,,civil ,,gov]nm5t ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,consid]$ ,,) ,,"s ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,its ,,orig9s ,,by ,,john ,,fiske ,greek3 ,aissomai pai ,zaevos ,heleu!roiu1 ,im]an eurn/h5e amphipolei1 ,soteira ,tu*a tiv g> en ponto kub]nontai ?oai naes1 en *]so te laipsa]oi polemoi kagorai b\laphoroi4 ,,p9d>1 ,olymp4 xii4 ,?\1 too1 sail on1 ,o ,%ip ( ,/ate6 ,sail on1 ,o ,union1 /rong & great6444 ,our he>ts1 our hopes1 are all ) !e4 ,our he>ts1 our hopes1 our pray]s1 our te>s1 ,our fai? triumphant o'er our fe>s1 ,are all ) !e1--are all ) !e6 ,,longfell[4 #ahij ,,by ,,john ,,fiske4 ,d$ication ,?is little book is d$icat$1 ) ! au?or's be/ wi%es & s9c]e reg>d1 to ! _m hundr$s ( "y fri5ds :om he has f\nd x s pleasant to meet 9 ye>s pa/1 & also to ^? :om he looks =w>d to meet+ 9 ye>s to come1 9 /udies & read+s ^u ! ri* & fruitful hi/ory ( our belov$ c\ntry4 ,,preface4 ,"s "t ago1 my fri5ds1 ,messrs4 ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 ,co41 reque/$ me to write a small book on ,civil ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* might be useful z a text-book1 & at ! same "t s]viceable & sugge/ive to ! g5]al read] int]e/$ 9 ,am]ican hi/ory4 ,9 prep>+ ! book c]ta9 po9ts h be5 kept especially 9 view1 & des]ve "s m5tion "h4 ,x seem$ desirable to adopt a hi/orical me?od ( exposition1 n simply describ+ our political in/itutions 9 _! pres5t %ape1 b po9t+ out _! orig91 indicat+ "s ( ! processes ?r\gh :i* !y h acquir$ t pres5t %ape1 & ?us keep+ be=e ! /ud5t's m9d ! fact t gov]nm5t is p]petually und]go+ modifications 9 adapt+ itself to new conditions4 ,inasmu* z su* gradual *anges 9 gov]nm5t d n make !mselves1 b are made by m5--& made ei!r = bett] or = worse--x is obvi\s t ! hi/ory ( political in/itutions has s]i\s lessons to tea* u4 ,! /ud5t %\ld z soon z possible come to und]/& t e in/itution is ! outgr[? ( exp]i5ces4 ,"o probably gets b little b5efit f ab/ract def9itions & axioms conc]n+ ! rights ( m5 & ! nature ( civil society1 su* z we (t5 f9d at ! beg9n+ ( books on gov]nm5t4 ,metaphysical g5]alizations are well en\gh 9 _! place1 b to />t ) su* ?+s--z ! ,fr5* philosoph]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury 7 fond ( do+--is to get ! c>t be=e ! horse4 ,x is bett] to h our /ory fir/1 & ?us f9d out :at gov]nm5t 9 its concrete reality has be51 & is4 ,!n we may f9i% up ) ! metaphysics1 or d z ,i h done--leave x = somebody else4 ,i 0 advis$ to avoid ! extremely sy/ematic1 intrusively symmetrical1 /yle ( exposition1 :i* is sometimes deem$ indisp5sable 9 a book ( ?is sort4 ,x 0 ?\ght t /ud5ts w\ld be m likely to become int]e/$ 9 ! subject if x 7 treat$ 9 ! same in=mal mann] into :i* "o naturally falls 9 giv+ lectures to "y p4 ,i h endeav\r$ to be> ?is 9 m9d )\t sacrific+ t lucidity 9 ! arrangem5t ( topics :i* is always ! supreme consid]ation4 ,= _m ye>s ,i h be5 9 ! habit ( lectur+ on hi/ory to college /ud5ts 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to "y ladies 9 private s*ools1 & occasionally to ! pupils 9 high & normal s*ools1 & 9 writ+ ?is little book ,i h imag9$ an audi5ce ( ^! e>ne/ & intellig5t "y fri5ds ga!r$ be=e me4 ,i 0 especially advis$--by my fri5d1 ,mr4 ,james ,mac,alister1 sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools 9 ,philadelphia1 = ^: judgm5t ,i h ! highe/ respect--to make x a little book1 less ?an ?ree hundr$ pages 9 l5g?1 if possible4 ,tea*]s & pupils d n h "t en\gh to deal prop]ly ) l>ge treatises4 ,brevity1 !re=e1 is gold54 ,a concise manual is ! desid]atum1 t\*+ lightly ^u ! v>i\s po9ts1 br++ out _! relation%ips di/9ctly1 & ref]r+ to m elaborate treatises1 monographs1 & docum5ts1 = ! use ( ^? :o wi% to pursue ! /udy at great] l5g?4 ,)9 limits ?us re/rict$1 x w probably seem /range to "s t s mu* space is giv5 to ! treatm5t ( local in/itutions1--compris+ ! gov]nm5ts ( t[n1 c\nty1 & city4 ,x may be obs]v$1 by ! way1 t "s p]sons app>5tly conceive ( ! /ate also z a local in/itution4 ,9 a rec5t review ( ,pr(essor ,h[>d's admirable ,local ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 we read1 ! fir/ volume1 :i* is all t is yet publi%$1 treats ( ! developm5t ( ! t[n%ip1 hundr$1 & %ire2 ! second volume1 we suppose1 be+ design$ to treat ( ! ,/ate ,con/itutions4 ,! review] =gets t !re is su* a subject z ! developm5t ( ! city & local magi/racies 7:i* is to be ! subject ( t second volume71 & lets u see t 9 8 appreh5sion ! ,am]ican /ate is an in/itution ( ! same ord] z ! t[n & c\nty4 ,we c ?us readily ass5t :5 we are told t _m y\? h gr[n to manhood ) s little appreciation ( ! political importance ( ! /ate z to believe x no?+ m ?an a geographical division4#a ,9 its hi/oric g5esis1 ! ,am]ican /ate is n an in/itution ( ! same ord] z ! t[n & c\nty1 nor has x z yet become depress$ or m$iatiz$ to t degree4 ,! /ate1 :ile x does n possess su* attributes ( sov]eignty z 7 by our ,f$]al ,con/itution grant$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 does1 nev]!less1 possess _m v important & ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( a sov]eign body1 z is "h po9t$ out on pages #agb-agg4 ,! /udy ( our /ate gov]nm5ts is inextricably wrapp$ up ) ! /udy ( our national gov]nm5t1 9 su* wise t bo? are p>ts ( "o subject1 :i* _c be und]/ood unless bo? p>ts are /udi$4 ,:e!r 9 ! c\rse ( our c\ntry's future developm5t we %all ev] arrive at a /age 9 :i* ?is is n ! case1 mu/ be left = future ev5ts to det]m9e4 ,b1 if we ev] d arrive at su* a /age1 ,am]ican in/itutions w pres5t a v diff]5t aspect f ^? ) :i* we are n[ famili>1 & :i* we h always be5 accu/om$ 7ev51 p]haps1 )\t always und]/&+ !m7 to admire4 ,footnote #a3 ,"y's ,gov]nm5t ,class ,book1 p4 iv4 ,! /udy ( local gov]nm5t prop]ly includes t[n1 c\nty1 & city4 ,to ?is "p ( ! subject ,i h devot$ ab\t half ( my limit$ space1 q unhe$ful ( ! w>n+ :i* ,i f9d 9 ! preface ( a c]ta9 popul> text-book1 t to le>n ! duties ( t[n1 city1 & c\nty (fic]s1 has no?+ :atev] to d ) ! gr& & noble subject ( ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 & t to attempt class drill on petty t[n & c\nty (fices1 w\ld be simply burlesque ( ! :ole subject4 ,b1 suppose "o 7 to say1 ) an air ( ineffable scorn1 t petty exp]im5ts on t]re/rial gravitation & radiant heat1 su* z c be made ) commonplace p5dulums & tea-kettles1 h no?+ :atev] to d ) ! gr& & noble subject ( ,physical ,a/ronomy6 ,sci5ce w\ld n h got v f> on t plan1 ,i fancy4 ,! tru? is1 t sci5ce1 :ile x is p]petually deal+ ) que/ions ( magnitude1 & kn[s v well :at is l>ge & :at is small1 kn[s no?+ :atev] ( any su* di/9ction z t betwe5 ?+s t are gr& & ?+s t are petty4 ,:5 we try to /udy ?+s 9 a sci5tific _s1 to le>n _! modes ( g5esis & _! pres5t aspects1 9 ord] t we may =esee _! t5d5cies1 & make our volitions c\nt = some?+ 9 modify+ !m1 !re is no?+ :i* we may safely disreg>d z trivial4 ,?is is true ( :atev] we c /udy2 x is em95tly true ( ! hi/ory ( in/itutions4 ,gov]nm5t is n a royal my/]y1 to be %ut (f1 l old ,deiokes1#b by a sev5fold wall f ! ord9>y bus9ess ( life4 ,que/ions ( civil gov]nm5t are practical bus9ess que/ions1 ! pr9ciples ( :i* are z (t5 & z =cibly illu/rat$ 9 a city c\ncil or a c\nty bo>d ( sup]visors1 z 9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives at ,wa%+ton4 ,x is p>tly because too _m ( our citiz5s fail to realize t local gov]nm5t is a wor?y /udy1 t we f9d x mak+ s mu* tr\ble = u4 ,! bumm]s & boodl]s d n f9d ! subject b5ea? _! notice2 ! ,ma/] :o inspires !m is wide awake &--= a creature t divides ! ho(--extremely intellig5t4 ,footnote #b3 ,h]odotus1 i4 #ih4 ,x is1 moreov]1 ! m5tal tra9+ ga9$ ?r\gh contact ) local gov]nm5t t enables ! p ( a community to conduct successfully1 ?r\gh _! repres5tatives1 ! gov]nm5t ( ! /ate & ! nation4 ,& s x makes a great deal ( diff]5ce :e!r ! gov]nm5t ( a t[n or c\nty is ( "o sort or ano!r4 ,if ! av]age "* ( our local gov]nm5ts = ! pa/ qu>t] ( a c5tury _h be5 q z high z t ( ! ,bo/on t[n-meet+ or ! ,virg9ia bo>ds ( c\nty magi/rates1 9 ! days ( ,samuel ,adams & ,patrick ,h5ry1 :o c d\bt t _m an airy demagogue1 :o1 ?r\gh session aft] session1 has play$ 8 pranks at ! national capital1 w\ld long ago h be5 abruptly recall$ to 8 native hea?1 a sadd] if n a wis] man8 ,we _c expect ! nature ( ! aggregate to be mu* bett] ?an ! av]age natures ( its units4 ,"o may he> p gravely discuss+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,fr5*m5 & ,engli%m5 9 political effici5cy1 & resort+ to assum$ e?nological causes to expla9 x1 :51 v likely1 to save _! lives !y c\ld n describe ! diff]5ce betwe5 a ,fr5* commune & an ,engli% p>i%4 ,to compreh5d ! int]e/+ contra/s betwe5 ,gambetta 9 ! ,*amb] ( ,deputies1 & ,glad/one 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 "o %\ld beg9 ) a hi/orical inquiry into ! causes1 op]at+ ?r\gh =ty g5]ations1 :i* h fritt]$ away self-gov]nm5t 9 ! rural di/ricts & small t[ns ( ,france1 until !re is v little left4 ,if ?+s 9 ,am]ica ev] come to su* a pass t ! city c\ncil ( ,cambridge mu/ ask ,congress ea* ye> h[ mu* money x c be all[$ to sp5d = municipal purposes1 :ile ! mayor ( ,cambridge holds 8 (fice subject to removal by ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 we may safely pr$ict fur!r ext5sive *anges 9 ! "* ( ! ,am]ican p & _! gov]nm5t4 ,x 0 n = no?+ t our pr(\nde/ political ?9k]1 ,?omas ,jeff]son1 atta*$ s mu* importance to ! /udy ( ! t[n%ip4 ,9 det]m9+ ! ord] ( exposition1 ,i h plac$ local gov]nm5t fir/1 beg9n+ ) ! t[n%ip z ! simple/ unit4 ,x is well to try to und]/& :at is ne> & simple1 be=e deal+ ) :at is remote & complex4 ,9 tea*+ geography ) maps1 x is wise to get ! pupil int]e/$ 9 ! /reets ( 8 own t[n1 ! c\ntry roads runn+ out ( x1 & ! neighb\r+ hills & /reams1 be=e burd5+ 8 att5tion ) ! topographical details ( ,borrioboola ,gha4 ,to /udy gr& g5]alizations ab\t gov]nm5t1 be=e att5d+ to su* ( its features z come mo/ directly be=e u1 is to run ! risk ( a*iev+ a result l t atta9$ by ! ,new ,hamp%ire s*ool-boy1 :o _h /udi$ geology 9 a text-book1 b 0 n aw>e t he _h ev] set eyes ^u an igne\s rock4 ,aft] ! t[n%ip1 naturally comes ! c\nty4 ,! city1 z is "h %[n1 is n simply a l>g] t[n1 b is mu* m complex 9 organization4 ,hi/orically1 _m cities h be51 or /ill are1 equival5t to c\nties2 & ! developm5t ( ! c\nty mu/ be /udi$ be=e we c und]/& t ( ! city4 ,x has be5 briefly indicat$ h[ ^! =ms ( local gov]nm5t grew up 9 ,engl&1 & h[ !y h become v>i\sly modifi$ 9 adapt+ !mselves to diff]5t social conditions 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,next 9 ord] come ! g5]al gov]nm5ts1 ^? :i* possess & ex]t1 9 "o way or ano!r1 attributes ( sov]eignty4 ,fir/1 ! v>i\s colonial gov]nm5ts h be5 consid]$1 & "s features ( _! metamorphosis into our mod]n /ate gov]nm5ts h be5 describ$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is /udy1 our att5tion is call$ to ! mo/ orig9al & /rik+ feature ( ! developm5t ( civil gov]nm5t ^u ,am]ican soil1--! writt5 con/itution1 ) ! accompany+ p[] ( ! c\rts 9 c]ta9 cases to annul ! acts ( ! legislature4 ,?is is n only ! mo/ orig9al feature ( our gov]nm5t1 b x is 9 "s respects ! mo/ important4 ,)\t ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 x is n likely t ! ,f$]al ,union c\ld h be5 held toge!r1 s9ce ,congress has n[ & !n pass$ an act :i* ! p 9 "s ( ! /ates h reg>d$ z uncon/itutional & tyrannical2 & 9 ! abs5ce ( a judicial me?od ( settl+ su* que/ions1 ! only available rem$y w\ld h be5 nullification4 ,i h devot$ a brief *apt] to ! orig9 & developm5t ( writt5 con/itutions1 & ! connection ( our colonial *>t]s !re)4 ,la/ly1 we come to ! complet$ /ructure1 ! ,f$]al ,union2 & by ?is "t we h exam9$ s _m po9ts 9 ! g5]al !ory ( ,am]ican gov]nm5t1 t our ,f$]al ,con/itution c be m concisely describ$1 & 7,i believe7 m quickly und]/ood1 ?an if we _h made x ! subject ( ! fir/ *apt] in/ead ( ! la/4 ,9 conclusion1 !re h be5 add$ a few brief h9ts & sugge/ions ) ref]5ce to our political hi/ory4 ,^! rem>ks h be5 int5tionally limit$4 ,x is no "p ( ! purpose ( ?is book to give an acc\nt ( ! do+s ( political p>ties "u ! ,con/itution4 ,b its /udy may fitly be supplem5t$ by t ( ,pr(essor ,alex&] ,john/on's ,hi/ory ( ,am]ican ,politics4 ,?is arrangem5t n only proce$s f ! simpl] =ms ( gov]nm5t to ! m complex1 b x foll[s ! hi/orical ord] ( developm5t4 ,f "t immemorial1 & d[n into ! l[e/ /rata ( savag]y t h come )9 our k51 !re h be5 clans & tribes2 &1 z is "h %[n1 a t[n%ip 0 orig9ally a /ation>y clan1 & a c\nty 0 orig9ally a /ation>y tribe4 ,!re 7 t[n%ips & c\nties 7or equival5t =ms ( organization7 be=e !re 7 cities4 ,9 l mann] !re 7 t[n%ips1 c\nties1 & cities long be=e !re 0 any?+ 9 ! _w t c\ld prop]ly be call$ a /ate4 ,i h rem>k$ bel[ ^u ! way 9 :i* ,engli% %ires coalesc$ into little /ates1 & 9 c\rse ( "t ! ,engli% nation 0 =m$ by ! union ( su* little /ates1 :i* lo/ _! /atehood 7i4e41 _! functions ( sov]eignty1 ?\gh n _! self-gov]nm5t )9 c]ta9 limits7 9 ! process4 ,f9ally1 9 ,am]ica1 we see an enorm\s nationality =m$ by ! f$]ation ( /ates :i* p>tially reta9 _! /atehood2 & "s ( ^! /ates are !mselves ( national dim5sions1 z1 = example1 ,new ,york1 :i* is ne>ly equal 9 area1 q equal 9 population1 & f> sup]ior 9 weal?1 to ,%akespe>e's ,engl&4 ,9 /udy+ ! local in/itutions ( our diff]5t /ates1 ,i h be5 greatly help$ by ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies 9 ,hi/ory & ,politics1 ( :i* ! eigh? annual s]ies is n[ 9 c\rse ( publication4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! pages bel[ ,i h frequ5t occasion to ackn[l$ge my indebt$ness to ^! le>n$ & sometimes pr(\ndly sugge/ive monographs2 b ,i _c leave ! subject )\t a special ^w ( gratitude to my fri5d1 ,dr4 ,h]b]t ,adams1 ! editor ( ! s]ies1 = ! noble "w :i* he is do+ 9 promot+ ! /udy ( ,am]ican hi/ory4 ,x _h always seem$ to me t ! m]e exi/5ce ( pr9t$ que/ions 9 text-books proves t ! publi%]s mu/ h r a poor op9ion ( ! av]age intellig5ce ( tea*]s2 & x also seem$ z if ! practical effect ( su* que/ions mu/ (t5 be to make ! ex]cise ( recitation m me*anical = bo? tea*]s & pupils1 & to enc\rage ! besett+ s9 ( le>n+ by he>t4 ,nev]!less1 !re are usually two sides to a case2 &1 9 def]5ce to ! prevail+ cu/om1 = :i*1 no d\bt1 !re is mu* to be said1 full sets ( que/ions h be5 app5d$ to ea* *apt] & section4 ,x seem$ desirable t su* que/ions %\ld be prep>$ by "s "o especially famili> ) ! use ( s*ool-books2 & = ^! ,i h to ?ank ,mr4 ,f4,a4 ,hill1 ,head ,ma/] ( ! ,cambridge ,engli% ,high ,s*ool4 ,i confess t ,mr4 ,hill's que/ions h consid]ably modifi$ my op9ion z to ! m]its ( su* app>atus4 ,!y seem to add v mat]ially to ! usefulness ( ! book4 ,x w be obs]v$ t !re are two sets ( ^! que/ions1 entirely di/9ct 9 "* & purpose4 ,! fir/ set--,que/ions on ! ,text--is app5d$ to ea* section1 s z to be z ne> ! text z possible4 ,^! que/ions furni% an excell5t topical analysis ( ! text4#c ,9 a c]ta9 s5se !y ask :at ! book says1 b ! tea*] is advis$ emphatically to disc\rage any su* ?+ z committ+ ! text to memory4 ,! t5d5cy to rote-le>n+ is v /rong4 ,i _h to cont5d ) x 9 tea*+ hi/ory to s5iors at ,h>v>d tw5ty ye>s ago1 b mu* has s9ce be5 done to *eck x ?r\gh ! developm5t ( ! mod]n ,g]man sem9>y me?ods4 7,= an explanation ( ^! me?ods1 see ,dr4 ,h]b]t ,adams on ,sem9>y ,libr>ies & ,univ]sity ,ext5sion1 ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,v41 xi47 ,) y\ng] /ud5ts ! t5d5cy is ( c\rse /rong]4 ,x is only ?r\gh mu* ex]cise t ! m9d le>ns h[ to let itself--z ,mat!w ,arnold us$ to say--play freely ab\t ! facts4 ,footnote #c3 ,?is1 says ,mr4 ,hill1 w please ^? :o pref] ! topical me?od1 :ile x does n =bid ! easy trans=mation ( topics to que/ions1 :i* o!rs may dem&4 ,9 ! table ( cont5ts ,i h made a pretty full topical analysis ( ! book1 :i* may prove useful = comp>ison ) ,mr4 ,hill's4 ,9 ord] to supply ! pupil ) "s :olesome ex]cise ( ?is sort1 ,mr4 ,hill has add$1 at ! end ( ea* *apt]1 a set ( ,sugge/ive ,que/ions & ,directions4 ,"h he has ?or\ghly div9$ ! purpose ( ! book & done mu* to fur!r x4 ,problems or cases are sugge/$ = ! /ud5t to consid]1 & que/ions are ask$ :i* _c be dispos$ ( by a direct appeal to ! text4 ,sometimes ! que/ions g q outside ( ! text1 & relate to topics conc]n+ :i* x provides no in=mation :atev]4 ,?is has be5 done ) a purpose4 ,! pupil %\ld le>n h[ to g outside ( ! book & ga!r f scatt]$ s\rces in=mation conc]n+ que/ions t ! book sugge/s4 ,9 o!r words1 he %\ld beg9 to le>n h[ to make rese>*es1 = t is com+ to be "o ( ! useful arts1 n m]ely = s*ol>s1 b = m5 & wom5 9 _m sorts ( avocations4 ,x is always useful1 z well z ennobl+1 to be able to trace k to its s\rces4 ,"w ( ?is sort involves m or less conf]5ce & discussion among classmates1 & calls = active aid f ! tea*]2 & if ! tea*] does n at fir/ feel at home 9 ^! me?ods1 practice w nev]!less br+ famili>ity1 & w prove mo/ :olesome tra9+4 ,= ! aid ( tea*]s & pupils1 z well z ( ! g5]al read] :o wi%es to pursue ! subject1 ,i h add$ a bibliographical note at ! end ( ea* *apt]1 imm$iately aft] ,mr4 ,hill's ,sugge/ive ,que/ions & ,directions4 ,?is p>ticul> purpose 9 my book mu/ be c>efully borne 9 m9d4 ,x expla9s ! omission ( _m details :i* "s text-books on ! same subject w\ld be sure to include4 ,to make a manual complete & self-suffic+ is precisely :at ,i h n int5d$4 ,! book is design$ to be sugge/ive & /imulat+1 to leave ! read] ) scant in=mation on "s po9ts1 to make him 7z ,mr4 ,samuel ,well] says7 vi% !re wos m1 & to %[ him h[ to g on by himself4 ,i am well aw>e t1 9 mak+ an exp]im5t 9 ?is some:at new direction1 no?+ is easi] ?an to fall into errors ( judgm5t4 ,i c h>dly suppose t ?is book is free f su* errors2 b if 9 spite !re( x %all turn out to be 9 any way helpful 9 br++ ! k & use ( ! ,g]man sem9>y me?od into our high] s*ools1 ,i %all be m ?an satisfi$4 ,j "h1 let me say to "y p 9 all p>ts ( our c\ntry3--,if y h n already done s1 x w\ld be well wor? :ile = y to organize a debat+ society 9 y\r t[n or village1 = ! discussion ( su* hi/orical & practical que/ions relat+ to ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates z are sugge/$ 9 ! c\rse ( ?is book4 ,once />t$1 !re ne$ be no end ( int]e/+ & pr(itable subjects = discussion4 ,z a fur!r guide to ! books y ne$ 9 /udy+ su* subjects1 use ,mr4 ,w4,e4 ,fo/]'s ,ref]5ces to ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! invaluable pamphlet m5tion$ bel[ on page #bgg4 ,if y _c af=d to buy ! books1 get ! public libr>y ( y\r t[n or village to buy !m2 or1 p]haps1 organize a small special libr>y = y\r society or club4 ,libr>ians w naturally feel int]e/$ 9 su* a matt]1 & w (t5 be able to help ) advice4 ,a few h\rs e week sp5t 9 su* :olesome /udies _c fail to d mu* t[>d ! political education ( ! local community1 & ?us t[>d ! g5]al improvem5t ( ! ,am]ican p4 ,= ! amelioration ( ?+s w d\btless cont9ue to be effect$ 9 ! future1 z x has be5 effect$ 9 ! pa/1 n by ambiti\s s*emes ( sudd5 & univ]sal re=m 7:i* ! sagaci\s man always suspects1 j z he suspects all s*emes = return+ a fabul\sly l>ge int]e/ ^u inve/m5ts71 b by ! gradual & cumulative ef=ts ( innum]able individuals1 ea* do+ some?+ to help or in/ruct ^? to :om 8 influ5ce ext5ds4 ,he :o makes two cle> ideas gr[ :]e !re 0 only "o hazy "o be=e1 is ! true b5efactor ( 8 species4 ,9 conclusion1 ,i mu/ express my s9c]e ?anks to ,mr4 ,?omas ,em]son1 sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools 9 ,newton1 = ! v k9d int]e/ he has %[n 9 my "w1 9 discuss+ its plan ) me at ! outset1 9 read+ ! complet$ manuscript1 & 9 (f]+ valuable criticisms4 ,,cambridge1 ,augu/ #e1 #ahij4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,taxation ,,& ,,gov]nm5t4 ,too mu* taxes4 ,:at is taxation8 ,taxation & em95t doma94 ,:at is gov]nm5t8 ,! %ip ( /ate4 ,! gov]nm5t4 ,:atev] else x may be1 ! gov]nm5t is ! p[] :i* imposes taxes4 ,diff]5ce betwe5 taxation & robb]y4 ,sometimes taxation is robb]y4 ,! /udy ( hi/ory is full ( practical lessons1 & helpful to ^? :o w\ld be good citiz5s4 ,p]petual vigilance is ! price ( lib]ty4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions4 ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,t[n%ip4 ,section #a4 ,! ,new ,engl& ,t[n%ip4 ,! mo/ anci5t & simple =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,new ,engl& settl$ by *ur* congregations4 ,policy ( ! e>ly ,massa*usetts gov]nm5t z to l& grants4 ,smallness ( ! f>ms ,t[n%ip & village ,social position ( ! settl]s ,! t[n-meet+ ,selectm52 t[n-cl]k ,t[n-treasur]2 con/ables2 assessors ( taxes & ov]se]s ( ! poor ,act ( #afdg e/abli%+ public s*ools ,s*ool committees ,field-driv]s & p\nd-keep]s2 f5ce-view]s2 o!r t[n (fic]s ,call+ ! t[n-meet+ ,t[n1 c\nty1 & /ate taxes ,poll-tax ,taxes on real-e/ate2 taxes on p]sonal prop]ty ,:5 & :]e taxes are assess$ ,tax-li/s ,*eat+ ! gov]nm5t ,! rate ( taxation ,und]valuation2 ! burd5 ( taxation ,! magic-fund delusion ,educational value ( ! t[n-meet+ ,by-laws ,p[] & responsibility ,!re is no?+ especially ,am]ican1 democratic1 or m]itori\s ab\t rotation 9 (fice ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #b4 ,orig9 ( ! ,t[n%ip4 ,t[n-meet+s 9 anci5t ,greece & ,rome ,clans2 ! m>k & ! tun ,! ,old-,engli% t[n%ip1 ! manor1 & ! p>i% ,! ve/ry-meet+ ,p>i% & ve/ry cl]ks2 beadles1 wayw>d5s1 hayw>ds1 common-driv]s1 *ur*w>d5s1 etc4 ,transition f ! ,engli% p>i% to ! ,new ,engl& t[n%ip ,build+ ( /ates out ( small] political units ,repres5tation2 %ire-motes2 ,e>l ,simon's ,p>liam5t ,! t[n%ip z ! unit ( repres5tation 9 ! %ire-mote & 9 ! ,g5]al ,c\rt ,contra/ ) ! ,russian village-community :i* is n repres5t$ 9 ! g5]al gov]nm5t ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions ,,bibliographical ,,note ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,c\nty4 ,section #a4 ,! ,c\nty 9 its ,beg9n+s4 ,:y d we h c\nties8 ,clans & tribes ,! ,engli% nation1 l ! ,am]ican1 grew out ( ! union ( small /ates ,ealdorman & %]iff2 %ire-mote & c\nty c\rt ,! coron]1 or cr[n (fic] ,ju/ices ( ! peace2 ! ,qu>t] ,sessions2 ! "l lieut5ant ,decl9e ( ! ,engli% c\nty2 beg9n+s ( c\nties 9 ,massa*usetts ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #b4 ,! ,mod]n ,c\nty 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,c\nty commission]s1 etc42 %ire-t[ns & c\rt-h\ses ,ju/ices ( ! peace1 & trial ju/ices ,! %]iff ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #c4 ,! ,old ,virg9ia ,c\nty4 ,virg9ia sp>sely settl$2 ext5sive l& grants to individuals ,navigable riv]s2 abs5ce ( t[ns2 slav]y ,social position ( ! settl]s ,virg9ia p>i%es2 ! ve/ry 0 a close corporation ,p[]s ( ! ve/ry ,! c\nty 0 ! unit ( repres5tation ,! c\nty c\rt 0 virtually a close corporation ,! c\nty-seat1 or ,c\rt ,h\se ,p[]s ( ! c\rt2 ! %]iff ,! c\nty-lieut5ant ,contra/ betwe5 old ,virg9ia & old ,new ,engl&1 9 respect ( local gov]nm5t ,jeff]son's op9ion ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t ,c\rt-day 9 old ,virg9ia ,virg9ia has be5 prolific 9 great lead]s ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions ,,bibliographical ,,note ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,t[n%ip ,,& ,,c\nty4 ,section #a4 ,v>i\s ,local ,sy/ems4 ,p>i%es 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a ,! back c\ntry2 ! regulators ,! di/rict sy/em ,! mod]n ,s\? ,c>ol9a c\nty ,! c\nties are too l>ge ,t5d5cy ( ! s*ool di/rict to develop into some?+ l a t[n%ip ,local in/itutions 9 colonial ,m>yl&2 ! hundr$ ,clans2 bro!rhoods1 or phratries2 & tribes ,orig9 ( ! hundr$2 ! hundr$ c\rt2 ! high con/able ,decay ( ! hundr$2 hundr$-meet+ 9 ,m>yl& ,! hundr$ 9 ,delaw>e2 ! levy c\rt1 or repres5tative c\nty assembly ,! old ,p5nsylvania c\nty ,t[n-meet+s 9 ,new ,tort ,! c\nty bo>d ( sup]visors ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #b4 ,settlem5t ( ! ,public ,doma94 ,we/w>d movem5t ( population along p>allels ( latitude ,me?od ( survey+ ! public l&s ,orig9 ( t[n%ips 9 ! ,we/ ,=mation ( c\nties 9 ! ,we/ ,"s effects ( ?is sy/em ,! res]vation ( a section = public s*ools ,9 ?is res]vation !re 7 ! g]ms ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t ,b at fir/ ! c\nty sy/em prevail$ ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #c4 ,! ,repres5tative ,t[n%ip-,c\nty ,sy/em 9 ! ,we/4 ,! t[n-meet+ 9 ,mi*igan ,conflict betwe5 t[n%ip & c\nty sy/ems 9 ,ill9ois ,effects ( ! ,ord9ance ( #aghg ,int5se vitality ( ! t[n%ip sy/em ,c\nty option & t[n%ip option 9 ,miss\ri1 ,nebraska1 ,m9nesota1 & ,dakota ,grades ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t 9 ! ,we/ ,an excell5t result ( ! abs5ce ( c5tralization 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,effect ( ! self-gov]n+ s*ool di/rict 9 ! ,s\?1 9 prep>+ ! way = ! self-gov]n+ t[n%ip ,woman-suffrage 9 ! s*ool di/rict ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions ,,bibliographical ,,note ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,city4 ,section #a4 ,direct & ,indirect ,gov]nm5t4 ,summ>y ( ! =ego+ results2 t[n%ip gov]nm5t is direct1 c\nty gov]nm5t is indirect ,repres5tative gov]nm5t is necessitat$ 9 a c\nty by ! ext5t ( t]ritory1 & 9 a city by ! multitude ( p ,josiah ,qu9cy's acc\nt ( ! ,bo/on t[n-meet+ 9 #ahcj ,di/9ctions betwe5 t[ns & cities 9 ,am]ica & 9 ,engl& ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #b4 ,orig9 ( ,engli% ,bor\ghs & ,cities4 ,orig9 ( ! *e/]s & ca/]s 9 ,roman camps ,coalesc5ce ( t[ns into =tifi$ bor\ghs ,! bor\gh z a hundr$2 x acquires a c\rt ,! bor\gh z a c\nty2 x acquires a %]iff ,gov]nm5t ( ,london "u ,h5ry ,i ,! guilds2 ! t[n guild1 & ,guild ,hall ,gov]nm5t ( ,london z p]fect$ 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury2 mayor1 ald]m51 & common c\ncil ,! city ( ,london1 & ! metropolitan di/rict ,engli% cities 7 = a long "t ! bulw>ks ( lib]ty ,simon de ,mont=t & ! cities ,olig>*ical abuses 9 ,engli% cities1 beg9n+ ) ! ,tudor p]iod ,! ,municipal ,re=m ,act ( #ahce ,gov]nm5t ( ! city ( ,new ,york be=e ! ,revolution ,*anges aft] ! ,revolution ,city gov]nm5t 9 ,philadelphia 9 ! eighte5? c5tury ,! v tradition ( good gov]nm5t 0 lack+ 9 ^! cities ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #c4 ,! ,gov]nm5t ( ,cities 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sev]al features ( our municipal gov]nm5ts ,9 _m cases !y d n seem to "w well ,rapid gr[? ( ,am]ican cities ,"s consequ5ces ( ?is rapid gr[? ,wa/efulness result+ f want ( =esight ,gr[? 9 complexity ( gov]nm5t 9 cities ,illu/rat$ by li/ ( municipal (fic]s 9 ,bo/on4 ,h[ city gov]nm5t comes to be a my/]y to ! citiz5s1 9 "s respects h>d] to und]/& ?an /ate & national gov]nm5t ,dread ( ! "o-man p[] has 9 _m cases l$ to scatt]+ & weak5+ ( responsibility ,committees ineffici5t = executive purposes2 ! ,circumlocution ,(fice ,al>m+ increase ( city debts1 & v>i\s attempts to rem$y ! evil ,exp]i5ce ( ,new ,york ) /ate int]f]5ce 9 municipal affairs2 unsatisfactory results ,! ,twe$ ,r+ 9 ,new ,york ,! pres5t is a p]iod ( exp]im5ts ,! new gov]nm5t ( ,brooklyn ,necessity ( sep>at+ municipal f national politics ,notion t ! suffrage ought to be re/rict$2 evils wr\ght by ignorant vot]s ,evils wr\ght by weal?y speculators2 te/imony ( ! ,p5nsylvania ,municipal ,commission ,dang]s ( a re/rict$ suffrage ,baneful effects ( mix+ city politics ) national politics ,! spoils sy/em mu/ be de/roy$1 root & bran*2 ballot re=m also indisp5sable ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions ,,bibliographical ,,note ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,/ate4 ,section #a4 ,! ,colonial ,gov]nm5ts4 ,claims ( ,spa9 to ! possession ( ,nor? ,am]ica ,claims ( ,france & ,engl& ,! ,london & ,plym\? ,companies ,_! common *>t] ,dissolution ( ! two companies ,/ates =m$ 9 ! ?ree zones ,=mation ( repres5tative gov]nm5ts2 ,h\se ( ,burgesses 9 ,virg9ia ,company ( ,massa*usetts ,bay ,transf] ( ! *>t] f ,engl& to ,massa*usetts ,! ,g5]al ,c\rt2 assi/ants & deputies ,virtual indep5d5ce ( ,massa*usetts1 & qu>rels ) ! ,cr[n ,new *>t] ( ,massa*usetts 9 #afib2 its lib]ties curtail$ ,republican gov]nm5ts 9 ,connecticut & ,rhode ,isl& ,c\nties palat9e 9 ,engl&2 propriet>y *>t] ( ,m>yl& ,propriet>y *>t] ( ,p5nsylvania ,qu>rels betwe5 ,p5ns & ,calv]ts2 ,mason & ,dixon's l9e ,o!r propriet>y gov]nm5ts ,!y g5]ally became unpopul> ,at ! "t ( ! ,revolution !re 7 ?ree =ms ( colonial gov]nm5t3 #a4 ,republican2 #b4 ,propriet>y2 #c4 ,royal 7,aft] #afib ! gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts might be describ$ z ,semi-royal7 ,9 all ?ree =ms !re 0 a repres5tative assembly1 :i* alone c\ld impose taxes ,! gov]nor's c\ncil 0 a k9d ( upp] h\se ,! colonial gov]nm5t 0 mu* l ! ,engli% sy/em 9 m9iature ,! ,am]icans nev] admitt$ ! supremacy ( p>liam5t ,except 9 ! regulation ( m>itime comm]ce ,9 ,engl& !re grew up ! !ory ( ! imp]ial supremacy ( p>liam5t ,& ! conflict betwe5 ! ,briti% & ,am]ican !ories 0 precipitat$ by becom+ involv$ 9 ! political s*emes ( ,george ,,iii4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #b4 ,! ,transition f ,colonial to ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts4 ,dissolution ( assemblies & p>liam5ts ,committees ( correspond5ce2 prov9cial congresses ,provisional gov]nm5ts2 gov]nors & presid5ts ,orig9 ( ! s5ates ,lik5esses & diff]5ces betwe5 ,briti% & ,am]ican sy/ems ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #c4 ,! ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts4 ,lat] modifications ,univ]sal suffrage ,sep>ation betwe5 legislative & executive dep>tm5ts2 its advantages & disadvantages z comp>$ ) ! ,european plan ,9 our sy/em ! indep5d5ce ( ! executive is ( vital importance ,! /ate executive ,! gov]nor's functions3 #a4 ,advis] ( legislature2 #b4 ,comm&] ( /ate militia2 #c4 ,royal pr]ogative ( p>don2 #d4 ,veto p[] ,importance ( ! veto p[] z a safegu>d aga9/ corruption ,9 build+ ! /ate1 ! local self-gov]nm5t 0 left unimpair$ ,in/ructive contra/ ) ,france ,"s causes ( ,fr5* political incapacity ,va/ness ( ! functions reta9$ by ! /ates 9 ! ,am]ican ,union ,illu/ration f rec5t ,engli% hi/ory ,indep5d5ce ( ! /ate c\rts ,con/itution ( ! /ate c\rts ,elective & appo9tive judges ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions ,,bibliographical ,,note ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,writt5 ,,con/itutions4 ,9 ! ,am]ican /ate !re is a p[] above ! legislature ,g]ms ( ! idea ( a writt5 con/itution ,developm5t ( ! idea ( contract 9 ,roman law2 m$iaeval *>t]s ,! ,great ,*>t] 7#abae7 ,! ,bill ( ,rights 7#afhi7 ,=e%ad[+ ( ! ,am]ican idea by ,sir ,h>ry ,vane 7#afff7 ,! ,mayfl[] compact 7#afbj7 ,! ,fundam5tal ,ord]s ( ,connecticut 7#afci7 ,g]m9al developm5t ( ! colonial *>t] t[>d ! mod]n /ate con/itution ,abnormal developm5t ( "s rec5t /ate con/itutions1 encroa*+ ^u ! legislature ,! process ( am5d+ con/itutions ,! ,swiss ,ref]5dum ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions ,,bibliographical ,,note ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,f$]al ,,union4 ,section #a4 ,orig9 ( ! ,f$]al ,union4 ,circum/ances fav\rable to ! union ( ! colonies4 ,! ,new ,engl& ,conf$]acy 7#afdc-hd74 ,albany ,congress 7#aged72 ,/amp ,act ,congress 7#agfe72 ,committees ( ,correspond5ce 7#aggb-ge74 ,! ,cont95tal ,congress 7#aggd-hi74 ,! sev]al /ates 7 nev] at any "t sov]eign /ates4 ,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,nature & p[]s ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 ,x c\ld n impose taxes1 & !re=e 0 n fully end[$ ) sov]eignty4 ,decl9e ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 ,weakness ( ! s5tim5t ( union2 an>*ical t5d5cies4 ,! ,f$]al ,conv5tion 7#aghg74 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 ,section #b4 ,! ,f$]al ,congress4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,! ?ree fif?s compromise4 ,! ,connecticut compromise4 ,! ,s5ate4 ,electoral di/ricts2 ! ,g]rym&]4 ,! election at l>ge4 ,"t ( assembl+4 ,privileges ( memb]s4 ,! ,speak]4 ,impea*m5t 9 ,engl&2 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! presid5t's veto p[]4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 ,section #c4 ,! ,f$]al ,executive4 ,! title ( ,presid5t4 ,! electoral college4 ,! twelf? am5dm5t4 ,! electoral commission 7#ahgg74 ,provisions aga9/ a lapse ( ! presid5cy4 ,orig9al purpose ( ! electoral college n fulfill$ ,electors =m]ly *os5 9 _m /ates by di/ricts2 n[ always on a g5]al ticket ,m9ority presid5ts ,advantages ( ! electoral sy/em ,nom9ation ( c&idates by congressional caucus 7#ahjj-bd7 ,nom9at+ conv5tions2 ! prim>y2 ! di/rict conv5tion2 ! national conv5tion ,qualifications = ! presid5cy2 ! t]m ( (fice ,p[]s & duties ( ! presid5t ,! presid5t's message ,executive dep>tm5ts2 ! cab9et ,! secret>y ( /ate ,diplomatic & consul> s]vice ,! secret>y ( ! treasury ,! o!r dep>tm5ts ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #d4 ,! ,nation & ! ,/ates4 ,diff]5ce betwe5 conf$]ation & f$]al union ,p[]s grant$ to ,congress ,! ,ela/ic ,clause ,p[]s d5i$ to ! /ates ,evils ( an inconv]tible pap] curr5cy ,p[]s d5i$ to ,congress ,bills ( atta9d] ,int]citiz5%ip2 mode ( mat+ am5dm5ts ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #e4 ,! ,f$]al ,judici>y4 ,ne$ = a f$]al judici>y ,f$]al c\rts & judges ,di/rict attorneys & m>%als ,! f$]al jurisdiction ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #f4 ,t]ritorial ,gov]nm5t4 ,! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory & ! ,ord9ance ( #aghg ,o!r t]ritories & _! gov]nm5t ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #g4 ,ratification & ,am5dm5ts4 ,provisions = ratification ,concessions to slav]y ,dem& = a bill ( rights ,! fir/ t5 am5dm5ts ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,section #h4 ,a ,few ,words ab\t ,politics4 ,f$]al taxation ,hamilton's policy2 excise2 t>iff ,orig9 ( ,am]ican political p>ties2 /rict & loose con/ruction ( ! ,ela/ic ,clause ,t>iff1 ,int]nal ,improvem5ts1 & ,national ,bank4 ,civil ,s]vice re=m ,orig9 ( ! spoils sy/em 9 ! /ate polities ( ,new ,tort & ,p5nsylvania ,rotation 9 (fice2 ! ,craw=d ,act ,h[ ! spoils sy/em 0 made national ,! ,civil ,s]vice ,act ( #ahhc ,! ,au/ralian ballot ,! ,engli% sy/em ( acc\nt+ = election exp5ses ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions ,,bibliographical ,,note ,,app5dix4 ,a4 ,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation ,b4 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,c4 ,magna ,*>ta ,d4 ,"p ( ! ,bill ( ,rights1 #afhi ,e4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,ord]s ( ,connecticut ,f4 ,! ,/ates classifi$ accord+ to orig9 ,g4 ,table ( /ates & t]ritories ,h4 ,population ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates #agij-ahhj1 ) p]c5tages ( urban population ,i4 ,an ,exam9ation ,pap] = ,cu/oms ,cl]ks ,j4 ,! ,new ,york ,corrupt ,practices ,act ( #ahij ,k4 ,specim5 ( an ,au/ralian ballot ,,index ,,civil ,,gov]nm5t ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates1 ,,consid]$ ,,) ,,"s ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,its ,,orig9s4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,taxation ,,& ,,gov]nm5t4 ,9 t /rangely beautiful /ory1 ,! ,cloi/] & ! ,he>?1 9 :i* ,*>les ,reade has drawn su* a vivid picture ( human life at ! close ( ! ,middle ,ages1 !re is a good description ( ! siege ( a revolt$ t[n by ! army ( ! ,duke ( ,burgundy4 ,arr[s :iz1 catapults hurl _! pond]\s /ones1 wood5 t[]s are built1 secret m9es are explod$4 ,! /urdy citiz5s1 l$ by a tall knight :o seems to be> a *>m$ life1 baffle e device ( ! besieg]s4 ,at l5g? ! citiz5s capture ! bro!r ( ! duke's g5]al1 & ! besieg]s capture ! tall knight1 :o turns out to be no knight aft] all1 b j a plebeian hosi]4 ,! duke's g5]al is on ! po9t ( ord]+ ! tradesman :o has made s mu* tr\ble to be %ot1 b ! latt] /ill rema9s ma/] ( ! situation2 =1 z he dryly obs]ves1 if any h>m comes to him1 ! enrag$ citiz5s w hang ! g5]al's bro!r4 ,"s p>ley ensues1 9 :i* ! %rewd hosi] promises = ! t[nsfolk to set free _! prison] & pay a r\nd sum ( money if ! besieg+ army w dep>t & leave !m 9 peace4 ,! (f] is accept$1 & s ! matt] is amicably settl$4 ,z ! wor?y citiz5 is ab\t to take 8 leave1 ! g5]al v5tures a ^w ( inquiry z to ! cause ( ! t[n's revolt4 ,:at1 !n1 is y\r grievance1 my good fri5d8 ,our hosi] knight1 ?\gh deft ) ne$le & ke5 ) lance1 has a /amm]+ tongue4 ,he answ]s3 ,tuta--tuta--tuta--tuta--too mu* taxes6 ,sid5ote3 ,too mu* taxes4 ,too mu* taxes3 ^? ?ree little words furni% u ) a clue :]e) to und]/& & expla9 a great deal ( hi/ory4 ,a great _m sieges ( t[ns1 s horrid to h endur$ ?\gh s picturesque to read ab\t1 hundr$s ( we>y m>*es & deadly battles1 ?\s&s ( romantic plots t h l$ _! inv5tors to ! scaffold1 h ow$ _! orig9 to que/ions ( taxation4 ,! issue betwe5 ! ducal comm&] & ! w>like tradesman has be5 tri$ ov] & ov] aga9 9 e c\ntry & 9 e age1 & n always has ! oppressor be5 s spe$ily ?w>t$ & got rid (4 ,! que/ions z to h[ mu* ! taxes %all be1 & :o is to decide h[ mu* !y %all be1 are always & 9 e /age ( society que/ions ( mo/ fundam5tal importance4 ,& ev] s9ce m5 began to make hi/ory1 a v l>ge "p ( :at !y h done1 9 ! way ( mak+ hi/ory1 has be5 ! attempt to settle ^! que/ions1 :e!r by discussion or by bl[s1 :e!r 9 c\ncil *amb]s or on ! battlefield4 ,! ,fr5* ,revolution ( #aghi1 ! mo/ t]rible political convulsion ( mod]n times1 0 caus$ *iefly by too mu* taxes1 & by ! fact t ! p :o paid ! taxes 7 n ! p :o decid$ :at ! taxes 7 to be4 ,our own ,revolution1 :i* made ! ,unit$ ,/ates a nation indep5d5t ( ,great ,brita91 0 br\ght on by ! disput$ "q z to :o 0 to decide :at taxes ,am]ican citiz5s mu/ pay4 ,sid5ote3 ,:at is taxation8 ,:at1 !n1 are taxes8 ,! "q is "o :i* is apt to come up1 soon] or lat]1 to puzzle *ildr54 ,!y f9d no difficulty 9 und]/&+ ! but*]'s bill = s _m p\nds ( meat1 or ! tailor's bill = s _m suits ( clo!s1 :]e ! value receiv$ is some?+ t c be se5 & h&l$4 ,b ! tax bill1 ?\gh x comes z inevitably z ! autumnal fro/s1 be>s no su* obvi\s relation to ! incid5ts ( dome/ic life2 x is n q s cle> :at ! money goes =2 & h5ce x is apt to be paid by ! head ( ! h\sehold ) m or less grumbl+1 :ile = ! y\ng] memb]s ( ! family x requires "s explanation4 ,x only ne$s to be po9t$ out1 h[ev]1 t 9 e t[n "s ?+s are done = ! b5efit ( all ! inhabitants ( ! t[n1 ?+s :i* conc]n "o p]son j z mu* z ano!r4 ,?us roads are made & kept 9 repair1 s*ool-h\ses are built & sal>ies paid to s*ool-tea*]s1 !re are con/ables :o take crim9als to jail1 !re are eng9es = putt+ out fires1 !re are public libr>ies1 t[n cemet]ies1 & poor-h\ses4 ,money rais$ = ^! purposes1 :i* are suppos$ to conc]n all ! inhabitants1 is suppos$ to be paid by all ! inhabitants1 ea* "o furni%+ 8 %>e2 & ! %>e :i* ea* "o pays is 8 t[n tax4 ,sid5ote3 ,taxation & em95t doma94 ,f ?is illu/ration x w\ld appe> t taxes are private prop]ty tak5 = public purposes2 & 9 mak+ ?is /atem5t we come v ne> ! tru?4 ,taxes are portions ( private prop]ty :i* a gov]nm5t takes = its public purposes4 ,be=e go+ f>!r1 let u pause to obs]ve t !re is "o o!r way1 besides taxation1 9 :i* gov]nm5t sometimes takes private prop]ty = public purposes4 ,roads & /reets are ( great importance to ! g5]al public2 & ! gov]nm5t ( ! t[n or city 9 :i* y live may see fit1 9 op5+ a new /reet1 to run x across y\r g>d51 or to make y move y\r h\se or %op out ( ! way = x4 ,9 s do+1 ! gov]nm5t ei!r takes away or damages "s ( y\r prop]ty4 ,x ex]cises rights ov] y\r prop]ty )\t ask+ y\r p]mission4 ,?is p[] ( gov]nm5t ov] private prop]ty is call$ ! "r ( em95t doma94 ,x means t a man's private int]e/s mu/ n be all[$ to ob/ruct ! int]e/s ( ! :ole community 9 :i* he lives4 ,b 9 two ways ! ex]cise ( em95t doma9 is unlike taxation4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is only occasional1 & affects only c]ta9 p]sons "h or !re1 :]eas taxation goes on p]petually & affects all p]sons :o own prop]ty4 ,9 ! second place1 :5 ! gov]nm5t takes away a piece ( y\r l& to make a road1 x pays y money 9 return = x2 p]haps n q s mu* z y believe ! piece ( l& 0 wor? 9 ! m>ket2 ! av]age human nature is d\btless su* t m5 seldom give fair measure = measure unless !y feel compell$ to1 & x is n easy to put a gov]nm5t "u compulsion4 ,/ill x gives y some?+2 x does n ask y to "p ) y\r prop]ty = no?+4 ,n[ 9 ! case ( taxation1 ! gov]nm5t takes y\r money & seems to make no return to y individually2 b x is suppos$ to return to y ! value ( x 9 ! %ape ( well-pav$ /reets1 good s*ools1 effici5t protection aga9/ crim9als1 & s =?4 ,sid5ote3 ,:at is gov]nm5t8 ,9 giv+ ?is brief prelim9>y def9ition ( taxes & taxation1 we h already begun to speak ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! t[n or city 9 :i* y live4 ,we %all pres5tly h to speak ( o!r gov]nm5ts1--z ! gov]nm5t ( y\r /ate & ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & we %all n[ & !n h occasion to allude to ! gov]nm5ts ( o!r c\ntries 9 :i* ! p are free1 z1 = example1 ,engl&2 & ( "s c\ntries 9 :i* ! p are n free1 z1 = example1 ,russia4 ,x is desirable1 !re=e1 t we %\ld "h at ! />t make sure :at we mean by gov]nm5t1 9 ord] t we may h a cle> idea ( :at we are talk+ ab\t4 ,sid5ote3 ,! %ip ( /ate4 ,our v]b to gov]n is an ,old ,fr5* ^w1 "o ( ! great ho/ ( ,fr5* words :i* became a "p ( ! ,engli% language betwe5 ! elev5? & f\rte5? c5turies1 :5 s mu* ,fr5* 0 spok5 9 ,engl&4 ,! ,fr5* ^w 0 g\v]n]1 & its olde/ =m 0 ! ,lat9 gub]n>e1 a ^w :i* ! ,romans borr[$ f ! ,greek1 & meant orig9ally to /e] ! %ip4 ,h5ce x v naturally came to mean to guide1 to direct1 to comm&4 ,! comp>ison betwe5 gov]n+ & /e]+ 0 a happy "o4 ,to gov]n is n to comm& z a ma/] comm&s a slave1 b x is to issue ord]s & give directions = ! common good2 = ! int]e/s ( ! man at ! helm are ! same z ^? ( ! p 9 ! %ip4 ,all mu/ float or s9k toge!r4 ,h5ce we sometimes speak ( ! %ip ( /ate1 & we (t5 call ! /ate a commonweal?1 or some?+ 9 ! weal or welf>e ( :i* all ! p are alike int]e/$4 ,gov]nm5t1 !n1 is ! direct+ or manag+ ( su* affairs z conc]n all ! p alike1--z1 = example1 ! puni%m5t ( crim9als1 ! en=cem5t ( contracts1 ! def5ce aga9/ =eign enemies1 ! ma9t5ance ( roads & bridges1 & s on4 ,to ! direct+ or manag+ ( su* affairs all ! p are expect$ to contribute1 ea* accord+ to 8 ability1 9 ! %ape ( taxes4 ,gov]nm5t is some?+ :i* is support$ by ! p & kept alive by taxation4 ,!re is no o!r way ( keep+ x alive4 ,sid5ote3 ,! gov]nm5t4 ,! bus9ess ( c>ry+ on gov]nm5t--( /e]+ ! %ip ( /ate--ei!r requires "s special tra9+1 or absorbs all ! "t & att5tion ( ^? :o c>ry x on2 & accord+ly1 9 all c\ntries1 c]ta9 p]sons or gr\ps ( p]sons are select$ or 9 "s way set ap>t1 = long] or %ort] p]iods ( "t1 to p]=m ! "w ( gov]nm5t4 ,su* p]sons may be a k+ ) 8 c\ncil1 z 9 ! ,engl& ( ! twelf? c5tury2 or a p>liam5t l$ by a responsible m9i/ry1 z 9 ! ,engl& ( to-day2 or a presid5t & two h\ses ( congress1 z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 or a bo>d ( selectm51 z 9 a ,new ,engl& t[n4 ,:5 we speak ( a gov]nm5t or ! gov]nm5t1 we (t5 mean ! gr\p ( p]sons ?us set ap>t = c>ry+ on ! "w ( gov]nm5t4 ,?us1 by ! ,glad/one gov]nm5t we mean ,mr4 ,glad/one1 ) 8 colleagues 9 ! cab9et & 8 ,lib]al majority 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons2 & by ! ,l9coln gov]nm5t1 prop]ly speak+1 0 meant ,presid5t ,l9coln1 ) ! ,republican majorities 9 ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,sid5ote3 ,:atev] else x may be1 ! gov]nm5t is ! p[] :i* taxes ,! gov]nm5t has always _m ?+s to d1 & !re are _m diff]5t lights 9 :i* we might reg>d x4 ,b = ! pres5t !re is "o ?+ :i* we ne$ especially to keep 9 m9d4 ,! gov]nm5t is ! p[] :i* c rightfully take away a "p ( y\r prop]ty1 9 ! %ape ( taxes1 to be us$ = public purposes4 ,a gov]nm5t is n wor?y ( ! "n1 & _c long be kept 9 exi/5ce1 unless x c raise money by taxation1 & use =ce1 if necess>y1 9 collect+ its taxes4 ,! only g5]al gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! ,revolution>y ,w>1 & = six ye>s aft] its close1 0 ! ,cont95tal ,congress1 :i* _h no au?ority to raise money by taxation4 ,9 ord] to fe$ & clo! ! army & pay its (fic]s & soldi]s1 x 0 oblig$ to ask = money f ! sev]al /ates1 & h>dly ev] got z mu* z 0 ne$$4 ,x 0 oblig$ to borr[ millions ( doll>s f ,france & ,holl&1 & to issue promissory notes :i* soon became wor?less4 ,aft] ! w> 0 ov] x became cle> t ?is s-call$ gov]nm5t c\ld nei!r pres]ve ord] nor pay its debts1 & accord+ly x ceas$ to be respect$ ei!r at home or abroad1 & x became necess>y = ! ,am]ican p to adopt a new =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,betwe5 ! old ,cont95tal ,congress & ! gov]nm5t "u :i* we h liv$ s9ce #aghi1 ! diff]5ces 7 _m2 b by f> ! mo/ ess5tial diff]5ce 0 t ! new gov]nm5t c\ld raise money by taxation1 & 0 ?us enabl$ prop]ly to c>ry on ! "w ( gov]n+4 ,if we are 9 any d\bt z to :at is really ! gov]nm5t ( "s p>ticul> c\ntry1 we _c d bett] ?an obs]ve :at p]son or p]sons 9 t c\ntry are clo!d ) au?ority to tax ! p4 ,m]e names1 z cu/om>ily appli$ to gov]nm5ts1 are apt to be deceptive4 ,?us 9 ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury ,france & ,engl& 7 bo? call$ k+doms2 b s f> z k+ly p[] 0 conc]n$1 ,l\is ,,xv4 0 a v diff]5t sort ( a k+ f ,george ,,ii4 ,! ,fr5* k+ c\ld impose taxes on 8 p1 & x might !re=e be truly said t ! gov]nm5t ( ,france 0 9 ! k+4 ,inde$1 x 0 ,l\is ,,xv's imm$iate pr$ecessor :o made ! fam\s rem>k1 ,! /ate is myself4 ,b ! ,engli% k+ c\ld n impose taxes2 ! only p[] 9 ,engl& t c\ld d t 0 ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 & accord+ly x is correct to say t 9 ,engl&1 at ! "t ( :i* we are speak+1 ! gov]nm5t 0 7z x /ill is7 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,sid5ote3 ,diff]5ce betwe5 taxation & robb]y4 ,i say1 !n1 ! mo/ ess5tial feature ( a gov]nm5t--or at any rate ! feature ) :i* x is mo/ important = u to become famili> at ! />t--is its p[] ( taxation4 ,! gov]nm5t is t :i* taxes4 ,if individuals take away "s ( y\r prop]ty = purposes ( _! own1 x is robb]y2 y lose y\r money & get no?+ 9 return4 ,b if ! gov]nm5t takes away "s ( y\r prop]ty 9 ! %ape ( taxes1 x is suppos$ to r5d] to y an equival5t 9 ! %ape ( good gov]nm5t1 some?+ )\t :i* our lives & prop]ty w\ld n be safe4 ,h]e9 seems to lie ! diff]5ce betwe5 taxation & robb]y4 ,:5 ! highwayman po9ts 8 pi/ol at me & ,i h& him my purse & wat*1 ,i am robb$4 ,b :5 ,i pay ! tax-collector1 :o c seize my wat* or sell my h\se ov] my head if ,i refuse1 ,i am simply pay+ :at is fairly due f me t[>d support+ ! gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,sometimes taxation is robb]y4 ,9 :at we h be5 say+ x has ?us f> be5 assum$ t ! gov]nm5t is 9 ! h&s ( upright & compet5t m5 & is prop]ly adm9i/]$4 ,x is n[ "t to obs]ve t robb]y may be committ$ by gov]nm5ts z well z by individuals4 ,if ! bus9ess ( gov]n+ is plac$ 9 ! h&s ( m5 :o h an imp]fect s5se ( _! duty t[>d ! public1 if su* m5 raise money by taxation & !n sp5d x on _! own pleasures1 or to increase _! political influ5ce1 or = o!r illegitimate purposes1 x is really robb]y1 j z mu* z if ^! m5 7 to /& ) pi/ols by ! roadside & empty ! wallets ( p pass+ by4 ,!y make a di%one/ use ( _! high position z memb]s ( gov]nm5t1 & extort money = :i* !y make no return 9 ! %ape ( s]vices to ! public4 ,hi/ory is full ( su* lam5table in/ances ( misgov]nm5t1 & "o ( ! mo/ important uses ( ! /udy ( hi/ory is to tea* u h[ !y h occurr$1 9 ord] t we may le>n h[ to avoid !m1 z f> z possible1 9 ! future4 ,sid5ote3 ,! /udy ( hi/ory4 ,:5 we beg9 9 *ildhood ! /udy ( hi/ory we are attract$ *iefly by anecdotes ( h]oes & _! battles1 k+s & _! c\rts1 h[ ! ,sp>tans f\ght at ,!rmopylae1 h[ ,alfr$ let ! cakes burn1 h[ ,h5ry ,,viii4 behead$ 8 wives1 h[ ,l\is ,,xiv4 us$ to live at ,v]sailles4 ,x is q "r t we %\ld be int]e/$ 9 su* p]sonal details1 ! m s ! bett]2 = hi/ory has be5 made by individual m5 & wom51 & until we h und]/ood ! "* ( a great _m ( ^? :o h gone be=e u1 & h[ !y ?\ght & felt 9 _! "t1 we h h>dly made a fair beg9n+ 9 ! /udy ( hi/ory4 ,! greate/ hi/orians1 su* z ,freeman & ,momms51 %[ z lively an int]e/ 9 p]sons z 9 pr9ciples2 & ,i w\ld n give mu* = ! hi/orical !ories ( a man :o %\ld decl>e himself indiff]5t to little p]sonal details4 ,sid5ote3 ,x is full ( practical lessons2 ,"s p1 h[ev]1 nev] outgr[ ! *ild's notion ( hi/ory z m]ely a mass ( pretty anecdotes or /upid annals1 )\t any practical be>+ ^u our own e-day life4 ,!re c\ld n be a great] mi/ake4 ,v little has happ5$ 9 ! pa/ :i* has n "s imm$iate practical lessons = u2 & :5 we /udy hi/ory 9 ord] to pr(it by ! exp]i5ce ( our ance/ors1 to f9d out :]e9 !y succe$$ & :]e9 !y fail$1 9 ord] t we may emulate _! success & avoid _! errors1 !n hi/ory becomes ! noble/ & mo/ valuable ( /udies4 ,x !n becomes1 moreov]1 an ardu\s pursuit1 at once oppressive & fasc9at+ f its endless weal? ( mat]ial1 & ab\nd+ 9 problems :i* ! mo/ dilig5t /ud5t c nev] hope completely to solve4 ,sid5ote3 & helpful to ^? :o w\ld be good citiz5s4 ,sid5ote3 ,et]nal vigilance is ! price ( lib]ty4 ,few p h ! leisure to und]take a sy/ematic & ?or\gh /udy ( hi/ory1 b e "o ought to f9d "t to le>n ! pr9cipal features ( ! gov]nm5ts "u :i* we live1 & to get "s inkl+ ( ! way 9 :i* ^! gov]nm5ts h come into exi/5ce & ( ! causes :i* h made !m :at !y are4 ,"s su* k is necess>y to ! prop] dis*>ge ( ! duties ( citiz5%ip4 ,political que/ions1 great & small1 are p]petually aris+1 to be discuss$ 9 ! newspap]s & vot$ on at ! polls2 & x is ! duty ( e man & woman1 "y or old1 to try to und]/& !m4 ,t is a duty :i* we owe1 ea* & all ( u1 to ourselves & to our fell[-c\ntrym54 ,= if su* que/ions are n settl$ 9 accordance ) k1 !y w be settl$ 9 accordance ) ignorance2 & t is a k9d ( settlem5t likely to be fraught ) results disa/r\s to ev]ybody4 ,x _c be too (t5 repeat$ t et]nal vigilance is ! price ( lib]ty4 ,p sometimes argue z if !y suppos$ t because our national gov]nm5t is call$ a republic & n a mon>*y1 & because we h free s*ools & univ]sal suffrage1 !re=e our lib]ties are =ev] secure4 ,our gov]nm5t is1 inde$1 9 mo/ respects1 a m>vel ( political skill2 & 9 ord9>y times x runs s smoo?ly t n[ & !n1 absorb$ z mo/ ( u are 9 dome/ic c>es1 we are apt to =get t x w n run ( itself4 ,to insure t ! gov]nm5t ( ! nation or ! /ate1 ( ! city or ! t[n%ip1 %all be prop]ly adm9i/]$1 requires f e citiz5 ! utmo/ wat*fulness & intellig5ce ( :i* he is capable4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 ,to ! tea*]4 ,enc\rage full answ]s4 ,d n p]mit any?+ l committ+ ! text to memory4 ,9 ! long run ! pupil :o relies ^u 8 own language1 h[ev] inf]ior x may be to t ( ! text1 is bett] (f4 ,naturally1 ) ?\ghtful /udy1 ! pupil's language w feel ! influ5ce ( t ( ! text1 & s improve4 ,! important ?+ 9 any answ] is ! fundam5tal ?\ght4 ,?is idea once grasp$1 ! expression ( x may receive "s att5tion4 ,! expression w (t5 be brok5 & faulty1 p>tly because ( ! immaturity ( ! pupil1 & p>tly because ( ! newness & difficulty ( ! !me4 ,d n let ! endeav\r to secure excell5t expression *eck a c]ta9 fre$om & spontaneity t %\ld be enc\rag$ 9 ! pupil4 ,:5 ! tea*] desires to place special /ress on excell5t pres5tation1 x is wise to assign topics be=eh&1 s t ea* pupil may "k def9itely :at is expect$ ( him1 & prep>e himself accord+ly4 #a4 ,tell ! /ory t introduces ! *apt]4 #b4 ,:at lesson is x design$ to tea*8 #c4 ,:at caus$ ! ,fr5* ,revolution8 #d4 ,:at caus$ ! ,am]ican ,revolution8 #e4 ,comp>e ! tax bill ) t ( ! but*] or tailor4 #f4 ,:at are taxes rais$ = 9 a t[n8 ,= ^: b5efit8 #g4 ,def9e taxes4 #h4 ,def9e ! "r ( em95t doma94 #i4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 taxes & ! "r ( em95t doma94 #aj4 ,:at is ! orig9 ( ! ^w gov]n8 #aa4 ,def9e gov]nm5t4 #ab4 ,by :om is x support$1 h[ is x kept alive1 & by :om is x c>ri$ on8 #ac4 ,give illu/rations ( gov]nm5ts4 #ad4 ,:at "o p[] mu/ gov]nm5t h to be wor?y ( ! "n8 #ae4 ,:at 0 ! pr9cipal weakness ( ! gov]nm5t dur+ ! ,am]ican ,revolution8 #af4 ,comp>e ?is gov]nm5t ) t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates s9ce #aghi4 #ag4 ,if x is d\btful :at ! real gov]nm5t ( a c\ntry is1 h[ may ! d\bt be settl$8 #ah4 ,illu/rate by ref]5ce to ,france & ,engl& 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 #ai4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 taxation & robb]y8 #bj4 ,"u :at conditions may taxation become robb]y8 #ba4 ,to :at are we easily attract$ 9 our fir/ /udy ( hi/ory8 #bb4 ,:at ought to be le>n$ f hi/ory8 #bc4 ,:at sort ( k is helpful 9 dis*>g+ ! duties ( citiz5%ip8 #bd4 ,%[ h[ et]nal vigilance is ! price ( lib]ty4 ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions4 ,to ! tea*]4 ,! object ( ?is s]ies ( que/ions & sugge/ions is to /imulate read+1 inve/igat+1 & ?9k+4 ,x is n expect$1 inde$ x is h>dly possible1 t ea* pupil %all respond to !m all4 ,a s+le "q may co/ prolong$ /udy4 ,assign ! numb]s1 !re=e1 to individuals to report ^u at a subsequ5t recitation1--"o or m to ea* pupil1 accord+ to ! difficulty ( ! numb]s4 ,res]ve "s = class consid]ation or discussion4 ,n[ & !n let ! tea*] answ] a "q himself1 p>tly to furni% ! pupils ) good examples ( answ]s1 & p>tly to insure att5tion to matt]s t might o!rwise escape notice4 #a4 ,are !re p :o receive no b5efit f _! paym5t ( taxes8 #b4 ,are ! b5efits receiv$ by p 9 proportion to ! am\nts paid by !m8 #c4 ,%[ some:at fully :at taxes _h to d ) ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 #d4 ,%[ some:at fully :at taxes _h to d ) ! ,am]ican ,revolution4 #e4 ,give illu/rations ( ! ex]cise ( ! "r ( em95t doma9 9 y\r own t[n or c\nty or /ate4 #f4 ,d railroad corporations ex]cise su* a "r8 ,h[ d !y succe$ 9 gett+ l& = _! tracks8 #g4 ,9 case ( disagreem5t1 h[ is a fair price det]m9$ = prop]ty tak5 by em95t doma98 #h4 ,:at p]sons are prom95t to-day 9 ! gov]nm5t ( y\r own t[n or city8 ,( y\r own c\nty8 ,( y\r own /ate8 ,( ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 #i4 ,:o con/itute ! gov]nm5t ( ! s*ool to :i* y belong8 ,does ?is "q admit ( m ?an "o answ]8 ,has ! gov]nm5t ( y\r s*ool any p[] to tax ! p to support ! s*ool8 #aj4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a /ate & ! gov]nm5t ( a /ate8 #aa4 ,:i* is ! m p[]ful bran* ( ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t8 ,:y8 #ab4 ,is x a misuse ( ! funds ( a city to provide ent]ta9m5ts = ! p ,july #d8 ,to exp5d money 9 ent]ta9+ di/+ui%$ gue/s8 ,to provide fl[]s1 c>riages1 cig>s1 w9es1 etc41 = su* gue/s8 #ac4 ,:at is meant by subord9at+ public (fice to private ends8 ,cite in/ances f hi/ory4 #ad4 ,:at hi/ories h y read8 ,:at "o ( !m1 if any1 w\ld y call a *ild's hi/ory1 or a drum & trumpet hi/ory8 ,:at "o ( !m1 if any1 has impress$ any lessons ^u y8 #ae4 ,m5tion "s pr9ciples t hi/ory has taught y4 #af4 ,m5tion a few (fices1 & tell ! sort ( intellig5ce t is ne$$ by ! p]sons :o hold !m4 ,:at results might foll[ if su* intellig5ce 7 lack+8 ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,x is design$ 9 ! bibliographical notes to indicate "s au?orities to :i* ref]5ce may be made = great] detail ?an is possible 9 an elem5t>y "w l ! pres5t4 ,x is believ$ t ! notes w prove a help to tea*] & pupil 9 special inve/igations1 & to ! read] :o may wi% to make selections f excell5t s\rces = purposes ( self-culture4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add t x is sometimes wor? mu* to ! /ud5t to "k :]e valuable in=mation may be obta9$1 ev5 :5 x is n practicable to make imm$iate use ( x4 ,c]ta9 books %\ld always be at ! tea*]'s desk dur+ ! in/ruction 9 civil gov]nm5t1 & z easily accessible z ! l>ge diction>y2 z1 = in/ance1 ! foll[+3 ,! ,g5]al ,/atutes ( ! /ate1 ! manual or blue-book ( ! /ate legislature1 &1 if ! s*ool is 9 a city1 ! city *>t] & ord9ances4 ,x is also desirable to add to ?is li/ ! /atutes ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & a manual ( ,congress or ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t4 ,manuals may be obta9$ ?r\gh repres5tatives 9 ! /ate legislature & 9 ,congress4 ,!y w answ] ne>ly e purpose if !y are n ( ! late/ issue4 ,! ,/atesman's ,ye> ,book1 publi%$ by ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 e ye>1 is exce$+ly valuable = ref]5ce4 ,c]ta9 almanacs1 p>ticul>ly ! compreh5sive ones issu$ by ! ,new ,york ,tribune & ! ,new ,york ,_w1 are ri* 9 /ate & national /ati/ics1 & s inexp5sive z to be )9 ev]ybody's means4 ,,taxation ,,& ,,gov]nm5t4--,z to ! causes ( ! ,am]ican revolution1 see my ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce1 ,bo/on1 #ahhi2 & z to ! weakness ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates be=e #aghi1 see my ,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 ,bo/on1 #ahhh4 ,z to ! causes ( ! ,fr5* revolution1 see ,paul ,lacombe1 ,! ,gr[? ( a ,p1 ,n4,y41 #ahhc1 & ! ?ird volume ( ,kit*9's ,hi/ory ( ,france1 ,london1 #ahhg2 also ,morse ,/eph5s1 ,! ,fr5* ,revolution1 vol4 i41 ,n4,y41 #ahhg2 ,ta9e1 ,! ,anci5t ,regime1--,n4,y41 #ahgf1 & ,! ,revolution1 #b vols41 ,n4,y41 #ahhj4 ,! /ud5t may read ) pleasure & pr(it ,dick5s's ,tale ( ,two ,cities4 ,= ! /ud5t famili> ) ,fr5*1 an excell5t book is ,alb]t ,babeau1 ,le ,village s\s l'anci5 ,rgime1 ,p>is1 #ahgi2 see also ,tocqueville1 ,l'anci5 ,rgime et la ,rvolution1 #g? ed41 ,p>is1 #ahff4 ,!re is a good sket* ( ! causes ( ! ,fr5* revolution 9 ! fif? volume ( ,leeky's ,hi/ory ( ,engl& 9 ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury1 ,n4,y41 #ahhg2 see also ,buckle's ,hi/ory ( ,civilization1 *aps1 xii4-xiv4 ,!re is no bett] comm5t>y on my fir/ *apt] ?an ! lurid hi/ory ( ,france 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! /rong contra/ to ,engli% & ,am]ican hi/ory %[s u mo/ in/ructively :at we h ?us f> escap$4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,t[n%ip4 ,section #a4 ,! ,new ,engl& ,t[n%ip4 ,( ! v>i\s k9ds ( gov]nm5t to be f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 we may beg9 by consid]+ t ( ! ,new ,engl& t[n%ip4 ,z we %all pres5tly see1 x is 9 pr9ciple ( all kn[n =ms ( gov]nm5t ! olde/ z well z ! simple/4 ,let u obs]ve h[ ! ,new ,engl& t[n%ip grew up4 ,sid5ote3 ,new ,engl& 0 settl$ by *ur* congregations4 ,:5 p f ,engl& fir/ came to dwell 9 ! wild]ness ( ,massa*usetts ,bay1 !y settl$ 9 gr\ps ^u small irregul>-%ap$ pat*es ( l&1 :i* soon came to be kn[n z t[n%ips4 ,!re 7 sev]al reasons :y !y settl$ ?us 9 small gr\ps1 in/ead ( scatt]+ ab\t ov] ! c\ntry & c>v+ out broad e/ates = !mselves4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 _! pr9cipal reason = com+ to ,new ,engl& 0 _! dissatisfaction ) ! way 9 :i* *ur* affairs 7 manag$ 9 ! old c\ntry4 ,!y wi%$ to br+ ab\t a re=m 9 ! *ur*1 9 su* wise t ! memb]s ( a congregation %\ld h m voice ?an =m]ly 9 ! *ur*-gov]nm5t1 & t ! m9i/] ( ea* congregation %\ld be m indep5d5t ?an =m]ly ( ! bi%op & ( ! civil gov]nm5t4 ,!y also wi%$ to aboli% sundry rites & cu/oms ( ! *ur* ( :i* !y _h come to disapprove4 ,f9d+ ! resi/ance to _! re=ms q =midable 9 ,engl&1 & hav+ "s reason to fe> t !y might be !mselves cru%$ 9 ! /ruggle1 !y cross$ ! ocean 9 ord] to c>ry out _! ideas 9 a new & remote c\ntry :]e !y might be comp>atively secure f int]f]5ce4 ,h5ce x 0 q natural t !y %\ld come 9 congregations1 l$ by _! fav\rite m9i/]s1--su* m51 = example1 z ,higg9son & ,cotton1 ,hook] & ,dav5port4 ,:5 su* m51 fam\s 9 ,engl& = _! bold prea*+ & imp]il$ !reby1 decid$ to move to ,am]ica1 a consid]able numb] ( _! p>i%ion]s w\ld decide to accompany !m1 & simil>ly m9d$ memb]s ( neighb\r+ *ur*es w\ld leave _! own pa/or & jo9 9 ! migration4 ,su* a gr\p ( p1 arriv+ on ! coa/ ( ,massa*usetts1 w\ld naturally select "s conv5i5t locality1 :]e !y might build _! h\ses ne> toge!r & all g to ! same *ur*4 ,sid5ote3 ,l& grants4 ,?is migration1 !re=e1 0 a movem5t1 n ( individuals or ( sep>ate families1 b ( *ur*-congregations1 & x cont9u$ to be s z ! settl]s made _! way inl& & we/w>d4 ,! fir/ riv] t[ns ( ,connecticut 7 f\nd$ by congregations com+ f ,dor*e/]1 ,cambridge1 & ,wat]t[n4 ,?is k9d ( settlem5t 0 fav\r$ by ! gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts1 :i* made grants ( l&1 n to individuals b to companies ( p :o wi%$ to live toge!r & att5d ! same *ur*4 ,9 ! second place1 ! soil ( ,new ,engl& 0 n fav\rable to ! cultivation ( great quantities ( /aple articles1 su* z rice or tobacco1 s t !re 0 no?+ to tempt p to und]take ext5sive plantations4 ,sid5ote3 ,small f>ms4 ,mo/ ( ! p liv$ on small f>ms1 ea* family rais+ b little m ?an en\gh food = its own support2 & ! small size ( ! f>ms made x possible to h a good _m 9 a compact neighb\rhood4 ,x appe>$ also t t[ns c\ld be m easily def5d$ aga9/ ! ,indians ?an scatt]$ plantations2 & ?is d\btless help$ to keep p toge!r1 al?\gh if !re _h be5 any /rong inducem5t = solit>y pione]s to plunge into ! great woods1 z 9 lat] ye>s s (t5 happ5$ at ! ,we/1 x is n likely t any dread ( ! savages w\ld h h9d]$ !m4 ,sid5ote3 ,t[n%ip & village4 ,sid5ote3 ,social positions ( settl]s4 ,?us ! e>ly settl]s ( ,new ,engl& came to live 9 t[n%ips4 ,a t[n%ip w\ld consi/ ( ab\t z _m f>ms z c\ld be dispos$ )9 conv5i5t di/ance f ! meet+-h\se1 :]e all ! inhabitants1 "y & old1 ga!r$ e ,sunday1 com+ on horseback or afoot4 ,! meet+-h\se 0 ?us c5trally situat$1 & ne> x 0 ! t[n pa/ure or common1 ) ! s*ool-h\se & ! block-h\se1 or rude =tress = def5ce aga9/ ! ,indians4 ,= ! latt] build+ "s comm&+ position 0 apt to be select$1 & h5ce we s (t5 f9d ! old village /reets ( ,new ,engl& runn+ along elevat$ ridges or climb+ ov] beetl+ hilltops4 ,ar\nd ! meet+-h\se & common ! dwell+s gradually clu/]$ into a village1 & aft] a :ile ! tav]n1 /ore1 & t[n-h\se made _! appe>ance4 ,among ! p :o ?us till$ ! f>ms & built up ! villages ( ,new ,engl&1 ! diff]5ces 9 :at we %\ld call social position1 ?\gh noticeable1 7 n extreme4 ,:ile 9 ,engl& "s _h be5 esquires or c\ntry magi/rates1 or lords ( ! manor1--a phrase :i* does n mean a memb] ( ! pe]age1 b a l&$ proprietor ) dep5d5t t5ants#a2 "s _h be5 yeom51 or p]sons hold+ f>ms by "s free k9d ( t5ure2 "s _h be5 artisans or tradesm5 9 cities4 ,all _h = _m g5]ations be5 m or less accu/om$ to self-gov]nm5t & to public meet+s = discuss+ local affairs4 ,t self-gov]nm5t1 especially z f> z *ur* matt]s 7 conc]n$1 !y 7 /\tly b5t ^u ma9ta9+ & ext5d+4 ,inde$1 t 0 :at !y _h cross$ ! ocean =4 ,"u ^! circum/ances !y develop$ a k9d ( gov]nm5t :i* we may describe 9 ! pres5t t5se1 = its me?ods are pretty mu* ! same to-day t !y 7 two c5turies ago4 ,footnote #a3 ,comp>e ! ,scotti% laird4 ,sid5ote3 ,! t[n-meet+4 ,9 a ,new ,engl& t[n%ip ! p directly gov]n !mselves2 ! gov]nm5t is ! p1 or1 to speak ) entire precision1 x is all ! male inhabitants ( "o-&-tw5ty ye>s ( age & upw>ds4 ,! p tax !mselves4 ,once ea* ye>1 usually 9 ,m>* b sometimes z e>ly z ,febru>y or z late z ,april1 a t[n-meet+ is held1 at :i* all ! gr[n m5 ( ! t[n%ip are expect$ to be pres5t & to vote1 :ile any "o may introduce motions or take "p 9 ! discussion4 ,9 e>ly times !re 0 a f9e = non-att5dance1 b at is no long] ! case2 x is suppos$ t a due reg>d to 8 own int]e/s w induce e man to come4 ,! t[n-meet+ is held 9 ! t[n-h\se1 b at fir/ x us$ to be held 9 ! *ur*1 :i* 0 ?us a meet+-h\se = civil z well z ecclesia/ical purposes4 ,at ! t[n-meet+ measures relat+ to ! adm9i/ration ( t[n affairs are discuss$ & adopt$ or reject$2 appropriations are made = ! public exp5ses ( ! t[n1 or 9 o!r words ! am\nt ( ! t[n taxes = ! ye> is det]m9$2 & t[n (fic]s are elect$ = ! ye>4 ,let u fir/ enum]ate ^! (fic]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,selectm54 ,! pr9cipal executive magi/rates ( ! t[n are ! selectm54 ,!y are ?ree1 five1 sev51 or n9e 9 numb]1 accord+ to ! size ( ! t[n & ! am\nt ( public bus9ess to be transact$4 ,! odd numb] insures a majority decision 9 case ( any diff]5ce ( op9ion among !m4 ,!y h ! g5]al managem5t ( ! public bus9ess4 ,!y issue w>rants = ! hold+ ( t[n-meet+s1 & !y c call su* a meet+ at any "t dur+ ! ye> :5 !re seems to be ne$ = x1 b ! w>rant mu/ always specify ! subjects :i* are to be discuss$ & act$ on at ! meet+4 ,! selectm5 also lay out highways1 grant lic5ses1 & impanel jurors2 !y may act z heal? (fic]s & issue ord]s reg>d+ sew]age1 ! abatem5t ( nuisances1 or ! isolation ( contagi\s diseases2 9 _m cases !y act z assessors ( taxes1 & z ov]se]s ( ! poor4 ,!y are ! prop] p]sons to li/5 to compla9ts if any?+ goes wrong 9 ! t[n4 ,9 c\nty matt]s & /ate matt]s !y speak = ! t[n1 & if x is a p>ty to a law-suit !y repres5t x 9 c\rt2 = ! ,new ,engl& t[n is a legal corporation1 & z su* c hold prop]ty1 & sue & be su$4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se ! selectm5 may be said to be ! gov]nm5t ( ! t[n dur+ ! int]vals betwe5 ! t[n-meet+s4 ,sid5ote3 ,t[n-cl]k4 ,an (fic] no less important ?an ! selectm5 is ! t[n-cl]k4 ,he keeps ! record ( all votes pass$ 9 ! t[n-meet+s4 ,he also records ! names ( c&idates & ! numb] ( votes = ea* 9 ! election ( /ate & c\nty (fic]s4 ,he records ! bir?s1 m>riages1 & dea?s 9 ! t[n%ip1 & issues c]tificates to p]sons :o decl>e an int5tion ( m>riage4 ,he likewise keeps on record accurate descriptions ( ! position & b\nds ( public roads2 &1 9 %ort1 has g5]al *>ge ( all matt]s ( t[n-record4 ,sid5ote3 ,t[n-treasur]4 ,e t[n has also its treasur]1 :o receives & takes c>e ( ! money com+ 9 f ! taxpay]s1 or :atev] money belongs to ! t[n4 ,out ( ?is money he pays ! public exp5ses4 ,he mu/ keep a /rict acc\nt ( 8 receipts & paym5ts1 & make a report ( !m ea* ye>4 ,sid5ote3 ,con/ables4 ,e t[n has "o or m con/ables1 :o s]ve w>rants f ! selectm5 & writs f ! law c\rts4 ,!y pursue crim9als & take !m to jail4 ,!y summon jurors4 ,9 _m t[ns !y s]ve z collectors ( taxes1 b 9 _m o!r t[ns a special (fic] is *os5 = t purpose4 ,:5 a p]son1 fails to pay 8 taxes1 aft] a specifi$ "t ! collector has au?ority to seize ^u 8 prop]ty & sell x at auction1 pay+ ! tax & co/s out ( ! proce$s ( ! sale1 & h&+ ov] ! balance to ! own]4 ,9 "s cases1 :]e no prop]ty c be f\nd & !re is reason to believe t ! del9qu5t is n act+ 9 good fai?1 he c be arre/$ & kept 9 prison until ! tax & co/s are paid1 or until he is releas$ by ! prop] legal me?ods4 ,sid5ote3 ,assessors ( taxes & ov]se]s ( ! poor4 ,:]e ! duties ( ! selectm5 are likely to be too num]\s1 ! t[n may *oose ?ree or m assessors ( taxes to prep>e ! tax li/s2 & ?ree or m ov]se]s ( ! poor1 to regulate ! managem5t ( ! village alm%\se & conf] ) o!r t[ns ^u su* que/ions z (t5 arise conc]n+ ! settlem5t & ma9t5ance ( homeless paup]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,public s*ools4 ,e t[n has its s*ool committee4 ,9 #afdg ! legislature ( ,massa*usetts enact$ a law ) ! foll[+ preamble3 ,x be+ "o *ief project ( t old delud]1 ,satan1 to keep m5 f ! k ( ! ,scriptures1 z 9 =m] times by keep+ !m 9 an unkn[n tongue1 s 9 ^! latt] times by p]suad+ f ! use ( tongues1 t s at lea/ ! true s5se & mean+ ( ! orig9al might be cl\d$ & corrupt$ ) false glosses ( deceiv]s2 to ! end t le>n+ may n be buri$ 9 ! graves ( our =efa!rs1 9 *ur* & commonweal?1 ! ,"l assi/+ our endeav\rs2 x 0 !re=e ord]$ t e t[n%ip conta9+ fifty families or h\sehold]s %\ld =?) set up a s*ool 9 :i* *ildr5 might be taught to read & write1 & t e t[n%ip conta9+ "o hundr$ families or h\sehold]s %\ld set up a s*ool 9 :i* boys might be fitt$ = ent]+ ,h>v>d ,college4 ,ev5 be=e ?is /atute1 sev]al t[ns1 z = in/ance ,roxbury & ,d$ham1 _h begun to appropriate money = free s*ools2 & ^! 7 ! beg9n+s ( a sy/em ( public education :i* has come to be adopt$ ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,s*ool committees4 ,! s*ool committee ex]cises p[]s ( su* a "* z to make x a body ( great importance4 ,! t]m ( s]vice ( ! memb]s is ?ree ye>s1 "o ?ird be+ *os5 annually4 ,! numb] ( memb]s mu/ !re=e be "s multiple ( ?ree4 ,! sl[ *ange 9 ! memb]%ip ( ! bo>d insures t a l>ge proportion ( ! memb]s %all always be famili> ) ! duties ( ! place4 ,! s*ool committee mu/ visit all ! public s*ools at lea/ once a mon?1 & make a report to ! t[n e ye>4 ,x is = !m to decide :at text-books are to be us$4 ,!y exam9e c&idates = ! position ( tea*] & issue c]tificates to ^? :om !y select4 ,! c]tificate is issu$ 9 duplicate1 & "o copy is h&$ to ! selectm5 z a w>rant t ! tea*] is entitl$ to receive a sal>y4 ,tea*]s are appo9t$ = a t]m ( "o ye>1 b :]e _! "w is satisfactory ! appo9tm5ts are usually r5ew$ ye> aft] ye>4 ,a rec5t act 9 ,massa*usetts p]mits ! appo9tm5t ( tea*]s to s]ve dur+ good behavi\r1 b few bo>ds h z yet avail$ !mselves ( ?is law4 ,if ! am\nt ( "w to be done seems to require x1 ! committee appo9ts a sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools4 ,he is a sort ( lieut5ant ( ! s*ool committee1 & "u its g5]al direction c>ries on ! detail$ "w ( sup]vision4 ,o!r t[n (fic]s are ! surveyors ( highways1 :o are responsible = keep+ ! roads & bridges 9 repair2 field-driv]s & p\nd-keep]s2 f5ce-view]s2 surveyors ( lumb]1 measur]s ( wood1 & seal]s ( weights & measures4 ,sid5ote3 ,field-driv]s & p\nd keep]s4 ,! field-driv] takes /ray animals to ! p\nd1 & !n notifies _! own]2 or if he does n "k :o is ! own] he po/s a description ( ! animals 9 "s su* place z ! village /ore or tav]n1 or has x publi%$ 9 ! ne>e/ c\ntry newspap]4 ,mean:ile ! /rays are duly f$ by ! p\nd-keep]1 :o does n let !m out ( 8 cu/ody until all exp5ses h be5 paid4 ,sid5ote3 ,f5ce-view]s4 ,if ! own]s ( contigu\s f>ms1 g>d5s1 or fields get into a dispute ab\t _! p>tition f5ces or walls1 !y may apply to "o ( ! f5ce-view]s1 ( :om ea* t[n has at lea/ two4 ,! f5ce-view] decides ! matt]1 & *>ges a small fee = 8 s]vices4 ,:]e x is necess>y he may ord] suitable walls or f5ces to be built4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r (fic]s4 ,! surveyors ( lumb] measure & m>k lumb] (f]$ = sale4 ,! measur]s ( wood d ! same = firewood4 ,! seal]s te/ ! correctness ( weights & measures us$ 9 trade1 & tradesm5 are n all[$ to use weights & measures t h n be5 ?us (ficially exam9$ & seal$4 ,measur]s & seal]s may be appo9t$ by ! selectm54 ,su* are ! (fic]s always to be f\nd 9 ! ,massa*usetts t[n1 except :]e ! duties ( "s ( !m are dis*>g$ by ! selectm54 ,( ^! (fic]s1 ! selectm51 t[n-cl]k1 treasur]1 con/able1 s*ool committee1 & assessors mu/ be elect$ by ballot at ! annual t[n-meet+4 ,sid5ote3 ,call+ ! t[n-meet+4 ,:5 ?is meet+ is to be call$ ! selectm5 issue a w>rant = ! purpose1 specify+ ! "t & place ( meet+ & ! nature ( ! bus9ess to be transact$4 ,! con/able po/s copies ( ! w>rant 9 div]s conspicu\s places n less ?an a week be=e ! "t appo9t$4 ,!n1 aft] mak+ a note ^u ! w>rant t he has duly s]v$ x1 he h&s x ov] to ! t[n-cl]k4 ,on ! appo9t$ day1 :5 ! p h assembl$1 ! t[n-cl]k calls ! meet+ to ord] & reads ! w>rant4 ,! meet+ !n proce$s to *oose by ballot its presid+ (fic]1 or mod]ator1 & bus9ess goes on 9 accordance ) p>liam5t>y cu/oms pretty g5]ally recogniz$ among all p :o speak ,engli%4 ,sid5ote3 ,t[n1 c\ntry1 & /ate taxes4 ,at ?is meet+ ! am\nt ( money to be rais$ by taxation = t[n purposes is det]m9$4 ,b1 z we %all see1 e inhabitant ( a t[n lives n only "u a t[n gov]nm5t1 b also "u a c\nty gov]nm5t & a /ate gov]nm5t1 & all ^! gov]nm5ts h to be support$ by taxation4 ,9 ,massa*usetts ! /ate & ! c\nty make use ( ! ma*9]y ( ! t[n gov]nm5t 9 ord] to assess & collect _! taxes4 ,! total am\nts to be rais$ are equitably divid$ among ! sev]al t[ns & cities1 s t ea* t[n pays its proportionate %>e4 ,ea* ye>1 !re=e1 ! t[n assessors "k t a c]ta9 am\nt ( money mu/ be rais$ f ! taxpay]s ( _! t[n1--p>tly = ! t[n1 p>tly = ! c\nty1 p>tly = ! /ate1--& = ! g5]al conv5i5ce !y usually assess x ^u ! taxpay]s all at once4 ,! am\nts rais$ = ! /ate & c\nty are usually v mu* small] ?an ! am\nt rais$ = ! t[n4 ,z ^! am\nts are all rais$ 9 ! t[n & by t[n (fic]s1 we %all f9d x conv5i5t to sum up 9 ?is place :at we h to say ab\t ! way 9 :i* taxes are rais$4 ,be> 9 m9d t we are /ill consid]+ ! ,new ,engl& sy/em1 & our illu/ration is tak5 f ! practice 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,b ! g5]al pr9ciples ( taxation are s simil> 9 ! diff]5t /ates t1 al?\gh we may n[ & !n h to po9t to diff]5ces ( detail1 we %all n ne$ to g ov] ! :ole subject aga94 ,we h n[ to obs]ve h[ & ^u :om ! taxes are assess$4 ,sid5ote3 ,poll-tax4 ,!y are assess$ p>tly ^u p]sons1 b *iefly ^u prop]ty1 & prop]ty is divisible into real e/ate & p]sonal e/ate4 ,! tax assess$ ^u p]sons is call$ ! poll-tax1 & _c exce$ ! sum ( two doll>s ^u e male citiz5 ov] tw5ty ye>s old4 ,9 cases ( extreme pov]ty ! assessors may remit ! poll-tax4 ,sid5ote3 ,real-e/ate taxes4 ,z to real e/ate1 !re are 9 e t[n "s l&s & build+s :i*1 = reasons ( public policy1 are exempt$ f pay+ taxes2 z1 = example1 *ur*es1 gravey>ds1 & tombs2 _m *>itable in/itutions1 includ+ univ]sities & colleges2 & public build+s :i* belong to ! /ate or to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,all l&s & build+s1 except su* z are exempt by law1 mu/ pay taxes4 ,sid5ote3 ,taxes on p]sonal prop]ty4 ,p]sonal prop]ty includes pretty mu* ev]y?+ t "o c own except l&s & build+s1--pretty mu* ev]y?+ t c be mov$ or c>ri$ ab\t f "o place to ano!r4 ,x ?us includes ready money1 /ocks & bonds1 %ips & wagons1 furniture1 pictures1 & books4 ,x also includes ! am\nt ( debts due to a p]son 9 excess ( ! am\nt t he owes2 also ! income f 8 employm5t1 :e!r 9 ! %ape ( pr(its f bus9ess or a fix$ sal>y4 ,"s p]sonal prop]ty is exempt$ f taxation2 z1 = example1 h\sehold furniture to ! am\nt ( #a1jjj 9 value1 & income f employm5t to ! ext5t ( #b1jjj4 ,! obvi\s int5t ( ?is exemption is to prev5t taxation f be>+ too h>d ^u p]sons ( small means2 & = a simil> reason ! tools ( f>m]s & me*anics are exempt$4#b ,footnote #b3 ,unit$ ,/ates bonds are also especially exempt$ f taxation4 ,sid5ote3 ,:5 & :]e taxes are assess$4 ,! date at :i* prop]ty is annually reckon$ = assessm5t is 9 ,massa*usetts ! fir/ day ( ,may4 ,! poll-tax is assess$ ^u ea* p]son 9 ! t[n or city :]e he has 8 legal habitation on t day2 & z a g5]al rule ! taxes ^u 8 p]sonal prop]ty are assess$ to him 9 ! same place4 ,b taxes ^u l&s or build+s are assess$ 9 ! city or t[n :]e !y are situat$1 & to ! p]son1 :]ev] he lives1 :o is ! own] ( !m on ! fir/ day ( ,may4 ,?us a man :o lives 9 ! ,b]k%ire m\nta9s1 say = example 9 ! t[n ( ,lanesbor\gh1 w pay 8 poll-tax to t t[n4 ,= 8 p]sonal prop]ty1 :e!r x he bonds ( a railroad 9 ,colorado1 or %>es 9 a bank 9 ,new ,york1 or co/ly pictures 9 8 h\se at ,lanesbor\gh1 he w likewise pay taxes to ,lanesbor\gh4 ,s = ! h\se 9 :i* he lives1 & ! l& ^u :i* x /&s1 he pays taxes to t same t[n4 ,b if he owns at ! same "t a h\se 9 ,bo/on1 he pays taxes = x to ,bo/on1 & if he owns a block ( %ops 9 ,*icago he pays taxes = ! same to ,*icago4 ,x is v apt to be ! case t ! rate ( taxation is high] 9 l>ge cities ?an 9 villages2 & accord+ly x (t5 happ5s t weal?y inhabitants ( cities1 :o own h\ses 9 "s c\ntry t[n1 move into !m be=e ! fir/ ( ,may1 & o!rwise comport !mselves z legal resid5ts ( ! c\ntry t[n1 9 ord] t _! p]sonal prop]ty may be assess$ !re r ?an 9 ! city4 ,sid5ote3 ,tax li/s4 ,ab\t ! fir/ ( ,may ! assessors call ^u ! inhabitants ( _! t[n to r5d] a true /atem5t z to _! prop]ty4 ,! mo/ approv$ =m is = ! assessors to s5d by mail to ea* taxable inhabitant a pr9t$ li/ ( que/ions1 ) blank spaces :i* he is to fill ) writt5 answ]s4 ,! que/ions relate to e k9d ( prop]ty1 & :5 ! p]son address$ returns ! li/ to ! assessors he mu/ make oa? t to ! be/ ( 8 k & belief 8 answ]s are true4 ,he ?us becomes liable to ! p5alties = p]jury if he c be prov$ to h sworn falsely4 ,a reasonable "t--usually six or eight weeks--is all[$ = ! li/ to be return$ to ! assessors4 ,if any "o fails to return 8 li/ by ! specifi$ "t1 ! assessors mu/ make _! own e/imate ( ! probable am\nt ( 8 prop]ty4 ,if _! e/imate is too high1 he may petition ! assessors to h ! error correct$1 b 9 _m cases x may prove tr\blesome to effect ?is4 ,sid5ote3 ,*eat+ ! gov]nm5t4 ,obs]ve "h an important diff]5ce betwe5 ! imposition ( taxes ^u real e/ate & ^u p]sonal prop]ty4 ,h\ses & l&s _c run away or be tuck$ out ( sight4 ,_! value1 too1 is some?+ ( :i* ! assessors c v likely judge z well z ! own]4 ,deception is !re=e extremely difficult1 & taxation = real e/ate is pretty fairly di/ribut$ among ! diff]5t own]s4 ,) reg>d to p]sonal e/ate x is v diff]5t4 ,x is comp>atively easy to conceal "o's own]%ip ( "s k9ds ( p]sonal prop]ty1 or to und]/ate "o's income4 ,h5ce ! temptation to less5 ! burd5 ( ! tax bill by mak+ false /atem5ts is consid]able1 & d\btless a good deal ( deception is practis$4 ,!re are _m p :o are too hone/ to *eat individuals1 b /ill consid] x a v5ial s9 to *eat ! gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,! rate ( taxation4 ,aft] ! assessors h obta9$ all _! returns !y c calculate ! total value ( ! taxable prop]ty 9 ! t[n2 & kn[+ ! am\nt ( ! tax to be rais$1 x is easy to calculate ! rate at :i* ! tax is to be assess$4 ,9 mo/ p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates a rate ( "o & a half p] c5t1 or #ae tax on ea* #a1jjj wor? ( prop]ty1 w\ld be reg>d$ z mod]ate2 ?ree p] c5t w\ld be reg>d$ z excessively high4 ,at ! l[] ( ^! rates a man wor? #ej1jjj w\ld pay #gej = 8 ye>ly taxes4 ,! annual income ( #ej1jjj1 inve/$ on good security1 is h>dly m ?an #b1ejj4 ,obvi\sly #gej is a l>ge sum to subtract f su* an income4 ,sid5ote3 ,und]valuation4 ,sid5ote3 ,! burd5 ( taxation4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 h[ev]1 ! tax is seldom q z heavy z ?is4 ,x is n easy to tell exactly h[ mu* a man is wor?1 & accord+ly assessors1 n wi%+ to be too disagreeable 9 ! dis*>ge ( _! duties1 h naturally fall5 into a way ( giv+ ! l[] valuation ! b5efit ( ! d\bt1 until 9 _m places a cu/om has gr[n up ( regul>ly und]valu+ prop]ty = purposes ( taxation4 ,v mu* z liquid measures h gradually %runk until x takes five qu>t bottles to hold a gallon1 s !re has be5 a %r9kage ( valuations until x has become common to tax a man = only ?ree f\r?s or p]haps two ?irds ( :at 8 prop]ty is wor? 9 ! m>ket4 ,?is makes ! rate high]1 to be sure1 b ! individual taxpay] nev]!less seems to feel reliev$ by x4 ,all[+ = ?is und]valuation1 we may say t a man wor? #ej1jjj commonly pays n less ?an #ejj = 8 ye>ly taxes1 or ab\t "o fif? ( ! annual income ( ! prop]ty4 ,we ?us beg9 to see :at a heavy burd5 taxes are1 & h[ ess5tial to good gov]nm5t x is t citiz5s %\ld "k :at _! money goes =1 & %\ld be able to ex]t "s effective control ov] ! public exp5ditures4 ,:]e ! rate ( taxation 9 a t[n rises to a v high po9t1 su* z two & a half or ?ree p] c5t1 ! prosp]ity ( ! t[n is apt to be s]i\sly crippl$4 ,trad]s & manufactur]s move away to o!r t[ns1 or ^? :o w\ld o!rwise come to ! t[n 9 "q /ay away1 because !y _c af=d to use up all _! pr(its 9 pay+ taxes4 ,if su* a /ate ( ?+s is long kept up1 ! _s ( ent]prise is weak5$1 ! place %[s signs ( untid9ess & want ( ?rift1 & neighb\r+ t[ns1 once p]haps f> beh9d x 9 gr[?1 by & by %oot ahead ( x & take away its bus9ess4 ,sid5ote3 ,! magic fund delusion4 ,)9 its prop] sph]e1 gov]nm5t by t[n-meet+ is ! =m ( gov]nm5t mo/ effectively "u wat* & control4 ,ev]y?+ is done 9 ! full daylight ( publicity4 ,! specific objects = :i* public money is to be appropriat$ are discuss$ 9 ! pres5ce ( ev]ybody1 & any "o :o disapproves ( any ( ^! objects1 or ( ! way 9 :i* x is propos$ to obta9 x1 has an opportunity to decl>e 8 op9ions4 ,"u ?is =m ( gov]nm5t p are n s liable to bewild]+ delusions z "u o!r =ms4 ,i ref] especially to ! delusion t ! ,gov]nm5t is a sort ( my/]i\s p[]1 possess$ ( a magic inexhau/ible fund ( weal?1 & able to d all mann] ( ?+s = ! b5efit ( ! ,p4 ,"s su* notion z ?is1 m (t5 impli$ ?an express$1 is v common1 & x is inexpressibly de> to demagogues4 ,x is ! prolific root f :i* spr+s t luxuriant crop ( humbug ^u :i* political trick/]s ?rive z pigs fatt5 ^u corn4 ,9 po9t ( fact no su* gov]nm5t1 arm$ ) a magic fund ( its own1 has ev] exi/$ ^u ! e>?4 ,no gov]nm5t has ev] yet us$ any money = public purposes :i* x did n fir/ take f its own p1--unless :5 x may h plund]$ x f "s o!r p 9 victori\s w>f>e4 ,! inhabitant ( a ,new ,engl& t[n is p]petually rem9d$ t ! ,gov]nm5t is ! ,p4 ,al?\gh he may ?9k loosely ab\t ! gov]nm5t ( 8 /ate or ! /ill m remote gov]nm5t at ,wa%+ton1 he is kept pretty close to ! facts :]e local affairs are conc]n$1 & 9 ?is !re is a political tra9+ ( no small value4 ,sid5ote3 ,educational value ( ! t[n-meet+4 ,9 ! k9d ( discussion :i* x provokes1 9 ! necessity ( fac+ argum5t ) argum5t & ( keep+ "o's temp] "u control1 ! t[n-meet+ is ! be/ political tra9+ s*ool 9 exi/5ce4 ,its educational value is f> high] ?an t ( ! newspap]1 :i*1 9 spite ( its _m m]its z a diffus] ( in=mation1 is v apt to d its be/ to bemuddle & sophi/icate pla9 facts4 ,! p]iod :5 t[n-meet+s w>e mo/ important f ! wide scope ( _! transactions 0 ! p]iod ( e>ne/ & sometimes /ormy discussion t u%]$ 9 our ,revolution>y w>4 ,c\ntry t[ns 7 !n ( m importance relatively ?an n[2 "o c\ntry t[n--,bo/on--0 at ! same "t a great political c5tre2 & its meet+s 7 presid$ ov] & address$ by m5 ( comm&+ ability1 among :om ,samuel ,adams1 ! man ( ! t[n-meet+1 0 =emo/#c4 ,9 ^? days great pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t 7 discuss$ ) a weal? ( k & /at$ ) ma/]ly skill 9 t[n-meet+4 ,footnote #c3 ,! phrase is ,pr(essor ,hosm]'s3 see 8 ,samuel ,adams1 ! ,man ( ! ,t[n ,meet+1 9 ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ4 ,/udies1 vol4 ,,ii4 no4 iv42 also 8 ,samuel ,adams1 9 ,am]ican ,/atesm5 s]ies2 ,bo/on1 #ahhe4 ,sid5ote3 ,by-laws4 ,! t[n-meet+ is to a v limit$ ext5t a legislative body2 x c make sundry regulations = ! managem5t ( its local affairs4 ,su* regulations are kn[n by a v anci5t "n1 by-laws4 ,by is an ,old ,norse ^w mean+ t[n1 & x appe>s 9 ! names ( su* t[ns z ,d]by & ,:itby 9 ! "p ( ,engl& ov]run by ! ,danes 9 ! n9? & t5? c5turies4 ,by-laws are t[n laws#d4 ,footnote #d3 ,9 mod]n usage ! roles & regulations ( clubs1 le>n$ societies1 & o!r associations1 are also call$ by-laws4 ,sid5ote3 ,p[] & responsibility4 ,9 ! selectm5 & v>i\s special (fic]s ! t[n has an executive dep>tm5t2 & "h let u obs]ve t1 :ile ^! (ficials are kept /rictly acc\ntable to ! p1 !y are entru/$ ) v consid]able au?ority4 ,?+s are n s arrang$ t an (fic] c plead t he has fail$ 9 8 duty f lack ( p[]4 ,!re is ample p[]1 jo9$ ) complete responsibility4 ,?is is especially to be notic$ 9 ! case ( ! selectm54 ,!y mu/ (t5 be call$ ^u to ex]cise a wide discretion 9 :at !y d1 yet ?is excites no s]i\s popul> di/ru/ or jeal\sy4 ,! annual election af=ds an easy means ( dropp+ an unsatisfactory (fic]4 ,b 9 practice no?+ has be5 m common ?an = ! same p]sons to be reelect$ z selectm5 or con/ables or t[n-cl]ks = ye> aft] ye>1 z long z !y are able or will+ to s]ve4 ,! notion t !re is any?+ peculi>ly ,am]ican or democratic 9 :at is kn[n z rotation 9 (fice is !re=e n su/a9$ by ! practice ( ! ,new ,engl& t[n1 :i* is ! mo/ complete democracy 9 ! _w4 ,x is ! mo/ p]fect exhibition ( :at ,presid5t ,l9coln call$ gov]nm5t ( ! p by ! p & = ! p4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:at reason exi/s = beg9n+ ! /udy ( gov]nm5t ) t ( ! ,new ,engl& t[n%ip8 #b4 ,give ! orig9 ( ! t[n%ip 9 ,new ,engl& accord+ to ! foll[+ analysis3-- a4 ,settlem5t 9 gr\ps4 b4 ,! *ief reason = com+ to ,new ,engl&4 c4 ,! lead]s ( ! gr\ps4 d4 ,! fav\r+ action ( ! ,massa*usetts gov]nm5t4 e4 ,small f>ms4 f4 ,def5ce aga9/ ! ,indians4 g4 ,! limits ( a t[n%ip4 h4 ,! village )9 ! t[n%ip4 #c4 ,:at 0 ! social /&+ ( ! fir/ settl]s8 #d4 ,:at tra9+ _h !y receiv$ 9 self-gov]nm5t8 #e4 ,:o d ! gov]n+ 9 a ,new ,engl& t[n%ip8 #f4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! t[n-meet+ 9 accordance ) ! foll[+ analysis3-- a4 ,! "n ( ! meet+4 b4 ,! "t = hold+ x4 c4 ,! place = hold+ x4 d4 ,! p]sons :o take "p 9 x4 e4 ,! sort ( bus9ess done 9 x4 #g4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! selectm53-- a4 ,_! numb]4 b4 ,! reason = an odd numb]4 c4 ,_! duties4 #h4 ,:5 public s*ools 7 e/abli%$ by ,massa*usetts 9 #afdg1 :at reasons 7 assign$ = ! law8 #i4 ,:at classes or grades ( s*ools 7 !n e/abli%$8 #aj4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! ,massa*usetts s*ool committee8 #aa4 ,:at is ! t]m ( s]vice ( tea*]s 9 t /ate8 #ab4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! foll[+ (fic]s8-- a4 ,field-driv]s4 b4 ,p\nd-keep]s4 c4 ,f5ce-view]s4 d4 ,surveyors ( lumb]4 e4 ,measur]s ( wood4 f4 ,seal]s ( weights & measures4 #ac4 ,:at are ! duties ( ! foll[+ (fic]s8-- a4 ,! t[n-cl]k4 b4 ,! treasur]4 c4 ,con/ables4 d4 ,assessors4 e4 ,ov]se]s ( ! poor4 #ad4 ,describe a w>rant = a t[n-meet+4 #ae4 ,= :at o!r purposes ?an ^? ( ! t[n are taxes rais$8 #af4 ,expla9 ! foll[+3-- a4 ,! poll-tax4 b4 ,! tax on p]sonal prop]ty1 c4 ,! tax on real e/ate4 #ag4 ,:at k9ds ( real e/ate are exempt$ f taxation1 & :y8 #ah4 ,:at k9ds ( p]sonal prop]ty are exempt$1 & :y8 #ai4 ,:]e mu/ ! sev]al k9ds ( taxes be assess$ & paid8 ,illu/rate4 #bj4 ,if a p]son *anges 8 resid5ce f "o t[n 9 ! /ate to ano!r be=e ,may #a1 :at consequ5ces ab\t taxes might foll[8 #ba4 ,h[ d ! assessors asc]ta9 ! prop]ty = :i* "o %\ld be tax$8 #bb4 ,:at difficulties beset ! taxation ( p]sonal prop]ty8 #bc4 ,m5tion a common practice 9 assign+ values to prop]ty4 ,:at is ! effect on ! tax-rate8 ,illu/rate4 #bd4 ,h[ d high taxes op]ate z a burd58 #be4 ,describe a delusion f :i* p :o directly gov]n !mselves are practically free4 #bf4 ,:at is ! educational value ( ! t[n-meet+8 #bg4 ,:at are by-laws8 ,expla9 ! phrase4 #bh4 ,:at ( ! p[] & responsibility ( selectm58 ,section #b4 ,orig9 ( ! ,t[n%ip4 ,sid5ote3 ,t[n-meet+s 9 ,greece & ,rome4 ,x 0 said above t gov]nm5t by t[n-meet+ is 9 pr9ciple ! olde/ =m ( gov]nm5t kn[n 9 ! _w4 ,! /ud5t ( anci5t hi/ory is famili> ) ! comitia ( ! ,romans & ! ecclesia ( ! ,greeks4 ,^! 7 popul> assemblies1 held 9 ^? s(t climates 9 ! op5 air1 usually 9 ! m>ket-place1--! ,roman =um1 ! ,greek agora4 ,! gov]nm5t c>ri$ on 9 !m 0 a m or less qualifi$ democracy4 ,9 ! palmy days ( ,a!ns x 0 a pure democracy4 ,! assemblies :i* 9 ! ,a!nian m>ket-place decl>$ w> aga9/ ,syracuse1 or condemn$ ,socrates to dea?1 7 q l ,new ,engl& t[n-meet+s1 except t !y ex]cis$ great] p[]s because !re 0 no /ate gov]nm5t above !m4 ,sid5ote3 ,clans4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! t[n-meet+1 h[ev]1 is old] ?an ,a!ns or ,rome4 ,long be=e /reets 7 built or fields f5c$ 91 m5 w&]$ ab\t ! e>? hunt+ = food 9 family p>ties1 some:at z lions d 9 ,s\? ,africa4 ,su* family gr\ps 7 :at we call clans1 & s f> z is kn[n !y 7 ! e>lie/ =m 9 :i* civil society appe>$ on ! e>?4 ,among all w&]+ or p>tially settl$ tribes ! clan is to be f\nd1 & !re are ample opportunities = /udy+ x among our ,indians 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! clan usually has a *ief or head-man1 useful ma9ly z a lead] 9 w>time2 its civil gov]nm5t1 crude & disord]ly en\gh1 is 9 pr9ciple a pure democracy4 ,sid5ote3 ,! m>k & ! tun4 ,:5 our ance/ors fir/ became acqua9t$ ) ,am]ican ,indians1 ! mo/ advanc$ tribes liv$ p>tly by hunt+ & fi%+1 b p>tly also by rais+ ,indian corn & pumpk9s4 ,!y _h begun to live 9 wigwams gr\p$ toge!r 9 small villages & surr\nd$ by /rong r[s ( palisades = def5ce4 ,n[ :at ^! r$ m5 7 do+ our own fair-hair$ ance/ors 9 nor!rn & c5tral ,europe _h be5 do+ "s tw5ty c5turies e>li]4 ,! ,sc&9avians & ,g]mans1 :5 fir/ kn[n 9 hi/ory1 _h made consid]able progress 9 ex*ang+ a w&]+ = a settl$ mode ( life4 ,:5 ! clan1 in/ead ( mov+ f place to place1 fix$ ^u "s spot = a p]man5t resid5ce1 a village grew up !re1 surr\nd$ by a belt ( wa/e l&1 or some:at lat] by a /ockad$ wall4 ,! belt ( l& 0 call$ a m>k1 & ! wall 0 call$ a tun4#e ,aft]w>ds ! enclos$ space came to be kn[n sometimes z ! m>k1 sometimes z ! tun or t[n4 ,9 ,engl& ! latt] "n prevail$4 ,! inhabitants ( a m>k or t[n 7 a /ation>y clan4 ,x 0 cu/om>y to call !m by ! clan "n1 z = example ! ,beor+s or ! ,cross+s2 !n ! t[n w\ld be call$ ,b>r+ton1 t[n ( ! ,beor+s1 or ,cress+ham1 home ( ! ,cress+s4 ,t[n names ( ?is sort1 ) :i* ! map ( ,engl& is ?ickly /udd$1 po9t u back to a "t :5 ! t[n 0 suppos$ to be ! /ation>y home ( a clan4 ,footnote #a3 ,pron\nc$ toon4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,old ,engli% t[n%ip4 ,sid5ote3 ,! manor4 ,! ,old ,engli% t[n _h its tungemot1 or t[n-meet+1 9 :i* by-laws 7 made & o!r important bus9ess transact$4 ,! pr9cipal (fic]s 7 ! reeve or head-man1 ! beadle or mess5g]1 & ! ti?+-man or petty con/able4 ,^! (fic]s seem at fir/ to h be5 elect$ by ! p1 b aft] a :ile1 z great lord%ips grew up1 usurp+ jurisdiction ov] ! l&1 ! "l's /ew>d & bailiff came to sup]s$e ! reeve & beadle4 ,aft] ! ,norman ,conque/ ! t[n%ips1 ?us br\ght "u ! sway ( great lords1 came to be g5]ally kn[n by ! ,fr5* "n ( manors or dwell+ places4 ,mu* might be said ab\t ?is *ange1 b "h x is en\gh = u to be> 9 m9d t a manor 0 ess5tially a t[n%ip 9 :i* ! *ief executive (fic]s 7 directly responsible to ! "l r ?an to ! p4 ,x w\ld be wrong1 h[ev]1 to suppose t ! manors entirely lo/ _! self-gov]nm5t4 ,ev5 ! anci5t t[n-meet+ surviv$ 9 !m1 9 a fragm5t>y way1 9 sev]al int]e/+ assemblies1 ( :i* ! mo/ int]e/+ 7 ! c\rt leet1 = ! election ( c]ta9 (fic]s & ! trial ( petty (f5ces1 & ! c\rt b>on1 :i* 0 mu* l a t[n-meet+4 ,sid5ote3 ,! p>i%4 ,/ill m ( ! old self-gov]nm5t w\ld d\btless h surviv$ 9 ! in/itutions ( ! manor if x _h n be5 provid$ = 9 ano!r way4 ,! p>i% 0 old] ?an ! manor4 ,aft] ! ,engli% _h be5 conv]t$ to ,*ri/ianity local *ur*es 7 gradually set up all ov] ! c\ntry1 & di/ricts call$ p>i%es 7 assign$ = ! m9i/rations ( ! prie/s4 ,n[ a p>i% g5]ally co9cid$ 9 area ) a t[n%ip1 or sometimes ) a gr\p ( two or ?ree t[n%ips4 ,9 ! old hea!n times ea* t[n seems to h _h its sacr$ place or %r9e consecrat$ to "s local deity1 & x 0 a fav\rite policy ) ! ,roman mission>y prie/s to purify ! old %r9e & turn x into a *ur*4 ,9 ?is way ! t[n%ip at ! same "t naturally became ! p>i%4 ,sid5ote3 ,t[n%ip1 manor1 & p>i%4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ve/ry-meet+4 ,z we f9d x 9 lat] times1 bo? be=e & s9ce ! f\nd+ ( ,engli% colonies 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! t[n%ip 9 ,engl& is likely to be bo? a manor & a p>i%4 ,= "s purposes x is ! "o1 = "s purposes x is ! o!r4 ,! t[nsfolk may be reg>d$ z a gr\p ( t5ants ( ! "l's manor1 or z a gr\p ( p>i%ion]s ( ! local *ur*4 ,9 ! latt] aspect ! p>i% reta9$ mu* ( ! self-gov]nm5t ( ! anci5t t[n4 ,! bus9ess ) :i* ! "l 0 entitl$ to m$dle 0 /rictly limit$1 & all o!r bus9ess 0 transact$ 9 ! ve/ry-meet+1 :i* 0 practically ! old t[n-meet+ "u a new "n4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! ?irte5? c5tury we f9d t ! p>i% _h acquir$ ! "r ( tax+ itself = *ur* purposes4 ,money ne$$ = ! *ur* 0 suppli$ 9 ! =m ( *ur*-rates vot$ by ! ratepay]s !mselves 9 ! ve/ry-meet+1 s call$ because x 0 orig9ally held 9 a room ( ! *ur* 9 :i* ve/m5ts 7 kept4 ,sid5ote3 ,p>i% (fic]s4 ,! (fic]s ( ! p>i% 7 ! con/able1 ! p>i% & ve/ry cl]ks1#f ! beadle1#g ! wayw>d5s or surveyors ( highways1 ! hayw>ds or f5ce-view]s1 ! common driv]s1 ! collectors ( taxes1 & at ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury ov]se]s ( ! poor 7 add$4 ,!re 7 also *ur*w>d5s1 usually two = ea*1 p>i%4 ,_! duties 7 prim>ily to take c>e ( ! *ur* prop]ty1 assess ! rates1 & call ! ve/ry-meet+s4 ,!y also act$ z ov]se]s ( ! poor1 & ?us 9 sev]al ways rem9d "o ( ! selectm5 ( ,new ,engl&4 ,! p>i% (fic]s 7 all elect$ by ! ratepay]s assembl$ 9 ve/ry-meet+1 except ! common driv] & hayw>d1 :o 7 elect$ by ! same ratepay]s assembl$ 9 c\rt leet4 ,besides elect+ p>i% (fic]s & grant+ ! rates1 ! ve/ry-meet+ c\ld enact by-laws2 & all ratepay]s _h an equal voice 9 its delib]ations4 ,footnote #f3 ,( ^! two (fic]s ! ve/ry cl]k is ! c\nt]p>t ( ! ,new ,engl& t[n-cl]k4 ,footnote #g3 ,orig9ally a mess5g] or cri]1 ! beadle came to assume "s ( ! functions ( ! ti?+-man or petty con/able1 su* z keep+ ord] 9 *ur*1 puni%+ petty (f5d]s1 wait+ on ! cl]gyman1 etc4 ,9 ,new ,engl& t[ns !re 7 =m]ly (fic]s call$ ti?+-m51 :o kept ord] 9 *ur*1 arre/$ tippl]s1 loaf]s1 & ,sabba?-break]s1 etc4 ,sid5ote3 ,! transition f ,engl& to ,new ,engl&4 ,dur+ ! la/ two c5turies ! con/itution ( ! ,engli% p>i% has und]gone "s modifications :i* ne$ n "h conc]n u4 ,! ,puritans :o settl$ 9 ,new ,engl& _h gr[n up "u su* p>i% gov]nm5t z is "h describ$1 & !y 7 us$ to he>+ ! p>i% call$1 on "s occasions & = "s purposes1 a t[n%ip4 ,if we rememb] n[ t ! e>lie/ ,new ,engl& t[ns 7 f\nd$ by *ur* congregations1 l$ by _! pa/ors1 we c see h[ t[n gov]nm5t 9 ,new ,engl& orig9at$4 ,x 0 simply ! ,engli% p>i% gov]nm5t br\ght into a new c\ntry & adapt$ to ! new situation4 ,"p ( ?is new situation consi/$ 9 ! fact t ! lords ( ! manor 7 left beh9d4 ,!re 0 no long] any occasion to di/+ui% betwe5 ! t[n%ip z a manor & ! t[n%ip z a p>i%2 & s1 z ! ?ree names _h all liv$ on toge!r1 side by side1 9 ,engl&1 x 0 n[ ! olde/ & mo/ g5]ally descriptive "n1 t[n%ip1 t surviv$1 & has come into use ?r\gh\t a great "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! t[nsfolk w5t on mak+ by-laws1 vot+ supplies ( public money1 & elect+ _! magi/rates 9 ,am]ica1 aft] ! fa%ion ) :i* !y _h = ages be5 famili> 9 ,engl&4 ,"s ( _! (fices & cu/oms 7 ( ho>y antiquity4 ,if age gives respectability1 ! (fice ( con/able may vie ) t ( k+2 & if ! annual t[n-meet+ is usually held 9 ! mon? ( ,m>*1 x is because 9 days ( old1 long be=e ,magna ,*>ta 0 ?\ght (1 ! rules & regulations = ! village husb&ry 7 discuss$ & adopt$ 9 "t = ! spr+ plant+4 ,sid5ote3 ,build+ up /ates4 ,to complete our sket* ( ! orig9 ( ! ,new ,engl& t[n1 "o po9t %\ld "h be briefly m5tion$ 9 anticipation ( :at w h to be said h]eaft]2 b x is a po9t ( s mu* importance t we ne$ n m9d a little repetition 9 /at+ x4 ,sid5ote3 ,repres5tation4 ,we h se5 :at a great "p taxation plays 9 ! bus9ess ( gov]nm5t1 & we %all pres5tly h to treat ( c\nty1 /ate1 & f$]al gov]nm5ts1 all ( !m wid] 9 _! sph]e ?an ! t[n gov]nm5t4 ,9 ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 z nations h gradually be5 built up1 ^! wid] gov]nm5ts h be5 apt to absorb or supplant & cru% ! n>r[] gov]nm5ts1 su* z ! p>i% or t[n%ip2 & ?is process has too (t5 be5 de/ructive to political fre$om4 ,su* a result is1 ( c\rse1 disa/r\s to ev]ybody2 & if x 7 unavoidable1 x w\ld be bett] t great national gov]nm5ts ne$ nev] be =m$4 ,b x is n unavoidable4 ,!re is "o way ( escap+ x1 & t is to give ! little gov]nm5t ( ! t[n "s real %>e 9 mak+ up ! great gov]nm5t ( ! /ate4 ,t is n an easy ?+ to d1 z is %[n by ! fact t mo/ peoples h fail$ 9 ! attempt4 ,! p :o speak ! ,engli% language h be5 ! mo/ successful1 & ! device by :i* !y h ov]come ! difficulty is ,,repres5tation4 ,! t[n s5ds to ! wid] gov]nm5t a delegation ( p]sons :o c repres5t ! t[n & its p4 ,!y c speak = ! t[n1 & h a voice 9 ! fram+ ( laws & imposition ( taxes by ! wid] gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,%ire-motes4 ,sid5ote3 ,e>l ,simon's ,p>liam5t4 ,9 ,engli% t[n%ips !re has be5 f "t immemorial a sy/em ( repres5tation4 ,long be=e ,alfr$'s "t !re 7 %ire-motes1 or :at 7 aft]w>ds call$ c\nty meet+s1 & to ^! ea* t[n s5t its reeve & f\r discreet m5 z repres5tatives4 ,?us to a c]ta9 ext5t ! wi%es ( ! t[nsfolk c\ld be br\ght to be> ^u c\nty affairs4 ,by & by ?is me?od 0 appli$ on a mu* wid] scale4 ,x 0 appli$ to ! :ole k+dom1 s t ! p ( all its t[ns & p>i%es succe$$ 9 secur+ a repres5tation ( _! int]e/s 9 an elective national c\ncil or ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,?is great "w 0 accompli%$ 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury by ,simon de ,mont=t1 ,e>l ( ,leice/]1 & 0 complet$ by ,edw>d ,i4 ,simon's p>liam5t1 ! fir/ 9 :i* ! ,commons 7 fully repres5t$1 0 assembl$ 9 #abfe2 & ! date ( ,edw>d's p>liam5t1 :i* has be5 call$ ! ,model ,p>liam5t1 0 #abie4 ,^! dates h z mu* int]e/ = ,am]icans z = ,engli%m51 because !y m>k ! fir/ def9ite e/abli%m5t ( t gr& sy/em ( repres5tative gov]nm5t :i* we are /ill c>ry+ on at our v>i\s /ate capitals & at ,wa%+ton4 ,= its humble beg9n+s we h to look back to ! reeve & f\r s5t by ! anci5t t[n%ips to ! c\nty meet+s4 ,sid5ote3 ,t[n%ip z unit ( repres5tation4 ,! ,engli% t[n%ip or p>i% 0 ?us at an e>ly p]iod ! unit ( repres5tation 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! c\nty4 ,x 0 also a di/rict = ! assessm5t & collection ( ! national taxes2 9 ea* p>i% ! assessm5t 0 made by a bo>d ( assessors *os5 by popul> vote4 ,^! ess5tial po9ts reappe> 9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( ,new ,engl&4 ,! t[n%ip 0 n only a self-gov]n+ body1 b x 0 ! unit ( repres5tation 9 ! colonial legislature1 or ,g5]al ,c\rt2 & ! assessm5t ( taxes1 :e!r = t[n purposes or = /ate purposes1 0 made by assessors elect$ by ! t[nsfolk4 ,9 its beg9n+s & fundam5tals our political lib]ty did n orig9ate ^u ,am]ican soil1 b 0 br\ght hi!r by our =efa!rs ! fir/ settl]s4 ,!y br\ght _! political in/itutions ) !m z naturally z !y br\ght _! language & _! social cu/oms4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,russian village community2 n repres5t$ 9 ! national gov]nm5t4 ,obs]ve n[ t ! t[n%ip is to be reg>d$ 9 two lights4 ,x mu/ be consid]$ n only 9 itself1 b z "p ( a great] :ole4 ,we began by describ+ x z a self-gov]n+ body1 b 9 ord] to complete our sket* we 7 oblig$ to speak ( x z a body :i* has a %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! /ate & ! nation4 ,! latt] aspect is z important z ! =m]4 ,if ! p ( a t[n _h only ! p[] ( manag+ _! local affairs1 )\t ! p[] ( tak+ "p 9 ! managem5t ( national affairs1 _! political fre$om w\ld be f> f complete4 ,9 ,russia1 = example1 ! l>g] "p ( ! va/ population is resid5t 9 village communities :i* h to a consid]able ext5t ! p[] ( manag+ _! local affairs4 ,su* a village community is call$ a mir1 & l ! ,engli% t[n%ip x is l9eally desc5d$ f ! /ation>y clan4 ,! p ( ! ,russian mir hold meet+s 9 :i* !y elect sundry local (fic]s1 di/ribute ! burd5 ( local taxation1 make regulations conc]n+ local husb&ry & police1 & transact o!r bus9ess :i* ne$ n "h conc]n u4 ,b !y h no %>e 9 ! national gov]nm5t1 & are oblig$ to obey laws :i* !y h no voice 9 mak+1 & pay taxes assess$ ^u !m )\t _! cons5t2 & accord+ly we say ) tru? t ! ,russian p d n possess political fre$om4 ,"o reason = ?is has d\btless be5 t 9 times pa/ ! ,russian t]ritory 0 ! great fronti] battle-gr\nd betwe5 civiliz$ ,europe & ! wild hordes ( we/]n ,asia1 & ! p :o liv$ = ages on t turbul5t fronti] 7 subject$ to altoge!r too mu* conque/4 ,!y h ta/$ too little ( civil gov]nm5t & too mu* ( milit>y gov]nm5t1--a p5nywor? ( :olesome bread to an intol]able deal ( sack4 ,! e>ly ,engli%1 9 _! snug little corn] ( ! _w1 belt$ by salt sea1 7 able to develop _! civil gov]nm5t ) less de/ructive int]f]5ce4 ,!y made a s\nd & heal?ful beg9n+ :5 !y made ! t[n%ip ! unit ( repres5tation = ! c\nty4 ,!n ! t[n%ip1 besides manag+ its own affairs1 began to take "p 9 ! managem5t ( wid] affairs4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions4 #a4 ,obta9 ! foll[+ docum5ts3-- a4 ,a t[n w>rant4 b4 ,a t[n report4 c4 ,a tax bill1 a p]mit1 a c]tificate1 or any t[n pap] t has or may h an (ficial signature4 d4 ,a report ( ! s*ool committee4 ,if y live 9 a city1 s5d to ! cl]k ( a neighb\r+ t[n = a w>rant1 inclos+ a /amp = ! reply4 ,city docum5ts w answ] mo/ ( ! purposes ( ?is ex]cise4 ,make any ( ! =ego+ docum5ts ! basis ( a report4 #b4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! foll[+3-- a4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( taxes rais$ 9 y\r t[n1 ! am\nt ( ea* k9d1 ! valuation1 ! rate1 ! propos$ use ( ! money1 etc4 b4 ,! "w ( any dep>tm5t ( ! t[n gov]nm5t = a ye>1 z1 = example1 t ( ! ov]se]s ( ! poor4 c4 ,any press+ ne$ ( y\r t[n1 public s5tim5t t[>ds x1 ! probable co/ ( satisfy+ x1 ! ob/acles 9 ! way ( meet+ x1 etc4 #c4 ,a good way to ar\se int]e/ 9 ! subject ( t[n gov]nm5t is to organize ! class z a t[n-meet+1 & let x discuss live local que/ions 9 accordance ) articles 9 a w>rant4 ,= helpful details att5d a t[n-meet+1 read ! record ( "s meet+1 consult "s p]son famili> ) t[n proce$+s1 or /udy ! ,g5]al ,/atutes4 ,to insure a discussion1 x may be necess>y at ! outset = ! tea*] to assign to ! sev]al pupils s+le po9ts to be exp&$ & pres5t$ 9 ord]4 ,!re is an advantage 9 ! tea*]'s s]v+ z mod]ator4 ,he may1 z tea*]1 pause to give su* directions & explanations z may be helpful to "y citiz5s4 ,! pupils %\ld be held up to ! m obvi\s requirem5ts ( p>liam5t>y law1 & %[n h[ to use its rules to accompli% v>i\s purposes4 #d4 ,has ! /ate a "r to direct ! education ( its y\?8 ,if ! /ate has su* a "r1 are !re any limits to ! ex]cise ( x8 ,does ! "r to direct ! education ( its y\? c>ry ) x ! "r to aboli% private s*ools8 #e4 ,is x wise to assi/ private educational in/itutions ) public funds8 #f4 ,ought tea*]s1 if approv$1 to be appo9t$ = "o ye> only1 or dur+ good behavi\r8 #g4 ,:at classes ( (fic]s 9 a t[n %\ld s]ve dur+ good behavi\r8 ,:at classes may be frequ5tly *ang$ )\t injury to ! public8 #h4 ,comp>e ! s*ool committee 9 y\r own /ate 7if x is n ,massa*usetts7 ) t 9 ,massa*usetts4 #i4 ,illu/rate f p]sonal k ! diff]5ce betwe5 real e/ate & p]sonal prop]ty4 #aj4 ,a loans ,b #ajjj4 ,may ,a be tax$ = ! #ajjj8 ,:y8 ,may ,b be tax$ = ! #ajjj8 ,:y8 ,is x "r to tax bo? = #ajjj8 ,suppose ,b ) ! money buys goods ( ,c4 ,is x "r to tax ! ?ree = #ajjj ea*8 #aa4 ,a taxpay] wor? #ajj1jjj 9 p]sonal prop]ty makes no return to ! assessors4 ,9 _! ignorance ! assessors tax him = #ej1jjj only1 & ! tax is paid )\t "q4 ,does ! taxpay] act hon\rably8 #ab4 ,:at difficulties beset ! "w ( ! assessors8 #ac4 ,w\ld any?+ be ga9$ by exempt+ p]sonal prop]ty f taxation8 ,if s1 :at8 ,w\ld any?+ be lo/8 ,if s1 :at8 #ad4 ,does any "o absolutely escape taxation8 #ae4 ,does ! poll-tax pay] pay1 9 any s5se1 m ?an 8 poll-tax8 #af4 ,are !re any taxes t p pay )\t seem+ to "k x8 ,if s1 :at8 7,see bel[1 *ap4 viii4 section #h474 #ag4 ,h we clans to-day among ourselves8 7,?9k ( family reunions1 p ( ! same "n 9 a community1 desc5dants ( e>ly settl]s1 etc474 ,:at important diff]5ces exi/ betwe5 ^! mod]n s-call$ clans & ! anci5t ones8 #ah4 ,:at is a clanni% _s8 ,is x a good _s or a bad "o8 ,is x ev] ! same z patriotism8 #ai4 ,look up ! mean+ ( ham1 wick1 & /ead4 ,?9k ( t[ns ^: names conta9 ^! words2 also ( t[ns ^: names conta9 ! ^w tun or ton or t[n4 #bj4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! ti?+-man 9 e>ly ,new ,engl&4 #ba4 ,9 :at s5se is ! ^w p>i% commonly us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 ,is ! p>i% ! same z ! *ur*8 ,has x any limits ( t]ritory8 #bb4 ,9 ,massa*usetts1 cl]gym5 7 =m]ly paid out ( ! taxes ( ! t[n%ip4 ,h[ did ?is come ab\t8 ,9 ?is practice 0 !re a union or a sep>ation ( *ur* & /ate8 #bc4 ,m9i/]s are n n[ support$ by taxation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,:at important *ange 9 ! p>i% idea does ?is fact indicate8 ,is x a *ange = ! bett]8 #bd4 ,are wom5 :o d n vote repres5t$ 9 t[n gov]nm5t8 #be4 ,are boys & girls repres5t$ 9 t[n gov]nm5t8 #bf4 ,is !re anybody 9 a t[n :o is n repres5t$ 9 its gov]nm5t8 #bg4 ,h[ are citiz5s ( a t[n repres5t$ 9 /ate gov]nm5t8 #bh4 ,h[ are citiz5s ( a t[n repres5t$ 9 ! national gov]nm5t8 #bi4 ,imag9e a situation 9 :i* ! ballot ( a s+le vot] 9 a t[n might affect ! action ( ! national gov]nm5t4 ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,section #a4 ,,! ,,new ,,engl& ,,t[n%ip4 ,!re is a good acc\nt 9 ,m>t9's ,text ,book on ,civil ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,n4 ,t4 ,*icago1 #ahge4 ,section #b4 ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,t[n%ip4 ,"h ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies 9 ,hi/orical & ,political ,sci5ce1 edit$ by ,dr4 ,h]b]t ,adams1 are ( great value4 ,note especially s]ies ,i1 no4 i1 ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman1 ,introduction to ,am]ican ,in/itutional ,hi/ory2 ,i41 ii4 iv4 viii4 ix4-x4 ,h4 ,b4 ,adams1 ,! ,g]manic ,orig9 ( ,new ,engl& ,t[ns1 ,saxon ,ti?+-,m5 9 ,am]ica1 ,norman ,con/ables 9 ,am]ica1 ,village ,communities ( ,cape ,ann & ,salem2 ,,ii41 x4 ,edw>d ,*ann+1 ,t[n & ,c\nty ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,engli% ,colonies ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 ,,iv41 xi4-xii4 ,melville ,egle/on1 ,! ,l& ,sy/em ( ! ,new ,engl& ,colonies2 ,,vii41 vii4-ix4 ,c4 ,m4 ,&rews1 ,! ,riv] ,t[ns ( ,connecticut4 ,see also ,h[>d's ,local ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 i4 ,t[n%ip1 ,hundr$1 & ,%ire1 ,baltimore1 #ahhi1 a "w ( extraord9>y m]it4 ,! great book on local self-gov]nm5t 9 ,engl& is ,t\lm9 ,smi?'s ,! ,p>i%1 #b;d ed41 ,london1 #ahei4 ,= ! anci5t hi/ory ( ! t[n%ip1 see ,gomme's ,primitive ,folk-,moots1 ,london1 #ahhj2 ,gomme's ,village ,community1 ,london1 #ahij2 ,seebohm's ,engli% ,village ,community1 ,london1 #ahhc2 ,nasse's ,agricultural ,community ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ,london1 #ahgb2 ,laveleye's ,primitive ,prop]ty1 ,london1 #ahgh2 ,phe>'s ,aryan ,village 9 ,india & ,ceylon1 ,london1 #ahhj2 ,he>n 7( ! ,univ]sity ( ,melb\rne1 ,au/ralia71 ,! ,aryan ,h\sehold1 ,london ,melb\rne1 #ahgi2 & ! foll[+ works ( ,sir ,h5ry ,ma9e3 ,anci5t ,law1 ,london1 #ahfa2 ,village ,communities 9 ! ,ea/ & ,we/1 ,london1 #ahga2 ,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ,in/itutions1 ,london1 #ahge2 ,e>ly ,law & ,cu/om1 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,all ( ,ma9e's works are republi%$ 9 ,new ,york4 ,see also my ,am]ican ,political ,ideas1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhe4 ,gomme's ,lit]ature ( ,local ,in/itutions1 ,london1 #ahhf1 conta9s an ext5sive bibliography ( ! subject1 ) valuable critical notes & comm5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,c\nty4 ,section #a4 ,! ,c\nty 9 its ,beg9n+s4 ,x is n[ "t = u to treat ( ! c\nty1 & we may z well beg9 by consid]+ its orig94 ,9 treat+ ( ! t[n%ip we began by sket*+ x 9 its fulle/ developm5t1 z se5 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,)4 ! c\nty we %all f9d x helpful to pursue a diff]5t me?od & />t at ! beg9n+4 ,if we look at ! maps ( ! /ates :i* make up our ,union1 we see t !y are all divid$ into c\nties 7except t 9 ,l\isiana ! correspond+ divisions are nam$ p>i%es74 ,! map ( ,engl& %[s t c\ntry z simil>ly divid$ into c\nties4 ,sid5ote3 ,:y d we h c\nties8 ,if we ask :y ?is is s1 "s p w tell u t x is conv5i5t1 = purposes ( adm9i/ration1 to h a /ate1 or a k+dom1 divid$ into areas t are l>g] ?an s+le t[ns4 ,!re is mu* tru? 9 ?is4 ,x is conv5i5t4 ,if x 7 n s1 c\nties w\ld n h surviv$1 s z to make a "p ( our mod]n maps4 ,nev]!less1 ?is is n ! hi/oric reason :y we h ! p>ticul> k9d ( subdivisions kn[n z c\nties4 ,we h !m because our fa!rs & gr&fa!rs _h !m2 & ?us1 if we w\ld f9d out ! true reason1 we may z well g back to ! anci5t times :5 our =efa!rs 7 e/abli%+ !mselves 9 ,engl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,clans & tribes4 ,we h se5 h[ ! clan ( our b>b>\s ance/ors1 :5 x became /ation>y1 0 e/abli%$ z ! t[n or t[n%ip4 ,b 9 ^? e>ly times clans 7 g5]ally unit$ m or less closely into tribes4 ,among all primitive or b>b>\s races ( m51 s f> z we c make out1 society is organiz$ 9 tribes1 & ea* tribe is made up ( a numb] ( clans or family gr\ps4 ,n[ :5 our ,engli% =efa!rs conqu]$ ,brita9 !y settl$ !re z clans & also z tribes4 ,! clans became t[n%ips1 & ! tribes became %ires or c\nties2 t is to say1 ! names 7 appli$ fir/ to ! p & aft]w>ds to ! l& !y occupi$4 ,a few ( ! olde/ c\nty names 9 ,engl& /ill %[ ?is pla9ly4 ,essex1 ,middlesex1 & ,sussex 7 orig9ally ,ea/ ,saxons1 ,middle ,saxons1 & ,s\? ,saxons2 & on ! ea/]n coa/ two tribes ( ,angles 7 di/+ui%$ z ,nor? folk & ,s\? folk1 or ,norfolk & ,suffolk4 ,:5 y look on ! map & see ! t[n ( ,ickl+hiam 9 ! c\nty ( ,suffolk1 x means t ?is place 0 once kn[n z ! home ( ! ,ickl+s or *ildr5 ( ,ickel1 a clan :i* =m$ "p ( ! tribe ( ,s\? folk4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,engli% nation1 l ! ,am]ican1 grew out ( ! union ( small /ates4 ,9 ^? days !re 0 no su* ?+ z a ,k+dom ( ,engl&2 !re 7 only ^! gr\ps ( tribes liv+ side by side4 ,ea* tribe _h its lead]1 ^: title 0 ealdorman or eld] man4 #a ,aft] a :ile1 z "s tribes increas$ 9 size & p[]1 _! ealdorm5 took ! title ( k+s4 ,! little k+doms co9cid$ sometimes ) a s+le %ire1 sometimes ) two or m %ires4 ,?us !re 0 a k+dom ( ,k5t1 & ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,folk 7 comb9$ 9 a k+dom ( ,ea/ ,anglia4 ,9 c\rse ( "t numb]s ( %ires comb9$ into l>g] k+doms1 su* z ,nor?umbria1 ,m]cia1 & ! ,we/ ,saxons2 & f9ally ! k+ ( ! ,we/ ,saxons became k+ ( all ,engl&1 & ! sev]al %ires became subord9ate p>ts or %>es ( ! k+dom4 ,9 ,engl&1 !re=e1 ! %ires are old] ?an ! nation4 ,! %ires 7 n made by divid+ ! nation1 b ! nation 0 made by unit+ ! %ires4 ,! ,engli% nation1 l ! ,am]ican1 grew out ( ! union ( little /ates t _h once be5 indep5d5t ( "o ano!r1 b _h _m int]e/s 9 common4 ,= n less ?an ?ree hundr$ ye>s aft] all ,engl& _h be5 unit$ "u "o k+1 ^! %ires reta9$ _! self-gov]nm5t almo/ z completely z ! sev]al /ates ( ! ,am]ican ,union4#b ,a few words ab\t _! gov]nm5t w n be wa/$1 = !y w help to ?r[ light ^u "s ?+s t /ill =m a "p ( our political & social life4 ,footnote #a3 ,! pronunciation1 0 probably some?+ l ywl-dor-man4 ,footnote #b3 ,*alm]s1 ,local ,gov]nm5t1 p4 #ij4 ,sid5ote3 ,%ire-mote1 ealdorman1 & %]iff4 ,! %ire 0 gov]n$ by ! %ire-mote 7i4e4 meet+71 :i* 0 a repres5tative body4 ,lords ( l&s1 includ+ abbots & priors1 att5d$ x1 z well z ! reeve & f\r select$ m5 f ea* t[n%ip4 ,!re 7 ?us ! g]ms ( bo? ! k9d ( repres5tation t is se5 9 ! ,h\se ( ,lords & ! mu* m p]fect k9d t is se5 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,aft] a :ile1 z cities & bor\ghs grew 9 importance1 !y s5t repres5tative burgh]s to ! %ire-mote4 ,!re 7 two presid+ (fic]s2 "o 0 ! ealdorman1 :o 0 n[ appo9t$ by ! k+2 ! o!r 0 ! %ire-reeve 7i4e4 %]iff71 :o 0 /ill elect$ by ! p & g5]ally held (fice = life4 ,sid5ote3 ,! c\nty c\rt4 ,?is %ire-mote 0 bo? a legislative body & a c\rt ( ju/ice4 ,x n only made laws = ! %ire1 b x tri$ civil & crim9al causes4 ,aft] ! ,norman ,conque/ "s *anges occurr$4 ,! %ire n[ began to be call$ by ! ,fr5* "n c\nty1 because ( its analogy to ! small pieces ( t]ritory on ! ,cont95t t 7 gov]n$ by c\nts4 #c ,! %ire-mote became kn[n z ! c\nty c\rt1 b cases com+ be=e x 7 tri$ by ! k+'s ju/ices 9 eyre1 or circuit judges1 :o w5t ab\t f c\nty to c\nty to preside ov] ! judicial "w4 ,! (fice ( ealdorman became ext9ct4 ,! %]iff 0 no long] elect$ by ! p = life1 b appo9t$ by ! k+ = ! t]m ( "o ye>4 ,?is kept him /rictly responsible to ! k+4 ,x 0 ! %]iff's duty to see t ! c\nty's %>e ( ! national taxes 0 duly collect$ & paid ov] to ! national treasury4 ,! %]iff also summon$ juries & en=c$ ! judgm5ts ( ! c\rts1 & if he met ) resi/ance 9 s do+ he 0 au?oriz$ to call out a =ce ( m51 kn[n z ! posse comitatus 7i4e4 p[] ( ! c\nty71 & ov]come all opposition4 ,ano!r c\nty (fic] 0 ! coron]1 or cr[n]1#d s call$ because orig9ally 79 ,alfr$'s "t7 he 0 appo9t$ by ! k+1 & 0 especially ! cr[n (fic] 9 ! c\nty4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ,edw>d ,i41 h[ev]1 coron]s h be5 elect$ by ! p4 ,orig9ally coron]s held small c\rts ( inquiry ^u cases ( wreckage1 de/ructive fires1 or sudd5 dea?1 b 9 c\rse ( "t _! jurisdiction became conf9$ to ! la/-nam$ class ( cases4 ,if a dea? occurr$ "u circum/ances 9 any way my/]i\s or likely to awak5 suspicion1 x 0 ! bus9ess ( ! coron]1 assi/$ by n less ?an twelve jurors 7i4 e1 sworn m571 to hold an inque/ = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ ! cause ( dea?4 ,! coron] c\ld compel ! att5dance ( witnesses & ord] a m$ical exam9ation ( ! body1 & if !re 7 suffici5t evid5ce to *>ge any p]son ) murd] or manslaught]1 ! coron] c\ld h su* p]son arre/$ & committ$ = trial4 ,footnote #c3 ,orig9ally comites1 or companions ( ! k+4 ,footnote #d3 ,?is =m ( ! ^w1 sometimes suppos$ to be a vulg>ism1 is z correct z ! o!r4 ,see ,skeat1 ,etym4 ,dict41 s4v4 ,sid5ote3 ,ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,qu>t] sessions4 ,sid5ote3 ,! "l-lieut5ant4 ,ano!r important c\nty (fic] 0 ! ju/ice ( ! peace4 ,orig9ally six 7 appo9t$ by ! cr[n 9 ea* c\nty1 b 9 lat] times any numb] might be appo9t$4 ,! (fice 0 creat$ by a s]ies ( /atutes 9 ! reign ( ,edw>d ,,iii41 9 ord] to put a /op to ! brig&age :i* /ill fl\ri%$ 9 ,engl&2 x 0 a common practice = robb]s to seize p]sons & hold !m = ransom4#e ,by ! la/ ( ^! /atutes1 9 #acfb1 ! ju/ices ( ! peace 9 ea* c\nty 7 to hold a c\rt f\r times 9 ! ye>4 ,! p[]s ( ?is c\rt1 :i* came to be kn[n z ! ,qu>t] ,sessions1 7 f "t to "t increas$ by act ( p>liam5t1 until x q supplant$ ! old c\nty c\rt4 ,9 mod]n times ! ,qu>t] ,sessions has become an adm9i/rative body q z mu* z a c\rt4 ,! ju/ices1 :o receive no sal>y1 hold (fice = life1 or dur+ good behavi\r4 ,!y appo9t ! *ief con/able ( ! c\nty1 :o appo9ts ! police4 ,!y also take "p 9 ! sup]vision ( highways & bridges1 asylums & prisons4 ,s9ce ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,viii41 ! ,engli% c\nty has _h an (fic] kn[n z ! "l-lieut5ant1 :o 0 once lead] ( ! c\nty militia1 b ^: functions to-day are ^? ( keep] ( ! records & pr9cipal ju/ice ( ! peace4 ,footnote #e3 ,longman's ,life & ,times ( ,edw>d ,,iii41 vol4 i4 p4 #cja4 ,sid5ote3 ,beg9n+s ( ,massa*usetts c\nties4 ,dur+ ! pa/ five hundr$ ye>s ! ,engli% c\nty has gradually sunk f a self-gov]n+ community into an adm9i/rative di/rict2 & 9 rec5t times its b\nd>ies h be5 s cross$ & crisscross$ ) ^? ( o!r adm9i/rative areas1 su* z ^? ( s*ool-bo>ds1 sanit>y bo>ds1 etc41 t v little ( ! old c\nty is left 9 recognizable %ape4 ,mo/ ( ?is *ange has be5 effect$ s9ce ! ,tudor p]iod4 ,! fir/ ,engli% settl]s 9 ,am]ica 7 famili> ) ! c\nty z a di/rict = ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 & !y br\ght ) !m coron]s1 %]iffs1 & qu>t] sessions4 ,9 #afce ! ,g5]al ,c\rt ( ,massa*usetts appo9t$ f\r t[ns--,bo/on1 ,cambridge1 ,salem1 & ,ipswi*--z places :]e c\rts %\ld be held qu>t]ly4 ,9 #afdc ! colony1 :i* !n includ$ z mu* ( ,new ,hamp%ire z 0 settl$1 0 divid$ into f\r %ires1--,suffolk1 ,essex1 ,middlesex1 & ,norfolk1 ! latt] ly+ !n to ! nor?w>d & includ+ ! ,new ,hamp%ire t[ns4 ,! militia 0 !n organiz$1 p]haps )\t consci\sness ( ! analogy1 aft] a v old ,engli% fa%ion2 ! militia ( ea* t[n =m$ a company1 & ! companies ( ! %ire =m$ a regim5t4 ,! c\nty 0 organiz$ f ! beg9n+ z a judicial di/rict1 ) its c\rt-h\se1 jail1 & %]iff4 ,aft] #afig ! c\rt1 held by ! ju/ices ( ! peace1 0 call$ ! ,c\rt ( ,g5]al ,sessions4 ,x c\ld try crim9al causes n involv+ ! p5alty ( dea? or bani%m5t1 & civil causes 9 :i* ! value at /ake 0 less ?an =ty %ill+s4 ,x also _h control ov] highways go+ f t[n to t[n2 & x apportion$ ! c\nty taxes among ! sev]al t[ns4 ,! ju/ices & %]iff 7 appo9t$ by ! gov]nor1 z 9 ,engl& by ! k+4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:y d we h c\nties 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 ,contra/ ! popul> reason ) ! hi/oric4 #b4 ,:at relation did ! tribe hold to ! clan among our ance/ors8 #c4 ,9 "t :at did ! clans & ! tribes sev]ally become8 #d4 ,%[ h[ old c\nty names 9 ,engl& ?r[ light on ! c\nty developm5t4 #e4 ,trace ! gr[? ( ! ,engli% nation 9 accordance ) ! foll[+ outl9e3-- a4 ,ea* tribe & its lead]1 b4 ,a p[]ful tribe & its lead]4 c4 ,! relation ( a little k+dom to ! %ire4 d4 ,! f9al union "u "o k+4 e4 ,! relative ages ( ! %ire & ! nation4 #f4 ,give an acc\nt 7#a7 ( ! %ire-mote1 7#b7 ( ! two k9ds ( repres5tation 9 x1 7#c7 ( its presid+ (fic]s1 & 7#d7 ( its two k9ds ( duties4 #g4 ,let ! pupil make writt5 analyses or outl9es ( ! foll[+ topics1 to be us$ by him 9 pres5t+ ! topics orally1 or to be pass$ 9 to ! tea*]3-- a4 ,:at *anges took place 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! %ire aft] ! ,norman ,conque/8 b4 ,trace ! developm5t ( ! coron]'s (fice4 c4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! ju/ices ( ! peace & ! c\rts held by !m4 d4 ,%[ :at applications ! ,engli% settl]s 9 ,massa*usetts made ( _! k ( ! ,engli% c\nty4 ,section #b4 ,! ,mod]n ,c\nty 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,! mod]n c\nty sy/em ( ,massa*usetts may n[ be v briefly describ$4 ,! c\nty1 l ! t[n1 is a corporation2 x c hold prop]ty & sue or be su$4 ,x builds ! c\rt-h\se & jail1 & keeps !m 9 repair4 ,! t[n 9 :i* ^! build+s are plac$ is call$1 z 9 ,engl&1 ! %ire t[n4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\nty commission]s4 ,9 ea* c\nty !re are ?ree commission]s1 elect$ by ! p4 ,_! t]m ( s]vice is ?ree ye>s1 & "o goes out ea* ye>4 ,^! commission]s repres5t ! c\nty 9 law-suits1 z ! selectm5 repres5t ! t[n4 ,!y apportion ! c\nty taxes among ! t[ns2 lay out1 alt]1 & discont9ue highways )9 ! c\nty2 h *>ge ( h\ses ( correction2 & erect & keep 9 repair ! c\nty build+s4#f ,footnote #f3 ,m>t9's ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 p4 #aig4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\nty treasur]4 ,! rev5ues ( ! c\nty are d]iv$ p>tly f taxation & p>tly f ! paym5t ( f9es & co/s 9 ! c\rts4 ,^! rev5ues are receiv$ & disburs$ by ! c\nty treasur]1 :o is elect$ by ! p = a t]m ( ?ree ye>s4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\rts4 ,! ,sup]ior ,c\rt ( ! /ate holds at lea/ two sessions annually 9 ea* c\nty1 & tries civil & crim9al causes4 ,!re is also 9 ea* c\nty a probate c\rt ) jurisdiction ov] all matt]s relat+ to wills1 adm9i/ration ( e/ates1 & appo9tm5t ( gu>dians2 x also acts z a c\rt ( insolv5cy4 ,! cu/ody ( wills & docum5ts relat+ to ! bus9ess ( ?is c\rt is 9 ! h&s ( an (fic] kn[n z ! regi/] ( probate1 :o is elect$ by ! p = a t]m ( five ye>s4 ,sid5ote3 ,%ire t[n & c\rt-h\se4 ,to pres]ve ! records ( all l&-titles & transf]s ( l& )9 ! c\nty1 all de$s & mortgages are regi/]$ 9 an (fice 9 ! %ire t[n1 usually )9 or atta*$ to ! c\rt ,! regi/] ( de$s is an (fic] elect$ by ! p = a t]m ( ?ree ye>s4 ,9 c\nties :]e !re is mu* bus9ess !re may be m ?an "o4 ,sid5ote3 ,ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor = a t]m ( sev5 ye>s1 & ! appo9tm5t may be r5ew$4 ,_! functions h be5 greatly curtail$1 & n[ am\nt to little m ?an adm9i/]+ oa?s1 & 9 "s cases issu+ w>rants & tak+ bail4 ,!y may jo9 p]sons 9 m>riage1 &1 :5 specially commission$ z trial ju/ices1 h crim9al jurisdiction ov] sundry petty (f5ces4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,%]iff4 ,! %]iff is elect$ by ! p = a t]m ( ?ree ye>s4 ,he may appo9t deputies1 = :om he is responsible1 to assi/ him 9 8 "w4 ,he mu/ att5d all c\nty c\rts1 & ! meet+s ( ! c\nty commission]s :5ev] requir$4 ,he mu/ inflict1 ei!r p]sonally or by deputy1 ! s5t5ce ( ! c\rt1 :e!r x be f9e1 imprisonm5t1 or dea?4 ,he is responsible = ! pres]vation ( ! peace )9 ! c\nty1 & to ?is end mu/ pursue crim9als & may arre/ disord]ly p]sons4 ,if he meets ) resi/ance he may call out ! posse comitatus2 if ! resi/ance gr[s into insurrection he may apply to ! gov]nor & obta9 ! aid ( ! /ate militia2 if ! insurrection proves too =midable to be ?us dealt )1 ! gov]nor may 9 8 behalf apply to ! presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = aid f ! regul> army4 ,9 ?is way ! =ce t may be drawn ^u1 if necess>y1 = ! suppression ( disord] 9 a s+le locality1 is practically unlimit$ & irresi/ible4 ,we h n[ obta9$ a cle> outl9e view ( ! t[n%ip & c\nty 9 !mselves & 9 _! relation to "o ano!r1 ) an occasional glimpse ( _! relation to ! /ate2 9 s f>1 at lea/1 z su* a view c be ga9$ f a ref]5ce to ! hi/ory ( ,engl& & ( ,massa*usetts4 ,we mu/ next trace ! developm5t ( local gov]nm5t 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & 9 do+ s we c advance at some:at quick] pace1 n because our subject becomes 9 any wise less important or less int]e/+1 b because we h already m>k$ out ! gr\nd & said ?+s ( g5]al application :i* w n ne$ to be said ov] aga94 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! mod]n c\nty 9 ,massa*usetts "u ! foll[+ heads3-- #a4 ,! c\nty a corporation4 #b4 ,! c\nty commission]s & _! duties4 #c4 ,! c\nty treasur] & 8 duties4 #d4 ,! c\rts held 9 a c\nty4 #e4 ,! %ire t[n & ! c\rt-h\se4 #f4 ,! regi/] ( de$s & 8 duties4 #g4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace & trial ju/ices4 #h4 ,! %]iff & 8 duties4 #i4 ,! =ce at ! %]iff's disposal to suppress disord]4 ,section #c4 ,! ,old ,virg9ia ,c\nty4 ,by common cons5t ( hi/orians1 ! two mo/ di/9ctive & mo/ *>act]i/ic l9es ( developm5t :i* ,engli% =ms ( gov]nm5t h foll[$1 9 propagat+ !mselves ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 are ! two l9es t h l$ ?r\gh ,new ,engl& on ! "o h& & ?r\gh ,virg9ia on ! o!r4 ,we h se5 :at %ape local gov]nm5t assum$ 9 ,new ,engl&2 let u n[ obs]ve :at %ape x assum$ 9 ! ,old ,dom9ion4 ,sid5ote3 ,virg9ia sp>sely settl$4 ,! fir/ po9t to be notic$ 9 ! e>ly settlem5t ( ,virg9ia is t p did n live s ne> toge!r z 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,?is 0 because tobacco1 cultivat$ on l>ge e/ates1 0 a s\rce ( weal?4 ,tobacco drew settl]s to ,virg9ia z 9 lat] days gold drew settl]s to ,cali=nia & sp>sely ,au/ralia4 ,!y came n 9 organiz$ gr\ps or congregations1 b z a multitude ( individuals4 ,l& 0 grant$ to individuals1 & sometimes ^! grants 7 ( enorm\s ext5t4 ,john ,boll+1 :o di$ 9 #ageg1 left an e/ate ( #dj1jjj acres1 & ?is is n m5tion$ z an extraord9>y am\nt ( l& = "o man to own4#g ,f an e>ly p]iod x 0 cu/om>y to keep ^! great e/ates toge!r by entail+ !m1 & ?is cont9u$ until entails 7 aboli%$ 9 #aggf ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,?omas ,jeff]son4 ,footnote #g3 ,edw>d ,*ann+1 ,t[n & ,c\nty ,gov]nm5t1 9 ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ,/udies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dfg4 ,sid5ote3 ,abs5ce ( t[ns4 ,a glance at ! map ( ,virg9ia %[s to :at a rem>kable degree x is int]sect$ by navigable riv]s4 ,?is fact made x possible = plantations1 ev5 at a long di/ance f ! coa/1 to h ea* its own private :>f1 :]e a %ip f ,engl& c\ld unload its c>go ( tools1 clo?1 or furniture1 & receive a c>go ( tobacco 9 return4 ,z ! plant]s 7 ?us suppli$ ) mo/ ( ! necess>ies ( life1 !re 0 no occasion = ! k9d ( trade t builds up t[ns4 ,ev5 9 comp>atively rec5t times ! developm5t ( t[n life 9 ,virg9ia has be5 v sl[4 ,9 #ahhj1 out ( #bdf cities & t[ns 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ) a population exce$+ #aj1jjj1 !re 7 only six 9 ,virg9ia4 ,sid5ote3 ,slav]y ,! cultivation ( tobacco ^u l>ge e/ates caus$ a great dem& = *eap lab\r1 & ?is 0 suppli$ p>tly by br++ negro slaves f ,africa1 p>tly by br++ crim9als f ,engli% jails4 ,! latt] 7 sold into slav]y = a limit$ t]m ( ye>s1 & 7 kn[n z ind5tur$ :ite s]vants4 ,s great 0 ! dem& = lab\r t x became cu/om>y to kidnap poor fri5dless wret*es on ! /reets ( seaport t[ns 9 ,engl& & %ip !m (f to ,virg9ia to be sold into s]vitude4 ,at fir/ ^! :ite s]vants 7 m num]\s ?an ! negroes1 b be=e ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury ! blacks _h come to be mu* ! m num]\s4 ,sid5ote3 ,social position ( settl]s4 ,9 ?is rural community ! own]s ( plantations came f ! same classes ( society z ! settl]s ( ,new ,engl&2 !y 7 = ! mo/ "p c\ntry squires & yeom54 ,b :ile 9 ,new ,engl& !re 0 no l[] class or society %>ply m>k$ (f f ! upp]1 on ! o!r h& 9 ,virg9ia !re 0 an insurm\ntable di/9ction betwe5 ! own]s ( plantations & ! s-call$ mean :ites or :ite tra%4 ,?is class 0 orig9ally =m$ ( m5 & wom5 :o _h be5 ind5tur$ :ite s]vants1 & 0 increas$ by su* %iftless p z n[ & !n f\nd _! way to ! colony1 b c\ld n w9 e/ates or obta9 social recognition4 ,) su* a %>p division betwe5 classes1 an ari/ocratic type ( society 0 develop$ 9 ,virg9ia z naturally z a democratic type 0 develop$ 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,virg9ia p>i%es4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ve/ry ( a close corporation4 ,9 ,virg9ia !re 7 no t[n-meet+s4 ,! di/ances betwe5 plantations coop]at$ ) ! di/9ction betwe5 classes to prev5t ! gr[? ( su* an in/itution4 ,! ,engli% p>i%1 ) its *ur*w>d5s & ve/ry & cl]k1 0 reproduc$ 9 ,virg9ia "u ! same "n1 b ) "s notewor?y peculi>ities4 ,if ! :ole body ( ratepay]s _h assembl$ 9 ve/ry meet+1 to enact by-laws & assess taxes1 ! c\rse ( developm5t w\ld h be5 l t ( ! ,new ,engl& t[n-meet+4 ,b in/ead ( ?is ! ve/ry1 :i* ex]cis$ ! *ief au?ority 9 ! p>i%1 0 compos$ ( twelve *os5 m54 ,?is 0 n gov]nm5t by a prim>y assembly1 x 0 repres5tative gov]nm5t4 ,at fir/ ! twelve ve/rym5 7 elect$ by ! p ( ! p>i%1 & ?us resembl$ ! selectm5 ( ,new ,engl&2 b aft] a :ile !y obta9$ ! p[] ( fill+ vacancies 9 _! own numb]1 s t !y became :at is call$ a close corporation1 & ! p _h no?+ to d ) *oos+ !m4 ,/rictly speak+1 t 0 n repres5tative gov]nm5t2 x 0 a /ep on ! road t leads t[>ds olig>*ical or despotic gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,p[]s ( ! ve/ry4 ,x 0 ! ve/ry1 ?us con/itut$1 t apportion$ ! p>i% taxes1 appo9t$ ! *ur*w>d5s1 pres5t$ ! m9i/] = induction into (fice1 & act$ z ov]se]s ( ! poor4 ,! m9i/] presid$ 9 all ve/ry meet+s4 ,8 sal>y 0 paid 9 tobacco1 & 9 #afif x 0 fix$ by law at #af1jjj p\nds ( tobacco ye>ly4 ,9 _m p>i%es ! *ur*w>d5s 7 ! collectors ( ! p>i% taxes4 ,! o!r (fic]s1 su* z ! sexton & ! p>i% cl]k1 7 appo9t$ ei!r by ! m9i/] or by ! ve/ry4 ,) ! local gov]nm5t ?us adm9i/]$1 we see t ! l>g] "p ( ! p _h little directly to d4 ,nev]!less 9 ^! small neighb\rhoods gov]nm5t 0 9 full sight ( ! p4 ,its proce$+s w5t on 9 broad daylight & 7 su/a9$ by public s5tim5t4 ,z ,jeff]son said1 ,! ve/rym5 are usually ! mo/ discreet f>m]s1 s di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! p>i% t e "p ( x may be "u ! imm$iate eye ( "s "o ( !m4 ,!y are well acqua9t$ ) ! details & economy ( private life1 & !y f9d suffici5t inducem5ts to execute _! *>ge well1 9 _! philan?ropy1 9 ! approbation ( _! neighb\rs1 & ! di/9ction :i* t gives !m4 #h ,footnote #h3 ,see ,h[>d1 ,local ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 i4 p4 #abb4 ,sid5ote3 ,! c\nty 0 ! unit ( repres5tation4 ,! diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ! ,new ,engl& t[n%ip & ! ,virg9ia p>i%1 9 respect ( self-gov]nm5t1 0 /rik+ en\gh4 ,we h n[ to note a fur!r diff]5ce4 ,9 ,new ,engl&1 z we h se51 ! t[n%ip 0 ! unit ( repres5tation 9 ! colonial legislature2 b 9 ,virg9ia ! p>i% 0 n ! unit ( repres5tation4 ,! c\nty 0 t unit4 ,9 ! colonial legislature ( ,virg9ia ! repres5tatives sat n = p>i%es1 b = c\nties4 ,! diff]5ce is v significant4 ,z ! political life ( ,new ,engl& 0 9 a mann] built up out ( ! political life ( ! t[ns1 s ! political life ( ,virg9ia 0 built up out ( ! political life ( ! c\nties4 ,?is 0 p>tly because ! va/ plantations 7 n gr\p$ ab\t a compact village nucleus l ! small f>ms at ! ,nor?1 & p>tly because !re 0 n 9 ,virg9ia t ,puritan !ory ( ! *ur* accord+ to :i* ea* congregation is a self-gov]n+ democracy4 ,! conditions :i* made ! ,new ,engl& t[n-meet+ 7 abs5t4 ,! only alt]native 0 "s k9d ( repres5tative gov]nm5t1 & = ?is ! c\nty 0 a small en\gh area4 ,! c\nty 9 ,virg9ia 0 mu* small] ?an 9 ,massa*usetts or ,connecticut4 ,9 a few in/ances ! c\nty consi/$ ( only a s+le p>i%2 9 "s cases x 0 divid$ into two p>i%es1 b (t5] into ?ree or m4 ,sid5ote3 ,! c\nty c\rt 0 virtually a close corporation4 ,9 ,virg9ia1 z 9 ,engl& & 9 ,new ,engl&1 ! c\nty 0 an area = ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,!re 7 usually 9 ea* c\nty eight ju/ices ( ! peace1 & _! c\rt 0 ! c\nt]p>t ( ! ,qu>t] ,sessions 9 ,engl&4 ,!y 7 appo9t$ by ! gov]nor1 b x 0 cu/om>y = !m to nom9ate c&idates = ! gov]nor to appo9t1 s t practically ! c\rt fill$ its own vacancies & 0 a close corporation1 l ! p>i% ve/ry4 ,su* an arrangem5t t5d$ to keep ! g5]al sup]vision & control ( ?+s 9 ! h&s ( a few families4 ,?is c\nty c\rt usually met z (t5 z once a mon? 9 "s conv5i5t spot answ]+ to ! %ire t[n ( ,engl& or ,new ,engl&4 ,m (t5 ?an n ! place orig9ally consi/$ ( ! c\rt-h\se & v little else1 & 0 nam$ accord+ly f ! "n ( ! c\nty1 z ,hanov] ,c\rt ,h\se or ,fairfax ,c\rt ,h\se2 & ! small %ire t[ns t h gr[n up 9 su* spots (t5 reta9 ^! names to ! pres5t day4 ,su* names occur commonly 9 ,virg9ia1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 v r>ely 9 ,k5tucky1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,alabama1 ,ohio1 & n[h]e else 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4#i ,_! numb] has dim9i%$ f ! t5d5cy to omit ! phrase ,c\rt ,h\se1 leav+ ! "n ( ! c\nty = t ( ! %ire t[n1 z = example 9 ,culpep]1 ,va4 ,9 ,new ,engl& ! process ( nam+ has be5 j ! rev]se2 z 9 ,h>t=d ,c\nty1 ,conn41 or ,worce/] ,c\nty1 ,mass41 :i* h tak5 _! names f ! %ire t[ns4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 s _m cases1 :ole *apt]s ( hi/ory are wrapp$ up 9 geographical names4#aj ,footnote #i3 ,9 ,mit*ell's ,atlas1 #ahhc1 ! numb] ( cases is 9 ,va4 #ch1 ,w4 ,va4 #ac1 ,s4 ,c4 #af1 ,n4 ,c4 #b1 ,ala4 #a1 ,ky4 #a1 ,ohio1 #a4 ,footnote #aj3 ,a few ( ! olde/ ,virg9ia c\nties1 organiz$ z su* 9 #afcd1 _h aris5 f ! spread+ & ?9n+ ( s+le settlem5ts orig9ally int5d$ to be cities & nam$ accord+ly4 ,h5ce ! curi\s names 7at fir/ sight un9telligible7 ( ,james ,city ,c\nty1 & ,*>les ,city ,c\nty4 ,sid5ote3 ,p[]s ( ! c\rt ,! c\nty c\rt 9 ,virg9ia _h jurisdiction 9 crim9al actions n involv+ p]il ( life or limb1 & 9 civil suits :]e ! sum at /ake exce$$ tw5ty-five %ill+s4 ,small] suits c\ld be tri$ by a s+le ju/ice4 ,! c\rt also _h *>ge ( ! probate & adm9i/ration ( wills4 ,! c\rt appo9t$ its own cl]k1 :o kept ! c\nty records4 ,x sup]9t5d$ ! con/ruction & repair ( bridges & highways1 & = ?is purpose divid$ ! c\nty into prec9cts1 & appo9t$ annually = ea* prec9ct a highway surveyor4 ,! c\rt also seems to h appo9t$ con/ables1 "o = ea* prec9ct4 ,! ju/ices c\ld !mselves act z coron]s1 b annually two or m coron]s = ea* p>i% 7 appo9t$ by ! gov]nor4 ,z we h se5 t ! p>i% taxes--s mu* = sal>ies ( m9i/] & cl]k1 s mu* = c>e ( *ur* build+s1 s mu* = relief ( ! poor1 etc4--7 comput$ & assess$ by ! ve/ry2 s ! c\nty taxes1 = c>e ( c\rt-h\se & jail1 roads & bridges1 coron]'s fees1 & all[ances to ! repres5tatives s5t to ! colonial legislature1 7 comput$ & assess$ by ! c\nty c\rt4 ,! g5]al taxes = ! colony 7 e/imat$ by a committee ( ! legislature1 z well z ! c\nty's %>e ( ! colony tax4 ,sid5ote3 ,! %]iff4 ,! taxes = ! c\nty1 & sometimes ! taxes = ! p>i% also1 7 collect$ by ! %]iff4 ,!y 7 usually paid1 n 9 money1 b 9 tobacco2 & ! %]iff 0 ! cu/odian ( ?is tobacco1 responsible = its prop] disposal4 ,! %]iff 0 ?us n only ! (fic] = execut+ ! judgm5ts ( ! c\rt1 b he 0 also c\nty treasur] & collector1 & ?us ex]cis$ p[]s almo/ z great z ^? ( ! %]iff 9 ,engl& 9 ! twelf? c5tury4 ,he also presid$ ov] elections = repres5tatives to ! legislature4 ,x is int]e/+ to obs]ve h[ ?is v important (fic] 0 *os54 ,ea* ye> ! c\rt pres5t$ ! names ( ?ree ( its memb]s to ! gov]nor1 :o appo9t$ "o1 g5]ally ! s5ior ju/ice1 to be ! %]iff ( ! c\nty = ! ensu+ ye>4 #aa ,"h aga9 we see ?is close corporation1 ! c\nty c\rt1 keep+ ! control ( ?+s )9 its own h&s4 ,footnote #aa3 ,edw>d ,*ann+1 op4 cit4 p4 #dgh4 ,sid5ote3 ,! c\nty lieut5ant ,"o o!r important c\nty (fic] ne$s to be m5tion$4 ,we h se5 t 9 e>ly ,new ,engl& ea* t[n _h its tra9-b& or company ( militia1 & t ! companies 9 ea* c\nty unit$ to =m ! c\nty regim5t4 ,9 ,virg9ia x 0 j ! o!r way4 ,ea* c\nty rais$ a c]ta9 numb] ( troops1 & because x 0 n conv5i5t = ! m5 to g _m miles f home 9 assembl+ = purposes ( drill1 ! c\nty 0 subdivid$ into milit>y di/ricts1 ea* ) its company1 accord+ to rules laid d[n by ! gov]nor4 ,! milit>y comm& 9 ea* c\nty 0 ve/$ 9 ! c\nty lieut5ant1 an (fic] answ]+ 9 _m respects to ! "l lieut5ant ( ! ,engli% %ire at t p]iod4 ,usually he 0 a memb] ( ! gov]nor's c\ncil1 & z su* ex]cis$ sundry judicial functions4 ,he bore ! honor>y title ( colonel1 & 0 to "s ext5t reg>d$ z ! gov]nor's deputy2 b 9 lat] times 8 duties 7 conf9$ entirely to milit>y matt]s4#ab ,footnote #ab3 ,= an excell5t acc\nt ( local gov]nm5t 9 ,virg9ia be=e ! ,revolution1 see ,h[>d1 ,local ,con/4 ,hi/4 ( ! ,u4,s41 vol4 i4 pp4 #chh-djg2 also ,edw>d ,+le 9 ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ4 ,/udies1 ,,iii41 ii4-iii4 ,if n[ we sum up ! contra/s betwe5 local gov]nm5t 9 ,virg9ia & t 9 ,new ,engl&1 we obs]ve3-- #a4 ,t 9 ,new ,engl& ! managem5t ( local affairs 0 mo/ly 9 ! h&s ( t[n (fic]s1 ! c\nty be+ sup]add$ = c]ta9 purposes1 *iefly judicial2 :ile 9 ,virg9ia ! managem5t 0 *iefly 9 ! h&s ( c\nty (fic]s1 ?\gh c]ta9 functions1 *iefly ecclesia/ical1 7 res]v$ to ! p>i%4 #b4 ,t 9 ,new ,engl& ! local magi/rates 7 almo/ always1 ) ! exception ( ju/ices1 *os5 by ! p2 :ile 9 ,virg9ia1 ?\gh "s ( !m 7 nom9ally appo9t$ by ! gov]nor1 yet 9 practice !y g5]ally contriv$ to appo9t !mselves--9 o!r words ! local bo>ds practically fill$ _! own vacancies & 7 self-p]petuat+4 ,sid5ote3 ,jeff]son's op9ion ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t4 ,^! diff]5ces are /rik+ & pr(\nd4 ,!re c be no d\bt t1 z ,?omas ,jeff]son cle>ly saw1 9 ! long run ! int]e/s ( political lib]ty are mu* saf] "u ! ,new ,engl& sy/em ?an "u ! ,virg9ia sy/em4 ,jeff]son said1 ,^? w>ds1 call$ t[n%ips 9 ,new ,engl&1 are ! vital pr9ciple ( _! gov]nm5ts1 & h prov$ !mselves ! wise/ inv5tion ev] devis$ by ! wit ( man = ! p]fect ex]cise ( self-gov]nm5t1 & = its pres]vation#ac4444;,z ,cato1 !n1 conclud$ e spee* ) ! words ,c>?ago del5da e/1 s d ,i e op9ion ) ! injunction3 ,divide ! c\nties into w>ds6 #ad ,footnote #ac3 ,jeff]son's ,works1 vii4 #ac4 ,footnote #ad3 ,id41 vi4 #edd ,sid5ote3 ,c\rt ,day4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 avoid ! mi/ake ( mak+ too mu* ( ?is contra/4 ,z already h9t$1 9 ^? rural societies :]e p g5]ally knew "o ano!r1 its effects 7 n s f>-rea*+ z !y w\ld be 9 ! m complicat$ society ( to-day4 ,ev5 ?\gh ,virg9ia _h n ! t[n-meet+1 x _h its famili> c\rt-day1 :i* 0 a holiday = all ! c\ntry-side1 especially 9 ! fall & spr+4 ,f all directions came 9 ! p on horseback1 9 wagons1 & afoot4 ,on ! c\rt-h\se gre5 assembl$1 9 indiscrim9ate confusion1 p ( all classes1--! hunt] f ! backwoods1 ! own] ( a few acres1 ! gr& proprietor1 & ! gr9n+1 he$less negro4 ,old debts 7 settl$1 & new ones made2 !re 7 auctions1 transf]s ( prop]ty1 &1 if election times 7 ne>1 /ump-speak+4#ae ,sid5ote3 ,virg9ia prolific 9 great lead]s4 ,= sev5ty ye>s or m be=e ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce ! matt]s ( g5]al public conc]n1 ab\t :i* /ump spee*es 7 made on ,virg9ia c\rt-days1 7 v simil> to ^? t 7 discuss$ 9 ,massa*usetts t[n-meet+s :5 repres5tatives 7 to be *os5 = ! legislature4 ,su* que/ions g5]ally relat$ to "s real or alleg$ encroa*m5t ^u popul> lib]ties by ! royal gov]nor1 :o1 be+ appo9t$ & s5t f beyond sea1 0 apt to h ideas & purposes ( 8 own t conflict$ ) ^? ( ! p4 ,?is p]petual antagonism to ! gov]nor1 :o repres5t$ ,briti% imp]ial int]f]5ce ) ,am]ican local self-gov]nm5t1 0 an excell5t s*ool+ 9 political lib]ty1 alike = ,virg9ia & = ,massa*usetts4 ,:5 ! /ress ( ! ,revolution came1 ^! two lead+ colonies cordially support$ ea* o!r1 & _! political *>act]i/ics 7 reflect$ 9 ! k9d ( a*ievem5ts = :i* ea* 0 especially di/+ui%$4 ,! ,virg9ia sy/em1 conc5trat+ ! adm9i/ration ( local affairs 9 ! h&s ( a few c\nty families1 0 em95tly fav\rable = develop+ skilful & vigor\s lead]%ip4 ,& :ile 9 ! hi/ory ( ,massa*usetts dur+ ! ,revolution we are *iefly impress$ ) ! wond]ful degree 9 :i* ! mass ( ! p exhibit$ ! k9d ( political tra9+ t no?+ 9 ! _w except ! habit ( p>liam5t>y discussion c imp>t2 on ! o!r h&1 ,virg9ia at t "t gave u--9 ,wa%+ton1 ,jeff]son1 ,h5ry1 ,madison1 & ,m>%all1 to m5tion no o!rs--su* a gr\p ( consummate lead]s z ! _w has seldom se5 equall$4 ,footnote #ae3 ,+le1 loc4 cit4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:y 0 ,virg9ia m sp>sely settl$ ?an ,massa*usetts8 #b4 ,:y 0 x t t[ns 7 built up m sl[ly 9 ,virg9ia ?an 9 ,massa*usetts8 #c4 ,h[ 0 ! great dem& = lab\r 9 ,virg9ia met8 #d4 ,:at di/9ction ( classes naturally arose8 #e4 ,contra/ ! type ( society ?us develop$ 9 ,virg9ia ) t develop$ 9 ,new ,engl&4 #f4 ,comp>e ! ,virg9ia p>i% 9 its e>li] gov]nm5t ) ! ,engli% p>i% f :i* x 0 naturally copi$4 #g4 ,%[ h[ ! ve/ry became a close corporation4 #h4 ,:o 7 usually *os5 z ve/rym51 & :at 7 _! p[]s8 #i4 ,comp>e ,virg9ia's unit ( repres5tation 9 ! colonial legislature ) t ( ,massa*usetts1 & give ! reason = ! diff]5ce4 #aj4 ,describe ! c\nty c\rt1 %[+ 9 p>ticul> h[ x became a close corporation4 #aa4 ,br+ out "s ( ! hi/ory wrapp$ up 9 ! names ( c\nty seats4 #ab4 ,:at 7 ! *ief p[]s ( ! c\nty c\rt8 #ac4 ,describe ! assessm5t ( ! v>i\s taxes4 #ad4 ,:at 7 ! %]iff's duties8 #ae4 ,describe ! organization & comm& ( ! militia 9 ea* c\nty4 #af4 ,sum up ! diff]5ces betwe5 local gov]nm5t 9 ,virg9ia & t 9 ,new ,engl& 7#a7 z to ! managem5t ( local affairs & 7#b7 z to ! *oice ( local (fic]s4 #ag4 ,:at did ,jeff]son ?9k ( ! pr9ciple ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t8 #ah4 ,:at 0 ! equival5t 9 ,virg9ia ( ! ,new ,engl& t[n-meet+8 #ai4 ,:at 0 ! value ( ?is frequ5t assembl+8 #bj4 ,:at s*ool+ 9 political lib]ty be=e ! ,revolution did ,virg9ia & ,massa*usetts alike h8 #ba4 ,:at 0 an impressive feature ( ! ,new ,engl& sy/em8 #bb4 ,:at 0 an impressive feature ( ! ,virg9ia sy/em8 ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions4 #a4 ,h[ _m c\nties are !re 9 y\r /ate8 #b4 ,"n & place !m if ! numb] is small4 #c4 ,9 :at c\nty d y live8 #d4 ,give its dim5sions4 ,are !y satisfactory8 ,:y8 #e4 ,give its b\nd>ies4 #f4 ,is !re any?+ int]e/+ 9 ! mean+ or orig9 ( its "n8 #g4 ,h[ _m t[ns & cities does x conta98 #h4 ,:at is ! c\nty seat8 ,is x conv5i5tly situat$8 ,reasons = ?9k+ s8 #i4 ,if conv5i5t1 visit any c\nty build+1 note ! uses to :i* x is put1 & report su* facts z may be ?us f\nd out4 #aj4 ,obta9 a de$1 no matt] h[ old1 & answ] ^! que/ions ab\t x3-- a4 ,is x record$8 ,if s1 :]e8 b4 ,w\ld x be easy = y to f9d ! record8 c4 ,:y %\ld su* a record be kept8 d4 ,:at (fic] has *>ge ( su* records8 e4 ,:at sort ( "w mu/ he & 8 assi/ants d8 f4 ,! place ( su* records is call$ :at8 g4 ,:at sort ( facilities = ! public %\ld su* a place h8 ,:at safety precautions %\ld be obs]v$ !re8 h4 ,:y %\ld ! c\nty keep su* records r ?an ! city or ! t[n8 i4 ,is !re a record ( ! de$ by :i* ! prec$+ own] came into possession ( ! prop]ty8 j4 ,:at sort ( title did ! fir/ own] h8 ,is !re any record ( x8 ,0 ! fir/ own] ,indian or ,european8 7,! tea*] might obta9 a de$ & base a class ex]cise ^u x4 ,x is easy ) a de$ = a text to lead pupils to see ! common-s5se basis ( an important c\nty in/itution1 & !reaft] to give v s5sible views z to :at x %\ld be1 ev5 if x is n fully kn[n :at x is47 #aa4 ,is !re a local c\rt = y\r t[n or city8 #ab4 ,h[ d its cases comp>e 9 magnitude ) ^? tri$ at ! c\nty seat8 #ac4 ,if a man /eals & is prosecut$1 :o becomes ! pla9tiff8 #ad4 ,if a man owes & is su$ = debt1 :o becomes ! pla9tiff8 #ae4 ,:at is a crim9al action8 #af4 ,:at is a civil action8 #ag4 ,:at is ! result to ! def5dant 9 ! =m] case1 if he is convict$8 #ah4 ,:at is ! result to ! def5dant 9 ! latt] case1 if ! decision is aga9/ him8 #ai4 ,is ly+ a crime or a s98 ,may x ev] become a crime8 #bj4 ,are c\rts ( any s]vice to ! va/ numb]s :o are nev] br\ght be=e !m8 ,:y8 #ba4 ,may good citiz5s always keep out ( ! c\rts if !y *oose8 ,is x _! duty always to keep out ( !m8 #bb4 ,is !re any av]sion among p t y "k to be+ br\ght be=e ! c\rts8 ,:y8 #bc4 ,:at is ! purpose ( a jail8 ,is ?is purpose realiz$ 9 fact8 #bd4 ,%\ld a di/urbance ( a s]i\s nature break out 9 y\r t[n1 ^: imm$iate duty w\ld x be to quell x8 ,suppose ?is duty %\ld prove too difficult to p]=m1 !n :at8 #be4 ,:at is ! attitude ( good citiz5%ip t[>ds (fic]s :o are try+ to en=ce ! laws8 ,:at is ! attitude ( good citiz5%ip if ! laws are n satisfactory or if ! (fic]s are indiscreet 9 en=c+ !m8 #bf4 ,suppose a man ( prop]ty dies & leaves a w1 :at tr\bles are possible ab\t ! disposal ( 8 prop]ty8 ,suppose he leaves no w1 :at tr\bles are possible8 ,^: duty is x to ex]cise control ov] su* matt]s & hold p up to legal & hon\rable conduct 9 !m8 #bg4 ,:at is an executor8 ,:at is an adm9i/rator8 #bh4 ,if p>5ts die1 ^: duty is x to c>e = _! *ildr58 ,if prop]ty is left to su* *ildr51 are !y free to use x z !y please8 ,:at has ! c\nty to d ) su* cases8 #bi4 ,h[ mu* does y\r t[n or city contribute t[>ds c\nty exp5ses8 ,h[ does ?is am\nt comp>e ) t rais$ by o!r t[ns 9 ! c\nty8 #cj4 ,give ! organization ( y\r c\nty gov]nm5t4 #ca4 ,w\ld x be bett] = ! t[ns to d !mselves ! "w n[ done = !m by ! c\nty8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,section #a4 ,,! ,,c\nty ,,9 ,,its ,,beg9n+s4 ,?is subject is treat$ 9 connection ) ! t[n%ip 9 sev]al ( ! books above m5tion$4 ,see especially ,h[>d1 ,local ,con/4 ,hi/4 ,section #b4 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,c\nty ,,9 ,,massa*usetts4 ,!re is a good acc\nt 9 ,m>t9's ,text ,book above m5tion$4 ,section #c4 ,,! ,,old ,,virg9ia ,,c\nty4 ,! be/ acc\nt is 9 ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,,iii41 ii4-iii4 ,edw>d ,+le1 ,virg9ia ,local ,in/itutions4 ,9 deal+ ) ! que/ions on page #fi1 bo? tea*]s & pupils w f9d ,dole's ,talks ab\t ,law 7,bo/on1 #ahhg7 extremely valuable & helpful4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,t[n%ip ,,& ,,c\nty4 ,section #a4 ,v>i\s ,local ,sy/ems4 ,we h n[ complet$ our outl9e sket* ( t[n & c\nty gov]nm5t z illu/rat$ 9 ,new ,engl& on ! "o h& & 9 ,virg9ia on ! o!r4 ,!re are "s important po9ts 9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( local gov]nm5t 9 o!r portions ( ! orig9al ?irte5 /ates1 to :i* we mu/ next call att5tion2 & !n we %all be prep>$ to und]/& ! mann] 9 :i* our great we/]n c\ntry has be5 organiz$ "u civil gov]nm5t4 ,we mu/ fir/ say some?+ ab\t ,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,m>yl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,p>i%es 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,s\? ,c>ol9a 0 settl$ f half a c5tury to a c5tury lat] ?an ,massa*usetts & ,virg9ia1 & by two di/9ct /reams ( immigration4 ,! l[l&s ne> ! coa/ 7 settl$ by ,engli%m5 & by ,fr5* ,hugu5ots1 b ! =m ( gov]nm5t 0 purely ,engli%4 ,!re 7 p>i%es1 z 9 ,virg9ia1 b popul> election play$ a great] "p 9 !m4 ,! ve/rym5 7 elect$ ye>ly by all ! taxpay]s ( ! p>i%4 ,! m9i/] 0 also elect$ by 8 p1 & aft] #agai ea* p>i% s5t its repres5tatives to ! colonial legislature1 ?\gh 9 a few in/ances two p>i%es 7 jo9$ toge!r = ! purpose ( *oos+ repres5tatives4 ,! sy/em 0 ?us m democratic ?an 9 ,virg9ia2 & 9 ?is connection x is wor? :ile to obs]ve t p>o*ial libr>ies & free s*ools 7 e/abli%$ z e>ly z #agab1 mu* e>li] ?an 9 ,virg9ia4 ,sid5ote3 ,! back c\ntry ,dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! eighte5? c5tury a v diff]5t /ream ( immigration1 com+ mo/ly along ! slope ( ! ,alleghanies f ,virg9ia & ,p5nsylvania1 & consi/+ 9 great "p ( ,g]mans1 ,scot* ,highl&]s1 & ,scot*-,iri%1 peopl$ ! upl& we/]n regions ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,= "s "t ?is t]ritory _h sc>cely any civil organization4 ,x 0 a k9d ( wild ,we/4 ,!re 7 z yet no c\nties 9 ! colony4 ,!re 0 j "o %]iff = ! :ole colony1 :o held 8 (fice by pat5t f ! cr[n4 #a ,a c\rt sat 9 ,*>le/on1 b ! arm ( ju/ice 0 h>dly long en\gh to rea* (f5d]s 9 ! m\nta9s4 ,to puni% a horse-?ief or prosecute a debtor "o 0 sometimes compell$ to travel a di/ance ( sev]al hundr$ miles1 & be subject$ to all ! dang]s & delays incid5t to a wild c\ntry4 ,:5 p _c get ju/ice 9 :at 9 civiliz$ c\ntries is ! regul> way1 !y w get x 9 "s irregul> way4 ,s ^! m\nta9e]s began to =m !mselves into b&s kn[n z regulators1 q l ! vigilance committees =m$ = ! same purposes 9 ,cali=nia a hundr$ ye>s lat]4 ,= ?ieves & murd]]s ! regulators provid$ a spe$y trial1 & ! ne>e/ tree s]v$ z a gall[s4 ,footnote #a3 ,b4 ,j4 ,ramage1 9 ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ4 ,/udies1 ,i41 xii4 ,sid5ote3 ,! di/rict sy/em4 ,9 ord] to put a /op to ?is lyn* law1 ! legislature 9 #agfh divid$ ! back c\ntry into di/ricts1 ea* ) its %]iff & c\rt-h\se1 & ! judges 7 s5t on circuit ?r\gh ^! di/ricts4 ,! upl& region ) its di/ricts 0 ?us v diff]5tly organiz$ f ! l[l& region ) its p>i%es1 & ! effect 0 = a :ile almo/ l divid+ ,s\? ,c>ol9a into two /ates4 ,at fir/ ! di/ricts 7 n all[$ to *oose _! own %]iffs1 b 9 c\rse ( "t !y acquir$ ?is privilege4 ,x 0 difficult to apportion ! repres5tation 9 ! /ate legislature s z to balance ev5ly ! di/ricts 9 ! we/ aga9/ ! p>i%es 9 ! ea/1 & accord+ly !re 0 mu* dissatisfaction1 especially 9 ! we/ :i* did n get its fair %>e4 ,9 #aghf ! capital 0 mov$ f ,*>le/on to ,columbia z a concession to ! back c\ntry1 & 9 #ahjh a k9d ( compromise 0 effect$1 9 su* wise t ! upl&s secur$ a p]man5t majority 9 ! h\se ( repres5tatives1 :ile ! l[l&s reta9$ control ( ! s5ate4 ,! two sections _h ea* its sep>ate /ate treasur]1 & ?is k9d ( d\ble gov]nm5t la/$ until ! ,civil ,w>4 ,sid5ote3 ,! mod]n ,s\? ,c>ol9a c\nty4 ,at ! close ( ! w> ! p>i%es 7 aboli%$ & ! di/rict sy/em 0 ext5d$ to ! l[ c\ntry4 ,b soon aft]w>d1 by ! new con/itution ( #ahfh1 ! di/ricts 7 aboli%$ & ! /ate 0 divid$ into #cd c\nties1 ea* ( :i* s5ds "o s5ator to ! /ate s5ate1 :ile !y s5d repres5tatives 9 proportion to _! population4 ,9 ea* c\nty ! p elect ?ree c\nty commission]s1 a s*ool commission]1 a %]iff1 a judge ( probate1 a cl]k1 & a coron]4 ,9 "o respect ! ,s\? ,c>ol9a c\nty is q peculi>3 x has no organization = judicial purposes4 ,! c\nties1 l _! in/itutional pr$ecessor ! di/rict1 are gr\p$ into judicial circuits1 & a judge is elect$ by ! legislature = ea* circuit4 ,trial ju/ices are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor = a t]m ( two ye>s4 ,sid5ote3 ,! c\nties are too l>ge4 ,?is sy/em1 l ! simple c\nty sy/em ev]y:]e1 is a repres5tative sy/em2 ! p take no direct "p 9 ! managem5t ( affairs4 ,9 "o respect x seems obvi\sly to ne$ am5dm5t4 ,9 /ates :]e c\nty gov]nm5t has gr[n up naturally1 aft] ! ,virg9ia fa%ion1 ! c\nty is apt to be mu* small] ?an 9 /ates :]e x is simply a di/rict embrac+ sev]al t[n%ip gov]nm5ts4 ,?us ! av]age size ( a c\nty 9 ,massa*usetts is #eeg squ>e miles1 & 9 ,connecticut #eid squ>e miles2 b 9 ,virg9ia x is only #chc & 9 ,k5tucky #cjg squ>e miles4 ,9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 h[ev]1 :]e ! c\nty did n gr[ up ( itself1 b has be5 enact$1 s to speak1 by a k9d ( aft]?\ght1 x has be5 made too l>ge altoge!r4 ,! av]age area ( ! c\nty 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a is ab\t #a1jjj squ>e miles4 ,*>le/on ,c\nty1 m ?an #dj miles 9 l5g? & n less ?an #ce 9 av]age wid?1 is l>g] ?an ! /ate ( ,rhode ,isl&4 ,su* an area is mu* too ext5sive = local self-gov]nm5t4 ,its diff]5t portions are too f> ap>t to und]/& ea* o!r's local wants1 or to act effici5tly t[>d supply+ !m2 & roads1 bridges1 & free s*ools suff] accord+ly4 ,an unsuccessful attempt has be5 made to r$uce ! size ( ! c\nties4 ,b :at seems p]haps m likely to happ5 is ! practical division ( ! c\nties into s*ool di/ricts1 & ! gradual developm5t ( ^! s*ool di/ricts into some?+ l self-gov]n+ t[n%ips4 ,to ?is v int]e/+ po9t we %all aga9 h occasion to ref]4 ,sid5ote3 ,! hundr$ 9 ,m>yl&4 ,sid5ote3 ,clans1 bro!rhoods1 & tribes ,we come n[ to ,m>yl&4 ,! e>ly hi/ory ( local in/itutions 9 ?is /ate is a fasc9at+ subject ( /udy4 ,none ( ! ,am]ican colonies _h a m di/9ctive "* ( its own1 or reproduc$ old ,engli% usages 9 a m curi\s fa%ion4 ,!re 0 mu* 9 colonial ,m>yl&1 ) its lords ( ! manor1 its bailiffs & s5es*als1 its c\rts b>on & c\rts leet1 to rem9d "o ( ! ,engl& ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,b ( ^! anci5t in/itutions1 long s9ce ext9ct1 !re is b "o t ne$s to be m5tion$ 9 ! pres5t connection4 ,9 ,m>yl& ! e>lie/ =m ( civil community 0 call$1 n a p>i% or t[n%ip1 b a hundr$4 ,?is curi\s designation is (t5 met ) 9 ,engli% hi/ory1 & ! in/itution :i* x describes1 ?\gh n[ almo/ ev]y:]e ext9ct1 0 once almo/ univ]sal among m54 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! olde/ =m ( civil society1 :i* is /ill to be f\nd among "s b>b>\s races1 0 t 9 :i* families 7 organiz$ into clans & clans into tribes2 & we saw t among our =efa!rs 9 ,engl& ! dwell+-place ( ! clan became ! t[n%ip1 & ! home ( ! tribe became ! %ire or c\nty4 ,n[1 9 ne>ly all primitive societies t h be5 /udi$1 we f9d a gr\p t is l>g] ?an ! clan b small] ?an ! tribe1--or1 9 o!r words1 int]m$iate betwe5 clan & tribe4 ,s*ol>s usually call ?is gr\p by its ,greek "n1 phratry or bro!rhood1 = x 0 kn[n long ago t 9 anci5t ,greece clans 7 gr\p$ into bro!rhoods & bro!rhoods into tribes4 ,among unciviliz$ p all ov] ! _w we f9d ?is k9d ( gr\p+4 ,= example1 a tribe ( ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians is regul>ly made up ( phratries1 & ! phratries are made up ( clans2 &1 /range z x might at fir/ seem1 a good _m half-und]/ood features ( e>ly ,greek & ,roman society h _h mu* light ?r[n ^u !m f ! /udy ( ! usages ( ,*]okees & ,mohawks4 ,:]ev] m5 h be5 plac$1 ! problem ( =m+ civil society has be5 9 its ma9 outl9es ! same2 & 9 its e>li] /ages x has be5 approa*$ 9 pretty mu* ! same way by all4 ,sid5ote3 ,! hundr$ c\rt4 ,! anci5t ,romans _h ! bro!rhood1 & call$ x a curia4 ,! ,roman p 7 organiz$ 9 clans1 curies1 & tribes4 ,b = milit>y purposes ! curia 0 call$ a c5tury1 because x furni%$ a quota ( "o hundr$ m5 to ! army4 ,! ^w c5tury orig9ally meant a company ( a hundr$ m51 & x 0 only by a figure ( spee* t x aft]w>d came to mean a p]iod ( a hundr$ ye>s4 ,n[ among all ,g]manic peoples1 includ+ ! ,engli%1 ! bro!rhood seems to h be5 call$ ! hundr$4 ,our ,engli% =efa!rs seem to h be5 organiz$1 l o!r b>b>ians1 9 clans1 bro!rhoods1 & tribes2 & ! bro!rhood 0 9 "s way connect$ ) ! furni%+ a hundr$ w>riors to ! ho/4 ,9 ! t5? c5tury we f9d ,engl& cov]$ ) small di/ricts kn[n z hundr$s4 ,sev]al t[n%ips toge!r made a hundr$1 & sev]al hundr$s toge!r made a %ire4 ,! hundr$ 0 *iefly notable z ! smalle/ area = ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,! hundr$ c\rt 0 a repres5tative body1 compos$ ( ! lords ( l&s or _! /ew>ds1 ) ! reeve & f\r select$ m5 & ! p>i% prie/ f ea* t[n%ip4 ,!re 0 a *ief magi/rate = ! hundr$1 kn[n orig9ally z ! hundr$man1 b aft] ! ,norman conque/ z ! high con/able4 ,sid5ote3 ,decay ( ! hundr$4 ,sid5ote3 ,hundr$ meet+s 9 ,m>yl& ,by ! ?irte5? c5tury ! importance ( ! hundr$ _h mu* dim9i%$4 ,! ne$ = any su* body1 int]m$iate betwe5 t[n%ip & c\nty1 ceas$ to be felt1 & ! functions ( ! hundr$ 7 gradually absorb$ by ! c\nty4 ,almo/ ev]y:]e 9 ,engl&1 by ! reign ( ,elizabe?1 ! hundr$ _h fall5 into decay4 ,x is curi\s t its "n & "s ( its peculi>ities %\ld h be5 br\ght to ,am]ica1 & %\ld 9 "o /ate h rema9$ to ! pres5t day4 ,"s ( ! e>ly settlem5ts 9 ,virg9ia 7 call$ hundr$s1 b !y 7 practically no?+ m ?an p>i%es1 & ! "n soon became obsolete1 except ^u ! map1 :]e we /ill see1 = example1 ,b]muda ,hundr$4 ,b 9 ,m>yl& ! hundr$ fl\ri%$ & became ! political unit1 l ! t[n%ip 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,! hundr$ 0 ! militia di/rict1 & ! di/rict = ! assessm5t ( taxes4 ,9 ! e>lie/ times x 0 also ! repres5tative di/rict2 delegates to ! colonial legislature sat = hundr$s4 ,b 9 #afed ?is 0 *ang$1 & repres5tatives 7 elect$ by c\nties4 ,! (fic]s ( ! ,m>yl& hundr$ 7 ! high con/able1 ! comm&] ( militia1 ! tobacco-view]1 ! ov]se] ( roads1 & ! assessor ( taxes4 ,! la/-m5tion$ (fic] 0 elect$ by ! p1 ! o!rs 7 all appo9t$ by ! gov]nor4 ,! hundr$ _h also its assembly ( all ! p1 :i* 0 9 _m respects l ! ,new ,engl& t[n-meet+4 ,^! hundr$-meet+s enact$ by-laws1 levi$ taxes1 appo9t$ committees1 & (t5 exhibit$ a vigor\s political life4 ,b aft] ! ,revolution !y fell into disuse1 & 9 #ahbd ! hundr$ became ext9ct 9 ,m>yl&2 its organization 0 swall[$ up 9 t ( ! c\nty4 ,sid5ote3 ,! hundr$ 9 ,delaw>e ,sid5ote3 ,! levy c\rt1 or repres5tative c\nty assembly4 ,9 ,delaw>e1 h[ev]1 ! hundr$ rema9s to ?is day4 ,!re x is simply an imp]fectly develop$ t[n%ip1 b its relations ) ! c\nty1 z !y h /ood ) b little *ange s9ce #agdc1 are v int]e/+4 ,ea* hundr$ us$ to *oose its own assessor ( taxes1 & e ye> 9 ! mon? ( ,novemb] ! assessors f all ! hundr$s us$ to meet 9 ! c\nty c\rt-h\se1 along ) ?ree or m ju/ices ( ! peace & eight gr& jurors1 & assess ! taxes = ! ensu+ ye>4 ,a mon? lat] !y assembl$ aga91 to he> compla9ts f p]sons :o consid]$ !mselves ov]tax$2 & hav+ dispos$ ( ?is bus9ess1 !y proce$$ to appo9t collectors1 "o = ea* hundr$4 ,?is c\nty assembly 0 kn[n z ! c\rt ( levy & appeal1 or m briefly z ! levy c\rt4 ,x appo9t$ ! c\nty treasur]1 ! road commission]s1 & ! ov]se]s ( ! poor4 ,s9ce #agic ! levy c\rt has be5 compos$ ( special commission]s *os5 by popul> vote1 b its ess5tial "* has n be5 alt]$4 ,z a ?or\ghly repres5tative body1 x rem9ds "o ( ! c\nty c\rts ( ! ,plantag5et p]iod4 ,sid5ote3 ,! old ,p5nsylvania c\nty4 ,we next come to ! great middle colonies1 ,p5nsylvania & ,new ,york4 ,! mo/ notewor?y feature ( local gov]nm5t 9 ,p5nsylvania 0 ! g5]al election ( c\nty (fic]s by popul> vote4 ,! c\nty 0 ! unit ( repres5tation 9 ! colonial legislature1 & on election days ! p ( ! c\nty elect$ at ! same "t _! %]iffs1 coron]s1 assessors1 & c\nty commission]s4 ,9 ?is respect ,p5nsylvania furni%$ a model :i* has be5 foll[$ by mo/ ( ! /ates s9ce ! ,revolution1 z reg>ds ! c\nty gov]nm5ts4 ,x is also to be not$ t be=e ! ,revolution1 z ,p5nsylvania increas$ 9 population1 ! t[n%ips began to p>ticipate 9 ! "w ( gov]nm5t1 ea* t[n%ip *oos+ its ov]se]s ( ! poor1 highway surveyors1 & inspectors ( elections4#c ,footnote #c3 ,t[n-meet+s 7 n q unkn[n 9 ,p5nsylvania2 see ,w4 ,p4 ,holcomb1 ,p5nsylvania ,bor\ghs1 ,j4 ,h4 ,u4 ,/udies1 ,,iv41 iv4 ,sid5ote3 ,t[n-meet+s 9 ,new ,york4 ,sid5ote3 ,! c\nty bo>d ( sup]visors4 ,new ,york _h f ! v beg9n+ ! rudim5ts ( an excell5t sy/em ( local self-gov]nm5t4 ,! ,dut* villages _h _! assemblies1 :i* "u ! ,engli% rule 7 develop$ into t[n-meet+s1 ?\gh ) less ample p[]s ?an ^? ( ,new ,engl&4 ,! gov]n+ body ( ! ,new ,york t[n consi/$ ( ! con/able & eight ov]se]s1 :o answ]$ 9 mo/ respects to ! selectm5 ( ,new ,engl&4 ,f\r ( ! ov]se]s 7 elect$ ea* ye> 9 t[n-meet+1 & "o ( ! retir+ ov]se]s 0 at ! same "t elect$ con/able4 ,9 c\rse ( "t ! elective (fices came to include assessors & collectors1 t[n cl]k1 highway surveyors1 f5ce-view]s1 p\nd-ma/]s1 & ov]se]s ( ! poor4 ,at fir/ ! t[n-meet+s seem to h be5 held only = ! election ( (fic]s1 b !y acquir$ to a limit$ ext5t ! p[] ( levy+ taxes & enact+ by-laws4 ,9 #agjc a law 0 pass$ requir+ ea* t[n to elect ye>ly an (fic] to be kn[n z ! sup]visor1 ^: duty 0 to compute1 asc]ta91 exam9e1 ov]see1 & all[ ! cont+5t1 publick1 & necess>y *>ges ( ! c\nty4#d ,= ?is purpose ! sup]visors met once a ye> at ! c\nty t[n4 ,! pr9ciple 0 ! same z t ( ! levy c\rt 9 ,delaw>e4 ,?is bo>d ( sup]visors 0 a /rictly repres5tative gov]nm5t1 & =m$ a /rong contra/ to ! close corporation by :i* c\nty affairs 7 adm9i/]$ 9 ,virg9ia4 ,! ,new ,york sy/em is ( especial int]e/1 because x has p[]fully influ5c$ ! developm5t ( local in/itutions ?r\gh\t ! ,nor?we/4 ,footnote #d3 ,h[>d1 ,local ,con/4 ,hi/41 i4 #aaa4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,describe ! e>ly local gov]nm5t ( ea/]n ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 #b4 ,describe ! e>ly local gov]nm5t ( we/]n ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 #c4 ,expla9 ! diff]5ce4 #d4 ,:at ef=t 0 made 9 #agfh to put a /op to lyn* law8 #e4 ,:at difficulties arose f ! attempt$ adju/m5t ( #agfh8 #f4 ,:at compromises 7 made betwe5 ! two sections d[n to ! "t ( ! ,civil ,w>8 #g4 ,:at *anges h be5 made 9 local gov]nm5t s9ce ! ,civil ,w>8 #h4 ,m5tion a peculi>ity ( ! ,s\? ,c>ol9a c\nty4 #i4 ,comp>e its size ) t ( c\nties 9 o!r /ates4 #aj4 ,:at disadvantage is due to ?is great size8 #aa4 ,:at 0 ! e>lie/ =m ( civil community 9 ,m>yl&1 & f :at s\rce did x come8 #ab4 ,trace ! developm5t ( ! hundr$ 9 accordance ) ! foll[+ outl9e3-- a4 ,int]m$iate gr\ps betwe5 clans & tribes4 b4 ,illu/rations f ,greece & ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians4 c4 ,! ,roman c5tury & ! ,g]man hundr$4 #ac4 ,describe ! ,engli% hundr$ 9 ! t5? c5tury4 #ad4 ,describe ! hundr$ c\rt4 #ae4 ,describe ! ,m>yl& hundr$ & its decay4 #af4 ,:at is ! relation ( ! ,delaw>e hundr$ to ! c\nty8 #ag4 ,describe ! ,delaw>e levy c\rt4 #ah4 ,:at 7 ! prom95t features ( ! ,p5nsylvania c\nty8 #ai4 ,comp>e ! t[n-meet+s ( ,new ,york ) ^? ( ,new ,engl&4 #bj4 ,:at 0 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,new ,york c\nty8 #ba4 ,h[ did ?is gov]nm5t comp>e ) t ( ! ,virg9ia c\nty8 ,section #b4 ,settlem5t ( ! ,public ,doma94 ,sid5ote3 ,we/w>d movem5t ( population4 ,! we/w>d movem5t ( population 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has = ! mo/ "p foll[$ ! p>allels ( latitude4 ,?us ,virg9ians & ,nor? ,c>ol9ians1 cross+ ! ,alleghanies1 settl$ ,k5tucky & ,t5nessee2 ?us p f ,new ,engl& fill$ up ! c5tral & nor!rn p>ts ( ,new ,york1 & pass$ on into ,mi*igan & ,wiscons92 ?us ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,ill9ois receiv$ _m settl]s f ,new ,york & ,p5nsylvania4 ,9 ! e>ly times :5 ,k5tucky 0 settl$1 ! pione] w\ld select a piece ( l& :]ev] he lik$1 & aft] hav+ a rude survey made1 & ! limits m>k$ by blaz+ ! trees ) a hat*et1 ! survey w\ld be put on record 9 ! /ate l&-(fice4 ,s little c>e 0 tak5 t half a doz5 pat5ts w\ld sometimes be giv5 = ! same tract4 ,pieces ( l&1 ( all %apes & sizes1 lay betwe5 ! pat5ts4444 ,su* a sy/em naturally begat no end ( litigation1 & !re rema9 9 ,k5tucky curi\s ve/iges ( x to ?is day4 #e ,footnote #e3 ,h9sdale1 ,old ,nor?we/1 p4 #bfa4 ,sid5ote3 ,me?od ( survey+ ! public l&s4 ,sid5ote3 ,orig9s ( ,we/]n t[n%ips4 ,9 ord] to avoid su* confusion 9 ! settlem5t ( ! t]ritory nor? ( ! ,ohio riv]1 ,congress pass$ ! l&-ord9ance ( #aghe1 :i* 0 bas$ *iefly ^u ! sugge/ions ( ,?omas ,jeff]son1 & laid ! f\ndation ( our simple & excell5t sy/em = survey+ national l&s4 ,accord+ to ?is sy/em z gradually p]fect$1 ! gov]nm5t surveyors fir/ m>k out a nor? & s\? l9e :i* is call$ ! pr9cipal m]idian4 ,tw5ty-f\r su* m]idians h be5 e/abli%$4 ,! fir/ 0 ! divid+ l9e betwe5 ,ohio & ,indiana2 ! la/ "o runs ?r\gh ,oregon a little to ! we/ ( ,portl&4 ,on ea* side ( ! pr9cipal m]idian !re are m>k$ (f subord9ate m]idians call$ range #f ,!n a true p>allel ( latitude is drawn1 cross+ ^! m]idians at "r angles4 ,x is call$ ! base l9e1 or /&>d p>allel4 ,elev5 su* base l9es1 = example1 run across ! great /ate ( ,oregon4 ,f9ally1 on ea* side ( ! base l9e are drawn subord9ate p>allels call$ t[n%ip l9es1 six miles ap>t1 & numb]$ nor? & s\? f _! base l9e4 ,by ^! range l9es & t[n%ip l9es ! :ole l& is ?us divid$ into t[n%ips j six miles squ>e1 & ! t[n%ips are all numb]$4 ,take1 = example1 ! t[n%ip ( ,de]field 9 ,mi*igan4 ,t is ! f\r? t[n%ip nor? ( ! base l9e1 & x is 9 ! fif? range ea/ ( ! fir/ pr9cipal m]idian4 ,x w\ld be call$ t[n%ip numb] #d nor? range #e ea/1 & 0 s call$ be=e x 0 settl$ & receiv$ a "n4 ,evid5tly "o mu/ g #bd miles f ! pr9cipal m]idian1 or #ah miles f ! base l9e1 9 ord] to ent] ?is t[n%ip4 ,x is all z simple z ! numb]+ ( /reets 9 ,philadelphia4#g ,footnote #f3 ,! foll[+ is a diagram ( ! fir/ pr9cipal m]idian1 & ( ! base l9e runn+ across s\!rn ,mi*igan4 ,a ,b is ! pr9cipal m]idian2 ,c ,d is ! base l9e4 ,! figures on ! base l9e m>k ! range l9es2 ! figures on ! pr9cipal m]idian m>k ! t[n%ip l9es4 ,e is t[n%ip #d nor? 9 range #e ea/2 ,f is t[n%ip #e s\? 9 range #d we/2 ,g is t[n%ip #c nor? 9 range #c we/4 ,illu/ration ,z ! int]vals betwe5 m]idians dim9i% z we g nor?w>d1 x is sometimes necess>y to introduce a correction l9e1 ! nature ( :i* w be se5 f ! foll[+ diagram3-- ,illu/ration3 ,,diagram ,,( ,,correction ,,l9e4 ,footnote #g3 ,9 ,philadelphia ! /reets = ! mo/ "p cross ea* o!r at "r angles & at equal di/ances1 s t ! city is laid out l a *eck]bo>d4 ,! p>allel /reets runn+ 9 "o direction h names1 (t5 tak5 f trees4 ,m>ket ,/reet is ! c5tral /reet f :i* ! o!rs are reckon$ 9 bo? directions accord+ to ! c\plet ,m>ket1 ,ar*1 ,race1 & ,v9e1 ,*e/nut1 ,walnut1 ,spruce1 & ,p9e1 etc4 ,! cross /reets are n nam$ b numb]$1 z ,fir/1 ,second1 etc4 ,! h\ses on "o side ( ! /reet h odd numb]s & on ! o!r side ev5 numb]s1 z is ! g5]al cu/om 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,) ea* new block a new c5tury ( numb]s beg9s1 al?\gh !re are seldom m ?an =ty real numb]s 9 a block4 ,= example1 ! corn] h\se on ,m>ket ,/reet1 j above ,fifte5?1 is #aeja ,m>ket ,/reet4 ,at some:]e ab\t #aece or #aeci y come to ,sixte5? ,/reet2 !n !re is a break 9 ! numb]+1 & ! next corn] h\se is #afja4 ,s 9 go+ along a numb]$ /reet1 say ,fifte5?1 f ,m>ket1 ! fir/ numb] w be #a2 aft] pass+ ,ar*1 #aja2 aft] pass+ ,race1 #bja1 etc4 ,) ?is sy/em a v slight famili>ity ) ! city enables "o to f9d 8 way to any h\se1 & to e/imate ! l5g? ( "t ne$ful = rea*+ x4 ,/4 ,l\is & "s o!r l>ge cities h adopt$ ! ,philadelphia plan1 ! conv5i5ce ( :i* is z great z its monotony4 ,9 ,wa%+ton ! /reets runn+ 9 "o direction are lett]$ ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc41 & ! cross /reets are numb]$2 & ^u ! *eck]bo>d plan is sup]pos$ ano!r plan 9 :i* broad av5ues radiate 9 v>i\s directions f ! ,capitol1 & a few o!r c5tres4 ,^! av5ues cut ?r\gh ! squ>e sy/em ( /reets 9 all directions1 s t in/ead ( ! dull *eck]bo>d monotony !re is an almo/ endless v>iety ( magnific5t vi/as4 ,sid5ote3 & ( ,we/]n c\nties4 ,if n[ we look at ,liv+/on ,c\nty1 9 :i*1 ?is t[n%ip ( ,de]field is situat$1 we obs]ve t ! c\nty is made up ( sixte5 t[n%ips1 9 f\r r[s ( f\r2 & ! next c\nty1 ,wa%t5aw1 is made up ( tw5ty t[n%ips1 9 five r[s ( f\r4 ,maps ( our ,we/]n /ates are ?us apt to h some:at ( a *eck]bo>d aspect1 n unlike ! wond]ful c\ntry :i* ,alice visit$ aft] %e _h gone ?r\gh ! look+-glass4 ,squ>e t[n%ips are apt to make squ>e or rectangul> c\nties1 & ! /ate1 too1 is likely to acquire a m symmetrical %ape4 ,no?+ c\ld be m unlike ! jagg$1 irregul> %ape ( c\nties 9 ,virg9ia or t[n%ips 9 ,massa*usetts1 :i* grew up j z x happ5$4 ,! contra/ is simil> to t betwe5 ,*icago1 ) its /raight /reets cross+ at "r angles1 & ,bo/on1 or ,london1 ) _! labyr9?s ( crook$ lanes4 ,= picturesqu5ess ! advantage is entirely ) ! irregul> city1 b = practical conv5i5ce x is q ! o!r way4 ,s ) our we/]n l&s ! simplicity & regul>ity ( ! sy/em h made x a m>vel ( conv5i5ce = ! settl]s1 & d\btless h _h mu* to d ) ! rapidity ) :i* civil gov]nm5ts h be5 built up 9 ! ,we/4 ,?is fact1 says a rec5t writ]1 w be appreciat$ by ^? :o "k f exp]i5ce ! ease & c]ta9ty ) :i* ! pione] on ! great pla9s ( ,kansas1 ,nebraska1 or ,dakota is enabl$ to select 8 home/ead or 'locate 8 claim' unaid$ by ! exp5sive skill ( ! surveyor4 #h ,footnote #h3 ,h[>d1 ,local ,con/4 ,hi/4 ( ,u4 ,s41 vol4 i4 p4 #aci4 ,sid5ote3 ,"s effects ( ! sy/em4 ,!re 0 m 9 x ?an ?is1 h[ev]4 ,!re 0 a g]m ( organization plant$ 9 ^! we/]n t[n%ips1 :i* mu/ be not$ z ( great importance4 ,ea* t[n%ip1 be+ six miles 9 l5g? & six miles 9 bread?1 0 divid$ into ?irty-six numb]$ sections1 ea* conta9+ j "o squ>e mile1 or #fdj acres4 ,ea* section1 moreov]1 0 divid$ into #af tracts ( #dj acres ea*1 & sales to settl]s 7 & are g5]ally made by tracts at ! rate ( a doll> & a qu>t] p] acre4 ,= fifty doll>s a man may buy =ty acres ( unsettl$ l&1 provid$ he w actually g & settle ^u x1 & ?is has prov$ to be a v effective inducem5t = ent]pris+ "y m5 to g ,we/4 ,_m a tract ?us b\ght = fifty doll>s has turn$ out to be a soil ^u :i* pr9cely =tunes h gr[n4 ,a tract ( =ty acres repres5ts to-day 9 ,*icago or ,m9neapolis an am\nt ( weal? difficult = ! imag9ation to grasp4 ,sid5ote3 ,! res]vation = public s*ools4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ?is res]vation !re 7 ! g]ms ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t4 ,b 9 ea* ( ^! t[n%ips !re 0 at lea/ "o section :i* 0 set ap>t = a special purpose4 ,?is 0 usually ! sixte5? section1 ne>ly 9 ! c5tre ( ! t[n%ip2 & sometimes ! ?irty-six? section1 9 ! s\!a/ corn]1 0 also res]v$4 ,^! res]vations 7 = ! support ( public s*ools4 ,:atev] money 0 e>n$1 by sell+ ! l& or o!rwise1 9 ^! sections1 0 to be devot$ to s*ool purposes4 ,?is 0 a mo/ rem>kable provision4 ,no o!r nation has ev] made a gift = s*ools on s magnific5t a scale4 ,we h good reason = tak+ pride 9 su* a lib]al provision4 ,b we ought n to =get t all national gifts really involve taxation1 & ?is is no exception to ! rule1 al?\gh 9 ?is case x is n a tak+ ( money1 b a keep+ ( x back4 ,! national gov]nm5t says to ! local gov]nm5t1 :atev] rev5ues may come f t section ( #fdj acres1 be !y great or small1 be x a spot 9 a rural graz+ di/rict1 or a spot 9 "s cr[d$ city1 are n to g into ! pockets ( individual m5 & wom51 b are to be res]v$ = public purposes4 ,?is is a case ( disguis$ taxation1 & may s]ve to rem9d u ( :at 0 said "s "t ago1 t a gov]nm5t _c give any?+ )\t 9 "o way or ano!r depriv+ individuals ( its equival5t4 ,no man c sit on a camp-/ool & by any am\nt ( tugg+ at t camp-/ool lift himself ov] a f5ce4 ,:atev] is giv5 comes f some:]e1 & :atev] is giv5 by gov]nm5ts comes f ! p4 ,?is res]vation ( "o squ>e mile 9 e t[n%ip = purposes ( education has already mo/ pr(\ndly influ5c$ ! developm5t ( local gov]nm5t 9 our we/]n /ates1 & 9 ! ne> future its effects are likely to become /ill deep] & wid]4 ,to m>k out a t[n%ip on ! map may mean v little1 b :5 once y create 9 t t[n%ip "s in/itution t ne$s to be c>$ =1 y h made a long /ride t[>d inaugurat+ t[n%ip gov]nm5t4 ,:5 a /ate1 z = in/ance ,ill9ois1 gr[s up aft] ! me?od j describ$1 :at c be m natural ?an = x to make ! t[n%ip a body corporate = s*ool purposes1 & to au?orize its inhabitants to elect s*ool (fic]s & tax !mselves1 s f> z may be necess>y1 = ! support ( ! s*ools8 ,b ! s*ool-h\se1 9 ! c5tre ( ! t[n%ip1 is soon f\nd to be useful = _m purposes4 ,x is conv5i5t to g !re to vote = /ate (fic]s or = congressm5 & presid5t1 & s ! s*ool t[n%ip becomes an election di/rict4 ,hav+ once e/abli%$ su* a c5tre1 x is almo/ inevitable t x %\ld soon] or lat] be made to s]ve sundry o!r purposes1 & become an area = ! election ( con/ables1 ju/ices ( ! peace1 highway surveyors1 & ov]se]s ( ! poor4 ,9 ?is way a vigor\s t[n%ip gov]nm5t t5ds to gr[ up ab\t ! s*ool-h\se z a nucleus1 some:at z 9 e>ly ,new ,engl& x grew up ab\t ! *ur*4 ,sid5ote3 ,at fir/ ! c\nty sy/em prevail$4 ,?is t5d5cy may be obs]v$ 9 almo/ all ! we/]n /ates & t]ritories1 ev5 to ! ,pacific coa/4 ,:5 ! we/]n c\ntry 0 fir/ settl$1 repres5tative c\nty gov]nm5t prevail$ almo/ ev]y:]e4 ,?is 0 p>tly because ! e>lie/ settl]s ( ! ,we/ came 9 mu* great] numb]s f ! middle & s\!rn /ates ?an f ,new ,engl&4 ,x 0 also p>tly because1 s long z ! c\ntry 0 ?9ly settl$1 ! numb] ( p 9 a t[n%ip 0 v small1 & x 0 n easy to h a gov]nm5t small] ?an t ( ! c\nty4 ,x 0 some?+1 h[ev]1 t ! little squ>es on ! map1 by gr\p+ :i* ! c\nties 7 made1 7 already call$ t[n%ips4 ,!re is mu* 9 a "n4 ,x 0 /ill m important t ^! t[n%ips 7 only six miles squ>e2 = t made x sure t1 9 due c\rse ( "t1 :5 population %\ld h become d5se en\gh1 !y w\ld be conv5i5t areas = e/abli%+ t[n%ip gov]nm5t4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:at feature is conspicu\s 9 ! we/w>d movem5t ( population 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 #b4 ,:at loos5ess *>act]iz$ e>ly surveys 9 ,k5tucky8 #c4 ,:at l$ to ! passage ( ! l& ord9ance ( #aghe8 #d4 ,give ! lead+ features ( ! gov]nm5t survey ( we/]n l&s3--a4 ,! pr9cipal m]idians4 b4 ,! range l9es1 c4 ,! base l9es4 d4 ,! t[n%ip l9es4 #e4 ,illu/rate ! application ( ! sy/em 9 ! case ( a t[n4 #f4 ,contra/ 9 %ape we/]n t[n%ips & c\nties ) correspond+ divisions 9 ,massa*usetts & ,virg9ia4 #g4 ,contra/ !m 9 conv5i5ce & 9 picturesqu5ess4 #h4 ,:at _h ! conv5i5ce ( ! gov]nm5t sy/em to d ) ! settlem5t ( ! ,we/8 #i4 ,:at 7 ! divisions ( ! t[n%ip1 & :at disposition 0 made ( !m8 #aj4 ,:at important res]vations 7 made 9 ! t[n%ips8 #aa4 ,%[ h[ ^! res]vations involv$ a k9d ( taxation4 #ab4 ,:at pr(\nd influ5ce has ! res]vation = s*ools ex]t$ ^u local gov]nm5t8 #ac4 ,:y did ! c\nty sy/em prevail at fir/8 ,section #c4 ,! ,repres5tative ,t[n%ip-,c\nty ,sy/em 9 ! ,we/4 ,sid5ote3 ,! t[n-meet+ 9 ,mi*igan4 ,! fir/ we/]n /ate to adopt ! t[n-meet+ 0 ,mi*igan1 :]e ! great majority ( ! settl]s _h come f ,new ,engl&1 or f c5tral ,new ,york1 :i* 0 a k9d ( we/w>d ext5sion ( ,new ,engl&4#i ,c\nties 7 e/abli%$ 9 ,mi*igan ,t]ritory 9 #ahje1 & t[n%ips 7 fir/ incorporat$ 9 #ahbe4 ,?is 0 twelve ye>s be=e ,mi*igan became a /ate4 ,at fir/ ! p[]s ( ! t[n-meet+ 7 n>r[ly limit$4 ,x elect$ ! t[n & c\nty (fic]s1 b its p[] ( appropriat+ money seems to h be5 re/rict$ to ! purpose ( extirpat+ noxi\s animals & we$s4 ,9 #ahbg1 h[ev]1 x 0 au?oriz$ to raise money = ! support ( s*ools1 & s9ce !n its p[]s h /eadily increas$1 until n[ !y approa* ^? ( ! t[n-meet+ 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,footnote #i3 ,( ! #dif memb]s ( ! ,mi*igan ,pione] ,association 9 #ahha1 #djg are f ^! sections ,new ,engl& & ,new ,york4 ,bemis1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,mi*igan & ! ,nor?we/1 ,j4 ,h4 ,u4 ,/udies1 ,i41 v ,sid5ote3 ,settlem5t ( ,ill9ois4 ,! hi/ory ( ,ill9ois pres5ts an extremely int]e/+ example ( rivalry & conflict betwe5 ! t[n sy/em ( ,new ,engl& & ! c\nty sy/em ( ! ,s\?4 ,obs]ve t ?is great /ate is s long t1 :ile ! p>allel ( latitude />t+ f its nor!rn b\nd>y runs ?r\gh ,m>blehead 9 ,massa*usetts1 ! p>allel ?r\gh its s\!rnmo/ po9t1 at ,cairo1 runs a little s\? ( ,pet]sburg 9 ,virg9ia4 ,9 #ahah1 :5 ,ill9ois fram$ its /ate gov]nm5t & 0 admitt$ to ! ,union1 its population 0 *iefly 9 ! s\!rn half1 & compos$ = ! mo/ "p ( pione]s f ,virg9ia & ,virg9ia's daught]-/ate ,k5tucky4 ,^! m5 br\ght ) !m ! old ,virg9ia c\nty sy/em1 b ) ! v great diff]5ce t ! c\nty (fic]s 7 n appo9t$ by ! gov]nor1 or all[$ to be a self-p]petuat+ bo>d1 b 7 elect$ by ! p ( ! c\nty4 ,?is 0 a true advance 9 ! democratic direction1 b an ess5tial defect ( ! s\!rn sy/em rema9$ 9 ! abs5ce ( any k9d ( local meet+ = ! discussion ( public affairs & ! enactm5t ( local laws4 ,sid5ote3 ,effects ( ! ,ord9ance ( #aghg4 ,by ! fam\s ,ord9ance ( #aghg1 to :i* we %all aga9 h occasion to ref]1 negro slav]y _h be5 =ev] prohibit$ to ! nor? ( ! ,ohio riv]1 s t1 9 spite ( ! wi%es ( h] e>ly settl]s1 ,ill9ois 0 oblig$ to ent] ! ,union z a free /ate4 ,b 9 #ahbj ,miss\ri 0 admitt$ z a slave /ate1 & ?is turn$ ! /ream ( s\!rn migration aside f ,ill9ois to ,miss\ri4 ,^! emigrants1 to :om slavehold+ 0 a m>k ( social di/9ction1 pref]r$ to g :]e !y c\ld own slaves4 ,ab\t ! same "t settl]s f ,new ,engl& & ,new ,york1 mov+ along ! s\!rn bord] ( ,mi*igan & ! nor!rn bord]s ( ,ohio & ,indiana1 began p\r+ into ! nor!rn "p ( ,ill9ois4 ,^! new-com]s did n f9d ! repres5tative c\nty sy/em adequate = _! ne$s1 & !y dem&$ t[n%ip gov]nm5t4 ,a memorable political /ruggle ensu$ betwe5 ! nor!rn & s\!rn halves ( ! /ate1 end+ 9 #ahdh ) ! adoption ( a new con/itution4 ,x 0 provid$ t ! legislature %\ld enact a g5]al law = ! political organization ( t[n%ips1 "u :i* any c\nty might act :5ev] a majority ( its vot]s %\ld s det]m9e4#aj ,?is 0 introduc+ ! pr9ciple ( local option1 & 9 accordance !re) t[n%ip gov]nm5ts ) t[n-meet+s 7 at once introduc$ 9 ! nor!rn c\nties ( ! /ate1 :ile ! s\!rn c\nties kept on 9 ! old way4 ,n[ comes ! mo/ int]e/+ "p ( ! /ory4 ,! two sy/ems be+ ?us br\ght into imm$iate contact 9 ! same /ate1 ) free *oice betwe5 !m left to ! p1 ! nor!rn sy/em has sl[ly b /eadily supplant$ ! s\!rn sy/em1 until at ! pres5t day only "o fif? "p ( ! c\nties 9 ,ill9ois rema9 )\t t[n%ip gov]nm5t4 ,footnote #aj3 ,%aw1 ,local ,gov]nm5t if ,ill9ois1 ,j4 ,h4 ,u4 ,/udies1 ,i41 iii4 ,sid5ote3 ,int5se vitality ( ! t[n%ip sy/em4 ,?is example %[s ! int5se vitality ( ! t[n%ip sy/em4 ,x is ! k9d ( gov]nm5t t p are sure to pref] :5 !y h tri$ x "u fav\rable conditions4 ,9 ! ,we/ ! ho/ile conditions aga9/ :i* x has to cont5d are ei!r ! rec5t exi/5ce ( negro slav]y & ! +ra9$ prejudice 9 fav\r ( ! ,virg9ia me?od1 z 9 ,miss\ri2 or simply ! sp>s5ess ( population1 z 9 ,nebraska4 ,"t w evid5tly remove ! latt] ob/acle1 & probably ! =m] also4 ,x is v significant t 9 ,miss\ri1 :i* began s lately z #ahgi to erect t[n%ip gov]nm5ts "u a local option law simil> to t ( ,ill9ois1 ! process has already ext5d$ ov] ab\t "o six? "p ( ! /ate2 & 9 ,nebraska1 :]e ! same process began 9 #ahhc1 x has cov]$ ne>ly "o ?ird ( ! organiz$ c\nties ( ! /ate4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\nty option & t[n%ip option4 ,! pr9ciple ( local option z to gov]nm5t has be5 c>ri$ /ill f>!r 9 ,m9nesota & ,dakota4 ,! me?od j describ$ may be call$ c\nty option2 ! "q is decid$ by a majority vote ( ! p ( ! c\nty4 ,b 9 ,m9nesota 9 #ahgh x 0 enact$ t z soon z any "o ( ! little squ>e t[n%ips 9 t /ate %\ld conta9 z _m z tw5ty-five legal vot]s1 x might petition ! bo>d ( c\nty commission]s & obta9 a t[n%ip organization1 ev5 ?\gh1 ! adjac5t t[n%ips 9 ! same c\nty %\ld rema9 "u c\nty gov]nm5t only4 ,five ye>s lat] ! same provision 0 adopt$ by ,dakota1 & "u x t[n%ip gov]nm5t is /eadily spread+4 ,sid5ote3 ,grades ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t4 ,two di/9ct grades ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t are to be obs]v$ 9 ! /ates we/ ( ! ,alleghanies2 ! "o has ! t[n-meet+ = delib]ative purposes1 ! o!r has n4 ,9 ,ohio & ,indiana1 :i* d]iv$ _! local in/itutions l>gely f ,p5nsylvania1 !re is no su* t[n-meet+1 ! adm9i/rative (fices are m or less conc5trat$ 9 a bo>d ( tru/ees1 & ! t[n is q subord9ate to ! c\nty4 ,! pr9cipal features ( ?is sy/em h be5 reproduc$ 9 ,i[a1 ,miss\ri1 & ,kansas4 ,! o!r sy/em1 0 t :i* we h se5 beg9n+ 9 ,mi*igan1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,new ,york & ,new ,engl&4 ,"h ! t[n-meet+1 ) legislative p[]s1 is always pres5t4 ,! mo/ noticeable feature ( ! ,mi*igan sy/em is ! relation betwe5 t[n%ip & c\nty1 :i* 0 tak5 f ,new ,york4 ,! c\nty bo>d is compos$ ( ! sup]visors ( ! sev]al t[n%ips1 & ?us repres5ts ! t[n%ips4 ,x is ! same 9 ,ill9ois4 ,x is held by "s writ]s t ?is is ! mo/ p]fect =m ( local gov]nm5t1#aa b on ! o!r h& ! objection is made t c\nty bo>ds ?us con/itut$ are too l>ge4#ab ,we h se5 t 9 ! /ates 9 "q !re are n less ?an #af1 & sometimes m ?an #bj1 t[n%ips 9 ea* c\nty4 ,9 a bo>d ( #af or #bj memb]s x is h>d to fa/5 responsibility ^u anybody 9 p>ticul>2 & ?us x becomes possible to h comb9ations1 & to indulge 9 t ex*ange ( fav\rs kn[n z log-roll+1 :i* is "o ( ! besett+ s9s ( all l>ge repres5tative bodies4 ,responsibility is m conc5trat$ 9 ! small] c\nty bo>ds ( ,massa*usetts1 ,wiscons91 & ,m9nesota4 ,footnote #aa3 ,h[>d1 ,local ,con/4 ,hi/41 passim4 ,footnote #ab3 ,bemis1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,mi*igan1 ,j4 ,h4 ,u4 ,/udies1 ,i41 v4 ,sid5ote3 ,an excell5t result ( ! abs5ce ( c5tralization 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is "o signal m]it ( ! peaceful & untrammell$ way 9 :i* ,am]ican in/itutions h gr[n up1 ! wide/ possible scope be+ all[$ to individual & local pref]5ces1 t diff]5t /ates adopt diff]5t me?ods ( atta9+ ! great end at :i* all are aim+ 9 common1--good gov]nm5t4 ,"o "p ( our va/ c\ntry c pr(it by ! exp]i5ce ( o!r p>ts1 & if any sy/em or me?od ?us comes to prevail ev]y:]e 9 ! long run1 x is likely to be by reason ( its intr9sic excell5ce4 ,our c\ntry af=ds an admirable field = ! /udy ( ! g5]al pr9ciples :i* lie at ! f\ndations ( univ]sal hi/ory4 ,gov]nm5ts1 l>ge & small1 are gr[+ up all ab\t u1 & 9 su* wise t we c wat* ! processes ( gr[?1 & le>n lessons :i*1 aft] mak+ due all[ances = diff]5ce ( circum/ance1 are v helpful 9 ! /udy ( o!r times & c\ntries4 ,! g5]al t5d5cy t[>d ! spread ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t 9 ! m rec5tly settl$ p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is unmi/akable1 & ,i h already rem>k$ ^u ! influ5ce ( ! public s*ool sy/em 9 aid+ ?is t5d5cy4 ,! s*ool di/rict1 z a prep>ation = ! self-gov]n+ t[n%ip1 is already ex]t+ its influ5ce 9 ,colorado1 ,nevada1 ,cali=nia1 ,wyom+1 ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,oregon1 & ,wa%+ton4 ,sid5ote3 ,t[n%ip gov]nm5t is g]m9at+ 9 ! ,s\?4 ,some?+ simil> is go+ on 9 ! s\!rn /ates1 z already h9t$ 9 ! case ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,local taxation = s*ool purposes has also be5 e/abli%$ 9 ,k5tucky & ,t5nessee1 9 bo? ,virg9ias1 & else:]e4 ,!re has ?us begun a mo/ natural & :olesome movem5t1 :i* might easily be *eck$1 ) disa/r\s results1 by ! injudici\s appropriation ( national rev5ue = ! aid ( s\!rn s*ools4 ,x is to be hop$ t ?r\gh\t ! s\!rn1 /ates1 z =m]ly 9 ,mi*igan1 ! self-gov]n+ s*ool di/rict may prep>e ! way = ! self-gov]n+ t[n%ip1 ) its delib]ative t[n-meet+4 ,su* a gr[? mu/ ne$s be sl[1 inasmu* z x requires long political tra9+ on ! "p ( ! negroes & ! l[] classes ( :ite p2 b x is along su* a l9e ( developm5t t su* political tra9+ c be/ be acquir$2 & 9 no o!r way is complete h>mony betwe5 ! two races s likely to be secur$4 ,sid5ote3 woman suffrage4 ,dr4 ,edw>d ,bemis1 :o 9 a pr(\ndly int]e/+ essay#ac has call$ att5tion to ?is function ( ! s*ool di/rict z a /age 9 ! evolution ( ! t[n%ip1 rem>ks also ^u ! fact t x is 9 ! local gov]nm5t ( ! s*ool di/rict t woman suffrage is be+ tri$4 ,9 sev]al /ates wom5 may vote = s*ool committees1 or may be elect$ to s*ool committees1 or to sundry adm9i/rative s*ool (fices4 ,at pres5t 7#ahid7 !re are n less ?an tw5ty-"o /ates 9 :i* wom5 h s*ool suffrage4 ,9 ,colorado & ,wyom+ wom5 h full suffrage1 vot+ at municipal1 /ate1 & national elections4 ,9 ,kansas !y h municipal suffrage1 & a con/itutional am5dm5t grant+ !m full suffrage is n[ await+ ratification4 ,9 ,engl&1 x may be obs]v$1 unm>ri$ wom5 & wid[s :o pay taxes vote n only on s*ool matt]s1 b g5]ally 9 ! local elections ( ve/ries1 bor\ghs1 & poor-law unions4 ,9 ! new ,p>i% ,c\ncils ,bill ?is municipal suffrage is ext5d$ to m>ri$ wom54 ,9 ! ,isle ( ,man wom5 vote = memb]s ( ,p>liam5t4 ,9 ,au/ralia !y h long _h municipal suffrage1 & 9 #ahic !y 7 end[$ ) full rights ( suffrage 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,footnote #ac3 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,mi*igan & ! ,nor?we/1 ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,i41 v4 ,! hi/orical reason :y ! suffrage has s g5]ally be5 re/rict$ to m5 is p]haps to be s\ght 9 ! conditions "u :i* vot+ orig9at$4 ,9 primeval times vot+ 0 probably adopt$ z a sub/itute = fight+4 ,! small] & presumably weak] p>ty yield$ to ! l>g] )\t an actual trial ( physical /r5g?2 heads 7 c\nt$ in/ead ( be+ brok54 ,accord+ly x 0 only ! w>riors :o became vot]s4 ,! re/riction ( political activity to m5 has also probably be5 emphasiz$ by ! fact t all ! high] civilizations h pass$ ?r\gh a well-def9$ patri>*al /age ( society 9 :i* ea* h\sehold 0 repres5t$ by its olde/ w>rior4 ,f pres5t indications x w\ld seem t "u ! conditions ( mod]n indu/rial society ! arrangem5ts t h s long subsi/$ are likely to be v ess5tially alt]$4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,describe ! orig9 & developm5t ( ! t[n-meet+ 9 ,mi*igan4 #b4 ,describe ! settl+ ( s\!rn ,ill9ois4 #c4 ,describe ! settl+ ( nor!rn ,ill9ois4 #d4 ,:at diff]5ce 9 ?\ght & feel+ exi/$ betwe5 ^! sections8 #e4 ,:at sy/ems ( local gov]nm5t came into rivalry 9 ,ill9ois1 & :y8 #f4 ,:at compromise betwe5 !m 0 put into ! /ate con/itution8 #g4 ,:i* sy/em1 ! t[n or ! c\nty1 has %[n ! great] vitality1 & :y8 #h4 ,:at ob/acles has ! t[n sy/em to "w aga9/8 #i4 ,%[ h[ ! pr9ciple ( local option 9 gov]nm5t has be5 appli$ 9 ,miss\ri1 ,nebraska1 ,m9nesota1 & ,dakota4 #aj4 ,:at two grades ( t[n gov]nm5t exi/ we/ ( ! ,alleghanies8 #aa4 ,:at objection exi/s to l>ge c\nty bo>ds ( gov]nm5t8 #ab4 ,:y is our c\ntry an excell5t field = ! /udy ( ! pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t8 #ac4 ,:at unmi/akable t5d5cy 9 ! ease ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t is noticeable8 #ad4 ,speak ( t[n%ip gov]nm5t 9 ! ,s\?4 #ae4 ,:at "p h wom5 9 ! affairs ( ! s*ool di/rict 9 _m /ates8 #af4 ,:at is ! hi/orical reason :y suffrage has be5 re/rict$ to m58 ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions4 ,x may ne$ to be repeat$ 7see page #ab7 t x is n expect$ t ea* pupil %all answ] all ! miscellane\s que/ions put1 or respond to all ! sugge/ions made 9 ?is book4 ,inde$1 ! tea*] may be p>don$ if n[ & !n he f9ds x difficult himself to answ] a "q1--p>ticul>ly if x is fram$ to provoke ?\ght r ?an lead to a conclusion1 or if x is bett] fitt$ = "s o!r community or "p ( ! c\ntry ?an t 9 :i* he lives4 ,let him !re=e divide ! que/ions among 8 pupils1 or assign to !m select$ que/ions4 ,9 cases t call = special k1 let ! topics g to pupils :o may h exceptional facilities = in=mation at home4 ,! important po9t is n s mu* ! settlem5t ( all ! que/ions propos$ z x is ! enc\ragem5t ( ! inquir+ & ?9k+ _s on ! "p ( ! pupil4 #a4 ,:at impression d y get f ?is *apt] ab\t ! hold ( t[n gov]nm5t ^u popul> fav\r8 #b4 ,:at d y reg>d z ! be/ features ( t[n gov]nm5t8 #c4 ,is !re any t5d5cy any:]e to divide t[ns into small] t[ns8 ,if x exi/s1 illu/rate & expla9 x4 #d4 ,is !re any t5d5cy any:]e to unite t[ns into l>g] t[ns or into cities8 ,if x exi/s1 illu/rate & expla9 x4 #e4 ,9 e t[n-meet+ !re are lead]s1--usually m5 ( "*1 ability1 & means4 ,d y und]/& t ^! m5 practically h _! own way 9 t[n affairs1--t ! vot]s z a :ole d b little m ?an fall 9 ) ! wi%es & plans ( _! lead]s8 ,or is !re consid]able indep5d5ce 9 ?\ght & action on ! side ( ! vot]s8 #f4 ,c a t[n d :at x pleases1 or is x limit$ 9 its action8 ,if limit$1 by :om or by :at is x re/rict$1 & :]e are ! re/rictions record$8 7,consult ! ,/atutes47 #g4 ,:y %\ld ! majority rule 9 t[n-meet+8 ,sugge/1 if possible1 a bett] way4 #h4 ,is x1 on ! :ole1 wise t ! vote ( ! poor man %all c\nt z mu* z t ( ! ri*1 ! vote ( ! ignorant z mu* z t ( ! intellig5t1 ! vote ( ! unpr9cipl$ z mu* z t ( ! high-ton$8 #i4 ,h ! poor1 ! ignorant1 or ! unpr9cipl$ any int]e/s to be reg>d$ 9 gov]nm5t8 #aj4 ,is ! s+le vote a man ca/s ! full measure ( 8 influ5ce & p[] 9 ! t[n-meet+8 #aa4 ,:at are ! objections to a suffrage re/rict$ by prop]ty & intellectual qualifications8 ,to a suffrage unre/rict$ by su* qualifications8 #ab4 ,d wom5 vote 9 y\r t[n8 ,if s1 give "s acc\nt ( _! vot+ & ( ! success or popul>ity ( ! plan4 #ac4 ,is lyn* law ev] ju/ifiable8 #ad4 ,ought ^? :o resort to lyn* law to be puni%$8 ,if s1 = :at8 #ae4 ,comp>e ! condition or gov]nm5t ( a community :]e lyn* law is resort$ to ) ! condition or gov]nm5t ( a community :]e x is unkn[n4 #af4 ,may ! citiz5 :o is n an (fic] ( ! law int]f]e 7#a7 to /op ! fight+ ( boys 9 ! public /reets1 7#b7 to capture a ?ief :o is ply+ 8 trade1 7#c7 to def5d a p]son :o is brutally assault$8 ,is !re any?+ l lyn* law i4e4 su* int]f]5ce8 ,:]e does ! citiz5's duty beg9 & end ,9 su* cases8 #ag4 ,h[ came ! ,unit$ ,/ates to own ! public doma9 or any "p ( x8 7,consult my ,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]4 ,hi/41 pp4 #ahg-bjg47 #ah4 ,h[ does ?is doma9 get into ! possession ( individuals8 #ai4 ,is x "r = ! ,unit$ ,/ates to give any "p ( x away8 ,if "r1 "u :at conditions is x "r8 ,if wrong1 "u :at conditions is ,x wrong8 #bj4 ,:at is ! home/ead act ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :at is its object8 #ba4 ,c p]fect squ>es ( ! same size be laid out ) ! range & t[n%ip l9es ( ! public surveys8 ,are all ! sections ( a t[n%ip ( ! same size8 ,expla94 ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,section #a4 ,,v>i\s ,,local ,,sy/ems4--,j4,h4,v4 ,/udies1 ,i41 vi41 ,edw>d ,+le1 ,p>i% ,in/itutions ( ,m>yl&2 ,i41 vii41 ,john ,johnson1 ,old ,m>yl& ,manors2 ,i41 xii41 ,b4,j4 ,ramage1 ,local ,gov]nm5t & ,free ,s*ools 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a2 ,,iii41 v4-vii41 ,l4 ,w4 ,wilhelm1 ,local ,in/itutions ( ,m>yl&2 ,,iv41 i41 ,irv+ ,elt+1 ,dut* ,village ,communities on ! ,hudson ,riv]4 ,section #b4 ,,settlem5t ,,( ,,! ,,public ,,doma94--,j4 ,h4 ,u4 ,/udies1 ,,iii41 i4 ,h4 ,b4 ,adams1 ,m>yl&'s ,influ5ce ^u ,l& ,cessions to ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ,,iv41 vii4-ix41 ,%o%uke ,sato1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,l& ,"q 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,section #c4 ,,! ,,repres5tative ,,t[n%ip-,,c\nty ,,sy/em4--,j ,h4 ,u4 ,/udies1 ,i41 iii41 ,alb]t ,%aw1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,ill9ois2 ,i41 v41 ,edw>d ,bemis1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,mi*igan & ! ,nor?we/2 ,,ii41 vii41 ,jesse ,macy1 ,in/itutional ,beg9n+s 9 a ,we/]n ,/ate 7,i[a74 ,= f>!r illu/ration ( "o set ( in/itutions sup]v5+ ^u ano!r1 see also ,v41 v4-vi41 ,j4 ,g4 ,b\r9ot1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,canada2 ,,viii41 941 ,d4 ,e4 ,sp5c]1 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ,wiscons94 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,city4 ,section #a4 ,direct & ,indirect ,gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,summ>y ( =ego+ results4 ,9 ! =ego+ survey ( local in/itutions & _! gr[?1 we h _h occasion to comp>e & sometimes to contra/ two diff]5t me?ods ( gov]nm5t z exemplifi$ on ! "o h& 9 ! t[n%ip & on ! o!r h& 9 ! c\nty4 ,9 ! =m] we h direct gov]nm5t by a prim>y assembly1#a ! t[n-meet+2 9 ! latt] we h indirect gov]nm5t by a repres5tative bo>d4 ,if ! c\nty bo>d1 z 9 colonial ,virg9ia1 p]petuates itself1 or is appo9t$ o!rwise ?an by popul> vote1 x is n /rictly a repres5tative bo>d1 9 ! mod]n s5se ( ! phrase2 ! gov]nm5t is a k9d ( olig>*y4 ,if1 z 9 colonial ,p5nsylvania1 & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates g5]ally to-day1 ! c\nty bo>d consi/s ( (fic]s elect$ by ! p1 ! c\nty gov]nm5t is a repres5tative democracy4 ,! t[n%ip gov]nm5t1 on ! o!r h&1 z exemplifi$ 9 ,new ,engl& & 9 ! nor?we/]n /ates :i* h adopt$ x1 is a pure democracy4 ,! latt]1 z we h obs]v$1 has "o signal advantage ov] all o!r k9ds ( gov]nm5t1 9 s f> z x t5ds to make e man feel t ! bus9ess ( gov]nm5t is "p ( 8 own bus9ess1 & t :]e he has a /ake 9 ! managem5t ( public affairs he has also a voice4 ,:5 p h got into ! habit ( leav+ local affairs to be manag$ by repres5tative bo>ds1 _! active int]e/ 9 local affairs is liable to be some:at weak5$1 z all en]gies 9 ?is _w are weak5$1 f want ( ex]cise4 ,:5 "s fit subject ( compla9t is br\ght up1 ! individual is too apt to feel t x is none ( 8 bus9ess to furni% a rem$y1 let ! prop] (fic]s look aft] x4 ,he c vote at elections1 :i* is a p[]2 he c p]haps make a /ir 9 ! newspap]s1 :i* is also a p[]2 b p]sonal p>ticipation 9 t[n-meet+ is likewise a p[]1 ! necess>y loss ( :i*1 z we pass to wid] sph]es ( gov]nm5t1 is unque/ionably to be regrett$4 ,footnote #a3 ,a prim>y assembly is "o 9 :i* ! memb]s att5d ( _! own "r1 )\t hav+ be5 elect$ to x2 a repres5tative assembly is compos$ ( elect$ delegates4 ,sid5ote3 ,direct gov]nm5t impossible 9 a c\nty4 ,nev]!less ! loss is inevitable4 ,a prim>y assembly ( all ! inhabitants ( a c\nty1 = purposes ( local gov]nm5t1 is out ( ! "q4 ,!re mu/ be repres5tative gov]nm5t1 = ?is purpose ! c\nty sy/em1 an inh]itance f ! anci5t ,engli% %ire1 has furni%$ ! ne$ful ma*9]y4 ,our c\nty gov]nm5t is ne> en\gh to ! p to be kept 9 g5]al f gross abuses ( p[]4 ,!re are _m po9ts :i* c be mu* bett] decid$ 9 small repres5tative bodies ?an 9 l>ge miscellane\s meet+s4 ,! responsibility ( our local bo>ds has be5 fairly well pres]v$4 ,! c\nty sy/em has _h no mean %>e 9 keep+ alive ! _s ( local indep5d5ce & self-gov]nm5t among our p4 ,z reg>ds effici5cy ( adm9i/ration1 x has a*iev$ comm5dable success1 except 9 ! matt] ( rural highways2 & if our roads are worse ?an ^? ( any o!r civiliz$ c\ntry1 t is due n s mu* to imp]fect adm9i/rative me?ods z to o!r causes1--su* z ! sp>s5ess ( population1 ! fi]ce extremes ( sun%9e & fro/1 & ! fact t s9ce ?is huge c\ntry began to be reclaim$ f ! wild]ness1 ! av]age vot]1 :o has n travell$ 9 ,europe1 kn[s no m ab\t good roads ?an he kn[s ab\t ! temples ( ,pae/um or ! pictures ( ,t9toretto1 & !re=e does n realize :at dem&s he may reasonably make4 ,?is la/ consid]ation applies 9 "s degree1 no d\bt1 to ! ill-pav$ & fil?y /reets :i* are ! fir/ ?+s to arre/ "o's att5tion 9 mo/ ( our great cities4 ,x is "t = u n[ to consid] briefly our g5]al sy/em ( city gov]nm5t1 9 its orig9 & 9 "s ( its mo/ important features4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,bo/on t[n-meet+ 9 #ahbj4 ,repres5tative gov]nm5t 9 c\nties is necessitat$ by ! ext5t ( t]ritory cov]$2 9 cities x is necessitat$ by ! multitude ( p4 ,:5 ! t[n comes to h a v l>ge population1 x becomes physically impossible to h t[n-meet+s4 ,no way c\ld be devis$ by :i* all ! taxpay]s ( ! city ( ,new ,york c\ld be assembl$ = discussion4 ,9 #ahbj ! population ( ,bo/on 0 ab\t #dj1jjj1 ( :om r m ?an #g1jjj 7 vot]s qualifi$ to att5d ! t[n-meet+s4 ,consequ5tly :5 a t[n-meet+ 0 held on any excit+ subject 9 ,faneuil ,hall1 ^? only :o obta9$ places ne> ! mod]ator c\ld ev5 he> ! discussion4 ,a few busy or int]e/$ individuals easily obta9$ ! managem5t ( ! mo/ important affairs 9 an assembly 9 :i* ! great] numb] c\ld h nei!r voice nor he>+4 ,:5 ! subject 0 n g5]ally excit+1 t[n-meet+s 7 usually compos$ ( ! selectm51 ! t[n (fic]s1 & ?irty or =ty inhabitants4 ,^? :o ?us came 7 = ! mo/ "p drawn to x f "s (ficial duty or private int]e/1 :i*1 :5 p]=m$ or atta9$1 !y g5]ally tr\bl$ !mselves b little1 or n at all1 ab\t ! o!r bus9ess ( ! meet+4#b ,footnote #b3 ,qu9cy's ,municipal ,hi/ory ( ,bo/on1 p4 #bh4 ,"u ^! circum/ances x 0 f\nd necess>y 9 #ahbb to drop ! t[n-meet+ altoge!r & devise a new =m ( gov]nm5t = ,bo/on4 ,aft] v>i\s plans _h be5 sugge/$ & discuss$1 x 0 decid$ t ! new gov]nm5t %\ld be ve/$ 9 a ,mayor2 a select c\ncil ( eight p]sons to be call$ ! ,bo>d ( ,ald]m52 & a ,common ,c\ncil ( =ty-eight p]sons1 f\r f ea* ( twelve w>ds into :i* ! city 0 to be divid$4 ,all ^! (ficials 7 to be elect$ by ! p4 ,at ! same "t ! (ficial "n ,t[n ( ,bo/on 0 *ang$ to ,city ( ,bo/on4 ,sid5ote3 ,di/9ctions betwe5 t[ns & cities4 ,!re is m or less ( hi/ory involv$ 9 ^! (fices & designations1 to :i* we may devote a few words ( explanation4 ,9 ,new ,engl& local usage !re is an ambiguity 9 ! ^w t[n4 ,z an (ficial designation x means ! inhabitants ( a t[n%ip consid]$ z a community or corporate body4 ,9 common p>lance x (t5 means ! pat* ( l& con/itut+ ! t[n%ip on ! map1 z :5 we say t ,squire ,br[n's elm is ! bigge/ tree 9 t[n4 ,b x /ill (t5] means a collection ( /reets1 h\ses1 & families too l>ge to be call$ a village1 b )\t ! municipal gov]nm5t t *>act]izes a city4 ,sometimes x is us$ p> excell5ce = a city1 z :5 an inhabitant ( ,cambridge1 itself a l>ge suburban city1 speaks ( go+ to ,bo/on z go+ into t[n4 ,b su* cases are ( c\rse m]e survivals f ! "t :5 ! suburb 0 a village4 ,9 ,am]ican usage g5]ally ! t[n is some?+ betwe5 village & city1 a k9d ( inf]ior or incomplete city4 ,! image :i* x calls up 9 ! m9d is ( some?+ urban & n rural4 ,?is agrees sub/antially ) ! usage 9 ,european hi/ory1 :]e t[n ord9>ily means a wall$ t[n or city z contra/$ ) a village4 ,9 ,engl& ! ^w is us$ ei!r 9 ?is g5]al s5se1 or m specifically z signify+ an inf]ior city1 z 9 ,am]ica4 ,b ! ?+ :i* ! t[n lacks1 z comp>$ ) ! complete city1 is v diff]5t 9 ,am]ica f :at x is 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ,am]ica x is municipal gov]nm5t--) mayor1 ald]m51 & common c\ncil--:i* mu/ be add$ to ! t[n 9 ord] to make x a city4 ,9 ,engl& ! t[n may 7& usually does7 h ?is municipal gov]nm5t2 b x is n di/+ui%$ by ! ,lat9 "n city unless x has a ca!dral & a bi%op4 ,or 9 o!r words ! ,engli% city is1 or has be51 ! capital ( a diocese4 ,o!r t[ns 9 ,engl& are di/+ui%$ z bor\ghs1 an old ,teutonic ^w :i* 0 orig9ally appli$ to t[ns z =tifi$ places4#c ,! vot+ inhabitants ( an ,engli% city are call$ citiz5s2 ^? ( a bor\gh are call$ burgesses4 ,?us ! (ficial corporate designation ( ,cambridge is ! mayor1 ald]m51 & burgesses ( ,cambridge2 b ,ox=d is ! seat ( a bi%opric1 & its corporate designation is ! mayor1 ald]m51 & citiz5s ( ,ox=d4 ,footnote #c3 ,! ^w appe>s 9 _m t[n names1 su* z ,ed9burgh1 ,sc>bor\gh1 ,cant]bury1 ,bury ,/4 ,edmunds2 & on ! ,cont95t1 z ,hamburg1 ,*]b\rg1 ,burgos1 etc4 ,9 ,connecticut1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 & ,m9nesota1 ! "n bor\gh is appli$ to a c]ta9 class ( municipalities ) "s ( ! p[]s ( cities4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:at is ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 t[n%ip gov]nm5t & c\nty gov]nm5t8 #b4 ,:at is ! di/9ct advantage ( ! =m]8 #c4 ,:y is direct gov]nm5t impossible 9 ! c\nty8 #d4 ,speak ( ! degree ( effici5cy 9 c\nty gov]nm5t4 #e4 ,:y is direct gov]nm5t impossible 9 a city8 #f4 ,:at difficulties 9 direct gov]nm5t 7 exp]i5c$ 9 ,bo/on 9 #ahbj & _m ye>s prec$+8 #g4 ,:at rem$y = ^! difficulties 0 adopt$8 #h4 ,%[ h[ ! ^w t[n is us$ to indicate a4 ,! l& ( a t[n%ip4 b4 ,a some:at l>ge collection ( /reets1 h\ses1 & families4 c4 ,& ev51 9 "s in/ances1 a city4 #i4 ,:at is ! t[n commonly und]/ood to be 9 ,am]ican usage8 #aj4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates betwe5 a t[n & a city8 #aa4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce 9 ,engl& betwe5 a t[n & a city8 #ab4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 citiz5s & burgesses 9 ,engl&4 ,section #b4 ,orig9 ( ,engli% ,bor\ghs & ,cities4 ,sid5ote3 ,*e/]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,coalesc5ce ( t[ns to =tifi$ bor\ghs4 ,:at1 !n1 0 ! orig9 ( ! ,engli% bor\gh or city8 ,9 ! days :5 ,roman legions occupi$ = a long "t c]ta9 milit>y /ations 9 ,brita91 _! camps 7 apt to become c5tres ( trade & ?us to gr[ into cities4 ,su* places 7 g5]ally kn[n z ca/]s or *e/]s1 f ! ,lat9 ca/ra1 camp1 & !re are _m ( !m on ! map ( ,engl& to-day4 ,b ^! 7 exceptional cases4 ,z a rule ! orig9 ( ! bor\gh 0 z purely ,engli% z its "n4 ,we h se5 t ! t[n 0 orig9ally ! dwell+-place ( a /ation>y clan1 surr\nd$ by palisades or by a d5se quickset h$ge4 ,n[ :]e su* small enclos$ places 7 ?9ly scatt]$ ab\t !y develop$ simply into villages4 ,b :]e1 ?r\gh ! developm5t ( trade or any o!r cause1 a good _m ( !m grew up close toge!r )9 a n>r[ compass1 !y gradually coalesc$ into a k9d ( comp\nd t[n2 & ) ! great] population & great] weal?1 !re 0 naturally m elaborate & p]man5t =tification ?an t ( ! palisad$ village4 ,!re 7 massive walls & fr[n+ turrets1 & ! place came to be call$ a =tress or bor\gh4 ,! bor\gh1 !n1 0 simply sev]al t[n%ips pack$ tightly toge!r2 a hundr$ small] 9 ext5t & ?ick] 9 population ?an o!r hundr$s4#d ,footnote #d3 ,freeman1 ,norman ,conque/1 vol4 v4 p4 #dff4 ,= a description ( ! hundr$1 see above1 pp4 #ge-hj4 ,sid5ote3 ,! bor\gh z a hundr$4 ,f ?is compact & composite "* ( ! bor\gh came sev]al important results4 ,we h se5 t ! hundr$ 0 ! smalle/ area = ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,! t[n%ip 0 9 _m respects self-gov]n+1 b x did n h its c\rt1 any m ?an ! ,new ,engl& t[n%ip ( ! pres5t day has its c\rt4 ,! l[e/ c\rt 0 t ( ! hundr$1 b z ! bor\gh 0 equival5t to a hundr$ x soon came to h its own c\rt4 ,& al?\gh mu* obscurity /ill surr\nds ! e>ly hi/ory ( municipal gov]nm5t 9 ,engl&1 x is probable t ?is c\rt 0 a repres5tative bo>d1 l any o!r hundr$ c\rt1 & t ! relation ( ! bor\gh to its con/itu5t t[n%ips resembl$ ! relation ( ! mod]n city to its con/itu5t w>ds4 ,sid5ote3 ,! bor\gh z a c\nty4 ,b n[ z c]ta9 bor\ghs grew l>g] & annex$ outly+ t[n%ips1 or acquir$ adjac5t t]ritory :i* pres5tly became cov]$ ) /reets & h\ses1 _! con/itution became /ill m complex4 ,! bor\gh came to embrace sev]al closely pack$ hundr$s1 & ?us became analog\s to a %ire4 ,9 ?is way x ga9$ = itself a %]iff & ! equival5t ( a c\nty c\rt4 ,= example1 "u ! *>t] grant$ by ,h5ry ,i4 9 #aaja1 ,london 0 expressly recogniz$ z a c\nty by itself4 ,its burgesses c\ld elect _! own *ief magi/rate1 :o 0 call$ ! port-reeve1 inasmu* z ,london is a seaport2 9 "s o!r t[ns he 0 call$ ! bor\gh-reeve4 ,he 0 at once ! *ief executive (fic] & ! *ief judge4 ,! burgesses c\ld also elect _! %]iff1 al?\gh 9 all rural c\nties ,h5ry's fa!r1 ,william ! ,conqu]or1 _h lately depriv$ ! p ( ?is privilege & appo9t$ ! %]iffs himself4 ,london _h its repres5tative bo>d1 or c\ncil1 :i* 0 ! equival5t ( a c\nty c\rt4 ,ea* w>d1 moreov]1 _h its own repres5tative bo>d1 :i* 0 ! equival5t ( a hundr$ c\rt4 ,)9 ! w>ds1 or hundr$s1 ! burgesses 7 gr\p$ toge!r 9 t[n%ip1 p>i%1 or manor4444 ,into ! civic organization ( ,london1 to ^: special privileges all less] cities 7 ev] /riv+ to atta91 ! elem5ts ( local adm9i/ration embodi$ 9 ! t[n%ip1 ! hundr$1 & ! %ire ?us ent]$ z compon5t p>ts4#e ,con/itutionally1 !re=e1 ,london 0 a little _w 9 itself1 & 9 a less degree ! same 0 true ( o!r cities & bor\ghs :i* aft]w>ds obta9$ ! same k9d ( organization1 z = example1 ,york & ,newca/le1 ,l9coln & ,norwi*1 ,s\?ampton & ,bri/ol4 ,footnote #e3 ,hannis ,taylor1 ,orig9 & ,gr[? ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution1 vol4 i4 p4 #deh4 ,sid5ote3 ,! guilds4 ,sid5ote3 mayor1 ald]m51 & common c\ncil4 ,9 su* bor\ghs or cities all classes ( society 7 br\ght into close contact1--b>ons & knights1 prie/s & monks1 m]*ants & craftsm51 free lab\r]s & s]fs4 ,b trades & manufactures1 :i* always _h s mu* to d ) ! gr[? ( ! city1 acquir$ ! *ief p[] & ! control ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,f an e>ly p]iod tradesm5 & artisans f\nd x wor? :ile to =m !mselves into guilds or bro!rhoods1 9 ord] to protect _! p]sons & prop]ty aga9/ insult & robb]y at ! h&s ( great lords & _! lawless milit>y reta9]s4 ,?us !re came to be guilds1 or wor%ipful companies1 ( groc]s1 fi%mong]s1 but*]s1 weav]s1 tailors1 ironmong]s1 c>p5t]s1 saddl]s1 arm\r]s1 ne$le-mak]s1 etc4 ,9 l>ge t[ns !re 0 a t5d5cy among su* trade guilds to comb9e 9 a unit$ bro!rhood1 or t[n guild1 & ?is organization at l5g? acquir$ full control ( ! city gov]nm5t4 ,9 ,london ?is process 0 complet$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,to obta9 ! full privileges ( citiz5%ip "o _h to be enroll$ 9 a guild4 ,! guild hall became ! city hall4 ,! ald]m51 or head m5 ( sundry guilds1 became ! head m5 ( ! sev]al w>ds4 ,!re 0 a repres5tative bo>d1 or common c\ncil1 elect$ by ! citiz5s4 ,! ald]m5 & common c\ncil held _! meet+s 9 ! ,guildhall1 & ov] ^! meet+s presid$ ! *ief magi/rate1 or port-reeve1 :o by ?is "t1 9 accordance ) ! fa%ion !n prevail+1 _h assum$ ! ,fr5* title ( mayor4 ,z ,london _h come to be a little _w 9 itself1 s ?is city gov]nm5t reproduc$ on a small scale ! national gov]nm5t2 ! mayor answ]+ to ! k+1 ! ari/ocratic bo>d ( ald]m5 to ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 & ! democratic common c\ncil to ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,a /ill m sugge/ive comp>ison1 p]haps1 w\ld be betwe5 ! ald]m5 & our f$]al ,s5ate1 s9ce ! ald]m5 repres5t$ w>ds1 :ile ! common c\ncil repres5t$ ! citiz5s4 ,sid5ote3 ,! city ( ,london4 ,! con/itution ?us p]fect$ 9 ! city ( ,london#f six hundr$ ye>s ago has rema9$ to ?is day )\t ess5tial *ange4 ,! vot]s are enroll$ memb]s ( companies :i* repres5t ! anci5t guilds4 ,ea* ye> !y *oose "o ( ! ald]m5 to be "l mayor4 ,)9 ! city he has prec$5ce next to ! sov]eign & be=e ! royal family2 else:]e he ranks z an e>l1 ?us indicat+ ! equival5ce ( ! city to a c\nty1 & ) l significance he is "l lieut5ant ( ! city & ju/ice ( ! peace4 ,! tw5ty-six ald]m51 "o = ea* w>d1 are elect$ by ! p1 su* z are entitl$ to vote = memb]s ( p>liam5t2 !y are ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,! common c\ncilm51 #bjf 9 numb]1 are also elect$ by ! p1 & _! legislative p[] )9 ! city is practically supreme2 p>liam5t does n ?9k ( ov]rul+ x4 ,& ! city gov]nm5t ?us con/itut$ is "o ( ! mo/ clean-h&$ & effici5t 9 ! _w4#g ,footnote #f3 ,! city ( ,london ext5ds ea/ & we/ f ! ,t[] to ,temple ,b>1 & nor? & s\? f ,f9sbury to ! ,?ames1 ) a population ( n m ?an #ajj1jjj1 & is b a small "p ( ! enorm\s metropolitan area n[ kn[n z ,london1 :i* is a circle ( twelve miles radius 9 e direction f its c5tre at ,*>+ ,cross1 ) a population ( m ?an #e1jjj1jjj4 ,?is va/ area is an agglom]ation ( _m p>i%es1 manors1 etc41 & has no municipal gov]nm5t 9 common4 ,footnote #g3 ,l(tie1 ,hi/ory ( ,london 1 vol4 i4 p4 #ddf ,sid5ote3 ,engli% cities1 ! bulw>ks ( lib]ty4 ,! developm5t ( o!r ,engli% cities & bor\ghs 0 s f> l t ( ,london t m]*ant guilds g5]ally obta9$ control1 & gov]nm5t by mayor1 ald]m51 & common c\ncil came to be ! prevail+ type4 ,hav+ also _! own judges & %]iffs1 & n be+ oblig$ to g outside ( _! own walls to obta9 ju/ice1 to en=ce contracts & puni% crime1 _! effici5cy z indep5d5t self-gov]n+ bodies 0 great1 & 9 _m a tr\bl$ "t !y s]v$ z /aun* bulw>ks ( ,engli% lib]ty4 ,! /r5g? ( _! turret$ walls 0 m ?an supplem5t$ by ! l5g? ( _! purses1 & su* immunity f ! encroa*m5ts ( lords & k+ z !y c\ld n o!rwise w91 !y contriv$ to buy4 ,arbitr>y taxation !y g5]ally escap$ by comp\nd+ ) ! royal ex*equ] 9 a fix$ sum or quit-r5t1 kn[n z ! firma burgi4 ,we h obs]v$ ! especial privilege :i* ,h5ry ,i4 confirm$ to ,london1 ( elect+ its own %]iff4 ,london _h be5 prompt 9 recogniz+ 8 title to ! cr[n1 & su* support1 9 days :5 ! succession 0 n well regulat$1 no prud5t k+ c\ld af=d to pass by )\t "s sub/antial ackn[l$gm5t4 ,x 0 nev] safe = any k+ to trespass ^u ! lib]ties ( ,london1 & ?r\gh ! wor/ times t city has rema9$ a true republic ) lib]al republican s5tim5ts4 ,if ,george ,,iii4 c\ld h be5 guid$ by ! advice ( ,london1 z express$ by its great ald]man ,beck=d1 ! ,am]ican colonies w\ld n h be5 driv5 into rebellion4 ,sid5ote3 ,simon de ,mont=t & ! cities4 ,! mo/ signal "p play$ by ! ,engli% bor\ghs & cities1 9 secur+ ,engli% fre$om1 dates f ! ?irte5? c5tury1 :5 ! nation 0 vaguely /ruggl+ = repres5tative gov]nm5t on a national scale1 z a means ( curb+ ! p[] ( ! cr[n4 ,9 t memorable /ruggle1 ! issue ( :i* to "s ext5t prefigur$ ! %ape t ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 to take five hundr$ ye>s aft]w>d1 ! cities & bor\ghs support$ ,simon de ,mont=t1 ! lead] ( ! popul> p>ty & "o ( ! =emo/ among ! h]oes & m>tyrs ( ,engli% lib]ty4 ,accord+ly on ! morr[ ( 8 decisive victory at ,lewes 9 #abfd1 :5 = ! mom5t he /ood ma/] ( ,engl&1 z ,cromwell /ood f\r c5turies lat] ,simon call$ a p>liam5t to settle ! affairs ( ! k+dom1 & to ?is p>liam5t he invit$1 along ) ! lords :o came by h]$it>y cu/om1 n only two elect$ repres5tatives f ea* rural c\nty1 b also two elect$ repres5tatives f ea* city & bor\gh4 ,9 ?is p>liam5t1 :i* met 9 #abfe1 ! comb9ation ( rural ) urban repres5tatives br\ght all p>ts ( ,engl& toge!r 9 a gr& repres5tative body1 ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 ) int]e/s 9 common2 & ?us ! p pres5tly ga9$ p[] en\gh to defeat all attempts to e/abli% irresponsible gov]nm5t1 su* z we call despotism1 on ! "p ( ! cr[n4 ,sid5ote3 ,olig>*ical abuses 9 ,engli% cities 7cir4 #aejj-ahce74 ,if we look at ! lat] hi/ory ( ,engli% cities & bor\ghs1 x appe>s t1 9 spite ( ! spl5did "w :i* !y did = ! ,engli% p at l>ge1 !y did n always succe$ 9 pres]v+ _! own lib]ties unimpair$4 ,london1 inde$1 has always ma9ta9$ its "* z a truly repres5tative republic4 ,b 9 _m ,engli% cities1 dur+ ! ,tudor & ,/u>t p]iods1 ! mayor & ald]m5 contriv$ to disp5se ) popul> election1 & ?us to become close corporations or self-p]petuat+ olig>*ical bodies4 ,!re 0 a notable t5d5cy t[>d ?is sort ( irresponsible gov]nm5t 9 ! reign ( ,james ,i41 & ! ,puritans :o came to ! %ores ( ,massa*usetts ,bay 7 inspir$ ) a feel+ ( revolt aga9/ su* me?ods4 ,?is d\btless l5t an emphasis to ! mood 9 :i* !y proce$$ to organize !mselves into free self-gov]n+ t[n%ips4 ,! olig>*ical abuses 9 ,engli% cities & bor\ghs rema9$ until !y 7 swept away by ! great ,municipal ,re=m ,act ( #ahce4 ,sid5ote3 ,gov]nm5t ( ! city ( ,new ,york 7#afhf-ahba74 ,! fir/ city gov]nm5ts e/abli%$ 9 ,am]ica 7 fram$ 9 consci\s imitation ( ! correspond+ in/itutions 9 ,engl&4 ,! olde/ city gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is t ( ,new ,york4 ,%ortly aft] ! t[n 0 tak5 f ! ,dut* 9 #affd1 ! new gov]nor1 ,colonel ,ni*ols1 put an end to its ,dut* =m ( gov]nm5t1 & appo9t$ a mayor1 five ald]m51 & a %]iff4 ,^! (fic]s appo9t$ inf]ior (fic]s1 su* z con/ables1 & little or no?+ 0 left to popul> election4 ,b 9 #afhf1 "u ,gov]nor ,dongan1 ,new ,york 0 regul>ly incorporat$ & *>t]$ z a city4 ,its con/itution bore an especially close resemblance to t ( ,norwi*1 !n ! ?ird city 9 ,engl& 9 size & importance4 ,! city ( ,new ,york 0 divid$ into six w>ds4 ,! gov]n+ corporation consi/$ ( ! mayor1 ! record]1 ! t[n-cl]k1 six ald]m51 & six assi/ants4 ,all ! l& n tak5 up by individual own]s 0 grant$ z public l& to ! corporation1 :i* 9 return paid into ! ,briti% ex*equ] "o beav]-sk9 ye>ly4 ,?is 0 a survival ( ! old quit-r5t or firma burgi4#h ,! city 0 made a c\nty1 & ?us _h its c\rt1 its %]iff & coron]1 & its high con/able4 ,o!r (fic]s 7 ! *amb]la9 or treasur]1 sev5 inf]ior con/ables1 a s]geant-at-arms1 & a cl]k ( ! m>ket1 :o inspect$ weights & measures1 & puni%$ del9qu5cies 9 ! use ( !m4 ,! pr9cipal judge 0 ! record]1 :o1 z we h j se51 0 "o ( ! corporation4 ,! ald]m51 assi/ants1 & con/ables 7 elect$ annually by ! p2 b ! mayor & %]iff 7 appo9t$ by ! gov]nor4 ,! record]1 t[n-cl]k1 & cl]k ( ! m>ket 7 to be appo9t$ by ! k+1 b 9 case ! k+ neglect$ to act1 ^! appo9tm5ts also 7 made by ! gov]nor4 ,! high con/able 0 appo9t$ by ! mayor1 ! treasur] by ! mayor1 ald]m51 & assi/ants1 :o seem to h answ]$ to ! ord9>y common c\ncil4 ,! mayor1 record]1 & ald]m51 )\t ! assi/ants1 7 a judicial body1 & held a weekly c\rt ( common pleas4 ,:5 ! assi/ants 7 add$1 ! :ole became a legislative body emp[]$ to enact by-laws4 ,footnote #h3 ,jameson1 ,! ,municipal ,gov]nm5t ( ,new ,york1 ,mag4 ,am]4 ,hi/41 vol4 viii4 p4 #fji4 ,al?\gh ?is *>t] grant$ v imp]fect p[]s ( self-gov]nm5t1 ! p contriv$ to live "u x = a hundr$ & ?irty-five ye>s1 until #ahba4 ,be=e ! ,revolution _! petitions succe$$ 9 obta9+ only a few unimportant am5dm5ts4#i ,:5 ! ,briti% army captur$ ! city 9 ,septemb]1 #aggf1 x 0 =?) plac$ "u m>tial law1 & s rema9$ until ! army dep>t$ 9 ,novemb]1 #aghc4 ,dur+ ^? sev5 ye>s ,new ,york 0 n altoge!r a com=table place 9 :i* to live4 ,aft] #aghc ! city gov]nm5t rema9$ z be=e1 except t ! /ate ( ,new ,york assum$ ! control =m]ly ex]cis$ by ! ,briti% cr[n4 ,mayor & record]1 t[n-cl]k & %]iff1 7 n[ appo9t$ by a c\ncil ( appo9tm5t consi/+ ( ! gov]nor & f\r s5ators4 ,?is did n "w well1 & ! con/itution ( #ahba gave to ! p ! p[] ( *oos+ _! %]iff & t[n-cl]k1 :ile ! mayor 0 to be elect$ by ! common c\ncil4 ,no?+ b ! appo9tm5t ( ! record] rema9$ 9 ! h&s ( ! gov]nor4 ,?us ne>ly =ty ye>s aft] ! close ( ! ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce ! city ( ,new ,york acquir$ self-gov]nm5t z complete z t ( ! city ( ,london4 ,9 #aheg1 z we %all see1 ?is self-gov]nm5t 0 greatly curtail$1 ) results m or less disa/r\s4 ,footnote #i3 ,especially 9 ! s-call$ ,montgom]ie *>t] ( #agcj4 ,sid5ote3 ,city gov]nm5t 9 ,philadelphia 7#agja-aghi74 ,! next city gov]nm5ts to be organiz$ 9 ! ,am]ican colonies1 aft] t ( ,new ,york1 7 ^? ( ,philadelphia1 incorporat$ 9 #agja1 & ,annapolis1 incorporat$ 9 #agjh4 ,^! gov]nm5ts 7 fram$ aft] ! wret*$ patt]n !n s common 9 ,engl&4 ,9 bo? ! mayor1 ! record]1 ! ald]m51 & ! common c\ncil con/itut$ a close self-elect+ corporation4 ,! result+ abuses 7 n s great z 9 ,engl&1 probably because ! cities 7 s small4 ,b 9 c\rse ( "t1 especially 9 ,philadelphia z x increas$ 9 population1 ! vici\sness ( ! sy/em 0 abundantly illu/rat$4 ,z ! p c\ld n elect ! gov]n+ corporation or any ( its memb]s1 !y v naturally & reasonably di/ru/$ x1 & ?r\gh ! legislature !y contriv$ s to limit its p[]s ( taxation t x 0 really unable to keep ! /reets 9 repair1 to light !m at night1 or to support an adequate police =ce4 ,an attempt 0 made to supply su* wants by creat+ div]s indep5d5t bo>ds ( commission]s1 "o = pav+ & dra9+1 ano!r = /reet-lamps & wat*m51 a ?ird = t[n-pumps1 & s on4 ,9 ?is way responsibility got s m9utely p>cell$ out & scatt]$1 & !re 0 s mu* jeal\sy & wrangl+ betwe5 ! diff]5t bo>ds & ! corporation1 t ! result 0 *aos4 ,! public money 0 habitually wa/$ & occasionally embezzl$1 & !re 0 g5]al dissatisfaction4 ,9 #aghi ! close corporation 0 aboli%$1 & !reaft] ! ald]m5 & common c\ncil 7 elect$ by ! citiz5s1 ! mayor 0 *os5 by ! ald]m5 out ( _! own numb]1 & ! record] 0 appo9t$ by ! mayor & ald]m54 ,?us ,philadelphia obta9$ a repres5tative gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,traditions ( good gov]nm5t lack+4 ,^! in/ances ( ,new ,york & ,philadelphia suffici5tly illu/rate ! beg9n+s ( city gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ea* case ! sy/em 0 copi$ f ,engl& at a "t :5 city gov]nm5t 9 ,engl& 0 sadly demoraliz$4 ,:at 0 copi$ 0 n ! free republic ( ,london1 ) its noble traditions ( civic hon\r & sagaci\s public _s1 b ! imp]fect republics or olig>*ies into :i* ! less] ,engli% bor\ghs 7 s9k+1 amid ! f\l political intrigues & corruption :i* *>act]iz$ ! ,/u>t p]iod4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ,am]ican cities 9 our own "t is admitt$ on all h&s to be f> f satisfactory4 ,x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t ! cities :i* _h municipal gov]nm5t be=e ! ,revolution1 ?\gh !y h always _h _! full %>e ( able & high-m9d$ citiz5s1 d n possess ev5 ! tradition ( good gov]nm5t4 ,& ! difficulty1 9 ^? colonial times1 0 pla9ly want ( adequate self-gov]nm5t1 want ( responsibility on ! "p ( ! public s]vants t[>d _! employ]s ! p4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:at 0 ! orig9 ( ! ca/]s & *e/]s t are f\nd 9 ,engl& to-day8 #b4 ,trace ! developm5t ( ! ,engli% bor\gh until x became a k9d ( hundr$4 #c4 ,comp>e ?is bor\gh1 ) ! hundr$ 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 #d4 ,trace ! fur!r developm5t ( ! bor\gh 9 cases 9 :i* x became a c\nty4 #e4 ,illu/rate ?is developm5t ) ,london1 %[+ h[ ! elem5ts ( ! t[n%ip1 ! hundr$1 & ! %ire gov]nm5t ent] into its civic organization4 #f4 ,expla9 ! orig9 & ! objects ( ! v>i\s guilds4 #g4 ,speak ( ! t[n guild "u ! foll[+ heads3-- a4 ,its composition & p[]4 b4 ,its relation to citiz5%ip4 c4 ,its place ( meet+4 d4 ,! ald]m54 e4 ,! common c\ncil4 f4 ,! *ief magi/rate4 #h4 ,comp>e ! gov]nm5t ( ,london ) t ( ,great ,brita9 or ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #i4 ,give "s acc\nt ( ! "l mayor1 ! ald]m51 & ! c\ncilm5 ( ,london4 #aj4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ,london ! city & ,london ! metropolis4 #aa4 ,%[ h[ ! ,engli% cities & bor\ghs became bulw>ks ( lib]ty by 7#a7 _! facilities = obta9+ ju/ice1 7#b7 ! /r5g? ( _! walls1 & 7#c7 ! l5g? ( _! purses4 #ab4 ,contra/ ! p[] ( ,london ) t ( ! ?rone4 #ac4 ,:at notable advance 9 gov]nm5t 0 made "u ! lead]%ip ( ,simon de ,mont=t8 #ad4 ,:at abuses crept into ! gov]nm5t ( _m ( ! ,engli% cities8 #ae4 ,:at 0 ! ,puritan attitude t[>ds su* abuses8 #af4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! gov]nm5t ( ,new ,york city3-- a4 ,! *>t] ( #afhf4 b4 ,! gov]n+ corporation4 c4 ,! public l&4 d4 ,! city's privileges z a c\nty4 e4 ,(fic]s by election & by appo9tm5t4 f4 ,judicial functions4 g4 ,m>tial law4 h4 ,! *>t] ( #ahba4 #ag4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! gov]nm5t ( ,philadelphia3-- a4 ,! gov]nm5ts aft] :i* x 0 patt]n$4 b4 ,! vici\sness ( ! sy/em adopt$4 c4 ,! legislative int]f]5ce t 0 ?us provok$4 d4 ,! division ( responsibility & ! results ( su* division4 e4 ,! nature ( ! *anges made 9 #aghi4 #ah4 ,:y are ! traditions ( good gov]nm5t lack+ 9 ! old] ,am]ican cities8 ,section #c4 ,! ,gov]nm5t ( ,cities 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,sev]al features ( our city gov]nm5ts4 ,at ! pres5t day ,am]ican municipal gov]nm5ts are = ! mo/ "p con/ruct$ on ! same g5]al plan1 ?\gh ) _m v>iations 9 detail4 ,!re is an executive dep>tm5t1 ) ! mayor at its head4 ,! mayor is elect$ vot]s ( ! city1 & holds (fice g5]ally = "o ye>1 b sometimes = two or ?ree ye>s1 & 9 ,/4 ,l\is & ,philadelphia ev5 = f\r ye>s4 ,"u ! mayor are v>i\s heads ( dep>tm5ts1--/reet commission]s1 assessors1 ov]se]s ( ! poor1 etc41--sometimes elect$ by ! citiz5s1 sometimes appo9t$ by ! mayor or ! city c\ncil4 ,?is city c\ncil ,is a legislative body1 usually consi/+ ( two *amb]s1 ! ald]m5 & ! common c\ncil1 elect$ by ! citiz5s2 b 9 _m small cities1 & a few ( ! l>ge/1--su* z ,new ,york1 ,brooklyn1 ,*icago1 & ,san ,francisco1--!re is b "o su* *amb]4 ,!n !re are city judges1 sometimes appo9t$ by ! gov]nor ( ! /ate1 to s]ve = life or dur+ good behavi\r1 b usually elect$ by ! citiz5s = %ort t]ms4 ,all appropriations ( money = city purposes are made by ! city c\ncil2 & z a g5]al rule ?is c\ncil has "s control ov] ! heads ( executive dep>tm5ts1 :i* x ex]cises ?r\gh committees4 ,?us !re may be a committee ^u /reets1 ^u public build+s1 ^u p>ks or alm%\ses or :atev] ! municipal gov]nm5t is conc]n$ )4 ,! head ( a dep>tm5t is m or less dep5d5t ^u 8 committee1 & 9 practice ?is is f\nd to divide & weak5 responsibility4 ,! heads ( dep>tm5ts are apt to be indep5d5t ( "o ano!r1 & to owe no allegiance 9 common to any "o4 ,! mayor1 :5 he appo9ts !m1 usually does s subject to ! approval1 ( ! city c\ncil or ( "o bran* ( x4 ,! mayor is usually n a memb] ( ! city c\ncil1 b c veto its enactm5ts1 :i* h[ev] c be pass$ ov] 8 veto by a two ?irds majority4 ,sid5ote3 ,!y d n seem to "w well4 ,sid5ote3 "s difficulties to be /at$4 ,city gov]nm5ts ?us con/itut$ are some?+ l /ate gov]nm5ts 9 m9iature4 ,! relation ( ! mayor to ! city c\ncil is some:at l t ( ! gov]nor to ! /ate legislature1 & ( ! presid5t to ! national congress4 ,9 !ory no?+ c\ld well be m republican1 or m unlike su* city gov]nm5ts z ^? ( ,new ,york & ,philadelphia be=e ! ,revolution4 ,yet 9 practice x does n seem to "w well4 ,new ,york & ,philadelphia seem to h he>d z _m compla9ts 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury z 9 ! eighte5?1 & ! same k9d ( compla9ts1--( excessive taxation1 public money wa/$ or embezzl$1 ill-pav$ & dirty /reets1 ineffici5t police1 & s on to ! end ( ! *apt]4 ,9 mo/ ( our l>ge cities simil> evils h be5 witness$1 & 9 too _m ( ! small] ones ! tr\ble seems to be ! same 9 k9d1 only less 9 degree4 ,our republican gov]nm5t1 :i*1 aft] mak+ all due all[ances1 seems to "w rem>kably well 9 rural di/ricts1 & 9 ! /ates1 & 9 ! nation1 has c]ta9ly be5 f> less successful z appli$ to cities4 ,accord+ly our cities h come to furni% topics = reflection to :i* writ]s & orators fond ( boa/+ ! unapproa*able excell5ce ( ,am]ican in/itutions d n l to allude4 ,fifty ye>s ago we 7 wont to speak ( civil gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z if x _h dropp$ f heav5 or _h be5 specially creat$ by "s k9d ( miracle ^u ,am]ican soil2 & we 7 apt to ?9k t 9 m]e republican =ms !re 0 "s k9d ( my/ic virtue :i* made !m a panacea = all political evils4 ,our lat] exp]i5ce ) cities has rudely di/urb$ ?is too confid5t frame ( m9d4 ,x has furni%$ facts :i* d n seem to fit our self-complac5t !ory1 s t n[ our writ]s & speak]s are incl9$ to v5t _! sple5 ^u ! unhappy cities1 p]haps too unres]v$ly4 ,we he> !m call$ f\l s9ks ( corruption & plague spots on our body politic4 ,yet 9 all probability our cities are de/9$ to increase 9 numb] & to gr[ l>g] & l>g]2 s t p]haps x is j z well to consid] !m calmly1 z pres5t+ problems :i* _h n be5 ?\ght ( :5 our g5]al !ory ( gov]nm5t 0 fir/ work$ out a hundr$ ye>s ago1 b :i*1 aft] we h be5 suffici5tly taught by exp]i5ce1 we may hope to succe$ 9 solv+1 j z we h h]et(ore succe$$ 9 o!r ?+s4 ,a g5]al discussion ( ! subject does n fall )9 ! prov9ce ( ?is brief hi/orical sket*4 ,b our acc\nt w\ld be v incomplete if we 7 to /op %ort ( m5tion+ "s ( ! rec5t attempts t h be5 made t[>d recon/ruct+ our !ories ( city gov]nm5t & improv+ its practical work+4 ,& fir/1 let u po9t out a few ( ! peculi> difficulties ( ! problem1 t we may see :y we might h be5 expect$1 up to ! pres5t "t1 to h be5 less successful 9 manag+ our great cities ?an 9 manag+ our rural communities1 & our /ates1 & our nation4 ,sid5ote3 ,rapid gr[? ( ,am]ican cities4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! problem is comp>atively new & has tak5 u unaw>es4 ,at ! "t ( ,wa%+ton's inauguration to ! presid5cy !re 7 no l>ge cities 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,philadelphia _h a population ( #db1jjj2 ,new ,york _h #cc1jjj2 ,bo/on1 :i* came next1 ) #ah1jjj1 0 n yet a city4 ,!n came ,baltimore1 ) #ac1jjj2 :ile ,brooklyn 0 a village ( #a1fjj s\ls4 ,n[ ^! five cities h a population ( m ?an #d1jjj1jjj1 or m ?an t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #aghi4 ,& consid] h[ rapidly new cities h be5 add$ to ! li/4 ,"o h>dly ne$s to m5tion ! mo/ /rik+ cases1 su* z ,*icago1 ) #d1jjj inhabitants 9 #ahdj4 & at lea/ #a1jjj1jjj 9 #ahij2 or ,d5v]1 ) its miles ( h&some /reets & %ops1 & n "o native inhabitant :o has rea*$ 8 ?irtie? bir?day4 ,su* facts are summ$ up 9 ! g5]al /atem5t t1 :]eas 9 #agij ! population ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 sc>cely #d1jjj1jjj1 & out ( ea* #ajj inhabitants only #c dwelt 9 cities & ! o!r #ig 9 rural places2 on ! o!r h& 9 #ahhj1 :5 ! population 0 m ?an #ej1jjj1jjj1 out ( ea* #ajj inhabitants #bc dwelt 9 cities & #gg 9 rural places4 ,b duly to appreciate ! rapidity ( ?is gr[? ( cities1 we mu/ obs]ve t mo/ ( x has be5 subsequ5t to #ahdj4 ,9 #agij !re 7 six t[ns 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates t might be rank$ z cities f _! size1 ?\gh to get ?is numb] we mu/ include ,bo/on4 ,9 #ahjj ! numb] 0 ! same4 ,by #ahaj ! numb] _h ris5 f #f to #aa2 by #ahbj x _h rea*$ #ac2 by #ahcj ?is ?irte5 _h d\bl$ & become #bf2 & 9 #ahdj !re 7 #dd cities altoge!r4 ,! urban population increas$ f #baj1hgc 9 #ahjj to #a1dec1iid 9 #ahdj4 ,b betwe5 #ahdj & #ahhj ! numb] ( new cities :i* came into exi/5ce 0 #bdb1 & ! urban population increas$ to #aa1cah1edg4 ,no?+ l ?is 0 ev] kn[n be=e 9 any "p ( ! _w1 & p]haps x is n /range t su* a trem5d\s developm5t did n f9d our me?ods ( gov]nm5t fully prep>$ to deal ) x4 ,sid5ote3 ,want ( practical =esight4 ,?is rapidity ( gr[? has entail$ "s important consequ5ces4 ,9 ! fir/ place x obliges ! city to make great outlays ( money 9 ord] to get imm$iate results4 ,public works mu/ be und]tak5 ) a view to quickness r ?an ?or\ghness4 ,pavem5ts1 sew]s1 & res]voirs ( "s sort mu/ be _h at once1 ev5 if inadequately plann$ & imp]fectly con/ruct$2 & s1 be=e a great :ile1 ! "w mu/ be done ov] aga94 ,su* conditions ( imp]ative ha/e increase ! temptations to di%one/y z well z ! liability to errors ( judgm5t on ! "p ( ! m5 :o adm9i/] ! public funds4#aj ,!n ! rapid gr[? ( a city1 especially ( a new city1 requir+ ! imm$iate con/ruction ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( public works1 almo/ necessitates ! borr[+ ( money1 & debt means heavy taxes4 ,x is l ! case ( a "y man :o1 9 ord] to secure a home = 8 quickly gr[+ family1 buys a h\se "u a heavy mortgage4 ,twice a ye> !re comes 9 a great bill = int]e/1 & 9 ord] to meet x he mu/ economize 9 8 table or n[ & !n d5y himself a new suit ( clo!s4 ,s if a city has to tax heavily to pay its debts1 x mu/ cut d[n its curr5t exp5ses some:]e1 & ! results are sure to be visible 9 m or less untid9ess & ineffici5cy4 ,mr4 ,l[ tells u t v few ( our ,am]ican cities h yet paid 9 full ! co/ ( _! orig9al wat]-works4 ,la/ly1 mu* wa/efulness results f want ( =esight4 ,x is n easy to pr$ict h[ a city w gr[1 or ! nature ( its ne$s a few ye>s h5ce4 ,moreov]1 ev5 :5 x is easy en\gh to pr$ict a result1 x is n easy to secure practical =esight on ! "p ( a city c\ncil elect$ = ! curr5t ye>4 ,its memb]s are afraid ( mak+ taxes too heavy ?is ye>1 & consid]ations ( t5 ye>s h5ce are apt to be dismiss$ z vision>y4 ,x is always h>d = u to realize h[ t]ribly soon t5 ye>s h5ce w be "h4 ,! habit ( do+ ?+s by halves has be5 (t5 comm5t$ on 7&1 p]haps1 ev5 m by our own writ]s ?an by =eign]s7 z especially noticeable 9 ,am]ica4 ,x has d\btless be5 fo/]$ by ! conditions :i* 9 s _m cases h made x absolutely necess>y to adopt tempor>y make%ifts4 ,^! conditions h produc$ a c]ta9 habit ( m9d4 ,footnote #aj3 ,?is & "s ( ! foll[+ consid]ations h be5 ably set =? & illu/rat$ by ,hon4 ,se? ,l[1 presid5t ( ,columbia ,college1 & lately mayor ( ,brooklyn1 9 an address at ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity1 publi%$ 9 ,j4 ,h4 ,u4 ,/udies1 ,supplem5t>y ,notes1 no4 #d4 ,sid5ote3 ,gr[? 9 complexity ( gov]nm5t 9 cities4 ,let u n[ obs]ve t z cities increase 9 size ! am\nt ( gov]nm5t t is necess>y t5ds 9 "s respects to increase4 ,:]ev] !re is a cr[d !re is likely to be "s ne$ ( rules & regulations4 ,9 ! c\ntry a man may build 8 h\se pretty mu* z he pleases2 b 9 ! city he may be =bidd5 to build x ( wood1 & p]haps ev5 ! ?ickness ( ! p>ty walls or ! position ( ! *imneys may come 9 = "s sup]vision on ! "p ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,= fur!r precaution aga9/ spread+ fires1 ! city has an organiz$ =ce ( m51 ) co/ly eng9es1 eng9e-h\ses1 & /ables4 ,9 ! c\ntry a bo>d ( heal? has comp>atively little to d2 9 ! city x is (t5 confront$ ) difficult sanit>y problems :i* call = highly paid pr(essional skill on ! "p ( physicians & *emi/s1 ar*itects & plumb]s1 masons & eng9e]s4 ,s1 too1 ! wat] supply ( a great city is likely to be a complicat$ bus9ess1 & ! police =ce may well ne$ z mu*1 managem5t z a small army4 ,9 %ort1 ) a city1 increase 9 size is sure to involve increase 9 complexity ( organization1 & ?is means a va/ increase 9 ! numb] ( (ficials = do+ ! "w & ( details to be sup]9t5d$4 ,= example1 let u enum]ate ! executive dep>tm5t & (fic]s ( ! city ( ,bo/on at ! pres5t "t4 ,sid5ote3 ,municipal (fic]s 9 ,bo/on4 ,!re are ?ree /reet commission]s ) p[] to lay out /reets & assess damages !reby occasion$4 ,^! are elect$ by ! p4 ,! foll[+ (fic]s are appo9t$ by ! mayor1 ) ! concurr5ce ( ! ald]m53 a sup]9t5d5t ( /reets1 an inspector ( build+s1 ?ree commission]s ea* = ! fire & heal? dep>tm5ts1 f\r ov]se]s ( ! poor1 besides a bo>d ( n9e directors = ! managem5t ( alm%\ses1 h\ses ( correction1 lunatic hospital1 etc42 a city hospital bo>d ( five memb]s1 five tru/ees ( ! public libr>y1 ?ree commission]s ea* = p>ks & wat]-works2 five *ief assessors1 to e/imate ! value ( prop]ty & assess city1 c\nty1 & /ate taxes2 a city collector1 a sup]9t5d5t ( public build+s1 five tru/ees ( ,m\nt ,hope ,cemet]y1 six s9k+ fund commission]s1 two record commission]s1 ?ree regi/r>s ( vot]s1 a regi/r> ( bir?s1 dea?s1 & m>riages1 a city treasur]1 city auditor1 city solicitor1 corporation c\nsel1 city ar*itect1 city surveyor1 sup]9t5d5t ( ,faneuil ,hall ,m>ket1 sup]9t5d5t ( /reet lights1 sup]9t5d5t ( sew]s1 sup]9t5d5t ( pr9t+1 sup]9t5d5t ( bridges1 five directors ( f]ries1 h>b\r ma/] & t5 assi/ants1 wat] regi/r>1 inspector ( provisions1 inspector ( milk & v9eg>1 a seal] & f\r deputy seal]s ( weights & measures1 an inspector ( lime1 ?ree inspectors ( petroleum1 fifte5 inspectors ( press$ hay1 a cull] ( hoops & /aves1 ?ree f5ce-view]s1 t5 field-driv]s & p\nd-keep]s1 ?ree surveyors ( m>ble1 n9e sup]9t5d5ts ( hay scales1 f\r measur]s ( upp] lea!r1 fifte5 measur]s ( wood & b>k1 tw5ty measur]s ( gra91 ?ree weigh]s ( beef1 ?irty-eight weigh]s ( coal1 five weigh]s ( boil]s & heavy ma*9]y1 f\r weigh]s ( balla/ & light]s1 n9ety-two und]tak]s1 #aej con/ables1 #ifh election (fic]s & _! deputies4 ,a few ( ^! (ficials s]ve )\t pay1 "s are paid by sal>ies fix$ by ! c\ncil1 "s by fees4 ,besides ^! !re is a cl]k ( ! common c\ncil elect$ by t body1 & also ! city cl]k1 city mess5g]1 & cl]k ( committees1 9 ^: election bo? bran*es ( ! city c\ncil concur4 ,! s*ool committee1 ( tw5ty-f\r memb]s1 elect$ by ! p1 is di/9ct f ! re/ ( ! city gov]nm5t1 & s is ! bo>d ( police1 compos$ ( ?ree commission]s appo9t$ by ! /ate executive4#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,bugbee1 ,! ,city ,gov]nm5t ( ,bo/on1 ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,v41 iii4 ,sid5ote3 ,h[ city gov]nm5t comes to be a my/]y4 ,?is long li/ may s]ve to give "s idea ( ! m]e quantity ( adm9i/rative "w requir$ 9 a l>ge city4 ,obvi\sly "u su* circum/ances city gov]nm5t mu/ become m or less ( a my/]y to ! great mass ( citiz5s4 ,!y _c wat* its op]ations z ! inhabitants ( a small village c wat* ! proce$+s ( _! t[n%ip & c\nty gov]nm5ts4 ,mu* "w mu/ g on :i* _c ev5 be intellig5tly criticis$ )\t su* special k z x w\ld be idle to expect 9 ! av]age vot]1 or p]haps 9 any vot]4 ,x becomes exce$+ly difficult = ! taxpay] to und]/& j :at 8 money goes =1 or h[ f> ! city exp5ses might reasonably be r$uc$2 & x becomes correspond+ly easy = municipal corruption to />t & acquire a consid]able headway be=e x c be detect$ & *eck$4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 "s respects x is m ( a my/]y t /ate & national gov]nm5t4 ,9 "s respects city gov]nm5t is h>d] to wat* intellig5tly ?an ! gov]nm5t ( ! /ate or ( ! nation4 ,= ^! wid] gov]nm5ts are to "s ext5t limit$ to "w ( g5]al sup]vision4 ,z comp>$ ) ! city1 !y are m conc]n$ ) ! e/abli%m5t & en=cem5t ( c]ta9 g5]al pr9ciples1 & less ) ! adm9i/ration ( endlessly complicat$ details4 ,i d n mean to be und]/ood z say+ t !re is n pl5ty ( intricate detail ab\t /ate & national gov]nm5ts4 ,i am only comp>+ "o ?+ ) ano!r1 & x seems to me t "o *ief difficulty ) city gov]nm5t is ! bewild]+ va/ness & multif>i\sness ( ! details ) :i* x is conc]n$4 ,! mod]n city has come to be a huge corporation = c>ry+ on a huge bus9ess ) _m bran*es1 mo/ ( :i* call = special aptitude & tra9+4 ,sid5ote3 ,! mayor at fir/ _h too little p[]4 ,z ^! po9ts h gradually =c$ !mselves ^u public att5tion !re has be5 a t5d5cy 9 _m ( our l>ge cities t[>d remodel+ _! gov]nm5ts on new pr9ciples4 ,! mo/ noticeable feature ( ?is t5d5cy is ! increase 9 ! p[]s ( ! mayor4 ,a hundr$ ye>s ago our legislators & con/itution-mak]s 7 mu* afraid ( :at 0 call$ ! "o-man p[]4 ,9 ne>ly all ! colonies a *ronic qu>rel _h be5 kept up betwe5 ! gov]nors appo9t$ by ! k+ & ! legislators elect$ by ! p1 & ?is _h made ! "o-man p[] v unpopul>4 ,besides1 x 0 some?+ t _h be5 unpopul> 9 anci5t ,greece & ,rome1 & x 0 ?\ght to be ess5tially unrepublican 9 pr9ciple4 ,accord+ly our great gr&fa!rs pref]r$ to entru/ executive p[]s to committees r ?an to s+le individuals2 & :5 !y assign$ an important (fice to an individual !y usually took pa9s to curtail its p[] & influ5ce4 ,?is disposition 0 visible 9 our e>ly attempts to organize city gov]nm5ts l little republics4 ,fir/1 9 ! bo>d ( ald]m5 & ! common c\ncil we _h a two-*amb]$ legislature4 ,!n1 le/ ! mayor %\ld become dang]\s1 ! veto p[] 0 at fir/ g5]ally )held f him1 & 8 appo9tm5ts ( executive (fic]s ne$$ to be confirm$ by at lea/ "o bran* ( ! city c\ncil4 ,^! executive (fic]s1 moreov]1 z already obs]v$1 7 subject to m or less control or ov]sight f committees ( ! city c\ncil4 ,sid5ote3 ,scatt]+ & weak5+ ( responsibility4 ,n[ ?is sy/em1 9 depriv+ ! mayor ( p[]1 depriv$ him ( responsibility1 & left ! responsibility n[h]e 9 p>ticul>4 ,9 mak+ appo9tm5ts ! mayor & c\ncil w\ld come to "s sort ( compromise ) ea* o!r & ex*ange fav\rs4 ,p]haps = private reasons incompet5t or di%one/ (fic]s w\ld get appo9t$1 & if ! citiz5s v5tur$ to compla9 ! mayor w\ld say t he appo9t$ z good m5 z ! c\ncil c\ld be induc$ to confirm1 & ! c\ncil w\ld decl>e _! will+ness to confirm good appo9tm5ts if ! mayor c\ld only be p]suad$ to make !m4 ,sid5ote3 ,committees ineffici5t = executive purposes4 ,!n ! want ( subord9ation ( ! diff]5t executive dep>tm5ts made x impossible to secure unity ( adm9i/ration or to c>ry out any consi/5t & g5]ally intelligible policy4 ,betwe5 ! v>i\s executive (fic]s & visit+ committees !re 0 apt to be a m or less ext5sive int]*ange ( fav\rs1 or :at is call$ log-roll+2 & sums ( money w\ld be vot$ by ! c\ncil only ?us to leak away 9 und]tak+s ! propriety or necessity ( :i* 0 p]haps h>d to det]m9e4 ,!re 0 no responsible head :o c\ld be quickly & %>ply call$ to acc\nt4 ,ea* (ficial's h&s 7 s ti$ t :atev] w5t wrong he c\ld decl>e t x 0 n 8 fault4 ,! confusion 0 enhanc$ by ! practice ( giv+ executive "w to committees or bo>ds in/ead ( s+le (fic]s4 ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 us$ to say1 if y wi% to be sure t a ?+ is done1 g & d x y\rself4 ,human exp]i5ce c]ta9ly proves t ?is is ! only absolutely safe way4 ,! next be/ way is to s5d "s compet5t p]son to d x = y2 & if !re is no "o compet5t to be _h1 y d ! next be/ ?+ & entru/ ! "w to ! lea/ incompet5t p]son y c f9d4 ,if y entru/ x to a committee y\r prospect ( gett+ x done is dim9i%$ & x gr[s less if y enl>ge y\r committee4 ,by ! "t y h got a gr\p ( committees1 indep5d5t ( "o ano!r & work+ at cross purposes1 y h got ,dick5s's fam\s ,circumlocution ,(fice1 :]e ! great object 9 life 0 h[ n to d x4 ,sid5ote #a3 ,increase ( city debts4 ,sid5ote #b3 ,attempt to cure ! evil by /ate int]f]5ce2 exp]i5ce ( ,new ,york4 ,amid ! g5]al dissatisfaction ov] ! extravagance & ineffici5cy ( our city gov]nm5ts1 p's att5tion 0 fir/ drawn to ! rapid & al>m+ increase ( city indebt$ness 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,a heavy debt may ru9 a city z surely z an individual1 = x raises ! rate ( taxation1 & ?us1 z 0 above po9t$ out1 x t5ds to fright5 p & capital away f ! city4 ,at fir/ x 0 s\ght to curb ! recklessness ( city c\ncils 9 incurr+ lavi% exp5ditures by giv+ ! mayor a veto p[]4 ,laws 7 also pass$ limit+ ! am\nt ( debt :i* a city w\ld be all[$ to incur "u any circum/ances4 ,clo?+ ! mayor ) ! veto p[] is n[ se5 to h be5 a wise /ep2 & arbitr>y limitation ( ! am\nt ( debt1 ?\gh a clumsy exp$i5t1 is confess$ly a necess>y "o4 ,b beyond ?is1 x 0 9 "s in/ances attempt$ to take ! managem5t ( "s dep>tm5ts ( city bus9ess out ( ! h&s ( ! city & put !m into ! h&s ( ! /ate legislature4 ,! mo/ notable in/ance ( ?is 0 9 ,new ,york 9 #aheg4 ,! results1 !re & else:]e1 h be5 g5]ally reg>d$ z unsatisfactory4 ,aft] a trial ( ?irty ye>s ! exp]i5ce ( ,new ,york has prov$ t a /ate legislature is n compet5t to take prop] c>e ( ! gov]nm5t ( cities4 ,its memb]s d n "k en\gh ab\t ! details ( ea* locality1 & consequ5tly local affairs are left to ! repres5tatives f ea* locality1 ) log-roll+ z ! inevitable result4 ,a man fre% f 8 f>m on ! edge ( ! ,adirondacks kn[s no?+ ab\t ! problems p]ta9+ to electric wires 9 ,broadway1 or to rapid transit betwe5 ,h>lem & ! ,batt]y2 & 8 cons5t to desir$ legislation on su* po9ts c v likely be obta9$ only by fav\r+ "s measure :i* he ?9ks w improve ! value ( 8 f>m1 or p]haps by help+ him to debau* ! civil s]vice by gett+ "s neighb\r appo9t$ to a position = :i* he is n qualifi$4 ,all ?is is made worse by ! fact t ! memb]s ( a /ate gov]nm5t are g5]ally less gov]n$ by a s5se ( responsibility t[>d ! citiz5s ( a p>ticul> city ?an ev5 ! wor/ local gov]nm5t t c be set up 9 su* a city4#ab ,footnote #a3 ,x is n int5d$ to d5y t !re may be in/ances 9 :i* ! /ate gov]nm5t may advantage\sly p>ticipate 9 ! gov]nm5t ( cities4 ,x may be urg$ t1 9 ! case ( great cities1 l ,new ,york or ,bo/on1 _m p :o are n resid5ts ei!r d bus9ess 9 ! city or h va/ bus9ess int]e/s !re1 & ?us may be z deeply int]e/$ 9 its welf>e z any ( ! vot]s4 ,x may also be said t /ate provisions = city gov]nm5t d n always "w badly4 ,!re are _m compet5t judges :o approve ( ! appo9tm5t ( police commission]s by ! executive ( ,massa*usetts4 ,!re are g5]ally two sides to a "q2 & to pu% a doctr9e to extremes is to make oneself a doctr9aire r ?an a wise citiz54 ,b exp]i5ce cle>ly %[s t 9 all d\btful cases x is saf] to let ! balance incl9e 9 fav\r ( local self-gov]nm5t ?an ! o!r way4 ,moreov]1 ev5 if legislatures 7 o!rwise compet5t to manage ! local affairs ( cities1 !y h n "t en\gh1 amid ! pressure ( o!r duties1 to d ju/ice to su* matt]s4 ,9 #ahgj ! numb] ( acts pass$ by ! ,new ,york legislature 0 #hjh4 ,( ^!1 #bab1 or m ?an "o f\r? ( ! :ole1 relat$ to cities & villages4 ,! #hjh acts1 :5 pr9t$1 fill$ ab\t #b1jjj octavo pages2 & ( ^! ! #bab acts fill$ m ?an #a1ejj pages4 ,?is illu/rates :at ,i said above ab\t ! va/ quantity ( details :i* h to be regulat$ 9 municipal gov]nm5t4 ,"h we h m ?an ?ree f\r?s ( ! volume ( /ate-legislation devot$ to local affairs2 & x h>dly ne$ be add$ t a great "p ( ^! enactm5ts 7 worse ?an wor?less because !y 7 made ha/ily & )\t due consid]ation1--?\gh n always1 p]haps1 )\t :at lawy]s call a consid]ation4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,no?+ c\ld be fur!r f my ?\ght ?an to ca/ any special imputation ^u ! ,new ,york legislature1 :i* is probably a fair av]age specim5 ( law-mak+ bodies4 ,! !ory ( legislative bodies1 z laid d[n 9 text-books1 is t !y are assembl$ = ! purpose ( enact+ laws = ! welf>e ( ! community 9 g5]al4 ,9 po9t ( fact !y seldom rise to su* a l(ty height ( dis9t]e/$ness4 ,legislation is usually a mad scramble 9 :i* ! f9al result1 be x good or bad1 gets evolv$ out ( compromises & b>ga9s among a sw>m ( cla%+ local & p]sonal int]e/s4 ,! consid]ation may be any?+ f log-roll+ to brib]y4 ,9 ,am]ican legislatures x is to be hop$ t d[nright brib]y is r>e4 ,z = log-roll+1 or ex*ange ( fav\rs1 !re are _m phases ( x 9 :i* t :i* may be p]fectly innoc5t %ades (f by almo/ imp]ceptible degrees into t :i* is unseemly or di%on\rable or ev5 crim9al2 & x is 9 ?is hazy region t ,satan likes to set 8 traps = ! unw>y pilgrim4 ,sid5ote3 ,twe$ ,r+ 9 ,new ,york4 ,! exp]i5ce ( ,new ,york ?us prov$ t /ate int]v5tion & special legislation did n m5d matt]s4 ,x did n prev5t ! %ameful rule ( ! ,twe$ ,r+ f #ahfh to #ahga1 :5 a small b& ( conspirators got !mselves elect$ or appo9t$ to ! pr9cipal city (fices1 &1 hav+ _h _! own corrupt creatures *os5 judges ( ! city c\rts1 proce$$ to rob ! taxpay]s at _! leisure4 ,by ! "t !y 7 discov]$ & br\ght to ju/ice1 _! /eal+s am\nt$ to _m millions ( doll>s1 & ! rate ( taxation _h ris5 to m ?an two p] c5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,new exp]im5ts4 ,! discov]y ( ^! :olesale robb]ies1 & ( o!r villa9ies on a small] scale 9 o!r cities1 has l$ to mu* discussion ( ! problems ( municipal gov]nm5t1 & to _m attempts at practical re=m4 ,! pres5t is especially a p]iod ( exp]im5ts1 yet 9 ^! exp]im5ts p]haps a g5]al drift ( op9ion may be disc]n$4 ,p seem to be com+ to reg>d cities m z if !y 7 huge bus9ess corporations ?an z if !y 7 little republics4 ,! lesson has be5 le>n$ t 9 executive matt]s too mu* limitation ( p[] entails de/ruction ( responsibility2 ! r+ is n[ m dread$ ?an ! "o-man p[]2 & !re is accord+ly a manife/ t5d5cy to assail ! evil by conc5trat+ p[] & responsibility 9 ! mayor4 ,sid5ote3 ,new gov]nm5t ( ,brooklyn4 ,! fir/ great city to adopt ?is me?od 0 ,brooklyn4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! city c\ncil 0 simplifi$ & made a "o-*amb]$ c\ncil consi/+ ( n9ete5 ald]m54 ,besides ?is c\ncil ( ald]m51 ! p elect only ?ree city (fic]s1--! mayor1 comptroll]1 & auditor4 ,! comptroll] is ! pr9cipal f9ance (fic] & book-keep] ( ! city2 & ! auditor mu/ approve bills aga9/ ! city1 :e!r great or small1 be=e !y c be paid4 ,! mayor appo9ts1 )\t confirmation by ! c\ncil1 all executive heads ( dep>tm5ts2 & ^! executive heads are individuals1 n bo>ds4 ,?us !re is a s+le police commission]1 a s+le fire commission]1 a s+le heal? commission]1 & s on2 & ea* ( ^! heads appo9ts 8 own subord9ates2 s t ! pr9ciple ( def9$ responsibility p]meates ! city gov]nm5t f top to bottom1#ad ,9 a few cases1 :]e ! "w to be done is r discretion>y ?an executive 9 "*1 x is intru/$ to a bo>d2 ?us !re is a bo>d ( assessors1 a bo>d ( education1 & a bo>d ( elections4 ,^! are all appo9t$ by ! mayor1 b = t]ms n co9cid+ ) 8 own2 s t1 9 mo/ cases1 no mayor w\ld appo9t ! :ole ( any su* bo>d unless he 7 to be twice elect$ by ! p4 ,b ! executive (fic]s are appo9t$ by ! mayor = t]ms co9cid5t ) 8 own1 t is = two ye>s4 ,! mayor is elect$ at ! g5]al election 9 ,novemb]2 he takes (fice on ! fir/ ( ,janu>y foll[+1 & = "o mon? ! great dep>tm5ts ( ! city are c>ri$ on = him by ! appo9tees ( 8 pr$ecessor4 ,on ! fir/ ( ,febru>y x becomes 8 duty to appo9t 8 own heads ( dep>tm5ts1 & ?us ea* incom+ mayor has ! opportunity to make an adm9i/ration 9 all its p>ts 9 sympa?y ) himself4 ,footnote #ad3 ,se? ,l[ on ,municipal ,gov]nm5t1 9 ,bryce's ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 vol4 i4 p4 #fbf4 ,) all ^! imm5se executive p[]s entru/$ to ! mayor1 h[ev]1 he does n hold ! purse-/r+s4 ,he is a memb] ( a bo>d ( e/imate1 ( :i* ! o!r f\r memb]s are ! comptroll] & auditor1 ) ! c\nty treasur] & sup]visor4 ,?is bo>d recomm5ds ! am\nts to be rais$ by taxation = ! ensu+ ye>4 ,^! e/imates are !n laid be=e ! c\ncil ( ald]m51 :o may cut d[n s+le items z !y see fit1 b h n ! p[] to increase any item4 ,! mayor mu/ see to x t ! adm9i/rative "w ( ! ye> does n use up m money ?an is ?us all[$ him4 ,sid5ote3 ,"s ( its m]its4 ,?is ,brooklyn sy/em has great m]its4 ,x ensures unity ( adm9i/ration1 x enc\rages promptness & economy1 x locates & def9es responsibility1 & x is s simple t ev]ybody c und]/& x4 ,! p1 hav+ b few (fic]s to elect1 are m likely to "k some?+ ab\t !m4 ,especially s9ce ev]ybody und]/&s t ! success ( ! gov]nm5t dep5ds ^u ! "* ( ! mayor1 extraord9>y pa9s are tak5 to secure good mayors2 & ! increas$ int]e/ 9 city politics is %[n by ! fact t 9 ,brooklyn m p vote = mayor ?an = gov]nor or = presid5t4 ,fifty ye>s ago su* a r$uction 9 ! numb] ( elective (fic]s w\ld h greatly %ock$ all good ,am]icans4 ,b ,9 po9t ( fact1 :ile 9 small t[n%ips :]e ev]ybody kn[s ev]ybody popul> control is be/ ensur$ by elect+ all public (fic]s1 x is v diff]5t 9 great cities :]e x is impossible t ! vot]s 9 g5]al %\ld "k mu* ab\t ! qualifications ( a long li/ ( c&idates4 ,9 su* cases citiz5s are apt to vote bl9dly = names ab\t :i* !y "k no?+ except t !y occur on a ,republican or a ,democratic ticket2 al?\gh1 if ! object ( a municipal election is simply to secure an upright & effici5t municipal gov]nm5t1 to elect a city magi/rate because he is a ,republican or a ,democrat is ab\t z s5sible z to elect him because he believes 9 homoeopa?y or has a ta/e = *rysan!mums4#ae ,to vote = c&idates :om "o has nev] he>d ( is n to insure popul> control1 b to endang] x4 ,x is mu* bett] to vote = "o man ^: reputation we "k1 & !n to hold him /rictly responsible = ! appo9tm5ts he makes4 ,! ,brooklyn sy/em seems to be a /ep t[>d lift+ city gov]nm5t out ( ! mire ( p>ty politics4 ,footnote #ae3 ,( c\rse f ! po9t ( view ( ! p>ty politician1 x ,is q diff]5t4 ,ea* p>ty has its elaborate ma*9e = elect+ /ate & national (fic]s2 & 9 ord] to be kept at its maximum ( effici5cy ! ma*9e mu/ be kept at "w on all occasions1 :e!r su* occasions are prop]ly conc]n$ ) diff]5ces 9 p>ty politics or n4 ,to ! p>ty politician x ( c\rse makes a great diff]5ce :e!r a city magi/rate is a ,republican or a ,democrat4 ,to him ev5 ! political complexion ( 8 mail-c>ri] is a matt] ( importance4 ,b ^! illu/rations only %[ t p>ty politics may be c>ri$ to extremes t are inconsi/5t ) ! be/ int]e/s ( ! community4 ,once 9 a :ile x becomes necess>y to tea* p>ty organizations to "k _! place1 & to rem9d !m t !y are n ! lords & ma/]s b ! s]vants & in/rum5ts ( ! p4 ,?is sy/em w5t into op]ation 9 ,brooklyn 9 ,janu>y1 #ahhb1 & seems to h giv5 g5]al satisfaction4 ,s9ce !n *anges 9 a simil> direction1 ?\gh ) v>iations 9 detail1 h be5 made 9 o!r cities1 & notably 9 ,philadelphia4 ,sid5ote3 ,notion t ! suffrage ought to be re/rict$4 ,9 speak+ ( ! difficulties :i* beset city gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 m5tion is (t5 7& p]haps too exclusively7 made ( ! great mass ( ignorant vot]s1 *iefly =eign]s )\t exp]i5ce 9 self-gov]nm5t1 ) no compreh5sion ( ,am]ican pr9ciples & traditions1 & ) little or no prop]ty to suff] f excessive taxation4 ,su* p w naturally h slight compunctions ab\t vot+ away o!r p's money2 inde$1 !y are apt to ?9k t ! ,gov]nm5t has got ,aladd9's lamp hidd5 away some:]e 9 a burgl>-pro( safe1 & c\ld d pretty mu* ev]y?+ t is want$1 if x only w\ld4 ,9 ! h&s ( demagogues su* p may be dang]\s1 !y are suppos$ to be especially accessible to humbug & bribes1 & _! votes h no d\bt be5 us$ to su/a9 & p]petuate mo/ flagrant abuses4 ,we (t5 he> x said t ! only way to get good gov]nm5t is to deprive su* p ( _! votes & limit ! suffrage to p]sons :o h "s prop]ty at /ake4 ,su* a measure has be5 s]i\sly recomm5d$ 9 ,new ,york1 b x is g5]ally felt to be impossible )\t a revolution4 ,sid5ote3 ,te/imony ( ,p5nsylvania ,municipal ,commission4 ,p]haps1 aft] all1 x may n be s desirable z x seems4 ,! ignorant vote has done a great deal ( h>m1 b n all ! h>m4 ,9 #ahgh x 0 report$ by ! ,p5nsylvania ,municipal ,commission1 z a rem>kable b notori\s fact1 t ! accumulations ( debt 9 ,philadelphia & o!r cities ( ! /ate h be5 due1 n to a non-prop]ty-hold+1 irresponsible elem5t among ! electors1 b to ! desire = speculation among ! prop]ty-own]s !mselves4 ,l>ge tracts ( l& outside ! built-up portion ( ! city h be5 pur*as$1 comb9ations made among m5 ( weal?1 & c\ncils besieg$ until !y h be5 driv5 into mak+ appropriations to op5 & improve /reets & av5ues1 l>gely 9 advance ( ! real necessities ( ! city4 ,extraord9>y z ! /atem5t may seem at fir/1 ! exp]i5ce ( ! pa/ %[s cle>ly t frequ5tly prop]ty-own]s ne$ m protection aga9/ !mselves ?an aga9/ ! non-prop]ty-hold+ class4#af ,?is is a /atem5t ( pr(\nd significance1 & %\ld be duly pond]$ by advocates ( a re/rict$ suffrage4 ,footnote #af3 ,all9son & ,p5rose1 ,philadelphia1 #afha-ahhg2 a ,hi/ory ( ,municipal ,developm5t1 p4 #bgh4 ,sid5ote3 ,dang]s ( a re/rict$ suffrage4 ,x %\ld also be borne 9 m9d t1 :ile ignorant & ne$y vot]s1 l$ by unscrupul\s demagogues1 are capable ( do+ mu* h>m ) _! votes1 x is by no means cle> t ! evil w\ld be remov$ by depriv+ !m ( ! suffrage4 ,x is v unsafe to h 9 any community a l>ge class ( p :o feel t political rights or privileges are )held f !m by o!r p :o are _! sup]iors 9 weal? or k4 ,su* poor p are apt to h exagg]at$ ideas ( :at a vote c d2 v likely !y ?9k x is because !y d n h votes t !y are poor2 ?us !y are ready to ent]ta9 revolution>y or an>*ical ideas1 & are likely to be m dang]\s mat]ial 9 ! h&s ( demagogues ?an if !y 7 all[$ to vote4 ,univ]sal suffrage has its evils1 b x und\bt$ly acts z a safety-valve4 ,! only cure = ! evils :i* come f ignorance & %iftlessness is ! abolition ( ignorance & %iftlessness2 & ?is is sl[ "w4 ,*ur* & s*ool "h f9d en\gh to keep !m busy2 b ! vote itself1 ev5 if (t5 misus$1 is a p[]ful educator2 & we ne$ n regret t ! re/riction ( ! suffrage has come to be practically impossible4 ,sid5ote3 ,baneful effects ( mix+ city politics ) national politics4 ,! purification ( our city gov]nm5ts w nev] be complet$ until !y are entirely divorc$ f national p>ty politics4 ,! connection op5s a limitless field = log-roll+1 & rivets ^u cities ! spoils sy/em1 :i* is always & ev]y:]e incompatible ) good gov]nm5t4 ,x is wor?y ( note t ! degradation ( s _m ,engli% bor\ghs & cities dur+ ! ,tudor & ,/u>t p]iods 0 *iefly due to ! encroa*m5t ( national politics ^u municipal politics4 ,because ! bor\gh return$ memb]s to ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 x became wor? :ile = ! cr[n to intrigue ) ! municipal gov]nm5t1 ) ! ultimate object ( influ5c+ p>liam5t>y elections4 ,! melan*oly hi/ory ( ! consequ5t dick]+ & deal+1 jobb]y & robb]y1 d[n to #ahce1 :5 ! great ,municipal ,corporations ,act swept x all away1 may be read ) pr(it by all ,am]icans4#ag ,x 0 ! city ( ,london only1 ^: p[] & indep5d5ce _h kept x free f complications ) national politics1 t avoid$ ! abuses else:]e preval5t1 s t x 0 except$ f ! provisions ( ! ,act ( #ahce1 & /ill reta9s its anci5t con/itution4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see ,p>liam5t>y ,reports1 #ahce1 ,municipal ,corporations ,commission2 also ,sir ,ersk9e ,may1 ,con/4 ,hi/41 vol4 ii4 *ap1 xv4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! entanglem5t ( municipal ) national politics has begun to be reg>d$ z mis*iev\s & possibly dang]\s1 & attempts h 9 "s cases be5 made t[>d *eck+ x by *ang+ ! days ( election1 s t municipal (fic]s may n be *os5 at ! same "t ) presid5tial electors4 ,su* a *ange is desirable1 b to obta9 a ?or\ghly satisfactory result1 x w be necess>y to de/roy ! spoils sy/em root & bran*1 & to adopt effective measures ( ballot re=m4 ,to ^! topics ,i %all recur :5 treat+ ( our national gov]nm5t4 ,b fir/ we %all h to consid] ! developm5t ( our sev]al /ates4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 ,give an acc\nt ( city gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 "u ! foll[+ heads3-- #a4 ,! ,am]ican city3-- a4 ,! mayor4 b4 ,! heads ( dep>tm5ts4 c4 ,! city c\ncil4 d4 ,! judges4 e4 ,appropriations4 f4 ,! p[] ( committees4 #b4 ,! practical work+s ( city gov]nm5ts3-- a4 ,! contra/ !y %[ betwe5 !ory & practice4 b4 ,v>i\s compla9ts urg$ aga9/ city gov]nm5ts4 c4 ,_! effect ^u ! old-"t confid5ce 9 ! p]fection ( our in/itutions4 #c4 ,! gr[? ( ,am]ican cities3-- a4 ,! cities ( ,wa%+ton's "t & ^? ( to-day4 b4 ,! population ( cities 9 #agij & _! population to-day4 c4 ,city gr[? s9ce #ahdj4 #d4 ,"s consequ5ces ( rapid city gr[?3-- a4 ,! pressure to con/ruct public works4 b4 ,! incurr+ ( heavy debts4 c4 ,! wa/efulness due to a lack ( =esight4 d4 ,! increase 9 gov]nm5t due to ! complexity ( a city4 e4 ,an illu/ration ( ?is complexity 9 ,bo/on4 f4 ,! consequ5t my/]y t en%r\ds mu* ( city gov]nm5t4 #e4 ,"s evils due to ! fe> ( a "o-man p[]3-- a4 ,! objection to su* p[] a c5tury ago4 b4 ,re/rictions impos$ ^u ! mayor's p[]4 c4 ,! division & weak5+ ( responsibility4 d4 ,! lack ( unity 9 ! adm9i/ration ( bus9ess4 e4 ,! ineffici5cy ( committees = executive purposes4 f4 ,! al>m+ increase 9 city debts4 #f4 ,attempts to rem$y "s ( ! evils ( city gov]nm5t3-- a4 ,! p[] ( veto grant$ to ! mayor4 b4 ,! limitation ( city indebt$ness4 c4 ,/ate control ( "s city dep>tm5ts4 #g4 ,difficulties inh]5t 9 /ate control ( cities3-- a4 ,lack ( famili>ity ) city affairs4 b4 ,! t5d5cy to log-roll+4 c4 ,lack ( "t due to ! pressure ( /ate affairs4 d4 ,! failure ( /ate control z %[n 9 ! rule ( ! ,twe$ r+4 #h4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ! city ( ,brooklyn3-- a4 ,! elevation ( ! "o-man p[] above t ( ! r+4 b4 ,(fic]s elect$ by ! p4 c4 ,(fic]s appo9t$ by ! mayor4 d4 ,! pr9ciple ( well-def9$ responsibility4 e4 ,! appo9tm5t ( c]ta9 bo>ds by ! mayor4 f4 ,! hold+ ( ! purse-/r+s4 g4 ,! inadequacy ( ! t[n%ip elective sy/em1 9 a city l ,brooklyn4 #i4 ,re/riction ( ! suffrage3-- a4 ,! dang]s f l>ge masses ( ignorant vot]s4 b4 ,! responsibility = ! debt ( ,philadelphia & o!r cities4 c4 ,! dang]s f l>ge classes :o feel t political rights are d5i$ !m4 d4 ,suffrage z a safety-valve4 #aj4 ,! mixture ( city politics ) ^? ( ! /ate or nation3 a4 ,! degradation ( ! ,engli% bor\gh4 b4 ,! exemption1 ( ,london f ! ,municipal ,corporations ,act4 c4 ,! importance ( sep>ate days = municipal elections4 d4 ,! importance ( aboli%+ ! spoils sy/em4 ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions4 7,*iefly = pupils :o live 9 cities47 #a4 ,:5 0 y\r city organiz$8 #b4 ,give "s acc\nt ( its gr[?1 its size1 & its pres5t population4 ,h[ _m w>ds has x8 ,give _! b\nd>ies4 ,9 :i* w>d d y live8 #c4 ,exam9e its *>t]1 & report a few ( its lead+ provisions4 #d4 ,:at description ( gov]nm5t 9 ?is *apt] comes ne>e/ to t ( y\r city8 #e4 ,consid] ! sugge/ions ab\t ! /udy ( t[n gov]nm5t 7pp4 #dc1 #dd71 & act ^u su* ( !m z are applicable to city gov]nm5t4 #f4 ,:at is ! g5]al impression ab\t ! purity ( y\r city gov]nm5t8 7,consult sev]al citiz5s & report :at y f9d out47 #g4 ,:at important caution %\ld be obs]v$ ab\t vague rum\rs ( ineffici5cy or corruption8 #h4 ,:at are ! evid5ces ( a s\nd f9ancial condition 9 a city8 #i4 ,is ! f9ancial condition ( y\r city s\nd8 #aj4 ,:5 debts are incurr$1 are provisions made at ! same "t = meet+ !m :5 due8 #aa4 ,:at are s9k+ funds8 #ab4 ,:at wants has a city t a t[n is free f8 #ac4 ,describe y\r sy/em ( public wat] works1 mak+ an analysis ( important po9ts t may be pres5t$4 #ad4 ,d ! same = y\r p>k sy/em or any o!r sy/em t involves a long "t = its completion z well z a great outlay4 #ae4 ,are ! pr9ciples ( civil s]vice re=m recogniz$ 9 y\r city8 ,if s1 to :at ext5t8 ,d !y ne$ to be ext5d$ fur!r8 #af4 ,describe ! p>ties t cont5d$ = ! supremacy 9 y\r la/ city election & tell :at que/ions 7 at issue betwe5 !m4 #ag4 ,:at great corporations exact an influ5ce 9 y\r city affairs8 ,is su* influ5ce bad because x is great8 ,:at is a possible dang] f su* influ5ce8 #ah4 ,9 view ( ! va/ numb] & range ( city int]e/s1 :at is ! mo/ t ! av]age citiz5 c reasonably be ask$ to "k & to d ab\t !m8 ,:at ?+s is x indisp5sable = him to "k & to d is he is to contribute to good gov]nm5t8 ,,biographical ,,note4 ,section #a4 ,,direct ,,& ,,indirect ,,gov]nm5t4--,! transition f direct to indirect gov]nm5t1 z illu/rat$ 9 ! gradual developm5t ( a t[n%ip into a city1 may be pr(itably /udi$ 9 ,qu9cy's ,municipal ,hi/ory ( ,bo/on1 ,bo/on1 #aheb2 & 9 ,w9sor's ,memorial ,hi/ory ( ,bo/on1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ahi-cjb1 ,bo/on1 #ahha4 ,section #b4 ,,orig9 ,,( ,,engli% ,,bor\ghs ,,& ,,cities4--,see ,l(tie's ,hi/ory ( ,london1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahhc2 ,t\lm9 ,smi?'s ,engli% ,gilds1 ) ,introduction by ,lujo ,br5tano1 ,london1 #ahgj2 & ! hi/ories ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution1 especially ^? ( ,gnei/1 ,/ubbs1 ,taswell-,langmead1 & ,hannis ,taylor4 ,section #c4 ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,cities ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4--,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,,iii41 xi4-xii41 ,j4,a4 ,port]1 ,! ,city ( ,wa%+ton2 ,,iv41 iv41 ,w4,p4 ,holcomb1 ,p5nsylvania ,bor\ghs2 ,,iv41 x41 ,c4,h4 ,lov]more1 ,t[n & ,city ,gov]nm5t ( ,new ,hav52 ,v41 i4-ii41 ,all9son & ,p5rose1 ,city ,gov]nm5t ( ,philadelphia2 ,v41 iii41 ,j4,m4 ,bugbee1 ,! ,city ,gov]nm5t ( ,bo/on2 ,v41 iv41 ,m4,s4 ,sn[1 ,! ,city ,gov]nm5t ( ,/4 ,l\is2 ,,vii41 ii4-iii41 ,b4 ,moses1 ,e/abli%m5t ( ,municipal ,gov]nm5t 9 ,san ,francisco2 ,,vii41 iv41 ,w4,w4 ,h[e1 ,municipal ,hi/ory ( ,new ,orleans2 also ,supplem5t>y ,notes1 ,no4 #d1 ,se? ,l[1 ,! ,problem ( ,city ,gov]nm5t 7comp>e ,no4 #a1 ,alb]t ,%aw1 ,municipal ,gov]nm5t 9 ,engl&47 ,see1 also1 ! supplem5t>y volumes publi%$ at ,baltimore1--,lev]more's ,republic ( ,new ,hav51 #ahhf1 ,all9son & ,p5rose's ,philadelphia1 #afha-ahhg3 a ,hi/ory ( ,municipal ,developm5t1 #ahhg4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,/ate4 ,section #a4 ,! ,colonial ,gov]nm5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,claims ( ,spa9 to ! possession ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ! ye> #afjj ,spa9 0 ! only ,european nation :i* _h obta9$ a foo?old ^u ! "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica n[ compris$ )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,spa9 claim$ ! :ole cont95t on ! /r5g? ( ! bulls ( #adic & #adid1 9 :i* ,pope ,alex&] ,,vi4 grant$ h] all c\ntries to be discov]$ to ! we/ ( a c]ta9 m]idian :i*1 happ5s to pass a little to ! ea/ ( ,newf\ndl&4 ,f _! fir/ c5tre 9 ! ,we/ ,indies ! ,spani>ds _h made a lodgm5t 9 ,florida1 at ,/4 ,augu/9e1 9 #aefe2 & f ,mexico !y _h 9 #afje f\nd$ ,santa ,f1 9 :at is n[ ! t]ritory ( ,new ,mexico4 ,sid5ote3 ,claims ( ,france & ,engl&4 ,france & ,engl&1 h[ev]1 paid little he$ to ! claim ( ,spa94 ,france _h h] own claim to ,nor? ,am]ica1 bas$ on ! voyages ( discov]y made by ,v]razano 9 #aebd & ,c>ti] 9 #aecd1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* ,new ,york h>b\r _h be5 visit$ & ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce p>tly explor$4 ,engl& _h a /ill e>li] claim1 bas$ on ! discov]y ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t 9 #adig by ,john ,cabot4 ,x pres5tly became app>5t t to make su* claims ( any value1 discov]y mu/ be foll[$ up by occupation ( ! c\ntry4 ,attempts at colonization _h be5 made by ,fr5* ,prote/ants 9 ,florida 9 #aefb-fe1 & by ! ,engli% 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a 9 #aehd-hg1 b bo? attempts _h fail$ mis]ably4 ,?r\gh\t ! sixte5? c5tury ,fr5* & ,engli% sailors kept visit+ ! ,newf\ndl& fi%]ies1 & by ! end ( ! c5tury ! ,fr5* & ,engli% gov]nm5ts _h _! att5tion def9itely turn$ to ! f\nd+ ( colonies 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,london & ,plym\? ,companies4 ,9 #afjf two great jo9t-/ock companies 7 =m$ 9 ,engl& = ! purpose ( plant+ su* colonies4 ,"o ( ^! companies _h its headqu>t]s at ,london1 & 0 call$ ! ,london ,company2 ! o!r _h its headqu>t]s at ! seaport ( ,plym\?1 9 ,devon%ire1 & 0 call$ ! ,plym\? ,company4 ,to ! ,london ,company ! k+ grant$ ! coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica f #cd to #ch nor? latitude2 t is1 ab\t f ,cape ,fe> to ! m\? ( ! ,rappahannock4 ,to ! ,plym\? ,company he grant$ ! coa/ f #da to #de2 t is1 ab\t f ! m\? ( ! ,hudson to ! ea/]n extremity ( ,ma9e4 ,^! grants 7 to g 9 /raight /rips or zones across ! cont95t f ! ,atlantic ,ocean to ! ,pacific4 ,almo/ no?+ 0 !n kn[n ab\t ,am]ican geography2 ! di/ance f ocean to ocean across ,mexico 0 n s v great1 & p did n realize t fur!r nor? x 0 q a diff]5t ?+4 ,z to ! middle /rip1 />t+ f ! coa/ betwe5 ! ,rappahannock & ! ,hudson1 x 0 op5 to ! two companies1 ) ! und]/&+ t nei!r 0 to plant a colony )9 #ajj miles ( any settlem5t already begun by ! o!r4 ,?is meant practically t x 0 likely to be controll$ by :i*ev] company %\ld fir/ come into ! field ) a fl\ri%+ colony4 ,accord+ly bo? companies made ha/e & s5t out settl]s 9 #afjg1 ! "o to ! ,james ,riv]1 ! o!r to ! ,k5nebec4 ,! fir/ ent]prise1 aft] mu* suff]+1 result$ 9 ! f\nd+ ( ,virg9ia2 ! second end$ 9 disa/]1 & x 0 n until #afbj t ! ,pilgrims f ,leyd5 made ! beg9n+s ( a p]man5t settlem5t ^u ! t]ritory ( ! ,plym\? ,company4 ,sid5ote3 ,_! common *>t]4 ,^! two companies 7 at fir/ organiz$ "u a s+le *>t]4 ,ea* 0 to be gov]n$ by a c\ncil 9 ,engl& appo9t$ by ! k+1 & ^! c\ncils 7 to appo9t c\ncils ( ?irte5 to reside 9 ! colonies1 ) p[]s practically unlimit$4 ,nev]!less ! k+ cov5ant$ ) 8 coloni/s z foll[s3 ,also we d1 = u1 our heirs & successors1 decl>e by ^! pres5ts t all & e ! p]sons1 be+ our subjects1 :i* %all g & inhabit )9 ! said colony & plantation1 & e _! *ildr5 & po/]ity1 :i* %all happ5 to be born )9 any ( ! limits !re(1 %all h & enjoy all lib]ties1 fran*ises1 & immunities ( free d5iz5s & natural subjects )9 any ( our o!r dom9ions1 to all int5ts & purposes z if !y _h be5 abid+ & born )9 ?is our realm ( ,engl&1 or 9 any o!r ( our dom9ions4 ,?is pr9ciple1 t ,briti% subjects born 9 ,am]ica %\ld be entitl$ to ! same political fre$om z if born 9 ,engl&1 0 "o ^u :i* ! coloni/s always insi/$1 & x 0 ! repeat$ & p]si/5t attempts ( ,george ,,iii4 to infr+e x t l$ ! ,am]ican colonies to revolt & decl>e !mselves indep5d5t ( ,great ,brita94 ,sid5ote3 ,dissolution ( ! two companies4 ,sid5ote3 ,settlem5t ( ! ?ree zones4 ,bo? ! companies f\nd$ 9 #afjf 7 %ort-liv$4 ,9 #afbj ! ,plym\? ,company got a new *>t]1 :i* made x indep5d5t ( ! ,london ,company4 ,9 #afbd ! k+1 ,james ,i41 qu>rel$ ) ! ,london ,company1 br\ght suit aga9/ x 9 c\rt1 & obta9$ f ! subs]vi5t judges a decree annull+ its *>t]4 ,9 #afce ! reorganiz$ ,plym\? ,company surr5d]$ its *>t] to ,*>les ,i4 9 pursuance ( a b>ga9 :i* ne$ n "h conc]n u4#a ,b ! creation ( ^! %ort-liv$ companies left an abid+ impression ^u ! map ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ^u ! organization ( civil gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,let u obs]ve :at 0 done ) ! ?ree /rips or zones into :i* ! c\ntry 0 divid$3 ! nor!rn or ,new ,engl& zone1 assign$ to ! ,plym\? ,company2 ! s\!rn or ,virg9ia zone1 assign$ to ! ,london ,company2 & ! c5tral zone1 = :i* ! two companies 71 s to speak1 to run a race4 ,footnote #a3 ,see my ,beg9n+s ( ,new ,engl&1 p4 #aab4 ,sid5ote3 #a4 ! nor!rn zone4 ,sid5ote3 #b4 ,! s\!rn zone4 ,9 #affc ,*>les ,,ii4 cut (f ! s\!rn "p ( ,virg9ia1 ! area cov]+ ! pres5t /ates ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,georgia1 & x 0 =m$ into a new prov9ce call$ ,c>ol9a4 ,9 #agbi ! two gr\ps ( settlem5ts :i* _h gr[n up along its coa/ 7 def9itively sep>at$ into ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a2 & 9 #agcb ! fronti] portion t[>d ,florida 0 organiz$ into ! colony ( ,georgia4 ,?us f\r ( ! orig9al ?irte5 /ates--,virg9ia1 ! two ,c>ol9as1 & ,georgia--7 con/itut$ 9 ! s\!rn zone4 ,to ?is gr\p "s writ]s add ,m>yl&1 f\nd$ 9 #afcb1 because its t]ritory _h be5 claim$ by ! ,london ,company2 b ! e>lie/ settlem5ts 9 ,m>yl&1 its pr9cipal t[ns1 & almo/ ! :ole ( its t]ritory1 come nor? ( latitude #ch & )9 ! middle zone4 ,sid5ote3 #c4 ,! middle zone4 ,betwe5 ! ye>s #afad & #afba ! ,dut* f\nd$ _! colony ( ,new ,ne!rl& ^u ! t]ritory includ$ betwe5 ! ,hudson & ,delaw>e riv]s1 or1 z !y q naturally call$ !m1 ! ,nor? & ,s\? riv]s4 ,!y pu%$ _! outpo/s up ! ,hudson z f> z ! site ( ,albany1 ?us intrud+ f> into ! nor!rn zone4 ,9 #afch ,sw$5 plant$ a small colony ^u ! we/ side ( ,delaw>e ,bay1 b 9 #afee x 0 surr5d]$ to ! ,dut*4 ,!n 9 #affd ! ,engli% took ,new ,ne!rl& f ! ,dut*1 & ,*>les ,,ii4 grant$ ! prov9ce to 8 bro!r1 ! ,duke ( ,york4 ,! duke proce$$ to grant "p ( x to 8 fri5ds1 ,b]keley & ,c>t]et1 & ?us m>k$ (f ! new colony ( ,new ,j]sey4 ,9 #afha ! region we/ ( ,new ,j]sey 0 grant$ to ,william ,p5n1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> ,p5n b\ght f ! ,duke ( ,york ! small piece ( t]ritory ^u :i* ! ,sw$es _h plant$ _! colony4 ,delaw>e ?us became an app5dage to ,p5n's great] colony1 b 0 nev] m]g$ 9 x4 ,?us five ( ! orig9al ?irte5 /ates--,m>yl&1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 & ,delaw>e--7 con/itut$ 9 ! middle zone4 ,z we h already obs]v$1 ! we/w>d movem5t ( population 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has l>gely foll[$ ! p>allels ( latitude1 & ?us ! *>act]i/ics ( ^! ?ree orig9al /rips or zones h1 ) m or less modification1 ext5d$ we/w>d4 ,! m5 ( ,new ,engl&1 ) _! ,portl& & ,salem reproduc$ m ?an #cjjj miles di/ant 9 ! /ate ( ,oregon1 & )9 #ajj miles ( ! ,pacific ,ocean1 may be said 9 a c]ta9 s5se to h realiz$ lit]ally ! sub/ance ( ,k+ ,james's grant to ! ,plym\? ,company4 ,x w be notic$ t ! k9ds ( local gov]nm5t describ$ 9 our e>li] *apt]s are *>act]i/ic respectively ( ! ?ree orig9al zones3 ! t[n%ip sy/em be+ exemplifi$ *iefly 9 ! nor!rn zone1 ! c\nty sy/em 9 ! s\!rn zone1 & ! mix$ t[n%ip-c\nty sy/em 9 ! c5tral zone4 ,sid5ote3 ,h\se ( ,burgesses 9 ,virg9ia4 ,! ,london & ,plym\? companies did n p]i% until aft] /ate gov]nm5ts _h be5 organiz$ 9 ! colonies already f\nd$ ^u _! t]ritories4 ,9 #afai ! coloni/s ( ,virg9ia1 ) ! aid ( ! m lib]al spirits 9 ! ,london ,company1 secur$ = !mselves a repres5tative gov]nm5t2 to ! gov]nor & 8 c\ncil1 appo9t$ 9 ,engl&1 !re 0 add$ a g5]al assembly compos$ ( two burgesses f ea* plantation1 #b elect$ by ! inhabitants4 ,?is assembly1 ! fir/ legislative body t ev] sat 9 ,am]ica1 met on ! #cj? ( ,july1 #afai1 9 ! *oir ( ! rude *ur* at ,jame/[n4 ,! dignity ( ! burgesses 0 pres]v$1 z 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 by sitt+ ) _! hats on2 & aft] (f]+ pray]1 & tak+ ! oa? ( allegiance & supremacy1 !y proce$$ to enact a numb] ( laws relat+ to public wor%ip1 to agriculture1 & to int]c\rse ) ! ,indians4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 s confid5t 0 ! belief ( ! settl]s t !y 7 f\nd+ t[ns1 t !y call$ _! repres5tatives burgesses1 & d[n to #aggf ! assembly cont9u$ to be kn[n z ! ,h\se ( ,burgesses1 al?\gh t[ns refus$ to gr[ 9 ,virg9ia1 & soon aft] c\nties 7 organiz$ 9 #afcd ! burgesses sat = c\nties4 ,su* 7 ! beg9n+s ( repres5tative gov]nm5t 9 ,virg9ia4 ,footnote #b3 ,! ^w plantation is "h us$1 n 9 its lat] & ord9>y s5se1 z ! e/ate belong+ to an individual plant]1 b 9 an e>li] s5se4 ,9 ?is e>ly usage x 0 equival5t to settlem5t4 ,x 0 us$ 9 ,new ,engl& z well z 9 ,virg9ia2 ?us ,salem 0 spok5 ( by ! c\rt ( assi/ants 9 #afbi z ,new ,engl&'s ,plantation4 ,sid5ote3 ,company ( ,massa*usetts ,bay4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts is desc5d$ f ! ,dor*e/] ,company =m$ 9 ,engl& 9 #afbc1 = ! o/5sible purpose ( trad+ 9 furs & timb] & cat*+ fi% on ! %ores ( ,massa*usetts ,bay4 ,aft] a disa/r\s beg9n+ ?is company 0 dissolv$1 b only to be imm$iately reorganiz$ on a great] scale4 ,9 #afbh a grant ( ! l& betwe5 ! ,*>les & ,m]rimack riv]s 0 obta9$ f ! ,plym\? ,company2 & 9 #afbi a *>t] 0 obta9$ f ,*>les ,i4 ,s _m m5 f ! ea/ ( ,engl& _h jo9$ 9 ! ent]prise t x c\ld no long] be fitly call$ a ,dor*e/] ,company4 ,! new "n 0 significantly tak5 f ! ,new ,_w4 ,! *>t] creat$ a corporation "u ! /yle ( ! ,gov]nor & ,company ( ,massa*usetts ,bay 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,! freem5 ( ! ,company 7 to hold a meet+ f\r times a ye>2 & !y 7 emp[]$ to *oose a gov]nor1 a deputy gov]nor1 & a c\ncil ( eighte5 assi/ants1 :o 7 to hold _! meet+s ea* mon?4 ,!y c\ld adm9i/] oa?s ( supremacy & allegiance1 raise troops = ! def5ce ( _! possessions1 admit new associates into ! ,company1 & make regulations = ! managem5t ( _! bus9ess1 ) ! vague & weak proviso t 9 ord] to be valid _! enactm5t mu/ 9 no wise contrav5e ! laws ( ,engl&4 ,no?+ 0 said z to ! place :]e ! ,company %\ld hold its meet+s1 & accord+ly aft] a few mon?s ! ,company transf]r$ itself & its *>t] to ,new ,engl&1 9 ord] t x might c>ry out its int5tions ) z little int]f]5ce z possible on ! "p ( ! cr[n4 ,:e!r ?is transf] ( ! *>t] 0 legally ju/ifiable or n is a "q :i* has be5 mu* debat$1 b ) :i* we ne$ n "h vex ourselves4 ,! lawy]s ( ! ,company 7 %rewd en\gh to "k t a loosely-drawn in/rum5t may be made to admit ( great lib]ty ( action4 ,"u ! guise ( a m]e trad+ corporation ! ,puritan lead]s delib]ately int5d$ to f\nd a civil commonweal? 9 accordance ) _! own !ories ( gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts2 ! ,g5]al ,c\rt ,aft] _! arrival 9 ,massa*usetts1 _! numb]s increas$ s rapidly t x became impossible to h a prim>y assembly ( all ! freem51 & s a repres5tative assembly 0 devis$ aft] ! model ( ! ,old ,engli% c\nty c\rt4 ,! repres5tatives sat = t[n%ips1 & 7 call$ deputies4 ,at fir/ !y sat 9 ! same *amb] ) ! assi/ants1 b 9 #afdd ! legislative body 0 divid$ into two *amb]s1 ! deputies =m+ ! l[] h\se1 :ile ! upp] 0 compos$ ( ! assi/ants1 :o 7 sometimes call$ magi/rates4 ,9 elections ! c&idates = ! upp] h\se 7 put 9 nom9ation by ! ,g5]al ,c\rt & vot$ on by ! freem54 ,9 g5]al ! assi/ants repres5t$ ! common or c5tral p[] ( ! colony1 :ile ! deputies repres5t$ ! int]e/s ( popul> self-gov]nm5t4 ,! =m] 0 comp>atively an ari/ocratic & ! latt] a democratic body1 & !re 7 frequ5t disputes betwe5 ! two4 ,x is wor?y ( note t ! gov]n+ body ?us con/itut$ 0 at once a legislative & a judicial body1 l ! ,engli% c\nty c\rt :i* s]v$ z its model4 ,inf]ior c\rts 7 organiz$ at an e>ly date 9 ,massa*usetts1 b ! highe/ judicial tribunal 0 ! legislature1 :i* 0 kn[n z ! ,g5]al ,c\rt4 ,x /ill be>s ?is "n to-day1 ?\gh x long ago ceas$ to ex]cise judicial functions4 ,sid5ote3 ,new *>t] ( ,massa*usetts ,n[ z ! freem5 ( ,massa*usetts directly *ose _! gov]nor & deputy-gov]nor1 z well z _! *amb] ( deputies1 & also took "p 9 *oos+ _! c\ncil ( assi/ants1 _! gov]nm5t 0 virtually t ( an indep5d5t republic4 ,! cr[n c\ld int]pose no effective *eck ^u its proce$+s except by ?reat5+ to annul its *>t] & s5d ov] a vic]oy :o might be back$ up1 if ne$ be1 by milit>y =ce4 ,su* ?reats 7 sometimes op5ly made1 b (t5] h9t$ at4 ,!y s]v$ to make ! ,massa*usetts gov]nm5t some:at w>y & circumspect1 b !y did n prev5t x f pursu+ a v indep5d5t policy 9 _m respects1 z :51 = example1 x p]si/$ 9 all[+ none b memb]s ( ! ,congregational *ur* to vote4 ,?is measure1 by :i* x 0 int5d$ to pres]ve ! ,puritan policy un*ang$1 0 extremely di/a/eful to ! ,briti% gov]nm5t4 ,at l5g? 9 #afhd ! ,massa*usetts *>t] 0 annull$1 an attempt 0 made to suppress t[n-meet+s1 & ! colony 0 plac$ "u a milit>y vic]oy1 ,sir ,edmund ,&ros4 ,aft] a brief p]iod ( despotic rule1 ! ,revolution 9 ,engl& work$ a *ange4 ,9 #afib ,massa*usetts receiv$ a new *>t]1 q diff]5t f ! old "o4 ,! p 7 all[$ to elect repres5tatives to ! ,g5]al ,c\rt1 z be=e1 b ! gov]nor & lieut5ant-gov]nor 7 appo9t$ by ! cr[n1 & all acts ( ! legislature 7 to be s5t to ,engl& = royal approval4 ,! g5]al gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts 0 ?us1 except = its possession ( a *>t]1 made simil> to t ( ,virg9ia4 ,sid5ote3 ,connecticut & ,rhode ,isl& ,! gov]nm5ts ( ,connecticut & ,rhode ,isl& 7 con/ruct$ ^u ! same g5]al plan z ! fir/ gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts4 ,gov]nors c\ncils1 & assemblies 7 elect$ by ! p4 ,^! gov]nm5ts 7 made by ! settl]s !mselves1 aft] !y _h come out f ,massa*usetts2 & ?r\gh a v s+ul> comb9ation ( circum/ances#c !y 7 confirm$ by *>t]s grant$ by ,*>les ,,ii 9 #affb1 soon aft] 8 return f exile4 ,s ?or\ghly republican 7 ^! gov]nm5ts t !y rema9$ )\t *ange until #ahah 9 ,connecticut & until #ahdb 9 ,rhode ,isl&4 ,footnote #c3 ,see my ,beg9n+s ( ,new ,engl&1 pp4 #aib-aif4 ,we ?us obs]ve two k9ds ( /ate gov]nm5t 9 ! ,am]ican colonies4 ,9 bo? k9ds ! p *oose a repres5tative legislative assembly2 b 9 ! "o k9d !y also *oose _! gov]nor1 :ile 9 ! o!r k9d ! gov]nor is appo9t$ by ! cr[n4 ,we h n[ to obs]ve a ?ird k9d4 ,sid5ote3 ,c\nties palat9e 9 ,engl& ,sid5ote3 ,*>t] ( ,m>yl& ,aft] ! d[nfall ( ! two great companies f\nd$ 9 #afjf1 ! cr[n _h a way ( h&+ ov] to its fri5ds ext5sive tracts ( l& 9 ,am]ica4 ,9 #afcb a *>t] grant$ by ,*>les ,i to ,cecilius ,calv]t1 ,"l ,baltimore1 f\nd$ ! palat9ate colony ( ,m>yl&4 ,to und]/& ! nature ( ?is *>t]1 we mu/ obs]ve t among ! c\nties ( ,engl& !re 7 ?ree ^: rul]s f an e>ly "t 7 all[$ special privileges4 ,because ,*e%ire & ,durham bord]$ ^u ! ho/ile c\ntries1 ,wales & ,scotl&1 & ne$$ to be ev] on ! al]t1 _! rul]s1 ! e>ls ( ,*e/] & ! bi%ops ( ,durham1 7 clo!d ) almo/ royal p[]s ( comm&1 & simil> p[]s 7 aft]w>ds grant$ ?r\gh fav\ritism to ! dukes ( ,lanca/]4 ,! ?ree c\nties 7 call$ c\nties palat9e 7i4e4 palace c\nties74 ,be=e #afjj ! e>ldom ( ,*e/] & ! du*y ( ,lanca/] _h be5 absorb$ by ! cr[n1 b ! bi%opric ( ,durham rema9$ ! type ( an almo/ indep5d5t /ate1 & ! colony palat9e ( ,m>yl& 0 modell$ aft] x4 ,! *>t] ( ,m>yl& conf]r$ ^u ,"l ,baltimore ! mo/ ext5sive privileges ev] be/[$ by ! ,briti% cr[n ^u any subject4 ,he 0 made absolute "l ( ! l& & wat] )9 8 b\nd>ies1 c\ld erect t[ns1 cities1 & ports1 make w> or peace1 call ! :ole fight+ population to arms & decl>e m>tial law1 levy tolls & duties1 e/abli% c\rts ( ju/ice1 appo9t judges1 magi/rates1 & o!r civil (fic]s1 execute ! laws1 & p>don (f5d]s4 ,he c\ld erect manors1 ) c\rts-b>on & c\rts-leet1 & conf] titles & dignities1 s t !y diff]$ f ^? ( ,engl&4 ,he c\ld make laws ) ! ass5t ( ! freem5 ( ! prov9ce1 &1 9 cases ( em]g5cy1 ord9ances n impair+ life1 limb1 or prop]ty1 )\t _! ass5t4 ,he c\ld f\nd *ur*es & *apels1 h !m consecrat$ accord+ to ! ecclesia/ical laws ( ,engl&1 & appo9t ! incumb5ts4#d ,= 8 t]ritory & ^! royal p[]s ,"l ,baltimore 0 to s5d ov] to ! palace at ,w9dsor a tribute ( two ,indian arr[s ye>ly1 & to res]ve = ! k+ "o fif? "p ( su* gold & silv] z he might happ5 to get by m9+4 ,! k+ fur!rmore b\nd himself & 8 successors to lay no taxes1 cu/oms1 subsidies1 or contributions :atev] ^u ! p ( ! prov9ce1 & 9 case ( any su* dem& be+ made1 ! *>t] expressly decl>$ t ?is clause might be plead$ z a dis*>ge 9 full4 ,m>yl& 0 ?us almo/ an indep5d5t /ate4 ,baltimore's title 0 ,"l ,propriet>y ( ,m>yl&1 & 8 title & p[]s 7 made h]$it>y 9 8 family1 s t he 0 virtually a feudal k+4 ,8 rule1 h[ev]1 0 effectually limit$4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ,m>yl& 0 c>ri$ on by a gov]nor & a two-*amb]$ legislature4 ,! gov]nor & ! memb]s ( ! upp] h\se ( ! legislature 7 appo9t$ by ! "l propriet>y1 b ! l[] h\se ( ! legislature 0 elect$1 "h z else:]e1 by ! p2 & 9 accordance ) "t-hon\r$ ,engli% cu/om all taxation mu/ orig9ate 9 ! l[] h\se1 :i* repres5t$ ! p4 ,footnote #d3 ,br[ne's ,m>yl&3 ! ,hi/ory ( a ,palat9ate1 p4 #ai4 ,sid5ote3 ,*>t] ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,sid5ote3 ,mason & ,dixon's l9e ,half a c5tury aft] ! f\nd+ ( ,m>yl&1 simil> ?\gh some:at less ext5sive propriet>y p[]s 7 grant$ by ,*>les ,,ii4 to ,william ,p5n1 & "u !m ! colony ( ,p5nsylvania 0 f\nd$ & ,delaw>e 0 pur*as$4 ,p5nsylvania & ,delaw>e _h ea* its h\se ( repres5tatives elect$ by ! p2 b !re 0 only "o gov]nor & c\ncil = ! two colonies4 ,! gov]nor & c\ncil 7 appo9t$ by ! "l propriet>y1 & z ! c\ncil conf9$ itself to advis+ ! gov]nor & did n take "p 9 legislation1 !re 0 no upp] h\se4 ,! legislature 0 "o-*amb]$4 ,! (fice ( "l propriet>y 0 h]$it>y 9 ! ,p5n family4 ,= ab\t eighty ye>s ! ,p5ns & ,calv]ts qu>rell$1 l true sov]eigns1 ab\t ! b\nd>y-l9e betwe5 _! pr9cipalities1 until 9 #agfc ! matt] 0 f9ally settl$4 ,a l9e 0 agre$ ^u1 & ! survey 0 made by two di/+ui%$ ma!maticians1 ,*>les ,mason & ,j]emiah ,dixon4 ,! l9e ran we/w>d #bdd miles f ! ,delaw>e ,riv]1 & e fif? mile/one 0 engrav$ ) ! arms ( ,p5n on ! "o side & ^? ( ,calv]t on ! o!r4 ,9 lat] times1 aft] all ! /ates nor? ( ,m>yl& _h aboli%$ slav]y1 ,mason & ,dixon's l9e became fam\s z ! b\nd>y betwe5 slave /ates & free /ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r propriet>y gov]nm5ts4 ,at fir/ !re 7 o!r propriet>y colonies besides ^? j m5tion$1 b 9 c\rse ( "t ! rights or p[]s ( _! lords propriet>y 7 resum$ by ! cr[n4 ,:5 ,new ,ne!rl& 0 conqu]$ f ! ,dut* x 0 grant$ to ! duke ( ,york z "l propriet>y2 b aft] "o-&-tw5ty ye>s ! duke asc5d$ ! ?rone z ,james ,,ii41 & s ! "p ( ! colony :i* he _h kept became ! royal prov9ce ( ,new ,york4 ,! "p :i* he _h sold to ,b]keley & ,c>t]et rema9$ = a :ile ! propriet>y colony ( ,new ,j]sey1 sometimes "u "o gov]nm5t1 sometimes divid$ betwe5 two2 b ! rule ( ! lords propriet>y 0 v unpopul>1 & 9 #agjb _! rights 7 surr5d]$ to ! cr[n4 ,! ,c>ol9as & ,georgia 7 also at fir/ propriet>y colonies1 b aft] a :ile !y will+ly came "u ! direct sway ( ! cr[n4 ,9 g5]al ! propriet>y gov]nm5ts 7 unpopul> because ! lords propriet>y1 :o usually liv$ 9 ,engl& & visit$ _! colonies b seldom1 7 apt to reg>d _! colonies simply z s\rces ( p]sonal income4 ,?is 0 n ! case ) ,william ,p5n1 or ! e>li] ,calv]ts1 or ) ,james ,ogle?orpe1 ! illu/ri\s f\nd] ( ,georgia2 b x 0 too (t5 ! case4 ,s long z ! "l's r5ts1 fees1 & o!r emolum5ts 7 duly collect$1 he tr\bl$ himself v little z to :at w5t on 9 ! colony4 ,if t _h be5 all1 ! colony w\ld h tr\bl$ itself v little ab\t him4 ,b ! gov]nor appo9t$ by ?is abs5tee ma/] 0 liable to be m devot$ to 8 int]e/s ?an to ^? ( ! p1 & ! civil s]vice 0 s]i\sly damag$ by wor?less fav\rites s5t ov] f ,engl& = :om ! gov]nor 0 expect$ to f9d "s (fice t w\ld pay !m a sal>y4 ,on ! :ole1 x seem$ less unsatisfactory to h ! gov]nors appo9t$ by ! cr[n2 & s be=e ! ,revolution>y ,w> all ! propriet>y gov]nm5ts _h fall51 except ^? ( ! ,p5ns & ! ,calv]ts1 :i* d\btless surviv$ because !y 7 ! be/ organiz$ & be/ adm9i/]$4 ,sid5ote3 ,at ! "t ( ! ,revolution !re 7 ?ree =ms ( colonial gov]nm5t3 #a4 ,republican1 #b4 ,propriet>y1 #c4 ,royal4 ,!re 7 ?us at ! "t ( ! ,revolution>y ,w> ?ree =ms ( /ate gov]nm5t 9 ! ,am]ican colonies4 ,!re 71 fir/1 ! ,republican colonies1 9 :i* ! gov]nors 7 elect$ by ! p1 z 9 ,rhode ,isl& & ,connecticut2 secondly1! ,propriet>y colonies1 9 :i* ! gov]nors 7 appo9t$ by h]$it>y proprietors1 z 9 ,m>yl&1 ,p5nsylvania1 & ,delaw>e2 ?irdly1 ! ,royal colonies1#e 9 :i* ! gov]nors 7 appo9t$ by ! cr[n1 z 9 ,georgia1 ! two ,c>ol9as1 ,virg9ia1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,new ,york1 ,massa*usetts1 & ,new ,hamp%ire4 ,x is cu/om>y to di/+ui% ! ,republican colonies z ,*>t] colonies1 b t is n an accurate di/9ction1 inasmu* z ! ,propriet>y colonies also _h *>t]s4 ,& among ! ,royal colonies1 ,massa*usetts1 hav+ be5 orig9ally a republic1 /ill _h a *>t] 9 :i* h] rights 7 s def9$ z to place h] 9 a some:at diff]5t position f ! o!r ,royal colonies2 s t ,pr(4 ,alex&] ,john/on1 ) "s reason1 puts h] 9 a class by h]self z a ,semi-royal colony4 ,footnote #e3 ,or1 z !y 7 sometimes call$1 ,royal prov9ces4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ,massa*usetts _m writ]s di/+ui% ! p]iod be=e #afib z ! colonial p]iod1 & ! p]iod #afib to #aggd z ! prov9cial p]iod4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 all ?ree =ms !re 0 a repres5tative assembly1 :i* alone c\ld impose taxes4 ,^! diff]5ces1 x w be obs]v$1 relat$ to ! "* & me?od ( fill+ ! gov]nor's (fice4 ,9 ! ,republican colonies ! gov]nor naturally repres5t$ ! int]e/s ( ! p1 9 ! ,propriet>y colonies he 0 ! ag5t ( ! ,p5ns or ! ,calv]ts1 9 ! ,royal colonies he 0 ! ag5t ( ! k+4 ,all ! ?irte5 colonies alike _h a legislative assembly elect$ by ! p4 ,! basis ( repres5tation might be diff]5t 9 diff]5t colonies1 z we h se5 t 9 ,massa*usetts ! delegates repres5t$ t[n%ips1 :]eas 9 ,virg9ia !y repres5t$ c\nties2 b 9 all alike ! assembly 0 a truly repres5tative body1 & 9 all alike x 0 ! body t controll$ ! exp5diture ( public money4 ,^! repres5tative assemblies arose spontane\sly because ! f\nd]s ( ! ,am]ican colonies 7 ,engli%m5 us$ f "t immemorial to tax !mselves & gov]n !mselves4 ,z !y _h be5 wont to vote = repres5tatives 9 ,engl&1 in/ead ( leav+ ?+s to be controll$ by ! k+1 s n[ !y vot$ = repres5tatives 9 ,m>yl& or ,new ,york1 in/ead ( leav+ ?+s to be controll$ by ! gov]nor4 ,! spontane\sness ( all ?is is qua9tly & =cibly express$ by ! great ,tory hi/orian ,hut*9son1 :o tells u t 9 ! ye> #afai a h\se ( burgesses broke out 9 ,virg9ia6 z if x _h be5 ! mumps1 or orig9al s91 or any ( ^? ?+s t p _c help hav+4 ,sid5ote3 ,! gov]nor's c\ncil 0 a k9d ( upp] h\se4 ,?is repres5tative assembly 0 ! l[] h\se 9 ! colonial legislatures4 ,! gov]nor always _h a c\ncil to advise ) him & assi/ him 9 8 executive duties1 9 imitation ( ! k+'s privy c\ncil 9 ,engl&4 ,b 9 ne>ly all ! colonies ?is c\ncil took "p 9 ! "w ( legislation1 & ?us sat z an upp] h\se1 ) m or less p[] ( review+ & am5d+ ! acts ( ! assembly4 ,9 ,p5nsylvania1 z already obs]v$1 ! c\ncil refra9$ f ?is legislative "w1 & s1 until "s ye>s aft] ! ,revolution1 ! ,p5nsylvania legislature 0 "o-*amb]$4 ,! memb]s ( ! c\ncil 7 appo9t$ 9 diff]5t ways1 sometimes by ! k+ or ! "l propriet>y1 or1 z 9 ,massa*usetts1 by ! outgo+ legislature1 or1 z 9 ,connecticut1 !y 7 elect$ by ! p4 ,sid5ote3 ,! colonial gov]nm5t 0 l ! ,engli% sy/em 9 m9iature4 ,?us all ! colonies _h a gov]nm5t fram$ aft] ! model to :i* ! p _h be5 accu/om$ 9 ,engl&4 ,x 0 l ! ,engli% sy/em 9 m9iature1 ! gov]nor answ]+ to ! k+1 & ! legislature1 usually two-*amb]$1 answ]+ to p>liam5t4 ,& z qu>rels betwe5 k+ & p>liam5t 7 n uncommon1 s qu>rels betwe5 gov]nor & legislature 7 v frequ5t inde$1 except 9 ,connecticut & ,rhode ,isl&4 ,! royal gov]nors1 repres5t+ ,briti% imp]ial ideas r ?an ,am]ican ideas1 7 sure to come into conflict ) ! popul> assemblies1 & sometimes became ! objects ( bitt] popul> hatr$4 ,! disputes 7 apt to be conc]n$ ) que/ions 9 :i* taxation 0 involv$1 su* z ! sal>ies ( cr[n (fic]s1 ! appropriations = w> ) ! ,indians1 & s on4 ,su* disputes br$ m or less popul> discont5t1 b ! /ruggle did n become flagrant s long z ! ,briti% p>liam5t refra9$ f m$dl+ ) x4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,am]icans nev] admitt$ ! supremacy ( p>liam5t2 ,! ,am]icans nev] reg>d$ p>liam5t z possess+ any rightful au?ority ov] _! int]nal affairs4 ,:5 ! e>lie/ colonies 7 f\nd$1 x 0 ! g5]al !ory t ! ,am]ican wild]ness 0 "p ( ! k+'s private doma9 & n subject to ! control ( p>liam5t4 ,?is !ory liv$ on 9 ,am]ica1 b di$ out 9 ,engl&4 ,on ! "o h& ! ,am]icans _h _! own legislatures1 :i* /ood to !m 9 ! place ( p>liam5t4 ,! au?ority ( p>liam5t 0 d]iv$ f ! fact t x 0 a repres5tative body1 b x did n repres5t ,am]icans4 ,accord+ly ! ,am]icans held t ! relation ( ea* ,am]ican colony to ,great ,brita9 0 l ! relation betwe5 ,engl& & ,scotl& 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,engl& & ,scotl& !n _h ! same k+1 b sep>ate p>liam5ts1 & ! ,engli% p>liam5t c\ld n make laws = ,scotl&4 ,su* is ! connection betwe5 ,sw$5 & ,norway at ! pres5t day2 !y h ! same k+1 b ea* c\ntry legislates = itself4 ,s ! ,am]ican coloni/s held t ,virg9ia1 = example1 & ,great ,brita9 _h ! same k+1 b ea* its indep5d5t legislature2 & s ) ! o!r colonies1--!re 7 ?irte5 p>liam5ts 9 ,am]ica1 ea* z sov]eign )9 its own sph]e z ! p>liam5t at ,we/m9/]1 & ! latt] _h no m "r to tax ! p ( ,massa*usetts ?an ! ,massa*usetts legislature _h to tax ! p ( ,virg9ia4 ,9 "o respect1 h[ev]1 ! ,am]icans did admit t p>liam5t _h a g5]al "r ( sup]vision ov] all p>ts ( ! ,briti% empire4#f ,m>itime comm]ce seem$ to be z mu* ! affair ( "o "p ( ! empire z ano!r1 & x seem$ "r t x %\ld be regulat$ by ! c5tral p>liam5t at ,we/m9/]4 ,accord+ly ! ,am]icans did n resi/ cu/om-h\se taxes z long z !y seem$ to be impos$ = purely comm]cial purposes2 b !y 7 quick to resi/ direct taxation1 & cu/om-h\se taxes likewise1 z soon z ^! began to =m a "p ( s*emes = ext5d+ ! au?ority ( p>liam5t ov] ! colonies4 ,footnote #f3 except 9 ! regulation ( m>itime comm]ce4 ,9 ,engl&1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is !ory t ! ,am]icans 7 subject to ! k+'s au?ority b n to t ( p>liam5t naturally became un9telligible aft] ! k+ himself _h become virtually subject to p>liam5t4#g ,! ,/u>t k+s might call !mselves k+s by ! grace ( ,god1 b s9ce #afhh ! sov]eigns ( ,great ,brita9 owe _! seat ^u ! ?rone to an act ( p>liam5t4 ,footnote #g3 ,9 ,engl& !re grew up ! !ory ( ! imp]ial supremacy ( p>liam5t4 ,to suppose t ! k+'s ,am]ican subjects 7 n am5able to ! au?ority ( p>liam5t seem$ l suppos+ t a /ream c\ld rise high] ?an its s\rce4 ,besides1 aft] #agjj ! ,briti% empire began to exp& 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 & ! bus9ess ( p>liam5t became m & m imp]ial4 ,x c\ld make laws = ! ,ea/ ,india ,company2 :y n1 !n1 = ! ,company ( ,massa*usetts ,bay8 ,sid5ote3 ,conflict betwe5 ! ,briti% & ! ,am]ican !ories 0 precipitat$ by ,george ,,iii4 ,?us ! ,am]ican !ory ( ! situation 0 irreconcilable ) ! ,briti% !ory1 & :5 p>liam5t 9 #agfe1 ) no unfri5dly purpose1 began lay+ taxes ^u ! ,am]icans1 ?us invad+ ! prov9ce ( ! colonial legislatures1 ! ,am]icans refus$ to submit4 ,! ensu+ qu>rel might d\btless h be5 peacefully adju/$1 _h n ! k+1 ,george ,,iii41 happ5$ to be ent]ta9+ political s*emes :i* 7 ?reat5$ ) ru9 if ! ,am]icans %\ld get a fair he>+ = _! side ( ! case4#h ,?us political intrigue came 9 to make ! situation hopeless4 ,:5 a /ate ( ?+s arises1 ) :i* m5's e/abli%$ me?ods ( civil gov]nm5t are incompet5t to deal1 m5 fall back ^u ! primitive me?od :i* 0 9 vogue be=e civil gov]nm5t began to exi/4 ,!y fight x out2 & s we _h our ,revolution>y ,w>1 & became sep>at$ politically f ,great ,brita94 ,x is wor?y ( note1 9 ?is connection1 t ! la/ act ( p>liam5t1 :i* br\ght matt]s to a crisis1 0 ! s-call$ ,regulat+ ,act ( ,april1 #aggd1 ! purpose ( :i* 0 to *ange ! gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts4 ,?is act provid$ t memb]s ( ! c\ncil %\ld be appo9t$ by ! royal gov]nor1 t !y %\ld be paid by ! cr[n & ?us be kept subs]vi5t to x1 t ! pr9cipal executive & judicial (fic]s %\ld be likewise paid by ! cr[n1 & t t[n-meet+s %\ld be prohibit$ except = ! sole purpose ( elect+ t[n (fic]s4 ,o!r unw>rantable acts 7 pass$ at ! same "t1 b ?is 0 ! wor/4 ,troops 7 s5t ov] to aid 9 en=c+ ?is act1 ! p ( ,massa*usetts refus$ to recognize its validity1 & out ( ?is political situation came ! battles ( ,lex+ton & ,bunk] ,hill4 ,footnote #h3 ,see my ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce1 pp4 #eh-fd1 #fi-ga 7,riv]side ,libr>y = ,"y ,p74 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,v>i\s claims to ,nor? ,am]ica3-- a4 ,spani%4 b4 ,engli%4 c4 ,fr5*4 #b4 ,:at 0 ne$$ to make su* claims ( any value8 #c4 ,! ,london & ,plym\? companies3-- a4 ,! "t & purpose ( _! organization4 b4 ,! grant to ! ,london ,company4 c4 ,! grant to ! ,plym\? ,company4 d4 ,! magnitude ( ! zones grant$4 e4 ,! peculi> provisions = ! int]m$iate zone4 f4 ,fir/ attempts at settlem5t4 #d4 ,to :at important pr9ciple ( ! common *>t] ( ^! two companies did ! coloni/s p]si/5tly cl+8 #e4 ,! influ5ce ( ^! %ort-liv$ companies ^u ! settlem5t & gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3-- a4 ,a review ( ! zones & _! assignm5t4 b4 ,! /ates ( ! nor!rn zone & _! orig94 c4 ,! /ates ( ! s\!rn zone & _! orig94 d4 ,! /ates ( ! middle zone & _! orig94 e4 ,! influ5ce ( ! movem5t ( population on local gov]nm5t 9 ea* zone4 #f4 ,e>ly /ate gov]nm5t 9 ,virg9ia3-- a4 ,! "p appo9t$ & ! "p elect$4 b4 ,! fir/ legislative body 9 ,am]ica4 c4 ,! dignity ( its memb]s4 d4 ,! reason = ! "n ,h\se ( ,burgesses4 #g4 ,e>ly /ate gov]nm5t 9 ,massa*usetts3-- a4 ,! ,dor*e/] ,company4 b4 ,! gov]nm5t provid$ = ! ,company ( ,massa*usetts ,bay by its *>t]4 c4 ,! real purpose ( ! ,puritan lead]s4 d4 ,! *ange f ! prim>y assembly ( freem5 to ! repres5tative assembly4 e4 ,! division ( ?is assembly into two h\ses1 ) a comp>ison ( ! h\ses4 f4 ,! reason = ! "n ,g5]al ,c\rt4 g4 ,! loss ( ! *>t] & ! causes t l$ to x4 h4 ,! new *>t] z comp>$ ) ! old4 #h4 ,comp>e ! e>ly gov]nm5ts ( ,connecticut & ,rhode ,isl& ) ! fir/ gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts4 #i4 ,:at two k9ds ( /ate gov]nm5t h ?us f> be5 obs]v$8 #aj4 ,e>ly /ate gov]nm5t 9 ,m>yl&3-- a4 ,! fav\ritism ( ! cr[n z %[n 9 l& grants4 b4 ,! palat9e c\nties ( ,engl&4 c4 ,! bi%opric ( ,durham ! model ( ! colony ( ,m>yl&4 d4 ,! extraord9>y privileges grant$ ,"l ,baltimore4 e4 ,! tribute to be paid 9 return4 f4 ,! rul] a feudal long4 g4 ,limitations ( ! rul]'s p[]4 #aa4 ,e>ly /ate gov]nm5t 9 ,p5nsylvania & ,delaw>e3-- a4 ,! p[]s ( ,p5n z comp>$ ) ^? ( ,calv]t4 b4 ,"o gov]nor & c\ncil1 c4 ,! legislature ( ea* colony4 d4 ,! qu>rels ( ! ,p5ns & ,calv]ts4 e4 ,mason & ,dixon's l9e4 #ab4 ,:at o!r propriet>y gov]nm5ts 7 organiz$1 & :at 0 _! fate8 #ac4 ,:y 7 propriet>y gov]nm5ts unpopul>8 7,note ! exceptions1 h[ev]47 #ad4 ,classify & def9e ! =ms ( colonial gov]nm5t 9 exi/5ce at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,revolution4 #ae4 ,%[ t ^! =ms diff]$ *iefly 9 respect to ! gov]nor's (fice4 #af4 ,a repres5tative assembly 9 ea* ( ! ?irte5 colonies3-- a4 ,! basis ( repres5tation4 b4 ,! control ( ! public money4 c4 ,! spontane\sness ( ! repres5tative assembly4 #ag4 ,! gov]nor's c\ncil3-- a4 ,! cu/om 9 ,engl&4 b4 ,! c\ncil z an upp] h\se4 c4 ,! c\ncil 9 ,p5nsylvania4 #ah4 ,comp>e ! colonial sy/ems ) ! ,briti% 7#a7 9 organization & 7#b7 9 ! nature ( _! political qu>rels4 #ai4 ,:at 0 ! ,am]ican !ory ( ! relation ( ea* colony to ! ,briti% p>liam5t8 #bj4 ,:at 0 ! ,am]ican attitude t[>ds m>itime regulations8 #ba4 ,:at 0 ! ,briti% !ory ( ! relation ( ! ,am]ican colonies to p>liam5t8 #bb4 ,h[ 0 ! ,revolution>y ,w> br\ght on8 #bc4 ,describe ! la/ act ( p>liam5t t br\ght matt]s to a crisis4 ,section #b4 ,! ,transition f ,colonial to ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,dissolution ( assemblies & p>liam5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,committees ( ,correspond5ce4 ,dur+ ! e>li] "p ( ! ,revolution>y ,w> mo/ ( ! /ates _h "s k9d ( provisional gov]nm5t4 ,! case ( ,massa*usetts may s]ve z an illu/ration4 ,!re1 z 9 ! o!r colonies1 ! gov]nor _h ! p[] ( dissolv+ ! assembly4 ,?is 0 l ! k+'s p[] ( dissolv+ p>liam5t 9 ! days ( ! ,/u>ts4 ,x 0 !n a dang]\s p[]4 ,9 mod]n ,engl& !re is no?+ dang]\s 9 a dissolution ( p>liam5t2 on ! contr>y1 x is a useful device = asc]ta9+ ! wi%es ( ! p1 = a new ,h\se ( ,commons mu/ be elect$ imm$iately4 ,b 9 old times ! k+ w\ld turn 8 p>liam5t out ( doors1 & z long z he c\ld beg1 borr[1 or /eal en\gh money to c>ry on gov]nm5t accord+ to 8 own notions1 he w\ld n ord] a new election4 ,=tunately su* p]iods 7 n v long4 ,! late/ in/ance 0 9 ! reign ( ,*>les ,i1 :o got on )\t a p>liam5t f #afbi to #afdj4i ,9 ! ,am]ican colonies ! dissolution ( ! assembly by ! gov]nor 0 n especially dang]\s1 b x sometimes made mis*ief by delay+ ne$$ legislation4 ,dur+ ! few ye>s prec$+ ! ,revolution1 ! assemblies 7 s (t5 dissolv$ t x became necess>y = ! p to devise "s new way ( gett+ _! repres5tatives toge!r to act = ! colony4 ,9 ,massa*usetts ?is end 0 atta9$ by ! fam\s ,committees ( ,correspond5ce4 ,no "o c\ld d5y t t[n-meet+s 7 legal1 or t ! p ( "o t[n%ip _h a "r to ask advice f ! p ( ano!r t[n%ip4 ,accord+ly ea* t[n%ip appo9t$ a committee to correspond or conf] ) committees f o!r t[n%ips4 ,?is sy/em 0 put into op]ation by ,samuel ,adams 9 #aggb1 & = ! next two ye>s ! popul> resi/ance to ! cr[n 0 organiz$ by ^! committees4 ,= example1 be=e ! tea 0 ?r[n into ,bo/on h>b\r1 ! ,bo/on committee s\ght & receiv$ advice f e t[n%ip 9 ,massa*usetts1 & ! treatm5t ( ! tea-%ips 0 f fir/ to la/ direct$ by ! committees ( ,bo/on & five neighb\r t[ns4 ,footnote3 #i3 ,! k+s ( ,france contriv$ to get along )\t a repres5tative assembly f #afad to #aghi1 & dur+ ?is long p]iod abuses s multipli$ t ! meet+ ( ! ,/ates-,g5]al 9 #aghi precipitat$ ! great revolution :i* ov]?rew ! mon>*y4 ,sid5ote3 ,prov9cial ,congress ,9 #aggd a fur!r /ep 0 tak54 ,z p>liam5t _h ov]?r[n ! old gov]nm5t1 & s5t ov] ,g5]al ,gage z milit>y gov]nor1 to put its new sy/em into op]ation1 ! p defi$ & ignor$ ,gage1 & ! t[n%ips elect$ delegates to meet toge!r 9 :at 0 call$ a ,prov9cial ,congress4 ,! presid5t ( ?is congress 0 ! *ief prov9cial executive (fic] ( ! commonweal?1 & !re 0 a small executive c\ncil1 kn[n z ! ,committee ( ,safety4 ,sid5ote3 ,provisional gov]nm5ts2 gov]nors & presid5ts4 ,?is provisional gov]nm5t la/$ ab\t a ye>4 ,9 ! summ] ( #agge ! p w5t fur!r4 ,!y fell back ^u _! *>t] & proce$$ to c>ry on _! gov]nm5t z x _h be5 c>ri$ on be=e #aggd1 except t ! gov]nor 0 left out altoge!r4 ,! p 9 t[n-meet+ elect$ _! repres5tatives to a g5]al assembly1 z ( old1 & ?is assembly *ose a c\ncil ( tw5ty-eight memb]s to sit z an upp] h\se4 ,! presid5t ( ! c\ncil 0 ! =emo/ executive (fic] ( ! commonweal?1 b he _h n ! p[]s ( a gov]nor4 ,he 0 no m ! gov]nor ?an ! presid5t ( our f$]al s5ate is ! presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! p[]s ( ! gov]nor 7 really ve/$ 9 ! c\ncil1 :i* 0 an executive z well z a legislative body1 & ! presid5t 0 its *airman4 ,inde$1 ! title presid5t is simply ! ,lat9 = *airman1 he :o presides or sits be=e an assembly4 ,9 #agge x 0 a m mode/ title ?an gov]nor1 & _h n ! smack ( semi-royalty :i* l+]$ ab\t ! latt]4 ,gov]nors _h made s mu* tr\ble t p 7 di/ru/ful ( ! (fice1 & at fir/ x 0 ?\ght t ! c\ncil w\ld be q suffici5t = ! executive "w t 0 to be done4 ,sev]al ( ! /ates ?us organiz$ _! gov]nm5ts ) a c\ncil at ! head in/ead ( a gov]nor2 & h5ce 9 read+ ab\t t p]iod "o (t5 comes across ! title presid5t1 some:at loosely us$ z if equival5t to gov]nor4 ,?us 9 #aghg we f9d ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 call$ presid5t ( ,p5nsylvania1 mean+ presid5t ( ! c\ncil ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,b ?is arrangem5t did n prove satisfactory & did n la/ long4 ,x soon appe>$ t = executive "w "o man is bett] ?an a gr\p ( m54 ,9 ,massa*usetts1 9 #aghj1 ! old *>t] 0 replac$ by a new writt5 con/itution1 "u :i* 0 =m$ ! /ate gov]nm5t :i*1 ) "s em5dations 9 detail1 has cont9u$ to ! pres5t day4 ,be=e ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury all ! /ates except ,connecticut & ,rhode ,isl&1 :i*1 _h always be5 practically ,indep5d5t1 ?us remodell$ _! gov]nm5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,orig9 ( ! ,s5ates4 ,^! *anges1 h[ev]1 7 v cons]vative4 ,! old =m ( gov]nm5t 0 closely foll[$4 ,fir/ !re 0 ! gov]nor1 elect$ 9 "s /ates by ! legislature1 9 o!rs by ! p4 ,!n !re 0 ! two-*amb]$ legislature1 ( :i* ! l[] h\se 0 ! same in/itution aft] ! ,revolution t x _h be5 be=e4 ,! upp] h\se1 or c\ncil1 0 reta9$1 b 9 a some:at alt]$ =m4 ,! ,am]icans _h be5 us$ to hav+ ! acts ( _! popul> assemblies review$ by a c\ncil1 & s !y reta9$ ?is revisory body z an upp] h\se4 ,b ! fa%ion ( copy+ names & titles f ! anci5t ,roman republic 0 !n preval5t1 & accord+ly ! upp] h\se 0 call$ a ,s5ate4 ,!re 0 a high] prop]ty qualification = s5ators ?an = repres5tatives1 & g5]ally _! t]ms ( s]vice 7 long]4 ,9 "s /ates !y 7 *os5 by ! p1 9 o!rs by ! l[] h\se4 ,9 ,m>yl& !y 7 *os5 by a special college ( electors1 an arrangem5t :i* 0 copi$ 9 our f$]al gov]nm5t 9 ! election ( ! presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates !re 0 a lieut5ant-gov]nor1 z !re _h be5 9 ! colonial p]iod1 to s]ve 9 case ( ! gov]nor's dea? or incapacity2 ord9>ily ! lieut5ant-gov]nor presid$ ov] ! s5ate4 ,sid5ote3 ,lik5esses & diff]5ces betwe5 ,briti% & ,am]ican sy/ems4 ,?us our /ate gov]nm5ts came to be repetitions on a small scale ( ! k+1 lords1 & commons ( ,engl&4 ,! gov]nor answ]$ to ! k+1 ) 8 dignity v mu* curtail$ by election = a %ort p]iod4 ,! s5ate answ]$ to ! ,h\se ( ,lords except 9 be+ a repres5tative & n a h]$it>y body4 ,x 0 suppos$ to repres5t m especially t "p ( ! community :i* 0 possess$ ( mo/ weal? & consid]ation2 & 9 sev]al /ates ! s5ators 7 apportion$ ) "s ref]5ce to ! am\nt ( taxes paid by diff]5t p>ts ( ! /ate4#aj ,:5 ,new ,york made its s5ate a supreme c\rt ( appeal1 x 0 9 delib]ate imitation ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives answ]$ to ! ,h\se ( ,commons z x us$ to be 9 ! days :5 its p[] 0 really limit$ by t ( ! upp] h\se & ! k+4 ,at ! pres5t day ! ,engli% ( ,commons is a supreme body4 ,9 case ( a s]i\s diff]5ce ) ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 ! upp] h\se mu/ yield1 or else new pe]s w be creat$ 9 suffici5t numb] to rev]se its vote2 & ! lords always yield be=e ?is po9t is rea*$4 ,s1 too1 ?\gh ! veto p[] ( ! sov]eign has nev] be5 explicitly aboli%$1 x has n be5 ex]cis$ s9ce #agjg1 & w\ld n n[ be tol]at$ = a mom5t4 ,9 ,am]ica !re is no su* supreme body4 ,! bill pass$ by ! l[] h\se may be ?r[n out by ! upp] h\se1 or if x passes bo? x may be veto$ by ! gov]nor2 & unless ! bill c aga9 pass bo? h\ses by m ?an a simple majority1 ! veto w /&4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates a two-?irds vote 9 ! affirmative is requir$4 ,footnote #aj3 ,see my ,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 p4 #fh4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,! dissolution ( assemblies & p>liam5ts3-- a4 ,! gov]nor's p[] ov] ! assembly 9 ! colonies4 b4 ,! k+'s p[] ov] p>liam5t 9 ,engl&4 c4 ,! dang] ( dissolution 9 ! "t ( ! ,/u>ts4 d4 ,! safety ( dissolution 9 mod]n ,engl&4 e4 ,! frequ5cy ( dissolution be=e ! ,revolution4 #b4 ,repres5tation ( ! p 9 ! provisional gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts3-- a4 ,! committees ( correspond5ce4 b4 ,_! function1 ) an illu/ration f ! tea-%ips4 c4 ,! prov9cial congress4 d4 ,! committee ( safety4 e4 ,! return to ! two-*amb]$ legislature ( ! *>t]4 #c4 ,executive p[]s 9 ! provisional gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts2-- a4 ,! =emo/ executive (fic]4 b4 ,:]e ! p[] ( gov]nor 0 really ve/$4 c4 ,:y ! "n ( presid5t 0 pref]r$ to t ( gov]nor4 d4 ,! example ( ,massa*usetts foll[$ else:]e4 e4 ,! end ( provisional gov]nm5t 9 #aghj4 #d4 ,! c\ncil trans=m$ to a s5ate3-- a4 ,! pr9ciple ( review+ ! acts ( ! popul> assembly4 b4 ,! borr[+ ( ,roman names4 c4 ,! qualifications & s]vice ( s5ators4 d4 ,! lieut5ant-gov]nor4 #e4 ,our /ate gov]nm5ts patt]n$ aft] ! gov]nm5t ( ,engl&3-- a4 ,! gov]nor & ! k+4 b4 ,! ,s5ate & ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 c4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives & ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 d4 ,"s diff]5ces betwe5 ! ,briti% sy/em & ! ,am]ican4 ,section #c4 ,! ,/ate ,gov]nm5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,lat] modifications4 ,dur+ ! pres5t c5tury our /ate gov]nm5ts h und]gone m or less revision1 *iefly 9 ! way ( aboli%+ prop]ty qualifications = (fices mak+ ! suffrage univ]sal1 & elect+ (fic]s t 7 =m]ly appo9t$4 ,only 9 ,delaw>e does !re /ill rema9 a prop]ty qualification = s5ators4 ,!re is no long] any di/9ction 9 pr9ciple betwe5 ! upp] & l[] h\ses ( ! legislature4 ,bo? repres5t population1 ! usual diff]5ce be+ t ! s5ate consi/s ( few] memb]s :o repres5t l>g] di/ricts4 ,usually1 too1 ! t]m ( ! repres5tatives is two ye>s1 & ! :ole h\se is elect$ at ! same "t1 :ile ! t]m ( s5ators is f\r ye>s1 & half ! numb] are elect$ e two ye>s4 ,?is sy/em ( two-*amb]$ legislatures is probably reta9$ *iefly ?r\gh a _s ( cons]vatism1 because x is :at we are us$ to4 ,b x no d\bt has real advantages 9 *eck+ ha/y legislation4 ,p are always want+ to h laws made ab\t all sorts ( ?+s1 & 9 n9e cases out ( t5 _! laws w\ld be p]nici\s laws2 s t x is well n to h legislation made too easy4 ,sid5ote3 ,! suffrage4 ,! suffrage by :i* ! legislature is elect$ is almo/ univ]sal4 ,x is giv5 9 all ! /ates to all male citiz5s :o h rea*$ ! age ( "o-&-tw5ty4 ,9 _m x is giv5 also to d5iz5s ( =eign bir? :o h decl>$ an int5tion ( becom+ citiz5s4 ,9 "s x is giv5 )\t fur!r specification to e male inhabitant ( vot+ age4 ,resid5ce 9 ! /ate = "s p]iod1 v>y+ f ?ree mon?s to two ye>s & a half1 is also g5]ally requir$2 sometimes a c]ta9 l5g? ( resid5ce 9 ! c\nty1 ! t[n1 or ev5 9 ! vot+ prec9ct1 is prescrib$4 ,9 _m ( ! /ates x is necess>y to h paid "o's poll-tax4 ,!re is no long] any prop]ty qualification1 ?\gh !re 0 until rec5tly 9 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,crim9als1 idiots1 & lunatics are exclud$ f ! suffrage4 ,"s /ates also exclude duelli/s & m5 :o bet on elections4 ,connecticut & ,massa*usetts %ut out p]sons :o are unable to read4 ,9 no o!r c\ntry has access to citiz5%ip & ! suffrage be5 made s easy4 ,sid5ote3 ,sep>ation betwe5 legislation & ! executive4 ,a peculi> feature ( ,am]ican gov]nm5ts1 & some?+ :i* x is h>d = ,europeans to und]/&1 is ! almo/ complete sep>ation betwe5 ! executive & ! legislative dep>tm5ts4 ,9 ,european c\ntries ! great executive (fic]s are ei!r memb]s ( ! legislature1 or at all ev5ts h ! "r to be pres5t at its meet+s & take "p 9 its discussions2 & z !y g5]ally h "s def9ite policy by :i* !y are to /& or fall1 !y are wont to initiate legislation & to guide ! c\rse ( ! discussion4 ,b 9 ,am]ica ! legislatures1 hav+ no su* c5tral po9ts ab\t :i* to rally _! =ces1 c>ry on _! "w 9 an aimless1 rambl+ sort ( way1 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( _m /&+ committees4 ,:5 a measure is propos$ x is ref]r$ to "o ( ! committees = exam9ation be=e ! h\se w h any?+ to d ) x4 ,su* a prelim9>y exam9ation is ( c\rse necess>y :]e !re is a va/ am\nt ( legislative "w go+ on4 ,b ! private & disconnect$ way 9 :i* our committee "w is done t5ds to prev5t full & in/ructive discussion 9 ! h\se1 to make ! mass ( legislation1 always *aotic en\gh1 some:at m *aotic1 & to facilitate ! v>i\s evil devices ( lobby+ & log-roll+4 ,9 po9t+ out ?is inconv5i5ce att5dant ^u ! ,am]ican plan ( sep>at+ ! executive & legislative dep>tm5ts1 ,i mu/ n be und]/ood z advocat+ ! ,european plan z pref]able = ?is c\ntry4 ,! evils t inevitably fl[ f any fundam5tal *ange 9 ! in/itutions ( a c\ntry are apt to be mu* m s]i\s ?an ! evils :i* ! *ange is int5d$ to remove4 ,political gov]nm5t is l a plant2 a little wat]+ & prun+ d v well = x1 b ! less its roots are fool$ )1 ! bett]4 ,9 ! ,am]ican sy/em ( gov]nm5t ! indep5d5ce ( ! executive dep>tm5t1 ) ref]5ce to ! legislative1 is fundam5tal2 & on ! :ole x is em95tly desirable4 ,"o ( ! mo/ s]i\s ( ! dang]s :i* beset democratic gov]nm5t1 especially :]e x is conduct$ on a great scale1 is ! dang] t ! majority = ! "t be+ w use its p[] tyrannically & unscrupul\sly1 z x is always tempt$ to d4 ,aga9/ su* unbridl$ democracy we h /riv5 to gu>d ourselves by v>i\s con/itutional *ecks & balances4 ,our writt5 con/itutions & our ,supreme ,c\rt are important safegu>ds1 z w be %[n bel[4 ,! indep5d5ce ( our executives is ano!r important safegu>d4 ,b if our executive dep>tm5ts 7 m]e committees ( ! legislature--l ! ,engli% cab9et1 = example--?is indep5d5ce c\ld n possibly be ma9ta9$2 & ! loss ( x w\ld d\btless entail ^u u evils f> great] ?an ^? :i* m[ fl[ f want ( lead]%ip 9 our legislatures4#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,9 two admirable essays on ,cab9et ,responsibility & ! ,con/itution1 & ,democracy & ! ,con/itution1 ,mr4 ,lawr5ce ,l[ell has conv9c+ly argu$ t ! ,am]ican sy/em is be/ adapt$ to ! circum/ances ( ?is c\ntry4 ,l[ell1 ,essays on ,gov]nm5t1 pp4 #bj-aag1 ,bo/on1 #ahij4 ,we mu/ rememb] t gov]nm5t is necess>ily a cumbr\s affair1 h[ev] conduct$4 ,! only occasion on :i* ! gov]nor is a "p ( ! legislature is :5 he signs or vetoes a bill4 ,!n he is virtually 9 himself a ?ird h\se4#ab ,z an executive (fic] ! gov]nor is f> less p[]ful ?an 9 ! colonial times4 ,we %all see ! reason ( ?is aft] we h enum]at$ "s ( ! pr9cipal (fices 9 ! executive dep>tm5t4 ,!re is always a secret>y ( /ate1 ^: ma9 duty is to make & keep ! records ( /ate transactions4 ,!re is always a /ate treasur]1 & usually a /ate auditor or comptroll] to exam9e ! public acc\nts & issue ! w>rants )\t :i* ! treasur] _c pay out a p5ny ( ! /ate's money4 ,!re is almo/ always an attorney-g5]al1 to appe> = ! /ate 9 ! supreme c\rt 9 all cases 9 :i* ! /ate is a p>ty1 & 9 all prosecutions = capital (f5ces4 ,he also ex]cises "s sup]9t5d5ce ov] ! di/rict attorneys1 & acts z legal advis] to ! gov]nors & ! legislature4 ,!re is also 9 _m /ates a sup]9t5d5t ( education2 & 9 "s !re are bo>ds ( education1 ( heal?1 ( lunacy & *>ity1 bureau ( agriculture1 commission]s ( prisons1 ( railroads1 ( m9es1 ( h>b\rs1 ( immigration1 & s on4 ,sometimes su* bo>ds are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor1 b su* (fic]s z ! secret>y ( /ate1 ! treasur]1 auditor1 & attorney-g5]al are1 9 almo/ all ! /ates1 elect$ by ! p4 ,!y are n responsible to ! gov]nor1 b to ! p :o elect !m4 ,!y are n subord9ate to ! gov]nor1 b are r 8 colleagues4 ,/rictly speak+1 ! gov]nor is n ! head ( ! executive dep>tm5t1 b a memb] ( x4 ,! executive dep>tm5t is p>cell$ out 9 sev]al pieces1 & 8 is "o ( ! pieces4 ,footnote #ab3 ,! /ate executive4 ,sid5ote3 ,! gov]nor's functions3 #a4 ,advisor ( legislature4 #b4 ,comm&] ( /ate militia4 #c4 ,royal pr]ogative ( p>don4 #d4 ,veto p[]4 ,! ord9>y functions ( ! gov]nor are f\r 9 numb]4 #a4 ,he s5ds a message to ! legislature1 at ! beg9n+ ( ea* session1 recomm5d+ su* measures z he w\ld l to see embodi$ 9 legislation4 #b4 ,he is comm&]-9-*ief ( ! /ate militia1 & z su* c assi/ ! %]iff ( a c\nty 9 putt+ d[n a riot1 or ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ! ev5t ( a w>4 ,on su* occasions ! gov]nor may become a p]sonage ( imm5se importance1 z1 = example1 9 our ,civil ,w>1 :5 ,presid5t ,l9coln's dem&s = troops met ) su* prompt response f ! m5 :o w be kn[n to hi/ory z ! great w> gov]nors4 #c4 ,! gov]nor is inve/$ ) ! royal pr]ogative ( p>don+ crim9als1 or commut+ ! s5t5ces pron\nc$ ^u !m by ! c\rts4 ,?is p[] belongs to k+s 9 accordance ) ! old feudal notion t ! k+ 0 ! s\rce or f\nta9 ( ju/ice4 ,:5 prop]ly us$ x af=ds an opportunity = rectify+ "s inju/ice = :i* ! ord9>y ma*9]y ( ! law c\ld n provide1 or = mak+ su* all[ances = extraord9>y circum/ances z ! c\rt c\ld n prop]ly consid]4 ,9 our c\ntry x is too (t5 improp]ly us$ to enable ! wor/ crim9als to escape due puni%m5t1 j because x is a disagreeable duty to hang !m4 ,su* misplac$ clem5cy is pleasant = ! murd]]s1 b x makes life less secure = hone/ m5 & wom51 & 9 ! less civiliz$ regions ( our c\ntry x enc\rages lyn* law4 #d4 ,9 all ! /ates except ,rhode ,isl&1 ,delaw>e1 ,ohio1 & ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ! gov]nor has a veto ^u ! acts ( ! legislature1 z above expla9$2 & 9 ord9>y times ?is p[]1 :i* is n executive b legislative1 is probably ! gov]nor's mo/ important & consid]able p[]4 ,9 ?irte5 ( ! /ates ! gov]nor c veto p>ticul> items 9 a bill = ! appropriation ( public money1 :ile at ! same "t he approves ! re/ ( ! bill4 ,?is is a mo/ important safegu>d aga9/ corruption1 because :]e ! gov]nor does n h ?is p[] x is possible to make appropriations = unwor?y or sc&al\s purposes along ) appropriations = matt]s ( absolute necessity1 & !n to lump !m all toge!r 9 ! same bill1 s t ! gov]nor mu/ ei!r accept ! bad along ) ! good or reject ! good along ) ! bad4 ,x is a great ga9 :5 ! gov]nor c select ! items & veto "s :ile approv+ o!rs4 ,9 su* matt]s ! gov]nor is (t5 m hone/ & discreet ?an ! legislature1 if = no o!r reason1 because he is "o man1 & responsibility c be fix$ ^u him m cle>ly ?an ^u two or ?ree hundr$4 ,su*1 9 brief outl9e1 is ! framework ( ! ,am]ican /ate gov]nm5ts4 ,b our acc\nt w\ld be v incomplete )\t "s m5tion ( ?ree po9ts1 all ( !m especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,am]ican /ate1 & likely to be ov]look$ or misund]/ood by ,europeans4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 build+ ! /ate1 ! local self-gov]nm5t 0 left unimpair$4 ,fir/1 :ile we h rapidly built up "o ( ! greate/ empires yet se5 ^u ! e>?1 we h left our self-gov]nm5t sub/antially unimpair$ 9 ! process4 ,?is is exemplifi$ 9 two ways3 fir/1 9 ! relation%ip ( ! /ate to its t[ns & c\nties1 &1 secondly1 9 its relation%ip to ! f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,ov] ! t[n%ip & c\nty gov]nm5ts ! /ate ex]cises a g5]al sup]vision2 inde$1 x clo!s !m ) _! au?ority4 ,t[n%ips & c\nties h no sov]eignty2 ! /ate1 on ! o!r h&1 has _m elem5ts ( sov]eignty1 b x does n use !m to oblit]ate or unduly re/rict ! control ( ! t[n%ips & c\nties ov] _! own adm9i/rative "w4 ,x leaves ! local gov]nm5ts to adm9i/] !mselves4 ,z a rule !re is only j en\gh /ate sup]vision to h>monize ! work+ ( s _m local adm9i/rations4 ,su* a sy/em ( gov]nm5t comes z ne> z possible t[>d mak+ all ,am]ican citiz5s p>ticipate actively 9 ! managem5t ( public affairs4 ,x g5]ates & n\ri%es a public _s & a univ]sal acqua9tance ) matt]s ( public int]e/ su* z has probably nev] be=e be5 se5 9 any great c\ntry4 ,public _s ( equal or great] int5sity may h be5 witness$ 9 small & highly educat$ communities1 su* z anci5t ,a!ns or m$iaeval ,flor5ce1 b 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is diffus$ ov] an area equal to ! :ole ( ,europe4 ,among ! lead+ c\ntries ( ! _w ,engl& is ! "o :i* comes ne>e/ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! g5]al diffusion ( enlight5$ public _s & political capacity ?r\gh\t all classes ( society4 ,sid5ote3 ,in/ructive contra/ ) ,france4 ,a v notable contra/ to ! self-gov]nm5t :i* has produc$ su* admirable results is to be se5 9 ,france1 & z contra/s are (t5 in/ructive1 let me m5tion "o or two features ( ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t4 ,!re is no?+ l ! irregul>ity & spontaneity !re t we h obs]v$ 9 our survey ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,ev]y?+ is symmetrical4 ,france is divid$ into eighty-n9e dep>tm5ts1 mo/ ( !m l>g] ?an ! /ate ( ,delaw>e1 "s ( !m ne>ly z l>ge z ,connecticut1 & ! adm9i/ration ( "o dep>tm5t is exactly l t ( all ! o!rs4 ,! *ief (fic] ( ! dep>tm5t is ! prefect1 :o is appo9t$ by ! m9i/] ( ! int]ior at ,p>is4 ,! prefect is treasur]1 recruit+ (fic]1 s*ool sup]9t5d5t1 all 9 "o1 & he appo9ts ne>ly all inf]ior (fic]s4 ,! dep>tm5t has a c\ncil1 elect$ by univ]sal suffrage1 b x has no p[] ( assess+ taxes4 ,! c5tral legislature 9 ,p>is decides = x h[ mu* money x %all use & h[ x %all raise x4 ,! dep>tm5t c\ncil is n ev5 all[$ to express its views on political matt]s2 x c only att5d to purely local details ( adm9i/ration4 ,! smalle/ civil division 9 ,france is ! commune1 :i* may be ei!r rural or urban4 ,! commune has a municipal c\ncil :i* elects a mayor2 b :5 once elect$ ! mayor becomes directly responsible to ! prefect ( ! dep>tm5t1 & ?r\gh him to ! m9i/] ( ! int]ior4 ,if ^! great] (fic]s d n l :at ! mayor does1 !y c ov]rule 8 acts or ev5 susp5d him f (fice2 or ^u _! compla9t ! ,presid5t ( ! ,republic c remove him4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ,france :e!r x is nom9ally a despotic empire or a republic at ! top1 !re is sc>cely any self-gov]nm5t at ! bottom4 ,h5ce gov]nm5t !re re/s on an insecure f\ndation4 ,?us 9 ,france p d n manage _! own affairs1 b !y are manag$ = !m by a hi]>*y ( (ficials ) its head at ,p>is4 ,?is sy/em 0 devis$ by ! ,con/itu5t ,assembly 9 #agij & wr\ght into complet5ess by ,napoleon 9 #ahjj4 ,! m5 :o devis$ x 9 #agij actually suppos$ t !y 7 inaugurat+ a sy/em or political fre$om7671 & unque/ionably x 0 a va/ improvem5t ^u ! wret*$ sy/em :i* x supplant$2 b z contra/$ ) ,am]ican me?ods & in/itutions1 x is difficult to call x any?+ else ?an a highly c5traliz$ despotism4 ,x has gone on )\t ess5tial *ange ?r\gh all ! revolutions :i* h ov]tak5 ,france s9ce #ahjj4 ,! p h f "t to "t ov]?r[n an unpopul> gov]nm5t at ,p>is1 b !y h nev] assum$ ! direct control ( _! own affairs4 ,h5ce x is commonly rem>k$ t :ile ! g5]al intellig5ce ( ! ,fr5* p is v high1 _! intellig5ce 9 political matt]s is1 comp>atively speak+1 v l[4 ,"s p]sons try to expla9 ?is by a ref]5ce to peculi>ities ( race4 ,b if we ,am]icans 7 to set ab\t giv+ to ! /ate gov]nm5ts ?+s to d t _h bett] be done by c\nties & t[ns1 & giv+ ! f$]al gov]nm5t ?+s to d t _h bett] be done by ! /ates1 x w\ld n take _m g5]ations to dull ! ke5 edge ( our political capacity4 ,we %\ld lose x z inevitably z ! mo/ consummate ( piani/s w lose 8 facility if he /ops practis+4 ,x is !re=e a fact ( c>d9al importance t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! local gov]nm5ts ( t[n%ip1 c\nty1 & city are left to adm9i/] !mselves in/ead ( be+ adm9i/]$ by a great bureau ) its head at ! /ate capital4 ,9 a political society ?us con/itut$ f ! beg9n+ x has prov$ possible to build up our ,f$]al ,union1 9 :i* ! /ates1 :ile = c]ta9 purposes indissolubly unit$1 at ! same "t = _m o!r purposes reta9 _! self-gov]nm5t intact4 ,z 9 ! case ( o!r aggregates1 ! nature ( ! ,am]ican political aggregate has be5 det]m9$ by ! nature ( its political units4 ,sid5ote3 ,va/ness ( ! functions reta9$ by ! /ates 9 ! ,am]ican ,union4 ,secondly1 let u obs]ve h[ great are ! functions reta9$ by our /ates "u ! conditions ( our ,f$]al ,union4 ,! p[]s grant$ to our f$]al gov]nm5t1 su* z ! control ov] int]national que/ions1 w> & peace1 ! milit>y =ces1 ! co9age1 pat5ts & copyrights1 & ! regulation ( comm]ce betwe5 ! /ates & ) =eign c\ntries1--all ^! are p[]s relat+ to matt]s t affect all ! /ates1 b c\ld n be regulat$ h>moni\sly by ! sep>ate action ( ! /ates4 ,9 ord] ! m completely to deb> ! /ates f m$dl+ ) su* matt]s1 !y are expressly prohibit$ f ent]+ into agreem5ts ) ea* o!r or ) a =eign p[]2 !y _c engage 9 w>1 save 9 case ( actual invasion or su* imm95t dang] z admits ( no delay2 )\t cons5t ( ,congress !y _c keep a milit>y or naval =ce 9 "t ( peace1 or impose cu/om-h\se duties4 ,besides all ?is !y are prohibit$ f grant+ titles ( nobility1 co9+ money1 emitt+ bills ( cr$it1 mak+ any?+ b gold & silv] co9 a t5d] 9 paym5t ( debts1 pass+ bills ( atta9d]1 ex po/ facto laws1 or laws impair+ ! obligation ( contracts4 ,! =ce ( ^! latt] re/rictions w be expla9$ h]eaft]4 ,su* are ! limitations ( sov]eignty impos$ ^u ! /ates )9 ! ,f$]al ,union4 ,comp>$ ) ! va/ pr]ogatives ( ! /ate legislatures1 ^! limitations seem small en\gh4 ,all ! civil & religi\s rights ( our citiz5s dep5d ^u /ate legislation2 ! education ( ! p is 9 ! c>e ( ! /ates2 ) !m re/s ! regulation ( ! suffrage2 !y prescribe ! rules ( m>riage1 ! legal relations ( husb& & wife1 ( p>5t & *ild2 !y det]m9e ! p[]s ( ma/]s ov] s]vants & ! :ole law ( pr9cipal & ag5t1 :i* is s vital a matt] 9 all bus9ess transactions2 !y regulate p>tn]%ip1 debt & cr$it1 insurance2 !y con/itute all corporations1 bo? private & municipal1 except su* z specially fulfill ! f9ancial or o!r specific functions ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t2 !y control ! possession1 di/ribution1 & use ( prop]ty1 ! ex]cise ( trades1 & all contract relations2 & !y =mulate & adm9i/] all crim9al law1 except only t :i* conc]ns crimes committ$ aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 on ! high seas1 or aga9/ ! law ( nations4 ,space w\ld fail 9 :i* to enum]ate ! p>ticul>s ( ?is va/ range ( p[]2 to detail its p>ts w\ld be to catalogue all social & bus9ess relation%ips1 to exam9e all ! f\ndations ( law & ord]4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,woodr[ ,wilson1 ,! ,/ate3 ,elem5ts ( ,hi/orical & ,practical ,politics1 p4 #dcg4 ,?is enum]ation1 by ,mr4 ,woodr[ ,wilson1 is s mu* to ! po9t t ,i cont5t myself ) transcrib+ x4 ,a v rem>kable illu/ration ( ! prepond]ant "p play$ by /ate law 9 ,am]ica is giv5 by ,mr4 ,wilson1 9 pursuance ( ! sugge/ion ( ,mr4 ,frankl9 ,jameson4#ad ,consid] ! mo/ important subjects ( legislation 9 ,engl& dur+ ! pres5t c5tury1 ! subjects :i* make up almo/ ! entire con/itutional hi/ory ( ,engl& = eighty ye>s4 ,^! subjects are ,ca?olic emancipation1 p>liam5t>y re=m1 ! abolition ( slav]y1 ! am5dm5t ( ! poor-laws1 ! re=m ( municipal corporations1 ! repeal ( ! corn laws1 ! admission ( ,jews to p>liam5t1 ! dise/abli%m5t ( ! ,iri% *ur*1 ! alt]ation ( ! ,iri% l& laws1 ! e/abli%m5t ( national education1 ! introduction ( ! ballot1 & ! re=m ( ! crim9al law4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates only two ( ^! twelve great subjects c\ld be dealt ) by ! f$]al gov]nm5t3 ! repeal ( ! corn laws1 z be+ a "q ( national rev5ue & cu/om-h\se duties1 & ! abolition ( slav]y1 by virtue ( a con/itutional am5dm5t embody+ "s ( ! results ( our ,civil ,w>4 ,all ! o!r que/ions enum]at$ w\ld h to be dealt ) by our /ate gov]nm5ts2 & be=e ! w> t 0 ! case ) ! slav]y "q also4 ,a m vivid illu/ration c\ld n be ask$ =4 ,footnote #ad3 ,jameson1 ,! ,/udy ( ! ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,/ates ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,,iv41 v4 ,h[ complete is ! circle ( po9ts 9 :i* ! /ate t\*es ! life ( ! ,am]ican citiz51 we may see 9 ! fact t our /ate c\rts make a complete judici>y sy/em1 f top to bottom indep5d5t ( ! f$]al c\rts4#ae ,an appeal may be c>ri$ f a /ate c\rt to a f$]al c\rt 9 cases :i* are f\nd to involve po9ts ( f$]al law1 or 9 suits aris+ betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t /ates1 or :]e =eign ambassadors are conc]n$4 ,except = su* cases ! /ate c\rts make up a complete judici>y _w ( _! own1 q outside ! sph]e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates c\rts4 ,footnote #ae3 ,indep5d5ce ( ! /ate c\rts4 ,sid5ote3 ,con/itution ( ! /ate c\rts4 ,we h already _h some?+ to say ab\t c\rts 9 connection ) ^? primitive areas = ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 ! hundr$ & ! c\nty4 ,9 our /ates !re are g5]ally f\r grades ( c\rts4 ,!re are1 fir/1 ! ju/ices ( ! peace 1 ) jurisdiction ov] petty police (f5ces & civil suits = trifl+ sums4 ,!y also conduct prelim9>y he>+s 9 cases :]e p]sons are accus$ ( s]i\s crimes1 & :5 ! evid5ce seems to w>rant x !y may commit ! accus$ p]son = trial be=e a high] c\rt4 ,! mayor's c\rt 9 a city usually has jurisdiction simil> to t ( ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,secondly1 !re are c\nty & municipal c\rts1 :i* he> appeals f ju/ices ( ! peace & f mayor's c\rts1 & h orig9al jurisdiction ov] a m important grade ( civil & crim9al cases4 ,?irdly1 !re are sup]ior c\rts1 hav+ orig9al jurisdiction ov] ! mo/ important cases & ov] wid] ( ! /ate areas ( c\ntry1 s t !y d n conf9e _! sessions to "o place1 b move ab\t f place to place1 l ! ,engli% ju/ices 9 eyre4 ,cases are c>ri$ up1 on appeal1 f ! l[] to ! sup]ior c\rt4 ,f\r?ly1 !re is 9 e /ate a supreme c\rt1 :i* g5]ally has no orig9al jurisdiction1 b only he>s appeals f ! decisions ( ! o!r c\rts4 ,9 ,new ,york !re is a supreme/ c\rt1 /yl$ ! c\rt ( appeals1 :i* has ! p[] ( revis+ sundry judgm5ts ( ! supreme c\rt2 & !re is some?+ simil> 9 ,new ,j]sey1 ,ill9ois1 ,k5tucky1 & ,l\isiana4#af ,footnote #af3 ,wilson4 ,! ,/ate1 pp4 #eji-eac4 ,sid5ote3 ,elective & appo9tive judges4 ,9 ! ?irte5 colonies ! judges 7 appo9t$ by ! gov]nor1 ) or )\t ! cons5t ( ! c\ncil1 & !y held (fice dur+ life or good behavi\r4 ,among ! *anges made 9 our /ate con/itutions s9ce ! ,revolution1 !re h be5 few m important ?an ^? :i* h affect$ ! position ( ! judges4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates !y are n[ elect$ by ! p = a t]m ( ye>s1 sometimes z %ort z two ye>s4 ,!re is a gr[+ feel+ t ?is *ange 0 a mi/ake4 ,x seems to h l[]$ ! g5]al "* ( ! judici>y4 ,! *ange 0 made by reason+ f analogy3 x 0 suppos$ t 9 a free c\ntry all (fices ought to be elective & = %ort t]ms4 ,b ! case ( a judge is n really analog\s to t ( executive (fic]s1 l mayors & gov]nors & presid5ts4 ,! hi/ory ( popul> lib]ty is mu* old] ?an ! hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & x w\ld be difficult to po9t to an in/ance 9 :i* popul> lib]ty has ev] suff]$ f ! life t5ure ( judges4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! judge ought to be z indep5d5t z possible ( all transi5t phases ( popul> s5tim5t1 & ,am]ican exp]i5ce dur+ ! pa/ c5tury seems to tea* u t 9 ! few /ates :]e ! appo9t+ ( judges dur+ life or good behavi\r has prevail$1 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice has be5 bett] ?an 9 ! /ates :]e ! judges h be5 elect$ = specifi$ t]ms4 ,s9ce #ahfi !re has be5 a m>k$ t5d5cy t[>d l5g!n+ ! t]ms ( elect$ judges1 & 9 sev]al /ates !re has be5 a return to ! old me?od ( appo9t+ judges by ! gov]nor1 subject to confirmation by ! s5ate4#ag ,x is "o ( ! excell5t features ( our sy/em ( f$]al gov]nm5t1 t ! sev]al /ates c ?us try exp]im5ts ea* = itself & le>n by comp>ison ( results4 ,:5 ?+s are all trimm$ d[n to a dead level ( uni=mity by ! c5tral p[]1 z 9 ,france1 a prolific s\rce ( valuable exp]i5ces is cut (f & %ut up4 ,footnote #ag3 ,= details1 see ! admirable monograph ( ,h5ry ,hit*cock1 ,am]ican ,/ate ,con/itutions1 p4 #ec4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,modifications ( /ate gov]nm5t dur+ ! pres5t c5tury3-- a4 ,prop]ty qualifications = (fice4 b4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! upp] & ! l[] h\se4 c4 ,! advantage 9 reta9+ a two-*amb]$ legislature4 #b4 ,! suffrage3-- a4 ,! p]sons to :om x is grant$4 b4 ,! qualifications e/abli%$4 c4 ,! p]sons exclud$ f its ex]cise4 #c4 ,! sep>ation ( ! executive & legislative dep>tm5ts3-- a4 ,! relation ( ! great executive (fic]s to legislation 9 ,europe4 b4 ,! "w ( legislation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 c4 ,! mo/ s]i\s ( ! dang]s t beset democratic gov]nm5t4 d4 ,important safegu>ds aga9/ su* a dang]4 #d4 ,! /ate executive3-- a4 ,! gov]nor z a "p ( ! legislature4 b4 ,(fic]s always belong+ to executive dep>tm5ts4 c4 ,(fic]s frequ5tly belong+ to executive dep>tm5ts4 d4 ,! relation ( ! gov]nor to o!r elect$ executive (fic]s4 #e4 ,! ord9>y functions ( ! gov]nor3-- a4 ,advis+ ! legislature4 b4 ,comm&+ ! militia4 c4 ,p>don+ crim9als or commut+ _! s5t5ces4 d4 ,veto+ acts ( ! legislature4 #f4 ,:y is ! p[] to veto p>ticul> items 9 a bill appropriat+ public money an important safegu>d aga9/ corruption8 #g4 ,local self-gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates left unimpair$3-- a4 ,! ext5t ( /ate sup]vision ( t[ns & c\nties4 b4 ,! _s ?us develop$ 9 ,am]ican citiz5s4 #h4 ,a lesson f ! symmetry ( ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t3-- a4 ,! dep>tm5ts & _! adm9i/ration4 b4 ,! prefect & 8 duties4 c4 ,! dep>tm5t c\ncil & its sph]e ( action4 d4 ,! commune4 e4 ,! ,fr5* sy/em contra/$ ) ! ,am]ican4 f4 ,a common view ( ! political intellig5ce ( ! ,fr5*4 g4 ,! probable effect ( excessive /ate control ^u ! political intellig5ce ( ,am]icans4 #i4 ,! greatness ( ! functions reta9$ by ! /ates "u ! f$]al gov]nm5t3-- a4 ,p[]s grant$ to ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 b4 ,! reason = grant+ su* p[]s1 c4 ,! p[]s d5i$ to ! /ates4 d4 ,! reason = su* prohibitions4 e4 ,! va/ range ( p[]s ex]cis$ by ! /ates4 f4 ,! mo/ important subjects ( legislation 9 ,engl& = ! pa/ eighty ye>s4 g4 ,! gov]nm5ts1 /ate or national1 to :i* ^! twelve subjects w\ld h fall5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #aj4 ,speak ( ! indep5d5ce ( ! /ate c\rts4 #aa4 ,9 :at cases only may matt]s be transf]r$ f !m to a f$]al c\rt8 #ab4 ,! con/itution ( ! /ate c\rts3-- a4 ,ju/ices ( ! peace2 ! mayor's c\rt4 b4 ,c\nty & municipal c\rts4 c4 ,! sup]ior c\rts4 d4 ,! supreme c\rt4 e4 ,/ill high] c\rts 9 c]ta9 /ates4 #ac4 ,! selection ( judges & _! t]ms ( s]vice3-- a4 ,9 ! ?irte5 colonies4 b4 ,9 mo/ ( ! /ates s9ce ! ,revolution4 c4 ,! reasons = a life t5ure4 d4 ,! t5d5cy s9ce #ahfi4 #ad4 ,m5tion a conspicu\s advantage ( our sy/em ( gov]nm5t ov] ! ,fr5*4 ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions4 #a4 ,0 !re ev] a *>t] gov]nm5t 9 y\r /ate8 ,if s1 :]e is ! *>t] at ! pres5t "t8 ,:at is its pres5t value8 ,try to see x1 if possible4 ,pupils ( ,bo/on & vic9ity1 = example1 may exam9e 9 ! (fice ( ! secret>y ( /ate1 at ! /ate h\se1 ! *>t] ( ,k+ ,*>les 7#afbi7 & t ( ,william & ,m>y 7#afib74 #b4 ,:5 0 y\r /ate organiz$ "u its pres5t gov]nm5t8 ,if x is n "o ( ! orig9al ?irte51 :at 0 its hi/ory previ\s to organization2 t is1 :o own$ x & controll$ x1 & h[ came x to become a /ate8 #c4 ,:at are ! qualifications = vot+ 9 y\r /ate8 #d4 ,:at are ! argum5ts 9 fav\r ( an educational qualification = vot]s 7z1 = example1 ! ability to read ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates78 ,:at reasons might be urg$ aga9/ su* qualifications8 #e4 ,:o is ! gov]nor ( y\r /ate8 ,:at political p>ty support$ him = ! position8 ,= :at ability or em95t s]vice 0 he select$8 #f4 ,give illu/rations ( ! gov]nor's ex]cise ( ! f\r functions ( advis+1 veto+1 p>don+1 & comm&+ 7consult ! newspap]s :ile ! legislature is 9 session74 #g4 ,m5tion "s ?+s done by ! gov]nor t are n includ$ 9 ! enum]ation ( 8 functions 9 ! text4 #h4 ,visit1 if practicable1 ! ,/ate ,h\se4 ,obs]ve ! v>i\s (fices1 & consid] ! g5]al nature ( ! bus9ess done !re4 ,att5d a session ( ! ,s5ate or ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,obta9 "s ord]s ( ! day4 #i4 ,if ! legislature is 9 session1 foll[ its proce$+s 9 ! newspap]s4 ,:at important measures are "u discussion8 ,on :at sort ( que/ions are p>ty l9es pretty %>ply drawn8 ,on :at sort ( que/ions are p>ty di/9ctions ignor$8 #aj4 ,consult ! book ( g5]al or public /atutes1 & report on ! foll[+ po9ts3-- a4 ,! magnitude ( ! volume4 b4 ,does x conta9 all ! laws8 ,if n1 :at are omitt$8 c4 ,give "s ( ! topics dealt )4 d4 ,:]e are ! laws to be f\nd t h be5 made s9ce ! pr9t+ ( ! volume8 e4 ,are ! orig9als ( ! laws 9 ! volume8 ,if n1 :]e are !y & 9 :at %ape8 #aa4 ,is ev]ybody expect$ to "k all ! laws8 #ab4 ,does ignorance ( ! law excuse "o = violat+ x8 #ac4 ,suppose p desire ! legislature to pass "s law1 z1 = example1 a law requir+ t[ns & cities to provide flags = s*ool-h\ses1 h[ is ! att5tion ( ! legislature secur$8 ,:at are ! v>i\s /ages ?r\gh :i* ! bill mu/ pass be=e x c become a law8 ,:y %\ld !re be s _m /ages8 #ad4 ,give illu/rations ( ! ex]cise ( f$]al gov]nm5t1 /ate gov]nm5t1 & local gov]nm5t1 9 y\r own t[n or city4 ,( :i* gov]nm5t d y obs]ve ! mo/ signs8 ,( :i* d y obs]ve ! fewe/ signs8 ,( :i* gov]nm5t d ! (fic]s seem mo/ s5sitive to local op9ion8 #ae4 ,are ! sessions ( ! legislature 9 y\r /ate annual or bi5nial8 ,:at is ! argum5t = ea* sy/em8 ,= answ]s to numb]s #af1 #ag1 #ah1 & #ai1 consult ! public /atutes1 a lawy]1 or "s intellig5t bus9ess man4 ,a fair idea ( ! successive /eps 9 ! c\rts may be obta9$ f a good unabridg$ diction>y by look+ up ! te*nical t]ms employ$ 9 ^! que/ions4 #af4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a civil action & a crim9al8 a4 ,9 respect to ! object to be ga9$ 9 ea*8 b4 ,9 respect to ! p>ty t is ! pla9tiff8 c4 ,9 respect to ! consequ5ces to ! def5dant if ! case goes aga9/ him8 #ag4 ,give an outl9e ( ! proc$ure 9 a m9or crim9al action t is tri$ )\t a jury 9 a l[] c\rt4 ,consid] 7#a7 ! compla9t1 7#b7 ! w>rant1 7#c7 ! return1 7#d7 ! recognizance1 7#e7 ! subpo5a1 7#f7 ! arraignm5t1 7#g7 ! plea1 7#h7 ! te/imony1 7#i7 ! argum5ts17#aj7 ! judgm5t & s5t5ce1 & 7#aa7 ! p5alty & its en=cem5t4 ,:at is an appeal8--,?is proc$ure seems cumbr\s1 b x is f\nd$ 9 common s5se4 ,:at "o ( ! =ego+ /eps1 = example1 w\ld y omit8 ,:y8 #ah4 ,give an outl9e ( ! proc$ure 9 a crim9al action t is tri$ ) a jury 9 a high] c\rt4 ,! action is begun 9 a l[] c\rt :]e ! fir/ five /ages are ! same z 9 numb] #ag4 ,!n foll[ 7#f7 ! exam9ation ( witnesses1 7#g7 ! b9d+ ov] ( ! accus$ to appe> be=e ! high] c\rt = trial1 7#h7 ! s5d+ ( ! compla9t & ! proce$+s !reon to ! di/rict or c\nty attorney1 7#i7 ! indictm5t1 7#aj7 ! action ( ! gr& jury ^u ! indictm5t1 7#aa7 ! *all5g+ ( jurors be=e ! trial1 7#ab7 ! arraignm5t1 7#ac7 ! plea1 7#ad7 ! te/imony1 7#ae7 ! argum5ts1 7#af7 ! *>ge to ! jury1 7#ag7 ! v]dict1 & 7#ah7 ! s5t5ce1 ) its p5alty & ! en=cem5t ( x4 ,:at are exceptions8--,:y %\ld !re be a jury 9 ! high] c\rt :5 !re is none 9 ! l[]8 ,:at is ! objection to disp5s+ ) any "o ( ! =ego+ /eps8 ,does ?is ma*9]y make x difficult to puni% crime8 ,:y %\ld an accus$ p]son receive s mu* consid]ation8 #ai4 ,give an outl9e ( ! proc$ure 9 a m9or civil action4 ,consid] 7#a7 ! writ1 7#b7 ! atta*m5t1 7#c7 ! summons to ! def5dant1 7#d7 ! return1 7#e7 ! plead+1 7#f7 ! te/imony1 7#g7 ! argum5ts1 7#h7 ! judgm5t or decision ( ! judge1 & 7#i7 ! execution4--,if ! action is conduct$ 9 a high] c\rt1 !n a jury decides ! "q at issue1 ! judge in/ruct+ ! jurors 9 po9ts ( law4 #bj4 ,suppose an innoc5t man is tri$ = an alleg$ crime & acquitt$1 has he any r$ress8 #ba4 ,is ! en=cem5t ( law complete & satisfactory 9 y\r community8 #bb4 ,:at is y\r op9ion ( ! g5]al security ( p]son & prop]ty 9 y\r community8 #bc4 ,is !re any connection betwe5 public s5tim5t ab\t a law & ! en=cem5t ( t law8 ,if s1 :at is x8 #bd4 ,any "o ( ! twelve subjects ( legislation cit$ on page #agg may be tak5 z a special topic4 ,consult any mod]n hi/ory ( ,engl&4 #be4 ,:i* d y reg>d z ! m important possession = ! citiz51--an acqua9tance ) ! pr9ciples & details ( gov]nm5t & law1 or a law-abid+ & law-support+ _s8 ,:at reasons h y = y\r op9ion8 ,:]e is y\r sympa?y 9 times ( disord]1 )1 ^? :o defy ! law or ) ^? :o seek to en=ce x8 7,suppose a case 9 :i* y d n approve ! law1 & !n answ]47 #bf4 ,may y ev] become an (fic] ( ! law8 ,w\ld y z a citiz5 be ju/ifi$ 9 )hold+ f an (fic] t ob$i5ce & moral support :i* y z an (fic] might ju/ly dem& f e citiz58 ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,! ,/ate4--,= ! f\nd+ ( ! sev]al colonies1 _! *>t]s1 etc41 ! /ud5t may pr(itably consult ! le>n$ monographs 9 ,w9sor's ,n>rative & ,critical ,hi/ory ( ,am]ica1 #h vols41 ,bo/on1 #ahhf-hi4 ,a popul> acc\nt1 q full 9 details1 is giv5 9 ,lodge's ,%ort ,hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,colonies 9 ,am]ica1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahha4 ,!re is a fairly good acc\nt ( ! revision & trans=mation ( ! colonial gov]nm5ts 9 ,bancr(t's ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 f9al edition1 ,n4,y41 #ahhf1 vol4 v4 pp4 #aaa-abe4 ,! s]ies ( ,am]ican ,commonweal?s1 edit$ by ,h4,e4 ,scudd]1 & publi%$ by ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 ,co41 w be f\nd helpful4 ,! foll[+ h be5 publi%$3 ,john/on1 ,connecticut3 a ,/udy ( a ,commonweal?-,democracy1 #ahhg2 ,rob]ts1 ,new ,york3 ! ,plant+ & ,gr[? ( ! ,empire ,/ate1 #b vols41 #ahhg2 ,br[ne1 ,m>yl&3 ! ,hi/ory ( a ,palat9ate1 #b;d ed41 #ahhd2 ,cooke1 ,virg9ia3 a ,hi/ory ( ! ,p1 #ahhc2 ,%al]1 ,k5tucky3 a ,pione] ,commonweal?1 #ahhd2 ,k+1 ,ohio3 ,fir/ ,fruits ( ! ,ord9ance ( #aghg1ahhh2 ,dunn1 ,indiana3 a ,r$emption f ,slav]y1 #ahhh2 ,cooley1 ,mi*igan3 a ,hi/ory ( ,gov]nm5ts1 #ahhe2 ,c>r1 ,miss\ri3 a ,bone ( ,cont5tion1 #ahhh2 ,spr+1 ,kansas3 ! ,prelude to ! ,w> = ! ,union1 #ahhe2 ,royce1 ,cali=nia3 a ,/udy ( ,am]ican ,"*1 #ahhf2 ,b>r[s1 ,oregon3 ! ,/ruggle = ,possession1 #ahhc4 ,9 connection ) ! que/ions on page #ahc1 ! /ud5t is advis$ to consult ,dole's ,talks ab\t ,law3 a ,popul> ,/atem5t ( ,:at our ,law is & ,h[ x is ,adm9i/]$1 ,bo/on1 #ahhg4 ,?is book des]ves high praise4 ,9 a v easy & attractive way x gives an acc\nt ( su* facts & pr9ciples ( law z ought to be famili>ly und]/ood by e man & woman4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,writt5 ,,con/itutions4 ,sid5ote3 ,9 ! ,am]ican /ate !re is a p[] above ! legislature4 ,t[>d ! close ( ! prec$+ *apt]#a ,i spoke ( ?ree po9ts especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,am]ican /ate1 & ,i w5t on to m5tion two ( !m4 ,! ?ird po9t :i* ,i _h 9 m9d is s rem>kable & important z to require a *apt] all to itself4 ,9 ! ,am]ican /ate ! legislature is n supreme1 b has limits to its au?ority prescrib$ by a writt5 docum5t1 kn[n z ! ,con/itution2 & if ! legislature happ5s to pass a law :i* violates ! con/itution1 !n :5ev] a specific case happ5s to arise 9 :i* ?is /atute is involv$1 x c be br\ght be=e ! c\rts1 & ! decision ( ! c\rt1 if adv]se to ! /atute1 annuls x & r5d]s x ( no effect4 ,! importance ( ?is feature ( civil gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates c h>dly be ov]rat$4 ,x m>ks a mom5t\s advance 9 civilization1 & x is especially int]e/+ z be+ peculi>ly ,am]ican4 ,almo/ ev]y?+ else 9 our fundam5tal in/itutions 0 br\ght by our =efa!rs 9 a m or less highly develop$ condition f ,engl&2 b ! developm5t ( ! writt5 con/itution1 ) ! consequ5t relation ( ! c\rts to ! law-mak+ p[]1 has gone on entirely ^u ,am]ican soil4 ,footnote #a3 ,see above1 p4 #agb4 ,sid5ote3 ,g]ms ( ! idea ( a writt5 con/itution4 ,sid5ote3 ,our indebt$ness to ! ,romans4 ,sid5ote3 ,m$ival *>t]s4 ,! g]ms ( ! writt5 con/itution exi/$ a great :ile ago4 ,p]haps x w\ld n be easy to say j :5 !y began to exi/4 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ by su* pr(\nd ?9k]s z ,locke & su* p]suasive writ]s z ,r\sseau1 t :5 ! fir/ m5 came toge!r to live 9 civil society1 !y made a sort ( contract ) "o ano!r z to :at laws !y w\ld h1 :at beliefs !y w\ld ent]ta91 :at cu/oms !y w\ld sanction1 & s =?4 ,?is !ory ( ! ,social ,contract 0 once fam\s1 & ex]t$ a notable influ5ce on political hi/ory1 & x is /ill int]e/+ 9 ! same way t sp9n+-:eels & wood5 frigates & p[d]$ wigs are int]e/+2 b we n[ "k t m5 liv$ 9 civil society1 ) complicat$ laws & cu/oms & cre$s1 = _m ?\s& ye>s be=e ! notion _h ev] ent]$ anybody's head t ?+s c\ld be regulat$ by contract4 ,t notion we owe *iefly to ! anci5t ,romans1 & x took !m sev]al c5turies to compreh5d ! idea & put x into practice4 ,we owe !m a debt ( gratitude = x4 ,! cu/om ( regulat+ bus9ess & politics & ! affairs ( life g5]ally by volunt>y b b9d+ agreem5ts is some?+ )\t :i* we mod]ns w\ld n ?9k life wor? liv+4 ,x 0 aft] ! ,roman _w--t is to say1 ,*ri/5dom1 = 9 ! ,middle ,ages ! two t]ms 7 synonym\s--_h become ?or\ghly famili> ) ! idea ( contract1 t ! practice grew up ( grant+ writt5 *>t]s to t[ns1 or mona/]ies1 or o!r corporate bodies4 ,! *>t] ( a m$iaeval t[n 0 a k9d ( writt5 contract by :i* ! t[n obta9$ c]ta9 specifi$ immunities or privileges f ! sov]eign or f a great feudal "l1 9 ex*ange = "s specifi$ s]vice :i* (t5 took ! =m ( a money paym5t4 ,x 0 common en\gh = a t[n to buy lib]ty = h>d ca%1 j z a man might buy a f>m4 ,! ^w *>t] orig9ally meant simply a pap] or writt5 docum5t1 & x 0 (t5 appli$ to de$s = ! transf] ( real e/ate4 ,9 contracts ( su* importance pap]s or p>*m5t docum5ts 7 drawn up & c>efully pres]v$ z irrefragable evid5ces ( ! transaction4 ,& s1 9 q significant phrase ! t[ns zeal\sly gu>d$ _! *>t]s z ! title-de$s ( _! lib]ties4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,great ,*>t] 7#abae74 ,aft] a :ile ! ^w *>t] 0 appli$ 9 ,engl& to a p>ticul> docum5t :i* specifi$ c]ta9 important concessions =cibly wrung by ! p f a mo/ unwill+ sov]eign4 ,?is docum5t 0 call$ ,magna ,*>ta1 or ! ,great ,*>t]1 sign$ at ,runnym$e1 ,june #ae1 #abae1 by ,john1 k+ ( ,engl&4 ,aft] ! k+ _h sign$ x & gone away to 8 room1 he roll$ 9 a mad fury on ! floor1 scream+ curses1 & gnaw+ /icks & /raw 9 ! impot5ce ( 81 wra?4#b ,p]haps x w\ld be /ra9+ words to call a transaction 9 :i* ! cons5t 0 s "o-sid$ a contract1 b ! idea ( ,magna ,*>ta 0 d]iv$ f t ( ! t[n *>t]s ) :i* p 7 already famili>4 ,?us a *>t] came to mean a grant made by ! sov]eign ei!r to ! :ole p or to a portion ( !m1 secur+ to !m ! enjoym5t ( c]ta9 rights4 ,n[ 9 legal usage a *>t] diff]s f a con/itution 9 ?is1 t ! =m] is grant$ by ! sov]eign1 :ile ! latt] is e/abli%$ by ! p !mselves3 bo? are ! fundam5tal law ( ! l&4#c a ,! di/9ction is admirably express$1 b 9 hi/ory x is n always easy to make x4 ,magna ,*>ta 0 9 =m a grant by ! sov]eign1 b x 0 really drawn up by ! b>ons1 :o 9 a c]ta9 s5se repres5t$ ! ,engli% p2 & e/abli%$ by ! p aft] a long /ruggle :i* 0 only 9 its fir/ /ages 9 ,john's "t4 ,to "s ext5t x p>took ( ! nature ( a writt5 con/itution4 ,footnote #b3 ,gre51 ,hi/4 ( ! ,engli% ,p1 vol4 i4 p4 #bdh4 ,footnote #c3 ,b\vi]1 ,law ,diction>y1 #ab? ed41 vol4 i4 p4 #bei4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,bill ( ,rights 7#afhi74 ,let u n[ obs]ve :at happ5$ e>ly 9 #afhi1 aft] ,james ,,ii _h fl$ f ,engl&4 ,on ,janu>y #bh? p>liam5t decl>$ ! ?rone vacant4 ,p>liam5t !n drew up ! ,decl>ation ( ,rights1 a docum5t v simil> 9 purport to ! fir/ eight am5dm5ts to our ,f$]al ,con/itution1 & on ! #ac? ( ,febru>y ! two h\ses (f]$ ! cr[n to ,william & ,m>y on condition ( _! accept+ ?is decl>ation ( ! true1 anci5t1 & indubitable rights ( ! p ( ?is realm4 ,! cr[n hav+ be5 accept$ on ^! t]ms1 p>liam5t 9 ! foll[+ ,decemb] enact$ ! fam\s ,bill ( ,rights1 :i* simply put _! previ\s decl>ation into ! =m ( a decl>atory /atute4 ,! ,bill ( ,rights 0 n--ev5 9 =m--a grant f a sov]eign2 x 0 an in/rum5t fram$ by ! repres5tatives ( ! p1 & )\t promis+ to respect x ,william & ,m>y c\ld no m h m\nt$ ! ?rone ?an a presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates c\ld be induct$ into (fice if he 7 to refuse to take ! prescrib$ oa? ( allegiance to ! ,f$]al ,con/itution4 ,! ,bill ( ,rights 0 !re=e1 /rictly speak+1 a piece ( writt5 con/itution2 x 0 a con/itution z f> z x w5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,=e%ad[+ ( ! ,am]ican idea by ,sir ,h>ry ,vane 7#afef74 ,! sev5te5? c5tury1 ! age :5 ! build]s ( ,am]ican commonweal?s 7 com+ f ,engl&1 0 especially notable 9 ,engl& = two ?+s4 ,"o 0 ! rapid gr[? ( mod]n comm]cial occupations & habits1 ! o!r 0 ! tempor>y ov]?r[ ( mon>*y1 soon foll[$ by ! f9al subjection ( ! cr[n to p>liam5t4 ,accord+ly ! sph]e ( contract & ! sph]e ( popul> sov]eignty 7 enl>g$ 9 m5's m9ds1 & ! notion ( a writt5 con/itution fir/ began to f9d expression4 ,! ,in/rum5t ( ,gov]nm5t :i* 9 #afec creat$ ! protectorate ( ,oliv] ,cromwell 0 sub/antially a writt5 con/itution1 b x emanat$ f a que/ionable au?ority & 0 n ratifi$4 ,x 0 drawn up by a c\ncil ( army (fic]s2 & x broke d[n because ! fir/ p>liam5t summon$ "u x refus$ to ackn[l$ge its b9d+ =ce4 #d ,! dissolution ( ?is p>liam5t accord+ly left ,oliv] absolute dictator4 ,9 #afef1 :5 x seem$ s necess>y to decide :at sort ( gov]nm5t ! dictator%ip ( ,cromwell 0 to prep>e ! way =1 ,sir ,h>ry ,vane propos$ t a national conv5tion %\ld be call$ = draw+ up a writt5 con/itution4#e ,! way 9 :i* he /at$ 8 case %[$ t he _h 9 him a prophetic =e%ad[+ ( ! ,am]ican idea z x 0 realiz$ 9 #aghg4 ,b ,vane's ideas 7 too f> 9 advance ( 8 age to be realiz$ !n 9 ,engl&4 ,old] ideas1 to :i* m5 7 m accu/om$1 det]m9$ ! c\rse ( ev5ts !re1 & x 0 left = ,am]icans to create a gov]nm5t by means ( a writt5 con/itution4 ,& :5 ,am]ican /atesm5 did s1 !y did x )\t any ref]5ce to ,sir ,h>ry ,vane4 ,8 relation to ! subject has be5 discov]$ only 9 lat] days1 b ,i m5tion him "h 9 illu/ration ( ! way 9 :i* great in/itutions gr[4 ,!y take %ape :5 !y express ! op9ions & wi%es ( a multitude ( p]sons2 b x (t5 happ5s t "o or two m5 ( rem>kable =esight _h ?\ght ( !m long be=eh&4 ,footnote #d3 ,g>d9]1 ,con/itutional ,docum5ts ( ! ,puritan ,revolution1 p4 lx4 ,footnote #e3 ,see ,hosm]'s ,"y ,sir ,h5ry ,vane1 pp4 #dcb-ddd1--"o ( ! be/ books ev] writt5 = ! read] :o wi%es to und]/& ! /ate ( m9d among ! ,engli% p 9 ! crisis :5 !y laid ! f\ndations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,mayfl[] compact7#afbj74 ,9 ,am]ica ! fir/ attempts at writt5 con/itutions 7 9 ! fulle/ s5se made by ! p1 & n ?r\gh repres5tatives b directly4 ,9 ! ,mayfl[]'s cab91 be=e ! ,pilgrims _h l&$ on ,plym\? rock1 !y subscrib$ _! names to a compact 9 :i* !y agre$ to con/itute !mselves into a body politic1 & to enact su* laws z might be deem$ be/ = ! colony !y 7 ab\t to e/abli%2 & !y promis$ all due submission & ob$i5ce to su* laws4 ,su* a compact is ( c\rse too vague to be call$ a con/itution4 ,prop]ly speak+1 a writt5 con/itution is a docum5t :i* def9es ! "* & p[]s ( ! gov]nm5t to :i* its fram]s are will+ to entru/ !mselves4 ,almo/ any k9d ( civil gov]nm5t might h be5 fram$ "u ! ,mayfl[] compact1 b ! docum5t is none ! less int]e/+ z an indication ( ! temp] ( ! m5 :o subscrib$ _! names to x4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,fundam5tal ,ord]s ( ,connecticut 7#afci74 ,! fir/ writt5 con/itution kn[n to hi/ory 0 t by :i* ! republic ( ,connecticut 0 organiz$ 9 #afci4 ,at fir/ ! affairs ( ! ,connecticut settlem5ts _h be5 direct$ by a commission appo9t$ by ! ,g5]al ,c\rt ( ,massa*usetts1 b on ! #ad? ( ,janu>y1 #afci1 all ! freem5 ( ! ?ree riv] t[ns--,w9dsor1 ,h>t=d1 & ,we!rsfield--assembl$ at ,h>t=d1 & drew up a writt5 con/itution1 consi/+ ( elev5 articles1 9 :i* ! frame ( gov]nm5t !n & !re adopt$ 0 di/9ctly describ$4 ,?is docum5t1 kn[n z ! ,fundam5tal ,ord]s ( ,connecticut1 creat$ ! gov]nm5t "u :i* ! p ( ,connecticut liv$ = ne>ly two c5turies be=e !y deem$ x necess>y to am5d x4 ,! *>t] grant$ to ,connecticut by ,*>les ,,ii4 9 #affb 0 simply a royal recognition ( ! gov]nm5t actually 9 op]ation s9ce ! adoption ( ! ,fundam5tal ,ord]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,g]m9al developm5t ( ! colonial *>t] t[>d ! mod]n /ate con/itution4 ,9 ^? colonies :i* _h *>t]s ^! docum5ts s]v$1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! purposes ( a writt5 con/itution4 ,!y limit$ ! legislative p[]s ( ! colonial assemblies4 ,! "q sometimes came up z to :e!r "s /atute made by ! assembly 0 n 9 excess ( ! p[]s conf]r$ by ! *>t]4 ,?is "q usually arose 9 connection ) "s p>ticul> law case1 & ?us came be=e ! c\rts = settlem5t1--fir/ be=e ! c\rts ( ! colony2 aft]w>ds x might sometimes be c>ri$ on appeal be=e ! ,privy ,c\ncil 9 ,engl&4 ,if ! c\rt decid$ t ! /atute 0 9 transgression ( ! *>t]1 ! /atute 0 !reby annull$4#f ,! colonial legislature1 !re=e1 0 n a supreme body1 ev5 )9 ! colony2 its au?ority 0 re/rict$ by ! t]ms ( ! *>t]4 ,?us ! ,am]icans1 = m ?an a c5tury be=e ! ,revolution1 7 famili>iz$ ) ! idea ( a legislature z a repres5tative body act+ )9 c]ta9 limits prescrib$ by a writt5 docum5t4 ,!y _h no k or exp]i5ce ( a supreme legislative body1 su* z ! ,h\se ( ,commons has become s9ce ! f\nd]s ( ,am]ican /ates left ,engl&4 ,at ! "t ( ! ,revolution1 :5 ! sev]al /ates fram$ new gov]nm5ts1 !y simply put a writt5 con/itution into ! position ( supremacy =m]ly occupi$ by ! *>t]4 ,in/ead ( a docum5t express$ 9 t]ms ( a royal grant1 !y adopt$ a docum5t express$ 9 t]ms ( a popul> edict4 ,to ?is ! legislature mu/ con=m2 & p 7 already some:at famili> ) ! me?od ( te/+ ! con/itutionality ( a law by gett+ ! matt] br\ght be=e ! c\rts4 ,! m5tal habit ?us g5]at$ 0 probably m important ?an any o!r s+le circum/ance 9 enabl+ our ,f$]al ,union to be =m$4 ,)\t x1 inde$1 x w\ld h be5 impossible to =m a durable union4 ,footnote #f3 ,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bdc1 #dae4 ,sid5ote3 ,abnormal developm5t ( ! /ate con/itution1 encroa*+ ^u ! prov9ce ( ! legislature4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,swiss ,ref]5dum #aif ,be=e pursu+ ?is subject1 we may obs]ve t ,am]ican /ate con/itutions h alt]$ v mu* 9 "* s9ce ! fir/ "p ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,! e>li] con/itutions 7 conf9$ to a g5]al outl9e ( ! organization ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,!y did n und]take to make ! laws1 b to prescribe ! conditions "u :i* laws might be made & execut$4 ,rec5t /ate con/itutions ent] m & m boldly ^u ! g5]al "w ( legislation4 ,= example1 9 "s /ates !y specify :at k9ds ( prop]ty %all be exempt f seizure = debt1 !y make regulations z to railroad freight-*>ges1 !y prescribe sundry details ( practice 9 ! c\rts1 or !y =bid ! sale ( intoxicat+ liquors4 ,until rec5tly su* subjects w\ld h be5 left to ! legislatures1 no "o w\ld h ?\ght ( putt+ !m into a con/itution4 ,! motive 9 s do+ is a wi% to put c]ta9 laws into su* a %ape t x w be difficult to repeal !m4 ,:at a legislature sees fit to enact ?is ye> x may see fit to repeal next ye>4 ,b am5d+ a /ate con/itution is a sl[ & cumbr\s process4 ,an am5dm5t may be orig9at$ 9 ! legislature1 :]e x mu/ secure m ?an a m]e majority--p]haps a ?ree fif?s or two ?irds vote--9 ord] to pass2 9 "s /ates x mu/ be adopt$ by two successive legislatures1 p]haps by two ?irds ( "o & ?ree f\r?s ( ! next2 9 "s /ates n m ?an "o am5dm5t c be br\ght be=e ! same legislature2 9 "s x is provid$ t am5dm5ts mu/ n be submitt$ to ! p (t5] ?an once 9 five ye>s2 & s on4 ,aft] ! am5dm5t has at l5g? made its way ?r\gh ! legislature1 x mu/ be ratifi$ by a vote ( ! p at ! next g5]al election4 ,ano!r way to get a con/itution am5d$ is to call a conv5tion = t purpose4 ,9 ord] to call a conv5tion1 x is usually necess>y to obta9 a two ?irds vote 9 ! legislature2 b 9 "s /ates ! legislature is requir$ at /at$ int]vals to submit to ! p ! "q ( hold+ su* a conv5tion1 z 9 ,new ,hamp%ire e sev5 ye>s2 9 ,i[a1 e t5 ye>s2 9 ,mi*igan1 e sixte5 ye>s2 9 ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,m>yl&1 & ,virg9ia1 e tw5ty ye>s4#g ,a conv5tion is a repres5tative body elect$ by ! p to meet at "s specifi$ "t & place = "s specifi$ purpose1 & its exi/5ce ends ) ! accompli%m5t ( t purpose4 ,x is 9 ?is occasional "* t ! conv5tion diff]s f an ord9>y legislative assembly4 ,) su* elaborate *ecks aga9/ ha/y action1 x is to be presum$ t if a law c be once embodi$ 9 a /ate con/itution1 x w be likely to h "s p]man5ce4 ,moreov]1 a direct vote by ! p gives a weighti] sanction to a law ?an a vote 9 ! legislature4 ,!re is also1 no d\bt1 a disposition to di/ru/ legislatures & 9 "s measure d _! "w = !m by direct popul> enactm5t4 ,= su* reasons "s rec5t /ate con/itutions h come almo/ to resemble bodies ( /atutes4 ,mr4 ,woodr[ ,wilson sugge/ively comp>es ?is k9d ( popul> legislation ) ! ,swiss practice kn[n z ! ,ref]5dum2 9 mo/ ( ! ,swiss cantons an important act ( ! legislature does n acquire ! =ce ( law until x has be5 ref]r$ to ! p & vot$ on by !m4 ,! objections to !1 ref]5dum1 says ,mr4 ,wilson1 are1 ( c\rse1 t x assumes a discrim9at+ judgm5t & a fullness ( in=mation on ! "p ( ! p t\*+ que/ions ( public policy :i* !y d n (t5 possess1 & t x l[]s ! s5se ( responsibility on ! "p ( legislators4 #h ,ano!r s]i\s objection to our rec5t practice is t x t5ds to confuse ! v valuable di/9ction betwe5 a con/itution & a body ( /atutes1 to necessitate a frequ5t revision ( con/itutions1 & to increase ! cumbr\sness ( law-mak+4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be premature at ! pres5t "t to pron\nce confid5tly ^u a practice ( su* rec5t orig94 ,x is cle> t its t5d5cy is extremely democratic1 & t x implies a high /&>d ( g5]al intellig5ce & indep5d5ce among ! p4 ,if ! evils ( ! practice are f\nd to outweigh its b5efits1 x w d\btless fall into disfav\r4 ,footnote #g3 ,see ,h5ry ,hit*cock's admirable monograph1 ,am]ican ,/ate ,con/itutions1 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #h3 ,wilson4 ,! ,/ate1 p4 #dij4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 ,:at is to be said ) reg>d to ! foll[+ topics8 ,i4 ,a p[] above ! legislature3-- a4 ,! con/itution4 b4 ,! relation ( ! c\rts to laws t violate ! con/itution4 c4 ,! importance ( ?is relation4 d4 ,! ,am]ican orig9 ( ! writt5 con/itution4 #b4 ,! g]ms ( ! idea ( a writt5 con/itution3-- a4 ,! !ory ( a social contract4 b4 ,! objection to ?is !ory4 c4 ,roman orig9 ( ! idea ( contract4 #c4 ,m$ival *>t]s3-- a4 ,! *>t] ( a t[n4 b4 ,! ^w *>t]4 c4 ,magna ,*>ta4 d4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 a *>t] & a con/itution4 e4 ,! =m ( ,magna ,*>ta z contra/$ ) its ess5tial nature4 #d4 ,docum5ts some:at resembl+ writt5 con/itutions3-- a4 ,! ,decl>ation ( ,rights4 b4 ,! ,bill ( ,rights4 #e4 ,! =e%ad[+ ( ! ,am]ican idea ( writt5 con/itutions3-- a4 ,two conditions especially notable 9 ,engl& 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 b4 ,! influ5ce ( ^! conditions on popul> views ( gov]nm5t4 c4 ,! ,in/rum5t ( ,gov]nm5t4 d4 ,sir ,h>ry ,vane's proposition4 e4 ,:y allude to ,vane's s*eme :5 no?+ came ( x8 #f4 ,e>ly sugge/ions ( writt5 con/itutions 9 ,am]ica3-- a4 ,! compact on ! ,mayfl[]4 b4 ,:]e9 ! compact fell %ort ( a writt5 con/itution4 c4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,ord]s ( ,connecticut4 #g4 ,! developm5t ( ! colonial *>t] into a writt5 con/itution3-- a4 ,! limitation ( ! p[]s ( colonial assemblies4 b4 ,! decision ( que/ions relat+ to ! transgression ( a *>t] by a colonial legislature4 c4 ,! colonial assembly z contra/$ ) ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 d4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! writt5 con/itution & ! *>t] = :i* x 0 sub/itut$4 e4 ,! read9ess ( ! p to adopt writt5 con/itutions4 #h4 ,! ext5sive developm5t ( ! writt5 con/itution 9 "s /ates3-- a4 ,! simplicity ( ! e>li] con/itutions4 b4 ,illu/rations ( ! legislative t5d5cies ( lat] con/itutions4 c4 ,! motive = su* ext5sion ( a con/itution4 d4 ,! difficulty ( am5d+ a con/itution4 e4 ,! legislative me?od ( am5dm5t4 f4 ,! conv5tion me?od ( am5dm5t4 g4 ,! presum$ advantage ( embody+ laws 9 ! con/itution4 h4 ,a comp>ison ) ! ,swiss ,ref]5dum4 i4 ,objections to ! ,swiss ,ref]5dum4 j4 ,o!r objections to ! practice ( putt+ laws into ! con/itution4 ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions4 #a4 ,d y belong to any society t has a con/itution8 ,has ! society rules ap>t f ! con/itution8 ,:i* may be *ang$ ! m readily8 ,:y n put all ! rules into ! con/itution8 #b4 ,read ! con/itution ( y\r /ate 9 "p or 9 full4 ,give "s acc\nt ( its pr9cipal divisions1 ( ! topics x deals )1 & its magnitude or fullness4 ,are !re any am5dm5ts8 ,if s1 m5tion two or ?ree1 & give ! reasons = _! adoption4 ,is !re any decl>ation ( rights 9 x8 ,if s1 :at are "s ( ! rights decl>$1 & ^: are !y said to be8 #c4 ,:]e is ! orig9al ( y\r /ate con/itution kept8 ,:at sort ( look+ docum5t d y suppose x to be8 ,:]e w\ld y look = a copy ( x8 ,if a "q arises 9 any c\rt ab\t ! int]pretation ( ! con/itution1 mu/ ! orig9al be produc$ to settle ! word+ ( ! docum5t8 #d4 ,has any ef=t be5 made 9 y\r /ate to put into ! con/itution matt]s t h previ\sly be5 subjects ( legislative action8 ,if s1 give an acc\nt ( ! ef=t1 & ! public attitude t[>ds x4 #e4 ,:i* is pref]able1--a con/itution t comm&s ! approval ( ! p z a :ole or t :i* has ! support ( a dom9ant political p>ty only8 #f4 ,suppose x is y\r p]sonal conviction t a law is uncon/itutional1 may y disreg>d x8 ,:at consequ5ces might ensue f su* disreg>d8 #g4 ,may p hone/ly & amicably diff] ab\t ! int]pretation ( ! con/itution or ( a law1 9 a p>ticul> case8 ,if important int]e/s are dep5d5t on ! int]pretation1 h[ c ! true "o be f\nd out8 ,does a lawy]'s op9ion settle ! int]pretation8 ,:at value has su* an op9ion8 ,:]e mu/ p g = au?oritative & f9al int]pretations ( ! laws8 ,c !y get su* int]pretations by simply ask+ = !m8 #h4 ,! con/itution ( ,new ,hamp%ire provides t :5 ! gov]nor _c dis*>ge ! duties ( 8 (fice1 ! presid5t ( ! s5ate %all assume !m4 ,dur+ ! sev]e sickness ( a gov]nor rec5tly1 ! presid5t ( ! s5ate hesitat$ to act 9 8 /ead2 x 0 n cle> t ! situation 0 grave en\gh to w>rant su* a c\rse4 ,accord+ly ! attorney-g5]al ( ! /ate br\ght an action aga9/ ! presid5t ( ! s5ate = n do+ 8 duty2 ! c\rt consid]$ ! situation1 decid$ aga9/ ! presid5t ( ! s5ate1 & ord]$ him to become act+ gov]nor4 ,:y 0 ?is suit necess>y8 ,0 x conduct$ 9 a ho/ile _s8 ,:]e9 did ! decision help ! /ate8 ,:]e9 did x help ! def5dant8 ,:]e9 may x possibly prove helpful 9 ! future hi/ory ( ! /ate8 #i4 ,m5tion p>ticul> ?+s t ! gov]nor1 ! legislature1 & ! judici>y ( y\r /ate h done or may d4 ,!n f9d ! section or clause or word+ 9 y\r /ate con/itution t gives au?ority = ea* ( ^! ?+s4 ,= example1 read ! p>ticul> "p t au?orizes y\r legislature3-- a4 ,to incorporate a city4 b4 ,to compel *ildr5 to att5d s*ool4 c4 ,to buy uni=ms = a regim5t ( soldi]s4 d4 ,to e/abli% a dea? p5alty4 e4 ,to s5d a committee abroad to /udy a sy/em ( wat]works4 #aj4 ,trace ! au?ority ( a s*ool-tea*]1 a policeman1 a selectman1 a mayor1 or ( any public (fic]1 back to "s "p ( y\r con/itution4 #aa4 ,m5tion any p>ts ( y\r con/itution t seem g5]al & some:at indef9ite1 & t admit1 !re=e1 ( mu* fre$om 9 int]pretation4 #ab4 ,%[ h[ ! p are1 9 "o aspect1 subord9ate to ! con/itution2 9 ano!r1 sup]ior to x4 ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,writt5 ,con/itutions4--,v little has be5 writt5 or publi%$ ) ref]5ce to ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! idea ( a writt5 con/itution4 ,! /ud5t w f9d "s sugge/ive h9ts 9 ,hannis ,taylor's ,orig9 & ,gr[? ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution1 vol4 i1 ,bo/on1 #ahhi4 ,see ,h5ry ,hit*cock's ,am]ican ,/ate ,con/itutions2 a ,/udy ( _! ,gr[?1 ,n4,y41 #ahhg1 a le>n$ & valuable essay4 ,see also ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,i41 xi41 ,alex&] ,john/on1 ,! ,g5esis ( a ,new ,engl& ,/ate 7,connecticut72 ,,iii41 ix4-x41 ,horace ,davis1 ,am]ican ,con/itutions2 also ,pre/on's ,docum5ts ,illu/rative ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 #afjf-ahfc1 ,n4,y41 #ahhf2 ,/ubbs1 ,select ,*>t]s & o!r ,illu/rations ( ,engli% ,con/itutional ,hi/ory1 ,ox=d1 #ahgj2 ,g>d9]'s ,con/itutional ,docum5ts ( ! ,puritan ,revolution1 ,ox=d1 #ahhh4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,f$]al ,,union4 ,section #a4 ,orig9 ( ! ,f$]al ,union4 ,hav+ n[ sket*$ ! orig9 & nature ( writt5 con/itutions1 we are prep>$ to und]/& h[ by means ( su* a docum5t ! gov]nm5t ( our ,f$]al ,union 0 call$ into exi/5ce4 ,we h already describ$ s mu* ( ! civil gov]nm5t 9 op]ation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates t ?is acc\nt c be made mu* m concise ?an if we _h />t$ at ! top in/ead ( ! bottom & begun to portray our national gov]nm5t be=e say+ a ^w ab\t /ates & c\nties & t[ns4 ,bit by bit ! g5]al !ory ( ,am]ican self-gov]nm5t has already be5 set be=e ! read]4 ,we h n[ to obs]ve1 9 conclusion1 :at a magnific5t piece ( con/ructive "w has be5 p]=m$ 9 accordance ) t g5]al !ory4 ,we h to obs]ve ! build+ up ( a va/ empire out ( /rictly self-gov]n+ elem5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,engli% in/itutions 9 all ! colonies4 ,!re 0 always "o important circum/ance 9 fav\r ( ! union ( ! ?irte5 ,am]ican colonies into a f$]al nation4 ,! inhabitants 7 all sub/antially "o p4 ,x is true t 9 "s ( ! colonies !re 7 a good _m p]sons n ( ,engli% ance/ry1 b ! ,engli% type absorb$ & assimilat$ ev]y?+ else4 ,all spoke ! ,engli% language1 all _h ,engli% in/itutions4 ,except ! developm5t ( ! writt5 con/itution1 e bit ( civil gov]nm5t describ$ 9 ! prec$+ pages came to ,am]ica directly f ,engl&1 & n a bit ( x f any o!r c\ntry1 unless by be+ fir/ filt]$ ?r\gh ,engl&4 ,our in/itutions 7 z ,engli% z our spee*4 ,x 0 !re=e comp>atively easy = p 9 "o colony to und]/& p 9 ano!r1 n only z to _! words b z to _! political ideas4 ,moreov]1 dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ! common dang] f ! aggressive ,fr5* enemy on ! nor? & we/ w5t f> t[>d awak5+ 9 ! ?irte5 colonies a common int]e/4 ,& aft] ! ,fr5* enemy _h be5 remov$1 ! ass]tion by p>liam5t ( its alleg$ "r to tax ! ,am]icans ?reat5$ all ! ?irte5 legislatures at once1 & ?us 9 fact drove ! colonies into a k9d ( f$]al union4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,new ,engl& conf$]acy 7#afdc-hd74 ,sid5ote3 ,albany ,congress7#aged74 ,sid5ote3 ,/amp ,act ,congress 7#agfe74 ,conf$]ations among /ates h g5]ally ow$ _! orig91 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to milit>y necessities4 ,! e>lie/ league 9 ,am]ica1 among :ite p at lea/1 0 ! conf$]acy ( ,new ,engl& colonies =m$ 9 #afdc1 *iefly = def5ce aga9/ ! ,indians4 ,x 0 f9ally dissolv$ amid ! tr\bles ( #afhd1 :5 ! fir/ gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts 0 ov]?r[n4 ,along ! ,atlantic coa/ ! nor!rn & ! s\!rn colonies 7 = "s "t di/9ct gr\ps1 sep>at$ by ! unsettl$ portion ( ! c5tral zone4 ,! settlem5t ( ,p5nsylvania1 beg9n+ 9 #afha1 fill$ ?is gap & made ! colonies cont9u\s f ! ,fr5* fronti] ( ,canada to ! ,spani% fronti] ( ,florida4 ,! dang] f ,france began to be cle>ly appreh5d$ aft] #afhi1 & 9 #afih "o ( ! e>lie/ plans ( union 0 propos$ by ,william ,p5n4 ,9 #aged1 j z ! f9al /ruggle ) ,france 0 ab\t to beg91 !re came ,frankl9's fam\s plan = a p]man5t f$]al union2 & ?is plan 0 laid be=e a congress assembl$ at ,albany = r5ew+ ! alliances ) ! ,six ,nations4#a ,only sev5 colonies 7 repres5t$ 9 ?is congress4 ,obs]ve ! ^w congress4 ,if x _h be5 a legislative body x w\ld m likely h be5 call$ a p>liam5t4 ,b ( c\rse x 0 no?+ ( ! sort4 ,x 0 a diplomatic body1 compos$ ( delegates repres5t+ /ate gov]nm5ts1 l ,european congresses1--l ! ,congress ( ,b]l91 = example1 :i* tri$ to adju/ ! ,ea/]n ,"q 9 #ahgh4 ,elev5 ye>s aft] ! ,albany ,congress1 ^u ! news t p>liam5t _h pass$ ! ,/amp ,act1 a congress ( n9e colonies assembl$ at ,new ,york 9 ,octob]1 #agfe1 to take action !reon4 ,footnote #a3 ,frankl9's plan 0 aft]w>d submitt$ to ! sev]al legislatures ( ! colonies1 & 0 ev]y:]e reject$ because ! ne$ = union 0 n[h]e /rongly felt by ! p4 ,sid5ote3 ,committees ( ,correspond5ce 7#aggb-ge74 ,n9e ye>s elaps$ )\t ano!r congress4 ,mean:ile ! political excitem5t1 ) occasional lulls1 w5t on increas+1 & "s sort ( coop]ation betwe5 ! colonial gov]nm5ts became habitual4 ,9 #agfh1 aft] p>liam5t _h pass$ ! ,t[n%5d rev5ue acts1 !re 0 no congress1 b ,massa*usetts s5t a circul> lett] to ! o!r colonies1 invit+ !m to coop]ate 9 measures ( resi/ance1 & ! o!r colonies respond$ fav\rably4 ,9 #aggb1 z we h se51 committees ( correspond5ce betwe5 ! t[ns ( ,massa*usetts act$ z a sort ( provisional gov]nm5t = ! commonweal?4 ,9 #aggc ,dabney ,c>r1 ( ,virg9ia1 enl>g$ ^u ?is idea1 & committees ( correspond5ce 7 =?) in/itut$ betwe5 ! sev]al colonies4 ,?us ! habit ( act+ 9 conc]t began to be =m$4 ,9 #aggd1 aft] p>liam5t _h pass$ an act ov]?r[+ ! gov]nm5t ( ,massa*usetts1 along ) o!r (f5sive measures1 a congress assembl$ 9 ,septemb] at ,philadelphia1 ! city mo/ c5trally situat$ z well z ! l>ge/4 ,if ! remon/rances adopt$ at ?is congress _h be5 he$$ by ! ,briti% gov]nm5t1 & peace _h foll[$1 ?is congress w\ld probably h be5 z tempor>y an affair z its pr$ecessors2 p w\ld probably h wait$ until ov]tak5 by "s o!r em]g5cy4 ,b inasmu* z w> foll[$1 ! congress assembl$ aga9 9 ,may1 #agge1 & !reaft] became practically a p]man5t in/itution until x di$ ( old age ) ! ye> #aghh4 ,sid5ote3 ,cont95tal ,congress 7#aggd-aghi74 ,?is congress 0 call$ cont95tal to di/+ui% x f ! prov9cial congresses held 9 sev]al ( ! colonies at ab\t ! same "t4 ,! ?irte5 colonies 7 inde$ b a n>r[ /rip on ! edge ( a va/ & 9 l>ge "p unexplor$ cont95t1 b ! ^w cont95tal 0 conv5i5t = di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! :ole conf$]acy & its sev]al memb]s4 ,sid5ote3 ,! sev]al /ates 7 nev] at any "t sov]eign /ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation ,! ,cont95tal ,congress began to ex]cise a c]ta9 am\nt ( directive au?ority f ! "t ( its fir/ meet+ 9 #aggd4 ,su* au?ority z x _h arose simply f ! fact t x repres5t$ an agreem5t on ! "p ( ! sev]al gov]nm5ts to pursue a c]ta9 l9e ( policy4 ,x 0 a diplomatic & executive1 b sc>cely yet a legislative body4 ,nev]!less x 0 ! visible symbol ( a k9d ( union betwe5 ! /ates4 ,!re nev] 0 a "t :5 any "o ( ! orig9al /ates ex]cis$ s+ly ! full p[]s ( sov]eignty4 ,n "o ( !m 0 ev] a small sov]eign /ate l ,d5m>k or ,portugal4 ,z !y act$ toge!r "u ! common direction ( ! ,briti% gov]nm5t 9 #agei1 ! ye> ( ,quebec1 s !y act$ toge!r "u ! common direction ( t revolution>y body1 ! ,cont95tal ,congress1 9 #agge1 ! ye> ( ,bunk] ,hill4 ,9 t ye> a cont95tal army 0 organiz$ 9 ! "n ( ! ,unit$ ,colonies4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1 :5 indep5d5ce 0 decl>$1 x 0 done by ! conc]t$ action ( all ! colonies2 & at ! same "t a committee 0 appo9t$ by ,congress to draw up a writt5 con/itution4 ,?is con/itution1 kn[n z ! ,articles or ,conf$]ation1 0 submitt$ to ,congress 9 ! autumn ( #aggg1 & 0 s5t to ! sev]al /ates to be ratifi$4 ,a unanim\s ratification 0 necess>y1 & x 0 n until ,m>* #agha1 t unanimity 0 secur$ & ! articles adopt$4 ,mean:ile ! ,revolution>y ,w> _h advanc$ into its la/ /ages1 hav+ be5 c>ri$ on f ! outset "u ! g5]al direction ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 ,:5 read+ ab\t ?is p]iod ( our hi/ory1 ! /ud5t mu/ be c>eful n to be misl$ by ! "n congress into reason+ z if !re 7 any resemblance :atev] betwe5 t body & ! congress :i* 0 creat$ by our ,f$]al ,con/itution4 ,! ,cont95tal ,congress 0 n ! p>5t ( our ,f$]al ,congress2 ! =m] di$ )\t (fspr+1 & ! latt] _h a v diff]5t orig91 z we %all soon see4 ,! =m] simply bequea!d to ! latt] a "n1 t 0 all4 ,sid5ote3 ,nature & p[]s ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress ,! ,cont95tal ,congress 0 an assembly ( delegates f ! ?irte5 /ates1 :i* f #aggd to #aghc held its sessions at ,philadelphia4#b ,x own$ no f$]al prop]ty1 n ev5 ! h\se 9 :i* x assembl$1 & aft] x _h be5 turn$ out ( doors by a mob ( drunk5 soldi]s 9 ,june1 #aghc1 x flitt$ ab\t f place to place1 sitt+ n[ at ,tr5ton1 n[ at ,annapolis1 & f9ally at ,new ,york4#c ,ea* /ate s5t to x z _m delegates z x *ose1 ?\gh aft] ! adoption ( ! articles no /ate c\ld s5d less ?an two or m ?an sev54 ,ea* /ate _h "o vote1 & x took n9e votes1 or two ?irds ( ! :ole1 to c>ry any measure ( importance4 ,"o ( ! delegates 0 *os5 presid5t or *airman ( ! congress1 & ?is position 0 "o ( great dignity & consid]able influ5ce1 b x 0 n ess5tially diff]5t f ! position1 ( any ( ! o!r delegates4 ,!re 7 no di/9ct executive (fic]s4 ,important executive matt]s 7 at fir/ assign$ to committees1 su* z ! ,f9ance ,committee & ! ,bo>d ( ,w>1 ?\gh at ! mo/ try+ "t ! f9ance committee 0 a committee ( "o1 9 ! p]son ( ,rob]t ,morris1 :o 0 commonly call$ ! ,f9anci]4 ,! "w ( ! f9ance committee 0 *iefly try+ to solve ! problem ( pay+ bills )\t sp5d+ money1 = !re 0 seldom any money to sp5d4 ,congress c\ld n tax ! p or recruit ! army4 ,:5 x want$ money or troops1 x c\ld only ask ! /ate gov]nm5ts = !m2 & g5]ally x got f a fif? to a f\r? "p ( ! troops ne$$1 b ( money a f> small] proportion4 ,sometimes x borr[$ money f ,holl& or ,france1 b (t5 its only res\rce 0 to issue pap] promises to pay1 or ! s-call$ ,cont95tal pap] money4 ,!re 7 no f$]al c\rts1#d nor m>%als to execute f$]al decrees4 ,congress might issue ord]s1 b x _h no means ( compell+ ob$i5ce4 ,footnote #b3 ,except = a few days 9 ,decemb]1 #aggf1 :5 x fl$ to ,baltimore2 & aga9 f ,septemb]1 #aggg1 to ,june1 #aggh1 :5 ,philadelphia 0 9 possession ( ! ,briti%2 dur+ t int]val ,congress held its meet+s at ,york 9 ,p5nsylvania4 ,footnote #c3 ,see my ,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 pp4 #aab1 #bga1 #cjf ,footnote #e3 ,except ! ,c\rt ( ,appeals 9 ,cases ( ,capture1 = an admirable acc\nt ( :i* see ,jameson's ,essays 9 ! ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #a-de4 ,sid5ote3 ,x 0 n fully end[$ ) sov]eignty4 ,! ,cont95tal ,congress 0 !re=e n 9 ! full s5se a sov]eign body4 ,a gov]nm5t is n really a gov]nm5t until x c impose taxes & ?us comm& ! money ne$ful = keep+ x 9 exi/5ce4 ,nev]!less ! ,congress ex]cis$ "s ( ! mo/ indisputable functions ( sov]eignty4 ,x decl>$ ! indep5d5ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 x contract$ an (f5sive & def5sive alliance ) ,france2 x rais$ & organiz$ a ,cont95tal army2 x borr[$ l>ge sums ( money1 & pl$g$ :at ! l5d]s und]/ood to be ! national cr$it = _! repaym5t2 x issu$ an inconv]tible pap] curr5cy1 grant$ lett]s ( m>que1 & built a navy4 #f ,f9ally x ratifi$ a treaty ( peace ) ,great ,brita94 ,s t ! ,congress 0 really1 9 _m respects1 & 9 ! eyes ( ! _w at l>ge1 a sov]eign body4 ,"t soon %[$ t ! cont9u$ ex]cise ( su* p[]s 0 n compatible ) ! abs5ce ( ! p[] to tax ! p4 ,9 tru? ! situation ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress 0 an illogical situation4 ,9 ! ef=t ( ?r[+ (f ! sov]eignty ( ,great ,brita91 ! p ( ^! /ates 7 con/ruct+ a f$]al union fa/] ?an !y realiz$4 ,_! !ory ( ! situation did n keep pace ) ! facts1 & _! fir/ attempt to embody _! !ory1 9 ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation1 0 n unnaturally a failure4 ,footnote #f3 ,critical ,p]iod1 p4 #ic4 ,sid5ote3 ,decl9e ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 ,at fir/ ! p[]s ( ! ,congress 7 vague4 ,!y 7 :at are call$ impli$ w> p[]s2 t is to say1 ! ,congress _h a w> ) ,great ,brita9 on its h&s1 & mu/ be suppos$ to h p[] to d :atev] 0 necess>y to br+ ! w> to a successful conclusion4 ,at fir/1 too1 :5 x _h only begun to issue pap] money1 !re 0 a mom5t>y feel+ ( prosp]ity4 ,milit>y success add$ to its appe>ance ( /r5g?1 & ! reputation ( ! ,congress rea*$ its high wat] m>k e>ly 9 #aggh1 aft] ! capture ( ,burgoyne's army & ! mak+ ( ! alliance ) ,france4 ,aft] t "t1 ) ! we>y prolong+ ( ! w>1 ! increase ( ! public debt1 & ! collapse ( ! pap] curr5cy1 its reputation /eadily decl9$4 ,!re 0 also mu* "w to be done 9 reorganiz+ ! /ate gov]nm5ts1 & ?is kept at home 9 ! /ate legislatures _m ( ! able/ m5 :o w\ld o!rwise h be5 s5t to ! ,congress4 ,?us 9 po9t ( intellectual capacity ! latt] body 0 di/9ctly inf]ior 9 #aghc to :at x _h be5 :5 fir/ assembl$ n9e ye>s e>li]4 ,sid5ote3 ,an>*ical t5d5cies4 ,! arrival ( peace did n help ! ,congress1 b made matt]s worse4 ,:5 ! absolute necessity ( pres5t+ a unit$ front to ! common enemy 0 remov$1 ! weakness ( ! union 0 %[n 9 _m ways t 7 al>m+4 ,! s5tim5t ( union 0 weak4 ,9 spite ( ! community 9 language & in/itutions1 :i* 0 s fav\rable to union1 ! p ( ! sev]al /ates _h _m local prejudices :i* t5d$ to de/roy ! union 9 its infancy4 ,a man 0 quick] to rememb] t he 0 a ,new ,york] or a ,massa*usetts man ?an t he 0 an ,am]ican & a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,neighb\r+ /ates levi$ cu/om-h\se duties aga9/ "o ano!r1 or refus$ to admit into _! m>kets ea* o!r's produce1 or _h qu>rels ab\t b\nd>ies :i* w5t to ! v]ge ( w>4 ,?+s grew worse e ye> until by ! autumn ( #aghf1 :5 ! ,congress 0 q bankrupt & mo/ ( ! /ates ne>ly s1 :5 ?reats ( secession 7 he>d bo? 9 ,new ,engl& & 9 ! ,s\?1 :5 !re 7 riots 9 sev]al /ates & ,massa*usetts 0 engag$ 9 suppress+ arm$ rebellion1 :5 p 9 ,europe 7 beg9n+ to ask :e!r we 7 m likely to be seiz$ ^u by ,france or reconqu]$ piecemeal by ,great ,brita91 x came to be ?\ght necess>y to make "s k9d ( a *ange4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,f$]al ,conv5tion 7#aghg74 ,m5 7 mo/ unwill+ly br\ght to ?is conclusion1 because !y 7 us$ to _! /ate assemblies & n afraid ( !m1 b !y 7 afraid ( increas+ ! p[]s ( any gov]nm5t sup]ior to ! /ates1 le/ !y %\ld ?us create an unmanageable tyranny4 ,!y believ$ t ev5 an>*y1 ?\gh a dreadful evil1 is n s dreadful z despotism1 & = ?is view !re is mu* to be said4 ,aft] no end ( tr\ble a conv5tion 0 at l5g? got toge!r at ,philadelphia 9 ,may1 #aghg1 & aft] f\r mon?s ( "w ) clos$ doors1 x 0 able to (f] to ! c\ntry ! new ,f$]al ,con/itution4 ,bo? 9 its "* & 9 ! "w :i* ,x did1 ?is ,f$]al ,conv5tion1 ov] :i* ,wa%+ton presid$1 & ( :i* ,frankl91 ,madison1 & ,hamilton 7 memb]s1 0 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable delib]ative bodies kn[n to hi/ory4 ,we h se5 t ! fundam5tal weakness ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress lay 9 ! fact t x c\ld n tax ! p4 ,h5ce al?\gh x c\ld = a "t ex]t o!r high functions ( sov]eignty1 x c\ld only d s :ile money 0 suppli$ to x f o!r s\rces ?an taxation2 f contributions made by ! /ates 9 answ] to its requisitions1 f =eign loans1 & f a pap] curr5cy4 ,b su* res\rces c\ld n la/ long4 ,x 0 l a man's try+ to live ^u 8 own promissory notes & ^u gifts & unsecur$ loans f 8 fri5ds4 ,:5 ! supply ( money 0 exhau/$1 ! ,congress soon f\nd t x c\ld no long] comport itself z a sov]eign p[]2 x c\ld n pres]ve ord] at home1 & ! situation abroad may be illu/rat$ by ! fact t ,george ,,iii4 kept g>risons 9 sev]al ( our nor?we/]n fronti] t[ns & w\ld n s5d a m9i/] to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is example %[s t1 among ! sov]eign p[]s ( a gov]nm5t1 ! p[] ( taxation is ! fundam5tal "o ^u :i* all ! o!rs dep5d4 ,no?+ c g on )\t money4 ,b ! p ( ! sev]al /ates w\ld nev] cons5t to grant ! p[] ( taxation1 to su* a body z ! ,cont95tal ,congress1 9 :i* !y 7 n repres5t$4 ,! ,congress 0 n a legislature1 b a diplomatic body2 x did n repres5t ! p1 b ! /ate gov]nm5ts2 & a l>ge /ate l ,p5nsylvania _h no m weight 9 x ?an a little /ate l ,delaw>e4 ,if !re 0 to be any c5tral assembly = ! :ole union1 end[$ ) ! p[] ( taxation1 x mu/ be an assembly repres5t+ ! ,am]ican p j z ! assembly ( a s+le /ate repres5t$ ! p ( ! /ate4 ,z soon z ?is po9t became cle>1 x 0 se5 to be necess>y to ?r[ ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation ov]bo>d1 & con/ruct a new national gov]nm5t4 ,z 0 said above1 our ,f$]al ,congress is n desc5d$ f ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 ,its p>5tage is to be s\ght 9 ! /ate legislatures4 ,our f$]al gov]nm5t 0 con/ruct$ aft] ! g5]al model ( ! /ate gov]nm5ts1 ) "s po9ts copi$ f ,briti% usages1 & "s po9ts t 7 orig9al & new4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:at are ! reasons = res]v+ ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! conclud+ *apt]8 #b4 ,circum/ances t fav\r$ union ( ! colonies3-- a4 ,! orig9 ( _! inhabitants4 b4 ,all ! details ( _! civil gov]nm5t4 c4 ,! ease ) :i* !y und]/ood "o ano!r4 d4 ,_! common dang]s1 two 9 p>ticul>4 #c4 ,e>li] unions among ! colonies3-- a4 ,! ,new ,engl& ,conf$]acy1--its "t1 purpose1 & duration4 b4 ,! ,fr5* dang]1 & plans to meet x4 c4 ,! ,albany ,congress1--its nature & imm$iate purpose4 d4 ,! ,/amp ,act ,congress4 #d4 ,committees ( correspond5ce3-- a4 ,! circul> lett] ( ,massa*usetts 9 #agfh4 b4 ,t[n committees ( correspond5ce 9 ,massa*usetts 9 #aggb4 c4 ,colonial committees ( correspond5ce 9 #aggc4 d4 ,! habit e/abli%$ ?r\gh ^! committees4 #e4 ,! ,cont95tal ,congress3-- a4 ,! imm$iate causes t l$ to x4 b4 ,h[ x might h be5 tempor>y4 c4 ,h[ x became p]man5t4 d4 ,its date1 place ( meet+1 & duration4 e4 ,:y cont95tal z di/+ui%$ f prov9cial8 f4 ,! nature & ext5t ( its au?ority4 g4 ,! /ates repres5t$ 9 x nev] fully sov]eign4 #f4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 #g4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ! ,cont95tal ,congress & ! ,f$]al4 #h4 ,! p[]s ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress3-- a4 ,its homelessness & w&]+4 b4 ,its delegates & _! vot+ p[]4 c4 ,its presid+ (fic]4 d4 ,its managem5t ( executive matt]s4 e4 ,! f9ance committee & its problems4 f4 ,! rais+ ( money4 g4 ,! compell+ ( ob$i5ce4 #i4 ,! ,cont95tal ,congress n a sov]eign body3-- a4 ,! nature ( real gov]nm5t4 b4 ,"s functions ( sov]eignty ex]cis$ by ! ,congress4 c4 ,! situation illogical4 #aj4 ,expla9 ! impli$ w> p[]s ( ! ,congress4 #aa4 ,:5 0 ! ,congress at ! height ( its reputation1 & :y8 #ab4 ,expla9 ! decl9e 9 its reputation f #aggh to #aghc4 #ac4 ,! al>m+ weakness ( ! union aft] #aghc3-- a4 ,! effect ( peace ^u ! union4 b4 ,local prejudices4 c4 ,/ate antagonisms4 d4 ,! gloomy outlook 9 #aghf4 #ad4 ,! ,f$]al ,conv5tion 9 #aghg3-- a4 ,! reluctance to make ! *ange t 0 felt to be ne$$4 b4 ,"s facts ab\t ! ,conv5tion4 c4 ,! "* ( its delegates4 d4 ,! fundam5tal weakness ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 e4 ,! fundam5tal p[] ( a /rong gov]nm5t4 f4 ,! objection to grant+ ! p[] ( taxation to ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 g4 ,! sort ( assembly dem&$ = ex]cis+ ! tax+ p[]4 h4 ,! model on :i* ! f$]al gov]nm5t 0 built4 ,section #b4 ,! ,f$]al ,congress4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,! f$]al ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives is desc5d$1 ?r\gh ! /ate h\ses ( repres5tatives1 f ! colonial assemblies4 ,x is an assembly repres5t+ ! :ole population ( ! c\ntry z if x 7 all 9 "o great /ate4 ,x is compos$ ( memb]s *os5 e o!r ye> by ! p ( ! /ates4 ,p]sons 9 any /ate :o are qualifi$ to vote = /ate repres5tatives are qualifi$ to vote = f$]al repres5tatives4 ,?is arrangem5t left ! p[] ( regulat+ ! suffrage 9 ! h&s ( ! sev]al /ates1 :]e x /ill rema9s1 save = ! re/riction impos$ 9 #ahgj = ! protection ( ! s\!rn fre$m54 ,a c&idate = election to ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives mu/ be tw5ty-five ye>s old1 mu/ h be5 sev5 ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & mu/ be an inhabitant ( ! /ate 9 :i* he is *os54 ,sid5ote3 ,! ?ree fif?s compromise4 ,z ! ,f$]al ,congress is a tax+ body1 repres5tatives & direct taxes are apportion$ among ! sev]al /ates accord+ to ! same rule1 t is1 accord+ to population4 ,at ?is po9t a difficulty arose 9 ! ,conv5tion z to :e!r slaves %\ld be c\nt$ z population4 ,if !y 7 to be c\nt$1 ! relative weight ( ! slave /ates 9 all matt]s ( national legislation w\ld be mu* increas$4 ,! nor!rn /ates ?\ght1 ) reason1 t x w\ld be unduly increas$4 ,! difficulty 0 adju/$ by a compromise accord+ to :i* five slaves 7 to be reckon$ z ?ree p]sons4 ,s9ce ! abolition ( slav]y ?is provision has become obsolete1 b until #ahfj x 0 a v important factor 9 ,am]ican hi/ory4#g ,9 ! f$]al ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives ! great /ates ( c\rse h mu* m weight ?an ! small /ates4 ,9 #agij ! f\r l>ge/ /ates _h #cb repres5tatives1 :ile ! o!r n9e _h only #cc4 ,! l>ge/ /ate1 ,virg9ia1 _h #aj repres5tatives to #a f ,delaw>e4 ,^! disp>ities h increas$4 ,9 #ahhj1 out ( ?irty-eight /ates ! n9e l>ge/ _h a majority ( ! h\se1 & ! l>ge/ /ate1 ,new ,york1 _h #cd repres5tatives to #a f ,delaw>e4 ,footnote #g3 ,see my ,critical ,p]iod1 pp4 #beg-bfb4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,connecticut compromise ,?is feature ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives caus$ ! small] /ates 9 ! ,conv5tion to oppose ! :ole s*eme ( con/ruct+ a new gov]nm5t4 ,!y 7 det]m9$ t great & small /ates %\ld h equal weight 9 ,congress4 ,_! /eadfa/ opposition ?reat5$ to ru9 ev]y?+1 :5 =tunately a me?od ( compromise 0 discov]$4 ,x 0 int5d$ t ! national legislature1 9 imitation ( ! /ate legislatures1 %\ld h an upp] h\se or s5ate2 & at fir/ ! advocates ( a /rong national gov]nm5t propos$ t ! s5ate also %\ld repres5t population1 ?us diff]+ f ! l[] h\se only 9 ! way 9 :i* we h se5 t x g5]ally diff]$ 9 ! sev]al /ates4 ,b x happ5$ t 9 ! /ate ( ,connecticut ! cu/om 0 peculi>4 ,!re x _h always be5 ! cu/om to elect ! gov]nor & upp] h\se by a majority vote ( ! :ole p1 :ile = ea* t[n%ip !re 0 an equality ( repres5tation ,9 ! l[] h\se4 ,! ,connecticut delegates 9 ! ,conv5tion1 !re=e1 be+ famili> ) a legislature 9 :i* ! two h\ses 7 compos$ on diff]5t pr9ciples1 sugge/$ a compromise4 ,let ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 !y said1 repres5t ! p1 & let ! ,s5ate repres5t ! /ates2 let all ! /ates1 great & small1 be repres5t$ equally 9 ! f$]al ,s5ate4 ,su* 0 ! fam\s ,connecticut ,compromise4 ,)\t x ! ,conv5tion w\ld probably h brok5 up )\t accompli%+ any?+4 ,:5 x 0 adopt$1 half ! "w ( mak+ ! new gov]nm5t 0 done1 = ! small /ates1 hav+ _h _! fe>s ?us allay$ by ! assurance t !y 7 to be equally repres5t$ 9 ! ,s5ate1 no long] oppos$ ! "w b coop]at$ 9 x mo/ zeal\sly4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,s5ate ,?us x came to pass t ! upp] h\se ( our national legislature is compos$ ( two s5ators f ea* /ate4 ,z !y repres5t ! /ate1 !y are *os5 by its legislature & n by ! p2 b :5 !y h tak5 _! seats 9 ! s5ate !y d n vote by /ates1 l ! delegates 9 ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 ,on ! contr>y ea* s5ator has "o vote1 & ! two s5ators f ! same /ate may1 & (t5 d1 vote on opposite sides4 ,9 accordance ) ! notion t an upp] h\se %\ld be some:at less democratic ?an a l[] h\se1 ! t]m ( (fice = s5ators 0 made long] ?an = repres5tatives4 ,! t5d5cy is to make ! ,s5ate respond m sl[ly to *anges 9 popul> s5tim5t1 & ?is is (t5 an advantage4 ,popul> op9ion is (t5 v wrong at p>ticul> mom5ts1 b ) "t x is apt to correct its mi/akes4 ,we are usually 9 m dang] ( suff]+ f ha/y legislation ?an f t>dy legislation4 ,s5ators are *os5 = a t]m ( six ye>s1 & "o ?ird ( ! numb] ( t]ms expire e second ye>1 s t1 :ile ! :ole ,s5ate may be r5ew$ by ! lapse ( six ye>s1 !re is nev] a new ,s5ate4 ,! ,s5ate has ?us a cont9u\s exi/5ce & a p]man5t organization2 :]eas ea* ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives expires at ! end ( its two ye>s' t]m1 & is succe$$ by a new ,h\se1 :i* requires to be organiz$ by elect+ its (fic]s1 etc41 be=e proce$+ to bus9ess4 ,a c&idate = ! s5ator%ip mu/ h rea*$ ! age ( ?irty1 mu/ h be5 n9e ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & mu/ be an inhabitant ( ! /ate :i* he repres5ts4 ,! con/itution leaves ! times1 places1 & mann] ( hold+ elections = s5ators & repres5tatives to be prescrib$ 9 ea* /ate by its own legislature2 b x gives to ,congress ! p[] to alt] su* regulations1 except z to ! place ( *oos+ s5ators4 ,"h we see a ve/ige ( ! orig9al !ory accord+ to :i* ! ,s5ate 0 to be peculi>ly ! home ( /ate rights4 ,sid5ote3 ,electoral di/ricts4 ,sid5ote3 ,g]rym&]+4 ,9 ! composition ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives ! /ate legislatures play a v important "p4 ,= ! purposes ( ! election a /ate is divid$ into di/ricts correspond+ to ! numb] ( repres5tatives ! /ate is entitl$ to s5d to ,congress4 ,^! electoral di/ricts are m>k$ out by ! legislature1 & ! division is apt to be made by ! prepond]at+ p>ty ) an unfairness t is at once %ameful & ridicul\s4 ,! aim1 ( c\rse1 is s to lay out ! di/ricts z to secure 9 ! greate/ possible numb] ( !m a majority = ! p>ty :i* conducts ! op]ation4 ,?is is done sometimes by ?r[+ ! greate/ possible numb] ( ho/ile vot]s into a di/rict :i* is anyh[ c]ta9 to be ho/ile1 sometimes by add+ to a di/rict :]e p>ties are equally divid$ "s place 9 :i* ! majority ( fri5dly vot]s is suffici5t to turn ! scale4 ,!re is a di/rict 9 ,mississippi 7! s-call$ ,%oe ,/r+ di/rict7 #bej miles long by #cj broad1 & ano!r 9 ,p5nsylvania resembl+ a dumb-bell4444 ,9 ,miss\ri a di/rict has be5 contriv$ long]1 if measur$ along its w9d+s1 ?an ! /ate itself1 into :i* z l>ge a numb] z possible ( ! negro vot]s h be5 ?r[n4#h ,?is trick is call$ g]rym&]+1 f ,elbridge ,g]ry1 ( ,massa*usetts1 :o 0 vice-presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates f #ahac to #ahag4 ,x seems to h be5 fir/ devis$ 9 #aghh by ! enemies ( ! ,f$]al ,con/itution 9 ,virg9ia1 9 ord] to prev5t ! election ( ,james ,madison to ! fir/ ,congress1 & =tunately x 0 unsuccessful4#i ,x 0 introduc$ "s ye>s aft]w>d into ,massa*usetts4 ,9 #ahab1 :ile ,g]ry 0 gov]nor ( t /ate1 ! ,republican legislature r$i/ribut$ ! di/ricts 9 su* wise t ! %apes ( ! t[ns =m+ a s+le di/rict 9 ,essex c\nty gave to ! di/rict a some:at dragon-l cont\r4 ,?is 0 indicat$ ^u a map ( ,massa*usetts :i* ,b5jam9 ,russell1 an ard5t ,f$]ali/ & editor ( ! ,c5t9el1 hung up ov] ! desk 9 8 (fice4 ,! celebrat$ pa9t]1 ,gilb]t ,/u>t1 com+ into ! (fice "o day & obs]v+ ! unc\? figure1 add$ ) 8 p5cil a head1 w+s1 & claws1 & exclaim$1 ,t w d = a salam&]6 ,bett] say a ,g]rym&]6 gr[l$ ! editor2 & ! outl&i%1 "n1 ?us duly co9$1 soon came into g5]al curr5cy4 ,illu/ration ,footnote #h3 ,tyl]'s ,patrick ,h5ry1 p4 #cac4 ,footnote #i3 ,w9sor's ,memorial ,hi/ory ( ,bo/on1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bab2 see also ,bryce1 loc4 cit4 ,! ^w is sometimes incorrectly pron\nc$ j]rym&]4 ,mr4 ,w9sor obs]ves t ! back l9e ( ! creature's body =ms a pr(ile c>icature ( ,g]ry's face1 ) ! nose at ,middleton4 ,sid5ote3 ,! election _! at l>ge4 ,:5 aft] an increase 9 its numb] ( repres5tatives ! /ate has fail$ to r$i/ribute its di/ricts1 ! additional memb] or memb]s are vot$ = ^u a g5]al /ate ticket1 & are call$ repres5tatives at l>ge4 ,9 ,ma9e1 :]e ! c5sus ( #ahhj _h r$uc$ ! numb] ( repres5tatives & !re 0 "s delay 9 ! r$i/ribution1 ,congress all[$ ! ,/ate 9 #ahhb to elect all its repres5tatives ^u a g5]al ticket4 ,! advantage ( ! di/rict sy/em is t ! c&idates are likely to be bett] kn[n by neighb\rs1 b ! election at l>ge is p]haps m likely to secure able m54#aj ,x is ! ,am]ican cu/om to nom9ate only resid5ts ( ! di/rict z c&idates = ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,a citiz5 ( ,albany1 = example1 w\ld n be nom9at$ = ! di/rict 9 :i* ,buffalo is situat$4 ,9 ! ,briti% practice1 on ! o!r h&1 if an em95t man _c get a nom9ation 9 8 own c\nty or bor\gh1 !re is no?+ to prev5t 8 /&+ = any o!r c\nty or bor\gh4 ,?is sy/em seems m fav\rable to ! indep5d5ce ( ! legislator ?an our sy/em4 ,"s ( its advantages are obta9$ by ! election at l>ge4 ,footnote #aj3 ,! diff]5ce is simil> to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,fr5* scrut9 d'arrondissem5t & scrut9 de li/e4 ,sid5ote3 ,"t ( assembl+4 ,congress mu/ assemble at lea/ once 9 e ye>1 & ! con/itution appo9ts ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,decemb] = ! "t ( meet+2 b ,congress c1 if wor? :ile1 enact a law *ang+ ! "t4 ,! e/abli%$ cu/om is to hold ! election = repres5tatives ^u ! same day z ! election = presid5t1 ! ,tuesday aft] ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,novemb]4 ,z ! p]iod ( ! new adm9i/ration does n beg9 until ! f\r? day ( ! foll[+ ,m>*1 ! new ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives does n assemble until ! ,decemb] foll[+ t date1 unless ! new presid5t %\ld at "s e>li] mom5t summon an extra session ( ,congress4 ,x ?us happ5s t ord9>ily ! repres5tatives ( ! nation d n meet = m ?an a ye> aft] _! election2 & z _! bus9ess is at lea/ to give legislative expression to ! popul> op9ion :i* elect$ !m1 ! delay is 9 ?is in/ance reg>d$ by _m p]sons z inconv5i5t & injudici\s4 ,ea* h\se is judge ( ! elections1 qualifications1 & returns ( its own memb]s2 det]m9es its own rules ( proc$ure1 & may puni% its memb]s = disord]ly behavi\r1 or by a two ?irds vote expel a memb]4 ,abs5t memb]s may be compell$ "u p5alties to att5d4 ,ea* h\se is requir$ to keep a j\rnal ( its proce$+s & at prop] int]vals to publi% x1 except su* p>ts z = reasons ( public policy _h bett] be kept secret4 ,at ! reque/ ( "o fif? ( ! memb]s pres5t1 ! yeas & nays mu/ be ent]$ on ! j\rnal4 ,dur+ ! session ( ,congress nei!r h\se may1 )\t cons5t ( ! o!r1 adj\rn = m ?an ?ree days1 or to any o!r place ?an t 9 :i* ,congress is sitt+4 ,sid5ote3 ,privileges ( memb]s4 ,s5ators & repres5tatives receive a sal>y fix$ by law1 & z !y are f$]al function>ies !y are paid f ! f$]al treasury4 ,9 all cases1 except treason or felony or brea* ( ! peace1 !y are privileg$ f arre/ dur+ _! att5dance 9 ,congress1 z also :ile on _! way to x & :ile return+ home2 & = any spee* or debate 9 ei!r h\se !y %all n be que/ion$ 9 any o!r place4 ,^! provisions are rem9isc5ces ( ! evil days :5 ! k+ /rove to int]f]e1 by fair means or f\l1 ) free spee* 9 p>liam5t2 & !y are important en\gh to be incorporat$ 9 ! supreme law ( ! l&4 ,no p]son c at ! same "t hold any civil (fice "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t & be a memb] ( ei!r h\se ( ,congress4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,speak]4 ,! vice-presid5t is ! presid+ (fic] ( ! ,s5ate1 ) p[] to vote only 9 case ( a tie4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives elects its presid+ (fic]1 :o is call$ ! ,speak]4 ,9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 its presid+ (fic] 0 naturally en\gh its spokesman4 ,he c\ld speak = x 9 address+ ! cr[n4 ,h5ry ( ,keighley ?us address$ ! cr[n 9 #acja1 & !re 7 o!r in/ances dur+ t c5tury1 until 9 #acgf ! title ( ,speak] 0 def9itely giv5 to ,sir ,?omas ,hung]=d1 & f t date ! li/ is unbrok54 ,! title 0 giv5 to ! presid+ (fic]s ( ! ,am]ican colonial assemblies1 & !nce x pass$ on to ! /ate & f$]al legislatures4 ,! ,speak] presides ov] ! debates1 puts ! "q1 & decides po9ts ( ord]4 ,he also appo9ts ! committees ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 & z ! initiatory "w 9 our legislation is n[ s l>gely done by ! committees1 ?is makes him ! mo/ p[]ful (fic] ( ! gov]nm5t except ! ,presid5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,impea*m5t 9 ,engl& ,! provisions = impea*m5t ( public (fic]s are copi$ f ! cu/om 9 ,engl&4 ,s9ce ! f\rte5? c5tury ! ,h\se ( ,commons has occasionally ex]cis$ ! p[] ( impea*+ ! k+'s m9i/]s & o!r high public (fic]s1 & al?\gh ! p[] 0 n us$ dur+ ! sixte5? c5tury x 0 aft]w>d reviv$ & conclusively e/abli%$4 ,9 #agja x 0 enact$ t ! royal p>don c\ld n be plead$ aga9/ an impea*m5t1 & ?is act f9ally secur$ ! responsibility ( ! k+'s m9i/]s to ,p>liam5t4 ,an impea*m5t is a k9d ( accusation or indictm5t br\ght aga9/ a public (fic] by ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,! c\rt 9 :i* ! case is tri$ is ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 & ! ord9>y rules ( judicial proc$ure are foll[$4 ,! regul> presid5t ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords is ! ,"l ,*ancellor1 :o is ! highe/ judicial (fic] 9 ! k+dom4 ,a simple majority vote secures conviction1 & !n x is left = ! ,h\se ( ,commons to say :e!r judgm5t %all be pron\nc$ or n4 ,sid5ote3 ,impea*m5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives has ! sole p[] ( impea*m5t1 & ! ,s5ate has ! sole p[] to try all impea*m5ts4 ,:5 ! presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is tri$1 ! *ief-ju/ice mu/ preside4 ,z a precaution aga9/ ! use ( impea*m5t = p>ty purposes1 a two ?irds vote is requir$ = conviction2 & ?is precaution prov$ effectual 7=tunately1 z mo/ p]sons n[ admit7 9 ! fam\s case ( ,presid5t ,johnson 9 #ahfh4 ,9 case ( conviction ! judgm5t _c ext5d fur!r ?an to removal f (fice1 & disqualification to hold & enjoy any (fice ( hon\r1 tru/1 or pr(it "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b ! p]son convict$ is liable aft]w>d to be tri$ & puni%$ by ! ord9>y process ( law4 ,sid5ote3 ,veto p[] ( ! presid5t ,! provisions ( ! ,con/itution = legislation are admirably simple4 ,all bills = rais+ rev5ue mu/ orig9ate 9 ! l[] h\se1 b ! upp] h\se may propose or concur ) am5dm5ts1 z on o!r bills4 ,?is provision 0 inh]it$ f ,p>liam5t1 ?r\gh ! colonial legislatures4 ,aft] a bill has pass$ bo? h\ses x mu/ be s5t to ! presid5t = approval4 ,if he approves x1 he signs x2 if n1 he returns x to ! h\se 9 :i* x orig9at$1 ) a writt5 /atem5t ( 8 objections1 & ?is /atem5t mu/ be ent]$ 9 full ^u ! j\rnal ( ! h\se4 ,! bill is !n reconsid]$1 & if x obta9s a two ?irds vote1 x is s5t1 toge!r ) ! objections1 to ! o!r h\se4 ,if x !re likewise obta9s a two ?irds vote1 x becomes a law1 9 spite ( ! objections4 ,o!rwise x fails4 ,if ! presid5t keeps a bill long] ?an t5 days 7,sundays except$7 )\t sign+ x1 x becomes a law )\t 8 signature2 unless ,congress adj\rns be=e ! expiration ( ! t5 days1 9 :i* case x fails to become a law1 j z if x _h be5 veto$4 ,?is me?od ( veto+ a bill j be=e ! expiration ( a ,congress1 by keep+ x 9 "o's pocket1 s to speak1 0 dubb$ a pocket veto1 & 0 fir/ employ$ by ,presid5t ,jackson 9 #ahbi4 ,! presid5t's veto p[] is a qualifi$ =m ( t :i* =m]ly belong$ to ! ,engli% sov]eign b has n[1 z already obs]v$1 become practically obsolete4 ,z a means ( gu>d+ ! c\ntry aga9/ unwise legislation1 x has prov$ to be "o ( ! mo/ valuable features ( our ,f$]al ,con/itution4 ,9 bad h&s x _c d mu* h>m1 x c only delay = a %ort "t a ne$$ law4 ,b :5 prop]ly us$ x c save ! c\ntry f1 laws t if once enact$ w\ld s[ se$s ( disa/] v h>d to eradicate2 & x has repeat$ly done s4 ,a s+le man w (t5 act intellig5tly :]e a gr\p ( m5 act fooli%ly1 &1 z already obs]v$1 he is apt to h a ke5] s5se ( responsibility4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 ,:at is to be said ) reg>d to ! foll[+ topics8 #a4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives3-- a4 ,its relation to ! p4 b4 ,! t]m ( s]vice4 c4 ,qualifications ( ^? :o may vote = repres5tatives4 d4 ,qualifications = memb]%ip4 e4 ,! ?ree fif?s compromise4 #b4 ,! ,connecticut ,compromise4 a4 ,! p[]s ( ! diff]5t /ates 9 ! ,h\se4 b4 ,opposition to ! s*eme ( a new gov]nm5t4 c4 ,:at ! advocates ( a /rong gov]nm5t want$ ! ,s5ate to repres5t4 d4 ,a peculi> ,connecticut sy/em4 e4 ,! sugge/ion ( ! ,connecticut delegates4 f4 ,! effect ( ! compromise4 #c4 ,! ,s5ate3-- a4 ,! numb] ( s5ators4 b4 ,! me?od ( elect+ s5ators4 c4 ,! vot+ ( s5ators4 d4 ,! t]m ( s]vice4 e4 ,! ma9t5ance ( a cont9u\s exi/5ce4 f4 ,a comp>ison ) ! ,h\se 9 respect to ne>ness to ! p4 g4 ,qualifications = memb]%ip4 #d4 ,elections = s5ators & repres5tatives3-- a4 ,times1 places1 & mann] ( hold+ elections4 b4 ,! p[] ( ,congress ov] /ate regulations4 c4 ,electoral di/ricts4 d4 ,! temptation to unfairness 9 lay+ out electoral di/ricts4 e4 ,illu/rations ( unfair divisions4 f4 ,g]rym&]+4 g4 ,repres5tatives at l>ge4 h4 ,! advantage ( ! di/rict sy/em4 i4 ,! ,briti% sy/em & its advantage4 #e4 ,! assembl+ ( ,congress3-- a4 ,! "t ( assembl+4 b4 ,! int]val betwe5 a memb]'s election & ! beg9n+ ( 8 s]vice4 c4 ,! disadvantage ( ?is long int]val4 #f4 ,:at is ! duty ( ea* h\se 9 respect 7#a7 to its memb]%ip1 7#b7 its rules1 7#c7 its records1 & 7#d7 its adj\rnm5t4 #g4 ,give an acc\nt 7#a7 ( ! pay ( a congressman1 7#b7 ( 8 fre$om f arre/1 7#c7 ( 8 responsibility = words spok5 9 debate1 & 7#d7 ( 8 "r to hold o!r (fice4 #h4 ,tell 7#a7 :o preside 9 ,congress1 7#b7 h[ ! "n speak] orig9at$1 7#c7 :at ! speak]'s duties are1 & 7#d7 :at 8 p[] 9 ! gov]nm5t is4 #i4 ,impea*m5t ( public (fic]s3-- a4 ,old ,engli% usage4 b4 ,! conduct ( an impea*m5t trial 9 ,engl&4 c4 ,! conduct ( an impea*m5t trial 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 d4 ,! p5alty 9 case ( conviction4 #aj4 ,! provisions ( ! ,con/itution = legislation3-- a4 ,bills = rais+ rev5ue4 b4 ,h[ a bill becomes a law4 c4 ,! presid5t's veto p[]4 d4 ,passage ( a bill ov] ! presid5t's veto4 e4 ,! pocket veto4 f4 ,! veto p[] 9 ,engl&4 g4 ,! value ( ! veto p[]4 ,section #c4 ,! ,f$]al ,executive4 ,sid5ote3 ,! title ( ,presid5t4 ,9 sign+ or veto+ bills pass$ by ,congress ! presid5t %>es 9 legislation1 & is virtually a ?ird h\se4 ,9 8 o!r capacities he is ! *ief executive (fic] ( ! ,f$]al ,union2 & inasmu* z he appo9ts ! o!r great executive (fic]s1 he is really ! head ( ! executive dep>tm5t1 n--l ! gov]nor ( a /ate--a m]e memb] ( x4 ,8 title ( ,presid5t is probably an inh]itance f ! presid5ts ( ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 ,9 ,frankl9's plan ( union1 9 #aged1 ! head ( ! executive dep>tm5t 0 call$ ,gov]nor ,g5]al1 b t title _h an unpleasant s\nd to ,am]ican e>s4 ,our great-gr&fa!rs lik$ presid5t bett]1 some:at z ! ,romans1 9 ! eigh? c5tury ( _! city1 pref]r$ imp]ator to rex4 ,!n1 z x s]v$ to di/+ui% widely betwe5 ! head ( ! ,union & ! heads ( ! /ates1 x soon fell into disuse 9 ! /ate gov]nm5ts1 & ?us presid5t has come to be a mu* gr&] title ?an gov]nor1 j z emp]or has come to be a gr&] title ?an k+4 #aa ,footnote #aa3 ,see above p4 #afc4 ,sid5ote3 ,! electoral college4 ,!re 0 no "q :i* p]plex$ ! ,f$]al ,conv5tion m ?an ! "q z to ! be/ me?od ( elect+ ! presid5t4 ,!re 0 a g5]al di/ru/ ( popul> election = an (fice s exalt$4 ,at "o "t ! ,conv5tion decid$ to h ! presid5t elect$ by ,congress1 b !re 0 a grave objection to ?is2 x w\ld be likely to de/roy 8 indep5d5ce1 & make him ! tool ( ,congress4 ,f9ally ! device ( an electoral college 0 adopt$4 ,ea* /ate is entitl$ to a numb] ( electors equal to ! numb] ( its repres5tatives 9 ,congress1 plus two1 ! numb] ( its s5ators4 ,?us to-day ,delaw>e1 ) #a repres5tative1 has #c electors2 ,miss\ri1 ) #ad repres5tatives1 has #af electors2 ,new ,york1 ) #cd repres5tatives1 has #cf electors4 ,no f$]al s5ator or repres5tative1 or any p]son hold+ civil (fice "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 c s]ve z an elector4 ,ea* /ate may appo9t or *oose its electors 9 su* mann] z x sees fit2 at fir/ !y 7 m (t5 ?an o!rwise *os5 by ! legislatures1 n[ !y are always elect$ by ! p4 ,! day ( election mu/ be ! same 9 all ! /ates4 ,by an act ( ,congress pass$ 9 #agib x is requir$ to be )9 #cd days prec$+ ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,decemb]4 ,a subsequ5t act 9 #ahde appo9t$ ! ,tuesday foll[+ ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,novemb] z election day4 ,by ! act ( #agib ! electors *os5 9 ea* /ate are requir$ to assemble on ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,decemb] at "s place 9 ! /ate :i* is designat$ by ! legislature4 ,be=e ?is date ! gov]nor ( ! /ate mu/ cause a c]tifi$ li/ ( ! names ( ! electors to be made out 9 triplicate & deliv]$ to ! electors4 ,hav+ met toge!r !y vote = presid5t & vice-presid5t1 make out a seal$ c]tificate ( _! vote 9 triplicate1 & atta* to ea* copy a copy ( ! c]tifi$ li/ ( _! names4 ,"o copy mu/ be deliv]$ by a mess5g] to ! presid5t ( ! ,s5ate at ! f$]al capital be=e ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,janu>y2 ! second is s5t to ! same (fic] ?r\gh ! mail2 ! ?ird is to be deposit$ ) ! f$]al judge ( ! di/rict 9 :i* ! electors meet4 ,if by ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,janu>y ! c]tificate has n be5 receiv$ at ! f$]al capital1 ! secret>y ( /ate is to s5d a mess5g] to ! di/rict judge & obta9 ! copy deposit$ ) him4 ,! int]val ( a mon? 0 all[$ to get ! returns 91 = ^? 7 n ! days ( railroad & telegraph4 ,! mess5g]s 7 all[$ tw5ty-five c5ts a mile1 & 7 subject to a f9e ( a ?\s& doll>s = neglect ( duty4 ,on ! second ,w$nesday 9 ,febru>y1 ,congress is requir$ to be 9 session1 & ! votes receiv$ are c\nt$ & ! result decl>$4#ab ,footnote #ab3 ,see note on p4 #bgh4 ,sid5ote3 ,! twelf? am5dm5t 7#ahjd74 ,at fir/ ! electoral votes did n /ate :e!r ! c&idates nam$ 9 !m 7 c&idates = ! presid5cy or = ! vice-presid5cy4 ,ea* elector simply wrote d[n two names1 only "o ( :i* c\ld be ! "n ( a citiz5 ( 8 own /ate4 ,9 ! (ficial c\nt ! c&idate :o _h ! l>ge/ numb] ( votes1 provid$ !y 7 a majority ( ! :ole numb]1 0 decl>$ presid5t1 & ! c&idate :o _h ! next to ! l>ge/ numb] 0 decl>$ vice-presid5t4 ,! natural result ( ?is 0 se5 9 ! fir/ conte/$ election 9 #agif1 :i* made ,adams presid5t1 & 8 antagoni/ vice-presid5t4 ,9 ! next election 9 #ahjj x gave to ,jeff]son & 8 colleague ,burr exactly ! same numb] ( votes4 ,9 su* a case ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives mu/ elect1 & su* intrigues foll[$ = ! purpose ( defeat+ ,jeff]son t ! c\ntry 0 br\ght to ! v]ge ( civil w>4 ,x ?us became necess>y to *ange ! me?od4 ,by ! twelf? am5dm5t to ! con/itution1 decl>$ 9 =ce 9 #ahjd1 ! pres5t me?od 0 adopt$4 ,! electors make sep>ate ballots = presid5t & = vice-presid5t4 ,9 ! (ficial c\nt ! votes = presid5t are fir/ inspect$4 ,if no c&idate has a majority1 !n ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives mu/ imm$iately *oose ! presid5t f ! ?ree names highe/ on ! li/4 ,9 ?is *oice ! h\se votes by /ates1 ea* /ate hav+ "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose mu/ consi/ ( at lea/ "o memb] f two ?irds ( ! /ates1 & a majority ( all ! /ates is necess>y = a *oice4 ,!n if no c&idate = ! vice-presid5cy has a majority1 ! ,s5ate makes its *oice f ! two names highe/ on ! li/2 a quorum = ! purpose consi/s ( two ?irds ( ! :ole numb] ( s5ators1 & a majority ( ! :ole numb] is necess>y to a *oice4 ,s9ce ?is am5dm5t 0 made !re has be5 "o in/ance ( an election ( ! presid5t by ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1--t ( ,john ,qu9cy ,adams 9 #ahbe2 & !re has be5 "o in/ance ( an election ( ! vice-presid5t by ! ,s5ate1--t ( ,ri*>d ,m5tor ,johnson 9 #ahcg4 ,sid5ote3 ,! electoral commission 7#ahgg74 ,"o s]i\s difficulty 0 n yet =ese5 & provid$ =--t ( decid+ betwe5 two conflict+ returns s5t 9 by two ho/ile sets ( electors 9 ! same /ate1 ea* li/ be+ c]tifi$ by "o ( two rival gov]nors claim+ au?ority 9 ! same /ate4 ,su* a case occurr$ 9 #ahgg1 :5 ,florida1 ,l\isiana1 & ,s\? ,c>ol9a 7 ! sc5e ( /ruggles betwe5 rival gov]nm5ts4 ,ballots = ,tild5 & ballots = ,hayes 7 s5t 9 at ! same "t f ^! /ates1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( any recogniz$ means ( det]m9+ :i* ballots to c\nt1 ! two p>ties 9 ,congress submitt$ ! result to arbitration4 ,an electoral commission 0 creat$ = ! occasion1 compos$ ( five s5ators1 five repres5tatives1 & five judges ( ! supreme c\rt2 & ?is body decid$ :at votes 7 to be c\nt$4 ,x 0 a clumsy exp$i5t1 b inf9itely pref]able to civil w>4 ,! "q ( conflict+ returns has at l5g? be5 set at re/ by ! act ( #ahhg1 :i* provides t no electoral votes c be reject$ 9 c\nt+ except by ! concurr5t action ( ! two h\ses ( ,congress4 ,sid5ote3 ,presid5tial succession4 ,! devolution ( ! presid5tial (fice 9 case ( ! presid5t's dea? has also be5 made ! subject ( legislative *ange & am5dm5t4 ,! (fice ( vice-presid5t 0 creat$ *iefly = ! purpose ( meet+ su* an em]g5cy4 ,^u ! accession ( ! vice-presid5t to ! presid5cy1 ! ,s5ate w\ld proce$ to elect its own presid5t pro tempore4 ,an act ( #agia provid$ t 9 case ( ! dea?1 resignation or disability ( bo? presid5t & vice-presid5t1 ! succession %\ld devolve fir/ ^u ! presid5t pro tempore ( ! ,s5ate & !n ^u ! speak] ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 until ! disability %\ld be remov$ or a new election be held4 ,b suppos+ a newly elect$ presid5t to die & be succe$$ by ! vice-presid5t be=e ! assembl+ ( ! newly elect$ ,congress2 !n !re w\ld be no presid5t pro tempore ( ! ,s5ate & no speak] ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 & ?us ! dea? ( "o p]son might cause ! presid5cy to lapse4 ,moreov] ! presid+ (fic]s ( ! two h\ses ( ,congress might be memb]s ( ! p>ty defeat$ 9 ! la/ presid5tial election2 inde$1 ?is is (t5 ! case4 ,s\nd policy & fair deal+ require t a victori\s p>ty %all n be turn$ out because ( ! dea? ( ! presid5t & vice-presid5t4 ,accord+ly an act ( #ahhf provid$ t 9 su* an ev5t ! succession %\ld devolve ^u ! memb]s ( ! cab9et 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 secret>y ( /ate1 secret>y ( ! treasury1 secret>y ( w>1 attorney-g5]al1 po/ma/]-g5]al1 secret>y ( ! navy1 secret>y ( ! int]ior4 ,?is w\ld seem to be ample provision aga9/ a lapse4 ,sid5ote3 ,orig9al purpose ( ! electoral college n fulfill$4 ,to return to ! electoral college3 x 0 devis$ z a safegu>d aga9/ popul> excitem5t4 ,x 0 suppos$ t ! electors 9 _! ,decemb] meet+ w\ld calmly discuss ! m]its ( ! able/ m5 9 ! c\ntry & make an intellig5t selection = ! presid5cy4 ,! electors 7 to use _! own judgm5t1 & x 0 n necess>y t all ! electors *os5 9 "o /ate %\ld vote = ! same c&idate4 ,! p on election day 7 n suppos$ to be vot+ = a presid5t b = presid5tial electors4 ,?is !ory 0 nev] realiz$4 ,! two elections ( ,wa%+ton1 9 #aghh & #agib1 7 unanim\s4 ,9 ! second conte/$ election1 t ( #ahjj1 ! electors simply regi/]$ ! result ( ! popul> vote1 & x has be5 s ev] s9ce4 ,imm$iately aft] ! popul> election1 a :ole mon? be=e ! meet+ ( ! electoral college1 we "k :o is to be ! next presid5t4 ,!re is no law to prev5t an elector f vot+ = a diff]5t pair ( c&idates f ^? at ! head ( ! p>ty ticket1 b ! cu/om has become z b9d+ z a /atute4 ,! elector is *os5 to vote = specifi$ c&idates1 & he mu/ d s4 ,sid5ote3 ,electors =m]ly *os5 9 _m /ates by di/ricts2 n[ usually on a g5]al ticket4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x 0 n until long aft] #ahjj t all ! electoral votes ( ! same /ate 7 necess>ily giv5 to ! same pair ( c&idates4 ,x 0 cu/om>y 9 _m /ates to *oose ! electors by di/ricts4 ,a /ate entitl$ to t5 electors w\ld *oose eight ( !m 9 its eight congressional di/ricts1 & !re 7 v>i\s ways ( *oos+ ! o!r two4 ,9 "s ( ! di/ricts "o p>ty w\ld h a majority1 9 o!rs ! o!r1 & s ! electoral vote ( ! /ate w\ld be divid$ betwe5 two pairs ( c&idates4 ,aft] #ahcj x became cu/om>y to *oose ! electors ^u a g5]al ticket1 & ?us ! electoral vote became solid 9 ea* /ate4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,9 #ahfj ! vote ( ,new ,j]sey 0 divid$ betwe5 ,l9coln & ,d\glas1 b t 0 because ! names ( ?ree ( ! sev5 ,d\glas electors 7 ^u two diff]5t tickets1 & ?us got a majority ( votes :ile ! o!r f\r fell %ort4 ,9 #ahib ! /ate ( ,mi*igan *ose its electors by di/ricts4 ,sid5ote3 ,m9ority presid5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,advantages ( ! electoral sy/em4 ,?is sy/em1 ( c\rse1 increases ! *ances ( elect+ presid5ts :o h receiv$ a m9ority ( ! popul> vote4 ,a c&idate may c>ry "o /ate by an imm5se majority & ?us ga9 #f or #h electoral votes2 he may come )9 a few hundr$ ( c>ry+ ano!r /ate & ?us lose #cf electoral votes4 ,or a small ?ird p>ty may div]t "s ?\s&s ( votes f ! pr9cipal c&idate )\t affect+ ! electoral vote ( ! /ate4 ,s9ce ,wa%+ton's second t]m we h _h tw5ty-?ree conte/$ elections1#ad & 9 n9e ( ^! ! elect$ presid5t has fail$ to receive a majority ( ! popul> vote2 ,adams 9 #ahbd 7elect$ by ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives71 ,polk 9 #ahdd1 ,taylor 9 #ahdh1 ,bu*anan 9 #ahef1 ,l9coln 9 #ahfj1 ,hayes 9 #ahgf1 ,g>field 9 #ahhj1 ,clevel& 9 #ahhd1 ,h>rison 9 #ahhh4 ,?is has sugge/$ m or less vague speculation z to ! advisabl5ess ( *ang+ ! me?od ( elect+ ! presid5t4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t x w\ld be well to aboli% ! electoral college1 & resort to a direct popul> vote1 )\t ref]5ce to /ate l9es4 ,su* a me?od w\ld be op5 to "o s]i\s objection4 ,9 a closely conte/$ election on ! pres5t me?od ! result may rema9 d\btful = ?ree or f\r days1 :ile a n>r[ majority ( a few hundr$ votes 9 "s great /ate is be+ asc]ta9$ by c>eful c\nt+4 ,x 0 s 9 #ahhd4 ,?is p]iod ( d\bt is sure to be a p]iod ( int5se & dang]\s excitem5t4 ,9 an election )\t ref]5ce to /ates1 ! result w\ld m (t5 be d\btful1 & x w\ld be sometimes necess>y to c\nt e vote 9 e little out-(-!-way corn] ( ! c\ntry be=e ! "q c\ld be settl$4 ,! occasions = dispute w\ld be multipli$ a hundr$ fold1 ) mo/ demoraliz+ effect4 ,our pres5t me?od is d\btless clumsy1 b ! solidity ( ! electoral colleges is a safegu>d1 & z all p>ties und]/& ! sy/em x is 9 ! long run z fair = "o z = ano!r4 ,footnote #ad3 ,all h be5 conte/$1 except ,monroe's re-election 9 #ahbj1 :5 !re 0 no oppos+ c&idate4 ,sid5ote3 ,nom9ation ( c&idates by congressional caucus 7#ahjj-bd74 ,! ,con/itution says no?+ ab\t ! me?od ( nom9at+ c&idates = ! presid5cy1 nei!r has x be5 made ! subject ( legislation4 ,x has be5 det]m9$ by conv5i5ce4 ,x 0 n necess>y to nom9ate ,wa%+ton1 & ! c&idacies ( ,adams & ,jeff]son 7 also matt]s ( g5]al und]/&+4 ,9 #ahjj ! ,republican & ,f$]ali/ memb]s ( ,congress respectively held secret meet+s or caucuses1 *iefly = ! purpose ( agree+ ^u c&idates = ! vice-presid5cy & mak+ "s plans = ! canvass4 ,x became cu/om>y to nom9ate c&idates 9 su* congressional caucuses1 b !re 0 mu* ho/ile comm5t ^u ! sy/em z undemocratic4 ,sometimes ! fav\rite son ( a /ate 0 nom9at$ by ! legislature1 b z ! means ( travel improv$1 ! nom9at+ conv5tion came to be pref]r$4 ,9 #ahbd !re 7 f\r c&idates = ! presid5cy1--,adams1 ,jackson1 ,clay1 & ,craw=d4 ,adams 0 nom9at$ by ! legislatures ( mo/ ( ! ,new ,engl& /ates2 ,clay by ! legislature ( ,k5tucky1 foll[$ by ! legislatures ( ,miss\ri1 ,ohio1 ,ill9ois1 & ,l\isiana2 ,craw=d by ! legislature ( ,virg9ia2 & ,jackson by a mass conv5tion ( ! p ( ,bl\nt ,c\nty 9 ,t5nessee1 foll[$ by local conv5tions 9 _m o!r /ates4 ,! congressional caucus met & nom9at$ ,craw=d1 b ?is endorsem5t did n help him1#ae & ?is me?od 0 no long] tri$4 ,9 #ahcb = ! fir/ "t ! c&idates 7 all nom9at$ 9 national conv5tions4 ,footnote #ae3 ,/anwood1 ,hi/ory ( ,presid5tial ,elections1 pp4 #hj-hc4 ,sid5ote3 ,nom9ation conv5tions4 ,sid5ote3 ,! prim>y4 ,^! conv5tions1 z fully develop$1 are repres5tative bodies *os5 = ! specific purpose ( nom9at+ c&idates & mak+ ^? decl>ations ( pr9ciple & policy kn[n z plat=ms4 ,ea* /ate is all[$ twice z _m delegates z x has electoral votes4 ,! delegates are *os5 by local conv5tions 9 _! sev]al /ates1 viz41 two = ea* congressional di/rict by ! p>ty conv5tion ( t di/rict1 & f\r = ! :ole /ate 7call$ delegates-at-l>ge7 by ! /ate conv5tion4 ,z ea* conv5tion is compos$ ( delegates f prim>ies1 x is ! composition ( ! prim>ies :i* det]m9es t ( ! local conv5tions1 & x is ! composition ( ! local conv5tions :i* det]m9es t ( ! national4#af ,! prim>y is ! smalle/ nom9at+ conv5tion4 ,x /&s 9 some:at ! same relation to ! national conv5tion z ! relation ( a t[n%ip or w>d to ! :ole ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,a prim>y is a little caucus ( all ! vot]s ( "o p>ty :o live )9 ! b\nds ( ! t[n%ip or w>d4 ,x diff]s 9 composition f ! t[n-meet+ 9 t all its memb]s belong to "o p>ty4 ,x has two duties3 "o is to nom9ate c&idates = ! local (fices ( ! t[n%ip or w>d2 ! o!r is to *oose delegates to ! c\nty or di/rict conv5tion4 ,! prim>y1 z its "n indicates1 is a prim>y & n a repres5tative assembly4 ,! p>ty vot]s 9 a t[n%ip or w>d are usually n too num]\s to meet toge!r1 & all ought to att5d su* meet+s1 ?\gh 9 practice too _m p /ay away4 ,by ! repres5tative sy/em1 ?r\gh v>i\s grades ( conv5tion1 ! wi%es & "* ( ^! c\ntless little prim>ies are at l5g? express$ 9 ! wi%es & "* ( ! national p>ty conv5tion1 & c&idates = ! presid5cy & vice-presid5cy are nom9at$4 ,footnote #af3 ,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ade2 see also p4 #eb4 ,sid5ote3 ,qualifications = ! presid5cy4 ,! qualifications = ! two (fices are ( c\rse ! same4 ,=eign-born citiz5s are n eligible1 ?\gh ?is re/riction did n include su* z 7 citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates at ! "t :5 ! ,con/itution 0 adopt$4 ,! c&idate mu/ h rea*$ ! age ( ?irty-five1 & mu/ h be5 f\rte5 ye>s a resid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,! t]m ( (fice ,! presid5t's t]m ( (fice is f\r ye>s4 ,! ,con/itution says no?+ ab\t 8 re-election1 & !re is no writt5 law to prev5t 8 be+ re-elect$ a doz5 times4 ,b ,wa%+ton1 aft] s]v+ two t]ms1 refus$ to accept ! (fice a ?ird "t4 ,jeff]son 9 #ahjh 0 e>ne/ly bes\ght by _m & influ5tial bodies ( citiz5s to become a c&idate = a ?ird t]m2 #ag & _h he cons5t$ !re is sc>cely a d\bt t he w\ld h be5 elect$4 ,8 refusal e/abli%$ a cu/om :i* has nev] be5 infr+$1 ?\gh !re 7 p]sons 9 #ahgf & aga9 9 #ahhj :o wi%$ to secure a ?ird t]m = ,grant4 ,footnote #ag3 ,morse's ,jeff]son1 p4 #cah4 ,sid5ote3 ,p[]s & duties ( ! ,presid5t ,! presid5t is comm&]-9-*ief ( ! milit>y & naval =ces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! militia ( ! sev]al /ates :5 actually engag$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & he has ! royal pr]ogative ( grant+ reprieves & p>dons = (f5ces aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t4#ah ,footnote #ah3 ,see above1 p4 #bba4 ,he c make treaties ) =eign p[]s1 b !y mu/ be confirm$ by a two ?irds vote ( ! ,s5ate4 ,he appo9ts m9i/]s to =eign c\ntries1 consuls1 & ! great] f$]al (fic]s1 su* z ! heads ( executive dep>tm5ts & judges ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 & all ^! appo9tm5ts are subject to confirmation by ! ,s5ate4 ,he also appo9ts a va/ numb] ( inf]ior (fic]s1 su* z po/ma/]s & rev5ue collectors1 )\t ! p>ticipation ( ! ,s5ate4 ,:5 vacancies occur dur+ ! recess ( ! ,s5ate1 he may fill !m by grant+ commissions to expire at ! end ( ! next session4 ,he commissions all f$]al (fic]s4 ,he receives =eign m9i/]s4 ,he may summon ei!r or bo? h\ses ( ,congress to an extra session1 & if ! two h\ses disagree ) reg>d to ! "t ( adj\rnm5t1 he may adj\rn !m to su* "t z he ?9ks be/1 b ( c\rse n beyond ! day fix$ = ! beg9n+ ( ! next regul> session4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,presid5t's message4 ,! presid5t mu/ f "t to "t make a report to ,congress on ! /ate ( affairs 9 ! c\ntry & sugge/ su* a l9e ( policy or su* special measures z may seem good to him4 ,?is report has tak5 ! =m ( an annual writt5 message4 ,wa%+ton & ,adams began _! adm9i/rations by address+ ,congress 9 a spee*1 to :i* ,congress repli$2 b x suit$ ! opposite p>ty to discov] 9 ?is an imitation ( ! ,briti% practice ( op5+ ,p>liam5t ) a spee* f ! sov]eign4 ,x 0 accord+ly /igmatiz$ z mon>*ical1 & ,jeff]son 7?\gh )\t =mally alleg+ any su* reason7 set ! example1 :i* has be5 foll[$ ev] s9ce1 ( address+ ,congress 9 a writt5 message4#ai ,besides ?is annual message1 ! presid5t may at any "t s5d 9 a special message relat+ to matt]s :i* 9 8 op9ion require imm$iate att5tion4 ,footnote #ai3 ,jeff]son1 moreov]1 0 a p[]ful writ] & a poor speak]4 ,! effectiv5ess ( a presid5t's message dep5ds ( c\rse on ! "* ( ! presid5t & ! g5]al features ( ! political situation4 ,t sep>ation betwe5 ! executive & legislative dep>tm5ts1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ di/9ctive features ( civil gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 t5ds to prev5t ! developm5t ( lead]%ip4 ,an ,engli% prime m9i/]'s policy1 s long z he rema9s 9 (fice1 mu/ be t ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons2 p[] & responsibility are conc5trat$4 ,an able presid5t may virtually direct ! policy ( 8 p>ty 9 ,congress1 b he (t5 has a majority aga9/ him 9 "o h\se & sometimes 9 bo? at once4 ,?us 9 divid+ p[] we divide & weak5 responsibility4 ,to ?is po9t ,i h already allud$ z illu/rat$ 9 our /ate gov]nm5ts4#bj ,footnote #bj3 ,! ,engli% me?od1 h[ev]1 w\ld probably n "w well 9 ?is c\ntry1 & might prove to be a s\rce ( great & complicat$ dang]s4 ,see above1 p4 #afi4 ,sid5ote3 ,executive dep>tm5ts ,sid5ote3 ,! cab9et ,! ,con/itution made no specific provisions = ! creation ( executive dep>tm5ts1 b left ! matt] to ,congress4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ,wa%+ton's adm9i/ration ?ree secret>y%ips 7 creat$1--^? ( /ate1 treasury1 & w>2 & an attorney-g5]al 0 appo9t$4 ,aft]w>d ! dep>tm5t ( ! navy 0 sep>at$ f t ( w>1 ! po/ma/]-g5]al 0 made a memb] ( ! adm9i/ration1 & z lately z #ahdi ! dep>tm5t ( ! int]ior 0 organiz$4 ,! heads ( ^! dep>tm5ts are ! presid5t's advis]s1 b !y h z a body no recogniz$ legal exi/5ce or au?ority4 ,!y hold _! meet+s 9 a room at ! presid5t's executive mansion1 ! ,:ite ,h\se1 b no record is kept ( _! proce$+s & ! presid5t is n b\nd to he$ _! advice4 ,?is body has always be5 call$ ! ,cab9et1 aft] ! ,engli% usage4 ,x is l ! ,engli% cab9et 9 be+ compos$ ( heads ( executive dep>tm5ts & 9 be+1 z a body1 unkn[n to ! law2 9 o!r respects ! diff]5ce is v great4 ,! ,engli% cab9et is ! executive committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 & ex]cises a guid+ & direct+ influ5ce ^u legislation4 ,! position ( ! presid5t is n at all l t ( ! prime m9i/]2 x is m l t ( ! ,engli% sov]eign1 ?\gh ! latt] has n ne>ly s mu* p[] z ! presid5t2 & ! ,am]ican cab9et 9 "s respects resembles ! ,engli% privy c\ncil1 ?\gh x _c make ord9ances4 ,sid5ote3 ,! secret>y ( /ate4 ,! secret>y ( /ate ranks fir/ among our cab9et (fic]s4 ,he is (t5 call$ our prime m9i/] or premi]1 b !re c\ld n be a m absurd use ( language4 ,9 ord] to make an ,am]ican p]sonage correspond+ to ! ,engli% prime m9i/] we mu/ fir/ g to ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 take its committee ( ways & means & its committee on appropriations1 & unite !m into "o committee ( f9ance2 !n we mu/ take ! *airman ( ?is committee1 give him ! p[] ( dissolv+ ! ,h\se & ord]+ a new election1 & make him ma/] ( all ! executive dep>tm5ts1 :ile at ! same "t we /rip f ! presid5t all real control ov] ! adm9i/ration4 ,?is exalt$ f9ance-*airman w\ld be mu* l ! ,fir/ ,"l ( ! ,treasury1 commonly call$ ! prime m9i/]4 ,?is illu/ration %[s h[ wide ! div]g5ce has become betwe5 our sy/em & t ( ,great ,brita94 ,our secret>y ( /ate is our m9i/] ( =eign affairs1 & is ! only (fic] :o is au?oriz$ to communicate ) o!r gov]nm5ts 9 ! "n ( ! presid5t4 ,he is at ! head ( ! diplomatic & consul> s]vice1 issu+ ! in/ructions to our m9i/]s abroad1 & he takes a lead+ "p 9 ! negotiation ( treaties4 ,to ^! m9i/]ial duties he adds "s t are m *>act]i/ic ( 8 title ( secret>y4 ,he keeps ! national ar*ives1 & sup]9t5ds ! publication ( laws1 treaties1 & proclamations2 & he is ! keep] ( ! great seal ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,diplomatic & consul> s]vice4 ,our =eign relations are c>$ = 9 =eign c\ntries by two di/9ct classes ( (ficials3 m9i/]s & consuls4 ,! =m] repres5t ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t 9 a diplomatic capacity2 ! latt] h no?+ to d ) diplomacy or politics1 b look aft] our comm]cial int]e/s 9 =eign c\ntries4 ,consuls ex]cise a protective c>e ov] seam51 & p]=m v>i\s duties = ,am]icans abroad4 ,!y c take te/imony & adm9i/] e/ates4 ,9 "s non-,*ri/ian c\ntries1 su* z ,*9a1 ,japan1 & ,turkey1 !y h jurisdiction ov] crim9al cases 9 :i* ,am]icans are conc]n$4 ,=m]ly our m9i/]s abroad 7 ( only ?ree grades3 7#a7 envoys extraord9>y & m9i/]s pl5ipot5ti>y2 7#b7 m9i/]s resid5t2 7#c7 *>gs d'affaires4 ,! fir/ two are accr$it$ by ! presid5t to ! head ( gov]nm5t ( ! c\ntries to :i* !y are s5t2 ! ?ird are accr$it$ by ! secret>y ( /ate to ! m9i/] ( =eign affairs 9 ! c\ntries to :i* !y are s5t4 ,we /ill reta9 ^! grades1 :i* correspond to ! l[] grades ( ! diplomatic s]vice 9 ,european c\ntries4 ,until lately we _h no highe/ grade answ]+ to t ( ambassador1 p]haps because :5 our diplomatic s]vice 0 organiz$ ! ,unit$ ,/ates did n yet rank among fir/-rate p[]s1 & c\ld n expect to receive ambassadors4 ,great p[]s1 l ,france & ,g]many1 s5d ambassadors to ea* o!r1 & envoys to inf]ior p[]s1 l ,d5m>k or ,greece or ,guatemala4 ,:5 we s5d envoys to ! great p[]s1 we rank ourselves along ) inf]ior p[]s2 & diplomatic etiquette z a rule obliges ! great p[]s to s5d to u ! same grade ( m9i/] t we s5d to !m4 ,!re 7 f\nd to be "s practical inconv5i5ces ab\t ?is1 s t 9 #ahib ! highe/ grade 0 adopt$ & our m9i/]s to ,great ,brita9 & ,france 7 made ambassadors4 ,sid5ote3 ,! secret>y ( ! treasury4 ,! cab9et (fic] second 9 rank & 9 "s respects fir/ 9 importance is ! secret>y ( ! treasury4 ,he conducts ! f9ancial bus9ess ( ! gov]nm5t1 sup]9t5ds ! collection ( rev5ue1 & gives w>rants = ! paym5t ( moneys f ! treasury4 ,he also sup]9t5ds ! co9age1 ! national banks1 ! cu/om-h\ses1 ! coa/-survey & ligh?\se sy/em1 ! m>9e hospitals1 & life-sav+ s]vice4#ba ,he s5ds reports to ,congress1 & sugge/s su* measures z seem good to him4 ,s9ce ! ,civil ,w> 8 mo/ weighty bus9ess has be5 ! managem5t ( ! national debt4 ,he is aid$ by two assi/ant secret>ies1 six auditors1 a regi/]1 a comptroll]1 a solicitor1 a director ( ! m9t1 commission] ( int]nal rev5ue1 *iefs ( ! bureau ( /ati/ics & bureau ( engrav+ & pr9t+1 etc4 ,! bus9ess ( ! treasury dep>tm5t is enorm\s1 & no "p ( our gov]nm5t has be5 m fai?fully adm9i/]$4 ,s9ce #aghi ! treasury has disburs$ m ?an sev5 billions ( doll>s )\t "o s]i\s defalcation4 ,no man directly int]e/$ 9 trade or comm]ce c be appo9t$ secret>y ( ! treasury1 & ! dep>tm5t has almo/ always be5 manag$ by m5 ( small incomes br$ ei!r to politics or ! legal pr(ession4 #bb ,footnote #ba3 ,_m ( ^! details conc]n+ ! executive dep>tm5ts are admirably summ>iz$1 & ) m fullness ?an comports ) ! design ( ! pres5t "w1 9 ,?orpe's ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #ahc-aic4 ,footnote #bb3 ,s*\l]1 ,hi/4 ( ! ,u4,s41 vol4 i4 p4 #ie4 ,sid5ote3 ,w> & navy4 ,! w> & navy dep>tm5ts ne$ no special description "h4 ,! =m] is divid$ into t5 & ! latt] into eight bureaus4 ,! naval dep>tm5t1 among _m duties1 has *>ge ( ! naval obs]vatory at ,wa%+ton & publi%es ! nautical almanac4 ,sid5ote3 ,int]ior4 ,! dep>tm5t ( ! int]ior conducts a va/ & v>i\s bus9ess1 z is %[n by ! designations ( its eight bureaus1 :i* deal ) public l&s1 ,indian affairs1 p5sions1 pat5ts1 education 7*iefly 9 ! way ( ga!r+ /ati/ics & report+ ^u s*ool affairs71 agriculture1 public docum5ts1 & ! c5sus4 ,9 #ahhi ! bureau ( agriculture 0 organiz$ z a sep>ate dep>tm5t4 ,! wea!r bureau =ms a bran* ( ! dep>tm5t ( agriculture4 ,sid5ote3 ,po/ma/]-g5]al & attorney-g5]al4 ,! dep>tm5ts ( ! po/ma/]-g5]al & attorney-g5]al ne$ no special description4 ,! latt] 0 organiz$ 9 #ahgj into ! dep>tm5t ( ju/ice4 ,! attorney-g5]al is ! presid5t's legal advis]1 & repres5ts ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 all law-suits to :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates is a p>ty4 ,he is aid$ by a solicitor-g5]al & o!r subord9ate (fices4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,speak 7#a7 ( ! presid5t's %>e 9 legislation2 7#b7 ( 8 relation to ! executive dep>tm5t1 & 7#c7 ( ! orig9 ( 8 title4 #b4 ,! electoral college3-- a4 ,! me?od ( elect+ ! presid5t a p]plex+ "q4 b4 ,! con/itution ( ! electoral college1 ) illu/rations4 c4 ,qualifications = s]v+ z an elector4 d4 ,! me?od ( *oos+ electors4 e4 ,! "t ( *oos+ electors4 f4 ,:5 & :]e ! electors vote4 g4 ,! numb] & disposition ( ! c]tificates ( _! h4 ,! decl>ation ( ! result4 #c4 ,:at 0 ! me?od ( vot+ 9 ! electoral college be=e #ahjd8 ,illu/rate ! work+ ( ?is me?od 9 #agif & #ahjj4 #d4 ,! am5dm5t ( #ahjd3-- a4 ,! ballots ( ! electors4 b4 ,! duty ( ! ,h\se if no c&idate = ! presid5cy receives a majority ( ! electoral votes4 c4 ,! duty ( ! ,s5ate if no c&idate = ! vice-presid5cy receives a majority ( ! electoral votes4 d4 ,illu/rations ( ! work+ ( ?is am5dm5t 9 #ahbe & #ahcg4 #e4 ,! electoral commission ( #ahgg3-- a4 ,a difficulty n =ese54 b4 ,conflict+ returns 9 #ahgg4 c4 ,! plan ( arbitration adopt$4 #f4 ,! presid5tial succession3-- a4 ,! (fice ( vice-presid5t4 b4 ,! act ( #agia4 c4 ,! possibility ( a lapse ( ! presid5cy4 d4 ,! possibility ( an unfair political ov]?r[4 e4 ,! act ( #ahhf4 #g4 ,comp>e ! orig9al purpose ( ! electoral college ) ! fulfillm5t ( t purpose4 #h4 ,expla9 ! transition f a divid$ electoral vote 9 a /ate to a solid electoral vote4 #i4 ,%[ h[ a m9ority ( ! p may elect a presid5t4 ,:o h be5 elect$ by m9orities8 #aj4 ,:at is ! advantage ( ! electoral sy/em ov] a direct popul> vote8 #aa4 ,me?ods ( nom9at+ c&idates = ! presid5cy & vice-presid5cy be=e #ahcb3-- a4 ,! abs5ce ( con/itutional & legislative requirem5ts4 b4 ,presid5ts n nom9at$4 c4 ,nom9ations by congressional caucuses4 d4 ,nom9ations by /ate legislatures4 e4 ,nom9ations by local conv5tions4 #ab4 ,nom9ations by national conv5tions 9 #ahcb & s9ce3-- a4 ,! nature ( a national conv5tion4 b4 ,! plat=m4 c4 ,! numb] ( delegates f a /ate1 & _! election4 d4 ,! relation ( ! prim>ies to di/rict1 /ate1 & national conv5tions4 e4 ,! nature ( ! prim>y4 f4 ,its two duties4 g4 ,! duty ( ! vot] to att5d ! prim>ies4 #ac4 ,! presid5cy3-- a4 ,qualifications = ! (fice4 b4 ,! t]m ( (fice4 #ad4 ,p[]s & duties ( ! presid5t3-- a4 ,z a comm&]-9-*ief4 b4 ,9 respect to reprieves & p>dons4 c4 ,9 respect to treaties ) =eign p[]s4 d4 ,9 respect to ! appo9tm5t ( f$]al (fic]s4 e4 ,9 respect to summon+ & adj\rn+ ,congress4 f4 ,9 respect to report+ ! /ate ( affairs 9 ! c\ntry to ,congress4 #ae4 ,! presid5t's message3-- a4 ,! c\rse ( ,wa%+ton & ,adams4 b4 ,! example ( ,jeff]son4 c4 ,! effectiv5ess ( ! message4 d4 ,p[] & responsibility 9 ! ,engli% sy/em4 e4 ,p[] & responsibility 9 ! ,am]ican sy/em4 #af4 ,executive dep>tm5ts3-- a4 ,! dep>tm5ts "u ,wa%+ton4 b4 ,lat] additions to ! dep>tm5ts4 c4 ,! ,cab9et4 d4 ,! resemblance betwe5 ! ,engli% cab9et & our own4 e4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,engli% cab9et & our own4 #ag4 ,! secret>y ( /ate3-- a4 ,is he a prime m9i/]8 b4 ,:at w\ld be necess>y to make an ,am]ican p]sonage correspond to an ,engli% prime m9i/]8 c4 ,:at are ! m9i/]ial duties ( ! secret>y ( /ate8 d4 ,:at o!r duties has he m *>act]i/ic ( 8 title8 #ah4 ,our diplomatic & consul> s]vice3-- a4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 m9i/]s & consuls4 b4 ,?ree grades ( m9i/]s4 c4 ,! p]sons to :om ! ?ree grades are accr$it$4 d4 ,! grade ( ambassador4 #ai4 ,! secret>y ( ! treasury3-- a4 ,8 rank & importance4 b4 ,8 v>i\s duties4 c4 ,8 *ief assi/ants4 d4 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! treasury dep>tm5t s9ce #aghi4 #bj4 ,! duties ( ! rema9+ cab9et (fic]s3-- a4 ,( ! secret>y ( w>4 b4 ,( ! secret>y ( ! navy4 c4 ,( ! secret>y ( ! int]ior4 d4 ,( ! po/ma/]-g5]al4 e4 ,( ! attorney-g5]al4 ,section #d4 ,! ,nation & ! ,/ates4 ,we h left our ,f$]al ,conv5tion sitt+ a good :ile at ,philadelphia1 :ile we h ?us und]tak5 to give a coh]5t acc\nt ( our national executive organization1 :i* has 9 great "p gr[n up s9ce #aghi ) ! gr[? ( ! nation4 ,obs]ve h[ wisely ! ,con/itution conf9es itself to a cle> sket* ( fundam5tals1 & leaves z mu* z possible to be develop$ by circum/ances4 ,9 ?is feature lies p>tly ! flexible /r5g?1 ! adaptabl5ess1 ( our ,f$]al ,con/itution4 ,t /r5g? lies p>tly also 9 ! excell5t p>tition ( p[]s betwe5 ! f$]al gov]nm5t & ! sev]al /ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,diff]5ce betwe5 conf$]ation & f$]al union4 ,we h already rem>k$ ^u ! va/ness ( ! functions reta9$ by ! /ates4 ,at ! same "t ! p[]s grant$ to ,congress h prov$ suffici5t to b9d ! /ates toge!r into a union t is m ?an a m]e conf$]ation4 ,f #aggf to #aghi ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 a conf$]ation2 aft] #aghi x 0 a f$]al nation4 ,! passage f plural to s+ul> 0 accompli%$1 al?\gh x took "s p a good :ile to realize ! fact4 ,! ,g]man language has a neat way ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 a loose conf$]ation & a f$]al union4 ,x calls ! =m] a ,/aat5bund & ! latt] a ,bundes/aat4 ,s 9 ,engli%1 if we lik$1 we might call ! conf$]ation a ,b&-(-,/ates & ! f$]al union a ,b&$-,/ate4 ,!re are two po9ts especially 9 our ,con/itution :i* trans=m$ our c\ntry f a ,b&-(-,/ates into a ,b&$-,/ate4 ,sid5ote3 ,p[]s grant$ to ,congress4 ,! fir/ 0 ! creation ( a f$]al ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 ?us secur+ = ,congress ! p[] to lay & collect taxes1 duties1 impo/s1 & excises1 to pay ! debts & provide = ! common welf>e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,o!r p[]s are naturally atta*$ to ?is1--su* z ! p[] to borr[ money on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 to regulate =eign & dome/ic comm]ce2 to co9 money & fix ! /&>d ( weights & measures2 to provide = ! puni%m5t ( c\nt]feit]s2 to e/abli% po/-(fices & po/-roads2 to issue copyrights & pat5ts2 to def9e & puni% felonies committ$ on ! high seas1 & (f5ces aga9/ ! law ( nations2 to decl>e w>1 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 & make rules conc]n+ captures on l& & wat]2 to raise & support an army & navy1 & to make rules = ! regulation ( ! l& & naval =ces2 to provide = call+ out ! militia to suppress insurrections & repel invasions1 & to comm& ?is militia :ile actually employ$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! sev]al /ates1 h[ev]1 tra9 _! own militia & appo9t ! (fic]s4 ,congress may also e/abli% a uni=m rule ( naturalization1 & uni=m laws on ! subject ( bankruptcies4 ,x also ex]cises exclusive control ov] ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia1#bc z ! seat ( ! national gov]nm5t1 & ov] =ts1 magaz9es1 ars5als1 docky>ds1 & o!r ne$ful build+s1 :i* x erects )9 ! sev]al /ates ^u l& pur*as$ = su* purposes ) ! cons5t ( ! /ate legislature4 ,footnote #bc3 ,c$$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ,m>yl& & ,virg9ia4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,ela/ic ,clause4 ,congress is also emp[]$ to make all laws :i* %all be necess>y & prop] = c>ry+ into execution ! =ego+ p[]s & all o!r p[]s ve/$ by ?is ,con/itution 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any dep>tm5t or (fice !re(4 ,?is may be call$ ! ,ela/ic ,clause ( ! ,con/itution2 x has und]gone a good deal ( /ret*+ = "o purpose & ano!r1 &1 z we %all pres5tly see1 x 0 a pr(\nd disagreem5t 9 ! int]pretation ( ?is clause t aft] #aghi divid$ ! ,am]ican p into two great political p>ties4 ,sid5ote3 ,p[]s d5i$ to ! /ates4 ,sid5ote3 ,pap] curr5cy4 ,! national au?ority ( ,congress is fur!r %>ply def9$ by ! express d5ial ( sundry p[]s to ! sev]al /ates4 ,^! we h already enum]at$4#bd ,!re 0 an especial reason = prohibit+ ! /ates f issu+ bills ( cr$it1 or mak+ any?+ b gold & silv] co9 a t5d] 9 paym5t ( debts4 ,dur+ ! ye>s #aghe & #aghf a pap] money craze ran ?r\gh ! c\ntry2 mo/ ( ! /ates issu$ pap] notes1 & pass$ laws oblig+ _! citiz5s to receive !m 9 paym5t ( debts4 ,n[ a pap] doll> is n money1 x is only ! gov]nm5t's promise to pay a doll>4 ,z long z y c s5d x to ! treasury & get a gold doll> 9 ex*ange1 x is wor? a doll>4 ,x is ?is ex*angeabl5ess t makes x wor? a doll>4 ,:5 gov]nm5t makes ! pap] doll> note a legal t5d]4 i4e41 :5 x refuses to give y ! gold doll> & makes y take its note in/ead1 ! note soon ceases to be wor? a doll>4 ,y w\ld r h ! gold ?an ! note1 = ! m]e fact t gov]nm5t refuses to give ! gold %[s t x is 9 f9ancial difficulties4 ,s ! note's value is sure to fall1 & if ! gov]nm5t is 9 s]i\s difficulty1 x falls v f>1 & z x falls x takes m ( x to buy ?+s4 ,prices g up4 ,!re 0 a "t 7#ahfd7 dur+ our ,civil ,w> :5 a pap] doll> 0 wor? only =ty c5ts & a b>rel ( fl\r co/ #bc4 ,b t 0 no?+ to ! ye> #aghj1 :5 ! pap] doll> issu$ by ! ,cont95tal ,congress 0 wor? only a mill1 & fl\r 0 sold 9 ,bo/on = #a1ege a b>rel6 ,:5 ! diff]5t /ates tri$ to make pap] money1 x made confusion worse conf\nd$1 = ! /ates refus$ to take ea* o!r's money1 & ?is help$ to l[] its value4 ,9 "s /ates ! value ( ! pap] doll> fell 9 less ?an a ye> to twelve or fifte5 c5ts4 ,at su* times !re is always great demoralization & suff]+1 especially among ! poor] p2 & ) all ! exp]i5ce ( ! pa/ to tea* u1 x may n[ be held to be little less ?an a crim9al act = a gov]nm5t1 "u any circum/ances1 to make its pap] notes a legal t5d]4 ,! excuse = ! ,cont95tal ,congress 0 t x 0 n completely a gov]nm5t & seem$ to h no alt]native1 b !re is no d\bt t ! pap] curr5cy damag$ ! c\ntry mu* m ?an ! arms ( ! enemy by l& or sea4 ,! feel+ 0 s /rong ab\t x 9 ! ,f$]al ,conv5tion t ! prohibition came ne> be+ ext5d$ to ! national gov]nm5t1 b ! "q 0 un=tunately left undecid$4#be ,footnote #bd3 ,see above1 p4#age ,footnote #be3 ,see my ,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 pp4 #afh-ahf1 #bgc-bgf4 ,sid5ote3 ,p[]s d5i$ to ,congress4 ,sid5ote3 ,bills ( atta9d]4 ,"s express prohibitions 7 laid ^u ! national gov]nm5t4 ,duties may be laid ^u imports b n ^u exports2 ?is wise re/riction 0 a special concession to ,s\?4 ,c>ol9a1 :i* fe>$ ! effect ( an export duty ^u rice & indigo4 ,duties & excises mu/ be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 & no comm]cial pref]5ce c be %[n to "o /ate ov] ano!r2 absolute free trade is ! rule betwe5 ! /ates4 ,a c5sus mu/ be tak5 e t5 ye>s 9 ord] to adju/ ! repres5tation1 & no direct tax c be impos$ except accord+ to ! c5sus4 ,no money c be drawn f ! treasury except 9 consequ5ce ( appropriations made by law1 & acc\nts mu/ be regul>ly kept & publi%$4 ,! privilege ( ! writ ( habeas corpus _c be susp5d$ except :51 9 case ( rebellion or invasion1 ! public safety may require x2 & no bill ( atta9d]1 or ex po/ facto law1 c be pass$4 ,a bill ( atta9d] is a special legislative act by :i* a p]son may be condemn$ to dea?1 or to outlawry & bani%m5t1 )\t ! opportunity ( def5d+ himself :i* he w\ld h 9 a c\rt ( law4 ,no evid5ce is necess>ily adduc$ to support x1 #bf & 9 =m] times1 especially 9 ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,viii41 x 0 a =midable eng9e = p]petrat+ judicial murd]s4 ,bills ( atta9d] long ago ceas$ to be employ$ 9 ,engl&1 & ! process 0 aboli%$ by /atute 9 #ahgj4 ,footnote #bf3 ,taswell-,langmead1 ,engli% ,con/itutional ,hi/ory1 p4 #che4 ,sid5ote3 ,int]citiz5%ip4 ,no title ( nobility c be grant$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & no f$]al (fic] c accept a pres5t1 (fice1 or title f a =eign /ate )\t ! cons5t ( ,congress4 ,no religi\s te/ %all ev] be requir$ z a qualification to any (fice or public tru/ "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,full fai? & cr$it mu/ be giv5 9 ea* /ate to ! public acts & records1 & to ! judicial proce$+s ( e o!r /ate2 & x is left = ,congress to det]m9e ! mann] 9 :i* su* acts & proce$+s %all be prov$ or c]tifi$4 ,! citiz5s ( ea* /ate are entitl$ to all privileges & immunities ( citiz5s 9 ! sev]al /ates4 ,!re is mutual extradition ( crim9als1 &1 z a concession to ! s\!rn /ates x 0 provid$ t fugitive slaves %\ld be surr5d]$ to _! ma/]s4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates gu>antees to e /ate a republican =m ( gov]nm5t1 x protects ea* /ate aga9/ invasion2 & on application f ! legislature ( a /ate1 or f ! executive :5 ! legislature _c be conv5$1 x l5ds a h& 9 suppress+ insurrection4 ,sid5ote3 ,mode ( mak+ am5dm5ts4 ,am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution may at any "t be propos$ 9 pursuance ( a two ?irds vote 9 bo? h\ses ( ,congress1 or by a conv5tion call$ at ! reque/ ( ! legislatures ( two ?irds ( ! /ates4 ,! am5dm5ts are n 9 =ce until ratifi$ by ?ree-f\r?s ( ! /ates1 ei!r ?r\gh _! legislatures or ?r\gh special conv5tions1 accord+ to ! pref]5ce ( ,congress4 ,?is makes x difficult to *ange ! ,con/itution1 z x ought to be2 b x leaves x possible to introduce *anges t are v obvi\sly desirable4 ,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation c\ld n be am5d$ except by a unanim\s vote ( ! /ates2 & ?is made _! am5dm5t almo/ impossible4 ,aft] assum+ all debts contract$ & engagem5ts made by ! ,unit$ ,/ates be=e its adoption1 ! ,con/itution goes on to decl>e itself ! supreme law ( ! l&4 ,by x1 & by ! laws & treaties made "u x1 ! judges 9 e /ate are b\nd1 9 spite ( any?+ contr>y 9 ! con/itution or laws ( any /ate4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,9 :at two features ( ! ,con/itution does its /r5g? l>gely lie8 #b4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z a conf$]ation & ! ,unit$ ,/ates z a f$]al union4 ,h[ does ! ,g]man language br+ out ! di/9ction8 #c4 ,:at 0 ! fir/ important factor 9 trans=m+ our c\ntry f a ,b&-(-,/ates to a ,b&$-,/ate8 #d4 ,! p[]s grant$ to ,congress3-- a4 ,ov] taxes1 money1 & comm]ce4 b4 ,ov] po/al affairs1 & ! rights ( inv5tors & au?ors4 c4 ,ov] c]ta9 crimes4 d4 ,ov] w> & milit>y matt]s4 e4 ,ov] naturalization & bankruptcy4 f4 ,ov] ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia & o!r places4 g4 ,! ela/ic clause & its int]pretation4 #e4 ,! p[]s d5i$ to ! /ates3-- a4 ,an enum]ation ( ^! p[]s4 b4 ,! prohibition ( bills ( cr$it1 9 p>ticul>4 c4 ,! pap] money craze ( #aghe & #aghf4 d4 ,pap] money z a legal t5d]4 e4 ,! depreciation ( pap] money dur+ ! ,civil ,w>4 f4 ,! depreciation ( ! ,cont95tal curr5cy 9 #aghj4 g4 ,! demoralization caus$ by ! /ates mak+ pap] money4 h4 ,! lesson ( exp]i5ce4 #f4 ,prohibitions ^u ! national gov]nm5t3-- a4 ,! imposition ( duties & taxes4 b4 ,! paym5t ( money4 c4 ,! writ ( habeas corpus4 d4 ,ex po/ facto laws4 e4 ,bills ( atta9d]4 f4 ,titles & pres5ts4 #g4 ,duties ( ! /ates to "o ano!r3-- a4 ,9 respect to public acts & records1 & judicial proce$+s4 b4 ,9 respect to ! privileges ( citiz5s4 c4 ,9 respect to fugitives f ju/ice4 #h4 ,:at is ! duty ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to e /ate 9 respect 7#a7 to =m ( gov]nm5t1 7#b7 invasion1 & 7#c7 insurrection8 #i4 ,am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution3-- a4 ,two me?ods ( propos+ am5dm5ts4 b4 ,two me?ods ( ratify+ am5dm5ts1 c4 ,! difficulty ( mak+ am5dm5ts4 d4 ,am5dm5t ( ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 #aj4 ,:at is meant by ! ,con/itution's decl>+ itself ! supreme law ( ! l&8 ,section #e4 ,! ,f$]al ,judici>y4 ,sid5ote3 ,ne$ = a f$]al judici>y4 ,! creation ( a f$]al judici>y 0 ! second pr9cipal feature 9 ! ,con/itution1 :i* trans=m$ our c\ntry f a loose conf$]ation into a f$]al nation1 f a ,b&-(-,/ates into a ,b&$-,/ate4 ,we h se5 t ! ,am]ican p 7 already some:at famili> ) ! me?od ( te/+ ! con/itutionality ( a law by gett+ ! matt] br\ght be=e ! c\rts4#bg ,9 ! case ( a conflict betwe5 /ate law & f$]al law1 ! only practicable peaceful solution is t :i* is rea*$ ?r\gh a judicial decision4 ,! f$]al au?ority also ne$s ! ma*9]y ( c\rts 9 ord] to en=ce its own decrees4 ,footnote #bg3 ,see above p4 #aid4 ,sid5ote3 ,f$]al c\rts & judges4 ,sid5ote3 ,di/rict attorneys & m>%als4 ,! f$]al judici>y consi/s ( a supreme c\rt1 circuit c\rts1 & di/rict c\rts4#bh ,at pres5t ! supreme c\rt consi/s ( a *ief ju/ice & eight associate ju/ices4 ,x holds annual sessions 9 ! city ( ,wa%+ton1 beg9n+ on ! second ,monday ( ,octob]4 ,ea* ( ^! n9e judges is also presid+ judge ( a circuit c\rt4 ,! area ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 n includ+ ! t]ritories1 is divid$ into n9e circuits1 & 9 ea* circuit ! presid+ judge is assi/$ by special circuit judges4 ,! circuits are divid$ into di/ricts1 fifty-six 9 all1 & 9 ea* ( ^! !re is a special di/rict judge4 ,! di/ricts nev] cross /ate l9es4 ,sometimes a /ate is "o di/rict1 b popul\s /ates ) mu* bus9ess are divid$ into two or ev5 ?ree di/ricts4 ,! circuit c\rts sit 9 ! sev]al di/ricts ( ea* circuit successively1 & ! law requires t ea* ju/ice ( ! supreme c\rt %all sit 9 ea* di/rict ( 8 circuit at lea/ once e two ye>s4 #bi ,di/rict judges are n conf9$ to _! own di/ricts2 !y may ^u occasion ex*ange di/ricts z m9i/]s ex*ange pulpits4 ,a di/rict judge may1 if ne$ be1 act z a circuit judge1 z a major may comm& a regim5t4 ,all f$]al judges are appo9t$ by ! presid5t1 ) ! cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1 to s]ve dur+ good behavi\r4 ,ea* di/rict has its di/rict attorney1 ^: bus9ess is to prosecute (f5d]s aga9/ ! f$]al laws & to conduct civil cases 9 :i* ! national gov]nm5t is ei!r pla9tiff or def5dant4 ,ea* di/rict has also its m>%al1 :o has ! same functions "u ! f$]al c\rt z ! %]iff "u ! /ate c\rt4 ,! proc$ure ( ! f$]al c\rt usually foll[s t ( ! c\rts ( ! /ate 9 :i* x is sitt+4 ,footnote #bh3 ,see ! second note on p4#bgh4 ,footnote #bi3 ,see ,wilson1 ,! ,/ate1 p4 #eed4 ,i h closely foll[$1 ?\gh1 ) mu* abridgm5t1 ! excell5t description ( our f$]al judici>y1 pp4 #eee-efa4 ,sid5ote3 ,! f$]al jurisdiction4 ,! f$]al jurisdiction cov]s two classes ( cases3 7#a7 ^? :i* come be=e x because ( ! nature ( ! que/ions involv$3 = in/ance1 admiralty & m>itime cases1 navigable wat]s be+ )9 ! exclusive jurisdiction ( ! f$]al au?orities1 & cases aris+ out ( ! ,con/itution1 laws1 or treaties ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or out ( conflict+ grants made by diff]5t /ates2 7#b7 ^? :i* come be=e x because ( ! nature ( ! p>ties to ! suit1 su* z cases affect+ ! m9i/]s ( =eign p[]s or suits betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t /ates4 ,! division ( jurisdiction betwe5 ! upp] & l[] f$]al c\rts is det]m9$ *iefly by ! size & importance ( ! cases4 ,9 cases :]e a /ate or a =eign m9i/] is a p>ty ! supreme c\rt has orig9al jurisdiction1 9 o!r cases x has appellate jurisdiction1 & any case :i* involves ! int]pretation ( ! ,con/itution c be tak5 to ! supreme c\rt1 h[ev] small ! sum 9 dispute4 ,if a law ( any /ate or ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is decid$ by ! supreme c\rt to be 9 violation ( ! ,con/itution1 x in/antly becomes void & ( no effect4 ,9 ?is supreme ex]cise ( jurisdiction1 our highe/ f$]al tribunal is unlike any o!r tribunal kn[n to hi/ory4 ,! supreme c\rt is ! mo/ orig9al ( all ,am]ican in/itutions4 ,x is peculi>ly ,am]ican1 & = its exalt$ "* & priceless s]vices x is an in/itution ( :i* ,am]icans may well be pr\d4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:at 0 ! second important factor 9 trans=m+ our c\ntry f a ,b&-(-,/ates to a ,b&$-,/ate8 #b4 ,:y 0 a f$]al judici>y deem$ necess>y8 #c4 ,! organization ( ! f$]al judici>y3-- a4 ,! supreme c\rt & its sessions4 b4 ,! circuit c\rts4 c4 ,! di/rict c\rts4 d4 ,ex*anges ( s]vice4 e4 ,appo9tm5t ( judges4 f4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates di/rict attorney4 g4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates m>%al4 #d4 ,! jurisdiction ( ! f$]al c\rts3-- a4 ,cases because ( ! nature ( ! que/ions involv$4 b4 ,cases because ( ! nature ( ! p>ties to ! suit4 c4 ,! division ( jurisdiction betwe5 ! upp] & ! l[] c\rts4 d4 ,:]e9 ! supreme c\rt is ! mo/ orig9al ( ,am]ican in/itutions4 ,section #f4 ,t]ritorial ,gov]nm5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,ord9ance ( #aghg4 ,! ,con/itution provid$ = ! admission ( new /ates to ! ,union1 b x does n all[ a /ate to be =m$ )9 ano!r /ate4 ,a /ate _c be =m$ by ! junction ( two or m /ates1 or p>ts ( /ates1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! legislatures ( ! /ates conc]n$ z well z ( ! ,congress4 ,%ortly be=e ! mak+ ( ! ,con/itution1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates _h be5 end[$ = ! fir/ "t ) a public doma94 ,! t]ritory nor?we/ ( ! ,ohio ,riv] _h be5 claim$1 on ! /r5g? ( old grants & *>t]s1 by ,massa*usetts1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 & ,virg9ia4 ,9 #aggg ,m>yl& refus$ to sign ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation until ^! /ates %\ld agree to c$e _! claims to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ?us 9 #aghd ! f$]al gov]nm5t came into possession ( a magnific5t t]ritory1 out ( :i* five great /ates--,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 ,mi*igan1 & ,wiscons9--h s9ce be5 made4 ,:ile ! ,f$]al ,conv5tion 0 sitt+ at ,philadelphia1 ! ,cont95tal ,congress at ,new ,york 0 do+ almo/ its la/ & "o ( its greate/ pieces ( "w 9 fram+ ! ,ord9ance ( #aghg = ! organization & gov]nm5t ( ?is newly acquir$ t]ritory4 ,! ord9ance creat$ a t]ritorial gov]nm5t ) gov]nor & two-*amb]$ legislature1 c\rts1 magi/rates1 & militia4 ,complete civil & religi\s lib]ty 0 gu>ante$1 negro slav]y 0 prohibit$1 & provision 0 made = free s*ools4#cj ,footnote #cj3 ,! mann] 9 :i* provision %\ld be made = ^! s*ools _h be5 po9t$ out two ye>s be=e 9 ! l&-ord9ance ( #aghe1 z h]et(ore expla9$4 ,see above1 p4 #hf4 ,sid5ote3 ,o!r t]ritories & _! gov]nm5t4 ,9 #ahjc ! enorm\s t]ritory kn[n z ,l\isiana1 compris+ ev]y?+ 7except ,texas7 betwe5 ! ,mississippi ,riv] & ! cre/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 0 pur*as$ f ,france4 ,a claim ^u ! ,oregon t]ritory 0 soon aft]w>d made by discov]y & exploration1 & f9ally settl$ 9 #ahdf by treaty ) ,great ,brita94 ,9 #ahdh by conque/ & 9 #ahec by pur*ase ! rema9+ ,pacific l&s 7 acquir$ f ,mexico4 ,all ( ?is va/ region has be5 at "s "t "u t]ritorial gov]nm5t4 ,z = ,texas1 on ! o!r h&1 x has nev] be5 a t]ritory4 ,texas revolt$ f ,mexico 9 #ahcf & rema9$ an indep5d5t /ate until #ahde1 :5 x 0 admitt$ to ! ,union4 ,t]ritorial gov]nm5t has g5]ally pass$ ?r\gh ?ree /ages3 fir/1 !re are gov]nors & judges appo9t$ by ! presid5t2 !n z population increases1 !re is add$ a legislature *os5 by ! p & emp[]$ to make laws subject to confirmation by ,congress2 f9ally1 entire legislative indep5d5ce is grant$4 ,! t]ritory is !n ripe = admission to ! ,union z a /ate4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:at is ! con/itutional provision = admitt+ new /ates8 #b4 ,:at /ates claim$ ! t]ritory nor?we/ ( ! ,ohio riv]8 ,on :at did !y base _! claims8 #c4 ,:y 0 ?is t]ritory c$$ to ! g5]al gov]nm5t8 #d4 ,:at /ates h s9ce be5 made out ( ?is t]ritory8 #e4 ,:at 0 ! ,ord9ance ( #aghg8 #f4 ,:at 7 ! pr9cipal provisions ( ?is ord9ance8 #g4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! ,l\isiana pur*ase8 #h4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! acquisition ( ! ,oregon t]ritory4 #i4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! acquisition ( ! rema9+ ,pacific l&s4 #aj4 ,h[ came ,texas to belong to ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 #aa4 ,h[ mu* ( ! public doma9 has be5 at "s "t "u t]ritorial gov]nm5t8 #ab4 ,?r\gh :at ?ree /ages has t]ritorial gov]nm5t usually pass$8 ,section #g4 ,ratification & ,am5dm5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,concessions to ! ,s\?4 ,?us ! "w ( ! ,ord9ance ( #aghg 0 9 a c]ta9 s5se supplem5t>y to ! "w ( fram+ ! ,con/itution4 ,:5 ! latt] in/rum5t 0 complet$1 x 0 provid$ t ! ratifications ( ! conv5tions ( n9e /ates %all be suffici5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is ,con/itution betwe5 ! /ates s ratify+ ! same4 ,! ,con/itution 0 !n laid be=e ! ,cont95tal ,congress1 :i* submitt$ x to ! /ates4 ,9 "o /ate aft] ano!r1 conv5tions 7 held1 & at l5g? ! ,con/itution 0 ratifi$4 ,!re 0 mu* opposition to x1 because x seem$ to create a /range & untri$ =m ( gov]nm5t :i* might develop into a tyranny4 ,!re 0 a fe> t ! f$]al p[] might cru% out self-gov]nm5t 9 ! /ates4 ,?is dread 0 felt 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,besides ?is1 !re 0 "s sectional opposition betwe5 ,nor? & ,s\?1 & 9 ,virg9ia !re 0 a p>ty 9 fav\r ( a sep>ate s\!rn conf$]acy4 ,b ,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,georgia 7 won ov] by ! concessions 9 ! ,con/itution to slav]y1 & especially a provision t ! importation ( slaves f ,africa %\ld n be prohibit$ until #ahjh4 ,by w9n+ ,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,georgia ! =mation ( a solid ,s\? 0 prev5t$4 ,sid5ote3 ,bill ( ,rights propos$4 ,! fir/ /ates to adopt ! ,con/itution 7 ,delaw>e1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,georgia1 & ,connecticut1 ) slight opposition1 except 9 ,p5nsylvania4 ,next came ,massa*usetts1 :]e ! conv5tion 0 v l>ge1 ! discussion v long1 & ! action 9 "o s5se critical4 ,"o *ief s\rce ( dissatisfaction 0 ! abs5ce ( a suffici5tly explicit ,bill ( ,rights1 & to meet ?is difficulty1 ,massa*usetts ratifi$ ! ,con/itution1 b propos$ am5dm5ts1 & ?is c\rse 0 foll[$ by o!r /ates4 ,m>yl& & ,s\? ,c>ol9a came next1 & ,new ,hamp%ire made ! n9?4 ,virg9ia & ,new ,york !n ratifi$ by v n>r[ majorities & aft] prolong$ discussion4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a did n come 9 until #aghi1 & ,rhode ,isl& n until #agij4 ,sid5ote3 ,! fir/ t5 am5dm5ts4 ,9 ,septemb]1 #aghi1 ! fir/ t5 am5dm5ts 7 propos$ by ,congress1 & 9 ,decemb]1 #agia1 !y 7 decl>$ 9 =ce4 ,_! provisions are simil> to ^? ( ! ,engli% ,bill ( ,rights1 enact$ 9 #afhi1ca b are mu* m full & explicit4 ,!y provide = fre$om ( spee* & ( ! press1 ! free ex]cise ( religion1 ! "r ( ! p to assemble & petition ,congress = a r$ress ( grievances1 _! "r to be> arms1 & to be secure aga9/ unreasonable se>*es & seizures4 ,! qu>t]+ ( soldi]s is gu>d$1 g5]al se>*-w>rants are prohibit$1 jury trial is gu>ante$1 & ! tak+ ( private prop]ty = public use )\t due comp5sation1 z well z excessive f9es & bail & ! infliction ( cruel & unusual puni%m5t are =bidd54 ,congress is prohibit$ f e/abli%+ any =m ( religion4 ,footnote #ca3 ,see above1 p4 #aij4 ,?is is fur!r elucidat$ 9 ,app5dixes ,b & ,d4 ,f9ally1 x is decl>$ t ! enum]ation ( c]ta9 rights %all n be con/ru$ to d5y or disp>age o!rs reta9$ by ! p1 & t ! p[]s n grant$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ! ,con/itution1 nor prohibit$ by x to ! /ates1 are res]v$ to ! /ates respectively1 or to ! p4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:at provision did ! ,con/itution make = its own ratification8 #b4 ,:at 0 ! g5]al me?od ( ratification 9 ! /ates8 #c4 ,on :at g5]al gr\nds did ! opposition to ! ,con/itution seem to be bas$8 #d4 ,by :at feature 9 ! ,con/itution 0 ! support ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,georgia assur$8 ,:y 0 ?is support deem$ peculi>ly desirable8 #e4 ,:at five /ates ratifi$ ! ,con/itution ) little or no opposition8 #f4 ,:at 0 ! objection ( ,massa*usetts & "s o!r /ates to ! ,con/itution8 ,:at c\rse1 !re=e1 did !y adopt8 #g4 ,:at ?ree /ates aft] ,massa*usetts by _! ratification made ! adoption ( ! ,con/itution secure8 #h4 ,:at f\r /ates subsequ5tly gave 9 _! support8 #i4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! adoption ( ! fir/ t5 am5dm5ts4 #aj4 ,= :at d ^! am5dm5ts provide8 #aa4 ,:at p[]s are res]v$ to ! /ates8 ,section #h4 ,a ,few ,words ab\t ,politics4 ,sid5ote3 ,f$]al taxation4 ,a *ief s\rce ( ! opposition to ! new f$]al gov]nm5t 0 ! dread ( f$]al taxation4 ,p :o f\nd x h>d to pay _! t[n1 c\nty1 & /ate taxes felt t x w\ld be ru9\s to h to pay /ill ano!r k9d ( tax4 ,9 ! m]e fact ( f$]al taxation1 !re=e1 !y 7 incl9$ to see tyranny4 ,) p 9 su* a mood x 0 necess>y to proce$ cauti\sly 9 devis+ measures ( f$]al taxation4 ,sid5ote3 ,excise4 ,?is 0 well und]/ood by our fir/ secret>y ( ! treasury1 ,alex&] ,hamilton1 & 9 ! c\rse ( 8 adm9i/ration ( ! treasury he 0 once r\ghly rem9d$ ( x4 ,! two me?ods ( f$]al taxation adopt$ at 8 sugge/ion 7 duties on imports & excise on a few dome/ic products1 su* z :iskey & tobacco4 ,! excise1 be+ a tax :i* p c\ld see & feel1 0 v unpopul>1 & 9 #agid ! opposition to x 9 we/]n ,p5nsylvania grew into ! fam\s ,:iskey ,insurrection1 aga9/ :i* ,presid5t ,wa%+ton ?\ght x prud5t to s5d an army ( #af1jjj m54 ,?is =midable display ( f$]al p[] suppress$ ! insurrection )\t blood%$4 ,sid5ote3 ,t>iff4 ,n[h]e 0 !re any su* viol5t opposition to ,hamilton's s*eme ( cu/om-h\se duties on import$ goods4 ,p _h always be5 famili> ) su* duties4 ,9 ! colonial times !y _h be5 levi$ by ! ,briti% gov]nm5t )\t call+ =? resi/ance until ,*>les ,t[n%5d made !m ! vehicle ( a dang]\s attack ^u ,am]ican self-gov]nm5t4#cb ,aft] ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce1 cu/om-h\se duties 7 levi$ by ! /ate gov]nm5ts & ! proce$s 7 paid into ! treasuries ( ! sev]al /ates4 ,be=e #aghi1 mu* tr\ble _h aris5 f oppressive t>iff-laws enact$ by "s ( ! /ates aga9/ o!rs4 ,by tak+ away f ! /ates ! p[] ( tax+ imports1 ! new ,con/itution remov$ ?is s\rce ( irritation4 ,x became possible to light5 ! burd5 ( cu/om-h\se duties1 :ile by turn+ ! full /ream ( !m into ! f$]al treasury an abundant national rev5ue 0 secur$ at once4 ,?us ?is "p ( ,hamilton's policy met ) g5]al approval4 ,! t>iff has always be5 our fav\rite device = obta9+ a national rev5ue4 ,dur+ our ,civil ,w>1 inde$1 ! national1 gov]nm5t resort$ ext5sively to direct taxation1 *iefly 9 ! =m ( rev5ue /amps1 ?\gh x also put a tax ^u billi>d-tables1 pianos1 gold wat*es1 & all sorts ( ?+s4 ,b aft] ! return ( peace ^! unusual taxes 7 "o aft] ano!r discont9u$1 & s9ce !n our national rev5ue has be5 rais$1 z 9 ,hamilton's "t1 f duties on imports & excise on a few dome/ic products1 *iefly tobacco & di/ill$ liquors4 ,footnote #cb3 ,see my ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce1 pp4 #eh-hc2 & my ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 = ,s*ools1 pp4 #aib-bjc4 ,sid5ote3 ,orig9 ( ,am]ican political p>ties4 ,hamilton's measures z secret>y ( ! treasury embodi$ an entire sy/em ( public policy1 & ! opposition to !m result$ 9 ! =mation ( ! two political p>ties into :i*1 "u "o "n or ano!r1 ! ,am]ican p h at mo/ times be5 divid$4 ,hamilton's oppon5ts1 l$ by ,jeff]son1 object$ to 8 pr9cipal measures t !y assum$ p[]s 9 ! national gov]nm5t :i* 7 n grant$ to x by ! ,con/itution4 ,hamilton !n fell back ^u ! ,ela/ic ,clause#cc ( ! ,con/itution1 & ma9ta9$ t su* p[]s 7 impli$ 9 x4 ,jeff]son held t ?is doctr9e ( impli$ p[]s /ret*$ ! ,ela/ic ,clause too f>4 ,he held t ! ,ela/ic ,clause ought to be con/ru$ /rictly & n>r[ly2 ,hamilton held t x ought to be con/ru$ loosely & lib]ally4 ,h5ce ! names /rict-con/ructioni/ & loose-con/ructioni/1 :i* m>k p]haps ! mo/ pr(\nd & abid+ antagonism 9 ! hi/ory ( ,am]ican politics4 ,footnote #cc3 ,article ,i1 section viii1 clause #ah2 see above1 p4 #bde4 ,practically all w admit t ! ,ela/ic ,clause1 if con/ru$ /rictly1 ought n to be con/ru$ too n>r[ly2 &1 if con/ru$ lib]ally1 ought n to be con/ru$ too loosely4 ,nei!r p>ty has be5 consi/5t 9 apply+ its pr9ciples1 b 9 ! ma9 we c call ,hamilton ! f\nd] ( ! ,f$]ali/ p>ty1 :i* has _h = its successors ! ,national ,republicans ( #ahbh1 ! ,:igs ( #ahcc to #aheb1 & ! ,republicans ( #ahed to ! pres5t "t2 :ile we c call ,jeff]son ! f\nd] ( ! p>ty :i* call$ itself ,republican f ab\t #agib to ab\t #ahbh1 & s9ce !n has be5 kn[n z ! ,democratic p>ty4 ,?is is r a r\gh description 9 view ( ! real complication ( ! hi/orical facts1 b x is an approximation to ! tru?4 ,sid5ote3 ,t>iff1 ,int]nal ,improvem5ts1 & ,national ,bank4 ,x is n my purpose "h to give a sket* ( ! hi/ory ( ,am]ican p>ties4 ,su* a sket*1 if giv5 9 due relative proportion1 w\ld d\ble ! size ( ?is little book1 ( :i* ! ma9 purpose is to treat ( civil gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ) ref]5ce to its orig9s4 ,b x may "h be said 9 g5]al t ! practical que/ions :i* h divid$ ! two great p>ties h be5 conc]n$ ) ! p[]s ( ! national gov]nm5t z to 7#a7 ! ,t>iff2 7#b7 ! mak+ ( roads1 improv+ riv]s & h>b\rs1 etc41 "u ! g5]al head ( ,int]nal ,improvem5ts2 & 7#c7 ! e/abli%m5t ( a ,national ,bank1 ) ! national gov]nm5t z p>tn] hold+ %>es 9 x & tak+ a lead+ "p 9 ! direction ( its affairs4 ,on ! "q ( su* a national bank ! ,democratic p>ty a*iev$ a complete & decisive victory "u ,presid5t ,tyl]4 ,on ! "q ( int]nal improvem5ts ! opposite p>ty /ill holds ! gr\nd1 b mo/ ( its details h be5 settl$ by ! great developm5t ( ! p[]s ( private ent]prise dur+ ! pa/ sixty ye>s1 & x is n at pres5t a burn+ "q4 ,! "q ( ! t>iff1 h[ev]1 rema9s to-day z a burn+ "q1 b x is no long] argu$ on gr\nds ( con/itutional law1 b on gr\nds ( political economy4 ,hamilton's con/ruction ( ! ,ela/ic ,clause has to ?is ext5t prevail$1 & ma9ly = ! reason t a lib]al con/ruction ( t clause 0 ne$$ 9 ord] to give ! national gov]nm5t en\gh p[] to re/rict ! spread ( slav]y & suppress ! great rebellion ( :i* slav]y 0 ! excit+ cause4 ,sid5ote3 ,civil s]vice re=m4 ,ano!r political "q1 m important1 if possible1 ?an t ( ! ,t>iff1 is to-day ! "q ( ! re=m ( ! ,civil ,s]vice2 b x is n av[$ly made a p>ty "q4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago bo? p>ties laugh$ at x2 n[ bo? try to treat x ) a %[ ( respect & to r5d] unto x lip-homage2 & ! control ( ! imm$iate political future probably lies ) ! p>ty :i* treats x mo/ s]i\sly4 ,x is a "q t 0 n di/9ctly =ese5 9 ! days ( ,hamilton & ,jeff]son1 :5 ! ,con/itution 0 made & adopt$2 o!rwise1 "o is incl9$ to believe1 ! fram]s ( ! ,con/itution w\ld h _h some?+ to say ab\t x4 ,! "q z to ! ,civil ,s]vice arises f ! fact t ! presid5t has ! p[] ( appo9t+ a va/ numb] ( petty (ficials1 *iefly po/ma/]s & (ficials conc]n$ ) ! collection ( ! f$]al rev5ue4 ,su* (ficials h prop]ly no?+ to d ) politics2 !y are simply ! ag5ts or cl]ks or s]vants ( ! national gov]nm5t 9 conduct+ its bus9ess2 & if ! bus9ess ( ! national gov]nm5t is to be manag$ on su* ord9>y pr9ciples ( prud5ce z prevail 9 ! managem5t ( private bus9ess1 su* s]vants ought to be select$ = p]sonal m]it & reta9$ = life or dur+ good behavi\r4 ,x did n occur to our e>li] presid5ts to reg>d ! managem5t ( ! public bus9ess 9 any o!r light ?an ?is4 ,sid5ote3 ,orig9 ( ! spoils sy/em4 ,b z e>ly z ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury a vici\s sy/em 0 gr[+ up 9 ,new ,york & ,p5nsylvania4 ,9 ^? /ates ! appo9tive (fices came to be us$ z bribes or z rew>ds = p>tisan s]vices4 ,by secur+ votes = a successful c&idate1 a man ) little 9 8 pocket & no?+ 9 p>ticul> to d c\ld obta9 "s (fice ) a com=table sal>y4 ,x w\ld be giv5 him z a rew>d1 & "s o!r man1 p]haps m compet5t ?an himself1 w\ld h to be turn$ out 9 ord] to make room = him4 ,a m effective me?od ( driv+ good citiz5s out ( politics c\ld h>dly be devis$4 ,x call$ to ! front a l>ge class ( m5 ( co>se moral fibre :o greatly pref]r$ ! excitem5t ( speculat+ 9 politics to e>n+ an hone/ liv+ by "s ord9>y humdrum bus9ess4 ,! civil s]vice ( ^! /ates 0 s]i\sly damag$ 9 quality1 politics deg5]at$ into a wild scramble = (fices1 sal>ies 7 paid to m5 :o did little or no public s]vice 9 return1 & ?us ! l9e :i* sep>ates taxation f robb]y 0 (t5 cross$4 ,sid5ote3 ,rotation 9 ,(fice4 ,sid5ote3 ,! spoils sy/em made national ,ab\t ! same "t !re grew up an idea t !re is some?+ especially democratic1 & !re=e m]itori\s1 ab\t rotation 9 (fice4 ,gov]nm5t (fices 7 reg>d$ z plums at :i* e "o ought to be all[$ a *ance to take a bite4 ,! way 0 prep>$ 9 #ahbj by ,w4,h4 ,craw=d1 ( ,georgia1 :o succe$$ 9 gett+ ! law enact$ t limits ! t5ure ( (fice = po/ma/]s1 rev5ue collectors1 & o!r s]vants ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t to f\r ye>s4 ,! importance ( ?is measure 0 n und]/ood1 & x excit$ v little discussion at ! "t4 ,! next presid5tial election :i* result$ 9 a *ange ( p>ty 0 t ( ,jackson 9 #ahbh1 & !n ! me?ods ( ,new ,york & ,p5nsylvania 7 appli$ on a national scale4 ,jackson *]i%$ ! absurd belief t ! adm9i/ration ( 8 pr$ecessor ,adams _h be5 corrupt1 & he turn$ m5 out ( (fice ) a ke5 ze/4 ,dur+ ! =ty ye>s betwe5 ,wa%+ton's fir/ inauguration & ,jackson's ! total numb] ( removals f (fice 0 #gd1 & out ( ?is numb] #e 7 default]s4 ,dur+ ! fir/ ye> ( ,jackson's adm9i/ration ! numb] ( *anges made 9 ! civil s]vice 0 ab\t #b1jjj4 #cd ,su* 0 ! abrupt inauguration ^u a national scale ( ! s-call$ spoils sy/em4 ,! phrase orig9at$ ) ,w4 ,l4 ,m>cy1 ( ,new ,york1 :o 9 a spee* 9 ! s5ate 9 #ahca decl>$ t to ! victors belong ! spoils4 ,! man :o said ?is ( c\rse did n realize t he 0 mak+ "o ( ! mo/ %ameful rem>ks record$ 9 hi/ory4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 mu* aptness 9 8 phrase1 inasmu* z x 0 a confession t ! bus9ess ( ,am]ican politics 0 ab\t to be conduct$ on pr9ciples fit only = ! w>f>e ( b>b>ians4 ,footnote #cd3 ,sumn]'s ,jackson1 p4 #adg4 ,9 ! canvass ( #ahdj ! ,:igs promis$ to re=m ! civil s]vice1 & ! promise br\ght !m _m ,democratic votes2 b aft] !y _h won ! election1 !y foll[$ ,jackson's example4 ,! ,democrats foll[$ 9 ! same way 9 #ahde1 & f t "t d[n to #ahhe x 0 cu/om>y at ea* *ange ( p>ty to make a clean sweep ( ! (fices4 ,soon aft] ! ,civil ,w> ! evils ( ! sy/em began to attract s]i\s att5tion on ! "p ( ?\ghtful p4 ,! spoils sy/em has help$ to su/a9 all mann] ( abom9ations1 f grasp+ monopolies & civic jobb]y d[n to political rum-%ops4 ,! virus runs ?r\gh ev]y?+1 & ! natural t5d5cy ( ! evil is to gr[ ) ! gr[? ( ! c\ntry4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,civil ,s]vice ,act ( #ahhc4 ,9 #ahhc ,congress pass$ ! ,civil ,s]vice ,act1 all[+ ! presid5t to select a bo>d ( exam9]s on ^: recomm5dation appo9tm5ts are made4 ,c&idates = (fice are subject$ to an easy competitive exam9ation4 ,! sy/em has work$ well 9 o!r c\ntries1 & "u ,presid5ts ,ar?ur & ,clevel& x 0 appli$ to a consid]able "p ( ! civil s]vice4 ,x has also be5 adopt$ 9 "s /ates & cities4 ,! oppon5ts ( re=m object to ! exam9ation t x is n always intimately connect$ ) ! "w ( ! (fice1#ce b1 ev5 if ?is 7 s1 ! m]it ( ! sy/em lies 9 its removal ( ! (fices f ! category ( ?+s kn[n z patronage4 ,x relieves ! presid5t ( mu* ne$less "w & we>isome importunity4 ,! presid5t & ! heads ( dep>tm5ts appo9t 79 _m cases1 ?r\gh subord9ates7 ab\t #aae1jjj (ficials4 ,x is !re=e impossible to "k mu* ab\t _! "* or compet5cy4 ,x becomes necess>y to act by advice1 & ! advice ( an exam9+ bo>d is sure to be mu* bett] ?an ! advice ( political s*em]s int5t ^u gett+ a sal>i$ (fice = _! ne$y fri5ds4 ,! exam9ation sy/em has made a fair beg9n+ & w d\btless be gradually improv$ & made m /r+5t4 ,some?+ too has be5 done t[>d /opp+ two old abuses att5dant ^u political canvasses1--7#a7 =c+ gov]nm5t cl]ks1 "u p5alty ( los+ _! places1 to contribute "p ( _! sal>ies = election purposes2 7#b7 all[+ gov]nm5t cl]ks to neglect _! "w 9 ord] to take an active "p 9 ! canvass4 ,be=e ! re=m ( ! civil s]vice c be complet$1 h[ev]1 x w be necess>y to repeal ,craw=d's act ( #ahbj & make ! t5ure ( po/ma/]s & rev5ue collectors z secure z t ( ! *ief ju/ice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,footnote #ce3 ,! objection t ! exam9ation que/ions are irrelevant to ! "w ( ! (fice is (t5 made ! occasion ( gross exagg]ation4 ,i h giv51 9 ,app5dix ,i1 an av]age sample ( ! exam9ation pap]s us$ 9 ! cu/oms s]vice4 ,x is tak5 f ,com/ock's ,civil ,s]vice 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,new ,york1 ,holt ,co41 #ahhe1 an excell5t manual ) v full p>ticul>s4 ,sid5ote3 ,! ,au/ralian ballot-sy/em4 ,ano!r political re=m :i* promises excell5t results is ! adoption by _m /ates ( "s =m ( ! ,au/ralian ballot-sy/em1 = ! purpose ( *eck+ intimidation & brib]y at elections4 ,! ballots are pr9t$ by ! /ate1 & conta9 ! names ( all ! c&idates ( all ! p>ties4 ,aga9/ ! "n ( ea* c&idate ! p>ty to :i* he belongs is designat$1 & aga9/ ea* "n !re is a small vacant space to be fill$ ) a cross4 ,at ! poll+-place ! ballots are kept 9 an inclosure beh9d a rail+1 & no ballot c be br\ght outside "u p5alty ( f9e or imprisonm5t#cf4 ,"o ballot is nail$ aga9/ ! wall outside ! rail+1 s t x may be read at leisure4 ,! space beh9d ! rail+ is divid$ into sep>ate boo?s q scre5$ f ea* o!r4 ,ea* boo? is provid$ ) a p5cil & a conv5i5t %elf on :i* to write4 ,! vot] goes beh9d ! rail+1 takes ! ballot :i* is h&$ him1 c>ries x into "o ( ! boo?s1 & m>ks a cross aga9/ ! names ( ! c&idates = :om he votes4 ,he !n puts 8 ballot into ! box1 & 8 "n is *eck$ (f on ! regi/] ( vot]s ( ! prec9ct4 ,?is sy/em is v simple1 x enables a vote to be giv5 9 absolute secrecy1 & x keeps heel]s away f ! polls4 ,x is fav\rable to indep5d5ce 9 vot+1#cg & x is unfav\rable to brib]y1 because unless ! brib] c foll[ 8 man to ! polls & see h[ he votes1 he _c be sure t 8 bribe is effective4 ,to make ! precautions aga9/ brib]y complete x w d\btless be necess>y to add to ! secret ballot ! ,engli% sy/em ( acc\nt+ = election exp5ses4 ,all ! funds us$ 9 an election mu/ pass ?r\gh ! h&s ( a small local committee1 v\*]s mu/ be receiv$ = e p5ny t is exp5d$1 & aft] ! election an itemiz$ acc\nt mu/ be made out & its accuracy atte/$ "u oa? be=e a not>y public4 ,?is sy/em ( acc\nt+ has put an end to brib]y 9 ,engl&4#ch ,footnote #cf3 ,?is is a brief description ( ! sy/em lately adopt$ 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,! p5alty "h m5tion$ is a f9e n exce$+ a ?\s& doll>s1 or imprisonm5t n exce$+ "o ye>1 or bo? su* f9e & su* imprisonm5t4 ,footnote #cg3 ,x is especially fav\rable to indep5d5ce 9 vot+1 if ! li/s ( ! c&idates are plac$ 9 a s+le column1 )\t ref]5ce to p>ty 7ea* "n ( c\rse1 hav+ ! prop] p>ty designation1 ,rep41 ,dem41 ,prohib41 etc41 atta*$ to x74 ,9 su* case x mu/ necess>ily take ! vot] "s little "t to f9d & m>k ea* "n = :i* he wi%es to vote4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! names ( ! c&idates are arrang$ accord+ to _! p>ty1 all ! ,republicans 9 "o li/1 all ! ,democrats 9 ano!r1 etc41 ?is arrangem5t is mu* less fav\rable to indep5d5ce 9 vot+ & mu* less effici5t z a *eck ^u brib]y2 because ! man :o votes a /raight p>ty ticket w make all 8 m>ks 9 a v %ort "t1 :ile ! scrat*]1 or indep5d5t vot]1 w consume mu* m "t 9 select+ 8 names4 ,?us p int]e/$ 9 see+ :e!r a man is vot+ ! /raight p>ty ticket or n c =m an op9ion f ! l5g? ( "t he sp5ds 9 ! boo?4 ,x is1 !re=e1 important t ! names ( all c&idates %\ld be pr9t$ 9 a s+le column4 ,footnote #ch3 ,an important /ep 9 ?is direction has be5 tak5 9 ! ,new ,york ,corrupt ,practices ,act ( ,april1 #ahij4 ,see ,app5dix ,j4 ,compla9ts ( brib]y & corruption h attract$ especial att5tion 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s1 & x is highly cr$itable to ! good s5se ( ! p t measures ( prev5tion h be5 s promptly adopt$ by s _m /ates4 ,) an indep5d5t & uncorrupt$ ballot1 & ! civil s]vice tak5 out ( politics1 all o!r re=ms w become f> m easily accompli%$4 ,^! ends w pres5tly be atta9$4 ,popul> gov]nm5t makes _m mi/akes1 & sometimes x is sl[ 9 f9d+ !m out2 b :5 once x has discov]$ !m x has a way ( correct+ !m4 ,x is ! be/ k9d ( gov]nm5t 9 ! _w1 ! mo/ wisely cons]vative1 ! mo/ /eadily progressive1 & ! mo/ likely to endure4 ,,que/ions ,,on ,,! ,,text4 #a4 ,:at 0 a *ief s\rce ( opposition to ! new f$]al gov]nm5t8 #b4 ,:at necessity = caution exi/$ 9 devis+ me?ods to raise money8 #c4 ,hamilton's s*eme ( excise3-- a4 ,! ?+s on :i* excise 0 laid4 b4 ,! unpopul>ity ( ! s*eme4 c4 ,! ,:iskey ,insurrection4 d4 ,its suppression by ,wa%+ton4 #d4 ,hamilton's t>iff s*eme3-- a4 ,! class ( ?+s on :i* duties 7 plac$4 b4 ,popul> acquiesc5ce 9 ! plan4 c4 ,effect ( div]t+ ! /ream ( cu/om-h\se rev5ue f its old de/9ation 9 ! sev]al /ate treasuries to its new de/9ation 9 ! f$]al treasury4 d4 ,direct taxation dur+ ! ,civil ,w>4 e4 ,me?ods pursu$ s9ce ! ,civil ,w>4 #e4 ,! orig9 ( ,am]ican political p>ties3-- a4 ,jeff]son's objection to ,hamilton's policy4 b4 ,hamilton's def5ce ( 8 policy4 c4 ,jeff]son's view ( ! ,ela/ic ,clause4 d4 ,hamilton's view ( ! ,ela/ic ,clause4 e4 ,two names sugge/ive ( an abid+ antagonism 9 ,am]ican politics4 f4 ,a view ( ! ,ela/ic ,clause t comm5ds itself to all4 g4 ,! p>ty ( ,hamilton & its successors4 h4 ,! p>ty ( ,jeff]son & its successor4 #f4 ,great practical que/ions t h divid$ p>ties3-- a4 ,! ,t>iff4 b4 ,int]nal ,improvem5ts4 c4 ,a ,national ,bank4 d4 ,! pres5t attitude t[>ds ^! ?ree que/ions4 e4 ,! %ift+ ( gr\nd 9 argu+ ! t>iff "q4 f4 ,! reason = ?is *ange ( base4 #g4 ,civil ,s]vice re=m3-- a4 ,! attitude ( p>ties a few ye>s ago4 b4 ,! pres5t attitude ( ! same p>ties4 c4 ,a "q n =ese54 d4 ,! numb] ( (fic]s appo9t$4 e4 ,! non-political nature ( _! duties4 f4 ,! pr9ciples t %\ld prevail 9 _! selection & s]vice4 #h4 ,! spoils sy/em3-- a4 ,e>ly appo9tive (fic]s 9 ,new ,york & ,p5nsylvania1 b4 ,! driv+ ( good citiz5s out ( politics4 c4 ,! "* ( ! m5 call$ to ! front4 d4 ,! effect on civil s]vice & on politics4 #i4 ,rotation 9 (fice3-- a4 ,a new idea ab\t gov]nm5t (fices4 b4 ,craw=d's law ( #ahbj4 c4 ,failure to grasp its significance4 d4 ,jackson's c\rse 9 #ahbi4 e4 ,removals f (fice d[n to ,jackson's "t4 f4 ,removals dur+ ! fir/ ye> ( ,jackson's adm9i/ration4 g4 ,orig9 ( ! phrase1 spoils sy/em4 h4 ,promises & practice d[n to #ahhe4 i4 ,! evils conspicu\s s9ce ! ,civil ,w>4 #aj4 ,! ,civil ,s]vice ,act ( #ahhc4 a4 ,a bo>d ( exam9]s4 b4 ,competitive exam9ation ( c&idates4 c4 ,! spread ( ! pr9ciples ( ! re=m4 d4 ,! m]it ( ! sy/em4 e4 ,two old abuses /opp$4 f4 ,fur!r measures ne$$4 #aa4 ,! ,au/ralian ballot sy/em3-- a4 ,! object ( ?is sy/em4 b4 ,! pr9t+ ( ! ballots4 c4 ,:at a ballot conta9s4 d4 ,ballots at ! poll+-places4 e4 ,! boo?s4 f4 ,! mann] ( vot+4 g4 ,! advantages ( ! sy/em4 h4 ,an additional precaution aga9/ brib]y4 #ab4 ,:at is ! attitude ( ! p t[>ds brib]y & corruption8 #ac4 ,:at re=ms mu/ be accompli%$ be=e o!rs c make mu* headway8 ,,sugge/ive ,,que/ions ,,& ,,directions4 #a4 ,h[ mu* money is ne$$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t = ! exp5ses ( a ye>8 ,h[ mu* is ne$$ = ! army1 ! navy1 ! int]e/ on ! public debt1 p5sions1 riv]s & h>b\rs1 ord9>y civil exp5ses1 etc48 7,answ] = any rec5t ye>47 #b4 ,f :at s\rces does ! rev5ue come8 ,tell h[ mu* rev5ue ea* ( ! sev]al s\rces has yield$ 9 any rec5t ye>4 #c4 ,:at is ! orig9 ( ! ^w t>iff8 #d4 ,:at is meant by protection8 ,:at is meant by free trade8 ,:at is meant by a t>iff = rev5ue only8 ,:at is meant by reciprocity8 ,give illu/rations4 #e4 ,:at are "s ( ! reasons assign$ = protection8 #f4 ,:at are "s ( ! reasons assign$ = free trade8 #g4 ,:i* policy prevails among ! /ates !mselves8 #h4 ,:i* policy prevails betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & o!r nations8 #i4 ,m5tion all ! k9ds ( ,unit$ ,/ates money 9 circulation4 ,br+ into ! class a national bank bill1 a gold c]tificate1 a silv] c]tificate1 any piece t is us$ z money1 & inquire :]e9 its value lies1 :at x c or _c be us$ =1 :at ! ,unit$ ,/ates w or w n give 9 ex*ange = x1 & :e!r x is wor? its face 9 gold or n4 #aj4 ,is x "r to buy silv] at sev5ty-five c5ts & !n put x into circulation /amp$ a doll>1 ! ,gov]nm5t receiv+ ! pr(it8 ,c y get a gold doll> = a silv] "o8 #aa4 ,is a promise to pay a doll> a real doll>8 ,may x be z good z a doll>8 ,if s1 "u :at conditions8 #ab4 ,if gold 7 z common z gravel1 :at *>act]i/ics ( x univ]sally recogniz$ w\ld rema9 un*ang$8 ,:at w\ld become ( its pur*as+ p[]1 if x co/ little or no lab\r to obta9 x8 ,:y is x accept$ z a /&>d ( value8 #ac4 ,dur+ ! ,civil ,w> gold 0 said to fluctuate 9 value1 because x took two doll>s ( pap] money1 sometimes m1 sometimes less1 to buy "o doll> 9 gold4 ,:]e 0 ! real *ang+8 ,:at 0 ! cause ( x8 #ad4 ,:at m5 are at ! head ( ! national gov]nm5t at ! pres5t "t8 7,?9k ( ! executive dep>tm5t & its prim>y divisions1 ! legislative dep>tm5t1 & ! judicial47 #ae4 ,:at sal>ies are paid ^! (fic]s8 ,comp>e ,am]ican sal>ies ) ,european sal>ies = correspond+ high positions4 #af4 ,%\ld a presid5t s]ve a second t]m8 ,:at is ! advantage ( su* s]vice8 ,:at is ! objection to x8 ,is a s+le t]m ( six ye>s desirable8 #ag4 ,ought ! presid5t to be elect$ directly by ! p8 #ah4 ,"n 9 ord] ! p]sons entitl$ to succe$ to ! presid5cy 9 case ( vacancy4 #ai4 ,:o is y\r repres5tative 9 ,congress8 #bj4 ,:o are y\r s5ators 9 ,congress8 #ba4 ,:at is ! pay ( memb]s ( ,congress8 ,:o det]m9es ! comp5sation8 ,:at is !re to prev5t lavi% or improp] pay8 #bb4 ,!re is said to be log-roll+ 9 legislation at times4 ,:at is ! nature ( ?is practice8 ,is x "r8 #bc4 ,is ! s5ator or ! repres5tative ( high] dignity8 ,:y8 #bd4 ,:y %\ld memb]s ( ,congress be exempt$ f arre/ 9 c]ta9 cases8 #be4 ,f9d au?ority 9 ! ,con/itution = v>i\s ?+s t ,congress has done1 su* z ! foll[+3-- a4 ,x has e/abli%$ a milit>y academy at ,we/ ,po9t4 b4 ,x has giv5 public l&s to ,pacific railroads4 c4 ,x has au?oriz$ uni=ms = lett] c>ri]s4 d4 ,x has ord]$ surveys ( ! coa/4 e4 ,x has e/abli%$ ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k4 f4 ,x has vot$ millions ( doll>s = p5sions4 g4 ,x refus$ dur+ ! ,civil ,w> to pay its promises ) silv] or gold4 h4 ,x b\ght ,alaska ( ,russia4 i4 ,x has adopt$ exclusive measures t[>ds ! ,*9ese4 #bf4 ,rev]se ! prec$+ ex]cise4 ,t is1 cite clauses ( ! ,con/itution1 & tell :at p>ticul> ?+s ,congress has done because ( su* au?ority4 ,= example1 :at specific ?+s h be5 done "u ! foll[+ p[]s ( ,congress8-- a4 ,to collect taxes4 b4 ,to regulate comm]ce ) =eign nations4 c4 ,to co9 money4 d4 ,to e/abli% po/-roads4 e4 ,to provide = ! common def5ce4 f4 ,to provide = ! g5]al welf>e4 #bg4 ,comp>e ! /r5g? ( ! national gov]nm5t to-day ) its /r5g? 9 ! pa/4 #bh4 ,:o are citiz5s accord+ to ! ,con/itution8 ,is a woman a citiz58 ,is a *ild a citiz58 ,are ,indians citiz5s8 ,are =eign]s resid+ 9 ?is c\ntry citiz5s8 ,are *ildr5 born abroad ( ,am]ican p>5ts citiz5s8 ,c "o p]son be a citiz5 ( two nations at ! same "t1 or ( two /ates1 or ( two t[ns8 ,expla94 #bi4 ,to :at laws is an ,am]ican vessel on ! ocean subject8 #cj4 ,%[ h[ ! int]e/s & ne$s ( ! v>i\s sections ( ! c\ntry pres5t wide diff]5ces4 ,comp>e m9+ sections ) agricultural1 & bo? ) manufactur+2 ,pacific /ates ) ,atlantic2 ,nor!rn /ates ) ,s\!rn4 ,:at ne$ ( mutual consid]ation exi/s8 #ca4 ,"n all ! political divisions f ! smalle/ to ! greate/ 9 :i* y live4 ,a ,cambridge 7,mass47 boy might1 = example1 say1 ,i live 9 ! ?ird prec9ct ( ! fir/ w>d1 9 ! fir/ ,middlesex repres5tative di/rict1 ! ?ird ,middlesex s5atorial di/rict1 ! ?ird c\ncillor di/rict1 & ! fif? congressional di/rict4 ,my city is ,cambridge2 my c\nty1 ,middlesex1 etc4 ,"n ! v>i\s p]sons :o repres5t y 9 ^! sev]al di/ricts4 #cb4 ,may /ate & local (fic]s ex]cise au?ority on ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t t]ritory1 z1 = example1 )9 ! limits ( an ars5al or a cu/om-h\se8 ,may national gov]nm5t (fic]s ex]cise au?ority 9 /ates & t[ns8 #cc4 ,:at is a sov]eign /ate8 ,is ,new ,york a sov]eign /ate8 ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 ! ,dom9ion ( ,canada8 ,great ,brita98 ,expla94 #cd4 ,:5 sov]eign nations disagree1 h[ c a settlem5t be effect$8 ,:at is ! be/ way to settle su* a disagreem5t8 ,illu/rate f hi/ory ! me?ods ( negotiation1 ( arbitration1 & ( w>4 #ce4 ,:5 two /ates ( ! ,f$]al ,union disagree1 :at solution ( ! difficulty is possible8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bibliographical ,,note4 ,,! ,,f$]al ,,union4--,= ! orig9 ( our f$]al con/itution1 see ,bancr(t's ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 f9al edition1 vol4 vi41 ,n4,y41 #ahhf2 ,curtis's ,hi/ory ( ! ,con/itution1 #b vols41 ,n4,y41 #ahfa1 new edition1 vol4 i41 #ahhi2 & my ,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 ,bo/on1 #ahhh1 ) copi\s ref]5ces 9 ! bibliographical note at ! end4 ,once m we may ref] advantage\sly to ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,,ii41 v4-vi41 ,h4,c4 ,adams1 ,taxation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aghi-ahaf2 ,,viii1 i4-ii41 ,a4,w4 ,small1 ,! ,beg9n+s ( ,am]ican ,nationality4 ,see also ,jameson's ,essays 9 ! ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! ,=mative ,p]iod1 #agge-aghi1 ,bo/on1 #ahhi1 a v valuable book4 ,on ! progress t[>d union dur+ ! colonial p]iod1 see especially ,fro?+ham's ,rise ( ! ,republic ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,bo/on1 #ahgb2 also ,scott's ,developm5t ( ,con/itutional ,lib]ty 9 ! ,engli% ,colonies ( ,am]ica1 ,n4,y41 #ahhb4 ,by f> ! able/ & mo/ ?or\gh book on ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates t has ev] be5 publi%$ is ,bryce's ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 #b vols41 ,london & ,n4,y41 #ahhh4 ,no ,am]ican citiz5's education is prop]ly complet$ until he has read ! :ole ( x c>efully4 ,9 connection !re)1 ! "w ( ,tocqueville1 ,democracy 9 ,am]ica1 #b vols41 #f? ed41 ,bo/on1 #ahgf1 is int]e/+4 ,! ,scot*man describes & discusses ! ,am]ican commonweal? ( to-day1 ! ,fr5*man t ( sixty ye>s ago4 ,!re is an in/ructive diff]5ce 9 ! me?ods ( ! two writ]s1 ,tocqueville be+ incl9$ to draw d$uctions f +5i\s g5]alizations & to expla9 z natural results ( democracy sundry ,am]ican *>act]i/ics t require a diff]5t explanation4 ,8 great "w is admirably review$ & criticis$ by ,bryce1 9 ! ,j4,h4,u4 ,/udies1 ,v41 ix41 ,! ,pr$ictions ( ,hamilton & ,de ,tocqueville4 ,! foll[+ manuals may be recomm5d$3 ,?orpe1 ,! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,phila41 #ahhi2 ,m>t9's ,text ,book on ,civil ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,n4,y4 & ,*icago1 #ahge 7writt5 ) special ref]5ce to ,massa*usetts72 ,nor?am's ,manual ( ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 ,syracuse1 #ahhg 7writt5 ) special ref]5ce to ,new ,york72 ,=d's ,am]ican ,citiz5's ,manual1 ,n4,y41 #ahhg2 ,rup]t's ,guide to ! ,/udy ( ! ,hi/ory & ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,bo/on1 #ahhh2 ,&rews's ,manual ( ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,c9c9nati1 #ahgd2 ,miss ,dawes1 ,h[ we are ,gov]n$1 ,bo/on1 #ahhh2 ,macy1 ,our ,gov]nm5t3 ,h[ x ,grew1 ,:at x ,does1 & ,h[ x ,does x1 ,bo/on1 #ahhg4 ,! la/ is especially good1 & m+les n>rative ) exposition 9 an unusually int]e/+ way4 ,nordh(f's ,politics = ,"y ,am]icans1 ,n4,y41 #ahhg1 is a book t ought to be read by all "y ,am]icans = its robu/ & s\nd political philosophy4 ,x is suitable = boys & girls f twelve to fifte5 ye>s old4 ,c4,f4 ,dole's ,! ,citiz5 & ! ,neighb\r1 ,bo/on1 #ahhg1 is a sugge/ive & /imulat+ little book4 ,= a comp>ative survey ( gov]nm5tal in/itutions1 anci5t & mod]n1 see ,woodr[ ,wilson's ,! ,/ate3 ,elem5ts ( ,hi/orical & ,practical ,politics1 ,bo/on1 #ahhi4 ,an enorm\s mass ( matt] is compress$ into ?is volume1 &1 al?\gh x inevitably suff]s some:at f extreme cond5sation1 x is s treat$ z to be bo? readable & in/ructive4 ,! *apt] on ,! ,/ate & ,f$]al ,gov]nm5ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 publi%$ sep>ately1 & makes a conv5i5t little volume ( #aca pages4 ,tea*]s %\ld f9d mu* help 9 ,mac,alister's ,syllabus ( a ,c\rse ( ,elem5t>y ,in/ruction 9 ,unit$ ,/ates ,hi/ory & ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 ,phila41 #ahhg4 ,! foll[+ books ( ! ,engli% ,citiz5 ,s]ies1 publi%$ by ,macmillan ,co41 may (t5 be pr(itably consult$3 ,m4,d4 ,*alm]s1 ,local ,gov]nm5t2 ,h4,d4 ,traill1 ,c5tral ,gov]nm5t2 ,f4,w4 ,maitl&1 ,ju/ice & ,police2 ,sp5c] ,walpole1 ,! ,electorate & ! ,legislature2 ,a4,j4 ,wilson1 ,! ,national ,budget2 ,t4,h4 ,f>r]1 ,! ,/ate 9 its ,relations to ,trade2 ,w4,s4 ,jevons1 ,! ,/ate 9 its ,relations to ,lab\r4 ,! works on ! ,engli% ,con/itution by ,/ubbs1 ,gnei/1 ,taswell-,langmead1 ,freeman1 & ,bagehot are indisp5sable to a ?or\gh und]/&+ ( civil gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,/ubbs1 ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ,engl&1 #c vols41 ,london1 #ahge-gh2 ,gnei/1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution1 #b;d ed41 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahhi2 ,taswell-,langmead1 ,engli% ,con/itutional ,hi/ory1 #c;d ed41 ,bo/on1 #ahhf2 ,freeman1 ,! ,gr[? ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution1 ,london1 #ahgb2 ,bagehot1 ,! ,engli% ,con/itution1 revis$ ed41 ,bo/on1 #ahgc4 ,an admirable book 9 ?is connection is ,hannis ,taylor's 7( ,alabama7 ,orig9 & ,gr[? ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution1 ,bo/on1 #ahhi4 ,9 connection ) ,bagehot's ,engli% ,con/itution ! /ud5t may pr(itably read ,woodr[ ,wilson's ,congressional ,gov]nm5t1 ,bo/on1 #ahhe1 & ,a4,l4 ,l[ell's ,essays 9 ,gov]nm5t1 ,bo/on1 #ahij4 ,see also ,sir ,h4 ,ma9e1 ,popul> ,gov]nm5t1 ,london1 #ahhf2 ,sir ,g4,c4 ,lewis on ,! ,use & ,abuse ( ,c]ta9 ,political ,t]ms1 ,london1 #ahcb2 ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation & ,reason+ 9 ,politics1 #b vols41 ,london1 #aheb2 & ,dialogue on ! ,be/ ,=m ( ,gov]nm5t1 ,london1 #ahfc4 ,among ! mo/ valuable books ev] writt5 on ! prop] sph]e & duties ( civil gov]nm5t are ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s ,social ,/atics1 ,london1 #ahea2 ,! ,/udy ( ,sociology1 #i? ed41 ,london1 #ahhj2 ,! ,man v]sus ,! ,/ate1 ,london1 #ahhd2 !y are all repr9t$ by ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,! views express$ 9 ,social ,/atics ) reg>d to ! t5ure ( l& are reg>d$ z uns\nd by _m :o are o!rwise 9 entire sympa?y ) ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s views1 & !y are ably criticis$ 9 ,bonham's ,indu/rial ,lib]ty1 ,n4,y41 #ahhh4 ,a book ( great m]it1 :i* ought to be repr9t$ z x is n[ n easy to obta91 is ,t\lm9 ,smi?'s ,local ,self-,gov]nm5t & ,c5tralization1 ,london1 #ahea4 ,its po9t ( view is suffici5tly indicat$ by ! foll[+ admirable pair ( maxims 7p4 #ab73-- ,,local ,,self-,,gov]nm5t is t sy/em ( ,gov]nm5t "u :i* ! greate/ numb] ( m9ds1 kn[+ ! mo/1 & hav+ ! fulle/ opportunities ( kn[+ x1 ab\t ! special matt] 9 h&1 & hav+ ! greate/ int]e/ 9 its well-work+1 h ! managem5t ( x1 or control ov] x4 ,,c5tralization is t sy/em ( gov]nm5t "u :i* ! smalle/ numb] ( m9ds1 & ^? kn[+ ! lea/1 & hav+ ! fewe/ opportunities ( kn[+ x1 ab\t ! special matt] 9 h&1 & hav+ ! smalle/ int]e/ 9 its well-work+1 h ! managem5t ( x1 or control ov] x4 ,an imm5se am\nt ( wret*$ misgov]nm5t w\ld be avoid$ if all legislators & all vot]s w\ld engrave ^! :olesome def9itions ^u _! m9ds4 ,9 connection ) ! books j m5tion$ mu* detail$ & valuable in=mation may be f\nd 9 ! collections ( essays edit$ by ,j4,w4 ,probyn1 ,local ,gov]nm5t & ,taxation 9 v>i\s c\ntries1 ,london1 #ahge2 ,local ,gov]nm5t & ,taxation 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,see also ,r4,t4 ,ely's ,taxation 9 ,am]ican ,/ates & ,cities1 ,n4,y41 #ahhi4 ,! mo/ elaborate "w on our political hi/ory is t ( ,h]mann von ,hol/1 ,con/itutional & ,political ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 translat$ f ! ,g]man by ,j4,j4 ,lalor1 vols4 i4-vi4 7#aghg-ahei71 ,*icago1 #ahgg-hi4 ,9 spite ( a some:at too pron\nc$ p>tisan bias1 its value is great4 ,see also ,s*\l]'s ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u ! ,con/itution1 vols4 i4-iv4 7#aghc-ahdg71 new ed41 ,n4,y41 #ahij4 ,! mo/ useful h&book1 alike = tea*]s & = pupils1 is ,alex&] ,john/on's ,hi/ory ( ,am]ican ,politics1 #b;d ed41 ,n4,y41 #ahhb4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,n4,y41 #ahhi1 by ! same au?or1 is also excell5t4 ,e s*ool %\ld possess a copy ( ,lalor's ,cyclopa$ia ( ,political ,sci5ce1 ,political ,economy1 & ! ,political ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #c vols41 ,*icago1 #ahhb-hd4 ,! num]\s articles 9 x relat+ to ,am]ican hi/ory are *iefly by ,alex&] ,john/on1 ^: ma/]y ( 8 subject 0 simply unrivall$4 ,8 dea? 9 #ahhi1 at ! e>ly age ( =ty1 mu/ be reg>d$ z a national calamity4 ,= a manual ( con/itutional law1 ,cooley's ,g5]al ,pr9ciples ( ,con/itutional ,law 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 ,bo/on1 #ahhj1 is to be recomm5d$4 ,! read] may fitly supplem5t 8 g5]al /udy ( civil gov]nm5t by ! little book ( ,e4,p4 ,dole1 ,talks ab\t ,law3 a ,popul> ,/atem5t ( ,:at our ,law is & ,h[ x is to be ,adm9i/]$1 ,bo/on1 #ahhg4 ,9 connection ) ! political hi/ory1 ,/anwood's ,hi/ory ( ,presid5tial ,elections1 #b;d ed41 ,bo/on1 #ahhh1 w be f\nd useful4 ,see also ,lawton's ,am]ican ,caucus ,sy/em1 ,n4,y41 #ahhe4 ,on ! g5]al subject ( civil s]vice re=m1 see ,eaton's ,civil ,s]vice 9 ,great ,brita93 a ,hi/ory ( ,abuses & ,re=ms1 & _! ,be>+ ^u ,am]ican ,politics1 ,n4,y41 #ahhj4 ,com/ock's ,civil ,s]vice 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,n4,y41 #ahhe1 is a catalogue ( (fices1 ) full acc\nt ( civil s]vice rules1 exam9ations1 specim5s ( exam9ation pap]s1 etc42 also "s ( ! /ate rules1 z 9 ,new ,york1 ,massa*usetts1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i w\ld "h call att5tion to "s publications by ! ,directors ( ! ,old ,s\? ,/udies 9 ,hi/ory & ,politics1--fir/1 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) ,hi/orical & ,bibliographical ,notes & ,outl9es1 = ,/udy1 prep>$ by ,e4,d4 ,mead 7sold by ,d4,c4 ,hea? & ,co41 ,bo/on1 = #be c5ts72 secondly1 ! ,old ,s\? ,leaflets1 furni%$ to s*ools & ! trade by ! same publi%]s1 at #e c5ts a copy or #c4jj a hundr$4 ,^! leaflets are = ! mo/ "p repr9ts ( important orig9al pap]s1 furni%$ ) valuable hi/orical & bibliographical notes4 ,! eighte5 issu$ up to ?is "t 7,july1 #ahij7 are z foll[s3 #a4 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #b4 ,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation2 #c4 ,! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce2 #d4 ,wa%+ton's ,f>ewell ,address2 #e4 ,magna ,*>ta2 #f4 ,vane's ,heal+ ,"q2 #g4 ,*>t] ( ,massa*usetts ,bay1 #afbi2 #h4 ,fundam5tal ,ord]s ( ,connecticut1 #afci2 #i4 ,frankl9's ,plan ( ,union1 #aged2 #aj4 ,wa%+ton's ,inaugurals2 #aa4 ,l9coln's ,inaugurals & ,emancipation ,proclamation2 #ab4 ,! ,f$]ali/1 ,nos4 #a & #b2 #ac4 ,! ,ord9ance ( #aghg2 #ad4 ,! ,con/itution ( ,ohio2 #ae4 ,wa%+ton's ,legacy2 #af4 ,wa%+ton's ,lett] to ,b5jam9 ,h>rison1 ,gov]nor ( ,virg9ia1 on ! ,op5+ ( ,communication ) ! ,we/2 #ag4 ,v]razano's ,voyage1 #aebd2 #ah4 ,f$]al ,con/itution ( ! ,swiss ,conf$]ation4 ,h[>d ,pre/on's ,docum5ts ,illu/rative ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 ,n4,y41 #ahhf1 conta9s ! foll[+3 ,fir/ ,virg9ia ,*>t]1 #afjf2 ,second ,virg9ia ,*>t]1 #afji2 ,?ird ,virg9ia ,*>t]1 #afab2 ,mayfl[] ,compact1 #afbj2 ,massa*usetts ,*>t]1 #afbi2 ,m>yl& ,*>t]1 #afcb2 ,fundam5tal ,ord]s ( ,connecticut1 #afci2 ,new ,engl& ,conf$]ation1 #afdc2 ,connecticut ,*>t]1 #affb2 ,rhode ,isl& ,*>t]1 #affc2 ,p5nsylvania ,*>t]1 #afha2 ,p]m's ,plan ( ,union1 #afig2 ,georgia ,*>t]1 #agcb2 ,frankl9's ,plan ( ,union1 #aged2 ,decl>ation ( ,rights1 #agfe2 ,decl>ation ( ,rights1 #aggd2 ,non-,importation ,agreem5t1 #aggd2 ,virg9ia ,bill ( ,rights1 #aggf2 ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce1 #aggf2 ,articles ( ,conf$]ation1 #aggg2 ,treaty ( ,peace1 #aghc2 ,nor?we/ ,ord9ance1 #aghg2 ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aghg2 ,ali5 & ,s$ition ,laws1 #agih2 ,virg9ia ,resolutions1 #agih2 ,k5tucky ,resolutions1 #agih2 ,k5tucky ,resolutions1 #agii2 ,nullification ,ord9ance1 #ahcb2 ,ord9ance ( ,secession1 #ahfj2 ,s\? ,c>ol9a ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce1 #ahfj2 ,emancipation ,proclamation1 #ahfc4 ,see also ,poore's ,f$]al & ,/ate ,con/itutions1 ,colonial ,*>t]s1 & o!r ,organic ,laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #b vols41 ,wa%+ton1 #ahgg4 ,! s]ies ( essays entitl$ ,! ,f$]ali/1 writt5 by ,hamilton1 ,madison1 & ,jay1 9 #aghg-hh1 :ile ! ratification ( ! ,con/itution 0 9 "q1 w always rema9 indisp5sable z an introduction to ! ?or\gh /udy ( ! pr9ciples ^u :i* our f$]al gov]nm5t is bas$4 ,! mo/ rec5t edition is by ,h4,c4 ,lodge1 ,n4,y41 #ahhh4 ,= ! sy/ematic & elaborate /udy ( ! ,con/itution1 see ,fo/]'s ,ref]5ces to ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 a little pamphlet ( #ej pages publi%$ by ! ,society = ,political ,education1 #ccj ,pe>l ,/41 ,new ,york1 #ahij1 price #be c5ts4 ,! /ud5t :o %\ld pursue to ! end ! l9e ( rese>* m>k$ out 9 ?is pamphlet ought !reby to become q an au?ority on ! subject4 ,= v pleasant & pr(itable read+1 9 connection ) ! =mation & int]pretation ( ! ,con/itution1 & ! political hi/ory ( our c\ntry f #agfc to #ahej1 we h ! ,am]ican ,/atesm5 ,s]ies1 edit$ by ,j4,t4 ,morse1 & publi%$ by ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 ,co41 ,bo/on1 #ahhb-ij3 ,b5jam9 ,frankl91 by ,j4,t4 ,morse2 ,patrick ,h5ry1 by ,m4,c4 ,tyl]2 ,samuel ,adams1 by ,j4,k4 ,hosm]2 ,george ,wa%+ton1 by ,h4,c4 ,lodge1 #b vols42 ,john ,adams & ,?omas ,jeff]son1 by ,j4,t4 ,morse2 ,alex&] ,hamilton1 by ,h4,c4 ,lodge2 ,g\v]neur ,morris1 by ,t4 ,roosevelt2 ,james ,madison1 by ,s4,h4 ,gay2 ,james ,monroe by ,d4,c4 ,gilman2 ,alb]t ,gallat91 by ,j4,a4 ,/ev5s2 ,john ,r&olph1 by ,h4 ,adams2 ,john ,jay1 by ,g4 ,pellew2 ,john ,m>%all1 by ,a4,b4 ,magrud]2 ,john ,qu9cy ,adams1 by ,j4,t4 ,morse2 ,john ,c4 ,calh\n1 by ,h4 von ,hol/2 ,&rew ,jackson1 by ,w4,g4 ,sumn]2 ,m>t9 ,van ,bur51 by ,e4,m4 ,%ep>d2 ,h5ry ,clay1 by ,c4 ,s*urz1 #b vols42 ,daniel ,web/]1 by ,h4,c4 ,lodge2 ,?omas ,h1 ,b5ton1 by ,t4 ,roosevelt4 ,9 connection ) ! que/ions on page #bfi relat+ to t>iff1 curr5cy1 etc41 ref]5ces to "s works on political economy are ne$$4 ,! argum5ts 9 fav\r ( protectionism are set =? 9 ,b[5's ,am]ican ,political ,economy1 la/ ed41 ,n4,y41 #ahgj2 ! argum5ts 9 fav\r ( free trade are set =? 9 ,p]ry's ,political ,economy1 #ai? ed41 ,n4,y41 #ahhg2 & = an able & imp>tial hi/orical survey1 ,taussig's ,t>iff ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,n4,y41 #ahhh1 may be recomm5d$4 ,= a lucid view ( curr5cy1 see ,jevons's ,money & ! ,me*anism ( ,ex*ange1 ,n4,y41 #ahge4 ,a useful "w on ! ,au/ralian me?od ( vot+ is ,wigmore's ,! ,au/ralian ,ballot ,sy/em1 #b;d ed41 ,bo/on1 #ahij4 ,9 connection ) "s ( ! que/ions on page #bga1 ! /ud5t may pr(itably consult ,woolsey's ,int]national ,law1 #e? ed41 ,n4,y41 #ahgi4 ,,note ,,to ,,page #bbf4 ,by ! act ( ,febru>y #c1 #ahhg1 ! second ,monday 9 ,janu>y is fix$ = ! meet+ ( ! electoral colleges 9 all ! /ates4 ,! provisions relat+ to ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,janu>y are repeal$4 ,! int]val betwe5 ! second ,monday 9 ,janu>y & ! second ,w$nesday 9 ,febru>y rema9s available = ! settlem5t ( disput$ que/ions4 ,,note ,,to ,,page #bej4 ,9 ord] to relieve ! supreme c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* _h come to be ov]burd5$ ) bus9ess1 a new c\rt1 ) limit$ appellate jurisdiction1 call$ ! circuit c\rt ( appeals1 0 organiz$ 9 #ahib4 ,x consi/s prim>ily ( n9e appeal judges1 "o = ea* ( ! n9e circuits4 ,= any giv5 circuit ! supreme c\rt ju/ice ( ! circuit1 ! appeal judge ( ! circuit1 & ! circuit judge con/itute ! c\rt ( appeal4 ,,app5dix ,a4 ,,! ,,articles ,,( ,,conf$]ation4 ,articles ( ,conf$]ation & ,p]petual ,union betwe5 ! ,/ates ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,massa*usetts ,bay1 ,rhode ,isl& & ,provid5ce ,plantations1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,delaw>e1 ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 & ,georgia4 ,,article ,i4--,! /yle ( ?is ,conf$]acy %all be1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,,art4 ,,ii4--,ea* ,/ate reta9s its sov]eignty1 fre$om1 & indep5d5ce1 & e p[]1 jurisdiction1 & "r1 :i* is n by ?is ,conf$]ation expressly delegat$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ,congress assembl$4 ,,art4 ,,iii4--,! said ,/ates h]eby sev]ally ent] into a firm league ( fri5d%ip ) ea* o!r1 = _! common def5ce1 ! security ( _! lib]ties1 & _! mutual & g5]al welf>e1 b9d+ !mselves to assi/ ea* o!r aga9/ all =ce (f]$ to1 or attacks made ^u !m1 or any ( !m1 on acc\nt ( religion1 sov]eignty1 trade1 or any o!r pret5ce :atev]4 ,,art4 ,,iv4--,! bett] to secure & p]petuate mutual fri5d%ip & int]c\rse among ! p ( ! diff]5t ,/ates 9 ?is ,union1 ! free inhabitants ( ea* ( ^! ,/ates1 paup]s1 vagabonds1 & fugitives f ju/ice except$1 %all be entitl$ to all privileges & immunities ( free citiz5s 9 ! sev]al ,/ates2 & ! p ( ea* ,/ate %all h free +ress & egress to & f any o!r ,/ate1 & %all enjoy !re9 all ! privileges ( trade & comm]ce subject to ! same duties1 impositions1 & re/rictions z ! inhabitants !re( respectively2 provid$ t su* re/rictions %all n ext5d s f> z to prev5t ! removal ( prop]ty import$ into any ,/ate to any o!r ,/ate ( :i* ! own] is an inhabitant2 provid$ also1 t no imposition1 duties1 or re/riction %all be laid by any ,/ate on ! prop]ty ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ei!r ( !m4 ,if any p]son guilty (1 or *>g$ )1 treason1 felony1 or o!r high misdemean\r 9 any ,/ate %all flee f ju/ice & be f\nd 9 any ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 he %all1 ^u dem& ( ! gov]nor or executive p[] ( ! ,/ate f :i* he fl$1 be deliv]$ up & remov$ to ! ,/ate hav+ jurisdiction ( 8 (f5se4 ,full fai? & cr$it %all be giv5 9 ea* ( ^! ,/ates to ! records1 acts1 & judicial proce$+s ( ! c\rts & magi/rates ( e o!r ,/ate4 ,,art4 ,v4--,= ! m conv5i5t managem5t ( ! g5]al int]e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 delegates %all be annually appo9t$ 9 su* mann] z ! ,legislature ( ea* ,/ate %all direct1 to meet 9 ,congress on ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,novemb]1 9 e ye>1 ) a p[] res]v$ to ea* ,/ate to recall its delegates1 or any ( !m1 at any "t )9 ! ye>1 & to s5d o!rs 9 _! /ead = ! rema9d] ( ! ye>4 ,no ,/ate %all be repres5t$ 9 ,congress by less ?an two1 nor by m ?an sev5 memb]s2 & no p]son %all be capable ( be+ a delegate = m ?an ?ree ye>s 9 any t]m ( six ye>s2 nor %all any p]son1 be+ a delegate1 be capable ( hold+ any (fice "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates = :i* he1 or ano!r = 8 b5efit1 receives any sal>y1 fees1 or emolum5t ( any k9d4 ,ea* ,/ate %all ma9ta9 its own delegates 9 any meet+ ( ! ,/ates & :ile !y act z memb]s ( ! ,committee ( ! ,/ates4 ,9 det]m9+ que/ions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 ea* ,/ate %all h "o vote4 ,fre$om ( spee* & debate 9 ,congress %all n be impea*$ or que/ion$ 9 any c\rt or place out ( ,congress2 & ! memb]s ( ,congress %all be protect$ 9 _! p]sons f arre/s & imprisonm5t dur+ ! "t ( _! go+ to & f1 & att5dance on1 ,congress1 except = treason1 felony1 or brea* ( ! peace4 ,,art4 ,,vi4--,no ,/ate1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all s5d any embassy to1 or receive any embassy f1 or ent] into any conf]5ce1 agreem5t1 alliance1 or treaty ) any k+1 pr9ce1 or /ate2 nor %all any p]son hold+ any (fice ( pr(it or tru/ "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any ( !m1 accept ( any pres5t1 emolum5t1 (fice1 or title ( any k9d :atev] f any k+1 pr9ce1 or =eign /ate2 nor %all ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 or any ( !m1 grant any title ( nobility4 ,no two or m ,/ates %all ent] into any treaty1 conf$]ation1 or alliance :atev] betwe5 !m1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 specify+ accurately ! purposes = :i* ! same is to be ent]$ into1 & h[ long x %all cont9ue4 ,no ,/ate %all lay any impo/s or duties :i* may int]f]e ) any /ipulations 9 treaties ent]$ into by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 ) any k+1 pr9ce1 or /ate1 9 pursuance ( any treaties already propos$ by ,congress to ! c\rts ( ,france & ,spa94 ,no vessel ( w> %all be kept up 9 "t ( peace by any ,/ate1 except su* numb] only z %all be deem$ necess>y by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 = ! def5ce ( su* ,/ate or its trade1 nor %all any body ( =ces be kept up by any ,/ate 9 "t ( peace1 except su* numb] only z1 9 ! judgm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all be deem$ requisite to g>rison ! =ts necess>y = ! def5ce ( su* ,/ate2 b e ,/ate %all always keep up a well-regulat$ & discipl9$ militia1 suffici5tly arm$ & acc\t]$1 & %all provide & con/antly h ready = use 9 public /ores a due numb] ( field-pieces & t5ts1 & a prop] quantity ( arms1 ammunition1 & camp equipage4 ,no ,/ate %all engage 9 any w> )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 unless su* ,/ate be actually invad$ by enemies1 or %all h receiv$ c]ta9 advice ( a resolution be+ =m$ by "s nation ( ,indians to invade su* ,/ate1 & ! dang] is s imm95t z n to admit ( a delay till ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 c be consult$2 nor %all any ,/ate grant commissions to any %ips or vessels ( w>1 nor lett]s ( m>que or reprisal1 except x be aft] a decl>ation ( w> by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 & !n only aga9/ ! k+dom or /ate1 & ! subjects !re(1 aga9/ :i* w> has be5 s decl>$1 & "u su* regulations z %all be e/abli%$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 unless su* ,/ate be infe/$ by pirates1 9 :i* case vessels ( w> may be fitt$ out = t occasion1 & kept s long z ! dang] %all cont9ue1 or until ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all det]m9e o!rwise4 ,,art4 ,,vii4--,:5 l& =ces are rais$ by any ,/ate = ! common def5ce1 all (fic]s ( or "u ! rank ( ,colonel %all be appo9t$ by ! ,legislature ( ea* ,/ate respectively by :om su* =ces %all be rais$1 or 9 su* mann] z su* ,/ate %all direct1 & all vacancies %all be fill$ up by ! ,/ate :i* fir/ made ! appo9tm5t4 ,,art4 ,,viii4--,all *>ges ( w>1 & all o!r exp5ses t %all be incurr$ = ! common def5ce1 or g5]al welf>e1 & all[$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all be defray$ out ( a common treasury1 :i* %all be suppli$ by ! sev]al ,/ates 9 proportion to ! value ( all l& )9 ea* ,/ate1 grant$ to1 or survey$ =1 any p]son1 z su* l& & ! build+s & improvem5ts !reon %all be e/imat$1 accord+ to su* mode z ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all1 f "t to "t1 direct & appo9t4 ,! taxes = pay+ t proportion %all be laid & levi$ by ! au?ority & direction ( ! ,legislatures ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 )9 ! "t agre$ ^u by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$4 ,,art4 ,,ix4--,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all h ! sole & exclusive "r & p[] ( det]m9+ on peace & w>1 except 9 ! cases m5tion$ 9 ! six? ,article2 ( s5d+ & receiv+ ambassadors2 ent]+ into treaties & alliances1 provid$ t no treaty ( comm]ce %all be made1 :]eby ! legislative p[] ( ! respective ,/ates %all be re/ra9$ f impos+ su* impo/s & duties on =eign]s z _! own p are subject$ to1 or f prohibit+ ! exportation or importation ( any species ( goods or commodities :atev]2 ( e/abli%+ rules = decid+1 9 all cases1 :at captures on l& & wat] %all be legal1 & 9 :at mann] prizes tak5 by l& or naval =ces 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be divid$ or appropriat$2 ( grant+ lett]s ( m>que & reprisal 9 times ( peace2 appo9t+ c\rts = ! trial ( piracies & felonies committ$ on ! high seas2 & e/abli%+ c\rts = receiv+ & det]m9+ f9ally appeals 9 all cases ( captures2 provid$ t no memb] ( ,congress %all be appo9t$ a judge ( any ( ! said c\rts4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all also be ! la/ resort on appeal 9 all disputes & diff]5ces n[ subsi/+1 or t h]eaft] may arise betwe5 two or m ,/ates conc]n+ b\nd>y jurisdiction1 or any o!r cause :atev]2 :i* au?ority %all always be ex]cis$ 9 ! mann] foll[+3 ,:5ev] ! legislative or executive au?ority1 or lawful ag5t ( any ,/ate 9 controv]sy ) ano!r1 %all pres5t a petition to ,congress1 /at+ ! matt] 9 "q1 & pray+ = a he>+1 notice !re( %all be giv5 by ord] ( ,congress to ! legislative or executive au?ority ( ! o!r ,/ate 9 controv]sy1 & a day assign$ = ! appe>ance ( ! p>ties by _! lawful ag5ts1 :o %all !n be direct$ to appo9t1 by jo9t cons5t1 commission]s or judges to con/itute a c\rt = he>+ & det]m9+ ! matt] 9 "q2 b if !y _c agree1 ,congress %all "n ?ree p]sons out ( ea* ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & f ! li/ ( su* p]sons ea* p>ty %all alt]nately /rike out "o1 ! petition]s beg9n+1 until ! numb] %all be r$uc$ to ?irte52 & f t numb] n less ?an sev5 nor m ?an n9e names1 z ,congress %all direct1 %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ,congress1 be drawn out by lot2 & ! p]sons ^: names %all be s drawn1 or any five ( !m1 %all be commission]s or judges1 to he> & f9ally det]m9e ! controv]sy1 s always z a major "p ( ! judges :o %all he> ! cause %all agree 9 ! det]m9ation2 & if ei!r p>ty %all neglect to att5d at ! day appo9t$1 )\t %[+ reasons :i* ,congress %all judge suffici5t1 or be+ pres5t1 %all refuse to /rike1 ! ,congress %all proce$ to nom9ate ?ree p]sons out ( ea* ,/ate1 & ! secret>y ( ,congress %all /rike 9 behalf ( su* p>ty abs5t or refus+2 & ! judgm5t & s5t5ce ( ! c\rt1 to be appo9t$ 9 ! mann] be=e prescrib$1 %all be f9al & conclusive2 & if any ( ! p>ties %all refuse to submit to ! au?ority ( su* c\rt1 or to appe> or def5d _! claim or cause1 ! c\rt %all nev]!less proce$ to pron\nce s5t5ce or judgm5t1 :i* %all 9 l mann] be f9al & decisive2 ! judgm5t or s5t5ce & o!r proce$+s be+ 9 ei!r case transmitt$ to ,congress1 & lodg$ among ! acts ( ,congress = ! security ( ! p>ties conc]n$2 provid$1 t e commission]1 be=e he sits 9 judgm5t1 %all take an oa?1 to be adm9i/]$ by "o ( ! judges ( ! supreme or sup]ior c\rt ( ! ,/ate :]e ! cause %all be tri$1 well & truly to he> & det]m9e ! matt] 9 "q1 accord+ to ! be/ ( 8 judgm5t1 )\t fav\r1 affection1 or hope ( rew>d4 ,provid$1 also1 t no ,/ate %all be depriv$ ( t]ritory = ! b5efit ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,all controv]sies conc]n+ ! private "r ( soil claim$ "u diff]5t grants ( two or m ,/ates1 ^: jurisdictions1 z !y may respect su* l&s1 & ! ,/ates :i* pass$ su* grants are adju/$1 ! said grants or ei!r ( !m be+ at ! same "t claim$ to h orig9at$ antec$5t to su* settlem5t ( jurisdiction1 %all1 on ! petition ( ei!r p>ty to ! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 be f9ally det]m9$1 z ne> z may be1 9 ! same mann] z is be=e prescrib$ = decid+ disputes respect+ t]ritorial jurisdiction betwe5 diff]5t ,/ates4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all also h ! sole & exclusive "r & p[] ( regulat+ ! alloy & value ( co9 /ruck by _! own au?ority1 or by t ( ! respective ,/ates2 fix+ ! /&>d ( weights & measures ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 regulat+ ! trade & manag+ all affairs ) ! ,indians1 n memb]s ( any ( ! ,/ates2 provid$ t ! legislative "r ( any ,/ate1 )9 its own limits1 be n infr+$ or violat$2 e/abli%+ & regulat+ po/-(fices f "o ,/ate to ano!r1 ?r\gh\t all ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & exact+ su* po/age on ! pap]s pass+ ?r\gh ! same z may be requisite to defray ! exp5ses ( ! said (fice2 appo9t+ all (fic]s ( ! l& =ces 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except+ regim5tal (fic]s2 appo9t+ all ! (fic]s ( ! naval =ces1 & commission+ all (fic]s :atev] 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 mak+ rules = ! gov]nm5t & regulation ( ! said l& & naval =ces1 & direct+ _! op]ations4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all h au?ority to appo9t a committee1 to sit 9 ! recess ( ,congress1 to be d5om9at$ ,a ,committee ( ! ,/ates1 & to consi/ ( "o delegate f ea* ,/ate1 & to appo9t su* o!r committees & civil (fic]s z may be necess>y = manag+ ! g5]al affairs ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u _! direction2 to appo9t "o ( _! numb] to preside2 provid$ t no p]son be all[$ to s]ve 9 ! (fice ( presid5t m ?an "o ye> 9 any t]m ( ?ree ye>s2 to asc]ta9 ! necess>y sums ( money to be rais$ = ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to appropriate & apply ! same = defray+ ! public exp5ses2 to borr[ money or emit bills on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 transmitt+ e half ye> to ! respective ,/ates an acc\nt ( ! sums ( money s borr[$ or emitt$2 to build & equip a navy2 to agree ^u ! numb] ( l& =ces1 & to make requisitions f ea* ,/ate = its quota1 9 proportion to ! numb] ( :ite inhabitants 9 su* ,/ate1 :i* requisition %all be b9d+2 & !reupon ! ,legislature ( ea* ,/ate %all appo9t ! regim5tal (fic]s1 raise ! m51 & clo!1 arm1 & equip !m 9 a soldi]-l mann]1 at ! exp5se ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & ! (fic]s & m5 s clo!d1 arm$1 & equipp$ %all m>* to ! place appo9t$1 & )9 ! "t agre$ on by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$2 b if ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all1 on consid]ation ( circum/ances1 judge prop] t any ,/ate %\ld n raise m51 or %\ld raise a small] numb] ?an its quota1 & t any o!r ,/ate %\ld raise a great] numb] ( m5 ?an ! quota !re(1 su* extra numb] %all be rais$1 (fic]$1 clo!d1 arm$1 & equipp$ 9 ! same mann] z ! quota ( su* ,/ate1 unless ! ,legislature ( su* ,/ate %all judge t su* extra numb] _c be safely sp>$ out ( ! same1 9 :i* case !y %all raise1 (fic]1 clo!1 arm1 & equip z _m ( su* extra numb] z !y judge c be safely sp>$1 & ! (fic]s & m5 s clo!d1 arm$1 & equipp$ %all m>* to ! place appo9t$1 & )9 ! "t agre$ on by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all nev] engage 9 a w>1 nor grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal 9 "t ( peace1 nor ent] into any treaties or alliances1 nor co9 money1 nor regulate ! value !re(1 nor asc]ta9 ! sums & exp5ses necess>y = ! def5se & welf>e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any ( !m1 nor emit hills1 nor borr[ money on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 nor appropriate money1 nor agree ^u ! numb] ( vessels ( w> to be built or pur*as$1 or ! numb] ( l& or sea =ces to be rais$1 nor appo9t a comm&]-9-*ief ( ! army or navy1 unless n9e ,/ates ass5t to ! same1 nor %all a "q on any o!r po9t1 except = adj\rn+ f day to day1 be det]m9$1 unless by ! votes ( a majority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$4 ,! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all h p[] to adj\rn to any "t )9 ! ye>1 & to any place )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s t no p]iod ( adj\rnm5t be = a long] duration ?an ! space ( six mon?s1 & %all publi% ! j\rnal ( _! proce$+s mon?ly1 except su* p>ts !re( relat+ to treaties1 alliances1 or milit>y op]ations z 9 _! judgm5t require secrecy2 & ! yeas & nays ( ! delegates ( ea* ,/ate1 ion any "q1 %all be ent]$ on ! j\rnal :5 x is desir$ by any delegate2 & ! delegates ( a ,/ate1 or any ( !m1 at 8 or _! reque/1 %all be furni%$ ) a transcript ( ! said j\rnal except su* p>ts z are above except$1 to lay be=e ! ,legislatures ( ! sev]al ,/ates4 ,art4 ,x4--,! ,committee ( ! ,/ates1 or any n9e ( !m1 %all be au?oriz$ to execute1 9 ! recess ( ,congress1 su* ( ! p[]s ( ,congress z ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 by ! cons5t ( n9e ,/ates1 %all1 f "t to "t1 ?9k exp$i5t to ve/ !m )2 provid$ t no p[] be delegat$ to ! said ,committee1 = ! ex]cise ( :i*1 by ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation1 ! voice ( n9e ,/ates 9 ! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates assembl$ is requisite4 ,art4 ,,xi4--,canada1 acc$+ to ?is ,conf$]ation1 & jo9+ 9 ! measures ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all he admitt$ into1 & entitl$ to all ! advantages ( ?is ,union2 b no o!r colony %all be admitt$ into ! same1 unless su* admission be agre$ to by n9e ,/ates4 ,art4 ,,xii4--,all bills ( cr$it emitt$1 moneys borr[$1 & debts contract$ by or "u ! au?ority ( ,congress1 be=e ! assembl+ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 pursuance ( ! pres5t ,conf$]ation1 %all be deem$ & consid]$ z a *>ge aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 = paym5t & satisfaction :]e( ! said ,unit$ ,/ates & ! public fai? are h]eby solemnly pl$g$4 ,art4 ,,xiii4--,e ,/ate %all abide by ! det]m9ations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 on all que/ions :i* by ?is ,conf$]ation are submitt$ to !m4 ,& ! ,articles ( ?is ,conf$]ation %all be inviolably obs]v$ by e ,/ate1 & ! ,union %all be p]petual2 nor %all any alt]ation at any "t h]eaft] be made 9 any ( !m1 unless su* alt]ation be agre$ to 9 a ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & be aft]w>ds confirm$ by ! ,legislatures ( e ,/ate4 ,& :]eas x ha? pleas$ ! great ,gov]nor ( ! _w to incl9e ! he>ts ( ! ,legislatures we respectively repres5t 9 ,congress to approve (1 & to au?orize u to ratify1 ! said ,articles ( ,conf$]ation & p]petual ,union1 "k ye1 t we1 ! und]sign$ delegates1 by virtue ( ! p[] & au?ority to u giv5 = t purpose1 d1 by ^! pres5ts1 9 ! "n & 9 behalf ( our respective con/itu5ts1 fully & entirely ratify & confirm ea* & e ( ! said ,articles ( ,conf$]ation & p]petual ,union1 & all & s+ul> ! matt]s & ?+s !re9 conta9$4 ,& we d fur!r solemnly plight & engage ! fai? ( our respective con/itu5ts1 t !y %all abide by ! det]m9ations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 on all que/ions :i* by ! said ,conf$]ation are submitt$ to !m2 & t ! ,articles !re( %all be inviolably obs]v$ by ! ,/ates we respectively repres5t1 & t ! ,union %all be p]petual4 ,9 witness :]e( we h h]eunto set our h&s 9 ,congress4 ,done at ,philadelphia 9 ! ,/ate ( ,p5nsylvania ! n9? day ( ,july 9 ! ye> ( our ,"l "o ?\s& sev5 hundr$ & sev5ty-eight1 & 9 ! ?ird ye> ( ! indep5d5ce ( ,am]ica4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,app5dix ,b4 ,,! ,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,,preamble4#a ,we1 ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ord] to =m a m p]fect union1 e/abli% ju/ice1 insure dome/ic tranquillity1 provide = ! common def5ce1 promote ! g5]al welf>e1 & secure ! bless+s ( lib]ty to ourselves & o> po/]ity1 d orda9 & e/abli% ?is ,con/itution = ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,,article ,i4 ,,legislative ,,dep>tm5t4#b ,footnote #a3 ,comp>e ?is ,preamble ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,i4 & ,,iii4 ,footnote #b3 ,comp>e ,art4 ,i4 ,sections i4-vii4 ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,v4 ,section ,i4 ,congress 9 ,g5]al4 ,all legislative p[]s h]e9 grant$ %all be ve/$ 9 a ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* %all consi/ ( a ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,section ,,ii4 ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 #a4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all be compos$ ( memb]s *os5 e second ye> by ! p ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 & ! electors 9 ea* ,/ate %all h ! qualifications requisite = electors ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( ! ,/ate legislature4 #b4 ,no p]son %all be a ,repres5tative :o %all n h atta9$ ! age ( tw5ty-five ye>s1 & be5 sev5 ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o %all n1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( t ,/ate 9 :i* he %all be *os54 #c4 ,repres5tatives & direct taxes %all be apportion$ among ! sev]al ,/ates :i* may be includ$ )9 ?is ,union1 accord+ to _! respective numb]s1 :i* %all be det]m9$ by add+ to ! :ole numb] ( free p]sons1 includ+ ^? b\nd to s]vice = a t]m ( ye>s1 & exclud+ ,indians n tax$1 ?ree fif?s ( all o!r p]sons4 ,! actual enum]ation %all be made )9 ?ree ye>s aft] ! fir/ meet+ ( ! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & )9 e subsequ5t t]m ( t5 ye>s1 9 su* mann] z !y %all by law direct4 ,! numb] ( ,repres5tatives %all n exce$ "o = e ?irty ?\s&1 b ea* ,/ate %all h at lea/ "o ,repres5tative2 & until su* enum]ation %all be made1 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,hamp%ire %all be entitl$ to *oose ?ree1 ,massa*usetts eight1 ,rhode ,isl& & ,provid5ce ,plantations "o1 ,connecticut five1 ,new ,york six1 ,new ,j]sey f\r1 ,p5nsylvania eight1 ,delaw>e "o1 ,m>yl& six1 ,virg9ia t51 ,nor? ,c>ol9a five1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a five1 & ,georgia ?ree4 #d4 ,:5 vacancies happ5 9 ! repres5tation f any ,/ate1 ! executive au?ority !re( %all issue writs ( election to fill su* vacancies4 #e4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all *oose _! ,speak] & o!r (fic]s1 & %all h ! sole p[] ( impea*m5t4 ,section ,,iii4 ,s5ate4 #a4 ,! ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$ ( two ,s5ators f ea* ,/ate1 *os5 by ! legislature !re(1 = six ye>s2 & ea* ,s5ator %all h "o vote4 #b4 ,imm$iately aft] !y %all be assembl$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! fir/ election1 !y %all be divid$ z equally z may be into ?ree classes4 ,! seats ( ! ,s5ators ( ! fir/ class %all be vacat$ at ! expiration ( ! second ye>2 ( ! second class1 at ! expiration ( ! f\r? ye>1 & ( ! ?ird class1 at ! expiration ( ! six? ye>1 s t "o ?ird may be *os5 e second ye>2 & if vacancies happ5 by resignation or o!rwise dur+ ! recess ( ! legislature ( any ,/ate1 ! executive !re( may make tempor>y appo9tm5ts until ! next meet+ ( ! legislature1 :i* %all !n fill su* vacancies4 #c4 ,no p]son %all be a ,s5ator :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( ?irty ye>s1 & be5 n9e ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o %all n1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( t ,/ate = :i* he %all be *os54 #d4 ,! ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate1 b %all h no vote1 unless !y be equally divid$4 #e4 ,! ,s5ate %all *oose _! o!r (fic]s1 & also a ,presid5t pro tempore 9 ! abs5ce ( ! ,vice-,presid5t1 or :5 he %all ex]cise ! (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #f4 ,! ,s5ate %all h ! sole p[] to try all impea*m5ts4 ,:5 sitt+ = t purpose1 !y %all be on oa? or affirmation4 ,:5 ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is tri$1 ! ,*ief ,ju/ice %all preside3 & no p]son %all be convict$ )\t ! concurr5ce ( two ?irds ( ! memb]s pres5t4 #g4 ,judgm5t 9 cases ( impea*m5t %all n ext5d fur!r ?an to removal f (fice1 & disqualification to hold & enjoy any (fice ( hon\r1 tru/1 or pr(it "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b ! p>ty convict$ %all1 nev]!less1 be liable & subject to indictm5t1 trial1 judgm5t1 & puni%m5t1 accord+ to law4 ,section ,,iv4 ,bo? ,h\ses4 #a4 ,! times1 places1 & mann] ( hold+ elections = ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives %all be prescrib$ 9 ea* ,/ate by ! legislature !re(2 b ! ,congress may at any "t by law make or alt] su* regulations1 except z to ! places ( *oos+ ,s5ators4 #b4 ,! ,congress %all assemble at lea/ once 9 e ye>1 & su* meet+ %all be on ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,decemb]1 unless !y %all by law appo9t a diff]5t day4 ,section ,v4 ,! ,h\ses ,sep>ately4 #a4 ,ea* h\se %all be ! judge ( ! elections1 returns1 & qualifications ( its own memb]s1 & a majority ( ea* %all con/itute a quorum to d bus9ess2 b a small] numb] may adj\rn f day to day1 & may be au?oriz$ to compel ! att5dance ( abs5t memb]s1 9 su* mann]1 & "u su* p5alties1 z ea* h\se may provide4 #b4 ,ea* h\se may det]m9e ! rules ( its proce$+s1 puni% its memb]s = disord]ly behavi\r1 & ) ! concurr5ce ( two ?irds1 expel a memb]4 #c4 ,ea* h\se %all keep a j\rnal ( its proce$+s1 & f to "t publi% ! same1 except+ su* p>ts z may 9 _! judgm5t require secrecy1 & ! yeas & nays ( ! memb]s ( ei!r h\se on any "q %all1 at ! desire ( "o fif? ( ^? pres5t1 be ent]$ on ! j\rnal4 #d4 ,nei!r h\se1 dur+ ! session ( ,congress1 %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! o!r1 adj\rn = m ?an ?ree days1 nor to any o!r place ?an t 9 :i* ! two h\ses %all be sitt+4 ,section ,,vi4 ,privileges & ,disabilities ( ,memb]s4 #a4 ,! ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives %all receive a comp5sation = _! s]vices1 to be asc]ta9$ by law & paid out ( ! ,treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y %all1 9 all cases except treason1 felony1 & brea* ( ! peace1 be privileg$ f arre/ dur+ _! att5dance at ! session ( _! respective h\ses1 & 9 go+ to & return+ f ! same2 & = any spee* or debate 9 ei!r h\se !y %all n be que/ion$ 9 any o!r place4 #b4 ,no ,s5ator or ,repres5tative %all1 dur+ ! "t = :i* he 0 elect$1 be appo9t$ to any civil (fice "u ! au?ority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* %all h be5 creat$1 or ! emolum5ts :]e( %all h be5 increas$ dur+ su* "t2 & no p]son hold+ any (fice "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be a memb] ( ei!r h\se dur+ 8 cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,section ,,vii4 ,mode ( ,pass+ ,laws4 #a4 ,all bills = rais+ rev5ue %all orig9ate 9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives2 b ! ,s5ate may propose or concur ) am5dm5ts z on o!r bills4 #b4 ,e bill :i* %all h pass$ ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives & ! ,s5ate %all1 be=e x become a law1 be pres5t$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 if he approve he %all sign x1 b if n he %all return x1 ) 8 objections1 to t h\se 9 :i* x %all h orig9at$1 :o %all ent] ! objections at l>ge on _! j\rnal & proce$ to reconsid] x4 ,if aft] su* reconsid]ation two ?irds ( t h\se %all agree to pass ! bill1 x %all be s5t1 toge!r ) ! objections1 to ! o!r h\se1 by :i* x %all likewise be reconsid]$1 & if approv$ by two ?irds ( t h\se x %all become a law4 ,b 9 all su* cases ! votes ( bo? h\ses %all be det]m9$ by yeas & nays1 & ! names ( ! p]sons vot+ = & aga9/ ! bill %all be ent]$ on ! j\rnal ( ea* h\se respectively4 ,if any bill %all n be return$ by ! ,presid5t )9 t5 days 7,sundays except$7 aft] x %all h be5 pres5t$ to him1 ! same %all be a law1 9 l mann] z if he _h sign$ x1 unless ! ,congress by _! adj\rnm5t prev5t its return1 9 :i* case x %all n be a law4 #c4 ,e ord]1 resolution1 or vote to :i* ! concurr5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives may be necess>y 7except on a "q ( adj\rnm5t7 %all be pres5t$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & be=e ! same %all take effect1 %all be approv$ by him1 or be+ disapprov$ by him1 %all be repass$ by two ?irds ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 accord+ to ! rules & limitations prescrib$ 9 ! case ( a bill4 ,section ,,viii4 ,p[]s grant$ to ,congress4#c ,footnote #c3 ,comp>e ,sections viii4 & ix4 ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,ix42 clause #a ( ,section viii ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,viii2 & clause #ab ( ,section viii4 ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,vii4 ,! ,congress %all h1 p[]3 #a4 ,to lay & collect taxes1 duties1 impo/s1 & excises1 to pay ! debts & provide = ! common def5se & g5]al welf>e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b all duties1 impo/s1 & excises %all be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #b4 ,to borr[ money on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #c4 ,to regulate comm]ce ) =eign nations & among ! sev]al ,/ates1 & ) ! ,indian tribes2 #d4 ,to e/abli% an uni=m rule ( naturalization1 & uni=m laws on ! subject ( bankruptcies ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #e4 ,to co9 money1 regulate ! value !re(1 & ( =eign1 co91 & fix ! /&>d ( weights & measures2 #f4 ,to provide = ! puni%m5t ( c\nt]feit+ ! securities & curr5t co9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #g4 ,to e/abli% po/-(fices & po/-roads2 #h4 ,to promote ! progress ( sci5ce & useful arts by secur+ = limit$ times to au?ors & inv5tors ! exclusive "r to _! respective writ+s & discov]ies2 #i4 ,to con/itute tribunals inf]ior to ! ,supreme ,c\rt2 #aj4 ,to def9e & puni% piracies & felonies committ$ on ! high seas & (f5ses aga9/ ! law ( nations2 #aa4 ,to decl>e w>1 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 & make rules conc]n+ captures on l& & wat]2 #ab4 ,to raise & support armies1 b no appropriation ( money to t use %all be = a long] t]m ?an two ye>s2 #ac4 ,to provide & ma9ta9 a navy2 #ad4 ,to make rules = ! gov]nm5t & regulation ( ! l& & naval =ces4 #ae4 ,to provide = call+ =? ! militia to execute ! laws ( ! ,union1 suppress insurrections1 & repel invasions2 #af4 ,to provide = organiz+1 arm+1 & discipl9+ ! militia1 & = gov]n+ su* "p ( !m z may be employ$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 res]v+ to ! ,/ates respectively ! appo9tm5t ( ! (fic]s1 & ! au?ority ( tra9+ ! militia accord+ to ! discipl9e prescrib$ by ,congress2 #ag4 ,to ex]cise exclusive legislation 9 all cases :atsoev] ov] su* di/rict 7n exce$+ t5 miles squ>e7 z may1 by cession ( p>ticul> ,/ates & ! acceptance ( ,congress1 become ! seat ( ! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to ex]cise l au?ority ov] all places pur*as$ by ! cons5t ( ! legislature ( ! ,/ate 9 :i* ! same %all be1 = ! erection ( =ts1 magaz9es1 ars5als1 docky>ds1 & o!r ne$ful build+s2 #ah4 ,to make all laws :i* %all be necess>y & prop] = c>ry+ into execution ! =ego+ p[]s1 & all o!r p[]s ve/$ by ?is ,con/itution 9 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any dep>tm5t or (fic] !re(4#d ,footnote #d3 ,?is is ! ,ela/ic ,clause 9 ! int]pretation ( :i* arose ! orig9al & fundam5tal division ( political p>ties4 ,see above1 pp4 #bde1 #bei4 ,section ,,ix4 ,p[]s d5i$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #a4 ,! migration or importation ( su* p]sons z any ( ! ,/ates n[ exi/+ %all ?9k prop] to admit %all n be prohibit$ by ! ,congress prior to ! ye> "o ?\s& eight hundr$ & eight1 b a tax or duty may be impos$ on su* importation1 n exce$+ t5 doll>s = ea* p]son4 #b4 ,! privilege ( ! writ ( habeas corpus %all n be susp5d$1 unless :5 9 cases ( rebellion or invasion ! public safety may require x4 #c4 ,no bill ( atta9d] or ex po/ facto law %all be pass$4 #d4 ,no capitation or o!r direct tax %all be laid1 unless 9 proportion to ! c5sus or enum]ation h]e9be=e direct$ to be tak54 #e4 ,no tax or duty %all be laid on articles export$ f any ,/ate4 #f4 ,no pref]5ce %all be giv5 by any regulation ( comm]ce or rev5ue to ! ports ( "o ,/ate ov] ^? ( ano!r2 nor %all vessels b\nd to or f "o ,/ate be oblig$ to ent]1 cle>1 or pay duties 9 ano!r4 #g4 ,no money %all be drawn f ! ,treasury b 9 consequ5ce ( appropriations made by law2 & a regul> /atem5t & acc\nt ( ! receipts & exp5ditures ( all public money %all be publi%$ f "t to "t4 #h4 ,no title ( nobility %all be grant$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & no p]son hold+ any (fice ( pr(it or tru/ "u !m %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,congress1 accept ( any pres5t1 emolum5t1 (fice1 or title1 ( any k9d :atev]1 f any k+1 pr9ce1 or =eign ,/ate4 ,section ,x4 ,p[]s d5i$ to ! ,/ates4#e ,footnote #e3 ,comp>e ,section ,x ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,vi #a4 ,no ,/ate %all ent] into any treaty1 alliance1 or conf$]ation2 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal2 co9 money2 emit bills ( cr$it2 make any?+ b gold & silv] co9 a t5d] 9 paym5t ( debts2 pass any bill ( atta9d]1 ex po/ facto law1 or law impair+ ! obligation ( contracts1 or grant any title ( nobility4 #b4 ,no ,/ate %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ,congress1 lay any impo/s or duties on imports or exports1 except :at may be absolutely necess>y = execut+ its inspection laws2 & ! net produce ( all duties & impo/s1 laid by any ,/ate on imports or exports1 %all be = ! use ( ! ,treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & all su* laws %all be subject to ! revision & control ( ! ,congress4 #c4 ,no ,/ate %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ,congress1 lay any duty ( tonnage1 keep troops or %ips ( w> 9 "t ( peace1 ent] into any agreem5t or compact ) ano!r ,/ate or ) a =eign p[]1 or engage 9 w>1 unless actually invad$ or 9 su* imm95t dang] z w n admit ( delay4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,,executive ,,dep>tm5t4#f ,footnote #f3 ,comp>e ,art4 ,,ii4 ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,x4 ,section ,i4 ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t4 #a4 ,! executive p[] %all be ve/$ 9 a ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,he %all hold 8 (fice dur+ ! t]m ( f\r ye>s1 & toge!r ) ! ,vice-,presid5t1 *os5 = ! same t]m1 be elect$ z foll[s3 #b4 ,ea* ,/ate %all appo9t1 9 su* mann] z ! legislature !re( may direct1 a numb] ( electors1 equal to ! :ole numb] ( ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives to :i* ! ,/ate may be entitl$ 9 ! ,congress2 b no ,s5ator or ,repres5tative1 or p]son hold+ an (fice ( tru/ or pr(it "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be appo9t$ an elector4 #c4 ,! electors %all meet 9 _! respective ,/ates & vote by ballot = two p]sons1 ( :om "o at lea/ %all n be an inhabitant ( ! same ,/ate ) !mselves4 ,& !y %all make a li/ ( all ! p]sons vot$ =1 & ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*2 :i* li/ !y %all sign & c]tify1 & transmit seal$ to ! seat ( gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 direct$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 op5 all ! c]tificates1 & ! votes %all !n be c\nt$4 ,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes %all be ! ,presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if !re be m ?an "o :o h su* majority1 & h an equal numb] ( votes1 !n ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all imm$iately *oose by ballot "o ( !m = ,presid5t2 & if no p]son h a majority1 !n f ! five highe/ on ! li/ ! said ,h\se %all 9 l mann] *oose ! ,presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ ! ,presid5t ! votes %all be tak5 by ,/ates1 ! repres5tation f ea* ,/ate hav+ "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose %all consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two ?irds ( ! ,/ates1 & a majority ( all ! ,/ates %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,9 e case1 aft] ! *oice ( ! ,presid5t1 ! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes ( ! electors %all be ! ,vice-,presid5t4 ,b if !re %\ld rema9 two or m :o h equal votes1 ! ,s5ate %all *oose f !m by ballot ! ,vice-,presid5t4 #g ,footnote #g3 ,?is clause ( ! ,con/itution has be5 am5d$4 ,see ,am5dm5ts1 ,art4 ,,xii4 #d4 ,! ,congress may det]m9e ! "t ( *oos+ ! electors & ! day on :i* !y %all give _! votes1 :i* day %all be ! same ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #e4 ,no p]son except a natural-born citiz51 or a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates at ! "t ( ! adoption ( ?is ,con/itution1 %all be eligible to ! (fice ( ,presid5t2 nei!r %all any p]son be eligible to t (fice :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( ?irty-five ye>s1 & be5 f\rte5 ye>s a resid5t )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #f4 ,9 case ( ! removal ( ! ,presid5t f (fice1 or ( 8 dea?1 resignation1 or inability to dis*>ge ! p[]s & duties ( ! said (fice1 ! same %all devolve on ! ,vice-,presid5t1 & ! ,congress may by law provide = ! case ( removal1 dea?1 resignation1 or inability1 bo? ( ! ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 decl>+ :at (fic] %all !n act z ,presid5t1 & su* (fic] %all act accord+ly until ! disability be remov$ or a ,presid5t %all be elect$4 #g4 ,! ,presid5t %all1 at /at$ times1 receive = 8 s]vices a comp5sation1 :i* %all nei!r be increas$ nor dim9i%$ dur+ ! p]iod = :i* he may h be5 elect$1 & he %all n receive )9 t p]iod any o!r emolum5t f ! ,unit$ ,/ates or any ( !m4 #h4 ,be=e he ent] on ! execution ( 8 (fice he %all take ! foll[+ oa? or affirmation3 ,i d solemnly swe> 7or affirm7 t ,i w fai?fully execute ! (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & w to ! be/ ( my ability pres]ve1 protect1 & def5d ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,section ,,ii4 ,p[]s ( ! ,presid5t4 #a4 ,! ,presid5t %all be ,comm&]-9-*ief ( ! ,army & ,navy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! militia ( ! sev]al ,/ates :5 call$ into ! actual s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 he may require ! op9ion1 9 writ+1 ( ! pr9cipal (fic] 9 ea* ( ! executive dep>tm5ts1 ^u any subject relat+ to ! duties ( _! respective (fices1 & he %all h p[] to grant reprieves & p>dons = (f5ses aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t4 #b4 ,he %all h p[]1 by & ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1 to make treaties1 provid$ two ?irds ( ! ,s5ators pres5t concur2 & he %all nom9ate1 &1 by & ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1 %all appo9t ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 judges ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 & all o!r (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ^: appo9tm5ts are n h]e9 o!rwise provid$ =1 & :i* %all be e/abli%$ by law2 b ! ,congress may by law ve/ ! appo9tm5t ( su* inf]ior (fic]s1 z !y ?9k prop]1 9 ! ,presid5t alone1 9 ! c\rts ( law1 or 9 ! heads ( dep>tm5ts4 #c4 ,! ,presid5t %all h p[] to fill up all vacancies t may happ5 dur+ ! recess ( ! ,s5ate1 by grant+ commissions :i* %all expire at ! end ( _! next session4 ,section ,,iii4 ,duties ( ! ,presid5t4 ,he %all f "t to "t give to ! ,congress in=mation ( ! /ate ( ! ,union1 & recomm5d to _! consid]ation su* measures z he %all judge necess>y & exp$i5t2 he may1 on extraord9>y occasions1 conv5e bo? h\ses1 or ei!r ( !m1 & 9 case ( disagreem5t betwe5 !m ) respect to ! "t ( adj\rnm5t1 he may adj\rn !m to su* "t z he %all ?9k prop]2 he %all receive ambassadors & o!r public m9i/]s2 he %all take c>e t ! laws be fai?fully execut$1 & %all commission all ! (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,section ,,iv4 ,impea*m5t4 ,! ,presid5t1 ,vice-,presid5t1 & all civil (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be remov$ f (fice on impea*m5t = & conviction ( treason1 brib]y1 or o!r high crimes & misdemeanors4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,,judicial ,,dep>tm5t4#h ,footnote #h3 ,comp>e ,art4 ,,iii4 ) ! fir/ ?ree p>agraphs ( ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,ix4 ,section ,i4 ,unit$ ,/ates ,c\rts4 ,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ve/$ 9 "o ,supreme ,c\rt1 & 9 su* inf]ior c\rts z ! ,congress may f "t to "t orda9 & e/abli%4 ,! judges1 bo? ( ! supreme & inf]ior c\rts1 %all hold _! (fices dur+ good behavi\r1 & %all1 at /at$ times1 receive = _! s]vices a comp5sation :i* %all n be dim9i%$ dur+ _! cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,section ,,ii4 ,jurisdiction ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,c\rts4 #a4 ,! judicial p[] %all ext5d to all cases1 9 law & equity1 aris+ "u ?is ,con/itution1 ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & treaties made1 or :i* %all he made1 "u _! au?ority2 to all cases affect+ ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s1 & consuls2 to all cases ( admiralty & m>itime jurisdiction2 to controv]sies to :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be a p>ty2 to controv]sies betwe5 two or m ,/ates2 betwe5 a ,/ate & citiz5s ( ano!r ,/ate2 betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t ,/ates2 betwe5 citiz5s ( ! same ,/ate claim+ l&s "u grants ( diff]5t ,/ates1 & betwe5 a ,/ate1 or ! citiz5s !re(1 & =eign ,/ates1 citiz5s1 or subjects4#i ,footnote #i3 ,?is clause has be5 am5d$4 ,see ,am5dm5ts1 ,art4 ,,xi4 #b4 ,9 all cases affect+ ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 & ^? 9 :i* a ,/ate %all be a p>ty1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt %all h orig9al jurisdiction4 ,9 all ! o!r cases be=e m5tion$ ! ,supreme ,c\rt %all h appellate jurisdiction1 bo? z to law & fact1 ) su* exceptions1 & "u su* regulations z ! ,congress %all make4 #c4 ,! trial ( all crimes1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t1 %all be by jury2 & su* trial %all be held 9 ! ,/ate :]e ! said crimes %all h be5 committ$2 b :5 n committ$ )9 any ,/ate1 ! trial %all be at su* place or places z ! ,congress may by law h direct$4 ,section ,,iii4 ,treason4 #a4 ,treason aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all consi/ only 9 levy+ w> aga9/ !m1 or 9 adh]+ to _! enemies1 giv+ !m aid & com=t4 ,no p]son %all be convict$ ( treason unless on ! te/imony ( two witnesses to ! same ov]t act1 or on confession 9 op5 c\rt4 #b4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to decl>e ! puni%m5t ( treason1 b no atta9d] ( treason %all "w corruption ( blood or =feiture except dur+ ! life ( ! p]son atta9t$4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,,! ,,/ates ,,& ,,! ,,f$]al ,,gov]nm5t4#aj ,footnote #aj3 ,comp>e ,art4 ,,iv4 ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,iv4 ,section ,i4 ,/ate ,records4 ,full fai? & cr$it %all be giv5 9 ea* ,/ate to ! public acts1 records1 & judicial proce$+s ( e o!r ,/ate4 ,& ! ,congress may by g5]al laws prescribe ! mann] 9 :i* su* acts1 records1 & proce$+s %all be prov$1 & ! effect !re(4 ,section ,,ii4 ,privileges ( ,citiz5s1 etc4 #a4 ,! citiz5s ( ea* ,/ate %all be entitl$ to all privileges & immunities ( citiz5s 9 ! sev]al ,/ates4 #b4 ,a p]son *>g$ 9 any ,/ate ) treason1 felony1 or o!r crime1 :o %all flee f ju/ice1 & be f\nd 9 ano!r ,/ate1 %all1 on dem& ( ! executive au?ority ( ! ,/ate f :i* he fl$1 be deliv]$ up1 to be remov$ to ! ,/ate hav+ jurisdiction ( ! crime4 #c4 ,no p]son held to s]vice or lab\r 9 "o ,/ate1 "u ! laws !re(1 escap+ into ano!r1 %all1 9 consequ5ce ( any law or regulation !re91 be dis*>g$ f su* s]vice or lab\r1 b %all be deliv]$ up on claim ( ! p>ty to :om su* s]vice or lab\r may be due4#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,?is clause has be5 cancell$ by ,am5dm5t ,,xiii41 :i* aboli%es slav]y4 ,section ,,iii4 ,new ,/ates & ,t]ritories4#ab ,footnote #ab3 ,comp>e section iii4 ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,xi4 #a4 ,new ,/ates may be admitt$ by ! ,congress into ?is ,union2 b no new ,/ate %all be =m$ or erect$ )9 ! jurisdiction ( any o!r ,/ate2 nor any ,/ate be =m$ by ! junction ( two or m ,/ates or p>ts ( ,/ates1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! legislatures ( ! ,/ates conc]n$ z well z ( ! ,congress4 #b4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to dispose ( & make all ne$ful rules & regulations respect+ ! t]ritory or o!r prop]ty belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & no?+ 9 ?is ,con/itution %all be s con/ru$ z to prejudice any claims ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ( any p>ticul> ,/ate4 ,section ,,iv4 ,gu>antee to ! ,/ates4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates %all gu>antee to e ,/ate 9 ?is ,union a republican =m ( gov]nm5t1 & %all protect ea* ( !m aga9/ invasion1 & on application ( ! legislature1 or ( ! executive 7:5 ! legislature _c be conv5$71 aga9/ dome/ic viol5ce4 ,,article ,v4 ,,p[] ,,( ,,am5dm5t4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,comp>e ,art4 ,v4 ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,xiii4 ,! ,congress1 :5ev] two ?irds ( bo? h\ses %all deem x necess>y1 %all propose am5dm5ts to ?is ,con/itution1 or1 on ! application ( ! legislatures ( two ?irds ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 %all call a conv5tion = propos+ am5dm5ts1 :i* 9 ei!r case %all be valid to all int5ts & purposes z "p ( ?is ,con/itution1 :5 ratifi$ by ! legislatures ( ?ree f\r?s ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 or by conv5tions 9 ?ree f\r?s !re(1 z ! "o or ! o!r mode ( ratification may be propos$ by ! ,congress1 provid$ t no am5dm5ts :i* may be made prior to ! ye> "o ?\s& eight hundr$ & eight %all 9 any mann] affect ! fir/ & f\r? clauses 9 ! n9? section ( ! fir/ article2 & t no ,/ate1 )\t its cons5t1 %all be depriv$ ( its equal suffrage 9 ! ,s5ate4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,,public ,,debt1 ,,supremacy ,,( ,,! ,,con/itution1 ,,oa? ,,( ,,(fice1 ,,religi\s ,,te/4 #a4 ,all debts contract$ & engagem5ts ent]$ into1 be=e ! adoption ( ?is ,con/itution1 %all be z valid aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u ?is ,con/itution z "u ! conf$]ation4#ad ,footnote #ad3 ,comp>e clause ,i ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,xii4 #b4 ,?is ,con/itution1 & ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* %all be made 9 pursuance !re(1 & all treaties made1 or :i* %all be made1 "u ! au?ority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be ! supreme law ( ! l&2 & ! judges 9 e ,/ate %all be b\nd !reby1 any?+ 9 ! ,con/itution or laws ( any ,/ate to ! contr>y not)/&+4 #c4 ,! ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives be=e m5tion$1 & ! memb]s ( ! sev]al ,/ate legislatures1 & all executive & judicial (fic]s bo? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 %all be b\nd by oa? or affirmation to support ?is ,con/itution2 b no religi\s te/ %all ev] be requir$ z a qualification to any (fice or public tru/ "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates4#ae ,footnote #ae3 ,comp>e clauses #b & #c ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,xiii4 & add5dum1 ,& :]eas1 etc4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,,ratification ,,( ,,! ,,con/itution4 ,! ratification ( ! conv5tions ( n9e ,/ates %all be suffici5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is ,con/itution betwe5 ! ,/ates s ratify+ ! same4 ,done 9 conv5tion by ! unanim\s cons5t ( ! ,/ates pres5t1#af ! sev5te5? day ( ,septemb]1 9 ! ye> ( our ,"l "o ?\s& sev5 hundr$ & eighty-sev51 & ( ! ,indep5d5ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica ! twelf?4 ,9 witness :]e(1 we h h]eunto subscrib$ our names4 ,footnote #af3 ,rhode ,isl& s5t no delegates to ! ,f$]al ,conv5tion4 ,george ,wa%+ton1 ,presid5t1 & ,deputy f ,,virg9ia4 ,,new ,,hamp%ire--,john ,langdon1 ,ni*olas ,gilman4 ,,massa*usetts--,na?aniel ,gorham1 ,rufus ,k+4 ,,connecticut--,william ,samuel ,johnson1 ,rog] ,%]man4 ,,new ,,york--,alex&] ,hamilton4 ,,new ,,j]sey--,william ,liv+/on1 ,david ,bre>ly1 ,william ,patt]son1 ,jona?an ,dayton4 ,,p5nsylvania--,b5jam9 ,frankl91 ,?omas ,miffl91 ,rob]t ,morris1 ,george ,clym]1 ,?omas ,fitzsimons1 ,j>$ ,+]soll1 ,james ,wilson1 ,g\v]neur ,morris4 ,,delaw>e--,george ,read1 ,gunn+ ,b$=d1 ,jr41 ,john ,dick9son1 ,ri*>d ,bassett1 ,jacob ,broom4 ,,m>yl&--,james ,mc,henry1 ,daniel ( ,/4 ,?omas ,j5if]1 ,daniel ,c>roll4 ,,virg9ia--,john ,blair1 ,james ,madison1 ,jr4 ,,nor? ,,c>ol9a--,william ,bl\nt1 ,ri*>d ,dobbs ,spaight1 ,hugh ,williamson4 ,,s\? ,,c>ol9a--,john ,rutl$ge1 ,*>les ,coteswor? ,p9ckney1 ,*>les ,p9ckney1 ,pi]ce ,butl]4 ,,georgia--,william ,few1 ,abraham ,baldw94 ,atte/3 ,william ,jackson1 ,secret>y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,am5dm5ts4#ag ,,article ,i4 ,congress %all make no law respect+ an e/abli%m5t ( religion1 or prohibit+ ! free ex]cise !re(2 or abridg+ ! fre$om ( spee* or ( ! press2 or ! "r ( ! p peaceably to assemble1 & to petition ! gov]nm5t = a r$ress ( grievances4 ,footnote #ag3 ,am5dm5ts ,i4 to ,x4 7 propos$ by ,congress1 ,sept4 #be1 #aghi1 & decl>$ 9 =ce ,dec4 #ae1 #agia4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,a well-regulat$ militia be+ necess>y to ! security ( a free /ate1 ! "r ( ! p to keep & be> arms %all n be infr+$4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,no soldi] %all1 9 "t ( peace1 be qu>t]$ 9 any h\se )\t ! cons5t ( ! own]1 nor 9 "t ( w>1 b 9 a mann] to be prescrib$ by law4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,! "r ( ! p to be secure 9 _! p]sons1 h\ses1 pap]s1 & effects1 aga9/ unreasonable se>*es & seizures1 %all n be violat$1 & no w>rants %all issue b ^u probable cause1 support$ by oa? or affirmation1 & p>ticul>ly describ+ ! place to be se>*$1 & ! p]sons or ?+s to be seiz$4 ,,article ,v4 ,no p]son %all be held to answ] = a capital or o!rwise infam\s crime1 unless on a pres5tm5t or indictm5t ( a gr& jury1 except 9 cases aris+ 9 ! l& or naval =ces1 or 9 ! militia1 :5 9 actual s]vice 9 "t ( w> or public dang]2 nor %all any p]son be subject = ! same (f5ce to be twice put 9 jeop>dy ( life or limb2 nor %all be compell$ 9 any crim9al case to be a witness aga9/ himself1 nor be depriv$ ( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 )\t due process ( law2 nor %all private prop]ty be tak5 = public use )\t j comp5sation4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,9 all crim9al prosecutions ! accus$ %all enjoy ! "r to a spe$y & public trial1 by an imp>tial jury ( ! /ate & di/rict :]e9 ! crime %all h be5 committ$1 :i* di/rict %all h be5 previ\sly asc]ta9$ by law1 & to be in=m$ ( ! nature & cause ( ! accusation2 to be confront$ ) ! witnesses aga9/ him2 to h compulsory process = obta9+ witnesses 9 8 fav\r1 & to h ! assi/ance ( c\nsel = 8 def5ce4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,9 suits at common law1 :]e ! value 9 controv]sy %all exce$ tw5ty doll>s1 ! "r ( trial by jury %all be pres]v$1 & no fact tri$ by a jury %all be o!rwise reexam9$ 9 any c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?an accord+ to ! rules ( ! common law4 ,,article ,,viii4 ,excessive bail %all n be requir$1 nor excessive f9es impos$1 nor cruel & unusual puni%m5ts inflict$4 ,,article ,,ix4 ,! enum]ation 9 ! ,con/itution ( c]ta9 rights %all n be con/ru$ to d5y or disp>age o!rs reta9$ by ! p4 ,,article ,x4#ah ,! p[]s n delegat$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ! ,con/itution1 nor prohibit$ by x to ! ,/ates1 are res]v$ to ! ,/ates respectively or to ! p4 ,,article ,,xi4#ai ,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all n be con/ru$ to ext5d to any suit 9 law or equity1 comm5c$ or prosecut$ aga9/ "o ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by citiz5s ( ano!r ,/ate1 or by citiz5s or subjects ( any =eign ,/ate4 ,,article ,,xii4#bj #a4 ,! electors %all meet 9 _! respective ,/ates & vote by ballot = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 "o ( :om1 at lea/1 %all n be an inhabitant ( ! same ,/ate ) !mselves2 !y %all "n 9 _! ballots ! p]son vot$ = z ,presid5t1 & 9 di/9ct ballots ! p]son vot$ = z ,vice-,presid5t1 & !y %all make di/9ct li/s ( all p]sons vot$ = z ,presid5t & ( all p]sons vot$ = z ,vice-,presid5t1 & ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*2 :i* li/s !y %all sign & c]tify1 & transmit seal$ to ! seat ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 direct$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 op5 all ! c]tificates & ! votes %all !n be c\nt$4 ,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes = ,presid5t %all be ! ,presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if no p]son h su* majority1 !n f ! p]sons hav+ ! highe/ numb]s n exce$+ ?ree on ! li/ ( ^? vot$ = z ,presid5t1 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all *oose imm$iately1 by ballot1 ! ,presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ ! ,presid5t ! votes %all be tak5 by ,/ates1 ! repres5tation f ea* ,/ate hav+ "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose %all consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two ?irds ( ! ,/ates1 & a majority ( all ! ,/ates %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,& if ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all n *oose a ,presid5t :5ev] ! "r ( *oice %all devolve ^u !m1 be=e ! f\r? day ( ,m>* next foll[+1 !n ! ,vice-,presid5t %all act z ,presid5t1 z 9 ! case ( ! dea? or o!r con/itutional disability ( ! ,presid5t4 ,footnote #ah3 ,comp>e ,am5dm5t ,x4 ) ,conf$4 ,art4 ,,ii4 ,footnote #ai3 ,propos$ by ,congress ,m>* #e1 #agid1 & decl>$ 9 =ce ,jan1 #h1 #agih4 ,footnote #bj3 ,propos$ by ,congress ,dec4 #ab1 #ahjc1 & decl>$ 9 =ce ,sept4 #be1 #ahjd4 #b4 ,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes z ,vice-,presid5t %all be ! ,vice-,presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if no p]son h a majority1 !n f ! two highe/ numb]s on ! li/ ! ,s5ate %all *oose ! ,vice-,presid5t2 a quorum = ! purpose %all consi/ ( two ?irds ( ! :ole numb] ( ,s5ators1 & a majority ( ! :ole numb] %all be necess>y to a *oice4 #c4 ,b no p]son con/itutionally ineligible to ! (fice ( ,presid5t %all be eligible to t ( ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,article ,,xiii4#ba #a4 ,nei!r slav]y nor involunt>y s]vitude1 except z a puni%m5t = crime :]e( ! p>ty %all h be5 duly convict$1 %all exi/ )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates or any place subject to _! jurisdiction4 #b4 ,congress %all h p[] to en=ce ?is article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xiv4#bb #a4 ,all p]sons born or naturaliz$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ,footnote #ba3 ,propos$ by ,congress ,feb4 #a1 #ahfe1 & decl>$ 9 =ce ,dec4 #ah1 #ahfe4 ,footnote #bb3 ,propos$ by ,congress ,june #af1 #ahff1 & decl>$ 9 =ce ,july #bh1 #ahfh4 subject to ! jurisdiction !re(1 are citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ( ! ,/ate :]e9 !y reside4 ,no ,/ate %all make or en=ce any law :i* %all abridge ! privileges or immunities ( citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 nor %all any ,/ate deprive any p]son ( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 )\t due process ( law2 nor d5y to any p]son )9 its jurisdiction ! equal protection ( ! laws4 #b4 ,repres5tatives %all be apportion$ among ! sev]al ,/ates accord+ to _! respective numb]s1 c\nt+ ! :ole numb] ( p]sons 9 ea* ,/ate1 exclud+ ,indians n tax$4 ,b :5 ! "r to vote at any election = ! *oice ( electors = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,repres5tatives 9 ,congress1 ! executive & judicial (fic]s ( a ,/ate1 or ! memb]s ( ! legislature !re(1 is d5i$ to any ( ! male inhabitants ( su* ,/ate1 be+ tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 & citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any way abridg$1 except = p>ticipation 9 rebellion1 or o!r crime1 ! basis ( repres5tation !re9 %all be r$uc$ 9 ! proportion :i* ! numb] ( su* male citiz5s %all be> to ! :ole numb] ( male citiz5s tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age 9 su* ,/ate4 ,s4 ,no p]son %all be a ,s5ator or ,repres5tative 9 ,congress1 or elector ( ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 or hold any (fice1 civil or milit>y1 "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates or "u any ,/ate1 :o1 hav+ previ\sly tak5 an oa? z a memb] ( ,congress1 or z an (fic] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or z a memb] ( any ,/ate legislature1 or z an executive or judicial (fic] ( any ,/ate1 to support ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all h engag$ 9 insurrection or rebellion aga9/ ! same1 or giv5 aid or com=t to ! enemies !re(4 ,b ,congress may1 by a vote ( two ?irds ( ea* h\se1 remove su* disability4 #d4 ,! validity ( ! public debt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 au?oriz$ by law1 includ+ debts incurr$ = paym5t ( p5sions & b\nties = s]vices 9 suppress+ insurrection or rebellion1 %all n be que/ion$4 ,b nei!r ! ,unit$ ,/ates nor any ,/ate %all assume or pay any debt or obligation incurr$ 9 aid ( insurrection or rebellion aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any claim = ! loss or emancipation ( any slave2 b all su* debts1 obligations1 & claims %all be held illegal & void4 #e4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to en=ce1 by appropriate legislation1 ! provisions ( ?is article4 ,,article ,,xv4 #bc ,footnote #bc3 ,propos$ by ,congress ,feb4 #bf1 #ahfi1 & decl>$ 9 =ce ,m>* #cj1 #ahgj4 #a4 ,! "r ( citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to vote %all n be d5i$ or abridg$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates or by any ,/ate on acc\nt ( race1 col\r1 or previ\s condition ( s]vitude4 #b4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to en=ce ?is article by appropriate legislation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,frankl9',s ,,spee* ,,on ,,! ,,la/ ,,day ,,( ,,! ,,con/itutional ,,conv5tion #bd ,footnote #bd3 ,f ,madison's ,j\rnal1 9 ,eliot's ,debates1 vol4 v4 p4 #eed4 ,,monday1 ,septemb] #ag4 ,9 ,conv5tion--,! engross$ ,con/itution be+ read1 ,doctor ,frankl9 rose ) a spee* 9 8 h&1 :i* he _h r$uc$ to writ+ = 8 own conv5i5ce1 & :i* ,mr4 ,wilson read 9 ! words foll[+3 ,,mr4 ,,presid5t3 ,i confess t !re are sev]al p>ts ( ?is ,con/itution :i* ,i d n at pres5t approve1 b ,i am n sure ,i %all nev] approve !m4 ,=1 hav+ liv$ long1 ,i h exp]i5c$ _m in/ances ( be+ oblig$ by bett] in=mation1 or full] consid]ation1 to *ange op9ions ev5 on important subjects :i* ,i once ?\ght "r1 b f\nd to be o!rwise4 ,x is !re=e t1 ! old] ,i gr[1 ! m apt ,i am to d\bt my own judgm5t1 & to pay m respect to ! judgm5t ( o!rs4 ,mo/ m51 inde$1 z well z mo/ sects 9 religion1 ?9k !mselves 9 possession ( all tru?1 & t :]ev] o!rs diff] f !m x is s f> error4 ,/eele1 a ,prote/ant1 9 a d$ication tells ! ,pope t ! only diff]5ce betwe5 our *ur*es1 9 _! op9ions ( ! c]ta9ty ( _! doctr9es1 is1 '! ,*ur* ( ,rome is infallible1 & ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& is nev] 9 ! wrong4' ,b ?\gh _m private p]sons ?9k almo/ z highly ( _! own infallibility z ( t ( _! sect1 few express x s naturally z a c]ta9 ,fr5* lady :o1 9 a dispute ) h] si/]1 said1 ',i don't "k h[ x happ5s1 si/]1 b ,i meet ) nobody b myself t is always 9 ! "r--il n'y a que moi qui a t\j\rs raison4' ,9 ^! s5tim5ts1 sir1 ,i agree to ?is ,con/itution1 ) all its faults1 if !y are su*1 because ,i ?9k a ,g5]al ,gov]nm5t necess>y = u1 & !re is no =m ( gov]nm5t b :at may be a bless+ to ! p if well adm9i/]$2 & believe fur!r1 t ?is is likely to be well adm9i/]$ = a c\rse ( ye>s1 & c only end 9 despotism1 z o!r =ms h done be=e x1 :5 ! p %all become s corrupt$ z to ne$ despotic gov]nm5t1 be+ incapable ( any o!r4 ,i d\bt1 too1 :e!r any o!r ,conv5tion we c obta9 may be able to make a bett] ,con/itution4 ,= :5 y assemble a numb] ( m5 to h ! advantage ( _! jo9t wisdom1 y inevitably assemble ) ^? m5 all _! prejudices1 _! passions1 _! errors ( op9ion1 _! local int]e/s1 & _! selfi% views4 ,f su* an assembly c a p]fect production be expect$8 ,x1 !re=e1 a/oni%es me1 sir1 to f9d ?is sy/em approa*+ s ne> to p]fection z x does3 & ,i ?9k x w a/oni% our enemies1 :o are wait+ ) confid5ce to he> t our c\ncils are conf\nd$1 l ^? ( ! build]s ( ,babel1 & t our ,/ates are on ! po9t ( sep>ation1 only to meet h]eaft] = ! purpose ( cutt+ "o ano!r's ?roats4 ,?us ,i cons5t1 sir1 to ?is ,con/itution because ,i expect no bett]1 & because ,i am n sure t x is n ! be/4 ,! op9ions ,i h _h ( its errors ,i sacrifice to ! public good4 ,i h nev] :isp]$ a syllable ( !m abroad4 ,)9 ^! walls !y 7 born & "h !y %all die4 ,if e "o ( u1 9 return+ to our con/itu5ts1 7 to report ! objections he has _h to x1 & endeav\r to ga9 p>tisans 9 support ( !m1 we might prev5t its be+ g5]ally receiv$1 & !reby lose all ! salut>y effects & great advantages result+ naturally 9 our fav\r among =eign nations z well z among ourselves1 f our real or app>5t unanimity4 ,mu* ( ! /r5g? & effici5cy ( any gov]nm5t1 9 procur+ & secur+ happ9ess to ! p1 dep5ds on op9ion--on ! g5]al op9ion ( ! goodness ( ! gov]nm5t z well z ( ! wisdom & integrity ( its gov]nors4 ,i hope1 !re=e1 t = our own sakes1 z a "p ( ! p1 & = ! sake ( po/]ity1 we %all act he>tily & unanim\sly 9 recomm5d+ ?is ,con/itution 7if approv$ by ,congress & confirm$ by ! ,conv5tions7 :]ev] our influ5ce may ext5d1 & turn our future ?\ghts & endeav\rs to ! means ( hav+ x well adm9i/]$4 ,on ! :ole1 sir1 ,i _c help express+ a wi% t e memb] ( ! ,conv5tion :o may /ill h objections to x w\ld1 ) me1 on ?is occasion d\bt a little ( 8 own infallibility1 &1 to make manife/ our unanimity1 put 8 "n to ?is in/rum5t4 ,he !n mov$ t ! ,con/itution be sign$ by ! memb]s1 & (f]$ ! foll[+ z a conv5i5t =m1 viz43 ,done 9 ,conv5tion by ! unanim\s cons5t ( ! ,/ates pres5t ! sev5te5? ( ,septemb]1 etc4 ,9 witness :]e( we h h]eunto subscrib$ our names4 ,?is ambigu\s =m _h be5 drawn up by ,mr4 ,g\v]neur ,morris1 9 ord] to ga9 ! diss5t+ memb]s1 & put into ! h&s ( ,doctor ,frankl91 t x might h ! bett] *ance ( success4 ,consid]able discussion foll[$1 ,r&olph & ,g]ry /at+ _! reasons = refus+ to sign ! ,con/itution4 ,mr4 ,hamilton express$ 8 anxiety t e memb] %\ld sign4 ,a few *>act]s ( consequ5ce1 he said1 by oppos+ or ev5 refus+ to sign ! ,con/itution1 might d inf9ite mis*ief by k9dl+ ! lat5t sp>ks t lurk "u an en?usiasm 9 fav\r ( ! ,conv5tion :i* may soon subside4 ,no man's ideas 7 m remote f ! plan ?an 8 own 7 kn[n to be2 b is x possible to delib]ate betwe5 an>*y & convulsion on "o side1 & ! *ance ( good to be expect$ f ! plan on ! o!r8 ,?is discussion conclud$1 ! ,conv5tion vot$ t its j\rnal & o!r pap]s %\ld be reta9$ by ! ,presid5t1 subject to ! ord] ( ,congress4 ,! memb]s !n proce$$ to sign ! ,con/itution z f9ally am5d$4 ,! ,con/itution be+ sign$ by all ! memb]s except ,mr4 ,r&olph1 ,mr4 ,mason1 & ,mr4 ,g]ry1 :o decl9$ giv+ x ! sanction ( _! names1 ! ,conv5tion dissolv$ itself by an adj\rnm5t s9e die4 ,:il/ ! la/ memb]s 7 sign+1 ,doctor ,frankl91 look+ t[>ds ! ,presid5t's *air1 at ! back ( :i* a ris+ sun happ5$ to be pa9t$1 obs]v$ to a few memb]s ne> him t pa9t]s _h f\nd x difficult to di/+ui% 9 _! art a ris+ f a sett+ sun4 ,i h1 said he1 (t5 & (t51 9 ! c\rse ( ! session1 & ! vicissitudes ( my hopes & fe>s z to its issue1 look$ at t beh9d ! ,presid5t )\t be+ able to tell :e!r x 0 ris+ or sett+2 b n[1 at l5g?1 ,i h ! happ9ess to "k t x is a ris+1 & n a sett+1 sun4 ,,app5dix ,c4 ,,magna ,,*>ta4#be ,footnote #be3 ,i h1 by p]mission1 reproduc$ ! ,old ,s\? ,leaflet1 ) its notes1 etc41 9 full4 ,,or ,,! ,,great ,,*>t] ,,( ,,k+ ,,john1 ,,grant$ ,,june #ae1 ,a4,d4 #abae4 ,,john1 by ! ,grace ( ,god1 ,k+ ( ,engl&1 ,"l ( ,irel&1 ,date ( ,norm&y1 ,aquita9e1 & ,c\nt ( ,anj\1 to 8 ,ar*bi%ops1 ,bi%ops1 ,abbots1 ,e>ls1 ,b>ons1 ,ju/ici>ies1 ,=e/]s1 ,%]iffs1 ,gov]nors1 ,(fic]s1 & to all ,bailiffs1 & 8 fai?ful subjects1 greet+4 ,"k ye1 t we1 9 ! pres5ce ( ,god1 & = ! salvation ( our s\l1 & ! s\ls ( all our ance/ors & heirs1 & unto ! hon\r ( ,god & ! advancem5t ( ,holy ,*ur*1 & am5dm5t ( our ,realm1 by advice ( our v5]able ,fa!rs1 ,/eph51 ,ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury1 ,primate ( all ,engl& & ,c>d9al ( ! ,holy ,roman ,*ur*3 ,h5ry1 ,ar*bi%op ( ,dubl92 ,william1 ( ,london2 ,pet]1 ( ,w9*e/]2 ,jocel9 ( ,ba? & ,gla/onbury2 ,hugh1 ( ,l9coln2 ,walt]1 ( ,worce/]2 ,william1 ( ,cov5try3 ,b5$ict1 ( ,ro*e/]--,bi%ops3 ( ,ma/] ,p&ulph1 ,sub-,deacon & ,famili> ( our ,"l ! ,pope2 ,bro!r ,aym]ic1 ,ma/] ( ! ,knights-,templ>s 9 ,engl&2 & ( ! noble ,p]sons1 ,william ,m>escall1 ,e>l ( ,pembroke2 ,william1 ,e>l ( ,salisbury2 ,william1 ,e>l ( ,w>r52 ,william1 ,e>l ( ,arundel2 ,alan de ,gall[ay1 ,con/able ( ,scotl&2 ,w>9 ,fitz,gerald1 ,pet] ,fitz,herbert1 & ,hub]t de ,burgh1 ,s5es*al ( ,poit\2 ,hugh de ,neville1 ,mat!w ,fitz,herbert1 ,?omas ,basset1 ,alan ,basset1 ,philip ( ,alb9ey1 ,rob]t de ,roppell1 ,john ,m>es*al1 ,john ,fitz,hugh1 & o!rs1 our liegem51 h1 9 ! fir/ place1 grant$ to ,god1 & by ?is our pres5t ,*>t] confirm$1 = u & our heirs = ev]3-- #a4 ,t ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& %all be free1 & h h] :ole rights1 & h] lib]ties inviolable2 & we w h !m s obs]v$1 t x may appe> !nce t ! fre$om ( elections1 :i* is reckon$ *ief & indisp5sable to ! ,engli% ,*ur*1 & :i* we grant$ & confirm$ by our ,*>t]1 & obta9$ ! confirmation ( ! same f our ,"l ! ,pope ,innoc5t ,,iii41 be=e ! discord betwe5 u & our b>ons1 0 grant$ ( m]e free w2 :i* ,*>t] we %all obs]ve1 & we d w x to be fai?fully obs]v$ by our heirs = ev]4 #b4 ,we also h grant$ to all ! freem5 ( our k+dom1 = u & = our heirs = ev]1 all ! und]writt5 lib]ties1 to be _h & hold5 by !m & _! heirs1 ( u & our heirs = ev]3 ,if any ( our e>ls1 or b>ons1 or o!rs1 :o hold ( u 9 *ief by milit>y s]vice1 %all die1 & at ! "t ( 8 dea? 8 heir %all be ( full age1 & owe a relief1 he %all h 8 inh]itance by ! anci5t relief--t is to say1 ! heir or heirs ( an e>l1 = a :ole e>ldom1 by a hundr$ p\nds2 ! heir or heirs ( a b>on1 = a :ole b>ony1 by a hundr$ p\nds2 ! heir or heirs ( a knight1 = a :ole knight's fee1 by a hundr$ %ill+s at mo/2 & :oev] owe? less %all give less1 accord+ to ! anci5t cu/om ( fees4 #c4 ,b if ! heir ( any su* %all be "u age1 & %all be 9 w>d1 :5 he comes ( age he %all h 8 inh]itance )\t relief & )\t f9e4 #d4 ,! keep] ( ! l& ( su* an heir be+ "u age1 %all take ( ! l& ( ! heir none b reasonable issues1 reasonable cu/oms1 & reasonable s]vices1 & t )\t de/ruction & wa/e ( 8 m5 & 8 goods2 & if we commit ! cu/ody ( any su* l&s to ! %]iff1 or any o!r :o is answ]able to u = ! issues ( ! l&1 & he %all make de/ruction & wa/e ( ! l&s :i* he ha? 9 cu/ody1 we w take ( him am5ds1 & ! l& %all be committ$ to two lawful & discreet m5 ( t fee1 :o %all answ] = ! issues to u1 or to him to :om we %all assign !m2 & if we sell or give to any "o ! cu/ody ( any su* l&s1 & he !re9 make de/ruction or wa/e1 he %all lose ! same cu/ody1 :i* %all be committ$ to two lawful & discreet m5 ( t fee1 :o %all 9 l mann] answ] to u z a=esaid4 #e4 ,b ! keep]1 s long z he %all h ! cu/ody ( ! l&1 %all keep up ! h\ses1 p>ks1 w>r5s1 ponds1 mills1 & o!r ?+s p]ta9+ to ! l&1 out ( ! issues ( ! same l&2 & %all deliv] to ! heir1 :5 he comes ( full age1 8 :ole l&1 /ock$ ) pl\ghs & c>riages1 accord+ z ! "t ( wa9age %all require1 & ! issues ( ! l& c reasonably be>4 #f4 ,heirs %all be m>ri$ )\t disp>agem5t1 & s t be=e matrimony %all be contract$1 ^? :o are ne> 9 blood to ! heir %all h notice4 #g4 ,a wid[1 aft] ! dea? ( h] husb&1 %all =?) & )\t difficulty h h] m>riage & inh]itance2 nor %all %e give any?+ = h] d[]1 or h] m>riage1 or h] inh]itance1 :i* h] husb& & %e held at ! day ( 8 dea?2 & %e may rema9 9 ! mansion h\se ( h] husb& =ty days aft] 8 dea?1 )9 :i* "t h] d[] %all be assign$4 #h4 ,no wid[ %all be di/ra9$ to m>ry h]self1 s long z %e has a m9d to live )\t a husb&2 b yet %e %all give security t %e w n m>ry )\t our ass5t1 if %e hold ( u2 or )\t ! cons5t ( ! "l ( :om %e holds1 if %e hold ( ano!r4 #i4 ,nei!r we nor our bailiffs %all seize any l& or r5t = any debt s long z ! *attels ( ! debtor are suffici5t to pay ! debt2 nor %all ! sureties ( ! debtor be di/ra9$ s long z ! pr9cipal debtor has suffici5t to pay ! debt2 & if ! pr9cipal debtor %all fail 9 ! paym5t ( ! debt1 n hav+ :]e)al to pay x1 !n ! sureties %all answ] ! debt2 & if !y w !y %all h ! l&s & r5ts ( ! debtor1 until !y %all be satisfi$ = ! debt :i* !y paid = him1 unless ! pr9cipal debtor c %[ himself acquitt$ !re( aga9/ ! said sureties4 #aj4 ,if any "o h borr[$ any?+ ( ! ,jews1 m or less1 & die be=e ! debt be satisfi$1 !re %all be no int]e/ paid = t debt1 s long z ! heir is "u age1 ( :omsoev] he may hold2 & if ! debt falls into our h&s1 we w only take ! *attel m5tion$ 9 ! de$4 #aa4 ,& if any "o %all die indebt$ to ! ,jews1 8 wife %all h h] d[] & pay no?+ ( t debt2 & if ! deceas$ left *ildr5 "u age1 !y %all h necess>ies provid$ = !m1 accord+ to ! t5em5t ( ! deceas$2 & out ( ! residue ! debt %all be paid1 sav+1 h[ev]1 ! s]vice due to ! lords1 & 9 l mann] %all x be done t\*+ debts due to o!rs ?an ! ,jews4 #ab4 ,no scutage or aid#bf %all be impos$ 9 our k+dom1 unless by ! g5]al c\ncil ( our k+dom2 except = ransom+ our p]son1 mak+ our elde/ son a knight1 & once = m>ry+ our elde/ daught]2 & = ^! !re %all be paid no m ?an a reasonable aid4 ,9 l mann] x %all be conc]n+ ! aids ( ! ,city ( ,london4 ,footnote #bf3 ,9 ! "t ( ! feudal sy/em scutage 0 a direct tax 9 commutation = milit>y s]vice2 aids 7 direct taxes paid by ! t5ant to 8 "l = ransom+ 8 p]son if tak5 captive1 & = help+ defray ! exp5ses ( knight+ 8 elde/ son & m>ry+ 8 elde/ daught]4 #ac4 ,& ! ,city ( ,london %all h all its anci5t lib]ties & free cu/oms1 z well by l& z by wat]3 fur!rmore1 we w & grant t all o!r cities & bor\ghs1 & t[ns & ports1 %all h all _! lib]ties & free cu/oms4 #ad4 ,& = hold+ ! g5]al c\ncil ( ! k+dom conc]n+ ! assessm5t ( aids1 except 9 ! ?ree cases a=esaid1 & = ! assess+ ( scutages1 we %all cause to be summon$ ! ar*bi%ops1 bi%ops1 abbots1 e>ls1 & great] b>ons ( ! realm1 s+ly by our lett]s4 ,& fur!rmore1 we %all cause to be summon$ g5]ally1 by our %]iffs & bailiffs1 all o!rs :o hold ( u 9 *ief1 = a c]ta9 day1 t is to say1 =ty days be=e _! meet+ at lea/1 & to a c]ta9 place2 & 9 all lett]s ( su* summons we w decl>e ! cause ( su* summons4 ,& summons be+ ?us made1 ! bus9ess %all proce$ on ! day appo9t$1 accord+ to ! advice ( su* z %all be pres5t1 al?\gh all t 7 summon$ come n4 #ae4 ,we w n = ! future grant to any "o t he may take aid ( 8 own free t5ants1 unless to ransom 8 body1 & to make 8 elde/ son a knight1 & once to m>ry 8 elde/ daught]2 & = ?is !re %all be only paid a reasonable aid4 #af4 ,no man %all be di/ra9$ to p]=m m s]vice = a knight's fee1 or o!r free t5em5t1 ?an is due f !nce4 #ag4 ,common pleas %all n foll[ our c\rt1 b %all be hold5 9 "s place c]ta94 #ah4 ,trials ^u ! ,writs ( ,novel ,disseis91#bg & ( ,mort d'ance/or1#bh & ( ,d>re9 ,pres5tm5t1#bi %all n be tak5 b 9 _! prop] c\nties1 & aft] ?is mann]3 ,we1 or if we %\ld be out ( ! realm1 our *ief ju/ici>y1 w s5d two ju/ici>ies ?r\gh e c\nty f\r times a ye>1 :o1 ) f\r knights ( ea* c\nty1 *os5 by ! c\nty1 %all hold ! said assizes#cj 9 ! c\nty1 on ! day1 & at ! place appo9t$4 ,footnote #bg3 ,dispossession4 ,footnote #bh3 ,dea? ( ! ance/or2 t is1 9 cases ( disput$ succession to l&4 ,footnote #bi3 ,la/ pres5tation to a b5efice4 ,footnote #cj3 ,! ^w ,assize "h means an assembly ( knights or o!r sub/antial p]sons1 held at a c]ta9 "t & place :]e !y sit ) ! ,ju/ice4 ',assisa' or ',assize' is also tak5 = ! c\rt1 place1 or "t at :i* ! writs ( ,assize are tak54--,?ompson's ,notes4 #ai4 ,& if any matt]s _c be det]m9$ on ! day appo9t$ = hold+ ! assizes 9 ea* c\nty1 s _m ( ! knights & freehold]s z h be5 at ! assizes a=esaid %all /ay to decide !m z is necess>y1 accord+ z !re is m or less bus9ess4 #bj4 ,a freeman %all n be am]c$ = a small (f5ce1 b only accord+ to ! degree ( ! (f5ce2 & = a great crime accord+ to ! he9\sness ( x1 sav+ to him 8 cont5em5t2#ca & aft] ! same mann] a m]*ant1 sav+ to him 8 m]*&ise4 ,& a ville9 %all be am]c$ aft] ! same mann]1 sav+ to him 8 wa9age1 if he falls "u our m]cy2 & none ( ! a=esaid am]ciam5ts %all be assess$ b by ! oa? ( hone/ m5 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,footnote #ca3 ,t by :i* a p]son subsi/s & :i* is ess5tial to 8 rank 9 life4 #ba4 ,e>ls & b>ons %all n be am]c$ b by _! pe]s1 & aft] ! degree ( ! (f5ce4 #bb4 ,no ecclesia/ical p]son %all be am]c$ = 8 lay t5em5t1 b accord+ to ! proportion ( ! o!rs a=esaid1 & n accord+ to ! value ( 8 ecclesia/ical b5efice4 #bc4 ,nei!r a t[n nor any t5ant %all be di/ra9$ to make bridges or embankm5ts1 unless t anci5tly & ( "r !y are b\nd to d x4 #bd4 ,no %]iff1 con/able1 coron]1 or o!r our bailiffs1 %all hold ,pleas ( ! ,cr[n4 #cb ,footnote #cb3 ,^! are suits conduct$ 9 ! "n ( ! ,cr[n aga9/ crim9al (f5d]s4 #be4 ,all c\nties1 hundr$s1 wap5takes1 & tre?+s1 %all /& at ! old r5ts1 )\t any increase1 except 9 our demesne manors4 #bf4 ,if any "o hold+ ( u a lay fee die1 & ! %]iff1 or our bailiffs1 %[ our lett]s pat5t ( summons = debt :i* ! dead man did owe to u1 x %all be lawful = ! %]iff or our bailiff to atta* & regi/] ! *attels ( ! dead1 f\nd ^u 8 lay fee1 to ! am\nt ( ! debt1 by ! view ( lawful m51 s z no?+ be remov$ until our :ole cle> debt be paid2 & ! re/ %all be left to ! executors to fulfil ! te/am5t ( ! dead2 & if !re be no?+ due f him to u1 all ! *attels %all g to ! use ( ! dead1 sav+ to 8 wife & *ildr5 _! reasonable %>es4#cc ,footnote #cc3 ,a p]son's goods 7 divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 ( :i* "o w5t to 8 wife1 ano!r to 8 heirs1 & a ?ird he 0 at lib]ty to dispose (4 ,if he _h no *ild1 8 wid[ _h half2 & if he _h *ildr51 b no wife1 half 0 divid$ among/ !m4 ,^! sev]al sums 7 call$ reasonable %>es4 ,?r\gh ! te/am5t>y jurisdiction !y gradually acquir$1 ! cl]gy (t5 contriv$ to get into _! own h&s all ! residue ( ! e/ate )\t pay+ ! debts ( ! e/ate4 #bg4 ,if any freeman %all die inte/ate1 8 *attels %all be di/ribut$ by ! h&s ( 8 ne>e/ relations & fri5ds1 by view ( ! ,*ur*1 sav+ to e "o 8 debts :i* ! deceas$ ow$ to him4 #bh4 ,no con/able or bailiff ( ours %all take corn or o!r *attels ( any man unless he pres5tly give him money = x1 or ha? respite ( paym5t by ! goodwill ( ! sell]4 #bi4 ,no con/able %all di/ra9 any knight to give money = ca/le-gu>d1 if he himself w d x 9 8 p]son1 or by ano!r able man1 9 case he _c d x ?r\gh any reasonable cause4 ,& if we h c>ri$ or s5t him into ! army1 he %all be free f su* gu>d = ! "t he %all be 9 ! army by our comm&4 #cj4 ,no %]iff or bailiff ( ours1 or any o!r1 %all take horses or c>ts ( any freeman = c>riage1 )\t ! ass5t ( ! said freeman4 #ca4 ,nei!r %all we nor our bailiffs take any man's timb] = our ca/les or o!r uses1 unless by ! cons5t ( ! own] ( ! timb]4 #cb4 ,we w reta9 ! l&s ( ^? convict$ ( felony only "o ye> & a day1 & !n !y %all be deliv]$ to ! "l ( ! fee4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,all =feiture = felony has be5 aboli%$ by ! #cc & #cd ,vic41 c4 #bc4 ,x seems to h orig9at$ 9 ! de/ruction ( ! felon's prop]ty be+ "p ( ! s5t5ce1 & ?is wa/e be+ commut$ = tempor>y possession by ! ,cr[n4 #cc4 ,all kydells#ce 7we>s7 = ! "t to come %all be put d[n 9 ! riv]s ( ,?ames & ,m$way1 & ?r\gh\t all ,engl&1 except ^u ! sea-coa/4 ,footnote #ce3 ,! purport ( ?is 0 to prev5t inclosures ( common prop]ty1 or committ+ a ,purpre/ure4 ,^! we>s are n[ call$ kettles or kettle-nets 9 ,k5t & ,cornwall4 #cd4 ,! writ :i* is call$ prcipe1 = ! future1 %all n be made out to any "o1 ( any t5em5t1 :]eby a freeman may lose 8 c\rt4 #ce4 ,!re %all be "o measure ( w9e & "o ( ale ?r\gh our :ole realm2 & "o measure ( corn1 t is to say1 ! ,london qu>t]2 & "o bread? ( dy$ clo?1 & russets1 & hab]jeets1 t is to say1 two ells )9 ! li/s2 & x %all be ( weights z x is ( measures4 #cf4 ,no?+ f h5ce=? %all be giv5 or tak5 = a writ ( inquisition ( life or limb1 b x %all be grant$ freely1 & n d5i$4#cf ,footnote #cf3 ,?is important writ1 or writ conc]n+ hatr$ & malice1 may h be5 ! prototype ( ! writ ( habeas corpus1 & 0 grant$ = a simil> purpose4 #cg4 ,if any d hold ( u by fee-f>m1 or by socage1 or by burgage1 & he hold also l&s ( any o!r by knight's s]vice1 we w n h ! cu/ody ( ! heir or l&1 :i* is hold5 ( ano!r man's fee by reason ( t fee-f>m1 socage1#cg or burgage2 nei!r w we h ! cu/ody ( ! fee-f>m1 or socage1 or burgage1 unless knight's s]vice 0 due to u out ( ! same fee-f>m4 ,we w n h ! cu/ody ( an heir1 nor ( any l& :i* he holds ( ano!r by knight's s]vice1 by reason ( any petty s]jeanty#ch by :i* he holds ( u1 by ! s]vice ( pay+ a knife1 an arr[1 or ! l4 ,footnote #cg3 ,socage signifies l&s held by t5ure ( p]=m+ c]ta9 inf]ior (fices 9 husb&ry1 probably f ! old ,fr5* ^w soc1 a pl\gh-%>e4 ,footnote #ch3 ,! t5ure ( giv+ ! k+ "s small weapon ( w> 9 ackn[l$gm5t ( l&s held4 #ch4 ,no bailiff f h5ce=? %all pat any man to 8 law#ci ^u 8 own b>e say+1 )\t cr$ible witnesses to prove x4 ,footnote #ci3 ,equival5t to putt+ him to 8 oa?4 ,?is alludes to ! ,wag] ( ,law1 by :i* a def5dant & 8 elev5 support]s or compurgators c\ld swe> to 8 non-liability1 & ?is am\nt$ to a v]dict 9 8 fav\r4 #ci4 ,no freeman %all be tak5 or imprison$1 or disseis$1 or outlaw$1 or bani%$1 or any ways de/roy$1 nor w we pass ^u him1 nor w we s5d ^u him1 unless by ! lawful judgm5t ( 8 pe]s1 or by ! law ( ! l&4 #dj4 ,we w sell to no man1 we w n d5y to any man1 ei!r ju/ice or "r4 #da4 ,all m]*ants %all h safe & secure conduct1 to g out (1 & to come into ,engl&1 & to /ay !re & to pass z well by l& z by wat]1 = buy+ & sell+ by ! anci5t & all[$ cu/oms1 )\t any unju/ tolls2 except 9 "t ( w>1 or :5 !y are ( any nation at w> ) u4 ,& if !re be f\nd any su* 9 our l&1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! w>1 !y %all be atta*$1 )\t damage to _! bodies or goods1 until x be kn[n unto u1 or our *ief ju/ici>y1 h[ our m]*ants be treat$ 9 ! nation at w> ) u2 & if ours be safe !re1 ! o!rs %all be safe 9 our dom9ions4 #db4 ,x %all be lawful1 = ! "t to come1 = any "o to g out ( our k+dom1 & return safely & securely by l& or by wat]1 sav+ 8 allegiance to u2 unless 9 "t ( w>1 by "s %ort space1 = ! common b5efit ( ! realm1 except prison]s & outlaws1 accord+ to ! law ( ! l&1 & p 9 w> ) u1 & m]*ants :o %all be treat$ z is above m5tion$4#dj ,footnote #dj3 ,! ,cr[n has /ill te*nically ! p[] ( conf9+ subjects )9 ! k+dom by ! writ ne exeat regno1 ?\gh ! use ( ! writ is r>ely resort$ to4 #dc4 ,if any man hold ( any es*eat1#da z ( ! hon\r ( ,wall+=d1 ,nott+ham1 ,b\logne1 ,lanca/]1 or ( o!r es*eats :i* be 9 our h&s1 & are b>onies1 & die1 8 heir %all give no o!r relief1 & p]=m no o!r s]vice to u ?an he w\ld to ! b>on1 if x 7 9 ! b>on's h&2 & we w hold x aft] ! same mann] z ! b>on held x4 ,footnote #da3 ,! ^w es*eat is d]iv$ f ! ,fr5* es*eoir1 to return or happ51 & signifies ! return ( an e/ate to a "l1 ei!r on failure ( t5ant's issue or on 8 committ+ felony4 ,! abolition ( feudal t5ures by ! ,act ( ,*>les ,,ii4 7#ab ,*>les ,,ii4 c4 #bd7 r5d]$ obsolete ?is "p & _m o!r p>ts ( ! ,*>t]4 #dd4 ,^? m5 :o dwell )\t ! =e/ f h5ce=? %all n come be=e our ju/ici>ies ( ! =e/1 ^u common1 summons1 b su* z are implead$1 or are sureties = any t are atta*$ = some?+ conc]n+ ! =e/4#db ,footnote #db3 ,! laws = regulat+ ! royal =e/s1 & adm9i/]+ ju/ice 9 respect ( (f5ces committ$ 9 _! prec9cts1 =m$ a l>ge "p ( ! law4 #de4 ,we w n make any ju/ices1 con/ables1 %]iffs1 or bailiffs1 b ( su* z "k ! law ( ! realm & mean duly to obs]ve x4 #df4 ,all b>ons :o h f\nd$ abbeys1 :i* !y hold by *>t] f ! k+s ( ,engl&1 or by anci5t t5ure1 %all h ! keep+ ( !m1 :5 vacant1 z !y ought to h4 #dg4 ,all =e/s t h be5 made =e/s 9 our "t %all =?) be dis=e/$2 & ! same %all be done ) ! wat]-banks t h be5 f5c$ 9 by u 9 our "t4 #dh4 ,all evil cu/oms conc]n+ =e/s1 w>r5s1 =e/]s1 & w>r5]s1 %]iffs & _! (fic]s1 wat]-banks & _! keep]s1 %all =?) be inquir$ into 9 ea* c\nty1 by twelve sworn knights ( ! same c\nty1 *os5 by cr$itable p]sons ( ! same c\nty2 & )9 =ty days aft] ! said inque/ be utt]ly aboli%$1 s z nev] to be re/or$3 s z we are fir/ acqua9t$ !re)1 or our ju/ici>y1 if we %\ld n be 9 ,engl&4 #di4 ,we w imm$iately give up all ho/ages & *>t]s deliv]$ unto u by our ,engli% subjects1 z securities = _! keep+ ! peace1 & yield+ u fai?ful s]vice4 #ej4 ,we w entirely remove f _! bailiwicks ! relations ( ,g]>d de ,a!yes1 s t = ! future !y %all h no bailiwick 9 ,engl&2 we w also remove ,engel>d de ,cygony1 ,&rew1 ,pet]1 & ,gyon1 f ! ,*anc]y2 ,gyon de ,cygony1 ,ge(frey de ,m>tyn1 & 8 bro!rs2 ,philip ,m>k1 & 8 bro!rs1 & 8 nephew1 ,ge(frey1 & _! :ole ret9ue4 #ea4 ,z soon z peace is re/or$1 we w s5d out ( ! k+dom all =eign knights1 cross-b[m51 & /ip5di>ies1 :o are come ) horses & arms to ! mole/ation ( our p4 #eb4 ,if any "o has be5 dispossess$ or depriv$ by u1 )\t ! lawful judgm5t ( 8 pe]s1 ( 8 l&s1 ca/les1 lib]ties1 or "r1 we w =?) re/ore !m to him2 & if any dispute arise ^u ?is head1 let ! matt] be decid$ by ! five-&-tw5ty b>ons h]eaft] m5tion$1 = ! pres]vation ( ! peace4 ,& = all ^? ?+s ( :i* any p]son has1 )\t ! lawful judgm5t ( 8 pe]s1 be5 dispossess$ or depriv$1 ei!r by our fa!r ,k+ ,h5ry1 or our bro!r ,k+ ,ri*>d1 & :i* we h 9 our h&s1 or are possess$ by o!rs1 & we are b\nd to w>rant & make good1 we %all h a respite till ! t]m usually all[$ ! crusad]s2 except+ ^? ?+s ab\t :i* !re is a plea dep5d+1 or :]e( an inque/ ha? be5 made1 by our ord] be=e we und]took ! crusade2 b z soon z we return f our exp$ition1 or if p]*ance we t>ry at home & d n make our exp$ition1 we w imm$iately cause full ju/ice to be adm9i/]$ !re94 #ec4 ,! same respite we %all h1 & 9 ! same mann]1 ab\t adm9i/]+ ju/ice1 disaf=e/+ or lett+ cont9ue ! =e/s1 :i* ,h5ry our fa!r1 & our bro!r ,ri*>d1 h af=e/$2 & ! same conc]n+ ! w>d%ip ( ! l&s :i* are 9 ano!r's fee1 b ! w>d%ip ( :i* we h hi!rto _h1 by reason ( a fee held ( u by knight's s]vice2 & = ! abbeys f\nd$ 9 any o!r fee ?an our own1 9 :i* ! "l ( ! fee says he has a "r2 & :5 we return f our exp$ition1 or if we t>ry at home1 & d n make our exp$ition1 we w imm$iately d full ju/ice to all ! compla9ants 9 ?is behalf4 #ed4 ,no man %all be tak5 or imprison$ ^u ! appeal#dc ( a woman1 = ! dea? ( any o!r ?an h] husb&4 ,footnote #dc3 ,an ,appeal "h means an accusation4 ,! appeal "h m5tion$ 0 a suit = a p5alty 9 :i* ! pla9tiff 0 a relation :o _h suff]$ ?r\gh a murd] or manslaught]4 ,"o ( ! incid5ts ( ?is ,appeal ( ,dea? 0 ! ,trial by ,battle4 ,^! ,appeals & ,trial by ,battle 7 n aboli%$ be=e ! pass+ ( ! ,act #ei ,geo4 ,,iii41 c4 #df4 #ee4 ,all unju/ & illegal f9es made by u1 & all am]ciam5ts impos$ unju/ly & contr>y to ! law ( ! l&1 %all be entirely giv5 up1 or else be left to ! decision ( ! five-&-tw5ty b>ons h]eaft] m5tion$ = ! pres]vation ( ! peace1 or ( ! major "p ( !m1 toge!r ) ! a=esaid ,/eph51 ,ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury1 if he c be pres5t1 & o!rs :om he %all ?9k fit to invite2 & if he _c be pres5t1 ! bus9ess %all not)/&+ g on )\t him2 b s t if "o or m ( ! a=esaid five-&-tw5ty b>ons be pla9tiffs 9 ! same cause1 !y %all be set aside z to :at conc]ns ?is p>ticul> affair1 & o!rs be *os5 9 _! room1 out ( ! said five-&-tw5ty1 & sworn by ! re/ to decide ! matt]4 #ef4 ,if we h disseis$ or dispossess$ ! ,wel% ( any l&s1 lib]ties1 or o!r ?+s1 )\t ! legal judgm5t ( _! pe]s1 ei!r 9 ,engl& or 9 ,wales1 !y %all be imm$iately re/or$ to !m2 & if any dispute arise ^u ?is head1 ! matt] %all be det]m9$ 9 ! ,m>*es by ! judgm5t ( _! pe]s2 = t5em5ts 9 ,engl& accord+ to ! law ( ,engl&1 = t5em5ts 9 ,wales accord+ to ! law ( ,wales1 = t5em5ts ( ! ,m>*es accord+ to ! law ( ! ,m>*es3 ! same %all ! ,wel% d to u & our subjects4 #eg4 ,z = all ^? ?+s ( :i* a ,wel%man ha?1 )\t ! lawful judgm5t ( 8 pe]s1 be5 disseis$ or depriv$ ( by ,k+ ,h5ry our fa!r1 or our bro!r ,k+ ,ri*>d1 & :i* we ei!r h 9 our h&s or o!rs are possess$ (1 & we are oblig$ to w>rant x1 we %all h a respite till ! "t g5]ally all[$ ! crusad]s2 except+ ^? ?+s ab\t :i* a suit is dep5d+1 or :]e( an inque/ has be5 made by our ord]1 be=e we und]took ! crusade3 b :5 we return1 or if we /ay at home )\t p]=m+ our exp$ition1 we w imm$iately d !m full ju/ice1 accord+ to ! laws ( ! ,wel% & ( ! p>ts be=e m5tion$4 #eh4 ,we w )\t delay dismiss ! son ( ,llewell91 & all ! ,wel% ho/ages1 & release !m f ! engagem5ts !y h ent]$ into ) u = ! pres]vation ( ! peace4 #ei4 ,we w treat ) ,alex&]1 ,k+ ( ,scots1 conc]n+ ! re/or+ 8 si/]s & ho/ages1 & 8 "r & lib]ties1 9 ! same =m & mann] z we %all d to ! re/ ( our b>ons ( ,engl&2 unless by ! *>t]s :i* we h f 8 fa!r1 ,william1 late ,k+ ( ,scots1 x ought to be o!rwise2 & ?is %all be left to ! det]m9ation ( 8 pe]s 9 our c\rt4 #fj4 ,all ! a=esaid cu/oms & lib]ties1 :i* we h grant$ to be hold5 9 our k+dom1 z mu* z x belongs to u1 all p ( our k+dom1 z well cl]gy z laity1 %all obs]ve1 z f> z !y are conc]n$1 t[>ds _! dep5d5ts4 #fa4 ,& :]eas1 = ! hon\r ( ,god & ! am5dm5t ( our k+dom1 & = ! bett] quiet+ ! discord t has aris5 betwe5 u & our b>ons1 we h grant$ all ^! ?+s a=esaid2 will+ to r5d] !m firm & la/+1 we d give & grant our subjects ! und]writt5 security1 namely t ! b>ons may *oose five-&-tw5ty b>ons ( ! k+dom1 :om !y ?9k conv5i5t2 :o %all take c>e1 ) all _! might1 to hold & obs]ve1 & cause to be obs]v$1 ! peace & lib]ties we h grant$ !m1 & by ?is our pres5t ,*>t] confirm$ 9 ?is mann]2 t is to say1 t if we1 our ju/ici>y1 our bailiffs1 or any ( our (fic]s1 %all 9 any circum/ance h fail$ 9 ! p]=mance ( !m t[>ds any p]son1 or %all h brok5 ?r\gh any ( ^! articles ( peace & security1 & ! (f5ce be notifi$ to f\r b>ons *os5 out ( ! five-&-tw5ty be=e m5tion$1 ! said f\r b>ons %all repair to u1 or our ju/ici>y1 if we are out ( ! realm1 &1 lay+ op5 ! grievance1 %all petition to h x r$ress$ )\t delay3 & if x be n r$ress$ by u1 or if we %\ld *ance to be out ( ! realm1 if x %\ld n be r$ress$ by our ju/ici>y )9 =ty days1 reckon+ f ! "t x has be5 notifi$ to u1 or to our ju/ici>y 7if we %\ld be out ( ! realm71 ! f\r b>ons a=esaid %all lay ! cause be=e ! re/ ( ! five-&-tw5ty b>ons2 & ! said five-&-tw5ty b>ons1 toge!r ) ! community ( ! :ole k+dom1 %all di/ra9 & di/ress u 9 all ! ways 9 :i* !y %all be able1 by seiz+ our ca/les1 l&s1 possessions1 & 9 any o!r mann] !y c1 till ! grievance is r$ress$1 accord+ to _! pleasure2 sav+ h>mless our own p]son1 & ! p]sons ( our ,que5 & *ildr52 & :5 x is r$ress$1 !y %all behave to u z be=e4 ,& any p]son :atsoev] 9 ! k+dom may swe> t he w obey ! ord]s ( ! five-&-tw5ty b>ons a=esaid 9 ! execution ( ! premises1 & w di/ress u1 jo9tly ) !m1 to ! utmo/ ( 8 p[]2 & we give public & free lib]ty to any "o t %all please to swe> to ?is1 & nev] w h9d] any p]son f tak+ ! same oa?4 #fb4 ,z = all ^? ( our subjects :o w n1 ( _! own accord1 swe> to jo9 ! five-&-tw5ty b>ons 9 di/ra9+ & di/ress+ u1 we w issue ord]s to make !m take ! same oa? z a=esaid4 ,& if any "o ( ! five-&-tw5ty b>ons dies1 or goes out ( ! k+dom1 or is h9d]$ any o!r way f c>ry+ ! ?+s a=esaid into execution1 ! re/ ( ! said five-&-tw5ty b>ons may *oose ano!r 9 8 room1 at _! discretion1 :o %all be sworn 9 l mann] z ! re/4 ,9 all ?+s t are committ$ to ! execution ( ^! five-&-tw5ty b>ons1 if1 :5 !y are all assembl$ toge!r1 !y %\ld happ5 to disagree ab\t any matt]1 & "s ( !m1 :5 summon$1 w n or _c come1 :atev] is agre$ ^u1 or enjo9$1 by ! major "p ( ^? t are pres5t %all be reput$ z firm & valid z if all ! five-&-tw5ty _h giv5 _! cons5t2 & ! a=esaid five-&-tw5ty %all swe> t all ! premises !y %all fai?fully obs]ve1 & cause ) all _! p[] to be obs]v$4 ,& we w procure no?+ f any "o1 by ourselves nor by ano!r1 :]eby any ( ^! concessions & lib]ties may be revok$ or less5$2 & if any su* ?+ %all h be5 obta9$1 let x be null & void2 nei!r w we ev] make use ( x ei!r by ourselves or any o!r4 ,& all ! ill-w1 indignations1 & ranc\rs t h aris5 betwe5 u & our subjects1 ( ! cl]gy & laity1 f ! fir/ break+ out ( ! diss5sions betwe5 u1 we d fully remit & =give3 moreov]1 all trespasses occasion$ by ! said diss5sions1 f ,ea/] 9 ! sixte5? ye> ( our reign till ! re/oration ( peace & tranquillity1 we h]eby entirely remit to all1 bo? cl]gy & laity1 & z f> z 9 u lies d fully =give4 ,we h1 moreov]1 caus$ to be made = !m ! lett]s pat5t te/imonial ( ,/eph51 ,"l ,ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury1 ,h5ry1 ,"l ,ar*bi%op ( ,dubl91 & ! bi%ops a=esaid1 z also ( ,ma/] ,p&ulph1 = ! security & concessions a=esaid4 #fc4 ,:]e=e we w & firmly enjo91 t ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& be free1 & t all m5 9 our k+dom h & hold all ! a=esaid lib]ties1 rights1 & concessions1 truly & peaceably1 freely & quietly1 fully & :olly to !mselves & _! heirs1 ( u & our heirs1 9 all ?+s & places1 =ev]1 z is a=esaid4 ,x is also sworn1 z well on our "p z on ! "p ( ! b>ons1 t all ! ?+s a=esaid %all be obs]v$ 9 good fai?1 & )\t evil subtilty4 ,giv5 "u our h&1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! witnesses above nam$1 & _m o!rs1 9 ! mead[ call$ ,run+m$e1 betwe5 ,w9dsor & ,/a9es1 ! #ae? day ( ,june1 9 ! #ag? ye> ( our reign4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! translation "h giv5 is t publi%$ 9 ,%eldon ,amos's "w on ,! ,engli% ,con/itution4 ,! translation giv5 by ,sir ,e4 ,creasy 0 *iefly foll[$ 9 ?is1 b x 0 collat$ ) ano!r accurate translation by ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,?ompson1 accompany+ 8 ,hi/orical ,essay on ,magna ,*>ta1 publi%$ 9 #ahbi1 & also ) ! ,lat9 text4 ,! explanation ( ! :ole ,*>t]1 obs]ves ,mr4 ,amos1 mu/ be s\ght *iefly 9 detail$ acc\nts ( ! ,feudal sy/em 9 ,engl&1 z expla9$ 9 su* works z ^? ( ,/ubbs1 ,hallam1 & ,black/one4 ,! scatt]$ notes "h introduc$ h only = _! purpose to elucidate ! mo/ unusual & p]plex+ expressions4 ,! ,*>t] pr9t$ 9 ! ,/atute ,book is t issu$ 9 ! n9? ye> ( ,h5ry ,,iii41 :i* is also ! "o specially confirm$ by ! ,*>t] ( ,edw>d ,i4 ,! ,*>t] ( ,h5ry ,,iii4 diff]s 9 "s 7g5]ally7 insignificant po9ts f t ( ,john4 ,! mo/ important diff]5ce is ! omission 9 ! lat] ,*>t] ( ! #ad? & #ae? ,articles ( ,john's ,*>t]1 by :i* ! ,k+ is re/rict$ f levy+ aids beyond ! ?ree ord9>y ones1 )\t ! ass5t ( ! ',common ,c\ncil ( ! ,k+dom4' & provision is made = summon+ x4 ,?is passage is re/or$ by ,edw>d ,i4 ,magna ,*>t] has be5 solemnly confirm$ upw>ds ( ?irty times4 ,see ! *apt] on ! ,great ,*>t]1 9 ,gre5's ,hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,p4 ,see also ,/ubbs's ,docum5ts ,illu/rative ( ,engli% ,hi/ory4 ,! :ole ( ! con/itutional hi/ory ( ,engl&1 says ,/ubbs1 is a comm5t>y on ?is ,*>t]1 ! illu/ration ( :i* mu/ be look$ = 9 ! docum5ts t prec$e & foll[4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,confirmatio ,,*>t>um ,,( ,,edw>d ,i4 #abig4 ,i4 ,edw>d1 by ! grace ( ,god1 ,k+ ( ,engl&1 ,"l ( ,irel&1 & ,duke ,guyan1 to all ^? t ^! pres5t lett]s %all he> or see1 greet+4 ,"k ye t we1 to ! hon\r ( ,god & ( holy ,*ur*1 & to ! pr(it ( our realm1 h grant$ = u & our heirs1 t ! ,*>t] ( ,lib]ties & ! ,*>t] ( ! ,=e/1 :i* 7 made by common ass5t ( all ! realm 9 ! "t ( ,k+ ,h5ry our fa!r1 %all be kept 9 e po9t )\t brea*4 ,& we w t ! same ,*>t]s %all be s5t "u our seal z well to our ju/ices ( ! =e/ z to o!rs1 & to all %]iffs ( %ires1 & to all our o!r (fic]s1 & to all our cities ?r\gh\t ! realm1 toge!r ) our writs 9 ! :i* x %all be conta9$ t !y cause ! =esaid ,*>t]s to be publi%$1 & to decl>e to ! p t we h confirm$ !m 9 all po9ts2 & t our ju/ices1 %]iffs1 mayors1 & o!r m9i/]s1 :i* "u u h ! laws ( our l& to guide1 %all all[ ! said ,*>t]s plead$ be=e !m 9 judgm5t 9 all _! po9ts2 t is to wit1 ! ,great ,*>t] z ! common law1 & ! ,*>t] ( ! ,=e/ accord+ to ! assize ( ! ,=e/1 = ! weal? ( our realm4 ,,ii4 ,& we w t if any judgm5t be giv5 f h5ce=?1 contr>y to ! po9ts ( ! ,*>t]s a=esaid1 by ! ju/ices or by any o!r our m9i/]s t hold plea be=e !m aga9/ ! po9ts ( ! ,*>t]s1 x %all be undone & hold5 = naught4 ,,iii4 ,& we w t ! same ,*>t]s %all be s5t "u our seal to ca!dral *ur*es ?r\gh\t our realm1 !re to rema91 & %all be read be=e ! p two times by ! ye>4 ,,iv4 ,& t all ar*bi%ops & bi%ops %all pron\nce ! s5t5ce ( great excommunication aga9/ all ^? t by ^w1 de$1 or c\nsel d contr>y to ! =esaid ,*>t]s1 or t 9 any po9t break or undo !m4 ,& t ! said curses be twice a ye> d5\nc$ & publi%$ by ! prelates a=esaid4 ,& if ! prelates or any ( !m be remiss 9 ! d5unciation ( ! said s5t5ces1 ! ,ar*bi%ops ( ,cant]bury & ,york = ! "t be+1 z is fitt+1 %all compel & di/ra9 !m to make t d5unciation 9 =m a=esaid4 ,v4 ,& = s mu* z div]s p ( our realm are 9 fe> t ! aids & tasks :i* !y h giv5 to u be=etime t[>ds our w>s & o!r bus9ess1 ( _! own grant & goodwill1 h[soev] !y 7 made1 might turn to a bondage to !m & _! heirs1 because !y might be at ano!r "t f\nd 9 ! rolls1 & s likewise ! prises tak5 ?r\gh\t ! realm by our m9i/]s2 we h grant$ = u & our heirs1 t we %all n draw su* aids1 tasks1 nor prises into a cu/om1 = any?+ t ha? be5 done h]et(ore1 or t may be f\nd by roll or 9 any o!r mann]4 ,,vi4 ,moreov] we h grant$ = u & our heirs1 z well to ar*bi%ops1 bi%ops1 abbots1 priors1 & o!r folk ( holy ,*ur*1 z also to e>ls1 b>ons1 & to all ! commonalty ( ! l&1 t = no bus9ess f h5ce=? w we take su* mann] ( aids1 tasks1 nor prises b by ! common cons5t ( ! realm1 & = ! common pr(it !re(1 sav+ ! anci5t aids & prises due & accu/om$4 ,,vii4 ,& = s mu* z ! m "p ( ! commonalty ( ! realm f9d !mselves sore griev$ ) ! matelote ( wools1 t is to wit1 a toll ( =ty %ill+s = e sack ( wool1 & h made petition to u to release ! same2 we1 at _! reque/s1 h cle>ly releas$ x1 & h grant$ = u & our heirs t we %all n take su* ?+ nor any o!r )\t _! common ass5t & goodwill2 sav+ to u & our heirs ! cu/om ( wools1 sk9s1 & lea!r1 grant$ be=e by ! commonalty a=esaid4 ,9 witness ( :i* ?+s we h caus$ ^! our lett]s to be made pat5ts4 ,witness ,edw>d our son1 at ,london1 ! #aj? day ( ,octob]1 ! five-&-tw5tie? ( our reign4 ,& be x rememb]$ t ?is same ,*>t]1 9 ! same t]ms1 ^w = ^w1 0 seal$ 9 ,fl&]s "u ! ,k+'s ,great ,seal1 t is to say1 at ,gh5t1 ! #e? day ( ,novemb]1 9 ! #eb? ye> ( ! reign ( our a=esaid ,"l ! ,k+1 & s5t into ,engl&4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! words ( ?is important docum5t1 f ,pr(essor ,/ubbs's translation1 are giv5 z ! be/ explanation ( ! con/itutional position & importance ( ! ,*>t]s ( ,john & ,h5ry ,,iii4 ,see hi/orical notice 9 ,/ubbs's ,docum5ts ,illu/rative ( ,engli% ,hi/ory1 p4 #dgg4 ,?is is f> ! mo/ important ( ! num]\s ratifications ( ! ,great ,*>t]4 ,hallam calls x t fam\s /atute1 inadequately d5om9at$ ! ,confirmation ( ! ,*>t]s1 because x add$ ano!r pill> to our con/itution1 n less important ?an ! ,great ,*>t] itself4 ,x solemnly confirm$ ! two ,*>t]s1 ! ,*>t] ( ! ,=e/ 7issu$ by ,h5ry ,,ii4 9 #abag--see text 9 ,/ubbs1 p4 #cch7 be+ !n consid]$ z ( equal importance ) ,magna ,*>ta itself1 e/abli%+ !m 9 all po9ts z ! law ( ! l&2 b x did m4 ,hi!rto ! k+'s pr]ogative ( levy+ money by "n ( tallage or prise1 f 8 t[ns & t5ants 9 demesne1 _h pass$ unque/ion$4 ,"s impositions1 t especially on ! export ( wool1 affect$ all ! k+'s subjects4 ,x 0 n[ ! mom5t to enfran*ise ! p & give t security to private prop]ty :i* ,magna ,*>ta _h giv5 to p]sonal lib]ty4 ,edw>d's /atute b9ds ! k+ nev] to take any ( ^! aids1 tasks1 & prises 9 future1 save by ! common ass5t ( ! realm4 ,h5ce1 z ,b[5 rem>ks1 ! ,confirmation ( ! ,*>t]s1 or an ab/ract ( x "u ! =m ( a suppos$ /atute de tallagio non conc$5do 7see ,/ubbs1 p4 #dhg71 0 m frequ5tly cit$ ?an any o!r enactm5t by ! p>liam5t>y lead]s :o resi/$ ! encroa*m5ts ( ,*>les ,i4 ,! orig9al ( ! ,confirmatio ,*>t>um1 :i* is 9 ,norman ,fr5*1 is /ill 9 exi/5ce1 ?\gh consid]ably %rivel$ by ! fire :i* damag$ s _m ( ! ,cottonian manuscripts 9 #agca4 ,,! ,,grant ,,( ,,! ,,great ,,*>t]4 ,an isl& 9 ! ,?ames betwe5 ,/a9es & ,w9dsor _h be5 *os5 z ! place ( conf]5ce3 ! ,k+ encamp$ on "o bank1 :ile ! b>ons--cov]$ ! m>%y flat1 /ill kn[n by ! "n ( ,runnym$e1 on ! o!r4 ,_! delegates met 9 ! isl& betwe5 !m1 b ! negotiations 7 a m]e cloak to cov] ,john's purpose ( unconditional submission4 ,! ,great ,*>t] 0 discuss$1 agre$ to1 & sign$ 9 a s+le day4 ,"o copy ( x /ill rema9s 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 injur$ by age & fire1 b ) ! royal seal /ill hang+ f ! br[n1 %rivell$ p>*m5t4 ,x is impossible to gaze )\t rev]5ce on ! e>lie/ monum5t ( ,engli% fre$om :i* we c see ) our own eyes & t\* ) our own h&s1 ! great ,*>t] to :i* f age to age patriots h look$ back z ! basis ( ,engli% lib]ty4 ,b 9 itself ! ,*>t] 0 no novelty1 nor did x claim to e/abli% any new con/itutional pr9ciples4 ,! ,*>t] ( ,h5ry ! ,fir/ =m$ ! basis ( ! :ole1 & ! additions to x are = ! mo/ "p =mal recognitions ( ! judicial & adm9i/rative *anges introduc$ by ,h5ry ! ,second4 ,b ! vague expressions ( ! old] *>t]s 7 n[ ex*ang$ = precise & elaborate provisions4 ,! bonds ( unwritt5 cu/om :i* ! old] grants did little m ?an recognize _h prov$ too weak to hold ! ,angev9s2 & ! b>onage n[ ?rew !m aside = ! re/ra9ts ( writt5 law4 ,x is 9 ?is way t ! ,great ,*>t] m>ks ! transition f ! age ( traditional rights1 pres]v$ 9 ! nation's memory & (ficially decl>$ by ! ,primate1 to ! age ( writt5 legislation1 ( ,p>liam5ts & ,/atutes1 :i* 0 soon to come4 ,! ,*ur* _h %[n its p[] ( self-def5ce 9 ! /ruggle ov] ! int]dict1 & ! clause :i* recogniz$ its rights alone reta9$ ! old] & g5]al =m4 ,b all vagu5ess ceases :5 ! ,*>t] passes on to deal ) ! rights ( ,engli%m5 at l>ge1 _! "r to ju/ice1 to security ( p]son & prop]ty1 to good gov]nm5t4 ',no freeman1' ran ! memorable article t lies at ! base ( our :ole judicial sy/em1 '%all be seiz$ or imprison$1 or dispossess$1 or outlaw$1 or 9 any way br\ght to ru92 we w n g aga9/ any man nor s5d aga9/ him1 save by legal judgm5t ( 8 pe]s or by ! law ( ! l&4' ',to no man w we sell1' runs ano!r1 'or d5y1 or delay1 "r or ju/ice4' ,! great re=ms ( ! pa/ reigns 7 n[ =mally recogniz$2 judges ( assize 7 to hold _! circuits f\r times 9 ! ye>1 & ! ,c\rt ( ,common ,pleas 0 no long] to foll[ ! ,k+ 9 8 w&]+s ov] ! realm1 b to sit 9 a fix$ place4 ,b ! d5ial ( ju/ice "u ,john 0 a small dang] comp>$ ) ! lawless exactions bo? ( himself & 8 pr$ecessor4 ,ri*>d _h increas$ ! am\nt ( ! scutage :i* ,h5ry ,,ii4 _h introduc$1 & appli$ x to raise funds = 8 ransom4 ,he _h re/or$ ! ,danegeld1 or l& tax1 s (t5 aboli%$1 "u ! new "n ( 'c>ucage1' _h seiz$ ! wool ( ! ,ci/]cians & ! plate ( ! *ur*es1 & rat$ movables z well z l&4 ,john _h aga9 rais$ ! rate ( scutage1 & impos$ aids1 f9es1 & ransoms at 8 pleasure )\t c\nsel ( ! b>onage4 ,! ,great ,*>t] met ?is abuse by ! provision on :i* our con/itutional sy/em re/s4 ,) ! exception ( ! ?ree cu/om>y feudal aids :i* /ill rema9$ to ! cr[n1 'no scutage or aid %all be impos$ 9 our realm save by ! ,common ,c\ncil ( ! realm2' & to ?is ,great ,c\ncil x 0 provid$ t prelates & ! great] b>ons %\ld be summon$ by special writ1 & all t5ants 9 *ief ?r\gh ! %]iffs & bailiffs1 at lea/ =ty days be=e4 ,b x 0 less easy to provide means = ! control ( a ,k+ :om no man c\ld tru/1 & a c\ncil ( tw5ty-f\r b>ons 0 *os5 f ! g5]al body ( _! ord] to en=ce on ,john ! obs]vance ( ! ,*>t]1 ) ! "r ( decl>+ w> on ! ,k+ %\ld its provisions be infr+$4 ,f9ally1 ! ,*>t] 0 publi%$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole c\ntry1 & sworn to at e hundr$-mote & t[n-mote by ord] f ! ,k+4--,gre5's ,%ort ,hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,p1 p4 #abc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,app5dix ,d4 ,a ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,bill ,,( ,,rights4 ,,an ,,act ,,= ,,decl>+ ,,! ,,rights ,,& ,,lib]ties ,,( ,,! ,,subject1 ,,& ,,settl+ ,,! ,,succession ,,( ,,! ,,cr[n4 #afhi4 ,:]eas ! ,lords ,spiritual & ,temporal1 & ,commons1 assembl$ at ,we/m9/]1 lawfully1 fully1 & freely repres5t+ all ! e/ates ( ! p ( ?is realm1 did ^u ! ?irte5? day ( ,febru>y1 9 ! ye> ( our ,"l "o ?\s& six hundr$ eighty-eight o4s41#dd pres5t unto _! ,maje/ies1 !n call$ & kn[n by ! names & /yle ( ,william & ,m>y1 ,pr9ce & ,pr9cess ( ,orange1 be+ pres5t 9 _! prop] p]sons1 a c]ta9 ,decl>ation 9 writ+1 made by ! said ,lords & ,commons1 9 ! words foll[+1 viz43 ,footnote #dd3 ,9 ,new ,/yle ,feb4 #bc1 #afhi4 ,:]eas ! late ,k+ ,james ,,ii41 by ! assi/ance ( div]s evil c\nsellors1 judges1 & m9i/]s employ$ by him1 did endeav\r to subv]t & extirpate ! ,prote/ant religion1 & ! laws & lib]ties ( ?is k+dom3 #a4 ,by assum+ & ex]cis+ a p[] ( disp5s+ ) & susp5d+ ( laws1 & ! execution ( laws1 )\t cons5t ( ,p>liam5t4 #b4 ,by committ+ & prosecut+ div]s wor?y prelates = humbly petition+ to be excus$ f concurr+ to ! said assum$ p[]4 #c4 ,by issu+ & caus+ to be execut$ a commission "u ! ,great ,seal = erect+ a c\rt1 call$ ! ,c\rt ( ,commission]s = ,ecclesia/ical ,causes4 #d4 ,by levy+ money = & to ! use ( ! ,cr[n by pret5ce ( pr]ogative1 = o!r "t & 9 o!r mann] ?an ! same 0 grant$ by ,p>liam5t4 #e4 ,by rais+ & keep+ a /&+ army )9 ?is k+dom 9 "t ( peace1 )\t cons5t ( ,p>liam5t1 & qu>t]+ soldi]s contr>y to law4 #f4 ,by caus+ sev]al good subjects1 be+ ,prote/ants1 to be dis>m$1 at ! same "t :5 ,papi/s 7 bo? arm$ & employ$ contr>y to law4 #g4 ,by violat+ ! fre$om ( election ( memb]s to s]ve 9 ,p>liam5t4 #h4 ,by prosecutions 9 ! ,c\rt ( ,k+'s ,b5* = matt]s & causes cognizable only 9 ,p>liam5t1 & by div]s o!r arbitr>y & illegal causes4 #i4 ,& :]eas ( late ye>s1 p>tial1 corrupt1 & unqualifi$ p]sons h be5 return$1 & s]v$ on juries 9 trials1 & p>ticul>ly div]s jurors 9 trials = high treason1 :i* 7 n freehold]s4 #aj4 ,& excessive bail ha? be5 requir$ ( p]sons committ$ 9 crim9al cases1 to elude ! b5efit ( ! laws made = ! lib]ty ( ! subjects4 #aa4 ,& excessive f9es h be5 impos$2 & illegal & cruel puni%m5ts inflict$4 #ab4 ,& sev]al grants & promises made ( f9es & =feitures be=e any conviction or judgm5t aga9/ ! p]sons ^u :om ! same 7 to be levi$4 ,all :i* are utt]ly & directly contr>y to ! kn[n laws & /atutes1 & fre$om ( ?is realm4 ,& :]eas ! said late ,k+ ,james ,,ii4 hav+ abdicat$ ! gov]nm5t1 & ! ?rone be+ !reby vacant1 8 ,highness ! ,pr9ce ( ,orange 7:om x ha? pleas$ ,almighty ,god to make ! glori\s in/rum5t ( deliv]+ ?is k+dom f pop]y & arbitr>y p[]7 did 7by ! advice ( ! ,lords ,spiritual & ,temporal1 & div]s pr9cipal p]sons ( ! ,commons7 cause lett]s to be writt5 to ! ,lords ,spiritual & ,temporal1 be+ ,prote/ants1 & o!r lett]s to ! sev]al c\nties1 cities1 univ]sities1 bor\ghs1 & c9que ports1 = ! *oos+ ( su* p]sons to repres5t !m z 7 ( "r to be s5t to ,p>liam5t1 to meet & sit at ,we/m9/] ^u ! two-&-tw5tie? day ( ,janu>y1 9 ?is ye> "o ?\s& six hundr$ eighty & eight1#de 9 ord] to su* an e/abli%m5t1 z t _! religion1 laws1 & lib]ties might n aga9 be 9 dang] ( be+ subv]t$2 ^u :i* lett]s elections h be5 accord+ly made4 ,footnote #de3 ,9 ,new ,/yle ,feb4 #a1 #afhi4 ,& !reupon ! said ,lords ,spiritual & ,temporal1 & ,commons1 pursuant to _! respective lett]s & elections1 be+ n[ assembl$ 9 a full & free repres5tation ( ?is nation1 tak+ into _! mo/ s]i\s consid]ation ! be/ means = atta9+ ! ends a=esaid1 d 9 ! fir/ place 7z _! ance/ors 9 l case h usually done7 = ! v9dicat+ & ass]t+ _! anci5t rights & lib]ties1 decl>e3 #a4 ,t ! pret5d$ p[] ( susp5d+ ( laws1 or ! execution ( laws by regal au?ority1 )\t cons5t ( ,p>liam5t1 is illegal4 #b4 ,t ! pret5d$ p[] ( disp5s+ ) laws1 or ! execution ( laws by regal au?ority1 z x ha? be5 assum$ & ex]cis$ ( late1 is illegal4 #c4 ,t ! commission = erect+ ! late ,c\rt ( ,commission]s = ,ecclesia/ical ,causes1 & all o!r commissions & c\rts ( l nature1 are illegal & p]nici\s4 #d4 ,t levy+ money = or to ! use ( ! ,cr[n by pret5ce & pr]ogative1 )\t grant ( ,p>liam5t1 = long] "t or 9 o!r mann] ?an ! same is or %all be grant$1 is illegal4#df #e4 ,t x is ! "r ( ! subjects to petition ! ,k+1 & all commitm5ts & prosecutions = su* petition+ are illegal4#dg #f4 ,t ! rais+ or keep+ a /&+ army )9 ! k+dom 9 "t ( peace1 unless x be ) cons5t ( ,p>liam5t1 is aga9/ law4#dh #g4 ,t ! subjects :i* are ,prote/ants may h arms = _! def5ce suitable to _! conditions1 & z all[$ by law4#di #h4 ,t election ( memb]s ( ,p>liam5t ought to be free4 #i4 ,t ! fre$om ( spee*1 & debates or proce$+s 9 ,p>liam5t1 ought n to be impea*$ or que/ion$ 9 any c\rt or place out ( ,p>liam5t4#ej #aj4 ,t excessive bail ought n to be requir$1 nor excessive f9es impos$2 nor cruel & unusual puni%m5ts inflict$4#ea #aa4 ,t jurors ought to be duly impanell$ & return$1 & jurors :i* pass ^u m5 9 trials = high treason ought to be freehold]s4#eb ,footnote #df3 ,comp>e ?is clause #d ) clauses #ab & #ad ( ,magna ,*>ta1 & ) ,art4 ,i4 ,section vii4 clause #a ( ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,footnote #dg3 ,comp>e clause #e ) ,am5dm5t ,i4 ,footnote #dh3 ,comp>e clause #f ) ,am5dm5t ,,iii4 ,footnote #di3 ,comp>e clause #g ) ,am5dm5t ,,ii4 ,footnote #ej3 ,comp>e clause #i ) ,con/itution1 ,art4 ,i4 ,section vi4 clause #a4 ,footnote #ea3 ,comp>e clause #aj ) ,am5dm5t ,,viii4 ,footnote #eb3 ,comp>e clause #aa ) ,am5dm5ts ,,vi4 & ,,vii4 #ab4 ,t all grants & promises ( f9es & =feitures ( p>ticul> p]sons be=e conviction are illegal & void4 #ac4 ,& t = r$ress ( all grievances1 & = ! am5d+1 /r5g!n+1 & pres]v+ ( ! laws1 ,p>liam5t ought to be held frequ5tly4 ,& !y d claim1 dem&1 & insi/ ^u all & s+ul> ! premises1 z _! und\bt$ rights & lib]ties2 & t no decl>ations1 judgm5ts1 do+s or proce$+s1 to ! prejudice ( ! p 9 any ( ! said premises1 ought 9 any wise to be drawn h]eaft] into consequ5ce or example4 ,to :i* dem& ( _! rights !y are p>ticul>ly enc\rag$ by ! decl>ation ( 8 ,highness ! ,pr9ce ( ,orange1 z be+ ! only means = obta9+ a full r$ress & rem$y !re94 ,hav+ !re=e an entire confid5ce t 8 said ,highness ! ,pr9ce ( ,orange w p]fect ! deliv]ance s f> advanc$ by him1 & w /ill pres]ve !m f ! violation ( _! rights1 :i* !y h "h ass]t$1 & f all o!r attempts ^u _! religion1 rights1 & lib]ties3 ,,ii4 ,! said ,lords ,spiritual & ,temporal1 & ,commons1 assembl$ at ,we/m9/]1 d resolve1 t ,william & ,m>y1 ,pr9ce & ,pr9cess ( ,orange1 be1 & be decl>$1 ,k+ & ,que5 ( ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,irel&1 & ! dom9ions !reunto belong+1 to hold ! cr[n & royal dignity ( ! said k+doms & dom9ions to !m ! said ,pr9ce & ,pr9cess dur+ _! lives1 & ! life ( ! survivor ( !m2 & t ! sole & full ex]cise ( ! regal p[] be only 91 & execut$ by1 ! said ,pr9ce ( ,orange1 9 ! names ( ! said ,pr9ce & ,pr9cess1 dur+ _! jo9t lives2 & aft] _! deceases1 ! said cr[n & royal dignity ( ! said k+doms & dom9ions to be to ! heirs ( ! body ( ! said ,pr9cess2 & = default ( su* issue to ! ,pr9cess ,anne ( ,d5m>k1 & ! heirs ( h] body2 & = default ( su* issue to ! heirs ( ! body ( ! said ,pr9ce ( ,orange4 ,& ! ,lords ,spiritual & ,temporal1 & ,commons1 d pray ! said ,pr9ce & ,pr9cess to accept ! same accord+ly4 ,! act goes on to decl>e t1 _! ,maje/ies hav+ accept$ ! cr[n ^u ^! t]ms1 ! rights & lib]ties ass]t$ & claim$ 9 ! said decl>ation are ! true1 anci5t1 & indubitable rights & lib]ties ( ! p ( ?is k+dom1 & s %all be e/eem$1 all[$1 adjudg$1 deem$1 & tak5 to be1 & t all & e ! p>ticul>s a=esaid %all be firmly & /rictly hold5 & obs]v$1 z !y are express$ 9 ! said decl>ation2 & all (fic]s & m9i/]s :atsoev] %all s]ve _! ,maje/ies & _! successors accord+ to ! same 9 all times to come4 ,! act !n decl>es t ,william & ,m>y are & ( "r ought to be ,k+ & ,que5 ( ,engl&1 etc42 & x goes on to regulate ! succession aft] _! dea?s4 ,! pass+ ( ! ,bill ( ,rights 9 #afhi re/or$ to ! mon>*y ! "* :i* x _h lo/ "u ! ,tudors & ! ,/u>ts4 ,! "r ( ! p ?r\gh its repres5tatives to depose ! ,k+1 to *ange ! ord] ( succession1 & to set on ! ?rone :om !y w\ld1 0 n[ e/abli%$4 ,all claim ( div9e "r1 or h]$it>y "r indep5d5t ( ! law1 0 =mally put an end to by ! election ( ,william & ,m>y4 ,s9ce _! day no ,engli% sov]eign has be5 able to advance any claim to ! cr[n save a claim :i* re/$ on a p>ticul> clause 9 a p>ticul> ,act ( ,p>liam5t4 ,william1 ,m>y1 & ,anne 7 sov]eigns simply by virtue ( ! ,bill ( ,rights4 ,george ! ,fir/ & 8 successors h be5 sov]eigns solely by virtue ( ! ,act ( ,settlem5t4 ,an ,engli% mon>* is n[ z mu* ! creature ( an ,act ( ,p>liam5t z ! pettie/ tax-ga!r] 9 8 realm4--,gre5's ,%ort ,hi/ory1 p4 #fgc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,app5dix ,e4 ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,ord]s ,,( ,,connecticut4 #afch7i74 ,! fir/ writt5 con/itution t creat$ a gov]nm5t4 ,=asmu* z x ha? pleas$ ! ,allmighty ,god by ! wise disposition ( 8 diuyne pruid5ce s to ,ord] & dispose ( ?+s t we ! ,inhabitants & ,resid5ts ( ,w9dsor1 ,h>te=d & ,we!rsfield are n[ cohabit+ & dwell+ 9 & vppon ! ,riv] ( ,conectecotte & ! ,l&s !reunto adioyne+2 ,& well kn[+ :]e a p are ga!r$ toga!r ! ^w ( ,god requires t to mayntayne ! peace & vnion ( su* a p !re %\ld be an ord]ly & dec5t ,g\]m5t e/abli%$ accord+ to ,god1 to ord] & dispose ( ! affayres ( ! p at all seasons z occation %all require2 doe !re=e assotiate & conioyne our selues to be z "o ,publike ,/ate or ,comonwel?2 & doe1 = our selues & our ,successors & su* z %all be adioyn$ to vs att any tyme h]eaft]1 ent] into ,comb9ation & ,conf$]ation toga!r1 to mayntayne & p'rse>ue ! lib]ty & purity ( ! gospell ( our ,"l ,jesus w'* we n[ p'rfesse1 z also ! disciplyne ( ! ,*ur*es1 w'* accord+ to ! tru? ( ! said gospell is n[ practis$ among/ vs2 ,z also 9 o'r ,ciuell ,affaires to be guid$ & g\]n$ accord+ to su* ,lawes1 ,rules1 ,ord]s & decrees z %all be made1 ord]$ decre$1 z foll[e?3-- #a4 ,x is ,ord]$1 s5t5c$ & decre$1 t !re %all be y]ely two g5]all ,assemblies or ,c\rts1 ! "o ! second ?ursday 9 ,aprill1 ! o!r ! second ?ursday 9 ,septemb]1 foll[+2 ! fir/ %all be call$ ! ,c\rte ( ,election1 :]e9 %all be y]ely ,*os5 f tyme to tyme soe _m ,mage/rats & o!r publike ,(fic]s z %all be f\nd requisitte3 ,:]e( "o to be *os5 ,g\]n\r = ! ye>e ensue+ & vntill ano!r be *os51 & noe o!r ,mage/rate to be *os5 = m ?an "o ye>e2 p'ruid$ allwayes !re be sixe *os5 besids ! ,g\]n\r2 w'* be+ *os5 & sworne accord+ to an ,oa? record$ = t purpose %all haue p[] to adm9i/] iu/ice accord+ to ! ,lawes "h e/abli%$1 & = want !re( accord+ to ! rule ( ! ^w ( ,god2 w'* *oise %all be made by all t are admitt$ freem5 & haue tak5 ! ,oa? ( ,fidellity1 & doe cohabitte w'?9 ?is ,jurisdiction1 7hau+ be5e admitt$ ,inhabitants by ! maior p'rt ( ! ,t[ne :]e9 !y liue17 or ! mayor p'rte ( su* z %all be !n p'rs5t4 #b4 ,x is ,ord]$1 s5t5s$ & decre$1 t ! ,election ( ! a=esaid ,mage/rats %all be on ?is mann]3 eu]y p'rson p'rs5t & quallifi$ = *oyse %all br+ 9 7to ! p'rsons deput$ to receaue !m7 "o s+le pap'r w'? ! "n ( him writt5 9 yet :om he desires to haue ,g\]n\r1 & he t ha? ! greate/ numb] ( pap]s %all be ,g\]nor = t ye>e4 ,& ! re/ ( ! ,mage/rats or publike ,(fic]s to be *os5 9 ?is mann]3 ,! ,secret>y = ! tyme be+ %all fir/ read ! names ( all t are to be put to *oise & !n %all seu]ally nom9ate !m di/9ctly1 & eu]y "o t w\ld hane ! p'rson nom9at$ to be *os5 %all br+ 9 "o s+le pap] writt5 vppon1 & he t w\ld n haue him *os5 %all br+ 9 a blanke3 & eu]y "o t ha? m writt5 pap]s !n blanks %all be a ,magi/rat = t ye>e2 w'* pap]s %all be receau$ & told by "o or m t %all be !n *os5 by ! c\rt & sworne to be fay?full !re92 b 9 case !re %\ld n be sixe *os5 z a=esaid1 besids ! ,g\]nor1 out ( ^? w'* are nom9at$1 !n he or !y w'* haue ! mo/ writt5 pap'rs %all be a ,mage/rate or ,mage/rats = ! ensue+ ye>e1 to make vp ! =esaid numb]4 #c4 ,x is ,ord]$1 s5t5c$ & decre$1 t ! ,secret>y %all n nom9ate any p'rson1 nor %all any p'rson be *os5 newly into ! ,mage/racy w'* 0 n p'rp[nd$ 9 "s ,g5]all ,c\rte be=e1 to be nom9at$ ! next ,election2 & to t end yt %all be lawfull = e* ( ! ,t[nes a=esaid by _! deputyes to nom9ate any two :om !y conceaue fitte to be put to election2 & ! ,c\rte may ad s _m m z !y iudge requisitt4 #d4 ,x is ,ord]$1 s5t5c$ & decre$ t noe p'rson be *os5 ,g\]nor ab\e once 9 two ye>es1 & t ! ,g\]nor be always a memb] ( "s approv$ congregation1 & =m]ly ( ! ,mage/racy w'? ?is ,jurisdiction2 & all ! ,mage/rats ,freem5 ( ?is ,comonwel?3 & t no ,mage/rate or o!r publike (fic] %all execute any p'rte ( 8 or _! ,(fice be=e !y are seu]ally sworne1 w'* %all be done 9 ! face ( ! ,c\rte if !y be p'rs5t1 & 9 case ( abs5ce by "s deput$ = t purpose4 #e4 ,x is ,ord]$1 s5t5c$ & decre$1 t to ! a=esaid ,conrte ( ,election ! seu'rall ,t[nes %all s5d _! deputyes1 & :5 ! ,elections are end$ !y may p'rce$ 9 any publike se>uice z at o!r ,c\rts4 ,also ! o!r ,g5]all ,c\rte 9 ,septemb] %all be = make+ ( lawes1 & any o!r publike occation1 w'* cons]ns ! good ( ! ,comonwel?4 #f4 ,x is ,ord]$1 s5t5c$ & decre$1 t ! ,g\'rnor %all1 e!r by himselfe or by ! secret>y1 s5d out sumons to ! ,con/ables ( eu'r ,t[ne = ! caule+ ( ^! two /&+ ,c\rts1 on mon? at le/ be=e _! seu'rall tymes3 ,& also if ! ,g\'rnor & ! grete/ p'rte ( ! ,mage/rats see cause vppon any spetiall occation to call a g5]all ,c\rte1 !y may giue ord] to ! secret>y soe to doe w'?9 f[]te5e dayes w>ne+2 & if vrg5t necessity s require1 vppon a %ort] notice1 giue+ suffici5t gr[nds = yt to ! deputyes :5 !y meete1 or els be que/ion$ = ! same2 ,& if ! ,g\'rnor & ,mayor p'rte ( ,mage/rats %all e!r neglect or refuse to call ! two ,g5]all /&+ ,c\rts or e!r ( !m1 z also at o!r tymes :5 ! occations ( ! ,comonwel? require1 ! ,freem5 !re(1 or ! ,mayor p'rte ( !m1 %all petition to !m soe to doe3 if !n yt be e!r d5y$ or neglect$ ! said ,freem5 or ! ,mayor p'rte ( !m %all haue p[] to giue ord] to ! ,con/ables ( ! seu]all ,t[nes to doe ! same1 & s may meete toga!r1 & ehuse to !mselues a ,mod]ator1 & may p'rce$ to d any ,acte ( p[]1 w'* any o!r ,g5]all ,c\rte may4 #g4 ,x is ,ord]$1 s5t5c$ & decre$ t aft] !re are w>rants giu5 out = any ( ! said ,g5]all ,c\rts1 ! ,con/able or ,con/ables ( e* ,t[ne %all =?w'? give notice di/9ctly to ! inhabitants ( ! same1 9 "s ,publike ,assembly or by goe+ or s5d+ f h[se to h[se1 t at a place & tyme by him or !m lymit$ & sett1 !y meet & assemble !3 selues toga!r to elect & *use c]t5 deputyes to be att ! ,g5]all ,c\rte !n foll[+ to agitate ! afayres ( ! comonwel?2 w'* said ,deputyes %all be *os5 by all t are admitt$ ,inhabitants 9 ! seu'rall ,t[nes & haue tak5 ! oa? ( fidellity2 p'ruid$ t non be *os5 a ,deputy = any ,g5]all ,c\rte w'* is n a ,freeman ( ?is ,comonwel?4 ,! =esaid deputyes %all be *os5 9 mann] foll[+3 eu]y p'rson t is p'rs5t & quallifi$ z be=e exp'rss$1 %all br+ ! names ( su*1 writt5 9 seu'rrall pap]s1 z !y desire to haue *os5 = t ,imploym5t4 & ^! #c or #d1 m or lesse1 be+ ! numb] agre$ on to be *os5 = t tyme1 t haue greate/ numb] ( pap]s writt5 = !3 %all be deputyes = t ,c\rte2 ^: names %all be endors$ on ! backe side ( ! w>rant & return$ into ! ,c\rte1 w'? ! ,con/able or ,con/ables h& vnto ! same4 #h4 ,x is ,ord]$1 s5t5c$ & decre$1 t ,wyndsor1 ,h>t=d & ,we!rsfield %all haue p[]1 e* ,t[ne1 to s5d f[] ( _! freem5 z deputyes to eu]y ,g5]all ,c\rte2 & :atsoeu] o!r ,t[nes %all be h]eaft] add$ to ?is ,jurisdiction1 !y %all s5d s _m deputyes z ! ,c\rte %all judge meete1 a resonable p'rportion to ! numb] ( ,freem5 t are 9 ! said ,t[nes be+ to be att5d$ !re92 w'* deputyes %all h ! p[] ( ! :ole ,t[ne to giue _! voats & al[ance to all su* lawes & ord]s z may be = ! publike good1 & unto w'* ! said ,t[nes are to be b[nd4 #i4 ,x is ord]$ & decre$1 t ! deputyes ?us *os5 %all haue p[] & lib]ty to appoynt a tyme & a place ( meet+ toga!r be=e any ,g5]all ,c\rte to aduise & consult ( all su* ?+s z may conc]ne ! good ( ! publike1 z also to exam9e _! owne ,elections1 :e!r accord+ to ! ord]1 & if !y or ! grete/ p'rte ( !m f9d any election to be illegall !y may seclud su* = p'rs5t f _! meet+1 & returne ! same & _! resons to ! ,c\rte2 & if yt pr\e true1 ! ,c\rte may fyne ! p'rty or p'rtyes s intrud+ & ! ,t[ne1 if !y see cause1 & giue out a w>rant to goe to a newe election 9 a legall way1 ei!r 9 p'rte or 9 :ole4 ,also ! said deputyes %all haue p[] to fyne any t %all be disord]ly at _! meet+s1 or = n com+ 9 due tyme or place accord+ to appoyntm5t2 & !y may returne ! said fynes into ! ,c\rte if yt be refus$ to be paid1 & ! tresur] to take notice ( yt1 & to e/reete or levy ! same z he do? o!r fynes4 #aj4 ,x is ,ord]$1 s5t5c$ & decre$1 t eu]y ,g5]all ,c\rte1 except su* z ?r\gh neglecte ( ! ,g\'rnor & ! greate/ p'rte ( ,mage/rats ! ,freem5 !mselves doe call1 %all consi/ ( ! ,g\]nor1 or "s "o *os5 to mod]ate ! ,c\rt1 & #d o!r ,mage/rats at le/1 w'? ! mayor p'rte ( ! deputyes ( ! geu]all ,t[nes legally *os52 & 9 case ! ,freem5 or mayor p'rte ( !m1 ?r\gh neglect or refusall ( ! ,g\]nor & mayor p'rte ( ! mage/rats1 %all call a ,c\rte1 y't %all consi/ ( ! mayor p'rte ( ,freem5 t are p'rs5t or _! deputyes1 w'? a ,mod]ator *os5 by !3 ,9 w'* said ,g5]all ,c\rts %all consi/ ! supreme p[] ( ! ,comonwel?1 & !y only %all haue p[] to make laws or repeale !31 to graunt leuyes1 to admitt ( ,freem51 dispose ( l&s vndispos$ (1 to seu]all ,t[nes or p'rsons1 & also %all haue p[] to call e!r ,c\rte or ,mage/rate or any o!r p'rson :atsoeu] into "q = any misdemean\r1 & may = j causes displace or deale o!rwise accord+ to ! nature ( ! (f5ce2 & also may deale 9 any o!r matt] t conc]ns ! good ( ?is comonwel?1 excepte election ( ,mage/rats1 w'* %all be done by ! :ole boddy ( ,freem54 ,9 w'* ,c\rte ! ,g\]n\r or ,mod]ator %all haue p[] to ord] ! ,c\rte to giue lib]ty ( spe*1 & sil5ce vnceasonable & disord]ly speake+s1 to put all ?+s to voate1 & 9 case ! vote be equall to haue ! ca/+ voice4 ,b non ( ^! ,c\rts %all be adiorn$ or dissolu$ w'?\t ! cons5t ( ! maior p'rte ( ! ,c\rt4 #aa4 ,x is ord]$1 s5t5c$ & decre$1 t :5 any ,g5]all ,c\rte vppon ! occations ( ! ,comonwel? haue agre$ vppon any sume or somes ( mony to be leuy$ vppon ! seu]all ,t[nes w'?9 ?is ,jurisdiction1 t a ,comittee be *os5 to sett out & appoynt w't %all be ! p'rportion ( eu]y ,t[ne to pay ( ! said letiy1 p'rvid$ ! ,comittees be made up ( an equall numb] out ( ea* ,t[ne4 #ad'? ,janu>y1 #afch1 ! #aa ,ord]s ab\esaid are vot$4 ,,! ,,oa? ,,( ,,! ,,g\',,rnor1 ,,= ,,! ,p',,rs5t4 ,i ---- be+ n[ *os5 to be ,g\'rnor w?9 ?is ,jurisdiction1 = ! ye>e ensue+1 & vntil a new be *os51 doe swe>e by ! greate & dreadfull "n ( ! ev]liue+ ,god1 to p'rmote ! publicke good & peace ( ! same1 accord+ to ! be/ ( my skill2 z also w mayntayne all lawfull priuil$ges ( ?is ,comonweal?2 z also t all :olesome lawes t are or %all be made by lawfull au?ority "h e/abli%$1 be duly execut$2 & w fur!r ! execution ( ,ju/ice accord+ to ! rule ( ,gods ^w2 s helpe me ,god1 9 ! "n ( ! ,lo3 ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,,! ,,oa? ,,( ,a ,,mage/rate1 ,,= ,,! ,p',,rs5t4 ,i1 ---- be+ *os5 a ,mage/rate w'?9 ?is ,jurisdiction = ! ye>e ensue+1 doe swe>e by ! great & dreadfull "n ( ! eu]liue+ ,god1 to p'rmote ! publike good & peace ( ! same1 accord+ to ! be/ ( my skill1 & t ,i w mayntayne all ! lawfull priuil$ges !re( accord+ to my vnd]/&+1 z also assi/ 9 ! execution ( all su* :olsome lawes z are made or %all be made by lawfull au?ority he>e e/abli%$1 & w fur!r ! execution ( ,ju/ice = ! tyme a=esaid accord+ to ! righte\s rule ( ,gods ^w2 s helpe me ,god1 etc4 ,until #ageb1 ! legal ye> 9 ,engl& began ,m>* #be 7,lady ,day71 n ,janu>y #a4 ,all ! days betwe5 ,janu>y #a & ,m>* #be ( ! ye> :i* we n[ call #afci 7 !re=e !n a "p ( ! ye> #afch2 s t ! date ( ! ,con/itution is giv5 by its own t]ms z #afch1 in/ead ( #afci4 ,,app5dix ,f4 ,,! ,,/ates ,,classifi$ ,,accord+ ,,to ,,orig94 #a4 ,! ?irte5 orig9al /ates4 #b4 ,/ates =m$ directly f o!r /ates4 ,v]mont f t]ritory disput$ betwe5 ,new ,york & ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,k5tucky f ,virg9ia1 ,ma9e f ,massa*usetts1 ,we/ ,virg9ia f ,virg9ia4 #c4 ,/ates f ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory 7see p4 #bec74 ,ohio1 ,mi*igan1 ,indiana1 ,wiscons91 ,ill9ois1 ,m9nesota1 9 "p4 #d4 ,/ates f o!r t]ritory c$$ by /ates4 ,t5nessee1 c$$ by ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,alabama1 c$$ by ,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,georgia1 ,mississippi1 c$$ by ,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,georgia4 #e4 ,/ates f ! ,l\isiana pur*ase 7see p4 #bec74 ,l\isiana1 ,nor? ,dakota1 ,arkansas1 ,s\? ,dakota1 ,miss\ri1 ,montana1 ,kansas1 ,m9nesota1 9 "p1 ,nebraska1 ,wyom+1 9 "p1 ,i[a1 ,colorado1 9 "p4 #f4 ,/ates f ,mexican cessions4 ,cali=nia1 ,wyom+1 9 "p1 ,nevada1 ,colorado1 9 "p4 #g4 ,/ates f t]ritory def9$ by treaty ) ,great ,brita9 7see p4 #bed74 ,oregon1 ,wa%+ton1 ,idaho4 #h4 ,/ates f o!r s\rces4 ,florida1 f a ,spani% cession1 ,texas1 by annexation 7see p4 #bed74 ,,app5dix ,g4 ,,table ,,( ,,/ates ,,& ,,t]ritories4 7,ratio ( repres5tation bas$ on c5sus ( #ahij--agc1ija47 ,popula- ,popula- ,rep tion to ,area 9 tion1 9 ,elect4 ,dates4 ,no4 ,names4 sq4m4 sq4 m4 #ahij4 ,cong vote #ahib4 #ahib4 ,ratifi$ ! ,con/itution4 #aghg1 ,dec4 #g #a ,delaw>e #hb4a #b1jej #afh1dic #a #c ,dec4 #ab #b ,p5nsylvania #aaa4b #de1bae #e1beh1jad #cj #cb ,dec4 #ah #c ,new ,j]sey #agi4g #g1hae #a1ddd1icc #h #aj #aghh1 ,jan4 #b #d ,georgia #cj4h #ei1dge #a1hcg1cec #aa #ac ,jan4 #i #e ,connecticut #adi4e #d1iij #gdf1beh #d #f ,feb4 #f #f ,massa*usetts #bfi4b #h1cae #b1bch1idc #ac #ae ,april #bh #g ,m>yl& #he4c #ab1baj #a1jdb1cij #f #h ,may #bc #h ,s\? ,c>ol9a #cg4f #cj1egj #a1aea1adi #g #i ,june #ba #i ,new ,hamp%ire #dj4d #i1cje #cgf1ecj #b #d ,june #be #aj ,virg9ia #ci4 #db1dej #a1fee1ihj #aj #ab ,july #bf #aa ,new ,york #aba4i #di1agj #e1iig1hec #cd #ce #aghi1 ,nov4 #ba #ab ,nor? ,c>ol9a #cj4i #eb1bej #a1fag1idg #i #aa #agij1 ,may #bi #ac ,rhode ,isl& #bgf4d #a1bej #cde1ejf #b #d ,admitt$ to ! ,union4 #agia1 ,m>* #d #ad ,v]mont #cd4f #i1efe #ccb1dbb #b #d #agib1 ,june #a #ae ,k5tucky #df4 #dj1djj #a1heh1fce #aa #ac #agif1 ,june #a #af ,t5nessee #db4 #db1jej #a1gfg1eah #aj #ab #ahjc1 ,feb4 #ai #ag ,ohio #hi4d #da1jfj #c1fgb1caf #ba #bc #ahab1 ,april #cj #ah ,l\isiana #bb4i #dh1gbj #a1aah1ehg #f #h #ahaf1 ,dec4 #aa #ai ,indiana #fj4c #cf1cej #b1aib1djd #ac #ae #ahag1 ,dec4 #aj #bj ,mississippi #db4g #df1haj #a1bhi1fjj #g #i #ahah1 ,dec4 #c #ba ,ill9ois #fg4e #ef1fej #c1hbf1cea #bb #bd #ahai1 ,dec4 #ad #bb ,alabama #bh4i #eb1bej #a1eac1jag #i #aa #ahbj1 ,m>* #ae #bc ,ma9e #bj4 #cc1jdj #ffa1jhf #d #f #ahba1 ,aug4 #aj #bd ,miss\ri #ch4e #fi1dae #b1fgi1ahd #ae #ag #ahcf1 ,june #ae #be ,arkansas #bj4i #ec1hej #a1abh1agi #f #h #ahcg1 ,jan4 #be #bf ,mi*igan #ce4e #eh1iae #b1jic1hhi #ab #ad #ahde1 ,m>* #c #bg ,florida #f4f #eh1fhj #cia1dbb #b #d #ahae1 ,dec4 #bi #bh ,texas #h4d #bfe1ghj #b1bce1ebc #ac #ae #ahdf1 ,dec4 #bh #bi ,i[a #cd4a #ef1jbe #a1iaa1hif #aa #ac #ahdh1 ,may #bi #cj ,wiscons9 #cj4 #ef1jdj #a1fhf1hhj #aj #ab #ahej1 ,sept4 #i #ca ,cali=nia #g4f #aeh1cfj #a1bjh1acj #g #i #aheh1 ,may #aa #cb ,m9nesota #ae4f #hc1cfe #a1cja1hbf #g #i #ahei1 ,feb4 #ad #cc ,oregon #c4b #if1jcj #cac1gfg #b #d #ahfa1 ,jan4 #bi #cd ,kansas #ag4c #hb1jhj #a1dbg1jif #h #aj #ahfc1 ,june #ai #ce ,we/ ,virg9ia #cj4g #bd1ghj #gfb1gid #d #f #ahfd1 ,oct4 #ca #cf ,nevada #j4d #aaj1gjj #de1gfa #a #c #ahfg1 ,m>* #a #cg ,nebraska #ac4f #gg1eaj #a1jeh1iaj #f #h #ahgf1 ,aug4 #a #ch ,colorado #c4i #ajc1ibe #dab1aih #b #d #ahhi1 ,nov4 #b #ci ,nor? ,dakota #b4e #gj1gie #ahb1gai #a #c #dj ,s\? ,dakota #d4b #gg1fej #cbh1hjh #b #d #ahhi1 ,nov4 #h #da ,montana #j4i #adf1jhj #acb1aei #a #c #ahhi1 ,nov4 #aa #db ,wa%+ton #e4 #fi1ahj #cdi1cij #b #d #ahij1 ,july #c #dc ,idaho #j4i #hd1hjj #hd1che #a #c #ahij1 ,july #aj #dd ,wyom+ #j4f #ig1hij #fj1gje #a #c ,organis$4 #ahej1 ,sept4 #i ,utah #b4d #hd1igj #bjg1ije #ahej1 ,sept4 #i ,new ,mexico #a4b #abb1ehj #aec1eic #ahfc1 ,feb4 #bd ,arizona #j4e #aac1jbj #ei1fbj #ahfh1 ,july #bg ,alaska #egg1cij no c5sus #ahcd1 ,june #cj ,indian ,t]ritory #ca1djj no c5sus #ahhi1 ,april #bb ,oklahoma #a4e #ci1jcj #fa1hcd #agia1 ,m> #c ,di/4 ( ,c4 #c1bia4a #gj #bcj1cib #ahib1 total ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives #cef ,s5ate #hh electoral votes1 #ddd4 ,,app5dix ,h4 ,,population ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates1 #agij-ahij1 ,%[+ ,p]c5tages ( ,urban ,population4 ,date4 ,pop4 ( ,u4,s4 ,no4 ( ,pop4 ( ,cities4 ( ,cities ( ,urban ,pop4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #agij #c1ibi1bad #f #aca1dgb #c4cc #ahjj #e1cjh1dhc #f #baj1hgc #c4i #ahaj #g1bci1hha #aa #cef1ibj #d4i #ahbj #i1fcc1hbb #ac #dgd1ace #d4i #ahcj #ab1hff1jbj #bf #hfd1eji #f4g #ahdj #ag1jfi1dec #dd #a1dec1iid #h4e #ahej #bc1aia1hgf #he #b1hig1ehf #ab4e #ahfj #ca1ddc1cba #ada #e1jgb1bef #af4a #ahgj #ch1eeh1cga #bbf #h1jga1hge #bj4i #ahhj #ej1aee1ghc #bhf #aa1cah1eig #bb4e #ahij #fb1fbb1bej #ddc #ah1bce1fgj #bi4a ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,app5dix ,i4 ,,an ,,exam9ation ,,pap] ,,= ,,cu/oms ,,cl]ks4 ,applicant's ,no44 ,,applicant',s ,,decl>ation4 ,,directions4--#a4 ,! numb] above is y\r exam9ation numb]4 ,write x at ! top ( e %eet giv5 y 9 ?is exam9ation4 #b4 ,fill promptly all ! blanks 9 ?is %eet4 ,any omission may lead to ! rejection ( y\r pap]s4 #c4 ,write all answ]s & ex]cises 9 ink4 #d4 ,write y\r "n on no o!r %eet b ?is4 ,place ?is %eet 9 ! envelope4 ,write y\r numb] on ! envelope & seal ! same4 ,,decl>ation4 ,i decl>e ^u my hon\r z foll[s3 #a4 ,my true & full "n is 7if female1 please say :e!r ,mrs4 or ,miss7 #b4 ,s9ce my application 0 made ,i h be5 liv+ at 7give all ! places7 #c4 ,my po/-(fice address 9 full is #d4 ,if exam9$ )9 twelve mon?s = ! civil s]vice--= any po/-(fice1 cu/om-h\se1 or ,dep>tm5t at ,wa%+ton--/ate ! "t1 place1 & result4 #e4 ,if y h ev] be5 9 ! civil s]vice1 /ate :]e & 9 :at position1 & :5 y left x & ! reasons !re=4 #f4 ,are y n[ "u enli/m5t 9 ! army or navy8 #g4 ,if y h be5 9 ! milit>y or naval s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 /ate :i*1 & :e!r y 7 hon\rably dis*>g$1 :51 & = :at cause4 #h4 ,s9ce my application no *ange has occurr$ 9 my heal? or physical capacity except ! foll[+3 #i4 ,i 0 born at ----1 on ! ---- day ( ----1 #ahh4 #aj4 ,my pres5t bus9ess or employm5t is #aa4 ,i swore to my application = ?is exam9ation z ne> z ,i c rememb] at 7t[n or city (7 ----1 on ! ---- day ( ----1 #ahh4 ,all ! above /atem5ts are true1 to ! be/ ( my k & belief4 7,signature 9 usual =m47------------ ,dat$ at ! city ( ----1 ,/ate ( ----1 ?is ---- day ( ----1 #ahh4 ,,fir/ ,,subject4 ,"q #a4 ,"o ( ! exam9]s w di/9ctly read 7at a rate reasonable = copy+7 fifte5 l9es f ! ,civil-,s]vice ,law or ,rules1 & ea* applicant w copy ! same bel[ f ! read+ z x proce$s4 ,"q #b4 ,write bel[ at l5g? ! names ( fifte5 ,/ates & fifte5 cities ( ! ,union4 ,"q #c4 ,copy ! foll[+ precisely3 ,& 9 my op9ion1 sir1 ?is pr9ciple ( claim+ monopoly ( (fice by ! "r ( conque/1 unless ! public %all effectually rebuke & re/ra9 x1 w effectually *ange ! "* ( our ,gov]nm5t4 ,x elevates p>ty above c\ntry2 x =gets ! common weal 9 ! pursuit ( p]sonal emolum5t2 x t5ds to =m1 x does =m1 we see t x has =m$1 a political comb9ation1 unit$ by no common pr9ciples or op9ions among its memb]s1 ei!r ^u ! p[]s ( ! ,gov]nm5t or ! true policy ( ! c\ntry1 b held toge!r simply z an association1 "u ! *>m ( a popul> head1 seek+ to ma9ta9 possession ( ! ,gov]nm5t by a vigor\s ex]cise ( its patronage1 & = ?is purpose agitat+ & al>m+ & di/ress+ social life by ! ex]cise ( a tyrannical p>ty proscription4 ,sir1 if ?is c\rse ( ?+s _c be *eck$1 good m5 w gr[ tir$ ( ! ex]cise ( political privileges4 ,!y w see t su* elections are b a m]e selfi% conte/ = (fice1 & !y w ab&on ! ,gov]nm5t to ! scramble ( ! bold1 ! d>+1 & ! desp]ate4--,daniel ,web/] on ,civil ,s]vice1 9 #ahcb4 ,"q #d4 ,correct any errors 9 spell+ :i* y f9d 9 ! foll[+ s5t5ces1 writ+ y\r lett]s s pla9ly t no "o ( !m c be mi/ak53 ,unque/ionebly e f$]il (fes] %\ld be able to spell corectly ! famili] words ( 8 own languege4 ,lose h] hank]*eif & elivate h] head imm$iatly or %e w sp$ily loose h] life by /rangelation4 ,,second ,,subject4 ,"q #a4 ,multiply #bcdagje by #bchgj & divide ! product by #fghi4 ,give op]ation 9 full4 ,"q #b4 ,divide two hundr$ & five ?\s& two hundr$ & five1 & two hundr$ & five t5-?\s&?s1 by "o hundr$ ?\s& "o hundr$1 & "o hundr$?4 ,"q #c4 ,multiply #aj-b_/c by #g-a_/h & divide ! product by #i-a_/b1 r$uc+ ! same to ! simple/ =m4 ,give op]ation 9 full4 ,"q #d4 ,! annual co/ ( ! public s*ools ( a city is #cf1hdh4 ,:at s*ool-tax mu/ be assess$1 ! co/ ( collect+ be+ #b p] c5t41 & #f p] c5t ( ! assess$ tax be+ uncollectible8 ,give op]ation 9 full4 ,"q #e4 ,add #g-c_/d1 #c_/e ( #f-b_/i1 #h-aa_/ab1 #f-a_/b divid$ by #h-a_/h1 & r$uce to l[e/ t]ms4 ,give op]ation 9 full4 ,"q #f4 ,! ,gov]nm5t sold #cjjj old muskets at #bb-a_/b p] c5t1 ( _! co/4 ,! pur*as] becom+ insolv5t paid only #ac p] c5t4 ( ! price he agre$ to pay2 t is1 he paid #ijj4 ,:at did ea* musket co/ ! ,gov]nm5t8 ,give op]ation 9 full4 ,"q #g4 ,:at w x co/ to c>pet a room #cf feet wide by #gb feet long ) #c_/d wid? c>pet at #b4ab p] y>d1 includ+ co/ ( c>pet-l9+ at #aa c5ts a squ>e y>d & #ab c5ts a y>d = mak+ & lay+ ! c>pet8 ,give op]ation 9 full4 ,"q #h4 ,a own$ #g_/h ( a %ip & sold #d_/e ( 8 %>e to ,b1 :o sold #e_/i ( :at he b\ght to ,c1 :o sold #f_/g ( :at he b\ght to ,d4 ,:at "p ( ! :ole vessel did ,d buy8 ,give op]ation 9 full4 ,"q #i4 ,a man b\ght a c>go ( wool & sold sev5 ?\s& & =ty-five t5-?\s&?s ( x4 ,h[ mu* _h he left8 ,give op]ation 9 full 9 decimal fractions4 ,"q #aj4 ,a m]*ant import$ f ,brem5 #cb pieces ( l95 ( #cb y>ds ea*1 on :i* he paid = ! duties1 at #bd p] c5t1 #abb4ch1 & o!r *>ges to ! am\nt ( #dj4if4 ,:at 0 ! invoice value p] y>d1 & ! co/ p] y>d aft] duties & *>ges 7 paid8 ,give op]ation1 9 full4 ,,?ird ,,subject4 ,"q #a4 ,on a mortgage = #c1abe1 dat$ ,july #e1 #ahhj 7int]e/ at #c-a_/b p] c5t71 a paym5t ( #hdj 0 made ,april #bc1 #ahha4 ,:at am\nt 0 due ,janu>y #ag1 #ahhb8 ,give op]ation 9 full4 ,"q #b4 ,! ,gov]nm5t sold an old vessel = #afj1jjj1 payable two fif?s 9 eight mon?s & ! residue 9 sev5te5 mon?s f ! sale4 ,:at 0 ! pres5t ca% value ( ! vessel1 ! curr5t rate ( int]e/ on money be+ five p] c5t8 ,give op]ation 9 full4 ,"q #c4 ,write a promissory note to be giv5 by ,j4 ,br[n to ,j4 ,smi?1 = #fj days1 )\t grace1 = #ejj1 at #e p] c5t int]e/1 & /ate :at am\nt w be due at maturity ( ! note4 ,"q #d4 ,james ,x4 ,"y1 a contractor1 _h ! foll[+ deal+s ) ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t3 ,he furni%$ ,janu>y #d1 #ahhb1 #ad tables at #af ea*2 ,june #f1 #ahhb1 #ahj desks at #ah4ej ea*2 ,decemb] #g1 #ahhb1 #aej *airs at #b ea*1 & ,july #ah1 #ahhc1 #ad book-cases at #ij ea*4 ,he 0 paid ca% z foll[s3 ,janu>y #ca1 #ahhb1 #bbd2 ,june #cj1 #a1hjj2 ,decemb] #ah1 #cjj2 & ,july #ca1 #ahhc1 he 0 all[$ on settlem5t #ge = c>tage & *>g$ #be = breakages4 ,/ate 8 acc\nt & %[ balance due4 ,,f\r? ,,subject4 ,"q #a4 ,/ate ! mean+ ( t5se & ( mood1 & expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m 9 ! ,engli% language or gramm>4 ,"q #b4 ,correct any errors y f9d 9 ! foll[+ s5t5ces3 ,! boy done x1 & he is z re/less "h z he w be if he 0 ) y4 ,he _h did x & spoke ( do+ x be=e we come "h4 ,"q #c4 ,write a lett] to ,s5ator ,jackson answ]+ 9 full 8 lett] ( ,septemb] #g to ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury 9 :i* he asks3 ,h[ mu/ my nephew proce$ to obta9 a cl]k%ip 9 ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t1 "u ! ,civil-,s]vice ,law1 & :at are ! requisite qualifications ( a good cl]k8 ,,fif? ,,subject4 ,"q #a4 ,write )\t abbreviation ! names ( fifte5 seaports ( ! ,union4 ,"q #b4 ,"n f\r ( ! pr9cipal tribut>ies ( ! ,mississippi ,riv]4 ,"q #c4 ,b\nd ! ,/ate 9 :i* y live4 ,"q #d4 ,:i* ,/ates are p59sul>1 & ^u :at wat]s are !y situat$8 ,"q #e4 ,"n six ( ! pr9cipal railroads 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,"q #f4 ,"n sev5 ( ! lead+ agricultural products ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & /ate 9 :at section ( ! c\ntry ea* is mo/ ext5sively cultivat$4 ,,app5dix ,j4 ,,! ,,new ,,york ,,corrupt ,,practices ,,act ,,( #ahij4 ,,*ap4 #id4--;,,an ,,act ,,to ,,am5d ,,title ,,five ,,( ,,! ,,p5al ,,code ,,relat+ ,,to ,,crimes ,,aga9/ ,,! ,,elective ,,fran*ise4 ,approv$ by ! ,gov]nor ,april #d1 #ahij4 ,pass$1 ?ree fif?s be+ pres5t4 ,! ,p ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 repres5t$ 9 ,s5ate & ,assembly1 d enact z foll[s3 ,,section #a4 ,title five ( ! ,p5al ,code1 entitl$ ,( crimes aga9/ ! elective fran*ise1 is h]eby am5d$ s z to read z foll[s3 ,section #da4 ,x %all be unlawful = any p]son1 directly or indirectly1 by himself or ?r\gh any o!r p]son3 #a4 ,to pay1 l5d1 or contribute1 or (f] or promise to pay1 l5d1 or contribute any money or o!r valuable consid]ation1 to or = any vot]1 or to or = any o!r p]son1 to induce su* vot] to vote or refra9 f vot+ at any election1 or to induce any vot] to vote or refra9 f vot+ at su* election = any p>ticul> p]son or p]sons1 or to induce su* vot] to come to ! polls or rema9 away f ! polls at su* election1 or on acc\nt ( su* vot] hav+ vot$ or refra9$ f vot+ or hav+ vot$ or refra9$ f vot+ = any p>ticul> p]son1 or hav+ come to ! poll or rema9$ away f ! polls at su* election4 #b4 ,to give1 (f]1 or promise any (fice1 place1 or employm5t1 or to promise to procure or endeav\r to procure any (fice1 place1 or employm5t to or = any vot]1 or to or = any o!r p]son1 9 ord] to induce su* vot] to vote or refra9 f vot+ at any election1 or to induce any vot] to vote or refra9 f vot+ at su* election = any p>ticul> p]son or p]sons4 #c4 ,to make any gift1 loan1 promise1 (f]1 procurem5t1 or agreem5t1 z a=esaid1 to1 =1 or ) any p]son 9 ord] to induce su* p]son to procure or endeav\r to procure ! election ( any p]son1 or ! vote ( any vot] at any election4 #d4 ,to procure or engage1 promise or endeav\r to procure1 9 consequ5ce ( any su* gift1 loan1 (f]1 promise1 procurem5t1 or agreem5t1 ! election ( any p]son or ! vote ( any vot] at su* election4 #e4 ,to advance or pay or cause to be paid any money or o!r valuable ?+ to or = ! use ( any o!r p]son ) ! int5t t ! same1 or any "p !re(1 %all be us$ 9 brib]y at any election1 or to kn[+ly pay1 or cause to be paid1 any money or o!r valuable ?+ to any p]son 9 dis*>ge or repaym5t ( any money1 :olly or 9 "p1 exp5d$ 9 brib]y at any election4 ,section #da;a4 ,x %all be unlawful = any p]son1 directly or indirectly1 by himself or ?r\gh any o!r p]son3 #a4 ,to receive1 agree1 or contract =1 be=e or dur+ an election1 any money1 gift1 loan1 or o!r valuable consid]ation1 (fice1 place1 or employm5t = himself or any o!r p]son1 = vot+ or agree+ to vote1 or = com+ or agree+ to come to ! polls1 or = rema9+1 away or agree+ to rema9 away f ! polls1 or = refra9+ or agree+ to refra9 f vot+1 or = vot+ or agree+ to vote or refra9+ or agree+ to refra9 f vot+ = any p>ticul> p]son or p]sons at any election4 #b4 ,to receive any money or o!r valuable ?+ dur+ or aft] an election on acc\nt ( himself or any o!r p]son hav+ vot$ or refra9$ f vot+ at su* election1 or on acc\nt ( himself or any o!r p]son hav+ vot$ or refra9$ f vot+ = any p>ticul> p]son at su* election1 or on acc\nt ( himself or any o!r p]son hav+ come to ! polls or rema9$ away f ! polls at su* election1 or on acc\nt ( hav+ induc$ any o!r p]son to vote or refra9 f vot+ or to vote or refra9 f vot+ = any p>ticul> p]son or p]sons at su* election4 #da;b4 ,x %all be unlawful = any c&idate = public (fice1 be=e or dur+ an election1 to make any bet or wag] ) a vot]1 or take a %>e or int]e/ 9 or 9 any mann] become a p>ty to any su* bet or wag]1 or provide or agree to provide any money to be us$ by ano!r 9 mak+ su* bet or wag]1 ^u any ev5t or cont+5cy :atev]4 ,nor %all x be lawful = any p]son1 directly or indirectly1 to make a bet or wag] ) a vot]1 dep5d+ ^u ! result ( any election1 ) ! int5t !reby to procure ! *all5ge ( su* vot]1 or to prev5t him f vot+ at su* election4 ,section #da;c4 ,x %all be unlawful = any p]son1 directly or indirectly1 by himself or any o!r p]son 9 8 behalf1 to make use (1 or ?reat5 to make use (1 any =ce1 viol5ce1 or re/ra9t1 or to inflict or ?reat5 ! infliction by himself1 or ?r\gh any o!r p]son1 ( any injury1 damage1 h>m1 or loss1 or 9 any mann] to practice intimidation ^u or aga9/ any p]son1 9 ord] to induce or compel su* p]son to vote or refra9 f vot+ at any election1 or to vote or refra9 f vot+ = any p>ticul> p]son or p]sons at any election1 or on acc\nt ( su* p]son hav+ vot$ or refra9$ f vot+ at any election4 ,& x %all be unlawful = any p]son by abduction1 duress1 or any =cible or fraudul5t device or contrivance :atev] to imp$e1 prev5t1 or o!rwise int]f]e )1 ! free ex]cise ( ! elective fran*ise by any vot]2 or to compel1 induce1 or prevail ^u any vot] ei!r to give or refra9 f giv+ 8 vote at any election1 or to give or refra9 f giv+ 8 vote = any p>ticul> p]son at any election4 ,x %all n be lawful = any employ] 9 pay+ 8 employees ! sal>y or wages due !m to inclose _! pay 9 pay envelopes ^u :i* !re is writt5 or pr9t$ any political mottoes1 devices1 or argum5ts conta9+ ?reats1 express or impli$1 int5d$ or calculat$ to influ5ce ! political op9ions or actions ( su* employees4 ,nor %all x be lawful = any employ]1 )9 n9ety days ( g5]al election to put up or o!rwise exhibit 9 8 factory1 "w-%op1 or o!r e/abli%m5t or place :]e 8 employees may be work+1 any h&-bill or plac>d conta9+ any ?reat1 notice1 or in=mation t 9 case any p>ticul> ticket or c&idate %all be elect$1 "w 9 8 place or e/abli%m5t w cease1 9 :ole or 9 "p1 or 8 e/abli%m5t be clos$ up1 or ! wages ( 8 workm5 be r$uc$1 or o!r ?reats1 express or impli$1 int5d$ or calculat$ to influ5ce ! political op9ions or actions ( 8 employees4 ,?is section %all apply to corporations1 z well z to individuals1 & any p]son or corporation violat+ ! provisions ( ?is section %all be deem$ guilty ( a misdemean\r1 & any corporation violat+ ?is section %all =feit its *>t]4 ,section #da;d4 ,e c&idate :o is vot$ = at any public election held )9 ?is /ate %all1 )9 t5 days aft] su* election1 file z h]e9aft] provid$ an itemiz$ /atem5t1 %[+ 9 detail all ! moneys contribut$ or exp5d$ by him1 directly or indirectly1 by himself or ?r\gh any o!r p]son1 9 aid ( 8 election4 ,su* /atem5t %all give ! names ( ! v>i\s p]sons :o receiv$ su* moneys1 ! specific nature ( ea* item1 & ! purpose = :i* x 0 exp5d$ or contribut$4 ,!re %all be atta*$ to su* /atem5t an affidavit subscrib$ & sworn to by su* c&idate1 sett+ =? 9 sub/ance t ! /atem5t ?us made is 9 all respects true1 & t ! same is a full & detail$ /atem5t ( all moneys s contribut$ or exp5d$ by him1 directly or indirectly1 by himself or ?r\gh any o!r p]son 9 aid ( 8 election4 ,c&idates = (fices to be fill$ by ! electors ( ! entire /ate1 or any division or di/rict !re( great] ?an a c\nty1 %all file _! /atem5ts 9 ! (fice ( ! secret>y ( /ate4 ,! c&idates = t[n1 village1 & city (fices1 except+ ! city ( ,new ,york1 %all file _! /atem5ts 9 ! (fice ( ! t[n1 village1 or city cl]k respectively1 & 9 cities :]e9 !re is no city cl]k1 ) ! cl]k ( ! common c\ncil :]e9 ! election occurs4 ,c&idates = all o!r (fices1 includ+ all (fices 9 ! city & c\nty ( ,new ,york1 %all file _! /atem5ts 9 ! (fice ( ! cl]k ( ! c\nty :]e9 ! election occurs4 ,section #da;e4 ,a p]son (f5d+ aga9/ any provision ( sections =ty-"o & =ty-"o-a ( ?is act is a compet5t witness aga9/ ano!r p]son s (f5d+1 & may be compell$ to att5d & te/ify ^u any trial1 he>+1 proce$+1 or inve/igation 9 ! same mann] z any o!r p]son4 ,b ! te/imony s giv5 %all n be us$ 9 any prosecution or proce$+1 civil or crim9al1 aga9/ ! p]son s te/ify+4 ,a p]son s te/ify+ %all n !reaft] be liable to indictm5t1 prosecution1 or puni%m5t = ! (f5se ) ref]5ce to :i* 8 te/imony 0 giv5 & may plead or prove ! giv+ ( te/imony accord+ly1 9 b> ( su* an indictm5t or prosecution4 ,section #da;f4 ,:osoev] %all violate any provision ( ?is title1 ^u conviction !re(1 %all be puni%$ by imprisonm5t 9 a c\nty jail = n less ?an ?ree mon?s nor m ?an "o ye>4 ,! (f5ses describ$ 9 section#ec =ty-"o & =ty-"o-a ( ?is act are h]eby decl>$ to be infam\s crimes4 ,:5 a p]son is convict$ ( any (f5se m5tion$ 9 section =ty-"o ( ?is act he %all 9 addition to ! puni%m5t above prescrib$1 =feit any (fice to :i* he may h be5 elect$ at ! election ) ref]5ce to :i* su* (f5se 0 committ$2 & :5 a p]son is convict$ ( any (f5se m5tion$ 9 section =ty-"o-a ( ?is act he %all 9 addition to ! puni%m5t above prescrib$ be exclud$ f ! "r ( suffrage = a p]iod ( five ye>s aft] su* conviction1 & x %all be ! duty ( ! c\nty cl]k ( ! c\nty 9 :i* any su* conviction %all be _h1 to transmit a c]tifi$ copy ( ! record ( conviction to ! cl]k ( ea* c\nty ( ! /ate1 )9 t5 days !reaft]1 :i* said c]tifi$ copy %all be duly fil$ by ! said c\nty cl]ks 9 _! respective (fices4 ,any c&idate = (fice :o refuses or neglects to file a /atem5t z prescrib$ 9 section =ty-"o-d ( ?is act %all be deem$ guilty ( a misdemean\r1 puni%able z above provid$ & %all also =feit 8 (fice4 ,footnote #ec3 ,s 9 ! orig9al4 ,section #da;g4 ,o!r crimes aga9/ ! elective fran*ise are def9$1 & ! puni%m5t !re( prescrib$ by special /atutes4 ,section #b4 ,section =ty-"o ( ! ,p5al ,code1 z x exi/$ prior to ! passage ( ?is act1 is h]eby repeal$4 ,section #c4 ,?is act %all take effect imm$iately4 ,,app5dix ,k4 ,,=m ,,( ,,au/ralian ,,ballot ,,adopt$ ,,9 ,,massa*usetts1 #ahhi4 ,,(ficial ,,ballot ,,= ,,prec9ct1 ,,w>d1 ,,( 7,,city ,,or ,,t[n71 ,,novemb]1 #ah4 ,fac-,simile ( ,signature ( ,secret>y4 ,secret>y ( ! ,commonweal?4 ,,sample ,,ballot1 ,) explanations & illu/ration4 ,prep>$ by ! ,ballot ,act ,league ) ! approval ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,commonweal?4 99 99 99 99 99 ,"s repres5tative di/ricts elect "o1 "s two1 & a few ?ree repres5tatives to ! ,g5]al ,c\rt4 ,worce/] ,c\nty elects f\r commission]s ( insolv5cy in/ead ( ?ree z 9 o!r c\nties4 ,no c\nty commission]s or special commission]s w be vot$ = 9 ! cities ( ,bo/on & ,*elsea or ! c\nty ( ,nantucket4 99 99 99 99 99 ,=ms = nom9at+ c&idates c be _h at ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,commonweal?4 99 99 99 99 99 ,c>efully obs]ve ! (ficial specim5 ballots to be po/$ & publi%$ j be=e election day4 ,to vote = a ,p]son1 m>k a ,cross ,x ,,gov]nor ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,oliv] ,,ames1 ( ,ea/on ,republican4 ,,william ,h ,,e>le1 ( ,worce/] ,prohibition4 ,,william ,e4 ,,russell1 ( ,cambridge ,democratic4 ,,lieut5ant-,,gov]nor ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,john ,,bascom1 ( ,william/[n ,prohibition4 ,,john ,q4,a4 ,,brackett1 ( ,arl+ton ,republican4 ,,john ,w4 ,,corcoran1 ( ,cl9ton ,democratic4 ,,secret>y ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,william ,s4 ,,osgood1 ( ,bo/on ,democratic4 ,,h5ry ,r4 ,,peirce1 ( ,ab+ton ,republican4 ,,h5ry ,c4 ,,smi?1 ( ,williamsburg ,prohibition4 ,,treasur] ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,john ,m4 ,,fi%]1 ( ,attlebor\gh ,prohibition4 ,,george ,a4 ,,m>d51 ( ,l[ell ,republican4 ,,h5ry ,o4 ,,?a*]1 ( ,y>m\? ,democratic4 ,,auditor ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,*>les ,r4 ,,ladd1 ( ,spr+field ,republican4 ,,edmund ,a4 ,,/[e1 ( ,hudson ,prohibition4 ,,william ,a4 ,,williams1 ( ,worce/] ,democratic4 ,,attorney-,,g5]al ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,all5 ,,c(f91 ( ,nantucket ,prohibition4 ,,samuel ,o4 ,,lamb1 ( ,gre5field ,democratic4 ,,&rew ,j4 ,,wat]man1 ( ,pittsfield ,republican4 ,,c\ncillor1 ,?ird ,di/rict ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,rob]t ,o4 ,,full]1 ( ,cambridge ,republican4 ,,william ,e4 ,,plumm]1 ( ,newton ,democratic4 ,,sylvanus ,c4 ,,small1 ( ,w9*e/] ,prohibition4 ,,s5ator1 ,?ird ,middlesex ,di/rict ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,freeman ,,hunt1 ( ,cambridge ,democratic4 ,,*e/] ,w4 ,,k+sley1 ( ,cambridge _/,republican4 ,prohibition4 ,,di/rict ,,attorney1 ,nor!rn ,di/rict ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,*>les ,s4 ,,l9coln1 ( ,som]ville ,democratic4 ,,john ,m4 ,,read1 ( ,l[ell ,prohibition4 ,,william ,b4 ,,/ev5s1 ( ,/oneham ,republican4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- 9 ! ,squ>e at ! "r ( ! "n4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,repres5tatives ,,9 ,,g5]al ,,c\rt ,fir/ ,middlesex ,di/rict4 ,vote = ,,two4 ,,william ,h4 ,,m>ble1 ( ,cambridge ,prohibition4 ,,isaac ,mc,l,e,a,n1 ( ,cambridge ,democratic4 ,,george ,a4 ,,p]k9s1 ( ,cambridge ,democratic4 ,,john ,,read1 ( ,cambridge ,republican4 ,,*e/] ,v4 ,,sang]1 ( ,cambridge ,republican4 ,,william ,a4 ,,/>t1 ( ,cambridge ,prohibition4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,%]iff ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,h5ry ,g4 ,,cu%+1 ( ,l[ell ,republican4 ,,h5ry ,g4 ,,h>k9s1 ( ,l[ell ,prohibition4 ,,william ,h4 ,,%]man1 ( ,ay] ,democratic4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,commission]s ,,( ,,insolv5cy ,vote = ,,?ree4 ,,john ,w4 ,,all>d1 ( ,fram+ham ,democratic4 ,,george ,j4 ,,burns1 ( ,ay] ,republican4 ,,william ,p4 ,,cutt]1 ( ,cambridge ,prohibition4 ,,fr$]ic ,t4 ,,gre5halge1 ( ,l[ell ,republican4 ,,james ,,hicks1 ( ,cambridge4 ,prohibition4 ,,john ,c4 ,,k5n$y1 ( ,newton ,republican4 ,,ri*>d ,j4 ,mc,k,e,l,l,e,g,e,t1 ( ,cambridge ,democratic4 ,,edw>d ,d4 ,mc,v,e,y1 ( ,l[ell ,democratic4 ,,elm] ,a4 ,,/ev5s1 ( ,som]ville ,prohibition4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,c\nty ,,commission] ,vote = ,,"o4 ,,william ,s4 ,,fro/1 ( ,m>lbor\gh ,republican4 ,,joseph ,w4 ,,b>b]1 ( ,%]born ,prohibition4 ,,james ,,sk9n]1 ( ,woburn ,democratic4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,special ,,commission]s ,vote = ,,two4 ,,h5ry ,,bradlee1 ( ,m$=d ,democratic4 ,,lyman ,,dyke1 ( ,/oneham ,republican4 ,,john ,j4 ,,donovan1 ( ,l[ell ,democratic4 ,,william ,e4 ,,knight1 ( ,%irley ,prohibition4 ,,orson ,e4 ,,mallory1 ( ,l[ell ,prohibition4 ,,edw9 ,e4 ,,?ompson1 ( ,woburn ,republican4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,illu/ration3 ,,sket* ,,( ,,poll+ ,,place4 ,,sugge/ions ,,to ,,vot]s4 ,give y\r "n & resid5ce to ! ballot cl]k1 :o1 on f9d+ y\r "n on ! *eck li/1 w admit y )9 ! rail & h& y a ballot4 ,g alone to "o ( ! vot+ %elves & !re unfold y\r ballot4 ,m>k a cross ,x 9 ! squ>e at ! "r ( ! "n ( ea* p]son = :om y wi% to vote4 ,no o!r me?od ( m>k+1 su* z eras+ names1 w answ]4 ,?us1 if y wi%$ to vote = ,john ,b[les = ,gov]nor1 y w\ld m>k y\r ballot 9 ?is way3-- ,,gov]nor ,vote = ,,"o ,,john ,,b[les1 ( ,taunton ,prohibition4 ,x ,,?omas ,e4 ,,means1 ( ,bo/on ,democratic4 ,,elijah ,,smi?1 ( ,pittsfield ,republican4 ,if y wi% to vote = a p]son ^: "n is n on ! ballot1 write1 or ins]t by a /ick]1 ! "n 9 ! blank l9e at ! end ( ! li/ ( c&idates = ! (fice1 & m>k a cross ,x 9 ! squ>e at ! "r ( x4 ,?us1 if y wi%$ to vote = ,george ,t4 ,morton1 ( ,*elsea1 = ,gov]nor1 y w\ld prep>e y\r ballot 9 ?is way3-- ,,gov]nor ,vote = ,,"o ,,john ,,b[les1 ( ,taunton ,prohibition4 ,,?omas ,e4 ,,means1 ( ,bo/on ,democratic4 ,,elijah ,,smi?1 ( ,pittsfield ,republican4 ,george ,t4 ,morton1 ( ,*elsea ,x ,notice1 t = "s (fices y may vote = two or ?ree c&idates1 z /at$ 9 ! ballot at ! "r ( ! "n ( ! (fice to be vot$ =1 e4g43 ,,commission]s ,,( ,,insolv5cy4 ,vote = ,,?ree4 ,if y spoil a ballot1 return x to ! ballot cl]k1 :o w give y ano!r4 ,y _c h m ?an two extra ballots1 or ?ree 9 all4 ,y _c rema9 )9 ! rail m ?an t5 m9utes1 & 9 case all ! %elves are 9 use & o!r vot]s wait+1 y are all[$ only five m9utes at ! vot+ %elf4 ,be=e leav+ ! vot+ %elf1 fold y\r ballot 9 ! same way z x 0 fold$ :5 y receiv$ x1 & keep x s fold$ until y place x 9 ! ballot box4 ,d n %[ any "o h[ y h m>k$ y\r ballot4 ,g to ! ballot box & give y\r "n & resid5ce to ! (fic] 9 *>ge4 ,put y\r fold$ ballot 9 ! box ) ! c]tificate ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,commonweal? upp]mo/ & 9 sight4 ,y are n all[$ to c>ry away a ballot1 :e!r spoil$ or n4 ,a vot] :o decl>es to ! presid+ (ficial 7"u oa?1 if requir$7 t he 0 a vot] be=e ,may #a1 #aheg1 & _c read1 or t he is bl9d or physically unable to m>k 8 ballot1 c receive ! assi/ance ( "o or two ( ! election (fic]s 9 ! m>k+ ( 8 ballot4