,! ,e9/e9 ,!ory ( ,relativity           
,a ,concise ,/atem5t                    
by                 ,pr(4 ,h4,a4 ,lor5tz 
( ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd5                 
,,note    ,:e!r x is true or n t n m ?an
 twelve p]sons 9 all !  _w are able to  
und]/& ,e9/e9's ,!ory1 x is nev]!less  a
 fact t !re is a con/ant dem& =         
in=mation ab\t ?is  mu*-debat$ topic (  
relativity4 ,! books publi%$ on !       
subject  are s te*nical t only a p]son  
tra9$ 9 pure physics &  high] ma!matics 
is able to fully und]/& !m4 ,9 ord] to  
make a popul> explanation ( ?is f>-rea*+
 !ory available1  ! pres5t book is      
publi%$4    ,pr(essor ,lor5tz is cr$it$ 
by ,e9/e9 ) %>+ ! developm5t  ( 8 !ory4 
,he is d\btless bett] able ?an any o!r  
man--except  ! au?or himself--to expla9 
?is sci5tific discov]y4    ,! publi%]s  
wi% to ackn[l$ge _! indebt$ness to !    
,new  ,york ,times1 ,! ,review (        
,reviews & ,! ,a!naeum = c\rte\s        
p]mission to repr9t articles f _! pages4
 ,pr(essor ,lor5tz's  article appe>$    

orig9ally 9 ,! ,nieuwe ,rott]dams*e     
,c\rant (  ,novemb] #ai1 #aiai4         
,,introduction    ,! action ( ! ,royal  
,society at its meet+ 9 ,london on      
,novemb]  #f1 9 recogniz+ ,dr4 ,alb]t   
,e9/e9's !ory ( relativity  has caus$ a 
great /ir 9 sci5tific circles on bo?    
sides ( !  ,atlantic4 ,dr4 ,e9/e9       
prop\nd$ 8 !ory ne>ly fifte5 ye>s  ago4 
,! pres5t revival ( int]e/ 9 x is due to
 ! rem>kable  confirmation :i* x receiv$
 9 ! report ( ! obs]vations  made dur+ !
 sun's eclipse ( la/ ,may to det]m9e    
:e!r rays  ( light pass+ close to ! sun 
are deflect$ f _! c\rse4    ,! actual   
deflection ( ! rays t 0 discov]$ by !   
a/ronom]s 0 precisely :at _h be5 pr$ict$
 !oretically by  ,e9/e9 _m ye>s s9ce4   
,?is /rik+ confirmation has l$ c]ta9    
,g]man sci5ti/s to ass]t t no sci5tific 
discov]y ( su*  importance has be5 made 
s9ce ,newton's !ory ( gravitation 0     
promulgat$4 ,?is sugge/ion1 h[ev]1 0 put
 aside by ,dr4 ,e9/e9  himself :5 he 0  
int]view$ by a correspond5t ( ! ,new    

,york  ,times at 8 home 9 ,b]l94 ,to ?is
 correspond5t he express$ !  diff]5ce   
betwe5 8 conception & ! law (           
gravitation 9 !  foll[+ t]ms3    ,please
 imag9e ! e>? remov$1 & 9 its place     
susp5d$ a box z  big z a room or a :ole 
h\se1 & inside a man naturally float+  9
 ! c5t]1 !re be+ no =ce :atev] pull+    
him4 ,imag9e1  fur!r1 ?is box be+1 by a 
rope or o!r contrivance1 sudd5ly  j]k$  
to "o side1 :i* is sci5tifically t]m$   
'dif=m motion'1  z oppos$ to 'uni=m     
motion4' ,! p]son w\ld !n naturally rea*
  bottom on ! opposite side4 ,! result  
w\ld consequ5tly be !  same z if he     
obey$ ,newton's law ( gravitation1 :ile1
 9 fact1  !re is no gravitation ex]t$   
:atev]1 :i* proves t dif=m  motion w 9 e
 case produce ! same effects z          
gravitation4    ,i h appli$ ?is new idea
 to e k9d ( dif=m motion &  h ?us       
develop$ ma!matical =mulas :i* ,i am    
conv9c$ give  m precise results ?an ^?  
bas$ on ,newton's !ory4 ,newton's       
=mulas1 h[ev]1 are su* close            

approximations t x 0 difficult  to f9d  
by obs]vation any obvi\s disagreem5t )  
exp]i5ce4    ,dr4 ,e9/e91 x mu/ be      
rememb]$1 is a physici/ & n an          
a/ronom]4 ,he develop$ 8 !ory z a       
ma!matical =mula4 ,!  confirmation ( x  
came f ! a/ronom]s4 ,z he himself says1 
!  crucial te/ 0 suppli$ by ! la/ total 
sol> eclipse4 ,obs]vations  !n prov$ t !
 rays ( fix$ />s1 hav+ to pass close to 
! sun to rea* ! e>?1 7 deflect$ ! exact 
am\nt dem&$  by ,e9/e9's =mulas4 ,!     
deflection 0 also 9 ! direction  pr$ict$
 by him4    ,! "q mu/ h occurr$ to _m1  
:at has all ?is to d )  relativity8 ,:5 
?is qu]y 0 prop\nd$ by ! ,times         
correspond5t  to ,dr4 ,e9/e9 he repli$ z
 foll[s3    ,! t]m relativity ref]s to  
"t & space4 ,accord+ to ,galileo &      
,newton1 "t & space 7 absolute entities1
 & ! mov+ sy/ems  ( ! univ]se 7 dep5d5t 
on ?is absolute "t & space4 ,on  ?is    
conception 0 built ! sci5ce ( me*anics4 
,! result+  =mulas suffic$ = all motions
 ( a sl[ nature2 x 0 f\nd1  h[ev]1 t !y 

w\ld n con=m to ! rapid motions app>5t  
9 electrodynamics4    ,?is l$ ! ,dut*   
pr(essor1 ,lor5tz1 & myself to develop  
! !ory ( special relativity4 ,briefly1 x
 disc>ds absolute  "t & space & makes !m
 9 e in/ance relative to mov+  sy/ems4  
,by ?is !ory all ph5om5a 9              
electrodynamics1 z well z  me*anics1    
hi!rto irr$ucible by ! old =mulae--& !re
 are  multitudes--7 satisfactorily      
expla9$4    ,till n[ x 0 believ$ t "t & 
space exi/$ by !mselves1  ev5 if !re 0  
no?+ else--no sun1 no e>?1 no />s--:ile 
n[ we "k t "t & space are n ! vessel = !
 univ]se1  b c\ld n exi/ at all if !re 7
 no cont5ts1 namely1 no sun1  e>? & o!r 
cele/ial bodies4    ,?is special        
relativity1 =m+ ! fir/ "p ( my !ory1    
relates to all sy/ems mov+ ) uni=m      
motion2 t is1 mov+  9 a /raight l9e )   
equal velocity4    ,gradually ,i 0 l$ to
 ! idea1 seem+ a v p>adox 9 sci5ce1  t x
 might apply equally to all mov+ sy/ems1
 ev5 ( dif=m  motion1 & ?us ,i develop$ 
! conception ( g5]al relativity  :i* =ms

 ! second "p ( my !ory4    ,z summ>iz$  
by an ,am]ican a/ronom]1 ,pr(essor ,h5ry
 ,norris  ,russell1 ( ,pr9ceton1 9 !    
,sci5tific ,am]ican = ,novemb] #bi1     
,e9/e9's contribution am\nts to ?is3    
,! c5tral fact :i* has be5 prov$--& :i* 
is ( great int]e/  & importance--is t ! 
natural ph5om5a involv+ gravitation  &  
in]tia 7su* z ! motions ( ! planets7 & !
 ph5om5a  involv+ electricity &         
magnetism 7includ+ ! motion ( light7    
are n indep5d5t ( "o ano!r1 b are       
intimately relat$1 s  t bo? sets (      
ph5om5a %\ld be reg>d$ z p>ts ( "o va/  
sy/em1 embrac+ all ,nature4 ,! relation 
( ! two is1 h[ev]1 (  su* a "* t x is   
p]ceptible only 9 a v few in/ances1  &  
!n only to ref9$ obs]vations4           
,already be=e ! w>1 ,e9/e9 _h imm5se    
fame among physici/s1  & among all :o   
are int]e/$ 9 ! philosophy ( sci5ce1    
because ( 8 pr9ciple ( relativity4      
,cl]k ,maxwell _h %[n t light is        
electro-magnetic1 & _h r$uc$  ! :ole    
!ory ( electro-magnetism to a small     

numb] ( equations1  :i* are fundam5tal 9
 all subsequ5t "w4 ,b ^! equations  7   
entangl$ ) ! hypo!sis ( ! e!r1 & ) !    
notion  ( motion relative to ! e!r4     
,s9ce ! e!r 0 suppos$ to be  at re/1 su*
 motion 0 indi/+ui%able f absolute      
motion4 ,!  motion ( ! e>? relatively to
 ! e!r %\ld h be5 diff]5t  at diff]5t   
po9ts ( its orbit1 & measurable ph5om5a 
%\ld  h result$ f ?is diff]5ce4 ,b none 
did1 & all attempts to  detect effects (
 motions relative to ! e!r fail$4 ,!    
!ory (  relativity succe$$ 9 acc\nt+ =  
?is fact4 ,b x 0 necess>y  incid5tally  
to ?r[ ov] ! "o univ]sal "t1 & sub/itute
  local times atta*$ to mov+ bodies &   
v>y+ accord+ to _!  motion4 ,! equations
 on :i* ! !ory ( relativity is bas$ are 
due to ,lor5tz1 b ,e9/e9 connect$ !m ) 8
 g5]al pr9ciple1  namely1 t !re mu/ be  
no?+1 9 obs]vable ph5om5a1 :i*  c\ld be 
attribut$ to absolute motion ( ! obs]v]4
    ,9 or?odox ,newtonian dynamics !    
pr9ciple ( relativity _h a  simpl] =m1  
:i* did n require ! sub/itution ( local 

"t  = g5]al "t4 ,b x n[ appe>$ t        
,newtonian dynamics is only  valid :5 we
 conf9e ourselves to velocities mu* less
 ?an t  ( light4 ,! :ole                
,galileo-,newton sy/em ?us sank to !    
level  ( a fir/ approximation1 becom+   
progressively less exact z !  velocities
 conc]n$ approa*$ t ( light4    ,e9/e9's
 ext5sion ( 8 pr9ciple s z to acc\nt =  
gravitation  0 made dur+ ! w>1 & = a    
consid]able p]iod our a/ronom]s  7      
unable to become acqua9t$ ) x1 ow+ to ! 
difficulty  ( obta9+ ,g]man pr9t$ matt]4
 ,h[ev]1 copies ( 8 "w  ultimately rea*$
 ! outside _w & enabl$ p to le>n m  ab\t
 x4 ,gravitation1 ev] s9ce ,newton1 _h  
rema9$ isolat$ f  o!r =ces 9 nature2    
v>i\s attempts _h be5 made to acc\nt  = 
x1 b )\t success4 ,! imm5se unification 
effect$ by  electro-magnetism app>5tly  
left gravitation out ( its scope4 ,x    
seem$ t nature _h pres5t$ a *all5ge to !
 physici/s :i*  none ( !m 7 able to     
meet4    ,at ?is po9t ,e9/e9 int]v5$ ) a
 hypo!sis :i*1 ap>t  altoge!r f         

subsequ5t v]ification1 des]ves to rank z
 "o  ( ! great monum5ts ( human g5ius4  
,aft] correct+ ,newton1  x rema9$ to    
correct ,euclid1 & x 0 9 t]ms (         
non-,euclidean  geometry t he /at$ 8 new
 !ory4 ,non-,euclidean geometry is  a   
/udy ( :i* ! prim>y motive 0 logical &  
philosophical2  few ( its promot]s ev]  
dream$ t x w\ld come to be appli$  9    
physics4 ,"s ( ,euclid's axioms 7 felt  
to be n necess>y  tru?s1 b m]e empirical
 laws2 9 ord] to e/abli% ?is view1      
self-consi/5t geometries 7 con/ruct$ ^u 
assumptions o!r  ?an ^? ( ,euclid4 ,9 ^!
 geometries ! sum ( ! angles (  a       
triangle is n two "r angles1 & !        
dep>ture f two "r  angles increases z ! 
size ( ! triangle increases4 ,x is (t5  
said t 9 non-,euclidean geometry space  
has a curvature1 b ?is  way ( /at+ !    
matt] is mislead+1 s9ce x seems to imply
 a  f\r? dim5sion1 :i* is n impli$ by ^!
 sy/ems4    ,e9/e9 supposes t space is  
,euclidean :]e x is suffici5tly  remote 
f matt]1 b t ! pres5ce ( matt] causes x 

to become slightly non-,euclidean--! m  
matt] !re is 9 !  neighborhood1 ! m     
space w dep>t f ,euclid4 ,by ! help (   
?is hypo!sis1 toge!r ) 8 previ\s !ory ( 
relativity1 he  d$uces gravitation--v   
approximately1 b n exactly1 accord+  to 
! ,newtonian law ( ! inv]se squ>e4 ,!   
m9ute diff]5ces  betwe5 ! effects d$uc$ 
f 8 !ory & ^? d$uc$ f  ,newton are      
measurable 9 c]ta9 cases4 ,!re are1 s   
f>1 ?ree  crucial te/s ( ! relative     
accuracy ( ! new !ory & ! old4    7#a7  
,! p]ihelion ( ,m]cury %[s a discrepancy
 :i* has long  puzzl$ a/ronom]s4 ,?is   
discrepancy is fully acc\nt$ = by       
,e9/e94 ,at ! "t :5 he publi%$ 8 !ory1  
?is 0 its only  exp]im5tal v]ification4 
7#b7 ,mod]n physici/s 7 will+ to suppose
 t light might be  subject to           
gravitation--i4e41 t a ray ( light pass+
 ne> a  great mass l ! sun might be     
deflect$ to ! ext5t to :i* a  p>ticle   
mov+ ) ! same velocity w\ld be deflect$ 
accord+  to ! or?odox !ory (            
gravitation4 ,b ,e9/e9's !ory requir$  t

 ! light %\ld be deflect$ j twice z mu* 
z ?is4 ,!  matt] c\ld only be te/$ dur+ 
an eclipse among a numb] (  bright />s4 
,=tunately a peculi>ly fav\rable eclipse
 occurr$  la/ ye>4 ,! results ( !       
obs]vations h n[ be5 publi%$1  & are    
f\nd to v]ify ,e9/e9's pr$iction4 ,!    
v]ification is n1  ( c\rse1 q exact2 )  
su* delicate obs]vations t 0 n to  be   
expect$4 ,9 "s cases ! dep>ture is      
consid]able4 ,b tak+  ! av]age ( ! be/  
s]ies ( obs]vations1 ! deflection at  ! 
sun's limb is f\nd to be #a4ih''1 ) a   
probable error ( ab\t  #f p] c5t41 :]eas
 ! deflection calculat$ by ,e9/e9's !ory
  %\ld be #a4ge''4 ,x w be notic$ t     
,e9/e9's !ory gave a  deflection twice z
 l>ge z t pr$ict$ by ! or?odox !ory1  & 
t ! obs]v$ deflection is slightly l>g]  
?an ,e9/e9  pr$ict$4 ,! discrepancy is  
well )9 :at might be expect$ 9  view ( !
 m9ut5ess ( ! measurem5ts4 ,x is !re=e  
g5]ally  ackn[l$g$ by a/ronom]s t !     
outcome is a triumph = ,e9/e94    7#c7  
,9 ! excitem5t ( ?is s5sational         

v]ification1 !re has  be5 a t5d5cy to   
ov]look ! ?ird exp]im5tal te/ to :i*    
,e9/e9's !ory 0 to be subject$4 ,if 8   
!ory is correct z x  /&s1 !re ought1 9 a
 gravitational field1 to be a           
displacem5t  ( ! l9es ( ! spectrum t[>ds
 ! r$4 ,no su* effect has  be5 discov]$4
 ,spectroscopi/s ma9ta9 t1 s f> z c be  
se5 at pres5t1 !re is no way ( acc\nt+ =
 ?is failure if  ,e9/e9's !ory 9 its    
pres5t =m is assum$4 ,!y admit t "s     
comp5sat+ cause may be discov]$ to      
expla9 ! discrepancy1 b  !y ?9k x f> m  
probable t ,e9/e9's !ory requires "s    
ess5tial modification4 ,mean:ile1 a     
c]ta9 susp5se ( judgm5t  is call$ =4 ,! 
new law has be5 s amaz+ly successful 9  
two  ( ! ?ree te/s t !re mu/ be "s ?+   
valid ab\t x1  ev5 if x is n exactly "r 
z yet4    ,e9/e9's !ory has ! v highe/  
degree ( ae/hetic m]it3  e lov] ( !     
beautiful mu/ wi% x to be true4 ,x gives
 a  va/ unifi$ survey ( ! op]ations (   
nature1 ) a te*nical  simplicity 9 !    
critical assumptions :i* makes ! weal? (

  d$uctions a/oni%+4 ,x is a case ( an  
advance arriv$ at by  pure !ory3 ! :ole 
effect ( ,e9/e9's "w is to make physics 
m philosophical 79 a good s5se71 & to   
re/ore "s ( t  intellectual unity :i*   
belong$ to ! great sci5tific sy/ems (  !
 sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 b :i* 0  
lo/ ?r\gh  increas+ specialization & !  
ov]:elm+ mass ( detail$  k4 ,9 "s ways  
our age is n a good "o to live 91 b  =  
^? :o are int]e/$ 9 physics !re are     
great comp5sations4            ,,!      
,,e9/e9 ,,!ory ,,( ,,relativity    ,a   
,concise ,/atem5t by ,pr(4 ,h4 ,a4      
,lor5tz1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd5    ,!  
total eclipse ( ! sun ( ,may #bi1       
result$ 9 a /rik+  confirmation ( ! new 
!ory ( ! univ]sal attractive p[]  (     
gravitation develop$ by ,alb]t ,e9/e91 &
 ?us re9=c$  ! conviction t ! def9+ (   
?is !ory is "o ( ! mo/  important /eps  
ev] tak5 9 ! doma9 ( natural sci5ce4 ,9 
response to a reque/ by ! editor1 ,i w  
attempt to contribute  some?+ to its    
g5]al appreciation 9 ! foll[+ l9es4     

,= c5turies ,newton's doctr9e ( !       
attraction ( gravitation has  be5 ! mo/ 
prom95t example ( a !ory ( natural      
sci5ce4 ,?r\gh  ! simplicity ( its basic
 idea1 an attraction betwe5 two bodies  
proportionate to _! mass & also         
proportionate to ! squ>e  ( ! di/ance2  
?r\gh ! complet5ess ) :i* x expla9$  s  
_m ( ! peculi>ities 9 ! movem5t ( !     
bodies mak+  up ! sol> sy/em2 &1 f9ally1
 ?r\gh its univ]sal validity1  ev5 9 !  
case ( ! f>-di/ant planet>y sy/ems1 x   
compell$  ! admiration ( all4    ,b1    
:ile ! skill ( ! ma!maticians 0 devot$  
to mak+  m exact calculations ( !       
consequ5ces to :i* x l$1 no  real       
progress 0 made 9 ! sci5ce (            
gravitation4 ,x is true  t ! inquiry 0  
transf]r$ to ! field ( physics1 foll[+  
,cav5di%'s success 9 demon/rat+ ! common
 attraction betwe5  bodies ) :i*        
laboratory "w c be done1 b x always 0   
evid5t t natural philosophy _h no grip  
on ! univ]sal p[]  ( attraction4 ,:ile 9
 electric effects an influ5ce ex]cis$   

by ! matt] plac$ betwe5 bodies 0 spe$ily
 obs]v$--!  />t+-po9t ( a new & f]tile  
doctr9e ( electricity--9  ! case (      
gravitation n a trace ( an influ5ce     
ex]cis$ by  int]m$iate matt] c\ld ev] be
 discov]$4 ,x 01 & rema9$1  inaccessible
 & un*angeable1 )\t any connection1     
app>5tly1  ) o!r ph5om5a ( natural      
philosophy4    ,e9/e9 has put an end to 
?is isolation2 x is n[ well e/abli%$  t 
gravitation affects n only matt]1 b also
 light4 ,?us  /r5g!n$ 9 ! fai? t 8 !ory 
already has inspir$1  we may assume )   
him t !re is n a s+le physical or       
*emical ph5om5on--:i* does n feel1      
al?\gh v probably 9  an unnoticeable    
degree1 ! influ5ce ( gravitation1 & t1  
on !  o!r side1 ! attraction ex]cis$ by 
a body is limit$ 9 ! fir/  place by !   
quantity ( matt] x conta9s & also1 to "s
 degree1  by motion & by ! physical &   
*emical condition 9 :i* x moves4    ,x  
is compreh5sible t a p]son c\ld n h     
arriv$ at su* a  f>-rea*+ *ange ( view  
by cont9u+ to foll[ ! old beat5  pa?s1 b

 only by introduc+ "s sort ( new idea4  
,inde$1  ,e9/e9 arriv$ at 8 !ory ?r\gh a
 tra9 ( ?\ght ( great  orig9ality4 ,let 
me try to re/ate x 9 concise t]ms4      
,,! ,,e>? ,,z ,a ,,mov+ ,,c>    ,ev]yone
 kn[s t a p]son may be sitt+ 9 any k9d (
 a vehicle  )\t notic+ its progress1 s  
long z ! movem5t does n v>y  9 direction
 or spe$2 9 a c> ( a fa/ express tra9   
objects fall  9 j ! same way z 9 a coa* 
t is /&+ /ill4 ,only :5  we look at     
objects outside ! tra91 or :5 ! air c   
ent] !  c>1 d we notice indications ( ! 
motion4 ,we may comp>e ! e>?  ) su* a   
mov+ vehicle1 :i* 9 its c\rse ar\nd !   
sun has  a rem>kable spe$1 ( :i* !      
direction & velocity dur+ a  consid]able
 p]iod ( "t may be reg>d$ z con/ant4 ,9 
place  ( ! air n[ comes1 s x 0 reason$  
=m]ly1 ! e!r :i*  fills ! spaces ( !    
univ]se & is ! c>ri] ( light & (        
electro-magnetic ph5om5a2 !re 7 good    
reasons to assume t !  e>? 0 entirely   
p]meable = ! e!r & c\ld travel ?r\gh x  
)\t sett+ x 9 motion4 ,s "h 0 a case    

comp>able ) t  ( a railroad coa* op5 on 
all sides4 ,!re c]ta9ly %\ld h  be5 a   
p[]ful e!r w9d bl[+ ?r\gh ! e>? & all   
our  in/rum5ts1 & x 0 to h be5 expect$ t
 "s signs ( x  w\ld be notic$ 9         
connection ) "s exp]im5t or o!r4 ,e     
attempt along t l9e1 h[ev]1 has rema9$  
fruitless2 all !  ph5om5a exam9$ 7      
evid5tly indep5d5t ( ! motion ( !  e>?4 
,t ?is is ! way !y d function 0 br\ght  
to ! front  by ,e9/e9 9 8 fir/ or       
special !ory ( relativity4 ,= him  ! e!r
 does n function & 9 ! sket* t he draws 
( natural  ph5om5a !re is no m5tion ( t 
int]m$iate matt]4    ,if ! spaces ( !   
univ]se are fill$ ) an e!r1 let u       
suppose  ) a sub/ance1 9 :i*1 aside f   
ev5tual vibrations & o!r  slight        
movem5ts1 !re is nev] any cr[d+ or fl[+ 
( "o "p  alongside ( ano!r1 !n we c     
imag9e fix$ po9ts exi/+ 9 x2  = example1
 po9ts 9 a /raight l9e1 locat$ "o met]  
ap>t1 po9ts  9 a level pla91 l ! angles 
or squ>es on a *ess bo>d ext5d+  out    
into inf9ity1 & f9ally1 po9ts 9 space z 

!y are obta9$  by repeat$ly %ift+ t     
level spot a di/ance ( a met] 9 !       
direction p]p5dicul> to x4 ,if1         
consequ5tly1 "o ( ! po9ts  is *os5 z an 
orig9al po9t we c1 proce$+ f t po9t1    
rea* any o!r po9t ?r\gh ?ree /eps 9 !   
common p]p5dicul>  directions 9 :i* !   
po9ts are arrang$4 ,! figures %[+ h[  _m
 met]s are compriz$ 9 ea* ( ! /eps may  
s]ve to indicate  ! place rea*$ & to    
di/+ui% x f any o!r2 ^! are1 z  is said1
 ! co-ord9ates ( ^! places1 comp>able1 =
 example1  ) ! numb]s on a map giv+ !   
longitude & latitude4 ,let  u imag9e t  
ea* po9t has not$ ^u x ! ?ree numb]s t  
give its position1 !n we h some?+       
comp>able ) a measure  ) numb]$         
subdivisions2 only we n[ h to d1 "o     
might say1  ) a good _m imag9>y measures
 9 ?ree common p]p5dicul>  directions4  
,9 ?is sy/em ( co-ord9ates ! numb]s t   
fix  ! position ( "o or ! o!r ( ! bodies
 may n[ be read (f  at any mom5t4       
,?is is ! means :i* ! a/ronom]s & _!    
ma!matical  assi/ants h always us$ 9    

deal+ ) ! movem5t ( !  heav5ly bodies4  
,at a det]m9$ mom5t ! position ( ea*    
body  is fix$ by its ?ree co-ord9ates4  
,if ^! are giv51 !n "o  kn[s also !     
common di/ances1 z well z ! angles =m$  
by !  connect+ l9es1 & ! movem5t ( a    
planet is to be kn[n z soon  z "o kn[s  
h[ its co-ord9ates are *ang+ f "o mom5t 
to  ! o!r4 ,?us ! picture t "o =ms ( !  
ph5om5a /&s  !re z if x 7 sket*$ on !   
canvas ( ! motionless e!r4              
,,e9/e9',s ,,dep>ture    ,s9ce ,e9/e9   
has cut loose f ! e!r1 he lacks ?is     
canvas1 &  !re)1 at ! fir/ glance1 also 
loses ! possibility ( fix+  ! positions 
( ! heav5ly bodies & ma!matically       
describ+  _! movem5t--i4e41 by giv+     
comp>isons t def9e ! positions  at e    
mom5t4 ,h[ ,e9/e9 has ov]come ?is       
difficulty may be  some:at elucidat$    
?r\gh a simple illu/ration4    ,on !    
surface ( ! e>? ! attraction (          
gravitation causes  all bodies to fall  
along v]tical l9es1 &1 inde$1 :5 "o     
omits  ! resi/ance ( ! air1 ) an equally

 accel]at$ movem5t2 !  velocity         
increases 9 equal degrees 9 equal       
consecutive divisions (  "t at a rate t 
9 ?is c\ntry gives ! velocity atta9$ at 
! end ( a second z #iha c5timet]s 7#cb4b
 feet7 p] second4 ,!  numb] #iha def9es 
! accel]ation 9 ! field ( gravitation1  
& ?is field is fully *>act]iz$ by t s+le
 numb]2 ) its  help we c also calculate 
! movem5t ( an object hurl$ out 9 an    
arbitr>y direction4 ,9 ord] to measure !
 accel]ation we let !  body drop        
alongside ( a v]tical measure set       
solidly on ! gr\nd2  on ?is scale we    
read at e mom5t ! figure t indicates !  
height1 ! only co-ord9ate t is (        
importance 9 ?is rectil9e>  movem5t4 ,n[
 we ask :at w\ld we be able to see if ! 
measure 7  n b\nd solidly to ! e>?1 if  
x1 let u suppose1 mov$ d[n or  up ) !   
place :]e x is locat$ & :]e we are      
ourselves4 ,if  9 ?is case ! spe$ 7     
con/ant1 !n1 & ?is is 9 accord )  !     
special !ory ( relativity1 !re w\ld be  
no motion obs]v$ at  all2 we %\ld aga9  

f9d an accel]ation ( #iha = a fall+     
body4 ,x  w\ld be diff]5t if ! measure  
mov$ ) *angeable velocity4    ,if x w5t 
d[n ) a con/ant accel]ation ( #iha      
itself1 !n an  object c\ld rema9        
p]man5tly at ! same po9t on ! measure1  
or c\ld move up or d[n itself alongside 
( x1 ) con/ant  spe$4 ,! relative       
movem5t ( ! body ) reg>d to ! measure   
%\ld be )\t accel]ation1 & if we _h to  
judge only by :at  we obs]v$ 9 ! spot   
:]e we 7 & :i* 0 fall+ itself1  !n we   
%\ld get ! impression t !re 0 no        
gravitation at  all4 ,if ! measure goes 
d[n ) an accel]ation equal to a half  or
 a ?ird ( :at x j 01 !n ! relative      
motion ( ! body  w1 ( c\rse1 be         
accel]at$1 b we %\ld f9d ! increase  9  
velocity p] second "o-half or two-?irds 
( #iha4 ,if1 f9ally1  we let ! measure  
rise ) a uni=mly accel]at$ movem5t1 !n  
we %all f9d a great] accel]ation ?an    
#iha = ! body itself4    ,?us we see t  
we1 also :5 ! measure is n atta*$ to !  
e>?1 disreg>d+ its displacem5t1 may     

describe ! motion ( !  body 9 respect to
 ! measure always 9 ! same way--i4e41 z 
"o  uni=mly accel]at$1 z we ascribe n[ &
 aga9 a fix$ value to  ! accel]ation ( !
 sph]e ( gravitation1 9 a p>ticul> case 
! value ( z]o4    ,( c\rse1 9 ! case "h 
"u consid]ation ! use ( a measure  fix$ 
immovably ^u ! e>? %\ld m]it all        
recomm5dation4 ,b  9 ! spaces ( ! sol>  
sy/em we h1 n[ t we h ab&on$  ! e!r1 no 
su* support4 ,we c no long] e/abli% a   
sy/em (  co-ord9ates1 l ! "o j m5tion$1 
9 a univ]sal int]m$iate  matt]1 & if we 
7 to arrive 9 "o way or ano!r at a      
def9ite  sy/em ( l9es cross+ ea* o!r 9  
?ree directions1 !n we %\ld  be able to 
use j z well ano!r simil> sy/em t 9     
respect to  ! fir/ moves ?is or t way4  
,we %\ld also be able to remodel !      
sy/em ( co-ord9ates 9 all k9ds ( ways1 =
 example by ext5sion  or compression4 ,t
 9 all ^! cases = fix$ bodies t d n     
p>ticipate 9 ! movem5t or ! remodell+ ( 
! sy/em o!r  co-ord9ates w be read (f   
aga9 & aga9 is cle>4        ,,new       

,,sy/em ,,or ,,co-,,ord9ates    ,:at way
 ,e9/e9 _h to foll[ is n[ app>5t4 ,he   
mu/--?is  h>dly ne$s to be said--9      
calculat+ def9ite1 p>ticul> cases  make 
use ( a *os5 sy/em ( co-ord9ates1 b z he
 _h no means  ( limit+ 8 *oice be=eh& & 
9 g5]al1 he _h to res]ve  full lib]ty ( 
action 9 ?is respect4 ,!re=e he made x 8
 aim  s to arrange ! !ory t1 no matt] h[
 ! *oice 0 made1 !  ph5om5a (           
gravitation1 s f> z its effects & its   
/imulation  by ! attract+ bodies are    
conc]n$1 may always be describ$ 9  !    
same way--i4e41 ?r\gh comp>isons ( !    
same g5]al =m1  z we aga9 & aga9 give   
c]ta9 values to ! numb]s t m>k  ! sph]e 
( gravitation4 7,= ! sake (             
simplification ,i "h  disreg>d ! fact t 
,e9/e9 desires t also ! way 9 :i*  "t is
 measur$ & repres5t$ by figures %all h  
no influ5ce  ^u ! c5tral value ( !      
comp>isons47    ,:e!r ?is aim c\ld be   
atta9$ 0 a "q ( ma!matical  inquiry4 ,x 
really 0 atta9$1 rem>kably en\gh1 &1 we 
may say1 to  ! surprise ( ,e9/e9        

himself1 al?\gh at ! co/ ( consid]able  
simplicity 9 ! ma!matical =m2 x appe>$  
necess>y = !  fixation ( ! field (      
gravitation 9 "o or ! o!r po9t 9  space 
to introduce no few] ?an t5 quantities 9
 ! place ( !  "o t occurr$ 9 ! example  
m5tion$ above4    ,9 ?is connection x is
 ( importance to note t :5 we exclude   
c]ta9 possibilities t w\ld give rise to 
/ill great] intricacy1  ! =m ( comp>ison
 us$ by ,e9/e9 to pres5t ! !ory is  !   
only possible "o2 ! pr9ciple ( ! fre$om 
( *oice 9  co-ord9ates 0 ! only "o by   
:i* he ne$$ to all[ himself to  be      
guid$4 ,al?\gh ?us !re 0 no special ef=t
 made to rea* a  connection ) ! !ory (  
,newton1 x 0 evid5t1 =tunately1  at !   
end ( ! exp]im5t t ! connection exi/$4  
,if we  avail ourselves ( ! simplify+   
circum/ance t ! velocities  ( ! heav5ly 
bodies are slight 9 comp>ison ) t (     
light1  !n we c d$uce ! !ory ( ,newton f
 ! new !ory1 !  univ]sal relativity     
!ory1 z x is call$ by ,e9/e94 ,?us  all 
! conclusions bas$ ^u ! ,newtonian !ory 

hold good1 z  mu/ naturally be requir$4 
,b n[ we h got fur!r along4 ,!          
,newtonian !ory c no long] be reg>d$ z  
absolutely correct 9 all  cases2 !re are
 slight deviations f x1 :i*1 al?\gh z a 
rule  unnoticeable1 once 9 a :ile fall  
)9 ! range ( obs]vation4    ,n[1 !re 0 a
 difficulty 9 ! movem5t ( ! planet      
,m]cury  :i* c\ld n be solv$4 ,ev5 aft] 
all ! di/urbances caus$ by  ! attraction
 ( o!r planets _h be5 tak5 into acc\nt1 
!re  rema9$ an inexplicable             
ph5om5on--i4e41 an extremely sl[ turn+  
( ! ellipsis describ$ by ,m]cury on its 
own plane2 ,lev]ri] _h  f\nd t x am\nt$ 
to =ty-?ree seconds a c5tury4 ,e9/e9    
f\nd t1 accord+ to 8 =mulas1 ?is movem5t
 mu/ really  am\nt to j t mu*4 ,?us ) a 
s+le bl[ he solv$ "o (  ! greate/       
puzzles ( a/ronomy4    ,/ill m          
rem>kable1 because x has a be>+ ^u a    
ph5om5on :i*  =m]ly c\ld n be imag9$1 is
 ! confirmation ( ,e9/e9's  pr$iction   
reg>d+ ! influ5ce ( gravitation ^u !    
c\rse  ( ! rays ( light4 ,t su* an      

influ5ce mu/ exi/ is taught  by a simple
 exam9ation2 we h only to turn back = a 
mom5t to  ! foll[+ comp>ison 9 :i* we 7 
j imag9+ ourselves  to make our         
obs]vations4 ,x 0 not$ t :5 ! comp>tm5t 
is  fall+ ) ! accel]ation ( #iha !      
ph5om5a !re9 w occur  j z if !re 7 no   
attraction ( gravitation4 ,we c !n see  
an object1 ,a1 /& /ill some:]e 9 op5    
space4 ,a projectile1  ,b1 c travel )   
con/ant spe$ along a horizontal l9e1 )\t
  v>y+ f x 9 ! slighte/4    ,a ray (    
light c d ! same2 ev]ybody w admit t 9  
ea* case1  if !re is no gravitation1    
light w c]ta9ly ext5d itself 9 a        
rectil9e> way4 ,if we limit ! light to a
 flick] ( ! slighte/  duration1 s t only
 a little bit1 ,c1 ( a ray ( light      
arises1  or if we fix our att5tion ^u a 
s+le vibration ( light1 ,c1 :ile  we on 
! o!r h& give to ! projectile1 ,b1 a    
spe$ equal to t  ( light1 !n we c       
conclude t ,b & ,c 9 _! cont9u$ motion  
c always rema9 next to ea* o!r4 ,n[ if  
we wat* all ?is1 n  f ! movable         

comp>tm5t1 b f a place on ! e>?1 !n we  
%all note ! usual fall+ movem5t ( object
 ,a1 :i* %[s u t  we h to deal ) a sph]e
 ( gravitation4 ,! projectile ,b w1  9 a
 b5t pa?1 v>y m & m f a horizontal      
/raight l9e1  & ! light w d ! same1     
because if we obs]ve ! movem5ts  f ano!r
 /&po9t ?is c h no effect ^u ! rema9+   
next to ea* o!r ( ,b & ,c4              
,,deflection ,,( ,,light    ,! b5d+ ( a 
ray ( light ?us describ$ is mu* too     
light on !  surface ( ! e>? to be       
obs]v$4 ,b ! attraction ( gravitation   
ex]cis$ by ! sun on its surface is1     
because ( its great mass1 m  ?an        
tw5ty-sev5 times /rong]1 & a ray ( light
 t goes close by  ! sup]ficies ( ! sun  
mu/ surely be noticeably b5t4 ,! rays ( 
a /> t are se5 at a %ort di/ance f !    
edge ( ! sun w1  go+ along ! sun1       
deviate s mu* f ! orig9al direction t   
!y /rike ! eye ( an obs]v] z if !y came 
9 a /raight l9e  f a po9t some:at fur!r 
remov$ ?an ! real position ( !  /> f !  
sun4 ,x is at t po9t t we ?9k we see !  

/>2  s "h is a seem+ displacem5t f !    
sun1 :i* increases 9 !  measure 9 :i* ! 
/> is obs]v$ clos] to ! sun4 ,! ,e9/e9  
!ory tea*es t ! displacem5t is 9 inv]se 
proportion to !  app>5t di/ance ( ! /> f
 ! c5tre ( ! sun1 & t =  a /> j on its  
edge x w am\nt to #a'4ge 7#a4ge         
seconds74 ,?is is  approximately ! ?\s&?
 "p ( ! app>5t diamet] ( ! sun4         
,naturally1 ! ph5om5on c only be obs]v$ 
:5 !re is a total  eclipse ( ! sun2 !n  
"o c take photographs ( neighbor+ />s  &
 ?r\gh comp>+ ! plate ) a picture ( !   
same "p (  ! heav5s tak5 at a "t :5 !   
sun 0 f> remov$ f t  po9t ! s\ght-=     
movem5t to "o side may become app>5t4   
,?us to put ! ,e9/e9 !ory to ! te/ 0 !  
pr9cipal aim (  ! ,engli% exp$itions s5t
 out to obs]ve ! eclipse ( ,may #bi1  "o
 to ,pr9ce's ,isl&1 (f ! coa/ ( ,gu9ea1 
& ! o!r to  ,sobral1 ,brazil4 ,!        
fir/-nam$ exp$ition's obs]v]s 7 ,edd+ton
  & ,cott+ham1 ^? ( ! second1 ,crommel9 
& ,davidson4 ,!  conditions 7 especially
 favorable1 = a v l>ge numb] (  bright  

/>s 7 %[n on ! photographic plate2 !    
obs]v]s at  ,sobral be+ p>ticul>ly lucky
 9 hav+ good wea!r4    ,! total eclipse 
la/$ five m9utes1 dur+ f\r ( :i* x 0    
p]fectly cle>1 s t good photographs c\ld
 be tak54 ,9 !  report issu$ reg>d+ !   
results ! foll[+ figures1 :i* are  !    
av]age ( ! measurem5ts made f ! sev5    
plates1 are giv5  = ! displacem5ts (    
sev5 />s3    #a''4jb1 #j''4ib1 #j''4hd1 
#j''4eh1 #j''4ed1 #j''4cf1 #j''4bd1     
:]eas1  accord+ to ! !ory1 !            
displacem5ts %\ld h am\nt$ to3  #j''4hh1
 #j''4hj1 #j''4ge1 #j''4dj1 #j''4eb1    
#j''4cc1 #j''4bj4    ,if we consid] t1  
accord+ to ! !ory ! displacem5ts mu/  be
 9 inv]se ratio to ! di/ance f ! c5tre (
 ! sun1 !n  we may d$uce f ea* obs]v$   
displacem5t h[ great ! sideways  movem5t
 = a /> at ! edge ( ! sun %\ld h be54 ,z
 !  mo/ probable result1 !re=e1 ! numb] 
#a''4ih 0 f\nd f  all ! obs]vations     
toge!r4 ,z ! la/ ( ! displacem5ts giv5  
above--i4e41 #j''4bd is ab\t "o-eigh? ( 
?is1 we may say t !  influ5ce ( !       

attraction ( ! sun ^u light made itself 
felt  ^u ! ray at a di/ance eight times 
remov$ f its c5tre4    ,! displacem5ts  
calculat$ accord+ to ! !ory are1 j      
because  ( ! way 9 :i* !y are calculat$1
 9 inv]se proportion to !  di/ance to ! 
c5tre4 ,n[ t ! obs]v$ deviations also   
accord  ) ! same rule1 x foll[s t !y are
 surely proportionate  ) ! calculat$    
displacem5ts4 ,! proportion ( ! fir/ &  
! la/ obs]v$ sidewise movem5ts is #d4b1 
& t ( ! two mo/  extreme ( ! calculat$  
numb]s is #d4d4    ,?is result is (     
importance1 because !reby ! !ory is     
exclud$1  or at lea/ made extremely     
improbable1 t ! ph5om5on (  refraction  
is to be ascrib$ to1 a r+ ( vapor       
surr\nd+ !  sun = a great di/ance4      
,inde$1 su* a refraction %\ld cause a   
deviation 9 ! obs]v$ direction1 &1 9    
ord] to produce !  displacem5t ( "o ( ! 
/>s "u obs]vation itself a slight       
proximity ( ! vapor r+ %\ld be          
suffici5t1 b we h e  reason to expect t 
if x 7 m]ely a "q ( a mass (  gas ar\nd 

! sun ! dim9i%+ effect accompany+ a     
removal  f ! sun %\ld manife/ itself mu*
 fa/] ?an is really !  case4 ,we _c     
speak ) p]fect c]ta9ty "h1 z all !      
factors  t might be ( influ5ce ^u !     
di/ribution ( d5sity 9 a sun  atmosph]e 
are n well en\gh kn[n1 b we c surely    
demon/rate  t 9 case "o ( ! gasses ) :i*
 we are acqua9t$ 7 held  9 equilibrium  
solely by ! influ5ce ( attraction ( !   
sun !  ph5om5on %\ld become mu* less z  
soon z we got some:at fur!r  f ! edge ( 
! sun4 ,if ! displacem5t ( ! fir/ />1   
:i*  am\nts to #a4jb-seconds 7 to be    
ascrib$ to su* a mass ( gas1 !n  !      
displacem5t ( ! second mu/ already be   
entirely inappreciable4    ,s f> z !    
absolute ext5t ( ! displacem5ts is      
conc]n$1 x  0 f\nd some:at too great1 z 
has be5 %[n by ! figures giv5  above2 x 
also appe>s f ! f9al result to be #a4ih 
= ! edge  ( ! sun--i4e41 #ac p] c5t1    
great] ?an ! !oretical value  ( #a4ge4  
,x inde$ seems t ! discrepancies may be 
ascrib$ to  faults 9 obs]vations1 :i*   

supposition is support$ by ! fact  t !  
obs]vations at ,pr9ce's ,isl&1 :i*1 x is
 true1 did n  turn out q z well z ^?    
m5tion$ above1 gave ! result1  ( #a4fd1 
some:at l[] ?an ,e9/e9's figure4    7,! 
obs]vations made ) a second in/rum5t at 
,sobral gave a  result ( #j4ic1 b !     
obs]v]s are ( ! op9ion t because (  !   
%ift+ ( ! mirror :i* reflect$ ! rays no 
value is to  be atta*$ to x47           
,,difficulty ,,exagg]at$    ,dur+ a     
discussion ( ! results obta9$ at a jo9t 
meet+ (  ! ,royal ,society & ! ,royal   
,a/ronomical ,society held especially  =
 t purpose rec5tly 9 ,london1 x 0 !     
g5]al op9ion t  ,e9/e9's pr$iction might
 be reg>d$ z ju/ifi$1 & w>m tributes  to
 8 g5ius 7 made on all sides4           
,nev]!less1 ,i _c refra91  :ile ,i am   
m5tion+ x1 f express+ my surprise t1    
accord+  to ! report 9 ,! ,times !re    
%\ld be s mu* compla9t ab\t  !          
difficulty ( und]/&+ ! new !ory4 ,x is  
evid5t t  ,e9/e9's little book ,ab\t !  
,special & ! ,g5]al ,!ory (  ,relativity

 9 ,pla9 ,t]ms1 did n f9d its way into  
,engl& dur+  w>time4 ,any "o read+ x w1 
9 my op9ion1 come to ! conclusion  t !  
basic ideas ( ! !ory are really cle> &  
simple2 x is  only to be regrett$ t x 0 
impossible to avoid clo?+ !m 9  pretty  
involv$ ma!matical t]ms1 b we mu/ n     
worry ab\t t4    ,i all[ myself to add  
t1 z we foll[ ,e9/e91 we may reta9  mu* 
( :at has be5 =m]ly ga9$4 ,! ,newtonian 
!ory rema9s  9 its full value z ! fir/  
great /ep1 )\t :i* "o _c  imag9e !      
developm5t ( a/ronomy & )\t :i* ! second
  /ep1 t has n[ be5 made1 w\ld h>dly h  
be5 possible4 ,x  rema9s1 moreov]1 z !  
fir/1 & 9 mo/ cases1 suffici5t1         
approximation4 ,x is true t1 accord+ to 
,e9/e9's !ory1  because x leaves u      
entirely free z to ! way 9 :i* we wi% to
  repres5t ! ph5om5a1 we c imag9e an    
idea ( ! sol> sy/em  9 :i* ! planets    
foll[ pa?s ( peculi> =m & ! rays (      
light %9e along %>ply b5t l9es--?9k ( a 
twi/$ & di/ort$  planet>ium--b 9 e case 
:]e we apply x to concrete que/ions  we 

%all s arrange x t ! planets describe   
almo/ exact ellipses  & ! rays ( light  
almo/ /raight l9es4    ,x is n necess>y 
to give up entirely ev5 ! e!r4 ,_m      
natural  philosoph]s f9d satisfaction 9 
! idea ( a mat]ial int]m$iate  sub/ance 
9 :i* ! vibrations ( light take place1 &
 !y  w v probably be all ! m incl9$ to  
imag9e su* a m$ium  :5 !y le>n t1       
accord+ to ! ,e9/e9 !ory1 gravitation   
itself does n spread in/antane\sly1 b ) 
a velocity t at  ! fir/ e/imate may be  
comp>$ ) t ( light4 ,especially 9  =m]  
ye>s 7 su* int]pretations curr5t &      
repeat$ attempts  7 made by speculations
 ab\t ! nature ( ! e!r & ab\t  !        
mutations & movem5ts t might take place 
9 x to arrive  at a cle> pres5tation (  
electro-magnetic ph5om5a1 & also (  !   
function+ ( gravitation4 ,9 my op9ion x 
is n impossible  t 9 ! future ?is road1 
inde$ ab&on$ at pres5t1 w once  m be    
foll[$ ) good results1 if only because x
 c lead to !  ?9k+ out ( new exp]im5tal 
te/s4 ,e9/e9's !ory ne$ n keep  u f s   

do+2 only ! ideas ab\t ! e!r mu/ accord 
) x4    ,nev]!less1 ev5 )\t ! color &   
cle>ness t ! e!r  !ories & ! o!r models 
may be able to give1 & ev51  we c feel x
 ?is way1 j because ( ! sob]ness induc$ 
by _! abs5ce1 ,e9/e9's "w1 we may n[    
positively expect1  w rema9 a monum5t ( 
sci5ce2 8 !ory entirely fulfills  ! fir/
 & pr9cipal dem& t we may make1 t (     
d$uc+  ! c\rse ( ph5om5a f c]ta9        
pr9ciples exactly & to !  smalle/       
details4 ,x 0 c]ta9ly =tunate t he      
himself put !  e!r 9 ! backgr\nd2 if he 
_h n done s1 he probably w\ld  nev] h   
come ^u ! idea t has be5 ! f\ndation (  
all  8 exam9ations4    ,?anks to 8      
indefatigable ex]tions & p]sev]ance1 =  
he _h  great difficulties to ov]come 9 8
 attempts1 ,e9/e9 has atta9$  ! results1
 :i* ,i h tri$ to sket*1 :ile /ill "y2  
he is  n[ #de ye>s old4 ,he complet$ 8  
fir/ inve/igations 9 ,switz]l&1  :]e he 
fir/ 0 engag$ 9 ! ,pat5t ,bureau at     
,b]ne & lat] z a  pr(essor at !         
,polyte*nic 9 ,zuri*4 ,aft] hav+ be5 a  

pr(essor  = a %ort "t at ! ,univ]sity ( 
,prague1 he settl$ 9 ,b]l91  :]e !      
,kais] ,wilhelm ,in/itute af=d$ him !   
opportunity to  devote himself          
exclusively to 8 sci5tific "w4 ,he      
repeat$ly  visit$ our c\ntry & made 8   
,ne!rl& colleagues1 among :om he  c\nts 
_m good fri5ds1 p>tn]s 9 8 /udies & 8   
results4 ,he  att5d$ ! la/ meet+ ( !    
dep>tm5t ( natural philosophy (  !      
,royal ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 & ! memb]s  
!n _h ! privilege  ( he>+ him expla91 9 
8 own fasc9at+1 cle> & simple way1  8   
int]pretations ( ! fundam5tal que/ions  
to :i* 8 !ory  gives rise4