,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #ddf ,,new ,,york1 ,,july #ai1 #ahhd ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,no4 #ddf4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,i4 ,,chemistry4--,tin in ,canned ,foods4--,by ,prof4 ,,attfielu4--,small amount of tin found4--,whence come these small particles4--,no cause for alarm4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,the ,windmill4--,by ,,james ,w4 ,,hill4--,the ,eclipse wind4--,other wind mills4--,their operation1 use1 etc4 ,the ,pneumatic ,dynamite ,gun4--,with engraving of pneumatic dynamite gun torpedo vessel4 ,rope ,pulley ,friction ,brake4--#c figures4 ,wire ,rope ,towage4--,treating of the system of towage by hauling in a submerged wire rope as used on the ,river ,rhine1 boats employed1 etc4--,with engraving of wire rope tug boat4 ,improved ,hay ,rope ,machine4--,with engraving4 ,the ,anglesea ,bridge1 ,cork4--,with engraving4 ,portable ,railways4--,by ,m ,,decauville4--,narrow gauge roads in ,great ,britain4--,m4 ,decauvilie's system4--,railways used at the ,panama ,canal1 in ,tunis1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,,technology4--,improved ,pneumatic ,filtering ,presses1 and the ,processes in which they are employed4--#b engravings4 ,pneumatic ,malting4 ,a ,new ,form of ,gas ,washer4--,manner in which it is used4--,by ,a4 ,,bandsept4--#b figures4 ,,iv4 ,,electricity1 ,,heat1 ,,etc4--,gerard's ,alternating ,current ,machine4--#b engravings4 ,automatic ,fast ,speed ,telegraphy4--,by ,,theo4 ,f4 ,,taylor4--,speed determined by resistance and static capacity4--,experiments ,taylor's system4--,with diagram4 ,theory of the ,action of the ,carbon ,microphone4--,what is it8 --#b figures4 ,the ,dembinski ,telephone ,transmitter4--#c figures4 ,new ,gas ,lighters4--,electric lighters4--#c engravings4 ,distribution of ,heat which is developed by ,forging4 ,v4 ,,architecture1 ,,art4 ,,etc4--,villa at ,dorking4--,an engraving4 ,arm ,chair in the ,louvre ,collection4 ,,vi4 ,,geology4--,the ,deposition of ,ores4--,by ,j4,s4 ,,newberry4--,mineral ,veins4--,bedded veins4--,theories of ore deposit4--,leaching of igneous rocks4 ,,vii4 ,,natural ,,history1 ,,etc4--,habits of ,burrowing ,crayfishes in the ,u4,s4--,form and size of the burrows and mounds4--,obtaining food4--,other species of crayfish4--#c figures4 ,our ,servants1 the ,microbes4--,what is a microbe8--,multiplication4 --,formation of spores4--,how they live4--,different groups of bacteria4--,their services4 ,,viii4 ,,horticulture4--,a ,new ,stove ,climber4--7,ipoma thomsoniana7 ,sprouting of ,palm ,seeds4 ,history of ,wheat4 ,,ix4 ,,miscellaneous4--,technical ,education in ,america4--,branches of study most prominent in schools of different ,states4 ,the ,ansthetics of ,jugglers4--,fakirs of the ,indies4--,processes employed by them4--,ansthetic plants4 ,epitaphium ,chymicum4--,an epitaph written by ,dr4 ,,godfrey4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,filter ,,presses4 ,hitherto it has been found that of all the appliances and methods for separating the liquid from the solid matters1 whether it is in the case of effluents from tanneries and other manufactories1 or the ocherous and muddy sludges taken from the settling tanks in mines1 some of which contain from #ij to #ie per cent4 of water1 the filter press is the best and the most economical1 and it is to this particular process that ,messrs4 ,johnson's exhibits at the ,health ,exhibition1 ,london1 chiefly relate4 ,our engravings are from ,the ,engineer4 ,a filter press consists of a number of narrow cells of cast iron1 shown in ,figs4 #c and #d1 held together in a suitable frame1 the interior frames being provided with drainage surfaces communicating with outlets at the bottom1 and covered with a filtering medium1 which is generally cloth or paper4 ,the interior of the cells so built up are in direct communication with each other1 or with a common channel for the introduction of the matter to be filtered1 and as the only exit is through the cloth or paper1 the solid portion is kept back while the liquid passes through and escapes by the drainage surfaces to the outlets4 ,the cells are subjected to pressure1 which increases as the operation goes on1 from the growing resistance offered by the increasing deposit of solid matter on the cloths2 and it is therefore necessary that they should be provided with a jointing strip around the outside1 and be pressed together sufficiently to prevent any escape of liquid4 ,in ordinary working both sides of the cell are exposed to the same pressure1 but in some cases the feed passages become choked1 and destroy the equilibrium4 ,this1 in the earlier machines1 gave rise to considerable annoyance1 as the diaphragms1 being thin1 readily collapsed at even moderate pressures2 but recently all trouble on this head has been obviated by introducing the three projections near the center1 as shown in the cuts1 which bear upon each other and form a series of stays from one end of the cells to the other1 supporting the plates until the obstruction is forced away4 ,we give an illustration below showing the arrangement of a pair of filter presses with pneumatic pressure apparatus1 which has been successfully applied for dealing with sludge containing a large amount of fibrous matter and rubbish1 which could not be conveniently treated with by pumps in the ordinary way4 ,the sludge is allowed to gravitate into wrought iron receivers placed below the floor1 and of sufficient size to receive one charge4 ,from these vessels it is forced into the presses by means of air compressed to from #ajj lb4 to #abj lb4 per square inch1 the air being supplied by the horizontal pump shown in the engraving4 ,the press is thus almost instantaneously filled1 and the whole operation is completed in about an hour1 the result being a hard pressed cake containing about #de per cent4 of water1 which can be easily handled and disposed of as required4 ,the same arrangement is in use for dealing with sewage sludge1 and the advantages of the compressed air system over the ordinary pumps1 as well as the ready and cleanly method of separating the liquid1 will probably commend itself to many of our readers4 ,we understand that from careful experiments on a large scale1 extending over a period of two years1 the cost of filtration1 including all expenses1 has been found to be not more than about #f;d4 per ton of wet sludge4 ,a number of specimens of waste liquors from factories with the residual matters pressed into cakes1 and also of the purified effluents1 are exhibited4 ,these will prove of interest to many1 all the more so since in some instances the waste products are converted into materials of value1 which1 it is stated1 will more than repay for the outlay incurred4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,fig #d4 ,another application of the filter press is in the ,porter-,clark process of softening water1 which is shown in operation4 ,we may briefly state that the chief object is to precipitate the bicarbonates of lime and magnesia held in solution by the water1 and so get rid of what is known as the temporary hardness4 ,to accomplish this1 strong lime water is introduced in a clear state to the water to be softened1 the quantity being regulated according to the amount of bicarbonates in solution4 ,the immediate effect of this is that a proportion of the carbonic acid of the latter combines with the invisible lime of the clear lime water1 forming a chalky precipitate1 while the loss of this proportion of carbonic acid also reduces the invisible bicarbonates into visible carbonates4 ,the precipitates thus formed are in the state of an impalpable powder1 and in the original ,clark process many hours were required for their subsidence in large settling tanks1 which had to be in duplicate in order to permit of continuous working4 ,by ,mr4 ,porter's process1 however1 this is obviated by the use of filter presses1 through which the chalky water is passed1 the precipitate being left behind1 while1 by means of a special arrangement of cells1 the softened and purified water is discharged under pressure to the service tanks4 ,large quantities can thus be dealt with1 within small space1 and in many cases no pumping is required1 as the resistance of the filtering medium being small1 the ordinary pressure in the main is but little reduced4 ,one of the apparatus exhibited is designed for use in private mansions1 and will soften and filter #gej gallons a day4 ,in such a case1 where it would probably be inconvenient to apply the usual agitating machinery1 special arrangements have been made by which all the milk of lime for a day's working is made at one time in a special vessel agitated by hand1 on the evening previous to the day on which it is to be used4 ,time is thus given for the particles of lime to settle during the night4 ,the clear lime water is introduced into the mixing vessel by means of a charge of air compressed in the top of a receiver1 by the action of water from the main1 the air being admitted to the milk of lime vessel through a suitable regulating valve4 ,a very small filter suffices for removing the precipitate1 and the clear1 softened water can either be used at once1 or stored in the usual way4 ,the advantages which would accrue to the community at large from the general adoption of some cheap method of reducing the hardness of water are too well known to need much comment from us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pneumatic ,,malting4 ,according to ,k4 ,lintner1 the worst features of the present system of malting are the inequalities of water and temperature in the heaps and the irregular supplies of oxygen to1 and removal of carbonic acid from1 the germinating grain4 ,the importance of the last two points is demonstrated by the facts that1 when oxygen is cut off1 alcoholic fermentation--giving rise to the well-known odor of apples--sets in in the cells1 and that in an atmosphere with #bj per cent4 of carbonic acid1 germination ceases4 ,the open pneumatic system1 which consists in drawing warm air through the heaps spread on a perforated floor1 should yield better results4 ,all the processes are thoroughly controlled by the eye and by the thermometer1 great cleanliness is possible1 and the space requisite is only one-third of that required on the old plan4 ,since ,may1 #ahhb1 this method has been successfully worked at ,puntigam1 where plant has been established sufficient for an annual output of #g1jjj qrs4 of malt4 ,the closed pneumatic system labors under the disadvantages that from the form of the apparatus germination cannot be thoroughly controlled1 and cleanliness is very difficult to maintain1 while the supply of oxygen is1 as a rule1 more irregular than with the open floors4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,pneumatic ,,filtering ,,presses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,form ,,of ,,gas ,,washer4 ,by ,a4 ,,bandsept1 of ,brussels4 ,the washer is an appliance intended to condense and clean gas1 which1 on leaving the hydraulic main1 holds in suspension a great many properties that are injurious to its illuminating power1 and cannot1 if retained1 be turned to profitable account4 ,this cleaning process is not difficult to carry out effectually2 and most of the appliances invented for the purpose would be highly efficacious if they did not in other respects present certain very serious inconveniences4 ,the passage of the gas through a column of cold water is1 of course1 sufficient to condense it1 and clear it of these injurious properties2 but this operation has for its immediate effect the presentation of an obstacle to the flow of the gas1 and consequently augmentation of pressure in the retorts4 ,in order to obviate this inconvenience 7which exists notwithstanding the use of the best washers71 exhausters are employed to draw the gas from the retorts and force it into the washers4 ,there is1 however1 another inconvenience which can only be remedied by the use of a second exhauster1 viz41 the loss of pressure after the passage of the gas through the washer--a loss resulting from the obstacle presented by this appliance to the steady flow of the gas4 ,now as1 in the course of its passage through the remaining apparatus1 on its way to the holder1 the gas will have to suffer a considerable loss of pressure1 it is of the greatest importance that the washer should deprive it of as little as possible4 ,it will be obvious1 therefore1 that a washer which fulfills the best conditions as far as regards the cleaning of the gas will be absolutely perfect if it does not present any impediment to its flow4 ,such an appliance is that which is shown in the illustration on next page4 ,its object is1 while allowing for the washing being as vigorous and as long-continued as may be desired1 to draw the gas out of the retorts1 and1 having cleansed it perfectly from its deleterious properties1 to force it onward4 ,the apparatus consequently supplies the place of the exhauster and the scrubber4 ,the new washer consists of a rectangular box of cast iron1 having a half-cylindrical cover1 in the upper part of which is fixed a pipe to carry off the gas4 ,in the box there is placed horizontally a turbine1 the hollow axis of which serves for the conveyance of the gas into the vessel4 ,for this purpose the axis is perforated with a number of small holes1 some of which are tapped1 so as to allow of there being screwed on to the axis1 and perpendicularly thereto1 a series of brooms made of dog grass1 and having their handles threaded for the purpose4 ,these brooms are arranged in such a way as not to encounter too great resistance from contact with the water contained in the vessel1 and so that the water cast up by them shall not be all thrown in the same direction4 ,to obviate these inconveniences they are fixed obliquely to the axis of the central pipe1 and are differently arranged in regard to each other4 ,a more symmetrical disposition of them could1 however1 be adopted by placing them zigzag1 or in such a way as to form two helices1 one of which would move in a particular direction1 and the other in a different way4 ,the central pipe1 furnished with its brooms1 being set in motion by means of a pulley fixed upon its axis 7which also carries a flywheel71 the gas1 drawn in at the center1 and escaping by the holes made in the pipe1 is forced to the circumference of the vessel1 where it passes out4 ,the effect of this washer is first1 to break up the current of gas1 and then force it violently into the water2 at the same time sending into it the spray of water thrown up by the brooms4 ,this double operation is constantly going on1 so that the gas1 having been saturated by the transfusion into it of a vigorous shower of water 7into the bulk of which it is subsequently immersed71 is forced1 on leaving the water1 to again undergo similar treatment4 ,the same quantity of gas is therefore several times submitted to the washing process1 till at length it finds its way to the outlet1 and makes its escape4 ,the extent to which the washing of the gas is carried is1 consequently1 only limited by the speed of the apparatus1 or rather by the ratio of the speed to the initial pressure of the gas4 ,this limit being determined1 the operation may be continued indefinitely1 by making the gas pass into several washers in succession4 ,there is1 therefore1 no reason why the gas should not1 after undergoing this treatment1 be absolutely freed of all those properties which are susceptible of removal by water4 ,in fact1 all that is requisite is to increase the dimensions of the vessel1 so as to compel the gas to remain longer therein1 and thus cause it to undergo more frequently the operation of washing4 ,these dimensions being fixed within reasonable limits1 if the gas is not sufficiently washed1 the speed of the apparatus may be increased2 and the degree of washing will be thereby augmented4 ,if this does not suffice1 the number of turbines may be increased1 and the gas passed from one to the other until the gas is perfectly clean4 ,this series of operations would1 however1 with any kind of washer1 result in thoroughly cleansing the gas4 ,the only thing that makes such a process practically impossible is the very considerable or it may be even total loss of pressure which it entails4 ,by the new system1 the loss of pressure is nil1 inasmuch as each turbine becomes in reality an exhauster4 ,the gas1 entering the washer at the axis1 is drawn to the circumference by the rotatory motion of the brooms1 which thus form a ventilator4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that on leaving the vessel the gas will have a greater pressure than it had on entering it2 and this increase of pressure may be augmented to any desired extent by altering the speed of rotation of the axis1 precisely as in the case of an exhauster4 ,forcing the gas violently into water1 and at the same time dividing the current1 is evidently the most simple1 rational1 and efficient method of washing1 especially when this operation is effected by brooms fixed on a shaft and rotated with great speed4 ,therefore1 if there had not been this loss of pressure to deal with--a fatal consequence of every violent operation--the question of perfect washing would probably have been solved long ago4 ,the invention which ,i have now submitted consists of an arrangement which enables all loss of pressure to be avoided1 inasmuch as it furnishes the apparatus with the greatest number of valuable qualities1 whether regarded from the point of view of washing or that of condensation4 ,illustration3 ,longitudinal ,section4 ,elevation4 ,transverse ,section4 ,referring to the illustration1 the gas enters the washer by the pipe1 ,a1 which terminates in the form of a ,symbol3 inverted ,t4 ,one end 7a7 of this pipe is bolted to the center of one of the sides of the cylindrical portion of the case1 in which there is a hole of similar diameter to the pipe2 the other 7a'7 being formed by the face-plate of a stuffing-box1 ,b1 through which passes the central shaft1 ,c1 supported by the plummer-block1 ,d1 as shown4 ,this shaft has upon its opposite end a plate perforated with holes1 ,e1 which is fixed upon the flange of a horizontal pipe1 ,f4 ,this pipe is closed at the other end by means of a plate1 ,e'1 furnished with a spindle1 supported by a stuffing-box1 ,b'1 and carrying a fly-wheel1 ,g4 ,the central pipe1 ,f1 is perforated with a number of small holes4 ,the gas entering by the pipe1 ,a1 makes its way into the central pipe through the openings in the plate1 ,e1 and passes into the cylindrical case through the small holes in the central pipe1 which carries the brooms1 ,h4 ,these are caused to rotate rapidly by means of the pulley1 ,i2 and thus a constant shower of water is projected into the cylindrical case4 ,when the gas has been several times subjected to the washing process1 it passes off by the pipe1 ,k4 ,fresh cold water is supplied to the vessel by the pipe1 ,l2 and ,m is the outlet for the tar4--,journal of ,gas ,lighting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,wind ,,mill4 ,footnote3 ,a paper read before the ,engineers' ,club of ,st4 ,louis1 #ahhd4 ,by ,,james ,w4 ,,hill4 ,in the history of the world the utilization of the wind as a motive power antedates the use of both water and steam for the same purpose4 ,the advent of steam caused a cessation in the progress of wind power1 and it was comparatively neglected for many years4 ,but more recently attention has been again drawn to it1 with the result of developing improvements1 so that it is now utilized in many ways4 ,the need in the ,west of a motive power where water power is rare and fuel expensive has done much to develop and perfect wind mills4 ,wind mills1 as at present constructed in this country1 are of recent date4 ,the mill known as the ,eclipse was the first mill of its class built4 ,it is known as the solid-wheel1 self-regulating pattern1 and was invented about seventeen years ago4 ,the wind wheel is of the rosette type1 built without any joints1 which gives it the name solid wheel1 in contradistinction to wheels made with loose sections or fans hinged to the arms or spokes1 and known as section wheel mills4 ,the regulation of the ,eclipse mill is accomplished by the use of a small adjustable side vane1 flexible or hinged rudder vane1 and weighted lever1 as shown in ,plate #a 7on the larger sizes of mills iron balls attached to a chain are used in place of the weighted lever74 ,the side vane and weight on lever being adjustable1 can be set to run the mill at any desired speed4 ,now you will observe from the model that the action of the governing mechanism is automatic4 ,as the velocity of the wind increases1 the pressure on the side vane tends to carry the wind wheel around edgewise to the wind and parallel to the rudder vane1 thereby changing the angle and reducing the area exposed to the wind2 at the same time the lever1 with adjustable weight attached1 swings from a vertical toward a horizontal position1 the resistance increasing as it moves toward the latter position4 ,this acts as a counterbalance of varying resistance against the pressure of the wind on the side vane1 and holds the mill at an angle to the plane of the wind1 insuring thereby the number of revolutions per minute required1 according to the position to which the governing mechanism has been set or adjusted4 ,if the velocity of the wind is such that the pressure on the side vane overcomes the resistance of the counter weight1 then the side vane is carried around parallel with the rudder vane1 presenting only the edge of the wind wheel or ends of the fans to the wind1 when the mill stops running4 ,this type of mill presents more effective wind receiving or working surface when in the wind1 and less surface exposed to storms when out of the wind1 than any other type of mill4 ,it is at all times under the control of an operator on the ground4 ,a #bb-;foot ,eclipse mill presents #ceb square feet of wind receiving and working surface in the wind1 and only #i square feet of wind resisting surface when out of the wind4 ,solid-wheel mills are superseding all others in this country1 and are being exported largely to all parts of the world1 in sizes from #aj to #cj feet in diameter4 ,many of these mills have withstood storms without injury1 where substantial buildings in the immediate vicinity have been badly damaged4 ,i will refer to some results accomplished with pumping mills3 ,in the spring of #ahha there was erected for ,arkansas ,city1 ,kansas1 a #ad-;foot diameter pumping wind mill2 a #cb1jjj-;gallon water tank1 resting on a stone substructure #ae feet high1 the ground on which it stands being #d feet higher than the main street of the town4 ,one thousand four hundred feet of #d-;inch wood pipe was used for mains1 with #a1bjj feet of #a-;inch wrought iron pipe4 ,three #c-;inch fire hydrants were placed on the main street4 ,the wind mill was located #a1ajj feet from the tank1 and forced the water this distance1 elevating it #ej feet4 ,we estimate that this mill is pumping from #ah1jjj to #bj1jjj gallons of water every twenty-four hours4 ,we learned that these works have saved two buildings from burning1 and that the water is being used for sprinkling the streets1 and being furnished to consumers at the following rates per annum3 ,private houses1 #e2 stores1 #e2 hotels1 #aj2 livery stables1 #ae4 ,at these very low rates1 the city has an income of #cjj per annum4 ,the approximate cost of the works was #b1jjj4 ,this gives #ae per cent4 interest on the investment1 not deducting anything for repairs or maintenance1 which has not cost #e per annum so far4 ,illustration3 ,plate #b4 ,,the ,,eclipse ,,wind ,,mill4 ,in ,june1 #ahhc1 a wind water works system was erected for the city of ,mc,pherson1 ,kansas1 consisting of a #bb-;foot diameter wind mill on a #ge-;foot tower1 which pumps the water out of a well #hj feet deep1 and delivers it into a #fj1jjj-;gallon tank resting on a substructure #dc feet above the ground4 ,sixteen hundred feet of #f-;inch and #cjj feet of #d-;inch cast iron pipe furnish the means of distribution2 eight #b-;inch double discharge fire hydrants were located on the principal streets4 ,a gate valve was placed in the #f-;inch main close to the elbow on lower end of the down pipe from the tank4 ,this pipe is attached to the bottom of the tank2 another pipe was run up through the bottom of tank #i feet 7the tank being #ah feet deep71 and carried down to a connection with the main pipe just outside the gate valve4 ,the operation of this arrangement is as follows3 ,the gate valve being closed1 the water cannot be drawn below the #i-;foot level in tank1 which leaves about #ce1jjj gallons in store for fire protection1 and is at once available by opening the gate valve referred to4 ,the tank rests on ground about #e feet above the main streets1 which gives a head of #eg feet when the tank is half full4 ,the distance from tank to the farthest hydrant being so short1 they get the pressure due to this head at the hydrant1 when playing #b-;inch1 or #a-a_/h-;inch streams1 with short lines of #b-;inch hose2 this gives fair fire streams for a town with few if any buildings over two stories high4 ,it is estimated that this mill is pumping from #cj1jjj to #ch1jjj gallons on an average every twenty-four hours4 ,there is an automatic device attached to this mill1 which stops it when the tank is full1 but as soon as the water in the tank is lowered1 it goes to pumping again4 ,the cost of these works complete to the city was a trifle over #f1jjj4 ,in ,november last a wind mill #ah feet in diameter was erected over a coal mine at ,richmond1 in this ,state4 ,the conditions were as follows3 ,the mine produces #aa1jjj gallons of water every twenty-four hours4 ,the sump holds #aa1jjj gallons4 ,two entries that can be dammed up give a storage of #af1ejj gallons1 making a total storage capacity of #bg1ejj gallons4 ,it takes sixty hours for the mine to produce this quantity of water1 which allows for days that the wind does not blow4 ,the average elevation that the water has to be raised is #fe feet1 measuring from center of sump to point of delivery4 ,a record of ninety days shows that this mill has kept the mine free from water with the exception of #f1jjj gallons1 which was raised in the boxes that the coal is raised in4 ,the location is not good for a wind mill1 as it stands in a narrow ravine or valley a short distance from its mouth1 which terminates at the bottom lands of the ,missouri ,river4 ,this1 taken in connection with the fact that the grit in the water cuts the pump plunger packing so fast that in a short time the pump will not work up to its capacity1 accounts for the apparent small amount of power developed by this mill4 ,there has been some discussion of late in regard to the horse power of wind mills1 one party claiming that they were capable of doing large amounts of grinding and showing a development of power that was surprising to the average person unacquainted with wind mills1 while the other party has maintained that they were not capable of developing any great amount of power1 and has cited their performance in pumping water to sustain his argument4 ,my experience has has led me to the conclusion that pumping water with a wind mill is not a fair test of the power that it is capable of developing1 for the following reasons3 ,a pumping wind mill is ordinarily attached to a pump of suitable size to allow the mill to run at a mean speed in an #h to #aj mile wind4 ,now1 if the wind increases to a velocity of #af to #bj miles per hour1 the mill will run up to its maximum speed and the governor will begin to act1 shortening sail before the wind attains this velocity4 ,therefore1 by a very liberal estimate1 the pump will not throw more than double the quantity that it did in the #h to #aj mile wind1 while the power of the mill has quadrupled1 and is capable of running at least two pumps as large as the one to which it is attached4 ,as the velocity of the wind increases1 this same proportion of difference in power developed to work done holds good4 ,st4 ,louis is not considered a very windy place1 therefore the following table may be a surprise to some4 ,this table was compiled from the complete record of the year #ahha1 as recorded by the anemometer of the ,united ,states ,signal ,office on the ,mutual ,life ,insurance ,building1 corner of ,sixth and ,locust streets1 this city4 ,it gives the number of hours each month that the wind blew at each velocity1 from #f to #bj miles per hour during the year2 also the maximum velocity attained each month4 ,complete ,wind ,record at ,st4 ,louis for the ,year #ahha4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours ,maximum wind wind wind wind wind wind wind wind velocity ,,year blew #f blew #h blew #aj;blew #ab;blew #ad;blew #af;blew #ah;blew #bj;during #ahha4 miles miles miles miles miles miles miles miles each ,,monthsor overor overor overor overor overor overor overor overmonth4 ,h4 ,m4,h4 ,m4,h4 ,m4,h4 ,m4,h4 ,m4,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,jan4 #ede #de #dbi #de #bhi #jj #aih #ae #aca #cj #hg #ae #ef #jj #ch #de #ca ,feb4 #fai #cj #ecc #ae #ddi #ae #cgd #ae #bhg #jj #bjg #ae #aea #ae #aaj #cj #cb ,march4 #fjd #ae #ecd #cj #ddi #de #cfh #de #bif #cj #bdc #de #aia #jj #aeh #de #cg ,april4 #egg #ae #dfh #de #cdb #de #cei #cj #age #jj #aba #jj #fb #de #cf #jj #bh ,may4 #eec #jj #cge #jj #bbf #ae #ach #jj #gd #de #db #cj #bc #de #aa #cj #ca ,june4 #fad #ae #dfc #de #cjc #cj #bae #ae #abc #de #gf #cj #bi #de #ag #de #cb ,july4 #eef #de #cgh #jj #bbh #ae #acf #ae #ee #cj #bb #cj #f #jj #b #cj #bb ,aug4 #ecf #cj #cde #jj #agf #jj #hj #cj #ce #de #bb #ae #ag #ae #ae #jj #cd ,sept4 #efd #ae #dde #de #cbf #de #bbd #de #ade #cj #if #de #gj #jj #df #de #cj ,oct4 #fag #cj #eja #de #cfh #de #cfc #jj #agj #jj #ic #de #dj #cj #bg #de #bg ,nov4 #fdb #de #ecg #cj #dbh #de #cbh #cj #bbf #jj #aea #de #ajj #cj #gd #jj #cj ,dec4 #eib #ae #eaf #cj #cij #jj #cjh #de #bbd #de #afg #de #aaj #de #fg #jj #cj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,totals#g1jbd #e1ebi #c1iha #b1iie #a1idf #a1cce #hfh #fjf -- #jj #cj #jj #de #jj #jj #cj #ae ,max4 for ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- #cg year ,the location of a mill has a great deal to do with the results attained4 ,having had charge of the erection of a large number of these mills for power purposes1 ,i will refer to a few of them in different ,states1 giving the actual results accomplished1 and leaving you to form your own opinion as to the power developed4 ,in #ahgg a #be-;foot diameter mill was erected at ,dover1 ,kansas1 a few miles southwest of ,topeka4 ,it was built to do custom flour and feed grinding1 also corn shelling1 and is in successful operation at the present time4 ,we have letters frequently from the owner2 one of recent date states that it has stood all of the ,kansas zephyrs1 never having been damaged as yet4 ,on an average it shells and grinds from #f to #aj bushels of corn per hour1 and runs a #ad inch burr stone1 grinding wheat at the same time4 ,during strong winds it has shelled and ground as high as #cj bushels of corn per hour4 ,plate #b is from a photograph of this mill and building as it stands4 ,one bevel pinion is all the repairs this mill has required4 ,in the spring of #ahhj there was erected a #be-;foot diameter mill at ,harvard1 ,clay ,county1 ,neb4 ,after this mill had been running nineteen months1 we received the following report from the owner3 ,during the nineteen months we have been running the wind mill1 it has cost us nothing for repairs4 ,we run it with a two-hole corn sheller1 a set of #af-;inch burr stones1 and an elevator4 ,we grind all kinds of feed1 also corn meal and ,graham flour4 ,we have ground #h1cdj bushels1 and would have ground much more if corn had not been a very poor crop here for the past two seasons2 besides1 we have our farm to attend to1 and cannot keep it running all the time that we have wind4 ,we have not run a full day at any time1 but have ground #abe bushels in a day4 ,when the burr is in good shape we can grind #bj bushels an hour1 and shell at the same time in the average winds that we have4 ,the mill has withstood storms without number1 even one that blew down a house near it1 and another that blew down many smaller mills4 ,it is one of the best investments any one can make4 ,the writer saw this mill about sixty days ago1 and it is in good shape1 and doing the work as stated4 ,the only repairs that it has required during four years was one bevel pinion put on this spring4 ,the owner of a #af-;foot diameter mill1 erected at ,blue ,springs4 ,neb41 says that with a fair wind it grinds easily #ae bushels of corn per hour with a ,no4 #c grinder1 also runs a corn-sheller and pump at the same time1 and that it works smoothly and is entirely self-regulating4 ,the ,no4 #c grinder referred to has chilled iron burrs1 and requires from #c to #d horse-power to grind #ae bushels of corn per hour4 ,of one of these #af-;foot mills that has been running since #ahge in ,northern ,illinois1 the owner writes3 ,in windy days ,i saw cord-wood as fast as the wood can be handled1 doing more work than ,i used to accomplish with five horses4 ,the owner of one of these mills1 #bj feet in diameter1 running in the southwestern part of this ,state1 writes that he has a corn-sheller and two iron grinding mills with #h-;inch burrs attached to it2 also a bolting device2 that this mill is more profitable to him than #hj acres of good corn land1 and that it is easily handled and has never been out of order4 ,the following report on one of these #af-;foot mills1 running in northern ,illinois1 may be of interest3 ,this mill stands between the house and barn4 ,a connection is made to a pump in a well-house #be feet distant1 and is also arranged to operate a churn and washing machine4 ,by means of sheaves and wire cable1 power is transmitted to a circular saw #ce feet distant4 ,in this same manner power is transmitted to the barn #bjj feet distant1 where connection is made to a thrasher1 corn-sheller1 feed-cutter1 and fanning-mill4 ,the corn-sheller is a three horse-power1 with fan and sacker attached4 ,three hundred bushels per day has been shelled1 cleaned1 and sacked4 ,the thrashing machine is a two horsepower with vibrating attachment for separating straw from grain4 ,one man has thrashed #cjj bushels of oats per day1 and on windy days says the mill would run a thrasher of double this capacity4 ,the saw used is #ah inches diameter1 and on windy days saws as much wood as can be done by six horses working on a sweep power4 ,the owner furnishes the following approximate cost of mill with the machinery attached and now in use on his place3 #a #af-;foot power wind mill1 shafting1 and tower4 #che #a ,two horse thrasher4 #gj #a ,three horse sheller4 #ch #a ,feed grinder4 #ej #a #ah-;inch saw1 frame and arbor4 #dj #a ,fanning mill4 #be #a ,force pump4 #bg #a ,churn4 #e #a ,washing machine4 #ae ,belting1 cables1 and pulleys4 #de ---- ,total4 #gjj ,the following facts and figures furnished by the owner will give a fair idea of the economic value of this system1 as compared with the usual methods of doing the same work4 ,on the farm where it is used1 there are raised annually an average of sixty acres of oats1 fifty acres of corn1 twenty acres of rye1 ten acres of buckwheat4 ,bushels4 ,the oats average1 say #cj bushels per acre4 #a1hjj ,corn #cj #a1ejj ,rye #bj #djj ,buckwheat #bj #bjj ,grinding for self and others4 #a1jjj ,it will cost to thrash this grain1 shell the corn1 and grind the feed with steam power4 #bhe ,and sawing wood1 #ab cords4 #ah ,pumping1 one hour per day1 #cfe days4 #cf ,churning1 half hour per day1 #bjj days4 #aj ,washing1 half day per week1 #bf days4 #bf ---- ,total4 #cge ,this amount is saved1 and more too1 as one man1 by the aid of the wind mill1 will do this work in connection with the chores of the farm1 and save enough in utilizing foul weather to more than offset his extra labor1 cost of oil1 etc41 for the machinery4 ,the amount saved each year is just about equal to the cost of a good man4 ,cost of outfit1 #gjj--;just about equal to the cost of a good man for two years1 consequently1 it will pay for itself in two years4 ,fifteen years is a fair estimate for the lifetime of mill with ordinary repairs4 ,the solid-wheel wind mill has never been built larger than #cj feet in diameter4 ,for mills larger than this1 the latest improved ,american mill is the ,warwick pattern4 ,a #cj-;foot mill of this pattern1 erected in #ahhj1 in northwestern ,iowa1 gave the following results1 as reported by the owner3 ,attachments as follows3 ,one #bb-;inch burr2 one ,no4 #d iron feed-mill2 one #bf-;inch circular saw2 one two-hole corn-sheller2 one grain elevater2 a bolting apparatus for fine meal1 buckwheat and graham1 all of which are run at the same time in good winds1 except the saw or the iron mill2 they being run from the same pulley can run but one at a time4 ,with all attached and working up to their full capacity1 the sails are often thrown out of the wind by the governors1 which shows an immense power4 ,the machines are so arranged that ,i can attach all or separately1 according to the wind4 ,with the burr alone ,i have ground #ejj bushels in #dh consecutive hours1 #ajj bushels of it being fine meal4 ,i have also ground #bd full bushels of fine meal for table use in two hours4 ,this last was my own1 consequently was not tolled4 ,this was before ,i bought the iron mill1 and now ,i can nearly double that amount4 ,i saw my fire wood for three fires2 all my fence posts1 etc4 ,my wood is taken to the mill from #ab to #ae feet long1 and as large as the saw will cut by turning the stick1 consequently the saw requires about the same power as the burrs4 ,with a good sailing breeze ,i have all the power ,i need1 and can run all the machinery with ease4 ,last winter ,i ground double the amount of any water mill in this vicinity4 ,i have no better property than the mill4 ,a #dj-;foot mill1 erected at ,fowler1 ,indiana1 in #ahha1 is running the following machinery3 ,i have a universal wood worker1 four side1 one #cd-;inch planer1 jig saw1 and lathe1 also a ,no4 #d ,american grinder1 and with a good1 fair wind ,i can run all the machines at one time4 ,i can work about four days and nights each week4 ,it is easy to control in high winds4 ,a #fj-;foot diameter mill of similar pattern was erected in ,steel ,county1 ,minnesota1 in #ahfg4 ,the owner gives the following history of this mill3 ,i have run this wind flouring mill since #ahfg with excellent success4 ,it runs #c sets of burrs1 one #d feet1 one #c feet1 and one #cc inches4 ,also #b smutters1 #b bolts1 and all the necessary machinery to make the mill complete4 ,a #ae-mile wind runs everything in good shape4 ,one wind wheel was broken by a tornado in #ahgj1 and another in #ahha from same cause4 ,aside from these two1 which cost #bej each1 and a month's lost time1 the power did not cost over #aj a year for repairs4 ,in ,july1 #ahcc1 a cyclone passed over this section1 wrecking my will as well as everything else in its track1 and having 7out of the profits of the wind mill7 purchased a large water and steam flouring mill here1 ,i last fall moved the wind mill out to ,dakota1 where ,i have it running in first-class shape and doing a good business4 ,the few tornado wrecks make me think none the less of wind mills1 as my water power has cost me four times as much in #f years as the wind power has in #af years4 ,there are very few of these large mills in use in this country1 but there are a great many from #ad to #cj feet in diameter in use1 and their numbers are rapidly increasing as their merits become known4 ,the field for the use of wind mills is almost unlimited1 and embraces pumping water1 drainage1 irrigation1 elevating1 grinding1 shelling1 and cleaning grain1 ginning cotton1 sawing wood1 churning1 running stamp mills1 and charging electrical accumulators4 ,this last may be the solution of the ,st4 ,louis gas question4 ,in the writer's opinion the settlement of the great tableland lying between the ,mississippi ,valley and the ,rocky ,mountains1 and extending from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,red ,river of the ,north1 would be greatly retarded1 if not entirely impracticable1 in large sections where no water is found at less than #ajj to #ejj feet below the surface1 if it were not for the ,american wind mill2 large cattle ranges without any surface water have been made available by the use of wind mills4 ,water pumped out of the ground remains about the same temperature during the year1 and is much better for cattle than surface water4 ,it yet remains in the future to determine what the wind mill will not do with the improvements that are being made from to time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,pneumatic ,,dynamite ,,gun4 ,it is here shown as mounted on a torpedo launch and ready for action4 ,the shell or projectile is fired by compressed air1 admitted from an air reservoir underneath by a simple pressure of the gunner's finger over the valve4 ,the air passes up through the center of the base1 the pipe connecting with one of the hollow trunnions4 ,the valve is a continuation of the breech of the gun4 ,the smaller cuts illustrate ,lieutenant ,zalinski's plan for mounting the gun on each side of the launch1 by which plan the gun after being charged may have the breech containing the dynamite depressed1 and protected from shots of the enemy by its complete immersion alongside the launch2 and1 if necessary1 may be discharged from this protected position4 ,the gun is a seamless brass tube of about forty feet in length1 manipulated by the artillerist in the manner of an ordinary cannon4 ,its noiseless discharge sends the missile with great force1 conveying the powerful explosive within it1 which is itself discharged internally upon contact with the deck of a vessel or other object upon which it strikes1 through the explosion of a percussion fuse in the point of the projectile4 ,a great degree of accuracy has been obtained by the peculiar form of the projectile4 ,illustration3 ,,pneumatic ,,dynamite ,,gun ,,torpedo ,,vessel4 ,the projectile consists of a thin metal tube1 into which the charge is inserted1 and a wooden sabot which closes it at the rear and flares out until its diameter equals that of the bore of the gun4 ,the forward end of the tube is pointed with some soft material1 in which is embedded the firing pin1 a conical cap closing the end4 ,a cushion of air is interposed at the rear end of the dynamite charge1 to lessen the shock of the discharge and prevent explosion1 until the impact of the projectile forces the firing pin in upon the dynamite and explodes it4 ,many charges have been successfully fired at ,fort ,hamilton1 ,n4,y4 ,as the center of gravity is forward of the center of figure in the projectile1 a side wind acting upon the lighter rear part would tend to turn the head into the wind and thus keep it in the line of its trajectory4 ,a range of #a miles has been attained with the two inch gun1 with a pressure of #dbj lb4 to the square inch1 and one of three miles is hoped for with the larger gun and a pressure of #b1jjj lb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rope ,,pulley ,,friction ,,brake4 ,a novel device in connection with rope pulley blocks is illustrated in the annexed engravings1 the object of the appliance being to render it possible to leave a weight suspended from a block without making the tail of the rope fast to some neighboring object4 ,by this arrangement the danger of the rope slipping loose is avoided1 and absolute security is attained1 without the necessity of lowering the weight to the ground4 ,the device itself is a friction brake1 constructed in the form of a clip with holes in it for the three ropes to pass through4 ,it is made to span the block1 and is secured partly by the pin or bolt upon which the sheaves run1 and partly by the bottom bolt1 which unites the cheeks of the block4 ,thus the brake is readily attachable to existing blocks4 ,the inner half of the clip or brake is fixed solidly to the block1 while the outer half is carried by two screws1 geared together by spur-wheels1 and so cut that although rotating in opposite directions1 their movements are equal and similar4 ,one of the screws carries a light rope-wheel1 by which it can be rotated1 the motion being communicated to the second screw by the toothed wheels4 ,when the wheel is rotated in the right direction the loose half of the clip is forced toward the other half1 and grips the ropes passing between the two so powerfully that any weight the blocks are capable of lifting is instantly made secure1 and is held until the brake is released4 ,a light spiral spring is placed on each of the screws1 in order to free the brake from the rope the moment the pressure is released4 ,the hand rope has a turn and a half round the pulley1 and this obviates the need of holding both ends of it1 and thus leaves one hand free to guide the descending weight1 or to hold the rope of the pulley blocks4 ,engineering says these brakes are very useful in raising heavy weights1 as the lift can be secured at each pull1 allowing the men to move hands for another pull1 and as they are made very light they do not cause any inconvenience in moving or carrying the blocks about4 ,manufactured by ,andrew ,bell ,co41 ,manchester4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,wire ,,rope ,,towage4 ,we have from time to time given accounts in this journal of the system of towage by hauling on a submerged wire rope1 first experimented upon by ,baron ,o4 ,de ,mesnil and ,mr4 ,max ,eyth4 ,on the river ,rhine the system has been for many years in successful operation2 it has also been used for several years on the ,erie ,canal in this ,state4 ,we publish from ,engineering a view of one of the wire rope tug boats of the latest pattern adopted for use on the ,rhine4 ,the ,cologne ,central ,towing ,company 7,central ,actien-,gesellschaft fr ,tauerei und ,schleppschifffahrt71 by whom the wire rope towage on the ,rhine is now carried on1 was formed in #ahgf1 by an amalgamation of the ,rhrorter und ,mulheimer ,dampfschleppshifffahrt ,gesellschaft and the ,central ,actien-,gesellschaft fur ,tauerei1 and in #ahgg it owned eight wire rope tugs 7which it still owns7 and seventeen paddle tugs4 ,the company so arranges its work that the wire rope tugs do the haulage up the rapid portion of the ,rhine1 from ,bonn to ,bingen1 while the paddle tugs are employed on the quieter portion of the river extending from ,rotterdam to ,bonn1 and from ,bingen to ,mannheim4 ,illustration3 ,,rope ,,pulley ,,friction ,,brake4 ,the leading dimensions of the eight wire rope tugs now worked by the company are as follows3 ,tugs ,no4 ,i4 to ,tugs ,no4 ,v4 to ,,iv4 ,,viii4 ,meters4 ft4 in4 ,meters4 ft4 in4 ,length between perpendiculars #ci #abf #j #db #acg #aj ,length over all #db4ge #adj #c #de4ge #aej #a ,extreme breadth #g4b #bh #h #g4e #bd #e ,height of sides #b4ch #g #aa #b4ch #g #aa ,depth of keel #j4ab #j #e #j4ae #j #f ,all the boats are fitted with twin screws1 #a4b meters 7#c feet #aa inches7 in diameter1 these being used on the downstream journey1 and also for assisting in steering while passing awkward places during the journey up stream4 ,they are also provided with water ballast tanks1 and under ordinary circumstances they have a draught of #a4c to #a4d meters 7#d feet #c inches to #d feet #g inches71 this draught being necessary to give proper immersion to the screws4 ,when the water in the ,rhine is very low1 however1 the water ballast is pumped out and the tugs are then run with a draught of #a meter 7#c feet #c #c_/h inches71 it being thus possible to keep them at work when all other towing steamers on the ,rhine are stopped4 ,this happened in the spring of #ahhb4 ,referring to our engraving1 it will be seen that the wire rope rising from the bed of the river passes first over a large guide pulley1 the axis of which is carried by a substantial wrought iron swinging bracket1 this bracket being so pivoted that while the pulley is free to swing into the line on which the rope is approached by the vessel1 yet the rope on leaving the pulley is delivered in a line which is tangential to a second guide pulley placed further aft and at a lower level4 ,this last named guide pulley does not swing1 and from it the rope is delivered to the clip drum1 over which it passes4 ,from the clip drum the rope passes under a third guide pulley2 this pulley swings on a bracket having a vertical axis4 ,this third pulley projects down below the keel of the tug boat1 so that the rope on leaving it can pass under the vessel without fouling4 ,suitable recesses are formed in the side of the tug boat to accommodate the swinging pulleys1 while the bow of the boat is sloped downward nearly to the water line1 as shown1 so as to allow of the rising part of the rope swinging over it if necessary4 ,the hauling gear with which the tug is fitted consists of a pair of condensing engines with cylinders #ad4ag inches in diameter and #bc4fb inches stroke1 the crankshaft carrying a pinion which gears into a spur wheel on an intermediate shaft1 this shaft again carrying a pinion which gears into a large spur wheel fixed on the shaft which carries the clip drum4 ,in the arrangement of hauling gear above described the ratio of the gear is #a3h4dd1 in the case of tugs ,nos4 ,i4 to ,,iv42 while in tugs ,nos4 ,v4 to ,,viii4 the proportion has been made #a3aa4hb4 ,in tugs ,i4 to ,,iv4 the diameter of the clip drum is #b4gdc meters 7#i feet71 while in the remaining tugs it is #c4jef meters 7#aj feet74 ,from some interesting data which have been placed at our disposal by ,mr4 ,thomas ,schwarz1 the manager of the ,central ,actien-,gesellschaft fur ,tauerei und ,schleppschifffahrt1 we learn that in the tugs ,nos4 ,i4 to ,,iv4 the hauling machine develops on an average #aej indicated horse1 while in the tugs ,no4 ,v4 to ,,viii4 the power developed averages #ahj indicated horse power4 ,the tugs forming the first named group haul on an average #b1bjj tons of cargo1 contained in four wooden barges1 at a speed of #d kilometers 7#b4h miles7 per hour1 against a stream running at the rate of #f kilometers 7#d4je miles7 per hour1 while the tugs ,nos4 ,v4 to ,,viii4 will take a load of #b1fjj tons of cargo in the same number of wooden barges at the same speed and against the same current4 ,in iron barges1 about one and a half times the quantity of useful load can be drawn by a slightly less expenditure of power4 ,the average consumption of coal per hour is1 for tugs ,nos4 ,i4 to ,,iv41 #e cwt1 and for tugs ,nos4 ,v4 to ,,viii41 #f cwt42 and of this fuel a small fraction 7about one-sixth7 is consumed by the occasional working of the screw propellers at sharp bends4 ,the fuel consumption of the wire rope tugs contrasts most favorably with that of the paddle and screw tugs employed on the ,rhine1 the best paddle tugs 7with compound engines1 patent wheels1 etc47 burning three and a half times as much2 the older paddle tugs 7with low pressure non-compound engines71 four and a half times as much2 and the latest screw tugs1 two and a half times as much coal as the wire rope tugs when doing the same work under the same circumstances4 ,the screw tugs just mentioned have a draught of #b meters 7#h feet #b inches71 and are fitted with engines of #efj indicated horse power4 ,during the years #ahgi1 #ahhj1 and #ahha1 the company had in use fourteen paddle tugs and ten eight-wire rope tugs1 both classes being--owing to the state of trade--about equally short of work4 ,the results of the working during these years were as follows3 ,freight ,cost of ,degree hauled haulage in of ,class of tugs4 ,year4 in pence per occupation4 ton-miles4 ton-mile4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,paddle #ahgi #ca1hfb1heh #j4abgb #j4fhf #ahhj #ca1dfg1dbb #j4acje #j4fch #ahha #bh1fbg1jdi #j4abde #j4ecg ,wire ,rope #ahgi #ae1djg1ice #j4aafg #j4fad #ahhj #ag1bhi1gjf #j4ajef #j4fae #ahha #ag1eic1aha #j4jhic #j4ecf ,the last column in the above tabular statement1 headed ,degree of ,occupation1 may require some explanation4 ,it is calculated on the assumption that a tug could do #c1jjj hours of work per annum1 and this is taken as the unit1 the time of actual haulage being counted as full time1 and of stoppages as half time4 ,the expenses included in the statement of cost of haulage include all working expenses1 repairs1 general management1 and depreciation4 ,the accounts for #ahhb1 which are not completely available at the time we are writing1 show much better results than above recorded1 there being a considerable reduction of cost1 while the freight hauled amounted to a total of #ed1iba1ife ton-miles4 ,illustration3 ,,wire ,,rope ,,tug ,,boat1 ,,river ,,rhine4 ,as regards the wear of the rope1 we may state that the relaying of the first rope between ,st4 ,goar and ,bingen was taken in hand in ,september1 #ahgi1 while that between ,obercassel and ,bingen was partially renewed the same year1 the renewal being completed in ,may1 #ahhj1 after the rope had been in use since the beginning of #ahgf4 ,the second rope between ,bonn and ,bingen1 a length of #gd miles1 is of galvanized wire1 has now been #b years in use1 during which time there have been but three fractures4 ,the first rope laid was not galvanized1 and it suffered nine fractures during the first three years of its use4 ,the first rope1 we may mention1 was laid in lengths of about a mile spliced together1 while the present rope was supplied in long lengths of #g miles each1 so that the number of splices is greatly reduced4 ,according to the report of the company for the year #ahhj1 the old rope when raised realizes about #af per cent4 of its original value1 and allowing for this1 it is calculated that an allowance of #ah4g per cent4 per annum will cover the cost of rope depreciation and renewals4 ,altogether the results obtained on the ,rhine show that in a rapid stream the economic performances of wire rope tugs compare most favorably with those of either paddle or screw tug boats1 the more rapid the current to be contended against the greater being the advantage of the wire rope haulage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,hay-,,rope ,,machine4 ,hay-ropes are used for many purposes1 their principal use being in the foundry for core-making2 but they also find a large application for packing ironmongery and furniture4 ,the inventor is ,james ,pollard1 of the ,atlas ,foundry1 ,burnley4 ,illustration3 ,,hay ,,rope ,,machine4 ,the chief part of the mechanism is carried in an open frame1 having journals attached to its two ends1 which revolve in bearings4 ,the frame is driven by the rope pulley4 ,the journal at the left hand is hollow2 the pinion upon it is stationary1 being fixed to the bracket of bearing4 ,the pinion gearing into it is therefore revolved by the revolution of the frame1 and through the medium of bevel wheels actuates a transverse shaft1 parallel to which rollers1 and driven by wheels off it1 is a double screw1 which traverses a builder to and fro across the width of frame4 ,the builder is merely the eye through which the band passes1 and its office is to lay the band properly on the bobbin4 ,the latter is turned to coil on the band by a pitch chain from the builder screw1 the motion being given through a friction clutch1 to allow for slip as the bobbin or coil gets larger1 for obviously the bobbin as it gets larger is not required to turn so fast to coil up the band produced as when it is smaller4 ,if the action is studied1 it will be seen that the twist is put in between the bobbin and the hollow journal1 and every revolution of the frame puts in one turn for the twist4 ,the hay is fed to the machine through the hollow journal already mentioned4 ,by suitably proportioning the speed of feed-rollers and the revolutions of the frame1 which is easily accomplished by varying the wheels on the left hand of frame1 bands of any degree of hardness or softness may be produced4 ,the machine appears to be simple and not liable to get deranged4 ,it may be after a little practice attended to by a laborer1 and is claimed by its maker to be able to produce #djj yards of band per hour4 ,the frame makes about #ahj revolutions per minute1 that is1 this is the number of turns put into the twist in this time4 ,the machine can make a bundle about #bjj yards long1 which can be removed off the bobbin without unwinding with the greatest facility4--,mech4 ,world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,anglesea ,,bridge1 ,,cork4 ,the river ,lee flows through the city of ,cork in two branches1 which diverge just above the city1 and are reunited at the ,custom ,house1 the central portion of the city being situated upon an island between the two arms of the river1 both of which are navigable for a short distance above the ,custom ,house1 and are lined with quays on each side for the accommodation of the shipping of the port4 ,the ,anglesea bridge crosses the south arm of the river about a quarter of a mile above its junction with the northern branch1 and forms the chief line of communication from the northern and central portions of the city to the railway termini and deep-water quays on the southern side of the river4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,anglesea ,,bridge1 ,,cork4 ,the new swing bridge occupies the site of an older structure which had been found inadequate to the requirements of the heavy and increasing traffic1 and the foundations of the old piers having fallen into an insecure condition1 the construction of a new opening bridge was taken in hand jointly by the ,corporation and ,harbor ,commissioners of ,cork4 ,the new bridge1 which has recently been completed1 is of a somewhat novel design1 and the arrangement of the swing-span in particular presents some original and interesting features1 which appear to have been dictated by a careful consideration of the existing local conditions and requirements4 ,on each side of the river1 both above and below the bridge1 the quays are ordinarily lined with vessels berthed alongside each of the quays1 and as the river is rather narrow at this point1 the line of fairway for vessels passing through the bridge is confined nearly to the center of the river4 ,this consideration1 together with some others connected with the proposed future deepening of the fairway1 rendered it very desirable to locate the opening span nearly in the center of the river1 as shown in the general plan of the situation1 which we publish herewith4 ,at the same time it was necessary to avoid any encroachment upon the width of the existing quays1 which form important lines of communication for vehicular and passenger traffic along each side of the river1 and to and from the railway stations4 ,again1 it was necessary to preserve the full existing width of waterway in the river itself1 which is sometimes subjected to heavy floods4 ,these considerations evidently precluded the construction of a central pier and double-armed swing bridge1 and on the other hand they also precluded the construction of any solid masonry substructure for the turntable1 either upon the quay or projected into the river4 ,to meet these several conditions the bridge has been designed in the form of a three-span bridge1 that is to say1 it is only supported by the two abutments and two intermediate piers1 each consisting of a pair of cast-iron cylinders or columns1 as shown by the dotted circles upon the general plan4 ,the central opening is that which serves for the passage of vessels4 ,the swing bridge extends over two openings1 or from the north abutment to the southern pier1 its center of revolution being situated over the center of the northern span1 and revolves upon a turntable1 which is carried upon a lower platform or frame of girders extending across the northern span of the bridge4 ,the southern opening is spanned by an ordinary pair of lattice girders in line with the girders and superstructure of the swing bridge4 ,we propose at an early date to publish further details of this bridge1 and the hydraulic machinery by which it is worked4 ,we present a perspective view of the bridge as seen from the entrance to the exhibition building1 which is situated in close proximity to the southern end of the bridge4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,portable ,,railways4 ,footnote3 ,paper read before the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,by ,m4 ,,decauville1 ,ane1 of ,petit-,bourg 7,seine and ,oise71 ,france4 ,narrow gauge railways have been known for a very long time in ,great ,britain4 ,the most familiar lines of this description are in ,wales1 and it is enough to instance the ,festiniog ,railway 7#b feet gauge71 which has been used for the carriage of passengers and goods for nearly half a century4 ,the prosperous condition of this railway1 which has been so successfully improved by ,mr4 ,james ,spooner and his son1 ,mr4 ,charles ,spooner1 affords sufficient proof that narrow gauge railways are not only of great utility1 but may be also very remunerative4 ,in ,wales the first narrow gauge railway dates from #ahcb4 ,it was constructed merely for the carriage of slates from ,festiniog to ,port-,madoc1 and some years later another was built from the slate quarries at ,penrhyn to the port of ,bangor4 ,as the tract of country traversed by the railways became richer by degrees1 the idea was conceived of substituting locomotives for horses1 and of adapting the line to the carriage of goods of all sorts1 and finally of passengers also4 ,but these railways1 although very economical1 are at the same time very complicated in construction4 ,their arrangements are based upon the same principles as railways of the ordinary gauge1 and are not by any means capable of being adapted to agriculture1 to public works1 or to any other purpose where the tracks are constantly liable to removal4 ,these permanent narrow gauge lines1 the laying of which demands the service of engineers1 and the maintenance of which entails considerable expense1 suggested to ,m4 ,decauville1 ,ane1 farmer and distiller at ,petit-,bourg1 near ,paris1 the idea of forming a system of railways composed entirely of metal1 and capable of being readily laid4 ,cultivating one of the largest farms in the neighborhood of ,paris1 he contemplated at first nothing further than a farm railroad2 and he contrived an extremely portable plant1 adapted for clearing the land of beetroot1 for spreading manure1 and for the other needs of his farm4 ,from the beginning in his first railroads1 the use of timber materials was rigidly rejected by him2 and all parts1 whether the straight or curved rails1 crossings1 turntables1 etc41 were formed of a single piece1 and did not require any special workman to lay them down4 ,by degrees he developed his system1 and erected special workshops for the construction of his portable plant2 making use of his farm1 and some quarries of which he is possessed in the neighborhood1 as experimental areas4 ,at the present time this system of portable railways serves all the purposes of agriculture1 of commerce1 of manufactures1 and even those of war4 ,within so limited a space it would be impossible to give a detailed description of the rails and fastenings used in all these different modes of application4 ,the object of this paper is rather to direct the attention of mechanical engineers to the various uses to which narrow gauge portable railways may be put1 to the important saving of labor which is effected by their adoption1 and to the ease with which they are worked4 ,the success of the ,decauville railway has been so rapid and so great that many inventors have entered the same field1 but they have almost all formed the idea of constructing the portable track with detachable sleepers4 ,there are thus1 at present1 two systems of portable tracks3 those in which the sleepers are capable of being detached1 and those in which they are not so capable4 ,the portable track of the ,decauville system is not capable of so coming apart4 ,the steel rails and sleepers are riveted together1 and form only one piece4 ,the chief advantage of these railways is their great firmness2 besides this1 since the line has only to be laid on the surface just as it stands1 there are not those costs of maintenance which become unavoidable with lines of which the sleepers are fixed by means of bolts1 clamps1 or other adjuncts1 only too liable to be lost4 ,moreover1 tracks which are not capable of separation are lighter and therefore more portable than those in which the sleepers are detachable4 ,with regard to sleepers1 a distinction must be drawn between those which project beyond the rails and those which do not so project4 ,m4 ,decauville has adopted the latter system1 because it offers sufficient strength1 while the lines are lighter and less cumbersome4 ,where at first he used flat iron sleepers1 he now fits his lines with dished steel sleepers1 in accordance with ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,this sleeper presents very great stiffness1 at the same time preserving its lightness2 and the feature which specially distinguishes this railway from others of the same class is not only its extreme strength1 but above all its solidity1 which results from its bearing equally upon the ground by means of the rail base and of the sleepers4 ,in special cases1 ,m4 ,decauville provides also railroads with projecting sleepers1 whether of flat steel beaten out and rounded1 or of channel iron2 but the sleeper and the rail are always inseparable1 so as not to lessen the strength1 and also to facilitate the laying of the line4 ,if the ground is too soft1 the railway is supported by bowl sleepers of dished steel1 ,figs4 #c and #d1 especially at the curves2 but the necessity for using these is but seldom experienced4 ,the sleepers are riveted cold4 ,the rivets are of soft steel1 and the pressure with which this riveting is effected is so intense that the sleepers cannot be separated from the rails1 even after cutting off both heads of the rivets1 unless by heavy blows of the hammer1 the rivets being driven so thoroughly into the holes made in the rails and sleepers that they fill them up completely4 ,the jointing of the rails is excessively simple4 ,the rail to the right hand is furnished with two fish-plates2 that to the left with a small steel plate riveted underneath the rail and projecting #a in4 beyond it4 ,it is only necessary to lay the lengths end to end with one another1 making the rail which is furnished with the small plate lie between the two fish-plates1 and the junction can at once be effected by fish-bolts4 ,a single fish-bolt1 passing through the holes in the fish-plates1 and through an oval hole in the rail end1 is sufficient for the purpose4 ,with this description of railway it does not matter whether the curves are to the right or to the left4 ,the pair of rails are curved to a suitable radius1 and can only need turning end for end to form a curve in the direction required4 ,the rails weigh #i lb41 #ad lb41 #ai lb41 and #bd lb4 per running yard1 and are very similar to the rails used on the main railways of ,france1 except that their base has a proportionally greater width4 ,as to the strength of the rail1 it is much greater in proportion to the load than would at first sight be thought2 all narrow-gauge railways being formed on the principle of distributing the load over a large number of axles1 and so reducing the amount on each wheel4 ,for instance1 the #i lb4 rail used for the portable railway easily bears a weight of half a ton for each pair of wheels4 ,the distance between the rails differs according to the purpose for which they are intended4 ,the most usual gauges are #af;in41 #bj in41 and #bd;in4 ,the line of #af in4 gauge1 with #i lb4 rails1 although extremely light1 is used very successfully in farming1 and in the interior of workshops4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a length of #af ft4 #e in4 of #i lb4 steel rail1 to #af in4 gauge1 with sleepers1 etc41 scarcely weighs more than #a cwt41 and may therefore be readily carried by a man placing himself in the middle and taking a rail in each hand4 ,those members of the ,institution who recently visited the new port of ,antwerp will recollect having seen there the portable railway which ,messrs4 ,couvreux and ,hersetit had in use2 and as it was these works at the port of ,antwerp that gave rise to the idea of this paper1 it will be well to begin with a description of this style of contractor's plant4 ,the earth in such works may be shifted by hand1 horsepower1 or locomotive4 ,for small works the railway of #af in4 gauge1 with the #i lb4 rails1 is commonly used1 and the trucks carry double equilibrium tipping-boxes1 containing #i to #aa cubic feet4 ,these wagons1 having tipping-boxes without any mechanical appliances1 are very serviceable2 since the box1 having neither door nor hinge1 is not liable to need repairs4 ,this box keeps perfectly in equilibrium upon the most broken up roads4 ,to tip it up to the right or the left1 it must simply be pushed from the opposite side1 and the contents are at once emptied clean out4 ,in order that the bodies of the wagons may not touch at the top1 when several are coupled together1 each end of the wagon is furnished with a buffer1 composed of a flat iron bar cranked1 and furnished with a hanging hook4 ,plant of this description is now being used in an important ,english undertaking at the port of ,newhaven1 where it is employed not only on the earthworks1 but also for transporting the concrete manufactured with ,mr4 ,carey's special concrete machine4 ,these little wagons1 of from #i to #aa cubic feet capacity1 run along with the greatest ease1 and a lad could propel one of them with its load for #cjj yards at a cost of #c;d4 per cube yard4 ,in earthworks the saving over the wheel-barrow is #hj per cent41 for the cost of wagons propelled by hand comes to #j4a;d4 per cube yard1 carried #aj yards1 and to go this distance with a barrow costs d4 ,a horse draws without difficulty1 walking by the side of the line1 a train of from eight to ten trucks on the level1 or five on an incline of #g per cent4 7#a in #ad74 ,one mile of this railway1 #af in4 gauge and #i lb4 steel rail1 with sixteen wagons1 each having a double equilibrium tipping box containing #aa cubic feet1 and all accessories1 represents a weight of #bj tons--a very light weight1 if it is considered that all the materials are entirely of metal4 ,its net cost price per mile is #dejl41 the wagons included4 ,large contracts for earthwork with horse haulage are carried on to the greatest advantage with the railway of #bj in4 gauge and #ad lb4 rails4 ,the length of #af ft4 #e in4 of this railway weighs #agj lb41 and so can easily be carried by two men1 one placing himself at each end4 ,the wagons most in use for these works are those with double equilibrium tipping boxes1 holding #ah cubic feet4 ,these are at present employed in one of the greatest undertakings of the age1 namely1 the cutting of the ,panama ,canal1 where there are used upward of #b1gjj such wagons1 and more than #ce miles of track4 ,a mile of these rails of #bj in4 gauge with #ad lb4 rails1 together with sixteen wagons of #ah cubic feet capacity1 with appurtenances1 costs about #ffja41 and represents a total weight of #cc tons4 ,this description of material is used for all contracts exceeding #bj1jjj cubic yards4 ,a very curious and interesting use of the narrow-gauge line1 and the wagons with double equilibrium tipping-box1 was made by the ,societe des ,chemins de ,fer ,sous-,marins on the proposed tunnel between ,france and ,england4 ,the line used is that of #af in4 gauge1 with #i lb4 rails4 ,the first level of the tunnel1 which was constructed by means of a special machine by ,colonel ,beaumont1 had only a diameter of #b4ac m4 7#g ft472 the tipping boxes have therefore a breadth of only #b ft41 and contain #g cubic feet4 ,the boxes are perfectly balanced1 and are most easily emptied4 ,the wagons run on two lines1 the one being for the loaded trains1 and the other for the empty trains4 ,the engineers and inspectors1 in the discharge of their duties1 make use of the ,liliputian carriages4 ,the feet of the travelers go between the wheels1 and are nearly on a level with the rails2 nevertheless1 they are tolerably comfortable4 ,they are certainly the smallest carriages for passengers that have ever been built2 and the builder even prophesies that these will be the first to enter into ,england through the ,channel ,tunnel4 ,one of the most important uses to which a narrow gauge line can be put is that of a military railway4 ,the ,dutch1 ,russian1 and ,french ,governments have tried it for the transporting of provisions1 of war material1 and of the wounded in their recent campaigns4 ,in ,sumatra1 in ,turkestan1 and in ,tunis these military railroads have excited much interest1 and have so fully established their value that this paper may confine itself to a short description4 ,the campaign of the ,russians against the ,turcomans presented two great difficulties2 these were the questions of crossing districts in which water was extremely scarce or failed entirely1 and of victualing the expeditionary forces4 ,this latter object was completely effected by means of #fg miles of railway1 #bj in4 gauge1 #ad lb4 steel rails1 with #ejj carriages for food1 water1 and passengers4 ,the rails were laid simply on the sand1 so that small locomotives could not be used1 and were obliged to be replaced by ,kirghiz horses1 which drew with ease from #a1hjj lb4 to #b1bjj lb4 weight for #be miles per day4 ,in the ,tunisian war this railroad of #bj in4 gauge1 #ad lb4 rail1 was replaced by that of two ft4 gauge1 with #ad lb4 and #ai lb4 rails4 ,there were quite as great difficulties as in the ,turcoman campaign1 and the country to be crossed was entirely unknown4 ,the observations made before the war spoke of a flat and sandy country4 ,in reality a more uneven country could not be imagined2 alternating slopes of about #a in #aj continually succeeded each other2 and before reaching ,kairouan #g miles of swamp had to be crossed4 ,nevertheless the horses harnessed to the railway carriages did on an average twelve to seventeen times the work of those working ordinary carriages4 ,in that campaign also1 on account of the steep ascents1 the use of locomotives had to be given up4 ,the track served not only for the conveying of victuals1 war material1 and cannon1 but also of the wounded2 and a large number of the survivors of this campaign owe their lives to this railway1 which supplied the means of their speedy removal without great suffering from the temporary hospitals1 and of carrying the wounded to places where more care could be bestowed upon them4 ,the carriages which did duty in this campaign are wagons with a platform entirely of metal1 resting upon eight wheels4 ,the platform is #ac ft4 #a in4 in length1 and #c ft4 #aa in4 in width4 ,the total length with buffers is #ad ft4 #i in4 ,this carriage may be at will turned into a goods wagon or a passenger carriage for sixteen persons1 with seats back to back1 or an ambulance wagon for eight wounded persons4 ,for the transport of cannon the ,french military engineers have adopted small trucks4 ,a complete equipage1 capable of carrying guns weighing from #c to #i tons1 is composed of trucks with two or three axles1 each being fitted with a pivot support1 by means of which it is made possible to turn the trucks1 with the heaviest pieces of ordnance1 on turntables1 and to push them forward without going off the rails at the curves4 ,the trucks which have been adopted for the service of the new forts in ,paris are drawn by six men1 three of whom are stationed at each end of the gun1 and these are capable of moving with the greatest ease guns weighing #i tons4 ,the narrow-gauge railway was tested during the war in ,tunis more than in any preceding campaign1 and the military authorities decided1 after peace had been restored in that country1 to continue maintaining the narrow-gauge railways permanently2 this is a satisfactory proof of their having rendered good service4 ,the line from ,sousse to ,kairouan is still open to regular traffic4 ,in ,january1 #ahhc1 an express was established1 which leaves ,sousse every morning and arrives at ,kairouan--a distance of forty miles--in five hours1 by means of regularly organized relays4 ,the number of carriages and trucks for the transport of passengers and goods is #aah4 ,the success thus attained by the narrow-gauge line goes far to prove how unfounded is the judgment pronounced by those who hold that light railways will never suffice for continuous traffic4 ,these opinions are based on certain cases in the colonies1 where it was thought fit to adopt a light rail weighing about #ah lb4 to #bg lb4 per yard1 and keeping the old normal gauge4 ,it is nevertheless evident that it is impossible to construct cheap railways on the normal gauge system1 as the maintenance of such would-be light railways is in proportion far more costly than that of standard railways4 ,the narrow gauge is entirely in its right place in countries where1 as notably in the case of the colonies1 the traffic is not sufficiently extensive to warrant the capitalization of the expenses of construction of a normal gauge railway4 ,quite recently the ,eastern ,railway ,company of the province of ,buenos ,ayres have adopted the narrow gauge for connecting two of their stations1 the gauge being #bd in4 and the weight of the rails #ai lb4 per yard4 ,this company have constructed altogether six miles of narrow-gauge road1 with a rolling stock of thirty passenger carriages and goods trucks and two engines1 at a net cost price of #g1ejjl41 the engines included4 ,this line works as regularly as the main line with which it is connected4 ,the composite carriages in use leave nothing to be desired with regard to their appearance and the comforts they offer4 ,third-class carriages1 covered and open1 and covered goods wagons1 are also employed4 ,all these carriages are constructed according to the model of those of the ,festiniog ,railway4 ,the engines weigh #d tons1 and run at #ab miles per hour for express trains with a live load of #af tons2 while for goods trains carrying #ce tons the rate is #g miles an hour4 ,another purpose for which the narrow-gauge road is of the highest importance in colonial commerce is the transport of sugar cane4 ,there are two systems in use for the service of sugar plantations3 #a4 ,traction by horses1 mules1 or oxen4 #b4 ,traction by steam-engine4 ,in the former case1 the narrow gauge1 #bj in4 with #ad lb4 rails1 is used1 with platform trucks and iron baskets #c ft4 #c in4 long4 ,the use of these wagons is particularly advantageous for clearing away the sugar cane from the fields1 because1 as the crop to be carried off is followed by another harvest1 it is important to prevent the destructive action of the wheels of heavily laden wagons4 ,the baskets may be made to contain as much as #a1cjj lb4 of cane for animal traction1 and #b1jjj lb4 for steam traction4 ,in those colonies where the cane is not cut up into pieces1 long platform wagons are used entirely made of metal1 and on eight wheels4 ,when the traction is effected by horses or mules1 a chain #ad ft4 long is used1 and the animals are driven alongside the road4 ,oxen are harnessed to a yoke1 longer by #bj in4 to #bd in4 than the ordinary yoke1 and they are driven along on each side of the road4 ,on plantations where it is desirable to have passenger carriages1 or where it is to be foreseen that the narrow-gauge line maybe required for the regular transport of passengers and goods1 the #bj in4 line is replaced by one of #bd in4 ,the transport of the refuse of sugar cane is effected by means of tilting basket carts2 the lower part of which consists of plate iron as in earthwork wagons1 while the upper part consists of an open grating1 offering thus a very great holding capacity without being excessively heavy4 ,the content of these wagons is #ij cubic feet 7#b1ejj liters74 ,to use it for the transport of earth1 sand1 or rubbish1 the grating has merely to be taken off4 ,in the case of the transport of sugar cane having to be effected by steam power1 the most suitable width of road is #bd in41 with #ai lb4 rails2 and this line should be laid down and ballasted most carefully4 ,the cost of one mile of the #bj in4 gauge road1 with #ad lb4 rails1 thirty basket wagons1 and accessories for the transport of sugar cane1 is #gjjl41 and the total weight of this plant amounts to #ce tons4 ,owing to the great lightness of the portable railways1 and the facility with which they can be worked1 the attention of explorers has repeatedly been attracted by them4 ,the expedition of the ,ogowe in ,october1 #ahhj1 that of the ,upper ,congo in ,november1 #ahha1 and the ,congo mission under ,savorgnan de ,brazza1 have all made use of the ,decauville narrow-gauge railway system4 ,during these expeditions to ,central ,africa1 one of the greatest obstacles to be surmounted was the transport of boats where the river ceased to be navigable2 for it was then necessary to employ a great number of negroes for carrying both the boats and the luggage4 ,the explorers were1 more or less1 left to the mercy of the natives1 and but very slow progress could be made4 ,on returning from one of these expeditions in ,africa1 ,dr4 ,balay and ,m4 ,mizon conceived the idea of applying to ,m4 ,decauville for advice as to whether the narrow-gauge line might not be profitably adapted for the expedition4 ,m4 ,decauville proposed to them to transport their boats without taking them to pieces1 or unloading them1 by placing them on two pivot trollies1 in the same manner as the guns are transported in fortifications and in the field4 ,the first experiments were made at ,petit-,bourg with a pleasure yacht4 ,the hull1 weighing #d tons1 was placed on two gun trollies1 and was moved about easily across country by means of a portable line of #bj in4 gauge1 with #ad lb4 rails4 ,the length of the hull was about #de ft41 depth #f ft4 #g in41 and breadth of beam #h ft4 #b in41 that is to say1 five times the width of the narrow-gauge1 and notwithstanding all this the wheels never came off the line4 ,the sections of line were taken up and replaced as the boat advanced1 and a speed of #a1ajj yards per hour was attained4 ,dr4 ,balay and ,m4 ,mizon declared that the result obtained exceeded by far their most sanguine hopes1 because during their last voyage1 the passage of the rapids had sometimes required a whole week for #a1ajj yards 7#a kilometer71 and they considered themselves very lucky indeed if they could attain a speed of one kilometer per day4 ,the same narrow gauge system has since been three times adopted by ,african explorers1 on which occasions it was found that the #bj in4 line1 with #i lb4 or #ad lb4 rails1 was the most suitable for scientific expeditions of this nature4 ,the trucks used are of the kind usually employed for military purposes1 with wheels1 axles1 and pivot bearings of steel2 on being dismounted the bodies of the two trucks form a chest1 which is bolted together and contains the wheels1 axles1 and other accessories4 ,the total weight of the #ace yards of road used by ,dr4 ,balay and ,m4 ,mizon during their first voyage was #b1ijj lb41 and the wagons weighed #e1jjj lb4 ,hence the expedition had to carry a supplementary weight of #c tons2 but at any given moment the material forming this burden became the means of transporting1 in its turn1 seven boats1 representing a total weight of #bj tons4 ,it is impossible to enumerate in this paper all the various kinds of wagons and trucks suitable for the service of iron works1 shipyards1 mines1 quarries1 forests1 and many other kinds of works2 and we therefore limit ourselves to mentioning only a few instances which suffice to show that the narrow gauge can be applied to works of the most varied nature and under the most adverse circumstances possible4 ,it therefore only remains to mention the various accessories which have been invented for the purpose of completing the system4 ,they consist of off-railers1 crossings1 turntables1 etc4 ,the off railer is used for establishing a portable line1 at any point1 diverging to the right or left of a permanent line1 and for transferring traffic to it without interruption4 ,it consists of a miniature inclined plane1 of the same height at one end as the rail1 tapering off regularly by degrees toward the other end4 ,it is only necessary to place the off-railer 7which1 like all the lengths of rail of this system1 forms but one piece with its sleepers and fish-plates7 on the fixed line1 adding a curve in the direction it is intended to go1 and push the wagons on to the off-railer1 when they will gradually leave the fixed line and pass on the new track4 ,the switches consist of a rail-end #di in4 in length1 which serves as a movable tongue1 placed in front of a complete crossing1 the rails of which have a radius of #d1 #f1 or #h meters2 a push with the foot suffices to alter the switch4 ,there are four different models of crossings constructed for each radius1 viz43 #a4 ,for two tracks with symmetrical divergence4 #b4 ,for a curve to the right and a straight track4 #c4 ,for a curve to the left and a straight track4 #d4 ,for a meeting of three tracks4 ,when a fixed line is used1 it is better to replace the movable switch by a fixed cast-iron switch1 and to let the workmen who drive the wagon push it in the direction required4 ,planed switch tongues are also used1 having the shape of those employed on the normal tracks1 especially for the passage of small engines2 the switches are1 in this case1 completed by the application of a hand lever4 ,the portable turntable consists of two faced plates laid over the other1 one of thick sheet iron1 and the other of cast iron4 ,the sheet-iron plate is fitted with a pivot1 around which the cast iron one is made to revolve2 these plates may either be smooth1 or grooved for the wheels4 ,the former are used chiefly when it is required to turn wagons or trucks of light burden1 or1 in the case of earthworks1 for trucks of moderate weight4 ,these plates are quite portable2 their weight for the #af in4 gauge does not exceed #bjj lb4 ,for engineering works a turntable plate with variable width of track has been designed1 admitting of different tracks being used over the same turntable4 ,when turntables are required for permanent lines1 and to sustain heavy burdens1 turntables with a cast iron box are required1 constructed on the principle of the turntables of ordinary railways4 ,the heaviest wagons may be placed on these box turntables1 without any portion suffering damage or disturbing the level of the ground4 ,in the case of coal mines1 paper mills1 cow houses with permanent lines1 etc41 fixed plates are employed4 ,such plates need only be applied where the line is always wet1 or in workshops where the use of turntables is not of frequent occurrence4 ,this fixed plate is most useful in farmers' stables1 as it does not present any projection which might hurt the feet of the cattle1 and is easy to clean4 ,the only accident that can happen to the track is the breaking of a fish-plate4 ,it happens often that the fish-plates get twisted1 owing to rough handling on the part of the workmen1 and break in the act of being straightened4 ,in order to facilitate as much as possible the repairs in such cases1 the fish-plates are not riveted by machinery1 but by hand2 and it is only necessary to cut the rivets with which the fish-plate is fastened1 and remove it if broken3 ,a drill passed through the two holes of the rail removes all burrs that may be in the way of the new rivet4 ,no vises are required for this operation2 the track to be repaired is held by two workmen at a height of about #bh in4 above the ground1 care being taken to let the end under repair rest on a portable anvil1 which is supplied with the necessary appliances4 ,the two fish-plates are put in their place at the same time1 the second rivet being held in place with one finger1 while the first is being riveted with a hammer2 if it is not kept in its place in this manner it may be impossible to put it in afterward1 as the blows of the hammer often cause the fish-plate to shift1 and the holes in the rail are pierced with great precision to prevent there being too much clearance4 ,no other accident need be feared with this line1 and the breakage described above can easily be repaired in a few minutes without requiring any skilled workman4 ,the narrow-gauge system1 which has recently received so great a development on the ,continent1 since its usefulness has been demonstrated1 and the facility with which it can be applied to the most varied purposes1 has not yet met in ,england with the same universal acceptance2 and those members of this ,institution who crossed the sea to go to ,belgium were1 perhaps1 surprised to see so large a number of portable railways employed for agricultural and building purposes and for contractors' works4 ,but in the hands of so practical a people it may be expected that the portable narrow gauge railway will soon be applied even to a larger number of purposes than is the case elsewhere4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gerard',s ,,alternating ,,current ,,machine4 ,the machine represented in the annexed engravings consists of a movable inductor1 whose alternate poles pass in front of an armature composed of a double number of oblong and flat bobbins1 that are affixed to a circle firmly connected with the frame4 ,there is a similar circle on each side of the inductor4 ,the armature is stationary1 and the wires that start from the bobbins are connected with terminals placed upon a wooden support that surmounts the machine4 ,illustration3 ,,gerard',s ,,alternating ,,electric ,,machine4 ,this arrangement allows of every possible grouping of the currents according to requirements4 ,thus1 the armature may be divided into two currents1 so as to allow of carbons #cj mm4 in diameter being burned1 or else so as to have four1 eight1 twelve1 twenty-four1 or even forty-eight distinct circuits capable of being used altogether or in part4 ,this machine has been studied with a view of rendering the lamps independent2 and there may be produced with it1 for example1 a voltaic arc of an intensity of from #bej to #fjj carcels for the lighting of a courtyard1 or it may be used for producing arcs of less intensity for shops1 or for supplying incandescent lamps4 ,as each of the circuits is independent1 it becomes easy to light or extinguish any one of the lamps at will4 ,since the conductors are formed of ordinary simple wires1 the cost attending the installation of #ab or #bd lamps amounts to just about the same as it would in the case of a single cable4 ,illustration3 ,,gerard',s #bej ,h4,p4 ,,direct ,,connection ,,alternating ,,current ,,steam ,,dynamo-,,electric ,,machine4 ,one of the annexed cuts represents a ,corliss steam engine connected directly with an alternating current machine of the system under consideration4 ,according to the inventor1 this machine is capable of supplying #a1jjj lamps of a special kind1 called slide lamps1 and a larger number of incandescent ones4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,automatic ,,fast ,,speed ,,telegraphy4 ,by ,,theo4 ,f4 ,,taylor4 ,since #ahch much has been done toward increasing the carrying capacity of a single wire4 ,in response to your invitation ,i will relate my experience upon the ,postal's large coppered wire1 in an effort to transmit #hjj words per minute over a #a1jjj mile circuit1 and add my mite to the vast sum of knowledge already possessed by electricians4 ,as an introduction1 ,i shall mention a few historical facts1 but do not propose to write in this article even a short account of the different automatic systems1 and ,i must assume that my readers are familiar with modern automatic machines and appliances4 ,in #ahgj1 upon the completion of the ,automatic ,company's #g ohm wire between ,new ,york and ,washington1 it happened that ,prof4 ,moses ,g4 ,farmer was in the ,washington office when the first message was about to be sent1 and upon being requested1 he turned the crank and transmitted the message to ,new ,york1 at the rate of #bag words per minute4 ,upon his return to ,new ,york he co-operated with ,mr4 ,prescott in experiments on ,w4,u4 wires1 their object being to determine what could be done on iron wires with the ,bain system4 ,a good ,no4 #h wire running from ,new ,york to ,boston was selected1 reinsulated1 well trimmed1 and put in first-class electrical condition1 previous to the test4 ,the ,little chemical paper was used4 ,the maximum speed attained on this wire was #fe words per minute4 ,about the same time ,george ,h4 ,grace used an electro magnet on the automatic line with such good effect that the speed on the ,new ,york-,washington circuit was increased to #dej words per minute4 ,then a platina stylus or pen was substituted for the iron pen in connection with iodide paper1 and the speed increased to #ijj words per minute4 ,in #ahhj1 upon the completion of the ,rapid ,company's #f ohm wire1 between ,new ,york and ,boston1 #a1bjj words per minute were transmitted between the cities above named4 ,in #ahhb1 ,i was employed by the ,postal ,telegraph ,company to put the ,leggo automatic system into practical shape1 and1 if possible1 transmit #hjj words per minute between ,new ,york and ,chicago4 ,it was proposed to string a steel-copper wire1 the copper on which was to weigh #ejj lb4 to the mile4 ,when complete1 the wire was rather larger than ,no4 #c1 ,english gauge1 but varied in diameter1 some being as large as ,no4 #a1 and it averaged #ebe lb4 of copper per mile and #a4e ohms4 ,the surface of this wire was1 however1 large4 ,dr4 ,muirhead estimated its static capacity at about #aj ,m4,f41 which subsequent tests proved to be nearly correct4 ,it will be understood that this static capacity stood in the way of fast transmission4 ,resistance and static capacity are the two factors that determine speed of signaling4 ,the duration of the variable state is in proportion to the square of the length of the conductor1 so that the difficulties increase very greatly as the wire is extended beyond ordinary limits4 ,according to ,prescott1 ,the duration of the variable condition in a wire of #ejj miles is #bej1jjj times as long as in a wire of #a mile4 ,in other words1 a long line retains a charge1 and time must be allowed for at least a falling off of the charge to a point indicated by the receiving instrument as zero4 ,in the construction of the line care was taken to insure the lowest possible resistance through the circuit1 even to the furnishing of the river cables with conductors weighing #ejj lb4 per mile4 ,ground wires were placed on every tenth pole4 ,when the first #ajj miles of wire had been strung1 ,i was much encouraged to find that we could telegraph without any difficulty past the average provincial ground1 provided the terminal grounds were good4 ,when the western end of this remarkable wire reached ,olean1 ,n4,y41 #djj miles from ,new ,york1 my assistant1 ,mr4 ,s4,k4 ,dingle1 proceeded to that town with a receiving instrument1 and we made the first test4 ,i found that #hjj words1 or #bj1jjj impulses1 per minute1 could be transmitted in ,morse characters over that circuit without compensation for static4 ,in other words1 the old ,bain method was competent to telegraph #hjj words per minute on the #djj miles of #a4e ohm wire4 ,the trouble began1 however1 when the wire reached ,cleveland1 ,o41 about #gjj miles from ,new ,york4 ,upon making a test at ,cleveland1 ,i found the signals made a continuous black line upon the chemical paper4 ,i then placed both ends of the wire to earth through #c1jjj ohms resistance1 and introduced a small auxiliary battery between the chemical paper and earth4 ,the auxiliary or opposing battery was placed in the same circuit with the transmitting battery1 and the currents which were transmitted from the latter through the receiving instrument reached the earth by passing directly through the opposing battery4 ,the circuit of the opposing battery was permanently completed1 independently of the transmitting apparatus1 through both branch conductors and artificial resistances4 ,the auxiliary battery at the receiving station normally maintained upon the main line a continuous electric current of a negative polarity1 which did not produce a mark upon the chemical paper4 ,when the transmitting battery was applied thereto1 the excessive electro-motive force of the latter overpowered the current from the auxiliary battery and exerted1 by means of a positive current1 an electro-chemical action upon the chemical receiving paper1 producing a mark4 ,immediately upon the interruption of the circuit of the transmitting battery1 the unopposed current from the auxiliary battery at the receiving station flowed back through the paper and into the main line1 thereby both neutralizing the residual or inductive current1 which tended to flow through the receiving instrument1 and serving to clear the main line from electro-static charge4 ,the following diagram illustrates my method3 ,referring to this diagram1 ,a and ,b respectively represent a transmitting and a receiving station of an automatic telegraph4 ,these stations are united in the usual manner by a main line1 ,l4 ,at the transmitting station1 ,a1 is placed a transmitting battery1 ,e1 having its positive pole connected by a conductor1 #b1 with the metallic transmitting drum1 ,t4 ,the negative pole of the battery1 ,e1 is connected with the earth at ,g by a conductor1 #a4 ,a metallic transmitting stylus1 t1 rests upon the surface of the drum1 ,t1 and any well known or suitable mechanism may be employed for causing an automatic transmitting pattern slip1 ,p1 to pass between the stylus and the drum4 ,the transmitting or pattern slip1 ,p1 is perforated with groups of apertures of varying lengths and intervals as required to represent the dispatch which it is desired to transmit1 by an arbitrary system of signs1 such1 for example1 as the ,morse telegraphic code4 ,at the receiving station1 ,b1 is placed a recording apparatus1 ,m1 of any suitable or well known construction4 ,a strip of chemically prepared paper1 ,n1 is caused to pass rapidly and uniformly between the drum1 ,m'1 and the stylus1 m1 of this instrument in a well known manner4 ,the drum1 ,m'1 is connected with the earth by conductors1 #d and #c1 between which is placed the auxiliary battery1 ,e1 the positive or marking pole of this battery being connected with the drum and the negative pole with the earth4 ,the electro-motive force of the battery1 ,e'1 is preferably made about one-third as great as that of the battery1 ,e4 ,illustration ,extending from a point1 o1 in the main line1 near the transmitting station1 to the earth at ,g1 is a branch conductor1 l1 containing an adjustable artificial resistance1 ,r4 ,a similar conductor1 ll1 extends from a point1 o'1 near the receiving terminal of the line1 ,l1 to the conductor1 #c1 in which an artificial resistance1 ,r'1 is also included1 this resistance being preferably approximately equal to the resistance1 ,r4 ,the proportions of the resistance of the main line and the artificial resistances which ,i prefer to employ may be approximately indicated as follows3 ,assuming the resistance of the main line to be #ijj ohms1 the resistance1 ,r1 and ,r'1 should be each about #c1jjj ohms4 ,the main battery1 ,e1 should then comprise about #ij cells1 and the auxiliary battery1 ,e'1 #cj cells4 ,the operation of my improved system is as follows3 ,while the apparatus is at rest a constant current from the battery1 ,e'1 traverses the line1 ,l1 and the branch conductors1 l1 and ll1 dividing itself between them1 in inverse proportion to their respective resistances1 in accordance with the well-known law of ,ohm4 ,when the transmitting pattern strip1 ,p1 is caused to pass between the roller1 ,t1 and the stylus1 t1 electric impulses will be transmitted upon the line1 ,l1 from the positive pole of the battery1 ,e1 which will traverse the main line1 ,l1 the two branch lines1 l1 and ll1 and their included resistances1 and also the receiving instrument1 ,m4 ,the greater portion of this current will1 however1 on account of the less resistance offered1 traverse the receiving instrument1 ,m1 and the auxilary battery1 ,e'4 ,the current from the last-named battery will thus be neutralized and overpowered1 and the excess of current from the main battery1 ,e1 will act upon the chemically prepared paper and record in the form of dots and dashes or like arbitrary characters the impulses which are transmitted4 ,immediately on the cessation of each impulse1 the auxiliary battery1 ,e'1 again acts to send an impulse of positive polarity through the receiving paper and stylus in the reverse direction and through the line1 ,l1 which returns to the negative pole of the battery by way of the artificial resistances1 ,r and ,r'4 ,such an impulse1 following immediately upon the interruption of the circuit of the transmitting battery1 acts to destroy the effect of the tailing or static discharge of the line1 ,l1 upon the receiving instrument1 and also to neutralize the same throughout the line4 ,by thus opposing the discharge of the line by a reverse current transmitted directly through the chemical paper1 a sharply defined record will in all cases be obtained2 and by transmitting the opposing impulse through the line1 the latter will be placed in a condition to receive the next succeeding impulse and to record the same as a sharply defined character4 ,this arrangement was made on the ,new ,york-,cleveland circuit1 and the characters were then clearly defined and of uniform distinctness4 ,the speed of transmission on this circuit was from #a1jjj to #b1jjj words per minute4 ,upon the completion of the wire to ,chicago1 total distance #a1jej miles1 including six miles of ,no4 #h iron wire through the city1 the maximum speed was found to be #a1bjj words per minute1 and to my surprise the speed was not affected by the substitution of an underground conductor for the overhead wire4 ,the underground conductor was a ,no4 #af copper wire weighing #fg pounds per mile1 in a ,patterson cable laid through an iron pipe4 ,i used #aej cells of large ,fuller battery on the ,new ,york-,chicago circuit1 and afterward with #bjj cells in first class condition1 transmitted #a1ejj words1 or #cg1jjj impulses1 per minute from #di ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 to our test office at ,thirty-ninth ,street1 ,chicago4 ,the matter was always carefully counted1 and the utmost care taken to obtain correct figures4 ,it may be mentioned as a curious fact that we not only send #a1bjj words per minute through #a1jej miles of overhead wire and five miles of underground cable1 but also through a second conductor in ,no4 #b cable back to ,thirty-ninth ,street1 and then connected to a third underground conductor in ,no4 #a cable back to ,chicago main office1 in all about fifteen miles of underground1 through which we sent #a1bjj words per minute and had a splendid margin4--,electrical ,world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electrical ,,review4 ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,carbon ,,microphone--,,what ,,is ,,it8 ,a careful examination of the opinions of scientific men given in the telephone cases--before ,lord ,mc,laren in ,edinburgh and before ,mr4 ,justice ,fry in ,london--leads me to the conclusion that scientific men1 at least those whose opinions ,i shall quote1 are not agreed as to what is the action of the carbon microphone4 ,in the ,edinburgh case1 ,sir ,frederick ,bramwell said3 ,the variations of the currents are effected so as to produce with remarkable fidelity the varied changes which occur1 according as the carbon is compressed or relieved from compression by the gentle impacts of the air set in motion by the voice4 ,the most prominent quality of carbon is its capability1 under the most minute differences of pressure1 to enormously increase or decrease the resistances of the circuit4 ,that the varying pressure of the black tension-regulator 7,edison's7 is sufficient to cause a change in the conducting power4 ,sir ,frederick also said he could not believe that the resistance was varied by a jolting motion2 could not conceive a jolting motion producing variation and difference of pressure1 and such an instrument could not be relied on1 and therefore would be practically useless4 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 in the same case1 said3 ,the function of the carbon is to give rise to diminished resistance by pressure2 it possesses the quality of1 under slight degrees of pressure1 decreasing the resistance to the passage of the electric current2 and1 also1 the jolting motion would be a make-and-break1 and the articulate sounds would be impaired4 ,there can be no virtue in a speaking telephone having a jolting motion4 ,delicacy of contact is a virtue2 looseness of contact is a vice4 ,looseness of contact is a great virtue in ,hughes' microphone2 and the elements which work advantages in ,hughes' are detrimental to the good working of the articulating instrument4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,mr4 ,falconer ,king said3 ,there would be no advantage in having a jolting motion2 the jolting motion would break the circuit and be a defect in the speaking telephone1 and you must have pressure and partially conducting substances4 ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin said1 ,the pressure of the carbons is what favors the transmission of sound4 ,all the above named scientific men agree that variations of a current passing through a carbon microphone are produced by pressure of the carbons against one another1 and they also agree that a jolting motion could not be relied upon to reproduce articulate speech4 ,mr4 ,conrad ,cooke said1 ,the first and most striking principle of ,hughes' microphone is a shaking and variable contact between the two parts constituting the microphone4 ,the shaking and variable contact is produced by the movable portion being effected by sound4 ,under ,hughes' system1 where gas carbon was used1 the instruments could not possibly work upon the principle of pressure4 ,i am satisfied that it is not pressure in the sense of producing a change of resistance4 ,i do not think pressure has anything to do with it4 ,professor ,blyth said3 ,the ,hughes microphone depends essentially upon the looseness or delicacy of contact4 ,i have heard articulate speech with such an instrument without a diaphragm4 ,there is no doubt that to a certain extent there must be a change in the number of points of surface contact when the pencil is moved4 ,the action of the ,hughes microphone depends more or less upon the looseness or delicacy of the contact and upon the changes in the number of points of surface contact when the pencil is moved4 ,mr4 ,oliver ,heaviside1 in ,the ,electrician of #ajth ,february last1 writes3 ,there should be no jolting or scraping4 ,contacts1 though light1 should not be loose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,a writer1 who signs ,w4,e4,h41 in ,the ,electrician of #bdth ,february last1 says3 ,the variation of current arises from a variation of conductivity between the electrodes1 consequent upon the variation of the closeness or pressure of contact2 and also1 there must be a variation of pressure between the electrodes when the transmitter is in action4 ,it seems1 then1 that some scientific men agree that variation of pressure is required to produce action in a microphone1 and some of them admit that a microphone with loose contacts will transmit articulate speech1 while others deny it1 and some admit that a jolting or shaking motion of the parts of the microphone does not interfere with articulate speech1 while others say such motion would break the circuit1 and cannot be relied on4 ,i will now describe two microphones in which there is a shaking or jolting motion1 and loose contacts1 and no variation of pressure of the carbons against one another1 and both of these microphones when used with an induction coil and battery give most excellent articulation4 ,one of these microphones is made as follows3 ,two flat plates of carbon are secured to a block of cork1 insulated from each other2 into a hole of each carbon a pin of carbon fits loosely1 projecting above the carbons2 another flat piece of carbon1 having two holes in it1 bridges over the two lower carbons1 being kept in its place by the pins of carbon which fit loosely in the holes in it1 the bottom carbons being connected with the battery2 a block of cork has a flat side of it cut out so as when secured to the lower cork the carbons will not come in contact with it1 yet be close enough to it to keep the carbons from falling apart4 ,the cork covering the carbons forms a dome4 ,any good telephone receiver when used in connection with this microphone1 reproduces articulate speech with remarkable distinctness1 especially hissing sounds1 and with a loud and full tone4 ,a description of this microphone was published in ,la ,lumiere ,electrique1 of #aeth ,april1 #ahhb1 and a drawing thereof on #bith ,april of same year4 ,another form of microphone is made as follows3 ,two blocks of gas carbon1 ,c1 ,b1 each about one and a half inches long and one inch square1 having each a circular hole one and a quarter inches deep and half inch in diameter2 these two blocks are embedded in a block of cork1 ,c1 about one-quarter of an inch apart1 these holes facing each other1 each block forming a terminal of the battery and induction coil2 a pencil of carbon1 ,c1 ,p1 about three-eighths of an inch in diameter1 and two inches long1 having a ring of ebonite1 ,v1 fixed around its center1 is placed in the holes of the two fixed blocks2 the ebonite ring fitting loosely in between the two blocks so as to prevent the pencil from touching the bottom of the holes in the blocks4 ,the space between the blocks is closed with wax1 ,w1 to exclude the air1 but not to touch the ring on the pencil4 ,a block of cork fitting close to the carbon blocks on all sides is then firmly secured to the other block of cork4 ,the microphone should lie horizontally or at a slight angle4 ,this microphone produces in any good telephone perfect articulation in a loud and full tone4 ,in these microphones there is certainly looseness and delicacy of contact1 and there is a jolting or shaking motion1 and it does not seem possible that there can be any pressure of one carbon against another4 ,i repeat the question ,i asked at the beginning of this communication1 and hope that it may elicit from you1 or some of our scientific men1 an explanation of the theory of the action of this form of microphone4 ,w4,c4 ,,barney4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,dembinski ,,microphonic ,,telephone ,,transmitter4 ,this apparatus1 which is shown by ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c1 consists of a wooden case1 ,a1 of oblong shape1 closed by a lid fixed by hinges to the top or one side of the case4 ,the lid is actually a frame for holding a piece of wire gauze1 ,l ,l1 through which the sound waves from the voice can pass4 ,in the case a flat shallow box1 ,e ,f 7or several boxes71 is placed1 on the lid of which the carbon microphone1 ,d ,c 7,figs4 #a and #c71 which is of the ordinary construction1 is placed4 ,the box is of thin wood1 coated inside with petroleum lamp black1 for the purpose of increasing the resonance4 ,it is secured in two lateral slides1 fixed to the case4 ,the bottom of the box is pierced with two openings1 resembling those in a violin 7,fig4 #b74 ,lengthwise across the bottom are stretched a series of brass spiral springs1 ,g ,g ,g1 which are tuned to a chromatic scale4 ,on the bottom of the case a similar series of springs1 not shown1 are secured4 ,the apparatus is provided with an induction coil1 ,j1 which is connected to the microphone1 battery1 and telephone receiver 7which may be of any known description7 in the usual manner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,the inventors claim that the use of the vibrating springs give to the transmitter an increased power over those at present in use4 ,they state that the instrument has given very satisfactory results between ,ostende and ,arlon1 a distance of #cad kilometers 7about #bjj miles74 ,it does not appear1 however1 that microphones of the ordinary ,gower-,bell type1 for example1 were tried in competition with the new invention1 and in the absence of such tests the mere fact that very satisfactory results were obtained over a length of #bjj miles proves very little4 ,with reference to a statement that whistling could be very clearly heard1 we may remark that experience has many times proved that the most indifferent form of transmitter will almost always respond well and even powerfully to such forms of vibration4--,electrical ,review4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,gas ,,lighters4 ,we are going to make known to our readers two new styles of electric lighters whose operation is sure and quick1 and the use of which is just as economical as that of those quasi-incombustible little pieces of wood that we have been using for some years under the name of matches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,,mode ,,of ,,using ,,the ,,gas ,,lighter4 ,the first of these is a portable apparatus designed for lighting gas burners1 and is based upon the calorific properties of the electric spark produced by the induction bobbin4 ,its internal arrangement is such as to permit of its being used with a pile of very limited power and dimensions4 ,the apparatus has the form of a rod of a length that may be varied at will1 according to the height of the burner to be lighted1 and which terminates at its lower part in an ebonite handle about #d centimeters in width by #bj in length 7,fig4 #a74 ,this handle is divided into two parts1 which are shown isolatedly in ,fig4 #b1 and contains the pile and bobbin4 ,the arrangement of the pile1 ,a1 is kept secret1 and all that we can say of it is that zinc and chloride of silver are employed as a depolarizer4 ,it is hermetically closed1 and carries at one of its extremities a disk1 ,b1 and a brass ring1 ,c1 attached to its poles and designed to establish a communication between the pile and bobbin when the two parts of the apparatus are screwed together4 ,to this end1 two elastic pieces1 ,d and ,e1 fit against ,b and ,c and establish a contact4 ,it is asserted that the pile is capable of being used #be1jjj times before it is necessary to recharge it4 ,h is an ebonite tube that incloses and protects the induction bobbin1 ,k1 whose induced wire communicates on the one hand with the brass tube1 ,l1 and on the other with an insulated central conductor1 ,m1 which terminates at a point very near the extremity of the brass tube4 ,the currents induced in this wire produce a series of sparks between the tube1 ,l1 and the rod1 ,m1 which light the gas when the extremity of the apparatus is placed in proximity with the burner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,mechanism ,,or ,,the ,,induction ,,spark ,,gas ,,lighter4 ,the ingenious and new part of the system lies in the mode of exciting the induced currents4 ,when the extremity of the tube1 ,l1 is brought near the gas burner that is to be lighted1 it is only necessary to shove the botton1 ,f1 from left to right in order to produce a limited number of sparks sufficient to effect the lighting4 ,the motion of the button has not for effect1 as might be believed1 the closing of the circuit of the pile upon the inducting circuit of the bobbin4 ,in fact in its normal position1 the vibrator is distant from its contact1 and the closing of the circuit would produce no action4 ,the motion of ,f produces a mechanical motion of the spring of the vibrator1 which latter acts for a few instants and produces a certain number of contacts that give rise to an equal number of sparks4 ,owing to this arrangement1 the expenditure of electric energy required by each lighting is limited2 and1 an another hand1 the vibrator1 which would be incapable of operating if it had to be set in motion by the direct current from the pile1 can be actuated mechanically4 ,as the motion of the vibrator is derived from the hand of the operator1 and not from the pile1 it will be comprehended that the latter can1 everything being equal1 produce a larger number of lightings than an ordinary bobbin and vibrator4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,,incandescent ,,gas ,,lighter4 ,dr4 ,naret's ,fiat ,lux 7,fig4 #c7 is simpler in its operation1 and cheaper of application1 since it takes its current from the ordinary piles that supply domestic call-bells4 ,it consists essentially of a fine platinum wire supported by a tilting device in connection with the two poles of a pile composed of three ,leclanche elements4 ,upon exerting a vertical pressure on the button placed to the left of the apparatus1 either directly or by means of a cord1 we at the same time turn the cock and cause the platinum spiral to approach1 and the latter then becomes incandescent as a consequence of the closing of the circuit of the pile4 ,after the burner is lighted it is only necessary to leave the apparatus to itself4 ,the cock remains open1 the spiral recedes from the burner1 the circuit opens anew1 and the burner remains lighted until the gas is turned off4 ,this device1 then1 is particularly appropriate in all cases where there is a pressing need of light1 for a single maneuver suffices to open the cock and effect a lighting of the burner4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,distribution ,,of ,,heat ,,which ,,is ,,developed ,,by ,,forging4 ,on the #hth of ,june4 #ahgd1 ,tresca presented to the ,french ,academy some considerations respecting the distribution of heat in forging a bar of platinum1 and stated the principal reasons which rendered that metal especially suitable for the purpose4 ,he subsequently experimented1 in a similar way1 with other metals1 and finally adopted ,senarmont's method for the study of conductibility4 ,a steel or copper bar was carefully polished on its lateral faces1 and the polished portion covered with a thin coat of wax4 ,the bar thus prepared was placed under a ram1 of known weight1 ,p1 which was raised to a height1 ,h1 where it was automatically released so as to expend upon the bar the whole quantity of work ,t,,ph1 between the two equal faces of the ram and the anvil4 ,a single shock sufficed to melt the wax upon a certain zone and thus to limit1 with great sharpness1 the part of the lateral faces which had been raised during the shock to the temperature of melting wax4 ,generally the zone of fusion imitates the area comprised between the two branches of an equilateral hyperbola1 but the fall can be so graduated as to restrict this zone1 which then takes other forms1 somewhat different1 but always symmetrical4 ,if ,a is the area of this zone1 b the breadth of the bar1 d the density of the metal1 c its capacity for heat1 and t-t#j the excess of the melting temperature of wax over the surrounding temperature1 it is evident that1 if we consider ,a as the base of a horizontal prism which is raised to the temperature t1 the calorific effect may be expressed by3 ,ab x d x ,c7t-t#j72 and on multiplying this quantity of heat by #dbe we find1 for the value of its equivalent in work1 ,t' #dbe ,abd,c7t-t#j74 ,on comparing ,t' to ,t we may consider the experiment as a mechanical operation1 having a minimum of3 ,t'_/,t 7#dbe_/,,ph7,abd,c7t-t#j74 ,after giving diagrams and tables to illustrate the geometrical disposition of the areas of fusion1 ,tresca feels justified in concluding that the development of heat depends upon the form of the faces and the intensity of the shock2 that the points of greatest heat correspond to the points of greatest flow of the metal1 and that this flow is really the mechanical phenomenon which gives rise to the calorific phenomenon2 that for action sufficiently energetic and for bars of sufficient dimensions1 about #j4h of the labor expended on the blow may be found again in the heat2 that the figures formed in the melted wax for shocks of less intensity furnish a kind of diagram of the distribution of the heat and of the deformation in the interior of the bar1 but that the calculation of the coefficient of efficiency does not yield satisfactory results in the case of moderate blows4--,comptes ,rendus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tin ,,in ,,canned ,,foods4 ,footnote3 ,read at an evening meeting of the ,pharmaceutical ,society1 ,march #e1 #ahhd4 ,by ,,professor ,,attfield1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,etc4 ,from time to time1 during the past twelve years1 paragraphs have appeared in newspapers and other periodicals tending in effect to warn the public at least against the indiscriminate use of canned foods4 ,and whenever there has been any foundation in fact for such cautions1 it has commonly rested on the alleged presence and harmfulness of tin in the food4 ,at the worst1 the amount of tin present has been absurdly small1 affording an opportunity for one literary representative of medicine to state that before a man could be seriously affected by the tin1 even if it occurred in the form of a compound of the metal1 he would have to consume at a meal ten pounds of the food containing the largest amount of tin ever detected4 ,but the greatest proportions of tin thus referred to are1 according to my experiments1 far beyond those ever likely to be actually present in the food itself in the form of a compound of tin2 present1 that is to say1 on account of the action of the fluids or juices of the food on the tin of the can4 ,such action and such consequent solution of the tin1 and consequent admixture of a possibly assimilable compound of tin with the food1 in my opinion never occurs to an extent which in relation to health has any significance whatever4 ,the occurrence of tin1 not as a compound1 but as the metal itself1 is1 if possible1 still less important4 ,during the last fifteen years ,i have frequently examined canned foods1 not only with respect to the food itself as food1 and to the process of canning1 but with regard to the relation of the food to1 or the influence if any of the metal of1 the can itself4 ,so lately as within the past two or three months ,i have examined sixteen varieties of canned food for metals1 with the following results3 ,decimal parts of a grain of tin 7or other foreign metal7 present in ,name of article a quarter of a lb4 examined4 ,salmon none4 ,lobsters none4 ,oysters #j4jjd ,sardines none4 ,lobster paste none4 ,salmon paste none4 ,bloater paste #j4jjb ,potted beef none4 ,potted tongue none4 ,potted ,strasbourg none4 ,potted ham #j4jjb ,luncheon tongue #j4jjc ,apricots #j4jjg ,pears #j4jjc ,tomatoes #j4jjg ,peaches #j4jjd ,these proportions of metal are1 ,i say1 undeserving of serious notice4 ,i question whether they represent more than the amounts of tin we periodically wear off tin saucepans in preparing food--a month ago ,i found a trace of tin in water which had been boiled in a tin kettle--or the silver we wear off our forks and spoons4 ,there can be little doubt that we annually pass through our systems a sensible amount of such metals1 metallic compounds1 and other substances that do not come under the denomination of food2 but there is no evidence that they ever did or are ever likely to do harm or occasion us the slightest inconvenience4 ,harm is far more likely to come to us from noxious gases in the air we breathe than from foreign substances in the food we eat4 ,but whence come the much less minute amounts of tin--still harmless1 be it remembered--which have been stated to be occasionally present in canned foods8 ,they come from the minute particles of metal chipped off from the tin sheets in the operations of cutting1 bending1 or hammering the parts of the can1 or possibly melted off in the operations necessary for the soldering together of the joints of the can4 ,some may1 perhaps1 be cut1 off by the knife in opening a can4 ,at all events ,i not unfrequently find such minute particles of metal on carefully washing the external surfaces of a mass of meat just removed from a can1 or on otherwise properly treating canned food with the object of detecting such particles4 ,the published processes for the detection of tin in canned food will not reveal more than the amounts stated in the table1 or about those amounts2 that is to say1 a few thousandths or perhaps two or three hundredths of a grain1 if this precaution be adopted4 ,if such care be not observed1 the less minute amounts may be found4 ,i did not detect any metallic particles in the twelve samples of canned food just mentioned1 but during the past few years ,i have occasionally found small pieces of metal1 perhaps amounting in some of the cases to a few tenths of a grain per pound4 ,now and then small shot-like pieces of tin1 or possibly solder1 may be met with2 but no one has ever found1 to my knowledge1 such a quantity of actual metallic tin1 tinned iron1 or solder as1 from the point of view of health1 can have any significance whatever4 ,the largest amount of tin ,i ever detected in actual solution in food was in some canned soup1 containing a good deal of lemon juice4 ,it amounted to only three-hundredths of a grain in a half pint of the soup as sent to table4 ,now1 ,christison says that quantities of #ah to #dd grains of the very soluble chloride of tin were required to kill dogs in from one to four days4 ,orfila says that several persons on one occasion dressed their dinner with chloride of tin1 mistaking it for salt4 ,one person would thus take not less than #bj to #cj grains of this soluble compound of tin4 ,yet only a little gastric and bowel disturbance followed1 and from this all recovered in a few days4 ,pereira says that the dose of chloride of tin as an antispasmodic and stimulant is from #a_/af to a grain repeated two or three times daily4 ,probably no article of canned food1 not even the most acid fruit1 if in a condition in which it can be eaten1 has ever contained1 in an ordinary table portion1 as much of a soluble salt of tin as would amount to a harmless or useful medicinal dose4 ,metallic particles of tin are without any effect on man4 ,a thousand times the quantity ever found in a can of tinned food would do no harm4 ,food as acid as say ordinary pickles would dissolve tin4 ,some manufacturers once proposed using tin stoppers to their bottles of pickles4 ,but the tin was slowly dissolved by the acid of the vinegar4 ,these pickles1 however1 had a distinctly nasty metallic flavor4 ,the idea was abandoned4 ,probably any article of food containing enough tin to disagree with the system would be too nasty to eat4 ,purchasers of food may rest assured that the action taken by this firm would be that usually followed4 ,it is not to the interest of manufacturers or other venders to offend the senses of purchasers1 still less to do them actual harm1 even if no higher motive comes into force4 ,in the early days of canning1 it is just possible that the use of spirits of salt in soldering may have resulted in the presence of a little stannous1 plumbous1 or other chloride in canned food2 but such a fault would soon be detected and corrected1 and as a matter of fact1 resin-soldering is to my knowledge more generally employed--indeed1 for anything ,i know to the contrary1 is exclusively employed--in canning food4 ,any resin that trained access would be perfectly harmless4 ,it is just possible1 also1 that formerly the tin itself may have contained lead1 but ,i have not found any lead in the sheet tin used for canning of late years4 ,in conclusion3 #a4 ,i have never been able to satisfy myself that a can of ordinary tinned food contains even a useful medicinal dose of such a true soluble compound of tin as is likely to have any effect on man4 #b4 ,as for the metal itself1 that is the filings or actual metallic particles or fragments1 one ounce is a common dose as a vermifuge2 harmless even in that quantity to man1 and not always so harmful as could be desired to the parasites for whose disestablishment it is administered4 ,one ounce might be contained in about four hundredweight of canned food4 #c4 ,if a possibly harmful quantity of a soluble compound1 of tin be placed in a portion of canned food1 the latter will be so nasty and so unlike any ordinary nasty flavor1 so metallic1 in fact1 that no sane person will eat it4 #d4 ,respecting the globules of solder 7lead and tin7 that are occasionally met with in canned food1 ,i believe most persons detect them in the mouth and remove them1 as they would shots in game4 ,but if swallowed1 they do no harm4 ,pereira says that metallic lead is probably inert1 and that nearly a quarter of a pound has been administered to a dog without any obvious effects4 ,he goes on to say that as it becomes oxidized it occasionally acquires activity1 quoting ,paulini's statement that colic was produced in a patient who had swallowed a leaden bullet4 ,to allay alarm in the minds of those who fear they might swallow pellets of solder1 ,i may add that ,pereira cites ,proust for the assurance that an alloy of tin and lead is less easily oxidized than pure lead4 #e4 ,unsoundness in meat does not appear to promote the corrosion or solution of tin4 ,i have kept salmon in cans till it was putrid1 testing it occasionally for tin4 ,no trace of tin was detected4 ,nevertheless1 food should not be allowed to remain for a few days1 or even hours1 in saucepans1 metal baking pans1 or opened tins or cans1 otherwise it may taste metallic4 #f4 ,unsound food1 canned or uncanned1 may1 of course1 injure health1 and where canned food really has done harm1 the harm has in all probability been due to the food and not to the can4 #g4 ,what has been termed idiosyncrasy must also be borne in mind4 ,i know a man to whom oatmeal is a poison4 ,some people cannot eat lobsters1 either fresh or tinned4 ,serious results have followed the eating of not only oatmeal or shell fish1 but salmon and mutton2 hydrate 7misreported nitrate7 of tin being gratuitously suggested as being contained in the salmon in one case4 ,possibly there were cases of idiosyncrasy in the eater1 possibly the food was unsound1 possibly other causes altogether led to the results1 but certainly1 to my mind1 the tin had nothing whatever to do with the matter4 ,in my opinion1 given after well weighing all evidence hitherto forthcoming1 the public have not the faintest cause for alarm respecting the occurrence of tin1 lead1 or any other metal in canned foods4--,phar4 ,jour1 and ,trans41 ,march #h1 #ahhd1 p4 #gai4 ,in reference to ,prof4 ,attfield's statement contained in the closing paragraph1 we remark3 ,it is well known that mercury is an ingredient of the solder used in some canning concerns1 as it makes an easier melting and flowing solder4 ,in ,,the ,,scientific ,,american for ,may #bg1 #ahgf1 in a report of the proceedings of the ,new ,york ,academy of ,science1 will be seen the statement of ,prof4 ,falke1 who found metallic mercury in a can of preserved corn beef1 together with a considerable quantity of albuminate of mercury4--,,eds4 ,s4,a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,villa ,,at ,,dorking4 ,the house shown in the illustration was lately erected from the designs of ,mr4 ,charles ,bell1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,although sufficiently commodious1 the cost has been only about #a1jejl4--,the ,architect4 ,illustration3 ,,suggestions ,,in ,,archtecture4--,,an ,,english ,,cottage4 ,,cost1 #e1bej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,valerianate of cerium in the vomiting of pregnancy is recommended by ,dr4 ,blondeau in a communication to the ,societe de ,therapeutique4 ,he gives it in doses of #aj centigrammes three times a day4--,medical ,record4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,arm ,,chair ,,in ,,the ,,louvre ,,collection1 ,,paris2 ,,flenish ,,renaissance4--,from ,the ,workshop4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,technical ,,education ,,in ,,america4 ,if there is one point more than another in which the exuberant youth and vitality of the ,american nation is visible it is in that of education1 the provision for which is on a most generous scale1 carried out with a determination at which the older countries of the ,eastern ,hemisphere have only arrived by slow degrees and painful experience4 ,of course the ,americans1 being young1 and having come to the fore1 so to speak1 full-fledged1 have been able to profit by the lessons which they have derived from their neighbors--though it is none the less to their credit that they have profited so well and so quickly4 ,technical and industrial education has received a more general recognition1 and been developed more rapidly1 than the general education of the country1 partly for the reason that there is no uniform system of the latter throughout the ,states1 but that each individual ,state and ,territory does that which is right in its own eyes4 ,the principal reason1 however1 is that to possess the knowledge1 how to work is the first creed of the ,american1 who considers that the right to obtain that knowledge is the birthright of every citizen1 and especially when the manual labor has to be supplemented by a vigorous use of brains4 ,the ,americans as a rule do not like heavy or coarse manual labor1 thinking it beneath them2 and1 indeed1 when they can get ,irish and ,chinese to do it for them1 perhaps they are not far wrong4 ,but the idea of idleness and loafing is very far from the spirit of the country1 and this is why we see the necessity for industrial education so vigorously recognized1 both as a national duty1 and by private individuals or communities of individuals4 ,from whatever source it is provided1 technical education in the ,united ,states comes mainly within the scope of two classes of institutions1 viz41 agricultural and mechanical colleges2 although the two are1 as often as not1 combined under one establishment1 and particularly it forms the subject of a national grant4 ,indeed1 it may be said that the scope of industrial education embraces three classes3 the farmer1 the mechanic1 and the housekeeper2 and in the far ,west we find that provision is made for the education of these three classes in the same schools1 it being an accepted idea in the newer ,states that man and woman 7the housekeeper7 are coworkers1 and are1 therefore1 entitled to equal and similar educational privileges4 ,on the other hand1 in the more conservative ,east and ,south1 we find that the sexes are educated distinct from each other4 ,in the ,east1 there is generally1 also1 a separation of subjects4 ,in ,massachusetts1 for instance1 the colleges of agriculture and mechanics are separate affairs1 the students being taught in different institutions1 viz41 the agricultural college and the institute of technology4 ,in ,missouri the separation is less defined1 the ,school of ,mines and ,metallurgy being the1 only part that is distinct from the other departments of the ,university4 ,one of the chief reasons for the necessity for hastening the extension of technical education in ,america was the almost entire disappearance of the apprenticeship system1 which1 in itself1 is mainly due to the subdivision of labor so prevalent in the manufacture of everything1 from pins to locomotives4 ,the increased use of machinery1 the character of which is such as often to put an end to small enterprises1 has promoted this subdivision by accumulating workmen in large groups4 ,the beginner1 confining himself to one department1 is soon able to earn wages1 and so he usually continues as he begins4 ,mr4 ,c4,b4 ,stetson has written on this subject with great force and earnestness1 and it will not be amiss to quote a sentence as to the advantages enjoyed by the technically workman4 ,he says that it is the rude or dexterous workman1 rather than the really skilled one1 who is supplanted by machinery4 ,skilled labor requires thinking2 but a machine never thinks1 never judges1 never discriminates4 ,though its employment does1 indeed1 enable rude laborers to do many things now which formerly could only be done by dexterous workmen1 it is clear that its use has decidedly increased the relative demand for skilled labor as compared with unskilled1 and there is abundant room for an additional increase1 if it is true1 as declared by the most eminent authority1 that the power now expended can be readily made to yield three or four times its present results1 and ultimately ten or twenty times1 when masters and workmen can be had with sufficient intelligence and skill for the direction and manipulation of the tools and machinery that would be invented4 ,the establishment of colleges and universities by the aid of national grants has depended very much for their character upon the industrial tendencies of the respective ,states1 it being understood that the land grants have principally been given to those of the newer ,states and ,territories which required development1 although some of the institutions of the older ,states on the ,atlantic seaboard have also been recipients of the same fund1 which in itself only dates from an act of ,congress in #ahfb4 ,in ,california and ,missouri1 both ,states abounding in mineral resources1 there are courses in mining and metallurgy provided in the institutions receiving national aid4 ,in the great grain-producing sections of the ,mississippi ,valley the colleges are principally devoted to agriculture1 whereas the characteristic feature of the ,iowa and ,kansas schools is the prominence given to industries4 ,we need not devote attention to the aims and arrangements of the agricultural colleges proper1 but will pass at once to those which deal with the mechanical arts1 dealing first of all with those that are assisted by the national land grant4 ,taking them alphabetically1 we have first the ,state ,agricultural ,college of ,colorado1 in the mechanical and drawing department of which shops for bench work in wood and iron and for forging have been recently erected1 this institution being one of the newest in ,america4 ,in the ,illinois ,industrial ,university the student of mechanical engineering receives practice in five shops devoted to pattern-making1 blacksmithing1 moulding and founding1 benchwork for iron1 and machine tool-work for iron4 ,in the first shop the practice consists of planing1 chiseling1 turning1 and the preparation of patterns for casting4 ,the ordinary blacksmithing operations take place in the second shop1 and those of casting in the third4 ,in the fourth there is1 first of all1 a course of freehand benchwork1 and afterward the fitting of parts is undertaken4 ,in the fifth shop all the fundamental operations on iron by machinery are practiced1 the actual work being carefully outlined beforehand by drawings4 ,this department of the ,university consists1 in point of fact1 of three separate schools1 destined to qualify the student for every kind of engineering--mining1 railway1 mechanical1 and architectural4 ,in addition to the shops and machine rooms1 there are well furnished cabinets of geological and mineralogical specimens1 chemical laboratories for assaying and metallurgy1 stamp mill1 furnaces1 etc41 and1 in fact1 every known vehicle for practical instruction4 ,the school of architecture prepares students for the building profession4 ,among the subjects in this branch are office work and shop practice1 constructing joints in carpentry and joinery1 cabinet making and turning1 together with modeling in clay4 ,the courses in mathematics1 mechanics and physics are the same as those in the engineering school2 but the technical studies embrace drawing from casts1 wood1 stone1 brick1 and iron construction1 turners' work1 slating1 plastering1 painting1 and plumbing1 architectural drawing and designing1 the history and aesthetics of architecture1 estimates1 agreements specification1 heating1 lighting1 draining1 and ventilation4 ,the student's work from scale drawing occupies three terms1 carpentry and joinery being taught in the first year1 turning and cabinet making in the second1 metal and stone work in the third4 ,a more condensed course1 known as the builder's course1 is given to those who can only stop one year4 ,the machine shop has a steam engine of #af horse power1 two engines and three plain lathes1 a planer1 a large drill press1 a pattern shop1 a blacksmith's shop1 all of the machinery having been built on the spot4 ,the carpenter's shop is likewise supplied with necessary machine tools1 such as saws1 planers1 tenoning machine1 whittlers1 etc41 the power being furnished by the machine shop4 ,at the date of the last ,university report1 there were #da students in the courses of mechanical engineering1 #da in those of civil engineering1 #c in mining engineering1 and #ad in architecture4 ,tuition is free in all the ,university classes1 though each student has to pay a matriculation fee of #aj1 and the incidental expenses amount to about #bc annually4 ,he is charged for material used or apparatus broken1 but not for the ordinary wear and tear of instruments4 ,it should be mentioned that the endowment of the ,illinois ,industrial ,university is from scrip received from the ,government for #dhj1jjj acres of land1 of which #ded1dfj have been sold for #cai1agh4 ,the real estate of the ,university1 partly made up by donations and partly by appropriations made in successive sessions by the ,state of ,illinois1 is estimated at #dej1jjj4 ,the ,purdue ,university in ,indiana1 named after its founder1 who gave #aej1jjj1 which was supplemented by another #ej1jjj from the ,state and a bond grant of #cij1jjj acres1 also provides a very complete mechanical course1 with shop instruction1 divided as follows3 ,bench working in wood for #ab weeks1 or #abj hours4 ,wood-turning #d #dj ,pattern-making #ab #abj ,vise-work in iron #aj #ajj ,forging in iron and steel #ah #ahj ,machine tool-work in iron #bj #bjj ,the course in carpentry and joinery embraces3 #a4 ,exercising in sawing and planing to dimensions4 #b ,application1 or box nailed together4 #c ,mortise and tenon joints2 a plain mortise and tenon2 an open dovetailed mortise and tenon 7dovetailed halving72 a dovetailed keyed mortise and tenon4 #d4 ,splices4 #e4 ,common dovetailing4 #f4 ,lap dovetailing and rabbeting4 #g4 ,blind or secret dovetail4 #h4 ,miter-box4 #i4 ,carpenter's trestle4 #aj4 ,panel door4 #aa4 ,roof truss4 #ab4 ,section of king-post truss roof4 #ac4 ,drawing model4 ,the course in wood turning includes3 #a4 ,elementary principles3 first1 straight turning2 second1 cutting in2 third1 convex curves with the chisel2 fourth1 compound curves formed with the gouge4 #b4 ,file and chisel handles4 #c4 ,mallets4 #d4 ,picture frames 7chuck work74 #e4 ,card receiver 7chuck work74 #f4 ,watch safe 7chuck work74 #g4 ,ball4 ,in the pattern-making course the student is supposed to have some skill in bench and lathe work1 which will be increased2 the direct object being to teach what forms of pattern are in general necessary1 and how they must be constructed in order to get a perfect mould from them4 ,the character of the work differs each year4 ,for instance1 for the last year1 besides simpler patterns easily drawn from the sand1 such as glands1 ball-cranks1 etc41 there were a series of flanged pipe-joints for #b in4 pipes1 including the necessary core boxes2 also pulley patterns from #f in4 to #aj in4 diameter1 built in segments for strength1 and to prevent warping and shrinkage2 and1 lastly1 a complete set of patterns for a three horse-power horizontal steam engine1 all made from drawings of the finished piece4 ,in the vise work in iron1 the chief requirements are these3 #a1 given a block of cast iron #d in4 by #b in4 by #a in4 in thickness1 to reduce the thickness in4 by chipping1 and then finishing with the file2 #b1 to file a round hole square2 #c1 to file a round hole into elliptical2 #d1 given a #c in4 cube of wrought iron1 to cut a spline #c in4 by #c_/h in4 by in41 and second1 when the under side is a one half round hollow--these two cuts involve the use of the cope chisel and the round nose chisel1 and are examples of very difficult chipping2 #e1 round tiling or hand-vise work2 #f1 scraping2 #g1 special examples of fitting4 ,in the forging classes are elementary processes1 driving1 bending1 and upsetting2 courses in welding2 miscellaneous forging2 steel forging1 including hardening and tempering in all its details4 ,it is worth mentioning that in the industrial art school of the ,purdue ,university there were #ac of the fair sex as students1 besides one in the chemical school1 and two going through the mechanical courses just detailed1 showing that the scope of woman's industry is less limited in ,america than in ,england4 ,the ,iowa ,state ,agricultural ,college has also two departments of mechanical and civil engineering1 the former including a special course of architecture4 ,the workshop practice1 which occupies three forenoons of #b hours each per week1 is1 however1 of more general character1 and is not pursued with such a regard to any special calling as in the case of the ,purdue ,university4 ,the ,kansas ,state ,agricultural ,college has a course of carpentry1 though designed rather more to meet the everyday necessities of a farmer's life4 ,in fact1 all the students are obliged to attend these classes1 and take the same first lessons in sawing1 planing1 lumber dressing1 making mortises1 tenons1 and joints1 and in general use of tools--just the kind of instruction that every ,english lad should have before he is shipped off to the ,colonies4 ,this farmer's course in the ,kansas ,college provides for a general training in mechanical handiwork1 but facilities are given also to those who wish to follow out the trade1 and special instruction is provided in the whole range of work1 from framing to stair-building1 as also in iron work1 such as ordinary forging1 filing1 tempering1 etc4 ,of the students attending this college1 #ge percent1 are from farmers' homes1 and the majority of the remainder from the families of mechanics and tradesmen4 ,the ,state ,college of ,maine provides courses for both civil and mechanical engineers1 and has two shops equipped according to the ,russian system4 ,forge and vise work are taught in them1 though it is not the object of the college so much to teach the details of any one trade as to qualify students by general knowledge to undertake any of them afterward4 ,a much more complete and thorough technical education is given in the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology at ,boston1 where there are distinct classes for civil1 mechanical1 mining1 geological1 and architectural engineering4 ,the following are the particulars of the instruction in the architectural branch1 which commences in the student's second year1 with ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,medival architectural history1 the ,orders and their applications1 drawing1 sketching1 and tracing1 analytic geometry1 differential calculus1 physics1 descriptive geometry1 botany1 and physical geography4 ,in the third year the course is extended to the theory of decoration1 color1 form1 and proportion2 conventionalism1 symbolism1 the decorative arts1 stained glass1 fresco painting1 tiles1 terra-cotta1 original designs1 specifications1 integral calculus1 strength of materials1 dynamics1 bridges and roofs1 stereotomy4 ,in the fourth year the student is turned out a finished architect1 after a course of the history of ornament1 the theory of architecture1 stability of structure1 flow of gases1 shopwork 7carpentry71 etc4 ,the number of students in this very comprehensive ,institute of ,technology was1 by the latest report1 #cij1 of whom #ach were undergoing special courses1 #ci were in the schools of mechanical art1 and #di in the ,lowell ,school of ,practical ,design4 ,tuition is charged at the rate of #bjj dols4 for the institute proper1 and #aej dols4 for the mechanical schools1 the average expenses per student being about #bed dols4 ,there are #aj free scholarships1 of which two are given for mechanical art4 ,the ,lowell ,school has been established by the trustee of the ,lowell ,institute to afford free technical education1 under the auspices of the ,institute of ,technology1 to both sexes--a large number of young women availing themselves of it in connection with their factory work at ,lowell4 ,the courses include practical designs for manufactures1 and the art of making patterns for prints1 delaines1 silks1 paperhangings1 carpets1 oilcloth1 etc41 and the school is amply provided with pattern looms4 ,indeed1 the whole of the appliances for practical teaching at the ,institute are on such a complete scale that at the risk of being a little tedious it is as well to enumerate them4 ,they comprise laboratories devoted to chemistry1 mineralogy1 metallurgy1 and industrial chemistry2 there are also microscopic1 spectroscopic1 and organic laboratories4 ,in other branches there are laboratories and museums of steam engineering1 mining1 and metallurgy1 biology and architecture1 together with an observatory1 much used in connection with geodesy and practical astronomy4 ,the steam engineering laboratory provides practice in testing1 adjusting1 and managing steam machinery4 ,the appliances in connection with mining and metallurgy include a five-stamp battery1 ,blake crusher1 automatic machine jigs1 an engine pulverizer1 a ,root and a ,sturtevant blower1 with blast reverberating1 wasting1 cupellation1 and fusion furnaces1 and all other means for reducing ores4 ,the architectural museum contains many thousand casts1 models1 photographs1 and drawings4 ,the shops for handwork are large and well arranged1 and include a vise-shop1 forge shop1 machine1 tool1 and lathe shops1 foundry1 rooms for pattern making1 weaving1 and other industrial institutions4 ,the vise-shop contains four heavy benches1 with #cb vises attached1 giving a capacity for teaching #abh students the course every ten weeks1 or #fdj in a year of fifty weeks4 ,the forge-shop has eight forges4 ,the foundry has #af moulding benches1 an oven for core baking1 and a blast furnace of one-half ton capacity4 ,the pattern-weaving room is provided with five looms1 one of them in #bj-;harness1 and #d-shuttle looms1 and another an improved ,jacquard pattern loom4 ,it may safely be said that there is nor an establishment in the world better equipped for industrial and technical education than this ,institute of ,massachusetts4--,london ,building ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ivory ,,getting ,,scarce4--,the stock of ivory in ,london is estimated at about forty tons in dealers' private warehouses1 whereas formerly they usually held about one hundred tons4 ,one fourth of all imported into ,england goes to the ,sheffield cutlers4 ,no really satisfactory substitute for ivory has been found1 and millions await the discoverer of one4 ,the existing substitutes will not take the needed polish4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,anaesthetics ,,of ,,jugglers4 ,fakirs are religious mendicants who1 for the purpose of exciting the charity of the public1 assume positions in which it would seem impossible that they could remain1 submit themselves to fearful tortures1 or else1 by their mode of living1 their abstinence1 and their indifference to inclement weather and to external things1 try to make believe that1 owing to their sanctity1 they are of a species superior to that of common mortals4 ,in the ,indies1 these fakirs visit all the great markets1 all religious fetes1 and usually all kinds of assemblages1 in order to exhibit1 themselves4 ,if one of them exhibits some new peculiarity1 some curious deformity1 a strange posture1 or1 finally1 any physiological curiosity whatever that surpasses those of his confreres1 he becomes the attraction of the fete1 and the crowd surrounds him1 and small coin and rupees begin to fall into his bowl4 ,fakirs1 like all persons who voluntarily torture themselves1 are curious examples of the modifications that will1 patience1 and1 so to speak1 art can introduce into human nature1 and into the sensitiveness and functions of the organs4 ,if these latter are capable of being improved1 of having their functions developed and of acquiring more strength 7as1 for example1 the muscles of boxers1 the breast of foot racers1 the voice of singers1 etc471 these same organs1 on the contrary1 can be atrophied or modified1 and their functions be changed in nature4 ,it is in such degradation and such degeneration of human nature that fakirs excel1 and it is from such a point of view that they are worth studying4 ,we may1 so to speak1 class these individuals according to the grades of punishments that they inflict upon themselves1 or according to the deformities that they have caused themselves to undergo4 ,but1 as we have already said1 the number of both of these is extremely varied1 each fakir striving in this respect to eclipse his fellows4 ,it is only necessary to open a book of ,indian travel to find descriptions of fakirs in abundance2 and such descriptions might seem exaggerated or unlikely were they not so concordant4 ,the following are a few examples3 ,immovable fakirs4--,the number of these is large4 ,they remain immovable in the spot they have selected1 and that too for an exceedingly long period of time4 ,an example of one of these is cited who remained standing for twelve years1 his arms crossed upon his breast1 without moving and without lying or sitting down4 ,in such cases charitable persons always take it upon themselves to prevent the fakir from dying of starvation4 ,some remain sitting1 immovable1 and apparently lifeless1 while others1 who lie stretched out upon the ground1 look like corpses4 ,it may be easily imagined what a state one of these beings is in after a few months or years of immobility4 ,he is extremely lean1 his limbs are atrophied1 his body is black with filth and dust1 his hair is long and dishevelled1 his beard is shaggy1 his finger and toe nails have become genuine claws1 and his aspect is frightful4 ,this1 however1 is a character common to all fakirs4 ,we may likewise class among the immovables those fakirs who cause themselves to be interred up to the neck1 and who remain thus with their head sticking out of the ground either during the entire time the fair or fete lasts or for months and years4 ,anchylotic ,fakirs4--,the number of fakirs who continue to hold one or both arms outstretched is very large in ,india4 ,the following description of one of them is given by a traveler3 ,he was a goussain--a religious mendicant--who had dishevelled hair and beard1 and horrible tattooings upon his face1 and1 what was most hideous1 was his left arm1 which1 withered and anchylosed1 stuck up perpendicularly from the shoulder4 ,his closed hand1 surrounded by straps1 had been traversed by the nails1 which1 continuing to grow1 had bent like claws on the other side4 ,finally1 the hollow of this hand1 which was filled with earth1 served as a pot for a small sacred myrtle4 ,other fakirs hold their two arms above their head1 the hands crossed1 and remain perpetually in such a position4 ,others again have one or both arms extended4 ,some hang by their feet from the limb of a tree by means of a cord1 and remain head downward for days at a time1 with their face uncongested and their voice clear1 counting their beads and mumbling prayers4 ,one of the most remarkable peculiarities of fakirs is the faculty that certain of them possess of remaining entirely buried in vaults and boxes1 and inclosed in bags1 etc41 for weeks and months1 and1 although there is a certain deceit as regards the length of their absolute abstinence1 it nevertheless seems to be a demonstrated fact that1 after undergoing a peculiar treatment1 they became plunged into a sort of lethargy that allows them to remain for several days or weeks without taking food4 ,certain fakirs that have been interred under such conditions have1 it appears1 passed ten months or a year in their grave4 ,tortured ,fakirs4--,fakirs that submit themselves to tortures are very numerous4 ,some of them perform exercises analogous to those of the ,aissaoua4 ,mr4 ,rousselet1 in his voyage to the ,indies1 had an opportunity of seeing some of these at ,bhopal1 and the following is the picturesque description that he gives of them3 ,i remarked some groups of religious mendicants of a frightfully sinister character4 ,they were ,jogins1 who1 stark naked and with dishevelled hair1 were walking about1 shouting1 and dancing a sort of weird dance4 ,in the midst of their contortions they brandished long1 sharp poniards1 of a special form1 provided with steel chains4 ,from time to time1 one of these hallucinated creatures would drive the poniard into his body 7principally into the sides of his chest71 into his arms1 and into his legs1 and would only desist when1 in order to calm his apparent fury1 the idlers who were surrounding him threw a sufficient number of pennies to him4 ,at the time of the feast of the ,juggernaut one sees1 or rather one did see before the ,english somewhat humanized this ceremony1 certain fakirs suspended by their flesh from iron hooks placed along the sides of the god's car4 ,others had their priests insert under their shoulder blades two hooks1 that were afterward fixed to a long pole capable of pivoting upon a post4 ,the fakirs were thus raised about thirty feet above ground1 and while being made to spin around very rapidly1 smilingly threw flowers to the faithful4 ,others1 again1 rolled over mattresses garnished with nails1 lance-points1 poniards1 and sabers1 and naturally got up bathed in blood4 ,a large number cause #abj gashes 7the sacred number7 to be made in their back and breast in honor of their god4 ,some pierce their tongue with a long and narrow poniard1 and remain thus exposed to the admiration of the faithful4 ,finally1 many of them are content to pass points of iron or rods made of reed through folds in their skin4 ,it will be seen from this that fakirs are ingenious in their modes of exciting the compassion and charity of the faithful4 ,elsewhere1 among a large number of savage tribes and half-civilized peoples1 we find aspirants to the priesthood of the fetiches undergoing1 under the direction of the members of the religious caste that they desired to enter1 ordeals that are extremely painful4 ,now1 it has been remarked for a long time that1 among the neophytes1 although all are prepared by the same hands1 some undergo these ordeals without manifesting any suffering1 while others cannot stand the pain1 and so run away with fright4 ,it has been concluded from this that the object of such ordeals is to permit the caste to make a selection from among their recruits1 and that1 too1 by means of anesthetics administered to the chosen neophytes4 ,in ,france1 during the last two centuries1 when torturing the accused was in vogue1 some individuals were found to be insensible to the most fearful tortures1 and some even1 who were plunged into a species of somnolence or stupefaction1 slept in the hands of the executioner4 ,what are the processes that permit of such results being reached8 ,evidently1 we cannot know them all4 ,a certain number are caste1 sect1 or family secrets4 ,many are known1 however1 at least in a general way4 ,the processes naturally vary1 according to the object to be attained4 ,some seem to consist only in an effort of the will4 ,thus1 those fakirs who remain immovable have no need of any special preparation to reach such a result1 and the same is the case with those who are interred up to the neck1 the will alone sufficing4 ,fakirs probably pass through the same phases that invalids do who are forced to keep perfectly quiet through a fracture or dislocation4 ,during the first days the organism revolts against such inaction1 the constraint is great1 the muscles contract by starts1 and then the patient gets used to it2 the constraint becomes less and less1 the revolt of the muscles becomes less frequent1 and the patient becomes reconciled to his immobility4 ,it is probable that after passing several months or years in a state of immobility fakirs no longer experience any desire to change their position1 and even did they so desire1 it would be impossible owing to the atrophy of their muscles and the anchylosis of their joints4 ,those fakirs who remain with one or several limbs immovable and in an abnormal position have to undergo a sort of preparation1 a special treatment2 they have to enter and remain two or three mouths in a sort of cage or frame of bamboo1 the object of which is to keep the limb that is to be immobilized in the position that it is to preserve4 ,this treatment1 which is identical with the one employed by surgeons for curing affections of the joints1 has the effect of soldering or anchylosing the articulation4 ,when such a result is reached1 the fakir remains1 in spite of himself and without fatigue1 with outstretched arms1 and1 in order to cause them to drop1 he would have to undergo a surgical operation4 ,as for those voluntary tortures that cause an effusion of blood1 the insensibility of those who are the victims of it is explainable when we reflect that ,india is the country par excellence of ansthetic plants4 ,it produces1 notably1 ,indian hemp and poppy1 the first of which yields hashish and the other opium4 ,now it is owing to these two narcotics1 taken in a proper dose1 either alone or combined according to a formula known to ,hindoo fakirs and jugglers1 but ignored by the lower class1 that the former are able to become absolutely insensible themselves or make their adepts so4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,fakirs ,,in ,,various ,,positions4 ,there is1 especially1 a liquor known in the ,indian pharmacopoeia under the name of bang1 that produces an exciting intoxication accompanied with complete insensibility4 ,now the active part of bang consists of a mixture of opium and hashish4 ,it was an analogous liquor that the ,brahmins made ,indian widows take before leading them to the funeral pile4 ,this liquor removed from the victims not only all consciousness of the act that they were accomplishing1 but also rendered them insensible to the flames4 ,moreover1 the dose of the ansthetic was such that if1 by accident1 the widow had escaped from the pile 7something that more than once happened1 thanks to ,english protection71 she would have died through poisoning4 ,some travelers in ,africa speak of an herb called rasch1 which is the base of ansthetic preparations employed by certain ,arabian jugglers and sorcerers4 ,it was hashish that the ,old ,man of the ,mountain1 the chief of the sect of ,assassins1 had recourse to for intoxicating his adepts1 and it was1 it is thought1 by the use of a virulent solanaceous plant--henbane1 thornapple1 or belladonna--that he succeeded in rendering them insensible4 ,we have unfortunately lost the recipe for certain ansthetics that were known in ancient times1 some of which1 such as the ,memphis stone1 appear to have been used in surgical operations4 ,we are also ignorant of what the wine of myrrh was that is spoken of in the ,bible4 ,we are likewise ignorant of the composition of the ansthetic soap1 the use of which became so general in the #aeth and #afth centuries that1 according to ,taboureau1 it was difficult to torture persons who were accused4 ,the stupefying recipe was known to all jailers1 who1 for a consideration1 communicated it to prisoners4 ,it was this use of ansthetics that gave rise to the rule of jurisprudence according to which partial or general insensibility was regarded as a certain sign of sorcery4 ,we may cite a certain number of preparations1 which vary according to the country1 and to which is attributed the properly of giving courage and rendering persons insensible to wounds inflicted by the enemy4 ,in most cases alcohol forms the base of such beverages1 although the maslach that ,turkish soldiers drink just before a battle contains none of it1 on account of a religious precept4 ,it consists of different plant-juices1 and contains1 especially1 a little opium4 ,cossacks and ,tartars1 just before battle1 take a fermented beverage in which has been infused a species of toadstool 7,agaricus muscarius71 and which renders them courageous to a high degree4 ,as well known1 the old soldiers of the ,first ,empire taught the young conscripts that in order to have courage and not feel the blows of the enemy1 it was only necessary to drink a glass of brandy into which gunpowder had been poured4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,school ,,of ,,mines ,,quarterly4 ,,the ,,deposition ,,of ,,ores4 ,by ,j4,s4 ,,newberry4 ,,mineral ,,veins4 ,in the ,quarterly for ,march1 #ahhj1 a paper was published on ,the ,origin and ,classification of ,ore ,deposits1 which treated1 among other things1 of mineral veins4 ,these were grouped in three categories1 namely3 #a4 ,gash ,veins2 #b4 ,segregated ,veins2 #c4 ,fissure ,veins2 and were defined as follows3 ,gash ,veins4--,ore deposits confined to a single bed or formation of limestone1 of which the joints1 and sometimes planes of bedding1 enlarged by the solvent power of atmospheric water carrying carbonic acid1 and forming crevices1 galleries1 or caves1 are lined or filled with ore leached from the surrounding rock1 e4g41 the lead deposits of the ,upper ,mississippi and ,missouri4 ,segregated ,veins4--,sheets of quartzose matter1 chiefly lenticular and conforming to the bedding of the inclosing rocks1 but sometimes filling irregular fractures across such bedding1 found only in metamorphic rocks1 limited in extent laterally and vertically1 and consisting of material indigenous to the strata in which they occur1 separated in the process of metamorphism1 e4g41 quartz ledges carrying gold1 copper1 iron pyrites1 etc41 in the ,alleghany ,mountains1 ,new ,england1 ,canada1 etc4 ,fissure ,veins4--,sheets of metalliferous matter filling fissures caused by subterranean force1 usually in the planes of faults1 and formed by the deposit of various minerals brought from a lower level by water1 which under pressure and at a high temperature1 having great solvent power1 had become loaded with matters leached from different rocks1 and deposited them in the channels of escape as the pressure and temperature were reduced4 ,since that article was written1 a considerable portion of several years has been spent by the writer continuing the observations upon which it was based4 ,during this time most of the mining centers of the ,western ,states and ,territories1 as well as some in ,mexico and ,canada1 were visited and studied with more or less care4 ,perhaps no other portion of the earth's surface is so rich in mineral resources as that which has been covered by these observations1 and nowhere else is to be found as great a variety of ore deposits1 or those which illustrate as well their mode of formation4 ,this is so true that it maybe said without exaggeration that no one can intelligently discuss the questions that have been raised in regard to the origin and mode of formation of ore bodies without transversing and studying the great mining belt of our ,western ,states and ,territories4 ,the observations made by the writer during the past four years confirm in all essentials the views set forth in the former article in the ,quarterly1 and while a volume might be written describing the phenomena exhibited by different mines and mining districts1 the array of facts thus presented would be1 for the most part1 simply a re-enforcement of those already given4 ,the present article1 which must necessarily be short1 would hardly have a raison d'etre except that it affords an opportunity for an addition which should be made to the classes of mineral veins heretofore recognized in this country1 and it seems called for by the recent publication of theories on the origin of ore deposits which are incompatible with those hitherto presented and now held by the writer1 and which1 if allowed to pass unquestioned1 might seem to be unquestionable4 ,,bedded ,,veins4 ,certain ore deposits which have recently come under my observation appear to correspond very closely with those that ,von ,cotta has taken as types of his class of bedded veins1 and as no similar ones have been noticed by ,american writers on ore deposits they have seemed to me worthy of description4 ,these are zones or layers of a sedimentary rock1 to the bedding of which they are conformable1 impregnated with ore derived from a foreign source1 and formed long subsequent to the deposition of the containing formation4 ,such deposits are exemplified by the ,walker and ,webster1 the ,pion1 the ,climax1 etc41 in ,parley's ,park1 and the ,green-,eyed ,monster1 and the ,deer ,trail1 at ,marysvale1 ,utah4 ,these are all zones in quartzite which have been traversed by mineral solutions that have by substitution converted such layers into ore deposits of considerable magnitude and value4 ,the ore contained in these bedded veins exhibits some variety of composition1 but where unaffected by atmospheric action consists of argentiferous galena1 iron pyrites carrying gold1 or the sulphides of zinc and copper containing silver or gold or both4 ,the ore of the ,walker and ,webster and the ,pion is chiefly lead-carbonate and galena1 often stained with copper-carbonate4 ,that of the ,green ,eyed ,monster--now thoroughly oxidized as far as penetrated--forms a sheet from twenty to forty feet in thickness1 consisting of ferruginous1 sandy1 or talcose soft material carrying from twenty to thirty dollars to the ton in gold and silver4 ,the ore of the ,deer ,trail forms a thinner sheet containing considerable copper1 and sometimes two hundred to three hundred dollars to the ton in silver4 ,the rocks which hold these ore deposits are of ,silurian age1 but they received their metalliferous impregnation much later1 probably in the ,tertiary1 and subsequent to the period of disturbance in which they were elevated and metamorphosed4 ,this is proved by the fact that in places where the rock has been shattered1 strings of ore are found running off from the main body1 crossing the bedding and filling the interstices between the fragments1 forming a coarse stock-work4 ,bedded veins may be distinguished from fissure veins by the absence of all traces of a fissure1 the want of a banded structure1 slickensides1 selvages1 etc42 from gash veins and the floors of ore which often accompany them1 as well as from segregated veins1 they are distinguished by the nature of the inclosing rock and the foreign origin of the ore4 ,sometimes the plane of junction between two contiguous sheets of rock has been the channel through which has flowed a metalliferous solution1 and the zone where the ore has replaced by substitution portions of one or both strata4 ,these are often called blanket veins in the ,west1 but they belong rather to the category of contact deposits as ,i have heretofore defined them4 ,where such sheets of ore occupy by preference the planes of contact between adjacent strata1 but sometimes desert such planes1 and show slickensided walls1 and banded structure1 like the great veins of ,bingham1 ,utah1 these should be classed as true fissure veins4 ,,theories ,,of ,,ore ,,deposit4 ,the recently published theories of the formation of mineral veins1 to which ,i have alluded1 are those of ,prof4 ,von ,groddek#a and ,dr4 ,sandberger1#b who attribute the filling of veins to exudations of mineral solutions from the wall rocks 7i4e41 lateral secretions71 and those of ,mr4 ,s4,f4 ,emmons1#c and ,mr4 ,g4,f4 ,becker1#d who have been studying1 respectively1 the ore deposits of ,leadville and of the ,comstock1 by whom the ores are credited to the leaching of adjacent igneous rocks4 ,footnote #a3 ,die ,lehre von den ,lagerstatten der ,erze1 von ,dr4 ,albrecht von ,groddek1 ,leipzig4 #ahgi4 ,footnote #b3 ,untersuchungen uber ,erzgange1 von ,fridolin ,sandberger1 ,weisbaden1 #ahhb4 ,footnote #c3 ,geology and ,mining ,industry of ,leadville1 ,annual ,report1 ,director ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 #ahha4 ,footnote #d3 ,geology of the ,comstock ,lode and ,washoe ,district1 ,g4,f4 ,becker1 ,washington1 #ahhc4 ,it is but justice to ,messrs4 ,becker and ,emmons to say that theirs are admirable studies1 thorough and exhaustive1 of great interest and value to both mining engineers and geologists1 and most creditable to the authors and the country4 ,no better work of the kind has been done anywhere1 and it will detract little from its merit even if the views of the authors on the theoretical question of the sources of the ores shall not be generally adopted4 ,the lack of space must forbid the full discussion of these theories at the present time1 but ,i will briefly enumerate some of the facts which render it difficult for me to accept them4 ,first1 the great diversity of character exhibited by different sets of fissure veins which cut the same country rock seems incompatible with any theory of lateral secretion4 ,these distinct systems are of different ages1 of diversified composition1 and have evidently drawn their supply of material from different sources4 ,hundreds of cases of this kind could be cited1 but ,i will mention only a few2 among others the ,humboldt1 the ,bassick1 and the ,bull ,domingo1 near ,rosita and ,silver ,cliff1 ,colorado4 ,these are veins contained in the same sheet of eruptive rock1 but the ores are as different as possible4 ,the ,humboldt is a narrow fissure carrying a thin ore streak of high grade1 consisting of sulphides of silver1 antimony1 arsenic1 and copper2 the ,bassick is a great conglomerate vein containing tellurides of silver and gold1 argentiferous galena1 blende1 and yellow copper2 the ,bull ,domingo is also a great fissure filled with rubbish containing ore chimneys of galena with tufts of wire silver4 ,i may also cite the ,jordan1 with its intersecting and yet distinct and totally different veins2 the ,galena1 the ,neptune1 and the ,american ,flag1 in ,bingham ,canon1 ,utah2 and the closely associated yet diverse system of veins the ,ferris1 the ,washington1 the ,chattanooga1 the ,fillmore1 etc41 in ,bullion ,canon at ,marysvale4 ,in these and many other groups which have been examined by the writer1 the same rocks are cut by veins of different ages1 having different bearings1 and containing different ores and veinstones4 ,it seems impossible that all these diversified materials should have been derived from the same source1 and the only rational explanation of the phenomena is that which ,i have heretofore advocated1 the ascent of metalliferous solutions from different and deep seated sources4 ,another apparently unanswerable argument against the theory of lateral secretion is furnished by the cases where the same vein traverses a series of distinct formations1 and holds its character essentially unaffected by changes in the country rock4 ,one of many such may be cited in the ,star vein at ,cherry ,creek1 ,nevada1 which1 nearly at right angles to their strike1 cuts belts of quartzite1 limestone1 and slate1 maintaining its peculiar character of ore and gangue throughout4 ,this and all similar veins have certainly been filled with material brought from a distance1 and not derived from the walls4 ,,leaching ,,of ,,igneous ,,rocks4 ,the arguments against the theory that mineral veins have been produced by the leaching of superficial igneous rocks are in part the same as those already cited against the general theory of lateral secretion4 ,they may be briefly summarized as follows3 #a4 ,thousands of mineral veins in this and other countries occur in regions remote from eruptive rocks4 ,into this category come most of those of the eastern half of the ,continent1 viz41 ,canada1 ,new ,england1 the ,alleghany belt1 and the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,among those ,i will refer only to a few selected to represent the greatest range of character1 viz41 the ,victoria lead mine1 near ,sault ,ste4 ,marie1 the ,bruce copper mine on ,lake ,huron1 the gold-bearing quartz veins of ,madoc1 the ,gatling gold vein of ,marmora1 the ,acton and the ,harvey ,hill copper mines of ,canada1 the copper veins of ,ely1 ,vermont1 and of ,blue ,hills1 ,maine1 the silver-bearing lead veins of ,newburyport1 ,mass42 most of the segregated gold veins of the ,alleghany belt1 the lead veins of ,rossie1 ,ellenville1 and at other localities farther ,south2 the copper bearing veins of ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,tennessee2 the veins carrying argentiferous galena in ,central ,kentucky and in ,southern ,illinois2 the silver1 copper1 and antimony veins of ,arkansas2 and the lead and zinc deposits of ,missouri and the ,upper ,mississippi4 ,in these widely separated localities are to be found fissure1 segregated1 and gash veins1 and a great diversity of ores1 which have been derived1 sometimes from the adjacent rocks--as in the segregated veins of the ,alleghany belt and the gash veins of the ,mississippi region--and in other cases--where they are contained in true fissure veins--from a foreign source1 but all deposited without the aid of superficial igneous rocks1 either as contributors of matter or force4 #b4 ,in the great mineral belt of the ,far ,west1 where volcanic emanations are so abundant1 and where they have certainly played an important part in the formation of ore deposits1 the great majority of veins are not in immediate contact with trap rocks1 and they could not1 therefore1 have furnished the ores4 ,a volume might be formed by a list of the cases of this kind1 but ,i can here allude to a few only1 most of which ,i have myself examined1 viz43 7a47 ,the great ore chambers of the ,san ,carlos ,mountains in ,chihuahua1 the largest deposits of ore of which ,i have any knowledge4 ,these are contained in heavy beds of limestone1 which are cut in various places by trap dikes1 which1 as elsewhere1 have undoubtedly furnished the stimulus to chemical action that has resulted in the formation of the ore bodies1 but are too remote to have supplied the material4 7b47 ,the silver mines of ,santa ,eulalia1 in ,chihuahua1 from which during the last century one hundred and twelve millions of dollars were taken1 opened on ore deposits situated in ,cretaceous limestones like those of ,san ,carlos1 and apparently similar ore-filled chambers2 an igneous rock caps the hills in the vicinity1 but is nowhere in contact or even proximity to the ore bodies4 7,see ,kimball1 ,amer4 ,jour4 ,sci14 ,march1 #ahgj47 7c47 ,the great chambers of ,tombstone1 and the copper veins of the ,globe ,district1 the ,copper ,queen1 etc41 in ,arizona4 7d47 ,the large bodies of silver-ore at ,lake ,valley1 ,new ,mexico2 chambers in limestone1 like c4 7e47 ,the ,black ,hawk group of gold mines1 the ,montezuma1 ,georgetown1 and other silver mines in the granite belt of ,colorado4 7f47 ,the great group of veins and chambers in the ,bradshaw1 ,lincoln1 ,star1 and ,granite districts of ,southern ,utah1 where we find a host of veins of different character in limestone or granite1 with no trap to which the ores can be credited4 7g47 ,the ,crismon ,mammoth vein of ,tintic4 7h47 ,the group of mines opened on the ,american ,fork1 on ,big and ,little ,cottonwood1 and in ,parley's ,park1 including the ,silver ,bell1 the ,emma1 the ,vallejo1 the ,prince of ,wales1 the ,kessler1 the ,bonanza1 the ,climax1 the ,pion1 and the ,ontario4 7,the latter1 the greatest silver mine now known in the country1 lies in quartzite1 and the trap is near1 but not in contact with the vein47 7i47 ,in ,nevada1 the ore deposits of ,pioche1 ,tempiute1 ,tybo1 ,eureka1 ,white ,pine1 and ,cherry ,creek1 on the east side of the ,state1 with those of ,austin1 ,belmont1 and a series too great for enumeration in the central and western portions4 7j47 ,in ,california1 the ,bodie1 ,mariposa1 ,grass ,valley1 and other mines4#a 7k47 ,in ,idaho1 those of the ,poor ,man in the ,owyhee district1 the principal veins of the ,wood ,river region1 the ,ramshorn at ,challis1 the ,custer and ,charles ,dickens1 at ,bonanza ,city1 etc4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,redmond's ,report 7,california ,geol4 ,survey ,mining ,statistics1 ,no #a71 where seventy-seven mines are enumerated1 of which three are said to be in porphyritic schist1 all the others in granite1 mica schist1 clay1 slate1 etc4 ,in nearly all these localities we may find evidence not only that the ore deposits have not been derived from the leaching of igneous rocks1 but also that they have not come from those of any kind which form the walls of the veins4 ,the gold-bearing quartz veins of ,deadwood are so closely associated with dikes of porphyry1 that they may have been considered as illustrations of the potency of trap dikes in producing concentration of metals4 ,but we have conclusive evidence that the gold was there in ,archan times1 while the igneous rocks are all of modern1 probably of ,tertiary1 date4 ,this proof is furnished by the ,cement mines of the ,potsdam sandstone4 ,this is the beach of the ,lower ,silurian sea when it washed the shores of an ,archan island1 now the ,black ,hills4 ,the waves that produced this beach beat against cliffs of granite and slate containing quartz veins carrying gold4 ,fragments of this auriferous quartz1 and the gold beaten out of them and concentrated by the waves1 were in places buried in the sand beach in such quantity as to form deposits from which a large amount of gold is now being taken4 ,without this demonstration of the origin and antiquity of the gold1 it might very well have been supposed to be derived from the eruptive rock4 ,strong arguments against the theory that the leaching of superficial igneous rocks has supplied the materials filling mineral veins1 are furnished by the facts observed in the districts where igneous rocks are most prevalent1 viz43 7#a47 ,such districts are proverbially barren of useful minerals4 7#b47 ,where these occur1 the same sheet of rock may contain several systems of veins with different ores and gangues4 ,the great lava plain of ,snake ,river1 the ,pedrigal country of eastern ,oregon1 ,northern ,california and ,mexico are without valuable ore deposits4 ,the same may be said of the ,pancake ,range and other mountain chains of igneous rock in ,nevada1 while the adjacent ranges composed of sedimentary rocks are rich in ore deposits of various kinds4 ,a still stronger case is furnished by the ,cascade ,mountains1 which1 north of the ,california line1 are composed almost exclusively of erupted material1 and yet in all this belt1 so far as now known1 not a single valuable mine has been opened4 ,in contrast with this is the condition of things in ,california1 where the ,sierra ,nevada is composed of metamorphic rocks which have been shown to be the repositories of vast quantities of gold1 silver1 and copper4 ,cases belonging to this category may be found at ,rosita and ,silver ,cliff1 where the diversity in the ores of the mines already enumerated can hardly be reconciled with the theory of a common origin4 ,at ,lake ,city the prevailing porphyry holds the veins of the ,ute and ,ulay and the ,ocean ,wave mines1 which are similar1 and the ,hotchkiss1 the ,belle1 etc41 entirely different4 ,we have no evidence that any volcanic eruption has drawn its material from zones or magmas especially rich in metals or their ores1 and on the contrary1 volcanic districts1 like those mentioned1 and regions1 such as the ,sandwich ,islands1 where the greatest1 eruptions have taken place1 are poorest in metalliferous deposits4 ,all the knowledge we have of the subject justifies the inference that most of the igneous rocks which have been poured out in our ,western ,territories are but fused conditions of sediments which form the substructure of that country4 ,over the great mineral belt which lies between the ,sierra ,nevada and the front range of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and extends not only across the whole breadth of our territory1 but far into ,mexico1 the surface was once underlain by a series of ,palaeozoic sedimentary strata not less than twenty to thirty thousand feet in thickness2 and beneath these1 at the sides1 and doubtless below1 were ,archun rocks1 also metamorphosed sediments4 ,through these the ores of the metals were generally though sparsely distributed4 ,in the convulsions which have in recent times broken up this so long quiet and stable portion of the earth's crust 7and which have resulted in depositing in thousands of cracks and cavities the ores we now mine71 portions of the old table-land were in places set up at high angles forming mountain chains1 and doubtless extending to the zone of fusion below4 ,between these blocks of sedimentary rocks oozed up through the lines of fracture quantities of fused material1 which also sometimes formed mountain chains2 and it is possible and even probable that the rocks composing the volcanic ridges are but phases of the same materials that form the sedimentary chains ,there is1 therefore1 no a priori reason why the leaching of one group should furnish more ore than the other2 but1 as a matter of fact1 the unfused sediments are much the richer in ore deposits4 ,this can only be accounted for1 in my judgment1 by supposing that they have been the receptacles of ore brought from a foreign source2 and we can at least conjecture where and how gathered4 ,we can imagine1 and we are forced to conclude1 that there has been a zone of solution below1 where steam and hot water1 under great pressure1 have effected the leaching of ore-bearing strata1 and a zone of deposition above1 where cavities in pre-existent solidified and shattered rocks became the repositories of the deposits made from ascending solutions1 when the temperature and pressure were diminished4 ,where great masses of fused material were poured out1 these must have been for along time too highly heated to become places of deposition2 so long indeed that the period of active vein formation may have passed before they reached a degree of solidification and coolness that would permit their becoming receptacles of the products of deposition4 ,on the contrary1 the masses of unfused and always relatively cool sedimentary rocks which form the most highly metalliferous mountain ranges 7,white ,pine1 ,toyabe1 etc47 were1 throughout the whole period of disturbance1 in a condition to become such repositories4 ,certainly highly heated solutions forced by an irresistible vis a tergo through rocks of any kind down in the heated zone1 would be far more effective leaching agents than cold surface water with feeble solvent power1 moved only by gravity1 percolating slowly through superficial strata4 ,richthofen1 who first made a study of the ,comstock lode1 suggests that the mineral impregnation of the vein was the result of a process like that described1 viz41 the leaching of deep-seated rocks1 perhaps the same that inclose the vein above1 by highly heated solutions which deposited their load near the surface4 ,on the other hand1 ,becker supposes the concentration to have been effected by surface waters flowing laterally through the igneous rocks1 gathering the precious metals and depositing them in the fissure1 as lateral secretion produces the accumulation of ore in the limestone of the lead region4 ,but there are apparently good reasons for preferring the theory of ,richthofen3 viz41 first1 the veinstone of the ,comstock is chiefly quartz1 the natural and common precipitate of hot waters1 since they are far more powerful solvents of silica than cold4 ,on the contrary1 the ores deposited from lateral secretion1 as in the ,mississippi lead region1 at low temperature contain comparatively little silica2 second1 the great mineral belt to which reference has been made above is now the region where nearly all the hot springs of the continent are situated4 ,it is1 in fact1 a region conspicuous for the number of its hot springs1 and it is evident that these are the last of the series of thermal phenomena connected with the great volcanic upheavals and eruptions1 of which this region has been the theater since the beginning of the ,tertiary age4 ,the geysers of ,yellowstone ,park1 the hot springs of the ,wamchuck district in ,oregon1 the ,steamboat ,springs of ,nevada1 the geysers of ,california1 the hot springs of ,salt ,lake ,city1 ,monroe1 etc41 in ,utah1 and the ,pagosa in ,colorado1 are only the most conspicuous among thousands of hot springs which continue in action at the present time4 ,the evidence is also conclusive that the number of hot springs1 great as it now is in this region1 was once much greater4 ,that these hot springs were capable of producing mineral veins by material brought up in and deposited from their waters1 is demonstrated by the phenomena observable at the ,steamboat ,springs1 and which were cited in my former article as affording the best illustration of vein formation4 ,the temperature of the lower workings of the ,comstock vein is now over #aej;,f41 and an enormous quantity of hot water is discharged through the ,sutro ,tunnel4 ,this water has been heated by coming in contact with hot rocks at a lower level than the present workings of the ,comstock lode1 and has been driven upward in the same way that the flow of all hot springs is produced4 ,as that flow is continuous1 it is evident that the workings of the ,comstock have simply opened the conduits of hot springs1 which are doing to-day what they have been doing in ages past1 but much less actively1 i4e41 bringing toward the surface the materials they have taken into solution in a more highly heated zone below4 ,hence it seems much more natural to suppose that the great sheets of ore-bearing quartz now contained in the ,comstock fissure were deposited by ascending currents of hot alkaline waters1 than by descending currents of those which were cold and neutral ,the hot springs are there1 though less copious and less hot than formerly1 and the natural deposits from hot waters are there4 ,is it not more rational to suppose with ,richthofen that these are related as cause and effect1 rather than that cold water has leached the ore and the silica from the walls near the surface8 ,mr4 ,becker's preference for the latter hypothesis seems to be due to the discovery of gold and silver in the igneous rocks adjacent to the vein1 and yet1 except in immediate contact with it1 these rocks contain no more of the precious metals than the mere trace which by refined tests may be discovered everywhere4 ,if1 as we have supposed1 the fissure was for a long time filled with a hot solution charged with an unusual quantity of the precious metals1 nothing would be more natural than that the wall rocks should be to some extent impregnated with them4 ,it will perhaps illuminate the question to inquire which of the springs and water currents of this region are now making deposits that can be compared with those which filled the ,comstock and other veins4 ,no one who has visited that country will hesitate to say the hot and not the cold waters4 ,the immense silicious deposits1 carrying the ores of several metals1 formed by the geysers of the ,yellowstone1 the ,steamboat ,springs1 etc41 show what the hot waters are capable of doing2 but we shall search in vain for any evidence that the cold surface waters have done or can do this kind of work4 ,at ,leadville the case is not so plain1 and yet no facts can be cited which really prove that the ore deposits have been formed by the leaching of the overlying porphyry rather than by an outflow of heated mineral solutions along the plane of junction between the porphyry and the limestone4 ,near this plane the porphyry is often thoroughly decomposed1 is somewhat impregnated with ore1 and even contains sheets of ore within itself2 but remote from the plane of contact with the limestone1 it contains little diffused and no concentrated ore4 ,it is scarcely more previous than the underlying limestones1 and why a solution that could penetrate and leach ores from it should be stopped at the upper surface of the blue limestone is not obvious2 nor why the plane of junction between the porphyry and the blue limestone should be the special place of deposit of the ore4 ,if the assays of the porphyry reported by ,mr4 ,emmons were accurately made1 and they shall be confirmed by the more numerous ones necessary to settle the question1 and the estimates he makes of the richness of that rock be corroborated1 an unexpected result will be reached1 and1 as ,i think1 a remarkable and exceptional case of the diffusion of silver and lead through an igneous rock be established4 ,it is of course possible that the ,leadville porphyries are only phases of rocks rich in silver1 lead1 and iron1 which underlie this region1 and which have been fused and forced to the surface by an ascending mass of deeper seated igneous rock2 but even if the argentiferous character of the porphyry shall be proved1 it will not be proved that such portions of it as here lie upon the limestone have furnished the ore by the descending percolation of cold surface waters4 ,deeper lying masses of this same silver1 lead1 and iron bearing rock1 digested in and leached by hot waters and steam under great pressure1 would seem to be a more likely source of the ore4 ,if the surface porphyry is as rich in silver as ,mr4 ,emmous reports it to be1 it is too rich1 for the rock that has furnished so large a quantity of ores as that which formed the ore bodies which ,i saw in the ,little ,chief and ,highland ,chief mines1 respectively #ij feet and #afb feet thick1 should be poor in silver and iron and lead1 and should be rotten from the leaching it had suffered1 but except near the ore-bearing contact it is compact and normal4 ,such a digested1 kaolinized1 desilicated rock as we would naturally look for we find in the porphyry near the contact2 and its condition there1 so different from what it is remote from the contact1 seems to indicate an exposure to local and decomposing influences1 such indeed as a hot chemical solution forced up from below along the plane of contact would furnish4 ,it is difficult to understand why the upper portions of the porphyry sheet should be so different in character1 so solid and homogeneous1 with no local concentrations or pockets of ore1 if they have been exposed to the same agencies as those which have so changed the under surface4 ,accepting all the facts reported by ,mr4 ,emmons1 and without questioning the accuracy of any of his observations1 or depreciating in any degree the great value of the admirable study he has made of this difficult and interesting field1 his conclusion in regard to the source of the ore cannot yet be insisted on as a logical necessity4 ,in the judgment of the writer1 the phenomena presented by the ,leadville ore deposits can be as well or better accounted for by supposing that the plane of contact between the limestone and porphyry has been the conduit through which heated mineral solutions coming from deep seated and remote sources have flowed1 removing something from both the overlying and underlying strata1 and by substitution depositing sulphides of lead1 iron1 silver1 etc41 with silica4 ,the ore deposits of ,tybo and ,eureka in ,nevada1 of the ,emma1 the ,cave1 and the ,horn ,silver #a mines in ,utah1 have much in common with those of ,leadville1 and it is not difficult to establish for all of the former cases a foreign and deep seated source of the ore4 ,the fact that the ,leadville ore bodies are sometimes themselves excavated into chambers1 which has been advanced as proof of the falsity of the theory here advocated1 has no bearing on the question1 as in the process of oxidation of ores which were certainly once sulphides1 there has been much change of place as well as character2 currents of water have flowed through them which have collected and redeposited the cerusite in sheets of hard carbonate or sand carbonate1 and have elsewhere produced accumulations of kerargyrite1 perhaps thousands of years after the deposition of the sulphide ores had ceased and the oxidation had begun4 ,in the leaching and rearrangement of the ore bodies1 nothing would be more natural than that accumulations in one place should be attended by the formation of cavities elsewhere4 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,horn ,silver ore body lies in a fault fissure between a footwall of limestone and a hanging wall of trachyte1 and those who consider the ,leadville ores as teachings of the overlying porphyry would probably also regard the ore of the ,horn ,silver mine as derived from the trachyte hanging wall2 but three facts oppose the acceptance of this view1 viz41 let1 the trachyte1 except in immediate contact with the ore body1 seems to be entirely barren2 #b;d1 the ,horn ,silver ore chimney1 perhaps fifty feet thick1 five hundred feet wide1 and of unknown depth1 is the only mass of ore yet found in a mile of well marked fissure2 and #c;d1 the ,carbonate mine opened near by in a strong fissure with a bearing at right angles to that of the ,horn ,silver1 and lying entirely within the trachyte1 yields ore of a totally different kind4 ,both are opened to the depth of seven hundred feet with no signs of change or exhaustion4 ,if the ore were derived from the trachyte1 it should be at least somewhat alike in the two mines1 should be more generally distributed in the ,horn ,silver fissure1 and might be expected to give out at1 no great depth4 ,if deposited by solutions coming from deep and different sources1 the observed differences in character would be natural2 it would accumulate as we find it in the channels of outflow1 and would be as time will probably prove it1 perhaps variable in quantity1 but indefinitely continuous in depth4 ,another question which suggests itself in reference to the ,leadville deposits is this3 ,if the ,leadville ore was once a mass of sulphides derived from the overlying porphyry by the percolation of surface waters1 why has the deposit ceased8 ,the deposition of galena1 blende1 and pyrite in the ,galena lead mines still continues4 ,if the leaching of the ,leadville porphyry has not resulted in the formation of alkaline sulphide solutions1 and the ore has come from the porphyry in the condition of carbonate of lead1 chloride of silver1 etc41 then the nature of the deposition was quite different from that of the similar ones of ,tybo1 ,eureka1 ,bingham1 etc41 which are plainly gossans1 and indeed is without precedent4 ,but if the process was similar to that in the ,galena lead region1 and the ores were originally sulphides1 their formation should have continued and been detected in the ,leadville mines4 ,for all these reasons the theory of ,mr4 ,emmons will be felt to need further confirmation before it is universally adopted4 ,from what has gone before it must not be inferred that lateral secretion is excluded by the writer from the list of agencies which have filled mineral veins1 for it is certain that the nature of the deposit made in the fissure has frequently been influenced by the nature of the adjacent wall rock4 ,numerous cases may be cited where the ores have increased or decreased in quantity and richness1 or have otherwise changed character in passing from one formation to another2 but even here the proof is generally wanting that the vein materials have been furnished by the wall rocks opposite the places where they are found4 ,the varying conductivity of the different strata in relation to heat and electricity may have been an important factor4 ,trap dikes frequently enrich veins where they approach or intersect them1 and they have often been the primum mobile of vein formation1 but chiefly1 if not only1 by supplying heat1 the mainspring of chemical action4 ,the proximity of heated masses of rock has promoted chemical action in the same way as do the ,bunsen burners or the sand baths in the laboratory2 but no case has yet come under my observation where it was demonstrable that the filling of a fissure vein had been due to secretion from igneous or sedimentary wall rocks4 ,in the ,star ,district of ,southern ,utah the country rock is ,palozoic limestone1 and it is cut by so great a number and variety of mineral veins that from the ,harrisburg1 a central location1 a rifle shot would reach ten openings1 all on as many distinct and different veins 7viz41 the ,argus1 ,little ,bilk1 ,clean ,sweep1 ,mountaineer1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,xenia1 ,brant1 ,kannarrah1 ,central1 and ,wateree74 ,the nearest trap rock is half a mile or more distant1 a columnar dike perhaps fifteen feet in thickness1 cutting the limestone vertically4 ,on either side of this dike is a vein from one to three feet in thickness1 of white quartz with specks of ore4 ,where did that quartz come from8 ,from the limestone8 ,but the limestone contains very little silica1 and is apparently of normal composition quite up to the vein4 ,from the trap8 ,this is compact1 sonorous basalt1 apparently unchanged2 and that could not have supplied the silica without complete decomposition4 ,i should rather say from silica bearing hot waters that flowed up along the sides of the trap1 depositing there1 as in the numerous and varied veins of the vicinity1 mineral matters brought from a zone of solution far below4 ,to summarize the conclusions reached in this discussion4 ,i may repeat that the results of all recent as well as earlier observations has been to convince me that ,richthofen's theory of the filling of the ,comstock lode is the true one1 and that the example and demonstration of the formation of mineral veins furnished by the ,steamboat ,springs is not only satisfactory1 but typical4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,habits ,,of ,,burrowing ,,crayfishes ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,on ,may #ac1 #ahhc1 ,i chanced to enter a meadow a few miles above ,washington1 on the ,virginia side of the ,potomac1 at the head of a small stream emptying into the river4 ,it was between two hills1 at an elevation of #ajj feet above the ,potomac1 and about a mile from the river4 ,here ,i saw many clayey mounds covering burrows scattered over the ground irregularly both upon the banks of the stream and in the adjacent meadow1 even as far as ten yards from the bed of the brook4 ,my curiosity was aroused1 and ,i explored several of the holes1 finding in each a good-sized crayfish1 which ,prof4 ,walter ,faxon identified as ,cambarus diogenes1 ,girard 7,c4 obesus1 ,hagen71 otherwise known as the burrowing crayfish4 ,i afterward visited the locality several times1 collecting specimens of the mounds and crayfishes1 which are now in the ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 and making observations4 ,at that time of the year the stream was receding1 and the meadow was beginning to dry4 ,at a period not over a month previous1 the meadows1 at least as far from the stream as the burrows were found1 had been covered with water4 ,those burrows near the stream were less than six inches deep1 and there was a gradual increase in depth as the distance from the stream became greater4 ,moreover1 the holes farthest from the stream were in nearly every case covered by a mound1 while those nearer had either a very small chimney or none at all1 and subsequent visits proved that at that time of year the mounds were just being constructed1 for each time ,i revisited the place the mounds were more numerous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,section of ,crayfish burrow ,the length1 width1 general direction of the burrows1 and number of the openings were extremely variable1 and the same is true of the mounds4 ,fig4 #a illustrates a typical burrow shown in section4 ,here the main burrow is very nearly perpendicular1 there being but one oblique opening having a very small mound1 and the main mound is somewhat wider than long4 ,occasionally the burrows are very tortuous1 and there are often two or three extra openings1 each sometimes covered by a mound4 ,there is every conceivable shape and size in the chimneys1 ranging from a mere ridge of mud1 evidently the first foundation1 to those with a breadth one-half the height4 ,the typical mound is one which covers the perpendicular burrow in ,fig4 #a1 its dimensions being six inches broad and four high4 ,two other forms are shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the burrows near the stream were seldom more than six inches deep1 being nearly perpendicular1 with an enlargement at the base1 and always with at least one oblique opening4 ,the mounds were usually of yellow clay1 although in one place the ground was of fine gravel1 and there the chimneys were of the same character4 ,they were always circularly pyramidal in shape1 the hole inside being very smooth1 but the outside was formed of irregular nodules of clay hardened in the sun and lying just as they fell when dropped from the top of the mound4 ,a small quantity of grass and leaves was mixed through the mound1 but this was apparently accidental4 ,the size of the burrows varied from half an inch to two inches in diameter1 being smooth for the entire distance1 and nearly uniform in width4 ,where the burrow was far distant from the stream1 the upper part was hard and dry4 ,in the deeper holes ,i invariably found several enlargements at various points in the burrow4 ,some burrows were three feet deep1 indeed they all go down to water1 and1 as the water in the ground lowers1 the burrow is undoubtedly projected deeper4 ,the diagonal openings never at that season of the year have perfect chimneys1 and seldom more than a mere rim4 ,in no case did ,i find any connection between two different burrows4 ,in digging after the inhabitants ,i was seldom able to secure a specimen from the deeper burrows1 for ,i found that the animal always retreated to the extreme end1 and when it could go no farther would use its claws in defense4 ,both males and females have burrows1 but they were never found together1 each burrow having but a single individual4 ,there is seldom more than a pint of water in each hole1 and this is muddy and hardly suitable to sustain life4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,crayfish ,mound ,the neighboring brooks and springs were inhabited by another species of crayfish1 ,cambaras bartonii1 but although especial search was made for the burrowing species1 in no case was a single specimen found outside of the burrows4 ,c4 bartonii was taken both in the swiftly running portions of the stream and in the shallow side pools1 as well as in the springs at the head of small rivers4 ,it would swim about in all directions1 and was often found under stones and in little holes and crevices1 none of which appeared to have been made for the purpose of retreat1 but were accidental4 ,the crayfishes would leave these little retreats whenever disturbed1 and swim away down stream out of sight4 ,they were often found some distance from the main stream under rocks that had been covered by the brook at a higher watermark2 but although there was very little water under the rocks1 and the stream had not covered them for at least two weeks1 they showed no tendency to burrow4 ,nor have ,i ever found any burrows formed by the river species ,cumbarus affinis4 although ,i have searched over miles of marsh land on the ,potomac for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,crayfish ,mound 7shorter7 ,the brook near where my observations were made was fast decreasing in volume1 and would probably continue to do so until in ,july its bed would be nearly dry4 ,during the wet seasons the meadow is itself covered4 ,even in the banks of the stream1 then under water1 there were holes1 but they all extended obliquely without exception1 there being no perpendicular burrows and no mounds4 ,the holes extended in about six inches1 and there was never a perpendicular branch1 nor even an enlargement at the end4 ,i always found the inhabitant near the mouth1 and by quickly cutting off the rear part of the hole could force him out1 but unless forcibly driven out it would never leave the hole1 not even when a stick was thrust in behind it4 ,it was undoubtedly this species that ,dr4 ,godman mentioned in his ,rambles of a ,naturalist1 and which ,dr4 ,abbott 7,am4 ,nal41 #ahgc1 p4 #ha7 refers to ,c4 bartonii4 ,although ,i have no proof that this is so1 ,i am inclined to believe that the burrowing crayfishes retire to the stream in winter and remain there until early spring1 when they construct their burrows for the purpose of rearing their young and escaping the summer droughts4 ,my reason for saying this is that ,i found one burrow which on my first visit was but six inches deep1 and later had been projected to a depth at least twice as great1 and the inhabitant was an old female4 ,i think that after the winter has passed1 and while the marsh is still covered with water1 impregnation takes place and burrows are immediately begun4 ,i do not believe that the same burrow is occupied for more than one year1 as it would probably fill up during the winter4 ,at first it burrows diagonally1 and as long as the mouth is covered with water is satisfied with this oblique hole4 ,when the water recedes1 leaving the opening uncovered1 the burrow must be dug deeper1 and the economy of a perpendicular burrow must immediately suggest itself4 ,from that time the perpendicular direction is preserved with more or less regularity4 ,immediately after the perpendicular hole is begun1 a shorter opening to the surface is needed for conveying the mud from the nest1 and then the perpendicular opening is made4 ,mud from this1 and also from the first part of the perpendicular burrow1 is carried out of the diagonal opening and deposited on the edge4 ,if a freshet occurs before this rim of mud has had a chance to harden1 it is washed away1 and no mound is formed over the oblique burrow4 ,after the vertical opening is made1 as the hole is bored deeper1 mud is deposited on the edge1 and the deeper it is dug the higher the mound4 ,i do not think that the chimney is a necessary part of the nest1 but simply the result of digging4 ,i carried away several mounds1 and in a week revisited the place1 and no attempt had been made to replace them2 but in one case1 where ,i had in addition partly destroyed the burrow by dropping mud into it1 there was a simple half rim of mud around the edge1 showing that the crayfish had been at work2 and as the mud was dry the clearing must have been done soon after my departure4 ,that the crayfish retreats as the water in the ground falls lower and lower is proved by the fact that at various intervals there are bottled-shaped cavities marking the end of the burrow at an earlier period4 ,a few of those mounds farthest from the stream had their mouths closed by a pellet of mud4 ,it is said that all are closed during the summer months4 ,how these animals can live for months in the muddy1 impure water is to me a puzzle4 ,they are very sluggish1 possessing none of the quick motions of their allied ,c4 bartonii1 for when taken out and placed either in water or on the ground1 they move very slowly4 ,the power of throwing off their claws when these are grasped is often exercised4 ,about the middle of ,may the eggs hatch1 and for a time the young cling to the mother1 but ,i am unable to state how long they remain thus4 ,after hatching they must grow rapidly1 and soon the burrow will be too small for them to live in1 and they must migrate4 ,it would be interesting to know more about the habits of this peculiar species1 about which so little has been written4 ,an interesting point to settle would be how and where it gets its food4 ,the burrow contains none1 either animal or vegetable4 ,food must be procured at night1 or when the sun is not shining brightly4 ,in the spring and fall the green stalks of meadow grasses would furnish food1 but when these become parched and dry they must either dig after and eat the roots1 or search in the stream4 ,i feel satisfied that they do not tunnel among the roots1 for if they did so these burrows would be frequently met with4 ,little has as yet been published upon this subject1 and that little covers only two spring months--,april and ,may--and it would be interesting if those who have an opportunity to watch the species during other seasons1 or who have observed them at any season of the year1 would make known their results4 ,,ralph ,s4 ,,tarr 99 99 99 99 99 ,,our ,,servants1 ,,the ,,microbes4 ,who of us has not1 in a partially darkened room1 seen the rays of the sun1 as they entered through apertures or chinks in the shutters1 exhibit their track by lighting up the infinitely small corpuscles contained in the air8 ,such corpuscles always exist1 except in the atmosphere of lofty mountains1 and they constitute the dust of the air4 ,a microscopic examination of them is a matter of curiosity4 ,each flock is a true museum 7,fig4 #a71 wherein we find grains of mineral substances associated with organic debris1 and germs of living organisms1 among which must be mentioned the microbes4 ,since the splendid researches of ,mr4 ,pasteur and his pupils on fermentation and contagious diseases1 the question of microbes has become the order of the day4 ,in order to show our readers the importance of the study of the microbes1 and the results that may be reached by following the scientific method created by ,mr4 ,pasteur1 it appears to us indispensable to give a summary of the history of these organisms4 ,in the first place1 what is a microbe8 ,although much employed1 the word has not been well defined1 and it would be easy to find several definitions of it4 ,in its most general sense1 the term microbe designates certain colorless alg belonging to the family ,bacteriace1 the principal forms of which are known under the name of ,micrococcus4 ,bacterium1 ,bacillus4 ,vibrio1 _/,spirillum1 etc4 ,in order to observe these different forms of ,bacteriace it is only necessary to examine microscopically a drop of water in which organic matter has been macerated1 when there will be seen ,micrococci 7,fig4 #b1 ,i47looking like spherical granules1 ,bacteria in the form of very short rods1 ,bacilli 7,fig4 #b1 ,v471 ,vibriones 7,fig4 #b1 ,,iv417 moving their straight or curved filaments1 and ,spirilli 7,fig4 #b1 ,,vi471 rolled up spirally4 ,these varied forms are not absolutely constant1 for it often happens in the course of its existence that a species assumes different shapes1 so that it is difficult to take the form of these alg as a basis for classifying them1 when all the phases of their development have not been studied4 ,the ,bacteriace are reproduced with amazing rapidity4 ,if the temperature is proper1 a limpid liquid such as chicken or veal broth will1 in a few hours1 become turbid and contain millions of these organisms4 ,multiplication is effected through fission1 that is to say1 each globule or filament1 after elongating1 divides into two segments1 each of which increases in its turn1 to again divide into two parts1 and so on 7,fig4 #b1 ,i4 b74 ,but multiplication in this way only takes place when the bacteria are placed in a proper nutritive liquid2 and it ceases when the liquid becomes impoverished and the conditions of life become difficult4 ,it is at this moment that the formation of spores occurs--reproductive bodies that are destined to permit the alg to traverse1 without perishing1 those phases where life is impossible4 ,the spores are small1 brilliant bodies that form in the center or at the extremity of each articulation or globule of the bacterium 7,fig4 #b1 ,,ii4 l71 and are set free through the breaking up of the joints4 ,there are1 therefore1 two phases to be distinguished in the life of microbes--that of active life1 during which they multiply with great rapidity1 are most active1 and cause sicknesses or fermentations1 and that of retarded life1 that is to say1 the state1 of resting spores in which the organisms are inactive and consequently harmless4 ,it is curious to find that the resistance to the two causes of destruction is very different in the two cases4 ,in the state of active life the bacterides are killed by a temperature of from #gj to #hj degrees1 while the spores require the application of a temperature of from #ajj to #abj degrees to kill them4 ,oxygen of a high pressure1 which is1 as well known from ,bert's researches1 a poison for living beings1 kills many bacteria in the state of active life1 but has no influence upon their spores4 ,in a state of active life the bacteriae are interesting to study4 ,the absence of green matter prevents them from feeding upon mineral matter1 and they are therefore obliged to subsist upon organic matter1 just as do plants that are destitute of chlorophyl 7such as fungi1 broomrapes1 etc474 ,this is why they are only met with in living beings or upon organic substances4 ,the majority of these algae develop very well in the air1 and then consume oxygen and exhale carbonic acid1 like all living beings4 ,if the supply of air be cut off1 they resist asphyxia and take the oxygen that they require from the compounds that surround them4 ,the result is a complete and rapid decomposition of the organic materials1 or a fermentation4 ,finally1 there are even certain species that die in the presence of free oxygen1 and that can only live by protecting themselves from contact with this gas through a sort of jelly4 ,these are ferments1 such as ,bacillus amylobacter1 or butyric ferment1 and ,b4 septicus1 or ferment of the putrefaction of nitrogenized substances4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,atmospheric ,,dust4 ,these properties explain the regular distribution of bacteria in liquids exposed to the air4 ,thus1 in water in which plants have been macerated the surface of the liquid is occupied by ,bacillus subtilis4 which has need of free oxygen in order to live1 while in the bulk of the liquid1 in the vegetable tissues1 we find other bacteria1 notably ,b4 amylobacter1 which lives very well by consuming oxygen in a state of combination4 ,bacteria1 then1 can only live in organic matters1 now in the presence and now in the absence of air4 ,what we have just said allows us to understand the process of cultivating these organisms4 ,when it is desired to obtain these algae1 we must take organic matters or infusions of such4 ,these liquids or substances are heated to at least #abj in order to kill the germs that they may contain1 and this is called sterilizing4 ,in this sterilized liquid are then sown the bacteria that it is desired to study1 and by this means they can be obtained in a state of very great purity4 ,the ,bacteriaceae are very numerous4 ,among them we must distinguish those that live in inert organic matters1 alimentary substances1 or debris of living beings1 and which cause chemical decompositions called fermentations4 ,such are ,mycoderma aceti1 which converts the alcohol of fermented beverages into vinegar2 ,micrococcus ureae1 which converts the urea of urine into carbonate of ammonia1 and ,micrococcus nitrificans1 which converts nitrogenized matters into intrates1 etc4 ,some1 that live upon food products1 produce therein special coloring matters2 such are the bacterium of blue milk1 and ,micrococcus prodigiosus 7,fig4 #b1 ,i471 a red alga that lives upon bread and forms those bloody spots that were formerly considered by the superstitious as the precursors of great calamities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,,various ,,microbes4 7,highly magnified47 ,another group of bacteria has assumed considerable importance in pathology1 and that is the one whose species inhabit the tissues of living animals1 and cause more or less serious alterations therein1 and often death4 ,most contagious diseases and epidemics are due to alg of this latter group4 ,to cite only those whose origin is well known1 we may mention the bacterium that causes charbon1 the micrococcus of chicken cholera1 and that of hog measles4 ,it will be seen from this sketch how important the study of these organisms is to man1 since be must defend his body against their invasions or utilize them for bringing about useful chemical modifications in organic matters4 ,our ,servants4--,we scarcely know what services microbes may render us1 yet the study of them1 which has but recently been begun1 has already shown1 through the remarkable labors of ,messrs4 ,pasteur1 ,schloesing and ,muntz1 ,van ,tieghem1 ,cohn1 ,koch1 etc41 the importance of these organisms in nature4 ,all of us have seen wine when exposed to air gradually sour1 and become converted into vinegar1 and we know that in this case the surface of the liquid is covered with white pellicles called mother of vinegar4 ,these pellicles are made up of myriads of globules of ,mycoderma aceti4 ,this mycoderm is the principal agent in the acidification of wine1 and it is it that takes oxygen from the air and fixes it in the alcohol to convert it into vinegar4 ,if the pellicle that forms becomes immersed in the liquid1 the wine will cease to sour4 ,the vinegar manufacturers of ,orleans did not suspect the role of the mother of vinegar in the production of this article when they were employing empirical processes that had been established by practice4 ,the vats were often infested by small worms 7vinegar eals7 which disputed with the mycoderma for the oxygen1 killed it through submersion1 and caused the loss of batches that had been under troublesome preparation for months4 ,since ,mr4 ,pasteur's researches1 the ,mycoderma aceti has been sown directly in the slightly acidified wine1 and an excellent quality of vinegar has thus been obtained1 with no fear of an occurrence of the disasters that accompanied the old process4 ,another example will show us the microbes in activity in the earth4 ,let us take a pinch of vegetable mould1 water it with ammonia compounds1 and analyze it1 and we shall find nitrates therein4 ,whence came these nitrates8 ,they came from the oxidation of the ammonia compounds brought about by moistening1 since the nitrogen of the air does not seem to combine under normal conditions with the surrounding oxygen4 ,this oxidation of ammonia compounds is brought about1 as has been shown by ,messrs4 ,schloesing and ,muntz1 by a special ferment1 the ,micrococcus nitrificans1 that belongs to the group of ,bacteriac4 ,in fact1 the vapors of chloroform1 which anesthetize plants1 also prevent nitrification1 since they anaesthetize the nitric ferment4 ,so1 too1 when we heat vegetable humus to #ajj1 nitrification is arrested1 because the ferment is killed4 ,finally1 we may sow the nitric ferment in calcined earth and cause nitrification to occur therein as surely as we can bring about a fermentation in wine by sowing ,mycoderma aceti in it4 ,the nitric ferment exists in all soils and in all latitudes1 and converts the ammoniacal matters carried along by the rain into nitrates of a form most assimilable by plants4 ,it therefore constitutes one of the important elements for fertilizing the earth4 ,finally1 we must refer to the numerous bacteria that occasion putrefaction in vegetable or animal organisms4 ,these microbes1 which float in the air1 fall upon dead animals or plants1 develop thereon1 and convert into mineral matters the immediate principles of which the tissues are composed1 and thus continually restore to the air and soil the elements necessary for the formation of new organic substances4 ,thus1 ,bacillus amylobacter 7,fig4 #b1 ,,ii471 as ,mr4 ,van ,tieghem has shown1 subsists upon the hydrocarbons contained in plants1 and disorganizes vegetable tissues in disengaging hydrogen1 carbonic acid1 and vegetable acids4 ,bacterium roseopersicina forms1 in pools1 rosy or red pellicles that cover vegetable debris and disengage gases of an offensive odor4 ,this bacterium develops in so great quantity upon low shores covered with fragments of alg as to sometimes spread over an extent of several kilometers4 ,these microbes1 like many others1 continuously mineralize organic substances1 and thus exhibit themselves as the indispensable agents of the movement of the matter that incessantly circulates from the mineral to the organic world1 and vice versa4--,science et ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,palms sprouted from seeds kept warm by contact of the vessel with the water boiler of a kitchen range are grown by a man in ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,epitaphium ,,chymicum4 ,the following epitaph was written by a ,dr4 ,godfrey1 who died in ,dublin in #agee3 ,here lieth1 to digest macerate1 and amalgamate into clay1 ,in ,batneo ,aren1 ,stratum super ,stratum ,the ,residuum1 ,terra damnata and ,caput ,mortuum1 ,of ,,boyle ,,godfrey1 ,chymist and ,m4,d4 ,a man who in this ,earthly ,laboratory pursued various ,processes to obtain ,arcanum ,vit1 ,or the ,secret to ,live2 ,also ,aurum ,vit1 or the art of getting rather than making gold4 ,alchymist-like1 all his ,labour and ,projection1 as ,mercury in the ,fire1 ,evaporated in ,fume when he ,dissolved to his first principles4 ,he departed as poor as the last drops of an ,alembic2 for ,riches are not poured on the ,adepts of this world4 ,though fond of ,news1 he carefully avoided the ,fermentation1 ,effervescence1 and ,decrepitation of this life4 ,full seventy years his ,exalted ,essence was hermetically sealed in its ,terrene ,matrass2 but the ,radical ,moisture being exhausted1 the ,elixir ,vit spent1 ,and exsiccate to a ,cuticle1 he could not suspend longer in his ,vehicle1 but precipitated ,gradatim1 per ,campanam1 to his original dust4 ,may that light1 brighter than ,bolognian ,phosphorus1 ,preserve him from the ,athanor1 ,empyreuma1 and ,reverberatory ,furnace of the other world1 ,depurate him from the ,fces and ,scoria of this1 ,highly ,rectify and ,volatilize1 his thereal spirit1 ,bring it over the ,helm of the ,retort of this ,globe1 place in a proper ,recipient or ,crystalline orb1 ,among the elect of the ,flowers of ,benjamin2 never to be saturated till the ,general ,resuscitation1 ,deflagration1 ,calcination1 and ,sublimation of all things4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,stove ,,climber4 7,ipoma thomsoniana47 ,the first time we saw flowers of this beautiful new climbing plant 7about a year ago7 we thought that it was a white-flowered variety of the favorite old ,ipoma ,horsfalli1 as it so nearly resembles it4 ,it has1 however1 been proved to be a distinct new species1 and ,dr4 ,masters has named it in compliment to ,mr4 ,thomson of ,edinburgh4 ,it differs from ,i4 ,horsfalli in having the leaflets in sets of threes instead of fives1 and1 moreover1 they are quite entire4 ,the flowers1 too1 are quite double the size of those of ,horsfalli1 but are produced in clusters in much the same way2 they are snow-white4 ,this ,ipoma is indeed a welcome addition to the list of stove-climbing plants1 and will undoubtedly become as popular as ,i4 ,horsfalli1 which may be found in almost every stove4 ,it is of easy culture and of rapid growth1 and it is to be hoped that it is as continuous in flowering as ,horsfalli4 ,it is among the new plants of the year now being distributed by ,mr4 ,b4,s4 ,williams1 of the ,victoria ,nurseries1 ,upper ,holloway4--,the ,garden4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,new ,,stove ,,climber4 ,,ipom,a ,,thomsoniana4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,history ,,of ,,wheat4 ,isis was supposed to have introduced wheat into ,egypt1 ,demeter into ,greece1 and the ,emperor ,chin-,wong into ,china1 about #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,in ,europe it was cultivated before the period of history1 as samples have been recovered from the lacustrine dwellings of ,switzerland4 ,the first wheat raised in the ,new ,world was sown by the ,spaniards on the island of ,isabella1 in ,january1 #adid1 and on ,march the #cjth the ears were gathered4 ,the foundation of the wheat harvest of ,mexico is said to have been three or four grains carefully cultivated in #aecj1 and preserved by a slave of ,cortez4 ,the first crop of ,quito was raised by a ,franciscan monk in front of the convent4 ,garcilasso de la ,vega affirms that in ,peru1 up to #afeh1 wheaten bread had not been sold in ,cusco4 ,wheat was first sown by ,goshnold ,cuttyhunk1 on one of the ,elizabeth ,islands in ,buzzard's ,bay1 off ,massachusetts1 in #afjb1 when he first explored the coast4 ,in #afjd1 on the island of ,st4 ,croix1 near ,calais1 ,me41 the ,sieur de ,monts had some wheat sown which flourished finely4 ,in #afaa the first wheat appears to have been sown in ,virginia4 ,in #afbf1 samples of wheat grown in the ,dutch ,colony at ,new ,netherlands were shown in ,holland4 ,it is probable that wheat was sown in the ,plymouth ,colony prior to #afbi1 though we find no record of it1 and in #afbi wheat was ordered from ,england to be used as seed4 ,in #agah wheat was introduced into the valley of the ,mississippi by the ,western ,company4 ,in #agii it was among the cultivated crops of the ,pimos ,indians of the ,gila ,river1 ,new ,mexico4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,determination ,,of ,,starch4 ,according to ,bunzener and ,fries 7,zeitschrift fur das gesammte ,brauwesen71 a thick1 sirupy starch paste prepared with a boiling one per cent solution of salicylic acid is only very slowly saccharified1 and on cooling deposits crystalline plates of starch4 ,for the determination of starch in barley the finely-ground sample is boiled for three-quarters of an hour with about thirty times its weight of a one per cent solution of salicylic acid1 the resulting colorless opalescent liquid filtered with the aid of suction1 and the starch therein inverted by means of hydrochloric acid4 ,the dextrose formed is estimated by ,fehling's solution4 ,the results are one to two per cent higher than when the starch is brought into solution by water at #ace ,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any 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,,american of all ,inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how procured4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,branch ,office1 cor4 ,f and #gth ,sts41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4