 ,as a result of these experiments1 these woods are now being used to better advantage with less waste in the building and manufacturing industries4 ,a potential saving of at least #bj per cent4 of the timbers used for building purposes is promised1 which means a salvage of about #dj1jjj1jjj annually as a result of strength tests of southern yellow pine and ,douglas fir4 ,additional tests have shown that the red heartwood of hickory is just as strong and serviceable as the white sap wood4 ,formerly1 the custom has been to throw away the heartwood as useless4 ,this discovery greatly extends the use of our hickory supply4 ,heretofore1 the custom has been to season woods by drying them in the sun4 ,this method of curing not only took a long time but also was wasteful and expensive4 ,the forestry scientists and lumbermen have now improved the use of dry kilns and artificial systems of curing green lumber4 ,now more than thirty-five of the leading woods such as ,douglas fir1 southern yellow pine1 spruce1 gum and oak can be seasoned in the kilns in short time4 ,it used to take about two years of air drying to season fir and spruce4 ,at present the artificial kiln performs this job in from twenty to forty days4 ,the kiln-dried lumber is just as strong and useful for construction as the air-cured stock4 ,tests have proved that kiln drying of walnut for use in gun stocks or airplane propellers1 in some cases reduced the waste of material from #fj to #b per cent4 ,the kiln-dried material was ready for use in one-third the time it would have taken to season the material in the air4 ,heavy green oak timbers for wagons and wheels were dried in the kiln in ninety to one hundred days4 ,it would have taken two years to cure this material outdoors4 ,by their valuable test work1 scientists are devising efficient means of protecting wood against decay4 ,they treat the woods with such chemicals as creosote1 zinc chloride and other preservatives4 ,the life of the average railroad tie is at least doubled by such treatment4 ,we could save about one and one-half billion board feet of valuable hardwood lumber annually if all the #he1jjj1jjj untreated railroad ties now in use could be protected in this manner4 ,if all wood exposed to decay were similarly treated1 we could save about six billion board feet of timber each year4 ,about one-sixth of all the lumber that is cut in the ,united ,states is used in making crates and packing boxes4 ,the majority of these boxes are not satisfactory4 ,either they are not strong enough or else they are not the right size or shape4 ,during a recent year1 the railroads paid out more than #ajj1jjj1jjj to shippers who lost goods in transit due to boxes and crates that were damaged in shipment4 ,in order to find out what woods are best to use in crates and boxes and what sizes and shapes will withstand rough handling1 the ,laboratory experts developed a novel drum that tosses the boxes to and fro and gives them the same kind of rough handling they get on the railroad4 ,this testing machine has demonstrated that the proper method of nailing the box is of great importance4 ,tests have shown that the weakest wood properly nailed into a container is more serviceable than the strongest wood poorly nailed4 ,better designs of boxes have been worked out which save lumber and space and produce stronger containers4 ,educating the lumbering industry away from extravagant practices is one of the important activities of the modern forestry experts4 ,operators who manufacture handles1 spokes1 chairs1 furniture1 toys and agricultural implements could1 by scientific methods of wood using1 produce just as good products by using #aj to #ej per cent4 of the tree as they do by using all of it4 ,the furniture industry not infrequently wastes from #dj to #fj per cent4 of the raw lumber which it buys4 ,much of this waste could be saved by cutting the small sizes of material directly from the log instead of from lumber4 ,it is also essential that sizes of material used in these industries be standardized4 ,the ,forest ,products ,laboratory has perfected practical methods of building up material from small pieces which otherwise would be thrown away4 ,for example1 shoe lasts1 hat blocks1 bowling pins1 base-ball bats1 wagon bolsters and wheel hubs are now made of short pieces of material which are fastened together with waterproof glue4 ,if this method of built-up construction can be made popular in all sections of the country1 very great savings in our annual consumption of wood can be brought about4 ,as matters now stand1 approximately #be per cent4 of the tree in the forest is lost or wasted in the woods1 #dj per cent4 at the mills1 #e per cent4 in seasoning the lumber and from #e to #aj per cent4 in working the lumber over into the manufactured articles4 ,this new method of construction which makes full use of odds and ends and slabs and edgings offers a profitable way to make use of the #ge per cent4 of material which now is wasted4 ,the vast importance of preserving our forests is emphasized when one stops to consider the great number of uses to which wood is put4 ,in addition to being used as a building material1 wood is also manufactured into newspaper and writing paper4 ,furthermore1 it is a most important product in the making of linoleum1 artificial silk1 gunpowder1 paints1 soaps1 inks1 celluloid1 varnishes1 sausage casings1 chloroform and iodoform4 ,wood alcohol1 which is made by the destructive distillation of wood1 is another important by-product4 ,acetate of lime1 which is used extensively in chemical plants1 and charcoal1 are other products which result from wood distillation4 ,the charcoal makes a good fuel and is valuable for smelting iron1 tin and copper1 in the manufacture of gunpowder1 as an insulating material1 and as a clarifier in sugar refineries4 ,it is predicted that the future fuel for use in automobile engines will be obtained from wood waste4 ,ethyl or grain alcohol can now be made from sawdust and other mill refuse4 ,one ton of dry ,douglas fir or southern yellow pine will yield from twenty to twenty-five gallons of #ie per cent4 alcohol4 ,it is estimated that more than #cjj1jjj1jjj gallons of alcohol could be made annually from wood now wasted at the mills4 ,this supply could be increased by the use of second-growth1 inferior trees and other low-grade material4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,wood ,,for ,,the ,,nation ,westward the course of forest discovery and depletion has taken its way in the ,united ,states4 ,the pine and hardwood forests of the ,atlantic and ,new ,england ,states first fell before the bite of the woodman's ax and the sweep of his saw4 ,wasteful lumbering finally sapped the resources of these productive timberlands4 ,shift was then made farther westward to the ,lake ,states4 ,their vast stretches of white pine and native hardwoods were cut to a skeleton of their original size4 ,the lumbering operations then spread to the southern pine belt4 ,in a few years the supplies of marketable lumber in that region were considerably reduced4 ,then the westward trail was resumed4 ,the strip of country between the ,mississippi ,river and the ,cascade1 ,sierra ,nevada and ,coast ,ranges was combed and cut4 ,today1 the last big drive against our timber assets is being waged in the forests of the ,pacific ,coast4 ,our virgin forests originally covered #hbb1jjj1jjj acres4 ,today1 only one-sixth of them are left4 ,all the forest land now in the ,united ,states including culled1 burned and cut-over tracts1 totals #dfc1jjj1jjj acres4 ,we now have more waste and cut-over lands in this country than the combined forest area of ,germany1 ,belgium1 ,denmark1 ,holland1 ,france1 ,switzerland1 ,spain and ,portugal4 ,the merchantable timber left in the ,united ,states is estimated at #b1bae1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet4 ,the rest is second-growth trees of poor quality4 ,one-half of this timber is in ,california1 ,washington and ,oregon4 ,it is a long and costly haul from these ,pacific ,coast forests to the eastern markets4 ,less than one-fifth of our remaining timber is hardwood4 #ef1jjj1jjj1jjj board feet of material of saw timber size are used or destroyed in the ,united ,states each year4 ,altogether1 we use more than #bf1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of timber of all classes annually4 ,our forests are making annual growth at the rate of less than one-fourth of this total consumption4 ,we are rapidly cutting away the last of our virgin forests4 ,we also are cutting small-sized and thrifty trees much more rapidly than we can replace them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,forest ,,crop ,,on ,,its ,,way ,,to ,,the ,,market ,the ,united ,states is short on timber today because our fathers and forefathers abused our forests4 ,if they had planted trees on the lands after the virgin timber was removed1 we should now be one of the richest countries in the world in forest resources4 ,instead1 they left barren stretches and desolate wastes where dense woods once stood4 ,it is time that the present owners of the land begin the reclamation of our #cbf1jjj1jjj acres of cut-over timberlands4 ,some of these lands still are yielding fair crops of timber due to natural restocking and proper care4 ,most of them are indifferent producers4 ,one-quarter of all this land is bare of forest growth4 ,it is our duty as citizens of the ,united ,states to aid as we may in the reforestation of this area4 ,fires are cutting down the size of our forests each year4 ,during a recent five-year period1 #afj1jjj forest fires burned over #ef1dhh1jjj acres1 an area as large as the state of ,utah1 and destroyed or damaged timber and property valued at #he1gae1jjj4 ,year by year1 fires and bad timber practices have been increasing our total areas of waste and cut-over land4 ,we are facing a future lumber famine1 not alone because we have used up our timber1 but also because we have failed to make use of our vast acreage of idle land adapted for growing forests4 ,we must call a halt and begin all over again4 ,our new start must be along the lines of timber planting and tree increase4 ,the landowners1 the ,states and the ,federal ,government must all get together in this big drive for reforestation4 ,it is impossible to make ,national ,forests out of all the idle forest land4 ,on the other hand1 the matter of reforestation cannot be left to private owners4 ,some of them would set out trees and restore the forests as desired4 ,others would not4 ,the public has large interests at stake4 ,it must bear part of the burden4 ,proper protection of the forests against fire can come only through united public action4 ,everyone must do his part to reduce the fire danger4 ,the public must also bring about needed changes in many of our tax methods so that private owners will be encouraged to go into the business of raising timber4 ,the ,government must do its share1 the private landowner must help to the utmost and the public must aid in every possible way1 including payment of higher prices for lumber as the cost of growing timber increases4 ,france and ,scandinavia have solved their forest problems along about the same lines the ,united ,states will have to follow4 ,these countries keep up well-protected public forests4 ,all the landowners are taught how to set out and raise trees4 ,everyone has learned to respect the timberlands4 ,the woods are thought of as treasures which must be carefully handled4 ,the average man would no more think of abusing the trees in the forest than he would of setting fire to his home4 ,the foreign countries are now busy working out their forestry problems of the years to come4 ,we in ,america are letting the future take care of itself4 ,our ,states should aid generally in the work of preventing forest fires4 ,they should pass laws which will require more careful handling of private forest lands4 ,they should pass more favorable timber tax laws so that tree growing will be encouraged4 ,uncle ,sam should be the director in charge of all this work4 ,he should instruct the states how to protect their forests against fire4 ,he should teach them how to renew their depleted woodlands4 ,he should work for a gradual and regular expansion of the ,national ,forests4 ,the ,united ,states ,forest ,service should have the power to help the various states in matters of fire protection1 ways of cutting forests1 methods of renewing forests and of deciding whether idle lands were better adapted for farming or forestry purposes4 ,experts believe that the ,government should spend at least #b1jjj1jjj a year in the purchase of new ,national ,forests4 ,about one-fifth of all our forests are now publicly owned4 ,one of the best ways of preventing the concentration of timber in private ownership is to increase the area of publicly owned forests4 ,such actions would prevent the waste of valuable timber and would aid planting work4 ,for best results1 it is thought that the ,federal ,government should own about one-half of all the forests in the country4 ,to protect the watersheds of navigable streams the ,government should buy #a1jjj1jjj acres of woodlands in ,new ,england and #e1jjj1jjj acres in the southern ,appalachian ,mountains4 ,the ,national ,forests should also be extended and consolidated4 ,federal funds should be increased so that the ,forest ,service can undertake on a large scale the replanting of burned-over lands in the ,national ,forests4 ,as soon as this work is well under way1 ,congress should supply about #a1jjj1jjj annually for such work4 ,many watersheds in the ,national ,forests are bare of cover due to forest fires4 ,as a result1 the water of these streams is not sufficient for the needs of irrigation1 water power and city water supply of the surrounding regions4 ,right now1 even our leading foresters do not know exactly what the forest resources of the country amount to4 ,it will take several years to make such a survey even after the necessary funds are provided4 ,we need to know just how much wood of each class and type is available4 ,we want to know1 in each case1 the present and possible output4 ,we want to find out the timber requirements of each state and of every important wood-using industry4 ,exact figures are needed on the timber stands and their growth4 ,the experimental work of the ,forest ,service should be extended4 ,practically every forest is different from every other forest4 ,it is necessary to work out locally the problems of each timber reservation4 ,most urgent of all is the demand for a law to allow ,federal officers to render greater assistance to the state forestry departments in fighting forest fires4 ,many state laws designed to perpetuate our forests must be passed if our remaining timber resources are to be saved4 ,during times when fires threaten1 all the forest lands in each state should be guarded by organized agencies4 ,this protection should include cut-over and unimproved land as well as timber tracts4 ,such a plan would require that the ,state and ,federal governments bear about one-half the expenses while the private forest owners should stand the balance4 ,there would be special rules regulating the disposal of slashings1 methods of cutting timber1 and of extracting forest products such as pulpwood or naval stores4 ,if our forests are to be saved for the future we must begin conservation at once4 ,to a small degree1 luck plays a part in maintaining the size of the forest4 ,some woodlands in the ,south ,atlantic ,states are now producing their third cut of saw logs4 ,despite forest fires and other destructive agencies1 these forests have continued to produce4 ,some of the northern timberlands have grown crops of saw timber and wood pulp for from one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty years4 ,expert foresters report that private owners are each year increasing their plantings on denuded woodlands4 ,new ,england landowners are planting between #ab1jjj1jjj and #ae1jjj1jjj young forest trees a year4 ,the ,middle ,atlantic and ,central ,states are doing about as well4 ,to save our forests1 planting of this sort must be universal4 ,it takes from fifty to one hundred years to grow a crop of merchantable timber4 ,what the ,united ,states needs is a national forestry policy which will induce every landowner to plant and grow more trees on land that is not useful for farm crops4 ,our forestry problem is to put to work millions of acres of idle land4 ,as one eminent forester recently remarked1 ,if we are to remain a nation of timber users1 we must become a nation of wood growers4