,,utilit>ianism      ,,by    ,,john     
,,/u>t ,,mill        ,,repr9t$ ,,f      
',,fras]',s ,,magaz9e'    ,,sev5?       
,,edition    ,,london    ,,longmans1    
,,gre51 ,,& ,,co4    #ahgi              
,,cont5ts4          ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,g5]al 
,,rem>ks    ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,:at         
,,utilit>ianism ,,is    ,,*apt] ,,iii4  
,,( ,,! ,,ultimate ,,sanction ,,( ,,!   
,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,utility    ,,*apt]     
,,iv4 ,,( ,,:at ,,sort ,,( ,,pro( ,,!   
,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,utility ,,is           
,,susceptible    ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,!    
,,connexion ,,betwe5 ,,ju/ice ,,&       
,,utility          ,,utilit>ianism4     
,,*apt] ,i4      ,,g5]al ,,rem>ks4      
,!re are few circum/ances among ^? :i*  
make up ! pres5t  condition ( human k1 m
 unlike :at might h be5 expect$1  or m  
significant ( ! backw>d /ate 9 :i*      
speculation on !  mo/ important subjects
 /ill l+]s1 ?an ! little progress :i*   
has be5 made 9 ! decision ( ! controv]sy
 respect+ !  crit]ion ( "r & wrong4 ,f !
 dawn ( philosophy1 ! "q  conc]n+ !     

summum bonum1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1     
conc]n+  ! f\ndation ( morality1 has be5
 acc\nt$ ! ma9 problem 9  speculative   
?\ght1 has occupi$ ! mo/ gift$          
intellects1 &  divid$ !m into sects &   
s*ools1 c>ry+ on a vigor\s w>f>e  aga9/ 
"o ano!r4 ,& aft] m ?an two ?\s& ye>s ! 
same  discussions cont9ue1 philosoph]s  
are /ill rang$ "u ! same  cont5d+       
bann]s1 & nei!r ?9k]s nor mank9d at l>ge
 seem  ne>] to be+ unanim\s on !        
subject1 ?an :5 ! y\? ,socrates  li/5$  
to ! old ,protagoras1 & ass]t$ 7if      
,plato's dialogue be  gr\nd$ on a real  
conv]sation7 ! !ory ( utilit>ianism     
aga9/  ! popul> morality ( ! s-call$    
sophi/4    ,x is true t simil> confusion
 & unc]ta9ty1 & 9 "s cases  simil>      
discordance1 exi/ respect+ ! fir/       
pr9ciples ( all !  sci5ces1 n except+ t 
:i* is deem$ ! mo/ c]ta9 ( !m1          
ma!matics2 )\t mu* impair+1 g5]ally     
inde$ )\t impair+  at all1 !            
tru/wor?9ess ( ! conclusions ( ^?       
sci5ces4 ,an  app>5t anomaly1 !         

explanation ( :i* is1 t ! detail$       
doctr9es ( a sci5ce are n usually d$uc$ 
f1 nor dep5d =  _! evid5ce ^u1 :at are  
call$ its fir/ pr9ciples4 ,7 x n  s1 !re
 w\ld be no sci5ce m prec>i\s1 or ^:    
conclusions 7  m insuffici5tly made out1
 ?an algebra2 :i* d]ives none ( its     
c]ta9ty f :at are commonly taught to    
le>n]s z its elem5ts1  s9ce ^!1 z laid  
d[n by "s ( its mo/ em95t tea*]s1 are z 
full ( fictions z ,engli% law1 & (      
my/]ies z !ology4 ,!  tru?s :i* are     
ultimately accept$ z ! fir/ pr9ciples ( 
a  sci5ce1 are really ! la/ results (   
metaphysical analysis1 practis$  on !   
elem5t>y notions ) :i* ! sci5ce is      
conv]sant2 &  _! relation to ! sci5ce is
 n t ( f\ndations to an edifice1  b (   
roots to a tree1 :i* may p]=m _! (fice  
equally well  ?\gh !y be nev] dug d[n to
 & expos$ to light4 ,b ?\gh 9  sci5ce ! 
p>ticul> tru?s prec$e ! g5]al !ory1 !   
contr>y  might be expect$ to be ! case )
 a practical art1 su* z morals or       
legislation4 ,all action is = ! sake (  

"s end1 & rules (  action1 x seems      
natural to suppose1 mu/ take _! :ole "* 
& col\r f ! end to :i* !y are subs]vi5t4
 ,:5 we engage 9  a pursuit1 a cle> &   
precise conception ( :at we are pursu+  
w\ld  seem to be ! fir/ ?+ we ne$1      
in/ead ( ! la/ we are to look  =w>d to4 
,a te/ ( "r & wrong mu/ be ! means1 "o  
w\ld  ?9k1 ( asc]ta9+ :at is "r or      
wrong1 & n a consequ5ce (  hav+ already 
asc]ta9$ x4    ,! difficulty is n avoid$
 by hav+ rec\rse to ! popul> !ory  ( a  
natural faculty1 a s5se or in/9ct1 in=m+
 u ( "r &  wrong4 ,=--besides t !       
exi/5ce ( su* a moral in/9ct is  itself 
"o ( ! matt]s 9 dispute--^? believ]s 9 x
 :o h any  pret5sions to philosophy1 h  
be5 oblig$ to ab&on ! idea t x  disc]ns 
:at is "r or wrong 9 ! p>ticul> case 9  
h&1 z our  o!r s5ses disc]n ! sight or  
s\nd actually pres5t4 ,our moral        
faculty1 accord+ to all ^? ( its        
int]pret]s :o are entitl$ to  ! "n (    
?9k]s1 supplies u only ) ! g5]al        
pr9ciples (  moral judgm5ts2 x is a     

bran* ( our reason1 n ( our s5sitive    
faculty2 & mu/ be look$ to = ! ab/ract  
doctr9es ( morality1  n = p]ception ( x 
9 ! concrete4 ,! intuitive1 no less ?an 
:at may be t]m$ ! inductive1 s*ool (    
e?ics1 insi/s on !  necessity ( g5]al   
laws4 ,!y bo? agree t ! morality ( an   
individual action is n a "q ( direct    
p]ception1 b ( !  application ( a law to
 an individual case4 ,!y recognise also1
 to a  great ext5t1 ! same moral laws2 b
 diff] z to _! evid5ce1 &  ! s\rce f :i*
 !y d]ive _! au?ority4 ,accord+ to ! "o 
op9ion1 ! pr9ciples ( morals are evid5t 
priori1 requir+  no?+ to comm& ass5t1   
except t ! mean+ ( ! t]ms be  und]/ood4 
,accord+ to ! o!r doctr9e1 "r & wrong1 z
 well z  tru? & falsehood1 are que/ions 
( obs]vation & exp]i5ce4 ,b  bo? hold   
equally t morality mu/ be d$uc$ f       
pr9ciples2 & !  intuitive s*ool affirm z
 /rongly z ! inductive1 t !re is a      
sci5ce ( morals4 ,yet !y seldom attempt 
to make out a li/ ( !   priori pr9ciples
 :i* are to s]ve z ! premises ( !       

sci5ce2  /ill m r>ely d !y make any ef=t
 to r$uce ^? v>i\s  pr9ciples to "o fir/
 pr9ciple1 or common gr\nd ( obligation4
 ,!y  ei!r assume ! ord9>y precepts (   
morals z (  priori  au?ority1 or !y lay 
d[n z ! common gr\ndwork ( ^? maxims1   
"s g5]ality mu* less obvi\sly           
au?oritative ?an ! maxims  !mselves1 &  
:i* has nev] succe$$ 9 ga9+ popul>      
acceptance4  ,yet to support _!         
pret5sions !re ought ei!r to be "s "o   
fundam5tal pr9ciple or law1 at ! root ( 
all morality1 or if !re  be sev]al1 !re 
%\ld be a det]m9ate ord] ( prec$5ce     
among  !m2 & ! "o pr9ciple1 or ! rule = 
decid+ betwe5 !  v>i\s pr9ciples :5 !y  
conflict1 ought to be self-evid5t4      
,to inquire h[ f> ! bad effects ( ?is   
defici5cy h be5  mitigat$ 9 practice1 or
 to :at ext5t ! moral beliefs ( mank9d  
h be5 vitiat$ or made unc]ta9 by !      
abs5ce ( any di/9ct  recognition ( an   
ultimate /&>d1 w\ld imply a complete    
survey &  criticism ( pa/ & pres5t      
e?ical doctr9e4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be  easy

 to %[ t :atev] /ead9ess or consi/5cy ^!
 moral beliefs  h atta9$1 has be5 ma9ly 
due to ! tacit influ5ce ( a /&>d  n     
recognis$4 ,al?\gh ! non-exi/5ce ( an   
ackn[l$g$ fir/  pr9ciple has made e?ics 
n s mu* a guide z a consecration ( m5's 
actual s5tim5ts1 /ill1 z m5's s5tim5ts1 
bo? ( fav\r & (  av]sion1 are greatly   
influ5c$ by :at !y suppose to be !      
effects  ( ?+s ^u _! happ9ess1 !        
pr9ciple ( utility1 or z ,b5?am  latt]ly
 call$ x1 ! greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple1  
has _h a l>ge  %>e 9 =m+ ! moral        
doctr9es ev5 ( ^? :o mo/ scornfully     
reject its au?ority4 ,nor is !re any    
s*ool ( ?\ght :i* refuses  to admit t ! 
influ5ce ( actions on happ9ess is a mo/ 
mat]ial  & ev5 pr$om9ant consid]ation 9 
_m ( ! details ( morals1  h[ev] unwill+ 
to ackn[l$ge x z ! fundam5tal pr9ciple (
  morality1 & ! s\rce ( moral           
obligation4 ,i might g mu* fur!r1  & say
 t to all ^?  priori morali/s :o deem x 
necess>y to  argue at all1 utilit>ian   
argum5ts are indisp5sable4 ,x is n my   

pres5t purpose to criticise ^! ?9k]s2 b 
,i _c help  ref]r+1 = illu/ration1 to a 
sy/ematic treatise by "o ( ! mo/        
illu/ri\s ( !m1 ! ,metaphysics ( ,e?ics1
 by ,kant4 ,?is  rem>kable man1 ^: sy/em
 ( ?\ght w long rema9 "o ( !  l&m>ks 9 !
 hi/ory ( philosophical speculation1    
does1 9 !  treatise 9 "q1 lay d[n an    
univ]sal fir/ pr9ciple z !  orig9 &     
gr\nd ( moral obligation2 x is ?is3--',s
 act1 t !  rule on :i* ?\ acte/ w\ld    
admit ( be+ adopt$ z a law by all       
rational be+s4' ,b :5 he beg9s to d$uce 
f ?is precept any (  ! actual duties (  
morality1 he fails1 almo/ grotesquely1  
to %[  t !re w\ld be any contradiction1 
any logical 7n to say  physical7        
impossibility1 9 ! adoption by all      
rational be+s ( !  mo/ outrage\sly      
immoral rules ( conduct4 ,all he %[s is 
t !  consequ5ces ( _! univ]sal adoption 
w\ld be su* z no "o w\ld  *oose to      
incur4    ,on ! pres5t occasion1 ,i     
%all1 )\t fur!r discussion ( !  o!r     
!ories1 attempt to contribute some?+    

t[>ds !  und]/&+ & appreciation ( !     
,utilit>ian or ,happ9ess !ory1  & t[>ds 
su* pro( z x is susceptible (4 ,x is    
evid5t t ?is  _c be pro( 9 ! ord9>y &   
popul> mean+ ( ! t]m4  ,que/ions (      
ultimate ends are n am5able to direct   
pro(4 ,:atev]  c be prov$ to be good1   
mu/ be s by be+ %[n to be a means to    
some?+ admitt$ to be good )\t pro(4 ,!  
m$ical art is prov$  to be good1 by its 
conduc+ to heal?2 b h[ is x possible to 
prove  t heal? is good8 ,! art ( music  
is good1 = ! reason1 among  o!rs1 t x   
produces pleasure2 b :at pro( is x      
possible to give  t pleasure is good8   
,if1 !n1 x is ass]t$ t !re is a         
compreh5sive =mula1 includ+ all ?+s :i* 
are 9 !mselves  good1 & t :atev] else is
 good1 is n s z an end1 b z a  mean1 !  
=mula may be accept$ or reject$1 b is n 
a subject (  :at is commonly und]/ood by
 pro(4 ,we are n1 h[ev]1 to inf] t  its 
acceptance or rejection mu/ dep5d on    
bl9d impulse1 or arbitr>y  *oice4 ,!re  
is a l>g] mean+ ( ! ^w pro(1 9 :i* ?is  

"q is z am5able to x z any o!r ( !      
disput$ que/ions (  philosophy4 ,!      
subject is )9 ! cognizance ( ! rational 
faculty2 & nei!r does t faculty deal ) x
 solely 9 ! way  ( intuition4           
,consid]ations may be pres5t$ capable ( 
det]m9+ !  intellect ei!r to give or    
)hold its ass5t to ! doctr9e2 &  ?is is 
equival5t to pro(4    ,we %all exam9e   
pres5tly ( :at nature are ^!            
consid]ations2 9  :at mann] !y apply to 
! case1 & :at rational gr\nds1  !re=e1 c
 be giv5 = accept+ or reject+ !         
utilit>ian  =mula4 ,b x is a prelim9>y  
condition ( rational acceptance or      
rejection1 t ! =mula %\ld be correctly  
und]/ood4 ,i believe  t ! v imp]fect    
notion ord9>ily =m$ ( its mean+1 is !   
*ief ob/acle :i* imp$es its reception2 &
 t c\ld x be  cle>$1 ev5 f only ! gross]
 misconceptions1 ! "q w\ld  be greatly  
simplifi$1 & a l>ge proportion ( its    
difficulties  remov$4 ,be=e1 !re=e1 ,i  
attempt to ent] into ! philosophical    
gr\nds :i* c be giv5 = ass5t+ to !      

utilit>ian /&>d1 ,i  %all (f] "s        
illu/rations ( ! doctr9e itself2 ) !    
view (  %[+ m cle>ly :at x is1 di/+ui%+ 
x f :at x is n1  & dispos+ ( su* ( !    
practical objections to x z ei!r        
orig9ate 91 or are closely connect$ )1  
mi/ak5 int]pretations (  its mean+4     
,hav+ ?us prep>$ ! gr\nd1 ,i %all       
aft]w>ds  endeav\r to ?r[ su* light z ,i
 c ^u ! "q1 consid]$ z  "o (            
philosophical !ory4          ,,*apt]    
,,ii4      ,,:at ,,utilit>ianism ,,is4  
,a pass+ rem>k is all t ne$s be giv5 to 
! ignorant blund] (  suppos+ t ^? :o /& 
up = utility z ! te/ ( "r &  wrong1 use 
! t]m 9 t re/rict$ & m]ely colloquial   
s5se 9  :i* utility is oppos$ to        
pleasure4 ,an apology is due to !       
philosophical oppon5ts ( utilit>ianism1 
= ev5 ! mom5t>y  appe>ance ( conf\nd+ !m
 ) any "o capable ( s absurd a          
misconception2 :i* is ! m extraord9>y1  
inasmu* z ! contr>y  accusation1 (      
ref]r+ ev]y?+ to pleasure1 & t too 9 its
  grosse/ =m1 is ano!r ( ! common *>ges 

aga9/ utilit>ianism3  &1 z has be5      
po9t$ly rem>k$ by an able writ]1 ! same 
sort (  p]sons1 & (t5 ! v same p]sons1  
d5\nce ! !ory z  impracticably dry :5 ! 
^w utility prec$es ! ^w pleasure1 &  z  
too practicably voluptu\s :5 ! ^w       
pleasure prec$es ! ^w  utility4 ,^? :o  
"k any?+ ab\t ! matt] are aw>e t e      
writ]1 f ,epicurus to ,b5?am1 :o ma9ta9$
 ! !ory ( utility1  meant by x1 n some?+
 to be contradi/+ui%$ f pleasure1 b     
pleasure itself1 toge!r ) exemption f   
pa92 & in/ead (  oppos+ ! useful to !   
agreeable or ! ornam5tal1 h always      
decl>$ t ! useful means ^!1 among o!r   
?+s4 ,yet !  common h]d1 includ+ ! h]d (
 writ]s1 n only 9 newspap]s &           
p]iodicals1 b 9 books ( weight &        
pret5sion1 are p]petually  fall+ into   
?is %all[ mi/ake4 ,hav+ caught up ! ^w  
utilit>ian1 :ile kn[+ no?+ :atev] ab\t x
 b its s\nd1 !y  habitually express by x
 ! rejection1 or ! neglect1 ( pleasure 9
  "s ( its =ms2 ( beauty1 ( ornam5t1 or 
( amusem5t4 ,nor is !  t]m ?us          

ignorantly misappli$ solely 9           
disp>agem5t1 b  occasionally 9          
complim5t2 z ?\gh x impli$ sup]iority to
  frivolity & ! m]e pleasures ( ! mom5t4
 ,& ?is p]v]t$ use  is ! only "o 9 :i* !
 ^w is popul>ly kn[n1 & ! "o f  :i* !   
new g5]ation are acquir+ _! sole notion 
( its mean+4  ,^? :o introduc$ ! ^w1 b  
:o _h = _m ye>s discont9u$  x z a       
di/9ctive appellation1 may well feel    
!mselves call$ ^u to  resume x1 if by   
do+ s !y c hope to contribute any?+     
t[>ds  rescu+ x f ?is utt]              
degradation4,a    ,! cre$ :i* accepts z 
! f\ndation ( morals1 ,utility1 or !    
,greate/ ,happ9ess ,pr9ciple1 holds t   
actions are "r 9 proportion  z !y t5d to
 promote happ9ess1 wrong z !y t5d to    
produce !  rev]se ( happ9ess4 ,by       
happ9ess is int5d$ pleasure1 & !  abs5ce
 ( pa92 by unhapp9ess1 pa91 & !         
privation ( pleasure4 ,to  give a cle>  
view ( ! moral /&>d set up by ! !ory1   
mu* m  requires to be said2 9 p>ticul>1 
:at ?+s x includes 9 ! ideas  ( pa9 &   

pleasure2 & to :at ext5t ?is is left an 
op5 "q4  ,b ^! supplem5t>y explanations 
d n affect ! !ory ( life on  :i* ?is    
!ory ( morality is gr\nd$--namely1 t    
pleasure1 &  fre$om f pa91 are ! only   
?+s desirable z ends2 & t all  desirable
 ?+s 7:i* are z num]\s 9 ! utilit>ian z 
9 any  o!r s*eme7 are desirable ei!r = !
 pleasure inh]5t 9  !mselves1 or z means
 to ! promotion ( pleasure & ! prev5tion
  ( pa94    ,n[1 su* a !ory ( life      
excites 9 _m m9ds1 & among !m 9 "s  ( ! 
mo/ e/imable 9 feel+ & purpose1         
invet]ate dislike4 ,to  suppose t life  
has 7z !y express x7 no high] end ?an   
pleasure--no bett] & nobl] object (     
desire & pursuit--!y  designate z utt]ly
 mean & grovell+2 z a doctr9e wor?y only
 (  sw9e1 to :om ! foll[]s ( ,epicurus  
71 at a v e>ly p]iod1  contemptu\sly    
lik5$2 & mod]n hold]s ( ! doctr9e are   
occasionally made ! subject ( equally   
polite comp>isons by its  ,g]man1 ,fr5*1
 & ,engli% assailants4    ,:5 ?us       
attack$1 ! ,epicureans h always answ]$1 

t x is n  !y1 b _! accus]s1 :o repres5t 
human nature 9 a degrad+  light2 s9ce ! 
accusation supposes human be+s to be    
capable ( no  pleasures except ^? ( :i* 
sw9e are capable4 ,if ?is supposition  7
 true1 ! *>ge c\ld n be ga9said1 b w\ld 
!n be no  long] an imputation2 = if !   
s\rces ( pleasure 7 precisely !  same to
 human be+s & to sw9e1 ! rule ( life :i*
 is good en\gh  = ! "o w\ld be good     
en\gh = ! o!r4 ,! comp>ison ( !         
,epicurean life to t ( bea/s is felt z  
degrad+1 precisely because  a bea/'s    
pleasures d n satisfy a human be+'s     
conceptions (  happ9ess4 ,human be+s h  
faculties m elevat$ ?an ! animal        
appetites1 & :5 once made consci\s ( !m1
 d n reg>d any?+  z happ9ess :i* does n 
include _! gratification4 ,i d n1       
inde$1 consid] ! ,epicureans to h be5 by
 any means faultless 9  draw+ out _!    
s*eme ( consequ5ces f ! utilit>ian      
pr9ciple4  ,to d ?is 9 any suffici5t    
mann]1 _m ,/oic1 z well z ,*ri/ian      
elem5ts require to be includ$4 ,b !re is

 no kn[n ,epicurean !ory  ( life :i*    
does n assign to ! pleasures ( !        
intellect2 ( !  feel+s & imag9ation1 & (
 ! moral s5tim5ts1 a mu* high]  value z 
pleasures ?an to ^? ( m]e s5sation4 ,x  
mu/ be admitt$1  h[ev]1 t utilit>ian    
writ]s 9 g5]al h plac$ ! sup]iority  (  
m5tal ov] bodily pleasures *iefly 9 !   
great] p]man5cy1  safety1 unco/l9ess1   
c41 ( ! =m]--t is1 9 _!  circum/antial  
advantages r ?an 9 _! intr9sic nature4  
,& on  all ^! po9ts utilit>ians h fully 
prov$ _! case2 b !y  might h tak5 ! o!r1
 &1 z x may be call$1 high] gr\nd1  )   
entire consi/5cy4 ,x is q compatible ) !
 pr9ciple (  utility to recognise !     
fact1 t "s k9ds ( pleasure are m        
desirable & m valuable ?an o!rs4 ,x w\ld
 be absurd t :ile1  9 e/imat+ all o!r   
?+s1 quality is consid]$ z well z       
quantity1 ! e/imation ( pleasures %\ld  
be suppos$ to dep5d on  quantity alone4 
,if ,i am ask$1 :at ,i mean by diff]5ce 
( quality 9 pleasures1 or  :at makes "o 
pleasure m valuable ?an ano!r1 m]ely z a

  pleasure1 except its be+ great] 9     
am\nt1 !re is b "o possible  answ]4 ,(  
two pleasures1 if !re be "o to :i* all  
or almo/ all :o  h exp]i5ce ( bo? give a
 decid$ pref]5ce1 irrespective ( any    
feel+ ( moral obligation to pref] x1 t  
is ! m desirable  pleasure4 ,if "o ( !  
two is1 by ^? :o are compet5tly acqua9t$
  ) bo?1 plac$ s f> above ! o!r t !y    
pref] x1 ev5  ?\gh kn[+ x to be att5d$ )
 a great] am\nt ( discont5t1  & w\ld n  
resign x = any quantity ( ! o!r pleasure
 :i*  _! nature is capable (1 we are    
ju/ifi$ 9 ascrib+ to !  pref]r$ enjoym5t
 a sup]iority 9 quality1 s f> outweigh+ 
quantity z to r5d] x1 9 comp>ison1 (    
small acc\nt4    ,n[ x is an            
unque/ionable fact t ^? :o are equally  
acqua9t$  )1 & equally capable (        
appreciat+ & enjoy+1 bo?1 d give a  mo/ 
m>k$ pref]5ce to ! mann] ( exi/5ce :i*  
employs _!  high] faculties4 ,few human 
creatures w\ld cons5t to be *ang$ into  
any ( ! l[] animals1 = a promise ( !    
fulle/ all[ance ( a  bea/'s pleasures2  

no intellig5t human be+ w\ld cons5t to  
be a  fool1 no in/ruct$ p]son w\ld be an
 ignoramus1 no p]son ( feel+  &         
consci5ce w\ld be selfi% & base1 ev5    
?\gh !y %\ld be  p]suad$ t ! fool1 !    
dunce1 or ! rascal is bett] satisfi$  ) 
8 lot ?an !y are ) !irs4 ,!y w\ld n     
resign :at !y  possess m ?an he1 = ! mo/
 complete satisfaction ( all !  desires 
:i* !y h 9 common ) him4 ,if !y ev]     
fancy !y  w\ld1 x is only 9 cases (     
unhapp9ess s extreme1 t to escape  f x  
!y w\ld ex*ange _! lot = almo/ any o!r1 
h[ev]  undesirable 9 _! own eyes4 ,a be+
 ( high] faculties requires m  to make  
him happy1 is capable probably ( m acute
 suff]+1 & is  c]ta9ly accessible to x  
at m po9ts1 ?an "o ( an inf]ior type2  b
 9 spite ( ^! liabilities1 he c nev]    
really wi% to s9k into  :at he feels to 
be a l[] grade ( exi/5ce4 ,we may give  
:at  explanation we please ( ?is        
unwill+ness2 we may attribute x to      
pride1 a "n :i* is giv5 indiscrim9ately 
to "s ( ! mo/ & to  "s ( ! lea/ e/imable

 feel+s ( :i* mank9d are capable2 we    
may ref] x to ! love ( lib]ty & p]sonal 
indep5d5ce1 an appeal  to :i* 0 ) !     
,/oics "o ( ! mo/ effective means = !   
inculcation ( x2 to ! love ( p[]1 or to 
! love ( excitem5t1  bo? ( :i* d really 
ent] into & contribute to x3 b its mo/  
appropriate appellation is a s5se (     
dignity1 :i* all human be+s  possess 9  
"o =m or o!r1 & 9 "s1 ?\gh by no means 9
 exact1  proportion to _! high]         
faculties1 & :i* is s ess5tial a "p  ( !
 happ9ess ( ^? 9 :om x is /rong1 t no?+ 
:i*  conflicts ) x c\ld be1 o!rwise ?an 
mom5t>ily1 an object (  desire to !m4   
,:oev] supposes t ?is pref]5ce takes    
place at a  sacrifice ( happ9ess-t !    
sup]ior be+1 9 any?+ l equal            
circum/ances1 is n happi] ?an !         
inf]ior-conf\nds ! two v  diff]5t ideas1
 ( happ9ess1 & cont5t4 ,x is            
indisputable t !  be+ ^: capacities (   
enjoym5t are l[1 has ! greate/ *ance (  
hav+ !m fully satisfi$2 & a highly-end[$
 be+ w always feel  t any happ9ess :i*  

he c look =1 z ! _w is con/itut$1  is   
imp]fect4 ,b he c le>n to be> its       
imp]fections1 if !y are at  all be>able2
 & !y w n make him envy ! be+ :o is     
inde$  unconsci\s ( ! imp]fections1 b   
only because he feels n at all  ! good  
:i* ^? imp]fections qualify4 ,x is bett]
 to be a human  be+ dissatisfi$ ?an a   
pig satisfi$2 bett] to be ,socrates     
dissatisfi$ ?an a fool satisfi$4 ,& if !
 fool1 or ! pig1 is ( a  diff]5t op9ion1
 x is because !y only "k _! own side ( !
  "q4 ,! o!r p>ty to ! comp>ison kn[s   
bo? sides4    ,x may be object$1 t _m :o
 are capable ( ! high] pleasures1       
occasionally1 "u ! influ5ce (           
temptation1 po/pone !m to !  l[]4 ,b ?is
 is q compatible ) a full appreciation (
 !  intr9sic sup]iority ( ! high]4 ,m5  
(t51 f infirmity (  "*1 make _! election
 = ! ne>] good1 ?\gh !y "k x  to be !   
less valuable2 & ?is no less :5 ! *oice 
is betwe5 two  bodily pleasures1 ?an :5 
x is betwe5 bodily & m5tal4 ,!y pursue  
s5sual indulg5ces to ! injury ( heal?1  

?\gh p]fectly aw>e t  heal? is ! great] 
good4 ,x may be fur!r object$1 t _m :o  
beg9 ) y\?ful en?usiasm = ev]y?+ noble1 
z !y advance 9  ye>s s9k into indol5ce &
 selfi%ness4 ,b ,i d n believe t  ^? :o 
und]go ?is v common *ange1 volunt>ily   
*oose ! l[]  description ( pleasures 9  
pref]5ce to ! high]4 ,i believe t  be=e 
!y devote !mselves exclusively to ! "o1 
!y h already  become incapable ( ! o!r4 
,capacity = ! nobl] feel+s is 9  mo/    
natures a v t5d] plant1 easily kill$1 n 
only by ho/ile  influ5ces1 b by m]e want
 ( su/5ance2 & 9 ! majority ( "y  p]sons
 x spe$ily dies away if ! occupations to
 :i* _! position  9 life has devot$ !m1 
& ! society into :i* x has ?r[n !m1  are
 n fav\rable to keep+ t high] capacity 9
 ex]cise4 ,m5 lose  _! high aspirations 
z !y lose _! intellectual ta/es1 because
  !y h n "t or opportunity = indulg+ !m2
 & !y addict  !mselves to inf]ior       
pleasures1 n because !y delib]ately     
pref]  !m1 b because !y are ei!r ! only 
ones to :i* !y h  access1 or ! only ones

 :i* !y are any long] capable ( enjoy+4 
,x may be que/ion$ :e!r any "o :o has   
rema9$ equally  susceptible to bo?      
classes ( pleasures1 ev] kn[+ly & calmly
  pref]r$ ! l[]2 ?\gh _m1 9 all ages1 h 
brok5 d[n 9 an  ineffectual attempt to  
comb9e bo?4    ,f ?is v]dict ( ! only   
compet5t judges1 ,i appreh5d !re c be   
no appeal4 ,on a "q :i* is ! be/ wor?   
hav+ ( two  pleasures1 or :i* ( two     
modes ( exi/5ce is ! mo/ grateful to  ! 
feel+s1 ap>t f its moral attributes & f 
its consequ5ces1  ! judgm5t ( ^? :o are 
qualifi$ by k ( bo?1 or1 if  !y diff]1 t
 ( ! majority among !m1 mu/ be admitt$ z
 f9al4  ,& !re ne$s be ! less hesitation
 to accept ?is judgm5t  respect+ !      
quality ( pleasures1 s9ce !re is no o!r 
tribunal to  be ref]r$ to ev5 on ! "q ( 
quantity4 ,:at means are !re (  det]m9+ 
:i* is ! acute/ ( two pa9s1 or ! int5se/
 ( two  pleasurable s5sations1 except ! 
g5]al suffrage ( ^? :o are  famili> )   
bo?8 ,nei!r pa9s nor pleasures are      
homog5e\s1 &  pa9 is always het]og5e\s )

 pleasure4 ,:at is !re to decide  :e!r a
 p>ticul> pleasure is wor? pur*as+ at ! 
co/ ( a  p>ticul> pa91 except ! feel+s &
 judgm5t ( ! exp]i5c$8  ,:51 !re=e1 ^?  
feel+s & judgm5t decl>e ! pleasures     
d]iv$ f ! high] faculties to be         
pref]able 9 k9d1 ap>t f  ! "q (         
int5sity1 to ^? ( :i* ! animal nature1  
disjo9$ f ! high] faculties1 is         
susceptible1 !y are entitl$  on ?is     
subject to ! same reg>d4    ,i h dwelt  
on ?is po9t1 z be+ a necess>y "p ( a    
p]fectly  j conception ( ,utility or    
,happ9ess1 consid]$ z ! directive  rule 
( human conduct4 ,b x is by no means an 
indisp5sable condition  to ! acceptance 
( ! utilit>ian /&>d2 = t /&>d is n  !   
ag5t's own greate/ happ9ess1 b ! greate/
 am\nt ( happ9ess  altoge!r2 & if x may 
possibly be d\bt$ :e!r a noble "*  is   
always ! happi] = its nobl5ess1 !re c be
 no d\bt t x  makes o!r p happi]1 & t ! 
_w 9 g5]al is imm5sely a  ga9] by x4    
,utilit>ianism1 !re=e1 c\ld only atta9  
its end by  ! g5]al cultivation (       

nobl5ess ( "*1 ev5 if ea*  individual 7 
only b5efit$ by ! nobl5ess ( o!rs1 & 8  
own1  s f> z happ9ess is conc]n$1 7 a   
%e] d$uction f !  b5efit4 ,b ! b>e      
enunciation ( su* an absurdity z ?is    
la/1  r5d]s refutation sup]flu\s4       
,accord+ to ! ,greate/ ,happ9ess        
,pr9ciple1 z above expla9$1 !  ultimate 
end1 ) ref]5ce to & = ! sake ( :i* all  
o!r  ?+s are desirable 7:e!r we are     
consid]+ our own good or t (  o!r p71 is
 an exi/5ce exempt z f> z possible f    
pa91 &  z ri* z possible 9 enjoym5ts1   
bo? 9 po9t ( quantity &  quality2 ! te/ 
( quality1 & ! rule = measur+ x aga9/   
quantity1 be+ ! pref]5ce felt by ^? :o1 
9 _! opportunities  ( exp]i5ce1 to :i*  
mu/ be add$ _! habits (                 
self-consci\sness  & self-obs]vation1   
are be/ furni%$ ) ! means ( comp>ison4  
,?is1 be+1 accord+ to ! utilit>ian      
op9ion1 ! end ( human  action1 is       
necess>ily also ! /&>d ( morality2 :i*  
may  accord+ly be def9$1 ! rules &      
precepts = human conduct1 by !          

obs]vance ( :i* an exi/5ce su* z has be5
 describ$ might be1 to  ! greate/ ext5t 
possible1 secur$ to all mank9d2 & n to  
!m  only1 b1 s f> z ! nature ( ?+s      
admits1 to ! :ole s5ti5t  creation4     
,aga9/ ?is doctr9e1 h[ev]1 arises ano!r 
class ( objectors1 :o  say t happ9ess1 9
 any =m1 _c be ! rational purpose (     
human  life & action2 because1 9 ! fir/ 
place1 x is unatta9able3 &  !y          
contemptu\sly ask1 ,:at "r ha/ ?\ to be 
happy8 a "q  :i* ,mr4 ,c>lyle cl5*es by 
! addition1 ,:at "r1 a %ort "t  ago1    
had/ ?\ ev5 to be8 ,next1 !y say1 t m5 c
 d )\t  happ9ess2 t all noble human be+s
 h felt ?is1 & c\ld n  h become noble b 
by le>n+ ! lesson ( ,entsag51 or        
r5unciation2 :i* lesson1 ?or\ghly le>nt 
& submitt$ to1 !y  affirm to be ! beg9n+
 & necess>y condition ( all virtue4     
,! fir/ ( ^! objections w\ld g to ! root
 ( ! matt] 7 x  well f\nd$2 = if no     
happ9ess is to be _h at all by human    
be+s1  ! atta9m5t ( x _c be ! end (     
morality1 or ( any rational  conduct4   

,?\gh1 ev5 9 t case1 some?+ might /ill  
be said =  ! utilit>ian !ory2 s9ce      
utility includes n solely ! pursuit (   
happ9ess1 b ! prev5tion or mitigation ( 
unhapp9ess2 & if !  =m] aim be *im]ical1
 !re w be all ! great] scope & m        
imp]ative ne$ = ! latt]1 s long at lea/ 
z mank9d ?9k fit to  live1 & d n take   
refuge 9 ! simultane\s act ( suicide    
recomm5d$ "u c]ta9 conditions by        
,novalis4 ,:51 h[ev]1 x is  ?us         
positively ass]t$ to be impossible t    
human life %\ld be  happy1 ! ass]tion1  
if n some?+ l a v]bal quibble1 is at    
lea/ an exagg]ation4 ,if by happ9ess be 
meant a cont9uity ( highly  pleasurable 
excitem5t1 x is evid5t en\gh t ?is is   
impossible4 ,a  /ate ( exalt$ pleasure  
la/s only mom5ts1 or 9 "s cases1 & )  "s
 int]missions1 h\rs or days1 & is !     
occasional brilliant fla%  ( enjoym5t1 n
 its p]man5t & /eady flame4 ,( ?is !    
philosoph]s :o h taught t happ9ess is ! 
end ( life 7 z  fully aw>e z ^? :o taunt
 !m4 ,! happ9ess :i* !y meant 0  n a    

life ( rapture1 b mom5ts ( su*1 9 an    
exi/5ce made up (  few & transitory     
pa9s1 _m & v>i\s pleasures1 ) a decid$  
pr$om9ance ( ! active ov] ! passive1 &  
hav+ z !  f\ndation ( ! :ole1 n to      
expect m f life ?an x is capable  (     
be/[+4 ,a life ?us compos$1 to ^? :o h  
be5 =tunate  en\gh to obta9 x1 has      
always appe>$ wor?y ( ! "n (  happ9ess4 
,& su* an exi/5ce is ev5 n[ ! lot ( _m1 
dur+  "s consid]able portion ( _! lives4
 ,! pres5t wret*$  education1 & wret*$  
social arrangem5ts1 are ! only real     
h9drance  to its be+ atta9able by almo/ 
all4    ,! objectors p]haps may d\bt    
:e!r human be+s1 if taught to  consid]  
happ9ess z ! end ( life1 w\ld be        
satisfi$ ) su* a  mod]ate %>e ( x4 ,b   
great numb]s ( mank9d h be5 satisfi$  ) 
mu* less4 ,! ma9 con/itu5ts ( a satisfi$
 life appe> to be  two1 ei!r ( :i* by   
itself is (t5 f\nd suffici5t = !        
purpose3 tranquillity1 & excitem5t4 ,)  
mu* tranquillity1 _m f9d  t !y c be     
cont5t ) v little pleasure3 ) mu*       

excitem5t1 _m c reconcile !mselves to a 
consid]able quantity (  pa94 ,!re is    
assur$ly no inh]5t impossibility 9      
enabl+ ev5 !  mass ( mank9d to unite    
bo?2 s9ce ! two are s f> f be+          
incompatible t !y are 9 natural         
alliance1 ! prolongation (  ei!r be+ a  
prep>ation =1 & excit+ a wi% =1 ! o!r4  
,x  is only ^? 9 :om indol5ce am\nts to 
a vice1 t d n desire  excitem5t aft] an 
int]val ( repose2 x is only ^? 9 :om !  
ne$ ( excitem5t is a disease1 t feel !  
tranquillity :i*  foll[s excitem5t dull 
& insipid1 in/ead ( pleasurable 9 direct
  proportion to ! excitem5t :i* prec$$  
x4 ,:5 p :o are  tol]ably =tunate 9 _!  
outw>d lot d n f9d 9 life suffici5t     
enjoym5t to make x valuable to !m1 !    
cause g5]ally is1 c>+  = nobody b       
!mselves4 ,to ^? :o h nei!r public nor  
private  affections1 ! excitem5ts ( life
 are mu* curtail$1 & 9 any case  dw9dle 
9 value z ! "t approa*es :5 all selfi%  
int]e/s mu/  be t]m9at$ by dea?3 :ile ^?
 :o leave aft] !m objects (  p]sonal    

affection1 & especially ^? :o h also    
cultivat$ a  fell[-feel+ ) ! collective 
int]e/s ( mank9d1 reta9 z  lively an    
int]e/ 9 life on ! eve ( dea? z 9 !     
vig\r ( y\?  & heal?4 ,next to          
selfi%ness1 ! pr9cipal cause :i* makes  
life  unsatisfactory1 is want ( m5tal   
cultivation4 ,a cultivat$ m9d--,i d  n  
mean t ( a philosoph]1 b any m9d to :i* 
! f\nta9s (  k h be5 op5$1 & :i* has be5
 taught1 9 any tol]able  degree1 to     
ex]cise its faculties--f9ds s\rces (    
inexhau/ible  int]e/ 9 all t surr\nds x2
 9 ! objects ( nature1 !  a*ievem5ts (  
art1 ! imag9ations ( poetry1 ! incid5ts 
(  hi/ory1 ! ways ( mank9d pa/ & pres5t1
 & _! prospects 9  ! future4 ,x is      
possible1 inde$1 to become indiff]5t to 
all ?is1  & t too )\t hav+ exhau/$ a    
?\s&? "p ( x2 b only  :5 "o has _h f !  
beg9n+ no moral or human int]e/ 9 ^!    
?+s1 & has s\ght 9 !m only !            
gratification ( curiosity4    ,n[ !re is
 absolutely no reason 9 ! nature ( ?+s  
:y an am\nt  ( m5tal culture suffici5t  

to give an intellig5t int]e/ 9 ^!       
objects ( contemplation1 %\ld n be !    
inh]itance ( e "o  born 9 a civiliz$    
c\ntry4 ,z little is !re an inh]5t      
necessity  t any human be+ %\ld be a    
selfi% egoti/1 devoid ( e  feel+ or c>e 
b ^? :i* c5tre 9 8 own mis]able         
individuality4 ,some?+ f> sup]ior to ?is
 is suffici5tly common  ev5 n[1 to give 
ample e>ne/ ( :at ! human species may be
 made4  ,g5u9e private affections1 & a  
s9c]e int]e/ 9 ! public good1  are      
possible1 ?\gh 9 unequal degrees1 to e  
rightly br\ght-up  human be+4 ,9 a _w 9 
:i* !re is s mu* to int]e/1 s mu*  to   
enjoy1 & s mu* also to correct &        
improve1 e "o :o has  ?is mod]ate am\nt 
( moral & intellectual requisites is    
capable (  an exi/5ce :i* may be call$  
enviable2 & unless su* a p]son1  ?r\gh  
bad laws1 or subjection to ! w ( o!rs1  
is d5i$ !  lib]ty to use ! s\rces (     
happ9ess )9 8 rea*1 he w n  fail to f9d 
?is enviable exi/5ce1 if he escape !    
positive evils (  life1 ! great s\rces (

 physical & m5tal suff]+--su* z         
indig5ce1 disease1 & ! unk9dness1       
wor?lessness1 or premature loss  (      
objects ( affection4 ,! ma9 /ress ( !   
problem lies1 !re=e1  9 ! conte/ ) ^!   
calamities1 f :i* x is a r>e good  =tune
 entirely to escape2 :i*1 z ?+s n[ are1 
_c be  obviat$1 & (t5 _c be 9 any       
mat]ial degree mitigat$4 ,yet no  "o ^: 
op9ion des]ves a mom5t's consid]ation c 
d\bt t mo/  ( ! great positive evils ( !
 _w are 9 !mselves removable1  & w1 if  
human affairs cont9ue to improve1 be 9 !
 end r$uc$  )9 n>r[ limits4 ,pov]ty1 9  
any s5se imply+ suff]+1 may be          
completely ext+ui%$ by ! wisdom (       
society1 comb9$ ) ! good  s5se &        
provid5ce ( individuals4 ,ev5 t mo/     
intractable (  enemies1 disease1 may be 
indef9itely r$uc$ 9 dim5sions by good   
physical & moral education1 & prop]     
control ( noxi\s influ5ces2  :ile !     
progress ( sci5ce holds out a promise = 
! future (  /ill m direct conque/s ov]  
?is dete/able foe4 ,& e advance  9 t    

direction relieves u f "s1 n only ( !   
*ances :i*  cut %ort our own lives1 b1  
:at conc]ns u /ill m1 :i* deprive  u (  
^? 9 :om our happ9ess is wrapt up4 ,z = 
vicissitudes (  =tune1 & o!r            
disappo9tm5ts connect$ ) worldly        
circum/ances1  ^! are pr9cipally !      
effect ei!r ( gross imprud5ce1 (        
ill-regulat$ desires1 or ( bad or       
imp]fect social in/itutions4 ,all  ! gr&
 s\rces1 9 %ort1 ( human suff]+ are 9 a 
great degree1  _m ( !m almo/ entirely1  
conqu]able by human c>e & ef=t2 &  ?\gh 
_! removal is griev\sly sl[--?\gh a long
 succession (  g5]ations w p]i% 9 !     
brea* be=e ! conque/ is complet$1  & ?is
 _w becomes all t1 if w & k 7 n want+1  
x might easily be made--yet e m9d       
suffici5tly intellig5t &  g5]\s to be> a
 "p1 h[ev] small & unconspicu\s1 9 !    
endeav\r1 w draw a noble enjoym5t f !   
conte/ itself1 :i* he  w\ld n = any     
bribe 9 ! =m ( selfi% indulg5ce cons5t  
to be  )\t4    ,& ?is leads to ! true   
e/imation ( :at is said by ! objectors  

conc]n+ ! possibility1 & ! obligation1 (
 le>n+ to d  )\t happ9ess4              
,unque/ionably x is possible to d )\t   
happ9ess2 x is done involunt>ily by     
n9ete5-tw5tie?s ( mank9d1  ev5 9 ^? p>ts
 ( our pres5t _w :i* are lea/ deep 9    
b>b>ism2 & x (t5 has to be done         
volunt>ily by ! h]o or !  m>tyr1 = !    
sake ( some?+ :i* he prizes m ?an 8     
individual happ9ess4 ,b ?is some?+1 :at 
is x1 unless !  happ9ess ( o!rs1 or "s (
 ! requisites ( happ9ess8 ,x is noble   
to be capable ( resign+ entirely "o's   
own portion ( happ9ess1 or  *ances ( x3 
b1 aft] all1 ?is self-sacrifice mu/ be =
 "s end2  x is n its own end2 & if we   
are told t its end is n happ9ess1  b    
virtue1 :i* is bett] ?an happ9ess1 ,i   
ask1 w\ld ! sacrifice  be made if ! h]o 
or m>tyr did n believe t x w\ld e>n =   
o!rs immunity f simil> sacrifices8 ,w\ld
 x be made1 if he ?\ght  t 8 r5unciation
 ( happ9ess = himself w\ld produce no   
fruit  = any ( 8 fell[ creatures1 b to  
make _! lot l 81 &  place !m also 9 !   

condition ( p]sons :o h r5\nc$          
happ9ess8 ,all hon\r to ^? :o c abnegate
 = !mselves !  p]sonal enjoym5t ( life1 
:5 by su* r5unciation !y contribute     
wor?ily to increase ! am\nt ( happ9ess 9
 ! _w2 b he :o  does x1 or pr(esses to d
 x1 = any o!r purpose1 is no m  des]v+ (
 admiration ?an ! ascetic m\nt$ on 8    
pill>4 ,he may  be an inspirit+ pro( (  
:at m5 c d1 b assur$ly n an  example (  
:at !y %\ld4    ,?\gh x is only 9 a v   
imp]fect /ate ( ! _w's arrangem5ts  t   
any "o c be/ s]ve ! happ9ess ( o!rs by !
 absolute  sacrifice ( 8 own1 yet s long
 z ! _w is 9 t imp]fect  /ate1 ,i fully 
ackn[l$ge t ! read9ess to make su* a    
sacrifice  is ! highe/ virtue :i* c be  
f\nd 9 man4 ,i w add1 t 9  ?is condition
 ( ! _w1 p>adoxical z ! ass]tion may be1
 !  consci\s ability to d )\t happ9ess  
gives ! be/ prospect (  realiz+ su*     
happ9ess z is atta9able4 ,= no?+ except 
t  consci\sness c raise a p]son above ! 
*ances ( life1 by mak+  him feel t1 let 
fate & =tune d _! wor/1 !y h n p[]  to  

subdue him3 :i*1 once felt1 frees him f 
excess ( anxiety  conc]n+ ! evils (     
life1 & enables him1 l _m a ,/oic 9 !   
wor/ times ( ! ,roman ,empire1 to       
cultivate 9 tranquillity !  s\rces (    
satisfaction accessible to him1 )\t     
conc]n+ himself  ab\t ! unc]ta9ty ( _!  
duration1 any m ?an ab\t _!  inevitable 
end4    ,mean:ile1 let utilit>ians nev] 
cease to claim ! morality (             
self-devotion z a possession :i* belongs
 by z good a "r to !m1  z ei!r to !     
,/oic or to ! ,transc5d5tali/4 ,!       
utilit>ian  morality does recognise 9   
human be+s ! p[] ( sacrific+ _!  own    
greate/ good = ! good ( o!rs4 ,x only   
refuses to admit t  ! sacrifice is      
itself a good4 ,a sacrifice :i* does n  
increase1 or  t5d to increase1 ! sum    
total ( happ9ess1 x consid]s z wa/$4  ,!
 only self-r5unciation :i* x applauds1  
is devotion to !  happ9ess1 or to "s ( !
 means ( happ9ess1 ( o!rs2 ei!r (       
mank9d collectively1 or ( individuals )9
 ! limits impos$ by !  collective       

int]e/s ( mank9d4    ,i mu/ aga9 repeat1
 :at ! assailants ( utilit>ianism seldom
 h  ! ju/ice to ackn[l$ge1 t ! happ9ess 
:i* =ms !  utilit>ian /&>d ( :at is "r 9
 conduct1 is n ! ag5t's own  happ9ess1 b
 t ( all conc]n$4 ,z betwe5 8 own       
happ9ess &  t ( o!rs1 utilit>ianism     
requires him to be z /rictly imp>tial  z
 a dis9t]e/$ & b5evol5t spectator4 ,9 ! 
gold5 rule ( ,jesus  ( ,naz>e?1 we read 
! complete _s ( ! e?ics ( utility4 ,to  
d z "o w\ld be done by1 & to love "o's  
neighb\r z oneself1  con/itute ! ideal  
p]fection ( utilit>ian morality4 ,z !   
means (  mak+ ! ne>e/ approa* to ?is    
ideal1 utility w\ld enjo91 fir/1  t laws
 & social arrangem5ts %\ld place !      
happ9ess1 or 7z  speak+ practically x   
may be call$7 ! int]e/1 ( e  individual1
 z ne>ly z possible 9 h>mony ) ! int]e/ 
( !  :ole2 & secondly1 t education &    
op9ion1 :i* h s va/ a  p[] ov] human "*1
 %\ld s use t p[] z to e/abli% 9  ! m9d 
( e individual an indissoluble          
association betwe5 8 own  happ9ess & !  

good ( ! :ole2 especially betwe5 8 own  
happ9ess & ! practice ( su* modes (     
conduct1 negative &  positive1 z reg>d =
 ! univ]sal happ9ess prescribes3 s t n  
only he may be unable to conceive !     
possibility ( happ9ess to  himself1     
consi/5tly ) conduct oppos$ to ! g5]al  
good1 b also  t a direct impulse to     
promote ! g5]al good may be 9 e         
individual "o ( ! habitual motives (    
action1 & ! s5tim5ts  connect$ !re) may 
fill a l>ge & prom95t place 9 e human   
be+'s s5ti5t exi/5ce4 ,if ! impugn]s ( !
 utilit>ian morality  repres5t$ x to _! 
own m9ds 9 ?is its true "*1 ,i "k n  :at
 recomm5dation possess$ by any o!r      
morality !y c\ld possibly  affirm to be 
want+ to x3 :at m beautiful or m exalt$ 
developm5ts ( human nature any o!r      
e?ical sy/em c be suppos$ to  fo/]1 or  
:at spr+s ( action1 n accessible to !   
utilit>ian1  su* sy/ems rely on = giv+  
effect to _! m&ates4    ,! objectors to 
utilit>ianism _c always be *>g$ )       
repres5t+ x 9 a discr$itable light4 ,on 

! contr>y1 ^? among  !m :o ent]ta9 any?+
 l a j idea ( its dis9t]e/$  "*1        
sometimes f9d fault ) its /&>d z be+ too
 high =  humanity4 ,!y say x is exact+  
too mu* to require t p %all  always act 
f ! inducem5t ( promot+ ! g5]al int]e/s 
(  society4 ,b ?is is to mi/ake ! v     
mean+ ( a /&>d (  morals1 & to conf\nd !
 rule ( action ) ! motive ( x4 ,x is  ! 
bus9ess ( e?ics to tell u :at are our   
duties1 or by :at te/  we may "k !m2 b  
no sy/em ( e?ics requires t ! sole      
motive  ( all we d %all be a feel+ (    
duty2 on ! contr>y1 n9ety-n9e  hundr$?s 
( all our actions are done f o!r        
motives1 & rightly  s done1 if ! rule ( 
duty does n condemn !m4 ,x is ! m  unju/
 to utilit>ianism t ?is p>ticul>        
misappreh5sion %\ld be  made a gr\nd (  
objection to x1 inasmu* z utilit>ian    
morali/s h  gone beyond almo/ all o!rs 9
 affirm+ t ! motive has no?+  to d ) !  
morality ( ! action1 ?\gh mu* ) ! wor? (
 !  ag5t4 ,he :o saves a fell[ creature 
f dr[n+ does :at is morally  "r1 :e!r 8 

motive be duty1 or ! hope ( be+ paid = 8
  tr\ble3 he :o betrays ! fri5d t tru/s 
him1 is guilty ( a  crime1 ev5 if 8     
object be to s]ve ano!r fri5d to :om he 
is "u  great] obligations4,b ,b to speak
 only ( actions done f !  motive ( duty1
 & 9 direct ob$i5ce to pr9ciple3 x is a 
misappreh5sion ( ! utilit>ian mode (    
?\ght1 to conceive x z  imply+ t p %\ld 
fix _! m9ds ^u s wide a g5]ality z  !   
_w1 or society at l>ge4 ,! great        
majority ( good actions are  int5d$1 n =
 ! b5efit ( ! _w1 b = t ( individuals1  
( :i* ! good ( ! _w is made up2 & !     
?\ghts ( ! mo/  virtu\s man ne$ n on ^! 
occasions travel beyond ! p>ticul>      
p]sons conc]n$1 except s f> z is        
necess>y to assure himself t  9 b5efit+ 
!m he is n violat+ ! rights--t is1 !    
legitimate & au?oriz$ expectations--(   
any "o else4 ,!  multiplication (       
happ9ess is1 accord+ to ! utilit>ian    
e?ics1 !  object ( virtue3 ! occasions  
on :i* any p]son 7except "o 9 a  ?\s&7  
has x 9 8 p[] to d ?is on an ext5d$     

scale1 9 o!r  words1 to be a public     
b5efactor1 are b exceptional2 & on ^!   
occasions alone is he call$ on to       
consid] public utility2 9 e  o!r case1  
private utility1 ! int]e/ or happ9ess ( 
"s few  p]sons1 is all he has to att5d  
to4 ,^? alone ! influ5ce ( ^:  actions  
ext5ds to society 9 g5]al1 ne$ conc]n   
!mselves  habitually ab\t s l>ge an     
object4 ,9 ! case ( ab/95ces  inde$--(  
?+s :i* p =be> to d1 f moral            
consid]ations1  ?\gh ! consequ5ces 9 !  
p>ticul> case might be b5eficial--x     
w\ld be unwor?y ( an intellig5t ag5t n  
to be consci\sly aw>e  t ! action is ( a
 class :i*1 if practis$ g5]ally1 w\ld be
  g5]ally injuri\s1 & t ?is is ! gr\nd (
 ! obligation to  ab/a9 f x4 ,! am\nt ( 
reg>d = ! public int]e/ impli$ 9  ?is   
recognition1 is no great] ?an is dem&$  
by e sy/em (  morals2 = !y all enjo9 to 
ab/a9 f :atev] is manife/ly  p]nici\s to
 society4    ,! same consid]ations      
dispose ( ano!r reproa* aga9/ ! doctr9e 
( utility1 f\nd$ on a /ill gross]       

misconception ( ! purpose ( a  /&>d (   
morality1 & ( ! v mean+ ( ! words "r &  
wrong4 ,x is (t5 affirm$ t utilit>ianism
 r5d]s m5 cold &  unsympa?iz+2 t x *ills
 _! moral feel+s t[>ds  individuals2 t x
 makes !m reg>d only ! dry & h>d        
consid]ation ( ! consequ5ces ( actions1 
n tak+ into _!  moral e/imate !         
qualities f :i* ^? actions emanate4 ,if 
!  ass]tion means t !y d n all[ _!      
judgm5t respect+ !  rightness or        
wrongness ( an action to be influ5c$ by 
_! op9ion (  ! qualities ( ! p]son :o   
does x1 ?is is a compla9t n aga9/       
utilit>ianism1 b aga9/ hav+ any /&>d (  
morality at all2 =  c]ta9ly no kn[n     
e?ical /&>d decides an action to be good
 or bad  because x is done by a good or 
a bad man1 /ill less because done by an 
amiable1 a brave1 or a b5evol5t man or !
 contr>y4 ,^!  consid]ations are        
relevant1 n to ! e/imation ( actions1 b 
(  p]sons2 & !re is no?+ 9 ! utilit>ian 
!ory inconsi/5t  ) ! fact t !re are o!r 
?+s :i* int]e/ u 9 p]sons  besides !    

rightness & wrongness ( _! actions4 ,!  
,/oics1  inde$1 ) ! p>adoxical misuse ( 
language :i* 0 "p ( _!  sy/em1 & by :i* 
!y /rove to raise !mselves above all    
conc]n  ab\t any?+ b virtue1 7 fond (   
say+ t he :o has t has  ev]y?+2 t he1 & 
only he1 is ri*1 is beautiful1 is a k+4 
,b  no claim ( ?is description is made =
 ! virtu\s man by !  utilit>ian doctr9e4
 ,utilit>ians are q aw>e t !re are o!r  
desirable possessions & qualities       
besides virtue1 & are p]fectly  will+ to
 all[ to all ( !m _! full wor?4 ,!y are 
also aw>e  t a "r action does n         
necess>ily indicate a virtu\s "*1  & t  
actions :i* are blameable (t5 proce$ f  
qualities  entitl$ to praise4 ,:5 ?is is
 app>5t 9 any p>ticul> case1 x  modifies
 _! e/imation1 n c]ta9ly ( ! act1 b ( ! 
ag5t4  ,i grant t !y are1 not)/&+1 (    
op9ion1 t 9 ! long run  ! be/ pro( ( a  
good "* is good actions2 & resolutely   
refuse to consid] any m5tal disposition 
z good1 ( :i* !  pr$om9ant t5d5cy is to 
produce bad conduct4 ,?is makes !m      

unpopul> ) _m p2 b x is an unpopul>ity  
:i* !y mu/  %>e ) e "o :o reg>ds !      
di/9ction betwe5 "r & wrong  9 a s]i\s  
light2 & ! reproa* is n "o :i* a        
consci5ti\s  utilit>ian ne$ be anxi\s to
 repel4    ,if no m be meant by !       
objection ?an t _m utilit>ians look on  
! morality ( actions1 z measur$ by !    
utilit>ian /&>d1 )  too exclusive a     
reg>d1 & d n lay suffici5t /ress ^u !   
o!r  beauties ( "* :i* g t[>ds mak+ a   
human be+ loveable or  admirable1 ?is   
may be admitt$4 ,utilit>ians :o h       
cultivat$ _!  moral feel+s1 b n _!      
sympa?ies nor _! arti/ic p]ceptions1  d 
fall into ?is mi/ake2 & s d all o!r     
morali/s "u ! same  conditions4 ,:at c  
be said 9 excuse = o!r morali/s is      
equally  available = !m1 namely1 t if   
!re is to be any error1 x is  bett] t x 
%\ld be on t side4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 we
 may  affirm t among utilit>ians z among
 adh]5ts ( o!r sy/ems1  !re is e        
imag9able degree ( rigidity & ( laxity 9
 !  application ( _! /&>d3 "s are ev5   

puritanically rigor\s1  :ile o!rs are z 
indulg5t z c possibly be desir$ by s9n] 
or by  s5tim5tali/4 ,b on ! :ole1 a     
doctr9e :i* br+s prom95tly  =w>d !      
int]e/ t mank9d h 9 ! repression &      
prev5tion  ( conduct :i* violates !     
moral law1 is likely to be inf]ior to no
  o!r 9 turn+ ! sanctions ( op9ion aga9/
 su* violations4 ,x is  true1 ! "q1 ,:at
 does violate ! moral law8 is "o on :i* 
^? :o recognise diff]5t /&>ds ( morality
 are likely n[ &  !n to diff]4 ,b       
diff]5ce ( op9ion on moral que/ions 0 n 
fir/ introduc$ into ! _w by             
utilit>ianism1 :ile t doctr9e  does     
supply1 if n always an easy1 at all     
ev5ts a tangible &  intelligible mode ( 
decid+ su* diff]5ces4           99      
99       99       99       99    ,x may 
n be sup]flu\s to notice a few m ( !    
common  misappreh5sions ( utilit>ian    
e?ics1 ev5 ^? :i* are s obvi\s  & gross 
t x might appe> impossible = any p]son (
 c&\r &  intellig5ce to fall into !m3   
s9ce p]sons1 ev5 ( consid]able  m5tal   

end[m5ts1 (t5 give !mselves s little    
tr\ble to und]/&  ! be>+s ( any op9ion  
aga9/ :i* !y ent]ta9 a prejudice1  & m5 
are 9 g5]al s little consci\s ( ?is     
volunt>y ignorance  z a defect1 t !     
vulg>e/ misund]/&+s ( e?ical doctr9es   
are cont9ually met ) 9 ! delib]ate      
writ+s ( p]sons ( !  greate/ pret5sions 
bo? to high pr9ciple & to philosophy4   
,we n  uncommonly he> ! doctr9e (       
utility inveigh$ aga9/ z a godless      
doctr9e4 ,if x be necess>y to say any?+ 
at all aga9/ s m]e an  assumption1 we   
may say t ! "q dep5ds ^u :at idea we h  
=m$ ( ! moral "* ( ! ,deity4 ,if x be a 
true belief t  ,god desires1 above all  
?+s1 ! happ9ess ( 8 creatures1 & t  ?is 
0 8 purpose 9 _! creation1 utility is n 
only n a  godless doctr9e1 b m pr(\ndly 
religi\s ?an any o!r4 ,if x be  meant t 
utilit>ianism does n recognise ! reveal$
 w ( ,god z  ! supreme law ( morals1 ,i 
answ]1 t an utilit>ian :o believes 9  ! 
p]fect goodness & wisdom ( ,god1        
necess>ily believes t  :atev] ,god has  

?\ght fit to reveal on ! subject (      
morals1 mu/  fulfil ! requirem5ts (     
utility 9 a supreme degree4 ,b o!rs     
besides utilit>ians h be5 ( op9ion t !  
,*ri/ian revelation  0 int5d$1 & is     
fitt$1 to in=m ! he>ts & m9ds ( mank9d  
) a _s :i* %\ld enable !m to f9d =      
!mselves :at is  "r1 & incl9e !m to d x 
:5 f\nd1 r ?an to tell !m1  except 9 a v
 g5]al way1 :at x is3 & t we ne$ a      
doctr9e (  e?ics1 c>efully foll[$ out1  
to int]pret to u ! w ( ,god4  ,:e!r ?is 
op9ion is correct or n1 x is sup]flu\s  
"h to  discuss2 s9ce :atev] aid         
religion1 ei!r natural or reveal$1 c    
af=d to e?ical inve/igation1 is z op5 to
 ! utilit>ian morali/  z to any o!r4 ,he
 c use x z ! te/imony ( ,god to !       
usefulness  or hurtfulness ( any giv5   
c\rse ( action1 by z good a "r z  o!rs c
 use x = ! indication ( a transc5d5tal  
law1 hav+ no  connexion ) usefulness or 
) happ9ess4    ,aga91 ,utility is (t5   
summ>ily /igmatiz$ z an immoral doctr9e 
by  giv+ x ! "n ( ,exp$i5cy1 & tak+     

advantage ( ! popul>  use ( t t]m to    
contra/ x ) ,pr9ciple4 ,b ! ,exp$i5t1 9 
! s5se 9 :i* x is oppos$ to ! ,"r1      
g5]ally means t  :i* is exp$i5t = !     
p>ticul> int]e/ ( ! ag5t himself3 z  :5 
a m9i/] sacrifices ! int]e/ ( 8 c\ntry  
to keep himself  9 place4 ,:5 x means   
any?+ bett] ?an ?is1 x means t :i*  is  
exp$i5t = "s imm$iate object1 "s        
tempor>y purpose1 b  :i* violates a rule
 ^: obs]vance is exp$i5t 9 a mu* high]  
degree4 ,! ,exp$i5t1 9 ?is s5se1 in/ead 
( be+ ! same ?+  ) ! useful1 is a bran* 
( ! hurtful4 ,?us1 x w\ld (t5 be        
exp$i5t1 = ! purpose ( gett+ ov] "s     
mom5t>y emb>rassm5t1  or atta9+ "s      
object imm$iately useful to ourselves or
 o!rs1 to  tell a lie4 ,b inasmu* z !   
cultivation 9 ourselves ( a s5sitive    
feel+ on ! subject ( v]acity1 is "o ( ! 
mo/ useful1 & !  enfeeblem5t ( t feel+  
"o ( ! mo/ hurtful1 ?+s to :i*  our     
conduct c be in/rum5tal2 & inasmu* z    
any1 ev5  un9t5tional1 deviation f tru?1
 does t mu* t[>ds weak5+  ! tru/wor?9ess

 ( human ass]tion1 :i* is n only !      
pr9cipal  support ( all pres5t social   
well-be+1 b ! insuffici5cy ( :i*  does m
 ?an any "o ?+ t c be nam$ to keep back 
civilisation1 virtue1 ev]y?+ on :i*     
human happ9ess on ! l>ge/  scale dep5ds2
 we feel t ! violation1 = a pres5t      
advantage1 ( a  rule ( su* transc5d5t   
exp$i5cy1 is n exp$i5t1 & t he :o1  = ! 
sake ( a conv5i5ce to himself or to "s  
o!r individual1  does :at dep5ds on him 
to deprive mank9d ( ! good1 & inflict   
^u !m ! evil1 involv$ 9 ! great] or less
 reliance :i* !y  c place 9 ea* o!r's   
^w1 acts ! "p ( "o ( _! wor/  enemies4  
,yet t ev5 ?is rule1 sacr$ z x is1      
admits ( possible  exceptions1 is       
ackn[l$g$ by all morali/s2 ! *ief ( :i* 
is :5  ! )hold+ ( "s fact 7z ( in=mation
 f a male-factor1 or  ( bad news f a    
p]son dang]\sly ill7 w\ld pres]ve "s "o 
7especially a p]son o!r ?an oneself7 f  
great & unm]it$ evil1  & :5 ! )hold+ c  
only be effect$ by d5ial4 ,b 9 ord]  t !
 exception may n ext5d itself beyond !  

ne$1 & may h  ! lea/ possible effect 9  
weak5+ reliance on v]acity1 x ought to  
be recogniz$1 &1 if possible1 its limits
 def9$2 & if !  pr9ciple ( utility is   
good = any?+1 x mu/ be good = weigh+  ^!
 conflict+ utilities aga9/ "o ano!r1 &  
m>k+ out !  region )9 :i* "o or ! o!r   
prepond]ates4    ,aga91 def5d]s (       
utility (t5 f9d !mselves call$ ^u to    
reply  to su* objections z ?is--t !re is
 n "t1 previ\s to action1  = calculat+ &
 weigh+ ! effects ( any l9e ( conduct on
 !  g5]al happ9ess4 ,?is is exactly z if
 any "o 7 to say t x is  impossible to  
guide our conduct by ,*ri/ianity1       
because !re is n  "t1 on e occasion on  
:i* any?+ has to be done1 to read  ?r\gh
 ! ,old & ,new ,te/am5ts4 ,! answ] to ! 
objection is1 t  !re has be5 ample "t1  
namely1 ! :ole pa/ duration ( ! human   
species4 ,dur+ all t "t mank9d h be5    
le>n+ by exp]i5ce  ! t5d5cies ( actions2
 on :i* exp]i5ce all ! prud5ce1 z well  
z all ! morality ( life1 is dep5d5t4 ,p 
talk z if !  comm5cem5t ( ?is c\rse (   

exp]i5ce _h hi!rto be5 put (f1 &  z if1 
at ! mom5t :5 "s man feels tempt$ to    
m$dle ) !  prop]ty or life ( ano!r1 he  
_h to beg9 consid]+ = ! fir/  "t :e!r   
murd] & !ft are injuri\s to human       
happ9ess4 ,ev5  !n ,i d n ?9k t he w\ld 
f9d ! "q v puzzl+2 b1  at all ev5ts1 !  
matt] is n[ done to 8 h&4 ,x is truly a 
:imsical supposition1 t if mank9d 7     
agre$ 9 consid]+  utility to be ! te/ ( 
morality1 !y w\ld rema9 )\t any         
agreem5t z to :at is useful1 & w\ld take
 no measures = hav+  _! notions on !    
subject taught to ! "y1 & en=c$ by law  
& op9ion4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 prov+ 
any e?ical /&>d  :atev] to "w ill1 if we
 suppose univ]sal idiocy to be conjo9$  
) x1 b on any hypo!sis %ort ( t1 mank9d 
mu/ by ?is "t  h acquir$ positive       
beliefs z to ! effects ( "s actions on  
_! happ9ess2 & ! beliefs :i* h ?us come 
d[n are ! rules  ( morality = !         
multitude1 & = ! philosoph] until he has
  succe$$ 9 f9d+ bett]4 ,t philosoph]s  
might easily d ?is1  ev5 n[1 on _m      

subjects2 t ! receiv$ code ( e?ics is by
 no  means ( div9e "r2 & t mank9d h /ill
 mu* to le>n z to  ! effects ( actions  
on ! g5]al happ9ess1 ,i admit1 or r1    
e>ne/ly ma9ta94 ,! coroll>ies f !       
pr9ciple ( utility1 l  ! precepts ( e   
practical art1 admit ( indef9ite        
improvem5t1  &1 9 a progressive /ate ( !
 human m9d1 _! improvem5t is  p]petually
 go+ on4 ,b to consid] ! rules (        
morality z  improvable1 is "o ?+2 to    
pass ov] ! int]m$iate g5]alizations     
entirely1 & endeav\r to te/ ea*         
individual action directly by !  fir/   
pr9ciple1 is ano!r4 ,x is a /range      
notion t !  ackn[l$gm5t ( a fir/        
pr9ciple is inconsi/5t ) ! admission  ( 
second>y ones4 ,to in=m a travell]      
respect+ ! place ( 8  ultimate          
de/9ation1 is n to =bid ! use ( l&m>ks &
  direction-po/s on ! way4 ,!           
proposition t happ9ess is ! end  & aim (
 morality1 does n mean t no road ought  
to be laid d[n to  t goal1 or t p]sons  
go+ ?i!r %\ld n be advis$ to take  "o   

direction r ?an ano!r4 ,m5 really ought 
to leave (f talk+  a k9d ( nons5se on   
?is subject1 :i* !y w\ld nei!r talk nor 
li/5 to on o!r matt]s ( practical       
conc]nm5t4 ,nobody argues t  ! art (    
navigation is n f\nd$ on a/ronomy1      
because sailors  _c wait to calculate ! 
,nautical ,almanack4 ,be+ rational      
creatures1 !y g to sea ) x ready        
calculat$2 & all rational  creatures g  
out ^u ! sea ( life ) _! m9ds made up on
 !  common que/ions ( "r & wrong1 z well
 z on _m ( ! f> m  difficult que/ions ( 
wise & fooli%4 ,& ?is1 z long z =esight 
is a human quality1 x is to be presum$  
!y w cont9ue to d4  ,:atev] we adopt z !
 fundam5tal pr9ciple ( morality1 we     
require  subord9ate pr9ciples to apply x
 by3 ! impossibility ( do+  )\t !m1 be+ 
common to all sy/ems1 c af=d no argum5t 
aga9/ any "o 9 p>ticul>3 b gravely to   
argue z if no su*  second>y pr9ciples   
c\ld be _h1 & z if mank9d _h rema9$ till
  n[1 & always mu/ rema91 )\t draw+ any 
g5]al conclusions  f ! exp]i5ce ( human 

life1 is z high a pit*1 ,i ?9k1 z       
absurdity has ev] rea*$ 9 philosophical 
controv]sy4    ,! rema9d] ( ! /ock      
argum5ts aga9/ utilit>ianism mo/ly      
consi/ 9 lay+ to its *>ge ! common      
infirmities ( human nature1  & ! g5]al  
difficulties :i* emb>rass consci5ti\s   
p]sons 9  %ap+ _! c\rse ?r\gh life4 ,we 
are told t an utilit>ian w  be apt to   
make 8 own p>ticul> case an exception to
 moral rules1 &1  :5 "u temptation1 w   
see an utility 9 ! brea* ( a rule1      
great] ?an he w see 9 its obs]vance4 ,b 
is utility ! only  cre$ :i* is able to  
furni% u ) excuses = evil do+1 & means  
( *eat+ our own consci5ce8 ,!y are af=d$
 9 abundance by all  doctr9es :i*       
recognise z a fact 9 morals ! exi/5ce ( 
conflict+ consid]ations2 :i* all        
doctr9es d1 t h be5  believ$ by sane    
p]sons4 ,x is n ! fault ( any cre$1 b ( 
!  complicat$ nature ( human affairs1 t 
rules ( conduct _c be s  fram$ z to     
require no exceptions1 & t h>dly any k9d
 ( action  c safely be laid d[n z ei!r  

always obligatory or always             
condemnable4 ,!re is no e?ical cre$ :i* 
does n temp] !  rigidity ( its laws1 by 
giv+ a c]ta9 latitude1 "u ! moral       
responsibility ( ! ag5t1 = accommodation
 to peculi>ities (  circum/ances2 & "u e
 cre$1 at ! op5+ ?us made1              
self-deception & di%one/ casui/ry get 94
 ,!re exi/s no moral  sy/em "u :i* !re d
 n arise unequivocal cases ( conflict+  
obligation4 ,^! are ! real difficulties1
 ! knotty po9ts bo? 9  ! !ory ( e?ics1 &
 9 ! consci5ti\s guidance ( p]sonal     
conduct4 ,!y are ov]come practically )  
great] or ) less success  accord+ to !  
intellect & virtue ( ! individual2 b x c
  h>dly be pret5d$ t any "o w be ! less 
qualifi$ = deal+  ) !m1 f possess+ an   
ultimate /&>d to :i* conflict+  rights &
 duties c be ref]r$4 ,if utility is !   
ultimate s\rce (  moral obligations1    
utility may be invok$ to decide betwe5  
!m :5  _! dem&s are incompatible4 ,?\gh 
! application ( ! /&>d  may be          
difficult1 x is bett] ?an none at all3  

:ile 9 o!r sy/ems1  ! moral laws all    
claim+ indep5d5t au?ority1 !re is no    
common  umpire entitl$ to int]f]e betwe5
 !m2 _! claims to prec$5ce  "o ov] ano!r
 re/ on little bett] ?an sophi/ry1 &    
unless  det]m9$1 z !y g5]ally are1 by ! 
unackn[l$g$ influ5ce (  consid]ations ( 
utility1 af=d a free scope = ! action ( 
p]sonal desires & p>tialities4 ,we mu/  
rememb] t only 9 ^!  cases ( conflict   
betwe5 second>y pr9ciples is x requisite
 t  fir/ pr9ciples %\ld be appeal$ to4  
,!re is no case ( moral  obligation 9   
:i* "s second>y pr9ciple is n involv$2 &
 if  only "o1 !re c seldom be any real  
d\bt :i* "o x is1 9 !  m9d ( any p]son  
by :om ! pr9ciple itself is recogniz$4  
,,footnotes3    ,footnote ,a3 ,! au?or (
 ?is essay has reason = believ+ himself 
to be ! fir/ p]son :o br\ght ! ^w       
utilit>ian into use4 ,he did  n inv5t x1
 b adopt$ x f a pass+ expression 9 ,mr4 
,galt's  ,annals ( ! ,p>i%4 ,aft] us+ x 
z a designation = sev]al  ye>s1 he &    
o!rs ab&on$ x f a gr[+ dislike to any?+ 

resembl+ a badge or wat*word ( sect>ian 
di/9ction4 ,b z a "n  = "o s+le op9ion1 
n a set ( op9ions--to d5ote !           
recognition  ( utility z a /&>d1 n any  
p>ticul> way ( apply+ x--!  t]m supplies
 a want 9 ! language1 & (f]s1 9 _m      
cases1 a  conv5i5t mode ( avoid+        
tiresome circumlocution4    ,footnote   
,b3 ,an oppon5t1 ^: intellectual & moral
 fairness x is a  pleasure to ackn[l$ge 
7! ,rev4 ,j4 ,llewellyn ,davis71 has    
object$ to  ?is passage1 say+1 ,surely !
 rightness or wrongness ( sav+ a man  f 
dr[n+ does dep5d v mu* ^u ! motive ) :i*
 x is  done4 ,suppose t a tyrant1 :5 8  
enemy jump$ into ! sea to  escape f him1
 sav$ him f dr[n+ simply 9 ord] t he    
might  inflict ^u him m exquisite       
tortures1 w\ld x t5d to cle>ness to     
speak ( t rescue z 'a morally "r        
action8' ,or suppose aga91  accord+ to  
"o ( ! /ock illu/rations ( e?ical       
inquiries1 t a  man betray$ a tru/      
receiv$ f a fri5d1 because ! dis*>ge ( x
  w\ld fatally injure t fri5d himself or

 "s "o belong+ to him1  w\ld            
utilit>ianism compel "o to call !       
betrayal 'a crime' z mu*  z if x _h be5 
done f ! meane/ motive8    ,i submit1 t 
he :o saves ano!r f dr[n+ 9 ord] to kill
 him  by torture aft]w>ds1 does n diff] 
only 9 motive f him :o does  ! same ?+ f
 duty or b5evol5ce2 ! act itself is     
diff]5t4  ,! rescue ( ! man is1 9 ! case
 suppos$1 only ! necess>y fir/  /ep ( an
 act f> m atroci\s ?an leav+ him to dr[n
 w\ld h  be54 ,_h ,mr4 ,davis said1 ,!  
rightness or wrongness ( sav+ a man  f  
dr[n+ does dep5d v mu*--n ^u ! motive1  
b--^u  ! int5tion no utilit>ian w\ld h  
diff]$ f him4 ,mr4 ,davis1  by an       
ov]sight too common n to be q v5ial1 has
 9 ?is case  conf\nd$ ! v diff]5t ideas 
( ,motive & ,int5tion4 ,!re is no  po9t 
:i* utilit>ian ?9k]s 7& ,b5?am          
pre-em95tly7 h tak5  m pa9s to illu/rate
 ?an ?is4 ,! morality ( ! action dep5ds 
entirely ^u ! int5tion--t is1 ^u :at !  
ag5t wills to d4  ,b ! motive1 t is1 !  
feel+ :i* makes him w s to d1 :5  x     

makes no diff]5ce 9 ! act1 makes none 9 
! morality3 ?\gh x  makes a great       
diff]5ce 9 our moral e/imation ( ! ag5t1
  especially if x indicates a good or a 
bad habitual disposition--a  b5t ( "* f 
:i* useful1 or f :i* hurtful actions are
  likely to arise4          ,,*apt]     
,,iii4      ,,( ,,! ,,ultimate          
,,sanction ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,(       
,,utility4    ,! "q is (t5 ask$1 &      
prop]ly s1 9 reg>d to any suppos$  moral
 /&>d--,:at is its sanction8 :at are !  
motives to obey x8  or m specifically1  
:at is ! s\rce ( its obligation8 :5ce   
does  x d]ive its b9d+ =ce8 ,x is a     
necess>y "p ( moral philosophy  to      
provide ! answ] to ?is "q2 :i*1 ?\gh    
frequ5tly  assum+ ! %ape ( an objection 
to ! utilit>ian morality1 z if x  _h "s 
special applicability to t above o!rs1  
really arises 9  reg>d to all /&>ds4 ,x 
arises1 9 fact1 :5ev] a p]son is call$  
on to adopt a /&>d or ref] morality to  
any basis on :i* he has  n be5 accu/om$ 
to re/ x4 ,= ! cu/om>y morality1 t :i*  

education & op9ion h consecrat$1 is !   
only "o :i* pres5ts  itself to ! m9d ) !
 feel+ ( be+ 9 itself obligatory2 &  :5 
a p]son is ask$ to believe t ?is        
morality d]ives its  obligation f "s    
g5]al pr9ciple r\nd :i* cu/om has n ?r[n
  ! same halo1 ! ass]tion is to him a   
p>adox2 ! suppos$  coroll>ies seem to h 
a m b9d+ =ce ?an ! orig9al !orem2  !    
sup]/ructure seems to /& bett] )\t1 ?an 
)1 :at is  repres5t$ z its f\ndation4   
,he says to himself1 ,i feel t ,i am    
b\nd n to rob or murd]1 betray or       
deceive2 b :y am ,i b\nd to  promote !  
g5]al happ9ess8 ,if my own happ9ess lies
 9 some?+  else1 :y may ,i n give t !   
pref]5ce8    ,if ! view adopt$ by !     
utilit>ian philosophy ( ! nature ( !    
moral s5se be correct1 ?is difficulty w 
always pres5t itself1  until ! influ5ces
 :i* =m moral "* h tak5 ! same hold  ( !
 pr9ciple :i* !y h tak5 ( "s ( !        
consequ5ces--until1 by ! improvem5t (   
education1 ! feel+ (  unity ) our fell[ 
creatures %all be 7:at x _c be d\bt$ t  

,*ri/ int5d$ x to be7 z deeply root$ 9  
our "*1 & to our  own consci\sness z    
completely a "p ( our nature1 z ! horror
 (  crime is 9 an ord9>ily              
well-br\ght-up "y p]son4 ,9 ! mean  "t1 
h[ev]1 ! difficulty has no peculi>      
application to !  doctr9e ( utility1 b  
is inh]5t 9 e attempt to analyse        
morality & r$uce x to pr9ciples2 :i*1   
unless ! pr9ciple is  already 9 m5's    
m9ds inve/$ ) z mu* sacr$ness z any (   
its  applications1 always seems to dive/
 !m ( a "p ( _! sanctity4    ,! pr9ciple
 ( utility ei!r has1 or !re is no reason
 :y x might  n h1 all ! sanctions :i*   
belong to any o!r sy/em ( morals4  ,^?  
sanctions are ei!r ext]nal or int]nal4  
,( ! ext]nal  sanctions x is n necess>y 
to speak at any l5g?4 ,!y are1 ! hope  (
 fav\r & ! fe> ( displeasure f our fell[
 creatures or f  ! ,rul] ( ! ,univ]se1  
along ) :atev] we may h ( sympa?y  or   
affection = !m or ( love & awe ( ,him1  
incl9+ u to d ,8  w indep5d5tly ( selfi%
 consequ5ces4 ,!re is evid5tly no       

reason :y all ^! motives = obs]vance    
%\ld n atta* !mselves  to ! utilit>ian  
morality1 z completely & z p[]fully z to
 any  o!r4 ,inde$1 ^? ( !m :i* ref] to  
our fell[ creatures are  sure to d s1 9 
proportion to ! am\nt ( g5]al           
intellig5ce2 =  :e!r !re be any o!r     
gr\nd ( moral obligation ?an ! g5]al    
happ9ess or n1 m5 d desire happ9ess2 &  
h[ev] imp]fect may be  _! own practice1 
!y desire & comm5d all conduct 9 o!rs   
t[>ds !mselves1 by :i* !y ?9k _!        
happ9ess is promot$4  ,) reg>d to !     
religi\s motive1 if m5 believe1 z mo/   
pr(ess to  d1 9 ! goodness ( ,god1 ^? :o
 ?9k t conduciv5ess to !  g5]al happ9ess
 is ! ess5ce1 or ev5 only ! crit]ion1 ( 
good1  mu/ necess>ily believe t x is    
also t :i* ,god approves4 ,!  :ole =ce  
!re=e ( ext]nal rew>d & puni%m5t1 :e!r  
physical or moral1 & :e!r proce$+ f ,god
 or f our fell[  m51 toge!r ) all t !   
capacities ( human nature admit1 (      
dis9t]e/$ devotion to ei!r1 become      
available to en=ce !  utilit>ian        

morality1 9 proportion z t morality is  
recogniz$2 &  ! m p[]fully1 ! m !       
appliances ( education & g5]al          
cultivation are b5t to ! purpose4    ,s 
f> z to ext]nal sanctions4 ,! int]nal   
sanction ( duty1 :atev]  our /&>d ( duty
 may be1 is "o & ! same--a feel+ 9 our  
own  m9d2 a pa91 m or less int5se1      
att5dant on violation ( duty1  :i* 9    
prop]ly cultivat$ moral natures rises1 9
 ! m s]i\s  cases1 into %r9k+ f x z an  
impossibility4 ,?is feel+1 :5           
dis9t]e/$1 & connect+ itself ) ! pure   
idea ( duty1 &  n ) "s p>ticul> =m ( x1 
or ) any ( ! m]ely accessory            
circum/ances1 is ! ess5ce ( ,consci5ce2 
?\gh 9 t complex  ph5om5on z x actually 
exi/s1 ! simple fact is 9 g5]al all     
encru/$ ov] ) collat]al associations1   
d]iv$ f sympa?y1 f  love1 & /ill m f    
fe>2 f all ! =ms ( religi\s feel+2  f ! 
recollections ( *ildhood & ( all our pa/
 life2 f  self-e/eem1 desire ( ! e/eem (
 o!rs1 & occasionally ev5               
self-abasem5t4 ,?is extreme complication

 is1 ,i appreh5d1 ! orig9 (  ! sort (   
my/ical "* :i*1 by a t5d5cy ( ! human   
m9d (  :i* !re are _m o!r examples1 is  
apt to be attribut$ to ! idea  ( moral  
obligation1 & :i* leads p to believe t !
 idea  _c possibly atta* itself to any  
o!r objects ?an ^? :i*1 by  a suppos$   
my/]i\s law1 are f\nd 9 our pres5t      
exp]i5ce to excite  x4 ,its b9d+ =ce1   
h[ev]1 consi/s 9 ! exi/5ce ( a mass (   
feel+ :i* mu/ be brok5 ?r\gh 9 ord] to d
 :at violates our  /&>d ( "r1 & :i*1 if 
we d nev]!less violate t  /&>d1 w       
probably h to be enc\nt]$ aft]w>ds 9 !  
=m (  remorse4 ,:atev] !ory we h ( !    
nature or orig9 ( consci5ce1  ?is is :at
 ess5tially con/itutes x4    ,! ultimate
 sanction1 !re=e1 ( all morality        
7ext]nal motives  ap>t7 be+ a subjective
 feel+ 9 our own m9ds1 ,i see no?+      
emb>rass+ to ^? ^: /&>d is utility1 9 ! 
"q1 :at  is ! sanction ( t p>ticul>     
/&>d8 ,we may answ]1 ! same z  ( all o!r
 moral /&>ds--! consci5ti\s feel+s (    
mank9d4  ,und\bt$ly ?is sanction has no 

b9d+ efficacy on ^? :o d n  possess !   
feel+s x appeals to2 b nei!r w ^! p]sons
 be  m ob$i5t to any o!r moral pr9ciple 
?an to ! utilit>ian "o4  ,on !m morality
 ( any k9d has no hold b ?r\gh ! ext]nal
  sanctions4 ,mean:ile ! feel+s exi/1 a 
feet 9 human nature1 !  reality ( :i*1 &
 ! great p[] ) :i* !y are capable (     
act+ on ^? 9 :om !y h be5 duly          
cultivat$1 are prov$ by  exp]i5ce4 ,no  
reason has ev] be5 %[n :y !y may n be   
cultivat$  to z great int5sity 9        
connection ) ! utilit>ian1 z ) any  o!r 
rule ( morals4    ,!re is1 ,i am aw>e1 a
 disposition to believe t a p]son :o    
sees 9  moral obligation a transc5d5tal 
fact1 an objective reality belong+  to !
 prov9ce ( ,?+s 9 !mselves1 is likely to
 be m ob$i5t  to x ?an "o :o believes x 
to be entirely subjective1 hav+ its     
seat 9 human consci\sness only4 ,b      
:atev] a p]son's op9ion may be  on ?is  
po9t ( ,ontology1 ! =ce he is really    
urg$ by is 8 own  subjective feel+1 & is
 exactly measur$ by its /r5g?4 ,no "o's 

belief t ,duty is an objective reality  
is /rong] ?an ! belief  t ,god is s2 yet
 ! belief 9 ,god1 ap>t f ! expectation (
  actual rew>d & puni%m5t1 only op]ates 
on conduct ?r\gh1 & 9  proportion to1 ! 
subjective religi\s feel+4 ,! sanction1 
s f> z  x is dis9t]e/$1 is always 9 !   
m9d itself2 & ! notion1  !re=e1 ( !     
transc5d5tal morali/s mu/ be1 t ?is     
sanction  w n exi/ 9 ! m9d unless x is  
believ$ to h its root out  ( ! m9d2 & t 
if a p]son is able to say to himself1 ,t
 :i*  is re/ra9+ me1 & :i* is call$ my  
consci5ce1 is only a feel+  9 my own    
m9d1 he may possibly draw ! conclusion t
 :5 !  feel+ ceases ! obligation ceases1
 & t if he f9d ! feel+  inconv5i5t1 he  
may disreg>d x1 & endeav\r to get rid ( 
x4 ,b  is ?is dang] conf9$ to !         
utilit>ian morality8 ,does ! belief  t  
moral obligation has its seat outside ! 
m9d make ! feel+ (  x too /rong to be   
got rid (8 ,! fact is s f> o!rwise1 t   
all  morali/s admit & lam5t ! ease )    
:i*1 9 ! g5]ality (  m9ds1 consci5ce c  

be sil5c$ or /ifl$4 ,! "q1 ,ne$ ,i obey 
my consci5ce8 is q z (t5 put to !mselves
 by p]sons :o nev]  he>d ( ! pr9ciple ( 
utility1 z by its adh]5ts4 ,^? ^:       
consci5ti\s feel+s are s weak z to all[ 
( _! ask+ ?is  "q1 if !y answ] x        
affirmatively1 w n d s because !y       
believe 9 ! transc5d5tal !ory1 b because
 ( ! ext]nal  sanctions4    ,x is n     
necess>y1 = ! pres5t purpose1 to decide 
:e!r !  feel+ ( duty is innate or       
implant$4 ,assum+ x to be innate1 x is  
an op5 "q to :at objects x naturally    
atta*es itself2 = !  philosophic        
support]s ( t !ory are n[ agre$ t !     
intuitive  p]ception is ( pr9ciples (   
morality1 & n ( ! details4 ,if  !re be  
any?+ innate 9 ! matt]1 ,i see no reason
 :y ! feel+  :i* is innate %\ld n be t (
 reg>d to ! pleasures & pa9s  ( o!rs4   
,if !re is any pr9ciple ( morals :i* is 
intuitively  obligatory1 ,i %\ld say x  
mu/ be t4 ,if s1 ! intuitive e?ics  w\ld
 co9cide ) ! utilit>ian1 & !re w\ld be  
no fur!r  qu>rel betwe5 !m4 ,ev5 z x is1

 ! intuitive morali/s1 ?\gh  !y believe 
t !re are o!r intuitive moral           
obligations1 d  already believe ?is to  
be "o2 = !y unanim\sly hold t a l>ge    
portion ( morality turns ^u !           
consid]ation due to ! int]e/s (  our    
fell[ creatures4 ,!re=e1 if ! belief 9 !
 transc5d5tal  orig9 ( moral obligation 
gives any additional efficacy to !      
int]nal  sanction1 x appe>s to me t !   
utilit>ian pr9ciple has already  !      
b5efit ( x4    ,on ! o!r h&1 if1 z is my
 own belief1 ! moral feel+s are n       
innate1 b acquir$1 !y are n = t reason !
 less natural4 ,x  is natural to man to 
speak1 to reason1 to build cities1 to   
cultivate !  gr\nd1 ?\gh ^! are acquir$ 
faculties4 ,! moral feel+s are n  inde$ 
a "p ( our nature1 9 ! s5se ( be+ 9 any 
p]ceptible  degree pres5t 9 all ( u2 b  
?is1 unhappily1 is a fact admitt$ by  ^?
 :o believe ! mo/ /r5u\sly 9 _!         
transc5d5tal orig94  ,l ! o!r acquir$   
capacities above ref]r$ to1 ! moral     
faculty1  if n a "p ( our nature1 is a  

natural outgr[? f x2 capable1  l !m1 9 a
 c]ta9 small degree1 ( spr++ up         
spontane\sly2 &  susceptible ( be+      
br\ght by cultivation to a high degree (
  developm5t4 ,unhappily x is also      
susceptible1 by a suffici5t use (  !    
ext]nal sanctions & ( ! =ce ( e>ly      
impressions1 ( be+  cultivat$ 9 almo/   
any direction3 s t !re is h>dly any?+ s 
absurd or s mis*iev\s t x may n1 by     
means ( ^! influ5ces1  be made to act on
 ! human m9d ) all ! au?ority (         
consci5ce4  ,to d\bt t ! same pot5cy    
might be giv5 by ! same means to !      
pr9ciple ( utility1 ev5 if x _h no      
f\ndation 9 human nature1  w\ld be fly+ 
9 ! face ( all exp]i5ce4    ,b moral    
associations :i* are :olly ( artificial 
creation1 :5  intellectual culture goes 
on1 yield by degrees to ! dissolv+ =ce  
( analysis3 & if ! feel+ ( duty1 :5     
associat$ ) utility1  w\ld appe> equally
 arbitr>y2 if !re 7 no lead+ dep>tm5t ( 
our nature1 no p[]ful class ( s5tim5ts1 
) :i* t association  w\ld h>monize1 :i* 

w\ld make u feel x cong5ial1 & incl9e u 
n only to fo/] x 9 o!rs 7= :i* we h     
abundant int]e/$  motives71 b also to   
*]i% x 9 ourselves2 if !re 7 n1 9  %ort1
 a natural basis ( s5tim5t = utilit>ian 
morality1 x might  well happ5 t ?is     
association also1 ev5 aft] x _h be5     
implant$  by education1 might be analys$
 away4    ,b !re is ?is basis ( p[]ful  
natural s5tim5t2 & ?is x is  :i*1 :5    
once ! g5]al happ9ess is recogniz$ z !  
e?ical  /&>d1 w con/itute ! /r5g? ( !   
utilit>ian morality4 ,?is  firm         
f\ndation is t ( ! social feel+s (      
mank9d2 ! desire to  be 9 unity ) our   
fell[ creatures1 :i* is already a p[]ful
  pr9ciple 9 human nature1 & happily "o 
( ^? :i* t5d to become  /rong]1 ev5 )\t 
express inculcation1 f ! influ5ces (    
advanc+ civilization4 ,! social /ate is 
at once s natural1 s  necess>y1 & s     
habitual to man1 t1 except 9 "s unusual 
circum/ances or by an ef=t ( volunt>y   
ab/raction1 he nev]  conceives himself  
o!rwise ?an z a memb] ( a body2 & ?is   

association is rivet$ m & m1 z mank9d   
are fur!r remov$  f ! /ate ( savage     
indep5d5ce4 ,any condition1 !re=e1 :i*  
is ess5tial to a /ate ( society1 becomes
 m & m an insep>able  "p ( e p]son's    
conception ( ! /ate ( ?+s :i* he is     
born into1 & :i* is ! de/9y ( a human   
be+4 ,n[1 society  betwe5 human be+s1   
except 9 ! relation ( ma/] & slave1 is  
manife/ly impossible on any o!r foot+   
?an t ! int]e/s (  all are to be        
consult$4 ,society betwe5 equals c only 
exi/ on !  und]/&+ t ! int]e/s ( all are
 to be reg>d$ equally4 ,&  s9ce 9 all   
/ates ( civilization1 e p]son1 except an
 absolute  mon>*1 has equals1 e "o is   
oblig$ to live on ^! t]ms )  somebody2 &
 9 e age "s advance is made t[>ds a /ate
 9 :i*  x w be impossible to live       
p]man5tly on o!r t]ms ) anybody4  ,9 ?is
 way p gr[ up unable to conceive z      
possible to !m a  /ate ( total disreg>d 
( o!r p's int]e/s4 ,!y are "u a         
necessity ( conceiv+ !mselves z at lea/ 
ab/a9+ f all !  gross] injuries1 & 7if  

only = _! own protection47 liv+ 9 a     
/ate ( con/ant prote/ aga9/ !m4 ,!y are 
also famili> ) !  fact ( co-op]at+ )    
o!rs1 & propos+ to !mselves a           
collective1 n an individual1 int]e/1 z !
 aim 7at lea/ = !  "t be+7 ( _! actions4
 ,s long z !y are co-op]at+1 _!  ends   
are id5tifi$ ) ^? ( o!rs2 !re is at lea/
 a tempor>y  feel+ t ! int]e/s ( o!rs   
are _! own int]e/s4 ,n only  does all   
/r5g!n+ ( social ties1 & all heal?y gr[?
 (  society1 give to ea* individual a   
/rong] p]sonal int]e/ 9  practically    
consult+ ! welf>e ( o!rs2 x also leads  
him to  id5tify 8 feel+s m & m ) _!     
good1 or at lea/ )  an ev] great] degree
 ( practical consid]ation = x4 ,he      
comes1 z  ?\gh in/9ctively1 to be       
consci\s ( himself z a be+ :o (  c\rse  
pays reg>d to o!rs4 ,! good ( o!rs      
becomes to him a ?+  naturally &        
necess>ily to be att5d$ to1 l any ( !   
physical  conditions ( our exi/5ce4 ,n[1
 :atev] am\nt ( ?is feel+ a  p]son has1 
he is urg$ by ! /ronge/ motives bo? (   

int]e/ & (  sympa?y to demon/rate x1 &  
to ! utmo/ ( 8 p[] enc\rage x  9 o!rs2 &
 ev5 if he has none ( x himself1 he is z
 greatly  int]e/$ z any "o else t o!rs  
%\ld h x4 ,consequ5tly1 !  smalle/ g]ms 
( ! feel+ are laid hold ( & n\ri%$ by ! 
contagion ( sympa?y & ! influ5ces (     
education2 & a complete  web (          
corroborative association is wov5 r\nd  
x1 by ! p[]ful  ag5cy ( ! ext]nal       
sanctions4 ,?is mode ( conceiv+         
ourselves &  human life1 z civilization 
goes on1 is felt to be m & m  natural4  
,e /ep 9 political improvem5t r5d]s x m 
s1 by  remov+ ! s\rces ( opposition (   
int]e/1 & levell+ ^?  inequalities (    
legal privilege betwe5 individuals or   
classes1 ow+ to  :i* !re are l>ge       
portions ( mank9d ^: happ9ess x is /ill 
practicable to disreg>d4 ,9 an improv+  
/ate ( ! human m9d1 !  influ5ces are    
con/antly on ! increase1 :i* t5d to     
g5]ate 9  ea* individual a feel+ ( unity
 ) all ! re/2 :i* feel+1 if  p]fect1    
w\ld make him nev] ?9k (1 or desire1 any

 b5eficial  condition = himself1 9 !    
b5efits ( :i* !y are n includ$4  ,if we 
n[ suppose ?is feel+ ( unity to be      
taught z a religion1 &  ! :ole =ce (    
education1 ( in/itutions1 & ( op9ion1   
direct$1 z x once 0 9 ! case ( religion1
 to make e p]son  gr[ up f infancy      
surr\nd$ on all sides bo? by ! pr(ession
 &  by ! practice ( x1 ,i ?9k t no "o1  
:o c realize ?is  conception1 w feel any
 misgiv+ ab\t ! suffici5cy ( !  ultimate
 sanction = ! ,happ9ess morality4 ,to   
any e?ical /ud5t :o  f9ds ! realization 
difficult1 ,i recomm5d1 z a means (     
facilitat+  x1 ! second ( ,m4 ,comte's  
two pr9cipal works1 ! ,sy/me de         
,politique ,positive4 ,i ent]ta9 !      
/ronge/ objections to ! sy/em  (        
politics & morals set =? 9 t treatise2 b
 ,i ?9k x has  sup]abundantly %[n !     
possibility ( giv+ to ! s]vice (        
humanity1 ev5 )\t ! aid ( belief 9 a    
,provid5ce1 bo? !  physical p[] & !     
social efficacy ( a religion2 mak+ x    
take  hold ( human life1 & col\r all    

?\ght1 feel+1 & action1 9 a  mann] ( :i*
 ! greate/ asc5d5cy ev] ex]cis$ by any  
religion  may be b a type & =eta/e2 & ( 
:i* ! dang] is1 n t x  %\ld be          
insuffici5t1 b t x %\ld be s excessive z
 to  int]f]e unduly ) human fre$om &    
individuality4    ,nei!r is x necess>y  
to ! feel+ :i* con/itutes ! b9d+  =ce ( 
! utilit>ian morality on ^? :o recognize
 x1 to wait =  ^? social influ5ces :i*  
w\ld make its obligation felt by mank9d 
at l>ge4 ,9 ! comp>atively e>ly /ate (  
human advancem5t 9 :i*  we n[ live1 a   
p]son _c inde$ feel t entir5ess (       
sympa?y  ) all o!rs1 :i* w\ld make any  
real discordance 9 ! g5]al  direction ( 
_! conduct 9 life impossible2 b already 
a p]son 9  :om ! social feel+ is at all 
develop$1 _c br+ himself to  ?9k ( ! re/
 ( 8 fell[ creatures z /ruggl+ rivals ) 
him  = ! means ( happ9ess1 :om he mu/   
desire to see defeat$ 9 _!  object 9    
ord] t he may succe$ 9 84 ,!            
deeply-root$ conception  :i* e          
individual ev5 n[ has ( himself z a     

social be+1 t5ds  to make him feel x "o 
( 8 natural wants t !re %\ld be  h>mony 
betwe5 8 feel+s & aims & ^? ( 8 fell[   
creatures4  ,if diff]5ces ( op9ion & (  
m5tal culture make x impossible =  him  
to %>e _m ( _! actual feel+s-p]haps make
 him d5\nce &  defy ^? feel+s-he /ill   
ne$s to be consci\s t 8 real aim &  !irs
 d n conflict2 t he is n oppos+ himself 
to :at !y  really wi% =1 namely1 _! own 
good1 b is1 on ! contr>y1  promot+ x4   
,?is feel+ 9 mo/ individuals is mu*     
inf]ior 9  /r5g? to _! selfi% feel+s1 & 
is (t5 want+ altoge!r4 ,b  to ^? :o h x1
 x possesses all ! *>act]s ( a natural  
feel+4 ,x does n pres5t itself to _!    
m9ds z a sup]/ition (  education1 or a  
law despotically impos$ by ! p[] (      
society1 b z  an attribute :i* x w\ld n 
be well = !m to be )\t4 ,?is  conviction
 is ! ultimate sanction ( !             
greate/-happ9ess morality4  ,?is x is   
:i* makes any m9d1 ( well-develop$      
feel+s1 "w )1  & n aga9/1 ! outw>d      
motives to c>e = o!rs1 af=d$ by  :at ,i 

h call$ ! ext]nal sanctions2 & :5 ^?    
sanctions are  want+1 or act 9 an       
opposite direction1 con/itutes 9 itself 
a  p[]ful int]nal b9d+ =ce1 9 proportion
 to ! s5sitiv5ess &  ?\ghtfulness ( !   
"*2 s9ce few b ^? ^: m9d is a  moral    
blank1 c\ld be> to lay out _! c\rse (   
life on ! plan (  pay+ no reg>d to o!rs 
except s f> z _! own private int]e/     
compels4          ,,*apt] ,,iv4      ,,(
 ,,:at ,,sort ,,( ,,pro( ,,! ,,pr9ciple 
,,( ,,utility ,,is ,,susceptible4    ,x 
has already be5 rem>k$1 t que/ions (    
ultimate ends d n  admit ( pro(1 9 !    
ord9>y acceptation ( ! t]m4 ,to be      
incapable  ( pro( by reason+ is common  
to all fir/ pr9ciples2 to ! fir/        
premises ( our k1 z well z to ^? ( our  
conduct4 ,b !  =m]1 be+ matt]s ( fact1  
may be ! subject ( a direct appeal to  !
 faculties :i* judge ( fact--namely1 our
 s5ses1 & our int]nal  consci\sness4 ,c 
an appeal be made to ! same faculties on
 que/ions  ( practical ends8 ,or by :at 
o!r faculty is cognizance tak5 ( !m8    

,que/ions ab\t ends are1 9 o!r words1   
que/ions :at ?+s are  desirable4 ,!     
utilit>ian doctr9e is1 t happ9ess is    
desirable1 &  ! only ?+ desirable1 z an 
end2 all o!r ?+s be+ only  desirable z  
means to t end4 ,:at ought to be requir$
 ( ?is  doctr9e--:at conditions is x    
requisite t ! doctr9e %\ld  fulfil--to  
make good its claim to be believ$8    ,!
 only pro( capable ( be+ giv5 t an      
object is visible1 is t  p actually see 
x4 ,! only pro( t a s\nd is audible1 is 
t  p he> x3 & s ( ! o!r s\rces ( our    
exp]i5ce4 ,9 l  mann]1 ,i appreh5d1 !   
sole evid5ce x is possible to produce t 
any?+ is desirable1 is t p d actually   
desire x4 ,if ! end  :i* ! utilit>ian   
doctr9e proposes to itself 7 n1 9 !ory  
& 9 practice1 ackn[l$g$ to be an end1   
no?+ c\ld ev] conv9ce  any p]son t x 0  
s4 ,no reason c be giv5 :y ! g5]al      
happ9ess is desirable1 except t ea*     
p]son1 s f> z he believes  x to be      
atta9able1 desires 8 own happ9ess4 ,?is1
 h[ev]1 be+ a  fact1 we h n only all !  

pro( :i* ! case admits (1 b all  :i* x  
is possible to require1 t happ9ess is a 
good3 t ea*  p]son's happ9ess is a good 
to t p]son1 & ! g5]al happ9ess1  !re=e1 
a good to ! aggregate ( all p]sons4     
,happ9ess has made  out its title z "o (
 ! ends ( conduct1 & consequ5tly "o (  !
 crit]ia ( morality4    ,b x has n1 by  
?is alone1 prov$ itself to be ! sole    
crit]ion4  ,to d t1 x w\ld seem1 by !   
same rule1 necess>y to %[1 n only  t p  
desire happ9ess1 b t !y nev] desire     
any?+ else4  ,n[ x is palpable t !y d   
desire ?+s :i*1 9 common language1  are 
decid$ly di/+ui%$ f happ9ess4 ,!y       
desire1 = example1  virtue1 & ! abs5ce (
 vice1 no less really ?an pleasure & !  
abs5ce ( pa94 ,! desire ( virtue is n z 
univ]sal1 b x is z  au!ntic a fact1 z ! 
desire ( happ9ess4 ,& h5ce ! oppon5ts ( 
! utilit>ian /&>d deem t !y h a "r to   
inf] t !re  are o!r ends ( human action 
besides happ9ess1 & t happ9ess is  n !  
/&>d ( approbation & disapprobation4    
,b does ! utilit>ian doctr9e d5y t p    

desire virtue1 or  ma9ta9 t virtue is n 
a ?+ to be desir$8 ,! v rev]se4 ,x      
ma9ta9s n only t virtue is to be desir$1
 b t x is to be  desir$ dis9t]e/$ly1 =  
itself4 ,:atev] may be ! op9ion (       
utilit>ian morali/s z to ! orig9al      
conditions by :i* virtue is  made       
virtue2 h[ev] !y may believe 7z !y d7 t 
actions &  dispositions are only virtu\s
 because !y promote ano!r end ?an       
virtue2 yet ?is be+ grant$1 & x hav+ be5
 decid$1 f  consid]ations ( ?is         
description1 :at is virtu\s1 !y n only  
place virtue at ! v head ( ! ?+s :i* are
 good z means to  ! ultimate end1 b !y  
also recognise z a psy*ological fact !  
possibility ( its be+1 to ! individual1 
a good 9 itself1 )\t  look+ to any end  
beyond x2 & hold1 t ! m9d is n 9 a "r   
/ate1 n 9 a /ate con=mable to ,utility1 
n 9 ! /ate mo/  conducive to ! g5]al    
happ9ess1 unless x does love virtue 9   
?is  mann]--z a ?+ desirable 9 itself1  
ev5 al?\gh1 9 ! individual  in/ance1 x  
%\ld n produce ^? o!r desirable         

consequ5ces :i*  x t5ds to produce1 & on
 acc\nt ( :i* x is held to be virtue4   
,?is op9ion is n1 9 ! smalle/ degree1 a 
dep>ture f !  ,happ9ess pr9ciple4 ,!    
+r$i5ts ( happ9ess are v v>i\s1 &  ea* (
 !m is desirable 9 itself1 & n m]ely :5 
consid]$ z  swell+ an aggregate4 ,!     
pr9ciple ( utility does n mean t any    
giv5 pleasure1 z music1 = in/ance1 or   
any giv5 exemption f  pa91 z = example  
heal?1 are to be look$ ^u z means to a  
collective some?+ t]m$ happ9ess1 & to be
 desir$ on t  acc\nt4 ,!y are desir$ &  
desirable 9 & = !mselves2 besides  be+  
means1 !y are a "p ( ! end4 ,virtue1    
accord+ to !  utilit>ian doctr9e1 is n  
naturally & orig9ally "p ( ! end1  b x  
is capable ( becom+ s2 & 9 ^? :o love x 
dis9t]e/$ly x has become s1 & is desir$ 
& *]i%$1 n z a  means to happ9ess1 b z a
 "p ( _! happ9ess4    ,to illu/rate ?is 
f>!r1 we may rememb] t virtue is n !    
only  ?+1 orig9ally a means1 & :i* if x 
7 n a means to any?+  else1 w\ld be &   
rema9 indiff]5t1 b :i* by association ) 

:at x is a means to1 comes to be desir$ 
= itself1 & t too )  ! utmo/ int5sity4  
,:at1 = example1 %all we say ( ! love ( 
money8 ,!re is no?+ orig9ally m         
desirable ab\t money ?an ab\t  any heap 
( glitt]+ pebbles4 ,its wor? is solely t
 ( ! ?+s  :i* x w buy2 ! desires = o!r  
?+s ?an itself1 :i* x is  a means (     
gratify+4 ,yet ! love ( money is n only 
"o ( !  /ronge/ mov+ =ces ( human life1 
b money is1 9 _m cases1  desir$ 9 & =   
itself2 ! desire to possess x is (t5    
/rong]  ?an ! desire to use x1 & goes on
 increas+ :5 all ! desires  :i* po9t to 
ends beyond x1 to be compass$ by x1 are 
fall+ (f4  ,x may be !n said truly1 t   
money is desir$ n = ! sake ( an  end1 b 
z "p ( ! end4 ,f be+ a means to         
happ9ess1 x has  come to be itself a    
pr9cipal +r$i5t ( ! individual's        
conception  ( happ9ess4 ,! same may be  
said ( ! majority ( ! great objects  (  
human life--p[]1 = example1 or fame2    
except t to ea* ( ^!  !re is a c]ta9    
am\nt ( imm$iate pleasure annex$1 :i*   

has at  lea/ ! semblance ( be+ naturally
 inh]5t 9 !m2 a ?+ :i*  _c be said (    
money4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 ! /ronge/ natural  
attraction1 bo? ( p[] & ( fame1 is !    
imm5se aid !y give to  ! atta9m5t ( our 
o!r wi%es2 & x is ! /rong association   
?us g5]at$ betwe5 !m & all our objects (
 desire1 :i* gives  to ! direct desire (
 !m ! int5sity x (t5 assumes1 s z 9  "s 
*>act]s to surpass 9 /r5g? all o!r      
desires4 ,9 ^! cases  ! means h become a
 "p ( ! end1 & a m important "p ( x  ?an
 any ( ! ?+s :i* !y are means to4 ,:at 0
 once desir$ z  an in/rum5t = ! atta9m5t
 ( happ9ess1 has come to be desir$  =   
its own sake4 ,9 be+ desir$ = its own   
sake x is1 h[ev]1  desir$ z "p (        
happ9ess4 ,! p]son is made1 or ?9ks he  
w\ld be  made1 happy by its m]e         
possession2 & is made unhappy by failure
 to  obta9 x4 ,! desire ( x is n a      
diff]5t ?+ f ! desire (  happ9ess1 any m
 ?an ! love ( music1 or ! desire (      
heal?4  ,!y are includ$ 9 happ9ess4 ,!y 
are "s ( ! elem5ts ( :i*  ! desire (    

happ9ess is made up4 ,happ9ess is n an  
ab/ract idea1  b a concrete :ole2 & ^!  
are "s ( its p>ts4 ,& !  utilit>ian /&>d
 sanctions & approves _! be+ s4 ,life   
w\ld  be a poor ?+1 v ill provid$ )     
s\rces ( happ9ess1 if !re  7 n ?is      
provision ( nature1 by :i* ?+s orig9ally
  indiff]5t1 b conducive to1 or o!rwise 
associat$ )1 !  satisfaction ( our      
primitive desires1 become 9 !mselves    
s\rces (  pleasure m valuable ?an !     
primitive pleasures1 bo? 9 p]man5cy1  9 
! space ( human exi/5ce t !y are capable
 ( cov]+1 &  ev5 9 int5sity4 ,virtue1   
accord+ to ! utilit>ian conception1 is a
  good ( ?is description4 ,!re 0 no     
orig9al desire ( x1 or motive  to x1    
save its conduciv5ess to pleasure1 &    
especially to protection  f pa94 ,b     
?r\gh ! association ?us =m$1 x may be   
felt a  good 9 itself1 & desir$ z su* ) 
z great int5sity z any o!r  good2 & )   
?is diff]5ce betwe5 x & ! love ( money1 
(  p[]1 or ( fame1 t all ( ^! may1 & (t5
 d1 r5d] !  individual noxi\s to ! o!r  

memb]s ( ! society to :i* he  belongs1  
:]eas !re is no?+ :i* makes him s mu* a 
bless+ to  !m z ! cultivation ( !       
dis9t]e/$1 love ( virtue4 ,&            
consequ5tly1 ! utilit>ian /&>d1 :ile x  
tol]ates & approves  ^? o!r acquir$     
desires1 up to ! po9t beyond :i* !y w\ld
 be  m injuri\s to ! g5]al happ9ess ?an 
promotive ( x1 enjo9s  & requires !     
cultivation ( ! love ( virtue up to !   
greate/  /r5g? possible1 z be+ above all
 ?+s important to ! g5]al  happ9ess4    
,x results f ! prec$+ consid]ations1 t  
!re is 9 reality  no?+ desir$ except    
happ9ess4 ,:atev] is desir$ o!rwise ?an 
z  a means to "s end beyond itself1 &   
ultimately to happ9ess1 is  desir$ z    
itself a "p ( happ9ess1 & is n desir$ = 
itself  until x has become s4 ,^? :o    
desire virtue = its own sake1 desire  x 
ei!r because ! consci\sness ( x is a    
pleasure1 or because !  consci\sness (  
be+ )\t x is a pa91 or = bo? reasons    
unit$2  z 9 tru? ! pleasure & pa9 seldom
 exi/ sep>ately1 b almo/  always toge!r1

 ! same p]son feel+ pleasure 9 ! degree 
(  virtue atta9$1 & pa9 9 n hav+ atta9$ 
m4 ,if "o ( ^!  gave him no pleasure1 & 
! o!r no pa91 he w\ld n love or desire  
virtue1 or w\ld desire x only = ! o!r   
b5efits :i* x might  produce to himself 
or to p]sons :om he c>$ =4    ,we h n[1 
!n1 an answ] to ! "q1 ( :at sort ( pro( 
!  pr9ciple ( utility is susceptible4   
,if ! op9ion :i* ,i h n[  /at$ is       
psy*ologically true--if human nature is 
s con/itut$ z to  desire no?+ :i* is n  
ei!r a "p ( happ9ess or a means (       
happ9ess1 we c h no o!r pro(1 & we      
require no o!r1 t  ^! are ! only ?+s    
desirable4 ,if s1 happ9ess is ! sole end
 (  human action1 & ! promotion ( x !   
te/ by :i* to judge ( all  human        
conduct2 f :5ce x necess>ily foll[s t x 
mu/ be !  crit]ion ( morality1 s9ce a "p
 is includ$ 9 ! :ole4    ,& n[ to decide
 :e!r ?is is really s2 :e!r mank9d d    
desire  no?+ = itself b t :i* is a      
pleasure to !m1 or ( :i* !  abs5ce is a 
pa92 we h evid5tly arriv$ at a "q ( fact

 &  exp]i5ce1 dep5d5t1 l all simil>     
que/ions1 ^u evid5ce4 ,x c  only be     
det]m9$ by practis$ self-consci\sness & 
self-obs]vation1  assi/$ by obs]vation (
 o!rs4 ,i believe t ^! s\rces (         
evid5ce1 imp>tially consult$1 w decl>e t
 desir+ a ?+ &  f9d+ x pleasant1 av]sion
 to x & ?9k+ ( x z pa9ful1 are  ph5om5a 
entirely insep>able1 or r two p>ts ( !  
same  ph5om5on2 9 /rictness ( language1 
two diff]5t modes ( nam+ !  same        
psy*ological fact3 t to ?9k ( an object 
z desirable 7unless  = ! sake ( its     
consequ5ces71 & to ?9k ( x z pleasant1  
are  "o & ! same ?+2 & t to desire      
any?+1 except 9  proportion z ! idea ( x
 is pleasant1 is a physical &           
metaphysical  impossibility4    ,s      
obvi\s does ?is appe> to me1 t ,i expect
 x w h>dly be  disput$3 & ! objection   
made w be1 n t desire c possibly  be    
direct$ to any?+ ultimately except      
pleasure & exemption f  pa91 b t ! w is 
a diff]5t ?+ f desire2 t a p]son  (     
confirm$ virtue1 or any o!r p]son ^:    

purposes are fix$1  c>ries out 8        
purposes )\t any ?\ght ( ! pleasure he  
has 9  contemplat+ !m1 or expects to    
d]ive f _! fulfilm5t2 &  p]si/s 9 act+  
on !m1 ev5 ?\gh ^! pleasures are mu*    
dim9i%$1 by *anges 9 8 "* or decay ( 8  
passive  s5sibilities1 or are outweigh$ 
by ! pa9s :i* ! pursuit ( !  purposes   
may br+ ^u him4 ,all ?is ,i fully admit1
 & h /at$ x  else:]e1 z positively &    
emphatically z any "o4 ,w1 ! active     
ph5om5on1 is a diff]5t ?+ f desire1 !   
/ate ( passive  s5sibility1 & ?\gh      
orig9ally an (f%oot f x1 may 9 "t take  
root & deta* itself f ! p>5t /ock2 s mu*
 s1 t 9 !  case ( an habitual purpose1  
in/ead ( will+ ! ?+ because we  desire  
x1 we (t5 desire x only because we w x4 
,?is1 h[ev]1 is  b an in/ance ( t       
famili> fact1 ! p[] ( habit1 & is n[ise 
conf9$ to ! case ( virtu\s actions4 ,_m 
indiff]5t ?+s1 :i*  m5 orig9ally did f a
 motive ( "s sort1 !y cont9ue to d f    
habit4 ,sometimes ?is is done           
unconsci\sly1 ! consci\sness com+  only 

aft] ! action3 at o!r times ) consci\s  
volition1 b  volition :i* has become    
habitual1 & is put into op]ation by !   
=ce ( habit1 9 opposition p]haps to !   
delib]ate pref]5ce1 z  (t5 happ5s ) ^?  
:o h contract$ habits ( vici\s or       
hurtful indulg5ce4 ,?ird & la/ comes !  
case 9 :i* ! habitual  act ( w 9 !      
individual in/ance is n 9 contradiction 
to !  g5]al int5tion prevail+ at o!r    
times1 b 9 fulfilm5t ( x2 z  9 ! case ( 
! p]son ( confirm$ virtue1 & ( all :o   
pursue  delib]ately & consi/5tly any    
det]m9ate end4 ,! di/9ction  betwe5 w & 
desire ?us und]/ood1 is an au!ntic &    
highly  important psy*ological fact2 b !
 fact consi/s solely 9 ?is--t  w1 l all 
o!r p>ts ( our con/itution1 is am5able  
to habit1  & t we may w f habit :at we  
no long] desire = itself1 or  desire    
only because we w x4 ,x is n ! less true
 t w1 9  ! beg9n+1 is entirely produc$  
by desire2 includ+ 9 t t]m  ! repell+   
influ5ce ( pa9 z well z ! attractive "o 
(  pleasure4 ,let u take into           

consid]ation1 no long] ! p]son :o has a 
confirm$ w to d "r1 b him 9 :om t       
virtu\s w is /ill  feeble1 conqu]able by
 temptation1 & n to be fully reli$ on2  
by  :at means c x be /r5g!n$8 ,h[ c ! w 
to be virtu\s1  :]e x does n exi/ 9     
suffici5t =ce1 be implant$ or awak5$8   
,only by mak+ ! p]son desire virtue--by 
mak+ him ?9k ( x 9  a pleasurable light1
 or ( its abs5ce 9 a pa9ful "o4 ,x is by
  associat+ ! do+ "r ) pleasure1 or !   
do+ wrong ) pa91  or by elicit+ &       
impress+ & br++ home to ! p]son's       
exp]i5ce ! pleasure naturally involv$ 9 
! "o or ! pa9 9 !  o!r1 t x is possible 
to call =? t w to be virtu\s1  :i*1 :5  
confirm$1 acts )\t any ?\ght ( ei!r     
pleasure or  pa94 ,w is ! *ild ( desire1
 & passes out ( ! dom9ion ( its  p>5t   
only to come "u t ( habit4 ,t :i* is !  
result (  habit af=ds no presumption (  
be+ intr9sically good2 & !re  w\ld be no
 reason = wi%+ t ! purpose ( virtue %\ld
 become  indep5d5t ( pleasure & pa91 7 x
 n t ! influ5ce ( !  pleasurable &      

pa9ful associations :i* prompt to virtue
 is n  suffici5tly to be dep5d$ on =    
un]r+ con/ancy ( action until x  has    
acquir$ ! support ( habit4 ,bo? 9 feel+ 
& 9 conduct1 habit  is ! only ?+ :i*    
imp>ts c]ta9ty2 & x is because ( !      
importance to o!rs ( be+ able to rely   
absolutely on "o's feel+s  & conduct1 & 
to oneself ( be+ able to rely on "o's   
own1 t !  w to d "r ought to be         
cultivat$ into ?is habitual indep5d5ce4 
,9 o!r words1 ?is /ate ( ! w is a means 
to good1 n  intr9sically a good2 & does 
n contradict ! doctr9e t no?+  is a good
 to human be+s b 9 s f> z x is ei!r     
itself  pleasurable1 or a means ( atta9+
 pleasure or av]t+ pa94    ,b if ?is    
doctr9e be true1 ! pr9ciple ( utility is
 prov$4  ,:e!r x is s or n1 mu/ n[ be   
left to ! consid]ation ( !  ?\ghtful    
read]4          ,,*apt] ,v4      ,,on   
,,! ,,connexion ,,betwe5 ,,ju/ice ,,&   
,,utility4    ,9 all ages ( speculation1
 "o ( ! /ronge/ ob/acles to !  reception
 ( ! doctr9e t ,utility or ,happ9ess is 

! crit]ion (  "r & wrong1 has be5 drawn 
f ! idea ( ,ju/ice1 ,! p[]ful  s5tim5t1 
& app>5tly cle> p]ception1 :i* t ^w     
recalls )  a rapidity & c]ta9ty resembl+
 an in/9ct1 h seem$ to !  majority (    
?9k]s to po9t to an inh]5t quality 9    
?+s2 to %[  t ! ,j mu/ h an exi/5ce 9   
,nature z some?+  absolute-g5]ically    
di/9ct f e v>iety ( ! ,exp$i5t1 &1  9   
idea1 oppos$ to x1 ?\gh 7z is commonly  
ackn[l$g$7 nev]1 9  ! long run1 disjo9$ 
f x 9 fact4    ,9 ! case ( ?is1 z ( our 
o!r moral s5tim5ts1 !re is no  necess>y 
connexion betwe5 ! "q ( its orig91 & t (
 its  b9d+ =ce4 ,t a feel+ is be/[$ on u
 by ,nature1 does n  necess>ily         
legitimate all its prompt+s4 ,! feel+ ( 
ju/ice might  be a peculi> in/9ct1 &    
might yet require1 l our o!r in/9cts1   
to be controll$ & enlight5$ by a high]  
reason4 ,if we h  intellectual in/9cts1 
lead+ u to judge 9 a p>ticul> way1 z    
well  z animal in/9cts t prompt u to act
 9 a p>ticul> way1 !re is  no necessity 
t ! =m] %\ld be m infallible 9 _! sph]e 

?an ! latt] 9 !irs3 x may z well happ5 t
 wrong judgm5ts  are occasionally       
sugge/$ by ^?1 z wrong actions by ^!4 ,b
  ?\gh x is "o ?+ to believe t we h     
natural feel+s (  ju/ice1 & ano!r to    
ackn[l$ge !m z an ultimate crit]ion (   
conduct1 ^! two op9ions are v closely   
connect$ 9 po9t ( fact4  ,mank9d are    
always pr$ispos$ to believe t any       
subjective feel+1  n o!rwise acc\nt$ =1 
is a revelation ( "s objective reality4 
,our pres5t object is to det]m9e :e!r ! 
reality1 to :i* !  feel+ ( ju/ice       
corresponds1 is "o :i* ne$s any su*     
special  revelation2 :e!r ! ju/ice or   
inju/ice ( an action is a ?+            
intr9sically peculi>1 & di/9ct f all its
 o!r qualities1 or  only a comb9ation ( 
c]ta9 ( ^? qualities1 pres5t$ "u a      
peculi> aspect4 ,= ! purpose ( ?is      
inquiry1 x is practically  important to 
consid] :e!r ! feel+ itself1 ( ju/ice & 
inju/ice1 is sui g5]is l our s5sations (
 col\r & ta/e1 or  a d]ivative feel+1   
=m$ by a comb9ation ( o!rs4 ,& ?is x is 

! m ess5tial to exam9e1 z p are 9 g5]al 
will+ en\gh  to all[1 t objectively !   
dictates ( ju/ice co9cide ) a "p  ( !   
field ( ,g5]al ,exp$i5cy2 b inasmu* z ! 
subjective  m5tal feel+ ( ,ju/ice is    
diff]5t f t :i* commonly atta*es  to    
simple exp$i5cy1 &1 except 9 extreme    
cases ( ! latt]1 is f>  m imp]ative 9   
its dem&s1 p f9d x difficult to see1 9  
,ju/ice1 only a p>ticul> k9d or bran* ( 
g5]al utility1 & ?9k  t its sup]ior b9d+
 =ce requires a totally diff]5t orig94  
,to ?r[ light ^u ?is "q1 x is necess>y  
to attempt to  asc]ta9 :at is ! di/+ui%+
 "* ( ju/ice1 or (  inju/ice3 :at is !  
quality1 or :e!r !re is any quality1    
attribut$ 9 common to all modes (       
conduct designat$ z unju/ 7=  ju/ice1 l 
_m o!r moral attributes1 is be/ def9$ by
 its  opposite71 & di/+ui%+ !m f su*    
modes ( conduct z are  disapprov$1 b )\t
 hav+ t p>ticul> epi!t (  disapprobation
 appli$ to !m4 ,if1 9 ev]y?+ :i* m5 are 
accu/om$ to *>act]ize z j or unju/1 "s  
"o common attribute  or collection (    

attributes is always pres5t1 we may     
judge :e!r ?is  p>ticul> attribute or   
comb9ation ( attributes w\ld be capable 
(  ga!r+ r\nd x a s5tim5t ( t peculi> "*
 & int5sity  by virtue ( ! g5]al laws ( 
our emotional con/itution1 or :e!r  !   
s5tim5t is inexplicable1 & requires to  
be reg>d$ z a special  provision (      
,nature4 ,if we f9d ! =m] to be ! case1 
we %all1 9  resolv+ ?is "q1 h resolv$   
also ! ma9 problem3 if !  latt]1 we %all
 h to seek = "s o!r mode ( inve/igat+ x4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,to f9d ! common attributes
 ( a v>iety ( objects1 x is necess>y  to
 beg91 by survey+ ! objects !mselves 9 !
 concrete4 ,let u  !re=e adv]t          
successively to ! v>i\s modes ( action1 
&  arrangem5ts ( human affairs1 :i* are 
class$1 by univ]sal or widely  spread   
op9ion1 z ,j or z ,unju/4 ,! ?+s well   
kn[n to excite  ! s5tim5ts associat$ )  
^? names1 are ( a v multif>i\s  "*4 ,i  
%all pass !m rapidly 9 review1 )\t /udy+
 any  p>ticul> arrangem5t4    ,9 ! fir/ 

place1 x is mo/ly consid]$ unju/ to     
deprive any "o  ( 8 p]sonal lib]ty1 8   
prop]ty1 or any o!r ?+ :i* belongs  to  
him by law4 ,"h1 !re=e1 is "o in/ance ( 
! application (  ! t]ms j & unju/ 9 a   
p]fectly def9ite s5se1 namely1 t x  is j
 to respect1 unju/ to violate1 ! legal  
rights ( any "o4  ,b ?is judgm5t admits 
( sev]al exceptions1 aris+ f ! o!r  =ms 
9 :i* ! notions ( ju/ice & inju/ice     
pres5t !mselves4  ,= example1 ! p]son :o
 suff]s ! deprivation may 7z ! phrase   
is7 h =feit$ ! rights :i* he is s       
depriv$ (3 a case to  :i* we %all return
 pres5tly4 ,b also1    ,secondly2 !     
legal rights ( :i* he is depriv$1 may be
 rights :i*  ought n to h belong$ to    
him2 9 o!r words1 ! law :i*  conf]s on  
him ^! rights1 may be a bad law4 ,:5 x  
is s1 or :5  7:i* is ! same ?+ = our    
purpose7 x is suppos$ to be s1  op9ions 
w diff] z to ! ju/ice or inju/ice (     
infr++ x4  ,"s ma9ta9 t no law1 h[ev]   
bad1 ought to be disobey$ by an         
individual citiz52 t 8 opposition to x1 

if %[n at all1 %\ld  only be %[n 9      
endeav\r+ to get x alt]$ by compet5t    
au?ority4  ,?is op9ion 7:i* condemns _m 
( ! mo/ illu/ri\s b5efactors (  mank9d1 
& w\ld (t5 protect p]nici\s in/itutions 
aga9/ !  only weapons :i*1 9 ! /ate (   
?+s exi/+ at ! "t1 h  any *ance (       
succe$+ aga9/ !m7 is def5d$1 by ^? :o   
hold  x1 on gr\nds ( exp$i5cy2          
pr9cipally on t ( ! importance1 to  !   
common int]e/ ( mank9d1 ( ma9ta9+       
inviolate ! s5tim5t  ( submission to    
law4 ,o!r p]sons1 aga91 hold ! directly 
contr>y  op9ion1 t any law1 judg$ to be 
bad1 may blamelessly be disobey$1  ev5  
?\gh x be n judg$ to be unju/1 b only   
inexp$i5t2 :ile  o!rs w\ld conf9e !     
lic5ce ( disob$i5ce to ! case ( unju/   
laws3 b aga91 "s say1 t all laws :i* are
 inexp$i5t are  unju/2 s9ce e law       
imposes "s re/riction on ! natural      
lib]ty  ( mank9d1 :i* re/riction is an  
inju/ice1 unless legitimat$ by  t5d+ to 
_! good4 ,among ^! div]sities ( op9ion1 
x seems to  be univ]sally admitt$ t !re 

may be unju/ laws1 & t law1             
consequ5tly1 is n ! ultimate crit]ion ( 
ju/ice1 b may give to  "o p]son a       
b5efit1 or impose on ano!r an evil1 :i* 
ju/ice  condemns4 ,:51 h[ev]1 a law is  
?\ght to be unju/1 x seems always  to be
 reg>d$ z be+ s 9 ! same way 9 :i* a    
brea* ( law is  unju/1 namely1 by infr++
 somebody's "r2 :i*1 z x _c 9  ?is case 
be a legal "r1 receives a diff]5t       
appellation1 & is  call$ a moral "r4 ,we
 may say1 !re=e1 t a second case (      
inju/ice consi/s 9 tak+ or )hold+ f any 
p]son t to  :i* he has a moral "r4      
,?irdly1 x is univ]sally consid]$ j t   
ea* p]son %\ld  obta9 t 7:e!r good or   
evil7 :i* he des]ves2 & unju/ t  he %\ld
 obta9 a good1 or be made to und]go an  
evil1 :i* he does  n des]ve4 ,?is is1   
p]haps1 ! cle>e/ & mo/ emphatic =m 9    
:i* ! idea ( ju/ice is conceiv$ by !    
g5]al m9d4 ,z x  involves ! notion (    
des]t1 ! "q arises1 :at con/itutes      
des]t8 ,speak+ 9 a g5]al way1 a p]son is
 und]/ood to des]ve  good if he does "r1

 evil if he does wrong2 & 9 a m p>ticul>
  s5se1 to des]ve good f ^? to :om he   
does or has done good1 &  evil f ^? to  
:om he does or has done evil4 ,! precept
 (  return+ good = evil has nev] be5    
reg>d$ z a case ( !  fulfilm5t ( ju/ice1
 b z "o 9 :i* ! claims ( ju/ice are     
waiv$1 9 ob$i5ce to o!r consid]ations4  
,f\r?ly1 x is confess$ly unju/ to break 
fai? ) any "o3 to  violate an engagem5t1
 ei!r express or impli$1 or disappo9t   
expectations rais$ by our own conduct1  
at lea/ if we h rais$ ^?  expectations  
kn[+ly & volunt>ily4 ,l ! o!r           
obligations (  ju/ice already spok5 (1  
?is "o is n reg>d$ z absolute1 b z      
capable ( be+ ov]rul$ by a /rong]       
obligation ( ju/ice on !  o!r side2 or  
by su* conduct on ! "p ( ! p]son conc]n$
 z is  deem$ to absolve u f our         
obligation to him1 & to con/itute a     
=feiture ( ! b5efit :i* he has be5 l$ to
 expect4    ,fif?ly1 x is1 by univ]sal  
admission1 inconsi/5t ) ju/ice to be    
p>tial2 to %[ fav\r or pref]5ce to "o   

p]son ov] ano!r1 9  matt]s to :i* fav\r 
& pref]5ce d n prop]ly apply4           
,imp>tiality1 h[ev]1 does n seem to be  
reg>d$ z a duty 9 itself1  b r z        
in/rum5tal to "s o!r duty2 = x is       
admitt$ t  fav\r & pref]5ce are n always
 c5surable1 & inde$ ! cases 9  :i* !y   
are condemn$ are r ! exception ?an !    
rule4 ,a  p]son w\ld be m likely to be  
blam$ ?an applaud$ = giv+ 8  family or  
fri5ds no sup]iority 9 good (fices ov]  
/rang]s1 :5 he  c\ld d s )\t violat+ any
 o!r duty2 & no "o ?9ks x  unju/ to seek
 "o p]son 9 pref]5ce to ano!r z a fri5d1
  connexion1 or companion4 ,imp>tiality 
:]e rights are conc]n$ is (  c\rse      
obligatory1 b ?is is involv$ 9 ! m g5]al
 obligation  ( giv+ to e "o 8 "r4 ,a    
tribunal1 = example1 mu/ be  imp>tial1  
because x is b\nd to aw>d1 )\t reg>d to 
any o!r  consid]ation1 a disput$ object 
to ! "o ( two p>ties :o has !  "r to x4 
,!re are o!r cases 9 :i* imp>tiality    
means1 be+  solely influ5c$ by des]t2 z 
) ^? :o1 9 ! capacity (  judges1        

preceptors1 or p>5ts1 adm9i/] rew>d &   
puni%m5t z  su*4 ,!re are cases1 aga91 9
 :i* x means1 be+ solely influ5c$  by   
consid]ation = ! public int]e/2 z 9 mak+
 a selection among  c&idates = a        
,gov]nm5t employm5t4 ,imp>tiality1 9    
%ort1 z an  obligation ( ju/ice1 may be 
said to mean1 be+ exclusively influ5c$  
by ! consid]ations :i* x is suppos$     
ought to influ5ce !  p>ticul> case 9 h&2
 & resi/+ ! solicitation ( any motives  
:i* prompt to conduct diff]5t f :at ^?  
consid]ations w\ld  dictate4    ,ne>ly  
alli$ to ! idea ( imp>tiality1 is t (   
equality2 :i*  (t5 ent]s z a compon5t "p
 bo? into ! conception ( ju/ice &  into 
! practice ( x1 &1 9 ! eyes ( _m p]sons1
 con/itutes  its ess5ce4 ,b 9 ?is1 /ill 
m ?an 9 any o!r case1 ! notion  ( ju/ice
 v>ies 9 diff]5t p]sons1 & always con=ms
 9 its  v>iations to _! notion (        
utility4 ,ea* p]son ma9ta9s t  equality 
is ! dictate ( ju/ice1 except :]e he    
?9ks t  exp$i5cy requires inequality4 ,!
 ju/ice ( giv+ equal protection  to !   

rights ( all1 is ma9ta9$ by ^? :o       
support ! mo/  outrage\s inequality 9 ! 
rights !mselves4 ,ev5 9 slave c\ntries  
x is !oretically admitt$ t ! rights ( ! 
slave1 su* z !y  are1 ought to be z     
sacr$ z ^? ( ! ma/]2 & t a tribunal  :i*
 fails to en=ce !m ) equal /rictness is 
want+ 9 ju/ice2  :ile1 at ! same "t1    
in/itutions :i* leave to ! slave sc>cely
  any rights to en=ce1 are n deem$      
unju/1 because !y are n  deem$          
inexp$i5t4 ,^? :o ?9k t utility requires
 di/9ctions  ( rank1 d n consid] x unju/
 t ri*es & social privileges  %\ld be   
unequally disp5s$2 b ^? :o ?9k ?is      
inequality  inexp$i5t1 ?9k x unju/ also4
 ,:oev] ?9ks t gov]nm5t is  necess>y1   
sees no inju/ice 9 z mu* inequality z is
 con/itut$ by  giv+ to ! magi/rate p[]s 
n grant$ to o!r p4 ,ev5 among  ^? :o    
hold levell+ doctr9es1 !re are z _m     
que/ions (  ju/ice z !re are diff]5ces (
 op9ion ab\t exp$i5cy4 ,"s  ,communi/s  
consid] x unju/ t ! produce ( ! lab\r ( 
!  community %\ld be %>$ on any o!r     

pr9ciple ?an t ( exact  equality2 o!rs  
?9k x j t ^? %\ld receive mo/ ^:  ne$s  
are greate/2 :ile o!rs hold t ^? :o "w  
h>d]1 or :o  produce m1 or ^: s]vices   
are m valuable to ! community1 may      
ju/ly claim a l>g] quota 9 ! division ( 
! produce4 ,& !  s5se ( natural ju/ice  
may be plausibly appeal$ to 9 behalf ( e
  "o ( ^! op9ions4    ,among s _m div]se
 applications ( ! t]m ,ju/ice1 :i* yet  
is n  reg>d$ z ambigu\s1 x is a matt] ( 
"s difficulty to seize !  m5tal l9k :i* 
holds !m toge!r1 & on :i* ! moral       
s5tim5t  adh]+ to ! t]m ess5tially      
dep5ds4 ,p]haps1 9 ?is  emb>rassm5t1 "s 
help may be d]iv$ f ! hi/ory ( ! ^w1 z  
indicat$ by its etymology4    ,9 mo/1 if
 n 9 all languages1 ! etymology ( ! ^w  
:i*  corresponds to ,j1 po9ts to an     
orig9 connect$ ei!r ) positive  law1 or 
) t :i* 0 9 mo/ cases ! primitive =m (  
law-au?oritative cu/om4 ,ju/um is a =m (
 jussum1 t :i* has  be5 ord]$4 ,jus is (
 ! same orig94 ,di*an\ comes f  di*ae1 (
 :i* ! pr9cipal mean+1 at lea/ 9 !      

hi/orical  ages ( ,greece1 0 a suit at  
law4 ,orig9ally1 inde$1 x meant only !  
mode or mann] ( do+ ?+s1 b x e>ly came  
to mean !  prescrib$ mann]2 t :i* !     
recogniz$ au?orities1 patri>*al1        
judicial1 or political1 w\ld en=ce4     
,re*t1 f :i* came "r  & righte\s1 is    
synonym\s ) law4 ,! orig9al mean+1      
inde$1  ( re*t did n po9t to law1 b to  
physical /raightness2 z  wrong & its    
,lat9 equival5ts meant twi/$ or tortu\s2
 & f  ?is x is argu$ t "r did n         
orig9ally mean law1 b on !  contr>y law 
meant "r4 ,b h[ev] ?is may be1 ! fact t 
re*t  & droit became re/rict$ 9 _! mean+
 to positive law1 al?\gh  mu* :i* is n  
requir$ by law is equally necess>y to   
moral  /raightness or rectitude1 is z   
significant ( ! orig9al "*  ( moral     
ideas z if ! d]ivation _h be5 ! rev]se  
way4 ,! c\rts  ( ju/ice1 ! adm9i/ration 
( ju/ice1 are ! c\rts & !  adm9i/ration 
( law4 ,la ju/ice1 9 ,fr5*1 is !        
e/abli%$ t]m  = judicature4 ,!re c1 ,i  
?9k1 be no d\bt t ! ide mre1  !         

primitive elem5t1 9 ! =mation ( ! notion
 ( ju/ice1 0  con=mity to law4 ,x       
con/itut$ ! entire idea among !         
,hebrews1 up  to ! bir? ( ,*ri/ianity2 z
 might be expect$ 9 ! case ( a  p ^:    
laws attempt$ to embrace all subjects on
 :i* precepts  7 requir$1 & :o believ$  
^? laws to be a direct emanation f  !   
,supreme ,be+4 ,b o!r nations1 & 9      
p>ticul> ! ,greeks &  ,romans1 :o knew t
 _! laws _h be5 made orig9ally1 & /ill  
cont9u$ to be made1 by m51 7 n afraid to
 admit t ^? m5  might make bad laws2    
might d1 by law1 ! same ?+s1 & f !  same
 motives1 :i*1 if done by individuals   
)\t ! sanction ( law1  w\ld be call$    
unju/4 ,& h5ce ! s5tim5t ( inju/ice came
 to be  atta*$1 n to all violations (   
law1 b only to violations ( su*  laws z 
ought to exi/1 includ+ su* z ought to   
exi/ b d n2  & to laws !mselves1 if     
suppos$ to be contr>y to :at ought to be
  law4 ,9 ?is mann] ! idea ( law & ( its
 injunctions 0 /ill  pr$om9ant 9 !      
notion ( ju/ice1 ev5 :5 ! laws actually 

9  =ce ceas$ to be accept$ z ! /&>d ( x4
    ,x is true t mank9d consid] ! idea (
 ju/ice & its obligations  z applicable 
to _m ?+s :i* nei!r are1 nor is x desir$
 t  !y %\ld be1 regulat$ by law4 ,nobody
 desires t laws %\ld  int]f]e ) ! :ole  
detail ( private life2 yet e "o all[s  t
 9 all daily conduct a p]son may & does 
%[ himself to be  ei!r j or unju/4 ,b   
ev5 "h1 ! idea ( ! brea* ( :at  ought to
 be law1 /ill l+]s 9 a modifi$ %ape4 ,x 
w\ld always give  u pleasure1 & *ime 9 )
 our feel+s ( fitness1 t acts :i*  we   
deem unju/ %\ld be puni%$1 ?\gh we d n  
always ?9k x  exp$i5t t ?is %\ld be done
 by ! tribunals4 ,we =ego t             
gratification on acc\nt ( incid5tal     
inconv5i5ces4 ,we %\ld be glad  to see j
 conduct en=c$ & inju/ice repress$1 ev5 
9 !  m9ute/ details1 if we 7 n1 )       
reason1 afraid ( tru/+ !  magi/rate ) s 
unlimit$ an am\nt ( p[] ov] individuals4
 ,:5  we ?9k t a p]son is b\nd 9 ju/ice 
to d a ?+1 x is an  ord9>y =m ( language
 to say1 t he ought to be compell$ to d 

x4 ,we %\ld be gratifi$ to see !        
obligation en=c$ by anybody :o  _h !    
p[]4 ,if we see t its en=cem5t by law   
w\ld be  inexp$i5t1 we lam5t !          
impossibility1 we consid] ! impunity    
giv5  to inju/ice z an evil1 & /rive to 
make am5ds = x by br++ a  /rong         
expression ( our own & ! public         
disapprobation to be> ^u  ! (f5d]4 ,?us 
! idea ( legal con/ra9t is /ill ! g5]at+
  idea ( ! notion ( ju/ice1 ?\gh und]go+
 sev]al trans=mations  be=e t notion1 z 
x exi/s 9 an advanc$ /ate ( society1    
becomes complete4    ,! above is1 ,i    
?9k1 a true acc\nt1 z f> z x goes1 ( !  
orig9  & progressive gr[? ( ! idea (    
ju/ice4 ,b we mu/ obs]ve1 t  x conta9s1 
z yet1 no?+ to di/+ui% t obligation f   
moral  obligation 9 g5]al4 ,= ! tru? is1
 t ! idea ( p5al  sanction1 :i* is !    
ess5ce ( law1 ent]s n only into !       
conception ( inju/ice1 b into t ( any   
k9d ( wrong4 ,we d n  call any?+ wrong1 
unless we mean to imply t a p]son ought 
to be  puni%$ 9 "s way or o!r = do+ x2  

if n by law1 by !  op9ion ( 8 fell[     
creatures2 if n by op9ion1 by !         
reproa*es (  8 own consci5ce4 ,?is seems
 ! real turn+ po9t ( ! di/9ction  betwe5
 morality & simple exp$i5cy4 ,x is a "p 
( ! notion (  ,duty 9 e "o ( its =ms1 t 
a p]son may rightfully be  compell$ to  
fulfil x4 ,duty is a ?+ :i* may be      
exact$ f a  p]son1 z "o exacts a debt4  
,unless we ?9k t x might be exact$  f   
him1 we d n call x 8 duty4 ,reasons (   
prud5ce1 or !  int]e/ ( o!r p1 may      
militate aga9/ actually exact+ x2 b  !  
p]son himself1 x is cle>ly und]/ood1    
w\ld n be entitl$ to  compla94 ,!re are 
o!r ?+s1 on ! contr>y1 :i* we wi% t  p  
%\ld d1 :i* we l or admire !m = do+1    
p]haps  dislike or despise !m = n do+1 b
 yet admit t !y are n  b\nd to d2 x is n
 a case ( moral obligation2 we d n blame
 !m1  t is1 we d n ?9k t !y are prop]   
objects ( puni%m5t4 ,h[  we come by ^!  
ideas ( des]v+ & n des]v+ puni%m5t1 w   
appe>1 p]haps1 9 ! sequel2 b ,i ?9k !re 
is no d\bt t ?is  di/9ction lies at !   

bottom ( ! notions ( "r & wrong2 t  we  
call any conduct wrong1 or employ       
in/ead1 "s o!r t]m ( dislike  or        
disp>agem5t1 accord+ z we ?9k t ! p]son 
ought1 or ought  n1 to be puni%$ = x2 & 
we say t x w\ld be "r to d s  & s1 or   
m]ely t x w\ld be desirable or laudable1
 accord+ z  we w\ld wi% to see ! p]son  
:om x conc]ns1 compell$ or only  p]suad$
 & exhort$1 to act 9 t mann]4,c    ,?is1
 !re=e1 be+ ! *>act]i/ic diff]5ce :i*   
m>ks (f1  n ju/ice1 b morality 9 g5]al1 
f ! rema9+ prov9ces (  ,exp$i5cy &      
,wor?9ess2 ! "* is /ill to be s\ght :i* 
di/+ui%es ju/ice f o!r bran*es (        
morality4 ,n[ x is kn[n  t e?ical writ]s
 divide moral duties into two classes1  
d5ot$ by  ! ill-*os5 expressions1 duties
 ( p]fect & ( imp]fect  obligation2 !   
latt] be+ ^? 9 :i*1 ?\gh ! act is       
obligatory1 ! p>ticul> occasions ( p]=m+
 x are left to our  *oice2 z 9 ! case ( 
*>ity or b5efic5ce1 :i* we are inde$    
b\nd to practise1 b n t[>ds any def9ite 
p]son1 nor at any  prescrib$ "t4 ,9 ! m 

precise language ( philosophic juri/s1  
duties ( p]fect obligation are ^? duties
 9 virtue ( :i* a  correlative "r       
resides 9 "s p]son or p]sons2 duties (  
imp]fect  obligation are ^? moral       
obligations :i* d n give bir? to any    
"r4 ,i ?9k x w be f\nd t ?is di/9ction  
exactly co9cides  ) t :i* exi/s betwe5  
ju/ice & ! o!r obligations (  morality4 
,9 our survey ( ! v>i\s popul>          
acceptations ( ju/ice1  ! t]m appe>$    
g5]ally to involve ! idea ( a p]sonal   
"r--a  claim on ! "p ( "o or m          
individuals1 l t :i* ! law  gives :5 x  
conf]s a propriet>y or o!r legal "r4    
,:e!r !  inju/ice consi/s 9 depriv+ a   
p]son ( a possession1 or 9 break+  fai? 
) him1 or 9 treat+ him worse ?an he     
des]ves1 or worse ?an  o!r p :o h no    
great] claims1 9 ea* case ! supposition 
implies two ?+s--a wrong done1 & "s     
assignable p]son :o is  wrong$4         
,inju/ice may also be done by treat+ a  
p]son bett] ?an  o!rs2 b ! wrong 9 ?is  
case is to 8 competitors1 :o are also   

assignable p]sons4 ,x seems to me t ?is 
feature 9 ! case--a  "r 9 "s p]son1     
correlative to ! moral                  
obligation--con/itutes  ! specific      
diff]5ce betwe5 ju/ice1 & g5]osity or   
b5efic5ce4  ,ju/ice implies some?+ :i* x
 is n only "r to d1 & wrong  n to d1 b  
:i* "s individual p]son c claim f u z 8 
moral "r4 ,no "o has a moral "r to our  
g5]osity or b5efic5ce1  because we are n
 morally b\nd to practise ^? virtues    
t[>ds any  giv5 individual4 ,& x w be   
f\nd1 ) respect to ?is z )  respect to e
 correct def9ition1 t ! in/ances :i*    
seem to  conflict ) x are ^? :i* mo/    
confirm x4 ,= if a morali/  attempts1 z 
"s h done1 to make out t mank9d g5]ally1
 ?\gh  n any giv5 individual1 h a "r to 
all ! good we c d !m1  he at once1 by t 
!sis1 includes g5]osity & b5efic5ce )9  
! category ( ju/ice4 ,he is oblig$ to   
say1 t our utmo/ ex]tions  are due to   
our fell[ creatures1 ?us assimilat+ !m  
to a debt2 or  t no?+ less c be a       
suffici5t return = :at society does =   

u1 ?us class+ ! case z "o ( gratitude2  
bo? ( :i* are  ackn[l$g$ cases ( ju/ice4
 ,:]ev] !re is a "r1 ! case is  "o (    
ju/ice1 & n ( ! virtue ( b5efic5ce3 &   
:oev] does  n place ! di/9ction betwe5  
ju/ice & morality 9 g5]al :]e  we h n[  
plac$ x1 w be f\nd to make no di/9ction 
betwe5 !m  at all1 b to m]ge all        
morality 9 ju/ice4    ,hav+ ?us         
endeav\r$ to det]m9e ! di/9ctive elem5ts
 :i*  ent] into ! composition ( ! idea (
 ju/ice1 we are ready to ent]  on !     
inquiry1 :e!r ! feel+1 :i* accompanies !
 idea1 is  atta*$ to x by a special     
disp5sation ( nature1 or :e!r x c\ld  h 
gr[n up1 by any kn[n laws1 out ( ! idea 
itself2 & 9  p>ticul>1 :e!r x c h       
orig9at$ 9 consid]ations ( g5]al        
exp$i5cy4    ,i conceive t ! s5tim5t    
itself does n arise f any?+ :i*  w\ld   
commonly1 or correctly1 be t]m$ an idea 
( exp$i5cy2 b t1  ?\gh ! s5tim5t does n1
 :atev] is moral 9 x does4    ,we h se5 
t ! two ess5tial +r$i5ts 9 ! s5tim5t (  
ju/ice are1 ! desire to puni% a p]son :o

 has done h>m1 & !  k or belief t !re is
 "s def9ite individual or  individuals  
to :om h>m has be5 done4    ,n[ x appe>s
 to me1 t ! desire to puni% a p]son :o  
has done  h>m to "s individual1 is a    
spontane\s outgr[? f two s5tim5ts1  bo? 
9 ! highe/ degree natural1 & :i* ei!r   
are or resemble  in/9cts2 ! impulse (   
self-def5ce1 & ! feel+ ( sympa?y4    ,x 
is natural to res5t1 & to repel or      
retaliate1 any h>m done or  attempt$    
aga9/ ourselves1 or aga9/ ^? ) :om we   
sympa?ize4  ,! orig9 ( ?is s5tim5t x is 
n necess>y "h to discuss4  ,:e!r x be an
 in/9ct or a result ( intellig5ce1 x is1
 we "k1  common to all animal nature2 = 
e animal tries to hurt ^? :o  h hurt1 or
 :o x ?9ks are ab\t to hurt1 itself or  
its "y4  ,human be+s1 on ?is po9t1 only 
diff] f o!r animals 9 two  p>ticul>s4   
,fir/1 9 be+ capable ( sympa?iz+1 n     
solely )  _! (fspr+1 or1 l "s ( ! m     
noble animals1 ) "s  sup]ior animal :o  
is k9d to !m1 b ) all human1 & ev5 )    
all s5ti5t be+s4 ,secondly1 9 hav+ a m  

develop$ intellig5ce1  :i* gives a wid] 
range to ! :ole ( _! s5tim5ts1 :e!r     
self-reg>d+ or sympa!tic4 ,by virtue ( 8
 sup]ior intellig5ce1  ev5 ap>t f 8     
sup]ior range ( sympa?y1 a human be+ is 
capable  ( appreh5d+ a community (      
int]e/ betwe5 himself & ! human  society
 ( :i* he =ms a "p1 su* t any conduct   
:i* ?reat5s  ! security ( ! society     
g5]ally1 is ?reat5+ to 8 own1 &  calls  
=? 8 in/9ct 7if in/9ct x be7 (          
self-def5ce4 ,! same  sup]iority (      
intellig5ce1 jo9$ to ! p[] ( sympa?iz+ )
  human be+s g5]ally1 enables him to    
atta* himself to ! collective  idea ( 8 
tribe1 8 c\ntry1 or mank9d1 9 su* a     
mann] t any  act hurtful to !m r\ses 8  
in/9ct ( sympa?y1 & urges him to        
resi/ance4    ,! s5tim5t ( ju/ice1 9 t  
"o ( its elem5ts :i* consi/s (  ! desire
 to puni%1 is ?us1 ,i conceive1 !       
natural feel+ (  retaliation or         
v5geance1 r5d]$ by intellect & sympa?y  
applicable  to ^? injuries1 t is1 to ^? 
hurts1 :i* w\nd u ?r\gh1 or  9 common )1

 society at l>ge4 ,?is s5tim5t1 9       
itself1 has no?+  moral 9 x2 :at is     
moral is1 ! exclusive subord9ation ( x  
to !  social sympa?ies1 s z to wait on &
 obey _! call4 ,= ! natural  feel+ t5ds 
to make u res5t indiscrim9ately :atev]  
any "o does  t is disagreeable to u2 b  
:5 moraliz$ by ! social feel+1 x  only  
acts 9 ! directions con=mable to ! g5]al
 good2 j  p]sons res5t+ a hurt to       
society1 ?\gh n o!rwise a hurt to       
!mselves1 & n res5t+ a hurt to !mselves1
 h[ev] pa9ful1  unless x be ( ! k9d :i* 
society has a common int]e/ ) !m  9 !   
repression (4    ,x is no objection     
aga9/ ?is doctr9e to say1 t :5 we feel  
our  s5tim5t ( ju/ice outrag$1 we are n 
?9k+ ( society at l>ge1  or ( any       
collective int]e/1 b only ( ! individual
 case4 ,x is  common en\gh c]ta9ly1 ?\gh
 ! rev]se ( comm5dable1 to feel         
res5tm5t m]ely because we h suff]$ pa92 
b a p]son ^:  res5tm5t is really a moral
 feel+1 t is1 :o consid]s :e!r an  act  
is blameable be=e he all[s himself to   

res5t x--su* a p]son1  ?\gh he may n say
 expressly to himself t he is /&+ up =  
! int]e/ ( society1 c]ta9ly does feel t 
he is ass]t+ a rule  :i* is = ! b5efit (
 o!rs z well z = 8 own4 ,if he is n     
feel+ ?is--if he is reg>d+ ! act solely 
z x affects him  individually--he is n  
consci\sly j2 he is n conc]n+ himself   
ab\t ! ju/ice ( 8 actions4 ,?is is      
admitt$ ev5 by  anti-utilit>ian         
morali/s4 ,:5 ,kant 7z be=e rem>k$7     
prop\nds z  ! fundam5tal pr9ciple (     
morals1 ',s act1 t ?y rule ( conduct    
might be adopt$ z a law by all rational 
be+s1' he virtually  ackn[l$ges t !     
int]e/ ( mank9d collectively1 or at lea/
 (  mank9d indiscrim9ately1 mu/ be 9 !  
m9d ( ! ag5t :5  consci5ti\sly decid+ on
 ! morality ( ! act4 ,o!rwise he uses   
words )\t a mean+3 =1 t a rule ev5 (    
utt] selfi%ness  c\ld n possibly be     
adopt$ by all rational be+s--t !re is   
any insup]able ob/acle 9 ! nature ( ?+s 
to its adoption--_c  be ev5 plausibly   
ma9ta9$4 ,to give any mean+ to ,kant's  

pr9ciple1  ! s5se put ^u x mu/ be1 t we 
ought to %ape our conduct by a  rule :i*
 all rational be+s might adopt ) b5efit 
to _!  collective int]e/4    ,to        
recapitulate3 ! idea ( ju/ice supposes  
two ?+s2 a rule (  conduct1 & a s5tim5t 
:i* sanctions ! rule4 ,! fir/ mu/ be    
suppos$ common to all mank9d1 & int5d$ =
 _! good4 ,! o!r  7! s5tim5t7 is a      
desire t puni%m5t may be suff]$ by ^? :o
  infr+e ! rule4 ,!re is involv$1 9     
addition1 ! conception (  "s def9ite    
p]son :o suff]s by ! infr+em5t2 ^:      
rights 7to  use ! expression appropriat$
 to ! case7 are violat$ by x4 ,& !      
s5tim5t ( ju/ice appe>s to me to be1 !  
animal desire to repel or  retaliate a  
hurt or damage to oneself1 or to ^? )   
:om "o  sympa?izes1 wid5$ s z to include
 all p]sons1 by ! human capacity  (     
enl>g$ sympa?y1 & ! human conception (  
intellig5t  self-int]e/4 ,f ! latt]     
elem5ts1 ! feel+ d]ives its  morality2 f
 ! =m]1 its peculi> impressiv5ess1 &    
en]gy (  self-ass]tion4    ,i h1        

?r\gh\t1 treat$ ! idea ( a "r resid+ 9 !
  injur$ p]son1 & violat$ by ! injury1 n
 z a sep>ate elem5t 9  ! composition ( !
 idea & s5tim5t1 b z "o ( ! =ms 9  :i* !
 o!r two elem5ts clo! !mselves4 ,^!     
elem5ts are1 a  hurt to "s assignable   
p]son or p]sons on ! "o h&1 & a dem&  = 
puni%m5t on ! o!r4 ,an exam9ation ( our 
own m9ds1 ,i ?9k1  w %[1 t ^! two ?+s   
include all t we mean :5 we speak  (    
violation ( a "r4 ,:5 we call any?+ a   
p]son's "r1 we mean  t he has a valid   
claim on society to protect him 9 !     
possession  ( x1 ei!r by ! =ce ( law1 or
 by t ( education & op9ion4  ,if he has 
:at we consid] a suffici5t claim1 on    
:atev] acc\nt1 to  h some?+ gu>ante$ to 
him by society1 we say t he has a "r  to
 x4 ,if we desire to prove t any?+ does 
n belong to him by  "r1 we ?9k ?is done 
z soon z x is admitt$ t society ought  n
 to take measures = secur+ x to him1 b  
%\ld leave x to  *ance1 or to 8 own     
ex]tions4 ,?us1 a p]son is said to h a  
"r  to :at he c e>n 9 fair pr(essional  

competition2 because society  ought n to
 all[ any o!r p]son to h9d] him f       
endeav\r+ to  e>n 9 t mann] z mu* z he  
c4 ,b he has n a "r to ?ree  hundr$     
a-ye>1 ?\gh he may happ5 to be e>n+ x2  
because society  is n call$ on to       
provide t he %all e>n t sum4 ,on !      
contr>y1 if he owns t5 ?\s& p\nds ?ree  
p] c5t4 /ock1 he has  a "r to ?ree      
hundr$ a-ye>2 because society has come  
"u an  obligation to provide him ) an   
income ( t am\nt4    ,to h a "r1 !n1 is1
 ,i conceive1 to h some?+ :i* society   
ought to def5d me 9 ! possession (4 ,if 
! objector goes on to ask  :y x ought1  
,i c give him no o!r reason ?an g5]al   
utility4 ,if  t expression does n seem  
to convey a suffici5t feel+ ( !  /r5g? (
 ! obligation1 nor to acc\nt = ! peculi>
 en]gy (  ! feel+1 x is because !re goes
 to ! composition ( !  s5tim5t1 n a     
rational only b also an animal elem5t1 !
 ?ir/  = retaliation2 & ?is ?ir/ d]ives 
its int5sity1 z well z its  moral       
ju/ification1 f ! extraord9>ily         

important & impressive  k9d ( utility   
:i* is conc]n$4 ,! int]e/ involv$ is t (
  security1 to e "o's feel+s ! mo/ vital
 ( all int]e/s4  ,ne>ly all o!r e>?ly   
b5efits are ne$$ by "o p]son1 n ne$$  by
 ano!r2 & _m ( !m c1 if necess>y1 be    
*e]fully =egone1  or replac$ by some?+  
else2 b security no human be+ c possibly
  d )\t2 on x we dep5d = all our        
immunity f evil1 & = !  :ole value ( all
 & e good1 beyond ! pass+ mom5t2 s9ce   
no?+ b ! gratification ( ! in/ant c\ld  
be ( any wor? to  u1 if we c\ld be      
depriv$ ( ev]y?+ ! next in/ant by :oev] 
0 mom5t>ily /rong] ?an ourselves4 ,n[   
?is mo/ indisp5sable (  all necess>ies1 
aft] physical nutrim5t1 _c be _h1 unless
 !  ma*9]y = provid+ x is kept          
un9t]mitt$ly 9 active play4 ,our        
notion1 !re=e1 ( ! claim we h on our    
fell[ creatures to jo9  9 mak+ safe = u 
! v gr\ndwork ( our exi/5ce1 ga!rs      
feel+s r\nd x s mu* m int5se ?an ^?     
conc]n$ 9 any (  ! m common cases (     
utility1 t ! diff]5ce 9 degree 7z is    

(t5 ! case 9 psy*ology7 becomes a real  
diff]5ce 9 k9d4 ,!  claim assumes t "* (
 absolut5ess1 t app>5t inf9ity1  &      
incomm5surability ) all o!r             
consid]ations1 :i* con/itute  !         
di/9ction betwe5 ! feel+ ( "r & wrong & 
t (  ord9>y exp$i5cy & inexp$i5cy4 ,!   
feel+s conc]n$ are s  p[]ful1 & we c\nt 
s positively on f9d+ a responsive feel+ 
9  o!rs 7all be+ alike int]e/$71 t ought
 & %\ld gr[ into  mu/1 & recogniz$      
indisp5sability becomes a moral         
necessity1  analog\s to physical1 & (t5 
n inf]ior to x 9 b9d+ =ce4    ,if !     
prec$+ analysis1 or some?+ resembl+ x1  
be n !  correct acc\nt ( ! notion (     
ju/ice2 if ju/ice be totally  indep5d5t 
( utility1 & be a /&>d p] se1 :i* ! m9d 
c  recognize by simple introspection (  
itself2 x is h>d to und]/&  :y t int]nal
 oracle is s ambigu\s1 & :y s _m ?+s    
appe>  ei!r j or unju/1 accord+ to !    
light 9 :i* !y are  reg>d$4 ,we are     
cont9ually in=m$ t ,utility is an       
unc]ta9  /&>d1 :i* e diff]5t p]son      

int]prets diff]5tly1 & t  !re is no     
safety b 9 ! immutable1 ineffaceable1 & 
unmi/akeable  dictates ( ,ju/ice1 :i*   
c>ry _! evid5ce 9 !mselves1 & are       
indep5d5t ( ! fluctuations ( op9ion4 ,"o
 w\ld suppose f ?is  t on que/ions (    
ju/ice !re c\ld be no controv]sy2 t if  
we  take t = our rule1 its application  
to any giv5 case c\ld leave u  9 z      
little d\bt z a ma!matical demon/ration4
 ,s f> is ?is f  be+ ! fact1 t !re is z 
mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion1 & z  fi]ce       
discussion1 ab\t :at is j1 z ab\t :at is
 useful to  society4 ,n only h diff]5t  
nations & individuals diff]5t  notions (
 ju/ice1 b1 9 ! m9d ( "o & ! same       
individual1  ju/ice is n "s "o rule1    
pr9ciple1 or maxim1 b _m1 :i* d  n      
always co9cide 9 _! dictates1 & 9 *oos+ 
betwe5 :i*1 he  is guid$ ei!r by "s     
extrane\s /&>d1 or by 8 own p]sonal     
pr$ilections4    ,= in/ance1 !re are "s 
:o say1 t x is unju/ to puni% any  "o = 
! sake ( example to o!rs2 t puni%m5t is 
j1 only  :5 int5d$ = ! good ( ! suff]]  

himself4 ,o!rs ma9ta9 !  extreme rev]se1
 cont5d+ t to puni% p]sons :o h atta9$  
ye>s ( discretion1 = _! own b5efit1 is  
despotism & inju/ice1  s9ce if ! matt]  
at issue is solely _! own good1 no "o   
has a  "r to control _! own judgm5t ( x2
 b t !y may ju/ly be  puni%$ to prev5t  
evil to o!rs1 ?is be+ an ex]cise ( !    
legitimate "r ( self-def5ce4 ,mr4 ,ow51 
aga91 affirms t x is  unju/ to puni% at 
all2 = ! crim9al did n make 8 own  "*2 8
 education1 & ! circum/ances :i* surr\nd
 him1 h  made him a crim9al1 & = ^! he  
is n responsible4 ,all ^!  op9ions are  
extremely plausible2 & s long z ! "q is 
argu$  z "o ( ju/ice simply1 )\t go+ d[n
 to ! pr9ciples :i* lie  "u ju/ice & are
 ! s\rce ( its au?ority1 ,i am unable to
 see  h[ any ( ^! reason]s c be refut$4 
,=1 9 tru?1 e "o (  ! ?ree builds ^u    
rules ( ju/ice confess$ly true4 ,! fir/ 
appeals to ! ackn[l$g$ inju/ice ( s+l+  
out an individual1 &  mak+ him a        
sacrifice1 )\t 8 cons5t1 = o!r p's      
b5efit4  ,! second relies on ! ackn[l$g$

 ju/ice ( self-def5ce1 & !  admitt$     
inju/ice ( =c+ "o p]son to con=m to     
ano!r's notions  ( :at con/itutes 8     
good4 ,! ,ow5ite invokes ! admitt$      
pr9ciple1 t x is unju/ to puni% any "o =
 :at he _c help4  ,ea* is triumphant s  
long z he is n compell$ to take into    
consid]ation any o!r maxims ( ju/ice ?an
 ! "o he has select$2  b z soon z _!    
sev]al maxims are br\ght face to face1  
ea*  disputant seems to h exactly z mu* 
to say = himself z !  o!rs4 ,no "o ( !m 
c c>ry out 8 own notion ( ju/ice )\t    
trampl+ ^u ano!r equally b9d+4 ,^! are  
difficulties2 !y  h always be5 felt to  
be su*2 & _m devices h be5 inv5t$ to    
turn r ?an to ov]come !m4 ,z a refuge f 
! la/ ( !  ?ree1 m5 imag9$ :at !y call$ 
! fre$om ( ! w2 fancy+  t !y c\ld n     
ju/ify puni%+ a man ^: w is 9 a         
?or\ghly hateful /ate1 unless x be      
suppos$ to h come into t  /ate ?r\gh no 
influ5ce ( ant]ior circum/ances4 ,to    
escape f !  o!r difficulties1 a fav\rite
 contrivance has be5 ! fiction ( a      

contract1 :]eby at "s unkn[n p]iod all !
 memb]s ( society  engag$ to obey !     
laws1 & cons5t$ to be puni%$ = any      
disob$i5ce to !m2 !reby giv+ to _!      
legislators ! "r1  :i* x is assum$ !y   
w\ld n o!rwise h _h1 ( puni%+  !m1 ei!r 
= _! own good or = t ( society4 ,?is    
happy  ?\ght 0 consid]$ to get rid ( !  
:ole difficulty1 & to  legitimate !     
infliction ( puni%m5t1 9 virtue ( ano!r 
receiv$  maxim ( ju/ice1 vol5ti non fit 
injuria2 t is n unju/ :i* is  done ) !  
cons5t ( ! p]son :o is suppos$ to be    
hurt by x4 ,i  ne$ h>dly rem>k1 t ev5 if
 ! cons5t 7 n a m]e fiction1  ?is maxim 
is n sup]ior 9 au?ority to ! o!rs :i* x 
is  br\ght 9 to sup]s$e4 ,x is1 on !    
contr>y1 an in/ructive specim5  ( !     
loose & irregul> mann] 9 :i* suppos$    
pr9ciples (  ju/ice gr[ up4 ,?is        
p>ticul> "o evid5tly came into use z a  
help  to ! co>se exig5cies ( c\rts (    
law1 :i* are sometimes oblig$  to be    
cont5t ) v unc]ta9 presumptions1 on     
acc\nt ( !  great] evils :i* w\ld (t5   

arise f any attempt on _! "p to  cut    
f9]4 ,b ev5 c\rts ( law are n able to   
adh]e consi/5tly to  ! maxim1 = !y all[ 
volunt>y engagem5ts to be set aside on !
  gr\nd ( fraud1 & sometimes on t ( m]e 
mi/ake or  mis9=mation4    ,aga91 :5 !  
legitimacy ( inflict+ puni%m5t is       
admitt$1 h[  _m conflict+ conceptions ( 
ju/ice come to light 9 discuss+ !  prop]
 apportionm5t ( puni%m5t to (f5ces4 ,no 
rule on ?is subject  recomm5ds itself s 
/rongly to ! primitive & spontane\s     
s5tim5t  ( ju/ice1 z ! lex talionis1 an 
eye = an eye & a too? = a  too?4 ,?\gh  
?is pr9ciple ( ! ,jewi% & ( ! ,mahom$an 
law has  be5 g5]ally ab&on$ 9 ,europe z 
a practical maxim1 !re is1 ,i  suspect1 
9 mo/ m9ds1 a secret hank]+ aft] x2 & :5
  retribution accid5tally falls on an   
(f5d] 9 t precise %ape1 !  g5]al feel+ (
 satisfaction ev9c$1 be>s witness h[    
natural is  ! s5tim5t to :i* ?is        
repaym5t 9 k9d is acceptable4 ,) _m  !  
te/ ( ju/ice 9 p5al infliction is t !   
puni%m5t %\ld be  proportion$ to !      

(f5ce2 mean+ t x %\ld be exactly measur$
  by ! moral guilt ( ! culprit 7:atev]  
be _! /&>d =  measur+ moral guilt73 !   
consid]ation1 :at am\nt ( puni%m5t is   
necess>y to det] f ! (f5ce1 hav+ no?+ to
 d ) !  "q ( ju/ice1 9 _! e/imation3    
:ile !re are o!rs to :om  t consid]ation
 is all 9 all2 :o ma9ta9 t x is n j1 at 
lea/ = man1 to inflict on a fell[       
creature1 :atev] may be 8  (f5ces1 any  
am\nt ( suff]+ beyond ! lea/ t w suffice
 to  prev5t him f repeat+1 & o!rs f     
imitat+1 8 misconduct4    ,to take ano!r
 example f a subject already once ref]r$
 to4 ,9 a  co-op]ative indu/rial        
association1 is x j or n t tal5t or     
skill %\ld give a title to sup]ior      
remun]ation8 ,on ! negative side  ( ! "q
 x is argu$1 t :oev] does ! be/ he c1   
des]ves equally well1 & ought n 9 ju/ice
 to be put 9 a position  ( inf]iority = 
no fault ( 8 own2 t sup]ior abilities h 
already advantages m ?an en\gh1 9 !     
admiration !y excite1 !  p]sonal        
influ5ce !y comm&1 & ! int]nal s\rces ( 

satisfaction att5d+ !m1 )\t add+ to ^! a
 sup]ior %>e (  ! _w's goods2 & t       
society is b\nd 9 ju/ice r to make      
comp5sation to ! less fav\r$1 = ?is     
unm]it$ inequality (  advantages1 ?an to
 aggravate x4 ,on ! contr>y side x is   
cont5d$1  t society receives m f ! m    
effici5t lab\r]2 t 8  s]vices be+ m     
useful1 society owes him a l>g] return =
 !m2  t a great] %>e ( ! jo9t result is 
actually 8 "w1 & n  to all[ 8 claim to x
 is a k9d ( robb]y2 t if he is only to  
receive z mu* z o!rs1 he c only be ju/ly
 requir$ to produce z  mu*1 & to give a 
small] am\nt ( "t & ex]tion1 proportion$
 to  8 sup]ior effici5cy4 ,:o %all      
decide betwe5 ^! appeals to  conflict+  
pr9ciples ( ju/ice8 ,ju/ice has 9 ?is   
case two sides to  x1 :i* x is          
impossible to br+ into h>mony1 & ! two  
disputants  h *os5 opposite sides2 ! "o 
looks to :at x is j t !  individual %\ld
 receive1 ! o!r to :at x is j t !       
community %\ld give4 ,ea*1 f 8 own po9t 
( view1 is  unansw]able2 & any *oice    

betwe5 !m1 on gr\nds ( ju/ice1 mu/  be  
p]fectly arbitr>y4 ,social utility alone
 c decide ! pref]5ce4    ,h[ _m1 aga91 &
 h[ irreconcileable1 are ! /&>ds (      
ju/ice  to :i* ref]5ce is made 9        
discuss+ ! rep>tition ( taxation4  ,"o  
op9ion is1 t paym5t to ! ,/ate %\ld be 9
 num]ical  proportion to pecuni>y means4
 ,o!rs ?9k t ju/ice dictates :at  !y t]m
 graduat$ taxation2 tak+ a high]        
p]c5tage f ^? :o  h m to sp>e4 ,9 po9t (
 natural ju/ice a /rong case might be   
made = disreg>d+ means altoge!r1 & tak+ 
! same absolute sum  7:5ev] x c\ld be   
got7 f e "o3 z ! subscrib]s to a mess1  
or to a club1 all pay ! same sum = !    
same privileges1 :e!r !y  c all equally 
af=d x or n4 ,s9ce ! protection 7x might
 be  said7 ( law & gov]nm5t is af=d$ to1
 & is equally requir$ by1  all1 !re is  
no inju/ice 9 mak+ all buy x at ! same  
price4 ,x is  reckon$ ju/ice1 n         
inju/ice1 t a deal] %\ld *>ge to all    
cu/om]s ! same price = ! same article1 n
 a price v>y+  accord+ to _! means (    

paym5t4 ,?is doctr9e1 z appli$ to       
taxation1 f9ds no advocates1 because x  
conflicts /rongly ) m5's  feel+s (      
humanity & p]ceptions ( social exp$i5cy2
 b !  pr9ciple ( ju/ice :i* x invokes is
 z true & z b9d+ z ^?  :i* c be appeal$ 
to aga9/ x4 ,accord+ly1 x ex]ts a tacit 
influ5ce on ! l9e ( def5ce employ$ = o!r
 modes ( assess+  taxation4 ,p feel     
oblig$ to argue t ! ,/ate does m = !    
ri* ?an = ! poor1 z a ju/ification = its
 tak+ m f  !m3 ?\gh ?is is 9 reality n  
true1 = ! ri* w\ld be f>  bett] able to 
protect !mselves1 9 ! abs5ce ( law or   
gov]nm5t1  ?an ! poor1 & inde$ w\ld     
probably be successful 9 conv]t+ !  poor
 into _! slaves4 ,o!rs1 aga91 s f> def] 
to ! same  conception ( ju/ice1 z to    
ma9ta9 t all %\ld pay an equal          
capitation tax = ! protection ( _!      
p]sons 7^! be+ ( equal  value to all71 &
 an unequal tax = ! protection ( _!     
prop]ty1  :i* is unequal4 ,to ?is o!rs  
reply1 t ! all ( "o man is z  valuable  
to him z ! all ( ano!r4 ,f ^! confusions

 !re is no  o!r mode ( extrication ?an !
 utilit>ian4           99       99      
99       99       99    ,is1 !n1 !      
diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,j & ! ,exp$i5t a     
m]ely  imag9>y di/9ction8 ,h mank9d be5 
"u a delusion 9 ?9k+  t ju/ice is a m   
sacr$ ?+ ?an policy1 & t ! latt]  ought 
only to be li/5$ to aft] ! =m] has be5  
satisfi$8 ,by no  means4 ,! exposition  
we h giv5 ( ! nature & orig9 ( !        
s5tim5t1 recognises a real di/9ction2 & 
no "o ( ^? :o  pr(ess ! mo/ sublime     
contempt = ! consequ5ces ( actions z an 
elem5t 9 _! morality1 atta*es m         
importance to ! di/9ction  ?an ,i d4    
,:ile ,i dispute ! pret5sions ( any !ory
 :i* sets up  an imag9>y /&>d ( ju/ice n
 gr\nd$ on utility1 ,i acc\nt !  ju/ice 
:i* is gr\nd$ on utility to be ! *ief   
"p1 &  incomp>ably ! mo/ sacr$ & b9d+   
"p1 ( all morality4 ,ju/ice  is a "n =  
c]ta9 classes ( moral rules1 :i* conc]n 
!  ess5tials ( human well-be+ m ne>ly1 &
 are !re=e ( m  absolute obligation1 ?an
 any o!r rules = ! guidance ( life2 &  !

 notion :i* we h f\nd to be ( ! ess5ce (
 ! idea (  ju/ice1 t ( a "r resid+ 9 an 
individual1 implies &  te/ifies to ?is m
 b9d+ obligation4    ,! moral rules :i* 
=bid mank9d to hurt "o ano!r 79 :i* we  
mu/ nev] =get to include wrongful       
int]f]5ce ) ea* o!r's  fre$om7 are m    
vital to human well-be+ ?an any maxims1 
h[ev]  important1 :i* only po9t out !   
be/ mode ( manag+ "s  dep>tm5t ( human  
affairs4 ,!y h also ! peculi>ity1 t !y  
are ! ma9 elem5t 9 det]m9+ ! :ole ( !   
social feel+s (  mank9d4 ,x is _!       
obs]vance :i* alone pres]ves peace among
 human  be+s3 if ob$i5ce to !m 7 n !    
rule1 & disob$i5ce !  exception1 e "o   
w\ld see 9 e "o else a probable enemy1  
aga9/ :om he mu/ be p]petually gu>d+    
himself4 ,:at is h>dly  less important1 
^! are ! precepts :i* mank9d h ! /ronge/
  & ! mo/ direct inducem5ts = impress+  
^u "o ano!r4 ,by  m]ely giv+ to ea* o!r 
prud5tial in/ruction or exhortation1 !y 
may ga91 or ?9k !y ga91 no?+3 9         
inculcat+ on ea* o!r !  duty ( positive 

b5efic5ce !y h an unmi/akeable int]e/1 b
  f> less 9 degree3 a p]son may possibly
 n ne$ ! b5efits (  o!rs2 b he always   
ne$s t !y %\ld n d him hurt4 ,?us !     
moralities :i* protect e individual f   
be+ h>m$ by o!rs1  ei!r directly or by  
be+ h9d]$ 9 8 fre$om ( pursu+ 8 own     
good1 are at once ^? :i* he himself has 
mo/ at he>t1 & ^?  :i* he has ! /ronge/ 
int]e/ 9 publi%+ & en=c+ by ^w  & de$4  
,x is by a p]son's obs]vance ( ^!1 t 8  
fitness to  exi/ z "o ( ! fell[%ip (    
human be+s1 is te/$ & decid$2  = on t   
dep5ds 8 be+ a nuisance or n to ^? ) :om
 he is  9 contact4 ,n[ x is ^!          
moralities prim>ily1 :i* compose !      
obligations ( ju/ice4 ,! mo/ m>k$ cases 
( inju/ice1 & ^?  :i* give ! tone to !  
feel+ ( repugnance :i* *>act]izes !     
s5tim5t1 are acts ( wrongful aggression1
 or wrongful ex]cise (  p[] ov] "s "o2 !
 next are ^? :i* consi/ 9 wrongfully    
)hold+ f him some?+ :i* is 8 due2 9 bo? 
cases1  inflict+ on him a positive hurt1
 ei!r 9 ! =m ( direct  suff]+1 or ( !   

privation ( "s good :i* he _h reasonable
  gr\nd1 ei!r ( a physical or ( a social
 k9d1 = c\nt+ ^u4    ,! same p[]ful     
motives :i* comm& ! obs]vance ( ^!      
prim>y  moralities1 enjo9 ! puni%m5t (  
^? :o violate !m2 & z !  impulses (     
self-def5ce1 ( def5ce ( o!rs1 & (       
v5geance1 are  all call$ =? aga9/ su*   
p]sons1 retribution1 or evil = evil1    
becomes closely connect$ ) ! s5tim5t (  
ju/ice1 & is  univ]sally includ$ 9 !    
idea4 ,good = good is also "o ( !       
dictates ( ju/ice2 & ?is1 ?\gh its      
social utility is evid5t1 &  ?\gh x     
c>ries ) x a natural human feel+1 has n 
at fir/  sight t obvi\s connexion ) hurt
 or injury1 :i*1 exi/+ 9 !  mo/ elem5t>y
 cases ( j & unju/1 is ! s\rce ( !      
*>act]i/ic int5sity ( ! s5tim5t4 ,b !   
connexion1 ?\gh  less obvi\s1 is n less 
real4 ,he :o accepts b5efits1 & d5ies a 
return ( !m :5 ne$$1 inflicts a real    
hurt1 by disappo9t+ "o  ( ! mo/ natural 
& reasonable ( expectations1 & "o :i* he
  mu/ at lea/ tacitly h enc\rag$1       

o!rwise ! b5efits w\ld  seldom h be5    
conf]r$4 ,! important rank1 among human 
evils &  wrongs1 ( ! disappo9tm5t (     
expectation1 is %[n 9 ! fact t  x       
con/itutes ! pr9cipal crim9ality ( two  
su* highly immoral acts  z a brea* (    
fri5d%ip & a brea* ( promise4 ,few hurts
 :i* human  be+s c su/a9 are great]1 &  
none w\nd m1 ?an :5 t on  :i* !y        
habitually & ) full assurance reli$1    
fails !m 9 !  h\r ( ne$2 & few wrongs   
are great] ?an ?is m]e )hold+ (  good2  
none excite m res5tm5t1 ei!r 9 ! p]son  
suff]+1 or 9  a sympa?iz+ spectator4 ,! 
pr9ciple1 !re=e1 ( giv+ to ea*  :at !y  
des]ve1 t is1 good = good z well z evil 
= evil1 is  n only includ$ )9 ! idea (  
,ju/ice z we h def9$ x1 b  is a prop]   
object ( t int5sity ( s5tim5t1 :i*      
places !  ,j1 9 human e/imation1 above !
 simply ,exp$i5t4    ,mo/ ( ! maxims (  
ju/ice curr5t 9 ! _w1 & commonly        
appeal$ to 9 its transactions1 are      
simply in/rum5tal to c>ry+  into effect 
! pr9ciples ( ju/ice :i* we h n[ spok5  

(4 ,t  a p]son is only responsible = :at
 he has done volunt>ily1 or c\ld        
volunt>ily h avoid$2 t x is unju/ to    
condemn any p]son  unhe>d2 t ! puni%m5t 
ought to be proportion$ to ! (f5ce1  & !
 l1 are maxims int5d$ to prev5t ! j     
pr9ciple ( evil  = evil f be+ p]v]t$ to 
! infliction ( evil )\t t  ju/ification4
 ,! great] "p ( ^! common maxims h come 
into  use f ! practice ( c\rts ( ju/ice1
 :i* h be5 naturally  l$ to a m complete
 recognition & elaboration ?an 0 likely 
to  sugge/ itself to o!rs1 ( ! rules    
necess>y to enable !m to  fulfil _!     
d\ble function1 ( inflict+ puni%m5t :5  
due1 & (  aw>d+ to ea* p]son 8 "r4    ,t
 fir/ ( judicial virtues1 imp>tiality1  
is an obligation (  ju/ice1 p>tly = !   
reason la/ m5tion$2 z be+ a necess>y    
condition ( ! fulfilm5t ( ! o!r         
obligations ( ju/ice4 ,b  ?is is n !    
only s\rce ( ! exalt$ rank1 among human 
obligations1 ( ^? maxims ( equality &   
imp>tiality1 :i*1 bo?  9 popul>         
e/imation & 9 t ( ! mo/ enlight5$1 are  

includ$  among ! precepts ( ju/ice4 ,9  
"o po9t ( view1 !y may be  consid]$ z   
coroll>ies f ! pr9ciples already laid   
d[n4 ,if x  is a duty to d to ea*       
accord+ to 8 des]ts1 return+ good =     
good z well z repress+ evil by evil1 x  
necess>ily foll[s t we  %\ld treat all  
equally well 7:5 no high] duty =bids7 :o
 h  des]v$ equally well ( u1 & t society
 %\ld treat all equally  well :o h      
des]v$ equally well ( x1 t is1 :o h     
des]v$  equally well absolutely4 ,?is is
 ! highe/ ab/ract /&>d ( social  &      
di/ributive ju/ice2 t[>ds :i* all       
in/itutions1 & !  ef=ts ( all virtu\s   
citiz5s1 %\ld be made 9 ! utmo/ possible
  degree to conv]ge4 ,b ?is great moral 
duty re/s ^u a /ill deep]  f\ndation1   
be+ a direct emanation f ! fir/ pr9ciple
 ( morals1  & n a m]e logical coroll>y f
 second>y or d]ivative doctr9es4  ,x is 
involv$ 9 ! v mean+ ( ,utility1 or !    
,greate/-,happ9ess ,pr9ciple4 ,t        
pr9ciple is a m]e =m ( words  )\t       
rational signification1 unless "o       

p]son's happ9ess1 suppos$  equal 9      
degree 7) ! prop] all[ance made = k9d71 
is c\nt$  = exactly z mu* z ano!r's4 ,^?
 conditions be+ suppli$1  ,b5?am's      
dictum1 'ev]ybody to c\nt = "o1 nobody =
 m ?an  "o1' might be writt5 "u !       
pr9ciple ( utility z an explanatory     
comm5t>y4,d ,! equal claim ( ev]ybody to
 happ9ess 9 !  e/imation ( ! morali/ & !
 legislator1 involves an equal claim  to
 all ! means ( happ9ess1 except 9 s f> z
 ! inevitable  conditions ( human life1 
& ! g5]al int]e/1 9 :i* t (  e          
individual is includ$1 set limits to !  
maxim2 & ^? limits  ought to be /rictly 
con/ru$4 ,z e o!r maxim ( ju/ice1 s     
?is1 is by no means appli$ or held      
applicable univ]sally2 on !  contr>y1 z 
,i h already rem>k$1 x b5ds to e p]son's
 ideas  ( social exp$i5cy4 ,b 9 :atev]  
case x is deem$ applicable at  all1 x is
 held to be ! dictate ( ju/ice4 ,all    
p]sons are deem$ to  h a "r to equality 
( treatm5t1 except :5 "s recognis$      
social exp$i5cy requires ! rev]se4 ,&   

h5ce all social  inequalities :i* h     
ceas$ to be consid]$ exp$i5t1 assume !  
"* n ( simple inexp$i5cy1 b ( inju/ice1 
& appe> s  tyrannical1 t p are apt to   
wond] h[ !y ev] c\ld h be5  tol]at$2    
=getful t !y !mselves p]haps tol]ate o!r
  inequalities "u an equally mi/ak5     
notion ( exp$i5cy1 !  correction ( :i*  
w\ld make t :i* !y approve seem q z     
mon/r\s z :at !y h at la/ le>nt to      
condemn4 ,! entire  hi/ory ( social     
improvem5t has be5 a s]ies (            
transitions1 by :i*  "o cu/om or        
in/itution aft] ano!r1 f be+ a suppos$  
prim>y  necessity ( social exi/5ce1 has 
pass$ into ! rank ( an  univ]sally      
/igmatiz$ inju/ice & tyranny4 ,s x has  
be5 ) !  di/9ctions ( slaves & freem51  
nobles & s]fs1 patricians &  plebeians2 
& s x w be1 & 9 "p already is1 ) !      
ari/ocracies ( col\r1 race1 & sex4    ,x
 appe>s f :at has be5 said1 t ju/ice is 
a "n = c]ta9  moral requirem5ts1 :i*1   
reg>d$ collectively1 /& high] 9 !  scale
 ( social utility1 & are !re=e ( m      

p>am\nt obligation1  ?an any o!rs2 ?\gh 
p>ticul> cases may occur 9 :i* "s o!r   
social duty is s important1 z to ov]rule
 any "o ( ! g5]al  maxims ( ju/ice4     
,?us1 to save a life1 x may n only be   
all[able1  b a duty1 to /eal1 or take by
 =ce1 ! necess>y food or m$ic9e1  or to 
kidnap1 & compel to (ficiate1 ! only    
qualifi$ m$ical  practition]4 ,9 su*    
cases1 z we d n call any?+ ju/ice :i* is
  n a virtue1 we usually say1 n t ju/ice
 mu/ give way to "s  o!r moral pr9ciple1
 b t :at is j 9 ord9>y cases is1 by     
reason ( t o!r pr9ciple1 n j 9 !        
p>ticul> case4 ,by ?is  useful          
accommodation ( language1 ! "* (        
indefeasibility  attribut$ to ju/ice is 
kept up1 & we are sav$ f ! necessity (  
ma9ta9+ t !re c be laudable inju/ice4   
,! consid]ations :i* h n[ be5 adduc$    
resolve1 ,i conceive1 !  only real      
difficulty 9 ! utilit>ian !ory ( morals4
 ,x has always  be5 evid5t t all cases (
 ju/ice are also cases ( exp$i5cy3 !    
diff]5ce is 9 ! peculi> s5tim5t :i*     

atta*es to ! =m]1 z  contradi/+ui%$ f ! 
latt]4 ,if ?is *>act]i/ic s5tim5t  has  
be5 suffici5tly acc\nt$ =2 if !re is no 
necessity to assume  = x any peculi>ity 
( orig92 if x is simply ! natural feel+ 
(  res5tm5t1 moraliz$ by be+ made       
coext5sive ) ! dem&s (  social good2 &  
if ?is feel+ n only does b ought to exi/
 9 all  ! classes ( cases to :i* ! idea 
( ju/ice corresponds2 t idea  no long]  
pres5ts itself z a /umbl+-block to !    
utilit>ian  e?ics4 ,ju/ice rema9s !     
appropriate "n = c]ta9 social  utilities
 :i* are va/ly m important1 & !re=e m   
absolute  & imp]ative1 ?an any o!rs are 
z a class 7?\gh n m s ?an  o!rs may be 9
 p>ticul> cases72 & :i*1 !re=e1 ought to
 be1  z well z naturally are1 gu>d$ by a
 s5tim5t n only diff]5t 9  degree1 b    
also 9 k9d2 di/+ui%$ f ! mild] feel+ :i*
  atta*es to ! m]e idea ( promot+ human 
pleasure or conv5i5ce1 at  once by ! m  
def9ite nature ( its comm&s1 & by ! /]n]
  "* ( its sanctions4      ,,! ,,end4   
,,footnotes3    ,footnote ,c3 ,see ?is  

po9t en=c$ & illu/rat$ by ,pr(essor     
,ba91  9 an admirable *apt] 7entitl$ ,! 
,e?ical ,emotions1 or ! ,moral  ,s5se7 (
 ! second ( ! two treatises compos+ 8   
elaborate &  pr(\nd "w on ! ,m9d4       
,footnote ,d3 ,?is implication1 9 ! fir/
 pr9ciple ( ! utilit>ian  s*eme1 (      
p]fect imp>tiality betwe5 p]sons1 is    
reg>d$ by ,mr4  ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 79 8      
,social ,/atics7 z a dispro( ( !        
pret5tions ( utility to be a suffici5t  
guide to "r2 s9ce 7he  says7 ! pr9ciple 
( utility presupposes ! ant]ior         
pr9ciple1 t  ev]ybody has an equal "r to
 happ9ess4 ,x may be m correctly        
describ$ z suppos+ t equal am\nts (     
happ9ess are equally  desirable1 :e!r   
felt by ! same or by diff]5t p]sons4    
,?is1  h[ev]1 is n a pre-supposition2 n 
a premise ne$ful to support !  pr9ciple 
( utility1 b ! v pr9ciple itself2 = :at 
is !  pr9ciple ( utility1 if x be n t   
'happ9ess' & 'desirable' are  synonym\s 
t]ms8 ,if !re is any ant]ior pr9ciple   
impli$1 x c be  no o!r ?an ?is1 t !     

tru?s ( ari?metic are applicable to !   
valuation ( happ9ess1 z ( all o!r       
measurable quantities4    ,mr4 ,h]b]t   
,sp5c]1 9 a private communication on !  
subject ( !  prec$+ ,note1 objects to   
be+ consid]$ an oppon5t (               
,utilit>ianism2 & /ates t he reg>ds     
happ9ess z ! ultimate end  ( morality2 b
 deems t end only p>tially atta9able by 
empirical  g5]alizations f ! obs]v$     
results ( conduct1 & completely         
atta9able only by d$uc+1 f ! laws ( life
 & ! conditions (  exi/5ce1 :at k9ds (  
action necess>ily t5d to produce        
happ9ess1  & :at k9ds to produce        
unhapp9ess4 ,) ! exception ( ! ^w       
necess>ily1 ,i h no diss5t to express f 
?is doctr9e2 &  7omitt+ t ^w7 ,i am n   
aw>e t any mod]n advocate (             
utilit>ianism is ( a diff]5t op9ion4    
,b5?am1 c]ta9ly1 to :om 9  ! ,social    
,/atics ,mr4 ,sp5c] p>ticul>ly ref]r$1  
is1 lea/ ( all  writ]s1 *>geable )      
unwill+ness to d$uce ! effect ( actions 
on happ9ess f ! laws ( human nature & ! 

univ]sal conditions  ( human life4 ,!   
common *>ge aga9/ him is ( rely+ too    
exclusively ^u su* d$uctions1 & decl9+  
altoge!r to be b\nd  by ! g5]alizations 
f specific exp]i5ce :i* ,mr4 ,sp5c] ?9ks
  t utilit>ians g5]ally conf9e !mselves 
to4 ,my own op9ion 7&1  z ,i collect1   
,mr4 ,sp5c]'s7 is1 t 9 e?ics1 z 9 all   
o!r  bran*es ( sci5tific /udy1 !        
consili5ce ( ! results ( bo?  ^!        
processes1 ea* corroborat+ & v]ify+ !   
o!r1 is  requisite to give to any g5]al 
proposition ! k9d & degree (  evid5ce   
:i* con/itutes sci5tific pro(4