,illustration ,scientific ,american ,supplement ,no4 #dae ,,new ,,york1 ,,december #ae1 #ahhc ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 ,no4 #dae4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,chemistry ,,and ,,metallurgy4--,carbon in ,steel4 ,heat developed in ,forging4 ,recent ,studies on the ,constitution of ,alkaloids4--,extract from a lecture delivered before the ,philadelphia ,college of ,pharmacy4 --,by ,,saml4,p4 ,,sadtler4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,apparatus for ,extracting ,starch from ,potatoes4--,with engraving4 ,a ,simple ,apparatus for describing ,ellipses4--,by ,prof4 ,e4,j4 ,,hallock4 #a figure4 ,a ,novel ,propeller ,engine4--,with full description and numerous engravings4--,by ,prof4 ,,maccord4 ,the ,new ,russian ,torpedo ,boat1 the ,poti4--,with engraving4 ,a ,new ,steamer ,propelled by ,hydraulic ,reaction--,figures showing plan and side views of the steamer4 ,a ,new ,form of ,flexible ,band ,dynamometer4--,by ,prof4 ,w4,c4 ,,unwin4 #d figures4 ,,iii4 ,,technology4--,enlarging on ,argentic ,paper and ,opals4--,by ,a4 ,,goodall4 ,the ,manufacture and ,characteristics of ,photographic ,lenses4 ,improved ,developers for ,gelatine ,plates4--,by ,,dr4 ,,eder4 ,the ,preparation of ,lard for ,use in ,pharmacy4--,by ,prof4 ,,redwood4 ,anti-,corrosion ,paint4 ,manufacture of ,charcoal in ,kilns4--,different kilns used4 ,,iv4 ,,art1 ,,architecture1 ,,and ,,arch,,ology4--,the ,german ,national ,monument4--,with two engravings of the statues of ,peace and ,war4 ,the ,art ,aspects of ,modern ,dress4 ,artisans' ,dwellings1 ,hornsey1 ,london4--,with engraving4 ,discovery of ,ancient ,church ,in ,jerusalem4 ,v4 ,,electricity1 ,,heat4 ,,etc4--,see's ,gas ,stove4--,with engraving4 ,rectification of ,alcohol by ,electricity4 #c engravings showing ,apparatus for ,hydrogenizing ,impure ,spirits4 ,electrolyzing ,apparatus1 and ,arrangement of the ,siemens ,machine4 ,,vi4 ,,geology4--,on the ,mineralogical ,localities in and around ,new ,york ,city4--,by ,,nelson ,h4 ,,darton4 ,,vii4 ,,natural ,,history4--,the ,zoological ,society's ,gardens1 ,london4--,with full page engravings showing the new ,reptile ,house1 and the ,babiroussa family4 ,,viii4 ,,horticulture4--,the ,kauri ,pine--,damarra ,australis4-- ,with engraving4 ,how to ,successfully ,transplant ,trees4 ,,ix4 ,,medicine1 ,,hygiene1 ,,etc4--,on the ,treatment of ,congestive ,headache4--,by ,dr4 ,j4,l4 ,,corning4 ,the ,use of the ,mullein ,plant in the ,treatment of ,pulmonary ,consumption4--,by ,dr4 ,j4,b4 ,,quinlan4 ,action of ,mineral ,waters and of ,hot ,water upon the ,bile4 ,vivisection4--,apparatus ,used4--,full page of engravings4 ,insanity from ,alcohol4--,intemperance a fruitful as well as inexhaustible source for the increase of insanity4--,by ,dr4 ,a4 ,,baer1 ,berlin4 ,plantain as a ,styptic4--,by ,j4,w4 ,,colcord4 ,danger from ,flies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,german ,,national ,,monument4--,,war ,,and ,,peace4 ,in our ,,supplement ,no4 #dab we gave several engravings and a full description of the colossal ,german ,national monument ,germania1 lately unveiled on the ,niederwald slope of the ,rhine4 ,we now present1 as beautiful suggestions in art1 engravings of the two statues1 ,war and ,peace1 which adorn the corners of the monumental facade4 ,these figures are about twenty feet high4 ,the statue of ,war represents an allegorical character1 partly ,mercury1 partly medival knight1 with trumpet in one hand1 sword in the other4 ,the statue of ,peace represents a mild and modest maiden1 holding out an olive branch in one hand and the full horn of peaceful blessings in the other4 ,between the two statues is a magnificent group in relief representing the ,watch on the ,rhine4 ,here the ,emperor ,william appears in the center1 on horseback1 surrounded by a noble group of kings1 princes1 knights1 warriors1 commanders1 and statesmen1 who1 by word or deed or counsel1 helped to found the empire--an ,elgin marble1 so to speak1 of the ,german nation4 ,illustration3 ,,war4 ,,the ,,german ,,national ,,monument4 ,,peace4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a writer in the ,london ,lancet ridicules a habit of being in great haste and terribly pressed for time which is common among all classes of commercial men1 and argues that in most cases there is not the least cause for it1 and that it is done to convey a notion of the tremendous volume of business which almost overwhelms the house4 ,the writer further says that1 when developed into a confirmed habit1 it is fertile in provoking nervous maladies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,art ,,aspects ,,of ,,modern ,,dress4 ,at a recent conversazione of the ,london ,literary and ,artistic ,society1 ,mr4 ,sellon read a paper upon this subject4 ,having expressed his belief that mere considerations of health would never dethrone fashion1 the lecturer said he should endeavor to show on art principles how those who were open to conviction could have all the variety ,fashion promised1 together with far greater elegance than that goddess could bestow1 while health received the fullest attention4 ,two excellent societies1 worthy of encouragement up to a certain point1 had been showing us the folly and wickedness of fashionable dress--dress which deformed the body1 crippled the feet1 confined the waist1 exposed the chest1 loaded the limbs1 and even enslaved the understanding4 ,but these societies had been more successful in pulling down than in building up1 and blinded with excess of zeal were hurrying us onward to a goal which might or might not be the acme of sanitative dress1 but was certainly the zero of artistic excellence4 ,the cause of this was not far to seek4 ,we were inventing a new science1 that of dress1 and were without rules to guide us4 ,so long as ladies had to choose between ,paris fashions and those of ,piccadilly ,hall1 they would1 he felt sure1 choose the former4 ,let it be shown that the substitute was both sanitary and beautiful1 capable of an infinite variety in color and in form--in colors and forms which never violated art principle1 and in which the wearer1 and not some ,paris liner1 could exercise her taste1 and the day would have been gained4 ,this was the task he had set himself to formulate1 and so doing he should divide his subject in two--,color and ,form4 ,in color it was desirable to distinguish carefully between the meaning of shade1 tint1 and hue4 ,it was amazing that a cultured nation like the ,english should be so generally ignorant of the laws of color harmony4 ,we were nicely critical of music1 yet in color were constantly committing the gravest solecisms4 ,he did not think there were seventeen interiors in ,london that the educated eye could wander over without pain4 ,yet what knowledge was so useful8 ,we were not competent to buy a picture1 choose a dress1 or furnish a house without a knowledge of color harmony1 to say nothing of the facility such knowledge gave in all kinds of painting on porcelain1 art needlework1 and a hundred occupations4 ,an important consideration in choosing colors for dress was the effect they would have in juxtaposition4 ,primary colors should be worn in dark shades2 dark red and dark yellow1 or as it was commonly called1 olive green1 went well together2 but a dress of full red or yellow would be painful to behold4 ,the rule for full primaries was1 employ them sparingly1 and contrast them only with black or gray4 ,he might notice in passing that when people dressed in gray or black the entire dress was usually of the one color unrelieved4 ,yet here they had a background that would lend beauty to any color placed upon it4 ,another safe rule was never to place together colors differing widely in hue4 ,the eye experienced a difficulty in accommodating itself to sudden changes1 and a species of color discord was the consequence4 ,but if the colors1 even though primaries1 were of some very dark or very light shade1 they become harmonious4 ,all very dark shades of color went well with black and with each other1 and all very light shades went well with white and each other4 ,a much-vexed question with ladies was1 ,what will suit my complexion8 ,the generally received opinion was that the complexion was pink1 either light or dark1 and colors were chosen accordingly1 working dire confusion4 ,but no one living ever had a pink complexion unless a painted one4 ,the dolls in the ,lowther ,arcade were pink1 and their pink dresses were in harmony4 ,no natural complexion whatever was improved by pink2 but gray would go with any4 ,the tendency of gray was to give prominence to the dominant hue in the complexion4 ,when an artist wished to produce flesh color he mixed white1 light red1 yellow ocher1 and terra vert4 ,the skin of a fair person was a gray light red1 tinged with green2 the color that would brighten and intensify it most was a gray light sea green1 tinged with pink--in other words1 its complementary4 ,a color always subtracted any similar color that might exist in combination near it4 ,thus red beside orange altered it to yellow2 blue beside pink altered it to cerise4 ,hence1 if a person was so unfortunate as to have a muddy complexion1 the worst color they could wear would be their own complexion's complementary--the best would be mud color1 for it would clear their complexion4 ,passing on to the consideration of form in costume1 the lecturer urged that the proper function of dress was to drape the human figure without disguising or burlesquing it4 ,an illustration of ,miss ,mary ,anderson1 attired in a ,greek dress as ,parthenia1 was exhibited1 and the lecturer observed that while the dress once worn by ,greek women was unequaled for elegance1 ,greek women were not in the habit of tying their skirts in knots round the knees1 and the nervous pose of the toes suggested a more habitual acquaintance with shoes and stockings4 ,an enlargement from a drawing by ,walter ,crane was shown as illustrating the principles of artistic and natural costume--costume which permitted the waist to be the normal size1 and allowed the drapery to fall in natural folds--costume which knew nothing of pleats and flounces1 stays and improvers--costume which was very symbolization and embodiment of womanly grace and modesty4 ,a life-sized enlargement of a fashion plate from ,myra's ,journal1 dated ,june #a1 #ahhb1 was next shown4 ,the circumference of the waist was but #ab in41 involving an utter exclusion of the liver from that part of the organization1 and the attitude was worthy of a costume which was the ne plus ultra of formal ugliness4 ,having shown another and equally unbecoming costume1 selected from a recent issue by an ,oxford ,street firm1 the lecturer asked1 ,why did women think small waists beautiful8 ,was it because big-waisted women were so frequently fat and forty1 old and ugly8 ,a young girl had no waist1 and did not need stays4 ,as the figure matured the hips developed1 and it was this development which formed the waist4 ,the slightest artificial compression of the waist destroyed the line of beauty4 ,therefore1 the grown woman should never wear stays1 and1 since they tended to weaken the muscles of the back1 the aged and weak should not adopt them4 ,a waist really too large was less ungraceful than a waist too small4 ,dress was designed partly for warmth and partly for adornment4 ,as the uses were distinct1 the garments should be so4 ,a close-fitting inner garment should supply all requisite warmth1 and the outer dress should be as thin as possible1 that it might drape itself into natural folds4 ,velvet1 from its texture1 was ill adapted for this4 ,when worn1 it should be in close fitting garments1 and in dark colors only4 ,it was most effective when black4 ,turning for a few moments1 in conclusion1 to men's attire1 the lecturer suggested that the ill-success of dress reformers hitherto had been the too-radical changes they sought to introduce4 ,we could be artistic without being archaic4 ,most men were satisfied without clothes fairly in fashion1 a tolerable fit1 and any unobtrusive color their tailor pleased4 ,he would suggest that any reformation should begin with color4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,artisans' ,,dwellings1 ,,hornsey4 ,the erection of artisans' dwellings is certainly a prominent feature in the progress of building in the metropolis1 and speculative builders who work on a smaller scale would do well not to ignore the fact4 ,the ,artisans1 ,laborers1 and ,general ,dwellings ,company 7,limited7 has been conspicuously successful in rearing large blocks of dwellings for artisans1 clerks1 and others whose means necessitates the renting of a convenient house at as low a rental as it is possible to find it4 ,we give an illustration of a terrace of first-class houses built by the above company1 who deserve great praise for the spirited and liberal manner in which they are going to work on this the third of their ,london estates--the ,noel ,park ,estate1 at ,hornsey4 ,on the estates at ,shaftesbury and ,queen's ,parks they have already built about three thousand houses1 employing therein a capital of considerably over a million sterling1 while at ,noel ,park they are rapidly covering an estate of one hundred acres1 which will contain1 when completed1 no less than two thousand six hundred houses1 to be let at weekly rentals varying from #fs4 to #aas4 #f;d41 rates and taxes all included4 ,the object has been to provide separate cottages1 each in itself complete1 and in so doing they have not made any marked departure from the ordinary type of suburban terrace plan1 but adopting this as most favorable to economy1 have added many improvements1 including sanitary appliances of the latest and most approved type4 ,the most important entrance to ,noel ,park is by ,gladstone ,avenue1 a road #fj ft4 wide leading from the ,green ,lanes to the center of the estate4 ,on either side of this road the houses are set back #ae ft41 in front of which1 along the edge of the pavement1 trees of a suitable growth are being planted1 as also on all other roads on the estate4 ,about the center of ,gladstone ,avenue an oval space has been reserved as a site for a church1 and a space of five acres in another portion of the estate has been set apart to be laid out as a recreation ground1 should the development of the estate warrant such an outlay4 ,the remaining streets are from #dj ft4 to #ej ft4 in width1 clear of the garden space in front of the houses4 ,shops will be erected as may be required4 ,illustration3 ,,suggestions ,,in ,,architecture4--,a ,,row ,,of ,,comfortable ,,dwellings4 ,the drainage of the estate has been arranged on the dual system1 the surface water being kept separate from the sewage drains4 ,nowhere have these drains been carried through the houses1 but they are taken directly into drains at the back1 having specially ventilated manholes and being brought through at the ends of terraces into the road sewers2 the ventilating openings in the roads have been converted into inlet ventilators by placing upcast shafts at short intervals1 discharging above the houses4 ,this system of ventilation was adopted on the recommendation of ,mr4 ,w4,a4 ,de ,pape1 the engineer and surveyor to the ,tottenham ,local ,board4 ,all the houses are constructed with a layer of concrete over the whole area of the site1 and a portion of the garden at back4 ,every room is specially ventilated1 and all party walls are hollow in order to prevent the passage of sound4 ,a constant water supply is laid on1 there being no cisterns but those to the water-waste preventers to closets4 ,all water pipes discharge over open trapped gullies outside4 ,the materials used are red and yellow bricks1 with terracotta sills1 the roofs being slated over the greater part1 and for the purpose of forming an agreeable relief1 the end houses1 and in some cases the central houses1 have red tile roofs1 the roofs over porches being similarly treated4 ,the houses are simply but effectively designed1 and the general appearance of the finished portion of the estate is bright and cheerful4 ,all end houses of terraces have been specially treated1 and in some cases having rather more accommodation than houses immediately adjoining1 a slightly increased rental is required4 ,there are five different classes of houses4 ,the first class houses 7which we illustrate this week7 are built on plats having #af ft4 frontage by #he ft4 depth1 and containing eight rooms1 consisting of two sitting rooms1 kitchen1 scullery1 with washing copper1 coal cellar1 larder1 and water-closet on ground floor1 and four bedrooms over4 ,the water-closet is entered from the outside1 but in many first-class houses another water-closet has been provided on the first floor1 and one room on this floor is provided with a small range1 so that if two families live in the one house they will be entirely separated4 ,the rental of these houses is about #aas4 to #aas4 #f;d4 per week4 ,mr4 ,rowland ,plumbe1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 of #ac ,fitzroy ,square1 ,w41 is the architect4--,building and ,engineering ,times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,enlarging ,,on ,,argentic ,,paper ,,and ,,opals4 ,by ,a4 ,,goodall4 ,footnote3 ,read before the ,dundee and ,east of ,scotland ,photographic ,association4 ,the process of making gelatino bromide of silver prints or enlargements on paper or opal has been before the public for two or three years now1 and cannot be called new2 but still it is neither so well known nor understood as such a facile and easy process deserves to be1 and ,i may just say here that after a pretty extensive experience in the working of it ,i believe there is no other enlarging process capable of giving better results than can be got by this process when properly understood and wrought1 as the results that can be got by it are certainly equal to those obtainable by any other method1 while the ease and rapidity with which enlarged pictures can be made by it place it decidedly ahead of any other method4 ,i propose to show you how ,i make a gelatino bromide enlargement on opal4 ,mr4 ,goodall then proceeded to make an enlargement on a #ab by #aj opal1 using a sciopticon burning paraffin2 after an exposure for two and a-half minutes the developer was applied1 and a brilliant opal was the result4 ,we now come to the paper process1 and most effective enlargements can be made by it also2 indeed1 as a basis for coloring1 nothing could well be better4 ,artists all over the country have told me that after a few trials they prefer it to anything else1 while excellent and effective plain enlargements are easily made by it if only carefully handled4 ,a very good enlargement is made by vignetting the picture1 as ,i have just done1 with the opal1 and then squeezing it down on a clean glass1 and afterward framing it with another glass in front1 when it will have the appearance almost equal to an opal4 ,to make sure of the picture adhering to the glass1 however1 and at the same time to give greater brilliancy1 it is better to flow the glass with a #aj or #ae grain solution of clear gelatine before squeezing it down4 ,the one fault or shortcoming of the plain argentic paper is the dullness of the surface when dry1 and this certainly makes it unsuitable for small work1 such as the rapid production of cartes or proofs from negatives wanted in a hurry2 the tone of an argentic print is also spoken of sometimes as being objectionable2 but my impression is1 that it is not so much the tone as the want of brilliancy that is the fault there1 and if once the public were accustomed to the tones of argentine paper1 they might possibly like them twice as well as the purples and browns with which they are familiar1 provided they had the depth and gloss of a silver print2 and some time ago1 acting on a suggestion made by the editor of the ,photographic ,news1 ,i set about trying to produce this result by enameling the paper with a barium emulsion previous to coating it with the gelatinous bromide of silver4 ,my experiments were successful1 and we now prepare an enamel argentic paper on which the prints stand out with brilliancy equal to those on albumenized paper4 ,i here show you specimens of boudoirs and panels--pictures enlarged from ,c4,d4,v4--negatives on this enamel argentic4 ,mr4 ,goodall then passed round several enlargements from landscape and portrait negatives1 which it would have been difficult to distinguish from prints on double albumenized paper4 ,i have already spoken of the great ease and facility with which an argentic enlargement may be made as compared with a collodion transfer1 for instance2 but there is another and more important point to be considered between the two1 and that is1 their durability and permanence4 ,now with regard to a collodion transfer1 unless most particular care be taken in the washing of it 7and those who have made them will well know what a delicate1 not to say difficult1 job it is to get them thoroughly freed from the hypo1 and at the same time preserve the film intact71 there is no permanence in a collodion transfer1 and that practically in nine cases out of ten they have the elements of decay in them from the first day of their existence4 ,i know1 at least in ,glasgow1 where an enormous business has been done within the last few years by certain firms in the club picture trade 7the club picture being a collodion transfer tinted in oil or varnish colors71 there are literally thousands of pictures for which thirty shillings or more has been paid1 and of which the bare frame is all that remains at the present day2 the gilt of the frames has vanished1 and the picture in disgust1 perhaps1 has followed it4 ,in short1 ,i believe a collodion transfer cannot be made even comparatively permanent1 unless an amount of care be taken in the making of it which is neither compatible nor consistent with the popular price and extensive output4 ,how now stands the case with an argentic enlargement8 ,of course it may be said that there is scarcely time yet to make a fair comparison--that the argentic enlargements are still only on their trial4 ,i will give you my own experience4 ,i mentioned at the outset that seven or eight years ago ,i had tried ,kennet's pellicle and failed1 but got one or two results which ,i retained as curiosities till only a month or two ago2 but up to that time ,i cannot say they had faded in the least1 and ,i have here a specimen made three years ago1 which ,i have purposely subjected to very severe treatment4 ,it has been exposed without any protection to the light and damp and all the other noxious influences of a ,glasgow atmosphere1 and although certainly tarnished1 ,i think you will find that it has not faded2 the whites are dirty1 but the blacks have lost nothing of their original strength4 ,i here show you the picture referred to1 a #ab by #aj enlargement on artist's canvas1 and may here state1 in short1 that my whole experience of argentic enlargements leads me to the conclusion that1 setting aside every other quality1 they are the most permanent pictures that have ever been produced4 ,chromotypes and other carbon pictures have been called permanent1 but their permanence depends upon the nature of the pigment employed1 and associated with the chromated gelatine in which they are produced1 most of pigments used1 and all of the prettiest ones1 being unable to withstand the bleaching action of the light for more than a few weeks4 ,carbon pictures are therefore only permanent according to the degree in which the coloring matter employed is capable of resisting the decolorizing action of light4 ,but there is no pigment in an argentic print1 nothing but the silver reduced by the developer after the action of light2 and that has been shown by1 ,i think1 ,captain ,abney1 to be of a very stable and not easily decomposed nature2 while if the pictures are passed through a solution of alum after washing and fixing1 the gelatine also is so acted upon as to be rendered in a great degree impervious to the action of damp1 and the pictures are then somewhat similar to carbon pictures without carbon4 ,i may now say a few words on the defects and failures sometimes met with in working this process2 and first in regard to the yellowing of the whites4 ,i hear frequent complaints of this want of purity in the whites1 especially in vignetted enlargements1 and ,i believe that this almost always arises from one or other of the two following causes3 ,first4 ,an excess of the ferrous salt in the ferrous oxalate developer2 and when this is the case1 the yellow compound salt is more in suspension than solution1 and in the course of development it is deposited upon1 and at the same time formed in1 the gelatinous film4 ,the proportions of saturated solution of oxalate to saturated solution of iron1 to form the oxalate of iron developer1 that has been recommended by the highest and almost only scientific authority on the subject--,dr4 ,eder--are from #d to #f parts of potassic oxalate to #a part of ferrous sulphate4 ,now while these proportions may be the best for the development of a negative1 they are not1 according to my experience1 the best for gelatine bromide positive enlargements2 ,i find1 indeed1 that potassic oxalate should not have more than one-eighth of the ferrous sulphate solution added to it1 otherwise it will not hold in proper solution for any length of time the compound salt formed when the two are mixed4 ,the other cause is the fixing bath4 ,this1 for opals and vignetted enlargements especially1 should always be fresh and pretty strong1 so that the picture will clear rapidly before any deposit has time to take place1 as it will be observed that very shortly after even one iron developed print has been fixed in it a deposit of some kind begins to take place1 so that although it may be used a number of times for fixing prints that are meant to be colored afterward it is best to take a small quantity of fresh hypo for every enlargement meant to be finished in black and white4 ,the proportions ,i use are #h ounces to the pint of water4 ,almost the only other complaints ,i now hear are traceable to over-exposure or lack of intelligent cleanliness in the handling of the paper4 ,the operator1 after having been dabbling for some time in hypo1 or pyro1 or silver solution1 gives his hands a wipe on the focusing cloth1 and straightway sets about making an enlargement1 ending up by blessing the manufacturer who sent him paper full of black stains and smears4 ,argentic paper is capable of yielding excellent enlargements1 but it must be intelligently exposed1 intelligently developed1 and cleanly and carefully handled4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,and ,,characteristics ,,of ,,photographic ,,lenses4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,london and ,provincial ,photographic ,association ,mr4 ,j4 ,traill ,taylor1 formerly of ,new ,york1 commenced his lecture by referring to the functions of lenses1 and by describing the method by which the necessary curves were computed in order to obtain a definite focal length4 ,the varieties of optical glass were next discussed1 and specimens 7both in the rough and partly shaped state7 were handed round for examination4 ,the defects frequently met with in glass1 such as stri and tears1 were then treated upon2 specimens of lenses defective from this cause were submitted to inspection1 and the mode of searching for such flaws described4 ,tools for grinding and polishing lenses of various curvatures were exhibited1 together with a collection of glass disks obtained from the factory of ,messrs4 ,ross ,co41 and in various stages of manufacture--from the first rough slab to the surface of highest polish4 ,details of polishing and edging were gone into1 and a series of the various grades of emery used in the processes was shown4 ,the lecturer then1 by means of diagrams which he placed upon the blackboard1 showed the forms of various makes of photographic lenses1 and explained the influence of particular constructions in producing certain results2 positive and negative spherical aberration1 and the manner in which they are made to balance each other1 was also described by the aid of diagrams1 as was also chromatic aberration4 ,he next spoke of the question of optical center of lenses1 and said that that was not1 as had been hitherto generally supposed1 the true place from which to measure the focus of a lens or combination4 ,this place was a point very near the optical center1 and was known as the ,gauss point1 from the name of the eminent ,german mathematician who had investigated and made known its properties1 the knowledge of which was of the greatest importance in the construction of lenses4 ,a diagram was drawn to show the manner of ascertaining the two ,gauss points of a bi-convex lens1 and a sheet exhibited in which the various kinds of lenses with their optical centers and ,gauss points were shown4 ,for this drawing he 7,mr4 ,taylor7 said he was indebted to ,dr4 ,hugo ,schroeder1 now with the firm of ,ross ,co4 ,the lecturer congratulated the newly-proposed member of the ,society1 ,mr4 ,john ,stuart1 for his enterprise in securing for this country a man of such profound acquirements4 ,the subject of distortion was next treated of1 and the manner in which the idea of a non distorting doublet could be evolved from a single bi-convex lens by division into two plano-convex lenses with a central diaphragm was shown4 ,the influence of density of glass was illustrated by a description of the doublet of ,steinheil1 the parent of the large family of rapid doublets now known under various names4 ,the effect of thickness of lenses was shown by a diagram of the ingenious method of ,mr4 ,f4 ,wenham1 who had long ago by this means corrected spherical aberration in microscopic objective4 ,the construction of portrait lenses was next gone into1 the influence of the negative element of the back lens being especially noted4 ,a method was then referred to of making a rapid portrait lens cover a very large angle by pivoting at its optical center and traversing the plate in the manner of the pantoscopic camera4 ,the lecturer concluded by requesting a careful examination of the valuable exhibits upon the table1 kindly lent for the occasion by ,messrs4 ,ross ,co4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,developers ,,for ,,gelatine ,,plates4 ,by ,dr4 ,eder4 ,we are indebted to ,chas4 ,ehrmann1 ,esq41 for the improved formulas given below as translated by him for the ,photographic ,times4 ,dr4 ,eder has for a considerable time directed especial attention to the soda and potash developers1 either of which seems to offer certain advantages over the ammoniacal pyrogallol4 ,this advantage becomes particularly apparent with emulsions prepared with ammonia1 which frequently show with ammoniacal developer green or red fog1 or a fog of clayish color by reflected1 and of pale purple by transmitted light4 ,ferrous oxalate works quite well with plates of that kind2 so do soda and potassa developers4 ,for soda developers1 ,eder uses a solution of #aj parts of pure crystallized soda in #ajj parts of water4 ,for use1 #ajj c4c4 of this solution are mixed with #f c4c4 of a pyrogallic solution of #a3aj1 without the addition of any bromide4 ,more pleasant to work with is ,dr4 ,stolze's potassa developer4 ,no4 #a3 ,water1 #bjj c4c42 chem4 pure potassium carbonate1 #ij gr42 sodium sulphite1 #be gr4 ,no4 #b3 ,water #ajj c4c42 citric1 #a gr42 sodium sulphite1 #be gr42 pyrogallol41 #ab gr4 ,solution ,no4 #b is for its better keeping qualities preferable to ,dr4 ,stolze's solution4,a ,the solutions when in well stoppered bottles keep well for some time4 ,to develop1 mix #ajj c4c4 of water with #dj min4 of ,no4 #a and #ej min4 of ,no4 #b4 ,the picture appears quickly and more vigorously than with iron oxalate4 ,if it is desirable to decrease the density of the negatives1 double the quantity of water4 ,the negatives have a greenish brown to olive-green tone4 ,a very fine grayish-black can be obtained by using a strong alum bath between developing and fixing4 ,the same bath after fixing does not act as effectual in producing the desired tone4 ,a bath of equal volumes of saturated solutions of alum and ferrous sulphate gives the negative a deep olive-brown color and an extraordinary intensity1 which excludes all possible necessities of an after intensification4 ,footnote ,a3 #ajj c4c4 water2 #aj c4c4 alcohol2 #aj gr4 pyrogallol2 #a gr4 salicylic acid4 ,the sensitiveness with this developer is at least equal to that when iron developer is used1 frequently even greater4 ,the addition of bromides is superfluous1 sometimes injurious4 ,bromides in quantities1 as added to ammoniacal pyro1 would reduce the sensitiveness to #a_/aj or #a_/bj2 will even retard the developing power almost entirely4 ,must a restrainer be resorted to1 #a to #c min4 of a #a3aj solution of potassium bromide is quite sufficient4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,lard ,,for ,,use ,,in ,,pharmacy4 ,footnote3 ,read at an evening meeting of the ,pharmaceutical ,society of ,great ,britain1 ,november #g1 #ahhc4 ,by ,professor ,,redwood4 ,i have read with much1 interest the paper on ,ointment ,bases1 communicated by ,mr4 ,willmott to the ,pharmaceutical ,conference at its recent meeting1 but the part of the subject which has more particularly attracted my attention is that which relates to prepared lard4 ,reference is made by ,mr4 ,willmott to lard prepared in different ways1 and it appears from the results of his experiments that when made according to the process of the ,british ,pharmacopoeia it does not keep free from rancidity for so long a time as some of the samples do which have been otherwise prepared4 ,the general tendency of the discussion1 as far as related to this part of the subject1 seems to have been also in the same direction2 but neither in the paper nor in the discussion was the question of the best mode of preparing lard for use in pharmacy so specially referred to or fully discussed as ,i think it deserves to be4 ,when1 in #ahfj1 ,mr4 ,hills1 at a meeting of the ,pharmaceutical ,society1 suggested a process for the preparation of lard1 which consisted in removing from the flare all matter soluble in water1 by first thoroughly washing it in a stream of cold water after breaking up the tissues and afterward melting and straining the fat at a moderate heat1 this method of operating seemed to be generally approved4 ,it was adopted by men largely engaged in rendering fatty substances for use in pharmacy and for other purposes for which the fat was required to be as free as possible from flavor and not unduly subject to become rancid4 ,it became the process of the ,british ,pharmacopoeia in #ahfh4 ,in #ahfi it formed the basis of a process1 which was patented in ,paris and this country by ,hippolite ,mege1 for the production of a fat free from taste and odor1 and suitable for dietetic use as a substitute for butter4 ,mege's process consists in passing the fat between revolving rollers1 together with a stream of water1 and then melting at animal heat4 ,this process has been used abroad in the production of the fatty substance called oleomargarine4 ,but while there have been advocates for this process1 of whom ,i have been one1 opinions have been now and then expressed to the effect that the washing of the flare before melting the fat was rather hurtful than beneficial4 ,i have reason to believe that this opinion has been gaining ground among those who have carefully inquired into the properties of the products obtained by the various methods which have been suggested for obtaining animal fat in its greatest state of purity4 ,i have had occasion during the last two or three years to make many experiments on the rendering and purification of animal fat1 and at the same time have been brought into communication with manufacturers of oleomargarine on the large scale2 the result of which experience has been that ,i have lost faith in the efficacy of the ,pharmacopeia process4 ,i have found that in the method now generally adopted by manufacturers of oleomargarine1 which is produced in immense quantities1 the use of water1 for washing the fat before melting it1 is not only omitted but specially avoided4 ,the parts of the process to which most importance is attached are3 ,first1 the selection of fresh and perfectly sweet natural fat1 which is hung up and freely exposed to air and light4 ,it thus becomes dried and freed from an odor which is present in the freshly slaughtered carcass4 ,it is then carefully examined1 and adhering portions of flesh or membrane as far as possible removed2 after which it is cut up and passed through a machine in which it is mashed so as to completely break up the membraneous vesicles in which the fat is inclosed4 ,the magma thus produced is put into a deep jacketed pan heated by warm water1 and the fat is melted at a temperature not exceeding #acj;,f4 ,if the flare has been very effectually mashed1 the fat may be easily melted away from the membraneous matter at #abj;,f41 or even below that1 and no further continuance of the heat is required beyond what is necessary for effecting a separation of the melted fat from the membraneous or other suspended matter4 ,complete separation of all suspended matter is obviously important1 and therefore nitration seems desirable1 where practicable2 which however is not on the large scale4 ,my experiments tend to indicate that the process just described is that best adapted for the preparation of lard for use in pharmacy4 ,there is1 however1 a point connected with this or any other method of preparing lard which is deserving of more attention than it has1 ,i believe1 usually received1 and that is1 the source from which the flare has been derived4 ,everybody knows how greatly the quality of pork depends upon the manner in which the pig has been fed1 and this applies to the fat as well as other parts of the animal4 ,some time ago ,i had some pork submitted to me for the expression of opinion upon it1 which had a decided fishy flavor1 both in taste and smell4 ,this flavor was present in every part1 fat and lean1 and it is obvious that lard prepared from that fat would not be fit for use in pharmacy4 ,the pig had been prescribed a fish diet4 ,barley meal would1 no doubt1 have produced a better variety of lard4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,anti-,,corrosion ,,paint4 ,the ,neueste ,erfinderung describes an anti-corrosion paint for iron4 ,it states that if #aj per cent4 of burnt magnesia1 or even baryta1 or strontia1 is mixed 7cold7 with ordinary linseed-oil paint1 and then enough mineral oil to envelop the alkaline earth1 the free acid of the paint will be neutralized1 while the iron will be protected by the permanent alkaline action of the paint4 ,iron to be buried in damp earth may be painted with a mixture of #ajj parts of resin 7colophony71 #be parts of gutta-percha1 and #ej parts of paraffin1 to which #bj parts of magnesia and some mineral oil have been added4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,carbon ,,in ,,steel4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,chemical ,society1 ,london1 a paper was read entitled ,notes on the ,condition in which ,carbon exists in ,steel1 by ,sir ,f4,a4 ,abel1 ,c4,b41 and ,w4,h4 ,deering4 ,two series of experiments were made4 ,in the first series disks of steel #b4e inches in diameter and #j4ja inch thick were employed4 ,they were all cut from the same strip of metal1 but some were cold-rolled1 some annealed1 and some hardened4 ,the total carbon was found to be3 cold-rolled1 #a4ajh per cent42 hardened1 #a4abh per cent42 and annealed1 #j4ibd and #j4hfj per cent4 ,some of the disks were submitted to the action of an oxidizing solution consisting of a cold saturated solution of potassium bichromate with #e per cent4 by volume of pure concentrated sulphuric acid4 ,in all cases a blackish magnetic residue was left undissolved4 ,these residues1 calculated upon #ajj parts of the disks employed1 had the following compositions3 ,cold-rolled carbon1 #a4jci per cent42 iron1 #e4hga4 ,annealed1 ,c1 #j4hc per cent42 ,fe1 #d4gd per cent4 ,hardened1 ,c1 #j4agh per cent42 ,fe1 #j4gj per cent4 ,so that by treatment with chromic acid in the cold nearly the whole of the carbon remains undissolved with the cold-rolled and annealed disks1 but only about one-sixth of the total carbon is left undissolved in the case of the hardened disk4 ,the authors then give a resume of previous work on the subject4 ,in the second part they have investigated the action of bichromate solutions of various strengths on thin sheet-steel1 about #j4jih inch thick1 which was cold-rolled and contained3 ,carbon1 #a4add per cent42 silica1 #j4aff per cent42 manganese1 #j4ajd per cent4 ,four solutions were used4 ,the first contained about #aj per cent4 of bichromate and #i per cent4 of ,h#b,,so#d by weight2 the second was eight-tenths as strong1 the third about half as strong1 the fourth about one and a half times as strong4 ,in all cases the amount of solution employed was considerably in excess of the amount required to dissolve the steel used4 ,a residue was obtained as before4 ,with solution #a1 the residue contained1 ,c1 #a4jba2 sol4 #b1 ,c1 #j4ifi2 sol4 #c1 ,c #a4jdi the atomic ratio of iron to carbon was ,fe #b4fid3 ,c1 #a2 ,fe1 #b4fe3 ,c1 #a2 ,fe71 #b4hfg ,c1 #a73 sol4 #d4 ,c1 #j4bff per #ajj of steel4 ,the authors conclude that the carbon in cold rolled steel exists not simply diffused mechanically through the mass of steel but in the form of an iron carbide1 ,fe#c;,c1 a definite product1 capable of resisting the action of an oxidizing solution 7if the latter is not too strong71 which exerts a rapid solvent action upon the iron through which the carbide is distributed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,extracting ,,starch ,,from ,,potatoes4 ,in the apparatus of ,mr4 ,angele1 of ,berlin1 shown in the annexed cuts 7,figs4 #a and #b71 the potatoes1 after being cleaned in the washer1 ,c1 slide through the chute1 v1 into a rasp1 ,d1 which reduces them to a fine pulp under the action of a continuous current of water led in by the pipe1 d4 ,the liquid pulp flows into the iron reservoir1 ,b1 from whence a pump1 ,p1 forces it through the pipe1 w1 to a sieve1 g1 which is suspended by four bars and has a backward and forward motion4 ,by means of a rose1 c1 water is sprinkled over the entire surface of the sieve and separates the fecula from the fibrous matter4 ,the water1 charged with fine particles of fecula1 and forming a sort of milk1 flows through the tube1 z1 into the lower part1 ,n1 of the washing apparatus1 ,f1 while the pulp runs over the sieve and falls into the grinding-mill1 ,h4 ,this latter divides all those cellular portions of the fecula that have not been opened by the rasp1 and allows them to run1 through the tube1 h1 into the washing apparatus1 ,f1 where the fecula is completely separated from woody fibers4 ,the fluid pulp is carried by means of a helix1 i1 to a revolving perforated drum at e4 ,from this1 the milky starch flows into the jacket1 ,n1 while the pulp 7ligneous fibers7 makes its exit from the apparatus through the aperture1 n1 and falls into the reservoir1 o4 ,illustration3 ,,angele',s ,,potato-,,starch ,,apparatus4 ,the liquid from the jacket1 ,n1 passes to a refining sieve1 ,k1 which1 like the one before mentioned1 has a backward and forward motion1 and which is covered with very fine silk gauze in order to separate the very finest impurities from the milky starch4 ,the refined liquid then flows into the reservoir1 m1 and the impure mass of sediment runs into the pulp-reservoir1 o4 ,the pump1 l1 forces the milky liquid from the reservoir1 m1 to the settling back1 while the pulp is forced by a pump1 u1 from the receptacle1 o1 into a large pulp-reservoir4 ,the water necessary for the manufacture is forced by the pump1 a1 into the reservoir1 ,w1 from whence it flows1 through the pipes1 r1 into the different machines4 ,all the apparatus are set in motion by two shaftings1 q4 ,the principal shaft makes two hundred revolutions per minute1 but the velocity of that of the pumps is but fifty revolutions4--,polytech4 ,journ41 and ,bull4 ,musee de l',indust4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,simple ,,apparatus ,,for ,,describing ,,ellipses4 ,by ,prof4 ,e4,j4 ,,hallock4 ,a very simple apparatus for describing an oval or ellipse may be constructed by any apprentice or school boy as follows3 ,procure a straight piece of wood about inch wide by #a_/h inch thick and #ac inches long4 ,beginning inch from the end1 bore a row of small holes only large enough for a darning needle to pass through and half an inch apart4 ,mark the first one 7at ,a7 #j1 the third #a1 the fifth #b1 and so on to #ab1 so that the numbers represent the distance from ,o in inches4 ,a small slit may be made in the end of the ruler or strip of wood near ,a1 but a better plan is to attach a small clip on one side4 ,illustration3 ,,ellipse ,,instrument4 ,next procure a strong piece of linen thread about four feet long2 pass it through the eye of a coarse needle1 wax and twist it until it forms a single cord4 ,pass the needle upward through the hole marked #j1 and tie a knot in the end of the thread to prevent its slipping through4 ,the apparatus is now ready for immediate use4 ,it only remains to set it to the size of the oval desired4 ,suppose it is required to describe an ellipse the longer diameter of which is #h inches1 and the distance between the foci #e inches4 ,insert a pin or small tack loosely in the hole between #f and #g1 which is distant #f- inches from ,o4 ,pass the needle through hole #e1 allowing the thread to pass around the tack or pin2 draw it tightly and fasten it in the slit or clip at the end4 ,lay the apparatus on a smooth sheet of paper1 place the point of a pencil at ,e1 and keeping the string tight pass it around and describe the curve1 just in the same manner as when the two ends of the string are fastened to the paper at the foci4 ,the chief advantage claimed over the usual method is that it may be applied to metal and stone1 where it is difficult to attach a string4 ,on drawings it avoids the necessity of perforating the paper with pins4 ,as the pencil point is liable to slip out of the loop formed by the string1 it should have a nick cut or filed in one side1 like a crochet needle4 ,as the mechanic frequently wants to make an oval having a given width and length1 but does not know what the distance between the foci must be to produce this effect1 a few directions on this point may be useful3 ,it is a fact well known to mathematicians that if the distance between the foci and the shorter diameter of an ellipse be made the sides of a right angled triangle1 its hypothenuse will equal the greater diameter4 ,hence in order to find the distance between the foci1 when the length and width of the ellipse are known1 these two are squared and the lesser square subtracted from the greater1 when the square root of the difference will be the quantity sought4 ,for example1 if it be required to describe an ellipse that shall have a length of #e inches and a width of #c inches1 the distance between the foci will be found as follows3 7#e x #e7 - 7#c x #c7 7#d x #d7 or #be - #i #af and _/#af #d4 ,in the shop this distance may be found experimentally by laying a foot rule on a square so that one end of the former will touch the figure marking the lesser diameter on the latter1 and then bringing the figure on the rule that represents the greater diameter to the edge of the square2 the figure on the square at this point is the distance sought4 ,unfortunately they rarely represent whole numbers4 ,we present herewith a table giving the width to the eighth of an inch for several different ovals when the length and distance between foci are given4 ,length4 ,distance between foci4 ,width4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 #b #a #a #b #a #a #b #a #b #b #a #b #b #b #a #c #a #a #c #a #b-g_/h #c #b #b-e_/h #c #b #b #c #a #c-c_/h #c #a #c-a_/h #c #b #b-g_/h #c #b #b #c #c #a #d #b #c #d #b #c-a_/h #d #c #b-e_/h #d #c #b #e #c #d #e #d #c ,for larger ovals multiples of these numbers may be taken2 thus for #g and #d1 take from the table twice the width corresponding to #c and #b1 which is twice #b-g_/h1 or #e4 ,it will be noticed also that columns #b and #c are interchangeable4 ,to use the apparatus in connection with the table3 ,find the length of the desired oval in the first column of the table1 and the width most nearly corresponding to that desired in the third column4 ,the corresponding number in the middle column tells which hole the needle must be passed through4 ,the tack ,d1 around which the string must pass1 is so placed that the total length of the string ,,ad ,,dc1 or its equal ,,ae ,,ec1 shall equal the greater diameter of the ellipse4 ,in the figure it is placed #f inches from ,a1 and #a inches from ,c1 making the total length of string #h inches4 ,the oval described will then be #h inches long and #f inches wide4 ,the above table will be found equally useful in describing ovals by fastening the ends of the string to the drawing as is recommended in all the text books on the subject4 ,on the other hand1 the instrument may be set by guess when no particular accuracy is required4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,charcoal ,,in ,,kilns4 ,the manufacture of charcoal in kilns was declared many years ago1 after a series of experiments made in poorly constructed furnaces1 to be unprofitable1 and the subject is dismissed by most writers with the remark1 that in order to use the method economically the products of distillation1 both liquid and gaseous1 must be collected4 ,t4 ,egleston1 ,ph4,d41 of the ,school of ,mines1 ,new ,york1 has read a paper on the subject before the ,american ,institute of ,mining ,engineers1 from which we extract as follows3 ,as there are many ,,silver ,,districts ,,in ,,the ,,west where coke cannot be had at such a price as will allow of its being used1 and where the ores are of such a nature that wood cannot be used in a reverberatory furnace1 the most economical method of making charcoal is an important question4 ,kilns for the manufacture of charcoal are made of almost any shape and size1 determined in most cases by the fancy of the builder or by the necessities of the shape of the ground selected4 ,they do not differ from each other in any principle of manufacture1 nor does there seem to be any appreciable difference in the quality of the fuel they produce1 when the process is conducted with equal care in the different varieties2 but there is a considerable difference in the yield and in the cost of the process in favor of small over large kilns4 ,the different varieties have come into and gone out of use mainly on account of the cost of construction and of repairs4 ,the object of a kiln is to replace the cover of a meiler by a permanent structure4 ,intermediate between the meiler and the kiln is the ,foucauld system1 the object of which is to replace the cover by a structure more or less permanent1 which has all the disadvantages of both systems1 with no advantages peculiar to itself4 ,the kilns which are used may be divided into the rectangular1 the round1 and the conical1 but the first two seem to be disappearing before the last1 which is as readily built and much more easily managed4 ,,all ,,varieties ,,of ,,kilns ,are usually built of red brick1 or1 rarely1 of brick and stone together4 ,occasionally1 refractory brick is used1 but it is not necessary4 ,the foundations are usually made of stone4 ,there are several precautions necessary in constructing the walls4 ,the brick should be sufficiently hard to resist the fire1 and should therefore be tested before using4 ,it is an unnecessary expense to use either second or third quality fire-brick4 ,as the pyroligneous acid which results from the distillation of the wood attacks lime mortar1 it is best to lay up the brick with fire-clay mortar1 to which a little salt has been added2 sometimes loam mixed with coal-tar1 to which a little salt is also added1 is used4 ,as the principal office of this mortar is to fill the joints1 special care must be taken in laying the bricks that every joint is broken1 and frequent headers put in to tie the bricks together4 ,it is especially necessary that all the joints should be carefully filled1 as any small open spaces would admit air1 and would materially decrease the yield of the kiln4 ,the floor of the kiln was formerly made of two rows of brick set edgewise and carefully laid1 but latterly it is found to be best made of clay4 ,any material1 however1 that will pack hard may be used4 ,it must be well beaten down with paving mauls4 ,the center must be about six inches higher than the sides1 which are brought up to the bottom of the lower vents4 ,most kilns are carefully pointed1 and are then painted on the outside with a wash of clay suspended in water1 and covered with a coating of coal-tar1 which makes them waterproof1 and does not require to be renewed for several years4 ,illustration3 ,,rectangular ,,kilns ,,for ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,charcoal4 ,the kilns were formerly roofed over with rough boards to protect the masonry from the weather1 but as no special advantage was found to result from so doing1 since of late years they have been made water-proof1 the practice has been discontinued4 ,the wood used is cut about one and a fifth meters long4 ,the diameter is not considered of much importance1 except in so far as it is desirable to have it as nearly uniform as possible4 ,when most of the wood is small1 and only a small part of it is large1 the large pieces are usually split1 to make it pack well4 ,it has been found most satisfactory to have three rows of vents around the kiln1 which should be provided with a cast-iron frame reaching to the inside of the furnace4 ,the vents near the ground are generally five inches high--the size of two bricks--and four inches wide--the width of one--and the holes are closed by inserting one or two bricks in them4 ,they are usually the size of one brick1 and larger on the outside than on the inside4 ,these holes are usually from #j4de m4 to #j4fj m4 apart vertically1 and from #j4hj m4 to #j4ij m4 apart horizontally4 ,the lower vents start on the second row of the brickwork above the foundation1 and are placed on the level with the floor1 so that the fire can draw to the bottom4 ,there is sometimes an additional opening near the top to allow of the rapid escape of the smoke and gas at the time of firing1 which is then closed1 and kept closed until the kiln is discharged4 ,this applies mostly to the best types of conical kilns4 ,in the circular and conical ones the top charging door is sometimes used for this purpose4 ,hard and soft woods are burned indifferently in the kilns4 ,hard-wood coal weighs more than soft1 and the hard variety of charcoal is usually preferred for blast furnaces1 and for such purposes there is an advantage of fully #cc-a_/c per cent4 or even more in using hard woods4 ,for the direct process in the bloomaries1 soft-wood charcoal is preferred4 ,it is found that it is not usually advantageous to build kilns of over #afj to #ahj cubic meters in capacity4 ,larger furnaces have been used1 and give as good a yield1 but they are much more cumbersome to manage4 ,the largest yield got from kilns is from #ej to #fj bushels for hard wood to #ej for soft wood4 ,the average yield1 however1 is about #de bushels4 ,in meilers1 two and a half to three cords of wood are required for #ajj bushels1 or #cj to #dj bushels to the cord4 ,the kiln charcoal is very large1 so that the loss in fine coal is very much diminished4 ,the pieces usually come out the whole size1 and sometimes the whole length of the wood4 ,the rectangular kilns were those which were formerly exclusively in use4 ,they are generally built to contain from #cj to #ij cords of wood4 ,the usual sizes are given in the table below3 #a #b #c #d ,length #ej #dj #dj #dh ,width #ab #ae #ad #ag ,height #ab #ae #ah #ah ,capacity1 in cords #ee #gj #ge #ij #a and #b4 ,used in ,new ,england4 #c4 ,type of those used in ,mexico4 #d4 ,kiln at ,lauton1 ,mich4 ,the arch is usually an arc of a circle4 ,a kiln of the size of ,no4 #d1 as constructed at the ,michigan ,central ,iron ,works1 with a good burn1 will yield #d1jjj bushels of charcoal4 ,the vertical walls in the best constructions are #ab to #ac feet high1 and #a- brick thick1 containing from #bj to #eb bricks to the cubic foot of wall4 ,to insure sufficient strength to resist the expansion and contraction due to the heating and cooling1 they should be provided with buttresses which are #a brick thick and #b wide1 as at ,wassaic1 ,new ,york2 but many of them are built without them1 as at ,lauton1 ,michigan1 as shown in the engraving4 ,in both cases they are supported with strong braces1 from #c to #d feet apart1 made of round or hewn wood1 or of cast iron1 which are buried in the ground below1 and are tied above and below with iron rods1 as in the engraving1 and the lower end passing beneath the floor of the kiln4 ,when made of wood they are usually #h inches square or round1 or sometimes by #h inches placed edgewise4 ,they are sometimes tied at the top with wooden braces of the same size1 which are securely fastened by iron rods running through the corners1 as shown4 ,when a number of kilns are built together1 as at the ,michigan ,central ,iron ,works1 at ,lauton1 ,michigan1 shown in the plan view1 only the end kilns are braced in this way4 ,the intermediate ones are supported below by wooden braces1 securely fastened at the bottom4 ,the roof is always arched1 is one brick1 or eight inches1 thick1 and is laid in headers1 fourteen being used in each superficial foot4 ,many of the kilns have in the center a round hole1 from sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter1 which is closed by a cast iron plate4 ,it requires from #ce ,m4 to #dj ,m4 brick for a kiln of #de cords1 and #fj ,m4 to #fe ,m4 for one of #ij cords4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the belief that population in the ,west ,indies is stationary is so far from accurate that1 as ,sir ,anthony ,musgrave points out1 it is increasing more rapidly than the population of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the statistics of population show an increase of #af per cent4 on the last decennial period1 while the increase in the ,united ,kingdom in the ten years preceding the last census was under #aa per cent4 ,this increase appears to be general1 and is only slightly influenced by immigration4 ,the population of the ,west ,indies1 adds ,sir ,a4 ,musgrave1 is now greater than that of any of the larger ,australian colonies1 and three times that of ,new ,zealand4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,heat ,,developed ,,in ,,forging4 ,m4 ,tresca has lately presented to the ,academy of ,sciences some very interesting experiments on the development and distribution of heat produced by a blow of the steam hammer in the process of forging4 ,the method used was as follows3 ,the bar was carefully polished on both sides1 and this polished part covered with a thin layer of wax4 ,it was then placed on an anvil and struck by a monkey of known weight1 ,p1 falling from a height1 ,h4 ,the faces of the monkey and anvil were exactly alike1 and care was taken that the whole work1 ,t ,,ph1 should be expended upon the bar4 ,a single blow was enough to melt the wax over a certain zone2 and this indicated clearly how much of the lateral faces had been raised by the shock to the temperature of melting wax4 ,the form of this melted part could be made to differ considerably1 but approximated to that of an equilateral hyperbola4 ,let ,a be the area of this zone1 b the width of the bar1 d the density1 ,c the heat capacity1 and t-t#j the excess of temperature of melting wax over the temperature of the air4 ,then1 assuming that the area1 ,a1 is the base of a horizontal prism1 which is everywhere heated to the temperature1 t1 the heating effect produced will be expressed by ,ab x d x ,c7t-t#j7 ,multiplying this by #dbe1 or ,joule's equivalent for the metrical system1 the energy developed in heat is given by ,t#a #dbe ,abd,c7t-t#j74 ,dividing ,t#a by ,t1 we obtain the ratio which the energy developed in heat bears to the total energy of the blow4 ,with regard to the form of the zone of melting1 it was found always to extend round the edges of the indent produced in the bar by the blow4 ,we are speaking for the present of cases where the faces of the monkey and anvil were sharp4 ,on the sides of the bar the zone took the form of a sort of cross with curved arms1 the arms being thinner or thicker according to the greater or less energy of the shock4 ,these forms are shown in ,figs4 #a to #f4 ,it will be seen that these zones correspond to the zones of greatest sliding in the deformation of a bar forged with a sharp edged hammer1 showing in fact that it is the mechanical work done in this sliding which is afterward transformed into heat4 ,illustration ,with regard to the ratio1 above mentioned1 between the heat developed and the energy of the blow1 it is very much greater than had been expected when the other sources of loss were taken into consideration4 ,in some cases it reached #hj per cent41 and in a table given the limits vary for an iron bar between #fh4d per cent4 with an energy of #dj kilogram-meters1 and #hc4f per cent4 with an energy of #ij kilogram-meters4 ,with copper the energy is nearly constant at #gj per cent4 ,it will be seen that the proportion is less when the energy is less1 and it also diminishes with the section of the bar4 ,this is no doubt due to the fact that the heat is then conducted away more rapidly4 ,on the whole1 the results are summed up by ,m4 ,tresca as follows3 7#a7 ,the development of heat depends on the form of the faces and the energy of the blow4 7#b7 ,in the case of faces with sharp edges1 the process described allows this heat to be clearly indicated4 7#c7 ,the development of heat is greatest where the shearing of the material is strongest4 ,this shearing is therefore the mechanical cause which produces the heating effect4 7#d7 ,with a blow of sufficient energy and a bar of sufficient size1 about #hj per cent4 of the energy reappears in the heat4 7#e7 ,the figures formed by the melted wax give a sort of diagram1 showing the distribution of the heat and the character of the deformation in the bar4 7#f7 ,where the energy is small the calculation of the percentage is not reliable4 ,so far we have spoken only of cases where the anvil and monkey have sharp faces4 ,where the faces are rounded the phenomena are somewhat different4 ,figs4 #g to #ab give the area of melted wax in the case of bars struck with blows gradually increasing in energy4 ,it will be seen that1 instead of commencing at the edges of the indent1 the fusion begins near the middle1 and appears in small triangular figures1 which gradually increase in width and depth until at last they meet at the apex1 as in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the explanation is that with the rounded edges the compression at first takes place only in the outer layers of the bar1 the inner remaining comparatively unaffected4 ,hence the development of heat is concentrated on these outer layers1 so long as the blows are moderate in intensity4 ,the same thing had already been remarked in cases of holes punched with a rounded punch1 where the burr1 when examined1 was found to have suffered the greatest compression just below the punch4 ,with regard to the percentage of energy developed as heat1 it was about the same as in the previous experiments1 reaching in one case1 with an iron bar and with an energy of #aaj kilogram-meters1 the exceedingly high figure of #ia per cent4 ,with copper1 the same figure varied between #ej and #fj per cent4--,iron4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,novel ,,propeller ,,engine4 ,by ,prof4 ,c4,w4 ,mac,cord4 ,the accompanying engravings illustrate the arrangement of a propeller engine of #bj inch bore and #bb inch stroke1 whose cylinder and valve gear were recently designed by the writer1 and are in process of construction by ,messrs4 ,valk ,murdoch1 of ,charleston1 ,s4,c4 ,in the principal features of the engine1 taken as a whole1 as will be perceived1 there is no new departure4 ,the main slide valve1 following nearly full stroke1 is of the ordinary form1 and reversed by a shifting link actuated by two eccentrics1 in the usual manner2 and the expansion valves are of the well known ,meyer type1 consisting of two plates on the back of the main valve1 driven by a third eccentric1 and connected by a right and left handed screw1 the turning of which alters the distance between the plates and the point of cutting off4 ,the details of this mechanism1 however1 present several novel features1 of which the following description will be understood by reference to the detached cuts1 which are drawn upon a larger scale than the general plan shown in ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #a-b ,,improved ,,steam ,,engine4--,,by ,,prof ,,maccord4 ,the first of these relates to the arrangement of the right and left handed screw1 above mentioned1 and of the device by which it is rotated4 ,usually1 the threads1 both right handed and left handed1 are cut upon the cut-off valve stem itself1 which must be so connected with the eccentric rod as to admit of being turned2 and in most cases the valve stem extends through both ends of the steam chest1 so that it must both slide endwise and turn upon its axis in two stuffing boxes1 necessarily of comparatively large size4 ,all this involves considerable friction1 and in the engine under consideration an attempt has been made to reduce the amount of this friction1 and to make the whole of this part of the gear neater and more compact1 in the following manner3 ,two small valve stems are used1 which are connected at their lower ends by a crosstail actuated directly by the eccentric rod1 and at their upper ends by a transverse yoke4 ,this yoke1 filling snugly between two collars formed upon a sleeve which it embraces1 imparts a longitudinal motion to the latter1 while at the same time leaving it free to rotate4 ,this sleeve has cut upon it the right and left handed screws for adjusting the cut-off valves2 and it slides freely upon a central spindle which has no longitudinal motion1 but1 projecting through the upper end of the valve chest1 can be turned at pleasure by means of a bevel wheel and pinion4 ,the rotation of the spindle is communicated to the sleeve by means of two steel keys fixed in the body of the latter and projecting inwardly so as to slide in corresponding longitudinal grooves in the spindle4 ,thus the point of cutting off is varied at will while the engine is running1 by means of the hand wheel on the horizontal axis of the bevel pinion1 and a small worm on the same axis turns the index1 which points out upon the dial the distance followed4 ,these details are shown in ,figs4 #c1 #d1 and #e2 in further explanation of which it may be added that ,fig4 #c is a front view of the valve chest and its contents1 the cover1 and also the balance plate for relieving the pressure on the back of the main valve 7in the arrangement of which there is nothing new71 being removed in order to show the valve stems1 transverse yoke1 sleeve1 and spindle above described4 ,fig4 #d is a longitudinal section1 and ,fig4 #e is a transverse section1 the right hand side showing the cylinder cut by a plane through the middle of the exhaust port1 the left hand side being a section by a plane above1 for the purpose of exhibiting more clearly the manner in which the steam is admitted to the valve chest2 the latter having no pipes for this service1 the steam enters below the valve1 at each end of the chest1 just as it escapes in the center4 ,the second noteworthy feature consists in this3 that the cut-off eccentric is not keyed fast1 as is customary when valve gear of this kind is employed1 but is loose upon the shaft1 the angular position in relation to the crank being changed when the engine is reversed2 two strong lugs are bolted on the shaft1 one driving the eccentric in one direction1 the other in the opposite1 by acting against the reverse faces of a projection from the side of ,the eccentric pulley4 ,the loose eccentric is of course a familiar arrangement in connection with poppet valves1 as well as for the purpose of reversing an engine when driving a single slide valve4 ,its use in connection with the ,meyer cut-off valves1 however1 is believed to be new2 and the reason for its employment will be understood by the aid of ,fig4 #f4 ,for the purposes of this explanation we may neglect the angular vibrations of the connecting rod and eccentric rod1 considering them both as of infinite length4 ,let ,o be the center of the shaft2 let ,l ,o ,m represent the face of the main valve seat1 in which is shown the port leading to the cylinder2 and let ,a be the edge of the main valve1 at the beginning of a stroke of the piston4 ,it will then be apparent that the center of the eccentric must at that instant be at the point1 ,c1 if the engine turn to the left1 as shown by the arrow1 and at ,g1 if the rotation be in the opposite direction2 ,c and ,g then may be taken as the centers of the go-ahead and the backing eccentrics respectively1 which operate the main valve through the intervention of the link4 ,now1 in each revolution of the engine1 the cut-off eccentric in effect revolves in the same direction about the center of the main eccentric4 ,consequently1 we may let ,r ,c ,s1 parallel to ,l ,o ,m1 represent the face of the cut-off valve seat1 or1 in other words1 the back of the main valve1 in which the port1 ,c ,n1 corresponds to one of those shown in ,fig4 #d2 and the motion of the cut-off valve over this seat will be precisely1 the same as though it were driven directly by an eccentric revolving around the center1 ,c4 ,in determining the position of this eccentric1 we proceed upon the assumption that the best results will be effected by such an arrangement that when cutting off at the earliest point required1 the cut-off valve shall1 at the instant of closing the port1 be moving over it at its highest speed4 ,and this requires that the center of the eccentric shall at the instant in question lie in the vertical line through ,c4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #c-ab ,,improved ,,steam ,,engine4--,,by ,,prof ,,maccord4 ,next1 the least distance to be followed being assigned1 the angle through which the crank will turn while the piston is traveling that distance is readily found2 then1 drawing an indefinite line ,c ,t1 making with the vertical line1 ,g ,o1 an angle1 ,g ,c ,t4 equal to the one thus determined1 any point upon that line may be assumed as the position of the required center of the cut-off eccentric1 at the beginning of the stroke4 ,but again1 in order that the cut-off may operate in the same manner when backing as when going ahead1 this eccentric must be symmetrically situated with respect to both ,c and ,g2 and since ,l ,o ,m bisects and is perpendicular to ,g ,c1 it follows that if the cut-off eccentric be fixed on the shaft1 its center must be located at ,h1 the intersection of ,c ,t with ,l ,m4 ,this would require the edge of the cut-off valve at the given instant to be at ,q1 perpendicularly over ,h2 and the travel over the main valve would be equal to twice ,c ,h1 the virtual lever arm of the eccentric1 the actual traverse in the valve chest being twice ,o ,h1 the real eccentricity4 ,this being clearly excessive1 let us next see what will occur if the lever arm1 ,,ch1 be reduced as in the diagram to ,,ck4 ,the edge of the cut-off valve will then be at ,n2 it instantly begins to close the port4 ,,cn1 but not so rapidly as the main valve opens the port1 ,,ab4 ,the former motion increases in rapidity1 while the latter decreases2 therefore at some point they will become equal in velocity1 and the openings of the two ports will be the same2 and the question is1 ,will this maximum effective port area give a sufficient supply of steam8 ,this diagram is the same as the one actually used in the engine under consideration1 in which it was required to follow a minimum distance of #e inches in the stroke of #bb4 ,under these conditions it is found that the actual port opening for that point of cutting off is three-fifths of that allowed when following full stroke1 whereas the speed of the piston at the time when this maximum opening occurs is less than half its greatest speed4 ,this1 it would seem1 is ample2 but we now find the eccentric1 ,k1 no longer in the right position for backing2 when the engine is reversed it ought to be at1 ,p1 the angle1 ,,pol1 being equal to the angle1 ,,kol4 ,by leaving it free1 therefore1 to move upon the shaft1 by the means above described1 through the angle1 ,,kop1 the desired object is accomplished4 ,the real eccentricity is now reduced in the proportion of ,,ok to ,,oh1 while the lengths of the cut-off valves1 and what is equally important1 their travel over the back of the main valve1 are reduced in the proportion of ,,ck to ,,ch1 in this instance nearly one-half2 a gain quite sufficient to warrant the adoption of the expedient4 ,the third1 and perhaps the most notable1 peculiarity is the manner of suspending and operating the main link4 ,as before stated1 this link is used only for reversing1 and is therefore always in full gear in one direction or the other2 and the striking feature of the arrangement here used is that1 whether going ahead or backing1 there is no slipping of the link upon the link block4 ,the link itself is of the simplest form1 being merely a curved flat bar1 ,l1 in which are two holes1 ,a and ,b 7,fig4 #g71 by which the link is hung upon the pins1 which project from the sides of the eccentric rods at their upper ends4 ,this is most clearly shown in ,fig4 #h1 which is a top view of the reversing gear4 ,the link block is a socket1 open on the side next to the eccentric rods1 but closed on the side opposite1 from which projects the journal1 ,j1 as shown in ,fig4 #i1 which is a vertical section by the plane1 ,,xy4 ,this journal turns freely in the outer end of a lever1 ,m1 which transmits the reciprocating motion to the valve1 through the rock-shaft1 ,o1 and another lever1 ,n4 ,connected with the lever1 ,m1 by the bridge-piece1 ,k1 and facing it1 is a slotted arm1 ,g1 as shown in the end view1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,the center line of this slot lies in the plane which contains the axes of the journal1 ,j1 and of the shaft1 ,o4 ,a block1 ,e1 is fitted to slide in the slotted arm1 ,g2 and in this block is fixed a pin1 ,p4 ,a bridle-rod1 ,r1 connects ,p with the pin1 ,a1 of one of the eccentric-rods1 prolonged for that purpose as shown in ,fig4 #h2 and a suspension-rod1 ,s1 connects the same pin1 ,p1 with the upper end of the reversing lever1 ,t1 which is operated by the worm and sector4 ,the distance1 ,,jo1 in ,fig4 #aj1 or in other words the length of the lever1 ,m1 is precisely equal to the distance1 ,,ab1 in ,fig4 #g1 measured in a right line2 and the rods1 ,r and ,s1 from center to center of the eyes1 are also each of precisely this same length4 ,further1 the axis about which the reversing lever1 ,t1 vibrates is so situated that when that lever1 as in ,fig #aa1 is thrown full to the left1 the pin in its upper end is exactly in line with the rock-shaft1 ,o4 ,when the parts are in this position1 the suspension-rod1 ,s1 the arm1 ,g1 and the lever1 ,m1 will be as one piece1 and their motions will be identical1 consisting simply of vibration about the axis of the rock-shaft1 ,o4 ,the motion of the lever1 ,m1 is then due solely to the pin1 ,b1 which is in this case exactly in line with the journal1 ,j1 so that the result is the same as though this eccentric rod were connected directly to the lever2 and the pin1 ,p1 being also in line with ,b and ,j1 and kept so by the suspension-rod1 ,s1 it will be seen that the bridle-rod1 ,r1 will move with the link1 ,l1 as though the two were rigidly fastened together4 ,when the reversing lever1 ,t1 is thrown full to the right1 as in ,fig4 #ab1 the pin1 ,p1 is drawn to the inner end of the slot in the arm1 ,g1 and is thus exactly in line with the rock-shaft1 ,o4 ,the suspension-rod1 ,s1 will1 therefore1 be at rest2 but the pin1 ,a1 will have been drawn1 by the bridle-rod1 ,r1 into line with the journal1 ,j1 and the bridle-rod itself will now vibrate with the lever1 ,m1 whose sole motion will be derived from the pin1 ,a4 ,there is1 then1 no block slip whatever when the link thus suspended and operated is run in full gear1 either forward or backward4 ,if this arrangement be used in cases where the link is used as an expansion device1 there will be1 of course1 some block slip while running in the intermediate gears4 ,but even then1 it is to be observed that the motion of the pin1 ,a1 relatively to the rocker arm is one of vibration about the moving center1 ,j2 and its motion relatively to the sliding block1 ,e1 is one of vibration about the center1 ,p1 whose motion relatively to ,e is a small amount of sliding in the direction of the slot1 due to the fact that the rocker arm itself1 which virtually carries the block1 ,e1 vibrates about ,o1 while the suspension-rod1 ,s1 vibrates about another fixed center4 ,it will thus be seen that1 finally1 the block slip will be determined by the difference in curvature of arcs which curve in the same direction1 whether the engine be running forward or backward2 whereas in the common modes of suspension the block slip in one direction is substantially the half sum of the curvatures of two arcs curving in opposite directions4 ,consequently it would appear that the average action of the new arrangement would be at least equal to that of the old in respect to reducing the block slip when running in the intermediate gears1 while in the full gears it entirely obviates that objectionable feature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,russian ,,torpedo ,,boat1 ,,the ,,poti4 ,the ,russian government has just had built at the shipyards of ,mr4 ,normand1 the celebrated ,havre engineer1 a torpedo boat called the ,poti1 which we herewith illustrate4 ,this vessel perceptibly differs from all others of her class1 at least as regards her model4 ,her extremities1 which are strongly depressed in the upperworks1 and the excessive inclination of her sides1 give the boat as a whole a certain resemblance to the rams of our navy1 such as the ,taureau and ,tigre4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,russian ,,torpedo ,,boat1 ,,the ,,poti4 ,a transverse section of the ,poti approaches an ellipse in shape4 ,her water lines are exceedingly fine1 and1 in point of elegance1 in no wise cede to those of the most renowned yachts4 ,the vessel is entirely of steel1 and her dimensions are as follows3 ,length1 #bh meters2 extreme breadth1 #c4f meters2 depth1 #b4e meters2 draught1 #a4i meters2 displacement1 #ff tons4 ,the engine1 which is a compound one1 is of #fjj ,h4,p4 ,the minimum speed required is #ah knots1 or #cc-cd meters1 per hour1 and it will probably reach #dj kilometers4 ,the vessel will be armed with #d ,whitehead torpedoes of #e4h m41 and #b ,hotchkiss guns of #dj cm4 ,her supply of coal will be sufficient for a voyage of #ajjj nautical miles at a speed of #aa knots4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,steamer ,,propelled ,,by ,,hydraulic ,,reaction4 ,the oar1 the helix1 and the paddle-wheel constitute at present the means of propulsion that are exclusively employed when one has recourse to a motive power for effecting the propulsion of a boat4 ,the sail constitutes an entirely different mode1 and should not figure in our enumeration1 considering the essentially variable character of the force utilized4 ,in all these propellers1 we have only an imitation1 very often a rude one1 of the processes which nature puts in play in fishes and mollusks1 and the mode that we now wish to make known is without contradiction that which imitates these the best4 ,hydraulic propulsion by reaction consists1 in principle1 in effecting a movement of boats1 by sucking in water at the bow and forcing it out at the stern4 ,this is a very old idea4 ,naturalists cite whole families of mollusks that move about in this way with great rapidity4 ,it is probable that such was the origin of the first idea of this mode of operating4 ,however this may be1 as long ago as #affa a patent was taken out in ,england1 on this principle1 by ,toogood ,hayes4 ,after this we find the patents of ,allen 7#agbi7 and ,rumsay 7#aghh74 ,in ,france1 ,daniel ,bernouilli presented to the ,acadmic des ,sciences a similar project during the last century4 ,mr4 ,seydell was the first to build a vessel on this principle4 ,this ship1 which was called the ,enterprise1 was of #ajj tons burden1 and was constructed at ,edinburgh for marine fishery4 ,the success of this was incomplete1 but it was sufficient to show all the advantage that could be got from the idea4 ,another boat1 the ,albert1 was built at ,stettin1 after the same type and at about the same epoch2 and the question was considered of placing a reaction propeller upon the ,great ,eastern4 ,about #ahfj the question was taken up again by the house of ,cokerill de ,seraing1 which built the ,seraing ,no4 #b1 that did service as an excursion boat between ,lige and ,seraing4 ,the propeller of this consisted of a strong centrifugal pump1 with vertical axis1 actuated by a low pressure engine4 ,this pump sucked water into a perforated channel at the bottom of the boat1 and forced it through a spiral pipe to the propelling tubes4 ,these latter consisted of two elbowed pipes issuing from the sides of the vessel and capable of pivoting in the exhaust ports in such a way as to each turn its mouth downward at will1 backward or forward4 ,the water expelled by the elbowed pipes reacted through pressure1 as in the hydraulic tourniquet of cabinets of physics1 and effected the propulsion of the vessel4 ,upon turning the two mouths of the propelling tubes backward1 the boat was thrust forward1 and1 when they were turned toward the front1 she was thrust backward4 ,when one was turned toward the front and the other toward the stern1 the boat swung around4 ,finally1 when the two mouths were placed vertically the boat remained immovable4 ,all the evolutions were easy1 even without the help of the rudder1 and the ways in which the propelling tubes could be placed were capable of being varied ad infinitum by a system of levers4 ,the ,seraing ,no4 #b had an engine of a nominal power of #dj horses1 and took on an average #cj minutes to make the trip1 backward and forward1 of #he kilometers1 with four stoppages4 ,the success obtained was perfect1 and the running was most satisfactory4 ,it was remarked1 only1 that from the standpoint of effective duty it would have been desirable to reduce the velocity of the water at its exit from the propellers4 ,mr4 ,poillon attributes the small effective performance to the system employed for putting the water in motion4 ,at time of ,mr4 ,seraing's experiments1 only centrifugal force pumps were known1 and the theoretic effective duty of these1 whatever be the peculiar system of construction1 cannot exceed #ff per cent41 and1 in practice1 falls to #dj or #ej per cent4 in the majority of cases4 ,it is probable1 then1 that in making use of those new rotary pumps where effective duty reaches and often exceeds #hj per cent41 we might obtain much better results1 and it is this that justifies the new researches that have been undertaken by ,messrs4 ,maginot ,pinette1 whose first experiments we are about to make known4 ,in order to have it understood what interest attaches to these researches1 let us state the principal advantages that this mode of propulsion will have over the helix and paddle wheel3 ,the width of side-wheel boats will be reduced by from #bj to #cj per cent41 and the draught of water will be diminished in screw steamers to that of the hull itself2 the maneuver in which the power of the engine might be directly employed will be simplified2 a machine will be had of a sensibly constant speed1 and without change in its running2 the production of waves capable of injuring the banks of canals will be avoided2 the propeller will be capable of being utilized as a bilge pump2 all vibration will be suppressed2 the boat will be able to run at any speed under good conditions1 while the helix works well only when the speed of the vessel corresponds to its pitch2 it will be possible to put the propelling apparatus under water2 and1 finally1 it will be possible to run the pump directly by the shaft of the high speed engine1 without intermediate gearing1 which is something that would prove a very great advantage in the case of electric pleasure boats actuated by piles and accumulators and dynamo-electric machines4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,steamer ,,propelled ,,by ,,hydraulic ,,reaction4 ,we now arrive at ,messrs4 ,maginot ,pinette's system1 the description of which will be greatly facilitated by the diagram that accompanies this article4 ,the inventors have employed a boat #ad meters in length by #a4h m4 in width1 and #fe centimeters draught behind and #cb in front4 ,the section of the midship beam is #gj square decimeters1 and that of the exhaust port is #d4 ,at a speed of #b4b meters per second the tractive stress1 ,k1 is from #aj to #aa kilogrammes4 ,at a speed of #ac4e kilometers per hour1 or #c4ge meters per second1 the engine develops a power of #ab horses4 ,the piston is #ai centimeters in diameter1 and has a stroke of #ae centimeters4 ,the shaft1 in common1 of the pump and engine makes #daj revolutions per minute4 ,it will be seen from the figure that suction occurs at the lower part of the hull1 at ,a1 and that the water is forced out at ,b1 to impel the vessel forward4 ,c and ,c' are the tubes for putting the vessel about1 and ,,dd' the tubes for causing her to run backward4 ,owing to the tubes1 ,c1 ,c'1 the rudder has but small dimensions and is only used for directing the boat4 ,the vessel may be turned about in situ by opening one of the receiving tubes1 according to the side toward which it is desired to turn4 ,this boat is as yet only in an experimental state1 and the first trials of her that have recently been made upon the ,sane have shown the necessity of certain modifications that the inventors are now at work upon4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,form ,,of ,,flexible ,,band ,,dynamometer4 ,footnote3 ,read before ,section ,g of ,british ,association4 ,by ,professor ,w4,c4 ,,unwin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,in the ordinary strap dynamometer a flexible band1 sometimes carrying segments of wood blocks1 is hung over a pulley rotated by the motor1 the power of which is to be measured4 ,if the pulley turns with left-handed rotation1 the friction would carry the strap toward the left1 unless the weight1 ,q1 were greater than ,p4 ,if the belt does not slip in either direction when the pulley rotates under it1 then ,q-,p exactly measures the friction on the surface of the pulley2 and ,v being the surface velocity of the pulley 7,q-,p7,v1 is exactly the work consumed by the dynamometer4 ,but the work consumed in friction can be expressed in another way4 ,putting theta for the arc embraced by the belt1 and mu for the coefficient of friction1 ,q_/,p epsilonmutheta1 or for a given arc of contact ,q kappa,p1 where kappa depends only on the coefficient of friction1 increasing as mu increases1 and vice versa4 ,hence1 for the belt to remain at rest with two fixed weights1 ,q and ,p1 it is necessary that the coefficient of friction should be exactly constant4 ,but this constancy cannot be obtained4 ,the coefficient of friction varies with the condition of lubrication of the surface of the pulley1 which alters during the running and with every change in the velocity and temperature of the rubbing surfaces4 ,consequently1 in a dynamometer in this simple form more or less violent oscillations of the weights are set up1 which cannot be directly controlled without impairing the accuracy of the dynamometer4 ,professors ,ayrton and ,perry have recently used a modification of this dynamometer1 in which the part of the cord nearest to ,p is larger and rougher than the part nearest to ,q4 ,the effect of this is that when the coefficients of friction increase1 ,q rises a little1 and diminishes the amount of the rougher cord in contact1 and vice versa4 ,thus reducing the friction1 notwithstanding the increase of the coefficient4 ,this is very ingenious1 and the only objection to it1 if it is an objection1 is that only a purely empirical adjustment of the friction can be obtained1 and that the range of the adjustment cannot be very great4 ,if in place of one of the weights we use a spring balance1 as in ,figs4 #b and #c1 we get a dynamometer which automatically adjusts itself to changes in the coefficient of friction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4#b ,,fig4#c ,for any increase in the coefficient1 the spring in ,fig4 #b lengthens1 ,q increases1 and the frictional resistance on the surface of the pulley increases1 both in consequence of the increase of ,q1 which increases the pressure on the pulley1 and of the increase of the coefficient of friction4 ,similarly for any increase of the coefficient of friction1 the spring in ,fig4 #c shortens1 ,p diminishes1 and the friction on the surface of the pulley diminishes so far as the diminution of ,p diminishes the normal pressure1 but on the whole increases in consequence of the increase of the coefficient of friction4 ,the value of the friction on the surface of the pulley1 however1 is more constant for a given variation of the frictional coefficient in ,fig4 #c than in ,fig4 #b1 and the variation of the difference of tensions to be measured is less4 ,fig4 #c1 therefore1 is the better form4 ,a numerical calculation here may be useful4 ,supposing the break set to a given difference of tension1 ,q-,p1 and that in consequence of any cause the coefficient of friction increases #bj per cent41 the difference of tensions for an ordinary value of the coefficient of friction would increase from #a4e ,p to #b ,p in ,fig4 #b1 and from #a4e ,p to #a4fg ,p in ,fig4 #c4 ,that is1 the vibration of the spring1 and the possible error of measurement of the difference of tension would be much greater in ,fig4 #b than in ,fig4 #c4 ,it has recently occurred to the author that a further change in the dynamometer would make the friction on the pulley still more independent of changes in the coefficient of friction1 and consequently the measurement of the work absorbed still more accurate4 ,suppose the cord taken twice over a pulley fixed on the shaft driven by the motor and round a fixed pulley1 ,c4 ,for clearness1 the pulleys1 ,a ,b1 are shown of different sizes1 but they are more conveniently of the same size4 ,further1 let the spring balance be at the free end of the cord toward which the pulley runs4 ,then it will be found that a variation of #bj per cent4 in the friction produces a somewhat greater variation of ,p than in ,fig4 #c4 ,but ,p is now so much smaller than before that ,q-,p is much less affected by any error in the estimate of ,p4 ,an alteration of #bj per cent4 in the friction will only alter the quantity ,q-,p from #e4be ,p to #e4ee ,p1 or an alteration of less than #f per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,to put it in another way1 the errors in the use of dynamometer are due to the vibration of the spring which measures ,p1 and are caused by variations of the coefficient of friction of the dynamometer4 ,by making ,p very much smaller than in the usual form of the dynamometer1 any errors in determining it have much less influence on the measurement of the work absorbed4 ,we may go further4 ,the cord may be taken over four pulleys2 in that case a variation of #bj per cent4 in the frictional coefficient only alters the total friction on the pulleys #a percent4 ,p is now so insignificant compared with ,q that an error in determining it is of comparatively little consequence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e ,the dynamometer is now more powerful in absorbing work than in the form ,fig4 #c4 ,as to the practical construction of the brake1 the author thinks that simple wires for the flexible bands1 lying in ,v grooves in the pulleys1 of no great acuteness1 would give the greatest resistance with the least variation of the coefficient of friction2 the heat developed being in that case neutralized by a jet of water on the pulley4 ,it would be quite possible with a pulley of say #c feet diameter1 and running at #ej feet of surface velocity per second1 to have a sufficiently flexible wire1 capable of carrying #ajj lb4 as the greater load1 ,q4 ,now with these proportions a brake of the form in ,fig4 #c would1 with a probable value of the coefficient of friction1 absorb #f horse power4 ,with a brake in the form ,fig4 #d1 #h4b horse power would be absorbed2 and with a brake in the form ,fig4 #e1 #h4h horse power would be absorbed4 ,but since it would be easy to have two1 three1 or more wires side by side1 each carrying its load of #ajj lb41 large amounts of horsepower could be conveniently absorbed and measured4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,see',s ,,gas ,,stove4 ,this stove consists of two or more superposed pipes provided with radiators4 ,a gas burner is placed at the entrance of either the upper or lower pipe1 according to circumstances4 ,the products of combustion are discharged through a pipe of small diameter1 which may be readily inserted into an already existing chimney or be hidden behind the wainscoting4 ,the heat furnished by the gas flame is so well absorbed by radiation from the radiator rings that the gases1 on making their exit1 have no longer a temperature of more than from #ce to #dj degrees4 ,illustration3 ,,see',s ,,gas ,,stove4 ,the apparatus1 which is simple1 compact1 and cheap1 is surrounded on all sides with an ornamented sheet iron casing4 ,being entirely of cast iron1 it will last for a long time4 ,the joints1 being of asbestos1 are absolutely tight1 so as to prevent the escape of bad odors4 ,the water due to the condensation of the gases is led through a small pipe out of doors or into a vessel from whence it may evaporate anew1 so as not to change the hygrometric state of the air4 ,the consumption of gas is very small1 it taking but #bej liters per hour to heat a room of #hj cubic meters to a temperature of #ah ,c4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the number of persons killed by wild animals and snakes in ,india last year was #bb1abe1 against #ba1dbg in the previous year1 and of cattle1 #df1gjg1 against #dd1ffi4 ,of the human beings destroyed1 #b1fjf were killed by wild animals1 and #ai1eai by snakes4 ,of the deaths occasioned by the attacks of wild animals1 #hie were caused by tigers1 #bgh by wolves1 #bjg by leopards1 #cef by jackals1 and #bjb by alligators2 #ah1eia wild animals and #cbb1dba snakes were destroyed1 for which the ,government paid rewards amounting to #ada1fec rupees4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rectification ,,of ,,alcohol ,,by ,,electricity4 ,some time ago1 ,mr4 ,laurent ,naudin1 it will be remembered1#a devised a method of converting the aldehydes that give a bad taste and odor to impure spirits1 into alcohol1 through electrolytic hydrogen1 the apparatus first employed being a zinc-copper couple1 and afterward electrolyzers with platinum plates4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement of ,july #bi1 #ahhb1 p4 #edgb4 ,his apparatus had been in operation for several months1 in the distillery of ,mr4 ,boulet1 at ,bapeaume-les-,rouen1 when a fire in ,december1 #ahha1 completely destroyed that establishment4 ,in reconstructing his apparatus1 ,mr4 ,naudin has availed himself of the experience already acquired1 and has necessarily had to introduce important modifications and simplifications into the process4 ,in the zinc-copper couple1 he had in the very first place proposed to employ zinc in the form of clippings2 but the metal in this state presents grave inconveniences1 since the subsidence of the lower part1 under the influence of the zinc's weight1 soon proves an obstacle to the free circulation of the liquids1 and1 besides this1 the cleaning presents insurmountable difficulties4 ,this is why he substituted for the clippings zinc in straight and corrugated plates such as may be easily found in commerce4 ,the management and cleaning of the pile thus became very simple4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,apparatus ,,for ,,hydrogenizing ,,impure ,,spirits4 ,the apparatus that contains the zinc-copper couple now has the form shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,it may be cylindrical1 as here represented1 or1 what is better1 rectangular1 because of the square form under which the sheets of zinc are found in commerce4 ,in this vessel of wood or iron plate1 ,p1 the corrugated zinc plates1 b1 b'1 b1 are placed one above the other1 each alternating with a flat one1 a1 a'1 a4 ,these plates have previously been scoured1 first with a weak solution of caustic soda in order to remove every trace of fatty matter derived from rolling1 and then with very dilute hydrochloric acid1 and finally are washed with common water4 ,in order to facilitate the disengagement of hydrogen during the reaction1 care must be taken to form apertures in the zinc plates1 and to incline the first lower row with respect to the bottom of the vessel4 ,a cubical pile of #aej hectoliters contains #aje rows of ,no4 #af flat and corrugated zinc plates1 whose total weight is #f1bjj kilogrammes4 ,we obtain thus a hydrogenizing surface of #a1hjj square meters1 or #ab square meters per hectoliter of impure spirits of #ej to #fj ,gay-,lussac4 ,the raw impure spirits enter the apparatus through the upper pipe1 ,e1 and1 after a sufficient stay therein1 are drawn off through the lower pipe1 ,h1 into a reservoir1 ,r1 from whence1 by means of a pump1 they are forced to the rectifier4 ,the hydrogen engendered during the electrolysis is disengaged through an aperture in the cover of the pile4 ,as a measure of precaution1 the hydrogen saturated with alcoholic vapors may be forced to traverse a small1 cooled room4 ,the liquefied alcohol returns to the pile4 ,at a mean temperature of #ae1 the quantity of alcohol carried along mechanically is insignificant4 ,in order to secure a uniformity of action in all parts of the spirits1 during the period devoted to the operation1 the liquid is made to circulate from top to bottom by means of a pump1 ,o4 ,the tube1 ,n1 indicates the level of the liquid in the vessel4 ,the zinc having been arranged1 the first operation consists in forming the couple4 ,this is done by introducing into the pile1 by means of the pump1 ,o1 a solution of sulphate of copper so as to completely fill it4 ,the adherence of the copper to the zinc is essential to a proper working of the couple1 and may be obtained by observing the following conditions3 #a4 ,impure spirits of #dj ,gay-,lussac1 and not water1 should be used as a menstruum for the salt of copper4 #b4 ,the sulphatization should be operated by five successive solutions of per cent41 representing #bj kilogrammes of sulphate of copper per #ajj square meters of zinc exposed1 or a total of #cfj kilogrammes of sulphate for a pile of #aej hectoliters capacity4 #c4 ,a temperature of #be should not be exceeded during the sulphatization4 ,the use of spirits is justified by the fact that the presence of the alcohol notably retards the precipitation of copper4 ,as each charging with copper takes twenty-four hours1 it requires five days to form the pile4 ,at the end of this time the deposit should be of a chocolate-brown and sufficiently adherent2 but the adherence becomes much greater after a fortnight's operation4 ,temperature has a marked influence upon the rapidity and continuity of the reaction4 ,below #e the couple no longer works1 and above #ce the reaction becomes vigorous and destroys the adherence of the copper to such a degree that it becomes necessary to sulphatize the pile anew4 ,the battery is kept up by adding every eight days a few thousandths of hydrochloric acid to a vatful of the spirits under treatment1 say #e kilos4 of acid to #aej hectoliters of spirits4 ,the object of adding this acid is to dissolve the hydrate of oxide of zinc formed during the electrolysis and deposited in a whitish stratum upon the surface of the copper4 ,the pile required no attention1 and it is capable of operating from #ah months to two years without being renewed or cleaned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,electrolyzing ,,apparatus4 ,passing them over1 the zinc-copper couple does not suffice to deodorize the impure spirits1 so they must be sent directly to a rectifier4 ,but1 in certain cases1 it is necessary to follow up the treatment by the pile with another one by electrolysis4 ,the voltameters in which this second operation is performed have likewise been modified4 ,they consist now 7,fig4 #b7 of cylindrical glass vessels1 ,,ah1 #abe mm4 in diameter by #fjj in height1 with polished edges4 ,these are hermetically closed by an ebonite cover through which pass the tubes1 ,b' ,c' and ,b ,c1 that allow the liquid1 ,e,e-,e',e'1 to circulate4 ,the current of spirits is regulated at the entrance by the cock1 ,r1 which1 through its division plate1 gives the exact discharge per hour4 ,in addition1 in order to secure great regularity in the flow1 there is placed between the voltameters and the reservoir that supplies them a second and constant level reservoir regulated by an automatic cock4 ,in practice1 ,mr4 ,naudin employs #ab voltameters that discharge #ab hectoliters per hour1 for a distillery that handles #cjj hectoliters of impure spirits every #bd hours4 ,the electric current is furnished to the voltameters by a ,siemens machine 7,fig4 #c7 having inductors in derivation1 the intensity being regulated by the aid of resistance wires interposed in the circuit of the inductors4 ,the current is made to pass into the series of voltameters by means of a commutator1 and its intensity is shown by a ,deprez galvanometer4 ,the voltameters1 as shown in the diagram1 are mounted in derivation in groups of two in tension4 ,the spirits traverse them in two parallel currents4 ,the ,siemens machine is of the type ,,sd#b1 and revolves at the rate of #a1bjj times per minute1 absorbing a motive power of four horses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,siemens ,,machine4 ,the disacidification1 before entering the rectifier1 is effected by the metallic zinc4 ,let us now examine what economic advantages this process presents over the old method of rectifying by pure and simple distillation4 ,the following are the data given by ,mr4 ,naudin3 ,in ordinary processes 7#a7 a given quantity of impure alcohol must undergo five rectifications in order that the products composing the mixture 7pure alcohol1 oils1 etc47 may be separated and sold according to their respective quality2 7#b7 the mean yield in the first distillation does not exceed #fj cent42 7#c7 the loss experienced in distillation amounts1 for each rectification1 to #d per cent42 7#d7 the quantity of essential oils 7mixture of the homologues of ethylic alcohol7 collected at the end of the first distillation equals1 on an average1 #c4e per cent42 7#e7 the cost of a rectification may be estimated at1 on an average1 #d francs per hectoliter4 ,all things being equal1 the yield in the first operation by the electric method is #hj per cent41 and the treatment costs1 on an average1 #j4dj franc per hectoliter4 ,the economy that is realized is therefore considerable4 ,for an establishment in which #aej hectoliters of #ajj alcohol are treated per day this saving becomes evident1 amounting1 as it does1 to #cgc francs4 ,we may add that the electric process permits of rectifying spirits which1 up to the present1 could not be rectified by the ordinary processes4 ,mr4 ,naudin's experiments have shown1 for example1 that artichoke spirits1 which could not be utilized by the old processes1 give through hydrogenation an alcohol equal to that derived from ,indian corn4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,plastic ,,carbon ,,for ,,batteries4 ,max ,nitsche-,niesky recommends the following in ,neueste ,erfindung43 ,good coke is ground and mixed with coal-tar to a stiff dough and pressed into moulds made of iron and brass4 ,after drying for a few days in a closed place1 it is heated in a furnace where it is protected from the direct flames and burned1 feebly at first1 then strongly1 the fire being gradually raised to white heat which is maintained for #f or #h hours4 ,the fire is then permitted to slowly go down1 and when perfectly cold the carbon is taken out of the furnace4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,recent ,,studies ,,on ,,the ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,alkaloids4 ,by ,,samuel ,p4 ,,sadtler1 ,ph4,d4 ,footnote3 ,introductory lecture1 ,course of #ahhc-hd1 ,philadelphia ,college of ,pharmacy4 ,the sciences of to-day present1 as might be expected1 a very different aspect from the same branches of knowledge as they appeared fifty or sixty years ago4 ,it is not merely that the mass of observations in most of these lines of study has enormously increased during this interval4 ,were that all1 the change could hardly be considered as an unmixed benefit1 because of the increased difficulty of assimilation of this additional matter4 ,many would be the contradictions in the observations and hopeless would be the task of bringing order out of such a chaos4 ,the advance in the several branches of knowledge has been largely one resulting from improved methods of study1 rather than one following simply from diligence in the application of the old ways4 ,let us turn to chemistry for our illustration of this4 ,the chemistry of the last century and the early decades of this was largely a descriptive science1 such as the natural history branches1 zoology1 and botany are still in great part4 ,reasonably exact mineral analyses were made1 it is true1 but the laws of chemical combination and the fundamental conceptions of atoms and molecules had not been as yet generally established4 ,now1 this want of comprehensive views of chemical reactions1 their why and wherefore1 was bad enough as it affected the study of inorganic and metallic compounds1 but what must have been the conditions for studying the complex compounds of carbon1 so widely spread in the vegetable and animal kingdoms4 ,their number is so enormous that1 in the absence of any established relationships1 not much more than a mere enumeration was possible for the student of this branch of chemistry4 ,it is only within the last twenty years that chemists have attained to any comprehensive views at all in the domain of organic chemistry4 ,it has been found possible to gradually range most carbon compounds under two categories1 either as marsh-gas or as benzol derivatives1 as fatty compounds or as aromatic compounds4 ,to do this1 methods of analysis very different from those used in mineral chemistry had to be applied4 ,the mere finding out of percentage composition tells us little or nothing about an organic compound4 ,what the elements are that compose the compound is not to be found out4 ,that can be told beforehand with almost absolute certainty4 ,what is wanted is to know how the atoms of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen are linked together1 for1 strange to say1 these differences of groupings1 which may be found to exist between these three or four elements1 endow the compounds with radically different properties and serve us as a basis of classification4 ,the development of this part of chemistry1 therefore1 required very different methods of research4 ,instead of at once destroying a compound in order to learn of what elements it was composed1 we submit it to a course of treatment with reagents1 which take it apart very gradually1 or modify it in the production of some related substance4 ,in this way1 we are enabled to establish its relations with well defined classes and to put it in its proper place4 ,of equal importance with the analytical method of study1 however1 is the synthetical4 ,this method of research1 as applied to organic compounds1 embodies in it the highest triumphs of modern chemistry4 ,it has been most fruitful of results1 both theoretical and practical4 ,within recent years1 hundreds of the products of vegetable and animal life have been built up from simpler compounds4 ,thousands of valuable dye-colors and other compounds used in the arts attest its practical value4 ,it may1 therefore1 seem anomalous when ,i say that one of the most important of all the classes of organic compounds has not shared in this advance4 ,the alkaloids1 that most important class from a medical and pharmaceutical point of view1 have until quite recently been defined in the books simply as vegetable bases1 containing nitrogen4 ,whether they were marsh-gas or benzol derivatives was not made out2 how the four elements1 carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen1 were grouped together in them was absolutely a thing unknown4 ,chemists all admitted two things--first1 that their constitution was very complex1 and1 second1 that the synthesis of any of the more important medicinal alkaloids would be an eminently desirable thing to effect from every point of view4 ,within the last five years1 however1 quite considerable progress has been made in arriving at a clearer understanding of these most important compounds1 and ,i shall offer to your attention this evening a brief statement of what has been done and what seems likely to be accomplished in the near future4 ,it was early recognized that the alkaloids were complex amines or ammonia derivatives4 ,the more or less strongly marked basic character of these bodies1 the presence of nitrogen as an essential element1 and1 above all1 the analogy shown to ammonia in the way these bases united with acids to form salts1 not by replacement of the hydrogen of the acid1 but by direct addition of acid and base1 pointed unmistakably to this constitution4 ,but with this granted1 the simplest alkaloid formulas1 those of conine1 ,c#h;,h#ag,n1 and nicotine1 ,c#aj;,h#ad,n#b1 still showed that the amine molecule contained quite complex groups of carbon and hydrogen atoms1 and the great majority of the alkaloids--the non-volatile ones--contained groups in which the three elements1 carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 all entered4 ,hence the difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the molecular structure of those alkaloids at all comparable with that attained in the case of other organic compounds4 ,of course synthesis could not be applied until analysis had revealed something of the molecular grouping of these compounds1 so the action of different classes of reagents was tried upon the alkaloids4 ,before summarizing the results of this study of the decomposition and alteration products of the alkaloids1 a brief reference to a related class of organic compounds will be of assistance to those unfamiliar with recent researches in this field4 ,it is well known that in coal-tar is found a series of ammonia-like bases1 aniline or amido-benzol1 toluidine or amido-toluol1 and xylidine or amido-xylol1 which are utilized practically in the manufacture of the so-called aniline dye-colors4 ,it is perhaps not so well known that there are other series of bases found there too4 ,the first of these is the pyridine series1 including pyridine1 ,c#e;,h#e,n1 picoline 7methyl-pyridine71 ,c#e;,h#d,n7,,ch#c71 lutidine 7dimethyl-pyridine71 ,c#e;,h#e,n7,,ch#c7b1 and collidine 7trimethyl-pyridine71 ,c#e;,h#b,n7,,ch#c7c4 ,this series is also found in relatively larger proportion in what is known as ,dippel's oil1 the product of the dry distillation of bones4 ,the second series is the quinoline series1 including quinoline1 ,c#i;,h#g,n1 lepidine 7methyl-quinoline71 ,c#aj;,h#i,n1 and cryptidine 7dimethyl-quinoline71 ,c#aa;,h#aa,n4 ,the two compounds which give name to these series1 pyridine1 ,c#e;,h#e,n1 and quinoline1 ,c#i;,h#g,n1 respectively1 bear to each other a relation analogous to that existing between benzol1 ,c#f;,h#f1 and naphthalene1 ,c#aj;,h#h2 and the theory generally accepted by those chemists who have been occupying themselves with these bases and their derivatives is that pyridine is simply benzol1 in which an atom of nitrogen replaces the triad group1 ,,ch1 and quinoline1 the naphthalene molecule with a similar change4 ,indeed1 ,ladenberg has recently succeeded in obtaining benzol as an alteration product from pyridine1 in certain reactions4 ,moreover1 from methyl-pyridine1 ,c#e;,h#d,n7,,ch#c71 would be derived an acid know as pyridine-carboxylic acid1 ,c#e;,h#d,n7,,cooh71 just as benzoic acid1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,cooh1 is derived from methyl-benzol1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,ch#c1 and from dimethyl-pyridine1 ,c#e;,h#c,n7,,ch#c7b1 an acid known as pyridine-dicarboxylic acid1 ,c#e;,h#c,n7,,cooh7#b1 just as phthalic acid1 ,c#f;,h#d7;,,cooh7#b1 is derived from dimethyl-benzol1 ,c#f;,h#d7;,,ch#c7b4 ,the same thing applies to quinoline as compared to naphthalene4 ,we may now look at the question of the decomposing effect of reagents upon the alkaloids4 ,the means which have proved most efficacious in decomposing these bases are the action of oxidizing and reducing agents1 of bromine1 of organic iodides1 of concentrated acids and alkalies1 and of heat4 ,taking up the volatile alkaloids1 we find with regard to conine1 first1 that the action of methyl iodide shows it to be a secondary amine1 that is1 it restrains only one replaceable hydrogen atom of the original ammonia molecule4 ,its formula is therefore ,c#h;,h#af,,nh4 ,from conine can be prepared methyl-conine1 which also occurs in nature1 and dimethyl-conine4 ,from this latter has been gotten a hydrocarbon1 ,c#h;,h#ad1 conylene1 homologous with acetylene1 ,c#b;,h#b4 ,conine1 on oxidation1 yields chiefly butyric acid1 but among the products of oxidation has been found the pyridine carboxylic acid before referred to4 ,the formula of conine1 ,c#h;,h#ag,n1 shows it to be homologous with piperidine1 ,c#e;,h#aa,n1 a derivative of piperine1 the alkaloid of pepper1 to be spoken of later2 and1 just as piperidine is derived from pyridine by the action of reducing agents1 so conine is probably derived from a propyl-pyridine4 ,the artificial alkaloid paraconine1 isomeric with the natural conine1 will be referred to later4 ,nicotine1 ,c#aj;,h#ad,n#b1 the next simplest in formula of the alkaloids1 is a tertiary base1 that is1 contains no replaceable hydrogen atoms in its molecule4 ,it shows very close relations to pyridine4 ,when nicotine vapor is passed through a red-hot tube1 it yields essentially collidine1 and1 with this1 some pyridine1 picoline1 lutidine1 and gases such as hydrogen1 marsh-gas1 and ethylene4 ,heated with bromine water to #abj;,c4 it decomposes into bromoform1 carbon dioxide1 nitrogen1 and pyridine4 ,when its alcoholic solution is treated with ferricyanide of potassium it is oxidized to dipyridine1 ,c#aj;,h#aj,n#b4 ,potassium permanganate1 chromic or nitric acid oxidises it to nicotinic acid1 ,c#f;,h#e,,no#b1 which is simply pyridine-carboxylic acid1 ,c#e;,h#d,n7,,cooh71 and which1 distilled over quick-lime1 yields pyridine1 ,c#e;,h#e,n4 ,turning now to the non-volatile and oxygenized bases1 we take up first the opium alkaloids4 ,morphine1 ,c#ag;,h#ai,,no#c1 is a tertiary amine1 and appears to contain a hydroxyl group like phenols1 to which class of bodies it has some analogies1 as is shown in its reaction with ferric chloride4 ,its meythl ester1 which can be formed from it1 is codeine1 one of the accompanying alkaloids of opium4 ,besides the methyl derivative1 however1 others are possible1 and several have been recently prepared1 giving rise to a class of artificial alkaloids known as codeines4 ,morphine1 rapidly distilled over zinc dust1 yields phenanthren1 trimethyl-amine1 pyrrol1 pyridine1 quinoline1 and other bases4 ,the action of strong hydrocholoric acid upon morphine changes it into apomorphine1 ,c#ag;,h#ag,,no#b1 by the withdrawal of a molecule of water4 ,ferricyanide of potassium and caustic soda solution change morphine into oxidimorphine1 ,c#cd;,h#cf,n#b,o#f4 ,when heated with strong potassium hydrate1 it yields methylamine4 ,narcotine1 another of the opium alkaloids1 when heated with manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid1 is oxidized and splits apart into opianic acid1 ,c#aj;,h#aj,o#e1 and cotarnine1 ,c#ab;,h#ac,,no#c4 ,this latter1 by careful oxidation1 yields apophyllenic acid1 ,c#h;,h#g,,no#d1 and this1 on heating with hydrochloric acid to #bdj ,c41 yields pyridine-dicarboxylic acid1 ,c#e;,h#i,n7,,cooh7#b4 ,the base cotarnine also results from the prolonged heating of narcotine with water alone4 ,in this case1 instead of opianic acid1 its reduction product meconine1 ,c#aj;,h#aj,o#d1 is produced4 ,meconic acid1 ,c#g;,h#d,o#g1 which is found in opium in combination with the different bases1 has also been investigated4 ,by acting upon meconic acid with ammonia1 comenamic acid is formed1 and this latter1 when heated with zinc dust1 yields pyridine4 ,if we go now to the cinchona alkaloids1 we meet with exceedingly interesting results4 ,quinine1 ,c#bj;,h#bd,n#b,o#b1 when carefully oxidized with chromic acid or potassium permanganate1 yields a series of products4 ,first is formed quitenine1 ,c#ai;,h#bb,n#b,o#d1 a weak base1 then quininic acid1 ,c#aa;,h#i,,no#c1 then the so-called oxycinchomeronic acid1 ,c#h;,h#e,n#jf1 and finally cinchomeronic acid1 ,c#g;,h#f,,no#d4 ,now the two acids last mentioned are simple substitution products of pyridine1 oxycinchomeronic acid being a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid1 ,c#e;,h#b,n7,,cooh7#c1 and cinchomeronic acid1 a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid1 ,c#e;,h#c,n7,,cooh7#b4 ,when distilled with potassium hydrate1 quinine yields quinoline and its homologues4 ,the alkaloid has been shown to be a tertiary base4 ,quinidine yields with chromic acid the same decomposition products as quinine4 ,cinchonine1 ,c#ai;,h#bb,n#b,o1 the second most important alkaloid of these barks1 when oxidized with potassium permanganate1 yields cinchonic acid1 which is a quinoline-carboxylic acid1 ,c#i;,h#f,n7,,cooh71 cinchomeronic acid1 which has just been stated to be a pyridine dicarboxylic acid1 and a pyridine tricarboxylic acid4 ,when cinchonine is treated with potassium hydrate1 it is decomposed into quinoline and a solid body1 which on further treatment yields a liquid base1 ,c#g;,h#i,n1 which is probably lutidine4 ,it has been found1 moreover1 that both tetrahydroquinoline and dihydroquinoline1 hydrogen addition products of quinoline1 are present4 ,when cinchonine is distilled with solid potassium hydrate1 it yields pyrrol and bases of both the pyridine and quinoline series4 ,cinchonidine1 when heated with potassium hydrate1 yields quinoline also1 and with nitric acid the same products as cinchonine4 ,strychnine has been found to be a tertiary amine4 ,when distilled with potassium hydrate1 quinoline is formed4 ,brucine is a tertiary diamine1 that is1 formed by substitution in a double ammonia molecule4 ,when distilled with potassium hydrate it yields quinoline1 lutidine1 and two isomeric collidines4 ,the alkaloid atropine has been quite thoroughly studied with results of great interest4 ,when heated with baryta-water or hydrochloric acid1 it takes up a molecule of water and is split into tropine1 ,c#h;,h#ae,,no1 and tropic acid1 ,c#i;,h#aj,o#c4 ,this latter is phenyl-oxypropionic acid4 ,tropine1 when heated to #ahj;,c4 with concentrated hydrochloric acid1 splits off a molecule of water1 and yields tropidine1 ,c#h;,h#ac,n1 a liquid base1 with an odor resembling conine4 ,when this tropidine is heated with an excess of bromine1 it yields dibrompyridine4 ,piperine1 the alkaloid of pepper1 has also been well studied4 ,when boiled with alcoholic potash solution1 it takes up a molecule of water and splits apart into piperic acid1 ,c#ab;,h#aj,o#d1 and piperidine1 ,c#e;,h#aa,n4 ,this latter base has been shown to be a hydrogen addition product of pyridine1 ,c#e;,h#e,n4 ,when heated with concentrated sulphuric acid1 it is oxidized to pyridine4 ,piperidine hydrochlorate1 also1 when heated with excess of bromine to #ahj ,c41 yields dibrompyridine4 ,sinapine1 the alkaloid which exists as sulphocyanate in white mustard seed1 yields1 under the same reaction as that applied to atropine and piperine1 quite different results4 ,when boiled with baryta water1 sinapine decomposes into sinapic acid1 ,c#aa;,h#ab,o#e1 and choline1 ,c#e;,h#ae,,no#b1 the latter a well-known constituent of the bile1 and produced also in the decomposition of the lecithin of the brain and yolk of egg4 ,cocaine1 the alkaloid of coca leaves1 is decomposed by heating with hydrochloric acid into methyl alcohol1 benzoic acid1 and a crystalline base1 ecgonine1 ,c#i;,h#ae,,no#c4 ,caffeine and theobromine have also quite different relations4 ,caffeine1 it will be remembered1 is the methyl ester of theobromine1 and can be prepared from it4 ,when caffeine is carefully oxidized with chlorine1 it yields dimethyl-alloxan and methyl-urea4 ,both theobromine and caffeine are decomposed by heating to #bdj ,c4 in sealed tubes with hydrochloric acid1 identical products being obtained4 ,these products are carbon dioxide1 formic acid1 ammonia1 methyl-amine1 and sarcosine1 the last three being of course in combination with the excess of hydrochloric acid4 ,the artificial preparation of theobromine and caffeine from xanthine1 and guanine also show clearly their relations4 ,if1 having completed our survey of what has been done in the way of decomposing the alkaloids by the different classes of reagents1 we review the field1 it will be seen that with all the alkaloids mentioned1 except the last four1 a more or less immediate connection with the pyridine and quinoline bases has been indicated4 ,the conviction accordingly forces itself upon us that1 if we want to attack the problem of building up any of these important alkaloids artificially1 we must turn to these bases as our starting point4 ,as already stated1 both series occur in coal-tar and the pyridine series also more abundantly in bone-oil4 ,pyridine1 picoline1 lutidine1 and collidine1 the first four members of the pyridine series1 have1 moreover1 all been formed synthetically1 although the processes are not such as would yield the products as cheaply as they can be gotten from ,dippel's oil4 ,quinoline1 the first member of the higher series1 had been made synthetically by several chemists1 but by expensive and involved methods1 when ,skraup1 in #ahha1 effected its synthesis from nitrobenzol and glycerin1 or still better1 a mixture of nitrobenzol and aniline with glycerin4 ,this process allows of its being made on a commercial scale if desirable4 ,shortly after1 by an application of the same principle1 ,dobner and ,miller effected the synthesis of lepidine1 the second member of the quinoline series4 ,at the same time that this general agreement to consider these bases as the starting point in the endeavor to effect the synthesis of the natural alkaloids had been arrived at by chemists1 it was thought well to look into the question whether these bases and their immediate derivatives had any therapeutic value of their own4 ,piperidine1 the decomposition product of piperine1 which we have shown may be considered to be hexahydropyridine1 was examined by ,dr4 ,kronecker1 of ,berlin1 at the request of ,prof4 ,hofmann1 and was found to have an action upon animals in many respects resembling that of conine4 ,prof4 ,filehne1 of ,erlangen1 who has studied a large number of these pyridine and quinoline derivatives1 found1 moreover1 that the hydrochlorate of ethyl-piperidine had a physiological action quite analogous to that of conine4 ,the physiological action of quinoline itself has been studied quite extensively by ,donath and others1 and it was found that several of its salts were quite valuable febrifuges1 acting very like quinine1 and capable in cases of being used as a substitute for it4 ,in general1 the hydrogen addition products were found to be more active than the simple base1 an observation entirely in accord with the theory formed by ,wischnegradsky1 and by ,konigs1 as the result of the study of the decomposition products of the alkaloids1 viz41 the alkaloids are in general hydrogen addition products of pyridine and quinoline1 or of the two bases combined4 ,thus ,prof4 ,filehne found that hydrochlorate of tetrahydroquinoline was much more energetic in its action than quinoline1 but could not be used on account of a too powerful local effect4 ,the hydrochlorate of dimethyl-tetrahydroquinoline1 which was distinguished by its strong bitter taste1 much resembling that of quinine1 had an effect like that of curare poison4 ,the most decided febrifuge action1 however was found by ,prof4 ,filehne to reside in the hydrochlorate of oxyhydro-methyl-quinoline1 introduced to public notice by ,prof4 ,o4 ,fischer under the name of ,kairin1 and in the acid sulphate of tetrahydro-methylquinoline1 introduced under the name of ,kairolin4 ,these compounds had a very surprising febrifuge action1 without any unpleasant after effects or local disturbances4 ,the most active workers in the field of synthetic formation of the alkaloids have been ,wischnegradsky1 of ,st4 ,petersburg--who1 unfortunately for science1 died at an untimely age in #ahhj--,knigs and ,fischer1 of ,munich1 and ,ladenburg1 of ,kiel4 ,the study of the decomposition products of the cinchona alkaloids especially points quite distinctly to the probable existence in quinine of a hydrogen addition product of pyridine1 in combination with a methyl-quinoline group4 ,the many experiments that are now being made to test this and other questions that suggest themselves1 will not long leave us in the dark4 ,whether a practical commercial synthesis of quinine will follow is another matter1 but it is within the bounds of possibility1 or perhaps even of probability4 ,it must not be supposed that no syntheses of alkaloids have been effected as yet4 ,by heating butyl-aldehyde with alcoholic ammonia is formed paraconine1 an alkaloid isomeric with the natural conine1 but differing in physiological action4 ,by the action of sodium upon pyridine is produced a compound ,c#aj;,h#h,n#b1 known as dipyridyl1 and this1 under the influence of nascent hydrogen1 takes up six atoms and becomes isonicotine ,c#aj;,h#ad,n#b1 a physiologically active alkaloid1 isomeric with the true nicotine4 ,the formation of a series of alkaloids under the name of codeines1 by the substitution of other organic radicals instead of methyl in the codeine reaction1 has already been alluded to4 ,atropine can be formed by uniting tropine and tropic acid1 the two decomposition products already noted4 ,the latter of these products is already shown to be capable of synthetical formation1 and the other will no doubt be formed in the same way4 ,the artificial atropine is identical with the natural alkaloid4 ,ladenburg has also formed a series of artificial alkaloids1 called tropeines1 by uniting the base tropine with different organic acids1 as in the case of the compound of mandelic acid and tropine1 known as homatropine1 an alkaloid of action similar to atropine1 but possessing some decided advantages in its use4 ,piperine has also been made by the uniting of piperidine and piperic acid1 and1 as piperidine has already been formed from pyridine1 we have here a true synthesis also4 ,both theobromine and caffeine1 its methyl derivative1 have been made from xanthine1 which itself can be formed from guanine1 a constituent of guano4 ,we may conclude from this reference to what has been done in the last few years1 that the reproach mentioned in first speaking of the alkaloids as a class1 that almost nothing was known of their constitution1 will not long remain1 and that as their molecular structure is laid bare in these studies now being made1 keen-sighted chemists will effect their artificial formation4 ,when these most valuable compounds can be made by exact methods1 in a state of entire purity1 and at a cost much below that paid for the present extraction of them from relatively rare plants1 organic chemistry will have placed all of us under obligations as great as those owing any branch of science1 no matter how practical we call it4--,amer4 ,jour4 of ,pharmacy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,congestive ,,headache4 ,by ,j4 ,,leonard ,,corning1 ,m4,d41 ,new ,york4 ,if we examine the literature of our theme1 we are astounded by the apparently hopeless confusion in which the whole is involved4 ,everywhere attempts at ill-founded generalization are encountered4 ,we are compelled to admit1 after perusing long debates in regard to the relative merits of various therapeutic measures1 that those who were foremost to disparage the treatment pursued by others were totally ignorant of the fact that those same symptomatic manifestations which they were considering might be owing to entirely different causes from similar conditions described by others4 ,hence a commensurate modification in therapy might not only be admissible1 but eminently desirable4 ,it is more especially of recent years that a laudable attempt to differentiate the various etiological factors involved in different forms of headache has been made4 ,in #ahcb ,dr4 ,james ,mease1 of ,philadelphia published a monograph on ,the ,cause1 ,cure1 and ,prevention of the ,sick ,headache1 which is substantially a treatise on the dietetics of this particular form of headache4 ,the work1 however1 is conspicuously lacking in those philosophical qualities which are so necessary to a true understanding of the questions involved4 ,dr4 ,e4,h4 ,sieveking published in #aheda a most interesting paper on ,chronic and ,periodical ,headache4 ,the views therein expressed are remarkable for their succinct and thoroughly scientific elucidation of the two great physiological principles involved in the consideration of by far the greater majority of instances of cephalalgia4 ,i refer namely to the importance ascribed by this eminent physician to the fluctuations of the blood-stream within the cranial vault4 ,in speaking of this subject ,dr4 ,sieveking says3 ,nothing is of more importance in reference to the pathology and therapeutics of the head than clear and well-defined notions on the physiological subject of the circulation within the cranium2 for1 among the various sources of medical skepticism1 no one is more puzzling or more destructive of logical practice than a contradiction between the doctrine of physiology and the daily practice of medicine4 ,footnote #a3 ,on ,chronic and ,periodical ,headache1 by ,e4,h4 ,sieveking1 ,m4,d41 ,medical ,times and ,gazette ,london1 ,august #ab1 #ahed4 ,what ,dr4 ,sieveking said in #ahed holds equally good to-day2 and1 indeed1 the position then taken has received substantial indorsement through the positive results of more recent experimental physiology4 ,conspicuous in this connection are the inductive researches of ,durham1 ,fleming1 and ,hammond1 touching the modifications in the cerebral circulation during sleep and wakefulness4 ,by these experiments it has been conclusively proved that the amount of blood in the brain is decreased during sleep and increased during wakefulness4 ,more1 recently ,i have had occasion to confirm the experiments of ,fleming in this direction1 and have published the results of those researches in various papers and articles4#a ,what ,hippocrates said of spasm1 says ,dr4 ,sieveking1 that it results either from fullness or emptiness1 or1 to use more modern terms1 from hypermia or anmia1 applies equally to headache2 but1 to embrace all the causes of this affection we must add a third element1 which1 though most commonly complicating one of the above circumstances1 is not necessarily included in them1 namely a change in the constitution of the blood4 ,while ,i agree with ,dr4 ,sieveking as regards the importance to be ascribed to the first two factors--cerebral hypermia and anmia1 in the production of the group of symptoms known as headache1--,i fail to perceive why especial prominence should be given to the third condition mentioned by ,dr4 ,sieveking4 ,indeed1 ,i am quite unable to imagine how the periodical1 and more especially the intermittent form1 of headache is to be explained by what ,dr4 ,sieveking describes rather ambiguously as a change in the constitution of the blood4 ,it is quite evident1 admitting that such a change is capable of producing an amount of cerebral irritation sufficient to develop well-marked cephalalgia1 that the latter must of necessity be within certain limits continuous4 ,this is not the case1 as the causative factor is constant and not fluctuating4 ,i am1 therefore1 not prepared to accept this third causative factor without question4 ,nevertheless ,i am perfectly willing to admit that other factors besides cerebral hypermia and anmia may produce the functional variety of headache4 ,there would seem to be ample ground for ascribing great causative importance to excessive irritation of the brain plasma itself4 ,hence those forms of headache which while1 being unaccompanied by any especial circulatory derangements1 succeed1 oftentimes1 with relentless regularity upon any considerable degree of mental work4 ,it is not my purpose to discuss the treatment of the multifarious forms of cephalalgia on this occasion1 did time permit4 ,as regards the so-called neuralgic variety ,i content myself by referring to the admirable work on ,neuralgia and ,kindred ,diseases of the ,nervous ,system1 by ,dr4 ,john ,chapman of ,london1 in which will be found many interesting facts bearing on the question4 ,accepting the propositions1 then1 that the more adjacent causes of headache are 7#a7 cerebral hypermia1 7#b7 cerebral anmia1 and 7#c7 irritation of the cerebral plasma itself1 let us now consider how these morbid factors are most scientifically and speedily met at the bedside2 and how1 more particularly1 those distressing conditions of engorgement1 which are so baneful an item in the causation of a certain form of cephalalgia1 are best overcome4 ,footnote #a3 ,vide ,carotid ,compression and ,brain ,rest1 by ,j4,l4 ,corning1 ,m4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,anson ,d4,f4 ,randolph ,co4 ,two years ago ,i began a series of experiments on epileptics and maniacs1 which involved the application of protracted pressure to the common carotid artery on both sides4 ,in the course of these experiments the thought suggested itself that suppression of the carotids might prove a salutary means of reducing that form of cerebral congestion which is so prolific a source of headache and vertigo4 ,accordingly ,i made a protracted series of experiments with carotid compression upon those suffering from congestive headache1 and ,i can only say that ,i have been so far pleased with the uniformly good results obtained1 that ,i have felt it a duty to call the attention of the profession to a procedure which1 for obvious reasons1 possesses all the advantages of local depletion by leeching or cupping1 without the manifest disadvantages of either of these methods4 ,the instruments which ,i have devised as substitutes for the primitive procedure of digital compression of the carotids have already been described in former communications4 ,it is only necessary to say that the implements in question are of two kinds2 one1 the carotid fork1 is an adjustable instrument1 which being held in the hand of the operator permits him to exert any degree of pressure upon both carotids for any desired length of time4 ,the other instrument1 which ,i have designated as the carotid truss1 for lack of a better name1 is a circular spring provided with adjustable pads at each extremity4 ,the spring is placed about the neck of the patient1 and by suitable appliances the pads at the extremities can be placed directly above the trunks of the two common carotid arteries4 ,by turning the screws to which the pads are attached the desired amount of pressure can be applied to the arteries1 and the apparatus can be worn for any length of time by the patient4 ,with these instruments ,i have frequently succeeded in arresting the most obstinate form of congestive headache in an incredibly short time 7on one occasion in about five minutes74 ,where1 however1 the headache is of manifestly nervous origin and uncomplicated by any especial circulatory derangements1 ,i have never been able to achieve notable results with this method4 ,indeed1 pressure upon the carotids is an excellent method of differentiating the congestive form of headache from the nervous varieties of head pains4 ,of galvanism this much may be said1 that it is one of the most valuable methods which we possess for treating the form of headache under consideration1 for not only does it cause contraction of the smaller arteries1 but it also exerts a soothing influence upon the plasma of the brain itself4 ,a powerful therapeutic agent1 and one which has been more or less extensively employed in the treatment of various forms of head and spinal symptoms1 is cold4 ,a very excellent method of applying both cold and galvanism to the head1 at the same time1 is afforded by a species of refrigerating electrode1 designed by myself for this purpose4 ,the apparatus in question consists of a concave sponge electrode1 the concavity of which corresponds to the convexity of the external aspect of the cranium4 ,above the electrode is a chamber of metal or ,india-rubber1 designed to contain ice4 ,the whole is secured to the head of the patient by a single chin-strap1 and connection established with an ordinary galvanic battery by means of an appropriate clamp and insulated cord4 ,the indifferent pole is applied over the sternum or other convenient point4 ,care should be taken not to employ too strong currents1 as otherwise vertigo and other unpleasant symptoms may be produced4 ,an application of from five to ten minutes is usually sufficient to arrest the head-pain4 ,as an additional security it is well to recommend the patient to take a hot foot-bath1 and to remain as quiet as possible for twelve hours succeeding the treatment4 ,in hypermic headache cupping and blood-letting have been recommended2 but as a rule both procedures are not only unnecessary but positively inadmissible1 as exclusion of the superfluous amount of blood by compression upon the carotids1 followed by a corresponding dilatation of the peripheral circulation by means of the foot-bath1 will almost always be sufficient to cause a permanent cessation of the symptoms4 ,among the internal remedies which may be employed with good effect in certain cases are aconite1 bromide of potassium1 and ,indian hemp4 ,the inhalation of from five to ten drops of chloroform is an excellent expedient in some instances4 ,chlorodyne1 which is nothing more than a mixture of sedatives1 often works well1 and indeed frequently excels other remedies4 ,the regulation of the heart's action is also of very great importance in these cases1 and the physician should have no hesitancy in resorting to such remedies as digitalis and belladonna for the purpose of reducing the tension in the domain of the cerebral circulation4 ,as a matter of course the digestive functions should be carefully looked to2 the bowels should be kept open2 and in all cases where there are indications of a congestive origin1 alcohol in all forms should be absolutely forbidden4--,med4 ,record4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,mullein ,,plant ,,in ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,pulmonary ,,consumption4 ,footnote3 ,from a paper published in the ,british ,medical ,journal4 ,by ,f4,j4,b4 ,,quinlan1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,r4,i4,a41 ,f4,k4,q4,c ,p41 ,physician to ,st4 ,vincent's ,hospital1 ,dublin4 ,from time immemorial1 the ,verbascum thapsus1 or great mullein1 has been a trusted popular remedy1 in ,ireland1 for the treatment of the above formidable malady4 ,it is a wild plant--most persons would call it a weed--found in many parts of the ,united ,kingdom2 and1 according to ,sowerby's ,british ,botany1 vol4 vi41 page #aaj1 is rather sparingly distributed over ,england and the south of ,scotland4 ,in most parts of ,ireland1 however1 in addition to growing wild it is carefully cultivated in gardens1 and occasionally on a rather extensive scale2 and this is done wholly and solely in obedience to a steady popular call for the herb by phthisical sufferers4 ,constantly1 in ,irish newspapers1 there are advertisements offering it for sale2 and there are1 in this city1 pharmaceutical establishments of the first rank in which it can be bought4 ,still it does not appear in the ,pharmacopoeia2 nor1 as far as ,i know1 has its use received the official sanction of the medical profession4 ,some friends with whom ,i talked over the matter at the ,pharmaceutical ,conference at ,southampton last ,august1 suggested that it would be desirable to make a therapeutical research into the powers of this drug1 and ascertain by actual experiment its efficacy or otherwise4 ,having partially accomplished this1 ,i am anxious to very briefly set forth what has been done1 in order that others may be induced to co-operate in the work4 ,there are five mulleins1 all belonging to the parent order of the ,scrophulariace2 but the old ,irish remedy is the great mullein1 or ,verbascum thapsus1 a faithful delineation of which will be found in ,plate #a1 #dcg1 vol4 vi41 of ,sowerby4 ,it is a hardy biennial1 with a thick stalk1 from eighteen inches to four feet high1 and with very peculiar large woolly and mucilaginous leaves1 and a long flower spike with ugly yellow and nearly sessile flowers4 ,the leaves are best gathered in late summer or autumn1 shortly before the plant flowers4 ,in former times it appears to have been rather highly thought of1 particularly as a remedy for diarrhoea2 and ,dioscorides1 ,culpepper1 and ,gerarde favorably allude to it4 ,having been furnished with a good supply of fresh mullein from a garden near this city1 where it is extensively grown1 ,i commenced operations4 ,as it proved useful1 subsequent supplies were procured from our drug-contractor4 ,the old ,irish method of administering the mullein is to place an ounce of dried leaves1 or a corresponding quantity of the fresh ones1 in a pint of milk2 to boil for ten minutes1 and then to strain4 ,this strained fluid is given warm to the patient1 with or without a little sugar4 ,it is administered twice a day2 and the taste of the mixture is bland1 mucilaginous1 comforting to the praecordia1 and not disagreeable4 ,i resolved to try this method1 and also the watery infusion2 and1 moreover1 the natural expressed juice fortified with glycerin4 ,this latter preparation was carefully made for me1 from fresh mullein leaves1 by ,dr4 ,john ,evans1 chemist to the ,queen and the ,prince of ,wales4 ,some phthisical sufferers1 of whom there are here1 alas6 too many1 were now admitted from time to time into ,st4 ,vincent's ,hospital4 ,they were admitted in all stages1 from an early one to the most advanced4 ,on each admission the case was carefully examined2 the history1 symptoms1 and physical signs were exactly noted2 and the patient was weighed on a stage balance with great accuracy4 ,the patient was put as much as possible on the mullein treatment only4 ,for obvious reasons1 no cod-liver oil1 koumiss1 or other weight producer was given2 the patients got the diet suitable to such sufferers2 and1 if the special symptoms became troublesome1 received appropriate treatment4 ,as much as possible1 however1 they were left to the mullein--a proceeding which was entirely satisfactory to themselves4 ,in addition to the admission weighing1 they were carefully weighed every week1 and care was taken that this should be done as nearly as possible on the same day and hour1 with the same clothes1 and1 in fact1 as much as could be under the same conditions4 ,in securing this the patients anxiously co-operated2 and it was frequently amusing1 but sometimes painful1 to watch the satisfaction or chagrin with which the weekly result was received4 ,i must here tender my acknowledgments to our zealous1 attentive1 and accurate house surgeon1 ,mr4 ,denis ,p4 ,kenna1 by whom this important1 but tedious1 duty was discharged4 ,dr4 ,quinlan then refers to several cases1 in which the mullein plant has been tried as a remedy for consumption1 and remarks that these cases1 although too few to justify any general conclusion1 appear to establish some useful facts4 ,the mullein plant boiled in milk is liked by the patients2 in watery infusion it is disagreeable1 and the succus is still more so4 ,the hot milk decoction causes a comfortable 7what our ,gallic neighbors call pectorale7 sensation1 and when once patients take it they experience a physiological want1 and when the supply was once or twice interrupted1 complained much in consequence4 ,that it eases phthisical cough there can be no doubt2 in fact1 some of the patients scarcely took their cough mixtures at all--an unmixed boon to phthisical sufferers with delicate stomachs4 ,its power of checking phthisical looseness of the bowels was very marked1 and experiment proved that this was not merely due to the well known astringent properties of boiled milk4 ,it also gave great relief to the dyspnoea4 ,for phthisical night sweats it is utterly useless2 but these can be completely checked by the hypodermic use of from one-eighteenth to one-fiftieth of a grain of the atropia sulphate2 the smaller dose1 if it will answer1 being preferable1 as the larger causes dryness of the pharynx1 and interferes with ocular accommodation4 ,in advanced cases1 it does not prevent loss of weight1 nor am ,i aware of anything that will1 except koumiss4 ,dr4 ,carrick1 in his interesting work on the koumiss treatment of ,southern ,russia 7page #bac71 says3 ,i have seen a consumption invalid gain largely in weight1 while the disease was making rapid progress in her lungs1 and the evening temperature rarely fell below #aja ,fahr4 ,until then ,i considered that an increase of weight in phthisis pulmonalis was a proof of the arrest of the malady4 ,if koumiss possesses this power1 mullein does not2 but unfortunately1 as real koumiss can be made from the milk of the mare only1 and as it does not bear traveling1 the consumptive invalid must go at least to ,samara or ,southern ,russia4 ,in pretubercular and early cases of pulmonary consumption1 mullein appears to have a distinct weight-increasing power2 and ,i have observed this in several private cases also4 ,having no weighings of these latter1 however1 makes this statement merely an expression of opinion4 ,in early cases1 mullein milk appears to act very much in the same manner as cod-liver oil2 and when we consider that it is at once cheap and palatable it is certainly worth a trial4 ,i will continue the research by careful weighings of early cases2 and will further endeavor to ascertain whether the addition of mullein to the cultivating solution prevents the propagation of the phthisical bacillus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,action ,,of ,,mineral ,,waters ,,and ,,of ,,hot ,,water ,,upon ,,the ,,bile4 ,lewaschew and ,klikowitch1 from experiments upon dogs1 conclude that the use of ordinary alkaline mineral waters was to increase the quantity of bile and to make it more fluid and watery4 ,this increased flow is beneficial in clearing out any bile stagnating in the gall-bladder4 ,a subsequent increase in the quantity of bile indicates a greater flow of bile into the gall-bladder1 and this also is of service in emptying out any stagnant bile1 and restoring the normal condition when this is disturbed4 ,artificial solutions of alkaline salts were found to have a similar action to the natural mineral waters1 and1 as with them1 the action varies according to the concentration of the solution4 ,bicarbonate of sodium has a quicker1 more powerful1 and more lasting effect on the composition of the bile than the sulphate of sodium1 and weak solutions than strong ones4 ,vichy was more efficacious than ,carlsbad water4 ,hot water was found to have an effect on the bile much like that of the mineral waters4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,vivisection4 ,although ,magendie is rightly considered the true initiator of experimentation upon living beings1 the practice of vivisection is as old as science itself4 ,galien1 the physician of ,marcus ,aurelius 7in the second century of the ,christian era71 dissected living animals1 and yet he is regarded as having merited his name 7,galenus1 gentle7 from the mildness of his character4 ,five centuries before him1 under the ,ptolemies1 ,egyptian experimenters had operated upon condemned persons4 ,so1 then1 vivisection is not1 as usually thought1 a diabolical invention of modern science4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a-e ,,apparatus ,,used ,,in ,,vivisection4 ,in all ages the necessity has been recognized of operating upon animals that are nearest allied to man1 such as the monkey1 the hog1 and the dog1 and who share with the king of creation the privilege of eating a little of everything4 ,claude ,bernard1 however1 had another way of looking at things4 ,it is true that he especially made researches into the general laws of physiology1 the secret of the vital functions1 and the operation of the various organic systems that constitute living matter1 but his immediate object was not to furnish weapons for the art of curing4 ,he left to physicians and surgeons the care of drawing conclusions from his great work in biology1 and of acting experimentally upon animals allied to man in order to found a rational system of therapeutics4 ,so he preferred to operate upon beings placed low in the animal scale--the frog especially1 an animal that has rendered him greater service than even man himself could have done4 ,cold-blooded animals offer1 moreover1 the advantage of being less impressionable than others1 and the experiments to which they are submitted present more accurate conclusions1 since it is not necessary to take so much account of the victim's restlessness4 ,and then it is necessary in many cases to choose subjects that possess endurance4 ,the unfortunate frog1 so aptly named the ,job of physiology1 becomes resigned to living under most dreadful conditions1 and when1 through sheer exhaustion1 he has succumbed1 his twitching limbs may still he used as an object of experimentation for twenty-four hours4 ,thanks are due to nature for giving so extraordinary a vitality to the tissues of a modest batrachian6 ,we owe to it the famous experiment of ,galvani that led ,volta to the discovery of the pile and what followed it1 the astonishing conquests of electricity and those more marvelous ones still that are now in their dawn4 ,science is much indebted to the frog1 and may the homage that we pay him help to alleviate the sufferings that have been imposed upon this brave animal6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f-h ,,apparatus ,,used ,,in ,,vivisection4 ,the simple fact that we have just enunciated pleads loudly enough for the cause of vivisection to make it useless to defend it4 ,no one1 however1 has risen to ask for an absolute proscription of it1 but it is only desired that the abuse of an abominable practice shall be curbed4 ,does the abuse exist8 ,that is the question1 and it may be answered in the affirmative4 ,yes1 we do sometimes impose useless sufferings upon animals4 ,it is a culpable folly1 a beastly cruelty1 to constantly repeat barbarous experiments with the object of exhibiting a well known physical fact1 a hundred times verified and always the same1 when it would only be necessary to enunciate it4 ,but this is not the place to expatiate upon the subject4 ,after proclaiming the utility of vivisection1 we give it as our opinion that the practice of it should be confined within narrow limits4 ,it is not too much to ask that it be confined to the privacy of laboratories1 with the exclusion of visitors1 and to require from students a diploma guaranteeing their knowledge and giving a programme of researches to be made4 ,it is useless to seek in the living what a study of the corpse reveals in all its details4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i-aa ,,apparatus ,,used ,,in ,,vivisection4 ,and now1 after these preliminary remarks1 we present herewith a series of cuts representing the various apparatus used in the practice of vivisection1 which are taken from a recent work by ,claude ,bernard4 ,fig4 #a shows the mode of muzzling a dog with a strong cord placed behind an iron bit4 ,fig4 #b shows a method of tying a dog4 ,fig4 #c is a vessel in which hares or cats are placed in order to ansthetize them4 ,fig4 #d shows the mode of fixing an animal on its side1 and ,fig4 #e the mode of fixing him on his back4 ,fig4 #f shows a dog fixed upon the vivisecting table1 and ,fig4 #g a hare secured to the same4 ,fig4 #h exhibits the general arrangement of a vivisecting table1 properly so called4 ,fig4 #i shows 7#a7 an ansthetizing muzzle applied to a dog1 and 7#b7 the extremity of the apparatus in section4 ,fig4 #aj shows how the muzzle is applied for ansthetizing1 and gives the details of construction of the chloroform box4 ,fig4 #aa exhibits the arrangement of the apparatus used for holding the animal's jaws open upon the vivisecting table4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,insanity ,,from ,,alcohol4 ,footnote3 ,read at the late meeting of the ,national ,association for the ,protection of the ,insane and translated for the ,american ,psychological ,journal by ,carl ,sieler1 ,m4,d41 of ,philadelphia4 ,by ,a4 ,,baer1 ,m4,d41 of ,berlin1 ,germany4 ,the benevolent efforts of your society diverge in two different directions1 which have totally different aims and purposes1 and which require different means in order to attain lasting success4 ,since the number of insane has increased alarmingly within the last few years1 in all civilized countries1 so that the responsibility of the proper charge of them occupies continually not only the community1 but also the ,state2 and since the public as well as the private asylums are filled almost before they are finished1 it becomes necessary to rid the institutions1 as soon as possible1 of those patients which have been cured1 as well as of those which are improved4 ,patients of this kind are1 as early as possible1 returned to the unrestrained enjoyment of liberty with the expectation that the new scenes and surroundings may have a beneficial influence1 besides having the advantage of relieving the overcrowded institutions4 ,unfortunately1 however1 it has been frequently found that the hut suddenly restored mental and emotional equilibrium is not of sufficient stability to withstand the storm of conflicting interests4 ,frequently it happens that the but recently discharged patient returns to the institution1 after a short lapse of time1 because the rudder 7steuer7 of his intelligence was soon shattered in the turmoil of life4 ,how can1 for instance1 the indigent and poor patient1 after his discharge from the institution in which he has found a shelter and the proper care1 stand up in the struggle for existence and the support of his family8 ,is it not to be expected that a large proportion of those who have been discharged as improved1 or even cured1 cannot withstand the ever-moving sea of the outside life and bear up under the turmoil which constantly stirs mind and soul8 ,starting with the recognition of this fact1 societies of benevolent people have been formed in all countries in which true civilization and humanity are at work1 to diminish or abolish social evils1 whose object is to assist the restored patient who has been discharged from the institution1 at a time when he is most in need of help and assistance4 ,switzerland has taken the lead of all countries by her brilliant example1 and there these societies found the greatest encouragement4 ,it should be looked upon as a good sign of the spirit of modern times1 that the seed of true humanity1 with astonishing rapidity1 found its way1 far and wide1 for the benefit of suffering mankind4 ,everywhere1 in all ,european countries1 and also on the ,american continent1 has this branch of a truly noble thought become acclimated1 and many societies have been organized for the purpose of assisting cured insane patients1 by aiding them in obtaining suitable occupations1 or by direct donations of money1 etc41 with a view of preventing1 if possible1 a relapse of the disease4 ,may this portion of the work of your society be an ever-flowing fountain of joy and satisfaction to your members6 ,of much greater importance is the best portion of your work1 namely1 the prevention of insanity4 ,it is nevertheless true1 and cannot be doubted1 that in all civilized countries insanity increases in a manner which is out of proportion to the increase of the population4 ,much thought has been given to the cause of this phenomenon1 and physicians as well as moralists1 national economists as well as philosophers and philanthropists1 have endeavored to fathom the connection between this fact and the conditions of modern social life4 ,according to all observations1 it is certain that the cause of this phenomenon is not a single etiological condition1 but that it is the sum of a number of influences which act upon the human race and produce their travages in the mental and moral life of our patients4 ,the conditions which give rise to this increase of insanity may be looked for in the manner in which modern civilization influences mankind1 in its development and culture1 in the family and in the school-room1 in its views of life and habits2 also in the manner in which civilization forces a man to fight a heavier and harder battle for pleasure and possessions1 power and knowledge1 and causes him to go even beyond his powers of endurance4 ,more than even civilization itself1 are at fault those pernicious abnormities1 rare monstrosities1 which are transmitted from generation to generation1 or are also often newly developed and appear to belong to our civilization4 ,if we want to prevent the increase of insanity1 we must endeavor to do away with these monstrosities and eccentricities from our social life which remove mankind more and more1 in a pernicious manner1 from its natural development and from the normal conditions of moral and physical life2 we must endeavor to kill these poisonous offshoots of pseudo civilization1 which are the enemies of the normal existence of man4 ,it is necessary to liberate the individual1 as well as the entire society of modern times1 from the potentiated egotism which spurs man on in overhaste1 and in all departments of mental and physical life1 to a feverish activity1 and then leads to an early senile decay of both body and mind2 from that terrible materialism which causes the modern individual in every class of society to find satisfaction in over excited taste and ingenious luxury4 ,it is necessary to strengthen more than has been done heretofore the young1 by means of their education1 in their physical development1 and at the same time to diminish1 in proper proportion1 the amount of mental over-exertion2 and finally it is necessary to fight against1 to do away with1 those habits of modern society-life which have a pernicious influence upon the physical as well as the mental and moral organization of man4 ,and of these latter1 there is none so lasting in its effects1 none so harmful to the physical as well as moral life1 as the abuse of intoxicating liquors4 ,intemperance is an inexhaustible source of the development and increase of insanity4 ,it demands our undivided attention1 not only on account of its existing relation1 but particularly because intemperance1 among all the factors which aid in the increase of insanity1 can best be diminished1 and its influence weakened1 through the will of the single individual1 as well as of society as a whole4 ,the relation between intemperance and insanity is so definite and clear1 that it is not necessary to adduce proofs of this fact4 ,i will not refer to the writings of the older authors1 such as ,rush1 in ,america2 ,hutchison1 ,macnish1 ,carpenter1 and others1 in ,england2 ,huss and ,dahl1 in ,sweden2 ,ramaer1 in ,holland2 ,esquirol1 ,pinel ,brierre de ,boismont1 ,morel1 and others1 in ,france2 ,flemming1 ,jameson1 ,roller1 ,griesinger1 and others1 in ,germany4 ,i could name a much larger number of the greatest modern authorities on insanity1 who are all unanimous in their opinion that the increase of intemperance 7alcoholism7 produces a corresponding increase of insanity4 ,of especial interest is this fact in those countries in which the consumption of concentrated alcohol1 and particularly in the form of whiskies distilled from potatoes and corn1 has only in later years become general4 ,thus ,lunier has shown the number of alcoholic insane increased by ten per cent4 in those departments in which more whisky and less wine is consumed4 ,in ,italy a similar result has been reached by investigation2 and in that country 7according to ,kanti1 ,sormani1 ,vesay1 ,rareri1 ,castiglione1 ,ferri1 and others7 the frequency of insanity caused by the abuse of alcohol stands in an unmistakable relation to the consumption of alcohol in certain provinces of ,italy4 ,in a discussion at one of the meetings 7#ahgf7 of the ,london ,medico-,psychological ,society1 the general opinion of the members was1 that intemperance is the most fruitful source of the increase of insanity1 even when no other etiological element could be found1 and alcohol had to be looked upon as the sole cause of the mental disease4 ,maudsley laid especial stress upon the observation1 that intemperance1 without hereditary predisposition1 was one of the most powerful agencies in the production of aberration of the mind4 ,even ,beckwith1 who could not coincide with others as to the great importance of intemperance as an etiological element1 says distinctly1 that intemperance was1 by far1 the most potent of all removable causes of mental disease4 ,in comparing the number of drinking saloons in the different provinces of the kingdom of ,prussia with the number of insane1 both in public institutions and in private families1 as gleaned from the census report of #ahga1 ,i was enabled to show conclusively1 that everywhere1 where the number of drinking places1 i4e41 the consumption of alcohol1 was greatest1 the number of insane was also largest4 ,without doubt1 to my mind it is in alcohol that we must look for and will find the most potent cause of the development and spread of mental diseases4 ,as is well known1 alcohol acts as a disturbing element upon the nerve centers1 even if it has only once been imbibed in excessive quantity4 ,in consequence of the acute disturbance of circulation and nutrition an acute intoxication takes place1 which may range from a slight excitation to a complete loss of consciousness4 ,after habitual abuse of alcohol1 the functional disturbances of the brain and spinal cord became constant and disappear the less1 as in the central organs degenerative processes are more and more developed1 processes which lead to congestions and hemorrhagic effusions in the meninges and in the brain itself1 to softening or hardening1 and finally to disappearance of the brain substance4 ,these degenerations of the nervous system give rise to a progressive decay of all intellectual and also1 more especially1 of the ethical functions1 a decay which presents the phenomena of feeble mindedness1 complicated with a large number of sensational and motor disturbances1 and gradually ends in complete idiocy4 ,the number of those mental disturbances which are caused by alcohol intoxication is a very considerable one4 ,we do not err if we assert that from #bj to #be per cent4 of all mental diseases stand in a direct or indirect relation to the evil consequences of intemperance in the use of intoxicating liquors4 ,this is the opinion of a large number of authorities on mental diseases in all countries4 ,habitual intemperance leads to severe 7psychical87 lesions 7of the nervous system7 which may show themselves in the different forms of insanity1 but express themselves chiefly as mental weakness1 not only in persons whose nervous system was weakened through inherited or acquired defects1 but also in those whose mental organization was intact4 ,in many other cases we see less complete forms of insanity and more indistinct psychological disturbances and neuroses1 and among the latter epilepsy demands particular attention4 ,an investigation among the patients in the insane department of the ,berlin ,charite ,hospital1 in charge of ,prof4 ,westfahl1 which was lately carried on by ,dr4 ,t4 ,galle 7,uber die ,beziehunger des ,alcoholismus zur ,epilepsie4 ,inaug4 ,dissert4 #ahha1 ,berlin71 showed that among #fjg patients who had entered the ward as epileptics or epileptic insane1 #aej #bd4g per cent4 had been addicted to drink2 #acc before1 and #ag after the disease had shown itself2 further1 that of #aegb patients with delirium tremens1 alcoholism1 alcoholic dementia1 and ebrietas1 #bdc1 or #ae4d per cent41 were epileptic2 and that in #bba intemperance was present before the outbreak of epilepsy2 finally1 that among #bfgi patients which entered the department in six and a half years1 #cic1 or #ah per cent41 were inebriates and epileptics4 ,among #abh epileptics which ,i had occasion to note in the receiving institute1 ,plotseurie1 #ba per cent4 were drunkards and #bj per cent4 were the offspring of intemperate parents4 ,if the list of injuries which intemperance1 as we have seen1 does directly to the mental life of man is a very considerable one1 the baneful effect which is produced indirectly1 by the intemperance of parents1 upon the mental constitution of their progeny is surely just as great and disastrous4 ,the children of intemperate parents frequently become drunkards themselves2 they have inherited a degeneration of the vitiated constitution1 and carry the stamp of this degeneration within themselves4 ,the offspring of drunkards are not only weakly and sickly1 and die early1 especially of diseases of the brain1 but1 as ,dahl1 ,morel1 ,howe1 ,beach1 and others have shown1 they are frequently born idiotic1 or show early signs of insanity4 ,under the influence of alcohol1 the individual constitution of the drinker becomes lowered and depraved1 and1 according to the law of inheritance1 is transmitted through the progeny to the race4 ,prof4 ,bollinger1 the latest writer on inheritance of disease 7,stuttgart1 #ahhb--;,cotta--,uber ,dererbung von ,krankheiten71 names alcoholism among the transient abnormal conditions which1 during conception1 exert their influence1 so that children of intemperate parents acquire pathological1 and especially neuro-pathological1 dispositions4 ,intemperance1 says this author1 in its acute1 as well as in its chronic form1 causes frequently pathological changes in the nervous system1 and thus may the pathological differences in children of the same parents be partially explained4 ,on account of the inheritance of a depraved and pathological constitution1 the children of intemperate parents frequently suffer from an abnormal psychical organization4 ,as in the progeny of insane1 epileptics1 suicides1 and criminals1 so also among the children of drunkards1 do we see cases of congenital idiocy and imbecility1 of neurasthenia and inebriety1 of psychical and somatic degeneracy1 also of depraved morality1 of vagrancy and crime4 ,mr4 ,president and ,gentlemen3 ,in the light of the enumerated facts1 nobody will dispute that intemperance is a fruitful as well as inexhaustible source for the increase and development of insanity2 and that every effort toward diminution of the frequency of insanity1 toward the prevention of mental diseases1 must be directed against this widespread evil1 intemperance4 ,may your noble society succeed in confining this torrent of evil in a narrower growing bed1 and to deliver mankind from a curse which cannot be too much contended with4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,plantain ,,as ,a ,,styptic4 ,footnote3 ,read at the meeting of the ,amer4 ,pharm4 ,assoc4 ,by ,j4,w4 ,,colcord4 ,several articles during the past few months1 copied from ,english pharmaceutical journals1 calling attention to the styptic properties of plantain leaves--,plantago major--having attracted my attention1 ,i determined to try a few experiments when opportunity offered4 ,having a shiftless neighbor whose yard produced a bountiful crop of the article1 ,i was easily able to secure an abundant supply for my experiments4 ,believing that better results would be obtained from fresh plants than from dried1 ,i expressed the juice from them by means of an ,enterprise mill1 obtaining about #af fluid ounces of juice from #c pounds of leaves4 ,the juice was of a light green color1 very turbid1 evidently caused by a large amount of chlorophyl4 ,setting aside #d ounces of the filtered liquid for further experimenting1 ,i packed the residue from the press into a conical glass percolator and exhausted with dilute alcohol1 evaporating the percolate in a water-bath to two ounces1 mixing with the #ab ounces of expressed juice and adding #b ounces of alcohol4 ,this preparation1 which ,i call a fluid extract1 represents virtually equal parts by weight of the dried plants4 ,it is of a dark brown color with a marked odor of the recent plant1 and so far1 after standing three months undisturbed on my shelves1 shows no sign of precipitation4 ,my next experiment was a mixture of equal quantities of the expressed juice with glycerin4 ,at the present time1 after standing three months1 the mixture is clear and bright1 with no sign of precipitation4 ,this1 ,i think1 promises to be the most efficient preparation1 and will prove valuable as an injection in the treatment of leucorrhoea1 hemorrhages1 and similar disorders4 ,experiment number three was made with equal parts of the juice and alcohol1 and number four with three parts of the juice with one part of alcohol4 ,in a short time a precipitate was observed in both samples in about equal proportions1 and was removed about one month after making by filtering through paper1 and neither has shown signs of precipitation since1 and continue bright1 clear1 light-brown liquids4 ,of their therapeutic value as styptics1 ,i have not had sufficient trial to form an opinion1 although1 as far as ,i can judge1 they have proved satisfactory4 ,while writing this article1 a cook from a neighboring restaurant1 with a finger sliced off in a potato slicer1 exposing the bone1 came in for treatment4 ,having bandaged ,i applied the glycerate1 which soon stopped the profuse bleeding1 giving her a small bottle of it to apply subsequently4 ,i asked her to report to me in two or three days1 and1 on reporting1 ,i found a healthy granulation presenting4 ,its styptic properties are undoubtedly due to tannic acid1 as all the tests ,i have been able to make prove this to be the case4 ,the readiness with which it can be obtained in the summer renders it a valuable adjunct1 undoubtedly1 to the materia medica of the country practitioner or housewife for stopping hemorrhages in simple wounds4 ,the bruised leaves applied directly usually prove sufficient for the purpose2 as to whether it will prove sufficiently valuable to add to our list of pharmaceutical preparations will require longer and more extended experiment4--,new ,remedies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,danger ,,from ,,flies4 ,dr4 ,grassi is said 7,british ,medical ,journal7 to have made an important1 and by no means pleasant1 discovery in regard to flies4 ,it was always recognized that these insects might carry the germs of infection on their wings or feet1 but it was not known that they are capable of taking in at the mouth such objects as the ova of various worms1 and of discharging them again unchanged in their fces4 ,this point has now been established1 and several striking experiments illustrate it4 ,dr4 ,grassi exposed in his laboratory a plate containing a great number of the eggs of a human parasite1 the ,tricocephalus dispar4 ,some sheets of white paper were placed in the kitchen1 which stands about ten meters from the laboratory4 ,after some hours1 the usual little spots produced by the fces of flies were found on the paper4 ,these spots1 when examined by the microscope1 were found to contain some of the eggs of the tricocephalus4 ,some of the flies themselves were then caught1 and their intestines presented large numbers of the ova4 ,similar experiments with the ova of the ,oxyuris vermicularis and of the ,toenia solium afforded corresponding results4 ,shortly after the flies had some mouldy cream1 the ,oidium lactis was found in their fces4 ,dr4 ,grassi mentions an innocuous and yet conclusive experiment that every one can try4 ,sprinkle a little lycopodium on sweetened water1 and afterward examine the fces and intestines of the flies2 numerous spores will be found4 ,as flies are by no means particular in choosing either a place to feed or a place to defecate1 often selecting meat or food for the purpose1 a somewhat alarming vision of possible consequences is raised4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,zoological ,,society',s ,,gardens4 ,the erection of the new house for the accommodation of the serpents1 alligators1 and other reptiles1 which is shown in our illustration1 must be commended as a valuable improvement of the ,zoological ,society's establishment in ,regent's ,park4 ,this building1 which has a rather stately aspect and is of imposing dimensions1 constructed of brick and terracotta1 with a roof of glass and iron1 stands close to the south gate of the ,gardens1 entered from the ,broad ,walk of the ,park4 ,the visitor1 on entering by that gate1 should turn immediately to the left hand1 along the narrow path beside the aviary of the ,chinese golden pheasants1 and will presently come to the ,reptile ,house1 which is too much concealed from view by some of the sheds for the deer4 ,the spacious interior1 represented in our view1 is one of the most agreeable places in the whole precinct of these gardens1 being well aired and lighted1 very nicely paved1 and tastefully decorated in pale color1 with some fine tropical plants in tubs on the floor1 or in the windows1 and in baskets hanging from the roof4 ,three oval basins1 with substantial margins of concrete1 so formed as to prevent the reptiles crawling over them1 while one basin is further protected by an iron grating1 contain water in which the alligators1 the infant crocodiles1 and a number of tortoises1 but none of the larger species1 make themselves quite at home4 ,one side of the house1 with its windows looking into a pleasant airy vestibule1 is occupied by many small glass cases for the smaller lizards1 with boxes and pots of flowers set between them upon tables1 which present a very attractive exhibition4 ,the other three sides of the hall1 which is nearly square1 are entirely devoted to the large wall cages1 with fronts of stout plate glass1 in single sheets1 rising about #ad feet to the roof1 in which the serpents are confined--the huge pythons1 anaconda1 and boa constrictor1 the poisonous cobras and rattlesnakes1 and others well known to the visitors at these gardens4 ,each cage or compartment has a sliding door of iron behind1 to which the keeper has access in a passage running along the back of the wall1 and there are doors also from one compartment to another4 ,the floor is of smooth slate1 and the largest snake has ample space to uncoil itself1 or to climb up the trunks and branches of trees placed there for its exercise and amusement4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,zoological ,,society',s ,,gardens4 ,,the ,,babiroussa ,,family4 ,,the ,,babiroussa4 ,we present1 on the same page1 a few sketches of the babiroussas1 a male and two females1 with a young one1 recently presented to the society by ,dr4 ,f4,h4 ,bauer4 ,these animals1 which are from ,celebes1 in the ,malay ,archipelago1 have been placed temporarily in different stalls of the ostrich house1 on the north side of the gardens4 ,the babiroussa is a species of wild hog1 peculiar to the islands of ,eastern ,asia1 and remarkable1 in the male animal1 for the extraordinary growth and direction of the canine teeth4 ,the upper pair of canine teeth1 growing out through the upper jaw1 curve backward and upward on the forehead1 having somewhat the aspect of horns2 while the lower canine teeth form a pair of crooked tusks in the under jaw4 ,these teeth may be useful for defensive fighting1 as a guard to the head1 but could not serve for attack4 ,the skull of a babiroussa1 with the teeth fully developed1 is in the possession of ,mr4 ,bartlett1 the able superintendent of the ,zoological ,society's collection4--,illustrated ,london ,news4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,zoological ,,society',s ,,gardens4 ,,the ,,new ,,reptile ,,house4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #cfc1 page #egig4 ,,on ,,the ,,mineralogical ,,localities ,,in ,,and ,,around ,,new ,,york ,,city4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,by ,,nelson ,h4 ,,darton4 ,montville1 ,morris ,county1 ,new ,jersey4--,this locality is an old one1 and well known to mineralogists4 ,it is outside of the limits prescribed in introducing this series of paper1 but by only a few miles1 and being such an interesting locality1 ,i have included it in the granular limestone1 which occurs in a small isolated ridge in the gneiss within a space of ten acres1 about two miles north of the railroad station of ,montville1 on the ,boonton ,branch of the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna1 and ,western ,railroad1 and is reached by a road running north from about a mile east of the railroad station4 ,this road branches into two at the limestone kilns1 about a mile from the railroad track1 and the left hand branch is taken1 which leads more directly to the quarry1 which is on the right hand1 about a mile further on1 and quite conspicuous by the loose rock lying in front of the quarry4 ,it is on the property of a ,mr4 ,john ,j4 ,gordon1 and produces a very fine limestone for use in the furnaces and forges in the vicinity1 as well as lime for agricultural purposes1 it being the only limestone in the vicinity for fifteen miles4 ,between it and its walk of gneiss occur veins of the minerals so characteristic of the locality1 and for which it has become famous--serpentine1 asbestos1 phlozopite1 gurhofite pyrites1 biotite1 aragonite1 dolomite1 tremolite1 and possibly others in lesser quantity4 ,serpentine4--,all the varieties of this species1 and of every color from nearly white to black1 is profusely distributed through the limestone in the lower or main quarry in veins and pockets4 ,it is generally soft1 translucent1 and to be found in masses from a pea to a cubic foot in size4 ,much of it is of a pure oil green color1 rich and translucent1 making a very fine and attractive looking mineral specimen4 ,no difficulty need be experienced in producing all the varieties of this mineral1 as much has been removed and may be found in the vicinity of the quarry1 as it is always carefully separated from the limestone as being useless1 and thrown aside1 or in some instances1 when of peculiar beauty1 sold as specimens4 ,the variety of serpentine known as marmolite1 which is made up of numberless plates of the mineral packed together similar to mica1 but of the green color of the serpentine picolite1 or fibrous serpentine1 also frequently occurs of a light grass green color1 and is a very interesting variety4 ,in selecting specimens of serpentine1 care should be taken to procure that which is the most translucent1 and that holding miniature veins of asbestos4 ,these are not so plentiful as those of the pure serpentine alone1 but occur in the southern end of the main quarry4 ,the width of these veins of asbestos is seldom over an inch1 but those of even much less are highly prized as specimens4 ,these veins of asbestos are1 in places1 several inches in length1 but are generally much broken in removing them1 as their fibrous structure1 at right angles to their length1 makes them very fragile1 and pure specimens of asbestos can seldom be found4 ,however1 they make much finer specimens when with the serpentine4 ,frequently these specimens may be obtained with a layer of gurhofite above them1 and separated by the serpentine2 this assortment is very interesting1 revealing to us the manner in which they were formed1 which was by a process termed segregation4 ,this gurhofite1 called bone by the quarrymen1 occurs in white1 dense looking masses1 intermingled with the serpentine1 especially in the upper end of the quarry1 where veins six and eight inches in thickness are abundant1 and from which specimens may be readily obtained showing the fibrous structure of the gurhofite and the association with the serpentine1 to which it is found attached2 it is quite different from the limestone in appearance1 and need not be mistaken for it4 ,phlozopite4--,in a vein near the lower end of the quarry1 near the asbestos locality1 occurs large plates of this mineral1 which is a variety of mica1 and has all of the characteristics of a pure silvery white color1 and from one by three inches in area to less4 ,it is easily separable in folia1 and cannot be confounded with any of the other minerals4 ,a huge mass of the veinstone holding abundance of this mineral is exposed1 whence it may be plentifully obtained in excellent crystals4 ,pyrites4--,white and yellow iron pyrites are abundant in the gneissic rock adjoining the limestone1 and frequently very fine1 perfect crystals may be found handsomely dressed upon the rock4 ,there is no particular portion of the quarries in which they abound4 ,biotite4--,this is a variety of mica in small crystals1 of a dark brown color1 and quite plentiful in the gneiss inclosing the veins of limestone4 ,up in the older quarries it is more abundant2 on the north wall of the vein it is often in very fine specimens1 and there even in large number1 in a locality1 generally a pocket in the gneiss4 ,tremolite is quite abundant on a large mass of limestone in the extreme upper quarry1 which is a short distance east of the main one1 over a small hill4 ,the tremolite occurs in white crystals1 about a quarter inch in width and from a half to three inches in length4 ,the crystals are opaque1 but very smooth and glistening1 lining cavities in this mass of limestone4 ,it is a variety of hornblende1 composed of silica1 lime1 and magnesia1 with a little alumina4 ,it probably occurs in places in the vicinity of this block1 and in finer specimens1 as these are frequently1 when near the surface1 much weathered and worn4 ,this is a characteristic granular limestone mineral1 and a very interesting one4 ,we will again meet it when examining the ,new ,york city localities4 ,aragonite occurs in very small masses1 of a light yellow color and fibrous structure1 between layers of serpentine4 ,when they are separated by a small interspace1 as it frequently is1 the fibers are very large1 coarse1 and brittle1 and thus do not resemble asbestos1 although in some instances they might be mistaken for picolite1 but1 distinguished from it by effervescing on contact with a drop of acid1 as it is a carbonate of lime1 and also containing a trace of iron4 ,i have never seen any fine specimens of it from this locality1 but deeper down in the rock it may occur in greater profusion4 ,dolomite occurs to a limited extent as such2 most of it1 being in the form of gurhofite crystals1 may be occasionally found with aragonite of a light pearly gray color and rhombohedral crystals4 ,as before noticed1 ,staten ,island is the best locality for this species4 ,calcite4--,in places the limestone is perfectly crystallized1 and of a pure white or other color1 when it forms an attractive mineral1 and often worth removing4 ,the limestone of the main quarry1 carefully averaged1 was found to have the following chemical composition4 ,lime4 #aa4ji ,magnesia4 #cg4id ,carbonic acid4 #cj4fa ,silica4 #aj4bb ,water and loss4 #d4ij ,iron and alumina4 #e4bd ------ #ajj4jj ,in places it is spotted with the serpentine1 and judging from its rough state resembles verde antique1 and at that of a beautiful color2 samples of this should be obtained4 ,feldspar4--,this mineral occurs very plentfully in the space between the limestones and gneiss4 ,it is generally of a flesh red color and often in very perfect crystals1 in some instances an inch and a half in length2 as its hardness is #f1 it can be readily distinguished from calcite1 which it much resembles1 but which has only a hardness of #c1 and dissolves with effervescence in acids4 ,a visit to this locality is a delightful manner in which to spend a holiday or other time of leisure2 and as it affords so many interesting and valuable minerals1 it forms a very profitable trip as well4 ,in reaching it many interesting localities are passed1 and if one has an early start these may all be visited4 ,i will describe a few of these1 which are alike possessors of beautiful scenery and instructing geological features and not far from the main line of travel4 ,starting from the ,erie depot1 on the ,greenwood ,lake road1 the first stop may be at ,arlington1 about seven miles west of ,jersey ,city4 ,here a visit to the ,schuyler copper mine may be profitably taken2 and as ,i have written a full account of this locality in a previous portion of these articles1#a ,i will not reiterate it here1 but refer to that paper4 ,the mine1 ,i might add1 is only a mile north of the railroad station1 and on ,schuyler ,avenue1 a short distance north from its junction with the ,jersey ,city and ,paterson turnpike4 ,coming back to ,arlington depot1 and walking on the track for about a quarter of a mile west through the deep cut1 the manner in which the sandstones and shales which constitute so large a portion of ,new ,jersey are laid and arranged can be seen to great advantage1 this being one of the finest exposures in the formation4 ,at a point about equidistant from either end is a fault in the layers of shales and sandstone2 this fault is noticeable as a slight irregularity in the otherwise continuous sides of the cut1 and is a point at which the layers of rock on the east have fallen vertically1 the western side remaining in its original position4 ,this fault has a thrust of only three feet1 but is an instructive example of faults which occur on a tremendous scale in some of the other formations4 ,it will be noticed that between the two edges of the separated layers there is a deposit of a talcky substance1 which has been derived from infiltrating waters4 ,fissure veins are generally in positions of this kind1 formed and filled in a similar manner1 but with the various metallic ores4 ,passing further west a short distance we reach the ,passaic ,river1 and walk along its banks for a mile north to the ,belleville bridge2 at this point is the intake of the ,jersey ,city water works1 with their huge ,worthington pumps and other accessories1 which may be conveniently visited4 ,the ,passaic ,river is then crossed1 and the train on the ,newark and ,paterson road may be taken for three miles to ,avondale1 from whence it is two miles east to the ,belleville sandstone quarries1 or the bank of the ,passaic may be followed and the quarries reached in an hour from ,belleville4 ,here again are met the sandstones and shales1 besides another and larger fault1 and many interesting features of the sandstone and its quarrying may be examined4 ,the railroad station having been regained1 ,paterson is the next point of interest4 ,the first thing noticeable in approaching the city are the quarries in the side of the hills to the south1 and these may be visited the first2 they are but a short distance southeast of the station4 ,here the sandstone will be found in contact with the trap above and the layers of basalt1 trap1 tufa1 sandstone1 shales and conglomerates are exposed4 ,regaining the nearest railroad track 7the ,boonton branch of the ,d41 ,l4 ,w4,r4,r471 this is followed for some distance west1 when the various strata can be examined in the cut of the railroad and a fault of nearly sixty feet in the trap2 this is noticed as a depression in the face of the cliff1 and it may be seen by the superposition of the layers of trap and basalt4 ,where the fault occurs a short distance further west1 there is another smaller fault4 ,a visit to the ,great ,falls of the ,passaic is a very pleasurable diversion at this point1 and these are about a half mile north of this locality4 ,here the arrangement of the trap and sandstones can be again profitably studied1 and the mineralogical localities which ,i have described in a former one of these articles#b examined1 not omitting the one at ,west ,paterson1 wherein so much phrenite may be found4 ,taking the train from ,west ,paterson to ,little ,falls1 a walk of a few miles south brings us to the ,little ,falls1 and here is another interesting locality wherein the contact of the sandstone and trap may be examined and the numerous additional phenomena studied4 ,a quarry near the ,falls is the best point in which to find these exposures1 and from the viaduct crossing the river an excellent view of the surrounding country may be obtained4 ,regaining the train1 ,montville is soon reached and visited1 and after this1 if time sufficient ,boonville1 two miles west1 may be taken in1 or it may be necessary to go there to catch a return train1 as but few stop at ,montville4 ,at ,boonton there are many interesting features--iron works furnaces1 localities in which fossil remains are found1 footprints1 conglomeritic beds1 and many other things1 of which ,i will endeavor to give a detailed account in some other of this series of articles4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 ,no4 #cfc4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 ,no4 #cfc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,discovery ,,of ,,ancient ,,church ,,in ,,jerusalem4 ,an account of the newly discovered church1 north of the ,damascus ,gate1 ,jerusalem1 appears in the ,quarterly ,statement of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 ,the author is ,dr4 ,selah ,merrill4 ,the ruin has proved to be one of great extent1 and of special interest4 ,the way in which it was brought to light is worth recording4 ,in an uneven field1 which rose considerably above the land about it1 parts of which appearing1 indeed1 like little hillocks1 the owner of the soil tried to maintain a vegetable garden1 but the ground was so dry that neither grain nor vegetables would flourish1 and even irrigation did little or no good2 besides1 here and there large holes appeared in the ground which could not be accounted for4 ,at last the owner determined to dig and see what there was below the surface of his field1 and to his surprise he very soon came upon fine walls and a pavement4 ,the excavations being followed up have laid bare a church with some of the surrounding buildings4 ,the amount of dbris which had accumulated above the floor of these buildings was #aj to #bj feet in depth4 ,to remove this mass of earth has required much time and labor1 and the work is not yet completed4 ,the piece of ground in question has about #fj yards of frontage on the main road1 and extends1 so far as the excavations go1 about the same distance back from the road1 that is1 to the east4 ,the church itself is situated on the south side of this plot1 and is very near the street4 ,the ground in front of the church is paved with fine slabs of stone4 ,the steps by which the church was entered were #e feet wide1 but the doorway itself was somewhat wider4 ,from the entrance to the altar step1 or platform1 the distance is #ee feet1 and from that point to the back of the apse #ae feet #f inches2 the width of the apse is #af feet #f inches4 ,the width of the church is #bd feet #f inches4 ,nine feet in front of the altar step a wall has been thrown across the church in a manner similar to that in the church of the ,nativity at ,bethlehem4 ,this wall1 also those of the church1 of which several courses remain1 and the interior of the apse1 show that the building was originally painted1 and some of the figures and designs can still be traced4 ,at the southeast corner of the church1 leading from the apse1 there is a narrow but well built passageway to the buildings in the rear4 ,the character of these buildings is not very evident2 certainly they did not stand on a line with the church1 but at an angle of #be with that line4 ,between the church and what appears now to have been the main building in the rear1 there was a passage not over #c feet wide4 ,the main building in the rear of the church is #dg feet #f inches long1 but to this must be added #bj feet more of a special room1 which seems to have belonged to it1 and which had a beautiful mosaic pavement4 ,thus the extreme length from the entrance of the church to the 7present7 east side of this mosaic floor is #adj feet4 ,on the west side of this mosaic floor1 where it joins the wall of the main building1 there is a threshold of a single stone1 #i feet #f inches long1 with a step #f feet #i inches in the clear4 ,this is considerably wider1 it will be seen1 than the steps1 and even the entrance of the church4 ,several patches of mosaic pavement have been found1 but in one place two or three square yards have been preserved1 enough to show that the work was extremely beautiful4 ,the colored tracings resemble those in the church on the ,mount of ,olives1 and on one side are the large ,greek letters ,thetaepsilonomicronnu4 ,north of this mosaic floor1 and of the main building which joins it1 and running alongside of both1 there is a watercourse or channel cut in the solid rock1 which has been leveled to accommodate the buildings above4 ,this can be traced in an east and west line for a distance of #cg feet2 it is #b feet #c inches deep1 #bj inches wide at the top and #ab at the bottom4 ,from about the middle of the mosaic floor this channel turns a right angle and runs #bj feet or more to the north2 it is possible that it led from the north1 and at the point indicated turned a right angle and ran to the west4 ,piles of stones and debris prevent us at present from deciding as to the length of the channel or where it comes from4 ,in the bank of debris1 which rises on the east side of the mosaic floor to a height of #bj feet1 there is1 about #f feet above the floor1 a watercourse formed of cement1 running north and south at right angles to the line of the church and the other buildings1 which must have belonged to a much later period4 ,in fact--and this is an interesting circumstance--the mosaic pavement appears to extend under and beyond this canal and the mass of debris which is yet to be removed4 ,in the northwest corner of the room1 where the mosaic floor is found1 very near the angle 7already mentioned7 of the rock-cut channel1 there is a tomb about #f feet below the surface or level of the floor4 ,the tomb is #aj feet long and #i feet wide1 and is entered by a doorway #bf inches wide1 which is well built1 and in the sides of which are grooves for a door to slide up and down4 ,on the wall of the tomb at the east end there is a raised ,greek cross1 #bb inches long and #ac inches wide4 ,one cannot stand erect in its highest part1 but it is to be considered that the loculi are two-thirds full of debris1 composed chiefly of decayed bones and bits of glass4 ,those in charge of the excavations have not1 up to the present time1 allowed the tombs to be cleared out4 ,the loculi are #b feet in depth4 ,what ,captain ,conder speaks of as vaults north of the church1 turn out to be the tops of houses4 ,they are four in number1 each #ge feet long by #bh feet wide1 and faced the street4 ,they were divided 7one or two of them at least7 into apartments by means of arches4 ,the lower courses of the walls1 to the height of several feet1 are of squared stones1 while the upper portions and the roofs are of rubble work1 which was covered with a heavy coating of plaster4 ,the threshold of one has been exposed1 which is #f feet in the clear1 and the sides of the doorway show excellent work4 ,among the ruins there are two sections of marble columns1 each #cc inches in diameter4 ,three large cisterns have been found1 two of which were nearly full of water2 the mouths of these1 which were closed1 were many feet below the surface of the ground before the excavations began1 hence no one knows how old the water in them may be4 ,some of the slabs with which the church was paved were #f feet long by #b feet wide4 ,in the church two pieces of cornice were found1 each #h feet in length4 ,one is entire and quite plain1 while the other is broken in the middle4 ,it is upon this that the figures of ,christ and his twelve apostles were painted4 ,they can still be traced1 although exposure has nearly obliterated the colors4 ,pottery and a considerable quantity of broken glass have been found and some small articles in marble of no great value4 ,the top of a certain block of marble has been formed into a basin1 and a hole drilled the entire length of the block for the water to run off4 ,south of the mosaic floor and of the east end of the main building there is a large underground chamber with seven openings 7each the size of a man's body7 to the surface4 ,the chamber is #ab feet wide and nearly #bj feet long1 but the depth is not yet ascertained1 owing to the accumulation of debris on the bottom4 ,on the west and north sides a wall of solid rock appears to a depth of #f feet1 showing that the chamber was excavated in part at least in the solid rock4 ,the use of this chamber does not appear evident1 unless it may have been a store room4 ,the place within the city shown as ,peter's ,prison consists of a similar chamber 7not dug in the solid rock1 however71 with similar openings in the ceiling or roof4 ,the ruins extend underground some distance to the east of the mosaic floor1 and efforts are being made to purchase the land in that direction1 in order to allow of the excavations being extended there4 ,it is almost equally certain that the buildings extended to the south and southeast of the present plat of ground4 ,but the owners of the land are jealous1 and everybody is superstitious2 consequently1 excavations must be abandoned1 or move with aggravating slowness4 ,dr4 ,selah ,merrill1 in a note describing a late visit1 says that the west wall of what he called the main building1 toward the apse of the church1 has been removed and the floor cleared1 exposing a fine pavement4 ,this pavement1 the threshold before mentioned1 and the mosaic floor all belong to one period1 and to a structure very much older than the date of the main building4 ,it puzzled the doctor1 because the threshold west of the mosaic floor was not square with the east wall of the main buildings1 but the reason is now clear4 ,captain ,conder says of this church with such of the ruins about it as were exposed when he was there1 that the whole is evidently of the ,crusading period4 ,as regards the church itself1 this is not clear1 and the mosaic floor especially may belong to a time many centuries previous to that era4 ,at the south side of the floor of the main building a new mouth to the largest cistern has been discovered2 over the mouth there is a thick stone #e feet in diameter4 ,this was eight sided1 and was built against the wall1 so that five sides are exposed4 ,the stone was cut in such a way as to leave on two of its sides small brackets shaped like the two halves of the utensil called a tunnel4 ,it may be of interest to state that this piece of land was offered for sale a few years since1 and for a long time went a begging for a purchaser2 at last it was sold for #dj ,napoleons4 ,during the present year it has passed into the hands of the ,french for #b1jjj ,napoleons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dammara ,,australis ,one of the noblest evergreen trees in that noblest of collections of such plants contained in the ,temperate ,house at ,kew1 is the subject of the present note4 ,some months since cones were observed to be forming on this tree1 and a representation of which we are now enabled1 through the courtesy of ,mrs4 ,dyer1 to lay before our readers4 ,we are not aware whether the tree has previously produced cones at ,kew1 though we have the impression that such is the case2 at any rate it has done so elsewhere1 as recorded in the ,flore des ,serres1 #ahef1 p4 #ge1 but fertile seed was not yielded1 owing to the absence of pollen4 ,in this country the tree is only valuable for its massive aspect and richly colored thick evergreen leaves1 borne on successive tiers of branches1 which render it specially suitable for the decoration of winter gardens1 corridors1 and such like situations1 where no great amount of heat is required4 ,in the northern island of ,new ,zealand1 however1 it is quite another matter1 for there1 where it is known as the ,kauri ,pine1 it furnishes the most valuable of timbers1 as may be judged from the fact that the trunk of the tree attains a height of from #ej to #ajj feet clear of the branches2 moreover1 it yields a gum resin like copal1 which exudes from the trunk1 and which is sometimes found below ground in the vicinity of the trees1 thus giving the clew to the real nature of amber and other similar substances4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,kauri ,,pine4--,,dammara ,,australis4 ,the timber is of slow growth1 especially valuable for the construction of masts of ships1 its durability1 strength1 and elasticity rendering it particularly suitable for this purpose1 and ,laslett speaks of it as one of the best woods for working that the carpenter can take in hand1 and recommends its use for the decks of yachts1 for cabin panels1 for joiner's work generally1 or for ornamental purposes4 ,owing to the difficulty and expense of working the forests1 and the great distance1 comparatively little of it comes to this country4--,the ,london ,gardeners' ,chronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,how ,,to ,,successfully ,,transplant ,,trees4 ,many think it cheaper and better to take up large trees from the woods1 and transplant them to their grounds or to the road-side1 than to buy nursery trees4 ,as a rule1 such trees die2 they fail because proper precautions have not been taken4 ,in digging up a tree1 all the roots outside of a circle a few feet in diameter are cut off1 and the tree is reset with its full head of branches4 ,whoever has seen trees in the forest that were upturned by a tornado1 must have been struck by the manner in which the roots run very near to the surface1 and to a great distance4 ,when the roots of these trees are cut off at two or three feet from the trunk1 few or no fibrous or feeding roots are left2 and if the mass of tops is left1 the expansion of the buds in the spring will not be responded to by a supply of sap from the roots1 and death must follow4 ,if such trees have the tops completely removed1 leaving only a bare pole1 they will usually grow when transplanted4 ,the tree is little more than an immense cutting2 but there are roots enough left to meet the demand of the few shoots that start from the top1 and growth above and below ground is well balanced4 ,we have seen maples1 elms1 and basswood trees1 fifteen feet or more high1 transplanted in this manner1 without failure4 ,some trees treated in this manner were planted in our neighborhood about ten years ago4 ,they have now as fine heads as one would wish1 and show no signs of former rough treatment4 ,trees in pastures1 or on the edge of the woods1 are better furnished with roots4 ,these should be prepared for transplanting by digging down to the roots1 and cutting off all that extended beyond the desired distance4 ,this will cause the formation of fibrous roots near the tree4 ,it will be safer to take two years for the operation1 cutting half of the roots each year4 ,such trees may be removed in safety1 especially if a good share of the top is removed at transplanting--,american ,agriculturist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej1 stitched in paper1 or #c4ej1 bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined ,,rates--,one copy of ,,scientific ,,american and one copy of ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj4 ,a liberal discount to booksellers1 news agents1 and canvassers4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4 ,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,patents4 ,in connection with the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors of ,american and ,foreign ,patents1 have had #ch years' experience1 and now have the largest establishment in the world4 ,patents are obtained on the best terms4 ,a special notice is made in the ,,scientific ,,american of all ,inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how procured4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,branch ,office1 cor4 ,f and #gth ,sts41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4