,,*ri/ianity    ,,&    ,,islam      ,,by
    ,c4,h4 ,,beck]1 ,,ph4,d4            
,,pr(essor ,,( ,,ori5tal ,,hi/ory ,,9   
,,! ,,colonial ,,in/itute ,,( ,,hamburg 
,,translat$ ,,by  ,,rev4 ,h4,j4         
,,*aytor1 ,m4,a4    ,,headma/] ,,(      
,,plym\? ,,college        #aiji         
,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts      ,! subject f 
diff]5t po9ts ( view3 limits ( treatm5t 
,! nature ( ! subject3 ! hi/orical po9ts
 ( connection betwe5  ,*ri/ianity &     
,islam      ,a4 ,*ri/ianity & ! rise (  
,islam3         #a4 ,muhamm$ & 8        
contempor>ies         #b4 ,! influ5ce ( 
,*ri/ianity ^u ! developm5t ( ,muhamm$  
#c4 ,muhamm$'s k ( ,*ri/ianity          
#d4 ,! position ( ,*ri/ians "u          
,muhamm$anism      ,b4 ,! simil>ity (   
,*ri/ian & ,muhamm$an metaphysics dur+ !
       middle ages3         #a4 ,! means
 & direction by :i* ,*ri/ian influ5ce   
affect$          ,islam         #b4 ,!  
p5etration ( daily life by ! _s (       
religion2          asceticism1          
contradictions & influ5ces affect+ !    

developm5t ( a cl]ical class & ! !ory ( 
m>riage         #c4 ,! !ory ( life 9    
g5]al ) ref]5ce to ! doctr9e          ( 
immortality         #d4 ,! attitude (   
religion t[>ds ! ,/ate1 economic life1  
society1 etc4         #e4 ,! p]man5t    
importance to ,islam ( ^! influ5ces3 !  
doctr9e ( duties         #f4 ,ritual    
#g4 ,my/icism & ! wor%ip ( sa9ts        
#h4 ,dogma & ! developm5t ( s*ola/icism 
,c4 ,! influ5ce ( ,islam ^u ,*ri/ianity3
         ,! mann] 9 :i* ?is influ5ce    
op]at$1 & ! explanation       ( !       
sup]iority ( ,islam         ,! influ5ce 
( ,muhamm$an philosophy         ,! new  
_w ( ,european ,*ri/5dom & ! mod]n ,ea/ 
,conclusion4 ,! hi/orical gr[? (        
religion    ,bibliography               
,,*ri/ianity ,,& ,,islam      ,a        
comp>ison ( ,*ri/ianity ) ,muhamm$anism 
or ) any o!r  religion mu/ be prec$$ by 
a /atem5t ( ! objects ) :i*  su*        
comp>ison is und]tak51 = ! possibilities
 :i* lie 9 ?is  direction are num]\s4 ,!
 mission>y1 = in/ance1 may consid]  t a 

k ( ! simil>ities ( ^! religions w\ld   
increase  ! efficacy ( 8 proselytis+ "w3
 8 purpose w\ld ?us be  :olly practical4
 ,! ecclesia/ically m9d$ ,*ri/ian1      
already  conv9c$ ( ! sup]iority ( 8 own 
religion1 w be *iefly  anxi\s to secure 
sci5tific pro( ( ! fact3 ! /udy (       
comp>ative religion f ?is po9t ( view 0 
once a popul> bran*  ( apologetics & is 
by no means out ( fav\r at ! pres5t day4
  ,aga91 ! inquir] ^: hi/orical         
p]spective is undi/urb$ by              
ecclesia/ical consid]ations1 w approa* !
 subject ) some:at  diff]5t int]e/s4 ,he
 w expect ! comp>ison to provide him )  
a cle> view ( ! influ5ce :i* ,*ri/ianity
 has ex]t$ ^u  o!r religions or has     
itself receiv$ f !m3 or he may hope by  
comp>+ ! g5]al developm5t ( special     
religi\s sy/ems to ga9  a cle>] insight 
into ! gr[? ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,h5ce !      
object (  su* comp>isons is to trace !  
c\rse ( analog\s developm5ts &  !       
int]action ( influ5ce & s to increase ! 
k (  religion 9 g5]al or ( our own      

religion 9 p>ticul>4    ,a _w-religion1 
su* z ,*ri/ianity1 is a highly complex  
/ructure  & ! evolution ( su* a sy/em ( 
belief is be/ und]/ood by  exam9+ a     
religion to :i* we h n be5 b\nd by a    
?\s&  ties f ! e>lie/ days ( our lives4 
,if we take an ali5 religion  z our     
subject ( inve/igation1 we %all n %r9k f
 !  consequ5ces ( ! hi/orical me?od3    
:]eas1 :5 we criticise  ,*ri/ianity1 we 
are (t5 unable to see ! falsity ( !     
pre-suppositions :i* we necess>ily br+  
to ! task ( inquiry3  our m9ds foll[ !  
doctr9es ( ,*ri/ianity1 ev5 z our bodies
  p]=m _! functions--9 complete         
unconsci\sness4 ,at ! same "t  we       
possess a v consid]able k ( ! developm5t
 (  ,*ri/ianity1 & ?is we owe l>gely to 
! help ( analogy4  ,especially          
in/ructive is ! comp>ison betwe5        
,*ri/ianity &  ,buddhism4 ,no less      
int]e/+ are ! discov]ies to be atta9$ by
 an  inquiry into ! developm5t (        
,muhamm$anism3 "h we c see !  gr[? (    
tradition proce$+ 9 ! full light (      

hi/orical  criticism4 ,we see ! pla9    
man1 ,muhamm$1 expressly decl>+ 9 !     
,qoran t he _c p]=m miracles1 yet       
gradually becom+ a  miracle work] &     
inde$ ! greate/ ( 8 class3 he pr(esses  
to  be no?+ m ?an a mortal man3 he      
becomes ! *ief m$iator  betwe5 man &    
,god4 ,! scanty memorials ( ! man become
 volum9\s  biographies ( ! sa9t &       
increase f g5]ation to g5]ation4    ,yet
 m rem>kable is ! fact t 8 utt]ances1 8 
logia1 if  we may use ! t]m1 "s few (   
:i* are c]ta9ly g5u9e1 increase  f ye>  
to ye> & =m a l>ge collection :i* is    
critically  sift$ & exp\nd$4 ,!         
aspirations ( mank9d attribute to him   
su*  words ( ! ,new ,te/am5t & ( ,greek 
philosoph]s z 7  especially popul> or   
seem$ wor?y ( ,muhamm$2 ! tea*+ also (  
! new ecclesia/ical s*ools 0 inv>iably  
express$ 9 ! =m (  prov]bial utt]ances  
attribut$ to ,muhamm$1 & ^! are n[  )\t 
exception reg>d$ z au!ntic by ! mod]n   
,moslem4 ,9 ?is  way op9ions (t5        
contradictory are cov]$ by ,muhumm$'s   

au?ority4    ,! traditions conc]n+      
,jesus (f] an analogy4 ,our ,gospels1 = 
in/ance1 relate ! beautiful /ory ( !    
pluck+ ( ! e>s (  corn on ! ,sabba?1 )  
its fam\s moral application1 ,! ,sabba? 
0 made = man1 & n man = ! ,sabba?4 ,a   
,*ri/ian papyrus  has be5 discov]$ :i*  
repres5ts ,jesus z expla9+ ! sanctity  (
 ! ,sabba? f ! ,judaeo-,*ri/ian po9t (  
view4 ,if ye keep  n ! ,sabba? holy1 ye 
%all n see ! ,fa!r1 is ! /atem5t  9 an  
uncanonical ,gospel4 ,9 e>ly ,*ri/ian   
lit]ature1 contradictory  say+s ( ,jesus
 are also to be f\nd4 ,d\btless "h1 z 9 
,muhamm$an tradition1 ! problem         
orig9ally 01 :at is to be my  action 9  
?is or t "q ( practical life3 answ] is  
giv5 9  accordance ) ! religi\s attitude
 ( ! inquir] & ,jesus &  ,muhamm$ are   
made to l5d _! au?ority to ! tea*+4     
,traditional  lit]>y =m is !n reg>d$ z  
hi/orical by lat] believ]s4    ,examples
 ( ?is k9d might be multipli$1 b en\gh  
has be5 said to  %[ t mu* &1 to "s      
ext5t1 new light may be ?r[n ^u !       

developm5t ( ,*ri/ian tradition1 by an  
exam9ation ( ,muhamm$anism  :i* rose f  
simil> soil b a few c5turies lat]1 :ile 
its  traditional developm5ts h be5 mu* m
 completely pres]v$4    ,su* analogies z
 ^! c be f\nd1 h[ev]1 9 any ( !         
_w-religions1 & we propose to devote our
 att5tion m  p>ticul>ly to ! influ5ces  
:i* ,*ri/ianity & ,islam ex]t$  directly
 ^u "o ano!r4 ,:ile ,muhamm$anism has   
borr[$ f its  h]$it>y foe1 x has also   
repaid "p ( ! debt4 ,by ! v fact  ( its 
hi/orical position ,islam 0 at fir/     
indebt$ to  ,*ri/ianity2 b 9 ! dep>tm5t 
( ,*ri/ian philosophy1 x has  also ex]t$
 its own influ5ce4 ,?is influ5ce _c be  
comp>$ )  t ( ,greek or ,jewi% ?\ght ^u 
,*ri/ian speculation3 ,*ri/ian          
philosophy1 z a metaphysical !ory (     
exi/5ce1 0 h[ev]  /rongly influ5c$ by   
,arabian ?\ght be=e ! outset ( !        
,re=mation4 ,on ! o!r h& ! influ5ce (   
,*ri/ianity ^u  ,islam--& also ^u       
,muhamm$1 ?\gh he ow$ m to ,jewi%       
?\ght--0 s ext5sive t ! co9cid5ce (     

ideas ^u ! mo/  important metaphysical  
que/ions is positively amaz+4    ,!re is
 a widespread belief ev5 at ! pres5t day
 t ,islam 0 a  complete novelty & t !   
religion & culture ( ! ,muhamm$an  _w 7 
:olly ali5 to ,we/]n m$ievalism4 ,su*   
views are  entirely false2 dur+ !       
,middle ,ages ,muhamm$anism & ,we/]n    
culture 7 inspir$ by ! same _s4 ,! fact 
has be5 obscur$  by ! contra/ betwe5 !  
two religions ^: diff]5ces h be5        
con/antly exagg]at$ & by dissimil>ities 
( language &  nationality4 ,to retrace 9
 full detail ! close connection :i*     
unites ,*ri/ianity & ,islam w\ld be ! "w
 ( ye>s4 ,)9 !  scope ( ! pres5t volume1
 all t c be done is to expla9 !  po9ts (
 contact betwe5 ,*ri/ian & ,muhamm$an   
!ories ( life  & religion4 ,su* is !    
object ( ! foll[+ pages4 ,we %all  fir/ 
treat ( ,muhamm$ p]sonally1 because 8   
rise z a religi\s  =ce w expla9 !       
possibility ( lat] developm5ts4    ,?is 
/atem5t also expla9s ! s5se 9 :i* we    
%all use ! t]m  ,*ri/ianity4            

,muhamm$anism has no connection )       
po/-,re=mation  ,*ri/ianity & meets x   
only 9 ! mission field4 ,practical      
que/ions !re arise :i* lie beyond !     
limits ( our subject1 z  we h already   
indicat$4 ,our int]e/s are conc]n$ ) !  
m$iaeval ,*ur*1 :5 ,*ri/ianity fir/     
impos$ its ideas ^u  ,muhamm$anism at ! 
"t ( its rise 9 ! ,ea/1 & aft]w>ds      
receiv$ a mat]ial ext5sion ( its own    
horizon ?r\gh ! rapid  progress ( its   
protg4 ,our task is to analyse & expla9 
^!  special relations betwe5 ! two      
sy/ems ( ?\ght4    ,! religion n[ kn[n z
 ,islam is z ne> to ! prea*+ (  ,muhamm$
 or z remote f x1 z mod]n ,ca?olicism or
 ,prote/ant  ,*ri/ianity is at v>iance  
or 9 h>mony ) ! tea*+ ( ,jesus4  ,!     
simple beliefs ( ! prophet & 8          
contempor>ies are sep>at$  by a long    
c\rse ( developm5t f ! complicat$       
religi\s sy/em  9 its unity & div]sity  
:i* ,islam n[ pres5ts to u4 ,! c\rse  ( 
?is developm5t 0 greatly influ5c$ by    
,*ri/ianity1 b  ,*ri/ian ideas _h be5   

op]ative ^u ,muhamm$'s eag] intellectual
  life at an ev5 e>li] date4 ,we mu/    
attempt to realise ! work+  ( 8 m9d1 if 
we are to ga9 a compreh5sion ( ! orig9al
  position ( ,islam ) reg>d to          
,*ri/ianity4 ,! task is n s  difficult 9
 ,muhamm$'s case z 9 t ( o!rs :o h f\nd$
  religi\s sy/ems3 we h records ( 8     
philosophical views1  important ev5 ?\gh
 fragm5t>y1 :ile vivid descriptions ( 8 
exp]i5ces h be5 transmitt$ to u 9 8 own 
words1 :i* h  escap$ ! modify+ influ5ce 
( tradition at second h&4 ,muhamm$  _h  
an indef9ite idea ( ! ^w ( ,god z kn[n  
to him f o!r  religions4 ,he 0 unable to
 realise ?is idea effectively except z  
an  imm$iate revelation2 h5ce ?r\gh\t ! 
,qoran he repres5ts ,god z  speak+ 9 !  
fir/ p]son & himself appe>s z !         
int]locutor4  ,ev5 direct comm&s to !   
congregation are introduc$ by !         
/]eotyp$ speak2 x 0 ( prim>y importance 
t ! ,qoran  %\ld be reg>d$ z ,god's ^w &
 n z man's4 ,?is fact l>gely  contribut$
 to secure an uncontam9at$ transmission 

( ! text1  :i* seems also to h be5 left 
by ,muhamm$ himself 9 def9ite  =m4 ,its 
int5tional obscurity ( expression does n
 facilitate !  task ( ! inquir]1 b x    
provides1 none ! less1 consid]able      
in=mation conc]n+ ! religi\s progress ( 
its au?or4 ,"h we  are ^u firm] gr\nd   
?an :5 we attempt to describe ,muhamm$'s
  outw>d life1 ! fir/ half ( :i* is     
wrapp$ 9 obscurity no less  pr(\nd ?an t
 :i* veils ! y\? ( ! ,f\nd] (           
,*ri/ianity4    ,muhamm$'s contempor>ies
 liv$ amid religi\s indiff]5ce4 ,!      
majority ( ! ,arabs 7 hea!n & _!        
religi\s aspirations  7 satisfi$ by     
local cults ( ! ,old ,semitic "*4 ,!y   
may  h pres]v$ ! religi\s in/itutions ( 
! great ,s\? ,arabian  civilisation1 :i*
 0 !n 9 a /ate ( decad5ce2 ! beg9n+s  ( 
,islam may also h be5 influ5c$ by !     
ideas ( ?is  civilisation1 :i* rese>* is
 only n[ reveal+ to u3 b ^!  po9ts mu/  
rema9 undecid$ = ! "t be+4 ,s\? ,arabian
  civilisation 0 c]ta9ly n conf9$ to !  
,s\?1 nor c\ld an  organis$ t[n%ip su* z

 ,mecca rema9 outside its sph]e (       
influ5ce3 b ! scanty in=mation :i* has  
rea*$ u conc]n+  ! religi\s life ( !    
,arabs ant]ior to ,islam might also be  
expla9$ by suppos+ !m to h foll[$ a     
simil> c\rse (  developm5t4 ,9 any case1
 x is advisable to res]ve judgm5t until 
docum5t>y pro( c replace +5i\s          
conjecture4 ,! difficulty (  ! problem  
is increas$ by ! fact t ,jewi% &        
especially  ,*ri/ian ideas p5etrat$ f ! 
,s\? & t _! influ5ce  _c be e/imat$4 ,! 
important po9t = u to consid] is !      
exi/5ce ( ,*ri/ianity 9 ,s\!rn ,arabia  
be=e ! ,muhamm$an  p]iod4 ,nor 0 ! ,s\? 
its only />t+-po9t3 ,*ri/ian doctr9e    
came to ,arabia f ! ,nor?1 f ,syria &   
,babylonia1 & num]\s  conv]sions1 = !   
mo/ "p ( :ole tribes1 7 made4 ,on !     
fronti]s also ,arabian m]*ants came into
 cont9ual contact )  ,*ri/ianity & =eign
 m]*ants ( ! ,*ri/ian fai? c\ld be  f\nd
 ?r\gh\t ,arabia4 ,b = ! ,arabian       
migration & !  simultane\s f\ndation ( a
 new ,arabian religion1 !re is no d\bt  

t ! :ole p59sula w\ld h be5 spe$ily     
conv]t$ to  ,*ri/ianity4    ,! *ief     
rival ( ,*ri/ianity 0 ,judaism1 :i* 0   
repres5t$ 9  ,nor!rn z 9 ,s\!rn ,arabia 
by /rong colonies ( ,jews1 :o made      
proselytes1 al?\gh _! /rict ritualism 0 
uncong5ial to !  ,arab temp]am5t :i*    
pref]r$ conv]sion to ,*ri/ianity        
7naturally  only z a matt] ( =m74 ,9    
addition to ,jewi%1 ,*ri/ian1 & ,old    
,semitic influ5ces1 ,zoroa/rian ideas & 
cu/oms 7 also kn[n 9  ,arabia1 z is     
likely en\gh 9 view ( ! proximity ( !   
,p]sian  empire4    ,^! v>i\s elem5ts   
ar\s$ 9 ,muhamm$'s m9d a vague idea (   
religion4 ,8 exp]i5ce 0 t ( !           
eighte5?-c5tury  !ologians :o sudd5ly   
obs]v$ t ,*ri/ianity 0 b "o (  _m v     
simil> & intelligible religions1 & ?us  
inevitably  conceiv$ ! idea ( a pure &  
natural religi\s sy/em fundam5tal  to   
all o!rs4 ,judaism & ,*ri/ianity 7 !    
only religions :i*  =c$ !mselves ^u     
,muhamm$'s consci\sness & ) ! g5]al     
*>act]i/ics ( :i* he 0 acqua9t$4 ,he    

nev] read any "p (  ! ,old or ,new      
,te/am5t3 8 ref]5ces to ,*ri/ianity %[ t
 8  k ( ! ,bible 0 d]iv$ f he>say & t 8 
in=mants 7 n repres5tative ( ! great    
religi\s sects3  ,muhamm$'s acc\nt (    
,jesus & ,8 "w1 z giv5 9 ! ,qoran1 is   
bas$ ^u ! apocryphal accretions :i* grew
 r\nd ! ,*ri/ian  doctr9e4    ,:5       
,muhamm$ proce$$ to comp>e ! great      
religions ( ! ,old &  ,new ,te/am5ts ) !
 sup]ficial pietism ( 8 own compatriots1
 he  0 especially impress$ ) ! s]i\sness
 ( ! ,hebrews &  ,*ri/ians :i* contra/$ 
/rongly ) ! indiff]5ce ( !  hea!n       
,arabs4 ,! ,arab 0 famili> ) !          
conception ( an  almighty ,god1 & ?is   
idea _h n be5 obscur$ by ! wor%ip (     
trees1 /ones1 fire & ! heav5ly bodies3 b
 8 rev]5ce =  ?is ,god 0 some:at        
imp]sonal & he felt no in/9ct to approa*
  ,him1 unless he _h "s hopes or fe>s to
 satisfy4 ,! idea ( a  reckon+ betwe5   
man & ,god 0 ali5 to ! ,arab m9d4       
,*ri/ian  & ,jewi% influ5ce became      
op]ative ^u ,muhamm$ ) ref]5ce  to ?is  

special po9t4 ,! idea ( ! day ( judgm5t1
 :5 an  acc\nt ( e>?ly de$s & misde$s w 
be requir$1 :5 ! joys  ( ,p>adise w be  
op5$ to ! good & ! bad w be ca/ into  ! 
fi]y abyss1 su* 0 ! great idea1 :i*     
sudd5ly fill$  ,muhamm$'s m9d & dispell$
 ! indiff]5ce begott5 ( r\t9e &  /irr$ 8
 m5tal p[]s4    ,poly!ism 0 incompatible
 ) ! idea ( ,god z a judge supreme  &   
righte\s1 b yet m]ciful4 ,?us mono!ism 0
 indissolubly  connect$ ) ,muhamm$'s    
fir/ religi\s impulses1 ?\gh ! dogma  _h
 n assum$ ! polemical =m 9 :i* x        
aft]w>ds confront$  ! old ,arabian &    
,*ri/ian beliefs4 ,b a m9d /irr$ by     
religi\s  emotion only rose to ! height 
( prophetic p[] aft] a long c\rse  (    
developm5t :i* human k c b dimly        
surmise4  ,*ri/ianity & ,judaism _h _!  
sacr$ books :i* ! f\nd]s (  ^! religions
 _h produc$4 ,9 !m 7 ! words ( ,god1    
transmitt$ ?r\gh ,moses to ! ,jews &    
?r\gh ,jesus to !  ,*ri/ians4 ,jesus &  
,moses _h be5 ,god's ambassadors to _!  
peoples4 ,:o !n c\ld br+ to ! ,arabs !  

glad tid+s :i*  %\ld guide !m to ! happy
 fields ( ,p>adise8 ,among primitive    
peoples ,god is reg>d$ z v ne> to man4  
,! ,arabs _h1 _!  =tune-tell]s & augurs 
:o ca/ lots be=e ,god & expla9$ ,8  w 9 
my/]i\s rhy?mical utt]ances4 ,muhamm$ 0 
at fir/ m  intimately connect$ ) ?is    
class ( ,arab =tune-tell]s ?an is       
usually suppos$4 ,! be/ pro( ( ! fact is
 ! vehem5ce )  :i* he repudiates all    
comp>ison betwe5 ^! =tune-tell]s &      
himself1 ev5 z e>ly ,*ri/ian apologetics
 & polemics attack$ !  rival cults ( !  
lat] classical _w1 :i* possess$ =ms (   
ritual ak9 to ^? obs]v$ by ,*ri/ianity4 
,! exi/5ce ( a  =tune-tell+ class among 
! ,arabs %[s t ,muhamm$ may well  h be5 
end[$ ) psy*ological t5d5cies :i* only  
await$ !  vivify+ influ5ce ( ,judaism & 
,*ri/ianity to em]ge z !  prophetic     
impulse =c+ him to /& =? 9 public & to  
/ir !  p f _! indiff]5ce3 ,be ye        
conv]t$1 = ! day (  judgm5t is at h&3   
,god has decl>$ x unto me1 z he decl>$ x
  unto ,moses & ,jesus4 ,i am ! apo/le (

 ,god to y1 ,arabs4 ,salvation  is y\rs 
only if ye submit to ! w ( ,god prea*$  
by me4 ,?is  act ( submission ,muhamm$  
calls ,islam4 ,?us at ! h\r ( ,islam's  
bir?1 be=e its f\nd] _h proclaim$ 8     
ideas1 ! influ5ce (  ,*ri/ianity is     
indisputable4 ,x 0 ?is influ5ce :i* made
 ( !  ,arab se] & inspir$ prophet1 !    
apo/le ( ,god4    ,muhamm$ reg>d$       
,judaism & ,*ri/ianity z religi\s       
movem5ts  purely national 9 "*4 ,god 9  
,8 m]cy _h ann\nc$ ,8 w  to diff]5t     
nations ?r\gh ,8 prophets4 ,z ,god's ^w 
_h be5  int]pret$ = ! ,jews & = !       
,*ri/ians1 s !re 0 to be a  special     
int]pretation = ! b5efit ( ! ,arabs4 ,^!
  int]pretations 7 naturally id5tical 9 
mann] & diff]$ only  z reg>ds place &   
"t4 ,muhamm$ _h he>d ( ! ,jewi% ,messiah
  & ( ! ,*ri/ian ,p>aclete1 :om1 h[ev]1 
he fail$ to id5tify  ) ! ,holy ,gho/ &  
he appli$ to himself ! allusions to "o  
:o  %\ld come aft] ,moses & ,jesus4 ,?us
 9 ! ,qoran #fa4f we read1  ,jesus1 !   
,son ( ,m>y1 said3 ,*ildr5 ( ,israel1 ,i

 am ,god's apo/le  to y4 ,i confirm 9   
y\r h&s ! ,?ora 7! law7 & ,i ann\nce !  
com+ ( ano!r apo/le aft] me ^: "n is    
,ahm$4 ,ahm$ is !  equival5t ( ,muhamm$4
 ,! v]se has be5 v>i\sly int]pret$ &    
ev5 reject$ z an int]polation3 b its    
au!nticity is atte/$ by  its p]fect     
correspond5ce ) :at we "k ( ,muhamm$'s  
pret5sions4    ,to trace 9 detail !     
developm5t ( 8 attitude t[>ds           
,*ri/ianity is a m difficult task ?an to
 discov] ! gr[? (  8 views ^u ,judaism2 
probably he pursu$ a simil> c\rse 9 ei!r
  case4 ,at fir/ he assum$ ! id5tity ( !
 two religions ) "o  ano!r & ) 8 own    
doctr9e2 aft]w>ds he reg>d$ !m z        
advanc+ by gradations4 ,adam1 ,abraham1 
,moses1 ,jesus1 & ,muhamm$1  ^! 9 8     
op9ion 7 ! *ief /ages 9 ! div9e s*eme ( 
salvation4 ,ea* 0 respectively confirm$ 
or aboli%$ by !  revelation :i* foll[$  
x1 nor is ?is !ory ( ,muhamm$'s %ak5  by
 ! fact t ea* revelation 0 giv5 to a    
diff]5t nation4 ,he  reg>ds all prec$+  
prophets 9 ! light ( 8 own p]sonality4  

,!y 7 all s5t to p :o refus$ !m a he>+  
at ! mom5t4  ,puni%m5t foll[s & !       
prophet f9ds a body ( believ]s  else:]e4
 ,^! tempor>y puni%m5ts are confus$ ) ! 
f9al  ,judgm5t2 9 fact ,muhamm$'s sy/em 
0 n cle>ly ?\ght out4 ,!  sev]al        
prophets 7 b m51 ^: e>?ly c>e]s 7       
necess>ily  cr[n$ ) triumph3 h5ce !     
crucifixion ( ,jesus is a malici\s      
inv5tion ( ! ,jews1 :o 9 reality        
crucifi$ "s o!r suff]]1  :ile ,jesus    
ent]$ ! div9e glory4 ,?us ,muhamm$ has  
no idea ( !  importance ( ! ,crucifixion
 to ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 z is %[n by  8    
treatm5t ( x z a ,jewi% falsehood4 ,9   
fact1 he develops !  habit ( *>act]is+ z
 false any /atem5t 9 contradiction )  8 
ideas1 & ?is t5d5cy is especially obvi\s
 9 8 deal+s  ) ,judaism1 ( :i* he ga9$ a
 m intimate k4 ,at fir/  he w\ld ref]   
sceptics to ,*ri/ian & ,jewi% doctr9e = 
confirmation ( 8 own tea*+4 ,! fact t ) 
no k (  ! ,old or ,new ,te/am5t1 he _h  
proclaim$ doctr9es mat]ially  simil> & !
 fact t ^! ,scriptures ref]r$ to        

himself1 7  pro(s ( 8 inspir$ p[]1 let  
d\bt]s say :at !y w\ld4 ,a  clos]       
acqua9tance ) ^! ,scriptures %[$ him t !
  div]g5cies :i* he /igmatis$ z         
falsifications d5ot$ 9 reality  va/     
doctr9al diff]5ces4    ,9 ord] to und]/&
 ,muhamm$'s attitude t[>ds ,*ri/ianity1 
we  w exam9e 9 great] detail 8 view (   
?is religion1 ! portions  ( x :i* he    
accept$ or :i* he reject$ z unau!ntic4  
,9 !  fir/ place he mu/ h reg>d$ !      
,tr9ity z repugnant to reason3  he      
consid]$ ! ,*ri/ian ,tr9ity z consi/+ ( 
,god ! ,fa!r1  ,m>y ! ,"m ( ,god1 &     
,jesus ! ,son ( ,god4 ,9 ! ,qoran1 ,god 
says1 ,ha/ ?\1 ,jesus1 said to m51      
,reg>d me & my "m z ,gods  by ! side (  
,god8 ,jesus replies1 ,i w say no?+ b ! 
tru?4  ,i h b prea*$1 ,pray to ,god1 :o 
is my ,"l & y\r ,"l  7#e4aaf1 f74 ,h5ce 
x has be5 inf]r$ t ,muhamm$'s k (       
,*ri/ianity 0 d]iv$ f "s p>ticul>       
,*ri/ian sect1 su* z  ! ,tri!i/s or !   
,arab female sect ( ! ,collyridians :o  
wor%ipp$ ! ,virg9 ,m>y ) exagg]at$      

rev]5ce & assign$  div9e hon\rs to h]4  
,x is also possible t we h "h a         
developm5t ( "s ,gno/ic conception :i*  
reg>d$ ! ,holy ,gho/  z ( fem99e g5d]1 z
 ,semites w\ld d2,a in/ances ( ?is      
*ange are to be f\nd 9 ! well-kn[n ,hymn
 ( ! ,s\l 9 ! ,acts  ( ,?omas1 9 !      
,gospel to ! ,egyptians & else:]e4 ,i am
  incl9$1 h[ev]1 to ?9k x m probable t  
,muhamm$ _h he>d  ( ,m>iolatry & ( ! "m 
( ,god1 a title :i* !n 0 a  highly      
popul> cat*word1 & t ! apo!osis ( ,jesus
 0 kn[n  to him & also ! doctr9e ( !    
,tr9ity by "n4 ,fur!r ?an ?is  8 k did n
 ext5d2 al?\gh he kn[s ! ,holy ,gho/ &  
id5tifies him ) ,jesus1 none ! less 8   
primitive reason+1  "u ! influ5ce ( _m  
old beliefs1 expla9$ ! my/]i\s  triad ( 
! ,tr9ity z husb&1 wife1 & son4 ,?is    
fact is en\gh to  prove t 8 !ory (      
,*ri/ianity 0 =m$ by comb9+ isolat$     
scraps ( in=mation & t he _c h _h any   
direct  in/ruction f a ,*ri/ian kn[+ !  
outl9es ( 8 fai?4    ,footnote ,a3 ,! ^w
 = ,_s is ( ! fem99e g5d] 9 !  ,semitic 

languages4    ,muhamm$ mu/ also h d5i$ !
 div9ity ( ,*ri/3 ?is is an  obvi\s     
result ( ! c\rse ( m5tal developm5t :i* 
we h  describ$ & ( 8 *>act]i/ically     
,semitic !ory ( ! nature  ( ,god4 ,to   
him1 ,god is "o1 nev] begett+ & nev]    
begott54  ,d5y+ ! div9ity ( ,jesus1     
,muhamm$ naturally d5ies !  r$emption   
?r\gh ! ,cross & also ! fact ( !        
,crucifixion4  ,yet1 /rangely en\gh he  
accept$ ! miracul\s bir?2 nor did he    
hesitate to provide ?is purely human    
,jesus ) all miracul\s  attributes2 ^! 7
 a pro( ( 8 div9e commission1 &         
m>vell\s details ( ?is nature ar\s$ !   
int]e/ ( 8 he>]s4    ,m>y ! si/] (      
,ahron--an obvi\s confusion ) ! ,old    
,te/am5t  ,miriam--_h be5 devot$ to !   
s]vice ( ,god by h] "m's v[1 &  lives 9 
! temple "u ! gu>dian%ip ( ,za*>ias1 to 
:om a  lat] heir is born 9 answ] to 8   
pray]s1 namely ,john1 !  =]unn] ( !     
,holy ,gho/4 ,! bir? is ann\nc$ to ,m>y 
& %e  br+s =? ,jesus "u a palm-tree1 ne>
 :i* is a runn+ spr+  & by ! dates ( :i*

 %e is f$4 ,on h] return home %e is     
receiv$ ) reproa*es by h] family b m]ely
 po9ts 9 reply to  ! new-born babe1 :o  
sudd5ly speaks f 8 cradle1 ass]t+ t  he 
is ! prophet ( ,god4 ,aft]w>ds ,jesus   
p]=ms all k9ds (  miracles1 =ms birds   
out ( clay & makes !m fly1 heals ! bl9d 
& lep]s1 raises ! dead1 etc41 & ev5 br+s
 d[n f heav5 a  table ready spread4 ,!  
,jews w n believe him1 b ! y\?  foll[   
him4 ,he is n kill$1 b translat$ to     
,god4 ,*ri/ians are  n agre$ ^u ! mann] 
( 8 dea? & ! ,jews h inv5t$ !  /ory ( ! 
,crucifixion4    ,muhamm$'s k (         
,*ri/ianity ?us consi/s ( c]ta9 isolat$ 
details1 p>tly apocryphal1 p>tly        
canonical1 toge!r ) a hazy  idea ( !    
fundam5tal dogmas4 ,?us ! influ5ce (    
,*ri/ianity  ^u him 0 entirely indirect4
 ,! ,muhamm$an movem5t at its outset  0 
influ5c$ n by ! real ,*ri/ianity ( ! "t 
b by a  ,*ri/ianity :i* ,muhamm$        
criticis$ 9 c]ta9 details & =c$  into   
h>mony ) 8 preconceiv$ ideas4 ,8        
imag9ation 0  pr(\ndly impress$ by !    

exi/5ce ( ,*ri/ianity z a reveal$       
religion ) a f\nd] ( its own4 ,c]ta9    
features ( ,*ri/ianity  & ( ,judaism1   
pray]1 purification1 solemn fe/ivals1   
scriptures1  prophets & s =? 7 reg>d$ by
 him z ess5tial to any  religi\s        
community1 because !y happ5$ to belong  
bo? to ,judaism  & to ,*ri/ianity4 ,he  
!re=e adopt$ or wi%$ to adopt ^!        
in/itutions4    ,dur+ ! p]iod ( 8 life  
at ,m$9a1 ,muhamm$ ab&on$ 8  orig9al    
idea ( prea*+ ! doctr9es :i* ,moses &   
,jesus _h  proclaim$4 ,?is new          
developm5t 0 ! outcome ( a /ruggle )    
,judaism foll[+ ^u an unsuccessful      
attempt at compromise4 ,9 po9t  ( fact  
,judaism & ,*ri/ianity 7 z widely       
diff]5t f "o  ano!r z !y 7 f 8 own tea*+
 & he 0 m ?an ev]  incl9$ to reg>d z 8  
special =]unn]1 ,abraham1 :o _h  prec$$ 
bo? ,moses & ,jesus1 & 0 rev]$ by bo?   
religions z  ! man ( ,god4 ,he !n br\ght
 ,abraham into connection ) !  anci5t   
,meccan ,ka'ba wor%ip3 ! ,ka'ba or die 0
 a sacr$ /one  edifice1 9 "o corn] ( :i*

 ! black /one _h be5 built 93  ?is /one 
0 an object ( rev]5ce to ! anci5t       
,arabs1 z x  /ill is to ! ,muhamm$ans4  
,?us ,islam gradually assum$ ! =m (  an 
,arab religion1 develop+ univ]sali/     
t5d5cies 9 ! ultimate  c\rse ( ev5ts4   
,muhamm$1 !re=e1 z he 0 ! la/ 9 ! ranks 
( ! prophets1 mu/ also be ! greate/4 ,he
 epitomis$ all prophecy  & ,islam       
sup]s$$ e reveal$ religion ( e>li] date4
    ,muhamm$'s orig9al view t e>li]     
religions _h be5 f\nd$ by  ,god's w &   
?r\gh div9e revelation1 l$ bo? him & 8  
successors to make an important         
concession3 adh]5ts ( o!r  religions 7 n
 compell$ to adopt ,islam4 ,!y 7 all[$  
to  obs]ve _! own fai? unh9d]$1 if !y   
surr5d]$ )\t  fight+1 & 7 ev5 protect$  
aga9/ _! enemies1 9 return =  :i* !y _h 
to pay tribute to _! ,muslim ma/]s2 ?is 
0 levi$  z a k9d ( poll-tax4 ,?us we    
read 9 ! ,qoran 7ix4 #bi7 t ^?  :o      
possess ,scriptures1 i4e4 ! ,jews &     
,*ri/ians1 :o did n  accept ,islam 7 to 
be attack$ until !y paid ! gizja or     

tribute4 ,?us ! object ( a religi\s w>  
^u ! ,*ri/ians is n  express$ by ! cry  
,dea? or ,islam2 su* attacks 7 int5d$   
m]ely to extort an ackn[l$gm5t (        
,muhamm$an supremacy1 n to  aboli%      
fre$om ( religi\s obs]vance4 ,x w\ld be 
incorrect = !  mo/ "p to reg>d ! w>rior 
b&s :i* />t$ f ,arabia z  inspir$ by    
religi\s en?usiasm or to attribute to !m
 !  fanaticism :i* 0 fir/ ar\s$ by !    
crusades & 9 an ev5  great] degree by ! 
lat] ,turki% w>s4 ,! ,muhamm$an fanatics
 (  ! w>s ( conque/1 ^: reputation 0    
fam\s among lat]  g5]ations1 felt b a v 
scanty int]e/ 9 religion &  occasionally
 display$ an ignorance ( its fundam5tal 
t5ets :i* we  c h>dly exagg]ate4 ,! fact
 is fully consi/5t ) ! impulses  to :i* 
! ,arab migrations 7 due4 ,^! impulses 7
 economic  & ! new religion 0 no?+ m ?an
 a p>ty cry ( unify+  p[]1 ?\gh !re is  
no reason to suppose t x 0 n a real     
moral =ce 9 ! life ( ,muhamm$ & 8       
imm$iate contempor>ies4                 
,anti-,*ri/ian fanaticism !re 0 !re=e   

none4 ,ev5 9 e>ly  ye>s ,muhamm$ans nev]
 refus$ to wor%ip 9 ! same build+s z    
,*ri/ians4 ,! v>i\s insult+ regulations 
:i* tradition  repres5ts ,*ri/ians z =c$
 to endure 7 direct$ n s mu*  aga9/ !   
adh]5ts ( ano!r fai? z aga9/ ! b>ely    
tol]at$  inhabitants ( a subjugat$ /ate4
 ,x is true t ! di/9ction is  (t5       
difficult to obs]ve1 z religion &       
nationality 7 "o &  ! same ?+ to        
,muhamm$ans4 ,9 any case religi\s       
animosity 0 a  v subord9ate ph5om5on4 ,x
 0 a gradual developm5t & seems to  me  
to h made a spasmodic beg9n+ 9 ! fir/   
c5tury "u !  influ5ce ( ideas adopt$ f  
,*ri/ianity4 ,x may seem p>adoxical  to 
ass]t t x 0 ,*ri/ian influ5ce :i* fir/  
/irr$ ,islam to  religi\s animosity &   
arm$ x ) ! sword aga9/ ,*ri/ianity1  b !
 hypo!sis becomes highly probable :5 we 
h realis$ !  indiff]5tism ( ! ,muhamm$an
 conqu]ors4    ,we %all con/antly see   
h]eaft] h[ mu* !y ow$ 9 e  dep>tm5t (   
intellectual life to ! tea*+ ( ! races  
:i*  !y subjugat$4 ,_! attitude t[>ds   

o!r beliefs 0 nev] s  intol]ant z 0 t ( 
,*ri/5dom at t p]iod4 ,*ri/ianity may   
well h be5 ! tea*+ influ5ce 9 ?is       
dep>tm5t ( life z 9  o!rs4 ,moreov] at  
all times & especially 9 ! fir/ c5tury !
  position ( ,*ri/ians has be5 v        
tol]able1 ev5 ?\gh !  ,muslims reg>d$ !m
 z an inf]ior class1 ,*ri/ians 7 able to
  rise to ! highe/ (fices ( /ate1 ev5 to
 ! po/ ( vizi]1  )\t any compulsion to  
r5\nce _! fai?4 ,ev5 dur+ ! p]iod  ( !  
crusades :5 ! religi\s opposition 0     
greatly int5sifi$1  aga9 ?r\gh ,*ri/ian 
policy1 ,*ri/ian (ficials _c h be5      
uncommon3 o!rwise ,muslim !ori/s w\ld   
nev] h utt]$ _!  con/ant invectives     
aga9/ ! employm5t ( ,*ri/ians 9         
adm9i/rative duties4 ,naturally zealots 
appe>$ at all times on !  ,muhamm$an z  
well z on ! ,*ri/ian side & occasionally
 isolat$  acts ( oppression took place3 
^! 71 h[ev]1 exceptional4 ,s  late z !  
elev5? c5tury1 *ur* fun]al processions 7
 able to  pass ?r\gh ! /reets ( ,bagdad 
) all ! emblems (  ,*ri/ianity &        

di/urbances 7 record$ by ! *ronicl]s z  
exceptional4 ,9 ,egypt1 ,*ri/ian        
fe/ivals 7 also reg>d$ to "s  ext5t z   
holidays by ! ,muhamm$an population4 ,we
 h b to  imag9e ^! conditions rev]s$ 9 a
 ,*ri/ian k+dom ( ! e>ly  middle ages & 
! probability ( my !ory w become obvi\s4
    ,! ,*ri/ians ( ! ,ea/1 :o _h brok5 =
 ! mo/ "p ) !  or?odox ,*ur*1 also      
reg>d$ ,islam z a less] evil ?an !      
,byzant9e e/abli%$ ,*ur*4 ,moreov]      
,islam1 z be+ bo? a  political &        
ecclesia/ical organisation1 reg>d$ !    
,*ri/ian  *ur* z a /ate )9 a /ate &     
p]mitt$ x to pres]ve its own  juridical 
& at fir/ its own gov]nm5tal rights4    
,application 0  made to ! bi%ops :5     
any?+ 0 requir$ f ! community &  !      
*ur*es 7 us$ z taxation (fices4 ,?is 0  
all 9 !  int]e/s ( ! cl]gy :o ?us f\nd  
_! traditional claims  realis$4 ,^!     
relations 7 naturally modifi$ 9 ! c\rse 
(  c5turies2 ! crusades1 ! ,turki% w>s &
 ! great expansion (  ,europe wid5$ !   
brea* betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & ,islam1 :ile 

z !  ,ea/ 0 gradually br\ght "u         
ecclesia/ical influ5ce1 !  contra/ grew 
deep]3 ! !ory1 h[ev]1 t ! ,muhamm$an    
conqu]ors & _! successors 7 inspir$ by a
 fanatical hatr$ (  ,*ri/ianity is a    
fiction inv5t$ by ,*ri/ians4    ,we h n[
 to exam9e ?is e>ly developm5t ( ,islam 
9 some:at  great] detail3 inde$1 to     
secure a m g5]al appreciation ( ?is     
po9t is ! object ( ! pres5t "w4    ,!   
relation%ip ( ! ,qoran to ,*ri/ianity   
has be5 already not$3  x 0 a book :i*   
prea*$ r ?an taught & en\nc$ isolat$    
laws b no connect$ sy/em4 ,islam 0 a    
cle> & simple w>-cry  betok5+ m]ely a   
recognition ( ,arab supremacy1 ( ! unity
 ( ,god  & ( ,muhamm$'s prophetic       
mission4 ,b 9 a few c5turies ,islam     
became a complex religi\s /ructure1 a   
confusion ( ,greek philosophy  & ,roman 
law1 accurately regulat+ e dep>tm5t (   
human life  f ! deepe/ problems (       
morality to ! daily use ( !  too?pick1 &
 ! fa%ions ( dress & hair4 ,?is *ange f 
!  simplicity ( ! f\nd]'s religi\s tea*+

 to a sy/em (  practical morality (t5   
:olly div]g5t f primitive doctr9e1 is  a
 trans=mation :i* all ! great religions 
( ! _w h  und]gone4 ,religi\s f\nd]s h  
succe$$ 9 r\s+ ! s5se (  true religion 9
 ! human he>t4 ,religi\s sy/ems result f
 !  int]action ( ?is impulse ) pre-exi/+
 capacities =  civilisation4 ,! highe/  
atta9m5ts ( human life are dep5d5t ^u   
circum/ances ( "t & place1 & environm5t 
(t5 ex]ts a m  p[]ful influ5ce ?an      
creative p[]4 ,! tea*+ ( ,jesus 0  almo/
 ov]p[]$ by ! ,graeco-,ori5tal culture (
 lat] ,hell5ism4  ,diss5sions p]si/ ev5 
n[ because millions ( p are unable to   
di/+ui% pure religion f ! =ms (         
expression belong+ to an  ext9ct        
civilisation4 ,islam w5t ?r\gh a simil> 
c\rse (  developm5t & assum$ ! spiritual
 panoply :i* 0 ready to h&4  ,"h1 z     
else:]e1 ?is def5ce 0 a necessity dur+ !
 p]iod (  /ruggle1 b became a cru%+     
burd5 dur+ ! peace :i* foll[$  victory1 
= ! reason t x 0 reg>d$ z insep>able f !
  we>] ( x4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ! analogy

 ) ,*ri/ianity  w appe> extremely /rik+1
 b x is some?+ m ?an an  analogy3 !     
,ori5tal ,hell5ism ( antiquity 0 to     
,*ri/ianity t  :i* ! ,*ri/ian ,ori5tal  
,hell5ism ( a few c5turies lat] 0 to    
,islam4    ,we mu/ n[ attempt to realise
 ! nature ( ?is ev5t s important  9 !   
hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,a nomadic p1 rec5tly    
unit$1 n  devoid ( culture1 b ) a v     
limit$ range ( ideas1 sudd5ly  ga9s     
supremacy ov] a wide & popul\s di/rict )
 an anci5t  civilisation4 ,^! nomads are
 z yet h>dly consci\s ( _!  political   
unity & ! individualism ( ! sev]al      
tribes compos+  x is /ill a disruptive  
=ce3 yet !y c secure dom9ation ov]      
c\ntries su* z ,egypt & ,babylonia1 )   
complex con/itutional  sy/ems1 :]e      
climatic conditions1 ! nature ( ! soil &
  c5turies ( "w h comb9$ to develop an  
intricate adm9i/rative  sy/em1 :i*      
newcom]s c\ld n be expect$ to und]/&1   
mu* less  to recreate or to remodel4    
,yet ! !ory has long be5 held t !       
,arabs entirely reorganis$ !            

con/itutions ( ^! c\ntries4  ,excessive 
importance has be5 atta*$ to ! /atem5ts 
( ,arab  au?ors1 :o naturally reg>d$    
,islam z ! beg9n+ ( all ?+s4  ,9 e      
detail ( practical life !y reg>d$ !     
prophet & 8  contempor>ies z _! rul+    
ideal1 & !re=e naturally assum$  t !    
con/itutional practices ( ! prophet 7 8 
own  inv5tion4 ,! organisation ( !      
conqu]+ race ) its tribal  subord9ation 
0 c]ta9ly purely ,arab 9 orig94 ,9 fact 
!  conqu]ors seem$ s unable to adapt    
!mselves to ! conditions )  :i* !y met1 
t =eign]s :o jo9$ _! ranks 7 admitt$  to
 ! ,muhamm$an conf$]acy only z cli5ts ( 
! v>i\s ,arab  tribes4 ,?is 01 h[ev]1 a 
m]e "q ( outw>d =m3 !  int]nal          
organisation cont9u$ un*ang$1 z x 0 b\nd
 to cont9ue  unless *aos 7 to be !      
consequ5ce4 ,9 fact1 pre-exi/+          
adm9i/rative regulations 7 s f> reta9$ t
 ! old cu/oms  duties on ! =m] fronti]s 
7 levi$ z be=e1 ?\gh !y  repres5t$ an   
in/itution :olly ali5 to ! _s ( !       
,muhamm$an empire4 ,^? ,muhamm$an       

au?ors1 :o describe !  adm9i/rative     
organisation1 recognise only ! taxes :i*
 ,islam  reg>d$ z lawful & *>act]ise    
o!rs z malpractices :i* _h  crept 9 at a
 lat] date4 ,x is rem>kable t ^! s-call$
  subsequ5t malpractices correspond )   
,byzant9e & ,p]sian usage  be=e !       
conque/3 b tradition w n admit ! fact t 
^!  rema9$ un*ang$4 ,! same fact is     
obvi\s :5 we consid] !  progress (      
civilisation 9 g5]al4 ,9 e case ! ,arabs
 m]ely  develop ! social & economic     
a*ievem5ts ( ! conqu]$ races to  fur!r  
issues4 ,su* progress c\ld inde$ only be
 modifi$ by a  g5]al upheaval ( exi/+   
conditions & no su* movem5t ev] took    
place4 ,! ,g]manic tribes de/roy$ !     
civilisations ) :i* !y  met2 !y adopt$  
_m ( ! in/itutions ( ,*ri/ian antiquity1
 b  f\nd !m an imp$im5t to ! developm5t 
( _! own g5ius4 ,!  ,arabs simply       
cont9u$ to develop ! civilisation (     
po/-classical  antiquity1 ) :i* !y _h   
come 9 contact4    ,?is proc$ure may    
seem entirely natural 9 ! dep>tm5t (    

economic  life1 b by no means inevitable
 :]e intellectual progress is  conc]n$4 
,yet a simil> c\rse 0 foll[$ 9 ei!r     
case1 z may be  prov$ by dispassionate  
exam9ation4 ,islam 0 a ris+ =ce1 a fai? 
r ( exp]i5ce ?an ( !ory or dogma1 :5 x  
rais$ its  claims aga9/ ,*ri/ianity1 :i*
 repres5t$ all pre-exi/+  intellectual  
culture4 ,a settlem5t ( ^! claims 0     
necess>y &  ! milit>y triumphs are b !  
prelude to a great accommodation (      
intellectual int]e/s4 ,9 ?is ,*ri/ianity
 play$ ! *ief "p1  ?\gh ,judaism is also
 repres5t$3 ,i am incl9$1 h[ev]1 to ?9k 
t ,jewi% ideas z !y are express$ 9 !    
,qoran 7 (t5  transmitt$ ?r\gh ! m$ium (
 ,*ri/ianity4 ,!re is no d\bt t  9 ,m$9a
 ,muhamm$ 0 "u direct ,jewi% influ5ce ( 
extraord9>y  p[]4 ,ev5 at t "t ,jewi%   
ideas may h be5 9 circulation1  n only 9
 ! ,qoran b also 9 oral tradition1 :i*  
aft]w>ds  became /]eotyp$3 at ! same "t 
,muhamm$'s utt]ances aga9/ !  ,jews     
ev5tually became s /rong dur+ ! ,m$9a   
p]iod1 =  political reasons1 t ,i c     

h>dly imag9e ! traditions 9 _!  f9al =m 
to h be5 adopt$ directly f ! ,jews4 ,!  
case (  ,jewi% conv]ts is a diff]5t     
matt]4 ,b 9 ,*ri/ianity also mu*  ,jewi%
 wisdom 0 to be f\nd at t "t & x is well
 kn[n t  ev5 ! ,ea/]n *ur*es reg>d$     
num]\s precepts ( ! ,old  ,te/am5t1     
includ+ ^? t dealt ) ritual1 z b9d+ ^u  
!m4 ,9 any case ! _s ( ,judaism is      
pres5t1 ei!r directly or  work+ ?r\gh   
,*ri/ianity1 z an influ5ce :]ev] ,islam 
accommodat$ itself to ! new intellectual
 & spiritual life :i*  x _h enc\nt]$4 ,x
 0 a compromise :i* affect$ ! mo/       
trivial details ( life1 & 9 ^! matt]s   
religi\s scrupulosity  0 c>ri$ to a     
ridicul\s po9t3 "h we may see ! outcome 
( t  ,judaism :i*1 z has be5 said1 0 !n 
a def9ite elem5t 9  ,ea/]n ,*ri/ianity4 
,toge!r ) ,jewi%1 ,greek & classical    
ideas  7 also naturally op]ative1 :ile  
,p]sian & o!r anci5t  ,ori5tal          
conceptions 7 transmitt$ to ,islam by   
,*ri/ianity3 ^!  in/ances ,i h          
collectively t]m$ ,*ri/ian because      

,*ri/ianity  !n repres5t$ ! :ole ( lat] 
classical intellectualism1 :i*  influ5c$
 ,islam = ! mo/ "p ?r\gh ,*ri/ianity4   
,x seems t ! communication ( ^! ideas to
 ,muhamm$anism 0  imp$$ by ! necessity (
 translat+ !m n only into a k9dr$       
language1 b into "o ( :olly diff]5t     
l+ui/ic /ructure4 ,=  ,muhamm$anism !   
difficulty 0 less5$ by ! fact t x _h    
le>n$ ,*ri/ianity 9 ,syria & ,p]sia     
?r\gh ! ,semitic dialect  kn[n z        
,aramaic1 by :i* ,greek & ,p]sian       
culture _h be5  transmitt$ to ! ,arabs  
be=e ! rise ( ,islam4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9  
_m o!rs1 ! hi/ory ( language runs on    
p>allel l9es ) !  hi/ory ( civilisation4
 ,! necessities ( increas+ civilisation 
_h introduc$ _m ,aramaic words to !     
,arabic vocabul>y be=e  ,muhamm$'s day3 
^! importations increas$ consid]ably :5 
!  ,arabs ent]$ a wid] & m complex      
civilisation & 7  especially consid]able
 :]e intellectual culture 0 conc]n$4    
,ev5  ,greek t]ms made _! way into      
,arabic ?r\gh ,aramaic4 ,?is natural    

dep5d5cy ( ,arabic ^u ,aramaic1 :i* 9   
turn 0 connect$ )  ,greek z ! rival     
,*ri/ian v]nacul> 9 ^! regions1 is alone
  suffici5t evid5ce t ,*ri/ianity ex]t$ 
a direct influ5ce ^u  ,muhamm$anism4    
,moreov]1 z we h se51 ! ,qoran itself   
reg>d$  ,*ri/ians z be+ 9 possession (  
div9e wisdom1 & "s ref]5ce  bo? to      
,*ri/ianity & to ,judaism 0 necess>y to 
expla9 ! _m  un9telligible passages ( ! 
,qoran4 ,allusions 7 made to texts &    
/atem5ts 9 ! ,?ora & ! ,gospels1 & ,god 
0 repres5t$ z  con/antly appeal+ to     
e>li] revelations ( ,himself4 ,?us x 0  
only natural t int]pret]s %\ld /udy ^!  
scriptures & ask  c\nsel ( _!           
possessors4 ,( prim>y importance 0 !    
fact t  bo? ,*ri/ians & ,jews1 & ! =m] 9
 p>ticul>1 accept$  ,muhamm$anism by    
?\s&s1 & =m$ a new intellectual class ( 
ability inf9itely sup]ior to t ( !      
orig9al ,muslims & able  to attract !   
be/ elem5ts ( ! ,arab nationality to _! 
tea*+4 ,x 0 z impossible = ^! apo/ate   
,*ri/ians to  ab&on _! old habits (     

?\ght z x 0 hopeless to expect any      
sudd5 *ange 9 ! economic conditions "u  
:i* !y liv$4  ,*ri/ian !ories ( ,god & !
 _w naturally assum$ a ,muhamm$an       
col\r+ & ?us ! great process (          
accommodat+ ,*ri/ianity to              
,muhamm$anism 0 a*iev$4 ,! ,*ri/ian     
contribution to ?is end 0  made p>tly   
directly & p>tly by tea*+1 & 9 !        
intellectual  z well z 9 ! economic     
sph]e ! ultimate ideal 0 inevitably     
dictat$ by ! sup]ior culture (          
,*ri/ianity4 ,! ,muhamm$ans 7  ?us      
oblig$ to accept ,*ri/ian hypo!ses on   
!ological po9ts &  ! fundam5ts (        
,*ri/ian & ,muhamm$an culture ?us become
  id5tical4    ,i use ! t]m hypo!ses1 = 
! reason t ! f9al det]m9ation  ( ! po9ts
 at issue 0 by no means id5tical1 :]ev] 
! ,qoran  def9itely contradict$ ,*ri/ian
 views ( morality or social laws4  ,b 9 
^! cases also1 ,*ri/ian ideas 7 able to 
impose  !mselves ^u tradition & to issue
 9 practice1 ev5 :5 oppos$  by ! actual 
text ( ! ,qoran4 ,!y did n always pass  

unque/ion$  & ev5 on trivial po9ts 7    
oblig$ to enc\nt] "s resi/ance4  ,! !ory
 ( ! ,sunday 0 accept$1 b t day 0 n *os5
 &  ,friday 0 pref]r$3 meet+s = wor%ip 7
 held 9 imitation (  ,*ri/ian practice1 
b attempts to sanctify ! day & to       
proclaim  x a day ( re/ 7 =bidd53 except
 = ! p]=mance ( div9e  s]vice1 ,friday 0
 an ord9>y week-day4 ,:51 h[ev]1 !      
,qoran 0  9 any sort ( h>mony )         
,*ri/ianity1 ! ,*ri/ian ideas ( !  age 7
 textually accept$ 9 any fur!r          
developm5t ( !  "q4 ,! fact is obvi\s1 n
 only z reg>ds details1 b also  9 !     
g5]al !ory ( man's position ^u e>?4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,muhamm$1 ! prea*] ( rep5tance1 _h      
become a temporal pr9ce 9  ,m$9a2 8     
civil & political adm9i/ration 0        
ecclesia/ical 9  "*1 an inevitable      
result ( 8 position z ! apo/le ( ,god1  
^: congregation 0 at ! same "t a /ate4  
,?is !ory ( !  /ate l$ lat] !ori/s      
unconsci\sly to foll[ ! lead (          
,*ri/ianity1 :i* reg>d$ ! *ur* z supreme

 9 e dep>tm5t  ( life1 & s induc$       
,muhamm$anism to adopt views ( life &   
social ord] :i* are n[ /yl$ m$iaeval4 ,!
 !ological  developm5t ( ?is sy/em is to
 be attribut$ *iefly to gr\ps (  pi\s   
?9k]s 9 ,m$9a3 !y 7 exclud$ f political 
life :5  ! capital 0 transf]r$ f ,m$9a  
to ,damascus & 7 left 9  peace to       
elaborate _! !ory ( ! ,muhamm$an div9e  
polity4 ,!  influ5ce ( ^! gr\ps 0       
p>am\nt3 b ( almo/ equal  importance 0 !
 influ5ce ( ! proselytes 9 ! conqu]$ l&s
  :o 7 ,*ri/ians = ! mo/ "p & = t reason
 f> above  _! ,arab contempor>ies 9     
respect ( intellectual tra9+ &  culture4
 ,we f9d t ! details ( jurisprud5ce1    
dogma1 &  my/icism c only be expla9$ by 
ref]5ce to ,*ri/ian /imulus1  nor is x  
any exagg]ation to ascribe ! fur!r      
developm5t (  ,muhamm$'s views to !     
influ5ce ( ?9k]s :o reg>d$ !  religi\s  
polity ( ,islam z ! realisation ( an    
ideal :i*  ,*ri/ianity _h hi!rto va9ly  
/riv5 to atta94 ,?is ideal 0 !          
supremacy ( religion ov] life & all its 

activities1 ov] ! /ate  & ! individual  
alike4 ,b x 0 a religion prim>ily       
conc]n$  ) ! next _w1 :]e alone real    
wor? 0 to be f\nd4 ,e>?ly  life 0 a     
pilgrimage to be p]=m$ & e>?ly int5tions
 _h no  place ) heav5ly4 ,! joy ( life  
:i* ! anci5t _w _h  kn[n1 art1 music &  
culture1 all 7 reject$ or valu$ only z  
aids to religion4 ,human action 0 judg$ 
) ref]5ce only to its  appraisem5t 9 !  
life to come4 ,t ascetic _s 0 p>am\nt1  
:i* _h en*a9$ ! ,*ri/ian _w1 t          
r5unciation ( secul>  affairs :i*       
expla9s ! peculi> me?ods by :i* m$iaeval
 views  ( life f\nd expression4         
,asceticism did n di/urb ! c\rse ( life 
z a :ole4 ,x might  condemn b x c\ld n  
suppress ! natural impulse ( man to     
propagate 8 race3 x might hamp] economic
 =ces1 b x c\ld n  de/roy !m4 ,x        
ev5tually l$ to a compromise 9 e        
dep>tm5t (  life1 b = c5turies x reta9$ 
its dom9ation ov] m5's m9ds  & to "s    
mat]ial ext5t ov] _! actions4    ,su* 0 
! environm5t 9 :i* ,islam 0 plant$3 its 

deepe/ roots  _h be5 f]tilis$ ) ,*ri/ian
 !ory1 & 9 spite ( ,muhamm$'s  call to  
rep5tance1 its mo/ *>act]i/ic           
manife/ations 7  some:at worldly &      
non-ascetic4 ,islam kn[s n mona/icism   
says  ! tradition :i* ?is t5d5cy        
produc$4 ,! mo/ important  compromise ( 
all1 t ) life1 :i* ,*ri/ianity only     
secur$ by  gradual /eps1 _h be5 already 
atta9$ = ,islam by ,muhamm$ himself  & 0
 includ$ 9 ! c\rse ( 8 developm5t4 ,z   
,islam n[  ent]$ ! ,*ri/ian _w1 x 0 =c$ 
to pass ?r\gh ?is  process ( developm5t 
once m4 ,at ! outset x 0 p]meat$ )  !   
idea ( ,*ri/ian asceticism1 to :i* an   
inevitable opposition  arose1 & f\nd    
expression 9 su* /atem5ts z t already   
quot$4  ,b ,muhamm$'s prea*+ _h obvi\sly
 /riv5 to hon\r ! future  life by pa9t+ 
! actual _w 9 ! gloomie/ col\rs1 & !    
mat]ial optimism ( ! secul>-m9d$ 0      
unable to *eck !  advance ( ,*ri/ian    
asceticism among ! classes :i* felt a   
real  int]e/ 9 religion4 ,h5ce t        
surpris+ simil>ity ( views ^u  ! problem

 ( exi/5ce1 :i* we h n[ to outl9e4 ,9   
details (  outw>d =m great div]g5cy is  
app>5t4 ,*ri/ianity possess$ a  cl]gy   
:ile ,islam did n3 yet ! =ce ( ,*ri/ian 
influ5ce  produc$ a prie/ly class 9     
,islam4 ,x 0 a class act+ n z  m$iator  
betwe5 ,god & man ?r\gh sacram5ts &     
my/]ies1 b z  moral lead]s & legal      
exp]ts2 z su* x 0 no less important ?an 
! scribes "u ,judaism4 ,unanimity among 
^! s*ol>s c\ld  produce decisions no    
less b9d+ ?an ^? ( ! ,*ri/ian cl]gy     
assembl$ 9 *ur* c\ncils4 ,!y are        
repres5tatives ( !  congregation :i* has
 no unanimity1 = su* w\ld be an error4  
,islam naturally pref]r$ to adopt       
unanim\s conclusions 9 sil5ce  r ?an to 
vote 9 assemblies4 ,z a matt] ( fact a  
body (  or?odox op9ion 0 develop$ by ?is
 means ) no less success ?an  9         
,*ri/5dom4 ,any agreem5t :i* ! quiet "w 
( ! s*ol>s _h  secur$ ^u any "q 0       
ratifi$ by ,god & 0 ?us irrevocably  &  
et]nally b9d+4 ,= in/ance1 !            
proclamation to ! fai?ful  ( new ideas  

^u ! exposition ( ! ,qoran or (         
tradition 0  absolutely =bidd52 !       
s*ol>s1 9 o!r words ! cl]gy1 _h  conv9c$
 !mselves1 by ! fact ( _! unanimity ^u !
 po9t1  t ! cu/om>y & traditional mode (
 exposition 0 ! "o  pleas+ to ,god4     
,ideas ( ?is k9d naturally rem9d u (    
,roman  ,ca?olic practice4 ,! influ5ce (
 ,ea/]n ,*ri/ianity ^u ,islam is        
und\bt$ly visible "h4 ,?is influ5ce c\ld
 n 9 ! face (  ,muhamm$an tradition &   
cu/om1 create an organis$ cl]gy1 b x    
produc$ a cl]ical class to gu>d religi\s
 ?\ght1 & z religion  spread1 to        
sup]vise ?\ght ( e k9d4    ,*ri/ianity  
aga9 condemn$ m>riage1 ?\gh x ev5tually 
agre$ to  a compromise sanctify+ ?is    
tie2 ,islam1 on ! contr>y1 f\nd 9  !    
,qoran ! text ,ye t are unm>ri$ %all    
m>ry 7#bd1 #cb74 ,9  ! face ( s cle> a  
/atem5t1 ! condemnation ( m>riage1 :i*  
9 any case 0 contr>y to ! :ole _s ( !   
,qoran1 c\ld n  be ma9ta9$4 ,?us !      
,muhamm$an tradition conta9s num]\s     
say+s  9 support ( m>riage4 ,a *ildless 

h\se conta9s no bless+3 !  brea? ( a son
 is z ! brea? ( ,p>adise2 :5 a man looks
 ^u  8 wife 79 love7 & %e ^u him1 ,god  
looks d[n 9 m]cy ^u !m  bo?4 ,two pray]s
 ( a m>ri$ man are m preci\s 9 ! sight (
  ,god ?an sev5ty ( a ba*elor4 ,) _m    
simil> v>iations ^u !  !me1 ,muhamm$ is 
said to h urg$ m>riage ^u 8 foll[]s4 ,on
  ! o!r h& an almo/ equally num]\s body 
( w>n+s aga9/  m>riage exi/s1 also issu$
 by ,muhamm$4 ,i "k no in/ance ( direct 
prohibition1 b s]i\s admonitions are    
f\nd :i* usually take !  =m (           
d5unciation ( ! female sex & 7 e>ly     
int]pret$ z  w>n+s by tradition4 ,fe> ! 
_w & wom53 ?y wor/ enemies  are ! wife  
at ?y side & ?y concub9e3 ! lea/ 9      
,p>adise  are ! wom53 wom5 are ! faggots
 ( hell2 pi\s wom5 are r>e  z rav5s )   
:ite or r$ legs & :ite beaks2 b = wom5  
m5  might ent] ,p>adise4 ,"h we come ^u 
a /ra9 ( ?\ght  especially ,*ri/ian4    
,muhamm$ reg>d$ ! satisfaction ( !      
sexual  in/9cts z natural & "r & made no
 attempt to put re/ra9t  ^u x3 ,*ri/ian 

asceticism reg>d$ ?is impulse z !       
greate/  dang] :i* c\ld ?reat5 !        
spiritual life ( its adh]5ts1 &  !      
s5t5ces above quot$ may be reg>d$ z !   
expression ( ?is  view4 ,naturally !    
social position ( ! woman suff]$ 9      
consequ5ce & is s mu* worse 9 !         
traditional ,muhamm$anism z  comp>$ ) ! 
,qoran t ! *ange c only be ascrib$ to ! 
influ5ce ( ! civilisation :i* !         
,muhamm$ans enc\nt]$4 ,!  idea ( woman z
 a creature ( no acc\nt is c]ta9ly root$
 9 !  anci5t ,ea/1 b x rea*$ ,islam 9   
,*ri/ian dress & ) !  au?ority (        
,*ri/ian ho/ility to m>riage4    ,) ?is 
ho/ility to m>riage are probably        
connect$ ! regulations  conc]n+ ! cov]+ 
( ! body3 9 ! anci5t *ur* only !  face1 
! h&s & ! feet 7 to be expos$ to view1 !
 object  be+ to prev5t ! sugge/ion (    
s9ful ?\ghts3 x is also likely  t       
objections to ! anci5t habit ( leav+ !  
body uncov]$  f\nd expression 9 ?is     
ord9ance4 ,simil> objections may be f\nd
 9  ,muhamm$an tradition2 we may reg>d  

^! z fur!r developm5ts (  comm&s giv5 9 
! ,qoran1 b x is also likely t          
,muhamm$'s  apocryphal /atem5ts ^u !    
po9t 7 dictat$ by ,*ri/ian  religi\s    
!ory4 ,!y (t5 appe> 9 connection ) w>n+s
  aga9/ frequ5t+ ! public ba?s1 :i* fact
 is /rong evid5ce (  _! ,*ri/ian orig94 
,a bad h\se is ! ba?3 mu* turmoil is    
!re9 & m5 %[ _! nak$ness4 ,fe> t h\se t 
is call$  ! ba?h\se & if any ent] !re91 
let him veil himself4 ,he :o  believes 9
 ,god & ! la/ ,judgm5t1 let him ent] !  
ba? only 9  ba?+ dress4 ,nak$ness is    
=bidd5 to u4 ,!re is a /ory (  !        
prophet1 to ! effect t he 0 at "w       
unclo!d :5 a voice  f heav5 ord]$ him to
 cov] 8 nak$ness6           99       99 
99       99       99    ,we ?us see1 t  
an a/oni%+ simil>ity is app>5t 9 !      
treatm5t ev5 ( que/ions :]e div]g5cy is 
fundam5tal4  ,div]g5cy1 x is true1      
exi/$1 b pales be=e ! g5]al aff9ity  ( !
 two !ories ( life4 ,our judgm5t ^u     
,*ri/ian m$ievalism  9 ?is respect c be 
appli$ directly & lit]ally to           

,muhamm$anism4 ,ei!r religion reg>ds man
 z no m ?an a soj\rn]  9 ?is _w4 ,x is n
 wor? :ile to arrange = a p]man5t       
habitation1 & luxuri\s liv+ is b pride4 
,h5ce ! simplicity (  private dwell+s 9 
m$iaeval times bo? 9 ! ,ea/ & ,we/4     
,ar*itectural exp5se is conf9$ to *ur*es
 & mosques1 :i* 7  int5d$ = ! s]vice (  
,god4 ,^! ,*ri/ian ideas are reflect$  9
 ! inexhau/ible /oreh\se ( ,muhamm$an   
!ory1 ! great  collections ( tradition1 
z foll[s4 ,! wor/ use :i* a believ]  c  
make ( 8 money is to build4 ,e build+1  
except a mosque1  w /& to ! discr$it (  
its ar*itect on ! day (  resurrection4  
,^! polemics :i* ,islam inh]it$ f       
,*ri/ianity  are direct$ n only aga9/   
build+ 9 g5]al1 b also aga9/  ! erection
 & decoration ( l(ty edifices3 ,%\ld a  
man build a  h\se n9e ells high1 a voice
 w call to him f heav51 ,:i!r  wilt ?\  
rise1 mo/ pr(ane ( ! pr(ane8 ,no prophet
 ent]s a  h\se adorn$ ) fair decoration4
 ,) ^! prohibitions %\ld be  connect$ ! 
some:at un9telligible fact t ! mo/ pi\s 

,caliphs  sat ^u ?rones 7mimb>1         
presid5t's *air7 ( clay4 ,! simple/  &  
mo/ transitory mat]ial ?us s]ves to =m !
 symbol (  temporal p[]4 ,a h\se is     
adorn$ n by outw>d %[1 b by !  fact t   
pray] is (f]$ & ! ,qoran recit$ )9 its  
walls4  ,^! !ories 7 out ( h>mony ) !   
worldly t5d5cies ( !  conqu]ors1 :o     
built !mselves ca/les1 su* z ,qusair    
,amra3 !y  belong to ! _s ( ,*ri/ianity 
r ?an to ,islam4    ,^u simil> pr9ciples
 we may expla9 ! dem& = ! utmo/         
simplicity & res]ve 9 reg>d to ! o!r    
enjoym5ts ( life4 ,to  eat :5ev] "o may 
wi% is excess & two meals a day are m   
?an  en\gh4 ,! portion set ap>t = "o may
 also suffice = two4 ,ideas  ( ?is k9d  
are ( con/ant recurr5ce 9 ! ,muhamm$an  
traditions3  indisp5sable ne$s alone are
 to be satisfi$1 z inde$ ,?omas  ,aqu9as
 tea*es4 ,simil> obs]vations apply to   
dress3 he :o walks 9  co/ly g>m5ts to be
 se5 ( m5 is n se5 ( ! ,"l4 ,gold &     
silv] ornam5ts1 & g>m5ts ( purple & silk
 are =bidd5 by  bo? religions4 ,pr9ces  

live z simply z begg>s & possess only "o
  g>m5t1 s t !y are unable to appe> 9   
public :5 x is be+  wa%$3 !y live ^u a  
h&ful ( dates & are c>eful to save  pap]
 & artificial light4 ,su* incid5ts are  
common 9 ! olde/  records ( ! fir/      
,caliphs4 ,^! pr9ces did n1 ( c\rse1    
live  9 su* begg>y1 & ! fact is         
correspond+ly important t aft]  ! lapse 
( "o or two g5]ations ! ,muhamm$an      
hi/orians %\ld  describe _! h]oes z     
possess+ only ! typical g>m5t ( !       
,*ri/ian sa9t4 ,?is "o fact speaks      
volumes4    ,e action 0 p]=m$ 9 ,god or 
) ref]5ce to ,god--an  (t-repeat$ idea 9
 ei!r religion4 ,!re is a cont9ual hatr$
 (  ! _w & a cont9ual fe> t x may imp]il
 a man's s\l4 ,h5ce  ! s5se ( va/       
responsibility felt by ! (ficials1 a    
s5se :i*  f9ds expression ev5 9 ! ord9>y
 (ficial correspond5ce ( !  au?orities  
:i* papyri h pres]v$ = u4 ,! phraseology
 is  (t5 /]eotyp$1 b z su*1 expresses a 
special !ory ( life4  ,?is              
responsibility is repres5t$ z weigh+ )  

especial sev]ity  ^u a pi\s ,caliph4 ,^u
 election to ! ?rone he accepts (fice  )
 great reluctance prote/+ 8 unwor?9ess )
 te>s4 ,! ,we/  c relate simil> /ories (
 ,gregory ! ,great & ( ,ju/9ian4        
,exhortations are frequ5t ev] to rememb]
 ! fact ( dea? & to  rep5t & bewail pa/ 
s9s4 ,:5 a m5tion ( ! la/ ,judgm5t      
occurs 9 ! read+ ( passages f ! ,bible  
or ,qoran1 !  auditors bur/ into te>s4  
,^u "o occasion a man 0 pray+ ^u  ! ro( 
( 8 h\se & wept s bitt]ly ov] 8 s9s1 t !
  te>s ran d[n ! wat]sp\t & flood$ !    
rooms bel[4 ,?is  hyp]bolical /atem5t 9 
a typical life ( a sa9t %[s ! high      
value attribut$ to te>s 9 ! ,ea/4 ,x is1
 h[ev]1 equally a  ,*ri/ian *>act]i/ic4 
,! graci\s gift ( te>s 0 reg>d$ by      
m$iaeval ,*ri/ianity z ! sign ( a deeply
 religi\s nature4  ,gregory ,,vii is    
said to h wept daily at ! sacrifice ( ! 
,mass  & simil> acc\nts are giv5 to !   
cr$it ( o!r fam\s  ,*ri/ians4    ,:ile a
 man %\ld weep = 8 own s9s1 he is n to  
bewail any  mis=tune or mis]y :i* may   

befall him4 ,9 ! latt] case x is  8 duty
 to collect 8 /r5g?1 to resign himself &
 to praise ,god  ev5 amid 8 suff]+s4    
,%\ld he lose a de> relative by dea?1 he
  is n to break out ) cries &           
lam5tations l ! hea!n4  ,lam5tation = ! 
dead is mo/ /rictly =bidd5 9 ,islam4 ,we
 are  ,god's p & to ,god we return says 
! pi\s ,muslim on receiv+  ! unexpect$  
news ( a dea?4 ,resignation & pati5ce 9 
^!  matt]s is c]ta9ly made ! subject (  
eloqu5t exhortation 9 !  ,qoran1 b !    
special developm5ts ( tradition betray  
,*ri/ian  influ5ce4    ,g5]ally speak+1 
! :ole e?ical sy/em ( ! two religions is
  bas$ ^u ! contra/ betwe5 ,god & ! _w1 
?\gh ,muhamm$an  philosophy w recognize 
no pr9ciple beside t ( ,god4 ,z a       
typical example we may take a s5t5ce f !
 ,spani% bi%op ,isidor  :o di$ 9 #fcf3  
,good are ! int5tions direct$ t[>ds ,god
 & bad  are ^? direct$ to e>?ly ga9 or  
transitory fame4 ,any ,muhamm$an        
!ologian w\ld h subscrib$ to ?is        
/atem5t4 ,on ! "o h&  /ress is laid ^u  

motive z giv+ its value to action4 ,!   
fir/  s5t5ce 9 ! mo/ fam\s collection ( 
traditions runs1 ,de$s  %all be judg$ by
 _! int5tions4 ,on ! o!r h& is !        
contra/ betwe5 ,god & ! _w1 or z ,islam 
puts x1 betwe5 !  pres5t & ! future     
life4 ,! ,*ri/ian ga9s et]nal life by   
foll[+ ,*ri/4 ,imitation ( ! ,ma/] 9 all
 ?+s ev5 to !  /igmata1 is ! *>act]i/ic 
feature ( m$iaeval ,*ri/ianity4 ,nor  is
 ! :ole ( ! s-call$ ,sunna ob$i5ce any?+
 m ?an !  imitation ( ,muhamm$ :i* seeks
 to repeat ! smalle/ details (  8 life4 
,! inf9ite importance atta*$ by ,islam  
to ! ,sunna seems  to me to h orig9at$ 9
 ,*ri/ian influ5ce4 ,! developm5t ( x   
betrays orig9al features1 b ! fundam5tal
 pr9ciple is ,*ri/ian1  z all ! lead+   
ideas ( ,islam are ,*ri/ian1 9 ! s5se ( 
!  t]m z p>aphras$ above4 ,imitation (  
,*ri/ 9 ! fir/ in/ance1  attempts to    
repeat 8 pov]ty & r5unciation ( p]sonal 
prop]ty3  ?is is ! great ,*ri/ian ideal4
 ,muhamm$ 0 nei!r poor nor  )\t         
possessions3 at ! end ( 8 life he _h    

become a pr9ce &  _h directly /at$ t    
prop]ty 0 a gift f ,god4 ,9 spite (  t 8
 successors praise pov]ty & _! praises 7
 ! be/ (  evid5ce t !y 7 influ5c$ n by !
 prophet himself b by  ,*ri/ianity4     
,:ile ! traditions are full ( ! praises 
( pov]ty  & ! dang]s ( weal?1 ass]tions 
9 praise ( weal? also  occur1 = ! reason
 t ! pure ,muhamm$an ideas oppos$ to    
,*ri/ianity reta9$ a c]ta9 influ5ce4 ,j4
 ,goldzih] has publi%$  an int]e/+ /udy 
%[+ h[ _m words borr[$ f ?is s\rce      
occur 9 ! writt5 ,muhamm$an traditions3 
an almo/ complete  v]sion ( ! ,"l's     
,pray] is quot$4 ,ev5 ! idea ( love     
t[>ds  enemies1 :i* w\ld h be5          
un9telligible to ,muhamm$1 made its  way
 into ! traditions3 ! mo/ virtu\s ( acts
 is to seek out him  :o rejects !e1 to  
give to him t despises !e & to p>don him
  t oppresses !e4 ,! ,gospel precept to 
d unto o!rs z we w\ld  !y %\ld d unto u 
7,matt4 vii4 #ab1 ,luke vi4 #ca7 is to  
be f\nd 9  ! ,arab traditions1 & _m     
simil> po9ts ( contact may be  notic$4  

,a man's neighb\r has ev] be51 despite !
 tea*+ (  ,jesus1 to ! ,*ri/ian & to !  
,muhamm$an1 8 co-religioni/4 ,!  :ole   
dep>tm5t ( ,muhamm$an e?ics has ?us be5 
subject$ to  /rong ,*ri/ian influ5ce4   
,naturally ?is ecclesia/icism :i*       
dom9at$ ! :ole ( life1 0  b\nd to ass]t 
itself 9 /ate organisation4 ,an         
abhorr5ce ( !  /ate1 s f> z x 0         
indep5d5t ( religion1 a feel+ unkn[n 9  
! anci5t _w1 p]vades bo? ,*ri/ianity &  
,muhamm$anism1  ,*ri/ianity fir/ /ruggl$
 to secure recognition 9 ! /ate &       
aft]w>ds f\ght ) ! /ate = pr$om9ance4   
,islam & ! /ate  7 at fir/ id5tical3 9  
its spiritual lead]s x 0 soon  sep>at$ f
 ! /ate4 ,its idea ( a div9e polity 0   
elaborat$  to ! smalle/ details1 b      
rema9$ a !ory :i* nev] became  practice4
 ,yet ?is ideal reta9$ su* /r5g? t e    
,muhamm$an  usurp] 0 c>eful to secure 8 
inve/iture by ! ,caliph1 !  nom9al lead]
 ( ?is ecclesia/ical /ate1 ev5 if =ce 7 
necess>y to atta9 8 object4 ,= in/ance1 
,salad9 0 absolutely  indep5d5t ( !     

nom9al ,caliph 9 ,bagdad1 b c\ld n feel 
t  8 position 0 secure until he _h      
obta9$ 8 sultan's pat5t f  ! ,caliph4   
,only !n did 8 supremacy re/ ^u a       
religi\s basis  & he 0 n reg>d$ by      
popul> op9ion z a legitimate mon>*      
until ?is c]emony _h be5 p]=m$4 ,?is    
!ory corresponds )  con/itutional ideals
 ess5tially ,*ri/ian4 ,! tyranny1 wrote 
,innoc5t ,,iv to ! ,emp]or ,fr$]ick     
,,ii1 :i* 0 once g5]ally  ex]cis$       
?r\gh\t ! _w1 0 resign$ into ! h&s ( !  
,*ur* by ,con/ant9e1 :o !n receiv$ z an 
hon\rable gift f  ! prop] s\rce t :i* he
 _h =m]ly held & ex]cis$  unrighte\sly4 
,! long /ruggle betwe5 ,*ur* & ,/ate 9  
?is  matt] is well kn[n4 ,9 ?is /ruggle 
! ris+ p[] ( ,islam _h  adopt$ a simil> 
attitude4 ,! great abhorr5ce ( a secul> 
mon>*y 9 opposition to a religi\s       
caliphate1 z express$ bo?  by ! dicta ( 
tradition & by ! ,abbassid hi/orians1 0 
inspir$1 9 my op9ion1 by ,*ri/ian       
dislike ( a divorce betwe5  ,*ur* &     
,/ate4 ,! ph5om5on might be expla9$ )\t 

ref]5ce  to ext]nal influ5ce1 b if !    
:ole process be consid]$ 9  connection1 
,*ri/ian influ5ce seems m ?an probable4 
,a simil> attitude 0 also assum$ by ei!r
 religion t[>ds !  facts ( economic     
life4 ,9 ei!r case ! religi\s po9t (    
view is  *>act]i/ic4 ,! reaction aga9/ !
 t5d5cy to condemn secul>  life is      
c]ta9ly /rong] 9 ,islam1 b is also      
app>5t 9  ,*ri/ianity4 ,?omas ,aqu9as   
directly /igmatises trade z a           
disgraceful means ( ga91 because !      
ex*ange ( w>es does n  necessitate lab\r
 or ! satisfaction ( necess>y wants3    
,muhamm$an  tradition says1 ,! pi\s     
m]*ant is a pione] on ! road ( ,god4  ,!
 fir/ to ent] ,p>adise is ! hon\rable   
m]*ant4 ,"h !  solution giv5 to !       
problem diff]s 9 ei!r case1 b 9 ,*ri/ian
  practice1 opposition 0 also obvi\s4   
,common to bo? religions is !           
condemnation ( ! exaction ( int]e/ &    
monet>y speculation1  :i* ! middle ages 
reg>d$ z usury4 ,islam1 z usual1 gives  
?is  ,*ri/ian idea ! =m ( a say+ en\nc$ 

by ,muhamm$3 ,he :o  speculates 9 gra9 =
 =ty days1 gr9ds & bakes x & gives x  to
 ! poor1 makes an (f]+ unacceptable to  
,god4 ,he :o raises  prices to ,muslims 
7by speculation7 w be ca/ head d[nw>ds  
by ,god  into ! hotte/ fire ( hell4 ,_m 
simil> traditions fulm9ate  aga9/ usury 
9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,^! prohibitions 
7  circumv5t$ 9 practice by de$ ( gift &
 ex*ange1 b none !  less ! free         
developm5t ( comm]cial ent]prise 0      
hamp]$ by  ^! fett]s :i* mod]n          
civilisation fir/ broke4 ,ent]prise 0   
?us conf9$ to agriculture "u ^!         
circum/ances bo? =  ,*ri/ianity &       
,islam1 & economic life 9 ei!r case     
became  m$iaeval 9 outw>d appe>ance4    
,me?ods ( mak+ pr(it )\t a proportional 
exp5diture ( lab\r  7 ! p>ticul> objects
 ( ?is av]sion4 ,manual lab\r 0 highly  
e/eem$ bo? 9 ! ,ea/ & ,we/4 ,a man's    
fir/ duty 0 to support  himself by ! "w 
( 8 own h&s1 a duty proclaim$1 z we "k1 
f ! apo/olic age onw>ds4 ,s f> z ,islam 
is conc]n$1 ?is  view may be illu/rat$  

by ! foll[+ utt]ances3 ,! be/ (  de$s is
 ! ga9 ( t :i* is lawful3 ! be/ ga9 is  
made by  sale )9 lawful limits & by     
manual lab\r4 ,! mo/ preci\s  ga9 is t  
made by manual lab\r2 t :i* a man ?us   
e>ns &  gives to himself1 8 p1 8 sons & 
8 s]vants1 is z  m]itori\s z alms4 ,?us 
practical "w is made incumb5t ^u !      
believ]1 & ! ext5t to :i* manufacture   
fl\ri%$ 9 ,ea/ &  ,we/ dur+ ! middle    
ages is well kn[n4    ,a simil> aff9ity 
is app>5t z reg>ds ideas ^u social      
position  & occupation4 ,be=e ,god man  
is b a slave3 ev5 ! mighty ,caliphs     
!mselves1 ev5 ^? :o 7 /igmatis$ by      
po/]ity z secul>  mon>*s1 includ$ 9 _!  
(ficial titles ! designation1 slave (   
,god4 ,?is !ory 0 c>ri$ out into !      
smalle/ details ( life1  ev5 into ^? :i*
 mod]n obs]v]s w\ld consid] z unconc]n$ 
) religion4 ,?us at meals ! ,muslim 0 n 
all[$ to recl9e at  table1 an anci5t    
cu/om :i* ! upp] classes _h foll[$ =    
c5turies3 he mu/ sit1 z a slave1 accord+
 to ! lett] ( !  law4 ,all are alike    

slaves1 = ! reason t !y are believ]s3   
h5ce ! humiliation ( ^? :om *ance has   
exalt$ is ?\ght  desirable4 ,?is        
idealism is und\bt$ly m deeply root$ 9 !
  popul> consci\sness ( ! ,ea/ ?an ( !  
,we/4 ,9 ! ,ea/ great  social di/9ctions
 occur2 b :ile religion recognises !m1 x
  =bids insi/5ce ^u !m4    ,z especially
 di/9ctive ( social "w 9 ei!r religion  
we might  be incl9$ to reg>d !          
unp>allel$ ext5t ( organizations = !    
c>e ( ! poor1 = wid[s & orphans1 = !    
old1 infirm &  sick1 ! public hospitals 
& alm%\ses & religi\s f\ndations 9  !   
wide/ s5se ( ! t]m2 b ! object ( ^!     
activities 0  n prim>ily social nor 7 !y
 und]tak5 to make life easi] =  ! poor3 
religi\s selfi%ness 0 ! lead+ motive1 ! 
desire to  purify self by good works &  
to secure ! "r to pre-em95ce 9  heav54  
,= ! salvation ( my s\l & = ev]la/+     
rew>d is  ! =mula ( _m a ,*ri/ian       
f\ndation de$4 ,v simil>  expressions ( 
hope = et]nal rew>d occur 9 ,muhamm$an  
de$s (  gift4 ,a f\ndation inscription  

on a mosque1 publi%$ by ,e4 ,littmann1  
is /at$ 9 t]ms ! purport ( :i* is       
unmi/akable4 ,?is has  be5 built by ,n  
or ,m3 may a h\se be built = him 9      
,p>adise 79  return74 ,"h aga91 ! idea (
 ! h\se 9 ,p>adise is borr[$  f ,*ri/ian
 ideas4    ,we h already obs]v$ t 9     
,islam ! smalle/ trivialities (  daily  
life become matt]s ( religi\s import4 ,!
 fact is especially  app>5t 9 a wide    
dep>tm5t ( p]sonal conduct4 ,islam      
c]ta9ly  w5t to fur!r extremes ?an      
,*ri/ianity 9 ?is matt]1 b ^!  cu/oms   
are cle>ly only fur!r developm5ts (     
,*ri/ian  regulations4 ,! call to       
simplicity ( food & dress has already   
be5  m5tion$4 ,b ev5 ! simple/ food 0   
nev] to be tak5 be=e  ?anks _h be5 giv5 
to ,god3 grace 0 nev] to be omitt$ ei!r 
be=e or aft] meals4 ,div9e ord9ances    
also regulat$ ! mann] (  eat+4 ,!       
prophet said1 ,) "o f+] ! devils eat1 ) 
two  ! ,titans ( antiquity & ) ?ree f+]s
 ! prophets4 ,!  application ( ! say+ is
 obvi\s4 ,simil> say+s prescribe !  mode

 ( h&l+ di%es & behavi\r at a common    
meal1 if !  bless+ ( ,god is to be      
secur$4 ,!re seems to be a ,*ri/ian t\* 
9 "o ( ^! rules :i* runs1 9 ! words ( ! 
prophet3 ,he :o  picks up ! crumbs fall5
 f ! table & eats !m1 w be  =giv5 by    
,god4 ,he :o licks ! empty di%es & 8    
f+]s w  be fill$ by ,god "h & 9 ! _w to 
come4 ,:5 a man licks !  di% f :i* he   
has eat51 ! di% w plead = him be=e ,god4
  ,i reg>d ^! words z practical         
applications ( ! text1 ,ga!r up  !      
pieces t rema91 t no?+ be lo/ 7,matt4   
xiv4 #aj3 ,john vi4  #ab74 ,ev5 to-day  
,s\? ,italians kiss bread t has fall5 to
 !  gr\nd1 9 ord] to make apology to !  
gift ( ,god4 ,volumes might be  fill$ ) 
rules ( polite mann]s 9 ?is /yle3 h>dly 
any detail  is to be f\nd 9 ! :ole      
bus9ess ( daily life1 ev5 includ+       
occupations reg>d$ z unclean1 :i* 0 n   
inve/$ ) "s  religi\s significance4 ,^! 
rules are almo/ entirely dictat$ by  !  
_s ( e>ly ,*ri/ianity & x is possible to
 recon/ruct !  details ( life 9 ^? d>k  

ages f ^! lit]>y records :i*  are n[ !  
only s\rce ( evid5ce ^u su* po9ts4      
,h[ev]1 we mu/  "h cont5t ourselves )   
e/abli%+ ! fact t ,islam adopt$         
,*ri/ian practice 9 ?is z 9 o!r         
dep>tm5ts ( life4    ,! /ate1 society1 !
 individual1 economics & morality 7 ?us 
collectively "u ,*ri/ian influ5ce dur+ !
 e>ly p]iod (  ,muhamm$anism4           
,conditions v simil> 9 g5]al1 affect$ ^?
  conceptions :i* we expla9 ^u sci5tific
 gr\nds b :i* 7  inv>iably reg>d$ by    
anci5t & m$iaeval ?\ght z sup]natural1  
conceptions d$uc$ f ! ph5om5a ( illness 
& dreams4 ,islam  0 no less oppos$ ?an  
,*ri/ianity to ! practice ( magic 9 any 
=m1 b only s f> z ^! practices seem$ to 
pres]ve remnants  ( hea!n beliefs4 ,su* 
beliefs 71 h[ev]1 cont9u$ 9 bo?         
religions 9 modifi$ =m4 ,!re is no d\bt 
t ideas ( high  antiquity1 d\btless (   
,babylonian orig91 c be trac$ z         
contribut+ to ! =mation ( ^! beliefs1   
:ile sci5tific  m$ic9e is connect$ ) !  
e>li] discov]ies ( ,greece4 ,common  to 

bo? religions 0 ! belief 9 ! reality (  
dreams1 especially  :5 ^! seem$ to      
h>monise ) religi\s ideas3 dreams 7     
reg>d$ z revelations f ,god or f 8      
apo/les or f !  pi\s dead4 ,! fact t man
 c\ld dream & t he c\ld appe> to  o!r m5
 9 dreams aft] 8 dea? 0 reg>d$ z a sign 
( div9e  fav\r & ! biographies ( ! sa9ts
 (t5 conta9 *apt]s  devot$ to ?is       
faculty4 ,^! are natural ideas :i* lie 9
 !  national consci\sness ( any p1 b owe
 _! developm5t 9 !  case ( ,islam to    
,*ri/ian influ5ce4 ,! same may be said (
 !  belief t ! pray]s ( p>ticul> sa9ts 7
 ( special efficacy1  & ( attempts by   
pray]1 =ms ( wor%ip & ! l to procure    
ra91 av]t plague & s =?3 su* ideas are  
common ?r\gh\t !  middle ages4 ,?us 9 e 
dep>tm5t we meet ) t p>ticul>  type (   
,*ri/ian !ory :i* exi/$ 9 ! ,ea/ dur+ ! 
sev5?  & eigh? c5turies4    ,?is        
m$iaeval !ory ( life 0 subject$1 z is   
well kn[n1 to _m  compromises 9 ! ,we/1 
& 0 mat]ially modifi$ by ,teutonic      
influ5ce & ! revival ( classicism4 ,x   

might !re=e be  suppos$ t 9 ,islam      
,*ri/ian !ory und]w5t simil>            
modification  or disappe>$ entirely4 ,b 
! fact is n s4 ,at ! outset1 we  /at$1 z
 w be rememb]$1 t ,muhamm$an s*ol>s 7   
accu/om$ to prop\nd _! dicta z utt]ances
 giv5 by ,muhamm$  himself1 & 9 ?is =m  
,*ri/ian ideas also came into           
circulation  among ,muhamm$ans4 ,:5     
attempts 7 made to sy/ematise ^!  say+s1
 all 7 treat$ z alike au!ntic1 &1 z     
traditional1  ex]t$ _! %>e ( influ5ce ^u
 ! =mation ( canon law4 ,?us  que/ions (
 tempor>y importance to m$iaeval        
,*ri/ianity became  p]man5t elem5ts 9   
,muhamm$an !ology4    ,"o highly        
in/ructive in/ance may be giv54 ,dur+ ! 
c5tury :i*  prec$$ ! ,byzant9e          
iconocla/ic controv]sy1 ! :ole ( ne>]   
,asia 0 di/urb$ by ! "q :e!r ! erection 
& v5]ation  ( images 0 p]missible4 ,t   
,con/ant9ople attempt$ to prohibit  su* 
v5]ation is well kn[n3 b aft] a long    
/ruggle ! *ur*  ga9$ its wi%es4 ,islam 0
 confront$ ) ! problem & decid$  =      

prohibition1 d\btless "u ,jewi%         
influ5ce4 ,say+s ( ,muhamm$  =bid !     
erection ( images4 ,?is prohibition     
became "p ( canon  law & !re=e b9d+ =   
all "t3 x rema9s obligatory at !  pres5t
 day1 ?\gh 9 practice x is (t5          
transgress$4 ,?us !  process (          
developm5t :i* 0 cont9u$ 9 ,*ri/5dom1   
came to a  /&/ill 9 ,islam1 & _m simil> 
cases might be quot$4    ,"h beg9s !    
developm5t ( ,muhamm$an jurisprud5ce or1
 m  exactly1 ( ! doctr9e ( duty1 :i*    
includes e k9d ( human  activity1 duties
 to ,god & man1 religion1 civil law1 !  
p5al code1  social morality & economics4
 ,?is extraord9>y sy/em ( moral         
obligations1 z develop$ 9 ,islam1 ?\gh  
its orig9 is obscure1 is  d\btless root$
 9 ! ecclesia/ical law ( ,*ri/5dom :i* 0
  !n fir/ evolv$4 ,i h no d\bt t !      
developm5t ( ,muhamm$an  tradition1 :i* 
prec$es ! code prop]1 0 dep5d5t ^u !    
gr[? ( canon law 9 ! old ,*ur*1 & t ?is 
aga91 or at  lea/ ! purely legal "p ( x1
 is closely connect$ ) !  pre-,ju/9ian  

legislation4 ,roman law does n seem to  
me to h  influ5c$ ,islam imm$iately 9 ! 
=m ( ,ju/9ian's ,corpus  ,juris1 b      
indirectly f su* ecclesia/ical s\rces z 
!  ,romano-,syrian code4 ,?is view1     
h[ev]1 ,i w\ld di/9ctly /ate1 is  m]ely 
my conjecture4 ,= our pres5t purpose x  
is m important to  e/abli% ! fact t !   
doctr9e ( duty canonis$ ! manifold      
expressions ( ! !ory t life is a        
religion1 ) :i* we h  met ?r\gh\t !     
traditional lit]ature3 all human acts   
are ?us  legally consid]$ z obligatory  
or =bidd5 :5 correspond+ )  religi\s    
comm&s or prohibitions1 z cong5ial or   
obnoxi\s to !  law or z matt]s legally  
indiff]5t & !re=e p]missible4 ,!        
arrangem5t ( ! "w ( daily life 9        
correspond5ce ) ^!  religi\s po9ts (    
view is ! mo/ important outcome ( !     
,muhamm$an doctr9e ( duties4 ,! religi\s
 utt]ances :i* also  cov] ! :ole bus9ess
 ( life 7 fir/ made duties by ?is       
doctr9e3 9 practice _! fulfilm5t is     
impossible1 b ! !ory  ( _! obligatory   

nature is a fundam5tal elem5t 9         
,muhamm$anism4    ,:]e ! doctr9e (      
duties deals ) legal rights1 its        
application  0 9 practice conf9$ to     
m>riage & ! affairs ( family life3  !   
!oretical dem&s ( its p5al clauses1 =   
in/ance1 raise  impossible difficulties4
 ,at ! same "t1 x has be5 ( great       
importance to ! :ole spiritual life (   
,islam d[n to ! pres5t  day1 because x  
reflects ,muhamm$an ideals ( life & (   
man's place  9 ! _w4 ,ev5 to-day x      
rema9s ! daily bread ( ! s\l t  desires 
in/ruction1 to quote ! words ( ! greate/
 fa!r ( !  ,muhamm$an *ur*4 ,x w ?us be 
imm$iately obvi\s to :at a va/  ext5t   
,*ri/ian !ory ( ! sev5? & eigh? c5turies
 /ill  rema9s op]ative ^u ,muhamm$an    
?\ght ?r\gh\t ! _w4    ,consid]able p>ts
 ( ! doctr9e ( duties are conc]n$ ) !   
=ms ( ,muhamm$an wor%ip4 ,x is becom+   
ev] cle>] t only  slight t5d5cies to a  
=m ( wor%ip 7 app>5t "u ,muhamm$4  ,!   
mosque1 ! build+ erect$ = ! special     
purpose ( div9e  s]vice1 0 unkn[n dur+ !

 prophet's lifetime2 nor 0 !re any      
def9ite *ur* organisation1 ( :i* ! mo/  
important p>ts are  ! common ritual & ! 
prea*+4 ,t5d5cies exi/$ b no sy/em1  0  
to be f\nd3 !re 0 no cl]ical class to   
take an int]e/ 9  ! developm5t ( an ord]
 ( div9e s]vice4 ,! ,caliphs pray$  be=e
 ! fai?ful 9 ! capital1 z did ! gov]nors
 9 !  prov9ces4 ,! milit>y comm&]s also 
l$ a simple s]vice 9 _!  own /ations4   
,x 0 contact ) =eign influ5ce :i* fir/  
provid$ ! impulse  to a sy/ematic =m (  
wor%ip4 ,bo? ,*ri/ians & ,jews possess$ 
su* =ms4 ,_! example 0 foll[$ & a ritual
 0 evolv$1 at  fir/ ( ! v simple/ k9d4  
,no detail$ organisation1 h[ev]1  0     
attempt$1 until ,*ri/ian influ5ce l$ to 
! =mation ( !  class :i* naturally took 
an int]e/ 9 ! matt]1 ! pr(essional      
!ologians4 ,^! soon replac$ ! milit>y   
s]vice lead]s4 ,?is  *ange d5ot$ ! f9al 
/age 9 ! developm5t ( ritual4 ,!  object
 ( ! !ologians 0 to subject ! v>i\s     
occupations (  life to ritual z well z  
to religion4 ,! m$iatorial or sacram5tal

  !ories ( ! prie/ly (fice 7 unkn[n to  
,islam1 b ritual  cu/oms ( simil> "* 7  
gradually evolv$1 & are  especially     
pron\nc$ 9 ! c]emonies ( m>riage &      
burial4    ,m important1 h[ev]1 0 !     
developm5t ( ! (ficial s]vice1  !       
arrangem5t ( ! day & ! h\r ( obligatory 
att5dance &  ! introduction ( prea*+3 "u
 ,muhamm$ & 8 e>ly foll[]s1  & until    
late 9 ! ,omajjad p]iod1 prea*+ 0 conf9$
 to  addresses1 giv5 z occasion dem&$1 b
 by degrees x became "p  ( ! regul>     
ritual4 ,) x 0 aft]w>ds connect$ !      
int]cession = ! ,caliphs1 :i* became a  
highly significant "p  ( ! s]vice1 z    
symbolis+ _! sov]eignty4 ,x seems to me 
v  probable t ?is practice 0 an         
adoption1 at any rate 9 !ory1 (  !      
,*ri/ian cu/om ( pray+ = ! emp]or4 ,!   
pulpit 0 !n  introduc$ "u ,*ri/ian      
influ5ce1 :i* ?us completely  trans=m$ !
 *air 7mimb>7 ( ! anci5t ,arab judges & 
rul]s  & made x a piece ( *ur*          
furniture2 ! ,*ri/ian cancelli or  *oir 
scre5s 7 adopt$ & ! mosque 0 ?us        

develop$4 ,be=e  ! age ( mosques1 a     
lance _h be5 plant$ 9 ! gr\nd & pray]   
(f]$ beh9d x3 s 9 ! mosque a pray] ni*e 
0 made1 a  survival ( ! pre-exi/+ cu/om4
 ,!re are _m obscure po9ts 9  !         
developm5t ( ! wor%ip1 b "o fact may be 
ass]t$ )  confid5ce3 ! developm5ts (    
ritual 7 d]iv$ f pre-exi/+  practices1  
:i* 7 = ! mo/ "p ,*ri/ian4    ,b !      
religi\s en]gy ( ,islam 0 n exclusively 
devot$ to !  developm5t & practice ( !  
doctr9e ( duties2 at ! same "t  ?is     
e?ical dep>tm5t1 9 spite ( its dep5d5cy 
^u ,*ri/ian &  ,jewi% ideas1 rema9s its 
mo/ orig9al a*ievem5t3 we h pursu$  !   
subject at "s l5g?1 because its         
importance is (t5 ov]look$  9 ! c\rse ( 
attempts to e/imate ! connection betwe5 
,*ri/ianity & ,islam4 ,on ! o!r h&1     
aff9ities 9 ! regions  ( my/icism &     
dogma h long be5 matt] ( common k & a   
brief sket* ( !m w !re=e suffice4 ,if n 
ess5tial to our  purpose )9 ! limits (  
?is book1 !y are none ! less  necess>y  
to complete our treatm5t ( ! subject4   

,by my/icism we und]/& ! expression (   
religi\s emotion1 z  contra/$ ) ef=ts to
 atta9 righte\sness by full ob$i5ce to  
! e?ical doctr9e ( duties1 & also 9     
contra/ to !  hair-splitt+ ( dogmatic   
speculation3 my/icism /rove to rea*     
imm$iate emotional unity ) ! ,godhead4  
,no trace ( any su*  t5d5cy 0 to be f\nd
 9 ! ,qoran3 x ent]$ ,islam z a complete
  novelty1 & ! aff9ities :i* enabl$ x to
 ga9 a foot+ h  be5 difficult to trace4 
,muhamm$an my/icism is c]ta9ly n        
exclusively ,*ri/ian3 its  orig9s1 l ^? 
( ,*ri/ian my/icism1 are to be f\nd 9 ! 
pan!i/ic writ+s ( ! ,neoplatoni/ s*ool (
 ,dionysius !  ,areopagite3 b ,islam    
app>5tly d]iv$ its my/icism f ,*ri/ian  
s\rces4 ,9 x orig9at$ ! idea1 ) all its 
capacity =  developm5t1 ( ! my/ical love
 ( ,god3 to ?is 0 add$ ! !ory  &        
practice ( asceticism :i* 0 especially  
develop$ by  ,*ri/ianity1 &1 9 lat]     
times1 ! influ5ce ( ,indian philosophy1 
:i* is unmi/akable4 ,su* are !          
fundam5tal elem5ts ( ?is  t5d5cy4 ,:5 ! 

idea ( ! ,nirwana1 ! ,arab fana1 is     
atta9$1 ,muhamm$anism prop] comes to an 
end4 ,b or?odoxy controls  ! div]g5t    
elem5ts3 x opposes any op5 av[al ( !    
logical  conclusion1 :i* w\ld id5tify   
,god & ! ego1 b 9 practice  ?is gr\p (  
ideas1 pan!i/ic 9 all b "n1 has be5     
receiv$  & giv5 a place side by side ) !
 /rict mono!ism ( ! ,qoran  & ) !       
dogmatic !ology4 ,any =m ( my/icism :i* 
is pu%$  to its logical consequ5ces mu/ 
ov]?r[ positive religion4 ,by           
incorporat+ ?is dang]\s t5d5cy )9       
itself1 ,islam has av]t$  ! p]il :i* x  
?reat5s4 ,cre$ is no long] endang]$1 &  
?is  purpose be+ secur$1 ?\ght is free4 
,union ) ,god is ga9$ by ec/asy & leads 
to en?usiasm4 ,^!  t]ms w !re=e %[ u 9  
:at qu>t] we mu/ seek !  /ronge/        
impulses to my/icism4 ,! concepts1 if n 
! actual  t]ms1 are to be f\nd 9 ,islam3
 !y 7 und\bt$ly transmitt$ by           
,*ri/ianity & und]go ! wide ext5sion :i*
 results 9 !  d]vi% & fakir developm5ts4
 ,d]vi% & fakir are ! ,p]sian  & ,arabic

 words = begg>3 ! ^w sufi1 a man 9 a    
wooll5  %irt1 is also us$ 9 ! same s5se4
 ,! t]ms %[ t asceticism  is a          
fundam5tal elem5t 9 my/icism2 asceticism
 0 itself an  importation to ,islam4    
,d]vi%es are divid$ into diff]5t classes
 or  ord]s1 accord+ to ! me?ods by :i*  
!y sev]ally pref] to  atta9 ec/asy3     
danc+ & recitation are practis$ by !    
danc+  & h[l+ d]vi%es & o!r me?ods are 9
 vogue4 ,x is an  in/itution v diff]5t f
 mona/icism b ! result ( a c\rse  (     
developm5t und\bt$ly simil> to t :i*    
produc$ ! monk3  d]vi%ism & mona/icism  
are indep5d5t developm5ts ( ! same      
orig9al idea4    ,among ^! ,muhamm$an   
companies attempts to rea* ! po9t (     
ec/asy h develop$ to a rigid discipl9e (
 ! s\l2 ! believ]  mu/ subject himself  
to 8 ma/]1 resign+ all p[] ( w1 &  s    
gradually rea*es high] /ages ( k until  
he is ev5tually  l$ to ! consci\sness ( 
8 absolute id5tity ) ,god4 ,x seems  to 
me beyond "q t ?is me?od is reflect$ 9 !
 ex]citiis  spiritualibus ( ,ignatius   

,loyola1 ! *ief in/rum5t by :i* !       
,jesuits secur$ dom9ion ov] s\ls4 ,any  
"o :o has realis$ !  enorm\s influ5ce   
:i* ,arab ?\ght ex]t$ ^u ,spani%        
,*ri/ianity s late z ! f\rte5? & fifte5?
 c5turies1 w  n reg>d ! conjecture z    
unf\nd$4    ,:5 a man's pr(ession or    
position prev5t$ him f practis+  ^!     
my/ical ex]cises1 he satisfi$ 8 religi\s
 ne$s by  v5]at+ p]sons :o 7 ne>] to !  
deity & ^: int]cession  0 effectual ev5 
aft] _! dea? & sometimes n until !y 7   
dead3 h5ce arose ! v5]ation ( sa9ts1 a  
practice z ali5 z  pan!i/ic dogma to    
primitive ,islam4 ,! adoption ( ,*ri/ian
 sa9t  wor%ip 0 n possible until ! p]son
 ( ,muhamm$ himself _h be5  exalt$ above
 ! ord9>y level ( humanity4 ,e>ly       
,muhamm$ans  obs]v$ t ! f\nd] (         
,*ri/ianity 0 reg>d$ by popul>  op9ion z
 a miracle work] ( unrivall$ p[]3 x 0   
impossible =  ! f\nd] ( ,islam to rema9 
inf]ior 9 ?is respect4 ,?us !  e>ly     
biographies ( ! prophet1 :i* appe>$ 9 ! 
fir/ c5tury  ( ,muhamm$anism1 rec\nt !  

typical miracles ( ! ,gospels1 !  fe$+ (
 multitudes1 heal+ ! sick1 rais+ ! dead 
& s  =?4 ,two me?ods ( adoption may be  
di/+ui%$4 ,special features  are        
directly borr[$1 or ! l9e ( advance is  
foll[$ :i* _h  introduc$ ! wor%ip (     
sa9ts & relics to ,*ri/ianity a %ort  "t
 be=e4 ,! religi\s emotions natural to  
any p produc$ a  s]ies ( ideas :i* pass 
f "o religion to ano!r4 ,outw>d =m  &   
purport may be *ang$1 b ! ess5tial po9ts
 rema9 unalt]$  & are ! liv+ expression 
( t relation to ,god 9 :i* a  p         
conceives itself to /&4 ,high] =ms (    
religion--a fact z  sad z x is          
true--require a c]ta9 degree n only (   
moral b (  intellectual capacity4       
,?us we h trav]s$ practically ! :ole    
circle ( religi\s life  & h ev]y:]e f\nd
 ,islam foll[+ 9 ! pa? ( ,*ri/ian       
?\ght4 ,"o dep>tm5t rema9s to be exam9$1
 :i* might be  expect$ to (f] b scanty  
opportunity = borr[+s ( ?is k9d2  ?is is
 dogma4 ,"h1 if any:]e1 ! contra/ betwe5
 ! two  religions %\ld be obvi\s4 ,!    

initial div]g5cies 7 s  pron\nc$1 t any 
adoption ( ,*ri/ian ideas w\ld seem     
impossible4 ,yet 9 ^? c5turies1         
,*ri/ianity 0 *iefly agitat$  by        
dogmatic que/ions1 :i* occupi$ m5's m9ds
 z greatly z social  problems at !      
pres5t day4 ,"h we c obs]ve mo/         
di/9ctly1 h[  ! problems at lea/ 7 tak5 
ov] by ,islam4    ,muhamm$an dogmatic   
!ology is conc]n$ only ) ?ree ma9       
que/ions1 ! problem ( free-w1 ! be+ &   
attributes ( ,god1  & ! et]nal uncreat$ 
nature ( ,god's ^w4 ,! m]e m5tion (  ^! 
problems w recall ! great dogmatic      
/ruggles ( e>ly  ,*ri/ianity4 ,at no "t 
h ! problems ( free-w & ! nature  (     
,god1 be5 subjects ( fi]c] dispute ?an  
dur+ !  ,*ri/ological & subsequ5t       
discussions4 ,uphold]s ( fre$om or (    
det]m9ism c\ld alike f9d mu* to support 
_! !ories 9 !  ,qoran3 ,muhamm$ 0 no    
dogmati/ & = him ! ideas ( man's        
responsibility & ( ,god's almighty &    
univ]sal p[] 7 n  mutually exclusive4 ,!
 /atem5t ( ! problem 0 adopt$ f         

,*ri/ianity z also 0 ! dialectical      
subtlety by :i* a solution  0 rea*$1 &  
:i*1 :ile admitt+ ! almighty p[] ( ,god1
  left man responsible = 8 de$s by      
reg>d+ him z free to accept  or refuse !
 admonitions ( ,god4 ,?us ! ?9k]s & _!  
dem&s  = ju/ice & righte\s deal+ 7      
reconcil$ to ! bl9d  fatalism ( !       
masses1 :i* aga9 0 n a native ,muhamm$an
  product1 b is ! outcome ( ! religi\s  
_s ( ! ,ea/4    ,! problem ( reconcil+ !
 attributes ( ,god ) ! dogma ( ,8  unity
 0 solv$ ) no less subtlety4 ,! m]e idea
 t a  multiplicity ( attributes 0       
incompatible ) absolute unity 0  only   
possible 9 a s*ool :i* _h sp5t c5turies 
9 ! desp]ate  attempt to reconcile !    
inf]5ce ( a div9e ,tr9ity ) !           
conception ( absolute div9e unity4      
,f9ally1 ! ?ird "q1 ,0 ! ,qoran1 ! ^w ( 
,god1 creat$  or n8 is an obvi\s        
c\nt]p>t ( ! ,logos problem1 ( !        
/ruggle to secure recognition ( ! ,logos
 z et]nal & uncreat$  toge!r ) ,god4    
,islam solv$ ! "q by di/+ui%+ !  et]nal 

& uncreat$ ,qoran f ! reveal$ & creat$4 
,! et]nal  nature ( ! ,qoran 0 a dogma  
entirely ali5 to ! /rict  mono!ism (    
,islam3 b ?is fact 0 nev] realis$1 any m
 ?an  ! fact t ! acceptance ( ! dogma 0 
a triumph =  ,graeco-,*ri/ian dialectic4
 ,!re c be no m /rik+ pro( ( !  /r5g? ( 
,*ri/ian influ5ce3 x 0 able to und]m9e !
  fundam5tal dogma ( ,islam1 & !        
,muhamm$ans nev] realis$ !  fact4    ,9 
our review ( ^! dogmatic que/ions1 we h 
met ) a novel  t5d5cy1 t to metaphysical
 speculation & dialectic4 ,x 0 f        
,*ri/5dom1 n directly f ! ,greek _w1 t  
?is _s  rea*$ ,islam3 ! fir/ attitude ( 
,muhamm$anism t[>ds x 0 t  :i*          
,*ri/ianity adopt$ t[>ds all            
non-religi\s sy/ems (  ?\ght4 ,islam    
took x up z a useful weapon = ! /ruggle 
aga9/  h]esy4 ,b x soon became a        
fav\rite & tru/$ implem5t &  ev5tually  
its influ5ce ^u ,muhamm$an philosophy   
became p>am\nt4  ,"h we meet ) a fur!r  
,*ri/ian influ5ce1 :i*1 :5 once         
accept$1 v l>gely contribut$ to secure a

 simil> developm5t (  m$iaeval ,*ri/ian 
& ,muhamm$an ?\ght4 ,?is 0 ,s*ola/icism1
  :i* 0 ! natural & inevitable          
consequ5ce ( ! /udy ( ,greek  dialectic 
& philosophy4 ,x is n necess>y to sket* 
! gr[? (  s*ola/icism1 ) its b>r5ness ( 
results 9 spite ( its ke5  intellectual 
p[]1 ^u gr\nd already f]tilis$ by       
ecclesia/ical  pione]s4 ,x w suffice to 
/ate ! fact t ^! developm5ts (  ! ,greek
 _s 7 pr$om9ant "h z 9 ! ,we/3 9 ei!r   
case  important philosophies rise ^u ?is
 basis1 = ! mo/ "p  pr(ess$ly           
ecclesia/ical1 ev5 :5 !y occasionally   
/ruck at !  roots ( ! religi\s sy/em to 
:i* !y belong$4 ,9 ?is  dep>tm5t1 ,islam
 repaid "p ( its debt to ,*ri/ianity1 = 
!  ,arabs became ! intellectual lead]s (
 ! middle ages4    ,?us we come to !    
conclud+ section ( ?is treatise2 be=e we
  ent] ^u x1 two prelim9>y que/ions     
rema9 = consid]ation4 ,if  ,islam 0     
ready to le>n f ,*ri/ianity 9 e dep>tm5t
 (  religi\s life1 :at 0 ! cause ( !    
sudd5 sup]iority (  ,muhamm$anism to !  

ris+ =ce ( ,*ri/ianity a few c5turies   
lat]8 ,& secondly1 9 view ( !           
traditional antagonism betwe5 !         
,*ri/ian & ,muhamm$an worlds1 h[ 0      
,*ri/ianity able to adopt s  l>ge &     
ess5tial a portion ( ,muhamm$an ?\ght8  
,! answ] 9 ! second case w be cle> to   
any "o :o has  foll[$ our argum5t )     
att5tion4 ,! intellectual & religi\s    
outlook 0 s simil> 9 bo? religions & !  
problem requir+  solution s f> id5tical 
t no?+ exi/$ to imp$e ! adoption  (     
ideas orig9ally ,*ri/ian :i* _h be5     
develop$ 9 ! ,ea/4  ,! fact t ! ,we/    
c\ld accept philosophical & !ological   
ideas f ,islam & t an actual int]*ange (
 ?\ght c\ld  proce$ 9 ?is direction1 is 
! be/ ( pro(s = ! s\ndness (  our       
argum5t t ! roots ( ,muhamm$anism are to
 be s\ght 9  ,*ri/ianity4 ,islam 0 able 
to borr[ f ,*ri/ianity = !  reason t    
,muhamm$'s ideas 7 d]iv$ f t s\rce3     
simil>ly  ,*ri/ianity 0 able to turn    
,arab ?\ght to its own purposes because 
t ?\ght 0 f\nd$ ^u ,*ri/ian pr9ciples4  

,! s\rces (  bo? religions lie 9 ! ,ea/ 
& 9 ,ori5tal ?\ght4    ,no less is true 
( ,judaism1 a s*ola/ic sy/em :i* 0      
excell5tly  adapt$ by its int]national  
"*1 to become a m$ium (  communication  
betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & ,muhamm$anism dur+ 
^?  c5turies4 ,9 ?is connection special 
m5tion mu/ be made ( !  ,spani% ,jews2  
to _! "w1 n only z transmitt+ b also z  
orig9at+ ideas a b>e ref]5ce mu/ "h     
suffice4 ,b ( great]  importance 0 !    
direct ex*ange ( ?\ght1 :i* proce$$     
?r\gh  lit]>y *annels1 by means (       
translations1 especially by ^w (  m\?   
among ! ,*ri/ians & ,muhamm$ans :o 7    
liv+ toge!r 9  ,s\!rn ,italy1 ,sicily1 &
 ,spa91 & by comm]cial int]c\rse4    ,! 
o!r "q conc]ns ! fundam5tal problem (   
,european  m$ievalism4 ,we see t !      
problems ) :i* ! middle ages 9  ,europe 
7 confront$ & also t ,european e?ics &  
metaphysics  7 id5tical ) ! ,muhamm$an  
sy/em3 we are moreov] assur$  t !       
acceptance ( ,*ri/ian ideas by ,islam c 
only h tak5  place 9 ! ,ea/3 & !        

conclusion is obvi\s t m$iaeval         
,*ri/ianity 0 also prim>ily root$ 9 !   
,ea/4 ,! transmission  ( ?is religi\s   
philosophy to ! non-,ori5tal peoples ( !
 ,we/  at fir/ produc$ a cessation (    
progress b op5$ a new  intellectual _w  
:5 ^! peoples awoke to life 9 ! ?irte5? 
& f\rte5? c5turies4 ,b ?r\gh\t !        
int]m$iate p]iod  betwe5 ! sev5? &      
?irte5? c5turies ! ,ea/ 0 ga9+          
political /r5g? & 0 naturally sup]ior to
 ! ,we/ :]e  political organisation &   
culture _h be5 %att]$ by ! ,g]manic     
invasions2 9 ! ,ea/ aga9 !re 0 an       
organic unity ( national  /r5g? &       
intellectual ideals1 z ! c\rse (        
developm5t _h n  be5 int]rupt$4 ,?\gh   
special dogmatic po9ts _h be5 *ang$1 !  
g5]al religi\s !ory rema9$ unalt]$      
?r\gh\t ! ne>]  ,ea/4 ,?us ! ris+ p[] ( 
,islam1 :i* _h high faculties (         
self-accommodation to environm5t1 0 able
 to ent] ^u ! h]itage  ( ! mix$         
,graeco-,ori5tal civilisation exi/+ 9 ! 
,ea/2 9  consequ5ce x ga9$ an imm$iate  

advantage ov] ! ,we/1 :]e  ,ea/]n ideas 
7 acclimatis$ ) difficulty4    ,!       
prepond]ance ( ,muhamm$an influ5ce 0    
increas$ by ! fact  t ,islam became !   
po9t ( amalgamation = anci5t ,ea/]n     
cultures1 9 p>ticul> = ^? ( ,greece &   
,p]sia3 9 previ\s  c5turies prep>ation  
_h be5 made = ?is process by ! /eady    
trans=mation ( ,hell5ism to ,ori5talism4
 ,p]sia1 h[ev]1 _h be5  ! ma9 s\rce (   
,ea/]n civilisation1 at any rate s9ce ! 
,sassanid p]iod3 ! debt ( ,byzant9e     
culture to ,p]sia is well  kn[n4        
,un=tunately no ?or\gh inve/igation has 
be5 made ( ^!  v>i\s & important *anges1
 b x is cle> t ,p]sian  civilisation s5t
 its influ5ce f> we/w>d1 at fir/        
directly &  lat] ?r\gh ! m$ium (        
,muhamm$anism4 ,! same facts hold good  
) reg>d to ! diffusion ( intellectual   
culture f ,p]sia4 ,h[  f> ,p]sian ideas 
may h influ5c$ ! developm5t ( ,muhamm$an
  & ev5 ( ,*ri/ian es*atology1 we ne$ n 
"h discuss3 b !  influ5ce ( ! great     
,graeco-,*ri/ian s*ools ( ,p]sia 0      

enorm\s3 !y made ! ,arabs acqua9t$ ) !  
mo/ important works  9 ,greek & ,p]sian 
lit]ature4 ,to ?is fact 0 due ! wide    
influ5ce ( ,islam ^u ,*ri/ian           
civilisation1 :i* is evid5c$  ev5 to-day
 by ! num]\s words ( ,arab orig9 to be  
f\nd 9 mod]n  ,european languages2 x is 
9 fact an influ5ce ! /r5g? ( :i*  c     
h>dly be exagg]at$4 ,n only ! comm]cial 
products ( !  ,ea/1 b important economic
 me?ods1 ! ideals ( our s-call$         
,european *ivalry & ( its love poetry1 !
 f\ndations ( our  natural sci5ces1 ev5 
!ological & philosophical ideas ( high  
value 7 !n s5t to u f ! ,ea/4 ,!        
consequ5ces ( !  crusades are ! be/ pro(
 ( ! enorm\s sup]iority ( !  ,muhamm$an 
_w1 a fact :i* is daily becom+ m obvi\s4
 ,"h we  are conc]n$ only ) ! influ5ce  
ex]t$ by ,muhamm$an  philosophy4 ,x w\ld
 be m correct to speak ( po/-classical  
?an  ( ,muhamm$an philosophy4 ,b z      
above1 ! influ5ce ( ,*ri/ianity  ^u     
,islam 0 consid]$1 s n[ ! rev]se process
 mu/ be  outl9$4 ,9 ei!r case x 0 ! heir

 to ! late classical age1 to  ! mix$    
,graeco-,ori5tal culture1 :i* influ5c$  
,islam at fir/ 9  ,*ri/ian guise4 ,islam
 is (t5 able to supplem5t its borr[+s f 
,*ri/ianity at ! orig9al s\rces1 & :5 !y
 h ?us be5  deep5$ & purifi$1 ^!        
adaptations are return$ to ,*ri/ianity  
9 ,muhamm$an =m4    ,*ri/ian s*ola/icism
 0 fir/ bas$ ^u fragm5ts ( ,ari/otle  & 
*iefly inspir$ by ,neo-,platonism3 ?r\gh
 ! ,arabs x became  acqua9t$ ) almo/ !  
:ole ( ,ari/otle & also ) !  special    
me?ods by :i* ! ,arabs approa* ! problem
 ( ?is  philosophy4 ,to give any detail$
 acc\nt ( ?is influ5ce w\ld be to  write
 a hi/ory ( m$iaeval philosophy 9 its   
relation to  ecclesia/ical doctr9e1 a   
task :i* ,i feel to be beyond my p[]s4  
,i  %all !re=e conf9e myself to an      
ab/ract ( ! mat]ial po9ts  select$ f !  
consid]able detail :i* speciali/s ^u !  
subject h collect$3 ,i consid] t ,arab  
influ5ce dur+ !  fir/ p]iod is be/      
expla9$ by ! new weal? ( ,greek ?\ght   
:i* ! ,arabs appropriat$ & transmitt$ to

 ,europe4 ,^! new  discov]ies 7 !       
atta9m5ts ( ,greece 9 ! natural sci5ces 
&  9 logic3 !y ext5d$ ! scope (         
dialectic & /imulat$ ! rise  (          
metaphysical !ory3 ! latt]1 9 comb9ation
 ) ecclesia/ical  dogma & ,greek sci5ce1
 became su* a sy/em ( ?\ght z t  exp\nd$
 9 ! ,summa ( ,?omas ,aqu9as4           
,philosophy rema9$ !  h&maid ( religion 
& ,arab influ5ce fir/ s]v$ only to      
complete  ! ecclesia/ical philosophy (  
life4    ,ev5tually1 h[ev]1 ! me?ods (  
int]pretation & criticism1  peculi> to !
 ,arabs :5 deal+ ) ,ari/otle became ( no
 less  importance ?an ! subject matt] ( 
_! inquiries4 ,?is =m (  criticism 0    
develop$ f ! emphasis :i* ,islam _h long
 laid  ^u ! value ( wisdom1 or          
recognition ( ! claims ( reason4        
,muhamm$an tradition is full ( ! praises
 ( wisdom1 :i* x also  orig9ally reg>d$ 
z ! basis ( religion4 ,reason1 h[ev]1   
gradually became an indep5d5t p[]3      
or?odoxy did n reject reason  :5 x      
co9cid$ ) tradition1 b "u ! influ5ce (  

,ari/otelianism1 especially z develop$  
by ,av]ros1 reason became a  p[] oppos$ 
to fai?4 ,! ess5tial po9t ( ! doctr9e 0 
t  tru? 0 tw(old1 accord+ to fai? &     
accord+ to reason4 ,any "o  :o 0 subtle 
en\gh to recognise bo? k9ds ( tru? c\ld 
pres]ve  8 or?odoxy3 b ! !ory conta9$ "o
 great dang]1 :i* 0  imm$iately obvi\s  
to ! ,*ri/ian *ur*4 ,! consequ5t /ruggle
  is m>k$ by ! con/ant connection (     
,arab ideas ) !  *>act]i/ic expressions 
( ,*ri/ian feel+2 ^! aga9 are  connect$ 
) ! outset ( a new p]iod1 :5 ! pione]s (
 !  ,r5aissance lib]ate ! ,we/ f ! *a9s 
( ,greek ecclesia/ical  classicism1 f   
,ori5tal metaphysical religion & sl[ly  
pave !  way = ! introduction ( ,g]manic 
ideals directly d]iv$ f true            
classicism4 ,n until t p]iod does ! ,we/
 bur/ ! bonds 9  :i* ,ori5talism _h     
conf9$ x4    ,*ri/ianity & ,islam !n /& 
^u an equal foot+ 9 respect  bo? (      
intellectual progress & mat]ial weal?4  
,b z ! ,we/  em]ges f ! %ad[-l& ( !     
middle ages ! m def9ite  becomes its    

sup]iority ov] ! ,ea/4 ,we/]n nations   
become  conv9c$ t ! fett]s :i* b9d !m 7 
=g$ 9 ! ,ea/1  & :5 !y h %ak5 (f _!     
*a9s1 !y discov] _! own  physical &     
intellectual p[]4 ,!y g =? & create a   
new _w1  9 :i* ,ori5talism f9ds b scanty
 room4    ,! ,ea/1 h[ev]1 _c break away 
f ! !ories ( life &  m9d :i* grew 9 x & 
ar\nd x4 ,ev5 at ! pres5t day !         
,ori5tal is swa!d 9 m$iaevalism4 ,a     
j\rnali/1 = in/ance1  h[ev] ,european 8 
mode ( life1 w write lead]s support$ by 
argum5ts drawn f tradition & w reason   
aft] ! mann] ( !  old s*ola/icism4 ,b a 
*ange may well take place4 ,islam may   
gradually acquire ! _s z well z ! =m (  
mod]n ,europe4  ,c5turies 7 ne$$ be=e   
m$iaeval ,*ri/ianity le>n$ ! ne$  =     
submission to ! new _s4 ,)9 ,*ri/5dom   
itself1 x 0  non-,*ri/ian ideas :i*     
creat$ ! new movem5t1 b ^! 7  completely
 amalgamat$ ) pre-exi/+ ,*ri/ianity4    
,?us1 too1 a  ,r5aissance is possible 9 
! ,ea/1 n m]ely by ! importation &      
imitation ( ,european progress1 b       

prim>ily by intellectual  advancem5t at 
home ev5 )9 ! sph]e ( religion4    ,our 
task is draw+ to its close4 ,we h pass$ 
9 review !  int]action ( ,*ri/ianity &  
,islam1 s f> z ! two religions are      
conc]n$4 ,x has also be5 necess>y to    
ref] to ! hi/ory ( !  two civilisations1
 = ! reason t ! two religions p5etrate  
national life1 a feature *>act]i/ic bo? 
( _! nature & (  ! c\rse ( developm5t   
:i* !y respectively foll[$4 ,?is  me?od 
( inquiry has enabl$ u to ga9 an idea ( 
! rise &  progress ( ,muhamm$anism z    
su*4    ,an attempt to expla9 ! po9ts ( 
contact & resemblance betwe5  ! two     
religions naturally t5ds to obscure !   
diff]5ces betwe5  !m4 ,_h we devot$ our 
att5tion to ,islam alone1 )\t special   
ref]5ce to ,*ri/ianity1 ^! diff]5ces1   
especially 9 ! region  ( dogmatic       
!ology1 w\ld h be5 m obvi\s4 ,!y are1   
h[ev]1  g5]ally well kn[n4 ,! po9ts (   
connection are mu* m usually  disreg>d$3
 yet !y alone c expla9 ! int]*ange (    
?\ght  betwe5 ! two m$iaeval            

civilisations4 ,! surpris+ fact is !    
am\nt ( g5]al simil>ity 9 religi\s !ory 
betwe5 religions s  fundam5tally div]g5t
 ^u po9ts ( dogma4 ,nor is ! simil>ity  
conf9$ to religi\s !ory3 :5 we realise t
 mat]ial  civilisation1 especially :5   
,european m$ievalism 0 at its height1  0
 practically id5tical 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,we/ 
& ! ,muhamm$an  ,ea/1 we are ju/ifi$ 9  
any ref]5ce to ! unity ( ,ea/]n &       
,we/]n civilisation4    ,my /atem5ts may
 t5d to repres5t ,islam z a religion (  
no special  orig9ality2 at ! same "t1   
,*ri/ianity 0 b "o ( o!r  influ5ces     
op]ative ^u x2 e>ly ,arabic1            
,zoroa/rian1 & ,jewi%  beliefs 9        
p>ticul> h left traces on its           
developm5t4 ,may n z  mu* be said (     
,*ri/ianity8 ,inquir]s h s]i\sly        
attempt$ to  di/+ui% ,greek & ,jewi%    
influ5ces z ! compon5t elem5ts (        
,*ri/ianity3 9 any case1 ! ext5t ( !    
elem5ts orig9al to !  f9al or?odox sy/em
 rema9s a matt] ( dispute4 ,z we le>n to
  appreciate hi/orical connection & to  

probe b5ea? ! surface (  religions 9    
c\rse ( developm5t1 we discov] po9ts (  
relation%ip  & int]dep5d5cy ( :i* !     
simple believ] nev] ev5 dreams4  ,!     
object ( all ?is inve/igation is1 9 my  
op9ion1 "o only3 to  discov] h[ !       
religi\s exp]i5ce ( ! f\nd] ( a fai?    
accommodates itself to pre-exi/+        
civilisation1 9 ! ef=t to  make its     
influ5ce op]ative4 ,! ev5tual triumph ( 
! new religion  is 9 e case & at e "t   
no?+ m ?an a compromise3 nor  c m be    
expect$1 inasmu* z ! religi\s in/9ct1   
?\gh "o  ( ! mo/ important influ5ces 9  
man1 is n ! sole det]m9+  influ5ce ^u 8 
nature4    ,recognition ( ?is fact c    
only be obta9$ at ! price ( a brea*  )  
ecclesia/ical mode ( ?\ght4             
,premonitions ( "s su* brea*  are app>5t
 9 mod]n ,muhamm$anism3 = ourselves1 !y 
are  accompli%$ facts4 ,if ,i correctly 
int]pret ! signs ( ! times1 a           
retrograde movem5t 9 religi\s developm5t
 has n[ begun4 ,!  religion inspir+ a   
s+le p]sonality1 has secur$ dom9ation   

ov]  ! :ole ( life3 family1 society1 &  
/ate h b[$ b5ea? its  p[]4 ,!n !        
reaction beg9s3 sl[ly religion loses its
  compreh5sive =ce & z its hi/ory is    
le>n$1 ev5 at ! price  ( sorr[1 x sl[ly 
rec$es )9 ! true limits ( its op]ation1 
! individual1 ! p]sonality1 9 :i* x is  
naturally root$4          ,,conclusion  
,,& ,,bibliography      ,! purpose ( !  
pres5t "w has be5 to %[ n s mu* !       
id5tity ( ,*ri/ian & ,muhamm$an !ories (
 life dur+ !  middle ages1 z ! p>allel  
c\rse ( developm5t common to bo?1 &  to 
demon/rate ! fact t ideas c\ld be       
transf]r$ f "o  sy/em to ! o!r4 ,detail 
has be5 sacrific$ to ?is g5]al  purpose4
 ,! brief outl9e ( ,muhamm$an dogmatics 
& my/icism 0  necess>y to complete !    
g5]al survey ( ! "q4 ,any "o (  ^!      
subjects1 & ! same is true z reg>ds a   
detail$ life (  ,muhamm$1 w\ld require  
at lea/ ano!r volume ( equal size =     
satisfactory treatm5t4    ,! ,ori5tal   
s*ol> w easily see :]e ,i base my       
/atem5ts ^u  my own rese>*es & :]e ,i h 

foll[$ ,goldzih] & ,sn\ck4 ,my  *ief    
s\rce ( in=mation1 ap>t f ! six great   
books (  tradition1 has be5 ! invaluable
 compilation ( ,sojuti1 !  great ,kanz  
el-',ummal 7,hyd]abad1 #acad74 ,to ^? :o
 d n read  ,arabic may be recomm5d$ !   
,fr5* translation ( ! ,bo*ari1  ( :i*   
two volumes are n[ publi%$3 ,el-,bokhri1
 les traditions  islamiques traduites   
444 p> ,o4 ,h\das & ,w4 ,m>ais4 ,p>is1  
#aijf4    ,( g5]al works deal+ ) !      
que/ions ,i h t\*$1 !  foll[+1 to :i* ,i
 owe a consid]able debt1 may be         
recomm5d$3--      ,j4 ,goldzih]4        
,muhamm$anis*e ,/udi51 ,halle1 #ahhi &  
foll[+      ye>4      ,die ,religion des
 ,islams 7,kult4 d4 ,geg5w41 ,i1 iii4   
#a74      ,c4 ,sn\ck ,hurgronje4 ,de    
,islam 7de ,gids1 #ahhf1 u4 #e f474     
,mekka4 ,! ,hague1 #ahhh4      ,une     
n\velle biographie de ,mohamm$ 7,rev4   
,hi/4 ,relig41 #ahid74      ,leone      
,caetani di ,teano4 ,annali dell'       
,islam4 ,milan1 #aije &      foll[+     
ye>s4      ,f4 ,buhl4 ,muhamm$'s ,liv4  

,cop5hag51 #aijc4      ,h4 ,grimme4     
,muhamm$4 ,muni*1 #aijd4      ,j4       
,wellhaus54 ,das arabis*e ,rei* und se9 
,/urz4 ,b]l91 #aijb4      ,?4 ,nldeke4  
,ges*i*te des ,qorns4 ,gott+51 #ahfj4   
7,new edition by      ,f4 ,s*wally 9 !  
press47      ,c4,h4 ,beck]4 ,die ,kanzel
 im ,kultus des alt5 ,islam4 ,giess51   
#aijf4      ,papyri4 ,s*ott-,re9h>dt1   
,i4 ,heidelb]g1 #aijf4      ,?4 ,w4     
,juynboll4 ,h&leidung tot de k5nis van  
de ,mohamm$aans*e      ,wet4 ,leyd51    
#aijc4      ,t4,j4 de ,bo]4 ,ges*i*te d]
 ,philosophie 9 ,islam4 ,/uttg>t1 #aija 
7also an ,engli% edition74      ,d4,b4  
,macdonald4 ,developm5t ( ,muslim       
,!ology1 ,jurisprud5ce &                
,con/itutional ,!ory4 ,new ,york1 #aijc4
      ,a4 ,m]x4 ,idee und ,grundl9i5 e9]
 allgeme95 ,ges*i*te d]      ,my/ik4    
,heidelb]g1 #ahic4      ,a4 ,mll]4 ,d]  
,islam im ,morg5- und ,ab5dl& 7,onck5's 
collection74      ,w4 ,ri$el4 ,die      
,kir*5re*tsquell5 des ,patri>*ats       
,alex&ri54      ,leipsic1 #aijj4        

,g4 ,bruns & ,e4 ,sa*au4 ,syris*-rmis*es
 ,re*tsbu*4 ,leipsic1 #ahhj4      ,e4   
,sa*au4 ,syris*e ,re*tsb*]1 ,i4 ,b]l91  
#aijg4      ,e4 ,za*>iae v4 ,l+5?al4    
,ges*i*te des grie*is*-rmis*5           
,re*ts4 #crd ed41 ,b]l91 #ahib4      ,h4
 v4 ,eick54 ,ges*i*te und ,sy/em d]     
mittelalt]li*5      ,weltans*auung4     
,/uttg>t1 #ahhf4      ,w4 ,w9delb&4     
,lehrbuck d] ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie4 
#d? ed41      ,tb+51 #aijg4      ,c4    
,baeumk] und ,g4 v4 ,h]tl+4 ,beitrge zur
 ,ges*i*te d]      ,philosophie des     
,mittelalt]s 7collect$ pap]s74      ,g4 
,go!94 ,ignatius von ,loyola und die    
,geg5re=mation4 ,halle1      #ahie4     
,9 conclusion1 ,i may m5tion two works1 
:i* deal ) ! subject (  ?is volume1 b f 
a diff]5t /&po9t3--      ,h4,p4 ,smi?4  
,! ,bible & ,islam 7,! ,ely ,lectures = 
#ahig74      ,w4,a4 ,%$d4 ,islam & !    
,ori5tal ,*ur*es 7,philadelphia1 #aijd74