,,hi/ory ,,( ,,mod]n ,,philosophy  ,f   
,nicolas ( ,cusa to ! ,pres5t ,"t   by  
,,ri*>d ,,falck5b]g  ,pr(essor (        
,philosophy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,erlang5   
,,?ird ,,am]ican ,,f ,,! ,,second       
,,g]man ,,edition   ,,translat$ ,,) ,,! 
,,au?or',s ,,sanction ,,by ,a4,c4       
,,arm/rong1 ,,jr4 ,pr(essor (           
,philosophy 9 ,wesleyan ,univ]sity      
#ahic     ,,translator',s ,,preface4  ,!
 aim ( ?is translation is ! same z t ( !
 orig9al "w4 ,ea* is ! outcome (        
exp]i5ce 9 univ]sity in/ruction 9       
philosophy1 & is int5d$ to furni% a     
manual :i* %all be at once sci5tific &  
popul>1 "o to /& midway betwe5 !        
exhau/ive expositions ( ! l>g] hi/ories 
& ! meag] sket*es ( ! comp5diums4 ,a    
pupil ( ,kuno ,fis*]1 ,=tlage1 ,j4,e4   
,erdmann1 ,lotze1 & ,euck5 among o!rs1  
,pr(essor ,falck5b]g began 8 c>e] z     
,doc5t 9 ! univ]sity ( ,j5a4 ,9 ! ye>   
foll[+ ! fir/ edition ( ?is "w he became
 ,extraord9>ius 9 ! same univ]sity1 & 9 
#ahhh ,ord9>ius at ,erlang51 *oos+ !    

latt] call 9 pref]5ce to an invitation  
to ,dorpat z successor to ,tei*mll]4 ,! 
*air at ,erlang5 he /ill holds4 ,8 "w z 
tea*] & au?or has be5 *iefly 9 ! hi/ory 
( mod]n philosophy4 ,besides ! pres5t "w
 & num]\s m9or articles1 he has publi%$ 
! foll[+3 ,ueb] d5 intelligibl5 ,*>akt]1
 zur ,kritik d] ,kantis*5               
,freiheitslehre #ahgi2 ,grundzge d]     
,philosophie des ,nicolaus ,cusanus1    
#ahhj-ha2 & ,ueb] die geg5wrtige ,lage  
d] deuts*5 ,philosophie1 #ahij          
7inaugural address at ,erlang574 ,s9ce  
#ahhd-e ,pr(essor ,falck5b]g has also   
be5 an editor ( ! ,zeits*rift fr        
,philosophie und philosophis*e ,kritik1 
until #ahhh 9 association ) ,krohn1 &   
aft] ! latt]'s dea?1 alone4 ,at pres5t  
he has 9 h& a treatise on ,lotze = a    
,g]man s]ies analog\s to ,blackwood's   
,philosophical ,classics1 :i* is to be  
issu$ "u 8 direction4 ,pr(essor         
,falck5b]g's g5]al philosophical        
position may be describ$ z t ( mod]ate  
idealism4 ,8 hi/orical me?od is /rictly 

objective1 ! aim be+ a free reproduction
 ( ! sy/ems discuss$1 z f> z possible 9 
_! orig9al t]m9ology & hi/orical        
connection1 & )\t ! intrusion ( p]sonal 
criticism4  ,! translation has be5 made 
f ! second ,g]man edition 7#ahib71 )    
/ill lat] additions & corrections       
communicat$ by ! au?or 9 manuscript4 ,! 
translator has foll[$ ! orig9al         
fai?fully b n slavi%ly4 ,he has n felt  
free to modify ,pr(essor ,falck5b]g's   
expositions1 ev5 9 ! r>e cases :]e 8 own
 op9ions w\ld h l$ him to diss5t1 b m9or
 *anges h be5 made :]ev] ne$$ to fit !  
book = ! use ( ,engli%-speak+ /ud5ts4   
,?us a few alt]ations h be5 made 9 dates
 & titles1 *iefly "u ! ,engli% sy/ems & 
f ! late/ au?orities2 & a few notes add$
 9 elucidation ( portions ( ! text4 ,?us
 aga9 ! balance ( ! bibliography has be5
 some:at *ang$1 includ+ transf]s f text 
to notes & vice v]sa & a few omissions1 
besides ! introduction ( a numb] (      
titles f our ,engli% philosophical      
lit]ature *os5 on ! plan ref]r$ to 9 !  

preface to ! fir/ ,g]man edition4 ,!    
gloss>y ( t]ms =eign to ! ,g]man read]  
has be5 replac$ by a revision &         
expansion ( ! index1 ) ! analyses ( !   
gloss>y z a basis4 ,:]ev] possible1 &   
?is has be5 true 9 all important cases1 
! *anges h be5 indicat$ by ! usual      
signs4  ,! translator has fur!r rewritt5
 ,*apt] ,,xv41 ,section #c1 on rec5t    
,briti% & ,am]ican ,philosophy4 ,9 ?is s
 mu* ( ! au?or's 7hi/orical7 /&po9t &   
treatm5t z prov$ compatible ) ! aim ( a 
manual 9 ,engli% has be5 reta9$1 b !    
section z a :ole has be5 re>rang$ & mu* 
enl>g$4  ,! labor ( translation has be5 
light5$ by ! example ( previ\s writ]s1  
especially ( ! translators ( ! /&>d     
treatises ( ,ueb]weg & ,erdmann4 ,!     
?anks ( ! translator are also due to    
sev]al fri5ds :o h k9dly aid$ him by    
advice or assi/ance3 9 p>ticul> to 8    
fri5d & =m] pupil1 ,mr4 ,c4,m4 ,*ild1   
,m4,s41 :o p>ticipat$ 9 ! prep>ation ( a
 portion ( ! translation2 & above all to
 ,pr(essor ,falck5b]g himself1 :o1 by 8 

will+ sanction ( ! "w & 8 co-op]ation   
?r\gh\t its progress1 has giv5 a /rik+  
example ( s*ol>ly c\rtesy4  ,a4,c4,a41  
,jr4  ,wesleyan ,univ]sity1 ,june1      
#ahic4    ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fir/     
,,g]man ,,edition4  ,s9ce ! appe>ance ( 
,edu>d ,zell]'s ,grundriss d] ,ges*i*te 
d] grie*is*5 ,philosophie 7#ahhc2 #c;d  
ed4 #ahhi7 ! ne$ has become ev5 m app>5t
 ?an be=e = a pres5tation ( ! hi/ory (  
mod]n philosophy :i* %\ld be            
correspond+ly compact & correspond+ly   
available = purposes ( in/ruction4 ,x   
w\ld h be5 an ambiti\s und]tak+ to      
attempt to supply a c\nt]p>t to !       
comp5dium ( ?is honor$ s*ol>1 ) its cle>
 & simple summation ( ! results ( 8 mu* 
admir$ five volumes on ,greek           
philosophy2 & x has be5 only 9 reg>d to 
practical utility & c>eful consid]ation 
( ! ne$s ( /ud5ts--conc]n+ :i* we h     
enjoy$ opportunity = ga9+ accurate      
in=mation 9 ! review ex]cises regul>ly  
held 9 ?is univ]sity--t we h v5tur$ to  
hope t we might n fall too f> %ort ( 8  

example4  ,! pr$om9antly practical aim (
 ?is ,hi/ory--x is int5d$ to s]ve z an  
aid 9 introductory "w1 9 review+1 & z a 
sub/itute = dictations 9 academical     
lectures1 z well z to be a guide = !    
wid] circle ( cultivat$ read]s--has     
enjo9$ self-re/ra9t 9 ! developm5t (    
p]sonal views & ! limitation ( critical 
reflections 9 favor ( objective         
pres5tation4 ,x is only n[ & !n t       
critical h9ts h be5 giv54 ,9 !          
discussion ( ph5om5a ( m9or importance x
 has be5 impossible to avoid ! oratio   
obliqua ( exposition2 b1 :]ev]          
practicable1 we h let ! philosoph]s     
!mselves develop _! doctr9es & reasons1 
n s mu* by lit]al quotations f _! works1
 z by free1 cond5s$ reproductions ( _!  
lead+ ideas4 ,if ! pr9cipiant view ( !  
=ces :i* control ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 
& ( ! progress ( mod]n philosophy1      
express$ 9 ! ,introduction & 9 !        
,retrospect at ! end ( ! book1 h n be5  
ev]y:]e v]ifi$ 9 detail f ! hi/orical   
facts1 ?is is due 9 "p to ! limits1 9 "p

 to ! p$agogical aim1 ( ! "w4 ,?us1 9   
p>ticul>1 m space has = p$agogical      
reasons be5 devot$ to ! psy*ological    
explanation ( sy/ems1 z be+ m popul>1   
?an 9 our op9ion its intr9sic importance
 w\ld entitle x to dem&4 ,to satisfy e  
"o 9 ! *oice ( subjects & 9 ! ext5t ( ! 
discussion is impossible2 b our hope is 
t ^? :o w\ld h pref]r$ a guide ( ?is    
sort to be entirely diff]5t w n prove   
too num]\s4 ,9 ! classification (       
movem5ts & s*ools1 & 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! 
cont5ts ( ! v>i\s sy/ems1 x has n be5   
our aim to deviate at all haz>ds f      
previ\s acc\nts2 & z little to leave    
unutiliz$ ! b5efits accru+ to lat] com]s
 f ! di/+ui%$ a*ievem5ts ( e>li] work]s 
9 ! field4 ,9 p>ticul> we ackn[l$ge )   
gratitude ! assi/ance d]iv$ f ! r5ew$   
/udy ( ! works on ! subject by ,kuno    
,fis*]1 ,j4,e4 ,erdmann1 ,zell]1        
,w9delb&1 ,ueb]weg-,he9ze1 ,h>ms1       
,lange1 ,vorlnd]1 & ,pnj]4  ,! motive   
:i* induc$ u to take up ! pres5t "w 0 ! 
p]ception t !re 0 lack+ a text-book 9 ! 

hi/ory ( mod]n philosophy1 :i*1 m       
compreh5sive1 ?or\gh1 & precise ?an !   
sket*es ( ,s*wegl] & 8 successors1 %\ld 
/& betwe5 ! f9e b detail$ exposition (  
,w9delb&1 & ! sub/antial b--because ( ! 
division ( ! text into p>agraphs & notes
 & ! int]polation ( pages (             
bibliographical ref]5ces--r dry outl9e (
 ,ueb]weg4 ,:ile ! =m] refra9s f all    
ref]5ces to ! lit]ature ( ! subject & ! 
latt] includes f> too _m1 at lea/ =     
purposes ( in/ruction1 & ,j4,b4 ,mey]'s 
,leitfad5 7#ahhb7 is 9 g5]al conf9$ to  
biographical & bibliographical notices2 
we h m5tion$1 9 ! text or ! notes & ) ! 
greate/ possible reg>d = ! progress ( ! 
exposition1 bo? ! *ief works ( !        
philosoph]s !mselves & "s ( ! treatises 
conc]n+ !m4 ,! pr9ciples :i* h guid$ u 9
 ^! selections--to include only ! m     
valuable works & ^? be/ adapt$ = /ud5ts'
 read+1 & fur!r to ref] z f> z possible 
to ! mo/ rec5t works--w h>dly be 9 dang]
 ( criticism4 ,b we %all n dispute !    
probability t _m a book wor?y ( m5tion  

may h be5 ov]look$4  ,! explanation ( a 
numb] ( philosophical t]ms1 :i* has be5 
add$ z an app5dix at ! sugge/ion ( !    
publi%]s1 deals almo/ entirely ) =eign  
expressions & gives ! pref]5ce to !     
designations ( fundam5tal movem5ts4 ,x  
is arrang$1 z f> z possible1 s t x may  
be us$ z a subject-index4  ,,j5a1       
,decemb] #bc1 #ahhe4    ,,preface ,,to  
,,! ,,second ,,g]man ,,edition4  ,!     
majority ( ! alt]ations & additions 9   
?is new edition are 9 ! fir/ *apt] & !  
la/ two2 no dep>ture f ! g5]al "* ( !   
exposition has seem$ to me necess>y4 ,i 
desire to return my s9c]e ?anks = !     
sugge/ions :i* h come to me alike f     
public critiques & private              
communications4 ,9 "s cases             
contradictory reque/s h conflict$--?us1 
on ! "o h&1 ,i h be5 urg$ to exp&1 on ! 
o!r1 to cut d[n ! sections on ,g]man    
idealism1 especially ^? on ,hegel--& "h 
,i confess my inability to meet bo?     
dem&s4 ,among ! reviews1 t by ,b4       
,erdmann 9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,ar*iv fr  

,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 &1 among !   
sugge/ions made by lett]1 ^? ( ,h4      
,heussl]1 h be5 ( especial value4 ,s9ce 
o!rs commonly see defects m cle>ly ?an  
"o's self1 x w be v welcome if ,i c h my
 desire cont9ually to make ?is ,hi/ory m
 useful support$ by f>!r sugge/ions f ! 
circle ( its read]s4 ,9 case x cont9ues 
to enjoy ! favor ( tea*]s & /ud5ts1 ^! w
 receive consci5ti\s consid]ation4  ,= !
 sake ( ^? :o may compla9 ( too mu*     
matt]1 ,i may rem>k t ! difficulty c    
easily be avoid$ by pass+ ov] ,*apt]s   
,i41 ,v4 7 #a-c71 ,,vi41 ,,viii41       
,,xii41 ,,xv41 & ,,xvi4  ,pr(essor      
,a4,c4 ,arm/rong1 ,jr41 is prep>+ an    
,engli% translation4 ,my e>ne/ ?anks are
 due to ,mr4 ,k>l ,niemann (            
,*>lott5burg = 8 k9d p>ticipation 9 !   
labor ( pro(-read+4  ,r4,f4  ,,erlang51 
,june #aa1 #ahib4          99       99  
99       99       99   ,,cont5ts4       
,,introduction    ,,*apt] ,i4  ,,!      
,,p]iod ,,( ,,transition3 ,,f ,,nicolas 
,,( ,,cusa ,,to ,,desc>tes  #a4 ,nicolas

 ( ,cusa #b4 ,! ,revival ( ,anci5t      
,philosophy & ! ,opposition to x #c4 ,! 
,italian ,philosophy ( ,nature #d4      
,philosophy ( ! ,/ate & ( ,law #e4      
,skepticism 9 ,france #f4 ,g]man        
,my/icism #g4 ,! ,f\ndation ( ,mod]n    
,physics #h4 ,philosophy 9 ,engl& to !  
,middle ( ! ,sev5te5? ,c5tury   7a7     
,bacon's ,pr$ecessors   7b7 ,bacon   7c7
 ,hobbes   7d7 ,"l ,h]b]t ( ,*]bury #i4 
,prelim9>y ,survey     ,,"p ,i4  ,f     
,desc>tes to ,kant4    ,,*apt] ,,ii4    
,,desc>tes  #a4 ,! ,pr9ciples #b4       
,nature #c4 ,man   ,,*apt] ,,iii4  ,,!  
,,developm5t ,,& ,,trans=mation ,,(     
,,c>tesianism ,,9 ,,! ,,ne!rl&s ,,& ,,9 
,,france  #a4 ,occasionalism3 ,geul9cx  
#b4 ,sp9oza   7a7 ,sub/ance1            
,attributes1 & ,modes   7b7             
,an?ropology2 ,cognition & ! ,passions  
7c7 ,practical ,philosophy #c4 ,pascal1 
,malebran*e1 ,bayle   ,,*apt] ,,iv4     
,,locke    7a7 ,!ory ( ,k   7b7         
,practical ,philosophy   ,,*apt] ,v4    
,,engli% ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,eighte5?

 ,,c5tury  #a4 ,natural ,philosophy &   
,psy*ology #b4 ,deism #c4 ,moral        
,philosophy #d4 ,!ory ( ,k  7a7 ,b]keley
  7b7 ,hume  7c7 ,! ,scotti% ,s*ool     
,,*apt] ,,vi4  ,,! ,,fr5* ,,illum9ation 
#a4 ,! ,entrance ( ,engli% ,doctr9es #b4
 ,!oretical & ,practical ,s5sationalism 
#c4 ,skepticism & ,mat]ialism #d4       
,r\sseau's ,conflict ) ! ,illum9ation   
,,*apt] ,,vii4  ,,leibnitz  #a4         
,metaphysics3 ! ,monads1 ,repres5tation1
 ! ,pre-e/abli%$ ,h>mony2 ! ,laws (     
,?\ght & ( ! ,_w #b4 ,! ,organic ,_w #c4
 ,man3 ,cognition & ,volition #d4       
,!ology & ,!odicy   ,,*apt] ,,viii4  ,,!
 ,,g]man ,,illum9ation  #a4 ,!          
,contempor>ies ( ,leibnitz #b4 ,*ri/ian 
,wolff #c4 ,! ,illum9ation z ,sci5tific 
& z ,popul> ,philosophy #d4 ,! ,fai?    
,philosophy     ,,"p ,,ii4  ,f ,kant to 
! ,pres5t ,"t4    ,,*apt] ,,ix4  ,,kant 
#a4 ,!ory ( ,k   7a7 ,! ,pure           
,intuitions 7,transc5d5tal ,ae/hetic7   
7b7 ,! ,concepts & ,pr9ciples ( ! ,pure 
,und]/&+   7,transc5d5tal ,analytic7    

7c7 ,! ,reason's ,ideas ( !             
,uncondition$ 7,transc5d5tal            
,dialectic7 #b4 ,!ory ( ,e?ics #c4 ,!ory
 ( ! ,beautiful & ( ,ends 9 ,nature     
7a7 ,ae/hetic ,judgm5t   7b7            
,teleological ,judgm5t #d4 ,f ,kant to  
,fi*te   ,,*apt] ,x4  ,,fi*te  #a4 ,!   
,sci5ce ( ,k   7a7 ,! ,problem   7b7 ,! 
,?ree ,pr9ciples   7c7 ,! ,!oretical    
,ego   7d7 ,! ,practical ,ego #b4 ,!    
,sci5ce ( ,e?ics & ( ,"r #c4 ,fi*te's   
,second ,p]iod3 8 ,view ( ,hi/ory & 8   
,!ory ( ,religion   ,,*apt] ,,xi4       
,,s*ell+  #a;a4 ,philosophy ( ,nature   
#a;b4 ,transc5d5tal ,philosophy #b4     
,sy/em ( ,id5tity #c;a4 ,doctr9e (      
,fre$om #c;b4 ,philosophy ( ,my?ology & 
,revelation   ,,*apt] ,,xii4            
,,s*ell+',s ,,co-,,work]s  #a4 ,!       
,philosoph]s ( ,nature #b4 ,!           
,philosoph]s ( ,id5tity 7,f4 ,krause7   
#c4 ,! ,philosoph]s ( ,religion 7,baad] 
& ,s*lei]ma*]7   ,,*apt] ,,xiii4        
,,hegel  #a4 ,hegel's ,view ( ! ,_w & 8 
,me?od #b4 ,! ,sy/em   7a7 ,logic   7b7 

,! ,philosophy ( ,nature   7c7 ,!       
,doctr9e ( ,subjective ,_s   7d7 ,!     
,doctr9e ( ,objective ,_s   7e7         
,absolute ,_s   ,,*apt] ,,xiv4  ,,!     
,,opposition ,,to ,,con/ructive         
,,idealism3 ,,fries1 ,,h]b>t1           
,,s*op5hau]  #a4 ,! ,psy*ologi/s3 ,fries
 & ,b5eke #b4 ,realism3 ,h]b>t #c4      
,pessimism3 ,s*op5hau]   ,,*apt] ,,xv4  
,,philosophy ,,out ,,( ,,g]many  #a4    
,italy #b4 ,france #c4 ,great ,brita9 & 
,am]ica #d4 ,sw$51 ,norway1 ,d5m>k1 &   
,holl&   ,,*apt] ,,xvi4  ,,g]man        
,,philosophy ,,s9ce ,,! ,,dea? ,,(      
,,hegel  #a4 ,f ! ,division ( !         
,hegelian ,s*ool to ! ,mat]iali/ic      
,controv]sy #b4 ,new ,sy/ems3           
,tr5del5burg1 ,fe*n]1 ,lotze1 & ,h>tmann
 #c4 ,f ! ,revival ( ! ,kantian         
,philosophy to ! ,pres5t ,"t   7a7      
,neo-,kantianism1 ,positivism1 & ,k9dr$ 
,ph5om5a   7b7 ,ideali/ic ,reaction     
aga9/ ! ,sci5tific ,_s   7c7 ,! ,special
 ,philosophical ,sci5ces #d4 ,retrospect
   ,,index          99       99       99

       99       99   ,,introduction4  ,9
 no o!r dep>tm5t is a ?or\gh k ( hi/ory 
s important z 9 philosophy4 ,l hi/orical
 sci5ce 9 g5]al1 philosophy is1 on ! "o 
h&1 9 t\* ) exact inquiry1 :ile1 on !   
o!r1 x has a c]ta9 relation%ip ) art4 ,)
 ! =m] x has 9 common its me?odical     
proc$ure & its cognitive aim2 ) ! latt]1
 its intuitive "* & ! endeavor to       
compass ! :ole ( reality ) a glance4    
,metaphysical pr9ciples are less easily 
v]ifi$ f exp]i5ce ?an physical hypo!ses1
 b also less easily refut$4 ,sy/ems (   
philosophy1 !re=e1 are n s dep5d5t on   
our progressive k ( facts z ! !ories (  
natural sci5ce1 & *ange less quickly2   
not)/&+ _! mutual conflicts1 & 9 spite (
 ! talk ab\t disc>d$ /&po9ts1 !y possess
 9 a measure ! p]man5ce ( classical     
works ( art1 !y reta9 = all "t a c]ta9  
relative validity4 ,! ?\ght ( ,plato1 ( 
,ari/otle1 & ( ! h]oes ( mod]n          
philosophy is ev] prov+ anew its        
fructify+ p[]4 ,n[h]e d we f9d su*      
in/ructive errors z 9 ! sph]e (         

philosophy2 n[h]e is ! new s ess5tially 
a completion & developm5t ( ! old1 ev5  
?\gh x deem itself ! :ole & assume a    
ho/ile attitude t[>d its pr$ecessors2   
n[h]e is ! inquiry s mu* m important ?an
 ! f9al result2 n[h]e ! categories true 
& false s inadequate4 ,! _s ( ! "t & !  
_s ( ! p1 ! individuality ( ! ?9k]1     
disposition1 w1 fancy--all ^! ex]t a f> 
/rong] influ5ce on ! developm5t (       
philosophy1 bo? by way ( promotion & by 
way ( h9drance1 ?an 9 any o!r dep>tm5t (
 ?\ght4 ,if a sy/em gives classical     
expression to ! ?\ght ( an epo*1 a      
nation1 or a great p]sonality2 if x     
seeks to attack ! _w-riddle f a new     
direction1 or br+s u ne>] its solution  
by important orig9al conceptions1 by a  
subtl] or a simpl] compreh5sion ( !     
problem1 by a wid] outlook or a deep]   
insight2 x has accompli%$ m ?an x c\ld h
 done by br++ =w>d a numb] (            
indisputably correct pr9ciples4 ,!      
v>iations 9 philosophy1 :i*1 on !       
assumption ( ! unity ( tru?1 are a rock 

( (f5se to _m m9ds1 may be expla9$1 on !
 "o h&1 by ! comb9ation ( complex v>iety
 & limitation 9 ! motives :i* gov]n     
philosophical ?\ght1--= x is ! :ole man 
t philosophizes1 n 8 und]/&+ m]ely1--&1 
on ! o!r1 by ! inexhau/ible ext5t ( !   
field ( philosophy4 ,back ( ! logical   
labor ( pro( & inf]5ce /&1 z incit+1    
guid+1 & h9d]+ ag5ts1 psy*ical &        
hi/orical =ces1 :i* are !mselves 9 l>ge 
measure alogical1 ?\gh /rong] ?an all   
logic2 :ile j be=e /ret*es away !       
immeasurable doma9 ( reality1 at once   
invit+ & resi/+ conque/4 ,! grave       
contradictions1 s num]\s 9 bo? !        
subjective & ! objective fields1 make   
unanimity impossible conc]n+ ultimate   
problems2 9 fact1 !y r5d] x difficult = 
! individual ?9k] to comb9e 8           
convictions into a self-consi/5t sy/em4 
,ea* philosoph] sees limit$ sections ( !
 _w only1 & ^! ?r\gh 8 own eyes2 e sy/em
 is "o-sid$4 ,yet x is ?is multiplicity 
& v>iety ( sy/ems alone :i* makes ! aim 
( philosophy practicable z x endeavors  

to give a complete picture ( ! s\l & ( !
 univ]se4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy is !   
philosophy ( humanity1 t great          
individual1 :i*1 ) m ext5d$ vision ?an !
 in/rum5ts ?r\gh :i* x works1 is able to
 ent]ta9 oppos+ pr9ciples1 & :i*1       
reconcil+ old contradictions z x        
discov]s new ones1 approa*es by a       
necess>y & c]ta9 gr[? ! k ( ! "o        
all-embrac+ tru?1 :i* is ri* & v>i$     
beyond our conception4 ,9 ord] to       
en]getic labor 9 ! fur!r progress (     
philosophy1 x is necess>y to imag9e t ! 
goddess ( tru? is ab\t to lift ! veil   
:i* has = c5turies conceal$ h]4 ,!      
hi/orian ( philosophy1 on ! contr>y1    
looks on ea* new sy/em z a /one1 :i*1 :5
 %ap$ & fitt$ into its place1 w help to 
raise high] ! pyramid ( k4 ,hegel's     
doctr9e ( ! necessity & motive =ce (    
contradictories1 ( ! relative           
ju/ification ( /&po9ts1 & ! sy/ematic   
developm5t ( speculation1 has great &   
p]man5t value z a g5]al po9t ( view4 ,x 
ne$s only to be gu>d$ f n>r[ s*ola/ic   

application to become a safe canon = !  
hi/orical treatm5t ( philosophy4  ,9    
speak+ above ( ! wor? ( ! philosophical 
doctr9es ( ! pa/ z defy+ "t1 & z        
comp>able to ! /&>d "* ( f9i%$ works (  
art1 ! special ref]5ce 0 to ^? elem5ts 9
 speculation :i* proce$ less f ab/ract  
?9k+ ?an f ! fancy1 ! he>t1 & ! "* ( !  
individual1 & ev5 m directly f !        
disposition ( ! p2 & :i* to a c]ta9     
degree may be divorc$ f logical reason+ 
& ! sci5tific treatm5t ( p>ticul>       
que/ions4 ,^! may be summ$ up "u !      
phrase1 views ( ! _w4 ,! necessity =    
con/ant reconsid]ation ( !m is f ?is    
/&po9t at once evid5t4 ,! ,greek view ( 
! _w is z classic z ! pla/ic art (      
,phidias & ! epic ( ,hom]2 ! ,*ri/ian1 z
 et]nally valid z ! ar*itecture ( !     
,middle ,ages2 ! mod]n1 z irrefutable z 
,goe!'s poetry & ! music ( ,bee?ov54 ,! 
views ( ! _w :i* proce$ f ! spirits (   
diff]5t ages1 z products ( ! g5]al      
developm5t ( culture1 are n s mu* ?\ghts
 z rhy?ms 9 ?9k+1 n !ories b modes (    

intuition saturat$ ) feel+s ( wor?4 ,we 
may dispute ab\t !m1 x is true2 we may  
argue aga9/ !m or 9 _! def5se2 b !y c   
nei!r be e/abli%$ nor ov]?r[n by cog5t  
pro(s4 ,x is n only optimism &          
pessimism1 det]m9ism & indet]m9ism1 t h 
_! ultimate roots 9 ! affective side (  
our nature1 b pan!ism & individualism1  
also idealism & mat]ialism1 ev5         
rationalism & s5sationalism4 ,ev5 ?\gh  
!y op]ate ) ! in/rum5ts ( ?\ght1 !y     
rema9 9 ! la/ analysis matt]s ( fai?1 ( 
feel+1 & ( resolution4 ,! ae/hetic view 
( ! _w held by ! ,greeks1 !             
transc5d5tal-religi\s view (            
,*ri/ianity1 ! intellectual view (      
,leibnitz & ,hegel1 ! pan!li/ic views ( 
,fi*te ,i & ,s*op5hau] are vital =ces1 n
 doctr9es1 po/ulates1 n results ( ?\ght4
 ,"o view ( ! _w is =c$ to yield its    
pre-em95ce to ano!r1 :i* x has itself   
help$ to produce by its own "o-sid$ness2
 only to reconqu] its oppon5t lat]1 :5 x
 has le>n$ f h]1 :5 x has be5 purifi$1  
correct$1 & deep5$ by ! /ruggle4 ,b !   

eld] conte/ant is no m confut$ by !     
y\ng] ?an ! drama ( ,sophocles by !     
drama ( ,%akespe>e1 ?an y\? by age or   
spr+ by autumn4  ,if x is ?us           
indubitable t ! views ( ! _w held 9     
e>li] times des]ve to live on 9 ! memory
 ( man1 & to live z some?+ bett] ?an m]e
 rem9d]s ( ! pa/--! hi/ory ( philosophy 
is n a cab9et ( antiquities1 b a museum 
( typical products ( ! m9d--! value &   
int]e/ ( ! hi/orical /udy ( ! pa/ 9     
relation to ! exact sci5tific side (    
philosophical inquiry is n less evid5t4 
,9 e sci5ce x is useful to trace ! orig9
 & gr[? ( problems & !ories1 & d\bly s 9
 philosophy4 ,) h] x is by no means !   
univ]sal rule t progress %[s itself by !
 result2 ! /atem5t ( ! "q is (t5 m      
important ?an ! answ]4 ,! problem is m  
%>ply def9$ 9 a giv5 direction2 or x    
becomes m compreh5sive1 is analyz$ &    
ref9$2 or if n[ x ?reat5s to break up   
into subtle details1 "s g5ius appe>s to 
simplify x & =ce our ?\ghts back to !   
fundam5tal "q4 ,?is advance 9 problems1 

:i* happily is ev]y:]e manife/$ by      
unmi/akable signs1 is1 9 ! case ( _m ( !
 que/ions :i* irresi/ibly =ce !mselves  
^u ! human he>t1 ! only c]ta9 ga9 f     
c5turies ( endeavor4 ,! labor "h is ( m 
value ?an ! result4  ,9 treat+ ! hi/ory 
( philosophy1 two extremes mu/ be       
avoid$1 lawless individualism & ab/ract 
logical =malism4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy 
is nei!r a disconnect$ succession (     
arbitr>y individual op9ions & clev]     
guesses1 nor a me*anically develop$     
s]ies ( typical /&po9ts & problems1 :i* 
imply "o ano!r 9 j ! =m & ord]          
hi/orically assum$4 ,! =m] supposition  
does viol5ce to ! regul>ity (           
philosophical developm5t1 ! latt] to its
 vitality4 ,9 ! "o case1 ! connection is
 conceiv$ too loosely1 9 ! o!r1 too     
rigidly & simply4 ,"o view und]e/imates 
! p[] ( ! logical ,idea1 ! o!r          
ov]e/imates x4 ,x is n easy to support !
 pr9ciple t *ance rules ! de/9y (       
philosophy1 b x is m difficult to avoid 
! opposite conviction ( ! "o-sid$ness ( 

=mali/ic con/ruction1 & to def9e !      
nature & limits ( philosophical         
necessity4 ,! developm5t ( philosophy   
is1 p]haps1 "o *ief aim ( ! _w-process1 
b x is c]ta9ly n ! only "o2 x is a "p ( 
! univ]sal aim1 & x is n surpris+ t !   
in/rum5ts ( its realization d n "w      
exclusively 9 its behalf1 t _! activity 
br+s ab\t results1 :i* seem uness5tial =
 philosophical ends or ob/acles 9 _!    
way4 ,philosophical ideas d n ?9k       
!mselves1 b are ?\ght by liv+ spirits1  
:i* are some?+ o!r & bett] ?an m]e ?\ght
 ma*9es--by spirits :o live ^! ?\ghts1  
:o fill !m ) p]sonal w>m? & passionately
 def5d !m4 ,!re is (t5 reason1 no d\bt1 
= ! compla9t t ! p]sonality :i* has     
und]tak5 to develop "s great idea is    
inadequate to ! task1 t x c>ries its    
subjective defects into ! matt] 9 h&1 t 
x does too mu* or too little1 or ! "r ?+
 9 ! wrong way1 s t ! _s ( philosophy   
seems to h err$ 9 ! *oice & ! prep>ation
 ( its in/rum5t4 ,b ! rev]se side ( !   
picture mu/ also be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,!

 ?9k+ _s is m limit$1 x is true1 ?an 7  
desirable = ! p]fect execution ( a      
def9ite logical task2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x 
is f> too ri* z well4 ,a s\lless play ( 
concepts w\ld c]ta9ly n help ! cause1 & 
!re is no disadvantage 9 ! failure ( !  
hi/ory ( philosophy to proce$ s directly
 & s s*ola/ically1 z1 = in/ance1 9 !    
sy/em ( ,hegel4 ,a grad$ s]ies (        
int]connect$ g5]al =ces m$iate betwe5 ! 
logical ,idea & ! individual ?9k]--! _s 
( ! p1 ( ! age1 ( ! ?9k]'s vocation1 ( 8
 "t ( life1 :i* are felt by ! individual
 z "p ( himself & ^: impulses he        
unconsci\sly obeys4 ,9 ?is way !        
modify+1 fur!r+1 h9d]+ correlation (    
high] & l[]1 ( ! rul] ) 8 comm&s & !    
s]vant ) 8 m or less will+ ob$i5ce1 is  
twice repeat$1 ! situation be+          
complicat$ fur!r by ! fact t ! subject  
affect$ by ^! hi/orical =ces himself    
helps to make hi/ory4 ,! mo/ important  
factor 9 philosophical progress is1 (   
c\rse1 ! /ate ( inquiry at ! "t1 !      
a*ievem5ts ( ! ?9k]s ( ! imm$iately     

prec$+ age2 & 9 ?is relation ( a        
philosoph] to 8 pr$ecessors1 aga91 a    
di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 a logical &
 a psy*ological elem5t4 ,! successor (t5
 comm5ces 8 support1 8 developm5t1 or 8 
refutation at a po9t q unwelcome to !   
con/ructive hi/orian4 ,at all ev5ts1 if 
we may judge f ! exp]i5ce ( ! pa/1 too  
mu* caution _c be ex]cis$ 9 sett+ up    
=mal laws = ! developm5t ( ?\ght4       
,accord+ to ! law ( contradiction &     
reconciliation1 a ,s*op5hau] mu/ h      
foll[$ directly aft] ,leibnitz1 to      
oppose 8 pessimi/ic e!lism to !         
optimi/ic intellectualism ( ! latt]2 :51
 9 turn1 a ,s*lei]ma*]1 to give an      
h>monic resolution ( ! anti!sis into a  
concrete doctr9e ( feel+1 w\ld h made a 
f9e ?ird4 ,b x turn$ out o!rwise1 & we  
mu/ be cont5t4         99       99      
99       99       99   ,! e/imate ( !   
value ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy 9 g5]al1  
giv5 at ! />t1 is ! m true ( ! hi/ory ( 
mod]n philosophy1 s9ce ! movem5t        
introduc$ by ! latt] /ill goes on       

unf9i%$4 ,we are /ill at "w on !        
problems :i* 7 br\ght =w>d by ,desc>tes1
 ,locke1 & ,leibnitz1 & :i* ,kant ga!r$ 
up into ! critical or transc5d5tal "q4  
,! pres5t cont9ues to be gov]n$ by !    
ideal ( culture :i* ,bacon propos$ &    
,fi*te exalt$ to a high] level2 we all  
live "u ! unweak5$ spell ( t view ( ! _w
 :i* 0 develop$ 9 ho/ile opposition to  
,s*ola/icism1 & ?r\gh ! endur+ influ5ce 
( ^? mighty geographical & sci5tific    
discov]ies & religi\s re=ms :i* m>k$ !  
entrance ( ! mod]n p]iod4 ,x is true1   
inde$1 t ! transition br\ght ab\t by    
,kant's notical & e?ical revolution 0 ( 
great significance1--m significant ev5  
?an ! ,socratic p]iod1 ) :i* we are fond
 ( comp>+ x2 mu* t 0 new 0 wov5 on1 mu* 
( ! old1 weak5$1 brok51 de/roy$4 ,& yet1
 if we take into acc\nt ! hi/orical     
aft]-influ5ce ( ,c>tesianism1 we %all   
f9d t ! ?read 0 only knott$ & twi/$ by  
,kantianism1 n cut ?r\gh4 ,! cont9u$ p[]
 ( ! pre-,kantian modes ( ?\ght is %[n  
by ! fact t ,sp9oza has be5 reviv$ 9    

,fi*te & ,s*ell+1 ,leibnitz 9 ,h]b>t &  
,hegel1 ! s5sationalism ( ! ,fr5*       
,illum9ati 9 ,feu]ba*2 & t ev5          
mat]ialism1 :i* _h be5 /ruck d[n by !   
criticism ( ! reason 7"o w\ld h ?\ght   
=ev]71 has aga9 rais$ its head4 ,ev5 t  
mo/ n>r[ t5d5cy ( ! e>ly philosophy ( ! 
mod]n p]iod1 ! apo!osis ( cognition     
is1--9 spite ( ! morali/ic c\nt]-movem5t
 ( ,kant & ,fi*te1--! controll+ motive 9
 ! la/ ( ! great ideali/ic sy/ems1 :ile 
x also cont9ues to ex]cise a m>vel\sly  
p[]ful influ5ce on ! convictions ( our  
,hegel-we>y age1 alike )9 ! sph]e (     
philosophy & 7/ill m7 )\t x4 ,9 view ( !
 intimate relations betwe5 contempor>y  
inquiry & ! progress ( ?\ght s9ce !     
beg9n+ ( ! mod]n p]iod1 acqua9tance ) ! 
latt]1 :i* x is ! aim ( ?is ,hi/ory to  
facilitate1 becomes a press+ duty4 ,to  
/udy ! hi/ory ( philosophy s9ce         
,desc>tes is to /udy ! pre-conditions ( 
contempor>y philosophy4  ,we beg9 ) an  
outl9e sket* ( ! g5]al *>act]i/ics (    
mod]n philosophy4 ,^! may be mo/        

conv5i5tly describ$ by comp>+ !m ) !    
*>act]i/ics ( anci5t & ( m$iaeval       
philosophy4 ,! "* ( anci5t philosophy or
 ,greek philosophy1--= !y are           
practically ! same1--is pr$om9antly     
ae/hetic4 ,! ,greek holds beauty & tru? 
closely ak9 & insep>able2 cosmos is 8   
common expression = ! _w & = ornam5t4 ,!
 univ]se is = him a h>mony1 an organism1
 a "w ( art1 be=e :i* he /&s 9          
admiration & rev]5tial awe4 ,9 quiet    
contemplation1 z ) ! eye ( a            
connoisseur1 he looks ^u ! _w or !      
individual object z a well-ord]$ :ole1 m
 dispos$ to enjoy ! congruity ( its p>ts
 ?an to /udy out its ultimate elem5ts4  
,he pref]s contemplation to analysis1 8 
?\ght is pla/ic1 n anatomical4 ,he f9ds 
! nature ( ! object 9 its =m2 & ends    
give him ! key to ! compreh5sion (      
ev5ts4 ,discov]+ human elem5ts ev]y:]e1 
he is always ready ) judgm5ts ( wor?--! 
/>s move 9 circles because circul>      
motion is ! mo/ p]fect2 ! "r is bett]   
?an left1 upp] f9] ?an l[]1 t :i*       

prec$es m beautiful ?an t :i* foll[s4   
,?9k]s 9 :om ?is ae/hetic rev]5ce is    
weak] ?an ! analytic impulse--especially
 ,democritus--seem half mod]n r ?an     
,greek4 ,by ! side ( ! ,greek           
philosophy1 9 its sacr$ fe/al g>b1 /&s !
 mod]n 9 secul> workday dress1 9 !      
labor]'s bl\se1 ) ! m]ciless *isel (    
analysis 9 its h&4 ,?is does n seek     
beauty1 b only ! nak$ tru?1 no matt] :at
 x be4 ,x holds x impossible to satisfy 
at once ! und]/&+ & ta/e2 nay1 nak$ness1
 ugl9ess1 & (f5siv5ess seem to x to     
te/ify =1 r ?an aga9/1 ! g5u95ess (     
tru?4 ,9 its anxiety n to read human    
elem5ts into nature1 x goes s f> z      
completely to read _s out ( nature4 ,!  
_w is n a liv+ :ole1 b a ma*9e2 n a "w (
 art :i* is to be view$ 9 its totality &
 enjoy$ ) rev]5ce1 b a clock-movem5t to 
be tak5 ap>t 9 ord] to be und]/ood4     
,n[h]e are !re ends 9 ! _w1 b ev]y:]e   
me*anical causes4 ,! "* ( mod]n ?\ght   
w\ld appe> to a ,greek return$ to e>? v 
sob]1 unspl5did1 undev\t1 & intrusive4  

,&1 9 fact1 mod]n philosophy has a      
consid]able am\nt ( prose ab\t x1 is n  
easily impress$1 accepts no limitations 
f feel+1 & holds no?+ too sacr$ to be   
attack$ ) ! weapon ( analytic ?\ght4 ,& 
yet x comb9es p5etration ) intrusiv5ess2
 acut5ess1 coolness1 & logical c\rage ) 
its sob]ness4 ,nev] be=e has ! dem& =   
unprejudic$ ?\ght & c]ta9 k be5 made )  
equal e>ne/ness4 ,?is int]e/ 9 k = its  
own sake develop$ s sudd5ly & ) su*     
/r5g? t1 9 presumptu\s gladness1 m5     
believ$ t no previ\s age _h rightly     
und]/ood :at tru? & love = tru? are4 ,! 
natural consequ5ce 0 a g5]al            
ov]e/imation ( cognition at ! exp5se (  
all o!r m5tal activities4 ,ev5 among !  
,greek ?9k]s1 ?\ght 0 held by ! majority
 to be ! noble/ & mo/ div9e function4 ,b
 _! intellectualism 0 *eck$ by !        
ae/hetic & eudaemoni/ic elem5t1 &       
pres]v$ f ! "o-sid$ness :i* x manife/s 9
 ! mod]n p]iod1 because ( ! lack ( an   
effective c\nt]poise4 ,h[ev] eloqu5tly  
,bacon comm5ds ! advantages to be d]iv$ 

f ! conque/ ( nature1 he /ill und]/&s   
inquiry = inquiry's sake1 & honors x z  
supreme2 ev5 ! e!li/ic philosoph]s1     
,fi*te & ,s*op5hau]1 pay _! tribute to !
 prejudice 9 favor ( intellectualism4 ,!
 fact t ! mod]n p]iod c %[ no "o        
philosophic writ] ( ! lit]>y rank (     
,plato1 ev5 ?\gh x includes su* ma/]s ( 
/yle z ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 ,s*op5hau]1 &   
,lotze1 n to speak ( less] names1 is an 
ext]nal pro( ( h[ noticeably ! ae/hetic 
impulse has giv5 way to "o purely       
intellectual4  ,:5 we turn to ! "* (    
m$iaeval ?9k+2 we f9d1 in/ead ( !       
ae/hetic views ( antiquity & ! purely   
sci5tific t5d5cy ( ! mod]n era1 a       
di/9ctively religi\s _s4 ,fai?          
prescribes ! objects & ! limitations (  
k2 ev]y?+ is ref]r$ to ! h]eaft]1 ?\ght 
becomes pray]4 ,m5 speculate conc]n+ !  
attributes ( ,god1 on ! numb] & rank ( !
 angels1 on ! immortality ( man--all    
purely transc5d5tal subjects4 ,side by  
side ) ^!1 x is true1 ! _w receives lov+
 att5tion1 b always z ! l[] /ory        

m]ely1#a above :i*1 ) its own laws1     
rises ! true fa!rl&1 ! k+dom ( grace4 ,!
 mo/ subtle acut5ess is employ$ 9 !     
s]vice ( dogma1 ) ! task ( fa?om+ ! h[ &
 :y ( ?+s ^: exi/5ce is c]tifi$ else:]e4
 ,! result is a =malism 9 ?\ght side by 
side ) pr(\nd & f]v5t my/icism4 ,d\bt & 
tru/ are /rangely int]m+l$1 & a feel+ ( 
expectation /irs all he>ts4 ,on ! "o    
side /&s s9ful1 err+ man1 :o1 try z h>d 
z he may1 only half unravels ! my/]ies (
 reveal$ tru?2 on ! o!r1 ! ,god ( grace1
 :o1 aft] our dea?1 w reveal himself to 
u z cle>ly z ,adam knew him be=e ! fall4
 ,god alone1 h[ev]1 c compreh5d         
himself--= ! f9ite _s1 ev5 tru? unveil$ 
is my/]y1 & ec/asy1 unresi/+ devotion to
 ! incompreh5sible1 ! culm9ation ( k4 ,9
 m$iaeval philosophy ! subject looks    
long+ly upw>d to ! inf9ite object ( 8   
?\ght1 expect+ t ! latt] w b5d d[n t[>d 
him or lift him upw>d t[>d itself2 9    
,greek philosophy ! _s confronts its    
object1 ! _w1 on a foot+ ( equality2 9  
mod]n philosophy ! speculative subject  

feels himself high] ?an ! object1       
sup]ior to nature4 ,9 ! conception ( !  
,middle ,ages1 tru? & my/]y are         
id5tical2 to antiquity !y appe>         
reconcilable2 mod]n ?\ght holds !m z    
mutually exclusively z light & d>kness4 
,! unkn[n is ! enemy ( k1 :i* mu/ be    
*as$ out ( its la/ hid+-place4 ,x is1   
!re=e1 easy to und]/& t ! mod]n p]iod   
/&s 9 f> %>p] anti!sis to ! m$iaeval era
 ?an to ! anci5t1 = ! latt] has furni%$ 
x _m pr9ciples :i* c be us$ z weapons   
aga9/ ! =m]4 ,gr&p>5ts & gr&*ildr5 make 
good fri5ds4  ,footnote #a3 ,on !       
sep>ation & union ( ! ?ree worlds1      
natura1 gratia1 gloria1 9 ,?omas        
,aqu9as1 cf4 ,rudolph ,euck51 ,die      
,philosophie des ,?omas von ,aqu9o und  
die ,kultur d] ,neuzeit1 ,halle4 #ahhf4 
,:5 a new movem5t is 9 prep>ation1 b !re
 is a lack ( creative =ce to give x =m1 
a p]iod ( tumultu\s disaffection ) exi/+
 pr9ciples ensues4 ,:at is want$ is n   
cle>ly p]ceiv$1 b !re is a lively s5se (
 t :i* is n want$4 ,dissatisfaction     

prep>es a place = t :i* is to come by   
und]m9+ ! exi/5t & mak+ x ripe = its    
fall4 ,! old1 ! outgr[n1 ! doctr9e :i*  
_h become inadequate1 0 9 ?is case      
,s*ola/icism2 mod]n philosophy %[s      
?r\gh\t--& mo/ cle>ly at ! />t--an      
anti-,s*ola/ic "*4 ,if up to ?is "t     
,*ur* dogma _h rul$ un*all5g$ 9         
spiritual affairs1 & ! ,ari/otelian     
philosophy 9 ?+s temporal1 w> is n[     
decl>$ aga9/ au?ority ( e sort & fre$om 
( ?\ght is inscrib$ on ! bann]4#a ,mod]n
 philosophy is ,prote/antism 9 ! sph]e (
 ! ?9k+ _s 7,erdmann74 ,n t :i* has be5 
consid]$ true = c5turies1 n t :i* ano!r 
says1 ?\gh he be ,ari/otle or ,?omas    
,aqu9as1 n t :i* flatt]s ! desires ( !  
he>t1 is true1 b t only :i* is          
demon/rat$ to my own und]/&+ ) conv9c+  
=ce4 ,philosophy is no long] will+ to be
 ! h&maid ( !ology1 b mu/ set up a h\se 
( h] own4 ,! wat*word n[ becomes fre$om 
& indep5d5t ?\ght1 deliv]ance f e =m (  
con/ra9t1 alike f ! bondage (           
ecclesia/ical decrees & ! inn] s]vitude 

( prejudice & *]i%$ incl9ations4 ,b !   
adoption ( a purpose leads to !         
consid]ation ( ! means = atta9+ x4 ,?us 
! ?ir/ = k raises que/ions conc]n+ !    
me?od1 ! in/rum5ts1 & ! limits ( k2 !   
int]e/ 9 notics & me?odology vigor\sly  
develops1 rema9s a con/ant factor 9     
mod]n inquiry1 & culm9ates 9 ,kant1 n   
aga9 to die away4  ,footnote #a3 ,!     
doctr9e ( tw(old tru?1 "u ^: protect+   
cloak ! new lib]al movem5ts _h hi!rto   
tak5 refuge1 0 n[ disda9fully repudiat$4
 ,cf4 ,freud5?al1 ,zur ,beur!ilung d]   
,s*ola/ik1 9 vol4 iii4 ( ! ,ar*iv fr    
,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 #ahij4 ,also1
 ,h4 ,reut]1 ,ges*i*te d] religis5      
,aufklrung im ,mittelalt] #ahge-gg2 &   
,dil!y1 ,e9leitung 9 die                
,gei/eswiss5s*aft51 #ahhc4  ,?is        
negative aspect ( mod]n t5d5cies ne$s1  
h[ev]1 a positive supplem5t4 ,! m$iaeval
 mode ( ?\ght is disc>d$ & ! new "o is n
 yet f\nd4 ,:at c m fitt+ly furni% a    
support1 a prelim9>y sub/itute1 ?an     
antiquity8 ,?us philosophy1 also1 jo9s 9

 t great /ream ( culture1 ! ,r5aissance 
& humanism1 :i*1 />t+ f ,italy1 p\r$ =? 
ov] ! :ole civiliz$ _w4 ,plato &        
,neoplatonism1 ,epicurus & ! ,/oa are   
oppos$ to ,s*ola/icism1 ! real ,ari/otle
 to ! trans=m$ ,ari/otle ( ! ,*ur* & !  
di/ort$ ,ari/otle ( ! s*ools4 ,back to !
 s\rces1 is ! cry4 ,) ! revival ( !     
anci5t languages & anci5t books1 ! _s ( 
antiquity is also reviv$4 ,! du/ ( !    
s*ools & ! tyranny ( ! ,*ur* are ?r[n   
(f1 & ! classical ideal ( a free & noble
 humanity ga9s en?usia/ic adh]5ts4 ,!   
man is n to be =gott5 9 ! ,*ri/ian1 nor 
art & sci5ce1 ! rights & ! ri*es (      
individuality 9 ! int]e/ ( piety2 "w = !
 future mu/ n bl9d u to ! dem&s ( !     
pres5t nor lead u to neglect !          
compreh5sive cultivation ( ! natural    
capacities ( ! _s4 ,! _w & man are no   
long] view$ ?r\gh ,*ri/ian eyes1 ! "o z 
a realm ( d>kness & ! o!r z a vessel (  
weakness & wra?1 b nature & life gleam  
be=e ! new g5]ation 9 joy\s1 hopeful    
light4 ,humanism & optimism h always be5

 alli$4  ,?is *ange 9 ! _s ( ?\ght is   
accompani$ by a correspond+ *ange 9 !   
object ( ?\ght3 !ology mu/ yield its    
supremacy to ! k ( nature4 ,we>y (      
,*ri/ological & sot]iological que/ions1 
we>y ( disputes conc]n+ ! angels1 ! ?9k+
 _s longs to make himself at home 9 ! _w
 x has le>n$ to love1 dem&s real k1--k  
:i* is ( practical utility1--& no long] 
seeks ,god outside ! _w1 b 9 x & above  
x4 ,nature becomes ! home1 ! body (     
,god4 ,transc5d5ce gives place to       
imman5ce1 n only 9 !ology1 b else:]e4   
,mod]n philosophy is naturali/ic 9 _s1 n
 only because x takes nature = its      
favorite object1 b also because x c>ries
 into o!r bran*es ( k ! ma!matical me?od
 s successful 9 natural sci5ce1 because 
x consid]s ev]y?+ sub ratione naturae & 
insi/s on ! natural explanation ( all   
ph5om5a1 ev5 ^? ( e?ics & politics4  ,9 
a ^w1 ! t5d5cy ( mod]n philosophy is    
anti-,s*ola/ic1 humani/ic1 &            
naturali/ic4 ,?is summ>y mu/ suffice =  
prelim9>y ori5tation1 :ile ! detail$    

division1 p>ticul>ization1 modification1
 & limitation ( ^! g5]al po9ts mu/ be   
left = lat] treatm5t4  ,two fur!r facts1
 h[ev]1 may receive prelim9>y notice4 ,!
 indiff]5ce & ho/ility to ! ,*ur* :i* h 
be5 cit$ among ! prom95t *>act]i/ics (  
mod]n philosophy1 d n necess>ily mean   
enmity to ! ,*ri/ian religion1 mu* less 
to religion 9 g5]al4 ,9 "p1 x is m]ely a
 *ange 9 ! object ( religi\s feel+1 :i* 
blazes up especially /rong & en?usia/ic 
9 ! philosophy ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 z x  
transf]s its wor%ip f a transc5d5t deity
 to a univ]se indu$ ) a s\l2 9 "p1 !    
opposition is direct$ aga9/ ! m$iaeval1 
ecclesia/ical =m ( ,*ri/ianity1 ) its   
mona/ic ab&onm5t ( ! _w4 ,x 0 (t5 no?+ b
 a v deep & /rong religi\s feel+ t l$   
?9k]s into ! conflict ) ! hi]>*y4 ,s9ce 
! elem5ts ( p]man5t wor? 9 ! t5d5cies1  
doctr9es1 & in/itutions ( ! ,middle     
,ages are ?us cull$ out f t :i* is      
corrupt & effete1 & pres]v$ by          
incorporation into ! new view ( ! _w & !
 new sci5ce1 & z fruitful elem5ts f     

antiquity ent] ) !m1 ! progress (       
philosophy %[s a cont9u\s enri*m5t 9 its
 ideas1 intuitions1 & _s4 ,! old is n   
simply disc>d$ & de/roy$1 b purifi$1    
trans=m$1 & assimilat$4 ,! same fact    
=ces itself into notice if we consid] ! 
relations ( nationality & philosophy 9 !
 ?ree great eras4 ,! ,greek philosophy 0
 entirely national 9 its orig9 & its    
public1 x 0 root$ 9 ! "* ( ! p &        
address$ itself to fell[-c\ntrym52 n    
until t[>d its decl9e1 & n until        
influ5c$ by ,*ri/ianity1 7 its          
cosmopolitan incl9ations ar\s$4 ,!      
,middle ,ages 7 indiff]5t to national   
di/9ctions1 z to ev]y?+ e>?ly1 & naught 
0 ( value 9 comp>ison ) man's transc5d5t
 de/9y4 ,m$iaeval philosophy is 9 its   
aims un-national1 cosmopolitan1 ca?olic2
 x uses ! ,lat9 ( ! s*ools1 x seeks     
adh]5ts 9 e l&1 x f9ds ev]y:]e          
productive spirits ^: labors 9 its      
s]vice rema9 unaffect$ by _! national   
peculi>ities4 ,! mod]n p]iod returns to 
! nationalism ( antiquity1 b does n     

rel9qui% ! advantage ga9$ by ! ext5sion 
( m$iaeval ?\ght to ! :ole civiliz$ _w4 
,! roots ( mod]n philosophy are sunk    
deep 9 ! fruitful soil ( nationality1   
:ile ! top ( ! tree spreads itself f>   
beyond national limitations4 ,x is      
national & cosmopolitan toge!r2 x is    
int]national z ! common prop]ty ( !     
v>i\s peoples1 :i* ex*ange _!           
philosophical gifts ?r\gh an active     
comm]ce ( ideas4 ,lat9 is (t5 reta9$ =  
use abroad1 z ! univ]sal language (     
savants1 b _m a "w is fir/ publi%$ 9 !  
"m-tongue--& ?\ght 9 x4 ,?us x becomes  
possible = ! ideas ( ! wise to ga9 an   
entrance into ! consci\sness ( ! p1 f ^:
 _s !y h really sprung1 & to become a   
p[] beyond ! circle ( ! le>n$ public4   
,philosophy z illum9ation1 z a factor 9 
g5]al culture1 is an exclusively mod]n  
ph5om5on4 ,9 ?is speculative int]c\rse (
 nations1 h[ev]1 ! ,fr5*1 ! ,engli%1 & !
 ,g]mans are mo/ involv$1 bo? z produc]s
 & consum]s4 ,france gives ! initiative 
79 ,desc>tes71 !n ,engl& assumes !      

lead]%ip 79 ,locke71 ) ,leibnitz & ,kant
 ! hegemony passes ov] to ,g]many4      
,besides ^! p[]s1 ,italy takes an eag]  
"p 9 ! production ( philosophical ideas 
9 ! p]iod ( f]m5t be=e ,desc>tes4 ,ea* (
 ^! nations contributes elem5ts to !    
total result :i* x alone is 9 a position
 to furni%1 & ea* is rew>d$ by gifts 9  
return :i* x w\ld be incapable ( produc+
 out ( its own /ore4 ,?is int]national  
ex*ange ( ideas1 9 :i* ea* gives & ea*  
receives1 & ! fact t ! *ief mod]n ?9k]s1
 especially 9 ! e>li] half ( ! era1     
prior to ,kant1 are 9 great "p n        
philosoph]s by pr(ession b soldi]s1     
/atesm51 physicians1 z well z natural   
sci5ti/s1 hi/orians1 & prie/s1 give     
mod]n philosophy an unpr(essional1      
worldly appe>ance1 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! 
cl]ical "* ( m$iaeval1 & ! prophetic "* 
( anci5t ?9k+4  ,g]many1 ,engl&1 &      
,france claim ! honor ( hav+ produc$ !  
fir/ mod]n philosoph]1 pres5t+ ,nicolas 
( ,cusa1 ,bacon ( ,v]ulam1 & ,r5        
,desc>tes z _! c&idates1 :ile ,hobbes1  

,bruno1 & ,montaigne h receiv$ only     
scatt]$ votes4 ,! claim ( ,engl& is !   
weake/ ( all1 =1 )\t int5d+ to dim9i%   
,bacon's importance1 x may be said t !  
programme :i* he develops--& 9 ess5ce 8 
philosophy is no?+ m--01 9 its lead+    
pr9ciples1 n fir/ ann\nc$ by him1 & n   
c>ri$ out ) suffici5t consi/5cy4 ,!     
dispute betwe5 ! two rema9+ conte/ants  
may be easily & equitably settl$ by mak+
 ! simple di/9ction betwe5 =]unn] &     
beg9n]1 betwe5 pa?-break] & f\nd]4 ,!   
entrance ( a new hi/orical era is n     
accompani$ by an audible click1 l !     
beg9n+ ( a new piece on a music-box1 b  
is gradually effect$4 ,a consid]able    
p]iod may int]v5e betwe5 ! po9t :5 ! new
 movem5t fla%es up1 n und]/ood & half   
unconsci\s ( itself1 & ! "t :5 x appe>s 
on ! /age 9 full /r5g? & maturity1      
recogniz+ itself z new & s ackn[l$g$ by 
o!rs3 ! p]iod ( f]m5t betwe5 ! ,middle  
,ages & mod]n times la/$ almo/ two      
c5turies4 ,x is 9 ! end little m ?an    
logoma*y to discuss :e!r ?is "t (       

anticipation & desire1 ( endeavor &     
p>tial success1 9 :i* ! new /ruggles ) !
 old )\t conqu]+ x1 & ! opposite        
t5d5cies 9 ! conflict+ views ( ! _w     
int]play 9 a way at once obscure &      
wayw>d1 is to be class$ z ! epilogue ( !
 old era or ! prologue ( ! new4 ,!      
simple solution to take x z a transition
 p]iod1 no long] m$iaeval b n yet mod]n1
 has met ) fairly g5]al acceptance4     
,nicolas ( ,cusa 7#adja-fd7 0 ! fir/ to 
ann\nce fundam5tal pr9ciples ( mod]n    
philosophy--he is ! lead] 9 ?is         
int]m$iate prep>atory p]iod4 ,desc>tes  
7#aeif-afej7 br\ght =w>d ! fir/         
sy/em--he is ! fa!r ( mod]n philosophy4 
,a brief survey ( ! lit]ature may be    
add$ 9 conclusion3  ,he9ri* ,ritt]'s    
,ges*i*te d] neu]5 ,philosophie 7vols4  
ix4-xii4 ( 8 ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie71
 #ahej-ec1 to ,wolff & ,r\sseau1 has be5
 sup]s$$ by m rec5t works1 ,j4,e4       
,erdmann's able ,v]su* e9]              
wiss5s*aftli*5 ,d>/ellung d] neu]5      
,philosophie 7#f vols41 #ahcd-ec7 gives 

9 app5dices lit]al exc]pts f non-,g]man 
writ]s2 ! same au?or's ,grundriss d]    
,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie 7#b vols41    
#ahfi2 #c;d ed41 #ahgh7 conta9s at ! end
 ! fir/ exposition ( ,g]man ,philosophy 
s9ce ! ,dea? ( ,hegel ,engli%           
translation 9 #c vols41 edit$ by ,w4 ,s4
 ,h\gh1 #ahij4--,,tr44 ,ueb]weg's       
,grundriss 7#g? ed4 by ,m4 ,he9ze1      
#ahhh7 is indisp5sable = ref]5ce on     
acc\nt ( ! complet5ess ( its            
bibliographical notes1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are  
confus+ to ! beg9n] ,engli% translation 
by ,g4,s4 ,morris1 ) additions by !     
translator1 ,noah ,port]1 & ,v9c5zo     
,botta1 ,new ,york1 #ahgb-gd4--,,tr44 ,!
 mo/ detail$ & brilliant exposition has 
be5 giv5 by ,kuno ,fis*] 7#ahed seq42   
#c;d ed41 #ahgh seq42 ! same au?or's    
,baco und se9e ,na*folg]1 #b;d ed41     
#ahge1--;,engli% translation1 #aheg1 by 
,ox5=d1--supplem5ts ! fir/ two volumes (
 ! ,ges*i*te d] neu]5 ,philosophie74    
,?is "w1 :i* is important also z a      
lit]>y a*ievem5t1 is bett] fitt$ ?an any

 o!r to make ! read] at home 9 ! ideal  
_w ( ! great philosoph]s1 :i* x         
recon/ructs f its c5tral po9t1 & to     
prep>e him = ! /udy 7:i*1 ( c\rse1 ev5 !
 be/ exposition _c replace7 ( ! works ( 
! ?9k]s !mselves4 ,its excessive        
simplification ( problems is n ( great  
mom5t 9 ! fir/ introduction to a sy/em  
,engli% translation ( vol4 iii4 book #b 
7#a/ ed471 ,a ,comm5t>y on ,kant's      
,critick ( ! ,pure ,reason1 by ,j4,p4   
,mahaffy1 ,london1 #ahff2 vol4 i4 "p #a 
& "p #b1 book #a1 ,desc>tes & 8 ,s*ool1 
by ,j1 ,p4 ,gordy1 ,new ,york1 #ahhg2 ( 
vol4 v4 *aps1 i4-v41 ,a ,critique (     
,kant1 by ,w4,s4 ,h\gh1 ,london1        
#ahhh4--,,tr44 ,wilhelm ,w9delb&        
7,ges*i*te d] neu]5 ,philosophie1 #b    
vols41 #ahgh & #ahhj1 to ,hegel & ,h]b>t
 inclusive7 acc5tuates ! connection (   
philosophy ) g5]al culture & ! p>ticul> 
sci5ces1 & emphasizes philosophical     
me?od4 ,?is "w is pleasant read+1 yet1 9
 ! int]e/ ( cle>ness1 we c\ld wi% t !   
au?or _h giv5 m ( positive in=mation    

conc]n+ ! cont5t ( ! doctr9es treat$1   
in/ead ( m]ely advanc+ reflections on   
!m4 ,a project$ ?ird volume is to trace 
! developm5t ( philosophy d[n to !      
pres5t "t4 ,w9delb&'s comp5dium1        
,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 #ahij-ia1 is 
di/+ui%$ f o!r expositions by ! fact t1 
= ! mo/ "p1 x conf9es itself to a hi/ory
 ( problems4 ,baumann's ,ges*i*te d]    
,philosophie1 #ahij1 aims to give a     
detail$ acc\nt ( ^? ?9k]s only :o h     
advanc$ views individual ei!r 9 _!      
cont5t or 9 _! pro(4 ,edu>d ,zell] has  
giv5 8 ,ges*i*te d] deuts*5 ,philosophie
 seit ,leibniz 7#ahgc2 #b;d ed41 #ahge7 
! b5efit ( ! same ?or\gh & compreh5sive 
k & mature judgm5t :i* h made 8         
,philosophie d] ,grie*5 a classic4      
,b[5's ,mod]n ,philosophy1 ,new ,york1  
#aheg 7#f? ed41 #ahia72 ,royce's ,_s (  
,mod]n ,philosophy1 #ahib4--,,tr4  ,eug5
 ,dhr+'s hyp]critical ,kritis*e         
,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie 7#ahfi2 #c;d  
ed41 #ahgh7 c h>dly be recomm5d$ to     
/ud5ts4 ,lewes 7,g]man translation1     

#ahgf7 assumes a positivi/ic /&po9t2    
,?ilo 7#ahgd71 a position exclusively   
,h]b>tian2 ,a4 ,/oeckl 7#c;d ed41 #ahhi7
 writes f ! /&po9t ( confessional       
,ca?olicism2 ,v9c5z ,knau] 7#b;d ed41   
#ahhb7 is a ,gn!rian4 ,) !              
philosophico-hi/orical "w ( ,*r4 ,w4    
,sigw>t 7#ahed71 & "o ( ! same date by  
,ois*+]1 we are n intimately acqua9t$4  
,expositions ( philosophy s9ce ,kant h  
be5 giv5 by ! ,hegelian1 ,c4,l4 ,mi*elet
 7a l>g] "o 9 #b vols41 #ahcg-ch1 & a   
small] "o1 #ahdc72 by ,*alybaeus 7#ahcg2
 #e? ed41 #ahfj1 =m]ly v popul> & wor?y 
( x1 ,engli%1 #ahed72 by ,fr4 ,k4       
,bi$]mann 7#ahdb-dc72 by ,c>l ,=tlage   
7#aheb1 ,kantio-,fi*tean /&po9t72 & by  
,fri$ri* ,h>ms 7#ahgf74 ,! la/ ( ^!     
writ]s un=tunately did n succe$ 9 giv+ a
 suffici5tly cle> & precise1 n to say   
ta/eful1 =m to ! valuable ideas &       
orig9al conceptions 9 :i* 8 "w is ri*4  
,! v popul> exposition by an anonym\s   
au?or ( ,hegelian t5d5cies1 ,deuts*l&s  
,d5k] seit ,kant 7,dessau1 #ahea71 h>dly

 des]ves m5tion4  ,fur!r1 we may m5tion 
"s ( ! works :i* treat ! hi/orical      
developm5t ( p>ticul> subjects3 ,on !   
hi/ory ( ! philosophy ( religion1 ! fir/
 volume ( ,otto ,pfleid]]'s             
,religionsphilosophie auf ges*i*tli*]   
,grundlage 7#b;d ed41 #ahhc2--;,engli%  
translation by ,alex&] ,/ew>t & ,allan  
,m5zies1 #ahhf-hh4--,,tr471 & ! v       
tru/wor?y exposition by ,b]nh>d ,pnj]   
7#b vols41 #ahhj1 #ahhc2 ,engli%        
translation by ,w4 ,ha/ie1 vol4 i41     
#ahhg4--,,tr474 ,on ! hi/ory ( practical
 philosophy1 besides ! fir/ volume (    
,i4,h4 ,fi*te's ,e?ik 7#ahej71 ,franz   
,vorlnd]'s ,ges*i*te d] philosophis*5   
,moral1 ,re*ts- und ,/aatslehre d]      
,englnd] und ,franzos5 7#ahee72 ,fr4    
,jodl1 ,ges*i*te d] ,e?ik 9 d] neu]5    
,philosophie 7#b vols41 #ahhb1 #ahhi71 &
 ,blunts*li1 ,ges*i*te d] neu]5         
,/aatswiss5s*aft 7#c;d ed41 #ahha72     
,sidgwick's ,outl9es ( ! ,hi/ory (      
,e?ics1 #c;d ed41 #ahib1 & ,m>t9eau's   
,types ( ,e?ical ,!ory1 #c;d ed41       

#ahia4--,,tr44 ,on ! hi/ory ( !         
philosophy ( hi/ory3 ,ro*oll1 ,die      
,philosophie d] ,ges*i*te1 #ahgh2 ,ri*>d
 ,fe/]1 ,r\sseau und die deuts*e        
,ges*i*tsphilosophie1 #ahij ,fl9t1 ,!   
,philosophy ( ,hi/ory 9 ,europe1 vol4   
i41 #ahgd1 complete 9 #c vols41 #ahic   
seq44 ,on ! hi/ory ( ae/hetics1 ,r4     
,zimm]mann1 #aheh2 ,h4 ,lotze1 #ahfh2   
,max ,s*asl]1 #ahga2 ,ed4 von ,h>tmann  
7s9ce ,kant71 #ahhf2 ,he9ri* von ,/e91  
,die ,ent/ehung d] neu]5 ,ae/hetik      
7#ahhf72 ,bosanquet1 ,a ,hi/ory (       
,ae/hetic1 #ahib4--,,tr44 ,fur!r1 ,fr4  
,alb4 ,lange1 ,ges*i*te des             
,mat]ialismus1 #ahff2 #d? ed41 #ahhb2   
,engli% translation by ,e4,c4 ,?omas1 #c
 vols41 #ahgh-ha4--,,tr42 ,jul4         
,baumann1 ,die ,lehr5 von ,raum1 ,zeit  
und ,ma!matik 9 d] neu]5 ,philosophie1  
#ahfh-fi2 ,edm4 ,knig1 ,die             
,entwickelung des ,causalproblems von   
,c>tesius bis ,kant1 #ahhh1 seit ,kant1 
#ahij2 ,kurd ,lasswitz1 ,ges*i*te d]    
,atomi/ik vom ,mittelalt] bis ,newton1  

#b vols41 #ahij2 ,ed4 ,grimm1 ,zur      
,ges*i*te des ,erk5ntnissproblems1 von  
,bacon zu ,hume1 #ahij4 ,! foll[+ works 
are to be recomm5d$ on ! p]iod (        
transition3 ,moritz ,c>rire1 ,die       
philosophis*e ,weltans*auung d]         
,re=mationszeit1 #ahdg2 #b;d ed41 #ahhg2
 & ,jacob ,burckh>dt1 ,kultur d]        
,r5aissance 9 ,itali51 #d? ed41 #ahhf4  
,ref]5ce may also be made to ,a4        
,tr5del5burg1 ,hi/oris*e ,beitrge zur   
,philosophie1 #c vols41 #ahdf-fg2       
,rudolph ,euck51 ,ges*i*te und ,kritik  
d] ,grundbegriffe d] ,geg5w>t1 #ahgh2   
,engli% translation by ,m4 ,/u>t        
,phelps1 #ahhj4--,,tr42 ! same1         
,ges*i*te d] philosophis*5 ,t]m9ologie1 
#ahgi2 ! same1 ,beitrge zur ,ges*i*te d]
 neu]5 ,philosophie1 #ahhf 7includ+ a   
valuable pap] on p>ties & p>ty names 9  
philosophy72 ! same1 ,die               
,leb5sans*auung5 d] gross5 ,d5k]1 #ahij2
 ,ludwig ,noack1                        
,philosophieges*i*tli*es ,lexicon1      
#ahgi2 ,ed4 ,zell]1 ,vortrge und        

,abh&lung51 ?ree s]ies1 #ahfe-hd2 ,*r4  
von ,sigw>t1 ,kle9e ,s*rift51 #b vols41 
#ahha2 #b;d ed41 #ahhi4 ,r4 ,seydel's   
,religion und ,philosophie1 #ahhg1      
conta9s pap]s on ,lu!r1 ,s*lei]ma*]1    
,s*ell+1 ,weisse1 ,fe*n]1 ,lotze1       
,h>tmann1 ,d>w9ism1 etc41 :i* are well  
wor? read+4  ,among ! small] comp5ds    
,s*wegl]'s 7#ahdh2 rec5t editions revis$
 & supplem5t$ by ,r4 ,koeb]7 rema9s /ill
 ! lea/ bad ,engli% translations by     
,seelye & ,smi?1 revis$ edition )       
additions1 ,new ,york1 #ahhj2 & ,j4,h4  
,/irl+1 ) annotations1 #g? ed41         
#ahgi4--,,tr44 ,! meag] sket*es by      
,det]1 ,koeb]1 ,kir*n]1 ,kuhn1 ,rabus1  
,vogel1 & o!rs are useful = review at   
lea/4 ,fritz ,s*ultze's ,/ammbaum d]    
,philosophie1 #ahij1 gives skillfully   
con/ruct$ tabul> outl9es1 b1            
un=tunately1 9 a badly *os5 =m4         
,,*apt] ,i4  ,,! ,,p]iod ,,(            
,,transition3 ,,f ,,nicolas ,,( ,,cusa  
,,to ,,desc>tes4   ,! essays at         
philosophy :i* made _! appe>ance betwe5 

! middle ( ! fifte5? c5tury & ! middle (
 ! sev5te5?1 exhibit m$iaeval & mod]n   
*>act]i/ics 9 su* rem>kable int]mixture 
t !y c be assign$ exclusively to nei!r (
 ^! two p]iods4 ,!re are eag] long+s1   
l(ty dem&s1 magnific5t plans1 & promis+ 
outlooks 9 abundance1 b a lack ( p[] to 
endure1 a lack ( calmness & maturity2   
:ile ! %ackles aga9/ :i* ! lead+ m9ds   
revolt /ill b9d too firmly bo? ! lead]s 
& ^? to :om !y speak4 ,only "h & !re are
 ! fett]s loos5$ & ?r[n (f2 if ! h&s are
 successfully fre$1 ! clank+ *a9s /ill  
hamp] ! feet4 ,x is a "t j suit$ =      
orig9al ?9k]s1 a rem>kable numb] ( :om 9
 fact make _! appe>ance1 side by side or
 9 close succession4 ,fur!r1 h[ev]      
little ^! are able to satisfy ! dem& =  
p]man5t results1 !y ev] ar\se our int]e/
 anew by ! boldness & dep? ( _!         
brilliant ideas1 :i* alt]nate ) qua9t   
fancies or are p]vad$ by !m2 by ! y\?ful
 c\rage ) :i* !y attack$ great que/ions2
 & n lea/ by ! h>d fate :i* rew>d$ _!   
ef=ts ) mis9t]pretation1 p]secution1 &  

dea? at ! /ake4 ,we mu/ quickly pass ov]
 ! broad ?re%old betwe5 mod]n philosophy
 & ,s*ola/ic philosophy1 :i* is b\nd$ by
 ! ye> #adej1 9 :i* ,nicolas ( ,cusa    
wrote 8 *ief "w1 ! ,idiota1 & #afdd1 :5 
,desc>tes began ! new era ) 8 ,pr9cipia 
,philosophiae2 & c t\*1 9 pass+1 only ! 
mo/ important factors4 ,we %all beg9 our
 acc\nt ( ?is transition p]iod )        
,nicolas1 & end x ) ! ,engli%m51 ,bacon1
 ,hobbes1 & ,"l ,h]b]t ( ,*]bury4       
,betwe5 ^! we %all arrange ! v>i\s      
figures ( ! ,philosophical ,r5aissance  
79 ! broad s5se7 9 six gr\ps3 ! ,re/or]s
 ( ! ,anci5t ,sy/ems & _! ,oppon5ts2 !  
,italian ,philosoph]s ( ,nature2 !      
,political & ,legal ,philosoph]s2 !     
,skeptics2 ! ,my/ics2 ! ,f\nd]s ( !     
,exact ,inve/igation ( ,nature4 ,9      
,italy ! new spiritual bir? %[s an      
ae/hetic1 sci5tific1 & humani/ic t5d5cy2
 9 ,g]many x is pre-em95tly religi\s    
emancipation--9 ! ,re=mation4   #a4     
,nicolas ( ,cusa4  ,nicolas#a 0 born 9  
#adja1 at ,cues 7,cusa7 on ! ,moselle   

ne> ,treves4 ,he e>ly ran away f 8 /]n  
fa!r1 a boatman & v9e-dress] nam$       
,*rypps 7or ,krebs71 & 0 br\ght up by ! 
,bro!rs ( ! ,common ,life at ,dev5t]4 ,9
 ,padua he /udi$ law1 ma!matics1 &      
philosophy1 b ! loss ( 8 fir/ case at   
,may5ce s disgu/$ him ) 8 pr(ession t he
 turn$ to !ology1 & became a di/+ui%$   
prea*]4 ,he took "p 9 ! ,c\ncil (       
,basle1 0 s5t by ,pope ,eug5 ,,iv4 z an 
ambassador to ,con/ant9ople & to !      
,rei*/ag at ,frank=t2 0 made ,c>d9al 9  
#addh1 & ,bi%op ( ,brix5 9 #adej4 ,8    
feudal "l1 ! ,c\nt ( ,tyrol1 ,ar*duke   
,sigismund1 refus$ him recognition on   
acc\nt ( c]ta9 qu>rels 9 :i* !y _h      
become engag$1 & = a "t held him        
prison]4 ,previ\s to ?is he _h und]tak5 
j\rneys to ,g]many & ! ,ne!rl&s on      
mission>y bus9ess4 ,dur+ a second soj\rn
 9 ,italy dea? ov]took him1 9 ! ye>     
#adfd1 at ,todi 9 ,umbria4 ,! fir/      
volume ( ! ,p>is edition ( 8 collect$   
works 7#aead7 conta9s ! mo/ important ( 
8 philosophical writ+s2 ! second1 among 

o!rs1 ma!matical essays & t5 books (    
selections f 8 s]mons2 ! ?ird1 ! ext5d$ 
"w1 ,de ,concordantia ,ca?olica1 :i* he 
_h complet$ at ,basle4 ,9 #addj 7hav+   
already writt5 on ! ,re=m ( ! ,cal5d>7  
he began 8 impos+ s]ies ( philosophical 
writ+s ) ! ,de ,docta ,ignorantia1 to   
:i* ! ,de ,conjecturis 0 add$ 9 ! foll[+
 ye>4 ,^! 7 succe$$ by small] treatises 
entitl$ ,de ,qua]5do ,deum1 ,de ,dato   
,patris ,lum9um1 ,de ,filiatione ,dei1  
,de ,g5esi1 & a def5se ( ! ,de ,docta   
,ignorantia4 ,8 mo/ important "w is !   
?ird ( ! f\r dialogues ( ! ,idiota 7,on 
! ,m9d71 #adej4 ,he clo!s 9 cont9ually  
*ang+ =ms ! "o supreme tru? on :i* all  
dep5ds1 & :i* _c be express$ 9          
intelligible language b only compreh5d$ 
by liv+ intuition4 ,9 _m diff]5t ways he
 endeavors to lead ! read] on to a      
vision ( ! inexpressible1 or to draw him
 up to x1 & to develop fruitfully !     
pr9ciple ( ! co9cid5ce ( opposites1 :i* 
_h dawn$ ^u him on 8 return j\rney f    
,con/ant9ople 7,de ,visione ,dei1       

,dialogus de ,posse/1 ,de ,b]yllo1 ,de  
,ludo ,globi1 ,de ,v5atione ,sapi5tiae1 
,de ,apice ,!oriae1 ,comp5dium74        
,sometimes he uses dialectical reason+2 
sometimes he so>s 9 my/ical exaltation2 
sometimes he writes ) a simplicity level
 to ! common m9d1 & 9 connection ) t :i*
 lies at h&2 sometimes1 ) ! mo/         
compreh5sive brevity4 ,besides ^! 8     
philosophico-religi\s works are ( great 
value1 ,de ,pace ,fidei1 ,de            
,cribratione ,al*orani4 ,lib]al         
,ca?olics rev]5ce him z "o ( ! deepe/   
?9k]s ( ! ,*ur*2 b ! fame ( ,giordano   
,bruno1 a m brilliant b mu* less orig9al
 figure1 has hi!rto /ood 9 ! way ( !    
g5]al recognition ( 8 great importance =
 mod]n philosophy4  ,footnote #a3 ,r4   
,zimm]mann1 ,nikolaus ,cusanus als      
,vorluf] ,leibniz5s1 9 vol4 viii4 ( !   
,sitzungsb]i*te d]                      
philosophis*-hi/oris*5 ,klasse d]       
,akademie d] ,wiss5s*aft51 ,vi5na1      
#aheb1 p4 #cjf seq4 ,r4 ,falck5b]g1     
,grundzge d] ,philosophie des ,nikolaus 

,cusanus mit besond]] ,b]cksi*tigung d] 
,lehre vom ,erk5n51 ,breslau1 #ahhj4 ,r4
 ,euck51 ,beitrge zur ,ges*i*te d] neu]5
 ,philosophie1 ,heidelb]g1 #ahhf1 p4 #f 
seq42 ,joh4 ,ueb+]1 ,die ,gotteslehre   
des ,nikolaus ,cusanus1 ,mn/]1 #ahhh4   
,s*>pff1 ,des ,nikolaus von ,cusa       
wi*tig/e ,s*rift5 9 deuts*]             
,ueb]setzung1 ,freiburg i4 ,br41 #ahfb4 
,human k & ! relation ( ,god to ! _w are
 ! two poles ( ! ,cusan's sy/em4 ,he    
di/+ui%es f\r /ages ( k4 ,l[e/ ( all /&s
 s5se 7toge!r ) imag9ation71 :i* yields 
only confus$ images2 next above1 !      
und]/&+ 7ratio71 ^: functions comprise  
analysis1 ! posit+ ( "t & space1        
num]ical op]ations1 & d5om9ation1 & :i* 
keeps ! opposites di/9ct "u ! law (     
contradiction2 ?ird1 ! speculative      
reason 7intellectus71 :i* f9ds !        
opposites reconcilable2 & highe/ ( all !
 my/ical1 supra-rational intuition      
7visio s9e compreh5sione1 intuitio1     
unio1 filiatio71 = :i* ! opposites      
co9cide 9 ! inf9ite unity4 ,! intuitive 

culm9ation ( k1 9 :i* ! s\l is unit$ )  
,god1--s9ce "h ev5 ! anti!sis ( subject 
& object disappe>s1--is b seldom atta9$2
 & x is difficult to keep out ! di/urb+ 
symbols & images ( s5se1 :i* m+le       
!mselves 9 ! intuition4 ,b x is j ?is   
insight into ! incompreh5sibility ( !   
inf9ite :i* gives u a true k ( ,god2 ?is
 is ! mean+ ( ! le>n$ ignorance1 ! docta
 ignorantia4 ,! di/9ctions betwe5 ^!    
sev]al /ages ( cognition are n1 h[ev]1  
to be und]/ood 9 any rigid s5se1 = ea*  
high] function compreh5ds ! l[]1 & is   
active !re94 ,! und]/&+ c discrim9ate   
only :5 x is furni%$ by s5sation )      
images ( t :i* is to be discrim9at$1 !  
reason c comb9e only :5 ! und]/&+ has   
suppli$ ! results ( analysis z mat]ial =
 comb9ation2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 x is !  
und]/&+ :i* is pres5t 9 s5se z          
consci\sness1 & ! reason ^: unity guides
 ! und]/&+ 9 its "w ( sep>ation4 ,?us ! 
sev]al modes ( cognition d n /& =       
indep5d5t fundam5tal faculties1 b =     
connect$ modifications ( "o fundam5tal  

p[] :i* "w toge!r & mutually imply "o   
ano!r4 ,! position t an intellectual    
function ( att5tion & discrim9ation is  
active 9 s5su\s p]ception1 is a view    
entirely =eign to m$iaeval modes (      
?\ght2 = ! ,s*ola/ics 7 accu/om$ to make
 %>p divisions betwe5 ! cognitive       
faculties1 on ! pr9ciple t p>ticul>s are
 felt ?r\gh s5se & univ]sals ?\ght ?r\gh
 ! und]/&+4 ,! idea on :i* ,nicolas     
bases 8 argum5t = immortality has also  
an entirely mod]n s\nd3 viz41 t space & 
"t are products ( ! und]/&+1 &1 !re=e1 c
 h no p[] ov] ! _s :i* produces !m2 = ! 
au?or is high] & mighti] ?an ! product4 
,! confession t all our k is conjecture 
does n simply mean t absolute & exact   
tru? rema9s conceal$ f u2 b is int5d$ at
 ! same "t to enc\rage u to draw z ne> z
 possible to ! et]nal v]ity by ev] tru] 
conjectures4 ,!re are degrees ( tru?1 & 
our surmises are nei!r absolutely true  
nor entirely false4 ,conjecture becomes 
error only :51 =gett+ ! inadequacy (    
human k1 we re/ cont5t ) x z a f9al     

solution2 ! ,socratic maxim1 ,i "k t ,i 
am ignorant1 %\ld n lead to despair+    
resignation b to c\rage\s fur!r inquiry4
 ,! duty ( speculation is to p5etrate   
deep] & deep] into ! secrets ( ! div9e1 
ev5 ?\gh ! ultimate revelation w n be   
giv5 u until ! h]eaft]4 ,! fitte/       
in/rum5t ( speculation is furni%$ by    
ma!matics1 9 its conception ( ! inf9ite 
& ! wond]s ( num]ical relations3 z on ! 
inf9ite sph]e c5t] & circumf]5ce        
co9cide1 s ,god's ess5ce is exalt$ above
 all opposites2 & z ! o!r numb]s are    
unfold$ f ! unit1 s ! f9ite proce$s by  
explication f ! inf9ite4 ,a controll+   
significance 9 ! s]ial con/ruction ( !  
_w is ascrib$ to ! t51 z ! sum ( ! fir/ 
f\r numb]s--z reason1 und]/&+1          
imag9ation1 & s5sibility are relat$ 9   
human cognition1 s ,god1 _s1 s\l1 &     
body1 or inf9ity1 ?\ght1 life1 & be+ are
 relat$ 9 ! objective sph]e2 s1 fur!r1 !
 absolute necessity ( ,god1 ! concrete  
necessity ( ! univ]se1 ! actuality (    
individuals1 & ! possibility ( matt]4   

,beside ! quat]n>y ! t]n also ex]cises  
its p[]--! _w divides into ! /ages (    
et]nity1 imp]i%ability1 & ! temporal _w 
( s5se1 or tru?1 probability1 &         
confusion4 ,! div9e tr9ity is reflect$  
ev]y:]e3 9 ! _w z creator1 creat$1 &    
love2 9 ! m9d z creative =ce1 concept1 &
 w4 ,! triunity ( ,god is v v>i\sly     
expla9$--z ! subject1 object1 & act (   
cognition2 z creative _s1 wisdom1 &     
goodness2 z be+1 p[]1 & de$2 &1         
pref]ably1 z unity1 equality1 & !       
comb9ation ( ! two4  ,god is relat$ to !
 _w z unity1 id5tity1 complicatio1 to   
o!rness1 div]sity1 explicatio1 z        
necessity to cont+5cy1 z complet$       
actuality to m]e possibility2 yet1 9 su*
 a way t ! o!rness p>ticipates 9 !      
unity1 & receives its reality f ?is1 & !
 unity does n h ! o!rness confront+ x1  
outside x4 ,god is triune only z !      
,creator ( ! _w1 & 9 relation to x2 9   
himself he is absolute unity & inf9ity1 
to :i* no?+ disp>ate /&s oppos$1 :i* is 
j z mu* all ?+s z n all ?+s1 & :i*1 z ! 

,areopagite _h taught ( old1 is bett]   
compreh5d$ by negations ?an by          
affirmations4 ,to d5y t he is light1    
tru?1 _s1 is m true ?an to affirm x1 =  
he is inf9itely great] ?an any?+ :i* c  
be express$ 9 words2 he is !            
,unutt]able1 ! ,unkn[able1 ! supremely  
"o & ! supremely absolute4 ,9 ! _w1 ea* 
?+ has ?+s great] & small] by its side1 
b ,god is ! absolutely greate/ &        
smalle/2 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciple ( !  
co9cid5tia oppositorum1 ! absolute      
maximum & ! absolute m9imum co9cide4 ,t 
:i* 9 ! _w exi/s z concretely det]m9ate 
& p>ticul>1 is 9 ,god 9 a simple &      
univ]sal way2 & t :i* "h is pres5t z    
incomplet$ /riv+1 & z possibility       
realiz+ itself by gradual developm5t1 is
 9 ,god complet$ activity4 ,he is !     
realization ( all possibility1 ! ,c-be  
or ,c-is 7posse/72 & s9ce ?is absolute  
actuality is ! presupposition & cause ( 
all f9ite ability & action1 x may be    
unconditionally designat$ ability 7posse
 ipsum71 9 anti!sis to all det]m9ate    

manife/ations ( =ce2 namely1 to all     
ability to be1 live1 feel1 ?9k1 & w4    
,h[ev] mu* ^! def9itions1 conceiv$ 9    
h>mony ) ! duali/ic view ( ,*ri/ianity1 
acc5tuate ! anti!sis betwe5 ,god & ! _w1
 ?is is else:]e mu* s(t5$1 nay directly 
d5i$1 9 favor ( a pan!i/ic view :i*     
po9ts =w>d to ! mod]n p]iod4 ,side by   
side ) ! ass]tion t !re is no proportion
 :atev] betwe5 ! inf9ite & ! f9ite1 !   
foll[+ navely pres5ts itself1 9 op5     
contradiction to ! =m]3 ,god excels !   
reason j z mu* z ! latt] is sup]ior to !
 und]/&+1 & ! und]/&+ to s5sibility1 or 
he is relat$ to ?\ght z ?\ght to life1 &
 life to be+4 ,nay1 ,nicolas makes ev5  
bold] /atem5ts ?an ^!1 :5 he calls !    
univ]se a s5su\s & mutable ,god1 man a  
human ,god or a humanly contract$       
inf9ity1 ! creation a creat$ ,god or a  
limit$ inf9ity2 ?us h9t+ t ,god & ! _w  
are at bottom ess5tially alike1 diff]+  
only 9 ! =m ( _! exi/5ce1 t x is "o & ! 
same be+ & action :i* manife/s itself   
absolutely 9 ,god1 relatively & 9 a     

limit$ way 9 ! sy/em ( creation4 ,x 0   
*iefly ?ree mod]n ideas :i* l$ ! ,cusan 
on f dualism to pan!ism--! b\ndlessness 
( ! univ]se1 ! connection ( all be+1 & !
 all-compreh5sive ri*ness (             
individuality4 ,endlessness belongs to !
 univ]se z well z to ,god1 only its     
endlessness is n an absolute "o1 beyond 
space & "t1 b weak5$ & concrete1 namely 
unlimit$ ext5sion 9 space & un5d+       
duration 9 "t4 ,simil>ly1 ! univ]se is  
unity1 yet n a unity absolutely above   
multiplicity & div]sity1 b "o :i* is    
divid$ into _m memb]s & obscur$ !reby4  
,ev5 ! individual is inf9ite 9 a c]ta9  
s5se2 =1 9 its own way1 x be>s 9 itself 
all t is1 x mirrors ! :ole _w f its     
limit$ po9t ( view1 is an abridg$1      
compress$ repres5tation ( ! univ]se4 ,z 
! memb]s ( ! body1 ! eye1 ! arm1 ! foot1
 int]act 9 ! close/ possible way1 & no  
"o ( !m c disp5se ) ! re/1 s ea* ?+ is  
connect$ ) ea*1 diff]5t f x & yet 9     
h>mony ) x1 s ea* conta9s all ! o!rs &  
is conta9$ by !m4 ,all is 9 all1 = all  

is 9 ! univ]se & 9 ,god1 z ! univ]se &  
,god 9 all4 ,9 a /ill high] degree man  
is a microcosm 7p>vus mundus71 a mirror 
( ! ,all1 s9ce he n m]ely1 l o!r be+s1  
actually has 9 himself all t exi/s1 b   
also has a k ( ?is ri*ness1 is capable (
 develop+ x into consci\s images ( ?+s4 
,& x is j ?is :i* con/itutes ! p]fection
 ( ! :ole & ( ! p>ts1 t ! high] is 9 !  
l[]1 ! cause 9 ! effect1 ! g5us 9 !     
individual1 ! s\l 9 ! body1 reason 9 !  
s5ses1 & conv]sely4 ,to p]fect1 is      
simply to make active a pot5tial        
possession1 to unfold capacities & to   
elevate ! unconsci\s into consci\sness4 
,"h we h ! g]m ( ! philosophy ( ,bruno &
 ( ,leibnitz4  ,z we h notic$ a /ruggle 
betwe5 two opposite t5d5cies1 "o        
duali/ic & ,*ri/ian1 "o pan!i/ic &      
mod]n1 9 ! !ology ( ,nicolas1 s at _m   
o!r po9ts a conflict betwe5 ! m$iaeval &
 ! mod]n view ( ! _w1 ( :i* our         
philosoph] is himself unconsci\s1       
becomes evid5t to ! /ud5t4 ,x is        
impossible to foll[ out ! details ( ?is 

int]e/+ opposition1 s we %all only      
attempt to di/+ui% 9 a r\gh way !       
beg9n+s ( ! new f ! remnants ( ! old4   
,mod]n is 8 int]e/ 9 ! anci5t           
philosoph]s1 ( :om ,py?agoras1 ,plato1 &
 ! ,neoplatoni/s especially attract him2
 mod]n1 aga91 8 int]e/ 9 natural        
sci5ce#a 7he tea*es n only !            
b\ndlessness ( ! _w1 b also ! motion ( !
 e>?72 8 high e/imation ( ma!matics1    
al?\gh he (t5 utilizes ?is m]ely 9 a    
fanciful symbolism ( numb]s2 8 optimism 
7! _w an image ( ! div9e1 ev]y?+ p]fect 
( its k9d1 ! bad simply a halt on ! way 
to ! good72 8 intellectualism 7kn[+ !   
primal function & *ief mission ( ! _s2  
fai? an undevelop$ k2 volition &        
emotion1 z is self-evid5t1 incid5tal    
results ( ?\ght2 k a lead+ back ( !     
creature to ,god z its s\rce1 h5ce !    
c\nt]p>t ( creation72 mod]n1 f9ally1 !  
=m & application giv5 to !              
,/oic-,neoplatonic concept (            
individuality1 & ! ideali/ic view :i*   
resolves ! objects ( ?\ght into products

 !re(4#b ,?is la/ position1 inde$1 is   
limit$ by ! l+]+ influ5ce ( nom9alism1  
:i* holds ! concepts ( ! m9d to be m]ely
 ab/ract copies1 & n ar*etypes ( ?+s4   
,moreov]1 explicatio1 evolutio1 unfold+1
 z yet does n always h ! mean+ (        
developm5t to-day1 ( progressive        
advance4 ,x d5otes1 q neutrally1 !      
production ( a multiplicity f a unity1 9
 :i* ! =m] has la9 conf9$1 no matt] :e!r
 ?is multiplicity & its procession      
signify enhancem5t or att5uation4 ,= !  
mo/ "p1 9 fact1 involution1 complicatio 
7:i*1 moreov]1 always means m]ely a     
primal1 g]m9al condition1 nev]1 z 9     
,leibnitz1 ! return !reto7 repres5ts ! m
 p]fect condition4 ,! *ief examples ( ! 
relation ( involution & evolution are ! 
pr9ciples 9 :i* sci5ce is involv$ & out 
( :i* x is unfold$2 ! unit1 :i* is      
relat$ to numb]s 9 a simil> way2 ! _s & 
! cognitive op]ations2 ,god & 8         
creatures4 ,h[ev] obscure & unskillful  
?is application ( ! idea ( developm5t   
may appe>1 yet x is indisputable t a    

discov]y ( great promise has be5 made1  
accompani$ by a joyful consci\sness (   
its fruitfulness4 ,( ! numb]less        
features :i* po9t backw>d to ! ,middle  
,ages1 only "o ne$ be m5tion$1 ! l>ge   
space tak5 up by speculations conc]n+ ! 
,god-man 7! :ole ?ird book ( ! ,de      
,docta ,ignorantia71 & by ^? conc]n+ !  
angels4 ,yet ev5 "h a *ange is          
noticeable1 = ! e>?ly & ! div9e are     
br\ght into mo/ intimate relation1 :ile 
9 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 = in/ance1 !y =m two  
entirely sep>ate worlds4 ,9 %ort1 ! new 
view ( ! _w appe>s 9 ,nicolas /ill b\nd 
on e h& by m$iaeval conceptions4 ,a     
c5tury & a half pass$ be=e ! fett]s1    
gr[n ru/y 9 ! mean:ile1 broke "u ! bold]
 t\* ( ,giordano ,bruno4  ,footnote #a3 
,! att5tion ( our philosoph] 0 call$ to 
! natural sci5ces1 & ?us also to        
geography1 :i* at ?is "t 0 spr++ into   
new life1 by 8 fri5d ,paul ,toscanelli1 
! ,flor5t9e4 ,nicolas 0 ! fir/ to h !   
map ( ,g]many engrav$ 7cf4 ,s4 ,ruge 9  
,globus1 vol4 lx41 ,no4 ,i1 #ahia71 :i*1

 h[ev]1 0 n complet$ until long aft] 8  
dea?1 & issu$ 9 #adia4  ,footnote #b3   
,on ! mod]n elem5ts 9 8 !ory ( ! /ate & 
( "r1 cf4 ,gi]ke1 ,das deuts*e          
,g5oss5s*aftsre*t1 vol4 iii4  ,,ii1     
#ahha4   #b4 ,! ,revival ( ,anci5t      
,philosophy & ! ,opposition to x4       
,italy is ! home ( ! ,r5aissance & !    
bir?place ( important new ideas :i* give
 ! intellectual life ( ! sixte5? c5tury 
its "* ( brave endeavor aft] high &     
di/ant ends4 ,! en?usiasm = anci5t      
lit]ature already ar\s$ by ! native     
poets1 ,dante 7#acjj71 ,petr>* 7#acda71 
& ,boccaccio 7#acej71 0 n\ri%$ by !     
influx ( ,greek s*ol>s1 "p ( :om came 9 
pursuance ( an invitation to ! ,c\ncil (
 ,f]r>a & ,flor5ce 7#adch7 call$ 9      
behalf ( ! union ( ! ,*ur*es 7among ^! 7
 ,ple?o & 8 pupil ,bess>ion2 ,nicolas   
,cusanus 0 "o ( ! legates invit$71 :ile 
"p 7 fugitives f ,con/ant9ople aft] its 
capture by ! ,turks 9 #adec4 ,!         
,platonic ,academy1 ^: mo/ celebrat$    
memb]1 ,m>silius ,fic9us1 translat$     

,plato & ! ,neoplatoni/s into ,lat91 0  
f\nd$ 9 #addj on ! sugge/ion ( ,georgius
 ,gemi/us ,ple?o#a "u ! patronage (     
,cosimo dei ,m$ici4 ,! writ+s ( ,ple?o  
7,on ! ,di/9ction betwe5 ,plato &       
,ari/otle71 ( ,bess>ion 7,adv]sus       
,calumniatorem ,platonis1 #adfi1 9 answ]
 to ! ,comp>atio ,ari/otelis et         
,platonis1 #adfd1 an attack by !        
,ari/otelian1 ,george ( ,trebizond1 on  
,ple?o's "w71 & ( ,fic9us 7,!ologia     
,platonica1 #adhb71 %[ t ! ,platonism   
:i* !y favor$ 0 color$ by religi\s1     
my/ical1 & ,neoplatonic elem5ts4 ,if =  
,bess>ion & ,fic9us1 j z = ! ,eclectics 
( ! lat] ,academy1 !re 0 sc>cely any    
ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 ! tea*+s (    
,plato1 ( ,ari/otle1 & ( ,*ri/ianity2   
?is confusion ( het]og5e\s elem5ts 0    
soon c>ri$ mu* f>!r1 :5 ! two ,picos    
7,john ,pico ( ,mir&ola1 di$ #adid1 & 8 
nephew ,francis1 di$ #aecc7 & ,johann   
,reu*l9 7,de ,v]bo ,mirifico1 #adid2 ,de
 ,arte ,cabbali/ica1 #aeag71 :o _h be5  
influ5c$ by ! =m]1 introduc$ ! secret   

doctr9es ( ! ,jewi% ,cabala into !      
,platonic philosophy1 & ,cornelius      
,agrippa von ,nette%eim ( ,cologne 7,de 
,occulta ,philosophia1 #aeaj2 cf4       
,sigw>t1 ,kle9e ,s*rift51 vol4 i4 p4 #a 
seq47 made ! mixture /ill worse by !    
addition ( ! magic art4 ,! impulse ( !  
mod]n _s to subdue nature is "h already 
app>5t1 only t x %[s inexp]i5ce 9 !     
selection ( its in/rum5ts2 be=e long1   
h[ev]1 nature w will+ly unveil to       
obs]vation & calm reflection ! secrets  
:i* %e does n yield to ! compulsion (   
magic4  ,footnote #a3 ,ple?o di$ at an  
advanc$ age 9 #adej4 ,8 *ief "w1 !      
,greek3 ,nomoi1 0 giv5 to ! flames by 8 
,ari/otelian oppon5t1 ,georgius         
,s*ol>ius1 surnam$ ,g5nadius1 ,patri>* (
 ,con/ant9ople4 ,portions ( x only1 :i* 
_h previ\sly become kn[n1 h be5 pres]v$4
 ,on ,ple?o's life & tea*+s1 cf4 ,fritz 
,s*ultze1 ,g4,g4 ,ple?on1 ,j5a1 #ahgd4  
,a simil> romantic figure 0 ,phillipus  
,aureolus ,!ophra/us ,bomba/            
,p>acelsus#a von ,hoh5heim 7#adic-aeda71

 a travel$ ,swiss1 :o endeavor$ to re=m 
m$ic9e f ! /&po9t ( *emi/ry4 ,philosophy
 = ,p>acelsus is k ( nature1 9 :i*      
obs]vation & ?\ght mu/ co-op]ate2       
speculation ap>t f exp]i5ce & wor%ip ( !
 pap]-wisdom ( ! anci5ts lead to no     
result4 ,! _w is a liv+ :ole1 :i*1 l    
man1 ! microcosm1 9 :om ! :ole cont5t ( 
! macrocosm is conc5trat$ z 9 an        
extract1 runs its life c\rse4 ,orig9ally
 all ?+s 7 promiscu\sly int]m+l$ 9 a    
unity1 ! ,god-creat$ prima mat]ia1 z    
?\gh inclos$ 9 a g]m1 :5ce ! manifold1 )
 its v>i\s =ms & colors1 proce$$ by     
sep>ation4 ,! developm5t !n proce$s 9   
su* a way t 9 ea* g5us t is p]fect$ :i* 
is posit$ !re91 & does n cease until1 at
 ! la/ day1 all t is possible 9 nature &
 hi/ory %all h fulfill$ itself4 ,b ! "o 
indwell+ life ( nature lives 9 all !    
manifold =ms2 ! same laws rule 9 ! human
 body z 9 ! univ]se2 t :i* works        
secretly 9 ! =m] lies op5 to ! view 9 ! 
latt]1 & ! _w gives ! clew to ! k ( man4
 ,natural becom+ is br\ght ab\t by !    

*emical sep>ation & com+ toge!r (       
sub/ances2 ! ultimate con/itu5ts reveal$
 by analysis are ! ?ree fundam5tal      
sub/ances or primitive ess5ces1         
quicksilv]1 sulphur1 & salt1 by :i*1    
h[ev]1 some?+ m pr9cipiant is und]/ood  
?an ! empirical sub/ances be>+ ^! names3
 m]curius means t :i* makes bodies      
liquid1 sulfur1 t :i* makes !m          
combu/ible1 sal1 t :i* makes !m fix$ &  
rigid4 ,f ^! are comp\nd$ ! f\r elem5ts1
 ea* ( :i* is rul$ by elem5tal          
spirits--e>? by gnomes or pygmies1 wat] 
by und9es or nymphs1 air by sylphs1 fire
 by salam&]s 7cf4 ) ?is1 & )            
,p>acelsus's !ory ( ! _w z a :ole1      
,fau/'s two monologues 9 ,goe!'s drama72
 :i* are to be und]/ood z =ces or       
sublimat$ sub/ances1 n z p]sonal1       
demoniacal be+s4 ,to ea* individual be+ 
!re is ascrib$ a vital pr9ciple1 !      
,ar*eus1 an individualization ( ! g5]al 
=ce ( nature1 ,vulcanus2 s also to m54  
,disease is a *eck+ ( ?is vital pr9ciple
 by contr>y p[]s1 :i* are p>tly ( a     

t]re/rial & p>tly ( a sid]eal nature2 & 
! *oice ( m$ic9es is to be det]m9$ by _!
 ability to support ! ,ar*eus aga9/ its 
enemies4 ,man is1 h[ev]1 sup]ior to     
nature--he is n m]ely ! univ]sal animal1
 inasmu* z he is completely t :i* o!r   
be+s are only 9 a fragm5t>y way2 b1 z ! 
image ( ,god1 he has also an et]nal     
elem5t 9 him1 & is capable ( atta9+     
p]fection ?r\gh ! ex]cise ( 8 rational  
judgm5t4 ,p>acelsus di/+ui%es ?ree      
worlds3 ! elem5tal or t]re/rial1 ! a/ral
 or cele/ial1 & ! spiritual or div9e4   
,to ! ?ree worlds1 :i* /& 9 relations ( 
sympa!tic int]action1 !re correspond 9  
man ! body1 :i* n\ri%es itself on !     
elem5ts1 ! _s1 ^: imag9ation receives   
its food1 s5se & ?\ghts1 f ! spirits ( !
 />s1 &1 f9ally1 ! immortal s\l1 :i*    
f9ds its n\ri%m5t 9 fai? 9 ,*ri/4 ,h5ce 
natural philosophy1 a/ronomy1 & !ology  
are ! pill>s ( an?ropology1 & ultimately
 ( m$ic9e4 ,?is fanta/ic physic (       
,p>acelsus f\nd _m adh]5ts bo? 9 !ory & 
9 practice4#b ,among ^? :o accept$ &    

develop$ x may be nam$ ,r4 ,fludd 7di$  
#afcg71 & ! two ,van ,helmonts1 fa!r &  
son 7di$ #afdd & #afii74  ,footnote #a3 
,on ,p>acelsus cf4 ,sigw>t1 ,kle9e      
,s*rift51 vol4 i4 p4 #be seq42 ,euck51  
,beitrge zur ,ges*i*t$] neu]5           
,philosophie1 p4 #cb seq42 ,lasswitz1   
,ges*i*te d] ,atomi/ik1 vol4 i4 p4 #bid 
seq4  ,footnote #b3 ,! influ5ce (       
,p>acelsus1 z ( ,vives & ,campanella1 is
 evid5t 9 ! great educator1 ,amos       
,com5ius 7,kom5sky1 #aeib-afgj71 ^:     
pansophical treatises appe>$ 9 #afcg-fh4
 ,on ,com5ius cf4 ,papp5heim1 ,b]l91    
#ahga2 ,kvacsala1 ,doctor's             
,diss]tation1 ,leipsic1 #ahhf2 ,walt]   
,muell]1 ,dresd51 #ahhg4  ,beside !     
,platonic philosophy1 o!rs ( ! anci5t   
sy/ems 7 also reviv$4 ,/oicism 0 comm5d$
 by ,ju/us ,lipsius 7di$ #afjf7 & ,casp>
 ,s*oppe 7,scioppius1 born #aefb72      
,epicureanism 0 reviv$ by ,gass5di      
7#afdg71 & rhetoriz+ logicians w5t back 
to ,cic]o & ,qu9tilian4 ,among ! latt] 7
 ,laur5tius ,valla 7di$ #adeg72 ,r4     

,agricola 7di$ #adhe72 ! ,spani>d1      
,ludovicus ,vives 7#aeca71 :o ref]r$    
inquiry f ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle to !   
me?odical utilization ( exp]i5ce2 &     
,m>ius ,nizolius 7#aeec71 ^: ,antib>b>us
 0 reissu$ by ,leibnitz 9 #afgj4  ,!    
adh]5ts ( ,ari/otle 7 divid$ into two   
p>ties1 "o ( :i* reli$ on ! naturali/ic 
int]pretation ( ! ,greek exegete1       
,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias 7ab\t #bjj       
,a4,d471 ! o!r on ! pan!i/ic            
int]pretation ( ! ,arabian comm5tator1  
,av]ros 7di$ #aaih74 ,! conflict ov] !  
"q ( immortality1 c>ri$ on especially 9 
,padua1 0 ! culm9ation ( ! battle4 ,!   
,alex&ri/ ass]t$ t1 accord+ to          
,ari/otle1 ! s\l 0 mortal1 ! ,av]roi/s1 
t ! rational "p :i* is common to all m5 
0 immortal2 :ile to ?is 7 add$ ! fur!r  
que/ions1 if & h[ ! ,ari/otelian view   
c\ld be reconcil$ ) ! ,*ur* doctr9e1 :i*
 dem&$ a cont9u$ p]sonal exi/5ce4 ,! mo/
 em95t ,ari/otelian ( ! ,r5aissance1    
,petrus ,pomponatius 7,de ,immortalite  
,animae1 #aeaf2 ,de ,fato1 ,lib]o       

,arbitrio1 ,provid5tia et               
,pra$e/9atione71 0 on ! side ( !        
,alex&ri/s4 ,a*ill9i & ,niphus f\ght on 
! o!r side4 ,caesalp9 7di$ #afjc71      
,zab>ella1 & ,cremon9i assum$ an        
int]m$iate1 or1 at lea/1 a less decid$  
position4 ,/ill o!rs1 z ,fab] ,/apul5sis
 9 ,p>is 7#aejj71 & ,desid]ius ,erasmus 
7#aebj71 7 m int]e/$ 9 secur+ a correct 
text ( ,ari/otle's works ?an 9 8        
philosophical pr9ciples4         99     
99       99       99       99  ,among ! 
,anti-,ari/otelians only two fam\s names
 ne$ be m5tion$1 t ( ! influ5tial       
,fr5*man1 ,petrus ,ramus1 & ! ,g]man1   
,taurellus4 ,pi]re de la ,rame          
7assass9at$ 9 ! massacre ( ,/4          
,b>?olomew1 #aegb71 attack$ ! 7unnatural
 & useless7 ,ari/otelian logic 9 8      
,ari/otelicae ,animadv]siones1 #aedc1   
object+1 ) ! ,cic]onians m5tion$ above1 
to ! sep>ation ( logic & rhetoric2 &    
attempt$ a new logic ( 8 own1 9 8       
,in/itutiones ,dialecticae1 :i*1 9 spite
 ( its =malism1 ga9$ acceptance1        

especially 9 ,g]many4#a ,nicolaus       
,oe*sle91 ,lat9iz$ ,taurellus 7born 9   
#aedg at ,mmpelg>d2 at 8 dea?1 9 #afjf1 
pr(essor ( m$ic9e 9 ! ,univ]sity (      
,altdorf71 /ood q alone because ( 8     
indep5d5t position 9 ref]5ce to all     
philosophical & religi\s p>ties4 ,8 mo/ 
important works 7 8 ,philosophiae       
,triumphus1 #aegc2 ,synopsis ,ari/otelis
 ,metaphysicae1 #aeif2 ,alpes ,caesae   
7aga9/ ,caesalp91 & ! title punn+ on 8  
"n71 #aeig2 & ,de ,r]um ,aet]nitate1    
#afjd4b ,! ?\ght ( ,taurellus incl9es   
t[>d ! ideal ( a ,*ri/ian philosophy2   
:i*1 h[ev]1 ,s*ola/icism1 9 8 view1 did 
n atta91 inasmu* z its ?\ght 0 hea!n 9  
its bl9d rev]5ce = ,ari/otle1 ev5 ?\gh  
its fai? 0 ,*ri/ian4 ,9 ord] to heal ?is
 brea* betwe5 ! head & ! he>t1 x is     
necess>y 9 religion to return f         
confessional di/9ctions to ,*ri/ianity  
itself1 & 9 philosophy1 to ab&on        
au?ority = ! reason4 ,we %\ld n seek to 
be ,lu!rans or ,calv9i/s1 b simply      
,*ri/ians1 & we %\ld judge on rational  

gr\nds1 in/ead ( foll[+ ,ari/otle1      
,av]ros1 or ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,anyone :o  
does n aim at ! h>mony ( !ology &       
philosophy1 is nei!r a ,*ri/ian nor a   
philosoph]4 ,"o & ! same ,god is !      
primal s\rce ( bo? rational & reveal$   
tru?4 ,philosophy is ! basis ( !ology1  
!ology ! crit]ion & complem5t (         
philosophy4 ,! "o />ts ) effects evid5t 
to ! s5ses & leads to ! supras5sible1 to
 ! ,fir/ ,cause2 ! o!r foll[s ! rev]se  
c\rse4 ,to philosophy belongs all t     
,adam knew or c\ld "k be=e ! fall2 _h   
!re be5 no s91 !re w\ld h be5 no o!r ?an
 philosophical k4 ,b aft] ! fall1 !     
reason1 :i* in=ms u1 x is true1 ( !     
moral law1 b n ( ! div9e purpose (      
salvation1 w\ld h l$ u to despair1 s9ce 
nei!r puni%m5t nor virtue c\ld ju/ify u1
 if revelation did n tea* u ! wond]s (  
grace & r$emption4 ,al?\gh ,taurellus   
?us s(t5s ! opposition betwe5 !ology &  
philosophy1 :i* _h be5 mo/ %>ply        
express$ 9 ! doctr9e ( tw(old tru? 7t   
:i* is true 9 philosophy may be false 9 

!ology1 & conv]sely71 & endeavors to br+
 ! two into h>mony1 ! anti!sis betwe5   
,god & ! _w /ill rema9s = him immovably 
fix$4 ,god is n ?+s1 ?\gh he is all4 ,he
 is pure affirmation2 all )\t him is    
compos$1 z x 71 ( be+ & no?+1 & c nei!r 
be nor be kn[n indep5d5tly3 negatio non 
nihil e/1 alias nec esset nec           
intellig]etur1 s$ limitatio e/          
affirmationis4 ,simple be+ or simple    
affirmation is equival5t to inf9ity1    
et]nity1 unity1 uniqu5ess1--prop]ties   
:i* d n belong to ! _w4 ,he :o posits   
?+s z et]nal1 sublates ,god4 ,god & ! _w
 are oppos$ to ea* o!r z inf9ite cause &
 f9ite effect4 ,moreov]1 z x is our _s  
:i* philosophizes & n ,god's _s 9 u1 s !
 fai? ?r\gh :i* man appropriates ,*ri/'s
 m]it is a free action ( ! human _s1 !  
capacity = :i* is inborn1 n infus$ f    
above2 9 x1 ,god acts m]ely z an        
auxili>y or remote cause1 by remov+ !   
ob/acles :i* h9d] ! op]ation ( ! p[] (  
fai?4 ,) ?is anti-pan!i/ic t5d5cy he    
comb9es an anti-intellectuali/ic "o--be+

 & production prec$es & /&s high] ?an   
contemplation2 ,god's activity does n   
consi/ 9 ?\ght b 9 production1 & human  
bless$ness1 n 9 ! k b ! love ( ,god1 ev5
 ?\gh ! latt] presupposes ! =m]4 ,:ile  
man1 z an end 9 himself1 is immortal--& 
! :ole man1 n 8 s\l m]ely--! _w ( s5se1 
:i* has be5 creat$ only = ! cons]vation 
( man 78 procreation & probation71 mu/  
disappe>2 above ?is _w1 h[ev]1 a high]  
re>s its walls to subs]ve man's et]nal  
happ9ess4  ,footnote #a3 ,on ,ramus cf4 
,wadd+ton's treatises1 "o 9 ,lat91      
,p>is1 #ahdi1 ! o!r 9 ,fr5*1 ,p>is1     
#ahee4  ,footnote #b3 ,s*mid ,s*w>z5burg
 has writt5 on ,taurellus1 #ahfj1 #b;d  
ed41 #ahfd4  ,! high reg>d :i* ,leibnitz
 express$ = ,taurellus may be 9 "p      
expla9$ by ! _m anticipations ( 8 own   
?\ghts to be f\nd 9 ! e>li] writ]4 ,!   
intimate relation into :i* s5sibility & 
und]/&+ are br\ght is an in/ance ( ?is f
 ! !ory ( k4 ,receptivity is n          
passivity1 b activity arre/$ 7?r\gh !   
body74 ,all k is inborn2 all m5 are     

pot5tial philosoph]s 7&1 s f> z !y are  
loyal to consci5ce1 ,*ri/ians72 ! _s is 
a ?9k+ & a ?9kable univ]se4 ,taurellus's
 philosophy ( nature1 recogniz+ !       
relative tru? ( atomism1 makes ! _w     
consi/ ( manifold simple sub/ances      
comb9$ into =mal unity3 he calls x a    
well con/ruct$ sy/em ( :oles4 ,a        
discussion ( ! orig9 ( evil is also     
giv51 ) a solution bas$ on ! exi/5ce &  
misuse ( fre$om4 ,f9ally1 x is to be    
m5tion$ to ! great cr$it ( ,taurellus1  
t1 l 8 y\ng] contempor>ies1 ,galileo &  
,kepl]1 he vigor\sly oppos$ !           
,ari/otelian & ,s*ola/ic animation ( !  
mat]ial _w & ! an?ropomorphic conception
 ( its =ces1 ?us prep>+ ! way = ! mod]n 
view ( nature to be p]fect$ by ,newton4 
#c4 ,! ,italian ,philosophy ( ,nature4  
,we turn n[ f ! re/or]s ( anci5t        
doctr9es & _! oppon5ts to ! m5 :o1      
cont9u+ ! opposition to ! au?ority (    
,ari/otle1 po9t out new pa?s = ! /udy ( 
nature4 ,! physician1 ,hi]onymus        
,c>danus ( ,milan 7#aeja-gf71 ^:        

incl9ations t[>d ! fanciful 7 re/ra9$1  
?\gh n suppress$1 by 8 ma!matical tra9+1
 may be consid]$ ! =]unn] ( ! s*ool4    
,:ile ! p %\ld accept ! dogmas ( ! ,*ur*
 ) submissive fai?1 ! ?9k] may & %\ld   
subord9ate all ?+s to ! tru?4 ,! wise   
man belongs to t r>e class :o nei!r     
deceive nor are deceiv$2 o!rs are ei!r  
deceiv]s or deceiv$1 or bo?4 ,9 8 !ory (
 nature1 ,c>danus advances two          
pr9ciples3 "o passive1 matt] 7! ?ree    
cold & moi/ elem5ts71 & an active1      
=mative "o1 ! _w-s\l1 :i*1 p]vad+ ! ,all
 & br++ x into unity1 appe>s z w>m? &   
light4 ,! causes ( motion are attraction
 & repulsion1 :i* 9 high] be+s become   
love & hate4 ,ev5 sup]human spirits1 !  
demons1 are subject to ! me*anical laws 
( nature4  ,! /&>d be>] ( ! ,italian    
philosophy ( nature 0 ,b]n>d9us         
,telesius#a ( ,cos5za 7#aejh-hh2 ,de    
,r]um ,natura juxta ,propria ,pr9cipia1 
#aefe1 enl>g$ #aehf71 ! f\nd] ( a       
sci5tific society 9 ,naples call$ !     
,telesian1 or aft] ! "n ( 8 bir?place1 !

 ,cos5tian ,academy4 ,telesius ma9ta9$ t
 ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e mu/ be replac$  
by an unprejudic$ empiricism2 t nature  
mu/ be expla9$ f itself1 & by z few     
pr9ciples z possible4 ,beside in]t      
matt]1 ?is requires only two active     
=ces1 on ^: int]action all becom+ & all 
life dep5d4 ,^! are w>m?1 :i* exp&s1 &  
cold1 :i* contracts2 ! =m] resides 9 !  
sun & !nce proce$s1 ! latt] is situat$ 9
 ! e>?4 ,al?\gh ,telesius ackn[l$ges an 
immat]ial1 immortal s\l1 he puts !      
emphasis on s5su\s exp]i5ce1 )\t :i* !  
und]/&+ is incapable ( atta9+ c]ta9 k4  
,he is a s5sationali/ bo? 9 ! !ory ( k &
 9 e?ics1 hold+ ! functions ( judgm5t & 
?\ght d$ucible f ! fundam5tal p[] (     
p]ception1 & consid]+ ! virtues diff]5t 
manife/ations ( ! in/9ct (              
self-pres]vation 7:i* he ascribes to    
matt] z well74  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 on   
,telesius1 ,flor5t9e1 #b vols41 ,naples1
 #ahgb-gd2 ,k4 ,heil&1 ,erk5ntnisslehre 
und ,e?ik des ,telesius1 ,doctor's      
,diss]tation at ,leipsic1 #ahia4 ,fur!r1

 ,rixn] & ,sib]1 ,leb5 und ,lehrme9ung5 
b]hmt] ,physik] am ,ende des ,,xvi4 und 
am ,anfang des ,,xvii4 ,jahrhund]ts1    
,sulzba* 7#ahai-bf71 #g ,hefte1 #b;d    
ed41 #ahbi4 ,hefte #b-f discuss         
,c>danus1 ,telesius1 ,patritius1 ,bruno1
 & ,campanella2 ! fir/ is devot$ to     
,p>acelsus1 & ! sev5? to ! old] ,van    
,helmont 7,joh4 ,bapt474  ,) ! "n (     
,telesius we usually associate t (      
,franciscus ,patritius 7#aebi-ig71      
pr(essor ( ! ,platonic philosophy 9     
,f]r>a & ,rome 7,discussiones           
,p]ipateticae1 #aeha2 ,nova de ,univ]sis
 ,philosophia1 #aeia71 :o1 comb9+       
,neoplatonic & ,telesian pr9ciples1     
holds t ! incorporeal or spiritual light
 emanates f ! div9e orig9al light1 9 :i*
 all reality is sem9ally conta9$2 !     
heav5ly or e!real light f ! incorporeal2
 & ! e>?ly or corporeal1 f !            
heav5ly--:ile ! orig9al light divides   
into ?ree p]sons1 ! ,"o & ,all          
7,unomnia71 unity or life1 & _s4  ,!    
,italian philosophy ( nature culm9ates 9

 ,bruno & ,campanella1 ( :om ! =m]1     
al?\gh he is ! e>li]1 appe>s ! m advanc$
 because ( 8 fre] attitude t[>d ! ,*ur*4
 ,giordano ,bruno 0 born 9 #aedh at     
,nola1 & educat$ at ,naples2 ab&on+ 8   
memb]%ip 9 ! ,dom9ican ,ord]1 he liv$1 )
 v>i\s *anges ( resid5ce1 9 ,france1    
,engl&1 & ,g]many4 ,return+ to 8 native 
l&1 he 0 arre/$ 9 ,v5ice & imprison$ =  
sev5 ye>s at ,rome1 :]e1 on ,febru>y    
#ag1 #afjj1 he suff]$ dea? at ! /ake1   
refus+ to recant4 7,! same fate ov]took 
8 fell[-c\ntryman1 ,van9i1 9 #afai1 at  
,t\l\se47 ,besides ?ree didactic poems 9
 ,lat9 7,frank=t1 #aeia71 ! ,italian    
dialogues1 ,della ,causa1 ,pr9cipio ed  
,uno1 ,v5ice1 #aehd 7,g]man translation 
by ,lasson1 #ahgb71 are ( *ief          
importance4 ,! ,italian treatises h be5 
edit$ by ,wagn]1 ,leipsic1 #ahbi1 & by  
,de ,lag>de1 #b vols41 ,gtt+51 #ahhh2 ! 
,lat9 appe>$ at ,naples1 9 #c vols41    
#ahhj1 #ahhf1 & #ahia4 ,( a passionate &
 imag9ative nature1 ,bruno 0 n an       
ess5tially creative ?9k]1 b borr[$ !    

ideas :i* he proclaim$ ) burn+ en?usiasm
 & l(ty eloqu5ce1 & ?r\gh :i* he has    
ex]cis$ great influ5ce on lat]          
philosophy1 f ,telesius & ,nicolas1     
compla9+ ! :ile t ! prie/ly g>b ( !     
latt] sometimes h9d]$ ! free movem5t ( 8
 ?\ght4 ,beside ^! ?9k]s he has a high  
reg>d = ,py?agoras1 ,plato1 ,lucretius1 
,raymundus ,lullus1 & ,cop]nicus 7di$   
#aedc74a ,he =ms ! transition l9k betwe5
 ,nicolas ( ,cusa & ,leibnitz1 z also ! 
l9k betwe5 ,c>danus & ,sp9oza4 ,to      
,sp9oza ,bruno (f]$ ! naturali/ic       
conception ( ,god 7,god is ! fir/ cause 
imman5t 9 ! univ]se1 to :i*             
self-manife/ation or self-revelation is 
ess5tial2 ,he is natura naturans1 !     
numb]less worlds are natura naturata72  
,leibnitz he anticipat$ by 8 doctr9e ( !
 monads1 ! individual1 imp]i%able       
elem5ts ( ! exi/5t1 9 :i* matt] & =m1   
incorrectly divorc$ by ,ari/otle z ?\gh 
two anti!tical pr9ciples1 con/itute "o  
unity4 ,! *>act]i/ic traits ( !         
philosophy ( ,bruno are ! lack (        

diff]5tiation betwe5 pan!i/ic &         
individuali/ic elem5ts1 ! m$iaeval      
animation & endlessness ( ! _w1 &1      
f9ally1 ! religi\s relation to ! univ]se
 or ! extravagant deification ( nature  
7nature & ! _w are entirely synonym\s1 !
 ,all1 ! _w-s\l1 & ,god ne>ly s1 :ile   
ev5 matt] is call$ a div9e be+74#b      
,footnote #a3 ,nicolaus ,cop]nicus      
7,kopp]nik2 #adgc-aedc7 0 born at ,?orn2
 /udi$ a/ronomy1 law1 & m$ic9e at       
,crac[1 ,bologna1 & ,padua2 & di$ a     
,canon ( ,frau5b]g4 ,8 treatise1 ,de    
,revolutionibus ,orbium ,caele/ium1 :i* 
0 d$icat$ to ,pope ,paul ,,iii41 appe>$ 
at ,nuremb]g 9 #aedc1 ) a preface add$  
to x by ! prea*]1 ,&reas ,osi&]1 :i*    
calls ! helioc5tric sy/em m]ely an      
hypo!sis advanc$ z a basis = a/ronomical
 calculations4 ,cop]nicus rea*$ 8 !ory r
 by speculation ?an by obs]vation2 its  
fir/ sugge/ion came f ! ,py?agorean     
doctr9e ( ! motion ( ! e>?4 ,on         
,cop]nicus cf4 ,leop4 ,pr[e1 vol4 i4    
,cop]nicus ,leb51 vol4 ii4 7,urkund571  

,b]l91 #ahhc-hd2 & ,k4 ,lohmey] 9       
,sybel's ,hi/oris*e ,zeits*rift1 vol4   
lvii41 #ahhg4  ,footnote #b3 ,cf4 on    
,bruno1 ,h4 ,brunnh(] 7some:at too      
en?usia/ic71 ,leipsic1 #ahhb2 also      
,sigw>t1 ,kle9e ,s*rift51 vol4 i4 p4 #di
 seq4  ,bruno completes ! ,cop]nican    
picture ( ! _w by do+ away ) !          
motionless circle ( fix$ />s ) :i*      
,cop]nicus1 & ev5 ,kepl]1 _h ?\ght our  
sol> sy/em surr\nd$1 & by op5+ up ! view
 into ! immeasurability ( ! _w4 ,) ?is !
 ,ari/otelian anti!sis ( ! t]re/rial & !
 cele/ial is de/roy$4 ,! inf9ite space  
7fill$ ) ! ae!r7 is trav]s$ by numb]less
 bodies1 no "o ( :i* con/itutes ! c5t] (
 ! _w4 ,! fix$ />s are suns1 &1 l our   
own1 surr\nd$ by planets4 ,! />s are =m$
 ( ! same mat]ials z ! e>?1 & are mov$  
by _! own s\ls or =ms1 ea* a liv+ be+1  
ea* also ! resid5ce ( inf9itely num]\s  
liv+ be+s ( v>i\s degrees ( p]fection1 9
 ^: ranks man by no means takes ! fir/  
place4 ,all organisms are compos$ (     
m9ute elem5ts1 call$ m9ima or monads2   

ea* monad is a mirror ( ! ,all2 ea* at  
once corporeal & s\l-l1 matt] & =m1 ea* 
et]nal2 _! comb9ations alone be+ 9      
con/ant *ange4 ,! univ]se is b\ndless 9 
"t1 z 9 space2 developm5t nev] ceases1 =
 ! fullness ( =ms :i* slumb] 9 ! womb ( 
matt] is inexhau/ible4 ,! ,absolute is !
 primal unity1 exalt$ above all         
anti!ses1 f :i* all creat$ be+ is       
unfold$ & 9 :i* x rema9s includ$4 ,all  
is "o1 all is out ( ,god & 9 ,god4 ,9 ! 
liv+ unity ( ! univ]se1 also1 ! two     
sides1 ! spiritual 7_w-s\l71 & !        
corporeal 7univ]sal matt]71 are         
di/+ui%able1 b n sep>ate4 ,! _w-reason  
p]vades 9 its omnipres5ce ! greate/ & ! 
smalle/1 b 9 v>y+ degrees4 ,x weaves all
 into "o great sy/em1 s t if we consid] 
! :ole1 ! conflicts & contradictions :i*
 rule 9 p>ticul>s disappe>1 resolv$ into
 ! mo/ p]fect h>mony4 ,:oev] ?us reg>ds 
! _w1 becomes fill$ ) rev]5ce = !       
,inf9ite & b5ds 8 w to ! div9e law--f   
true sci5ce proce$ true religion & true 
morality1 ^? ( ! spiritual h]o1 ( !     

h]oic sage4  ,?omas ,campanella#a       
7#aefh-afci7 0 no less dep5d5t on       
,nicolas & ,telesius ?an ,bruno4 ,a     
,calabrian by bir? l ,telesius1 ^:      
writ+s fill$ him ) av]sion to ,ari/otle1
 a ,dom9ican l ,bruno1 he 0 depriv$ ( 8 
fre$om on an unf\nd$ suspicion (        
conspiracy aga9/ ! ,spani% rule1 sp5t   
tw5ty-sev5 ye>s 9 prison1 & di$ 9 ,p>is 
aft] a %ort p]iod ( quiet4 ,r5ew+ an old
 idea1 ,campanella direct$ att5tion f ! 
writt5 volume ( ,scripture to ! liv+    
book ( nature z be+ also a div9e        
revelation4 ,!ology re/s on fai? 79     
!ology1 ,campanella1 9 accordance ) !   
traditions ( 8 ord]1 foll[s ,?omas      
,aqu9as72 philosophy is bas$ on         
p]ception1 :i* 9 its in/rum5tal "p      
comprises ma!matics & logic1 & 9 its    
real "p1 ! doctr9e ( nature & ( morals1 
:ile metaphysics treats ( ! highe/      
presuppositions & ! ultimate gr\nds1--! 
pro-pr9ciples1 ,campanella />ts1 z      
,augu/9e be=e him & ,desc>tes 9 lat]    
times1 f ! indisputable c]titude ( !    

_s's own exi/5ce1 f :i* he rises to !   
c]titude ( ,god's exi/5ce4 ,on ?is fir/ 
c]ta9 tru? ( my own exi/5ce !re foll[   
?ree o!rs3 my nature consi/s 9 ! ?ree   
functions ( p[]1 k1 & volition2 ,i am   
f9ite & limit$1 might1 wisdom1 & love   
are 9 man con/antly int]m+l$ ) _!       
opposites1 weakness1 fooli%ness1 & hate2
 my p[]1 k1 & volition d n ext5d beyond 
! pres5t4 ,! be+ ( ,god foll[s f ! idea 
( ,god 9 u1 :i* c h be5 d]iv$ f no o!r  
?an an inf9ite s\rce4 ,x w\ld be        
impossible = s small a "p ( ! univ]se z 
man to produce f himself ! idea ( a be+ 
incomp>ably great] ?an ! :ole univ]se4  
,i atta9 a k ( ,god's nature f my own by
 ?9k+ away f ! latt]1 9 :i*1 z 9 ev]y?+ 
f9ite1 be+ & non-be+ are int]m+l$1 e    
limitation & negation1 by rais+ to      
inf9ity my positive fundam5tal p[]s1    
posse1 cognosc]e1 & velle1 or pot5tia1  
sapi5tia1 & amor1 & by transf]r+ !m to  
him1 :o is pure affirmation1 ens        
entirely )\t non-ens4 ,?us ,i rea* z !  
?ree pro-pr9ciples or primalities ( !   

exi/5t or ! ,godhead1 omnipot5ce1       
omnisci5ce1 & inf9ite love4 ,b !        
infrahuman _w may also be judg$ aft] !  
analogy ( our fundam5tal faculties4 ,!  
univ]se & all its p>ts possess s\ls2 !re
 is naught )\t s5sation2 consci\sness1 x
 is true1 is lack+ 9 ! l[] creatures1 b 
!y d n lack life1 feel+1 & desire1 = x  
is impossible = ! animate to come f !   
inanimate4 ,ev]y?+ loves & hates1       
desires & avoids4 ,plants are motionless
 animals1 & _! roots1 m\?s4 ,corporeal  
motion spr+s f an obscure1 unconsci\s   
impulse ( self-pres]vation2 ! heav5ly   
bodies circle ab\t ! sun z ! c5t] (     
sympa?y2 space itself seeks a cont5t    
7horror vacui74  ,footnote #a3          
,campanella's works h be5 edit$ by ,al4 
d',ancona1 ,tur91 #ahed1 ,cf4 ,sigw>t1  
,kle9e ,s*rift51 vol4 i4 p4 #abe seq4   
,! m imp]fect a ?+ is1 ! m weak5$ is !  
div9e be+ 9 x by non-be+ & cont+5cy4 ,! 
entrance ( ! naught into ! div9e reality
 takes place by degrees4 ,fir/ ,god     
projects f himself ! ideal or ar*etypal 

_w 7mundus ar*etypus71 i4e41 ! totality 
( ! possible4 ,f ?is ideal _w proce$s ! 
metaphysical _w ( et]nal intellig5ces   
7mundus m5talis71 includ+ ! angels1 !   
_w-s\l1 & human spirits4 ,! ?ird product
 is ! ma!matical _w ( space 7mundus     
sempit]nus71 ! object ( geometry2 !     
f\r?1 ! temporal or corporeal _w2 !     
fif?1 & la/1 ! empirical _w 7mundus     
situalis71 9 :i* ev]y?+ appe>s at a     
def9ite po9t 9 space & "t4 ,all ?+s n   
only love !mselves & seek ! cons]vation 
( _! own be+1 b /rive back t[>d !       
orig9al s\rce ( _! be+1 to ,god2 i4e41  
!y possess religion4 ,9 man1 natural &  
animal religion are complet$ by rational
 religion1 ! limitations ( :i* r5d] a   
revelation necess>y4 ,a religion c be   
consid]$ div9e only :5 x is adapt$ to   
all1 :5 x ga9s acceptance ?r\gh miracles
 & virtue1 & :5 x contradicts nei!r     
natural e?ics nor ! reason4 ,religion is
 union ) ,god ?r\gh k1 purity ( w1 &    
love4 ,x is inborn1 a law ( nature1 n1 z
 ,ma*iavelli tea*es1 a political        

inv5tion4  ,campanella desir$ to see !  
unity 9 ! div9e gov]nm5t ( ! _w embodi$ 
9 a pyramid ( /ates ) ! papacy at !     
apex3 above ! individual /ates 0 to come
 ! prov9ce1 !n ! k+dom1 ! empire1 !     
7,spani%7 _w-mon>*y1 &1 f9ally1 !       
univ]sal dom9ion ( ! ,pope4 ,! ,*ur*    
%\ld be sup]ior to ! ,/ate1 ! viceg]5t (
 ,god to temporal rul]s & to c\ncils4   
#d4 ,philosophy ( ! ,/ate & ( ,law4  ,! 
orig9ality ( ! mod]n doctr9es ( natural 
law 0 =m]ly ov]e/imat$1 z x 0 n kn[n to 
h[ consid]able an ext5t ! way _h be5    
prep>$ = !m by ! m$iaeval philosophy ( !
 /ate & ( law4 ,x is evid5t f ! equally 
ri* & c>eful inve/igations ( ,otto      
,gi]ke#a t 9 ! political & legal !ories 
( a ,bod91 a ,grotius1 a ,hobbes1 a     
,r\sseau1 we h sy/ematic developm5ts (  
pr9ciples long extant1 r ?an new        
pr9ciples produc$ ) entire spontaneity4 
,_! m]it consi/s 9 ! pr9cipiant         
expression & acc5tuation & ! sy/ematic  
developm5t ( ideas :i* ! ,middle ,ages  
_h produc$1 & :i* 9 "p belong to !      

common /ock ( ,s*ola/ic sci5ce1 9 "p    
con/itute ! weapons ( attack = bold     
innovators4 ,m>silius ( ,padua 7,def5sor
 ,pacis1 #acbe71 ,occam 7di$ #acdg71    
,g]son 7ab\t #adjj71 & ! ,cusan#b       
7,concordantia ,ca?olica1 #adcc7        
especially1 are n[ se5 9 a diff]5t      
light4 ,"u ! husk ( ! m$iaeval sy/em !re
 is reveal$ a cont9u\sly gr[+           
antique-mod]n k]nel1 :i* draws all !    
liv+ con/itu5ts out ( ! husk1 & f9ally  
bur/s x 7,gi]ke1 ,deuts*es              
,g5oss5s*aftsre*t1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cab74  
,)\t go+ beyond ! b\nd>ies ( !          
!ocratico-organic view ( ! /ate preval5t
 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 mo/ ( ! conceptions 
^: full developm5t 0 accompli%$ by !    
natural law ( mod]n times 7 already     
employ$ 9 ! ,s*ola/ic p]iod4 ,"h we     
already f9d ! idea ( a transition on !  
"p ( man f a pre-political natural /ate 
( fre$om & equality into ! /ate (       
citiz5%ip2 ! idea ( ! orig9 ( ! /ate by 
a contract 7social & ( submission72 ( ! 
sov]eignty ( ! rul] 7rex major populo2  

pl5itudo pote/atis71 & ( popul>         
sov]eignty#c 7populus major pr9cipe72 ( 
! orig9al & inali5able pr]ogatives ( !  
g5]ality1 & ! innate & inde/ructible "r 
( ! individual to fre$om2 ! ?\ght t !   
sov]eign p[] is sup]ior to positive law 
7pr9ceps legibus solutus71 b subord9ate 
to natural law2 ev5 t5d5cies t[>d !     
division ( p[]s 7legislative &          
executive71 & ! repres5tative sy/em4 ,^!
 are g]ms :i*1 at ! fall ( ,s*ola/icism 
& ! ecclesia/ical re=mation1 ga9 light &
 air = free developm5t4  ,footnote #a3  
,gi]ke1 ,johannes ,al?usius und die     
,entwickelung d] naturre*tli*5          
,/aat/heori51 ,breslau1 #ahhj2 ! same1  
,deuts*es ,g5oss5s*aftsre*t1 vol4 iii4  
,,ii1 ,b]l91 #ahha4 ,cf4 fur!r1 ,sigm4  
,riezl]1 ,die lit]>is*5 ,wid]sa*] d]    
,pp/e1 ,leipsic1 #ahgd2 ,a4 ,franck1    
,r=mateurs et ,publici/es de ,l',europe1
 ,p>is1 #ahfd4  ,footnote #b3 ,nicolas' 
political ideas are discuss$ by ,t4     
,/umpf1 ,cologne1 #ahfe4  ,footnote #c3 
,cf4 ,f4 von ,bezold1 ,die ,lehre von d]

 ,volkss\v]nitt im ,mittelalt]1         
7,sybel's ,hi/oris*e ,zeits*rift1 vol4  
xxxvi41 #ahgf74  ,! mod]n !ory ( natural
 law1 ( :i* ,grotius 0 ! mo/ influ5tial 
repres5tative1 began ) ,bod9 &          
,al?usius4 ,! =m] conceives ! contract  
by :i* ! /ate is f\nd$ z an act (       
unconditional submission on ! "p ( !    
community to ! rul]1 ! latt] conceives x
 m]ely z ! issue ( a 7revocable7        
commission3 9 ! view ( ! "o1 !          
sov]eignty ( ! p is entirely ali5at$1   
transf]r$1 9 t ( ! o!r1 adm9i/rative    
au?ority alone is grant$1 conc$$1 :ile !
 sov]eign pr]ogatives rema9 ) ! p4 ,bod9
 is ! f\nd] ( ! !ory ( absolutism1 to   
:i* ,grotius & ! s*ool ( ,puf5dorf      
adh]e1 ?\gh 9 a m mod]ate =m1 & :i*     
,hobbes develops to ! la/ extreme4      
,al?usius1 on ! o!r h&1 by 8 sy/ematic  
developm5t ( ! doctr9e ( social contract
 & ! inali5able sov]eignty ( ! p1 became
 ! =]unn] ( ,locke#a & ,r\sseau4        
,footnote #a3 ,ulri* ,hub] 7#afgd7 may  
be call$ ! fir/ repres5tative (         

con/itutionalism1 & s ! int]m$iate l9k  
betwe5 ,al?usius & ,locke4 ,cf4 ,gi]ke1 
,al?usius1 p4 #bij4  ,! fir/ indep5d5t  
political philosoph] ( ! mod]n p]iod 0  
,nicolo ,ma*iavelli ( ,flor5ce          
7#adfi-aebg74 ,patriotism 0 ! s\l ( 8   
?9k+1 que/ions ( practical politics its 
subject1 & hi/orical fact its basis4#a  
,he is entirely uns*ola/ic &            
unecclesia/ical4 ,! p[] & indep5d5ce ( !
 nation are = him ( supreme importance1 
& ! greatness & unity ( ,italy1 ! goal (
 8 political sy/em4 ,he opposes ! ,*ur*1
 ! ecclesia/ical /ate1 & ! papacy z !   
*ief h9drances to ! atta9m5t ( ^! ends1 
& consid]s ! means by :i* help may be   
giv5 to ! ,fa!rl&4 ,9 normal            
circum/ances a republican con/itution1  
"u :i* ,sp>ta1 ,rome1 & ,v5ice h a*iev$ 
greatness1 w\ld be ! be/4 ,b amid !     
corruption ( ! times1 ! only hope (     
deliv]ance is f ! absolute rule ( a     
/rong pr9ce1 "o n to be fright5$ back f 
sev]ity & =ce4 ,%\ld ! rul] endeavor to 
keep )9 ! b\nds ( morality1 he w\ld     

inevitably be ru9$ amid ! g5]al         
wick$ness4 ,let him make himself lik$1  
especially make himself fe>$1 by ! p2   
let him be fox & lion toge!r2 let him   
take c>e1 :5 he mu/ h rec\rse to bad    
means = ! sake ( ! ,fa!rl&1 t !y are    
ju/ifi$ by ! result1 & /ill to pres]ve !
 appe>ance ( loyalty & honor :5 he is   
=c$ to act 9 _! despite--= ! populace   
always judges by appe>ance & by results4
 ,! wor/ ?+ ( all is half-way measures1 
c\rses int]m$iate betwe5 good & evil &  
vacillat+ betwe5 reason & =ce4 ,ev5     
,moses _h to kill ! envi\s refractories1
 :ile ,savon>ola1 ! un>m$ prophet1 0    
de/roy$4 ,god is ! fri5d ( ! /rong1     
en]gy ! *ief virtue2 & x is well :51 z 0
 ! case ) ! anci5t ,romans1 religion is 
associat$ ) x )\t p>alyz+ x4 ,! curr5t  
view ( ,*ri/ianity z a religion (       
humility & slo?1 :i* prea*es only !     
c\rage ( endurance & makes its foll[]s  
indiff]5t to worldly honor1 is          
unfavorable to ! developm5t ( political 
vigor4 ,! ,italians h be5 made          

irreligi\s by ! ,*ur* & ! prie/hood2 !  
ne>] ,rome1 ! less pi\s ! p4 ,:5        
,ma*iavelli1 9 8 proposals look+ t[>d   
,lor5zo 7,,ii47 dei ,m$ici 7di$ #aeai71 
approves any means = re/or+ ord]1 x mu/ 
be rememb]$ t he has an exceptional case
 9 m9d1 t he does n consid] deceit &    
sev]ity j1 b only unavoidable amid !    
an>*y & corruption ( ! "t4 ,b nei!r !   
l(t9ess ( ! end by :i* he is inspir$1   
nor ! l[ condition ( moral views 9 8 "t1
 ju/ifies 8 treatm5t ( ! laws z m]e     
means to political ends1 & 8 unscrupul\s
 subord9ation ( morality to calculat+   
prud5ce4 ,ma*iavelli's g5]al view ( ! _w
 & ( life is by no means a com=t+ "o4   
,m5 are simple1 gov]n$ by _! passions & 
by insatiable desires1 dissatisfi$ ) :at
 !y h1 & incl9$ to evil4 ,!y d good only
 ( necessity2 x is hung] :i* makes !m   
indu/ri\s & laws t r5d] !m good4 ,ev]y?+
 rapidly deg5]ates3 p[] produces quiet1 
quiet1 idl5ess1 !n disord]1 &1 f9ally1  
ru91 until m5 le>n by mis=tune1 & s ord]
 & p[] aga9 arise4 ,hi/ory is a cont9ual

 ris+ & fall+1 a circle ( ord] &        
disord]4 ,gov]nm5tal =ms1 ev51 enjoy no 
/ability2 mon>*y1 :5 x has run out into 
tyranny1 is foll[$ by ari/ocracy1 :i*   
gradually passes ov] into olig>*y2 ?is 9
 turn is replac$ by democracy1 until1   
f9ally1 an>*y becomes un5durable1 & a   
pr9ce aga9 atta9s p[]4 ,no /ate1 h[ev]1 
is s p[]ful z to escape succumb+ to a   
rival be=e x completes ! circuit4       
,protection aga9/ ! corruption ( ! /ate 
is possible only ?r\gh ! ma9t5ance ( its
 pr9ciples1 & its re/oration only by a  
return to ! heal?y s\rce :5ce x         
orig9at$4 ,?is is secur$ ei!r by "s     
ext]nal p]il compell+ to reflection1 or 
int]nally1 by wise ?\ght1 by good laws  
7fram$ 9 accordance ) ! g5]al welf>e1 & 
n accord+ to ! ambition ( a m9ority71 & 
by ! example ( good m54  ,footnote #a3  
,9 8 ,essays on ! ,fir/ ,decade ( ,livy 
7,discorsi71 ,ma*iavelli inve/igates !  
conditions & ! laws ( ! ma9t5ance (     
/ates2 :ile 9 ,! ,pr9ce 7,,ii ,pr9cipe1 
#aeae71 he gives ! pr9ciples = !        

re/oration ( a ru9$ /ate4 ,besides ^! he
 wrote a hi/ory ( ,flor5ce1 & a "w on ! 
art ( w>1 9 :i* he recomm5d$ !          
e/abli%m5t ( national armies4  ,9 !     
int]val betwe5 ,ma*iavelli & ! sy/em (  
natural law ( ,grotius1 ! ,ne!rl&]      
7#afbe3 ,de ,jure ,belli et ,pacis71    
belong ! sociali/ic ideal /ate ( !      
,engli%man1 ,?omas ,m 7,de ,optimo      
,reipublicae ,/atu deque ,nova ,insula  
,utopia1 #aeaf71 ! political !ory ( !   
,fr5*man1 ,jean ,bod9 7,six ,livres de  
la ,rpublique1 #aegg1 ,lat9 #aehd2 also 
a philosophico-hi/orical treatise1      
,me?odus ad ,facilem ,hi/ori>um         
,cognitionem1 & ! ,colloquium           
,heptaplom]es1 edit$ by ,noack1 #aheg71 
& ! law ( w> ( ! ,italian1 ,alb]icus    
,g5tilis1 at 8 dea? pr(essor 9 ,ox=d    
7,de ,jure ,belli1 #aehh74 ,common to ^!
 ?ree 0 ! advocacy ( religi\s tol]ance1 
f :i* a!i/s alone 7 to be except$2      
common1 also1 _! e?ical /&po9t 9        
opposition to ,ma*iavelli1 :ile !y are  
at "o ) him 9 reg>d to ! lib]ation (    

political & legal sci5ce f !ology & !   
,*ur*4 ,) ,g5tilis 7#aeea-afaa7 ?is     
sep>ation assigns ! fir/ five comm&m5ts 
to div9e1 & ! rema9d] to human law1 !   
latt] be+ bas$ on ! laws ( human nature 
7especially ! social impulse74 ,9 place 
( ?is d]ivation ( law & ! /ate f !      
nature ( man1 ,jean ,bod9 7#aecj-if7    
insi/s on an hi/orical int]pretation2   
endeavors1 ?\gh n always ) success1 to  
give %>p def9itions ( political         
concepts2#a rejects composite /ate =ms1 
& among ! ?ree pure =ms1 mon>*y1        
ari/ocracy1 & democracy1 rates 7h]$it>y7
 mon>*y ! highe/1 9 :i* ! subjects obey 
! laws ( ! mon>*1 & ! latt] ! laws (    
,god or ( nature by respect+ ! fre$om & 
! prop]ty ( ! citiz5s4 ,s f>1 no "o has 
correctly di/+ui%$ betwe5 =ms ( ! /ate &
 modes ( adm9i/ration4 ,ev5 a democratic
 /ate may be gov]n$ 9 a mon>*ical or    
ari/ocratic way4 ,s f>1 also1 !re has   
be5 a failure to take into acc\nt       
national peculi>ities & diff]5ces (     
situation1 conditions to :i* legislation

 mu/ be adju/$4 ,! p ( ! temp]ate zone  
are inf]ior to ^? ( ! ,nor? 9 physical  
p[] & inf]ior to ^? ( ! ,s\? 9          
speculative ability1 b sup]ior to bo? 9 
political gifts & 9 ! s5se ( ju/ice4 ,! 
nations ( ! ,nor? are guid$ by =ce1 ^? (
 ! ,s\? by religion1 ^? betwe5 ! two by 
reason4 ,m\nta9e]s love fre$om4 ,a      
fruitful soil en]vates m51 :5 less      
f]tile1 x r5d]s !m temp]ate & indu/ri\s4
  ,footnote #a3 ,:at is ! /ate8 ,:at is 
sov]eignty8 ,! =m] is def9$ z ! rational
 & supremely emp[]$ control ov] a numb] 
( families & ( :atev] is common to !m2 !
 latt] is absolute & cont9u\s au?ority  
ov] ! /ate1 ) ! "r ( impos+ laws )\t be+
 b\nd by !m4 ,! pr9ce1 to :om !         
sov]eignty has be5 unconditionally      
rel9qui%$ by ! p 9 ! contract (         
submission1 is acc\ntable to ,god alone4
  ,att5tion has only rec5tly be5 call$  
7by ,o4 ,gi]ke1 9 ! "w already m5tion$1 
,heft vii4 ( 8 ,unt]su*ung5 zur deuts*5 
,/aats- und ,re*tsges*i*te1 ,breslau1   
#ahhj7 to ! ,we/phalian1 ,johannes      

,al?usius 7,al?us5 or ,al?aus7 z a legal
 philosoph] wor?y ( notice4 ,he 0 born1 
#aeeg1 9 ! ,grafs*aft ,witg5/e92 0 a    
tea*] ( law 9 ,h]born & ,sieg5 f #aehf1 
& ,syndic 9 ,emd5 f #afjd to 8 dea? 9   
#afch4 ,8 *ief legal "w 0 !             
,dicaeologica1 #afag 7a reca/+ ( a      
treatise on ,roman law :i* appe>$ 9     
#aehf71 & 8 *ief political "w !         
,politica1 #afjc 7alt]$ & enl>g$ #afaj1 
& repr9t$1 9 addition1 ?ree times be=e 8
 dea? & ?rice subsequ5tly74 ,d[n to !   
beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury he 0 e/eem$  
or oppos$ z *ief among ! ,mon>*oma*i1 s 
call$ by ! ,scot*man1 ,b>clay 7,de      
,regno et ,regali ,pote/ate1 #afjj72    
s9ce t "t he has fall5 into undes]v$    
oblivion4 ,! sov]eign p[] 7maje/as7 ( ! 
p is untransf]able & indivisible1 !     
au?ority ve/$ 9 ! *os5 wield] ( !       
adm9i/rative p[] is revocable1 & ! k+ is
 m]ely ! *ief function>y2 individuals   
are subjects1 x is true1 b ! community  
reta9s its sov]eignty & has its rights  
repres5t$ ov] aga9/ ! *ief magi/rate by 

a college ( ephors4 ,if ! pr9ce violates
 ! compact1 ! ephors are au?oriz$ & b\nd
 to depose ! tyrant1 & to bani% or      
execute him4 ,!re is b "o normal        
/ate-=m2 mon>*y & poly>*y are m]e       
diff]5ces 9 adm9i/rative =ms4 ,m5tion   
%\ld f9ally be made ( 8 valuation ( !   
social gr\ps :i* m$iate betwe5 !        
individual & ! /ate3 ! body politic is  
bas$ on ! n>r[] associations ( ! family1
 ! corporation1 ! commune1 & ! prov9ce4 
,:ile ) ,bod9 ! hi/orical1 & ) ,g5tilis 
! a priori me?od ( treatm5t pr$om9ates1 
,hugo ,grotius#a comb9es bo? /&po9ts4   
,he bases 8 sy/em on ! traditional      
di/9ction ( two k9ds ( law4 ,! orig9 (  
positive law is hi/orical1 by volunt>y  
enactm5t2 natural law is root$ 9 !      
nature ( man1 is et]nal1 un*angeable1 & 
ev]y:]e ! same4 ,he beg9s by di/+ui%+ ) 
,g5tilis ! jus humanum f ! jus div9um   
giv5 9 ! ,scriptures4 ,! =m] det]m9es1  
on ! "o h&1 ! legal relations (         
individuals1 &1 on ! o!r1 ^? ( :ole     
nations2 x is jus p]sonale & jus        

g5tium4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,hugo de ,groot
 liv$ #aehc-afde4 ,he 0 born 9 ,delft1  
became ,fiscal ( ,holl& 9 #afjg1 &      
,syndic ( ,rott]dam & memb] ( ! ,/ates  
,g5]al 9 #afac4 ,a lead] ( ! ari/ocratic
 p>ty ) ,old5b>neveld1 he adh]$ to !    
,arm9ians or ,remon/rants1 0 ?r[n into  
prison1 fre$ 9 #afba ?r\gh ! address ( 8
 wife1 & fl$ to ,p>is1 :]e he liv$ till 
#afca z a private s*ol>1 &1 f #afce1 z  
,sw$i% ambassador4 ,"h he compos$ 8     
epo*-mak+ "w1 ,de ,jure ,belli et       
,pacis1 #afbe4 ,previ\s to ?is _h appe>$
 8 treatise1 ,de ,v]itate ,religionis   
,*ri/ianae1 #afai1 & ! ,m>e ,lib]um1    
#afji1 ! latt] a *apt] f 8 maid5 "w1 ,de
 ,jure ,pra$ae1 :i* 0 n pr9t$ until     
#ahfh4  ,footnote #b3 ,! mean+ :i*      
,grotius "h gives to jus g5tium         
7int]national law71 dep>ts f ! cu/om>y  
usage ( ! ,s*ola/ics1 ) :om x d5otes !  
law uni=mly ackn[l$g$ among all nations4
 ,?omas ,aqu9as und]/&s by x1 9         
di/9ction to jus naturale prop]1 ! sum (
 ! conclusions d$uc$ f ?is z a result ( 

! developm5t ( human culture & its      
dep>ture f primitive purity4 ,cf4       
,gi]ke1 ,al?usius1 p4 #bgc2 ,deuts*es   
,g5oss5s*aftsre*t1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fab4   
,on ! mean+ ( natural law cf4 ,gi]ke's  
,inaugural ,address z ,rector at        
,breslau1 ,naturre*t und ,deuts*es      
,re*t1 ,frank=t-on-!-,ma91 #ahhc4  ,!   
di/9ction betwe5 natural & conv5tional  
law :i* has be5 already m5tion$1 f9ds   
place )9 bo?3 ! positive law ( p]sons is
 call$ jus civile1 & ! positive law (   
nations1 jus g5tium volunt>ium4         
,positive law has its orig9 9 reg>d =   
utility1 :ile unwritt5 law f9ds its     
s\rce nei!r 9 ?is nor 7directly7 9 ! w (
 ,god1#a b 9 ! rational nature ( man4   
,man is by nature social1 &1 z a        
rational be+1 possesses ! impulse t[>d  
ord]$ association4 ,unlawful means      
:atev] r5d]s su* association ( rational 
be+s impossible1 z ! violation (        
promises or ! tak+ away & ret5tion ( !  
prop]ty ( o!rs4 ,9 ! 7pre-social7 /ate (
 nature1 all belong$ to all1 b ?r\gh !  

act ( tak+ possession 7occupatio7       
prop]ty arises 7sea & air are exclud$ f 
appropriation74 ,9 ! /ate ( nature      
ev]yone has ! "r to def5d himself aga9/ 
attack & to rev5ge himself on !         
evil-do]2 b 9 ! political community1    
f\nd$ by contract1 p]sonal rev5ge is    
replac$ by puni%m5t decre$ by ! civil   
p[]4 ,! aim ( puni%m5t is n retribution1
 b re=mation & det]r5ce4 ,x belongs to  
,god alone to puni% because ( s9        
committ$1 ! /ate c puni% only to prev5t 
x4 7,! anti!sis quia peccatum e/--ne    
peccetur comes f ,s5eca47  ,footnote #a3
 ,natural law w\ld be valid ev5 if !re 7
 no ,god4 ,) ^! words ! alliance betwe5 
! mod]n & ! m$iaeval philosophy ( law is
 sev]$4  ,?is en]getic revival ( !      
di/9ction already common 9 ! ,middle    
,ages betwe5 positive & natural1 :i* ,"l
 ,h]b]t ( ,*]bury br\ght =w>d at ! same 
p]iod 7#afbd7 9 ! philosophy ( religion1
 gave ! cat*word = a movem5t 9 practical
 philosophy ^: developm5ts ext5d into ! 
n9ete5? c5tury4 ,n only ! illum9ation   

p]iod1 b all mod]n philosophy d[n to    
,kant & ,fi*te1 is "u ! ban ( !         
anti!sis1 natural & artificial4 ,9 all  
fields1 9 e?ics z well z 9 notics1 m5   
return to ! primitive or /orm back to x1
 9 ! hope ( f9d+ !re ! s\rce ( all tru? 
& ! cure = all evils4 ,sometimes x is   
call$ nature1 sometimes reason 7natural 
law & rational law are synonym\s1 z also
 natural religion & ! religion ( !      
reason71 by :i* is und]/ood t :i* is    
p]man5t & ev]y:]e ! same 9 contra/ to ! 
tempor>y & ! *angeable1 t :i* is innate 
9 contra/ to t :i* has be5 develop$1 9  
contra/1 fur!r1 to t :i* has be5        
reveal$4 ,:atev] passes z law 9 all     
places & at all times is natural law1   
says ,grotius2 t :i* all m5 believe =ms 
! cont5t ( natural religion1 says ,"l   
,h]b]t4 ,be=e long x comes to be said3 t
 alone is g5u9e1 true1 heal?y1 &        
valuable :i* has et]nal & univ]sal      
validity2 all else is n only sup]flu\s &
 valueless b ( evil1 = x mu/ be         
unnatural & corrupt4 ,?is /ep is tak5 by

 ,deism1 ) ! pr9ciple t :atev] is n     
natural or rational 9 ! s5se indicat$ is
 unnatural & irrational4 ,p>allel       
ph5om5a are n want+1 fur!r1 9 !         
philosophy ( law 7,gi]ke1 ,al?usius74 ,b
 ^! errors mu/ n be too h>%ly judg$4 ,! 
confid5ce ) :i* !y 7 made sprang f !    
real & ! hi/orical =ce ( _! und]ly+     
idea4  ,z already /at$1 ! natural =ms ! 
anti!sis to ! sup]natural1 on ! "o h&1 &
 to ! hi/orical1 on ! o!r4 ,?is         
comb9ation ( ! reveal$ & ! hi/orical w n
 appe> /range1 if we rememb] t !        
m$iaeval view ( ! _w "u criticism 01 z  
,*ri/ian1 hi/orico-religi\s1 &1 moreov]1
 t = ! philosophy ( religion ! two 9    
fact co9cide1 inasmu* z revelation is   
conceiv$ z an hi/orical ev5t1 & !       
hi/orical religions assume ! "* (       
reveal$4 ,! t]m arbitr>y1 appli$ to bo? 
9 common1 0 que/ionable1 h[ev]3 z       
revelation is a div9e decree1 s         
hi/orical in/itutions are ! products (  
human enactm5t1 ! /ate1 ! result ( a    
contract1 dogmas1 inv5tions ( !         

prie/hood1 ! results ( developm5t1      
artificial con/ructions6 ,x took long   
ages = man to free himself f ! idea ( ! 
artificial & conv5tional 9 8 view (     
hi/ory4 ,hegel 0 ! fir/ to ga!r ! fruit 
^: se$s _h be5 s[n by ,leibnitz1 ,less+1
 ,h]d]1 & ! hi/orical s*ool ( law4 ,z   
(t51 h[ev]1 z an attempt 0 made f ?is   
/&po9t ( orig9s to %[ laws 9 ! c\rse (  
hi/ory1 only "o c\ld be rea*$1 a law (  
necess>y deg5]ation1 int]rupt$ at times 
by sudd5 re/orations--?us ! ,dei/s1 ?us 
,ma*iavelli & ,r\sseau4 ,ev]y?+         
deg5]ates1 sci5ce itself only           
contributes to ! fall--!re=e1 back to ! 
happy beg9n+s ( ?+s6  ,if1 f9ally1 we   
inquire into ! position ( ! ,*ur* 9     
reg>d to ! que/ions ( legal philosophy1 
we may say t1 among ! ,prote/ants1      
,lu!r1 appeal+ to ! ,scripture text1    
decl>es rul]s orda9$ by ,god & sacr$1   
?\gh at ! same "t he consid]s law &     
politics b remotely relat$ to ! inn]    
man2 t ,melanc?on1 9 8 ,elem5ts ( ,e?ics
 7#aech71 z 9 all 8 philosophical       

text-books1#a w5t back to ,ari/otle1 b  
f\nd ! s\rce ( natural law 9 !          
,decalogue1 be+ foll[$ 9 ?is by         
,old5dorp 7#aeci71 ,hemm+ 7#aefb71 & ,b4
 ,w9kl] 7#afae74b  ,footnote #a3 ,!     
edition ( ,melanc?on's works by         
,brets*neid] & ,b9dseil gives ! e?ical  
treatises 9 vol4 xvi4 & ! o!r           
philosophical treatises 9 vol4 xiii4 79 
"p also 9 vols4 xi4 & xx474  ,footnote  
#b3 ,cf4 ,c4v4 ,kalt5born1 ,die ,vorluf]
 des ,hugo ,grotius1 ,leipsic1 #ahdh4   
,on ! ,ca?olic side1 ! ,jesuits 7! ,ord]
 0 f\nd$ 9 #aecd1 & confirm$ 9 #aedj71  
on ! "o h&1 reviv$ ! ,pelagian !ory (   
fre$om 9 opposition to !                
,lu!ro-,augu/9ian doctr9e ( ! s]vitude (
 ! w1 &1 on ! o!r1 def5d$ ! natural     
orig9 ( ! /ate 9 a 7revocable7 contract 
9 opposition to its div9e orig9 ass]t$  
by ! ,re=m]s1 & ! sov]eignty ( ! p ev5  
to ! sanction+ ( tyrannicide4 ,bell>m9  
7#aedb-afba7 taught t ! pr9ce d]ives 8  
au?ority f ! p1 & z ! latt] h giv5 him  
p[]1 s !y reta9 ! natural "r to take x  

back & be/[ x else:]e4 ,! view ( ,juan  
,m>iana 7#aecg-afbd2 ,de ,rege1 #aeii7  
is t1 z ! p 9 transf]r+ rights to !     
pr9ce reta9 /ill great] p[] !mselves1 !y
 are entitl$ 9 giv5 cases to call ! k+  
to acc\nt4 ,if he corrupts ! /ate by    
evil mann]s1 &1 deg5]at+ into ! tyrant1 
despises religion & ! laws1 he may1 z a 
public enemy1 be depriv$ by anyone ( 8  
au?ority & 8 life4 ,x is lawful to arre/
 tyranny 9 any way1 & ^? h always be5   
highly e/eem$ :o1 f devotion to ! public
 welf>e1 h s\ght to kill ! tyrant4   #e4
 ,skepticism 9 ,france4  ,t[>d ! end ( !
 sixte5? c5tury1 & 9 ! v c\ntry :i* 0 to
 become ! cradle ( mod]n philosophy1 !re
 appe>$1 z a =]unn] ( ! new ?9k+1 a     
skepticism 9 :i* t 0 tak5 = complete &  
ultimate tru? :i* ) ,desc>tes con/itutes
 m]ely a mom5t or transition po9t 9 !   
inquiry4 ,! e>lie/ & ! mo/ +5i\s among !
 repres5tatives ( ?is philosophy ( d\bt 
0 ,mi*el de ,montaigne 7#aecc-ib71 :o 9 
8 ,essays--:i* 7 ! fir/ ( _! k9d & soon 
f\nd an imitator 9 ,bacon2 !y appe>$ 9  

#aehj 9 two volumes1 ) an additional    
volume 9 #aehh--;comb9$ delicate        
obs]vation & ke5 ?9k+1 boldness &       
prud5ce1 elegance & solidity4 ,! ,fr5*  
honor him z "o ( _! =emo/ writ]s4 ,! mo/
 important among ^! treatises or essays 
is consid]$ to be ! ,apology = ,raymond 
( ,sabunde 7ii4 #ab7 ) valuable         
excursuses on fai? & k4 ,montaigne bases
 8 d\bt on ! div]sity ( individual      
views1 ea* man's op9ion diff]+ f 8      
fell['s1 :ile tru? mu/ be "o4 ,!re exi/s
 no c]ta91 no univ]sally admitt$ k4 ,!  
human reason is feeble & bl9d 9 all ?+s1
 k is deceptive1 especially ! philosophy
 ( ! day1 :i* cl+s to tradition1 :i*    
fills ! memory ) le>n$ note-/uff1 b     
leaves ! und]/&+ void &1 in/ead ( ?+s1  
int]prets int]pretations only4 ,bo?     
s5su\s & rational k are untru/wor?y3 !  
=m]1 because x _c be asc]ta9$ :e!r its  
deliv]ances con=m to reality1 & ! latt]1
 because its premises1 9 ord] to be     
valid1 ne$ o!rs 9 turn = _! own         
e/abli%m5t1 etc41 ad inf9itum4 ,e       

advance 9 inquiry makes our ignorance ! 
m evid5t2 ! d\bt] alone is free4 ,b ?\gh
 c]ta9ty is d5i$ u 9 reg>d to tru?1 x is
 n )held 9 reg>d to duty4 ,9 fact1 a    
tw(old rule ( practical life is set up =
 u3 nature1 or life 9 accordance )      
nature & f\nd$ on self-k1 & sup]natural 
revelation1 ! ,gospel 7to be und]/ood   
only by ! aid ( div9e grace74           
,submission to ! div9e rul] & b5efactor 
is ! fir/ duty ( ! rational s\l4 ,f     
ob$i5ce proce$s e virtue1 f ov]-subtlety
 & conceit1 :i* is ! product ( fanci$ k1
 comes e s94 ,montaigne1 l all :o "k m51
 has a %>p eye = human frailty4 ,he     
depicts ! univ]sal weakness ( human     
nature & ! corruption ( 8 "t ) great    
vivacity & n )\t a c]ta9 pleasure 9 !   
obsc5e2 & besides folly & passion1      
compla9s above all ( ! fact t s few     
und]/& ! art ( enjoym5t1 ( :i* he1 a    
true man ( ! _w1 0 ma/]4  ,!            
skeptico-practical /&po9t ( ,montaigne 0
 develop$ into a sy/em by ! ,p>is       
prea*]1 ,pi]re ,*>ron 7#aeda-afjc71 9 8 

?ree books ,on ,wisdom 7#afja74 ,d\bt   
has a d\ble object3 to keep alive ! _s (
 inquiry & to lead u on to fai?4 ,f !   
fact t reason & exp]i5ce are liable to  
deception & t ! m9d has at its disposal 
no means ( di/+ui%+ tru? f falsehood1 x 
foll[s t we are born n to possess tru? b
 to seek x4 ,tru? dwells alone 9 ! bosom
 ( ,god2 = u d\bt & inve/igation are !  
only good amid all ! error & tribulation
 :i* surr\nd u4 ,life is all mis]y4 ,man
 is capable ( m$iocrity alone2 he c     
nei!r be entirely good nor entirely     
evil2 he is weak 9 virtue1 weak 9 vice1 
& ! be/ deg5]ates 9 8 h&s4 ,ev5 religion
 suff]s f ! univ]sal imp]fection4 ,x is 
dep5d5t on nationality & c\ntry1 & ea*  
religion is bas$ on its pr$ecessor2 !   
sup]natural orig9 ( :i* all religions   
boa/ belongs 9 fact to ,*ri/ianity      
alone1 :i* is to be accept$ ) humility &
 ) submission ( ! reason4 ,*>ron lays   
*ief emphasis1 h[ev]1 on ! practical    
side ( ,*ri/ianity1 ! fulfillm5t ( duty2
 & ! wisdom :i* =ms ! subject ( 8 book  

is synonym\s ) uprightness 7probit71 !  
way to :i* is op5$ up by self-k & ^:    
rew>d is repose ( _s4 ,& yet we are n to
 practice x = ! sake ( ! rew>d1 b       
because nature & reason1 i4e41 ,god1    
absolutely 7entirely ap>t f !           
pleasurable results ( virtue7 require u 
to be good4 ,true uprightness is m ?an  
m]e legality1 = ev5 :5 outw>d action is 
blameless1 ! motives may be mix$4 ,i    
desire m5 to be upright )\t p>adise &   
hell4 ,religion seeks to cr[n morality1 
n to g5]ate x2 virtue is e>li] & m      
natural ?an piety4 ,9 8 def9ition ( !   
relation betwe5 religion & e?ics1 8     
delimitation ( morality f legality1 & 8 
insi/5ce on ! purity ( motives 7d "r1   
because ! inn] rational law comm&s x71  
an anticipation ( ,kantian pr9ciples may
 be recogniz$4  ,"u ,francis ,san*ez    
7di$ #afcb2 8 *ief "w is entitl$ ,quod  
,nihil ,scitur71 a ,portuguese by bir?1 
& pr(essor ( m$ic9e 9 ,montpelli] &     
,t\l\se1 skepticism 0 trans=m$ f        
melan*oly contemplation into a fre%1    

vigor\s se>* aft] new problems4 ,9 !    
place ( book-le>n+1 :i* disgu/s him by  
its smell ( ! closet1 its cont9u$ prat+ 
( ,ari/otle1 & its self-exhau/ion 9     
useless v]balism1 ,san*ez desires to    
sub/itute a k ( ?+s4 ,p]fect k1 x is    
true1 c be hop$ = only :5 subject &     
object correspond to ea* o!r4 ,b h[ is  
f9ite man to grasp ! inf9ite univ]se8   
,exp]i5ce1 ! basis ( all k1 gropes ab\t 
! out] surface ( ?+s & illum9es         
p>ticul>s only1 )\t ! ability ei!r to   
p5etrate to _! inn] nature or to        
compreh5d ! :ole4 ,we "k only :at we    
produce4 ,?us ,god kn[s ! _w :i* he has 
made1 b to u is v\*saf$ m]ely an insight
 into m$iate or second causes1 causae   
secundae4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 a ri* field /ill  
lies op5 be=e philosophy--only let h]   
attack h] problem ) obs]vation &        
exp]im5t r ?an ) words4  ,! ,fr5*       
nation1 pr$ispos$ to skepticism by its  
prevail+ acut5ess1 has nev] lack$       
repres5tatives ( skeptical philosophy4  
,! transition f ! philosoph]s ( d\bt :om

 we h describ$ to ! great ,bayle 0 =m$  
by ,la ,mo! le ,vay] 7di$ #afgb2 ,five  
,dialogues1 #afga71 ! tutor ( ,l\is     
,,xiv41 & ,p4,d4 ,huet7ius71 ,bi%op (   
,avran*es 7di$ #agba71 :o agre$ 9 hold+ 
t a recognition ( ! weakness ( ! reason 
is ! be/ prep>ation = fai?4   #f4 ,g]man
 ,my/icism4  ,9 a p]iod :i* has giv5    
bir? to a skeptical philosophy1 "o nev] 
looks 9 va9 = ! complem5t>y ph5om5on (  
my/icism4 ,! /one (f]$ by d\bt 9 place (
 bread is incapable ( satisfy+ ! impulse
 aft] k1 & :5 ! intellect gr[s we>y &   
despair+1 ! he>t />ts out 9 ! que/ aft] 
tru?4 ,!n its pa? leads inw>d1 ! m9d    
turns 9 ^u itself1 seeks to le>n ! tru? 
by inn] exp]i5ce & life1 by inw>d feel+ 
& possession1 & waits 9 quietude = div9e
 illum9ation4 ,! ,g]man my/icism (      
,eckh>t#a 7ab\t #acjj71 :i* _h be5      
cont9u$ 9 ,suso & ,taul] & _h receiv$ a 
practical direction 9 !                 
,ne!rl&s1--,ruysbroek 7ab\t #acej7 to   
,?omas  ,kempis 7ab\t #adej71--n[ puts  
=? new bran*es & blossoms at ! turn+    

po9t ( ! c5turies4  ,footnote #a3 ,ma/] 
,eckh>t's ,works h be5 edit$ by ,f4     
,pfeiff]1 ,leipsic1 #aheg4 ,! foll[+ h  
writt5 on him3 ,jos4 ,ba*1 ,vi5na1      
#ahfd2 ,ad4 ,lasson1 ,b]l91 #ahfh2 !    
same1 9 ! second "p ( ,ueb]weg's        
,grundriss1 la/ section2 ,d5ifle1 9 !   
,ar*iv fr ,litt]atur und ,kulturges*i*te
 des ,mittelalt]s4 ii4 #dag seq42 ,h4   
,siebeck1 ,d] ,begriff des ,gemuts 9 d] 
deuts*5 ,my/ik 7,beitrge zur            
,ent/ehungsges*i*te d] neu]5            
,psy*ologie1 i71 ,giess5 ,programme1    
#ahia4  ,lu!r himself 0 orig9ally a     
my/ic1 ) a high appreciation ( ,taul] & 
,?omas  ,kempis1 & publi%$ 9 #aeah t    
attractive little book by an anonym\s   
,frank=t au?or1 ! ,g]man ,!ology4 ,:51  
lat]1 he fell into lit]alism1 x 0 !     
my/icism ( ,g]man ,prote/antism :i*1 9  
opposition to ! new or?odoxy1 held fa/  
to ! orig9al pr9ciple ( ! ,re=mation1   
i4e41 to ! pr9ciple t fai? is n ass5t to
 hi/orical facts1 n ! acceptance (      
dogmas1 b an inn] exp]i5ce1 a r5ewal ( !

 :ole man4 ,religion & !ology mu/ n be  
conf\nd$4 ,religion is n doctr9e1 b a   
new bir?4 ,) ,s*w5ckfeld1 & also )      
,franck1 my/icism is /ill ess5tially    
pietism2 ) ,weigel1 & by ! addition (   
ideas f ,p>acelsus1 x is trans=m$ into  
!osophy1 & z su* rea*es its culm9ation 9
 ,bhme4  ,casp> ,s*w5ckfeld s\ght to    
spiritualize ! ,lu!ran movem5t & prote/$
 aga9/ its be+ made into a pa/ors'      
religion4 ,?\gh he _h be5 ar\s$ by      
,lu!r's pione] feat1 he soon saw t !    
latt] _h n gone f> en\gh2 & 9 8 ,lett]  
on ! ,eu*>i/1 #aebg1 he def9$ ! po9ts ( 
diff]5ce betwe5 ,lu!r's view ( !        
,sacram5t & 8 own4 ,lu!r1 he ma9ta9$1 _h
 fall5 back to an hi/orical view ( fai?1
 :]eas ! fai? :i* saves c nev] consi/ 9 
! outw>d acceptance ( an hi/orical fact4
 ,he :o makes salvation dep5d5t on      
prea*+ & ! ,sacram5t1 confuses !        
invisible & ! visible ,*ur*1 ,ecclesia  
int]na & ext]na4 ,! layman is 8 own     
prie/4  ,accord+ to ,seba/ian ,franck   
7#aejj-de71 !re are 9 man1 z 9 ev]y?+   

else1 two pr9ciples1 "o div9e & "o      
selfi%1 ,*ri/ & ,adam1 an inn] & an out]
 man2 if he submits himself to ! =m] 7by
 a timeless *oice71 he is spiritual1 if 
to ! latt]1 c>nal4 ,god is n ! cause (  
s91 b man1 :o turns ! div9e p[] to good 
or evil4 ,he :o d5ies himself to live   
,god is a ,*ri/ian1 :e!r he kn[s &      
confesses ! ,gospel or n4 ,fai? does n  
consi/ 9 ass5t1 b 9 inn] trans=mation4  
,! hi/orical elem5t 9 ,*ri/ianity & its 
c]emonial obs]vances are only ! ext]nal 
=m & g>b 7its figure71 h m]ely a        
symbolic significance z m$ia (          
communication1 z =ms ( revelation = !   
et]nal tru?1 proclaim$ b n f\nd$ by     
,*ri/2 ! ,bible is m]ely ! %ad[ ( ! liv+
 ,^w ( ,god4  ,val5t9 ,weigel 7born 9   
#aecc1 pa/or 9 ,zs*opau f #aefg71 ^:    
works 7 n pr9t$ until aft] 8 dea?1      
comb9es 8 pr$ecessors' doctr9e ( inn] & 
et]nal ,*ri/ianity ) ! microcosmos-idea 
( ,p>acelsus4 ,god1 :o lacks no?+1 has n
 creat$ ! _w 9 ord] to ga91 b 9 ord] to 
give4 ,man n only be>s ! e>?ly _w 9 8   

body1 & ! heav5ly _w ( ! angels 9 8     
reason 78 _s71 b by virtue ( 8 intellect
 78 immortal s\l7 p>ticipates 9 ! div9e 
_w also4 ,z he is ?us a microcosm &1    
moreov]1 an image ( ,god1 all 8 k       
becomes self-k1 bo? s5su\s p]ception    
7:i* is n caus$ by ! object1 b only     
occasion$ by x71 & ! k ( ,god4 ,!       
lit]ali/ kn[s n ,god1 b he alone :o be>s
 ,god 9 himself4 ,man is favor$ above   
o!r be+s ) ! fre$om to dwell 9 himself  
or 9 ,god4 ,:5 man came out f ,god1 he 0
 8 own tempt] & made himself pr\d &     
selfi%4 ,?us evil1 :i* _h be=e rema9$   
hidd51 0 reveal$1 & became s94 ,z !     
sep>ation f ,god is an et]nal act1 s    
also r$emption & resurrection =m an inn]
 ev5t4 ,*ri/ is born 9 ev]yone :o gives 
up ! ,i-ness 7,i*heit72 ea* reg5]ate man
 is a son ( ,god4 ,b no vic>i\s suff]+ c
 save him :o does n put (f ! old ,adam1 
no matt] h[ mu* an a!ology sunk 9       
lit]alism may com=t itself ) ! hope t   
man c dr9k at ano!r's co/ 7t ! m]it (   
ano!r is imput$ to him74#a  ,footnote   

#a3 ,weigel is discuss$ by ,j4,o4 ,opel1
 ,leipsic1 #ahfd4  ,g]man my/icism      
rea*es its culm9ation 9 ! ,grlitz       
cobbl]1 ,jacob ,bhme 7#aege-afbd2       
,aurora1 or ! ,ris+ ,dawn2 ,my/]ium     
,magnum1 or on ! ,fir/ ,book ( ,moses1  
etc4 ,! works ( ,bhme1 collect$ by 8    
apo/le1 ,gi*tel1 appe>$ 9 #afhb 9 t5    
volumes1 & 9 #agcj 9 six volumes2 a new 
edition 0 prep>$ by ,s*iebl] 9 #ahca-dg1
 ) a second edition 9 #ahfa seq474      
,bhme's doctr9e#a c5t]s ab\t ! problem (
 ! orig9 ( evil4 ,he transf]s ?is to    
,god himself & jo9s !re) ! lead+ ?\ght (
 ,eckh>t1 t ,god goes ?r\gh a process1 t
 he proce$s f an unreveal$ to a reveal$ 
condition4 ,at ! sight ( a t9 vessel    
gli/5+ 9 ! sun1 he conceiv$1 z by       
inspiration1 ! idea t z ! sunlight      
reveals itself on ! d>k vessel s all    
light ne$s d>kness & all good evil 9    
ord] to appe> & to become kn[able4      
,ev]y?+ becomes p]ceptible ?r\gh its    
opposite alone3 g5tl5ess ?r\gh /]nness1 
love ?r\gh ang]1 affirmation ?r\gh      

negation4 ,)\t evil !re w\ld be no life1
 no movem5t1 no di/9ctions1 no          
revelation2 all w\ld be unqualifi$1     
uni=m no?+ness4 ,& z 9 nature no?+ exi/s
 9 :i* good & evil d n reside1 s 9 ,god1
 besides p[] or ! good1 a contr>y exi/s1
 )\t :i* he w\ld rema9 unkn[n to        
himself4 ,! !ogonic process is tw(old3  
self-k on ! "p ( ,god1 & 8 revelation   
outw>d1 z et]nal nature1 9 sev5 mom5ts4 
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,w9delb&'s f9e       
exposition1 ,ges*i*te d] neu]5          
,philosophie1 vol4 i4 #ai4 ,! foll[+ h  
writt5 on ,bhme3 ,fr4 ,baad] 79 vols4   
iii4 & xiii4 ( 8 ,w]ke72 ,hamb]g]1      
,muni*1 #ahdd3 ,h4 ,a4 ,fe*n]1 ,grlitz1 
#aheg2 ,a4 v4 ,h>less1 ,b]l91 #ahgj1 new
 edition1 ,leipsic1 #ahhb4  ,at ! beg9n+
 ( ! fir/ developm5t ,god is w )\t      
object1 et]nal quietude & re/1          
unqualifi$ gr\ndlessness )\t det]m9ate  
volition4 ,b 9 ?is div9e no?+ness !re   
soon awakes ! hung] aft] ! aught        
7some:at1 exi/5ce71 ! impulse to        
appreh5d & manife/ self1 & z ,god looks 

into & =ms an image ( himself1 he       
divides into ,fa!r & ,son4 ,! ,son is ! 
eye ) :i* ! ,fa!r intuits himself1 & !  
procession ( ?is vision f ! gr\ndless is
 ! ,holy ,gho/4 ,?us f> ,god1 :o is "o 9
 ?ree1 is only und]/&+ or wisdom1 :]e9 !
 images ( all ! possible are conta9$2 to
 ! intuition ( self mu/ be add$         
divisibility2 x is only ?r\gh ! anti!sis
 ( ! reveal$ ,god & ! unreveal$         
gr\ndless t ! =m] becomes an actual     
tr9ity 79 :i* ! p]sons /& relat$ z      
ess5ce1 p[]1 & activity71 & ! latt]     
becomes desire or nature 9 ,god4  ,at ! 
creation ( ! _w sev5 equally et]nal     
qualities1 s\rce-spirits or nature-=ms1 
are di/+ui%$ 9 ! div9e nature4 ,fir/    
comes desire z ! contractile1 t>t       
quality or pa91 f :i* proce$ h>dness &  
heat2 next comes mobility z ! expansive1
 sweet quality1 z ?is %[s itself 9 wat]4
 ,z ! nature ( ! fir/ 0 to b9d & !      
second 0 fluid1 s !y bo? are comb9$ 9 ! 
bitt] quality or ! pa9 ( anxiety1 !     
pr9ciple ( s5sibility4 7,contraction &  

expansion are ! conditions (            
p]ceptibility47 ,f ^! ?ree =ms fright or
 lightn+ sudd5ly spr+s =?4 ,?is f\r?    
quality is ! turn+-po9t at :i* light    
flames up f d>kness & ! love ( ,god     
breaks =? f out 8 ang]2 z ! fir/ ?ree1  
or f\r1 =ms con/itute ! k+dom ( wra?1 s 
! latt] ?ree con/itute ! k+dom ( joy4 ,!
 fif? quality is call$ light or ! w>m   
fire ( love1 & has = its functions      
ext]nal animation & communication2 !    
six?1 report & s\nd1 is ! pr9ciple (    
inn] animation & intellig5ce2 ! sev5?1 !
 =mative quality1 corporeality1         
compreh5ds all ! prec$+ 9 itself z _!   
dwell+4  ,! d>k fire ( ang] 7! h>d1     
sweet1 & bitt] qualities7 & ! light fire
 ( love 7light1 report1 & corporeality71
 sep>at$ by ! lightn+-fire1 9 :i* ,god's
 wra? is trans=m$ into m]cy1 /& relat$ z
 evil & good4 ,! evil 9 ,god is n s91 b 
simply ! incit+ /+1 ! pr9ciple (        
movem5t2 :i*1 moreov]1 is re/ra9$1      
ov]come1 transfigur$ by g5tl5ess4 ,s9   
arises only :5 ! creature refuses to    

take "p 9 ! advance f d>kness to light1 
& ob/9ately rema9s 9 ! fire ( ang]      
in/ead ( =c+ 8 way ?r\gh to ! fire (    
love4 ,?us t :i* 0 "o 9 ,god is divid$4 
,lucif] becomes enamor$ ( ! t>t quality 
7! c5trum naturae or ! matrix7 & w n gr[
 into ! he>t ( ,god2 & x is only aft]   
su* l+]+ beh9d t ! k+dom ( wra? become a
 real hell4 ,heav5 & hell are n future  
conditions1 b are exp]i5c$ "h on e>?2 he
 :o in/ead ( subdu+ animality becomes   
enamor$ ( x1 /&s "u ! wra? ( ,god2 :]eas
 he :o abjures self dwells 9 ! joy\s    
k+dom ( m]cy4 ,he alone truly believes  
:o himself becomes ,*ri/1 :o repeats 9  
himself :at ,*ri/ suff]$ & atta9$4  ,!  
creation ( ! mat]ial _w is a result (   
,lucif]'s fall4 ,bhme's description ( x1
 bas$ on ! ,mosaic acc\nt ( creation1   
may be pass$ )\t notice2 simil>ly 8 view
 ( cognition1 famili> f ! e>li] my/ics1 
t all k is d]iv$ f self-k1 t our        
de/9ation is to compreh5d ,god f        
ourselves1 & ! _w f ,god4 ,man1 ^: body1
 _s1 & s\l hold 9 !m ! e>?ly1 ! sid]eal1

 & ! heav5ly1 is at once a microcosm & a
 little ,god4  ,"u ! intractable =m (   
,bhme's speculations & amid _! riot\s   
fancy1 no "o w fail to recognize _!     
true-he>t$ s5sibility & an unusual dep? 
& vigor ( ?\ght4 ,!y f\nd acceptance 9  
,engl& & ,france1 & h be5 reviv$ 9 lat] 
times 9 ! sy/ems ( ,baad] & ,s*ell+4    
#g4 ,! ,f\ndation ( ,mod]n ,physics4  ,9
 no field has ! mod]n p]iod s completely
 brok5 ) tradition z 9 physics4 ,!      
correctness ( ! ,cop]nican !ory is prov$
 by ,kepl]'s laws ( planet>y movem5t1 & 
,galileo's telescopical obs]vations2 !  
sci5tific !ory ( motion is creat$ by    
,galileo's laws ( projectiles1 fall+    
bodies1 & ! p5dulum2 a/ronomy & me*anics
 =m ! entrance to exact                 
physics--,desc>tes v5tures an attempt at
 a compreh5sive me*anical explanation ( 
nature4 ,& ?us an entirely new movem5t  
is at h&4 ,=]unn]s1 x is true1 _h n be5 
lack+4 ,rog] ,bacon 7#abad-id7 _h       
already s\ght to obta9 an empirical k ( 
nature bas$ ^u ma!matics2 & ! great     

pa9t] ,leon>do da ,v9ci 7#adeb-aeai7 _h 
discov]$ ! pr9ciples ( me*anics1 ?\gh   
)\t ga9+ mu* influ5ce ov] ! "w ( 8      
contempor>ies4 ,x 0 res]v$ = ! triple />
 :i* has be5 m5tion$ to ov]?r[          
,s*ola/icism4 ,! conceptions ) :i* !    
,s*ola/ic-,ari/otelian philosophy (     
nature s\ght to get at                  
ph5om5a--sub/antial =ms1 prop]ties1     
qualitative *ange--are ?r[n aside2 _!   
place is tak5 by matt]1 =ces work+ "u   
law1 re>rangem5t ( p>ts4 ,! inquiry into
 f9al causes is reject$ z an            
an?ropomorphosis ( natural ev5ts1 &     
d$uction f effici5t causes is alone     
accept$ z sci5tific explanation4 ,size1 
%ape1 numb]1 motion1 & law are ! only & 
! suffici5t pr9ciples ( explanation4 ,= 
magnitudes alone are kn[able2 :]ev] x is
 impossible to measure & c\nt1 to       
det]m9e =ce ma!matically1 !re rigor\s1  
exact sci5ce ceases4 ,nature a sy/em (  
regul>ly mov$ p>ticles ( mass2 all t    
takes place me*anical movem5t1 viz41 !  
comb9ation1 sep>ation1 dislocation1     

oscillation ( bodies & corpuscles2      
ma!matics ! organon ( natural sci5ce6   
,into ?is circle ( mod]n sci5tific      
categories are articulat$1 fur!r1       
,galileo's new conception ( motion & !  
conception ( atoms1 :i*1 previ\sly      
employ$ by physici/s1 z ,daniel ,s5n]t  
7#afai7 & o!rs1 is n[ br\ght into g5]al 
acceptance by ,gass5di1 :ile ! f\r      
elem5ts are def9itively disc>d$         
7,lasswitz1 ,ges*i*te d] ,atomi/ik1     
#ahij74 ,/ill ano!r doctr9e (           
,democritus is n[ reviv$2 an evid5t     
symptom ( ! quantification & me*anical  
int]pretation ( natural ph5om5a be+     
furni%$ by ! doctr9e ( ! subjectivity ( 
s5se qualities1 9 :i*1 al?\gh on v>y+   
gr\nds1 ,kepl]1 ,galileo1 ,desc>tes1    
,gass5di1 & ,hobbes agree4#a ,desc>tes &
 ,hobbes w be discuss$ lat]4 ,"h we may 
give a few notes on _! fell[ labor]s 9 !
 s]vice ( ! me*anical sci5ce ( nature4  
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 *apt] vi4 9 ,natorp's
 "w on ,desc>tes' ,erk5ntnis/heorie1    
,m>burg1 #ahhb1 & ! same au?or's        

,analekt5 zur ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1
 9 ! ,philosophis*e ,monat%efte1 vol4   
xviii4 #ahhb1 p4 #egb seq4  ,we beg9 )  
,john ,kepl]#a 7#aega-afcj2 *ief "w1 ,! 
,new ,a/ronomy or ,cele/ial ,physics1 9 
,comm5t>ies on ! ,motions ( ,m>s1       
#afji74 ,kepl]'s m]it z an a/ronom] has 
long obscur$ 8 philosophical importance1
 al?\gh 8 discov]y ( ! laws ( planet>y  
motion 0 ! outcome ( endeavors to secure
 an exact f\ndation = 8 !ory ( ! _w4 ,! 
latt] is ae/hetic 9 "*1 c5t]s ab\t !    
idea ( a univ]sal _w-h>mony1 & employs  
ma!matics z an in/rum5t ( confirmation4 
,= ! fact t ?is !ory satisfies ! m9d1 &1
 on ! :ole1 corresponds to our empirical
 impression ( ! ord] ( nature1 is n     
en\gh 9 ,kepl]'s view to gu>antee its   
tru?2 by exact me?ods1 by means (       
induction & exp]im5t1 a detail$ pro( f  
empirical facts mu/ be f\nd = ! exi/5ce 
n only ( a g5]al h>mony1 b ( def9itely  
fix$ proportions4 ,h]e) ! philosophical 
application ( ma!matics loses t obscure 
my/ical "* :i* _h clung to x s9ce ! "t (

 ,py?agoras1 & _h /rongly manife/$      
itself z late z 9 ,nicolas ( ,cusa4     
,ma!matical relations con/itute ! deepe/
 ess5ce ( ! real & ! object ( sci5ce4   
,:]e matt] is1 !re is geometry2 ! latt] 
is old] ?an ! _w & z et]nal z ! div9e   
,_s2 magnitudes are ! s\rce ( ?+s4 ,true
 k exi/s only :]e quanta are kn[n2 !    
presupposition ( ! capacity = k is !    
capacity to c\nt2 ! _s cognizes s5su\s  
relations by means ( ! pure1 ar*etypal1 
intellectual relations born 9 x1 :i*1   
be=e ! adv5t ( s5se-impressions1 h la9  
conceal$ beh9d ! veil ( possibility2    
incl9ation & av]sion betwe5 m51 _!      
delight 9 beauty1 ! pleasant impression 
( a view1 dep5d ^u an unconsci\s &      
in/9ctive p]ception ( proportions4 ,?is 
quantitative view ( ! _w1 :i*1 ) a      
consci\sness ( its novelty z well z (   
its scope1 is oppos$ to ! qualitative   
view ( ,ari/otle2#b ! op9ion t ! ess5ce 
( ! human _s1 z well z ( ! div9e1 nay1 !
 ess5ce ( all ?+s1 consi/s 9 activity2  
t1 consequ5tly1 ! s\l is always active1 

be+ consci\s ( its own h>mony at lea/ 9 
a confus$ way1 ev5 :5 n consci\s (      
ext]nal proportions2 fur!r1 ! doctr9e t 
nature loves simplicity1 avoids !       
sup]flu\s1 & is accu/om$ to accompli%   
l>ge results ) a few pr9ciples--^! rem9d
 "o ( ,leibnitz4 ,at ! same "t1 ! law ( 
p>simony & ! me?odological conclusions  
conc]n+ true hypo!ses & real causes 7an 
hypo!sis mu/ n be an artificially       
con/ruct$ set ( fictions1 =cibly adju/$ 
to reality1 b is to trace back ph5om5a  
to _! real gr\nds71 ob$i5ce to :i*      
enabl$ him to d$uce a priori f causes ! 
conclusions :i* ,cop]nicus by =tunate   
conjecture _h ga!r$ inductively f       
effects--^! made our ?9k] a =]unn] (    
,newton4 ,! physical me?od ( explanation
 mu/ n be corrupt$ ei!r by !ological    
conceptions 7comets are entirely natural
 ph5om5a67 or by an?ropomorphic views1  
:i* end[ nature ) spiritual p[]s4       
,footnote #a3 ,see ,sigw>t1 ,kle9e      
,s*rift51 vol4 i4 p4 #ahb seq42 ,r4     
,euck51 ,beitrge zur ,ges*i*te d] neu]5 

,philosophie1 p4 #ed seq4  ,footnote #b3
 ,ari/otle err$ :5 he consid]$          
qualitative di/9ctions 7idem & aliud7   
ultimate4 ,^! are to be trac$ back to   
quantitative diff]5ces1 & ! aliud or    
div]sum is to be replac$ by plus et     
m9us4 ,!re is no?+ absolutely light1 b  
only relatively4 ,s9ce all ?+s are      
di/+ui%$ only by m or less1 !           
possibility ( m$iat+ memb]s or          
proportions betwe5 !m is giv54          
,int]m$iate betwe5 ,bacon & ,desc>tes1  
bo? 9 ! ord] ( "t & 9 ! ord] ( fact1 & a
 co-f\nd] ( mod]n philosophy1 /&s       
,galileo ,galilei 7#aefd-afda74a        
,galileo exhibits all ! traits          
*>act]i/ic ( mod]n ?9k+3 ! ref]5ce f    
words to ?+s1 f memory to p]ception &   
?\ght1 f au?ority to self-asc]ta9$      
pr9ciples1 f *ance op9ion1 arbitr>y     
op9ion1 & ! traditional doctr9es ( !    
s*ools1 to k1 t is1 to "o's own1 well   
gr\nd$1 indisputable insight1 f ! /udy (
 human affairs to ! /udy ( nature4 ,/udy
 ,ari/otle1 b d n become 8 slave2 in/ead

 ( yield+ y\rselves captive to 8 views1 
use y\r own eyes2 d n believe t ! m9d   
rema9s unproductive unless x allies     
itself ) ! und]/&+ ( ano!r2 copy nature1
 n copies m]ely6 ,he equals ,bacon 9 8  
high e/imation ( s5su\s exp]i5ce 9      
contra/ to ! (t5 illusory conclusions ( 
! reason1 & ( ! value ( induction2 b he 
does n conceal f himself ! fact t       
obs]vation is m]ely ! fir/ /ep 9 !      
process ( cognition1 leav+ ! *ief rle = 
! und]/&+4 ,?is1 supplem5t+ ! defect (  
exp]i5ce--! impossibility ( obs]v+ all  
cases--by its a priori concept ( law & )
 its inf]5ces ov]/epp+ ! b\nds (        
exp]i5ce1 fir/ makes induction possible1
 br+s ! facts e/abli%$ into connection  
7_! comb9ation "u laws is ?\ght1 n      
exp]i5ce71 r$uces !m to _! prim>y1      
simple1 un*angeable1 & necess>y causes  
by ab/raction f cont+5t circum/ances1   
regulates p]ception1 corrects           
s5se-illusions1 i4 e41 ! false judgm5ts 
orig9at+ 9 exp]i5ce1 & decides conc]n+ !
 reality or fallaci\sness ( ph5om5a4    

,demon/ration bas$ on exp]i5ce1 a close 
union ( obs]vation & ?\ght1 ( fact &    
,idea 7law7--^! are ! requirem5ts made  
by ,galileo & brilliantly fulfill$ 9 8  
discov]ies2 ?is1 ! inductive            
speculation1 z ,dhr+ t]ms x1 :i* d]ives 
laws ( f>-rea*+ importance f            
inconspicu\s facts2 ?is1 z ,galileo     
himself recognizes1 ! di/9ctive gift ( !
 inve/igator4 ,galileo anticipates      
,desc>tes 9 reg>d to ! subjective "* (  
s5se qualities & _! r$uction to         
quantitative di/9ctions1#b :ile he %>es 
) him ! belief 9 ! typical "* (         
ma!matics & ! me*anical !ory ( ! _w4 ,! 
tru? ( geometrical propositions &       
demon/rations is z unconditionally c]ta9
 = man z = ,god1 only t man le>ns !m by 
a discursive process1 :]eas ,god's      
intuitive und]/&+ compreh5ds !m ) a     
glance & kn[s m ( !m ?an man4 ,! book ( 
! univ]se is writt5 9 ma!matical        
*>act]s2 motion is ! fundam5tal ph5om5on
 9 ! _w ( matt]2 our k rea*es z f> z    
ph5om5a are measurable2 ! qualitative   

nature ( =ce1 back ( its quantitative   
det]m9ations1 rema9s unkn[n to u4 ,:5   
,galileo ma9ta9s t ! ,cop]nican !ory is 
philosophically true & n m]ely          
a/ronomically useful1 ?us int]pret+ x z 
m ?an a hypo!sis1 he is guid$ by !      
conviction t ! simple/ explanation is ! 
mo/ probable "o1 t tru? & beauty are "o1
 z 9 g5]al he conc$es a guid+ ?\gh n a  
controll+ influ5ce 9 sci5tific "w to !  
ae/hetic dem& ( ! m9d = ord]1 h>mony1 & 
unity 9 nature1 to correspond to !      
wisdom ( ! ,creator4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4
 ,natorp's essay on ,galileo1 9 vol4    
xviii4 ( ! ,philosophis*e ,monat%efte1  
#ahhb4  ,footnote #a3 ,?is doctr9e is   
develop$ by ,galileo 9 ! controv]sial   
treatise aga9/ ,padre ,grassi1 ,!       
,scales 7,il ,saggiatore1 #afbc1 9 !    
,flor5ce edition ( 8 collect$ works1    
#ahdb seq41 vol4 iv4 pp4 #adi-cfi2 cf4  
,natorp1 ,desc>tes' ,erk5ntnis/heorie1  
#ahhb1 *ap4 vi474 ,9 sub/ance1 moreov]1 
?is doctr9e is f\nd1 z ,heussl] rem>ks1 
,baco1 p4 #id1 9 ,bacon himself1 9      

,val]ius ,t]m9us 7,works1 ,sp$d+1 vol4  
iii4 pp4 #bag-beb47  ,"o ( ! mo/ not$ & 
influ5tial among ! contempor>ies1       
c\ntrym51 & oppon5ts ( ,desc>tes1 0 !   
prie/ & natural sci5ti/1 ,petrus        
,gass5di1#a f #afcc ,provo/ ( ,digne1   
lat] = a %ort p]iod pr(essor ( ma!matics
 at ,p>is4 ,8 r5ewal ( ,epicureanism1 to
 :i* he 0 impell$ by temp]am5t1 by 8    
rev]5ce = ,lucretius1 & by !            
anti-,ari/otelian t5d5cy ( 8 ?9k+1 0 (  
f> m importance = mod]n ?\ght ?an !     
attempts to revive ! anci5t sy/ems :i* h
 be5 m5tion$ above 7p4 #bi74 ,its       
sup]ior influ5ce dep5ds on ! fact t1 9 !
 conception ( atoms1 x (f]$ exact       
inquiry a mo/ useful po9t ( atta*m5t4 ,!
 conflict betwe5 ! ,gass5di/s & !       
,c>tesians1 :i* at fir/ 0 a bitt] "o1   
c5t]$1 z f> z physics 0 conc]n$1 ar\nd !
 value ( ! atomic hypo!sis z contra/$ ) 
! corpuscul> & vortex !ory :i* ,desc>tes
 _h oppos$ to x4 ,x soon became app>5t1 
h[ev]1 t ^! two ?9k]s foll[$ along      
ess5tially ! same l9es 9 ! philosophy ( 

nature1 %>ply z !y 7 oppos$ 9 _! notical
 pr9ciples4 ,desc>tes' doctr9e ( body is
 conceiv$ f an entirely mat]iali/ic     
/&po9t1 8 an?ropology1 inde$1 go+ fur!r 
?an ! pr9ciples ( 8 sy/em w\ld all[4    
,gass5di1 on ! o!r h&1 recognizes an    
immat]ial1 immortal reason1 traces !    
orig9 ( ! _w1 its m>vel\s arrangem5t1 & 
! beg9n+ ( motion back to ,god1 &1 s9ce 
! ,bible s tea*es1 believes ! e>? to be 
at re/1--hold+ t1 = ?is reason1 !       
decision mu/ be giv5 9 favor ( ,ty*o    
,brah & aga9/ ,cop]nicus1 al?\gh !      
hypo!sis ( ! latt] af=ds ! simpl] &1    
sci5tifically1 ! m probable explanation4
 ,bo? ?9k]s rejoice 9 _! agreem5t ) !   
dogmas ( ! ,*ur*1 only t ) ,desc>tes x  
came uns\ght 9 ! natural progress ( 8   
?\ght1 :ile ,gass5di held to x 9        
contradiction to 8 sy/em4 ,x is ! m     
surpris+ t ,gass5di's works escap$ be+  
put ^u ! ,index1 a fate :i* ov]took ^? (
 ,desc>tes 9 #affc4  ,footnote #b3      
,pi]re ,gass5di1 #aeib-afee3 ,on ! ,life
 & ,"* ( ,epicurus1 #afdg2 ,notes on !  

,t5? ,book ( ,diog5es ,lartius1 ) a     
,survey ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,epicurus1 #afdi4
 ,works1 ,lyons1 #afeh1 ,flor5ce1 #agbg4
 ,cf4 ,lange1 ,hi/ory ( ,mat]ialism1    
book i4  #c1 *ap1 #a2 ,natorp1          
,analekt51 ,philosophis*e ,monat%efte1  
vol4 xviii4 #ahhb1 p4 #egb seq4  ,z     
mod]n ?\ght d]ives its me*anical temp]  
equally f bo? ^! s\rces1 & ! natural    
sci5ce ( ! day has appropriat$ !        
corpuscles ( ,desc>tes "u ! "n (        
molecules1 z well z ! atoms ( ,gass5di1 
?\gh n )\t consid]able modification 9   
bo? conceptions 7,lange1 vol4 i4 p4     
#bfi71 s we f9d attempts at m$iation at 
an e>ly p]iod4 ,:ile ,pre ,m]s5ne       
7#aehh-afdh71 :o 0 well v]s$ 9 physics1 
s\ght an indecisive middle c\rse betwe5 
^! two philosoph]s1 ! ,engli% *emi/1    
,rob]t ,boyle1 effect$ a successful     
syn!sis ( bo?4 ,! son ( ,ri*>d ,boyle1  
,e>l ( ,cork1 he 0 born at ,lismore 9   
#afbf1 liv$ 9 lit]>y retirem5t at ,ox=d 
f #afed1 & lat] 9 ,cambridge1 & di$1    
#afib1 9 ,london1 presid5t ( ! ,royal   

,society4 ,8 pr9cipal "w1 ,! ,sceptical 
,*emi/ 7,works1 vol4 i4 p4 #bij seq471  
appe>$ 9 #affa1 ! tract1 ,de ,ipsa      
,natura1 9 #afhb4a ,by 8 introduction ( 
! atomic conception he f\nd$ an epo* 9  
*emi/ry1 :i*1 n[ = ! fir/1 0 fre$ f     
bondage to ! ideas ( ,ari/otle & !      
al*emi/s4 ,atomism1 h[ev]1 0 = ,boyle   
m]ely an in/rum5t ( me?od & n a         
philosophical !ory ( ! _w4 ,a s9c]ely   
religi\s man1#b he reg>ds ) disfavor bo?
 ! a!ism ( ,epicurus & 8 complete       
rejection ( teleology--! _w-ma*9e po9ts 
to an intellig5t ,creator & a purpose 9 
creation2 motion1 to a div9e impulse4   
,he def5ds1 on ! o!r h&1 ! "r ( free    
inquiry aga9/ ! prie/hood & ! p$antry ( 
! s*ools1 hold+ t ! sup]natural mu/ be  
%>ply di/+ui%$ f ! natural1 & m]e       
conjectures conc]n+ insoluble problems f
 positions susceptible ( exp]im5tal     
pro(2 :ile1 9 opposition to submission  
to au?ority1 he rem>ks t ! curr5t co9 ( 
op9ion mu/ be e/imat$1 n by ! date :5 & 
! p]son by :om x 0 m9t$ b by ! value ( !

 metal alone4 ,c>tesian elem5ts 9 ,boyle
 are ! />t f d\bt1 ! d]ivation ( all    
motion f pressure & impact1 & ! ext5sion
 ( ! me*anical explanation to ! organic 
_w4 ,8 inquiries relate exclusively to !
 _w ( matt] s f> z x 0 complet$ on ! la/
 day b "o ( creation4 ,he def5ds empty  
space aga9/ ,desc>tes & ,hobbes4 ,he is 
! fir/ to apply ! m$iaeval t]ms1 prim>y 
& second>y qualities1 to ! anti!sis     
betwe5 objective prop]ties :i* really   
belong to ?+s1 & s5su\s or subjective   
qualities pres5t only 9 ! feel+         
subject4#c  ,footnote #a3 ,boyle's      
,works 7 publi%$ 9 ,lat9 at ,g5eva1 9   
#affj1 9 six volumes1 & 9 #agad 9 five2 
an edition by ,bir* appe>$ at ,london1  
#agdd1 9 five volumes1 second edition1  
#aggb1 9 six4 ,cf4 ,buckle1 ,hi/ory (   
,civilization 9 ,engl&1 vol4 i4 *ap4    
vii4 pp4 #bfe-bfh2 ,lange1 ,hi/ory (    
,mat]ialism1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bih-cjf2 vol4 
ii4 p4 #cea seq42 ,georg ,baku1 ,d]     
,/reit b] d5 ,naturbegriff1 ,zeits*rift 
fr ,philosophie1 vol4 xcviii41 #ahia1 p4

 #afb seq4  ,footnote #b3 ,! f\ndation  
nam$ aft] him _h = its object to promote
 by means ( lectures ! inve/igation (   
nature on ! basis ( atomism1 &1 at !    
same "t1 to free x f ! reproa* ( lead+  
to a!ism & to %[ its h>mony ) natural   
religion4 ,samuel ,cl>ke's "w on ,! ,be+
 & ,attributes ( ,god1 #agje1 orig9at$ 9
 lectures deliv]$ on ?is f\ndation4     
,footnote #c3 ,euck51 ,ges*i*te d]      
philosophis*5 ,t]m9ologie1 pp4 #id1     
#aif4   #h4 ,philosophy 9 ,engl& to !   
,middle ( ! ,sev5te5? ,c5tury4  7a7     
,bacon's ,pr$ecessors4--,! d>kness :i*  
lay ov] ! beg9n+s ( mod]n ,engli%       
philosophy has be5 b incompletely       
dispell$ by ! m]itori\s "w ( ,*4 de     
,rmusat 7,hi/oire de la ,philosophie en 
,anglet]re depuis ,bacon jusqu'a ,locke1
 #b vols41 #ahgh74 ,! mo/ rec5t         
inve/igations ( ,j4 ,freud5?al 7,beitrge
 zur ,ges*i*te d] ,englis*5             
,philosophie1 9 ! ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d]
 ,philosophie1 vols4 iv4 & v41 #ahia7 h 
br\ght assi/ance 9 a way des]v+ ( ?anks1

 s9ce !y lift at important po9ts ! veil 
:i* conceal$ ,bacon's relations to 8    
pr$ecessors & contempor>ies1 by describ+
 ! sci5tific t5d5cies & a*ievem5ts (    
,digby & ,temple4 ,! foll[+ may be tak5 
f 8 results4  ,ev]>d ,digby 7di$ #aeib2 
*ief "w1 ,!oria ,analytica1 #aegi71     
in/ructor 9 logic 9 ,cambridge f #aegc1 
:o 0 /rongly influ5c$ by ,reu*l9 & :o   
favor$ an                               
,ari/otelian-,alex&rian-,cabali/ic      
eclecticism1 0 ! fir/ to dissem9ate     
,neoplatonic ideas 9 ,engl&2 &1 9 spite 
( ! lack ( orig9ality 9 8 sy/ematic     
pres5tation ( !oretical philosophy1     
ar\s$ ! /udy ( ?is bran* 9 ,engl& into  
new life4 ,8 oppon5t1 ,sir ,william     
,temple #a 7#aeec-afbf71 by 8 def5se &  
exposition ( ! doctr9e ( ,ramus         
7introduc$ into ,great ,brita9 by       
,george ,bu*anan & 8 pupil1 ,&rew       
,melville71 made ,cambridge ! *ief c5t] 
( ,ramism4 ,he 0 ! fir/ :o op5ly oppos$ 
,ari/otle4  ,footnote #a3 ,temple 0     
secret>y to ,philip ,sidney1 ,william   

,davison1 & ! ,e>l ( ,essex1 &1 f #afai1
 ,provo/ ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl94 ,8 
maid5 "w1 ,de ,unica ,p4 ,rami ,me?odo1 
:i* he publi%$ "u ! pseudonym1          
,mildapettus #aehj1 0 aim$ at ,digby's  
,de ,duplici ,me?odo4 ,8 *ief "w1 ,p4   
,rami ,dialectics ,libri ,dua ,s*oliis1 
,illu/rati1 appe>$ 9 #aehd4  ,bacon 0   
und\bt$ly acqua9t$ ) bo? ^! writ]s &    
took ideas f bo?4 ,digby repres5t$ !    
s*ola/ic t5d5cy1 :i* ,bacon vehem5tly   
oppos$1 yet )\t be+ able completely to  
break away f x4 ,temple 0 "o ( ^? :o    
suppli$ him ) weapons = ?is conflict4   
,f9ally1 x mu/ be m5tion$ t _m ( !      
,engli% sci5ti/s ( ! "t1 especially     
,william ,gilb]t 7#aedj-afjc2 ,de       
,magnete1 #afjj71 physician to ,que5    
,elizabe?1 us$ induction 9 _! "w be=e   
,bacon advanc$ 8 !ory ( me?od4  7b7     
,bacon4--,! f\nd] ( ! empirical         
philosophy ( mod]n times 0 ,francis     
,bacon 7#aefa-afbf71 a contempor>y (    
,%akespe>e4 ,bacon began 8 political    
c>e] by sitt+ 9 ,p>liam5t = _m ye>s "u  

,que5 ,elizabe?1 z ^: c\nsel he 0 *>g$ )
 ! duty ( engag+ 9 ! prosecution ( 8    
patron1 ! ,e>l ( ,essex1 & at ^: comm&  
he prep>$ a ju/ification ( ! process4   
,"u ,james ,i1 he atta9$ ! highe/ (fices
 & honors1 be+ made ,keep] ( ! ,great   
,seal 9 #afag1 ,"l ,*ancellor & ,b>on   
,v]ulam 9 #afah1 & ,visc\nt ,/4 ,albans 
9 #afba4 ,9 ?is la/ ye> came 8 fall4 ,he
 0 *>g$ ) brib]y1 & condemn$2 ! k+      
remitt$ ! imprisonm5t & f9e1 & = !      
rema9d] ( 8 life ,bacon devot$ himself  
to sci5ce1 reject+ e sugge/ion t[>d a   
r5ewal ( 8 political activity4 ,! moral 
laxity ( ! times ?r[s a mitigat+ light  
ov] 8 fault2 b he _c be aquitt$ (       
self-seek+1 love ( money & ( display1 & 
excessive ambition4 ,z ,macaulay says 9 
8 fam\s essay1 he 0 nei!r malignant nor 
tyrannical1 b he lack$ w>m? ( affection 
& elevation ( s5tim5t2 !re 7 _m ?+s :i* 
he lov$ m ?an virtue1 & _m :i* he fe>$ m
 ?an guilt4 ,he fir/ ga9$ r5[n z an     
au?or by 8 e?ical1 economic1 & political
 ,essays1 aft] ! mann] ( ,montaigne2 (  

^! ! fir/ t5 appe>$ 9 #aeig1 9 ! ?ird   
edition 7#afbe7 increas$ to fifty-eight2
 ! ,lat9 translation be>s ! title       
,s]mones ,fideles4 ,8 great plan = a    
re/oration ( ! sci5ces 0 int5d$ to be   
c>ri$ out 9 f\r1 or r1 9 six p>ts4 ,b   
only ! fir/ two p>ts ( ! ,in/auratio    
,magna 7 develop$3 ! encyclopa$ia1 or   
division ( all sci5ces#a1 a *>t ( !     
globus intellectualis1 on :i* 0 depict$ 
:at ea* sci5ce _h accompli%$ & :at /ill 
rema9$ = ea* to d2 & ! developm5t ( !   
new me?od4 ,bacon publi%$ 8 survey ( !  
circle ( ! sci5ces 9 ! ,engli% "w1 !    
,advancem5t ( ,le>n+1 #afje1 a mu*      
enl>g$ revision ( :i*1 ,de ,dignitate et
 ,augm5tis ,sci5ti>um1 appe>$ 9 ,lat9 9 
#afbc4 ,9 #afab he pr9t$ z a            
contribution to me?odology ! draft1     
,cogitata et ,visa 7writt5 #afjg71 lat] 
reca/ into ! fir/ book ( ! ,novum       
,organum1 #afbj4 ,?is title1 ,novum     
,organum1 ( itself indicates opposition 
to ,ari/otle1 ^: logical treatises _h = 
ages be5 collect$ "u ! title ,organon4  

,if 9 ?is "w ,bacon _h giv5 no connect$ 
exposition ( 8 re=m+ pr9ciples1 b m]ely 
a s]ies ( aphorisms1 & ?is an incomplete
 "o1 ! rema9+ p>ts are /ill m fragm5t>y1
 only prefaces & scatt]$ contributions  
hav+ be5 r$uc$ to writ+4 ,! ?ird "p 0 to
 h be5 =m$ by a description ( ! _w or   
natural hi/ory1 ,hi/oria ,naturalis1 & !
 la/1--introduc$ by a ,scala            
,intellectus 7ladd] ( k1 illu/rations ( 
! me?od by examples71 & by ,prodromi    
7prelim9>y results ( 8 own              
inquiries71--by natural sci5ce1         
,philosophia ,secunda4 ,! be/ edition ( 
,bacon's works is ! ,london "o ( ,sp$d+1
 ,ellis  ,hea?1 #aheg seq41 #g vols41   
#b;d ed41 #ahgj2 ) #g volumes additional
 ( ,! ,lett]s & ,life ( ,francis ,bacon1
 includ+ ,8 ,occasional ,works1 & a     
,comm5t>y1 by ,j4 ,sp$d+1 #ahfb-gd4     
,sp$d+ foll[$ ?is fur!r ) a brief]      
,acc\nt ( ! ,life & ,times ( ,francis   
,bacon1 #b vols41 #ahghb4  ,footnote #a3
 ,accord+ to ! faculties ( ! s\l1       
memory1 imag9ation1 & und]/&+1 ?ree     

pr9cipal sci5ces are di/+ui%$2 hi/ory1  
poesy1 & philosophy4 ,( ! ?ree objects (
 ! latt]1 nature /rikes ! m9d ) a direct
 ray1 ,god ) a refract$ ray1 & man      
himself ) a reflect$ ray4 ,!ology is    
natural or reveal$4 ,speculative        
7!oretical7 natural philosophy divides  
into physics1 conc]n$ ) mat]ial &       
effici5t causes1 & metaphysics1 ^:      
mission1 accord+ to ! traditional view1 
is to inquire into f9al causes1 b 9     
,bacon's own op9ion1 into =mal causes2  
op]ative 7te*nical7 natural philosophy  
is me*anics & natural magic4 ,! doctr9e 
conc]n+ man comprises an?ropology       
7includ+ logic & e?ics7 & politics4 ,?is
 division ( ,bacon 0 /ill reta9$ by     
,d',alemb]t 9 8 prelim9>y disc\rse to ! 
,encyclopdie4  ,footnote #b3 ,cf4 on    
,bacon1 ,k4 ,fis*]1 #b;d ed41 #ahge2    
,*r4 ,sigw>t1 9 ! ,preussis*e ,jahrb*]1 
#ahfc & #ahfd1 & 9 vol4 ii4 ( 8 ,logik2 
,h4 ,heussl]1 ,baco und se9e ges*i*tli*e
 ,/ellung1 ,breslau1 #ahhi4 ,adamson1   
,encyclop$ia ,britannica1 #i?4 ed41 vol4

 iii4 pp4 #bjj-bbb2 ,f[l]1 ,engli%      
,philosoph]s ,s]ies1 #ahha2 ,ni*ol1     
,blackwood's ,philosophical ,classics1  
#b vols41 #ahhh-hi4--,,tr4 ,bacon's m]it
 0 ?reefold3 he felt m =cibly & m cle>ly
 ?an previ\s ?9k]s ! ne$ ( a re=m 9     
sci5ce2 he set up a new & gr&           
ideal--unbias$ & me?odical inve/igation 
( nature 9 ord] to ma/]y ov] nature2 &  
he gave in=mation & directions z to !   
way 9 :i* ?is goal 0 to be atta9$1 :i*1 
9 spite ( _! incomplet5ess 9 detail1 w5t
 deep into ! he>t ( ! subject & laid !  
f\ndation = ! "w ( c5turies4#a ,8 fai? 9
 ! omnipot5ce ( ! new me?od 0 s /rong1 t
 he ?\ght t sci5ce = ! future c\ld almo/
 disp5se ) tal5t4 ,he comp>es 8 me?od to
 a compass or a rul]1 ) :i* ! unpractis$
 man is able to draw circles & /raight  
l9es bett] ?an an exp]t )\t ^!          
in/rum5ts4  ,footnote #a3 ,8 detractors 
are unju/ :5 !y apply ! crit]ion ( !    
pres5t me?od ( inve/igation & f9d only  
imp]fection 9 an imp]fect beg9n+4  ,all 
sci5ce hi!rto1 ,bacon decl>es1 has be5  

unc]ta9 & unfruitful1 & does n advance a
 /ep1 :ile ! me*anic arts gr[ daily m   
p]fect2 )\t a firm basis1 g>rul\s1      
cont5ti\s1 & lack+ 9 cont5t1 x is ( no  
practical value4 ,! seek] aft] c]ta9 k  
mu/ ab&on words = ?+s1 & le>n ! art (   
=c+ nature to answ] 8 que/ions4 ,! seek]
 aft] fruitful k mu/ increase ! numb] ( 
discov]ies1 & trans=m !m f matt]s (     
*ance into matt]s ( design4 ,= discov]y 
conditions ! p[]1 greatness1 & progress 
( mank9d4 ,man's p[] is measur$ by 8 k1 
k is p[]1 & nature is conqu]$ by        
ob$i5ce--sci5tia e/ pot5tia2 natura     
p>5do v9citur4  ,bacon decl>es ?ree ?+s 
indisp5sable = ! atta9m5t ( ?is p[]-giv+
 k3 ! m9d mu/ und]/& ! in/rum5ts ( k2 x 
mu/ turn to exp]i5ce1 d]iv+ ! mat]ials (
 k f p]ception2 & x mu/ n rise f        
p>ticul> pr9ciples to ! high] axioms too
 rapidly1 b /eadily & gradually ?r\gh   
middle axioms4 ,! m9d c accompli% no?+  
:5 left to itself2 b undirect$ exp]i5ce 
alone is also insuffici5t 7exp]im5tation
 )\t a plan is grop+ 9 ! d>k71 & !      

s5ses1 moreov]1 are deceptive & n acute 
en\gh = ! subtlety ( nature--!re=e1     
me?odical exp]im5tation alone1 n *ance  
obs]vation1 is wor?y ( confid5ce4       
,in/ead ( ! cu/om>y divorce ( exp]i5ce &
 und]/&+1 a firm alliance1 a lawful     
m>riage1 mu/ be effect$ betwe5 !m4 ,!   
empirici/s m]ely collect1 l ! ants2 !   
dogmatic metaphysicians sp9 ! web ( _!  
ideas out ( !mselves1 l ! spid]s2 b !   
true philosoph] mu/ be l ! bee1 :i* by  
its own p[] trans=ms & dige/s ! ga!r$   
mat]ial4  ,z ! m9d1 l a dull & unev5    
mirror1 by its own nature di/orts ! rays
 ( objects1 x mu/ fir/ ( all be clean$ &
 poli%$1 t is1 x mu/ be fre$ f all      
prejudices & false notions1 :i*1        
deep-root$ by habit1 prev5t ! =mation ( 
a true picture ( ! _w4 ,x mu/ root out  
its prejudices1 or1 :]e ?is is          
impossible1 at lea/ und]/& !m4 ,d\bt is 
! fir/ /ep on ! way to tru?4 ,( ^!      
,phantoms or ,idols to be disc>d$1      
,bacon di/+ui%es f\r classes3 ,idols ( !
 ,!at]1 ( ! ,m>ket ,place1 ( ! ,d51 & ( 

! ,tribe4 ,! mo/ dang]\s are ! idola    
!atri1 :i* consi/ 9 ! t5d5cy to put m   
tru/ 9 au?ority & tradition ?an 9       
indep5d5t reflection1 to adopt curr5t   
ideas simply because !y f9d g5]al       
acceptance4 ,bacon's injunction conc]n+ 
^! is n to be deceiv$ by /age-plays     
7i4e41 by ! tea*+s ( e>li] ?9k]s :i*    
repres5t ?+s o!r ?an !y are72 in/ead (  
believ+ o!rs1 obs]ve = ?yself6 ,! idola 
=i1 :i* arise f ! use ( language 9      
public int]c\rse1 dep5d ^u ! confusion (
 words1 :i* are m]e symbols ) a         
conv5tional value & :i* are bas$ on !   
c>elessly con/ruct$ concepts ( ! vulg>1 
) ?+s !mselves4 ,"h ,bacon w>ns u to    
keep close to ?+s4 ,! idola specus are  
individual prepossessions :i* int]f]e ) 
! appreh5sion ( ! true /ate ( affairs1  
su* z ! excessive t5d5cy ( ?\ght t[>d ! 
resemblances or ! diff]5ces ( ?+s1 or ! 
inve/igator's habit ( transf]r+ ideas   
curr5t 9 8 own dep>tm5t to subjects ( a 
diff]5t k9d4 ,su* individual weaknesses 
are numb]less1 yet !y may 9 "p be       

correct$ by comp>ison ) ! p]ceptions (  
o!rs4 ,! idola tribus1 f9ally1 are      
gr\nd$ 9 ! nature ( ! human species4 ,to
 ?is class belong1 among o!rs1 illusions
 ( ! s5ses1 :i* may 9 "p be correct$ by 
! use ( in/rum5ts1 ) :i* we arm our     
organs2 fur!r1 ! t5d5cy to hold fa/ to  
op9ions acceptable to u 9 spite (       
contr>y in/ances2 simil>ly1 ! t5d5cy to 
an?ropomorphic views1 includ+1 z its mo/
 important special in/ance1 ! mi/ake (  
?9k+ t we p]ceive purposive relations   
ev]y:]e & ! work+ ( f9al causes1 aft] ! 
analogy ( human action1 :5 9 reality    
effici5t causes alone are conc]n$4 ,"h  
,bacon's injunction runs1 n to int]pret 
natural ph5om5a teleologically1 b to    
expla9 !m f me*anical causes2 n to n>r[ 
! _w d[n to ! limits ( ! m9d1 b to ext5d
 ! m9d to ! b\nd>ies ( ! _w1 s t x %all 
und]/& x z x really is4  ,to ^! w>n+s   
!re are add$ positive rules4 ,:5 !      
inve/igator1 aft] ! removal ( prejudices
 & habitual modes ( ?\ght1 approa*es    
exp]i5ce ) 8 s5ses unp]v]t$ & a purifi$ 

m9d1 he is to advance f ! ph5om5a giv5  
to _! conditions4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! facts  
mu/ be e/abli%$ by obs]vation &         
exp]im5t1 & sy/ematically arrang$1#a !n 
let him g on to causes & laws4#b ,! true
 or sci5tific induction#c ?us inculcat$ 
is q diff]5t f ! cr$ul\s induction (    
common life or ! unme?odical induction (
 ,ari/otle4 ,bacon emphasizes ! fact t  
hi!rto ! importance ( negative in/ances1
 :i* are to be employ$ z a k9d (        
c\nt]-pro(1 has be5 completely ov]look$1
 & t a sub/itute = complete induction1  
:i* is nev] atta9able1 may be f\nd1 on !
 "o h&1 9 ! collection ( z _m cases z   
possible1 &1 on ! o!r1 by consid]+ ! m  
important or decisive cases1 !          
pr]ogative in/ances4 ,!n ! inductive    
asc5t f exp]im5t to axiom is to be      
foll[$ by a d$uctive desc5t f axioms to 
new exp]im5ts & discov]ies4 ,bacon      
rejects ! syllogism on ! gr\nd t x fits 
"o to ov]come 8 oppon5t 9 disputation1 b
 n to ga9 an active conque/ ov] nature4 
,9 8 own application ( ^! pr9ciples (   

me?od1 8 proc$ure 0 t ( a dilettante2 ! 
pati5t1 assidu\s labor dem&$ = !        
successful promotion ( ! mission (      
natural inve/igation 0 n 8 =te4 ,8 /r5g?
 lay 9 ! po/ulation ( problems1 !       
/imulation & direction ( inquiry1 !     
discov]y ( lacunae & ! ?r[+ out (       
sugge/ions2 & _m ideas incid5tally ?r[n 
(f by him surprise u by _! +5i\s        
anticipations ( lat] discov]ies4 ,!     
greate/ defect 9 8 !ory 0 8 complete    
failure to recognize ! s]vices promis$  
by ma!matics to natural sci5ce4 ,! *>ge 
( utilit>ianism1 :i* has be5 s broadly  
made1 is1 on ! contr>y1 unju/4 ,= no    
matt] h[ /rongly he emphasizes !        
practical value ( k1 he is /ill 9       
agreem5t ) ^? :o e/eem ! godlike        
condition ( calm & *e]ful acqua9tance ) 
tru? m highly ?an ! advantages to be    
expect$ f x2 he desires sci5ce to be    
us$1 n z a c\rtezan = pleasure1 b z a   
sp\se = g5]ation1 fruit & com=t1        
&--leav+ entirely out ( view 8 isolat$  
ackn[l$gm5ts ( ! inh]5t value ( k--he   

conceives its utility :olly 9 !         
compreh5sive & noble s5se t ! pursuit ( 
sci5ce1 f :i* z su* all n>r[-m9d$ reg>d 
= direct practical application mu/ keep 
alo(1 is ! mo/ important lev] = !       
advancem5t ( human culture4  ,footnote  
#a3 ,bacon illu/rates ! me?od by !      
explanation ( heat4 ,! results (        
exp]im5tal obs]vation are to be arrang$ 
9 ?ree tables4 ,! table ( pres5ce       
conta9s _m diff]5t cases 9 :i* heat     
occurs2 ! table ( abs5ce1 ^? 9 :i*1 "u  
circum/ances o!rwise ! same1 x is want+2
 ! table ( degrees or comp>ison         
enum]ates ph5om5a ^: increase & decrease
 accompany simil> v>iations 9 ! degree (
 heat4 ,t :i* rema9s aft] ! exclusion n[
 to be und]tak5 7( t :i* _c be ! nature 
or cause ( heat71 yields z a prelim9>y  
result or comm5cem5t ( int]pretation 7z 
a fir/ v9tage71 ! def9ition ( heat3 a   
motion1 expansive1 re/ra9$1 & act+ 9 its
 /rife ^u ! small] p>ticles ( bodies4   
,footnote #b3 ,?is goal ( ,baconian     
inquiry is by no means co9cid5t ) t (   

exact natural sci5ce4 ,law does n mean  
to him1 z to ! physical sci5ti/ (       
to-day1 a ma!matically =mulat$ /atem5t (
 ! c\rse ( ev5ts1 b ! nature ( !        
ph5om5on1 to be express$ 9 a def9ition  
7,e4 ,knig1 ,entwickelung des           
,causalproblems bis ,kant1 #ahhc1 pp4   
#aed-aef74 ,bacon comb9es 9 a peculi>   
mann] anci5t & mod]n1 ,platonic &       
corpuscul> fundam5tal ideas4 ,reject+   
f9al causes ) ! atomi/s1 yet h&+ ov]    
mat]ial & effici5t causes 7! latt] ( :i*
 s9k ) him to ! level ( m]e *ang+       
occasional causes7 to empirical physics1
 he assigns to metaphysics1 z ! true    
sci5ce ( nature1 ! se>* = ! =ms &       
prop]ties ( ?+s4 ,9 ?is he is guid$ by !
 foll[+ metaphysical presupposition3    
,ph5om5a1 h[ev] manifold !y may be1 are 
at bottom compos$ ( a few elem5ts1      
namely1 p]man5t prop]ties1 ! s-call$    
simple natures1 :i* =m1 z x 71 !        
alphabet ( nature or ! colors on h]     
palette1 by ! comb9ation ( :i* %e       
produces h] v>i$ pictures2 e4 g41 !     

nature ( heat & cold1 ( a r$ color1 (   
gravity1 & also ( age1 ( dea?4 ,n[ ! "q 
to be inve/igat$ becomes1 ,:at1 !n1 is  
heat1 r$ness1 etc48 ,! gr\nd ess5ce &   
law ( ! natures consi/ 9 c]ta9 =ms1 :i* 
,bacon conceives 9 a ,platonic way z    
concepts & sub/ances1 b ph5om5al ones1  
&1 at ! same "t1 ) ,democritus1 z !     
gr\p+ or motion ( m9ute mat]ial         
p>ticles4 ,?us ! =m ( heat is a p>ticul>
 k9d ( motion1 ! =m ( :it5ess a         
det]m9ate arrangem5t ( mat]ial p>ticles4
 ,cf4 ,natge1 ,ueb] ,f4 ,bacons         
,=m5lehre1 ,leipsic1 #ahia1 9 :i*       
,heussl]'s view is develop$ 9 m detail4 
,cf4 fur!r1 ,f[l]'s ,bacon1 ,engli%     
,philosoph]s ,s]ies1 #ahha1 *ap4        
iv4--,,tr4  ,footnote #c3 ,! ,baconian  
me?od is to be call$ induction1 x is    
true1 only 9 ! broad s5se4 ,ev5 be=e    
,sigw>t1 ,apelt1 ,!orie d] ,induction1  
#ahed1 pp4 #aea1 #aec1 decl>$ t ! "q x  
discuss$ 0 ess5tially a me?od (         
ab/raction4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n detract 
f ! fame ( ,bacon z ! f\nd]1 ( ! !ory ( 

inductive inve/igation 79 lat] times    
c>efully elaborat$ by ,mill74  ,bacon   
int5d$ t 8 re=m+ pr9ciples %\ld accrue  
to ! b5efit ( practical philosophy also1
 b gave only aphori/ic h9ts to ?is end4 
,ev]y?+ is impell$ by two appetites1 (  
:i* ! "o aims at individual welf>e1 !   
o!r at ! welf>e ( ! :ole ( :i* ! ?+ is a
 "p 7bonum suitatis--bonum communionis74
 ,! second is n only ! nobl] b also !   
/rong]2 ?is holds ( ! l[] creatures z   
well z ( man1 :o1 :5 n deg5]ate1 pref]s 
! g5]al welf>e to 8 individual int]e/s4 
,love is ! highe/ ( ! virtues1 & is     
nev]1 z o!r human end[m5ts1 expos$ to ! 
dang] ( excess2 !re=e ! life ( action is
 ( m wor? ?an ! life ( contemplation4   
,by ?is pr9ciple ( morals ,bacon m>k$   
out ! way = ! ,engli% e?ics ( lat]      
times4#a ,he notes ! lack ( a sci5ce (  
"*1 = :i* m mat]ial is giv5 9 ord9>y    
disc\rse1 9 ! poets & ! hi/orians1 ?an 9
 ! works ( ! philosoph]s2 he expla9s !  
p[] ( ! affections ov] ! reason by !    
fact t ! idea ( pres5t good fills !     

imag9ation m =cibly ?an ! idea ( good to
 come1 & summons p]suasion1 habit1 &    
morals to ! aid ( ! latt]4 ,we mu/      
endeavor s to gov]n ! passions 7ea* (   
:i* comb9es 9 itself a mascul9e         
impetuosity ) a fem99e weakness7 t !y   
%all take ! "p ( ! reason in/ead (      
attack+ x4 ,else:]e ,bacon gives 7n     
entirely unque/ionable7 directions      
conc]n+ ! art ( mak+ "o's way4 ,acute   
obs]vations & +5i\s rem>ks ev]y:]e      
ab\nd4 ,9 ord] to in=m "o's self ( a    
man's int5tions & ends1 x is necess>y to
 keep a good m$iocrity 9 lib]ty ( spee*1
 :i* invites a simil> lib]ty1 & 9       
secrecy1 :i* induces tru/4 ,9 ord] to   
get on "o mu/ h a little ( ! fool & n   
too mu* ( ! hone/4 ,z ! baggage is to an
 army1 s is ri*es to virtue4 ,x _c be   
sp>$ nor left beh9d1 b x h9d]e? ! m>*2  
yea1 & ! c>e ( x sometimes lose? or     
di/urbe? ! victory 7imp$im5ta--baggage &
 h9drance74 ,on envy & malevol5ce he    
says3 ,= m5's m9ds w ei!r fe$ ^u _! own 
good or ^u o!rs' evil2 444 & :oso is out

 ( hope to atta9 ano!r's virtue w seek  
to come at ev5 h& by depress+ ano!r's   
=tune4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,vorla5d]1 p4
 #bfg seq4  ,9 e?ics1 z 9 !oretical     
philosophy1 ,bacon dem&s ! completion ( 
natural k by revelation4 ,! light (     
nature 7! reason & ! consci5ce7 is able 
only to conv9ce u ( s9 & n to give u    
complete in=mation conc]n+ our          
duty1--e4g41 ! l(ty moral pr9ciple1     
,love y\r enemies4 ,simil>ly1 natural   
!ology is q suffici5t to place ! exi/5ce
 ( ,god beyond d\bt1 by reason+ f ! ord]
 9 nature 7slight ta/es ( philosophy may
 p]*ance move "o to a!ism b full]       
draughts lead back to religion72 b !    
doctr9es ( ,*ri/ianity are matt]s (     
fai?4 ,religion & sci5ce are sep>ate    
fields1 any confusion ( :i* involves !  
dang] ( an h]etical religion or a       
fabul\s philosophy4 ,! m a pr9ciple (   
fai? contradicts ! reason1 ! great] !   
ob$i5ce & ! honor to ,god 9 accept+ x4  
7c7 ,hobbes4--,hobbes /&s 9 %>p contra/ 
to ,bacon bo? 9 disposition & 9 doctr9e4

 ,bacon 0 a man ( a wide outlook1 a ri*1
 /imulat+1 impulsive nature1 fill$ )    
great plans1 b too mobile & desultory to
 all[ !m to rip5 to p]fection2 ,hobbes  
is sl[1 t5aci\s1 p]si/5t1 unyield+1 8   
?\ght /r5u\s & n>r[4 ,to ?is corresponds
 a pr(\nd diff]5ce 9 _! sy/ems1 :i* is  
by no means adequately *>act]iz$ by say+
 t ,hobbes br+s into ! =egr\nd !        
ma!matical elem5t neglect$ by 8         
pr$ecessor1 & turns 8 att5tion *iefly to
 politics4 ,! dep5d5ce ( ,hobbes on     
,bacon is1 9 spite ( _! p]sonal         
acqua9tance1 n s great z =m]ly 0        
univ]sally assum$4 ,8 guid+ />s are r ! 
great ma!maticians ( ! ,cont95t1 ,kepl] 
& ,galileo1 :ile ,c>tesian influ5ces    
also are n to be d5i$4 ,he f9ds 8       
mission 9 ! con/ruction ( a /rictly     
me*anical view ( ! _w4 ,me*anism appli$ 
to ! _w gives mat]ialism2 appli$ to k1  
s5sationalism ( a ma!matical type2      
appli$ to ! w1 det]m9ism2 to morality & 
! /ate1 e?ical & political naturalism4  
,nev]!less1 ! empirical t5d5cy ( 8      

nation has a c]ta9 p[] ov] him2 he holds
 fa/ to ! position t all ideas          
ultimately spr+ f exp]i5ce4 ,) 8        
en]getic b %ort-brea!d ?9k+1 he did n   
succe$ 9 fus+ ! rationali/ic elem5ts    
receiv$ f =eign s\rces ) ^! native      
t5d5cies1 s z to produce a unifi$ sy/em4
 ,z ,grimm has correctly %[n 7,zur      
,ges*i*te des ,erk5ntnissproblems71 !re 
is an unreconcil$ contradiction betwe5 !
 dep5d5ce ( ?\ght on exp]i5ce1 :i* he   
does n give up1 & ! univ]sal validity ( 
! tru?s d]iv$ f pure reason1 :i* he     
ass]ts on ! basis ( !                   
ma!matico-philosophical doctr9es ( !    
,cont95t4 ,a simil> unm$iat$ dualism w  
meet u 9 ,locke also4  ,?omas ,hobbes   
7#aehh-afgi7 0 repell$ :ile a /ud5t at  
,ox=d by ,s*ola/ic me?ods 9 ?\ght1 ) :i*
 he agre$ only 9 _! nom9ali/ic results  
7!re are no univ]sals except names74    
,dur+ repeat$ soj\rns 9 ,p>is1 :]e he   
made ! acqua9tance ( ,gass5di1 ,m]s5ne1 
& ,desc>tes1 he devot$ himself to ! /udy
 ( ma!matics1 & 0 greatly influ5c$ by ! 

doctr9es ( ,galileo2 :ile ! disord]s ( !
 ,engli% revolution l$ him to embrace an
 absoluti/ !ory ( ! /ate4 ,8 *ief works 
7 8 politics1 "u ! title ,levia?an1     
#afea1 & 8 ,elem5ta ,philosophiae1 9    
?ree p>ts 7,de ,corpore1 ,de ,hom9e1 ,de
 ,cive71 ( :i* ! ?ird1 ,de ,cive1 appe>$
 fir/ 79 ,lat92 9 brief] =m &           
anonym\sly1 #afdb1 enl>g$ #afdg71 !     
fir/1 ,de ,corpore1 9 #afee1 & ! second1
 ,de ,hom9e1 9 #afeh4 ,^! _h be5 prec$$ 
by two books #a writt51 l ! two la/ p>ts
 ( ! ,elem5ts1 9 ,engli%3 ,on ,human    
,nature & ,de ,corpore ,politico1       
compos$ #afdj1 pr9t$ )\t ! au?or's      
cons5t 9 #afej4 ,besides ^! he wrote two
 treatises ,( ,lib]ty & ,necessity1     
#afdf & #afed1 & prep>$1 #affh1 a       
collect$ edition ( 8 works 79 ,lat974 ,9
 ,moleswor?'s edition1 #ahci-de1 ! ,lat9
 works occupy five volumes & ! ,engli%  
elev54#b  ,footnote #a3 ,or r "o2 !     
treatise ,on ,human ,nature consi/s ( ! 
fir/ ?irte5 *apt]s ( ! "w1 ,elem5ts (   
,law1 ,natural & ,politic1 & ! ,de      

,corpore ,politico ( ! rema9d]4         
,footnote #b3 ,cf4 on ,hobbes1 ,g4,c4   
,rob]tson 7,blackwood's ,philosophical  
,classics1 vol4 x471 #ahhf2 ,tnnies 9 ! 
,vi]teljahrss*rift fr wiss5s*aftli*e    
,philosophie1 ,jahrg4 #c-e1 #ahgi-ha4   
,philosophy is =mally def9$ by ,hobbes z
 k ( effects f causes & causes f effects
 by means ( legitimate rational inf]5ce4
 ,?is implies ! equal validity ( !      
d$uctive & inductive me?ods1--:ile      
,bacon _h proclaim$ ! latt] ! mo/       
important in/rum5t ( k1--z well z !     
exclusion ( !ology bas$ on revelation f 
! doma9 ( sci5ce4 ,philosophy is        
objectively def9$ z ! !ory ( body &     
motion3 all t exi/s is body2 all t      
occurs1 motion4 ,ev]y?+ real is         
corporeal2 ?is holds ( po9ts1 l9es1 &   
surfaces1 :i* z ! limits ( body _c be   
incorporeal1 z well z ( ! m9d & ( ,god4 
,! m9d is m]ely a 7= ! s5ses too7 ref9$ 
body1 or1 z x is /at$ 9 ano!r place1 a  
movem5t 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! organic body4  
,all ev5ts1 ev5 int]nal ev5ts1 ! feel+s 

& passions1 are movem5ts ( mat]ial p>ts4
 ,endeavor is a dim9utive motion1 z !   
atom is ! smalle/ ( bodies2 s5sation &  
repres5tation are *anges 9 ! p]ceiv+    
body4 ,space is ! idea ( an exi/+ ?+ z  
su*1 i4 e41 m]ely z exi/+ outside !     
p]ceiv+ subject2 "t1 ! idea ( motion4   
,all ph5om5a are corporeal motions1 :i* 
take place ) me*anical necessity4 ,nei!r
 =mal nor f9al causes exi/1 b only      
effici5t causes4 ,all t happ5s takes its
 orig9 9 ! activity ( an ext]nal cause1 
& n 9 itself2 a body at re/ 7or 9       
motion7 rema9s at re/ 7or 9 motion7     
=ev]1 unless affect$ by ano!r 9 a       
contr>y s5se4 ,& z bodies & _! *anges   
con/itute ! only objects ( philosophy1 s
 ! ma!matical me?od is ! only correct   
me?od4  ,!re are two k9ds ( bodies3     
natural bodies1 :i* man f9ds 9 nature1 &
 artificial bodies1 :i* he himself      
produces4 ,by ! latt] ,hobbes ref]s     
especially to ! /ate z a human artefact4
 ,man /&s betwe5 ! two z ! mo/ p]fect   
natural body & an elem5t 9 ! political  

body4 ,philosophy1 !re=e1 besides !     
introductory philosophia prima1 :i*     
discusses ! und]ly+ concepts1 consi/s ( 
?ree p>ts3 physics1 an?ropology1 &      
politics4 ,ev5 ! !ory ( ! /ate is       
capable ( demon/rative treatm5t2 moral  
ph5om5a are z subject to ! law (        
me*anical causation z physical ph5om5a4 
,! fir/ factor 9 ! cognitive process is 
an impression on a s5se-organ1 :i*1     
occasion$ by ext]nal motion1 cont9ues   
onw>d to ! he>t & f ?is c5t] gives rise 
to a reaction4 ,! p]ception or s5sation 
:i* ?us arises is entirely subjective1 a
 function ( ! kn[] m]ely1 & 9 no way a  
copy ( ! ext]nal movem5t4 ,! prop]ties  
light1 color1 & s\nd1 :i* we believe to 
be )\t u1 are m]ely int]nal ph5om5a     
dep5d5t on out] & inn] motions1 b ) no  
resemblance to !m4 ,memory consi/s 9 !  
l+]+ effects or residu>y traces (       
p]ception2 x is a s5se or consci\sness (
 hav+ felt be=e 7s5tire se s5sisse      
mem9isse e/71 & ideas are di/+ui%$ f    
s5sations z ! p]fect f ! pres5t t5se4   

,exp]i5ce is ! totality ( p]ceptions    
reta9$ 9 memory1 toge!r ) a c]ta9       
=esight ( ! future aft] ! analogy ( !   
pa/4 ,^! /ages ( cognition1 :i* c yield 
prud5ce b n necess>y & univ]sal k1 are  
pres5t 9 animals z well z m54 ,! human  
capacity = sci5ce is dep5d5t on !       
faculty ( spee*2 words are conv5tional  
signs to facilitate ! ret5tion &        
communication ( ideas4 ,z !             
memory-images d5ot$ by words are weak]1 
fa9t]1 & less cle>ly discrim9at$ ?an !  
orig9al s5sations1 x comes to pass t a  
numb] ( simil> ideas ( memory receive a 
common "n4 ,?us ab/ract g5]al ideas &   
g5]ic concepts arise1 to :i* no?+ real  
corresponds1 = 9 reality p>ticul>s alone
 exi/4 ,! univ]sal is a human artefact4 
,! comb9ation ( words into propositions1
 be+ an addition or subtraction (       
arbitr>y symbols or m>ks1 is call$      
judgm5t2 ! comb9ation ( propositions    
into syllogisms1 inf]5ce2 ! unit$ body (
 true or demon/rat$ pr9ciples1          
sci5ce--h5ce ma!matics is ! type ( all  

k4 ,9 %ort1 ?\ght is no?+ b calculation 
& ! words ) :i* we op]ate are m]e       
c\nt]s2 he :o takes c\nt]s = co9 is a   
fool4 ,animals lack reason1 i4e41 ?is   
p[] ( comb9+ artificial symbols4        
,hobbes's !ory ( ! w is *>act]iz$ by !  
same6 s5sationalism & me*anism z 8 !ory 
( k4 ,all spiritual ev5ts orig9ate 9    
impressions ( s5se4 ,man responds to !  
action ( objects by a d\ble reaction1   
add+ to ! !oretical reaction ( s5sation 
a practical "o 9 ! feel+ ( pleasure or  
pa9 7accord+ z ! impression fur!rs or   
h9d]s ! vital function71 :5ce desire &  
av]sion foll[ 9 respect to future       
exp]i5ce4 ,fur!r developm5ts f ! feel+s 
exp]i5c$ at ! signs ( honor 7!          
ackn[l$gm5t ( sup]ior p[]7 & ! contr>y1 
are ! affections ( pride1 c\rage1 ang]1 
( %ame & rep5tance1 ( hope & love1 (    
pity1 etc4 ,delib]ation is ! alt]nation 
( diff]5t appetites2 ! f9al1 victori\s  
"o :i* imm$iately prec$es action is     
call$ w4 ,fre$om _c be pr$icat$ ( ! w1 b
 only ( ! action1 & ev5 9 ?is case x    

means simply ! abs5ce ( ext]nal         
re/ra9ts1 ! proc$ure ( ! action f ! w ( 
! ag5t2 :ile ! action is necess>y       
nev]!less4 ,e motion is ! inevitable    
result ( ! sum ( ! prec$+ 7includ+      
c]ebral7 motions4  ,?+s :i* we desire   
are t]m$ good1 & ^? :i* we %un1 evil4   
,no?+ is good p] se or absolutely1 b    
only relatively1 = a giv5 p]son1 place1 
"t1 or set ( circum/ances4 ,diff]5t ?+s 
are good to diff]5t m51 & !re is no     
objective1 univ]sal rule ( good & evil1 
s long z m5 are consid]$ z individuals1 
ap>t f society4 ,a def9ite crit]ion ( ! 
good is fir/ rea*$ 9 ! /ate3 t is "r :i*
 ! law p]mits1 t wrong :i* x =bids2 good
 means t :i* is conducive to ! g5]al    
welf>e4 ,9 ! /ate ( nature no?+ is      
=bidd52 nature gives e man a "r to      
ev]y?+1 & "r is coext5sive ) might4     
,:at1 !n1 induces man to ab&on ! /ate ( 
nature & ent] ! /ate ( citiz5%ip8 ,!    
op9ion ( ,ari/otle & ,grotius t ! /ate  
orig9ates 9 ! social impulse is false2 =
 man is ess5tially n social1 b selfi%1 &

 no?+ b reg>d = 8 own int]e/s bids him  
seek ! protection ( ! /ate2 ! civil     
commonweal? is an artificial product (  
fe> & prud5ce4 ,! highe/ good is        
self-pres]vation2 all o!r goods1 z      
fri5d%ip1 ri*es1 wisdom1 k1 &1 above    
all1 p[]1 are valuable only z in/rum5ts 
( ! =m]4 ,! precondition ( well-be+1 =  
:i* ea* man /rives by nature1 is        
security = life & heal?4 ,?is is want+ 9
 ! /ate ( nature1 9 :i* ! passions      
gov]n2 = ! /ate ( nature is a /ate ( w> 
( ev]yone aga9/ ev]yone 7bellum omnium  
contra omnes74 ,ea* man /rives = success
 & p[]1 &1 s9ce he _c tru/ 8 fell[1     
seeks to subdue1 nay1 to kill him2 ea*  
looks ^u 8 fell[ z a wolf :i* he pref]s 
to dev\r r ?an submit himself to ! l    
op]ation4 ,n[1 z no "o is s weak z to be
 incapable ( inflict+ on 8 fell[s t wor/
 ( evils1 dea?1 & ?us ! /ronge/ is      
unsafe1 reason1 9 ! int]e/ ( ev]yone1   
enjo9s a se>* aft] peace & ! e/abli%m5t 
( an ord]$ community4 ,! conditions (   
peace are ! laws ( nature1 :i* relate   

bo? to politics & to morals b :i* d n   
atta9 _! full b9d+ au?ority until !y    
become positive laws1 injunctions ( !   
sov]eign p[]4 ,peace is atta9able only  
:5 ea* man1 9 return = ! protection     
v\*saf$ to him1 gives up 8 natural "r to
 all4 ,! compact by :i* ea* r5\nces 8   
natural lib]ty to d :at he pleases1     
provid$ all o!rs are ready = ! same     
r5unciation1--to :i* are add$1 fur!r1 ! 
laws ( ju/ice 7sanctity ( cov5ants71    
equity1 gratitude1 mode/y1 sociability1 
m]cifulness1 etc41 ^: opposites w\ld br+
 back ! /ate ( nature1--?is compact is  
secur$ aga9/ violation by ! transf] ( ! 
g5]al p[] & fre$om to a s+le w 7! w ( an
 assembly or ( an individual p]son71 :i*
 !n repres5ts ! g5]al w4 ,! civil       
contract includes1 !n1 two mom5ts3 fir/1
 r5unciation2 second1 irrevocable       
transf]5ce & 7absolute7 submission4 ,!  
second unites ! multitude into a civil  
p]sonality1 ! mo/ p]fect unity be+      
v\*saf$ by absolute mon>*y4 ,! sov]eign 
is ! s\l ( ! political body2 ! (ficials1

 its limbs2 rew>d & puni%m5t1 its n]ves2
 law & equity1 its reason4  ,! social   
contract !ory has (t5 exp]i5c$          
democratic int]pretation & application1 
bo? be=e & s9ce ,hobbes's "t2 &1 9 fact1
 x does n include p] se ! irrevocability
 ( ! transf]1 ! absolut5ess ( ! sov]eign
 p[]1 & ! mon>*ical head1 :i* ,hobbes   
consid]$ indisp5sable 9 ord] to gu>d    
aga9/ ! dang] ( an>*y4 ,9 e abridgm5t ( 
! supreme p[]1 :e!r by division or      
limitation1 he sees a /ep t[>d ! r5ewal 
( ! /ate ( nature2 & he def5ds ) iron   
rigor ! omnipot5ce ( ! /ate & ! complete
 lack ( legal /atus on ! "p ( all       
individuals 9 contra/ ) x4 ,! citiz5 is 
n to obey 8 own consci5ce1 :i* has      
simply ! value ( a private op9ion1 b !  
laws1 z ! public consci5ce2 :ile !      
supreme rul]1 on ! contr>y1 is sup]ior  
to ! civil laws1 = x is he t decrees1   
int]prets1 alt]s1 & abrogates !m4 ,he is
 "l ov] ! prop]ty1 ! life1 & ! dea? ( ! 
citiz5s1 & c d no "o wrong4 ,= he alone 
has reta9$ 8 orig9al natural "r to all1 

:i* ! re/ h entirely & =ev] r5\nc$4 ,he 
mu/ h reg>d1 inde$1 to ! welf>e ( ! p1 b
 he is acc\ntable to ,god alone4 ,!     
obligation ( ! subject to obey is       
ext+ui%$ 9 "o case only1--:5 ! civil p[]
 is incapable ( provid+ him fur!r )     
ext]nal & int]nal protection4 ,= ! re/1 
,hobbes decl>es ! exi/+ public ord] !   
lawful "o1 ! evils ( arbitr>y rule mu* m
 tol]able ?an ! univ]sal ho/ility ( !   
/ate ( nature1 & av]sion to tyrants a   
disease inh]it$ f ! republicans (       
antiquity4  ,! sov]eign1 by ! laws & by 
in/ruction1 det]m9es :at is good & evil2
 he det]m9es also :at is to be believ$4 
,religion unsanction$ by ! /ate is      
sup]/ition4 ,! temporal rul] is also !  
spiritual rul]1 ! k+1 ! *ief pa/or1 & ! 
cl]gy 8 s]vants4 ,"o & ! same community 
is t]m$ /ate 9 s f> z x consi/s ( m51 & 
*ur* 9 s f> z x consi/s ( ,*ri/ian m5 7!
 ecclesia/ical commonweal?74 ,! dogmas  
:i* ! law prescribes are to be receiv$  
)\t inve/igation1 to be swall[$ l pills1
 )\t ma/ication4  ,! pr9ciple t e       

passion & e action is 9 its nature      
indiff]5t1 t "r & wrong exi/ only 9 !   
/ate1 t ! w ( a despot is to det]m9e :at
 is moral & :at immoral1 has giv5 j     
(f5se4 ,moreov]1 ?is 0 n1 9 fact1       
,hobbes's deepe/ conviction4 ,ev5 )\t   
ascrib+ great importance to isolat$     
/atem5ts1#a x mu/ be admitt$ t 8 doctr9e
 0 int]pret$ m n>r[ly ?an x 0 int5d$4   
,he does n say t no moral di/9ctions    
:atev] exi/ be=e ! f\ndation ( ! /ate1 b
 only t ! /ate fir/ supplies a fix$     
crit]ion ( ! good4 ,moral ideas h a     
c]ta9 curr5cy be=e ?is1 b !y lack p[] to
 en=ce !mselves4 ,fur!r1 :5 he ascribes 
! orig9 ( ! /ate to self-int]e/1 ?is    
does n mean t reason1 consci5ce1        
g5]osity1 & love = our fell[s are       
entirely want+ 9 ! /ate ( nature1 b only
 t !y are n g5]al en\gh1 &1 z aga9/ !   
passions1 n /rong en\gh to furni% a     
f\ndation = ! edifice ( ! /ate4 ,n only 
exagg]ation 9 /atem5t b also unc\?ness (
 ?\ght may be =giv5 ! repres5tative ( a 
movem5t :i* is at once new & /r5g!n$ by 

! consci\sness ( agreem5t ) a           
naturali/ic !ory ( k & physics2 & !     
vigor ( execution compels admiration1   
ev5 ?\gh _m obscurities rema9 to be     
deplor$ 7e4 g41 ! relation ( ! two moral
 /&>ds1 ! /&>d ( ! reason or natural law
 & ! /&>d ( positive law74 ,&           
recognition mu/ be accord$ to !         
significant k]nel ( doctr9e =m$1 on ! "o
 h&1 by ! endeavor to sep>ate e?ics f   
!ology1 & on ! o!r1 by ! ?\ghts--:i*1 x 
is true1 7 n p]fectly br\ght out--t !   
moral is n f\nd$ on a natural social    
impulse1 b on a law ( ! reason1 & fir/  
ga9s a def9ite crit]ion 9 society1 & t !
 int]e/s ( ! individual are insep>ably  
connect$ ) ^? ( ! community4 ,9 any     
case1 ! attempt to =m a naturali/ic !ory
 ( ! /ate w\ld be an und]tak+ des]v+ (  
?anks1 ev5 if ! promulgation ( ?is !ory 
_h done no fur!r s]vice ?an to *all5ge  
refutation4  ,footnote #a3 ,god inscrib$
 ! div9e or natural law 7,d n t to      
ano!r1 etc47 on ! he>t ( man1 :5 he gave
 him ! reason to rule 8 actions4 ,! laws

 ( nature are1 x is true1 n always      
legally b9d+ 79 =o ext]no71 b always &  
ev]y:]e b9d+ on ! consci5ce 79 =o       
int]no74 ,ju/ice is ! virtue :i* we c   
measure by civil laws2 love1 t :i* we   
measure by ! law ( nature m]ely4 ,! rul]
 ought to gov]n 9 accordance ) ! law (  
nature4  7d7 ,"l ,h]b]t (               
,*]bury4--,betwe5 ,bacon 7#afje1 #afbj7 
& ,hobbes 7#afdb1 #afea7 /&s ,"l ,h]b]t 
( ,*]bury 7#aeha-afdh71 :o1 by 8 "w ,de 
,v]itate 7#afbd71a became ! f\nd] (     
deism1 t !ory ( natural religion1 :i*1 9
 opposition to ! hi/orical dogmatic fai?
 ( ! ,*ur* !ology1 takes ! reason1 :i*  
is ! same 9 all m51 z its basis &       
morality = its cont5t4 ,"l ,h]b]t       
introduces 8 philosophy ( religion by a 
!ory ( k :i* makes univ]sal cons5t !    
highe/ crit]ion ( tru? 7summa v]itatis  
norma cons5sus univ]salis71 & bases k on
 c]ta9 self-evid5t pr9ciples 7pr9cipia71
 common to all m5 9 virtue ( a natural  
in/9ct1 :i* gives safe guidance4 ,^!    
common notions 7notitiae communes7      

prec$e all reflective inquiry1 z well z 
all obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 :i* w\ld be  
impossible )\t !m4 ,! mo/ important     
among !m are ! religi\s & e?ical maxims 
( consci5ce4  ,footnote #a3 ,tractatus  
de ,v]itate pr\t di/+uitur a            
,revelatione1 a ,v]isimili1 a           
,possibile1 et a ,false4 ,also1 ,de     
,religione ,g5tilium1 #afde1 complete   
#affc4  ,?is natural in/9ct is bo? an   
impulse t[>d tru? & a capacity = good or
 impulse to self-pres]vation4 ,! latt]  
ext5ds n only to ! individual b to all  
?+s ) :i* ! individual is connect$1 to !
 species1 nay1 to all ! re/ ( ! _w1 &   
its f9al goal is et]nal happ9ess3 all   
natural capacities are direct$ t[>d !   
highe/ good or t[>d ,god4 ,! s5se = !   
div9e may inde$ be lull$ to sleep or l$ 
a/ray by our free w1 b n eradicat$4 ,to 
be rational & to be religi\s are        
insep>able2 x is religion t di/+ui%es   
man f ! brute1 & no p c be f\nd 9 :i* x 
is lack+4 ,if a!i/s really exi/1 !y are 
to be class$ ) ! irrational & ! insane4 

,! cont5t ( natural religion may be     
summ$ up 9 ! foll[+ five articles1 :i*  
all nations confess3 #a4 ,t !re is a    
,supreme ,be+ 7num5 supremum74 #b4 ,t he
 ought to be wor%ip$4 #c4 ,t virtue &   
piety are ! *ief elem5ts ( wor%ip4 #d4  
,t man ought to rep5t ( 8 s9s4 #e4 ,t   
!re are rew>ds & puni%m5ts 9 a future   
life4 ,besides ^! g5]al pr9ciples1 on ! 
discov]y ( :i* ,"l ,h]b]t greatly prides
 himself1 ! positive religions conta9   
arbitr>y additions1 :i* di/+ui% !m f "o 
ano!r & :i* owe _! orig91 = ! mo/ "p1 to
 prie/ly deception1 al?\gh ! rhapsodies 
( ! poets & ! inv5tions ( ! philosoph]s 
h contribut$ _! %>e4 ,! ess5tial        
pr9ciples ( natural religion 7,god1     
virtue1 fai?1 hope1 love1 & rep5tance7  
come m cle>ly to light 9 ,*ri/ianity ?an
 9 ! religions ( hea!ndom1 :]e !y are   
ov]gr[n ) my?s & c]emonies4  ,! ,religio
 ,m$ici 7#afdb7 ( ,sir ,?omas ,br[ne %[s
 simil> t5d5cies4   #i4 ,prelim9>y      
,survey4  ,9 ! l9e ( developm5t f !     
speculations ( ,nicolas ( ,cusa to !    

e/abli%m5t ( ! ,engli% philosophy (     
nature1 ( religion1 & ( ! /ate by       
,bacon1 ,h]b]t1 & ,hobbes1 & to !       
physics ( ,galileo1 mod]n ideas h       
manife/$ !mselves ) increas+ cle>ness & 
fre$om4 ,hobbes himself %[s ?us e>ly !  
influ5ce ( ,desc>tes's decisive /ep1 )  
:i* ! twilight gives place to !         
brightness ( ! morn+4 ,9 ,desc>tes !    
empiricism & s5sationalism ( ! ,engli%  
is confront$ by rationalism1 to :i* !   
great ?9k]s ( ! ,cont95t cont9ue loyal4 
,9 ,brita91 exp]i5ce1 on ! ,cont95t !   
reason is decl>$ to be ! s\rce (        
cognition2 9 ! =m]1 ! po9t ( dep>ture is
 f\nd 9 p>ticul> impressions ( s5se1 on 
! latt]1 9 g5]al concepts & pr9ciples ( 
! und]/&+2 !re ! me?od ( obs]vation is  
inculcat$ & foll[$1 "h1 ! me?od (       
d$uction4 ,?is anti!sis rema9$ decisive 
9 ! developm5t ( philosophy d[n to      
,kant1 s t x has long be5 cu/om>y to    
di/+ui% two l9es or s*ools1 ! ,empirical
 & ! ,rationali/ic1 ^: p>allelism may be
 exhibit$ 9 ! foll[+ table 7:5 only "o  

date is giv5 x indicates ! appe>ance ( !
 philosoph]'s *ief "w73    ,empiricism4 
,rationalism4   ,bacon1 #afbj4          
7,nicolas1 #adej2 ,bruno1 #aehd74       
,hobbes1 #afea4                         
,desc>tes1 di$ #afej4  ,locke1 #afij    
7#afcb-agjd74           ,sp9oza1        
7#afcb-7 #afgg4   ,b]keley1 #agaj4      
,leibnitz1 #agaj4   ,hume1 #agdh4       
,wolff1 di$ #aged4  ,we mu/ n =get1     
inde$1 ! lively int]*ange ( ideas betwe5
 ! s*ools 7especially ! influ5ce (      
,desc>tes on ,hobbes1 & ( ! latt] on    
,sp9oza2 fur!r1 ( ,desc>tes on ,locke1 &
 ( ! latt] on ,leibnitz7 :i* l$ to      
reciprocal approximation & enri*m5t4    
,b]keley & ,leibnitz1 f opposite        
presuppositions1 arrive at ! same       
ideali/ic conclusion--!re is no real _w 
( matt]1 b only spirits & ideas exi/4   
,hume & ,wolff conclude ! two l9es (    
developm5t3 "u ! =m]1 empiricism        
dis9tegrates into skepticism2 "u !      
latt]1 rationalism /iff5s into a        
s*ola/ic dogmatism1 soon to run out into

 a popul> eclecticism ( common s5se4    
,if we comp>e ! m5tal *>act]i/ics ( !   
?ree great nations :i*1 9 ! p]iod betwe5
 ,desc>tes & ,kant1 p>ticipat$ mo/      
productively 9 ! "w ( philosophy1--!    
,italians1 ) _! receptive temp]am5t & s 
active 9 _m fields1 ex]t$ a decisive    
influ5ce on its developm5t & progress 9 
! transition p]iod alone1--x w be se5 t 
! ,fr5*man t5ds *iefly to acut5ess1 !   
,engli%man to cle>ness & simplicity1 !  
,g]man to pr(undity ( ?\ght4 ,france is 
! l& ( ma!matical1 ,engl& ( practical1  
,g]many ( speculative ?9k]s2 ! fir/ is !
 home ( ! skeptics1 ?\gh ( ! en?usia/s z
 well2 ! second1 ( ! reali/s2 ! ?ird1 ( 
! ideali/s4  ,! ,engli% philosoph]      
resembles a geograph] :o1 ) consci5ti\s 
c>e1 outl9es a map ( ! region ?r\gh :i* 
he j\rneys2 ! ,fr5*man1 an anatomi/ :o1 
) /eady /roke1 lays b>e ! n]ves &       
muscles ( ! organism2 ! ,g]man1 a       
m\nta9e] :o loses 9 cle> vision (       
p>ticul> objects z mu* z he ga9s 9      
l(t9ess ( position & ext5t ( view4 ,!   

,engli%man describes ! giv5 reality1 !  
,fr5*man analyses x1 ! ,g]man           
transfigures x4  ,! ,engli% ?9k] keeps z
 close z possible to ph5om5a1 & !       
pr9ciples :i* he uses 9 ! explanation ( 
ph5om5a !mselves lie 9 ! realm (        
concrete exp]i5ce4 ,he expla9s "o       
ph5om5on by ano!r2 he classifies &      
arranges ! giv5 mat]ial )\t analyz+ x2  
he keeps con/antly 9 t\* ) ! popul>     
consci\sness4 ,8 rev]5ce = reality1 z   
?is pres5ts itself to him1 & 8 di/ru/ ( 
f>-rea*+ ab/raction1 are s /rong t x is 
en\gh = him to take 8 be>+s f ! real1 & 
to give a true reproduction ( x1 :ile he
 will+ly r5\nces ! ambition to =m x anew
 9 concepts4 ,) ?is respect = concrete  
reality he comb9es a simil> rev]5ce =   
e?ical po/ulates4 ,:5 ! developm5t ( a  
giv5 l9e ( ?\ght ?reat5s to br+ him into
 conflict ) practical life1 he is hone/ 
en\gh to draw ! conclusions :i* foll[ f 
8 premises & to give !m expression1 b he
 avoids ! collision by a simple         
compromise1 %utt+ up ! ref9em5ts (      

philosophy 9 ! /udy & yield+ 9 practice 
to ! guidance ( natural in/9ct &        
consci5ce4 ,8 support1 !re=e1 ( !ories  
:i* contradict curr5t views 9 morals is 
free f ! levity 9 :i* ! ,fr5*man        
indulges4 ,life & ?\ght are sep>ate     
fields1 contradictions betwe5 !m are    
borne 9 pati5ce1 & if sci5ce draws its  
mat]ial f life x %[s itself grateful = !
 favor by giv+ life ! b5efit ( ! useful 
outcome ( its labors1 &1 at ! same "t1  
%ield+ x f ! revolution>y or dis9tegrat+
 effect ( its d\btful p>adoxes4  ,:ile !
 delib]ate craft ( ,engli% philosophy   
does n will+ly lose sight ( ! %ores ( ! 
concrete _w1 ,fr5* ?\ght sails boldly & 
confid5tly out into ! op5 sea (         
ab/raction4 ,x is n /range t x f9ds !   
way to ! pr9ciples m rapidly ?an ! way  
back to ph5om5a4 ,a free road1 a fre%   
/>t1 a /raight c\rse--su* is ! motto (  
,fr5* ?9k+4 ,:atev] is inconsi/5t )     
rectil9e>ity is ignor$1 or oppos$ z     
unfitt+4 ,! l9e drawn by ,desc>tes ?r\gh
 ! _w betwe5 matt] & _s1 & t by ,r\sseau

 betwe5 nature & culture1 are di/9ctive 
( ! philosophical "* ( _! c\ntrym54     
,dualism is to !m entirely cong5ial2 x  
satisfies _! ne$ = cle>ness1 & ) ?is !y 
are cont5t4 ,anti!sis is 9 ! ,fr5*man's 
blood2 he ?9ks 9 x & speaks 9 x1 9 !    
salon or on ! plat=m1 9 witty je/ or 9  
sci5tific e>ne/ness ( ?\ght4 ,ei!r ,a or
 n-,a1 & !re is no middle gr\nd4 ,?is   
habit ( precision & %>p analysis        
facilitates ! =mation ( clos$ p>ties1   
:]eas ea* individual ,g]man1 9          
philosophy z 9 politics1 =ms a p>ty ( 8 
own4 ,! dem& = ! removal ( ! rubbi% (   
exi/+ sy/ems & ! sangu9e return to !    
s\rces1 give ,fr5* philosophy an        
unhi/orical1 radical1 & revolution>y "*4
 ,m9ds ( ! second ord]1 :o are incapable
 ( tak+ by !mselves ! /ep f t :i* is    
giv5 to ! s\rces1 prove _! radicalism by
 foll[+ d[n to ! roots t :i* o!rs h     
begun 7s ,condillac & ! s5sationalism ( 
,locke74 ,moreov]1 philosophical        
pr9ciples are to be translat$ into      
action2 ! ?9k] has %[n himself !        

doctr9aire 9 8 de/ructive analysis ( t  
:i* is giv51 s1 also1 he hopes to play !
 dictator by ov]turn+ exi/+ in/itutions 
& e/abli%+ a new ord] ( ?+s1--only 8    
c\rage\s endeavor flags z soon 9 !      
region ( practice z 9 t ( !ory4  ,!     
,g]man lacks ! happy faculty1 :i*       
di/+ui%es ! two nations j discuss$1 (   
isolat+ a problem ne> at h&1 & he is    
accu/om$ to beg9 8 sy/em ) ,l$a's egg2  
b1 by way ( comp5sation1 he comb9es !   
l(ty flight ( ! ,fr5* ) ! phlegmatic    
endurance ( ! ,engli%1 i4e41 he seeks 8 
pr9ciples f> above exp]i5ce1 b1 in/ead (
 /opp+ ) ! e/abli%m5t ( po9ts ( view or 
:5 he has set ! note1 he c>ries 8       
pr9ciples ?r\gh 9 detail ) lov+ indu/ry 
& compreh5sive ar*itectonic skill4 ,:ile
 common s5se turns ! scale ) ! ,engli% &
 analytical ?\ght ) ! ,fr5*1 ! ,g]man   
all[s ! fancy & ! he>t to take an       
important "p 9 ! discussion1 ?\gh 9 su* 
a way t ! sev]al faculties "w toge!r & 9
 h>mony4 ,:ile 9 ,france rationalism1   
my/icism1 & ! philosophy ( ! he>t 7     

divid$ among diff]5t ?9k]s 7,desc>tes1  
,malebran*e & ,pascal1 ,r\sseau71 !re is
 9 e ,g]man philosoph] some?+ ( all     
?ree4 ,! skeptical ,kant provides a     
refuge = ! po/ulates ( ?\ght 9 !        
sanctu>y ( fai?2 ! e>ne/1 en]getic      
,fi*te1 t[>d ! end ( 8 life1 takes 8    
place among ! my/ics2 ,s*ell+ ?9ks ) !  
fancy & dreams ) ! und]/&+2 & "u ! broad
 cloak ( ! ,hegelian dialectic me?od1   
beside ! reflection ( ! ,critique (     
,reason & ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k1 ! fancies ( 
! ,philosophy ( ,nature1 ! deep         
inw>dness ( ,bhme1 ev5 ! :ole weal? (   
empirical fact1 f\nd a place4 ,z syn!sis
 is pr$om9ant 9 8 view ( ?+s1 s a       
h>moniz+1 conciliatory t5d5cy ass]ts    
itself 9 8 relations to 8 pr$ecessors3 !
 results ( previ\s philosoph]s are nei!r
 disc>d$ out ( h& nor accept$ 9 ! mass1 
b all t appe>s 9 any way useful or ak9  
to ! new sy/em is wr\ght 9 at its prop] 
place1 ?\gh (t5 ) consid]able           
trans=mation4 ,9 ?is "w ( m$iation !re  
is consid]able loss 9 def9it5ess1 ! j & 

compreh5sive consid]ation ( ! mo/ div]se
 int]e/s n always mak+ good ! loss4 ,&  
s9ce su* a philosophy1 z we h already   
%[n1 engages ! :ole man1 its disciple   
has nei!r impulse nor /r5g? left = re=m+
 labors2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 he p]ceives 
no ext]nal call to und]take !m1 s9ce he 
views ! _w ?r\gh ! glasses ( 8 sy/em4   
,?us philosophy 9 ,g]many1 pursu$ *iefly
 by speciali/s1 rema9s a pr(essional    
affair1 & has n ex]cis$ a direct        
trans=m+ influ5ce on life 7= ,fi*te1 :o 
help$ to philosophize ! ,fr5* out (     
,g]many1 0 an exception72 b its influ5ce
 has be5 ! great] 9 ! special sci5ces1  
:i* 9 ,g]many m ?an any o!r l& are h&l$ 
9 a philosophic _s4  ,! m5tal           
*>act]i/ics ( ^! nations are reflect$   
also 9 _! me?ods ( pres5tation4 ,! /yle 
( ! ,engli% philosoph] is sob]1         
compreh5sible1 diffuse1 & slightly      
we>isome4 ,! ,fr5* use a flu5t1 elegant1
 lucid /yle :i* ent]ta9s & dazzles by   
its epigrammatic phrases1 9 :i* n       
infrequ5tly ! epigram rules ! ?\ght4 ,! 

,g]man expresses 8 solid1 ?\ghtful      
positions 9 a =m :i* is at once pond]\s 
& n easily und]/ood2 ea* writ] con/ructs
 8 own t]m9ology1 ) a lib]al admixture (
 =eign expressions1 & ! l5g? ( 8        
p>agraphs is exce$$ only by ! ?ickness (
 8 books4 ,^! national di/9ctions may be
 trac$ ev5 9 ext]nals4 ,! ,engli%man    
makes 8 divisions z !y pres5t !mselves  
at fir/ ?\ght1 & r f a practical ?an f a
 logical po9t ( view4 ,! analytic       
,fr5*man pref]s di*otomy1 :ile tri*otomy
 corresponds to ! syn!tic1 sy/ematic "* 
( ,g]man ?9k+2 & ,kant's nave delight1  
because 9 ea* class ! ?ird category     
unites its two pr$ecessors1 has be5 (t5 
exp]i5c$ by _m ( 8 c\ntrym5 at ! sight (
 _! own tri*otomies4  ,! division (     
labor 9 ! pre-,kantian philosophy among 
^! ?ree nationalities entirely agrees ) 
! acc\nt giv5 ( ! peculi>ities ( _!     
philosophical end[m5t4 ,! beg9n+ falls  
to ! %>e ( ,france2 ,locke receives t   
tangl$ ske91 ! problem ( k1 f ! h& (    
,desc>tes1 & passes x on to ,leibnitz2 &

 :ile ! ,illum9ation 9 all ?ree c\ntries
 is conv]t+ ! gold inh]it$ f ,locke &   
,leibnitz into small co91 ! solution ( !
 riddle r+s out f ,knigsb]g4     ,,"p   
,i4  ,,f ,,desc>tes ,,to ,,kant4        
,,*apt] ,,ii4  ,,desc>tes4  ,! long     
conflict ) ,s*ola/icism1 :i* _h be5     
c>ri$ on ) ev] increas+ en]gy & ev] %>p]
 weapons1 0 br\ght by ,desc>tes to a    
victori\s close4 ,! new movem5t1 long   
desir$1 long s\ght1 & prep>$ = f _m     
directions1 at l5g? appe>s1 ready &     
well-e/abli%$4 ,desc>tes accompli%es    
ev]y?+ ne$ful ) ! sure simplicity (     
g5ius4 ,he furni%es philosophy ) a      
settl$ po9t ( dep>ture 9                
self-consci\sness1 (f]s h] a me?od sure 
to succe$ 9 d$uction f cle> & di/9ct    
conceptions1 & assigns h] ! me*anical   
explanation ( nature z h] mo/ imp]ative 
& fruitful mission4  ,r5 ,desc>tes 0    
born at ,la ,haye 9 ,t\ra9e1 9 #aeif1 & 
di$ at ,/ockholm 9 #afej4 ,( ! /udies   
taught 9 ! ,jesuit s*ool at ,la ,fl*e1  
ma!matics alone 0 able to satisfy 8     

crav+ = cle> & c]ta9 k4 ,! ye>s #afac-ag
 he sp5t 9 ,p>is2 !n he enli/$ 9 !      
milit>y s]vice ( ! ,ne!rl&s1 &1 9 #afai1
 9 t ( ,bav>ia4 ,:ile 9 w9t] qu>t]s at  
,neuburg1 he v[$ a pilgrimage to        
,loretto if ! ,virg9 w\ld %[ him a way (
 escape f 8 torm5t+ d\bts2 & made ! sav+
 discov]y ( ! f\ndations ( a wond]ful   
sci5ce4 ,at ! end ( f\r ye>s ?is v[ 0   
fulfill$4 ,on 8 return to ,p>is 7#afbe71
 he 0 bes\ght by 8 le>n$ fri5ds to give 
to ! _w 8 epo*-mak+ ideas4 ,?\gh1 to    
escape ! di/ractions ( society1 he kept 
8 resid5ce secret1 z he _h done dur+ 8  
fir/ /ay 9 ,p>is1 & frequ5tly *ang$ x1  
he 0 /ill unable to secure ! complete   
privacy & leisure = sci5tific "w :i* he 
desir$4 ,!re=e he w5t to ,holl& 9 #afbi1
 & sp5t tw5ty ye>s ( quiet productivity 
9 ,am/]dam1 ,franeck]1 ,utre*t1         
,leeuw>d51 ,egmond1 ,h>d]wijk1 ,leyd51 !
 palace ( ,endegee/1 & five o!r places4 
,8 "w "h 0 int]rupt$ only by a few      
j\rneys1 b mu* di/urb$ 9 its lat] ye>s  
by annoy+ controv]sies ) ! !ologian     

,gisb]t ,votius ( ,utre*t1 ) ,regius1 a 
pupil :o _h des]t$ him1 & ) pr(essors f 
,leyd54 ,8 correspond5ce ) 8 ,fr5*      
fri5ds 0 conduct$ ?r\gh ,pre ,m]s5ne4 ,9
 #afdi he yield$ to press+ invitations f
 ,que5 ,*ri/9a ( ,sw$5 & remov$ to      
,/ockholm4 ,!re 8 weak con/itution 0 n  
adequate to ! sev]ity ( ! climate1 &    
dea? ov]took him )9 a few mon?s4  ,! two
 decades ( retirem5t 9 ! ,ne!rl&s 7     
,desc>tes's productive p]iod4 ,8 motive 
9 develop+ & writ+ out 8 ?\ghts 01      
ess5tially1 ! desire n to disappo9t !   
widely spread belief t he 0 9 possession
 ( a philosophy m c]ta9 ?an ! common "o4
 ,! "w entitl$ ,le ,monde1 begun 9 #afcj
 & almo/ complet$1 rema9$ unpr9t$1 z !  
condemnation ( ,galileo 7#afcb7 fright5$
 our philosoph] f publication2 fragm5ts 
( x only1 & a brief summ>y1 appe>$ aft] 
! au?or's dea?4 ,! *ief works1 !        
,disc\rse on ,me?od1 ! ,m$itations on ! 
,fir/ ,philosophy1 & ! ,pr9ciples (     
,philosophy appe>$ betwe5 #afcg &       
#afdd1--! ,disc\rs de la ,m?ode 9 #afcg1

 toge!r ) ?ree diss]tations 7!          
,dioptrics1 ! ,meteors1 & ! ,geometry71 
"u ! common title1 ,essais              
,philosophiques4 ,to ! 7six7            
,m$itationes de ,prima ,philosophia1    
publi%$ 9 #afda1 & d$icat$ to ! ,p>is   
,sorbonne1 are app5d$ ! objections (    
v>i\s savants to :om ! "w _h be5        
communicat$ 9 manuscript1 toge!r )      
,desc>tes's rejo9d]s4 ,he himself       
consid]$ ! criticisms ( ,arnauld1 pr9t$ 
f\r? 9 ord]1 z ! mo/ important4 ,! ,?ird
 ,objections are f ,hobbes1 ! ,fif? f   
,gass5di1 ! ,fir/1 :i* 7 also ! fir/    
receiv$1 f ! !ologian ,cat]us ( ,antw]p1
 :ile ! ,second & ,six?1 collect$ by    
,m]s5ne1 are f v>i\s !ologians &        
ma!maticians4 ,9 ! second edition !re 7 
add$1 fur!r1 ! ,sev5? ,objections1 by ! 
,jesuit ,b\rd91 & ! ,replies ( ! au?or  
!reto4 ,! f\r books ( ! ,pr9cipia       
,philosophiae1 publi%$ 9 #afdd & d$icat$
 to ,elizabe?1 ,c\ntess ,palat9e1 give a
 sy/ematic pres5tation ( ! new          
philosophy4 ,! ,disc\rse on ,me?od      

appe>$1 #afdd1 9 a ,lat9 translation1 ! 
,m$itations & ! ,pr9ciples 9 ,fr5*1 9   
#afdg4 ,! ,treatise on ! ,passions 0    
publi%$ 9 #afej2 ! ,lett]s1 #afeg-fg1 9 
,fr5*1 #affh1 9 ,lat94 ,! ,op]a ,po/uma1
 #agja1 beside ! ,comp5dium ( ,music    
7writt5 9 #afah7 & o!r portions ( 8     
po/hum\s writ+s1 conta9 ! ,rules = !    
,direction ( ! ,m9d1 suppos$ to h be5   
writt5 9 #afbi1 & ! ,se>* = ,tru? by !  
,light ( ,nature4 ,! complete works h   
be5 (t5 publi%$1 bo? 9 ,lat9 & 9 ,fr5*4 
,! elev5 volume edition ( ,c\s9 appe>$ 9
 #ahbd-bf4a  ,footnote #a3 ,( ! _m      
treatises on ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes ^?
 ( ,c4 ,s*a>s*midt 7,desc>tes und       
,sp9oza1 #ahej7 & ,j4,h4 ,lwe1 #ahee1   
may be m5tion$4 ,fur!r1 ,m4 ,he9ze has  
discuss$ ,die ,sitt5lehre des ,desc>tes1
 #ahgb2 ,ed4 ,grimm1 ,desc>tes' ,lehre  
von d5 angebor55 ,ide51 #ahgc2 ,g4      
,glogau1 ,d>legung und ,kritik des      
,grundg$ank5s d] ,c>tesianis*4          
,metaphysik 7,zeits*rift fr             
,philosophie1 vol4 lxxiii4 p4 #bji      

seq471 #ahgh2 ,paul ,natorp1 ,desc>tes' 
,erk5ntnis/heorie1 #ahhb2 & ,kas4       
,tw>d[ski1 ,idee und ,p]ception 9       
,desc>tes1 #ahib4 ,9 ,fr5*1 ,francisque 
,b\illi] 7,hi/oire de la ,philosophie   
,c>tsi5ne1 #ahed7 & ,e4 ,saisset        
7,prcurseurs et ,disciples de ,desc>tes1
 #ahfb7 h writt5 on ,c>tesianism4 ,!    
,me?od1 ,m$itations1 & ,selections f !  
,pr9ciples h be5 translat$ into ,engli% 
by ,john ,veit*1 #e? ed41 #ahgi1 & o!rs 
s9ce2 & ,h4,a4,p4 ,torrey has publi%$ ,!
 ,philosophy ( ,desc>tes 9 ,extracts f 8
 ,writ+s1 #ahib 7,snea?'s ,mod]n        
,philosoph]s74 ,! ,engli% read] may be  
ref]r$1 also1 to ,mahaffy's ,desc>tes1  
#ahhj1 9 ,blackwood's ,philosophical    
,classics2 to ! article ,c>tesianism1   
,encyclop$ia ,britannica1 #i? ed41 vol4 
v41 by ,edw>d ,caird2 &1 = a complete   
discussion1 to ! ,engli% translation (  
,fis*]'s ,desc>tes & 8 ,s*ool' by ,j4,p4
 ,gordy1 #ahhg4--,,tr4  ,we beg9 our    
discussion ) ,desc>tes's notical &      
metaphysical pr9ciples1 & !n take up 9  

ord] 8 doctr9e ( nature & ( man4   #a4  
,! ,pr9ciples4  ,t :i* passes n[adays = 
sci5ce1 & is taught z su* 9 ! s*ools1 is
 no?+ b a mass ( disconnect$1 unc]ta91 &
 (t5 contradictory op9ions4 ,a pr9ciple 
( unity & c]ta9ty is entirely lack+4 ,if
 any?+ p]man5t & irrefutable is to be   
accompli%$ 9 sci5ce1 ev]y?+ hi!rto      
consid]$ true mu/ be ?or\ghly demoli%$ &
 built up anew4 ,= we come into ! _w z  
*ildr5 & we =m judgm5ts ( ?+s1 or repeat
 !m aft] o!rs1 be=e we h come into !    
full possession ( our intellectual p[]s2
 s t x is no wond] t we are fill$ ) a   
multitude ( prejudices1 f :i* we c      
?or\ghly escape only by consid]+ ev]y?+ 
d\btful :i* %[s ! lea/ sign ( unc]ta9ty4
 ,let u r5\nce1 !re=e1 all our old      
views1 9 ord] lat] to accept bett] ones 
9 _! /ead2 or1 p]*ance1 to take ! =m] up
 aga9 aft] !y %all h /ood ! te/ (       
rational criticism4 ,! recogniz$        
precaution1 nev] to put complete        
confid5ce 9 t :i* has once deceiv$ u1   
holds ( our relation to ! s5ses z       

else:]e4 ,x is c]ta9 t !y sometimes     
deceive u--p]haps !y d s always4 ,aga91 
we dream e day ( ?+s :i* n[h]e exi/1 &  
!re is no c]ta9 crit]ion by :i* to      
di/+ui% our dreams f our wak+           
mom5ts1--:at gu>antee h we1 !n1 t we are
 n always dream+8 ,!re=e1 our d\bt mu/  
fir/ ( all be direct$ to ! exi/5ce (    
s5se-objects4 ,nay1 ev5 ma!matics mu/ be
 suspect$ 9 spite ( ! app>5t c]ta9ty (  
its axioms & demon/rations1 s9ce        
controv]sy & error are f\nd 9 x also4   
,i d\bt or d5y1 !n1 t ! _w is :at x     
appe>s to be1 t !re is a ,god1 t ext]nal
 objects exi/1 t ,i h a body1 t twice   
two are f\r4 ,"o ?+1 h[ev]1 x is        
impossible = me to br+ into "q1 namely1 
t ,i myself1 :o ex]cise ?is d\bt+       
function1 exi/4 ,!re is "o s+le po9t at 
:i* d\bt is =c$ to halt--at ! d\bt]1 at 
! self-exi/5ce ( ! ?9k]4 ,i c d\bt      
ev]y?+ except t ,i d\bt1 & t1 9 d\bt+1  
,i am4 ,ev5 if a sup]ior be+ s\ght to   
deceive me 9 all my ?9k+1 he c\ld n     
succe$ unless ,i exi/$1 he c\ld n cause 

me n to exi/ s long z ,i ?\ght4 ,to be  
deceiv$ means to ?9k falsely2 b t some?+
 is ?\ght1 no matt] :at x be1 is no     
deception4 ,x might be true1 inde$1 t   
no?+ at all exi/$2 b !n !re w\ld be no  
"o to conceive ?is non-exi/5ce4 ,grant$ 
t ev]y?+ may be a mi/ake2 yet ! be+     
mi/ak51 ! ?9k+ is n a mi/ake4 ,ev]y?+ is
 d5i$1 b ! d5i] rema9s4 ,! :ole cont5t (
 consci\sness is de/roy$2 consci\sness  
itself1 ! d\bt+ activity1 ! be+ ( !     
?9k]1 is inde/ructible4 ,cogitatio sola 
a me divelli nequit4 ,?us ! settl$ po9t 
( dep>ture requir$ = k is f\nd 9 !      
self-c]titude ( ! ?9k+ ego4 ,f ! fact t 
,i d\bt1 i4e41 ?9k1 x foll[s t ,i1 !    
d\bt]1 ! ?9k]1 am4 ,cogito1 ergo sum is 
! fir/ & mo/ c]ta9 ( all tru?s4  ,!     
pr9ciple1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am1 is n to  
be consid]$ a d$uction f ! major        
premise1 ,:atev] ?9ks exi/s4 ,x is r    
true t ?is g5]al proposition is d]iv$ f 
! p>ticul> & e>li] "o4 ,i mu/ fir/      
realize 9 my own exp]i5ce t1 z ?9k+1 ,i 
exi/1 be=e ,i c rea* ! g5]al conclusion 

t ?\ght & exi/5ce are insep>able4 ,?is  
fundam5tal tru? is ?us n a syllogism1 b 
a n fur!r d$ucible1 self-evid5t1        
imm$iate cognition1 a pure              
intuition--sum cogitans4 ,n[1 if my     
exi/5ce is reveal$ by my activity (     
?\ght1 if my ?\ght is my be+1 & !       
conv]se1 if 9 me ?\ght & exi/5ce are    
id5tical1 !n ,i am a be+ ^: ess5ce      
consi/s 9 ?9k+4 ,i am a _s1 an ego1 a   
rational s\l4 ,my exi/5ce foll[s only f 
my ?9k+1 n f any *ance action4 ,ambulo  
ergo sum w\ld n be valid1 b mihi videor 
or puto me ambul>e1 ergo sum4 ,if ,i    
believe ,i am walk+1 ,i may und\bt$ly be
 deceiv$ conc]n+ ! outw>d action 7z1 =  
in/ance1 9 dreams71 b nev] conc]n+ my   
inw>d belief4 ,cogitatio includes all ! 
consci\s activities ( ! m9d1 volition1  
emotion1 & s5sation1 z well z           
repres5tation & cognition2 !y are all   
modi cogit&i4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! m9d is     
!re=e ! mo/ c]ta9 ( all ?+s4 ,we "k !   
s\l bett] ?an ! body4 ,x is = ! pres5t !
 only c]ta9ty1 & e o!r is dep5d5t on    

?is1 ! highe/ ( all4  ,:at1 !n1 is !    
peculi>ity ( ?is fir/ & mo/ c]ta9 k :i* 
r5d]s x self-evid5t & indep5d5t ( all   
pro(1 :i* makes u absolutely unable to  
d\bt x8 ,its entire cle>ness &          
di/9ctness4 ,accord+ly1 ,i may conclude 
t ev]y?+ :i* ,i p]ceive z cle>ly &      
di/9ctly z ! cogito ergo sum is also    
true1 & ,i rea* ?is g5]al rule1 omne e/ 
v]um1 quod cl>e et di/9cte p]cipio4 ,s  
f>1 !n1 we h ga9$ ?ree ?+s3 a *all5ge2  
to be inscrib$ ov] ! portals ( c]tifi$  
k1 de omnibus dubit&um2 a basal tru?1   
sum cogitans2 a crit]ion ( tru?1 cl>a et
 di/9ct a p]ceptio4  ,! d\bt ( ,desc>tes
 is n ! expression ( a resign$ _s :i*   
r5\nces ! unatta9able2 x is precept1 n  
doctr9e1 ! />t+ po9t ( philosophy1 n its
 conclusion1 a me?odological in/rum5t 9 
! h& ( a /rong & confid5t long+ = tru?1 
:i* makes use ( d\bt to f9d !           
indubitable4 ,x is n aim$ at !          
possibility ( atta9+ k1 b at ! op9ion t 
x has already be5 atta9$1 at ! cr$ulity 
( ! age1 at its excessive t5d5cy t[>d   

hi/orical & poly-hi/orical /udy1 :i*    
confuses ! acquisition & h&+ d[n (      
in=mation ) k ( ! tru?4 ,t k alone is   
c]ta9 :i* is self-atta9$ & self-te/$--& 
?is _c be le>n$ or h&$ d[n2 x c only be 
r$iscov]$ ?r\gh exam9ation & exp]i5ce4  
,in/ead ( tak+ "o's own unsupport$      
conjectures or ! op9ions ( o!rs z a     
guide1 ! secret ( ! se>* = tru? is to   
become indep5d5t & ( age1 to ?9k = "o's 
self2 & ! only rem$y aga9/ ! dang]s (   
self-deception & ! ease ( repetition is 
to be f\nd 9 d\bt+ ev]y?+ hi!rto        
consid]$ true4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( !      
,c>tesian d\bt1 :i* is m compreh5sive & 
m ?or\gh ?an ! ,baconian4 ,desc>tes     
disput$ only ! c]titude ( ! k previ\sly 
atta9$1 n ! possibility ( k--= ( ! latt]
 no man is m firmly conv9c$ ?an he4 ,he 
is a rationali/1 n a skeptic4 ,!        
intellect is assur$ aga9/ error j z soon
 z1 fre$ f h9drances1 x rema9s true to  
itself1 z x puts =? all its p[]s & lets 
no?+ pass = tru? :i* is n cle>ly &      
di/9ctly kn[n4 ,desc>tes dem&s ! same ?+

 = ! human und]/&+ z ,r\sseau at a lat] 
p]iod = ! he>t3 a return to uncorrupt$  
nature4 ,?is fai? 9 ! un>tificial1 !    
orig9al1 ! natural1 ?is radical &       
naturali/ic t5d5cy is *>act]i/ically    
,fr5*4 ,! purification ( ! m9d1 its     
deliv]ance f ! rubbi% ( s*ola/ic le>n+1 
f ! pressure ( au?ority1 & f in]t       
acceptance ( ! ?9k+ ( o!rs--?is is all4 
,desc>tes f9ds ! cle>e/ pro( ( ! m9d's  
capacity = tru? 9 ma!matics1 ^:         
tru/wor?9ess he nev] s]i\sly que/ion$1 b
 only hypo!tically1 9 ord] to exhibit ! 
/ill high] c]ta9ty ( ! ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i 
am4 ,he wants to give philosophy ! /able
 "* :i* _h s impress$ him 9 ma!matics :5
 he 0 a boy1 & recomm5ds h]1 !re=e1 n   
m]ely ! evid5ce ( ma!matics z a g5]al   
example1 b ! ma!matical me?od = def9ite 
imitation4 ,metaphysics1 l ma!matics1   
mu/ d]ive its conclusions by d$uction f 
self-evid5t pr9ciples4 ,?us !           
geometrical me?od beg9s its rule 9      
philosophy1 a rule n always att5d$ )    
b5eficial results4  ,) ?is crit]ion (   

tru? ,desc>tes advances to !            
consid]ation ( ideas4 ,he di/+ui%es     
volition & judgm5t f ideas 9 ! n>r[ s5se
 7imag9es71 & divides ! latt]1 accord+  
to _! orig91 into ?ree classes3 ideae   
innatae1 adv5titiae1 a me ipso factae1  
consid]+ ! second class1 ! adv5titi\s   
ideas1 ! mo/ num]\s1 b ! fir/1 ! innate 
ideas1 ! mo/ important4 ,no idea is     
high] or cle>] ?an ! idea ( ,god or !   
mo/ p]fect be+4 ,:5ce comes ?is idea8 ,t
 e idea mu/ h a cause1 foll[s f ! cle> &
 di/9ct pr9ciple t no?+ produces no?+4  
,x foll[s f ?is same pr9ciple1 ex nihilo
 nihil fit1 h[ev]1 t ! cause mu/ conta9 
z mu* reality or p]fection--realitas &  
p]fectio are synonym\s--z ! effect1 =   
o!rwise ! ov]plus w\ld h come f no?+4 ,s
 mu* 7objective1 repres5tative7 reality 
conta9$ 9 an idea1 s mu* or m 7=mal1    
actual7 reality mu/ be conta9$ 9 its    
cause4 ,! idea ( ,god z inf9ite1        
indep5d5t1 omnipot5t1 omnisci5t1 &      
creative sub/ance1 has n come to me     
?r\gh ! s5ses1 nor h ,i =m$ x myself4 ,!

 p[] to conceive a be+ m p]fect ?an     
myself1 c h only come f someone :o is m 
p]fect 9 reality ?an ,i4 ,s9ce ,i "k t !
 inf9ite conta9s m reality ?an ! f9ite1 
,i may conclude t ! idea ( ! inf9ite has
 n be5 d]iv$ f ! idea ( ! f9ite by      
ab/raction & negation2 x prec$es !      
latt]1 & ,i become consci\s ( my defects
 & my f9itude only by comp>ison ) !     
absolute p]fection ( ,god4 ,?is idea1   
!n1 mu/ h be5 implant$ 9 me by ,god     
himself4 ,! idea ( ,god is an orig9al   
end[m5t2 x is z innate z ! idea (       
myself4 ,h[ev] incomplete x may be1 x is
 /ill suffici5t to give a k ( ,god's    
exi/5ce1 al?\gh n a p]fect compreh5sion 
( 8 be+1 j z a man may skirt a m\nta9   
)\t encircl+ x4  ,desc>tes br+s 9 ! idea
 ( ,god 9 ord] to escape solipsism4 ,s  
long z ! self-consci\sness ( ! ego      
rema9$ ! only c]ta9ty1 !re 0 no         
conclusive basis = ! assumption t any?+ 
exi/s beyond self1 t ! ideas :i*        
app>5tly come f )\t are really occasion$
 by ext]nal ?+s & d n spr+ f ! m9d      

itself4 ,= our natural in/9ct to ref] !m
 to objects )\t u might well be         
deceptive4 ,x is only ?r\gh ! idea (    
,god1 & by help ( ! pr9ciple t ! cause  
mu/ conta9 at lea/ z mu* reality z !    
effect1 t ,i am tak5 beyond myself &    
assur$ t ,i am n ! only ?+ 9 ! _w4 ,= z 
?is idea conta9s m ( repres5tative1 ?an 
,i ( actual reality1 ,i _c h be5 its    
cause4  ,to ?is empirical argum5t1 :i*  
d]ives ,god's exi/5ce f our idea ( ,god 
7f ! fact t we h an idea ( him71        
,desc>tes jo9s ! 7modifi$7 ontological  
argum5t ( ,anselm1 :i* d$uces ! exi/5ce 
( ,god f ! concept ( ,god4 ,:ile ! ideas
 ( all o!r ?+s include only !           
possibility ( exi/5ce1 necess>y exi/5ce 
is insep>able f ! concept ( ! mo/ p]fect
 be+4 ,god _c be ?\ght ap>t f exi/5ce2  
he has ! gr\nd ( 8 exi/5ce 9 himself2 he
 is a se or causa sui4 ,f9ally1         
,desc>tes adds a ?ird argum5t4 ,! idea (
 p]fections :i* ,i d n possess c only h 
be5 imp>t$ to me by a m p]fect be+ ?an  
,i1 :i* has be/[$ on me all t ,i am &   

all t ,i am capable ( becom+4 ,if ,i _h 
creat$ myself1 ,i w\ld h be/[$ ^u myself
 ^! abs5t p]fections also4 ,& ! exi/5ce 
( a plurality ( causes is negativ$ by ! 
supreme p]fection :i* ,i conceive 9 !   
idea ( ,god1 ! indivisible unity ( 8    
attributes4 ,among ! attributes ( ,god 8
 v]acity is ( special importance4 ,x is 
impossible t he %\ld w to deceive u2 t  
he %\ld be ! cause ( our errors4 ,god   
w\ld be a deceiv]1 if he _h end[$ u ) a 
reason to :i* error %\ld appe> true1 ev5
 :5 x uses all its =esight 9 avoid+ x & 
ass5ts only to t :i* x cle>ly & di/9ctly
 p]ceives4 ,error is man's own fault2 he
 falls into x only :5 he misuses ! div9e
 gift ( k1 :i* includes its own /&>d4   
,?us ,desc>tes f9ds new confirmation = 8
 te/ ( tru? 9 ! v]acitas dei4 ,erdmann  
has giv5 a bett] def5se ( ,desc>tes ?an 
! philosoph] himself aga9/ ! *>ge t ?is 
is argu+ 9 a circle1 inasmu* z ! exi/5ce
 ( ,god is prov$ by ! crit]ion ( tru?1 &
 !n ! latt] by ! =m]3 ,! crit]ion (     
c]titude is ! ratio cognosc5di ( ,god's 

exi/5ce2 ,god is ! ratio ess5di ( !     
crit]ion ( c]titude4 ,9 ! ord] ( exi/5ce
 ,god is fir/1 he creates ! reason      
toge!r ) its crit]ion2 9 ! ord] ( k !   
crit]ion prec$es1 & ,god's exi/5ce      
foll[s f x4 ,desc>tes himself endeavors 
to avoid ! circle by mak+ intuitive k   
self-evid5t1 & by n br++ 9 ! appeal to  
,god's v]acity 9 demon/rative k until1 9
 reflective ?\ght1 we no long] h ea*    
sep>ate l9k 9 ! *a9 ( pro( pres5t to our
 m9ds ) full intuitive c]ta9ty1 b only  
rememb] t we h previ\sly und]/ood !     
matt] ) cle>ness & di/9ctness4  ,our    
ideas repres5t 9 "p ?+s1 9 "p qualities4
 ,sub/ance is def9$ by ! concept (      
indep5d5ce z res quae ita exi/it1 ut    
nulla alia re indigeat ad exi/5dum2 a   
pregnant def9ition ) :i* ! concept (    
sub/ance ga9s ! lead]%ip 9 metaphysics1 
:i* x held till ! "t ( ,hume & ,kant1   
%>+ x !n ) ! conception ( cause or1 r1  
rel9qui%+ x to ! latt]4 ,! ,sp9ozi/ic   
conclusion t1 accord+ to ! /rict mean+ (
 ?is def9ition1 !re is b "o sub/ance1   

,god1 :o1 z causa sui1 has absolutely no
 ne$ ( any o!r ?+ 9 ord] to 8 exi/5ce1 0
 ann\nc$ by ,desc>tes himself4 ,if      
creat$ sub/ances are "u discussion1 !   
t]m does n apply to !m 9 ! same s5se 7n 
univoce7 z :5 we speak ( ! inf9ite      
sub/ance2 creat$ be+s require a diff]5t 
explanation1 !y are ?+s :i* ne$ = _!    
exi/5ce only ! co-op]ation ( ,god1 & h  
no ne$ ( "o ano!r4 ,sub/ance is cogniz$ 
?r\gh its qualities1 among :i* "o is    
pre-em95t f ! fact t x expresses !      
ess5ce or nature ( ! ?+1 & t x is       
conceiv$ ?r\gh itself1 )\t ! aid ( !    
o!rs1 :ile !y presuppose x & _c be ?\ght
 )\t x4 ,! =m] fundam5tal prop]ties are 
t]m$ attributes1 & ^! second>y ones1    
modes or accid5ts4 ,position1 figure1   
motion1 are cont+5t prop]ties ( body2 !y
 presuppose t x is ext5d$ or spatial2 !y
 are modi ext5sionis1 z feel+1 volition1
 desire1 repres5tation1 & judgm5t are   
possible only 9 a consci\s be+1 & h5ce  
are m]ely modifications ( ?\ght4        
,ext5sion is ! ess5tial or con/itutive  

attribute ( body1 & ?\ght ( m9d4 ,body  
is nev] )\t ext5sion1 & m9d nev] )\t    
?\ght--m5s semp] cogitat4 ,guid$ by !   
self-evid5t pr9ciple t ! non-exi/5t has 
no prop]ties1 we argue f a p]ceiv$      
quality to a sub/ance z its possessor or
 support4 ,sub/ances are di/9ct f "o    
ano!r :5 we c cle>ly & di/9ctly cognize 
"o )\t ! o!r4 ,n[1 we c adequately      
conceive m9d )\t a corporeal attribute &
 body )\t a spiritual "o2 ! =m] has no?+
 ( ext5sion 9 x1 ! latt] no?+ ( ?\ght3  
h5ce ?9k+ sub/ance & ext5d$ sub/ance are
 entirely di/9ct & h no?+ 9 common4     
,matt] & m9d are di/9ct realit]1 matt] &
 ext5sion idealit] m]ely4 ,?us we atta9 
?ree cle> & di/9ct ideas1 ?ree et]nal   
v]ities3 sub/antia inf9ita sive deus1   
sub/antia f9ita cogitans sive m5s1      
sub/antia ext5sa sive corpus4  ,by ?is  
abrupt contraposition ( body & m9d z    
reciprocally indep5d5t sub/ances1       
,desc>tes f\nd$ t dualism1 z ^: typical 
repres5tative he is /ill honor$ or      
oppos$4 ,?is dualism betwe5 ! mat]ial & 

spiritual worlds belongs to ^? /&po9ts  
:i* are valid )\t be+ ultimate tru?2 on 
! pyramid ( metaphysical k x takes a    
high1 b n ! highe/1 place4 ,we may n re/
 9 x1 yet x reta9s a p]man5t value 9    
opposition to subord9ate !ories4 ,x is 9
 ! "r aga9/ a mat]ialism :i* /ill lacks 
insight into ! ess5tial di/9ction betwe5
 m9d & matt]1 ?\ght & ext5sion1         
consci\sness & motion2 x loses its      
validity :51 ) a full consid]ation &    
cons]vation ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ^! two 
sph]es1 we succe$ 9 bridg+ ov] ! gulf   
betwe5 !m1 :e!r ?is is accompli%$ ?r\gh 
a philosophy ( id5tity1 l t ( ,sp9oza & 
,s*ell+1 or by an idealism1 l t (       
,leibnitz or ,fi*te4 ,9 any case        
philosophy reta9s z an inali5able       
possession ! negative conclusion1 t1 9  
view ( ! het]og5eity ( consci\sness &   
motion1 ! inn] life is n r$ucible to    
mat]ial ph5om5a4 ,?is cle> & simple     
di/9ction1 :i* sets b\nds to e confusion
 ( spiritual & mat]ial exi/5ce1 0 an act
 ( emancipation2 x work$ on ! sultry    

intellectual atmosph]e ( ! "t ) !       
purify+ & illum9at+ p[] ( a lightn+     
fla%4 ,we %all f9d ! lat] developm5t (  
philosophy />t+ f ! ,c>tesian dualism4  
,desc>tes himself look$ ^u ! fundam5tal 
pr9ciples :i* h n[ be5 discuss$ z m]ely 
! f\ndation = 8 life "w1 z ! entrance   
portal to 8 cosmology4 ,po/]ity has     
judg$ o!rwise2 x f9ds 8 *ief "w 9 t :i* 
he consid]$ a m]e prep>ation = x4 ,! />t
 f d\bt1 ! self-c]titude ( ! ?9k+ ego1 !
 rational crit]ion ( c]titude1 ! "q ( ! 
orig9 ( ideas1 ! concept ( sub/ance1 !  
ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 consci\s      
activity & corporeal be+1 &1 also1 !    
pr9ciple ( ?or\ghgo+ me*anism 9 !       
mat]ial _w 7f 8 philosophy ( nature7--^!
 are ! ?\ghts :i* assure 8 immortality4 
,! ve/ibule has br\ght ! build] m fame1 
& has prov$ m endur+1 ?an ! temple3 ( ! 
latt] only ! ru9s rema92 ! =m] has      
rema9$ unde/roy$ ?r\gh ! c5turies4   #b4
 ,nature4  ,:at gu>antee h we = !       
exi/5ce ( mat]ial objects affect+ our   
s5ses8 ,t ! ideas ( s5se d n come f     

ourselves1 is %[n by ! fact t x is n 9  
our p[] to det]m9e ! objects :i* we     
p]ceive1 or ! "* ( our p]ception ( !m4  
,! supposition t ,god has caus$ our     
p]ceptions directly1 or by means (      
some?+ :i* has no resemblance :atev] to 
an ext]nal object ext5d$ 9 ?ree         
dim5sions & movable1 is exclud$ by !    
fact t ,god is n a deceiv]4 ,9 reliance 
on ,god's v]acity we may accept z true  
:atev] ! reason decl>es conc]n+ body1   
?\gh n all ! reports ( ! s5ses1 :i* s   
(t5 deceive u4 ,at ! in/ance ( ! s5ses  
we cle>ly & di/9ctly p]ceive matt]      
di/9ct f our m9d & f ,god1 ext5d$ 9 ?ree
 dim5sions1 l5g?1 bread?1 & dep?1 )     
v>i\sly =m$ & v>i\sly mov+ p>ts1 :i*    
occasion 9 u s5sations ( _m k9ds4 ,!    
belief t p]ception makes kn[n ?+s z !y  
really are is a prejudice ( s5se to be  
disc>d$2 on ! contr>y1 x m]ely in=ms u  
conc]n+ ! utility or h>mfulness (       
objects1 conc]n+ _! relation to man z a 
be+ compos$ ( s\l & body4 7,! body is t 
mat]ial ?+ :i* is v intimately jo9$ ) ! 

m9d1 & occasions 9 ! latt] c]ta9 feel+s1
 e4g41 pa91 :i* z m]ely cogitative x    
w\ld n h47 ,s5se qualities1 z color1    
s\nd1 odor1 _c con/itute ! ess5ce (     
matt]1 = _! v>iation or loss *anges no?+
 9 x2 ,i c ab/ract f !m )\t ! mat]ial ?+
 disappe>+4#a ,!re is "o prop]ty1 h[ev]1
 ext5sive magnitude 7quantitas71 ^:     
removal w\ld imply ! de/ruction ( matt] 
itself4 ,?us ,i p]ceive by pure ?\ght t 
! ess5ce ( matt] consi/s 9 ext5sion1 9 t
 :i* con/itutes ! object ( geometry1 9 t
 magnitude :i* is divisible1 figurable1 
& movable4 ,?is !sis 7corpus  ext5sio   
sive spatium7 is next def5d$ by         
,desc>tes aga9/ sev]al objections4 ,9   
reply to ! objection drawn f !          
cond5sation & r>efaction ( bodies1 he   
urges t ! app>5t increase or decrease 9 
ext5sion is1 9 fact1 a m]e *ange (      
figure2 t ! r>efaction ( a body dep5ds  
on ! increase 9 size ( ! int]vals betwe5
 its p>ts1 & ! entrance into !m ( =eign 
bodies1 j z a sponge swells up :5 its   
pores become fill$ ) wat] &1 !re=e1     

enl>g$4 ,! dem& t ! pores1 & ! bodies   
:i* =ce _! way into !m1 %\ld always be  
p]ceptible to ! s5ses1 is gr\ndless4 ,he
 meets ! second po9t1 t we call ext5sion
 by itself space1 & n body1 by ma9ta9+ t
 ! di/9ction betwe5 ext5sion & corporeal
 sub/ance is a di/9ction 9 ?\ght1 & n 9 
reality2 t attribute & sub/ance1        
ma!matical & physical bodies1 are n     
di/9ct 9 fact b only 9 our ?\ght ( !m4  
,we apply ! t]m space to ext5sion 9     
g5]al1 z an ab/raction1 & body to a giv5
 individual1 det]m9ate1 limit$ ext5sion4
 ,9 reality1 :]ev] ext5sion is1 !re     
sub/ance is also1--! non-exi/5t has no  
ext5sion1--& :]ev] space is1 !re matt]  
is also4 ,empty space does n exi/4 ,:5  
we say a vessel is empty1 we mean t !   
bodies :i* fill x are imp]ceptible2 if x
 7 absolutely empty its sides w\ld t\*4 
,desc>tes argues aga9/ ! atomic !ory &  
aga9/ ! f9itude ( ! _w1 z he argues     
aga9/ empty space3 matt]1 z well z      
space1 has no smalle/1 indivisible p>ts1
 & ! ext5sion ( ! _w has no end4 ,9 !   

id5tification ( space & matt] ! =m]     
receives fullness f ! latt]1 & ! latt]  
unlimit$ness f ! =m]1 bo? int]nal       
unlimit$ness 7endless divisibility7 &   
ext]nal 7b\ndlessness74 ,h5ce !re are n 
sev]al matt]s b only "o 7homog5e\s7     
matt]1 & only "o 7illimitable7 _w4      
,footnote #a3 ,!y are m]ely subjective  
/ates 9 ! p]ceiv]1 & entirely unlike !  
motions :i* give rise to !m1 al?\gh !re 
is a c]ta9 agreem5t1 z ! diff]5ces &    
v>iations 9 s5sation are p>allel$ by ^? 
9 ! object4  ,matt] is divisible1       
figurable1 movable quantity4 ,natural   
sci5ce ne$s no o!r pr9ciples ?an ^!     
indisputably true conceptions1 by :i*   
all natural ph5om5a may be expla9$1 &   
mu/ employ no o!rs4 ,! mo/ important is 
motion1 on :i* all ! div]sity ( =ms     
dep5ds4 ,corporeal be+ has be5 %[n to be
 ext5sion2 corporeal becom+ is motion4  
,motion is def9$ z ! transport+ ( "o "p 
( matt]1 or ( "o body1 f ! vic9ity ( ^? 
bodies t are 9 imm$iate contact ) x1 or 
:i* we reg>d z at re/1 to ! vic9ity (   

o!r bodies4 ,?is sep>ation ( bodies is  
reciprocal1 h5ce x is a matt] ( *oice   
:i* %all be consid]$ at re/4 ,besides   
its own prop] motion 9 ref]5ce to !     
bodies 9 its imm$iate vic9ity1 a body c 
p>ticipate 9 v _m o!r motions3 ! travel]
 walk+ back & =? on ! deck ( a %ip1 =   
in/ance1 9 ! motion ( ! vessel1 ( !     
waves1 & ( ! e>?4 ,! common view (      
motion z an activity is errone\s2 s9ce x
 requires =ce n only to set 9 motion    
bodies :i* are at re/1 b also to /op ^? 
:i* are 9 motion1 x is cle> t motion    
implies no m activity ?an re/4 ,bo? are 
simply diff]5t /ates ( matt]4 ,s9ce !re 
is no empty space1 ea* motion spreads to
 a :ole circle ( bodies3 ,a =ces ,b out 
( its place1 ,b drives out ,c1 & s on1  
until ,z takes up ! position :i* ,a has 
left4  ,! ultimate cause ( motion is    
,god4 ,he has creat$ bodies ) an orig9al
 measure ( motion & re/1 &1 9 accordance
 ) 8 immutable "*1 he pres]ves ?is      
quantity ( motion un*ang$3 x rema9s     
con/ant 9 ! _w z a :ole1 ?\gh x v>ies 9 

individual bodies4 ,= ) ! p[] to create 
or de/roy motion bodies lack1 fur!r1 !  
p[] to alt] _! quantity ( motion4 ,by ! 
side ( ,god1 ! prim>y cause ( motion1 ! 
laws ( motion appe> z second>y causes4  
,! fir/ ( ^! is ! "o become famili> "u !
 "n1 law ( in]tia3 ,ev]y?+ cont9ues (   
itself 9 ! /ate 7( motion or re/7 9 :i* 
x is1 & *anges its /ate only z a result 
( "s extrane\s cause4 ,! second ( ^!    
laws1 :i* are s valuable 9 me*anics1    
runs3 ,e portion ( matt] t5ds to cont9ue
 a motion :i* has be5 begun 9 ! same    
direction1 h5ce 9 a /raight l9e1 &      
*anges its direction only "u ! influ5ce 
( ano!r body1 z 9 ! case ( ! circle     
above describ$4 ,desc>tes bases ^! laws 
on ! un*angeabl5ess ( ,god & !          
simplicity ( 8 _w-cons]v+ 7i4e41        
con/antly creative7 activity4 ,! ?ird   
law relates to ! communication ( motion2
 b ,desc>tes does n recognize ! equality
 ( action & reaction z univ]sally z !   
fact dem&s4 ,if a body 9 motion meets   
ano!r body1 & its p[] 7to cont9ue its   

motion 9 a /raight l9e7 is less ?an !   
resi/ance ( ! o!r on :i* x has imp+$1 x 
reta9s its motion1 b 9 a diff]5t        
direction3 x reb\nds 9 ! opposite       
direction4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 its =ce is
 great]1 x c>ries ! o!r body along ) x1 
& loses s mu* ( its own motion z x      
imp>ts to ! latt]4 ,! sev5 fur!r rules  
add$ to ^! conta9 mu* t is errone\s4 ,z 
actio 9 di/ans is reject$1 all ! ph5om5a
 ( motion are trac$ back to pressure &  
impulse4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 fluid &    
solid bodies is bas$ on ! great] or less
 mobility ( _! p>ts4  ,! lead+ pr9ciple 
9 ! special "p ( ! ,c>tesian            
physics1--we c only briefly sket*       
x1--:i* embraces1 fir/1 cele/ial1 &1 !n1
 t]re/ial ph5om5a1 is ! axiom t we _c   
e/imate ,god's p[] & goodness too       
highly1 nor ourselves too meanly4 ,x is 
presumptu\s to seek to compreh5d !      
purposes ( ,god 9 creation1 to consid]  
ourselves p>ticipants 9 8 plans1 to     
imag9e t ?+s exi/ simply = our sake--!re
 are _m ?+s :i* no man sees & :i* are ( 

advantage to none4 ,no?+ is to be       
int]pret$ teleologically1 b all mu/ be  
int]pret$ f cle>ly kn[n attributes1 h5ce
 purely me*anically4 ,aft] treat+ ( !   
di/ances ( ! v>i\s heav5ly bodies1 ( !  
indep5d5t light ( ! sun & ! fix$ />s & !
 reflect$ light ( ! planets1 among :i* !
 e>? belongs1 ,desc>tes discusses !     
motion ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,9 ref]5ce to
 ! motion ( ! e>? he seeks a middle     
c\rse betwe5 ! !ories ( ,cop]nicus &    
,ty*o ,brah4 ,he agrees ) ,cop]nicus 9 !
 ma9 po9t1 b1 9 reliance on 8 def9ition 
( motion1 ma9ta9s t ! e>? is at re/1    
viz41 9 respect to its imm$iate         
surr\nd+s4 ,x is cle> t ! h>mony ( 8    
views ) ^? ( ! ,*ur* 7?\gh x 0 only a   
v]bal agreem5t7 0 n unwelcome to him4   
,accord+ to 8 hypo!sis1--z he sugge/s1  
p]haps an errone\s hypo!sis1--! fluid   
matt] :i* fills ! heav5ly spaces1 & :i* 
may be comp>$ to a vortex or :irlpool1  
circles ab\t ! sun & c>ries ! planets   
along ) x4 ,?us ! planets move 9        
relation to ! sun1 b are at re/ 9       

relation to ! adjac5t portions ( ! matt]
 ( ! heav5s4 ,9 view ( ! biblical       
doctr9e1 accord+ to :i* ! _w & all t    
!re9 is 0 creat$ at a /roke1 he         
apologetically describes 8 attempt to   
expla9 ! orig9 ( ! _w f *aos "u ! laws (
 motion z a sci5tific fiction1 int5d$   
m]ely to make ! process m compreh5sible4
 ,x is m easily conceivable1 if we ?9k (
 ! ?+s 9 ! _w z ?\gh !y _h be5 gradually
 =m$ f elem5ts1 z ! plant develops f !  
se$4 ,we n[ pass to ! ,c>tesian         
an?ropology1 ) its ?ree *ief objects3 ! 
body1 ! s\l1 & ! union ( ! two4   #c4   
,man4  ,! human body1 l all organic     
bodies1 is a ma*9e4 ,artificial automata
 & natural bodies are di/+ui%$ only 9   
degree4 ,ma*9es fa%ion$ by ! h& ( man   
p]=m _! functions by means ( visible &  
tangible in/rum5ts1 :ile natural bodies 
employ organs :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 are too  
m9ute to be p]ceiv$4 ,z ! clock-mak]    
con/ructs a clock f :eels & weights s t 
x is able to g ( itself1 s ,god has made
 man's body out ( du/1 only1 be+ a f>   

sup]ior arti/1 he produces a "w ( art   
:i* is bett] con/ruct$ & capable ( f> m 
wond]ful movem5ts4 ,! cause ( dea? is ! 
de/ruction ( "s important "p ( ! ma*9e1 
:i* prev5ts x f runn+ long]2 a corpse is
 a brok5 clock1 & ! dep>ture ( ! s\l    
comes only z a result ( dea?4 ,! common 
op9ion t ! s\l g5]ates life 9 ! body is 
errone\s4 ,x is r true t life mu/ be    
pres5t be=e ! s\l ent]s into union ) !  
body1 z x is also true t life mu/ h end$
 be=e x dissolves ! bond4  ,! sole      
pr9ciples ( physiology are motion &     
heat4 ,! heat 7vital w>m?1 a fire )\t   
light71 :i* ,god has put 9 ! he>t z !   
c5tral organ ( life1 has = its function 
! promotion ( ! circulation ( ! blood1 9
 ! description ( :i* ,desc>tes m5tions )
 praise ! discov]ies ( ,h>vey 7,de ,motu
 ,cordis et ,sangu9is 9 ,animalibus1    
#afbh74 ,f ! blood are sep>at$ its f9e/1
 mo/ fi]y1 & mo/ mobile p>ts1 call$ by  
,desc>tes animal spirits 7spiritus      
animales sive corporales71 & describ$ z 
a v subtle w9d or pure & vivid flame1   

:i* asc5d into ! cavities ( ! bra91 rea*
 ! p9eal gl& susp5d$ 9 its c5t]         
7con>ion1 glans p9ealis1 gl&ula71 pass  
into ! n]ves1 &1 by _! action on !      
muscles connect$ ) ! n]ves1 effect !    
motions ( ! limbs4 ,^! views ref] to !  
body alone1 & s are z true ( animals z (
 m54 ,if automata exi/$ simil> to       
animals 9 all respects1 bo? ext]nal &   
int]nal1 x w\ld be absolutely impossible
 to di/+ui% !m f real animals4 ,if1     
h[ev]1 !y 7 made to resemble human      
bodies1 two signs w\ld indicate _!      
unreality--we w\ld f9d no communication 
( ideas by means ( language1 & also an  
abs5ce ( ^? bodily movem5ts :i* take _! 
orig9 9 ! reason 7& n m]ely 9 !         
con/itution ( ! body74 ,! only ?+ :i*   
raises man above ! brute is 8 rational  
s\l1 :i* we are on no acc\nt to consid] 
a product ( matt]1 b :i* is an express  
creation ( ,god1 sup]add$4 ,! union ( ! 
s\l or ! m9d 7anima sive m5s7 ) ! body  
is1 x is true1 n s loose t ! m9d m]ely  
dwells 9 ! body1 l a pilot 9 a %ip1 nor1

 on ! o!r h&1 9 view ( ! ess5tial       
contr>iety ( ! two sub/ances1 is x s    
intimate z to be m ?an a unio           
compositionis4 ,al?\gh ! s\l is unit$ to
 ! :ole body1 an especially active      
int]c\rse betwe5 !m is develop$ at a    
s+le po9t1 ! p9eal gl&1 :i* is di/+ui%$ 
by its c5tral1 protect$ position1 above 
all1 by ! fact t x is ! only c]ebral    
organ t is n d\ble4 ,?is gl&1 toge!r ) !
 animal spirits pass+ to & f x1 m$iates 
betwe5 m9d & body2 & z ! po9t ( union = 
! tw(old impressions f ! 7"r & left7    
eyes & e>s1 )\t :i* objects w\ld be     
p]ceiv$ d\ble in/ead ( s+le1 is ! seat (
 ! s\l4 ,"h ! s\l ex]cises a direct     
influ5ce on ! body & is directly affect$
 by x2 "h x dwells1 & at w produces a   
slight1 peculi> movem5t ( ! gl&1 ?r\gh  
?is a *ange 9 ! c\rse ( ! animal spirits
 7= x is n capable ( g5]at+ motion1 b   
only ( *ang+ its direction71 &1 f9ally1 
movem5ts ( ! memb]s2 j z1 on ! o!r h&1 x
 rem>ks ! slighte/ *ange 9 ! c\rse ( !  
spiritus ?r\gh a correspond+ movem5t ( !

 gl&1 ^: motions v>y accord+ to ! s5su\s
 prop]ties ( ! object to be p]ceiv$1 &  
responds by s5sations4 ,al?\gh ,desc>tes
 ?us limits ! direct int]action ( s\l & 
body to a small "p ( ! organism1 he     
makes an exception 9 ! case ( memoria1  
:i* appe>s to him to be m ( a physical  
?an a psy*ical function1 & :i* he       
conjectures to be diffus$ ?r\gh ! :ole  
bra94  ,9 spite ( ! compreh5sive mean+  
:i* ,desc>tes gives to ! notion         
cogitatio1 x is yet too n>r[ to leave   
room = an anima vegetativa & an anima   
s5sitiva4 ,:oev] makes m9d & s\l        
equival5t1 holds t _! ess5ce consi/s 9  
consci\s activity alone1 & int]prets    
s5sation z a mode ( ?\ght1 _c escape !  
p>adox ( d5y+ to animals ! possession ( 
a s\l4 ,desc>tes does n %r9k f su* a    
conclusion4 ,animals are m]e ma*9es2 !y 
are bodies animat$1 b s\lless2 !y lack  
consci\s p]ception & appetition1 ?\gh n 
! appe>ance ( !m4 ,:5 a clock /rikes    
sev5 x kn[s no?+ ( ! fact2 x does n     
regret t x is s late nor long soon to be

 able to /rike eight2 x wills no?+1     
feels no?+1 p]ceives no?+4 ,! lot ( !   
brute is ! same4 ,x sees & he>s no?+1 x 
does n hung] or ?ir/1 x does n rejoice  
or fe>1 if by ^! any?+ m ?an m]e        
corporeal ph5om5a is to be meant2 ( all 
^! x possesses m]ely ! unconsci\s       
mat]ial basis2 x moves & motion goes on 
9 x--t is all4 ,! psy*ology ( ,desc>tes1
 :i* has _h important results1#a divides
 cogitationes into two classes3 actiones
 & passiones4 ,action d5otes ev]y?+ :i* 
takes its orig9 91 & is 9 ! p[] (1 !    
s\l2 passion1 ev]y?+ :i* ! s\l receives 
f )\t1 9 :i* x c make no *ange1 :i* is  
impress$ ^u x4 ,! fur!r developm5t ( ?is
 di/9ction is m>r$ by ! cross+ ( ! mo/  
div]se l9es ( ?\ght1 result+ 9          
obscurities & contradictions4           
,desc>tes's simple1 nave habits ( ?\ght 
& spee*1 :i* 7 ^? ( a man ( ! _w r ?an (
 a s*ol>1 7 q incompatible ) ! adoption 
& consi/5t use ( a f9ely discrim9at$    
t]m9ology2 he is v free ) sive1 & n v   
c>eful ) ! expressions actio1 passio1   

p]ceptio1 affectio1 volitio4 ,fir/ he   
equates activity & will+1 = ! w spr+s   
exclusively f ! s\l--x is only 9 will+ t
 ! latt] is entirely indep5d5t2 :ile1 on
 ! o!r h&1 passivity is made equival5t  
to repres5tation & cognition1 = ! s\l   
does n create its ideas1 b receives     
!m1--s5su\s impressions com+ to h] q    
evid5tly f ! body4 ,^! equations1       
actio--! practical1 passio  ! !oretical 
function1 are soon limit$ & modifi$1    
h[ev]4 ,! natural appetites & affections
 are =ms ( volition1 x is true1 b n free
 products ( ! m9d1 = !y take _! orig9 9 
its connection ) ! body4 ,fur!r1 n all  
p]ceptions h a s5su\s orig92 :5 ! s\l   
makes free use ( its ideas 9 imag9ation1
 especially :5 9 pure ?\ght x dwells on 
itself1 :5 )\t ! int]f]5ce ( !          
imag9ation x gazes on its rational      
nature1 x is by no means passive m]ely4 
,e act ( ! w1 aga91 is accompani$ by !  
consci\sness ( volition4 ,! volitio is  
an activity1 ! cogitatio volitionis a   
passivity2 ! s\l affects itself1 is     

passively affect$ ?r\gh its own         
activity1 is at ! same in/ant bo? active
 & passive4  ,footnote #a3 ,= details   
cf4 ! able monograph ( ,dr4 ,anton ,ko*1
 #ahha4  ,?us n e volition1 e4g4 s5su\s 
desire1 is action nor all p]ception1    
e4g4 t ( ! pure intellect1 passion4     
,f9ally1 c]ta9 psy*ical ph5om5a fall    
indiff]5tly "u ! head ( p]ception or (  
volition1 e4g41 pa91 :i* is bo? an      
indi/9ct idea ( some?+ & an impulse to  
%un x4 ,9 accordance ) ^! em5dations1 & 
omitt+ c]ta9 di/urb+ po9ts ( second>y   
importance1 ! matt] may be ?us          
repres5t$3                              
,,cogitatio4                            
,,actio  ,,passio                       
7,m5s sola2 cl>ae et di/9ctae  7,m5s    
unita cum corpore2 ideae47              
confusae ideae47                        
,,volitio3                              
#f4 ,voluntas4 #c;b4 ,commotiones  #c;a4
 ,affectus4 #b4 ,appetitus naturales4   
intellectuales                          
_/                                      

--------v-------        ,judicium4      
,s5sus int]ni                           
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,,p]ceptio3                #d4          
,imag9atio                              
------------                            
_/                 #e4 ,intellectus     
#d;b4 ,phantasia4  #d;a4 ,memoria4 #a4  
,s5sus ext]ni4   ,accord+ly six grades (
 m5tal function are to be di/+ui%$3 7#a7
 ,! ext]nal s5ses4 7#b7 ,! natural      
appetites4 7#c7 ,! passions 7:i*1 toge!r
 ) ! natural appetites1 con/itute !     
int]nal s5ses1 & f :i* ! m5tal emotions 
produc$ by ! intellect are q di/9ct74   
7#d7 ,! imag9ation ) its two divisions1 
passive memory & active phantasy4 7#e7  
,! intellect or reason4 7#f7 ,! w4 ,^!  
v>i\s /ages or faculties are1 h[ev]1 n  
di/9ct p>ts ( ! s\l1 z 9 ! old          
psy*ology1 9 opposition to :i* ,desc>tes
 emphatically def5ds ! unity ( ! s\l4 ,x
 is "o & ! same psy*ical p[] t ex]cises 
! high] & ! l[]1 ! rational & ! s5su\s1 

! practical & ! !oretical activities4   
,( ! m5tal functions1 :e!r repres5tative
 images1 p]ceptions1 or volitions1 a "p 
are ref]r$ to body 7to p>ts ( our own   
body1 (t5 also to ext]nal objects71 &   
produc$ by ! body 7by ! animal spirits  
&1 g5]ally1 by ! n]ves z well71 :ile !  
re/ f9d bo? object & cause 9 ! s\l4     
,int]m$iate betwe5 ! two classes /& ^?  
acts ( ! w :i* are caus$ by ! s\l1 b :i*
 relate to ! body1 e4g41 :5 ,i resolve  
to walk or leap2 &1 :at is m important1 
! passions1 :i* relate to ! s\l itself1 
b :i* are call$ =?1 su/a9$1 & int5sifi$ 
by c]ta9 motions ( ! animal spirits4    
,s9ce only ^? be+s :i* consi/ ( a body z
 well z a s\l are capable ( ! passions1 
^! are specifically human ph5om5a4 ,^!  
affections1 ?\gh v num]\s1 may be r$uc$ 
to a few simple or prim>y ones1 ( :i* ! 
re/ are m]e specializations or          
comb9ations4 ,desc>tes enum]ates six    
primitive passions 7:i* numb] ,sp9oza   
aft]w>d r$uc$ "o-half7--admiratio1 amor 
et odium1 cupiditas 7dsir71 gaudium et  

tri/itia4 ,! fir/ & ! f\r? h no         
opposites1 ! =m] be+ nei!r positive nor 
negative1 & ! latt] bo? at once4 ,wond]1
 :i* includes "u x e/eem & contempt1    
signifies int]e/ 9 an object :i* nei!r  
attracts u by its utility nor repels u  
by its hurtfulness1 & yet does n leave u
 indiff]5t4 ,x is ar\s$ by ! p[]ful or  
surpris+ impression made by !           
extraord9>y1 ! r>e1 ! unexpect$4 ,love  
seeks to appropriate t :i* is pr(itable2
 hate1 to w>d (f t :i* is h>mful1 to    
de/roy t :i* is ho/ile4 ,desire or long+
 looks ) hope or fe> to ! future4 ,:5 t 
:i* is fe>$ or hop$ = has come to pass1 
joy & grief come 91 :i* relate to exi/+ 
good & evil1 z desire relates to ^? to  
come4  ,! ,c>tesian !ory ( ! passions   
=ms ! bridge ov] :i* its au?or passes f 
psy*ology to e?ics4 ,no s\l is s weak z 
to be incapable ( completely ma/]+ its  
passions1 & ( s direct+ !m t f !m all   
!re w result t joy\s temp] advantage\s  
to ! reason4 ,! fre$om ( ! w is         
unlimit$4 ,al?\gh a direct influ5ce on !

 passions is d5i$ x1--x c nei!r annul !m
 m]ely at its bidd+1 nor at once r$uce  
!m to sil5ce1 at lea/1 n ! m viol5t     
ones1--x /ill has an indirect p[] ov] !m
 9 two ways4 ,dur+ ! cont9uance ( !     
affection 7e4g41 fe>7 x is able to arre/
 ! bodily movem5ts to :i* ! affection   
t5ds 7flight71 ?\gh n ! emotion itself1 
&1 9 ! int]vals ( quiet1 x c take       
measures to r5d] a new attack ( !       
passion less dang]\s4 ,in/ead ( enli/+  
"o passion aga9/ ano!r1 a plan :i* w\ld 
mean only an appe>ance ( fre$om1 b 9    
fact a cont9uance 9 bondage1 ! s\l %\ld 
fight ) its own weapons1 ) fix$ maxims  
7judicia71 bas$ on c]ta9 k ( good &     
evil4 ,! w conqu]s ! emotions by means (
 pr9ciples1 by cle> & di/9ct k1 :i* sees
 ?r\gh & corrects ! false values ascrib$
 to ?+s by ! excitem5t ( ! passions4    
,besides ?is negative requirem5t1       
subjection ( ! passions1 ,desc>tes'     
contributions to e?ics--9 ! lett]s to   
,pr9cess ,elizabe? on human happ9ess1 & 
to ,que5 ,*ri/9a on love & ! highe/     

good--7 inconsid]able4 ,wisdom is !     
c>ry+ out ( t :i* has be5 se5 to be be/1
 virtue is /eadfa/ness1 s9 incon/ancy   
!re94 ,! goal ( human endeavor is peace 
( consci5ce1 :i* is atta9$ only ?r\gh ! 
det]m9ation to be virtu\s1 i4e41 to live
 9 h>mony ) self4  ,besides its e?ical  
mission1 ! w has allott$ to x !         
!oretical function ( affirmation &      
negation1 i4e41 ( judgm5t4 ,if ,god 9 8 
v]acity & goodness has be/[$ on man !   
p[] to "k tru?1 h[ is misuse ( ?is p[]1 
h[ is error possible8 ,s+le s5sations & 
ideas _c be false1 b only judgm5ts--!   
ref]5ce ( ideas to objects4 ,judgm5t or 
ass5t is a matt] ( ! w2 s t :5 x makes  
errone\s affirmations or negations1 :5 x
 pref]s ! false judgm5t to ! true1 x    
alone is guilty4 ,our und]/&+ is limit$1
 our w unlimit$2 ! latt] rea*es fur!r   
?an ! =m]1 & c ass5t to a judgm5t ev5   
be=e its con/itu5t p>ts h atta9$ !      
requisite degree ( cle>ness4 ,false     
judgm5t is prejudgm5t1 = :i* we c hold  
nei!r ,god nor our own nature           

responsible4 ,! possibility ( error1 z  
well z ! possibility ( avoid+ error1    
resides 9 ! w4 ,?is has ! p[] to po/pone
 its ass5t or diss5t1 to hold back its  
decision until ! ideas h become entirely
 cle> & di/9ct4 ,! supreme p]fection is 
! lib]tas non err&i4 ,?us k itself      
becomes a moral function2 ! true & !    
good are 9 ! la/ analysis id5tical4 ,!  
contradiction ) :i* ,desc>tes has be5   
*>g$1 t he makes volition & cognition   
reciprocally det]m9ative1 t he bases    
moral goodness on ! cle>ness ( ideas &  
vice v]sa1 does n exi/4 ,we mu/ di/+ui% 
betwe5 a !oretical & a practical /adium 
9 ! w2 x is true ( ! latt] t x dep5ds on
 k ( ! "r1 ( ! =m] t ! k ( ! "r is      
dep5d5t on x4 ,9 ord] to ! possibility (
 moral action ! w mu/ con=m to cle>     
judgm5t2 9 ord] to ! production ( !     
latt] ! w mu/ be moral4 ,x is !         
unit-s\l1 :i* fir/1 by freely avoid+    
ov]ha/y judgm5t1 cognizes ! tru?1 to    
exemplify x lat] 9 moral conduct4       
,,*apt] ,,iii4  ,,! ,,developm5t ,,&    

,,trans=mation ,,( ,,c>tesianism ,,9 ,,!
 ,,ne!rl&s ,,& ,,9 ,,france4#a          
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,g4 ,mon*amp1        
,hi/oire du ,c>tsianisme en ,belgique1  
,brussels1 #ahhf4  #a4 ,occasionalism3  
,geul9cx4  ,! propagation & def5se ( a  
sy/em ( ?\ght soon give occasion to its 
adh]5ts to purify1 complete1 & trans=m  
x4 ,obscurities & contradictions are    
discov]$1 :i* ! ma/] has ov]look$ or    
all[$ to rema91 & ! disciple ex]ts      
himself to remove !m1 :ile reta9+ !     
fundam5tal doctr9es4 ,9 ! sy/em (       
,desc>tes !re 7 two closely connect$    
po9ts :i* dem&$ cl>ification &          
correction1 viz41 8 d\ble dualism 7#a7  
betwe5 ext5d$ sub/ance & ?9k+ sub/ance1 
7#b7 betwe5 creat$ sub/ance & ! div9e   
sub/ance4 ,9 contra/ ) ea* o!r matt] &  
m9d are sub/ances or indep5d5t be+s1 = !
 cle> conception ( body conta9s naught (
 consci\sness1 ?\ght1 repres5tation1 & t
 ( m9d no?+ ( ext5sion1 matt]1 motion4  
,9 comp>ison ) ,god !y are n s2 ap>t f !
 creator !y c nei!r exi/ nor be         

conceiv$4 ,9 e case :]e ! attempt is    
made to di/+ui% betwe5 intr9sic & g5]al 
7z "h1 betwe5 sub/ance 9 ! /rict] & wid]
 s5ses71 an indecision betrays itself   
:i* is n p]man5tly endur$4  ,!          
sub/antiality ( ! mat]ial & spiritual   
worlds ma9ta9$ by ,desc>tes f9ds an     
excell5t c\nt]p>t 9 8 7entirely mod]n7  
t5d5cy to pu% ! concursus dei z f> z    
possible into ! backgr\nd1 to limit x to
 ! production ( ! orig9al condition (   
?+s1 to give ov] motion1 once creat$1 to
 its own laws1 & ideas implant$ 9 ! m9d 
to its own indep5d5t activity2 b x is   
h>d to reconcile ) x ! view1 popul> 9 ! 
,middle ,ages1 t ! pres]vation ( ! _w is
 a p]petual creation4 ,9 ! =m] case !   
relation ( ,god to ! _w is made an      
ext]nal relation2 9 ! latt]1 an int]nal 
"o4 ,9 ! "o ! _w is ?\ght ( z a clock1  
:i* once w\nd up runs on me*anically1 9 
! second x is lik5$ to a piece ( music  
:i* ! compos] himself recites4 ,if ,god 
pres]ves creat$ ?+s by cont9ually       
recreat+ !m !y are n sub/ances at all2  

if !y are sub/ances1 pres]vation becomes
 an empty ^w1 :i* we repeat aft] !      
!ologians )\t giv+ x any real mean+4    
,matt] & _s /& relat$ 9 our ?\ght only  
by way ( exclusion2 is ! same true ( !m 
9 reality8 ,!y c be conceiv$ & c exi/   
)\t ea* o!r2 c !y1 fur!r1 )\t ea* o!r   
effect all t we p]ceive !m to accompli%8
 ,!re are "s motions 9 ! mat]ial _w :i* 
we ref] to a volunt>y decision ( ! s\l1 
& "s among our ideas 7e4g41 p]ceptions (
 ! s5ses7 :i* we ref] to corporeal      
ph5om5a z _! causes4 ,if body & s\l are 
sub/ances1 h[ c !y be dep5d5t on ea* o!r
 9 c]ta9 ( _! activities1 if !y are (   
opposite natures1 h[ c !y affect ea*    
o!r8 ,h[ c ! incorporeal1 unmov$ _s move
 ! animal spirits & receive impulses f  
!m8 ,! sub/antiality 7reciprocal        
indep5d5ce7 ( body & m9d1 & _!          
int]action 7p>tial reciprocal dep5d5ce71
 are incompatible1 "o or ! o!r is       
illusory & mu/ be ab&on$4 ,! mat]iali/s 
7,hobbes7 sacrifice ! indep5d5ce ( m9d1 
! ideali/s 7,b]keley1 ,leibnitz71 !     

indep5d5ce ( matt]1 ! occasionali/s1 !  
int]action ( ! two4 ,?is =ms ! advance (
 ! la/ beyond ,desc>tes1 :o ei!r navely 
ma9ta9s t1 9 spite ( ! contr>iety (     
mat]ial & m5tal sub/ances1 an ex*ange ( 
effects takes place betwe5 !m z an      
empirical fact1 or1 :5 he realizes !    
difficulty ( ! an?ropological           
problem1--h[ is ! union ( ! two         
sub/ances 9 man possible1--ascribes !   
int]action ( body & m9d1 toge!r ) !     
union ( ! two1 to ! p[] ( ,god1 & by ?is
 ab&onm5t ( ! attempt at a natural      
explanation1 op5s up ! occasionali/ic   
way ( escape4 ,fur!r1 9 8 m detail$     
description ( ! int]c\rse betwe5 body & 
m9d ,desc>tes _h be5 guilty ( direct    
violations ( 8 laws ( natural           
philosophy4 ,if ! quantity ( motion is  
decl>$ to be inv>iable & a *ange 9 its  
direction is attribut$ to me*anical     
causes alone1 we mu/ n ascribe to ! s\l 
! p[] to move ! p9eal gl&1 ev5 9 !      
g5tle/ way1 nor to control ! direction (
 ! animal spirits4 ,^! inconsi/5cies    

also are remov$ by ! occasionali/ic     
!sis4  ,! "q conc]n+ ! sub/antiality (  
m9d & matt] 9 relation to ,god1 is      
involv$ f ! v beg9n+ 9 ?is latt]        
problem1 ,h[ is ! appe>ance ( int]action
 betwe5 ! two to be expla9$ )\t detrim5t
 to _! sub/antiality 9 relation to ea*  
o!r8 ,! d5ial ( ! reciprocal dep5d5ce ( 
matt] & _s leads to %>p] acc5tuation (  
_! common dep5d5ce ^u ,god4 ,?us        
occasionalism =ms ! transition to !     
pan!ism ( ,sp9oza1 ,geul9cx emphasiz+ ! 
non-sub/antiality ( spirits1 &          
,malebran*e ! non-sub/antiality (       
bodies1 :ile ,sp9oza comb9es &          
int5sifies bo?4 ,& yet hi/ory 0 n oblig+
 en\gh to c>ry out ?is conv5i5t &       
agreeable s*eme ( developm5t )          
*ronological accuracy1 = %e _h ,sp9oza  
complete 8 pan!ism be=e ,malebran*e _h  
prep>$ ! way4 ,! relation :i* 0 not$ 9 !
 case ( ,bruno & ,campanella is "h      
repeat$3 ! e>li] ?9k] assumes ! m       
advanc$ position1 :ile ! lat] "o seems  
backw>d 9 comp>ison2 & t :i*1 view$ f ! 

/&po9t ( ! "q itself1 may be consid]$ a 
transition l9k1 is hi/orically to be    
tak5 z a reaction aga9/ ! excessive     
prosecution ( a l9e ( ?\ght :i*1 up to a
 c]ta9 po9t1 _h be5 foll[$ by ! "o :o n[
 %r9ks back f its extreme consequ5ces4  
,! c\rse ( philosophy takes fir/ a      
!ological direction 9 ! e>li]           
occasionali/s1 !n a metaphysical        
7naturali/ic7 tr5d 9 ,sp9oza1 to r5ew   
f9ally1 9 ,malebran*e1 ! fir/ ( ^!      
movem5ts 9 opposition to ! second4 ,!   
,c>tesian s*ool1 z a :ole1 h[ev]1       
exhibits a t5d5cy t[>d my/icism1 :i* 0  
conceal$ to a great] or less ext5t by ! 
rationali/ic ne$ = cle> concepts1 b nev]
 entirely suppress$4  ,al?\gh ! real    
int]action ( body & m9d be d5i$1 "s     
explanation mu/1 at lea/1 be giv5 = !   
appe>ance ( int]action1 i4e4 = ! actual 
correspond5ce ( bodily & m5tal ph5om5a4 
,occasionalism d5otes ! !ory (          
occasional causes4 ,x is n ! body t     
gives rise to p]ception1 nor ! m9d t    
causes ! motion ( ! limbs :i* x has     

det]m9$ ^u--nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r c      
receive influ5ce f its fell[ or ex]cise 
influ5ce ^u x2 b x is ,god :o1 on !     
occasion ( ! physical motion 7( ! air & 
n]ves72 produces ! s5sation 7( s\nd71 &1
 at ! in/ance ( ! det]m9ation ( ! w1    
produces ! movem5t ( ! arms4 ,!         
sy/ematic developm5t & m>k$ influ5ce (  
?is !ory1 :i* _h already be5 m or less  
cle>ly ann\nc$ by ! ,c>tesians ,cordemoy
 & ,de la ,=ge1#a 0 due to ! tal5t$     
,arnold ,geul9cx 7#afbd-fi71 :o 0 born  
at ,antw]p1 taught 9 ,lyons 7#afdf-eh7 &
 ,leyd51 & became a conv]t to ,calv9ism4
 ,x ultimately ga9$ ov] ! majority ( !  
num]\s adh]5ts ( ! ,c>tesian philosophy 
9 ! ,dut* univ]sities1--,r5]y 7di$      
#afci7 & ,regius 7van ,roy2 ,fundam5ta  
,physicae1 #afdf2 ,philosophia          
,naturalis1 #affa7 9 ,utre*t2 fur!r1    
,bal?as> ,bekk] 7#afcd-ih2 ,! ,_w       
,bewit*$1 #afij71 ! brave oppon5t ( !   
belief 9 angels & devils1 ( magic1 & (  
prosecution = wit*craft1--9 ! cl]ical   
ord]s 9 ,france &1 f9ally1 9 ,g]many4   

,footnote #a3 ,g]auld de ,cordemoy1 a   
,p>isian advocate 7di$ #afhd1           
,diss]tations ,philosophiques1 #afff71  
communicat$ 8 occasionali/ic views      
orally to 8 fri5ds z e>ly z #afeh 7cf4  
,l4 ,/e9 9 ! ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d]     
,philosophie1 vol4 i41 #ahhh1 p4 #ef74  
,l\is de la ,=ge1 a physician ( ,saumur1
 ,tractatus de ,m5te ,humana1 #afff1    
previ\sly publi%$ 9 ,fr5*2 cf4 ,seyf>?1 
,go?a1 #ahhg4 ,b ! logician1 ,johann    
,claub]g1 pr(essor 9 ,duisburg          
7#afbb-fe2 ,op]a1 edit$ by ,s*albru*1   
#afia71 is1 accord+ to ! inve/igations (
 ,h]m4 ,mll] 7,j4 ,claub]g und se9e     
,/ellung im ,c>tesianismus1 ,j5a1       
#ahia71 to be /rick5 f ! li/ ( ?9k]s :o 
prep>$ ! way = occasionalism1 s9ce 9 8  
discussion ( ! an?ropological problem   
7corporis et animae conjunctio7 he m]ely
 develops ! ,c>tesian position1 & does n
 g beyond x4 ,he employs ! expression   
occasio1 x is true1 b n 9 ! s5se ( !    
occasionali/s4 ,accord+ to ,claub]g !   
bodily ph5om5on becomes ! /imulus or    

occasion 7n = ,god1 b7 = ! s\l to       
produce f itself ! correspond+ m5tal    
ph5om5on4  ,geul9cx himself1 besides two
 inaugural addresses at ,leyd5 7z       
,lector 9 #affb1 ,pr(essor ,extraord9>y 
9 #affe71 publi%$ ! foll[+ treatises3   
,quae/iones ,quodlibeticae 79 ! second  
edition1 #affe1 entitl$ ,saturnalia7 )  
an important introductory disc\rse2     
,logica ,fundam5tis ,suis ,re/ituta1    
#affb2 ,me?odus ,inv5i5di ,argum5ta 7new
 edition by ,bontekoe1 #afge72 & ! fir/ 
"p ( 8 ,e?ics--,de ,virtute et ,primis  
ejus ,proprietatibus1 quae vulgo        
,virtutes ,c>d9ales ,vocantur1          
,tractatus ,e?icus ,primus1 #affe4 ,?is 
*ief "w 0 issu$ complete 9 all six p>ts 
) ! title1 ,greek3 ,gno?i seauton sive  
,e?ica1 #afge1 by ,bontekoe1 "u !       
pseudonym ,phil>etus4 ,! ,physics1      
#afhh1 ! ,metaphysics1 #afia1 & !       
,annotata ,majora 9 ,c>tesii ,pr9cipia  
,philosophiae1 #afia1 7 also po/hum\s   
publications1 f ! notes ( 8 pupils4 ,9  
view ( ! r>ity ( ^! volumes1 & !        

importance ( ! philosoph]1 x is welcome 
news t ,j4,p4,n4 ,l& has und]tak5 an    
edition ( ! collect$ works1 9 ?ree      
volumes1 ( :i* ! fir/ two h already     
appe>$4#a ,! ,hague1 #ahia-ib4b         
,footnote #a3 ,on vol4 i4 cf4 ,euck51   
,philosophis*e ,monat%efte1 vol4        
xxviii41 #ahib1 p1#bjj seq4  ,footnote  
#b3 ,on ,geul9cx see ,v4 van d] ,haegh51
 ,geul9cx1 tude sur sa ,vie1 sa         
,philosophie1 et ses ,ouvrages1 ,gh5t1  
#ahhf1 includ+ a complete bibliography2 
& ,l& 9 vol4 iv4 ( ! ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te
 d] ,philosophie1 #ahij4 ,engli%        
translation1 ,m9d1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #bbc    
seq4  ,geul9cx bases ! occasionali/ic   
position on ! pr9ciple1 quod nescis1    
quomodo fiat1 id non facis4 ,unless ,i  
"k h[ an ev5t happ5s1 ,i am n its cause4
 ,s9ce ,i h no consci\sness h[ my       
decision to speak or to walk is foll[$  
by ! movem5t ( my tongue or limbs1 ,i am
 n ! "o :o effects ^!4 ,s9ce ,i am j z  
ignorant h[ ! s5sation 9 my m9d comes to
 pass z a sequel to ! motion 9 !        

s5se-organ2 s9ce1 fur!r1 ! body z an    
unconsci\s & non-rational be+ c effect  
no?+1 x is nei!r ,i nor ! body t causes 
! s5sation4 ,bo? ! bodily movem5t & !   
s5se-impression are1 r1 ! effects ( a   
high] p[]1 ( ! inf9ite _s4 ,! act ( my w
 & ! s5se-/imulus are only causae       
occasionales = ! div9e w1 9 an          
incompreh5sible way1 to effect1 9 ! "o  
case1 ! execution ( ! movem5t ( ! limbs 
resolv$ ^u1 &1 9 ! o!r1 ! orig9 ( !     
p]ception2 !y are 7unsuitable7          
in/rum5ts1 effective only 9 ! h& ( ,god2
 he br+s x to pass t my w goes out      
beyond my s\l1 & t corporeal motion has 
results 9 x4 ,! mean+ ( ?is doctr9e is  
misappreh5d$ :5 x is assum$1--an        
assumption to :i* ! ,leibnitzian acc\nt 
( occasionalism may mislead "o1--t 9 x !
 cont9uity ( ev5ts1 alike 9 ! mat]ial & 
! psy*ical _w1 is int]rupt$ by frequ5t  
scatt]$ int]f]5ces f )\t1 & all becom+  
trans=m$ into a s]ies ( disconnect$     
miracles4 ,an ord] ( nature su* z w\ld  
be de/roy$ by ,god's action does n exi/2

 ,god br+s ev]y?+ to pass2 ev5 ! passage
 ( motion f "o body to ano!r is 8 "w4   
,fur!r1 ,geul9cx expressly says t ,god  
has impos$ su* laws on motion t x       
h>monizes ) ! s\l's free volition1 (    
:i*1 h[ev]1 x is entirely indep5d5t     
7simil> /atem5ts occur also 9 ,de la    
,=ge74 ,& ) ?is our ?9k] appe>s--z      
,pfleid]]#a emphasizes--closely to      
approa* ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony (         
,leibnitz4 ,! occasionali/ic !ory       
c]ta9ly con/itutes ! prelim9>y /ep to ! 
,leibnitzian2 b an ess5tial diff]5ce    
sep>ates ! two4 ,! advance does n consi/
 9 ! sub/itution by ,leibnitz ( "o s+le 
miracle at creation = a numb] ( isolat$ 
& cont9ually recurr+ ones1 b 7z         
,leibnitz himself rem>ks1 9 reply to !  
objection express$ by ,fa!r ,lami1 t a  
p]petual miracle is no miracle7 9 !     
ex*ange ( ! imm$iate causality ( ,god = 
natural causation4 ,) ,geul9cx m9d &    
body act on ea* o!r1 b n by _! own p[]2 
) ,leibnitz ! monads d n act on "o      
ano!r1 b !y act by _! own p[]4#b--,:5   

,geul9cx 9 ! same connection advances to
 ! /atem5ts t1 9 view ( ! limit$ness &  
passivity ( f9ite ?+s1 ,god is ! only   
truly active1 because ! only indep5d5t1 
be+ 9 ! _w1 t all activity is 8         
activity1 t ! human 7f9ite7 _s is relat$
 to ! div9e 7inf9ite7 _s z ! individual 
body to space 9 g5]al1 viz41 z a section
 ( x1 s t1 by ?9k+ away all limitations 
f our m9d1 we f9d ,god 9 u & ourselves 9
 him1 x %[s h[ ne>ly he v]ges on        
pan!ism4  ,footnote #a3 ,edm4 ,pfleid]]1
 ,geul9cx1 als ,hauptv]tret] d]         
occasionali/is*5 ,metaphysik und ,e?ik1 
,tb+51 #ahhb2 ! same1 ,leibniz und      
,geul9cx mit besond]] ,beziehung auf ihr
 ,uhr5glei*nis1 ,tb+51 #ahhd4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,see ,ed4 ,zell]1 ,sitzungsb]i*te  
d] ,b]l9] ,akademie d] ,wiss5s*aft51    
#ahhd1 p4 #fgc seq42 ,euck51            
,philosophis*e ,monat%efte1 vol4 xix41  
#ahic1 p4 #ebe seq2 vol4 xxiii41 #ahhg1 
p4 #ehg seq4  ,geul9cx's s]vices to     
notics h be5 duly recogniz$ by ,ed4     
,grimm 7,j5a1 #ahge71 al?\gh ) an       

excessive approximation to ,kant4 ,9 ?is
 field he advances _m acute & sugge/ive 
?\ghts1 z ! d$uction :i* reappe>s 9     
,lotze1 t ! actually exi/5t _w ( figure 
& motion cogniz$ by ?\ght1 ?\gh ! real  
_w1 is poor] ?an ! wond]ful _w ( motley 
s5su\s appe>ance conjur$ =? 9 our m9ds  
on ! occasion ( ! =m]1 t ! latt] is ! m 
beautiful & m wor?y ( a div9e au?or4    
,fur!r1 ! conviction1 also held by      
,lotze1 t ! fundam5tal activities ( !   
m9d _c be def9$1 b only kn[n ?r\gh inn] 
exp]i5ce or imm$iate consci\sness 7he :o
 loves1 kn[s :at love is2 x is a p]     
consci5tiam et intimam exp]i5tiam       
notissima res72 ! praisewor?y attempt to
 give a sy/ematic arrangem5t1 accord+ to
 _! d]ivation f "o ano!r1 to ! innate   
ma!matical concepts1 :i* ,desc>tes _h   
simply co-ord9at$ 7! concept ( surface  
is ga9$ f ! concept ( body by ab/ract+ f
 ! ?ird dim5sion1 ?ickness--! act ( ?us 
ab/ract+ f c]ta9 p>ts ( ! cont5t (      
?\ght1 ,geul9cx t]ms consid]atio 9      
contra/ to cogitatio1 :i* includes !    

:ole cont5t72 &1 f9ally1 ! /ill m       
important inquiry1 :e!r x is possible = 
u to rea* a k ( ?+s indep5d5tly ( ! =ms 
( ! und]/&+1 z 9 pure ?\ght we /rip (f !
 fett]s ( s5se4 ,! possibility ( ?is is 
d5i$2 !re is no high] faculty ( k to act
 z judge ov] ! und]/&+1 z ! latt] ov] ! 
s5sibility1 & ev5 ! wise/ man _c free   
himself f ! =ms ( ?\ght 7categories1    
modi cogit&i74 ,& yet ! discussion ( !  
"q is n useless3 ! reason %\ld exam9e   
into ! unkn[able z well z ! kn[able2 x  
is only 9 ?is way t we le>n t x is      
unkn[able4 ,z ! highe/ =ms ( ?\ght      
,geul9cx names subject 7! empty concept 
( an exi/5t1 ens or quod e/7 & pr$icate 
7modus entis71 & d]ives !m f two        
fundam5tal activities ( ! m9d1 a comb9+ 
function 7simulsumtio1 totatio7 & an    
ab/ract+ function 7"o :i* removes ! nota
 subjecti74 ,sub/ance & accid5t1        
sub/antive & adjective1 are expressions 
= subjective processes ( ?\ght & h5ce d 
n hold ( ?+s 9 !mselves4 ,) ref]5ce to !
 importance1 nay1 to ! indisp5sability1 

( l+ui/ic signs 9 ! use ( ! und]/&+1 !  
sci5ce ( ! =ms ( ?\ght is briefly t]m$  
gramm>4  ,! pr9ciple ubi nihil vales1   
ibi nihil velis1 =ms ! connection betwe5
 ! occasionali/ic metaphysics & e?ics1 !
 latt] d$uc+ ! practical consequ5ces ( !
 =m]4 ,:]e ?\ can/ d no?+1 !re w no?+4  
,s9ce we c effect no?+ 9 ! mat]ial _w1  
to :i* we are relat$ m]ely z spectators1
 we ought also n to seek 9 x ! motives &
 objects ( our actions4 ,god1 does n    
require works1 b dispositions only1 = ! 
result ( our volition is beyond our p[]4
 ,our moral vocation1 !n1 consi/s 9     
r5unciation ( ! _w & retirem5t into     
ourselves1 & 9 pati5t fai?fulness at !  
po/ assign$ to u4 ,virtue is amor dei ac
 rationis1 self-r5\nc+1 active1 ob$i5t  
love to ,god & to ! reason z ! image &  
law ( ,god 9 u4 ,! c>d9al virtues are   
dilig5tia1 s$ul\s li/5+ = ! comm&s ( !  
reason2 ob$i5tia1 ! execution ( ^!      
ju/itia1 ! con=m+ ( ! :ole life to :at  
is p]ceiv$ to be "r2 f9ally1 humilitas1 
! recognition ( our impot5cy &          

self-r5unciation 7inspectio & despectio1
 or d]elictio1 neglectus1 contemptus1   
incuria sui74 ,! highe/ ( ^! is         
humility1 pi\s submission to ! div9e    
ord] ( ?+s2 its condition1 ! self-k     
comm5d$ 9 ! title ( ! ,e?ics2 ! primal  
evil1 self-love 7,philautia--ipsissimum 
peccatum74 ,man is unhappy because he   
seeks happ9ess4 ,happ9ess is l our      
%ad[s2 x %uns u :5 we pursue x1 x foll[s
 u :5 we flee f x4 ,! joys :i* spr+ f   
virtue are an adornm5t ( x1 n an        
enticem5t to x2 !y are its result1 n its
 aim4 ,! e?ics ( ,geul9cx1 :i* we _c    
fur!r trace out "h1 surprises "o by its 
approximation to ! views ( ,sp9oza & (  
,kant4 ,) ! =m] x has 9 common !        
pr9ciple ( love t[>d ,god1 z well z     
num]\s details2 ) ! latt]1 ! absolut5ess
 ( ! moral law 79 rebus moralibus       
absolute praecipit ratio aut vetat1     
nulla int]posita conditione72 ) bo? !   
depreciation ( sympa?y1 on ! gr\nd t x  
is a conceal$ egoi/ic motive4  ,! d5ial 
( sub/antiality to individual ?+s1      

br\ght 9 by ! occasionali/s1 is complet$
 by ,sp9oza1 :o boldly & logically      
proclaims pan!ism on ! basis (          
,c>tesianism & gives to ! div9e ,all-"o 
a naturali/ic in/ead ( a !ological "*4  
#b4 ,sp9oza4  ,b5$ictus 7orig9ally      
,b>u*7 de ,sp9oza sprang f a ,jewi%     
family ( ,portugal or ,spa91 :i* _h fl$ 
to ,holl& to escape p]secution at home4 
,he 0 born 9 ,am/]dam 9 #afcb2 taught by
 ! ,rabb9 ,morteira1 &1 9 ,lat91 by ,van
 d5 ,ende1 a free-?9k+ physician :o _h  
enjoy$ a philological tra9+2 & expell$  
by ana!ma f ! ,jewi% communion1 #afef1  
on acc\nt ( h]etical views4 ,dur+ ! next
 f\r ye>s he f\nd refuge at a fri5d's   
h\se 9 ! c\ntry ne> ,am/]dam1 aft] :i*  
he liv$ 9 ,rhynsburg1 & f #affd 9       
,voorburg1 mov+ !nce1 9 #affi1 to ,!    
,hague1 :]e he di$ 9 #afgg4 ,sp9oza liv$
 9 retirem5t & _h few wants2 he support$
 himself by gr9d+ optical glasses2 &1 9 
#afgc1 decl9$ ! pr(essor%ip at          
,heidelb]g (f]$ him by ,k>l ,ludwig1 !  
,elector ,palat9e1 because ( 8 love (   

quiet1 & on acc\nt ( ! unc]ta9ty ( !    
fre$om ( ?\ght :i* ! ,elector _h assur$ 
him4 ,sp9oza himself made b two         
treatises public3 8 dictations on ! fir/
 & second p>ts ( ,desc>tes's ,pr9cipia  
,philosophiae1 :i* _h be5 compos$ = a   
private pupil1 ) an app5dix1 ,cogitata  
,metaphysica1 #affc1 & ! ,tractatus     
,!ologico-,politicus1 publi%$ anonym\sly
 9 #afgj1 9 def5se ( lib]ty ( ?\ght & ! 
"r to unprejudic$ criticism ( ! biblical
 writ+s4 ,! pr9ciples express$ 9 ! latt]
 "w 7 condemn$ by all p>ties z          
sacrilegi\s & a!i/ic1 & awak5$ conc]n   
ev5 9 ! m9ds ( 8 fri5ds4 ,:51 9 #afge1  
,sp9oza j\rney$ to ,am/]dam ) ! int5tion
 ( giv+ 8 *ief "w1 ! ,e?ics1 to ! press1
 ! cl]gy & ! foll[]s ( ,desc>tes appli$ 
to ! gov]nm5t to =bid its issue4 ,soon  
aft] ,sp9oza's dea? x 0 publi%$ 9 !     
,op]a ,po/huma1 #afgg1 :i* 7 issu$ "u ! 
c>e ( ,h]mann ,s*ull]1#a ) a preface by 
,sp9oza's fri5d1 ! physician ,ludwig    
,mey]1 & :i* conta9$1 besides ! *ief "w1
 ?ree incomplete treatises 7,tractatus  

,politicus1 ,tractatus de ,intellectus  
,em5datione1 ,comp5dium ,grammatices    
,l+uae ,hebraeae7 & a collection (      
,lett]s by & to ,sp9oza4 ,! ,e?ica      
,ord9e ,geometrico ,demon/rata1 9 five  
p>ts1 treats 7#a7 ( ,god1 7#b7 ( !      
nature & orig9 ( ! m9d1 7#c7 ( ! nature 
& orig9 ( ! emotions1 7#d7 ( human      
bondage or ! /r5g? ( ! passions1 7#e7 ( 
! p[] ( ! reason or human fre$om4 ,x has
 become kn[n )9 rec5t times t ,sp9oza   
made a v e>ly sket* ( ! sy/em develop$ 9
 ! ,e?ics1 ! ,tractatus ,brevis de ,deo 
et ,hom9e ejusque ,felicitate1 ( :i* a  
,dut* translation 9 two copies 0        
discov]$1 ?\gh n ! orig9al ,lat9 text4  
,?is treatise 0 publi%$ by ,bhm]1 #aheb1
 9 exc]pts1 & complete by ,van ,vlot51  
#ahfb1 & by ,s*a>s*midt1 #ahfi4 ,x 0 n  
until our own c5tury1 & aft] ,jacobi's  
,ueb] die ,lehre des ,sp9oza 9 ,brief5  
an ,moses ,m5delssohn 7#aghe7 _h ar\s$ !
 long slumb]+ int]e/ 9 ?is mu*          
misund]/ood philosoph]1 :o has be5 (t5] 
despis$ ?an /udi$1 t complete editions (

 8 works 7 prep>$1 by ,paulus #ahjb-jc2 
,gfrr]1 #ahcj2 ,brud]1 #ahdc-df2 ,g9sb]g
 79 ,kir*mann's ,philosophis*e          
,biblio!k1 #d vols471 #ahge-hb2 & ,van  
,vlot5 & ,l&1#b #b vols41 #ahhb-hc4 ,b4 
,au]ba* has work$ ,sp9oza's life into a 
romantic novel1 ,sp9oza1 e9 ,d5k]leb51  
#ahcg2 #b;d ed41 #ahee ,engli%          
translation by ,c4,t4 ,brooks1 #ahhb4   
,footnote #a3 ,see ,l4 ,/e9 9 ! ,ar*iv  
fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 vol4 i41  
#ahhh1 p4 #eed seq4  ,footnote #b3 ,= ! 
lit]ature on ,sp9oza ! read] is ref]r$  
to ,ueb]weg & to ,van d] ,l9de's ,b4    
,sp9oza1 ,bibliografie1 #ahga2 :ile     
among rec5t works we %all m5tion only   
,cam]]'s ,die ,lehre ,sp9ozas1 ,/uttg>t1
 #ahgg4 ,an ,engli% translation ( ,!    
,*ief ,works ( ,sp9oza has be5 giv5 by  
,elwes1 #ahhc-hd2 a translation ( !     
,e?ics by ,:ite1 #ahhc2 & "o (          
selections f ! ,e?ics1 ) notes1 by      
,full]ton 9 ,snea?'s ,mod]n             
,philosoph]s1 #ahib4 ,among ! v>i\s     
works on ,sp9oza1 ! read] may be ref]r$ 

to ,pollock's ,sp9oza1 ,8 ,life &       
,times1 #ahhj 7) bibliography to same   
ye>72 ,m>t9eau's ,/udy ( ,sp9oza1 #ahhc2
 & ,j4 ,caird's ,sp9oza1 ,blackwood's   
,philosophical ,classics1 #ahhh4--,,tr4 
,we %all consid] ,sp9oza's sy/em z a    
complet$ :ole z x is giv5 9 ! ,e?ics2 = 
al?\gh x is int]e/+ = ! inve/igator to  
trace out ! developm5t ( 8 ?9k+ by      
comp>+ ?is *ief "w ) its =]unn] 7t      
,tractatus ,brevis conc]n+ ,god1 man1 & 
! happ9ess ( ! latt]1 ^: dialogi/ical   
portions we may surmise to h be5 !      
e>lie/ sket* ( ! ,sp9ozi/ic position1 & 
:i* 0 foll[$ by ! ,tractatus de         
,intellectus ,em5datione7 su* a proc$ure
 is n equally valuable = ! /ud5t4 ,9    
reg>d to ,sp9oza's relations to o!r     
?9k]s x _c be d\bt$1 s9ce ,freud5?al's#a
 pro(1 t he 0 dep5d5t to a l>ge degree  
on ! pr$om9ant philosophy ( ! s*ools1   
i4e4 on ! lat] ,s*ola/icism 7,su>ez#b71 
especially on its ,prote/ant side       
7,jacob ,m>t9i1 ,comba*ius1 ,s*eibl]1   
,burg]sdijck1 ,he]eboord72 ,desc>tes1 x 

is true1 felt ! same influ5ce4 ,jol1#c3 
,s*a>s*midt1 ,sigw>t1#d ,r4 ,av5>ius1#e 
& ,bhm]#f  h advanc$ ! view t ! s\rces (
 ,sp9oza's philosophy are n to be s\ght 
exclusively 9 ,c>tesianism1 b r t       
ess5tial elem5ts 7 tak5 f ! ,cabala1 f !
 ,jewi% ,s*ola/icism 7,maimonides1      
#aaij2 ,g]sonides1 di$ #acdd2 ,*asdai   
,crescas1 #adaj71 & f ,giordano ,bruno4 
,9 opposition to ?is ,kuno ,fis*] has   
def5d$1 & 9 ! ma9 successfully1 !       
proposition t ,sp9oza rea*$1 & mu/ h    
rea*$1 8 fundam5tal pan!ism by 8 own    
reflection z a developm5t ( ,desc>tes's 
pr9ciples4 ,! traces ( 8 e>ly ,talmudic 
education1 :i* h be5 notic$ 9 ,sp9oza's 
works1 prove no dep5d5ce ( 8 lead+ ideas
 on ,jewi% !ology4 ,8 pan!ism is        
di/+ui%$ f t ( ! ,cabali/s by its       
rejection ( ! doctr9e ( emanation1 & f  
,bruno's1 :i* nev]!less may h influ5c$  
him1 by its anti-teleological "*4 ,:5 ) 
,greek philosoph]s1 ,jewi% !ologians1 & 
! ,apo/le ,paul he tea*es ! imman5ce (  
,god 7,epi/4 #ba71 :5 ) ,maimonides &   

,crescas he tea*es love to ,god z !     
pr9cipal ( morality1 & ) ! latt] ( ^!1  
det]m9ism also1 x is n a necess>y       
consequ5ce t he d]iv$ ^! !ories f !m4 ,t
 :i* mo/ ( all sep>ates him f ! m$iaeval
 s*ola/ics ( 8 own p1 is 8 rationali/ic 
conviction t ,god c be kn[n4 ,8 agreem5t
 ) !m comes out mo/ cle>ly 9 !          
,tractatus ,!ologico-,politicus4 ,b ev5 
"h x holds only 9 reg>d to und]tak+ a   
g5]al criticism ( ! ,scriptures & to _! 
figurative int]pretation1 :ile1 on ! o!r
 h&1 ! dem& = a special hi/orical       
criticism1 & ! object :i* ) ,sp9oza 0 ! 
basis ( ! inve/igation z a :ole1 7 =eign
 to m$iaeval ,judaism--9 fact1 entirely 
mod]n & orig9al4 ,?is object 0 to make  
sci5ce indep5d5t ( religion1 ^: records 
& doctr9es are to edify ! m9d & to      
improve ! "*1 n to in/ruct ! und]/&+4   
,sp9oza c\ld n h le>n$ ! complete       
sep>ation ( religion & sci5ce f ,jewi%  
lit]ature2 ?is 0 a t5d5cy :i* sprang f !
 _s ( 8 own "t 7,w9delb&1 ,ges*i*te d]  
neu]5 ,philosophie1 vol4 i4 p4 #aid74   

,footnote #a3 ,j4 ,freud5?al1 ,sp9oza   
und die ,s*ola/ik 9 ! ,philosophis*e    
,aufstze1 ,zell] zum #ej-;,jhrig5       
,doktorjubilum gewidmet1 ,leipsic1      
#ahhg1 p4 #he seq4 ,freud5?al's pro(    
cov]s ! ,cogitata ,metaphysica & _m ( ! 
pr9cipal propositions ( ! ,e?ics4       
,footnote #b3 ,! ,spani% ,jesuit1       
,francis ,su>ez1 liv$ #aedh-afag4       
,works1 ,v5ice1 #agad ,cf4 ,k>l ,w]n]1  
,su>ez und die ,s*ola/ik d] letzt5      
,jahrhund]te1 ,reg5sburg1 #ahfa4        
,footnote #c3 ,m4 ,jol1 ,don ,*asdai    
,crescas' religions-philosophis*e ,lehr5
 9 ihrem ges*i*tli*5 ,e9fluss1 #ahff2   
,sp9ozas ,!o4-pel4 ,traktat auf se9e    
,quell5 geprft1 #ahgj2 ,zur ,g5esis d]  
,lehre ,sp9ozas mit besond]]            
,b]cksi*tigung des kurz5 ,traktats1     
#ahga4  ,footnote #d3 ,sp9ozas neu      
entdeckt] ,traktat elut]t u4 s4 w41     
#ahff2 ,sp9ozas kurz] ,traktat b]setzt  
mit ,e9leitung5 und ,erlut]ung51 #ahgj4 
,footnote #e3 ,ueb] die beid5 er/5      
,phas5 des ,sp9ozi/is*5 ,pan!ismus und  

das ,v]hltniss d] zweit5 zur dritt5     
,phase1 #ahfh4  ,footnote #f3 ,sp9ozana 
9 ,fi*te's ,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie  
vols4 xxxvi41 xlii41 lvii41 #ahfj-gj4   
,! logical presuppositions ( ,sp9oza's  
philosophy lie 9 ! fundam5tal ideas (   
,desc>tes1 :i* ,sp9oza acc5tuates1      
trans=ms1 & adopts4 ,?ree pairs ( ?\ghts
 captivate him & incite him to ?9k !m   
?r\gh3 fir/1 ! rationali/ic belief 9 !  
p[] ( ! human _s to possess itself ( !  
tru? by pure ?\ght1 toge!r ) confid5ce 9
 ! omnipot5ce ( ! ma!matical me?od2     
second1 ! concept ( sub/ance1 toge!r ) !
 dualism ( ext5sion & ?\ght2 f9ally1 !  
fundam5tal me*anical position1 toge!r ) 
! impossibility ( int]action betwe5     
matt] & _s1 held 9 common ) !           
occasionali/s1 b rea*$ indep5d5tly ( !m4
 ,:atev] new elem5ts are add$ 7e4 g41 ! 
trans=mation ( ! ,deity f a m]e aid to k
 into its mo/ important1 nay1 its only  
object2 z1 also1 ! en?usia/ic1 directly 
my/ical devotion to ! all-embrac+       
_w-gr\nd7 are ( an ess5tially emotional 

nature1 & to be ref]r$ less to hi/orical
 influ5ces ?an to ! individuality ( !   
?9k]4 ,! div]g5ces f 8 pr$ecessors1     
h[ev]1 especially ! ext5sion ( me*anism 
to m5tal ph5om5a & ! d5ial ( ! fre$om ( 
! w1 insep>able f ?is1 result simply f !
 m consi/5t application ( ,c>tesian     
pr9ciples4 ,sp9oza is n an inv5tive1    
impulsive _s1 l ,desc>tes & ,leibnitz1 b
 a sy/ematic "o2 8 /r5g? does n lie 9   
brilliant inspirations1 b 9 ! p[] (     
resolutely ?9k+ a ?+ ?r\gh2 n 9 fla%es (
 ?\ght1 b 9 /rictly clos$ circles (     
?\ght4 ,he develops1 b ) g5ius1 & to !  
end4 ,nev]!less ?is consecutiv5ess (    
,sp9oza1 ! praises ( :i* h be5 unceas+ly
 sung by g5]ations s9ce 8 day1 has its  
limits4 ,x holds = ! unwav]+ developm5t 
( c]ta9 pr9ciples d]iv$ f ,desc>tes1 b n
 ) equal /rictness = ! int]-connection (
 ! sev]al l9es ( ?\ght foll[$ out       
sep>ately4 ,8 v cu/om ( develop+ a      
pr9ciple /raight on to its ultimate     
consequ5ces1 )\t reg>d to ! ne$s ( !    
he>t or to logical dem&s f o!r          

directions1 make x impossible = !       
results ( ! v>i\s l9es ( ?\ght to be    
!mselves 9 h>mony2 8 v]tical consi/5cy  
prev5ts horizontal consi/5cy4 ,if !     
orig9al t5d5cies come into conflict 7!  
consci\sly held !oretical pr9ciples into
 conflict ) "o ano!r1 or ) hidd5        
ae/hetic or moral pr9ciples71 ei!r "o   
ga9s ! victory ov] ! o!r or bo? insi/ on
 _! claims2 ?us we h inconsi/5cies 9 !  
"o case1 & contradictions 9 ! o!r       
7examples ( :i* h be5 %[n by ,volkelt 9 
8 maid5 "w1 ,pan!ismus und              
,individualismus im ,sy/eme ,sp9ozas1   
#ahgb74 ,sci5ce dem&s unifi$            
compreh5sion ( ! giv51 & seeks ! smalle/
 numb] ( pr9ciples possible2 b h]       
concepts prove too n>r[ vessels = ! ri* 
pl5itude ( reality4 ,he :o asks f       
philosophy m ?an m]e special inquiries  
f9ds himself confront$ by two           
possibilities3 fir/1 />t+ f "o /&po9t1  
or a few su*1 he may foll[ a direct     
c\rse )\t look+ to "r or left1 at ! risk
 t 9 8 ?\ght-calculus great sph]es (    

life w be :olly left out ( view1 or1 at 
lea/1 w n receive due consid]ation2 or1 
second1 beg9n+ f _m po9ts ( dep>ture &  
asc5d+ along conv]g+ l9es1 he may seek a
 unify+ conclusion4 ,9 ,sp9oza we       
possess ! mo/ brilliant example ( ! =m] 
"o-sid$1 logically consecutive p[] (    
7also1 no d\bt1 viol5ce 97 ?\ght1 :ile  
,leibnitz furni%es ! type ( ! _m-sid$1  
h>moni/ic ?9k+4 ,! fact t ev5 ! rigor\s 
,sp9oza is n infrequ5tly =c$ out ( !    
/rict l9e ( consi/5cy1 proves t ! man 0 
m _m-sid$ ?an ! ?9k] w\ld h all[$       
himself to be4  ,to beg9 ) ! =mal side (
 ,sp9ozism3 ! rationalism ( ,desc>tes is
 height5$ by ,sp9oza into ! impos+      
confid5ce t absolutely ev]y?+ is        
cognizable by ! reason1 t ! intellect is
 able by its pure concepts & intuitions 
entirely to exhau/ ! multi=m _w (       
reality1 to foll[ x ) its light into its
 la/ refuge4#a ,sp9oza is j z mu* 9     
e>ne/ 9 reg>d to ! typical "* (         
ma!matics4 ,desc>tes 7) ! exception ( an
 example ask$ = 9 ! second ( !          

,objections1 & giv5 z an app5dix to !   
,m$itations1 9 :i* he endeavors to      
demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( ,god & !         
di/9ction ( body & _s on ! syn!tic      
,euclidean me?od71 _h avail$ himself ( !
 analytic =m ( pres5tation1 on ! gr\nd  
t1 ?\gh less cog5t1 x is m suit$ =      
in/ruction s9ce x %[s ! way by :i* !    
matt] has be5 discov]$4 ,sp9oza1 on !   
o!r h&1 rigor\sly c>ri$ out !           
geometrical me?od1 ev5 9 ext]nals4 ,he  
beg9s ) def9itions1 adds to ^! axioms   
7or po/ulates71 foll[s ) propositions or
 !orems z ! *ief ?+1 f9ally )           
demon/rations or pro(s1 :i* d]ive ! lat]
 propositions f ! e>li]1 & ^! 9 turn f !
 self-evid5t axioms4 ,to ^! f\r pr9cipal
 p>ts are fur!r add$ z less ess5tial1   
d$uctions or coroll>ies imm$iately      
result+ f ! !orems1 & ! m detail$       
expositions ( ! demon/rations or s*olia4
 ,besides ^!1 "s long] discussions are  
giv5 9 ! =m ( rem>ks1 introductions1 &  
app5dices4  ,footnote #a3 ,heussl]'s    
objections 7,d] ,rationalismus des #ag  

,jahrhund]ts1 #ahhe1 pp4 #hb-he7 to ?is 
*>act]ization ( ,kuno ,fis*]'s are n    
conv9c+4 ,! "q is n s mu* ab\t a        
pr9ciple demon/rable by def9ite         
citations z ab\t an unconsci\s motive 9 
,sp9oza's ?9k+4 ,fis*]'s views on ?is   
po9t seem to u correct4 ,sp9oza's mode (
 ?9k+ is1 9 fact1 saturat$ ) ?is /rong  
confid5ce 9 ! omnipot5ce ( ! reason & ! 
rational con/itution ( true reality4    
,if ev]y?+ is to be cognizable ?r\gh    
ma!matics1 !n ev]y?+ mu/ take place     
necess>ily2 ev5 ! ?\ghts1 resolutions1 &
 actions ( man _c be free 9 ! s5se t !y 
might h happ5$ o!rwise4 ,?us !re is an  
evid5t me?odological motive at "w = !   
ext5sion ( me*anism to all becom+1 ev5  
spiritual becom+4 ,b !re are            
metaphysical reasons also4 ,desc>tes _h 
navely solv$ ! an?ropological problem by
 ! answ] t ! int]action ( m9d & body is 
incompreh5sible b actual4 ,!            
occasionali/s _h hesitat+ly que/ion$ ^! 
conclusions a little1 !                 
incompreh5sibility z well z ! actuality1

 only at la/ to leave !m intact4 ,= !   
explanation t !re is a real influ5ce (  
body on m9d & vice v]sa1 ?\gh n an      
imm$iate b an occasional "o1 "o m$iat$  
by ! div9e w1 is sc>cely m ?an a        
confession t ! matt] is inexplicable4   
,sp9oza1 :o admits nei!r !              
incognizability ( any?+ real1 nor any   
sup]natural int]f]5ces1 r\ndly d5ies    
bo?4 ,!re is no int]c\rse betwe5 body & 
s\l2 yet t :i* is errone\sly consid]$   
su* is bo? actually pres5t & explicable4
 ,! assum$ int]action is z unnecess>y z 
x is impossible4 ,body & s\l d n ne$ to 
act on "o ano!r1 because !y are n two 9 
k9d at all1 b con/itute "o be+ :i* may  
be look$ at f two diff]5t sides4 ,?is is
 call$ body :5 consid]$ "u its attribute
 ( ext5sion1 & _s :5 consid]$ "u its    
attribute ( ?\ght4 ,x is q impossible = 
two sub/ances to affect ea* o!r1 because
 by _! reciprocal influ5ce1 nay1 by _! v
 duality1 !y w\ld lose _! indep5d5ce1 &1
 ) ?is1 _! sub/antiality4 ,!re is no    
plurality ( sub/ances1 b only "o1 !     

inf9ite1 ! div9e sub/ance4 ,"h we rea* !
 c5t] ( ! sy/em4 ,!re is b "o becom+ & b
 "o indep5d5t1 sub/antial be+4 ,mat]ial 
& spiritual becom+ =m m]ely ! two sides 
( "o & ! same necess>y _w-process2      
p>ticul> ext5d$ be+s & p>ticul> ?9k+    
be+s are no?+ b ! *angeable & transitory
 /ates 7modi7 ( ! endur+1 et]nal1 unifi$
 _w-gr\nd4 ,necessity 9 becom+ & unity (
 be+1 me*anism & pan!ism--^! are !      
controll+ conceptions 9 ,sp9oza's       
doctr9e4 ,multiplicity1 ! self-dep5d5ce 
( p>ticul> ?+s1 free *oice1 ends1       
developm5t1 all ?is is illusion & error4
  7a7 ,sub/ance1 ,attributes1 &         
,modes4--,!re is b "o sub/ance1 & ?is is
 inf9ite 7,i4 prop4 #aj1 s*ol2 prop4    
#ad1 cor4 #a74 ,:y1 !n1 only "o & :y    
inf9ite8 ,) ,sp9oza z ) ,desc>tes       
indep5d5ce is ! ess5ce ( sub/antiality4 
,?is is express$ 9 ! ?ird def9ition3 ,by
 sub/ance ,i und]/& t :i* is 9 itself & 
is conceiv$ by means ( itself1 i4e41 t !
 conception ( :i* c be =m$ )\t ! aid ( !
 conception ( any o!r ?+4 ,p] sub/antiam

 intelligo id1 quod 9 se e/ et p] se    
concipitur2 hoc e/ id1 cujus conceptus  
non indiget conceptu alt]ius rei1 a quo 
=m>i debeat4 ,an absolutely self-dep5d5t
 be+ c nei!r be limit$ 7s9ce1 9 respect 
to its limits1 x w\ld be dep5d5t on !   
limit+ be+71 nor occur m ?an once 9 !   
_w4 ,inf9ity foll[s f its self-dep5d5ce1
 & its uniqu5ess f its inf9ity4         
,sub/ance is ! be+ :i* is dep5d5t on    
no?+ & on :i* ev]y?+ dep5ds2 :i*1 itself
 uncaus$1 effects all else2 :i*         
presupposes no?+1 b itself con/itutes ! 
presupposition ( all t is3 x is pure    
be+1 primal be+1 ! cause ( itself & (   
all4 ,?us 9 ,sp9oza ! be+ :i* is )\t    
presuppositions is br\ght into ! mo/    
intimate relation ) ! fullness ( multi=m
 exi/5ce1 n coldly & ab/ractly exalt$   
above x1 z by ! anci5t ,eleatics4       
,sub/ance is ! be+ 9 7n above7 ?+s1 t 9 
!m :i* con/itutes _! reality1 :i*       
supports & produces !m4 ,z ! cause ( all
 ?+s ,sp9oza calls x ,god1 al?\gh he is 
consci\s t he und]/&s by ! t]m some?+ q 

diff]5t f ! ,*ri/ians4 ,god does n mean 
= him a transc5d5t1 p]sonal _s1 b only !
 ens absolute inf9itum 7def4 sexta71 !  
ess5tial he>t ( ?+s3 ,deus sive         
sub/antia4  ,h[ d ?+s proce$ f ,god8    
,nei!r by creation nor by emanation4 ,he
 does n put !m =? f himself1 !y d n te> 
!mselves free f him1 b !y foll[ out ( ! 
necess>y nature ( ,god1 z x foll[s f !  
nature ( ! triangle t ! sum ( its angles
 is equal to two "r angles 7,i4 prop4   
#ag1 s*ol474 ,!y d n come out f him1 b  
rema9 9 him2 j ?is fact t !y are 9      
ano!r1 9 ,god1 con/itutes _! lack (     
self-dep5d5ce 7,i4 prop4 #ah1 dem43     
nulla res1 quae extra ,deum 9 se sit74  
,god is _! inn]1 indwell+ cause 7causa  
imman5s1 non v]o transi5s4--,i4 prop4   
#ah71 is n a transc5d5t creator1 b      
natura naturans1 ov] aga9/ ! sum ( f9ite
 be+s1 natura naturata 7,i4 prop4 #bi1  
s*ol473 ,deus sive natura4  ,s9ce no?+  
exi/s out ( ,god1 8 actions d n foll[ f 
ext]nal necessity1 are n con/ra9$1 b he 
is free cause1 free 9 ! s5se t he does  

no?+ except t t[>d :i* 8 own nature     
impels him1 t he acts 9 accordance ) !  
laws ( 8 be+ 7def4 septima3 ea res lib]a
 dicitur1 quae ex sola suae naturae     
necessitate exi/it et a se sola ad      
ag5dum det]m9atur2 ,epi/4 #bf74 ,?is    
inn] necessitation is s little a defect 
t its direct opposite1 undet]m9$ *oice &
 incon/ancy1 mu/ r be exclud$ f ,god z  
an imp]fection4 ,fre$om & 7inn]7        
necessity are id5tical2 & anti!tical1 on
 ! "o side1 to undet]m9$ *oice &1 on !  
o!r1 to 7ext]nal7 compulsion4 ,action 9 
view ( ends mu/ also be d5i$ ( !        
inf9ite2 to ?9k ( ,god z act+ 9 ord] to 
! good is to make him dep5d5t on some?+ 
ext]nal to him 7an aim7 & lack+ 9 t :i* 
is to be atta9$ by ! action4 ,) ,god !  
gr\nd ( 8 action is ! same z ! gr\nd ( 8
 exi/5ce2 ,god's p[] & 8 ess5ce co9cide 
7,i4 prop4 #cd3 ,dei pot5tia e/ ipsa    
ipsius ess5tia74 ,he is ! cause (       
himself 7def4 prima3 p] causam sui      
intelligo id1 cujus ess5tia involvit    
exi/5tiam1 sive id1 cujus natura non    

pote/ concipi nisi exi/5s72 x w\ld be a 
contradiction to hold t be+ 0 n1 t ,god1
 or sub/ance1 did n exi/2 he _c be ?\ght
 o!rwise ?an z exi/+2 8 concept includes
 8 exi/5ce4 ,to be self-caus$ means to  
exi/ necess>ily 7,i4 prop4 #g74 ,! same 
?+ is d5ot$ by ! pr$icate et]nal1 :i*1  
accord+ to ! eigh? def9ition1 d5otes    
exi/5ce itself1 9 s f> z x is conceiv$  
to foll[ necess>ily f ! m]e def9ition ( 
! et]nal ?+4  ,! inf9ite sub/ance /&s   
relat$ to f9ite1 individual ?+s1 n only 
z ! indep5d5t to ! dep5d5t1 z ! cause to
 ! caus$1 z ! "o to ! _m1 & ! :ole to ! 
p>ts1 b also z ! univ]sal to ! p>ticul>1
 ! indet]m9ate to ! det]m9ate4 ,f       
inf9ite be+ z pure affirmation 7,i4     
prop4 #h1 s*ol4 ,i3 absoluta affirmatio7
 ev]y?+ :i* conta9s a limitation or     
negation1 & ?is includes e p>ticul>     
det]m9ation1 mu/ be kept at a di/ance3  
det]m9atio negatio e/ 7,epi/4 #ej & #da3
 a det]m9ation d5otes no?+ positive1 b a
 deprivation1 a lack ( exi/5ce2 relates 
n to ! be+ b to ! non-be+ ( ! ?+74 ,a   

det]m9ation /ates t :i* di/+ui%es "o ?+ 
f ano!r1 h5ce :at x is n1 expresses a   
limitation ( x4 ,consequ5tly ,god1 :o is
 free f e negation & limitation1 is to  
be conceiv$ z ! absolutely indet]m9ate4 
,! results ?us f> rea*$ run3 ,sub/antia 
una inf9ita--,deus sive natura--causa   
sui 7aet]na7 et r]um 7imman5s7--lib]a   
necessitas--non det]m9ata4 ,or m        
briefly3 ,sub/ance  ,god  nature4 ,!    
equation ( ,god & sub/ance _h be5       
ann\nc$ by ,desc>tes1 b n adh]$ to1 :ile
 ,bruno _h approa*$ ! equation ( ,god & 
nature--,sp9oza decisively completes bo?
 & comb9es !m4  ,a fur!r rem>k may be   
add$ conc]n+ ! relation ( ,god & ! _w4  
,9 call+ ! inf9ite at once ! p]man5t    
ess5ce ( ?+s & _! produc+ cause1 ,sp9oza
 raises a dem& :i* x is n easy to       
fulfill1 ! dem& to ?9k ! exi/5ce ( ?+s 9
 sub/ance z a foll[+ f sub/ance1 & _!   
procession f ,god z a rema9+ 9 him4 ,he 
ref]s u to ma!matics3 ! ?+s :i* make up 
! _w are relat$ to ,god z ! prop]ties ( 
a geometrical figure to its concepts1 z 

!orems to ! axiom1 z ! d$uction to !    
pr9ciple1 :i* f et]nity conta9s all t   
foll[s f x & reta9s ?is ev5 :ile putt+ x
 =?4 ,x _c be d\bt$ t su* a view (      
causality conta9s error1--x has be5     
*>act]iz$ z a confusion ( ratio & causa1
 ( logical gr\nd & real cause1--b x is j
 z c]ta9 t ,sp9oza committ$ x4 ,he n    
only comp>es ! dep5d5ce ( ! effect on   
its cause to ! dep5d5ce ( a d]ivative   
pr9ciple on t f :i* x is d]iv$1 b fully 
equates ! two2 he ?9ks t 9              
logico-ma!matical consequ5ces he has    
grasp$ ! ess5ce ( real effects3 = him ! 
type ( all legality1 z also ( real      
becom+1 0 ! necessity :i* gov]ns !      
sequ5ce ( ma!matical tru?s1 & :i*1 on ! 
"o h&1 is ev5 & /ill1 ne$+ no special   
ex]tion ( volitional en]gy1 :ile1 on !  
o!r1 x is rigid & unyield+1 exalt$ above
 all *oice4 ,philosophy _h s\ght !      
assi/ance ( ma!matics because ( !       
cle>ness & c]ta9ty :i* di/+ui% !        
conclusions ( ! latt]1 & :i* %e wi%$ to 
obta9 = h] own4 ,9 excess ( zeal %e 0 n 

cont5t ) /riv+ aft] ?is ideal (         
indefectible c]titude1 b1 =gett+ !      
div]sity ( ! two fields1 /rove to       
imitate o!r qualities :i* are n         
transf]able2 in/ead ( le>n+ f ma!matics 
%e became subs]vi5t to x4  ,sub/ance    
does n affect u by its m]e exi/5ce1 b   
?r\gh an ,attribute4 ,by attribute is   
meant1 accord+ to ! f\r? def9ition1 t   
:i* ! und]/&+ p]ceives ( sub/ance z     
con/itut+ ! ess5ce ( x 7quod intellectus
 de sub/antia p]cipit1 tanquam ejusdem  
ess5tiam con/itu5s74 ,! m reality a     
sub/ance conta9s1 ! m attributes x has2 
consequ5tly inf9ite sub/ance possesses  
an inf9ite numb]1 ea* ( :i* gives       
expression to its ess5ce1 b ( :i* two   
only fall )9 our k4 ,among ! innum]able 
div9e attributes ! human m9d kn[s ^?    
only :i* x f9ds 9 itself1 ?\ght &       
ext5sion4 ,al?\gh man beholds ,god only 
z ?9k+ & ext5d$ sub/ance1 he yet has a  
cle> & complete2 an adequate--idea (    
,god4 ,s9ce ea* ( ! two attributes is   
conceiv$ )\t ! o!r1 h5ce 9 itself 7p]   

se71 !y are di/9ct f ea* o!r realit]1 & 
indep5d5t4 ,god is absolutely inf9ite1 !
 attributes only 9 _! k9d 79 suo g5]e74 
,h[ c ! indet]m9ate possess prop]ties8  
,are ! attributes m]ely ascrib$ to      
sub/ance by ! und]/&+1 or d !y possess  
reality ap>t f ! kn[+ subject8 ,?is "q  
has giv5 rise to mu* debate4 ,accord+ to
 ,hegel & ,ed4 ,erdmann ! attributes are
 some?+ ext]nal to sub/ance1 some?+     
br\ght into x by ! und]/&+1 =ms ( k     
pres5t 9 ! behold] alone2 sub/ance      
itself is nei!r ext5d$ nor cogitative1 b
 m]ely appe>s to ! und]/&+ "u ^!        
det]m9ations1 )\t :i* ! latt] w\ld be   
unable to cognize x4 ,?is =mali/ic      
int]pretation1 :i*1 rely+ on a passage 9
 a lett] to ,de ,vries 7,epi/4 #bg71    
expla9s ! attributes z m]e modes (      
intellectual appreh5sion1 numb]s ,kuno  
,fis*] among its oppon5ts4 ,z ! "o p>ty 
holds to ! fir/ half ( ! def9ition1 !   
o!r places ! emphasis on ! second half  
7t :i* ! und]/&+ p]ceives--z con/itut+ !
 ess5ce ( sub/ance74 ,! attributes are m

 ?an m]e modes ( repres5tation--!y are  
real prop]ties1 :i* sub/ance possesses  
ev5 ap>t f an obs]v]1 nay1 9 :i* x      
consi/s2 9 ,sp9oza1 moreov]1 mu/ be     
conceiv$ is ! equival5t ( to be4 ,al?\gh
 ?is latt] reali/ic p>ty und\bt$ly has !
 advantage ov] ! =m]1 :i* reads into    
,sp9oza a subjectivism =eign to 8 sy/em1
 !y ought n to =get t ! diff]5ce 9      
int]pretation has = its basis a conflict
 among ! motives :i* control ,sp9oza's  
?9k+4 ,! ref]5ce ( ! attributes to !    
und]/&+1 giv5 9 ! def9ition1 is n )\t   
significance4 ,x sprang f ! wi% n to m> 
! indet]m9at5ess ( ! absolute by !      
opposition ( ! attributes1 :ile1 on !   
o!r h&1 an equally press+ ne$ = !       
cons]vation ( ! imman5ce ( sub/ance     
=bade a bold transf] ( ! attributes to !
 obs]v]4 ,! real op9ion ( ,sp9oza is    
nei!r s cle> & free f contradictions1   
nor s "o-sid$1 z t :i* 8 int]pret]s     
ascribe to him4 ,fis*]'s fur!r          
int]pretation ( ! attributes ( ,god z 8 
p[]s is t5able1 s long z by causa &     

pot5tia we und]/& no?+ m ?an !          
irresi/ible1 b non-k9etic1 =ce ) :i* an 
orig9al tru? e/abli%es or effects ^? :i*
 foll[ f x4  ,z ! dualism ( ext5sion &  
?\ght is r$uc$ f a sub/antial to an     
attributive di/9ction1 s individual     
bodies & m9ds1 motions & ?\ghts1 are    
degrad$ a /age fur!r4 ,individual ?+s   
lack indep5d5ce ( e sort4 ,! individual 
is1 z a det]m9ate f9ite ?+1 burd5$ )    
negation & limitation1 = e det]m9ation  
includes a negation2 t :i* is truly real
 9 ! individual is ,god4 ,f9ite ?+s are 
modi ( ! inf9ite sub/ance1 m]e /ates1   
v>iable /ates1 ( ,god4 ,by !mselves !y  
are no?+1 s9ce out ( ,god no?+ exi/s4   
,!y possess exi/5ce only 9 s f> z !y are
 conceiv$ 9 _! connection ) ! inf9ite1 t
 is1 z transitory =ms ( ! un*angeable   
sub/ance4 ,!y are n 9 !mselves1 b 9     
ano!r1 9 ,god1 & are conceiv$ only 9    
,god4 ,!y are m]e affections ( ! div9e  
attributes1 & mu/ be consid]$ z su*4    
,to ! two attributes correspond two     
classes ( modes4 ,! mo/ important       

modifications ( ext5sion are re/ &      
motion4 ,among ! modes ( ?\ght are      
und]/&+ & w4 ,^! belong 9 ! sph]e (     
det]m9ate & transitory be+ & d n hold ( 
! natura naturans3 ,god is exalt$ above 
all modality1 above w & und]/&+1 z above
 motion & re/4 ,we mu/ n ass]t ( !      
natura naturata 7! _w z ! sum ( all     
modes71 z ( ! natura naturans1 t its    
ess5ce involves exi/5ce 7,i4 prop4 #bd73
 we c conceive f9ite ?+s z non-exi/5t1 z
 well z exi/5t 7,epi/4 #bi74 ,?is       
con/itutes _! cont+5cy1 :i* mu/ by no   
means be int]pret$ z lawlessness4 ,on ! 
contr>y1 all t takes place 9 ! _w is mo/
 rigor\sly det]m9$2 e individual1 f9ite1
 det]m9ate ?+ & ev5t is det]m9$ to its  
exi/5ce & action by ano!r simil>ly f9ite
 & det]m9ate ?+ or ev5t1 & ?is cause is1
 9 turn1 det]m9$ 9 its exi/5ce & action 
by a fur!r f9ite mode1 & s on to inf9ity
 7,i4 prop4 #bh74 ,because ( ?is        
endlessness 9 ! s]ies !re is no fir/ or 
ultimate cause 9 ! ph5om5al _w2 all     
f9ite causes are second causes2 ! prim>y

 cause lies )9 ! sph]e ( ! inf9ite & is 
,god himself4 ,! modes are all subject  
to ! con/ra9t ( an unbrok5 & endless    
nexus ( effici5t causes1 :i* leaves room
 nei!r = *ance1 nor *oice1 nor ends4    
,no?+ c be or happ5 o!rwise ?an z x is &
 happ5s 7,i4 prop4 #bi1 #cc74  ,! causal
 *a9 appe>s 9 two =ms3 a mode ( ext5sion
 has its produc+ gr\nd 9 a second mode (
 ext5sion2 a mode ( ?\ght c be caus$    
only by ano!r mode ( ?\ght--ea*         
individual ?+ is det]m9$ by "o ( its own
 k9d4 ,! two s]ies proce$ side by side1 
)\t a memb] ( ei!r ev] be+ able to      
int]f]e 9 ! o!r or to effect any?+ 9    
x--a motion c nev] produce any?+ b o!r  
motions1 an idea c result only 9 o!r    
ideas2 ! body c nev] det]m9e ! m9d to an
 idea1 nor ! s\l ! body to a movem5t4   
,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ext5sion & ?\ght are n two
 sub/ances1 b attributes ( "o sub/ance1 
?is app>5tly d\ble causal nexus ( two   
s]ies proce$+ 9 exact correspond5ce is1 
9 reality1 b a s+le "o4 7,,iii4 prop4   
#b1 s*ol47 view$ f diff]5t sides4 ,t :i*

 repres5ts a *a9 ( motions :5 se5 f !   
side ( ext5sion1 be>s ! aspect ( a s]ies
 ( ideas f ! side ( ?\ght4 ,modus       
ext5sionis et idea illius modi una      
cademque e/ res1 s$ duobus modis        
expressa 7,,ii4 prop4 #g1 s*ol42 cf4    
,,iii4 prop4 #b1 s*ol474 ,! s\l is no?+ 
b ! idea ( an actual body1 body or      
motion no?+ b ! object or ev5t 9 ! sph]e
 ( ext5d$ actuality correspond+ to an   
idea4 ,no idea exi/s )\t some?+         
corporeal correspond+ to x1 no body1 )\t
 at ! same "t exi/+ z idea1 or be+      
conceiv$2 9 o!r words1 ev]y?+ is bo?    
body & _s1 all ?+s are animat$ 7,,ii4   
prop4 #ac1 s*ol474 ,?us ! fam\s         
proposition results2 ,ordo et connexio  
ide>um idem e/ ac ordo et connexio r]um 
7sive corporum2 ,,ii4 prop4 #g71 & 9    
application to man1 ! ord] ( ! actions &
 passions ( our body is simultane\s 9   
nature ) ! ord] ( ! actions & passions (
 ! m9d 7,,iii4 prop4 #b1 s*ol474  ,!    
attempt to solve ! problem ( ! relation 
betwe5 ! mat]ial & ! m5tal worlds by    

ass]t+ _! ?or\ghgo+ correspond5ce &     
sub/antial id5tity1 0 philosophically   
ju/ifiable & important1 ?\gh _m evid5t  
objections obtrude !mselves ^u u4 ,!    
requir$ assumption1 t !re is a m5tal    
ev5t correspond+ to e bodily "o1 & vice 
v]sa1 meets ) involunt>y & easily       
support$ opposition1 :i* ,sp9oza did    
no?+ to remove4 ,simil>ly he omitt$ to  
expla9 h[ body is relat$ to motion1 m9d 
to ideas1 & bo? to actuality4 ,!        
ascription ( a mat]iali/ic t5d5cy to    
,sp9oza is n )\t f\ndation4             
,corporeality & reality appe> well-nigh 
id5tical = him1--! expressions corpora &
 res are us$ synonym\sly1--s t !re      
rema9s = m9ds & ideas only an exi/5ce z 
reflections ( ! real 9 ! sph]e ( an     
ideality 7^: degree ( actuality x is    
difficult to det]m9e74 ,moreov]1        
individuali/ic impulses h be5 po9t$ out1
 :i*1 9 "p1 conflict ) ! monism :i* he  
consci\sly foll[s1 &1 9 "p1 subs]ve its 
int]e/s4 ,an example ( ?is is giv5 9 !  
relation ( m9d & idea3 ,sp9oza treats ! 

s\l z a sum ( ideas1 z consi/+ 9 !m4 ,an
 7at lea/ app>5tly sub/antial7 bond     
among ideas1 an ego1 :i* possesses !m1  
does n exi/ = him3 ! ,c>tesian cogito   
has become an imp]sonal cogitatur or a  
,deus cogitat4 ,9 ord] to ! unique      
sub/antiality ( ! inf9ite1 !            
sub/antiality ( individual spirits mu/  
disappe>4 ,t :i* argues = ! latt] is _! 
,i-ness 7,i*heit71 ! unity (            
self-consci\sness2 x is de/roy$1 if !   
m9d is a cong]ies ( ideas1 a composite (
 !m4 ,?us 9 ord] to relieve itself f !  
self-dep5d5ce ( ! individual m9d1 monism
 allies itself ) a spiritual atomism1 ! 
mo/ extreme :i* c be conceiv$4 ,! m9d is
 resolv$ into a mass ( individual ideas4
  ,m5tion may be made 9 pass+1 also1 ( a
 /range conception1 :i* is some:at out (
 h>mony ) ! re/ ( ! sy/em1 & ( :i*1     
moreov]1 little use is made4 ,?is is !  
conception ( inf9ite modes4 ,z su* are  
cit$1 facies totius mundi1 motus et     
quies1 intellectus absolute inf9itus4   
,kuno ,fis*]'s int]pretation ( ?is      

difficult conception may be accept$4 ,x 
d5otes1 accord+ to him1 ! connect$ sum (
 ! modes1 ! itself non-f9ite sum total (
 ! f9ite--! univ]se mean+ ! totality (  
individual ?+s 9 g5]al 7)\t ref]5ce to  
_! nature z ext5d$ or cogitative72 re/ &
 motion1 ! totality ( mat]ial be+2 !    
absolutely inf9ite und]/&+1 ! totality (
 spiritual be+ or ! ideas4 ,individual  
spirits toge!r con/itute1 z x 71 !      
inf9ite intellect2 our m9d is a "p ( !  
div9e und]/&+1 yet n 9 su* a s5se t !   
:ole consi/s ( ! p>ts1 b t ! "p exi/s   
only ?r\gh ! :ole4 ,:5 we say1 ! human  
m9d p]ceives ?is or t1 x is equival5t to
 say+ t ,god--n 9 s f> z he is inf9ite1 
b z he expresses himself 9 ?is human m9d
 & con/itutes its ess5ce--has ?is or t  
idea 7,,ii4 prop4 ,,ii1 coroll74  ,!    
discussion ( ^! ?ree fundam5tal concepts
 exhau/s all ! *ief po9ts 9 ,sp9oza's   
doctr9e ( ,god4 ,pass+ ov] 8 doctr9e (  
body 7,,ii4 betwe5 prop4 #ac & prop4    
#ad7 we turn at once to 8 discussion (  
m9d & man4  7b7 ,an?ropology3 ,cognition

 & ! ,passions4--,ea* ?+ is at once m9d 
& body1 repres5tation & t :i* is        
repres5t$1 idea & ideate 7object74 ,body
 & s\l are ! same be+1 only consid]$ "u 
diff]5t attributes4 ,! human m9d is !   
idea ( ! human body2 x cognizes itself 9
 p]ceiv+ ! affections ( its body2 x     
repres5ts all t takes place 9 ! body1   
?\gh n all adequately4 ,z man's body is 
compos$ ( v _m bodies1 s 8 s\l is       
compos$ ( v _m ideas4 ,to judge ( !     
relation ( ! human m9d to ! m9d ( l[]   
be+s1 we mu/ consid] ! sup]iority (     
man's body to o!r bodies2 ! m complex a 
body is1 & ! great] ! v>iety ( !        
affections ( :i* x is capable1 ! bett] &
 m adapt$ = adequate cognition1 !       
accompany+ m9d4--,a result ( ! id5tity (
 s\l & body is t ! acts ( our w are n   
free 7,epi/4 #fb73 !y are1 9 fact1      
det]m9ations ( our body1 only consid]$  
"u ! attribute ( ?\ght1 & no m free ?an 
?is f ! con/ra9t ( ! causal law 7,,iii4 
prop4 #b1 s*ol474--,s9ce ! m9d does no?+
 )\t at ! same "t kn[+ t x does x--s9ce1

 9 o!r words1 its activity is a consci\s
 activity1 x is n m]ely idea corporis   
humani1 b also idea ideae corporis or   
idea m5tis4  ,all adh]5ts ( ! ,eleatic  
sep>ation ( ! "o pure be+ f ! manifold &
 *ang+ _w ( appe>ance are compell$ to   
make a l di/9ction betwe5 two k9ds & two
 organs ( k4 ,! repres5tation ( !       
empirical manifold ( sep>ately exi/+    
individual ?+s1 toge!r ) ! organ !re(1  
,sp9oza t]ms imag9atio2 ! faculty (     
cogniz+ ! true reality1 ! "o1           
all-embrac+ sub/ance1 he calls          
intellectus4 ,imag9atio 7imag9ation1    
s5su\s repres5tation7 is ! faculty (    
inadequate1 confus$ ideas1 among :i* are
 includ$ ab/ract conceptions1 z well z  
s5sations & memory-images4 ,! objects ( 
p]ception are ! affections ( our body2 &
 our p]ceptions1 !re=e1 are n cle> &    
di/9ct1 because we are n completely     
acqua9t$ ) _! causes4 ,9 ! m]ely        
p]ceptual /age1 ! m9d ga9s only a       
confus$ & mutilat$ idea ( ext]nal       
objects1 ( ! body1 & ( itself2 x is     

unable to sep>ate t 9 ! p]ception 7e4g41
 heat7 :i* is due to ! ext]nal body f t 
:i* is due to its own body4 ,an         
inadequate idea1 h[ev]1 is n 9 itself an
 error2 x becomes su* only :51          
unconsci\s ( its defectiv5ess1 we take x
 = complete & true4 ,prom95t examples ( 
errone\s ideas are furni%$ by g5]al     
concepts1 by ! idea ( ends1 & ! idea ( !
 fre$om ( ! w4 ,! m g5]al & ab/ract an  
idea1 ! m inadequate & indi/9ct x       
becomes2 & ?is %[s ! lack ( value 9     
g5]ic concepts1 :i* are =m$ by !        
omission ( diff]5ces4 ,all cognition :i*
 is c>ri$ on by univ]sals & _! symbols1 
words1 yields op9ion & imag9ation m]ely 
in/ead ( tru?4 ,q z valueless & h>mful  
is ! idea ( ends1 ) its accompanim5ts4  
,we ?9k t nature has typical =ms hov]+  
be=e x1 :i* x is seek+ to actualize 9   
?+s2 :5 ?is int5tion is app>5tly        
fulfill$ we speak ( ?+s z p]fect &      
beautiful2 :5 x fails1 ( imp]fect & ugly
 ?+s4 ,su* concepts ( value belong 9 !  
sph]e ( fictions4 ,! same is true ( !   

idea ( ! fre$om ( ! w1 :i* dep5ds on our
 ignorance ( t :i* con/ra9s u4 ,ap>t f !
 consid]ation t ! w1 ! g5]al conception 
( :i* comes "u ! rubric ( unreal        
ab/ractions1 is 9 fact m]ely ! sum ( !  
p>ticul> volitions1 ! illusion ( fre$om1
 e4g41 t we w & act )\t a cause1 arises 
f ! fact t we are consci\s ( our action 
7& also ( its proximate motives71 b n ( 
its 7remot]7 det]m9+ causes4 ,?us !     
?ir/y *ild believes x desires its milk (
 its own free w1 & ! timid "o1 t x      
freely *ooses to run away 7,e?ica1      
,,iii4 prop4 #b1 s*ol42 ,i4 app47 ,if ! 
fall+ /one 7 consci\s1 x w\ld1 likewise1
 consid] itself free1 & its fall !      
result ( an undet]m9$ decision4  ,two   
degrees are to be di/+ui%$ 9 ! true or  
adequate k ( ! intellect3 rational k    
atta9$ ?r\gh inf]5ce1 & intuitive1      
self-evid5t k2 ! latt] has pr9ciples =  
its object1 ! =m] t :i* foll[s f !m4    
,in/ead ( op]at+ ) ab/ract concepts !   
reason uses common notions1 notiones    
communes4 ,g5]a d n exi/1 b1 no d\bt1   

some?+ common to all ?+s4 ,all bodies   
agree 9 be+ ext5d$2 all m9ds & ideas 9  
be+ modes ( ?\ght2 all be+s :atev] 9 !  
fact t !y are modes ( ! div9e sub/ance &
 its attributes2 t :i* is common to all 
?+s1 & :i* is equally 9 ! "p & 9 ! :ole1
 _c b be adequately conceiv$4 ,! ideas (
 ext5sion1 ( ?\ght1 & ( ! et]nal &      
inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god are adequate      
ideas4 ,! adequate idea ( ea* individual
 actual object involves ! idea ( ,god1  
s9ce x c nei!r exi/ nor be conceiv$ ap>t
 f ,god1 & all ideas1 9 s f> z !y are   
ref]r$ to ,god1 are true4 ,! ideas (    
sub/ance & ( ! attributes are conceiv$  
?r\gh !mselves1 or imm$iately           
7intuitively7 cogniz$2 !y are           
und]ivative1 orig9al1 self-evid5t ideas4
  ,!re are ?us ?ree k9ds1 degrees1 or   
faculties ( cognition--s5su\s or        
imag9ative repres5tation1 reason1 &     
imm$iate intuition4 ,k ( ! second & ?ird
 degrees is necess>ily true1 & our only 
means ( di/+ui%+ ! true f ! false4 ,z   
light reveals itself & d>kness1 s ! tru?

 is ! crit]ion ( itself & ( error4 ,e   
tru? is accompani$ by c]ta9ty1 & is its 
own witness 7,,ii4 prop4 #dc1           
s*ol474--,adequate k does n consid] ?+s 
z individuals1 b 9 _! necess>y          
connection & z et]nal sequ5ces f !      
_w-gr\nd4 ,! reason p]ceives ?+s "u ! =m
 ( et]nity3 sub specie aet]nitatis      
7,,ii4 prop4 #dd1 cor4 #b74  ,9 8 !ory (
 ! emotions1 ,sp9oza is m dep5d5t on    
,desc>tes ?an any:]e else2 b ev5 "h he  
is guid$ by a successful endeavor aft]  
great] rigor & simplicity4 ,he holds 8  
pr$ecessor's false concept ( fre$om     
responsible = ! failure ( 8 v acute     
inquiry4 ,all previ\s writ]s on !       
passions h ei!r d]id$1 or bewail$1 or   
condemn$ !m1 in/ead ( inve/igat+ _!     
nature4 ,sp9oza w nei!r d5\nce nor      
ridicule human actions & appetites1 b   
endeavor to compreh5d !m on ! basis (   
natural laws1 & to consid] !m z ?\gh !  
"q conc]n$ l9es1 surfaces1 & bodies4 ,he
 aims n to look on hate1 ang]1 & ! re/ z
 flaws1 b z necess>y1 ?\gh tr\blesome1  

prop]ties ( human nature1 = :i*1 z      
really z = heat & cold1 ?und] & lightn+1
 a causal explanation is requisite4--,z 
a det]m9ate1 f9ite be+ ! m9d is dep5d5t 
9 its exi/5ce & its activity on o!r     
f9ite ?+s1 & is incompreh5sible )\t !m2 
f its involution 9 ! g5]al c\rse (      
nature ! inadequate ideas inevitably    
foll[1 & f ^! ! passive /ates or        
emotions2 ! passions ?us belong to human
 nature1 z "o subject to limitation &   
negation4--,! de/ruction ( cont+5t &    
p]i%able ?+s is effect$ by ext]nal      
causes2 no "o is de/roy$ by itself2 s f>
 z 9 x lies ev]y?+ /rives to p]si/ 9 its
 be+ 7,,iii4 prop4 #d & #f74 ,!         
fundam5tal endeavor aft]                
self-pres]vation con/itutes ! ess5ce (  
ea* ?+ 7,,iii4 prop4 #g74 ,?is endeavor 
7conatus7 is t]m$ w 7voluntas7 or desire
 7cupiditas7 :5 x is ref]r$ to ! m9d    
alone1 & appetite 7appetitus7 :5 ref]r$ 
to ! m9d & body toge!r2 desire or       
volition is consci\s appetite 7,,iii4   
prop4 #i1 s*ol474 ,we call a ?+ good    

because we desire x1 n desire a ?+      
because we hold x good 7cf4 ,hobbes1 p4 
#ge74 ,to desire two fur!r fundam5tal   
=ms ( ! emotions are add$1 pleasure &   
pa94 ,if a ?+ increases ! p[] ( our body
 to act1 ! idea ( x increases ! p[] (   
our s\l to ?9k1 & is gladly imag9$ by x4
 ,pleasure 7laetitia7 is ! transition ( 
a man to a great]1 & pa9 7tri/itia7 8   
transition to a less] p]fection4  ,all  
o!r emotions are modifications or       
comb9ations ( ! ?ree orig9al ones1 to   
:i* ,sp9oza r$uces ! six ( ,desc>tes    
7cf4 p4 #aje74 ,9 ! d$uction &          
description ( !m 8 proc$ure is sometimes
 aridly sy/ematic1 sometimes ev5 =c$ &  
artificial1 b = ! mo/ "p +5i\s1         
appropriate1 & psy*ologically acute4    
,:atev] gives u pleasure augm5ts our    
be+1 & :atev] pa9s u dim9i%es x2 h5ce we
 seek to pres]ve ! causes ( pleasurable 
emotions1 & love !m1 to d away ) !      
causes ( pa9ful ones1 & hate !m4 ,love  
is pleasure accompani$ by ! idea ( an   
ext]nal cause2 hate is pa9 accompani$ by

 ! idea ( an ext]nal cause4 ,s9ce all t 
fur!rs or dim9i%es ! be+ ( 7! cause (   
our pleasure7 ! object ( our love1      
ex]cises at ! same "t a l influ5ce on u1
 we love t :i* rejoices ! object ( our  
love & hate t :i* di/urbs x2 its        
happ9ess & suff]+ become ours also4 ,!  
conv]se is true ( ! object ( our hate3  
its good =tune provokes u & its ill     
=tune pleases u4 ,if we are fill$ ) no  
emotion t[>d ?+s l ourselves1 we        
sympa?ize 9 _! sad or joy\s feel+s by   
involunt>y imitation4 ,pity1 f :i* we   
/rive to free ourselves z f e pa9ful    
affection1 incl9es u to b5evol5ce or to 
assi/ance 9 ! removal ( ! cause ( !     
mis]y ( o!rs4 ,envy ( ^? :o are =tunate1
 & commis]ation ( ^? :o are 9 tr\ble1   
are alike root$ 9 emulation4 ,man is by 
nature incl9$ to envy & malevol5ce4     
,hate easily leads to und]e/imation1    
love to ov]e/imation1 ( ! object1 &     
self-love to pride or self-satisfaction1
 :i* are mu* m frequ5tly met ) ?an      
unfeign$ humility4 ,immod]ate desire =  

honor is t]m$ ambition2 if ! desire to  
please o!rs is kept )9 due b\nds x is   
prais$ z unpret5ti\sness1 c\rtesy1      
mode/y 7mode/ia74 ,ambition1 luxury1    
drunk5ness1 av>ice1 & lu/ h no          
contr>ies1 = temp]ance1 sobriety1 &     
*a/ity are n emotions 7passive /ates71 b
 d5ote ! p[] ( ! s\l by :i* ! =m] are   
mod]at$1 & :i* is discuss$ lat] "u ! "n 
=titudo4 ,self-abasem5t or humility is a
 feel+ ( pa9 aris+ f ! consid]ation (   
our weakness & impot5cy2 its opposite is
 self-complac5cy4 ,ei!r ( ^! may be     
accompani$ by ! 7errone\s7 belief t we h
 done ! sadd5+ or gladd5+ act ( our own 
free w2 9 ?is case ! =m] affection is   
t]m$ rep5tance4 ,hope & fe> are         
incon/ant pleasure & pa91 aris+ f ! idea
 ( some?+ pa/ or to come1 conc]n+ ^:    
com+ & ^: issue we are /ill 9 d\bt4 ,!re
 is no hope unm+l$ ) fe>1 & no fe> )\t  
hope2 = he :o /ill d\bts imag9es some?+ 
:i* excludes ! exi/5ce ( t :i* is       
expect$4 ,if ! cause ( d\bt is remov$1  
hope is trans=m$ into a feel+ (         

confid5ce & fe> into despair4 ,!re are z
 _m k9ds ( emotions z !re are classes   
among _! objects or causes4  ,besides ! 
emotions to be t]m$ passions 9 ! /rict  
s5se1 /ates ( passivity1 ,sp9oza        
recognizes o!rs :i* relate to u z       
active4 ,only ^? :i* are ( ! nature (   
pleasure or desire belong to ?is class (
 active emotions2 ! pa9ful affections   
are entirely exclud$1 s9ce )\t exception
 !y dim9i% or arre/ ! m9d's p[] to ?9k4 
,! totality ( ^! nobl] impulses is call$
 =titudo 7=titude71 & a di/9ction is    
made among !m betwe5 animositas 7vigor (
 s\l7 & g5]ositas 7magnanimity1         
noble-m9d$ness71 accord+ z rational     
desire is direct$ to ! pres]vation ( our
 own be+ or to aid+ our fell[-m54       
,pres5ce ( m9d & temp]ance are examples 
( ! =m]1 mode/y & clem5cy ( ! latt]4 ,by
 ?is bridge1 ! idea ( ! active emotions1
 we may foll[ ,sp9oza into ! field (    
e?ics4  7c7 ,practical                  
,philosophy4--,sp9oza's !ory ( e?ics is 
bas$ on ! equation ( ! ?ree concepts1   

p]fection1 reality1 activity 7,v4 prop4 
#dj1 dem474 ,! m active a ?+ is1 ! m    
p]fect x is & ! m reality x possesses4  
,x is active1 h[ev]1 :5 x is ! complete 
or adequate cause ( t :i* takes place )9
 x or )\t x2 passive :5 x is n at all ! 
cause ( ?is1 or ! cause only 9 "p4 ,a   
cause is t]m$ adequate1 :5 its effect c 
be cle>ly & di/9ctly p]ceiv$ f x alone4 
,! human m9d1 z a modus ( ?\ght1 is     
active :5 x has adequate ideas2 all its 
passion consi/s 9 confus$ ideas1 among  
:i* belong ! affections produc$ by      
ext]nal objects4 ,! ess5ce ( ! m9d is   
?\ght2 volition is n only dep5d5t on    
cognition1 b at bottom id5tical ) x4    
,desc>tes _h already made ! w ! p[] (   
affirmation & negation4 ,sp9oza advances
 a /ep fur!r3 ! affirmation _c be       
sep>at$ f ! idea affirm$1 x is          
impossible to conceive a tru? )\t 9 !   
same act affirm+ x1 ! idea involves its 
own affirmation4 ,w & und]/&+ are "o & !
 same 7,,ii4 prop4 #di1 cor474 ,=       
,sp9oza moral activity is entirely      

resolv$ into cognitive activity4 ,to !  
two /ages ( kn[+1 imag9atio &           
intellectus1 correspond two /ages (     
will+--desire1 :i* is rul$ by           
imag9ation1 & volition1 :i* is guid$ by 
reason4 ,! passive emotions ( s5su\s    
desire are direct$ to p]i%able objects1 
! active1 :i* spr+ f reason1 h an et]nal
 object--! k ( ! tru?1 ! intuition (    
,god4 ,= reason !re are no di/9ctions ( 
p]sons1--%e br+s m5 into concord & gives
 !m a common end 7,,iv4 prop4           
#ce-cg1dj71--;& no di/9ctions ( "t      
7,,iv4 prop4 #fb1 #ff71 & 9 ! active    
emotions1 :i* are always good1 no excess
 7,,iv4 prop4 #fa74 ,! passive emotions 
arise f confus$ ideas4 ,!y cease to be  
passions1 :5 ! confus$ ideas ( !        
modifications ( ! body are trans=m$ into
 cle> ones2 z soon z we h cle> ideas1 we
 become active & cease to be slaves (   
desire4 ,we ma/] ! emotions by ga9+ a   
cle> k ( !m4 ,n[1 an idea is cle> :5 we 
cognize its object n z an individual ?+1
 b 9 its connection1 z a l9k 9 ! causal 

*a91 z necess>y1 & z a mode ( ,god4 ,! m
 ! m9d conceives ?+s 9 _! necessity1 & !
 emotions 9 _! ref]5ce to ,god1 ! less x
 is passively subject to ! emotions1 ! m
 p[] x atta9s ov] !m3 ,virtue is p[]    
7,,iv4 def4 #h2 prop4 #bj1 dem474 ,x is 
true1 inde$1 t "o emotion c be conqu]$  
only by ano!r /rong] "o1 a passive      
emotion only by an active "o4 ,! active 
emotion by :i* k ga9s ?is victory ov] ! 
passions is ! joy\s consci\sness ( our  
p[] 7,,iii4 prop4 #eh1 #ei74 ,adequate  
ideas conceive _! objects 9 union )     
,god2 ?us ! pleasure :i* proce$s f k (1 
& victory ov]1 ! passions is accompani$ 
by ! idea ( ,god1 &1 consequ5tly        
7accord+ to ! def9ition ( love71 by love
 t[>d ,god 7,v4 prop4 #ae1 #cb74 ,! k & 
love ( ,god1 toge!r1 intellectual love  
t[>d ,god1#a is ! highe/ good & ! highe/
 virtue 7,,iv4 prop4 #bh74 ,bless$ness  
is n ! rew>d ( virtue1 b virtue itself4 
,! intellectual love ( man t[>d ,god1 9 
:i* ! highe/ peace ( ! s\l1 bless$ness1 
& fre$om consi/1 & 9 virtue ( :i* 7s9ce 

x1 l its object & cause1 true k1 is     
et]nal71 ! s\l is n includ$ 9 !         
de/ruction ( ! body 7,v4 prop4 #bc1     
#cc71 is a "p ( ! inf9ite love ) :i*    
,god loves himself1 & is "o & ! same ) !
 love ( ,god to man4 ,! et]nal "p ( !   
s\l is reason1 ?r\gh :i* x is active2 ! 
p]i%able "p is imag9ation or s5su\s     
repres5tation1 ?r\gh :i* x is passively 
affect$4 ,we are immortal only 9        
adequate cognition & 9 love to ,god2 m (
 ! wise man's s\l is immortal ?an ( !   
fool's4  ,footnote #a3 ,! conception    
amor ,dei intellectualis 9 ,sp9oza is   
discuss$ 9 a diss]tation by ,c4 ,llmann1
 ,j5a1 #ahhd4  ,sp9oza's e?ics is       
intellectuali/ic--virtue is bas$ on k4#a
 ,x is1 moreov]1 naturali/ic--morality  
is a necess>y sequ5ce f human nature2 x 
is a physical product1 n a product (    
fre$om2 = ! acts ( ! w are det]m9$ by   
ideas1 :i* 9 _! turn are ! effects (    
e>li] causes4 ,! f\ndation ( virtue is !
 ef=t aft] self-pres]vation3 ,h[ c a man
 desire to act rightly unless he desires

 to be 7,,iv4 prop4 #ba1 #bb78 ,s9ce    
reason nev] enjo9s t :i* is contr>y to  
nature1 x ( necessity requires e man to 
love himself1 to seek t :i* is truly    
useful to him1 & to desire all t makes  
him m p]fect4 ,accord+ to ! law ( nature
 all t is useful is all[able4 ,! useful 
is t :i* increases our p[]1 activity1 or
 p]fection1 or t :i* fur!rs k1 = ! life 
( ! s\l consi/s 9 ?\ght 7,,iv4 prop4    
#bf2 app4 cap4 #e74 ,t alone is an evil 
:i* re/ra9s man f p]fect+ ! reason &    
lead+ a rational life4 ,virtu\s action  
is equival5t to foll[+ ! guidance ( !   
reason 9 self-pres]vation 7,,iv4 prop4  
#bd74--,n[h]e 9 ,sp9oza are fallacies m 
frequ5t ?an 9 8 moral philosophy2 n[h]e 
is !re a cle>] revelation ( !           
insuffici5cy ( 8 artificially con/ruct$ 
concepts1 :i*1 9 _! undeviat+           
ab/ractness1 are at no po9t congru5t )  
reality4 ,he is z little true to 8      
purpose to exclude ! imp]ative elem5t1 &
 to conf9e himself entirely to !        
explanation ( human actions consid]$ z  

facts1 z any philosoph] :o has adopt$ a 
simil> aim4 ,he relieves ! inconsi/5cy  
by clo?+ 8 injunctions "u ! anci5t ideal
 ( ! free wise man4 ,?is1 9 fact1 is n !
 only ?+ 9 ,sp9oza :i* rem9ds "o ( !    
cu/oms ( ! ,greek morali/s4 ,he r5ews ! 
,platonic idea ( a philosophical virtue1
 & ! op9ion ( ,socrates1 t "r action w  
result ( itself f true insight4 ,argu+ f
 himself1 f 8 own pure & /rong desire = 
k1 to mank9d 9 g5]al1 he makes reason ! 
ess5ce ( ! s\l1 ?\ght ! ess5ce ( reason1
 & holds ! direction ( ! impulse (      
self-pres]vation to ! p]fection ( k1 :i*
 is ! bett] "p ( u1 to be ! natural "o4 
,footnote #a3 ,t virtue :i* spr+s f k is
 alone g5u9e4 ,! pa9ful1 h5ce unactive1 
emotions ( pity & rep5tance may impel to
 actions ^: accompli%m5t is bett] ?an _!
 omission4 ,emotion caus$ by sympa?y =  
o!rs & contrition = "o's own guilt1 bo? 
( :i* increase pres5t evil by new ones1 
h only ! value ( evils ( a less] k9d4   
,!y are salut>y = ! irrational man1 9 s 
f> z ! "o spurs him on to acts (        

assi/ance & ! o!r dim9i%es 8 pride4 ,!y 
are h>mful to ! wise man1 or1 at lea/1  
useless2 he is 9 no ne$ ( irrational    
motives to rational action4 ,action f   
insight is alone true morality4  ,all m5
 endeavor aft] cont9uance ( exi/5ce     
7,,iii4 prop4 #f72 :y n all aft] virtue8
 ,if all endeavor aft] x1 :y d s few    
rea* ! goal8 ,:5ce ! sadly l>ge numb] ( 
! irrational1 ! selfi%1 ! vici\s8 ,:5ce 
! evil 9 ! _w8 ,vice is z truly an      
outcome ( nature z virtue4 ,virtue is   
p[]1 vice is weakness2 ! =m] is k1 !    
latt] ignorance4 ,:5ce ! p[]less        
natures8 ,:5ce defective k8 ,:5ce       
imp]fection 9 g5]al8  ,! concept (      
imp]fection expresses no?+ positive1    
no?+ actual1 b m]ely a defect1 an abs5ce
 ( reality4 ,x is no?+ b an idea 9 u1 a 
fiction :i* arises ?r\gh ! comp>ison (  
"o ?+ ) ano!r possess+ great] reality1  
or ) an ab/ract g5]ic concept1 a patt]n1
 :i* x seems unable to atta94 ,t        
concepts ( value are n prop]ties ( ?+s  
!mselves1 b d5ote only _! pleasurable or

 pa9ful effects on u1 is evid5t f ! fact
 t "o & ! same ?+ may be at ! same "t   
good1 bad1 & indiff]5t3 ! music :i* is  
good = ! melan*oly man may be bad = !   
m\rn]1 & nei!r good nor bad = ! deaf4 ,k
 ( ! bad is an ab/ract1 inadequate idea2
 9 ,god !re is no idea ( evil4 ,if      
imp]fection & error 7 some?+ real1 x    
w\ld h to be conc$$ t ,god is ! au?or ( 
evil & s94 ,9 reality ev]y?+ is t :i* x 
c be1 h5ce )\t defect3 ev]y?+ actual is1
 9 itself consid]$1 p]fect4 ,ev5 ! fool 
& ! s9n] _c be o!rwise ?an he is2 he    
appe>s imp]fect only :5 plac$ beside !  
wise & ! virtu\s4 ,s9 is ?us only a     
less] reality ?an virtue1 evil a less]  
good2 good & bad1 activity & passivity1 
p[] & weakness are m]ely di/9ctions 9   
degree4 ,b :y is n ev]y?+ absolutely    
p]fect8 ,:y are !re less] degrees (     
reality8 ,two answ]s are giv54 ,! fir/  
is f\nd only betwe5 ! l9es3 !           
imp]fections 9 ! be+ & action (         
individual ?+s are gr\nd$ 9 _! f9itude1 
p>ticul>ly 9 _! involution 9 ! *a9 (    

causality1 9 virtue ( :i* !y are act$ on
 f )\t1 & are det]m9$ 9 _! action n by  
_! own nature only1 b also by ext]nal   
causes4 ,man s9s because he is op5 to   
impressions f ext]nal ?+s1 & only       
sup]ior natures are /rong en\gh to      
pres]ve _! rational self-det]m9ation 9  
spite ( ?is4 ,! o!r answ] is expressly  
giv5 at ! end ( ! fir/ "p 7) an appeal  
to ! sixte5? proposition1 t ev]y?+ :i* !
 div9e und]/&+ conceives z creatable has
 actually come into exi/5ce74 ,to ^? :o 
ask :y ,god did n s create all m5 t !y  
%\ld be gov]n$ only by reason1 ,i reply 
only3 because matt] 0 n lack+ to him = !
 creation ( e degree ( p]fection f      
highe/ to l[e/2 or1 m /rictly1 because !
 laws ( 8 nature 7 s ample z s suffice =
 ! production ( ev]y?+ conceivable by an
 inf9ite intellect4 ,all possible       
degrees ( p]fection h come into be+1    
includ+ s9 & error1 :i* repres5t ! l[e/ 
grade4 ,! univ]se =ms a *a9 ( degrees ( 
p]fection1 ( :i* none mu/ be want+3     
p>ticul> cases ( defect are ju/ifi$ by !

 p]fection ( ! :ole1 :i* w\ld be        
incomplete )\t ! l[e/ degree (          
p]fection1 vice & wick$ness4 ,"h we see 
,sp9oza foll[+ a pa? :i* ,leibnitz 0 to 
broad5 out into a highway 9 8 ,!odicy4  
,bo? favor ! quantitative view ( ! _w1  
:i* s(t5s ! anti!ses1 & r$uces          
di/9ctions ( k9d to di/9ctions ( degree4
 ,n till ,kant 0 ! qualitative view ( ! 
_w1 :i* _h be5 fir/ br\ght into e?ics by
 ,*ri/ianity1 re/or$ to its rights4 ,an 
e?ics :i* d5ies fre$om & evil is no?+ b 
a physics ( morals4  ,9 8 !ory ( ! /ate 
,sp9oza foll[s ,hobbes pretty closely1 b
 rejects absolutism1 & decl>es          
democracy1 9 :i* ea* is ob$i5t to       
self-impos$ law1 to be ! =m ( gov]nm5t  
mo/ 9 accordance ) reason4 7,s 9 !      
,tractatus ,!ologico-,politicus1 :ile 9 
! lat] ,tractatus ,politicus he gives ! 
pref]5ce to ari/ocracy47 ,9 accordance )
 ! supreme "r ( nature ea* man deems    
good1 & seeks to ga91 t :i* seems to him
 useful2 all ?+s belong to all1 ea* may 
de/roy ! objects ( 8 hate4 ,conflict &  

insecurity prevail 9 ! /ate ( nature z a
 result ( ! s5su\s desires & emotions   
7hom9es ex natura ho/es72 & !y c be done
 away ) only ?r\gh ! e/abli%m5t ( a     
society1 :i* by punitive laws compels   
ev]yone to d1 & leave undone1 t :i* !   
g5]al welf>e dem&s4 ,/rife & brea* (    
fai? become s9 only 9 ! /ate2 be=e its  
=mation t alone 0 wrong :i* no "o _h !  
desire & p[] to d4 ,besides ?is mission1
 h[ev]1 ( protect+ selfi% int]e/s by !  
prev5tion ( aggression1 ! civil         
community has a high] "o1 to subs]ve !  
developm5t ( reason2 x is only 9 ! /ate 
t true morality & true fre$om are       
possible1 & ! wise man w pref] to live 9
 ! /ate1 because he f9ds m fre$om !re   
?an 9 isolation4 ,?us ! dislocation (   
concepts1 :i* is p]ceptible 9 ,sp9oza's 
e?ics1 repeats itself 9 8 politics4     
,fir/1 virtue is bas$ on ! impulse (    
self-pres]vation & ! good is equat$ ) t 
:i* is useful to ! individual2 !n1 ) a  
trans=mation ( m]e utility into true    
utility1 ! rational mom5t is br\ght 9   

7fir/ z practical prud5ce1 next z !     
impulse aft] k1 & !n1 ) a gradual *ange 
( mean+1 z moral wisdom71 until1 f9ally1
 9 /range contra/ to ! naturali/ic      
beg9n+1 ! ,*ri/ian idea ( virtue z      
purity1 self-d5ial1 love to our         
neighbors & love to ,god1 is rea*$4 ,9 a
 simil> way ,sp9oza conceives ! />t+    
po9t ( ! /ate naturali/ically1 its      
culm9ation ideali/ically4#a  ,footnote  
#a3 ,c4 ,s*9dl] 9 8 diss]tation ,ueb] d5
 ,begriff des ,gut5 und ,ntzli*5 bei    
,sp9oza1 ,j5a1 #ahhe1 p4 #db1 a "w1     
h[ev]1 :i* does n p5etrate to ! full    
dep? ( ! matt]4 ,cf4 ,euck51            
,leb5sans*auung51 p4 #djf4  ,!          
fundam5tal ideas ( ! ,sp9ozi/ic sy/em1 &
 ^? :i* r5d] x important1 are           
rationalism1 pan!ism1 ! ess5tial id5tity
 ( ! mat]ial & spiritual worlds1 & !    
un9t]rupt$ me*anism ( becom+4 ,besides !
 twi/+ ( e?ical concepts j m5tion$1 we  
may briefly note ! mo/ /rik+ ( ! o!r    
difficulties & contradictions :i*       
,sp9oza left unexpla9$4 ,!re is a break 

betwe5 8 endeavor to exalt ! absolute   
high above ! ph5om5al _w ( individual   
exi/5ce1 &1 at ! same "t1 to br+ ! =m]  
into ! close/ possible conjunction ) !  
latt]1 to make x dwell !re9--a break    
betwe5 ! transc5d5t & imman5t           
conceptions ( ! idea ( ,god4 ,no light  
is v\*saf$ on ! relation betwe5 prim>y &
 second>y causes1 betwe5 ! imm$iate     
div9e causality & ! div9e causality     
m$iat$ ?r\gh f9ite causes4 ,! inf9ity ( 
,god is 9 conflict ) 8 complete         
cognizability on ! "p ( man2 = h[ is a  
f9ite1 transitory _s able to conceive ! 
,inf9ite & ,et]nal8 ,h[ does ! human    
intellect rise above modal limitations  
to become capable & wor?y ( ! my/ical   
union ) ,god8 ,ref]5ce has be5 already  
made to ! tw(old nature ( ! attributes  
7z =ms ( intellectual appreh5sion & z   
real prop]ties ( sub/ance7 :i* invites  
contradictory int]pretations4   #c4     
,pascal1 ,malebran*e1 ,bayle4  ,return+ 
f ,holl& to ,france1 we f9d a comb9ation
 ( ,c>tesianism & my/icism simil> to t  

:i* we h notic$ 9 ! =m] c\ntry4 ,"u     
,geul9cx ^! two =ces _h liv$ peacefully 
toge!r2 9 ,sp9oza !y _h ent]$ into !    
close/ alliance2 ) ,blaise ,pascal      
7#afbc-fb71 ! fir/ to adopt a religi\s  
t5d5cy1 !y came into a c]ta9 anti!sis4  
,sp9oza _h taught3 ?r\gh ! k ( ,god to !
 love ( ,god2 9 ,pascal ! wat*word      
becomes1 ,god is n conceiv$ ?r\gh !     
reason1 b felt ) ! he>t4 ,aft] attack+ !
 ,jesuits 9 8 ,prov9cial ,lett]s1 &     
unveil+ ! wor?lessness ( _! casui/ical  
morality1 ,pascal1 con/ra9$ by a g5u9e  
piety1 und]took to con/ruct a philosophy
 ( ,*ri/ianity2 b ! attempt 0 end$ by ! 
e>ly dea? ( ! au?or1 :o _h always suff]$
 "u a weak con/itution4 ,fragm5ts ( ?is 
"w 7 publi%$ by 8 fri5ds1 ! ,jans5i/s1  
"u ! title1 ,?\ghts on ,religion1 #affi1
 ?\gh n )\t m$iat+ alt]ations4 ,!       
,port-,royal ,logic 7,! ,art ( ,?9k+1   
#affb71 edit$ by ,arnauld & ,nicole1 0  
bas$ on a treatise ( ,pascal4 ,8 ?\ght1 
:i* 0 n di/+ui%$ by cle>ness1 b by dep? 
& movem5t1 & :i*1 aft] ! ,fr5* fa%ion1  

delight$ 9 anti!ses1 0 influ5c$ by      
,desc>tes1 ,montaigne1 & ,epictetus4    
,he1 too1 f9ds 9 ma!matics ! example =  
all sci5ce1 & holds t :atev] transc5ds  
ma!matics transc5ds ! reason4 ,by !     
application ( ma!matics to ! /udy (     
nature we atta9 a mundane sci5ce1 :i* is
 c]ta91 no d\bt1 & :i* makes con/ant    
progress1#a b :i* does n satisfy1 s9ce x
 reveals no?+ ( ! inf9ite1 ( ! :ole1 )\t
 :i* ! p>ts rema9 un9telligible4 ,h5ce  
all natural philosophy toge!r is n wor? 
an h\r's toil4 ,pascal consoles himself 
= our ignorance conc]n+ ext]nal ?+s by !
 /ability ( e?ics4  ,footnote #a3 ,x is 
?is un9t]rupt$ progress :i* raises !    
reason above ! op]ations ( nature & !   
in/9cts ( animals4 ,:ile ! bees build _!
 cells to-day j z !y did a ?\s& ye>s    
ago1 sci5ce is cont9ually develop+4 ,?is
 gu>antees to u our immortal de/9y4  ,! 
lead+ pr9ciples ( 8 e?ics are z foll[s3 
,9 s9 ! love to ,god creat$ 9 u has left
 u & self-love has transgress$ its      
limits2 pride has deliv]$ u ov] to      

selfi%ness & mis]y4 ,our nature is      
corrupt$1 b n beyond r$emption4 ,9 8    
actions wor?less & deprav$1 man is se5  
to be exalt$ & incompreh5sible 9 8 ends2
 9 reality he is wor?y ( abhorr5ce1 b   
great 9 8 de/9ation4 ,no philosophy or  
religion has s taught u at once to "k ! 
greatness & ! mis]y ( man z ,*ri/ianity3
 ?is bids him recognize 8 l[ condition1 
b at ! same "t to endeavor to become l  
,god4 ,we mu/ humbly despise ! _w &     
r5\nce ourselves2 9 ord] to love ,god1  
we mu/ hate ourselves4 ,moral re=mation 
is an act ( div9e grace1 & ! m]it (     
human volition consi/s only 9 n resi/+  
?is4 ,god trans=ms ! he>t by a heav5ly  
sweetness1 grants x to "k t spiritual   
pleasure is great] ?an bodily pleasure1 
& infuses into x a disgu/ at !          
allurem5ts ( s94 ,virtue is f9d+ "o's   
greate/ happ9ess 9 ,god or 9 ! et]nal   
good4 ,z morality is a matt] ( feel+1 n 
( ?\ght1 s ,god1 s ev5 ! fir/ pr9ciples 
on :i* ! c]titude ( demon/ration dep5ds1
 are ! object1 n ( reason1 b ( ! he>t4  

,t :i* c]tifies to ! highe/             
indemon/rable pr9ciples is a feel+1 a   
belief1 an in/9ct ( nature3 les pr9cipes
 se s5t5t4 ,z a def5d] ( ! ne$s & rights
 ( ! he>t1 ,pascal is a =]unn] ( ! great
 ,r\sseau4 ,8 depreciation ( ! reason to
 exalt fai? e/abli%es a c]ta9           
relation%ip ) ! skeptics ( 8 native l&1 
among :om ,c\s9 has unju/ly class$ him  
7tudes sur ,pascal1 #e? ed41 #aheg74a   
,footnote #a3 ,( ! works on ,pascal we  
may m5tion t ( ,h4 ,reu*l91 #ahdj3      
,havet's edition ( ! ,p5ses1 ) notes1   
,p>is1 #ahff2 & ! tude by ,ed4 ,droz1   
,p>is1 #ahhf4  ,nicolas ,malebran*e     
7#afch-agae71 a memb] ( ! ,oratory (    
,jesus1 9 ,p>is1 :i* 0 oppos$ by !      
,jesuits1 complet$ ! developm5t (       
,c>tesianism 9 ! religi\s direction     
adopt$ by ,pascal4 ,8 ?\ght is controll$
 by ! endeavor to comb9e ,c>tesian      
metaphysics & ,augu/9ian ,*ri/ianity1 ^?
 two great =ces :i* con/itut$ ! d\ble   
citadel ( 8 ord]4 ,8 collect$ works     
appe>$ ?ree ye>s be=e 8 dea?2 & a new   

edition 9 f\r volumes1 prep>$ by ,j4    
,simon1 9 #ahga4 ,8 *ief "w1 ,on ! ,se>*
 = ,tru? 7new edition by ,f4 ,b\illi]1  
#ahhj71 appe>$ 9 #afge1 & 0 foll[$ by ! 
,treatise on ,e?ics 7new edition by ,h4 
,joly1 #ahhb7 & ! ,*ri/ian &            
,metaphysical ,m$itations 9 #afhd1 !    
,discussions on ,metaphysics & on       
,religion 9 #afhh1 & v>i\s polemic      
treatises4 ,! be/ kn[n among ! doctr9es 
( ,malebran*e is ! pr9ciple t we see all
 ?+s 9 ,god 7que n\s voyons t\tes *oses 
en ,dieu4--,re*]*e1 iii4 #b1 #f74 ,:at  
does ?is mean1 & h[ is x e/abli%$8 ,x is
 int5d$ z an answ] to ! "q1 ,h[ is x    
possible = ! m9d to cognize ! body if1 z
 ,desc>tes has %[n1 m9d & body are two  
fundam5tally di/9ct & reciprocally      
indep5d5t sub/ances8  ,! seek] aft] tru?
 mu/ fir/ und]/& ! s\rces ( error4 ,( ^!
 !re are two1 or1 m exactly1 five--z _m 
z !re are faculties ( ! s\l4 ,error may 
spr+ f ei!r ! cognitive or ! appetitive 
faculty2 9 ! fir/ case1 ei!r f          
s5se-p]ception1 ! imag9ation1 or ! pure 

und]/&+1 &1 9 ! latt]1 f ! incl9ations  
or ! passions4 ,! incl9ations & !       
passions d n reveal ! nature ( ?+s1 b   
only express h[ !y affect u1 ( :at value
 !y are to u4 ,fur!r /ill1 ! s5ses & !  
imag9ation only reproduce ! impressions 
:i* ?+s make on u z feel+ subjects1     
express only :at !y are = u1 n :at !y   
are 9 !mselves4 ,! s5ses h be5 giv5 u   
simply = ! pres]vation ( our body1 & s  
long z we expect no?+ fur!r f !m ?an    
practical in=mation conc]n+ ! 7useful or
 hurtful7 relation ( ?+s to our body1   
!re is no reason = mi/ru/+ !m1--"h we   
are n deceiv$ by s5sation1 b at mo/ by !
 ov]ha/y judgm5t ( ! w4 ,consid] ! s5ses
 z false witnesses 9 reg>d to ! tru?1 b 
z tru/wor?y c\nselors 9 relation to !   
int]e/s ( life6--,s5sation & imag9ation 
belong to ! s\l 9 virtue ( its union ) !
 body2 ap>t f ?is x is pure _s4 ,!      
ess5ce ( ! s\l is ?\ght1 = ?is function 
is ! only "o :i* _c be ab/ract$ f x )\t 
de/roy+ x4 ,h5ce !re c be no mom5t 9 !  
life ( ! s\l :5 x ceases to ?9k2 x ?9ks 

always 7l'me p5se t\j\rs71 only x does n
 always rememb] ! fact4  ,! k9ds ( k    
diff] ) ! classes ( ?+s cogniz$4 ,god is
 kn[n imm$iately & intuitively4 ,he is  
necess>y & unlimit$ be+1 ! univ]sal1    
inf9ite be+1 be+ absolutely2 he only is 
kn[n ?r\gh himself4 ,! concept ( !      
inf9ite is ! presupposition ( ! concept 
( ! f9ite1 & ! =m] is e>li] 9 u2 we ga9 
! conception ( a p>ticul> ?+ only :5 we 
omit some?+ f ! idea ( be+ 9 g5]al1 or  
limit x4 ,god is cogitative1 l spirits1 
& ext5d$1 l bodies1 b 9 an entirely     
diff]5t mann] f creat$ ?+s4 ,we "k our  
own s\l ?r\gh consci\sness or inn]      
p]ception4 ,we "k its exi/5ce m c]ta9ly 
?an t ( bodies1 b und]/& its nature less
 p]fectly ?an !irs4 ,to "k t x is       
capable ( s5sations ( pa91 ( heat1 (    
light1 we mu/ h exp]i5c$ !m4 ,= k ( !   
m9ds ( o!rs we are dep5d5t ^u           
conjecture1 on analogical inf]5ces f    
ourselves4  ,b h[ is ! unext5d$ s\l     
capable ( cogniz+ ext5d$ body8 ,only    
?r\gh ! m$ium ( ideas4 ,! ideas occupy  

an int]m$iate position betwe5 objects1  
^: ar*etypes !y are1 & repres5tations 9 
! s\l1 ^: causes !y are4 ,! ideas1 aft] 
! patt]n ( :i* ,god has creat$ ?+s1 & ! 
relations among !m 7necess>y tru?s71 are
 et]nal1 h5ce uncaus$2 !y con/itute !   
wisdom ( ,god & are n dep5d5t on 8 w4   
,?+s are 9 ,god 9 ar*etypal =m1 & are   
cogniz$ ?r\gh ^! _! ar*etypes 9 ,god4   
,ideas are n produc$ by bodies1 by !    
emission ( s5su\s images1#a nor are !y  
orig9at$ by ! s\l1 or possess$ by x z an
 innate possession4 ,b ,god is ! cause (
 k1 al?\gh he nei!r imp>ts ideas to !   
s\l 9 creation nor produces !m 9 x on e 
sep>ate occasion4 ,! ideas or p]fections
 ( ?+s are 9 ,god & are beheld by       
spirits1 :o likewise dwell 9 ,god z !   
univ]sal reason4 ,z space is ! place (  
bodies1 s ,god is ! place ( spirits4 ,z 
bodies are modes ( ext5sion1 s _! ideas 
are modifications ( ! idea ( ext5sion or
 ( intelligible ext5sion4 ,! pr9ciple   
/at$ at ! beg9n+1 t ?+s are p]ceiv$ 9   
,god1 is1 !re=e1 support$ 9 ! foll[+    

way3 we p]ceive bodies 7?r\gh ideas1 :i*
 ideas1 & we ourselves1 are7 9 ,god4    
,footnote #a3 ,malebran*e's refutation (
 ! emanation hypo!sis ( ! ,p]ipatetics  
is acute & /ill wor?y ( att5tion4 ,if   
bodies transmitt$ to ! s5se-organs =ms l
 !mselves1 ^! copies1 :i* w\ld evid5tly 
be corporeal1 mu/1 by _! dep>ture1      
dim9i% ! mass ( ! body f :i* !y came    
away1 & also1 because ( _!              
imp5etrability1 ob/ruct & int]f]e ) "o  
ano!r1 ?us de/roy+ ! possibility ( cle> 
impressions4 ,a fur!r po9t aga9/ ! image
 !ory is furni%$ by ! increase 9 ! size 
( an object1 :5 approa*$4 ,&1 above all1
 x c nev] be made conceivable h[ motion 
c be trans=m$ into s5sations or ideas4  
,z ! k ( tru? has be5 f\nd to consi/ 9  
see+ ?+s z ,god sees !m1 s morality     
consi/s 9 man's lov+ ?+s z ,god loves   
!m1 or1 :at am\nts to ! same ?+1 9 lov+ 
!m to t degree :i* is _! due 9 view ( _!
 great] or less p]fection4 ,if1 9 ! la/ 
analysis1 all cognition is k ( ,god1 s  
all volition is lov+ ,god2 !re is       

implant$ 9 e creature a direction t[>d !
 ,creator4 ,god is n only ! primordial1 
unlimit$ be+1 he is also ! highe/ good1 
! f9al end ( all /riv+4 ,z ! ideas ( ?+s
 are imp]fect p>ticipations 91 or       
det]m9ations ( univ]sal be+1 ! absolute 
p]fection ( ,god1 s ! p>ticul> desires1 
direct$ t[>d individual objects1 are    
limitations ( ! univ]sal w t[>d ! good4 
,h[ does x happ5 t ! human w1 s v>i\sly 
mi/ak+ its fundam5tal direction t[>d    
,god1 atta*es itself to p]i%able goods1 
& pref]s wor?less objects to ^? :i* h   
value1 & e>?ly to heav5ly pleasure8 ,!  
s\l is1 on ! "o h&1 unit$ to ,god1 on ! 
o!r1 unit$ to ! body4 ,! possibility (  
error & s9 re/s on its union ) ! body1  
s9ce ) ! ideas 7z repres5tations ( !    
pure und]/&+7 are associat$ s5su\s      
images1 :i* m+le ) & becl\d !m1 &       
passions ) ! incl9ations 7or ! w ( !    
s\l1 9 s f> z x is pure _s74 ,?is gives1
 h[ev]1 m]ely ! possibility ( ! immoral1
 s5su\s1 ,god-e/rang$ disposition1 :i*  
becomes actual only ?r\gh man's free    

act1 :5 he fails to /& ! te/4 ,= s9 does
 n consi/ 9 hav+ passions1 b 9 cons5t+  
to !m4 ,! passion is n caus$ by !       
corporeal movem5t ( :i* x is ! sequel1 b
 only occasion$ by x2 & ! same is true (
 ! movem5t ( ! limbs & ! decision ( ! w4
 ,! "o true cause ( all t happ5s is     
,god4 ,x is he :o produces affections 9 
! s\l1 & motion 9 ! mat]ial _w4 ,= !    
body possesses only ! capacity ( be+    
mov$2 & ! s\l _c be ! cause ( ! movem5t1
 s9ce x w\ld !n h to "k h[ x produces ! 
latt]4 ,9 fact ^? :o lack a m$ical tra9+
 h no idea ( ! muscul> & n]v\s processes
 involv$4 ,)\t ,god we _c ev5 move !    
tongue4 ,x is he :o raises our arm1 ev5 
:5 we use x contr>y to 8 law4  ,anxi\s  
to gu>d 8 pan!ism f be+ id5tifi$ ) t (  
,sp9oza1 ,malebran*e po9ts out t1       
accord+ to 8 views1 ! univ]se is 9 ,god1
 n1 z ) ,sp9oza1 t ,god is 9 ! univ]se2 
t he tea*es creation1 :i* ,sp9oza d5ies2
 t he di/+ui%es1 :i* ,sp9oza _h n done1 
betwe5 ! _w 9 ,god 7! ideas ( ?+s7 & !  
_w ( creat$ ?+s1 & betwe5 intelligible &

 corporeal ext5sion4 ,x may be add$ t he
 ma9ta9s ! fre$om ( ,god & ( man1 :i*   
,sp9oza rejects1 & t he conceives ,god1 
:o br+s ev]y?+ to pass1 n z nature1 b z 
omnipot5t w4 ,nev]!less1 z ,kuno ,fis*] 
has %[n1 he approa*es ! naturalism (    
,sp9oza m ne>ly ?an he is himself       
consci\s1 :5 he expla9s f9ite ?+s z     
limitations 7h5ce z modes7 ( ! div9e    
exi/5ce1 posits ! w ( ,god 9 dep5d5ce on
 8 wisdom 7! uncreat$ _w ( ideas71 ?us  
limit+ x 9 its omnipot5ce1 &1 :i* is    
decisive1 makes ,god ! sole au?or (     
motion1 i4e41 a natural cause4 ,8       
attempt at a ,*ri/ian pan!ism 0         
consequ5tly unsuccessful4 ,b its failure
 has n %att]$ ! well-gr\nd$ fame ( its  
?\ghtful au?or z ! second greate/       
metaphysician ( ,france4  ,pi]re        
,poiret#a 7#afdf-agai2 = "s ye>s a      
prea*] 9 ,hamburg2 liv$ lat] 9          
,rhynsburg ne> ,leyd57 0 r5d]$ ho/ile to
 ,c>tesianism ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( my/ical
 writ+s 7among o!rs ^? ( ,anto9ette     
,b\rignon1 :i* he publi%$71 & ?r\gh !   

p]ception ( ! results to :i* x _h l$ 9  
,sp9oza4 ,all cognition is tak+ up ! =m 
( ! object4 ,! p]fection ( man is bas$ m
 on 8 passive capacities ?an on 8 active
 reason1 :i* is conc]n$ ) m]e ideas1    
unreal %ad[s2 ! ma!matical _s leads to  
fatalism1 to ! d5ial ( fre$om4 ,!       
passive faculties1 on ! contr>y1 are 9  
direct int]c\rse ) reality1 ! s5ses )   
ext]nal mat]ial objects1 & ! arcanum ( !
 m9d1 ! basis ( ! s\l1 ! intellect1 )   
spiritual tru?s & ) ,god1 ^: exi/5ce is 
m c]ta9 ?an our own4 ,man is n unconc]n$
 9 ! developm5t ( ! highe/ p[] ( ! m9d1 
he mu/ (f] himself to ,god 9 s9c]e      
humility4 ,9 subord9ation to ! passive  
intellect1 ! ext]nal faculty1 ! active  
reason1 is also to be cultivat$2 x      
des]ves c>e1 l ! sk94 ,evil consi/s 9 ! 
absurdity t ! creature1 :o ap>t f ,god  
is no?+1 ascribes to himself an         
indep5d5t exi/5ce4  ,footnote #a3       
,poiret3 ,cogitationes ,rationates de   
,deo1 ,anima1 et ,malo1 #afgg1 ! lat]   
editions includ+ a vehem5t attack on !  

a!ism ( ,sp9oza3 ,l'conomie ,div9e1     
#afhb2 ,de ,eruditione ,solida1         
,sup]fici>ia1 et ,falsa1 #afib2 ,fides  
et ,ratio ,collatae1 aga9/ ,locke1      
#agjg4  ,le ,vay] & ,huet1 :o h be5     
already m5tion$ 7pp4 #ej-ea71 m$iate    
betwe5 ! f\nd]s ( skepticism & ,bayle1  
its mo/ gift$ repres5tative4 ,! latt] ( 
^! two wrote a ,criticism ( ! ,c>tesian 
,philosophy1 #afhi1 besides a ,treatise 
on ! ,impot5ce ( ! ,human ,m9d1 :i* did 
n appe> until aft] 8 dea?4 ,he opposes1 
among o!r ?+s1 ! crit]ion ( tru? bas$ on
 evid5ce1 s9ce !re is an evid5ce ( !    
false n to be di/+ui%$ f t ( ! true1 z  
well z ! position t ,god becomes a      
deceiv] 9 ! be/[al ( a weak & bl9d      
reason--= he gives u1 at ! same "t1 !   
p[] to "k its deceptive "*4  ,z ! la/   
among ^? influ5c$ by ,desc>tes b :o     
advanc$ beyond him1 may be m5tion$ !    
acute ,pi]re ,bayle 7#afdg-agjf2        
pr(essor 9 ,s$an & ,rott]dam2 ,works1   
#agbe-caa71 :o greatly excit$ ! _w (    
lett]s by 8 occasional & polemic        

treatises1 & /ill m by ! j\rnal1        
,n\velles de la ,rpublique des ,lettres 
f #afhd1 & 8 ,hi/orical & ,critical     
,diction>y1 9 two volumes1 #afie &      
#afig4 ,n[h]e d ! mo/ opposite anti!ses 
dwell 9 su* close proximity z 9 ! m9d ( 
,bayle4 ,along ) an ev] wat*ful d\bt he 
h>bors a mo/ active zeal = k1 ) a s9c]e 
_s ( belief 7:i* has be5 wrongly disput$
 by ,lange1 ,zell]1 & ,pnj]7 a          
demoniacal pleasure 9 br++ to light     
absurdities 9 ! doctr9es ( fai?1 )      
absolute confid5ce 9 ! infallibility (  
consci5ce an entirely pessimi/ic view ( 
human morality4 ,8 /r5g? lies 9         
criticism & polemics1 8 "w 9 ! latt]    
7aside f 8 ho/ility to fanaticism & !   
p]secution ( ^? diff]+ 9 fai?7 be+      
direct$ *iefly aga9/ optimism & ! dei/ic
 religion ( reason1 :i* holds ! ,*ri/ian
 dogmas capable ( pro(1 or1 at lea/1    
fai? & k capable ( reconciliation4 ,!   
doctr9es ( fai? are n only above reason1
 incompreh5sible1 b contr>y to reason2 &
 x is j on ?is t our m]it 9 accept+ !m  

dep5ds4 ,! my/]ies ( ! ,gospel d n seek 
success be=e ! judgm5t seat ( ?\ght1 !y 
dem& ! bl9d submission ( ! reason2 nay1 
if !y 7 objects ( k !y w\ld cease to be 
my/]ies4 ,?us we mu/ *oose betwe5       
religion & philosophy1 = !y _c be       
comb9$4 ,= "o :o is conv9c$ ( !         
untru/wor?9ess ( ! reason & h] lack (   
compet5ce 9 ?+s sup]natural1 x is 9 no  
wise contradictory or impossible to     
receive z true ?+s :i* %e decl>es to be 
false2 he w ?ank ,god = ! gift ( a fai? 
:i* is entirely indep5d5t ( ! cle>ness (
 its objects & ( its agreem5t ) ! axioms
 ( philosophy4 ,ev51 :5 9 purely        
sci5tific que/ions he calls att5tion to 
difficulties & %[s contradictions on e  
h&1 ,bayle by no means int5ds to hold up
 pr9ciples ) contradictory implications 
z false1 b only z unc]ta94#b ,! reason1 
he says1 g5]aliz+ f 8 own case1 is      
capable only ( de/ruction1 n (          
con/ruction2 ( discov]+ error1 n ( f9d+ 
tru?2 ( f9d+ reasons & c\nt]-reasons1 ( 
excit+ d\bt & controv]sy1 n ( v\*saf+   

c]titude4 ,s long z x cont5ts itself )  
controv]t+ t :i* is false1 x is pot5t & 
salut>y2 b :51 despis+ div9e assi/ance1 
x advances beyond ?is1 x becomes        
dang]\s1 l a cau/ic drug :i* attacks !  
heal?y fle% aft] x has consum$ t :i* 0  
diseas$4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 on ,bayle1 
,l4 ,feu]ba*4 #ahch1 #b;d ed41 #ahdd2   
,euck5 9 ! ,allgeme9e ,zeitung1         
supplem5t to ,nos4 #bea1 #beb1 ,octob]  
#bg1 #bh1 #ahia4  ,footnote #b3 ,?us1 9 
reg>d to ! problem ( fre$om1 he f9ds x  
h>d to compreh5d h[ ! creatures1 :o are 
n ! au?ors ( _! own exi/5ce1 c be !     
au?ors ( _! own actions1 b1 at ! same   
"t1 inadmissible to ?9k ( ,god z ! cause
 ( evil4 ,he seeks only to %[ !         
indemon/rability & incompreh5sibility ( 
fre$om1 n to reject x4 ,= he sees 9 x ! 
condition ( morality1 & calls att5tion  
to ! fact t ! difficulties 9 :i* ^? :o  
d5y fre$om involve !mselves are f>      
great] ?an ^? ( _! oppon5ts4 ,he %[s    
himself entirely av]se to ! det]m9ism & 
pan!ism ( ,sp9oza4  ,he :o seeks to     

refute skepticism mu/ produce a crit]ion
 ( tru?4 ,if su* exi/s1 x is c]ta9ly t  
advanc$ by ,desc>tes1 ! evid5ce1 !      
evid5t cle>ness ( a pr9ciple4 ,well1 !n1
 ! foll[+ pr9ciples pass = evid5t3 ,t   
"o1 :o does n exi/1 c h no              
responsibility = an evil action2 t two  
?+s1 :i* are id5tical ) ! same ?+1 are  
id5tical ) ea* o!r2 t ,i am ! same man  
to-day t ,i 0 ye/]day4 ,n[1 ! reveal$   
doctr9es ( orig9al s9 & ( ! ,tr9ity %[ t
 ! fir/ & second ( ^! axioms are false1 
& ! ,*ur* doctr9e ( ! pres]vation ( ! _w
 z a cont9u\s creation1 t ! la/ pr9ciple
 is unc]ta94 ,?us if n ev5 self-evid5ce 
furni%es u a crit]ion ( tru?1 we mu/    
conclude t none :atev] exi/s4 ,fur!r1 9 
reg>d to ! orig9 ( ! _w f a s+le        
pr9ciple1 its creation by ,god1 we f9d  
?is support$1 no d\bt1 bo? by !         
conclusions ( ! pure reason & by !      
consid]ation ( nature1 b controv5$ by ! 
fact ( evil1 by ! mis]y & wick$ness (   
man4 ,is x conceivable t a holy &       
b5evol5t ,god has creat$ s unhappy &    

wick$ a be+8  ,bayle's motives 9 def5d+ 
fai? aga9/ reason 71 on ! "o h&1 8      
p]sonal piety1 on ! o!r1 8 conviction ( 
! unassailable purity ( ,*ri/ian e?ics4 
,all ! sects agree 9 reg>d to moral     
pr9ciples1 & x is ?is :i* assures u ( ! 
div9ity ( ! ,*ri/ian revelation4        
,nev]!less1 he does n conceal f himself 
! fact t possession ( ! !oretical side (
 religion is f> f be+ a gu>antee (      
practice 9 con=mity ) h] precepts4 ,x is
 nei!r true t fai? alone leads to       
morality nor t unbelief is ! cause (    
immorality4 ,a /ate compos$ ( a!i/s w\ld
 be n at all impossible1 if only /rict  
puni%m5ts & /rict notions ( honor 7     
insi/$ ^u4  ,! judgm5ts ( ! natural     
reason 9 moral que/ions are z c]ta9 &   
free f error z its capacity is %[n to be
 weak & limit$ 9 !oretical sci5ce4 ,!   
idea ( morality nev] deceives anyone2 ! 
moral law is innate 9 e man4 ,al?\gh    
,*ri/ianity has giv5 ! be/ developm5t ( 
our duties1 yet ! moral law c be        
und]/ood & foll[$ by all m51 ev5 by     

hea!n & a!i/s4 ,we d n ne$ to be        
,*ri/ians 9 ord] to act virtu\sly2 ! k  
giv5 by consci5ce is n dep5d5t ^u       
revelation4 ,f ! k ( ! good to !        
practice ( x is1 x is true1 a long /ep2 
we may be conv9c$ ( moral tru? )\t lov+ 
x1 & ,god's grace alone is able to      
/r5g!n u aga9/ ! p[] ( ! passions1 by   
add+ to ! illum9ation ( ! m9d an        
incl9ation ( ! he>t t[>d ! good4        
,temp]am5t1 cu/om1 self-love move ! s\l 
m /rongly ?an g5]al tru?s4 ,z 9 life    
pleasure is f> outbalanc$ by pa9 &      
vexation1 s f> m evil acts are done ?an 
good ones3 hi/ory is a collection (     
misde$s1 ) sc>cely "o virtu\s act = a   
?\s& crimes4 ,x is n ! ext]nal action t 
con/itutes ! e?ical "* ( a de$1 b !     
motive or disposition2 almsgiv+ f       
motives ( pride is a vice1 & only :5    
practic$ out ( love to "o's neighbors1 a
 virtue4 ,god looks only at ! act ( ! w2
 our highe/ duty1 & "o :i* admits ( no  
exceptions1 is nev] to act contr>y to   
consci5ce4    ,,*apt] ,,iv4  ,,locke4   

,aft] ! ,c>tesian philosophy _h giv5    
decisive expression to ! t5d5cies (     
mod]n ?\ght1 & _h be5 develop$ ?r\gh    
occasionalism to its completion 9 !     
sy/em ( ,sp9oza1 ! l9e ( fur!r progress 
consi/$ 9 two factors3 ,desc>tes's      
pr9ciples--"o-sid$ly rationali/ic &     
ab/ractly sci5tific1 z !y 7--71 on ! "o 
h&1 to be supplem5t$ by ! addition ( !  
empirical elem5t :i* ,desc>tes _h       
neglect$1 &1 on ! o!r1 to be made       
available = g5]al culture by            
approximation to ! int]e/s ( practical  
life4 ,engl&1 ) its fre] & happi]       
political conditions1 0 ! be/ place = ! 
accompli%m5t ( bo? ends1 & ,locke1 a    
typically heal?y & sob] ,engli% ?9k]1 ) 
a di/a/e = extreme views1 ! be/ adapt$  
m9d4 ,desc>tes1 ! rationali/1 _h despis$
 exp]i5ce1 & ,bacon1 ! empirici/1 _h    
despis$ ma!matics2 b ,locke aims to %[ t
 :ile ! reason is ! in/rum5t ( sci5ce1  
demon/ration its =m1 & ! realm ( k wid] 
?an exp]i5ce1 yet ?is in/rum5t & ?is =m 
are dep5d5t = _! cont5t on a supply (   

mat]ial f ! s5ses4 ,! emphasis1 x is    
true1 falls *iefly on ! latt] half ( ?is
 programme1 & po/]ity1 especially1 has  
almo/ exclusively att5d$ to ! empirical 
side ( ,locke's !ory ( k 9 giv+ judgm5t 
conc]n+ x4  ,john ,locke 0 born at      
,wr+ton1 n f> f ,bri/ol1 9 #afcb4 ,at   
,ox=d he busi$ himself ) philosophy1    
natural sci5ce1 & m$ic9e1 be+ repell$ by
 ! ,s*ola/ic ?9k]s1 b /rongly attract$  
by ! writ+s ( ,desc>tes4 ,9 #affe he    
became secret>y to ! ,engli% ambassador 
to ! ,c\rt ( ,br&5burg4 ,return+ !nce to
 ,ox=d he made ! acqua9tance ( ,"l      
,an?ony ,a%ley 7f #afgb ,e>l (          
,%aftesbury2 di$ 9 ,holl& #afhc71 :o    
receiv$ him into 8 own h\sehold z a     
fri5d1 physician1 & tutor to 8 son 7!   
fa!r ( ,%aftesbury1 ! moral philosoph]71
 & ) ^: v>y+ =tunes ,locke's own 7      
h5ce=? to be intimately connect$4 ,twice
 he became secret>y to 8 patron 7once 9 
#affg--) an (ficial secret>y%ip 9 #afgb1
 :5 ,%aftesbury became ,"l ,*ancellor--&
 aga9 9 #afgi1 :5 he became ,presid5t ( 

! ,c\ncil71 b bo? times he lo/ 8 po/ on 
8 fri5d's fall4 ,! ye>s #afge-gi 7 sp5t 
9 ,montpelli] & ,p>is4 ,9 #afhc he w5t  
into volunt>y exile 9 ,holl& 7:]e       
,%aftesbury _h di$ 9 ,janu>y ( ! same   
ye>71 & rema9$ !re until #afhi1 :5 !    
asc5sion ( ! ?rone by ,william ( ,orange
 made x possible = him to return to     
,engl&4 ,"h he 0 made ,commission] (    
,appeals1 &1 subsequ5tly1 "o ( !        
,commission]s ( ,trade & ,plantations   
7till #agjj74 ,he di$ 9 #agjd at ,gates1
 9 ,essex1 at ! h\se ( ,sir ,francis    
,ma%am1 ^: wife 0 ! daught] ( ,cudwor?1 
! philosoph]4  ,locke's *ief "w1 ,an    
,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 :i* _h  
be5 plann$ z e>ly z #afgj1 0 publi%$ 9  
#afhi-ij1 a %ort ab/ract ( x hav+       
previ\sly appe>$ 9 ,fr5* 9 ,le ,cl]c's  
,biblio?que ,univ]selle1 #afhh4 ,8      
!oretical works include1 fur!r1 ! two   
po/hum\s treatises1 ,on ! ,conduct ( !  
,und]/&+ 7orig9ally int5d$ =            
incorporation 9 ! f\r? edition ( !      
,essay1 :i*1 h[ev]1 appe>$ 9 #agjj )\t  

?is *apt]1 :i* probably _h prov$ too    
ext5d$7 & ! ,elem5ts ( ,natural         
,philosophy4 ,to political &            
politico-economic que/ions ,locke       
contribut$ ! two ,treatises on          
,gov]nm5t1 #afij1 & ?ree essays on money
 & ! co9age4 ,9 ! ye> #afhi appe>$ !    
fir/ ( ?ree ,lett]s on ,tol]ance1       
foll[$1 9 #afic1 by ,"s ,?\ghts on      
,education1 &1 9 #afie1 by ,!           
,reasonabl5ess ( ,*ri/ianity z deliv]$ 9
 ! ,scriptures4 ,! collect$ works appe>$
 = ! fir/ "t 9 #agad1 & 9 n9e volumes 9 
#ahec2 ! philosophical works 7edit$ by  
,/4 ,john7 are giv5 9 ,bonn's ,/&>d     
,libr>y 7#ahfg-fh74a  ,footnote #a3 ,"l 
,k+ & ,fox ,b\rne h writt5 on ,locke's  
life1 #ahbi & #ahgf4 ,a comp>ison (     
,locke's !ory ( k ) ,leibnitz's critique
 0 publi%$ by ,h>t5/e9 9 #ahfe1 & "o by 
,von ,b5oit 7prize diss]tation7 9 #ahfi1
 & an exposition ( 8 !ory ( sub/ance by 
,de ,fries 9 #ahgi4 ,victor ,c\s9's     
,philosophie de ,locke has pass$ ?r\gh  
six editions4 ,among m rec5t ,engli%    

discussions ref]5ce may be made to      
,gre5's ,introduction to ,hume's        
,treatise on ,human ,nature1 #ahgd 7new 
ed4 #ahij71 :i* is a valuable critique (
 ! l9e ( developm5t1 ,locke1 ,b]keley1  
,hume2 ,f[l]'s ,locke1 9 ! ,engli% ,m5 (
 ,lett]s1 #ahhj2 & ,fras]'s ,locke1 9   
,blackwood's ,philosophical ,classics1  
#ahij4--,,tr4  7a7 ,!ory ( ,k4--,locke's
 !ory ( k is controll$ by two t5d5cies1 
"o native1 furni%$ by ! ,baconian       
empiricism1 & ! o!r ,cont95tal1 suppli$ 
by ! ,c>tesian "q conc]n+ ! orig9 (     
ideas4 ,bacon _h dem&$ ! close/         
connection ) exp]i5ce z ! condition (   
fruitful inquiry4 ,locke supports ?is   
comm5dation ( exp]i5ce by a detail$     
description ( ! s]vices :i* x r5d]s to  
cognition1 namely1 by %[+ t1 9 simple   
ideas1 p]ception supplies ! mat]ial =   
complex ideas1 & = all ! cognitive "w ( 
! und]/&+4 ,desc>tes _h divid$ ideas1   
accord+ to _! orig91 into ?ree classes3 
^? :i* are self-=m$1 ^? :i* come f )\t1 
& ^? :i* are innate 7p4 #gi71 & _h call$

 ?is ?ird class ! mo/ valuable4 ,locke  
disputes ! exi/5ce ( ideas 9 ! und]/&+ f
 bir?1 & makes x receive ! elem5ts ( k f
 ! s5ses1 t is1 f )\t4 ,he is a         
repres5tative ( s5sationalism1--n 9 !   
/rict] s5se1 fir/ put into ! t]m by ^?  
:o subsequ5tly cont9u$ 8 endeavors1 t   
?\ght arises f p]ception1 t x is        
trans=m$ s5sation--b 9 ! wid] s5se1 t   
?\ght is 7free7 op]ation ) ideas1 :i*   
are nei!r creat$ by x nor pres5t 9 x f !
 fir/1 b giv5 to x by p]ception1 t1     
consequ5tly1 ! cognitive process beg9s )
 s5sation & s its fir/ attitude is a    
passive "o4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! ,c>tesian   
problem1 :i* he solves 9 a s5se opposite
 to ,desc>tes1 ,locke supplem5ts !      
empiricism ( ,bacon by bas+ x on a      
psy*ologically develop$ !ory ( k4 ,t 9 !
 c\rse ( ! inquiry he introduces a new  
pr9ciple1 :i* causes him to div]ge f !  
true empirical pa?1 w appe> 9 ! sequel4 
,! "q ,h[ our ideas come into ! m9d     
receives a negative answ] 79 ! fir/ book
 ( ! ,essay73 ,!re are no innate        

pr9ciples 9 ! m9d#a ,! doctr9e ( !      
innate "* ( c]ta9 pr9ciples is bas$ on  
_! univ]sal acceptance4 ,! ass]t$       
agreem5t ( mank9d 9 reg>d to ! laws (   
?\ght1 ! pr9ciples ( morality1 ! exi/5ce
 ( ,god1 etc41 is nei!r cog5t z an      
argum5t nor correct 9 fact4 ,9 ! fir/   
place1 ev5 if !re 7 any pr9ciples :i*   
ev]yone ass5t$ to1 ?is w\ld n prove t !y
 _h be5 creat$ 9 ! s\l2 ! fact ( g5]al  
cons5t w\ld admit ( a diff]5t           
explanation4 ,grant$ t no a!i/s exi/$1  
yet x w\ld n necess>ily foll[ t !       
univ]sal conviction ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god  
is innate1 = x might h be5 gradually    
rea*$ 9 ea* case ?r\gh ! use ( !        
reason--might h be5 inf]r$1 = in/ance1 f
 ! p]ception ( ! purposive "* ( ! _w4   
,second1 ! fact to :i* ?is !ory ( innate
 ideas appeals is n true4 ,no moral rule
 c be cit$ :i* is respect$ by all       
nations4 ,! idea ( id5tity is entirely  
unkn[n to idiots & to *ildr54 ,if ! laws
 ( id5tity & contradiction 7 innate !y  
mu/ appe> 9 consci\sness prior to all   

o!r tru?s2 b long be=e a *ild is        
consci\s ( ! proposition ,x is          
impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n to be1 
x kn[s t sweet is n bitt]1 & t black is 
n :ite4 ,! ideas fir/ kn[n are n g5]al  
axioms & ab/ract concepts1 b p>ticul>   
impressions ( ! s5ses4 ,w\ld nature     
write s illegible a h& t ! m9d mu/ wait 
a long "t be=e becom+ able to read :at  
_h be5 inscrib$ ^u x8 ,x is (t5 said1   
h[ev]1 t innate ideas & pr9ciples may be
 obscur$ &1 f9ally1 completely ext+ui%$ 
by habit1 education1 & o!r extr9sic     
circum/ances4 ,!n1 if !y gradually      
become corrupt$ & disappe>1 !y mu/ at   
lea/ be discov]able 9 full purity :]e ^!
 di/urb+ influ5ces h n yet act$2 b x is 
especially va9 to look = !m 9 *ildr5 & !
 ignorant4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ^! possess   
su* pr9ciples unconsci\sly2 p]haps !y   
are impr9t$ on ! und]/&+1 )\t be+ att5d$
 to8 ,?is w\ld be a contradiction 9     
t]ms4 ,to be 9 ! m9d or ! und]/&+ simply
 means to be und]/ood or to be kn[n2 no 
"o c h an idea )\t be+ consci\s ( x4    

,f9ally1 if ! attempt be made to expla9 
orig9ally 9 ! m9d 9 s wide a s5se t x   
w\ld include all tru?s :i* man c ev]    
atta9 or is capable ( discov]+ by ! "r  
use ( reason1 ?is w\ld make n only all  
ma!matical pr9ciples1 b all k 9 g5]al1  
all sci5ces1 & all arts innate2 !re w\ld
 be no gr\nd ev5 = ! exclusion ( wisdom 
& virtue4 ,!re=e1 ei!r all ideas are    
innate or none are4 ,?is is an important
 alt]native4 ,:ile ,locke decides = !   
second half ( ! proposition1 ,leibnitz  
def5ds ! fir/ by a delicate application 
( ! concept ( unconsci\s repres5tation &
 ( implicit k1 :i* 8 pr$ecessor rejects 
out ( h&4  ,footnote #a3 ,accord+ to    
,fox ,b\rne ?is fir/ book 0 writt5 aft] 
! o!rs4 ,geil 7,ueb] die ,abhngigkeit   
,lockes von ,desc>tes1 ,/rassburg1      
#ahhg1 *ap1 iii47 has endeavor$ to prove
 t1 s9ce ! argum5ts controv]t$ are want+
 9 ,desc>tes1 ! attack 0 n aim$ at      
,desc>tes & 8 s*ool1 b at native def5d]s
 ( innate ideas1 z ,"l ,h]b]t ( ,*]bury 
& ! ,engli% ,platoni/s 7,cudwor?1 ,m1   

,p>k]1 ,gale74 ,t along ) ^! ! ,c>tesian
 doctr9e 0 a second & *ief object (     
attack is %[n by ,b5no ,erdmann 9 8     
discussion ( ! treatises by ,g4 ,geil & 
,r4 ,somm] 7,lockes ,v]hltnis zu        
,desc>tes1 ,b]l91 #ahhg7 9 ! ,ar*iv fr  
,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 ii1 pp4      
#ii-aba4  ,locke's positive answ] to !  
"q conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ideas is giv5 9 8  
second book4 ,ideas are n pres5t 9 !    
und]/&+ f ! beg9n+1 nor are !y orig9at$ 
by ! und]/&+1 b receiv$ ?r\gh s5sation4 
,! und]/&+ is l a piece ( :ite pap] on  
:i* p]ception inscribes its *>act]s4    
,all k arises 9 exp]i5ce4 ,?is is ( two 
k9ds1 d]iv$ ei!r f ! ext]nal s5ses or ! 
int]nal s5se4 ,! p]ception ( ext]nal    
objects is t]m$ ,s5sation1 t ( int]nal  
ph5om5a 7( ! /ates ( ! m9d itself7      
,reflection4 ,ext]nal & int]nal         
p]ception are ! only w9d[s ?r\gh :i* !  
light ( ideas p5etrates into ! d>k *amb]
 ( ! und]/&+4 ,! two are n op5$         
simultane\sly1 h[ev]1 b "o aft] ! o!r2  
s9ce ! p]ceptions ( ! s5sible qualities 

( bodies1 unlike t ( ! op]ations ( ! m9d
 itself1 d n require an ef=t ( att5tion1
 !y are ! e>li]4 ,! *ild receives ideas 
( s5sation be=e ^? ( reflection2 int]nal
 p]ception presupposes ext]nal          
p]ception4  ,9 ?is di/9ction betwe5     
s5sation & reflection1 we may recognize 
an aft]-effect ( ! ,c>tesian dualism    
betwe5 matt] & _s4 ,! anti!sis (        
sub/ances has become a duality 9 !      
faculties ( p]ception4 ,b :ile ,desc>tes
 _h s f> =? ascrib$ prec$5ce to ! m9d 9 
t he held ! self-c]titude ( ! ego to be 
! highe/ & cle>e/ ( all tru?s & ! s\l to
 be bett] kn[n ?an ! body1 9 ,locke !   
relation ( ! two 0 rev]s$1 s9ce he made 
! p]ception ( self dep5d5t on ! prec$5t 
p]ception ( ext]nal objects4 ,?is       
anti!sis 0 made /ill %>p] 9 lat] ?9k+1  
:5 ,condillac made full use ( ! priority
 ( s5sation1 :i* 9 ,locke _h rema9$ )\t 
mu* effect2 :ile ,b]keley1 on ! o!r h&1 
r$uc$ ext]nal p]ception to int]nal      
p]ception4  ,all orig9al ideas are      
repres5tations ei!r ( ! ext]nal s5ses or

 ( ! int]nal s5se1 or ( bo?4 ,& s9ce1 9 
! case ( ideas ( s5sation1 !re is a     
di/9ction betwe5 ^? :i* are p]ceiv$ by a
 s+le "o ( ! ext]nal s5ses & ^? :i* come
 f m ?an "o1 f\r classes ( simple ideas 
result3 7#a7 ,^? :i* come f "o ext]nal  
s5se1 z colors1 s\nds1 ta/es1 odors1    
heat1 solidity1 & ! l4 7#b7 ,^? :i* come
 f m ?an "o ext]nal s5se 7sight & t\*71 
z ext5sion1 figure1 & motion4 7#c7      
,reflection on ! op]ations ( our m9ds   
yields ideas ( p]ception or ?9k+ 7) its 
v>i\s modes1 remembrance1 judg+1 k1     
fai?1 etc471 & ( volition or will+4 7#d7
 ,f bo? ext]nal & int]nal p]ception !re 
come into ! m9d ! ideas ( pleasure &    
pa91 exi/5ce1 p[]1 unity1 & succession4 
,^! are approximately our orig9al ideas1
 :i* are relat$ to k z ! lett]s to      
writt5 disc\rse2 z all ,hom] is compos$ 
out ( only tw5ty-f\r lett]s1 s ^! few   
simple ideas con/itute all ! mat]ial (  
k4 ,! m9d c nei!r h m nor o!r simple    
ideas ?an ^? :i* are furni%$ to x by ^! 
two s\rces ( exp]i5ce4  ,locke diff]s f 

,desc>tes aga9 9 reg>d to ext5sion &    
?\ght4 ,ext5sion does n con/itute !     
ess5ce ( matt]1 nor ?\ght ! ess5ce (    
m9d4 ,ext5sion & body are n ! same2 !   
=m] is presuppos$ by ! latt] z its      
necess>y condition1 b x is ! =m] alone  
:i* yields ma!matical matt]4 ,! ess5ce (
 physical matt] consi/s r 9 solidity3   
:]e imp5etrability is f\nd !re is body1 
& ! conv]se2 ! two are absolutely       
insep>able4 ,) space ! case is diff]5t4 
,i _c conceive unext5d$ matt]1 inde$1 b 
,i c easily conceive immat]ial ext5sion1
 an unfill$ space ,fur!r1 if ! ess5ce ( 
! s\l consi/$ 9 ?\ght1 x mu/ be always  
?9k+4 ,z ! ,c>tesians ma9ta9$1 x mu/ h  
ideas z soon z x beg9s to be1 :i* is    
manife/ly contr>y to exp]i5ce4 ,?9k+ is 
m]ely an activity ( ! m9d1 z motion is  
an activity ( ! body1 & n its ess5tial  
*>act]i/ic4 ,! m9d does n receive ideas 
until ext]nal objects occasion p]ception
 9 x ?r\gh impressions1 :i* x is n able 
to av]t4 ,! und]/&+ may be comp>$ to a  
mirror1 :i*1 )\t indep5d5t activity &   

)\t be+ consult$1 takes up ! images (   
?+s4 ,"s ( ! simple ideas :i* h be5     
m5tion$ above repres5t ! prop]ties ( ?+s
 z !y really are1 o!rs n4 ,! =m] class  
includes all ideas ( reflection 7= we   
are ourselves ! imm$iate object ( ! inn]
 s5se72 b among ! ideas ( s5sation ^?   
only :i* come f diff]5t s5ses1 h5ce     
ext5sion1 motion & re/1 numb]1 figure1  
&1 fur!r1 solidity1 are to be acc\nt$   
prim>y qualities1 i4 e41 su* z are      
actual copies ( ! prop]ties ( bodies4   
,all o!r ideas1 on ! contr>y1 h no      
resemblance to prop]ties ( bodies2 !y   
repres5t m]ely ! ways 9 :i* ?+s act1 &  
are n copies ( ?+s4 ,! ideas ( second>y 
or d]ivative qualities 7h>d & s(t1 w>m &
 cold1 colors & s\nds1 ta/es & odors7   
are 9 ! la/ analysis caus$--z are !     
prim>y--by motion1 b n p]ceiv$ z su*4   
,yell[ & w>m are m]ely s5sations 9 u1   
:i* we errone\sly ascribe to objects2 ) 
equal "r we might ascribe to fire1 z    
qualities inh]5t 9 x1 ! *anges 9 =m &   
color :i* x produces 9 wax & ! pa9 :i* x

 causes 9 ! f+] br\ght into proximity ) 
x4 ,! w>m? & ! brightness ( ! blaze1 !  
r$ness1 ! pleasant ta/e1 & ! aromatic   
odor ( ! /rawb]ry1 exi/ 9 ^! bodies     
m]ely z ! p[] to produce su* s5sations 9
 u by /imulation ( ! sk91 ! eye1 !      
palate1 & ! nose4 ,if we remove !       
p]ceptions ( !m1 !y disappe> z su*1 & _!
 causes alone rema9--! bulk1 figure1    
numb]1 texture1 & motion ( ! ins5sible  
p>ticles4 ,! gr\nd ( ! illusion lies 9 !
 fact t su* qualities z color1 etc41 be>
 no resemblance to _! causes1 9 no wise 
po9t to ^!1 & 9 !mselves conta9 naught (
 bulk1 d5sity1 figure1 & motion1 & t our
 s5ses are too weak to discov] ! mat]ial
 p>ticles & _! prim>y qualities4--,!    
di/9ction betwe5 qualities ( ! fir/ &   
second ord]--fir/ advanc$ by ! anci5t   
atomi/s1 reviv$ by ,galileo & ,desc>tes 
on ! ?re%old ( ! mod]n p]iod1 reta9$ by 
,locke1 & /ill cu/om>y 9 ! natural      
sci5ce ( ! day--=ms an important l9k 9 !
 transition f ! popul> view ( all       
s5se-qualities z prop]ties ( ?+s 9      

!mselves to ,kant's position1 t spatial 
& temporal qualities also belong to     
ph5om5a alone1 & are bas$ m]ely on man's
 subjective mode ( appreh5sion1 :ile !  
real prop]ties ( ?+s 9 !mselves are     
unkn[able4  ,?us f> ! proc$ure ( !      
und]/&+ has be5 purely passive4 ,b      
besides ! capacity = passively receiv+  
simple ideas1 x possesses ! fur!r p[] ( 
v>i\sly comb9+ & ext5d+ ^! orig9al ideas
 :i* h come into x f )\t1 ( work+ ov] ! 
mat]ial giv5 9 s5sation by ! comb9ation1
 relation1 & sep>ation ( its v>i\s      
elem5ts4 ,9 ?is x is active1 b n        
creative4 ,x is n able to =m new simple 
ideas 7& j z little to de/roy su* z     
already exi/71 b only freely to comb9e !
 elem5ts furni%$ )\t its assi/ance by   
p]ception 7or1 foll[+ ! figure m5tion$  
above1 to comb9e into syllables & words 
! sep>ate lett]s ( s5sation74 ,complex  
ideas arise f simple ideas ?r\gh        
volunt>y comb9ation ( ! latt]4          
,p]ception is ! fir/ /ep t[>d k4 ,aft]  
p]ception ! mo/ indisp5sable faculty is 

ret5tion1 ! prolong$ consci\sness (     
pres5t ideas & ! revival ( ^? :i* h     
disappe>$1 or1 z x 71 h be5 put aside4  
,= an idea to be 9 ! memory means t !   
m9d has ! capacity to reproduce x at w1 
:]eupon x recognizes x z previ\sly      
exp]i5c$4 ,if our ideas are n fre%5$ up 
f "t to "t by new impressions ( ! same  
sort !y gradually fade out1 until f9ally
 7z ! idea ( color 9 "o become bl9d 9   
e>ly life7 !y completely disappe>4      
,ideas impress$ ^u ! m9d by frequ5t     
repetition are r>ely entirely lo/4      
,memory is ! basis = ! intellectual     
functions ( disc]nm5t & comp>ison1 (    
composition1 ab/raction1 & nam+4 ,s9ce1 
amid ! innum]able multitude ( ideas1 x  
is n possible to assign to ea* "o a     
def9ite sign1 ! indisp5sable condition (
 language is f\nd 9 ! p[] ( ab/raction1 
t is1 9 ! p[] ( g5]aliz+ ideas1 (       
comp\nd+ _m ideas into "o1 & ( indicat+ 
by ! names ( ! g5]al ideas1 or ( !      
classes & species1 ! p>ticul> ideas also
 :i* are conta9$ "u ^!4 ,"h is ! great  

di/9ction betwe5 man & ! brute4 ,! brute
 lacks language because he lacks 7n all 
und]/&+ :atev]1 e4g41 n a capacity1 ?\gh
 an imp]fect "o1 ( comp>ison &          
composition1 b7 ! faculty ( ab/raction &
 ( =m+ g5]al ideas4 ,! object ( language
 is simply ! quick & easy communication 
( our ?\ghts to o!rs1 n to give         
expression to ! real ess5ce ( objects4  
,words are n names = p>ticul> ?+s1 b    
signs ( g5]al ideas2 & ab/racta no?+ m  
?an an artifice = facilitat+            
intellectual int]c\rse4 ,?is            
abbreviation1 :i* aids 9 ! ex*ange (    
ideas1 involves ! dang] t ! creations ( 
! m9d d5ot$ by words w be tak5 = images 
( real g5]al ess5ces1 ( :i*1 9 fact1 !re
 are none 9 exi/5ce1 b only p>ticul>    
?+s4 ,9 ord] to prev5t anyone to :om ,i 
am speak+ f und]/&+ my words 9 a diff]5t
 s5se f ! "o int5d$1 x is necess>y = me 
to def9e ! complex ideas by analyz+ !m  
into _! elem5ts1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 to give
 examples 9 exp]i5ce ( ! simple ideas1  
:i* d n admit ( def9ition1 or to expla9 

!m by synonyms4 ,?us mu* f ,locke's     
philosophy ( language1 to :i* he devotes
 ! ?ird book ( ! ,essay4  ,complex      
ideas1 :i* are v num]\s1 may be divid$  
into ?ree classes3 ,modes1 ,sub/ances1 &
 ,relations4  ,modes 7/ates1 conditions7
 are su* comb9ations ( simple ideas :i* 
d n conta9 9 !m ! supposition ( subsi/+ 
by !mselves1 b are consid]$ z dep5d5cies
 on1 or affections ( sub/ances4 ,!y fall
 into two classes accord+ z !y are      
compos$ ( ! same simple ideas1 or simple
 ideas ( v>i\s k9ds2 ! =m] are call$    
simple1 ! latt] mix$1 modes4 ,"u ! =m]  
class belong1 = example1 a doz5 or a    
score1 ! idea ( :i* is compos$ ( simple 
units2 "u ! latt]1 runn+1 fight+1       
ob/9acy1 pr9t+1 !ft1 p>ricide4 ,!       
=mation ( mix$ modes is greatly influ5c$
 by national cu/oms4 ,v complicat$      
transactions 7sacrilege1 triumph1       
o/racism71 if (t5 consid]$ & discuss$1  
receive = ! sake ( brevity compreh5sive 
names1 :i* _c be r5d]$ by a s+le        
expression 9 ! language ( o!r nations   

among :om ! cu/om 9 "q is n f\nd4 ,!    
elem5ts mo/ frequ5tly employ$ 9 !       
=mation ( mix$ modes are ideas ( ! two  
fundam5tal activities1 ?9k+ & motion1   
toge!r ) p[]1 :i* is _! s\rce4 ,locke   
discusses simple modes 9 m detail1      
especially ^? d]iv$ f ! ideas ( space1  
"t1 unity1 & p[]4 ,modifications ( space
 are di/ance1 figure1 place1 l5g?2 s9ce 
any l5g? or measure ( space c be repeat$
 to inf9ity1 we rea* ! idea ( imm5sity4 
,z modes ( "t are enum]at$ succession   
7:i* we p]ceive & measure only by ! fl[ 
( our ideas71 duration1 & l5g?s or      
measures ( duration1 ! endless          
repetition ( :i* yields ! idea (        
et]nity4 ,f unity are develop$ ! modes (
 numb]s1 & f ! unlimit$ness ( ^! ! idea 
( inf9ity4 ,no idea1 h[ev]1 is ri*] 9   
modes ?an ! idea ( p[]4 ,a di/9ction mu/
 be made betwe5 active p[] & passive    
p[]1 or m]e receptivity4 ,:ile bodies   
are n capable ( orig9at+ motion1 b only 
( communicat+ motion receiv$1 we notice 
9 ourselves1 z spiritual be+s1 !        

capacity ( orig9at+ actions & motions4  
,! body possesses only ! passive p[] (  
be+ mov$1 ! m9d ! active p[] ( produc+  
motion4 ,?is latt] is t]m$ w4 ,"h ,locke
 discusses at l5g? ! fre$om ( ! w1 b n )
 entire cle>ness & fre$om f             
contradictions 7cf4 bel[74  ,modes are  
conditions :i* d n subsi/ ( !mselves1 b 
h ne$ ( a basis or support2 !y are n    
conceivable ap>t f a ?+ ^: prop]ties or 
/ates !y are4 ,we notice t c]ta9        
qualities always appe> toge!r1 &        
habitually ref] !m to a sub/ratum z !   
gr\nd ( _! unity2 9 :i* !y subsi/ or f  
:i* !y proce$4 ,sub/ance d5otes ?is     
self-exi/5t we "k n :at1 :i* has or be>s
 ! attributes 9 itself1 & :i* ar\ses !  
ideas ( !m 9 u4 ,x is ! comb9ation ( a  
numb] ( simple ideas :i* are presum$ to 
belong to "o ?+4 ,f ! ideas ( s5sation !
 und]/&+ composes ! idea ( body1 & f !  
ideas ( reflection t ( m9d4 ,ea* ( ^! is
 j z cle> & j z obscure z ! o!r2 ( ea*  
we "k only its effects & its s5su\s     
prop]ties2 its ess5ce is = u entirely   

unkn[able4 ,in/ead ( ! cu/om>y names1   
mat]ial & immat]ial sub/ances1 ,locke   
recomm5ds cogitative & incogitative     
sub/ances1 s9ce x is n inconceivable t !
 ,creator may h end[$ "s mat]ial be+s ) 
! capacity ( ?\ght4 ,god1--! idea ( :om 
is atta9$ by unit+ ! ideas ( exi/5ce1   
p[]1 might1 k1 & happ9ess ) t (         
inf9ity1--is absolutely immat]ial1      
because n passive1 :ile f9ite spirits   
7:i* are bo? active & passive7 are      
p]haps only bodies :i* possess ! p[] (  
?9k+4  ,:ile ! ideas ( sub/ances are    
ref]r$ to a reality )\t ! m9d z _!      
ar*etype1 to :i* !y are to con=m & :i*  
!y %\ld image & repres5t1 ,relations    
7e4g41 husb&1 great]7 are free & imman5t
 products ( ! und]/&+4 ,!y are n copies 
( real ?+s1 b repres5t !mselves alone1  
are _! own ar*etypes4 ,we d n ask :e!r  
!y agree ) ?+s1 b1 conv]sely1 :e!r ?+s  
agree ) !m 7,book iv4 #d4e74 ,! m9d     
rea*es an idea ( relation by plac+ two  
?+s side by side & comp>+ !m4 ,if x     
p]ceives t a ?+1 or a quality1 or an    

idea beg9s to exi/ ?r\gh ! op]ation ( "s
 o!r ?+1 x d]ives f ?is ! idea ( !      
causal relation1 :i* is ! mo/           
compreh5sive ( all relations1 s9ce all t
 is actual or possible c be br\ght "u x4
 ,cause is t :i* makes ano!r ?+ to beg9 
to be2 effect1 t :i* _h its beg9n+ f "s 
o!r ?+4 ,! production ( a new quality is
 t]m$ alt]ation2 ( artificial ?+s1 mak+2
 ( a liv+ be+1 g5]ation2 ( a new p>ticle
 ( matt]1 creation4 ,next 9 importance  
is ! relation ( id5tity & div]sity4     
,s9ce x is impossible = a ?+ to be 9 two
 diff]5t places at ! same "t & = two ?+s
 to be at ! same "t 9 ! same place1     
ev]y?+ t at a giv5 in/ant is 9 a giv5   
place is id5tical ) itself1 &1 on ! o!r 
h&1 di/9ct f ev]y?+ else 7no matt] h[   
great ! resemblance betwe5 !m7 t at !   
same mom5t exi/s 9 ano!r place4 ,space &
 "t !re=e =m ! pr9cipium                
individuationis4 ,by :at m>ks1 h[ev]1   
may we recognize ! id5tity ( an         
individual at diff]5t times & 9 diff]5t 
places8 ,! id5tity ( inorganic matt]    

dep5ds on ! cont9uity ( ! mass ( atoms  
:i* compose x2 t ( liv+ be+s ^u !       
p]man5t organization ( _! p>ts 7diff]5t 
bodies are unit$ into "o animal by a    
common life72 p]sonal id5tity consi/s 9 
! unity ( self-consci\sness1 n 9 !      
cont9uity ( bodily exi/5ce 7:i* is at   
once exclud$ by ! *ange ( matt]74 ,!    
id5tity ( ! p]son or ! ego mu/ be       
c>efully di/+ui%$ f t ( sub/ance & (    
man4 ,x w\ld n be impossible = ! p]son  
to rema9 ! same 9 a *ange ( sub/ances1 9
 s f> z ! diff]5t be+s 7= in/ance1 !    
s\ls ( ,epicurus & ,gass5di7 p>ticipat$ 
9 ! same self-consci\sness2 &1          
conv]sely1 = a _s to appe> 9 two p]sons 
by los+ ! consci\sness ( its previ\s    
exi/5ce4 ,consci\sness is ! sole        
condition ( ! self1 or p]sonal          
id5tity4--,! det]m9ations ( space & "t  
are = ! mo/ "p relations4 ,our answ]s to
 ! que/ions ,:58 ,h[ long8 ,h[ l>ge8    
d5ote ! di/ance ( "o po9t ( "t f ano!r  
7e4g41 ! bir? ( ,*ri/71 ! relation ( "o 
duration to ano!r 7( a revolution ( !   

sun71 ! relation ( "o ext5sion to ano!r 
well-kn[n "o tak5 z a /&>d4 ,_m app>5tly
 positive ideas & words1 z "y & old1    
l>ge & small1 weak & /rong1 are 9 fact  
relative4 ,!y imply m]ely ! relation ( a
 giv5 duration ( life1 ( a giv5 size &  
/r5g?1 to t :i* has be5 adopt$ z a /&>d 
= ! class ( ?+s 9 "q4 ,a man ( tw5ty is 
call$ "y1 b a horse ( l age1 old2 &     
nei!r ( ^! measures ( "t applies to />s 
or diamonds4 ,moral relations1 :i* are  
bas$ on a comp>ison ( man's volunt>y    
actions ) "o ( ! ?ree moral laws1 w be  
discuss$ bel[4  ,! inquiry n[ turns f ! 
orig9 ( ideas to _! cognitive value or  
_! validity1 beg9n+ 79 ! conclud+ *apt]s
 ( ! second book7 ) ! accuracy ( s+le   
ideas1 & advanc+ 79 ,book iv41 :i* is ! 
mo/ important 9 ! :ole "w7 to ! tru? (  
judgm5ts4 ,an idea is real :5 x con=ms  
to its ar*etype1 :e!r ?is is a ?+1 real 
or possible1 or an idea ( "s o!r ?+2 x  
is adequate :5 ! con=mity is complete4  
,! idea ( a f\r-sid$ triangle or ( brave
 c[>dice is unreal or fanta/ical1 s9ce x

 is compos$ ( incompatible elem5ts1 & ! 
idea ( a c5taur1 s9ce x unites simple   
ideas 9 a way 9 :i* !y d n occur 9      
nature4 ,! layman's ideas ( law or (    
*emical sub/ances are real1 b           
inadequate1 s9ce !y h a g5]al           
resemblance to ^? ( exp]ts1 & a basis 9 
reality1 b yet only imp]fectly repres5t 
_! ar*etypes4 ,nay1 fur!r1 our ideas (  
sub/ances are all inadequate1 n only :5 
!y are tak5 = repres5tations ( ! inn]   
ess5ces ( ?+s 7s9ce we d n "k ^!        
ess5ces71 b also :5 !y are consid]$     
m]ely z collections ( qualities4 ,! copy
 nev] includes all ! qualities ( ! ?+1 !
 less s s9ce ! majority ( ^! are p[]s1  
i4e41 consi/ 9 relations to o!r objects1
 & s9ce x is impossible1 ev5 9 ! case ( 
a s+le body1 to discov] all ! *anges :i*
 x is fitt$ to imp>t to1 or to receive  
f1 o!r sub/ances4 ,ideas ( modes &      
relations are all adequate1 = !y are _! 
own ar*etypes1 are n int5d$ to repres5t 
any?+ o!r ?an !mselves1 are images )\t  
orig9als4 ,an idea ( ?is k9d1 h[ev]1    

?\gh p]fect :5 orig9ally =m$1 may become
 imp]fect ?r\gh ! use ( language1 :5 x  
is unsuccessfully int5d$ to agree ) !   
idea ( "s o!r p]son & d5om9at$ by a     
curr5t t]m4 ,9 ! case ( mix$ modes & _! 
names1 !re=e1 ! compatibility ( _!      
elem5ts & ! possible exi/5ce ( _!       
objects are n en\gh to secure _! reality
 & _! complete adequacy2 9 ord] to be   
adequate !y mu/1 fur!r1 exactly con=m to
 ! mean+ connect$ ) _! names by _!      
au?or1 or 9 common use4 ,simple ideas   
are be/ (f1 accord+ to ,locke1 9 reg>d  
bo? to reality & to adequacy4 ,= ! mo/  
"p1 x is true1 !y are n accurate copies 
( ! real qualities1 ( ?+s1 b only !     
regul> effects ( ! p[]s ( ?+s4 ,b al?\gh
 real qualities are ?us only ! causes & 
n ! patt]ns ( s5sations1 /ill simple    
ideas1 by _! con/ant correspond5ce )    
real qualities1 suffici5tly fulfill _!  
div9ely orda9$ end1 to s]ve u z         
in/rum5ts ( k1 i4e41 9 ! discrim9ation (
 ?+s4--,an unreal & inadequate idea     
becomes false only :5 x is ref]r$ to an 

object1 :e!r ?is be ! exi/5ce ( a ?+1 or
 its true ess5ce1 or an idea ( o!r ?+s4 
,tru? & error belong always to          
affirmations or negations1 t is1 to 7x  
may be1 tacit7 propositions4 ,ideas     
uncomb9$1 unrelat$1 ap>t f judgm5ts1    
ideas1 t is1 z m]e ph5om5a 9 ! m9d1 are 
nei!r true nor false4  ,k is def9$ z !  
p]ception ( ! connexion & agreem5t1 or  
disagreem5t & repugnancy ( two ideas2   
tru?1 z ! "r jo9+ or sep>at+ ( signs1   
i4e41 ideas or words4 ,! object ( k is  
nei!r s+le ideas nor ! relations ( ideas
 to ?+s1 b ! relations ( ideas among    
!mselves4 ,?is view 0 at once p>adoxical
 & pregnant4 ,if all cognition1 z ,locke
 sugge/s 9 objection to 8 own !ory1     
consi/s 9 p]ceiv+ ! agreem5t or         
disagreem5t ( our ideas1 are n ! visions
 ( ! en?usia/ & ! reason+s ( sob] ?9k]s 
alike c]ta98 are n ! propositions1 ,a   
fairy is n a c5taur1 & a c5taur is a    
liv+ be+1 j z true z t a circle is n a  
triangle1 & t ! sum ( ! angles ( a      
triangle is equal to two "r angles8 ,!  

m9d directly p]ceives no?+ b its own    
ideas1 b x seeks a k ( ?+s6 ,if ?is is  
possible x c only be indirect k--! m9d  
kn[s ?+s ?r\gh its ideas1 & possesses   
crit]ia :i* %[ t its ideas agree ) ?+s4 
,two cases mu/ be cle>ly di/+ui%$1 = a  
consid]able numb] ( our ideas1 viz41 all
 complex ideas except ^? ( sub/ances1   
make no claim to repres5t ?+s1 &        
consequ5tly _c repres5t !m falsely4 ,=  
ma!matical & moral ideas & pr9ciples1 & 
! tru? !re(1 x is entirely immat]ial    
:e!r ?+s & conditions correspond5t to !m
 exi/ 9 nature or n4 ,!y are valid1 ev5 
if n[h]e actualiz$2 !y are et]nal tru?s1
 n 9 ! s5se t !y are kn[n f *ildhood1 b 
9 ! s5se t1 z soon z kn[n1 !y are       
imm$iately ass5t$ to4#a ,! case is      
diff]5t1 h[ev]1 ) simple ideas & ! ideas
 ( sub/ances1 :i* h _! orig9als )\t !   
m9d & :i* are to correspond ) ^!4 ,9    
reg>d to ! =m] we may always be c]ta9 t 
!y agree ) real ?+s1 = s9ce ! m9d c     
nei!r volunt>ily orig9ate !m 7e4g41 _c  
produce s5sations ( color 9 ! d>k7 nor  

avoid hav+ !m at w1 b only receive !m f 
)\t1 !y are n creatures ( ! fancy1 b !  
natural & regul> productions ( ext]nal  
?+s affect+ u4 ,9 reg>d to ! latt]1 !   
ideas ( sub/ances1 we may be c]ta9 at   
lea/ :5 ! simple ideas :i* compose !m h 
be5 f\nd s connect$ 9 exp]i5ce4         
,p]ception has an ext]nal cause1 ^:     
influ5ce ! m9d is n able to )/&4 ,!     
mutual corroboration furni%$ by !       
reports ( ! diff]5t s5ses1 ! pa9fulness 
( c]ta9 s5sations1 ! cle> di/9ction     
betwe5 ideas f actual p]ception & ^? f  
memory1 ! possibility ( produc+ &       
pr$ict+ new s5sations ( an entirely     
def9ite nature 9 ourselves & 9 o!rs1 by 
means ( *anges :i* we effect 9 ! ext]nal
 _w 7e4g4 by writ+ d[n a ^w7--^! give   
fur!r ju/ification = ! tru/ :i* we put 9
 ! s5ses4 ,no "o w be s skeptical z to  
d\bt 9 e>ne/ ! exi/5ce ( ! ?+s :i* he   
sees & t\*es1 & to decl>e 8 :ole life to
 be a deceptive dream4 ,! c]titude :i*  
p]ception af=ds conc]n+ ! exi/5ce (     
ext]nal objects is inde$ n an absolute  

"o1 b x is suffici5t = ! ne$s ( life & !
 gov]nm5t ( our actions2 x is z c]ta9 z 
our happ9ess or mis]y1 beyond :i* we h  
no conc]nm5t1 ei!r ( kn[+ or be+4 ,9    
reg>d to ! pa/ ! te/imony ( ! s5ses is  
supplem5t$ by memory1 9 :i* c]ta9ty 9   
reg>d to ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ?+s        
previ\sly p]ceiv$ is trans=m$ into high 
probability2 :ile 9 reg>d to ! exi/5ce (
 o!r f9ite spirits1 numb]less k9ds ( :i*
 may be conjectur$ to exi/1 ?\gh _!     
exi/5ce is q beyond our p[]s (          
p]ception1 c]titude s9ks into m]e 7?\gh 
well-gr\nd$7 fai?4  ,footnote #a3 ,?us x
 results t k1 al?\gh dep5d5t on exp]i5ce
 = all its mat]ials1 ext5ds beyond      
exp]i5ce4 ,! und]/&+ is completely b\nd 
9 ! reception ( simple ideas2 less s 9 !
 comb9ation ( ^! into complex ideas2    
absolutely free 9 ! act ( comp>ison1 :i*
 x c omit at w2 f9ally1 aga91 completely
 b\nd 9 its recognition ( ! relation 9  
:i* ! ideas x has *os5 to comp>e /& to  
"o ano!r4 ,!re is room = *oice only 9 ! 
int]m$iate /age ( ! cognitive process2  

at ! beg9n+ 79 ! reception ( ! simple   
ideas ( p]ception1 a1 b1 c1 d71 & at !  
end 79 judg+ h[ ! concepts a b c & a b d
 /& relat$ to ea* o!r71 ! und]/&+ is    
completely det]m9$4  ,m c]ta9 ?an our   
s5sitive k ( ! exi/5ce ( ext]nal        
objects1 are our imm$iate or intuitive k
 ( our own exi/5ce & our m$iate or      
demon/rative k ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,e   
idea t we h1 e pa91 e ?\ght assures u ( 
our own exi/5ce4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god1     
h[ev]1 z ! inf9ite cause ( all reality1 
end[$ ) intellig5ce1 w1 & supreme p[]1  
is inf]r$ f ! exi/5ce & con/itution ( ! 
_w & ( ourselves4 ,reality exi/s2 ! real
 _w is compos$ ( matt] 9 motion & ?9k+  
be+s1 & is h>moni\sly ord]$4 ,s9ce x is 
impossible = any real be+ to be produc$ 
by no?+1 & s9ce we obta9 no satisfactory
 answ] to ! "q ( orig9 until we rise to 
some?+ exi/5t f all et]nity1 we mu/     
assume z ! cause ( t :i* exi/s an       
,et]nal ,be+1 :i* possesses 9 a high]   
degree all ! p]fections :i* x has be/[$ 
^u ! creatures4 ,z ! cause ( matt] &    

motion1 & z ! s\rce ( all p[]1 ?is ,be+ 
mu/ be omnipot5t2 z ! cause ( beauty &  
ord] 9 ! _w1 &1 above all1 z ! creator (
 ?9k+ be+s1 x mu/ be omnisci5t4 ,b ^!   
p]fections are ^? :i* we comb9e 9 ! idea
 ( ,god4  ,intuitive k is ! highe/ ( !  
?ree degrees ( k4 ,x is ga9$ :5 ! m9d   
p]ceives ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( two
 ideas at fir/ sight1 )\t hesitation1 & 
)\t ! int]v5tion ( any ?ird idea4 ,?is  
imm$iate k is self-evid5t1 irresi/ible1 
& expos$ to no d\bt4 ,k is demon/rative 
:5 ! m9d p]ceives ! agreem5t 7or        
disagreem5t7 ( two ideas1 n by plac+ !m 
side by side & comp>+ !m1 b ?r\gh ! aid 
( o!r ideas4 ,! int]m$iate l9ks are     
call$ pro(s2 _! discov]y is ! "w ( !    
reason1 & quickness 9 f9d+ !m out is    
t]m$ sagacity4 ,! great] ! numb] ( !    
int]m$iate /eps1 ! m ! cle>ness &       
di/9ctness ( ! k decreases1 & ! m !     
possibility ( error increases4 ,9 ord] =
 an argum5t 7e4 g41 t a  d7 to be       
conclusive1 e p>ticul> /ep 9 x 7a  b1 b 
c1 c  d7 mu/ possess intuitive c]ta9ty4 

,ma!matics is n ! only example (        
demon/rative k1 b ! mo/ p]fect "o1 s9ce 
9 ma!matics1 by ! aid ( visible symbols1
 ! full equality & ! lea/ diff]5ces     
among ideas may be exactly measur$ &    
%>ply det]m9$4  ,besides real exi/5ce   
,locke1 unsy/ematically en\gh1 enum]ates
 ?ree o!r sorts ( agreem5t betwe5       
ideas1--9 ! p]ception ( :i* he makes k  
consi/1--viz41 id5tity or div]sity 7blue
 is n yell[71 relation 7:5 equals are   
add$ to equals ! results are equal71 &  
coexi/5ce or necess>y connexion 7gold is
 fix$74 ,we are be/ (f 9 reg>d to ! k ( 
! fir/ ( ^!1 id5tity or div]sity1 = "h  
our intuition ext5ds z f> z our ideas1  
s9ce we recognize e idea1 z soon z x    
arises1 z id5tical ) itself & diff]5t f 
o!rs4 ,we are wor/ (f 9 reg>d to        
necess>y connexion4 ,we "k some?+1      
inde$1 conc]n+ ! incompatibility or     
coexi/5ce ( c]ta9 prop]ties 7e4 g41 t ! 
same object _c h two diff]5t sizes or   
colors at ! same "t2 t figure _c exi/   
ap>t f ext5sion73 b x is only 9 reg>d to

 a few qualities & p[]s ( bodies t we   
are able to discov] dep5d5ce & necess>y 
connexion by intuitive or demon/rative  
?\ght1 :ile 9 mo/ cases we are dep5d5t  
on exp]i5ce1 :i* gives u in=mation      
conc]n+ p>ticul> cases only1 & af=ds no 
gu>antee t ?+s are ! same beyond ! sph]e
 ( our obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,s9ce     
empirical inquiry furni%es no c]ta9 &   
univ]sal k1 & s9ce ! assumption t l     
bodies w 9 ! same circum/ances h l      
effects is only a conjecture f analogy1 
natural sci5ce 9 ! /rict s5se does n    
exi/4 ,bo? ma!matics & e?ics1 h[ev]1    
belong 9 ! sph]e ( ! demon/rative k (   
relations4 ,! pr9ciples ( e?ics are z   
capable ( exact demon/ration z ^? (     
ari?metic & geometry1 al?\gh _! und]ly+ 
ideas are m complex1 m involv$1 h5ce m  
expos$ to misund]/&+1 & lack+ 9 visible 
symbols2 ?\gh ^! defects c1 & %\ld1 9 "p
 be made good by c>eful & /rictly       
consi/5t def9itions4 ,su* moral         
pr9ciples z :]e !re is no prop]ty !re is
 no inju/ice1 or no gov]nm5t all[s      

absolute lib]ty1 are z c]ta9 z any      
proposition 9 ,euclid4  ,! advantage ( !
 ma!matical & moral sci5ces ov] !       
physical sci5ces consi/s 9 ! fact t1 9 !
 =m]1 ! real & nom9al ess5ces ( _!      
objects co9cide1 :ile 9 ! latt] !y d n2 
&1 fur!r1 t ! real ess5ces ( sub/ances  
are beyond our k4 ,! true inn]          
con/itution ( bodies1 ! root :5ce all _!
 qualities1 & ! coexi/5ce ( ^!1         
necess>ily proce$1 is completely unkn[n 
to u2 s t we are unable to d$uce !m f x4
 ,ma!matical & moral ideas1 on ! o!r h&1
 & _! relations1 are entirely           
accessible1 = !y are ! products ( our   
own volunt>y op]ations4 ,!y are n copi$ 
f ?+s1 b are ar*etypal = reality & ne$  
no confirmation f exp]i5ce4 ,! connexion
 con/itut$ by our und]/&+ betwe5 ! ideas
 crime & puni%m5t 7e4 g41 ! proposition3
 crime des]ves puni%m5t7 is valid1 ev5  
?\gh no crime _h ev] be5 committ$1 &    
none ev] puni%$4 ,exi/5ce is n at all   
involv$ 9 univ]sal propositions2 g5]al k
 lies only 9 our own ?\ghts1 & consi/s  

b>ely 9 ! contemplation ( our own       
ab/ract ideas & _! relations4 ,! tru?s (
 ma!matics & e?ics are bo? univ]sal &   
c]ta91 :ile 9 natural sci5ce s+le       
obs]vations & exp]im5ts are c]ta91 b n  
g5]al1 & g5]al propositions are only m  
or less probable4 ,bo? ! p>ticul>       
exp]im5ts & ! g5]al conclusions are (   
great value "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 b !y 
d n meet ! requirem5ts ( compreh5sive & 
c]ta9 k4  ,! ext5t ( our k is v         
limit$--mu* less1 9 fact1 ?an t ( our   
ignorance4 ,= our k rea*es no fur!r ?an 
our ideas1 & ! possibility ( p]ceiv+ _! 
agreem5ts4 ,_m ?+s exi/ ( :i* we h no   
ideas--*iefly because ( ! fewness ( our 
s5ses & _! lack ( acut5ess--& j z _m (  
:i* our ideas are only imp]fect4        
,moreov]1 we are (t5 able nei!r to comm&
 ! ideas :i* we really possess1 or at   
lea/ might atta91 nor to p]ceive _!     
connexions4 ,! ideas :i* are lack+1 ^?  
:i* are undiscov]able1 ^? :i* are n     
comb9$1 are ! causes ( ! n>r[ limits (  
human k4  ,!re are two ways by :i* k may

 be ext5d$3 by exp]i5ce1 on ! "o h&1 &1 
on ! o!r1 by ! elevation ( our ideas to 
a /ate ( cle>ness & di/9ctness1 toge!r )
 ! discov]y & sy/ematic arrangem5t ( ^? 
int]m$iate ideas :i* exhibit ! relation 
( o!r ideas1 9 !mselves n imm$iately    
comp>able4 ,! syllogism1 z an artificial
 =m1 is ( little value 9 ! p]ception ( !
 agreem5ts betwe5 ^! int]m$iate & f9al  
t]ms1 & ( none :atev] 9 ! discov]y ( !  
=m]4 ,analytical & id5tical propositions
 :i* m]ely explicate ! conception ( !   
subject1 b express no?+ n already kn[n1 
are1 9 spite ( _! indefeasible c]titude1
 valueless = ! ext5sion ( k1 & :5 tak5 =
 m ?an v]bal explanations1 m]e          
absurdities4 ,ev5 ^? mo/ g5]al          
propositions1 ^? pr9ciples :i* are s mu*
 talk$ ( 9 ! s*ools1 lack ! utility :i* 
is s commonly ascrib$ to !m4 ,maxims    
are1 x is true1 fit in/rum5ts = !       
communication ( k already acquir$1 & 9  
le>n$ disputations may p]=m indisp5sable
 s]vice 9 sil5c+ oppon5ts1 or 9 br++ !  
dispute to a conclusion2 b !y are (     

little or no use 9 ! discov]y ( new     
tru?4 ,x is a mi/ake to believe t       
special cases 7z #e  #b  #c1 or #e  #a  
#d7 are dep5d5t on ! tru? ( ! ab/ract   
rule 7! :ole is equal to ! sum ( its    
p>ts71 t !y are confirm$ by x & mu/ be  
d]iv$ f x4 ,! p>ticul> & concrete is n  
only z cle> & c]ta9 z ! g5]al maxim1 b  
bett] kn[n ?an ?is1 z well z e>li] & m  
easily p]ceiv$4 ,nay1 fur!r1 9 cases :]e
 ideas are confus$ & ! mean+s ( words   
d\btful1 ! use ( axioms is dang]\s1 s9ce
 !y may easily l5d ! appe>ance ( prov$  
tru? to ass]tions :i* are really        
contradictory4  ,betwe5 ! cle> daylight 
( c]ta9 k & ! d>k night ( absolute      
ignorance comes ! twilight (            
probability4 ,we f9d ourselves dep5d5t  
on op9ion & presumption1 or judgm5t bas$
 ^u probability1 :5 exp]i5ce &          
demon/ration leave u 9 ! lur* & we are1 
nev]!less1 *all5g$ to a decision by     
vital ne$s :i* brook no delay4 ,! judge 
& ! hi/orian mu/ conv9ce !mselves f !   
reports ( witnesses conc]n+ ev5ts :i* !y

 h n !mselves obs]v$2 & ev]yone is      
compell$ by ! int]e/s ( life1 ( duty1 & 
( et]nal salvation to =m conclusions    
conc]n+ ?+s :i* lie beyond ! limits ( 8 
own p]ception & reflective ?\ght1 nay1  
:i* transc5d all human exp]i5ce &       
rigor\s demon/ration :atev]4 ,to delay  
decision & action until absolute c]ta9ty
 _h be5 atta9$1 w\ld sc>cely all[ u to  
lift a s+le f+]4 ,9 cases conc]n+ ev5ts 
9 ! pa/1 ! future1 or at a di/ance1 we  
rely on ! te/imony ( o!rs 7te/+ _!      
reports by consid]+ _! cr$ibility z     
witnesses & ! con=mity ( ! evid5ce to   
g5]al exp]i5ce 9 l cases72 9 reg>d to   
que/ions conc]n+ t :i* is absolutely    
beyond exp]i5ce1 e4g41 high] ord]s (    
spirits1 or ! ultimate causes ( natural 
ph5om5a1 analogy is ! only help we h4   
,if ! witnesses conflict among !mselves1
 or ) ! usual c\rse ( nature1 ! gr\nds  
pro & con mu/ be c>efully balanc$2      
frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 ! degree ( probability
 atta9$ is s great t our ass5t is almo/ 
equival5t to complete c]ta9ty4 ,no "o   

d\bts1--al?\gh x is impossible = him to 
"k1--t ,caes> conqu]$ ,pompey1 t gold is
 ductile 9 ,au/ralia z else:]e1 t iron w
 s9k to-morr[ z well z to-day4 ,?us     
op9ion supplem5ts ! lack ( c]ta9 k1 &   
s]ves z a guide = belief & action1 :]ev]
 ! g5]al lot ( mank9d or individual     
circum/ances prev5t absolute c]titude4  
,al?\gh 9 ?is twilight region ( op9ion  
demon/rative pro(s are replac$ m]ely by 
an occasion = tak+ a giv5 fact or idea z
 true r ?an false1 yet ass5t is by no   
means an act ( *oice1 z ! ,c>tesians _h 
errone\sly ma9ta9$1 = 9 k x is det]m9$  
by cle>ly disc]n$ reasons1 & 9 ! sph]e (
 op9ion1 by ! balance ( probability4 ,! 
und]/&+ is free only 9 comb9+ ideas1 n 9
 its judgm5t conc]n+ ! agreem5t or !    
repugnancy ( ! ideas comp>$2 x lies )9  
its own p[] to decide :e!r x w judge at 
all1 & :at ideas x w comp>e1 b x has no 
control ov] ! result ( ! comp>ison2 x is
 impossible = x to refuse its ass5t to a
 demon/rat$ tru? or a prepond]ant       
probability4  ,9 ?is recognition (      

objective & univ]sally valid relations  
exi/+ among ideas1 :i* ! ?9k+ subject1  
?r\gh comp>isons volunt>ily in/itut$1   
discov]s valid or f9ds giv51 b :i* x c  
nei!r alt] nor demur to1 ,locke ab&ons  
empirical gr\nd 7cf4 p4 #aee7 &         
approa*es ! ideali/s ( ! ,platoniz+     
type4 ,8 inquiry divides into two v     
dissimil> p>ts 7a psy*ological          
description ( ! orig9 ( ideas & a       
logical det]m9ation ( ! possibility & ! 
ext5t ( k71 ! latt] ( :i* is1 9 ,locke's
 op9ion1 compatible ) ! =m]1 b :i* c\ld 
nev] h be5 develop$ f x4 ,! rationali/ic
 edifice contradicts ! s5sationali/ic   
f\ndation4 ,locke _h hop$ to %[ ! value 
& ! limits ( k by an inquiry into !     
orig9 ( ideas1 b 8 e/imate ( ?is value &
 ^! limits _c be prov$ f ! a po/]iori   
orig9 ( ideas--x c only be ma9ta9$ 9    
despite ( ?is1 & /&s 9 ne$ ( support f  
"s 7rationali/ic7 pr9ciple else:]e      
obta9$4 ,?9k]s :o trace back all simple 
ideas to out] & inn] p]ception we expect
 to reject e attempt to ext5d k beyond !

 sph]e ( exp]i5ce1 to decl>e !          
comb9ations ( ideas :i* h _! orig9 9    
s5sation tru/wor?y1 & ^? :i* are =m$ )\t
 reg>d to p]ception1 illusory2 or else1 
) ,protagoras1 to limit k to !          
individual p]ceiv+ subject1 ) a         
consequ5t complete d5ial ( its g5]al    
validity4 ,b exactly ! opposite ( all ^!
 is f\nd 9 ,locke4 ,! rem>kable         
spectacle is pres5t$ ( a philosoph] :o  
admits no o!r s\rces ( ideas ?an        
p]ception & ! volunt>y comb9ation (     
p]ceptions1 transc5d+ ! limits (        
exp]i5ce ) pro(s ( ! div9e exi/5ce1     
view+ ) suspicion ! ideas ( sub/ance =m$
 at ! in/ance ( exp]i5ce1 & r$uc+       
natural sci5ce to ! sph]e ( m]e op9ion2 
:ile1 on ! o!r h&1 he ascribes reality &
 et]nal validity to ! comb9ations (     
ideas =m$ indep5d5tly ( p]ception1 :i*  
are employ$ by ma!matics & e?ics1 &     
completely ab&ons ! individuali/ic      
position 9 8 nave fai? 9 ! impregnable  
validity ( ! relations ( ideas1 :i* is  
evid5t to all :o turn _! att5tion to !m4

 ,! gr\nd = ! univ]sal validity ( !     
relations among ideas z well z ( our k (
 !m1 naturally lies n 9 _! empirical    
orig9 7= my exp]i5ce gives in=mation to 
me alone1 & t only conc]n+ ! p>ticul>   
case 9 "q71 b 9 ! uni=mity ( man's      
rational con/itution4 ,if two m5 really 
h ! same ideas--n m]ely ?9k !y h because
 !y use simil> language--x is           
impossible1 accord+ to ,locke1 t !y %\ld
 hold diff]5t op9ions conc]n+ ! relation
 ( _! ideas4 ,) ?is conviction1 t !     
univ]sal validity ( k is root$ 9 !      
uni=mity ( man's rational con/itution1 &
 ! fur!r "o1 t we atta9 c]ta9 k only :5 
?+s con=m to our ideas1 ,locke closely  
approa*es ,kant2 :ile 8 assumption ( a  
fix$ ord] ( relations among ideas1 :i* !
 individual und]/&+ _c refuse to        
recognize1 & ! typical "* assign$ to    
ma!matics1 associate him ) ,malebran*e &
 ,sp9oza4 ,9 view ( ^! po9ts ( contact )
 ! rationali/ic s*ool & 8 manifold      
dep5d5ce on its f\nd]1 we may v5ture !  
p>adox1 t ,locke may n only be t]m$ a   

,baconian ) ,c>tesian lean+s1 b 7almo/7 
a ,c>tesian influ5c$ by ,bacon4 ,!      
possibility mu/ n be =gott51 h[ev]1 t   
rationali/ic sugge/ions came to him also
 f ,galileo1 ,hobbes1 & ,newton4#a      
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ! article by ,b5no   
,erdmann cit$ p4 #aef1 note4            
,int]m$iate betwe5 k & op9ion /&s fai? z
 a =m ( ass5t :i* is bas$ on te/imony r 
?an on d$uctions ( ! reason1 b ^:       
c]titude is n inf]ior to t ( k1 s9ce x  
is a communication f ,god1 :o c nei!r   
deceive nor be deceiv$4 ,fai? & !       
c]ta9ty !re( dep5d on reason1 9 s f> z  
reason alone c det]m9e :e!r a div9e     
revelation has really be5 made & ! mean+
 ( ! words 9 :i* ! revelation has come  
d[n to u4 ,9 det]m9+ ! b\nd>ies ( fai? &
 reason ,locke makes use ( !            
di/9ction--:i* has become fam\s--betwe5 
?+s above reason1 accord+ to reason1 &  
contr>y to reason4 ,our conviction t    
,god exi/s is accord+ to reason2 !      
belief t !re are m gods ?an "o1 or t a  
body c be 9 two diff]5t places at ! same

 "t1 contr>y to reason2 ! =m] is a tru? 
:i* c be demon/rat$ on rational gr\nds1 
! latt] an assumption incompatible ) our
 cle> & di/9ct ideas4 ,9 ! "o case      
revelation confirms a proposition ( :i* 
we 7 already c]ta92 9 ! o!r an alleg$   
revelation is incapable ( depriv+ our   
c]ta9 k ( its =ce4 ,above reason are ^? 
pr9ciples ^: probability & tru? _c be   
%[n by ! natural use ( our faculties1 z 
t ! dead %all rise aga9 & ! acc\nt ( !  
fall ( "p ( ! angels4 ,among ! ?+s :i*  
are n contr>y to reason belong miracles1
 = !y contradict op9ion bas$ on ! usual 
c\rse ( nature1 x is true1 b n our c]ta9
 k2 9 spite ( _! sup]natural "* !y      
des]ve will+ acceptance1 & receive x1 :5
 !y are well atte/$1 :]eas pr9ciples    
contr>y to reason mu/ be unconditionally
 reject$ z a revelation f ,god4 ,locke's
 dem& = ! subjection ( fai? to rational 
criticism assures him an honorable place
 9 ! hi/ory ( ,engli% deism4 ,he enri*$ 
! philosophy ( religion by two treatises
 ( 8 own3 ,! ,reasonabl5ess (           

,*ri/ianity1 #afie1 & ?ree ,lett]s on   
,tol]ance1 #afhi-afib4 ,! =m] transf]s !
 c5t] ( gravity ( ! ,*ri/ian religion f 
hi/ory to ! doctr9e ( r$emption2 !      
,lett]s dem& religi\s fre$om1 mutual    
tol]ance among ! diff]5t sects1 & !     
sep>ation ( ,*ur* & ,/ate4 ,^? sects    
alone are to receive no tol]ance :i*    
!mselves ex]cise none1 & :i* endang] !  
well-be+ ( society2 toge!r ) a!i/s1 :o  
are incapable ( tak+ oa?s4 ,9 o!r       
respects x is ! duty ( ! /ate to protect
 all confessions & to favor none4  7b7  
,practical ,philosophy4--,locke         
contribut$ to practical philosophy      
important sugge/ions conc]n+ fre$om1    
morality1 politics1 & education4 ,fre$om
 is ! p[] to beg9 or =be>1 cont9ue or   
put an end to actions 7?\ghts &         
motions74 ,x is n de/roy$ by ! fact t ! 
w is always mov$ by desire1 m exactly1  
by uneas9ess "u pres5t circum/ances1 & t
 ! decision is det]m9$ by ! judgm5t ( ! 
und]/&+4 ,al?\gh ! result ( exam9ation  
is itself dep5d5t on ! unalt]able       

relations ( ideas1 x is /ill 9 our p[]  
to decide :e!r we w consid] at all1 &   
:at ideas we w take into consid]ation4  
,n ! ?\ght1 n ! det]m9ation ( ! w1 is   
free1 b ! p]son1 ! m9d2 ?is has ! p[] to
 susp5d ! prosecution ( desire1 & by its
 judgm5t to det]m9e ! w1 ev5 9          
opposition to incl9ation4 ,f\r /ages    
mu/1 consequ5tly1 be di/+ui%$ 9 !       
volitional process3 desire or uneas9ess2
 ! delib]ative comb9ation ( ideas2 !    
judgm5t ( ! und]/&+2 det]m9ation4       
,fre$om has its place at ! beg9n+ ( !   
second /age3 x is op5 to me to decide   
:e!r to proce$ at all to consid]ation & 
f9al judgm5t conc]n+ a propos$ action2  
?us to prev5t desire f directly issu+ 9 
movem5ts2 &1 accord+ to ! result ( my   
exam9ation1 p]haps1 to sub/itute = ! act
 orig9ally desir$ an opposite "o4 ,)\t  
fre$om1 moral judgm5t & responsibility  
w\ld be impossible4 ,! above appe>s to u
 to repres5t ! ess5ce ( ,locke's (t5    
vacillat+ discussion ( fre$om 7,,ii4    
#ba74 ,desire is direct$ to pleasure2 ! 

w obeys ! und]/&+1 :i* is exalt$ above  
motives ( pleasure & ! passions4 ,ev]y?+
 is physically good :i* occasions &     
increases pleasure 9 u1 :i* removes or  
dim9i%es pa91 or contributes to !       
atta9m5t ( "s o!r good & ! avoidance (  
"s o!r evil4 ,actions1 on ! contr>y1 are
 morally good :5 !y con=m to a rule by  
:i* !y are judg$4 ,:oev] e>ne/ly        
m$itates on 8 welf>e w pref] moral or   
rational good to s5su\s good1 s9ce ! =m]
 alone v\*safes true happ9ess4 ,god has 
mo/ intimately unit$ virtue & g5]al     
happ9ess1 s9ce he has made ! pres]vation
 ( human society dep5d5t on ! ex]cise ( 
virtue4  ,! m>k ( a law = free be+s is !
 fact t x apportions rew>d = ob$i5ce &  
puni%m5t = disob$i5ce4 ,! laws to :i* an
 action mu/ con=m 9 ord] to des]ve !    
pr$icate good are ?ree 9 numb] 7,,ii4   
#bh73 by ! div9e law m5 judge :e!r _!   
actions are s9s or duties2 by ! civil   
law1 :e!r !y be crim9al or innoc5t      
7des]v+ ( puni%m5t or n72 by ! law (    
op9ion or reputation1 :e!r !y be virtues

 or vices4 ,! fir/ ( ^! laws ?reat5s    
immorality ) future mis]y2 ! second1 )  
legal puni%m5ts2 ! ?ird1 ) ! disapproval
 ( our fell[-m54  ,! ?ird law1 ! law (  
op9ion or reputation1 call$ also        
philosophical1 co9cides on ! :ole1 ?\gh 
n ?r\gh\t1 ) ! fir/1 ! div9e law (      
nature1 :i* is be/ express$ 9           
,*ri/ianity1 & :i* is ! true t\*/one ( !
 moral "* ( actions4 ,:ile ,locke1 9 8  
polemic aga9/ innate ideas1 _h emphasiz$
 ! div]sity ( moral judgm5ts among      
individuals & nations 7z a result ( :i* 
an action is condemn$ 9 "o place &      
prais$ z virtu\s 9 ano!r71 he "h gives  
prom95ce to ! fact ( g5]al agreem5t 9   
ess5tials1 s9ce x is only natural t ea* 
%\ld enc\rage by praise & e/eem t :i* is
 to 8 advantage1 :ile virtue evid5tly   
conduces to ! good ( all :o come into   
contact ) ! virtu\s4 ,amid ! greate/    
div]sity ( moral judgm5ts virtue &      
praise1 vice & blame1 g toge!r1 :ile 9  
g5]al t is prais$ :i* is really         
praisewor?y--ev5 ! vici\s man approves !

 "r & condemns t :i* is faulty1 at lea/ 
9 o!rs4 ,locke 0 ! fir/ to call att5tion
 to g5]al approval z an ext]nal m>k (   
moral action1 a h9t :i* ! ,scotti%      
morali/s subsequ5tly exploit$4 ,!       
objection t he r$uc$ morality to ! level
 ( ! conv5tional is unju/1 = ! law (    
op9ion & reputation did n mean = him !  
true pr9ciple ( morality1 b only t :i*  
controls ! majority ( mank9d--,if anyone
 is incl9$ to d\bt t comm5dation &      
disgrace are suffici5t motives to       
action1 he does n und]/& mank9d2 !re is 
h>dly "o 9 t5 ?\s& ins5sible en\gh to   
endure 9 quiet ! con/ant disapproval (  
society4 ,ev5 if ! lawbreak] hopes to   
escape puni%m5t at ! h&s ( ! /ate1 &    
puts out ( m9d ! ?\ght ( future         
retribution1 he c nev] escape !         
disapproval ( 8 misde$s on ! "p ( 8     
fell[s4 ,9 entire h>mony ) ^! views is  
,locke's advice to educators1 t !y %\ld 
e>ly cultivate ! love ( e/eem 9 _!      
pupils4  ,( ! f\r pr9ciples ( morals :i*
 ,locke employs side by side1 & 9       

alt]nation1 )\t det]m9+ _! exact        
relations--! reason1 ! w ( ,god1 ! g5]al
 good 7&1 d$uc$ f ?is1 ! approval ( our 
fell[-m571 self-love--! latt] two       
possess only an accessory significance1 
:ile ! =m] two co-op]ate 9 su* a way t !
 "o det]m9es ! cont5t ( ! good & ! o!r  
confirms x & gives x b9d+ au?ority4 ,!  
,*ri/ian religion does ! reason a       
?reefold s]vice--x gives h] in=mation   
conc]n+ our duty1 :i* %e c\ld h rea*$   
h]self1 inde$1 )\t ! help ( revelation1 
b n ) ! same c]titude & rapidity2 x     
inve/s ! good ) ! maje/y ( absolute     
obligation by proclaim+ x z ! comm& (   
,god2 x increases ! motives to morality 
by its doctr9es ( immortality & future  
retribution4 ,al?\gh ,locke ?us         
intimately jo9s virtue ) e>?ly joy &    
et]nal happ9ess1 & al?\gh he f9ds 9 !   
expectation ( heav5 or hell a welcome   
support = ! w 9 its conflict ) !        
passions1 we mu/ rememb] t he values ?is
 reg>d = ! results & rew>ds ( virtue    
only z a subsidi>y motive1 & does n     

e/eem x z 9 itself e?ical3 et]nal       
happ9ess =ms1 z x 71 ! d[ry ( virtue1   
:i* adds to its true value 9 ! eyes (   
fools & ! weak1 ?\gh x con/itutes nei!r 
its ess5ce nor its basis4 ,virtue seems 
to ! wise man beautiful & valuable en\gh
 ev5 )\t ?is1 & yet ! comm5dations (    
philosoph]s ga9 = h] b few woo]s4 ,!    
cr[d is attract$ to h] only :5 x is made
 cle> to x t virtue is ! be/ policy4  ,9
 politics ,locke is an oppon5t ( bo? =ms
 ( absolutism1 ! despotic absolutism (  
,hobbes & ! patri>*al absolutism (      
,film] 7di$ #afdg2 8 ,patri>*a decl>$   
h]$it>y mon>*y a div9e in/itution71 & a 
mod]ate expon5t ( ! lib]al t5d5cies (   
,milton 7#afjh-gd7 & ,alg]non ,sidney   
7di$ #afhc2 ,disc\rses conc]n+          
,gov]nm5t74 ,! two ,treatises on ,civil 
,gov]nm5t1 #afij1 develop1 ! fir/       
negatively1 ! second positively1 !      
con/itutional !ory ) direct ref]5ce to !
 political condition ( ,engl& at ! "t4  
,all m5 are born free & ) l capacities &
 rights4 ,ea* is to pres]ve 8 own       

int]e/s1 )\t injur+ ^? ( o!rs4 ,! "r to 
be treat$ by e man z a rational be+     
holds ev5 prior to ! f\nd+ ( ! /ate2 b  
!n !re is no au?oritative p[] to decide 
conflicts4 ,! /ate ( nature is n 9      
itself a /ate ( w>1 b x w\ld lead to    
?is1 if ea* man %\ld himself attempt to 
ex]cise ! "r ( self-protection aga9/    
injury4 ,9 ord] to prev5t acts ( viol5ce
 !re is ne$$ a civil community1 bas$ on 
a free contract1 to :i* ea* individual  
memb] %all transf] 8 fre$om & p[]4      
,submission to ! au?ority ( ! /ate is a 
free act1 &1 by ! contract made1 natural
 rights are gu>d$1 n de/roy$2 political 
fre$om is ob$i5ce to self-impos$ law1   
subord9ation to ! common w express+     
itself 9 ! majority4 ,! political p[] is
 nei!r tyrannical1 = arbitr>y rule is no
 bett] ?an ! /ate ( nature1 nor pat]nal1
 = rul]s & subjects are on an equality 9
 ! use ( ! reason1 :i* is n ! case )    
p>5ts & *ildr54 ,! supreme p[] is !     
legislative1 intru/$ by ! community to  
its *os5 repres5tatives--! laws %\ld aim

 at ! g5]al good4 ,subord9ate to !      
legislative p[]1 & to be kept sep>ate f 
x1 come ! two execut+ p[]s1 :i* are be/ 
unit$ 9 a s+le h& 7! k+71 viz41 !       
executive p[] 7adm9i/rative & judicial71
 :i* c>ries ! laws into effect1 & !     
f$]ative p[]1 :i* def5ds ! community    
aga9/ ext]nal foes4 ,! rul] is subject  
to ! law4 ,if ! gov]nm5t1 ?r\gh         
violation ( ! law1 has become unwor?y ( 
! p[] intru/$ to x1 & has =feit$ x1     
sov]eign au?ority rev]ts to ! s\rce :5ce
 x 0 d]iv$1 t is1 to ! p4 ,! p decides  
:e!r its repres5tatives & ! mon>* h     
des]v$ ! confid5ce plac$ 9 !m1 & has !  
"r to depose !m1 if !y exce$ _!         
au?ority4 ,z ! sworn ob$i5ce 7( !       
subjects7 is to ! law alone1 ! rul] :o  
acts contr>y to law has lo/ ! "r to     
gov]n1 has put himself 9 a /ate (       
ho/ility to ! p1 & revolution becomes   
m]ely necess>y def5se aga9/ aggression4 
,montesquieu made ^! political ideas (  
,locke ! common prop]ty ( ,europe4#a    
,r\sseau did a l s]vice = ,locke's      

p$agogical views1 giv5 9 ! mode/ b      
important ,?\ghts conc]n+ ,education1   
#afic4 ,! aim ( education %\ld n be to  
in/ill any?+ into ! pupil1 b to develop 
ev]y?+ f him2 x %\ld guide & n ma/] him1
 %\ld develop 8 capacities 9 a natural  
way1 %\ld r\se him to indep5d5ce1 n     
drill him into a s*ol>4 ,9 ord] to ^!   
ends ?or\gh & affectionate consid]ation 
( 8 individuality is requisite1 &       
private in/ruction is1 !re=e1 to be     
pref]r$ to public in/ruction4 ,s9ce x is
 ! bus9ess ( education to make m5 useful
 memb]s ( society1 x mu/ n neglect _!   
physical developm5t4 ,le>n+ ?r\gh play &
 object tea*+ make ! *ild's task a      
delight2 mod]n languages are to be le>n$
 m by practice ?an by sy/ematic /udy4 ,!
 *ief diff]5ce betwe5 ,locke & ,r\sseau 
is t ! =m] sets great value on ar\s+ !  
s5se ( e/eem1 :ile ! latt] entirely     
rejects ?is z an educational in/rum5t4  
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,!od4 ,piets*1 ,ueb] 
das ,v]hltniss d] politis*5 ,!ori5      
,lockes zu ,montesquieus ,lehre von d]  

,teilung d] ,gewalt5 ,b]l9 diss]tation1 
,breslau1 #ahhg4    ,,*apt] ,v4         
,,engli% ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,eighte5?
 ,,c5tury4  ,besides ! !ory ( k1 :i* =ms
 ! c5tral doctr9e 9 8 sy/em1 ,locke _h  
discuss$ ! rema9+ bran*es ( philosophy1 
?\gh 9 less detail1 &1 by 8 _m-sid$     
/imulation1 _h posit$ problems = !      
,illum9ation movem5t 9 ,engl& & 9       
,france4 ,n[ ! sev]al discipl9es take   
diff]5t c\rses1 b ! aft]-influ5ce ( 8   
p[]ful m9d is felt on e h&4 ,!          
developm5t ( deism f ,tol& on is "u !   
direct influ5ce ( 8 rational            
,*ri/ianity2 ! e?ics ( ,%aftesbury /&s 9
 polemic relation to 8 d5ial ( ev]y?+   
innate2 & :ile ,b]keley & ,hume are     
d$uc+ ! consequ5ces ( 8 !ory ( k1       
,h>tley d]ives ! impulse to a new =m (  
psy*ology f 8 *apt] on ! association (  
ideas4   #a4 ,natural ,philosophy &     
,psy*ology4  ,9 ,locke's fam\s          
c\ntryman1 ,isaac ,newton 7#afdb-agbg71a
 ! mod]n inve/igation ( nature atta9s ! 
level t[>d :i* x _h /riv51 at fir/ by   

wi%es & dem&s1 gradually1 also1 9 k &   
a*ievem5t1 s9ce ! end ( ! m$iaeval      
p]iod4 ,mank9d 0 n able to disc>d at a  
/roke its accu/om$ ,ari/otelian view (  
nature1 :i* animat$ ?+s ) inn]1 _s-l    
=ces4 ,a full c5tury int]v5$ betwe5     
,telesius & ,newton1 ! concept ( natural
 law requir+ s long a "t to break out ( 
its %ell4 ,a trem5d\s revolution 9      
op9ion _h to be effect$ be=e ,newton    
c\ld calmly promulgate 8 great pr9ciple1
 ,ab&on sub/antial =ms & occult         
qualities & r$uce natural ph5om5a to    
ma!matical laws1 be=e he c\ld cr[n !    
discov]ies ( ,galileo & ,kepl] ) 8 own4 
,= ?is successful union ( ,bacon's      
exp]im5tal induction ) ! ma!matical     
d$uction ( ,desc>tes1 ?is comb9ation ( !
 analytic & ! syn!tic me?ods1 :i* 0 %[n 
9 ! dem& =1 & ! e/abli%m5t (1           
ma!matically =mulat$ natural laws1      
presupposes t nature is depriv$ ( all   
inn] life #b & all qualitative          
di/9ctions1 t all t exi/s is comp\nd$ ( 
uni=mly act+ p>ts1 & t all t takes place

 is conceiv$ z motion4 ,) ?is ,hobbes's 
programme ( a me*anical sci5ce ( nature 
is fulfill$4 ,! heav5s & ! e>? are made 
subject to ! same law ( gravitation4 ,h[
 f> ,newton himself adh]$ to ! n>r[     
mean+ ( me*anism 7motion f pressure &   
impulse71 is evid5t f ! fact t1 ?\gh he 
is (t5 honor$ z ! creator ( ! dynamical 
view ( nature1 he reject$ actio 9 di/ans
 z absurd1 & deem$ x indisp5sable to    
assume "s cause ( gravity 7consi/+1     
probably1 9 ! impact ( impond]able      
mat]ial p>ticles74 ,x 0 8 disciples :o  
fir/ v5tur$ to proclaim gravity z !     
univ]sal =ce ( matt]1 z ! prim>y quality
 ( all bodies 7s ,rog] ,cotes 9 !       
preface to ! second edition ( !         
,pr9cipia1 #agac74  ,footnote #a3       
#affi-ie pr(essor ( ma!matics 9         
,cambridge1 lat] resid5t 9 ,london2     
#afgb1 memb]1 &1 #agjc1 presid5t ( !    
,royal ,society4 ,*ief "w1 ,philosophic 
,naturalis ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 #afhg4 
,works1 #aggi seq4 ,on ,newton cf4 ,k4  
,snell1 #ahdc2 ,durdik1 ,leibniz und    

,newton1 #ahfi2 ,lange1 ,hi/ory (       
,mat]ialism1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjf seq4       
,footnote #b3 ,t ! ma!matical view (    
nature1 s9ce x leaves room =            
quantitative di/9ctions alone1 is       
equival5t to an exam9ation ( nature _h  
be5 cle>ly recogniz$ by ,poiret4 ,z he  
significantly rem>k$3 ,! pr9ciples ( !  
,c>tesian physics relate m]ely to !     
cadav] ( nature 7,erud41 p4 #bfj74      
,newton resembles ,boyle 9 unit+ pr(\nd 
piety ) ! rigor ( sci5tific ?\ght4 ,he  
f9ds ! mo/ c]ta9 pro( = ! exi/5ce ( an  
intellig5t creator 9 ! wond]ful         
arrangem5t ( ! _w-ma*9e1 :i* does n ne$ 
aft]-adju/m5t at ! h&s ( its creator1 & 
^: adaptation he praises z              
en?usia/ically z he unconditionally     
rejects ! m+l+ ( teleological           
consid]ations 9 ! explanation ( physical
 ph5om5a4 ,by ?is physico-!ological     
argum5t he furni%es a welcome support to
 deism4 ,:ile ! f9ite m9d p]ceives 9 !  
s5sorium ( ! bra9 ! images ( objects :i*
 come to x f ! s5ses1 ,god has all ?+s 9

 himself1 is imm$iately pres5t 9 all1 & 
cognizes !m )\t s5se-organs1 ! expanse (
 ! univ]se =m+ 8 s5sorium4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,!       
transf] ( me*anical views to psy*ical   
ph5om5a 0 also accompani$ by !          
conviction t no dang] to fai? 9 ,god    
w\ld result !refrom1 b r t x w\ld aid 9 
its support4 ,! *ief repres5tatives (   
?is movem5t1 :i* foll[$ ! example (     
,gay1 7 ! physician1 ,david ,h>tley#a   
7#agjd-eg71 & 8 pupil1 ,joseph          
,prie/ley1#b a diss5t+ m9i/] & natural  
sci5ti/ 7born #agcc1 di$ 9 ,philadelphia
 #ahjd2 ! discov]] ( oxyg5 gas1 #aggd74 
,! fundam5tal position ( ^! psy*ologi/s 
is express$ 9 two pr9ciples3 7#a7 all   
cognitive & motive life is bas$ on !    
me*anism ( psy*ical elem5ts1 ! highe/ & 
mo/ complex inn] ph5om5a 7?\ghts1       
feel+s1 volitions7 are produc$ by !     
comb9ation ( simple ideas1 t is1 !y     
arise ?r\gh ! association ( ideas 2 7#b7
 all inn] ph5om5a1 ! complex z well z ! 
simple1 are accompani$ by1 or r dep5d   

on1 m or less complicat$ physical       
ph5om5a1 viz41 n]v\s processes & bra9   
vibrations4 ,al?\gh ,h>tley & ,prie/ley 
are agre$ 9 _! dem& = an associational &
 physiological treatm5t ( psy*ology1 & 9
 ! attempt to give "o1 !y diff] 9 ?is1 t
 ,h>tley cauti\sly speaks only ( a      
p>allelism1 a correspond5ce betwe5 m5tal
 & c]ebral processes1 & rejects !       
mat]iali/ic int]pretation ( inn]        
ph5om5a1 po9t+ out t ! het]og5eity (    
motion & ideas =bids ! r$uction ( !     
latt] to ! =m]1 & t psy*ological        
analysis nev] rea*es corporeal b only   
psy*ical elem5ts4 ,moreov]1 x is only ) 
reluctance t1 consci\s ( ! critical "* (
 ! conclusion1 he admits ! dep5d5ce (   
bra9 vibrations on ! me*anical laws ( ! 
mat]ial _w & ! ?or\ghgo+ det]m9at5ess ( 
! human w1 consol+ himself ) ! belief t 
moral responsibility nev]!less rema9s   
intact4 ,prie/ley1 on ! contr>y1 boldly 
av[s ! mat]iali/ic & det]m9i/ic         
consequ5ces ( 8 position1 holds t       
psy*ical ph5om5a are n m]ely accompani$ 

by mat]ial motions b consi/ 9 !m 7?\ght 
is a function ( ! bra971 & makes        
psy*ology1 z ! physics ( ! n]ves1 a "p (
 physiology4 ,! d5ial ( immortality & ! 
div9e orig9 ( ! _w is1 h[ev]1 by no     
means to foll[ f mat]ialism4 ,prie/ley n
 only combat$ ! a!ism ( ,holba*1 b also 
ent]$ ! dei/ic ranks ) works ( 8 own on 
,natural ,religion & ! ,corruptions (   
,*ri/ianity4  ,footnote #a3 ,h>tley1    
,obs]vations on ,man1 8 ,frame1 8       
,duties1 8 ,expectations4 #agdi4        
,footnote #b3 ,prie/ley1 ,h>tley's ,!ory
 ( ! ,human ,m9d on ! ,pr9ciples ( !    
,association ( ,ideas1 #agge2           
,disquisitions relat+ to ,matt] & ,_s1  
#aggg2 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,philosophical     
,necessity1 #aggg2 ,free ,discussions ( 
! ,doctr9es ( ,mat]ialism1 #aggh 7aga9/ 
,ri*>d ,price's ,lett]s on ,mat]ialism &
 ,philosophical ,necessity74 ,cf4 on bo?
 ,s*o5lank's diss]tation1 ,h>tley und   
,prie/ley1 die ,begrnd] des             
,assoziationismus 9 ,engl&1 #ahhb4  ,z  
e>ly z 9 ,h>tley#a ! pr9ciple1 :i* is s 

important = e?ics1 appe>s t ?+s &       
actions 7e4g41 promotion ( ! good (     
o!rs7 :i* at fir/ are s\ght & done      
because !y are means to our own         
enjoym5t1 9 "t come to h a direct wor? (
 _! own1 ap>t f ! orig9al egoi/ic end4  
,james ,mill 7#ahbi7 has repeat$ ?is    
?\ght 9 lat] times4 ,z fame becomes an  
imm$iate object ( desire to ! ambiti\s  
man1 & gold to ! mis]1 s1 ?r\gh         
association1 ! impulse t[>d t :i* w     
secure approval may be trans=m$ into !  
endeavor aft] t :i* des]ves approval4   
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,jodl1 ,ges*i*te d]  
,e?ik1 vol4 i4 p4 #aig seq4  ,among lat]
 repres5tatives ( ! ,associational s*ool
 we may m5tion ,erasmus ,d>w9 7,zonomia1
 or ! ,laws ( ,organic ,life1 #agid-if74
    #b4 ,deism4  ,z ,bacon & ,desc>tes  
_h fre$ natural sci5ce1 ,hobbes1 ! /ate1
 & ,grotius1 law f ! au?ority ( ! ,*ur* 
& _h plac$ !m on an indep5d5t basis1    
i4e41 ! basis ( nature & reason1 s      
deism#a seeks to free religion f ,*ur*  
dogma & bl9d hi/orical fai?1 & to d$uce 

x f natural k4 ,9 s f> z deism f9ds bo? 
! s\rce & ! te/ ( true religion 9       
reason1 x is rationalism2 9 s f> z x    
appeals f ! sup]natural light (         
revelation & inspiration to ! natural   
light ( reason1 x is naturalism2 9 s f> 
z revelation & its records are n only n 
all[$ to re/rict rational criticism1 b  
are made ! *ief object ( criticism1 its 
adh]5ts are free?9k]s4  ,footnote #a3   
,cf4 ,le*l]'s ,ges*i*te des ,englis*5   
,deismus1 #ahda1 :i* is rigor\sly drawn 
f ! s\rces4 ,hunt1 ,hi/ory ( ,religi\s  
,?\ght 9 ,engl&1 #ahga-gc #ahhd2 ,leslie
 ,/eph51 ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,?\ght 9 !   
,eighte5? ,c5tury1 #ahgf #ahhj2 ,cairns1
 ,unbelief 9 ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury1 #ahha4
  ,! g5]al pr9ciples ( deism may be     
compress$ into a few !ses4 ,!re is a    
natural religion1 ^: ess5tial cont5t is 
morality2 ?is comprises n mu* m ?an !   
two maxims1 ,believe 9 ,god & ,d y\r    
duty4  ,positive religions are to be    
judg$ by ?is /&>d4 ,! elem5ts 9 !m :i*  
are add$ to natural religion1 or        

conflict ) x1 are sup]flu\s & h>mful    
additions1 arbitr>y decrees ( m51 ! "w (
 cunn+ rul]s & deceitful prie/s4        
,*ri/ianity1 :i* 9 its orig9al =m 0 !   
p]fect expression ( ! true religion (   
reason1 has exp]i5c$ great corruptions 9
 its ecclesia/ical developm5t1 f :i* x  
mu/ n[ be purifi$4  ,^! pr9ciples are   
support$ by ! foll[+ argum5ts3 ,tru? is 
"o & !re is b "o true religion4 ,if !   
happ9ess ( m5 dep5ds on ! fulfilm5t ( h]
 comm&s1 ^! mu/ be compreh5sible to e   
man & mu/ h be5 communicat$ to him2 &   
s9ce a special revelation & legislation 
c\ld n come to ! k ( all1 !y c be no o!r
 ?an ! laws ( duty inscrib$ on ! human  
he>t4 ,9 ord] to salvation1 !n1 we ne$  
only to "k ,god z creator & judge1 & to 
fulfill 8 comm&s1 i4e44 to live a moral 
life4 ,! "o true religion has be5       
communicat$ to man 9 two =ms1 ?r\gh !   
inn] natural revelation ( reason1 & !   
out] hi/orical revelation ( ! ,gospel4  
,s9ce bo? h come f ,god !y _c be        
contradictory4 ,accord+ly natural       

religion & ! true "o among ! positive   
religions d n diff] 9 _! cont5t1 b only 
9 ! mann] ( _! promulgation4 ,reason    
tries hi/orical religion by ! /&>d      
furni%$ by natural religion1 & di/+ui%es
 actual f ass]t$ revelation by ! h>mony 
( its cont5ts ) reason3 ! dei/ believes 
9 ! ,bible because ( ! reasonabl5ess (  
its tea*+s2 he does n hold ^! tea*+s    
true because !y are f\nd 9 ! ,bible4 ,if
 a positive religion conta9s less ?an   
natural religion x is incomplete2 if x  
conta9s m x is tyrannical1 s9ce x       
imposes unnecess>y requirem5ts4 ,!      
au?ority ( reason to ex]cise ! (fice ( a
 judge 9 reg>d to ! cr$ibility (        
revelation is beyond d\bt2 inde$1 ap>t f
 x !re is no means ( atta9+ tru?1 & !   
acceptance ( an ext]nal revelation z    
g5u9e1 & n m]ely z alleg$ to be su*1 is 
possible only = ^? :o h already be5     
conv9c$ ( ,god's exi/5ce by ! inn] light
 ( reason4  ,to ^! logical consid]ations
 is add$ an hi/orical position1 :i*1    
?\gh only cursorily indicat$ at !       

beg9n+1 is evid5c$ 9 increas+ detail z !
 dei/ic movem5t cont9ues on its c\rse4  
,natural religion is always & ev]y:]e ! 
same1 is univ]sal & necess>y1 is p]fect1
 et]nal1 & orig9al4 ,z orig9al1 x is !  
e>lie/ religion1 & z old z ! _w2 z      
p]fect1 x is n capable ( improvem5t1 b  
only ( corruption & re/oration4 ,twice x
 has exi/$ 9 p]fect purity1 z ! religion
 ( ! fir/ m5 & z ! religion ( ,*ri/4    
,twice x has be5 corrupt$1 9 !          
pre-,*ri/ian p]iod by idolatry1 :i*     
proce$$ f ! ,egyptian wor%ip ( ! dead1 9
 ! p]iod aft] ,*ri/ by ! love ( miracle 
& bl9d rev]5ce = au?ority4 ,9 bo? cases 
! corruption has come f p[]-lov+ prie/s1
 :o h s\ght to fright5 & control ! p by 
incompreh5sible dogmas & o/5tations1    
my/]i\s c]emonies1 & f\nd _! advantage 9
 ! sup]/ition ( ! multitude1--ea* new   
div9ity1 ea* new my/]y mean+ a ga9 = !m4
 ,z !y _h corrupt$ ! primitive religion 
into poly!ism1 s ,*ri/ianity 0 corrupt$ 
by con=m+ x to ! prejudices ( ^? to be  
conv]t$1 9 ^: eyes ! simplicity ( ! new 

doctr9e w\ld h be5 no recomm5dation = x4
 ,! ,jew s\ght 9 x an e*o ( ! ,law1 !   
hea!n long$ = 8 fe/ivals & 8 occult     
philosophy2 s x 0 burd5$ ) unpr(itable  
c]emonial obs]vances & ne$less          
pr(undity1 x 0 ,judaiz$ & hea!niz$4 ,x 0
 inevitable t ! doctr9es ( orig9al s91 (
 satisfaction & atonem5t %\ld prove     
especially objectionable to ! purely    
rational temp] ( ! dei/s4 ,nei!r ! guilt
 ( o!rs 7! s9 ( our ance/ors7 nor !     
atonem5t ( o!rs 7,*ri/'s dea? on !      
cross7 c be imput$ to u2 ,*ri/ c be     
call$ ! ,savior only by way ( metaphor1 
only 9 s f> z ! example ( 8 dea? leads u
 on to fai? & ob$i5ce = ourselves4 ,! "n
 a!ism1 :i*1 x is true1 or?odoxy held   
ready = e belief incorrect accord+ to   
its /&>d1 0 on ! contr>y undes]v$4 ,!   
dei/s did n attack ,*ri/ian revelation1 
/ill less belief 9 ,god4 ,!y consid]$ ! 
a!i/ b]eft ( reason1 & !y by no means   
e/eem$ hi/orical revelation sup]flu\s4  
,! end ( ! latt] 0 to /ir ! m9d to move 
m5 to reflection & conv]sion1 to trans=m

 morals1 & if anyone decl>$ x unnecess>y
 because x conta9s no?+ b natural tru?s1
 he 0 ref]r$ to ! works ( ,euclid1 :i*  
c]ta9ly conta9 no?+ :i* is n f\nd$ 9 !  
reason1 b :i* no "o b a fool w consid]  
unnecess>y 9 ! /udy ( ma!matics4  ,t :i*
 we h "h summ>iz$ z ! g5]al position (  
deism1 ga9$ gradual expression ?r\gh !  
regul> developm5t & specialization (    
dei/ic ideas 9 individual repres5tatives
 ( ! movem5t4 ,! *ief po9ts & epo*s 7   
m>k$ by ,tol&'s ,*ri/ianity n ,my/]i\s1 
#afif2 ,coll9s's ,disc\rse ( ,free?9k+1 
#agac2 ,t9dal's ,*ri/ianity z ,old z !  
,creation1 #agcj2 & ,*ubb's ,true       
,gospel ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 #agch4 ,! fir/ (
 ^! dem&s a critique ( revelation1 !    
second def5ds ! "r ( free inve/igation1 
! ?ird decl>es ! religion ( ,*ri/1 :i*  
is m]ely a reviv$ natural religion1 to  
be ! olde/ religion1 ! f\r? r$uces x    
entirely to moral life4  ,! dei/ic      
movem5t 0 call$ into life by ,"l ,h]b]t 
( ,*]bury 7pp4 #gi-hj7 & cont9u$ by     
,locke1 9 s f> z ! latt] _h intru/$ to  

reason ! discrim9ation ( true f false   
revelation1 & _h admitt$ 9 ,*ri/ianity  
elem5ts above reason1 ?\gh n ?+s contr>y
 to reason4 ,foll[+ ,locke1 ,john ,tol& 
7#afgj-agbb7 goes a /ep fur!r ) ! pro( t
 ! ,gospel n only conta9s no?+ contr>y  
to reason1 b also no?+ above reason1 & t
 no ,*ri/ian doctr9e is to be call$     
my/]i\s4 ,to ! dem& t we %\ld wor%ip :at
 we d n compreh5d1 he answ]s t reason is
 ! only basis ( c]titude1 & alone       
decides on ! div9ity ( ! ,scriptures1 by
 a consid]ation ( _! cont5ts4 ,! motive 
:i* impels u to ass5t to a tru? mu/ lie 
9 reason1 n 9 revelation1 :i*1 l all    
au?ority & exp]i5ce1 is m]ely ! way by  
:i* we atta9 ! k ( ! tru?2 x is a means 
( in/ruction1 n a gr\nd ( conviction4   
,all fai? has k & und]/&+ = its         
conditions1 & is rational conviction4   
,be=e we c put our tru/ 9 ! ,scriptures1
 we mu/ be conv9c$ t !y 7 9 fact writt5 
by ! au?ors to :om !y are ascrib$1 & mu/
 consid] :e!r ^! m51 _! de$s1 & _!      
works1 7 wor?y ( ,god4 ,! fact t ,god's 

inmo/ be+ is = u inscrutable does n make
 him a my/]y1 = ev5 ! common ?+s (      
nature are kn[n to u only by _!         
prop]ties4 ,miracles are also 9 !mselves
 no?+ incompreh5sible2 !y are simply    
enhancem5ts ( natural laws beyond _!    
ord9>y op]ations1 by sup]natural        
assi/ance1 :i* ,god v\*safes b r>ely &  
only = extraord9>y ends4 ,tol& expla9s !
 my/]ies smuggl$ into ! e?ical religion 
( ,*ri/ianity z due to ! tol]ation (    
,jewi% & hea!n cu/oms1 to ! entrance (  
le>n$ speculation1 & to ! selfi%        
inv5tions ( ! cl]gy & ! rul]s4 ,!       
,re=mation itself _h n entirely re/or$ !
 orig9al purity & simplicity4  ,?us f>  
,tol& ! dei/4 ,9 8 lat] writ+s1 ! five  
,lett]s to ,s]5a1 #agjd1 address$ to !  
,prussian que51 ,sophia ,*>lotte1 & !   
,pan!i/icon 7,cosmopoli1 #agbj71 he     
advances t[>d a hylozoi/ic pan!ism4  ,! 
fir/ ( ! ,lett]s discusses ! prejudices 
( mank9d2 ! second1 ! hea!n doctr9e (   
immortality2 ! ?ird1 ! orig9 ( idolatry2
 :ile ! f\r? & fif? are devot$ to       

,sp9oza1 ! *ief defect 9 ^: philosophy  
is decl>$ to be ! abs5ce ( an           
explanation ( motion4 ,motion belongs to
 ! notion ( matt] z necess>ily z        
ext5sion & imp5etrability4 ,matt] is    
always 9 motion2 re/ is only !          
reciprocal int]f]5ce ( two mov+ =ces4 ,!
 diff]5ces ( ?+s dep5d on ! v>i\s       
movem5ts ( ! p>ticles ( matt]1 s t x is 
motion :i* individualizes matt] 9 g5]al 
into p>ticul> ?+s4 ,z ! ,lett]s ascribe 
! purposive con/ruction ( organic be+s  
to a div9e reason1 s ! ,pan!i/icon also 
/ops %ort be=e x rea*es ! extreme ( nak$
 mat]ialism4 ,ev]y?+ is f ! :ole2 ! :ole
 is inf9ite1 "o1 et]nal1 all-rational4  
,god is ! =ce ( ! :ole1 ! s\l ( ! _w1 ! 
law ( nature4 ,! treatise includes a    
liturgy ( ! pan!i/ic society ) _m       
quotations f ! anci5t poets4  ,an?ony   
,coll9s 7#afgf-agbi71 9 8 ,disc\rse (   
,free-?9k+1 %[s ! "r ( free ?\ght 7i4   
e41 ( judgm5t on rational gr\nds7 9     
g5]al1 f ! pr9ciple t no tru? is =bidd5 
to u1 & t !re is no o!r way by :i* we c 

atta9 tru? & free ourselves f           
sup]/ition1 & ! "r to apply x to ,god & 
! ,bible 9 p>ticul>1 f ! fact t ! cl]gy 
diff] conc]n+ ! mo/ important matt]s4 ,!
 fe> t ! diff]5ces ( op9ion :i* spr+ f  
free?9k+ may endang] ! peace ( society  
lacks f\ndation2 on ! contr>y1 x is only
 re/riction ( ! fre$om ( ?\ght :i* leads
 to disord]s1 by weak5+ moral zeal4 ,!  
cl]gy are ! only ones :o condemn lib]ty 
( ?\ght4 ,x is sacrilege to hold t error
 c be b5eficial & tru? h>mful4 ,z a pro(
 t free?9k+ by no means corrupts "*1    
,coll9s gives 9 conclusion a li/ ( noble
 free?9k]s f ,socrates d[n to ,locke &  
,tillotson4 ,among ! replies to ! views 
( ,coll9s we may m5tion ! calmly        
objective ,boyle ,lectures by ,ibbot1 & 
! %>p & witty lett] ( ,ri*>d ,b5tley1 ! 
philologi/4 ,nei!r ( ^! attacks         
,coll9s's lead+ pr9ciple1 bo? fully     
admitt+ ! "r to employ ! reason1 ev5 9  
religi\s que/ions2 b !y dispute !       
implication t free?9k+ is equival5t to  
cont5ti\s opposition4 ,on ! "o h&1 !y   

ma9ta9 t ,coll9s's ?9k+ is too free1 t  
is1 unbridl$1 ha/y1 presumptu\s1 &      
p>adoxical2 on ! o!r1 t x is n free     
en\gh 7f prejudice74  ,aft] ,%aftesbury 
_h bas$ morality on a natural in/9ct = !
 beautiful & _h made x indep5d5t (      
religion1 z well z s]v$ ! cause ( free  
?\ght by a ke5ly ironical campaign aga9/
 en?usiasm & or?odoxy1 & ,cl>ke _h      
furni%$ ! repres5tatives ( natural      
religion a useful pr9ciple ( morals 9 ! 
objective rationality ( ?+s1 ! debate   
conc]n+ prophecy & miracles#a ?reat5$ to
 dissipate ! dei/ic movem5t into scatt]$
 !ological skirmi%es4 ,at ?is juncture  
,mat!w ,t9dal 7#afeg-agcc7 l$ x back to 
! ma9 "q4 ,8 ,*ri/ianity z ,old z !     
,creation is ! doomsday book ( deism4 ,x
 conta9s all t has be5 giv5 above z !   
core ( ?is view ( religion4 ,*ri/ came n
 to br+ 9 a new doctr9e1 b to exhort to 
rep5tance & atonem5t1 & to re/ore ! law 
( nature1 :i* is z old z ! creation1 z  
univ]sal z reason1 & z un*angeable z    
,god1 human nature1 & ! relations ( ?+s1

 :i* we %\ld respect 9 our actions4     
,religion is morality2 m exactly1 x is !
 free1 con/ant disposition to d z mu*   
good z possible1 & !reby to promote !   
glory ( ,god & our own welf>e4 ,= !     
h>mony ( our conduct ) ! rules ( reason 
con/itutes our p]fection1 & on ?is      
dep5ds our happ9ess4 ,s9ce ,god is      
inf9itely bless$ & self-suffici5t 8     
purpose 9 ! moral law is man's happ9ess 
alone4 ,:atev] a positive religion      
conta9s beyond ! moral law is           
sup]/ition1 :i* puts emphasis on        
wor?less trivialities4 ,! true religion 
occupies ! happy mean betwe5 mis]able   
unfai?1 on ! "o h&1 & timor\s           
sup]/ition1 wild fanaticism1 &          
pieti/ical zeal on ! o!r4 ,9 proclaim+ !
 sov]eignty ( reason 9 ! sph]e (        
religion z well z else:]e1 we are only  
op5ly dem&+ :at our oppon5ts h tacitly  
ackn[l$g$ 9 practice 7e4 g4 9           
allegorical int]pretation7 f "t         
immemorial4 ,god has end[$ u ) reason 9 
ord] t we %\ld by x di/+ui% tru? f      

falsehood4  ,footnote #a3 ,! *ief       
combatant 9 ! conflict ov] ! argum5t f  
prophecy1 :i* 0 call$ =? by ,:i/on's    
corruption hypo!sis1 0 ,coll9s 7,a      
,disc\rse ( ! ,gr\nds & ,reasons ( !    
,*ri/ian ,religion1 #agbd74 ,*ri/ianity 
is bas$ on ,judaism2 its fundam5tal     
article is t ,jesus is ! prophesi$      
,messiah ( ! ,jews1 its *ief pro( !     
argum5t f ,old ,te/am5t prophecy1 :i*1 x
 is true1 dep5ds on ! typical or        
allegorical int]pretation ( ! passages 9
 "q4 ,:oev] rejects ?is cuts away !     
gr\nd f "u ! ,*ri/ian revelation1 :i* is
 only ! allegorical import ( !          
revelation ( ! ,jews4--,! second pro( ( 
revelation1 ! argum5t f miracles1 0 %ak5
 by ,?omas ,wool/on 7,six ,disc\rses on 
! ,miracles ( our ,savi\r1 #agbg-cj71 by
 8 ext5sion ( ! allegorical             
int]pretation to ^! also4 ,he support$  
himself 9 ?is by ! au?ority ( ! ,*ur*   
,fa!rs1 &1 above all1 by ! argum5t t !  
acc\nts ( ! miracles1 if tak5 lit]ally1 
contradict all s5se & und]/&+4 ,!       

unavoidable d\bts :i* arise conc]n+ !   
lit]al int]pretation ( ! resurrection ( 
! dead1 ! heal+ ( ! sick1 ! driv+ out ( 
devils1 & ! o!r miracles1 prove t ^! 7  
int5d$ only z symbolic repres5tations ( 
! my/]i\s & wond]ful effects :i* ,jesus 
0 to accompli%4 ,?us ,jairus's daught]  
means ! ,jewi% ,*ur*1 :i* is to be      
reviv$ at ! second com+ ( ,*ri/2 ,laz>us
 typifies humanity1 :i* w be rais$ aga9 
at ! la/ day2 ! acc\nt ( ! bodily       
resurrection ( ,jesus is a symbol ( 8   
spiritual resurrection f 8 grave 9 !    
lett] ( ,scripture4 ,%]lock1 ^: ,trial (
 ! ,witnesses ( ! ,resurrection ( ,jesus
 0 long consid]$ a cog5t answ] to !     
attacks ( ,wool/on1 0 oppos$ by ,pet]   
,annet1 :o1 )\t leav+ ! refuge (        
figurative int]pretation op51 proce$$   
/ill m reg>dlessly 9 ! discov]y (       
contradictory & incr$ible elem5ts 9 !   
,gospel reports1 & decl>$ all !         
scriptural writ]s toge!r to be li>s &   
falsifi]s4 ,if a man believes 9 miracles
 z sup]natural int]f]5ces ) ! regul>    

c\rse ( nature 7& !y mu/ be s tak5 if !y
 are to c]tify to ! div9e orig9 ( !     
,scriptures71 he makes ,god mutable1 &  
natural laws imp]fect arrangem5ts :i* /&
 9 ne$ ( correction4 ,! tru? ( religion 
is indep5d5t ( all hi/ory4  ,?omas ,*ubb
 7#afgi-agdg71 a man ( ! p 7he 0 a glove
 mak] & tall[-*&l]71 & f #agae on a     
p>ticipant 9 dei/ic lit]ature & conc]n$ 
to adapt ! new ideas to ! m5 ( 8 class1 
prea*$ 9 ,! ,true ,gospel ( ,jesus ,*ri/
 an honorable work+-man's ,*ri/ianity41 
,fai? means ob$i5ce to ! law ( reason   
inculcat$ by ,*ri/1 n ! acceptance ( !  
facts report$ ab\t him4 ,! gospel (     
,*ri/ 0 prea*$ to ! poor be=e 8 dea? & 8
 ass]t$ resurrection & asc5sion4 ,x is  
probable t ,*ri/ really liv$1 because ( 
! great effect ( 8 message2 b he 0 a man
 l o!r m54 ,8 gospel is 8 tea*+1 n 8    
hi/ory1 8 own tea*+1 n t ( 8 foll[]s--! 
reflections ( ! apo/les are private     
op9ions4 ,*ri/'s tea*+ am\nts1 9 effect1
 to ^! ?ree fundam5tal pr9ciples3 7#a7  
,con=m to ! rational law ( love to ,god 

& "o's neighbor2 ?is is ! only gr\nd (  
div9e acceptance4 7#b7 ,aft]            
transgression ( ! law1 rep5tance &      
re=mation are ! only gr\nds ( div9e     
grace & =giv5ess4 7#c7 ,at ! la/ day e  
"o w be rew>d$ accord+ to 8 works4 ,by  
proclaim+ ^! doctr9es1 by c>ry+ !m out 9
 8 own pure life & typical dea?1 & by   
f\nd+ religio-e?ical associations on !  
pr9ciple ( bro!rly equality1 ,*ri/      
select$ ! means be/ fitt$ = ! atta9m5t (
 8 purpose1 ! salvation ( human s\ls4 ,8
 aim 0 to assure m5 ( future happ9ess 7&
 ( ! e>?ly happ9ess connect$ !re)71 & to
 make !m wor?y ( x2 & ?is happ9ess c    
only be atta9$ :5 f free conviction we  
submit ourselves to ! natural moral law1
 :i* is gr\nd$ on ! moral fitness ( ?+s4
 ,ev]y?+ :i* leads to ! illusion t !    
favor ( ,god is atta9able by any o!r    
means ?an by righte\sness & rep5tance1  
is p]nici\s2 z1 also1 ! confusion (     
,*ri/ian societies ) legal & civil      
societies1 :i* pursue entirely diff]5t  
aims4  ,?omas ,morgan 7,! ,moral        

,philosoph]1 a ,dialogue betwe5 !       
,*ri/ian ,dei/1 ,philale!s1 & ! ,*ri/ian
 ,jew1 ,!ophanes1 #agcg seq47 /&s on !  
same gr\nd z 8 pr$ecessors1 by hold+ t !
 moral tru? ( ?+s is ! crit]ion ( !     
div9ity ( a doctr9e1 t ! ,*ri/ian       
religion is m]ely a re/oration ( natural
 religion1 & t ! apo/les 7 n infallible4
 ,peculi> to him are ! application ( !  
fir/ ( ^! pr9ciples to ! ,mosaic law1 ) 
! conclusion t ?is 0 n a revelation2 !  
complete sep>ation ( ! ,new ,te/am5t f !
 ,old 7! ,*ur* ( ,*ri/ & ! expect$ k+dom
 ( ! ,jewi% ,messiah are z oppos$ to ea*
 o!r z heav5 & e>?72 & ! endeavor to    
give a m exact explanation ( ! orig9 (  
sup]/ition1 ! pre-,*ri/ian manife/ations
 ( :i* he traces back to ! fall ( !     
angels1 & ^? s9ce ,*ri/ to ! int]mixture
 ( ,jewi% elem5ts4 ,he seeks to solve 8 
problem by a detail$ critique (         
,israeliti% hi/ory1 :i* is lack+ 9      
sympa?y b n 9 _s1 & 9 :i*1 introduc+    
mod]n relations into ! e>lie/ times1 he 
expla9s ! ,old ,te/am5t miracles 9 "p z 

my?s1 9 "p z natural ph5om5a1 & deprives
 ! h]oes ( ! ,jews ( _! moral r5[n4 ,!  
,jewi% hi/orians are rank$ among !      
poets2 ! ,god ( ,israel is r$uc$ to a   
subord9ate1 local tutel>y div9ity2 !    
moral law ( ,moses is *>act]iz$ z a     
civil code limit$ to ext]nal conduct1 to
 national & mundane affairs1 ) m]ely    
temporal sanctions1 & ! c]emonial law z 
an act ( worldly /atecraft2 ,david is   
decl>$ a gift$ poet1 musician1          
hypocrite1 & c[>d2 ! prophets are made  
pr(essors ( !ology & moral philosophy2 &
 ,paul is prais$ z ! greate/ free?9k] ( 
8 "t1 :o def5d$ reason aga9/ au?ority & 
reject$ ! ,jewi% ritual law z indiff]5t4
 ,:atev] is spuri\s 9 ,*ri/ianity is a  
remnant ( ,judaism1 all its my/]ies are 
misund]/ood & falsely 7i4e4 lit]ally7   
appli$ allegories4 ,out ( reg>d = ,jewi%
 prejudices ,*ri/'s dea? 0 figuratively 
describ$ z sacrificial1 z 9 e>li] times 
,moses _h be5 =c$ to yield to !         
,egyptian sup]/itions ( 8 p4 ,morgan    
looks = ! f9al victory ( ! rational     

morality ( ! pure1 ,paul9e1 or dei/ic   
,*ri/ianity ov] ! ,jewi% ,*ri/ianity (  
or?odoxy4 ,among ! works ( 8 oppon5ts ! 
foll[+ des]ve m5tion3 ,william          
,w>burton's ,div9e ,legation ( ,moses1 &
 ,samuel ,*&l]'s ,v9dication ( ! ,hi/ory
 ( ! ,old ,te/am5t4  ,x maybe d\bt$ :e!r
 ,bol+broke 7di$ #agea2 cf4 p4 #bjc7 is 
to be class$ among ! dei/s or among _!  
oppon5ts4 ,on ! "o h&1 he f9ds 9        
mono!ism ! orig9al true religion1 :i*   
has deg5]at$ into sup]/ition ?r\gh      
prie/ly cunn+ & fanta/ical philosophy2 9
 primitive ,*ri/ianity1 ! sy/em (       
natural religion1 :i* has be5 trans=m$  
into a complicat$ & cont5ti\s sci5ce by 
its weak1 fooli%1 or deceitful adh]5ts2 
9 !ology1 ! corruption ( religion2 9    
,bacon1 ,desc>tes1 & ,locke1 types (    
untrammel$ inve/igation4 ,on ! o!r h&1  
he seeks to protect revelation f !      
reason ^: cultivation he has j comm5d$1 
& to keep fai? & k di/9ct1 :ile he dem&s
 t ! ,bible1 ) all ! undemon/rable &    
absurd elem5ts :i* x conta9s1 be accept$

 on its own au?ority4 ,religion is an   
in/rum5t indisp5sable to ! gov]nm5t =   
keep+ ! p 9 subjection4 ,only ! fe> ( a 
high] p[]1 n ! reason1 holds ! masses 9 
*eck2 & ! free?9k]s d wrong 9 tak+ a bit
 out ( ! m\? ( ! s5sual multitude1 :5 x 
7 bett] to add to ^? already !re4  ,z   
,hume1 ! skeptic1 leads empiricism to   
its fall1 s ,hume1 ! philosoph] (       
religion 7see bel[71 leads deism t[>d   
dissolution4 ,among ^? :o def5d$ reveal$
 ,*ri/ianity aga9/ ! dei/ical attacks we
 may m5tion ! names ( ,conybe>e 7#agcb7 
& ,joseph ,butl] 7#agcf74 ,! =m] argues 
f ! imp]fection & mutability ( our      
reason to l *>act]i/ics 9 natural       
religion4 ,butl] 7cf4 p4 #bjf7 does n   
admit t natural & reveal$ religion are  
mutually exclusive4 ,*ri/ian revelation 
l5ds a high] au?ority to natural        
religion1 9 :i* %e f9ds h] f\ndation1 & 
adapts x to ! giv5 relations & ne$s (   
mank9d1 add+1 h[ev]1 to ! rational law (
 virtue new duties t[>d ,god ! ,son &   
,god ! ,holy ,gho/4 ,x is evid5t t 9    

ord] to be able to deal ) _! oppon5ts1 !
 apologetes are =c$ to accommodate      
!mselves to ! dei/ic pr9ciple ( a       
rational criticism ( revelation4        
,not)/&+ ! fe> :i* ?is pr9ciple inspir$ 
9 ! m5 ( ! "t1 x soon p5etrat$ ! ?\ght  
ev5 ( its oppon5ts1 & f\nd its way into 
! popul> m9d ?r\gh ! *annels ( !        
,illum9ation4  ,al?\gh x 0 (t5 def5d$ & 
appli$ ) viol5ce & ) a sup]flu\s hatr$ (
 ! cl]gy1 x =ms ! ju/ifiable elem5t 9 ! 
endeavors ( ! dei/s4 ,x is a commonplace
 to-day t ev]y?+ :i* claims to be true &
 valid mu/ ju/ify itself be=e !         
criticism ( reason2 b !n ?is pr9ciple1  
toge!r ) ! di/9ction betwe5 natural &   
positive religion bas$ ^u x1 ex]t$ an   
enlight5+ & lib]at+ influ5ce4 ,! real   
flaw 9 ! dei/ical !ory1 :i* 0 sc>cely   
felt z su*1 ev5 by its oppon5ts1 0 its  
lack ( religi\s feel+ & all hi/orical   
s5se1 a lack :i* r5d]$ ! idea acceptable
 t religions c\ld be made1 & prie/ly    
falsehoods become _w-mov+ =ces4 ,hume 0 
! fir/ to seek to rise above ?is        

unspeakable %all[ness4 ,!re 0 a         
rem>kable conflict betwe5 ! ascription  
to man1 on ! "o h&1 ( an assur$ treasure
 ( religi\s k 9 ! reason1 & ! ab&onm5t (
 him1 on ! o!r1 to ! juggl+ ( cunn+     
prie/s & despots4 ,?us ! dei/s _h no    
s5se ei!r = ! peculi>ities ( an inw>d   
religi\s feel+1 :i*1 9 happy presci5ce1 
rises above ! e>?ly circle ( moral      
duties to ! _w beyond1 or = !           
involunt>y1 hi/orically necess>y orig9 &
 gr[? ( ! p>ticul> =ms ( religion4 ,"h1 
aga91 we f9d t turn+ away f w & feel+ to
 ?\ght1 f hi/ory to nature1 f !         
oppressive complexity ( t :i* has be5   
develop$ to ! simplicity ( t :i* is     
orig9al1 :i* we h not$ z "o ( ! mo/     
prom95t *>act]i/ics ( ! mod]n p]iod4    
#c4 ,moral ,philosophy4  ,! wat*word (  
deism 0 indep5d5ce 9 religion2 t ( mod]n
 e?ical philosophy is indep5d5ce 9      
morals4 ,hobbes _h giv5 ?is out 9       
opposition to ! m$iaeval dep5d5ce (     
e?ics on !ology2 n[ x 0 turn$ aga9/     
himself1 = he _h deliv]$ morality f     

ecclesia/ical bondage only to subject x 
to ! no less oppressive & unwor?y yoke (
 ! civil p[]4 ,selfi% consid]ation1 s he
 _h taught1 leads m5 to transf] by      
contract all p[] to ! rul]4 ,"r is t :i*
 ! sov]eign enjo9s1 wrong t :i* he      
=bids4 ,?us morality 0 conceiv$ 9 a     
purely negative way z ju/ice1 & bas$ on 
int]e/ & agreem5t4 ,cumb]l&1 recogniz+ !
 "o-sid$ness ( ! fir/ ( ^! positions1   
ann\nces ! pr9ciple ( univ]sal          
b5evol5ce1 at :i* ,bacon _h h9t$ be=e   
him1 & 9 :i* he is foll[$ by ! s*ool (  
,%aftesbury4 ,opposition to ! f\ndation 
( e?ics on self-love & conv5tion1 aga91 
spr+s up 9 ?ree =ms1 "o ideali/ic1 "o   
logical1 & "o ae/hetic4 ,e?ical ideas h 
n aris5 artificially ?r\gh %rewd        
calculation & agreem5t1 b h a natural   
orig94 ,cudwor?1 return+ to ,plato &    
,desc>tes1 assumes an innate idea ( !   
good4 ,cl>ke & ,wool/on base moral      
di/9ctions on ! rational ord] ( ?+s1 &  
*>act]ize ! e?ically good action z a    
logical tru? translat$ into practice4   

,%aftesbury d]ives e?ical ideas &       
actions f a natural in/9ct = judg+ !    
good & ! beautiful4 ,moreov]1 ,hobbes's 
e?ics ( int]e/ exp]i5ces1 fir/1         
correction at ! h&s ( ,locke 7:o1 along 
) a complete recognition ( ! legal "* ( 
! good1 di/+ui%es ! sph]e ( morality f t
 ( m]e law1 & br+s x "u ! law (         
reputation1 h5ce ( a tacit agreem5t71 & 
!n a frivol\s int5sification "u         
,m&eville & ,bol+broke4 ,a prelim9>y    
conclusion is rea*$ 9 ! e?ical labors ( 
,hume & ,smi?4  ,ri*>d ,cumb]l& 7,de    
,legibus ,naturae1 #afgb7 turns to      
exp]i5ce ) ! que/ions1 ,9 :at does      
morality consi/8 ,:5ce does x arise8 &  
,:at is ! nature ( moral obligation8 &  
f9ds ^! answ]s3 ,^? actions are good1 or
 9 con=mity to ! moral law ( nature1 :i*
 promote ! common good 7commune bonum   
summa lex74 ,individual welf>e mu/ be   
subord9at$ to ! good ( all1 ( :i* x =ms 
only a "p4 ,! psy*ological roots (      
virtu\s action are ! social & dis9t]e/$ 
affections1 :i* nature has implant$ 9   

all be+s1 especially 9 ^? end[$ )       
reason4 ,!re is no?+ 9 man m pleas+ to  
,god ?an love4 ,we recognize our        
obligation to ! virtue ( b5evol5ce1 or t
 ,god comm&s x1 f ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts  
:i* we p]ceive to foll[ ! fulfillm5t or 
non-fulfillm5t ( ! law1--! subord9ation 
( individual to univ]sal good is ! only 
means ( atta9+ true happ9ess &          
cont5tm5t4 ,m5 are dep5d5t on mutual    
b5evol5ce4 ,he :o labors = ! good ( !   
:ole sy/em ( rational be+s fur!rs !reby 
! welf>e ( ! individual p>ts1 among :om 
he himself is "o2 individual happ9ess _c
 be sep>at$ f g5]al happ9ess4 ,all      
duties are impli$ 9 ! supreme "o3 ,give 
to o!rs1 & pres]ve ?yself4 ,?is pr9ciple
 ( b5evol5ce1 advanc$ by ,cumb]l& )     
homely simplicity1 receiv$ 9 ! lat]     
developm5t ( ,engli% e?ics1 = :i* x     
po9t$ out ! way1 a m c>eful f\ndation4  
,! s]ies ( emancipations ( morality     
beg9s ) ! ,intellectual ,sy/em ( ,ralph 
,cud wor? 7,! ,intellectual ,sy/em ( !  
,univ]se1 #afgh2 ,a ,treatise conc]n+   

,et]nal & ,immutable ,morality1 #agca74 
,e?ical ideas come nei!r f exp]i5ce nor 
f civil legislation nor f ! w ( ,god1 b 
are necess>y ideas 9 ! div9e & ! human  
reason4 ,because ( _! simplicity1       
univ]sality1 & immutability1 x is       
impossible = !m to arise f exp]i5ce1 :i*
 nev] yields any?+ b t :i* is p>ticul> &
 mutable4 ,x is j z impossible t !y %\ld
 spr+ f political con/itutions1 :i* h a 
temporal orig91 :i* are transitory1 &   
:i* diff] f "o ano!r4 ,= if ob$i5ce to  
positive law is "r & disob$i5ce wrong1  
!n moral di/9ctions mu/ h exi/$ be=e !  
law2 if1 on ! o!r h&1 ob$i5ce to ! civil
 law is morally indiff]5t1 !n m ?an ev] 
is x impossible t ?is %\ld be ! basis ( 
! moral di/9ctions 9 "q4 ,a law c b9d u 
only 9 virtue ( t :i* is necess>ily1    
absolutely1 or p] se "r2 !re=e ! good is
 indep5d5t1 also1 ( ! w ( ,god4 ,!      
absolutely good is an et]nal tru? :i*   
,god does n create by an act ( 8 w1 b   
:i* he f9ds pres5t 9 8 reason1 & :i*1 l 
! o!r ideas1 he impresses on creat$     

spirits4 ,on ! a priori ideas dep5ds !  
possibility ( sci5ce1 = k is ! p]ception
 ( necess>y tru?4  ,9 agreem5t )        
,cudwor? t ! moral law is dep5d5t nei!r 
on human compact nor on ! div9e w1      
,samuel ,cl>ke 7di$ #agbi7 f9ds ! et]nal
 pr9ciples ( ju/ice1 goodness1 & tru?1  
:i* ,god obs]ves 9 8 gov]nm5t ( !       
univ]se1 & :i* %\ld also be ! guide (   
human action1 embodi$ 9 ! nature ( ?+s  
or 9 _! prop]ties1 p[]s1 & relations1 9 
virtue ( :i* c]ta9 ?+s1 relations1 &    
modes ( action are suit$ to "o ano!r1 & 
o!rs n4 ,morality is ! subjective       
con=mity ( conduct to ?is objective     
fitness ( ?+s2 ! good is ! fitt+4 ,moral
 rules1 to :i* we are b\nd by consci5ce 
& by rational insight1 are valid        
indep5d5tly ( ! comm& ( ,god & ( all    
hope or fe> 9 ref]5ce to ! life to come1
 al?\gh ! pr9ciples ( religion furni% !m
 an effective support1 & "o :i* is almo/
 indisp5sable 9 view ( ! weakness (     
human nature4 ,!y are n univ]sally      
obs]v$1 inde$1 b univ]sally ackn[l$g$2  

ev5 ! vici\s man _c refra9 f prais+     
virtue 9 o!rs4 ,he :o is induc$ by !    
voice ( passion to act contr>y to !     
et]nal relations or h>mony ( ?+s1       
contradicts 8 own reason 9 ?us und]tak+ 
to di/urb ! ord] ( ! univ]se2 he commits
 ! absurdity ( will+ t ?+s %\ld be t :i*
 !y are n4 ,inju/ice is 9 practice t :i*
 falsity & contradiction are 9 !oretical
 affairs4 ,9 8 well-kn[n controv]sy )   
,leibnitz1 ,cl>ke def5ds ! fre$om ( ! w 
aga9/ ! det]m9ism ( ! ,g]man philosoph]4
  ,9 ,william ,wolla/on 7di$ #agbd71 )  
:om ! logical po9t ( view becomes /ill m
 app>5t1 ,cl>ke f\nd a ?9k] :o %>$ 8    
convictions t ! subjective moral        
pr9ciple ( int]e/ 0 insuffici5t1 &1     
h5ce1 an objective pr9ciple to be s\ght2
 t morality consi/s 9 ! suitabl5ess ( ! 
action to ! nature & de/9ation ( !      
object1 & t1 9 ! la/ analysis1 x is     
co9cid5t ) tru?4 ,! highe/ de/9ation (  
man is1 on ! "o h&1 to "k ! tru?1 &1 on 
! o!r1 to express x 9 actions4 ,t act is
 good ^: execution includes !           

affirmation 7& its omission ! negation7 
( a tru?4 ,accord+ to ! law ( nature1 a 
rational be+ ought s to conduct himself 
t he %all nev] contradict a tru? by 8   
actions1 i4 e41 to treat ea* ?+ = :at x 
is4 ,e immoral action is a false        
judgm5t2 ! violation ( a contract is a  
practical d5ial ( x4 ,! man :o is cruel 
to animals decl>es by 8 act t ! creature
 maltreat$ is some?+ :i* 9 fact x is n1 
a be+ devoid ( feel+4 ,! murd]] acts z  
?\gh he 7 able to re/ore life to 8      
victim4 ,he :o1 9 disob$i5ce t[>d ,god1 
deals ) ?+s 9 a way contr>y to _!       
nature1 behaves z ?\gh he 7 mighti] ?an 
! au?or ( nature4 ,to ?is equation (    
tru? & morality happ9ess is add$ z a    
?ird id5tical memb]4 ,! tru] ! pleasures
 ( a be+ ! happi] x is2 & a pleasure is 
untrue :5ev] m 7( pa97 is giv5 = x ?an x
 is wor?4 ,a rational be+ contradicts   
itself :5 x pursues an irrational       
pleasure4--,! c\rse ( moral philosophy  
has pass$ ov] ! logical e?ics ( ,cl>ke &
 ,wolla/on z an ab/ract & unfruitful    

idiosyncrasy1 & x is c]ta9 t ) bo? ( ^! 
?9k]s _! plans 7 great] ?an _!          
p]=mances4 ,b ! se>* = an e?ical norm   
:i* %\ld be univ]sally valid & sup]ior  
to ! individual w1 did n lack           
ju/ification 9 contra/ to ! subjectivism
 ( ! o!r two s*ools ( ! "t--! s*ool (   
int]e/ & ! s*ool ( b5evol5ce1 :i* made  
virtue a matt] ( calculation or ( feel+4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,! ,engli% e?ics ( ! p]iod culm9ates
 9 ,%aftesbury 7#afga-agac71 :o1 re>$ on
 ! pr9ciples ( 8 gr&fa!r's fri5d ,locke1
 =m$ 8 arti/ic s5se on ! models (       
classical antiquity1 to recall to !     
memory ( 8 age ! ,greek ideal ( a       
beautiful humanity4 ,philosophy1 z ! k (
 ourselves & t :i* is truly good1 a     
guide to morality & happ9ess2 ! _w &    
virtue1 a h>mony2 ! good1 ! beautiful z 
well2 ! :ole1 a controll+ =ce 9 !       
p>ticul>--^! views1 & 8 ta/eful /yle (  
exposition1 make ,%aftesbury a mod]n    
,greek2 x is only 8 bitt]ness aga9/     
,*ri/ianity :i* betrays ! son ( ! new   

era4 ,among ! /udies collect$ "u ! title
 ,*>act]i/ics ( ,m51 ,mann]s1 ,op9ions1 
,times1 #agaa1 ! mo/ important are ^? on
 ,en?usiasm1 on ,wit & ,humor1 on       
,virtue & ,m]it1 & ! ,morali/s4#a       
,footnote #a3 ,georg v4 ,gizycki has    
writt5 on ,%aftesbury's philosophy1     
#ahgf4 ,cf4 ,f[l]'s ,%aftesbury &       
,hut*ison1 ,engli% ,philosoph]s ,s]ies1 
#ahhb4--,,tr4  ,%aftesbury's fundam5tal 
metaphysical concept is ae/hetic3 unity 
9 v>iety is = him ! all-p]vasive law ( !
 _w4 ,9 e case :]e p>ts "w 9 mutual     
dep5d5ce t[>d a common result1 !re rules
 a c5tral unity1 unit+ & animat+ !      
memb]s4 ,! l[e/ ( ^! sub/antial unities 
is ! ego1 ! common s\rce ( our ?\ghts & 
feel+s4 ,b z ! p>ts ( ! organism are    
gov]n$ & held toge!r by ! s\l1 s        
individuals are jo9$ ) "o ano!r into    
species & g5]a by high] unities4 ,ea*   
individual be+ is a memb] 9 a sy/em (   
creatures1 :i* a common nature b9ds     
toge!r4 ,moreov]1 s9ce ord] & h>mony are
 spread ?r\gh\t ! _w1 & no "o ?+ exi/s  

out ( relation to all o!rs & to ! :ole1 
! univ]se mu/ be conceiv$ z animat$ by a
 =mative p[] :i* works purposively2 ?is 
all-rul+ unity is ! s\l ( ! _w1 !       
univ]sal m9d1 ! ,deity4 ,! f9ality &    
beauty ( ^? p>ts ( ! _w :i* we c "k     
ju/ifies ! inf]5ce to a l con/itution ( 
^? :i* are unapproa*able1 s t we may be 
c]ta9 t ! num]\s evils :i* we f9d 9 !   
details1 "w = ! good ( a sy/em sup]ior  
to !m1 & t all app>5t imp]fections      
contribute to ! p]fection ( ! :ole4 ,z  
our philosoph] makes use ( ! idea ( !   
_w-h>mony to support !ism & ! !odicy1 s1
 fur!r1 he d]ives ! cont5t ( morality f 
x1 ?us giv+ e?ics a natural basis       
indep5d5t ( self-int]e/ & conv5tional   
fancies4  ,a be+ is good :5 its impulses
 t[>d ! pres]vation & welf>e ( ! species
 is /rong1 & ^? direct$ to its own good 
n too /rong4 ,! virtue ( a rational be+ 
is di/+ui%$ f ! goodness ( a m]ely      
s5sible creature by ! fact t man n only 
possesses impulses1 b reflects ^u !m1 t 
he approves or disapproves 8 own conduct

 & t ( o!rs1 & ?us makes 8 affections ! 
object ( a high]1 reflective1 judg+     
affection4 ,?is faculty ( moral         
di/9ctions1 ! s5se = "r & wrong1 or1 :i*
 am\nts to ! same ?+1 = beauty &        
ugl9ess1 is innate2 we approve virtue & 
condemn vice by nature1 n z ! result ( a
 compact1 & f ?is natural feel+ = good &
 evil ex]cise develops a cultivat$ moral
 ta/e or tact4 ,& :51 fur!r1 ! reason1  
by means ( ?is faculty ( judgm5t1 ga9s  
control ov] ! passions1 man becomes an  
e?ical arti/1 a moral virtuoso4  ,virtue
 pleases by its own wor? & beauty1 n    
because ( any ext]nal advantage4 ,we mu/
 n corrupt ! love ( ! good = its own    
sake by mix+ ) x ! hope ( future rew>d1 
:i* at ! be/ is admissible only z a     
c\nt]-weight aga9/ evil passions4 ,:5   
,%aftesbury speaks ( future bliss1 8    
highe/ conception ( ! heav5ly life is   
un9t]rupt$ fri5d%ip1 magnanimity1 &     
nobility1 z a cont9ual rew>d+ ( virtue  
by new virtue4  ,! good is ! beautiful1 
& ! beautiful is ! h>moni\s1 !          

symmetrical2 h5ce ! ess5ce ( virtue     
consi/s 9 ! balance ( ! affections &    
passions4 ,( ! ?ree classes into :i*    
,%aftesbury divides ! passions1 "o1     
includ+ ! unnatural or unsocial         
affections1 z malevol5ce1 envy1 &       
cruelty1 :i* aim nei!r at ! good ( !    
individual nor t ( o!rs1 is always &    
entirely evil4  ,! two o!r classes1 !   
social 7or natural7 affections & !      
self-affections1 may be virtu\s or      
vici\s1 accord+ to _! degree1 i4 e41    
accord+ to ! relation ( _! /r5g? to t ( 
! o!r affections4 ,9 itself a b5evol5t  
impulse is nev] too /rong2 x c become s 
only 9 comp>ison ) self-love1 or 9      
respect to ! con/itution ( ! individual 
9 "q1 & conv]sely4 ,commonly ! social   
impulses d n atta9 ! normal /&>d1 :ile !
 selfi% exce$ x2 b ! opposite case also 
occurs4 ,excessive p>5tal t5d]ness1 !   
pity :i* en]vates & makes useless = aid1
 religi\s zeal = mak+ conv]ts1          
passionate p>tisan%ip1 are examples (   
too viol5t social affections :i* int]f]e

 ) ! activity ( ! o!r incl9ations4 ,j z 
errone\s1 on ! o!r side1 is ! neglect ( 
"o's own good4 ,= al?\gh ! possession ( 
selfi% incl9ations does n make a man    
virtu\s1 yet ! lack ( !m is a moral     
defect1 s9ce !y are indisp5sable to !   
g5]al good4 ,no "o c be useful to o!rs  
:o does n keep himself 9 a condition =  
s]vice4 ,! impulse to c>e = private     
welf>e is good & necess>y 9 s f> z x    
comports ) ! g5]al welf>e or contributes
 to ?is4 ,! due proportion betwe5 !     
social passions1 :i* con/itute ! direct 
s\rce ( good1 & ^? ( self-love1 consi/s 
9 subord9at+ ! latt] to ! =m]4 ,! k9%ip 
( ?is e?ics ( h>mony ) ! e?ical views ( 
antiquity is evid5t4 ,x is complet$ by !
 eudemoni/ic conclusion ( ! sy/em4  ,z !
 h>mony ( impulses con/itutes ! ess5ce (
 virtue1 s also x is ! way to true      
happ9ess4 ,exp]i5ce %[s t unsocial1     
unsympa!tic1 vici\s m5 are mis]able2 t  
love to society is ! ri*e/ s\rce (      
happ9ess2 t ev5 pity = ! suff]+ ( o!rs  
occasions m pleasure ?an pa94 ,virtue   

secures u ! love & respect ( o!rs1      
secures u1 above all1 ! approval ( our  
own consci5ce1 & true happ9ess consi/s 9
 satisfaction ) ourselves4 ,! se>* aft] 
?is pure1 con/ant1 spiritual pleasure 9 
! good1 :i* is nev] accompani$ by       
satiety & disgu/1 %\ld n be call$       
self-seek+2 he alone takes pleasure 9 ! 
good :o is already good himself4        
,%aftesbury is n well dispos$ t[>d      
positive ,*ri/ianity1 hold+ t x has made
 virtue m]c5>y by its promises ( heav5ly
 rew>ds1 remov$ moral que/ions entirely 
out ( ?is _w into ! _w to come1 & taught
 m5 mo/ pi\sly to torm5t "o ano!r out ( 
pure sup]natural bro!rly love4 ,9       
opposition to su* transc5d5tal positions
 ,%aftesbury1 a prie/ ( ! mod]n view ( !
 _w1 gives virtue a home on e>?1 seeks !
 h& ( ,provid5ce 9 ! pres5t _w1 & tea*es
 m5 to rea* fai? 9 ,god by inspir+      
contemplation ( ! well-ord]$ univ]se4   
,virtue )\t piety is possible1 inde$1   
?\gh n complete4 ,b morality is fir/ &  
fix$1 h5ce x is ! condition & ! crit]ion

 ( g5u9e religion4 ,revelation does n   
ne$ to fe> free rational criticism1 = ! 
,scriptures are accr$it$ by _! cont5ts4 
,besides reason1 bant] is ) ,%aftesbury 
a second means = di/+ui%+ ! g5u9e f !   
spuri\s3 ridicule is ! te/ ( tru?1 & wit
 & humor ! only cure = en?usiasm4 ,) ^! 
he sc\rges ! ov]-pi\s z religi\s        
p>asites1 :o = safety's sake pref] to   
believe too mu* r ?an too little4  ,be=e
 ,%aftesbury's !ory ( ! moral s5se & !  
dis9t]e/$ affections _h ga9$ adh]5ts &  
develop]s1 ! dang]1 :i* inde$ _h n      
always be5 escap$1 t man might cont5t   
himself ) ! satisfaction ( possess+     
noble impulses1 )\t tak+ mu* c>e to     
realize !m 9 useful actions1 call$ =? by
 way ( reaction1 a p>adoxical attempt at
 an apology = vice4 ,m&eville1 a ,london
 physician ( ,fr5* extraction1 & born 9 
,holl&1 _h ar\s$ att5tion by 8 poem1 ,! 
,grumbl+ ,hive2 or ,knaves ,turn$       
,hone/1 #agjf1 & 9 response to vehem5t  
attacks ^u 8 "w1 _h add$ a comm5t>y to !
 second edition1 ,! ,fable ( ! ,bees2 or

 ,private ,vices ,public ,b5efits1      
#agad4 ,! moral ( ! fable is t ! welf>e 
( a society dep5ds on ! indu/ry ( its   
memb]s1 & ?is1 9 turn1 on _! passions & 
vices4 ,gre$1 extravagance1 envy1       
ambition1 & rivalry are ! roots ( !     
acquisitive impulse1 & contribute m to !
 public good ?an b5evol5ce & ! control (
 desire4 ,virtue is good = ! individual1
 x is true1 s9ce x makes him cont5t$ )  
himself & acceptable to ,god & man1 b   
great /ates require /rong] motives to   
labor & indu/ry 9 ord] to be prosp]\s4  
,a p among :om frugality1 self-d5ial1 & 
quietness ( _s 7 ! rule w\ld rema9 poor 
& ignorant4 ,besides hold+ t virtue     
fur!rs ! happ9ess ( society1 ,%aftesbury
 makes a second mi/ake 9 assum+ t human 
nature includes unselfi% incl9ations4 ,x
 is n innate love & goodness t make u   
social1 b our passions & weaknesses     
7above all1 fe>72 man is by nature      
self-seek+4 ,all actions1 includ+ !     
s-call$ virtues1 spr+ f vanity & egoism2
 ?us x has always be51 ?us x is 9 e     

grade ( society4 ,9 social life1 inde$1 
we d>e n display all ^! desires op5ly1  
nor satisfy !m at w4 ,%rewd lawgiv]s h  
taught m5 to conceal _! natural passions
 & to limit !m by artificial ones1      
p]suad+ !m t r5unciation is true        
happ9ess1 on ! gr\nd t ?r\gh x we atta9 
! supreme good--reputation among1 & !   
e/eem ( our fell[s4 ,s9ce !n honor &    
%ame h become ! /ronge/ motives & h     
incit$ m5 to t :i* is call$ virtue1     
i4e41 to actions :i* app>5tly imply !   
sacrifice ( selfi% incl9ations = ! good 
( society1 :ile !y are really done out (
 pride & self-love4 ,by con/antly feign+
 noble s5tim5ts be=e o!rs man comes1    
f9ally1 to deceive himself1 believ+     
himself a be+ ^: happ9ess consi/s 9 !   
r5unciation ( self & all t is e>?ly1 & 9
 ! ?\ght ( 8 moral excell5ce4--,! crass 
assumptions 9 ,m&eville's reason+ are   
evid5t at a glance4 ,aft] analyz+ virtue
 into ! suppression ( desire1 aft]      
label+ ! impulse aft] moral approbation 
vanity1 lawful self-love egoism1 &      

rational acquisitiv5ess av>ice1 x 0 easy
 = him to prove t x is vice :i* makes ! 
individual indu/ri\s & ! /ate prosp]\s1 
t virtue is seldom f\nd1 & t if x 7     
univ]sal x w\ld become injuri\s to      
society4  ,) diff]5t %ad+ & ) less      
"o-sid$ness1 ,bol+broke 7cf4 p4 #aic7   
def5d$ ! /&po9t ( naturalism4 ,god has  
creat$ u = happ9ess 9 common2 we are    
de/9$ to assi/ "o ano!r4 ,happ9ess is   
atta9able 9 society alone1 & society _c 
exi/ )\t ju/ice & b5evol5ce4 ,he :o     
ex]cises virtue1 i4e41 promotes ! good (
 ! species1 promotes at ! same "t 8 own 
good4 ,all actions spr+ f self-love1    
:i*1 guid$ at fir/ by an imm$iate       
in/9ct1 & lat]1 by reason develop$ ?r\gh
 exp]i5ce1 ext5ds itself ov] ev] wid5+  
sph]es4 ,we love ourselves 9 our        
relatives1 9 our fri5ds1 fur!r /ill1 9  
our c\ntry1 f9ally1 9 humanity1 s t     
self-love & social love co9cide1 & we   
are impell$ to virtue by ! comb9$       
motives ( int]e/ & duty4 ,?is is an e?ic
 ( common s5se f ! /&po9t ( ! cultur$   

man ( ! _w--:i* at ! prop] "t has ! "r1 
no d\bt1 to ga9 itself a he>+4          
,mean:ile ,%aftesbury's ideas _h        
impress$ ,hut*eson & ,butl]1 accord+ to 
! peculi>ities ( ea*4 ,bo? ( ^! writ]s  
deem x necess>y to expla9 & correct !   
di/9ction betwe5 ! selfi% & ! b5evol5t  
affections by additions1 :i* 7 (        
influ5ce on ! e?ics ( ,hume2 bo? devote 
_! zeal to ! new doctr9e ( feel+s (     
reflection or moral ta/e1 9 :i* ! =m]   
gives m prom95ce to ! ae/hetic1 m]ely   
judg+ factor1 ! latt] to ! active or    
m&atory "o4  ,francis ,hut*eson#a 7di$  
#agdg71 pr(essor at ,glasg[1 9 8        
po/hum\s ,sy/em ( ,moral ,philosophy1   
#agee1 :i* _h be5 prec$$ by an ,inquiry 
conc]n+ ! ,orig9al ( our ,ideas (       
,beauty & ,virtue1 #agbe1 pursues !     
d\ble aim ( %[+ aga9/ ,hobbes & ,locke !
 orig9ality & dis9t]e/$ness bo? (       
b5evol5ce & ( moral approval4 ,virtue is
 n ex]cis$ because x br+s advantage to !
 ag5t1 nor approv$ on acc\nt ( advantage
 to ! obs]v]4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4       

,f[l]'s treatise1 cit$ above--,,tr4     
7#a7 ,! b5evol5t affections are entirely
 indep5d5t ( self-love & reg>d = !      
rew>ds ( ,god & ( man1 nay1 indep5d5t   
ev5 ( ! l(ty satisfaction af=d$ by      
self-approbation4 ,?is la/1 inde$1 is   
v\*saf$ to u only :5 we seek ! good (   
o!rs )\t p]sonal aims3 ! joy ( inw>d    
approval is ! result ( virtue1 n !      
motive to x4 ,if love 7 9 reality a     
conceal$ egoism1 x w\ld yield to control
 9 cases :]e x promises advantage1 :i*1 
z exp]i5ce %[s1 is n ! fact4 ,b5evol5ce 
is entirely natural & z univ]sal 9 !    
moral _w z gravitation 9 ! corporeal2 & 
l gravitation fur!r 9 t its int5sity    
increases ) prop9quity--! ne>] ! p]sons1
 ! great] ! love4 ,b5evol5ce is m       
widespread ?an malevol5ce2 ev5 ! crim9al
 does m innoc5t & k9d acts 9 8 life ?an 
crim9al ones--! r>ity ( ! latt] is !    
reason :y s mu* is said ab\t !m4  7#b7  
,moral judgm5t is also entirely         
un9flu5c$ by consid]ation ( !           
advantage\s or disadvantage\s results = 

! ag5t or ! spectator4 ,! beauty ( a    
good de$ ar\ses imm$iate satisfaction4  
,?r\gh ! moral s5se we feel pleasure at 
obs]v+ a virtu\s action1 & av]sion :5 we
 p]ceive an ignoble "o1 feel+s :i* are  
indep5d5t ( all ?\ght ( ! rew>ds &      
puni%m5ts promis$ by ,god1 z well z ( ! 
utility or h>m = ourselves4 ,hut*eson   
argues a complete di/9ction betwe5 moral
 approval & ! p]ception ( ! agreeable & 
! useful1 f ! facts t we judge a        
b5evol5t action :i* is =c$1 or done f   
motives ( p]sonal advantage1 q diff]5tly
 f "o inspir$ by love2 t we pay e/eem to
 high-m9d$ *>act]s :e!r _! =tunes be    
good or ill2 & t we are mov$ ) equal =ce
 by fictiti\s actions1 z1 = in/ance1 on 
! /age1 & by ^? :i* really take place4  
7#c7 ,a few fur!r p>ticul>s may be      
emphasiz$ f ! compreh5sive              
sy/ematization :i* ,hut*eson indu/ri\sly
 & ?\ghtfully gave to ,%aftesbury's     
ideas4 ,two po9ts reveal ! =]unn] (     
,hume4 ,fir/1 ! rle assign$ to ! reason 
9 moral affairs is m]ely subsidi>y4 ,our

 motive to action is nev] ! k ( a true  
proposition1 b always simply a wi%1     
affection1 or impulse4 ,ultimate ends   
are giv5 by ! feel+s alone2 ! reason c  
only discov] ! means !reto4 ,secondly1 !
 turbul5t1 bl9d1 rapidly pass+ passions 
are di/+ui%$ f ! calm1 p]man5t          
affections1 :i* are m$iat$ by cognition4
 ,! latt] are ! nobl]2 among !m1 9 turn1
 ! highe/ place is occupi$ by ^?        
conducive to ! g5]al good1 ^: wor? is   
/ill fur!r det]m9$ by ! ext5t ( _!      
objects4 ,f ?is is d]iv$ ! law t a k9d  
affection receives ! m lively approval1 
! m calm & delib]ate x is1 ! high] !    
degree ( happ9ess exp]i5c$ by ! object (
 ! action1 & ! great] ! numb] ( p]sons  
affect$ by x4 ,patriotism & love (      
mank9d 9 g5]al are high] virtues ?an    
affection = fri5ds & *ildr54 ,z ! goal (
 ! self-reg>d+ affections1 p]fection    
makes its appe>ance--= ! fir/ "t 9      
,engli% e?ics--by ! side ( happ9ess4    
,joseph ,butl]#a 7#afib-ageb2 ,s]mons on
 ,human ,nature1 #agbf2 cf4 p4 #aid7    

ma9ta9s /ill m /rictly ?an ,hut*eson !  
imm$iat5ess bo? ( ! affections & ! moral
 e/imation ( !m4 ,he decl>es t ev5 !    
self-reg>d+ impulses z su* are          
un-egoi/ic1 & makes moral judgm5t leave 
out ( view all consequ5ces1 ei!r =ese5  
or pres5t1 :]eas 8 pr$ecessor _h resolv$
 ! goodness ( ! action into its         
advantage\s effects 7n = ! ag5t & !     
spectator1 b = its object &7 = society4 
,! consci5ce--s ,butl] t]ms ! moral     
s5se--directly approves or disapproves  
*>act]s & actions 9 !mselves1 no matt]  
:at good or ill !y occasion 9 ! _w4 ,we 
judge a mode ( action good1 n because x 
is useful to society1 b because x       
corresponds to ! dem&s ( ! consci5ce4   
,?is mu/ be unconditionally obey$1      
:atev] be ! issue4 ,we mu/ n act contr>y
 to tru? & ju/ice1 ev5 if x %\ld seem to
 br+ ab\t m happ9ess ?an mis]y4--,butl]1
 too1 furni%es mat]ial = ! e?ics (      
,hume1 by 8 revival ( ! sep>ation1      
previ\sly def5d$ by ! ,/oics1 ( desire &
 passion f self-love or int]e/4         

,self-love desires a ?+ because x       
expects pleasure f x1 b ! natural       
impulses impel u t[>d _! objects        
imm$iately1 i4 e41 )\t a repres5tation (
 ! pleasure to be ga9$2 & repetition is 
necess>y be=e ! artificial motive (     
egoi/ic pleasure-seek+ c be add$ to !   
natural motive ( inborn desire4         
,self-love always presupposes orig9al1  
imm$iate affections4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4
 ,coll9s's ,butl]1 ,blackwood's         
,philosophical ,classics4 #ahha4--,,tr4 
,! ,engli% moral sci5ce ( ! c5tury is   
br\ght to a conclusion by ,adam ,smi?#a 
7#agbc-ij71 ! celebrat$ f\nd] (         
political economy4#b ,smi? n only takes 
into consid]ation--l 8 great] fri5d1    
,hume--all ! problems propos$ by 8      
pr$ecessors1 b1 fur!r 79 8 ,!ory (      
,moral ,s5tim5ts1 #agei1 publi%$ :ile he
 0 pr(essor at ,glasg[71 comb9es ! v>i\s
 attempts at _! solution1 n by eclectic 
co-ord9ation b by work+ !m ov] =        
himself1 & arranges !m on a uni=m       
pr9ciple1 ?us accompli%+ a "w :i* has n 

yet receiv$ due recognition beyond !    
limits ( 8 native l&4 ,he rea*$ ?is     
compreh5sive moral pr9ciple by recogniz+
 ! full be>+ ( a ?\ght :i* ,hume _h     
incid5tally express$1 t moral judgm5t   
dep5ds on p>ticipation 9 ! feel+s ( !   
ag5t1 & by foll[+ out ) f9e psy*ological
 obs]vation ?is sympa?y ( m5 into its   
fir/ & la/ manife/ations4 ,9 ?is way a  
tw(old k9d ( morality 0 reveal$ to him3 
m]e propriety ( behavior & real m]it 9  
action4 ,on ! "o h&1 t is1 ! sympa?y ( !
 spectator--z ,hume has "o-sid$ly       
emphasiz$--is direct$ to ! utility ( !  
consequ5ces 7or to ! m]it7 ( ! action1  
&1 on ! o!r1 to ! fitness ( ! motives   
7or _! propriety74 ,an action is prop]  
:5 ! imp>tial spectator is able to      
sympa?ize ) its motive1 & m]itori\s if  
he c sympa?ize also ) its end or effect2
 i4e41 if1 9 ! fir/ case1 ! feel+s are  
suitable to _! objects 7nei!r too /rong 
nor too weak71 &1 9 ! second case1 !    
consequ5ces ( ! act are advantage\s to  
o!rs4 ,m]it  propriety  utility4 ,! ma9 

conclusion is ?is3 ,sympa?y is t by     
means ( :i* virtue is recogniz$ &       
approv$1 z well z t :i* is approv$ z    
virtue2 x is ratio cognosc5di z well z  
ratio ess5di1 ! crit]ion z well z !     
s\rce ( morality4 ,?us ,smi? endeavors  
to solve ! two pr9cipal problems (      
,engli% e?ics--! crit]ion & ! orig9 (   
virtue--) a common answ]4  ,footnote #a3
 ,cf4 ,f>r]'s ,adam ,smi?1 ,engli%      
,philosoph]s ,s]ies1 #ahhj4--,,tr4      
,footnote #b3 ,! epo*-mak+ "w1 ) :i* he 
call$ economic sci5ce into exi/5ce1 ,!  
,weal? ( ,nations appe>$ 9 #aggf4 ,cf4  
,wilhelm ,hassba*1 ,unt]su*ung5 b] ,adam
 ,smi?1 ,leipsic1 #ahia4  ,sympa?y      
d5otes prim>ily no?+ m ?an ! innate &   
purely =mal p[] ( imitat+ to a c]ta9    
degree ! feel+s ( o!rs4 ,f ?is mode/ g]m
 is develop$ by a progressive gr[? !    
wide-spread+ tree ( morality3 moral     
judgm5t1 ! moral imp]ative ) its        
religi\s sanction1 & e?ical "*4         
,accord+ly we may di/+ui% diff]5t /ages 
9 ! developm5t ( sympa?y--! psy*ological

 /age ( m]e fell[-feel+1 ! ae/hetic /age
 ( moral appreciation1 ! imp]ative /age 
( moral precepts1 :i* fur!r on are      
con/ru$ z comm&s ( ,god 7! fam\s        
,kantian def9ition ( religion 0 ann\nc$ 
9 ,glasg[ a g5]ation e>li] ?an 9        
,knigsb]g71 f9ally1 ! conclud+ /age :]e9
 ^! laws ( duty are tak5 up into !      
disposition4 ,besides ^!1 !re results f 
! me*anism ( ! sympa!tic feel+s a s]ies 
( ph5om5a1 :i*1 al?\gh !y d n entirely  
con=m to ! e?ical /&>d1 yet ex]cise a   
salut>y effect on ! p]man5ce ( society2 
e4g41 our exceptional judgm5t ( ! de$s (
 ! great1 ! ri*1 & ! =tunate1 z also !  
high] wor? ascrib$ to good 7&1          
conv]sely1 ! great] guilt to bad7       
int5tions :5 successfully c>ri$ out into
 action1 9 comp>ison ) ^? :i* fall %ort 
( _! result4  ,! fir/1 ! purely         
psy*ological /age1 includes ?ree cases4 
,! spectator sympa?izes 7#a7 ) ! feel+s 
( ! ag5t2 7#b7 ) ! gratitude or ang] ( !
 p]son affect$ by ! action2 7#c7 ! p]son
 obs]v$ sympa?izes 9 return ) !         

imitative & judg+ feel+s ( ! spectator4 
,! fundam5tal laws ( sympa?y are z      
foll[s3 ,we are r\s$ to imitate ! feel+ 
( ano!r by ! p]ception ei!r ( its signs 
7its natural consequ5ces or its natural 
expression 9 visible & audible motions71
 or ( its causes 7! circum/ances &      
exp]i5ces :i* occasion x71 ! latt]      
ex]cis+ a m pot5t influ5ce ?an ! =m]4 ,!
 wood5 leg ( ! begg> is m effective 9   
excit+ our pity ?an 8 anxi\s air2 !     
sight ( d5tal in/rum5ts is m eloqu5t ?an
 ! pla9ts ( ! suff]] f too?a*e4 ,9 ord] 
to be able to imitate vividly ! feel+s (
 a p]son1 we mu/ "k ! causes ( !m4--,!  
feel+ ( ! spectator is1 on ! av]age1    
less int5se ?an t ( ! p]son obs]v$1 s   
long z ! latt] does n control & repress 
8 emotions 9 view ( ! calmness ( ! =m]4 
,! diff]5ce ( int5sity betwe5 ! orig9al 
& ! sympa!tic feel+s diff]s widely ) !  
v>i\s classes ( emotions4 ,x is         
difficult to take "p 9 feel+s :i* arise 
f bodily conditions1 b easy to %>e ^? 9 
! production ( :i* ! imag9ation is      

conc]n$--h5ce easi] to %>e 9 hope & fe> 
?an 9 pleasure & pa94--,we sympa?ize m  
readily ) feel+s :i* are agreeable to ! 
obs]v]1 ! obs]v$1 & o!r p>ticipants ?an 
) su* z are n s2 m will+ly1 !re=e1 )    
*e]fulness1 love1 b5evol5ce ?an ) grief1
 hatr$1 malevol5ce4 ,?is is n only true 
( tempor>y affections1 b especially ( ^?
 g5]al dispositions :i* dep5d on a m or 
less happy situation 9 life2 we         
sympa?ize m vividly ) ! =tunes ( ! ri* &
 noble1 because we consid] !m happi] ?an
 ! poor & l[ly4 ,weal? & high rank are  
objects ( g5]al desire *iefly because _!
 possessor enjoys ! advantage ( kn[+ t  
:atev] gives him joy or sorr[ always    
ar\ses simil> feel+s 9 c\ntless o!r m54 
,! root ( all ambition is ! wi% to rule 
ov] ! he>ts ( our fell[s by compell+ !m 
to make our feel+s _! own2 ! c5tral n]ve
 ( all happ9ess consi/s 9 see+ our own  
s5sations %>$ by ^? ab\t u & reflect$   
back1 z x 71 f manifold mirrors4 ,small 
annoyances (t5 h a div]t+ effect on !   
spectator2 great success easily excites 

8 envy2 great sorr[s & m9or joys1 on !  
contr>y1 are always sure ( our sympa?y4 
,h5ce ! morose man1 to :om ev]y?+ is an 
occasion ( ill-humor1 is n[h]e welcome1 
& ! man ( *e]ful disposition1 :o        
rejoices 9 ea* little ev5t & ^: good    
spirits are contagi\s1 ev]y:]e4  ,n less
 admirable ?an ! f9e gift ( obs]vation  
:i* guides ,smi? 9 8 discov]y ( ! prim>y
 manife/ations & ! laws ( sympa?y is !  
skill ) :i* he d$uces moral ph5om5a1 f !
 simple/ to ! mo/ complex--moral        
judgm5t1 ! moral law1 its application to
 "o's own conduct1 ! consci5ce--f !     
int]*ange ( sympa!tic feel+s4 ,f        
involunt>y comp>ison ( ! repres5tative  
feel+ ( ! spectator ) its orig9al 9 !   
p]son obs]v$ arises an agreeable or     
disagreeable feel+ ( judgm5t1 a judgm5t 
( value1 approbat+ or reject+ ! latt]4  
,?is is approv+ :5 ! int5sity ( !       
orig9al h>monizes ) t ( ! copy1         
disapprov+ :5 ! =m] exce$s or fails to  
atta9 ! latt]4 ,9 ! "o case ! emotion is
 judg$ suitable to ! object :i* causes  

x2 9 ! o!r1 too viol5t or too weak4 ,x  
is always a c]ta9 mean ( passion :i*1 z 
prop]1 receives approval 7e/eem1 love1  
or admiration74 ,9 ! case ( ! social    
passions excess is m readily condon$1 9 
! case ( ! unsocial & selfi% ones1      
defect2 h5ce we judge ! ov]-s5sitive m  
l5i5tly ?an ! ov]-v5geful4 ,ang] mu/ be 
well-gr\nd$ & mu/ express itself ) great
 mod]ation to ar\se 9 ! spectator a l   
degree ( sympa!tic res5tm5t4 ,= "h !    
sympa?y ( ! spectator is divid$ betwe5  
two p>ties1 & fell[-feel+ ) ! angry "o  
is weak5$ by fe> = ! p]son m5ac$ by him1
 :]eas1 9 ! case ( k9d affections1      
sympa?y is increas$ by d\bl+4 ,:ile our 
judgm5t ( propriety or decorum re/s on  
simple p>ticipation 9 ! s5tim5ts ( !    
ag5t1 our judgm5t ( m]it & dem]it is    
bas$1 9 addition1 on sympa?y ) ! feel+s 
( gratitude or res5tm5t exp]i5c$ by !   
p]son on :om ! action t]m9ates4 ,an act 
is m]itori\s if x appe>s to u to des]ve 
?anks & rew>d1 ill-des]v+ if x seems to 
m]it res5tm5t & puni%m5t4 ,nature has   

inscrib$ on ! he>t1 ap>t f all          
reflection on ! utility ( puni%m5t1 an  
indep5d5t1 imm$iate1 & in/9ctive        
approbation ( ! sacr$ law ( retribution4
 ,?is is ! po9t at :i* a hi!rto purely  
contemplative sympa?y passes ov] into an
 active impulse1 :i* prep>es u to       
support ! victim ( attack & insult 9 8  
def5se & rev5ge4  ,?is p>ticipation 9 ! 
circum/ances & feel+s ( o!rs is a       
reciprocal ph5om5on4 ,! spectator takes 
pa9s to %>e ! s5tim5ts ( ! p]son obs]v$2
 & ! latt]1 on 8 "p1 endeavors to r$uce 
! emotions :i* move him to a degree :i* 
w r5d] p>ticipation 9 !m possible = !   
=m]4 ,9 ^! reciprocal ef=ts we h !      
beg9n+s ( ! two classes ( virtues--!    
g5tle1 amiable virtues ( sympa?y &      
s5sibility1 & ! exalt$1 e/imable virtues
 ( self-d5ial & self-comm&4 ,bo? ( ^!   
conditions ( m9d1 h[ev]1 are consid]$   
virtues only :5 !y are manife/$ 9       
unusual int5sity3 humanity is a         
rem>kably delicate fell[-feel+1         
greatness ( s\l a r>e degree (          

self-comm&4 7,! consid]ation = ^? ab\t  
"o :i* is e?ically dem&$ is giv51       
moreov]1 to a c]ta9 ext5t involunt>ily4 
,! man 9 tr\ble & ! m]ry man alike      
re/ra9 !mselves 9 ! company ( p]sons :o 
are indiff]5t1 or 9 an opposite mood1   
:ile !y give re9 to _! emotions :5 ) ^? 
simil>ly affect$4 ,joy is enhanc$ by    
sympa?y1 & grief mitigat$47 ,?us !      
p]fection ( human nature & ! div9ely    
will$ h>mony among ! feel+s ( m5 are    
dep5d5t on e man feel+ little = himself 
& mu* = o!rs2 on 8 hold+ 8 selfi%       
incl9ations 9 *eck & giv+ free c\rse to 
8 b5evol5t ones4 ,?is is ! injunction ( 
,*ri/ianity z well z ( nature4 ,& z1 on 
! "o h&1 ! cont5t ( ! moral law is ?us  
d$uc$ f sympa?y1 s1 on ! o!r1 ?is yields
 ! =mal crit]ion ( good3 ,look ^u ?y    
s5tim5ts & actions 9 ! light 9 :i* !    
imp>tial spectator w\ld see !m4         
,consci5ce is ! spectator tak5 up into  
our own brea/4 ,x rema9s to consid] !   
orig9 ( ?is ?ird1 imp]ative /age4  ,f   
daily exp]i5ce ( ! fact t we judge !    

conduct ( o!rs1 & !y ours1 & f ! wi% to 
ga9 _! approval1 arises ! habit (       
subject+ our own actions to criticism4  
,we le>n to look at ourselves ?r\gh !   
eyes ( o!rs1 we assign ! spectator &    
judge a place 9 our own he>t1 we make 8 
calm objective judgm5t our own1 & he> ! 
man )9 call+ to u3 ,?\ art responsible =
 ?y acts & int5tions4 ,9 ?is way we are 
plac$ 9 a position to ov]come two great 
delusions1 "o ( passion1 :i* ov]e/imates
 ! pres5t at ! exp5se ( ! future1 & "o (
 self-love1 :i* ov]e/imates ! individual
 at ! exp5se ( o!r m52 delusions f :i* !
 imp>tial spectator is free1 = !        
pleasure ( ! mom5t seems to him no m    
desirable ?an pleasure to come1 & "o    
p]son is j ! same to him z ano!r4 ,?r\gh
 comp>ison ( l cases 9 ! ex]cise (      
self-exam9ation c]ta9 rules or pr9ciples
 are =m$ conc]n+ :at is "r & good4      
,rev]5ce = ^! g5]al rules ( liv+ is     
call$ ! s5se ( duty4 ,! la/ /ep 9 !     
process consi/s 9 our enhancem5t ( !    
b9d+ au?ority ( moral rules by look+ on 

!m z comm&s ( ,god4 ,"h ,smi? adds      
subtle discussions ( ! "q1 9 :at cases  
actions ought to be done simply out (   
reg>d = ^! ab/ract maxims1 & 9 :at o!rs 
we welcome ! co-op]ation ( a natural    
impulse or passion4 ,we ought to be     
angry & to puni% ) reluctance1 m]ely    
because reason enjo9s x1 b1 on ! o!r h&1
 we %\ld be b5evol5t & grateful f       
affection2 %e is n a model wife :o p]=ms
 h] duties m]ely f a s5se ( duty1 & n f 
incl9ation also4 ,fur!r1 9 all cases :]e
 ! rules _c be =mulat$ ) p]fect         
exactness & def9it5ess 7z !y c 9 ! case 
( ju/ice71 & are n absolutely valid )\t 
exception1 rev]5ce = !m mu/ be assi/$ by
 a natural ta/e = modify+ & supplem5t+ !
 g5]al maxims to suit p>ticul> in/ances4
  ,9 ?is sket* ( ! c\rse ( ,smi?'s moral
 philosophy mu* t is f9e & mu* t is (   
importance has ( necessity be5 pass$    
ov]--8 excell5t analysis ( ! relations (
 b5evol5ce & ju/ice1 & num]\s           
descriptions ( traits ( "*1 e4 g41 8    
+5i\s p>allel betwe5 pride & vanity4 ,we

 may briefly m5tion1 9 conclusion1 8    
obs]vations on ! irregul>ities ( moral  
judgm5t4 ,prosp]ity & success ex]t an   
influ5ce on ?is1 :i*1 ?\gh hurtful to   
its purity1 mu/1 on ! :ole1 be consid]$ 
advantage\s to mank9d4 ,our l5i5ce t[>d 
! defects ( pr9ces1 ! great1 & ! ri*1 & 
our ov]-praise = _! excell5t qualities  
are1 f ! moral /&po9t1 an inju/ice1 b "o
 :i* has ?is advantage1 t x enc\rages   
ambition & indu/ry1 & ma9ta9s social    
di/9ctions intact1 :i* )\t loyalty &    
respect t[>d sup]iors w\ld be brok5 d[n4
 ,= mo/ m5 ! road to =tune co9cides ) ! 
pa? to virtue4 ,aga91 x is a b5efic5t   
provision ( nature t we put a high]     
e/imate on a successfully execut$ act ( 
b5evol5ce1 & rew>d x m1 ?an a k9d       
int5tion :i* fails ( execution2 t we    
judge & puni% ! purpos$ crime :i* is n  
c>ri$ out m l5i5tly ?an ! "o :i* is     
complet$2 t we ev5 ascribe a c]ta9      
degree ( acc\ntability to an un9t5tional
 act ( good or evil--al?\gh 9 ^! cases !
 morali/ is compell$ to see an e?ically 

unju/ifiable corruption ( ! judgm5t by  
ext]nal success or failure beyond !     
control ( ! ag5t4 ,! fir/ ( ^!          
irregul>ities does n all[ ! man ( good  
int5tions to cont5t himself ) noble     
desires m]ely1 b spurs him on to great] 
endeavors to c>ry !m out--man is creat$ 
= action2 ! second protects u f !       
inquisitorial que/ion+ ( motives1 = x is
 easy = ! mo/ innoc5t to fall "u grave  
suspicion4 ,to ?is inconsi/5cy ( feel+  
we owe ! necess>y legal pr9ciple t de$s 
only1 n int5tions1 are puni%able4 ,god  
has res]v$ = himself judgm5t conc]n+    
dispositions4 ,! ?ird irregul>ity1 t he 
:o inflicts un9t5tional injury is n     
guilty1 ev5 9 8 own eyes1 b yet seems   
b\nd to make atonem5t & rep>ation1 is   
useful 9 s f> z x w>ns ev]yone to be    
prud5t1 :ile ! correspond+ illusion1 9  
virtue ( :i* we are grateful to an      
involunt>y b5efactor--= in/ance1 ! be>] 
( good tid+s--& rew>d him1 is at lea/ n 
h>mful1 = any reason appe>s suffici5t = 
! be/[al ( k9d int5tions & actions4  ,x 

is impossible to expla9 9 brief !       
relation ( ,smi?'s e?ical !ory to 8     
political economy4 ,8 m]it 9 ! =m]      
consi/s 9 8 compreh5sive & *>act]i/ic   
comb9ation ( ! results rea*$ by 8       
pr$ecessors1 & 9 8 prep>ation = ,kantian
 views1 s f> z ?is 0 possible f !       
empirical /&po9t ( ! ,engli%4 ,8        
imp>tial spectator 0 ! =]unn] ( !       
categorical imp]ative4  ,engli% e?ics   
aft] ,smi? may1 almo/ )\t exception1 be 
t]m$ eclecticism4 ,?is is true (        
,f]guson 7,in/itutes ( ,moral           
,philosophy1 #agfi72 ( ,paley 7#aghe72 (
 ! ,scotti% ,s*ool 7,dugald ,/ew>t1     
#agic74 ,b5?am's utilit>ianism 0 ! fir/ 
to br+ 9 a new phase4   #d4 ,!ory ( ,k4 
7a7 ,b]keley4--,george ,b]keley1 a      
native ( ,irel&1 ,bi%op ( ,cloyne       
7#afhe-agec2 ,an ,essay t[>d a ,new     
,!ory ( ,vision1 #agji2 ,a ,treatise    
conc]n+ ! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k1 #agaj2
 ,?ree ,dialogues betwe5 ,hylas &       
,philon\s1 #agac2 ,alciphron1 or !      
,m9ute ,philosoph]1 #agcb1 aga9/ !      

free?9k]s2 ,works1 #aghd4 ,fras]'s      
edition ( ! ,collect$ ,works appe>$ 9   
#ahga1 9 f\r volumes71#a is relat$ to   
,locke z ,sp9oza to ,desc>tes4 ,he      
notices blemi%es & contradictions all[$ 
by 8 pr$ecessor to rema91 &1 recogniz+ t
 ! difficulty is n to be rem$i$ by m9or 
corrections & artificial hypo!ses1 goes 
back to ! fundam5tal pr9ciples1 takes ^!
 m e>ne/ly ?an _! au?or1 &1 by c>ry+ !m 
out m /rictly1 arrives at a new view ( !
 _w4 ,! po9ts 9 ,locke's doctr9es :i*   
invit$ a fur!r advance 7 ! foll[+3      
,locke proclaims t our k ext5ds no fur!r
 ?an our ideas1 & t tru? consi/s 9 !    
agreem5t ( ideas among !mselves1 n 9 !  
agreem5t ( ideas ) ?+s4 ,b ?is pr9ciple 
_h sc>cely be5 ann\nc$ be=e x 0 violat$4
 ,9 spite ( 8 limitation ( k to ideas1  
,locke ma9ta9s t we "k 7if n ! inn]     
con/itution1 yet7 ! qualities & p[]s (  
?+s )\t u1 & h a s5sitive c]ta9ty ( _!  
exi/5ce4 ,aga9/ ?is1 x is to be said t  
!re are no prim>y qualities1 t is1      
qualities :i* exi/ )\t z well z )9 u4   

,ext5sion1 motion1 solidity1 :i* are    
cit$ z su*1 are j z purely subjective   
/ates 9 u z color1 heat1 & sweetness4   
,imp5etrability is no?+ m ?an ! feel+ ( 
resi/ance1 an idea1 !re=e1 :i*          
self-evid5tly c be n[h]e else ?an 9 !   
m9d exp]i5c+ x4 ,ext5sion1 size1        
di/ance1 & motion are n ev5 s5sations   
7we see colors only1 n quantitative     
det]m9ations71 b relations :i* we 9 ?9k+
 add to ! s5se-qualities 7second>y      
qualities71 & :i* we are n able to      
repres5t ap>t f !m2 _! relativity alone 
w\ld =bid u to consid] !m objective4 ,& 
mat]ial sub/ances1 ! support ( qualities
 inv5t$ by ! philosoph]s1 are n only    
unkn[n1 b entirely non-exi/5t4 ,ab/ract 
matt] is a phrase )\t mean+1 &          
individual ?+s are collections ( ideas 9
 u1 no?+ m4 ,if we take away all        
s5se-qualities f a ?+1 absolutely no?+  
rema9s4 ,our ideas are n m]ely ! only2  
objects ( k1 b also ! only exi/+        
?+s--no?+ exi/s except m9ds & _! ideas4 
,spirits alone are active be+s1 !y only 

are indivisible sub/ances1 & h real     
exi/5ce1 :ile ! be+ ( bodies 7z dep5d5t1
 in]t1 v>iable be+s1 :i* are 9 a con/ant
 process ( becom+7 consi/s alone 9 _!   
appe>ance to spirits & _! be+ p]ceiv$ by
 !m4 ,incogitative1 h5ce passive1 be+s  
are nei!r sub/ances1 nor capable (      
produc+ ideas 9 u4 ,^? ideas :i* we d n 
ourselves produce are ! effects ( a _s  
:i* is mighti] ?an we4 ,) ?is a second  
inconsi/5cy 0 remov$ :i* _h be5 ov]look$
 by ,locke1 :o _h ascrib$ active p[] to 
spirits alone & d5i$ x to matt]1 b at ! 
same "t _h made ! =m] affect$ by !      
latt]4 ,if ext]nal s5se is to mean !    
capacity = hav+ ideas occasion$ by !    
action ( ext]nal mat]ial ?+s1 !n !re is 
no ext]nal s5se4 ,a ?ird po9t :]e9      
,locke _h n gone f> en\gh = 8 successor1
 conc]n$ ! favorite ,engli% doctr9e (   
nom9alism4 ,locke1 ) 8 pr$ecessors1 _h  
ma9ta9$ t all reality is individual1 & t
 univ]sals exi/ only 9 ! ab/ract+       
und]/&+4 ,f ?is po9t ,b]keley advances a
 /ep fur!r1 ! la/1 inde$1 :i* 0 possible

 9 ?is direction1 by br++ into "q !     
possibility ev5 ( ab/ract ideas4 ,z all 
be+s are p>ticul> ?+s1 s all ideas are  
p>ticul> ideas4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 also
 ,fras]'s ,b]keley 7,blackwood's        
,philosophical ,classics7 #ahha2        
,eras]'s ,selections f ,b]keley1 #d?    
ed41 #ahia2 & ,krau?'s edition ( !      
,pr9ciples1 #ahgd1 ) notes f sev]al     
s\rces1 especially ^? translat$ f       
,ueb]weg4--,,tr4  ,b]keley looks on !   
refutation ( ^! two fundam5tal          
mi/akes--! assumption ( g5]al ideas 9 ! 
m9d1 & ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( a mat]ial 
_w outside x--z 8 life "w1 hold+ !m !   
*ief s\rces ( a!ism1 d\bt1 &            
philosophical discord4 ,! fir/ ( ^!     
errors arises f ! use ( language4       
,because we employ words :i* d5ote m ?an
 "o object1 we h believ$ ourselves      
w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t we h ideas :i*     
correspond to ! ext5sion ( ! words 9 "q1
 & :i* conta9 only ^? *>act]i/ics :i*   
are uni=mly f\nd 9 all objects s nam$4  
,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case4#a ,we speak ( 

_m ?+s :i* we _c repres5t3 names d n    
always /& = ideas4 ,! def9ition ( ! ^w  
triangle z a ?ree-sid$ figure b\nd$ by  
/raight l9es1 makes dem&s ^u u :i* our  
faculties ( imag9ation are nev] fully   
able to meet2 = ! triangle t we repres5t
 to ourselves is always ei!r "r-angl$ or
 oblique-angl$1 & n--z we mu/ dem& f !  
ab/ract conception ( ! figure--bo? &    
nei!r at once4 ,! "n man includes m5 &  
wom51 *ildr5 & ! ag$1 b we are nev] able
 to repres5t a man except z an          
individual ( a def9ite age & sex4       
,nev]!less we are 9 a position to make a
 safe use ( ^! non-pres5tative b useful 
abbreviations1 & by means ( a p>ticul>  
idea to develop tru?s ( wid]            
application4 ,?is takes place :51 9 !   
demon/ration1 ^? qualities are n        
consid]$ :i* di/+ui% ! idea f o!rs ) a l
 "n4 ,9 ?is case ! giv5 idea /&s = all  
o!rs :i* are kn[n by ! same "n2 !       
repres5tative idea is n univ]sal1 b     
s]ves z su*4 ,?us :5 ,i h demon/rat$ !  
proposition1 ! sum ( all ! angles ( a   

triangle is equal to two "r angles1 = a 
giv5 triangle1 ,i d n ne$ to prove x = e
 triangle !reaft]4 ,= n only ! color &  
size ( ! triangle are indiff]5t1 b its  
o!r peculi>ities z well2 ! "q :e!r x is 
"r-angl$ or obtuse-angl$1 :e!r x has    
equal sides1 :e!r x has equal or unequal
 angles1 is n m5tion$ 9 ! demon/ration1 
& has no influ5ce ^u x4 ,ab/racta exi/  
only 9 ?is s5se4 ,9 consid]+ !          
individual ,paul ,i c att5d exclusively 
to ^? *>act]i/ics :i* he has 9 common ) 
all m5 or ) all liv+ be+s1 b x is       
impossible = me to repres5t ?is complex 
( common qualities ap>t f 8 individual  
peculi>ities4 ,self-obs]vation %[s t we 
h no g5]al concepts2 reason1 t we c h   
none1 = ! comb9ation ( opposite elem5ts 
9 "o idea w\ld be a contradiction 9     
t]ms4 ,motion 9 g5]al1 nei!r swift nor  
sl[1 ext5sion 9 g5]al1 at once great &  
small1 ab/ract matt] )\t s5su\s         
det]m9ations--^! c nei!r exi/ nor be    
p]ceiv$4  ,footnote #a3 ,aga9/ !        
,b]keleyan d5ial ( ab/ract notions !    

popul> philosoph]1 ,joh4 ,jak4 ,engel1  
direct$ an essay1 ,ueb] die ,realitt    
allgeme9] ,begriffe 7,engel's ,s*rift51 
vol4 x471 to :i* att5tion has be5 call$ 
by ,o4 ,liebmann1 ,analysis ti]         
,wirkli*keit1 #b;d ed41 p4 #dgc4  ,!    
mat]iali/ic hypo!sis--s ,b]keley t]ms ! 
assumption t a mat]ial _w exi/s ap>t f  
p]ceiv+ m9d1 & indep5d5tly ( be+        
p]ceiv$--is1 fir/1 unnecess>y1 = ! facts
 :i* x is to expla9 c be expla9$ z well1
 or ev5 bett]1 )\t x2 &1 second1 false1 
s9ce x is a contradiction to suppose t  
an object c exi/ unp]ceiv$1 & t a       
s5sation or idea is ! copy ( any?+      
itself n a s5sation or idea4 ,ideas are 
! only objects ( ! und]/&+4 ,s5sible    
qualities 7:ite1 sweet7 are subjective  
/ates ( ! s\l2 s5se objects 7sug>71     
s5sation-complexes4 ,if s5sations ne$ a 
sub/antial support1 ?is is ! s\l :i*    
p]ceives !m1 n an ext]nal ?+ :i* c nei!r
 p]ceive nor be p]ceiv$4 ,s+le ideas1 & 
^? comb9$ into objects1 c exi/ n[h]e    
else ?an 9 ! m9d2 ! be+ ( s5se objects  

consi/s 9 _! be+ p]ceiv$ 7esse e/       
p]cipi74 ,i see light & feel heat1 &    
comb9e ^! s5sations ( sight & t\* into !
 sub/ance fire1 because ,i "k f exp]i5ce
 t !y con/antly accompany & sugge/ ea*  
o!r4#a ,! assumption ( an object ap>t f 
! idea is z useless z its exi/5ce w\ld  
be4 ,:y %\ld ,god create a _w ( real ?+s
 )\t ! m9d1 :5 ^! c nei!r ent] into !   
m9d1 nor 7because unp]ceiv$7 be copi$ by
 its ideas1 nor 7because !y !mselves    
lack p]ception & p[]7 produce ideas 9 x8
 ,ideas signify no?+ b !mselves1 i4 e41 
affections ( ! subject4  ,footnote #a3  
,! fire t ,i see is n ! cause ( ! pa9   
:i* ,i exp]i5ce 9 approa*+ x1 b ! visual
 image ( ! flame is only a sign :i* w>ns
 me n to g too ne>4 ,if ,i look ?r\gh a 
microscope ,i see a diff]5t object f !  
"o p]ceiv$ ) ! nak$ eye4 ,two p]sons    
nev] see ! same object1 !y m]ely h l    
s5sations4  ,! fur!r "q arises1 ,:at is 
! orig9 ( ideas8 ,m5 h be5 l$ into ?is  
errone\s belief 9 ! reality ( ! mat]ial 
_w by ! fact t c]ta9 ideas are n subject

 to our w1 :ile o!rs are4 ,s5sations are
 di/+ui%$ f ! ideas ( imag9ation1 :i* we
 c excite & alt] at pleasure1 by _!     
great] /r5g?1 livel9ess1 & di/9ctness1  
by _! /ead9ess1 regul> ord]1 & coh]5ce1 
& by ! fact t !y arise )\t our aid &    
:e!r we w or no4 ,unless ^! ideas are   
self-orig9at$ !y mu/ h an ext]nal cause4
 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c be no?+ else ?an a      
will+1 ?9k+ ,be+2 = )\t w x c\ld n be   
active & act ^u me1 & )\t ideas ( its   
own x c\ld n communicate ideas to me4   
,because ( ! manifoldness & regul>ity ( 
our s5sations ! ,be+ :i* produces !m    
mu/1 fur!r1 possess inf9ite p[] &       
intellig5ce4 ,! ideas ( imag9ation are  
produc$ by ourselves1 real p]ceptions   
are produc$ by ,god4 ,! connect$ :ole ( 
div9ely produc$ ideas we call nature1 & 
! con/ant regul>ity 9 _! succession1 !  
laws ( nature4 ,! inv>iabl5ess ( ! div9e
 work+ & ! purposive h>mony ( creation  
reveal ! wisdom & goodness ( ! ,almighty
 m cle>ly ?an a/oni%+ & exceptional     
ev5ts4 ,:5 we he> a man speak we reason 

f ?is activity to 8 exi/5ce4 ,h[ mu*    
less are we entitl$ to d\bt ! exi/5ce ( 
,god1 :o speaks to u 9 ! ?\s&fold works 
( nature4  ,! natural or creat$ ideas   
:i* ,god impresses on u are copies ( !  
et]nal ideas :i* he himself p]ceives1 n1
 inde$1 by passive s5sation1 b ?r\gh 8  
creative reason4 ,accord+ly :5 x 0      
ma9ta9$ t ?+s d n exi/ indep5d5tly (    
p]ception1 ! ref]5ce 0 n to ! individual
 _s1 b to all spirits4 ,:5 ,i turn my   
eyes away f an object x cont9ues to     
exi/1 inde$1 aft] my p]ception has      
end$--9 ! m9ds ( o!r m5 & 9 t ( !       
,omnipres5t ,"o4 ,! pan!i/ic conclusion 
( ^! pr9ciples1 9 ! s5se ( ,geul9cx &   
,malebran*e1#a :i* "o expects1 0 really 
sugge/$ by ,b]keley4 ,ev]y?+ exi/s only 
9 virtue ( its p>ticipation 9 ! "o1     
p]man5t1 all-compreh5sive _s2 individual
 spirits are ( ! same nature ) !        
univ]sal reason1 only !y are less       
p]fect1 limit$1 & n pure activity1 :ile 
,god is passionless intellig5ce4 ,b if1 
9 ! la/ analysis1 ,god is ! cause ( all1

 ?is does n hold ( ! free actions ( m51 
lea/ ( all ( wick$ ones4 ,! fre$om ( ! w
 mu/ n be reject$ because ( !           
contradictions :i* its acceptance       
involves2 motion1 also1 & ma!matical    
inf9ity imply incompreh5sible elem5ts4  
,9 ! philosophy ( nature ,b]keley pref]s
 ! teleological to ! me*anical view1    
s9ce ! latt] is able to discov] ! laws (
 ph5om5a only1 b n _! effici5t & f9al   
causes4 ,s5se & exp]i5ce acqua9t u m]ely
 ) ! c\rse ( ph5om5al effects2 ! reason1
 :i* op5s up to u ! realm ( causation1 (
 ! spiritual1 is ! only sure guide to   
sci5ce & tru?4 ,! und]/&+ does n feel1 !
 s5ses d n "k4 ,we h no 7s5su\s7 idea ( 
o!r spirits1 b only a notion ( !m2      
in/ead ( !mselves we p]ceive _!         
activities m]ely1 f :i* we argue to s\ls
 l ourselves1 :ile we "k our own m9d by 
imm$iate self-consci\sness4#b  ,footnote
 #a3 ,! example ( ,ar?ur ,colli] %[s t !
 same results :i* ,b]keley rea*es       
empirically c be obta9$ f ! /&po9t (    
rationalism4 ,foll[+ ,malebran*e1 &     

develop+ fur!r ! ideali/ic t5d5cies ( ! 
latt]1 ,colli] _h1 indep5d5tly (        
,b]keley1 conceiv$ ! doctr9e ( !        
non-exi/5ce or impossibility ( an       
ext]nal _w 2 b _h n work$ x out 9 8     
,clavis ,univ]salis1 #agac1 until aft] !
 appe>ance ( ,b]keley's *ief "w1 & n )\t
 consid]ation ( ?is4 ,! g5]al po9t (    
view & ! argum5ts are ! same3 ,exi/5ce  
is equival5t to be+ p]ceiv$ by ,god2 !  
creation ( a real _w ( matt] ap>t f !   
ideal _w 9 ,god & f s5su\s p]ceptions 9 
u w\ld h be5 a sup]flu\s device1 etc4   
,footnote #b3 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1      
h[ev]1 t ?is imm$iate k ( ourselves is  
also n aft] ! mann] ( an idea or        
s5sation4 ,our k ( spirits is always    
m$iat$ by notions n by ideas 9 ! /rict  
s5se1 t is1 n by images4 ,cf4           
,pr9ciples1  #bg1 #ace seq41 especially 
9 ! second edition4--,,tr4  ,9 contra/  
to ! fe>lessness ) :i* ,b]keley prop\nds
 8 spiritualism1 8 anxi\s endeavors to  
take away ! appe>ance ( p>adox f 8      
immat]iali/ic doctr9e1 & to %[ its      

complete agreem5t ) common s5se1 excite 
surprise4 ,ev5 ! common man1 he argues1 
desires no?+ m ?an t 8 p]ceptions be    
real2 ! di/9ction betwe5 idea & object  
is an inv5tion ( philosoph]s4 ,"h       
,b]keley _c be acquitt$ ( a c]ta9       
sophi/ical play ^u ! t]m idea1 :i*1 9   
fact1 is ambigu\s4 ,he und]/&s by x t   
:i* ! s\l p]ceives 7its imm$iate1 inn]  
object71 b ! popul> m9d1 t ?r\gh :i* !  
s\l p]ceives an object4 ,! reality ( an 
idea 9 u is diff]5t f ! idea ( a real   
?+1 or f ! reality ( t :i* is p]ceiv$   
)\t u by means ( ! idea1 & x is j ?is   
la/ mean+ :i* common s5se affirms &     
,b]keley d5ies4 ,9 any case x 0 a "w (  
great m]it to h transf]r$ ! exi/5ce (   
objects beyond our ideas1 (             
?+s-9-!mselves1 out ( ! region ( !      
self-evid5t into ! region ( !           
problematical4 ,we nev] get beyond !    
circle ( our ideas1 & if we posit a     
?+-9-itself z ! gr\nd & object ( ! idea1
 ?is also is simply a ?\ght1 an idea4 ,=
 u !re is no be+ except t ( ! p]ceiv] & 

! p]ceiv$4 ,lat] we %all meet two o!r   
=ms ( idealism1 9 ,leibnitz & ,fi*te4   
,bo? ( ^! agree ) ,b]keley t spiritual  
be+s alone are active1 & active be+s    
alone real1 & t ! be+ ( ! inactive      
consi/s 9 _! be+ p]ceiv$4 ,b :ile 9     
,b]keley ! objective ideas are impress$ 
^u f9ite spirits by ! ,inf9ite ,_s f )\t
 & s+ly1 ) ,leibnitz !y appe> z a       
fullness ( g]ms1 :i* ,god implant$      
toge!r 9 ! monads at ! beg9n+1 & :i* !  
individual develops into consci\sness1 &
 ) ,fi*te !y become ! unconsci\s        
productions ( ! ,absolute ,ego act+ 9 ! 
individual egos4 ,= ! two =m] z _m      
worlds exi/ z !re are individual        
spirits1 _! h>mony be+ gu>ante$1 9 ! "o 
case1 by ! consi/5cy ( ,god's work+1 &1 
9 ! o!r1 by 8 =esight4 ,= ,fi*te1 on !  
o!r h&1 !re is b "o _w1 = ! absolute is 
n outside ! individual spirits1 b !     
uni=mly work+ =ce )9 !m4  7b7           
,hume4--,david ,hume 0 born 9 ,ed9burgh 
9 #agaa1 & di$ 9 ! same city1 #aggf4 ,8 
position z libr>ian1 :i* he held 9 !    

place ( 8 bir?1 #ageb-eg1 gave !        
opportunity = 8 ,hi/ory ( ,engl&7       
#aged-fb74 ,8 *ief "w1 ! ,treatise on   
,human ,nature1 :i*1 h[ev]1 f\nd few    
read]s1 0 compos$ dur+ 8 fir/ resid5ce 9
 ,france 9 #agcd-cg4 ,lat] he work$ ov] 
! fir/ book ( ?is "w into 8 ,enquiry    
conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+ 7#agdh72 !      
second book into ,a ,diss]tation on !   
,passions2 & ! ?ird into ,an ,enquiry   
conc]n+ ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals4 ,^!1 &  
o!rs ( 8 essays1 f\nd s mu* favor t1    
dur+ 8 second soj\rn 9 ,france1 z       
secret>y to ,"l ,h]t=d1 9 #agfc-ff1 he 0
 already honor$ z a philosoph] ( _w-wide
 r5[n4 ,!n1 aft] s]v+ = "s "t z         
,"u-,secret>y ( ,/ate1 he retir$ to     
private life at home 7#agfi74  ,! ?ree  
books ( ! ,treatise on ,human ,nature1  
:i* appe>$ 9 #agci-dj1 are entitl$ ,( ! 
,und]/&+1 ,( ! ,passions1 ,( ,morals4 ,(
 ! five volumes ( ! ,essays1 ! fir/     
conta9s ! ,essays ,moral1 ,political1 & 
,lit]>y1 #agda-db2 ! second1 ! ,enquiry 
conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 #agdh2 ! ?ird1 

! ,enquiry conc]n+ ! ,pr9ciples (       
,morals1 #agea2 ! f\r?1 ! ,political    
,disc\rses1 #ageb2 ! fif?1 #ageg1 ! ,f\r
 ,diss]tations1 includ+ t ,on !         
,passions & ! ,natural ,hi/ory (        
,religion4 ,aft] ,hume's dea? appe>$ !  
,autobiography1 #aggg2 ! ,dialogues     
conc]n+ ,natural ,religion1 #aggi2 & !  
two small essays on ,suicide & !        
,immortality ( ! ,s\l1 #aghc4a ,!       
,philosophical ,works 7 publi%$ 9 #ahbg1
 & frequ5tly aft]w>d4#b  ,footnote #a3  
,or #aggg1 cf4 ,gre5 & ,grose's edition1
 vol4 iii4 p4 #fg seq4--,tr4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,among ! works on ,hume we may      
m5tion ,jodl's prize treatise1 #ahgb1 & 
,huxley's ,hume 7,engli% ,m5 ( ,lett]s71
 #ahgi4 ,! read] may be ref]r$ also to  
,knight's ,hume 7,blackwood's           
,philosophical ,classics71 #ahhf2 to    
,t4,h4 ,gre5's ,introductions 9 ,gre5 & 
,grose's edition ( ! collect$ works 9   
f\r volumes1 #ahgd 7new ed4 #ahhi-ij71  
:i* is n[ /&>d2 & to ,selby-,bigge's    
repr9t ( ! orig9al edition ( !          

,treatise1 ,i vol41 #ahhh1 ) a valuable 
,analytical ,index4  ,hume's object1 l t
 ( ,b]keley1 is ! improvem5t ( ,locke's 
doctr9e ( k4 ,9 sev]al respects he does 
n g s f> z ,b]keley1 9 o!rs v mu* f>!r4 
,9 agreem5t ) ,b]keley's                
ultra-nom9alism1 :i* combats ev5 !      
possibility ( ab/ract ideas1 he yet does
 n foll[ him to ! ext5t ( d5y+ ext]nal  
reality4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he c>ries out m  
consi/5tly ,b]keley's h9t t imm$iate    
s5sation includes less ?an is ascrib$ to
 x 7e4g41 t by vision we p]ceive colors 
only1 & n di/ance1 etc471 z well z 8    
pr9ciple--de/ructive to ! c]ta9ty ( our 
k ( nature--t !re is no causality among 
ph5om5a2 & br+s ! "q ( sub/ance to1 !   
negative conclusion1 t !re is no ne$    
:atev] = a support = gr\ps ( qualities1 
&1 !re=e1 t sub/antiality is to be d5i$ 
to immat]ial z well z to mat]ial be+s4  
,! po9ts 9 ,locke's philosophy :i* seem$
 to ,hume to ne$ completion 7 diff]5t f 
^? at :i* ,b]keley _h /ruck 94 ,!       
anti!sis ( rational & empirical k is m  

%>ply conceiv$2 ! comb9ation ( ideas is 
n left to ! *oice ( ! und]/&+ b plac$ "u
 ! dom9ion ( psy*ological laws2 & to !  
di/9ction betwe5 out] & inn] exp]i5ce   
7to ! =m] ( :i* priority is conc$$1 on !
 gr\nd t we mu/ h _h an ext]nal s5sation
 be=e we c1 ?r\gh reflection1 be        
consci\s ( x z an int]nal ph5om5on71 !re
 is add$ a second1 z important z ! o!r &
 cross+ x1 betwe5 impressions & ideas1 (
 :i* ! =m] are likewise made prior to ! 
latt]4  ,ev]yone w ackn[l$ge !          
consid]able diff]5ce betwe5 a s5sation  
actually pres5t 7( heat1 = in/ance7 & ! 
m]e idea ( "o previ\sly exp]i5c$1 or    
%ortly to come4 ,?is consi/s 9 ! great] 
=ce1 livel9ess1 & vividness ( ! =m]4    
,al?\gh ^! two classes ( /ates 7! idea (
 a l&scape describ$ by a poet & !       
p]ception ( a real "o1 ang] & ! ?\ght ( 
ang]7 are only quantitatively di/9ct1 !y
 are sc>cely ev] 9 dang] ( be+          
confus$--! mo/ lively idea is always    
less s ?an ! weake/ p]ception4 ,!       
actual1 out] or inn]1 s5sations may be  

t]m$ impressions2 ! weak] images (      
memory or imag9ation1 :i* !y leave beh9d
 !m1 ideas4 ,s9ce no?+ c ga9 entrance to
 ! s\l except ?r\gh ! two portals ( out]
 & inn] exp]i5ce1 !re is no idea :i* has
 n aris5 f an impression or sev]al su*2 
e idea is ! image & copy ( an           
impression4 ,b z ! und]/&+ & imag9ation 
v>i\sly comb9e1 sep>ate1 & transpose !  
elem5ts furni%$ by ! s5ses & l+]+ 9     
memory1 ! possibility ( error arises4 ,a
 hidd51 &1 !re=e m dang]\s s\rce ( error
 consi/s 9 ! ref]5ce ( an idea to a     
diff]5t impression ?an ! "o ( :i* x is !
 copy4 ,! concepts sub/ance & causality 
are examples ( su* false ref]5ce4  ,!   
comb9ation ( ideas takes place )\t      
fre$om1 9 a purely me*anical1 way       
accord+ to fix$ rules1 :i* 9 ! la/      
analysis r$uce to ?ree fundam5tal laws (
 association3 ,ideas are associat$ 7#a7 
accord+ to _! resemblance & contra/2    
7#b7 accord+ to _! contiguity 9 space & 
"t2 7#c7 accord+ to _! causal           
connection4 ,ma!matics is bas$ on !     

op]ation ( ! fir/ ( ^! laws1 on !       
imm$iate or m$iate k ( ! resemblance1   
contr>iety1 & quantitative relations (  
ideas2 ! descriptive & exp]im5tal "p ( !
 sci5ces ( nature & ( man on ! second2  
religion1 metaphysics1 & t "p ( physical
 & moral sci5ce :i* goes beyond m]e     
obs]vation on ! ?ird4 ,! !ory ( k has to
 det]m9e ! b\nd>ies ( human und]/&+ & ! 
degree ( cr$ibility to :i* ^! sci5ces   
are entitl$4  ,! objects ( human ?\ght &
 inquiry are ei!r relations ( ideas or  
matt]s ( fact4 ,to ! =m] class belong ! 
objects ( ma!matics1 ! tru?s ( :i*1 s9ce
 !y are analytic 7i4 e41 m]ely explicate
 9 ! pr$icate ! *>act]i/ics already     
conta9$ 9 ! subject1 & add no?+ new to  
?is71 & s9ce !y conc]n possible         
relations only1 n reality1 possess      
intuitive or demon/rative c]ta9ty4 ,x is
 only propositions conc]n+ quantity &   
numb] t are discov]able a priori by !   
m]e op]ation ( ?\ght1 )\t dep5d5ce on   
real exi/5ce1 & t c be prov$ f !        
impossibility ( _! opposites--ma!matics 

is ! only demon/rative sci5ce4  ,we rea*
 c]ta9ty 9 matt]s ( fact by direct      
p]ception1 or by inf]5ces f o!r facts1  
:5 !y transc5d ! te/imony ( our s5ses & 
memory4 ,^! argum5ts f exp]i5ce are ( an
 entirely diff]5t sort f ! rational     
demon/rations ( ma!matics2 z ! contr>y (
 a fact is always ?9kable 7! proposition
 t ! sun w n rise to-morr[ implies no   
logical contradiction71 !y yield1       
/rictly speak+1 probability only1 no    
matt] h[ /rong our conviction ( _!      
accuracy may be4 ,nev]!less x is        
advisable to sep>ate ?is species (      
inf]5ces f exp]i5ce--^: c]ta9ty is n    
d\bt$ except by ! philosoph]s--f unc]ta9
 probabilities1 z a class int]m$iate    
betwe5 ! latt] & demon/rative tru?      
7demon/rations--pro(s--probabilities74  
,all reason+s conc]n+ matt]s ( fact are 
bas$ on ! relation ( cause & effect4    
,:5ce1 !n1 d we obta9 ! k ( cause &     
effect8 ,n by a priori ?\ght4 ,pure     
reason is able only to analyze concepts 
into _! elem5ts1 n to connect new       

pr$icates ) !m4 ,all its judgm5ts are   
analytic1 :ile syn!tic judgm5ts re/ on  
exp]i5ce4 ,judgm5ts conc]n+ causation   
belong 9 ?is latt] class1 = effects are 
entirely di/9ct f causes2 ! effect is n 
conta9$ 9 ! cause1 nor ! latt] 9 ! =m]4 
,9 ! case ( a ph5om5on previ\sly unkn[n 
we _c tell f :at causes x has proce$$1  
nor :at its effect w be4 ,we argue t    
fire w w>m u1 & bread af=d n\ri%m5t1    
because we h (t5 p]ceiv$ ^! causal pairs
 closely connect$ 9 space & "t4 ,b ev5  
exp]i5ce does n v\*safe all t we desire4
 ,x %[s no?+ m ?an ! coexi/5ce &        
succession ( ph5om5a & ev5ts2 :ile !    
judgm5t itself1 e4 g41 t ! motion ( "o  
body /&s 9 causal connection ) t (      
ano!r1 ass]ts m ?an m]e contiguity 9    
space & "t1 x affirms n m]ely t ! "o    
prec$es ! o!r1 b t x produces x--n m]ely
 t ! second foll[s ! fir/1 b t x results
 f x4 ,! bond :i* connects ! two ev5ts1 
! =ce t puts =? ! second f ! fir/1 !    
necess>y connection betwe5 ! two is n   
p]ceiv$1 b add$ to p]ception by ?\ght1  

con/ru$ into x4#a ,:at1 !n1 is !        
occasion & :at ! w>rant = trans=m+      
p]ceiv$ succession 9 "t into causal     
succession1 = sub/itut+ mu/ = is1 =     
int]pret+ ! obs]v$ connection ( fact    
into a necess>y connection :i* always   
eludes obs]vation8  ,footnote #a3 ,!    
weakness ( ! concept ( cause _h be5     
recogniz$ be=e ,hume by ! skeptic1 ,j4  
,glanvil 7#afcf-hj74 ,causality itself  
_c be p]ceiv$2 we inf] x f ! con/ant    
succession ( two ph5om5a1 )\t be+ able  
to %[ w>rant = ! trans=mation ( !reaft] 
into !reby4  ,we d n causally connect e 
*ance pair ( successive ev5ts1 b ^? only
 :i* h be5 repeat$ly obs]v$ toge!r4 ,!  
wond] is1 !n1 t ?r\gh (t-repeat$        
obs]vation ( c]ta9 objects we come to   
believe t we "k some?+ ab\t ! behavior (
 o!r l objects1 & ! fur!r behavior ( ^! 
same ones4 ,f ! fact t ,i h se5 a giv5  
apple fall t5 times to ! gr\nd1 ,i inf] 
t all ! apples 9 ! _w d ! same :5       
loos5$1 in/ead ( fly+ upw>d1 :i*1 9     
itself1 is q z ?9kable2 ,i inf] fur!r t 

?is has always be5 ! case1 & w cont9ue  
to be s to all et]nity4 ,:]e is !       
int]m$iate l9k betwe5 ! proposition1 ,i 
h f\nd t su* an object has always be5   
att5d$ ) su* an effect1 & ?is o!r1 ,i   
=esee t o!r objects :i* are1 9          
appe>ance1 simil>1 w be att5d$ ) simil> 
effects8 ,?is po/ulate1 t ! future w be 
l ! pa/1 & t l causes w h l effects1    
re/s on a purely psy*ological basis4 ,9 
virtue ( ! laws ( association ! sight ( 
an object or ev5t vividly recalls !     
image ( a second1 (t5 obs]v$ 9          
connection ) ! =m]1 & leads u           
involunt>ily to expect its appe>ance    
anew4 ,! idea ( causal connection is    
bas$ on feel+ 7! feel+ ( inn]           
det]m9ation to pass f "o idea to a      
second71 n ^u insight2 x is a product ( 
! imag9ation1 n ( ! und]/&+4 ,f !       
habitual p]ception ( two ev5ts 9        
connection 7sun%9e & heat7 arises !     
m5tal det]m9ation to ?9k ( ! second :5  
we p]ceive ! fir/1 &1 anticipat+ !      
s5ses1 to c\nt on its appe>ance4 ,x is  

n[ possible to /ate ( :at impression !  
idea ( ! causal nexus is ! copy3 !      
impression on :i* x is bas$ is !        
habitual transition f ! idea ( a ?+ to  
its cu/om>y att5dant4 ,h5ce ! idea (    
causality has a purely subjective       
significance1 n ! objective "o :i* we   
ascribe to x4 ,x is impossible to       
det]m9e :e!r !re is a real necessity (  
becom+ correspond+ to ! felt necessity (
 ?\ght4 ,9 life we nev] d\bt ! fact1 b =
 sci5ce our conviction ( ! uni=mity (   
nature rema9s a m]ely probable 7?\gh a v
 highly probable7 conviction4 ,complete 
c]ta9ty is v\*saf$ only by rational     
demon/ration & imm$iate exp]i5ce4 ,!    
necess>y bond :i* we po/ulate betwe5    
cause & effect c nei!r be demon/rat$ nor
 felt4  ,if all exp]i5tial reason+s     
dep5d on ! idea ( causality1 & ?is has  
no o!r support ?an subjective m5tal     
habit1 x foll[s t all k ( nature :i*    
goes beyond m]e obs]v$ fact is n k      
7nei!r demon/rative k nor k ( fact71 b  
belief4#a ,! probability ( our belief 9 

! regul>ity ( natural ph5om5a increases1
 inde$1 ) e new v]ification ( !         
assumptions bas$ !reon2 b1 z has be5    
%[n1 x nev] rises to absolute c]ta9ty4  
,nev]!less inf]5ces f exp]i5ce are      
tru/wor?y & entirely suffici5t =        
practical life1 & ! aim ( ! above       
skeptical deliv]ances 0 n to %ake       
belief--only a fool or a lunatic c d\bt 
9 e>ne/ ! immutability ( nature--b only 
to make x cle> t x is m]e belief1 & n1 z
 hi!rto held1 demon/rative or factual k4
 ,our d\bt is int5d$ to def9e ! b\nd>y  
betwe5 k & belief1 & to de/roy t        
absolute confid5ce :i* is a h9drance r  
?an a help to inve/igation4 ,we %\ld    
recognize x z a wise provision ( nature 
t ! regulation ( our ?\ghts & ! belief 9
 ! objective validity ( our anticipation
 ( future ev5ts h n be5 confid$ to !    
weak1 incon/ant1 in]t1 & fallaci\s      
reason1 b to a p[]ful in/9ct4 ,9 life & 
action we are gov]n$ by ?is natural     
impulse1 9 spite ( all ! scruples ( !   
skeptical reason4  ,footnote #a3 ,hume  

di/+ui%es belief z a =m ( k f religi\s  
fai?1 bo? 9 fact & 9 "n4 ,9 !           
,treatise--! passage is want+ 9 !       
,enquiry--our conviction ( ! ext]nal    
exi/5ce ( ! objects ( p]ception is also 
ascrib$ to ! =m]1 :i* lat] =m$ ,jacobi's
 po9t ( dep>ture4 ,religi\s fai? is     
ref]r$ to revelation4  ,9 ,hume's e>li] 
"w 8 de/ructive critique ( ! idea (     
cause is accompani$ by a deliv]ance 9 a 
simil> /ra9 on ! concept ( sub/ance1 :i*
 is n includ$ 9 ! %ort] revision4       
,sub/ances are n p]ceiv$ ?r\gh          
impressions1 b only qualities & p[]s4 ,!
 unkn[n some?+ :i* is suppos$ to h      
qualities1 or 9 :i* ^! are suppos$ to   
inh]e1 is an unnecess>y fiction ( !     
imag9ation4 ,a p]man5t simil>ity (      
attributes by no means requires a       
self-id5tical support = ^!4 ,a ?+ is    
no?+ m ?an a collection ( qualities1 to 
:i* we give a special "n because !y are 
always f\nd toge!r4 ,! idea ( sub/ance1 
l ! idea ( cause1 is f\nd$ 9 a          
subjective habit :i* we errone\sly      

objectify4 ,! impression f :i* x has    
aris5 is our inn] p]ception t our ?\ght 
rema9s con/ant 9 ! repeat$ exp]i5ce ( ! 
same gr\p ( qualities 7:5ev] ,i see     
sug>1 ,i d ! same ?+1 t is1 ,i comb9e ! 
qualities :ite color1 sweet ta/e1       
h>dness1 etc41 ) "o ano!r71 or !        
impression ( a uni=m comb9ation ( ideas4
 ,! idea ( sub/ance becomes errone\s    
?r\gh ! fact t we ref] x n to ! inn]    
activity ( repres5tation1 to :i* x      
rightly belongs1 b to ! ext]nal gr\p (  
qualities1 & make x a real1 p]man5t     
sub/ratum = ! latt]4 ,m5tal sub/ances   
disappe> along ) mat]ial sub/ances4 ,!  
s\l or m9d is1 9 reality1 no?+ m ?an !  
sum ( our inn] /ates1 a collection (    
ideas :i* fl[ on 9 a cont9u\s & regul>  
/ream2 x is l a /age1 across :i* feel+s1
 p]ceptions1 ?\ghts1 & volitions are    
pass+ :ile x does n itself come into    
sight4 ,a p]man5t self or ego1 z a      
sub/ratum ( ideas1 is n p]ceiv$2 !re is 
no inv>iable1 p]man5t impression4 ,t :i*
 leads to ! assumption ( p]sonal id5tity

 is only ! frequ5t repetition ( simil>  
tra9s ( ideas1 & ! gradual succession ( 
our ideas1 :i* is easily confus$ )      
con/ancy4 ,?us robb$ ( its              
sub/antiality1 ! s\l has no fur!r claims
 to immat]iality & immortality1 &       
suicide ceases to be a crime4#a         
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ! essays on ,suicide 
& ! ,immortality ( ! ,s\l1 #aghc1 ^:    
au?or%ip by ,hume1 h[ev]1 is n          
absolutely e/abli%$ (4 ,gre5 & ,grose1 z
 above1 p4 #bba1 note fir/4--,,tr4  ,is 
,hume r\ndly to be call$ a skeptic8 #a  
,he nev] impugn$ ! validity ( ma!matical
 reason+s1 nor exp]im5tal tru?s conc]n+ 
matt]s ( fact2 9 reg>d to ! =m] 8 ?\ght 
is rationali/ic1 9 reg>d to ! latt] x is
 empirical or1 m accurately1            
s5sationali/ic4 ,8 attitude t[>d !      
empirical sci5ces ( nature & ( m9d is t 
( a semi-skeptic or probabili/1 9 s f> z
 !y g beyond ! e/abli%m5t ( facts to !  
pro( ( connections "u law & to inf]5ces 
conc]n+ ! future4 ,habit is = him a safe
 guide = life1 al?\gh x does n g beyond 

probabilities2 absolute k is unatta9able
 = u1 b n indisp5sable4 ,t[>d           
metaphysics1 z an alleg$ sci5ce ( !     
supras5sible1 he takes up an entirely   
negative attitude4 ,if an argum5t f     
exp]i5ce is to be assur$ ( m]ely t      
degree ( probability :i* is suffici5t = 
belief1 x mu/ n only h a well-e/abli%$  
fact 7an impression or memory-image7 =  
its />t+ po9t1 b1 toge!r ) its          
conclusion1 x mu/ keep )9 ! limits (    
possible exp]i5ce4 ,! limits ( possible 
exp]i5ce are also ! limits ( ! kn[able2 
inf]5ces to ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! s\l   
aft] dea? & to ! be+ ( ,god are va9     
sophi/ry & illusion4 ,accord+ to ! fam\s
 conclusion ( ! ,essay1 all volumes :i* 
conta9 any?+ o!r ?an ab/ract reason+s   
conc]n+ quantity or numb] or exp]im5tal 
reason+s conc]n+ matt] ( fact & exi/5ce 
des]ve to be committ$ to ! flames4 ,9   
view ( ?is limitation ( k to t :i* is   
capable ( exact measurem5t & t :i* is   
pres5t 9 exp]i5ce1 z well ( ! pr9ciple t
 ! elem5ts add$ by ?\ght are to be %>ply

 di/+ui%$ f ! positively giv5 7!        
imm$iate facts ( p]ception71 we mu/     
agree ) ^? :o call ,hume ! fa!r ( mod]n 
positivism4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,9 !       
,essay1 ,hume describes 8 own /&po9t z  
mitigat$ or academical skepticism 9     
anti!sis to ! ,c>tesian1 :i* f d\bt &   
?r\gh d\bt hopes to rea* ! indubitable1 
& to ! excessive skepticism (           
,pyrrhonism1 :i* cripples ! impulse to  
inquiry4 ,?is mod]ate skepticism asks u 
only1 aft] resi/+ ! t5d5cy to unreflect+
 conclusions1 to make a duty (          
delib]ation & caution 9 judg+1 & to     
re/ra9 inquiry )9 ^? fields :i* are     
accessible to our k1 i4e41 ! fields (   
ma!matics & empirical fact4 ,9 !        
,treatise ,hume _h favor$ a %>p]        
skepticism & ext5d$ 8 d\bt m widely1    
e4g41 ev5 to ! tru/wor?9ess ( geometry4 
,cf4 on ?is po9t ,ed4 ,grimm1 ,zur      
,ges*i*te des ,erk5ntnissproblems1      
#ahij1 p1 #eei seq4  ,footnote #b3 ,s   
,volkelt1 ,erfahrung und ,d5k51 #ahhf1  
p4 #aje4         99       99       99   

99       99  ,z a philosoph] ( religion 
,hume is ! f9i%] & de/roy] ( deism4 ,( !
 ?ree pr9ciples ( ! dei/s--religion1 its
 orig9 & its tru? are objects (         
sci5tific inve/igation2 religion has its
 orig9 9 ! reason & ! consci\sness (    
duty2 natural religion is ! olde/1 !    
positive religions are deg5]ate or      
reviv$ =ms ( natural religion--he       
accepts ! fir/1 :ile reject+ ! o!r two4 
,religion may correspond to reason or   
contradict x1 b n proce$ f x4 ,religion 
has its basis 9 human nature1 yet n 9   
its rational b its s5su\s side2 n 9 !   
speculative desire = k1 b 9 practical   
ne$s2 n 9 ! contemplation ( nature1 b 9 
look+ =w>d ) fe> or joy to ! *ang+ ev5ts
 ( human life4 ,anxiety & hope conc]n+  
future ev5ts lead u to posit unse5 p[]s 
z direct+ our de/9y1 & to seek _! favor4
 ,! caprici\sness ( =tune po9ts to a    
plurality ( gods2 ! t5d5cy to conceive  
all ?+s l ourselves gives !m human      
*>act]i/ics2 ! p[]ful impression made by
 all t comes )9 ! sph]e ( ! s5ses       

incites u to connect ! div9e p[] )      
visible objects2 ! allegorical laudation
 & deification ( em95t m5 leads to a    
complet$ poly!ism4 ,t ?is & n 7mono-7   
!ism 0 ! orig9al =m ( religion1 ,hume   
assumes to be a fact = hi/orical times1 
& a well-f\nd$ conjecture = prehi/oric  
ages4 ,^? :o hold t humanity began ) a  
p]fect religion f9d x difficult to      
expla9 ! obscuration ( ! tru?1 end[     
immature ages ) a develop$ use ( !      
reason :i* !y c sc>cely h possess$1 make
 error gr[ worse ) increas+ culture1 &  
contradict ! hi/orical progress upw>d   
:i* is ev]y:]e else obs]v$4 ,!          
philosophical k ( ,god is a v late      
product ( mature reflection2 ev5        
mono!ism1 z a popul> religion1 did n    
arise f rational reflection1 al?\gh its 
*ief pr9ciple is 9 agreem5t ) ! results 
( philosophy1 b f ! same irrational     
motives z poly!ism4 ,its orig9 f        
poly!ism is accompli%$ by ! trans=mation
 ( ! lead+ god 7! k+ ( ! gods or !      
tutel>y deity ( ! nation7 ?r\gh ! fe> & 

emul\s flatt]y ( 8 vot>ies into ! "o1   
inf9ite1 spiritual rul] ( ! _w4 ,amid ! 
folly ( ! sup]/iti\s h]d1 h[ev]1 ?is    
ref9$ idea is n long pres]v$ 9 its      
purity2 ! m exalt$ ! conception ent]ta9$
 ( ! supreme deity1 ! m imp]atively !   
ne$ makes itself felt = ! int]polation  
betwe5 ?is be+ & mank9d ( m$iators &    
demi-gods1 p>tak+ m ( ! human nature ( !
 wor%ip]s & m famili> to !m4 ,lat] a new
 purification takes place1 s t ! hi/ory 
( religion %[s a cont9u\s alt]nation ( !
 l[] & high] =ms4  ,aft] depriv+ !ism ( 
its pr]ogative ( orig9ality1 ,hume fur!r
 takes away f x its fame z 9 e respect !
 be/ religion4 ,x is disadvantage\sly   
di/+ui%$ f poly!ism by ! fact t x is m  
intol]ant1 makes its foll[]s            
pusillanim\s1 &1 by its incompreh5sible 
dogmas1 puts _! fai? to sev]] te/s2 :ile
 x is on a level ) poly!ism 9 t mo/ (   
its adh]5ts exalt belief 9 fooli%       
my/]ies1 fanaticism1 & ! obs]vance (    
useless cu/oms above ! practice (       
virtue4  ,! ,natural ,hi/ory (          

,religion1 :i* f> outbids ! conclusions 
( ! dei/s by its endeavors to expla9    
religion1 n on rational1 b on hi/orical 
& psy*ological gr\nds1 & to sep>ate x   
entirely f k by relegat+ x to ! sph]e ( 
practice1 leaves ! possibility ( a      
philosophical k ( ,god an op5 "q4 ,!    
,dialogues conc]n+ ,natural ,religion   
greatly dim9i% ?is hope4 ,! mo/ cog5t   
argum5t = ! intellig5ce ( ! _w-gr\nd1 ! 
teleological argum5t1 is a hypo!sis :i* 
has grave weaknesses1 & "o to :i* _m o!r
 equally probable hypo!ses may be       
oppos$4 ,! f9ite _w1 ) its defects &    
ab\nd+ mis]y amid all its ord] &        
adaptation1 c nev] yield an inf]5ce to  
an inf9ite1 p]fect unit-cause1 to an    
all-p[]ful1 all-wise1 & b5evol5t deity4 
,to ?is ! elev5? section ( ! ,enquiry   
adds ! argum5t1 t x is inadmissible to  
ascribe to ! inf]r$ cause o!r prop]ties 
?an ^? :i* are necess>y to expla9 !     
obs]v$ effect4 ,! t5? section ( ! same  
,essay argues t !re is no miracle       
support$ by a suffici5t numb] (         

witnesses cr$ible because ( _!          
intellig5ce & hone/y1 & free f a        
prepond]ance ( contradictory exp]i5ces &
 te/imony ( great] probability4 ,9 %ort1
 ! reason is nei!r capable ( rea*+ !    
exi/5ce ( ,god by well-gr\nd$ inf]5ce   
nor ( compreh5d+ ! tru? ( ! ,*ri/ian    
religion ) its accompany+ miracles4 ,t  
:i* transc5ds exp]i5ce _c be prov5 &    
kn[n1 b only believ$ 94 ,:oev] is mov$  
by fai? to give ass5t to ?+s :i*        
contradict all cu/om & exp]i5ce1 is     
consci\s ( a cont9u$ miracle 9 8 own    
p]son4  ,hume nev] d5i$ ! exi/5ce (     
,god1 nev] directly impugn$ revelation4 
,8 f9al ^w is d\bt & unc]ta9ty4 ,x is   
c]ta9 t 8 c\nsel n to foll[ ! lead]%ip (
 ! reason 9 religi\s matt]s1 b to submit
 ourselves to ! p[] ( in/9ct & common   
op9ion1 0 less e>ne/ & less 9 h>mony ) !
 nature ( ! philosoph] ?an 8 o!r advice1
 to take refuge f ! /rife ( ! v>i\s =ms 
( sup]/ition 9 ! m quiet1 ?\gh dimm]    
regions (--naturally1 !                 
skeptical--philosophy4 ,hume's          

orig9ality & greatness 9 ?is field      
consi/ 9 8 g5etic view ( ! hi/orical    
religions4 ,!y are = him errors1 b      
natural ones1 gr\nd$ 9 ! nature ( man1  
sick m5's dreams1 ^: orig9 & c\rse he   
se>*es out ) frightful cold-blood$ness1 
) ! dispassionate int]e/ ( ! dissector4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,9 8 moral philosophy#a ,hume %[s       
himself ! empirici/ only1 n ! skeptic4  
,! laws ( human nature are capable ( j z
 exact empirical inve/igation z ^? (    
ext]nal nature2 obs]vation & analysis   
promise ev5 m brilliant success 9 ?is   
mo/ important1 & yet hi!rto s badly     
neglect$1 bran* ( sci5ce ?an 9 physics4 
,z k & op9ion h be5 f\nd r$ucible to !  
associative play ( ideas1 & ! /ore (    
ideas1 aga91 to orig9al impressions &   
%[n d]ivable f ^!2 s man's volition &   
action pres5t !mselves z results ( !    
me*anical work+ ( ! passions1 :i*1 9    
turn1 po9t fur!r back to m primitive    
pr9ciples4 ,! ultimate motives ( all    
action are pleasure & pa91 to :i* we owe

 our ideas ( good & evil4 ,! direct     
passions1 desire & av]sion1 joy & sorr[1
 hope & fe>1 are ! imm$iate effects ( ^!
 orig9al elem5ts4 ,f ! direct arise 9   
c]ta9 circum/ances ! indirect passions1 
pride & humility1 love & hatr$ 7toge!r )
 respect & contempt72 ! fir/ two1 if !  
objects :i* excite feel+ are imm$iately 
connect$ ) ourselves1 ! latt]1 :5       
pleasure & pa9 are ar\s$ by !           
accompli%m5ts or ! defects ( o!rs4 ,:ile
 love & hate are always conjo9$ ) a     
read9ess = action1 ) b5evol5ce or ang]1 
pride & humility are pure1 self-c5t]$1  
inactive emotions4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4  
,g4 von ,gizycki1 ,die ,e?ik ,david     
,humes1 #ahgh4  ,all moral ph5om5a1 w1  
moral judgm5t1 consci5ce1 virtue1 are n 
simple & orig9al data1 b ( a composite  
or d]ivative nature4 ,!y are )\t        
exception products ( ! regul> int]action
 ( ! passions4 ,) su* views !re c be1 ( 
c\rse1 no "q ( a fre$om ( ! w4 ,if      
anyone objects to det]m9ism1 t virtues &
 vices1 if !y are involunt>y & necess>y1

 are n praise-or blame-wor?y1 he is to  
be ref]r$ to ! applause paid to beauty &
 tal5t1 :i* are consid]$ m]itori\s1     
al?\gh !y are n dep5d5t ^u our *oice4 ,!
 legal attitude ( !ology & law fir/     
caus$ all des]t to be bas$ ^u fre$om1   
:]eas ! anci5t philosoph]s spoke        
unhesitat+ly ( intellectual virtues4    
,hume does n1 l ne>ly all 8 pr$ecessors 
& contempor>ies1 f9d ! det]m9+ gr\nds ( 
volition 9 ideas1 b 9 ! feel+s4 ,aft]   
curtail+ ! rights ( ! reason 9 !        
!oretical field 9 favor ( cu/om &       
in/9ct1 he dispossesses h] also 9 !     
sph]e ( practice4 ,impassive reason1    
judg+ only ( tru? & falsehood1 is an    
inactive faculty1 :i* ( itself c nev]   
inspire u ) incl9ation & desire t[>d an 
object1 c nev] itself become a motive4  
,x is only capable ( influ5c+ ! w       
indirectly1 ?r\gh ! aid ( "s affection4 
,ab/ract relations ( ideas1 & facts z   
well1 leave u entirely indiff]5t s long 
z !y fail to acquire an emotional value 
?r\gh _! relation to our /ate ( m9d4 ,:5

 we speak ( a victory ( reason ov]      
passion x is no?+ b a conque/ ( "o      
passion by ano!r1 i4 e41 ( a viol5t     
passion by a calm "o4 ,t :i* is commonly
 call$ reason "h is no?+ b "o ( ^? g5]al
 & calm affections 7e4 g41 ! love (     
life7 :i* direct ! w to a di/ant good1  
)\t excit+ any s5sible emotion 9 ! m9d2 
by passion we commonly und]/& ! viol5t  
passions only1 :i* eng5d] a m>k$        
di/urbance 9 ! s\l & ! production ( :i* 
requires a c]ta9 prop9quity ( ! object4 
,a man is said to be indu/ri\s f reason1
 :5 a calm desire = money makes him     
labori\s4 ,x is a mi/ake to consid] all 
viol5t passions p[]ful1 & all calm ones 
weak4 ,! preval5ce ( calm affections    
con/itutes ! ess5ce ( /r5g? ( m9d4  ,z  
reason is ?us degrad$ f a gov]nor ( ! w 
to a slave ( ! passions1 s1 fur!r1      
judgm5t conc]n+ "r & wrong is tak5 away 
f h]4 ,moral di/9ctions are det]m9$ by  
our s5se ( ! agreeable & ! disagreeable4
 ,we pass an imm$iate judgm5t ( ta/e on 
! actions ( our fell[-m52 ! good        

pleases1 evil displeases4 ,! sight (    
virtue gives u satisfaction2 t ( vice   
repels u4 ,accord+ly an action or trait 
( m9d is virtu\s :5 x calls =? 9 !      
obs]v] an agreeable1 dis9t]e/$ s5tim5t (
 approbation4  ,:at1 !n1 are ! actions  
:i* receive su* g5]al approval1 & h[ is 
! praise to be expla9$ :i* ! spectator  
be/[s on !m8 ,we approve su* traits ( "*
 z are imm$iately agreeable or useful1  
ei!r to ! p]son himself or to o!rs4 ,?is
 yields f\r classes ( praisewor?y       
qualities4 ,! fir/ class1 ^? :i* are    
agreeable to ! possessor 7q ap>t f any  
utility to himself or to o!rs71 includes
 *e]fulness1 greatness ( m9d1 c\rage1   
tranquillity1 & b5evol5ce2 ! second1 ^? 
imm$iately agreeable to o!rs1 mode/y1   
good mann]s1 polit5ess1 & wit2 ! ?ird1  
^? useful to ourselves1 /r5g? ( w1      
indu/ry1 frugality1 /r5g? ( body1       
intellig5ce & o!r m5tal gifts4 ,! f\r?  
class comprises ! highe/ virtues1 !     
qualities useful to o!rs1 b5evol5ce &   
ju/ice4 ,pleasure & utility are 9 all   

cases ! crit]ion ( m]it4 ,! monki%      
virtues ( humility & mortification ( !  
fle%1 :i* br+ no pleasure or advantage  
ei!r to _! possessor or to society1 are 
consid]$ m]itori\s by no "o :o und]/&s !
 subject4  ,if ! moral value ( actions  
is ?us made to dep5d on _! effects1 we  
_c disp5se ) ! assi/ance ( reason 9     
judg+ moral que/ions1 s9ce x alone c    
in=m u conc]n+ ^! results ( action4     
,reason1 h[ev]1 is n suffici5t to       
det]m9e u to praise or blame4 ,no?+ b a 
s5tim5t c induce u to give ! pref]5ce to
 b5eficial & useful t5d5cies ov]        
p]nici\s ones4 ,?is feel+ is evid5tly no
 o!r ?an satisfaction 9 ! happ9ess ( m5 
& uneas9ess 9 view ( _! mis]y--9 %ort1 x
 is sympa?y4 ,by means ( ! imag9ation we
 ent] into ! exp]i5ces ( o!rs &         
p>ticipate 9 _! joy & sorr[4 ,:atev]    
depresses or rejoices !m1 :atev]        
inspires !m ) pride1 fills u ) simil>   
emotions4 ,f ! habit ( sympa!tically    
pass+ moral judgm5t on ! actions ( o!rs1
 & ( see+ our own judg$ by !m1 is       

develop$ ! fur!r "o ( keep+ a con/ant   
wat* ov] ourselves & ( consid]+ our     
dispositions & de$s f ! /&po9t ( ! good 
( o!rs4 ,?is cu/om is call$ consci5ce4  
,alli$ to ?is is ! love ( reputation1   
:i* cont9ually leads u to ask1 ,h[ w our
 behavior appe> 9 ! eyes ( ^? ) :om we  
associate8  ,)9 ! f\r? & mo/ important  
class1 ! social virtues1 ,hume di/+ui%es
 betwe5 ! natural virtues ( humanity &  
b5evol5ce & ! artificial virtues (      
ju/ice & fidelity4 ,! =m] proce$ f our  
inborn sympa?y ) ! good ( o!rs1 :ile !  
latt]1 on ! o!r h&1 are n to be d]iv$ f 
a natural passion1 an in/9ctive love (  
humanity1 b are ! product ( reflection &
 art1 & take _! orig9 9 a social        
conv5tion4  ,9 ord] t an action may ga9 
! approval ( ! spectator two o!r ?+s are
 requir$ besides its salut>y effects3 x 
mu/ be a m>k ( "*1 ( a p]man5t          
disposition1 & x mu/ proce$ f dis9t]e/$ 
motives4 ,hume is oblig$ by ?is latt]   
position to %[ t dis9t]e/$ b5evol5ce    
actually exi/s1 t ! unselfi% affections 

d n secretly spr+ f self-love4 ,to cite 
only "o ( ! ?\s& examples ( b5evol5ce 9 
:i* no disc]nible int]e/ is conc]n$1 we 
desire happ9ess = our fri5ds ev5 :5 we h
 no expectation ( p>ticipat+ 9 x4 ,!    
acc\nts ( human selfi%ness are greatly  
ov]drawn1 & ^? :o d$uce all actions f x 
make ! mi/ake ( tak+ ! inevitable       
consequ5ces ( virtue--! pleasure (      
self-approval & ( be+ e/eem$ by o!rs--= 
! only motives to virtue4 ,because      
virtue1 9 ! outcome1 produces inn]      
satisfaction & is prais$ by o!rs1 x does
 n foll[ t x is practic$ m]ely = ! sake 
( ^! agreeable consequ5ces4 ,self-love  
is a second>y impulse1 ^: appe>ance at  
all presupposes prim>y impulses4 ,only  
aft] we h exp]i5c$ ! pleasure :i* comes 
f ! satisfaction ( su* an orig9al       
impulse 7e4 g41 ambition71 c ?is become 
! object ( a consci\s reflective se>*   
aft] pleasure1 or ( egoism4 ,p[] br+s no
 enjoym5t to ! man by nature devoid (   
ambition1 & he :o is naturally ambiti\s 
does n desire fame because x af=ds him  

pleasure1 b conv]sely1 fame af=ds him   
pleasure because he desires x4 ,!       
natural prop5sity :i* t]m9ates directly 
on ! object1 )\t k or =esight ( !       
pleasurable results1 comes fir/1 &      
egoi/ic reflection direct$ t[>d ! hop$-=
 enjoym5t c develop only aft] ?is has   
be5 satisfi$4 ,! case is ! same )       
b5evol5ce z ) ! love ( fame4 ,x is      
implant$ 9 ! con/itution ( our m9ds z an
 orig9al impulse imm$iately direct$ t[>d
 ! happ9ess ( o!r m54 ,aft] x has be5   
ex]cis$ & its ex]cise rew>d$ by         
self-satisfaction1 admiration1 ?anks1 & 
reciprocation1 x is inde$ possible = !  
expectation ( su* agreeable consequ5ces 
to lead u to ! repetition ( b5efic5t    
acts4 ,b ! orig9al motive is n an       
egoi/ic1 reg>d = useful consequ5ces4    
,if1 f ! =ce ( ! passion alone1 v5geance
 may be s eag]ly pursu$ t e consid]ation
 ( p]sonal quiet & security is sil5c$1 x
 may also be conc$$ t humanity causes u 
to =get our own int]e/s4 ,nay1 fur!r1 ! 
social affections1 z ,%aftesbury has    

prov51 are ! /ronge/ ( all1 & ! man w   
r>ely be f\nd 9 :om ! sum ( ! b5evol5t  
impulses w n outweigh t ( ! selfi% ones4
  ,9 ! section on ju/ice ,hume attacks !
 contract !ory4 ,law1 prop]ty1 & !      
sacr$ness ( contracts exi/ fir/ 9       
society1 b n fir/ 9 ! /ate4 ,!          
obligation to obs]ve contracts is1      
inde$1 made /rong] by ! civil law &     
civil au?ority1 b n creat$ by !m4 ,law  
arises f conv5tion1 i4 e41 n f a =mal   
contract1 b a tacit agreem5t1 a s5se (  
common int]e/1 & ?is agreem5t1 9 turn1  
proce$s f an orig9al prop5sity to ent]  
into social relations4 ,! unsocial &    
lawless /ate ( nature is a philosophical
 fiction :i* has nev] exi/$2 m5 h always
 be5 social4 ,!y h all at lea/ be5 born 
into ! society ( ! family1 & !y "k no-m 
t]rible puni%m5t ?an isolation4 ,/ates  
are n creat$1 h[ev]1 by a volunt>y act1 
b h _! roots 9 hi/ory4 ,! "q at issue   
betwe5 ,hobbes & ,hume 0 ?us adju/$ at a
 lat] p]iod by ,kant3 ! /ate1 x is true1
 has n hi/orically aris5 f a contract1  

yet x is all[able & useful to consid] x 
"u ! aspect ( a contract z a regulative 
idea4   ,only once s9ce ,david ,hume1 9 
,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 has ! ,engli% nation     
produc$ a m9d ( l compreh5sive p[]4     
,hume & ,locke =m ! culm9at+ po9ts (    
,engli% ?\ght4 ,!y are national types1 9
 t 9 !m ! two fundam5tal t5d5cies (     
,engli% ?9k+1 cle>ness ( und]/&+ &      
practical s5se1 7 manife/$ 9 equal =ce4 
,9 ,locke ^! work$ toge!r 9 h>moni\s    
co-op]ation4 ,9 ,hume ! fri5dly alliance
 is brok51 ! common labor ceases2 ea* ( 
! two dem&s its full rights2 a pa9ful   
brea* op5s up betwe5 sci5ce & life4     
,reason leads inevitably to d\bt1 to    
insight into its own weakness1 :ile life
 dem&s conviction4 ,! d\bt] _c act1 !   
ag5t _c "k4 ,x is true t a sub/itute is 
f\nd = defective k 9 belief bas$ ^u     
in/9ct & cu/om2 b ?is is a make%ift1 n a
 solution ( ! problem1 an ackn[l$gm5t ( 
! evil1 n a cure = x4 ,fur!r1 ,hume's   
greatness does n consi/ 9 ! fact t he   
prea*$ mode/y to ! cont5d+ p>ties1 t he 

bani%$ ! d\bt+ reason into ! /udy &     
re/rict$ life to belief 9 probabilities1
 b 9 ! m5tal /r5g? :i* enabl$ him to    
endure %>p contradictions1 &1 in/ead (  
an ov]ha/y & easy reconciliation1 to    
susp5d ! "o impulse until ! o!r _h made 
its dem&s ?or\ghly1 completely1 &       
reg>dlessly he>d4 ,?\gh he is di/+ui%$ f
 o!r skeptics by ! fact t he n only %[s 
! fundam5tal conceptions ( our k (      
nature & ! pr9ciples ( religion unc]ta9 
& errone\s1 b f9ds necess>y errors 9 !m 
& acutely uncov]s _! orig9 9 ! lawful   
work+s ( our inn] life1 yet 8 hi/orical 
influ5ce ess5tially re/s on 8           
skepticism4 ,9 8 own c\ntry x r\s$ 9 !  
,scotti% ,s*ool ! reaction ( common     
s5se1 :ile 9 ,g]many x help$ to wake a  
k9dr$ b great] _s f ! bonds ( 8 dogmatic
 slumb]s1 & to =tify him = 8 critical   
a*ievem5ts4  7c7 ,! ,scotti%            
,s*ool4--,prie/ley's associational      
psy*ology1 ,b]keley's idealism1 &       
,hume's skepticism are legitimate       
d$uctions f ,locke's assumption t !     

imm$iate objects ( ?\ght are n ?+s b    
ideas1 & t judgm5t or k arises f !      
comb9ation ( ideas orig9ally sep>ate4 ,!
 absurdity ( ! consequ5ces %[s ! falsity
 ( ! premises4 ,! true philosophy mu/ n 
contradict common s5se4 ,x is n correct 
to look ^u ! m9d z a %eet ( :ite pap] on
 :i* exp]i5ce inscribes s+le *>act]s1 & 
!n to make ! und]/&+ comb9e ^! orig9ally
 disconnect$ elem5ts into judgm5ts by   
means ( comp>ison1 & ! belief 9 !       
exi/5ce ( ! object come 9 z a lat]      
result add$ to ! ideas by reflection4 ,x
 is r true t ! elem5ts discov]$ by !    
analysis ( ! cognitive processes are f> 
f be+ ! orig9als f :i* ^! arise4 ,x is n
 isolat$ ideas t come fir/1 b judgm5ts1 
self-evid5t axioms ( ! und]/&+1 :i* =m  
"p ( ! m5tal con/itution ) :i* ,god has 
end[$ u2 & s5sation is accompani$ by an 
imm$iate belief 9 ! reality ( ! object4 
,s5sation gu>antees ! pres5ce ( an      
ext]nal ?+ possess+ a c]ta9 "*1 al?\gh x
 is n an image ( ?is prop]ty1 b m]ely a 
sign = some?+ 9 no wise resembl+ itself4

  ,?is is ! /&po9t ( ! f\nd]#a ( !      
,scotti% ,s*ool1 ,?omas ,reid 7#agaj-if1
 pr(essor 9 ,ab]de5 & ,glasg[2 ,an      
,inquiry into ! ,human ,m9d on !        
,pr9ciples ( ,common ,s5se1 #agfd2      
,essays on ! ,intellectual ,p[]s ( ,man1
 #aghe1 ,essays on ! ,active ,p[]s1     
#aghh1 toge!r "u ! title1 ,essays on !  
,p[]s ( ! ,human ,m9d4 ,collect$ ,works1
 #ahjd1 & (t5 s9ce1 especially ! edition
 by ,hamilton1 ) valuable notes &       
diss]tations1 #g? ed41 #b vols41 #ahgb74
 ,we may recognize 9 x a revival ( !    
common notions ( ,h]b]t1 z well z a     
transf] ( ! innate faculty ( judgm5t    
inculcat$ by ! e?ical & ae/hetic writ]s 
f ! practical to ! !oretical field2 !   
common s5se ( ,reid is an orig9al s5se =
 tru?1 z ! ta/e ( ,%aftesbury &         
,hut*eson 0 a natural s5se = ! good & ! 
beautiful4 ,l ,jacobi at a lat] p]iod1  
,reid po9ts out t m$iate1 reason$ k     
presupposes a k :i* is imm$iate1 & all  
inf]5ce & demon/ration1 fix$1           
undemon/rable1 imm$iately c]ta9         

fundam5tal tru?s4 ,! fundam5tal judgm5ts
 or pr9ciples ( common s5se1 :i* are    
true = u1 ev5 if possibly n true 9      
!mselves1 are discov]able by obs]vation 
7empirical rationalism74 ,9 ! enum]ation
 ( !m two dang]s are to be avoid$3 we   
mu/ nei!r raise cont+5t pr9ciples to !  
position ( axioms1 nor1 f an exagg]at$  
endeavor aft] unity1 und]e/imate ! numb]
 ( ^! self-evid5t pr9ciples4 ,reid      
himself is always m sp>+ ) !m ?an 8     
disciples4 ,he di/+ui%es two classes3   
fir/ pr9ciples ( necess>y tru?1 & fir/  
pr9ciples ( cont+5t tru? or tru? ( fact4
 ,z fir/ pr9ciples ( necess>y tru? he   
cites1 besides ! axioms ( logic &       
ma!matics1 grammatical1 ae/hetic1 moral1
 & metaphysical pr9ciples 7among ! la/  
belong ! pr9ciples3 ,t ! qualities :i*  
we p]ceive by our s5ses mu/ h a subject1
 :i* we call body1 & t ! ?\ghts we are  
consci\s ( mu/ h a subject1 :i* we call 
m9d2 t :atev] beg9s to exi/1 mu/ h a    
cause :i* produc$ x74 ,he lays d[n      
twelve pr9ciples z ! basis ( our k (    

matt]s ( fact1 9 :i* 8 ref]5ce to ! d\bt
 ( ,b]keley & ,hume is evid5t4 ,! mo/   
important ( ^! are3 ,! exi/5ce ( ev]y?+ 
( :i* ,i am consci\s2 t ! ?\ghts ( :i*  
,i am consci\s1 are ! ?\ghts ( a be+ :i*
 ,i call myself1 my m9d1 my p]son2 our  
own p]sonal id5tity & cont9u$ exi/5ce1 z
 f> back z we rememb] any?+ di/9ctly2 t 
^? ?+s d really exi/ :i* we di/9ctly    
p]ceive by our s5ses1 & are :at we      
p]ceive !m to be2 t we h "s degree ( p[]
 ov] our actions1 & ! det]m9ations ( our
 w2 t !re is life & intellig5ce 9 our   
fell[-m52 t !re is a c]ta9 reg>d due444 
to human au?ority 9 matt]s ( op9ion2 t1 
9 ! ph5om5a ( nature1 :at is to be1 w   
probably be l :at has be5 9 simil>      
circum/ances4  ,footnote #a3 ,9 ! s5se (
 *ief f\nd]2 cf4 ,mc,cosh's ,scotti%    
,philosophy1 #ahge1 pp4 #cf1 #fh seq41  
:i* is ! /&>d au?ority on ! s*ool z a   
:ole4--,,tr4  ,! widespread & la/+ favor
 exp]i5c$ by ?is !ory1 ) its invitation 
to =get all e>ne/ "w 9 ! problems (     
philosophy by tak+ refuge 9 common s5se1

 %[s t a g5]al relaxation _h succe$$ !  
en]getic endeavors :i* ,hume _h dem&$ ( 
himself & ( 8 read]s4 ,) ?is decl>ation 
( ! infallibility ( common consci\sness1
 ! !ory ( k1 :i* _h be5 s successfully  
begun1 0 incont95tly ?ru/ aside1 al?\gh1
 inde$1 empirical psy*ology ga9$ by !   
indu/ri\s inve/igation ( ! inn] life by 
means ( self-obs]vation4 ,james ,beattie
 cont9u$ ! attack on ,hume 9 8 ,essay on
 ! ,nature & ,immutability ( ,tru? 9    
,opposition to ,sophi/ry & ,skepticism1 
#aggj1 on ! pr9ciple t wisdom mu/ nev]  
contradict nature1 & t :atev] our nature
 compels u to believe1 h5ce :atev] all  
agree 91 is true4 ,9 8 brief]           
diss]tations ,beattie discuss$ ,memory &
 ,imag9ation1 ,fable & ,romance1 !      
,effects (  ,poetry & ,music1 ,laught]1 
! ,sublime1 etc4 ,:ile ,beattie _h giv5 
! pref]5ce to psy*ological & ae/hetic   
que/ions1 ,james ,oswald 7#aggb7 appeal$
 to common s5se 9 matt]s ( religion1    
describ+ x z an in/9ctive faculty (     
judgm5t conc]n+ tru? & falsehood4 ,! mo/

 em95t among ! foll[]s ( ,reid 0 ,dugald
 ,/ew>t 7pr(essor 9 ,ed9burgh2 ,elem5ts 
( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1        
#agib-ahbg2 ,collect$ ,works1 edit$ by  
,hamilton1 #ahed-eh71 :o develop$ !     
doctr9es ( ! ma/] & 9 "s po9ts modifi$  
!m4 ,?omas ,br[n 7#aggh-ahbj71 :o is    
highly e/eem$ by ,mill1 ,sp5c]1 & ,ba91 
approximat$ ! tea*+s ( ,reid & ,/ew>t to
 ^? ( ,hume4 ,! philosophy ( ! ,scotti% 
,s*ool 0 long 9 favor bo? 9 ,engl& & 9  
,france1 :]e x 0 employ$ z a weapon     
aga9/ mat]ialism4  ,by way ( app5dix we 
may m5tion ! beg9n+s ( a psy*ological   
ae/hetics 9 ,h5ry ,home 7,"l ,kames1    
#afif-aghb71 & ,edmund ,burke           
7#agbh-ig74a ,home1 9 e?ics a foll[] (  
,hut*eson1 is fond ( support+ 8 ae/hetic
 views by examples f ,%akespe>e4 ,beauty
 7*ap4 iii47 appe>s to belong to !      
object itself1 b 9 reality x is only an 
effect1 a second>y quality1 ( ! object2 
l color1 x is no?+ b an idea 9 ! m9d1 = 
an object is said to be beautiful = no  
o!r reason b t x appe>s s to !          

spectator4 ,x arises f regul>ity1       
proportion1 ord]1 simplicity--prop]ties 
:i* belong to sublimity z well 7*ap1    
iv471 b to :i* !y are by no means s     
ess5tial1 s9ce x is satisfi$ ) a less   
degree ( !m4 ,:ile ! beautiful excites  
emotions ( sweetness & gayety1 ! sublime
 r\ses feel+s :i* are agreeable1 x is   
true1 b :i* are n sweet & gay1 b /rong &
 m s]i\s4 ,burke's explanation goes     
deep]4 ,he d]ives ! anti!sis ( ! sublime
 & ! beautiful f ! two fundam5tal       
impulses ( human nature1 ! in/9ct (     
self-pres]vation & ! social impulse4    
,:atev] is contr>y to ! =m] makes a     
/rong & t]rible impression on ! s\l2    
:atev] favors ! latt] makes a weak b    
agreeable "o4 ,! t]rible delights u     
7fir/ depress+ & !n exalt+ u71 :5 we    
m]ely contemplate x1 )\t be+ ourselves  
affect$ by ! dang] or ! pa9--?is is !   
sublime4 ,on ! o!r h&1 t is beautiful   
:i* inspires u ) t5d]ness & affection   
)\t our desir+ to possess x4 ,sublimity 
implies a c]ta9 greatness1 beauty1 a    

c]ta9 smallness4 ,delight 9 bo? is bas$ 
on bodily ph5om5a4 ,t]ror mod]at$       
ex]cises a b5efic5t influ5ce on ! n]ves 
by /imulat+ !m & giv+ !m t5sion2 ! g5tle
 impression ( beauty ex]ts a quiet+     
effect ^u !m4 ,! di/urbances caus$ by ! 
=m]1 & ! recov]y induc$ by ! latt]1 are 
bo? conducive to heal?1 & h5ce1 exp]i5c$
 z pleasures4  ,footnote #a3 ,home1     
,elem5ts ( ,criticism1 #agfb4 ,burke1 ,a
 ,philosophical ,inquiry info ! ,orig9 (
 our ,ideas ( ! ,sublime & ! ,beautiful1
 #agef4      ,,*apt] ,,vi4  ,,! ,,fr5*  
,,illum9ation4  ,9 ! la/ decade ( !     
sev5te5? c5tury ,france _h yield$ !     
lead]%ip 9 philosophy to ,engl&4 ,:]eas 
,hobbes _h 9 ,p>is imbib$ ! _s ( !      
,galilean & ,c>tesian inquiry1 :ile     
,bacon1 ,locke1 & ev5 ,hume _h also     
visit$ ,france ) advantage1 n[ ,fr5*    
?9k]s take ! wat*word f ! ,engli%4      
,montesquieu & ,voltaire1 return+ f     
,engl& 9 ! same ye> 7#agbi71 acqua9t _! 
c\ntrym5 ) ! ideas ( ,locke & 8         
contempor>ies4 ,^! are eag]ly caught up2

 are1 /ep by /ep1 & ) ! logical c\rage  
*>act]i/ic ( ! ,fr5* m9d1 develop$ to _!
 extreme conclusions2 &1 at ! same "t1  
spread abroad 9 ?is height5$ =m among ! 
p beyond ! circles ( ! le>n$1 nay1 ev5  
beyond ! educat$ classes4 ,! ,engli%    
temp]am5t is favorable nei!r to ?is     
advance to extreme revolution>y inf]5ces
 nor to ?is propag&i/ t5d5cy4 ,locke    
comb9es a rationali/ic e?ics ) 8        
semi-s5sational !ory ( k2 ,newton is f> 
f f9d+ 9 8 me*anical physics a dang] =  
religi\s beliefs2 ! dei/s treat !       
additions ( positive religion r z       
sup]flu\s balla/ ?an z hateful unreason2
 ,bol+broke wi%es at lea/ to conceal f !
 p ! illum9at+ pr9ciples :i* he (f]s to 
! high] classes4 ,su* halt+ :]e f>!r    
progress ?reat5s to become dang]\s to   
moral int]e/s does m honor to ! moral1  
?an to ! logical1 "* ( ! philosoph]4 ,b 
) ! transf] ( ^! ideas to ,france1 !    
wall ( sep>ation is brok5 d[n betwe5 !  
!ory ( k & ! !ory ( e?ics1 betwe5       
natural philosophy & ! philosophy (     

religion2 s5sationalism =ces its way f !
 region ( !ory into ! sph]e ( practice1 
& ! me*anical !ory is trans=m$ f a      
pr9cipal ( physical int]pretation into a
 metaphysical view ( ! _w ( an a!i/ical 
"*4 ,naturalism is ev]y:]e det]m9$ to h 
its own3 if k comes f ! s5ses1 !n       
morality mu/ be root$ 9 self-int]e/2    
:oev] conf9es natural sci5ce to ! se>* =
 me*anical causes mu/ n po/ulate an     
intellig5t ,p[] work+ f design1 ev5 to  
expla9 ! orig9 ( ?+s & ! beg9n+ (       
motion--has no "r to speak ( a free w1  
an immortal s\l1 & a deity :o has creat$
 ! _w4 ,fur!r1 z ,bayle's pro( t !      
dogmas ( ! ,*ur* 7 9 all po9ts          
contradictory to reason _h1 contr>y to  
its au?or's own wi%es1 ex]t$ an influ5ce
 ho/ile to religion1 & z1 moreov]1 !    
political & social conditions ( ! "t    
incit$ to revolt & to a break ) all     
exi/+ in/itutions1 ! philosophical ideas
 f ov] ! ,*annel & ! condition ( ?+s at 
home alike press$ t[>d a revolution>y   
int5sification ( mod]n pr9ciples1 :i*   

f\nd compreh5sive expression 9 ! a!i/s' 
,bible1 ! ,sy/em ( ,nature ( ,b>on      
,holba*1 #aggj4 ,! movem5t beg9s 9 !    
middle ( ! ?irties1 :5 ,montesquieu     
comm5ces to naturalize ,locke's         
political views 9 ,france1 & ,voltaire  
does ! same s]vice = ,locke's !ory ( k1 
& ,newton's natural philosophy1 :i* _h  
already be5 comm5d$ by ,maup]tuis4 ,!   
ye> #agdh1 ! ye> also ( ,hume's ,essay1 
br+s ,montesquieu's *ief "w & ,la       
,mettrie's ,man a ,ma*9e4 ,:ile !       
,encyclop$ia1 ! h]ald ( ! ,illum9ation1 
begun 9 #agea1 is advanc+ to its        
completion 7#aggb1 or r #aghj71         
,condillac 7#aged7 & ,bonnet 7#agee7    
develop !oretical s5sationalism1 &      
,helvetius 7,on ,m9d1 #ageh2 9 ! same   
ye>1 ,d',alemb]t's ,elem5ts (           
,philosophy7 practical s5sationalism4   
,r\sseau1 engag$ 9 au?or%ip f #agea & a 
contributor to ! ,encyclop$ia until     
#ageg comes into prom95ce1 #agfb1 ) 8   
two *ief works1 ,emile & ! ,social      
,contract4 ,p>allel ) ^! we f9d int]e/+ 

ph5om5a 9 ! field ( political economy3  
,morelly's communi/ic ,code ( ,nature   
7#agee71 ! works ( ,quesnay 7#ageh71 !  
lead] ( ! physiocrats1 & ^? ( ,turgot1  
#aggd4  ,our discussion takes up1 fir/1 
! introduction & popul>ization ( ,engli%
 ideas2 !n1 ! fur!r developm5t ( ^! into
 a consi/5t s5sationalism1 into !       
morality ( int]e/1 & into mat]ialism2   
f9ally1 ! reaction aga9/ ! illum9ation (
 ! und]/&+ 9 ,r\sseau's philosophy (    
feel+4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,on ! :ole *apt]
 cf4 ,damiron1 ,mmoires p\r ,s]vir      
l',hi/oire de la ,philosophie au        
,,xviii4 ,sicle1 #c vols41 #aheh-fd2 &  
,john ,morley's ,voltaire1 #ahgb #ahhf1 
,r\sseau1 #ahgc #ahhf1 & ,did]ot & !    
,encyclop$i/s1 #ahgh new ed41 #ahhf4    
#a4 ,! ,entrance ( ,engli% ,doctr9es4   
,montesquieu#a 7#afhi-agee7 made        
,locke's doctr9e ( con/itutional mon>*y 
& ! division ( p[]s 7pp4 #agi-ahj71 )   
:i* he jo9s ! hi/orical po9t ( view (   
,bod9 & ! naturali/ic positions ( ! "t1 
! common prop]ty ( ! cultivat$ _w4 ,laws

 mu/ be adapt$ to ! "* & _s ( ! nation2 
! _s ( ! p1 aga91 is ! result ( nature1 
( ! pa/1 ( mann]s1 ( religion1 & (      
political in/itutions4 ,nature has be/[$
 _m gifts on ! ,s\!rn peoples1 b few on 
^? ( ! ,nor?2 h5ce ! latt] ne$ fre$om1  
:ile ! =m] readily disp5se ) x4 ,w>m    
climates produce great] s5sibility &    
passionat5ess1 cold ones1 muscul> vigor 
& indu/ry2 9 ! temp]ate zones nations   
are less con/ant 9 _! habits1 _! vices1 
& _! virtues4 ,! laws ( religion conc]n 
man z man1 ^? ( ! /ate conc]n him z a   
citiz52 ! =m] h = _! object ! moral good
 ( ! individual1 ! latt]1 ! welf>e (    
society2 ! fir/ aim at immutable1 !     
second at mutable good4 ,laws & mann]s  
are closely int]relat$4 ,"r is old] ?an 
! /ate1 & ! law ( ju/ice holds ev5 9 !  
/ate ( nature2 b 9 ord] to assure peace 
positive "r is requir$ 9 ?ree =ms1      
int]national1 political1 & civil4       
,footnote #a3 ,montesquieu1 ,p]sian     
,lett]s1 #agba2 ,consid]ations on !     
,causes ( ! ,greatness ( ! ,romans & (  

_! ,decad5ce1 #agcd2 ,_s ( ,laws1 #agdh4
  ,ea* ( ! f\r political =ms has a      
passion = its und]ly+ pr9ciple3         
despotism has fe>2 mon>*y1 honor        
7p]sonal & class prejudice72 ari/ocracy1
 ! mod]ation ( ! nobility2 democracy1   
political virtue1 :i* subord9ates       
p]sonal to g5]al welf>e1 & especially ! 
incl9ation to equality & frugality4     
,:ile republics are de/roy$ by          
extravagance1 lu/1 & self-seek+1 a      
mon>*y c disp5se ) civil virtue1        
patriotism1 & moral dis9t]e/$ness1 s9ce 
9 x false honor1 luxury1 & wantonness   
subs]ve ! public good4 ,great /ates t5d 
t[>d despotism2 small] ones t[>d        
ari/ocracy1 or a democratic             
republicanism2 = ^? ( m$ium size mon>*y1
 :i* is int]m$iate betwe5 ! two =m]1 is 
! be/ =m ( con/itution4 ,al?\gh         
,montesquieu1 9 8 ,lettres ,p]sanes1 %[s
 himself en?usia/ic = ! f$]al republics 
( ,switz]l& & ! ,ne!rl&s1 8 op9ions are 
diff]5t aft] 8 return f ,engl&1 & 9 8   
,esprit des ,lois he praises ! ,engli%  

=m ( gov]nm5t z ! ideal ( civil lib]ty4 
,political fre$om consi/s 9 lib]ty to d 
7n :at we wi%1 b7 :at we ought1 or 9 do+
 t :i* ! laws all[4 ,su* lawful fre$om  
is possible only :]e ! con/itution ( !  
/ate & crim9al legislation inspire !    
citiz5 ) a s5se ( security4 ,9 ord] to  
prev5t misuse ( ! supreme p[]1 ! diff]5t
 au?orities 9 ! /ate mu/ be divid$ s t  
!y %all hold "o ano!r 9 *eck4 ,9        
p>ticul> ,montesquieu dem&s = ! judicial
 p[] absolute indep5d5ce ( ! executive  
p[] 7:i* ,locke _h t]m$ ! f$]ative7 z   
well z ( ! legislative p[]4 ,! la/      
belongs to p>liam5t1 :i* includes 9 its 
two h\ses an ari/ocratic & a democratic 
elem5t4  ,voltaire#a 7#afid-aggh7--;he  
himself _h made ?is anagram f 8 "n1     
,ar\et l7e7 j7eune7--seem$ by 8 _m-sid$ 
receptivity almo/ made to be ! int]pret]
 ( ,engli% ideas2 9 ! words ( ,w9delb&1 
he comb9es ,newton's me*anical          
philosophy ( nature1 ,locke's notical   
empiricism1 & ,%aftesbury's moral       
philosophy "u ! dei/ic po9t ( view4 ,!  

same qualities :i* made him ! fir/      
j\rnali/1 enabl$ him to free philosophy 
f its s*ola/ic g>b1 &1 by conc5trat+ x  
on ! problems :i* press mo/ ^u ! lay m9d
 7,god1 fre$om1 immortality71 to make x 
a liv+ =ce among ! p4 ,8 sup]ficiality1 
z ,erdmann acutely rem>ks1 0 8 /r5g?4   
,true religion1 s reason tea*es u1      
consi/s 9 lov+ ,god & 9 be+ j & =be>+ to
 our fell[-m5 z to our bro!rs2 morality 
is s natural & necess>y t x is no wond] 
t all philosoph]s s9ce ,zoroa/] h       
inculcat$ ! same pr9ciples4 ,! less (   
dogma ! bett] ! religion2 a!ism is n s  
bad z sup]/ition1 :i* tea*es m5 to      
commit crimes ) an easy consci5ce4 ,he  
consid]$ x ! *ief mission ( 8 life to   
de/roy ^! two mis]able errors4 ,he      
endeavor$ to controv]t a!ism by rational
 argum5ts1 :ile ) passionate hatr$ &    
contemptu\s wit he attack$ positive     
,*ri/ianity & 8 p]secutors1 ! prie/hood4
 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god is = him n m]ely a   
moral po/ulate1 b a result ( sci5tific  
reason+4 ,"o ( 8 fam\s say+s 03 ,if ,god

 did n exi/ x w\ld be necess>y to inv5t 
him2 b all nature cries out to u t he   
exi/s4 ,he def5ds immortality 9 spite ( 
!oretical difficulties1 because ( its   
practical necessity2 8 attitude t[>d !  
fre$om ( ! w1 :i* he _h en]getically    
def5d$ 9 ! beg9n+1 gr[s con/antly m     
skeptical ) increas+ age4 ,8 position 9 
reg>d to ! "q ( evil exp]i5ces a simil> 
*ange--! ,lisbon e>?quake made him an   
oppon5t ( optimism1 ?\gh he _h previ\sly
 favor$ x4  ,footnote #a3 ,david        
,fri$ri* ,/rauss1 ,voltaire1 se*s       
,vortrge1 #ahgj4   #b4 ,!oretical &     
,practical ,s5sationalism4  ,we turn    
next f ! popul> introduction &          
dissem9ation ( ,locke's doctr9es1 :i*   
left _! cont5ts un*ang$1 to _!          
pr9cipiant developm5t by ! ,fr5*        
s5sationali/s4 ,condillac 7#agae-hj7    
always ?9ks ( 8 "w z a completion (     
,locke's1 ^: ,essay he held n to h gone 
d[n to ! f9al root ( ! cognitive        
process4 ,locke did n g f> en\gh1       
,condillac ?9ks1 9 8 rejection ( innate 

elem5ts2 he fail$ to trace out ! orig9 (
 p]ception1 reflection1 cognition1 &    
volition1 z also ! relation betwe5 !    
ext]nal s5ses1 ! int]nal s5se1 & !      
comb9+ intellect1 :i* he discuss$ z     
sep>ate s\rces1 ! two =m] ( p>ticul>1 & 
! la/ ( complex1 ideas2 9 %ort1 he      
omitt$ to inquire into ! orig9 ( ! fir/ 
function ( ! s\l4 ,b]keley 0 "r 9 feel+ 
t a simplification 0 ne$$ "h2 b by      
errone\sly r$uc+ out] p]ception to inn] 
p]ception1 he rea*$ ! absurd conclusion 
( d5y+ ! ext]nal _w4 ,! true c\rse is j 
! opposite ( ?is--! "o already tak5 by !
 ,bi%op ( ,cork1 ,pet] ,br[ne 7di$      
#agce2 ,! ,proc$ure1 ,ext5t1 & ,limits (
 ! ,human ,und]/&+1 #agbh73 und]/&+ &   
reflection mu/ be r$uc$ to s5sation4    
,all psy*ical functions are trans=m$    
s5sations4 ,! s\l has only "o orig9al   
faculty1 t ( s5sation2 all ! o!rs1      
!oretical & practical alike1 are        
acquir$1 i4e41 !y h gradually develop$ f
 ! =m]4 ,condillac is relat$ to ,locke z
 ,fi*te to ,kant2 9 ! =m] case !        

transition is m$iat$ by ,br[ne1 9 !     
latt] by ,re9hold4 ,ea* cr[ns ! "w ( 8  
pr$ecessor ) a unify+ conclusion2 ea*   
dem&s & (f]s a g5etic psy*ology :i* f9ds
 ! orig9 ( all ! spiritual functions--f 
s5sation & feel+s ( pleasure & pa9 up to
 rational cognition & moral w--9 a s+le 
fundam5tal p[] ( ! s\l4 ,b !re is a     
great diff]5ce1 mat]ially z well z      
=mally1 betwe5 ^! k9dr$ und]tak+s1 a    
diff]5ce correspond+ to t betwe5        
,locke's empiricism & ,kant's idealism4 
,! idea ( ends1 :i* controls ! c\rse (  
?\ght 9 ,fi*te z 9 ,leibnitz1 is        
entirely lack+ 9 ,condillac2 t :i* is   
fir/ 9 "t1 s5sation1 is = ! ,sci5ce ( ,k
 & ! ,monadology only ! beg9n+1 n !     
ess5ce1 ( psy*ical activity1 :ile       
,condillac makes no di/9ction betwe5    
beg9n+ & gr\nd1 b expressly id5tifies   
pr9cipe & comm5cem5t4 ,) ,fi*te &       
,leibnitz s5sation is immature ?\ght1 ) 
,condillac ?\ght is ref9$ s5sation4 ,!  
=m] tea* a teleological1 ! latt] a      
me*anical mono-dynamism4 ,! ,sci5ce (   

,k1 moreov]1 makes a v s]i\s task ( !   
d$uction ( ! p>ticul> psy*ical functions
 f ! orig9al p[]1 :ile ,condillac takes 
x extraord9>ily easy4 ,good illu/rations
 ( 8 way ( effac+ di/9ctions in/ead (   
expla9+ !m are giv5 by su* monoton\sly  
recurr+ phrases z memory is no?+ b      
modifi$ s5sation2 comp>ison &           
simultane\s att5tion to two ideas are ! 
same ?+2 s5sation gradually becomes     
comp>ison & judgm5t2 reflection is 9 its
 orig9 att5tion itself2 spee*1 ?\ght1 & 
! =mation ( g5]al notions are at bottom 
! same2 ! passions are only v>i\s k9ds (
 desire2 und]/&+ & w spr+ f "o root1    
etc4  ,! dem& = a s+le fundam5tal       
psy*ical p[] comes f ,desc>tes1 &       
,condillac does n hesitate to reta9 ! ^w
 p5s] itself z a g5]al designation = all
 m5tal functions4 ,simil>ly he holds fa/
 to ! dualism betwe5 ext5sion & s5sation
 z reciprocally incompatible prop]ties1 
opposes ! s\l z ! simple subject ( ?\ght
 to divisible matt]1 & sees 9 !         
affections ( ! bodily organs m]ely !    

occasions on :i* ! s\l ( itself alone   
ex]cises its s5sitive activity4 ,ev5    
fre$om--! supremacy ( ?\ght ov] !       
passions--is ma9ta9$1 9 /rik+ contra/ to
 ! :ole t5d5cy ( 8 doctr9e & to ! op5ly 
ann\nc$ pr9ciple1 t pleasure controls ! 
att5tion & gov]ns all our actions4 ,he  
has j z little int5tion ( d\bt+ !       
exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,all is dep5d5t on ,god4
 ,he is our lawgiv]2 x is 9 virtue ( 8  
wisdom t f small beg9n+s--p]ception &   
ne$--! mo/ spl5did results1 sci5ce &    
morality1 are develop$ "u ! h&s ( man4  
,:oev] und]takes to compla9 t ,he has   
conceal$ f u ! nature ( ?+s & grant$ u  
to "k relations alone1 =gets t we ne$ no
 m ?an ?is4 ,we d n exi/ 9 ord] to "k2  
to live is to enjoy4  ,! !me ( !        
,treatise on ! ,s5sations1 #aged1 is3   
,memory1 comp>ison1 judgm5t1 ab/raction1
 & reflection 79 a ^w1 cognition7 are   
no?+ b diff]5t =ms ( att5tion2 simil>ly 
! emotions1 ! appetites1 & ! w1 no?+ b  
modifications ( desire2 :ile bo? alike  
take _! orig9 9 s5sation4 ,s5sation is !

 sole s\rce & ! sole cont5t ( ! life ( !
 m9d z a :ole4 ,to prove ^! positions   
,condillac makes use ( ! fiction ( a    
/atue1 9 :i* "o s5se awakes aft] ano!r1 
fir/ ! l[e/ ( ! s5ses1 smell1 & la/ !   
mo/ valuable1 ! s5se ( t\*1 :i* compels 
u 7by its p]ception ( d5sity or         
resi/ance7 to project our s5sations1 &  
?us wakes 9 u ! idea ( an ext]nal _w4 ,9
 !mselves s5sations are m]ely subjective
 /ates1 modes ( our own be+2 )\t ! s5se 
( t\* we w\ld ascribe odor1 s\nd1 &     
color to ourselves4 ,condillac di/+ui%es
 betwe5 s5sation & ideas 9 a tw(old     
s5se1 z m]e ideas 7! memory or          
imag9ation ( some?+ n pres5t71 & z ideas
 ( objective ?+s 7! image1 repres5tative
 ( a body72 ?is latt] s5se is meant :5  
he says1 t\* s5sations only are also    
ideas4  ,= ! details ( ! d$uction1 :i*  
(t5 makes v happy use ( a ri* /ore (    
psy*ological mat]ial1 ! read] mu/ be    
ref]r$ to ! m ext5d$ expositions4 ,"h we
 c only cite z examples ! *ief among !  
g5etic def9itions4 ,p]ceptions          

7impressions7 & consci\sness are ! same 
?+ "u diff]5t names4 ,a lively s5sation1
 9 :i* ! m9d is entirely occupi$1       
becomes att5tion1 )\t ! necessity (     
assum+ an additional special faculty 9 !
 m9d4 ,att5tion1 by its ret5tive effect 
on ! s5sation1 becomes memory4 ,d\ble   
att5tion--to a new s5sation1 & to ! l+]+
 trace ( ! previ\s "o--is comp>ison2 !  
recognition ( a relation 7resemblance or
 diff]5ce7 betwe5 two ideas is judgm5t2 
! sep>ation ( an idea f ano!r naturally 
connect$ ) x1 by ! aid ( volunt>y       
l+ui/ic symbols1 is ab/raction2 a s]ies 
( judgm5ts is reflection2 & ! sum total 
( inn] ph5om5a1 t :]e9 ideas succe$ "o  
ano!r1 ! ego or p]son4 ,all tru?s conc]n
 relations among ideas4 ,! tactual idea 
( solidity accu/oms u to project !      
s5sations ( ! o!r s5ses also1 to transf]
 !m ?i!r :]e !y are n2 h5ce arise !     
ideas ( our body1 ( ext]nal objects1 & (
 space4 ,if we p]ceive sev]al su*       
project$ qualities toge!r1 we ref] !m to
 a sub/ratum--sub/ance1 :i* we "k to    

exi/1 al?\gh n :at x is4 ,by =ce we mean
 ! unkn[n1 b indubitably exi/5t1 cause (
 motion4  ,!re are no indiff]5t m5tal   
/ates2 e s5sation is accompani$ by      
pleasure or pa94 ,joy & pa9 give !      
det]m9+ law = ! op]ation ( our          
faculties4 ,! s\l dwells long] on       
agreeable s5sations2 )\t int]e/1 ideas  
w\ld pass away l %ad[s4 ,! remembrance (
 pa/ impressions m agreeable ?an !      
pres5t ones is ne$2 f ?is spr+s desire  
7dsir7 !n ! emotions ( love1 hate1 hope1
 fe>1 & a/oni%m5t2 f9ally1 ! w z an     
unconditional desire accompani$ by !    
?\ght ( its possible fulfillm5t4 ,all   
incl9ations1 good & bad alike1 spr+ f   
self-love4 ,! pr$icates good & beautiful
 d5ote ! pleasure-giv+ qualities ( ?+s1 
! =m]1 t :i* is agreeable to smell &    
ta/e 7& ! passions71 ! latt]1 t :i*     
pleases sight1 he>+1 feel+ 7& !         
intellect74 ,morality is ! con=mity (   
our actions to laws1 :i* m5 h e/abli%$  
by conv5tion ) mutual obligations4 ,9   
?is way ! good1 :i* at fir/ 0 ! s]vant (

 ! passions1 becomes _! "l4  ,man's     
sup]iority to ! brute dep5ds on ! great]
 p]fection ( 8 s5se ( t\*2 on ! great]  
v>iety ( 8 wants & 8 associations (     
ideas2 on ! idea ( dea?1 :i* leads him  
to seek n m]ely ! avoidance ( pa9 b also
 self-pres]vation2 & ! possession (     
language4 ,)\t d5om9ation no            
ab/ractions1 no ?\ght1 no h&+ d[n ( k4  
,al?\gh all t is m5tal has its orig91 9 
! la/ analysis1 9 simple s5sations1 its 
developm5t requires emancipation f !    
s5su\s1 & language is ! means = free+   
ourselves f ! pressure ( s5sations by ! 
g5]alization & comb9ation ( ideas4  ,a m
 mod]ate repres5tative ( s5sationalism 0
 ,*>les ,bonnet1 :o lat] ex]cis$ a      
consid]able influ5ce 9 ,g]many1         
especially until ,tet5s 7#agbj-ic2      
,essay 9 ,psy*ology1 or ,consid]ations  
on ! ,op]ations ( ! ,s\l1 #agee2        
,analytical ,essay on ! ,faculties ( !  
,s\l1 #agfj2 ,philosophical ,pal+5esis1 
or ,ideas on ! ,pa/ & ! ,future ( ,liv+ 
,be+s1 #agfi1 includ+ a def5se (        

,*ri/ianity2 ,collect$ ,works1 #aggi74  
,s5sations1 to :i* he1 too1 r$uces all  
m5tal life1 are1 9 8 view1 reactions ( !
 immat]ial s\l to s5se /imuli1 :i*      
op]ate m]ely z occasional causes4 ,on ! 
o!r h&1 he emphasizes m /rongly ?an     
,condillac ! dep5d5ce ( psy*ical ph5om5a
 on physiological conditions1 &         
endeavors to %[ def9ite bra9 vibrations 
z ! basis n only ( habit1 memory1 & !   
association ( ideas1 b also ( ! high]   
m5tal op]ations4 ,9 h>mony ) ^! views he
 adh]es to det]m9ism1 & f9ds ! motive ( 
all endeavor3 9 self-love1 & its        
ultimate aim 9 happ9ess4 ,to ! latt] !  
hope ( immortality is indisp5sable4 ,!  
l9k betwe5 ,bonnet's !ory ( ! ?or\ghgo+ 
dep5d5ce ( ! s\l on ! body & 8 or?odox  
convictions1 is =m$ by 8 idea ( an      
imp]i%able e!real body1 :i* enables !   
s\l 9 ! life to come to rememb] its life
 on e>? &1 aft] ! dissolution ( ! pres5t
 mat]ial body1 to acquire a new "o4     
,animals z well z m5 %>e 9 ! cont9uance 
( exi/5ce & ! transition to a high]     

/age4  ,! mat]ial e>ne/ness ( ^! ?9k]s  
is 9 %>p contra/ to ! sup]ficial &      
frivol\s mann] 9 :i* ,helvetius         
7#agae-ga7 c>ries out s5sationalism 9 ! 
sph]e ( e?ics4 ,8 *ief "w1 ,on ,m9d1    
came out 9 #ageh2 & a ye> aft] 8 dea?1 !
 "w ,on ,man1 8 ,intellectual ,faculties
 & 8 ,education4 ,! se>* = pleasure or  
self-love is1 z ,helvetius ?9ks he has  
discov]$ = ! fir/ "t1#a ! only motive ( 
action2 ! laws ( int]e/ reign 9 ! moral 
_w z ! laws ( motion 9 ! physical _w2   
ju/ice & love = our neighbors are bas$  
on utility2 we seek fri5ds 9 ord] to be 
amus$1 aid$1 &1 9 mis=tune1             
compassionat$ by !m2 ! philan?ropi/ & ! 
mon/] bo? seek only _! own pleasure4    
,footnote #a3 ,9 reality n only ,engli% 
morali/s1 b also "s among 8 c\ntrym51 _h
 anticipat$ him 9 ! position t all      
actions proce$ f selfi%ness1 & t virtue 
is m]ely a ref9$ egoism4 ,?us ,la       
,ro*ef\cauld 9 8 ,maxims 7,rflexions1 ou
 ,s5t5ces et ,maximes ,morales1 #affe71 
,la ,bruyre 7,les ,*>actres et les      

,moeurs de ce ,sicle1 #afhg71 & ,la     
,mettrie 7(4 pp1 #bea-bec74  ,helvetius 
draws ! pro( = ^! positions f           
,condillac4 ,recollection & judgm5t are 
s5sation4 ,! s\l is orig9ally no?+ m ?an
 ! capacity = s5sation2 x receives !    
/imulus to its developm5t f self-love1  
i4e41 f p[]ful passions su* z ! love (  
fame1 on ! "o h&1 &1 on ! o!r1 f hatr$ (
 ennui1 :i* induces man to ov]come !    
indol5ce natural to him & to submit     
himself to ! irksome ef=t (             
att5tion--)\t passion he w\ld rema9     
/upid4 ,! sum ( ideas collect$ 9 him is 
call$ intellect4 ,all di/9ctions among  
m5 are acquir$1 & conc]n ! intellect    
only1 n ! s\l3 t :i* is                 
innate--s5sibility & self-love--is !    
same 9 all2 diff]5ces arise only ?r\gh  
ext]nal circum/ances1 ?r\gh education4  
,man is ! pupil ( all t environs him1 ( 
8 situation & 8 *ance exp]i5ce4 ,! mo/  
important in/rum5t 9 education is ! law2
 ! function ( ! lawgiv] is to connect   
public & p]sonal welf>e by means (      

rew>ds & puni%m5ts1 & ?us to elevate    
morality4 ,a man is call$ virtu\s :5 8  
/rong] passions h>monize ) ! g5]al      
int]e/4 ,un=tunately ! virtues (        
prejudice1 :i* d n contribute to !      
public good1 are m honor$ among mo/     
nations ?an ! political virtues1 to :i* 
alone real m]it belongs4 ,& self-int]e/ 
is always ! "o motive to j & g5]\s      
action2 we s]ve only our own int]e/s 9  
fur!r+ ! welf>e ( ! community4 ,z !     
promulgator ( ^! doctr9es 0 himself a   
k9d & g5]\s man1 ,r\sseau c\ld make to  
him ! apt reply3 ,y endeavor 9 va9 to   
degrade y\rself bel[ y\r own level2 y\r 
_s gives evid5ce aga9/ y\r pr9ciples2   
y\r b5evol5t he>t discr$its y\r         
doctr9es4  ,! morality ( enlight5$      
self-love or intellig5t self-int]e/     
appe>s 9 a mild] =m 9 ,maup]tuis        
7,works1 #ageb71 & ,fr$]ick ! ,great1#a 
to ! latt] ( :om ,d',alemb]t object$ by 
lett] t int]e/ c\ld nev] g5]ate ! s5se (
 duty & rev]5ce = ! law4  ,footnote #a3 
,essay on ,self-love z a ,pr9ciple (    

,morals1 #aggj1 pr9t$ 9 ! proce$+s ( !  
,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,cf4 on ,fr$]ick1  
,ed4 ,zell]1 #ahhf4   #c4 ,skepticism & 
,mat]ialism4  ,! ideas ?us f> develop$  
move 9 a direction ^: fur!r pursuit     
inevitably issues 9 mat]ialism4 ,did]ot1
 ! editor ( ! ,encyclop$ia ( ! ,sci5ces1
 ,arts1 & ,trades 7#agea-gb71 :i* ga!r$ 
all ! curr5ts ( ! ,illum9ation into "o  
great /ream & c>ri$ !m to ! op5 sea (   
popul> culture1 reflects 9 8            
intellectual developm5t ! dialectical   
movem5t f deism ?r\gh skepticism to     
a!ism & mat]ialism1 & 0 a co-labor] 9 ! 
"w :i* br\ght ! :ole movem5t to a       
conclusion1 ,holba*'s ,sy/em ( ,nature4 
,two decades1 h[ev]1 be=e ! latt] "w1 ! 
outcome ( a long developm5t ( ?\ght1    
appe>$1 ! physician ,la ,mettrie#a      
7#agji-ea7 _h promulgat$ mat]ialism1    
?\gh r 9 an an?ropological =m ?an z a   
_w-sy/em1 & ) cynical satisfaction 9 !  
violation ( traditional beliefs--9 8    
,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,s\l1 #agde1 9 a   
disguis$ =m1 &1 undisguis$1 9 8 ,man a  

,ma*9e1 #agdh--;& at ! same "t          
7,anti-,s5eca1 or ,disc\rse on          
,happ9ess1 #agdh7 _h sket*$ out =       
,helvetius ! outl9es ( ! s5sationali/ic 
morality ( int]e/4 ,:ile ill ) a viol5t 
fev] he obs]v$ ! influ5ce ( ! height5$  
circulation ( ! blood on 8 m5tal tone1 &
 inf]r$ t ?\ght is ! result ( ! bodily  
organization4 ,! s\l c only be kn[n f ! 
body4 ,! s5ses1 ! be/ philosoph]s1 tea* 
u t matt] is nev] )\t =m & motion2 &    
:e!r all matt] is s5ti5t or n1 c]ta9ly  
all t is s5ti5t is mat]ial1 & e "p ( !  
organism conta9s a vital pr9ciple 7!    
he>t ( a frog beats = an h\r aft] its   
removal f ! body2 ! p>ts ( cut-up polyps
 gr[ into p]fect animals74 ,all ideas   
come f )\t1 f ! s5ses2 )\t              
s5se-impressions no ideas1 )\t          
education1 few ideas1 ! m9d ( a man gr[n
 up 9 isolation rema9s entirely         
undevelop$2 & s9ce ! s\l is entirely    
dep5d5t on ! bodily organs1 along ) :i* 
x orig9ates1 gr[s1 & decl9es1 x is      
subject to mortality4 ,n only animals1 z

 ,desc>tes has %[n1 b m51 :o diff] f !  
brutes only 9 degree1 are m]e ma*9es2 by
 ! s\l we mean t "p ( ! body :i* ?9ks1 &
 ! bra9 has f9e muscles = ?9k+ z ! leg  
its co>se ones = walk+4  ,footnote #a3  
,la ,mettrie 0 born at ,/4 ,malo1 &     
educat$ 9 ,p>is1 & 9 ,leyd5 "u ,bo]have2
 he di$ 9 ,b]l91 :i!r ,fr$]ick ! ,great 
_h call$ him aft] he _h be5 driv5 out ( 
8 native l& & f ,holl&4 ,on ,la ,mettrie
 cf4 ,lange1 ,hi/ory ( ,mat]ialism1 vol4
 ii4 pp4 #di-ia2 & ,du,bois-,reymond's  
,address1 #ahge4  ,if man is no?+ b     
body1 !re is no o!r pleasure ?an t ( !  
body4 ,!re is a diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 betwe5 
s5su\s pleasure1 :i* is int5se & brief1 
& intellectual pleasure1 :i* is calm &  
la/+4 ,! educat$ man w pref] ! latt]1 & 
f9d 9 x a high] & m noble happ9ess2 b   
nature has be5 j en\gh to grant ! common
 multitude1 9 ! co>s] pleasures1 a m    
easily atta9able happ9ess4 ,enjoy !     
mom5t1 till ! f>ce ( life is end$6      
,virtue exi/s only 9 society1 :i*       
re/ra9s f evil by its laws1 & incites to

 good by r\s+ ! love ( honor4 ,! good   
man1 :o subord9ates 8 own welf>e to t ( 
society1 acts "u ! same necessity z !   
evil-do]2 h5ce rep5tance & pangs (      
consci5ce1 :i* increase ! am\nt ( pa9 9 
! _w1 b are incapable ( effect+ am5dm5t1
 are useless & repreh5sible3 ! crim9al  
is an ill man1 & mu/ n be m h>%ly puni%$
 ?an ! safety ( society requires4       
,mat]ialism humanizes & ex]cises a      
tranquiliz+ influ5ce on ! m9d1 z !      
religi\s view ( ! _w1 ) its incitem5t to
 hatr$1 di/urbs x2 mat]ialism frees u f 
! s5se ( guilt & responsibility1 & f !  
fe> ( future suff]+4 ,a /ate compos$ (  
a!i/s1 is n only possible1 z ,bayle     
argu$1 b x w\ld be ! happie/ ( all      
/ates4  ,among ! editors ( !            
,encyclop$ia1 ! ma!matician ,d',alemb]t 
7,elem5ts ( ,philosophy1 #ageh7 rema9$  
loyal to skeptical views4 ,nei!r matt]  
nor _s is 9 its ess5ce kn[able2 ! _w is 
probably q diff]5t f our s5su\s         
conception ( x4 ,z ,did]ot 7#agac-hd71 &
 ! ,encyclop$ia ) him1 advanc$ f        

skepticism to mat]ialism1 ,d',alemb]t   
retir$ f ! editorial bo>d 7#ageg71 aft] 
,r\sseau1 also1 _h sep>at$ himself f !  
,encyclop$i/s4 ,did]ot#a 0 ! lead+ _s 9 
! second half ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 z    
,voltaire 9 ! fir/ half4 ,8 lively &    
_m-sid$ receptivity1 active indu/ry1    
clev] & combative eloqu5ce1 & en?usia/ic
 disposition qualifi$ him = ?is rle     
beyond all 8 contempor>ies1 :o te/ify t 
!y owe ev5 m to 8 /imulat+ conv]sation  
?an to 8 writ+s4 ,he comm5c$ by br++    
,%aftesbury's ,inquiry into ,virtue &   
,m]it to ! notice ( 8 c\ntrym52 & !n    
turn$ 8 sword1 on ! "o h&1 aga9/ !      
a!i/s1 to refute :om1 he ?\ght1 a s+le  
glance into ! microscope 0 suffici5t1 &1
 on ! o!r1 aga9/ ! traditional belief 9 
a ,god ( ang] & rev5ge1 :o takes        
pleasure 9 ba?+ 9 ! te>s ( mank9d4 ,!n  
foll[$ a p]iod ( skepticism1 :i* is well
 illu/rat$ by ! pray] 9 ! ,?\ghts on !  
,int]pretation ( ,nature1 #aged3 ,o     
,god6 ,i d n "k :e!r ?\ art1 b ,i w     
guide my ?\ghts & actions z ?\gh ?\ did/

 see me ?9k & act1 etc4 ,"u ! influ5ce (
 ,holba*'s circle he f9ally rea*$ 79 !  
,conv]sation betwe5 ,d',alemb]t &       
,did]ot1 & ,d',alemb]t's ,dream1 writt5 
9 #agfi1 b n publi%$ until #ahcj1 9 vol4
 iv4 ( ! ,mmoires1 ,correspondance1 et  
,ouvrages ,9dits de ,did]ot7 ! position 
( naturali/ic monism--!re exi/s b "o    
great individual1 ! ,all4 ,?\gh he _h   
=m]ly di/+ui%$ ?9k+ sub/ance f mat]ial  
sub/ance1 & _h bas$ ! immortality ( !   
s\l on ! unity ( s5sation & ! unity ( ! 
ego1 he n[ makes s5sation a univ]sal &  
ess5tial prop]ty ( matt] 7la pi]re s5t71
 decl>es ! talk ab\t ! simplicity ( !   
s\l metaphysico-!ological nons5se1 calls
 ! bra9 a self-play+ in/rum5t1 ridicules
 self-e/eem1 %ame1 & rep5tance z !      
absurd folly ( a be+ t imputes to itself
 m]it or dem]it = necess>y actions1 &   
recognizes no o!r immortality ?an t (   
po/hum\s fame4 ,b ev5 amid ^! extreme   
conclusions1 8 en?usiasm = virtue rema9s
 too int5se to all[ him to ass5t to !   
audaci\s !ories ( ,la ,mettrie &        

,helvetius4  ,footnote #a3 ,works 9     
tw5ty-two vols41 ,p>is1 ,brire1 #ahba2  
late/ edition1 #ahge seq4 ,cf4 on       
,did]ot ! f9e "w by ,k>l ,ros5kranz1    
,did]ots ,leb5 und ,w]ke1 #ahff4  ,fr5* 
natural sci5ce also t5d$ t[>d           
mat]ialism4 ,buffon 7,natural ,hi/ory1  
#agdi seq7 endeavors to facilitate !    
me*anical explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( life
 by ! assumption ( liv+ molecules1 f :i*
 visible organisms are built up4 ,rob9et
 7,on ,nature1 #agfa seq471 avail+      
himself ( ,sp9ozi/ic & ,leibnitzian     
conceptions1 goes /ill fur!r1 9 t he    
end[s e p>ticle ( matt] ) s5sation1     
looks on ! :ole _w z a succession ( liv+
 be+s ) increas+ m5tality1 & subjects ! 
int]action ( ! mat]ial & psy*ical sides 
( ! individual1 z well z ! relation (   
pleasure & pa9 9 ! univ]se1 to a law (  
h>moni\s comp5sation4  ,! ,sy/em (      
,nature1 #aggj1 :i* bore on its title   
page ! "n ( ,mirabaud1 :o _h di$ #agfj1 
proce$$ f ! company ( free?9k]s accu/om$
 to meet 9 ! hospitable h\se ( ,b>on von

 ,holba* 7di$ #aghi71 a native ( !      
,palat9ate4 ,its real au?or 0 ,holba*   
himself1 al?\gh 8 fri5ds ,did]ot1       
,naigeon1 ,lagrange1 ! ma!matician1 & ! 
clev] ,grimm 7di$ #ahjg7 seem to h      
co-op]at$ 9 ! prep>ation ( c]ta9        
sections4 ,! cumbr\s s]i\sness & ! dry  
tone ( ?is sy/ematic comb9ation ( !     
radical ideas :i* ! c5tury _h produc$1 7
 no d\bt ! *ief causes ( its unsympa!tic
 reception by ! public4 ,simil>ly       
unsuccessful 0 ! popul> acc\nt (        
mat]ialism ) :i* ,holba* foll[$ x1 9    
#aggb1 & ,helvetius's exc]pts f ! ,sy/em
 ( ,nature1 #aggd4  ,holba* applies     
himself to ! despiritualization ( nature
 & ! de/ruction ( religi\s prejudices ) 
s9c]e fai? 9 ! sacr$ mission (          
unbelief--! happ9ess ( humanity dep5ds  
on a!ism4 ,o ,nature1 sov]eign ( all    
be+s1 & ye h] daught]s1 ,virtue1        
,reason1 & ,tru?1 be =ev] our only      
div9ities4 ,:at has made virtue s       
difficult & s r>e8 ,religion1 :i*       
divides m5 in/ead ( unit+ !m4 ,:at has s

 long delay$ ! illum9ation ( ! reason1 &
 ! discov]y ( tru?8 ,religion ) its     
mis*iev\s errors1 ,god1 _s1 fre$om1     
immortality4 ,immortality exi/s only 9 !
 memory ( lat] g5]ations2 man is !      
creature ( a day2 no?+ is p]man5t b !   
great :ole ( nature & ! et]nal law (    
univ]sal *ange4 ,c a clock brok5 into a 
?\s& pieces cont9ue to m>k ! h\rs8 ,!   
s5seless doctr9e ( fre$om 0 inv5t$ only 
to solve ! s5seless problem ( !         
ju/ification ( ,god 9 view ( ! exi/5ce (
 evil4 ,man is at e mom5t ( 8 life a    
passive in/rum5t 9 ! h&s ( necessity2 ! 
univ]se is an immeasurable & un9t]rupt$ 
*a9 ( actions & reactions1 an et]nal    
r\nd ( int]*ang+ motions1 rul$ by laws1 
a *ange 9 :i* w\ld at once alt] ! nature
 ( all ?+s4 ,! mo/ fatal error is ! idea
 ( human & div9e spirits1 :i* has be5   
advanc$ by philosoph]s & adopt$ )       
applause by fools4 ,! op9ion t man is   
divid$ into two sub/ances is bas$ on !  
fact t1 ( ! *anges 9 our body1 we       
directly p]ceive only ! ext]nal mol>    

movem5ts1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! inn]     
motions ( ! invisible molecules are kn[n
 only by _! effects4 ,^! latt] h be5    
ascrib$ to ! m9d1 :i*1 moreov]1 we h    
adorn$ ) prop]ties ^: empt9ess is       
manife/$ by ! fact t !y are all m]e     
negations ( t :i* we "k4 ,exp]i5ce      
reveals to u only ! ext5d$1 ! corporeal1
 ! divisible--b ! m9d is to be !        
opposite ( all ?ree1 yet at ! same "t to
 possess ! p[] 7h[1 no man c tell7 (    
act+ on t :i* is mat]ial & ( be+ act$ ^u
 by x4 ,9 ?us divid+ himself into body &
 s\l1 man has 9 reality only di/+ui%$   
betwe5 8 bra9 & himself4 ,man is a      
purely physical be+4 ,all s-call$       
spiritual ph5om5a are functions ( !     
bra91 special cases ( ! op]ation ( !    
univ]sal =ces ( nature4 ,?\ght &        
volition are s5sation1 s5sation is      
motion4 ,! mov+ =ces 9 ! moral _w are ! 
same z ^? 9 ! physical _w2 9 ! latt] !y 
are call$ attraction & repulsion1 9 !   
=m]1 love & hate2 t :i* ! morali/ t]ms  
self-love is ! same in/9ct (            

self-pres]vation :i* is famili> 9       
physics z ! =ce ( in]tia4  ,z man has   
d\bl$ himself1 s also he has d\bl$      
nature4 ,evil gave ! fir/ impulse to !  
=mation ( ! idea ( ,god1 pa9 & ignorance
 h be5 ! p>5ts ( sup]/ition2 our suff]+s
 7 ascrib$ to unkn[n p[]s1 ( :i* we 7 9 
fe>1 b :i*1 at ! same "t1 we hop$ to    
propitiate by pray] & sacrifice4 ,! wise
 turn$ ) _! wor%ip & rev]5ce t[>d a m   
wor?y object1 to ! great ,all2 &1 9     
fact1 if we seek to give ! ^w ,god a    
t5able mean+1 x signifies active nature4
 ,! error lay 9 ! duali/ic view1 9 !    
di/9ction betwe5 nature & itself1 i4e4  
its activity1 & 9 ! belief t !          
explanation ( motion requir$ a sep>ate  
immat]ial ,mov]4 ,?is assumption is1 9 !
 fir/ place1 false1 = s9ce ! ,all is !  
complex ( all t exi/s !re c be no?+     
outside x2 motion foll[s f ! exi/5ce ( !
 univ]se z necess>ily z its o!r         
prop]ties2 ! _w does n receive x f )\t1 
b imp>ts x to itself by its own p[]4 ,9 
! second place ! assumption is useless2 

x expla9s no?+1 b confuses ! problems ( 
natural sci5ce to ! po9t ( insolubility4
 ,9 ! ?ird place x is                   
self-contradictory1 = aft] !ology has   
remov$ ! ,deity z f> away f man z       
possible1 by means ( ! negative         
metaphysical pr$icates1 x f9ds itself   
necessitat$ to br+ ! two toge!r aga9    
?r\gh ! moral attributes--:i* are nei!r 
compatible ) "o ano!r nor ) !           
meta-physical--& cr[ns ! absurdity by ! 
assurance t we c please ,god by believ+ 
t :i* is incompreh5sible4 ,f9ally1 !    
assumption is dang]\s2 x draws m5 away f
 ! pres5t1 di/urbs _! peace & enjoym5t1 
/irs up hatr$1 & ?us makes happ9ess &   
morality impossible4 ,if1 !n1 utility is
 ! crit]ion ( tru?1 !ism--ev5 9 ! mild  
=m ( deism--is prov5 errone\s by its    
disa/r\s consequ5ces4 ,all error is     
bane4   ,matt] & motion are alike       
et]nal4 ,nature is an active1 self-mov+1
 liv+ :ole1 an endless *a9 ( causes &   
effects4 ,all is 9 unceas+ motion1 all  
is cause 7no?+ is dead1 no?+ re/s71 all 

is effect 7!re is no spontane\s motion1 
none direct$ to an end74 ,ord] & disord]
 are n 9 nature1 b only 9 our und]/&+2  
!y are ab/ract ideas to d5ote t :i* is  
con=mable to our nature & t :i* is      
contr>y to x4 ,! end ( ! ,all is itself 
alone1 is life1 activity2 ! univ]sal    
goal ( p>ticul> be+s1 l t ( ! univ]se1  
is ! cons]vation ( be+4  ,an?ropology is
 = ,holba* ess5tially r$uc$ to two      
problems1 ! d$uction ( ?\ght f motion1 &
 ( morality f ! physical t5d5cy to      
self-pres]vation4 ,! =ces ( ! s\l are no
 o!r ?an ^? ( ! body4 ,all m5tal        
faculties develop f s5sation2 s5sations 
are motions 9 ! bra9 :i* reveal to u    
motions )\t ! bra94 ,all ! passions may 
be r$uc$ to love & hate1 desire &       
av]sion1 & dep5d ^u temp]am5t1 on !     
individual mixture ( ! fluid p>ts4      
,virtue is ! equilibrium ( ! fluids4    
,all human actions proce$ f int]e/4     
,good & bad m5 are di/+ui%$ only by _!  
organizations1 & by ! ideas !y =m       
conc]n+ happ9ess4 ,) ! same necessity z 

t ( ! act itself1 foll[ ! love or       
contempt ( fell[-m51 ! pleasure (       
self-e/eem & ! pa9 ( rep5tance 7regret =
 evil consequ5ces1 h5ce no evid5ce (    
fre$om74 ,nei!r responsibility nor      
puni%m5t is done away ) by ?is          
necessity--h we n ! "r to protect       
ourselves aga9/ ! /ream :i* damages our 
fields1 by build+ dikes & alt]+ its     
c\rse8 ,! end ( endeavor is p]man5t     
happ9ess1 & ?is c be atta9$ ?r\gh virtue
 alone4 ,! passions :i* are useful to   
society compel ! affection & approval ( 
our fell[s4 ,9 ord] to int]e/ o!rs 9 our
 welf>e we mu/ int]e/ ourselves 9       
!irs--no?+ is m indisp5sable to man ?an 
man4 ,! clev] man acts morally1 int]e/  
b9ds u to ! good2 love = o!rs means love
 = ! means to our own happ9ess4 ,virtue 
is ! art ( mak+ ourselves happy ?r\gh ! 
happ9ess ( o!rs4 ,nature itself *a/ises 
immorality1 s9ce %e makes ! intemp]ate  
unhappy4 ,religion has h9d]$ !          
recognition ( ^! rules1 has misund]/ood 
! diseases ( ! s\l1 & appli$ false &    

ineffective rem$ies2 ! r5unciation :i*  
%e requires is oppos$ to human nature4  
,! true morali/ recognizes 9 m$ic9e !   
key to ! human he>t2 he w cure ! m9d    
?r\gh ! body1 control ! passions & hold 
!m 9 *eck by o!r passions in/ead ( by   
s]mons1 & w tea* m5 t ! sure/ road to   
p]sonal ends is to labor = ! public     
good4 ,illum9ation is ! way to virtue & 
to happ9ess4  ,volney 7,*asseboeuf1 di$ 
#ahbj2 ,cate*ism ( ! ,fr5* ,citiz51     
#agic1 lat] "u ! title ,natural ,law or 
,physical ,pr9ciples ( ,morals d$uc$    
front ! ,organization ( ,man & ( !      
,univ]se2 fur!r1 ,! ,ru9s2 ,complete    
,works1 #ahba7 belongs among ! morali/s 
( self-love1 al?\gh1 besides ! egoi/ic  
int]e/s1 he takes acc\nt ( ! natural    
sympa!tic impulses also4 ,?is is /ill m 
! case ) ,condorcet 7,sket* ( an        
,hi/orical ,view ( ! ,progress ( !      
,human ,m9d1 #agid71 :o 0 influ5c$ alike
 by ,condillac & by ,turgot1 & :o def5ds
 a t5d5cy t[>d univ]sal p]fection bo? 9 
! individual & 9 ! race4 ,besides !     

selfi% affections1 :i* are direct$ z mu*
 to ! injury z to ! support ( o!rs1 !re 
lies 9 ! organization ( man a =ce :i*   
/eadily t5ds t[>d ! good1 9 ! =m (      
und]iv$ feel+s ( sympa?y & b5evol5ce1 f 
:i* moral self-judgm5t is develop$ by ! 
aid ( reflection4 ,! aim ( true e?ics & 
social art is n to make ! great virtues 
univ]sal1 b to make !m ne$less2 ! ne>] !
 nations approximate to m5tal & moral   
p]fection1 ! less !y /& 9 ne$ (         
^!--happy ! p 9 :i* good de$s are s     
cu/om>y t sc>cely an opportunity is left
 = h]oism4 ,! *ief in/rum5t = ! moral   
cultivation ( ! p is ! developm5t ( !   
reason1 ! consci5ce1 & ! b5evol5t       
affections4 ,habituation to de$s (      
k9dness is a s\rce ( pure & inexhau/ible
 happ9ess4 ,sympa?y ) ! good ( o!rs mu/ 
be s cultivat$ t ! sacrifice ( p]sonal  
enjoym5t w be a sweet] joy ?an !        
pleasure itself4 ,let ! *ild e>ly le>n  
to enjoy ! delight ( lov+ & ( be+ lov$4 
,we mu/1 f9ally1 /rive t[>d ! gradual   
dim9ution ( ! inequalities ( capacity1 (

 prop]ty1 & betwe5 rul] & rul$1 = to    
aboli% !m is impossible4  ,( ! rema9+   
philosoph]s ( ! revolution>y p]iod      
m5tion may be made ( ! physician        
,cabanis 7,relations ( ! ,physical & !  
,moral 9 ,man1 #agii71 & ,de/utt de     
,tracy 7,elem5ts ( ,ideology1 #ahja     
seq474 ,! =m] is a mat]iali/ 9 psy*ology
 7! n]ves are ! man1 ideas are          
secretions ( ! bra971 consid]s          
consci\sness a prop]ty ( organic matt]  
7! s\l is n a be+1 b a faculty71 & makes
 moral sympa?y develop out ( ! animal   
in/9cts ( pres]vation & n\ri%m5t4 ,de   
,tracy1 also1 d]ives all psy*ical       
activity f organization & s5sation4 ,8  
doctr9e ( ! w1 ?\gh b briefly sket*$1 is
 int]e/+4 ,! desires h a passive & an   
active side 7correspond+ to ! tw(old    
action ( ! n]ves1 on !mselves & on !    
muscles72 on ! "o h&1 !y are feel+s (   
pleasure or pa91 & on ! o!r1 !y lead u  
to action--w is ne$1 &1 at ! same "t1 ! 
s\rce ( ! means = satisfy+ ?is ne$4 ,bo?
 ^! feel+s & ! ext]nal movem5ts are     

probably bas$ ^u unconsci\s organic     
motions4 ,! w is rightly id5tifi$ ) !   
p]sonality1 x is ! ego itself1 !        
totality ( ! physico-psy*ical life ( man
 atta9+ to self-consci\sness4 ,! inn] or
 organic life consi/s 9 ! self-pres]v+  
functions ( ! individual1 ! out] or     
animal life1 9 ! functions ( relation 7(
 s5se1 ( motion1 ( spee*1 (             
reproduction72 individual int]e/s are   
root$ 9 ! =m]1 sympa?y 9 ! latt]4 ,!    
primal good is fre$om1 or ! p[] to d :at
 we w2 ! highe/ ?+ 9 life is love4 ,9   
ord] to be happy we mu/ avoid puni%m5t1 
blame1 & pangs ( consci5ce4   #d4       
,r\sseau's ,conflict ) ! ,illum9ation4  
,! ,g5evese1 ,jean ,jacques ,r\sseau#a  
7#agab-gh71 /&s 9 a simil> relation (   
opposition to ! ,fr5* ,illum9ation z !  
,scotti% ,s*ool to ! ,engli%1 & ,h]d] & 
,jacobi to ! ,g]man4 ,he po9ts u away f 
! cold sophi/ical inf]5ces ( ! und]/&+  
to ! imm$iate conviction ( feel+2 f !   
imag9ations ( sci5ce to ! un]r+ voice ( 
! he>t & ! consci5ce2 f ! artificial    

conditions ( culture to heal?y nature4  
,! vaunt$ ,illum9ation is n ! lev] (    
progress1 b ! s\rce ( all deg5]ation2   
morality does n re/ on ! %rewd          
calculation ( self-int]e/1 b on orig9al 
social & sympa!tic in/9cts 7love = !    
good is j z natural to ! human he>t z   
self-love2 en?usiasm = virtue has no?+  
to d ) our int]e/2 :at w\ld x mean to   
give up "o's life = ! sake (            
advantage872 ! tru?s ( religion are n   
objects ( ?\ght1 b ( pi\s feel+4        
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,brock]h(f1 ,leipsic1
 #ahfc-gd2 ,l4 ,moreau1 ,p>is1 #ahgj4   
,r\sseau comm5c$ 8 c>e] z an au?or ) !  
,disc\rse on ! ,sci5ces & ! ,arts1 #agej
 7! discussion ( a prize "q1 cr[n$ by ! 
,academy ( ,dijon71 :i* he describes z  
entirely p]nici\s1 & ! ,disc\rse on !   
,orig9 & ! ,bases ( ! ,inequality among 
,m51 #agec4 ,by nature man is innoc5t & 
good1 becom+ evil only 9 society4       
,reflection1 civilization1 & egoism are 
unnatural4 ,9 ! happy /ate ( nature pity
 & innoc5t self-love 7am\r de soi7 rul$1

 & ! latt] 0 fir/ corrupt$ by ! reason  
into ! artificial feel+ ( selfi%ness    
7am\r propre7 9 ! c\rse ( social        
developm5t--?9k+ man is a deg5]ate      
animal4 ,prop]ty has divid$ m5 into ri* 
& poor2 ! magi/racy1 into /rong & weak2 
arbitr>y p[]1 into ma/]s & slaves4      
,weal? g5]at$ luxury ) its artificial   
delights ( sci5ce & ! !at]1 :i* make u m
 unhappy & evil ?an we o!rwise are2     
sci5ce1 ! *ild ( vice1 becomes 9 turn ! 
"m ( new vices4 ,all nature1 all t is   
*>act]i/ic1 all t is good1 has disappe>$
 ) advanc+ culture2 ! only relief f !   
univ]sal deg5]acy is to be hop$ = f a   
return to nature on ! "p ( ! individual 
& society alike--f education & a /ate   
con=m$ to nature4 ,! novel ,emile is    
devot$ to ! p$agogical1 & ! ,social     
,contract1 or ! ,pr9ciples ( ,political 
,law1 to ! political problem4 ,bo?      
appe>$ 9 #agfb1 foll[$ two ye>s lat] by 
! ,lett]s f ! ,m\nta91 a def5se aga9/ ! 
attacks ( ! cl]gy4 ,9 ^! lat] writ+s    
,r\sseau's naturali/ic hatr$ ( reason   

appe>s ess5tially s(t5$4  ,social ord]  
is a sacr$ "r1 :i* =ms ! basis ( all    
o!rs4 ,x does n proce$1 h[ev]1 f        
nature--no man has natural p[] ov] 8    
fell[s1 & might conf]s no               
"r--consequ5tly x re/s on a contract4   
,n1 h[ev]1 on a contract betwe5 rul] &  
p4 ,! act by :i* ! p *ooses a k+ is     
prec$$ by ! act 9 virtue ( :i* x is a p4
 ,9 ! social contract ea* devotes       
himself ) 8 p[]s & 8 goods to !         
community1 9 ord] to ga9 ! protection ( 
! latt]4 ,) ?is act ! spiritual body    
politic comes into be+1 & atta9s its    
unity1 its ego1 its w4 ,! sum ( ! memb]s
 is call$ ! p2 ea* memb]1 z a p>ticipant
 9 ! sov]eignty1 citiz51 &1 z b\nd to   
ob$i5ce to ! law1 subject4 ,! individual
 loses 8 natural fre$om1 receiv+ 9      
ex*ange ! lib]ty ( a citiz51 :i* is     
limit$ by ! g5]al w1 &1 9 addition1     
prop]ty rights 9 all t he possesses1    
equality be=e ! law1 & moral fre$om1 :i*
 fir/ really makes him ma/] ( himself4  
,! impulse ( m]e desire is slav]y1      

ob$i5ce to self-impos$ law1 fre$om4 ,!  
sov]eign is ! p1 law ! g5]al popul> w   
direct$ to ! common good1 ! supreme     
goods1 fre$om & equality1 ! *ief objects
 ( legislation4 ,! lawgiv+ p[] is !     
moral w ( ! body politic1 ! gov]nm5t    
7magi/racy1 pr9ce7 its executive        
physical p[]2 ! =m] is its he>t1 ! latt]
 its bra94 ,r\sseau calls ! gov]nm5t !  
middle t]m betwe5 ! head ( ! /ate & !   
individual1 or betwe5 ! citiz5 z lawgiv]
 & z subject--! sov]eign 7! p7 comm&s1 !
 gov]nm5t executes1 ! subject obeys4 ,! 
act by :i* ! p submits itself to its    
head is n a contract1 b m]ely a m&ate2  
:5ev] x *ooses x c limit1 alt]1 or      
entirely recall ! delegat$ p[]4 ,9 ord] 
to security aga9/ illegal encroa*m5ts on
 ! "p ( ! gov]nm5t1 ,r\sseau recomm5ds  
regul> assemblies ( ! p1 9 :i*1 "u      
susp5sion ( gov]nm5tal au?ority1 !      
confirmation1 abrogation1 or alt]ation (
 ! con/itution %all be det]m9$ ^u4 ,ev5 
! e/abli%m5t ( ! articles ( social      
belief falls to ! sov]eign p4 ,!        

ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ,r\sseau's !ory
 ( ! /ate & t ( ,locke & ,montesquieu   
consi/s 9 8 rejection ( ! division (    
p[]s & ( repres5tation by delegates1    
h5ce 9 its unlimit$ democratic "*4 ,a   
g5]ation aft] x 0 giv5 to ! _w1 ! ,fr5* 
,revolution made ! attempt to translate 
x into practice4 ,! masses c>ri$ out :at
 ,r\sseau himself _h ?\ght1 x is true1 b
 nev] will$ 7,w9delb&74  ,r\sseau's !ory
 ( education is closely alli$ to        
,locke's 7cf4 above71 ^: lead+ idea--!  
developm5t ( individuality--0 entirely 9
 h>mony ) ! subjectivism ( ! philosoph] 
( feel+4 ,po/]ity has n f\nd x a        
difficult task to free ! s\nd k]nel !re9
 f ! husks ( exagg]ation & idiosyncrasy 
:i* surr\nd$ x4 ,among ! latt] belong ! 
pref]5ce ( bodily ov] intellectual      
developm5t1 & ! unlimit$ fai? 9 !       
goodness ( human nature4 ,ex]cise !     
body1 ! organs1 ! s5ses ( ! pupil1 &    
keep 8 s\l unemploy$ z long z possible2 
= ! fir/1 take c>e only t 8 m9d be kept 
free f error & 8 he>t f vice4 ,9 ord] to

 secure complete fre$om f di/urbance 9  
?is developm5t1 x is advisable to       
isolate ! *ild f society1 nay1 ev5 f !  
family1 & to br+ him up 9 retirem5t "u !
 guidance ( a private tutor4  ,z !      
,swiss republican spoke 9 ,r\sseau's    
politics1 s 8 religi\s !ories#a betray !
 ,g5evan ,calv9i/4 ,! ,savoy>d ,vic>'s  
,pr(ession ( ,fai? 79 ,emile7 proclaims 
deism z a religion ( feel+4 ,! rational 
pro(s br\ght =w>d = ! exi/5ce ( ,god--f 
! motion ( matt] 9 itself at re/1 & f ! 
f9ality ( ! _w--are only design$1 z he  
decl>es by lett]1 to confute !          
mat]iali/s1 & d]ive _! impregnability   
entirely f ! inn] evid5ce ( feel+1 :i*  
amid ! vacillation ( ! reason pro & con 
gives ! f9al decision4  ,footnote #a3   
,cf4 ,*4 ,borgeaud1 ,r\sseaus           
,religionsphilosophie1 ,g5eva &         
,leipsic1 #ahhc4  ,if we limit our      
inquiry to t :i* is alone ( importance =
 u1 & rely on ! evid5ce ( feel+1 x _c be
 d\bt$ t ,i myself exi/ & feel2 t !re   
exi/s an ext]nal _w :i* affects me2 t   

?\ght1 comp>ison or judgm5t conc]n+     
relations is diff]5t f s5sation or !    
p]ception ( objects--= ! latt] is a     
passive1 b ! =m] an active process2 t ,i
 myself produce ! activity ( att5tion or
 consid]ation2 t1 consequ5tly1 ,i am n  
m]ely a s5sitive or passive1 b also an  
active or intellig5t be+4 ,! fre$om ( my
 ?\ght & action gu>antees to me !       
immat]iality ( my s\l1 & is t :i*       
di/+ui%es me f ! brute4 ,! life ( ! s\l 
aft] ! decay ( ! body is assur$ to me by
 ! fact t 9 ?is _w ! wick$ triumphs1    
:ile ! good are oppress$4 ,! favor$     
position :i* man occupies 9 ! scale (   
be+s--he is able to look ov] ! univ]se &
 to rev]5ce its au?or1 to recognize ord]
 & beauty1 to love ! good & to d x2 &   
%all he1 !n1 comp>e himself to !        
brute8--fills me ) emotion & gratitude  
to ! b5evol5t ,creator1 :o exi/$ be=e   
all ?+s1 & :o w exi/ :5 !y all %all h   
vani%$ away1 to :om all tru?s are "o    
s+le idea1 all places a po9t1 all times 
a mom5t4 ,! h[ ( fre$om1 ( et]nity1 (   

creation1 ( ! action ( my w ^u matt]1   
etc41 is1 inde$1 incompreh5sible to me1 
b t ^! are s1 my feel+ makes me c]ta94  
,! wor?ie/ employm5t ( my reason is to  
annihilate itself be=e ,god4 ,! m ,i    
/rive to contemplate 8 inf9ite ess5ce ! 
less d ,i conceive x4 ,b x is1 & t      
suffices me4 ,! less ,i conceive x1 ! m 
,i adore4  ,9 ! dep?s ( my he>t ,i f9d !
 rules = my conduct engrav$ by nature 9 
ineffaceable *>act]s4 ,ev]y?+ is good t 
,i feel to be s4 ,! consci5ce is ! mo/  
enlight5$ ( all philosoph]s1 & z safe a 
guide = ! s\l z in/9ct = ! body4 ,!     
infallibility ( its judgm5t is evid5c$  
by ! agreem5t ( diff]5t peoples2 amid ! 
surpris+ diff]5ces ( mann]s y w ev]y:]e 
f9d ! same ideas ( ju/ice1 ! same       
notions ( good & evil4 ,%[ me a l& :]e x
 is a crime to keep "o's ^w1 to be      
m]ciful1 b5evol5t1 magnanim\s1 :]e !    
upright man is despis$ & ! fai?less     
honor$6 ,consci5ce enjo9s ! limitation (
 our desires to ! degree to :i* we are  
capable ( satisfy+ !m1 b n _! complete  

suppression--all passions are good :5 we
 control !m1 all evil :5 !y control u4  
,9 ! second "p ( ! ,pr(ession du ,foi du
 ,vicaire ,savoy>d ,r\sseau turns f 8   
attacks on s5sationalism1 mat]ialism1   
a!ism1 & ! morality ( int]e/1 to !      
criticism ( revelation4 ,:y1 9 addition 
to natural religion1 ) its ?ree         
fundam5tal doctr9es1 ,god1 fre$om1 &    
immortality1 %\ld o!r special doctr9es  
be necess>y1 :i* r confuse ?an cle> up  
our ideas ( ! ,great ,be+1 :i* exact f u
 ! acceptance ( absurdities1 & make m5  
pr\d1 intol]ant1 & cruel--:]eas ,god    
requires f u no o!r s]vice ?an t ( !    
he>t8 ,e religion is good 9 :i* m5 s]ve 
,god 9 a befitt+ mann]4 ,if ,god _h     
prescrib$ "o s+le religion = u1 he w\ld 
h provid$ x ) infallible m>ks ( its     
unique au!nticity4 ,! au?ority ( ! fa!rs
 & ! prie/hood is n decisive1 = e       
religion claims to be reveal$ & alone   
true2 ! ,mohamm$an has ! same "r z !    
,*ri/ian to adh]e to ! religion ( 8     
fa!rs4 ,s9ce all revelation comes d[n to

 u by human tradition1 reason alone c be
 ! judge ( its div9ity4 ,! c>eful       
exam9ation ( ! docum5ts1 :i* are writt5 
9 anci5t languages1 w\ld require an     
am\nt ( le>n+ :i* c\ld n possibly be a  
condition ( salvation & acceptance )    
,god4 ,miracles & prophecy are n        
conclusive1 = h[ are we to di/+ui% !    
true among !m f ! false8 ,if we turn f !
 ext]nal to ! int]nal crit]ia ( !       
doctr9es !mselves1 ev5 "h no decision c 
be rea*$ betwe5 ! reasons pro & con 7!  
au?or puts ! =m] into ! m\? ( a believ]1
 & ! latt] into t ( a rationali/72 ev5  
if ! =m] outweigh$ ! latt]1 ! difficulty
 w\ld /ill rema9 ( reconcil+ x ) ,god's 
goodness & ju/ice t ! gospel has n rea*$
 s _m ( mank9d1 & ( expla9+ h[ ^? to :om
 ! div9ity ( ,*ri/ is n[ proclaim$ c    
conv9ce !mselves ( x1 :ile 8            
contempor>ies misjudg$ & crucifi$ him4  
,9 my op9ion1 ,i am incapable ( fa?om+ !
 tru? ( ! ,*ri/ian religion & its value 
to ^? :o confess x4 ,! inve/igation ( ! 
reason ends 9 rev]5tial d\bt3 ,i nei!r  

accept revelation nor reject x1 b ,i    
reject ! obligation to accept x4 ,my    
he>t1 h[ev]1 judges o!rwise ?an !       
reflection ( my intellect2 = ?is ! sacr$
 maje/y & exalt$ simplicity ( !         
,scriptures are a mo/ cog5t pro( t !y   
are m ?an human1 & t ,he ^: hi/ory !y   
conta9 is m ?an man4 ,! t\*+ grace &    
pr(\nd wisdom ( 8 words1 ! g5tl5ess ( 8 
conduct1 ! l(t9ess ( 8 maxims1 8 ma/]y  
ov] 8 passions1 abundantly prove t he 0 
nei!r an en?usia/ nor an ambiti\s       
sect>y4 ,socrates liv$ & di$ l a        
philosoph]1 ,jesus l a ,god4 ,! virtues 
( ju/ice1 patriotism1 & mod]ation taught
 by ,socrates1 _h be5 ex]cis$ by ! great
 m5 ( ,greece be=e he inculcat$ !m4 ,b  
:5ce c\ld ,jesus d]ive 9 8 "t & c\ntry t
 l(ty morality :i* he alone taught &    
exemplifi$8 ,?+s ( ?is sort are n       
inv5t$4 ,! inv5tor ( su* de$s w\ld be m 
wond]ful ?an ! do] ( !m4 ,?us aga91 9 ! 
"q ( reveal$ religion1 ! voice ( ! he>t 
triumphs ov] ! d\bts ( ! reason1 z1 9 ! 
"q ( natural religion1 x _h done ov] !  

objections ( oppon5ts4 ,x is true1      
h[ev]1 t ?is en?usiasm is paid n to !   
curr5t ,*ri/ianity ( ! prie/s1 b to ,i !
 real ,*ri/ianity ( ! gospel4  ,r\sseau 
0 ! consci5ce ( ,france1 :i* rebell$    
aga9/ ! negations & ! bald empt9ess ( ! 
mat]iali/ic & a!i/ic doctr9es4 ,by      
v9dicat+ ) f]vid eloqu5ce ! p>ticipation
 ( ! :ole man 9 ! highe/ que/ions1 9    
opposition to ! "o-sid$ illum9ation ( ! 
und]/&+1 he became a pre-,kantian def5d]
 ( ! fai? ( practical reason4 ,8        
emphatic summons ar\s$ a l\d & la/+ e*o1
 especially 9 ,g]many1 9 ! he>ts (      
,goe!1 ,kant1 & ,fi*te4    ,,*apt]      
,,vii4  ,,leibnitz4  ,9 ! contempor>ies 
,sp9oza & ,locke1 ! two s*ools ( mod]n  
philosophy1 ! ,cont95tal1 />t+ f        
,desc>tes1 & ! ,engli%1 :i* foll[$      
,bacon1 _h rea*$ ! extreme ( div]g5ce & 
opposition1 ,sp9oza 0 a rationali/ic    
pan!i/1 ,locke1 an empirical            
individuali/4 ,) ,leibnitz a tw(old     
approximation beg9s4 ,z a rationali/ he 
sides ) ,sp9oza aga9/ ,locke1 z an      

individuali/ ) ,locke aga9/ ,sp9oza4 ,b 
he n only sep>at$ rationalism f pan!ism1
 b also qualifi$ x by ! recognition 7:i*
 8 hi/orical t5d5cies _h ( !mselves     
sugge/$ to him7 ( a relative            
ju/ification = empiricism1 s9ce he      
di/+ui%$ ! factual tru?s ( exp]i5ce f ! 
necess>y tru?s ( reason1 gave to ! =m] a
 notical pr9ciple ( _! own1 ! pr9ciple (
 suffici5t reason1 & made s5sation an   
indisp5sable /ep to ?\ght4  ,to !       
t5d5cies ?us manife/$ t[>d a j e/imation
 & peaceful reconciliation ( oppos+     
/&po9ts1 ,leibnitz rema9$ true 9 all !  
fields to :i* he devot$ 8 activity4     
,?us1 9 ! sph]e ( religion1 he took an  
active "p 9 ! negotiations look+ t[>d ! 
reunion ( ! ,prote/ant & ,ca?olic       
,*ur*es1 z well z 9 ^? conc]n+ ! union (
 ! ,lu!ran & ! ,re=m$4 ,himself a       
/imulat+ man1 he yet ne$$ /imulation f  
)\t4 ,he 0 an a/oni%+ly wide read]1 &   
decl>$ t he _h nev] f\nd a book t did n 
conta9 some?+ ( value4 ,) a ready       
adaptability to ! ideas ( o!rs he comb9$

 a rem>kable p[] ( trans=mative         
appropriation2 he read into books m ?an 
/ood writt5 9 !m4 ,! v]satility ( 8     
g5ius 0 unlimit$3 juri/1 hi/orian1      
diplomat1 ma!matician1 physical sci5ti/1
 & philosoph]1 & 9 addition almo/ a     
!ologian & a philologi/--he is n only at
 home 9 all ^! dep>tm5ts1 because v]s$ 9
 !m1 b ev]y:]e contributes to _!        
advancem5t by orig9al ideas & plans4 ,9 
su* a comb9ation ( productive g5ius &   
weal? ( k ,ari/otle & ,leibnitz are     
unapproa*$4  ,gottfri$ ,wilhelm         
,leibnitz 0 born 9 #afdf at ,leipsic1   
:]e 8 fa!r 7,fri$]i* ,leibnitz1 di$     
#afeb7 0 pr(essor ( moral philosophy2 9 
8 fifte5? ye> he ent]$ ! univ]sity ( 8  
native city1 ) law z 8 pr9cipal subject4
 ,besides law1 he devot$ himself ) q z  
mu* ( ardor to philosophy "u ,jacob     
,?omasius 7di$ #afhd1 ! fa!r ( ,*ri/ian 
,?omasius71 & to ma!matics "u ,e4       
,weigel 9 ,j5a4 ,9 #affc 7) a           
diss]tation entitl$ ,de ,pr9cipio       
,individui7 he became ,ba*elor1 9 #affd 

,ma/] ( ,philosophy1 & 9 #afff1 at      
,altdorf1 ,doctor ( ,laws1 & !n decl9$ !
 pr(essor%ip extraord9>y (f]$ him 9 !   
latt] place4 ,hav+ made ! acqua9tance ( 
! =m] m9i/] ( ! ,elector ( ,may5ce1     
,freih]r von ,bo9eburg1 9 ,nuremb]g1 he 
w5t1 aft] a %ort /ay at                 
,frank=t-on-!-,ma91 to ! c\rt ( !       
,elector at ,may5ce1 at ^: reque/ he    
devot$ himself to ! re=m ( legal        
proc$ure1 besides writ+1 :ile !re1 on ! 
mo/ div]se subjects4 ,9 #afgb he w5t to 
,p>is1 :]e he rema9$ dur+ f\r ye>s ) !  
exception ( a %ort /ay 9 ,london4 ,!    
special purpose ( ! j\rney to ,p>is--to 
p]suade ,l\is ,,xiv to und]take a       
campaign 9 ,egypt1 9 ord] to div]t him f
 8 designs ^u ,g]many--0 n successful2 b
 ,leibnitz 0 captivat$ by ! society ( ! 
,p>isian s*ol>s1 among !m ! ma!matician1
 ,huyg5s4 ,f ! end ( #afgf until 8 dea? 
9 #agaf ,leibnitz liv$ 9 ,hanov]1 :i!r  
he _h be5 call$ by ,johann ,fri$ri*1 z  
c\rt c\ncillor & libr>ian4 ,! successor 
( ?is pr9ce1 ,ern/ ,augu/1 :o1 ) 8 wife 

,sophie1 & 8 daught] ,sophie ,*>lotte1  
%[$ great k9dness to ! philosoph]1 wi%$ 
him to write a hi/ory ( ! pr9cely h\se (
 ,brunswick2 & a j\rney :i* he made 9   
ord] to /udy = ?is purpose 0 ext5d$ z f>
 z ,vi5na & ,rome4 ,^u 8 return he took 
*>ge ( ! ,wolf5bttel libr>y 9 addition  
to 8 o!r engagem5ts4  ,! m>riage ( !    
,pr9cess ,sophie ,*>lotte ) ,fr$]ick (  
,br&5burg1 ! fir/ k+ ( ,prussia1 br\ght 
,leibnitz into close relations ) ,b]l94 
,at 8 sugge/ion ! ,academy 7,society7 ( 
,sci5ces 0 f\nd$ !re 9 #agjj1 & he      
himself became its fir/ presid5t4 ,9    
,*>lott5burg he work$ on 8 pr9cipal "w1 
! ,new ,essays conc]n+ ! ,human         
,und]/&+1 :i* 0 aim$ at ,locke1 b !     
publication ( :i* 0 def]r$ on acc\nt ( !
 dea? ( ! latt] 9 ! int]im 7#agjd71 &   
did n take place until #agfe1 9 ,raspe's
 collective edition4 ,! dea? ( !        
,prussian que5 9 #agje int]rupt$ =      
sev]al ye>s ! ,!odicy1 :i* _h be5       
und]tak5 at h] reque/1 & :i* did n appe>
 until #agaj4 ,9 ,vi5na1 :]e he resid$ 9

 #agac-ad1 ,leibnitz compos$ a %ort     
/atem5t ( 8 sy/em = ,pr9ce ,eug52 ?is1  
accord+ to ,g]h>dt1 0 n ! sket* 9 n9ety 
p>agraphs1 famili> "u ! title           
,monadology1 :i* 0 fir/ publi%$ 9 !     
orig9al by ,j4,e4 ,erdmann 9 8 excell5t 
,complete ,edition ( ! ,philosophical   
,works ( ,leibnitz1 #ahdj1 b !          
,pr9ciples ( ,nature & ( ,grace1 :i*    
appe>$ two ye>s aft] ! au?or's dea? 9   
,l',europe ,savante4 ,:ile ,ern/ ,augu/1
 z well z ! ,g]man emp]or & ,pet] !     
,great1 di/+ui%$ ! philosoph]1 :o 0 n   
indiff]5t to su* honors1 by ! be/[al (  
titles & pref]m5ts1 8 relations ) !     
,hanov]ian c\rt1 :i* until !n _h be5 s  
cordial1 grew cold aft] ! ,elector      
,georg ,ludwig asc5d$ ! ,engli% ?rone z 
,george ,i4 ,! lett]s :i* ,leibnitz     
int]*ang$ ) 8 daught]-9-law1 gave rise  
to ! correspond5ce1 cont9u$ to 8 dea?1 )
 ,cl>ke1 :o def5d$ ! !ology ( ,newton   
aga9/ him4 ,! conte/ = priority betwe5  
,leibnitz & ,newton conc]n+ ! inv5tion (
 ! diff]5tial calculus 0 lat] settl$ by 

! decision t ,newton inv5t$ 8 me?od (   
fluxions fir/1 b t ,leibnitz publi%$ 8  
diff]5tial calculus e>li] & 9 a m p]fect
 =m4 ,! v>iety ( pursuits 9 :i*         
,leibnitz 0 engag$ 0 unfavorable to !   
developm5t & influ5ce ( 8 philosophy1 9 
t x h9d]$ him f work+ out 8 orig9al     
ideas 9 sy/ematic =m1 & left him leisure
 only = ! composition ( %ort] essays4   
,besides ! two l>g] works m5tion$ above1
 ! ,new ,essays & ! ,!odicy1 we h (     
philosophical works by ,leibnitz only a 
s]ies ( private lett]s1 & articles = !  
sci5tific j\rnals 7! ,j\rnal des        
,savants 9 ,p>is1 & ! ,acta ,eruditorum 
9 ,leipsic1 etc471 among :i* may be     
m5tion$ z specially important ! ,new    
,sy/em ( ,nature1 & ( ! ,int]action (   
,sub/ances z well z ( ! ,union :i* exi/s
 betwe5 ! ,s\l & ! ,body1 #afie1 :i* 0  
foll[$ dur+ ! next ye> by ?ree          
explanations ( x1 & ! pap] ,de ,ipsa    
,natura1 #afih4 ,previ\s to ,erdmann    
7#ahdj7 ! foll[+ _h des]v$ cr$it = _!   
editions ( ,leibnitz3 ,fell]1 ,kor?olt1 

,grub]1 ,raspe1 ,dut5s1 ,f$]1 ,guhrau]  
7! ,g]man works71 & s9ce ,erdmann1      
,p]tz1 ,f\*] de ,c>eil1 ,onno ,klopp1 & 
especially ,j4,c4 ,g]h>dt4 ,! la/ nam$  
publi%$ ! ma!matical works 9 sev5       
volumes 9 #ahdi-fc1 & rec5tly1 ,b]l91   
#ahge-ij1 ! philosophical treatises1    
also 9 sev5 volumes4#a ,9 our acc\nt ( !
 philosophy ( ,leibnitz we beg9 ) !     
fundam5tal metaphysical concepts1 pass  
next to 8 !ory ( liv+ be+s & ( man 7!ory
 ( k & e?ics71 & close ) 8 inquiries    
into ! philosophy ( religion4  ,footnote
 #a3 ,we h a life ( ,leibnitz by ,g4,e4 
,guhrau]1 jubilee edition1 ,breslau1    
#ahdf ,mackie's ,life1 ,bo/on1 #ahde is 
bas$ on ,guhrau]4 ,among rec5t works on 
,leibnitz1 we note ! little "w by ,m]z1 
,blackwood's ,philosophical ,classics1  
#ahhd1 & ,ludwig ,/e9's ,leibniz und    
,sp9oza1 ,b]l91 #ahij1 9 :i* ) ! aid (  
previ\sly un$it$ mat]ial ! relations (  
,leibnitz to ,sp9oza 7:om he visit$ at  
,! ,hague on 8 return j\rney f ,p>is7   
are discuss$1 & ! attempt is made to    

trace ! developm5t ( ! !ory ( monads1   
d[n to #afig4 ,! new exposition ( !     
,leibnitzian monadology by ,ed4         
,dillman1 :i* has j appe>$1 we h n yet  
be5 able to exam9e ,! ,engli% read] may 
be ref]r$ fur!r to ,dewey's ,leibniz 9  
,griggs's ,philosophical ,classics1     
#ahhh1 & ,duncan's ,philosophical ,works
 ( ,leibnitz 7selections translat$1 )   
notes71 ,new ,hav51 #ahij1 z well z to !
 "w ( ,m]z already m5tion$4--,,tr4   #a4
 ,metaphysics3 ! ,monads1               
,repres5tation1 ! ,pre-e/abli%$ ,h>mony2
 ! ,laws ( ,?\ght & ( ! ,_w4  ,leibnitz 
develops 8 new concept ( sub/ance1 !    
monad1#a 9 conjunction )1 yet 9         
opposition to1 ! ,c>tesian & ! atomi/ic 
conceptions4 ,! ,c>tesians are "r :5 !y 
make ! concept ( sub/ance ! c>d9al po9t 
9 metaphysics & expla9 x by ! concept ( 
indep5d5ce4 ,b !y are wrong 9 _! fur!r  
def9ition ( ?is second concept4 ,if we  
take indep5d5ce 9 ! s5se ( unlimit$ness 
& aseity1 we c speak1 z ! example (     
,sp9oza %[s1 ( only "o1 ! div9e         

sub/ance4 ,if ! ,sp9ozi/ic result is to 
be avoid$1 we mu/ sub/itute indep5d5t   
action = indep5d5t exi/5ce1             
self-activity = self-exi/5ce4 ,sub/ance 
is n t :i* exi/s ?r\gh itself 7o!rwise  
!re w\ld be no f9ite sub/ances71 b t :i*
 acts ?r\gh itself1 or t :i* conta9s 9  
itself ! gr\nd ( its *ang+ /ates4       
,sub/ance is to be def9$ by active      
=ce1#b by :i* we mean some?+ diff]5t f &
 bett] ?an ! b>e possibility or capacity
 ( ! ,s*ola/ics4 ,! pot5tia sive        
facultas1 9 ord] to issue into action1  
requires positive /imulation f )\t1 :ile
 ! vis activa 7l an ela/ic body7 sets   
itself 9 motion :5ev] no ext]nal        
h9drance opposes4 ,sub/ance is a be+    
capable ( action 7la sub/ance e/ un tre 
capable d'action74 ,) ! equation (      
activity & exi/5ce 7quod non agit1 non  
exi/it7 ! sub/antiality :i* ,sp9oza _h  
tak5 away f individual ?+s is re/or$ to 
!m3 !y are active1 consequ5tly1 9 spite 
( _! limit$ness1 sub/antial be+s 7quod  
agit1 e/ sub/antia s+ul>is74 ,because ( 

its inn] activity e exi/+ ?+ is a       
det]m9ate individual1 & diff]5t f e o!r 
be+4 ,sub/ance is an individual be+     
end[$ ) =ce4  ,footnote #a3 ,accord+ to 
,l4 ,/e9's conjecture1 ,leibnitz took ! 
expression ,monad1 :i* he employs aft]  
#afif1 f ! y\ng] 7,franc4 ,m]curius7 van
 ,helmont4  ,footnote #b3 ,francis      
,glisson 7#aeif-afgg1 pr(essor ( m$ic9e 
9 ,cambridge & ,london7 _h z e>ly z     
#afga1 conceiv$ sub/ances z =ces 9 8    
treatise ,de ,natura ,sub/antiae        
,en]getica4 ,t ,glisson influ5c$        
,leibnitz1 z ma9ta9$ by ,h4 ,m>ion      
7,p>is1 #ahhj71 has n be5 prov52 cf4 ,l4
 ,/e91 p4 #ahd4  ,! atomi/s are "r :5 !y
 po/ulate = ! explanation ( ph5om5al    
bodies simple1 indivisible1 et]nal      
units1 = e composite consi/s ( simple   
p>ts4 ,b !y are wrong :5 !y reg>d ^!    
invisible1 m9ute corpuscles1 :i* are    
int5d$ to subs]ve ?is purpose z         
indivisible3 ev]y?+ t is mat]ial1 h[ev] 
small x be1 is divisible to inf9ity1    
nay1 is 9 fact endlessly divid$4 ,if we 

are to f9d indivisible units1 we mu/    
pass ov] into ! realm ( ! immat]ial &   
come to ! conclusion t bodies are       
compos$ ( immat]ial con/itu5ts4         
,physical po9ts1 ! atoms1 are physical1 
b n po9ts2 ma!matical po9ts are         
indivisible1 b n real2 metaphysical or  
sub/antial po9ts1 ! incorporeal1 s\l-l  
units1 alone comb9e 9 !mselves          
indivisibility & reality--! monads are !
 true atoms4 ,toge!r ) indivisibility !y
 possess immortality2 z x is impossible 
= !m to arise & p]i% ?r\gh ! comb9ation 
& sep>ation ( p>ts1 !y _c come into be+ 
or pass out ( x 9 any natural way       
:atev]1 b only by creation or           
annihilation4 ,_! non-spatial or        
punctual "* implies ! impossibility (   
all ext]nal influ5ce1 ! monad develops  
its /ates f its own inn] nature1 has ne$
 ( no o!r ?+1 is suffici5t unto itself1 
& !re=e des]ves ! ,ari/otelian "n1      
entele*y4  ,?us two l9es ( ?\ght comb9e 
9 ! concept ( ! monad4 ,gratefully      
recogniz+ ! sugge/ions f bo? sides1     

,leibnitz call$ ,c>tesianism ! ante*amb]
 ( ! true philosophy1 & atomism !       
prep>ation = ! !ory ( monads4 ,f ! fir/ 
x foll[$ t ! sub/ances 7 self-act+ =ces2
 f ! second1 t !y 7 immat]ial units4    
,?r\gh ! comb9ation ( bo? det]m9ations  
we ga9 in=mation conc]n+ ! k9d ( =ce or 
activity :i* con/itutes ! be+ ( ! monad3
 ! monads are repres5tative =ces4 ,!re  
is no?+ truly real 9 ! _w save ! monads 
& _! repres5tations ideas1 p]ceptions4  
,9 discuss+ ! repres5tation 9 :i* ! be+ 
& activity ( ! monads consi/1 we mu/ n  
?9k directly ( ! consci\s activity ( !  
human s\l4 ,repres5tation has 9         
,leibnitz a wid] mean+ ?an t usually    
associat$ ) ! ^w4 ,! di/9ction1 :i* has 
become ( ! fir/ importance = psy*ology1 
betwe5 m]e repres5tation & consci\s     
repres5tation1 or betwe5 p]ception &    
app]ception1 may be be/ expla9$ by !    
example ( ! s\nd ( ! waves4 ,! ro> :i*  
we p]ceive 9 ! vic9ity ( ! sea-bea* is  
compos$ ( ! num]\s s\nds ( ! s+le waves4
 ,ea* s+le s\nd is ( itself too small to

 be he>d2 nev]!less x mu/ make an       
impression on u1 if only a small "o1    
s9ce o!rwise _! total--z a sum ( m]e    
no?+s--c\ld n be he>d4 ,! s5sation :i* !
 motion ( ! s+le wave causes is a weak1 
confus$1 unconsci\s1 inf9itesimal       
p]ception 7petite1 ins5sible p]ception71
 :i* mu/ be comb9$ ) _m simil> m9ute    
s5sations 9 ord] to become /rong &      
di/9ct1 or to rise above ! ?re%old (    
consci\sness4 ,! s\nd ( ! s+le wave is  
felt1 b n di/+ui%$1 is p]ceiv$1 b n     
app]ceiv$4 ,^! obscure /ates (          
unconsci\s repres5tation1 :i* are pres5t
 9 ! m9d ( man along ) /ates ( cle>     
consci\sness1 make up1 9 ! l[e/ grade ( 
exi/5ce1 ! :ole life ( ! monad4 ,!re are
 be+s :i* nev] rise above ! condition ( 
deep sleep or /upor4  ,9 con=mity ) ?is 
m inclusive mean+1 p]ception is def9$ z 
! repres5tation ( ! ext]nal 9 ! int]nal1
 ( multiplicity 9 unity 7repres5tatio   
multitud9is 9 unitate74 ,! repres5t+    
be+1 )\t prejudice to its simplicity1   
be>s 9 itself a multitude ( relations to

 ext]nal ?+s4 ,:at n[ is ! manifold1 :i*
 is express$1 p]ceiv$1 or repres5t$1 9 !
 unit1 ! monad8 ,x is ! :ole _w4 ,e     
monad repres5ts all o!rs 9 itself1 is a 
conc5trat$ all1 ! univ]se 9 m9iature4   
,ea* individual conta9s an inf9ity 9    
itself 7sub/antia inf9itas actiones     
simul ex]cet7 & a supreme intellig5ce1 =
 :i* e obscure idea w\ld at once become 
di/9ct1 w\ld be able to read 9 a s+le   
monad ! :ole univ]se & its hi/ory--all t
 is1 has be51 or w be2 = ! pa/ has left 
its traces beh9d x1 & ! future w br+    
no?+ n f\nd$ 9 ! pres5t3 ! monad is     
freight$ ) ! pa/ & be>s ! future 9 its  
bosom4 ,e monad is ?us a mirror ( !     
univ]se1#a b a liv+ mirror 7miror vivant
 de l'univ]s71 :i* g5]ates ! images (   
?+s by its own activity or develops !m f
 inn] g]ms1 )\t exp]i5c+ influ5ces f    
)\t4 ,! monad has no w9d[s ?r\gh :i*    
any?+ c\ld pass 9 or out1 b 9 its action
 is dep5d5t only on ,god & on itself4   
,footnote #a3 ,! objection has be5 made 
aga9/ ,leibnitz1 & n )\t reason1 t      

/rictly speak+ !re is no cont5t = !     
repres5tation ( ! monads1 al?\gh he     
appe>s to (f] !m ! ri*e/ ( all cont5ts1 
! :ole _w4 ,! ,all :i* he makes !m      
repres5t is itself no?+ b a sum ( be+s1 
also repres5tative4 ,! objects (        
repres5tation are m]ely repres5t+       
subjects2 ! monad ,a repres5ts ! monads 
f ,b to ,z1 :ile ^! 9 turn d no?+ m ?an 
repres5t "o ano!r4 ,! monad mirrors     
mirrors--:]e is ! ?+ t is mirror$8 ,!   
ess5ce ( sub/ance consi/s 9 be+ relat$  
to o!rs1 :i* !mselves are only po9ts (  
relation2 amid m]e relativities we nev] 
rea* a real4 ,t :i* prev5t$ ,leibnitz   
himself f recogniz+ ?is empty =malism 01
 no d\bt1 ! fact t = him ! m]e =m (     
repres5tation 0 at once fill$ ) a       
manifold exp]i5tial cont5t1 ) ! :ole    
weal? ( spiritual life1 & t !           
quantitative diff]5ces 9 repres5tation1 
:i* = him meant also degrees ( feel+1   
desire1 action1 & progress1 imp]ceptibly
 took on ! qualitative vividness (      
individual *>act]i/ics4 ,moreov]1 x mu/ 

n be ov]look$ t ! spiritual be+s        
repres5t n m]ely ! univ]se b ! ,deity z 
well1 h5ce a v ri* object4  ,all monads 
repres5t ! same univ]se1 b ea* "o       
repres5ts x diff]5tly1 t is1 f its      
p>ticul> po9t ( view--repres5ts t :i* is
 ne> at h& di/9ctly1 & t :i* is di/ant  
confus$ly4 ,s9ce !y all reflect ! same  
cont5t or object1 _! diff]5ce consi/s   
only 9 ! en]gy or degree ( cle>ness 9 _!
 repres5tations4 ,s f> !n1 z _! action  
consi/s 9 repres5tation1 di/9ct         
repres5tation evid5tly co9cides )       
complete1 unh9d]$ activity1 confus$     
repres5tation ) arre/$ activity1 or     
passivity4 ,! cle>] ! repres5tations ( a
 monad ! m active x is4 ,to h cle> &    
di/9ct p]ceptions only is ! pr]ogative (
 ,god2 to ! ,omnipres5t ev]y?+ is alike 
ne>4 ,he alone is pure activity2 all    
f9ite be+s are passive z well1 t is1 s  
f> z _! p]ceptions are n cle> & di/9ct4 
,reta9+ ! ,ari/otelian-,s*ola/ic        
t]m9ology1 ,leibnitz calls ! active     
pr9ciple =m1 ! passive matt]1 & makes ! 

monad1 s9ce x is n1 l ,god1 purus actus 
& pure =m1 consi/ ( =m 7entele*y1 s\l7 &
 matt]4 ,?is matt]1 z a con/itu5t ( !   
monad1 does n mean corporeality1 b only 
! gr\nd = ! arre/ ( its activity4 ,!    
mat]ia prima 7! pr9ciple ( passivity 9 !
 monad7 is ! gr\nd1 ! mat]ia secunda 7! 
ph5om5on ( corporeal mass7 ! result ( ! 
indi/9ctness ( ! repres5tations4 ,= a   
gr\p ( monads appe>s z a body :5 x is   
indi/9ctly p]ceiv$4 ,:oev] deprives !   
monad ( activity falls into ! error (   
,sp9oza2 :oev] takes away its passivity 
or matt] falls into ! opposite error1 = 
he deifies individual be+s4  ,no monad  
repres5ts ! common univ]se & its        
individual p>ts j z well z ! o!rs1 b    
ei!r bett] or worse4 ,!re are z _m      
diff]5t degrees ( cle>ness & di/9ctness 
z !re are monads4  ,nev]!less c]ta9     
classes may be di/+ui%$4 ,by di/+ui%+   
betwe5 cle> & obscure p]ceptions1 & 9 ! 
=m] class betwe5 di/9ct & confus$       
ones--a p]ception is cle> :5 x is       
suffici5tly di/+ui%$ f o!rs1 di/9ct :5  

its compon5t p>ts are ?us               
di/+ui%$--,leibnitz rea*es ?ree pr9cipal
 grades4 ,l[e/ /& ! simple or nak$      
monads1 :i* nev] rise above obscure &   
unconsci\s p]ception &1 s to speak1 pass
 _! lives 9 a swoon or sleep4 ,if       
p]ception rises into consci\s feel+1    
accompani$ by memory1 !n ! monad des]ves
 ! "n ( s\l4 ,& if ! s\l rises to       
self-consci\sness & to reason or ! k (  
univ]sal tru?1 x is call$ _s4 ,ea* high]
 /age compreh5ds ! l[]1 s9ce ev5 9      
spirits _m p]ceptions rema9 obscure &   
confus$4 ,h5ce x 0 an error :5 !        
,c>tesians made ?\ght or consci\s       
activity--by :i*1 x is true1 ! _s is    
diff]5tiat$ f ! l[] be+s--to su* a      
degree ! ess5ce ( _s t !y believ$ x     
necess>y to d5y to x all unconsci\s     
p]ceptions4  ,f p]ception arises        
appetition1 n z indep5d5t activity1 b z 
a modification ( p]ception2 x is no?+ b 
! t5d5cy to pass f "o p]ception to ano!r
 7l'appetit e/ la t5dance d'une         
p]ception  une autre72 impulse is       

p]ception 9 process ( becom+4 ,:]e !    
p]ceptions are consci\s & rational      
appetition rises into w4 ,all monads are
 self-active or act spontane\sly1 b only
 ! ?9k+ ones are free4 ,fre$om is !     
spontaneity ( spirits4 ,fre$om does n   
consi/ 9 undet]m9$ *oice1 b 9 action )\t
 ext]nal compulsion accord+ to ! laws ( 
"o's own be+4 ,! monad develops its     
repres5tations out ( itself1 f ! g]ms   
:i* =m its nature4 ,! correspond5ce ( ! 
diff]5t pictures ( ! _w1 h[ev]1 is      
gr\nd$ 9 a div9e arrangem5t1 ?r\gh :i* !
 natures ( ! monads h f ! beg9n+ be5 s  
adapt$ to "o ano!r t ! *anges 9 _!      
/ates1 al?\gh !y take place 9 ea*       
accord+ to imman5t laws & )\t ext]nal   
influ5ce1 foll[ an exactly p>allel      
c\rse1 & ! result is ! same z ?\gh !re 7
 a con/ant mutual int]action4 ,?is g5]al
 idea ( a pre-e/abli%$ h>mony f9ds      
special application 9 ! problem ( !     
int]action betwe5 body & s\l4 ,body &   
s\l are l two clocks s excell5tly       
con/ruct$ t1 )\t ne$+ to be regulat$ by 

ea* o!r1 !y %[ exactly ! same "t4 ,ov] !
 numb]less less] miracles ) :i*         
occasionalism burd5$ ! ,deity1 ! "o     
great miracle ( ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony   
has an und5iable advantage4 ,z "o great 
miracle x is m wor?y ( ! div9e wisdom   
?an ! _m less] ones1 nay1 x is really no
 miracle at all1 s9ce ! h>mony does n   
int]f]e ) natural laws1 b yields !m4    
,?is idea may ev5 be fre$ f its         
!ological inve/iture & r$uc$ to ! purely
 metaphysical expression1 t ! natures ( 
! monads1 by :i* ! succession ( _!      
repres5tations is det]m9$ 9 con=mity )  
law1 consi/ 9 no?+ else ?an ! sum (     
relations 9 :i* ?is individual ?+ /&s to
 all o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 :]e9 ea* memb]    
takes acc\nt ( all o!rs & at ! same "t  
is consid]$ by !m1 & ?us ex]ts influ5ce 
z well z suff]s x4 ,9 ?is way ! ext]nal 
idea ( an artificial adaptation is      
avoid$4 ,! ess5ce ( ea* ?+ is simply !  
position :i* x occupies 9 ! organic :ole
 ( ! univ]se2 ea* memb] is relat$ to e  
o!r & %>es actively & passively 9 ! life

 ( all ! re/4 ,! hi/ory ( ! univ]se is a
 s+le great process 9 numb]less         
reflections4  ,! metaphysics ( ,leibnitz
 beg9s ) ! concept ( repres5tation &    
ends ) ! h>mony ( ! univ]se4 ,!         
repres5tations 7 multiplicity 7! endless
 plurality ( ! repres5t$7 9 unity 7!    
unity ( ! repres5t+ monad72 ! h>mony is 
unity 7ord]1 congruity ( ! _w-image7 9  
multiplicity 7! inf9itely manifold      
degrees ( cle>ness 9 ! repres5tations74 
,all monads repres5t ! same univ]se2 ea*
 "o mirrors x diff]5tly4 ,! unity1 z    
well z ! diff]5ce1 c\ld n be great] ?an 
x is2 e possible degree ( di/9ctness (  
repres5tation is pres5t 9 ea* s+le      
monad1 & yet !re is a s+le h>monic      
accord 9 :i* ! unnumb]$ tones unite4 ,n[
 ord] amid div]sity1 unity 9 v>iety make
 up ! concept ( beauty & p]fection4 ,if1
 !n1 ?is _w %[s1 z x does1 ! greate/    
unity 9 ! greate/ multiplicity1 s t !re 
is no?+ want+ & no?+ sup]flu\s1 x is !  
mo/ p]fect1 ! be/ ( all possible worlds4
 ,ev5 ! l[e/ grades contribute to !     

p]fection ( ! :ole2 _! disappe>ance w\ld
 mean a hiatus2 & if ! uncle> & confus$ 
repres5tations appe> imp]fect :5        
consid]$ 9 !mselves1 yet !y are n s 9   
ref]5ce to ! :ole2 = j on ?is fact1 t ! 
monad is arre/$ 9 its repres5tation or  
is passive1 i4e41 con=ms itself to !    
o!rs & subord9ates itself to !m1 re/ !  
ord] & connection ( ! _w4 ,?us ! idea ( 
h>mony =ms ! bridge betwe5 ! ,monadology
 & optimism4  ,z 9 reg>d to ! h>mony ( !
 univ]se we f\nd x possible to di/+ui%  
betwe5 a half-my?ical1 n>rative =m (    
pres5tation & a purely ab/ract          
conception1 s we may make a simil>      
di/9ction 9 ! doctr9e ( creation4 ,?is  
actual _w has be5 *os5 by ,god z ! be/  
among _m o!r conceivable worlds4 ,?r\gh 
! w ( ,god ! monads ( :i* ! _w consi/s  
atta9$ _! reality2 z possibilities or   
ideas !y 7 pres5t 9 ! m9d ( ,god 7z x 71
 prior to _! actualization71 pres5t1    
too1 ) all ! di/9ctive prop]ties &      
p]fections t !y n[ exhibit 9 a /ate (   
realization1 s t _! m]ely possible or   

conceivable be+ _h ! same cont5t z _!   
actual be+1 & _! ess5ce is n alt]$ or   
increas$ by _! exi/5ce4 ,n[1 s9ce !     
impulse t[>d actualization dwells 9 e   
possible ess5ce1 & is ! m ju/ifiable ! m
 p]fect ! ess5ce1 a competition goes on 
be=e ,god1 9 :i*1 fir/1 ^?              
monod-possibilities unite :i* are       
mutually compatible or compossible1 &1  
!n1 among ! diff]5t conceivable         
comb9ations ( monads or worlds t "o is  
orda9$ = entrance into exi/5ce :i* %[s !
 greate/ possible sum ( p]fection4 ,x 01
 !re=e1 n ! p]fection ( ! s+le monad1 b 
! p]fection ( ! sy/em ( :i* x =ms a     
necess>y "p1 t 0 decisive z to its      
admission into exi/5ce4 ,! be/ _w 0 kn[n
 ?r\gh ,god's wisdom1 *os5 ?r\gh 8      
goodness1 & realiz$ ?r\gh 8 p[]4#a ,!   
*oice 0 by no means arbitr>y1 b :olly   
det]m9$ by ! law ( fitness or ( ! be/   
7pr9cipe du meilleur72 ,god's w mu/     
realize t :i* 8 und]/&+ recognizes z mo/
 p]fect4 ,x is at once evid5t t 9 !     
competition ( ! possible worlds !       

victory ( ! be/ 0 assur$ by ! lex       
melioris1 ap>t f ! div9e decision4      
,footnote #a3 ,9 reg>d to ! dep5d5ce ( !
 _w on ,god1 !re is a c]ta9 conflict    
noticeable 9 ,leibnitz betwe5 !         
metaphysical int]e/s involv$ 9 !        
sub/antiality ( individual be+s1 toge!r 
) ! moral int]e/s involv$ 9 gu>d+ aga9/ 
fatalism1 & ! oppos+ int]e/s ( religion4
 ,on ! "o side1 creation is = him only  
an actualization ( f9i%$1 un*angeable   
possibilities1 on ! o!r1 he tea*es ) !  
m$iaeval philosoph]s t ?is 0 n          
accompli%$ by a s+le act ( realization1 
t ! _w has ne$ ( cons]vation1 i4e41 (   
cont9u\s creation4  ,?is law is !       
special expression ( a m g5]al "o1 !    
pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason1 :i*        
,leibnitz add$1 z ( equal au?ority1 to !
 ,ari/otelian laws ( ?\ght4 ,?+s or     
ev5ts are real 7& ass]tions true7 :5 !re
 is a suffici5t reason = _! exi/5ce1 & =
 _! det]m9ate exi/5ce4 ,! pr9cipium     
rationis suffici5tis gov]ns our         
empirical k ( cont+5t tru?s or tru?s (  

fact1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! pure rational
 k ( necess>y or et]nal 7ma!matical &   
metaphysical7 tru?s re/s on ! pr9cipium 
contradictionis4 ,! pr9ciple (          
contradiction ass]ts1 t is1 :atev]      
conta9s a contradiction is false or     
impossible2 :atev] conta9s no           
contradiction is possible2 t ^: opposite
 conta9s a contradiction is necess>y4   
,or positively =mulat$ z ! pr9ciple (   
id5tity1 ev]y?+ & e repres5tative cont5t
 is id5tical ) itself4#b ,^u ?is        
anti!sis betwe5 ! rational laws (       
contradiction & suffici5t reason--:i*1  
h[ev]1 is su* only = u m51 :ile ! div9e 
_s1 :i* cognizes all ?+s a priori1 is   
able to r$uce ev5 ! tru?s ( fact to !   
et]nal tru?s--,leibnitz bases 8         
di/9ction betwe5 two k9ds ( necessity4  
,t is metaphysically necess>y ^:        
opposite involves a contradiction2 t is 
morally necess>y or cont+5t :i*1 on     
acc\nt ( its fitness1 is pref]r$ by ,god
 to its 7equally conceivable7 opposite4 
,to ! latt] class belongs1 fur!r1 !     

physically necess>y3 ! necessity ( !    
laws ( nature is only a conditional     
necessity 7condition$ by ! *oice ( !    
be/72 !y are cont+5t tru?s or tru?s (   
fact4 ,! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason    
holds = effici5t z well z = f9al causes1
 & betwe5 ! two realms !re is1 accord+  
to ,leibnitz1 ! mo/ complete            
correspond5ce4 ,9 ! mat]ial _w e        
p>ticul> mu/ be expla9$ 9 a purely      
me*anical way1 b ! totality ( ! laws (  
nature1 ! univ]sal me*anism itself1 _c 9
 turn be me*anically expla9$1 b only on 
! basis ( f9ality1 s t ! me*anical po9t 
( view is compreh5d$ 91 & subord9at$ to1
 ! teleological4 ,?us x becomes cle> h[ 
,leibnitz 9 ! ratio suffici5s has f9al  
causes *iefly 9 m9d4  ,footnote #b3 ,)9 
! k ( reason1 z well z 9 exp]i5tial k1 a
 fur!r di/9ction is made betwe5 prim>y  
tru?s 7:i* ne$ no pro(7 & d]iv$ tru?s4  
,! highe/ tru?s ( reason are ! id5tical 
pr9ciples1 :i* are self-evid5t2 f ^!    
intuitive tru?s all o!rs are to be d]iv$
 by demon/ration--pro( is analysis &1 z 

free f contradictions1 demon/ration4 ,! 
primitive tru?s ( exp]i5ce are !        
imm$iate facts ( consci\sness2 :atev] is
 inf]r$ f !m is less c]ta9 ?an          
demon/rative k4 ,nev]!less exp]i5ce is n
 to be e/imat$ at a l[ value2 x is ?r\gh
 x alone t we c assure ourselves ( !    
reality ( ! objects ( ?\ght1 :ile       
necess>y tru?s gu>antee only t a        
pr$icate mu/ be ascrib$ to a subject    
7e4g41 a circle71 b make no deliv]ance z
 to :e!r ?is subject exi/s or n4  ,to ! 
broad & compreh5sive t5d5cy :i* is      
*>act]i/ic ( ,leibnitz's ?9k+1          
philosophy owes a fur!r s]ies ( g5]al   
laws1 :i* all /& 9 ! close/ relation to 
"o ano!r & to 8 monadological &         
h>moni/ic pr9ciples1 viz41 ! law (      
cont9uity1 ! law ( analogy1 ! law ( !   
univ]sal dissimil>ity ( ?+s or ( !      
id5tity ( indisc]nibles1 &1 f9ally1 !   
law ( ! cons]vation ( =ce4  ,! mo/      
fundam5tal ( ^! laws is ! lex cont9ui4  
,on ! "o h&1 x =bids e leap1 on ! o!r1  
all repetition 9 ! s]ies ( be+s & !     

s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,memb] mu/ foll[ memb]   
)\t a break & )\t sup]flu\s duplication2
 9 ! scale ( creatures1 z 9 ! c\rse (   
ev5ts1 absolute cont9uity is ! rule4 ,j 
z 9 ! monad "o /ate cont9ually develops 
f ano!r1 ! pres5t "o giv+ bir? to !     
future1 z x has itself gr[n out ( ! pa/1
 j z no?+ p]si/s1 z no?+ makes its      
entrance sudd5ly or )\t ! way be+ prep>$
 = x1 & z all extremes are b\nd toge!r  
by connect+ l9ks & gradual              
transitions1--s ! monad itself /&s 9 a  
cont9u\s gradation ( be+s1 ea* ( :i* is 
relat$ to & diff]5t f ea*4 ,s9ce ! be+s 
& ev5ts =m a s+le un9t]rupt$ s]ies1 !re 
are no di/9ctions ( k9d 9 ! _w1 b only  
di/9ctions 9 degree4 ,re/ & motion are n
 opposites1 = re/ may be consid]$ z     
inf9itely m9ute motion2 ! ellipse & !   
p>abola are n qualitatively diff]5t1 = !
 laws :i* hold = ! "o may be appli$ to !
 o!r4 ,lik5ess is vani%+ unlik5ess1     
passivity arre/$ activity1 evil a less] 
good1 confus$ ideas simply less di/9ct  
ones1 animals m5 ) inf9itely little     

reason1 plants animals ) vani%+         
consci\sness1 fluidity a l[] degree (   
solidity1 etc4 ,9 ! :ole _w simil>ity & 
correspond5ce rule1 & x is ev]y:]e !    
same z "h--betwe5 app>5t opposites !re  
is a di/9ction 9 degree m]ely1 & h5ce1  
analogy4 ,9 ! macrocosm ( ! univ]se ?+s 
g on z 9 ! microcosm ( ! monad2 e lat]  
/ate ( ! _w is prefigur$ 9 ! e>li]1 etc4
 ,if1 on ! "o side1 ! law ( analogy     
foll[s z a consequ5ce f ! law (         
cont9uity1 on ! o!r1 we h ! pr9cipium   
7id5titatis7 indisc]nibilium4 ,z nature 
abhors gaps1 s also x avoids !          
sup]flu\s4 ,e grade 9 ! s]ies mu/ be    
repres5t$1 b none m ?an once4 ,!re are  
no two ?+s1 no two ev5ts :i* are        
entirely alike4 ,if !y 7 exactly alike  
!y w\ld n be two1 b "o4 ,! di/9ction    
betwe5 !m is nev] m]ely num]ical1 nor   
m]ely local & temporal1 b always an     
intr9sic diff]5ce3 ea* ?+ is di/+ui%$ f 
e o!r by its peculi> nature4 ,?is law   
holds bo? = ! truly real 7! monads7 & = 
! ph5om5al _w--y w nev] f9d two leaves  

exactly alike4 ,by ! law ( ! cons]vation
 ( =ce1 ,leibnitz corrects ! ,c>tesian  
doctr9e ( ! cons]vation ( motion1 &     
approa*es ! po9t ( view ( ! pres5t day4 
,accord+ to ,desc>tes x is ! sum (      
actual motions1 :i* rema9s con/ant2     
accord+ to ,leibnitz1 ! sum ( ! active  
=ces2 :ile1 accord+ to ! mod]n !ory1 x  
is ! sum ( ! active & ! lat5t or        
pot5tial =ces--a di/9ction1 moreov]1 (  
:i* ,leibnitz himself made use4  ,we n[ 
turn f ! =mal framework ( g5]al laws1 to
 ! actual1 to t :i*1 obey+ ^! laws1     
con/itutes ! liv+ cont5t ( ! _w4   #b4  
,! ,organic ,_w4  ,a liv+ be+ is a ma*9e
 compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( organs4 ,!
 natural ma*9es =m$ by ,god diff] f !   
artificial ma*9es made by ! h& ( man1 9 
t1 d[n to _! smalle/ p>ts1 !y consi/ (  
ma*9es4 ,organisms are complexes (      
monads1 ( :i* "o1 ! s\l1 is supreme1    
:ile ! re/1 :i* s]ve x1 =m its body4 ,! 
dom9ant monad is di/+ui%$ f ^? :i*      
surr\nd x z its body by ! great]        
di/9ctness ( its ideas4 ,! supremacy ( !

 s\l-monad consi/s 9 ?is "o sup]ior     
quality1 t x is m active & m p]fect1 &  
cle>ly reflects t :i* ! body-monads     
repres5t b obscurely4 ,a direct         
int]action betwe5 s\l & body does n take
 place2 !re is only a complete          
correspond5ce1 in/itut$ by ,god4 ,he    
=esaw t ! s\l at su* & su* a mom5t w\ld 
h ! s5sation ( w>m?1 or w\ld wi% an     
arm-motion execut$1 & has s ord]$ !     
developm5t ( ! body-monads t1 at ! same 
in/ant1 !y appe> to cause ?is s5sation &
 to obey ?is impulse to move4 ,n[1 s9ce 
,god 9 ?is =ekn[l$ge & accommodation    
naturally paid m reg>d to ! p]fect be+s1
 to ! m active & m di/9ctly p]ceiv+     
monads ?an to ! less p]fect ones1 &     
subord9at$ ! latt]1 z means &           
conditions1 to ! =m] z ends1 ! s\l1     
prior to creation1 actually ex]cis$ an  
ideal influ5ce--?r\gh ! m9d ( ,god--^u  
its body4 ,its activity is ! reason :y 9
 less p]fect monads a def9ite *ange1 a  
passion takes place1 s9ce ! action 0    
atta9able only 9 ?is way1 compossible ) 

?is alone4#a ,! monads :i* con/itute !  
body are ! fir/ & direct object ( ! s\l2
 x p]ceives !m m di/9ctly ?an x         
p]ceives1 ?r\gh !m1 ! re/ ( ! ext]nal   
_w4 ,9 view ( ! close connection ( !    
elem5ts ( ! organism ?us po/ulat$1      
,leibnitz1 9 ! discussions ) ,fa!r ,des 
,bosses conc]n+ ! compatibility ( !     
,monadology ) ! doctr9e ( ! ,*ur*1      
especially ) ! real pres5ce ( ! body (  
,*ri/ 9 ! ,supp]1 cons5t$1 9 favor ( !  
dogma1 to dep>t f ! assumption t !      
simple alone c\ld be sub/antial & to    
admit ! possibility ( composite         
sub/ances1 & ( a sub/antial bond        
connect+ ! p>ts ( liv+ be+s4 ,x appe>s  
lea/ 9 contradiction ) ! o!r pr9ciples (
 ! philosoph] to assign ! rle ( ?is     
v9culum sub/antiate to ! s\l or c5tral  
monad itself4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,gu/av
 ,class1 ,die metaphysis*5              
,voraussetzung5 des ,leibnizis*5        
,det]m9ismus1 ,tb+51 #ahgd4  ,ev]y?+ 9  
nature is organiz$2 !re are no s\lless  
bodies1 no dead matt]4 ,! smalle/       

p>ticle ( du/ is peopl$ ) a multitude ( 
liv+ be+s & ! t9ie/ drop ( wat] sw>ms ) 
organisms3 e portion ( matt] may be     
comp>$ to a pond fill$ ) fi% or a g>d5  
full ( plants4 ,?is d5ial ( ! inorganic 
does n release our philosoph] f ! duty (
 expla9+ its app>5t exi/5ce4 ,if we     
?\ghtfully consid] bodies1 we p]ceive t 
!re is no?+ lifeless &                  
non-repres5tative4 ,b ! ph5om5on (      
ext5d$ mass arises = our confus$ s5su\s 
p]ception1 :i* p]ceives ! monads compos+
 a body toge!r & reg>ds !m z a cont9u\s 
unity4 ,body exi/s only z a confus$ idea
 9 ! feel+ subject2 s9ce1 nev]!less1 a  
reality )\t ! m9d1 namely1 an immat]ial 
monad-aggregate1 corresponds to x1 !    
ph5om5on ( body is a well-f\nd$ "o      
7ph5om5on b5e fundatum74 ,z matt] is    
m]ely some?+ pres5t 9 s5sation or       
confus$ repres5tation1 s space & "t are 
also no?+ real1 nei!r sub/ances nor     
prop]ties1 b only ideal ?+s--! =m] !    
ord] ( coexi/5ces1 ! latt] ! ord] (     
successions4  ,if !re are no s\lless    

bodies1 !re are also no bodiless s\ls2 !
 s\l is always jo9$ ) an aggregate (    
subord9ate monads1 ?\gh n always ) !    
same ones4 ,s+le monads are con/antly   
pass+ into its body1 or into its s]vice1
 :ile o!rs are pass+ out2 x is involv$ 9
 a cont9u\s process ( bodily            
trans=mation4 ,usually ! *ange goes on  
sl[ly & ) a con/ant replacem5t ( ! p>ts 
?r[n (f4 ,if x takes place quickly m5   
call x bir? or dea?4 ,actual dea? !re is
 z little z !re is an actual g5esis2 n !
 s\l only1 b e liv+ ?+ is imp]i%able4   
,dea? is decrease & involution1 bir?    
increase & evolution4 ,! dy+ creature   
loses only a portion ( its bodily ma*9e 
& s returns to ! slumb]\s or g]m9al     
condition ( involution1 9 :i* x exi/$   
be=e bir?1 & f :i* x 0 ar\s$ ?r\gh      
conception to developm5t4 ,pre-exi/5ce z
 well z po/-exi/5ce mu/ be conc$$ bo? to
 animals & to m54 ,leuw5hoek's discov]y 
( ! sp]matozoa furni%$ a welcome        
confirmation = ?is doctr9e1 t all       
individuals h exi/$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( !   

_w1 at lea/ z pre=m$ g]ms4 ,!           
immortality ( man1 con=mably to 8       
sup]ior dignity1 diff]s f ! cont9u$     
exi/5ce ( all monads1 9 t aft] 8 dea? he
 reta9s memory & ! consci\sness ( 8     
moral p]sonality4   #c4 ,man3 ,cognition
 & ,volition4  ,9 reason man possesses  
reflection or self-consci\sness z well z
 ! k ( ,god1 ( ! univ]sal1 & ( ! et]nal 
tru?s or a priori k1 :ile ! animal is   
limit$ 9 its p]ception to exp]i5ce1 & 9 
its reason+ to ! connection ( p]ceptions
 9 accordance ) memory4 ,man diff]s f   
high] be+s 9 t ! majority ( 8 ideas are 
confus$4 ,"u confus$ ideas ,leibnitz    
includes bo? s5se-p]ceptions--anyone :o 
has di/9ct ideas alone1 z ,god1 has no  
s5se-p]ceptions--& ! feel+s :i* m$iate  
betwe5 ! =m] & ! p]fectly di/9ct ideas (
 rational ?\ght4 ,! delight ( music     
dep5ds1 9 8 op9ion1 on an unconsci\s    
numb]+ & measur+ ( ! h>monic & rhy?mic  
relations ( tones1 ae/hetic enjoym5t ( !
 beautiful 9 g5]al1 & ev5 s5su\s        
pleasure1 on ! confus$ p]ception ( a    

p]fection1 ord]1 or h>mony4  ,!         
application ( ! lex cont9ui to ! inn]   
life has a v wide range4 ,! pr9cipal    
results are3 7#a7 ! m9d always ?9ks2    
7#b7 e pres5t idea po/ulates a previ\s  
"o f :i* x has aris52 7#c7 s5sation &   
?\ght diff] only 9 degree2 7#d7 9 ! ord]
 ( "t1 ! ideas ( s5se prec$e ^? (       
reason4 ,we are nev] :olly )\t ideas1   
only we are (t5 n consci\s ( !m4 ,if    
?\ght ceas$ 9 deep sleep1 we c\ld h no  
ideas on awak5+1 s9ce e repres5tation   
proce$s f a prec$+ "o1 ev5 ?\gh x be    
unconsci\s4  ,9 ! ?\ghtful ,new ,essays 
conc]n+ ! ,human ,und]/&+ ,leibnitz     
develops 8 !ory ( k 9 ! =m ( a polemical
 comm5t>y to ,locke's *ief "w4#a        
,accord+ to ,desc>tes "s ideas 7! pure  
concepts7 are innate1 accord+ to ,locke 
none1 accord+ to ,leibnitz all4 ,or3    
accord+ to ,desc>tes "s ideas 7s5su\s   
p]ceptions7 come f )\t1 accord+ to      
,locke all d s1 accord+ to ,leibnitz    
none4 ,leibnitz agrees ) ,desc>tes aga9/
 ,locke 9 ! position t ! m9d orig9ally  

possesses ideas2 he agrees ) ,locke     
aga9/ ,desc>tes1 t ?\ght is lat] ?an    
s5sation & ! k ( univ]sals lat] ?an t ( 
p>ticul>s4 ,! orig9ality :i* ,leibnitz  
attributes to intellectual ideas is     
diff]5t f t :i* ,desc>tes _h ascrib$ &  
,locke d5i$ to !m4 ,!y are orig9al 9 t  
!y d n come into ! s\l & are n impress$ 
^u x f )\t2 !y are n orig9al 9 t !y c   
develop only f previ\sly giv5           
s5se-ideas2 aga91 !y are orig9al 9 t !y 
c be develop$ f confus$ ideas only      
because !y are conta9$ 9 !m implicite or
 z pre-dispositions4 ,?us ,leibnitz is  
able to agree ) bo? 8 pr$ecessors up to 
a c]ta9 po9t3 ) ! "o1 t ! pure concepts 
h _! orig9 )9 ! m9d2 ) ! o!r1 t !y are n
 ! e>lie/ k1 b are condition$ by        
s5sations4 ,?is syn!sis1 h[ev]1 0       
possible only because ,leibnitz look$ on
 s5sation diff]5tly f bo? ! o!rs4 ,if   
s5sation is to be ! "m ( ?\ght1 & !     
latt] at ! same "t to pres]ve its "* z  
orig9al1 i4e41 z some?+ n obta9$ f )\t1 
s5sation mu/1 fir/1 include an          

unconsci\s ?9k+ 9 itself1 &1 secondly1  
mu/ itself receive a title to orig9ality
 & spontaneity4 ,z ! ,ca?olic dogma add$
 ! immaculate conception ( ! "m to t ( !
 ,son1 s ,leibnitz transf]s ! 7virg9al7 
orig9 ( rational concepts1 indep5d5t (  
ext]nal influ5ce1 to s5sations4 ,! monad
 has no w9d[s4 ,x be>s g]m9ally 9 itself
 all t x is to exp]i5ce1 & no?+ is      
impress$ on x f )\t4 ,! intellect %\ld n
 be comp>$ to a blank tablet1 b to a    
block ( m>ble 9 ^: ve9s ! outl9es ( !   
/atue are prefigur$4 ,ideas c only arise
 f ideas1 nev] f ext]nal impressions or 
movem5ts ( corporeal p>ts4 ,?us all     
ideas are innate 9 ! s5se t !y gr[ f    
inn] g]ms2 we possess !m f ! beg9n+1 n  
develop$ 7explicite71 b pot5tially1 t   
is1 we h ! capacity to produce !m4 ,!   
old ,s*ola/ic pr9ciple t !re is no?+ 9 !
 und]/&+ :i* 0 n previ\sly 9 s5se is    
entirely correct1 only "o mu/ add1      
except ! und]/&+ itself1 t is1 ! faculty
 ( develop+ our k out ( ourselves4      
,?\ght lies already dormant 9 p]ception4

 ,) ! me*anical position 7s5su\s        
repres5tation prec$es & conditions      
rational ?\ght7 is jo9$ ! teleological  
position 7s5su\s repres5tations exi/1 9 
ord] to r5d] ! orig9 ( ?\ghts possible71
 & ) ?is purposive det]m9ation1 s5sation
 atta9s a high] dignity3 x is m ?an has 
be5 se5 9 x be=e1 = x includes 9 itself 
! future concept ( ! und]/&+ 9 an       
unconsci\s =m1 nay1 x is itself an      
imp]fect ?\ght1 a ?\ght 9 process (     
becom+4 ,s5sation & ?\ght are n diff]5t 
9 k9d1 & if ! =m] is call$ a passive    
/ate1 /ill passivity is no?+ o!r ?an    
dim9i%$ activity4 ,bo? are spontane\s2  
?\ght is m]ely spontane\s 9 a high]     
degree4  ,footnote #a3 ,a c>eful        
comp>ison ( ,locke's !ory ( k ) t (     
,leibnitz is giv5 by ,g4 ,h>t5/e91      
,abh&lung5 d] k4 s*s4 ,gesells*aft d]   
,wiss5s*aft51 ,leipsic1 #ahfe1 includ$ 9
 ,h>t5/e9's ,hi/oris*-philosophis*e     
,abh&lung51 #ahgj4  ,by mak+ s5sation & 
feel+ ! prelim9>y /ep to ?\ght1         
,leibnitz became ! f\nd] ( t            

intellectualism :i*1 9 ! sy/em ( ,hegel1
 ext5d$ itself f> beyond ! psy*ological 
into ! cosmical field1 & endeavor$ to   
conceive n only all psy*ical ph5om5a b  
all reality :atsoev] z a developm5t ( ! 
,idea t[>d itself4 ,?is conception1 :i* 
may be *>act]iz$ z intellectuali/ic 9   
its cont5t1 pres5ts itself on its =mal  
side z a quantitative way ( look+ at !  
_w1 :i* sacrifices all qualitative      
anti!ses 9 ord] to arrange ! totality ( 
be+ & becom+ 9 a s+le s]ies ) no        
di/9ctions b ^? ( degree4 ,if ,leibnitz 
"h appe>s z ! repres5tative ( a view ( !
 _w :i* f\nd 9 ,kant a p[]ful &         
victori\s oppon5t1 yet1 on ! o!r h&1 he 
prep>$ ! way by 8 conception ( innate   
ideas = ! ,critique ( ,reason4 ,by 8    
!ory ( k he =ms ! transition l9k betwe5 
,desc>tes & ,kant1 s9ce he int]prets    
necess>y tru?s n z dwell+ 9 ! m9d       
complete & explicit f ! />t1 b z produc$
 or rais$ into consci\sness only on !   
occasion ( s5su\s exp]i5ce4 ,x mu/ be   
admitt$1 moreov]1 t ?is 9 reality 0 only

 a re/oration ( ,desc>tes's orig9al     
position1 i4e41 a deliv]ance ( x f !    
mis9t]pretations & p]v]sions :i* x _h   
suff]$ at ! h&s ( adh]5ts & oppon5ts    
alike1 b :i* ,desc>tes1 x is true1 _h   
fail$ to r5d] impossible f ! />t by     
conclusive explanations4 ,! au?or ( !   
!ory ( innate ideas c]ta9ly did n mean  
:at ,locke foi/s ^u him1 t ! *ild 9 !   
cradle already possesses ! ideas ( ,god1
 ( ?\ght1 & ( ext5sion 9 full cle>ness4 
,b :e!r ,leibnitz improv$ or only re/or$
 ,desc>tes1 x 0 9 any case an important 
advance :5 exp]i5ce & ?\ght 7 br\ght    
into m def9ite relation1 & ! productive 
=ce 9 rational concepts 0 secur$ to !   
latt] & ! occasion ( _! production to ! 
=m]4  ,! unconsci\s or m9ute ideas1 :i* 
9 notics _h s]v$ to break ! =ce (       
,locke's objections aga9/ ! innat5ess ( 
! pr9ciples ( reason1 are 9 e?ics br\ght
 into ! field aga9/ indet]m9ism4 ,!y are
 involv$ :5ev] we believe ourselves to  
act )\t cause1 f pure *oice1 or contr>y 
to ! motives pres5t4 ,9 ?is la/ case1 a 

motive :i* is v /rong 9 itself is       
ov]come by ! unit$ p[] ( _m 9 !mselves  
weak5 ,! w is always det]m9$1 & t by an 
idea 7( ends71 :i* g5]ally is ( a v     
complex nature1 & 9 :i* ! /rong] side   
decides ! issue4 ,an absolute           
equilibrium ( motives is impossible3 !  
_w _c be divid$ into two entirely simil>
 p>ts 7?is 9 opposition to ,buridan's   
ass74 ,a _s capable ( look+ u ?r\gh &   
?r\gh w\ld be able to calculate all our 
volitions & actions be=eh&4  ,9 spite ( 
?is admitt$ inevitabl5ess ( our         
resolutions & actions1 ! pr$icate (     
fre$om really belongs to !m1 & ?is on   
two gr\nds4 ,fir/1 !y are only          
physically or morally1 n metaphysically1
 necess>y2 z a matt] ( fact1 x is true1 
!y _c happ5 o!rwise1 b _! opposite      
involves no logical contradiction &     
rema9s conceivable4 ,to express ?is     
?\ght ! =mula1 (t5 repeat$ s9ce1 t our  
motives only impel1 incite1 or /imulate 
! w1 b d n compel x 7incl9ant1 non      
necessitant71 0 *os51 b n v happily4    

,secondly1 ! det]m9ation ( ! w is an    
inn] necessitation1 gr\nd$ 9 ! be+'s own
 nature1 n an ext]nal compulsion4 ,!    
ag5t det]m9es himself 9 accordance ) 8  
own nature1 & = ?is ea* be>s !          
responsibility himself1 = ,god1 :5 he   
br\ght ! monads out ( possibility into  
actuality1 left _! natures z !y _h exi/$
 be=e ! creation 9 ! =m ( et]nal ideas 9
 ,8 und]/&+4 ,?\gh ,leibnitz ?us draws a
 di/9ction betwe5 8 det]m9i/ic doctr9e &
 ! fatalism ( ,sp9oza1 he recognizes a  
second concept ( fre$om1 :i* completely 
corresponds to ,sp9oza's4 ,a decision is
 ! m free ! m di/9ct ! ideas :i* det]m9e
 x1 & a man ! m free ! m he )draws 8 w f
 ! influ5ce ( ! passions1 i4e41 confus$ 
ideas1 & subord9ates x to t ( reason4   
,god alone is absolutely free1 because  
he has no ideas :i* are n di/9ct4 ,!    
bridge betwe5 ! two conceptions ( fre$om
 is e/abli%$ by ! pr9ciple t reason     
con/itutes ! peculi> nature ( man 9 a   
high] degree ?an ! sum ( 8 ideas2 = x is
 reason :i* di/+ui%es him f ! l[] be+s4 

,accord+ to ! fir/ mean+ ( fre$om man is
 free1 accord+ to ! second1 :i* co9cides
 ) activity1 p]fection1 & morality1 he  
%\ld become free4  ,morality is ! result
 ( ! natural developm5t ( ! individual4 
,e be+ /rives aft] p]fection or increas$
 activity1 i4e41 aft] m di/9ct ideas4   
,p>allel to ?is !oretical advance runs a
 practical advance 9 a tw(old =m3 !     
increas+ di/9ctness ( ideas1 or         
enlight5m5t1 or wisdom1 raises ! impulse
 to transitory1 s5su\s pleasure into an 
impulse to p]man5t delight 9 our        
spiritual p]fection1 or t[>d happ9ess1  
:ile1 fur!r1 x op5s up an insight into !
 connection ( all be+s & ! h>mony ( !   
_w1 9 virtue ( :i* ! virtu\s man w seek 
to promote ! p]fection & happ9ess ( o!rs
 z well z 8 own1 i4e41 w love !m1 = to  
love is to f9d pleasure 9 ! happ9ess (  
o!rs4 ,to promote ! good ( all1 aga91 is
 ! same z to contribute "o's %>e to !   
_w-h>mony & to co-op]ate 9 ! fulfillm5t 
( ,god's purposes4 ,probity & piety are 
! same4 ,!y =m ! highe/ ( ! ?ree grades 

( natural "r1 :i* ,leibnitz di/+ui%es z 
jus /rictum 7m]e "r1 ) ! pr9ciple3      
,injure no "o71 aequitas 7equity or     
*>ity1 ) ! maxim3 ,to ea* 8 due71 &     
probitas sive pietas 7honorabl5ess jo9$ 
) religion1 accord+ to ! comm&3 ,lead an
 upright & morally pure life74 ,!y may  
also be designat$ z commutative1        
di/ributive1 & univ]sal ju/ice4 ,belief 
9 ,god & immortality is a condition ( ! 
la/4   #d4 ,!ology & ,!odicy4  ,god is !
 gr\nd & ! end ( ! _w4 ,all be+s /rive  
t[>d him1 z all came out f him4 ,9 man !
 g5]al /riv+ t[>d ! mo/ p]fect ,be+     
rises into consci\s love to ,god1 :i* is
 condition$ by ! k ( ,god & produces    
virtu\s action z its effect4            
,enlight5m5t & virtue are ! ess5tial    
con/itu5ts ( religion2 all else1 z      
cultus & dogma1 h only a d]ivative      
value4 ,religi\s c]emonies are an       
imp]fect expression ( ! practical elem5t
 9 piety1 z ! doctr9es ( fai? are a weak
 imitation ( ! !oretical4 ,x is a direct
 contradiction ( ! int5tion ( ! ,div9e  

,tea*] :5 occult =mulas & c]emonies1 :i*
 h no connection ) virtue1 are made !   
*ief ?+4 ,! po9ts 9 :i* ! cre$s agree   
are m important ?an ^? by :i* !y are    
diff]5tiat$4 ,natural religion has f\nd 
its mo/ p]fect expression 9 ,*ri/ianity1
 al?\gh paganism & ,judaism _h also     
grasp$ portions ( ! tru?4 ,salvation is 
n d5i$ to ! hea!n1 = moral purity is    
suffici5t to make "o a p>tak] ( ! grace 
( ,god4 ,! religion ( ! ,jews elevat$   
mono!ism1 :i*1 x is true1 made its      
appe>ance among ! hea!n 9 isolat$       
philosoph]s1 b 0 nev] ! popul> religion1
 into a law2 b x lack$ ! belief 9       
immortality4 ,*ri/ianity made ! religion
 ( ! sage ! religion ( ! p4  ,:atev] (  
positive doctr9e revelation has add$ to 
natural religion transc5ds ! reason1 x  
is true1 b does n contradict x4 ,x      
conta9s no pr9ciples contr>y to reason  
7^: opposite c be prov$71 b1 no d\bt1   
pr9ciples above reason1 i4e41 su* z !   
reason c\ld n h f\nd )\t help f )\t1 &  
:i* x _c fully compreh5d1 ?\gh x is able

 approximately to und]/& !m & to def5d  
!m aga9/ objections4 ,h5ce ,leibnitz    
def5d$ ! ,tr9ity1 :i* he int]pret$ z    
,god's p[]1 und]/&+1 & w1 ! et]nity ( ! 
torm5ts ( hell 7:i* br\ght him !        
comm5dation ( ,less+71 & o!r dogmas4    
,miracles also belong among ! ?+s ! h[ &
 :y ( :i* we are n 9 a position to      
compreh5d1 b only ! t & :at4 ,s9ce !    
laws ( nature are only physically or    
conditionally necess>y1 i4e4 h be5      
enact$ only because ( _! fitness = !    
purposes ( ,god1 !y may be susp5d$ 9    
special cases :5 a high] end requires x4
  ,:ile ! positive doctr9es ( fai? _c be
 prov$--z1 on ! o!r h&1 !y _c be        
refut$--! pr9ciples ( natural religion  
admit ( /rict demon/ration4 ,! usual    
argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( ,god are useful1 
b ne$ am5dm5t4 ,! ontological argum5t ( 
,desc>tes1 t f ! concept ( a mo/ p]fect 
,be+ 8 exi/5ce foll[s1 is correct s soon
 z ! idea ( ,god is %[n to be possible  
or free f contradiction4 ,! cosmological
 pro( runs3 ,cont+5t be+s po9t to a     

necess>y1 self-exi/5t ,be+1 ! et]nal    
tru?s especially presuppose an et]nal   
intellig5ce 9 :i* !y exi/4 ,if we ask :y
 any?+ :atev]1 or :y j ?is _w exi/s1 ?is
 ultimate gr\nd ( ?+s _c be f\nd )9 !   
_w4 ,e cont+5t ?+ or ev5t has its cause 
9 ano!r4 ,h[ev] f> we foll[ out ! s]ies 
( conditions1 we nev] rea* an ultimate1 
uncondition$ cause4 ,consequ5tly !      
suffici5t reason = ! s]ies mu/ be       
situat$ )\t ! _w1 &1 z is evid5t f !    
h>mony ( ?+s1 c only be an inf9itely    
wise & good ,be+4 ,"h ! teleological    
pro( comes 93 ,f ! f9ality ( ! _w we    
reason to ! exi/5ce ( a ,be+1 z ! au?or 
( ! _w1 :o works 9 view ( ends & :o     
wills & c>ries out t :i* is be/1--to !  
supreme intellig5ce1 goodness1 & p[] ( !
 ,creator4 ,a special inf]5tial value   
accrues to ?is position f ! sy/em (     
pre-e/abli%$ h>mony--x is manife/ t !   
complete correspond5ce ( ! manifold     
sub/ances 9 ! _w1 :i* are n connect$ )  
"o ano!r by any direct int]action1 c    
proce$ only f a common cause end[$ )    

inf9ite intellig5ce & p[]4  ,!          
possibility ( prov+ ! exi/5ce ( "o      
omnipot5t & all-b5efic5t ,god1 & !      
impossibility ( refut+ ! positive       
dogmas1 save ! h>mony ( fai? & reason1  
:i* ,bayle _h d5i$4 ,! conclusion ( !   
,new ,essays & ! op5+ ( ! ,!odicy are   
devot$ to ?is !me4 ,! second "p gives1  
also aga9/ ,bayle1 ! ju/ification ( ,god
 9 view ( ! evil 9 ! _w4 ,si ,deus e/1  
unde malum8 ,optimism has to reckon ) ! 
facts ( exp]i5ce1 & to %[ t ?is _w1 9   
spite ( its und5iable imp]fections1 is  
/ill ! be/ _w4 ,god c\ld c]ta9ly h      
br\ght into actuality a _w 9 :i* !re    
w\ld h be5 less imp]fection ?an 9 ours1 
b x w\ld at ! same "t h conta9$ few]    
p]fections4 ,no _w :atev] c exi/        
entirely free f evil1 entirely )\t      
limitation--:oev] =bids ,god to create  
imp]fect be+s =bids him to create a _w  
at all4 ,c]ta9 evils--9 g5]al t]ms1 !   
evil ( f9itude--are entirely insep>able 
f ! concept ( creat$ be+s2 imp]fection  
atta*es to e creat$ ?+ z su*4 ,o!r evils

 ,god has p]mitt$ because x 0 only ?r\gh
 !m t c]ta9 high] goods1 :i* ought n to 
be r5\nc$1 c\ld be br\ght to pass4 ,?9k 
( ! l(ty feel+s1 noble resolves1 & great
 de$s :i* w> occasions1 ?9k ( national  
en?usiasm1 read9ess = sacrifice1 &      
defiance ( dea?--all ^! w\ld be giv5    
ov]1 if w> %\ld be tak5 out ( ! _w on   
acc\nt ( ! suff]+ :i* x also br+s 9 its 
tra94  ,if we turn f ! g5]al pr9ciples  
to _! application 9 detail1 we f9d a    
sep>ate pro( = ! inevitabl5ess or       
salut>y nature ( ea* ( ! ?ree k9ds (    
evil--! metaphysical evil ( creat$      
exi/5ce1 ! physical evil ( suff]+ 7&    
puni%m5t71 & ! moral evil ( s94         
,metaphysical evil is absolutely        
unavoidable1 if a _w is to exi/ at all2 
creat$ be+s )\t imp]fection1 f9it5ess1  
limitation1 are entirely                
inconceivable--some?+ besides gods mu/  
exi/4 ,! physical evil ( mis]y f9ds its 
ju/ification 9 t x makes = good4 ,fir/ (
 all1 ! am\nt ( suff]+ is n s great z x 
appe>s to discont5t$ spirits to be4     

,life is usually q tol]able1 & v\*safes 
m joy & pleasure ?an grief & h>d%ip2 9  
balanc+ ! good & ! evil we mu/          
especially rememb] to reckon on !       
positive side ! goods ( activity1 (     
heal?1 & all t :i* af=ds u1 p]*ance1 no 
p]ceptible pleasure1 b ! removal ( :i*  
w\ld be felt z an evil 7,!odicy1 ii4    
#bea74 ,mo/ evils s]ve to secure u a mu*
 great] good1 or to w>d (f a /ill great]
 evil4 ,w\ld a brave g5]al1 if giv5 !   
*oice ( leav+ ! battle unw\nd$1 b also  
)\t ! victory1 or ( w9n+ ! victory at ! 
co/ ( a w\nd1 hesitate an in/ant to     
*oose ! latt]8 ,o!r tr\bles1 aga91 mu/  
be reg>d$ z puni%m5t = s9s & z means (  
re=mation2 ! man :o is resign$ to ,god's
 w may be c]ta9 t ! suff]+s :i* come to 
him w turn out = 8 good4  ,especially if
 we consid] ! _w z a :ole1 x is evid5t t
 ! sum ( evil vani%es be=e ! sum ( good4
 ,x is wrong to look ^u ! happ9ess ( man
 z ! end ( ! _w4 ,c]ta9ly ,god _h !     
happ9ess ( rational be+s 9 m9d1 b n ?is 
exclusively1 = !y =m only a "p ( ! _w1  

ev5 if x be ! highe/ "p4 ,god's purpose 
has ref]5ce r to ! p]fection ( ! :ole   
sy/em ( ! univ]se4 ,n[ ! h>mony ( !     
univ]se requires t all possible grades (
 reality be repres5t$1 t !re %\ld be    
indi/9ct ideas1 s5se1 & corporeality1 n 
m]ely a realm ( spirits1 & ) ^!1        
conditions ( imp]fection1 feel+s ( pa91 
& !oretical & moral errors are          
inevitably giv54 ,! connection & ! ord] 
( ! _w dem&s a mat]ial elem5t 9 ! monad1
 b happ9ess )\t alloy c nev] be ! lot ( 
a _s jo9$ to a body4 ,?irdly1 9 reg>d to
 moral evil also we receive ! assurance 
t ! sum ( ! bad is mu* less ?an t ( !   
good4 ,!n1 moral evil is connect$ )     
metaphysical evil3 creat$ be+s _c be    
absolutely p]fect1 h5ce1 also1 n morally
 p]fect or s9less4 ,b1 9 return = ?is1  
!re is no be+ t is absolutely imp]fect1 
none only & entirely evil4 ,) ?is is    
jo9$ ! well-kn[n pr9ciple ( ! e>li]     
?9k]s1 t evil is no?+ actual1 b m]ely   
deprivation1 abs5ce ( good1 lack ( cle> 
reason & =ce ( w4 ,t :i* is real 9 !    

evil action1 ! p[] to act1 is p]fect &  
good1 &1 z =ce1 comes f ,god--! negative
 or evil elem5t 9 x comes f ! ag5t      
himself2 j z 9 ! case ( two %ips ( !    
same size1 b unequally lad51 :i* drift )
 ! curr5t1 ! spe$ comes f ! /ream & !   
ret>dation f ! load ( ! vessels         
!mselves4 ,god is n responsible = s91 = 
he has only p]mitt$ x1 n will$ x        
directly1 & man 0 already evil be=e he 0
 creat$4 ,! fact t ,god =esaw t man w\ld
 s9 does n con/ra9 ! latt] to commit !  
evil de$1 b ?is foll[s f 8 own 7et]nal7 
be+1 :i* ,god left unalt]$ :5 he grant$ 
him exi/5ce4 ,! guilt & ! responsibility
 fall :olly on ! s9n] himself4 ,!       
p]mission ( evil is expla9$ by !        
pr$om9antly good results :i* foll[ f x  
7n1 z 9 physical evil1 = ! suff]]       
himself1 b = o!rs7--f ! crime ( ,sextus 
,t>qu9ius sprang a great k+dom ) great  
m5 7(4 ! beautiful my? 9 connection ) a 
dialogue ( ,laur5tius ,valla1 ,!odicy1  
iii4 #dac-daf74 ,f9ally1 ref]5ce is made
 aga9 to ! contribution :i* evil makes  

to ! p]fection ( ! :ole4 ,evil has !    
same function 9 ! _w z ! discords 9 a   
piece ( music1 or ! %ad[s 9 a pa9t+--!  
beauty is height5$ by ! contra/4 ,! good
 ne$s a foil 9 ord] to come out di/9ctly
 & to be felt 9 all its excell5ce4  ,9 !
 ,leibnitzian !odicy ! lea/ satisfactory
 "p is ! ju/ification ( moral evil4 ,we 
miss ! view def5d$ 9 su* gr& outl9es by 
,hegel1 & s +5i\sly by ,fe*n]1 t ! good 
is n ! fl[] ( a quiet1 unmole/$         
developm5t1 b ! fruit ( en]getic labor2 
t x has ne$ ( its opposite2 t x n m]ely 
mu/ approve itself 9 ! battle aga9/ evil
 )\t & )9 ! act+ subject1 b t x is only 
?r\gh ?is conflict t x is atta9able at  
all4 ,virtue implies =ce ( w z well z   
purity1 & =ce develops only by          
resi/ance4 ,al?\gh he does n appreciate 
! full dep? ( ! significance ( pa91     
,leibnitz's view ( suff]+ des]ves m     
approval ?an 8 que/ionable application  
to ! e?ical sph]e ( ! quantitative view 
( ! _w1 ) its int]pretation ( evil z    
m]ely undevelop$ good4 ,b1 9 any case1 !

 compassionate contempt ( ! pessimism ( 
! day = ! %all[ ,leibnitz is mo/        
unju/ifiable4    ,,*apt] ,,viii4  ,,!   
,,g]man ,,illum9ation4   #a4 ,!         
,contempor>ies ( ,leibnitz4  ,! p]iod   
betwe5 ,kepl] & ,leibnitz 9 ,g]many 0 v 
poor 9 notewor?y philosophical ph5om5a4 
,! physici/1 ,*ri/oph ,/urm#a ( ,altdorf
 7di$ #agjc71 0 a foll[] ( ,desc>tes1   
,joa*im ,jungius#b 7di$ #afeg7 a foll[] 
( ,bacon1 ?\gh n d5y+ ) ! latt] ! value 
( ! ma!matical me?od 9 natural sci5ce4  
,hi]onymus ,hirnhaym1 ,abbot at ,prague 
7,! ,plague ( ! ,human ,race1 or !      
,vanity ( ,human ,le>n+1 #afgf71 decl>$ 
! ?ir/ = k ( 8 age a dang]\s disease1 k 
unc]ta91 s9ce no reliance c be plac$ on 
s5se-p]ception & ! pr9ciples ( ?\ght    
contradict ! doctr9es ( fai?1 & h>mful1 
s9ce x contributes no?+ to salvation1 b 
makes its possessors pr\d & draws !m    
away f piety4 ,he ma9ta9$1 fur!r1 t     
div9e au?ority is ! only refuge = man1 &
 moral life ! true sci5ce4 ,side by side
 ) su* skepticism ,hirnhaym's           

contempor>y1 ! poet ,angelus ,silesius  
7,joh4 ,s*effl]1 di$ #affg71 def5d$     
my/icism4 ,! tea*] ( natural law1       
,samuel ,puf5dorf#c 7#afcb-id1 pr(essor 
9 ,heidelb]g & ,lund1 di$ 9 ,b]l971 aim$
 to m$iate betwe5 ,grotius & ,hobbes4   
,natural law is demon/rable1 its real   
gr\nd is ! w ( ,god1 its notical gr\nd  
7n revelation1 b7 reason & obs]vation ( 
! 7social7 nature ( man1 & ! fundam5tal 
law ! promotion ( univ]sal good4 ,!     
individual mu/ n violate ! int]e/s (    
society 9 satisfy+ 8 impulse to         
self-pres]vation1 because 8 own int]e/s 
require social exi/5ce1 &1 consequ5tly1 
respect = its conditions4  ,footnote #a3
 ,*r4 ,/urm3 ,physica ,conciliatrix1    
#afhg2 ,physica ,electiva1 vol4 i4      
#afig1 vol4 ii4 ) preface by ,*r4       
,wolff1 #agbb2 ,comp5dium ,univ]salium  
seu ,metaphysica ,euclidea4  ,footnote  
#b3 ,j4 ,jung ,logica ,hamburgi5sis1    
#afch2 cf4 ,guhrau]1 #ahei4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,puf5dorf3 ,elem5ta ,juris          
,univ]salis1 #affj2 ,de ,/atu ,imp]ii   

,g]manici1 #affg1 "u ! pseudonym        
,monzambano2 ,de ,jure ,natures et      
,g5tium #afgb1 & an ab/ract ( ?is1 ,de  
,(ficio ,hom9is et ,civis1 #afgc4       
,puf5dorf 0 foll[$ by ,*ri/ian          
,?omasius#a 7#afee-agbh2 pr(essor ( law 
at ! ,univ]sity ( ,halle f its f\ndation
 9 #afid74 ,he 0 ! fir/ in/ructor :o    
v5tur$ to deliv] lectures 9 ! ,g]man    
language--9 ,leipsic f #afhg--;& at !   
same "t 0 ! editor ( ! fir/ le>n$ j\rnal
 9 ,g]man 7,teuts*e ,monate1 ,ges*i*te  
d] ,wei%eit und ,?orheit74 ,9 ,?omasius 
! *>act]i/ic features ( ! ,g]man        
,illum9ation fir/ came out 9 full       
di/9ctness1 namely1 ! avoidance (       
s*ola/icism 9 expression & argum5t1 !   
direct relation ( k to life1 sob]       
rationality 9 ?9k+1 he$less eclecticism1
 & ! dem& = religi\s tol]ance4          
,philosophy mu/ be g5]ally intelligible1
 & practically useful1 k ( ! _w 7n (    
,god72 its =m1 free & ta/eful           
ratioc9ation2 its object1 man & morals2 
its fir/ duty1 culture1 n le>n+2 its    

highe/ aim1 happ9ess2 its organ & !     
crit]ion ( e tru?1 common s5se4 ,he     
alone ga9s true k :o frees 8 und]/&+ f  
prejudice & judges only aft] exam9+ =   
himself2 ! joy ( m5tal peace is giv5 to 
no "o :o does n free 8 he>t f fooli%    
desires & vehem5t passions1 & devote x  
to virtue1 to rational love4 ,! positive
 doctr9es ( ,?omasius h less int]e/ ?an 
?is g5]al /&po9t1 :i* prefigur$ !       
succe$+ p]iod4 ,he divides practical    
philosophy into natural law :i* treats (
 ! ju/um1 politics :i* treats ( !       
decorum1 & e?ics :i* treats ( ! hone/um4
 ,ju/ice bids u1 ,d n to o!rs :at y w\ld
 n t o!rs %\ld d to y2 decorum1 ,d to   
o!rs z y w\ld t !y %\ld d to y2 &       
morality1 ,d to y\rself z y w\ld t o!rs 
%\ld d to !mselves4 ,! fir/ two laws    
relate to ext]nal1 ! ?ird to int]nal1   
peace2 legal duties may be en=c$ by     
compulsion1 moral duties n4  ,footnote  
#a3 ,?omasius3 ,in/itutionum            
,jurisprud5tiae ,div9ae ,libri ,tres1   
#afhh2 ,fundam5ta ,juris ,naturae et    

,g5tium1 #agje1 bo? 9 ,lat92 9 ,g]man1  
appe>$ 9 #afia-if ! ,introduction &     
,application ( ,rational & ,moral       
,philosophy4  ,if ,?omasius 0 ! lead] ( 
^? popul> philosoph]s :o1 unconc]n$ ab\t
 sy/ematic cont9uity1 discuss$ e "q     
sep>ately be=e ! tribunal ( common s5se1
 & f\nd 9 _! lack ( allegiance to any   
philosophical sect a suffici5t gu>antee 
( ! unprejudic$ness & imp>tiality ( _!  
reflections1 ,c\nt ,walt] von           
,ts*irnhaus5 7#afea-agjh2 ,m$ec9a ,m5tis
 sive ,artis ,inv5i5di ,praecepta       
,g5]alia1 #afhg71 a fri5d ( ,sp9oza &   
,leibnitz1 became ! prototype ( ano!r   
gr\p ( ! philosoph]s ( ! ,illum9ation4  
,?is gr\p favor$ eclecticism ( a m      
sci5tific k9d1 by />t+ f consid]ations (
 me?od & seek+ to ov]come ! anti!sis    
betwe5 rationalism & empiricism4 ,:ile  
fully p]suad$ ( ! validity & necessity (
 ! ma!matical me?od 9 philosophical     
inve/igations1 z well z else:]e1        
,ts*irnhaus5 /ill holds x indisp5sable t
 ! d$uctions1 on ! "o h&1 />t f         

empirical facts1 &1 on ! o!r1 t !y be   
confirm$ by exp]im5ts4 ,inn] exp]i5ce   
gives u f\r primal facts1 ( :i* ! *ief  
is ! c]ta9ty ( self-consci\sness4 ,!    
second1 t _m ?+s affect u agreeably & _m
 disagreeably1 is ! basis ( morals2 !   
?ird1 t "s ?+s are compreh5sible to u & 
o!rs n1 ! basis ( logic2 ! f\r?1 t ?r\gh
 ! s5ses we passively receive           
impressions f )\t1 ! basis ( ! empirical
 sci5ces1 9 p>ticul>1 ( physics4        
,consequ5tly consci\sness1 w1 und]/&+1 &
 s5su\s repres5tation 7imag9atio71      
toge!r ) corporeality1 are our          
fundam5tal concepts4 ,n p]ception       
7p]ceptio71 b conception 7conceptio7    
alone gives sci5ce2 t :i* we c conceive 
is true2 ! und]/&+ z su* _c err1 b      
und\bt$ly ! imag9ation c lead u to      
confuse ! m]ely p]ceiv$ ) t :i* is      
conceiv$4 ,! me?od ( sci5ce is          
geometrical demon/ration1 :i* />ts f    
7g5etic7 def9itions1 & f _! analysis    
obta9s axioms1 f _! comb9ation1 !orems4 
,t :i* is ?us prov$ a priori mu/1 z     

already rem>k$1 be confirm$ a po/]iori4 
,! highe/ ( all sci5ces is natural      
philosophy1 s9ce x consid]s n           
s5se-objects only1 n 7l ma!matics7 !    
objects ( reason only1 b ! actual itself
 9 its true "*4 ,h5ce x is ! div9e      
sci5ce1 :ile ! human sci5ces busy       
!mselves only ) our ideas or ! relations
 ( ?+s to u4   #b4 ,*ri/ian ,wolff4     
,*ri/ian ,wolff 0 born at ,breslau 9    
#afgi1 /udi$ !ology at ,j5a1 & 9        
addition ma!matics & philosophy1        
habilitat$ at ,leipsic 9 #agjc1 &       
obta9$1 ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality (         
,leibnitz1 a pr(essor%ip ( ma!matics at 
,halle1 9 #agjf4 ,8 lectures1 :i* soon  
ext5d$ !mselves ov] all philosophical   
discipl9es1 met ) great success4 ,?is   
popul>ity1 z well z ! rationali/ic      
t5d5cy ( 8 ?9k+1 ar\s$ ! disfavor ( !   
pieti/s1 ,francke & ,lange1 :o succe$$1 
9 #agbc1 9 secur+ f ,k+ ,fr$]ick        
,william ,i4 8 removal f 8 *air & 8     
expulsion f ! k+dom4 ,f9d+ a refuge 9   
,m>burg1 he 0 call$ back to ,halle by   

,fr$]ick ! ,great a %ort "t aft] !      
latt]'s asc5sion ( ! ?rone4 ,"h he      
taught & wrote zeal\sly until 8 dea? 9  
#aged4 ,9 8 lectures1 z well z 9 half ( 
8 writ+s1#a he foll[$ ! example (       
,?omasius 9 us+ ! ,g]man language1 :i*  
he prep>$ 9 a mo/ praisewor?y mann] = ! 
expression ( philosophical ideas &      
furni%$ ) a l>ge "p ( ! te*nical t]ms   
curr5t to-day4 ,?us ! t]ms ,v]hltniss   
7relation71 ,vor/ellung 7repres5tation1 
idea71 ,bewus/se9 7consci\sness71 /etig 
7cont9uus71 come f ,wolff1 z well z !   
di/9ction betwe5 ,kraft 7p[]7 & ,v]mg5  
7faculty71 & betwe5 ,grund 7gr\nd7 &    
,ursa*e 7cause71#b ,ano!r great s]vice  
consi/$ 9 ! r$uction ( ! philosophy (   
,leibnitz to a sy/ematic =m1 by :i* he  
secur$ a dissem9ation = x :i* o!rwise x 
w\ld sc>cely h obta9$4 ,b he did n      
possess suffici5t orig9ality to         
contribute any?+ rem>kable ( 8 own1 & x 
%[$ little self-k :5 he became indignant
 at ! designation ,leibnitzio-,wolffian 
philosophy1 :i* 0 fir/ us$ by 8 pupil1  

,bilf+]4 ,! alt]ations :i* he made 9 !  
doctr9es ( ,leibnitz are f> f be+       
improvem5ts1 & ! p>ts :i* he reject$ are
 j ! mo/ *>act]i/ic & ?\ghtful ( all4   
,su* at lea/ is ! op9ion ( ?9k]s to-day1
 ?\gh ?is mutilation & level+ d[n ( !   
mo/ d>+ ( ,leibnitz's hypo!ses 0 p]haps 
entirely advantage\s = ,wolff's         
impression on 8 contempor>ies2 :at      
appe>$ que/ionable to him w\ld no d\bt h
 repell$ !m also4 ,leibnitz's two lead+ 
ideas1 ! !ory ( monads & ! pre-e/abli%$ 
h>mony1 7 mo/ ( all affect$ by ?is      
process ( ton+ d[n4 ,wolff weak5s ! =m] 
by attribut+ a repres5tative p[] only to
 actual s\ls1 :i* are capable (         
consci\sness1 al?\gh he holds t bodies  
are comp\nd$ ( simple be+s & t ! latt]  
are end[$ ) 7a n fur!r def9$7 =ce4 ,he  
limits ! application ( ! pre-e/abli%$   
h>mony to ! relation ( body & s\l1 :i*  
to ,leibnitz 0 only a case especially   
favorable = ! illu/ration ( ! hypo!sis4 
,by su* trifl+ ! real mean+ ( bo? ^!    
ideas is sacrific$ & _! bloom rubb$     

(f4--,:ile dep? is lack+ 9 ,wolff's     
?9k+1 he is rem>kable = 8 p[] (         
sy/ematization1 8 p]sev]+ dilig5ce1 & 8 
logical e>ne/ness1 s t ! praise be/[$ on
 him by ,kant1 t he 0 ! au?or ( ! _s (  
?or\ghness 9 ,g]many1 0 well des]v$4    
,he1 too1 f9ds ! end ( philosophy 9 !   
enlight5m5t ( ! und]/&+1 ! improvem5t ( 
! he>t1 &1 ultimately1 9 ! promotion ( !
 happ9ess ( mank9d4 ,b :ile ,?omasius   
dem&$ z a condition ( su* univ]sal      
intelligibility & usefulness t1 disc>d+ 
! s*ola/ic g>b1 philosophy %\ld appe> 9 
! =m ( easy ratioc9ation1 ,wolff1 on !  
o!r h&1 reg>ds me?odical proc$ure &     
c]ta9ty 9 results z indisp5sable to its 
usefulness1 &1 9 ord] to ?is c]ta9ty1   
insi/s on di/9ctness ( conception &     
cog5cy ( pro(4 ,he dem&s a philosophia  
et c]ta et utilis4 ,if1 f9ally1 8       
me?odical delib]at5ess1 especially 9 8  
lat] works1 leads him into we>isome     
diffus5ess1 ?is p$antry is made good by 
8 g5u9ely ,g]man1 hone/ _s1 :i* manife/s
 itself agreeably 9 8 judgm5t on        

practical que/ions4  ,footnote #a3      
,reasonable ,?\ghts on ! ,p[]s ( !      
,human ,und]/&+1 #agab2 ,reasonable     
,?\ghts on ,god1 ! ,_w1 & ! ,s\l ( ,man1
 also on ,all ,?+s 9 ,g5]al1 #agai      
7,notes to ?is #agbd72 ,reasonable      
,?\ghts on ! ,conduct ( ,man1 #agbj2    
,reasonable ,?\ghts on ! ,social ,life (
 ,man1 #agba2 ,reasonable ,?\ghts on !  
,op]ations ( ,nature1 #agbc2 ,reasonable
 ,?\ghts on ! ,purposes ( ,natural ,?+s1
 #agbd2 ,reasonable ,?\ghts on ! ,p>ts (
 ,man1 ,animals1 & ,plants1 #agbe1 all 9
 ,g]man4 ,besides ^! !re are ext5sive   
,lat9 treatises 7#agbh-ec7 on ,logic1   
,ontology1 ,cosmology1 ,empirical &     
,rational ,psy*ology1 ,natural ,!ology1 
& all bran*es ( ,practical ,philosophy4 
,detail$ extracts may be f\nd 9         
,erdmann's ,v]su* e9] wiss5s*aftli*5    
,d>/ellung1 ii4 #b4 ,! be/ acc\nt ( !   
,wolffian philosophy has be5 giv5 by    
,zell] 7pp4 #baa-bgc74  ,footnote #b3   
,euck51 ,ges*i*te d] ,t]m9ologie pp4    
#acc-acd4  ,wolff rea*es 8 division ( ! 

sci5ces by comb9+ ! two psy*ological    
anti!ses--! high] 7rational7 & l[]      
7s5su\s7 faculties ( cognition &        
appetition4 ,on ! fir/ is bas$ !        
di/9ction betwe5 ! rational & !         
empirical or hi/orical me?od ( treatm5t4
 ,! latt] conc]ns itself ) ! actual1 !  
=m] ) ! possible & necess>y1 or ! gr\nds
 ( ! actual2 ! "o obs]ves & describes1 !
 o!r d$uces4 ,! anti!sis ( cognition &  
appetition gives ! basis = ! division   
into !oretical & practical philosophy4  
,! =m]1 call$ metaphysics1 is divid$    
into a g5]al "p1 :i* treats ( be+ 9     
g5]al :e!r x be ( a corporeal or a      
spiritual nature1 & ?ree special p>ts1  
accord+ to _! pr9cipal subjects1 ! _w1 !
 s\l1 & ,god1--h5ce into ontology1      
cosmology1 psy*ology1 & !ology4 ,!      
sci5ce :i* e/abli%es rules = action &   
reg>ds man z an individual be+1 z a     
citiz51 & z ! head or memb] ( a family1 
is divid$ 7aft] ,ari/otle7 into e?ics1  
politics1 & economics1 :i* are prec$$ by
 practical philosophy 9 g5]al1 & by     

natural law4 ,! introduction to ! two   
pr9cipal p>ts is furni%$ by =mal logic4 
,philosophy is ! sci5ce ( ! possible1   
i4e41 ( t :i* conta9s no contradiction2 
x is sci5ce f concepts1 its pr9ciple1 ! 
law ( id5tity1 its =m1 demon/ration1 &  
its in/rum5t1 analysis1 :i* 9 ! pr$icate
 explicates ! det]m9ations conta9$ 9 !  
concept ( ! subject4 ,9 ord] to confirm 
t :i* has be5 d$uc$ f pure concepts by !
 facts ( exp]i5ce1 psy*ologia rationalis
 is supplem5t$ by psy*ologia empirica1  
rational cosmology by empirical physics1
 & speculative !ology by an exp]im5tal  
doctr9e ( ,god 7teleology74 ,wolff gives
 no explanation h[ x comes ab\t t !     
deliv]ances ( ! reason agree s          
beautifully ) ! facts ( exp]i5ce2 9 8   
nave1 unque/ion+ belief 9 !             
infallibility ( ! reason he is a typical
 dogmati/4  ,a clos] exam9ation ( !     
,wolffian philosophy seems unnecess>y1  
s9ce its mo/ ess5tial portions h already
 be5 discuss$ "u ,leibnitz & s9ce x w be
 necess>y to recur to c]ta9 po9ts 9 our 

*apt] on ,kant4 ,!re=e1 ref]r+ ! read]  
to ! detail$ acc\nts 9 ,erdmann &       
,zell]1 we %all only note t ,wolff's    
e?ics opposes ! pr9ciple ( p]fection to 
! ,engli% pr9ciple ( happ9ess 7t is good
 :i* p]fects man's condition1 & ?is is  
life 9 con=mity ) nature or reason1 )   
:i* happ9ess is necess>ily connect$72 t 
he makes ! w det]m9$ by ! und]/&+1 &    
assigns ignorance z ! cause ( s92 t 8   
philosophy ( religion1 :i* argues = a   
natural religion 9 addition to reveal$  
religion 7exp]i5tial & rational pro(s = 
! exi/5ce ( ,god1 & a d$uction ( 8      
attributes71 & sets up c]ta9 te/s = !   
g5u95ess ( revelation1 favors a         
rationalism :i* 0 flexible en\gh to all[
 8 pupils ei!r to take "p 9 or?odox     
movem5ts or to advance to a deism ho/ile
 to ! ,*ur*4  ,among ! foll[]s ( ,wolff1
 ,alex&] ,baumg>t5 7#agad-fb7 des]ves ! 
fir/ place1 z ! f\nd] ( ,g]man ae/hetics
 7,ae/hetica1 #agej seq474 ,he p]ceives 
a gap 9 ! sy/em ( ! philosophical       
sci5ces4 ,?is conta9s 9 e?ics a guide to

 "r volition1 & 9 logic a guide to      
correct ?9k+1 b !re are no directions = 
correct feel+1 no ae/hetic4 ,! beautiful
 w\ld =m ! subject ( ?is discipl9e4 ,= !
 p]fection 7! h>moni\s unity ( a        
manifold1 :i* is pleasant to !          
spectator71 :i* manife/s itself to ! w z
 ! good & to ! cle> ?9k+ ( ! und]/&+ z !
 true1 appe>s--accord+ to ,leibnitz--to 
confus$ s5su\s p]ception z beauty4 ,f   
?is on ! "n ae/hetics 0 e/abli%$ = !    
!ory ( ! beautiful1 ?\gh 9 ,kant's great
 "w x is us$ 9 its lit]al mean+ z !     
doctr9e ( s5se1 ( ! faculty ( s5sations 
or intuitions4 ,baumg>t5's pupils &     
foll[]s1 ! ae/hetic writ] ,g4,f4 ,mei]  
at ,halle1 ,baumei/]1 & o!rs1 contribut$
 l himself to ! dissem9ation ( !        
,wolffian sy/em by _! manuals on diff]5t
 bran*es ( philosophy4 ,to ?is s*ool    
belong also ! foll[+3 ,?mmig            
7,in/itutiones ,philosophia ,wolfianae1 
#agbe-bf72 ! !ologian ,siegmund         
,baumg>t5 at ,halle1 ! eld] bro!r ( !   
ae/hete2 ! ma!matician ,m>t9 ,knutz51   

,kant's tea*]2#a ! lit]>y hi/orian      
,gotts*$ #b at ,leipsic2 & ,g4          
,pl\cquet1 :o 9 8 ,me?odus ,calcul&i 9  
,logicis1 ) a ,comm5tatio de ,arte      
,*>act]i/ica ,univ]sali app5d$ to 8     
,pr9cipia de ,sub/antiis et ,pha5om5is1 
#agec1 took up aga9 ,leibnitz's *]i%$   
plan = a logical calculus & a univ]sal  
symbolic language4 ,! psy*ologi/        
,kasimir von ,creuz 7,essay on ! ,s\l1 9
 two p>ts1 #agec-ed71 & ,j4,h4          
,lamb]t1#c :om ,kant deem$ wor?y ( a    
detail$ correspond5ce1 take up a m      
indep5d5t position1 bo? dem&+ t !       
,wolffian rationalism be supplem5t$ by !
 empiricism ( ,locke1 & ! latt]1        
moreov]1 9 anticipation ( ! ,critique ( 
,reason1 po9t+ v def9itely to !         
di/9ction betwe5 cont5t & =m z ! sali5t 
po9t 9 ! !ory ( k4  ,footnote #a3 ,b5no 
,erdmann1 ,m4 ,knutz5 und se9e ,zeit1   
#ahgf4  ,footnote #b3 ,?4 ,w4 ,danzel1  
,gotts*$ und se9e ,zeit1 #ahdh4         
,footnote #c3 ,lamb]t3 ,cosmological    
,lett]s1 #agfa2 ,new ,organon1 #agfd2   

,gr\ndwork ( ,ar*itectonics1 #agga4     
,b]n\lli edit$ "s ( ,lamb]t's pap]s & 8 
correspond5ce4  ,among ! oppon5ts ( !   
,wolffian philosophy1 all ( :om favor   
eclecticism1 ,a4 ,rdig]#a & ,*r4 ,aug4  
,crusius1#b :o 0 influ5c$ by ,rdig]1 &1 
l him1 a pr(essor at ,leipsic1 are ! mo/
 important4 ,rdig] divides philosophy   
accord+ to its objects1 wisdom1 ju/ice1 
prud5ce1 into ?ree p>ts--! sci5ce (     
nature 7:i* mu/ avoid "o-sid$ me*anical 
views1 & employ e!r1 air1 & _s z        
pr9ciples ( explanation72 ! sci5ce (    
duty 7:i*1 z metaphysics1 treats (      
duties t[>d ,god1 z natural law1 (      
duties to our neighbor1 & d$uces bo? f !
 prim>y duty ( ob$i5ce to ! w ( ,god72 &
 ! sci5ce ( ! good 79 :i* ,rdig] foll[s 
! treatise ( ! ,spani>d1 ,gracian1 on   
practical wisdom74 ,crusius agrees )    
,rdig] t ma!matics is ! sci5ce ( !      
possible1 & philosophy ! sci5ce ( !     
actual1 & t ! latt]1 in/ead ( imitat+ to
 its own disadvantage !                 
d$uctive-analytical me?od ( geometry1   

mu/1 ) ! aid ( exp]i5ce & ) att5tion to 
! probability ( its conclusions1 rise to
 ! highe/ pr9ciples syn!tically4        
,besides its d$uction ! det]m9ism ( !   
,wolffian philosophy gave (f5se1 = x 0  
believ$ to endang] morals1 ju/ice1 &    
religion4 ,! w1 ! special fundam5tal p[]
 ( ! s\l 7consi/+ ( ! impulses to       
p]fection1 love1 & k71 is f> f be+      
det]m9$ by ideas2 x is r !y :i* dep5d on
 ! w4 ,! application ( ! pr9ciple (     
suffici5t reason1 :i* is wrongly held to
 admit ( no exception1 mu/ be re/rict$ 9
 favor ( fre$om4 ,= ! re/1 we may note  
conc]n+ ,crusius t he d]ives ! pr9ciple 
( suffici5t reason 7ev]y?+ :i* is n[1 & 
be=e 0 n1 has a cause7 & ! pr9ciple (   
cont+5cy f ! pr9ciples ( contradiction1 
insep>ability1 & incompatibility1 & ^!  
latt] f ! pr9ciple ( conceivability2 t  
he rejects ! ontological argum5t1 &     
makes ! gr\nd ( obligation 9 morality   
consi/ 9 ob$i5ce t[>d ,god1 & its cont5t
 9 p]fection4 ,among ! o!r oppon5ts ( ! 
,wolffian philosophy1 we may m5tion !   

!ologian ,budde7u7#c 7,in/itutiones     
,philosophiae ,eclecticae1 #agje72      
,d>jes 7:o taught 9 ,j5a &              
,frank=t-on-!-,od]2 ,! ,way to ,tru?1   
#agee72 & ,cr\saz 7#agdd74  ,footnote   
#a3 ,rdig]3 ,disputatio de eo quod      
,omnes ,idea ,oriantur a ,s5sione1      
#agjd2 ,philosophia ,syn!tica1 #agjg2   
,physica ,div9a1 #agaf2 ,philosophia    
,pragmatica1 #agbc4  ,footnote #b3      
,crusius3 ,de ,usu et ,limitibus        
,pr9cipii ,rationis1 #agdc2 ,directions 
h[ to ,live a ,rational ,life 7!ory ( ! 
w & ( e?ics71 #agdd2 ,a ,sket* ( !      
,necess>y ,tru?s ( ,reason1 #agde2 ,way 
to ! ,c]ta9ty & ,tru/wor?9ess ( ,human  
,k1 #agdg4  ,footnote #c3 ,j4,j4 ,bruck]
 7,hi/oria ,critica ,philosophiae1 #e   
vols41 #agdb-dd2 #b;d ed41 #f vols41    
#agff-fg7 0 a pupil ( ,budde4   #c4 ,!  
,illum9ation z ,sci5tific & z ,popul>   
,philosophy4  ,aft] a dem& = ! union (  
,leibnitz & ,locke1 ( rationalism &     
empiricism1 _h be5 rais$ )9 ! ,wolffian 
s*ool itself1 & /ill m directly 9 ! camp

 ( its oppon5ts1 "u ! increas+ influ5ce 
( ! empirical philosophy ( ,engl&1#a    
eclecticism 9 ! _s ( ,?omasius took full
 possession ( ! /age 9 ! ,illum9ation   
p]iod4 ,!re 0 ! less hesitation 9 comb9+
 pr9ciples d]iv$ f entirely diff]5t     
po/ulates )\t reg>d to _! sy/ematic     
connection1 z ! int]e/ 9 s*ola/ic       
inve/igation gave place m & m to !      
int]e/ 9 practical & reassur+ results4  
,metaphysics1 notics1 & natural         
philosophy 7 laid aside z useless       
subtleties1 &1 z 9 ! p]iod succe$+      
,ari/otle1 man z an individual & :atev] 
directly relates to 8 welf>e--!         
con/itution ( 8 inn] nature1 8 duties1 !
 immortality ( ! s\l1 & ! exi/5ce (     
,god--became ! exclusive subjects (     
reflection4 ,! fact t1 besides e?ics &  
religion1 psy*ology 0 *os5 z a favorite 
field1 is 9 complete h>mony ) ! g5]al   
temp] ( an age = :i* self-obs]vation & !
 enjoym5t ( t5d] & elevat$ feel+s 9     
long1 delightfully fri5dly lett]s &     
s5tim5tal di>ies _h become a favorite   

habit4 ,h& 9 h& ) ?is n>r[+ ( ! cont5t (
 philosophy w5t a *ange 9 ! =m (        
pres5tation4 ,z ?9k]s n[ address$       
!mselves to all cultivat$ p1            
intelligibility & agreeabl5ess 7 made ! 
prime requisites2 ! /yle became light & 
fl[+1 ! me?od ( treatm5t facile & (t5   
sup]ficial4 ,?is is true n only ( !     
popul> philosoph]s prop]--:o1 z ,w9delb&
 p]t95tly rem>ks 7vol4 i4 p4 #efc71 did 
n seek aft] ! tru?1 b believ$ t !y      
already possess$ x1 & desir$ only to    
dissem9ate x2 :o did n aim at !         
promotion ( inve/igation1 b ! in/ruction
 ( ! public--b to a c]ta9 ext5t1 also1 (
 ^? :o 7 consci\s ( labor+ 9 ! s]vice ( 
sci5ce4 ,among ! repres5tatives ( ! m   
polite t5d5cy belong1 ,moses            
,m5delssohn#b 7#agbi-hf72 ,?omas ,abbt  
7,on ,dea? = ! ,fa!rl&1 #agfa2 ,on      
,m]it1 #agfe72 ,j4,j4 ,engel 7,!        
philosoph] = ! ,_w1 #agge72 ,g4,s4      
,/e9b>t 7,! ,*ri/ian ,doctr9e (         
,happ9ess1 #aggh72 ,ern/ ,platn]        
7,philosophical ,aphorisms1 #aggf1      

#aghb2 on ,platn] cf4 ,m4 ,he9ze1       
#ahhj72 ,g4,c4 ,li*t5b]g 7di$ #agii2    
,miscellane\s ,writ+s1 #ahjj seq42 a    
selection is giv5 9 ,reclam's           
,biblio!k72 ,*ri/ian ,g>ve 7di$ #agih2  
,essays1 #agib seq42 ,translations f !  
,e?ical ,works ( ,ari/otle1 ,cic]o1 &   
,f]guson72 & ,fri$ri* ,nicolai#c 7di$   
#ahaa74 ,eb]h>d1 ,f$]1 & ,me9]s w be    
m5tion$ lat] among ! oppon5ts ( !       
,kantian philosophy4  ,footnote #a3 ,!  
influ5ce ( ! ,engli% philosoph]s on !   
,g]man philosophy ( ! eighte5? c5tury is
 discuss$ by ,gu/av ,z>t1 #ahha4        
,footnote #b3 ,m5delssohn3 ,lett]s on ! 
,s5sations1 #agee2 ,on ,evid5ce 9 !     
,metaphysical ,sci5ces1 a prize essay   
cr[n$ by ! ,academy1 #agfd2 ,pha$o1 or  
on ,immortality1 #agfg2 ,j]usalem1      
#aghc2 ,morn+ ,h\rs1 or on ! ,exi/5ce ( 
,god1 #aghe2 ,to ! ,fri5ds ( ,less+     
7aga9/ ,jacobi71 #aghf2 ,works1         
#ahdc-dd4 ,cf4 on ,m5delssohn1 ,kays]l+1
 #ahef1 #ahfb1 #ahhc4  ,footnote #c3    
,nicolai3 ,libr>y ( ,belles ,lettres1 f 

#ageg2 ,lett]s on ! ,mo/ ,rec5t ,g]man  
,lit]ature1 f #agei2 ,univ]sal ,g]man   
,libr>y1 f #agfe2 ,new ,univ]sal ,g]man 
,libr>y1 #agic-ahje4  ,among !          
psy*ologi/s ,j4,n4 ,tet5s1 ^:           
,philosophical ,essays on ,human        
,nature1 #aggf-gg1 %[ a rem>kable       
simil>ity to ! views ( ,kant1#a takes ! 
fir/ rank4 ,! two ?9k]s evid5tly        
influ5c$ ea* o!r4 ,! ?ree fold division 
( ! activities ( ! s\l1 kn[+1 feel+1 &  
will+1 :i* has n[ become popul> & :i*   
appe>s to u self-evid5t1 is to be ref]r$
 to ,tet5s1 f :om ,kant took x2 9       
opposition to ! tw(old division (       
,ari/otle & ,wolff into cognition &     
appetition1 he e/abli%$ ! equal rights (
 ! faculty ( feel+--:i* _h previ\sly be5
 def5d$ by ,sulz] 7#agea71 ! ae/hetic   
writ]1 & by ,m5delssohn 7#agee1 #agfc1  
#aghe74 ,besides ,tet5s1 ! foll[+ %\ld  
be m5tion$ among ! psy*ologi/s3 ,tet5s's
 oppon5t1 ,johann ,lossius 7#agge71 an  
adh]5t ( ,bonnet2 ,d4 ,ti$emann         
7,inquiries conc]n+ ,man1 f #aggg71 :o 0

 e/imable also z a hi/orian ( philosophy
 7,_s ( ,speculative ,philosophy1       
#agia-ig72 ,von ,irw+ 7#aggb seq42 #b;d 
ed41 #aggg72 & ,k4 ,ph4 ,moriz 7,magaz9 
zur ,erfahrungsseel5lehre1 f #aghe74    
,bas$[ 7di$ #agij71 ,campe 7di$ #ahah71 
& ,j4,h4 ,pe/alozzi 7#agde-ahbg7 did    
valuable "w 9 p$agogics4  ,footnote #a3 
,s5sation gives ! cont5t1 & ! und]/&+   
spontane\sly produces ! =m1 ( k4 ,! only
 objectivity ( k :i* we c atta9 consi/s 
9 ! subjective necessity ( ! =ms ( ?\ght
 or ! ideas ( relation4 ,p]ception      
enables u to cognize ph5om5a only1 n !  
true ess5ce ( ?+s & ( ourselves1 etc4   
,"o ( ! cle>e/ & mo/ acute m9ds among ! 
philosoph]s ( ! ,illum9ation 0 ! dei/   
,h]mann ,samuel ,reim>us#a 7#afid-agfh71
 f #agbh pr(essor 9 ,hamburg4 ,he       
attacks a!ism1 9 :atev] =m x may pres5t 
itself1 ) z mu* zeal & conviction z he  
%[s 9 break+ d[n ! belief 9 revelation  
by 8 inexorable criticism 79 8 ,def5se1 
communicat$ 9 manuscript to a few fri5ds
 only74 ,he obta9s 8 weapons = ?is d\ble

 battle f ! ,wolffian philosophy4 ,!    
exi/5ce ( an extramundane deity is prov$
 by ! purposive arrangem5t ( ! _w1      
especially ( organisms1 :i* aims at !   
good--n m]ely ( man1 z ! majority ( !   
physico-!ologi/s h believ$1 b--( all    
liv+ creatures4 ,to believe 9 a special 
revelation1 i4e41 a miracle1 9 addition 
to su* a revelation ( ,god z ?is1 :i* is
 grant$ to all m51 & is alone necess>y  
to salvation1 is to d5y ! p]fection (   
,god1 & to d viol5ce to ! immutability (
 8 provid5ce4 ,to ^! g5]al consid]ations
 aga9/ ! cr$ibility ( positive          
revelation are to be add$1 z special    
argum5ts aga9/ ! ,jewi% & ,*ri/ian      
revelations1 ! untru/wor?9ess ( human   
te/imony 9 g5]al1 ! contradictions 9 !  
biblical writ+s1 ! unc]ta9ty ( _! mean+1
 & ! moral "* ( ! p]sons reg>d$ z       
mess5g]s ( ,god1 ^: tea*+s1 precepts1 & 
de$s 9 no wise correspond to _! high    
mission4 ,jewi% hi/ory is a tissue ( %e]
 follies1 %ameful de$s1 deceptions1 &   
cruelties1 ! *ief motives ( :i* 7       

self-int]e/ & lu/ = p[]4 ,! ,new        
,te/am5t is also ! "w ( man2 all talk ( 
div9e inspiration1 an idle delusion1 !  
resurrection ( ,*ri/1 a fabrication ( ! 
disciples2 & ! ,prote/ant sy/em1 ) its  
dogmas ( ! ,tr9ity1 ! fall ( man1       
orig9al s91 ! inc>nation1 vic>i\s       
atonem5t1 & et]nal puni%m5t1 contr>y to 
reason4 ,! advance ( ,reim>us beyond    
,wolff consi/s 9 ! consi/5t application 
( ! crit]ia = ! div9e "* ( revelation1  
:i* ,wolff _h set up )\t mak+ a         
positive1 n to speak ( a negative1 use (
 !m4 ,8 weakness#b consi/s 9 ! fact t1  
on ! "o h&1 he cont5t$ himself ) a      
rationali/ic int]pretation ( ! biblical 
n>ratives1 in/ead ( pu%+ on--z ,seml]   
did aft] him at ,halle 7#agbe-ia7--to a 
hi/orical criticism ( ! s\rces1 &1 on ! 
o!r1 held fa/ to ! alt]native common to 
all ! dei/s1 ,ei!r div9e or human1 ei!r 
an actual ev5t or a fabrication1 )\t any
 suspicion ( t great int]m$iate region (
 religi\s my?1 ( ! involunt>y & pregnant
 inv5tions ( ! popul> fancy4  ,footnote 

#a3 ,h4,s4 ,reim>us3 ,discussions on !  
,*ief ,tru?s ( ,natural ,religion1      
#aged2 ,g5]al ,consid]ation ( ! ,in/9cts
 ( ,animals1 #agfb2 ,apology or ,def5se 
= ! ,rational ,wor%ip]s ( ,god4         
,fragm5ts ( ! la/ ( ^! works1 :i* 0 kept
 secret dur+ its au?or's life1 7 publi%$
 by ,less+ 7! well-kn[n ,wolff5bttel    
,fragm5ts1 f #aggd74 ,a detail$ table ( 
cont5ts is to be f\nd 9 ,reim>us und    
se9e ,s*utzs*rift1 #ahfb1 by ,d4 ,fr4   
,/rauss1 includ$ 9 ! fif? volume ( 8    
,gesammelte ,s*rift54  ,footnote #b3    
,cf4 ,o4 ,pfleid]]1 ,philosophy (       
,religion1 vol4 i4 p4 #ajb1 p4 #ajf seq4
  ,! philosophico-religi\s /&po9t (     
,g4,e4 ,less+ 7#agbi-ha71 9 :om !       
,illum9ation rea*$ its be/ fruitage1 0  
less "o-sid$4 ,ap>t f ! important       
ae/hetic impulses :i* fl[$ f ! ,laocoon 
7#agff7 & ! ,hamburg ,dramaturgy        
7#agfg-fi71 8 philosophical significance
 re/s on two ideas1 :i* h _h important  
consequ5ces = ! religi\s conceptions ( !
 n9ete5? c5tury3 ! speculative          

int]pretation ( c]ta9 dogmas 7! ,tr9ity1
 etc471 & ! application ( ! ,leibnitzian
 idea ( developm5t to ! hi/ory ( !      
positive religions4 ,by bo? ( ^! he     
prep>$ ! way = ,hegel4 ,9 reg>d to 8    
relation to 8 pr$ecessors1 ,less+ s\ght 
to m$iate betwe5 ! pan!ism ( ,sp9oza & !
 individualism ( ,leibnitz2 & 9 8       
compreh5sion ( ! latt] %[$ himself f>   
sup]ior to ! ,wolffians4 ,he c be call$ 
a ,sp9ozi/ only by ^? :o1 l ,jacobi1 h  
?is title ready = ev]yone :o expresses  
himself aga9/ a transc5d5t1 p]sonal     
,god1 & ! unconditional fre$om ( ! w4   
,moreov]1 9 view ( 8 critical &         
dialectical1 r ?an sy/ematic1 me?od (   
?9k+1 we mu/ gu>d aga9/ lay+ too great  
/ress on isolat$ /atem5ts by him4#a     
,footnote #a3 ,a caution :i* ,gideon    
,spick] 7,less+s ,weltans*auung1 #ahhc7 
c\nsels u n to =get1 ev5 9 view ( ! (t  
cit$ av[al ( det]m9ism1 ,i ?ank ,god t  
,i mu/1 & t ,i mu/ ! be/4 ,among !      
num]\s treatises on ,less+ we may note  
^? by ,g4,e4 ,s*w>z 7#ahed71 & ,zell] 79

 ,sybel's ,hi/oris*e ,zeits*rift1 #ahgj1
 incorporat$ 9 ! second collection (    
,zell]'s ,vortrge und ,abh&lung51       
#ahgg72 & on 8 !ological position1 t (  
,k4 ,fis*] on ,less+'s ,na?an d] ,weise1
 #ahfd1 z well z ,j4,h4 ,witte's        
,philosophie uns]] ,di*t]h]o51 vol4 i4  
7,less+ & ,h]d]71 #ahhj4 ,cf4 9 ,engli%1
 ,sime1 #b vols41 #ahgg1 & ,encyclop$ia 
,britannica1 vol4 xiv4 pp1              
#dgh-dhb4--,,tr4  ,less+ conceives !    
,deity z ! supreme1 all-compreh5sive1   
liv+ unity1 :i* excludes nei!r a c]ta9  
k9d ( plurality nor ev5 a c]ta9 k9d (   
*ange2 )\t life & action1 )\t ! exp]i5ce
 ( *ang+ /ates1 ! life ( ,god w\ld be   
mis]ably we>isome4 ,?+s are n out (1 b 9
 him2 nev]!less 7z cont+5t7 !y are      
di/9ct f him4 ,! ,tr9ity mu/ be und]/ood
 9 ! s5se ( imman5t di/9ctions4 ,god has
 conceiv$ himself1 or 8 p]fections1 9 a 
tw(old mann]3 he conceiv$ !m z unit$ &  
himself z _! sum1 & he conceiv$ !m z    
s+le4 ,n[ ,god's ?9k+ is creation1 8    
ideas actualities4 ,by conceiv+ 8       

p]fections unit$ he creat$ 8 et]nal     
image1 ! ,son ( ,god2 ! bond betwe5 ,god
 repres5t+ & ,god repres5t$1 betwe5     
,fa!r & ,son1 is ! ,holy ,_s4 ,b :5 he  
conceiv$ 8 p]fections s+ly he creat$ !  
_w1 9 :i* ^! manife/ !mselves divid$    
among a cont9u\s s]ies ( p>ticul> be+s4 
,e individual is an isolat$ div9e       
p]fection2 ! ?+s 9 ! _w are limit$ gods1
 all liv+1 all ) s\ls1 & ( a spiritual  
nature1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t degrees4         
,developm5t is ev]y:]e2 at pres5t ! s\l 
has five s5ses1 b v probably x once _h  
less ?an five1 & 9 ! future x w h m4 ,at
 fir/ ! actions ( m5 7 guid$ by obscure 
in/9ct2 gradually ! reason obta9$       
influ5ce ov] ! w1 & "o day w gov]n x    
completely ?r\gh its cle> & di/9ct      
cognitions4 ,?us fre$om is atta9$ 9 !   
c\rse ( hi/ory--! rational & virtu\s man
 consci\sly obeys ! div9e ord] ( ! _w1  
:ile he :o is unfree obeys unconsci\sly4
  ,less+ %>es ) ! dei/ic ,illum9ation ! 
belief 9 a religion ( reason1 ^: basis &
 ess5tial cont5t are =m$ by morality2 b 

he rises f> above ?is level 9 t he      
reg>ds ! religion ( reason n z ! beg9n+ 
b z ! goal ( ! developm5t1 & ! positive 
religions z necess>y transition /ages 9 
its atta9m5t4 ,z natural religion diff]s
 9 ea* individual accord+ to 8 feel+s & 
p[]s1 )\t positive enactm5ts !re w\ld be
 no unity & community 9 religi\s matt]s4
 ,nev]!less ! /atutory & hi/orical      
elem5t is n a graft f )\t1 b a %ell     
organically gr[n ar\nd natural religion1
 indisp5sable = its developm5t1 & to be 
remov$ b gradually & by lay]s--:5 !     
inclos$ k]nel has become ripe & firm4 ,!
 hi/ory ( religions is an education ( ! 
human race ?r\gh div9e revelation2 s    
tea*es 8 small b ?\ghtful treatise (    
#aghj4a ,z ! education ( ! individual   
man puts no?+ extrane\s into him1 b only
 gives him m quickly & easily t :i* he  
c\ld h rea*$ ( himself1 s human reason  
is illum9at$ by revelation conc]n+ ?+s  
to :i* x c\ld h itself atta9$1 only t   
)\t ,god's help ! process w\ld h be5    
long] & m difficult--p]haps x w\ld h    

w&]$ ab\t = _m millions ( ye>s 9 !      
errors ( poly!ism1 if ,god _h n be5     
pleas$ by a s+le /roke 78 revelation to 
,moses7 to give x a bett] direction4 ,& 
z ! tea*] does n imp>t ev]y?+ to ! pupil
 at once1 b consid]s ! /ate ( developm5t
 rea*$ by him at ea* giv5 p]iod1 s ,god 
9 8 revelation obs]ves a c]ta9 ord] &   
measure4 ,to ! rude ,jewi% p he reveal$ 
himself fir/ z a national ,god1 z ! ,god
 ( _! fa!rs2 !y _h to wait = ! ,p]sians 
to tea* !m t ! ,god :om !y _h hi!rto    
wor%ip$ z ! mo/ p[]ful among o!r gods 0 
! only "o4 ,al?\gh ?is l[e/ /age 9 !    
developm5t ( religion lack$ ! belief 9  
immortality1 yet x mu/ n be lightly     
valu$2 let u ackn[l$ge t x 0 an h]oic   
ob$i5ce = m5 to obs]ve ! laws ( ,god    
simply because !y are ! laws ( ,god1 & n
 because ( temporal or future rew>ds6 ,!
 fir/ practical tea*] ( immortality 0   
,*ri/2 ) him ! second age ( religion    
beg9s3 ! fir/ good book ( elem5t>y      
in/ruction1 ! ,old ,te/am5t1 f :i* man  
_h hi!rto le>n$1 0 foll[$ by ! second1  

bett] "o1 ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,z we n[ c   
disp5se ) ! fir/ prim] 9 reg>d to !     
doctr9e ( ! unity ( ,god1 & z we        
gradually beg9 to be able to disp5se ) !
 second 9 reg>d to ! doctr9e ( !        
immortality ( ! s\l1 s ?is ,new ,te/am5t
 may easily conta9 /ill fur!r tru?s1 :i*
 = ! pres5t we wond] at z revelations1  
until ! reason %all le>n to d]ive !m f  
o!r tru?s already e/abli%$4 ,less+      
himself makes an attempt at a           
philosophical int]pretation ( ! dogmas (
 ! ,tr9ity 7see above71 ( orig9al s91 & 
( atonem5t4 ,su* an advance f fai? to k1
 su* a developm5t ( reveal$ tru?s into  
prov$ tru?s ( reason1 is absolutely     
necess>y4 ,we _c disp5se ) ! tru?s (    
revelation1 b we mu/ n rema9 cont5t )   
simply believ+ !m1 b mu/ endeavor to    
compreh5d !m2 = !y h be5 reveal$ 9 ord] 
t !y may become rational4 ,!y are1 z x  
71 ! sum :i* ! tea*] ( ari?metic tells 8
 pupils be=eh& s t !y may guide !mselves
 by x2 b if !y cont5t !mselves ) ?is    
solution--:i* 0 giv5 m]ely z a guide--!y

 w\ld nev] le>n to calculate4 ,h& 9 h& )
 ! advance ( ! und]/&+ goes ! progress (
 ! w4 ,future recomp5ses1 :i* ! ,new    
,te/am5t promises z rew>ds ( virtue1 are
 means ( education1 & w gradually fall  
into disuse3 9 ! highe/ /age1 ! /age (  
purity ( he>t1 virtue w be lov$ &       
practic$ = its own sake1 & no long] = ! 
sake ( heav5ly rew>ds4 ,sl[ly b surely1 
along devi\s pa?s :i* are yet salut>y1  
we are be+ l$ t[>d t great goal4 ,x w   
surely come1 ! "t ( consummation1 :5 man
 w d ! good because x is good1 ?is "t ( 
! new1 et]nal ,gospel1 ?is ?ird age1 ?is
 ,*ri/ianity ( reason4 ,cont9ue1 ,et]nal
 ,provid5ce1 ?9e imp]ceptible m>*2 let  
me n despair ( !e because x is          
imp]ceptible1 n ev5 :5 to me ?y /eps    
seem to lead backw>d4 ,x is n true t !  
/raight l9e is always ! %orte/4         
,footnote #a3 ,die ,erziehung des       
,m5s*5ges*lects4  ,) ! ?\ght t e        
individual mu/ trav]se ! same c\rse z t 
by :i* ! race atta9s its p]fection1     
,less+ connects ! idea ( !              

transmigration ( s\ls4 ,:y may n !      
individual man h be5 pres5t 9 ?is _w m  
?an once8 ,is ?is hypo!sis s ridicul\s  
because x is ! olde/8  ,if ,less+ ab&on$
 ! ranks ( ! dei/s by 8 recognition ( ! 
fact t ! positive religions conta9 tru? 
9 a gradual process ( purification1 by 8
 free criticism1 on ! o!r h&1 he broke )
 ! or?odox1 ^: idolatr\s rev]5ce = !    
,bible 0 to him an abom9ation4 ,! lett] 
is n ! _s1 ! ,bible is n religion1 nor  
yet its f\ndation1 b only its records4  
,cont+5t hi/orical tru?s c nev] s]ve z a
 pro( ( ! necess>y tru?s ( reason4      
,*ri/ianity is old] ?an ! ,new ,te/am5t4
  ,already1 9 ! case ( ,less+1 we may   
d\bt1 9 view ( 8 hi/orical temp] & (    
c]ta9 speculative t5d5cies1 :e!r he is  
to be includ$ among ! ,illum9ati4 ,9 !  
case ( ,kant a decid$ prote/ mu/ be     
rais$ aga9/ su* a classification4 ,:5   
,hegel numb]s him among ! philosoph]s ( 
! ,illum9ation1 on acc\nt ( 8 lack (    
rational intuition1 & "s !ologians on   
acc\nt ( 8 religi\s rationalism1 ! answ]

 to ! =m] is t ,kant did n lack !       
speculative gift1 b only t x 0 surpass$ 
by 8 gift ( reflection1 &1 to ! latt]1 t
 9 reg>d to ! positive elem5t 9 religion
 he judg$ v diff]5tly f ! dei/s &       
appreciat$ ! hi/orical elem5t m ju/ly   
?an !y--if n to ! same ext5t z ,less+ & 
,h]d]4 ,we d n ne$ to lay great /ress on
 ! fact t ,kant _h a lively consci\sness
 t he 0 mak+ a contribution to ?\ght1 & 
t ! ,illum9ation contemplat$ ?is new    
doctr9e )\t compreh5d+ x1 9 ord] to     
recognize t ! diff]5ce betwe5 8 ef=ts & 
a*ievem5ts & ^? ( ! ,illum9ation is f>  
great] ?an _! k9%ip4 ,= al?\gh ,kant is 
^u common gr\nd ) x1 9 s f> z he adh]es 
to its motto1 ,h c\rage to use ?9e own  
und]/&+1 become a man1 cease to tru/    
?yself to ! guidance ( o!rs1 & free     
?yself 9 all fields f ! yoke ( au?ority1
 &1 al?\gh besides su* =mal injunctions 
to fre$om ( ?\ght1 he also %>es 9 c]ta9 
mat]ial t5d5cies & convictions 7! turn+ 
f ! _w to man1 ! attempt at a syn!sis ( 
reason & exp]i5ce1 & ! belief 9 a       

religion ( reason72 yet 9 me?od &       
results1 he /&s l a giant among a race (
 dw>fs1 l "o in/ruct$1 :o judges f      
pr9ciples1 among m5 ( op9ion1 :o m]ely  
/ick results toge!r1 a me?odical        
sy/ematiz] among well-mean+ b impot5t   
eclectics4 ,! philosophy ( !            
,illum9ation is relat$ to t ( ,kant z   
argum5t to sci5ce1 z halt+ m$iation to  
pr9cipiant resolution1 z pat*work to    
creation out ( full res\rces1 yet at !  
same "t z wi% to de$ & z negative       
prep>ation to positive a*ievem5t4 ,x 0  
und5iably ( great value to ! ,kantian   
criticism t ! ,illum9ation _h creat$ a  
po9t ( int]section = ! v>i\s t5d5cies ( 
?\ght1 & _h br\ght ab\t ! approximation 
& mutual contact ( ! oppos+ sy/ems :i*  
!n exi/$1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 x _h      
crumbl$ !m to pieces1 & ?us awak5$ ! ne$
 = a new1 m firmly & m deeply f\nd$     
sy/em4   #d4 ,! ,fai? ,philosophy4  ,!  
philosoph]s ( feel+ or fai? /& 9 ! same 
relation to ! ,g]man ,illum9ation z     
,r\sseau to ! ,fr5*4 ,"h also ! rights (

 feel+ are v9dicat$ aga9/ ^? ( ! kn[+   
reason4 ,among ! di/+ui%$ repres5tatives
 ( ?is anti-rationali/ic t5d5cy ,hamann 
l$ ! way1 ,h]d] 0 ! mo/ prolific1 &     
,jacobi ! cle>e/4 ,t ! f\nta9 ( c]titude
 is to be s\ght n 9 discrim9at+ ?\ght1 b
 9 intuition1 exp]i5ce1 revelation1 &   
tradition2 t ! highe/ tru?s c be felt   
only & n prov$2 t all exi/+ ?+s are     
incompreh5sible1 because individual--^! 
are convictions :i*1 be=e ,jacobi def5d$
 !m z bas$ on sci5tific pr9ciples1 _h   
be5 vehem5tly proclaim$ by t s+ul> man1 
,j4,g4 ,hamann 7di$ #aghh7 ( ,knigsb]g4 
,f an unpr9t$ review by ,hamann1 ,h]d]  
drew ! objections :i* 8 ,metacritique   
raises aga9/ ,kant's ,critique (        
,reason--t ! division ( matt] & =m1 (   
s5sibility & und]/&+1 is inadmissible2 t
 ,kant misund]/ood ! significance (     
language1 :i* is j :]e s5sibility &     
und]/&+ unite1 etc4  ,9 ,h]d]#a         
7#agdd-ahjc3 aft] #aggf                 
,sup]9t5d5t-,g5]al 9 ,weim>7 !          
philosophy ( feel+ ga9$ a f9]1 m        

p]spicu\s & h>moni\s nature1 :o %>$     
,less+'s int]e/ 9 hi/ory & 8 t5d5cy to  
hold fa/ equally to pan!ism & to        
individualism4 ,god is ! all-"o1        
inf9ite1 spiritual 7non-p]sonal7 primal 
=ce1 :i* :olly reveals itself 9 ea* ?+  
7,god3 ,dialogues on ! ,sy/em ( ,sp9oza1
 #aghg74 ,to ! life1 p[]1 wisdom1 &     
goodness ( ,god correspond ! life &     
p]fection ( ! univ]se & ( individual    
creatures1 ea* ( :i* possesses its own  
irreplaceable value & be>s 9 itself its 
future 9 g]m4 ,ev]y:]e1 "o & ! same life
 9 an asc5d+ s]ies ( p[]s & =ms )       
imp]ceptible transitions4 ,always1 an   
inn] & an out] toge!r2 no p[] )\t organ1
 no _s )\t a body4 ,z ?\ght is only a   
high] /age ( s5sation1 :i* develops f ! 
l[] by means ( language--reason1 l s5se1
 is n a productive b a receptive faculty
 ( kn[+1 p]ceiv+ 7,v]nehm57--s ! free   
process ( hi/ory is only ! cont9uation &
 completion ( ! nature-process 7,ideas =
 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,mank9d1   
#aghd seq474 ,man1 ! la/ *ild ( nature &

 h] fir/ fre$man1 is ! nodal po9t :]e ! 
physical s]ies ( ev5ts *anges into !    
e?ical2 ! la/ memb] ( ! organisms ( e>? 
is at ! same "t ! fir/ 9 ! spiritual    
developm5t4 ,! mission ( hi/ory is !    
unfold+ ( all ! p[]s :i* nature has     
conc5trat$ 9 man z ! comp5dium ( ! _w2  
its law1 t ev]y:]e on our e>? ev]y?+ be 
realiz$ t c be realiz$ !re2 its end1    
humanity & ! h>moni\s developm5t ( all  
our capacities4 ,z nature =ms a s+le    
great organism1 & f ! /one to man       
describes a connect$ developm5t1 s      
humanity is a "o great individual :i*   
passes ?r\gh its sev]al ages1 f infancy 
7! ,ori5t71 ?r\gh boyhood 7,eygpt &     
,pho5icia71 y\? 7,greece71 & manhood    
7,rome71 to old age 7! ,*ri/ian _w74 ,! 
_s /&s 9 ! close/ dep5d5ce ^u nature1 & 
nature is conc]n$ 9 hi/ory ?r\gh\t4 ,!  
f9] organization ( 8 bra91 ! possession 
( h&s1 above all1 8 erect position1 make
 man1 man & end[ him ) reason4 ,simil>ly
 x is natural conditions1 climate1 ! "* 
( ! soil1 ! surr\nd+ animal & vegetable 

life1 etc41 t play an ess5tial "p 9     
det]m9+ ! mann]s1 ! *>act]s1 & ! de/9ies
 ( nations4 ,! connection ( nature )    
hi/ory by means ( ! concept ( developm5t
 & ?r\gh ! idea t ! two m]ely repres5t  
diff]5t /ages ( ! same fundam5tal       
process1 made ,h]d] ! =]unn] ( ,s*ell+4 
,footnote #a3 ,on ,h]d] cf4 ! biography 
by ,r4 ,haym1 #b vols41 #ahgg1 #ahhe2 & 
! "w by ,witte :i* has be5 ref]r$ to    
above 7p4 #cjf1 note74  ,8 polemic aga9/
 ,kant 9 ! ,metacritique1 #agii 7aga9/ !
 ,critique ( ,pure ,reason71 & !        
dialogue ,calligone1 #ahjj 7aga9/ !     
,critique ( ,judgm5t71 is less pleas+4  
,^! are nei!r dignifi$ 9 tone nor       
ess5tially ( mu* importance4 ,9 ! =m] ! 
di/9ction betwe5 s5sibility & reason is 
c5sur$1 & 9 ! latt] ! sep>ation ( !     
beautiful f ! true & ! good1 b ,kant's  
!ory ( ae/hetics is = ! mo/ "p grossly  
misund]/ood4 ,! dis9t]e/$ satisfaction  
,h]d] makes a cold satisfaction2 !      
h>moni\s activity ( ! cognitive p[]s1 a 
t$i\s1 api% sport2 ! satisfaction )\t a 

concept1 judgm5t )\t gr\nd or cause4 ,! 
positive elem5ts 9 8 own views are m    
valuable4 ,pleasure 9 m]e =m1 )\t a     
concept1 & )\t ! idea ( an end1 is      
impossible4 ,all beauty mu/ mean or     
express some?+1 mu/ be a symbol ( inn]  
life2 its gr\nd is p]fection or         
adaptation4 ,beauty is t symmetrical    
union ( ! p>ts ( a be+1 9 virtue ( :i* x
 feels well itself & gives pleasure to !
 obs]v]1 :o sympa!tically %>es 9 ?is    
well-be+4 ,! *>m & value ( ! ,calligone 
lie m 9 ! w>m? & cle>ness ) :i* !       
expressive beauty ( s+le natural ph5om5a
 is describ$ ?an 9 ! ab/ract discussion4
  ,fri$ri* ,he9ri* ,jacobi 7#agdc-ahai7 
gave ! mo/ detail$ /atem5t ( ! position 
( ! philosophy ( feel+1 & ! mo/ c>eful  
pro( ( x4 ,he 0 born 9 ,dsseldorf1 ! son
 ( a manufactur]2 until #agid he liv$ 9 
8 native place & at 8 c\ntry resid5ce 9 
,pempel=t2 lat] he resid$ 9 ,hol/e91 &1 
f #ahje1 9 ,muni*1 :]e1 9 #ahjg-ac1 he 0
 presid5t ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,( 8 
works1 collect$ 9 five volumes1         

#ahab-be1 we are "h *iefly conc]n$ ) !  
lett]s ,on ! ,doctr9e ( ,sp9oza1 #aghe2 
,david ,hume on ,fai?1 or ,idealism &   
,realism1 #aghg2 & ! treatise ,on ,div9e
 ,?+s1 #ahaa1 :i* call$ out ,s*ell+'s   
m]ciless response1 ,memorial ( ,jacobi4 
,besides ,hume & ,sp9oza1 !             
s5sationalism ( ,bonnet & ! criticism ( 
,kant _h made ! mo/ la/+ impression on  
,jacobi4 ,8 relation to ,kant is nei!r t
 ( an oppon5t nor ( a support] &        
popul>iz]4 ,he decl>es himself 9 accord 
) ,kant's critique ( ! und]/&+ 7!       
und]/&+ is m]ely a =mal function1 "o :i*
 =ms & comb9es concepts only1 b does n  
gu>antee reality1 "o to :i* ! mat]ial ( 
?\ght mu/ be giv5 f else:]e & = :i* !   
supras5sible rema9s unatta9able72 9     
reg>d to ! critique ( reason he raises !
 objection t x2 makes ! ,ideas m]e      
po/ulates1 :i* possess no gu>antee = _! 
reality4 ,! critique ( s5sibility appe>s
 to him /ill m unsatisfactory1 z x does 
n expla9 ! orig9 ( s5sations4 ,)\t !    
concept ( ! ?+-9-itself "o _c ent] !    

,kantian philosophy1 & ) x "o _c rema9  
!re4 ,fi*te has drawn ! correct         
conclusion f ! ,kantian premises2       
idealism is ! unavoidable result ( !    
,critique ( ,reason & =etold by2 x z !  
,messiah 0 =etold by ,john ! ,bapti/4 ,&
 by ! evil fruit we "k ! evil root3 !   
ideali/ic !ory is philosophical         
nihilism1 = x d5ies ! reality ( !       
ext]nal _w1 z ! mat]ialism ( ,sp9oza    
d5ies a transc5d5t ,god & ! fre$om ( !  
w4 ,reality slips away f bo? ^!         
sy/ems--!y are ! only consi/5t ones !re 
are--mat]ial reality escap+ f ! =m] &   
supras5sible reality f ! latt]2 & ?is   
mu/ be s1 because reality1 ( :atev] k9d 
x be1 _c be kn[n1 b only believ$ & felt4
 ,! actual1 ! exi/5ce ( ! n\m5al z well 
z ( ! ext]nal _w1 ev5 ! exi/5ce ( our   
own body1 makes itself kn[n to u ?r\gh  
revelation alone2 ! und]/&+ compreh5ds  
relations only2 ! c]ta9ty t a ?+ exi/s  
is atta9$ only ?r\gh exp]i5ce & fai?4   
,s5se & reason are ! organs ( fai?1 &   
h5ce ! true s\rces ( k2 ! =m] appreh5ds 

! natural1 ! latt]1 ! sup]natural1 :ile 
= ! und]/&+ is left only ! analysis &   
comb9ation ( giv5 intuitions4           
,philosophy z a sci5ce f concepts mu/   
necess>ily prove a!i/ic & fatali/ic4    
,conception & pro( mean d$uction f      
conditions4 ,h[ %all t :i* has no cause 
f :i* to expla9 x1 ! uncondition$1 ,god1
 & fre$om1 be compreh5d$ & prov$8       
,demon/ration rises along ! *a9 ( causes
 to ! univ]se alone1 n to a transc5d5t  
,creator2 m$iate k is conf9$ to ! sph]e 
( condition$ be+ & me*anical becom+4 ,! 
intuitive k ( feel+ alone leads u beyond
 ?is1 & along ) ! wond]ful1 !           
inconceivable p[] ( fre$om 9 ourselves1 
:i* is above all nature1 %[s u ! primal 
s\rce ( all wond]s1 ! transc5d5t ,god   
above u4 ,! inf]5ce f our own spiritual1
 self-consci\s1 free p]sonality to t (  
,god is no unau?oriz$ an?ropomorphism--9
 ! k ( ,god we may fe>lessly deify our  
human exi/5ce1 because ,god1 :5 he      
creat$ man1 gave 8 div9e nature human   
=m4 ,reason & fre$om are ! same3 ! =m]  

is !oretical1 ! latt] practical         
elevation to ! supras5sible4 ,nev]!less 
virtue is n bas$ ^u an inflexible1      
despotic1 ab/ractly1 =mal law1 b ^u an  
in/9ct1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n aim at       
happ9ess4 ,?us ,jacobi attempts to      
m$iate betwe5 ! e?ics ( ! ,illum9ation &
 ! e?ics ( ,kant1 by agree+ ) ! =m] 9   
reg>d to ! orig9 ( virtue 7x arises f a 
natural impulse71 & ) ! latt] 9 reg>d to
 its nature 7x consi/s 9 dis9t]e/$ness74
 ,h5ce ) ! ,illum9ation he rejects !    
imp]ative =m1 & ) ,kant ! eudemoni/ic   
end4 ,at ! same "t he endeavors to      
introduce ,h]d]'s idea ( individuality  
into e?ics1 by dem&+ t morality assume a
 special =m 9 ea* man4 ,s*ill] & !      
romantic s*ool take f ,jacobi _! ideal (
 ! beautiful s\l1 :i* f natural impulse 
realizes 9 its action1 & /ill m 9 its   
be+1 ! good 9 an individual way4        
,,"p ,,ii4 ,,f ,,kant ,,to ,,! ,,pres5t 
,,"t4    ,,*apt] ,,ix4  ,,kant4  ,! suit
 betwe5 empiricism & rationalism _h     
cont9u$ = c5turies1 b /ill await$ f9al  

decision4 ,are all our ideas ! result ( 
exp]i5ce1 or are !y 7:olly or 9 "p7 an  
orig9al possession ( ! m9d8 ,are !y     
receiv$ f )\t 7by p]ception71 or produc$
 f )9 7by self-activity78 ,is k a       
product ( s5sation or ( pure ?\ght8 ,all
 :o _h ?us f> tak5 "p 9 ?is discussion  
_h resembl$ p>tisans or advocates r ?an 
dis9t]e/$ judges4 ,!y _h giv5 less      
att5tion to inve/igation ?an to ! def5se
 ( ! traditional !ses ( _! s*ools2 !y _h
 n endeavor$ to obta9 results1 b to     
e/abli% results already det]m9$2 &1     
along ) real argum5ts1 popul> appeals _h
 n be5 despis$4 ,ea* ( ! oppos+ s*ools  
_h giv5 v>iations on a def9ite !me1 &   
:5ev] timid attempts _h be5 made to br+ 
! two melodies into h>mony !y _h met )  
no approval4 ,! proce$+s ?us f> _h at   
lea/ made x evid5t to ! unbias$ he>] t  
ea* ( ! two p>ties made extravagant     
claims1 &1 9 ! end1 fell into           
self-contradiction4 ,if ! claim (       
empiricism is true1 t all our concepts  
arise f p]ception1 !n n only ! sci5ce ( 

! supras5sible1 :i* x d5ies1 b also !   
sci5ce ( ! objects ( exp]i5ce1 ab\t :i* 
x conc]ns itself1 is impossible4 ,=     
p]ception in=ms u conc]n+ s+le cases    
m]ely1 x c nev] compreh5d all cases1 x  
yields no necess>y & univ]sal tru?2 b k 
:i* is n apodictically valid = e reason+
 be+ & = all cases is n wor?y ! "n4 ,! v
 reasons :i* 7 int5d$ to prove !        
possibility ( k give a direct inf]5ce to
 its impossibility4 ,! empirical        
philosophy de/roys itself1 end+ ) ,hume 
9 skepticism & probabilism4 ,rationalism
 is ov]tak5 by a diff]5t1 & yet an      
analog\s fate--x breaks up into a popul>
 eclecticism4 ,x believes t x has       
discov]$ an infallible crit]ion ( tru? 9
 ! cle>ness & di/9ctness ( ideas1 & a   
sure example = philosophical me?od 9 !  
me?od ( ma!matics4 ,9 bo? po9ts x is    
wrong4 ,! crit]ion ( tru? is            
insuffici5t1 = ,sp9oza & ,leibnitz built
 up _! oppos+ !ories--! pan!ism ( ! "o &
 ! monadology ( ! o!r--f equally cle> & 
di/9ct conceptions2 tri$ by ?is /&>d    

individualism is j z true z pan!ism4    
,ma!matics1 aga91 does n owe its        
unque/ion$ acceptance & cog5t =ce to !  
cle>ness & di/9ctness ( its conceptions1
 b to ! fact t ^! are capable (         
con/ruction 9 intuition4 ,! di/9ction   
betwe5 ma!matics & metaphysics 0        
ov]look$1 namely1 t ma!matical ?\ght c  
trans=m its conceptions into intuitions1
 c g5]ate its objects or s5su\sly pres5t
 !m1 :i* philosophical ?\ght is n 9 a   
position to d4 ,! objects ( ! latt] mu/ 
be giv5 to x1 & to ! human m9d !y are   
giv5 9 no o!r way ?an ?r\gh s5su\s      
intuition4 ,metaphysics seeks to be a   
sci5ce ( ! real1 b x is impossible to   
conjure be+ out ( ?\ght2 reality _c be  
prov$ f concepts1 x c only be felt4 ,9  
mak+ ! unp]ceivable & supras5sible 7!   
real nature ( ?+s1 ! totality ( ! _w1 ! 
,deity1 & immortality7 ! special object 
( philosophy1 rationalism look$ on !    
und]/&+ z a faculty ( k by :i* objects  
are giv54 ,9 reality objects c nev] be  
giv5 ?r\gh concepts2 ^! only r5d] x     

possible to ?9k objects giv5 9 "s o!r   
way 7by intuition74 ,x is true t        
concepts ( ! supras5sible exi/1 b no?+ c
 be kn[n ?r\gh !m1 !re is no?+          
intuitively giv5 to be subsum$ "u !m4   
,) ?is failure to p]ceive ! intuitive   
elem5t 9 ma!matics 0 jo9$ ! mi/ake (    
ov]look+ its syn!tic "*4 ,! syllogi/ic  
me?od ( pres5tation employ$ 9 !         
,euclidean geometry l$ to ! belief t ! m
 special !orems _h be5 d]iv$ f ! simpl] 
ones1 & ^! f ! axioms1 by a process (   
conceptual analysis2 :ile ! fact is t 9 
ma!matics all progress is by intuition  
alone1 ! syllogism s]v+ m]ely to =mulate
 & expla9 tru?s already atta9$1 b n to  
supply new ones4 ,foll[+ ! example (    
ma!matics ?us misund]/ood1 ! mission (  
philosophy 0 made to consi/ 9 !         
developm5t ( ! tru?s slumb]+ 9 pregnant 
fir/ pr9ciples by means ( logical       
analysis4 ,if only !re 7 metaphysical   
axioms6 ,if we only did n dem&1 & 7 n   
compell$ to dem&1 ( true sci5ce t x     
increase our k1 & n m]ely give an       

analytical explanation ( k4 ,:5 once !  
cle>ness & di/9ctness ( conceptions _h  
be5 tak5 9 s purely =mal a s5se1 x 0    
inevitable t 9 ! end1 z productivity    
became less1 ! pr9ciple %\ld be weak5$  
d[n to a m]e dem& = ! explanation &     
elucidation ( ! metaphysical ideas      
pres5t 9 popul> consci\sness4 ,?us !    
rationali/ic curr5t lo/ itself 9 ! %all[
 wat]s ( ! ,illum9ation1 :i* soon gave z
 ready a welcome to ! empirical         
!ories--s9ce ^! also 7 able to          
legitimate !mselves by cle> & di/9ct    
conceptions--z x _h giv5 to ! results ( 
! rationali/ic sy/ems4  ,x 0 ?us easy to
 see t ea* ( ! cont5d+ p>ties _h be5    
guilty ( "o-sid$ness1 & t 9 ord] to     
escape ?is a c]ta9 mean mu/ be assum$   
betwe5 ! two extremes2 b x 0 a mu* m    
difficult matt] to discov] ! due middle 
gr\nd4 ,nei!r ( ! oppos+ /&po9ts is s   
correct z its def5d]s believe1 & nei!r s
 false z its oppon5ts ma9ta94 ,:]e1 !n1 
on ei!r side1 does ! mi/ak5 n>r[ness    
beg91 & h[ f> does ! ju/ification ( ea* 

ext5d8  ,! conflict c5t]s1 fir/1 ab\t ! 
"q conc]n+ ! orig9 ( human k & ! sph]e (
 its validity4 ,rationalism is ju/ifi$  
:5 x ass]ts t "s ideas d n come f !     
s5ses4 ,if k is to be possible1 "s      
concepts _c orig9ate 9 p]ception1 ^?1   
namely1 by :i* k is con/itut$1 = if !y  
%\ld1 x w\ld lack univ]sality &         
necessity4 ,! sole organ ( univ]sally   
valid k is reason4 ,empiricism1 on ! o!r
 h&1 is ju/ifi$ :5 x ass]ts t !         
exp]i5tial alone is kn[able4 ,:atev] is 
to be kn[able mu/ be giv5 z a real 9    
s5su\s intuition4 ,! only organ (       
reality is s5sibility4 ,rationalism     
judges correctly conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! mo/
 important classes ( ideas2 empiricism  
conc]n+ ! sph]e ( _! validity4 ,! two   
may be ?us comb9$3 "s concepts 7^? :i*  
produce k7 take _! orig9 9 reason or are
 a priori1 b !y are valid = objects (   
exp]i5ce alone4 ,! conflict conc]ns1    
secondly1 ! use ( ! d$uctive            
7syllogi/ic7 or ! inductive me?od4      
,empiricism1 ?r\gh its f\nd] ,bacon1 _h 

recomm5d$ induction 9 place ( ! b>r5    
syllogi/ic me?od1 z ! only me?od :i*    
w\ld lead to new discov]ies4 ,x dem&s1  
above all ?+s1 ! ext5sion ( k4          
,rationalism1 on ! contr>y1 held fa/ to 
! d$uctive me?od1 because ! syllogism   
alone1 9 its view1 furni%es k valid =   
all rational be+s4 ,x dem&s1 fir/ ( all1
 univ]sality & necessity 9 k4 ,induction
 has ! advantage ( increas+ k1 b x leads
 only to empirical & comp>ative1 n to   
/rict univ]sality4 ,! syllogism has !   
advantage ( yield+ univ]sal & necess>y  
tru?1 b x c only explicate & e/abli% k1 
n increase x4 ,may x n be possible s to 
d ju/ice to ! dem&s ( bo? t ! advantages
 :i* !y seek %all be comb9$1 & !        
disadvantages :i* h be5 fe>$1 avoid$8   
,are !re n cognitions :i* increase our k
 7are syn!tic7 )\t be+ empirical1 :i*   
are univ]sally & necess>ily valid 7a    
priori7 )\t be+ analytic8 ,f ^!         
consid]ations arises ! ma9 "q ( !       
,critique ( ,pure ,reason3 ,h[ are      
syn!tic judgm5ts a priori possible8  ,! 

philosophy ( exp]i5ce _h ov]e/imat$ s5se
 & und]e/imat$ ! und]/&+1 :5 x f\nd !   
s\rce ( all k 9 ! faculty ( p]ception & 
degrad$ ! faculty ( ?\ght to an almo/   
:olly inactive recipi5t ( messages com+ 
to x f )\t4 ,f ! /&po9t ( empiricism    
concepts 7,ideas7 des]ve confid5ce only 
9 s f> z !y c legitimate !mselves by _! 
orig9 9 s5sations 7impressions74 ,x     
ov]looks ! active "* ( all kn[+4 ,among 
! rationali/s1 on ! o!r h&1 we f9d an   
und]e/imation ( ! s5ses & an            
ov]e/imation ( ! und]/&+4 ,!y believe t 
s5se reveals only ! deceptive ext]ior ( 
?+s1 :ile reason gives _! true          
non-s5su\s ess5ce4 ,t :i* ! m9d p]ceives
 ( ?+s is deceptive1 b t :i* x ?9ks     
conc]n+ !m is true4 ,! =m] p[] is !     
faculty ( confus$1 ! latt] ! faculty (  
di/9ct k4 ,s5se is ! enemy r ?an !      
s]vant ( true k1 :i* consi/s 9 !        
developm5t & explication ( pregnant     
innate conceptions & pr9ciples4 ,^!     
philosoph]s =get t we c nev] rea*       
reality by conceptual analysis2 & t !   

s5ses h a f> great] importance = k ?an  
m]ely to give x an impulse2 t x is !y   
:i* supply ! und]/&+ ) real objects1 & s
 ) ! cont5t ( k4 ,beside ! 7=mal7       
activity 7( ! und]/&+71 cognition       
implies a passive factor1 a reception ( 
impressions4 ,nei!r s5se alone nor !    
und]/&+ alone produces k1 b bo?         
cognitive p[]s are necess>y1 ! active & 
! passive1 ! conceptual & ! intuitive4  
,"h ! "q arises1 ,h[ d concept &        
intuition1 s5su\s & rational k1 diff]1 &
 :at is ! basis ( _! congru5ce8 ,not)/&+
 _! diff]5t po9ts ( dep>ture & _! v>iant
 results1 ! two ma9 t5d5cies ( mod]n    
philosophy agree 9 c]ta9 po9ts4 ,if !   
conflict betwe5 ! two s*ools & _!       
"o-sid$ness sugge/$ ! idea ( supplem5t+ 
! conclusions ( ! "o by ^? ( ! o!r1 !   
recognition ( ! incorrectness ( _!      
common convictions furni%$ ! occasion to
 g beyond !m & to e/abli% a new1 a high]
 po9t ( view above !m bo?1 z also above 
! eclecticism :i* s\ght to unite !      
oppos+ pr9ciples4 ,! errors common to   

bo? conc]n1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! nature (  
judgm5t & ! diff]5ce betwe5 s5sibility &
 und]/&+4 ,nei!r side _h recogniz$ t !  
peculi> "* ( judgm5t consi/s 9 active   
connection4 ,! rationali/s made judgm5t 
an active function1 x is true1 b a m]e  
activity ( consci\s developm5t1 (       
elucidation & analytical inf]5ce1 :i*   
does n advance k a s+le /ep4 ,!         
empirici/s describ$ x z a process (     
comp>ison & discrim9ation1 z ! m]e      
p]ception & recognition ( ! relations & 
connections already exi/+ betwe5 ideas2 
:ile 9 reality judgm5t does n discov] ! 
relations & connections (               
repres5tations1 b itself e/abli%es !m4  
,9 ! =m] case ! syn!tic mom5t is ignor$1
 9 ! latt] ! active mom5t4 ,! imp]fect  
view ( judgm5t 0 "o ( ! reasons = !     
appe>ance ( extreme !ories conc]n+ !    
orig9 ( ideas 9 reason or 9 p]ception4  
,rationalism reg>ds ev5 ^? concepts :i* 
h a cont5t z innate1 :]eas x is only    
=mal concepts :i* are s4 ,empiricism    
reg>ds all1 ev5 ! highe/ =mal concepts  

7! categories71 z ab/ract$ f exp]i5ce1  
:]eas exp]i5ce furni%es only ! cont5t ( 
k1 & n ! syn!sis :i* is necess>y to x4  
,on ! "o h& too mu*1 & on ! o!r too     
little1 is reg>d$ z ! orig9al possession
 ( ! und]/&+4 ,! "q ,:at concepts are   
innate8 c be decid$ only by answ]+ !    
fur!r "q1 ,:at are ! concepts ?r\gh :i* 
! faculty ( judgm5t connects !          
repres5tations obta9$ f exp]i5ce8 ,^!   
connective concepts1 ^! =mal in/rum5ts (
 syn!sis are a priori4 ,! agreem5t ( !  
two s*ools is /ill great] 9 reg>d to !  
relation ( s5se & und]/&+1 not)/&+ !    
app>5tly %>p contra/ betwe5 !m4 ,!      
empirici/ consid]s ?\ght trans=m$1      
sublimat$ p]ception1 :ile ! rationali/  
sees 9 p]ception only confus$ & less    
di/9ct ?\ght4 ,= ! =m] concepts are fad$
 images ( s5sations1 = ! latt] s5sations
 are concepts :i* h n yet become cle>2 !
 diff]5ce is sc>cely great] ?an if ! "o 
%\ld call ice froz5 wat]1 & ! o!r %\ld  
pref] to call wat] melt$ ice4 ,bo?      
arrange intuition & ?\ght 9 a s+le      

s]ies1 & d]ive ! "o f ! o!r by          
enhancem5t or att5uation4 ,bo? make !   
mi/ake ( recogniz+ only a diff]5ce 9    
degree :]e a diff]5ce 9 k9d exi/s4 ,9   
su* a case only an en]getic dualism c   
af=d help4 ,s5se & und]/&+ are n "o & ! 
same cognitive p[] at diff]5t /ages1 b  
two het]og5e\s faculties4 ,s5sation &   
?\ght are n diff]5t 9 degree1 b 9 k9d4  
,z ,desc>tes began ) ! metaphysical     
dualism ( ext5sion & ?\ght1 s ,kant     
beg9s ) ! notical dualism ( intuition & 
?\ght4  ,mu* m s]i\s1 h[ev]1 ?an any ( !
 mi/akes yet m5tion$ 0 a s9 ( omission (
 :i* ! two s*ools 7 alike guilty1 & !   
recognition & avoidance ( :i* con/itut$ 
9 ,kant's own eyes ! di/9ctive "* ( 8   
philosophy & its pr9cipiant-advance     
beyond prec$+ sy/ems4 ,! pre-,kantian   
?9k] _h proce$$ to ! discussion ( k )\t 
rais+ ! "q ( ! possibility ( k4 ,he _h  
approa*$ ?+s 9 ! full confid5ce t !     
human m9d 0 capable ( cogniz+ !m1 & ) a 
nave tru/ 9 ! p[] ( reason to possess   
itself ( ! tru?4 ,8 tru/ 0 nave & +5u\s1

 because ! idea t x c\ld deceive him _h 
nev] ent]$ 8 m9d4 ,n[ no matt] :e!r ?is 
belief 9 man's capacity = k & 9 !       
possibility ( kn[+ ?+s is ju/ifiable or 
n1 & no matt] h[ f> x may be ju/ifiable1
 x 0 9 any case unte/$2 s t :5 ! skeptic
 approa*$ ) 8 objections ! dogmati/ 0   
def5seless4 ,all previ\s philosophy1 s  
f> z x _h n be5 skeptical1 _h be51      
accord+ to ,kant's expression1 dogmatic2
 t is1 x _h held z an article ( fai?1 & 
)\t prec$5t inquiry1 t we possess ! p[] 
( cogniz+ objects4 ,x _h n ask$ h[ ?is  
is possible2 x _h n ev5 ask$ :at k is1  
:at may & mu/ be dem&$ ( x1 & by :at    
means our reason is 9 a position to     
satisfy su* dem&s4 ,x _h left human     
intellig5ce & its ext5t un9ve/igat$4 ,! 
skeptic1 on ! o!r h&1 _h be5 no m       
?or\gh4 ,he _h d\bt$ & d5i$ man's       
capacity = k j z uncritically z !       
dogmati/ _h believ$ & presuppos$ x4 ,he 
_h direct$ 8 +5uity aga9/ ! !ories (    
dogmatic philosophy1 in/ead ( t[>d !    
fundam5tal "q ( ! possibility ( k4      

,human intellig5ce1 :i* ! dogmati/ _h   
approa*$ ) unreason$ tru/ & ! skeptic ) 
j z unreason$ di/ru/1 is subject$1      
accord+ to ! plan ( ! critical          
philosoph]1 to a se>*+ exam9ation4 ,=   
?is reason ,kant t]m$ 8 /&po9t          
criticism1 & 8 und]tak+ a ,critique (   
,reason4 ,in/ead ( ass]t+ & d5y+1 he    
inve/igates h[ k arises1 ( :at factors x
 is compos$1 & h[ f> x ext5ds4 ,he      
inquires into ! orig9 & ext5t ( k1 into 
its s\rces & its limits1 into ! gr\nds (
 its exi/5ce & ( its legitimacy4 ,!     
,critique ( ,reason f9ds itself         
confront$ by two problems1 ! second (   
:i* _c be solv$ until aft] ! solution ( 
! fir/4 ,! inve/igation ( ! s\rces ( k  
mu/ prec$e ! inquiry into ! ext5t ( k4  
,only aft] ! conditions ( k h be5       
e/abli%$ c x be asc]ta9$ :at objects are
 atta9able by x4 ,its sph]e _c be       
det]m9$ except f its orig94  ,:e!r !    
critical philosoph] /&s ne>] to !       
skeptic or to ! dogmati/ is r an idle   
"q4 ,he is specifically di/9ct f bo?1 9 

t he summons & guides ! reason to       
self-contemplation1 to a me?odical      
exam9ation ( its capacity = k4 ,:]e ! "o
 _h bl9dly tru/$ & ! o!r suspect$ &     
d5i$1 he inve/igates2 !y ov]look1 he    
raises ! "q ( ! possibility ( k4 ,!     
critical problem does n mean1 ,does a   
faculty ( k exi/8 b1 ,( :at p[]s is x   
compos$8 are all objects kn[able :i* h  
be5 s reg>d$8 ,kant does n ask :e!r1 b  
h[ & by :at means1 k is possible4       
,ev]yone :o gives himself to sci5tific  
reflection mu/ po/ulate t k is possible1
 & ! dem& ( ! notical !ori/s ( ! day = a
 philosophy absolutely )\t assumptions  
is q incapable ( fulfillm5t4 ,nay1 9    
ord] to be able to beg9 8 inquiry at    
all1 x 0 necess>y = ,kant to assume /ill
 m special po/ulates2 = t a cognition ( 
cognition is possible1 t !re is a       
critical1 self-inve/igat+ reason c\ld1  
at fir/1 be only a matt] ( belief4 ,?is 
w\ld n h exclud$ a supplem5t>y detail$  
/atem5t conc]n+ ! h[ ( ?is self-k1      
conc]n+ ! organ ( ! critical philosophy4

 ,b ,kant nev] gave "o1 & ! omission    
subsequ5tly l$ to a %>p debate conc]n+ !
 "* & me?od ( ! ,critique ( ,reason4 ,on
 ?is po9t1 if we may s express x1 ,kant 
rema9$ a dogmati/4  ,kant felt himself  
to be ! f9i%] ( skepticism2 b ?is 0     
*iefly because he _h receiv$ ! /ronge/  
impulse to ! developm5t ( 8 critique ( k
 f ,hume's inquiries conc]n+ causation4 
,br\ght up 9 ! dogmatic rationalism ( ! 
,wolffian s*ool1 to :i* he rema9$ true =
 a consid]able p]iod z a tea*] & writ]  
7till ab\t #agfj71 al?\gh at ! same "t  
he 0 inquir+ ) an indep5d5t _s1 ,kant 0 
gradually won ov] ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( !  
,engli% philosophy to ! side ( empirical
 skepticism4 ,!n--z ! result1 no d\bt1 (
 read+ ! ,n\veaux ,essais ( ,leibnitz1  
publi%$ 9 #agfe--;he return$ to         
rationali/ic pr9ciples1 until f9ally1   
aft] a r5ewal ( empirical influ5ces1#a  
he took ! position cry/alliz$ 9 !       
,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 #agha1 :i*1  
h[ev]1 exp]i5c$ /ill o!r1 ?\gh less     
consid]able1 *anges 9 ! sequel1 j z 9   

itself x %[s ! traces ( previ\s         
trans=mations4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,h4  
,vaih+]'s ,komm5t> zu ,kants ,kritik d] 
re95 ,v]nunft1 vol4 i41 #ahha1 pp4      
#dh-di4 ,?is is a "w m>k$ by acut5ess1  
great indu/ry1 & an objective po9t (    
view :i* m]its respect4 ,! second       
volume1 :i* treats ( ! ,transc5d5tal    
,ae/hetic1 appe>$ 9 #ahib4  ,x w\ld be a
 mo/ int]e/+ task to trace 9 ! writ+s   
:i* belong to ,kant's pre-critical p]iod
 ! gr[? & developm5t ( ! fundam5tal     
critical positions4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we c    
only m5tion 9 pass+ ! subjects ( 8      
reflection & "s ( ! mo/ /rik+           
anticipations & beg9n+s ( 8 epo*-mak+   
position4 ,ev5 8 maid5 "w1 ,?\ghts on ! 
,true ,e/imation ( ,vis ,viva1 #agdg1   
betok5s ! m$iat+ nature ( its au?or4 ,9 
?is x is argu$ t :5 m5 ( pr(\nd &       
p5etrat+ m9ds ma9ta9 exactly opposite   
op9ions1 att5tion mu/ be *iefly direct$ 
to "s int]m$iate pr9ciple to a c]ta9    
degree compatible ) ! correctness ( bo? 
p>ties4 ,! "q "u discussion 0 :e!r !    

measure ( vis viva is equal1 z !        
,c>tesians ?\ght1 to ! product ( ! mass 
into ! velocity1 or1 accord+ to !       
,leibnitzians1 to ! product ( ! mass    
into ! squ>e ( ! velocity4 ,kant's      
unsatisfactory solution ( ! problem--!  
law ( ,desc>tes holds = dead1 & t (     
,leibnitz = liv+ =ces--drew ^u him !    
d]ision ( ,less+1 :o said t he _h       
endeavor$ to e/imate liv+ =ces )\t hav+ 
te/$ 8 own4 ,a simil> t5d5cy t[>d       
compromise--?is "t x is a syn!sis (     
,leibnitz & ,newton--is se5 9 8         
,habilitationss*rift1 ,pr9cipiorum      
,primorum ,cognitionis ,metaphysicae    
,nova ,dilucidatio1 #agee1 & 9 !        
diss]tation ,monadologia ,physica1      
#agef4 ,! =m] di/+ui%es betwe5 ratio    
ess5di & ratio cognosc5di1 rejects !    
ontological argum5t1 & def5ds det]m9ism 
aga9/ ,crusius on ,leibnitzian gr\nds4  
,9 ! ,physical ,monadology ,kant gives 8
 adh]5ce to dynamism 7matt] ! product ( 
attraction & repulsion71 & makes !      
monads or elem5ts ( body fill space )\t 

prejudice to _! simplicity4 ,a s]ies (  
treatises is devot$ to subjects 9       
natural sci5ce3 ,! ,effect ( ! ,tides 9 
ret>d+ ! ,e>?'s ,rotation2 ,!           
,obsolesc5ce ( ! ,e>?2 ,fire 7,inaugural
 ,diss]tation71 ,e>?quakes1 & ! ,!ory ( 
! ,w9ds4 ,! mo/ important ( ^!1 ! ,g5]al
 ,natural ,hi/ory & ,!ory ( ! ,heav5s1  
#agee1 :i* = a long "t rema9$ unnotic$1 
& :i* 0 d$icat$ to ,fr$]ick ,,ii41      
develop$ ! hypo!sis 7c>ri$ out =ty ye>s 
lat] by ,laplace 9 ignorance ( ,kant's  
"w7 ( ! me*anical orig9 ( ! univ]se & ( 
! motion ( ! planets4 ,x presupposes    
m]ely ! two =ces ( matt]1 attraction &  
repulsion1 & its primitive *aotic       
condition1 a _w-mi/ ) elem5ts ( diff]5t 
d5sity4 ,x is noticeable t ,kant        
ackn[l$ges ! failure ( ! me*anical !ory 
at two po9ts3 x is br\ght to a halt at !
 orig9 ( ! organic _w & at ! orig9 (    
matt]4 ,! me*anical cosmogony is f> f   
d5y+ creation2 on ! contr>y1 ! pro( t   
?is well-ord]$ & purposive _w necess>ily
 arose f ! regul> action ( mat]ial =ces 

"u law & )\t div9e int]v5tion1 c only   
s]ve to support our assumption ( a      
,supreme ,intellig5ce z ! au?or ( matt] 
& its laws2 ! belief is necess>y1 j     
because nature1 ev5 9 its *aotic        
condition1 c act only 9 an ord]ly &     
regul> way4  ,! empirical phase (       
,kant's developm5t is repres5t$ by !    
writ+s ( ! #fj's4 ,! ,false ,subtlety ( 
! ,f\r ,syllogi/ic ,figures1 #agfb1     
ass]ts t ! fir/ figure is ! only natural
 "o1 & t ! o!rs are sup]flu\s & ne$     
r$uction to ! fir/4 ,9 ! ,only ,possible
 ,f\ndation = a ,demon/ration ( !       
,exi/5ce ( ,god1 #agfc1 :i*1 9 ! sev5?  
,reflection ( ! ,second ,division1      
recapitulates ! cosmogony advanc$ 9 !   
,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,heav5s1 !         
discussions conc]n+ be+ 7exi/5ce is     
absolute position1 n a pr$icate :i*     
increases ! sum ( ! qualities b is      
posit$ 9 a m]ely relative way71 & !     
conclusion1 prophetical ( 8 lat] po9t ( 
view1 ,x is altoge!r necess>y t we %\ld 
be conv9c$ ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 b n s    

necess>y t 8 exi/5ce %\ld be demon/rat$ 
are m notewor?y ?an ! argum5t itself4   
,?is runs3 ,all possibility presupposes 
some?+ actual :]e9 & :]eby all t is     
conceivable is giv5 z a det]m9ation or a
 consequ5ce4 ,t actuality ! de/ruction (
 :i* w\ld de/roy all possibility is     
absolutely necess>y4 ,!re=e !re exi/s an
 absolutely necess>y ,be+ z ! ultimate  
real gr\nd ( all possibility2 ?is ,be+  
is "o1 simple1 un*angeable1 et]nal1 !   
ens realissimum & a _s4 ,! ,attempt to  
introduce ! ,notion ( ,negative         
,quantities into ,philosophy1 #agfc1    
di/+ui%es--contr>y to ,crusius--betwe5  
logical opposition1 contradiction or m]e
 negation 7a & n-a1 pleasure & ! abs5ce 
( pleasure1 p[] & lack ( p[]71 & real   
opposition1 :i* _c be expla9$ by logic  
7a & -a1 pleasure & pa91 capital &      
debts1 attraction & repulsion2 9 real   
opposition bo? det]m9ations are         
positive1 b 9 opposite directions74     
,p>allel ) ?is x di/+ui%es1 also1 betwe5
 logical gr\nd & real gr\nd4 ,! prize   

essay1 ,inquiry conc]n+ ! ,cle>ness     
7,evid5ce7 ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,natural    
,!ology & ,e?ics1 #agfd1 draws a %>p    
di/9ction betwe5 ma!matical &           
metaphysical k1 & w>ns philosophy aga9/ 
! hurtful imitation ( ! geometrical     
me?od1 9 place ( :i* x %\ld r take z an 
example ! me?od :i* ,newton introduc$   
into natural sci5ce4 ,quantity          
con/itutes ! object ( ma!matics1        
qualities1 ! object ( philosophy2 ! =m] 
is easy & simple1 ! latt] difficult &   
complicat$--h[ mu* m compreh5sible !    
conception ( a trillion is ?an !        
philosophical idea ( fre$om1 :i* !      
philosoph]s ?us f> h be5 unable to make 
intelligible4 ,9 ma!matics ! g5]al is   
consid]$ "u symbols 9 concrete1 9       
philosophy1 by means ( symbols 9        
ab/racto2 ! =m] con/ructs its object 9  
s5su\s intuition1 :ile ! object ( !     
latt] is giv5 to x1 & t z a confus$     
concept to be decompos$4 ,ma!matics1    
!re=e1 may well beg9 ) def9itions1 s9ce 
! conception :i* is to be expla9$ is    

fir/ br\ght into be+ ?r\gh ! def9ition1 
:ile philosophy mu/ beg9 by seek+ h]    
conceptions4 ,9 ! =m] ! def9ition is    
fir/ 9 ord]1 & 9 ! latt] almo/ always   
la/2 9 ! "o case ! me?od is syn!tic1 9 !
 o!r x is analytic4 ,x is ! function (  
ma!matics to connect & comp>e cle> &    
c]ta9 concepts ( quantity 9 ord] to draw
 conclusions f !m2 ! function (         
philosophy is to analyze concepts giv5 9
 a confus$ /ate1 & to make !m detail$ & 
def9ite4 ,philosophy has also ?is       
disadvantage1 t x possesses v _m        
undecomposable concepts & undemon/rable 
propositions1 :ile ma!matics has only a 
few su*4 ,philosophical tru?s are l     
meteors1 ^: brightness gives no         
assurance ( _! p]man5ce4 ,!y vani%1 b   
ma!matics rema9s4 ,metaphysics is )\t   
d\bt ! mo/ difficult ( all human sci5ces
 7,e9si*t571 b a metaphysic has nev] yet
 be5 writt52 = "o _c be s k9d z to apply
 ! t]m philosophy to all t is conta9$ 9 
! books :i* be> ?is title4 ,9 ! clos+   
p>agraphs1 on ! ultimate bases ( e?ics1 

! /]n features ( ! categorical imp]ative
 are already se51 veil$ by ! ,engli%    
!ory ( moral s5se1 :ile ! attractive    
,obs]vations on ! ,feel+ ( ! ,beautiful 
& ! ,sublime1 :i* appe>$ 9 ! same ye>1  
/ill navely foll[ ! empirical road4  ,! 
empirical phase rea*es its skeptical    
t]m9ation 9 ! satire ,dreams ( a        
,gho/-se] expla9$ by ! ,dreams (        
,metaphysics1 #agff1 :i* p\rs out its   
+5i\s s>casm imp>tially on spiritualism 
& on ! assum$ k ( ! supras5sible4 ,"h   
,kant is already cle>ly consci\s ( 8 new
 problem1 a !ory ( ! limits ( human     
reason1 consci\s also t ! attack on ?is 
problem is to be begun by a discussion (
 ! "q ( space4 ,?is second "q _h be5 =  
_m ye>s a frequ5t subject ( 8           
reflections2#a & x 0 ?is "p ( ! g5]al   
critical problem t fir/ receiv$         
def9itive solution4 ,9 ! ,lat9          
diss]tation ,on ! ,=m & ,pr9ciples ( !  
,s5sible & ,intelligible ,_w1 #aggj1 :i*
 concludes ! pre-critical p]iod1 & :i* 0
 writt5 on ! occasion ( 8 assumption ( 8

 *air z ord9>y pr(essor1 ! critique (   
s5sibility1 ! new !ory ( space & "t1 is 
set =? 9 approximately ! same =m z 9 !  
,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 :ile !       
critique ( ! und]/&+ & ( reason1 ! !ory 
( ! categories & ! ,ideas & ( ! sph]e ( 
_! validity1 requir$ = its completion ! 
intellectual labor ( sev]al m ye>s4 ,=  
?is essay1 ,de ,mundi ,s5sibilis atque  
,intelligibilis ,=ma et ,pr9cipiis1     
leaves un*all5g$ ! possibility ( a k (  
?+s 9 !mselves & ( ,god1 ?us %[+ t its  
au?or has ab&on$ ! skepticism ma9ta9$ 9 
! ,dreams ( a ,gho/-se]1 & has turn$    
anew to dogmatic rationalism1 ^: f9al   
ov]?r[ requir$ ano!r sw+ 9 ! direction (
 skeptical empiricism4 ,9 reg>d to !    
progress ( ?is latt] phase ( op9ion1 !  
lett]s to ,m4 ,h]z are almo/ ! only1    
?\gh n v valuable1 s\rce ( in=mation4   
,footnote #a3 ,new ,!ory ( ,motion &    
,re/1 #ageh2 ,on ! ,fir/ ,gr\nd ( !     
,di/9ction ( ,positions 9 ,space1 #agfh2
 besides sev]al ( ! works m5tion$ above4
  ,! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason appe>$ 9 

#agha1 mu* lat] ?an ,kant _h hop$ :5 he 
began a "w on ,! ,limits ( ,s5sibility &
 ,reason1 & a second1 alt]$ edition 9   
#aghg4a ,aft] ! ,prolegom5a to e ,future
 ,metaphysic :i* may pres5t itself z    
,sci5ce1 #aghc1 _h giv5 a popul> =m to !
 critical doctr9e ( k1 x 0 foll[$ by !  
critical philosophy ( e?ics 9 !         
,f\ndation ( ! ,metaphysics ( ,e?ics1   
#aghe1 & ! ,critique ( ,practical       
,reason1 #aghh2 by ! critical ae/hetics 
& teleology 9 ! ,critique ( ,judgm5t1   
#agij2 & by ! critical philosophy (     
religion 9 ,religion )9 ! ,limits (     
,reason ,only1 #agicb 7consi/+ ( f\r    
essays1 ( :i* ! fir/1 ,( ,radical ,evil1
 _h already appe>$ 9 ! ,b]l9]           
,monatss*rift 9 #agib74 ,! ,metaphysical
 ,elem5ts ( ,natural ,sci5ce1 #aghf1 & !
 ,metaphysics ( ,e?ics1 #agig 79 two    
p>ts1 ,metaphysical ,elem5ts ( ! ,!ory (
 ,"r1 & ,metaphysical ,elem5ts ( ! ,!ory
 ( ,virtue 71 are devot$ to ! developm5t
 ( ! sy/em4 ,! ye> #agih br\ght two m   
l>g] works1 ! ,conflict ( ! ,faculties &

 ! ,an?ropology4 ,( ! reviews1 t on     
,h]d]'s ,ide5 maybe m5tion$1 & among !  
m9or essays1 ! foll[+3 ,idea = a        
,univ]sal ,hi/ory 9 a ,cosmopolitan     
,s5se1 ,answ] to ! ,"q3 ,:at is         
,illum9ation f bo? 9 #aghd2 ,:at does x 
mean to ,ori5t oneself 9 ,?\ght8 #aghf2 
,on ! ,use ( ,teleological ,pr9ciples 9 
,philosophy1 #aghh2 ,on a ,discov]y     
accord+ to :i* all ,rec5t ,criticism (  
,pure ,reason is to be sup]s$$ by a     
,previ\s ,"o1 #agij2 ,on ! ,progress (  
,metaphysics s9ce ! ,"t ( ,wolff2 ,on   
,philosophy 9 ,g5]al1 ,! ,end ( all     
,?+s1 #agid2 ,on ,ev]la/+ ,peace1 #agie4
 ,kant's ,logic 0 publi%$ by ,js*e 9    
#ahjj2 8 ,physical ,geography & 8       
,obs]vations on ,p$agogics by ,f4,t4    
,r9k 9 #ahjc2 8 lectures on !           
,philosophical ,!ory ( ,religion 7#ahag2
 #b;d4 ed41 #ahcj7 & on ,metaphysics    
7#ahba2 cf4 ,b5no ,erdmann 9 !          
,philosophis*e ,monat%efte1 vol4 xix4   
#ahhc1 p4 #abi seq41 & vol4 xx4 #ahhd1  
p4 #fe seq47 by ,plitz4 ,if we may judge

 by ! specim5s giv5 by ,reicke 9 !      
,altpreussis*e ,monatss*rift1 #ahhb-hd1 
& by ,krause himself1#c ! promis$       
publication ( a manuscript ( ,kant's la/
 ye>s1 n[ 9 possession ( ! ,hamburg     
pa/or1 ,albre*t ,krause1 & :i* discusses
 ! transition f ! metaphysical elem5ts (
 natural sci5ce to physics1 w h>dly meet
 ! expectations :i* "s h *]i%$ conc]n+  
x4 ,b5no ,erdmann has issu$ ,na*trge zu 
,kants ,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft aus     
,kants ,na*lass1 #ahha1 & ,reflexion5   
,kants zur kritis*5 ,philosophie aus    
h&s*riftli*5 ,aufzei*nung5--! fir/      
volume fir/ ,heft 7,reflexion5 zur      
,an?ropologie7 appe>+ 9 #ahhb1 ! second 
volume 7,reflexion5 zur ,kritik d] re95 
,v]nunft1 aus ,kants ,h&exempl> von     
,baumg>t5s ,metaphysica7 9 #ahhd4 ,max  
,mll] has made an ,engli% translation ( 
! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 #b vols41  
#ahha4d  ,footnote #a3 ,!re has be5 mu* 
discussion & mu* has be5 writt5 conc]n+ 
! relation ( ! two editions4 ,9         
opposition to ,s*op5hau] & ,kuno ,fis*] 

x mu/ be ma9ta9$ t ! alt]ations 9 !     
second edition consi/ 9 giv+ great]     
prom95ce to reali/ic elem5ts1 :i* 9 !   
fir/ edition rema9$ 9 ! backgr\nd1 ?\gh 
pres5t ev5 !re4  ,footnote #b3 ,?is     
publication 0 ! occasion ( a conflict   
betwe5 ,kant & ! c5sor%ip conc]n+ ! "r (
 free religi\s inquiry2 cf4 ,dil!y 9 !  
,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1    
vol4 94 #ahij1 pp4 #dah-dej4  ,footnote 
#c3 ,a4 ,krause3 ,i4 ,kant wid] ,k4     
,fis*]1 zum er/5 ,male mit ,hlfe des    
v]lor5 gewes55 ,kantis*5 ,hauptw]kes    
v]!idigt1 #ahhd 79 reply1 ,k4 ,fis*]1   
,das ,/reb]- und ,grnd]?um 9 d]         
,litt]atur1 #ahhd72 also1 ,das          
na*gelass5e ,w]k ,i4 ,kants1 mit ,beleg5
 populr-wiss5s*aftli* d>ge/ellt1 #ahhh4 
,footnote #d3 ,besides ?is 7c5t5>y7     
translation ! ,engli% read] may be      
ref]r$ to ! e>li] v]sion ( ,meiklejohn 9
 ,bonn's ,libr>y2 to ! v]sions ( !      
,prolegom5a by ,bax 7also 9 ,bonn's     
,libr>y1 & includ+ ! ,metaphysical      
,elem5ts ( ,natural ,sci5ce71 & ,mahaffy

 & ,b]n>d1 new ed41 #ahhi2 to ,abbot's  
,kant's ,!ory ( ,e?ics1 #d? ed41 #ahhi1 
conta9+ ! ,f\ndation ( ! ,metaphysics ( 
,e?ics & ! ,critique ( ,practical       
,reason entire1 ) portions ( !          
,metaphysics ( ,e?ics & ,religion )9 !  
,limits ( ,reason ,only2 to ,b]n>d's    
translation ( ! ,kritik ( ,judgm5t1     
#ahib2 & to ,watson's ,selections f     
,kant1 #b;d ed41 #ahhh 79 ,snea?'s      
,mod]n ,philosoph]s1 #ahib74--,,tr4  ,! 
be/ complete edition ( ! works ( ,kant  
is ! second edition ( ,h>t5/e91 9 eight 
volumes1 #ahfg-fh1 :i* is *ronologically
 arrang$ & excell5tly gott5 up4         
,simultane\sly ) ! fir/ edition (       
,h>t5/e9 9 t5 volumes1 9 #ahch seq41    
appe>$ ! edition 9 twelve volumes by ,k4
 ,ros5kranz & ,f4,w4 ,s*ub]t 7conta9+ 9 
! la/ volumes a biography ( ,kant by    
,s*ub]t1 & a hi/ory ( ! ,kantian        
philosophy by ,ros5kranz1 #ahdb74       
,kehrba*'s edition ( ! pr9cipal works 9 
,reclam's ,univ]sal-,biblio!k1 ) !      
pag9ation ( ! orig9al & collective      

editions 7#ahgg seq471 is m valuable ?an
 ,von ,kir*mann's edition ( ! complete  
works 9 8 ,philosophis*e ,biblio!k4     
,among ! works on ,kant ^? ( ,kuno      
,fis*] 7vols4 iii4-iv4 ( ! ,ges*i*te d] 
neu]5 ,philosophie1 #c;d ed41 #ahhb2    
also ,kant's ,leb5 und die ,grundlag5   
se9] ,lehre1 #ahfj7 take ! fir/ place4  
,! writ+s ( ,liebmann1 ,coh51 ,/adl]1   
,riehl1 ,volkelt1 & o!rs w be m5tion$   
lat]1 9 connection ) ! neo-,kantian     
movem5t2 "h we may give "s ( ! m        
important monographs & essays1 select$ f
 ! enorm\sly develop$ ,kantian          
lit]ature3  ,ad4 ,bhr+]1 ,kants         
erk5ntnis/heoretis*] ,idealismus1 #ahhh2
 ,k4 ,diet]i*1 ,die ,kantis*e           
,philosophie 9 ihr] inn]5               
,entwickelungsges*i*te1 #b p>ts1 #ahhe  
7fir/ publi%$ sep>ately1 ,kant und      
,newton1 #ahgg2 ,kant und ,r\sseau1     
#ahgh72 ,w4 ,dil!y1 ,aus d5 ,ro/ock]    
,kan?&s*rift5 9 ! ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d]
 ,philosophie1 vols4 ii4-iii4 #ahhi-ij2 
,m4,w4 ,drobis*1 ,kants ,d+ an si* und  

se9 ,erfahrungsbegriff1 #ahhe2 ,b4      
,erdmann1 ,kants ,kritizismus 9 d] ,i4  
und ,,ii4 ,auflage d] ,kritik d] re95   
,v]nunft1 #ahgh2 ! same1 ,kants         
,prolegom5a h]ausgegeb5 und erlut]t1    
#ahgh1 ,introduction 79 reply ,emil     
,arnoldt1 ,kants ,prolegom5a ni*t       
doppelt r$igi]t1 #ahgi2 cf4 also ,h4    
,vaih+]1 ,die ,erdmann-,arnoldts*e      
,kontrov]se 9 ! ,philosophis*e          
,monat%efte1 vol4 xvi4 #ahhj72 ,franz   
,erh>dt1 ,kritik d] ,kantis*5           
,ant9omi5lehre1 #ahhh2 ,r4 ,euck51 ,ueb]
 ,bild] und ,glei*nisse bei ,kant1      
,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1 vol4       
lxxxiii1 #ahhc1 repr9t$ 9 8 ,beitrge zur
 ,ges*i*te d] neu]5 ,philosophie1 #ahhf2
 ,f4 ,fr$]i*s1 ,d] phnom5ale ,idealismus
 ,b]keleys und ,kants1 #ahga2 ! same1   
,kants ,pr9zip d] ,e?ik1 #ahgi2 ,ed4 von
 ,h>tmann1 ,das ,d+ an si* und se9e     
,bes*aff5heit1 #ahga1 9 ! #b;d ed41     
#ahge1 & ! #c;d1 #ahhe1 entitl$         
,kritis*e ,grundlegung des transz5d5tal5
 ,realismus2 ,c4 ,hebl]1 ,kantiana1 9 8 

,philosophis*e ,aufstze1 #ahfi2 ,alfr$  
,hegl]1 ,die ,psy*ologie 9 ,kants ,e?ik1
 #ahia2 ,a4 ,hld]1 ,d>/ellung d]        
,kantis*5 ,erk5ntnis/heorie1 #ahgc ,j4  
,jacobson1 ,die ,auff9dung des ,apriori1
 #ahgf2 ! same1 ,ueb] die ,beziehung5   
zwis*5 ,kategori5 und ,ur!ils=m51 #ahgg2
 ,wilhelm ,koppelmann1 ,kants ,lehre vom
 analytis*5 ,ur!il1 ,philosoph4         
,monat%efte1 vol4 xxi1 #ahhe2 ! same1   
,lotzes ,/ellung zu ,kants ,kritizismus1
 ,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1 vol4      
lxxxviii1 #ahhf2 ! same1 ,kants ,lehre  
vom kategoris*5 ,imp]ativ1 #ahhh2 !     
same1 ,kant und die ,grundlag5 d]       
,*ri/li*5 ,religion1 #ahij2 ,e4 ,laas1  
,kants ,analogi5 d] ,erfahrung1 #ahgf2 !
 same1 ,e9ige ,bem]kung5 zur            
,transz5d5talphilosophie1 ,/rassburg    
,abh&lung51 #ahhd2 ,j4 ,ma9z]1 ,die     
kritis*e ,epo*e 9 d] ,lehre von d]      
,e9bildungskraft1 #ahha2 ,j4,b4 ,mey]1  
,kants ,psy*ologie1 #ahgj2 ,f4 ,pauls51 
,0 ,kant uns se9 kann1                  
,vi]teljahrss*rift fr wiss5s*aftli*e    

,philosophie1 #ahha2 ,b4 ,pnj]1 ,die    
,religionslehre ,kants1 #ahgd2 ,r4      
,quaebick]1 ,kants und ,h]b>ts          
metaphysis*e ,grundansi*t5 b] das ,wes5 
d] ,seele1 #ahgj2 ,j4 ,rehmke1          
,physiologie und ,kantianismus1 address 
9 ,eis5a*1 #ahhc2 ,rud4 ,reicke1 ,lose  
,bltt] aus ,kants ,na*lass1 #ahhi 7on   
?is ,h4 ,vaih+] 9 ! ,zeits*rift fr      
,philosophie1 vol4 xcvi4 #ahhi72 ,o4    
,ri$el1 ,die monadologis*5 ,be/immung5 9
 ,kants ,lehre vom ,d+ an si*1          
diss]tation at ,kiel1 #ahhd2 ,o4        
,s*neid]1 ,die psy*ologis*e             
,entwickelung des ,apriori1 #ahhc2 !    
same1 ,transz5d5talpsy*ologie1 #ahia2   
,f4 ,/aud+]1 ,n\m5a1 #ahhd2 ,m4         
,/eckelma*]1 ,die =male ,logik ,kants1  
,breslau ,prize ,essay1 #ahgi2 ,a4 ,/]n1
 ,die ,beziehung ,g>ves zu ,kant1 neb/  
ung$ruckt5 ,brief51 #ahhd2 ,c4 ,/umpf1  
,psy*ologie und ,erk5ntnis/heorie1      
,abh&lung5 d] bay]is*5 ,akademie d]     
,wiss5s*aft51 #ahia2 ,g4 ,?iele1 ,kants 
intellectuelle ,ans*auung als           

,grundbegriff se9es ,kritizismus1 #ahgf2
 ! same1 ,die ,philosophie ,kants na*   
ihrem sy/ematis*5 ,zusamm5hange und ihr]
 logis*hi/oris*5 ,entiwickelung1 ,i4    
7#a7 ,kants vorkritis*e                 
,naturphilosophie1 #ahhb2 7#b7 ,kants   
vorkritis*e ,erk5ntnis/heorie1 #ahhg2   
,ad4 ,tr5del5burg1 ,ueb] e9e ,lcke 9    
,kants ,beweis von d] auss*liess5d5     
,subjectivitt des ,raumes & d] ,zeit 9  
vol4 iii4 ( 8 ,hi/oris*e ,beitrge zur   
,philosophie1 #ahfg2 ,ueb]hor/1 ,kants  
,lehre von dem ,v]hltnisse d] ,kategori5
 zu d] ,erfahrung1 #ahgh2 ,h4 ,vaih+]1  
,e9e ,blattv]setzung 9 ,kants           
,prolegom5a1 ,philosoph4 ,monat%efte1   
vol4 xv4 #ahgi2 ! same1 ,zu ,kants      
,wid]legung des ,idealismus1 ,/rassburg 
,abh&lung51 #ahhd2 ,j4 ,walt]1 ,zum     
,g$*tniss ,kants1 ,fe/r$e1 #ahha2 ,?4   
,web]1 ,zur ,kritik d] ,kantis*5        
,erk5ntnis/heorie 7f ! ,zeits*rift fr   
,philosophie71 #ahhb2 ,w4 ,w9delb&1     
,ueb] die v]s*i$55 ,phas5 d] ,kantis*5  
,lehre vom ,d+ an si*1                  

,vi]teljahrss*rift fr wiss5s*aftli*e    
,philosophie1 #ahgg 7cf4 ! same au?or's 
,ges*i*te d] neu]5 ,philosophie1  #eh72 
,j4 ,witte1 ,beitrge zum ,v]/ndniss     
,kants1 #ahgd2 ! same1 ,kantis*]        
,kritizismus geg5b] unkritis*em         
,dilettantismus 7aga9/ ,a4 ,/hr71 #ahhe2
 ,wohlrabe1 ,kants ,lehre vom ,gewiss51 
#ahhi2 ,e4 ,zell]1 ,ueb] das ,kantis*e  
,moralpr9zip1 #ahhj2 ,r4 ,zimm]mann1    
,ueb] ,kants ,wid]legung des ,idealismus
 von ,b]keley1 #ahga2 ! same1 ,ueb]     
,kants ma!matis*es ,vorur!il und dess5  
,folg51 #ahga4  ,popul> expositions h   
be5 giv5 by ! foll[+3 ,k4 ,=tlage 79 8  
,philos4 ,vortrge1 #ahfi72 ,e4 ,la/1    
,mehr ,li*t6 ,die ,haupstze ,kants und  
,s*op5hau]s1 #ahgi2 ! same1 ,die        
reali/i*e und die ideali/is*e ,ans*auung
 entwickelt an ,kants ,idealitt von     
,raum und ,zeit1 #ahhd2 ,h4 ,romundt1   
,antaeus1 neu] ,aufbau d] ,lehre ,kants 
b] ,seele1 ,freiheit1 und ,gott1 #ahhb2 
! same1 ,grundlegung zur ,re=m d]       
,philosophie1 v]e9fa*te und erweit]te   

,d>/ellung von ,kants ,kritik d] re95   
,v]nunft1 #ahhe2 ! same1 ,die ,voll5dung
 des ,socrates1 ,kants ,grundlegung zur 
,re=m d] ,sitt5lehre2 ! same1 ,e9 neu]  
,paulus1 ,kants ,grundlegung zu e9]     
si*]5 ,lehre von d] ,religion1 #ahhf2 ! 
same1 ,die drei ,frag5 ,kants1 #ahhg2   
,a4 ,krause1 ,populre ,d>/ellung von    
,kants ,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft1 #ahha2 
,k4 ,lasswitz1 ,die ,lehre ,kants von d]
 ,idealitt des ,raumes und d] ,zeit1    
#ahhc2 ,wilhelm ,mnz1 ,die ,grundlag5 d]
 ,kantis*5 ,erk5ntnis/heorie1 #b;d ed41 
#ahhe4  ,among =eign]s ,vill]s1 ,c\s91  
,nol51 ,desd\its1 ,cantoni1 ,e4 ,caird  
,a ,critical ,acc\nt ( ! ,philosophy (  
,kant1 #ahgg2 ,! ,critical ,philosophy (
 ,immanuel ,kant1 #b vols41 #ahhi1      
,adamson ,on ! ,philosophy ( ,kant1     
#ahgi1 & a valuable article 9 !         
,encyclop$ia ,britannica1 #i? ed41 vol4 
xiii41 ,/irl+ ,text-book to ,kant1      
#ahha1 ,watson1 ,kant & 8 ,engli%       
,critics1 #ahha1 ,morris ,kant's        
,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 ,griggs's    

,philosophical ,classics1 #ahhb1        
,wallace1 ,kant1 ,blackwood's           
,philosophical ,classics1 #ahhb2 ,port]1
 ,kant's ,e?ics1 ,griggs's              
,philosophical ,classics1 #ahhf2 ,gre51 
,lectures1 ,works1 vol4 ii41            
#ahhf4--,tr41 h among o!rs made         
contributions to ,kantian lit]ature4 ,( 
! old] works we may m5tion ! diction>ies
 ( ,e4 ,s*mid1 #aghh1 & ,mell9 79 six   
volumes71 #agig seq41 ! critique ( !    
,kantian philosophy 9 ! fir/ volume (   
,s*op5hau]'s *ief "w1 #ahai1 & ! essay (
 ,c4,h4 ,weisse1 ,9 wel*em ,s9ne hat si*
 die deuts*e ,philosophie jetzt wi$] an 
,kant zu ori5ti]51 #ahdg4  ,kant's      
outw>d life 0 less ev5tful & less       
*angeful ?an 8 philosophical            
developm5t4#a ,born 9 ,knigsb]g 9 #agbd1
 ! son ( ,j4,g4 ,cant1 a saddl] (       
,scotti% desc5t1 8 home & s*ool tra9+ 7 
bo? /rict & ( a m>k$ly religi\s type4   
,he 0 educat$ at ! univ]sity ( 8 native 
city1 & = n9e ye>s1 f #agdf on1 fill$ ! 
place ( a private tutor4 ,9 #agee he    

became ,doc5t1 9 #aggj ord9>y pr(essor 9
 ,knigsb]g1 s]v+ also = six ye>s ( ?is  
"t z "u-libr>ian4 ,he seldom left 8     
native city & nev] ! prov9ce4 ,!        
cle>ness :i* m>k$ 8 extremely popul>    
lectures on physical geography &        
an?ropology 0 due to 8 dilig5t /udy (   
works ( travel1 & to an unusually acute 
gift ( obs]vation1 :i* enabl$ him to    
draw f 8 surr\nd+s a compreh5sive k ( ! 
_w & ( man4 ,he ceas$ lectur+ 9 #agig1 &
 9 #ahjd old age end$ a life :i* _h     
always1 ev5 9 m9ute detail1 be5 gov]n$  
by rule4 ,a man ( extreme devotion to   
duty1 p>ticul>ity1 & love ( tru?1 & an  
amiable1 bright1 & witty companion1     
,kant belongs to ! acute r ?an to !     
pr(\nd ?9k]s4 ,among 8 manifold end[m5ts
 ! t5d5cy to comb9ation & ! faculty (   
intuition 7z ! ,critique ( ,judgm5t     
especially %[s7 are pres5t to a         
noticeable degree1 yet n s m>k$ly z !   
p[] ( /rict analysis & subtle           
discrim9ation4 ,s t1 al?\gh a m$iat+    
t5d5cy is rightly reg>d$ z ! di/+ui%+   

*>act]i/ic ( ! ,kantian ?9k+1 x mu/ also
 be rememb]$ t syn!sis is ev]y:]e prec$$
 by a mighty "w ( analysis1 & t ?is /ill
 ex]ts its p[] ev5 aft] ! adju/m5t is   
complete4 ,?us ,kant became ! en]getic  
def5d] ( a qualitative view ( ! _w 9    
opposition to ! quantitative view (     
,leibnitz1 = :i* anti!ses 7e4g41        
s5sation & ?\ght1 feel+ & cognition1    
good & evil1 duty & incl9ation7 fade    
into m]e diff]5ces ( degree4  ,footnote 
#a3 ,! foll[+ h done especially valuable
 s]vice 9 ! inve/igation ( ! developm5t 
( ,kant's doctr9e3 ,pauls5 7,v]su* e9]  
,entwickelungsges*i*te d] ,kantis*5     
,erk5ntnis/heorie1 #ahge71 ,b4 ,erdmann1
 ,vaih+]1 & ,w9delb&4 ,besides ,hume &  
,leibnitz1 ,newton1 ,locke1 ,%aftesbury1
 ,r\sseau1 & ,wolff ex]cis$ an important
 influ5ce on ,kant4  ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is  
*apt] we h indicat$ h[ ! new ideal ( k1 
"u ^: bann] ,kant br\ght ab\t a re=m (  
philosophy1 grew out ( ! conflict betwe5
 ! rationali/ic 7dogmatic7 & ! empirical
 7skeptical7 sy/ems4 ,?is comb9es !     

,baconian ideal ( ! ext5sion ( k ) !    
,c>tesian ideal ( c]ta9ty 9 k4 ,x is    
syn!tic judgm5ts alone :i* ext5d k1 :ile
 analytic judgm5ts are explicative      
m]ely4#a ,a priori judgm5ts alone are   
p]fectly c]ta91 absolutely univ]sal1 &  
necess>ily valid2 :ile a po/]iori       
judgm5ts are subjectively valid m]ely1  
lack necessity1 &1 at be/1 yield only   
relative univ]sality4#b ,all analytic   
judgm5ts are a priori1 all empirical or 
a po/]iori judgm5ts are syn!tic4 ,betwe5
 ! two lies ! object ( ,kant's se>*4 ,d 
syn!tic judgm5ts a priori exi/1 & h[ are
 !y possible8  ,footnote #a3 ,all bodies
 are ext5d$ is an analytic judgm5t2 all 
bodies possess weight1 a syn!tic        
judgm5t4 ,! =m] explicates ! concept ( !
 subject by br++ into notice an idea    
already conta9$ 9 x & belong+ to !      
def9ition z a "p !re(2 x is bas$ on !   
law ( contradiction3 an unext5d$ body is
 a self-contradictory concept4 ,! latt]1
 on ! contr>y1 goes beyond ! concept ( !
 subject & adds a pr$icate :i* _h n be5 

?\ght !re94 ,x is exp]i5ce :i* tea*es u 
t weight is jo9$ to matt]1 a fact :i* _c
 be d]iv$ f ! concept ( matt]4 ,almo/   
all ma!matical pr9ciples are syn!tic1 & 
"h1 z w be %[n1 x is n exp]i5ce b pure  
intuition :i* p]mits u to g beyond !    
concept & add a new m>k to x4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,! ,s*ola/ics appli$ ! t]m a priori
 to k f causes 7f t :i* prec$es71 & a   
po/]iori to k f effects4 ,kant1 foll[+  
,leibnitz & ,lamb]t1 uses ! t]ms to     
designate ! anti!sis1 k f reason & k f  
exp]i5ce4 ,an a priori judgm5t is a     
judgm5t obta9$ )\t ! aid ( exp]i5ce4 ,:5
 ! pr9ciple f :i* x is d]iv$ is also    
indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce x is absolutely a  
priori1 o!rwise x is relatively a       
priori4  ,two sci5ces discuss ! h[1 & a 
?ird ! if ( su* judgm5ts1 :i*1 at ! same
 "t1 are ampliative & absolutely        
univ]sal & necess>y4 ,! fir/ two sci5ces
 are pure ma!matics & pure natural      
sci5ce1 ( :i* ! =m] is protect$ aga9/   
d\bt conc]n+ its legitimacy by its      
evid5t "*1 & ! latt]1 by ! con/ant      

possibility ( v]ification 9 exp]i5ce2   
ea*1 moreov]1 c po9t to ! cont9u\s c\rse
 ( its developm5t4 ,all ?is is abs5t 9 !
 ?ird sci5ce1 metaphysics1 z sci5ce ( ! 
supras5sible1 & to its great            
disadvantage4 ,exp]i5tial v]ification is
 9 ! nature ( ?+s d5i$ to a presumptive 
k ( t :i* is beyond exp]i5ce2 x lacks   
evid5ce to su* an ext5t t !re is sc>cely
 a pr9ciple to be f\nd to :i* all       
metaphysicians ass5t1 mu* less a        
metaphysical text-book to comp>e )      
,euclid2 !re is s little cont9u\s       
advance t x is r true t ! lat] com]s are
 likely to ov]?r[ all t _! pr$ecessors h
 taught4 ,9 metaphysics1 !re=e1 :i*1 x  
mu/ be confess$1 is actual z a natural  
t5d5cy1 ! "q is n1 z 9 ! o!r two        
sci5ces1 conc]n+ ! gr\nds ( its         
legitimacy1 b conc]n+ ?is legitimacy    
itself4 ,ma!matics & pure physics =m    
syn!tic judgm5ts a priori1 & metaphysics
 does ! same4 ,b ! pr9ciples ( ! two =m]
 are un*all5g$1 :ile ^? ( ! ?ird are n4 
,9 ! =m] case ! subject = inve/igation  

is1 ,:5ce ?is au?ority8 9 ! latt] case1 
,is %e ?us au?oriz$8  ,?us ! ma9 "q1 ,h[
 are syn!tic judgm5ts a priori possible8
 divides into ! subord9ate que/ions1 ,h[
 is pure ma!matics possible8 ,h[ is pure
 natural sci5ce possible1 &1 ,h[ is     
metaphysics 79 two s5ses3 metaphysics 9 
g5]al1 & metaphysics z sci5ce7 possible8
 ,! ,transc5d5tal ,ae/hetic 7! critique 
( s5sibility or ! faculty ( intuition7  
answ]s ! fir/ ( ^! que/ions2 !          
,transc5d5tal ,analytic 7! critique ( ! 
und]/&+71 ! second2 & ! ,transc5d5tal   
,dialectic 7! critique ( reason 9 !     
n>r[] s5se7 & ! ,transc5d5tal ,doctr9e (
 ,me?od 7,me?od5lehre71 ! ?ird4 ,!      
,analytic & ! ,dialectic are ! two p>ts 
( ! ,transc5d5tal ,logic 7critique ( !  
faculty ( ?\ght71 :i*1 toge!r ) !       
,ae/hetic1 =ms ! ,transc5d5tal ,doctr9e 
( ,elem5ts 7,elem5t>lehre71 9 contra/ to
 ! ,doctr9e ( ,me?od4 ,! ,critique (    
,pure ,reason foll[s ?is s*eme (        
subord9ate division1 :ile ! ,prolegom5a 
co-ord9ates all f\r p>ts 9 ! mann] fir/ 

m5tion$4  ,let u anticipate ! answ]s4   
,pure ma!matics is possible1 because !re
 are pure or a priori intuitions 7space 
& "t71 & pure natural sci5ce or !       
metaphysics ( ph5om5a1 because !re are a
 priori concepts 7categories7 &         
pr9ciples ( ! pure und]/&+4 ,metaphysics
 z a presumptive sci5ce ( ! supras5sible
 has be5 possible 9 ! =m ( unsuccessful 
attempts1 because !re are ,ideas or     
concepts ( reason :i* po9t beyond       
exp]i5ce & look z ?\gh kn[able objects 7
 giv5 ?r\gh !m2 b z real sci5ce x is n  
possible1 because ! application ( !     
categories is re/rict$ to ! limits (    
exp]i5ce1 :ile ! objects ?\ght ?r\gh !  
,ideas _c be s5su\sly giv51 & all assum$
 k ( !m becomes involv$ 9 irresolvable  
contradictions 7ant9omies74 ,on ! o!r   
h&1 a sci5ce is possible & necess>y to  
tea* ! correct use ( ! categories1 :i*  
may be appli$ to ph5om5a alone1 & ( !   
,ideas1 :i* may be appli$ only to our k 
( ?+s 7& our volition71 & to det]m9e !  
orig9 & ! limits ( our k--t is to say1 a

 transc5d5tal philosophy4 ,9 reg>d to   
metaphysics 7k f pure reason71 !n1 ?is  
is ! conclusion rea*$3 ,rejection (     
transc5d5t metaphysics 7t :i* goes      
beyond exp]i5ce71 recognition &         
developm5t ( imman5t metaphysics 7t :i* 
rema9s )9 ! limits ( possible exp]i5ce74
 ,x is n possible z a metaphysic ( ?+s 9
 !mselves2 x is possible z a metaphysic 
( nature 7( ! totality ( ph5om5a71 & z a
 metaphysic ( k 7critique ( reason74  ,!
 int]e/s ( ! reason are n exhau/$1      
h[ev]1 by ! "q1 ,:at c we "k8 b include 
two fur!r que/ions1 ,:at ought we to d8 
&1 ,:at may we hope8 ,?us to !          
metaphysics ( nature !re is add$ a      
metaphysics ( morals1 & to ! critique ( 
!oretical reason1 a critique ( practical
 reason or ( ! w1 toge!r ) a critique ( 
religi\s belief4 ,= ev5 if a k ( !      
supras5sible is d5i$ to u1 yet practical
 gr\nds are n want+ = a suffici5tly     
c]ta9 conviction conc]n+ ,god1 fre$om1 &
 immortality4  ,aft] c>ry+ ! "q ( !     
possibility ( syn!tic judgm5ts a priori 

f ! k ( nature ov] to ! k ( our duty1   
,kant raises x1 9 ! ?ird place1 9 reg>d 
to our judgm5t conc]n+ ! subjective &   
objective purposiv5ess ( ?+s1 or conc]n+
 _! beauty & _! p]fection1 & adds to 8  
critique ( ! intellect & ! w a critique 
( ! faculty ( ae/hetic & teleological   
judgm5t4  ,! ,kantian philosophy        
accord+ly falls into ?ree p>ts1 "o      
!oretical1 "o practical 7& religi\s71 "o
 ae/hetic & teleological4         99    
99       99       99       99  ,be=e    
advanc+ to our acc\nt ( ! fir/ ( ^!     
p>ts1 a few prelim9>y rem>ks are        
indisp5sable conc]n+ ! presuppositions  
involv$ 9 ,kant's critical "w & on !    
me?od :i* he pursues4 ,! presuppositions
 are p>tly psy*ological1 p>tly 7z !     
classification ( ! =ms ( judgm5t &      
inf]5ce1 & ! tw(old division ( judgm5ts7
 logical1 ei!r 9 ! =mal or !            
transc5d5tal s5se1 & p>tly metaphysical 
7z ! ?+ 9 itself74 ,kant takes ! fir/ ( 
^! f ! psy*ology ( 8 "t1 by comb9+ !    
,wolffian classification ( ! faculties )

 t ( ,tet5s1 & ?us obta9s six diff]5t   
faculties3 l[] 7s5su\s7 & high]         
7intellectual7 faculties ( cognition1 ( 
feel+1 & ( appetition2 or s5sibility 7! 
capacity = receiv+ repres5tations ?r\gh 
! way 9 :i* we are affect$ by objects71 
und]/&+ 7! faculty ( produc+            
repres5tations spontane\sly & ( connect+
 !m72 ! s5su\s feel+s ( pleasure & pa91 
ta/e2 desire1 & w4 ,! und]/&+ 9 ! wide  
s5se is equival5t to ! high] faculty (  
cognition1 & divides fur!r into und]/&+ 
9 ! /rict] s5se 7faculty ( concepts71   
judgm5t 7faculty ( judg+71 & reason     
7faculty ( inf]5ce74 ,( ^! ! fir/ gives 
laws to ! faculty ( cognition or to     
nature1 ! second laws to ta/e1 & ! ?ird 
laws to ! w4  ,! mo/ important ( !      
fundam5tal assumptions conc]ns !        
relation1 ! nature1 & ! mission ( ! two 
faculties ( cognition4 ,^! d n diff] 9  
degree1 ?r\gh ! possession ( great] or  
less di/9ctness--= !re are s5su\s       
repres5tations :i* are di/9ct &         
intellectual ones :i* are n s--b        

specifically3 ,s5sibility is ! faculty (
 intuitions1 und]/&+ ! faculty (        
concepts4 ,intuitions are p>ticul>1     
concepts g5]al repres5tations4 ,! =m]   
relate to objects directly1 ! latt] only
 indirectly 7?r\gh ! m$iation ( o!r     
repres5tations74 ,9 intuition ! m9d is  
receptive1 9 conception x acts          
spontane\sly4 ,?r\gh intuitions objects 
are giv5 to u2 ?r\gh concepts !y are    
?\ght4 ,x results f ?is t nei!r ( ! two 
faculties is ( itself suffici5t = !     
atta9m5t ( k1 = cognition is objective  
?9k+1 ! det]m9ation ( objects1 ! unify+ 
comb9ation or elaboration ( a giv5      
manifold1 ! =m+ ( a mat]ial cont5t4     
,rationali/s & empirici/s alike h be5   
deceiv$ 9 reg>d to ! necessity =        
co-op]ation betwe5 ! s5ses & ! und]/&+4 
,s5sibility furni%es ! mat]ial manifold1
 :i* ( itself x is n able to =m1 :ile ! 
und]/&+ gives ! unify+ =m1 to :i* (     
itself x _c furni% a cont5t4 ,intuitions
 )\t concepts are bl9d 7=mless1         
un9telligible71 concepts )\t intuitions 

are empty 7)\t cont5t74 ,9 ! "o case1 =m
 & ord] are want+2 9 ! o!r1 ! mat]ial to
 be =m$4 ,! two faculties are ?r[n back 
on ea* o!r1 & k c arise only f _! union4
  ,a c]ta9 degree ( =m is atta9$ 9 s5se1
 x is true1 s9ce ! *aos ( s5sations is  
ord]$ "u ! =ms ( intuition1 space & "t1 
:i* are an orig9al possession ( !       
intuit+ subject1 b ?is is n suffici5t1  
)\t ! aid ( ! und]/&+1 = ! g5esis ( k4  
,9 view ( ! a priori nature ( space &   
"t1 ?\gh )\t detraction f _! intuitive  
"* 7!y are imm$iate p>ticul>            
repres5tations71 we may assign pure     
s5sibility to ! high] faculty (         
cognition & speak ( an intuit+ reason4  
,! =ms ( intuition & ( ?\ght come f )91 
!y lie ready 9 ! m9d a priori1 ?\gh n z 
complet$ repres5tations4 ,!y are        
functions1 necess>y actions ( ! s\l1 = !
 execution ( :i* a /imulus f )\t1 ?r\gh 
s5sations1 is necess>y1 b :i*1 :5 once  
?is is giv51 ! s\l br+s =? spontane\sly4
 ,! ext]nal impulse m]ely gives ! s\l ! 
occasion = su* productive acts1 :ile _! 

gr\nds & laws are f\nd 9 its own nature4
 ,9 ?is s5se ,kant t]ms !m orig9ally    
acquir$1 & 9 ! ,introduction to !       
,critique ( ,pure ,reason decl>es t     
al?\gh x is indubitable t all our k     
beg9s ) exp]i5ce 7impressions ( s5se71  
yet x does n all arise f exp]i5ce4 ,t a 
repres5tation or cognition is a priori#a
 does n mean t x prec$es exp]i5ce 9 "t1 
b t 7ap>t f ! m]ely excit+1             
non-productive /imulation ?r\gh         
impressions already m5tion$7 x is       
indep5d5t ( all exp]i5ce1 t x is n d]iv$
 or borr[$ f exp]i5ce4  ,footnote #a3 ,!
 t]ms a priori repres5tation & pure     
repres5tation 7concept1 intuition7 are  
equival5t2 b 9 judgm5ts1 on ! o!r h&1   
!re is a di/9ction4 ,a judgm5t is a     
priori :5 ! connection takes place      
indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 no matt] :e!r ! 
concepts connect$ are a priori or n4 ,if
 ! =m] is ! case ! a priori judgm5t is  
pure 7mix$ ) no?+ empirical72 if !      
latt]1 x is mix$4  ,! mat]ial (         
intuition & ?\ght is giv5 to ! s\l1     

receiv$ by x2 x arises ?r\gh ! action ( 
objects ^u ! s5ses1 & is always         
empirical4 ,intuition is ! only organ ( 
reality2 9 s5sation ! pres5ce ( a real  
object z ! cause ( ! s5sation is        
directly reveal$4 ,:5 ,kant's           
transc5d5tal idealism 0 plac$ by a      
review] on a level ) ! empirical        
idealism ( ,b]keley1 :i* d5ies ! exi/5ce
 ( ! ext]nal _w1 he di/9ctly ass]t$ t x 
_h nev] ent]$ 8 m9d to "q ! reality (   
ext]nal ?+s4 ,fur!r1 aft] ! exi/5ce (   
real ?+s affect+ ! s5ses _h be5 trans=m$
 9 8 m9d f a basis ( ! inve/igation into
 an object ( inquiry1 he endeavor$ to   
def5d ?is assumption 7:i* at fir/ he _h 
navely borr[$ f ! realism (             
pre-sci5tific ?\ght7 by argum5ts1 b )\t 
any satisfactory result4#a  ,footnote   
#a3 ,! task ( confirm+ ! exi/5ce ( ?+s 9
 !mselves *anges "u 8 h&s into ano!r1 t 
( prov+ ! exi/5ce ( ext]nal ph5om5a4 ,t 
ext]nal objects are real z              
repres5tations ,b]keley _h nev] disput$4
  ,on ! basis ( ! insep>ability (       

s5sibility & und]/&+ ! ideal ( k--an    
ext5sion ( k to be atta9$ by a priori   
means 7p4 #ccc7--;exp]i5ces a rem>kable 
addition 9 ! position t ! rational      
syn!sis ?us obta9$ mu/ be a k ( reality1
 mu/ be appli$ to matt] giv5 9          
intuition4 ,to ! "q1 ,h[ are syn!tic    
judgm5ts a priori possible8 is jo9$ a   
second equally legitimate inquiry1 ,h[ d
 !y become objectively valid1 or        
applicable to objects ( exp]i5ce8 ,!    
pr9ciple f :i* _! validity is prov$--!y 
are applicable to objects ( exp]i5ce    
because )\t !m exp]i5ce w\ld n be       
possible1 because !y are conditions (   
exp]i5ce--l ! crit]ion ( apriority      
7/rict univ]sality & necessity71 is "o (
 ! notic assumptions ( ! critical       
!ory4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,vaih+]1    
,komm5t>1 i4 pp4 #dbe-dcj4  ,inasmu* z  
its inve/igation relates to ! conditions
 ( exp]i5ce ! ,kantian criticism foll[s 
a me?od :i* x itself t]ms transc5d5tal4 
,h]et(ore1 :5 ! metaphysical me?od _h   
be5 adopt$1 ! object _h be5 !           

supras5sible2 & :5 k _h be5 made !      
object ( inve/igation1 ! me?od foll[$ _h
 be5 empirical1 psy*ological4 ,kant _h !
 "r to consid] himself ! creator (      
notics1 = he %[$ x ! transc5d5tal po9t (
 view4 ,k is an object ( exp]i5ce1 b its
 conditions are n4 ,! object is to      
expla9 k1 n m]ely to describe x         
psy*ologically1--to e/abli% a new sci5ce
 ( k f pr9ciples1 f pure reason4 ,t :i* 
lies beyond exp]i5ce is seal$ f our     
?\ght2 t :i* lies on ?is side ( x is    
/ill un9ve/igat$1 ?\gh capable & wor?y (
 inve/igation1 & 9 extreme ne$ !re(4    
,criticism =bids ! transc5d5t use (     
reason 7transc5d+ exp]i5ce72 x p]mits1  
dem&s1 & itself ex]cises !              
transc5d5tal#a use ( x1 :i* expla9s an  
exp]i5tial object1 k1 f its conditions1 
:i* are n empirically giv54  ,footnote  
,a3 ,kant applies ! t]m transc5d5tal to 
! k 7! discov]y1 ! pro(7 ( ! a priori   
factor & its relation to objects (      
exp]i5ce4 ,un=tunately he (t5 uses !    
same ^w n only to designate ! a priori  

elem5t itself1 b also z a synonym =     
transc5d5t4 ,9 all ?ree cases its       
opposite is empirical1 namely1          
empirico-psy*ological inve/igation by   
obs]vation 9 di/9ction f notical        
inve/igation f pr9ciples2 empirical     
orig9 9 di/9ction f an orig9 9 pure     
reason1 & empirical use 9 di/9ction f   
application beyond ! limits ( exp]i5ce4 
,!re is1 app>5tly1 a contradiction      
betwe5 ! empiri/ic result ( ! ,critique 
( ,reason 7! limitation ( k to objects (
 exp]i5ce7 & its rationali/ic pro(s 7:i*
 proce$ metaphysically1 n empirically71 
&1 9 fact1 a consid]able degree (       
opposition really exi/s4 ,kant argues 9 
a metaphysical way t !re c be no        
metaphysics4 ,?is contradiction is solv$
 by ! di/9ction :i* has be5 m5tion$     
betwe5 t :i* is beyond1 & t :i* lies )91
 ! b\nd>y ( exp]i5ce4 ,t metaphysic is  
=bidd5 :i* on ! objective side so>s     
beyond exp]i5ce1 b t pure rational k is 
p]missible & necess>y :i* develops f    
pr9ciples ! gr\nds ( exp]i5tial k exi/+ 

9 ! subject4 ,9 ! ,kantian s*ool1 h[ev]1
 ^! complem5t>y elem5ts1--empirical     
result1 transc5d5tal or metaphysical1   
prop]ly speak+1 pro-physical me?od1--7  
divorc$1 & ! "o emphasiz$1 favor$1 &    
fur!r develop$ at ! exp5se ( ! o!r4 ,!  
empirici/s hold to ! result1 :ile !y    
ei!r weak5 or completely misund]/& !    
rationalism ( ! me?od3 ! a priori       
factor1 says ,fries1 0 n rea*$ by a     
priori1 b by a po/]iori1 means1 & !re is
 no o!r way by :i* x c\ld h be5 rea*$4  
,! con/ructive ?9k]s1 ,fi*te & 8        
successors1 adopt & cont9ue !           
metaphysical me?od1 b reject ! empirical
 result4 ,fi*te's aim is direct$ to a   
sy/em ( necess>y1 unconsci\s processes (
 reason1 among :i*1 reject+ ! ?+ 9      
itself1 he includes s5sation4 ,accord+  
to ,s*ell+ nature itself is a priori1 a 
condition ( consci\sness4 ,?is          
discrepancy betwe5 f\ndation & result   
cont9ues 9 an alt]$ =m ev5 among        
contempor>y ?9k]s--z a discussion :e!r !
 ma9 purpose ( ,criticism is to be f\nd 

9 ! limitation ( k to possible exp]i5ce1
 or ! e/abli%m5t ( a priori             
elem5ts--?\gh _m1 9 adh]5ce to ,kant's  
own view1 ma9ta9 t ! metaphysics ( k & (
 ph5om5a 7imman5t rationalism7 is ! only
 legitimate metaphysics4   #a4 ,!ory (  
,k4  7a7 ,! ,pure ,intuitions           
7,transc5d5tal ,ae/hetic74--,! fir/ "p (
 ! ,critique ( ,reason1 ! ,transc5d5tal 
,ae/hetic1 lays d[n ! position t space &
 "t are n indep5d5t exi/5ces1 n real    
be+s1 & n prop]ties or relations :i*    
w\ld belong to ?+s 9 !mselves ?\gh !y 7 
n intuit$1 b =ms ( our intuition1 :i* h 
_! basis 9 ! subjective con/itution (   
our1 ! human1 m9d4 ,if we sep>ate f     
s5su\s intuition all t ! und]/&+ ?9ks 9 
x ?r\gh its concepts1 & all t belongs to
 s5sation1 ^! two =ms ( intuition rema91
 :i* may be t]m$ pure intuitions1 s9ce  
!y c be consid]$ ap>t f all s5sation4 ,z
 subjective conditions 7ly+ 9 ! nature (
 ! subject7 ?r\gh :i* alone a ?+ c      
become an object ( intuition = u1 !y    
prec$e all empirical intuitions or are a

 priori4  ,space & "t are nei!r         
sub/antial receptacles :i* conta9 all t 
is real nor ord]s inh]+ 9 ?+s 9         
!mselves1 b =ms ( intuition4 ,n[ all our
 repres5tations are ei!r pure or        
empirical 9 _! orig91 & ei!r intuitive  
or conceptual 9 "*4 ,kant advances f\r  
pro(s = ! position t space & "t are n   
empirical & n concepts1 b pure          
intuitions3 7#a7 ,"t is n an empirical  
concept :i* has be5 ab/ract$ f exp]i5ce4
 ,= ! coexi/5ce or succession ( ph5om5a1
 i4e41 _! exi/5ce at ! same "t or at    
diff]5t times 7f :i*1 z _m believe1 !   
repres5tation ( "t is ab/ract$71 itself 
presupposes "t--a coexi/5ce or          
succession is possible only 9 "t4 ,x is 
no less false t space is ab/ract$ f !   
empirical space relations ( ext]nal     
ph5om5a1 _! exi/5ce outside & beside "o 
ano!r1 or 9 diff]5t places1 = x is      
impossible to repres5t relative         
situation except 9 space4 ,!re=e        
exp]i5ce does n make space & "t         
possible2 b space & "t fir/ ( all make  

exp]i5ce possible1 ! "o out]1 ! o!r inn]
 exp]i5ce4 ,!y are po/ulates (          
p]ception1 n ab/ractions f x4 7#b7 ,"t  
is a necess>y repres5tation a priori4   
,we c easily ?9k all ph5om5a away f x1 b
 we _c remove "t itself 9 view ( ph5om5a
 9 g5]al2 we c ?9k "t )\t ph5om5a1 b n  
ph5om5a )\t "t4 ,! same is true ( space 
9 ref]5ce to ext]nal objects4 ,bo? are  
conditions ( ! possibility ( ph5om5a4   
7#c7 ,"t is n a discursive or g5]al     
concept4 ,= !re is b "o "t4 ,& diff]5t  
times d n prec$e ! "o "t z ! con/itu5t  
p>ts ( :i* x is made up1 b are m]e      
limitations ( x2 ! "p is possible only  
?r\gh ! :ole4 ,9 ! same way ! v>i\s     
spaces are only p>ts ( "o & ! same      
space1 & c be ?\ght 9 x alone4 ,b a     
repres5tation :i* c be giv5 only by a   
s+le object is a p>ticul> repres5tation 
or an intuition4 ,because1 !re=e1 ( !   
on5ess ( space & "t1 ! repres5tation (  
ea* is an intuition4 ,! a priori1       
imm$iate intuition ( ! "o space is      
entirely diff]5t f ! empirical1 g5]al   

conception ( space1 :i* is ab/ract$ f ! 
v>i\s spaces4 7#d7 ,det]m9ate p]iods (  
"t arise by limitation ( ! "o1          
fundam5tal "t4 ,consequ5tly ?is orig9al 
"t mu/ be unlimit$ or inf9ite1 & !      
repres5tation ( x mu/ be an intuition1 n
 a concept4 ,"t conta9s 9 itself an     
endless numb] ( repres5tations 7its     
p>ts1 times71 b ?is is nev] ! case ) a  
g5]ic concept1 :i*1 inde$1 is conta9$ z 
a p>tial repres5tation 9 an endless     
numb] ( repres5tations 7^? ( !          
individuals hav+ ! same "n71 &1         
consequ5tly1 compreh5ds !m all "u       
itself1 b :i* nev] conta9s !m 9 itself4 
,! g5]al concept horse is conta9$ 9 ea* 
p>ticul> repres5tation ( a horse z a    
g5]al *>act]i/ic1 & t ( ju/ice 9 ea*    
repres5tation ( a def9ite j act2 "t1    
h[ev]1 is n conta9$ 9 ! diff]5t times1 b
 !y are conta9$ 9 x4 ,simil>ly !        
relation ( inf9ite space to ! f9ite     
spaces is n ! logical relation ( a      
concept to examples ( x1 b ! intuitive  
relation ( an unlimit$ :ole to its      

limit$ p>ts4  ,! ,prolegom5a employs z a
 fif? pro( = ! intuitive "* ( space1 an 
argum5t :i* _h already appe>$ 9 ! essay 
,on ! ,ultimate ,gr\nd ( ! ,di/9ction ( 
,positions 9 ,space4 ,!re are c]ta9     
spatial di/9ctions :i* c be grasp$ by   
intuition alone1 & :i* are absolutely   
incapable ( compreh5sion ?r\gh !        
und]/&+--= example1 ^? ( "r & left1     
above & bel[1 be=e & beh9d4 ,no logical 
m>ks c be giv5 = ! di/9ction betwe5 !   
object & its image 9 ! mirror1 or betwe5
 ! "r e> & ! left4 ,! complete          
description ( a "r h& mu/1 9 all        
respects 7quality1 proportionate        
position ( p>ts1 size ( ! :ole71 hold = 
! left z well2 b1 despite ! complete    
simil>ity1 ! "o h& _c be exactly        
sup]-impos$ on ! o!r2 ! glove ( ! "o _c 
be worn on ! o!r4 ,?is diff]5ce 9       
direction1 :i* has significance only :5 
view$ f a def9ite po9t1 & !             
impossibility m5tion$ ( a congru5ce     
betwe5 an object 7"r h&7 & its reflect$ 
image 7left h&7 c be und]/ood only by   

intuition2 !y mu/ be se5 & felt1 & _c be
 made cle> ?r\gh concepts1 &1           
consequ5tly1 c nev] be expla9$ to a be+ 
:i* lacks ! intuition ( space4  ,9 !    
transc5d5tal exposition ( space & "t    
,kant foll[s ?is metaphysical           
exposition1 :i* _h to prove _!          
non-empirical1 & non-discursive1 h5ce _!
 a priori & intuitive1 "*1 ) ! pro( t   
only su* an explanation ( space & "t    
c\ld make x conceivable h[ syn!tic      
cognitions a priori c arise f !m4 ,!    
pr9ciples ( ma!matics are ( ?is k9d4 ,! 
syn!tic "* ( geometrical tru?s is       
expla9$ by ! intuitive nature ( space1  
_! apodictic "* by its apriority1 & _!  
objective reality or applicability to   
empirical objects by ! fact t space is !
 condition ( 7ext]nal7 p]ception4 ,! l  
is true ( ari?metic & "t4  ,if space 7 a
 m]e concept1 no proposition c\ld be    
d]iv$ f x :i* %\ld g beyond ! concept & 
ext5d our k ( its prop]ties4 ,!         
possibility ( su* ext5sion or syn!sis 9 
ma!matics dep5ds on ! fact t spatial    

concepts c always be pres5t$ or         
con/ruct$ 9 intuition4 ,! geometrical   
axiom t 9 ! triangle ! sum ( two sides  
is great] ?an ! ?ird is d]iv$ f         
intuition1 by describ+ ! triangle 9     
imag9ation or1 actually1 on ! bo>d4 ,"h 
! object is giv5 ?r\gh ! cognition & n  
be=e x4--,if space & "t 7 empirical     
repres5tations ! k obta9$ f !m w\ld lack
 necessity1 :i*1 z a matt] ( fact1 x    
possesses 9 a m>k$ degree4 ,:ile        
exp]i5ce tea*es u only t some?+ is ?us  
or s1 & n t x c\ld n be o!rwise1 !      
axioms1 7space has only ?ree dim5sions1 
"t only "o2 only "o /raight l9e is      
possible betwe5 two po9ts71 nay1 all !  
propositions ( ma!matics are /rictly    
univ]sal & apodictically c]ta93 we are  
entirely reliev$ f ! necessity ( measur+
 all triangles 9 ! _w 9 ord] to f9d out 
:e!r ! sum ( _! angles is equal to two  
"r angles1 & we d n ne$1 z 9 ! case (   
judgm5ts ( exp]i5ce1 to add !           
limitation1 s f> z x is yet kn[n !re are
 no exceptions to ?is rule4 ,! apriority

 is ! ratio ess5di ( ! /rict necessity  
involv$ 9 ! x mu/ be s 7des             
,sose9mss5s71 :ile ! latt] is ! ratio   
cognosc5di ( ! =m]4 ,n[ s9ce ! necessity
 ( ma!matical judgm5ts c only be expla9$
 ?r\gh ! ideality ( space1 ?is doctr9e  
is p]fectly c]ta91 n m]ely a probable   
hypo!sis4--,! validity ( ma!matical     
pr9ciples = all objects ( p]ception1    
f9ally1 is bas$ on ! fact t !y are rules
 "u :i* alone exp]i5ce is possible = u4 
,x %\ld be m5tion$1 fur!r1 t !          
conceptions ( *ange & motion 7*ange (   
place7 are possible only ?r\gh & 9 !    
repres5tation ( "t4 ,no concept c\ld    
make intelligible ! possibility ( *ange1
 t is1 ( ! connection ( contradictory   
pr$icates 9 "o & ! same ?+1 b !         
intuition ( succession easily succe$s 9 
accompli%+ x4  ,! argum5t is foll[$ by  
conclusions & explanations bas$ ^u x2   
7#a7 ,space is ! =m ( ! out]1 "t ( !    
inn]1 s5se4 ,?r\gh ! out] s5se ext]nal  
objects are giv5 to u1 & ?r\gh ! inn]   
s5se our own inn] /ates4 ,b s9ce all    

repres5tations1 :e!r !y h ext]nal ?+s = 
_! objects or n1 belong 9 !mselves1 z   
m5tal det]m9ations1 to our inn] /ate1 "t
 is ! =mal condition ( all ph5om5a 9    
g5]al1 directly ( int]nal 7psy*ical7    
ph5om5a1 &1 !reby1 indirectly ( ext]nal 
ph5om5a also4 7#b7 ,! validity ( !      
relations ( space & "t cognizable a     
priori is e/abli%$ = all objects (      
possible exp]i5ce1 b is limit$ to ^!4   
,!y are valid = all ph5om5a 7= all ?+s  
:i* at any "t may be giv5 to our s5ses71
 b only = ^!1 n = ?+s z !y are 9        
!mselves4 ,!y h empirical reality1 b1 at
 ! same "t1 transc5d5tal ideality4 ,z   
ext]nal ph5om5a all ?+s are beside "o   
ano!r 9 space1 & all ph5om5a :atev] are 
9 "t & ( necessity "u temporal          
relations2 9 reg>d to all ?+s :i* c     
occur 9 our exp]i5ce1 & 9 s f> z !y c   
occur1 space & "t are objectively1 !re=e
 empirically1 real4 ,b !y d n possess   
absolute reality 7nei!r subsi/5t reality
 nor ! reality ( inh]5ce72 = if we      
ab/ract f our s5su\s intuition bo?      

vani%1 &1 ap>t f ! subject 7,n4,b41 !   
transc5d5tal subject1 conc]n+ :i* m     
bel[71 !y are naught4 ,x is only f man's
 po9t ( view t we c speak ( space1 & (  
ext5d$1 moveable1 *angeable ?+s2 = we c 
"k no?+ conc]n+ ! intuitions ( o!r ?9k+ 
be+s1 we h no means ( discov]+ :e!r !y  
are b\nd by ! same conditions :i* limit 
our intuitions1 & :i* = u are univ]sally
 valid4 7#c7 ,no?+ :i* is intuit$ 9     
space is a ?+ 9 itself4 ,:at we call    
ext]nal objects are no?+ b m]e          
repres5tations ( our s5sibility1 ^: true
 correlative1 ! ?+ 9 itself1 _c be kn[n 
by ev] s deep p5etration into !         
ph5om5on2 su* prop]ties z belong to ?+s 
9 !mselves c nev] be giv5 to u ?r\gh !  
s5ses4 ,simil>ly no?+ t is intuit$ 9 "t 
is a ?+ 9 itself1 s t we intuit         
ourselves only z we appe> to ourselves1 
& n z we are4  ,! m]ely empirical       
reality ( space & "t1 ! limitation ( _! 
validity to ph5om5a1 leaves ! c]ta9ty ( 
k )9 ! limits ( exp]i5ce intact2 = we   
are equally c]ta9 ( x1 :e!r ^! =ms      

necess>ily belong to ?+s 9 !mselves1 or 
only to our intuitions ( ?+s4 ,!        
ass]tion ( _! absolute reality1 on ! o!r
 h&1 involves u 9 %e] absurdities 7t is1
 x necessitates ! assumption ( two      
inf9ite non5tities :i* exi/1 b )\t be+  
any?+ real1 m]ely 9 ord] to compreh5d   
all reality1 & on "o ( :i* ev5 our own  
exi/5ce w\ld be dep5d5t71 9 view ( :i* !
 orig9 ( s peculi> a !ory z ! idealism (
 ,b]keley appe>s intelligible4 ,!       
critical !ory ( space & "t is s f> f be+
 id5tical )1 or ak9 to1 ! !ory (        
,b]keley1 t x furni%es ! be/ & only     
def5se aga9/ ! latt]4 ,if anyone assumes
 ! absolute or transc5d5tal reality ( ^!
 =ms1 x is impossible = him to prev5t   
ev]y?+1 includ+ ev5 our own exi/5ce1 f  
be+ *ang$ !reby into m]e illusion4 ,b ! 
critical philosoph] is f> f degrad+     
bodies to m]e illusion2 ext]nal ph5om5a 
are j z real = him z int]nal ph5om5a1   
?\gh only z ph5om5a1 x is true1 z       
7possible7 repres5tations4  ,ph5om5on & 
illusion are n ! same4 ,! transc5d5tal  

di/9ction betwe5 ph5om5a & ?+s 9        
!mselves mu/ n be confus$ ) ! di/9ction 
common to ord9>y life & to physics1 9   
accordance ) :i* we call ! ra9b[ a m]e  
appe>ance 7bett]1 illusion71 b !        
comb9ation ( sun & ra9 :i* gives rise to
 ?is illusion ! ?+ 9 itself1 z t :i* 9  
univ]sal exp]i5ce & 9 all diff]5t       
positions ) respect to ! s5ses1 is ?us &
 n o!rwise det]m9$ 9 intuition1 or t :i*
 ess5tially belongs to ! intuition ( !  
object1 & is valid = e human s5sibility 
79 anti!sis to t :i* only cont+5tly     
belongs to x1 & is valid only = a       
special position or organization ( ?is  
or t s5se74 ,simil>ly an object always  
appe>s to gr[ small] z its di/ance      
increases1 :ile 9 itself x is & rema9s (
 "s fix$ size4 ,& ?is use ( words is    
p]fectly correct1 9 ! physical or       
empirical s5se ( 9 itself2 b 9 !        
transc5d5tal s5se ! ra9drops1 also1     
toge!r ) _! =m & size1 are !mselves m]e 
ph5om5a1 ! 9 itself ( :i* rema9s        
entirely unkn[n to u4 ,kant1 moreov]1   

does n wi% to see ! subjectivity ( ! =ms
 ( intuition plac$ on a level ) !       
subjectivity ( s5sations or expla9$ by  
?is1 ?\gh he accepts x z a fact long    
e/abli%$4 ,! s5sations ( color1 ( tone1 
( temp]ature are1 no d\bt1 l !          
repres5tation ( space 9 t !y belong only
 to ! subjective con/itution ( !        
s5sibility1 & c be attribut$ to objects 
only 9 relation to our s5ses4 ,b ! great
 diff]5ce betwe5 ! two is t ^! s5se     
qualities may be diff]5t 9 diff]5t      
p]sons 7! color ( ! rose may seem       
diff]5t to ea* eye71 or may fail to     
h>monize ) any human s5se2 t !y are n a 
priori 9 ! same /rict s5se z space & "t1
 & consequ5tly af=d no k ( ! objects (  
possible exp]i5ce indep5d5tly (         
p]ception2 & t !y are connect$ ) !      
ph5om5on only z ! cont+5tly add$ effects
 ( a p>ticul> organization1 :ile space1 
z ! condition ( ext]nal objects1        
necess>ily belongs to ! ph5om5on or     
intuition ( !m4 ,x is ?r\gh space alone 
t x is possible = ?+s to be ext]nal     

objects = u4 ,! subjectivity ( s5sation 
is individual1 :ile t ( space & "t is   
g5]al or univ]sal to mank9d2 ! =m] is   
empirical1 individually diff]5t1 &      
cont+5t1 ! latt] a priori & necess>y4   
,space alone1 n s5sation1 is a conditio 
s9e qua non ( ext]nal p]ception4 ,space 
& "t are ! sole a priori elem5ts ( !    
s5sibility2 all o!r s5su\s concepts1 ev5
 motion & *ange1 presuppose p]ception2 !
 movable 9 space & ! succession (       
prop]ties 9 an exi/+ ?+ are empirical   
data4  ,9 confirmation ( ! !ory t all   
objects ( ! s5ses are m]e ph5om5a1 !    
fact is adduc$ t 7) ! exception ( ! w & 
! feel+s1 :i* are n cognitions7 no?+ is 
giv5 u ?r\gh ! s5ses b repres5tations ( 
relations1 :ile a ?+ 9 itself _c be kn[n
 by m]e relations4 ,! ph5om5on is a sum 
total ( m]e relations4 ,9 reg>d to matt]
 we "k only ext5sion1 motion1 & ! laws (
 ?is motion or =ces 7attraction1        
repulsion1 imp5etrability71 b all ^! are
 m]ely relations ( ! ?+ to some?+1 else1
 t is1 ext]nal relations4 ,:]e is ! inn]

 side :i* und]lies ?is ext]ior1 & :i*   
belongs to ! object 9 itself8 ,?is is   
nev] to be f\nd 9 ! ph5om5on1 & no matt]
 h[ f> ! obs]vation & analysis ( nature 
may advance 7a "w ) unlimit$ horizons67 
!y rea* no?+ b portions ( space occupi$ 
by matt] & effects :i* matt] ex]cises1 t
 is1 no?+ beyond t :i* is comp>atively  
int]nal1 & :i*1 9 its turn1 consi/s (   
ext]nal relations4 ,! absolutely inn]   
side ( matt] is a m]e fancy2 & if !     
compla9t t ! inn] side ( ?+s is conceal$
 f u is to mean t we d n compreh5d :at !
 ?+s :i* appe> to u may be 9 !mselves1 x
 is unju/ & irrational1 = x dem&s t we  
%\ld be able to intuit )\t s5ses1 9 o!r 
words1 t we %\ld be o!r ?an m54 ,!      
transc5d5t que/ions conc]n+ ! n\m5on (  
?+s are unansw]able2 we "k ourselves1   
ev51 only z ph5om5a6 ,a ph5om5on consi/s
 9 no?+ b ! relation ( some?+ 9 g5]al to
 ! s5ses4  ,x is indubitable t some?+   
corresponds to ph5om5a1 :i*1 by affect+ 
our s5sibility1 occasions s5sations 9 u1
 & !reby ph5om5a4 ,! v ^w1 ! v concept1 

ph5om5on1 indicates a relation to some?+
 :i* is n ph5om5on1 to an object n      
dep5d5t on ! s5sibility4 ,:at ?is may be
 cont9ues hidd5 f u1 = k is impossible  
)\t intuition4 ,?+s 9 !mselves are      
unkn[able4 ,nev]!less ! idea 7x mu/ be  
confess$1 ! entirely empty idea7 ( ?is  
transc5d5tal object1 z an indet]m9ate   
some:at  x :i* und]lies ph5om5a1 is n   
only all[able1 b1 z a limit+ concept1   
unavoidable 9 ord] to conf9e !          
pret5sions ( s5se to ! only field :i* is
 accessible to x1 t is1 to ! field (    
ph5om5a4  ,! inf]5ce space & "t are no?+
 b repres5tations & repres5tations are 9
 u1 !re=e space & "t z well z all       
ph5om5a 9 !m1 bodies ) _! =ces &        
motions1 are 9 u1 does n accurately     
express ,kant's position1 = he might    
ju/ly reply t1 accord+ to him1 bodies z 
ph5om5a are 9 diff]5t p>ts 9 space f t  
:i* we assign to ourselves1 & ?us )\t u2
 t space is ! =m ( ext]nal intuition1 & 
?r\gh x ext]nal objects arise = u f     
s5sations2 b t1 9 reg>d to ! ?+s 9      

!mselves :i* affect u1 we are entirely  
ignorant :e!r !y are )9 or )\t u4  ,x c 
easily be %[n by lit]al quotations t !re
 7 di/9ct t5d5cies 9 ,kant1 especially 9
 ! fir/ edition ( 8 pr9cipal "w1 t[>d a 
radical idealism :i* d\bts or d5ies n   
m]ely ! cognizability1 b also ! exi/5ce 
( objects ext]nal to ! subject & its    
repres5tations1 & :i* degrades ! ?+ 9   
itself to a m]e ?\ght 9 u1 or completely
 does away ) x 7e4g41 ,! repres5tation (
 an object z a ?+ 9 g5]al is n only     
insuffici5t1 b1 444 indep5d5tly (       
empirical conditions1 9 itself          
contradictory 74 ,b ^! expressions      
indicate only a mom5t>y incl9ation t[>d 
su* a view1 n a b9d+ av[al ( x1 & !y are
 outweigh$ by ^? 9 :i* idealism is m or 
less en]getically reject$4 ,t :i*       
accord+ to ,kant exi/s outside !        
repres5tation ( ! individual is tw(old3 
7#a7 ! unkn[n ?+s 9 !mselves ) _!       
problematical *>act]i/ics1 z ! gr\nd (  
ph5om5a2 7#b7 ! ph5om5a !mselves ) _!   
kn[able imman5t laws1 & _! relations 9  

space & "t1 z possible repres5tations4  
,:5 ,i turn my glance away f ! rose its 
r$ness vani%es1 s9ce ?is pr$icate       
belongs to x only 9 s f> & s long z x   
acts 9 ! light on my visual app>atus4   
,:at1 !n1 is left8 ,t ?+ 9 itself1 (    
c\rse1 :i*1 :5 x appe>s to me1 calls =? 
9 me ! intuition ( ! rose4 ,b !re is    
/ill some?+ else rema9+--! ph5om5on ( ! 
rose1 ) its size1 its =m1 & its motion 9
 ! w9d4 ,= ^! are pr$icates :i* mu/ be  
attribut$ to ! ph5om5on itself z !      
object ( my repres5tation4 ,if ! rose1 z
 det]m9$ 9 space & "t1 vani%$ :5 ,i     
turn$ my head away1 x c\ld n1 unless    
intuit$ by a subject1 exp]i5ce or ex]t  
effects 9 space & "t1 c\ld n lose its   
leaves 9 ! w9d & /rew ! gr\nd ) its     
petals4 ,p]ception & ?\ght in=m me n    
m]ely conc]n+ ev5ts ( :i* ,i am a       
witness1 b also ( o!rs :i* h occurr$1 or
 :i* w occur1 9 my abs5ce4 ,! process ( 
/ripp+ ! leaves f ! rose has actually   
tak5 place z a ph5om5on & does n fir/   
become real by my subsequ5t             

repres5tation ( x or inf]5ce to x4 ,!   
?+s & ev5ts ( ! ph5om5al _w exi/ bo?    
be=e & aft] my p]ception1 & are some?+  
di/9ct f my subjective & mom5t>y        
repres5tations ( !m4 ,! space & "t1     
h[ev]1 9 :i* !y exi/ & happ5 are n      
furni%$ by ! intuit+ individual1 b by ! 
supra-individual1 transc5d5tal          
consci\sness or g5]ic reason ( ! race4  
,! ph5om5on ?us /&s midway betwe5 its   
objective gr\nd 7! absolute ?+ 9 itself7
 & ! subject1 ^: common product x is1 z 
a relative ?+ 9 itself1 z a reality :i* 
is indep5d5t ( ! cont+5t & *ang+        
repres5tation ( ! individual1 empirical 
subject1 :i* is dep5d5t = its =m on !   
transc5d5tal subject1 & :i* is ! only   
reality accessible to u1 yet entirely   
valid = u4 ,! ph5om5al _w is n a cont+5t
 & individual ph5om5on1 b "o necess>y = 
all be+s organiz$ z we are1 a ph5om5on =
 humanity4 ,my repres5tations are n !   
ph5om5a !mselves1 b images & signs ?r\gh
 :i* ,i cognize ph5om5a1 i4e41 real ?+s 
z !y are = me & = e man 7n z !y are 9   

!mselves74 ,! reality ( ph5om5a consi/s 
9 ! fact t !y c be p]ceiv$ by m51 & !   
objective validity ( my k ( !m 9 ! fact 
t e man mu/ agree 9 x4 ,! laws :i* !    
und]/&+ 7n ! individual und]/&+67       
imposes ^u nature hold = ph5om5a1       
because !y hold = e man4 ,objectivity is
 univ]sal validity4 ,if ! _w ( ph5om5a  
:i* is intuit$ & kn[n by u we>s a       
diff]5t appe>ance f ! _w ( ?+s 9        
!mselves1 ?is does n ju/ify u 9 decl>+ x
 to be m]e seem+ & dream+2 a dream :i*  
all dream toge!r1 & :i* all mu/ dream1  
is n a dream1 b reality4 ,z we mu/      
repres5t ! _w s x is1 ?\gh = u1 ( c\rse1
 & n 9 itself4  ,_m places 9 ,kant's    
works seem to argue aga9/ ! int]m$iate  
position "h ascrib$ to ! _w (           
ph5om5a--accord+ to :i* x is less ?an   
?+s 9 !mselves & m ?an subjective       
repres5tation--:i*1 s9ce !y expla9 !    
ph5om5on z a m]e repres5tation1 leave   
room = only two factors 7on ! "o h&1 !  
?+ 9 itself  t 9 ! ?+ :i* _c be         
repres5t$2 on ! o!r1 ! ?+ = me  my      

repres5tation ( ! ?+74 ,9 fact1 !       
di/9ction betwe5 ! ph5om5on itself & !  
repres5tation :i* ! individual n[ has ( 
x & n[ does n h1 is f> f be+ ev]y:]e    
adh]$ to ) desirable cle>ness2 & :]ev] x
 is impossible to sub/itute t :i* has   
be5 repres5t$ & t :i* may be repres5t$  
or possible intuitions = m]e            
repres5tations 9 me1 we mu/ ackn[l$ge t 
!re is a dep>ture f ! /&po9t :i* is     
assum$ 9 "s places ) ! greate/          
di/9ctness4 ,! latt] f9ds unequivocal   
expression1 among o!r places1 9 !       
,analogies ( ,exp]i5ce & ! ,d$uction ( !
 ,pure ,concepts ( ! ,und]/&+1  #b1 ,no4
 #d 7fir/ edition74 ,! second ( ^!      
passages speaks ( "o & ! same univ]sal  
exp]i5ce1 9 :i* all p]ceptions are      
repres5t$ 9 ?or\ghgo+ & regul>          
connection1 & ( ! ?or\ghgo+ aff9ity (   
ph5om5a z ! basis ( ! possibility ( !   
association ( repres5tations4 ,?is      
aff9ity is ascrib$ to ! objects ( !     
s5ses1 n to ! repres5tations1 ^:        
association is r ! result ( ! aff9ity1 &

 n to ! ?+s 9 !mselves1 9 reg>d to :i* !
 und]/&+ has no legislative p[]4  ,!    
relation betwe5 ! ?+ 9 itself & !       
ph5om5on is also v>iable4 ,n[ !y are    
reg>d$ z entirely het]og5e\s 7t :i* c   
nev] be intuit$ exi/s 9 a mode oppos$ to
 t ( ! intuit$ & intuitable71 & n[ z    
analog\s to ea* o!r 7non-intuitable     
prop]ties ( ! ?+ 9 itself correspond to 
! intuitable *>act]i/ics ( ! ph5om5on74 
,! =m] is ! case :5 x is said t ph5om5a 
are 9 space & "t1 :ile ?+s 9 !mselves   
are n2 t 9 ! fir/ ( ^! classes natural  
causation rules1 & 9 ! second fre$om2 t 
9 ! "o-condition$ exi/5ce alone is f\nd1
 9 ! o!r uncondition$4#a ,b j z (t5 ?+s 
9 !mselves & ph5om5a are conceiv$ z     
simil> to "o ano!r1 z two sides ( ! same
 object1#b ( :i* "o1 l ! c\nt]-e>? ( !  
,py?agoreans1 always rema9s turn$ away f
 u1 :ile ! o!r is turn$ t[>d u1 b does n
 reveal ! true be+ ( ! object4 ,accord+ 
to ?is ea* p>ticul> ?+1 /ate1 relation1 
& ev5t 9 ! _w ( ph5om5a w\ld h its real 
c\nt]p>t 9 ! n\m5al sph]e3 un-ext5d$    

roses 9 !mselves w\ld lie back ( ext5d$ 
roses1 c]ta9 non-temporal processes back
 ( _! gr[? & decay1 intelligible        
relations back ( _! relations 9 space4  
,?is is approximately ! relation ( ! two
 conceptions z 9 "p taught by ,lotze    
himself1 9 "p repres5t$ by him z taught 
by ,kant4 ,h]b>t's pr9ciple1 ,s mu*     
seem+1 s mu* indication ( be+ 7wie viel 
,s*e9 s viel ,h9deutung aufs ,se971     
might also be cit$ 9 ?is connection4 ,t 
:i* cont9ually impell$ ,kant1 9 spite ( 
8 proclamation ( ! unkn[abl5ess ( ?+s 9 
!mselves1 to =m ideas ab\t _! "*1 0 !   
moral int]e/1 b ?is sometimes ?rew its  
influ5ce 9 favor ( _! comm5surability ) 
ph5om5a & sometimes 9 ! opposite scale4 
,= 9 8 e?ics ,kant ne$s ! intelligible  
"* or man z n\m5on1 & mu/ assume z _m m5
 9 !mselves 7to be consi/5t1 !n1 9      
g5]al1 z _m be+s 9 !mselves7 z !re are 9
 ! _w ( ph5om5a4 ,b = practical reasons1
 aga91 ! causality ( ! man 9 himself mu/
 be ?\ght ( z entirely diff]5t f1 &     
oppos$ to1 ! me*anical causality ( !    

s5se _w4 ,kant's judgm5t is1 also1 no m 
/able conc]n+ ! value ( ! k ( !         
supras5sible1 :i* is d5i$ to u4 ,i d n  
ne$ to "k :at ?+s 9 !mselves may be1    
because a ?+ c nev] be pres5t$ to me    
o!rwise ?an z a ph5om5on4 ,& yet a      
natural & in]adicable ne$ ( ! reason to 
obta9 "s conviction 9 reg>d to ! o!r _w 
is said to und]lie ! abortive attempts (
 metaphysics2 & ,kant himself uses all 8
 ef=ts to secure to ! practical reason !
 satisfaction ( ?is ne$1 ?\gh he has    
d5i$ x to ! speculative reason1 & to    
make good ! gap 9 k by fai?4 ,f !       
!oretical /&po9t an ext5sion ( k beyond 
! limits ( ph5om5a appe>s impossible1 b 
unnecess>y2 f ! practical /&po9t x is1  
to a c]ta9 ext5t1 possible &            
indisp5sable4  ,footnote #a3 ,kant's    
conjectures conc]n+ a common gr\nd (    
mat]ial & m5tal ph5om5a1 & ^? conc]n+ ! 
common root ( s5sibility & und]/&+1 %[ !
 same t5d5cy4 ,on ! "o h&1 duality1 on !
 o!r1 unity4  ,footnote #b3 ,ph5om5on1  
:i* always has two sides1 ! "o :5 !     

object 9 itself is consid]$ 7ap>t f !   
way 9 :i* x is intuit$1 & j because (   
:i* fact its "* always rema9s           
problematical71 ! o!r :5 we reg>d ! =m (
 ! intuition ( ?is object1 :i* mu/ be   
s\ght n 9 ! object 9 itself1 b 9 !      
subject to :om ! object appe>s1 :ile x  
nev]!less actually & necess>ily belongs 
to ! ph5om5on ( ?is object4 ,?is        
pr$icate --sc41 spatial quality1        
ext5sion--is attribut$ to ?+s only 9 s  
f> z !y appe> to u4  ,!re is1 !n1 a     
?reefold di/9ction to be made3 7#a7 ,?+s
 9 !mselves1 :i* c nev] be ! object (   
our k1 because our =ms ( intuition are n
 valid = !m4 7#b7 ,ph5om5a1 ?+s = u1    
nature or ! totality ( t :i* ei!r is or1
 at lea/1 may be ! object ( our k 7"h   
belong ! possible inhabitants ( ! moon1 
! magnetic matt] :i* p]vades all bodies1
 & ! =ces ( attraction & repulsion1 ?\gh
 ! fir/ h nev] be5 obs]v$1 & ! second is
 n p]ceptible on acc\nt ( ! co>s5ess (  
our s5ses1 & ! la/1 because =ces 9 g5]al
 are n p]ceptible2 nature compreh5ds    

ev]y?+ ^: exi/5ce is connect$ ) our     
p]ceptions 9 a possible exp]i5ce#a74    
7#c7 ,our repres5tations ( ph5om5a1     
i4e41 t ( ! latt] :i* actually ent]s    
into ! consci\sness ( ! empirical       
individual4 ,9 ! realm ( ?+s 9 !mselves 
!re is no motion :atev]1 b at mo/ an    
intelligible correlate ( ?is relation2 9
 ! _w ( ph5om5a1 ! _w ( physics1 ! e>?  
moves ar\nd ! sun2 9 ! sph]e (          
repres5tation ! sun moves ar\nd ! e>?4  
,x is true1 z has be5 said1 t ,kant     
sometimes ignores ! di/9ction betwe5    
ph5om5a z relat$ to n\m5a & ph5om5a z   
relat$ to repres5tations2 &1 z a result 
( ?is1 t ! ph5om5on is ei!r completely  
volatiliz$ into ! repres5tation#b or    
split up into an objective half         
indep5d5t ( u & a repres5tative half    
dep5d5t on u1 ( :i* ! =m] falls into !  
?+ 9 itself1#c :ile ! latt] is resolv$  
into subjective /ates ( ! ego4          
,footnote #a3 ,no?+ is actually giv5 to 
u b ! p]ception & ! empirical progress f
 ?is to o!r possible p]ceptions4 ,to    

call a ph5om5on a real ?+ antec$5t to   
p]ception1 means 444 t 9 ! progress (   
exp]i5ce we mu/ meet ) su* a p]ception4 
,footnote #b3 ,ph5om5a are altoge!r 9   
me1 exi/ only 9 our s5sibility z a      
modification ( x4 ,!re is no?+ 9 space b
 t :i* is actually repres5t$ 9 x4       
,ph5om5a are m]e repres5tations1 :i*1 if
 !y are n giv5 9 u 79 p]ception7 n[h]e  
exi/4  ,footnote #c3 ,"h ,kant is guilty
 ( ! fault :i* he himself has c5sur$1 ( 
confus+ ! physical & transc5d5tal mean+s
 ( 9 itself4 ,he =gets t ! ?+1 if x is  
mom5t>ily n intuit$ or repres5t$ by me1 
& !re=e is n imm$iately giv5 = me z an  
individual1 is nev]!less /ill pres5t =  
me z man1 is m$iately giv51 t is1 is    
discov]able by future se>*4 ,t :i* is   
)\t my pres5t consci\sness is n = ?is   
reason )\t all human consci\sness4 ,9   
fact1 ,kant (t5 ov]looks ! di/9ction    
betwe5 actual & possible intuition1 s t 
= him ! objects ( ! latt] slip out (    
space & "t & into ! ?+ 9 itself4 ,to !  
transc5d5tal object we may ascribe !    

ext5t & connection ( our possible       
p]ceptions1 & say t x is giv5 9 itself  
be=e all exp]i5ce4 ,9 x ! real ?+s ( !  
pa/ are giv54  ,aft] ! possibility & !  
legitimacy ( syn!tic judgm5ts a priori h
 be5 prov$ = pure ma!matics ^u ! basis (
 ! pure intuitions1 !re em]ges1 9 !     
second place1 ! problem ( ! possibility 
( a priori syn!ses 9 pure natural       
sci5ce1 or ! "q1 ,d pure concepts exi/8 
,& aft] ?is has be5 answ]$ 9 !          
affirmative1 ! fur!r que/ions come up1  
,is ! application ( ^!1 fir/1 to        
ph5om5a1 & second1 to ?+s 9 !mselves1   
possible & legitimate1 & h[ f>8  7b7 ,! 
,concepts & ,pr9ciples ( ! ,pure        
,und]/&+ 7,transc5d5tal                 
,analytic74--,s5sations1 9 ord] to      
become intuition or ! p]ception ( a     
ph5om5on1 ne$$ to be ord]$ 9 space & "t2
 9 ord] to become exp]i5ce or a unifi$ k
 ( objects1 intuitions ne$ a syn!sis    
?r\gh concepts4 ,9 ord] to objective k !
 manifold ( intuition 7already ord]$ by 
its arrangem5t 9 space & "t7 mu/ be     

connect$ 9 ! unity ( ! concept4         
,s5sibility gives ! manifold to be      
connect$1 ! und]/&+ ! connect+ unity4 ,!
 =m] is able to intuit only1 ! latt]    
only to ?9k2 k c arise only z ! result (
 _! union4 ,intuitions dep5d on         
affections1 concepts on functions1 t is1
 on unify+ acts ( ! und]/&+4  ,to       
discov] ! pure =ms ( ?\ght x is necess>y
 to isolate ! und]/&+1 j z an isolation 
( ! s5sibility 0 necess>y above 9 ord]  
to ! discov]y ( ! pure =ms ( intuition4 
,we obta9 ! elem5ts ( ! pure k ( !      
und]/&+ by reject+ all t is intuitive & 
empirical4 ,^! elem5ts mu/ be pure1 mu/ 
be concepts1 fur!r1 n d]ivative or      
composite1 b fundam5tal concepts1 & _!  
numb] mu/ be complete4 ,?is complet5ess 
is gu>ante$ only :5 ! pure concepts or  
categories are s\ght accord+ to "s      
common pr9ciple1 :i* assigns to ea* its 
position 9 ! connection ( ! :ole1 & n 7z
 ) ,ari/otle7 collect$ by occasional1   
unsy/ematic inquiries und]tak5 at r&om4 
,! table ( ! =ms ( judgm5t w s]ve z a   

guide = ! discov]y ( ! categories4      
,?\ght is k ?r\gh concepts2 ! und]/&+ c 
make no o!r use ( concepts ?an to judge 
by means ( !m4 ,h5ce1 s9ce ! und]/&+ is 
! faculty ( judg+1 ! v>i\s k9ds (       
connection 9 judgm5t mu/ yield ! v>i\s  
pure connective-concepts                
7,v]knpfungsbegriffe4--,k4 ,fis*]7 or   
categories4  ,9 reg>d to quantity1 e    
judgm5t is univ]sal1 p>ticul>1 or s+ul>2
 9 reg>d to quality1 affirmative1       
negative1 or inf9ite2 9 reg>d to        
relation1 categorical1 hypo!tical1 or   
disjunctive2 & 9 reg>d to modality1     
problematical1 ass]tory1 or apodictic4  
,to ^! twelve =ms ( judgm5t correspond z
 _m categories1 viz41 ,i41 ,unity1      
,plurality1 ,totality2 ,,ii41 ,reality1 
,negation1 ,limitation2 ,,iii41         
,subsi/5ce & ,inh]5ce 7,sub/ance &      
,accid5t71 ,causality & ,dep5d5ce       
7,cause & ,effect71 ,community          
7,reciprocity betwe5 ! ,active & !      
,passive72 ,,iv41                       
,possibility--,impossibility1           

,exi/5ce--,non-exi/5ce1                 
,necessity--,cont+5cy4  ,! fir/ six ( ^!
 fundam5tal concepts1 :i* h no          
correlatives1 con/itute ! ma!matical1 ! 
second six1 :i* appe> 9 pairs1 !        
dynamical categories4 ,! =m] relate to  
objects ( 7pure or ( empirical7         
intuition1 ! latt] to ! exi/5ce ( ^!    
objects 79 relation to "o ano!r or to ! 
und]/&+74 ,al?\gh all o!r a priori      
division ?\gh concepts mu/ be di*otom\s1
 ea* ( ! f\r heads includes ?ree        
categories1 ! ?ird ( :i* 9 ea* case     
arises f ! comb9ation ( ! second &      
fir/1#a b1 nev]!less1 is an orig9al 7n a
 d]ivative7 concept1 s9ce ?is comb9ation
 requires a special actus ( ! und]/&+4  
,univ]sality or totality is plurality   
reg>d$ z unity1 limitation is reality   
comb9$ ) negation1 community is !       
reciprocal causality ( sub/ances1 &     
necessity is ! actuality giv5 by        
possibility itself4 ,kant omits1 z      
unnecess>y "h1 ! useful1 easy1 & n      
unpleasant task ( not+ ! great numb] (  

d]ivative concepts a priori 7pr$icables7
 :i* spr+ f ! comb9ation ( ^! twelve    
orig9al concepts 7pr$icam5ts            
categories7 ) "o ano!r1 or ) ! modes (  
pure s5sibility1--! concepts =ce1       
action1 passion1 w\ld belong z          
subsumptions "u causality1 pres5ce &    
resi/ance "u community1 orig91          
ext9ction1 & *ange "u modality1--s9ce 8 
object is n a sy/em1 b only ! pr9ciples 
( "o4 ,8 lik+ or ev5 love = ?is division
 accord+ to quantity1 quality1 relation1
 & modality1 :i* he always has ready z  
?\gh x 7 a univ]sal key = philosophical 
problems1 reveals a v /rong ar*itectonic
 impulse1 aga9/ :i* ev5 8 ev] active    
skeptical t5d5cy is n able to keep up ! 
battle4  ,footnote #a3 ,conc]n+ ?is neat
 obs]vation1 ,kant rem>k$ t x might     
p]haps h important consequ5ces 9 reg>d  
to ! sci5tific =m ( all k ( reason4 ,?is
 prophecy 0 fulfill$1 al?\gh 9 a diff]5t
 s5se f t :i* float$ be=e 8 m9d4 ,fi*te 
& ,hegel compos$ _! ?\ght-symphonies 9 !
 ?ree-f\r "t giv5 by ,kant4  ,9 view ( !

 d]ivation ( ! =ms ( ?\ght f ! =ms (    
judgm5t ,kant does n /op to give a      
detail$ pro( t ! categories are         
concepts1 & t !y are pure4 ,_!          
discursive 7n intuitive7 "* is evid5t f 
! fact t _! ref]5ce to ! object is      
m$iate only 7& n1 z 9 ! case (          
intuition1 imm$iate71 & _! a priori     
orig91 f ! necessity :i* !y c>ry ) !m1 &
 :i* w\ld be impossible if _! orig9 7   
empirical4 ,"h ,kant />ts f ,hume's     
criticism ( ! idea ( cause4 ,! ,scotti% 
skeptic _h said t ! necess>y bond betwe5
 cause & effect c nei!r be p]ceiv$ nor  
logically demon/rat$2 t1 !re=e1 !       
relation ( causality is an idea :i*     
we--) :at "r8--add to p]ceiv$ succession
 9 "t4 ,?is d\bt 7)\t ! ha/y            
conclusions71 says ,kant1 mu/ be        
g5]aliz$1 mu/ be ext5d$ to ! category ( 
sub/ance 7:i* _h be5 already done by    
,hume1 pp4 #bbf-g1 ?\gh ! au?or ( !     
,critique ( ,reason 0 n aw>e ( ! fact71 
& to all o!r pure concepts ( ! und]/&+4 
,!n we may hope to k9dle a tor* at !    

sp>k :i* ,hume /ruck out4 ,! problem ,x 
is impossible to see :y1 because some?+ 
exi/s1 some?+ else mu/ necess>ily exi/1 
is ! />t+ po9t alike ( ,hume's          
skepticism & ,kant's criticism4 ,! =m]  
recogniz$ t ! pr9ciple ( causality is   
nei!r empirical nor analytic1 & !re=e   
conclud$ t x is an inv5tion ( reason1   
:i* confuses subjective ) objective     
necessity4 ,! latt] %[s t 9 spite ( its 
subjective orig9 x has an objective     
value2 t x is a tru? :i* is indep5d5t ( 
all exp]i5ce1 & yet valid = all :o h    
exp]i5ce1 & = all t c be exp]i5c$4  ,( !
 two que/ions1 ,h[ c ! concepts :i* spr+
 f our und]/&+ possess objective        
validity8 &1 ,h[ 7?r\gh :at means or    
m$ia7 does _! application to objects (  
exp]i5ce take place8 ! fir/ is answ]$ 9 
! ,d$uction ( ! ,pure ,concepts ( !     
,und]/&+1 & ! second 9 ! *apt] on _!    
,s*ematism4  ,! ,d$uction1 ! mo/        
difficult portion ( ! ,critique1 %[s t !
 objective validity ( ! categories1 z   
concepts ( objects 9 g5]al1 dep5ds on ! 

fact t ?r\gh !m alone exp]i5ce z f> z   
reg>ds ! =m ( ?\ght is possible1 i4e41 x
 is only ?r\gh !m t any object :atev] c 
be ?\ght4 ,all k consi/s 9 judgm5ts2 all
 judgm5ts conta9 a connection (         
repres5tations2 all connection--:e!r x  
be consci\s or n1 :e!r x relates to     
concepts or to pure or empirical        
intuitions--is an act ( ! und]/&+2 x _c 
be giv5 by objects1 b only spontane\sly 
p]=m$ by ! subject itself4 ,we _c       
repres5t any?+ z connect$ 9 ! object    
unless we h ourselves fir/ connect$ x4  
,! connection includes ?ree conceptions3
 t ( ! manifold to be connect$ 7:i* is  
giv5 by intuition71 t ( ! act ( syn!sis1
 & t ( ! unity2 ?is la/ is two-fold1 an 
objective unity 7! conception ( an      
object 9 g5]al 9 :i* ! manifold is      
unit$71 & a subjective unity 7! unity ( 
consci\sness "u :i* or1 r1 ?r\gh :i* !  
connection is effect$74 ,! categories   
repres5t ! diff]5t k9ds ( comb9ation1   
ea* "o ( ^!1 aga91 be+ complet$ 9 ?ree  
/ages1 :i* are t]m$ ! ,syn!sis (        

,appreh5sion 9 ,intuition1 ! ,syn!sis ( 
,reproduction 9 ,imag9ation1 & !        
,syn!sis ( ,recognition 9 ,concepts4 ,if
 ,i wi% to ?9k ! "t f "o noon to ! next1
 ,i mu/ 7#a7 grasp 7appreh5d7 ! manifold
 repres5tations 7portions ( "t7 9       
succession2 7#b7 reta9 or r5ew          
7reproduce7 9 ?\ght ^? :i* h prec$$ 9   
pass+ to ^? :i* foll[2 7#c7 be consci\s 
t t :i* is n[ ?\ght is ! same ) t ?\ght 
be=e1 or "k aga9 7recognize7 ! reproduc$
 repres5tation z ! "o previ\sly         
exp]i5c$4 ,if ! m9d did n ex]cise su*   
syn!tic activity ! manifold (           
repres5tation w\ld n con/itute a :ole1  
w\ld lack ! unity :i* consci\sness alone
 c imp>t to x4 ,)\t ?is "o consci\sness1
 concepts & k ( objects w\ld be :olly   
impossible4 ,! unity ( pure             
self-consci\sness or ( transc5d5tal     
app]ception is ! po/ulate ( all use ( ! 
und]/&+4 ,9 ! flux ( int]nal ph5om5a !re
 is no con/ant or abid+ self1 b !       
un*angeable consci\sness "h dem&$ is a  
prec$5t condition ( all exp]i5ce1 &     

gives to ph5om5a a connection accord+ to
 laws :i* det]m9e an object = intuition1
 i4e41 ! conception ( some?+ 9 :i* !y   
are necess>ily connect$4#a ,ref]5ce to  
an object is no?+ o!r ?an ! necess>y    
unity ( consci\sness4 ,! connective     
activity ( ! und]/&+1 & ) x exp]i5ce1 is
 possible only ?r\gh ! syn!tic unity (  
pure app]ception1 ! ,i ?9k1 :i* mu/ be  
able to accompany all my repres5tations1
 & ?r\gh :i* !y fir/ become m9e4        
,footnote #a3 ,object is t :i* opposes !
 r&om or arbitr>y det]m9ation ( our     
cognitions1 & :i* causes !m to be       
det]m9$ 9 a c]ta9 way a priori4         
,exp]i5ce 79 ! /rict s5se7 is di/+ui%$ f
 p]ception 7exp]i5ce 9 ! wide s5se7 by  
its objectivity or univ]sal validity4 ,a
 judgm5t ( p]ception 7! sun %9es ^u !   
/one & ! /one becomes w>m7 is only      
subjectively valid2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 a
 judgm5t ( exp]i5ce 7! sun w>ms ! /one7 
aims to be valid n only = me & my pres5t
 condition1 b always1 = me & = ev]yone  
else4 ,if ! =m] is to become ! latt]1 an

 a priori concept mu/ be add$ to !      
p]ception 79 ! above case1 ! concept (  
cause71 "u :i* ! p]ception is subsum$4  
,! category det]m9es ! p]ceptions 9 view
 ( ! =m ( ! judgm5t1 gives to ! judgm5t 
its ref]5ce to an object1 & ?us gives to
 ! p]cepts1 or r1 concepts 7sun%9e &    
w>m?71 necess>y & univ]sally valid      
connection4 ,! reason :y ! judgm5ts (   
o!rs mu/ agree ) m9e is ! unity ( !     
object to :i* !y all relate1 ) :i* !y   
agree1 & h5ce mu/ also all agree ) "o   
ano!r4  ,?\gh ! categories take _! orig9
 9 ! nature ( ! subject1 !y are         
objective & valid = objects ( exp]i5ce1 
because exp]i5ce is possible alone ?r\gh
 !m4 ,!y are n ! product1 b ! gr\nd (   
exp]i5ce4 ,! second difficulty conc]ns  
_! applicability to ph5om5a1 :i* are    
:olly disp>ate4 ,by :at means is ! gulf 
betwe5 ! categories1 :i* are concepts & 
a priori1 & p]ceptions1 :i* are intuit\s
 & empirical1 bridg$ ov]8 ,! connect+   
l9k is suppli$ by ! imag9ation1 z !     
faculty :i* m$iates betwe5 s5sibility & 

und]/&+ to provide a concept ) its      
image1 & consi/s 9 ! intuition ( "t1    
:i*1 9 common ) ! categories1 has an a  
priori "*1 &1 9 common ) p]ceptions1 an 
intuitive "*1 s t x is at once pure &   
s5su\s4 ,! subsumption ( ph5om5a or     
empirical intuitions "u ! category is   
effect$ ?r\gh ! ,s*emata#a ( ! concepts 
( ! und]/&+1 i4e41 ?r\gh a priori       
det]m9ations ( "t accord+ to rules1 :i* 
relate to "t-s]ies1 "t-cont5t1 "t-ord]1 
& "t-compreh5sion1 & indicate :e!r ,i h 
to apply ?is or t category to a giv5    
object4  ,footnote #a3 ,! s*ema is n an 
empirical image1 b /&s midway betwe5 ?is
 7! p>ticul> intuition ( a def9ite      
triangle or dog7 & ! un9tuitable        
concept1 z a g5]al intuition 7( a       
triangle or a dog 9 g5]al1 :i* holds    
alike = "r- & oblique-angl$ triangles1 =
 poodles & pugs71 or z a rule = det]m9+ 
our intuition 9 accordance ) a concept4 
,ea* category has its own s*ema4 ,!     
s*ema ( quantity is numb]1 z compreh5d+ 
! successive addition ( homog5e\s p>ts4 

,fill$ "t 7be+ 9 "t7 is ! s*ema (       
reality1 empty "t 7n-be+ 9 "t7 ! s*ema (
 negation1 & m or less fill$ "t 7!      
int5sity ( s5sation1 indicat+ ! degree (
 reality7 ! s*ema ( limitation4         
,p]man5ce 9 "t is ! sign = ! application
 ( ! category ( sub/ance2#a regul>      
succession1 = ! application ( ! concept 
( cause2 ! coexi/5ce ( ! det]m9ations ( 
"o sub/ance ) ^? ( ano!r1 ! signal = _! 
subsumption "u ! concept ( reciprocity4 
,! s*emata ( possibility1 actuality1 &  
necessity1 f9ally1 are exi/5ce at any "t
 :atev] 7:5soev]71 exi/5ce at a def9ite 
"t1 & exi/5ce at all times4 ,by su*     
s*ematic syn!ses ! pure concept is      
br\ght ne> to ! empirical intuition1 & !
 way is prep>$ = an application ( ! =m] 
to ! latt]1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 = !   
subsumption ( ! latt] "u ! =m]4         
,footnote #a3 ,?is det]m9ation is       
important = psy*ology4 ,s9ce ! inn] s5se
 %[s no?+ con/ant1 b ev]y?+ 9 a cont9ual
 flux1--= ! p]man5t subject ( our ?\ghts
 is an id5tical activity ( ! und]/&+1 n 

an intuitable object1--! concept (      
sub/ance is n applicable to psy*ical    
ph5om5a4 ,repres5tations ( a p]man5t    
7mat]ial sub/ances7 exi/1 inde$1 b n    
p]man5t repres5tations4 ,! abid+ self   
7ego1 s\l7 :i* we posit back ( int]nal  
ph5om5a is1 z ! ,dialectic w %[1 a m]e  
,idea1 :i*1 or1 r1 ! object ( :i*1 maybe
 ?\ght z sub/ance1 x is true1 b _c be   
giv5 9 intuition1 h5ce _c be kn[n4  ,z a
 result ( ! fact t ! s*ematism p]mits a 
pres5tation ( ! categories 9 "t         
intuition antec$5t to all exp]i5ce1 !   
possibility is giv5 ( syn!tic judgm5ts a
 priori conc]n+ objects ( possible      
exp]i5ce4 ,su* judgm5ts1 9 s f> z !y are
 n bas$ on high] & m g5]al cognitions1  
are t]m$ pr9ciples1 & ! sy/em ( !m--to  
be giv51 ) ! table ( ! categories z a   
guide1 9 ! ,analytic ( ,pr9ciples or !  
,doctr9e ( ! ,faculty (                 
,judgm5t--furni%es ! outl9es ( pure     
natural sci5ce4 ,:5 ?us ! rules ( !     
subsumption to be effect$ h be5 f\nd 9 !
 pure concepts1 & ! conditions & crit]ia

 ( ! subsumption 9 ! s*emata1 x rema9s  
to indicate ! pr9ciples :i* ! und]/&+1  
?r\gh ! aid ( ! s*emata1 actually       
produces a priori f its concepts4  ,!   
pr9ciple ( quantity is ! ,axiom (       
,intuition1 ! pr9ciple ( quality !      
,anticipation ( ,p]ception2 ! pr9ciples 
( relation are t]m$ ,analogies (        
,exp]i5ce1 ^? ( modality ,po/ulates (   
,empirical ,?\ght 9 ,g5]al4 ,! fir/     
runs1 ,all intuitions are ext5sive      
quantities2 ! second1 ,9 all ph5om5a    
s5sation1 & ! real :i* corresponds to x 
9 ! object1 has an int5sive quantity1   
i4e41 a degree4 ,! pr9ciple ( !         
,analogies is1 ,all ph5om5a1 z f> z _!  
exi/5ce is conc]n$1 are subject a priori
 to rules1 det]m9+ _! mutual relation 9 
"t 79 ! second edition ?is is /at$ z    
foll[s3 ,exp]i5ce is possible only ?r\gh
 ! repres5tation ( a necess>y connection
 ( p]ceptions74 ,z !re are ?ree modes ( 
"t1 !re result ?ree ,analogies1 !       
pr9ciples ( p]man5ce1 ( succession      
7production71 & ( coexi/5ce4 ,^! are3   

7#a7 ,9 all *anges ( ph5om5a ! sub/ance 
is p]man5t1 & its quantum is nei!r      
increas$ nor dim9i%$ 9 nature4 7#b7 ,all
 *anges take place accord+ to ! law (   
connection betwe5 cause & effect2 or1   
,ev]y?+ t happ5s 7beg9s to be7          
presupposes some?+ on :i* x foll[s      
accord+ to a rule4 7#c7 ,all sub/ances1 
9 s f> z !y are coexi/5t1 /& 9 complete 
community1 t is1 reciprocity1 "o to     
ano!r4 ,&1 f9ally1 ! ?ree ,po/ulates3 ,t
 :i* agrees ) ! =mal conditions (       
exp]i5ce 79 intuition & 9 concepts7 is  
possible1 ,t :i* is connect$ ) ! mat]ial
 conditions ( exp]i5ce 7s5sation7 is    
actual 7p]ception is ! only crit]ion (  
actuality74 ,t :i*1 9 its connection ) !
 actual1 is det]m9$ by univ]sal         
conditions ( exp]i5ce1 is 7exi/s z7     
necess>y4  ,z ! categories ( sub/ance & 
causality are specially pref]r$ to !    
o!rs by ,kant & ! ,kantians1 & are ev5  
proclaim$ by "s z ! only fundam5tal     
concepts1 s also ! pr9ciples ( relation 
h an e/abli%$ reputation = special      

importance4 ,! lead+ ideas 9 ! pro(s ( !
 ,analogies ( ,exp]i5ce--= 9 spite ( _! 
und]ivative "* ! pr9ciples require1 &   
are capable (1 pro(--may next be not$4  
,! "t det]m9ations ( ph5om5a1 ! k ( _!  
duration1 _! succession1 & _! coexi/5ce1
 =m an indisp5sable "p ( our exp]i5ce1 n
 only ( sci5tific exp]i5ce1 b ( ev]yday 
exp]i5ce z well4 ,h[ is ! objective     
"t-det]m9ation ( ?+s & ev5ts possible8  
,if ! matt] 9 h& is ! det]m9ation ( !   
p>ticul>s ( a fight ) a bloody end+1 !  
witnesses are que/ion$ & te/ify3 ,we    
he>d & saw h[ ,a began ! qu>rel by      
insult+ ,b1 & ! latt] answ]$ ! insult ) 
a bl[1 :]eupon ,a drew 8 knife & w\nd$ 8
 oppon5t4 ,"h ! succession ( p]ceptions 
on ! "p ( ! p]sons pres5t is accept$ z a
 true reproduction ( ! succession ( !   
actual ev5ts4 ,b ! succession (         
p]ceptions is n always ! sure indication
 ( an actual succession3 ! trees along  
an av5ue are p]ceiv$ "o aft] ! o!r1 :ile
 !y are 9 reality coexi/5t4 ,we might n[
 propose ! foll[+ /atem5t3 ,!           

repres5tation ( ! manifold ( ph5om5a is 
always successive1 ,i appreh5d "o "p    
aft] ano!r4 ,i c decide :e!r ^! p>ts    
succe$ "o ano!r 9 ! object also1 or :e!r
 !y are coexi/5t1 by ! fact t1 9 !      
second case1 ! s]ies ( my p]ceptions is 
rev]sible1 :ile 9 ! fir/ x is n4 ,i c1  
if ,i *oose1 direct my glance along !   
av5ue 9 su* a way t ,i %all beg9 !      
second "t ) ! tree at :i* ,i left (f !  
fir/ "t2 if ,i wi% to assure myself t ! 
p>ts ( a h\se are coexi/5t1 ,i cause my 
eye to w&] f ! upp] to ! l[] portions1 f
 ! "r side to ! left1 & !n to p]=m !    
same motions 9 ! opposite direction4 ,on
 ! o!r h&1 x is n left to my *oice to   
he> ! ?und] ei!r be=e or aft] ,i see !  
lightn+1 or to see a pass+ wagon n[ "h1 
n[ !re1 b 9 ^! cases ,i am b\nd 9 !     
succession ( my s5su\s repres5tations4  
,! possibility ( int]*ange 9 ! s]ies (  
p]ceptions proves an objective          
coexi/5ce1 ! impossibility ( ?is1 an    
objective succession4 ,b ?is crit]ion is
 limit$ to ! imm$iate pres5t1 & fails u 

:5 a "t relation betwe5 unobs]v$ ph5om5a
 is to be e/abli%$4 ,if ,i g at ev5+    
into ! d9+ room & see a vessel ( bubbl+ 
wat]1 :i* is to be us$ 9 mak+ tea1 ov] a
 burn+ _s lamp1 :5ce d ,i d]ive ! k t ! 
wat] began1 & c\ld beg91 to boil only   
aft] ! alcohol _h be5 light$1 & n be=e8 
,because ,i h (t5 se5 ! flame prec$e !  
boil+ ( ! wat]1 & 9 ?is ! irrev]sibility
 ( ! two p]ceptions has gu>ante$ to me !
 succession ( ! ev5ts p]ceiv$8 ,!n ,i   
may only assume t x is v probable1 n t x
 is c]ta91 t 9 ?is case also ! ord] ( ! 
two ev5ts has be5 ! same z ,i h obs]v$  
sev]al times be=e4 ,z a matt] ( fact1   
h[ev]1 we all ass]t t ! wat] c\ld n h   
come into a boil+ condition unless !    
g5]ation ( heat _h prec$$2 t 9 e case ! 
fire mu/ be !re be=e ! boil+ ( ! wat] c 
comm5ce4 ,:5ce d we d]ive ?is mu/8      
,simply & alone f ! ?\ght ( a causal    
connection betwe5 ! two ev5ts4 ,e       
ph5om5on mu/ foll[ 9 "t t ph5om5on ( :i*
 x is ! effect1 & mu/ prec$e t ( :i* x  
is ! cause4 ,x is ?r\gh ! relation (    

causality1 & ?r\gh ?is alone1 t !       
objective "t relation ( ph5om5a is      
det]m9$4 ,if no?+ prec$$ an ev5t on :i* 
x mu/ foll[ accord+ to a rule1#a !n all 
succession 9 p]ception w\ld be          
subjective m]ely1 & no?+ :atev] w\ld be 
objectively det]m9$ by x z to :at 0 !   
antec$5t & :at ! consequ5t 9 ! ph5om5on 
itself4 ,we %\ld !n h a m]e play (      
repres5tations )\t significance = ! real
 succession ( ev5ts4 ,only ! ?\ght ( a  
rule1 accord+ to :i* ! antec$5t /ate    
conta9s ! necess>y condition ( !        
consequ5t /ate1 ju/ifies u 9 transf]r+ !
 "t ord] ( our repres5tations to        
ph5om5a4#b ,nay1 ev5 ! di/9ction betwe5 
! ph5om5on itself1 z ! object ( our     
repres5tations1 & our repres5tations (  
x1 is effect$ only by subject+ !        
ph5om5on to ?is rule1 :i* assigns to x  
its def9ite position 9 "t aft] ano!r    
ph5om5on by :i* x is caus$1 & ?us =bids 
! inv]sion ( ! p]ceptions4 ,we c d]ive !
 rule ( ! und]/&+ :i* produces !        
objective "t ord] ( ! manifold f        

exp]i5ce1 only because we h put x into  
exp]i5ce1 & h fir/ br\ght exp]i5ce into 
be+ by means ( ! rule4 ,we recapitulate 
9 ,kant's own words3 ,! objective 7"t7  
relation ( ph5om5a rema9s undet]m9$ by  
m]e p]ception 7! m]e succession 9 my    
appreh5sion1 if x is n det]m9$ by means 
( a rule 9 relation to an antec$5t1 does
 n gu>antee any succession 9 ! object74 
,9 ord] t ?is may be kn[n z det]m9$1 !  
relation betwe5 ! two /ates mu/ be s    
conceiv$ 7?r\gh ! und]/&+'s concept (   
causality7 t x is !reby det]m9$ )       
necessity :i* ( !m mu/ be tak5 z com+   
fir/1 & :i* second1 & n conv]sely4 ,?us 
x is only by subject+ ! succession (    
ph5om5a to ! law ( causality t empirical
 k ( !m is possible4 ,)\t ! concept (   
cause no objective "t det]m9ation1 &    
h5ce1 )\t x1 no exp]i5ce4  ,footnote #a3
 ,a reality foll[+ on an empty "t1 t is1
 a beg9n+ ( exi/5ce prec$$ by no /ate ( 
?+s1 c z little be appreh5d$ z empty "t 
itself4  ,footnote #b3 ,if ph5om5a 7 ?+s
 9 !mselves no "o w\ld be able1 f !     

succession ( ! repres5tations ( _!      
manifold1 to tell h[ ?is is connect$ 9 !
 object4  ,t :i* ! relation ( cause &   
effect does = ! succession#a ( ph5om5a1 
! relation ( reciprocity does = _!      
coexi/5ce1 & t ( sub/ance & accid5t = _!
 duration4 ,s9ce absolute "t is n an    
object ( p]ception1 ! position ( ph5om5a
 9 "t _c be directly det]m9$1 b only    
?r\gh a concept ( ! und]/&+4 ,:5 ,i     
conclude t two objects 7! e>? & ! moon7 
mu/ be coexi/5t1 because p]ceptions ( !m
 c foll[ ^u "o ano!r 9 bo? ways1 ,i d   
?is on ! presupposition t ! objects     
!mselves reciprocally det]m9e _!        
position 9 "t1 h5ce are n isolat$1 b /& 
9 causal community or a relation (      
reciprocal influ5ce4 ,x is only on !    
condition ( reciprocity betwe5 ph5om5a1 
?r\gh :i* !y =m a :ole1 t ,i c repres5t 
!m z coexi/5t4  ,footnote #a3 ,aga9/ !  
objection t cause & effect are          
frequ5tly1 inde$ 9 mo/ cases1           
simultane\s 7e4g4 ! heat$ /ove & ! w>m? 
( ! room71 ,kant rem>ks t ! "q conc]ns !

 ord] ( "t m]ely1 & n ! lapse ( "t4 ,!  
ball ly+ on a s(t cu%ion is simultane\s1
 x is true1 ) its effect1 ! depression 9
 ! cu%ion4 ,b ,i1 nev]!less1 di/+ui% !  
two by ! "t relation ( dynamical        
connection4 ,= if ,i place ! ball on !  
cu%ion1 its previ\sly smoo? surface is  
foll[$ by a depression1 b if !re is a   
depression 9 ! cu%ion 7,i "k n :5ce7 a  
lead5 ball does n foll[ f x4  ,coexi/5ce
 & succession c be repres5t$ only 9 a   
p]man5t sub/ratum2 !y are m]ely ! modes 
9 :i* ! p]man5t exi/s4 ,s9ce "t 79 :i*  
all *ange takes place1 b :i* itself     
abides & does n *ange7 9 itself _c be   
p]ceiv$1 ! sub/ratum ( simultaneity &   
succession mu/ exi/ 9 ph5om5a !mselves3 
! p]man5t 9 relation to :i* alone all ! 
"t relations ( ph5om5a c be det]m9$1 is 
sub/ance2 t :i* alt]s is its            
det]m9ations1 accid5ts1 or special modes
 ( exi/+4 ,alt]ation1 i4e41 orig9 &     
ext9ction1 is true ( /ates only1 :i* c  
beg9 & cease to be1 & n ( sub/ances1 :i*
 *ange 7si* v]nd]n71 i4e41 pass f "o    

mode ( exi/5ce into ano!r1 b d n alt]   
7we*seln71 i4e41 pass f non-exi/5ce into
 exi/5ce1 or ! rev]se4 ,x is ! p]man5t  
alone t *anges1 & its /ates alone t beg9
 & cease to be4 ,! orig9 & ext9ction (  
sub/ances1 or ! increase & dim9ution (  
_! quantum1 w\ld remove ! sole condition
 ( ! empirical unity ( "t2 = ! "t       
relations ( ! coexi/5t & ! successive c 
be p]ceiv$ only 9 an id5tical sub/ratum1
 9 a p]man5t1 :i* exi/s always4 ,! law  
,f no?+ no?+ comes1 & no?+ c return to  
no?+1 is ev]y:]e assum$ & has be5       
frequ5tly advanc$1 b nev] yet prov$1 =1 
inde$1 x is impossible to prove x       
dogmatically4 ,"h ! only possible pro( =
 x1 ! critical pro(1 is giv53 ! pr9ciple
 ( p]man5ce is a necess>y condition (   
exp]i5ce4 ,! same argum5t e/abli%es !   
pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason1 & !        
pr9ciple ( ! community ( sub/ances1     
toge!r ) ! unity ( ! _w to be inf]r$ f  
?is4 ,! ?ree ,analogies toge!r ass]t3   
,all ph5om5a exi/ 9 "o nature & mu/ s   
exi/1 because )\t su* a unity a priori  

no unity ( exp]i5ce1 & !re=e no         
det]m9ation ( objects 9 exp]i5ce1 w\ld  
be possible4--,9 connection ) !         
,po/ulates ! same transc5d5tal pro( is  
giv5 = a s]ies ( o!r laws ( nature a    
priori1 viz41 t 9 ! c\rse ( ! *anges 9 !
 _w--= ! causal pr9ciple holds only =   
effects 9 nature1 n = ! exi/5ce ( ?+s z 
sub/ances--!re c be nei!r bl9d *ance nor
 a bl9d necessity 7b only a conditional1
 h5ce an intelligible1 necessity72 &1   
fur!r1 t 9 ! s]ies ( ph5om5a1 !re c be  
nei!r leap1 nor gap1 nor break1 & h5ce  
no void--9 mundo non datur casus1 non   
datur fatum1 non datur saltus1 non datur
 hiatus4  ,:ile ! dynamical pr9ciples h 
to d ) ! relation ( ph5om5a1 :e!r x be  
to "o ano!r 7,analogies71 or to our     
faculty ( cognition 7,po/ulates71 !     
ma!matical relate to ! quantity (       
intuitions & s5sations1 & furni% ! basis
 = ! application ( ma!matics to natural 
sci5ce4#a ,an ext5sive quantity is "o 9 
:i* ! repres5tation ( ! p>ts makes !    
repres5tation ( ! :ole possible1 & s    

prec$es x4 ,i _c repres5t a l9e )\t     
draw+ x 9 ?\ght1 i4e41 )\t produc+ all  
p>ts ( x "o aft] ! o!r1 />t+ f a po9t4  
,all ph5om5a are intuit$ z aggregates or
 z collections ( previ\sly giv5 p>ts4 ,t
 :i* geometry ass]ts ( pure intuition   
7i4e41 ! inf9ite divisibility ( l9es7   
holds also ( empirical intuition4 ,an   
int5sive quantity is "o :i* is appreh5d$
 only z unity1 & 9 :i* plurality c be   
repres5t$ only by approximation to      
negation  #j4 ,e s5sation1 consequ5tly e
 reality 9 ph5om5a1 has a degree1 :i*1  
h[ev] small x may be1 is nev] ! smalle/1
 b c always be /ill m dim9i%$2 & betwe5 
reality & negation !re exi/s a cont9u\s 
connection ( possible small] int]m$iate 
s5sations1 or an inf9ite s]ies ( ev]    
decreas+ degrees4 ,! prop]ty (          
quantities1 accord+ to :i* no "p 9 !m is
 ! smalle/ possible "p1 & no "p is      
simple1 is t]m$ _! cont9uity4 ,all      
ph5om5a are cont9u\s quantities1 i4e41  
all _! p>ts are 9 turn 7fur!r divisible7
 quantities4 ,h5ce x foll[s1 fir/1 t a  

pro( = an empty space or empty "t c nev]
 be drawn f exp]i5ce1 & secondly1 t all 
*ange is also cont9u\s4 ,x is rem>kable1
 s ,kant ends 8 pro( ( ! ,anticipation1 
t ( quantities 9 g5]al we c "k "o       
quality only a priori1 namely1 _!       
cont9uity1 :ile ) reg>d to quality 7!   
real ( ph5om5a7 no?+ is kn[n to u a     
priori b _! int5sive quantity1 t is1 t  
!y mu/ h a degree4 ,ev]y?+ else is left 
to exp]i5ce4  ,footnote #a3 ,9 ea*      
p>ticul> sci5ce ( nature1 sci5ce prop]  
7i4e41 apodictically c]ta9 sci5ce7 is   
f\nd only to ! ext5t 9 :i* ma!matics c  
be appli$ !re94 ,= ?is reason *emi/ry c 
nev] be any?+ m ?an a sy/ematic art or  
exp]im5tal doctr9e2 & psy*ology n ev5   
?is1 b only a natural hi/ory ( ! inn]   
s5se or natural description ( ! s\l4 ,t 
:i* ,kant's ,metaphysical ,elem5ts (    
,natural ,sci5ce1 #aghf--;9 f\r *apt]s1 
,phoronomy1 ,dynamics1 ,me*anics1 &     
,ph5om5ology--advances z pure physics or
 ! metaphysics ( corporeal nature1 is a 
doctr9e ( motion4 ,! fundam5tal         

det]m9ation ( matt] 7( a some:at :i* is 
to be ! object ( ! ext]nal s5ses7 is    
motion1 = x is only ?r\gh motion t ^!   
s5ses c be affect$1 & ! und]/&+ itself  
r$uces all o!r pr$icates ( matt] to ?is4
 ,! second & mo/ valuable "p ( ! "w     
def9es matt] z ! movable1 t :i* fills   
space by its mov+ =ce1 & recognizes two 
orig9al =ces1 repulsive1 expansive      
sup]ficial =ce or =ce ( contact1 by :i* 
a body resi/s ! entrance ( o!r bodies   
into its own space1 & attractive1       
p5etrative =ce or ! =ce :i* works at a  
di/ance1 9 virtue ( :i* all p>ticles (  
matt] attract "o ano!r4 ,9 ord] to a    
det]m9ate fill+ ( space ! co-op]ation ( 
bo? fundam5tal =ces is requir$4 ,9      
opposition to ! me*anical !ory ( !      
atomi/s1 :i* expla9s =ces f matt] &     
makes !m inh]e 9 x1 ,kant holds fa/ to !
 dynamical view :i* he _h e>ly adopt$   
7cf4 p4 #cbd71 accord+ to :i* =ces are !
 prim>y factor & matt] is con/itut$ by  
!m4  ,! outcome ( ! ,analytic (         
,pr9ciples s\nds bold en\gh4 ,! und]/&+ 

is ! lawgiv] ( nature3 ,x does n draw   
its laws a priori f nature1 b prescribes
 !m to x2 ! pr9ciples ( ! pure und]/&+  
are ! mo/ univ]sal laws ( nature1 !     
empirical laws ( nature only p>ticul>   
det]m9ations ( ^!4 ,all ord] & regul>ity
 take _! orig9 9 ! _s1 & are put into   
objects by ?is4 ,univ]sal & necess>y k  
rema9$ inexplicable s long z x 0 assum$ 
t ! und]/&+ mu/ con=m itself to objects2
 x is at once expla9$ if1 conv]sely1 we 
make objects con=m !mselves to !        
und]/&+4 ,?is is a rev]sal (            
philosophical op9ion :i* may ju/ly be   
comp>$ to ! ,cop]nican revolution 9     
a/ronomy2 x is j z p>adoxical z ! latt]1
 b j z inconte/ably true1 & j z ri* 9   
results4 ,! sequel w %[ t ?is /rangely  
s\nd+ pr9ciple1 t ?+s con=m !mselves to 
our repres5tations & ! laws ( nature are
 dep5d5t on ! und]/&+1 is calculat$ to  
make u humble r ?an pr\d4 ,our und]/&+  
is lawgiv] )9 ! limits ( its k1 no d\bt1
 b x kn[s only )9 ! limits ( its        
legislative au?ority2 nature1 to :i* x  

dictates laws1 is no?+ b a totality (   
ph5om5a2 beyond ! limits ( ! ph5om5al1  
:]e its comm&s become ( no effect1 its  
wi%es also f9d no he>+4  ,9 ! second    
edition ! ,analytic ( ,pr9ciples conta9s
 z a supplem5t a ,refutation (          
,idealism1 :i*1 9 opposition to         
,desc>tes's position t ! only imm$iate  
exp]i5ce is inn] exp]i5ce1 f :i* we rea*
 out] exp]i5ce by inf]5ce alone1 argues 
t1 conv]sely1 x is only ?r\gh out]      
exp]i5ce1 :i* is imm$iate exp]i5ce      
prop]1 t inn] exp]i5ce--z ! consci\sness
 ( my own exi/5ce 9 "t--is possible4 ,= 
all "t det]m9ation presupposes some?+   
p]man5t 9 p]ception1 & ?is p]man5t      
some?+ _c be 9 me 7! m]e repres5tation (
 an ext]nal ?+71 b only actually exi/+  
?+s :i* ,i p]ceive )\t me4 ,!re is1     
fur!r1 a *apt] on ! ,gr\nd ( !          
,di/9ction ( all ,objects 9 g5]al into  
,ph5om5a & ,n\m5a1 ) an app5dix on !    
,amphiboly 7ambiguity7 ( ! ,concepts (  
,reflection4 ,! latt] %[s t ! concepts (
 comp>ison3 id5tity & diff]5ce1 agreem5t

 & opposition1 ! int]nal & ! ext]nal1   
matt] & =m1 acquire entirely diff]5t    
mean+s :5 !y relate to ph5om5a & to ?+s 
9 !mselves 79 o!r words1 to ?+s 9 _!    
relation to ! s5sibility1 & 9 relation  
to ! und]/&+ m]ely72 & fur!r1 9 a       
criticism ( ! philosophy ( ,leibnitz1   
reproa*es him ) hav+ intellectualiz$    
ph5om5a1 :ile ,locke is said to h       
s5sationaliz$ ! concepts ( ! und]/&+4   
,! *apt] on ! di/9ction betwe5 ph5om5a &
 n\m5a v mu* less5s ! hopes1 ar\s$1     
p]*ance1 by ! e/abli%m5t ( !            
non-empirical orig9 ( ! categories1 = an
 application ( ^! n conf9$ to any       
exp]i5ce4 ,al?\gh ! categories1 t is1   
are 9 _! orig9 entirely indep5d5t ( all 
exp]i5ce 7s mu* s t !y fir/ make        
exp]i5ce possible71 !y are yet conf9$ 9 
_! application )9 ! b\nds ( possible    
exp]i5ce4 ,!y s]ve only to spell        
ph5om5a1 t we may be able to read !m z  
exp]i5ce1 & :5 appli$ to ?+s 9 !mselves 
lose all significance4#a ,simil>ly !    
pr9ciples :i* spr+ f !m are no?+ m ?an  

pr9ciples ( possible exp]i5ce1 & c be   
ref]r$ to ph5om5a alone1 beyond :i* !y  
are arbitr>y comb9ations )\t objective  
reality4 ,?+s 9 !mselves may be ?\ght1 b
 !y c nev] be kn[n2 = k1 besides ! empty
 ?\ght ( an object1 implies intuitions  
:i* mu/ be subsum$ "u x or by :i* !     
object mu/ be det]m9$4 ,9 !mselves !    
pure concepts relate to all t is        
?9kable1 n m]ely to t :i* c be exp]i5c$1
 b ! s*emata1 :i* assures _!            
applicability 9 ! field ( exp]i5ce1 at !
 same "t limit !m to ?is sph]e4 ,!      
s*ematism makes ! imman5t use ( !       
categories1 & ?us a metaphysics (       
ph5om5a1 possible1 b ! transc5d5t use ( 
!m1 & consequ5tly ! metaphysics ( !     
supras5sible1 impossible4 ,! case w\ld  
be diff]5t if our intuition 7           
intellectual in/ead ( s5su\s1 or1 :i* is
 ! same ?+1 if our und]/&+ 7 intuitive  
in/ead ( discursive2 !n ! objects :i* we
 ?9k w\ld n ne$ to be giv5 u f ano!r    
s\rce 7?r\gh s5su\s intuition71 b w\ld  
be !mselves produc$ 9 ! act by :i* we   

?\ght !m4 ,! div9e _s may be su* an     
ar*etypal1 creative und]/&+ 7intellectus
 ar*etypus71 :i* g5]ates objects by its 
?\ght2 ! human _s is n su*1 & !re=e is  
conf9$1 ) its k1 )9 ! circle ( possible 
p]ception4--,! conception ( intellectual
 intuition leads to a di/9ction 9 reg>d 
to ?+s 9 !mselves3 9 its negative mean+ 
n\m5on d5otes a ?+ 9 s f> z x is n !    
object ( our s5su\s intuition1 9 its    
positive mean+ a ?+ :i* is ! object ( a 
non-s5su\s intuition4 ,! positive ?+ 9  
itself is a problematical concept2 its  
possibility dep5ds on ! exi/5ce ( an    
intuitive und]/&+1 some?+ ab\t :i* we   
are ignorant4 ,! negative ?+ 9 itself _c
 be kn[n1 inde$1 b x c be ?\ght2 & !    
repres5tation ( x is a possible concept1
 "o :i* is n self-contradictory#b 7a    
pr9ciple :i* is ( great importance =    
practical philosophy74 ,/ill fur!r1 x is
 an indisp5sable concept1 :i* %[s t !   
b\nd>y :]e our intuition ends is n !    
b\nd>y ( ! ?9kable z well2 & ev5 if x   
af=ds no positive ext5sion ( k#c x is1  

nev]!less1 v useful1 s9ce x sets b\nds  
to ! use ( ! und]/&+1 & ?us1 z x 71     
negatively ext5ds our k4 ,t :i* lies    
beyond ! b\nd>y1 ! h[ are !y possible   
7,wiemgli*keit7 ( ?+s 9 !mselves is     
%r\d$ 9 d>kness1 b ! b\nd>y itself1     
i4e41 ! t !y are possible               
7,dassmgli*keit71 ( ?+s 9 !mselves1 & ! 
unkn[abl5ess ( _! nature1 belongs to t  
:i* is )9 ! b\nd>y & lies 9 ! light4 ,9 
?is way ,kant believ$ t ! categories (  
causality & sub/ance might be appli$ to 
! relation ( ?+s 9 !mselves to ph5om5a  
)\t (f5d+ aga9/ ! prohibition ( _!      
transc5d5t use1 s9ce "h ! b\nd>y appe>$ 
only to be t\*$1 & n ov]/epp$4          
,footnote #a3 ,a pure use ( ! categories
 is no d\bt possible1 t is1 n           
self-contradictory1 b x has no k9d (    
objective validity1 because x ref]s to  
no intuition to :i* x is meant to imp>t 
! unity ( an object4 ,! categories rema9
 =ev] m]e functions ( ?\ght by :i* no   
object c be giv5 to me1 b by :i* ,i c   
only ?9k :atev] may be giv5 to me 9     

intuition 7,critique ( ,pure ,reason1   
,max ,mll]'s translation1 vol4 ii4 p4   
#bbj74 ,)\t ! condition ( s5su\s        
intuition1 = :i* !y supply ! syn!sis1 ! 
categories h no relation to any def9ite 
object2 = )\t ?is condition !y conta9   
no?+ b ! logical function1 or ! =m ( !  
concept1 by means ( :i* alone no?+ c be 
kn[n & di/+ui%$ z to any object belong+ 
to x 7,ibid41 pp4 #bac1 #bad74          
,footnote #b3 ,! ?+ 9 itself d5otes !   
object 9 s f> z x c be ?\ght by u1 b n  
intuit$1 & consequ5tly n det]m9$ by     
intuitions1 i4e41 _c be kn[n4 ,x is only
 ?r\gh ! s*ematism t ! categories are   
limit$ to ph5om5a4 ,o4 ,liebmann 7,kant 
und die ,epigon51 p4 #bg1 & passim7     
ov]looks or ignores ?is :5 he says3     
,kant "h all[s himself to recognize an  
object emancipat$ f ! =ms ( k1 !re=e an 
irrational object1 i4e41 to repres5t    
some?+ :i* is n repres5table--wood5     
iron4 ,! ?+ 9 itself is ins5sible1 b n  
irrational1 & ! =ms ( intuition & =ms ( 
?\ght jo9$ by ,liebmann "u ! title =ms (

 k h 9 ,kant a by no means equal rank4  
,footnote #c3 ,a category by itself1    
fre$ f all conditions ( intuition 7e4g41
 ! repres5tation ( a sub/ance :i* is    
?\ght )\t p]man5ce 9 "t1 or ( a cause   
:i* %\ld n act 9 "t71 c yield no def9ite
 concept ( an object4  ,?\gh ! concepts 
( ! und]/&+ possess a cognitive value 9 
! sph]e ( ph5om5a alone1 ! hope /ill    
rema9s ( ga9+ an entrance into !        
supras5sible sph]e ?r\gh ! concepts (   
reason4 ,x is indubitable t our _s is   
consci\s ( a f> high] ne$ ?an t = ! m]e 
connection ( ph5om5a into exp]i5ce2 x is
 t :i* _c be exp]i5c$1 ! ,ideas ,god1   
fre$om1 & immortality1 :i* =m ! real end
 ( its inquiry4 ,c ?is ne$ be satisfi$1 
& h[8 ,c ?is end be atta9$1 & reality be
 giv5 to ! ,ideas8 ,?is is ! ?ird "q ( !
 ,critique ( ,reason4  7c7 ,! ,reason's 
,ideas ( ! ,uncondition$ 7,transc5d5tal 
,dialectic74--,all our k beg9s ) !      
s5ses1 proce$s !nce to ! und]/&+1 & ends
 ) reason4 ,! und]/&+ is ! faculty (    
rules1 reason ! faculty ( pr9ciples4 ,! 

categories ( ! und]/&+ are necess>y     
concepts :i* make exp]i5ce possible1 &  
:i*1 !re=e1 c always be giv5 9 exp]i5ce2
 ! ,ideas ( reason are necess>y concepts
 to :i* no correspond+ object c be giv54
 ,ea* ( ! ,ideas gives expression to an 
uncondition$4 ,h[ does ! concept ( !    
uncondition$ arise1 & :at s]vice does x 
p]=m = k8  ,z p]ceptions are connect$ by
 ! categories 9 ! unity ( ! und]/&+1 &  
?us are elevat$ into exp]i5ce1 s !      
manifold k ( exp]i5ce ne$s a high]      
unity1 ! unity ( reason1 9 ord] to =m a 
connect$ sy/em4 ,?is is suppli$ to x by 
! ,ideas--:i*1 consequ5tly1 d n relate  
directly to ! objects ( intuition1 b    
only to ! und]/&+ & its judgm5ts--9     
ord]1 ?r\gh ! concept ( ! uncondition$1 
to give completion to ! k ( ! und]/&+1  
:i* always moves 9 ! sph]e ( !          
condition$1 i4e41 to give x ! greate/   
possible unity toge!r ) ! greate/       
possible ext5sion4 ,! concept ( !       
absolute gr[s out ( ! logical task :i*  
is incumb5t on reason1 i4e41 inf]5ce1 & 

x may be be/ expla9$ f ?is z a />t+     
po9t4 ,9 ! syllogism ! judgm5t ass]t$ 9 
! conclusion is d]iv$ f a g5]al rule1 ! 
major premise4 ,! validity ( ?is g5]al  
proposition is1 h[ev]1 itself           
conditional1 dep5d5t on high]           
conditions4 ,!n1 z reason seeks !       
condition = ea* condition$ mom5t1 &     
always comm&s a fur!r advance 9 ! s]ies 
( conditions1 x acts "u ! ,idea ( !     
totality ( conditions1 :i*1 nev]!less1  
s9ce x c nev] be giv5 9 exp]i5ce1 does n
 d5ote an object1 b only an heuri/ic    
maxim = k1 ! maxim1 namely1 nev] to /op 
) any "o condition z ultimate1 b always 
to cont9ue ! se>* fur!r4 ,! ,idea ( !   
uncondition$ or ( ! complet5ess (       
conditions is a goal :i* we nev] atta91 
b :i* we are cont9ually to approa*4 ,!  
categories & ! pr9ciples ( ! und]/&+ 7  
con/itutive pr9ciples1 ! ,ideas are     
regulative m]ely2 _! function is to     
guide ! und]/&+1 to give x a direction  
helpful = ! connection ( k1 n to in=m x 
conc]n+ ! actual "* ( ?+s4  ,s9ce reason

 is ! faculty ( inf]5ce 7z ! und]/&+ 0  
f\nd to be ! faculty ( judgm5t71 ! =ms (
 ! syllogism p]=m ! same s]vice = u 9   
our se>* = ! ,ideas z ! =ms ( judgm5t 9 
! discov]y ( ! categories4 ,to !        
categorical1 hypo!tical1 & disjunctive  
syllogisms correspond ! ?ree concepts ( 
reason1 ! s\l or ! ?9k+ subject1 ! _w or
 ! totality ( ph5om5a1 & ,god1 ! orig9al
 be+ or ! supreme condition ( !         
possibility ( all t c be ?\ght4 ,by     
means ( ^! we ref] all inn] ph5om5a to !
 ego z _! 7unkn[n7 common subject1 ?9k  
all be+s & ev5ts 9 nature z ord]$ "u !  
compreh5sive sy/em ( ! 7nev] to be      
exp]i5c$7 univ]se1 & reg>d all ?+s z !  
"w ( a supreme 7unkn[able7 intellig5ce4 
,^! ,ideas are necess>y concepts2 n     
accid5tal products nor m]e fancies1 b   
concepts sprung f ! nature ( reason2 _! 
use is legitimate s long z we rememb] t 
we c h a problematical concept ( objects
 correspond+ to !m1 b no k ( ^!2 t !y   
are problems & rules = k1 nev] objects &
 in/rum5ts ( x4 ,nev]!less ! temptation 

to reg>d ^! regulative pr9ciples z      
con/itutive & ^! problems z kn[able     
objects is almo/ irresi/ible2 = ! gr\nd 
( ! involunt>y confusion ( ! requir$ ) !
 giv5 absolute lies n s mu* 9 !         
c>elessness ( ! individual z 9 ! nature 
( our cognitive faculty4 ,! ,ideas c>ry 
) !m an unavoidable illusion ( objective
 reality1 & ! sophi/ical inf]5ces :i*   
spr+ f !m are n sophi/ications ( m51 b (
 pure reason itself1 are natural        
misund]/&+s f :i* ev5 ! wise/ _c free   
himself4 ,at be/ we c succe$ 9 avoid+ ! 
error1 n 9 do+ away ) ! transc5d5tal    
illusion f :i* x proce$s4 ,we c see     
?r\gh ! illusion & avoid ! errone\s     
conclusions built ^u x1 n %ake (f !     
illusion itself4  ,on ?is errone\s      
objective use ( ! ,ideas ?ree s-call$   
sci5ces are bas$3 speculative psy*ology1
 speculative cosmology1 & speculative   
!ology1 :i*1 toge!r ) ontology1         
con/itute ! /ately /ructure ( !         
7,wolffian7 metaphysics4 ,! ,critique ( 
,reason completes its "w ( de/ruction   

:51 z ,dialectic 7,logic cf4 ,illusion71
 x foll[s ! refutation ( dogmatic       
ontology--develop$ 9 ! ,analytic--:i*   
believ$ t x knew ?+s 9 !mselves ?r\gh ! 
concepts ( ! und]/&+1 ) a refutation (  
rational psy*ology1 rational cosmology1 
& rational !ology4 ,x %[s t ! fir/ is   
f\nd$ on p>alogisms1 & ! second entangl$
 9 irreconcilable contradictions1 :ile !
 ?ird makes va9 ef=ts to prove ! exi/5ce
 ( ! ,supreme ,be+4  7i7 ,! ,p>alogisms 
( ,rational ,psy*ology4 ,! transc5d5tal 
self-consci\sness or pure ego :i*       
accompanies & connects all my           
repres5tations1 ! subject ( all judgm5ts
 :i* ,i =m1 is1 z ! ,analytic recogniz$1
 ! presupposition ( all kn[+ 7pp4       
#ceh-cei71 b z su* x c nev] become an   
object ( k4 ,we mu/ n make a giv5 object
 out ( ! subject :i* nev] c be a        
pr$icate1 nor sub/itute a real ?9k+     
sub/ance = ! logical subject ( ?\ght1   
nor revamp ! unity ( self-consci\sness  
into ! simplicity & id5tical p]sonality 
( ! s\l4 ,! rational psy*ology ( !      

,wolffian s*ool is guilty ( ?is error1 &
 :atev] ( pro( x advances = !           
sub/antiality1 simplicity1 & p]sonality 
( ! s\l1 &1 by way ( d$uction1 = its    
immat]iality & immortality z well z =   
its relation to ! body1 is bas$ ^u ?is  
sub/itution1 ?is ambiguity ( ! middle   
t]m1 & !re=e ^u a quat]nio              
t]m9orum1--all its conclusions are      
fallaci\s4 ,x is all[able & unavoidable 
to add 9 ?\ght an absolute subject1 !   
unity ( ! ego1 to inn] ph5om5a2#a x is  
inadmissible to treat ! ,idea ( ! s\l z 
a kn[able ?+4 ,9 ord] to be able to     
apply ! category ( sub/ance to x1 we    
w\ld h to lay hold ( a p]man5t 9        
intuition su* z _c be f\nd 9 ! inn]     
s5se4 ,empirical psy*ology1 !n1 alone   
rema9s = ! ext5sion ( our k ( m5tal     
life1 :ile rational psy*ology %rivels up
 f a doctr9e into a m]e discipl9e1 :i*  
wat*es t ! limits ( exp]i5ce are n      
ov]/epp$4 ,b ev5 z a m]e limit+         
det]m9ation x has great value4 ,=1 along
 ) ! hope ( prov+ ! immat]iality &      

immortality ( ! s\l1 ! fe> ( see+ !m    
disprov$ is also dissipat$2 mat]ialism  
is j z unf\nd$ z spiritualism1 & if !   
conclusions ( ! latt] conc]n+ ! s\l z a 
simple1 immat]ial sub/ance :i* survives 
! dea? ( ! body1 _c be prov$1 yet we ne$
 n1 = t reason1 reg>d !m z errone\s1 = !
 opposite is z little susceptible (     
demon/ration4 ,! :ole "q belongs n 9 !  
=um ( k1 b 9 ! =um ( fai?1 & t :i* we   
ga9 by ! pro( t no?+ c be det]m9$       
conc]n+ x by !oretical reason+ 7viz41   
assurance aga9/ mat]iali/ic objections7 
is f> m valuable ?an :at we lose4       
,footnote #a3 ,! rational concept ( !   
s\l z a simple1 indep5d5t intellig5ce   
does n signify an actual be+1 b only    
expresses c]ta9 pr9ciples ( sy/ematic   
unity 9 ! explanation ( psy*ical        
ph5om5a1 viz41 ,to reg>d all            
det]m9ations z exi/+ 9 "o subject1 all  
p[]s1 z f> z possible1 z d]iv$ f1 "o    
fundam5tal p[]1 all *ange z belong+ to !
 /ates ( "o & ! same p]man5t be+1 & to  
repres5t all ph5om5a 9 space z totally  

di/9ct f acts ( ?\ght4  7#b7 ,!         
,ant9omies ( ,rational ,cosmology4 ,if 9
 its endeavor to sp9 metaphysical k     
conc]n+ ! nature ( ! _s & ! exi/5ce ( ! 
s\l aft] dea? out ( ! concept ( ! ?9k+  
ego ! reason falls into ! sn>e ( an     
ambigu\s t]m9us m$ius1 ! difficulties   
:i* fru/rate its attempts to use ! ,idea
 ( ! _w 9 ! ext5sion ( its k a priori   
are ( q a diff]5t "*4 ,"h ! =mal        
correctness ( ! me?od ( inf]5ce is n op5
 to attack4 ,x may be prov$ ) absolute  
/rictness 7& 9 ! apagogical or indirect 
=m1 f ! impossibility ( ! contr>y7 t !  
_w has a beg9n+ 9 "t1 & also t x is     
limit$ 9 space2 t e comp\nd sub/ance    
consi/s ( simple p>ts2 t1 besides !     
causality accord+ to ! laws ( nature1   
!re is a causality ?r\gh fre$om1 & t an 
absolutely necess>y ,be+ exi/s1 ei!r z a
 "p ( ! _w or z ! cause ( x4 ,b !       
contr>y may be prov$ ) equal /r+5cy 7&  
indirectly1 z be=e73 ,! _w is inf9ite 9 
space & "t2 !re is no?+ simple 9 ! _w2  
!re is no fre$om1 b ev]y?+ 9 ! _w takes 

place entirely accord+ to ! laws (      
nature2 & !re exi/s no absolutely       
necess>y ,be+ ei!r )9 ! _w or )\t x4    
,?is is ! fam\s doctr9e ( ! conflict ( !
 f\r cosmological !ses & anti!ses or ( !
 ,ant9omy ( ,pure ,reason1 ! discov]y ( 
:i* indubitably ex]cis$ a det]m9+       
influ5ce ^u ! :ole c\rse ( ! ,kantian   
,critique ( ,reason1 & :i* =ms "o ( its 
poles4 ,! transc5d5tal idealism1 !      
di/9ction betwe5 ph5om5a & n\m5a1 & !   
limitation ( k to ph5om5a1 all receive  
significant confirmation f ! ,anti!tic4 
,)\t ! critical idealism 7t :i* is      
intuit$ 9 space & "t1 & kn[n ?r\gh !    
categories1 is m]ely ! ph5om5on ( ?+s1  
^: 9 itself is unkn[able71 ! ant9omies  
w\ld be insoluble4 ,h[ is reason to act 
9 view ( ! conflict8 ,! gr\nds = !      
anti!ses are j z conclusive z ^? = !    
!ses2 on nei!r side is !re a            
prepond]ance :i* c\ld decide ! result4  
,ought reason to agree ) bo? p>ties or )
 nei!r8  ,! solution di/+ui%es ! fir/   
two ant9omies1 z ! ma!matical1 f !      

second two1 z ! dynamical ant9omies2 9 !
 =m]1 s9ce x is a "q ( ! composition &  
division ( quanta1 ! conditions may be  
homog5e\s ) ! condition$1 9 ! latt]1    
het]og5e\s4 ,9 ! =m]1 !sis & anti!sis   
are alike false1 s9ce bo? />t f !       
inadmissible assumption t ! univ]se 7!  
complete s]ies ( ph5om5a7 is giv51 :ile 
9 fact x is only requir$ ( u 7is an     
,idea74 ,! _w does n exi/ 9 itself1 b   
only 9 ! empirical regress ( ph5om5al   
conditions1 9 :i* we nev] c rea* inf9ity
 & nev] ! limitation ( ! _w by an empty 
space or an antec$5t empty "t1 = inf9ite
 space1 l empty space 7& ! same holds 9 
reg>d to "t71 is n p]ceivable4          
,consequ5tly ! quantity ( ! _w is nei!r 
f9ite nor inf9ite4 ,! "q ( ! quantity ( 
! _w is unansw]able1 because ! concept (
 a s5se-_w exi/+ by itself 7be=e !      
regress7 is self-contradictory4         
,simil>ly ! problem :e!r ! composite    
consi/s ( simple elem5ts is insoluble1  
because ! assumption t ! ph5om5on ( body
 is a ?+ 9 itself1 :i*1 antec$5t to all 

exp]i5ce1 conta9s all ! p>ts t c be     
rea*$ 9 exp]i5ce--9 o!r words1 t        
repres5tations exi/ outside ( !         
repres5tative faculty--is absurd4 ,matt]
 is inf9itely divisible1 no d\bt1 yet x 
does n consi/ ( inf9itely num]\s p>ts1 &
 j z little ( a def9ite numb] ( simple  
p>ts1 b ! p>ts exi/ m]ely 9 !           
repres5tation ( !m1 9 ! division        
7decomposition71 & ?is goes z f> z      
possible exp]i5ce ext5ds4 ,! case is    
diff]5t ) ! dynamical ant9omies1 :]e    
!sis & anti!sis c bo? be true1 9 s f> z 
! =m] is ref]r$ to ?+s 9 !mselves & !   
latt] to ph5om5a4 ,! contradiction      
vani%es if we take t :i* ! !sis ass]ts &
 ! anti!sis d5ies 9 diff]5t s5ses4 ,!   
fact t 9 ! _w ( ph5om5a ! causal nexus  
proce$s )\t int]ruption & )\t end1 s t  
!re is no room 9 x ei!r = an absolutely 
necess>y ,be+ or = fre$om1 does n       
conflict ) ?is o!r1 t beyond ! _w ( s5se
 !re may exi/ an omnipot5t1 omnisci5t   
cause ( ! _w1 & an intelligible fre$om z
 ! gr\nd ( our empirically necess>y     

actions4 ,may exi/1 s9ce = ! critical   
philosoph]1 :o has le>n$ t e ext5sion ( 
k beyond ! limits ( exp]i5ce is         
impossible1 ! "q c conc]n only !        
conceivability ( ! _w-gr\nd & ( fre$om4 
,?is possibility is amply suffici5t to  
give a support = fai?1 z1 on ! o!r h&1 x
 is indisp5sable 9 ord] to satisfy at   
once ! dem&s ( ! und]/&+ & ( reason1    
especially to satisfy _! practical      
int]e/s4 ,= if x 7 n possible to resolve
 ! app>5t contradiction1 & to %[ its    
memb]s capable ( reconciliation1 x w\ld 
be all ov] ei!r ) ! possibility (       
exp]i5tial k or ) ! basis ( e?ics &     
religion4 ,)\t unbrok5 causal           
connection1 no nature2 )\t fre$om1 no   
morality2 & )\t a ,deity1 no religion4  
,( special int]e/ is ! solution ( ! ?ird
 ant9omy1 :i* is accompli%$ by means ( !
 valuable 7?\gh 9 ! =m 9 :i* x is giv5  
by ,kant1 unt5able7 conception ( !      
intelligible "*4#a ,man is a citiz5 (   
two worlds4 ,z a be+ ( ! s5ses          
7ph5om5on7 he is subject 9 8 volition & 

action to ! control ( natural necessity1
 :ile z a be+ ( reason 7?+ 9 itself7 he 
is free4 ,= sci5ce 8 acts are !         
inevitable results ( prec$5t ph5om5a1   
:i*1 9 turn1 are !mselves empirically   
caus$2 nev]!less moral judgm5t holds him
 responsible = 8 acts4 ,9 ! "o case1 !y 
are ref]r$ to 8 empirical "*1 9 ! o!r1  
to 8 intelligible "*4 ,man _c act       
o!rwise ?an he does act1 if he be :at he
 is1 b he ne$ n be z he is2 ! moral     
con/itution ( ! intelligible "*1 :i*    
reflects itself 9 ! empirical "*1 is 8  
own "w1 & its radical trans=mation      
7moral reg5]ation7 8 duty1 ! fulfillm5t 
( :i* is dem&$1 &1 h5ce1 ( necessity    
possible4  ,footnote #a3 ,on !          
difficulties 9 ! way ( ?is !ory & !     
possibility ( _! removal cf4 ,r4        
,falck5b]g1 ,ueb] d5 intelligibl5 ,"*1  
zur ,kritik d] ,kantis*5 ,freiheitslehre
 7f ! ,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1 vol4 
lxxv471 ,halle1 #ahgi4  7#c7            
,speculative ,!ology4 ,! pr9ciple (     
complete det]m9ation1 accord+ to :i* (  

all ! possible pr$icates ( ?+s1 z comp>$
 ) _! opposites1 "o mu/ belong to ea*   
?+1 relates ! ?+ to be det]m9$ to ! sum 
( all possible pr$icates or ! ,idea ( an
 ens realissimum1 :i*1 s9ce x is !      
repres5tation ( a s+le be+1 may be call$
 ! ,ideal ( pure reason4 ,f ?is         
prototype ?+s1 z its imp]fect copies1   
d]ive ! mat]ial ( _! possibility2 all _!
 manifold det]m9ations are simply s _m  
modes ( limit+ ! concept ( ! highe/     
reality1 :i* is _! common sub/ratum1 j z
 all figures are possible only z diff]5t
 ways ( limit+ inf9ite space4 ,or bett]3
 ! d]ivative be+s are n relat$ to !     
ideal ( ! orig9al ,be+ z limitations to 
! sum ( ! highe/ reality 7on :i* view ! 
,supreme ,be+ w\ld be conceiv$ z an     
aggregate consi/+ ( ! d]ivative be+s1   
:]eas ^! presuppose x1 & h5ce _c        
con/itute x71 b z consequ5ces to a      
gr\nd4 ,b reason does n rema9 cont5t )  
?is entirely legitimate ?\ght ( !       
dep5d5ce ( f9ite ?+s on ! ideal ( ! ,be+
 ( all be+s1 z a relation ( concepts to 

! ,idea1 b1 dazzl$ by an irresi/ible    
illusion1 proce$s to realize1 to        
hypo/atize1 & to p]sonify ?is ideal1 &1 
s9ce %e h]self is dimly consci\s ( !    
illegitimacy ( su* a trans=mation ( !   
m]e ,idea into a giv5 object1 devises   
argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,reason1   
moreov]1 w\ld sc>cely be induc$ to reg>d
 a m]e creation ( its ?\ght z a real    
be+1 if x 7 n compell$ f ano!r direction
 to seek a re/+ place some:]e 9 !       
regress ( conditions1 & to ?9k !        
empirical reality ( ! cont+5t _w z f\nd$
 ^u ! rock ( some?+ absolutely necess>y4
 ,!re is no be+1 h[ev]1 :i* appe>s m fit
 = ! pr]ogative ( absolute necessity ?an
 t "o ! concept ( :i* conta9s ! !re=e to
 e :]e=e1 & is 9 no respect defective2 9
 o!r words1 rational !ology jo9s !      
rational ideal ( ! mo/ p]fect ,be+ ) !  
f\r? cosmological ,idea ( ! absolutely  
necess>y ,be+4  ,! pro( ( ! exi/5ce (   
,god may be attempt$ 9 ?ree ways3 we may
 argue ! exi/5ce ( a supreme cause ei!r 
by />t+ f a def9ite exp]i5ce 7! special 

con/itution & ord] ( ! s5se-_w1 t is1   
its purposiv5ess71 or f an indef9ite    
exp]i5ce 7any exi/5ce :atev]71 or1      
f9ally1 ab/ract+ f all exp]i5ce1 f m]e  
concepts a priori4 ,b nei!r ! empirical 
nor ! transc5d5t nor ! int]m$iate l9e ( 
?\ght leads to ! goal4 ,! mo/ impressive
 & popul> ( ! pro(s is !                
physico-!ological argum5t4 ,b ev5 if we 
gratuit\sly admit ! analogy ( natural   
products ) ! works ( human art 7= !     
argum5t is n able to prove t ! purposive
 arrangem5t ( ! ?+s 9 ! _w1 :i* we      
obs]ve ) admiration1 is cont+5t1 & c\ld 
only h be5 produc$ by an ord]+1 rational
 pr9ciple1 n self-produc$ by _! own     
nature accord+ to g5]al me*anical laws71
 ?is c yield an inf]5ce only to an      
intellig5t au?or ( ! purposive =m ( !   
_w1 & n to an au?or ( its matt]1 only1  
!re=e1 to a _w-ar*itect1 n to a         
_w-creator4 ,fur!r1 s9ce ! cause mu/ be 
proportionate to ! effect1 ?is argum5t c
 prove only a v wise & wond]fully       
p[]ful1 b n an omnisci5t & omnipot5t1   

design]1 & s _c give any def9ite concept
 ( ! supreme cause ( ! _w4 ,9 leap+ f ! 
cont+5cy ( ! purposive ord] ( ! _w to ! 
exi/5ce ( some?+ absolutely necess>y &  
!nce to an all-compreh5sive reality1 !  
teleological argum5t ab&ons ! gr\nd (   
exp]i5ce & passes ov] into !            
cosmological argum5t1 :i* 9 its turn is 
m]ely a conceal$ ontological argum5t 7^!
 two diff] only 9 ! fact t !            
cosmological pro( argues f ! antec$5tly 
giv5 absolute necessity ( a be+ to its  
unlimit$ reality1 & ! ontological1      
conv]sely1 f supreme reality to necess>y
 exi/5ce74 ,! weaknesses ( !            
cosmological argum5t 9 its fir/ half    
consi/ 9 ! fact t1 9 ! inf]5ce f !      
cont+5t to a cause = x1 x ov]/eps !     
b\nd>y ( ! s5se-_w1 &1 9 ! inf]5ce f !  
impossibility ( an inf9ite s]ies (      
conditions to a fir/ cause1 x employs ! 
subjective pr9ciple ( inve/igation--to  
assume hypo!tically a necess>y ultimate 
gr\nd 9 behalf ( ! sy/ematic unity (    
k--z an objective pr9ciple apply+ to ?+s

 9 !mselves4 ,! ontological argum5t1    
f9ally1 :i* ! two nom9ally empirical    
argum5ts hop$ to avoid1 b 9 :i* 9 ! end 
!y 7 =c$ to take refuge1 goes to wreck  
on ! impossibility ( dragg+ out ( an    
idea ! exi/5ce ( ! object correspond+ to
 x4 ,exi/5ce d5otes no?+ fur!r ?an !    
position ( ! subject ) all ! m>ks :i*   
are ?\ght 9 its concept--t is1 its      
relation to our k1 b does n itself      
belong to ! pr$icates ( ! concept1 &    
h5ce _c be analytically d]iv$ f ! latt]4
 ,! cont5t ( ! concept is n enri*$ by ! 
addition ( be+2 a hundr$ real doll>s d n
 conta9 a p5ny m ?an a hundr$ conceiv$  
doll>s4 ,all exi/5tial propositions are 
syn!tic2 h5ce ! exi/5ce ( ,god _c be    
demon/rat$ f ! concept ( ,god4 ,x is a  
contradiction1 to be sure1 to say t ,god
 is n almighty1 j z x is a contradiction
 to d5y t a triangle has ?ree angles3 if
 posit ! concept ,i mu/ n remove !      
pr$icate :i* necess>ily belongs to x4   
,if ,i remove ! subject1 h[ev]1 toge!r )
 its pr$icate 7! almighty ,god is n71 no

 contradiction arises1 = 9 t case no?+  
rema9s to be contradict$4  ,?us all !   
pro(s = ! exi/5ce ( a necess>y be+ are  
%[n to be illusory1 & ! basis (         
speculative !ology unc]ta94 ,nev]!less !
 idea ( ,god reta9s its validity1 & !   
p]ception ( ! inability ( reason to     
demon/rate its objective reality on     
!oretical gr\nds has great value4 ,=    
?\gh ! exi/5ce ( ,god _c be prov$1 x is 
true1 by way ( recomp5se1 t x _c be     
disprov$2 ! same gr\nds :i* %[ u t !    
ass]tion ( 8 exi/5ce is bas$ on a weak  
f\ndation suffice also to prove e       
contr>y ass]tion unf\nd$4 ,& %\ld       
practical motives pres5t !mselves to    
turn ! scale 9 favor ( ! assumption ( a 
supreme & all-suffici5t ,be+1 reason    
w\ld be oblig$ to take sides & to foll[ 
^! gr\nds1 :i*1 x is true1 are n        
objectively suffici5t1#a b /ill         
prepond]ant1 & ?an :i* we "k none bett]4
 ,aft]1 h[ev]1 ! objective reality ( !  
idea ( ,god is gu>ante$ f ! /&po9t (    
e?ics1 !re rema9s = transc5d5tal !ology 

! important negative duty 7c5sor%ip1    
,c5sor7 ( exactly det]m9+ ! concept ( ! 
mo/ p]fect ,be+ 7z a be+ :i* ?r\gh      
und]/&+ & fre$om conta9s ! fir/ gr\nd ( 
all o!r ?+s71 ( remov+ f x all impure   
elem5ts1 & ( putt+ an end to all        
opposite ass]tions1 :e!r a!i/ic1 dei/ic 
7deism ma9ta9s ! possibility ( kn[+ !   
exi/5ce ( an orig9al be+1 b decl>es all 
fur!r det]m9ation ( ?is be+ impossible71
 or 79 ! dogmatic s5se7 an?ropomorphic4 
,!ism is entirely possible ap>t f a     
mi/ak5 an?ropomorphism1 9 s f> z ?r\gh !
 pr$icates :i* we take f inn] exp]i5ce  
7und]/&+ & w7 we d n det]m9e ! concept (
 ,god z he is 9 himself1 b only         
analogically#b 9 8 relation to ! _w4 ,t 
concept s]ves only to aid u 9 our       
contemplation ( ! _w1#c n z a means (   
kn[+ ! ,supreme ,be+ himself4 ,=        
speculative purposes x rema9s a m]e     
ideal1 yet a p]fectly faultless "o1 :i* 
completes & cr[ns ! :ole ( human k4     
,footnote #a3 ,!y ne$ favor to supply _!
 lack ( legitimate claims4 ,( !mselves  

alone1 !re=e1 !y are unable to yield any
 !ological k1 b !y are fitt$ to prep>e !
 und]/&+ = x1 & to give emphasis to o!r 
possible 7moral7 pro(s4  ,footnote #b3  
,we halt at ! b\nd>y ( ! legitimate use 
( reason1 )\t ov]/epp+ x1 :5 we limit   
our judgm5t to ! relation ( ! _w to !   
,supreme ,be+1 & 9 ?is all[ ourselves a 
symbolical an?ropomorphism only1 :i* 9  
reality has ref]5ce to our language     
alone & n to ! object4  ,footnote #c3   
,we are compell$ to look on ! _w z if x 
7 ! "w ( a supreme intellig5ce & w4 ,we 
may confid5tly d]ive ! ph5om5a ( ! _w & 
_! exi/5ce f o!r 7ph5om5a71 z if no     
necess>y be+ exi/$1 & yet unceas+ly     
/rive aft] complet5ess 9 ! d]ivation1 z 
?\gh su* a be+ 7 presuppos$ z a supreme 
gr\nd4 ,9 %ort1 physical 7me*anical7    
explanation1 & a !i/ic po9t ( view or   
teleological judgm5t4  ,?us ! value ( ! 
,ideas is tw(old4 ,by %[+ ! unt5able    
ness ( a!ism1 fatalism1 & naturalism1 !y
 ,i cle> ! way = ! objects ( fai?4 ,by  
provid+ natural sci5ce ) ! /&po9t ( a   

sy/ematical unity ?r\gh teleological    
connection1 !y make an ext5sion ( ! use 
( ! und]/&+ possible )9 ! realm (       
exp]i5ce1#a ?\gh n beyond x4 ,!         
sy/ematic developm5t ( ! ,kantian       
teleology1 :i* is "h indicat$ 9 g5]al   
outl9es only1 is f\nd 9 ! second "p ( ! 
,critique ( ,judgm5t2 :ile ! practical  
philosophy1 :i* furni%es ! only possible
 pro(1 ! moral pro(1 = ! reality ( !    
,ideas1 erects on ! site left free by ! 
removal ( ! airy summ]-h\ses ( dogmatic 
metaphysics ! solid mansion ( critical  
metaphysics1 t is1 ! metaphysics (      
duties & ( hopes4 ,i 0 oblig$ to de/roy 
k 9 ord] to make room = fai?4 ,!        
transition f ! impossible !oretical or  
speculative k ( ?+s 9 !mselves to !     
possible practical k ( !m 7! belief t   
!re is a ,god & a future _w7 is giv5 9 !
 ,doctr9e ( ,me?od1 :i* is divid$ into  
f\r p>ts 7! ,discipl9e1 ! ,canon1 !     
,ar*itectonic1 & ! ,hi/ory ( ,pure      
,reason71 9 its second *apt]4 ,!re1 9 ! 
ideal ( ! ,summum ,bonum1 ! pro( is     

br\ght =w>d = ! validity ( ! ,ideas     
,god1 fre$om1 & immortality1 z po/ulates
 insep>able f moral obligation2 & by a  
cauti\s inve/igation ( ! ?ree /ages (   
ass5t 7op9ion1 k1 & belief7 bo? doctr9al
 & moral belief are assign$ _! places 9 
! sy/em ( ! k9ds ( k4  ,footnote #a3 ,! 
pr9ciple to reg>d all ord] 9 ! _w 7e4g41
 ! %ape ( ! e>?1 m\nta9s1 & seas1 !     
memb]s ( animal bodies7 z if x proce$$ f
 ! design ( a supreme reason leads !    
inve/igator on to v>i\s discov]ies4  ,we
 may n[ sum up ! results ( ! ?ree p>ts (
 ,kant's !oretical philosophy4 ,! pure  
intuitions1 ! categories1 & ! ,ideas are
 functions ( ! _s1 & af=d non-empirical 
7erfahrungsfreie7 k conc]n+ ! objects ( 
possible exp]i5ce 7& conc]n+ !          
possibility ( k74 ,! fir/ make univ]sal 
& necess>y k possible 9 relation to !   
=ms "u :i* objects c be giv5 to u2 !    
second make a simil>ly apodictic k      
possible 9 relation to ! =ms "u :i*     
ph5om5a mu/ be ?\ght2 ! ?ird make       
possible a judgm5t ( ph5om5a diff]+ f   

?is k1 yet n 9 conflict ) x4 ,!         
categories & ! ,ideas1 moreov]1 yield   
problematical concepts ( objects :i* are
 n giv5 to u 9 intuition1 b :i* may exi/
 outside ( space & "t3 ?+s 9 !mselves _c
 be kn[n1 x is true1 b !y c be ?\ght1 a 
fact ( importance 9 case we %\ld be     
assur$ ( _! exi/5ce 9 "s o!r way ?an by 
s5su\s intuition4  ,! det]m9ation ( !   
limits ( speculative reason is f9i%$4   
,all kn[+ & all demon/ration is limit$  
to ph5om5a or possible exp]i5ce4 ,b !   
b\nd>y ( t :i* c be exp]i5c$ is n !     
b\nd>y ( t :i* is1 /ill less ( t :i*    
ought to be2 ! b\nd>y ( !oretical reason
 is n ! b\nd>y ( practical reason4 ,we  
ought to act morally2 9 ord] to be able 
to d ?is we mu/ ascribe to ourselves !  
p[] to initiate a s]ies ( ev5ts2 &1 9   
g5]al1 we are w>rant$ 9 assum+ ev]y?+ ! 
non-assumption ( :i* makes moral action 
impossible4 ,if we 7 m]ely !oretical1   
m]ely exp]i5tial be+s1 we %\ld lack all 
occasion to suppose a second1           
intelligible _w beh9d & above ! _w (    

ph5om5a2 b we are volitional & active   
be+s "u laws ( reason1 & ?\gh we are    
unable to "k ?+s 9 !mselves1 yet we may 
& mu/ po/ulate !m--our fre$om1 ,god1 &  
immortality4 ,= n only t :i* is a       
condition ( exp]i5ce is true & necess>y1
 b t1 also1 :i* is a condition (        
morality4 ,! discov]y ( ! laws &        
conditions ( morality is ! mission (    
practical philosophy4   #b4 ,!ory (     
,e?ics4  ,! inve/igation n[ turns f !   
laws ( nature1 :i* express a mu/1 to !  
laws ( w1 9 :i* an ought is express$1 & 
by :i* c]ta9 actions are n compell$1 b  
prescrib$4 7,if we 7 m]ely rational1 & n
 at ! same "t s5su\s be+s1 ! moral law  
w\ld det]m9e ! w 9 ! =m ( a natural law2
 s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! con/ant possibility (   
deviation is giv5 9 ! s5sibility1 or1 r1
 ! moral /&po9t c only be atta9$ by     
conqu]+ ! s5su\s impulses1 !re=e ! moral
 law speaks to u 9 ! =m ( an ought1 ( an
 imp]ative47 ,among ! laws ( ! w or     
imp]atives1 also1 !re are "s :i* possess
 ! "* ( absolute necessity &            

univ]sality1 & :i*1 consequ5tly1 are a  
priori4 ,z ! und]/&+ dictates laws to ! 
ph5om5al _w1 s practical reason gives a 
law to itself1 is autonom\s2 & z ! a    
priori laws ( nature relate only to ! =m
 ( ! objects ( exp]i5ce1 s ! moral law  
det]m9es n ! cont5t1 b only ! =m (      
volition3 ,act only on t maxim :]eby ?\ 
can/ at ! same "t w t x %\ld become a   
univ]sal law4 ,! law ( practical reason 
is a categorical imp]ative4 ,:at does   
?is designation mean1 & :at is ! basis (
 ! =mula ( ! moral law :i* has j be5    
giv58  ,practical pr9ciples are ei!r    
subjectively valid1 9 :i* case !y are   
t]m$ maxims 7volitional pr9ciples ( !   
individual71 or objectively valid1 :5 !y
 are call$ imp]atives or precepts4 ,!   
latt] are ei!r valid "u c]ta9 conditions
 7,if y wi% to become a cl]gyman y mu/  
/udy !ology2 he :o w\ld prosp] z a      
m]*ant mu/ n *eat 8 cu/om]s71 or        
unconditionally valid 7,?\ %alt n lie74 
,all prud5tial or te*nical rules are    
hypo!tical imp]atives1 ! moral law is a 

categorical imp]ative4 ,! injunction to 
be tru?ful is n connect$ ) ! condition t
 we int5d to act morally1 b ?is g5]al   
purpose1 toge!r ) all ! special purposes
 belong+ to x1 to avoid ly+1 etc41 is   
dem&$ unconditionally & ( ev]yone--z    
surely z we are rational be+s we are "u 
moral obligation1 n 9 ord] to reputation
 "h bel[ & happ9ess above1 b )\t all ifs
 & 9 ord] to's4 ,?\ %alt                
unconditionally1 :atev] be ! outcome4 ,&
 z ! moral law is indep5d5t ( e end to  
be atta9$1 s x suff]s nei!r increase nor
 dim9ution 9 its b9d+ =ce1 :e!r m5 obey 
x or n4 ,x has absolute au?ority1 no    
matt] :e!r x is fulfill$ frequ5tly or   
seldom1 nay1 :e!r x is fulfill$ any:]e  
or at any "t :atsoev] 9 ! _w6  ,!re is  
an important diff]5ce betwe5 ! good :i* 
we are "u obligation to d & ! evil :i*  
we are "u obligation n to d1 & ! goods &
 ills :i* we seek & avoid4 ,! goods are 
always relatively good only1 good =     
some?+--z means to ends--& a bad use c  
be made ( all t nature & =tune give u z 

well z a good "o4 ,t :i* duty comm&s is 
an end 9 itself1 9 itself good1         
absolutely wor?ful1 & no misuse ( x is  
possible4 ,x might be suppos$ t         
pleasure1 t happ9ess is an ultimate end4
 ,b m5 h v diff]5t op9ions 9 reg>d to   
:at is pleasant1 "o hold+ "o ?+         
pleasurable & ano!r ano!r4 ,x is        
impossible to discov] by empirical      
me?ods :at duty dem&s ( all m5 alike &  
"u all circum/ances2 ! appeal is to our 
reason1 n to our s5sibility4 ,if        
happ9ess 7 ! end ( rational be+s1 !n    
nature _h end[$ u b poorly = x1 s9ce    
in/ead ( an unfail+ in/9ct %e has giv5 u
 ! weak & deceitful reason z a guide1   
:i*1 ) its tra91 culture1 sci5ce1 art1 &
 luxury1 has br\ght m tr\ble ?an        
satisfaction to mank9d4 ,man has a de/9y
 o!r ?an well-be+1 & a high] "o--!      
=mation ( good dispositions3 "h we h !  
only ?+ 9 ! :ole _w t c nev] be us$ =   
evil1 ! only ?+ t does n borr[ its value
 f a high] end1 b itself orig9ally &    
inali5ably conta9s x1 & t gives value to

 all else t m]its e/eem4 ,no?+ c        
possibly be conceiv$ 9 ! _w1 or ev5 out 
( x1 :i* c be call$ good )\t            
qualification1 except a good w4         
,und]/&+1 c\rage1 mod]ation1 & :atev]   
o!r m5tal gifts or praisewor?y qualities
 ( temp]am5t may be cit$1 z also ! gifts
 ( =tune1 are und\bt$ly good & desirable
 9 _m respects1 b !y may also become    
extremely evil & mis*iev\s1 if ! w :i*  
is to make use ( !m is n good4 ,^! are !
 classic words ) :i* ,kant comm5ces !   
,f\ndation ( ! ,metaphysics ( ,e?ics4   
,:5 does ! w des]ve ! pr$icate good8    
,let u li/5 to ! popul> moral           
consci\sness1 :i* di/+ui%es ?ree grades 
( moral recognition4 ,he :o refra9s f t 
:i* is contr>y to duty1 no matt] f :at  
motives--z1 = example1 ! %opkeep] :o    
does n *eat because he kn[s t hone/y is 
! be/ policy--receives mod]ate praise = 
irreproa*able outw>d behavior4 ,we be/[ 
w>m] praise & enc\ragem5t on him :om    
ambition impels to indu/ry1 k9d feel+ to
 b5efic5ce1 & pity to r5d] assi/ance4 ,b

 he alone e>ns our e/eem :o does 8 duty 
= duty's sake4 ,only 9 ?is ?ird case1   
:]e n m]ely ! ext]nal action1 nor m]ely 
! impulse ( a happy disposition1 b ! w  
itself1 ! maxim1 is 9 h>mony ) ! moral  
law1 :]e ! good is done = ! sake ( !    
good1 d we f9d true morality1 t         
uncondition$1 self-gr\nd$ wor?4 ,! man  
:o does t :i* is 9 accordance ) duty out
 ( reflection on its advantages1 & he :o
 does x f imm$iate--always              
unreliable--incl9ation1 acts legally2 he
 alone acts morally :o1 )\t li/5+ to    
advantage & incl9ation1 takes up ! law  
into 8 disposition1 & does 8 duty       
because x is duty4 ,! sole moral motive 
is ! consci\sness ( duty1 respect = !   
moral lazy#a  ,footnote #a3 ,! respect  
or rev]5ce :i* ! law1 &1 d]ivatively1 ! 
p]son 9 :om x is realiz$1 compel f u1   
is1 z self-produc$ ?r\gh a concept (    
reason & z ! only feel+ :i* c be kn[n a 
priori1 specifically diff]5t f all      
feel+s ( incl9ation or fe> awak5$ by    
s5su\s influ5ces4 ,z x /r5g!ns & raises 

our rational nature1 ! consci\sness (   
our fre$om & ( our high de/9ation1 b1 at
 ! same "t1 humbles our s5sibility1 !re 
is m+l$ ) ! joy ( exaltation a c]ta9    
pa91 :i* p]mits no intimate affection = 
! /]n & sublime law4 ,x is n q will+ly t
 we pay our respect--j because ( !      
depress+ effect :i* ?is feel+ ex]ts on  
our self-love4  ,"h ,kant is ?reat5$ by 
a dang] :i* he does n succe$ 9 escap+4  
,! moral law dem&s p]fect purity 9 our  
maxims2 only ! idea ( duty1 n an        
incl9ation1 is to det]m9e ! w4 ,q "r4   
,fur!r1 ! "o judg+ is himself nev]      
absolutely c]ta91 ev5 :5 8 own volition 
is conc]n$1 t no motives ( pleasure h   
m+l$ ) ! feel+ ( duty 9 contribut+ to ! 
"r action1 unless t :i* 0 morally dem&$ 
has be5 contr>y to all 8 incl9ations4   
,:5 a p]son :o is n 9 ne$ & :o is free f
 cupidity leaves ! money-box intru/$ to 
8 c>e unt\*$1 or :5 a man :o loves life 
ov]comes ?\ghts ( suicide1 ,i may assume
 t ! =m] 0 suffici5tly protect$ aga9/ ! 
temptation by 8 mod]ation1 & ! o!r by 8 

*e]ful disposition1 & ,i rate _!        
behavior z m]ely legal4 ,:51 on ! o!r   
h&1 an (ficial incl9$ to extravagance   
fai?fully manages ! funds intru/$ to    
him1 or "o :o is oppress$ by hopeless   
mis]y pres]ves 8 life1 al?\gh he does n 
love x1 !n ,i may ascribe ! ab/95ce f   
wrongdo+ to moral pr9ciples4 ,?is1 too1 
may be admitt$4 ,we are c]ta9 ( !       
morality ( a resolution only :5 x c be  
%[n t no incl9ation 0 involv$ along ) ! 
maxim4 ,! cases :]e ! "r action is p]=m$
 9 opposition to incl9ation are ! only  
ones 9 :i* we may be c]ta9 t ! moral    
quality ( ! action is unmix$--are !y1   
!n1 ! only ones 9 :i* a moral           
disposition is pres5t8 ,kant rightly    
ma9ta9s t ! admixture ( egoi/ic motives 
becl\ds ! purity ( ! disposition1 &     
consequ5tly dim9i%es its moral wor?4 ,) 
equal correctness he draws att5tion to !
 possibility t1 ev5 :5 we believe t we  
are act+ f pure pr9ciples1 a hidd5      
s5su\s impulse may be involv$4 ,b he    
leaves unconsid]$ ! possibility t1 ev5  

:5 ! incl9ations are favorable to "r    
action1 ! action may be p]=m$1 n f      
incl9ation1 b because ( ! consci\sness (
 duty4 ,giv5 t a man is naturally       
indu/ri\s1 does ?is happy pr$isposition 
protect him f fits ( idl5ess8 ,& if he  
resi/s !m1 mu/ x always be 8 incl9ation 
to activity & nev] moral pr9ciple :i*   
ov]comes ! temptation8 ,9 yield+ to !   
dang] ( conf\nd+ ! limits ( our c]ta9 k 
( ! purity ( motives ) ! limits ( moral 
action1 & 9 admitt+ true morality only  
:]e action proce$s f pr9ciple 9         
opposition to ! incl9ations1 ,kant      
really des]ves ! reproa* ( rigorism or  
exagg]at$ purism--sometimes gr\ndlessly 
ext5d$ to ! ju/ifiable /rictness ( 8    
views--& ! ridicule ( ! well-kn[n l9es (
 ,s*ill] 7,scruples ( ,consci5ce &      
,decision at ! conclusion ( 8 di/i*-gr\p
 ,! ,philosoph]s73  ,! fri5ds :om ,i    
love ,i gladly w\ld s]ve1 b to ?is      
incl9ation         incites me2  ,& s ,i 
am =c$ f virtue to sw]ve s9ce my act1   
?r\gh affection1         delights me4   

,! fri5ds :om ?\ love/ ?\ mu/ fir/ seek 
to scorn1 = to no         o!r way c ,i  
guide !e2  ',tis alone ) disgu/ ?\ can/ 
rightly p]=m ! acts to :i*         duty 
w\ld lead !e4  ,if we return f ?is      
necess>y limitation ( a gr\ndless       
inf]5ce 7t true morality is pres5t only 
:5 duty is p]=m$ aga9/ our incl9ations1 
:5 x is difficult = u1 :5 a conflict )  
s5su\s motives has prec$$71 to !        
developm5t ( ! fundam5tal e?ical        
conceptions1 we f9d t important         
conclusions conc]n+ ! orig9 & cont5t ( !
 moral law result f ! pr9ciple obta9$ by
 ! analysis ( moral judgm5t3 ?is law    
comm&s ) unconditional au?ority--= e    
rational be+ & "u all circum/ances--:at 
has uncondition$ wor?--! disposition :i*
 corresponds to x4 ,! univ]sality &     
necessity 7unconditionalness7 ( !       
categorical imp]ative proves t x spr+s f
 no o!r s\rce ?an reason itself4 ,^? :o 
d]ive ! moral law f ! w ( ,god subject x
 to a condition1 viz41 ! immutability ( 
! div9e w4 ,^? :o f9d ! s\rce ( moral   

legislation 9 ! pursuit ( happ9ess make 
rational w dep5d5t on a natural law ( ! 
s5sibility2 x w\ld be folly to enjo9 by 
a moral law t :i* ev]yone does (        
himself1 & does sup]abundantly4         
,moreov]1 ! !ories ( ! social           
incl9ations & ( moral s5se fail ( _!    
purpose1 s9ce !y base morality on !     
unc]ta9 gr\nd ( feel+4 ,ev5 ! pr9ciple (
 p]fection proves insuffici5t1 inasmu* z
 x limits ! individual to himself1 &1 9 
! end1 l ^? :i* h prec$$1 am\nts to a   
ref9$ self-love4 ,!onomic e?ics1 egoi/ic
 e?ics1 ! e?ics ( sympa?y1 & ! e?ics (  
p]fection are all eudemoni/ic1 & h5ce   
het]onomic4 ,! practical reason#a       
receives ! law nei!r f ! w ( ,god nor f 
natural impulse1 b draws x out ( its own
 dep?s2 x b9ds itself4  ,footnote #a3 ,w
 & practical reason are id5tical4 ,!    
def9ition runs3 ,w is ! faculty ( act+ 9
 accordance ) ! repres5tation ( laws4   
,! gr\nds :i* e/abli% ! d]ivation ( !   
moral law f ! w or reason itself exclude
 at ! same "t e mat]ial det]m9ation ( x4

 ,if ! categorical imp]ative posit$     
def9ite ends = ! w1 if x prescrib$ a    
direction to def9ite objects1 x c\ld    
nei!r be kn[n a priori nor be valid =   
all rational be+s3 its apodictic "*     
=bids ! admission ( empirical elem5ts ( 
e sort4#a ,if we ?9k away all cont5t f !
 law we reta9 ! =m ( univ]sal           
legality1#b & ga9 ! =mula3 ,act s t !   
maxim ( ?y w c always at ! same "t hold 
good z a pr9ciple ( univ]sal            
legislation4 ,! possibility ( conceiv+ !
 pr9ciple ( volition z a univ]sal law ( 
nature is ! crit]ion ( morality4 ,if y  
are 9 d\bt conc]n+ ! moral "* ( an      
action or motive simply ask y\rself !   
"q1 ,:at w\ld become ( humanity if      
ev]yone 7 to act accord+ to ! same      
pr9ciple8 ,if no "o c\ld tru/ ! ^w (    
ano!r1 or c\nt on aid f o!rs1 or be sure
 ( 8 prop]ty & 8 life1 !n no social life
 w\ld be possible4 ,ev5 a b& ( robb]s _c
 exi/ unless c]ta9 laws are respect$ z  
inviolable duties4  ,footnote #a3 ,!    
moral law1 !re=e1 is indep5d5t ( all    

exp]i5ce 9 ?ree respects1 z to its      
orig91 its cont5t1 & its validity4 ,x   
spr+s f reason1 x conta9s a =mal precept
 only1 & its validity is n conc]n$1 :e!r
 x meets ) ob$i5ce or n4 ,x decl>es :at 
ought to be done1 ev5 ?\gh ?is nev] %\ld
 be done4  ,footnote #b3 ,! =mal        
pr9ciple ( ! ,kantian e?ics has met v   
v>i$ criticism4 ,among o!rs ,edmund     
,pfleid]] 7,kantis*] ,kritizismus und   
,englis*e ,philosophie1 #ahha7 & ,zell] 
express !mselves unfavorably1 ,=tlage & 
,liebmann 7,zur ,analysis d]            
,wirkli*keit1 #b;d ed41 #ahhj1 p4 #fga7 
favorably4  ,x 0 indisp5sable to free ! 
supreme =mula ( ! moral law f all       
mat]ial det]m9ations1 i4e41 limitations4
 ,?is does n prev5t u1 h[ev]1 f aft]w>d 
giv+ ! ab/ract outl9e a m concrete      
color+4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! concept ( !      
dignity ( p]sons 9 contra/ to ! utility 
( ?+s (f]s itself z an aid to           
explanation & specialization4 ,?+s are  
means ^: wor? is always relative1       
consi/+ 9 ! useful or pleasant effects  

:i* !y ex]cise1 9 ! satisfaction ( a ne$
 or ( ! ta/e1 !y c be replac$ by o!r    
means1 :i* fulfill ! same purpose1 & !y 
h a 7m>ket or fancy7 value2 :ile t :i*  
is above all value & admits ( no        
equival5t has an ultimate wor? or       
dignity1 & is an object ( respect4 ,!   
legislation :i* det]m9es all wor?1 & )  
?is ! disposition :i* corresponds to x1 
has a dignity1 an uncondition$1         
incomp>able wor?1 & l5ds its subjects1  
rational be+s fram$ = morality1 !       
advantage ( be+ ends 9 !mselves4 ,!re=e 
morality1 & humanity s f> z x is capable
 ( morality1 is t :i* alone possesses   
dignity4 ,accord+ly ! foll[+ =mulation (
 ! moral law may be held equival5t to ! 
fir/3 ,s act z to treat humanity1 :e!r 9
 ?9e own p]son or 9 t ( any o!r1 9 e    
case z an end1 nev] z a means only4  ,a 
fur!r addition to ! ab/ract =mula ( !   
categorical imp]ative results f !       
discussion ( ! "q1 ,:at univ]sal ends   
admit ( subsumption "u x1 i4e41 /& ! te/
 ( fitness to be pr9ciples ( a univ]sal 

legislation8 ,"h aga9 ,kant /&s =? z an 
arbit] betwe5 ! cont5d+ p>ties1 &1 ) a  
firm grasp1 comb9es ! useful elem5ts f  
bo? sides aft] w9n[+ !m out f ! wor?less
 pr9ciples4 ,! majority ( ! eudemoni/ic 
sy/ems1 along ) ! promotion ( private   
welf>e1 prescribe ! fur!rance ( univ]sal
 good )\t be+ able to indicate at :at   
po9t ! pursuit ( p]sonal welf>e %\ld    
give way to reg>d = ! good ( o!rs1 :ile 
9 ! p]fectioni/ sy/ems ! social elem5t  
is want+ or retreats unduly into !      
backgr\nd4 ,! pr9ciple ( happ9ess       
repres5ts moral empiricism1 ! pr9ciple (
 p]fection moral rationalism4 ,kant     
resolves ! anti!sis by re/rict+ ! !ses (
 ! respective p>ties )9 _! prop] limits3
 ,make ?9e own p]fection & ! happ9ess ( 
o!rs ! end ( ?y actions2 ^! are ! only  
ends :i* are at ! same "t duties4 ,!    
p]fection ( o!rs is exclud$ by ! fact t 
,i _c imp>t to anyone a good            
disposition1 = ev]yone mu/ acquire x =  
himself2 p]sonal happ9ess by ! fact t   
ev]yone seeks x naturally4  ,?is        

anti!sis 7:i* is cross$ by ! fur!r      
di/9ction betwe5 p]fect1 i4e41          
indisp5sable1 & imp]fect duties7 s]ves z
 a basis = ! division ( moral duties    
into duties t[>d ourselves & duties t[>d
 o!r m54#a ,! =m] enjo9 ! pres]vation & 
developm5t ( our natural & moral p[]s1 !
 latt] are duties ( obligation 7(       
respect7 or ( m]it 7( love74 ,s9ce no "o
 c obligate me to feel1 we are to und]/&
 by love n ! pa?ological love (         
complac5cy1 b only ! active love (      
b5evol5ce or practical sympa?y4 ,s9ce x 
is j z impossible t ! increase ( ! evils
 9 ! _w %\ld be a duty1 ! en]vat+ &     
useless excitation ( pity1 :i* adds to !
 pa9 ( ! suff]] ! sympa!tic pa9 ( !     
spectator1 is to be /ruck (f ! li/ (    
virtues1 & active read9ess to aid put 9 
its place4 ,9 fri5d%ip love & respect   
unite 9 exact equipoise4 ,v]acity is "o 
( ! duties t[>d self2 ly+ is an ab&onm5t
 ( human dignity & "u no conditions     
all[able1 n ev5 if life dep5ds on x4    
,footnote #a3 ,all duties are t[>d m51 n

 t[>d supra-human or infra-human be+s4  
,t :i* we commonly t]m duties t[>d      
animals1 likewise ! s-call$ duties t[>d 
,god1 are 9 reality duties t[>d         
ourselves4 ,cruelty to animals is       
immoral1 because our sympa?ies are      
blunt$ by x4 ,to h religion is a duty to
 ourselves1 because ! view ( moral laws 
z laws ( ,god is an aid to morality4    
,aft] x has be5 settl$ :at ! categorical
 imp]ative enjo9s1 ! fur!r problem      
awaits u ( expla9+ h[ x is possible4 ,! 
categorical imp]ative is possible only  
on ,i ! presupposition ( our fre$om4    
,only a free be+ gives laws to itself1 j
 z an autonom\s be+ alone is free4 ,9   
!oretical philosophy ! pure             
self-consci\sness1 ! ,i ?9k1 d5ot$ a    
po9t :]e ! ?+ 9 itself manife/s to u n  
its nature1 inde$1 b its exi/5ce4 ,!    
same holds true 9 practical philosophy (
 ! moral law4 ,! inconte/able fact ( !  
moral law emp[]s me to rank myself 9 a  
high] ord] ( ?+s ?an ! m]ely ph5om5al   
ord]1 & 9 ano!r causal relation ?an t ( 

! m]ely necess>y 7me*anical7 causation (
 nature1 to reg>d myself z a legislative
 memb] ( an intelligible _w1 & "o       
indep5d5t ( s5su\s impulses--9 %ort1 to 
reg>d myself z free4 ,fre$om is ! ratio 
ess5di ( ! self-giv5 moral law1 ! latt] 
! ratio cognosc5di ( fre$om4 ,! law w\ld
 h no mean+ if we did n possess ! p[] to
 obey x3 ,i c because ,i ought4 ,x is   
true t fre$om is a m]e ,idea1 ^: object 
c nev] be giv5 to me 9 an exp]i5ce1 & ^:
 reality1 consequ5tly1 _c be objectively
 kn[n & prov$1 b nev]!less1 is requir$ )
 satisfactory subjective necessity z !  
condition ( ! moral law & ( !           
possibility ( its fulfillm5t4 ,i may n  
say x is c]ta91 b1 ) safety1 ,i am c]ta9
 t ,i am free4 ,fre$om is n a dogmatic  
proposition ( !oretical reason1 b a     
po/ulate ( practical reason2 & ! latt]  
holds ! primacy ov] ! =m] to ?is ext5t1 
t x c require ! =m] to %[ t c]ta9       
transc5d5t ,ideas ( ! supras5sible1 :i* 
are mo/ intimately connect$ ) moral     
obligation1 are compatible ) ! pr9ciples

 ( ! und]/&+4 ,x 0 j 9 view ( !         
practical int]e/s involv$ 9 ! rational  
concepts ,god1 fre$om1 immortality1 t x 
0 s important to e/abli%1 at lea/1 _!   
possibility 7_! conceivability )\t      
contradiction74 ,t1 !re=e1 :i* !        
,dialectic recogniz$ z possible is 9 !  
,e?ics %[n to be real3 ,:oev] seeks to  
fulfill 8 moral de/9y--& ?is is ! duty (
 e man--mu/ n d\bt conc]n+ ! conditions 
( its possible fulfillm5t1 mu/1 9 spite 
( _! incompreh5sibility1 believe 9      
fre$om & a supras5sible _w4 ,!y are bo? 
po/ulates ( practical reason1 i4e41     
assumptions conc]n+ t :i* is 9 behalf ( 
t :i* ought to be4 ,naturally ! int]e/s 
( ! und]/&+ mu/ n be infr+$ ^u by ^? ( !
 w4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! complete causal     
det]m9ation ( ev5ts reta9s its validity 
unimpea*$ = ! sph]e ( ! k ( ! und]/&+1 t
 is1 = ! realm ( ph5om5a2 :ile1 on ! o!r
 h&1 x rema9s p]missible = u to po/ulate
 ano!r k9d ( causality = ! realm ( ?+s 9
 !mselves1 al?\gh we c h no idea ( its  
h[1 & to ascribe to ourselves a free    

intelligible "*4  ,:ile ! ,idea ( fre$om
 c be d]iv$ directly f ! moral law z a  
po/ulate !re(1 ! pro( ( ! reality ( !   
two o!r ,ideas is effect$ indirectly by 
means ( ! concept ( ! highe/ good1 9 :i*
 reason conceives a union ( p]fect      
virtue & p]fect happ9ess4 ,! moral law  
requires absolute correspond5ce betwe5 !
 disposition & ! comm&s ( reason1 or    
hol9ess ( w4 ,b besides ?is supreme good
 7bonum supremum7 ( complet$ morality1 !
 highe/ good 7bonum consummatum7 fur!r  
conta9s a degree ( happ9ess correspond+ 
to ! degree ( virtue4 ,ev]yone agrees 9 
! judgm5t t1 by rights1 ?+s %\ld g well 
) ! virtu\s & ill ) ! wick$1 ?\gh ?is   
mu/ n imply any d$uction f ! pr9ciple   
previ\sly ann\nc$ t ! lea/ impulse (    
self-int]e/ causes ! maxim to =feit its 
wor?3 ! motive ( ! w mu/ nev] be        
happ9ess1 b always ! be+ wor?y (        
happ9ess4 ,! fir/ elem5t 9 ! highe/ good
 yields ! argum5t = immortality1 & !    
second ! argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god4    
7#a7 ,p]fect correspond5ce betwe5 ! w & 

! law nev] occurs 9 ?is life1 because ! 
s5sibility nev] all[s u to atta9 a      
p]man5tly good disposition1 arm$ aga9/ e
 temptation2 our w c nev] be holy1 b at 
be/ virtu\s1 & our lawful disposition   
nev] escape ! consci\sness ( a con/ant  
t5d5cy to transgression1 or at lea/ (   
impurity4 ,s9ce1 nev]!less1 ! dem&s ( ! 
7,*ri/ian7 moral law cont9ue 9 _!       
unrel5t+ /r+5cy to be ! /&>d1 we are    
ju/ifi$ 9 ! hope ( an unlimit$          
cont9uation ( our exi/5ce1 9 ord] t by  
con/ant progress 9 goodness we may draw 
ne>] 9 inf9itum to ! ideal ( hol9ess4   
7#b7 ,! e/abli%m5t ( a rational         
proportion betwe5 happ9ess & virtue is  
also n to be expect$ until ! future     
life1 = too (t5 on e>? x is ! evil man  
:o prosp]s1 :ile ! good man suff]s4 ,a  
ju/ly proportion$ di/ribution ( rew>ds &
 puni%m5t c only be expect$ f an inf9ite
 p[]1 wisdom1 & goodness1 :i* rules !   
moral _w ev5 z x has creat$ ! natural   
_w4 ,deity alone is able to br+ !       
physical & moral realms into h>mony1 &  

to e/abli% ! due relation betwe5        
well-be+ & "r action4 ,?is1 ! moral     
argum5t1 is ! only possible pro( = !    
exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,!ology is n possible z 
speculative1 b only z moral !ology4 ,!  
c]titude ( fai?1 moreov]1 is only       
diff]5t f1 n less ?an1 ! c]ta9ty ( k1 9 
s f> z x br+s ) x n an objective1 b a   
subjective1 al?\gh univ]sally valid1    
necessity4 ,h5ce x is bett] to speak (  
belief 9 ,god z a ne$ ( ! reason ?an z a
 duty2 :ile a logical error1 n a moral  
"o1 %\ld be *>g$ aga9/ ! a!i/4 ,! a!i/  
is bl9d to ! intimate connection :i*    
exi/s betwe5 ! highe/ good & ! ,ideas ( 
! reason2 he does n see t ,god1 fre$om1 
& immortality are ! indisp5sable        
conditions ( ! realization ( ?is ideal4 
,?us fai? is bas$ ^u duty )\t be+ itself
 duty3 e?ics is ! basis ( religion1 :i* 
consi/s 9 our reg>d+ moral laws z 7in/>1
 z if !y 77 div9e comm&s4 ,!y are n     
valid or obligatory because ,god has    
giv5 !m 7?is w\ld be het]onomy71 b !y   
%\ld be reg>d$ z div9e because !y are   

necess>y laws ( reason4 ,religion diff]s
 f e?ics only 9 its =m1 n 9 its cont5t1 
9 t x adds to ! conception ( duty ! idea
 ( ,god z a moral lawgiv]1 & ?us        
increases ! influ5ce ( ?is conception on
 ! w2 x is simply a means = ! promotion 
( morality4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 besides       
natural religion or ! pure fai? ( reason
 7! moral law & ! moral po/ulates71 !   
hi/orical religions conta9 /atutory     
det]m9ations or a doctr9al fai?1 x      
becomes ! duty ( ! critical philosoph]  
to inquire h[ mu* ( ?is positive        
admixture c be ju/ifi$ at ! b> ( reason4
 ,9 ?is inve/igation ! "q ( ! div9e     
revelation ( dogma & c]emonial laws is  
nei!r supra-rationali/ically affirm$ nor
 naturali/ically d]iv$1 b               
rationali/ically treat$ z an op5 "q4  ,!
 f\r essays comb9$ "u ! title ,religion 
)9 ! ,limits ( ,reason ,only treat ( !  
,radical ,evil 9 ,human ,nature1 !      
,conflict ( ! ,good ,pr9ciple ) ! ,evil 
= ! ,ma/]y ov] ,man1 ! ,victory ( !     
,good ,pr9ciple ov] ! ,evil & ! ,f\nd+ (

 a ,k+dom ( ,god ^u ,e>?1 &1 f9ally1    
,s]vice & ,false ,s]vice "u ! ,dom9ion (
 ! ,good ,pr9ciple1 or ,religion &      
,prie/craft2 or m briefly1 ! fall1 !    
atonem5t 7! ,*ri/-idea71 ! ,*ur*1 & true
 & false s]vice ( ,god4  7#a7 ,!        
individual evil de$s ( ! empirical "*   
po9t to an orig9al fault ( !            
intelligible "*1 a prop5sity to evil    
dwell+ 9 man & n fur!r d$ucible4 ,?is1  
al?\gh x is self-incurr$1 may be call$  
natural & innate1 & consi/s 7n 9 !      
s5sibility m]ely1 b7 9 a freely *os5    
rev]sal ( ! moral ord] ( our maxims1 9  
virtue ( :i* ! maxim ( duty or morality 
is subord9at$ to t ( well-be+ or        
self-love in/ead ( be+ plac$ above x1 & 
t :i* %\ld be ! supreme condition ( all 
satisfaction is degrad$ into a m]e means
 !reto4 ,morality is !re=e a conv]sion f
 ! evil to ! good1 & requires a complete
 revolution 9 ! disposition1 ! putt+ on 
( a new man1 a new bir?1 :i*1 an act out
 ( "t1 c manife/ itself 9 ! temporal _w 
( ph5om5a only z a gradual trans=mation 

9 conduct1 z a cont9u\s advance1 b :i*1 
we may hope1 is judg$ by him :o kn[s !  
he>t1 :o reg>ds ! disposition in/ead (  
p>ticul> imp]fect actions1 z a complet$ 
unity4  7#b7 ,by ! et]nal ,son ( ,god1 =
 ^: sake ,god creat$ all ?+s1 we are to 
und]/& ! ideal ( ! p]fect man1 :i* 9    
tru? =ms ! end ( creation1 & is come d[n
 f heav51 etc4 ,to believe 9 ,*ri/ means
 to resolve to realize 9 "o's self !    
ideal ( human nature :i* is well pleas+ 
to ,god1 or to make ! div9e disposition 
( ! ,son ( ,god our own1 n to believe t 
?is ideal has appe>$ on e>? z an actual 
man1 9 ! p]son ( ,jesus ( ,naz>e?4 ,!   
only sav+ fai? is ! belief ( reason 9 ! 
ideal :i* ,*ri/ repres5ts1 & n !        
hi/orical belief 9 8 p]son4 ,! vic>i\s  
atonem5t ( ! ideal man = ^? :o believe  
on him is to be int]pret$ to mean t !   
suff]+s & sacrifices 7crucifixion ( !   
fle%7 impos$ by moral conv]sion1 :i* are
 due to ! s9ful man z puni%m5t1 are     
assum$ by ! reg5]ate man3 ! new ,adam   
be>s ! suff]+s ( ! old4 ,9 ! same way z 

t 9 :i* ,kant h&les ! hi/ory ( ,*ri/ & !
 doctr9e ( ju/ification1 all biblical   
n>ratives & ecclesia/ical doctr9es are 9
 public in/ruction 7f ! pulpit7 to be   
int]pret$ morally1 ev5 :]e ! au?ors     
!mselves _h no su* mean+ 9 m9d4  7#c7 ,!
 ,*ur* is a society bas$ ^u ! laws (    
virtue1 an e?ical community or a p (    
,god1 ^: memb]s confirm ea* o!r 9 !     
p]=mance ( duty by example & by !       
pr(ession ( a common moral conviction2  
we are all bro!rs1 ! *ildr5 ( "o fa!r4  
,ideally !re is only "o 7! univ]sal1    
invisible7 ,*ur*1 & its f\ndation ! pure
 fai? ( reason2 b 9 consequ5ce ( a      
weakness peculi> to human nature !      
f\ndation ( an actual *ur* requir$ !    
addition ( a /atutory hi/orical fai?1 ) 
claims to a div9e orig91 f :i* a        
multitude ( visible *ur*es & ! anti!sis 
( or?odox & h]etics h sprung4 ,! hi/ory 
( ! ,*ur* s9ce ! e/abli%m5t (           
,*ri/ianity repres5ts ! conflict betwe5 
! hi/orical fai? & ! fai? ( reason2 its 
goal is ! submission ( ! =m] to ! latt]1

 z1 inde$1 we h already begun to p]ceive
 t ,god does n require a special s]vice 
beyond ! practice ( virtue4  7#d7 ,!    
true s]vice ( ,god consi/s 9 a moral    
disposition & its manife/ation3 ,all t  
man supposes himself able to d 9 ord] to
 please ,god1 beyond liv+ a good life1  
is false s]vice ,false s]vice is ! false
 subord9ation ( ! pure fai? ( reason to 
! /atutory fai?1 by :i* ! atta9m5t ( !  
goal ( religi\s developm5t is h9d]$ & ! 
laity are br\ght into dang]\s dep5d5ce  
^u ! cl]gy4 ,prie/craft1 hypocrisy1 &   
fanaticism ent] 9 ! tra9 ( feti* s]vice4
 ,! *ur*-fai? is de/9$ little by little 
to make itself sup]flu\s4 ,x has be5    
necess>y z a vehicle1 z a means = !     
introduction & ext5sion ( ! pure        
religion ( morality1 & x /ill rema9s    
useful = a "t1 until humanity %all      
become ( age2 ) man's entrance on !     
p]iod ( y\? & manhood1 h[ev]1 !         
lead+-/r+ ( holy traditions1 :i* 9 its  
"t did good s]vice1 becomes unnecess>y1 
nay1 f9ally1 a fett]4 7,?is relative    

appreciation ( ! positive elem5t 9      
religion1 9 anti!sis to ! un?9k+        
rejection ( x by ! ,illum9ation1        
resembles ! view ( ,less+2 cf4 pp4      
#cjf-cji47 ,moreov]1 s9ce x is a duty to
 be a co-work] 9 ! transition f !       
hi/orical to ! pure religi\s fai?1 !    
cl]gy mu/ be free z sci5tific !ologians1
 z s*ol>s & au?ors to exam9e ! doctr9es 
( fai? & to give expression to diss5t+  
op9ions1 :ile1 z prea*]s 9 ! pulpit1    
speak+ "u commission1 !y are b\nd to !  
cre$s4 ,to decide ! articles ( belief   
unalt]able w\ld be a crime aga9/ human  
nature1 ^: primal de/9ation is j ?is--to
 progress4 ,to r5\nce illum9ation means 
to trample ^u ! div9e rights ( reason4  
,! ,g5]al ,obs]vations app5d$ to ea*    
division add to ! f\r pr9ciple          
discussions z _m collat]al inquiries    
conc]n+ ,op]ations ( ,grace1 ,miracles1 
,my/]ies1 & ,means ( ,grace1 objects (  
transc5d5t ideas1 :i* d n prop]ly belong
 9 ! sph]e ( religion )9 pure reason    
itself1 b :i* yet bord] on x4 7#a7 ,we  

are entirely incapable ( call+ =? works 
( grace1 nay1 ev5 ( indicat+ ! m>ks by  
:i* actual div9e illum9ations are       
di/+ui%$ f imag9>y ones2 ! suppos$      
exp]i5ce ( heav5ly influ5ces belongs 9 !
 region ( sup]/iti\s religi\s illusion4 
,b _! impossibility is j z little       
susceptible ( pro( z _! reality4 ,no?+  
fur!r c be said on ! "q1 save t works ( 
grace may exi/1 & p]haps mu/ exi/ 9 ord]
 to supplem5t our imp]fect ef=ts aft]   
virtue2 & t ev]yone1 in/ead ( wait+ =   
div9e assi/ance1 %\ld d = 8 own am5dm5t 
all t is 9 8 p[]4 7#b7 ,kant judges m   
%>ply 9 reg>d to ! belief 9 miracles1   
:i* contradict ! laws ( exp]i5ce )\t 9 !
 lea/ fur!r+ ! p]=mance ( our duties4 ,9
 practical life no "o reg>ds miracles z 
possible2 & _! limitation to ! pa/ & to 
r>e in/ances does n make !m m cr$ible4  
7#c7 ,9 s f> z ! ,*ri/ian my/]ies       
actually repres5t imp5etrable secrets !y
 h no be>+ on moral conduct2 s f> z !y  
are morally valuable !y admit ( rational
 int]pretation & ?us cease to be        

my/]ies4 ,! ,tr9ity signifies ! ?ree    
moral qualities or p[]s unit$ 9 ! head (
 ! moral /ate3 ! "o ,god z holy lawgiv]1
 graci\s gov]nor1 & j judge4 7#d7 ,!    
s]vices ( ! ,*ur* h wor? z e?ical       
c]emonies1 z emblems ( ! moral          
disposition 7pray]7 & ( moral fell[%ip  
7*ur* att5dance1 baptism1 & ! ,"l's     
,supp]72 b to f9d 9 ^! symbolic         
c]emonies means ( grace & to seek to    
pur*ase ! favor ( ,god by !m1 is an     
error ( ! same k9d z sorc]y & feti*ism4 
,! "r way leads f virtue to grace1 n 9 !
 opposite direction2 piety )\t morality 
is wor?less4  ,! ,kantian !ory (        
religion is rationali/ic & morali/ic4 ,!
 fact t religion is bas$ on morality    
%\ld nev] be assail$4 ,b ! f\ndation is 
n ! build+1 ! orig9 n ! cont5t & ess5ce 
( ! ?+ itself4 ,z f> z ! nature (       
religion is conc]n$1 ! ,kantian view    
does n exclude completion 9 ! direction 
( ,s*lei]ma*]'s !ory ( feel+1 j z by its
 speculative int]pretation ( ! ,*ri/ian 
dogmas & its appreciation ( ! hi/ory (  

religion z a gradual trans=mation (     
hi/orical fai? into a fai? ( reason1 x  
po9ts out ! pa? aft]w>d foll[$ by       
,hegel4 ,! philosophy ( religion ( !    
future mu/ be1 z "s rec5t attempts aim  
to be 7,o4 ,pfleid]]1 ,bi$]mann1        
,lipsius71 a syn!sis ( ,kant1           
,s*lei]ma*]1 & ,hegel4  ,:ile ! moral   
law requires rightness n only ( !       
action1 b also ( ! disposition1 ! law ( 
"r is satisfi$ :5 ! act enjo9$ is p]=m$1
 no matt] f :at motives4 ,legal "r1 z ! 
sum ( ! conditions "u :i* ! w ( ! "o c  
consi/ ) ! w ( o!rs accord+ to a        
univ]sal law1 relates only to en=ceable 
actions1 )\t conc]n+ itself ab\t        
motives4 ,private "r includes "r 9 ?+s  
or prop]ty1 p]sonal "r or "r ( contract1
 & real-p]sonal "r 7m>riage "r72 public 
"r is divid$ into ! "r ( /ates1 (       
nations1 & ( citiz5s ( ! _w4 ,kant's    
!ory ( puni%m5t is orig9al & important4 
,he bases x n ^u prud5tial reg>d = !    
protection ( society1 or ! det]r5ce or  
re=mation ( ! crim9al1 b ^u ! exalt$    

idea ( retaliation 7jus talionis71 :i*  
dem&s t ev]yone %\ld meet ) :at 8 de$s  
des]ve3 ,eye = eye1 life = life4 ,9     
politics ,kant favors democratic !ories1
 ?\gh less decid$ly ?an ,r\sseau &      
,fi*te4 ,z he foll[$ ) int]e/ ! ef=ts   
aft] fre$om manife/$ 9 ! ,am]ican &     
,fr5* ,revolutions1 s he oppos$ an      
h]$it>y nobility z a h9drance to !      
natural equality ( rights1 & dem&$      
fre$om = ! public expression ( op9ion z 
! sure/ means ( gu>d+ aga9/ revolutions4
 ,! only legitimate =m ( ! /ate is !    
republican1 i4e41 t 9 :i* ! executive   
p[] is sep>at$ f ! legislative p[]1 9   
contra/ to despotism1 :]e !y are unit$ 9
 "o h&4 ,! be/ gu>anty = j gov]nm5t &   
civil lib]ty is (f]$ by con/itutional   
mon>*y1 9 :i* ! p ?r\gh its             
repres5tatives ex]cises ! legislative   
p[]1 ! sov]eign ! executive p[]1 &      
judges *os5 by ! p ! judicial p[]4 ,!   
contract f :i* we may conceive ! /ate to
 h aris5 is n to be reg>d$ z an         
hi/orical fact1 b z a rational idea or  

rule1 by :i* we may judge :e!r ! laws   
are j or n3 t :i* ! p z a :ole _c       
prescribe = itself1 ?is _c be prescrib$ 
= x by ! rul] 7cf4 p4 #bce74 ,t !re is a
 con/ant progress--n only ( individuals1
 b--( ! race1 n m]ely 9 te*nical &      
intellectual1 b also 9 moral respects1  
is support$ bo? by rational gr\nds 7)\t 
fai? 9 su* progress we c\ld n fulfill   
our duty z co-labor]s 9 x7 & by         
exp]i5tial gr\nds 7above all1 ! unselfi%
 sympa?y :i* all ! _w gave to ! ,fr5*   
,revolution72 & ! nev]-end+ compla9t t !
 times are gr[+ worse proves only t     
mank9d is cont9ually sett+ up /rict]    
/&>ds = itself4 ,! beg9n+ ( hi/ory is to
 be plac$ at ! po9t :]e man passes out (
 ! condition ( innoc5ce1 9 :i* in/9ct   
rules1 & beg9s to subdue nature1 :i*    
hi!rto he has obey$4 ,! goal ( hi/ory1  
aga91 is ! e/abli%m5t ( ! p]fect =m ( ! 
/ate4 ,nature itself co-op]ates ) fre$om
 9 ! gradual trans=mation ( ! /ate bas$ 
on necessity 7,not/aat7 into a rational 
/ate1 inasmu* z selfi% competition & !  

comm]cial _s require peace1 ord]1 &     
ju/ice = _! own security & help to br+  
!m ab\t4 ,& s1 fur!r1 we ne$ n d\bt t   
humanity w con/antly draw ne>] to !     
ideal condition ( ev]la/+ peace among ! 
nations 7gu>ante$ by a league ( /ates   
:i* %all z a m$iator settle disputes    
betwe5 individual /ates71 h[ev]         
impracticable ! idea may at pres5t      
appe>4  ,if ! bold decl>ation ( ,=tlage1
 t 9 ,kant ! sy/em ( absolute tru?      
appe>$1 is true ( any "o "p ( 8         
philosophy1 x is true ( ! practical "p1 
9 :i* ,*ri/ian morality has f\nd its    
sci5tific expression4 ,if we may ju/ly  
compla9 t on ! basis ( 8 %>p di/9ction  
betwe5 legality & morality1 betwe5 legal
 duty & virtue-duty1 ,kant took into    
acc\nt only ! legal side ( ! in/itutions
 ( m>riage & ( ! /ate1 ov]look+ ! fact t
 besides ^! !y h a moral importance &   
purpose1 if we may dem& a social e?ic z 
a supplem5t to 8 e?ics1 :i* is direct$  
to ! duties ( ! individual alone1 yet ^!
 & o!r well-f\nd$ desid]ata may be      

atta9$ by slight corrections & by !     
addition ( ano!r /ory to ! ,kantian     
edifice1 :ile ! f\ndations are /ill     
reta9$4 ,! bases are immovable4         
,autonomy1 absolute oughtness1 ! =mal "*
 ( ! law ( reason1 & ! incomp>able wor? 
( ! pure1 dis9t]e/$ disposition--^! are 
! corn] /ones ( ! ,kantian1 nay1 ( all  
morals4   #c4 ,!ory ( ! ,beautiful & (  
,ends 9 ,nature4  ,we n[ "k ! laws :i* !
 und]/&+ imposes ^u nature & ^? :i*     
reason imposes ^u ! w4 ,if !re is a     
field 9 :i* to be 7,se97 & ought to be  
7,soll571 nature & fre$om1 :i* we h ?us 
f> be5 =c$ to consid] anti!tical1 are   
reconcil$--& t !re is su* a field is    
already d$ucible f ! doctr9e ( !        
religi\s po/ulates 7z practical tru?s or
 assumptions conc]n+ :at is1 9 behalf ( 
:at ought to be71 & f ! h9ts conc]n+ a  
progress 9 hi/ory 79 :i* bo? p[]s       
co-op]ate t[>d a common goal7--!n !     
s\rce ( its laws is evid5tly to be s\ght
 9 t faculty :i* m$iates alike betwe5   
und]/&+ & reason & betwe5 kn[+ & feel+3 

9 ,judgm5t1 z ! high] faculty ( feel+4  
,judgm5t1 9 ! g5]al s5se1 is ! faculty (
 ?9k+ a p>ticul> z conta9$ 9 a univ]sal1
 & ex]cises a tw(old function3 z        
det]m9ant judgm5t x subsumes ! p>ticul> 
"u a giv5 univ]sal 7a law71 z reflective
 x seeks ! univ]sal = a giv5 p>ticul>4  
,s9ce ! =m] co9cides ) ! und]/&+1 we are
 "h conc]n$ only ) ! reflective judgm5t1
 judgm5t 9 ! n>r[] s5se1 :i* does n     
cognize objects1 b judges !m1 & ?is     
accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( purposiv5ess4#a 
,footnote #a3 ,! univ]sal laws spr++ f !
 und]/&+1 to :i* e nature mu/ con=m to  
become an object ( exp]i5ce = u1 det]m9e
 no?+ conc]n+ ! p>ticul> =m ( ! giv5    
reality2 we _c d$uce ! special laws (   
nature f !m4 ,nev]!less ! nature ( our  
cognitive faculty does n all[ u to      
accept ! empirical manifoldness ( our _w
 z cont+5t1 b impels u to reg>d x z     
purposive or adapt$ to our k1 & to look 
^u ^! special laws z if an intellig5ce  
_h giv5 !m 9 ord] to make a sy/em (     
exp]i5ce possible4  ,?is1 9 turn1 is (  

two k9ds4 ,an object is really or       
objectively purposive 7p]fect7 :5 x     
corresponds to its nature or its        
det]m9ation1 =mally or subjectively     
purposive 7beautiful7 :5 x is con=m$ to 
! nature ( our cognitive faculty4 ,!    
p]ception ( purpose is always accompani$
 by a feel+ ( pleasure2 9 ! fir/ case1  
:]e ! pleasure is bas$ on a concept ( ! 
object1 x is a logical satisfaction1 9 !
 second1 :]e x spr+s only f ! h>mony ( !
 object ) our cognitive p[]s1 ae/hetic  
satisfaction4 ,! objects ( !            
teleological & ! ae/hetic judgm5t1 !    
purposive & ! beautiful products (      
nature & art1 con/itute ! desir$        
int]m$iate field betwe5 nature & fre$om2
 & "h aga9 ! critical "q comes up1 ,h[1 
9 relation to ^!1 syn!tic judgm5ts a    
priori are possible8  7a7 ,e/hetic      
,judgm5t4--,! =mula holds ( ,kant's     
ae/hetics z well z ( 8 !oretical &      
practical philosophy1 t 8 aim is to     
ov]come ! opposition betwe5 ! empirical 
& ! rationali/ic !ories1 & to f9d a     

middle c\rse ( 8 own betwe5 ! two       
extremes4 ,nei!r ,burke nor ,baumg>t5   
satisfi$ him4 ,! ,engli% ae/hetics 0    
s5sational1 ! ,g]man1 i4e41 t ( !       
,wolffian s*ool1 rationali/ic4 ,! =m]   
id5tifi$ ! beautiful ) ! agreeable1 !   
latt] id5tifi$ x ) ! p]fect or ) !      
con=mity ( ! object to its concept2 9 ! 
"o case1 ae/hetic appreciation is treat$
 z s5su\s pleasure1 9 ! o!r1 x is treat$
 z a l[]1 confus$ k9d ( k1 its peculi>  
nature be+ 9 bo? cases ov]look$4 ,9     
opposition to ! s5sualization ( ae/hetic
 appreciation1 its "* z judgm5t mu/ be  
ma9ta9$2 & 9 opposition to its          
rationalization1 its "* z feel+4 ,?is   
relation ( ! ,kantian ae/hetics to t ( 8
 pr$ecessors expla9s bo? its fundam5tal 
t5d5cy & ! elem5ts 9 x :i* appe>        
defective & errone\s4 ,9 any case1 ,kant
 %[s himself 9 ?is field also an        
unapproa*able ma/] ( c>eful analysis4   
,! fir/ task ( ae/hetics is ! c>eful    
di/9ction ( its object f relat$ ph5om5a4
 ,! beautiful has po9ts ( contact ) !   

agreeable1 ! good1 ! p]fect1 ! useful1 &
 ! true4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f ! true by !   
fact t x is n an object ( k1 b (        
satisfaction4 ,if we inquire fur!r into 
! diff]5ce betwe5 ! satisfaction 9 !    
beautiful & ! satisfaction 9 !          
agreeable1 9 ! good 79 itself71 & 9 !   
7good = some?+1 z a means1 or 9 !7      
useful1 :i* latt] ?ree h ?is 9 common1 t
 !y are objects ( appetition--( s5su\s  
want1 ( moral w1 ( prud5tial desire--x  
becomes evid5t t ! beautiful pleases    
?r\gh its m]e repres5tation 7t is1      
indep5d5tly ( ! real exi/5ce ( !        
object71 & t ! delight 9 ! beautiful is 
a contemplative pleasure4 ,x is =       
contemplation only1 n to be s5su\sly    
enjoy$ nor put to practical use2 &1     
fur!r1 its production is n a univ]sal   
duty4 ,s5su\s1 prud5tial1 or moral      
appetition has always an int]e/ 9 !     
actual exi/5ce ( ! object2 ! beautiful1 
on ! o!r h&1 calls =? a dis9t]e/$       
satisfaction4  ,accord+ to quality !    
beautiful is ! object ( a dis9t]e/$1    

free 7b\nd by no int]e/71 & sportive    
satisfaction4 ,accord+ to quantity &    
modality ! judgm5t ( ta/e claims        
univ]sal & necess>y validity1 )\t ?is   
be+ bas$ ^u concepts4 ,?is posits fur!r 
diff]5ces betwe5 ! beautiful & !        
agreeable & ! good4 ,! good also pleases
 univ]sally1 b x pleases ?r\gh concepts2
 ! agreeable z well z ! beautiful       
pleases )\t a concept1 b x does n please
 univ]sally4  ,t :i* pleases ! reason   
?r\gh ! concept is good2 t :i* pleases !
 s5ses 9 s5sation is agreeable4 ,t :i*  
pleases univ]sally & necess>ily )\t a   
concept is beautiful4 ,moral judgm5t    
dem&s ! ass5t ( all1 & its univ]sal     
validity is demon/rable4 ,! judgm5t     
conc]n+ ! agreeable is n capable (      
demon/ration1 b nei!r does x pret5d to  
possess univ]sal validity2 we readily   
ackn[l$ge t :at is pleasant to "o ne$ n 
be s to e o!r man4 ,9 reg>d to !        
beautiful1 on ! contr>y1 we d n cont5t  
ourselves ) say+ t ta/es diff]1 b we    
expect x to please all4 ,we expect      

ev]yone to ass5t to our judgm5t ( ta/e1 
al?\gh x is able to support itself by no
 pro(s4  ,"h !re is a difficulty3 s9ce !
 judgm5t ( ta/e does n express a        
*>act]i/ic ( ! object1 b a /ate ( m9d 9 
! obs]v]1 a feel+1 a satisfaction1 x is 
purely subjective2 & yet x puts =? a    
claim to be univ]sally communicable4 ,! 
difficulty c be remov$ only on !        
assumption ( a common ae/hetic s5se1 ( a
 correspond+ organization ( ! p[]s (    
repres5tation 9 all m51 :i* yields !    
common /&>d = ! pleasurabl5ess ( !      
impression4 ,! agreeable appeals to t 9 
man :i* is diff]5t 9 diff]5t            
individuals1 ! beautiful to t :i*       
functions alike 9 all2 ! =m] addresses  
itself to ! passive s5sibility1 ! latt] 
to ! active judgm5t4 ,!                 
agreeable--because ( ! non-calculable   
diff]5ces 9 our s5su\s incl9ations1 :i* 
are 9 "p condition$ by bodily           
/ates--possesses no univ]sality :atev]1 
! good possesses an objective1 & !      
beautiful a subjective univ]sality4 ,!  

judgm5t conc]n+ ! agreeable has an      
empirical1 t conc]n+ ! beautiful an a   
priori1 det]m9+ gr\nd3 9 ! =m] case1 !  
judgm5t foll[s ! feel+1 9 ! latt]1 x    
prec$es x4  ,an object is consid]$      
beautiful 7=1 /rictly speak+1 we may say
 only ?is1 n t x is beautiful7 :5 its =m
 puts ! p[]s ( ! human m9d 9 a /ate (   
h>mony1 br+s ! intuitive & rational     
faculties into concordant activity1 &   
produces an agreeable proportion betwe5 
! imag9ation & ! und]/&+4 ,9 giv+ !     
occasion = an h>moni\s play ( !         
cognitive activities 7t is1 = an easy   
comb9ation ( ! manifold into unity7 !   
beautiful object is purposive = u1 = our
 function ( appreh5sion2 x is--"h we    
obta9 a det]m9ation ( ! judgm5t ( ta/e f
 ! /&po9t ( relation--purposive )\t a   
def9ite purpose4 ,we "k p]fectly well t 
a l&scape :i* attracts u has n be5      
specially arrang$ = ! purpose ( delight+
 u1 & we d n wi% to f9d 9 a "w ( art    
any?+ ( an int5tion to please4 ,an      
object is p]fect :5 x is purposive =    

itself 7corresponds to its concept72    
useful :5 x is purposive = our desire   
7corresponds to a practical int5tion (  
man72 beautiful :5 ! arrangem5t ( its   
p>ts is purposive = ! relation betwe5 ! 
fancy & und]/&+ ( ! behold] 7corresponds
 9 an unusual degree to ! conditions (  
our appreh5sion74 ,p]fection is int]nal 
7real1 objective7 purposiv5ess1 &       
utility is ext]nal purposiv5ess1 bo? = a
 def9ite purpose2 beauty1 on ! o!r h&1  
is purposiv5ess )\t a purpose1 =mal1    
subjective purposiv5ess4 ,! beautiful   
pleases by its m]e =m4 ,! satisfaction 9
 ! p]fect is ( a conceptual or          
intellectual k9d1 ! satisfaction 9 !    
beautiful1 emotional or ae/hetic 9 "*4  
,! comb9ation ( ^! f\r det]m9ations     
yields an exhau/ive def9ition ( !       
beautiful3 ,! beautiful is t :i*        
univ]sally & necess>ily ar\ses dis9t]e/$
 satisfaction by its m]e =m             
7purposiv5ess )\t ! repres5tation ( a   
purpose74  ,s9ce ! pleasurabl5ess ( !   
beautiful re/s on ! fact t x e/abli%es a

 pleas+ h>mony betwe5 ! imag9ation & !  
und]/&+1 h5ce betwe5 s5su\s &           
intellectual appreh5sion1 ! ae/hetic    
attitude is possible only 9             
s5su\s-rational be+s4 ,! agreeable exi/s
 = ! animal z well1 & ! good is an      
object ( approval = pure spirits2 b !   
beautiful exi/s = humanity alone4 ,kant 
succe$$ 9 giv+ v delicate & felicit\s   
v]bal expression to ^! di/9ctions3 !    
agreeable gratifies 7v]gngt7 & excites  
incl9ation 7,neigung72 ! good is approv$
 7gebilligt7 & ar\ses respect 7,a*tung72
 ! beautiful pleases 7gefllt7 & f9ds    
favor 7,gun/74   ,9 ! progress ( !      
inve/igation ! pr9ciple t beauty dep5ds 
on ! =m alone1 & t ! concept1 ! purpose1
 ! nature ( ! object is n tak5 into     
acc\nt at all 9 ae/hetic judgm5t1       
exp]i5ces limitation4 ,9 its full       
/rictness ?is applies only to a def9ite 
&1 9 fact1 a subord9ate division ( !    
beautiful1 :i* ,kant m>ks (f "u ! "n (  
pure or free beauty4 ,) ?is he contra/s 
adh]5t beauty1 z t :i* presupposes a    

g5]ic concept to :i* its =m mu/         
correspond & :i* x mu/ adequately       
pres5t4 ,too mu* a puri/ n to m>k ! com+
 9 ( an intellectual pleasure z a       
becl\d+ ( ! purity ( ! ae/hetic         
satisfaction1 he is /ill j en\gh to     
admit ! high] wor? ( adh]5t beauty4 ,=  
almo/ ! :ole ( artificial beauty & a    
consid]able "p ( natural beauty belong  
to ?is latt] division1 :i* we to-day t]m
 ideal & *>act]i/ic beauty4 ,examples ( 
free or purely =mal beauty are tape/ry  
patt]ns1 arabesques1 f\nta9s1 fl[]s1 &  
l&scapes1 ! pleasurabl5ess ( :i* re/s   
simply on ! proportion ( _! =m &        
relations1 & n ^u _! con=mity to a      
presuppos$ significance & det]m9ation ( 
! ?+4 ,a build+1 on ! contr>y--a dwell+1
 a summ]-h\se1 a temple--is consid]$    
beautiful only :5 we p]ceive 9 x n m]ely
 h>moni\s relations ( ! p>ts "o to      
ano!r1 b also an agreem5t betwe5 ! =m & 
! purpose or g5]ic concept3 a *ur* mu/ n
 look l a *alet4 ,"h ! ext]nal =m is    
comp>$ ) an inn] nature1 & h>mony is    

requir$ betwe5 =m & cont5t4 ,adh]5t     
beauty is significant & expressive      
beauty1 :i*1 al?\gh ! satisfaction 9 x  
is n purely ae/hetic1 nev]!less /&s     
high] ?an pure beauty1 because x gives  
to ! und]/&+ also some?+ to ?9k1 & h5ce 
busies ! :ole _s4  ,! analytical        
inve/igations conc]n+ ! nature ( !      
beautiful receive a valuable supplem5t 9
 ! classical def9ition ( g5ius4 ,kant   
gives two def9itions ( productive tal5t1
 "o =mal & "o g5etic4  ,natural beauty  
is a beautiful ?+2 artificial beauty1 a 
beautiful repres5tation ( a ?+4 ,! gift 
( agreeably pres5t+ a ?+ :i* 9 itself1  
p]haps1 is ugly1 is call$ ta/e4 ,to     
judge ( ! beautiful x is suffici5t to   
possess ta/e1 b = its production !re is 
/ill ano!r tal5t ne$$1 _s or g5ius4 ,=  
an art product c fulfill ! dem&s ( ta/e 
& yet n ae/hetically satisfy2 :ile      
=mally faultless1 x may be spiritless4  
,:ile beautiful nature looks z ?\gh x 7 
art 7z ?\gh x 7 calculat$ = our         
enjoym5t71 beautiful art %\ld resemble  

nature1 mu/ n appe> to be int5tional    
?\gh1 no d\bt1 x is s1 mu/ %[ a c>eful b
 n an ov]nice adh]5ce to rules 7i4e41 n 
"o :i* fett]s ! p[]s ( ! arti/74 ,?is is
 ! case :5 ! arti/ be>s ! rule 9        
himself1 t is1 :5 he is gift$4 ,g5ius is
 ! innate disposition 7?r\gh7 :i*       
7nature7 gives rules to art2 its        
*>act]i/ics are orig9ality1 exempl>9ess1
 & unreflectiv5ess4 ,x does n produce   
accord+ to def9ite rules :i* c be le>n$1
 b x is a law 9 itself1 x is orig9al4 ,x
 creates in/9ctively )\t consci\sness ( 
! rule1 & _c describe h[ x produces its 
results4 ,x creates typical works :i*   
impel o!rs to foll[1 n to imitate4 ,x is
 only 9 art t !re are g5iuses1 i4e41    
spirits :o produce t :i* absolutely _c  
be le>n$1 :ile ! great m5 ( sci5ce diff]
 only 9 degree1 n 9 k9d1 f _! imitators 
& pupils1 & t :i* !y discov] c be le>n$ 
by rule4  ,?is e/abli%es ! crit]ia by   
:i* g5ius may be recogniz$4 ,if we ask  
by :at psy*ological factors x is produc$
 ! answ] is z foll[s3 ,g5ius presupposes

 a c]ta9 favorable relation betwe5      
imag9ation & reason4 ,g5ius is ! faculty
 ( ae/hetic ,ideas1 b an ae/hetic ,idea 
is a repres5tation ( ! imag9ation :i*   
animates ! m9d1 :i* adds to a concept ( 
! und]/&+ mu* ( ineffable ?\ght1 mu* t  
belongs to ! concept b :i* _c be        
compreh5d$ 9 a def9ite concept4 ,) ! aid
 ( ?is idea ,kant solves ! ant9omy ( !  
ae/hetic judgm5t4 ,! !sis is3 ,! judgm5t
 ( ta/e is n bas$ ^u concepts2 = o!rwise
 x w\ld admit ( controv]sy 7w\ld be     
det]m9able by pro(s74 ,! anti!sis is3 ,x
 is bas$ ^u concepts2 = o!rwise we c\ld 
n cont5d ab\t x 7endeavor to obta9      
ass5t74 ,! two pr9ciples are            
reconcilable1 = concept is und]/ood     
diff]5tly 9 ! two cases4 ,t :i* ! !sis  
rightly seeks to exclude f ! judgm5t (  
beauty is ! det]m9ate concept ( !       
und]/&+2 t :i* ! anti!sis ) equal ju/ice
 pron\nces indisp5sable is ! indet]m9ate
 concept1 ! ae/hetic ,idea4  ,! free/   
play is af=d$ ! imag9ation by poetry1 ! 
highe/ ( all arts1 :i*1 ) rhetoric      

7insidi\s1 on acc\nt ( its e>ne/        
int5tion to deceive71 =ms ! gr\p t]m$   
arts ( spee*4 ,to ! class ( =mative arts
 belong ar*itecture1 sculpture1 & pa9t+ 
z ! art ( design4 ,a ?ird gr\p1 ! art ( 
! beautiful play ( s5sations1 includes  
pa9t+ z ! art ( color1 & music1 :i* z a 
f9e art is plac$ imm$iately aft] poetry1
 z an agreeable art at ! v foot ( ! li/1
 & z ! play ( tone 9 ! vic9ity ( !      
ent]ta9+ play ( =tune games ( *ance & ! 
witty play ( ?\ght4 ,! explanation ( !  
comic 7! ludicr\s is bas$1 accord+ to   
,kant1 on a sudd5 trans=mation ( /ra9$  
expectation into no?+7 lays great 7inde$
 exagg]at$7 weight on ! result+         
physiological ph5om5a1 ! bodily %ock :i*
 height5s vital feel+ & favors heal?1 & 
:i* accompanies ! alt]nat+ t5sion &     
relaxation ( ! m9d4  ,besides free &    
adh]5t beauty1 !re is /ill a ?ird k9d ( 
ae/hetic effect1 ! ,sublime4 ,!         
beautiful pleases by its b\nd$ =m4 ,b   
also ! b\ndless & =mless c ex]t ae/hetic
 effect3 t :i* is great beyond all      

comp>ison we judge sublime4 ,n[ ?is     
magnitude is ei!r ext5sive 9 space & "t 
or int5sive greatness ( =ce or p[]2     
accord+ly !re are two =ms ( ! sublime4  
,t ph5om5on :i* mocks ! p[] (           
compreh5sion possess$ by ! human        
imag9ation or surpasses e measure ( our 
intuition1 z ! ocean & ! />ry heav5s1 is
 ma!matically sublime4 ,t :i* ov]comes  
all conceivable resi/ance1 z ! t]rible  
=ces ( nature1 conflagrations1 floods1  
e>?quakes1 hurricanes1 ?und]/orms1 is   
dynamically sublime or mighty4 ,! =m] is
 relative to ! cognitive1 ! latt] to !  
appetitive faculty4 ,! beautiful br+s ! 
imag9ation & ! und]/&+ into accord2 by !
 sublime ! fancy is br\ght into a c]ta9 
favorable relation1 n directly to be    
t]m$ h>mony1 ) reason4 ,9 ! "o case !re 
arose a re/ful1 positively pleasurable  
mood2 "h a %ock is produc$1 an indirect 
& negative pleasure proce$+ f pa94 ,s9ce
 ! sublime exce$s ! functional          
capability ( our s5su\s repres5tations &
 does viol5ce to ! imag9ation1 we fir/  

feel small at ! sight ( ! absolutely    
great1 & incapable ( compass+ x ) our   
s5su\s glance4 ,! s5sibility is n equal 
to ! impression2 ?is at fir/ seems      
contr>y to purpose & viol5t4 ,?is       
humiliat+ impression1 h[ev]1 is quickly 
foll[$ by a reaction1 & ! vital =ces1   
:i* 7 at fir/ *eck$1 are /imulat$ to ! m
 lively activity4 ,moreov]1 x is !      
s5su\s "p ( man :i* is humbl$ & !       
spiritual "p t is exalt$3 ! ov]?r[ (    
s5sibility becomes a triumph = reason4  
,! sight ( ! sublime1 t is1 awak5s !    
,idea ( ! uncondition$1 ( ! inf9ite4    
,?is ,idea c nev] be adequately pres5t$ 
by an intuition1 b c be ar\s$ only by ! 
inadequacy ( all t is s5su\s to pres5t  
x2 ! inf9ite is pres5t$ ?r\gh !         
impossibility ( pres5t+ x4 ,we _c intuit
 ! inf9ite1 b we c ?9k x4 ,9 comp>ison )
 reason 7z ! faculty ( ,ideas1 ! faculty
 ( ?9k+ ! inf9ite7 ev5 ! greate/ ?+ t c 
be giv5 9 ! s5se-_w appe>s small2 reason
 is ! absolutely great4 ,t is sublime ! 
m]e ability to ?9k :i* proves a faculty 

( ! m9d surpass+ e /&>d ( s5se4 ,t is   
sublime :i* pleases imm$iately ?r\gh its
 opposition to ! int]e/ ( ! s5ses4 ,!   
conflict betwe5 phantasy & reason1 !    
insuffici5cy ( ! =m] = ! atta9m5t ( !   
rational ,idea1 makes u consci\s ( !    
sup]iority ( reason4 ,j because we feel 
small z s5su\s be+s we feel great z     
rational be+s4 ,! pleasure 7relat$ to ! 
moral feel+ ( respect &1 l ?is1 m+l$ ) a
 c]ta9 pa97 :i* accompanies ?is         
consci\sness ( inn] greatness is expla9$
 by ! fact t ! imag9ation1 9 ackn[l$g+  
reason sup]ior1 places itself 9 !       
appropriate & purposive relation (      
subord9ation4 ,x is evid5t f ! =ego+ t !
 truly sublime is reason1 ! moral nature
 ( man1 8 pr$isposition & de/9ation1 :i*
 po9t beyond ! pres5t _w4 ,s*ill]       
decl>es t 9 space ! sublime does n      
dwell1 & ,kant says1 ,sublimity is      
conta9$ 9 none ( ! ?+s ( nature1 b only 
9 our m9d1 9 s f> z we are consci\s (   
be+ sup]ior to nature )9 u & )\t u4     
,nev]!less1 s9ce 9 ?is contemplation we 

fix our ?\ghts entirely on ! object )\t 
reflect+ on ourselves1 we transf] !     
admiration ( "r due to ! reason & its   
,idea ( ! inf9ite by subreption to !    
object by :i* ! ,idea is occasion$1 &   
call ! object itself sublime1 in/ead ( !
 mood :i* x wakes 9 u4  ,if ! sublime   
m>ks ! po9t :]e ! ae/hetic t\*es on !   
b\nd>y ( ! moral1 ! beautiful is also n 
)\t "s relation to ! good4 ,by %[+ !    
agreem5t ( s5sibility & reason1 :i* is  
dem&$ by ! moral law1 realiz$ 9 ae/hetic
 intuition 7z a volunt>y yield+ ( !     
imag9ation to ! legitimacy ( ! und]/&+71
 x gives u ! inspir+ consci\sness t !   
anti!sis is reconcilable1 t ! rational c
 be pres5t$ 9 ! s5su\s1 & s becomes a   
symbol ( ! good4  7b7 ,teleological     
,judgm5t4--,teleological judgm5t is n k1
 b a way ( look+ at ?+s :i* comes into  
play :]e ! causal or me*anical          
explanation fails u4 ,?is is n ! case if
 ! purposiv5ess is ext]nal1 relative to 
its utility = some?+ else4 ,! fact t !  
s& ( ! sea-%ore furni%es a good soil = !

 p9e nei!r fur!rs nor prev5ts a causal k
 ( x4 ,only inn] purposiv5ess1 z x is   
manife/$ 9 ! products ( organic nature1 
br+s ! me*anical explanation to a halt4 
,organisms are di/+ui%$ above inorganic 
=ms by ! fact t ( !mselves !y are at    
once cause & effect1 t !y are           
self-productive & ?is bo? z a species 7!
 oak spr+s f ! acorn1 & 9 its turn be>s 
acorns7 & z individuals                 
7self-pres]vation1 gr[?1 & ! replacem5t 
( dy+ p>ts by new ones71 & also by !    
fact t ! reciprocally productive p>ts   
are 9 _! =m & _! exi/5ce all condition$ 
by ! :ole4 ,?is latt] fact1 t ! :ole is 
! det]m9+ gr\nd = ! p>ts1 is p]fectly   
obvi\s 9 ! products ( human art4 ,= "h x
 is ! repres5tation ( ! :ole 7! idea ( !
 "w desir$7 :i* z ! gr\nd prec$es !     
exi/5ce & ! =m ( ! p>ts 7( ! ma*9e74 ,b 
:]e is ! subject to con/ruct organisms  
accord+ to its repres5tations ( ends8   
,we may nei!r conceive nature itself z  
end[$ ) =ces act+ 9 view ( ends1 nor a  
praet]mundane intellig5ce int]f]+ 9 !   

c\rse ( nature4 ,ei!r ( ^! suppositions 
w\ld be ! dea? ( natural philosophy3 !  
hylozoi/ end[s matt] ) a prop]ty :i*    
conflicts ) its nature1 & ! !i/ ov]/eps 
! b\nd>y ( possible exp]i5ce4 ,above    
all1 ! analogy ( ! products ( organic   
nature ) ! products ( human te*nique is 
de/roy$ by ! fact t ma*9es d n reproduce
 !mselves & _! p>ts _c produce "o ano!r1
 :ile ! organism organizes itself4  ,=  
our discursive und]/&+ an int]action    
betwe5 ! :ole & ! p>ts is completely    
incompreh5sible4 ,we und]/& :5 ! p>ts   
prec$e ! :ole 7me*anically7 or !        
repres5tation ( ! :ole prec$es ! p>ts   
7teleologically72 b to ?9k ! :ole itself
 7n ! ,idea !re(7 z ! gr\nd ( ! p>ts1   
:i* is dem&$ by organic life1 is        
impossible = u4 ,x w\ld h be5 o!rwise if
 an intuitive und]/&+ _h be5 be/[$ ^u u4
 ,= a be+ possess+ intellectual         
intuition ! anti!sis betwe5 possibility 
& actuality1 betwe5 necessity &         
cont+5cy1 betwe5 me*anism & teleology1  
w\ld disappe> along ) t betwe5 ?\ght &  

intuition4 ,= su* a be+ ev]y?+ possible 
7all t x ?9ks7 w\ld be at ! same "t     
actual 7pres5t = intuition71 & all t    
appe>s to u cont+5t--int5tionally       
select$ f sev]al possibilities & 9 ord] 
to an end--w\ld be necess>y z well2 ) ! 
:ole w\ld be giv5 ! p>ts correspond+    
!reto1 & consequ5tly natural me*anism & 
purposive connection w\ld be id5tical1  
:ile = u1 to :om ! intuitive und]/&+ is 
d5i$1 ! two divide4 ,h5ce ! teleological
 view is a m]e =m ( human repres5tation1
 a subjective pr9ciple4 ,we may n say t 
a me*anical orig9 ( liv+ be+s is        
impossible1 b only t we are unable to   
und]/& x4 ,if we knew h[ a blade ( grass
 or a frog sprang f me*anical =ces1 we  
w\ld also be 9 a position to produce !m4
  ,! ant9omy ( ! teleological           
judgm5t--!sis3 all production ( mat]ial 
?+s & _! =ms mu/ be judg$ to be possible
 accord+ to m]ely me*anical laws2       
anti!sis3 "s products ( mat]ial nature  
_c be judg$ to be possible accord+ to   
m]ely me*anical laws1 b to judge !m     

requires ! causality ( f9al causes--is  
insoluble s long z bo? propositions are 
tak5 = con/itutive pr9ciples2 b x is    
soluble :5 !y are tak5 z regulative     
pr9ciples or /&po9ts = judgm5t4 ,= x is 
9 no wise contradictory1 on ! "o h&1 to 
cont9ue ! se>* = me*anical causes z f> z
 ?is is 9 any way possible1 &1 on ! o!r1
 cle>ly to recognize t1 at la/1 ?is w   
/ill leave a rema9d] :i* we _c make     
intelligible )\t call+ to our aid !     
concept ( ends4 ,assum+ t x 7 possible  
to c>ry ! explanation ( life f life1 f  
ance/ral organisms 7= ! g5]atio         
aequivoca is an absurd !ory7 s f> t !   
:ole organic _w %\ld repres5t "o great  
family desc5d$ f "o primitive =m z !    
common "m1 ev5 !n ! concept ( f9al      
causes w\ld only be pu%$ fur!r back1 n  
elim9at$3 ! orig9 ( ! fir/ organization 
w always resi/ me*anical explanation4   
,besides ?is mission ( putt+ limits to  
causal d]ivation & ( fill+ ! gap 9 k by 
a necess>y1 al?\gh subjective1 way (    
look+ at ?+s1 ! ,idea ( ends has /ill   

ano!r1 ! direct promotion ( k f effici5t
 causes ?r\gh ! discov]y ( new causal   
problems4 ,?us1 = example1 physiology   
owes ! impulse to ! discov]y ( previ\sly
 unnotic$ me*anical connections 7cf4    
also p4 #chb note7 to ! "q conc]n+ !    
purpose ( organs4 ,z doctr9es me*anism &
 teleology are irreconcilable &         
impossible2 z rules or maxims ( inquiry 
!y are compatible1 & ! "o z indisp5sable
 z ! o!r4  ,aft] ! problem ( life1 :i*  
is insoluble by means ( ! me*anical     
explanation1 has necessitat$ !          
application ( ! concept ( ends1 !       
teleological pr9ciple mu/1 at lea/ by   
way ( exp]im5t1 be ext5d$ to ! :ole (   
nature4 ,?is consid]ation culm9ates 9 ! 
position t man1 z ! subject ( morality1 
mu/ be held to be ! f9al aim ( ! _w1 = x
 is only 9 reg>d to a moral be+ t no    
fur!r inquiry c be rais$ z to ! purpose 
( its exi/5ce4 ,x also repeats ! moral  
argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( a supreme reason1 
?us supplem5t+ physico-!ology1 :i* is   
inadequate to ! demon/ration ( "o       

absolutely p]fect ,deity2 s t ! ?ird    
,critique1 l ! two prec$+1 concludes ) !
 ,idea ( ,god z an object ( practical   
fai?4         99       99       99      
99       99  ,!re are ?ree orig9al &    
pregnant pairs ( ?\ghts :i* cause       
,kant's "n to %9e 9 ! philosophical sky 
z a /> ( ! fir/ magnitude3 ! dem& = a   
critique ( k & ! pro( ( a priori =ms (  
k2 ! moral autonomy & ! categorical     
imp]ative2 ! regulative validity ( !    
,ideas ( reason & ! practical k ( !     
transc5d5t _w4 ,no philosophical !ory1  
no sci5tific hypo!sis c h5ce=? avoid !  
duty ( exam9+ ! value & legitimacy ( its
 conclusions1 z to :e!r !y keep )9 !    
limits ( ! compet5cy ( human reason2    
:e!r ,kant's det]m9ation ( ! orig9 & !  
limits ( k may c\nt on cont9u$ favor or 
n1 ! fundam5tal critical idea1 t        
reflection ^u ! nature & range ( our    
cognitive faculty is indisp5sable1      
reta9s its validity = all cases & makes 
an end ( all philosophiz+ at r&om4#a ,no
 e?ical sy/em w ) impunity pass by !    

autonom\s legislation ( reason & !      
unconditional imp]ative 7! admonition ( 
consci5ce translat$ into conceptual     
language73 ! nature & wor? ( moral w w  
be ev]y:]e s\ght 9 va9 if !y are n      
recogniz$ :]e ,kant has f\nd !m--9 !    
unselfi% disposition1 9 t maxim :i* is  
fitt$ to become a g5]al law = all       
rational be+s4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,ideas1   
f9ally1 reveals to u1 beyond ! daylight 
( ph5om5al k1 ! />lit l&scape ( ano!r   
mode ( look+ at ?+s1#b 9 :i*            
satisfaction is af=d$ = ! hi!rto unmet  
wi%es ( ! he>t & dem&s ( ! reason4      
,footnote #a3 ,reason consi/s j 9 ?is1 t
 we are able to give acc\nt ( all our   
concepts1 op9ions1 & ass]tions1 ei!r on 
objective or subjective gr\nds4         
,footnote #b3 ,^? :o reg>d all future   
metaphysics z refut$ by ! ,critique (   
,reason are to be ref]r$ to ! positive  
side ( ! ,kantian doctr9e ( ,ideas4     
,kant admits t ! me*anical explanation  
does n satisfy reason1 & t1 besides x1 a
 judgm5t accord+ to ,ideas is           

legitimate4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! speculation ( 
! con/ructive s*ool gives an ideal      
int]pretation ( ! _w1 x may be reg>d$ z 
an ext5d$ application ( regulative      
pr9ciples1 :i* exce$s its au?ority only 
:5 x pr(esses to be objective k4  ,!    
effect ( ! ?ree ,critiques ^u ! public 0
 v v>i$4 ,! fir/ great "w excit$ al>m by
 ! %>pness ( its negations & its        
de/ruction ( dogmatic metaphysics1 :i*  
to its e>lie/ read]s appe>$ to be ! core
 ( ! matt]2 ,kant 0 = !m ! univ]sal     
de/roy]4 ,!n ! ,sci5ce ( ,k br\ght into 
prom95ce ! positive1 boldly conqu]+     
side1 ! inve/igation ( ! conditions (   
empirical k4 ,9 lat] times ! endeavor   
has be5 made to d ju/ice to bo? sides1  
b1 9 opposition to ! ov]bold proc$ure ( 
! con/ructive ?9k]s1 :o _h fall5 into a 
reviv$ dogmatism1 m 9 ! _s ( caution &  
resignation4 ,! second great "w ar\s$   
gl[+ en?usiasm3 ,kant is no mundane     
lum9>y1 writes ,jean ,paul 9 reg>d to ! 
,critique ( ,practical ,reason1 b a :ole
 sol> sy/em %9+ at once4 ,! ?ird1       

because ( its subject & by its purpose (
 syn!tic reconciliation betwe5 fields   
h]et(ore %>ply sep>at$1 ga9$ ! sympa?y (
 our poet-h]oes ,s*ill] & ,goe!1 &      
awak5$ 9 a "y1 speculative _s ,ideas = a
 ,philosophy ( ,nature4 ,s*ell+ reclaim$
 ! intuitive und]/&+1 :i* ,kant _h      
problematically attribut$ to ! primal   
_s1 z ! prop]ty ( ! philosoph]1 aft]    
,fi*te _h drawn att5tion to ! fact t !  
consci\sness ( ! categorical imp]ative1 
:i* ,kant _h n ?or\ghly inve/igat$1 c\ld
 be no?+ else ?an intellectual          
intuition1 because 9 x kn[+ & do+       
co9cide4 ,fi*te1 h[ev]1 does n d]ive !  
mat]ial = 8 sy/em f ! ,critique (       
,judgm5t1 ?\gh he also _h a high        
appreciation ( x1 b f ! two e>li]       
,critiques1 ! fundam5tal conceptions (  
:i* he--foll[+ ! h9t t practical &      
!oretical reason are only diff]5t       
applications ( "o & ! same reason--br+s 
into ! close/ connection4 ,he unites !  
c5tral idea ( ! practical philosophy1 ! 
fre$om & autonom\s legislation ( ! w1 ) 

! lead+ pr9ciple ( ! !oretical          
philosophy1 ! spontaneity ( ! und]/&+1  
"u ! orig9al syn!sis ( ! pure ego1 9    
ord] to d$uce f ! activity ( ! ego n    
only ! a priori =ms ( k1 b also1 reject+
 ! ?+ 9 itself1 ! :ole cont5t (         
empirical consci\sness4 ,! ?\ght :i*    
int]v5es betwe5 ! ,kantian ,critique (  
,reason & ! developm5t ( ?or\ghgo+      
idealism by ,fi*te1 ) its criticisms ( &
 additions to ! =m] & its prep>ation = !
 latt]1 may be glanc$ at 9 a few        
supplem5t>y pages4   #d4 ,f ,kant to    
,fi*te4  ,to beg9 ) ! works :i* aid$ 9 !
 ext5sion & recognition ( ! ,kantian    
philosophy1 besides ,kant's ,prolegom5a1
 ! foll[+ /& 9 ! front rank3 ,exposition
 ( ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 by !    
,knigsb]g c\rt prea*]1 ,johannes ,s*ulz1
 #aghd2 ! fl[+ ,lett]s conc]n+ !        
,kantian ,philosophy1 by ,k4,l4 ,re9hold
 9 ,wiel&'s ,deuts*] ,m]kur1 #aghf-hg2 &
 ! ,allgeme9e ,litt]aturzeitung1 9 ,j5a1
 f\nd$ 9 #aghe1 & edit$ by ! philologi/ 
,s*tz & ! juri/ ,hufel&1 :i* (f]$ itself

 z ! organ ( ! new doctr9e4 ,j5a became 
! home & pr9cipal /ronghold (           
,kantianism2 :ile by ! beg9n+ ( !       
n9ete5? c5tury almo/ all ,g]man *airs   
belong$ to x1 & ! non-philosophical     
sci5ces z well receiv$ f x /imulation & 
guid+ ideas4  ,9 ! camp ( ! enemy !re 0 
no less ( activity4 ,! ,wolffian1       
,eb]h>d ( ,halle1 f\nd$ a special j\rnal
 = ! purpose ( oppos+ ! ,kantian        
philosophy3 ! ,philosophis*es ,magaz91  
#aghi1 cont9u$ f #agib z !              
,philosophis*es ,ar*iv4 ,! ,illum9ation 
collect$ its =ces 9 ! ,philosophis*e    
,biblio!k1 edit$ by ,f$] & ,me9]s4      
,nicolai wav$ ! bann] ( common s5se 9 ! 
,allgeme9e deuts*e ,biblio!k1 & 9       
satirical romances1 & 0 h&l$ z he des]v$
 by ! h]oes ( poetry & philosophy 7cf4 !
 ,x5i5 ( ,goe! & ,s*ill]1 ,kant's ,lett]
 on ,bookmak+1 & ,fi*te's cutt+ disposal
 ( him1 ,nicolai's ,life & ,peculi>     
,op9ions74 ,! attacks ( !               
fai?-philosoph]s h be5 already notic$   
7pp4 #caj-cad74  ,! advance f ,kant to  

,fi*te 0 prep>+ alike among fri5ds &    
enemies1 & ?is 9 two po9ts4 ,! dem& 0 9 
"p = a =mal complem5t 7a fir/ pr9ciple f
 :i* ! ,kantian results c\ld be d$uc$1 &
 by :i* ! dualism ( s5se & und]/&+ c\ld 
be ov]come71 9 "p = mat]ial correction  
7! removal ( ! ?+ 9 itself7 & developm5t
 7to radical idealism74 ,k>l ,leonh>d   
,re9hold 7born at ,vi5na 9 #ageh2 fl$ f 
a college ( ! ,/4 ,b>nabite ord]1 #aghc2
 9 #aghg-id pr(essor 9 ,j5a1 & !n z !   
successor ( ,tet5s 9 ,kiel1 :]e he di$ 9
 #ahbc7 und]took ! =m] task 9 8 ,attempt
 at a ,new ,!ory ( ! ,human ,faculty (  
,repres5tation1 #aghi4 ,kant's classical
 !ory ( ! faculty ( cognition requires =
 its f\ndation a !ory ( ! faculty (     
repres5tation1 or an elem5t>y           
philosophy1 :i* %all take = its object !
 d$uction ( ! sev]al functions ( reason 
7intuition1 concept1 ,idea7 f ! orig9al 
activity ( repres5tation4 ,! ,kantian   
philosophy lacks a fir/ pr9ciple1 :i*1 z
 fir/1 _c be demon/rable1 b only a fact 
imm$iately evid5t & admitt$ by ev]yone4 

,! primal fact1 :i* we seek1 is         
consci\sness4 ,no "o c dispute t e      
repres5tation conta9s ?ree ?+s3 !       
subject1 ! object1 &1 betwe5 ! two1 !   
activity ( repres5tation4 ,accord+ly !  
pr9ciple ( consci\sness runs3 ,!        
repres5tation is di/+ui%$ 9 consci\sness
 f ! repres5t$ object & ! repres5t+     
subject1 & is ref]r$ to bo?4 ,f ?is fir/
 pr9ciple ,re9hold endeavors to d$uce ! 
well-kn[n pr9ciples ( ! mat]ial manifold
 giv5 by ! action ( objects1 & ! =ms (  
repres5tation spontane\sly produc$ by ! 
subject1 :i* comb9e ?is manifold into   
unity4 ,:51 a few ye>s lat]1 ,fi*te's   
,sci5ce ( ,k brilliantly succe$$ 9      
bridg+ ! gap betwe5 s5se & und]/&+ by   
means ( a fir/ pr9ciple1 ?us accompli%+ 
:at ,re9hold _h attempt$1 ! latt] became
 "o ( 8 adh]5ts1 only to atta* himself  
subsequ5tly to ,jacobi1 & !n to ,b>dili 
7,outl9es ( ,logic1 #ahjj71 & to end ) a
 v]bal philosophy lack+ bo? 9 influ5ce &
 p]man5ce4  ,9 ,re9hold's elem5t>y      
philosophy ! ?+ 9 itself 0 *ang$ f a    

problematical1 negative1 m]ely limit+   
concept into a positive elem5t (        
doctr9e4 ,objections 7 rais$ aga9/      
,kantianism1 z ?us dogmatically modifi$ 
9 ! direction ( realism1 by ,s*ulze1    
,maimon1 & ,beck--by ! fir/ = purposes (
 attack1 by ! second 9 ord] to fur!r    
developm5t1 & by ! ?ird ) an exegetical 
purpose4 ,gottlob ,ern/ ,s*ulze1        
pr(essor 9 ,helm/dt1 & f #ahaj 9 ,gtt+51
 9 8 ,a5esidemus 7#agib1 publi%$        
anonym\sly71 :i* 0 foll[$ lat] by       
psy*ological works1 def5d$ ! skeptical  
position 9 opposition to ! ,critique (  
,reason4 ,hume's skepticism rema9s      
unrefut$ by ,kant & ,re9hold4 ,! ?+ 9   
itself1 :i* is to produce ! mat]ial (   
repres5tation by affect+ ! s5ses1 is a  
self-contradictory idea4 ,! application 
( ! category ( cause to ?+s 9 !mselves  
violates ! doctr9e t ! latt] are        
unkn[able & t ! use ( ! pure concepts ( 
! und]/&+ beyond ! sph]e ( exp]i5ce is  
inadmissible4 ,! transc5d5tal philosophy
 has nev] prov$ t ! gr\nd ( ! mat]ial ( 

repres5tation _c1 j z ! =m !re(1 reside 
9 ! subject itself4  ,side by side ) !  
anti-critical skepticism (              
,a5esidemus-,s*ulze1 ,salomon ,maimon   
7di$ #ahjj2 cf4 ,witte1 #ahgf71 :o 0    
highly e/eem$ by ! greate/ philosoph]s (
 8 "t1 repres5ts critical skepticism4 ,)
 ,re9hold he holds consci\sness 7z !    
comb9ation ( a manifold into objective  
unity7 to be ! common root ( s5sibility 
& und]/&+1 & ) ,s*ulze1 ! concept ( ! ?+
 9 itself to be an imag9>y or irrational
 quantity1 a ?\ght t _c be c>ri$ out2 x 
is n only unkn[able1 b un?9kable4 ,t    
alone is kn[able :i* we ourselves       
produce1 h5ce only ! =m ( repres5tation4
 ,! matt] ( repres5tation is giv51 b ?is
 does n mean t x arises f ! action ( !  
?+ 9 itself1 b only t we d n "k its     
orig94 ,und]/&+ & s5se1 or spontaneity &
 receptivity1 d n diff] g5]ically1 b    
only 9 degree1 viz41 z complete &       
incomplete consci\sness4 ,s5sation is an
 incomplete consci\sness1 because we d n
 "k h[ its object arises4  ,by ! removal

 ( ! ?+ 9 itself ,a5esidemus-,s*ulze    
s\ght to refute ! ,kantian !ory &       
,maimon to improve x4 ,sigismund ,beck  
7#agfa-ahdj71 9 8 ,only ,possible       
,/&po9t f :i* ! ,critical ,philosophy   
mu/ be ,judg$1 #agif1a seeks by x to    
elucidate ! ,kantian !ory1 hold+ up     
idealism z its true mean+4 ,9 opposition
 to ! usual op9ion t a repres5tation is 
true :5 x agrees ) its object1 he po9ts 
to ! impossibility ( comp>+ ! "o ) !    
o!r4 ,( objects out ( consci\sness we c 
"k no?+2 aft] ! removal ( all t is      
subjective !re is no?+ positive left ( !
 repres5tation4 ,ev]y?+ 9 x is produc$  
by u2 ! matt] arises toge!r ) ! =m ?r\gh
 ! orig9al syn!sis4  ,footnote #a3 ,?is 
book =ms ! ?ird volume ( 8 ,expository  
,abridgm5t ( ! ,critical ,writ+s (      
,pr(essor ,kant2 9 ! same ye> appe>$ !  
,outl9es ( ! ,critical ,philosophy4 ,cf4
 on ,beck1 ,dil!y 9 ! ,ar*iv fr         
,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 vol4 ii41    
#ahhi1 pp4 #eib-fej4  ,! la/ m5tion$    
attempts to develop ! ,kantian          

philosophy 7 s f> surpass$ by ,fi*te's  
great a*ievem5t t !y h receiv$ f _! own 
age & f po/]ity a less grateful         
appreciation & remembrance ?an 0        
ess5tially _! due4 ,a ph5om5on ( a      
diff]5t sort1 :i* is also to be plac$ at
 ! ?re%old betwe5 ,kant & ,fi*te1 b :i* 
=ms r a supplem5t to ! notics & e?ics ( 
! latt] ?an a l9k 9 ! transition to !m1 
has1 on ! contr>y1 ga9$ an honorable    
position 9 ! memory ( ! ,g]man p1 viz41 
,s*ill]'s ae/hetics4#a ,9 its c5t] /& ! 
,kantian anti!sis ( s5sibility & reason 
& ! reconciliation ( ! two sides ( human
 nature br\ght ab\t by its occupation ) 
! beautiful4 ,arti/ic activity or !     
play-impulse m$iates betwe5 ! l[]1      
s5su\s matt]-impulse & ! high]1 rational
 =m-impulse1 & unites !1 two 9 h>moni\s 
co-op]ation4 ,:]e appetite seeks aft]   
satisfaction1 & :]e ! /rict idea ( duty 
rules1 !re only half ! man is occupi$2  
nei!r lu/ nor moral wor? is beautiful4  
,9 ord] t beauty & grace may arise1 !   
matt]-impulse & ! =m-impulse1 or        

s5sibility & reason1 mu/ manife/        
!mselves uni=mly & 9 h>mony4 ,only :5 he
 plays is man :olly & entirely man2 only
 ?r\gh art is ! developm5t ( humanity   
possible4 ,! disc]nm5t ( ! fact t !     
beautiful br+s into equilibrium ! two   
fundam5tal impulses1 "o or ! o!r ( :i*  
prepond]ates 9 s5su\s desire & 9 moral  
volition1 does n ( itself decide !      
relative rank ( arti/ic & moral         
activity4 ,! recognition ( ?is m$iat+   
position ( art may be connect$ ) ! view 
t x =ms a transitional /age t[>d & a    
means ( education = morality1 z well z )
 ! o!r1 t 9 x human nature atta9s its   
completion4 ,evid5ce ( bo? views c be   
f\nd 9 ,s*ill]'s writ+s4 ,at fir/ he    
favors ! ,kantian moralism1 :i* admits  
no?+ high] ?an ! good w1 & sets art !   
task ( educat+ m5 up to morality by     
ennobl+ _! natural impulses4 ,gradually1
 h[ev]1 ae/hetic activity *anges 9 8    
view f a prep>ation = morality into !   
ultimate goal ( human endeavor4         
,peaceful reconciliation is ( m wor? ?an

 ! _s's h>dly ga9$ victory 9 ! conflict 
) ! s5sibility2 f9e feel+ is m ?an      
rational volition2 ! highe/ ideal is !  
beautiful s\l1 9 :i* incl9ation n m]ely 
obeys ! comm& ( duty1 b anticipates x4  
,footnote #a3 ,! mo/ important (        
,s*ill]'s ae/hetic essays are ^? ,on    
,grace & ,dignity1 #agic2 ,on ,nave &   
,s5tim5tal ,poetry1 #agie-if2 & !       
,lett]s on ,ae/hetic ,education1        
int]m$iate betwe5 !m4 ,cf4 ,kuno ,fis*]1
 ,s*ill] als ,philosoph1 #aheh1 #b;d ed4
 7,s*ill]s*rift51 iii41 iv47 #ahia-ib4  
,,*apt] ,x4  ,,fi*te4  ,fi*te is a      
,kantian 9 ab\t ! same s5se t ,plato 0 a
 ,socratic4 ,in/ead ( tak+ up & develop+
 p>ticul> critical problems he makes !  
vivify+ k]nel1 ! s\l ( criticism1 8 own4
 ,) ! self-activity ( reason 7z a real  
=ce & z a problem7 = 8 fundam5tal idea1 
he outl9es ) magnific5t boldness a new  
view ( ! _w1 9 :i* ! idealism conceal$ 9
 ,kant's philosophy "u ! %ell ( cauti\s 
limitations 0 r\s$ into vigor\s life1 & 
! great ,knigsb]g]'s noble words on !   

fre$om1 ! position1 & ! p[] ( ! _s      
translat$ f ! language ( sob] =esight   
into t ( vigor\s en?usiasm4 ,! _w c be  
und]/ood only f ! /&po9t ( _s1 ! _s only
 f ! w4 ,! ego is pure activity1 & all  
reality its product4 ,fi*te's sy/em is  
all life & action3 its aim is n to      
m$iate k1 b to summon ! he>] & read] to 
! production ( a new & pregnant         
fundam5tal view1 9 :i* ! w is z mu* a   
p>ticipant z ! und]/&+2 x beg9s n ) a   
concept or a proposition1 b ) a dem& =  
action 7posit ?yself2 d consci\sly :at  
?\ ha/ done unconsci\sly s (t5 z ?\ ha/ 
call$ ?yself ,i2 analyze1 !n1 ! act (   
self-consci\sness1 & cognize 9 _!       
elem5ts ! =ces f :i* all reality        
proce$s72 its ,god is n a complet$      
absolute sub/ance1 b a self-realiz+     
_w-ord]4 ,?is inn] vivacity ( ! ,fi*tean
 pr9ciple1 :i* recalls ! pure actuality 
( ,ari/otle's ,greek3 n\s & ! ceaseless 
becom+ ( ,h]aclitus1 f9ds its complete  
p>allel 9 ! fact t1 al?\gh he 0 want+   
nei!r 9 logical consecutiv5ess nor 9 !  

tal5t = lum9\s & popul> exposition1     
,fi*te felt cont9ually driv5 to express 
8 ideas 9 new =ms1 &1 j :5 he seem$ to h
 succe$$ 9 say+ :at he meant ) ! greate/
 cle>ness1 aga9 unsatisfi$1 to seek /ill
 m exact & evid5t r5d]+s = 8 fundam5tal 
position1 :i* prov$ s difficult to      
=mulate4  ,! au?or ( ! ,wiss5s*aftslehre
 0 ! son ( a poor ribbon mak]1 & 0 born 
at ,ramm5au 9 ,lusatia 9 #agfb4 ,!      
tal5ts ( ! boy induc$ ! ,freih]r von    
,miltiz to give him ! advantage ( a good
 education4 ,fi*te att5d$ s*ool 9       
,meiss5 & 9 ,p=ta1 & 0 a /ud5t ( !ology 
at ! univ]sities ( ,j5a & ,leipsic4     
,:ile a tutor 9 ,zuri* he made !        
acqua9tance ( ,lavat] & ,pe/alozzi1 z   
well z ( 8 future wife1 ,johanna ,rahn1 
a niece ( ,klop/ock4 ,return+ to        
,leipsic1 8 :ole mode ( ?\ght 0         
revolutioniz$ by ! ,kantian philosophy1 
9 :i* x 0 8 duty to in/ruct a pupil4    
,?is gives to ! m9d1 z 8 lett]s confess1
 an inconceivable elevation above all   
e>?ly ?+s4 ,i h adopt$ a nobl] morality1

 &1 in/ead ( occupy+ myself ) ?+s )\t   
me1 h be5 occupi$ m ) myself4 ,i n[     
believe ) all my he>t 9 human fre$om1 & 
am conv9c$ t only on ?is supposition    
duty & virtue ( any k9d are possible4 ,i
 live 9 a new _w s9ce ,i h read !       
,critique ( ,practical ,reason4 ,?+s :i*
 ,i believ$ nev] c\ld be prov$ to me1   
e4g41 ! idea ( an absolute fre$om &     
duty1 h be5 prov$1 & ,i feel ! happi] = 
x4 ,x is inconceivable :at rev]5ce =    
humanity1 :at p[] ?is philosophy gives  
u1 :at a bless+ x is = an age 9 :i* !   
citadels ( morality _h be5 de/roy$1 & ! 
idea ( duty blott$ out f all !          
diction>ies6 ,a j\rney to ,w>saw1 :i!r  
he _h be5 attract$ by ! expectation (   
secur+ a position z a private tutor1    
soon af=d$ him ! opportunity ( visit+ at
 ,knigsb]g ! au?or ( ! sy/em :i* _h     
effect$ s radical a trans=mation 9 8    
convictions4 ,8 rapidly writt5 treatise1
 ,essay t[>d a ,critique ( ,all         
,revelation1 atta9$ ! end to :i* its    
inception 0 due by ga9+ = its au?or a   

favorable reception f ! honor$ ma/]4    
,kant secur$ = ,fi*te a tutor's position
 9 ,dantzic1 & a publi%] = 8 maid5 "w4  
,:5 ?is appe>$1 at ,ea/]1 #agib1 ! "n ( 
its au?or 0 by ov]sight omitt$ f ! title
 page1 toge!r ) ! preface1 :i* _h be5   
furni%$ aft] ! re/ ( ! book2 & z !      
anonym\s "w 0 univ]sally ascrib$ to     
,kant 7^: religi\s philosophy 0 at ?is  
"t eag]ly look$ =71 ! "y writ] became   
fam\s at a /roke z soon z ! error 0     
expla9$4 ,a second edition 0 issu$ z    
e>ly z ! foll[+ ye>4  ,aft] 8 m>riage 9 
,zuri*1 :]e he _h complet$ sev]al       
political treatises 7! address1         
,reclamation ( ! ,fre$om ( ,?\ght f !   
,pr9ces ( ,europe1 :o h hi!rto suppress$
 x1 ,heliopolis 9 ! ,la/ ,ye> ( ! ,old  
,d>kness1 & ! two ,hefte1 ,contributions
 t[>d ! ,correction ( ! ,public ,judgm5t
 on ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 #agic71 ,fi*te 
accept$1 9 #agid1 a call to ,j5a1 9     
place ( ,re9hold1 :o _h gone to ,kiel1 &
 ^: popul>ity 0 soon exce$$ by 8 own4 ,!
 same ye> saw ! bir? ( !                

,wiss5s*aftslehre4 ,8 /ay 9 ,j5a 0      
embitt]$ by conflicts ) ! cl]gy1 :o took
 (f5se at 8 e?ical lectures 7,on !      
,vocation ( ! ,s*ol>7 held on ,sunday   
morn+s 7?\gh n at an h\r :i* int]f]$ )  
*ur* s]vice71 & ) ! /ud5ts1 :o1 aft] !y 
_h be5 untrue to _! decision--:i* !y _h 
=m$ z a result ( ^! lectures--to        
dissolve _! societies or ord]s1 gave v5t
 to _! spite by repeat$ly sma%+ ! w9d[s 
( ,fi*te's resid5ce4 ,accord+ly he took 
leave ( abs5ce1 & sp5t ! summ] ( #agie 9
 ,osmann/dt4 ,! ye>s #agif-ih1 9 :i*1   
besides ! two ,introductions to !       
,sci5ce ( ,k1 ! ,natural ,"r & ! ,sci5ce
 ( ,e?ics 7"o ( ! mo/ all important     
works 9 ,g]man philosophical lit]ature7 
appe>$1 m>k ! culm9ation ( ,fi*te's     
fam\s labors4 ,! s-call$ a!i/ic         
controv]sy#a result$ 9 ,fi*te's dep>ture
 f ,j5a4 ,! ,philosophis*es ,j\rnal1 :i*
 s9ce #agig _h be5 edit$ by ,fi*te 9    
association ) ,nie?amm]1 _h publi%$ an  
article by ,magi/] ,=b]g1 rector at     
,saalfeld1 entitl$ ,! ,developm5t ( !   

,concept ( ,religion1 & z a conciliat+  
introduction to ?is a %ort essay by     
,fi*te1 ,on ! ,gr\nd ( our ,belief 9 a  
,div9e ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,_w4#b ,= ?is x 0  
confiscat$ by ! ,dresd5 gov]nm5t on !   
*>ge ( conta9+ a!i/ical matt]1 :ile o!r 
c\rts 7 summon$ to take l action4 ,9    
,weim> hopes 7 ent]ta9$ ( an amicable   
adju/m5t ( ! matt]4 ,b :5 ,fi*te1 aft]  
publi%+ two v9dications#c c\*$ 9 vehem5t
 language1 _h 9 a private lett] utt]$ ! 
?reat t he w\ld answ] ) 8 resignation   
any c5sure proce$+ f ! ,univ]sity       
,s5ate1 n only 0 c5sure = indiscretion  
actually impos$1 b 8 7?reat5$7          
resignation accept$4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4
 ,k>l ,augu/ ,hase1 ,j5ais*es           
,fi*teb*le91 #ahef4  ,footnote #b3 ,x is
 a mi/ake1 ,fi*te writes "h1 ref]r+ to !
 conclusion ( ,=b]g's article 7,is !re a
 ,god8 ,x is & rema9s unc]ta91 etc471 to
 say t x is d\btful :e!r !re is a ,god  
or n4 ,t !re is a moral ord] ( ! _w1 :i*
 assigns to ea* rational individual 8   
det]m9$ place & c\nts on 8 "w1 is mo/   

c]ta91 nay1 x is ! gr\nd ( all o!r      
c]titude4 ,! liv+ & op]ative moral ord] 
7ordo ord9ans7 is itself ,god2 we ne$ no
 o!r ,god1 & c conceive no o!r4 ,!re is 
no gr\nd 9 reason = go+ beyond ?is _w   
ord] to po/ulate a p>ticul> be+ z its   
cause4 ,:oev] ascribes p]sonality &     
consci\sness to ?is p>ticul> be+ makes x
 f9ite2 consci\sness belongs only to !  
individual1 limit$ ego4 ,& x is all[able
 to /ate ?is frankly & to beat d[n !    
prattle ( ! s*ools1 9 ord] t ! true     
religion ( joy\s well-do+ may lift up   
its head4  ,footnote #c3 ,appeal to !   
,public1 & ,=mal ,def5se aga9/ ! ,*>ge (
 ,a!ism1 #agii4 ,! fir/ ( ^! ma9ta9s t  
,fi*te's /&po9t & t ( 8 oppon5ts are    
relat$ z duty & advantage1 s5sible &    
supras5sible1 & t ! sub/antial ,god ( 8 
accus]s1 to be d]iv$ f ! s5sibility1 is1
 z p]sonifi$ fate1 z ! di/ribut] ( all  
happ9ess & unhapp9ess to f9ite be+s1 a  
mis]able feti*4  ,go+ to ,b]l91 ,fi*te  
f\nd a fri5dly gov]nm5t1 a num]\s public
 = 8 lectures1 & a /imulat+ circle (    

fri5ds 9 ! romantici/s1 ! bro!rs        
,s*legel1 ,tieck1 ,s*lei]ma*]1 etc4 ,9 !
 fir/ ye>s ( 8 ,b]l9 resid5ce !re appe>$
 ,! ,vocation ( ,man4 ,! ,exclusive     
,comm]cial ,/ate1 #ahjj2 ,! ,sun-cle>   
,report to ! ,l>g] ,public on !         
,ess5tial ,nature ( ! ,new ,philosophy1 
& ! ,answ] to ,re9hold1 #ahja4 ,?ree    
works1 :i* 7 ! outcome ( 8 lectures & 7 
publi%$ 9 ! ye> #ahjf 7,*>act]i/ics ( ! 
,pres5t ,age1 ,! ,nature ( ! ,s*ol>1    
,way to ! ,bless$ ,life or ,doctr9e (   
,religion71 =m a connect$ :ole4 ,9 !    
summ] ( #ahje ,fi*te fill$ a pr(essor%ip
 at ,erlang51 & lat]1 aft] ! outbreak ( 
! w>1 he occupi$ = a %ort "t a *air at  
,knigsb]g1 f9d+ a p]man5t univ]sity     
position at ! f\ndation ( ! ,univ]sity (
 ,b]l9 9 #ahaj4 ,8 gl[+ ,addresses to ! 
,g]man ,nation1 #ahjh1 :i* ess5tially   
aid$ 9 ar\s+ ! national _s1 h caus$ 8 "n
 to live z "o ( ! greate/ ( orators &   
mo/ ard5t ( patriots 9 circles ( !      
,g]man p :]e 8 philosophical importance 
_c be und]/ood4 ,8 dea? 9 #ahad 0 also a

 result ( unselfi% labor 9 ! s]vice ( ! 
,fa!rl&4 ,he succumb$ to a n]v\s fev]   
contract$ f 8 wife1 :o1 ) self-sacrifice
 equal to 8 own1 _h %>$ 9 ! c>e ( !     
w\nd$1 & :o _h br\ght ! contagion back )
 h] f ! hospital4 ,on 8 monum5t is      
inscrib$ ! beautiful text1 ,! tea*]s    
%all %9e z ! brightness ( ! firmam5t1 & 
!y t turn _m to righte\sness z ! />s t  
%9e =ev] & ev]4 ,=b]g 9 8 j\rnal records
 ?is e/imate3 ,! lead+ trait 9 ,fi*te's 
"* is 8 absolute integrity4 ,all 8 words
 are weighty & important4 ,8 pr9ciples  
are /]n & little modifi$ by affability4 
,! _s ( 8 philosophy is pr\d & c\rage\s1
 "o :i* does n s mu* lead z possess u & 
c>ry u along4 ,8 philosophemes are      
inquiries 9 :i* we see ! tru? arise be=e
 our eyes1 & :i* j = ?is reason lay !   
f\ndations ( sci5ce & conviction4  ,!   
philosoph]'s son1 ,immanuel ,h]mann     
,fi*te 78 own "n 0 ,johann ,gottlieb71  
wrote a biography ( 8 fa!r 7#ahcj2 #b;d 
ed41 #ahfb71 & sup]vis$ ! publication ( 
bo? ! ,po/hum\s ,works 7#ahcd-ce1 #c    

vols47 & ! ,collect$ ,works 7#ahde-df1  
#h vols474 ,! simple & lum9\s ,facts (  
,consci\sness ( #ahaa1 or #ahag 7n !    
lecture ( #ahac ) ! same title71 is     
especially valuable z an introduction to
 ! sy/em4 ,among ! _m r$actions ( !     
,wiss5s*aftslehre1 ! epo*-mak+          
,f\ndation ( ! :ole ,sci5ce ( ,k1 #agid1
 ) ! two ,introductions to ! ,sci5ce (  
,k1 #agig1 takes ! fir/ rank1 :ile ( !  
practical works ! mo/ important are !   
,f\ndation ( ,natural ,"r accord+ to !  
,pr9ciples ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k1 #agif1 & ! 
,sy/em ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics accord+ to !
 ,pr9ciples ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k1 #agih1 &  
next to ^! ! ,lectures on ! ,!ory ( !   
,/ate1 #ahbj 7deliv]$ 9 #ahac74a        
,footnote #a3 ,at ! same "t z ,j4,h4    
,lwe's book ,die ,philosophie ,fi*tes1  
#ahfb1 !re appe>$ 9 celebration ( !     
c5t5>y ( ,fi*te's bir?ye>1 or bir?day1 a
 l>ge numb] ( m9or essays & addresses by
 ,fri$ri* ,h>ms1 ,a4,l4 ,kym1           
,tr5del5burg1 ,franz ,h(fman1 ,k>l      
,heyd]1 ,f4,c4 ,lott1 ,k>l ,k/l91 ,j4,b4

 ,mey]1 & o!rs 7cf4 ,rei*l9-,meldegg 9  
vol4 xlii4 ( ! ,zeits*rift fr           
,philosophie74 ,lasson has writt51      
#ahfc1 on ,fi*te's relation to ,*ur* &  
/ate1 ,zell] on ,fi*te z a political    
?9k] 7,vortrge und ,abh&lung51 #ahfe71 &
 ,f4 ,zimm] on 8 philosophy ( religion4 
,among =eign works we may note          
,adamson's ,fi*te1 #ahha1 & ! ,engli%   
translations ( sev]al ( ,fi*te's works  
by ,kroeg] ,sci5ce ( ,k1 #ahfh2 ,sci5ce 
( ,rights1 #ahfi--;bo? also1 #ahhi &    
,william ,smi? ,popul> ,writ+s1 #d? ed41
 #ahhi2 also ,ev]ett's ,fi*te's ,sci5ce 
( ,k 7,griggs's ,philosophical          
,classics1 #ahhd71 & sev]al translations
 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ,speculative ,philosophy1
 includ+ "o ( ,! ,facts (               
,consci\sness4--,,tr4   #a4 ,! ,sci5ce (
 ,k4  7a7 ,! ,problem4--,9 ,fi*te's     
judgm5t ,kant did n succe$ 9 c>ry+ ?r\gh
 ! trans=mation 9 ?\ght :i* x 0 8 aim to
 effect1 because ! age did n und]/& ! _s
 ( 8 philosophy4 ,?is _s1 & ) x ! great 
s]vice ( ,kant1 consi/s 9 transc5d5tal  

idealism1 :i* by ! doctr9e t objects    
con=m !mselves to repres5tations1 n     
repres5tations to objects1 draws        
philosophy away f ext]nal objects &     
leads x back into ourselves4 ,we h      
foll[$ ! lett]1 he ?9ks1 in/ead ( ! _s (
 ,kant1 & because ( a few passages ) a  
dogmatic r+1 ^: ref]5ces to a giv5      
matt]1 ! ?+ 9 itself1 & ! l1 7 int5d$   
only z prelim9>y1 h ov]look$ ! numb]less
 o!rs 9 :i* ! contr>y is di/9ctly       
ma9ta9$4 ,?us ! int]pret]s ( ,kant1 us+ 
_! own prejudices z a crit]ion1 h read  
into him exactly t :i* he s\ght to      
refute1 & h made ! de/roy] ( all        
dogmatism himself a dogmati/2 ?us 9 !   
,kantianism ( ! ,kantians !re has sprung
 up a m>vel\s comb9ation ( crude        
dogmatism & uncompromis+ idealism4 ,?\gh
 su* an absurd m+l+ ( entirely          
het]og5e\s elem5ts may be excus$ 9 !    
case ( int]pret]s & successors1 :o h _h 
to con/ruct = !mselves ! guid+ pr9ciple 
( ! :ole f _! /udy ( ! critical writ+s1 
yet we _c assume x 9 ! au?or ( ! sy/em1 

unless we believe ! ,critique ( ,pure   
,reason ! result ( ! /range/ *ance1 & n 
! "w ( intellect4 ,two m5 only1 ,beck1 !
 tea*] ( ! ,/&po9t1 & ,jacobi1 ! cle>e/ 
m9d ( ! c5tury1 are to be m5tion$ )     
respect z hav+ ris5 above ! confusion ( 
! "t to ! p]ception t ,kant tea*es      
idealism1 t1 accord+ to him1 ! object is
 n giv51 b made4  ,besides ! p]spicuity 
:i* w\ld h prev5t$ ^! misund]/&+s1      
,fi*te misses some?+ fur!r 9 ,kant's "w4
 ,consid]$ z a sy/em ,kant's expositions
 7 incomplete2 &1 on 8 own confession1 8
 aim 0 n to furni% ! sci5ce itself1 b   
only ! f\ndation & ! mat]ials = x4      
,!re=e1 al?\gh ! ,kantian philosophy is 
e/abli%$ z f> z its inn] cont5t is      
conc]n$1 !re is /ill ne$ ( e>ne/ "w to  
sy/ematize ! fragm5ts & results :i* he  
gives into a firmly connect$ &          
impregnable :ole4 ,! ,wiss5s*aftslehre  
takes ?is completion ( idealism = its   
mission4 ,x _c solve ! problem by a     
comm5t>y on ! ,kantian writ+s1 nor by ! 
correction & addition ( p>ticul>s1 b    

only by re/or+ ! :ole at a /roke4 ,he   
alone f9ds ! tru? :o new creates x 9    
himself1 indep5d5tly & 9 8 own way4 ,?us
 ,fi*te's sy/em conta9s ! same view ( ! 
matt] z ! critical sy/em--! au?or is    
aw>e1 runs ! preface to ! programme1 ,on
 ! ,concept ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k1 #agid1 t  
he nev] w be able to say any?+ at :i*   
,kant has n h9t$1 imm$iately or         
m$iately1 m or less cle>ly1 be=e him1--b
 9 8 proc$ure he is entirely indep5d5t (
 ! ,kantian exposition4 ,we %all fir/   
raise ! "q1 ,:at 9 ! ,kantian philosophy
 is 9 ne$ ( completion8 &1 secondly1    
,:at me?od mu/ be adopt$ 9 complet+ x8  
,kant discusses ! laws ( intellig5ce :5 
!y are already appli$ to objects1 )\t   
enlight5+ u conc]n+ ! gr\nd ( ^! laws4  
,he d]iv$ ! pure concepts 7! laws (     
sub/antiality1 ( causality1 etc47 f     
7logic1 & ?us m$iately f7 exp]i5ce      
in/ead ( d$uc+ !m f ! nature (          
intellig5ce2 simil>ly he nev] furni%$   
?is d$uction = ! =ms ( intuition1 space 
& "t4 ,9 ord] to und]/& t intellig5ce1 &

 :y intellig5ce1 mu/ act 9 j ?is way    
7mu/ ?9k j by means ( ^! categories71 we
 mu/ prove1 & n m]ely1 ) ,kant1 ass]t1 t
 ^! functions or =ms are really laws (  
?\ght--or1 :at am\nts to ! same ?+1 t !y
 are conditions ( self-consci\sness4    
,aga91 ev5 if x be grant$ t ,kant has   
expla9$ ! prop]ties & relations ( ?+s 7t
 !y appe> 9 space & "t1 & t _! accid5ts 
mu/ be ref]r$ to sub/ances71 ! "q /ill  
rema9s unansw]$1 ,:5ce comes ! matt] :i*
 is tak5 up into ^! =ms8 ,s long z !    
:ole object is n made to arise be=e !   
eyes ( ! ?9k]1 dogmatism is n driv5 out 
( its la/ corn]4 ,! ?+ 9 itself is1 l ! 
re/1 only a ?\ght 9 ! ego4 ,if ?us !    
anti!sis betwe5 ! =m & ! matt] (        
cognition und]goes modification1 s1     
fur!r1 ! alli$ di/9ction betwe5 und]/&+ 
& s5sibility mu/1 z ,re9hold accurately 
recogniz$1 be r$uc$ to a common pr9ciple
 & receptivity be conceiv$ z self-limit+
 spontaneity4 ,9 8 practical philosophy 
also ,kant left mu* unf9i%$4 ,!         
categorical imp]ative is susceptible (  

fur!r d$uction1 x is n ! pr9ciple       
itself1 b a conclusion f ! true         
pr9ciple1 f ! injunction to absolute    
self-dep5d5ce on ! "p ( reason2 moreov]1
 ! nature ( our consci\sness ( ! moral  
law mu/ be m ?or\ghly discuss$1 & 9 ord]
 to ga9 a real1 in/ead ( a m]ely =mal1  
e?ics ! relation ( ?is law to natural   
impulse4 ,f9ally1 ,kant nev] discuss$ ! 
f\ndation ( philosophy z a :ole1 b      
always sep>at$ its !oretical f its      
practical side1 & ,re9hold also did no?+
 to remove ?is dualism4 ,9 %ort1 "s ?+s 
t ,kant only ass]t$ or presuppos$ c &   
mu/ be prov$1 "s t he kept di/9ct mu/ be
 unit$4 ,9 :at way are bo? to be        
accompli%$8  ,s9ce correct inf]5ces f   
correct premises yield correct results1 
& correct inf]5ce is easy to secure1    
ev]y?+ dep5ds on ! correct po9t (       
dep>ture4 ,if we neglect ?is & consid]  
only ! process & ! results ( inf]5ce1   
!re are two consi/5t sy/ems3 ! dogmatic 
or reali/ic c\rse ( ?\ght1 :i* seeks to 
d]ive repres5tations f ?+s2 & !         

ideali/ic1 :i*1 conv]sely1 seeks to     
d]ive be+ f ?\ght4 ,n[1 no matt] h[     
consi/5tly dogmatism may proce$ 7& :5 x 
does s x becomes1 l ! sy/em ( ,sp9oza1  
mat]ialism & fatalism or det]m9ism1     
ma9ta9+ t all is nature1 & all goes on  
me*anically2 treats ! _s z a ?+ among   
o!rs1 & d5ies its metaphysical & moral  
indep5d5ce1 its immat]iality & fre$om71 
x may be %[n to be false1 because x />ts
 f a false pr9ciple4 ,?\ght c nev] be   
d]iv$ f be+1 because x is n conta9$     
!re92 f be+ only be+ c proce$1 & nev]   
repres5tation4 ,be+1 h[ev]1 c be d]iv$ f
 ?\ght1 = consci\sness is also be+2 nay1
 x is m ?an ?is1 x is consci\s be+4 ,& z
 consci\sness conta9s bo? be+ & a k (   
?is be+1 idealism is sup]ior to realism1
 because idealism includes ! latt] z a  
mom5t 9 itself1 & h5ce c expla9 x1 ?\gh 
x is n explicable by x4 ,dogmatism makes
 ! mi/ake ( go+ beyond consci\sness or !
 ego1 & work+ ) empty1 m]ely =mal       
concepts4 ,a concept is empty :5 no?+   
actual corresponds to x1 or no intuition

 c be subsum$ "u x 7"h x is to be not$  
t1 besides s5su\s intuition1 !re is an  
intellectual intuition also2 an example 
is f\nd 9 ! ego z a self-intuit+ be+74  
,philosophy1 inde$1 may ab/ract & mu/   
ab/ract1 mu/ rise above t :i* is giv5--=
 h[ c\ld %e expla9 life & p>ticul> k if 
%e assum$ no high] /&po9t ?an h]        
object8--b true ab/raction is no?+ o!r  
?an ! sep>ation ( factors :i* 9 exp]i5ce
 always pres5t !mselves toge!r2 x       
analyzes empirical consci\sness 9 ord]  
to recon/ruct x f its elem5ts1 x causes 
empirical consci\sness to arise be=e our
 eyes1 x is a pragmatic hi/ory (        
consci\sness4 ,su* ab/raction1 und]tak5 
9 ord] to a g5etic consid]ation ( ! ego1
 does n g beyond exp]i5ce1 b p5etrates  
into ! dep?s ( exp]i5ce1 is n           
transc5d5t1 b transc5d5tal1 &1 s9ce x   
rema9s 9 close t\* ) t :i* is           
intuitable1 yields a real philosophy 9  
contra/ to all m]ely =mal philosophy4   
,^! !oretical advantages ( idealism are 
supplem5t$ by mom5t\s reasons ( a       

practical k9d1 :i* det]m9e ! *oice      
betwe5 ! two sy/ems1 besides :i* none   
o!r is possible4 ,! moral law says3 ,?\ 
%alt be self-dep5d5t4 ,if ,i ought to be
 s ,i mu/ be able to be s2 b if ,i 7    
matt] ,i w\ld n be able4 ,?us idealism  
proves itself to be ! e?ical mode (     
?\ght1 :ile ! opposite mode %[s t ^? :o 
favor x h n rais$ !mselves to t         
indep5d5ce ( all t is ext]nal :i* is    
morally enjo9$1 = 9 ord] to be able to  
"k ourselves free we mu/ h made         
ourselves free4#a ,?us ! philosophy :i* 
a man *ooses dep5ds on :at sort ( a man 
he is4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! categorical  
imp]ative calls = belief 9 ! reality ( !
 ext]nal _w & ( o!r m9ds1 ?is is no?+   
aga9/ idealism4 ,= idealism does n d5y !
 realism ( life1 b expla9s x z a        
necess>y1 ?\gh n a f9al1 mode (         
intuition4 ,! dogmatic mode ( ?\ght is  
m]ely an explanation f ! /&po9t ( common
 consci\sness1 & = idealism1 z ! only   
view :i* is bo? sci5tifically &         
practically satisfactory1 ?is           

explanation itself ne$s expla9+4        
,realism & idealism1 l natural impulse &
 moral w 9 ! sph]e ( action1 are bo?    
gr\nd$ 9 reason4 ,b idealism is ! true  
/&po9t1 because x is able to compreh5d &
 expla9 ! oppos+ !ory1 :ile ! conv]se is
 n ! case4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,o4      
,liebmann 7,ueb] d5 individuell5 ,beweis
 fr die ,freiheit des ,will5s p1 #aca4  
#ahff7 ,"h we discov] ! notewor?y po9t  
:]e !oretical & practical philosophy    
actually pass ov] into ea* o!r4 ,= ?is  
pr9ciple results3 ,9 ord] to c>ry out ! 
individual pro( = ! fre$om ( ! w1 ,i mu/
 d my duty4  ,! nature1 ! goal1 & !     
me?ods ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k h n[ be5        
det]m9$4 ,x is g5u9e1 ?or\ghgo+         
idealism1 :i* raises ! ,kantian         
philosophy to ! rank ( an evid5t sci5ce 
by d$uc+ its premises f a fir/ pr9ciple 
:i* is imm$iately c]ta91 & by remov+ !  
tw(old dualism ( intuition & ?\ght1 ( k 
& volition1 viz41 by prov+ bo? contr>ies
 acts ( "o & ! same ego4 ,:ile ,re9hold 
_h s\ght a supreme tru? z a fundam5tal  

pr9ciple ( unity1 )\t :i* ! doctr9e ( k 
w\ld lack ! sy/ematic =m ess5tial to    
sci5ce1 :ile ,beck _h int]pret$ ! _s ( !
 ,kantian philosophy 9 an ideali/ic     
s5se1 & ,jacobi _h dem&$ ! elim9ation ( 
! ?+ 9 itself1 all ^! desires comb9$ are
 fulfill$ 9 ,fi*te's doctr9e1 & at !    
same "t ! results ( ! ,critique (       
,reason are giv5 t evid5ce :i*          
,a5esidemus-,s*ulze _h miss$ 9 !m4 ,z an
 answ] to ! "q1 ,h[ is k br\ght ab\t8 7z
 well ! k ( common s5se z t giv5 9 !    
p>ticul> sci5ces71 h[ is exp]i5ce       
possible81 & z a con/ruction ( common   
consci\sness z ?is manife/s itself 9    
life & 9 ! p>ticul> sci5ces1 ,fi*teanism
 adopts ! "n ,sci5ce ( ,k1 be+ di/+ui%$ 
f ! p>ticul> sci5ces by ! fact t !y     
discuss ! volunt>y1 & x ! necess>y1     
repres5tations or actions ( ! _s4 7,!   
repres5tation ( a triangle or a circle  
is a free "o1 x may be omitt$2 !        
repres5tation ( space 9 g5]al is a      
necess>y "o1 f :i* x is impossible = u  
to ab/ract47 ,h[ does intellig5ce come  

to h s5sations1 to intuit space & "t1 & 
to =m j su* categories 7?+ & prop]ty1   
cause & effect1 & n o!rs q diff]5t78    
,:ile ,kant correctly describ$ ^!       
functions ( ! intuit+ & ?9k+ _s1 & %[$  
!m actual1 !y mu/ fur!r be prov51 be %[n
 necess>y or d$uc$4 ,d$uc$ :5ce8 ,f !   
de$-acts 7,?a?&lung57 ( ! ego :i* lie at
 ! basis ( all consci\sness1 & ! highe/ 
( :i* are =mulat$ 9 ?ree pr9ciples4  7b7
 ,! ,?ree ,pr9ciples4--,at ! portal ( ! 
,sci5ce ( ,k we are met n by an         
ass]tion1 b by a summons--a summons to  
self-contemplation4 ,?9k any?+ :atev] & 
obs]ve :at ?\ do/1 & ( necessity mu/ d1 
9 ?9k+4 ,?\ wilt discov] t ?\ do/ nev]  
?9k an object )\t ?9k+ ?yself !re)1 t x 
is absolutely impossible = !e to ab/ract
 f ?9e ego4 ,& second1 consid] :at ?\   
do/ :5 ?\ do/ ?9k ?9e ego4 ,?is means to
 affirm or posit "o's self1 to be a     
subject-object4 ,! nature (             
self-consci\sness is ! id5tity ( !      
repres5t+ subject & ! repres5t$ object4 
,! pure ego is n a fact1 b an orig9al   

do+1 ! act ( be+ = self 7,frsi*se971 & !
 7philosophical1 or--z seems to be !    
case accord+ to "s passages--ev5 !      
common7 consci\sness ( ?is do+ an       
intellectual intuition2 ?r\gh ?is we    
become consci\s ( ! de$-act :i* is ev]  
7?\gh unconsci\sly7 p]=m+4 ,?is is !    
mean+ ( ! fir/ ( ! pr9ciples3 ,! ego    
posits orig9ally & absolutely its own   
be+1 or1 m briefly3 ,! ego posits       
itself2 m briefly /ill3 ,i am4 ,! nature
 ( ! ego consi/s 9 posit+ itself z      
exi/+4#a ,s9ce1 besides ?is             
self-cogitation ( ! ego1 an op-position 
is f\nd among ! facts ( empirical       
consci\sness 7?9k only ( ! pr9ciple (   
contradiction71 & yet1 besides ! ego1   
!re is no?+ :i* c\ld be oppos$1 we mu/  
assume z a second pr9ciple3 ,to ! ego   
!re is absolutely opposit$ a non-ego4   
,^! two pr9ciples mu/ be unit$1 & ?is c 
be accompli%$ only by posit+ ! contr>ies
 7ego & non-ego71 s9ce !y are bo? 9 !   
ego1 z reciprocally limit+ or p>tially  
sublat+ "o ano!r1 t is1 ea* z divisible 

7capable ( quantitative det]m9ation74   
,accord+ly ! ?ird pr9ciple runs3 ,! ego 
opposes 9 ! ego a divisible non-ego to !
 divisible ego4 ,f ^! pr9ciples ,fi*te  
d$uces ! ?ree laws ( ?\ght1 id5tity1    
contradiction1 & suffici5t reason1 & !  
?ree categories ( quality--reality1     
negation1 & limitation or det]m9ation4  
,in/ead ( foll[+ him 9 ^! labors1 we may
 emphasize ! significance ( 8 view ( !  
ego z pure activity )\t an und]ly+      
sub/ratum1 ) :i* he c>ries dynamism ov] 
f ! ,kantian philosophy ( nature to     
metaphysics4 ,we mu/ n conceive ! ego z 
some?+ :i* mu/ exi/ be=e x c put =? its 
activities4 ,do+ is n a prop]ty or      
consequ5ce ( be+1 b be+ is an accid5t & 
effect ( do+4 ,all sub/antiality is     
d]ivative1 activity is primal2 be+      
arises f do+4 ,! ego is no?+ m ?an      
self-position2 x exi/s n only = itself  
7fr si*71 b also ?r\gh itself 7dur*     
si*74  ,footnote #a3 ,! ego spok5 ( 9 ! 
fir/ ( ! pr9ciples1 ! ego z ! object (  
intellectual intuition & z ! gr\nd &    

creator ( all be+1 is1 z ! second       
,introduction to ! ,sci5ce ( ,k cle>ly  
ann\nces1 n ! individual1 b ! ,i-ness   
7,i*heit7 7:i* is to be presuppos$ z !  
prius ( ! manifold ( repres5tation1 &   
:i* is exalt$ above ! opposition (      
subject & object71 m5tality 9 g5]al1    
et]nal reason1 :i* is common to all & ! 
same 9 all1 :i* is pres5t 9 all ?9k+ &  
at ! basis !re(1 & to :i* p>ticul>      
p]sons /& relat$ m]ely z accid5ts1 z    
in/rum5ts1 z special expressions1 de/9$ 
m & m to lose !mselves 9 ! univ]sal =m (
 reason4 ,b1 fur!r /ill1 a di/9ction mu/
 be made betwe5 ! absolute ego z        
intuition 7z ! =m ( ,i-ness71 f :i* !   
,sci5ce ( ,k />ts1 & ! ego z ,idea 7z ! 
supreme goal ( practical endeavor7 ) :i*
 x ends4 ,9 nei!r is ! ego conceiv$ z   
individual2 9 ! =m] ! ,i-ness is n yet  
det]m9$ to ! po9t ( individuality1 9 !  
latt] individuality has disappe>$1      
,fi*te is "r :5 he ?9ks x rem>kable t a 
sy/em ^: beg9n+ & end & :ole nature is  
aim$ at =getfulness ( individuality 9 ! 

!oretical sph]e & d5ial ( x 9 !         
practical sph]e %\ld be call$ egoism4 ,&
 yet n only oppon5ts1 b ev5 adh]5ts (   
,fi*te1 z is %[n by ,fri$ri* ,s*legel's 
philosophy ( g5ius1 h1 by confus+ ! pure
 & ! empirical ego1 be5 guilty ( !      
mi/ake ?us c5sur$4 ,on ! philosophy ( ! 
romantici/s cf4 ,erdmann's ,hi/ory1 vol4
 ii4  #cad1 #cae2 ,zell]1 p4 #efb seq42 
& ,r4 ,haym1 ,die ,romantis*e ,s*ule1   
#ahgj4  ,! actions express$ 9 ! ?ree    
pr9ciples are nev] f\nd pure 9 exp]i5ce1
 nor d !y repres5t isolat$ acts ( ! ego4
 ,intellig5ce c ?9k no?+ )\t ?9k+ itself
 !re)2 x is equally impossible = x to   
?9k ,i am )\t at ! same "t ?9k+ some?+  
else :i* is n itself2 subject & object  
are insep>able4 ,x is r true t ! acts ( 
position describ$ are "o s+le1          
all-inclusive act1 :i* =ms only ! fir/  
memb] 9 a connect$ sy/em ( pre-consci\s 
actions1 ?r\gh :i* consci\sness is      
produc$1 & ! complete inve/igation ( ^: 
memb]s con/itutes ! fur!r bus9ess ( !   
,sci5ce ( ,k z a !ory ( ! nature (      

reason4 ,9 ?is ! ,sci5ce ( ,k employs a 
me?od :i*1 by its rhy?m ( analysis &    
syn!sis1 developm5t & reconciliation (  
opposites1 became ! model ( ,hegel's    
dialectic me?od4 ,! syn!sis describ$ 9 !
 ?ird pr9ciple1 al?\gh x balances !sis &
 anti!sis & unites !m 9 itself1 /ill    
conta9s contr>y elem5ts1 9 ord] to ^:   
comb9ation a new syn!sis mu/ be s\ght4  
,9 ?is1 9 turn1 ! analytic discov]y & ! 
syn!tic adju/m5t ( a contr>iety is      
repeat$1 etc41 etc4 ,! orig9al syn!sis1 
moreov]1 prescribes a division ( !      
inquiry into two p>ts1 "o !oretical & ! 
o!r practical4 ,= x conta9s ! foll[+    
pr9ciples3 ,! ego posits itself z limit$
 by ! non-ego--x functions cognitively2 
&3 ,! ego posits itself z det]m9+ !     
non-ego--x functions volitionally &     
actively4  7c7 ,! ,!oretical ,ego4--,9  
posit+ itself z det]m9$ by ! non-ego1 ! 
ego is at once passive 7affect$ by      
some?+ o!r ?an itself7 & active 7x      
posits its own limitation74 ,?is is     
possible only z x posits reality 9      

itself only 9 "p1 & transf]s to !       
non-ego s mu* z x does n posit 9 itself4
 ,passivity is dim9i%$ activity1        
negation ( ! totality ( reality4 ,f     
reflection on ?is relation betwe5 ego & 
non-ego spr+ ! categories ( reciprocal  
det]m9ation1 ( causality 7! non-ego z ! 
cause ( ! passion ( ! ego71 &           
sub/antiality 7?is passion m]ely !      
self-limitation ( ! ego74 ,! conflict   
betwe5 ! causality ( ! non-ego 7by :i* !
 ego is affect$7 & ! sub/antiality ( !  
ego 79 :i* & ! activity ( :i* all       
reality is conta9$7 is resolv$ only by !
 assumption ( two activities 7or1 r1 (  
two opposite directions ( "o activity7 9
 ! ego1 "o ( :i* 7c5trifugal1 expansive7
 /rives inf9itely outw>d :ile ! o!r     
7c5tripetal or contractile7 sets a b\nd 
to ! =m]1 & drives ! ego back into      
itself1 :]eupon ano!r excursus foll[s1 &
 a new limitation & return1 etc4 ,) e   
repetition ( ?is d\ble act ( production 
& reflection a special class (          
repres5tations arises4 ,?r\gh ! fir/    

limitation ( ! 9 itself unlimit$        
activity s5sation arises 7z a product ( 
! productive imag9ation74 ,because ! ego
 produces ?is unconsci\sly1 x appe>s to 
be giv51 br\ght ab\t by influ5ce f )\t4 
,! second /age1 intuition1 is rea*$ :5 !
 ego reflects on s5sation1 :5 x opposes 
to itself some?+ =eign :i* limits x4    
,?irdly1 by reflection on intuition an  
image ( t :i* is intuit$ is con/ruct$1  
&1 z su*1 di/+ui%$ f a real ?+ to :i* ! 
image corresponds2 at ?is po9t !        
categories & ! =ms ( intuition1 space & 
"t1 appe>1 :i* ?us arise along ) !      
object4#a ,! f\r? /adium is und]/&+1 :i*
 /eadies ! fluctuat+ intuition into a   
concept1 realizes ! object1 & looks ^u x
 z ! cause ( ! intuition4 ,fif?ly1      
judgm5t makes its appe>ance z ! faculty 
( free reflection & ab/raction1 or ! p[]
 to consid] a def9ite cont5t or to      
ab/ract f x4 ,z judgm5t is itself !     
condition ( ! b\nd reflection ( !       
und]/&+1 s x po9ts 9 turn to its        
condition1 to ! six? & highe/ /age (    

intellig5ce1 reason1 by means ( :i* we  
are able to ab/ract f all objects       
:atev]1 :ile reason itself1 pure        
self-consci\sness1 is t f :i* ab/raction
 is nev] possible4 ,x is only 9 ! highe/
 /age t consci\sness or a repres5tation 
( repres5tation takes place4 ,& at !    
culm9ation ( ! !oretical ego ! po9t (   
transition to ! practical ego appe>s4   
,"h ! ego becomes aw>e t 9 posit+ itself
 z det]m9$ by ! non-ego x has only      
limit$ itself1 & !re=e is itself ! gr\nd
 ( ! :ole cont5t ( consci\sness2 "h x   
appreh5ds itself z det]m9+ ! non-ego or 
z act+1 & recognizes z its *ief mission 
to impress ! =m ( ! ego z f> z possible 
on ! non-ego1 & ev] to ext5d ! b\nd>y   
fur!r4  ,footnote #a3 ,! object is a    
product ( ! ego only = ! obs]v]1 n = !  
obs]v$ ego itself1 to :i*1 f ?is /&po9t 
( imag9ation1 x appe>s r z a ?+ 9 itself
 indep5d5t ( ! ego & affect+ x4 ,fur!r1 
x mu/ s appe>1 because ! ego1 9 its aft]
 reflection on its productive activity1 
& j by ?is reflection1 trans=ms !       

productive action consid]$ into a fix$ &
 indep5d5t product f\nd exi/+4  ,!      
d$uction ( repres5tation ^: outl9e has j
 be5 giv5 0 ! fir/ example 7(t5 imitat$ 
9 ! s*ool ( ,s*ell+ & ,hegel7 ( a       
con/ructive psy*ology1 :i*1 f ! mission 
or ! concept ( ! s\l--9 ?is case f !    
nature ( self-consci\sness--d$uces !    
v>i\s psy*ical functions z a sy/em (    
actions1 ea* ( :i* is 9 its place impli$
 by ! re/1 z x 9 turn presupposes !m4   
,?is is di/+ui%$ f ! s5sationali/ic     
psy*ology1 :i* is also g5etic 7cf4 pp4  
#bde-bej71 z well z f ! me*anical or    
associational psy*ology1 :i* likewise   
excludes ! idea ( an isolat$ coexi/5ce (
 m5tal faculties1 by ! fact t x dem&s a 
new manife/ation ( ! s\l-gr\nd 9 ord] to
 ! asc5t f "o memb] ( ! s]ies to ! next 
high]4 ,x is also di/+ui%$ f            
s5sationalism by its teleological po9t (
 view4 ,= no matt] h[ mu* ,fi*te1 too1  
may speak ( ! me*anism ( consci\sness1 x
 is pla9 to ! read] ( ! !oretical "p ( 8
 sy/em n only t he makes ?is me*anism "w

 9 ! s]vice ( an end1 b also t he f9ds  
its orig9 9 purposive activity ( ! ego2 
:ile ! practical "p gives fur!r &       
decisive confirmation ( ! fact4 ,! dang]
 & ! defect ( su* a con/ructive treatm5t
 ( psy*ology--z we may at once rem>k =  
all lat] attempts--lies 9 imag9+ t !    
task ( m5tal sci5ce has be5 accompli%$ &
 all its problems solv$ :5 ea* p>ticul> 
activity ( ! ego has be5 assign$ its    
mission & "w = ! :ole1 & its place 9 !  
sy/em1 )\t any indication ( ! means     
?r\gh :i* ?is de/9ation c be fulfill$4  
7d7 ,! ,practical ,ego4--,! d$uction (  
repres5tation has %[n h[ 7?r\gh :at     
unconsci\s acts ( ! ego7 ! diff]5t /ages
 ( cognition1 ! ?ree s5su\s & ! ?ree    
intellectual functions ( repres5tation1 
come into be+4 ,x has prov$ incapable1  
h[ev]1 ( giv+ any acc\nt ( ! way 9 :i* !
 ego comes at "o po9t to arre/ its      
activity1 :i* t5ds inf9itely outw>d1 &  
to turn x back ^u itself4 ,we "k1 inde$1
 t ?is fir/ limitation1 ?r\gh :i*       
s5sation arises1 & on :i* z a basis !   

und]/&+1 by cont9u$ reflection con/ructs
 ! objective _w1 0 necess>y 9 ord] t    
consci\sness & k might arise4 ,if ! ego 
did n limit its inf9ite activity nei!r  
repres5tation nor an objective _w w\ld  
exi/4 ,b :y1 !n1 are !re su* ?+s z      
consci\sness1 repres5tation1 & a _w8 ,f 
! /&po9t ( ! !oretical ego ?is problem1 
,:5ce ! orig9al non-ego or opposition   
7,an/oss71 :i* impels ! ego back ^u     
itself8 _c be solv$1 s9ce x is only     
?r\gh ! opposition t x itself arises4 ,!
 d$uction ( ! opposition1 :i* !         
!oretical "p ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k did n     
furni%1 is to be look$ = f ! practical  
"p4 ,! primacy ( practical reason1      
already emphasiz$ by ,kant1 gives u !   
answ]3 ,! ego limits itself & is        
!oretical1 9 ord] to be practical4 ,!   
:ole ma*9]y ( repres5tation & !         
repres5t$ _w exi/s only to furni% u !   
possibility ( fulfill+ our duty4 ,we are
 intellig5ce 9 ord] t we may be able to 
be w4  ,action1 action--t is ! end ( our
 exi/5ce4 ,action is giv+ =m to matt]1 x

 is ! alt]ation or elaboration ( an     
object1 ! conque/ ( an imp$im5t1 ( a    
limitation4 ,we _c act unless we h      
some?+ 91 on1 & aga9/ :i* to act4 ,! _w 
( s5sation & intuition is no?+ b a means
 = atta9+ our e?ical de/9y1 x is !      
mat]ial ( our duty "u ! =m ( s5se4 ,!   
!oretical ego posits an object 7,geg5/&7
 t ! practical ego may exp]i5ce         
resi/ance 7,wid]/&74 ,no action is      
possible )\t a _w z ! object ( action2  
no _w is possible )\t a consci\sness :i*
 repres5ts x2 no consci\sness possible  
)\t reflection ( ! ego on itself2 no    
reflection )\t limitation1 )\t an       
opposition or non-ego4 ,! ,an/oss is    
d$uc$4 ,! ego posits a limit 7is        
!oretical7 9 ord] 7z practical7 to      
ov]come x4 ,our duty is ! only p] se    
7,ansi*7 ( ! ph5om5al _w1 ! only truly  
real elem5t 9 x3 ,?+s are 9 !mselves t  
:i* we ought to make ( !m4 ,objectivity 
exi/s only to be m & m sublat$1 t is1 to
 be s work$ up t ! activity ( ! ego may 
9 x become evid5t4--,! same gr\nd (     

explanation :i* reveals ! necessity ( an
 ext]nal nature enables u to und]/& :y !
 "o inf9ite ego 7! univ]sal life or !   
,deity1 z ,fi*te puts x 9 8 lat] works7 
divides into ! _m empirical egos or     
individuals1 :y x does n c>ry out its   
plan imm$iately1 b ?r\gh f9ite spirits z
 its organs4 ,action is possible only "u
 ! =m ( ! individual1 only 9 individuals
 are consci\sness & morality possible4  
,)\t resi/ance1 no action2 )\t conflict1
 no morality4 ,individuality1 x is true1
 is to be ov]come & de/roy$ 9 moral     
endeavor2 b 9 ord] to ?is x mu/ h exi/$4
 ,virtue is a conque/ ov] ext]nal &     
int]nal nature4  ,a gradation (         
practical functions correspond+ to !    
s]ies ( !oretical activities leads f    
feel+ & /riv+ 7long+ & desire7 ?r\gh !  
sy/em ( impulses 7! impulse to          
repres5tation or reflection1 to         
production1 to satisfaction7 up to moral
 w or ! impulse to h>mony ) self1 :i*   
/&s oppos$ to ! natural impulses z !    
categorical imp]ative4 ,! practical ego 

m$iates betwe5 ! !oretical & ! absolute 
ego4 ,! ego ought to be inf9ite &       
self-dep5d5t1 b f9ds itself f9ite &     
dep5d5t on a non-ego--a contradiction   
:i* is resolv$ by ! ego becom+          
practical1 by ! fact t 9 ev] increas+   
measure x subdues nature to itself1 & by
 su* increas+ ext5sion ( ! b\nd>y draws 
ne>] & ev] ne>] to ! realization ( its  
de/9ation1 to become absolute ego4   #b4
 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics & ( ,"r4  ,! moral 
law dem&s ! control ( ! s5su\s impulse  
by ! pure impulse4 ,if ! =m] aims at    
com=table ease & enjoym5t1 ! latt] is   
direct$ t[>d satisfaction ) "o's self1  
to endeavor & self-dep5d5ce4 7,enjoym5t 
is inevitable1 x is true1 z satisfaction
 :]e any impulse :atev] is c>ri$ out2   
only x mu/ n =m ! end ( action47        
,morality is activity = its own sake1 ! 
radical evil--f :i* only a miracle c    
deliv] u1 b a miracle :i* we mu/        
ourselves p]=m--is in]tness1 lack ( w to
 rise above ! natural det]m9at5ess ( !  
impulse ( self-pres]vation to ! cle>    

consci\sness ( duty & ( fre$om4 ,= !    
moral man !re is no re/+2 ea* end atta9$
 becomes = him ! impulse to r5ew$       
endeavor1 ea* task fulfill$ leads him to
 a fre% "o4 ,become self-dep5d5t1 act   
autonom\sly1 make ?yself free2 let e    
action h a place 9 a s]ies1 9 !         
cont9uation ( :i* ! ego mu/ become      
indep5d5t4 ,to ?is =mal & univ]sal norm1
 aga91 !re is add$ a special injunction 
= ea* individual4 ,ea* individual _s has
 its def9ite mission assign$ to x by !  
_w-ord]3 ea* ought to d t :i* x alone   
%\ld & c d4 ,always fulfill ?y moral    
vocation1 ?y special de/9ation4#a ,or   
bo? 9 popul> comb9ation3 ,nev] act      
contr>y to consci5ce4  ,footnote #a3    
,al?\gh ,fi*te 0 ju/ly *>g$ ) surpass+  
ev5 ! ab/ractness ( ! ,kantian e?ics ) 8
 bald moral pr9ciple1 ! self-dep5d5ce ( 
! ego1 he des]ves praise = hav+ giv5    
e?ics a concrete cont5t ( indisputable  
s\ndness & utility by 8 introduction (  
,jacobi's idea ( purifi$ individuality4 
,! elevation to fre$om is accompli%$    

gradually4 ,at fir/ fre$om consi/s only 
9 ! consci\sness ( ! natural impulse1 !n
 foll[s a break+ away f ?is by means (  
maxims1 :i* 9 ! beg9n+ are maxims (     
individual happ9ess4 ,lat] on a bl9d    
en?usiasm = self-dep5d5ce arises &      
produces an h]oic _s1 :i* w\ld r be     
g5]\s ?an j1 :i* be/[s sympa?y m readily
 ?an respect2 true morality1 h[ev]1 does
 n arise until1 ) con/ant att5tion to ! 
law & cont9u$ wat*fulness ( self1 duty  
is done = its own sake4 ,no man is = a  
mom5t secure ( 8 morality )\t cont9u$   
endeavor4 ,9 ord] to deliv]ance f !     
orig9al s9 ( in]tness & its tra91       
c[>dice & falsity1 m5 /& 9 ne$ (        
examples1 su* z h be5 giv5 !m 9 ! f\nd]s
 ( religions1 to con/rue = !m ! riddle (
 fre$om4 ,! necess>y enlight5m5t conc]n+
 moral conviction is giv5 by ! ,*ur*1 ^:
 symbols are n to be look$ ^u z dogmatic
 propositions1 b only z means = !       
proclamation ( ! et]nal v]ities1 & :i*1 
l ! /ate 7= bo? are in/itutions bas$ on 
necessity71 has = its object to make    

itself unnecess>y z "t goes on4  ,!     
sy/em ( duties di/+ui%es f\r classes (  
duties on ! basis ( ! tw(old opposition 
( univ]sal 7non-transf]able7 & p>ticul> 
7transf]able7 duties1 & ( unconditional 
duties 7direct$ to ! :ole7 & conditional
 duties 7direct$ t[>d self74 ,^! f\r    
classes are ! duties ( self-pres]vation1
 ( class1 ( non-int]f]5ce ) o!rs1 & (   
vocation4 ,! l[] call+ includes !       
produc]s1 artisans1 & tradesm51 ^:      
action t]m9ates directly on nature2 & ! 
high]1 ! s*ol>s1 tea*]s ( ! p or cl]gy1 
arti/s1 & gov]nm5t (ficials1 :o "w      
directly on ! community ( rational be+s4
 ,fi*te's ?\ghtful & sympa!tically      
writt5 discussion ( m>riage is 9        
pleasant contra/ to ! bald1 purely legal
 view ( ?is relation adopt$ by ,kant4   
,natural "r is = ,fi*te1 z = ,kant1 ^:  
!ory ( "r1 moreov]1 appe>$ lat] ?an     
,fi*te's1 entirely indep5d5t ( e?ics1 & 
di/+ui%$ f ! latt] by its exclusive     
ref]5ce to ext]nal conduct in/ead ( to !
 disposition & ! w4 ,! rule ( "r ga9s f 

! moral law1 x is true1 new sanction =  
consci5ce1 b _c be d]iv$ f ! law4--,!   
concept ( "r is to be d$uc$ z a necess>y
 act ( ! ego1 i4e41 to be %[n a         
condition ( self-consci\sness4 ,! ego   
mu/ posit itself z an individual1 & c   
accompli% ?is only by posit+ itself 9 a 
relation ( "r to o!r f9ite rational     
be+s2 )\t a ?\1 no ,i4 ,a f9ite rational
 be+ _c posit itself )\t ascrib+ to     
itself a free activity 9 an ext]nal     
s5se-_w2 & x _c effect ?is latt] unless 
7#a7 x ascribes free activity to o!r    
be+s z well1 h5ce n )\t assum+ o!r f9ite
 rational be+s outside itself1 & posit+ 
itself z /&+ 9 ! relation ( "r to !m2 & 
unless 7#b7 x ascribes to itself a      
mat]ial body & posits ?is z /&+ "u !    
influ5ce ( a p]son outside x4 ,b1 fur!r1
 ,fi*te consid]s x possible to d$uce !  
p>ticul> con/itution bo? ( ! ext]nal _w 
& ( ! human body 7z ! sph]e ( all free  
actions possible to ! p]son74 ,9 ! =m]  
!re mu/ be pres5t a t\gh1 durable matt] 
capable ( resi/ance1 & light & air 9    

ord] to ! possibility ( int]c\rse betwe5
 spirits2 :ile ! latt] mu/ be an        
organiz$1 articulat$ nature-product1    
furni%$ ) s5ses1 capable ( inf9ite      
det]m9ation1 & adapt$ to all conceivable
 motions4  ,if a community ( free be+s1 
su* z has be5 %[n ! condition (         
individual self-consci\sness1 is to be  
possible1 ! foll[+ mu/ hold z ! law (   
"r3 ,s limit ?y fre$om t o!rs may be    
free along ) !e4 ,?is law is condition$ 
on ! lawful behavior ( o!rs4 ,:]e ?is is
 lack+1 :]e my fell[ does n recognize & 
treat me z a free1 rational be+1 ! "r ( 
co]cion comes 92 co]cion1 h[ev]1 is n to
 be ex]cis$ by ! individual             
himself--s9ce !n !re w\ld be no gu>anty 
ei!r = its successful ex]cise or = !    
non-violation ( ! legal limit--b        
devolves ^u ! /ate4 ,! /ate takes its   
orig9 9 ! common w ( all to unite = !   
safegu>d+ ( _! rights1 & det]m9es by    
positive laws 7int]m$iate betwe5 ! law (
 "r & legal judgm5ts7 :at %all be       
consid]$ rights4 ,?us !re result ?ree   

subjects = natural "r3 orig9al rights or
 ! sum ( t :i* p]ta9s to fre$om or      
p]sonality 7inviolability ( ! body & (  
prop]ty71 ! "r ( co]cion1 & political   
"r4 ,! aim ( puni%m5t is ! re=m ( ! evil
 do] & ! det]r5ce ( o!rs4 ,fi*te is 9   
agreem5t ) ,kant conc]n+ ! pr9ciple (   
popul> sov]eignty 7,r\sseau7 & ! ex]cise
 ( ! political p[] ?r\gh repres5tatives2
 b n s conc]n+ ! gu>anties aga9/ !      
violation ( ! fundam5tal law ( ! /ate4  
,in/ead ( ! division ( p[]s recomm5d$ by
 ,kant he dem&s sup]vision ( ! rul]s ( !
 /ate by ephors1 :o1 !mselves )\t any   
legislative or executive au?ority1 %all 
susp5d ! rul]s 9 case !y violate ! law1 
& call !m to acc\nt be=e ! community4 ,e
 con/itution 9 :i* ! rul]s are n        
responsible is despotic4 ,fi*te did n   
cont9ue loyal to ?is pr9ciple1 t ! /ate 
is m]ely a legal in/itution4 ,he n only 
dem&s a /ate organization ( labor by :i*
 ev]yone %all be plac$ 9 a position to  
live f 8 "w1 9 ! ,natural ,"r & !       
,exclusive ,comm]cial ,/ate1 b1 9 8     

po/hum\s ,!ory ( ,"r1 #ahab1 he makes x 
! *ief duty ( ! /ate to lead m51 by !   
moral & intellectual tra9+ ( ! p1 to d f
 insight :at !y h hi!rto done f         
traditional belief4 ,?r\gh ! education (
 ! p ! empirical /ate is gradually to   
trans=m itself into ! rational /ate4    
#c4 ,fi*te's ,second ,p]iod3 8 ,view (  
,hi/ory & 8 ,!ory ( ,religion4  ,fi*te's
 transf] to ,b]l9 br\ght him into m     
intimate contact ) ! _w1 & along ) new  
exp]i5ces & new emotions gave him new   
problems4 ,:ile a vigor\sly develop+    
religi\s s5tim5t turn$ 8 speculation to 
! relation ( ! individual ego to !      
primal s\rce ( spiritual life1 empirical
 reality also acquir$ great]            
significance = him1 & ! intellectual1   
moral1 & political situation ( ! "t     
especially attract$ 8 att5tion4 ,! la/  
requir$ philosophical int]pretation1    
dem&$ at once inquiry into its hi/orical
 conditions & a consid]ation ( ! means  
by :i* ! gl>+ contradiction betwe5 !    
condition ( ! nation at ! "t & ! ideals 

( reason c\ld be dim9i%$4 ,! ,addresses 
to ! ,g]man ,nation outl9$ a plan = a   
moral re=mation ( ! _w1 to />t ) !      
education ( ! ,g]man p2#a :ile !        
,*>act]i/ics ( ! ,pres5t ,age1 :i* _h   
prec$$ ! ,addresses1 def9$ ! place ( !  
age 9 ! g5]al developm5t ( humanity4 ,! 
s*eme ( hi/orical p]iods giv5 9 !       
,*>act]i/ics & simil>ly 9 ! ,!ory ( !   
,/ate 7innoc5ce--s9--supremacy ( reason1
 ) int]m$iate /ages betwe5 ea* two7 is  
int]e/+ z a =]unn] ( ,hegel's und]tak+4 
,footnote #a3 ,among all nations y are !
 "o 9 :om ! g]m ( human p]fection is mo/
 decid$ly pres5t4 ,! spiritual          
reg5]ation ( mank9d mu/ proce$ f !      
,g]man p1 = !y are ! "o orig9al or      
primitive p ( ! new age1 ! only "o :i*  
has pres]v$ its liv+ language--,fr5* is 
a dead tongue--& has rais$ itself to    
true creative poetry & free sci5ce4 ,!  
gr\nd ( di/9ction betwe5 ,g]manism & !  
=eign _s lies 9 ! "q1 :e!r we believe 9 
an orig9al elem5t 9 man1 9 ! fre$om1    
inf9ite p]fectibility1 & et]nal progress

 ( our race1 or put no fai? 9 all ^!4   
,hi/ory is produc$ ?r\gh ! int]action ( 
! two pr9ciples1 fai? & und]/&+1 :i* are
 relat$ to ea* o!r z law & fre$om1 &    
/rives t[>d a condition 9 :i* ^! two    
%all be s reconcil$ t fai? %all h       
entirely pass$ ov] into ! =m ( und]/&+1 
%all h be5 trans=m$ into insight1 &     
und]/&+ %all h tak5 up ! cont5t ( fai?  
into itself4 ,hi/ory beg9s ) ! com+     
toge!r ( two orig9al & primitive races1 
"o ( ord] or fai?1 & "o ( fre$om or     
und]/&+1 nei!r ( :i* w\ld atta9 to an   
hi/orical developm5t ap>t f ! o!r4 ,f ! 
legal race ! free race le>ns respect = !
 law1 z 9 turn x ar\ses 9 ! =m] !       
impulse t[>d fre$om4 ,! c\rse ( hi/ory  
divides into five p]iods4 ,9 ! /ate (   
innoc5ce or ( rational in/9ct t :i* is  
rational is done unconsci\sly1 out (    
natural impulse2 9 ! /ate ( comm5c+ s9 !
 in/9ct = ! good *anges into an ext]nal 
compulsory au?ority1 ! law ( reason     
appe>s z a rul+ p[] f )\t1 :i* c be     
disobey$ z well z obey$4 ,we ourselves  

live 9 ! p]iod ( complet$ s9fulness1 (  
absolute lic5se & indiff]5ce to all     
tru?1 ( unlimit$ caprice & selfi%ness4  
,b h[ev] f> remov$ f ! moral ideal ?is  
age appe>s1 9 :i* ! individual1 fre$ f  
all re/ra9ts1 he$s naught except 8      
egoi/ic desire1 & 9 8 c>e = 8 own welf>e
 =gets to labor = ! univ]sal1 yet ?is   
ultimate goal1 ?is do+ f free insight t 
:i* 9 ! beg9n+ 0 done out ( bl9d fai?1  
_c be atta9$ unless au?ority %all h fir/
 be5 %ak5 (f & ! individual become      
self-dep5d5t4 ,a few signs already      
betok5 ! dawn ( ! f\r? era1 t ( rational
 sci5ce or ( comm5c+ ju/ification1 9 :i*
 tru? %all be ackn[l$g$ supreme1 & !    
individual ego1 at lea/ z cognitive1    
%all submit itself to ! g5]ic reason4   
,f9ally1 ) ! era ( rational art1 or !   
/ate ( complet$ ju/ification &          
sanctification1 :]e9 ! w ( ! individual 
%all entirely m]ge 9 life = ! race1 !   
end ( ! life ( humanity on e>?--! free  
det]m9ation ( all its relations accord+ 
to reason--w be fulfill$4  ,9 ! ,j5a    

p]iod ! religi\s life ( ! ego simply    
co9cid$ = ,fi*te ) its practical life2  
piety co9cid$ ) moral conduct2 ! ,deity 
) ! absolute ego1 ) ! moral law1 ) !    
moral ord] ( ! _w4 ,a *ange subsequ5tly 
took place 9 8 views on ?is po9t4 ,he   
exp]i5c$ feel+s :i*1 at lea/ 9 quality1 
7 di/9ct f read9ess = moral action1 no  
matt] h[ intimately !y are int]tw9$ )   
?is1 & no matt] h[ little !y c actually 
be sep>at$ f x2 religion is possible    
nei!r )\t a metaphysical belief 9 a     
supras5sible _w1 nor )\t ob$i5ce to !   
moral law1 yet 9 itself x is n t belief 
nor ?is action1 b ! inn] _s :i* p]vades 
& animates all our ?\ght & action--x is 
life1 love1 bless$ness4 ,& z quiet      
bless$ness is "h di/+ui%$ f ceaseless   
action1 s = our ?9k] ! inactive ,deity1 
! self-id5tical life ( ! absolute1      
sep>ates f ! active univ]sal reason1 :i*
 9 its individual organs advances f task
 to task4 ,! e>li] undivid$ & unique    
pr9ciple1 ! absolute ego1 divides into !
 ,i*heit 7moral law1 _w-ord]71 & an     

absolute z ! gr\nd !re(4 ,! _s 7! ego1  
or1 z ,fi*te n[ pref]s to say1 k7 an    
image ( ,god1 ! _w an image ( ! _s4 ,!  
active ord] ( ! _w 7! moral law :i*     
realizes itself 9 individuals7 !        
imm$iate1 & objective reality ! m$iate1 
revelation ( ! absolute6  ,does ?is view
 ( religion1 :i* ,fi*te incorporates    
also 9 ! lat] expositions ( ! ,sci5ce ( 
,k1 indicate an ab&onm5t & d5ial ( !    
e>li] /&po9t8 ,! philosophy ( ,fi*te's  
second p]iod is a new sy/em--s judge !  
majority ( ! hi/orians ( philosophy4 ,x 
is n a trans=mation1 b a completion ( ! 
e>li] sy/em2 ! doctr9e promulgat$ 9     
,b]l9 cont9ues to be ideali/ic1 z t     
advanc$ 9 ,j5a _h itself be5            
pan!i/ic--?is is ! op9ion ( ,=tlage &   
,h>ms1 9 agreem5t ) ! philosoph] himself
 & ) 8 son4 ,kuno ,fis*]1 also1 :o %[s a
 con/ant advance 9 ! developm5t (       
,fi*teanism1 a gradual transition )\t a 
break1 may be c\nt$ among ! m9ority :o  
hold t ?r\gh\t 8 life ,fi*te taught b "o
 sy/em4 ,we believe x our duty to adh]e 

to ?is latt] view4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,k 7! _w
 a product ( ! ego7 ent]s z x is into ! 
lat] =m ( ! ,fi*tean philosophy2 ! latt]
 gives up none ( ! fundam5tal positions 
( ! =m]1 b only adds to x a culm9ation1 
by :i* ! appe>ance ( ! build+ is alt]$1 
x is true1 b n ! edifice itself4 ,9 !   
discussion ( ! "q ! foll[+ ?ree h be5   
emphasiz$ z ! mo/ important po9ts (     
di/9ction betwe5 ! two p]iods3 ,9 !     
e>li] sy/em ,god is made equival5t to ! 
absolute ego & ! moral ord] ( ! _w1 9 ! 
lat] he is sep>at$ f ^! & remov$ beyond 
!m2 9 ! =m] ! nature ( ,god is describ$ 
z activity1 9 ! latt]1 z be+2 9 ! "o1   
action is designat$ z ! highe/ mission (
 man1 9 ! o!r1 bless$ devotion to ,god4 
,all ?ree v>iations ( ! lat] doctr9e f !
 e>li] may be admitt$ )\t giv+ up !     
position t ! =m] is only an ext5sion ( !
 latt] & n an ess5tial modification ( x 
7i4e41 9 its tea*+s conc]n+ ! relation (
 ! ego & ! _w74 ,fi*te exp]i5c$ religi\s
 feel+s ! philosophical outcome ( :i* he
 work$ into 8 sy/em4 ,he n[ kn[s a fir/ 

?+ 7! ,deity z di/9ct f ! absolute ego7 
& a la/ ?+ 7! inw>dness ( religi\s      
devotion to ! _w-gr\nd71 :i* he _h be=e 
n ov]look$1 mu* less d5i$1 b comb9$ 9 "o
 ) ! second 7! absolute ego or ! moral  
ord] ( ! _w7 & ! "o be=e ! la/ 7moral   
action74 ,x is incorrect to say t1 9 8  
lat] doctr9e1 ,fi*te sub/itut$ !        
inactive absolute 9 place ( ! active    
absolute ego1 & ! quiet bless$ness (    
contemplation 9 place ( ceaseless       
action4 ,n 9 place ( ^!1 b beyond !m1   
:ile all else rema9s z x 04 ,!          
categorical imp]ative1 ! absolute ego or
 k is no long] ,god himself1 b ! fir/   
manife/ation ( ,god1 ?\gh a necess>y    
revelation ( him4 ,religion _h previ\sly
 be5 includ$ = ,fi*te 9 moral action2 n[
 fell[%ip ) ,god goes beyond ?is1 ?\gh  
morality rema9s its indisp5sable        
condition & insep>able companion4       
,f9ally1 h[ to con/rue ! previ\sly      
avoid$ pr$icate1 be+1 9 relation to !   
,deity1 is %[n by ! no less frequ5t     
designation ( ! absolute z ! ,univ]sal  

,life4 ,! expression be+1 :i* x mu/ be  
confess$ is ambigu\s1 "h signifies 9 our
 op9ion only ! quiet1 self-id5tical     
activity ( ! absolute1 9 opposition to !
 unre/+1 *angeful activity ( ! _w-ord] &
 its f9ite organs1 n t in]t & dead be+  
posit$ by ! ego1 ! ascription ( :i* to !
 ,deity ,fi*te _h =bidd5 9 8 essay :i*  
_h be5 *>g$ ) a!ism1 n to speak ( !     
exi/5ce-mode ( a p>ticul> self-consci\s 
& p]sonal be+4 ,in/ead ( speak+ ( a     
conv]sion ( ,fi*te to ! position ( 8    
oppon5ts1 we might r v5ture ! p>adoxical
 ass]tion1 t1 :5 he *>act]izes !        
absolute z ! only true be+1 he int5ds to
 produce ! same view 9 ! m9d ( ! read] z
 9 8 e>li] ye>s1 :5 he express$ himself 
aga9/ ! application ( ! concepts        
exi/5ce1 sub/ance1 & consci\s p]sonality
 to ,god1 on ! gr\nd t !y are categories
 ( s5se4 ,! *ief ?+1 at lea/1 rema9s    
unalt]$3 ! opposition to a view (       
religion :i* trans=ms ! sublime & sacr$ 
tea*+ ( ,*ri/ianity into an en]vat+     
doctr9e ( happ9ess4    ,,*apt] ,,xi4    

,,s*ell+4  ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,joseph    
7von7 ,s*ell+ 0 born ,janu>y #bg1 #agge1
 at ,leonb]g 79 ,wrtemb]g71 & di$ ,augu/
 #bj1 #ahed1 at ! ba?s ( ,ragatz 79     
,switz]l&74 ,9 #agij-ie he att5d$ !     
sem9>y at ,tb+51 9 company ) ,hld]l9 &  
,hegel1 :o 7 five ye>s old] ?an himself2
 at sev5te5 he publi%$ a diss]tation on 
! ,fall ( ,man1 & a ye> lat] an essay on
 ,religi\s ,my?s2 & 0 call$ 9 #agih f   
,leipsic--:]e1 aft] sev]al treatises#a 9
 explanation ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k1 he _h    
issu$1 9 #agig1 ! ,ideas = a ,philosophy
 ( ,nature--to ,j5a4 ,9 ! latt] place he
 became acqua9t$ ) 8 future wife1       
,c>ol9e1#b ne ,mi*alis 7#agfc-ahji71    
wid[ ( ,bhm] & at ?is "t ! brilliant    
wife ( ,augu/ ,wilhelm ,s*legel4 ,f     
#ahjc to #ahjf he s]v$ z pr(essor 9     
,wrzburg2 !n foll[$ two resid5ces (     
f\rte5 ye>s ea* 9 ,muni*1 sep>at$ by    
sev5 ye>s 9 ,erlang53 #ahjf-bj z ,memb] 
( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces & ,g5]al        
,secret>y ( ! ,academy ( ! ,pla/ic ,arts
 7he receiv$ ?is latt] position aft]    

deliv]+ on ! k+'s bir?day 8 celebrat$   
address on ,! ,relation ( ! ,pla/ic     
,arts to ,nature1 #ahjg72 & #ahbg-da z  
pr(essor 9 ! newly e/abli%$ univ]sity1 &
 ,presid5t ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,9  
#ahab ,s*ell+ m>ri$ 8 second wife1      
,paul9e ,gott]4 ,besides v>i\s j\rnals#c
 & ! works to be notic$ lat]1 two       
polemic treatises %\ld be m5tion$1 !    
,exposition ( ! ,true ,relation ( !     
,philosophy ( ,nature to ! ,improv$     
,doctr9e ( ,fi*te1 #ahjf1 9 :i* 8 =m]   
fri5d is *>g$ ) plagi>ism1 & ! ,memorial
 ( ! ,treatise on ,div9e ,?+s by ,h]r   
,jacobi1 #ahab1 :i* answ]s a bitt]      
attack ( ,jacobi /ill m bitt]ly4 ,f ?is 
on our philosoph]1 once s fond ( writ+1 
becomes sil5t4#d ,! (t5 promis$ issue ( 
! positive philosophy1 :i* _h already   
be5 twice comm5c$ 9 pr9t 7,! ,ages ( !  
,_w1 #ahae2 ,my?ological ,lectures1     
#ahcj71 0 bo? times susp5d$4 ,be+ call$ 
to ! ,b]l9 ,academy by ,fr$]ick ,william
 ,,iv41 9 ord] to c\nt]balance !        
prevail+ ,hegelianism1 ,s*ell+ deliv]$  

lectures 9 ! univ]sity also 7on         
,my?ology & ,revelation71 :i* he ceas$1 
h[ev]1 :5 notes tak5 by 8 he>]s 7 pr9t$ 
)\t 8 cons5t4#e ,8 collect$ works 7     
publi%$ 9 f\rte5 volumes 7#ahef-fa7 "u !
 c>e ( 8 son1 ,k4,e4,a4 ,s*ell+4#f      
,footnote #a3 ,on ! ,possibility ( a ,=m
 ( ,philosophy 9 ,g5]al1 ,on ! ,ego z   
,pr9ciple ( ,philosophy1 bo? 9 #agie2   
,lett]s on ,dogmatism & ,criticism1     
#agif2 ,essays 9 ,explanation ( !       
,sci5ce ( ,k1 #agig4  ,footnote #b3     
,k>ol9e1 ,lett]s1 edit$ by ,g4 ,waitz1  
#ahga4  ,footnote #c3 ,kritis*es ,j\rnal
 d] ,philosophie 7) ,hegel71 #ahjb2     
,zeits*rift fr spekulative ,physik1     
#ahjj 7cont9u$ z ,neue ,zeits*rift fr   
spekulative ,physik72 ,jahrb*] d] ,m$iz9
 als ,wiss5s*aft 7) ,m>cus71 #ahjf-jh2  
,allgeme9e ,zeits*rift von ,deuts*5 fr  
,deuts*e1 #ahac4  ,footnote #d3 ,besides
 a supplem5t to ,die ,weltalt] & 8      
inaugural lecture at ,b]l91 he publi%$  
only two prefaces1 "o to ,viktor ,c\s9  
b] franzsis*e und deuts*e ,philosophie1 

done into ,g]man by ,hub]t ,beck]s1     
#ahcd1 & "o to ,/eff5s's ,na*gelass5e   
,s*rift51 #ahdf4  ,footnote #e3 ,paulus1
 ,die end* (f5b> geword5e positive      
,philosophie d] ,(f5b>ung1 #ahdc4       
,frau5/dt _h previ\sly publi%$ a sket* f
 ?is lat] doctr9e1 #ahdb4  ,footnote #f3
 ,on ,s*ell+ cf4 ! ,lectures by ,k4     
,ros5kranz1 #ahdc2 ! articles by ,heyd] 
9 vol4 xiii4 ( ,h]zog's ,real5cyclopdie 
fr prote/antis*e ,!ologie1 #ahfj1 &     
,jodl 9 ! ,allgeme9e deuts*e            
,biographie2 ,r4 ,haym1 ,die romantis*e 
,s*ule1 #ahgj2 ,aus ,s*ell+s ,leb51 9   
,brief51 edit$ by ,plitt1 #c vols41     
#ahfi-gj4 ,cf4 also ,watson's ,s*ell+'s 
,transc5d5tal ,idealism 7,griggs's      
,philosophical ,classics1 #ahhb72 &     
sev]al translations f ,s*ell+ 9 !       
,j\rnal ( ,speculative                  
,philosophy4--,,tr4  ,! lead+ motive 9  
,s*ell+'s ?9k+ is an unusually p[]ful   
fancy1 :i* gives to 8 philosophy a      
lively1 /imulat+1 & attractive "*1 )\t  
mak+ x to a l degree logically          

satisfactory4 ,if ! sy/ems ( ,fi*te &   
,hegel1 :i* 9 _! cont5t are closely     
relat$ to ,s*ell+'s1 impress u by _!    
logical sev]ity1 ,s*ell+ *a9s u by 8    
lively intuition & 8 sugge/ive p[] (    
feel+ 8 way into ! inn] nature ( ?+s4 ,)
 him analogies outweigh reasons2 he is m
 conc]n$ ab\t ! ri* cont5t ( concepts   
?an ab\t _! %>p def9ition2 & 9 !        
endeavor to %[ ! unity ( ! univ]se1 bo? 
9 ! great & 9 ! little1 especially to %[
 ! unity ( nature & _s1 he dwells long] 
on ! relation%ip ( objects ?an on _!    
anti!ses1 :i* he is glad to r$uce to m]e
 quantitative & tempor>y diff]5ces4 ,he 
adds to ?is an a/oni%+ mobility ( ?\ght1
 9 virtue ( :i* e (f]$ sugge/ion is at  
once seiz$ & work$ into 8 own sy/em1    
?\gh 9 ?is ! previ\s /&po9t is          
unconsci\sly ex*ang$ = a some:at alt]$  
"o4 ,s*ell+'s philosophy is1 !re=e1 9 a 
cont9ual /ate ( flux1 ne>ly e "w %[s x 9
 a new =m1 & x is always ideas f )\t ^: 
incorporation has caus$ ! transition4   
,besides ,leibnitz1 ,kant1 & ,fi*te1 :o 

7 already famili> to ,s*ell+ z a pupil  
at ,tb+51 x 0 fir/ ,h]d]1 !n ,sp9oza &  
,bruno1 :o ex]t$ a trans=m+ influ5ce on 
8 sy/em1 to be foll[$ lat] by           
,neoplatonism & ,bhme's my/icism1 &1    
f9ally1 by ,ari/otle & ! ,gno/ics1 n to 
speak ( 8 int]c\rse ) 8 contempor>ies   
,kielmey]1 ,/eff5s1 ,baad]1 ,es*5may]1 &
 o!rs4 ,omitt+ 8 e>ly adh]5ce to ,fi*te1
 at lea/ ?ree p]iods mu/ be di/+ui%$ 9  
,s*ell+'s ?9k+4 ,! fir/ p]iod           
7#agig-ahjj7 includes ! epo*-mak+ feat (
 8 y\?1 ! philosophy ( nature1 &1 z an  
equally legitimate second "p ( 8 sy/em1 
! philosophy ( _s or transc5d5tal       
philosophy4 ,! latt] is a supplem5t>y   
reca/+ ( ,fi*te's ,sci5ce ( ,k1 :ile 9 !
 =m] ,s*ell+ foll[s ,kant & ,h]d]4 ,!   
second p]iod1 f #ahja1 adds to ^! two   
co-ord9ate p>ts1 ! philosophy ( nature &
 ! philosophy ( _s1 & z a fundam5tal    
discipl9e1 a sci5ce ( ! absolute1 !     
philosophy ( id5tity1 :i* may be        
*>act]iz$ z ,sp9ozism reviv$ on a       
,fi*tean basis4 ,besides ! example (    

,sp9oza1 ,giordano ,bruno _h mo/        
influ5ce on ?is =m ( ,s*ell+'s          
philosophy4 ,) ! ye> #ahji1 aft] ! signs
 ( a new phase _h become p]ceptible f   
#ahjd on1 8 sy/em ent]s on its ?ird1 !  
!osophical1 p]iod1 ! p]iod ( ! positive 
philosophy1 9 :i* we %all di/+ui% a     
my/ical & a s*ola/ic /age4 ,! =m] is    
repres5t$ by ! doctr9e ( fre$om inspir$ 
by ,jacob ,bhme2 ! latt]1 by !          
philosophy ( my?ology & revelation1 :i* 
goes back to ,ari/otle & ! ,gno/ics4 ,9 
! fir/ p]iod ! absolute = ,s*ell+ is    
creative nature2 9 ! second1 ! id5tity (
 opposites2 9 ! ?ird x is an antemundane
 process :i* advances f ! n-yet-pres5t (
 ! contr>ies to _! ov]com+4 ,9 nei!r (  
^! advances is x ,s*ell+'s int5tion to  
break ) 8 previ\s tea*+s1 b 9 ea* case  
only to add a supplem5t4 ,t :i* has     
hi!rto be5 ! :ole is reta9$ z a "p4 ,!  
philosophy ( nature takes its place     
beside ! complet$ ,fi*tean transc5d5tal 
philosophy1 ) equal rights1 ?\gh ) a    
rev]s$ proc$ure2 !n ! !ory ( id5tity    

assumes a place above bo?2 f9ally1 a    
positive 7exi/5tial7 philosophy is add$ 
to ! previ\s negative 7rational7        
philosophy4   #a;a4 ,philosophy (       
,nature4  ,s*ell+ agrees ) ,fi*te t     
philosophy is transc5d5tal sci5ce1 !    
doctr9e ( ! conditions ( consci\sness1 &
 has to answ] ! "q1 ,:at mu/ take place 
9 ord] t k may arise8 ,!y agree1 fur!r1 
t ^! conditions ( k are necess>y acts1  
outgo+s ( an active orig9al gr\nd :i* is
 n yet consci\s self1 b seeks to become 
su*1 & t ! mat]ial _w is ! product ( ^! 
actions4 ,nature exi/s 9 ord] t ! ego   
may develop4 ,b :ile ,fi*te correctly   
und]/ood ! purpose ( nature1 to help    
intellig5ce into be+1 he fail$ to       
recognize ! dignity ( nature1 = he      
depriv$ x ( all self-dep5d5ce1 all life 
( its own1 all g5]ative p[]1 & treat$ x 
m]ely z a dead tool1 z a passive1 m]ely 
posit$ non-ego4 ,nature is n a bo>d :i* 
! orig9al ego nails up be=e itself 9    
ord]1 /rik+ aga9/ x1 to be driv5 back ^u
 itself1 to be compell$ to reflection1 &

 !reby to become !oretical ego2 9 ord]1 
fur!r1 work+ ov] ! non-ego1 & trans=m+  
x1 to ex]cise its practical activity3 b 
x is a ladd] on :i* _s rises to itself4 
,_s develops out ( nature2 nature itself
 has a spiritual elem5t 9 x2 x is       
undevelop$1 slumb]+1 unconsci\s1 b5umb$ 
intellig5ce4 ,by transf]r+ to nature !  
p[] ( self-position or ( be+ subject1   
,s*ell+ exalts ! drudge ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k
 to ! ?rone4 ,! ?reefold division1      
inf9ite orig9al activity--nature or     
object--individual ego or subject1      
rema9s z 9 ,fi*te1 only t ! fir/ memb]  
is n t]m$ pure ego1 b nature1 yet       
creative nature1 natura naturans4       
,s*ell+'s aim is to %[ h[ f ! object a  
subject arises1 f ! exi/5t some?+       
repres5t$1 f ! repres5table a repres5t]1
 f nature an ego4 ,he c\ld only hope to 
solve ?is problem if he conceiv$ natural
 objects--9 ! highe/ ( :i*1 man1 he     
makes consci\s _s break =? or nature    
intuit itself--z !mselves ! products (  
an orig9al subject1 ( a creative gr\nd  

/riv+ t[>d consci\sness4 ,= him also do+
 is m orig9al ?an be+4 ,x w\ld n be     
exact1 !re=e1 to def9e ! diff]5ce betwe5
 ,fi*te & ,s*ell+ by say+ t1 ) ! =m]1   
nature proce$s f ! ego1 & ) ! latt] !   
ego1 f nature4 ,x is r true t ) !m bo?  
nature & _s are alike ! products ( a    
?ird & high] t]m1 :i* seeks to become   
_s1 & c accompli% ?is only by posit+    
nature4 ,9 ! ,sci5ce ( ,k1 x is true1   
?is high] gr\nd is conceiv$ z an e?ical1
 9 ! ,philosophy ( ,nature z a physical1
 p[]1 al?\gh "o fram$ = intellig5ce2 9 !
 =m]1 moreov]1 ! natura naturata appe>s 
z ! position once = all ( a             
non-spiritual1 9 ! latt] z a progressive
 articulat$ con/ruction1 ) gradually    
increas+ intellig5ce4 ,9 ! unconsci\s   
products ( nature1 nature's aim to      
reflect ^u itself1 to become            
intellig5ce1 fails1 9 man x succe$s4    
,nature is ! embryonic life ( _s4       
,nature & _s are ess5tially id5tical3 ,t
 :i* is posit$ out ( consci\sness is 9  
its ess5ce ! same z t :i* is posit$ 9   

consci\sness also4 ,!re=e ! kn[able mu/ 
itself be> ! impress ( ! kn[]4 ,nature !
 prelim9>y /age1 n ! anti!sis1 ( _s2    
hi/ory1 a cont9uation ( physical becom+2
 ! p>allelism betwe5 ! ideal & ! real   
developm5t-s]ies--^! are ideas f ,h]d]  
:i* ,s*ell+ introduces into !           
transc5d5tal philosophy4 ,!             
,kantio-,fi*tean moralism1 ) its %>p    
contraposition ( nature & _s1 is limit$ 
9 ! ,naturphilosophie by ,h]d]'s        
physicism4  ,nature is a priori 7ev]y?+ 
individual 9 x is pre-det]m9$ by ! :ole1
 by ! ,idea ( a nature 9 g5]al72 h5ce ! 
=ms ( nature c be d$uc$ f ! concept (   
nature4 ,! philosoph] creates nature    
anew1 he con/ructs x4 ,speculative      
physics consid]s nature z subject1      
becom+1 productivity 7n1 l empirical    
sci5ce1 z object1 be+1 product71 & = ?is
 purpose x ne$s1 in/ead ( individualiz+ 
reflection1 an intuition direct$ to !   
:ole4 ,to ?is productive nature1 z to ! 
absolute ego ( ,fi*te1 are ascrib$ two  
opposite activities1 "o expansive or    

repulsive1 & "o attractive1 & on ^! is  
bas$ ! univ]sal law ( pol>ity4 ,!       
absolute productivity /rives t[>d an    
inf9ite product1 :i* x nev] atta9s1     
because ap>t f arre/ no product exi/s4  
,at def9ite po9ts a *eck mu/ be giv5 x 9
 ord] t some?+ kn[able may arise4 ,?us e
 product 9 nature is ! result ( a       
positive1 c5trifugal1 accel]at+1        
univ]saliz+ =ce1 & a negative1 limit+1  
ret>d+1 individualiz+ "o4 ,! endlessness
 ( ! creative activity manife/s itself 9
 v>i\s ways3 9 ! /riv+ = developm5t on !
 "p ( e product1 9 ! pres]vation ( !    
g5us amid ! disappe>ance ( individuals1 
9 ! endlessness ( ! s]ies ( products4   
,nature's creative impulse is           
inexhau/ible1 x transc5ds e product4    
,qualities are po9ts ( arre/ 9 ! "o     
univ]sal =ce ( nature2 all nature is a  
connect$ developm5t4 ,because ( !       
opposition 9 ! nature-gr\nd betwe5 !    
/imulat+ & ! ret>d+ activity1 ! law (   
duality ev]y:]e rules4 ,to ^! two =ces1 
h[ev]1 /ill a ?ird factor mu/ be add$ z 

_! copula1 :i* det]m9es ! relation or   
measure ( _! connection4 ,?is is ! s\rce
 ( ! ?reefold division ( ! ,philosophy (
 ,nature4 ,! magnet ) its union (       
opposite pol> =ces is ! type ( all      
configuration 9 nature4  ,) ,fi*te's    
syn!tic me?od & ,h]d]'s naturali/ic     
pr9ciples ,s*ell+ comb9es ,kantian      
ideas1 especially ,kant's dynamism      
7matt] is a =ce-product71#a & 8 view ( !
 organic 7organisms are self-productive 
be+s1 & are reg>d$ by u z ends 9        
!mselves1 because ( ! int]action betwe5 
_! memb]s & ! :ole74 ,! ?ree organic    
functions s5sibility1 irritability1 &   
reproduction1 on ! o!r h&1 ,s*ell+ took 
f ,kielmey]1 ^: address ,on ! ,relations
 ( ! ,organic ,=ces1 #agic1 excit$ great
 att5tion4 ,! concept ( life is dom9ant 
9 ,s*ell+'s !ory ( nature4 ,! organic is
 m orig9al ?an ! inorganic2 ! latt] mu/ 
be expla9$ f ! =m]2 t :i* is dead mu/ be
 consid]$ z a product ( dep>t+ life4 ,no
 less errone\s ?an ! !ory ( a magic     
vital =ce is ! me*anical int]pretation1 

:i* looks on life m]ely z a *emical     
ph5om5on4 ,! dead1 me*anical & *emical1 
=ces are m]ely ! negative conditions (  
life2 to !m !re mu/ be add$ z a positive
 =ce a vital /imulus ext]nal to !       
individual1 :i* cont9ually rek9dles !   
conflict betwe5 ! oppos+ activities on  
:i* ! vital process dep5ds4 ,life       
consi/s1 t is1 9 ! p]petual prev5tion ( 
! equilibrium :i* is ! object ( !       
*emical process4 ,?is con/ant di/urbance
 proce$s f univ]sal nature1 :i*1 z !    
common pr9ciple ( organic & inorganic   
nature1 z t :i* det]m9es !m = ea* o!r1  
:i* f\nds a pre-e/abli%$ h>mony betwe5  
!m1 des]ves ! "n ( ! _w-s\l4 ,s*ell+ ?us
 recognizes a ?reefold nature3 organiz$1
 inorganic1 & univ]sal organiz+ 7accord+
 to ,h>ms1 cosmical7 nature1 ( :i* ! two
 =m] arise f ! ?ird & are br\ght by x   
into connection & h>mony4 7,z ,s*ell+ "h
 takes an indep5d5t middle c\rse betwe5 
! me*anical explanation ( life & !      
assumption ( a specific vital =ce1 s 9  
all ! burn+ physical que/ions ( ! "t he 

seeks to rise above ! cont5d+ p>ties by 
means ( m$iat+ solutions4 ,?us1 9 ! "q (
 s+le or d\ble electricity1 he ranges   
himself nei!r on ! side ( ,frankl9 nor  
on t ( 8 oppon5ts2 9 reg>d to ! problem 
( light1 endeavors to ov]come ! anti!sis
 betwe5 ,newton's emanation !ory & !    
undulation !ory ( ,eul]2 &1 9 8 *apt] on
 combu/ion1 attacks ! def5d]s (         
phlogi/on z well z ^? :o d5y x74        
,footnote #a3 ,s*ell+ t]ms 8 philosophy 
( nature dynamic atomism1 s9ce x posits 
pure int5sities z ! simple 7atoms71 f   
:i* qualities are to be expla9$4        
,s*ell+'s philosophy ( nature#a proposes
 to itself ?ree *ief problems3 !        
con/ruction ( g5]al1 indet]m9ate1       
homog5e\s matt]1 ) diff]5ces 9 d5sity   
alone1 ( det]m9ate1 qualitatively       
diff]5tiat$ matt] & its ph5om5a ( motion
 or ! dynamical process1 & ( ! organic  
process4 ,= ea* ( ^! dep>tm5ts ( nature 
an orig9al =ce 9 univ]sal nature is     
assum$--gravity1 light1 & _! copula1    
univ]sal life4 ,gravity--?is does n mean

 t :i* z ! =ce ( attraction falls )9 !  
view ( s5sation1 = x is ! union (       
attraction & repulsion--is ! pr9ciple ( 
corporeality1 & produces 9 ! visible _w 
! diff]5t conditions ( aggregation 9    
solids1 fluids1 & gases4 ,light--?is1   
too1 is n to be conf\nd$ ) actual light1
 ( :i* x is ! cause--is ! pr9ciple ( !  
s\l 7f x proce$s all intellig5ce1 x is a
 spiritual pot5cy1 ! fir/ subject 9     
nature71 & produces 9 ! visible _w !    
dynamical processes magnetism1          
electricity1 & *emism4 ,! high] unity ( 
gravity & light is ! copula or life1 !  
pr9ciple ( ! organic1 ( animat$         
corporeality or ! processes ( gr[? &    
reproduction1 irritability1 &           
s5sibility4  ,footnote #a3 ,?is is      
conta9$ 9 ! foll[+ treatises3 ,ideas = a
 ,philosophy ( ,nature1 #agig2 ,on !    
,_w-s\l1 #agih2 ,fir/ ,sket* ( a ,sy/em 
( ! ,philosophy ( ,nature1 #agii2       
,univ]sal ,d$uction ( ! ,dynamical      
,process or ! ,categories ( ,physics 79 
! ,zeits*rift fr spekulative ,physik7   

#ahjj4 ,9 ! above exposition1 h[ev]1 !  
modifi$ philosophy ( nature ( ! second  
p]iod has also be5 tak5 into acc\nt4    
,g5]al matt] or ! fill+ ( space1 arises 
f ! co-op]ation ( ?ree =ces3 !          
c5trifugal1 :i* manife/s itself z       
repulsion 7fir/ dim5sion71 ! c5tripetal1
 manife/$ z attraction 7second          
dim5sion71 & ! syn!sis ( ! two1 manife/$
 z gravity 7?ird dim5sion74 ,^! =ces are
 rais$ by light to a high] pot5cy1 & !n 
make _! appe>ance z ! causes ( !        
dynamical process or ( ! specific       
diff]5ces ( matt]4 ,! l9e> function (   
magnetism is ! condition ( coh]5ce2 !   
surface =ce ( electricity1 ! basis ( !  
qualities p]ceivable by s5se2 !         
tri-dim5sional =ce ( ! *emical process1 
9 :i* ! two =m] are unit$1 produces !   
*emical qualities4 ,galvanism =ms !     
transition to liv+ nature1 9 :i* ?r\gh !
 op]ation ( ! copula ^! ?ree dynamical  
categories are rais$ to organic         
categories4 ,to magnetism z ! mo/ g5]al1
 & h5ce ! l[e/ =ce1 corresponds         

reproduction 7! =mative impulse1 z      
nutrition1 gr[?1 & production1 includ+ !
 arti/ic impulse72 electricity develops 
into irritability or excitability2 !    
high] analogue to ! *emical process z ! 
mo/ individual & highe/ /age is         
s5sibility or ! capacity ( feel+4 7,su* 
at lea/ is ,s*ell+'s doctr9e aft]       
,/eff5s _h conv9c$ him ( ! high] dignity
 ( t :i* is individual1 :]eas at fir/ he
 _h made s5sibility p>allel ) magnetism1
 & reproduction ) *emism1 because ! =m] 
two appe> mo/ seldom1 & ! latt] mo/     
frequ5tly4 ,electricity & irritability  
always ma9ta9$ _! int]m$iate position47 
,) ! awak5+ ( feel+ nature has atta9$   
its goal--intellig5ce4 ,z inorganic     
sub/ances are di/+ui%$ only by relative 
degrees ( repulsion & attraction1 s !   
diff]5tiation ( organisms is condition$ 
by ! relation ( ! ?ree vital functions3 
9 ! l[] =ms reproduction pr$om9ates1 !n 
irritability gradually increases1 :ile 9
 ! highe/ =ms bo? ( ^! are subord9at$ to
 s5sibility4 ,all species1 h[ev]1 are   

connect$ by a common life1 all ! /ages  
are b arre/s ( ! same fundam5tal =ce4   
,?is acc5tuation ( ! unity ( nature1 :i*
 e/abli%es a c]ta9 k9%ip betwe5         
,s*ell+'s philosophy ( nature &         
,d>w9ism1 0 a great idea1 :i* des]ves ! 
?anks ( po/]ity 9 spite ( su* defects z 
its (t5 sportive1 (t5 he$lessly bold    
reason+ 9 details4  ,! p>allelism ( !   
pot5cies ( nature1 z we h develop$ x by 
leav+ out ( acc\nt ! num]\s diff]5ces   
betwe5 ! v>i\s expositions ( !          
,naturphilosophie1 may be %[n by a      
table3    ,i4 ,,univ]sal ,,nature4      
,,ii4 ,,inorganic ,,nature       ,,iii4 
,,organic ,,nature4    7,,organiz+7     
#c4 ,copula                             
#c4 ,organization      or ,life4        
_/,*emical    ,g       _/,s5si-         
,man4     _/                            
,process 7#c;d a       bility4          
#b4 ,light       #b4;,dynamical,dim5-   
l                _/            7,s\l74  
,process4  sion7       v                
,irritabi-  ,male  b4 ,at-              

7,det]mi-  ,electri-    a      lity4    
7,light7 traction4           nate       
city 7#b;d ,di-n        ,animal4        
#a4 ,gra-   matt]47    m5sion47  i      
vity #a4 ,indet]-  ,magnetism   s       
,repro-    ,female a4 ,re-      7,body7 
m9ate     7#a/ ,di-    m        duction 
7-,gravity7 pulsion  _/          matt]4 
m5sion47 _/           ,plant4   #a;b4   
,transc5d5tal ,philosophy4  ,!          
philosophy ( nature expla9$ ! products (
 nature teleologically1 d$uc$ !m f !    
concept or ! mission ( nature1 by ignor+
 ! me*anical orig9 ( physical ph5om5a & 
inquir+ into ! significance ( ea* /age 9
 nature 9 view ( ?is ideal mean+ ( !    
:ole4 ,x asks :at is ! outcome ( !      
*emical process = ! :ole ( nature1 :at  
is giv5 by electricity1 by magnetism1   
etc4--:at "p ( ! g5]al aim ( nature is  
atta9$1 is realiz$ ?r\gh ?is or t gr\p (
 ph5om5a4 ,! philosophy ( _s giv5 9 !   
,sy/em ( ,transc5d5tal ,idealism1 #ahjj1
 f9ds itself confront$ by correspond+   
que/ions conc]n+ ! ph5om5a (            

intellig5ce1 ( morals1 & ( art4 ,"h aga9
 ,s*ell+ does n trace out ! me*anics ( !
 s\l-life1 b is int]e/$ only 9 ! mean+1 
9 ! teleological significance ( !       
psy*ical functions4 ,8 aim is a         
con/ructive psy*ology 9 ! ,fi*tean s5se1
 a hi/ory ( consci\sness1 & ! execution 
( 8 design z well closely foll[s !      
example ( ! ,wiss5s*aftslehre4  ,s9ce   
tru? is ! agreem5t ( ?\ght & its object1
 e cognition necess>ily implies ! com+  
toge!r ( a subjective & an objective    
factor4 ,! problem ( ?is com+ toge!r may
 be treat$ 9 two ways4 ,) ! philosophy (
 nature we may />t f ! object & obs]ve  
h[ intellig5ce is add$ to nature4 ,!    
transc5d5tal philosophy takes ! opposite
 c\rse1 x takes its position ) !        
subject1 & asks1 ,h[ is !re add$ to     
intellig5ce an object correspond+ to x8 
,! transc5d5tal philosoph] has ne$ (    
intellectual intuition 9 ord] to        
recognize ! orig9al object-posit+       
actions ( ! ego1 :i* rema9 conceal$ f   
common consci\sness1 sunk 9 ! outcome ( 

^! acts4 ,! !oretical "p ( ! sy/em      
expla9s ! repres5tation ( objective     
reality 7! feel+ connect$ ) c]ta9       
repres5tations t we are compell$ to h   
!m71 f pure self-consci\sness1 ^: oppos+
 mom5ts1 a real & an ideal =ce1 limit   
ea* o!r by degrees1--& foll[s !         
developm5t ( _s 9 ?ree p]iods 7epo*s74  
,! fir/ ( ^! ext5ds f s5sation1 9 :i* ! 
ego f9ds itself limit$1 to productive   
intuition1 9 :i* a ?+ 9 itself is posit$
 ov] aga9/ ! ego & ! ph5om5on betwe5 !  
two2 ! second1 f ?is po9t to reflection 
7feel+ ( self1 out] & inn] intuition    
toge!r ) space & "t1 ! categories (     
relation z ! orig9al categories72 !     
?ird1 f9ally1 ?r\gh judgm5t1 :]e9       
intuition & concept are sep>at$ z well z
 unit$1 up to ! absolute act ( w4 ,will+
 is ! cont9uation & completion (        
intuition2#a intuition 0 unconsci\s     
production1 will+ is consci\s           
production4 ,x is only ?r\gh action t ! 
_w becomes objective = u1 only ?r\gh    
int]action ) o!r active intellig5ces t !

 ego atta9s to ! consci\sness ( a real  
ext]nal _w1 & to ! consci\sness ( its   
fre$om4 ,! practical "p foll[s ! w f    
impulse 7! feel+ ( contradiction betwe5 
! ideal & ! object7 ?r\gh ! division    
into moral law & resi/ant natural       
impulse up to arbitr>y w4 ,obs]vations  
on legal ord]1 on ! /ate1 & on hi/ory   
are add$ z supplem5ts4 ,! law ( "r1 by  
:i* unlawful action is direct$ aga9/    
itself1 is n a moral1 b a natural ord]1 
:i* op]ates ) bl9d necessity4 ,! /ate1 l
 law1 is a product ( ! g5us1 & n (      
individuals4 ,! ideal ( a cosmopolitan  
legal condition is ! goal ( hi/ory1 9   
:i* caprice & con=mity to law are "o1 9 
s f> z ! consci\s free action (         
individuals subs]ves an unconsci\s end  
prescrib$ by ! _w-_s4 ,hi/ory is ! nev] 
complet$ revelation ( ! absolute 7( !   
unity ( ! consci\s & ! unconsci\s7 ?r\gh
 human fre$om4 ,we are co-au?ors 9 !    
hi/orical _w-drama1 & inv5t our own     
p>ts4 ,n until ! ?ird 7! religi\s7      
p]iod1 9 :i* he reveals himself z       

provid5ce1 w ,god be2 9 ! pa/ 7!        
tragical7 p]iod1 9 :i* ! div9e p[] 0    
felt z fate1 & 9 ! pres5t 7! me*anical7 
p]iod1 9 :i* he appe>s z ! plan (       
nature1 ,god is n1 b is only becom+4    
,footnote #a3 ,) ?is trans=mation ( !   
anti!sis betwe5 k & volition into a m]e 
diff]5ce 9 degree1 ,s*ell+ s9ks back to 
! /&po9t ( ,leibnitz4 ,9 all ! ideali/ic
 ?9k]s :o />t f ,kant we f9d ! endeavor 
to ov]come ! ,critical dualism ( und]/&+
 & w1 z also t betwe5 intellect &       
s5sibility4 ,s*ill] br+s ! contr>y      
impulses ( ! ego into ultimate h>moni\s 
union 9 arti/ic activity4 ,fi*te traces 
!m back to a common gr\nd2 ,s*ell+      
comb9es bo? ^! me?ods by extoll+ art z a
 re/oration ( ! orig9al id5tity4 ,hegel 
r$uces volition to ?\ght1 ,s*op5hau]    
makes intellect proce$ f w4  ,an int]e/+
 supplem5t to ! ,fi*tean philosophy is  
furni%$ by ! ?ird1 ! ae/hetic1 "p ( !   
transc5d5tal idealism1 :i* makes use (  
,kant's !ory ( ! beautiful 9 a way      
simil> to t 9 :i* ! philosophy ( nature 

_h avail$ itself ( 8 !ory ( ! organic4  
,art is ! high] ?ird 9 :i* ! opposition 
betwe5 !oretical & practical action1 !  
anti!sis ( subject & object1 is remov$2 
9 :i* cognition & action1 consci\s &    
unconsci\s activity1 fre$om & necessity1
 ! impulse ( g5ius & reflective         
delib]ation are unit$4 ,! beautiful1 z !
 manife/ation ( ! inf9ite 9 ! f9ite1 %[s
 ! problem ( philosophy1 ! id5tity ( !  
real & ! ideal1 solv$ 9 s5su\s          
appe>ance4 ,art is ! true organon &     
w>rant ( philosophy2 %e op5s up to      
philosophy ! holy ( holies1 is =        
philosophy ! supreme ?+1 ! revelation ( 
all my/]ies4 ,poesy & philosophy 7!     
ae/hetic intuition ( ! arti/ & !        
intellectual intuition ( ! ?9k]7 are mo/
 intimately relat$2 !y 7 unit$ 9 ! old  
my?ology--:y %\ld n ?is repeat itself 9 
! future8   #b4 ,sy/em ( ,id5tity4  ,!  
ass]tion :i* _h already be5 made 9 !    
fir/ p]iod t nature & _s are            
fundam5tally ! same1 is int5sifi$ 9 !   
second into ! proposition1 ,! gr\nd (   

nature & _s1 ! absolute1 is ! id5tity ( 
! real & ! ideal1 & 9 ?is =m is elevat$ 
into a pr9ciple4 ,z ! absolute is no    
long] employ$ z a m]e gr\nd (           
explanation1 b is itself made ! object (
 philosophy1 ! doctr9e ( id5tity is add$
 to ! two co-ord9ate discipl9es1 !      
philosophy ( nature & ! philosophy ( _s1
 z a high] ?ird1 :i* s]ves z a basis =  
!m1 & 9 ,s*ell+'s exposition ( :i*      
sev]al phases mu/ be di/+ui%$4#a        
,footnote #a3 ,! philosophy ( id5tity is
 giv5 9 ! foll[+ treatises3 ,exposition 
( my ,sy/em ( ,philosophy1 #ahja2 ,fur!r
 ,expositions ( ! ,sy/em ( ,philosophy1 
#ahjb2 ,bruno1 or on ! ,div9e & ,natural
 ,pr9ciple ( ,?+s1 #ahjc2 ,lectures on !
 ,me?od ( ,academical ,/udy1 #ahjc2     
,aphorisms by way ( ,introduction to !  
,philosophy ( ,nature1 ,aphorisms on !  
,philosophy ( ,nature 7bo? 9 ! ,jahrb*] 
fr ,m$iz971 #ahjf4 ,besides ^! ! foll[+ 
also be> on ?is doctr9e3 ! additions to 
! second edition ( ! ,ideas1 #ahjc1 & ! 
,exposition1 aga9/ ,fi*te1 #ahjf4       

,foll[+ ,sp9oza1 :om he at fir/ imitat$ 
ev5 9 ! geometrical me?od ( pro(1       
,s*ell+ tea*es t !re are two k9ds ( k1 !
 philosophical k ( ! reason & ! confus$ 
k ( ! imag9ation1 &1 z objects ( ^!1 two
 =ms ( exi/5ce1 ! inf9ite1 undivid$     
exi/5ce ( ! absolute1 & ! f9ite exi/5ce 
( individual ?+s1 split up into         
multiplicity & becom+4 ,! manifold &    
self-develop+ ?+s ( ! ph5om5al _w owe _!
 exi/5ce to isolat+ ?\ght alone2 !y     
possess z su* no true reality1 &        
speculation proves !m void4 ,:ile ?+s   
appe> p>ticul> to inadequate            
repres5tation1 ! philosoph] views !m sub
 specie aet]ni1 9 _! p] se1 9 _!        
totality1 9 ! id5tity1 z ,ideas4 ,to    
con/rue ?+s is to pres5t !m z !y are 9  
,god4 ,b 9 ,god all ?+s are "o2 9 !     
absolute all is absolute1 et]nal1       
inf9itude itself4 7,accord-to ,hegel's  
p>ody1 ! absolute is ! night1 9 :i* all 
c[s are black47  ,! _w-gr\nd appe>s z   
nature & _s2 yet 9 itself x is nei!r !  
"o nor ! o!r1 b ! unity ( bo? :i* is    

rais$ above all contr>iety1 ! indiff]5ce
 ( objective & subjective4 ,al?\gh amid 
! f9itude ( ! ?+s ( ! _w ! self-id5tity 
( ! absolute breaks up into a plurality 
( self-develop+ individual exi/5ces1 yet
 ev5 9 ! ph5om5al _w ( individuals !    
unity ( ! gr\nd is n entirely lo/3 ea*  
p>ticul> exi/5ce is a def9ite expression
 ( ! absolute1 & to x z su* ! "* (      
id5tity belongs1 ?\gh 9 a dim9i%$ degree
 & m+l$ ) diff]5ce 7,bruno's monads74 ,!
 _w-gr\nd is absolute1 ! individual ?+  
is relative1 id5tity & totality2 no?+   
exi/s :i* is m]ely objective or m]ely   
subjective2 ev]y?+ is bo?1 only t "o or 
o!r ( ^! two factors always pr$om9ates4 
,?is ,s*ell+ t]ms quantitative diff]5ce3
 ! ph5om5a ( nature1 l ! ph5om5a ( _s1  
are a unity ( ! real & ! ideal1 only t 9
 ! =m] !re is a prepond]ance ( ! real1 9
 ! latt] a prepond]ance ( ! ideal4  ,at 
fir/ ,s*ell+1 9 ,neoplatonic fa%ion1    
ma9ta9$ ! exi/5ce ( ano!r int]m$iate    
region betwe5 ! sph]es ( ! inf9ite & !  
f9ite3 absolute kn[+ or ! self-k ( !    

id5tity4 ,9 ?is1 z ! =m ( ! absolute1 ! 
objective & ! subjective are n          
absolutely "o1 z !y are 9 ! be+ or      
ess5ce ( ! absolute1 b ideally          
7pot5tially7 oppos$1 ?\gh "o realit]4   
,lat] he does away ) ?is di/9ction also1
 z exi/+ = reflection alone1 n =        
rational intuition1 & outbids 8 e>li]   
det]m9ations conc]n+ ! simplicity ( !   
absolute ) ! pr9ciple1 t x is n only !  
unity ( opposites1 b also ! unity ( !   
unity & ! opposition or ! id5tity ( !   
id5tity1 9 :i* fanciful description !   
dialogue ,bruno p\rs itself =?4 ,a fur!r
 alt]ation is br\ght 9 by *>act]iz+ !   
absolute z ! id5tity ( ! f9ite & !      
inf9ite1 & by equat+ ! f9ite ) ! real or
 be+1 ! inf9ite ) ! ideal or kn[+4 ,)   
?is !re is jo9$ a philosophical         
int]pretation ( ! ,tr9ity ak9 to        
,less+'s4 ,9 ! absolute or et]nal !     
f9ite & ! inf9ite are alike absolute4   
,god ! ,fa!r is ! et]nal1 or ! unity ( !
 f9ite & ! inf9ite2 ! ,son is ! f9ite 9 
,god 7be=e ! fall+ away72 ! ,_s is !    

inf9ite or ! return ( ! f9ite into !    
et]nal4  ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! real s]ies
 ,s*ell+ proce$s /ill m s*ematically &  
analogically ?an 9 ! ,naturphilosophie (
 ! fir/ p]iod1 ! cont5ts ( :i* are "h   
ess5tially reproduc$4 ,) ?is is closely 
connect$ 8 endeavor1 9 correspond5ce ) !
 pr9ciples ( ! !ory ( id5tity1 to %[ 9 e
 ph5om5on ! op]ation ( all ?ree mom5ts (
 ! absolute4 ,9 ea* natural product all 
?ree pot5cies or /ages1 gravity ,a7#a71 
light ,a7#b71 & organization ,a7#c71 are
 pres5t1 only 9 subord9ation to "o ( _! 
numb]4 ,s9ce ! ?ird pot5cy is nev]      
lack+1 all is organic2 t :i* appe>s to u
 z inorganic matt] is only ! residuum   
left ov] f organization1 t :i* c\ld     
become nei!r plant nor animal4 ,new "h  
is ! cohesion-s]ies ( ,/eff5s 7!        
ph5om5on ( magnetism71 9 :i* nitrog5 =ms
 ! s\? pole1 c>bon ! nor? pole1 & iron !
 po9t ( indiff]5ce1 :ile oxyg51 hydrog51
 & wat] repres5t ! ea/ pole1 we/ pole1 &
 indiff]5ce po9t 9 electrical pol>ity4  
,9 ! organic _w plants repres5t ! c>bon 

pole1 animals ! nitrog5 pole2 ! =m] is !
 nor? pole1 ! latt] ! s\?4 ,moreov]1 !  
po9ts ( indiff]5ce reappe>3 ! plant     
corresponds to wat]1 ! animal to iron4  
,s*ell+ 0 f> outdone 9 fanta/ic         
analogies ( ?is k9d by 8 pupils1        
especially by ,ok51 :o 9 8 ,sket* ( !   
,philosophy ( ,nature1 #ahje1 comp>es ! 
s5se ( he>+1 = example1 to ! p>abola1 to
 a metal1 to a bone1 to ! bird1 to !    
m\se1 & to ! horse4 ,z nature 0 ! imag+ 
( ! inf9ite 7unity or ess5ce7 into !    
f9ite 7plurality or =m71 s _s is ! tak+ 
up ( ! f9ite into ! inf9ite4 ,9 !       
spiritual realm also all ?ree div9e     
orig9al pot5cies are e1 :]e active1 ?\gh
 9 su* a way t "o is dom9ant4 ,9        
intuition 7s5sation1 consci\sness1      
intuition1 ea* 9 turn ?rice divid$7 !   
inf9ite & ! et]nal are subord9at$ to !  
f9ite2 9 ?\ght or und]/&+ 7concept1     
judgm5t1 inf]5ce1 ea* 9 ?ree k9ds7 !    
f9ite & ! et]nal are subord9at$ to !    
inf9ite2 9 reason 7:i* compreh5ds all "u
 ! =m ( ! absolute7 ! f9ite & ! inf9ite 

are subord9at$ to ! et]nal4 ,intuition  
is f9ite cognition1 ?\ght inf9ite       
cognition1 reason et]nal cognition4 ,!  
=ms ( ! und]/&+ d n suffice = ! k (     
reason2 common logic ) its law (        
contradiction has no b9d+ au?ority =    
speculation1 :i* />ts ) ! equalization (
 opposites4 ,9 ! ,aphorisms by way (    
,introduction sci5ce1 religion1 & art   
figure z /ages ( ! ideal all1 9         
correspond5ce ) ! pot5cies ( ! real     
all--matt]1 motion1 & organization4     
,nature culm9ates 9 man1 hi/ory 9 !     
/ate4 ,reason1 philosophy1 is !         
re-e/abli%m5t ( id5tity1 ! return ( !   
absolute to itself4  ,uncondition$ k1 z 
,s*ell+ ma9ta9s 9 8 encyclop$ia1 i4e41 8
 ,lectures on ! ,me?od ( ,academical    
,/udy1 is ! presupposition ( all        
p>ticul> k4 ,! function ( univ]sities is
 to ma9ta9 intact ! connection betwe5   
p>ticul> k & absolute k4 ,! ?ree high]  
faculties correspond to ! ?ree pot5cies 
9 ! absolute3 ,natural ,sci5ce & ,m$ic9e
 to ! real or f9ite2 ,hi/ory & ,law to !

 ideal or inf9ite2 ,!ology to ! et]nal  
or ! copula4 ,!re is fur!r a faculty (  
arts1 ! s-call$ ,philosophical ,faculty1
 :i* imp>ts :atev] 9 philosophy is      
tea*able4 ,! two lectures on !ology     
7viii4 & ix47 are especially important4 
,!re are two =ms ( religion1 "o ( :i*   
discov]s ,god 9 nature1 :ile ! o!r f9ds 
him 9 hi/ory2 ! =m] culm9ates 9 ! ,greek
 religion1 ! latt] 9 ! ,*ri/ian1 & ) !  
f\nd+ ( ?is ! ?ird p]iod ( hi/ory 7:i*  
,s*ell+ _h previ\sly po/pon$ into !     
future71 ! p]iod ( provid5ce beg9s4 ,9  
,*ri/ianity my?ology is bas$ on         
religion1 n religion on my?ology1 z 0 ! 
case 9 hea!nism4 ,! speculative k]nel ( 
,*ri/ianity is ! inc>nation ( ,god1     
already taught by ! ,indian sages2 ?is1 
h[ev]1 is n to be und]/ood z a s+le ev5t
 9 "t1 b z et]nal4 ,x has be5 a h9drance
 to ! developm5t ( ,*ri/ianity t !      
,bible1 ^: value is f> bel[ t ( ! sacr$ 
books ( ,india1 has be5 m highly priz$  
?an t :i* ! patri/ic ?9k+ succe$$ 9 mak+
 out ( its meag] cont5ts4  ,if1 f9ally1 

we comp>e ,s*ell+'s sy/em ( id5tity )   
its model1 ! sy/em ( ,sp9oza1 two       
ess5tial diff]5ces become app>5t4       
,al?\gh bo? ?9k]s />t f a pr9cipiant    
equal valuation ( ! two ph5om5al        
manife/ations ( ! absolute1 nature & _s1
 ,sp9oza t5ds to posit ?\ght 9 dep5d5ce 
on ext5sion 7! s\l repres5ts :at ! body 
is71 :ile 9 ,s*ell+1 conv]sely1 !       
,fi*tean pref]5ce ( _s is /ill pot5t 7! 
/ate & art /& ne>] to ! absolute id5tity
 ?an ! organism1 al?\gh1 pr9cipiantly   
consid]$1 ! greate/ possible            
approximation to ! equilibrium ( ! real 
& ! ideal is z mu* atta9$ 9 ! "o z 9 !  
o!r74 ,! second diff]5ce lies 9 ! fact t
 ! idea ( developm5t is entirely lack+ 9
 ,sp9oza1 :ile 9 ,s*ell+ x is ev]y:]e   
dom9ant4 ,x rem9ds "o ( ,less+ & ,h]d]1 
:o also attempt$ to comb9e ,sp9ozi/ic & 
,leibnitzian elem5ts4    #c;a4 ,doctr9e 
( ,fre$om4  ,! sy/em ( id5tity _h1 )    
,sp9oza1 di/+ui%$ two worlds1 ! real _w 
( absolute id5tity & ! imag9$ _w (      
diff]5tiat$ & *angeable individual ?+s2 

x _h trac$ back ! latt] to ! =m] z its  
gr\nd1 b _h n d$uc$ x f ! =m]4 ,:5ce1   
!n1 ! imag9ation :i*1 in/ead ( !        
un*angeable unity1 %[s u ! *ang+        
manifold8 ,:5ce ! imp]fections ( !      
f9ite1 :5ce evil8 ,! pan!ism ( ,sp9oza  
is insep>ably connect$ ) det]m9ism1 :i* 
d5ies evil )\t expla9+ x4 ,evil &       
f9itude dem& explanation1 n d5ial1 & ?is
 )\t ! ab&onm5t ( pan!ism4 ,b           
explanation by :at8 ,by ! absolute1 =   
besides ! absolute !re is naught4 ,h[1  
!n1 mu/ ! pan!i/ic doctr9e ( ! absolute 
be trans=m$ 9 ord] t ! fact ( evil & !  
sep>ate exi/5ce ( ! f9ite may become    
compreh5sible8 ,to ?is task are devot$ !
 ,inquiries into ! ,nature ( ,human     
,fre$om 7,philosophical ,works1 vol4 i41
 #ahji1 ) :i* %\ld be comp>$ ! ,memorial
 ( ,jacobi1 #ahab1 & ! ,answ] to        
,es*5may]1 #ahac74  ,z e>ly z 9 !       
,bruno1 ! problem occasionally em]ges :y
 matt]s d n re/ ) ! orig9al inf9ite     
unity ( ! absolute1 :y ! f9ite breaks   
away f ! id5tical primal gr\nd4 ,!      

possibility ( ! sep>ation1 x is answ]$1 
lies 9 ! fact t ! f9ite is l ! inf9ite  
realit]1 & yet1 ideally1 is diff]5t f x2
 ! actuality ( ! com+ =?1 h[ev]1 lies 9 
! non-d$ucible self-w ( ! f9ite4 ,!n    
aft] ,es*5may]#a 7,philosophy 9 its     
,transition to ,n-philosophy1 #ahjc7 _h 
*>act]iz$ ! procession ( ! ,ideas out ( 
! ,godhead z an imp5etrable my/]y =     
?\ght1 be=e :i* philosophy mu/ yield to 
fai?1 ,s*ell+1 9 ! essay ,religion &    
,philosophy1 #ahjd1 goes m deeply into !
 problem4 ,! orig9 ( ! s5se-_w is       
conceivable only z a break+ away1 a     
spr+1 a fall+ away1 :i* consi/s 9 !     
s\l's grasp+ itself 9 its selfhood1 9   
its subord9ation ( ! inf9ite 9 itself to
 ! f9ite1 & 9 its ?us ceas+ to be 9     
,god4 ,! procession ( ! _w f ! inf9ite  
is a free act1 a fact :i* c only be     
describ$1 n d$uc$ z necess>y4 ,!        
c\nt]p>t ( ?is atta9m5t ( indep5d5ce on 
! "p ( ?+s or creation is hi/ory z !    
return ( ! _w to its s\rce4 ,!y are     
relat$ to ea* o!r z ! fall to r$emption4

 ,bo? ! dismission ( ! _w & its         
reception back1 toge!r ) ! int]v5+      
developm5t1 are1 h[ev]1 ev5ts ne$$ by   
,god himself 9 ord] to become actual    
,god3 ,he develops ?r\gh ! _w4 7,a      
simil> ?\ght 0 n unkn[n 9 ! ,middle     
,ages3 if ,god is to give a complete    
revelation ( himself he mu/ make kn[n 8 
grace2 & ?is presupposes s94 ,z !       
occasion ( div9e grace1 ! fall is a     
happy1 sav+ fault2 )\t x ,god c\ld n h  
reveal$ himself z graci\s1 z =giv+1 h5ce
 n completely47 ,s*ell+'s /udy ( ,jacob 
,bhme1 to :i* he 0 l$ by ,baad]1        
ess5tially contribut$ to ! conc5tration 
( 8 ?\ght on ?is po9t4 ,! ,exposition ( 
! ,true ,relation1 etc41 already        
di/9ctly betrays ! influ5ce ( ?is my/ic4
 ,9 correspond5ce ) ,bhme's doctr9e t   
,god is liv+ ,god only ?r\gh 8 inclusion
 ( negation 9 himself1 x is "h ma9ta9$3 
,a be+ c manife/ itself only :5 x is n  
m]ely "o1 b has ano!r1 an opposition 7! 
_m71 9 itself1 :]eby x is reveal$ to    
itself z unity4 ,) ! addition ( c]ta9   

,kantian ideas1 9 p>ticul> ! idea (     
transc5d5tal fre$om & ! intelligible "*1
 ,s*ell+'s !osophy n[ assumes ! foll[+  
=m3  ,! only way to gu>d aga9/ !        
det]m9ism & ! lifeless ,god ( ,sp9oza is
 to assume some?+ 9 ,god :i* is n ,god  
himself1 to di/+ui% betwe5 ,god z exi/5t
 & t :i* is m]ely ! gr\nd ( 8 exi/5ce or
 nature 9 ,god4 ,9 ,god also ! p]fect   
proce$s f ! imp]fect1 he too develops & 
realizes himself4 ,! actual1 p]fect     
,god1 :o is intellig5ce1 wisdom1        
goodness1 is prec$$ by some?+ :i* is    
m]ely ! possibility ( all ?is1 an       
obscure1 unconsci\s impulse t[>d        
self-repres5tation4 ,= 9 ! la/ analysis 
!re is no be+ b will+2 to will+ alone   
belong ! pr$icates ( ! primal be+1      
gr\ndlessness1 et]nity1 indep5d5ce ( "t1
 self-affirmation4 ,?is gr\nd ( exi/5ce 
is an obscure long+ to give bir? to     
self1 an unconsci\s impulse to become   
consci\s2 ! goal ( ?is long+ is !       
und]/&+1 ! ,logos1 ! ,^w1 :]e9 ,god     
becomes reveal$ to self4 ,by !          

self-subord9ation ( ?is long+ to !      
und]/&+ z its matt] & in/rum5t1 ,god    
becomes actual ,god1 becomes _s & love4 
,! op]ation ( ! light und]/&+ on ! d>k  
nature-w consi/s 9 a sep>ation ( =ces1  
:5ce ! visible _w proce$s4 ,:atev] 9 !  
latt] is p]fect1 rational1 h>moni\s1 &  
purposive is ! "w ( ! und]/&+2 !        
irrational rema9d]1 on ! o!r h&1        
conflict & lawlessness1 abortion1       
sickness & dea?1 orig9ates 9 ! d>k      
gr\nd4 ,ea* ?+ has two pr9ciples 9 x3   
its self-w x receives f nature 9 ,god1  
yet1 at ! same "t1 z com+ f ! div9e     
und]/&+1 x is ! in/rum5t ( ! univ]sal w4
 ,9 ,god ! light & d>k pr9ciples /& 9   
indissoluble unity1 9 man !y are        
sep>able4 ,! fre$om ( man's w makes him 
indep5d5t ( bo? pr9ciples2 go+ ov] f    
tru? to falsehood1 he may /rive to make 
8 selfhood supreme & to r$uce !         
spiritual 9 him to ! level ( a means1   
or--) div9e assi/ance--cont9u+ 9 ! c5t]1
 he may endeavor to subord9ate !        
p>ticul> w to ! w ( love4 ,good consi/s 

9 ov]com+ resi/ance1 = 9 e case a ?+ c  
be reveal$ only ?r\gh its opposite4 ,if 
man yields to temptation x is 8 own     
guilty *oice4 ,evil is n m]ely defect1  
privation1 b some?+ positive1 selfhood  
break+ away1 ! rev]sal ( ! rightful ord]
 betwe5 ! p>ticul> & ! univ]sal w4 ,!   
possibility ( a sep>ation ( ! two wills 
lies 9 ! div9e gr\nd 7x is p]mitt$ 9    
ord] t by ov]ma/]+ ! self-w ! w ( love  
may approve itself71 ! actuality ( evil 
is ! free act ( ! creature4 ,fre$om is  
to be conceiv$1 9 ! ,kantian s5se1 z    
equally f> remov$ f *ance or caprice & f
 compulsion3 ,man *ooses 8 own          
non-temporal1 intelligible nature2 he   
pr$e/9ates himself 9 ! fir/ creation1   
i4e41 f et]nity1 & is responsible = 8   
actions 9 ! s5se-_w1 :i* are ! necess>y 
results ( t free primal act4  ,footnote 
#a3 ,k4 ,ad4 ,es*5may] 0 orig9ally a    
physician1 !n1 #ahaa-cf1 pr(essor (     
philosophy 9 ,tb+51 & di$ 9 #aheb at    
,kir*heim unt] ,teck4  ,z 9 nature & 9 !
 individual1 s also 9 ! hi/ory ( mank9d1

 ! two orig9al gr\nds ( ?+s d battle )  
"o ano!r4 ,! gold5 age ( innoc5ce1 (    
happy indecision & unconsci\sness       
conc]n+ s91 :5 nei!r good nor evil yet  
01 0 foll[$ by a p]iod ( ! omnipot5ce ( 
nature1 9 :i* ! d>k gr\nd ( exi/5ce rul$
 alone1 al?\gh x did n make itself felt 
z actual evil until1 9 ,*ri/ianity1 !   
spiritual light 0 born 9 p]sonal =m4 ,! 
subsequ5t conflict ( good aga9/ evil1 9 
:i* ,god reveals himself z _s1 leads    
t[>d a /ate :]e9 evil w be r$uc$ to !   
position ( a pot5cy & ev]y?+ subord9at$ 
to _s1 & ?us ! complete id5tity ( !     
gr\nd ( exi/5ce & ! exi/+ ,god be br\ght
 ab\t4  ,besides ?is aft]-reconciliation
 ( ! two div9e mom5ts1 ,s*ell+          
recognizes ano!r1 orig9al unity ( ! two4
 ,! n yet unfold$ unity ( ! beg9n+ 7,god
 z ,alpha7 he t]ms indiff]5ce or        
gr\ndlessness2 ! m valuable unity ( !   
end1 atta9$ by unfold+ 7,god z ,omega7  
is call$ id5tity or _s4 ,9 ! =m] !      
contr>ies are n yet pres5t2 9 ! latt] !y
 are pres5t no long]4 ,! gr\ndless      

divides into two equally et]nal beg9n+s1
 nature & light1 or long+ & und]/&+1 9  
ord] t ! two may become "o 9 love1 &    
!reby ! absolute develop into ! p]sonal 
,god4 ,9 ?is way ,s*ell+ endeavors to   
ov]come ! anti!sis betwe5 naturalism &  
!ism1 betwe5 dualism & pan!ism1 & to    
remove ! difficulties :i* arise =       
pan!ism f ! fact ( evil1 z well z f !   
concepts ( p]sonality & ( fre$om4  ,9 ! 
two mom5ts ( ! absolute 7nature 9       
,god--p]sonal _s7 we recognize at once !
 anti!sis ( ! real & ideal :i* 0 giv5 9 
! philosophy ( id5tity4 ,! *ief diff]5ce
 betwe5 ! my/ical p]iod & ! prec$+ "o   
consi/s 9 ! fact t ! absolute itself is 
n[ made to develop 7f indiff]5ce to     
id5tity1 f ! nei!r-nor to ! z-well-z ( !
 anti!sis71 & t !re is conc$$ to !      
s5se-_w a reality :i* is m ?an app>5t1 m
 ?an m]ely pres5t = imag9ation4 ,t :i*  
facilitat$ ?is rapid1 almo/ unceas+     
*ange ( position = ,s*ell+1 & :i* at !  
same "t conceal$ ! fact f him1 01 above 
all1 ! ambigu\s & v>iable mean+ ( 8     

lead+ concepts4 ,! objective1 = example1
 n[ signifies unconsci\s be+1 becom+1 & 
production1 n[ repres5t$ reality1 n[ !  
real1 9 s f> z x is n repres5t$1 b only 
is4 ,god sometimes means ! :ole         
absolute1 sometimes only ! inf9ite1     
spiritual mom5t 9 ! absolute4 ,sc>cely a
 s+le t]m is %>ply def9$1 mu* less      
consi/5tly us$ 9 a s+le mean+4   #c;b4  
,philosophy ( ,my?ology & ,revelation4  
,once aga9 ,s*ell+ is ready ) a new     
/atem5t ( ! problem4 ,philosophy is !   
sci5ce ( ! exi/5t4 ,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 a     
di/9ction is to be made betwe5 ! :at    
7quid sit7 & ! t 7quod sit71 or betwe5  
ess5ce & exi/5ce4 ,! appreh5sion ( !    
ess5ce1 ( ! concept1 is ! "w ( reason1 b
 ?is does n g z f> z actual be+4        
,rational philosophy cognizes only !    
univ]sal1 ! possible1 ! necess>y tru?s  
7^: contradictory is un?9kable71 b n !  
p>ticul> & factual4 ,?is philosophy c   
only ass]t3 ,if any?+ exi/s x mu/ con=m 
to ^! laws2 exi/5ce is n giv5 ) ! :at4  
,hegel has ignor$ ?is di/9ction betwe5 !

 logical & ! actual1 has confus$ !      
rational & ! real4 ,ev5 ! sy/em (       
id5tity 0 m]ely rational1 i4e41         
negative1 philosophy1 to :i* !re mu/ be 
add$1 z a second "p1 a positive or      
exi/5tial philosophy1 :i* does n1 l !   
=m]1 rise to ! highe/ pr9ciple1 to ,god1
 b />ts f ?is supreme ,idea & %[s its   
actuality4  ,! cont5t ( ?is phase (     
,s*ell+'s ?\ght#a 0 s unfruitful1 & its 
influ5ce s small1 t brief h9ts conc]n+ x
 mu/ "h suffice4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! doctr9e 
( ! div9e pot5cies & ( creation is      
repeat$ 9 alt]$ =m1 & !n !re is giv5 a  
philosophy ( ! hi/ory ( religion z a    
reflection ( ! !ogonic process 9 human  
consci\sness4  ,footnote #a3 ,on        
,s*ell+'s negative & positive           
philosophy1 publi%$ 9 ! f\r volumes ( ! 
second division ( ! ,works1 cf4 ,k>l    
,groos1 ,die re9e ,v]nunftwiss5s*aft1   
sy/ematis*e ,d>/ellung von ,s*ell+s     
negativ] ,philosophie1 #ahhi2 ,kon/ant9 
,frantz1 ,s*ell+s positive ,philosophie1
 9 ?ree p>ts1 #ahgi-hj2 ,ed4 von        

,h>tmann1 ,gesammelte ,/udi5 und        
,aufstze1 #ahgf1 p4 #fej seq42 ,ad4     
,planck1 ,s*ell+s na*gelass5e ,w]ke1    
#aheh2 also ! essay by ,heyd]1 ref]r$ to
 above4  ,! pot5cies are n[ call$ !     
inf9ite ability to be 7inactive w1      
subject71 pure be+ 7be+ )\t pot5tiality1
 object71 & _s1 :i* is free f !         
"o-sid$nesses ( m]e pot5tiality & ( m]e 
be+1 & ma/] ( itself 7subject-object72  
to ^! is add$1 fur!r--n z a f\r?1 b z t 
:i* has ! ?ree pr$icates & is :olly 9   
ea*--! absolute prop]1 z ! cause &      
support ( ^! attributes4 ,! orig9al     
unity ( ! ?ree =ms is dissolv$1 z ! fir/
 raises itself out ( ! condition ( a m]e
 pot5cy & )draws itself f pure be+ 9    
ord] to exi/ = itself2 ! t5sion ext5ds  
itself to ! two o!rs--! second n[ comes 
out f its selflessness1 subdues ! fir/1 
& s leads ! ?ird back to unity4 ,9      
creation ! ?ree pot5cies /& relat$ z !  
unlimit$ ,c-be1 ! limit+ ,mu/-be1 & !   
,ought-to-be1 or op]ate z mat]ial1 =mal1
 & f9al causes1 all held 9 undivid$     

comb9ation by ! s\l4 ,x 0 n until ! end 
( creation t !y became p]sonalities4    
,man1 9 :om ! pot5cies come to re/1 c   
divide _! unity aga92 8 fall calls =? a 
new t5sion1 & !reby ! _w becomes a _w   
outside ( ,god4 ,hi/ory1 ! process o    
progressive reconciliation betwe5 !     
,god-e/rang$ _w & ,god1 passes ?r\gh two
 p]iods--hea!nism1 9 :i* ! second p]son 
works z a natural pot5cy1 & ,*ri/ianity1
 9 :i* x works ) fre$om4 ,9 ! discussion
 ( ^! positive philosophy becomes a     
philosophy ( my?ology & revelation4 ,!  
irresi/ible =ce ( my?ological ideas is  
expla9$ by ! fact t ! gods are n        
creations ( ! fancy1 b real p[]s1       
namely1 ^! pot5cies1 :i* =m ! sub/ance (
 human conci\sness4  ,! hi/ory (        
religion has = its />t+-po9t ! relative 
mono!ism ( humanity 9 its orig9al unity1
 & = its goal ! absolute mono!ism (     
,*ri/ianity4 ,) ! sep>ation into nations
 poly!ism arises4 ,?is is p>tly         
simultane\s poly!ism 7a plurality ( gods
 "u a *ief god71 p>tly successive       

poly!ism 7an actual plurality (         
div9ities1 *ang+ dyna/ies ( sev]al *ief 
gods71 & develops f /> wor%ip or        
,sabeism up to ! religion ( ! ,greeks4  
,! ,greek my/]ies =m ! transition f     
my?ology to revelation4 ,:ile 9 !       
my?ological process "o or o!r ( ! div9e 
pot5cies 7,gr\nd1 ,son1 ,_s7 0 always   
pr$om9ant1 9 ,*ri/ianity !y return into 
unity4 ,! true mono!ism ( revelation %[s
 ,god z an articulat$ unity1 9 :i* !    
opposites are conta9$1 z be+ ov]come4 ,!
 p]son ( ,*ri/ con/itutes ! cont5t (    
,*ri/ianity1 :o1 9 8 inc>nation &       
sacrificial dea?1 yields up ! indep5d5ce
 out ( ,god :i* _h come to him ?r\gh !  
fall ( man4 ,! ?ree p]iods 9 !          
developm5t ( ! ,*ur* 7real1 sub/antial  
unity--ideality or fre$om--!            
reconciliation ( ! two7 7 =e%ad[$ 9 !   
*ief apo/les3 ,pet]1 ) 8 lean+ t[>d !   
pa/1 repres5ts ! ,papal ,*ur*2 ,paul !  
?9k] ! ,prote/ant ,*ur*2 & ! g5tle ,john
 ! ,*ur* ( ! future4    ,,*apt] ,,xii4  
,,s*ell+',s ,,co-,,work]s4  ,9 8 p]iod (

 vigor\s creation ,s*ell+ 0 ! c5t] ( an 
animat$ philosophical activity4 ,ea*    
phase ( 8 philosophy f\nd a circle (    
en?usia/ic fell[-labor]s1 :om we mu/    
hesitate to t]m disciples because ( _!  
indep5d5ce & ( _! reaction on ,s*ell+   
himself4 ,only ,g4,m4 ,kle9 7#aggf-ahbj1
 pr(essor 9 ,wrzburg71 ,/utzmann 7di$   
#ahaf 9 ,erlang52 ,philosophy ( !       
,univ]se1 #ahjf2 ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory1 
#ahjh71 & ! hi/orians ( philosophy ,a/ &
 ,rixn] c be call$ disciples ( ,s*ell+4 
,prom95t among 8 co-work]s 9 !          
philosophy ( nature 7 ,/eff5s1 ,ok51    
,s*ub]t1 & ,c>us2 besides ^! !          
physiologi/ ,burda*1 ! pa?ologi/ ,kies]1
 ! plant physiologi/ ,nees von ,es5beck1
 & ! m$ical ?9k] ,s*elv] 7,philosophy ( 
,m$ic9e1 #ahji7 des]ve m5tion4 ,besides 
,hegel1 ,j4,j4 ,wagn] & ,fri$ri* ,krause
 di/+ui%$ !mselves z indep5d5t f\nd]s ( 
sy/ems ( id5tity2 ,troxl]1 ,suab$iss51 &
 ,b]g] are also to be assign$ to ?is    
gr\p4 ,baad] & ,s*lei]ma*] 7 competitors
 ( ,s*ell+ 9 ! philosophy ( religion1 & 

,solg] 9 ae/hetics4 ,f9ally ,fr4 ,j4    
,/ahl 7di$ #ahfa2 ,philosophy ( ,"r1    
#ahcj seq4471 0 also influ5c$ by        
,s*ell+4 ,!re is a wide div]g5ce 9      
,s*ell+'s s*ool1 z ,j4,e4 ,erdmann      
accurately rem>ks1 betwe5 ! naturali/ic 
pan!i/ ,ok5 & ! my/ical !osophi/ ,baad]1
 9 :om elem5ts :i* _h be5 unit$ 9       
,s*ell+ appe> divid$4   #a4 ,!          
,philosoph]s ( ,nature4  ,h5rik         
,/eff5s#a 7a ,norwegian1 #aggc-ahde2    
pr(essor 9 ,halle1 ,breslau1 & ,b]l97   
makes individual developm5t ! goal (    
nature--:i* is fir/ completely atta9$ 9 
man & 9 8 peculi>ity or tal5t--& holds t
 ! cata/rophes ( ! _s are reflect$ 9 !  
hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,lor5z ,ok5#b           
7#aggi-ahea2 pr(essor 9 ,j5a #ahjg-bg1  
!n 9 ,muni* & ,zuri*7 id5tifies ,god & !
 univ]se1 :i* comes to self-consci\sness
 9 man1 ! mo/ p]fect animal2 tea*es !   
developm5t ( organisms f an orig9al     
slime 7a mass ( organic elem5ts1        
infusoria1 or cells72 & looks on !      
animal k+dom z man anatomiz$1 9 t !     

animal _w conta9s 9 isolat$ developm5t t
 :i* man possesses collect$ 9 m9ute     
organs--! worm is ! feel+ animal1 !     
insect ! light animal1 ! snail ! t\*    
animal1 ! bird ! he>+ animal1 ! fi% !   
smell+ animal1 ! amphibian ! ta/e       
animal1 ! mammal ! animal ( all s5ses4  
,footnote #a3 ,/eff5s1 ,contributions to
 ! ,inn] ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?1     
#ahja2 ,c>icatures ( ! ,holie/1         
#ahai-ba2 ,an?ropology1 #ahbb4          
,footnote #b3 ,ok53 ,on ! ,significance 
( ! ,bones ( ! ,skull1 #ahjg2 ,text-book
 ( ! ,philosophy ( ,nature1 #ahji-aa1   
#b;d ed4 #ahca1 #c;d ed4 #ahdc2 ! j\rnal
 ,isis1 f #ahag4 ,on ,ok5 cf4 ,c4       
,gttl]1 #ahhe4  ,:ile 9 ,/eff5s         
geological int]e/s pr$om9ate1 & 9 ,ok5  
biological int]e/s1 ,s*ub]t1 ,c>us1 &   
,ennemos] are ! psy*ologi/s ( ! s*ool4  
,got?ilf ,he9ri* ,s*ub]t#a 7#aghj-ahfj2 
pr(essor 9 ,erlang5 & ,muni*7 br+s !    
human s\l into intimate relation ) !    
_w-s\l1 ^: phantasy gives =m to all t is
 corporeal1 & delights to dwell on !    

abnormal & my/]i\s ph5om5a ( ! inn]     
life1 ! bord]-l& betwe5 ! physical & !  
psy*ical1 on ! unconsci\s & !           
half-consci\s1 on pres5tim5ts &         
clairvoyance1 z f ano!r direction also  
,s*ell+'s philosophy 0 br\ght into      
p]il\s connection ) somnambulism4 ,a    
second pr$om9antly contemplative ?9k] 0 
,k>l ,gu/av ,c>us#b 7#aghi-ahfi2 at 8   
dea? 9 ,dresd5 physician to ! k+2       
,lectures on ,psy*ology1 #ahca2 ,psy*e1 
#ahdf2 ,physis1 #ahea71 greatly di/+ui%$
 = 8 s]vices to comp>ative anatomy4     
,c>us end[s ! cell ) unconsci\s psy*ical
 life1--a memory = ! pa/ %[s itself 9 ! 
inh]itance ( dispositions & tal5ts1 j z 
! =mation ( milk 9 ! brea/s ( ! pregnant
 & ! =mation ( lungs 9 ! embryo betray a
 prevision ( ! future1--& po9ts out t ) 
! high] developm5t ( organic & spiritual
 life ! anti!ses con/antly become m     
articulate3 individual diff]5ces are    
great] among m5 ?an among wom51 among   
adults ?an among *ildr51 among          
,europeans ?an among negroes4  ,footnote

 #a3 ,g4,h4 ,s*ub]t3 ,views ( ! ,d>k    
,side ( ,natural ,sci5ce1 #ahjh2 ,!     
,primeval ,_w & ! ,fix$ ,/>s1 #ahbb2    
,hi/ory ( ! ,s\l1 #ahcj 79 brief] =m1   
,text-book ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,man & ( !     
,s\l1 #ahch74  ,footnote #b3 ,n to be   
confus$ ) ,fri$ri* ,augu/ ,c>us         
7#aggj-ahjg2 pr(essor 9 ,leipsic71 ^:   
,hi/ory ( ,psy*ology1 #ahjh1 =ms ! ?ird 
"p ( 8 po/hum\s works4   #b4 ,!         
,philosoph]s ( ,id5tity4  ,x has be5    
said ( ! ,dane ,johann ,eri* von ,b]g]  
7#aggb-ahcc2 f #ahad pr(essor 9 ,kiel2  
,univ]sal ,outl9es ( ,sci5ce1 #ahag-bg7 
t he adopt$ a middle c\rse betwe5 ,fi*te
 & ,s*ell+4 ,! same may be ass]t$ ( ,k>l
 ,f]d9& ,solg] 7#aghj-ahai2 at 8 dea?   
pr(essor 9 ,b]l92 ,erw91 ,f\r ,dialogues
 on ,beauty & ,art1 #ahae2 ,lectures on 
,ae/hetics1 edit$ by ,heyse1 #ahbi71 :o 
po9ts out ! womb ( ! beautiful 9 !      
fancy1 & introduces into ae/hetics !    
concept ( irony1 t _s ( sadness at !    
vanity ( ! f9ite1 ?\gh ?is is ne$$ by ! 
,idea 9 ord] to its manife/ation4  ,9   

,johann ,jacob ,wagn]#a 7#agge-ahda2    
pr(essor 9 ,wrzburg7 & 9 ,j4,p4,v4      
,troxl]#b 7#aghj-ahff7 we f9d1 z 9      
,/eff5s1 a f\rfold division in/ead (    
,s*ell+'s triads4 ,bo? ,wagn] & ,troxl] 
f9d an exact correspond5ce betwe5 ! laws
 ( ! univ]se & ^? ( ! human m9d4 ,wagn] 
79 con=mity to ! categories ess5ce & =m1
 opposition & reconciliation7 makes all 
becom+ & cognition advance f unity to   
quadruplicity1 & f9ds ! f\r /ages ( k 9 
repres5tation1 p]ception1 judgm5t1 &    
,idea4 ,troxl] %>es ) ,fries !          
an?ropological /&po9t1 7philosophy is   
an?ropology1 k ( ! _w is self-k71 &     
di/+ui%es1 besides ! emotional nature or
 ! unity ( human nature1 f\r con/itu5ts 
!re(1 _s1 high] s\l1 l[] s\l 7body1     
,leib71 & body 7,krp]71 & f\r           
correspond+ k9ds ( k1 9 rev]se ord]1    
s5su\s p]ception1 exp]i5ce1 reason1 &   
spiritual intuition1 ( :i* ! middle two 
are m$iate or reflective 9 "*1 :ile !   
fir/ & la/ are intuitive4 ,= ,d4 ,?4 ,a4
 ,suab$iss5 also 7#aggc-ahce2 pr(essor 9

 ,m>burg2 ,exam9ation ( ,man1 #ahae-ah7 
philosophy is ! sci5ce ( man1 & self-k  
its />t+ po9t4  ,footnote #a3 ,j4,j4    
,wagn]3 ,ideal ,philosophy1 #ahjd2      
,ma!matical ,philosophy1 #ahaa2 ,organon
 ( ,human ,k1 #ahcj1 9 ?ree p>ts1 ,sy/em
 ( ! ,_w1 ( ,k1 & ( ,language4 ,on      
,wagn] cf4 ,l4 ,rabus1 #ahfb4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,troxl]3 ,glances into ! ,nature ( 
,man1 #ahab2 ,metaphysics1 #ahbh2       
,logic1 #ahcj4  ,! relatively limit$    
reputation enjoy$ 9 8 own "t & to-day by
 ,fri$ri* ,krause#a 7born 9 ,eis5b]g    
#agha2 habilitat$ 9 ,j5a #ahjb2 liv$    
privately 9 ,dresd52 became a           
,privatdoc5t 9 ,gtt+5 f #ahbd2 & di$ at 
,muni* #ahcb2 ,prototype ( ,humanity1   
#ahab1 & num]\s o!r works7 has be5 due1 
on ! "o h&1 to ! appe>ance ( 8 m gift$  
contempor>y ,hegel1 &1 on ! o!r1 to 8   
peculi> t]m9ology4 ,he n only ,g]maniz$ 
all =eign words 9 a _s ( exagg]at$      
purism1 b also co9$ new v]bal roots1    
7,ml1 ,ant1 ,or1 ,om7 & f ^! =m$ ! mo/  
extraord9>y comb9ations                 

7,v]e9selbganzwes59nese91               
,oromlebselb/s*au574 ,8 mo/ important   
pupil1 ,ahr5s 7pr(essor 9 ,leipsic1 di$ 
#ahgd2 ,c\rse ( ,philosophy1 #ahcf-ch2  
,natural ,"r1 #aheb71 help$ ,krause's   
doctr9e to ga9 recognition 9 ,france &  
,belgium by 8 f9e translations into     
,fr5*2 :ile x 0 introduc$ into ,spa9 by 
,j4,s4 del ,rio ( ,madrid 7di$          
#ahfi74--,s9ce ! f9ite is a negative1 ! 
inf9ite a positive concept1 & h5ce ! k (
 ! inf9ite primal1 ! pr9ciple (         
philosophy is ! absolute1 & philosophy  
itself k ( ,god or ! !ory ( ess5ce4 ,!  
,subjective ,analytic ,c\rse leads f !  
self-view+ ( ! ego up to ! vision (     
,god2 ! ,syn!tic ,c\rse />ts f !        
fundam5tal ,idea1 ,god1 & d$uces f ?is !
 p>tial ,ideas1 or pres5ts ! _w z !     
revelation ( ,god4 ,= 8 attempt$        
reconciliation ( !ism & pan!ism ,krause 
inv5t$ ! "n pan5!ism1 mean+ !reby t ,god
 nei!r is ! _w nor /&s outside ! _w1 b  
has ! _w 9 himself & ext5ds beyond x4   
,he is absolute id5tity1 nature & reason

 are relative id5tity1 viz41 ! id5tity (
 ! real & ideal1 ! =m] ) ! "* ( reality1
 ! latt] ) ! "* ( ideality4 ,or1 !      
absolute consid]$ f ! side ( its :ol5ess
 7inf9ity7 is nature1 consid]$ f ! side 
( its selfhood 7unconditionality7 is    
reason2 ,god is ! common root ( bo?4    
,above nature & reason is humanity1 :i* 
comb9es 9 itself ! highe/ products (    
bo?1 ! mo/ p]fect animal body &         
self-consci\sness4 ,! humanity ( e>?1 ! 
humanity kn[n to u1 is b a v small      
portion ( ! humanity ( ! univ]se1 :i* 9 
! multitude ( its memb]s1 :i* _c be     
increas$1 con/itutes ! div9e /ate4      
,krause's mo/ important "w is 8         
philosophy ( "r & ( hi/ory1 ) its m>ks (
 a highly key$ idealism4 ,he treats     
human "r z an efflu5ce ( div9e "r2      
besides ! /ate or legal union1 he       
recognizes _m o!r associations--! sci5ce
 & ! art union1 ! religi\s society1 !   
league ( virtue or e?ical union4 ,8     
philosophy ( hi/ory 7,g5]al ,!ory (     
,life1 edit$ by ,von ,leonh>di1 #ahdc7  

foll[s ! ,fi*teo-,hegelian rhy?m1 unity1
 division1 & reunion1 & correlates !    
sev]al ages ) ^!4 ,! fir/ /age is g]m9al
 life2 ! second1 y\?2 ! ?ird1 maturity4 
,! culm9ation is foll[$ by a rev]se     
movem5t f c\nt]-maturity1 ?r\gh         
c\nt]-y\?1 to c\nt]-*ildhood1 :]eupon ! 
developm5t recomm5ces--)\t cessation4 ,x
 is to be regrett$ t ?is noble-m9d$ man 
jo9$ to 8 w>m-he>t$ disposition1 broad  
outlook1 & rigor\s me?od a heat$ fancy1 
:i*1 crippl+ ! op]ation ( ^! advantage\s
 qualities1 l$ 8 ?\ght q too f> away f  
reality4 ,ahr5s1 ,von ,leonh>di1        
,l9demann1 & ,ro$] may be m5tion$ z     
foll[]s ( ,krause4  ,footnote #a3 ,on   
,krause cf4 ,p4 ,hohlfeld1 ,die         
,krauses*e ,philosophic1 #ahgi2 ,b4     
,m>t91 #ahha2 ,r4 ,euck51 ,zur ,er9n]ung
 an ,krause1 ,fe/r$e1 #ahha4 ,f 8       
po/hum\s works ,hohlfeld & ,wns*e h     
publi%$ ! ,lectures on ,ae/hetics1 !    
,sy/em ( ,ae/hetics 7bo? #ahhb71 &      
num]\s o!r treatises4   #c4 ,!          
,philosoph]s ( ,religion4  ,franz 7von7 

,baad]1 ! son ( a physician1 0 born 9   
,muni* 9 #agfe1 resid$ !re z sup]9t5d5t 
( m9es1 &1 f #ahbf1 z pr(essor (        
speculative dogmatics1 & di$ !re also 9 
#ahda4 ,8 works1 :i* consi/$ only ( a   
s]ies ( brief treatises1 7 collect$ 7#af
 vols41 #ahea-fj7 by 8 mo/ important    
adh]5t1 ,franz ,h(fman#a 7at 8 dea? 9   
#ahha pr(essor 9 ,wrzburg74 ,baad] may  
be *>act]iz$ z a m$iaeval ?9k] :o has   
work$ ?r\gh ! critical philosophy1 & :o1
 a believ+1 yet lib]al ,ca?olic1        
endeavors to solve ) ! in/rum5ts ( mod]n
 speculation ! old ,s*ola/ic problem ( !
 reconciliation ( fai? & k4 ,8 !mes are1
 on ! "o h&1 ! developm5t ( ,god1 &1 on 
! o!r1 ! fall & r$emption1 :i* mean =   
him1 h[ev]1 n m]ely inn] ph5om5a1 b     
_w-ev5ts4 ,he is 9 sympa?y ) !          
,neoplatoni/s1 ) ,augu/9e1 ) ,?omas     
,aqu9as1 ) ,eckh>t1 ) ,p>acelsus1 above 
all1 ) ,jacob ,bhme1 & ,bhme's foll[]   
,l\is ,claude ,/4 ,m>t9 7#agdc-ahjd71 b 
does n ov]look ! value ( ! mod]n ,g]man 
philosophy4 ,) ,kant he beg9s ! inquiry 

) ! problem ( k2 ) ,fi*te he f9ds 9     
self-consci\sness ! ess5ce1 & n m]ely a 
prop]ty1 ( _s2 ) ,hegel he looks on ,god
 or ! absolute _s n only z ! object1 b  
also z ! subject ( k4 ,he rejects1      
h[ev]1 ! autonomy ( ! w & ! spontaneity 
( ?\ght2 & ?\gh he criticises !         
,c>tesian sep>ation betwe5 ! ?\ght ( !  
creator & t ( ! creature1 he z little   
approves ! pan!i/ic id5tification ( !   
two--human cognition p>ticipates 9 !    
div9e1 )\t con/itut+ a "p ( x4          
,footnote #a3 ,besides ,h(fman1         
,lutt]beck & ,hamb]g] h describ$ &      
exp\nd$ ,baad]'s sy/em4 ,see also       
,baumann's pap] 9 ! ,philosophis*e      
,monat%efte1 vol4 xiv41 #ahgh1 p4 #cba  
seq4  ,9 accordance ) its ?ree pr9cipal 
objects1 ,god1 ,nature1 & ,man1         
philosophy divides into fundam5tal      
sci5ce 7logic or ! !ory ( k & !ology71 !
 philosophy ( nature 7cosmology or !    
!ory ( creation & physics71 & !         
philosophy ( _s 7e?ics & sociology74 ,9 
all its p>ts x mu/ receive religi\s     

treatm5t4 ,)\t ,god we _c "k ,god4 ,9   
our cognition ( ,god he is at once kn[] 
& kn[n2 our be+ & all be+ is a be+ kn[n 
by him2 our self-consci\sness is a      
consci\sness ( be+ kn[n by ,god3        
cogitor1 ergo cogito et sum2 my be+ &   
?9k+ are bas$ on my be+ ?\ght by ,god4  
,consci5ce is a jo9t kn[+ ) ,god's kn[+ 
7consci5tia74 ,! relation betwe5 ! kn[n 
& ! kn[] is ?reefold4 ,cognition is     
incomplete & lacks ! free co-op]ation ( 
! kn[] :5 ,god m]ely p]vades 7dur*wohnt7
 ! creature1 z is ! case ) ! devil's    
timor\s & reluctant k ( ,god4 ,a high]  
/age is rea*$ :5 ! kn[n is pres5t to !  
kn[] & dwells ) him 7beiwohnt74         
,cognition becomes really free & p]fect 
:5 ,god dwells 9 7inwohnt7 ! creature1 9
 :i* case ! f9ite reason yields itself  
freely & 9 admiration to ! div9e reason1
 lets ! latt] speak 9 itself1 & feels   
its rule1 n z =eign1 b z its own4       
7,baad] ma9ta9s a l ?reefoldness 9 !    
practical sph]e3 ! creature is ei!r !   
object or1 r1 ! passive recipi5t1 or !  

organ1 or ! repres5tative ( ! div9e     
action1 i4e41 9 ! fir/ case1 ,god alone 
works2 9 ! second1 he co-op]ates ) !    
creature2 9 ! ?ird1 ! creature works ) !
 =ces & 9 ! "n ( ,god4 ,joyful ob$i5ce1 
consci\s ( its gr\nds1 is ! highe/      
fre$om74 ,kn[+ & lov+1 ?\ght & volition1
 k & fai?1 philosophy & dogma are z     
little to be ab/ractly divid$ z ?+ &    
self1 be+ & ?\ght1 object & subject4    
,true fre$om & g5u9e speculation are    
nei!r bl9d traditional belief nor d\bt+1
 ,god-e/rang$ ?9k+1 b ! free recognition
 ( au?ority1 & self-atta9$ conviction ( 
! tru? ( ! ,*ur* doctr9e4  ,baad]       
di/+ui%es a tw(old creation ( ! _w & a  
d\ble process ( developm5t 7an esot]ic &
 an exot]ic revelation7 ( ,god himself4 
,! creation ( ! ideal _w1 z a free act (
 love1 is a non-d$ucible fact2 ! !ogonic
 process1 on ! contr>y1 is a necess>y   
ev5t by :i* ,god becomes a unity return+
 f division to itself1 & s a liv+ ,god4 
,! et]nal self-g5]ation ( ,god is a     
tw(old bir?3 9 ! imman5t or logical     

process ! unse>*able w 7,fa!r7 gives    
bir? to ! compreh5sible w 7,son7 to     
unite ) x z ,_s2 ! place ( ?is          
self-revelation is wisdom or ! ,idea4 ,9
 ! eman5t or real process1 s9ce desire  
or nature is add$ to ! ,idea & is       
ov]come by x1 ^! ?ree mom5ts become     
actual p]sons4 ,9 ! creation ( !--at    
fir/ immat]ial--_w1 9 :i* ,god unites1 n
 ) 8 ess5ce1 b ) 8 image only1 ! same   
two p[]s1 desire & wisdom1 op]ate z !   
pr9ciples ( matt] & =m4 ,!              
mat]ialization ( ! _w is a consequ5ce ( 
! fall4 ,evil consi/s 9 ! elevation (   
selfhood1 :i* spr+s f desire1 into      
self-seek+4 ,lucif] fell because (      
pride1 & man1 yield+ to ,lucif]'s       
temptation1 f bas5ess1 by fall+ 9 love )
 nature b5ea? him4 ,by ! creation (     
matt] ,god has out ( pity pres]v$ ! _w1 
:i* 0 corrupt$ by ! fall1 f ! desc5t    
into hell1 & at ! same "t has giv5 man  
occasion = moral endeavor4 ,! appe>ance 
( ,*ri/1 ! p]sonification ( ! moral law1
 is ! beg9n+ ( reconciliation1 :i* man  

appropriates ?r\gh ! sacram5t4 ,nature  
p>ticipates 9 ! r$emption1 z 9 !        
corruption4  ,fri$ri* ,daniel ,ern/     
,s*lei]ma*] 0 born 9 #agfh at ,breslau1 
& di$ 9 #ahcd 9 ,b]l91 :]e he _h become 
prea*] at ,tr9ity *ur* 9 #ahji1 pr(essor
 ( !ology 9 #ahaj1 memb] ( !            
philosophical section ( ! ,academy 9    
#ahaa1 & its secret>y 9 #ahad4 ,re>$ 9 !
 ,moravian s*ools at ,niesky & ,b>by1 he
 /udi$ at ,halle2 &1 betwe5 #agid &     
#ahjd1 0 a prea*] 9 ,l&sb]g on ! ,w>!1 9
 ,b]l9 7at ! ,*>it ,hospital71 & 9      
,/olpe1 !n pr(essor 9 ,halle4 ,he fir/  
attract$ att5tion by ! (t5 republi%$    
,disc\rses on ,religion address$ to !   
,educat$ among ^? :o despise x1 #agii   
7critical edition by ,pnj]1 #ahgi71 :i* 
0 foll[$ 9 ! succe$+ ye> by !           
,monologues1 & ! anonym\s ,confid5tial  
,lett]s on ,luc9de 7,luc9de 0 ! "w ( 8  
fri5d ,fr4 ,s*legel74 ,besides sev]al   
collections ( s]mons1 m5tion mu/ fur!r  
be made ( 8 ,outl9es ( a ,critique (    
,previ\s ,e?ics1 #ahjc2 ,! ,celebration 

( ,*ri/mas1 #ahjf2 & 8 *ief !ological   
"w1 ,! ,*ri/ian ,fai?1 #ahbb1 new       
edition #ahcj4 ,9 ! ?ird 7!             
philosophical7 division ( 8 ,collect$   
,works 7#ahce-fd7 ! second & ?ird       
volumes conta9 ! essays on ! hi/ory (   
philosophy1 on e?ical1 & on academic    
subjects2 vols4 vi4 to ix41 ! ,lectures 
on ,psy*ology1 ,e/hetics1 ! ,!ory ( !   
,/ate1 & ,education1 edit$ by ,george1  
,lommats*1 ,br&is1 & ,platz2 & ! fir/ "p
 ( vol4 iv41 ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy 7to
 ,sp9oza71 edit$ by ,ritt]4 ,!          
,monologues & ,! ,celebration ( ,*ri/mas
 h appe>$ 9 ,reclam's ,biblio!k4        
,s*lei]ma*]'s philosophy is a r5dezv\s =
 ! mo/ div]se sy/ems4 ,side by side )   
ideas f ,kant1 ,fi*te1 & ,s*ell+ we meet
 ,platonic1 ,sp9ozi/ic1 & ,leibnitzian  
elem5ts2 ev5 ,jacobi & ! ,romantici/s h 
contribut$ _! mite4 ,s*lei]ma*] is an   
eclectic1 b "o :o1 amid ! fusion ( ! mo/
 div]se ideas1 kn[s h[ to make 8 own    
individuality felt4 ,9 spite ( manifold 
e*oes ( ! philosophemes ( e>li] & (     

contempor>y ?9k]s1 8 sy/em is n a       
conglom]ation ( unrelat$ l9es ( ?\ght1 b
 resembles a plant1 :i* 9 its own way   
works ov] & assimilates ! nutritive     
elem5ts tak5 up f ! soil4 ,s*lei]ma*] is
 attractive r ?an impressive2 he is less
 a discov]] ?an a critic & sy/ematiz]4  
,8 f9e critical s5se works 9 ! s]vice ( 
a positive aim1 subs]ves a h>moniz+     
t5d5cy2 he takes no pleasure 9 break+ to
 pieces1 b 9 adju/+1 limit+1 & comb9+4  
,!re is no "o ( ! giv5 views :i*        
entirely satisfies him1 none :i* simply 
repels him2 ea* conta9s elem5ts :i* seem
 to him wor?y ( trans=mation & adoption4
 ,:5 he f9ds himself confront$ by a %>p 
conflict ( op9ion1 he seeks by c>eful   
m$iation to con/ruct a :ole out ( ! two 
half tru?s1 ?\gh ?is1 x is true1 does n 
always give a result m satisfactory ?an 
! p>tial views :i* he wi%es to          
reconcile4 ,a s+le example may be giv5 (
 ?is conciliatory t5d5cy3 space1 "t1 & !
 categories are n only subjective =ms ( 
k1 b at ! same "t objective =ms (       

reality4 ,n only is ! wat*word ( 8      
philosophy1 :i* became ! prototype ( !  
numb]less ideal realisms ) :i* ,g]many 0
 flood$ aft] ,hegel's dea?4 ,if !       
skeptical & eclectic movem5ts1 :i*      
con/antly make _! appe>ance toge!r1 are 
else:]e divid$ among diff]5t ?9k]s1 !y  
"h come toge!r 9 "o m9d 9 ! =m ( a      
m$iat+ criticism1 :i*1 al?\gh x argues  
logically1 is yet 9 ! end always guid$  
by ! invisible cords ( a feel+ ( ju/ice 
9 matt]s sci5tific4 ,9 its weak]        
portions ,s*lei]ma*]'s philosophy is    
m>k$ by lack ( grasp1 pett9ess1 &       
sportiv5ess4 ,x lacks c\rage & =ce1 & ! 
r>e delicacy ( ! ?\ght is n entirely    
able to comp5sate = ?is defect4 ,9 its  
fe> ( "o-sid$ness x takes refuge 9 !    
arms ( an (t5 fa9t-he>t$ policy (       
reconciliation4  ,we %all n discuss !   
specifically !ological a*ievem5ts ( ?is 
_m-sid$ man1 nor 8 great s]vices 9      
behalf ( ! philological k ( ! hi/ory (  
philosophy--?r\gh 8 translation (       
,plato1 #ahjd-bh1 & a s]ies ( valuable  

essays on ,greek ?9k]s--b %all conf9e   
our att5tion to ! lead+ pr9ciples ( 8   
!ory ( k1 ( religion1 & ( e?ics4  ,!    
,dialectic#a 7edit$ by ,jonas1 #ahci71  
treats 9 a transc5d5tal "p & a te*nical 
or =mal "p ( ! concept & ! =ms ( k4 ,k  
is ?\ght4 ,:at di/+ui%es t ?\ght :i* we 
call k f t o!r ?\ght :i* does n des]ve  
?is honorable title1 f m]e op9ion8 ,two 
crit]ia3 its agreem5t ) ! ?\ght ( o!r   
?9k]s 7its univ]sality & necessity71 &  
its agreem5t ) ! be+ :i* is ?\ght 9 x4  
,t ?\ght alone is k :i* is repres5t$ z  
necess>ily valid = all :o are capable ( 
?\ght1 & z correspond+ to a be+ or      
reproduc+ x4 ,^! two agreem5ts 7among   
?9k]s1 & ( ?\ght ) ! be+ :i* is ?\ght7  
are ! crit]ia ( k--let u turn n[ to its 
factors4 ,^! are ess5tially ! two br\ght
 =w>d by ,kant1 s5sibility & und]/&+2   
,s*lei]ma*] calls !m ! organic function 
& ! intellectual function4 ,! organic   
activity ( ! s5ses furni%es u1 9        
s5sations1 ! unord]$1 manifold mat]ial (
 k1 :i* is =m$ & unifi$ by ! activity ( 

reason4 ,if we except two concepts :i*  
limit our k1 *aos & ,god--absolute      
=mlessness or *aos is an idea j z       
incapable ( realization z absolute unity
 or deity--e actual cognition is a      
product ( bo? factors1 ( ! s5su\s       
organization & ( reason4 ,b ^! two d n  
play equal p>ts 9 e cognitive act4 ,:5 !
 organic function is pr$om9ant we h     
p]ception2 :5 ! intellectual function   
pr$om9ates we h ?\ght 9 ! /rict s5se4 ,a
 p]fect balance ( ! two w\ld be         
intuition1 :i*1 h[ev]1 con/itutes ! goal
 ( k1 nev] fully to be realiz$4 ,^! two 
k9ds ( k1 !re=e1 are n specifically1 b  
only relatively1 diff]5t3 9 all         
p]ception reason is also active1 & 9 all
 ?\ght s5sibility1 only to a less degree
 ?an ! opposite function4 ,moreov]1     
p]ception & ?\ght1 or s5sibility &      
reason1 are by no means to relate to    
diff]5t objects4 ,!y h ! same object1   
only t ! organic activity repres5ts x z 
an indef9ite1 *aotic manifold1 :ile !   
activity ( reason 7^: "w consi/s 9      

discrim9ation & comb9ation71 repres5ts x
 z a well-ord]$ multiplicity & unity4 ,x
 is ! same be+ :i* is repres5t$ by      
p]ception 9 ! =m ( an image1 & by ?\ght 
9 ! =m ( a concept4 ,9 ! =m] case we h !
 _w z *aos2 9 ! latt]1 we h x z cosmos4 
,inasmu* z ! two factors 9 k repres5t ! 
same object 9 relatively diff]5t ways1 x
 may be said ( !m t !y are oppos$ to ea*
 o!r1 & yet id5tical4 ,! same is true ( 
! two modes ( be+ :i* ,s*lei]ma*] posits
 z real & ideal ov] aga9/ ! two factors 
9 ?\ght4 ,! real is t :i* corresponds to
 ! organic function1 ! ideal t :i*      
corresponds to ! activity ( reason4 ,^! 
=ms ( be+ also are oppos$1 & yet        
id5tical4 ,our self-consci\sness gives  
cle> pro( ( ! fact t ?\ght & be+ c be   
id5tical2 9 x1 z ?9k+ be+1 we h !       
id5tity ( ! real & ! ideal1 ( be+ &     
?\ght imm$iately giv54 ,z ! ego1 9 :i* !
 subject ( ?\ght & ! object ( ?\ght are 
"o1 is ! undivid$ gr\nd ( its sev]al    
activities1 s ,god is ! primal unity1   
:i* lies at ! basis ( ! totality ( ! _w4

 ,z 9 ,s*ell+1 ! absolute is describ$ z 
self-id5tical1 absolute unity1 exalt$   
above ! anti!sis ( real & ideal1 nay1   
above all anti!ses4 ,god is ! negation (
 opposites1 ! _w ! totality ( !m4 ,if   
!re 7 an adequate k ( ! absolute id5tity
 x w\ld be an absolute k4 ,?is is d5i$1 
h[ev]1 to u m51 :o are nev] able to rise
 above ! opposition ( s5su\s &          
intellectual cognition4 ,! unity ( ?\ght
 & be+ is presuppos$ 9 all ?9k+1 b c    
nev] actually be ?\ght4 ,z an ,idea ?is 
id5tity is indisp5sable1 b to ?9k x     
def9itely1 ei!r by conception or        
judgm5t1 is impossible4 ,! concepts     
supreme p[] 7,god or creative nature7 & 
supreme cause 7fate or provid5ce7 d n   
atta9 to t :i* we seek to ?9k 9 !m3 t   
:i* has 9 x no opposition is an idea    
incapable ( realization by man1 b1      
nev]!less1 a necess>y ideal1 !          
presupposition ( all cognition 7&       
volition71 & ! gr\nd ( all c]titude4    
,all k mu/ be relat$ to ! absolute unity
 & be accompani$ by x4 ,s9ce1 !n1 !     

absolute id5tity _c be pres5t$1 b ev]   
s\ght = only1 & absolute k exi/s only z 
an ideal1 dialectic is n s mu* a sci5ce 
z a te*nique ( ?\ght & pro(1 an         
introduction to philosophic ?9k+ or     
7s9ce k is ?\ght 9 common7 to discussion
 9 con=mity ) ! rules ( ! art4 ,) ?is ! 
"n dialectic returns to its orig9al     
,platonic mean+4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4    
,quaebick]1 ,ueb] ,s*lei]ma*]s          
erkeuntnis/heoretis*e ,grundansi*t1     
#ahga1 & ! ,inquiries by ,bruno ,weiss 9
 ! ,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1 vols4   
lxxiii4-lxxv41 #ahgh-gi4  ,! popul>     
ideas ( ,god ill /& exam9ation by ! /&>d
 furni%$ by ! pr9ciple ( id5tity4 ,!    
plurality ( attributes :i* we are       
accu/om$ to ascribe to ,god agree b     
poorly ) 8 unity free f all contr>iety4 
,9 reality ,god does n possess ^!       
manifold attributes2 !y fir/ arise 9 !  
religi\s consci\sness1 9 :i* 8          
uncondition$ & undivid$ work+ is v>i\sly
 reflect$ &1 z x 71 divid$4 ,!y are only
 ! v>i\s reflections ( 8 undivid$ nature

 9 ! m9d ( ! obs]v]4 ,9 ,god ability &  
p]=mance1 intellig5ce & w1 8 ?\ght (    
self & 8 ?\ght ( ! _w co9cide 9 "o4 ,ev5
 ! concept ( p]sonality mu/ n be ascrib$
 to ,god1 s9ce x is a limitation ( !    
inf9ite & belongs to my?ology2 :ile !   
idea ( life1 on ! contr>y1 is all[able z
 a protection aga9/ a!ism & fatalism4   
,:5 ,s*lei]ma*]1 fur!r1 equates !       
activity ( ,god & ! causality ( nature  
he ranges himself on ! pan!i/ic side 9  
reg>d to ! "q ( ! imman5ce or           
transc5d5ce ( ,god1 )\t be+ will+ to    
ackn[l$ge x4 ,x s\nds ,sp9ozi/ic en\gh  
:5 he says3 ,god nev] 0 )\t ! _w1 he    
exi/s nei!r be=e nor outside x1 we "k   
him only 9 u & 9 ?+s4 ,besides t :i* he 
actually br+s =?1 ,god c\ld n produce   
any?+ fur!r1 & j z little does he       
miracul\sly int]f]e 9 ! c\rse ( ! _w z  
regulat$ by natural law4 ,ev]y?+ takes  
place necess>ily1 & man is di/+ui%$     
above o!r be+s nei!r by fre$om 7if by   
fre$om we und]/& any?+ m ?an inn]       
necessitation7 nor by et]nal exi/5ce4 ,l

 all individual be+s1 s we are b *ang+  
/ates 9 ! life ( ! univ]se1 :i*1 z !y h 
aris51 w disappe> aga94 ,! common       
repres5tations ( immortality1 ) _! hope 
( future comp5sation1 are f> f pi\s4 ,! 
true immortality ( religion is ?is--amid
 f9itude to become "o ) ! inf9ite1 & 9  
"o mom5t to be et]nal4  ,s*lei]ma*]'s   
optimism well h>monizes ) ?is view ( !  
relation betwe5 ,god & ! _w4 ,if !      
univ]se is ! ph5om5on ( ! div9e         
activity1 !n consid]$ z a :ole x is     
p]fect2 :atev] ( imp]fection we f9d 9 x1
 is m]ely ! inevitable result ( f9itude4
 ,! bad is m]ely ! less p]fect2 ev]y?+  
is z good z x c be2 ! _w is ! be/       
possible2 ev]y?+ is 9 its "r place2 ev5 
! meane/ ?+ is indisp5sable2 ev5 !      
mi/akes ( m5 are to be treat$ )         
consid]ation4 ,all is good & div9e4 ,9  
?is way ,s*lei]ma*] w$s ideas f ,sp9oza 
to ,leibnitzian conceptions4 ,f ! =m] he
 appropriates pan!ism1 f ! latt]        
optimism & ! concept ( individuality2 he
 %>es det]m9ism ) bo?3 all ev5ts1 ev5 ! 

decisions ( ! w1 are subject to ! law ( 
necessity4  ,9 ! philosophy ( religion  
,s*lei]ma*] creat$ a new epo* by 8      
sep>ation betwe5 religion & relat$      
dep>tm5ts ) :i* x _h (t5 be5 id5tifi$   
be=e 8 "t1 z x has be5 s9ce4 ,9 its     
orig9 & ess5ce religion is n a matt] (  
kn[+1 fur!r1 n a matt] ( will+1 b a     
matt] ( ! he>t4 ,x lies q outside !     
sph]e ( speculation & ( practice1       
co9cides nei!r ) metaphysics nor )      
e?ics1 is n k & n volition1 b an        
int]m$iate ?ird3 x has its own prov9ce 9
 ! emotional nature1 :]e x reigns )\t   
limitation2 its ess5ce is intuition &   
feel+ 9 undivid$ unity4 ,9 feel+ is     
reveal$ ! pres5ce ( ! inf9ite2 9 feel+  
we become imm$iately aw>e ( ! ,deity4 ,!
 absolute1 :i* 9 cognition & volition we
 only presuppose & dem&1 b nev] atta91  
is actually giv5 9 feel+ alone z !      
relative id5tity & ! common gr\nd (     
cognition & volition4 ,religion is      
piety1 an affective1 n an objective1    
consci\sness4 ,& if c]ta9 religi\s ideas

 & actions ally !mselves ) ! pi\s /ate (
 m9d1 ^! are n ess5tial con/itu5ts (    
religion1 b d]ivative elem5ts1 :i*      
possess a religi\s significance only 9 s
 f> z !y imm$iately develop f piety &   
ex]t an influ5ce ^u x4 ,t :i* makes an  
act religi\s is always feel+ z a po9t ( 
indiff]5ce betwe5 kn[+ & do+1 betwe5    
receptive & =?go+ activity1 z ! c5t] &  
junction ( all ! p[]s ( ! s\l1 z ! v    
focus ( p]sonality4 ,& z feel+ 9 g5]al  
is ! middle po9t 9 ! life ( ! s\l1 s1   
aga91 ! religi\s feel+ is ! root ( all  
g5u9e feel+4 ,:at sort ( a feel+1 !n1 is
 piety8 ,s*lei]ma*] answ]s3 ,a feel+ (  
absolute dep5d5ce4 ,dep5d5ce on :at8 ,on
 ! univ]se1 on ,god4 ,religion gr[s out 
( ! long+ aft] ! inf9ite1 x is ! s5se & 
ta/e = ! ,all1 ! direction t[>d !       
et]nal1 ! impulse t[>d ! absolute unity1
 imm$iate exp]i5ce ( ! _w h>mony2 l art1
 religion is ! imm$iate appreh5sion ( a 
:ole4 ,9 & be=e ,god all t is individual
 disappe>s1 ! religi\s man sees "o & !  
same ?+ 9 all t is p>ticul>4 ,to        

repres5t all ev5ts 9 ! _w z actions ( a 
,god1 to see ,god 9 all & all 9 ,god1 to
 feel "o's self "o ) ! et]nal1--?is is  
religion4 ,z we look on all be+ )9 u &  
)\t z proce$+ f ! _w-gr\nd1 z det]m9$ by
 an ultimate cause1 we feel ourselves   
dep5d5t on ! div9e causality4 ,l all t  
is f9ite1 we also are ! effect ( !      
absolute ,p[]4 ,:ile we /& 9 a relation 
( int]action ) ! individual p>ts ( ! _w1
 & feel ourselves p>tially free 9       
relation to !m1 we c only receive       
effects f ,god )\t answ]+ !m2 ev5 our   
self-activity we h f him4 ,nev]!less !  
feel+ ( dep5d5ce is n to be depress+1 n 
humbl+ m]ely1 b ! joy\s s5se ( an       
exaltation & broad5+ ( life4 ,9 our     
devotion to ! univ]se we p>ticipate 9 ! 
life ( ! univ]se2 by lean+ on ! inf9ite 
we supplem5t our f9itude--religion makes
 up = ! ne$y condition ( man by br++ him
 into relation ) ! absolute1 & tea*+ him
 to "k & to feel himself a "p ( ! :ole4 
,f ?is elevat+ influ5ce ( religion1 :i* 
,s*lei]ma*] eloqu5tly depicts1 x is at  

once evid5t t 8 def9ition ( x z a feel+ 
( absolute dep5d5ce is only half        
correct4 ,x ne$s to be supplem5t$ by !  
feel+ ( fre$om1 :i* exalts u by !       
consci\sness ( ! on5ess ( ! human reason
 & ! div9e4 ,x is only to ?is side (    
religion1 neglect$ by ,s*lei]ma*]1 t we 
c ascribe its inspir+ influ5ce1 :i* he 9
 va9 endeavors to d]ive f ! feel+ (     
dep5d5ce4 ,p[] c nev] spr+ f humility z 
su*4 ,?is defect1 h[ev]1 does n detract 
f ,s*lei]ma*]'s m]it 9 assign+ to       
religion a special field ( spiritual    
activity4 ,:ile ,kant treats religion z 
an app5dix to e?ics1 & ,hegel1 ) a      
"o-sid$ness :i* is /ill worse1 r$uces x 
to an undevelop$ =m ( k1 ,s*lei]ma*]    
recognizes t x is n a m]e concomitant   
ph5om5on--:e!r an incid5tal result or a 
prelim9>y /age--( morality or cognition1
 b some?+ indep5d5t1 co-ord9ate )       
volition & cognition1 & ( equal         
legitimacy4 ,! pro( t religion has its  
habitation 9 feel+ is ! m des]v+ ( ?anks
 s9ce x by no means induc$ ,s*lei]ma*]  

to ov]look ! connection ( !             
,god-consci\sness ) self-consci\sness & 
! consci\sness ( ! _w4 ,s*lei]ma*]'s    
!ory1 moreov]1 may be held correct )\t  
ignor+ ! relatively legitimate elem5ts 9
 ! views ( religion :i* he attack$4 ,) !
 view t religion has its seat 9 feel+1 x
 is q possible to comb9e a recognition (
 ! fact t x has its orig9 9 ! w1 & its  
basis 9 morals1 & t1 fur!r1 x has !     
significance ( be+ 7to use ,s*op5hau]'s 
words7 ! metaphysics ( ! p4  ,al?\gh    
religion & piety be made synonym\s1 x   
mu/ /ill be admitt$ t 9 a be+ capable ( 
kn[+ & will+ z well z ( feel+1 ?is dev\t
 frame w h results 9 ! sph]es (         
cognition & action4 ,9 reg>d to cultus  
,s*lei]ma*] ma9ta9s t a religi\s        
obs]vance :i* does n spr+ f "o's own    
feel+ & f9d an e*o !re9 is sup]/iti\s1 &
 dem&s t religi\s feel+1 l a sacr$      
melody1 accompany all human action1 t   
ev]y?+ be done ) religion1 no?+ f       
religion4 ,in/ead ( express+ itself 9   
s+le specifically religi\s actions1 !   

religi\s feel+ %\ld uni=mly p]vade !    
:ole life4 ,let a private room be !     
temple :]e ! voice ( ! prie/ is rais$4  
,dogmas1 aga91 are descriptions ( pi\s  
excitation1 & take _! orig9 9 man's     
reflection on 8 religi\s feel+s1 9 8    
endeavor to expla9 !m1 9 8 expression ( 
!m 9 ideas & words4 ,! concepts &       
pr9ciples ( !ology are valid only z     
descriptions & pres5tations ( feel+s1 n 
z cognitions2 by _! unavoidable         
an?ropomorphic "* alone !y are          
completely unfitt$ = sci5ce4 ,! dogmatic
 sy/em is an envelopm5t :i* religion    
accepts ) a smile4 ,he :o treats        
religi\s doctr9es z sci5ce falls into   
empty my?ology4 ,pr9ciples ( fai? &     
pr9ciples ( k are 9 no way relat$ to "o 
ano!r1 nei!r by way ( opposition nor by 
way ( agreem5t2 !y nev] come into       
contact4 ,a !ology 9 ! s5se ( an actual 
sci5ce ( ,god is impossible4 ,fur!r1 out
 ( its dogmas ! ,*ur* con/ructs         
prescriptive symbols1 a /ep :i* mu/ be  
deplor$4 ,x is to be hop$ t "s "t       

religion w no long] h ne$ ( ! ,*ur*4 ,9 
view ( ! pres5t condition ( affairs x   
mu/ be said t ! m religi\s a man is ! m 
secul> he mu/ become1 & t ! cultur$ man 
opposes ! ,*ur* 9 ord] to promote       
religion4  ,s-call$ natural religion is 
no?+ m ?an an ab/raction ( ?\ght2 9     
reality positive religions alone exi/4  
,because ( ! inf9ity ( ,god & ! f9itude 
( man1 ! "o1 univ]sal1 et]nal religion c
 only manife/ itself 9 ! =m ( p>ticul>  
hi/orical religions1 :i* are t]m$       
reveal$ because f\nd$ by religi\s h]oes1
 creative p]sonalities1 9 :om an        
especially lively religi\s feel+ is     
ar\s$ by a new view ( ! univ]se1 &      
det]m9es 7n1 l arti/ic inspiration1 s+le
 mom5ts1 b7 _! :ole exi/5ce4 ,?ree /ages
 are to be di/+ui%$ 9 ! developm5t (    
religion1 accord+ z ! _w is repres5t$ z 
an unord]$ unity 7*aos71 or z an        
indet]m9ate manifold ( =ces & elem5ts   
7plurality )\t unity71 or1 f9ally1 z an 
organiz$ plurality dom9at$ by unity     
7sy/em7--feti*ism ) fatalism1 poly!ism1 

mono- 7includ+ pan-7 !ism4 ,among !     
religions ( ! ?ird /adium ,islam is     
physical or ae/hetic 9 _s2 ,judaism &   
,*ri/ianity1 on ! o!r h&1 e?ical or     
teleological4 ,! ,*ri/ian religion is ! 
mo/ p]fect1 because x gives ! c5tral    
place to ! concept ( r$emption &        
reconciliation 7h5ce to t :i* is        
ess5tial to religion7 in/ead ( to !     
,jewi% idea ( retribution4  ,! concept (
 individuality became ( ! highe/        
importance = ,s*lei]ma*]'s e?ics1 z well
 z = 8 philosophy ( religion2 & by 8    
high appreciation ( x he ranges himself 
) ,leibnitz1 ,h]d]1 ,goe!1 & ,novalis4  
,n[ two sides may be di/+ui%$ bo? 9     
reg>d to t :i* ! individual is & to t   
:i* he ought to accompli%4 ,l e p>ticul>
 be+1 man is an abbreviat$1 conc5trat$  
pres5tation ( ! univ]se2 he conta9s     
ev]y?+ 9 himself1 conta9s all1 t is1 9 a
 n yet unfold$1 g]m9al mann]1 await+    
developm5t 9 life 9 "t1 b yet 9 a =m    
peculi> to him1 :i* is nev] repeat$     
else:]e4 ,?is yields a tw(old moral     

task4 ,! individual ought to r\se into  
actuality ! inf9ite fullness ( cont5t   
:i* he possesses z possibility1 z       
slumb]+ g]ms1 %\ld h>moni\sly develop 8 
capacities2 yet 9 ?is he mu/ n look ^u !
 unique =m :i* has be5 be/[$ ^u him z   
wor?less4 ,he is n to feel himself a m]e
 specim51 an unimportant repetition ( ! 
type1 b z a p>ticul>1 & 9 ?is           
p>ticul>ity a significant1 expression ( 
! absolute1 ^: omission w\ld cause a gap
 9 ! _w4 ,x is surpris+ t ! majority ( !
 ?9k]s :o h def5d$ ! value (            
individuality lay f> less /ress ^u !    
micro-cosmical nature ( ! individual & !
 developm5t ( 8 capacities 9 all        
directions ?an on c>e = 8 peculi>       
qualities4 ,s also ,s*lei]ma*]4 ,yet he 
gradually return$ f ! extreme           
individualism--! ,monologues affect "o  
almo/ repell5tly by ! impulse :i* !y    
give to va9 self-reflection--:i* he at  
fir/ def5d$4  ,9 ! ,e?ics 7edit$ by     
,kir*mann1 #ahgj2 e>li] editions by     
,s*weiz]1 #ahce1 & ,twe/51 #ahda7       

,s*lei]ma*] br+s ! well-nigh =gott5     
concept ( goods aga9 into honor4 ,! ?ree
 po9ts ( view f :i* e?ics is to be      
discuss$1 & ea* ( :i* pres5ts ! :ole    
e?ical field 9 its own peculi> way--!   
good1 virtue1 duty--are relat$ z        
resultant1 =ce1 & law ( motion4 ,e union
 ( reason & nature produc$ by ! action (
 ! =m] on ! latt] is call$ a good2 ! sum
 ( ^! unities1 ! highe/ good4 ,accord+ z
 reason uses nature z an in/rum5t 9     
=mation or z a symbol 9 cognition h]    
action is =mative or indicative2 x is1  
fur!r1 ei!r common or peculi>4 ,on !    
cross+ ( ^! 7fluctuat+7 di/9ctions (    
id5tical & individual organization &    
symbolization is bas$ ! division ( !    
!ory ( goods3                           
,,sph]es4      ,,relations4             
,,goods4   ,id5t4 ,organ43              
,int]c\rse4  ,"r4            ,! ,/ate4  
,individ4 ,organ43  ,prop]ty4     ,free 
,sociability4 ,class1 ,h\se1            
,fri5d%ip4   ,id5t4 ,symbol43   ,k4     
,fai?4            ,s*ool &              

,univ]sity4   ,individ4 ,symbol43       
,feel+4      ,revelation4       ,! ,*ur*
                                        
7,art74  ,! f\r e?ical communities1 ea* 
( :i* repres5ts ! organic union (       
opposites--rul]s & subjects1 ho/ &      
gue/s1 tea*]s & pupils or s*ol>s & !    
public1 ! cl]gy & ! laity--h = _!       
f\ndation ! family & ! unity ( ! nation4
 ,virtue 7! p]sonal unification ( reason
 & s5sibility7 is ei!r disposition or   
skill1 & 9 ea* case ei!r cognitive or   
pres5tative2 ?is yields ! c>d9al virtues
 wisdom1 love1 discretion1 & p]sev]ance4
 ,! division ( duties into duties ( "r1 
duties ( love1 duties ( vocation1 &     
duties ( consci5ce re/s on ! di/9ction  
betwe5 community 9 production &         
appropriation1 ea* ( :i* may be univ]sal
 or individual4 ,! mo/ g5]al laws ( duty
 7duty is ! ,idea ( ! good 9 an         
imp]ative =m7 run3 ,act at e in/ant )   
all ?y moral p[]1 & aim+ at ?y :ole     
moral problem2 act ) all virtues & 9    
view ( all goods1 fur!r1 ,always d t    

action :i* is mo/ advantage\s = ! :ole  
sph]e ( morality1 9 :i* two diff]5t     
factors are includ$3 ,always d t t[>d   
:i* ?\ f9de/ ?yself inw>dly mov$1 & t to
 :i* ?\ f9de/ ?yself requir$ f )\t4     
,in/ead ( foll[+ fur!r ! we>isome       
s*ematism ( ,s*lei]ma*]'s e?ics1 we may 
notice1 f9ally1 a fundam5tal ?\ght :i*  
our philosoph] also discuss$ by itself3 
,! %>p contraposition ( natural & moral 
law1 advocat$ by ,kant1 is unju/ifiable2
 ! moral law is itself a law ( nature1  
viz41 ( rational w4 ,x is true nei!r t !
 moral law is a m]e ought nor t ! law ( 
nature is a m]e be+1 a univ]sally foll[$
 mu/4 ,=1 on ! "o h&1 e?ics has to d ) !
 law :i* human action really foll[s1 &1 
on ! o!r1 !re are violations ( rule 9   
nature also4 ,immorality1 ! imp]fect    
ma/]y ( ! s5su\s impulses by rational w1
 has an analogue 9 !                    
abnormalities--de=mities & diseases--9  
nature1 :i* %[ t "h also ! high]        
7organic7 pr9ciples are n completely    
successful 9 controll+ ! l[] processes4 

,! high] law ev]y:]e suff]s di/urbances1
 f ! resi/ance ( ! l[] =ces1 :i* _c be  
entirely conqu]$4 ,x is ,s*lei]ma*]'s   
det]m9ism :i* leads him1 9 view ( !     
p>allelism ( ! two legislations1 to     
ov]look _! ess5tial di/9ction4  ,adh]5ts
 ( ,s*lei]ma*] are ,vorlnd] 7di$ #ahfg71
 ,george 7di$ #ahgd71 ! !ologian1 ,ri*>d
 ,ro! 7di$ #ahfg2 cf4 ,nippold1 #ahgc   
seq471 & ! hi/orians ( philosophy1      
,br&is 7di$ #ahfg7 & ,h4 ,ritt] 7di$    
#ahfi74a  ,footnote #a3 ,w4 ,dil!y 7born
 #ahcd71 ! successor ( ,lotze 9 ,b]l91  
is publi%+ a life ( ,s*lei]ma*] 7vol4 i4
 #ahfg-gj74 ,cf4 also ,dil!y's brief]   
acc\nt 9 ! ,allgeme9e deuts*e           
,biographie1 & ,haym's ,romantis*e      
,s*ule1 #ahgj4 ,fur!r1 ,aus ,s*lei]ma*]s
 ,leb51 9 ,brief51 #d vols41 #aheh-fc4  
,,*apt] ,,xiii4  ,,hegel4  ,georg       
,wilhelm ,fri$ri* ,hegel 0 born at      
,/uttg>t on ,augu/ #bg1 #aggj4 ,he      
att5d$ ! gymnasium ( 8 native city1 &1 f
 #aghh1 ! ,tb+5 sem9>y z a /ud5t (      
!ology2 :ile 9 #agic-ahjj he resid$ z a 

private tutor 9 ,b]ne &                 
,frank=t-on-!-,ma94 ,9 ! latt] city !   
plan ( 8 future sy/em 0 already matur+4 
,a manuscript outl9e divides philosophy1
 foll[+ ! anci5t division1 logic1       
physics1 & e?ics1 into ?ree p>ts1 ! fir/
 ( :i* 7! fundam5tal sci5ce1 ! doctr9e (
 ! categories & ( me?od1 comb9+ logic & 
metaphysics7 consid]s ! absolute z pure 
,idea1 :ile ! second consid]s x z       
nature1 & ! ?ird z real 7e?ical7 _s4    
,hegel habilitat$ 9 #ahja at ,j5a1 ) a  
,lat9 diss]tation ,on ! ,orbits ( !     
,planets1 9 :i*1 ignorant ( ! discov]y (
 ,c]es1 he ma9ta9$ t on rational        
gr\nds--assum+ t ! numb]-s]ies giv5 9   
,plato's ,timaeus is ! true ord] (      
nature--no additional planet c\ld exi/  
betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]4 ,?is diss]tation 
gives1 fur!r1 a d$uction ( ,kepl]'s     
laws4 ,! essay on ! ,diff]5ce betwe5 !  
,sy/ems ( ,fi*te & ,s*ell+ _h appe>$ ev5
 previ\s to ?is4 ,9 company ) ,s*ell+ he
 edit$ 9 #ahjb-jc ! ,kritis*es ,j\rnal  
d] ,philosophie4 ,! article on ,fai? &  

,k publi%$ 9 ?is j\rnal *>act]izes !    
/&po9t ( ,kant1 ,jacobi1 & ,fi*te z t ( 
reflection1 = :i* f9ite & inf9ite1 be+ &
 ?\ght =m an anti!sis1 :ile true        
speculation grasps ^! 9 _! id5tity4 ,9 !
 night be=e ! battle ( ,j5a ,hegel f9i%$
 ! revision ( 8 ,ph5om5ology ( ,_s1 :i* 
0 publi%$ 9 #ahjg4 ,! extraord9>y       
pr(essor%ip giv5 him 9 #ahje he 0 =c$ to
 resign on acc\nt ( f9ancial            
consid]ations2 !n he 0 = a ye> a        
newspap] editor 9 ,bamb]g1 & 9 #ahjh w5t
 z a gymnasial rector to ,nuremb]g1 :]e 
he in/ruct$ ! high] classes 9           
philosophy4 ,8 lectures !re are pr9t$ 9 
! eighte5? volume ( 8 works1 "u ! title 
,propa$eutic4 ,9 ! ,nuremb]g p]iod fell 
8 m>riage & ! publication ( ! ,logic    
7vol4 i4 #ahab1 vol4 ii4 #ahaf74 ,9     
#ahaf he 0 call$ z pr(essor ( philosophy
 to ,heidelb]g 7:]e ! ,encyclop$ia      
appe>$1 #ahag71 & two ye>s lat] to      
,b]l94 ,! ,outl9es ( ! ,philosophy (    
,"r1 #ahba1 is ! only major "w :i* 0    
writt5 9 ,b]l94 ,! ,jahrb*] fr          

wiss5s*aftli*e ,kritik1 f\nd$ 9 #ahbg z 
an organ ( ! s*ool1 conta9$ a few       
critiques1 b = ! re/ he devot$ 8 :ole   
/r5g? to 8 lectures4 ,he fell a victim  
to ! *ol]a on ,novemb] #ad1 #ahca4 ,!   
collect$ edition ( 8 works 9 eighte5    
volumes 7#ahcb-de7 conta9s 9 vols4      
ii4-viii4 ! f\r major works :i* _h be5  
publi%$ by ,hegel himself 7!            
,encyclopa$ia ) additions f !           
,lectures72 9 vols4 i41 xvi41 & xvii4 ! 
m9or treatises2 9 vols4 ix4-xv4 !       
,lectures1 edit$ by ,cans1 ,ho?o1       
,m>he9eke1 & ,mi*elet4 ,! ,lett]s f & to
 ,hegel h be5 add$ z a n9ete5? volume1  
"u ! editor%ip ( ,k>l ,hegel1 #ahhg4a   
,footnote #a3 ,hegel's ,life has be5    
writt5 by ,k>l ,ros5kranz 7#ahdd71 :o   
has also def5d$ ! ma/] 7,apologie       
,hegels1 #aheh7 aga9/ ,r4 ,haym 7,hegel 
und se9e ,zeit1 #aheg71 & extoll$ him z 
! national philosoph] ( ,g]many 7#ahgj2 
,engli% by ,g4,s4 ,hall74 ,cf41 fur!r1 !
 neat popul> exposition by ,k>l ,k/l91  
#ahgj1 & ! essays by ,ed4 von ,h>tmann1 

,ueb] die dialektis*e ,me?ode1 #ahfh1 & 
,hegels ,panlogismus 7#ahgj1 incorporat$
 9 ! ,gesammelte ,/udi5 und ,aufstze1   
#ahgf74 ,! ,engli% read] may consult ,e4
 ,caird's ,hegel 9 ,blackwood's         
,philosophical ,classics1 #ahhc2        
,h>ris's ,hegel's ,logic1 ,morris's     
,hegel's ,philosophy ( ! ,/ate & (      
,hi/ory1 & ,k$ney's ,hegel's ,ae/hetics 
9 ,griggs's ,philosophical ,classics2 & 
,wallace's translation ( ! ,logic--f !  
,encyclopa$ia--) ,prolegom5a1 #ahgd1    
#b;d4 ed41 ,translation1 #ahib1         
,prolegom5a to foll[4 ,/irl+'s ,secret (
 ,hegel1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahfe1      
includes a translation ( a "p ( !       
,logic1 & num]\s translations f diff]5t 
works ( ! ma/] are to be f\nd 9 !       
,j\rnal ( ,speculative ,philosophy4 ,!  
,lectures on ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory h  
be5 translat$ by ,j4 ,sibree1 ,m4,a41 9 
,bohn's ,libr>y1 #ahfj1 & ,e4,s4        
,haldane is issu+ a translation ( ^? on 
! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 vol4 i41       
#ahib4--,,tr4  ,we may preface our      

exposition ( ! p>ts ( ! sy/em by "s     
rem>ks on ,hegel's /&po9t 9 g5]al & 8   
sci5tific me?od4   #a4 ,hegel's ,view ( 
! ,_w & 8 ,me?od4  ,9 ,hegel !re revives
 9 full vigor ! intellectualism :i* f ! 
fir/ _h la9 9 ! blood ( ,g]man          
philosophy1 & :i* ,kant's moralism _h   
only tempor>ily re/ra9$4 ,! prim>y (    
practical reason is disc>d$1 & !ory is  
extoll$ z ! gr\nd1 c5t]1 & aim ( human1 
nay1 ( all exi/5ce4  ,leibnitz & ,hegel 
are ! classical repres5tatives ( !      
intellectuali/ic view ( ! _w4 ,9 ! =m] !
 subjective psy*ological po9t ( view is 
dom9ant1 9 ! latt]1 ! objective cosmical
 position3 ,leibnitz argues f !         
repres5tative nature ( ! s\l to an      
analog\s con/itution ( all elem5ts ( !  
univ]se2 f ! g5]al mission ( all t is   
real1 to be a manife/ation ( reason1    
,hegel d$uces t ( ! individual _s1 to   
realize a det]m9ate s]ies ( /ages (     
?\ght4 ,! true reality is reason2 all   
be+ is ! embodim5t ( a pregnant ?\ght1  
all becom+ a movem5t ( ! concept1 ! _w a

 developm5t ( ?\ght4 ,! absolute or !   
logical ,idea exi/s fir/ z a sy/em (    
antemundane concepts1 !n x desc5ds into 
! unconsci\s sph]e ( nature1 awak5s to  
self-consci\sness 9 man1 realizes its   
cont5t 9 social in/itutions1 9 ord]1    
f9ally1 9 art1 religion1 & sci5ce to    
return to itself enri*$ & complet$1     
i4e41 to atta9 a high] absolut5ess ?an t
 ( ! beg9n+4 ,philosophy is ! highe/    
product & ! goal ( ! _w-process4 ,z w1  
intuition1 repres5tation1 & feel+ are   
l[] =ms ( ?\ght1 s e?ics1 art1 &        
religion are prelim9>y /ages 9          
philosophy2 = x fir/ succe$s 9 t :i* ^! 
va9ly attempt1 9 pres5t+ ! concept      
adequately1 9 conceptual =m4  ,if we    
develop t :i* is conta9$ z a con/itu5t  
factor or by implication 9 !            
intellectuali/ic !sis1 ,all be+ is ?\ght
 realiz$1 all becom+ a developm5t (     
?\ght1 we rea* ! foll[+ def9itions3 7i7 
,! object ( philosophy is =m$ by !      
,ideas ( ?+s4 ,its aim is to se>* out ! 
concept1 ! purpose1 ! significance (    

ph5om5a1 & to assign to ^! _!           
correspond+ positions 9 ! _w & 9 ! sy/em
 ( k4 ,x is *iefly int]e/$ 9 discov]+   
:]e 9 ! scale ( values a ?+ belongs     
accord+ to its mean+ & its de/9ation2 ! 
proc$ure is teleological1 valu+1        
ae/hetic4 ,in/ead ( a causal explanation
 ( ph5om5a we are giv5 an ideal         
int]pretation ( !m4 7,s ,lotze          
accurately describes ! "* ( ,g]man      
idealism47 7#b7 ,if all t is real is a  
manife/ation ( reason & ea* ?+ a /age1 a
 modification ( ?\ght1 !n ?\ght & be+   
are id5tical4 7#c7 ,if ! _w is ?\ght 9  
becom+1 & philosophy has to set =? ?is  
process1 philosophy is a !ory (         
developm5t4 ,if ea* ?+ realizes a ?\ght1
 !n all t is real is rational2 & if !   
_w-process atta9s its highe/ /adium 9   
philosophy1 & ?is 9 turn its completion 
9 ! sy/em ( absolute idealism1 !n all t 
is rational is real4 ,reason or ! ,idea 
is n m]ely a dem&1 a long$ = ideal1 b a 
_w-p[] :i* accompli%es its own          
realization4 ,! rational is real & !    

real is rational 7,preface to !         
,philosophy ( ,"r74 ,or to sum x        
up--,hegel's philosophy is idealism1 a  
sy/em ( id5tity1 & an optimi/ic doctr9e 
( developm5t4 ,:at1 !n1 di/+ui%es ,hegel
 f o!r ideali/s1 philosoph]s ( id5tity1 
& tea*]s ( developm5t8 ,:at 9 p>ticul>  
di/+ui%es him f 8 pr$ecessor ,s*ell+8   
,9 ,s*ell+ nature is ! subject & art !  
conclusion ( ! developm5t2 8 idealism   
has a physical & ae/hetical "*1 z       
,fi*te's an e?ical "*4 ,9 ,hegel1 h[ev]1
 ! concept is ! subject & goal ( !      
developm5t1 8 philosophy is1 9 ! words (
 ,haym1 a ,logisi]ung ( ! _w1 a logical 
idealism4  ,! !ory ( id5tity is t sy/em 
:i* looks ^u nature & _s z "o 9 ess5ce &
 z ph5om5al modes ( an absolute :i* is  
above !m bo?4 ,b :ile ,s*ell+ treats !  
real & ! ideal z hav+ equal rights1     
,hegel re/ores ! ,fi*tean subord9ation (
 nature to _s1 )\t1 h[ev]1 %>+ ,fi*te's 
contempt = nature4 ,nature is nei!r     
co-ord9ate ) _s nor a m]e in/rum5t = _s1
 b a transition /age 9 ! developm5t ( ! 

absolute1 viz41 ! ,idea 9 its o!r-be+   
7,&]sse974 ,x is _s itself t becomes    
nature 9 ord] to become actual1 consci\s
 _s2 be=e ! absolute became nature x 0  
already _s1 n1 inde$1 = itself 7fr si*71
 yet 9 itself 7an si*71 x 0 ,idea or    
reason4 ,! ideal is n m]ely ! morn+ :i* 
foll[s ! night ( reality1 b also ! ev5+ 
:i* prec$es x4 ,! absolute 7! concept7  
develops f 9-itself 7,ansi*7 ?r\gh      
out-(-self 7,auss]si*7 or o!r-be+ to    
=-itself 7,frsi*72 x exi/s fir/ z reason
 7sy/em ( logical concepts71 !n z       
nature1 f9ally z liv+ _s4 ,?us ,hegel's 
philosophy ( id5tity is di/+ui%$ f      
,s*ell+'s by two factors3 x subord9ates 
nature to _s1 & conceives ! absolute ( !
 beg9n+ n z ! indiff]5ce ( ! real &     
ideal1 b z ideal1 z a realm ( et]nal    
?\ghts4  ,! ass]tion t ,hegel repres5ts 
a syn!sis ( ,fi*te & ,s*ell+ is !re=e   
ju/ifi$4 ,?is is true1 fur!r1 = ! "* (  
,hegel's ?\ght z a :ole1 9 s f> z x     
foll[s a middle c\rse betwe5 !          
_w-e/rang$1 rigid ab/ractness ( ,fi*te's

 ?9k+ & ,s*ell+'s arti/ico-fanciful     
intuition1 %>+ ) ! =m] its logical      
/r+5cy z well z its dom9ant int]e/ 9 !  
philosophy ( _s1 & ) ! latt] its wide   
outlook & its s5se = ! wor? & ! ri*ness 
( t :i* is individual4  ,we h *>act]iz$ 
,hegel's sy/em1 ?irdly1 z a philosophy (
 developm5t4 ,! po9t ( di/9ction "h is t
 ,hegel c>ries out ) logical            
consecutiv5ess & up to ! po9t ( ob/9acy 
! pr9ciple ( developm5t :i* ,fi*te _h   
discov]$1 & :i* ,s*ell+ also _h         
occasionally employ$1--! ?reefold rhy?m 
!sis1 anti!sis1 syn!sis4 ,"h we come to 
,hegel's dialectic me?od4 ,he rea*$ ?is 
z ! true me?od ( speculation ?r\gh a    
comp>ison ( ! two =ms ( philosophy :i*  
he f\nd dom9ant at ! beg9n+ ( 8 c>e]--! 
,illum9ation culm9at+ 9 ,kant1 on ! "o  
h&1 &1 on ! o!r1 ! doctr9e ( id5tity    
def5d$ by ,s*ell+ & 8 circle--nei!r (   
:i* entirely satisfi$ him4  ,9 reg>d to 
! ma9 "q he feels himself "o ) ,s*ell+3 
philosophy is to be metaphysics1 !      
sci5ce ( ! absolute & its imman5ce 9 !  

_w1 ! doctr9e ( ! id5tity ( opposites1 (
 !1 p] se ( ?+s1 n m]ely ( _! ph5om5on4 
,b ! =m :i* ,s*ell+ _h giv5 x seems to  
him unsci5tific1 unsy/ematic1 = ,s*ell+ 
_h bas$ philosophical k on ! intuition (
 g5ius--& sci5ce f intuition is         
impossible4 ,! philosophy ( !           
,illum9ation impresses him1 on ! o!r h&1
 by ! =mal /rictness ( its inquiry2 he  
agrees ) x t philosophy mu/ be sci5ce f 
concepts4 ,only n f ab/ract concepts4   
,kant & ! ,illum9ation /& on ! plat=m ( 
reflection1 = :i* ! anti!sis ( ?\ght &  
be+1 f9ite & inf9ite rema9s insoluble1  
&1 consequ5tly1 ! absolute transc5d5t1 &
 ! true ess5ce ( ?+s unkn[able4 ,hegel  
wi%es to comb9e ! advantages ( bo?      
sides1 ! dep? ( cont5t ( ! "o1 & !      
sci5tific =m ( ! o!r4  ,! intuition )   
:i* ,s*ell+ works is imm$iate cognition1
 direct$ to ! concrete & p>ticul>4 ,!   
concept ( ! philosophy ( reflection is  
m$iate cognition1 mov+ 9 ! sph]e ( !    
ab/ract & univ]sal4 ,is x n feasible to 
d away ) ! 7unsci5tific7 imm$iat5ess ( !

 "o1 & ! 7non-intuitive1 cont5t-lack+7  
ab/ractness ( ! o!r1 to comb9e !        
concrete ) ! m$iate or conceptual1 & 9  
?is way to realize ! ,kantian ideal ( an
 intuitive und]/&+8 ,a concrete concept 
w\ld be "o :i* s\ght ! univ]sal n )\t ! 
p>ticul>1 b 9 x2 :i* %\ld n f9d !       
inf9ite beyond ! f9ite1 nor ! absolute  
at an unatta9able di/ance above ! _w1   
nor ! ess5ce hidd5 beh9d ! ph5om5on1 b  
manife/+ itself !re94 ,if ! philosophy (
 reflection1 9 ! ab/ract lifelessness ( 
its concepts1 look$ on opposites z      
incapable ( sublation1 & ,s*ell+ reg>d$ 
!m z imm$iately id5tical1 if ! =m] d5i$ 
! id5tity ( opposites1 & ! latt] ma9ta9$
 x primordially giv5 79 ! absolute      
indiff]5ce :i* is to be grasp$ by       
intuition71 ! concrete concept secures !
 id5tity ( opposites ?r\gh              
self-m$iation1 _! pass+ ov] into x2 x   
tea*es u to "k ! id5tity z ! result ( a 
process4 ,fir/ imm$iate unity1 !n       
div]g5ce ( opposites1 &1 f9ally1        
reconciliation ( opposites--?is is !    

univ]sal law ( all developm5t4  ,!      
conflict betwe5 ! philosophy (          
reflection & ! philosophy ( intuition1  
:i* ,hegel endeavors to t]m9ate by a    
speculation at once conceptual &        
concrete1 conc]ns 7#a7 ! organ ( ?\ght1 
7#b7 ! object ( ?\ght1 7#c7 ! nature &  
logical dignity ( ! contradiction4  ,!  
organ ( ! true philosophy is nei!r !    
ab/ract reflective und]/&+1 :i* f9ds    
itself %ut up )9 ! limits ( ! ph5om5al1 
nor my/ical intuition1 :i* expects by a 
quick leap to ga9 ! summit ( k conc]n+ !
 absolute1 b reason z ! faculty (       
concrete concepts4 ,t concept is        
concrete :i* does n assume an attitude (
 cold repulsion t[>d its contr>y1 b     
seeks self-m$iation ) ! latt]1 & moves f
 !sis ?r\gh anti!sis1 & ) x1 to syn!sis4
 ,reason nei!r fixes ! opposites nor    
d5ies !m1 b has !m become id5tical4 ,!  
unity ( opposites is nei!r impossible   
nor pres5t f ! fir/1 b ! result ( a     
developm5t4  ,! object ( philosophy is n
 ! ph5om5al _w or ! relative1 b !       

absolute1 & ?is n z passive sub/ance1 b 
z liv+ subject1 :i* divides into        
di/9ctions1 & returns f !m to id5tity1  
:i* develops ?r\gh ! opposites4 ,!      
absolute is a process1 & all t is real !
 manife/ation ( ?is process4 ,if sci5ce 
is to correspond to reality1 x also mu/ 
be a process4 ,philosophy is            
?\ght-movem5t 7dialectic72 x is a sy/em 
( concepts1 ea* ( :i* passes ov] into   
its successor1 puts its successor =? f  
itself1 j z x has be5 g5]at$ by its     
pr$ecessor4  ,all reality is developm5t1
 & ! motive =ce 9 ?is developm5t 7( ! _w
 z well z ( sci5ce7 is opposition1      
contradiction4 ,)\t ?is !re w\ld be no  
movem5t & no life4 ,?us all reality is  
full ( contradiction1 & yet rational4 ,!
 contradiction is n t :i* is entirely   
alogical1 b x is a spur to fur!r ?9k+4  
,x mu/ n be annull$1 b sublat$          
7aufgehob571 i4e41 at once negat$ &     
cons]v$4 ,?is is effect$ by ?9k+ !      
contradictory concepts toge!r 9 a ?ird  
high]1 m compreh5sive1 & ri*] concept1  

^: mom5ts !y !n =m4 ,z sublat$ mom5ts !y
 contradict ea* o!r no long]2 !         
opposition or contradiction is ov]come4 
,b ! syn!sis is /ill n a f9al "o2 ! play
 beg9s anew2 aga9 an opposition makes   
its appe>ance1 :i* 9 turn seeks to be   
ov]come1 etc4 ,ea* sep>ate concept is   
"o-sid$1 defective1 repres5ts only a "p 
( ! tru?1 ne$s to be supplem5t$ by its  
contr>y1 &1 by its union ) ?is1 its     
complem5t1 yields a high] concept1 :i*  
comes ne>] to ! :ole tru?1 b /ill does n
 q rea* x4 ,ev5 ! la/ & ri*e/ concept--!
 absolute ,idea--is by itself alone n ! 
full tru?2 ! result implies ! :ole      
developm5t ?r\gh :i* x has be5 atta9$4  
,x is only at ! end ( su* a dialectic ( 
concepts t philosophy rea*es complete   
correspond5ce ) ! liv+ reality1 :i* x   
has to compreh5d2 & ! speculative       
progress ( ?\ght is no caprici\s sport+ 
) concepts on ! "p ( ! ?9k+ subject1 b !
 adequate expression ( ! movem5t ( !    
matt] itself4 ,s9ce ! _w & its gr\nd is 
developm5t1 x c only be kn[n ?r\gh a    

developm5t ( concepts4 ,! law :i* ?is   
foll[s1 9 little z 9 great1 is ! advance
 f position to opposition1 & !nce to    
comb9ation4 ,! mo/ compreh5sive example 
( ?is triad--,idea1 ,nature1 ,_s--gives 
! division ( ! sy/em2 !                 
second--,subjective1 ,objective1        
,absolute ,_s--det]m9es ! articulation (
 ! ?ird "p4   #b4 ,! ,sy/em4  ,hegel    
began ) a ,ph5om5ology by way (         
introduction1 9 :i* 7n to />t1 l ! s*ool
 ( ,s*ell+1 ) absolute k z ?\gh %ot f a 
pi/ol7 he describes ! g5esis (          
philosophical cognition ) an attractive 
m+l+ ( psy*ological &                   
philosophico-hi/orical po9ts ( view4 ,he
 makes _s--! univ]sal _w-_s z well z !  
individual consci\sness1 :i* repeats 9  
brief ! /ages 9 ! developm5t (          
humanity--pass ?r\gh six /adia1 ( :i* ! 
fir/ ?ree 7consci\sness1                
self-consci\sness1 reason7 correspond to
 ! progress ( ! int]m$iate "p ( !       
,doctr9e ( ,subjective ,_s1 :i* is      
entitl$ ,phnom5ologie1 & ! o!rs 7e?ical 

_s1 religion1 & absolute k7 give an     
abbreviat$ pres5tation ( t :i* !        
,doctr9e ( ,objective & ,absolute ,_s   
develops 9 ri*] articulation4  7a7      
,logic consid]s ! ,idea 9 ! ab/ract     
elem5t ( ?\ght1 only z x is ?\ght1 & n  
yet z x is intuit$1 nor z x ?9ks itself2
 its cont5t is ! tru? z x is )\t a veil 
9 & = itself1 or ,god 9 8 et]nal ess5ce 
be=e ! creation ( ! _w4 ,unlike common  
logic1 :i* is m]ely =mal1 sep>at+ =m &  
cont5t1 speculative logic1 :i* is at !  
same "t ontology or metaphysics1 treats 
! categories z real relations1 ! =ms (  
?\ght z =ms ( reality3 z ?\ght & ?+ are 
! same1 s logic is ! !ory ( ?\ght & (   
be+ 9 "o4 ,its ?ree pr9cipal divisions  
are entitl$ ,be+1 ,ess5ce1 ! ,concept4  
,! fir/ ( ^! discusses quality1         
quantity1 & measure or qualitative      
quantum4 ,! second consid]s ess5ce z    
su*1 appe>ance1 & 7ess5ce appe>+ or7    
actuality1 & ?is la/1 9 turn1 9 !       
mom5ts1 sub/antiality1 causality1 &     
reciprocity4 ,! ?ird "p is divid$ into !

 sections1 subjectivity 7concept1       
judgm5t1 syllogism71 objectivity        
7me*anism1 *emism1 teleology71 & ! ,idea
 7life1 cognition1 ! absolute ,idea74   
,z a specim5 ( ! way 9 :i* ,hegel makes 
! concept pass ov] into its opposite &  
unite ) ?is 9 a syn!sis1 x w be         
suffici5t to cite ! fam\s beg9n+ ( !    
,logic4 ,h[ mu/ ! absolute fir/ be      
?\ght1 h[ fir/ def9$8 ,evid5tly z t :i* 
is absolutely )\t presupposition4 ,! mo/
 g5]al concept :i* rema9s aft] ab/ract+ 
f e det]m9ate cont5t ( ?\ght1 & f :i* no
 fur!r ab/raction is possible1 ! mo/    
indet]m9ate & imm$iate concept1 is pure 
be+4 ,z )\t quality & cont5t x is       
equival5t to no?+4 ,9 ?9k+ pure be+ we h
 r cogitat$ no?+2 b ?is 9 turn _c be    
reta9$ z f9al1 b passes back into be+1 =
 9 be+ ?\ght x exi/s z a some?+ ?\ght4  
,pure be+ & pure no?+ are ! same1 al?\gh
 we mean diff]5t ?+s by !m2 bo? are     
absolute indet]m9at5ess4 ,! transition f
 be+ to no?+ & f no?+ to be+ is becom+4 
,becom+ is ! unity1 & h5ce ! tru? ( bo?4

 ,:5 ! boy is becom+ a y\? he is1 & at !
 same "t is n1 a y\?4 ,be+ & n-be+ are s
 m$iat$ & sublat$ 9 becom+ t !y are no  
long] contradictory4 ,9 a simil> way x  
is fur!r %[n t quality & quantity are   
reciprocally dep5d5t & unit$ 9 measure  
7:i* may be popul>ly illu/rat$ ?us3     
progressively dim9i%+ heat becomes cold1
 di/ances _c be measur$ 9 bu%els72 t    
ess5ce & ph5om5on are mutually          
insep>able1 inasmu* z ! latt] is always 
! appe>ance ( an ess5ce1 & ! =m] is     
ess5ce only z x manife/s itself 9 !     
ph5om5on1 etc4  ,! significance ( !     
,hegelian logic dep5ds less on its +5i\s
 & valuable explanations ( p>ticul>s ?an
 on ! fundam5tal idea1 t ! categories d 
n =m an unord]$ heap1 b a great         
organically connect$ :ole1 9 :i* ea*    
memb] occupies its det]m9ate position1 &
 is relat$ to e o!r by gradations (     
k9%ip & subord9ation4 ,?is purpose to   
con/ruct a globus ( ! pure concepts 0   
itself a mighty feat1 :i* is assur$ ( ! 
cont9u$ admiration ( po/]ity not)/&+ !  

failure 9 execution4 ,he :o %all "o day 
take x up aga9 w draw _m a lesson f     
,hegel's unsuccessful attempt4 ,be=e    
all1 ! connections betwe5 ! concepts are
 too manifold & complex = ! monoton\s   
transitions ( ?is dialectic me?od 7:i*  
,*alybaeus wittily call$ articul>       
disease7 to be capable ( do+ !m ju/ice4 
,aga91 ! productive =ce ( ?\ght mu/ n be
 neglect$1 & to x1 r ?an to ! mobility (
 ! categories !mselves1 ! matt] ( !     
transition f "o to ! o!r mu/ be         
transf]r$4  7b7 ,! ,philosophy ( ,nature
 %[s ! ,idea 9 its o!r-be+4 ,out ( !    
realm ( logical %ades1 :]e9 ! s\ls ( all
 reality dwell1 we move into ! sph]e (  
ext]nal1 s5su\s exi/5ce1 9 :i* !        
concepts take on mat]ial =m4 ,:y does ! 
,idea ext]nalize itself8 ,9 ord] to     
become actual4 ,b ! actuality ( nature  
is imp]fect1 unsuit$ to ! ,idea1 & only 
! precondition ( a bett] actuality1 !   
actuality ( _s1 :i* has be5 ! aim f !   
beg9n+3 reason becomes nature 9 ord] to 
become _s2 ! ,idea goes =? f itself 9   

ord]--enri*$--to return to itself aga94 
,only ! man :o once has be5 9 a =eign l&
 kn[s 8 home aright4  ,! relation (     
natural objects to "o ano!r & _! action 
^u "o ano!r is an ext]nal "o3 !y are    
gov]n$ by me*anical necessity1 & !      
cont+5cy ( influ5ces f )\t arre/s &     
di/urbs _! developm5t1 s t :ile reason  
is ev]y:]e disc]nible 9 nature1 x is n  
reason alone2 & mu* t is illogical1     
contr>y to purpose1 lawless1 pa9ful1 &  
unheal?y1 po9ts to ! fact t ! ess5ce (  
nature consi/s 9 ext]nality4 ,?is       
inadequacy 9 ! realization ( ! ,idea1   
h[ev]1 is gradually remov$ by           
developm5t1 until1 9 life1 ! way is     
prep>$ = ! bir? ( _s4  ,z ,hegel 9 8    
philosophy ( nature--:i* falls into ?ree
 p>ts1 me*anics1 physics1 &             
organics--foll[s ,s*ell+ pretty closely1
 &1 moreov]1 does n %[ 8 p[]1 x does n  
seem necess>y to dwell long] ^u x4 ,9 ! 
next section1 also1 9 view ( ! fact t   
its models1 ! con/ructive psy*ologies ( 
,fi*te & ,s*ell+1 h already be5 discuss$

 9 detail1 a /atem5t ( ! divisions &    
connections mu/ suffice4  7c7 ,!        
,doctr9e ( ,subjective ,_s makes fre$om 
7be+ ) or 9 self7 ! ess5ce & de/9ation (
 _s1 & %[s h[ _s realizes ?is           
pr$isposition 9 increas+ indep5d5ce (   
nature4 ,! subject ( an?ropology is _s z
 ! 7natural1 s5sitive1 & actual7 s\l ( a
 body2 "h are discuss$ ! di/9ctions (   
race1 nation1 sex1 age1 sleep+ & wak+1  
disposition & temp]am5t1 toge!r ) tal5ts
 & m5tal diseases1 9 %ort1 :atev]       
belongs to _s 9 its union ) a body4     
,ph5om5ology is ! sci5ce ( ! ego1 i4e41 
( _s1 9 s f> z x opposes itself to      
nature z ! non-ego1 & passes ?r\gh !    
/ages ( 7m]e7 consci\sness1             
self-consci\sness1 & 7! syn!sis ( ! two7
 reason4 ,psy*ology 7bett] pneumatology7
 consid]s _s 9 its reconciliation )     
objectivity "u ! foll[+ divisions3      
,!oretical ,intellig5ce z intuition     
7s5sation1 att5tion1 intuition71 z      
repres5tation 7passive memory1 phantasy1
 memory71 & 7z conceiv+1 judg+1 reason+7

 ?\ght2 ,practical ,intellig5ce z feel+1
 impulse 7passion & caprice71 &         
happ9ess2 f9ally1 ! unity ( ! kn[+ &    
will+ _s1 free _s or rational w1 :i* 9  
turn realizes itself 9 "r1 e?ics1 &     
hi/ory4  7d7 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,objective   
,_s1 compreh5d+ e?ics1 ! philosophy (   
"r1 ( ! /ate1 & ( hi/ory1 is ,hegel's   
mo/ brilliant a*ievem5t4 ,x divides z   
foll[s3 7#a7 ,"r 7prop]ty1 contract1    
puni%m5t72 7#b7 ,morality 7purpose1     
int5tion & welf>e1 good & evil72 7#c7   
,social ,morality3 7a7 ! family2 7b7    
civil society2 7c7 ! /ate 7int]nal &    
ext]nal polity1 & ! hi/ory ( ! _w74 ,9  
"r ! w or fre$om atta9s to out]         
actuality1 9 morality x atta9s to inn]  
actuality1 9 social morality to         
objective & subjective actuality at     
once1 h5ce to complete actuality4  ,"r1 
z x 7 a second1 high] nature1 because a 
necessity posit$ & ackn[l$g$ by _s1 is  
orig9ally a sum ( prohibitions2 :]ev] x 
seems to comm& ! negative has only      
receiv$ a positive expression4 ,private 

"r conta9s two ?+s--! w>rant to be a    
p]son1 & ! injunction to respect o!r    
p]sons z su*4 ,prop]ty is ! ext]nal     
sph]e :i* ! w gives to itself2 )\t      
prop]ty no p]sonality4 ,?r\gh puni%m5t  
7retaliation7 "r is re/or$ aga9/ un-"r  
7,unre*t71 & ! latt] %[n to be a        
nullity4 ,! crim9al is treat$ accord+ to
 ! same maxim z t ( 8 action--t co]cion 
is all[able4  ,9 ! /adium ( morality !  
good exi/s 9 ! =m ( a requirem5t :i* c  
nev] be p]fectly fulfill$1 z a m]e      
imp]ative2 !re rema9s an irrepressible  
opposition betwe5 ! moral law & !       
individual w1 betwe5 int5tion &         
execution4 ,"h ! judge ( good & evil is 
! consci5ce1 :i* is n secure aga9/      
error4 ,t :i* is objectively evil may   
seem good & a duty to subjective        
conviction4 7,accord+ to ,fi*te ?is 0   
impossible74  ,on acc\nt ( ! conflict   
betwe5 duty & w1 :i* is at ?is /age     
irrepressible1 ,hegel is unable to      
consid] morality1 ! sph]e ( ! subjective
 disposition1 supreme4 ,he ?9ks he kn[s 

a high] sph]e1 :]e9 legality & morality 
become "o3 social morality              
7,sittli*keit74 ,?is sph]e takes its "n 
f ,sitte1 t cu/om rul+ 9 ! community :i*
 is felt by ! individual n z a comm& f  
)\t1 b z 8 own nature4 ,"h ! good appe>s
 z ! _s ( ! family & ( ! p1 p]vad+      
individuals z its sub/ance4 ,m>riage is 
nei!r a m]ely legal nor a m]ely         
s5tim5tal relation1 b an e?ical         
7sittli*es7 in/itution4 ,:ile love rules
 9 ! family1 9 civil society ea* aims at
 ! satisfaction ( 8 private wants1 &    
yet1 9 work+ = himself1 subs]ves ! good 
( ! :ole4 ,class di/9ctions are bas$ on 
! division ( labor dem&$ by ! v>iant    
ne$s ( m5 7! agricultural1 indu/rial1 & 
?9k+ classes74 ,class & p>ty honor is1 9
 ,hegel's view1 among ! mo/ ess5tial    
supports ( g5]al morality4 ,/range to   
say1 he br+s ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice & !
 police into ! same sph]e4  ,! /ate1 !  
unity ( ! family & civil society1 is !  
complet$ actualization ( fre$om4 ,its   
organs are ! political p[]s 7:i* are to 

be divid$1 b n to be made indep5d5t73 ! 
legislative p[] det]m9es ! univ]sal1 !  
executive subsumes ! p>ticul> !reund]1 !
 p[] ( ! pr9ce comb9es bo? into p]sonal 
unity4 ,9 ! w ( ! pr9ce ! /ate becomes  
subject4 ,! p]fect =m ( ! /ate is       
con/itutional mon>*y1 its e/abli%m5t !  
goal ( hi/ory1 :i* ,hegel1 l ,kant1     
consid]s *iefly f ! political /&po9t4   
,hi/ory is ! developm5t ( ! rational    
/ate2 ! _w-_s ! guid+ =ce 9 ?is         
developm5t2 its in/rum5ts ! spirits ( ! 
nations & great m54 ,a p>ticul> p is !  
expression ( b "o det]m9ate mom5t ( !   
univ]sal _s2 & :5 x has fulfill$ its    
commission x loses its legal w>rant1 &  
yields up its dom9ion to ano!r1 n[ !    
only au?oriz$ "o3 ! hi/ory ( ! _w is !  
judgm5t ( ! _w1 :i* is held ov] !       
nations4 ,! _w-hi/orical *>act]s1 also1 
are only ! in/rum5ts ( a high] p[]1 !   
purposes ( :i* !y execute :ile imag9+ t 
!y are act+ 9 _! own int]e/s--_! own de$
 is hidd5 f !m1 & is nei!r _! purpose   
nor _! object4 ,?is %\ld be call$ !     

cunn+ ( reason1 t x makes ! passions "w 
9 its s]vice4  ,hi/ory is progress 9 !  
consci\sness ( fre$om4 ,at fir/ "o only 
kn[s himself free1 !n sev]al1 f9ally    
all4 ,?is gives ?ree *ief p]iods1 or r  
f\r _w-k+doms1--,ori5tal despotism1 !   
,greek 7democratic7 & ! ,roman          
7ari/ocratic7 republic1 & ! ,g]manic    
mon>*y1--9 :i* humanity passes ?r\gh its
 sev]al ages4 ,l ! sun1 hi/ory moves f  
ea/ to we/4 ,*9a & ,india h n advanc$   
beyond ! prelim9>y /ages ( ! /ate2 !    
,*9ese k+dom is a family /ate1 ,india a 
society ( classes /iff5$ into ca/es4 ,! 
,p]sian despotism is ! fir/ true /ate1 &
 ?is 9 ! =m ( a conqu]+ milit>y /ate4 ,9
 ! y\? & manhood ( humanity ! sov]eignty
 ( ! p replaces ! sov]eignty ( "o2 b n  
all h yet ! consci\sness ( fre$om1 !    
slaves h no %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t4 ,!        
pr9ciple ( ! ,greek _w1 ) its fre% life 
& delight 9 beauty1 is individuality2   
h5ce ! plurality ( small /ates1 9 :i*   
,sp>ta is an anticipation ( ! ,roman _s4
 ,! ,roman ,republic is int]nally       

*>act]iz$ by ! con/itutional /ruggle    
betwe5 ! patricians & ! plebeians1 &    
ext]nally by ! policy ( _w conque/4 ,out
 ( ! repell5t relations betwe5 !        
univ]sal & ! individual1 :i* oppose "o  
ano!r z ! ab/ract /ate & ab/ract        
p]sonality1 ! unhappy imp]ial p]iod     
develops4 ,9 ! ,roman ,empire & ,judaism
 ! conditions 7 giv5 = ! appe>ance (    
,*ri/ianity4 ,?is br+s ) x ! idea (     
humanity3 e man is free z man1 z a      
rational be+4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ?is           
emancipation 0 religi\s2 ?r\gh ! ,g]mans
 x became political z well4 ,! rema9+   
divisions _c "h be detail$4 ,_! captions
 run3 ,! ,elem5ts ( ! ,g]manic ,_s 7!   
,migrations2 ,mohamm$anism2 ! ,franki%  
,empire ( ,*>lemagne72 ! ,middle ,ages  
7! ,feudal ,sy/em & ! ,hi]>*y2 !        
,crusades2 ! ,transition f ,feudal ,rule
 to ,mon>*y1 or ! ,cities72 ,mod]n      
,times 7! ,re=mation2 its ,effect on    
,political ,developm5t2 ,illum9ation &  
,revolution74  ,! philosophy ( hi/ory#a 
is ,hegel's mo/ brilliant & mo/ la/+    

a*ievem5t4 ,8 view ( ! /ate z ! absolute
 end1 ! complete realization ( ! good1  
is dom9at$1 no d\bt1 by ! antique ideal1
 :i* _c take root aga9 9 ! humanity (   
mod]n times4 ,b 8 spl5did endeavor to   
compreh5d hi/ory1 to br+ to light ! laws
 ( hi/orical developm5t & ! int]action  
betwe5 ! diff]5t sph]es ( national life1
 w rema9 an example = all "t4 ,! lead+  
ideas ( 8 philosophy ( hi/ory h s       
rapidly f\nd _! way into ! g5]al        
sci5tific consci\sness t ! view ( hi/ory
 :i* obta9$ 9 ! p]iod ( ! ,illum9ation  
is well nigh incompreh5sible to !       
inve/igator ( to-day4  ,footnote #a3 ,a 
well-*os5 collection ( aphorisms f !    
philosophy ( hi/ory is giv5 by ,m4      
,s*asl] "u ! title ,hegel3 ,populre     
,g$ank5 aus se95 ,w]k51 #b;d4 ed41      
#ahgc4  7e7 ,absolute ,_s is ! unity (  
subjective & objective _s4 ,z su*1 _s   
becomes p]fectly free 7f all            
contradictions7 & reconcil$ ) itself4 ,!
 break betwe5 subject & object1         
repres5tation & ?+1 ?\ght & be+1 inf9ite

 & f9ite is done away )1 & ! inf9ite    
recogniz$ z ! ess5ce ( ! f9ite4 ,! k ( !
 reconciliation ( ! highe/ opposites or 
( ! inf9ite 9 ! f9ite pres5ts itself 9  
?ree =ms3 9 ! =m ( intuition 7art71 (   
feel+ & repres5tation 7religion71 (     
?\ght 7philosophy74  7#a7               
,ae/hetics4--,! beautiful is ! absolute 
7! inf9ite 9 ! f9ite7 9 s5su\s exi/5ce1 
! ,idea 9 limit$ manife/ation4 ,accord+ 
to ! relation ( ^! mom5ts1 accord+ z !  
out] =m or ! inn] cont5t pr$om9ates1 or 
a balance ( ! two occurs1 we h !        
symbolic =m ( art1 9 :i* ! ph5om5on     
pr$om9ates & ! ,idea is m]ely sugge/$2  
or ! classical =m1 9 :i* ,idea &        
intuition1 or spiritual cont5t & s5su\s 
=m1 completely balance & p]vade ea* o!r1
 9 :i* ! =m] ( !m is ceaselessly tak5 up
 into ! latt]2 or ! romantic =m1 9 :i* !
 ph5om5on retires1 & ! ,idea1 !         
inw>dness ( ! _s pr$om9ates4 ,classical 
art1 9 :i* =m & cont5t are p]fectly     
con=m$ to ea* o!r1 is ! mo/ beautiful1 b
 romantic art is1 nev]!less1 high] & m  

significant4  ,ori5tal1 includ+         
,egyptian & ,hebrew1 art 0 symbolic2    
,greek art1 classical2 ,*ri/ian art is  
romantic1 br++ into art entirely new    
s5tim5ts ( a knightly & a religi\s      
sort--love1 loyalty & honor1 grief &    
rep5tance--& und]/&+ h[ by c>eful       
treatm5t to ennoble ev5 ! petty &       
cont+5t4 ,! sublime belongs to symbolic 
art2 ! ,roman satire is ! dissolution ( 
! classical1 & humor ! dissolution ( !  
romantic1 ideal4  ,ar*itecture is       
pr$om9antly symbolic2 sculpture p]mits !
 pure/ expression ( ! classical ideal2  
pa9t+1 music1 & poetry be> a romantic   
"*4 ,?is does n exclude ! recurr5ce ( ^!
 ?ree /ages )9 ea* art--9 ar*itecture1 =
 example1 z monum5tal 7! obelisk71      
useful 7h\se & temple71 & ,go?ic 7!     
ca!dral7 ar*itecture4 ,z ! pla/ic arts  
rea*$ _! culm9ation among ! ,hell5es1 s 
! romantic arts culm9ate among !        
,*ri/ian nations4 ,9 poetry1 z ! mo/    
p]fect & univ]sal 7or ! totality (7 art1
 unit+ 9 itself ! two contr>ies1 !      

symbolic & ! classical1 ! lyric is a    
repetition ( ! ar*itectonic-musical1 !  
epic1 ( ! pla/ic-pictorial1 ! drama1 !  
union ( ! lyric & ! epic4  7#b7         
,philosophy ( ,religion4--,! )drawal f  
out] s5sibility into ! inn] _s1 begun 9 
romantic art1 especially 9 poetry1 is   
complet$ 9 religion4 ,9 religion !      
nations h record$ ! way 9 :i* !y        
repres5t ! sub/ance ( ! _w2 9 x ! unity 
( ! inf9ite & ! f9ite is felt1 &        
repres5t$ ?r\gh imag9ation4 ,religion is
 n m]ely a feel+ ( piety1 b a ?\ght ( ! 
absolute1 only n 9 ! =m ( ?9k+4         
,religion & philosophy are mat]ially !  
same1 bo? h ,god or ! tru? = _! object1 
!y diff] only 9 =m--religion conta9s 9  
an empirical1 symbolic =m ! same        
speculative cont5t :i* philosophy       
pres5ts 9 ! adequate =m ( ! concept4    
,religion is develop+ k z x gradually   
conqu]s imp]fection4 ,x appe>s fir/ z   
def9ite religion 9 two /adia1 natural   
religion & ! religion ( spiritual       
individuality1 & f9ally atta9s !        

complete realization ( its concept 9 !  
absolute religion ( ,*ri/ianity4        
,natural religion1 9 its l[e/ /age      
magic1 develops 9 ?ree =ms--z ! religion
 ( measure 7,*9ese71 ( phantasy 7,indian
 or ,brahmanical71 & ( be+ 9 self       
7,buddhi/ic74 ,9 ! ,p]sian 7,zoroa/rian7
 religion ( light1 ! ,syrian religion ( 
pa91 & ! ,egyptian religion ( enigma1 is
 prep>$ ! way = ! trans=mation into !   
religion ( fre$om4 ,! ,greek solves !   
riddle ( ! ,sph9x by appreh5d+ himself z
 subject1 z man4  ,! religion (         
spiritual individuality or free         
subjectivity passes ?r\gh ?ree /adia3 ! 
,jewi% religion ( sublimity 7unity71 !  
,greek religion ( beauty 7necessity71 ! 
,roman religion ( purposiv5ess 7( !     
und]/&+74 ,9 contra/ to ! ,jewi%        
religion ( slavi% ob$i5ce1 :i* by       
miracle makes kn[n ! p[] ( ! "o ,god & !
 nullity ( nature1 :i* has be5 creat$ by
 8 w1 & ! prosaic sev]ity ( ! ,roman1   
:i*1 9 ,jupit] & ,=tuna1 wor%ips only ! 
_w-dom9ion ( ! ,roman p1 ! m *e]ful     

art-religion ( ! ,hell5es rev]5ces 9 !  
beautiful =ms ( ! gods1 ! p[]s :i* man  
is aw>e ( 9 himself--wisdom1 brav]y1 &  
beauty4  ,! ,*ri/ian or reveal$ religion
 is ! religion ( tru?1 ( fre$om1 ( _s4  
,its cont5t is ! unity ( ! div9e nature 
& ! human1 ,god z kn[+ himself 9 be+    
kn[n ( man2 ! k ( ,god is ,god's self-k4
 ,its fundam5tal tru?s are ! ,tr9ity    
7signify+ t ,god diff]5tiates & sublates
 ! diff]5ce 9 love71 ! inc>nation 7z a  
figure ( ! ess5tial unity ( ! inf9ite & 
f9ite _s71 ! fall1 & ,*ri/'s aton+ dea? 
7?is signifies t ! realization ( ! unity
 betwe5 man & ,god presupposes ! ov]com+
 ( naturality & selfi%ness74  7#c7      
,philosophy4--,f9ally ! task rema9s (   
clo?+ ! absolute cont5t giv5 9 religion 
9 ! =m adequate to x1 9 ! =m ( !        
concept4 ,9 philosophy absolute _s      
atta9s ! highe/ /age1 its p]fect self-k4
 ,x is ! self-?9k+ ,idea4  ,"h we mu/ n 
look = fur!r detail$ explanations3      
philosophy is j ! c\rse :i* has be5     
trav]s$4 ,its sy/ematic exposition is   

encyclopa$ia2 ! consid]ation ( its own  
actualization1 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1   
:i*1 z a philosophical discipl9e1 has to
 %[ ! con=mity to law & ! rationality ( 
?is hi/orical developm5t1 to %[ ! m ?an 
m]e succession1 ! g5etic succession1 (  
sy/ems1 z well z _! connection ) !      
hi/ory ( culture4 ,ea* sy/em is !       
product & expression ( its "t1 & z !    
self-reflection ( ea* successive /age 9 
culture _c appe> be=e ?is has rea*$ its 
maturity & is ab\t to be ov]come4 ,n    
until ! approa* ( ! twilight does ! owl 
( ,m9]va beg9 its flight4    ,,*apt]    
,,xiv4  ,,! ,,opposition ,,to           
,,con/ructive ,,idealism3 ,,fries1      
,,h]b>t1 ,,s*op5hau]4  ,9 ,fries1       
,h]b>t1 & ,s*op5hau] a ?reefold         
opposition 0 rais$ aga9/ ! ideali/ic    
s*ool repres5t$ by ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 &   
,hegel4 ,! opposition ( ,fries is aim$  
at ! me?od ( ! con/ructive philosoph]s1 
t ( ,h]b>t aga9/ _! ontological         
positions1 & t ( ,s*op5hau] aga9/ _!    
e/imate ( ! value ( exi/5ce4 ,fries &   

,b5eke decl>e t a speculative k ( !     
supras5sible is impossible1 & seek to   
base philosophy on empirical psy*ology2 
to ! monism 7panlogism7 ( ! ideali/s    
,h]b>t opposes a pluralism1 to _!       
philosophy ( becom+1 a philosophy ( be+2
 ,s*op5hau] rejects _! optimism1 d5y+   
rationality to ! _w & ! _w-gr\nd4 ,among
 !mselves ! ?9k]s ( ! opposition h      
little m 9 common ?an _! claim to a     
bett] und]/&+ ( ! ,kantian philosophy1 &
 a developm5t ( x m 9 h>mony ) ! mean+ (
 its au?or1 ?an x _h exp]i5c$ at ! h&s (
 ! ideali/s4 ,:oev] fails to agree ) !m 
9 ?is1 & ascribes to ! ideali/s :om !y  
oppose bett] gr\nd$ claims to ! honor ( 
be+ correct int]pret]s & consi/5t       
develop]s ( ,kantian pr9ciples1 w be    
ready to adopt ! "n ,semi-,kantians1    
giv5 by ,=tlage to ! memb]s ( !         
opposition1--a title :i* seems ! m fitt+
 s9ce ea* ( !m appropriates only a      
def9itely det]m9able "p ( ,kant's views1
 & m+les a =eign elem5t ) x4 ,9 ,fries  
?is non-,kantian elem5t comes f         

,jacobi's philosophy ( fai?2 9 ,h]b>t x 
comes f ! monadology ( ,leibnitz1 & !   
anci5t ,eleatico-atomi/ic doctr9e2 9    
,s*op5hau]1 f ! religion ( ,india & 7z 9
 ,b5eke7 f ! s5sationalism ( ! ,engli% &
 ! ,fr5*4 ,we c only h9t 9 pass+ at !   
p>allelism :i* exi/s betwe5 ! *ief      
repres5tatives ( ! ideali/ic s*ool & !  
lead]s ( ! opposition4 ,fries's !ory ( k
 & fai? is ! empirical c\nt]p>t (       
,fi*te's ,sci5ce ( ,k4 ,s*op5hau]1 9 8  
doctr9e ( ,w & ,idea1 9 8 vigor\sly     
intuitive & highly fanciful view (      
nature & art1 &1 9 g5]al1 9 8 ae/hetical
 mode ( philosophiz+1 ) its glad escape 
f ! fett]s ( me?od1 has s mu* 9 common )
 ,s*ell+ t _m unhesitat+ly treat 8 sy/em
 z an (f%oot ( ! ,philosophy ( ,nature4 
,! contra/ betwe5 ,h]b>t & ,hegel is ! m
 pron\nc$ s9ce !y are at "o 9 _!        
confid5ce 9 ! p[] ( ! concept4 ,! mo/   
conspicu\s po9t ( comp>ison betwe5 !    
metaphysics ( ! two ?9k]s is !          
significance ascrib$ by !m to !         
contradiction z ! op]ative mom5t 9 !    

movem5t ( philosophical ?\ght4 ,!       
attitude ( ho/ility :i* ,s*lei]ma*]     
assum$ 9 relation to ,hegel's           
intellectuali/ic conception ( religion  
induc$ ,h>ms to give to ,s*lei]ma*] also
 a place 9 ! ranks ( ! opposition4      
,foll[+ ! *ronological ord]1 we beg9 ) !
 campaign op5$ by ,fries "u ! bann] (   
an?ropology aga9/ ! ma9 bran* ( !       
,kantian s*ool4   #a4 ,! ,psy*ologi/s3  
,fries & ,b5eke4  ,jacob ,fri$ri* ,fries
 7#aggc-ahdc7 0 born & re>$ at ,b>by1   
/udi$ at ,j5a1 & habilitat$ at ! same   
univ]sity 9 ! ye> #ahja2 he 0 pr(essor  
at ,heidelb]g 9 #ahjf-af1 & at ,j5a f   
#ahaf until 8 dea?4 ,8 *ief "w 0 ! ,new 
,critique ( ,reason1 9 ?ree volumes1    
#ahjg 7#b;d ed41 #ahbh seq471 :i* _h be5
 prec$$1 9 #ahje1 by ! treatise ,k1     
,fai?1 & ,pres5tim5t4 ,besides ^! he    
compos$ a ,h&book ( ,psy*ical           
,an?ropology1 #ahba 7#b;d ed41 #ahcg    
seq471 text-books ( ,logic1             
,metaphysics1 ! ,ma!matical ,philosophy 
( ,nature1 & ,practical ,philosophy & ! 

,philosophy ( ,religion1 & a            
philosophical novel1 ,julius &          
,evagoras1 or ! ,beauty ( ! ,s\l4       
,fries adopts & popul>izes ,kant's      
results1 :ile he rejects ,kant's me?od4 
,) ,re9hold & ,fi*te1 he ?9ks           
transc5d5tal prejudice has =c$ its way  
into philosophy1 a phase ( ?\ght = :i*  
,kant himself 0 responsible by 8 anxiety
 to demon/rate ev]y?+4 ,t a priori =ms (
 k exi/ _c be prov$ by speculation1 b   
only by empirical me?ods1 & discov]$ by 
inn] obs]vation2 !y are giv5 facts (    
reason1 ( :i* we become consci\s by     
reflection or psy*ological analysis4 ,! 
a priori elem5t _c be demon/rat$ nor    
d$uc$1 b only %[n actually pres5t4 ,! "q
 at issue#a betwe5 ,fries & ! ideali/ic 
s*ool !re=e becomes1 ,is ! discov]y ( ! 
a priori elem5t itself a cognition a    
priori or a po/]iori8 ,is ! criticism ( 
reason a metaphysical or an empirical1 t
 is1 an an?ropological inquiry8 ,h]b>t  
decides ) ! ideali/s3 ,all concepts     
?r\gh :i* we ?9k our faculty ( k are    

!mselves metaphysical concepts 7,lehrbu*
 zur ,e9leitung1 p4 #bca74 ,fries       
decides3 ,! criticism ( reason is an    
empirico-psy*ological inquiry1 z 9 g5]al
 empirical psy*ology =ms ! basis ( all  
philosophy4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,kuno   
,fis*]'s ,pro-,rectoral ,address1 ,die  
beid5 ,kantis*5 ,s*ul5 9 ,j5a1 #ahfb4   
,) ! exception ( ?is div]g5ce 9 me?od   
,fries accepts ,kant's results almo/    
un*ang$1 unless we mu/ call ! level+ d[n
 :i* !y suff] at 8 h&s a consid]able    
alt]ation4 ,only ! doctr9e ( ! ,ideas & 
( ! k ( reason is trans=m$ by !         
introduction & sy/ematization (         
,jacobi's pr9ciple ( ! imm$iate evid5ce 
( fai?4 ,reason1 ! faculty ( ,ideas1    
i4e41 ( ! indemon/rable yet indubitable 
pr9ciples1 is fully ! pe] ( ! s5sibility
 & ! und]/&+4 ,! same subjective        
necessity :i* gu>antees to u ! objective
 reality ( ! intuitions & ! categories  
accompanies ! ,ideas z well2 ! fai? :i* 
reveals to u ! p] se ( ?+s is no less   
c]ta9 ?an ! k ( ph5om5a4 ,! ideal view (

 ! _w is j z necess>y z ! natural view2 
?r\gh ! =m] we cognize ! same _w z ?r\gh
 ! latt]1 only aft] a high] ord]2 bo?   
spr+ f reason or ! unity ( transc5d5tal 
app]ception1 only t 9 ! natural view we 
are consci\s ( ! fact1 f :i* we ab/ract 
9 ! ideal view1 t ?is is ! condition (  
exp]i5ce4 ,t :i* necessitates u to rise 
f k to fai? is ! circum/ance t ! empty  
unity-=m ( reason is nev] completely    
fill$ by s5su\s cognition4 ,! ,ideas are
 ( two k9ds3 ! ae/hetic ,ideas are      
intuitions1 :i* lack cle> concepts      
correspond+ to !m2 ! logical ,ideas are 
concepts "u :i* no correspond5t def9ite 
intuitions c be subsum$4 ,! =m] are     
rea*$ ?r\gh comb9ation2 ! latt] by      
negation1 by ?9k+ away ! limitations (  
empirical cognition1 by remov+ ! limits 
f ! concepts ( ! und]/&+4 ,by way ( !   
negation ( all limitations we rea* z _m 
,ideas z !re are categories1 t is1      
twelve1 among :i* ! ,ideas ( relation   
are ! mo/ important4 ,^! are ! ?ree     
axioms ( fai?--! et]nity ( ! s\l 7its   

elevation above space & "t1 to be       
c>efully di/+ui%$ f immortality1 or its 
p]man5ce 9 "t71 ! fre$om ( ! w1 & !     
,deity4 ,e ,idea expresses some?+       
absolute1 uncondition$1 p]fect1 &       
et]nal4--,! dualism ( k & fai?1 ( nature
 & fre$om1 or ( ph5om5al reality & true1
 high] reality1 is bridg$ ov] by a ?ird 
& int]m$iate mode ( appreh5sion1 feel+  
or pres5tim5t1 :i* tea*es u !           
reconciliation ( ! two realities1 !     
union ( ! ,idea & ! ph5om5on1 !         
int]p5etration ( ! et]nal & ! temporal4 
,! beautiful is ! ,idea z x manife/s    
itself 9 ! ph5om5on1 or ! ph5om5on z x  
symbolizes ! et]nal4 ,!                 
ae/hetico-religi\s judgm5t looks on !   
f9ite z ! revelation & symbol ( !       
inf9ite4 ,9 brief1 ,( ph5om5a we h k2 9 
! true nature ( ?+s we believe2         
pres5tim5t enables u to cognize ! latt] 
9 ! =m]4  ,!oretical philosophy is      
divid$ into ! philosophy ( nature1 :i*  
is to use ! ma!matical me?od1 h5ce to   
give a purely me*anical explanation (   

all ext]nal ph5om5a1 includ+ ^? (       
organic life1 & to leave ! consid]ation 
( ! _w z a teleological realm to        
religi\s pres5tim5t--& psy*ology4 ,!    
object ( ! =m] is ext]nal nature1 t ( ! 
latt] int]nal nature4 ,i "k myself only 
z ph5om5on1 my body ?r\gh out]1 my ego  
?r\gh inn]1 exp]i5ce4 ,x is only a      
v>iant mode ( appe>+ on ! "p ( "o & !   
same reality--s ,fries rem>ks 9         
opposition to ! influxus physicus & !   
h>monia prae/abilata--:i* n[ %[s me my  
p]son inw>dly z my _s1 & n[ outw>dly z !
 life-process ( my body4 ,practical     
philosophy includes e?ics1 ! philosophy 
( religion1 & ae/hetics4 ,9 accordance )
 ! ?reefold int]e/ ( our animal1        
s5suo-rational1 & purely rational       
impulses1 !re result ?ree ideals = !    
legislation ( values4 ,^! are ! ideal ( 
happ9ess1 ! ideal ( p]fection1 & ! ideal
 ( morality1 or ( ! agreeable1 ! useful1
 & ! good1 ! ?ird ( :i* alone possesses 
an uncondition$ wor? & validity z a     
univ]sal & necess>y law4 ,! moral laws  

are d$uc$ f fai? 9 ! equal p]sonal      
dignity ( m51 & ! ennobl+ ( humanity set
 up z ! highe/ mission ( morality4 ,!   
?ree fundam5tal ae/hetical temp]s are ! 
idyllic & epic ( en?usiasm1 ! dramatic (
 resignation1 ! lyric ( devotion4       
,fries's sy/em is ?us a union ( ,kantian
 positions ) elem5ts f ,jacobi1 9 :i* ! 
=m] exp]i5ce det]ioration1 & ! latt]    
improvem5t1 namely1 m exact =mulation4  
,among 8 adh]5ts1 & he has !m /ill1 !   
foll[+ appe> des]v+ ( m5tion3 ! botani/s
 ,s*leid5 & ,halli]2 ! !ologian ,de     
,wette2 ! philosoph]s ,calk] 7( ,bonn1  
di$ #ahgj7 & ,apelt 7#ahab-ei74 ,! la/  
made himself favorably kn[n by 8 ,epo*s 
( ! ,hi/ory ( ,humanity1 #ahde-df1 ,!ory
 ( ,induction1 #ahed1 & ,metaphysics1   
#aheg2 8 ,philosophy ( ,religion 7#ahfj7
 did n appe> until aft] 8 dea?4 ,!      
,ca?olic !ologian1 ,georg ,h]mes ( ,bonn
 7#agge-ahca7 favor$ a ,kantianism ak9  
to t ( ,fries4         99       99      
99       99       99  ,! psy*ological   
view f\nd$ by ,fries 0 consi/5tly       

develop$ by ,fri$ri* ,edu>d ,b5eke      
7#agih-ahed74 ,) ! exception ( ?ree ye>s
 ( tea*+ 9 ,gtt+51 #ahbd-bg1 :i!r he _h 
gone 9 consequ5ce ( a prohibition ( 8   
lectures call$ =? by 8 ,f\ndation ( !   
,physics ( ,e?ics1 #ahbb1 he 0 a memb] (
 ! univ]sity ( 8 native city1 ,b]l91    
fir/ z ,doc5t1 &1 f #ahcb1 aft] ! dea? (
 ,hegel1 :o 0 unfavorably dispos$ t[>d  
him1 z pr(essor extraord9>y4#a ,besides 
,kant1 ,jacobi1 & ,fries1 ,s*lei]ma*]1  
,h]b>t 7) :om he became acqua9t$ 9      
#ahba71 & ! ,engli% ?9k]s ex]t$ a       
det]m9+ influ5ce on ! =mation ( 8       
philosophy4 ,b5eke d5ies ! possibility (
 speculative k ev5 m emphatically ?an   
,fries4 ,kant's und]tak+ 0 aim$ at !    
de/ruction ( a non-exp]i5tial sci5ce f  
concepts1 & if x has n succe$$ 9 prev5t+
 ! neo-,s*ola/icism ( ! ,fi*tean s*ool1 
) its ov]drawn attempts to revive a     
d$uctive k ( ! absolute1 ?is has be5    
*iefly due to ! false1 non-empirical    
me?od ( ! great critic ( reason4 ,! root
 & basis ( all k is exp]i5ce2           

metaphysics itself is an empirical      
sci5ce1 x is ! la/ 9 ! s]ies (          
philosophical discipl9es4 ,:oev] beg9s )
 metaphysics1 in/ead ( end+ ) x1 beg9s !
 h\se at ! ro(4 ,! po9t ( dep>ture = all
 cognition is inn] exp]i5ce or          
self-obs]vation2 h5ce ! fundam5tal      
sci5ce is psy*ology1 & all o!r bran*es (
 philosophy no?+ b appli$ psy*ology4 ,by
 ! inn] s5se we p]ceive our ego z x     
really is1 n m]ely z x appe>s to u2 !   
only object ^: p] se we imm$iately "k is
 our own s\l2 9 self-consci\sness be+ & 
repres5tation are "o4 ,?us1 9 opposition
 to ,kant1 ,b5eke /&s on ! side (       
,desc>tes3 ,! s\l is bett] kn[n to u ?an
 ! ext]nal _w1 to :i* we only transf] ! 
exi/5ce imm$iately giv5 9 ! s\l z a     
result ( in/9ctive analogical inf]5ce1 s
 t 9 ! desc5t ( our k f m5 organiz$ l   
ourselves to inorganic matt] !          
inadequacy ( our repres5tations         
progressively increases4  ,footnote #a3 
,on ,b5eke's "* cf4 ! f\r? ( ,=tlage's  
,a*t psy*ologis*e ,vortrge1 :i* are well

 wor? read+4  ,psy*ology--we may m5tion 
( ,b5eke's works 9 ?is field !          
,psy*ological ,sket*es1 #ahbe-bg1 & !   
,text-book ( ,psy*ology1 #ahcc1 ! ?ird &
 f\r? 7#ahgg7 editions ( :i*1 edit$ by  
,dressl]1 conta9 z an app5dix a         
*ronological table ( all ,b5eke's       
works--mu/1 z int]nal natural sci5ce1   
foll[ ! same me?od1 &1 />t+ ) !         
imm$iately giv51 employ ! same in/rum5ts
 9 ! treatm5t ( exp]i5ce z ext]nal      
natural sci5ce1 i4e4 ! explanation (    
facts by laws1 &1 fur!r /ill1 by        
hypo!ses & !ories4 ,gratefully recogniz+
 ! removal ( two ob/acles to psy*ology1 
! doctr9e ( innate ideas & ! traditional
 !ory ( ! faculties ( ! s\l by ,locke & 
,h]b>t1 7! commonly accept$             
faculties--memory1 und]/&+1 feel+1      
w--are 9 fact n simple p[]s1 b m]e      
ab/ractions1 hypo/atiz$ class concepts (
 extremely complex ph5om5a17 ,b5eke     
seeks to discov] ! simple elem5ts f :i* 
all m5tal life is comp\nd$4 ,he f9ds ^! 
9 ! num]\s elem5t>y faculties ( receiv+ 

& appropriat+ ext]nal /imuli1 :i* ! s\l 
9 "p possesses1 9 "p acquires 9 ! c\rse 
( its life1 & :i* con/itute its         
sub/ance2 ea* sep>ate s5se ( itself     
includes _m su* faculties4 ,e act or    
product ( ! s\l is ! result ( two       
mutually dep5d5t factors3 /imulus &     
receptivity4 ,_! com+ toge!r gives !    
fir/ ( ! f\r fundam5tal processes1 t (  
p]ception4 ,! second is ! con/ant       
addition ( new elem5t>y faculties4 ,by !
 ?ird1 ! equilibration or reciprocal    
transf] ( ! movable elem5ts 9           
repres5tations1 ,b5eke expla9s !        
reproduction ( an idea ?r\gh ano!r      
associat$ ) x1 & ! wid5+ ( ! m5tal      
horizon by emotion1 e4g41 ! a/\nd+      
eloqu5ce ( ! angry4 ,s9ce ea*           
repres5tation :i* passes out (          
consci\sness cont9ues to exi/ 9 ! s\l z 
an unconsci\s product 7:]e we _c tell2 !
 s\l is n 9 space71 x is n ret5tion1 b  
oblivisc5ce :i* ne$s explanation4 ,t :i*
 p]si/s ( ! repres5tation :i* is pass+  
into unconsci\sness1 & :i* makes its    

reappe>ance 9 consci\sness possible1 is 
call$ a trace 9 ref]5ce to its dep>t$   
cause1 & a disposition 7,angeleg!it7 9  
ref]5ce to its future results4 ,e su*   
trace or g]m 7,anlage7--t :i* lies      
int]m$iate betwe5 p]ception &           
recollection--is a =ce1 a /riv+1 a      
t5d5cy4 ,! f\r? ( ! fundam5tal processes
 7:i* may be trac$ d[nw>d into ! mat]ial
 _w1 s9ce ! corporeal & ! psy*ical diff]
 only 9 degree & pass ov] into ea* o!r7 
is ! comb9ation ( m5tal products accord+
 to ! measure ( _! simil>ity1 z ^! come 
to light 9 ! =mation ( judgm5ts1        
comp>isons1 witticisms1 ( collective    
images1 collective feel+s1 & collective 
desires4 ,! innate diff]5ces among m5   
dep5d on ! great] or less] p[]fulness1  
vivacity1 & receptivity ( _! elem5t>y   
faculties2 all fur!r diff]5ces arise    
gradually & are due to ! ext]nal /imuli2
 ev5 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! human & !     
animal s\l1 :i* consi/s 9 ! spiritual   
nature ( ! =m]1 is n orig9al4  ,( ! five
 con/ructive =ms ( ! s\l1 :i* result f !

 v>y+ relation betwe5 /imulus & faculty1
 f\r are emotional products or products 
( moods4 ,if ! /imulus is too small pa9 
7dissatisfaction1 long+7 arises1 :ile   
pleasure spr+s f a m>k$1 b n too great1 
fullness ( /imulus4 ,if ! /imulus       
gradually increases to ! po9t ( excess1 
blunt$ appetite & satiety come 92 :5 !  
excess is sudd5 x results 9 pa94 ,a cle>
 repres5tation1 a s5sation arises :5 !  
/imulus is exactly proportion$ to !     
faculty2 x is 9 ?is case only t ! s\l   
assumes a !oretical attitude1 t x m]ely 
p]ceives )\t any admixture ( agreeable  
or disagreeable feel+s4 ,desire is      
pleasure rememb]$1 ! ego ! complex ( all
 ! repres5tations :i* h ev] aris5 9 !   
s\l1 ! totality ( ! manifold giv5 )9 me4
 ,= ! immortality ( ! immat]ial s\l     
,b5eke advances an orig9al & attractive 
argum5t bas$ on ! pr9ciple t1 9         
consequ5ce ( ! con/antly increas+       
traces1 ?r\gh :i* ! sub/ance ( ! s\l is 
cont9ually gr[+1 consci\sness turns m & 
m f ! out] to ! inn]1 until f9ally      

p]ception dies entirely away4 ,at dea? !
 connection ) ! out] _w ceases1 x is    
true1 b n ! inn] be+ ( ! s\l1 = :i* t   
:i* has hi!rto be5 highe/ n[ becomes !  
f\ndation = new & /ill high]            
developm5ts4  ,l ,h]b>t1 on :om he 0 9  
_m ways dep5d5t1 ,b5eke discuss$        
psy*ology & p$agogics ) great] success  
?an logic1 metaphysics1 practical       
philosophy1 & ! philosophy ( religion4  
,he combats ! apriorism ( ,kant 9 e?ics 
z else:]e4 ,! moral law does n arise    
until ! end ( a long developm5t4 ,fir/ 9
 ord] are ! imm$iately felt values (    
?+s1 :i* we e/imate accord+ to ! degree 
( enhancem5t or depression 9 ! psy*ical 
/ate :i* !y call =?4 ,f ! feel+s are =m$
 concepts1 f concepts judgm5ts2 & !     
ab/raction ( ! categorical imp]ative is 
a highly d]ivative ph5om5on & a v late  
result1 al?\gh ! feel+ ( oughtness or ( 
moral obligation1 :i* accompanies !     
correct e/imation ( values & bids u     
pref] spiritual to s5su\s delights & !  
g5]al good to our own welf>e1 gr[s      

necess>ily out ( ! inn] nature ( ! human
 s\l4 ,!re are two s\rces ( religion3 "o
 !oretical1 = ! idea ( ,god2 ! o!r      
practical1 = ! wor%ip ( ,god4 ,we are   
impell$ to ! assumption ( a             
supras5sible1 an uncondition$1 a        
provid5ce1 on ! "o h&1 by ! desire = a  
unit>y conclusion = our fragm5t>y k ( ! 
_w2 &1 on ! o!r1 by moral ne$1 by our   
unsatisfi$ long+ aft] ! good4 ,!        
attributes :i* we ascribe to ,god are   
tak5 f exp]i5ce1 ! ab/ract attributes f 
be+ 9 g5]al1 ! naturali/ic f ! _w1 !    
spiritual f man4 ,z an inevitable       
outcome ( ! trans=mation ( religi\s     
feel+s into repres5tations1 & "o :i* is 
h>mless because ( ! unmi/akabl5ess ( _! 
symbolic "*1 ! an?ropomorphic pr$icates1
 ?r\gh :i* we ?9k ! ,deity z p]sonal1   
!mselves e/abli% ! sup]iority ( !ism ov]
 pan!ism4 ,! object ( religion1 moreov]1
 is accessible only to ! subjective     
c]titude ( feel+ :i* is giv5 by fai?1 & 
n to sci5tific k4  ,feu]ba*'s           
an?ropological /&po9t w be discuss$     

bel[4 ,l ,fri$ri* ,ueb]weg 7#ahbf-ga2   
pr(essor 9 ,knigsb]g2 ,sy/em ( ,logic1  
#aheg1 #e? ed41 edit$ by ,j4,b4 ,mey]1  
#ahhb--;,engli% translation1 #ahga71    
,k>l ,=tlage 0 /rongly influ5c$ 9 8     
psy*ological views by ,b5eke4 ,born 9   
#ahjf at ,osnabrck1 & at 8 dea? 9 #ahha 
a pr(essor 9 ,j5a1 ,=tlage %>$ ) ,b5eke 
an imp]sonality ( "*1 z well z ! fate ( 
meet+ ) less e/eem f 8 contempor>ies ?an
 he m]it$ by ! s]i\sness & orig9ality ( 
8 ?9k+4 ,to 8 ,sy/em ( ,psy*ology1      
#ahee1 9 two volumes1 he add$1 z x 71 a 
?ird volume1 8 ,contributions to        
,psy*ology1 #ahge1 besides psy*ological 
lectures ( a m popul> ca/ 7,eight       
,lectures1 #ahfi1 #b;d ed41 #ahgb2 ,f\r 
,lectures1 #ahgd74a ,=tlage *>act]izes 8
 psy*ological me?od--9 ! criticism ( :i*
 ,f4,a4 ,lange fails to %[ ! ju/ice =   
:i* he is else:]e to be comm5d$--z      
obs]vation by ! inn] s5se4 ,9 ! fir/    
place1 consci\sness1 z ! active =m (    
repres5tation1 mu/ be sep>at$ f t ( :i* 
we are consci\s1 f ! cont5t (           

repres5tation1 :i* is 9 itself          
unconsci\s1 b capable ( com+ into       
consci\sness4 ,next ,=tlage seeks to    
det]m9e ! laws ( ^! two factors4 ,9     
reg>d to ! cont5t ( repres5tation he    
di/+ui%es m %>ply ?an ,h]b>t betwe5 !   
fusibility ( ! homog5e\s & ! capacity = 
complex comb9ation possess$ by !        
het]og5e\s 7! fusion ( simil>s goes on  
ev5 )\t aid f consci\sness1 :ile !      
connection ( dissimil>s is br\ght ab\t  
only ?r\gh ! help ( ! latt]71 & adds to 
^! two g5]al prop]ties ( ! cont5t (     
repres5tation two fur!r ones1 its       
revivability 7its p]si/5ce 9            
unconsci\sness71 & its dissolubility 9 !
 scale ( size1 color1 etc4              
,consci\sness1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* =       
,=tlage co9cides ) ! ego or self1 is    
treat$ z ! presupposition ( all         
repres5tations1 n z _! result--x is     
und]iv$ activity4 ,he expla9s ! nature (
 consci\sness by ! concept ( att5tion1  
*>act]izes !m bo? z que/ion+ activity   
7,frage?tigkeit71 & foll[s !m out 9 _!  

v>i\s degrees f expectation ?r\gh       
obs]vation up to reflection4 ,! li/5+ & 
wat*+ ( ! hunt] :5 wait+ = ! game is    
only a prolongation ( ! same            
consci\sness :i* accompanies all less   
excit+ repres5tations4 ,! ess5tial      
elem5t 9 consci\s or que/ion+ activity  
is ! oscillation betwe5 yes & no4  ,z   
soon z ! disjunction is decid$ by a yes1
 ! desire :i* lies at its basis1 & :i* 9
 ! condition ( consci\sness is arre/$1  
passes ov] into activity4 ,all          
consci\sness is bas$ on int]e/1 & 9 its 
orig9 is arre/$ impulse 7,triebhemmung74
 ,! direction ( impulse to an intuition 
to be expect$ only 9 ! future is call$  
consci\sness4 ,! rank ( a be+ dep5ds on 
its capacity = reflection3 ! great] !   
ext5t ( its att5tion & ! small] ! /imuli
 :i* suffice to r\se ?is to action1 !   
high] x /&s4 ,impulse--?is is !         
fundam5tal idea ( ,=tlage's psy*ology1 l
 w ) ,fi*te1 & repres5tation )          
,h]b>t--consi/s ( an elem5t (           
repres5tation & an elem5t ( feel+4      

,pleasure  ef=t-image  impulse4         
,footnote #a3 ,among ,=tlage's o!r works
 we may m5tion 8 valuable ,hi/ory (     
,poetry1 #ahci2 ! ,g5etic ,hi/ory (     
,philosophy s9ce ,kant1 #aheb2 & !      
attractive ,six ,philosophical          
,lectures1 #ahfi1 #b;d ed41 #ahgb4   ,9 
8 metaphysical convictions1 to :i* he   
gave expression 9 8 ,exposition &       
,criticism ( ! ,argum5ts = ! ,exi/5ce ( 
,god1 #ahdj1 among o!r works1 ,=tlage   
belongs to ! philosoph]s ( id5tity4     
,orig9ally sail+ 9 ,hegel's wake1 he    
soon recognizes t ! roots ( ! !ory (    
id5tity g back to ! ,kantio-,fi*tean    
philosophy1 ) :i* ! sy/em ( absolute    
tru?1 z he holds1 has come into be+4 ,he
 ?us becomes an adh]5t ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k1
 ^: d$uctive results he f9ds inductively
 confirm$ by psy*ological exp]i5ce4     
,psy*ology is ! empirical te/ = !       
metaphysical calculus ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,k4 
,9 reg>d to ! absolute ,=tlage is 9     
agreem5t ) ,krause1 ! y\ng] ,fi*te1     
,ulrici1 etc41 & calls 8 /&po9t         

transc5d5t pan!ism4 ,accord+ to ?is all 
t is good1 exalt$1 & valuable 9 ! _w is 
div9e 9 its nature2 ! human reason is ( 
! same ess5ce z ! div9e reason 7!re c be
 no?+ high] ?an reason72 ! ,godhead is !
 absolute ego ( ,fi*te1 :i* employs !   
empirical egos z organs1 :i* ?9ks &     
wills 9 individuals1 9 s f> z !y ?9k !  
tru? & w ! good1 b at ! same "t z       
univ]sal subject goes beyond !m4 ,if1   
aft] ! example ( ,hegel1 we give up     
transc5d5t pan!ism 9 favor ( imman5ce1  
two unphilosophical modes ( repres5t+ ! 
absolute at once result--on ! "o h&1    
mat]ialism2 on ! o!r1 popul>1           
unphilosophical !ism4 ,if ! ,fi*tean    
,sci5ce ( ,k c\ld be sep>at$ f its      
difficult me?od1 :i* x is impossible ev]
 to make compreh5sible to !             
unphilosophical m9d1 x w\ld be call$ to 
take ! place ( religion4#a  ,footnote   
#a3 ,among ,=tlage's po/hum\s           
manuscripts 0 "o on ! ,philosophy (     
,religion1 on :i* ,euck5 publi%$ an     
essay 9 ! ,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1  

vol4 lxxxii4 #ahhc1 p4 #ahj seq4 aft]   
,lipsius _h giv5 a s+le *apt] f x--,!   
,ideal ( ,morality accord+ to           
,*ri/ianity--9 8 ,jahrb*] fr            
prote/antis*e ,!ologie 7vol4 ix4 pp4    
#a-de74 ,! j\rnals ,im ,neu5 ,rei*1     
#ahha1 ,no4 #bd1 & ,die ,geg5w>t1 #ahhb1
 ,no4 #cd1 conta9$ w>mly writt5 notices 
( ,=tlage by ,j4 ,volkelt4 ,leopold     
,s*mid 79 ,giess51 di$ #ahfi7 gives a   
favorable & skillfully compos$ outl9e ( 
,=tlage's sy/em 9 8 ,grundzge d]        
,e9leitung 9 die ,philosophie mit e9]   
,beleu*tung d] von ,k4 ,ph4 ,fis*]1     
,s5gl]1 und ,=tlage ermgli*t5           
,philosophie d] ,t1 #ahfj1 pp4 #bbf-ceg4
 ,cf4 also ,moritz ,bras*1 ,k4 ,=tlage1 
,e9 philosophis*es ,*>akt]bild1 9 ,uns]e
 ,zeit1 #ahhc1 ,heft ,,ii1 pp4 #gcj-gef1
 incorporat$ 9 ! same au?or's           
,philosophie d] ,geg5w>t1 #ahhh4   #b4  
,realism3 ,h]b>t4  ,johann ,fri$ri*     
,h]b>t 0 sci5tifically ! mo/ important  
among ! philosoph]s ( ! opposition4     
,h]b>t 0 born at ,old5burg 9 #aggf1 !   

son ( a c\ncilor ( ju/ice1 & _h already 
become acqua9t$ ) ! sy/ems ( ,wolff &   
,kant be=e he ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,j5a 
9 #agid4 ,9 #agif he h&$ 9 to 8         
in/ructor ,fi*te a critique ( two (     
,s*ell+'s treatises1 9 :i* ! y\?ful ?9k]
 already broke away f idealism4 ,:ile a 
private tutor 9 ,switz]l& he made !     
acqua9tance ( ,pe/alozzi4 ,9 #ahjb he   
habilitat$ 9 ,gtt+51 :]e1 9 #ahje1 he 0 
promot$ to a pr(essor%ip extraord9>y2   
:ile 9 #ahji he receiv$ ! pr(essor%ip 9 
,knigsb]g once held by ,kant1 & lat] by 
,w4 ,tr4 ,krug 7di$ #ahdb74 ,he di$ 9   
#ahda at ,gtt+51 :i!r he _h be5 recall$ 
9 #ahcc4 ,8 ,collect$ ,works 7 publi%$ 9
 twelve volumes1 #ahej-eb 7repr9t$ #ahhc
 seq471 by 8 pupil ,h>t5/e91 :o has also
 giv5 an excell5t exposition ( 8 ma/]'s 
sy/em 9 8 ,probleme und ,grundlehr5 d]  
allgeme95 ,metaphysik1 #ahcf1 & 8       
,grundbegriffe d] e?is*5 ,wiss5s*aft51  
#ahdd2 a new edition1 9 *ronological    
ord]1 & "u ! editor%ip ( ,k4 ,kehrba*1  
began to appe> 9 #ahhb1 or r #ahhg1 &   

has n[ advanc$ to ! f\r? volume1 #ahia4 
,h]b>t's *ief works 7 writt5 dur+ 8     
,knigsb]g resid5ce3 ! ,text-book (      
,introduction to ,philosophy1 #ahac1 #d?
 ed41 #ahcg 7v valuable z an            
introduction to ,h]b>tian modes (       
?\ght72 ,g5]al ,metaphysics1 #ahbi      
7prec$$ 9 #ahjf & #ahjh by ,! ,pr9cipal 
,po9ts 9 ,metaphysics1 ) a supplem5t1 ,!
 ,pr9cipal ,po9ts 9 ,logic72 ,text-book 
( ,psy*ology1#a #ahaf1 #b;d ed41 #ahcd2 
,on ! ,possibility & ,necessity ( apply+
 ,ma!matics to ,psy*ology1 #ahbb2       
,psy*ology z a ,sci5ce1 #ahbd-be4 ,! two
 works on e?ics1 :i* 7 widely sep>at$ 9 
"t1 71 on ! o!r h&1 writt5 9 ,gtt+53    
,g5]al ,practical ,philosophy1 #ahjh2   
,analytical ,exam9ation ( ,natural ,"r &
 ( ,morals1 #ahcf4 ,to ^! may be add$ a 
,disc\rse on ,evil1 #ahag2 ,lett]s on ! 
,doctr9e ( ! ,fre$om ( ! ,human ,w1     
#ahcf2 & ! ,brief ,encyclopa$ia (       
,philosophy1 #ahca1 #b;d ed41 #ahda4 ,8 
works on education & in/ruction1 ^:     
influ5ce & value p]haps exce$ ^? ( 8    

philosophical a*ievem5ts 7collect$      
editions ( ! p$agogical works h be5     
prep>$ by ,o4 ,willmann1 #ahgc-ge1 #b;d 
ed41 #ahhj2 & by ,b>?olomaei71 ext5d$   
?r\gh 8 :ole life4 ,besides p$agogics1  
psy*ology 0 ! *ief sph]e ( 8 s]vices4   
,footnote #a3 ,engli% translation by    
,m4,k4 ,smi?1 #ahia4  ,9 anti!sis to !  
philosophy ( intuition ) its imag9$     
sup]iority to ! /&po9t ( reflection1    
,h]b>t makes philosophy beg9 ) att5tion 
to concepts1 def9+ x z ! elaboration (  
concepts4 ,philosophy1 !re=e1 is n      
di/+ui%$ f o!r sci5ces by its object1 b 
by its me?od1 :i* aga9 mu/ adapt itself 
to ! peculi>ity ( ! object1 to ! />t+   
po9t ( ! inve/igation 9 "q--!re is no   
univ]sal philosophical me?od4 ,!re are z
 _m divisions ( philosophy z !re are    
modes ( elaborat+ concepts4 ,! fir/     
requisite is ! discrim9ation ( concepts1
 bo? ! discrim9ation ( concepts f o!rs &
 ( ! m>ks )9 ea* concept4 ,?is "w ( mak+
 concepts cle> & di/9ct is ! bus9ess (  
logic4 ,) ?is discipl9e1 9 :i* ,h]b>t   

ess5tially foll[s ,kant1 are associat$  
two o!r =ms ( ! elaboration ( concepts1 
t ( physical & t ( ae/hetic concepts4   
,bo? ( ^! classes require m ?an a m]ely 
logical elucidation4 ,! physical        
concepts1 ?r\gh :i* we appreh5d ! _w &  
ourselves1 conta9 contradictions & mu/  
be fre$ f !m2 _! correction is ! bus9ess
 ( meta-physics4 ,metaphysics is !      
sci5ce ( ! compreh5sibility ( exp]i5ce4 
,! ae/hetic 7includ+ ! e?ical7 concepts 
are di/+ui%$ f ! nature-concepts by a   
peculi> increm5t :i* !y occasion 9 our  
repres5tation1 & :i* consi/s 9 a judgm5t
 ( approval or disapproval4 ,to cle> up 
^! concepts & to free !m f false alli$  
ideas is ! task ( ae/hetics 9 its wide/ 
s5se4 ,?is includes all concepts :i* are
 accompani$ by a judgm5t ( praise or    
blame2 ! mo/ important among !m are !   
e?ical concepts4 ,?us1 aside f logic1 we
 rea* two pr9cipal divisions (          
philosophy1 :i* are else:]e contra/$ z  
!oretical & practical1 b "h 9 ,h]b>t z  
metaphysics & ae/hetics4 ,h]b>t ma9ta9s 

t ^! are entirely indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 s
 t ae/hetics1 s9ce x presupposes no?+ ( 
metaphysics1 may be discuss$ be=e       
metaphysics1 :ile ! philosophy ( nature 
& psy*ology dep5d ?r\gh\t on ontological
 pr9ciples4 ,toge!r ) natural !ology !  
two latt] sci5ces con/itute appli$      
metaphysics4 ,?is 9 turn presupposes    
g5]al metaphysics1 :i* subdivides into  
f\r p>ts3 ,me?odology1 ,ontology1       
,syne*ology1 i4e41 ! !ory ( ! cont9u\s  
7,greek3 sune*es71 :i* treats ( !       
cont9ua1 space1 "t1 & motion1 &         
,eidolology1 i4e41 ! !ory ( images or   
repres5tations4 ,! la/ =ms ! transition 
to psy*ology1 :ile syne*ology =ms !     
prep>ation = ! philosophy ( nature1 ^:  
mo/ g5]al problems x solves4 ,our       
exposition w n ne$ to obs]ve ^!         
divisions closely4  ,metaphysics />ts ) 
! giv51 b _c re/ cont5t ) x1 = x conta9s
 contradictions4 ,9 resolv+ ^! we rise  
above ! giv54 ,:at is giv58 ,kant has n 
answ]$ ?is "q ) entire correctness4 ,we 
may1 inde$1 t]m ! totality ( ! giv5     

ph5om5a1 b ?is presupposes some?+ :i*   
appe>s4 ,if no?+ exi/$ !re w\ld also    
no?+ appe>4 ,z smoke po9ts to fire1 s   
appe>ance to be+4 ,s mu* seem+1 s mu*   
indication ( be+4 ,?+s 9 !mselves may be
 kn[n m$iately1 ?\gh n imm$iately1 by   
foll[+ out ! indications ( be+ conta9$  
by ! giv5 appe>ance4 ,fur!r1 n m]ely !  
un=m$ matt] ( cognition is giv5 to u1 b 
x is r true t ev]y?+ comes "u ?is       
concept :i* exp]i5ce s presses on u t we
 _c resi/ x2 h5ce n m]ely s+le          
s5sations1 b entire s5sation-gr\ps1 n   
m]ely ! matt]1 b also ! =ms ( exp]i5ce4 
,if ! latt] 7 really subjective         
products1 z ,kant holds1 x w\ld         
necess>ily be possible = u at w to ?9k  
ea* p]ceptive-cont5t ei!r "u ! category 
( sub/ance1 or prop]ty1 or              
cause--possible = u1 if we *ose1 to see 
a r\nd table quadrilat]al4 ,9 reality we
 are b\nd 9 ! application ( ^! =ms2 !y  
are giv5 = ea* object 9 a def9ite way4  
,! giv5 =ms--,h]b>t calls !m            
exp]i5ce-concepts--conta9               

contradictions4 ,h[ c ^! contradictions 
be remov$8 ,we may nei!r simply reject !
 concepts :i* are burd5$ )              
contradictions1 = !y are giv51 nor leave
 !m z !y are1 = ! logical pr9cipium     
contradictionis requires t !            
contradiction z su* be root$ out4 ,!    
exp]i5ce-concepts are valid 7!y f9d     
application 9 exp]i5ce71 b !y are n     
?9kable4 ,!re=e we mu/ s trans=m &      
supplem5t !m t !y %all become free f    
contradictions & ?9kable4 ,! me?od :i*  
,h]b>t employs to remove !              
contradictions is z foll[s3 ,!          
contradiction always consi/s 9 ! fact t 
an a %\ld be ! same z a b1 b is n s4 ,! 
desid]at$ lik5ess ( ! two is impossible 
s long z we ?9k a z "o ?+4 ,t :i* is    
unsuccessful 9 ?is case w succe$1       
p]haps1 if 9 ?\ght we break up ! a into 
sev]al ?+s--,greek3 a b g4 ,!n we %all  
be able to expla9 ?r\gh ! toge!r        
7,zusamm57 ( ?is plurality :at we 7     
unable to expla9 f ! undecompos$ a1 or f
 ! s+le con/itu5ts ( x4 ,! toge!r is a  

relation e/abli%$ by ?\ght among !      
elem5ts ( ! real4 ,= ?is reason ,h]b>t  
t]ms 8 me?od ( f9d+ out necess>y        
supplem5ts to ! giv5 ! me?od (          
relations4 ,ano!r "n = ! same ?+ is !   
me?od ( cont+5t aspects4 ,me*anics      
op]ates ) cont+5t aspects :51 = ! sake (
 explanation1 x resolves a giv5 motion  
into sev]al compon5ts4 ,su* fictions &  
sub/itutions--auxili>y concepts1 :i* are
 n real1 b :i* s]ve only z pa?s =       
?\ght--may be successfully employ$ by   
metaphysics also4 ,! ab/ract expression 
( ?is me?od runs3 ,! contradiction is to
 be remov$ by ?9k+ "o ( its memb]s z    
manifold r ?an z "o4 ,9 ord] to obs]ve !
 work+s ( ?is ,h]b>tian ma*9e we %all g 
ov] ! f\r pr9cipal contradictions by :i*
 8 acut5ess is put to ! te/--! problems 
( inh]5ce1 ( *ange1 ( ! cont9u\s1 ( !   
ego4  ,we call ! giv5 s5sation-complexes
 ?+s1 & ascribe prop]ties to !m4 ,h[ c  
"o & ! same ?+ h diff]5t prop]ties--h[ c
 ! "o be at ! same "t _m8 ,to say t ! ?+
 possesses ! prop]ties does n help !    

matt]4 ,! possession ( ! diff]5t        
prop]ties is itself j z manifold & v>i\s
 z ! prop]ties :i* are possess$4 ,h5ce !
 concept ( ! ?+ & its prop]ties mu/ be s
 trans=m$ t ! plurality :i* seems to be 
9 ! ?+ %all be transf]r$ )\t x4 ,in/ead 
( "o ?+ let u assume sev]al1 ea* ) a    
s+le def9ite prop]ty1 f ^: toge!r !     
appe>ance ( _m qualities 9 "o ?+ n[     
arises4 ,! appe>ance ( manifold         
prop]ties 9 ! "o ?+ has its gr\nd 9 !   
toge!r ( _m ?+s1 ea* ( :i* has "o simple
 quality4 ,aga91 x is j z impossible = a
 ?+ to h diff]5t qualities 9 succession1
 or to *ange1 z x is = x to h !m at !   
same "t4 ,! popul> view ( *ange1 :i*    
holds t a ?+ takes on diff]5t =ms 7ice1 
wat]1 /eam7 & yet rema9s ! same         
sub/ance1 is unt5able4 ,h[ is x possible
 to become ano!r1 & yet to rema9 ! same8
 ,! univ]sal feel+ t ! concept ne$s     
correction betrays itself 9 ! fact t    
ev]yone involunt>ily adds a cause to !  
*ange 9 ?\ght1 & seeks a cause = x1 &   
?us ( himself und]takes a trans=mation (

 ! concept1 ?\gh1 x is true1 an         
inadequate "o4 ,if we ?9k ?is concept   
?r\gh we come ^u a trilemma1 a ?reefold 
impossibility4 ,:e!r we endeavor to     
d$uce ! *ange f ext]nal or f int]nal    
causes1 or 7) ,hegel7 to ?9k x z        
causeless1 9 ea* case we involve        
ourselves 9 inconceivabilities4 ,all    
?ree ideas--*ange z me*anism1 z         
self-det]m9ation or fre$om1 z absolute  
becom+--are alike absurd4 ,we c escape  
^! contradictions only by ! bold        
decision to conceive ! quality ( !      
exi/5t z un*angeable4 ,= ! truly exi/5t 
!re is no *ange :atev]4 ,x rema9s1      
h[ev]1 to expla9 ! appe>ance ( *ange1 9 
:i* ! w& ( decomposition & ! toge!r aga9
 proves its magic p[]4 ,support$ by !   
motley manifoldness ( ph5om5a1 we posit 
real be+s z qualitatively diff]5t1 &    
view ?is div]sity z p>tial              
contraposition2 we resolve1 e4g41 !     
simple quality a into ! elem5ts x  z1 & 
a second quality b into y - z4 ,s long z
 ! individual ?+s rema9 by !mselves1 !  

opposition ( ! qualities w n make itself
 evid5t4 ,b z soon z !y come toge!r1    
some?+ takes place--n[ ! opposites 7z & 
-z7 seek to de/roy or at lea/ to di/urb 
ea* o!r4 ,! reals def5d !mselves aga9/ !
 di/urbance :i* w\ld foll[ if !         
opposites c\ld de/roy ea* o!r1 by ea*   
cons]v+ its simple1 un*angeable quality1
 i4e41 by simply rema9+ self-id5tical4  
,self-cons]vation aga9/ ?reat5$         
di/urbances f )\t 7x may be comp>$ to   
resi/ance aga9/ pressure7 is ! only real
 *ange1 & app>5t *ange1 ! empirical     
*anges ( ?+s1 to be expla9$ f ?is4 ,t   
:i* *anges is only ! relations betwe5 ! 
be+s1 z a ?+ ma9ta9s itself n[ aga9/ ?is
 & n[ aga9/ t o!r ?+2 ! relations1      
h[ev]1 & _! *ange are some?+ entirely   
cont+5t & indiff]5t to ! exi/5t4 ,9     
itself ! self-cons]vation ( a real is z 
uni=m z ! quality :i* is cons]v$1 b 9   
virtue ( ! *ang+ relations 7! v>iety ( !
 di/urb+ ?+s7 x c express itself = !    
obs]v] 9 manifold ways z =ce4 ,! real   
itself *anges z little z a pa9t+ *anges1

 = in/ance1 :51 se5 ne> at h&1 ! figures
 9 x are cle>ly di/+ui%$1 :ile = !      
di/ant obs]v]1 on ! contr>y1 !y run     
toge!r into an indi/+ui%able *aos4      
,*ange has no mean+ 9 ! sph]e ( !       
exi/5t4  ,anyone :o speaks ?us has d5i$ 
*ange1 n d$uc$ x4 ,among ! _m objections
 exp]i5c$ by ,h]b>t's endeavor to expla9
 ! empirical fact ( *ange by 8 !ory (   
self-cons]vation aga9/ ?reat5$          
di/urbances ,lotze's is ! mo/ cog5t3 ,! 
unsuccessful attempt to solve !         
difficulties 9 ! concept ( becom+ &     
action is /ill in/ructive1 = x %[s t !y 
_c be solv$ 9 ?is way--f ! concept (    
inflexible be+4 ,if ! toge!r1 ! ?reat5$ 
di/urbance1 & ! reaction aga9/ ! latt]  
be tak5 z realities1 !n1 9 ! affection  
by ! di/urb]1 ! concept ( *ange rema9s  
unelim9at$ & uncorrect$2 if !y be tak5 z
 unreal concepts auxili>y to ?\ght1     
*ange is relegat$ f ! realm ( be+ to !  
realm ( seem+4 ,h]b>t gives to !m a k9d 
( semi-reality1 less true ?an ! unmov+  
gr\nd ( ?+s 7_! un*angeable1 p]man5t    

qualities71 & m true ?an _!             
contradictory ext]ior 7! empirical      
appe>ance ( *ange74 ,betwe5 be+ & seem+ 
he ?ru/s 91 z ?\gh betwe5 day & night1 !
 twilight region ( 8 cont+5t aspects1 ) 
_! relations1 :i* are no?+ to ! real1 _!
 di/urbances1 :i* d n come to pass1 & _!
 self-cons]vations1 :i* are no?+ b      
undi/urb$ cont9uance 9 exi/5ce on ! "p (
 ! real4  ,besides ! contradictions 9 ! 
concepts ( inh]5ce1 ( *ange1 & action & 
passion1 x is ! concept ( be+ :i*       
prev5ts our philosoph] f ascrib+ a liv+ 
"* to reality4 ,be+1 z ,kant correctly  
p]ceiv$1 conta9s no?+ qualitative2 x is 
absolute position4 ,:oev] affirms t an  
object is1 expresses !reby t ! matt] is 
to re/ ) ! simple position2 9 :i* is    
includ$ t x is no?+ dep5d5t1 relative1  
or negative4 7,e negation is some?+     
relative1 relates to a prec$5t position1
 :i* is to be annull$ by x47 ,besides   
be+1 ! exi/5t conta9s some?+ m--a       
quality2 x consi/s ( ?is absolute       
position & a :at4 ,if ?is :at is sep>at$

 f be+ we rea* an image2 unit$ ) be+ x  
yields an ess5ce or a real4 ,?is :at (  
?+s is n _! s5su\s qualities2 ! latt]   
belong r to ! m]e ph5om5on4 ,no "o ( !m 
indicates :at ! object is by itself1 :5 
left alone4 ,!y dep5d on cont+5t        
circum/ances1 & ap>t f ^! !y w\ld n     
exi/--:at is color 9 ! d>k8 :at s\nd 9  
airless space8 :at weight 9 empty space8
 :at fusibility )\t fire8--!y are ea* & 
all relative4 ,s9ce be+ excludes        
negation ( e k9d1 ! quality ( ! exi/5t  
mu/ be absolutely simple & un*angeable2 
x brooks no manifoldness1 no quantity1  
no di/9ctions 9 degree1 no becom+2 all  
?is 7 a corruption ( ! purely           
affirmative or positive "* ( be+4 ,!    
exi/5t is unext5d$ & et]nal4 ,!         
,eleatics are to be prais$ because ! ne$
 ( escap+ f ! contradictions 9 ! _w (   
exp]i5ce l$ !m to make !mselves ma/]s ( 
! concept ( be+ )\t relation & )\t      
negation1 & ( ! simple1 homog5e\s       
quality ( ! exi/5t 9 its full purity4 ,b
 :ile ! ,eleatics conceiv$ ! exi/5t z   

"o1 ! atomi/s made an advance by assum+ 
a plurality ( reals4 ,! truly "o nev]   
becomes a plurality2 plurality is giv51 
h5ce an orig9al plurality mu/ be        
po/ulat$4 ,h]b>t *>act]izes 8 own /&po9t
 z qualitative atomism1 s9ce 8 reals are
 diff]5tiat$ by _! prop]ties1 n by      
quantitative relations 7size & figure74 
,! ideali/s & ! pan!i/s make a false use
 ( ! t5d5cy t[>d unity :i*1 no d\bt1 is 
pres5t 9 our reason1 :5 !y ma9ta9 t true
 be+ mu/ be "o4 ,!re is absolutely no?+ 
9 ! concept ( be+ to =bid u to ?9k !    
exi/5t z _m2 :ile ! _w ( ph5om5a1 ) its 
_m ?+s & _! _m prop]ties1 gives         
irrefragable gr\nds :i* compel u to ?is 
conclusion4 ,h5ce1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 ! 
true reality is a 7v l>ge1 ?\gh n1 x is 
true1 an inf9ite#a7 plurality (         
supra-s5sible 7non-spatial &            
non-temporal7 reals1 or1 accord+ to !   
,leibnitzian expression1 monads1 :i* all
 _! life h no?+ fur!r to d ?an to       
pres]ve intact aga9/ di/urbances !      
simple quality 9 :i* !y consi/ 7= !     

exi/5t is n di/9ct f its quality2 x does
 n h ! quality1 b is ! quality74 ,ea* ?+
 has b "o response = ! mo/ v>i$         
influ5ces3 x answ]s all sugge/ions f )\t
 by affirm+ its :at1 by cont9ually      
repeat+1 z x 71 ! same note1 :i* ga9s a 
v>y+ mean+ only 9 s f> z1 9 accordance )
 ! "* ( ! di/urb]1 x appe>s n[ z a ?ird1
 n[ z a fif? or sev5?4 ,?is picture ( ! 
_w is c]ta9ly n attractive2 9 x all     
*ange & becom+1 all life & all activity 
is (f]$ up on ! alt> ( monoton\s be+4   
,happily ,h]b>t is inconsi/5t en\gh to  
enliv5 ?is com=tless wa/e ( *angeless   
be+ by ! relatively real or semi-real   
manifoldness ( ! self-cons]vations4  ,! 
inf9ite divisibility ( space & ( matt]  
=ms ! *ief difficulty 9 ! problem ( !   
cont9u\s4 ,h]b>t endeavors to solve x by
 ! assumption ( an intelligible space ) 
fix$ l9es 7l9es =m$ by a def9ite numb] (
 po9ts1 h5ce f9itely divisible1 & n     
cont9u\s74 ,metaphysics dem&s ! fix$ or 
discrete l9e1 al?\gh common ?\ght is    
incapable ( conceiv+ x4 ,space is a m]e 

=m ( comb9ation 9 repres5tation or = !  
obs]v]1 & yet x is objective1 i4e41 x is
 valid = all intellig5ces1 & n m]ely =  
human intellig5ce4 ,f 8 complex &       
unproductive endeavors to d]ive !       
appe>ance ( cont9uity f discont9u\s     
reality we hurry on to ! f\r?1 !        
psy*ological problem1 :i* ,h]b>t        
discusses ) great acut5ess4 ,he consid]s
 x ! *ief m]it ( ,fi*te's ,sci5ce ( ,k t
 x call$ att5tion to ?is problem4  ,!   
concept ( ! ego1 ( ^: reality we h s    
/rong & imm$iate a conviction t1 9 !    
=mula ( assev]ation1 z true z ,i exi/1 x
 is made ! crit]ion ( all o!r c]titude1 
labors "u v>i\s contradictions4 ,besides
 ! famili> difficulty1 "h especially    
s5sible1 ( "o ?+ ) _m m>ks1 x conta9s   
o!r absurdities ( its own4 ,9 ! ego or  
self-consci\sness subject & object are  
to be id5tical4 ,! id5tity ( ! repres5t+
 & ! repres5t$ ego is a                 
self-contradictory idea1 = ! law (      
contradiction =bids ! equation (        
opposites1 :ile a subject is subject    

only ?r\gh ! fact t x is n object4 ,b1  
aga91 self-consci\sness c nev] be       
realiz$1 because x involves a regressus 
9 inf9itum4 ,! ego is def9$ z t :i*     
repres5ts itself4 ,:at is ?is self8 ,x  
is1 9 turn1 ! self-kn[]4 ,?is new       
explanation conta9s /ill a fur!r self2  
:i* once m signifies ! self-kn[] & s on 
to inf9ity4 ,! ego repres5ts !          
repres5tation 7,vor/ell57 ( its         
repres5tation 7,vor/ell571 etc4 ,!      
repres5tation 7,vor/ellung7 ( ! ego1    
!re=e1 c nev] be actually br\ght to     
completion4 7,! assumption ( ! fre$om ( 
! w leads to an analog\s regressus 9    
inf9itum1 9 :i* ! "q1 ,will/ ?\ ?y      
volition8 ,will/ ?\ ! will+ ( ?is       
volition8 is repeat$ to inf9ity47 ,!    
only escape f ?is tissue ( absurdities  
is to ?9k ! ego o!rwise ?an is done by  
popul> consci\sness4 ,! kn[+ & ! kn[n   
ego are by no means ! same1 b ! obs]v+  
subject 9 self-consci\sness is "o gr\p (
 repres5tations1 ! obs]v$ subject ano!r4
 ,?us1 = example1 newly =m$             

repres5tations are app]ceiv$ by ! exi/+ 
old] ones1 b ! highe/ app]ceiv] is n1 9 
turn1 itself app]ceiv$4 ,! ego is n a   
unit be+1 :i* repres5ts itself 9 !      
lit]al mean+ ( ! phrase1 b t :i* is     
repres5t$ is a plurality4 ,! ego is !   
junction ( numb]less s]ies (            
repres5tations1 & is con/antly *ang+ its
 place2 x dwells n[ 9 ?is repres5tation1
 n[ 9 t4 ,b z we di/+ui% ! po9t ( meet+ 
f ! s]ies :i* meet !re1 & imag9e t x is 
possible simultane\sly to ab/ract f all 
! repres5t$ s]ies 7:]eas 9 fact we c    
only ab/ract f ea* "o sep>ately71 !re   
arises ! appe>ance ( a p]man5t ego z !  
unit subject ( all our repres5tations4  
,9 reality ! ego is n ! s\rce ( our     
repres5tations1 b ! f9al result ( _!    
comb9ation4 ,! repres5tation1 n ! ego1  
is ! fundam5tal concept ( psy*ology1 !  
ego con/itut+ r its mo/ difficult       
problem4#a ,x is a result ( o!r         
repres5tations1 :i*1 h[ev]1 9 ord] to   
yield ?is result1 mu/ be toge!r 9 a s+le
 sub/ance1 & mu/ int]p5etrate "o ano!r  

7,text-book ( ,introduction1 p4 #bdc74  
,9 ?is way ,h]b>t def5ds ! sub/antiality
 ( ! s\l aga9/ ,kant & ,fries4 ,! s\l's 
immortality 7z also its pre-exi/5ce7    
goes )\t say+1 because ( ! non-temporal 
"* ( ! real4  ,footnote #a3 ,on !       
,h]b>tian psy*ology1 cf4 ,ribot1 ,g]man 
,psy*ology ( ,to-day1 ,engli%           
,translation by ,baldw91 #ahhf1 pp4     
#bd-fg2 & ,g4,f4 ,/\t1 ,m9d1 vols4      
xiii4-xiv4--,,tr4  ,! s\l is "o ( ^!    
reals :i*1 un*angeable 9 !mselves1 ent] 
into v>i\s relations ) o!rs1 & cons]ve  
!mselves aga9/ ! latt]4 ,9 its simple   
:at z unkn[able z ! re/1 x is yet       
famili> to u 9 its self-cons]vations4 ,9
 ! abs5ce ( a m fitt+ expression = !    
totality ( psy*ical ph5om5a we call ^!  
repres5tations1 ! ph5om5al manifoldness 
( :i* is due to ! v>iety ( ! di/urbances
 & exi/s = ! obs]v] alone4 ,9 itself1   
)\t a plurality ( dispositions &        
impulses1 ! s\l is orig9ally n a        
repres5tative =ce1 b fir/ becomes su* "u
 c]ta9 circum/ances1 viz41 :5 x is      

/imulat$ to self-cons]vation by o!r     
be+s4 ,! sum ( ! reals :i* /& 9 imm$iate
 relation to ! s\l is call$ its body2   
?is1 an aggregate ( simple be+s1        
furni%es ! int]m$iate l9k ( causal      
relation betwe5 ! s\l & ! ext]nal _w4 ,!
 s\l has its 7movable7 seat 9 ! bra94 ,9
 opposition to ! physiological treatm5t 
( psy*ology1 ,h]b>t rem>ks t psy*ology  
?r[s mu* m light on physiology ?an %e c 
ev] receive f x4  ,! simple/            
repres5tations are ! s5sations1 :i*1    
amid all _! v>iety1 /ill gr\p !mselves  
into def9ite classes 7odors1 s\nds1     
colors74 ,!y s]ve u z symbols ( !       
di/urb+ reals1 b !y are n images ( ?+s1 
nor effects ( ^!1 b products ( ! s\l    
itself3 ! g5]ation ( s5sations is !     
s\l's peculi> way ( gu>d+ itself aga9/  
?reat5$ di/urbances4 ,e repres5tation   
once come into be+ disappe>s aga9 f     
consci\sness1 x is true1 b n f ! s\l4 ,x
 p]si/s1 unites ) o!rs1 & /&s ) !m 9 a  
relation ( int]action--9 bo? cases      
accord+ to def9ite laws4 ,^! orig9al    

repres5tations are ! only ones :i* ! s\l
 produces by its own activity2 all o!r  
psy*ical ph5om5a1 feel+1 desire1 w1     
att5tion1 memory1 judgm5t1 ! :ole weal? 
( inn] ev5ts1 result ( !mselves f !     
int]play ( ! prim>y repres5tations "u   
law4 ,repres5tation 7m exactly s5sation7
 is alone orig9al2 space1 "t1 !         
categories1 :i* ,kant makes a priori1   
are all acquir$1 i4e41 l all ! high]    
m5tal life1 !y are ! results ( a        
psy*ical me*anism1 results ^: production
 ne$s no r5ew$ ex]tion on ! "p ( ! s\l  
itself4 ,x has be5 a v h>mful error 9   
psy*ology hi!rto to ascribe ea* p>ticul>
 m5tal activity to a special faculty ( !
 s\l hav+ a simil> "n1 in/ead ( d]iv+ x 
f comb9ations ( simple repres5tations4  
,ab/ract1 empty class ideas h be5 treat$
 z real =ces1 9 ! belief t ?us ! s+le   
concrete acts _h be5 expla9$4  ,!re is  
no bitt]] foe ( ! faculty !ory ?an      
,h]b>t4 ,8 campaign aga9/ x1 if n       
victori\s1 0 yet salut>y1 & ! motives ( 
8 ho/ility1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 entirely

 ju/ifi$4 ,no?+ is m useless ?an !      
assurance t :at ! s\l actually does1 t x
 mu/ also h ! p[] to d4 ,:o disputes    
?is8 ,a faculty expla9s no?+ s long z ! 
laws "u :i* its functions & its         
relations to o!r faculties rema9        
unexpla9$4 ,b al?\gh ! faculty idea     
s]ves no positive end1 x _c be entirely 
disc>d$4 ,x m>ks ! b\nd>y :]e our       
ability to r$uce "o class ( psy*ical    
ph5om5a to ano!r ceases4 ,h]b>t's       
polemic has no =ce aga9/ ! mod]ate &    
necess>y use ( ?is idea1 no matt] h[ mu*
 x 0 9 place 9 view ( ! impropriety ( a 
sup]flu\s multiplication ( ! faculties (
 ! s\l4 ,! realization ( ! ideal (      
psy*ology1 ! r$uction ( ! complex       
ph5om5a ( m5tal life to ! smalle/       
possible numb] ( simple elem5ts1 is     
limit$ by ! het]og5eity ( ! orig9al     
ph5om5a1 kn[+1 feel+1 will+1 :i* :olly  
resi/s d]ivation f ! comb9ation (       
s5sations4 ,t :i* bl9d$ ,h]b>t to ^!    
limitations 0 t t5d5cy t[>d unity1 :i*1 
z a metaphysician & moral philosoph]1 he

 _h all too willfully suppress$1 & :i*  
n[ took rev5ge = ?is infr+em5t ( its    
rights by mislead+ ! psy*ologi/ to an   
exagg]ation :i* _h important            
consequ5ces4 ,nev]!less 8 unsuccessful  
attempt rema9s int]e/+ & wor?y (        
gratitude4    ,! discov]y ( ! laws :i*  
gov]n ! int]action ( ! psy*ical elem5ts 
is ! task ( a /atics & a me*anics (     
repres5tations4 ,! =m] inve/igates !    
equilibrium or ! settl$ f9al /ate2 !    
latt]1 ! *ange1 i4e4 ! movem5ts (       
repres5tations4 ,^! names ( !mselves    
betray ,h]b>t's conviction t ma!matics c
 & mu/ be appli$ to psy*ology4 ,! bright
 hopes1 h[ev]1 :i* ,h]b>t =m$ = !       
attempt at a ma!matical psy*ology1 7    
fulfill$ nei!r 9 8 own endeavors nor 9  
^? ( 8 pupils1 al?\gh1 z ,lotze rem>ks1 
x w\ld be ass]t+ too mu* to say t ! mo/ 
g5]al =mulas :i* he set up contradict   
exp]i5ce4--,! unity ( ! s\l =ces        
repres5tations to act on "o ano!r4      
,disp>ate repres5tations1 ^?1 t is1 :i* 
belong to diff]5t repres5tative s]ies1 z

 ! visual image ( a rose & ! auditory   
image ( ! ^w rose1 or z ! s5sations     
yell[1 h>d1 r\nd1 r++1 connect$ 9 !     
concept gold piece1 ent] into           
complications complexes4 ,homog5e\s     
repres5tations 7! memory image & !      
p]ceptual image ( a black poodle7 fuse  
into a s+le repres5tation4 ,oppos$      
repres5tations 7r$ & blue7 arre/ "o     
ano!r :5 !y are 9 consci\sness toge!r4  
,! connection & grad$ fusion (          
repres5tations is ! basis ( _! ret5tion 
& reproduction1 z well z ( ! =mation (  
cont9u\s s]ies ( repres5tations4 ,!     
reproduction is 9 "p imm$iate1 a free   
ris+ ( ! repres5tation by its own p[] z 
soon z ! h9drances give way2 9 "p       
m$iate1 a com+ up ?r\gh ! help ( o!rs4  
,on ! arre/ ( p>tially or totally oppos$
 repres5tations ,h]b>t bases 8          
psy*ological calculus4 ,let !re be giv5 
simultane\sly 9 consci\sness ?ree oppos$
 repres5tations ( diff]5t int5sities1 ! 
/ronge/ to be call$ a1 ! weake/ c1 !    
int]m$iate "o b4 ,:at happ5s8 ,!y arre/ 

"o ano!r1 i4e4 a "p ( ea* is =c$ to s9k 
bel[ ! ?re%old ( consci\sness4#a  ,:at  
is ! am\nt ( ! arre/8 ,z mu* z all !    
weak] repres5tations toge!r come to--!  
sum ( arre/ or ! sum ( t :i* becomes    
unconsci\s 7z x 7 ! burd5 to be divid$7 
is equal to ! sum ( all ! repres5tations
 ) ! exception ( ! /ronge/ 7h5ce  b  c71
 & is divid$ among ! individual         
repres5tations 9 ! inv]se ratio ( _!    
/r5g?1 consequ5tly 9 su* a way t !      
/ronge/ 7! "o :i* mo/ actively &        
successfully resi/s arre/7 has ! lea/1 &
 ! weake/ ! mo/1 ( x to be>4 ,x may ?us 
come to pass t a repres5tation is       
entirely driv5 out ( consci\sness by two
 /rong] ones1 :ile x is impossible = ?is
 to happ5 to x f a s+le "o1 no matt] h[ 
sup]ior x be4 ,! simple/ case ( all is  
:5 two equally /rong repres5tations are 
pres5t1 9 :i* case ea* is r$uc$ to !    
half ( its orig9al int5sity4 ,! sum ( t 
:i* rema9s 9 consci\sness is always     
equal to ! greate/ repres5tation4       
,footnote #a3 ,by _! mutual pressure    

repres5tations are trans=m$ into a m]e  
t5d5cy to repres5t1 :i* aga9 becomes    
actual repres5tation :5 ! arre/ ceases4 
,! p>ts ( a repres5tation trans=m$ into 
a t5d5cy1 & ! residua rema9+ unobscur$1 
are n pieces cut (f1 b ! quantity d5otes
 m]ely a degree ( obscuration 9 ! :ole  
repres5tation1 or r 9 ! repres5tation   
:i* actually takes place4  ,z soon z a  
repres5tation rea*es ! z]o po9t (       
consci\sness1 or z soon z a new         
repres5tation 7s5sation7 comes 91 ! o!rs
 beg9 at once to rise or s9k4 ,!        
,me*anics seeks to inve/igate ! laws (  
^! movem5ts ( repres5tations2 b we may !
 m readily pass ov] its complicat$      
calculations s9ce _! precise =mulas c   
nev] m ?an v r\ghly repres5t ! true /ate
 ( ! case1 :i* simply rebels aga9/      
precision4 ,! rock on :i* e imman5t use 
( ma!matics 9 psy*ology mu/ /rike1 is ! 
impossibility ( exactly measur+ "o      
repres5tation by ano!r4 ,we may1 inde$1 
decl>e "o /rong] ?an ano!r on ! basis ( 
! imm$iate impression ( feel+1 b we _c  

say h[ mu* /rong] x is1 nor ) reason    
ass]t t x is twice or half z int5se4    
,h]b>t's ma!matical psy*ology 0 wreck$  
by ?is insurm\ntable difficulty4 ,! dem&
 = exactness :i* x rais$1 b :i* x 0     
unable to satisfy ) ! means at its      
disposal1 has rec5tly be5 r5ew$1 & has  
l$ to assur$ results 9 psy*o-physics1   
:i* works on a diff]5t basis & ) +5i\s  
me?ods ( measurem5t4  ,h]b>t endeavors1 
z we h se51 to d$uce ! v>i\s m5tal      
activities f ! play ( repres5tations1   
,feel+ & desire are n some?+ beside     
repres5tations1 are n special faculties 
( ! s\l1 b results ( ! relations (      
repres5tations1 *ang+ /ates (           
repres5tations arre/$ & work+ upw>d     
aga9/ h9drances4 ,a repres5tation :i*   
has be5 =c$ out ( consci\sness p]si/s z 
a t5d5cy or ef=t to repres5t1 & z su*   
ex]ts a pressure on ! consci\s          
repres5tations4 ,if a repres5tation is  
susp5d$ betwe5 c\nt]act+ =ces a feel+   
results2 desire is ! rise ( a           
repres5tation 9 ! face ( h9drances1     

av]sion is hesitation 9 s9k+4 ,if ! ef=t
 is accompani$ by ! idea t its goal is  
atta9able1 x is t]m$ w4 ,! "* ( a man   
dep5ds on ! fact t def9ite masses (     
repres5tations h become dom9ant1 & by _!
 /r5g? & p]si/5ce hold oppos+           
repres5tations 9 *eck or suppress !m4 ,!
 long] ! dom9ant mass ( repres5tations  
ex]cises its p[]1 ! firm] becomes !     
habit ( act+ 9 a c]ta9 way1 ! m fix$ !  
w4 ,h]b>t's intellectuali/ic d5ial (    
self-dep5d5ce to ! practical capacities 
( ! s\l leads him logically to          
det]m9ism4 ,volition dep5ds on insight1 
is det]m9$ by repres5tations2 fre$om    
signifies no?+ b ! fact t ! w c be      
det]m9$ by motives4 ,if ! individual    
decisions ( man 7 undet]m9$ he w\ld h no
 "*2 if ! "* 7 free 9 ! *oice betwe5 two
 actions1 !n1 along ) ! noble/ resolve1 
!re w\ld rema9 ! possibility ( an       
opposite decision2 fre$om ( *oice w\ld  
make pure *ance ! do] ( our de$s4       
,p$agogics1 above all1 mu/ reject ! idea
 ( an undet]m9$ fre$om2 education1 along

 ) imputation1 correction1 & puni%m5t1  
w\ld be a mean+less ^w1 if no det]m9+   
influ5ce on ! w ( ! pupil 7             
possible4--,?is la/ objection ov]looks !
 fact t ! p$agogical influ5ce is always 
m$iate1 & c d no m ?an1 by discipl9+ !  
impulses ( ! pupil & by supply+ him )   
aids aga9/ immoral incl9ations1 to      
light5 8 moral task4 ,we c "w on !      
motives only1 nev] directly on ! w      
itself4 ,o!rwise x w\ld be inexplicable 
t ev5 ! be/ p$agogical skill proves     
p[]less 9 ! case ( _m individuals4      
,h]b>t's psy*ology 0 prec$$ by a        
philosophy ( nature1 :i* con/rues matt] 
f attraction & repulsion1 & decl>es an  
actio 9 di/ans impossible4 ,! int]m$iate
 l9k betwe5 physics & psy*ology is =m$  
by ! sci5ce ( organic life 7physiology  
or biology72 & ) ?is natural !ology is  
connect$ by ! foll[+ pr9ciples3 ,!      
purposiv5ess :i* we notice ) admiration 
9 m5 & ! high] animals compels u1 s9ce x
 c nei!r come f *ance nor be expla9$ on 
natural gr\nds alone1 to assume z its   

au?or a supreme artific]1 an intellig5ce
 :i* works by ends4 ,x is true1 inde$1 t
 ! exi/5ce ( ! ,deity is n demon/rat$ by
 ! teleological argum5t2 ?is is only an 
hypo!sis1 b "o z highly probable z !    
assumption t ! human bodies by :i* we   
are surr\nd$ are inhabit$ by human      
s\ls--a fact :i* we c only assume1 n    
p]ceive nor prove4 ,! assurance ( fai?  
is diff]5t f t ( logic & exp]i5ce1 b n  
inf]ior to x4 ,religion is bas$ on      
humility & grateful rev]5ce1 :i* is     
favor$1 n injur$1 by ! immeasurable     
sublimity ( its object1 ! incomplet5ess 
( our idea ( ! ,supreme ,be+1 & ! k (   
our ignorance4 ,if fai? re/s1 on ! "o   
h&1 on ! teleological view ( nature1 x  
is1 on ! o!r1 connect$ ) moral ne$1 &   
ex]cises1 9 addition1 ae/hetic          
influ5ces4 ,by com=t+ ! suff]+1 sett+ "r
 ! err+1 reclaim+ & pacify+ ! s9n]1     
w>n+1 /r5g!n+1 & enc\rag+ ! morally     
s\nd1 religion br+s ! _s into a new &   
bett] l&1 %[s x a high] ord] ( ?+s1 !   
ord] ( provid5ce1 :i*1 amid all !       

mi/akes ( m51 /ill fur!rs ! good4 ,!    
religi\s _s always includes an e?ical   
elem5t1 & ! bond ( ! ,*ur* holds m5     
toge!r ev5 :]e ! /ate is de/roy$4       
,indisp5sable !oretically z a supplem5t 
to our k1 & practically because ( !     
moral imp]fection ( m51 :o ne$ x to     
humble1 w>n1 com=t1 & lift !m up1       
religion is1 nev]!less1 9 its orig9     
indep5d5t ( k & moral w4 ,fai? is old]  
?an sci5ce & morals3 ! doctr9e (        
religion did n wait = a/ronomy &        
cosmology1 nor ! erection ( temples =   
e?ics4 ,be=e ! developm5t ( ! moral     
concepts religion already exi/$ 9 ! =m (
 wond] )\t a special object1 ( a gloomy 
awe :i* ascrib$ e sudd5 inn] excitem5t  
to ! impulse ( an invisible p[]4 ,s9ce a
 speculative k ( ! nature ( ,god is     
impossible1 ! only task :i* rema9s =    
metaphysics is ! removal ( improp]      
det]m9ations f t :i* tradition &        
phantasy h to say on ! subject4 ,we are 
to conceive ,god z p]sonal1             
extramundane1 & omnipot5t1 z ! creator1 

n ( ! reals !mselves1 b ( _! purposive  
coexi/5ce 7,zusamm574 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 to
 rise f ! idea ( ! orig9al1 mo/ real1 & 
mo/ p[]ful be+ to t ( ! mo/ excell5t be+
 we ne$ ! practical ,ideas1 )\t :i* !   
=m] w\ld rema9 an indiff]5t !oretical   
concept4 ,man c pray only to a wise1    
holy1 p]fect1 j1 & good ,god4  ,?is1 9  
ess5tial outl9e1 is ! cont5t ( ! scatt]$
 obs]vations on ! philosophy ( religion 
giv5 by ,h]b>t4 ,drobis* 7,fundam5tal   
,doctr9es ( ! ,philosophy ( ,religion1  
#ahdj71 f ! /&po9t ( religi\s criticism 
& ) a r5ewal ( ! moral argum5t1 & ,taute
 7#ahdj-eb7 & ,flgel 7,miracles & !     
,possibility ( a ,k ( ,god1 #ahfi7 ) an 
apologetic t5d5cy & "o t[>d a belief 9  
miracles1 h1 among o!rs1 endeavor$ to   
make up = ! lack ( a detail$ treatm5t ( 
?is discipl9e by ,h]b>t--f :i*1 moreov]1
 mu* ( value c\ld h>dly h be5 expect$ 9 
view ( ! jejun5ess ( 8 metaphysical     
conceptions & ! insuffici5cy ( 8        
appreciation ( evil4  ,x rema9s only to 
glance at ,h]b>t's ,ae/hetics4 ,!       

beautiful is di/+ui%$ f ! agreeable & ! 
desirable1 :i*1 l x1 are ! objects (    
pref]5ce & rejection1 by ! facts1 fir/1 
t x ar\ses an involunt>y & dis9t]e/$    
judgm5t ( approval2 & second1 t x is a  
pr$icate :i* is ascrib$ to ! object or  
is objective4 ,to ^! is add$1 ?irdly1 t 
:ile desire seeks = t :i* is to come1   
ta/e possesses 9 ! pres5t t :i* x       
judges4  ,t :i* pleases or displeases is
 always ! =m1 nev] ! matt]2 & fur!r1 is 
always a relation1 = t :i* is entirely  
simple is indiff]5t4 ,z 9 music we h    
succe$$ 9 discov]+ ! simple/ relations1 
:i* please imm$iately & absolutely--we  
"k n :y--s ?is mu/ be attempt$ 9 all    
bran*es ( ! !ory ( art4 ,! mo/ important
 among !m1 t :i* treats ( moral beauty1 
moral philosophy1 has !re=e to inquire  
conc]n+ ! simple/ relations ( w1 :i*    
call =? moral approval or disapproval   
7indep5d5tly ( ! int]e/ ( ! spectator71 
to inquire conc]n+ ! practical ,ideas or
 patt]n-concepts1 9 accordance ) :i*    
moral ta/e1 involunt>ily & )            

unconditional evid5ce1 judges conc]n+ ! 
wor? or unwor? ( 7actually happ5+ or    
m]ely repres5t$7 volitions4 ,h]b>t      
enum]ates five su* prim>y ,ideas or     
fundam5tal judgm5ts ( consci5ce4  7#a7  
,! ,idea ( inn] fre$om comp>es ! w ) !  
judgm5t1 ! conviction1 ! consci5ce ( !  
ag5t himself4 ,! agreem5t ( 8 desire ) 8
 own judgm5t1 ) ! precept ( 8 ta/e1     
pleases1 lack ( agreem5t displeases4    
,s9ce ! p[] to det]m9e ! w accord+ to   
"o's own insight ( itself e/abli%es only
 an empty consi/5cy & loyalty to        
conviction1 & may also subs]ve immoral  
craft1 ! fir/ ,idea waits = its cont5t f
 ! f\r foll[+4  7#b7 ,! ,idea (         
p]fection has ref]5ce to ! quantitative 
relations ( ! manifold /riv+s ( a       
subject1 9 int5sity1 ext5sion1 &        
conc5tration4 ,! /rong is pleas+ 9      
contra/ ) ! weak1 ! great] 7m ext5d$1   
ri*]7 9 contra/ ) ! small]1 ! collect$ 9
 contra/ ) ! scatt]$2 9 o!r words1 9 !  
individual desires x is en]gy :i*       
pleases1 9 _! sum v>iety1 9 ! sy/em     

co-op]ation4 ,:ile ! fir/ two ,ideas h  
comp>$ ! w ( ! individual man ) itself1 
! rema9+ ones consid] its relation to ! 
w ( o!r rational be+s1 ! ?ird to a m]ely
 repres5t$ w1 & ! la/ two to an actual  
"o4  7#c7 ,accord+ to ! ,idea (         
b5evol5ce or goodness1 :i* gives ! mo/  
imm$iate & def9ite crit]ion ( ! wor? ( !
 disposition1 ! w pleases if x is 9     
h>mony ) ! 7repres5t$7 w ( ano!r1 i4e41 
makes ! satisfaction ( ! latt] its aim4 
7#d7 ,! ,idea ( "r is bas$ on ! fact t  
/rife displeases4 ,if sev]al wills come 
toge!r at "o po9t )\t ill-w 79 claim+ a 
?+71 ! p>ties ought to submit !mselves  
to "r z a rule = ! avoidance ( /rife4   
7#e7 ,9 retribution & equity1 also1 !   
orig9al elem5t is displeasure1          
displeasure 9 an unrequit$ act z a      
di/urbance ( equilibrium4 ,?is la/ ,idea
 dem&s t no de$ ( good or evil rema9    
unansw]$2 t 9 rew>d1 ?anks1 & puni%m5t1 
a quantum ( good & evil equal to t ( :i*
 he has be5 ! cause return ^u ! ag5t4 ,!
 "o-sid$ de$ ( good or ill is a         

di/urbance1 ! removal ( :i* dem&s a     
correspond+ requital4  ,h]b>t w>ns u    
aga9/ ! attempt to d]ive ! five orig9al 
,ideas 7:i* sci5tific analysis alone    
sep>ates1 = 9 life we always judge      
accord+ to all ( !m toge!r7 f a s+le    
high] ,idea1 ma9ta9+ t ! dem& = a common
 pr9ciple ( morals is a prejudice4 ,f ! 
union ( sev]al be+s into "o p]son proce$
 five o!r patt]n-concepts1 ! d]iv$ or   
social ,ideas ( ! e?ical in/itutions 9  
:i* ! prim>y ,ideas are realiz$4 ,^!    
correspond to ! prim>y ,ideas 9 ! rev]se
 ord]3 ,! sy/em ( rew>ds1 :i* regulates 
puni%m5t2 ! legal society1 :i* h9d]s    
/rife2 ! sy/em ( adm9i/ration1 aim$ at !
 greate/ possible good ( all2 ! sy/em ( 
culture1 aim$ at ! developm5t ( !       
greate/ possible p[] & virtuosity2      
f9ally1 z ! highe/1 & t :i* unites !    
o!rs 9 itself1 society z a p]son1 :i*1  
:5 x is provid$ ) ! necess>y p[]1 is    
t]m$ ! /ate4  ,if we comb9e ! totality (
 ! orig9al ,ideas into ! unity ( ! p]son
 ! concept ( virtue arises4 ,if we      

reflect on ! limitations :i* oppose !   
full realization ( ! ideal ( virtue1 we 
ga9 ! concepts ( law & duty4 ,an e?ics1 
l t ( ,kant1 :i* exclusively emphasizes 
! imp]ative or obligatory "* ( ! good1  
is "o-sid$2 x consid]s morality only 9  
arre/1 a mi/ake :i* goes ) its false    
doctr9e ( fre$om4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x 0 a   
great m]it 9 ,kant t he fir/ made cle> !
 unconditional validity ( moral judgm5t1
 indep5d5t ( all eudemonism4 ,politics &
 p$agogics are bran*es ( ! !ory (       
virtue4 ,! end ( education is developm5t
 9 virtue1 &1 z a means to ?is1 ! ar\s+ 
( v>i$ int]e/s & ! production ( a /able 
"*4  ,9 conclusion1 we may sum up !     
po9ts 9 :i* ,h]b>t %[s himself a foll[] 
( ,kant--he calls himself a ,kantian ( !
 ye> #ahbh4 ,8 practical philosophy     
takes f ,kant its indep5d5ce ( !oretical
 philosophy1 ! dis9t]e/$ "* ( ae/hetic  
judgm5t1 ! absolut5ess ( e?ical values1 
! non-empirical orig9 ( ! moral         
concepts3 ,! fundam5tal e?ical relations
 are n drawn f exp]i5ce4 ,8 metaphysics 

owes to ,kant ! critical treatm5t ( !   
exp]i5ce-concepts 7its task is to make  
exp]i5ce compreh5sible71 9 :i* ! lead+  
idea 9 ! ,kantian doctr9e ( ! ant9omies1
 ! inevitabl5ess ( contradictions1 is   
g5]aliz$1 ext5d$ to all ! fundam5tal    
concepts ( exp]i5ce1 &1 z x 71 transf]r$
 f ! ,dialectic to ! ,analytic2 x owes  
to him1 fur!r1 ! conception ( be+ z     
absolute position1 &1 f9ally1 ! dualism 
( ph5om5a & ?+s 9 !mselves4 ,h]b>t 7)   
,s*op5hau]7 consid]s ! r5ewal ( !       
,platonic di/9ction betwe5 seem+ & be+ !
 *ief s]vice ( ! great critical         
philosoph]1 & f9ds 8 greate/ mi/ake 9 ! 
a priori "* ascrib$ to ! =ms (          
cognition4 ,9 ! doctr9e ( ! pure        
intuitions & ! categories1 & ! ,critique
 ( ,judgm5t1 he rejects1 & ) full       
consci\sness1 j ^? p>ts ( ,kant on :i* !
 ,fi*tean s*ool _h built fur!r4 ,f9ally1
 ,h]b>t's me?od ( ?\ght1 8 imp]sonality1
 ! at times anxi\s caution ( 8 inquiry1 
& ! neatness ( 8 conceptions1 are       
some:at ak9 to ,kant's1 only t he lack$ 

! gift ( comb9ation to a mu* great]     
degree ?an 8 great pr$ecessor on !      
,knigsb]g ro/rum4 ,8 rem>kable acut5ess 
is busi] 9 loos5+ ?an 9 b9d+2 x is m    
happy 9 ! discov]y ( contradictions ?an 
9 _! resolution4 ,!re=e he does n belong
 to ! k+s :o h decid$ ! fate (          
philosophy = long p]iods ( "t2 he /&s to
 "o side1 ?\gh x is true he is ! mo/    
important figure among ^! :o occupy su* 
a position4  ,! fir/ to give 8 adh]5ce  
to ,h]b>t 9 ess5tial positions1 & s to  
furni% occasion = ! =mation ( an        
,h]b>tian s*ool1 0 ,drobis* 7born       
#ahjb71 9 two critiques :i* appe>$ 9    
#ahbh & #ahcj4 ,besides ,drobis*1 f :om 
we h valuable discussions ( ,logic      
7#ahcf1 #e? ed41 #ahhg7 & ,empirical    
,psy*ology 7#ahdb71 & an int]e/+ essay  
on ,moral ,/ati/ics & ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w  
7#ahfg71 ,l4 ,/rmpell 7born #ahab2 ,!   
,pr9cipal ,po9ts 9 ,h]b>t's ,metaphysics
 ,critically ,exam9$1 #ahdj71 is a      
pr(essor 9 ,leipsic4 ,! organ ( ! s*ool1
 ! ,zeits*rift fr exakte ,philosophie1  

n[ edit$ by ,flgel 7! fir/ volume1      
#ahfj1 conta9$ a survey ( ! lit]ature ( 
! s*ool71 0 at fir/ issu$ by ,t4 ,zill]1
 ! p$agogical ?9k]1 & ,allihn4 ,!       
,zeits*rift fr ,vlk]psy*ologie und      
,spra*wiss5s*aft1 f #ahei1 edit$ by ,m4 
,laz>us 7born #ahbd2 ,! ,life ( ! ,s\l1 
#c vols41 #ahef seq41 #c;d ed41 #ahhc   
seq47 & ,h4 ,/e9?al 7born #ahbc2 ,!     
,orig9 ( ,language1 #d? ed41 #ahhh2     
,sket* ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,language1 "p i4   
#b;d ed41 #ahha2 ,g5]al ,e?ics1 #ahhe7 (
 ,b]l91 also belongs to ! ,h]b>tian     
movem5t4 ,di/+ui%$ s]vice has be5 done 9
 psy*ology by ,nahl[sky 7,! ,life (     
,feel+1 #ahfb1 #b;d4 ed41 #ahhd71 ,!odor
 ,waitz 9 ,m>burg 7#ahba-hd2 ,f\ndation 
( ,psy*ology1 #ahdf2 ,text-book (       
,psy*ology1 #ahdi71 & ,volkmann 9       
,prague 7#ahbb-gg2 ,text-book (         
,psy*ology1 #c;d4 ed41 by ,cornelius1   
#ahhd & #ahhe72 :ile ,fri$ri* ,exn] 7di$
 #ahec7 0 =m]ly mu* spok5 ( z an oppon5t
 ( ! ,hegelian psy*ology 7#ahdc-dd74    
,rob]t ,zimm]mann 9 ,vi5na 7born #ahbd7 

repres5ts an extreme =mali/ic t5d5cy 9  
ae/hetics 7,hi/ory ( ,ae/hetics1 #aheh2 
,g5]al ,e/hetics z ,sci5ce ( ,=m1 #ahfe2
 fur!r1 a s]ies ( ?or\gh essays on      
subjects 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy74      
,among hi/orians ( philosophy ,?ilo has 
giv5 a r "o-sid$ repres5tation ( !      
,h]b>tian /&po9t4 ,! s*ool's philosoph]s
 ( religion h be5 m5tion$ above 7p4     
#ecb74 ,b5eke1 :om we h jo9$ ) ,fries on
 acc\nt ( 8 an?ropological /&po9t1 /&s  
ab\t midway betwe5 ,h]b>t & ,s*op5hau]4 
,he %>es 9 ! =m]'s int]e/ 9 psy*ology1 9
 ! latt]'s f\ndation ( metaphysical k on
 inn] exp]i5ce1 & 9 ! dislike felt by   
bo? = ,hegel2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 he     
diff]s f ,h]b>t 9 8 empirical me?od1 & f
 ,s*op5hau] 9 ! priority ascrib$ to     
repres5tation ov] ef=t4   #c4           
,pessimism3 ,s*op5hau]4  ,s*op5hau] is 9
 all respects ! antipodes ( ,h]b>t4 ,if 
9 ,h]b>t philosophy breaks up into a    
numb] ( di/9ct special inquiries1       
,s*op5hau] has b "o fundam5tal ?\ght to 
communicate1 9 ! c>ry+ out ( :i*1 z he  

is conv9c$1 ea* "p implies ! :ole & is  
impli$ by ! :ole4 ,! =m] op]ates ) sob] 
concepts :]e ! latt] foll[s ! lead (    
gift$ intuition4 ,! "o is cool1 ?or\gh1 
cauti\s1 me?odical to ! po9t ( p$antry2 
! o!r is passionate1 +5i\s1 unme?odical 
to ! po9t ( caprici\s dilettantism4 ,9 !
 "o case1 philosophy is z f> z possible 
exact sci5ce1 9 :i* ! p]son ( ! ?9k]    
entirely retires beh9d ! sub/ance ( !   
inquiry2 9 ! o!r1 philosophy consi/s 9 a
 sum ( arti/ic conceptions1 :i* d]ive _!
 cont5t & value *iefly f ! individuality
 ( ! au?or4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy has  
no o!r sy/em to %[ :i* to ! same degree 
expresses & reflects ! p]sonality ( !   
philosoph] z ,s*op5hau]'s4 ,?is         
p]sonality1 not)/&+ its limitations &   
its :ims1 0 important en\gh to give     
int]e/ to ,s*op5hau]'s views1 ev5 ap>t f
 ! relative tru? :i* !y conta94  ,ar?ur 
,s*op5hau] 7#aghh-ahfj7 0 ! son ( a     
m]*ant 9 ,dantzic & 8 wife ,johanna1 ne 
,trosi5]1 :o subsequ5tly became kn[n z a
 noveli/4 ,8 e>ly tra9+ 0 ga9$ f =eign  

travel1 b aft] ! dea? ( 8 fa!r he       
ex*ang$ ! m]cantile c>e]1 :i* he _h     
begun at 8 fa!r's reque/1 = t ( a s*ol>1
 /udy+ "u ,g4,e4 ,s*ulze 9 ,gtt+51 & "u 
,fi*te at ,b]l94 ,9 #ahac he ga9$ 8     
doctor's degree 9 ,j5a ) a diss]tation  
,on ! ,f\rfold ,root ( ! ,pr9ciple (    
,suffici5t ,reason4 ,!n he mov$ f       
,weim>1 ! resid5ce ( 8 "m1 :]e he _h    
associat$ consid]ably ) ,goe! & _h be5  
introduc$ to ,indian philosophy by ,fr4 
,may]1 to ,dresd5 7#ahad-ah74 ,9 ! latt]
 place he wrote ! essay ,on ,sight &    
,colors 7#ahaf2 subsequ5tly publi%$ by !
 au?or 9 ,lat971 & 8 *ief "w1 ,! ,_w z  
,w & ,idea 7#ahai2 new edition1 ) a     
second volume1 #ahdd74 ,aft] !          
completion ( ! latt] he began 8 fir/    
,italian j\rney1 :ile 8 second t\r fell 
9 ! int]val betwe5 8 two q unsuccessful 
attempts 79 ,b]l9 #ahbj & #ahbe7 to     
propagate 8 philosophy f ! pr(essor's   
desk4 ,f #ahca until 8 dea? he liv$ 9   
le>n$ retirem5t 9 ,frank=t-on-!-,ma94   
,"h he compos$ ! opuscule ,on ,w 9      

,nature1 #ahcf1 ! prize treatises ,on ! 
,fre$om ( ! ,human ,w & ,on ! ,f\ndation
 ( ,e?ics 7toge!r1 ,! ,two ,fundam5tal  
,problems ( ,e?ics1 #ahda71 & !         
collection ( m9or treatises ,p>]ga &    
,p>alipom5a1 #b vols41 #ahea 7includ+ an
 essay ,on ,religion74 ,j4 ,frau5/dt has
 publi%$ a consid]able am\nt ( po/hum\s 
mat]ial 7among o!r ?+s ! translation1   
,b4 ,gracians ,h&orakel d]              
,weltklugheit72 ! ,collect$ ,works 7#f  
vols41 #ahgc-gd1 #b;d ed41 #ahgg1 ) a   
biographical notice72 ,li*t/rahl5 aus   
,s*op5hau]s ,w]k51 #ahfa1 #e? ed4 #ahhe2
 & a ,s*op5hau] ,lexicon1 #b vols41     
#ahga4a  ,footnote #a3 ,f ! rema9+      
,s*op5hau] lit]ature 7,f4 ,laban has    
publi%$ a *ronological survey ( x1      
#ahhj7 we may call att5tion to !        
critiques ( ! fir/ edition ( ! *ief "w  
by ,h]b>t & ,b5eke1 & t ( ! second      
edition by ,=tlage 7,j5ais*e ,litt]atur 
,zeitung1 #ahde1 ,nos4 #adf-aea72 ,j4,e4
 ,erdmann ,h]b>t und ,s*op5hau]1 e9e    
,anti!se 7,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1  

#ahea72 ,wilh4 ,gw9n]1 ,s*op5hau]s      
,leb51 #ahgh 7! second edition (        
,s*op5hau] aus p]snli*em ,umgang        
d>ge/ellt1 #ahfb72 ,fr4 ,nietzs*e1      
,s*op5hau] als ,erzieh] 7,unzeitgemsse  
,betra*tung51 ,/ck iii41 #ahgd72 ,o4    
,bus*1 ,a4 ,s*op5hau]1 #b;d4 ed41 #ahgh2
 ,k4 ,pet]s1 ,s*op5hau] als ,philosoph  
und ,s*rift/ell]1 #ahhj2 ,r4 ,koeb]1    
,die ,philosophie ,a4 ,s*op5hau]s1      
#ahhh4 ,! ,engli% read] may be ref]r$ to
 ,haldane & ,kemp's translation ( ,! ,_w
 z ,w & ,idea1 #c vols41 #ahhc-hf2 !    
translation ( ,! ,f\rfold ,root & ! ,w 9
 ,nature 9 ,bohn's ,philosophical       
,libr>y1 #ahhi2 ,saund]s's translations 
f ! ,p>]ga & ,p>alipom5a1 #ahhi seq42   
,hel5 ,zimm]n's ,ar?ur ,s*op5hau]1 8    
,life & 8 ,philosophy1 #ahgf2 ,w4       
,wallace's ,s*op5hau]1 ,great ,writ]s   
,s]ies1 #ahij 7) a bibliography by      
,&]son1 includ+ ref]5ces to num]\s      
magaz9e articles1 etc472 ,sully's       
,pessimism1 #b;d ed41 #ahhb1 *ap4 iv42 &
 ,royce's ,_s ( ,mod]n ,philosophy1 *ap1

 viii41 #ahib4--,,tr4  ,9 reg>d to      
subjective idealism ,s*op5hau] confesses
 himself a ?or\ghgo+ ,kantian4 ,t       
s5sations are m]ely /ates 9 u has long  
be5 kn[n2 ,kant op5$ ! eyes ( ! _w to ! 
fact t ! =ms ( k are also ! prop]ty ( ! 
subject4 ,i "k ?+s only z !y appe> to   
me1 z ,i repres5t !m 9 virtue ( !       
con/itution ( my intellect2 ! _w is my  
idea4 ,! ,kantian !ory1 h[ev]1 is       
capable ( simplification1 ! v>i\s =ms ( 
cognition may be r$uc$ to a s+le "o1 to 
! category ( causality or pr9ciple (    
suffici5t reason--:i* 0 pref]r$ by ,kant
 himself--z ! g5]al expression ( !      
regul> connection ( our repres5tations4 
,?is pr9ciple1 9 correspond5ce ) !      
sev]al classes ( objects1 or r (        
repres5tations--viz41 pure 7m]ely =mal7 
intuitions1 empirical 7complete7        
intuitions1 acts ( w1 ab/ract           
concepts--has f\r =ms3 x is ! pr9cipium 
rationis ess5di1 rationis fi5di1        
rationis ag5di1 rationis cognosc5di4 ,! 
ratio ess5di is ! law :i* regulates !   

coexi/5ce ( ! p>ts ( space & !          
succession ( ! divisions ( "t4 ,! ratio 
fi5di dem&s = e *ange ( /ate ano!r f :i*
 x regul>ly foll[s z f its cause1 & a   
sub/ance z its un*angeable              
sub/ratum--matt]4 ,all *anges take place
 necess>ily1 all t is real is mat]ial2 !
 law ( causality is valid = ph5om5a     
alone1 n beyond !m1 & holds only = !    
/ates ( sub/ances1 n = sub/ances        
!mselves4 ,9 inorganic nature causes "w 
me*anically1 9 organic nature z /imuli  
79 :i* ! reaction is n equal to !       
action71 & 9 animat$ nature z motives4  
,a motive is a consci\s 7b n !re=e a    
free7 cause2 ! law ( motivation is !    
ratio ag5di4 ,?is s]ial ord]1 me*anical 
cause1 /imulus1 & motive1 d5otes only   
di/9ctions 9 ! mode ( action1 n 9 !     
necessity ( action4 ,man's actions foll[
 z inevitably f 8 "* & ! motives :i*    
influ5ce him z a clock /rikes ! h\rs2 ! 
fre$om ( ! w is a *im]a4 ,f9ally1 !     
ratio cognosc5di det]m9es t a judgm5t   
mu/ h a suffici5t gr\nd 9 ord] to be    

true4 ,judgm5t or ! connection (        
concepts is ! *ief activity ( ! reason1 
:i*1 z ! faculty ( ab/ract ?\ght & !    
organ ( sci5ce1 con/itutes ! diff]5ce   
betwe5 man & ! brute1 :ile ! possession 
( ! und]/&+ ) its intuition ( objects is
 common to bo?4 ,9 opposition to !      
cu/om>y ov]e/imation ( ?is gift ( m$iate
 repres5tations1 ( language1 & (        
reflection1 ,s*op5hau] gives prom95ce to
 ! fact t ! reason is n a creative      
faculty l ! und]/&+1 b only a receptive 
p[]1 t x cl>ifies & trans=ms ! cont5t   
furni%$ by intuition )\t increas+ x by  
new repres5tations4  ,objective         
cognition is conf9$ )9 ! circle ( our   
repres5tations2 all t is kn[able is     
ph5om5on4 ,space1 "t1 & causality spread
 out l a triple veil betwe5 u & ! p] se 
( ?+s1 & prev5t a vision ( ! true nature
 ( ! _w4 ,!re is "o po9t1 h[ev]1 at :i* 
we "k m ?an m]e ph5om5a1 :]e ( ^! ?ree  
di/urb+ m$ia only "o1 "t-=m1 sep>ates u 
f ! ?+ 9 itself4 ,?is po9t is !         
consci\sness ( ourselves4  ,on ! "o h&1 

,i appe> to myself z body4 ,my body is a
 temporal1 spatial1 mat]ial object1 an  
object l all o!rs1 & ) !m subject to !  
laws ( objectivity4 ,b besides ?is      
objective cognition1 ,i h1 fur!r1 an    
imm$iate consci\sness ( myself1 ?r\gh   
:i* ,i appreh5d my true be+--,i "k      
myself z will+4 ,my w is m ?an a m]e    
repres5tation1 x is ! orig9al elem5t 9  
me1 ! truly real :i* appe>s to me z     
body4 ,! w is relat$ to ! intellect z ! 
prim>y to ! second>y1 z sub/ance to     
accid5t2 x is relat$ to ! body z ! inn] 
to ! out]1 z reality to ph5om5on4 ,! act
 ( w is foll[$ at once & inevitably by !
 movem5t ( ! body will$1 nay1 ! two are 
"o & ! same1 only giv5 9 diff]5t ways3 w
 is ! body se5 f )91 body ! w se5 f )\t1
 ! w become visible1 objectifi$4 ,aft] !
 analogy ( ourselves1 aga91 :o appe> to 
ourselves z mat]ial objects b 9 tru? are
 w1 all exi/5ce is to be judg$4 ,!      
univ]se is ! mac-an?ropos2 ! k ( our own
 ess5ce1 ! key to ! k ( ! ess5ce ( ! _w4
 ,l our body1 ! :ole _w is ! visibility 

( w4 ,! human w is ! highe/ /age 9 !    
developm5t ( ! same pr9ciple :i*        
manife/s its activity 9 ! v>i\s =ces (  
nature1 & :i* prop]ly takes its "n f !  
highe/ species4 ,to p5etrate fur!r into 
! inn] nature ( ?+s ?an ?is is          
impossible4 ,:at t :i* pres5ts itself z 
w & :i* /ill rema9s aft] ! negation ( ! 
latt] 7see bel[7 is 9 itself1 is = u    
absolutely unkn[able4  ,! _w is p] se w4
 ,none ( ! pr$icates are to be attribut$
 to ! primal w :i* we ascribe to ?+s 9  
consequ5ce ( our subjective =ms (       
?\ght--nei!r det]m9ation by causes or   
ends1 nor plurality3 x /&s outside ! law
 ( causality1 z also outside space & "t1
 :i* =m ! pr9cipium individuationis4 ,! 
primal w is gr\ndless1 bl9d /ress1      
unconsci\s impulse t[>d exi/5ce2 x is   
"o1 ! "o & all1 ,greek3 en nai pan4 ,t  
:i* manife/s itself z gravity1 z        
magnetic =ce1 z ! impulse to gr[?1 z !  
vis m$icatrix naturae1 is only ?is "o   
_w-w1 ^: unity 7n consci\s "*67 %[s     
itself 9 ! purposiv5ess ( its           

embodim5ts4 ,! ess5ce ( ea* ?+1 its     
hidd5 quality1 at :i* empirical         
explanation f9ds its limit1 is its w3 ! 
ess5ce ( ! /one is its w to fall2 t ( ! 
lungs is ! w to brea!2 tee?1 ?roat1 &   
b[els are hung] objectifi$4 ,^?         
qualities 9 :i* ! univ]sal w gives      
itself mat]ial manife/ation =m a s]ies )
 grades ( increas+ p]fection1 a realm ( 
un*angeable specific =ms or et]nal      
,ideas1 :i* 7) a real value difficult to
 det]m9e7 /& midway betwe5 ! "o primal w
 & ! numb]less individual be+s4 ,t !    
organic individual does n p]fectly      
correspond to ! ideal ( its species1 b  
only approximates ?is m or less closely1
 is gr\nd$ 9 ! fact t ! /adia 9 !       
objectification ( ! w1 or ! ,ideas1     
cont5d1 z x 71 = matt]2 & :atev] ( =ce  
is us$ up 9 ! victory ( ! high] ,ideas  
ov] ! l[] is lo/ = ! developm5t ( !     
examples ( ! =m]4 ,! high] ! level on   
:i* a be+ /&s ! cle>] ! expression ( its
 individuality4 ,! mo/ g5]al =ces (     
nature1 :i* con/itute ! raw mass1 play !

 fundam5tal bass 9 ! _w-symphony1 !     
high] /ages ( inorganic nature1 ) !     
vegetable & animal worlds1 ! h>moni\s   
middle p>ts1 & man ! guid+ treble1 !    
significant melody4 ,) ! human bra9 ! _w
 z idea is giv5 at a /roke2 9 ?is organ 
! w has k9dl$ a tor* 9 ord] to ?r[ light
 ^u itself & to c>ry out its designs )  
c>eful delib]ation2 x has br\ght =? !   
intellect z its in/rum5t1 :i*1 ) ! great
 majority ( m51 rema9s 9 a position (   
subs]vi5ce to ! w4 ,bra9 & ?\ght are !  
same2 ! =m] is no?+ o!r ?an ! w to "k1 z
 ! /oma* is w to dige/4 ,^? only talk ( 
an immat]ial s\l :o import into         
philosophy--:]e su* ideas d n           
belong--concepts taught !m :5 !y 7      
confirm$4  ,s*op5hau]'s philosophy is z 
ri* 9 inconsi/5cies z 8 p]sonality 0    
self-will$ & unh>moni\s4 ,he c>ries into
 8 sy/em all ! contradictions & :ims ( 8
 caprici\s nature1 says ,zell]4 ,f ! mo/
 radical idealism 7! objective _w a     
product ( repres5tation7 he makes a %>p 
transition to ! crasse/ mat]ialism      

7?\ght a function ( ! bra972 fir/ matt] 
is to be a m]e idea1 n[ ?\ght is to be  
m]ely a mat]ial ph5om5on6 ,! ?ird & f\r?
 books ( ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea1 :i*       
develop ! ae/hetic & e?ical /&po9t ( _! 
au?or1 /& 9 z %>p a contradiction to !  
fir/ 7potical7 & ! second 7metaphysical7
 books z ^! to ea* o!r4 ,:ile at fir/ x 
0 ma9ta9$ t all repres5tation is subject
 to ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason1 we   
are n[ told t1 besides causal cognition1
 !re is a high] k1 "o :i* is free f !   
control ( ?is pr9ciple1 viz41 ae/hetic &
 philosophical intuition4 ,if1 be=e1 x 0
 said t ! intellect is ! creature &     
s]vant ( ! w1 we n[ le>n t 9 favor$     
individuals x ga9s ! p[] to ?r[ (f !    
yoke ( slav]y1 & n only to raise itself 
to ! bless$ness ( contemplation free f  
all desire1 b ev5 to ent] on a victori\s
 conflict ) ! tyrant1 to slay ! w4 ,!   
s\rce ( ?is p[]--is n reveal$4 ,r4 ,haym
 7,a4 ,s*op5hau]1 #ahfd1 repr9t$ f !    
,preussis*e ,jahrb*]7 0 n f> wrong 9    
*>act]iz+ ,s*op5hau]'s philosophy z a   

clev] novel1 :i* ent]ta9s ! read] by its
 rapid vicissitudes4  ,! contemplation  
:i* is free f causality & w is ! ess5ce 
( ae/hetic life2 ! p>tial & total       
sublation1 ! quiet+ & negation ( ! w1 t 
( e?ical life4 ,x is b seldom1 & only 9 
! arti/ic & philosophical g5ius1 t !    
intellect succe$s 9 free+ itself f !    
supremacy ( ! w1 &1 lay+ aside ! "q ( ! 
:y & :]e=e1 :]e & :51 9 s9k+ itself     
completely 9 ! pure :at ( ?+s4 ,:ile ) !
 majority ( mank9d1 z ) animals1 !      
intellect always rema9s a prison] 9 !   
s]vice ( ! w to live1 (                 
self-pres]vation1 ( p]sonal int]e/s1 9  
gift$ m51 9 arti/s & ?9k]s1 x /rips (f  
all t is individual1 &1 9 dis9t]e/$     
vision ( ! ,ideas1 becomes pure1        
timeless subject1 fre$ f ! w4 ,art      
removes individuality f ! subject z well
 z f ! object2 its com=t+ & *e]+        
influ5ce dep5ds on ! fact t x elevates  
^? enjoy+ x to ! /&-po9t--rais$ above   
all pa9 ( desire--( a fix$1 calm1       
completely objective contemplation ( !  

un*angeable ess5ce1 ( ! et]nal types (  
?+s4 ,= ae/hetic intuition ! object is n
 a ?+ "u relations ( space1 "t1 & cause1
 b only an expression1 an               
exemplification1 a repres5tative ( !    
,idea4 ,poetry1 :i* pres5ts--mo/        
p]fectly 9 trag$y--! ,idea ( humanity1  
/&s high] ?an ! pla/ic arts4 ,! highe/  
rank1 h[ev]1 belongs to music1 s9ce x   
does n1 l ! o!r arts1 repres5t s+le     
,ideas1 b--z an unconsci\s metaphysic1  
nay1 a second1 ideal _w above ! mat]ial 
_w--! w itself4 ,9 view ( ?is high      
appreciation ( _! art1 x is n surpris+ t
 musicians h contribut$ a consid]able   
cont+5t to ! b& ( ,s*op5hau] wor%ip]s4  
,a diff]5t s\rce ( attraction = ! wid]  
circle ( read]s 0 suppli$ by ! piquant  
spice ( pessimism4  ,if ! purposiv5ess (
 ! ph5om5a ( nature po9ts to ! unity ( !
 primal w1 ! unspeakable mis]y ( life1  
:i* ,s*op5hau] sets =? ) no less (      
eloqu5ce1 proves ! bl9dness &           
irrationality ( ! _w-gr\nd4 ,to live is 
to suff]2 ! _w conta9s incomp>ably m pa9

 ?an pleasure2 x is ! wor/ possible _w4 
,9 ! _w ( sub-animal nature aimless     
/riv+2 9 ! animal _w an insatiable      
impulse aft] enjoym5t--:ile ! w1 deceiv+
 itself ) fanci$ happ9ess to come1 :i*  
always rema9s d5i$ x1 & cont9ually toss$
 to & fro betwe5 necessity & ennui1 nev]
 atta9s complete satisfaction4 ,!       
pleasure :i* x pursues is no?+ b !      
removal ( a dissatisfaction1 & vani%es  
at once :5 ! long+ is /ill$1 to be      
replac$ by fre% wants1 t is1 by new     
pa9s4 ,9 view ( ! indescribable mis]y 9 
! _w1 to favor optimism is evid5ce n s  
mu* ( folly & bl9dness z ( a wanton     
disposition4 ,! old say+ is true3       
,non-exi/5ce is bett] ?an exi/5ce4 ,!   
mis]y1 h[ev]1 is ! j puni%m5t = !       
orig9al s9 ( ! individual1 :i* gave     
itself its p>ticul> exi/5ce by an act ( 
intelligible fre$om4 ,r$emption f ! s9 &
 mis]y ( exi/5ce is possible only ?r\gh 
a second act ( transc5d5tal fre$om1 :i*1
 s9ce x consi/s 9 ! complete            
trans=mation ( our be+1 & s9ce x is     

sup]natural 9 its orig91 ! ,*ur* is "r 9
 describ+ z a new bir? & "w ( grace4    
,morality presupposes pessimi/ic insight
 into ! badness ( ! _w & ! fruitlessness
 ( all desire1 & pan!i/ic disc]nm5t ( ! 
untru? ( individual exi/5ce & ! id5tity 
9 ess5ce ( all individuals f a          
metaphysical /&po9t4 ,man is able to    
free himself f egoi/ic self-affirmation 
only :5 he p]ceives ! two tru?s1 t all  
/riv+ is va9 & ! long$-= pleasure       
unatta9able1 & t all individuals are at 
bottom "o1 viz4 manife/ations ( ! same  
primal w4 ,?is is tempor>ily effect$ 9  
sympa?y1 :i*1 z ! only c\nt]poise to    
natural selfi%ness1 is ! true moral     
motive & ! s\rce ( all love & ju/ice4 ,!
 sympa?iz] sees himself 9 o!rs & feels  
_! suff]+ z 8 own4 ,! entire negation ( 
! w1 h[ev]1 inspir+ examples ( :i* h be5
 furni%$ by ! ,*ri/ian ascetics &       
,ori5tal p5it5ts1 /&s high] ?an ! vulg> 
virtue ( sympa?y ) ! suff]+s ( o!rs4 ,"h
 k1 turn$ away f ! individual & va9 to !
 :ole & g5u9e1 ceases to be a motive = !

 w & becomes a means ( /ill+ x2 !       
intellect is trans=m$ f a motive into a 
quietive1 & br+s him :o gives himself up
 to ! ,all safely out f ! /orm ( !      
passions into ! peace ( deliv]ance f    
exi/5ce4 ,abs5ce ( w1 resignation1 is   
hol9ess & bless$ness 9 "o4 ,= him :o has
 sla9 ! w 9 himself ! motley deceptive  
dream ( ph5om5a has vani%$1 he lives 9 !
 e!r ( true reality1 :i* = our k is an  
empty no?+ness 7,nirvana71 yet 7z !     
ultimate1 incompreh5sible p] se1 :i*    
rema9s aft] ! annull+ ( ! w7 only a     
relative no?+ness--relative to !        
ph5om5on4  ,s*op5hau] disposes ( ! s5se 
( responsibility & ! repro(s (          
consci5ce1 :i* are inconv5i5t facts = 8 
det]m9ism1 by mak+ !m bo? ref]1 n to    
s+le de$s & ! empirical "*1 b to !      
indivisible act ( ! intelligible "*4    
,consci5ce does n blame me because ,i h 
act$ z ,i mu/ act ) my "* & ! motives   
giv51 b = be+ :at 9 ^! actions ,i reveal
 myself to be4 ,op]>i sequitur esse4 ,my
 action foll[s f my be+1 my be+ 0 my own

 free *oice1 & a new act ( fre$om is    
alone capable ( trans=m+ x4  ,if        
,s*op5hau] is fond ( ref]r+ to !        
agreem5t ( 8 views ) ! olde/ & mo/      
p]fect religions1 ! idea lies 9 !       
backgr\nd t religion1--:i* spr+s f !    
same metaphysical ne$s z philosophy1 &1 
= ! great multitude1 :o lack ! leisure &
 ! capacity = philosophical ?\ght1 takes
 ! place ( ! =m]1--z ! metaphysics ( !  
p1 clo!s ! same fundam5tal tru?s :i* !  
philosoph] (f]s 9 conceptual =m &       
supports by rational gr\nds 9 ! g>b (   
my? & allegory1 & places !m "u !        
protection ( an ext]nal au?ority4 ,:5   
?is "* ( religion is ov]look$1 & t :i*  
is int5d$ to be symbolical is tak5 =    
lit]al tru? 7x is n ! sup]naturali/s    
alone :o />t ) ?is unju/ dem&1 b !      
rationali/s also1 ) _! m9imiz+          
int]pretations71 x becomes ! wor/ enemy 
( true philosophy4 ,9 ,*ri/ianity !     
doctr9es ( orig9al s9 & ( r$emption are 
especially cong5ial to our philosoph]1 z
 well z my/icism & asceticism4 ,he      

decl>es ,mohamm$anism ! wor/ religion on
 acc\nt ( its optimism & ab/ract !ism1 &
 ,buddhism ! be/1 because x is          
ideali/ic1 pessimi/ic1 &--a!i/ic4  ,x 0 
n until aft] ! appe>ance ( ! second     
edition ( 8 *ief "w t ,s*op5hau]        
exp]i5c$ 9 increas+ measure !           
satisfaction--:i* 8 impati5t ambition _h
 expect$ mu* e>li]--( see+ 8 philosophy 
s]i\sly consid]$4 ,a zeal\s apo/le arose
 = him 9 ,julius ,frau5/dt 7di$ #ahgh2  
,lett]s on ! ,philosophy ( ,s*op5hau]1  
#ahed2 ,new ,lett]s on ! ,philosophy (  
,s*op5hau]1 #ahgf71 :o1 orig9ally an    
,hegelian1 endeavor$ to remove pessimism
 f ! ma/]'s sy/em4 ,l ,edu>d von        
,h>tmann1 :o w be discuss$ bel[1 ,julius
 ,bahns5 7di$ #ahhb2 ,! ,contradiction 9
 ! ,k & ,be+ ( ! ,_w1 ! ,pr9ciple &     
,p>ticul> ,v]ification (                
,real-,dialectic1 #ahhj-ha2 also1       
int]e/+ *>act]ological /udies7 seeks to 
comb9e elem5ts f ,s*op5hau] & ,hegel1   
:ile ,k4 ,pet]s 7,w-_w & ,_w-w1 #ahhc7  
%[s 9 ano!r direction po9ts ( contact ) 

! fir/ nam$ ?9k]4 ,( ! y\ng] memb]s ( ! 
s*ool we may "n ,p4 ,deuss5 9 ,kiel 7,! 
,elem5ts ( ,metaphysics1 #b;d ed41      
#ahij71 & ,philipp ,ma9lnd] 7,philosophy
 ( ,r$emption1 #b;d ed41 #ahgi74 ,z we h
 m5tion$ above1 ,s*op5hau]'s doctr9es h 
ex]cis$ an attractive =ce 9 arti/ic     
circles also4 ,ri*>d ,wagn] 7#ahac-hc2  
,collect$ ,writ+s1 #i vols41 #ahga-gc1  
vol4 x4 #ahhc2 #b;d ed41 #ahhg-hh71 ^:  
e>li] ae/hetic writ+s 7,! ,art-"w ( !   
,future1 #ahej2 ,op]a & ,drama1 #ahea7  
_h %[n ! influ5ce ( ,feu]ba*1 9 8 lat]  
works 7,bee?ov51 #ahgj2 ,religion &     
,art1 9 ! ?ird volume ( ! ,bayreu!r     
,bltt]1 #ahhj7 became an adh]5t (       
,s*op5hau]1 aft]1 9 ! ,r+ ( ! ,nibelung1
 he _h giv5 poetical expression to a    
view ( ! _w ne>ly alli$ to ,s*op5hau]'s1
 ?\gh ?is 0 previ\s to 8 acqua9tance ) !
 works ( ! latt]4#a ,"o ( ! mo/ ?\ghtful
 disciples ( ! ,frank=t philosoph] & !  
,bayreu? dramati/ is ,fri$ ri* ,nietzs*e
 7born #ahdd74 ,8 ,unseasonable         
,reflections1 #ahgc-gf1b is a summons to

 return f ! errors ( mod]n culture1 :i*1
 corrupt$ by ! seek]s = ga91 by ! /ate1 
by ! polite writ]s & savants1 especially
 by ! pr(essors ( philosophy1 has made  
m5 c[>dly & false in/ead ( simple &     
honorable1 m]e self-satisfi$ phili/9es (
 culture4 ,9 8 writ+s s9ce #ahghc       
,nietzs*e has ex*ang$ ! rle ( a ,g]man  
,r\sseau = t ( a foll[] ( ,voltaire1 to 
arrive f9ally at ! ideal ( ! man above  
m54#d  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 on ,wagn]1    
,fr4 v4 ,hausegg]1 ,wagn] und           
,s*op5hau]1 #ahgh4 ,engli% translation (
 ,wagn]'s ,prose ,works by ,ellis1 vol4 
i41 #ahib4--,,tr4  ,footnote #b3 ,d4    
,/rauss1 ! ,confessor & ! ,au?or2 ,on ! 
,advantage & ,disadvantage ( ,hi/ory =  
,life2 ,s*op5hau] z an ,educator2 ,r4   
,wagn] 9 ,bayreu?4  ,footnote #c3       
,human1 ,all-too-human1 new ed41 #ahhf2 
,! ,dawn1 ,?\ghts on ,human ,prejudices1
 #ahha2 ,! ,m]ry ,sci5ce1 #ahhb2 ,s     
spake ,z>a?u/ra1 #ahhc-hd2 ,beyond ,good
 & ,evil1 #ahhf2 ,on ! ,g5ealogy (      
,morals1 #ahhg1 #b;d ed41 #ahhg2 ,!     

,wagn] ,affair1 #ahhh1 #b;d ed41 #ahib2 
,gtz5dmm]ung1 or ,h[ to ,philosophize ) 
! ,hamm]1 #ahhi4  ,footnote #d3 ,cf4 ,h4
 ,kaatz1 ,die ,weltans*auung ,fr4       
,nietzs*es1 ,i4 ,kultur und ,moral1     
#ahib4    ,,*apt] ,,xv4  ,,philosophy   
,,out ,,( ,,g]many4   #a4 ,italy4  ,!   
,c>tesian philosophy1 :i* _h be5 widely 
accept$ 9 ,italy1 & _h /ill be5         
advocat$1 9 ! s5se ( ,malebran*e1 by    
,sigismond ,g]dil 7#agah-ahjb71 0 oppos$
 z an unhi/orical view ( ! _w by        
,giambatti/a ,vico1#a ! bold & pr(\nd   
creator ( ! philosophy ( hi/ory         
7#affh-agdd2 f #afig pr(essor ( rhetoric
 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,naples74 ,vico's     
lead+ ideas are z foll[s3 ,man makes    
himself ! crit]ion ( ! univ]se1 judges t
 :i* is unkn[n & remote by ! kn[n &     
pres5t4 ,! free w ( ! individual re/s on
 ! judgm5ts1 mann]s1 & habits ( ! p1 :i*
 h aris5 )\t reflection f a univ]sal    
human in/9ct4 ,uni=m ideas among nations
 unacqua9t$ ) "o ano!r are motiv$ 9 a   
common tru?4 ,hi/ory is ! developm5t (  

human nature2 9 x nei!r *ance nor fate  
rules1 b ! legislative p[] ( provid5ce1 
9 virtue ( :i* m5 ?r\gh _! own fre$om   
progressively realize ! idea ( human    
nature4 ,! univ]sal c\rse ( civilization
 is t culture transf]s its abode f !    
=e/s & huts into villages1 cities1 &1   
f9ally1 into academies2 ! nature ( !    
nations is at fir/ rude1 !n /]n1        
gradually x becomes mild1 nay1          
effem9ate1 & f9ally wanton2 at fir/ m5  
feel only t :i* is necess>y1 lat] !y    
reg>d ! useful1 ! conv5i5t1 ! agreeable 
& attractive1 until ! luxury sprung f ! 
s5se = ! beautiful deg5]ates into a     
fooli% misuse ( ?+s4 ,vico divides      
antiquity into ?ree p]iods3 ! div9e     
7!ocracy71 ! h]oic 7ari/ocracy71 & !    
human 7democracy & mon>*y74 ,! same     
c\rse ( ?+s repeats itself 9 ! nations (
 lat] times3 to ! patri>*al dom9ion ( ! 
fanciful1 my?-mak+ ,ori5t correspond !  
spiritual /ates ( ! migrations2 to ! old
 ,greek ari/ocracy1 ! *ivalry & robb]y (
 ! p]iod ( ! ,crusades2 to !            

republicanism & ! mon>*y ( lat]         
antiquity1 ! mod]n p]iod1 :i* gives ev5 
! citiz5s & peasants a %>e 9 ! univ]sal 
equality4 ,if ,european culture _h n be5
 transplant$ to ,am]ica1 ! same ?ree-act
 drama ( human developm5t w\ld !re be   
play+4 ,vico c>ries ?is ?reefold        
division into 8 consid]ation ( mann]s1  
laws1 languages1 "*1 etc4  ,footnote #a3
 ,vico3 ,pr9ciples ( a ,new ,sci5ce ( ! 
,common ,nature ( ,nations1 #agbe2      
,works1 9 six volumes1 edit$ by ,g4     
,f]r>i1 #ahce-cg1 new ed44 #ahec seq4   
,on ,vico cf4 ,k4 ,w]n]1 #ahgg & #ahgi4 
,also ,fl9t's ,vico1 ,blackwood's       
,philosophical ,classics1 #ahhd4--,,tr4 
,if ,vico anticipates ! ,hegelian view (
 hi/ory1 ,antonio ,g5ovesi 7#agab-fi71  
:o also taught at ! ,univ]sity (        
,naples1 & :ile ! =m] 0 /ill liv+1 %[s  
himself animat$ by a pres5tim5t ( !     
,kantian criticism4#a ,appreciat+       
,leibnitz & ,locke1 & appropriat+ ! idea
 ( ! monads f ! "o & ! unkn[abl5ess (   
sub/ance f ! o!r1 he rea*es !           

conviction--accord+ to /atem5ts 9 8     
lett]s--t s5se-bodies are no?+ b !      
appe>ances ( intelligible unities2 t ea*
 be+ = u is an activity1 ^: sub/ratum & 
gr\nd rema9s unkn[n to u2 t             
self-consci\sness & ! k ( ext]nal       
impressions yield ph5om5a alone1 ?r\gh !
 elaboration ( :i* we produce !         
intellectual worlds ( ! sci5ces4 ,= !   
re/1 ,g5ovesi ?us advises 8 fri5ds3     
,/udy ! _w1 devote y\rselves to         
languages & to ma!matics1 ?9k m ab\t m5 
?an ab\t ! ?+s above u1 & leave         
metaphysical vag>ies to ! monks6 ,8     
c\ntrym5 honor 9 him ! man :o fir/      
includ$ e?ics & politics 9 philosophical
 in/ruction1 & :o us$ ! ,italian        
language bo? f ! desk & 9 8 writ+s1     
hold+ t a nation ^: sci5tific works are 
n compos$ 9 its own tongue is b>b>ian4  
,footnote #a3 ,9 ! foll[+ acc\nt we h   
made use ( a translation ( ! conclud+   
section ( ,francesco ,flor5t9e's ,h&book
 ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 #ahgi-ha1   
:i* 0 mo/ k9dly plac$ at our disposal by

 ,dr4 ,j4 ,ma9z]4 ,cf4 ,la ,filos(ia    
,contemporanea 9 ,italia1 #ahgf1 by !   
same au?or2 fur!r1 ,bonatelli1 ,die     
,philosophic 9 ,itali5 seit1 #ahae2     
,zeits*rift fr ,philosophic und         
philosophis*e ,kritik1 vol4 liv4 #ahfi1 
p4 #acd seq42 & especially1 ,k4 ,w]n]1  
,die ,itali5is*e ,philosophic des ,,xix4
 ,jahrhund]ts1 #e vols41 #ahhd-hf4 ,!   
,engli% read] may be ref]r$ to ! app5dix
 on ,italian philosophy 9 vol4 ii4 ( !  
,engli% translation ( ,ueb]weg1 by      
,v9c5zo ,botta2 & to ,b>zellotti's      
,philosophy 9 ,italy1 ,m9d1 vol4 94     
#ahgh4--,,tr4  ,! s5sationalism (       
,condillac1 />t+ f ,p>ma1 ga9$ influ5ce 
ov] ,mel*iore ,gioja 7#agfg-ahbh2       
,/ati/ical ,logic1 #ahjc2 ,ideology1    
#ahbb7 & ,gi&om5ico ,romagnosi          
7#agfa-ahce2 ,:at is ! ,s\nd ,m9d8      
#ahbg71 b n )\t exp]i5c+ ess5tial       
modification f bo?4 ,! importance ( ^!  
m51 moreov]1 lies m 9 ! sph]e ( social  
philosophy ?an 9 ! sph]e ( notics4  ,( !
 ?ree greate/ ,italian philosoph]s ( ?is

 c5tury1 ,galluppi1 ,rosm9i1 & ,giob]ti1
 ! fir/ nam$ is m 9 sympa?y ) ! ,kantian
 position ?an he himself w confess4     
,pasquale ,galluppi#a 7#aggj-ahdf2 f    
#ahca pr(essor at ,naples7 adh]es to !  
pr9ciple ( exp]i5ce1 b does n conceive  
exp]i5ce z t :i* is s5su\sly giv51 b z !
 elaboration ( ?is ?r\gh ! syn!tic      
relations 7rapporti7 ( id5tity &        
diff]5ce1 :i* proce$ f ! activity ( !   
m9d4 ,v9c5zo de ,grazia 7,essay on !    
,reality ( ,human ,k1 #ahci-db71 :o     
holds all relations to be objective1 &  
,ottavio ,colec*i 7di$ #ahdg2           
,philosophical ,inve/igations1 #ahdc71  
:o holds !m all subjective1 oppose !    
view ( ,galluppi t "s are objective &   
o!rs subjective4 ,accord+ to ,de ,grazia
 judgm5t is obs]vation1 n connection2 x 
f9ds out ! relations conta9$ 9 ! data ( 
s5sation2 x discov]s1 b does n produce  
!m4 ,colec*i r$uces ! ,kantian          
categories to two1 sub/ance & cause4    
,te/a1 ,borelli 7#ahbd71 &1 among !     
y\ng] m51 ,cantoni1 are ,kantians2      

,labriola is an ,h]b>tian4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,galluppi3 ,philosophical ,essay on 
! ,critique ( ,k1 #ahai seq42 ,lectures 
on ,logic & ,metaphysics1 #ahcb seq42   
,philosophy ( ! ,w1 #ahcb seq42 ,on !   
,sy/em ( ,fi*te1 or ,consid]ations on   
,transc5d5tal ,idealism & ,absolute     
,rationalism1 #ahda4 ,by ! ,lett]s on ! 
,hi/ory ( ,philosophy f ,desc>tes to    
,kant1 #ahbg1 9 ! lat] editions to      
,c\s91 he became ! f\nd] ( ?is discipl9e
 9 8 native l&4  ,antonio               
,rosm9i-,s]bati#a 7born #agig at        
,rov]eto1 di$ #ahee at ,/resa7 reg>ds k 
z ! common product ( s5sibility &       
und]/&+1 ! =m] furni%+ ! matt]1 ! latt] 
! =m4 ,! =m is "o3 ! ,idea ( be+ :i*    
prec$es all judgm5t1 :i* does n come f  
myself1 :i* is innate1 & appreh5sible by
 imm$iate inn] p]ception 7ess]e ideale1 
ente univ]sale74 ,! pure concepts       
7sub/ance1 cause1 unity1 necessity7     
arise :5 ! reflect+ reason analyzes ?is 
g5]al ,idea ( be+2 ! mix$ ,ideas 7space1
 "t1 motion2 body1 _s71 :5 ! und]/&+    

applies x to s5su\s exp]i5ce4 ,!        
univ]sal ,idea ( be+ & ! p>ticul>       
exi/5ces are 9 _! be+ id5tical1 b 9 _!  
mode ( exi/5ce diff]5t4 ,9 8 po/hum\s   
,!osophy1 #ahei seq41 ,rosm9i no long]  
makes ! univ]sal be+ receive its        
det]m9ations f )\t1 b produce !m f its  
own inn] nature by means ( an a priori  
developm5t4 ,v9c5zo ,giob]ti#a 7born    
#ahja 9 ,tur91 di$ #aheb at ,p>is7 has  
be5 comp>$ z a patriot ) ,fi*te1 & 9 8  
ca/ ( ?\ght ) ,sp9oza4 ,9 place (       
,rosm9i's psy*ologism1 :i* 0 advanc$ by 
,desc>tes & :i* leads to skepticism1 he 
seeks to sub/itute ontologism1 :i* is   
alone held capable ( reconcil+ sci5ce & 
! ,ca?olic religion4 ,by imm$iate       
intuition 7! cont5t ( :i* ,giob]ti      
compreh5ds 9 ! =mula ,be+ creates !     
exi/5ces7 we cognize ! absolute z !     
creative gr\nd ( two s]ies1 ! s]ies (   
?\ght & ! s]ies ( reality4 ,! endeavors 
( ,rosm9i & ,giob]ti to br+ ! reason    
into h>mony ) ! fai? ( ! ,*ur* 7 fi]cely
 attack$ by ,giussepe ,f]r>i 7#ahaa-gf7 

& ,ausonio ,fran*i 7#ahec71 :ile        
,francesco ,bonatelli 7,?\ght &         
,cognition1 #ahfd7 & ,t]5zio ,mamiani   
7#ahjj-he2 ,confessions ( a             
,metaphysician1 #ahfe71 foll[ a l9e (   
?\ght ak9 to ! ,platoniz+ views ( ! fir/
 nam$ ?9k]s4 ,! review ,filos(ia delle  
,scuole ,italiane1 call$ into life by   
,mamiani 9 #ahgj1 has be5 cont9u$ s9ce  
#ahhf "u ! direction ( ,l4 ,f]ri z !    
,rivi/a ,italiana di ,filos(ia4         
,footnote #a3 ,rosm9i3 ,new ,essay on ! 
,orig9 ( ,ideas1 #ahcj 7,engli%         
translation1 #ahhc-hd72 ,pr9ciples (    
,moral ,sci5ce1 #ahca2 ,philosophy (    
,"r1 #ahda4 ,footnote ,b3 ,giob]ti3     
,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,philosophy1 
#ahdj2 ,philosophical ,errors ( ,a4     
,rosm9i1 #ahdb2 ,on ! ,beautiful1 #ahda2
 ,on ! ,good1 #ahdb2 ,protology edit$ by
 ,mass>i1 #aheg4 ,on bo? cf4 ,r4        
,seydel1 ,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1   
#ahei4  ,! ,?omi/ic doctr9e has _m      
adh]5ts 9 ,italy1 among :om ! ,jesuit   
,m4 ,lib]atore 7#ahfe7 may be m5tion$4  

,! ,hegelian philosophy has also f\nd   
favor !re 7especially 9 ,naples71 z well
 z positivism4 ,! =m] is favor$ by ,v]a1
 ,m>iano1 ,ragnisco1 & ,spav5ta 7di$    
#ahhe72 ! ,rivi/a di ,filos(ia          
,sci5tifica1 #ahha seq41 f\nd$ by       
,morselli1 supports ! latt]1 & ,e4      
,caporali's ,la ,nuova ,sci5za1 #ahhd1  
moves 9 a simil> direction4 ,pietro     
,siciliani 7,on ! ,revival ( ! ,positive
 ,philosophy 9 ,italy1 #ahga7 makes !   
?ird1 ! critical1 p]iod ( philosophy by 
:i* s*ola/icism is ov]?r[n & ! reason   
made au?oritative1 comm5ce ) ,vico1 &   
bases 8 doctr9e on ,vico's =mula3 ,!    
conv]sion 7transposition7 ( ! v]um & !  
factum1 & vice v]sa4 ,subsequ5tly he    
incl9$ to positivism1 :i* he _h         
previ\sly oppos$1 & among !             
repres5tatives ( :i* we may m5tion1     
fur!r1 ,r4 ,ardig ( ,pavia 7,psy*ology z
 ,positive ,sci5ce1 #ahgj2 ,! ,e?ics (  
,positivism1 #ahhe2 ,philosophical      
,works1 #ahhc seq471 & ,&rea ,angiulli (
 ,naples 7di$ #ahij2 ,philosophy & !    

,s*ools1 #ahhi71 :o expla9 matt] & _s z 
two ph5om5a ( ! same ess5ce2 fur!r1     
,giuseppe ,s]gi1 ,giovanni ,cesca1 & !  
psy*iatri/1 ,c4 ,lombroso1 ! head ( !   
positivi/ic s*ool ( p5al law4   #b4     
,france4  ,among ! ,fr5* philosoph]s (  
?is c5tury#a none c comp>e 9 f>-rea*+   
influ5ce1 bo? at home & abroad1 )       
,augu/e ,comte1#b ! creator ( positivism
 7born at ,montpelli] 9 #agih1 di$ at   
,p>is 9 #aheg71 ^: *ief "w1 ! ,c\rse (  
,positive ,philosophy1 #f vols41 appe>$ 
9 #ahcj #db4 ,engli% v]sion1 freely     
translat$ & cond5s$1 by ,h>riet         
,m>t9eau1 #ahec4  ,footnote #a3 ,acc\nts
 ( ,fr5* philosophy 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury h
 be5 giv5 by ,ta9e 7#aheg1 #c;d ed41    
#ahfg72 ,janet 7,la ,philosophie        
,franaise ,contempora9e1 #b;d ed41      
#ahgi72 ,a4 ,franck2 ,f]raz 7#c vols41  
#ahhj-hi72 ,felix ,ravaisson 7#b;d ed41 
#ahhd72 ! ,sw$e1 ,j4 ,borelius 7,glances
 at ! ,pres5t ,position ( ,philosophy 9 
,g]many & ,france1 ,g]man translation by
 ,jonas1 #ahhg72 & ,ribot1 ,m9d1 vol4   

ii41 #ahgg4  ,footnote #b3 ,on ,comte   
cf4 ,b4 ,pnj]1 ,jahrb*] fr prote/antis*e
 ,!ologie1 #ahgh2 ,r4 ,euck51 ,zur      
,wrdigung ,comtes und des ,positivismus1
 9 ! ,aufstze zum ,zell]jubilum1 #ahhg2 
,maxim4 ,brtt1 ,d] ,positivismus1       
,programme ( ! ,realgymnasium des       
,johanneums1 ,hamburg1 #ahhi2 also1     
besides ,mill1 p4 #efj1 ,john ,morley1  
,encyclop$ia ,britannica1 vol4 vi4 pp4  
#bbi-bch1 & ,e4 ,caird1 ,! ,social      
,philosophy & ,religion ( ,comte1       
#ahhe4--,tr4  ,! positive philosophy    
seeks to put an end to ! ho>y error t   
any?+ m is op5 to our k ?an giv5        
facts--ph5om5a & _! relations4 ,we d n  
"k ! ess5ce ( ph5om5a1 & j z little _!  
fir/ causes & ultimate ends2 we "k--by  
means ( obs]vation1 exp]im5t1 &         
comp>ison--only ! con/ant relations     
betwe5 ph5om5a1 ! relations ( succession
 & ( simil>ity among facts1 ! uni=mities
 ( :i* we call _! laws4 ,all k is1      
!re=e1 relative2 !re is no absolute k1 =
 ! inmo/ ess5ce ( facts1 & likewise _!  

orig91 ! way 9 :i* !y are produc$1 is = 
u imp5etrable4 ,we "k only1 & ?is by    
exp]i5ce1 t ! ph5om5on ,a is inv>iably  
connect$ ) ! ph5om5on ,b1 t ! second    
always foll[s on ! fir/1 & call !       
con/ant antec$5t ( a ph5om5on its cause4
 ,we "k su* causes only z are !mselves  
ph5om5a4 ,! fact t our k is limit$ to ! 
succession & coexi/5ce ( ph5om5a is n to
 be lam5t$ z a defect3 ! only k :i* is  
atta9able by u is at ! same "t ! only   
useful k1 t :i* l5ds u practical p[] ov]
 ph5om5a4 ,:5 we inquire into causes we 
desire to ha/5 or h9d] ! effect1 or to  
*ange x z we wi%1 or at lea/ to         
anticipate x 9 ord] to make our         
prep>ations accord+ly4 ,su* =esight &   
control ( ev5ts c be atta9$ only ?r\gh a
 k ( _! laws1 _! ord] ( succession1 _!  
ph5om5al causes4 ,savoir p\r prvoir4 ,b1
 al?\gh ! prevision ( facts is ! only k 
:i* we ne$1 m5 h always s\ght aft]      
ano!r1 an absolute k1 or h ev5 believ$ t
 !y 7 9 possession ( x2 ! =]unn]s ( !   
positive philosophy !mselves1 ,bacon &  

,desc>tes1 h be5 entangl$ 9 ?is         
prejudice4 ,a long intellectual         
developm5t 0 requir$ to rea* ! tru?1 t  
our k does n ext5d beyond ! cognition ( 
! succession & coexi/5ce ( facts2 t !   
same proc$ure mu/ be ext5d$ to ab/ract  
speculation :i* ! common m9d itself     
makes use ( 9 its s+le actions4 ,on !   
o!r h&1 ! positive philosophy1 not)/&+  
its rejection ( metaphysics1 is f> f    
giv+ its sanction to empiricism4 ,e     
isolat$1 empirical obs]vation is useless
 & unc]ta92 x obta9s value & usefulness 
only :5 x is def9$ & expla9$ by a !ory1 
& comb9$ ) o!r obs]vations into a       
law--?is makes ! diff]5ce betwe5 !      
obs]vations ( ! s*ol> & ! layman4  ,!   
positive /age ( a sci5ce1 :i* beg9s :5  
we le>n to expla9 ph5om5a by _! laws1 is
 prec$$ by two o!rs3 a !ological /age1  
:i* ascribes ph5om5a to suppos$ p]sonal 
p[]s1 & a metaphysical /age1 :i*        
ascribes !m to ab/ract natural =ces4 ,^!
 ?ree p]iods d5ote ! *ildhood1 ! y\?1 & 
! manhood ( sci5ce4  ,! e>lie/ view ( ! 

_w is ! !ological view1 :i* d]ives !    
ev5ts ( ! _w f ! volunt>y acts (        
sup]natural intellig5t be+s4 ,! crude   
view ( nature sees 9 ea* individual ?+ a
 be+ animat$ l man2 lat] man accu/oms   
himself to ?9k ( a :ole class ( objects 
z gov]n$ by "o invisible be+1 by a      
div9ity2 f9ally ! multitude ( div9ities 
gives place to a s+le ,god1 :o creates1 
ma9ta9s1 & rules ! univ]se1 & by        
extraord9>y acts1 by miracles1 int]f]es 
9 ! c\rse ( ev5ts4 ,?us feti*ism 79 its 
highe/ =m1 a/rolatry71 poly!ism1 &      
mono!ism are ! /ages 9 ! developm5t ( ! 
!ological mode ( ?\ght4 ,9 ! second1 !  
metaphysical1 p]iod1 ! acts ( div9e     
volition are replac$ by entities1 by    
ab/ract concepts1 :i* are reg>d$ z      
realities1 z ! true reality back (      
ph5om5a4 ,a =ce1 a p[]1 an occult       
prop]ty or ess5ce is made to dwell 9    
?+s2 ! my/]i\s be+ :i* directs ev5ts is 
no long] call$ ,god1 b ,nature1 & inve/$
 ) c]ta9 incl9ations1 ) a horror ( a    
vacuum1 an av]sion to breaks1 a t5d5cy  

t[>d ! be/1 a vis m$icatrix1 etc4 ,"h   
belong1 also1 ! vegetative s\l (        
,ari/otle1 ! vital =ce & ! pla/ic       
impulse ( mod]n inve/igators4 ,f9ally ! 
positive /age is rea*$1 :5 all su*      
ab/ractions1 :i* are ev5 yet conceiv$ z 
half p]sonal & act+ volunt>ily1 are     
ab&on$1 & ! unalt]able & univ]sally     
valid laws ( ph5om5a e/abli%$ by        
obs]vation & exp]im5t alone4 ,b to      
expla9 ! laws ( nature !mselves         
transc5ds1 accord+ to ,comte1 ! fix$    
limits ( human k4 ,! beg9n+ ( ! _w lies 
outside ! region ( ! kn[able1 a!ism is  
no bett] gr\nd$ ?an ! !i/ic hypo!sis1 & 
if ,comte ass]ts t a bl9dly act+        
me*anism is less probable ?an a _w-plan1
 he is consci\s t he is express+ a m]e  
conjecture :i* c nev] be rais$ to ! rank
 ( a sci5tific !ory4 ,! orig9 & ! end ( 
?+s are insoluble problems1 9 answ]+ :i*
 no progress has yet be5 made 9 spite ( 
man's long ?\ght ab\t !m4 ,only t :i*   
lies int]m$iate betwe5 ! two inscrutable
 t]m9i ( ! _w is an object ( k4  ,x is n

 only ! human m9d 9 g5]al t exhibits ?is
 advance f ! !ological1 ?r\gh !         
metaphysical1 to ! positive mode (      
?\ght1 b ea* sep>ate sci5ce goes ?r\gh !
 same ?ree p]iods--only t ! v>i\s       
discipl9es h develop$ ) unequal         
rapidity4 ,:ile "s h already culm9at$ 9 
! positive me?od ( treatm5t1 o!rs yet   
rema9 caught 9 ! !ological p]iod (      
beg9n+s1 & o!rs /ill are 9 !            
metaphysical transition /age4 ,up to !  
pres5t all ?ree phases ( developm5t exi/
 side by side1 & ev5 among ! objects ( !
 mo/ highly develop$ sci5ces !re are "s 
:i* we cont9ue to reg>d !ologically2 ^! 
are ! ones :i* we d n yet und]/& h[ to  
calculate1 z ! *anges ( ! wea!r or !    
spread ( epidemics4 ,:i* sci5ce fir/    
atta9$ ! positive /ate1 & 9 :at ord] h !
 o!rs foll[$8 ,) ?is crit]ion ,comte    
con/ructs 8 classification ( ! sci5ces1 
9 :i*1 h[ev]1 he takes acc\nt only ( ^? 
sci5ces :i* he calls ab/ract1 t is1 ^?  
:i* treat ( ev5ts 9 di/9ction f objects4
 ,! ab/ract sci5ces 7z biology7         

inve/igate ! mo/ g5]al laws ( nature1   
valid = all ph5om5a1 f :i* ! p>ticul>   
ph5om5a :i* exp]i5ce pres5ts to u _c be 
d$uc$1 b on ! basis ( :i* an entirely   
diff]5t _w 7 also possible4 ,! concrete 
sci5ces1 on ! o!r h& 7e4g41 botany &    
zology71 h to d ) ! actually giv5       
comb9ations ( ph5om5a4 ,! =m] foll[ out 
ea* sep>ate "o ( ! g5]al laws ?r\gh all 
its possible modes ( op]ation1 ! latt]  
consid] only ! comb9ation ( laws giv5 9 
an object4 ,?us oaks & squirrels are !  
result ( v _m laws1 inasmu* z organisms 
are dep5d5t n only on biological1 b also
 on physical1 *emical1 & ma!matical     
laws4  ,comte enum]ates six ( ^! ab/ract
 sci5ces1 & arranges !m 9 su* a way t   
ea* dep5ds on ! tru?s ( ! prec$+1 & adds
 to ^! its own special tru?s1 :ile !    
fir/ 7! mo/ g5]al & simple/7 presupposes
 no e>li] laws :atev]1 b is presuppos$  
by all ! lat] ones4 ,accord+ to ?is     
pr9ciple ( increas+ p>ticul>ity &       
complexity ! foll[+ scale results3 7i7  
,ma!matics1 9 :i* ! sci5ce ( numb]1 z   

be+ absolutely )\t presuppositions1     
prec$es geometry & me*anics2 7#b7       
,a/ronomy2 7#c7 ,physics 7) five        
subord9ate divisions1 9 :i* ! fir/ place
 belongs to ! !ory ( weight1 & ! la/ to 
electrology1 :ile ! !ory ( heat1        
ac\/ics1 & optics are int]m$iate72 7#d7 
,*emi/ry2 7#e7 ,biology or physiology2  
7#f7 ,sociology or ! sci5ce ( society4  
,?is sequ5ce1 :i* is det]m9$ by !       
increas+ complexity & increas+ dep5d5ce 
( ! objects ( ! sci5ces1 is ! ord] 9 :i*
 !y h hi/orically develop$--be=e !      
special laws ( ! m complicat$ sci5ces c 
be asc]ta9$1 ! g5]al laws ( ! m simple  
ones mu/ be accurately kn[n4 ,x is also 
advisable to foll[ ?is same ord] (      
increas+ complexity & difficulty 9 !    
/udy ( ! sci5ces1 = acqua9tance ) !     
me?ods ( ^? :i* are elem5t>y is ! be/   
prep>ation = ! pursuit ( ! high] ones4  
,9 ari?metic & geometry we /udy         
positivity at its s\rce2 9 !            
sociological _s x f9ds its completion4  
,ma!matics ent]$ on its positive /age at

 q an e>ly p]iod1 *emi/ry & biology only
 9 rec5t times1 :ile1 9 ! highe/ & mo/  
complicat$ sci5ce1 ! metaphysical       
7negative1 lib]al1 democratic1          
revolution>y7 mode ( ?\ght is /ill      
battl+ ) ! feudalism ( ! !ological mode4
 ,to make sociology positive is !       
mission ( ! second half ( ,comte's "w1 &
 to ?is goal 8 philosophical activity _h
 be5 direct$ f ! beg9n+4 ,comte rates ! 
ef=ts ( political economy v l[1 ) !     
exception ( ! "w ( ,adam ,smi?1 & w n   
let !m pass z a prep>ation = sci5tific  
sociology1 hold+ t !y are bas$ on false 
ab/ractions4 ,psy*ology1 :i* is abs5t f 
! above enum]ation1 is to =m a bran* (  
biology1 & exclusively to use !         
objective me?od1 especially phr5ology   
7to ! ?ree faculties ( ! s\l1 he>t1 "*1 
& intellect1 correspond ?ree regions ( !
 bra974 ,self-obs]vation1 s ,comte1 mak+
 an impossibility out ( a difficulty1   
tea*es1 c at mo/ in=m u conc]n+ our     
feel+s & passions1 & n at all conc]n+   
our own ?9k+1 s9ce reflection br+s to a 

/op ! process to :i* x att5ds1 & ?us    
de/roys its object4 ,! sole s\rce ( k is
 ext]nal s5se-p]ception4 ,9 8 ,positive 
,polity ,comte subsequ5tly add$ a sev5? 
fundam5tal sci5ce1 e?ics or an?ropology4
  ,sociology1#a ! elevation ( :i* to !  
rank ( a positive sci5ce is ! pr9cipal  
aim ( our philosoph]1 uses ! same me?od 
z ! natural sci5ces1 namely1 !          
int]rogation & int]pretation ( exp]i5ce 
by means ( induction & d$uction1 only t 
"h ! usual relation ( ^! two in/rum5ts (
 k is rev]s$4 ,betwe5 inorganic &       
organic philosophy1 bo? ( :i* proce$ f !
 kn[n to ! unkn[n1 !re is ?is diff]5ce1 
t 9 ! =m] ! advance is f ! elem5ts1 z t 
:i* alone is directly accessible1 to !  
:ole :i* is compos$ ( !m1 :ile 9 ! latt]
 ! opposite is ! case1 s9ce "h ! :ole is
 bett] kn[n ?an ! individual p>ts ( :i* 
x consi/s4 ,h5ce1 9 inorganic sci5ce !  
laws ( ! composite ph5om5a are obta9$ by
 d$uction 7f ! laws ( ! simple facts    
inductively discov]$7 & confirm$ by     
obs]vation2 9 sociology1 on ! o!r h&1 ! 

laws are f\nd ?r\gh 7hi/orical7         
exp]i5ce1 & d$uctively v]ifi$ 7f !      
nature ( man z e/abli%$ by biology7 only
 9 ! sequel4 ,s9ce ! ph5om5a ( society  
are det]m9$ n m]ely by ! g5]al laws (   
human nature1 b1 above all1 by ! gr[+   
influ5ce ( ! pa/1 hi/orical /udies mu/  
=m ! basis ( sociological inquiry4      
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,krohn3 ,beitrge zur 
,k5ntniss und ,wrdigung d] ,soziologie1 
,jahrb*] fr ,nationalkonomie und        
,/ati/ik1 ,new ,s]ies1 vols4 i4 & iii41 
#ahhj & #ahha4  ,( ! two p>ts (         
sociology1 ! ,/atics1 :i* inve/igates ! 
equilibrium 7! conditions ( ! exi/5ce1 !
 p]man5ce1 & ! coexi/5ce ( social       
/ates71 & ,dynamics1 :i* inve/igates !  
movem5t 7! laws ( ! progress7 ( social  
ph5om5a1 ! fir/ 0 9 ess5ce e/abli%$ by  
,ari/otle4 ,! fundam5tal concept ( !    
,/atics is ! cons5sus1 ! h>mony1        
solid>ity1 or mutual dep5d5ce ( ! memb]s
 ( ! social organism4 ,all its p>ts1    
sci5ce1 art1 religion1 politics1        
indu/ry1 mu/ be consid]$ toge!r2 !y /& 9

 su* intimate h>mony & correlation t1 = 
e important *ange ( condition 9 "o ( ^! 
p>ts1 we may be c]ta9 ( f9d+ correspond+
 *anges 9 all ! o!rs1 z its causes &    
effects4 ,besides ! selfi% prop5sities1 
!re dwell 9 man an equally orig9al1 b   
intr9sically weak]1 impulse t[>d        
association1 :i* in/9ctively leads him  
to seek ! society ( 8 fell[s )\t        
reflection on ! advantages to be expect$
 !refrom1 & a mod]ate degree (          
b5evol5ce4 ,z altruism conflicts )      
egoism1 s ! reason1 toge!r ) ! impulse  
to get ahead1 :i* c only be satisfi$    
?r\gh labor1 is 9 cont9ual conflict ) ! 
inborn dis9cl9ation to regulat$ activity
 7especially to m5tal ef=t74 ,! "* (    
society dep5ds on ! /r5g? ( ! nobl]     
inc5tives1 t is1 ! social incl9ations & 
intellectual vivacity 9 opposition to ! 
egoi/ic impulses & natural in]tness4 ,! 
=m] n\ri% ! progressive1 ! latt] !      
cons]vative _s4 ,wom5 are z mu* sup]ior 
to m5 9 ! /rong] developm5t ( _! sympa?y
 & sociability z !y are inf]ior 9       

insight & reason4 ,society is a gr\p (  
families1 n ( individuals1 & dome/ic    
life is ! f\ndation1 prep>ation1 &      
patt]n = social life1 ,comte praises !  
family1 ! connect+ l9k betwe5 !         
individual & ! species1 z a s*ool (     
unselfi%ness1 & approves ! /rictness ( !
 ,ca?olic ,*ur* 9 reg>d to !            
indissolubility ( ! m>riage relation4   
,he rem>ks ! evil consequ5ces ( !       
con/antly increas+ division ( labor1 :i*
 makes man egoi/ic & n>r[-m9d$1 s9ce x  
hides r ?an reveals ! social            
significance ( ! employm5t ( !          
individual & its connection ) ! welf>e (
 ! community1 & seeks = a means ( *eck+ 
!m4 ,besides ! univ]sal education ( y\?1
 he dem&s ! e/abli%m5t ( a spiritual p[]
 to br+ ! g5]al int]e/ cont9ually to !  
m9ds ( ! memb]s ( all classes &         
avocations1 to direct education1 & to   
enjoy ! same au?ority 9 moral &         
intellectual matt]s z is conc$$ to !    
a/ronom] 9 ! affairs ( 8 dep>tm5t4 ,!   
function ( ?is p[] w\ld be to occupy !  

position h]et(ore held by ! cl]gy4      
,comte conceives x z compos$ ( positive 
philosoph]s1 entirely indep5d5t ( !     
secul> au?orities1 b 9 return cut (f f  
political influ5ce & f weal?4 ,secul>   
au?ority1 on ! o!r h&1 he wi%es put into
 ! h&s ( an ari/ocracy ( capitali/s1 ) !
 bank]s at ! head ( ^! gov]n+ lead]s (  
indu/ry4  ,! ,dynamics1 ! sci5ce ( !    
temporal succession ( social ph5om5a1   
makes use ( ! pr9ciple ( developm5t4 ,! 
progress ( society1 :i* is to be reg>d$ 
z a great individual1 consi/s 9 ! gr[+  
pr$om9ance ( ! high]1 human activities  
ov] ! l[] & animal4 ,! humanity 9 u1 x  
is true1 w nev] atta9 complete asc5d5cy 
ov] ! animality1 b we c approa* ne>] &  
ne>] to ! ideal1 & x is our duty to aid 
9 ?is m>* ( civilization4 ,al?\gh ! law 
( progress holds good = all sides (     
m5tal life1 = art1 politics1 & morals1 z
 well z = sci5ce1 nev]!less ! mo/       
important factor 9 ! evolution ( ! human
 race is ! developm5t ( ! intellect z ! 
guid+ p[] 9 u 7?\gh n 9 itself !        

/ronge/74 ,awak5$ fir/ by ! l[] wants1 !
 intellect assumes 9 increas+ measure ! 
guidance ( human op]ations1 & gives a   
det]m9ate direction to ! feel+s4 ,!     
passions divide m51 &1 )\t ! guidance ( 
! speculative faculty1 w\ld mutually    
cripple "o ano!r2 t :i* alone unites !m 
into a collection =ce is a common       
belief1 an idea4 ,ideas are relat$ to   
feel+--to quote a comp>ison f ,john     
,/u>t ,mill's valuable treatise ,augu/e 
,comte & ,positivism1 #c;d ed41 #ahhb1 a
 "w ( :i* we h made consid]able use--z !
 /e]sman :o directs ! %ip is to ! /eam  
:i* drives x =w>d4 ,?us ! hi/ory (      
humanity has be5 det]m9$ by ! hi/ory (  
man's intellectual convictions1 & ?is 9 
turn by ! ?ree famili> /ages 9 ! !ory ( 
! univ]se4 ,) ! developm5t f ! !ological
 to ! positive mode ( ?\ght is mo/      
intimately connect$1 fur!r1 ! transition
 f ! milit>y to ! indu/rial mode ( life4
 ,z ! religi\s _s prep>es ! way = !     
sci5tific _s1 s )\t ! dom9ion ( !       
milit>y _s indu/ry c\ld n h be5         

develop$4 ,x 0 only 9 ! s*ool ( w> t !  
e>lie/ societies c\ld le>n ord]2 slav]y 
0 b5eficial 9 t ?r\gh x labor 0 impos$  
^u ! great] "p ( mank9d 9 spite ( _!    
av]sion to x4 ,! political prepond]ance 
( ! legi/s corresponds to ! int]m$iate1 
metaphysical /age4 ,! sociological law  
7discov]$ by ,comte 9 ! ye> #ahbb7      
h>monizes also ) ! cu/om>y division :i* 
sep>ates ! anci5t f ! mod]n _w by !     
,middle ,ages4  ,9 8 philosophy ( hi/ory
 ,comte gives ! fur!r application ( ^!  
pr9ciples4 ,"h he has won comm5dation   
ev5 f 8 oppon5ts = a s5se ( ju/ice :i*  
m]its respect & = 8 compreh5sive view4  
,! outlooks & proposals = ! future "h   
int]sp]s$ 7 9 lat] writ+s#a work$ out   
into a compreh5sive !ory ( ! reg5]ation 
( society2 ! extravagant "* ( :i* has   
giv5 occasion to 8 critics to make a    
complete division betwe5 ! second1      
subjective or s5tim5tal1 p]iod ( 8 ?9k+1
 9 :i* ! philosoph] is said to be       
trans=m$ into ! high prie/ ( a new      
religion1 & ! fir/1 ! positivi/ic p]iod1

 al?\gh ! major "p ( ! qualities po9t$  
out z *>act]i/ic ( ! =m] are only       
int5sifications ( "s :i* may be %[n to h
 be5 pres5t 9 ! latt]4 ,b5ea? ! surface 
( ! mo/ sob] inquiry my/ical &          
dictatorial t5d5cies pulsate 9 ,comte f 
! beg9n+1 & sci5ce 0 = him simply a     
means to human happ9ess4 ,b n[ he no    
long] dem&s ! indep5d5t pursuit ( sci5ce
 9 ord] to ! atta9m5t ( ?is end1 b only 
! believ+ acceptance ( its results4 ,!  
intellect is to be plac$ "u ! dom9ion ( 
! he>t1 & only su* use made ( x z       
promises a direct advantage = humanity2 
! det]m9ation ( :at problems are mo/    
important at a giv5 "t belongs to !     
prie/hood4 ,! sy/ematic unity or h>mony 
( ! m9d dem&s ?is dom9ion ( ! feel+s ov]
 ?\ght4 ,! religion ( positivism1 :i*   
has love = its pr9ciple1 ord] = its     
basis1 & progress = its end1 is a       
religion )\t ,god1 & )\t any o!r        
immortality ?an a cont9uance ( exi/5ce 9
 ! grateful memory ( po/]ity4 ,! dogmas 
( ! positivi/ religion are sci5tific    

pr9ciples4 ,its public cultus ) n9e     
sacram5ts & a l>ge numb] ( annual       
fe/ivals1 is paid to ! ,gr& tre         
,humanity 7:i* is n omnipot5t1 b1 on    
acc\nt ( its composite "*1 mo/ dep5d5t1 
yet inf9itely sup]ior to any ( its      
p>ts72 &1 besides ?is1 space1 ! e>?1 !  
univ]se1 & great m5 ( ! pa/ are objects 
( rev]5ce4 ,private devotion consi/s 9 !
 adoration ( liv+ or dead wom5 z our    
gu>dian angels4 ,! e?ics ( ! future     
decl>es ! good ( o!rs to be ! sole moral
 motive to action 7altruism74 ,comte's  
la/ "w1 ! ,philosophy ( ,ma!matics1     
#ahef1 indulges 9 a mo/ rem>kable       
num]ical my/icism4 ,! hi/orical influ5ce
 ex]cis$ by ,comte ?r\gh 8 lat] writ+s  
is extremely small 9 comp>ison ) t ( 8  
*ief "w4 ,besides ,blignires & ,rob9et1 
,e4 ,littr1 ! well-kn[n au?or ( !       
,dictionnaire de la ,langue ,franaise   
7#ahfc seq47 :o 0 ! mo/ em95t ( ,comte's
 disciples & ! editor ( 8 ,collect$     
,works 7#ahfg seq471 has writt5 on !    
life & "w ( ! ma/]4 ,comte's s*ool      

divid$ into two gr\ps--! apo/ates1 )    
,littr 7#ahja-ha7 at _! head1 :o reject 
! subjective phase & hold fa/ to ! e>li]
 doctr9e1 & ! fai?ful1 :o until #ahgg1  
:5 a new division betwe5 /rict & lib]al 
,comteans took place )9 ?is gr\p1 ga!r$ 
ab\t ,p4 ,laffitte 7born #ahbc74b ,!    
lead] ( ! ,engli% positivi/s is ,fr$]ic 
,h>rison 7born #ahca74 ,positivi/ic     
societies exi/ also 9 ,sw$51 ,brazil1   
,*ili1 & else:]e4 ,positivism has be5   
develop$ 9 an indep5d5t _s by ,j4,s4    
,mill & ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4  ,footnote #a3   
,positivi/ ,cate*ism1 #aheb ,engli%     
translation by ,congreve1 #aheh1 #b;d   
ed41 #ahhc2 ,sy/em ( ,positive ,polity1 
#d vols41 #ahea-ed ,engli% translation1 
#ahge-gg4 ,cf4 ,pnj]1 ,a4 ,comtes       
,religion d] ,m5s*heit 9 ! ,jahrb*] fr  
prote/antis*e ,!ologie1 #ahhb4          
,footnote #b3 ,on ?is division cf4 ,e4  
,c>o1 ,m4 ,littr et le ,positivisme1    
#ahhc1 & ,h]m4 ,grub] 7,s4,j471 ,d]     
,positivismus vom ,tode ,comtes bis auf 
uns]e ,tage1 #ahia4  ,! foll[+ brief    

rem>ks on ! c\rse ( ,fr5* philosophy may
 also be add$4 ,aga9/ ! s5sationalism ( 
,condillac z cont9u$ by ,cabanis1       
,de/utt de ,tracy 7see above1 pp4       
#bei-bfj71 & v>i\s physiologi/s1 a      
tw(old reaction ass]t$ itself4 ,"o      
manife/ation ( ?is proce$$ f ! !ological
 s*ool1 repres5t$ by ! traditionali/s   
,victor de ,bonald 7#ahah71 ,joseph de  
,mai/re 7#agec-ahba2 ,/4 ,pet]sburg     
,soires1 #ahba71 & ,f4 de ,lam5nais     
7#aghb-ahed71 :o1 h[ev]1 aft] 8 break ) 
! ,*ur* 7,words ( a ,believ]1 #ahcd7    
develop$ 9 8 ,sket* ( a ,philosophy1    
#ahda seq41 an ontological sy/em aft]   
,italian & ,g]man models4 ,! o!r came f 
! spirituali/ic s*ool1 at ^: head /ood  
,ma9e de ,biran#a 7#agff-ahbd2 ,on !    
,f\ndations ( ,psy*ology2 8 ,works h be5
 edit$ by ,c\s91 #ahda1 ,naville1 #ahei1
 & ,b]tr&7 & ,roy] ,coll>d 7#agfc-ahde74
 ,_! pupil ,victor ,c\s9 7#agib-ahfg2   
,works1 #ahdf-ej71 :o admir$ ,hegel     
also1 became ! head ( ! eclectic s*ool4 
,c\s9 w nei!r d5y metaphysics ) !       

,scot*1 nor con/rue metaphysics a priori
 ) ! ,g]mans1 b ) ,desc>tes bases x on  
psy*ology4 ,= a "t an ideali/ ( !       
,hegelian type 7inf9ite & f9ite1 ,god & 
! _w1 are mutually insep>able2 ! ,ideas 
reveal !mselves 9 hi/ory1 9 ! nations1 9
 great m571 he gradually sank back to ! 
position ( common s5se4 ,8 adh]5ts1     
among :om ,?odore ,j\ffroy 7di$ #ahdb7 0
 ! mo/ em95t1 h done special s]vice 9 ! 
hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,f ,c\s9's s*ool1  
:i* 0 oppos$ by ,p4 ,l]\x & ,j4         
,reynaud1 h come ,ravaisson1 ,saisset1  
,jules ,simon1 ,p4 ,janet 7born #ahbc71b
 & ,e4 ,c>o 7born #ahbf2 ,! ,philosophy 
( ,goe!1 #ahff74 ,kant has influ5c$     
,*>les ,r5\vi] 7born #ahag2 ,essays 9   
,g5]al ,criticism1 #d vols41 #ahed-fd7 &
 ,e4 ,va*]ot 7born #ahji2 ,metaphysics &
 ,sci5ce1 #aheh1 #b;d ed41 #ahfc2       
,sci5ce & ,consci\sness1 #ahgb74        
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,e4 ,knig 9          
,philosophis*e ,monat%efte1 vol4 xxv4   
#ahhi1 p4#afj seq4  ,footnote #b3       
,janet3 ,hi/ory ( ,political ,sci5ce 9  

its ,relations to ,morals1 #aheh1 #c;d  
ed41 #ahhg2 ,g]man ,mat]ialism ( !      
,pres5t ,day1 #ahfd1 ,engli% translation
 by ,masson1 #ahff3 ,! ,family1 #ahee2  
,! ,philosophy ( ,happ9ess1 #ahfb2 ,!   
,bra9 & ,?\ght1 #ahfg2 ,elem5ts (       
,morals1 #ahfi ,engli% translation by   
,corson1 #ahhd2 ,! ,!ory ( ,morals1     
#ahgd ,engli% translation by ,m>y       
,*apman1 #ahhc2 ,f9al ,causes1 #ahgf    
,engli% translation by ,affleck1 ) a    
preface by ,fl9t1 new ed41 #ahhc4       
,among o!r ?9k]s ( reputation we may    
m5tion ! sociali/ ,h5ri de ,sa9t-,simon 
7#agfj-ahbe2 ,select$ ,works1 #ahei71 ! 
physiologi/ ,claude ,b]n>d 7#ahac-gh71 !
 positivi/ ,h4 ,ta9e 7#ahbh-ic2 ,!      
,philosophy ( ,art1 ,engli% translation 
by ,dur&1 #b;d ed41 #ahgc2 ,on          
,intellig5ce1 #ahgb1 ,engli% translation
 by ,haye1 #ahga71 ,e4 ,r5an 7#ahbc-ib2 
,! ,life ( ,jesus1 #ahfc1 ,engli%       
translation by ,wilb\r1 ,philosophical  
,dialogues & ,fragm5ts--,engli%1 #ahhc71
 ! writ] on ae/hetics & e?ics ,j4,m4    

,guyau 7,! ,problems ( ,contempor>y     
,ae/hetics1 #ahhd2 ,sket* ( an ,e?ic )\t
 ,obligation or ,sanction1 #ahhe2 ,!    
,irreligion ( ! ,future1 #ahhg71 ,alfr$ 
,f\ille 7,! ,future ( ,metaphysics f\nd$
 on ,exp]i5ce1 #ahhi2 ,morals1 ,art1 &  
,religion accord+ to ,guyau1 #ahhi2 ,!  
,evolutionism ( ! ,idea-,=ces1 #ahij71 &
 ! psy*ologi/ ,?4 ,ribot1#a editor ( !  
,revue ,philosophique 7f #ahgf74        
,footnote #a3 ,ribot3 ,h]$ity1 #b;d ed41
 #ahhb ,engli% translation1 #ahge2 ,!   
,diseases ( ,memory1 #ahha ,engli%      
translation1 #ahhb2 ,! ,diseases ( ! ,w1
 #ahhc ,engli%4 #ahhd2 ,! ,diseases (   
,p]sonality1 #ahhe ,engli%1 #ahhg2 ,!   
,psy*ology ( ,att5tion1 #ahhi ,engli%1  
#ahij2 ,g]man ,psy*ology ( ,to-day1 #b;d
 ed41 #ahhe ,engli% translation by      
,baldw91 #ahhf4   #c4 ,great ,brita9 &  
,am]ica4  ,prom95t among ! ,briti%      
philosoph]s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury#a are    
,hamilton1 ,b5?am1 ,j4,s4 ,mill1 &      
,sp5c]4 ,hamilton is ! lead+            
repres5tative ( ! ,scotti% ,s*ool2      

,b5?am is kn[n z ! advocate (           
utilit>ianism2 ,mill1 an expon5t ( !    
traditional empiricism ( ,engli% ?9k+1  
develops ! !ory ( induction & ! pr9ciple
 ( utility2 ,sp5c] comb9es an agno/ic   
doctr9e ( ! absolute & ?or\ghgo+        
evolution 9 ! ph5om5al _w into a        
compreh5sive philosophical sy/em4#b ,9  
rec5t ye>s !re has be5 a reaction aga9/ 
empirical doctr9es on ! basis (         
neo-,kantian & neo-,hegelian pr9ciples4 
,=emo/ among ! lead]s ( ?is movem5t we  
may m5tion ,t4,h4 ,gre54  ,footnote #a3 
,cf4 ,h>ald ,hffd+1 ,e9leitung 9 die    
englis*e ,philosophie uns]] ,zeit       
7,dani%1 #ahgd71 ,g]man 7) alt]ations & 
additions by ! au?or7 by ,h4 ,kurella1  
#ahhi2 ,david ,masson1 ,rec5t ,briti%   
,philosophy1 #ahfe1 #c;d ed41 #ahgg2    
,ribot1 ,la ,psy*ologie ,anglaise       
,contempora9e1 #ahgj1 #b;d ed41 #ahge   
,engli%1 #ahgd ,guyau1 ,la ,morale      
,anglaise ,contempora9e1 #ahgi ,morris1 
,briti% ,?\ght & ,?9k]s1 #ahhj2 ,port]1 
,on ,engli% & ,am]ican ,philosophy1     

,ueb]weg's ,hi/ory1 ,engli% translation1
 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cdh-dfj2 ,o4 ,pfleid]]1  
,developm5t ( ,!ology1 #ahij1 book      
iv4--,,tr4  ,footnote #b3 ,cf4 on ,mill 
& ,sp5c]1 ,b]nh4 ,pnj]1 ,jahrb*] fr     
prote/antis*e ,!ologie1 #ahgh4  ,!      
,scotti% philosophy has be5 cont9u$ 9 ! 
n9ete5? c5tury by ,james ,mack9to%      
7,diss]tation on ! ,progress ( ,e?ical  
,philosophy1 #ahcj1 #c;d ed41 #ahfc71 & 
,william ,:ewell 7,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive
 ,sci5ces1 #c;d ed41 #aheg2 ,philosophy 
( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 #ahdj1 #c;d    
ed41 #aheh-fj74 ,its mo/ important      
repres5tative is ,sir ,william          
,hamilton#a ( ,ed9burgh 7#aghh-ahef71   
:o1 l ,:ewell1 is influ5c$ by ,kant4    
,hamilton bases philosophy on ! facts ( 
consci\sness1 b1 9 anti!sis to !        
associational psy*ology1 emphasizes !   
m5tal activity ( discrim9ation &        
judgm5t4 ,our k is relative1 & relations
 its only object4 ,consci\sness c nev]  
transc5d itself1 x is b\nd to ! anti!sis
 ( subject & object1 & conceives !      

exi/5t "u relations ( space & "t4 ,h5ce 
! uncondition$ is inaccessible to k &   
atta9able by fai? alone4 ,among         
,hamilton's foll[]s belong ,mansel      
7,metaphysics1 #c;d4 ed41 #ahge2 ,limits
 ( ,religions ,?\ght1 #e? ed41 #ahgj7 & 
,veit*4 ,! ,scotti% doctr9e 0 vigor\sly 
oppos$ by ,j4,f4 ,f]ri] 7#ahjh-fd2      
,in/itutes ( ,metaphysics1 #b;d ed41    
#ahef71 :o himself develop$ an ideali/ic
 /&po9t4  ,footnote #a3 ,hamilton3      
,discussions on ,philosophy &           
,lit]ature1 #aheb1 #c;d ed41 #ahff2     
,lectures on ,metaphysics1 #b;d ed41    
#ahfj1 & on ,logic1 #b;d ed41 #ahff1    
edit$ by 8 pupils1 ,mansel & ,veit*2    
,reid's ,works1 ) notes & diss]tations1 
#ahdf1 #g? ed41 #ahgb4 ,on ,hamilton cf4
 ,veit*1 #ahhb1 #ahhc ,monck1 #ahha4  ,9
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,scotti% philosophy  
has ex]cis$ a wide influ5ce4 ,9 rec5t   
times x has be5 /r5u\sly advocat$1      
*iefly 9 ! _s ( ,reid1 by ,james        
,mc,cosh 7a native ( ,scotl&1 b s9ce    
#ahfh 9 ,am]ica2 ,! ,intuitions ( !     

,m9d1 #c;d ed41 #ahgb2 ,! ,laws (       
,discursive ,?\ght1 new ed41 #ahia2     
,fir/ & ,fundam5tal ,tru?s1 #ahhi72 :ile
 9 ,noah ,port] 7di$ #ahib2 ,! ,human   
,intellect1 new ed41 #ahgf2 ,! ,elem5ts 
( ,moral ,sci5ce1 #ahhe7 x appe>s       
modifi$ by elem5ts f ,g]man ?9k+4       
,j]emy ,b5?am#a 7#agdh-ahcb7 is         
notewor?y = 8 attempt to revive         
,epicureanism 9 mod]n =m4 ,virtue is !  
sure/ means to pleasure1 & pleasure !   
only self-evid5t good4 ,e man /rives    
aft] happ9ess1 b n e "o 9 ! "r way4 ,!  
hone/ man calculates correctly1 !       
crim9al falsely2 h5ce a c>eful          
calculation ( ! value ( ! v>i\s         
pleasures1 & a prud5t use ( ! means to  
happ9ess1 is ! fir/ condition ( virtue2 
9 ?is ! easily atta9able m9or joys1 ^:  
summation am\nts to a consid]able       
quantum1 mu/ n be neglect$4 ,! value ( a
 pleasure is measur$ by its int5sity1   
duration1 c]ta9ty1 prop9quity1 fecundity
 9 ! production ( fur!r pleasure1 purity
 or fre$om f admixture ( consequ5t pa91 

& ext5t to ! greate/ possible numb] (   
p]sons4 ,e virtu\s action results 9 a   
balance ( pleasure4 ,inflict no evil on 
?yself or o!rs f :i* a balance ( good w 
n result4 ,! end ( morality is ! greate/
 happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]1 9 !        
production ( :i* ea* has fir/ to c>e = 8
 own welf>e3 :oev] injures himself m ?an
 he s]ves o!rs acts immorally1 = he     
dim9i%es ! sum ( happ9ess 9 ! _w2 !     
int]e/ ( ! individual co9cides ) !      
int]e/ ( society4 ,! two classes (      
virtues are prud5ce & b5evol5ce4 ,!     
latt] is a natural1 ?\gh n a dis9t]e/$  
affection3 happ9ess enjoy$ ) o!rs is    
great] ?an happ9ess enjoy$ alone4 ,love 
is a pleasure-giv+ ext5sion ( !         
individual2 we s]ve o!rs to be s]v$ by  
!m4  ,footnote #a3 ,b5?am3 ,introduction
 to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals &            
,legislation1 #aghi2 new ed41 #ahbc1    
repr9t$ #ahgf2 ,deontology1 #ahcd1 edit$
 by ,b[r+1 :o also edit$ ! ,works1      
#ahch-dc4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,civil &      
,crim9al ,legislation1 edit$ 9 ,fr5* f  

,b5?am's manuscripts by 8 pupil ,eti5ne 
,dumont 7#ahja1 #b;d ed41 #ahbj2 ,engli%
 by ,hildre?1 #e? ed41 #ahhg71 0        
translat$ into ,g]man ) notes by ,f4,e4 
,b5eke1 #ahcj4  ,associationalism has   
be5 reass]t$ by ,james ,mill            
7#aggc-ahcf2 ,analysis ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ! 
,human ,m9d1 #ahbi71 ^: influ5ce lives  
on 9 ! "w ( 8 great] son4 ,! latt]1     
,john ,/u>t ,mill1#a 0 born 9 ,london   
#ahjf1 & 0 f #ahbc to #aheh a secret>y 9
 ! ,india ,h\se2 aft] ! dea? ( 8 wife he
 liv$ 7) ! exception ( two ye>s ( s]vice
 z a ,memb] ( ,p>liam5t7 at ,avignon2 8 
dea? occurr$ 9 #ahgc4 ,mill's ,sy/em (  
,logic appe>$ 9 #ahdc1 #i? ed41 #ahge2 8
 ,utilit>ianism1 #ahfc1 new ed41 #ahga2 
,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william         
,hamilton's ,philosophy1 #ahfe1 #e? ed41
 #ahgh2 8 notes to ! new edition ( 8    
fa!r's "w1 ,analysis ( ! ,ph5om5a ( !   
,human ,m9d1 #b;d ed41 #ahgh1 also      
des]ve notice4 ,) ! ph5om5alism ( ,hume 
& ! 7some:at correct$7 associational    
psy*ology ( 8 fa!r z a basis1 ,mill     

makes exp]i5ce ! sole s\rce ( k1 reject+
 a priori & intuitive elem5ts ( e sort4 
,matt] he def9es z a p]man5t possibility
 ( s5sation2 m9d is resolv$ into a s]ies
 ( feel+s ) a backgr\nd ( possibilities 
( feel+1 ev5 ?\gh ! au?or is n unaw>e ( 
! difficulty involv$ 9 ! "q h[ a s]ies (
 feel+s c be aw>e ( itself z a s]ies4   
,ma!matical pr9ciples1 l all o!rs1 h an 
exp]i5tial orig9--! peculi> c]titude    
ascrib$ to !m by ! ,kantians is a       
fiction--& induction is ! only fruitful 
me?od ( sci5tific inquiry 7ev5 9 m5tal  
sci5ce74 ,! syllogism is itself a       
conceal$ induction4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 
on ,mill4 ,ta9e1 ,le ,positivisme       
,anglais1 #ahfd ,engli%1 by ,haye2 !    
objections ( ,jevons 7,contempor>y      
,review1 ,decemb]1 #ahgg seq41 repr9t$ 9
 ,pure ,logic & o!r ,m9or ,works1 #ahij2
 cf4 ,m9d1 vol4 xvi4 pp4 #ajf-aaj7 to   
,mill's doctr9e ( ! inductive "* (      
geometry1 8 treatm5t ( ! relation (     
resemblance1 & 8 exposition ( ! f\r     
me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry 9 _!        

relation to ! law ( causation2 & ! f9ely
 conceiv$ essay on utilit>ianism1 by ,c4
 ,hebl]1 ,philosophis*e ,aufstze1 #ahfi1
 pp4 #ce-ff4 ,also ,mill's own          
,autobiography1 #ahgc3 ,ba9's ,john     
,/u>t ,mill1 a ,criticism1 #ahhb2 &     
,t4,h4 ,gre51 ,lectures on ! ,logic1    
,works1 vol4 ii4--,,tr4  ,:5 ,i ass]t ! 
major premise ! inf]5ce prop] is already
 made1 & 9 ! conclusion ! compreh5sive  
=mula = a numb] ( p>ticul> tru?s :i* 0  
giv5 9 ! premise is m]ely explicat$1    
int]pret$4 ,because univ]sal judgm5ts   
are = him m]ely brief expressions =     
aggregates ( p>ticul> tru?s1 ,mill is   
able to say t all k is g5]alization1 &  
at ! same "t to argue t all inf]5ce is f
 p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s4 ,inf]5ce ?r\gh 
a g5]al proposition is n necess>y1 yet  
useful z a collat]al security1 inasmu* z
 ! syllogi/ic =ms enable u m easily to  
discov] errors committ$4 ,! gr\nd (     
induction1 ! uni=mity ( nature 9 ref]5ce
 bo? to ! coexi/5ce & ! succession (    
ph5om5a1 s9ce x :olly dep5ds on         

induction1 is n unconditionally c]ta92 b
 x may be accept$ z v highly probable1  
until "s in/ance ( lawless action 79    
itself conceivable7 %all h be5 actually 
prov$4 ,l ! law ( causation1 ! pr9ciples
 ( logic are also n a priori1 b only !  
highe/ g5]alizations f all previ\s      
exp]i5ce4  ,mill's mo/ brilliant        
a*ievem5t is 8 !ory ( exp]im5tal        
inquiry1 = :i* he advances f\r me?ods3  
7#a7 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t3 ,if two or m
 in/ances ( ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation h
 only "o circum/ance 9 common1 !        
circum/ance 9 :i* alone all ! in/ances  
agree is ! cause 7or effect7 ( ! giv5   
ph5om5on4 7#b7 ,! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce3   
,if an in/ance 9 :i* ! ph5om5on "u      
inve/igation occurs1 & an in/ance 9 :i* 
x does n occur1 h e circum/ance 9 common
 save "o1 t "o occurr+ only 9 ! =m]2 !  
circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two in/ances  
diff]1 is ! effect1 or ! cause1 or an   
indisp5sable "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on1
 ,^! two me?ods 7! me?od ( obs]vation1 &
 ! me?od ( artificial exp]im5t7 may also

 be employ$ 9 comb9ation1 & ! ,canon ( !
 ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce   
runs3 ,if two or m in/ances 9 :i* !     
ph5om5on occurs h only "o circum/ance 9 
common1 :ile two or m in/ances 9 :i* x  
does n occur h no?+ 9 common save !     
abs5ce ( t circum/ance1 ! circum/ance 9 
:i* alone ! two sets ( in/ances diff] is
 ! effect1 or ! cause1 or an            
indisp5sable "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on4
 7#c7 ,! ,me?od ( ,residues3 ,subduct f 
any ph5om5on su* "p z is kn[n by previ\s
 inductions to be ! effect ( c]ta9      
antec$5ts1 & ! residue ( ! ph5om5on is !
 effect ( ! rema9+ antec$5ts4 7#d7 ,!   
,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations3       
,:atev] ph5om5on v>ies 9 any mann] :5ev]
 ano!r ph5om5on v>ies 9 "s p>ticul>     
mann]1 is ei!r a cause or an effect ( t 
ph5om5on1 or is connect$ ) x ?r\gh "s   
fact ( causation4 ,:5 ! ph5om5a are     
complex ! d$uctive me?od mu/ be call$ 9 
to aid3 f ! inductively asc]ta9$ laws ( 
! action ( s+le causes ?is d$uces ! laws
 ( _! comb9$ action2 &1 z a f9al /ep1 ! 

results ( su* ratioc9ation are v]ifi$ by
 ! pro( ( _! agreem5t ) empirical facts4
 ,to expla9 a ph5om5on means to po9t out
 its cause2 ! explanation ( a law is its
 r$uction to o!r1 m g5]al laws4 ,9 all  
?is1 h[ev]1 we rema9 )9 ! sph]e (       
ph5om5a2 ! ess5ce ( nature always eludes
 our k4  ,9 ! *apt] ,( ,lib]ty &        
,necessity 7book vi4 *ap1 ii47 ,mill    
emphasizes ! position t ! necessity to  
:i* human actions are subject mu/ n be  
conceiv$1 z is commonly done1 z         
irresi/ible compulsion1 = x d5otes no?+ 
m ?an ! uni=m ord] ( our actions & !    
possibility ( pr$ict+ !m4 ,?is does n   
de/roy ! elem5t 9 ! idea ( fre$om :i* is
 legitimate & practically valuable3 we h
 ! p[] to alt] our "*2 x is =m$ by u z  
well z = u2 ! desire to m\ld x is "o ( !
 mo/ influ5tial circum/ances 9 its      
=mation4 ,! pr9ciple ( morality is !    
promotion ( ! happ9ess ( all s5ti5t     
be+s4 ,mill diff]s f ,b5?am1 h[ev]1 f   
:om he d]ives ! pr9ciple ( utility1 9   
sev]al important p>ticul>s--by 8        

recognition ( qualitative z well z (    
quantitative diff]5ces 9 pleasures1 ( ! 
value ( ! ord9>y rules ( morality z     
int]m$iate pr9ciples1 ( ! social feel+s1
 & ( ! dis9t]e/$ love ( virtue4         
,oppon5ts ( ! utilit>ian !ory h n be5   
sl[ 9 avail+ !mselves ( ! opportunities 
= attack ?us af=d$4#a ,a ?ird di/+ui%$  
repres5tative ( ! same g5]al movem5t is 
,alex&] ,ba91 ! psy*ologi/ 7born #ahah2 
,! ,s5ses & ! ,intellect1 #c;d ed41     
#ahfh2 ,! ,emotions & ! ,w1 #c;d ed41   
#ahge2 ,m5tal & ,moral ,sci5ce1 #ahfh1  
#c;d ed41 #ahgb1 "p ii41 #ahgb2 ,m9d &  
,body1 #c;d ed41 #ahgd74  ,footnote #a3 
,on ! relation ( ,b5?am & ,mill cf4     
,hffd+1 p4 #fh3 ,sidgwick's ,outl9es1   
*ap4 iv4  #af2 & ,john ,grote's         
,exam9ation ( ! ,utilit>ian ,philosophy1
 #ahgj1 *ap4 i4  ,! sy/em project$ by   
,h]b]t ,sp5c] 7born #ahbj71 ! major "p (
 :i* has already appe>$1 falls into five
 p>ts3 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 #ahfb1 #g? ed41
 #ahhi2 ,pr9ciples ( ,biology1 #ahfd-fg1
 #d? ed41 #ahhh2 ,pr9ciples (           

,psy*ology1 #ahee1 #e? ed41 #ahij2      
,pr9ciples ( ,sociology 7vol4 i4 #ahgf1 
#c;d ed41 #ahhe2 "p iv4 ,c]emonial      
,in/itutions1 #ahgi1 #c;d ed41 #ahhh1 "p
 v4 ,political ,in/itutions1 #ahhb1 #b;d
 ed41 #ahhe1 "p vi4 ,ecclesia/ical      
,in/itutions1 #ahhe1 #b;d ed41 #ahhf1   
toge!r con/itut+ vol4 ii472 ,pr9ciples (
 ,e?ics 7"p i4 ,! ,data ( ,e?ics1 #ahgi1
 #e? ed41 #ahhh2 p>ts ii4 & iii4 ,!     
,inductions ( ,e?ics & ,! ,e?ics (      
,individual ,life1 con/itut+ ) "p i4 !  
fir/ volume1 #ahib2 "p iv4 ,ju/ice1     
#ahia74 ,a compreh5sive exposition ( !  
sy/em has be5 giv51 ) ! au?ority ( !    
au?or1 by ,f4,h4 ,coll9s 9 8 ,epitome ( 
! ,syn!tic ,philosophy1 #ahhi4a ,!      
treatise on ,education1 #ahfa1 #bc;d    
ed41 #ahij1 8 sociological writ+s1 & 8  
v>i\s essays h also contribut$          
ess5tially to ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s fame1 bo? at
 home & abroad4 ,! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples beg9
 ) ! ,unkn[able4 ,s9ce human op9ions1 no
 matt] h[ false !y may seem1 h sprung f 
actual exp]i5ces1 &1 :5 !y f9d wide     

acceptance & are t5aci\sly adh]$ to1 mu/
 h some?+ 9 !m :i* appeals to ! m9ds (  
m51 we mu/ assume t e error conta9s a   
k]nel ( tru?1 h[ev] small x be4 ,no "o (
 oppos+ views is to be accept$ z :olly  
true1 & none reject$ z entirely false4  
,to discov] ! incontrov]tible fact :i*  
lies at _! basis1 we mu/ reject ! v>i\s 
concrete elem5ts 9 :i* !y disagree1 &   
f9d = ! rema9d] ! ab/ract expression :i*
 holds true ?r\gh\t its div]g5t         
manife/ations4 ,no antagonism is old]1  
wid]1 m pr(\nd1 & m important ?an t     
betwe5 religion & sci5ce4 ,"h too "s mo/
 g5]al tru?1 "s ultimate fact mu/ lie at
 ! basis4 ,! ultimate religi\s ideas are
 self-contradictory & unt5able4 ,no "o (
 ! possible hypo!ses conc]n+ ! nature & 
orig9 ( ?+s--e religion may be def9$ z  
an a priori !ory ( ! univ]se1 !         
accompany+ e?ical code be+ a lat]       
gr[?--is logically def5sible3 :e!r ! _w 
is conceiv$ a!i/ically z self-exi/5t1 or
 pan!i/ically z self-creat$1 or         
!i/ically 7feti*ism1 poly!ism1 or       

mono!ism71 z creat$ by an ext]nal ag5cy1
 we are ev]y:]e confront$ by un?9kable  
conclusions4 ,! idea ( a ,fir/ ,cause or
 ( ! absolute 7z ,mansel1 foll[+        
,hamilton1 has prov$ 9 8 ,limits (      
,religi\s ,?\ght7 is full (             
contradictions4 ,b h[ev] widely ! cre$s 
div]ge1 !y %[ entire unanimity1 f !     
grosse/ sup]/ition up to ! mo/ develop$ 
!ism1 9 ! belief t ! exi/5ce ( ! _w is a
 my/]y :i* ev] presses = int]pretation1 
?\gh x c nev] be entirely expla9$4 ,& 9 
! progress ( religion f crude feti*ism  
to ! develop$ !ology ( our "t1 ! tru?1  
at fir/ b vaguely p]ceiv$1 t !re is an  
omnipres5t ,inscrutable :i* manife/s    
itself 9 all ph5om5a1 ev] comes m cle>ly
 into view4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 also    
,fiske's ,outl9es ( ,cosmic ,philosophy1
 #b vols41 #ahgd4 ,num]\s critiques &   
discussions ( ,sp5c]'s views h be5 giv5 
9 v>i\s j\rnals & reviews2 among m      
ext5d$ works ref]5ce may be made to     
,b[ne1 ,! ,philsophy ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1   
#ahgd2 ,malcolm ,gu?rie1 ,on ,mr4       

,sp5c]'s ,=mula ( ,evolution1 #ahgi1 & !
 same au?or1 ,on ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s          
,unification ( ,k1 #ahhb2 & ,t4,h4      
,gre51 on ,sp5c] & ,lewes1 ,works1 vol4 
i4--,,tr4  ,sci5ce meets ?is ultimate   
religi\s tru? ) ! conviction1 grasp$ )  
increas+ cle>ness z ! developm5t proce$s
 f ,protagoras to ,kant1 t ! reality    
hidd5 beh9d all ph5om5a mu/ always rema9
 unkn[n1 t our k c nev] be absolute4    
,?is pr9ciple maybe e/abli%$ inductively
 f ! incompreh5sibility ( ! ultimate    
sci5tific ideas1 z well z d$uctively f !
 nature ( intellig5ce1 ?r\gh an analysis
 ( ! product & ! process ( ?\ght4 7#a7  
,! ideas space1 "t1 matt]1 motion1 &    
=ce1 z also ! fir/ /ates ( consci\sness1
 & ! ?9k+ sub/ance1 ! ego z ! unity (   
subject & object1 all repres5t realities
 ^: nature & orig9 are entirely         
incompreh5sible4 7#b7 ,! subsumption (  
p>ticul> facts "u m g5]al facts leads   
ultimately to a mo/ g5]al1 highe/ fact1 
:i* _c be r$uc$ to a m g5]al "o1 & h5ce 
_c be expla9$ or compreh5d$4 7#c7 ,all  

?\ght 7z has be5 %[n by ,hamilton 9 8   
essay ,on ! ,philosophy ( !             
,uncondition$1 & by 8 foll[] ,mansel7 is
 ! e/abli%m5t ( relations1 e ?\ght      
involv+ relation1 diff]5ce1 & 7z ,sp5c] 
adds7 lik5ess4 ,h5ce ! absolute1 ! idea 
( :i* excludes e relation1 is entirely  
beyond ! rea* ( an intellig5ce :i* is   
conc]n$ ) relations alone1 & :i* always 
consi/s 9 discrim9ation1 limitation1 &  
assimilation--x is trebly un?9kable4    
,!re=e3 ,religion & ,sci5ce agree 9 !   
supreme tru? t ! human und]/&+ is       
capable ( relative k only or ( a k ( !  
relative 7,relativity74 ,nev]!less1     
accord+ to ,sp5c]1 x is too mu* to      
conclude ) ! ?9k]s j m5tion$1 t ! idea (
 ! absolute is a m]e expression =       
inconceivability1 & its exi/5ce         
problematical4 ,! nature ( ! absolute is
 unkn[able1 b n ! exi/5ce ( a basis = ! 
relative & ph5om5al4 ,! consid]ations   
:i* speak 9 favor ( ! relativity ( k &  
its limitation to ph5om5a1 argue also ! 
exi/5ce ( a non-relative1 ^: ph5om5on ! 

relative is2 ! idea ( ! relative & !    
ph5om5al posits eo ipso ! exi/5ce ( !   
absolute z its correlative1 :i* manife/s
 itself 9 ph5om5a4 ,we h at lea/ an     
indef9ite1 ?\gh n a def9ite1            
consci\sness ( ! ,unkn[able z ! ,unkn[n 
,cause1 ! ,univ]sal ,p[]1 & on ?is is   
f\nd$ our in]adicable belief 9 objective
 reality4  ,all k is limit$ to !        
relative1 & consi/s 9 increas+          
g5]alization3 ! apex ( ?is pyramid is   
=m$ by philosophy4 ,common k is         
un-unifi$ k2 sci5ce is p>tially unifi$  
k2 philosophy1 :i* comb9es ! highe/     
g5]alizations ( ! sci5ces into a supreme
 "o1 is completely unifi$ k4 ,! data (  
philosophy are--besides an ,unkn[able   
,p[]--! exi/5ce ( kn[able lik5esses &   
diff]5ces among its manife/ations1 & a  
result+ segregation ( ! manife/ations   
into ^? ( subject & object4 ,fur!r1     
d]ivative data are space 7relations (   
coexi/5ce71 "t 7relations ( irrev]sible 
sequ5ce71 matt] 7coexi/5t positions t   
(f] resi/ance71 motion 7:i* involves    

space1 "t1 & matt]71 & =ce1 ! ultimate (
 ultimates1 on :i* all o!rs dep5d1 & f  
our primordial exp]i5ces ( :i* all ! o!r
 modes ( consci\sness are d]ivable4     
,simil>ly ! ultimate prim>y tru? is !   
p]si/5ce ( =ce1 f :i*1 besides !        
inde/ructibility ( matt] & ! cont9uity (
 7actual or pot5tial7 motion1 /ill fur!r
 tru?s may be d$uc$3 ! p]si/5ce (       
relations among =ces or ! uni=mity (    
law1 ! trans=mation & equival5ce (      
7m5tal & social z well z ( physical7    
=ces1 ! law ( ! direction ( motion      
7along ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance1 or ! l9e 
( greate/ traction1 or _! resultant71 & 
! unceas+ rhy?m ( motion4 ,beyond ^!    
analytic tru?s1 h[ev]1 philosophy dem&s 
a law ( univ]sal syn!sis4 ,?is mu/ be ! 
law ( ! cont9u\s r$i/ribution ( matt] & 
motion1 = ea* s+le ?+1 & ! :ole univ]se 
z well1 is involv$ 9 a 7cont9u\sly      
repeat$7 d\ble process ( evolution &    
dissolution1 ! =m] consi/+ 9 !          
integration ( matt]#a & ! dissipation ( 
motion1 ! latt] 9 ! absorption ( motion 

& ! dis9tegration ( matt]4 ,! law (     
evolution1 9 its complete developm5t1 !n
 runs3 ,evolution is an integration (   
matt] & concomitant dissipation (       
motion2 dur+ :i* ! matt] passes f an    
indef9ite1 incoh]5t homog5eity to a     
def9ite1 coh]5t het]og5eity2 & dur+ :i* 
! reta9$ motion und]goes a p>allel      
trans=mation4 ,?is is inductively       
support$ by illu/rations f e region (   
nature & all dep>tm5ts ( m5tal & social 
life2 &1 fur!r1 %[n d$ucible f !        
ultimate pr9ciple ( ! p]si/5ce ( =ce1   
?r\gh ! m$iation ( sev]al coroll>ies to 
x1 viz41 ! in/ability ( ! homog5e\s "u !
 v>i$ incid5ce ( surr\nd+ =ces1 !       
multiplication ( effects by action &    
reaction1 & segregation4 ,f9ally !      
pr9ciple ( equilibration indicates !    
impassable limit at :i* evolution passes
 ov] into dissolution1 until ! et]nal   
r\nd is aga9 begun4 ,if x may be said ( 
,hegel himself1 t he va9ly endeavor$ to 
ma/] ! concrete fullness ( reality )    
=mal concepts1 ! criticism is applicable

 to ,sp5c] 9 /ill great] measure4 ,!    
b>r5 s*emata ( conc5tration1 passage    
into het]og5eity1 adaptation1 etc41 :i* 
are tak5 f natural sci5ce1 & :i* are    
insuffici5t ev5 9 _! own field1 prove   
entirely impot5t = ! ma/]y ( ! complex &
 peculi> ph5om5a ( spiritual life4      
,footnote #a3 ,organic gr[? is !        
conc5tration ( elem5ts be=e diffus$2 cf4
 ! union ( nomadic families into settl$ 
tribes4  ,arm$ ) ^! pr9ciples1 h[ev]1   
,mr4 ,sp5c] advances to ! discussion ( !
 sev]al divisions ( ,special            
,philosophy4 ,pass+ ov] inorganic       
nature1 he f9ds 8 task 9 ! int]pretation
 ( ! ph5om5a ( life1 m9d1 & society 9   
t]ms ( matt]1 motion1 & =ce "u ! g5]al  
evolution =mula4 ,?is proc$ure1 h[ev]1  
mu/ n be und]/ood z 9 any wise          
mat]iali/ic4 ,su* an int]pretation w\ld 
be a misrepres5tation1 x is urg$1 = !   
/rict relativity ( ! /&po9t limits all  
conclusions to ph5om5a1 & p]mits no     
inf]5ce conc]n+ ! nature ( ! ,unkn[able4
 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,biology take up !     

ph5om5a ( life4 ,life is def9$ z !      
cont9u\s adju/m5t ( int]nal relations to
 ext]nal relations4 ,no attempt is made 
to expla9 its orig91 yet 79 ! words (   
,mr4 ,sully7 x is cle> t ! l[e/ =ms (   
life are reg>d$ z cont9u\s 9 _! ess5tial
 nature ) sub-vital processes4 ,!       
evolution ( liv+ organisms1 f ! l[e/ to 
! highe/1 ) ! developm5t ( all _! p>ts &
 functions1 results f ! co-op]ation (   
v>i\s factors1 ext]nal & int]nal1 ^:    
action is ultimately r$ucible to !      
univ]sal law4  ,! field ( psy*ology is  
intimately alli$ ) biology1 & yet       
i/+ui%$ f x4 ,m5tal life is a           
subdivision ( life 9 g5]al1 & may be    
subsum$ "u ! g5]al def9ition2 b :ile    
biological tru?s conc]n ! connection    
betwe5 int]nal ph5om5a1 ) b tacit or    
occasional recognition ( ! environm5t1  
psy*ology has to d nei!r ) ! int]nal    
connection nor ! ext]nal connection1 b !
 connection betwe5 ^! two connections4  
,psy*ology 9 its subjective aspect1     
aga91 is a field entirely sui g5]is4 ,! 

sub/ance ( m9d1 conceiv$ z ! und]ly+    
sub/ratum ( m5tal /ates1 is unkn[able2 b
 ! "* ( ^? /ates ( :i* m9d1 z we "k x1  
is compos$1 is a legitimate subject (   
inquiry4 ,if ?is be c>efully inve/igat$1
 x seems highly probable t ! ultimate   
unit ( consci\sness is some?+ ( ! same  
ord] z t :i* we call a n]v\s %ock4 ,m9d 
is proximately compos$ ( feel+s & !     
relations betwe5 feel+s2 f ^!1 reviv$1  
associat$1 & integrat$1 ! :ole fabric ( 
consci\sness is built up4 ,!re is1 !n1  
no %>p di/9ction betwe5 ! sev]al phases 
( m9d4 ,if we trace its developm5t      
objectively1 9 t]ms ( ! correspond5ce   
betwe5 inn] & out] ph5om5a1 we f9d a    
gradual progress f ! less to ! m        
complex1 f ! l[] to ! high]1 )\t a      
break4 ,reflex action1 in/9ct1 memory1  
reason1 are simply /ages 9 ! process4   
,all is dep5d5t on exp]i5ce4 ,ev5 ! =ms 
( k1 :i* are a priori to ! individual1  
are ! product ( exp]i5ce 9 ! race1      
integrat$ & transmitt$ by h]$ity1 &     
become organic 9 ! n]v\s /ructure4 ,9   

g5]al ! correspond5ce ( inn] & out] 9   
:i* m5tal life consi/s is m$iat$ by !   
n]v\s organism4 ,! /ructure & functions 
( ?is condition consci\sness & furni% ! 
basis = ! int]pretation ( m5tal         
evolution 9 t]ms ( evolution at l>ge1   
reg>d$ z a process ( physical           
trans=mation4 ,nev]!less m5tal ph5om5a &
 bodily ph5om5a are n id5tical1         
consci\sness is n motion4 ,!y are bo?   
ph5om5al modes ( ! unkn[able1 disp>ate 9
 !mselves1 & giv+ no indication ( !     
ultimate nature ( ! absolute4           
,subjective analysis ( human            
consci\sness yields fur!r pro( ( ! unity
 ( m5tal composition4 ,all m5tal action 
is ultimately r$ucible to ! cont9u\s    
diff]5tiation & integration ( /ates (   
consci\sness4 ,! crit]ion ( tru? is !   
inconceivability ( ! negation4 ,tri$ by 
?is te/1 z by all o!rs1 realism is      
sup]ior to idealism1 ?\gh 9 t           
transfigur$ =m :i* implies objective    
exi/5ce )\t imply+ ! possibility ( any  
fur!r k conc]n+ x1--h5ce 9 a =m entirely

 congru\s ) ! conclusion rea*$ by _m o!r
 r\tes4  ,sociology deals ) sup]-organic
 evolution1 :i* involves ! co-ord9at$   
actions ( _m individuals4 ,to und]/& !  
social unit1 we mu/ /udy primitive man1 
especially ! ideas :i* he =ms ( himself1
 ( o!r be+s1 & ( ! surr\nd+ _w4 ,!      
conception ( a m9d or o!r-self is       
gradually evolv$ ?r\gh obs]vation (     
natural ph5om5a :i* favor ! notion (    
duality1 especially ! ph5om5a ( sleep1  
dreams1 swoons1 & dea?4 ,belief 9 !     
influ5ce ( ^! d\bles ( ! dead on !      
=tunes ( ! liv+ leads to sorc]y1 pray]1 
& praise4 ,ance/or-wor%ip is ! ultimate 
s\rce ( all =ms ( religion2 to x c be   
trac$ ev5 su* ab]rant developm5ts z     
feti*ism & idolatry1 animal-1 plant-1 & 
nature-wor%ip4 ,?us ! primitive man     
feels himself relat$ n only to 8 liv+   
fell[s1 b to multitudes ( sup]natural   
be+s ab\t him4 ,! fe> ( ! liv+ becomes !
 root ( ! political1 & ! fe> ( ! dead ! 
root ( ! religi\s1 control4 ,a society  
is an organic entity4 ,?\gh diff]+ f an 

individual organism 9 _m ways1 x yet    
resembles x 9 ! p]man5t relations among 
its compon5t p>ts4 ,! ,dome/ic          
,relations1 by :i* ! ma9t5ance ( !      
species is n[ secur$1 h come f v>i\s    
e>li] & less develop$ =ms2 ! militant   
type ( society is accompani$ by a l[]1 !
 indu/rial type by a high] /age ( ?is   
developm5t4 ,c]emonial obs]vance is !   
mo/ primitive k9d ( gov]nm5t1 & ! k9d f 
:i* ! political & religi\s gov]nm5ts h  
diff]5tiat$4 ,political organization is 
necess>y 9 ord] to co-op]ation = ends   
:i* b5efit ! society directly1 & !      
individual only indirectly4 ,! ultimate 
political =ce is ! feel+ ( ! community1 
includ+ z its l>ge/ "p ance/ral feel+4  
,_m facts comb9e to obscure ?is tru?1 b 
h[ev] mu* x may be obscur$1 public feel+
 rema9s ! primal s\rce ( au?ority4 ,!   
v>i\s =ms & in/rum5ts ( gov]nm5t h gr[n 
up ?r\gh processes 9 h>mony ) ! g5]al   
law4 ,! two anti!tical types ( society  
are ! militant & ! indu/rial--! =m]     
implies compulsory co-op]ation "u m or  

less despotic rule1 ) gov]nm5tal        
assumption ( functions belong+ to !     
individual & a m9imiz+ ( individual     
initiative2 9 ! latt]1 gov]nm5t is r$uc$
 to a m9imum & be/ conduct$ by          
repres5tative ag5cies1 public           
organizations are l>gely replac$ by     
private organizations1 ! individual is  
fre] & looks less to ! /ate = protection
 & = aid4 ,! fundam5tal conditions ( !  
highe/ social developm5t is ! cessation 
( w>4 ,! ideas & s5tim5ts at ! basis (  
,ecclesia/ical ,in/itutions h be5       
naturally d]iv$ f ! gho/-!ory already   
describ$4 ,! goal ( religi\s developm5t 
is ! f9al rejection ( all an?ropomorphic
 conceptions ( ! ,fir/ ,cause1 until !  
h>mony ( religion & sci5ce %all be rea*$
 9 ! v5]ation ( ! ,unkn[able4 ,! rema9+ 
p>ts ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s ,sociology w treat 
( ,pr(essional ,in/itutions1 ,indu/rial 
,in/itutions1 ,l+ui/ic ,progress1       
,intellectual1 ,moral1 & ,ae/hetic      
,progress4  ,! subject matt] ( e?ics is 
! conduct t]m$ good or bad4 ,conduct is 

! adju/m5t ( acts to ends4 ,! evolution 
( conduct is m>k$ by increas+ p]fection 
9 ! adju/m5t ( acts to ! fur!rance (    
individual life1 ! life ( (fspr+1 &     
social life4 ,! ascription ( e?ical "*  
to ! highly evolv$ conduct ( man 9      
relation to ^! ends implies ! fundam5tal
 assumption1 t life is good or bad      
accord+ z x does1 or does n1 br+ a      
surplus ( agreeable feel+4 ,! ideal (   
moral sci5ce is rational d$uction3 a    
rational utilit>ianism c be atta9$ only 
by ! recognition ( ! necess>y           
laws--physical1 biological1             
psy*ological1 & sociological--:i*       
condition ! results ( actions2 among ^! 
! biological laws h be5 l>gely neglect$ 
9 ! pa/1 ?\gh !y are ( ! utmo/          
importance z furni%+ ! l9k betwe5 life &
 happ9ess4 ,! psy*ological view1 aga91  
expla9s ! orig9 ( consci5ce4 ,9 ! c\rse 
( developm5t man comes to recognize !   
sup]iority ( ! high] & m repres5tative  
feel+s z guides to action2 ?is =m (     
self-re/ra9t1 h[ev]1 is *>act]i/ic ( !  

non-moral re/ra9ts z well1 ( !          
political1 social1 & religi\s controls4 
,f ^! ! moral control prop] has         
em]g$--diff]+ f !m 9 t x ref]s to       
intr9sic in/ead ( extr9sic effects--& ! 
elem5t ( co]civ5ess 9 !m1 transf]r$1 has
 g5]at$ ! feel+ ( moral compulsion 7:i*1
 h[ev]1 w dim9i% z fa/ z moralization   
increases74  ,su* a rational e?ics1 bas$
 on ! laws :i* condition welf>e r ?an on
 a direct e/imation ( happ9ess1 &       
premis+ ! relativity ( all pa9s &       
pleasures1 escapes fundam5tal objections
 to ! e>li] h$onism 7e4g41 ^? to !      
h$onic calculus72 &1 comb9+ ! valuable  
elem5ts 9 ! div]g5t e?ical !ories1      
yields satisfactory pr9ciples = !       
decision ( e?ical problems4 ,egoism     
takes prec$5ce ( altruism2 yet x is 9   
turn dep5d5t on ?is1 & ! two1 on due    
consid]ation1 are se5 to be co-ess5tial4
 ,entirely divorc$ f ! o!r1 nei!r is    
legitimate1 & a compromise is ! only    
possibility2 :ile 9 ! future advanc+    
evolution w br+ ! two into complete     

h>mony4 ,! goal ( ! :ole process w be ! 
ideal man 9 ! ideal society1 ! sci5tific
 anticipation ( :i*1 absolute e?ics1    
promises guidance = ! relative &        
imp]fect e?ics ( ! transition p]iod4    
,exam9ation ( ! actual1 n ! pr(ess$1    
ideas & s5tim5ts ( m5 reveals wide      
v>iation 9 moral judgm5ts4 ,?is is      
especially true ( ! pro-e?ical          
consci\snesses ( ext]nal au?orities1    
co]cions1 & op9ions--religi\s1          
political1 & social--by :i* ! mass (    
mank9d are gov]n$2 & is broadly due to  
v>iation 9 social conditions4 ,:]e ! ne$
 ( ext]nal co-op]ation pr$om9ates !     
e?ics ( enmity develops2 :]e int]nal1   
peaceful co-op]ation is ! *ief social   
ne$ ! e?ics ( amity results3 & !        
evolution pr9ciple enables u to inf] t1 
z among c]ta9 small tribes 9 ! pa/1 s 9 
! great cultivat$ nations ( ! future1 ! 
life ( amity w unqualifi$ly prevail4 ,! 
,e?ics ( ,individual ,life %[s !        
application ( moral judgm5ts to all     
actions :i* affect individual welf>e4 ,!

 v fact t "s deviations f normal life   
are n[ morally disapprov$1 implies !    
exi/5ce ( bo? egoi/ic & altrui/ic       
sanctions = ! moral approval ( all acts 
:i* conduce to normal liv+ & !          
disapproval ( all m9or deviations1 ?\gh 
= ! mo/ "p ^! h hi!rto rema9$           
unconsid]$4 ,d\btless1 h[ev]1 moral     
control mu/ "h be some:at indef9ite2 &  
ev5 sci5tific obs]vation & analysis mu/ 
leave ! production ( a p]fectly regulat$
 conduct to ! organic adju/m5t (        
con/itution to social conditions4  ,!   
,e?ics ( ,social ,life includes ju/ice &
 b5efic5ce4 ,human ju/ice em]ges f      
sub-human or animal ju/ice1 ^: law      
7pass+ ov] gratis b5efits to (fspr+7 is 
t ea* individual %all receive ! b5efits 
& evils ( its own nature & its consequ5t
 conduct4 ,?is is ! law ( human ju/ice1 
also1 b "h x is m limit$ ?an be=e by !  
non-int]f]5ce :i* greg>i\sness requires1
 & by ! increas+ ne$ = ! sacrifice (    
individuals = ! good ( ! species4 ,!    
egoi/ic s5tim5t ( ju/ice arises f       

resi/ance to int]f]5ce ) free action2 ! 
altrui/ic develops ?r\gh sympa?y "u     
social conditions1 ^! be+ ma9ta9$       
mean:ile by a pro-altrui/ic s5tim5t1    
into :i* dread ( retaliation1 ( social  
reprobation1 ( legal puni%m5t1 & ( div9e
 v5geance ent] z compon5t p>ts4 ,! idea 
( ju/ice em]ges gradually f ! s5tim5t ( 
ju/ice3 x has two elem5ts1 "o brute or  
positive1 ) inequality z its ideal1 "o  
human or negative1 ! ideal ( :i* is     
equality4 ,9 e>ly times ! =m] ( ^! 0    
unduly appreciat$1 z 9 lat] times !     
latt]1 ! true conception includes bo?1 !
 idea ( equality be+ appli$ to ! limits 
& ! idea ( inequality to ! b5efits (    
action4 ,?us ! =mula ( ju/ice becomes3  
,e man is free to d t :i* he wills1     
provid$ he infr+es n ! equal fre$om (   
any o!r man --a law :i* f9ds its        
au?ority 9 ! facts1 t x is an a priori  
dictum ( consci\sness aft] x has be5    
subject to ! discipl9e ( prolong$ social
 life1 & t x is also d$ucible f !       
conditions ( ! ma9t5ance ( life at l>ge 

& ( social life4 ,f ?is law foll[ v>i\s 
p>ticul> coroll>ies or rights1 all ( :i*
 co9cide ) ord9>y e?ical concepts & h   
legal enactm5ts correspond+ to !m4      
,political rights s-call$ d n exi/2     
gov]nm5t is simply a sy/em ( appliances 
= ! ma9t5ance ( private rights4 ,bo? !  
nature ( ! /ate & its con/itution are   
v>iable3 ! militant type requires       
c5tralization & a co]cive con/itution2 !
 indu/rial type implies a wid]          
di/ribution ( political p[]1 b requires 
a repres5tation ( int]e/s r ?an a       
repres5tation ( individuals4 ,gov]nm5t  
develops z a result ( w>1 & its function
 ( protection aga9/ int]nal aggression  
arises by diff]5tiation f its prim>y    
function ( ext]nal def5se4 ,^! two1 !n1 
con/itute ! ess5tial duties ( ! /ate2 :5
 w> ceases ! fir/ falls away1 & its sole
 function becomes ! ma9t5ance ( !       
conditions "u :i* ea* individual may ga9
 ! fulle/ life compatible ) ! fulle/    
life ( fell[-citiz5s4 ,all beyond ?is1  
all int]f]5ce ) ?is life ( ! individual1

 :e!r by way ( assi/ance1 re/ra9t1 or   
education1 proves 9 ! end bo? unju/ &   
impolitic4 ,! rema9+ p>ts ( ! ,e?ics w  
treat ( ,negative & ,positive           
,b5efic5ce4  ,if ,j4,s4 ,mill & ,sp5c]  
7! latt] ( :om1 moreov]1 _h ann\nc$     
evolution z a _w-law be=e ! appe>ance ( 
,d>w971 move 9 a direction ak9 to       
positivism1 ! same is true1 fur!r1 (    
,g4,h4 ,lewes 7#ahag-gh2 ,hi/ory (      
,philosophy1 #e? ed41 #ahhj2 ,problems (
 ,life & ,m9d1 #ahgd seq74  ,turn+ to ! 
discussion ( p>ticul> discipl9es1 we may
 m5tion z prom95t among ,engli%         
logicians1#a besides ,hamilton1 ,:ewell1
 & ,mill1 ,:ately1 ,mansel1 ,?omson1 ,de
 ,morgan1 ,boole 7,an ,inve/igation ( ! 
,laws ( ,?\ght1 #ahed72 ,w4,s4 ,jevons  
7,! ,pr9ciples ( ,sci5ce1 #b;d ed41     
#ahgg72 ,v5n 7,symbolic ,logic1 #ahha2  
,empirical ,logic1 #ahhi71 ,bradley1 &  
,bosanquet4 ,among m rec5t inve/igators 
9 ! field ( psy*ology we may "n ,c>p5t]1
 ,f]ri]1 ,maudsley1 ,galton1 ,w>d1 &    
,sully 7,! ,human ,m9d1 #ahib71 & 9 !   

field ( comp>ative psy*ology1 ,lubbock1 
,romanes 7,m5tal ,evolution 9 ,animals1 
#ahhc2 ,m5tal ,evolution 9 ,man1 #ahhi71
 & ,morgan 7,animal ,life &             
,intellig5ce1 #ahia74 ,among e?ical     
writ]s ! foll[+1 besides ,sp5c] & ,gre51
 hold a =emo/ place3 ,h4 ,sidgwick 7,!  
,me?ods ( ,e?ics1 #d? ed41 #ahij71      
,leslie ,/eph5 7,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1    
#ahhb71 & ,james ,m>t9eau 7,types (     
,e?ical ,!ory1 #c;d ed41 #ahia74 ,!     
qu>t]ly review ,m9d 7vols4 i4-xvi4      
#ahgf-ia1 edit$ by ,g4 ,croom ,rob]tson2
 new s]ies f #ahib1 edit$ by ,g4,f4     
,/\t7 has s9ce its f\ndation play$ an   
important "p 9 ! developm5t ( ,engli%   
?\ght4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,n$i*1 ,die  
,lehre von d] ,quantifikation des       
,prdikats 9 vol4 iii4 ( ,wundt's        
,philosophis*e ,/udi52 ,l4 ,li>d1 ,les  
,logici5s ,anglais ,contempora9s1 #ahgh2
 ,al4 ,riehl 9 vol4 i4 ( !              
,vi]teljahrss*rift fr wiss5s*aftli*e    
,philosophie1 #ahgg cf4 also app5dix ,a 
to ! ,engli% translation ( ,ueb]weg's   

,logic4--,,tr44  ,g]man idealism1 = :i* 
,s4,t4 ,col]idge 7di$ #ahcd7 & ,?omas   
,c>lyle 7di$ #ahha7 endeavor$ to secure 
an entrance into ,engl&1 = a long "t    
ga9$ gr\nd !re b sl[ly4 ,lat] ye>s1     
h[ev]1 h br\ght increas+ int]e/ 9 ,g]man
 speculation1 & mu* ( rec5t ?9k+ %[s !  
influ5ce ( ,kantian & ,hegelian         
pr9ciples4 ,z pione] ( ?is movem5t we   
may "n ,j4,h4 ,/irl+ 7,! ,secret (      
,hegel1 #ahfe72 & z its mo/ prom95t     
repres5tatives ,john ,caird 7,an        
,introduction to ! ,philosophy (        
,religion1 #ahhj71 ,edw>d ,caird 7,!    
,critical ,philosophy ( ,immanuel ,kant1
 #ahhi2 ,! ,evolution ( ,religion1      
#ahic71 bo? 9 ,glasg[1 & ,t4,h4 ,gre5   
7#ahcf-hb2 pr(essor at ,ox=d2           
,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 #c;d ed41 #ahhg2 
,works1 edit$ by ,nettle%ip1 #c vols41  
#ahhe-hh74a ,9 opposition to ! h]$it>y  
empiricism ( ,engli% philosophy--:i*    
appe>s 9 ,sp5c] & ,lewes1 z x did 9     
,locke1 ,b]keley1 & ,hume1 ?\gh 9       
some:at alt]$ =m--,gre5 ma9ta9s t all   

exp]i5ce is con/itut$ by intelligible   
relations4 ,k1 !re=e1 is possible only =
 a correlat+ self-consci\sness2 :ile    
nature1 z a sy/em ( relations1 is       
likewise dep5d5t on a spiritual         
pr9ciple1 ( :i* x is ! expression4 ,?us 
! c5tral conception ( ,gre5's philosophy
 becomes1 t ! univ]se is a s+le et]nal  
activity or en]gy1 ( :i* x is ! ess5ce  
to be self-consci\s1 t is1 to be itself 
& n itself 9 "o 7,nettle%ip74 ,to ?is   
univ]sal consci\sness we are relat$ z   
manife/ations or communications "u !    
limitations ( our physical organization4
 ,z su* we are free1 t is1 self-det]m9$1
 det]m9$ by no?+ f )\t4 ,! moral ideal  
is self-realization or p]fection1 !     
progressive reproduction ( ! div9e      
self-consci\sness4 ,?is is possible only
 9 t]ms ( a developm5t ( p]sons1 = z a  
self-consci\s p]sonality ! div9e _s c   
reproduce itself 9 p]sons alone2 &1 s9ce
 social life is to p]sonality :at       
language is to ?\ght1 ! realization ( ! 
moral ideal implies life 9 common4 ,!   

ne>] det]m9ation ( ! ideal is to be     
s\ght 9 ! manife/ations ( ! et]nal _s z 
!y h be5 giv5 9 ! moral hi/ory (        
individuals & nations4 ,?is %[s :at has 
already be5 impli$ 9 ! relation (       
morality to p]sonality & society1 t     
moral good mu/ fir/ ( all be a common   
good1 "o 9 :i* ! p]man5t well-be+ ( self
 includes ! well-be+ ( o!rs also4 ,?is  
is ! g]m ( morality1 ! developm5t ( :i* 
yields1 fir/1 a gradual ext5sion ( !    
area ( common good1 & secondly1 a full] 
& m concrete det]m9ation ( its cont5t4  
,fur!r repres5tatives ( ?is movem5t are 
,w4 ,wallace1 ,adamson1 ,bradley2 ,a4   
,se? is an ex-memb]4  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4
 on ,gre5 ! ,memoir by ,nettle%ip 9 vol4
 iii4 ( ! ,works4  ,! fir/ & greate/ (  
,am]ican philosophical ?9k]s 0 !        
,calv9i/ic !ologian ,jona?an ,edw>ds    
7#agjc-eh2 treatise on ! ,fre$om ( ,w1  
#aged2 ,works1 #aj vols41 edit$ by      
,dwight1 #ahcj74 ,edw>ds's det]m9i/ic   
doctr9e f\nd num]\s adh]5ts 7among !m 8 
son1 :o bore 8 fa!r's "n1 di$ #ahja7 z  

well z /r5u\s oppon5ts 7,tappan1 ,:$on1 
,haz>d among lat] names71 & ess5tially  
contribut$ to ! developm5t (            
philosophical ?\ght 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  
,= a consid]able p]iod ?is cry/alliz$ = 
! mo/ "p ar\nd elem5ts d]iv$ f ,briti%  
?9k]s1 especially f ,locke & ! ,scotti% 
,s*ool4 ,9 #ahbi ,james ,m>% call$      
att5tion to ,g]man speculation #a by 8  
,am]ican edition ( ,col]idge's ,aids to 
,reflection1 ) an important introduction
 f 8 own h&4 ,lat] ,w4,e4 ,*ann+        
7#aghj-ahdb71 ! head ( ! ,unit>ian      
movem5t1 attract$ _m "y & brilliant     
m9ds1 ! mo/ not$ ( :om1 ,ralph ,waldo   
,em]son 7#ahjc-hb71 became a lead] among
 ! ,new ,engl& transc5d5tali/s4         
,metaphysical idealism has1 p]haps1 met 
) less resi/ance 9 ,am]ica ?an 9 ,engl&4
 ,kant & ,hegel h be5 eag]ly /udi$      
7,g4,s4 ,morris1 di$ #ahhi2 ,c4,c4      
,ev]ett2 ,j4 ,watson 9 ,canada2 ,josiah 
,royce1 ,! ,_s ( ,mod]n ,philosophy1    
#ahib2 & o!rs72 & ,! ,j\rnal (          
,speculative ,philosophy1 edit$ by      

,w4,t4 ,h>ris1 has s9ce #ahfg furni%$ a 
rally+ po9t = ideali/ic int]e/s4 ,!     
influ5ce ( ,lotze has also be5          
consid]able 7,b4,p4 ,b[ne 9 ,bo/on74    
,sympa?y ) ,g]man speculation1 h[ev]1   
has n de/roy$ ! naturally close         
connection ) ! "w ( writ]s :o use !     
,engli% tongue4 ,?us ,sp5c]'s writ+s h  
_h a wide curr5cy1 & 8 sy/em numb]s _m  
disciples1 ?\gh ^! are less num]\s among
 /ud5ts ( philosophy by pr(ession 7,john
 ,fiske1 ,outl9es ( ,cosmic ,philosophy1
 #ahgd74  ,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,port]1 op4
 cit4  ,9 ! late/ decades ! broad5+ ( ! 
national life1 ! increas+ acqua9tance ) 
=eign ?\ght1 & ! rapid developm5t (     
univ]sity "w h greatly enl>g$ & deep5$ !
 int]e/ 9 philosophical pursuits4 ,?is  
is manife/$ mo/ cle>ly 9 ! field (      
psy*ology1 includ+ especially ! new or  
physiological psy*ology1 & ! hi/ory (   
philosophy1 ?\gh indications ( pregnant 
?\ght 9 o!r dep>tm5ts1 z e?ics & !      
philosophy ( religion1 & ev5 ( indep5d5t
 con/ruction1 are n want+4 ,among       

psy*ologi/s ( ! day we may m5tion ,g4,s4
 ,hall1 editor ( ,! ,am]ican ,j\rnal (  
,psy*ology 7#ahhg seq471 ,g4,t4 ,ladd   
7,elem5ts ( ,physiological ,psy*ology1  
#ahhg71 & ,william ,james 7,pr9ciples ( 
,psy*ology1 #ahij74 ,! ,int]national    
,j\rnal ( ,e?ics 7,philadelphia1 #ahij  
seq471 edit$ by ,s4 ,burns ,we/on1 is   
devot$ to ! advancem5t ( e?ical k &     
practice2 among ! =eign memb]s ( its    
editorial committee are ,jodl & ,von    
,gizycki4 ,! weekly j\rnal ( popul>     
philosophy1 ,! ,op5 ,c\rt1 publi%$ 9    
,*icago1 has = its object !             
reconciliation ( religion & sci5ce2 !   
qu>t]ly1 ,! ,moni/ 7#ahij seq471 publi%$
 by ! same company "u ! direction (     
,paul ,c>us 7,! ,s\l ( ,man1 #ahia71 !  
e/abli%m5t ( a moni/ic view ( ! _w4     
,sev]al j\rnals1 among !m ! ,educational
 ,review 7#ahia seq41 edit$ by ,n4,m4   
,butl]71 po9t to a gr[+ int]e/ 9        
p$agogical inquiry4 ,! ,am]ican         
,philosophical ,review 7#ahib seq41     
edit$ by ,j4,g4 ,s*urman1 ,! ,e?ical    

,import ( ,d>w9ism1 #ahhg7 is a         
compreh5sive expon5t ( ,am]ican         
philosophic ?\ght4   #d4 ,sw$51 ,norway1
 ,d5m>k1 & ,holl&4  ,9 ,sw$5 an         
empirical p]iod repres5t$ by ,leopold   
7di$ #ahbi7 & ,?4 ,?orild 7di$ #ahjh71 &
 bas$ ^u ,locke & ,r\sseau1 0 foll[$1   
aft] ! introduction ( ,kant by ,d4      
,bo?ius1 #agid1 by a drift t[>d         
idealism4 ,?is 0 repres5t$ 9 an extreme 
=m by ,b4 ,hij] 7di$ #ahab71 a          
contempor>y & admir] ( ,fi*te1 :o def5d$
 ! "r ( philosophical con/ruction1 & m  
mod]ately by ,*ri/(] ,jacob ,b/rom      
7#agig-ahff71 ! mo/ important sy/ematic 
?9k] ( 8 c\ntry4 ,z pr$ecessors ( ,b/rom
 we may m5tion ,bib]g 7di$ #ahbg71      
,e4,g4 ,geij] 7di$ #ahdf71 & ,s4 ,grubbe
 7di$ #ahec71 l him pr(essors 9 ,upsala1
 & ( 8 pupils1 ,s4 ,ribb+1 kn[n 9       
,g]many by 8 peculi> conception ( !     
,platonic doctr9e ( ideas 7,g]man       
translation1 #ahfc-fd71 ! morali/ ,sahl9
 7#ahgg71 ! hi/orian1 ( ,sw$i%          
philosophy#a 7#ahgc seq47 ,a4 ,nyblaeus 

( ,lund1 & ,h4 ,edfeldt ( ,upsala1 !    
editor ( ,b/rom's works 7#ahhc74        
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,hffd+1 ,die         
,philosophie 9 ,s*w$5 9 ! ,philosophis*e
 ,monat%efte1 vol4 xv4 #ahgi1 p4 #aic   
seq4  ,b/rom's philosophy is a sy/em (  
self-activity & p]sonalism :i* recalls  
,leibnitz & ,krause4 ,! absolute or be+ 
is *>act]iz$ z a concrete1 sy/ematically
 articulat$1 self-consci\s unity1 :i*   
dwells ) its entire cont5t 9 ea* ( its  
mom5ts1 & ^: memb]s bo? be> ! "* ( !    
:ole & are imman5t 9 "o ano!r1 /&+ 9    
relations ( organic int]-det]m9ation4 ,!
 anti!sis betwe5 unity & plurality is   
only app>5t1 pres5t only = ! divisive   
view ( f9ite consci\sness4 ,god is      
inf9ite1 fully det]m9ate p]sonality 7=  
det]m9ation is n limitation71 a sy/em ( 
self-dep5d5t liv+ be+s1 diff]+ 9 degree1
 9 :i* we1 z to our true be+1 are       
et]nally & un*angeably conta9$4 ,e be+  
is a def9ite1 et]nal1 & liv+ ?\ght (    
,god2 ?9k+ be+s ) _! /ates & activities 
alone exi/2 all t is real is spiritual1 

p]sonal4 ,besides ?is true1 supras5sible
 _w ( ,ideas1 :i* is elevat$ above      
space1 "t1 motion1 *ange1 & developm5t1 
& :i* has n aris5 by creation or a      
process ( production1 !re exi/s = man1 b
 only = him--man is =mally p]fect1 x is 
true1 b mat]ially imp]fect 7s9ce he     
repres5ts ! real f a limit$ /&po9t7--a  
s5su\s _w ( ph5om5a z ! sph]e ( 8       
activity4 ,to ?is he himself belongs1 & 
9 x he is spontane\sly to develop !     
supras5sible cont5t :i* is et]nally giv5
 him 7i4e41 8 true nature71 namely1 to  
raise x f ! m]ely pot5tial condition (  
obscure pres5tim5t to cle>1 consci\s    
actuality4 ,fre$om is ! p[] to ov]come  
our imp]fection by means ( our true     
nature1 to realize our supras5sible     
capacities1 to become = ourselves :at we
 are 9 ourselves 79 ,god74 ,! e?ics (   
,b/rom is di/+ui%$ f ! ,kantian e?ics1  
to :i* x is relat$1 *iefly by ! fact t x
 seeks to br+ s5sibility into a m ?an   
m]ely negative relation to reason4      
,society is an et]nal1 & also a p]sonal1

 ,idea 9 ,god4 ,! mo/ p]fect =m (       
gov]nm5t is con/itutional mon>*y2 !     
ideal goal ( hi/ory1 ! e/abli%m5t ( a   
sy/em ( /ates embrac+ all mank9d4  ,j4  
,borelius ( ,lund is an ,hegelian1 b    
diff]s f ! ma/] 9 reg>d to ! doctr9e ( !
 contradiction4 ,! ,hegelian philosophy 
has adh]5ts 9 ,norway also1 z ,g4,v4    
,lyng 7di$ #ahhd2 ,sy/em ( ,fundam5tal  
,ideas71 ,m4,j4 ,monrad 7,t5d5cies (    
,mod]n ,?\ght1 #ahgd1 ,g]man            
translation1 #ahgi71 bo? pr(essors 9    
,*ri/iania1 & ,monrad's pupil ,g4 ,k5t  
7,hegel's ,doctr9e ( ! ,nature (        
,exp]i5ce1 #ahia74  ,! ,dani% philosophy
 ( ! n9ete5? c5tury has be5 describ$ by 
,hffd+ 9 ! second volume ( ! ,ar*iv fr  
,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 #ahhh4 ,he   
beg9s ) ! repres5tatives ( ! speculative
 movem5t3 ,/eff5s 7see above71 ,niels   
,tres*[ 7#agea-ahcc71 ,hans ,*ri/ian    
,o]/$ 7#aggg-ahea2 ,_s 9 ,nature1 ,g]man
 translation1 ,muni*1 #ahej-ea71 &      
,fr$]ik ,*ri/ian ,sibb]n 7#aghe-ahgb74  
,a *ange 0 br\ght ab\t by ! philosoph]s 

( religion ,sr5 ,ki]kega>d 7#ahac-ee7 & 
,rasmus ,niels5 7#ahji-hd2 ,philosophy (
 ,religion1 #ahfi71 :o oppos$           
speculative idealism ) a /rict dualism (
 k & fai?1 & 7 9 turn oppos$ by ,georg  
,br&es 7born #ahdb7 & ,hans ,br*n]      
7#ahbj-ge74 ,among y\ng] inve/igators ! 
,cop5hag5 pr(essors1 ,h>ald ,hffd+#a    
7born #ahdc7 & ,kri/ian ,kroman#b 7born 
#ahdf7 /& 9 ! fir/ rank4  ,footnote #a3 
,hffd+3 ,! ,f\ndations ( ,human ,e?ics1 
#ahgf1 ,g]man translation1 #ahhj2       
,outl9es ( ,psy*ology1 #ahhb1 ,engli%   
translation by ,l[ndes1 #ahia1 f !      
,g]man translation1 #ahhg2 ,e?ics1      
#ahhg1 ,g]man translation by ,b5dix51   
#ahhh4  ,footnote #b3 ,kroman3 ,our ,k (
 ,nature1 ,g]man translation1 #ahhc2 ,a 
,brief ,logic & ,psy*ology1 ,g]man      
translation by ,b5dix51 #ahij4  ,l&     
7,m9d1 vol4 iii4 #ahgh7 & ,g4 von ,antal
 7#ahhh7 h writt5 on philosophy 9       
,holl&4 ,d[n to ! middle ( ! n9ete5?    
c5tury ! field 0 occupi$ by an idealism 
bas$ ^u ! anci5ts1 9 p>ticul> ^u ,plato3

 ,franz ,hem/]huis 7#agba-ij2 ,works1   
new ed41 #ahdf-ej71 & ! philologi/s     
,wytt5ba* & ,van ,heusde4 ,!n ,cornelius
 ,wilhelm ,opzoom]#c 7#ahba-ib2 pr(essor
 9 ,utre*t7 br\ght 9 a new movem5t4     
,opzoom] favors empiricism4 ,he />ts f  
,mill & ,comte1 b goes beyond !m 9      
important po9ts1 & assigns fai? a field 
( its own beside k4 ,9 opposition to    
apriorism he seeks to %[ t exp]i5ce is  
capable ( yield+ univ]sal & necess>y    
tru?s2 t space1 "t1 & causality are     
receiv$ along ) ! cont5t ( ?\ght2 t     
ma!matics itself is bas$ ^u exp]i5ce2 & 
t ! me?od ( natural sci5ce1 especially  
d$uction1 mu/ be appli$ to ! m5tal      
sci5ces4 ,! philosophy ( m9d consid]s   
man z an individual be+1 9 8 connection 
) o!rs1 9 relation to a high] be+1 & 9 8
 developm5t2 accord+ly x divides into   
psy*ology 7:i* includes logic1          
ae/hetics1 & e?ology71 sociology1 !     
philosophy ( religion1 & ! philosophy ( 
hi/ory4 ,c5tral to ,opzoom]'s sy/em is 8
 doctr9e ( ! five s\rces ( k3 ,s5sation1

 ! feel+ ( pleasure & pa91 ae/hetic1    
moral1 & religi\s feel+4 ,if we build on
 ! f\ndation ( ! fir/ ?ree alone1 we end
 9 mat]ialism2 if we leave ! la/ unus$1 
we rea* positivism2 if we make religi\s 
feel+ ! sole judge ( tru?1 my/icism is !
 outcome4 ,! crit]ia ( sci5ce are       
utility & progress4 ,^! are /ill want+ 9
 ! m5tal sci5ces1 9 :i* ! (t5 answ]$ b  
nev] decid$ que/ions cont9ually recur1  
because we h nei!r d]iv$ ! pr9ciples    
*os5 z ! basis ( ! d$uction f an exact k
 ( ! ph5om5a nor te/$ ! results by      
exp]i5ce4 ,! causes ( ?is defective     
condition c only be remov$ by imitat+ ! 
/udy ( nature3 we mu/ le>n t no         
conclusions c be rea*$ except f facts1 &
 t we are to /rive aft] k ( ph5om5a & _!
 laws alone4 ,we h no "r to assume an   
ess5ce ( ?+s beside & 9 addition to     
ph5om5a1 :i* reveals itself 9 !m or     
hides beh9d !m4 ,pupils ( ,opzoom] are 8
 successor 9 8 ,utre*t *air1 ,van d]    
,wyck1 & ,pi]son4 ,we may also m5tion   
,j4,p4,n4 ,l&1 :o has done good s]vice 9

 edit+ ! works ( ,sp9oza & ( ,geul9cx1 &
 ! philosoph] ( religion ,rauw5h(f      
7#ahhh74  ,footnote #a3 ,opzoom]3 ,!    
,me?od ( ,sci5ce1 a ,h&book ( ,logic1   
,g]man translation by ,s*w9dt1 #aheb2   
,religion1 ,g]man translation by ,mook1 
#ahfi4  ,on ! sy/em ( ! ,hung>ian       
philosoph] ,cyrill ,horv? 7di$ #ahhd at 
,pe/h7 see ! essay by ,e4 ,nemes 9 !    
,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1 vol4       
lxxxviii1 #ahhf4 ,s9ce #ahhi a review1  
,problems ( ,philosophy & ,psy*ology1   
has appe>$ at ,mosc[ 9 ,russian1 "u !   
direction ( ,pr(essor ,n4 von ,grot4    
,,*apt] ,,xvi4  ,,g]man ,,philosophy    
,,s9ce ,,! ,,dea? ,,( ,,hegel4  ,)      
,hegel ! glori\s dyna/y :i*1 ) a /rong  
h&1 _h guid$ ! fate ( ,g]man philosophy 
s9ce ! conclusion ( ! prec$+ c5tury     
disappe>s4 ,f 8 dea? 7#ahca7 we may date
 ! second p]iod ( po/-,kantian          
philosophy1#a :i* is m>k$ly &           
unfavorably di/+ui%$ f ! fir/ by a      
decl9e 9 ! p[] ( speculative creation & 
by a division ( ef=t4 ,if previ\s to ?is

 ! philosophical public1 compris+ all ! 
cultur$1 _h be5 eag]ly occupi$ )        
problems 9 common1 & _h foll[$ )        
unanim\s int]e/ ! "w ( ^? :o 7 labor+ at
 !m1 dur+ ! la/ fifty ye>s ! int]e/ (   
wid] circles 9 philosophical que/ions   
has gr[n mu* less active2 almo/ e ?9k]  
goes 8 own way1 giv+ he$ only to        
cong5ial voices2 ! inn] connection ( !  
s*ools has be5 brok5 d[n2 ! t\* ) ?9k]s 
( diff]5t views has be5 lo/4 ,! late/   
decades h be5 ! fir/ to br+ a *ange = ! 
bett]1 9 s f> z new rally+ po9ts (      
philosophical int]e/ h be5 creat$ by !  
neo-,kantian movem5t1 by ! sy/ems (     
,lotze & ,von ,h>tmann1 by ! impulse    
t[>d ! philosophy ( nature proce$+ f    
,d>w9ism1 by en]getic labors 9 ! field (
 practical philosophy1 & by new me?ods (
 inve/igation 9 psy*ology4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,on philosophy s9ce #ahca cf4 vol4  
iii4 ( ,j4,e4 ,erdmann's ,hi/ory2       
,ueb]weg1 ,grundriss1 "p iii4  #cg-di   
7,engli% translation1 vol4 ii4 pp4      
#bib-eaf72 ,lange1 ,hi/ory (            

,mat]ialism2 ,b4 ,erdmann1 ,die         
,philosophie d] ,geg5w>t 9 ! ,deuts*e   
,runds*au1 vols4 xix41 xx41 #ahgi1 ,june
 & ,july numb]s2 7,a4 ,krohn17 ,/reifzge
 dur* die ,philosophie d] ,geg5w>t 9 !  
,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie und         
philosophis*e ,kritik1 vols4 lxxxvii41  
lxxxix41 #ahhe-hf2 7,burt1 ,hi/ory (    
,mod]n ,philosophy1 #ahib71 also ! ?ird 
volume ( ,w9delb&'s ,ges*i*te d] neu]5  
,philosophie1 :5 x appe>s4   #a4 ,f !   
,division ( ! ,hegelian ,s*ool to !     
,mat]iali/ic ,controv]sy4  ,a decade    
aft] ! philosophy ( ,hegel _h ent]$ on  
its supremacy a division 9 ! s*ool 0    
call$ =? by ,/rauss's ,life (           
,jesus7#ahce74 ,! diff]5ces 7 br\ght to 
light by ! discussion ( religi\s        
problems1 9 reg>d to :i* ,hegel _h n    
express$ himself ) suffici5t di/9ctness4
 ,! relation ( k & fai?1 z he _h def9$  
x1 admitt$ ( v>iant int]pretations &    
d$uctions1 & ?is 9 favor ( ,*ur* doctr9e
 z well z 9 opposition to x4 ,philosophy
 has ! same cont5t z religion1 b 9 a    

diff]5t =m1 i4e41 n 9 ! =m (            
repres5tation1 b 9 ! =m ( ! concept--x  
trans=ms dogma into speculative tru?4 ,!
 cons]vative ,hegelians hold fa/ to !   
id5tity ( cont5t 9 ! two modes (        
cognition2 ! lib]als1 to ! alt]ation 9  
=m1 :i*1 !y ass]t1 br+s an alt]ation 9  
cont5t ) x4 ,accord+ to ,hegel ! l[]    
/age is sublat$ 9 ! high]1 i4e41 cons]v$
 z well z negat$4 ,! or?odox memb]s ( ! 
s*ool emphasize ! cons]vation ( religi\s
 doctr9es1 _! ju/ification f ! side ( ! 
philosoph]2 ! progressi/s1 _! negation1 
_! ov]com+ by ! speculative concept4 ,! 
g5]al "q1 :e!r ! ecclesia/ical mean+ ( a
 dogma is reta9$ or to be ab&on$ 9 its  
trans=mation into a philosopheme1       
divides into ?ree special que/ions1 !   
an?ropological1 ! sot]iogical1 & !      
!ological4 ,^! are3 :e!r on ,hegelian   
pr9ciples immortality is to be conceiv$ 
z a cont9uance ( individual exi/5ce on !
 art ( p>ticul> spirits1 or only z !    
et]nity ( ! univ]sal reason2 :e!r by !  
,god-man ! p]son ( ,*ri/ is to be       

und]/ood1 or1 on ! o!r h&1 ! human      
species1 ! ,idea ( ,humanity2 :e!r      
p]sonality belongs to ! ,godhead be=e ! 
creation ( ! _w1 or :e!r x fir/ atta9s  
to self-consci\sness 9 human spirits1   
:e!r ,hegel 0 a !i/ or a pan!i/1 :e!r he
 tea*es ! transc5d5ce or ! imman5ce (   
,god4 ,! ,old ,hegelians def5d ! or?odox
 int]pretation2 ! ,"y ,hegelians oppose 
x4 ,! =m]1 ,gs*el1 ,gabl]1 ,h9ri*s1     
,s*all] 7di$ #ahfh2 ,hi/ory ( !         
,philosophy ( ,nature s9ce ,bacon1 #ahda
 seq471 ,j4,e4 ,erdmann 9 ,halle        
7#ahje-ib2 ,body & ,s\l1 #ahcg2         
,psy*ological ,lett]s1 #ahea1 #f? ed41  
#ahhb2 ,e>ne/ ,sport1 #ahga1 #d? ed41   
#ahij71 =m1 accord+ to ,/rauss's        
p>liam5t>y comp>ison c>ri$ out by       
,mi*elet1 ! "r2 ! latt]1 ,/rauss1       
,feu]ba*1 ,bruno ,bau]1 & ,a4 ,ruge1 :o1
 ) ,e*t]mey]1 edit$ ! ,halles*e1 aft]w>d
 ,deuts*e1 ,jahrb*] fr ,wiss5s*aft und  
,kun/1 #ahch-db1 ! left4 ,betwe5 !m1 &  
=m+ ! c5t]1 /& ,k>l ,ros5kranz#a 9      
,knigsb]g 7#ahje-gi71 ,c4,l4 ,mi*elet 9 

,b]l9 7p4 #af2 ,hegel1 ! ,unrefut$      
,_w-philosoph]1 #ahgj2 ,sy/em (         
,philosophy1 #ahgf seq471 & ! !ologians 
,m>he9eke 7a pupil ( ,daub at           
,heidelb]g7 & ,w4 ,vatke 7,philosophy ( 
,religion1 edit$ by ,preiss1 #ahhh74    
,contra/$ ) ^! is ! gr\p ( semi- or     
pseudo-,hegelians 7p4 #eif71 :o decl>e  
!mselves 9 accord ) ! !i/ic doctr9es ( !
 "r1 b admit t ! left repres5ts ,hegel's
 own op9ion1 or at lea/ ! correct       
d$uctions f 8 position4  ,footnote #a3  
,k4 ,ros5kranz3 ,psy*ology1 #ahcg1 #c;d 
ed41 #ahfc2 ,sci5ce ( ! ,logical ,idea1 
#aheh2 ,/udies1 #ahci seq41 ,new        
,/udies1 #ahge seq42 ,ae/hetics ( !     
,ugly1 #ahec2 sev]al works on ! hi/ory (
 poetry4  ,! foll[+ %\ld also be m5tion$
 z ,hegelians3 ! philosoph] ( hi/ory1   
,von ,cieszk[ski1 ! p$agogical writ]1   
,?aul[ 7at ,kiel1 di$ #ahhc71 !         
philosoph] ( religion & ( law1 ,a4      
,lasson at ,b]l91 ! ae/hetic writ]s     
,ho?o1 ,fri$ri* ,!odor ,vis*]#a         
7#ahjg-hg71 & ,max ,s*asl] 7,critical   

,hi/ory ( ,ae/hetics1 #ahgb2 ,ae/hetics1
 #ahhf71 ! hi/orians ( philosophy1      
,s*wegl] 7di$ #aheg2 ,hi/ory ( ,greek   
,philosophy1 #ahei1 #d? ed41 #ahhf1     
edit$ by ,k>l ,k/l91 ^: ,ae/hetics      
appe>$ #ahfi71 ,edu>d ,zell]#b ( ,b]l9  
7born #ahad71 & ,kuno ,fis*] 7born      
#ahbd2 #ahef-gb pr(essor at ,j5a1 s9ce  
!n at ,heidelb]g2 ,logic & ,metaphysics1
 #b;d ed41 #ahfe74 ,:ile ,weiss5born    
7di$ #ahgd7 is influ5c$ by ,s*lei]ma*]  
also1 & ,zell] & ,fis*] /rive back t[>d 
,kant1 ,johannes ,volkelt#c 9 ,wrzburg  
7born #ahdh71 :o />t$ f ,hegel & advanc$
 ?r\gh ,s*op5hau] & ,h>tmann1 has ( late
 ye>s e/abli%$ an indep5d5t notical     
position & has done good s]vice by 8    
en]getic opposition to positivism 7,das 
,d5k5 als ,hlfvor/ellungs--,?tigkeit und
 als ,aupassungsvorgang 9 ! ,zeits*rift 
fr ,philosophic1 vols4 xcvi41 xcvii41   
#ahhi-ij74  ,footnote #a3 ,vis*]3       
,ae/hetics1 #ahdf-eh2 ,critical         
,excursions1 #ahdd seq42 sev]al ,hefte  
,altes & ,neues4 ,! di>y 9 ! second "p (

 ! novel ,au* ,e9] develops an orig9al  
pan!i/ic view ( ! _w4  ,footnote #b3    
,zell]3 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,greeks 9 its
 ,hi/orical ,developm5t1 #e vols41 #c;d 
ed41 vol4 i4 #e? ed4 7,engli%           
translation1 #ahfh seq472 ?ree          
collections ( ,addresses & ,essays1     
#ahfe1 #ahgg1 #ahhd4  ,footnote #c3     
,volkelt3 ,! ,phantasy 9 ,dreams1 #ahge2
 ,kant's ,!ory ( ,k1 #ahgi2 ,on !       
,possibility ( ,metaphysics1 inaugural  
address at ,basle1 #ahhd2 ,exp]i5ce &   
,?\ght1 ,critical ,f\ndation ( ! ,!ory (
 ,k1 #ahhf2 ,lectures ,introductory to !
 ,philosophy ( ! ,pres5t ,"t 7deliv]$ 9 
,frank=t on ! ,ma971 #ahib4  ,! lead]s (
 ! ,hegelian left require m detail$     
consid]ation4 ,9 ,david ,fri$ri*        
,/rauss#a 7#ahjh-gd1 born & di$ at      
,ludwigsburg7 ! philosophy ( religion   
becomes a hi/orical criticism ( ! ,bible
 & ( dogmatics4 ,! biblical n>ratives   
are1 9 great "p1 n hi/ory 7?is has be5 !
 common error alike ( ! sup]-naturali/ic
 & ( ! rationali/ic int]pret]s71 b my?s1

 t is1 supras5sible facts pres5t$ 9 ! =m
 ( hi/ory & 9 symbolic language4 ,x is  
evid5t f ! contradictions 9 ! n>ratives 
& ! impossibility ( miracles t we are n 
"h conc]n$ ) actual ev5ts4 ,! my?s      
possess 7speculative1 absolute7 tru?1 b 
no 7hi/orical7 reality4 ,!y are         
un9t5tional creations ( ! popul>        
imag9ation2 ! _s ( ! community speaks 9 
! au?ors ( ! ,gospels1 us+ ! hi/orical  
factor 7! life-hi/ory ( ,jesus7 )       
my?ical embelli%m5ts z an inve/iture = a
 supra-hi/orical1 et]nal tru? 7!        
speculative ,idea ( inc>nation74 ,! ,god
 become man1 9 :i* ! inf9ite & ! f9ite1 
! div9e nature & ! human1 are unit$1 is 
! human race4 ,! ,idea ( inc>nation     
manife/s itself 9 a multitude ( examples
 :i* supplem5t "o ano!r1 in/ead ( p\r+  
=? its :ole fullness 9 a s+le "o4 ,!    
7real7 ,idea ( ! race is to be sub/itut$
 = a s+le individual z ! subject ( !    
pr$icates 7resurrection1 asc5sion1 etc47
 :i* ! ,*ur* ascribes to ,*ri/4 ,! ,son 
( ,god is ,humanity4  ,footnote #a3     

,/rauss3 ,! ,life ( ,jesus1 #ahce-cf1   
#d? ed41 #ahdj ,engli% translation by   
,george ,eliot1 #b;d4 ed41 #ahic2 ! same
 = ! ,g]man ,p1 #ahfd ,engli%           
translation1 #ahfe2 ,*ri/ian ,dogmatics1
 #ahdj-da2 ,voltaire1 #ahgj2 ,collect$  
,writ+s1 #ab vols41 edit$ by ,zell]1    
#ahgf-gh4 ,on ,/rauss cf4 ,zell]1 #ahgd 
,engli%1 #ahgd1 & ,hausra?1 #ahgf-gh4   
,9 8 second pr9cipal "w ,/rauss         
criticises ! dogmas ( ,*ri/ianity z     
%>ply z he _h criticis$ ! ,gospel       
n>rative 9 ! fir/ "o4 ,! hi/orical      
developm5t ( ^! has ( itself effect$ _! 
de/ruction3 ! hi/ory ( dogma is !       
objective criticism ( dogma4 ,*ri/ianity
 & philosophy1 !ism & pan!ism1 dualism &
 imman5ce1 are irreconcilable opposites4
 ,to be able to "k we mu/ cease to      
believe4 ,dogma is ! product ( !        
unphilosophical1 uncultur$ consci\sness2
 belief 9 revelation1 only = ^? :o h n  
yet ris5 to reason4 ,9 ! trans=mation ( 
religi\s repres5tations into            
philosophical ,ideas no?+ specifically  

repres5tative is left2 ! =m (           
repres5tation mu/ be actually ov]come4  
,! ,*ri/ian contraposition ( ! pres5t _w
 & t :i* is beyond is expla9$ by ! fact 
t ! s5suo-rational _s ( man1 s long z x 
does n philosophically "k itself z !    
unity ( ! inf9ite & ! f9ite1 b only     
feels itself z f9ite1 s5suo-empirical   
consci\sness1 projects ! inf9ite1 :i* x 
has 9 itself1 z ?\gh ?is 7 some?+ =eign1
 looks on x z some?+ beyond ! _w4 ,?is  
sep>ation ( fai? is entirely            
unphilosophical2 x is ! mission ( !     
philosoph] to r$uce all t is beyond ! _w
 to ! pres5t4 ,?us = him immortality is 
n some?+ to come1 b ! _s's own p[] to   
rise above ! f9ite to ! ,idea4 ,& l     
future exi/5ce1 s ! transc5d5t ,god also
 disappe>s4 ,! absolute is ! univ]sal   
unity ( ! _w1 :i* posits & sublates !   
individual z its modes4 ,god is ! be+ 9 
all exi/5ce1 ! life 9 all t lives1 !    
?\ght 9 all t ?9k3 he does n /& z an    
individual p]son beside & above o!r     
p]sons1 b is ! inf9ite :i* p]sonifies   

itself & atta9s to consci\sness 9 human 
spirits1 & ?is f et]nity2 be=e !re 0 a  
humanity ( e>? !re 7 spirits on o!r />s1
 9 :om ,god reflect$ himself4  ,?ree    
decades lat] ,/rauss aga9 creat$ a      
s5sation by 8 confession ( mat]ialism & 
a!ism1 ,! ,old ,fai? & ! ,new1 #ahgb    
7s9ce ! second edition1 ,) a ,po/script 
z ,preface71#a 9 :i* he cont9ues !      
conflict aga9/ religi\s dualism4 ,! "q  
,are we--! cultur$ m5 ( ! day--/ill     
,*ri/ians8 is answ]$ 9 ! negative4      
,*ri/ianity is a cult ( pov]ty1 despis+ 
! _w1 & antagoni/ic to labor & culture2 
b we h le>n$ to e/eem sci5ce & art1     
ri*es & acquisition1 z ! *ief lev]s (   
culture & ( human progress4 ,*ri/ianity 
duali/ically te>s ap>t body & s\l1 "t & 
et]nity1 ! _w & ,god2 we ne$ no         
,creator1 = ! life-process has nei!r    
beg9n+ nor end4 ,! _w is fram$ = !      
highe/ reason1 x is true1 b x has n be5 
fram$ by a highe/ reason4 ,our highe/   
,idea is ! ,all1 :i* is con=m$ to law1 &
 in/9ct ) life & reason1 & our feel+    

t[>d ! univ]se--! consci\sness (        
dep5d5ce on its laws--ex]cises no less (
 e?ical influ5ce1 is no less full (     
rev]5ce1 & no less expos$ to injury f an
 irrev]5t pessimism1 ?an ! feel+ ( !    
dev\t ( ! old type t[>d _! ,god4 ,h5ce !
 answ] to ! second "q ,h we /ill a      
religion8 maybe c\*$ 9 ! affirmative4 ,!
 new fai? does n ne$ a cultus & a ,*ur*4
 ,s9ce ! dry s]vices ( ! free           
congregations (f] no?+ = ! fancy & ! _s1
 ! edification ( ! he>t mu/ be          
accompli%$ 9 o!r ways--by p>ticipation 9
 ! int]e/s ( humanity1 9 ! national     
life1 &1 n la/1 by ae/hetic enjoym5t4   
,?us 9 8 la/ "w1 :i* 9 two app5dices    
rea*es a discussion ( ! great ,g]man    
poets & musicians1 ! old man returns to 
a ?\ght to :i* he _h giv5 e>li]         
expression1 t ! religi\s cultus %\ld be 
replac$ by ! cultus ( g5ius4  ,footnote 
#a3 ,engli% translation by ,ma?ilde     
,bl9d1 #ahgc4  ,z ,/rauss w5t ov] f     
,hegelianism to pan!ism1 s ,ludwig      
,feu]ba*#a 7#ahjd-gb71 a son ( ! great  

juri/1 ,anselm ,feu]ba*1 aft] he _h = a 
%ort "t mov$ 9 ! same direction1 took ! 
opposite1 ! individuali/ic c\rse1 only1 
l ,/rauss1 to end at la/ 9 mat]ialism4  
,my fir/ ?\ght1 z he himself describes !
 c\rse ( 8 developm5t1 0 ,god2 my       
second1 reason2 my ?ird & la/1 man4 ,z  
!ology has be5 ov]come by ,hegel's      
philosophy ( reason1 s ?is 9 turn mu/   
give place to ! philosophy ( man4 ,! new
 philosophy makes man1 includ+ nature z 
8 basis1 ! highe/ & sole subject (      
philosophy1 &1 consequ5tly1 an?ropology 
! univ]sal sci5ce4 ,only t :i* is       
imm$iately self-evid5t is true & div9e4 
,b only t :i* is s5sible is evid5t      
7sonn5kl>72 x is only :]e s5sibility    
beg9s t all d\bt & conflict cease4      
,s5sible be+s alone are true1 real be+s2
 exi/5ce 9 space & "t is alone exi/5ce2 
tru?1 reality1 & s5sibility are         
id5tical4 ,:ile ! old philosophy took = 
its />t+ po9t ! pr9ciple1 ,i am an      
ab/ract1 a m]ely ?9k+ be+2 ! body does n
 belong to my ess5ce1 ! new philosophy1 

on ! o!r h&1 beg9s ) ! pr9ciple1 ,i am a
 real1 a s5sible be+2 ! body 9 its      
totality is my ego1 my ess5ce itself4   
,feu]ba*1 h[ev]1 uses ! concept (       
s5sibility 9 s wide & vague a s5se t1   
support$--or deceiv$--by ! ambiguity ( !
 ^w s5sation1 he includes "u x ev5 ! mo/
 elevat$ & sacr$ feel+s4 ,ev5 ! objects 
( art are se51 he>d1 & felt2 ev5 ! s\ls 
( o!r m5 are s5s$4 ,9 ! s5sations !     
deepe/ & highe/ tru?s are conceal$4 ,n  
only ! ext]nal1 b ! int]nal also1 n only
 fle%1 b _s1 n only ! ?+1 b ! ego1 n    
only ! f9ite1 ! ph5om5al1 b also ! true 
div9e ess5ce is an object ( ! s5ses4    
,s5sation proves ! exi/5ce ( objects    
outside our head--!re is no o!r pro( (  
be+ ?an love1 ?an s5sation 9 g5]al4     
,ev]y?+ is p]ceivable by ! s5ses1 if n  
directly1 yet indirectly1 if n ) !      
vulg>1 untra9$ s5ses1 yet ) ! cultivat$ 
s5ses1 if n ) ! eye ( ! anatomi/ or     
*emi/1 yet ) t ( ! philosoph]4 ,all our 
ideas spr+ f ! s5ses1 b _! production   
requires communication & conv]se betwe5 

man & man4 ,! high] concepts _c be d]iv$
 f ! individual ,ego )\t a s5su\sly giv5
 ,?\2 ! highe/ object ( s5se is man2 man
 does n rea* concepts & reason 9 g5]al  
by himself1 b only z "o ( two4 ,! nature
 ( man is conta9$ 9 community alone2    
only 9 life ) o!rs & = o!rs does he     
atta9 8 de/9y & happ9ess4 ,! consci5ce  
is ! ego putt+ itself 9 ! place ( ano!r 
:o has be5 injur$4 ,man ) man1 ! unity (
 ,i & ,?\1 is ,god1 & ,god is love4     
,footnote #a3 ,feu]ba* 0 born at ,l&%ut1
 /udi$ at ,heidelb]g & ,b]l91           
habilitat$1 #ahbh1 at ,erlang51 & liv$1 
#ahcf-fj1 9 ! village ( ,bruckb]g1 n f> 
f ,bayreu?1 & f #ahfj until 8 dea? 9    
,re*5b]g1 a suburb ( ,nuremb]g4         
,collect$ ,works 9 #aj vols41 #ahdf-ff4 
,! *ief works are entitl$3 ,p4 ,bayle1  
#ahch1 #b;d ed41 #ahdd2 ,philosophy &   
,*ri/ianity1 #ahci2 ,! ,ess5ce (        
,*ri/ianity1 #ahda1 #d? ed41 #ahhc      
,engli% translation by ,george ,eliot1  
#ahed2 ,pr9ciples ( ! ,philosophy ( !   
,future1 #ahdc2 ,! ,ess5ce ( ,religion1 

#ahde2 ,!ogony1 #aheg2 ,god1 ,fre$om1 & 
,immortality1 #ahff4 ,k>l ,grn1 #ahgd1  
,c4,n4 ,/>cke1 #ahhe1 & ,w4 ,bol91      
#ahia1 treat ( ,feu]ba*4  ,to !         
philosophy ( religion ,feu]ba* assigns !
 task ( giv+ a psy*ological explanation 
( ! g5esis ( religion1 in/ead ( %[+     
reason 9 religion4 ,9 bidd+ u believe 9 
miracles dogma is a prohibition to ?9k4 
,h5ce ! philosoph] is n to ju/ify x1 b  
to uncov] ! illusion to :i* x owes its  
orig94 ,speculative !ology is an        
intoxicat$ philosophy2 x is "t to become
 sob]1 & to recognize t philosophy &    
religion are diametrically oppos$ to ea*
 o!r1 t !y are relat$ to ea* o!r z heal?
 to disease1 z ?\ght to phantasy4       
,religion arises f ! fact t man         
objectifies 8 own true ess5ce1 & opposes
 x to himself z a p]sonal be+1 )\t com+ 
to a consci\sness ( ?is dive/m5t ( self1
 ( ! id5tity ( ! div9e & human nature4  
,h5ce ! ,hegelian pr9ciples1 t !        
absolute is self-consci\sness1 t 9 man  
,god kn[s himself1 mu/ be rev]s$3       

self-consci\sness is ! absolute2 9 8    
,god man kn[s himself only4 ,! ,godhead 
is our own univ]sal nature1 fre$ f its  
individual limitations1 intuit$ &       
wor%ip$ z ano!r1 indep5d5t be+1 di/9ct f
 u4 ,god is self objectifi$1 ! inn]     
nature ( man express$2 man is ! beg9n+1 
! middle1 & ! end ( religion4 ,all      
!ology is an?ropology1 = all religion is
 a self-deification ( man4 ,9 religion  
man makes a division 9 8 own nature1    
posits himself z d\ble1 fir/ z limit$ 7z
 a human individual71 !n z unlimit$1    
rais$ to inf9ity 7z ,god72 & ?is deifi$ 
self he wor%ips 9 ord] to obta9 f x !   
satisfaction ( 8 ne$s1 :i* ! c\rse ( !  
_w leaves unmet4 ,?us religion gr[s out 
( egoism3 its basis is ! diff]5ce betwe5
 our w & our p[]2 its aim1 to set u free
 f ! dep5d5ce :i* we feel be=e nature4  
7,l culture1 religion seeks to make     
nature an intelligible & compliant be+1 
only t 9 ?is x makes use ( ! sup]natural
 in/rum5ts fai?1 pray]1 & magic2 x is   
only gradually t m5 le>n to attack !    

evils by natural means47 ,t :i* man     
himself is n1 b wi%es to be1 t he       
repres5ts to himself 9 8 gods z exi/+2  
!y are ! wi%es ( man's he>t trans=m$    
into real be+s1 8 long+ aft] happ9ess   
satisfi$ by ! fancy4 ,! same holds true 
( all dogmas3 z ,god is ! affirmation ( 
our wi%es1 s ! _w beyond is ! pres5t    
embelli%$ & idealiz$ by ! fancy4 ,in/ead
 ( ,god is m]ciful1 is love1 is         
omnipot5t1 he p]=ms miracles & he>s     
pray]s1 ! /atem5t mu/ be rev]s$3 m]cy1  
love1 omnipot5ce1 to p]=m miracles1 & to
 he> pray]s1 is div9e4 ,9 ! sacram5ts ( 
baptism & ! ,"l's supp] ,feu]ba* sees ! 
tru? t wat] & food are indisp5sable &   
div9e4 ,z ,feu]ba*1 foll[+ out ?is      
naturali/ic t5d5cy1 rea*$ ! extreme (   
mat]ialism1 ! influ5ce ( 8              
philosophy--^: diff]5t phases !re is no 
occasion to trace out 9 detail--_h      
already pass$ its culm9ation4 ,f 8 lat] 
writ+s little m has f\nd its way into   
public notice ?an ! pun1 t man is 7i/7  
:at he eats 7is/74  ,! rema9+ memb]s ( !

 ,hegelian left may be treat$ m briefly4
 ,bruno ,bau]#a 7di$ 9 #ahhb2 8 pr9cipal
 "w is ! ,critique ( ! ,synoptics1 9    
?ree volumes1 #ahda-db1 :i* _h be5      
prec$$1 9 #ahdj1 by a ,critique ( !     
,evangelical ,hi/ory ( ,john7 at fir/   
belong$ on ! "r ( ! s*ool1 b soon w5t   
ov] to ! extreme left4 ,he expla9s !    
,gospel n>ratives z creations ) a       
purpose 7,t5d5zdi*tung571 z int5tional1 
b n deceitful1 inv5tions1 f :i*1 despite
 _! unreality1 hi/ory may well be le>n$1
 inasmu* z !y reflect ! _s ( ! "t 9 :i* 
!y 7 con/ruct$4 ,8 own publications & ^?
 ( 8 bro!r ,edg> are mu* m radical aft] 
! ye> #ahdd4 ,9 ^! ! bro!rs advocate !  
/&po9t ( pure or absolute criticism1 :i*
 ext5ds itself to all ?+s & ev5ts = or  
aga9/ :i* sides are tak5 f any qu>t]1 & 
calmly wat*es h[ ev]y?+ de/roys itself4 
,z soon z any?+ is admitt$1 x is no     
long] true4 ,no?+ is absolutely valid1  
all is va92 x is only ! criticis+1      
all-de/roy+ ego1 free f all e?ical ties1
 t possesses tru?4  ,footnote #a3 ,n to 

be confus$ ) ! head ( ! ,tb+5 ,s*ool1   
,f]d9& ,*ri/ian ,baur 7di$ #ahfj74  ,"o 
fur!r /ep 0 possible beyond ,feu]ba* &  
,bruno ,bau]1 t f ! community to !      
p>ticul>1 selfi% individual1 f !        
criticis+1 !re=e ?9k+1 ego1 to ! ego (  
s5su\s enjoym5t4 ,?is /ep 0 tak5 9 t    
curi\s book ,! ,individual & 8 ,prop]ty1
 :i* ,kasp> ,s*midt1 :o di$ 9 #ahef at  
,b]l91 publi%$ 9 #ahde 7#b;d ed41       
#ahhb71 "u ! pseudonym ( ,max ,/irn]4 ,!
 ,individual ( :om ! title speaks is !  
egoi/4 ,= me no?+ is high] ?an myself2  
,i use m5 & use up ! _w = my own        
pleasure4 ,i seek to be & h all t ,i c  
be & h2 ,i h a "r to all t is )9 my p[]4
 ,morality is a delusion1 ju/ice1 l all 
,ideas1 a phantom4 ,^? :o believe 9     
ideals1 & wor%ip su* g5]alities z       
self-consci\sness1 man1 society1 are    
/ill deep 9 ! mire ( prejudice &        
sup]/ition1 & h bani%$ ! old or?odox    
phantom ( ! ,deity only to replace x by 
a new "o4 ,no?+ :atev] is to be         
respect$4         99       99       99  

99       99  ,among ! oppon5ts ( !      
,hegelian philosophy ! memb]s ( ! !i/ic 
s*ool1 :o h above be5 designat$ z       
semi-,hegelians1 approximate x mo/      
closely4 ,^! endeavor1 9 "p reta9+ !    
dialectic me?od1 to bl5d ! imman5ce ( ! 
absolute1 :i* philosophy _c give up &   
conc]n+ :i* ,hegel _h err$ only by way (
 ov]-emphasis1 ) ! transc5d5ce ( ,god   
dem&$ by ,*ri/ian consci\sness1 to      
e/abli% a !ism :i* %all conta9 pan!ism z
 a mom5t 9 itself4 ,god is pres5t 9 all 
creatures1 yet di/9ct f !m2 he is       
intramundane z well z extramundane2 he  
is self-consci\s p]sonality1 free       
creative _s1 is ?is f all et]nity1 &    
does n fir/ become su* ?r\gh !          
_w-developm5t4 ,he does n ne$ ! _w = 8  
p]fection1 b out ( 8 goodness creates x4
 ,philosophy mu/ beg9 ) ! liv+ ,godhead 
in/ead ( beg9n+1 l ,hegel's ,logic1 ) ! 
empty concept ( be+4 ,= ! categories--z 
,s*ell+ _h already object$--express     
necess>y =ms or g5]al laws only1 to :i* 
all reality mu/ con=m1 b :i* are nev]   

capable ( g5]at+ reality2 ! cont5t :i*  
appe>s 9 !m & :i* obeys !m1 c only be   
creat$ by a ,deity1 & only empirically  
cogniz$4 ,?is is ! /&po9t ( ,*ri/ian    
,h]mann ,weisse#a 9 ,leipsic 7#ahja-ff71
 ,k>l ,philipp ,fis*]#b 9 ,erlang5      
7#ahjg-he71 ,immanuel ,h]mann ,fi*te#c  
7#agig-ahgi2 #ahdb-fe pr(essor 9 ,tb+571
 & ! foll[] ( ,s*lei]ma*]1 ,julius      
,braniss 9 ,breslau 7#agib-ahgc74 ,!    
foll[+ hold simil> views1 influ5c$1 l   
,weisse & ,k4 ,ph4 ,fis*]1 by ,s*ell+3  
,jacob ,s5gl] ( ,freiburg 7#agii-ahgh2  
,! ,idea ( ,god1 #ahde seq471 ,leopold  
,s*mid ( ,giess5 7#ahjh-fi2 cf4 p4 #eaf1
 note71 ,johannes ,hub] 7di$ #ahgi71    
,moritz ,c>rire#d 7born #ahag71 bo? 9   
,muni*1 ,k4 ,/eff5s5 ( ,basle 7#ahaf-hh2
 ,collect$ ,essays1 #ahij71 & ,k>l      
,heyd] 9 ,erlang5 7#ahab-hf2 ,! ,doctr9e
 ( ,ideas1 vol4 i4 #ahgd74 ,*alybaeus at
 ,kiel 7di$ #ahfb71 & ,fri$ri* ,h>ms at 
,b]l9 7di$ #ahhj2 ,metaphysics1         
po/hum\sly edit$ by ,h4 ,wiese1 #ahhe71 
:o1 l ,=tlage & ,i4,h4 ,fi*te1 />t f !  

sy/em ( ! eld] ,fi*te1 %\ld also be     
m5tion$ z sympa?iz+ ) ! op9ions ( ^? :o 
h be5 nam$4  ,footnote #a3 ,weisse3     
,sy/em ( ,ae/hetics1 #ahcj2 ,! ,idea ( !
 ,godhead1 #ahcc2 ,philosophical        
,dogmatics1 #ahee4 ,8 pupil ,rudolf     
,seydel has publi%$ sev]al ( 8 po/hum\s 
works2 ,h4 ,lotze also ackn[l$ges t he  
owes mu* to ,weisse4 ,rud4 ,seydel 9    
,leipsic 7born #ahce71 ,logic1 #ahff2   
,e?ics1 #ahgd2 cf4 p4 #ag4  ,footnote   
#b3 ,k4 ,ph4 ,fis*]3 ,! ,idea ( !       
,godhead1 #ahci2 ,outl9es ( ! ,sy/em (  
,philosophy1 #ahdh seq42 ,! ,untru? (   
,s5sationalism & ,mat]ialism1 #ahec4    
,footnote #c3 ,i4,h4 ,fi*te3 ,sy/em (   
,e?ics1 #ahej-ec1 ! fir/ volume ( :i*   
gives a hi/ory ( moral philosophy s9ce  
#agej2 ,an?ropology1 #ahef1 #c;d ed41   
#ahgf2 ,psy*ology1 #ahfd4  ,footnote #d3
 ,c>rire3 ,ae/hetics1 #ahei1 #c;d ed41  
#ahhe2 ,! ,moral ,ord] ( ! ,_w1 #ahgg1  
#b;d ed41 #ahia2 ,art 9 connection ) !  
,developm5t ( ,culture1 #e vols41       
#ahfc-gc4  ,! same may be said1 fur!r1 (

 ,h]mann ,ulrici#a ( ,halle 7#ahjf-hd71 
= _m ye>s ! editor ( ! ,zeits*rift fr   
,philosophie und philosophis*e ,kritik1 
f\nd$ 9 #ahcg by ! y\ng] ,fi*te & n[    
edit$ by ! au?or ( ?is ,hi/ory1 :i*1 z !
 organ ( ! !i/ic s*ool1 oppos$1 fir/1 ! 
pan!ism ( ! ,"y ,hegelians1 & !n !      
reviv$ mat]ialism s l\dly proclaim$ aft]
 ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,?is ,zeits*rift (
 ,fi*te & ,ulrici1 foll[+ ! alt]$       
circum/ances ( ! "t1 has exp]i5c$ a     
*ange ( aim1 s t x n[ seeks to s]ve     
ideali/ic ef=ts ( e %ade2 :ile !        
,philosophis*e ,monat%efte 7f\nd$ by    
,b]gmann 9 #ahfh1 edit$ subsequ5tly by  
,s*a>s*midt1 & n[7 edit$ by ,p4 ,natorp 
( ,m>burg1 favors neo-,kantianism1 & !  
,vi]teljahrss*rift fr wiss5s*aftli*e    
,philosophie 7begun 9 #ahgg1 &7 edit$ by
 ,r4 ,av5>ius ( ,zuri*1 especially      
cultivates ^? p>ts ( philosophy :i* are 
op5 to exact treatm5t4  ,footnote #a3   
,ulrici3 ,on ,%akespe>e's ,dramatic     
,art1 #ahci1 #c;d ed41 #ahfh ,engli%1   
#ahgf2 ,fai? & ,k1 #aheh2 ,god &        

,nature1 #ahfa1 #b;d ed41 #ahff2 ,god & 
,man1 9 two volumes1 ,body & ,s\l1      
#ahff1 #b;d ed41 #ahgd1 & ,natural ,law1
 #ahgb2 v>i\s treatises on ,logic--9 :i*
 consci\sness is bas$ on ! di/+ui%+     
activity1 & ! categories conceiv$ z     
functional modes ( ?is--on              
,spiritualism1 etc4  ,! appe>ance (     
mat]ialism 0 ! consequ5ce ( ! flagg+ ( !
 philosophic _s1 on ! "o h&1 &1 on !    
o!r1 ( ! dissatisfaction ( !            
repres5tatives ( natural sci5ce ) !     
con/ructions ( ! ,s*ell+-,hegelian      
s*ool4 ,if ! ,g]man naturali/ is        
especially expos$ to ! dang] ( judg+ all
 reality f ! section ( x ) :i* he is    
famili>1 f ! _w ( mat]ial sub/ances &   
me*anical motions1 ! reason lies 9 !    
fact t he does n f9d x easy1 l !        
,engli%man = example1 to let ! sci5tific
 & ! philosophico-religi\s views ( ! _w 
g on side by side z two entirely        
het]og5e\s modes ( look+ at ?+s4 ,!     
metaphysical impulse to g5]alization &  
unification spurs him on to break d[n ! 

b\nd>y betwe5 ! two sph]es1 &1 s9ce !   
physical view ( ?+s has become "p ( 8   
fle% & blood1 psy*ical ph5om5a are = him
 no?+ b bra9-vibrations1 & ! fre$om ( ! 
w & all religi\s ideas1 no?+ b          
illusions4 ,! mat]iali/ic controv]sy    
broke out mo/ actively at ! conv5tion ( 
naturali/s at ,gtt+5 9 #ahed1 :5        
,rudolph ,wagn] 9 8 address ,on !       
,creation ( ,man & ! ,sub/ance ( ! ,s\l 
decl>$1 9 opposition to ,k>l ,vogt1 t   
!re is no physiological reason = d5y+ ! 
desc5t ( man f "o pair & an immat]ial   
immortal s\l4 ,vogt's answ] 0 entitl$   
,colli] ,fai? & ,sci5ce4 ,among o!rs    
,s*all] 7,body & ,s\l1 #ahee71 ,j4,b4   
,mey] 9 a treatise ) ! same title1      
#ahef1 & ! ,j5a physici/1 ,k>l ,snell1#a
 took "p 9 ! controv]sy by way (        
criticism & m$iation4 ,a mu* f9] nature 
?an ! fam\s lead]s (                    
mat]ialism--,moles*ott 7,! ,circle (    
,life1 #aheb1 9 answ] to ,liebig's      
,*emical ,lett]s71 & ,l\is ,b*n]1 ) ^:  
,=ce & ,matt] 7#ahee1 #af? ed41 #ahhh2  

,engli% translation by ,coll+wood1 #d?  
ed41 #ahhd7 ! gymnasia/ ( to-day /ill   
satisfies 8 free?9k+ ne$s--is ,h4       
,czolbe 7#ahai-gc2 ,new ,exposition (   
,s5sationalism1 #ahee2 ,! ,limits &     
,orig9 ( ,human ,k1 #ahfe71 :o1 on      
e?ical gr\nds1 dem&s ! exclusion (      
ev]y?+ supras5sible & cont5tm5t ) ! giv5
 _w ( ph5om5a1 b holds t1 besides matt] 
& motion1 et]nal1 purposive =ms &       
orig9al s5sations 9 a _w-s\l are        
necess>y to expla9 organic & psy*ical   
ph5om5a4  ,footnote #a3 ,snell          
7#ahjf-hf73 ,! ,mat]iali/ic ,"q1 #aheh2 
,! ,creation ( ,man1 #ahfc4 ,r4 ,seydel 
has edit$ ,lectures on ! ,desc5t ( ,man1
 #ahhh1 f ,snell's po/hum\s writ+s4     
#b4 ,new ,sy/ems3 ,tr5del5burg1 ,fe*n]1 
,lotze1 & ,h>tmann4  ,! speculative     
impulse1 especially 9 ! s\l ( ! ,g]man  
p1 is in]adicable4 ,x has nei!r all[$   
itself to be disc\rag$ by ! collapse ( !
 ,hegelian edifice1 nor to be l$ a/ray  
by ! clamor ( ! apo/les ( empiricism1   
nor to be intimidat$ by ! papal         

proclamation ( ! infallibility ( ,?omas 
,aqu9as4#a ,manifold attempts h be5 made
 at a new conception ( ! _w1 & ) v>y+   
success4 ,( ! e>li] !ories#b only two h 
be5 able to ga!r a circle ( adh]5ts--!  
duali/ic !ism ( ,gn!r 7#aghc-ahfc71 & ! 
organic view ( ! _w ( ,tr5del5burg      
7#ahjb-gb74  ,footnote #b3 ,9 #ahgi a   
summons 0 s5t =? f ,rome = ! revival &  
dissem9ation ( ! ,?omi/ic sy/em z ! only
 true philosophy 7cf4 ,r4 ,euck51 ,die  
,philosophic des ,?omas von ,aqu9o und  
die ,kultur d] ,neuzeit1 #ahhf74 ,?is   
movem5t is support$ by ! j\rnals1       
,jahrbu* fr ,philosophie und spekulative
 ,!ologie1 edit$ by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,comm]
 ( ,mn/]1 #ahhf seq41 & ,philosophis*es 
,jahrbu*1 edit$1 at ! in/ance & ) !     
support ( ! ,grres ,society1 by         
,pr(essor ,con/4 ,gutb]let ( ,fulda1    
#ahhh seq4 ,:ile ! text-books (         
,hagemann1 ,/oeckl1 ,gutb]let1 ,pes*1   
,comm]1 ,c4,m4 ,s*neid]1 & o!rs also    
foll[ ,s*ola/ic l9es1 ,b4 ,bolzano 7di$ 
#ahdh71 ,m4 ,deut+] 7di$ #ahfd7 & 8     

pupil ,neudeck]1 ,ois*+]1 ,mi*elis1 &   
,w4 ,ros5krantz 7#ahba-gd2 ,sci5ce ( ,k1
 #ahff-fh71 :o 0 influ5c$ by ,s*ell+1 h 
tak5 a fre] c\rse4  ,footnote #b3       
,trahndorff1 gymnasial pr(essor 9 ,b]l9 
7#aghb-ahfc71 ,ae/hetics1 #ahbg 7cf4 ,e4
 von ,h>tmann 9 ! ,philosophis*e        
,monat%efte1 vol4 xxii4 #ahhf1 p4 #ei   
seq41 & ,j4 von ,billewicz1 9 ! same1   
vol4 xxi4 #ahhe1 p4 #efa seq472 ,j4,f4  
,reiff 9 ,tb+53 ,sy/em ( ! ,det]m9ations
 ( ! ,w1 #ahdb2 ,k4 ,*r4 ,planck 7di$   
#ahhj73 ,! ,ages ( ! ,_w1 #ahej seq42   
,te/am5t ( a ,g]man1 edit$ by ,k>l      
,k/l91 #ahha2 ,f4 ,rse 7#ahae-ei71 ,on !
 ,me?od ( ! ,k ( ! ,absolute1 #ahda2    
,psy*ology z ,introduction to !         
,philosophy ( ,individuality1 #ahef4    
,emanuel ,%>] foll[s ,rse4 ,fri$ri*     
,rohm] 7di$ #ahef73 ,sci5ce ( ,god1     
,sci5ce ( ,man1 9 ,fri$ri* ,rohm]'s     
,wiss5s*aft und ,leb51 edit$ by         
,blunts*li & ,rud4 ,seele1 #f vols41    
#ahga-ib4  ,anton ,gn!r 7engag$ 9       
au?or%ip f #ahbg2 ,collect$ ,writ+s1    

#ahha2 ,anti-,sav>ese1 edit$ ) an       
app5dix by ,p4 ,knoodt71 :o 9 #aheg 0   
compell$ to retract 8 views1 invokes !  
_s ( ,desc>tes 9 opposition to !        
,hegelian pan!ism4 ,9 agreem5t )        
,desc>tes1 ,gn!r />ts f                 
self-consci\sness 79 ! ego be+ & ?\ght  
are id5tical71 & br+s n only ! ,creator 
& ! creat$ _w1 b also nature 7to :i* !  
s\l is to be reg>d$ z belong+7 & _s into
 a relation ( exclusive opposition1 yet 
holds t 9 man nature 7body & s\l7 & _s  
are unit$1 & t !y int]act )\t prejudice 
to _! qualitative diff]5ce4 ,j4,h4 ,pab/
 7di$ 9 #ahch 9 ,vi5na71 ,!odor ,web] ( 
,breslau1 ,knoodt ( ,bonn 7di$ #ahhi71  
,v4 ,knau] ( ,vi5na & o!rs are          
,gn!rians4  ,adolf ,tr5del5burg#a (     
,b]l91 ! acute critic ( ,hegel & ,h]b>t1
 9 8 own ?9k+ goes back to ! philosophy 
( ! pa/1 especially to t ( ,ari/otle4   
,motion & purpose are = him fundam5tal  
facts1 :i* are common to bo? be+ & ?9k+1
 :i* m$iate betwe5 ! two1 & make !      
agreem5t ( k & reality possible4 ,!     

e?ical is a high] /age ( ! organic4     
,space1 "t1 & ! categories are =ms (    
?\ght z well z ( be+2 ! logical =m mu/ n
 be sep>at$ f ! cont5t1 nor ! concept f 
intuition4 ,we mu/ n fail to m5tion t   
,tr5del5burg introduc$ a peculi> &      
fruitful me?od ( treat+ ! hi/ory (      
philosophy1 viz41 ! hi/orical           
inve/igation ( p>ticul> concepts1 9 :i* 
,tei*mll] ( ,dorpat 7#ahcb-hh2 ,/udies 9
 ! ,hi/ory ( ,concepts1 #ahgd2 ,new     
,/udies 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,concepts1        
#ahgf-gi2 ,! ,immortality ( ! ,s\l1 #b;d
 ed41 #ahgi2 ,! ,nature ( ,love1 #ahhj2 
,lit]>y ,qu>rels 9 ! ,f\r? ,c5tury be=e 
,*ri/1 #ahha & #ahhd71 & ,euck5 ( ,j5a  
7cf4 pp4 #ag & #fbc7 h foll[$ 8 example4
 ,kym 9 ,zuri* 7born #ahbb2             
,metaphysical ,inve/igations1 #ahge2 ,! 
,problem ( ,evil1 #ahgh7 is a pupil (   
,tr5del5burg4  ,footnote #a3            
,tr5del5burg3 ,logical ,inve/igations1  
#ahdj1 #c;d ed41 #ahgj2 ,hi/orical      
,contributions to ,philosophy1 #c vols41
 #ahdf1 #ahee1 #ahfg2 ,natural ,law on !

 ,basis ( ,e?ics1 #ahfj1 #b;d ed41      
#ahfh4 ,on ,tr5del5burg cf4 ,euck5 9 !  
,philosophis*e ,monat%efte1 #ahhd4  ,( m
 rec5t sy/ematic attempts ! foll[+ appe>
 wor?y ( m5tion3 ,von ,kir*mann         
7#ahjb-hd2 f #ahfh editor ( !           
,philosophis*e ,biblio!k71 ,!           
,philosophy ( ,k1 #ahfe2 ,ae/hetics1    
#ahfh2 ,on ! ,pr9ciples ( ,realism1     
#ahge2 ,cate*ism ( ,philosophy #b;d ed41
 #ahha2 ,e4 ,dhr+ 7born #ahcc71 ,natural
 ,dialectic1 #ahfe2 ,! ,value ( ,life1  
#ahfe1 #c;d ed1 #ahha2 ,critical ,hi/ory
 ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,me*anics1 #ahgc1 #b;d
 ed41 #ahgg2 ,c\rse ( ,philosophy1 #ahge
 7cf4 on ,dhr+1 ,hel5e ,drusk[itz1      
#ahhi72 ,j4 ,baumann ( ,gtt+5 7born     
#ahcg71 ,philosophy z ,ori5tation       
conc]n+ ! ,_w1 #ahgb2 ,h&book ( ,e?ics1 
#ahgi2 ,elem5ts ( ,philosophy1 #ahia2   
,l4 ,noir1 ,! ,moni/ic ,idea1 #ahge1 &  
_m o!r works2 ,frohs*amm] ( ,muni* 7born
 #ahba71 ,! ,phantasy z ! ,fundam5tal   
,pr9ciple ( ! ,_w-process1 #ahgg2 ,on ! 
,g5esis ( ,humanity1 & its ,spiritual   

,developm5t 9 ,religion1 ,morality &    
,language1 #ahhc2 ,on ! ,organization & 
,culture ( ,human ,society1 #ahhe4  ,9 !
 fir/ rank ( ! ?9k]s :o h made _!       
appe>ance s9ce ,hegel & ,h]b>t /& ,fe*n]
 & ,lotze1 bo? ma/]s 9 ! use ( exact    
me?ods1 yet at ! same "t ) _! :ole s\ls 
devot$ to ! highe/ que/ions1 & sup]ior  
to _! contempor>ies 9 bread? ( view z 9 
! importance & range ( _! lead+         
ideas--,fe*n] a dream] & sob]           
inve/igator by turns1 ,lotze ) g5tle h& 
reconcil+ ! anti!ses 9 life & sci5ce4   
,gu/av ,!odor ,fe*n]#a 7#ahja-hg2       
pr(essor at ,leipsic7 opposes ! ab/ract 
sep>ation ( ,god & ! _w1 :i* has f\nd a 
place 9 natural inquiry & 9 !ology      
alike1 & br+s ! two into ! same relation
 ( correspond5ce & reciprocal ref]5ce z 
! s\l & ! body4 ,! _s gives cohesion to 
! manifold ( mat]ial p>ts1 & ne$s !m z a
 basis & mat]ial = its unify+ activity4 
,z our ego connects ! manifold ( our    
activities & /ates 9 ! unity (          
consci\sness1 s ! div9e _s is ! supreme 

unity ( consci\sness = all be+ & becom+4
 ,9 ! _s ( ,god ev]y?+ is z 9 ours1 only
 exp&$ & enhanc$4 ,our s5sations &      
feel+s1 our ?\ghts & resolutions are ,8 
also1 only t ,he1 ^: body all nature is1
 & to :om n only t :i* takes place 9    
spirits is op51 b also t :i* goes on    
betwe5 !m1 p]ceives m1 feels deep]1 ?9ks
 high]1 & wills bett] ?+s ?an we4       
,accord+ to ! analogy ( ! human         
organism1 bo? ! heav5ly bodies & plants 
are to be conceiv$ z be+s end[$ ) s\ls1 
al?\gh !y lack n]ves1 a bra91 & volunt>y
 motion4 ,h[ c\ld ! e>? br+ =? liv+     
be+s1 if x 7 itself dead8 ,%all n ! fl[]
 itself rejoice 9 ! color & fragrance   
:i* x produces1 & ) :i* x refre%es u8   
,?\gh its psy*ical life may n exce$ t ( 
an infant1 its s5sations1 at all ev5ts1 
s9ce !y d n =m ! basis ( a high]        
activity1 are sup]ior 9 =ce & ri*ness to
 ^? ( ! animal4 ,?us ! human s\l /&s    
int]m$iate 9 ! scale ( psy*ical life3   
b5ea? & ab\t u are ! s\ls ( plants &    
animals1 above u ! spirits ( ! e>? &    

/>s1 :i*1 %>+ 9 & encompass+ ! de$s &   
de/9ies ( _! inhabitants1 are 9 _! turn 
embrac$ by ! consci\sness ( ! univ]sal  
_s4 ,! omnipres5ce ( ! div9e _s af=ds at
 ! same "t ! means ( escap+ f ! desolate
 night view ( mod]n sci5ce1 :i* looks ^u
 ! _w outside ! p]ceiv+ individual z d>k
 & sil5t4 ,no1 light & s\nd are n m]ely 
subjective ph5om5a )9 u1 b ext5d ar\nd u
 ) objective reality--z s5sations ( !   
div9e _s1 to :i* ev]y?+ t vibrates      
res\nds & %9es4  ,footnote #a3 ,nanna1  
or on ! ,psy*ical ,life ( ,plants1      
#ahdh2 ,z5d-,ave/a1 or on ! ,?+s (      
,heav5 & ! ,_w ,beyond1 #ahea2 ,physical
 & ,philosophical ,atomism1 #ahee2 ,!   
,?ree ,motives & ,gr\nds ( ,belief1     
#ahfc2 ,! ,day ,view1 #ahgi2 ,elem5ts ( 
,ae/hetics1 #ahgf2 ,elem5ts (           
,psy*o-physics1 #ahfj2 ,9 ! ,cause (    
,psy*o-physics1 #ahgg2 ,review ( ! ,*ief
 ,po9ts 9 ,psy*o-physics1 #ahhb2 ,book (
 ! ,life aft] ,dea?1 #ahcf1 #c;d ed41   
#ahhg2 ,on ! ,highe/ ,good1 #ahdf2 ,f\r 
,p>adoxes1 #ahdf2 ,on ! ,"q ( !4 ,s\l1  

#ahfa2 ,m9or ,works by ,dr4 ,mises      
7,fe*n]'s pseudonym71 #ahge4 ,on ,fe*n] 
cf4 ,j4 ,e4 ,kuntze1 ,leipsic1 #ahib4   
,! door ( ! _w beyond also op5s to ! key
 ( analogy4 ,simil> laws unite ! "h ) ! 
h]eaft]4 ,z intuition prep>es ! way =   
memory1 & lives on 9 x1 s ! life ( e>?  
m]ges 9 ! future life1 & cont9ues active
 9 x1 elevat$ to a high] plane4 ,fe*n]  
treats ! problem ( evil 9 a way peculi> 
to himself4 ,we mu/ n consid] ! fact (  
evil ap>t f ! ef=t to remove x4 ,x is ! 
spur to all activity--)\t evil1 no labor
 & no progress4  ,fe*n]'s psy*o-physics1
 a sci5ce :i* 0 f\nd$ by him 9          
cont9uation ( ! inve/igations (         
,b]n\lli1 ,eul]1 & especially ( ,e4,h4  
,web]1 we>s an entirely diff]5t aspect f
 t ( 8 metaphysics 7! day view1 moreov] 
does n claim to be k1 b belief--?\gh a  
belief :i* is hi/orically1 practically1 
& !oretically well-gr\nd$74 ,?is aims to
 be an exact sci5ce ( ! relations betwe5
 body & m9d1 & to rea* indirectly :at   
,h]b>t fail$ to rea* by direct me?ods1 t

 is1 a measurem5t ( psy*ical magnitudes1
 us+ 9 ?is attempt ! lea/ obs]vable     
diff]5ces 9 s5sations z ! unit (        
measure4 ,web]'s law ( ! dep5d5ce ( !   
int5sity ( ! s5sation on ! /r5g? ( !    
/imulus--! increase 9 ! int5sity ( !    
s5sation rema9s ! same :5 ! relative    
increase ( ! /imulus 7or ! relation ( ! 
/imuli7 rema9s con/ant2#a s t1 e4g41 9 !
 case ( light1 an increase f a /imulus (
 int5sity #a to "o ( int5sity #ajj1     
gives j ! same increase 9 ! int5sity ( !
 s5sation z an increase f a /imulus (   
int5sity #b 7or #c7 to a /imulus ( #bjj 
7or #cjj7--;is mu* m g5]ally valid ?an  
its discov]] suppos$2 x holds good = all
 ! s5ses4 ,9 ! case ( ! pressure s5se ( 
! sk91 ) an orig9al weight ( #ae grams  
7laid ^u ! h& :5 at re/ & support$71 9  
ord] to produce a s5sation p]ceptibly   
great] we mu/ add n #a gram1 b #e1 & )  
an orig9al weight ( #cj grams1 n #e1 b  
#aj4 ,equal additions to ! weights are n
 en\gh to produce a s5sation ( pressure 
^: int5sity %all r5d] x capable ( be+   

di/+ui%$ ) c]ta9ty1 b ! great] ! orig9al
 weights ! l>g] ! increm5ts mu/ be2 :ile
 ! int5sities ( ! s5sations =m an       
ari?metical1 ^? ( ! /imuli =m a         
geometrical1 s]ies2 ! *ange 9 s5sation  
is proportional to ! relative *ange ( ! 
/imulus4 ,s5sations ( tone %[ ! same    
proportion 7#c3d7 z ^? ( pressure2 !    
s5sibility ( ! muscle s5se is f9] 7:5   
weights are rais$ ! proportion is       
#ae3af71 z also t ( vision 7! relative  
brightness ( two lights ^: diff]5ce (   
int5sity is j p]ceptible is #ajj3aja74  
,9 addition to ! inve/igations on !     
?re%old ( diff]5ce !re are o!rs on !    
?re%old ( /imulation 7! po9t at :i* a   
s5sation becomes j p]ceptible71 on      
att5tion1 on me?ods ( measurem5t1 on    
errors1 etc4 ,moreov]1 ,fe*n] does n    
fail to connect 8 psy*o-physics1 !      
presuppositions & results ( :i* h       
rec5tly be5 que/ion$ 9 sev]al qu>t]s1#b 
) 8 metaphysical conclusions4 ,bo? are  
p]vad$ by ! fundam5tal view t body & _s 
belong toge!r 7consequ5tly t ev]y?+ is  

end[$ ) a s\l1 & t no?+ is )\t a mat]ial
 basis71 nay1 t !y are ! same ess5ce1   
only se5 f diff]5t sides4 ,body is !    
7manifold7 ph5om5on = o!rs1 :ile _s is !
 7unit>y7 self-ph5om5on1 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 !
 inn] aspect is ! tru] "o4 ,t :i* appe>s
 to u z ! ext]nal _w ( matt]1 is no?+ b 
a univ]sal consci\sness :i* ov]laps &   
influ5ces our individual consci\sness4  
,?is is ,sp9ozism ideali/ically         
int]pret$4 ,9 ae/hetics ,fe*n] %[s      
himself an extreme repres5tative ( !    
pr9ciple ( association4  ,footnote #a3  
,fe*n] tea*es3 ,! s5sation increases &  
dim9i%es 9 proportion to ! log>i?m ( !  
/imulus & ( ! psy*o-physical n]v\s      
activity1 ! latt] be+ directly          
proportional to ! ext]nal /imulus4      
,o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 f9d a direct       
dep5d5ce betwe5 n]v\s activity &        
s5sation1 & a log>i?mic proportion      
betwe5 ! ext]nal /imulus & ! n]v\s      
activity4  ,footnote #b3 ,s by          
,helmholtz2 ,h]+ 7,fe*n]s psy*ophysis*es
 ,gesetz1 #ahge72 ,p4 ,lang] 7,grundlag5

 d] ,psy*ophysik1 #ahgf72 ,g4,e4 ,mll] 9
 ,gtt+5 7,zur ,grundlegung d]           
,psy*ophysik1 #ahgh72 ,f4,a4 ,mll] 7,das
 ,axiom d] ,psy*ophysik1 #ahhb72 ,a4    
,elsas 7,ueb] die ,psy*ophysik1 #ahhf72 
,o4 ,liebmann 7,aphorism5 zur           
,psy*ologie1 ,zeits*rift fr             
,philosophie1 vol4 ci4--,wundt has      
publi%$ a numb] ( pap]s f 8             
psy*o-physical laboratory 9 8           
,philosophis*e ,/udi51 #ahha seq4 ,cf4  
also ,hugo ,mn/]b]g1 ,neue ,grundlegung 
d] ,psy*ophysik 9 ,heft iii4 ( 8        
,beitrge zur exp]im5tell5 ,psy*ologie1  
#ahhi seq74 ,fur!r1 ,delboeuf1 9 ,fr5*1 
& a gr[+ lit]ature 9 ,engli% z ,a4 ,se?1
 ,encyclop$ia ,britannica1 vol4 xxiv4   
#dfi-dga2 ,ladd1 ,elem5ts (             
,physiological ,psy*ology1 "p ii4 *ap1  
v42 ,james1 ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1    
vol4 i4 p4 #ecc seq42 & num]\s articles 
z ,w>d1 ,m9d1 vol4 i42 ,ja/r[1 ,am]ican 
,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 vols4 i4 &        
iii4--,,tr4  ,! mo/ important ( ! ?9k]s 
m5tion$ 9 ! title ( ?is section is      

,rudolph ,h]mann ,lotze 7#ahag-ha3 born 
at ,bautz52 a /ud5t ( m$ic9e1 & (       
philosophy "u ,weisse1 9 ,leipsic2      
#ahdd-ha pr(essor 9 ,gtt+52 di$ 9       
,b]l974 ,l ,fe*n]1 gift$ r ) a tal5t = !
 f9e & ! sugge/ive ?an = ! l>ge & !     
rigor\s1 ) a great] res]ve ?an ! =m]    
be=e ! my/ical & peculi>1 z acute1      
cauti\s1 & ?or\gh z he 0 full ( ta/e &  
l(t9ess ( _s1 ,lotze has prov$ t !      
classic philosoph]s did n die out )     
,hegel & ,h]b>t4 ,8 ,microcosmus 7#c    
vols41 #ahef-fd1 #d? ed41 #ahhd seq2    
,engli% translation by ,hamilton &      
,jones1 #c;d ed41 #ahhh71 :i* is m ?an  
an an?ropology1 z x is mode/ly entitl$1 
& ,hi/ory ( ,ae/hetics 9 ,g]many1 #ahfh1
 :i* also gives m ?an ! title betrays1  
enjoy a des]v$ popul>ity4 ,^! works 7   
prec$$ by ! ,m$ical ,psy*ology1 #aheb1 &
 a polemic treatise aga9/ ,i4,h4 ,fi*te1
 #aheg1 z well z by a ,pa?ology & a     
,physiology1 & foll[$ by ! ,sy/em (     
,philosophy1 :i* rema9$ incomplete 7"p  
i4 ,logic1 #ahgd1 #b;d ed41 #ahha1      

,engli% translation edit$ by ,bosanquet1
 #b;d ed41 #ahhh2 "p ii4 ,metaphysics1  
#ahgi1 ,engli% translation edit$ by     
,bosanquet1 #b;d ed41 #ahhg74 ,lotze's  
,m9or ,treatises h be5 publi%$ by       
,peip]s 9 ?ree volumes 7#ahhe-ia72 &    
,rehnis* has edit$ eight sets ( dictata 
f 8 lectures1 #ahga-hd4a ,s9ce ^!       
,outl9es1 all ( :i* we n[ h 9 new       
editions1 make a conv5i5t introduction  
to ! ,lotzean sy/em1 & are1 or %\ld be1 
9 ! possession ( all1 a brief survey may
 "h suffice4  ,footnote #a3 ,outl9es (  
,psy*ology1 ,practical ,philosophy1     
,philosophy ( ,religion1 ,philosophy (  
,nature1 ,logic & ! ,encyclop$ia (      
,philosophy1 ,metaphysics1 ,ae/hetics1 &
 ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy s9ce ,kant1 all
 ( :i* may be emphatically comm5d$ to   
/ud5ts1 especially ! "o fir/ m5tion$1 &1
 9 spite ( its subjective position1 !   
la/4 ,engli% translations ( ^! ,outl9es 
except ! f\r? & ! la/1 by ,ladd1 #ahhd  
seq4 ,on ,lotze cf4 ! obitu>ies by ,j4  
,baumann 7,philosophis*e ,monat%efte1   

vol4 xvii471 ,h4 ,somm] 7,im ,neu5      
,rei*71 ,a4 ,krohn 7,zeits*rift fr      
,philosophie1 vol4 lxxxi4 pp4 #ef-ic71  
,r4 ,falck5b]g 7,augsburg ,allgeme9e    
,zeitung1 #ahha1 ,no4 #bcc71 & ,rehnis* 
7,national ,zeitung & ! ,revue          
,philosophique1 vol4 xii474 ,! la/ ( ^! 
0 repr9t$ 9 ! app5dix to ! ,grundzge d] 
,ae/hetik1 #ahhd1 :i* conta9s1 fur!r1 a 
*ronological table ( ,lotze's works1    
essays1 & critiques1 z well z ( 8       
lectures4 ,hugo ,somm] has zeal\sly     
devot$ himself to ! popul>ization ( !   
,lotzean sy/em4 ,cf41 fur!r1 ,fritz     
,koegel1 ,lotzes ,ae/hetik1 ,gtt+51     
#ahhf1 & ! article by ,koppelmann ref]r$
 to above1 p4 #ccj4  ,! subject (       
metaphysics is reality4 ,?+s :i* are1   
ev5ts :i* happ51 relations :i* exi/1    
repres5tative cont5ts & tru?s :i* are   
valid1 are real4 ,ev5ts happ5+ &        
relations exi/+ presuppose exi/+ ?+s z !
 subjects 9 & betwe5 :i* !y happ5 &     
exi/4 ,! be+ ( ?+s is nei!r _! be+      
p]ceiv$ 7= :5 we say t a ?+ is we mean t

 x cont9ues to be1 ev5 :5 we d n p]ceive
 x71 nor a pure1 unrelat$ position1 its 
position 9 g5]al1 b to be is to /& 9    
relations4 ,fur!r1 ! :at or ess5ce ( !  
?+s :i* ent] into ^! relations _c be    
conceiv$ z passive quality1 b only      
ab/ractly1 z a rule or a law :i*        
det]m9es ! connection & succession ( a  
s]ies ( qualities4 ,! nature ( wat]1 =  
example1 is ! un9tuitable some:at :i*   
conta9s ! gr\nd ( ! *ange ( ice1 fir/   
into ! liquid condition1 & !n into /eam1
 :5 ! temp]ature increases1 & conv]sely1
 ( ! possibility ( *ang+ /eam back into 
wat] & ice "u opposite conditions4 ,& :5
 we speak ( an un*angeable id5tity ( !  
?+ ) itself1 z a result ( :i* x rema9s !
 same ess5ce amid ! *ange ( its ph5om5a1
 we mean only ! consi/5cy ) :i* x keeps 
)9 ! clos$ s]ies ( =ms a#a1 a#b1 a#c1   
)\t ev] go+ ov] into ! s]ies b#a1 b#b4  
,! relations1 h[ev]1 9 :i* ?+s /&1 _c   
pass to & fro betwe5 ?+s l ?reads or    
little spirits1 b are /ates 9 ?+s       
!mselves1 & ! *ange ( ! =m] always      

implies a *ange 9 ^! inn] /ates4 ,to /& 
9 relations means to ex*ange actions4 ,9
 ord] to exp]i5ce su* effects f o!rs &  
to ex]cise !m ^u o!rs1 ?+s mu/ nei!r be 
:olly incomp>able 7z r$1 h>d1 sweet7 &  
mutually indiff]5t1 nor yet absolutely  
indep5d5t2 if ! indep5d5ce ( individual 
be+s 7 complete ! process ( action w\ld 
be entirely inconceivable4 ,! difficulty
 9 ! concept ( causality--h[ does be+ a 
come to produce 9 itself a diff]5t /ate 
a because ano!r be+ b ent]s into ! /ate 
,greek3 b8--is remov$ only :5 we look on
 ! ?+s z modes1 /ates1 p>ts ( a s+le    
compreh5sive be+1 ( an inf9ite1         
uncondition$ sub/ance1 9 s f> z !re is  
!n only an action ( ! absolute on       
itself4 ,nev]!less ! assumption t1 9    
virtue ( ! unity & consi/5cy ( !        
absolute or ( its impulse to            
self-pres]vation1 /ate ,greek3 b 9 be+ b
 foll[s /ate ,greek3 a 9 be+ a z an     
accommodation or comp5sation foll[s a   
di/urbance1 is n a full explanation ( ! 
process ( action1 does n remove !       

difficulty z to h[ "o /ate c give rise  
to ano!r4 ,metaphysics is1 9 g5]al1     
unable to %[ h[ reality is made1 b only 
to remove c]ta9 contradictions :i* /& 9 
! way ( ! conceivability ( ^! notions4  
,! s f> empty concept ( an absolute     
looks to ! philosophy ( religion = its  
cont5t2 ! conception ( ! ,godhead z     
inf9ite p]sonality 7x is a p]son 9 a f> 
high] s5se ?an we7 is fir/ produc$ :5 we
 add to ! ontological po/ulate ( a      
compreh5sive sub/ance ! e?ical po/ulate 
( a supreme good or a univ]sal _w-,idea4
  ,by ?+ we und]/& ! p]man5t            
unit-subject ( *ang+ /ates4 ,b ! fact ( 
consci\sness furni%es ! only gu>anty t !
 diff]5t /ates a1 ,greek3 b1 y1 are 9   
reality /ates ( "o be+1 & n s _m diff]5t
 ?+s alt]nat+ ) "o ano!r4 ,only a       
consci\s be+1 :i* itself effects !      
di/9ction betwe5 itself & ! /ates       
occurr+ 9 x1 & 9 memory & recollection  
feels & kn[s itself z _! id5tical       
subject1 is actually a subject :i* has  
/ates4 ,h5ce1 if ?+s are to be real1 we 

mu/ attribute to !m a nature 9 ess5ce   
relat$ to t ( our s\l4 ,reality is      
exi/5ce = self4 ,all be+s are spiritual1
 & only spiritual be+s possess true     
reality4 ,?us ,lotze comb9es !          
monadology ( ,leibnitz ) ! pan!ism (    
,sp9oza1 j z he und]/&s h[ to reconcile 
! me*anical view ( natural sci5ce 7:i*  
is valid also = ! explanation ( organic 
life7 ) ! teleology & ! e?ical idealism 
( ,fi*te4 ,! sole mission ( ! _w ( =ms  
is to aid 9 ! realization ( ! ideal     
purposes ( ! absolute1 ( ! _w ( values4 
,! ideality ( space1 :i* ,kant _h bas$  
on insuffici5t gr\nds1 is ma9ta9$ by    
,lotze also1 only t he makes ?+s /& 9   
intellectual relations1 :i* ! kn[+      
subject translates into spatial         
language4 ,! same "* ( subjectivity     
belongs n only to our s5sations1 b also 
to our ideas conc]n+ ! connection ( ?+s4
 ,repres5tations are results1 n copies1 
( ! ext]nal /imuli2 cognition comes "u !
 g5]al concept ( ! int]action ( real    
elem5ts1 & dep5ds1 l e effect1 z mu* ^u 

! nature ( ! be+ t exp]i5ces ! effect z 
^u ! nature ( ! "o :i* ex]ts x1 or r1 m 
^u ! =m] ?an ^u ! latt]4 ,if1 nev]!less1
 x claims objective reality1 tru? mu/ n 
be int]pret$ z ! correspond5ce ( ?\ght &
 its object 7! cognitive image c nev] be
 l ! ?+ itself71 nor ! mission (        
cognition1 made to consi/ 9 copy+ a _w  
already f9i%$ & clos$ ap>t f ! realm (  
spirits1 to :i* m5tal repres5tation is  
add$ z some?+ accessory4 ,light & s\nd  
are n !re=e illusions because !y are n  
true copies ( ! waves ( e!r & ( air f   
:i* !y spr+1 b !y are ! end :i* nature  
has s\ght to atta9 ?r\gh ^! motions1 an 
end1 h[ev]1 :i* x _c atta9 alone1 b only
 by act+ ^u spiritual subjects2 ! beauty
 & spl5dor ( colors & tones are t :i* ( 
"r ought to be 9 ! _w2 )\t ! new _w (   
repres5tations awak5$ 9 spirits by !    
action ( ext]nal /imuli1 ! _w w\ld lack 
its ess5tial culm9ation4 ,! purpose (   
?+s is to be kn[n1 exp]i5c$1 & enjoy$ by
 spirits4 ,! tru? ( cognition consi/s 9 
! fact t x op5s up ! mean+ & de/9ation (

 ! _w4 ,t :i* ought to be is ! gr\nd ( t
 :i* is2 t :i* is exi/s 9 ord] to !     
realization ( values 9 x2 ! good is !   
only real4 ,x is true t we are n p]mitt$
 to p5etrate f>!r ?an to ! g5]al        
conviction t ! ,idea ( ! good is ! gr\nd
 & end ( ! _w2 ! "q1 h[ ! _w has aris5 f
 ?is supreme ,idea z f ! absolute & :y j
 ?is _w ) its det]m9ate =ms & laws has  
aris51 is unansw]able4 ,we und]/& !     
mean+ ( ! play1 b we d n see ! ma*9]y by
 :i* x is produc$ at "w beh9d ! /age4 ,9
 e?ics ,lotze emphasizes ) ,fe*n] !     
insep>ability ( ! good & pleasure3 x is 
impossible to /ate 9 :at ! wor? or      
goodness ( a good is to consi/1 if x be 
conceiv$ out ( all relation to a _s     
capable ( f9d+ enjoym5t 9 x4  ,if       
,lotze's philosophy h>moni\sly comb9es  
,h]b>tian & ,fi*teo-,hegelian elem5ts1  
,edu>d von ,h>tmann 7born #ahdb2 until  
#ahfd a soldi]1 n[ a man ( lett]s 9     
,b]l97 aims at a syn!sis ( ,s*op5hau] & 
,hegel2 ) ! pessimism ( ! =m] he unites 
! evolutionism ( ! latt]1 & :ile ! "o   

conceives ! nature ( ! _w-gr\nd z       
irrational w1 & ! o!r z ! logical ,idea1
 he foll[s ! example ( ,s*ell+ 9 8 lat] 
days by mak+ w & repres5tation equally  
legitimate attributes ( 8 absolute1 !   
,unconsci\s4 ,8 pr9cipal !oretical "w1  
,! ,philosophy ( ! ,unconsci\s1 #ahfi   
7#aj? ed41 #ahia2 ,engli% translation by
 ,c\pl&1 #ahhd71 0 foll[$ 9 #ahgi by 8  
*ief e?ical "o1 ,! ,moral ,consci\sness 
7#b;d ed41 #ahhf1 9 ! ,select$ ,works72 
! two works on ! philosophy ( religion1 
,! ,religi\s ,consci\sness ( ,humanity 9
 ! ,/ages ( its ,developm5t1 #ahha1 & ,!
 ,religion ( ,_s1 #ahhb1 toge!r =m !    
?ird *ief "w 7,! ,self-,dis9tegration ( 
,*ri/ianity & ! ,religion ( ! ,future1  
#ahgd1 & ,! ,crisis ( ,*ri/ianity 9     
,mod]n ,!ology1 #ahhj1 are to be reg>d$ 
z =]unn]s ( ?is72 ! f\r? is ! ,ae/hetics
 7"p i4 ,g]man ,ae/hetics s9ce ,kant1   
#ahhf2 "p ii4 ,philosophy ( !           
,beautiful1 #ahhg74 ,! ,collect$ ,/udies
 & ,essays1 #ahgf1 7 prec$$ by two      
treatises on ! philosophy ( nature1     

,tru? & ,error 9 ,d>w9ism1 #ahge1 & ,!  
,unconsci\s f ! ,/&po9t ( ,physiology & 
! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 publi%$ anonym\sly 9 
#ahgb1 9 ! latt] ( :i*1 disguis$ z a    
,d>w9ian1 he criticises 8 own           
philosophy4 ,( 8 m rec5t publications we
 may m5tion ! ,philosophical ,que/ions (
 ! ,day1 #ahhe2 ,mod]n ,problems1 #ahhf2
 & ! controv]sial treatise ,lotzes      
,philosophy1 #ahhh4a  ,footnote #a3 ,on 
,h>tmann cf4 ,volkelt 9 ,nord und ,sd1  
,july1 #ahha2 ! same1 ,das ,unbewus/e   
und d] ,pessimismus1 #ahgc2 ,vaih+]1    
,h>tmann1 ,dhr+ und ,lange1 #ahgf2 ,r4  
,koeb]1 ,das philosophis*e ,sy/em ,ed4  
v1 ,h>tmann1 #ahhd2 ,o4 ,pfleid]]1      
critique ( ! ,phnom5ologie des sittli*5 
,bewus/se9s 7,im neu5 ,rei*71 #ahgi2 ,l4
 von ,gol!r1 ,d] mod]ne ,pessimismus1   
#ahgh2 ,j4 ,hub]1 ,d] ,pessimismus1     
#ahgf2 ,weygoldt1 ,kritik des           
philosophis*5 ,pessimismus d] neue/5    
,zeit1 #ahge2 ,m4 ,v5etian]1 ,d]        
,allgei/1 #ahgd2 ,a ,taub]t 7,h>tmann's 
fir/ wife71 ,d] ,pessimismus und se9e   

,gegn]1 #ahgc2 ,o4 ,plma*]1 ,d] ,kampf  
ums ,unbewus/e 7) a *ronological table (
 ,h>tmann lit]ature app5d$71 #ahha2 !   
same1 ,d] ,pessimismus 9 ,v]gang5heit   
und ,geg5w>t1 #ahhd2 ,krohn1 ,/reifzge  
7see above72 ,seydel 7see above74 ,dur+ 
! ye> #ahhb f\r publications appe>$ "u !
 title ,d] ,pessimismus und die         
,sitt5lehre1 by ,bacmei/]1 ,*ri/1       
,rehmke1 & ,h4 ,somm] 7#b;d ed41 #ahhc74
 ,engli% translation ( ,tru? & ,error 9 
,d>w9ism 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ,speculative     
,philosophy1 vols4 xi4-xiii41 & ( ,!    
,religion ( ! ,future1 by ,d>e1 #ahhf2  
cf4 also ,sully's ,pessimism1 *ap4      
v4--,,tr4  ,9 polemical relation1 on !  
"o h&1 to ! nave realism ( life1 &1 on !
 o!r1 to ! subjective idealism ( ,kant1 
or r ( ! neo-,kantians1 ! logical       
conclusion ( :i* w\ld be absolute       
illusionism1 ,h>tmann f\nds 8           
transc5d5tal realism1 :i* m$iates betwe5
 ^! two po9ts ( view 7! exi/5ce & true  
nature ( ! _w outside our repres5tations
 is kn[able1 if only indirectly2 ! =ms (

 k1 9 spite ( _! subjective orig91 h a m
 ?an subjective1 a transc5d5tal1        
significance7 by po9t+ out t            
s5se-impressions1 :i* are accompani$ by 
! feel+ ( compulsion & are diff]5t f "o 
ano!r1 _c be expla9$ f ! ego1 b only by 
! action ( ?+s 9 !mselves ext]nal to u1 
i4e41 indep5d5t ( consci\sness1 &       
!mselves di/9ct f "o ano!r4 ,! causality
 ( ?+s 9 !mselves is ! bridge :i*       
enables u to cross ! gulf betwe5 !      
imman5t _w ( repres5tations & !         
transc5d5t _w ( be+4 ,! causality ( ?+s 
9 !mselves proves _! reality1 _!        
diff]5ce at diff]5t times1 _!           
*angeability & _! temporal "*2 *ange1   
h[ev]1 dem&s some?+ p]man5t1 exi/5ce1 an
 exi/+1 un*angeable1 supra-temporal1 &  
non-spatial sub/ance 7:e!r a special    
sub/ance = ea* ?+ 9 itself or a common  
"o = all1 is left = ! pres5t undet]m9$74
 ,my action ^u ! ?+ 9 itself assures me 
( its causal conditionality or          
necessity2 ! v>i\s affections ( ! same  
s5se1 t !re are _m ?+s 9 !mselves2 !    

peculi> =m ( *ange %[n by "s bodies1 t  
^!1 l my body1 are unit$ ) a s\l4 ,?us x
 is evid5t t1 besides ! concept ( cause1
 a s]ies ( o!r categories mu/ be appli$ 
to ! ?+ 9 itself1 h5ce appli$           
transc5d5tally4  ,! speculative results 
obta9$ by ,h>tmann on an inductive basis
 are z foll[s3 ,! p] se 7,ansi*7 ( !    
empirical _w is ! ,unconsci\s4 ,! two   
attributes ( ?is absolute are ! active1 
gr\ndless1 alogical1 inf9ite w1 & !     
passive1 f9ite repres5tation 7,idea72 ! 
=m] is ! gr\nd ( ! t ( ! _w1 ! latt] !  
gr\nd ( its purposive :at & h[4 ,)\t ! w
 ! repres5tation1 :i* 9 itself is )\t   
en]gy1 c\ld n become real1 & )\t !      
repres5tation 7( an end7 ! w1 :i* 9     
itself is )\t reason1 c\ld n become a   
def9ite will+ 7relative or imman5t      
dualism ( ! attributes1 a necess>y mom5t
 9 absolute monism74 ,! empirical       
prepond]ance ( pa9 ov] pleasure1 :i* c  
be %[n by calculation1#a proves t ! _w  
is evil1 t its non-exi/5ce 7 bett] ?an  
its exi/5ce2 ! purposiv5ess ev]y:]e     

p]ceptible 9 nature & ! progress (      
hi/ory t[>d a f9al goal 7x is true1 a   
negative "o7 proves1 nev]!less1 t x is !
 be/ _w t 0 possible 7reconciliation (  
eudemoni/ic pessimism ) evolutioni/ic   
optimism74 ,! creation ( ! _w beg9s :5 !
 bl9d w to live gr\ndlessly & =tuit\sly 
passes ov] f ess5ce to ph5om5on1 f      
pot5cy to act1 f supra-exi/5ce to       
exi/5ce1 &1 9 irrational /riv+ aft]     
exi/5ce1 draws to itself ! only cont5t  
:i* is capable ( realization1 ! logical 
,idea4 ,?is latt] seeks to make good !  
error committ$ by ! w by br++           
consci\sness into ! field z a combatant 
aga9/ ! insatiable1 ev] ye>n+1 nev]     
satisfi$ w1 :i* "o day w =ce ! w back   
into lat5cy1 into ! 7antemundane7 bless$
 /ate ( n-will+4 ,! goal ( !            
_w-developm5t is deliv]ance f ! mis]y ( 
exi/5ce1 ! peace ( non-exi/5ce1 ! return
 f ! w & repres5tation1 become spatial &
 temporal1 to ! orig9al1 h>moni\s       
equilibrium ( ! two functions1 :i* has  
be5 di/urb$ by ! orig9 ( ! _w or to !   

antemundane id5tity ( ! absolute4 ,!    
task ( ! logical elem5t is to tea*      
consci\sness m & m to p5etrate !        
illusion ( ! w--9 its ?ree /ages (      
*ildlike 7,greek7 expectation ( happ9ess
 to be atta9$ "h1 y\?ful 7,*ri/ian7     
expectation ( happ9ess to be atta9$     
h]eaft]1 & adult expectation ( happ9ess 
to be atta9$ 9 ! future ( !             
_w-developm5t--&1 f9ally1 to tea* x to  
"k1 9 s5ile long+ aft] re/1 t only ! do+
 away ) ?is mis]able will+1 &1          
consequ5tly1 ) e>?ly exi/5ce 7?r\gh !   
resolve ( ! majority ( mank9d7 c give ! 
sole atta9able bless$ness1 fre$om f pa94
 ,! _w-process is ! inc>nation1 !       
suff]+1 & ! r$emption ( ! absolute2 !   
moral task ( man is n p]sonal           
r5unciation & c[>dly retirem5t1 b to    
make ! purposes ( ! ,unconsci\s 8 own1 )
 complete resignation to life & its     
suff]+s to labor en]getically 9 !       
_w-process1 &1 by ! vigor\s promotion ( 
consci\sness1 to ha/5 ! fulfillm5t ( !  
r$emptive purpose2 ! condition (        

morality is insight into ! fruitlessness
 ( all /riv+ aft] pleasure & into !     
ess5tial unity ( all individual be+s )  
"o ano!r & ) ! univ]sal _s1 :i* exi/s 9 
! individuals1 b at ! same "t subsi/s   
above !m4 ,to "k "o's self z ( div9e    
nature1 ?is does away ) all div]g5ce    
betwe5 selfwill & univ]sal w1 ) all     
e/rangem5t betwe5 man & ,god1 ) all     
undiv9e1 t is1 m]ely natural1 conduct4  
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 ,volkelt1 ,ueb] die  
,lu/ als h*/5 ,w]?mass/ab 79 !          
,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1 vol4       
lxxxviii471 #ahhf1 & ,o4 ,pfleid]]1     
,philosophy ( ,religion1 vol4 ii4 p4    
#bdi seq4  ,religion1 :i*1 9 common )   
philosophy1 has = its basis !           
metaphysical ne$ =1 or ! my/ical feel+  
(1 ! unity ( ! human individual & !     
_w-gr\nd1 ne$s trans=mation1 s9ce 9 its 
traditional =ms x is oppos$ to mod]n    
culture1 & ! m]g+ ( religion 7z a ne$ ( 
! he>t7 9 metaphysics is impossible4 ,! 
religion ( ! future1 = :i* ! way has    
already be5 prep>$ by ! speculative     

,prote/antism ( ! pres5t1 is concrete   
monism 7! div9e unity is transc5d5t z   
well z imman5t 9 ! plurality ( ! be+s ( 
e>?1 e moral man a ,god-man71 :i*       
includes 9 itself ! ab/ract monism      
7pan!ism7 ( ! ,indian religions & !     
,judeo-,*ri/ian 7mono-7 !ism z          
subord9ate mom5ts4 7,! orig9al h5o!ism &
 its decl9e into poly!ism1 demonism1 &  
feti*ism 0 foll[$ by--,egyptian &       
,p]sian1 z well z ,greek1 ,roman1 &     
,g]man--naturalism1 & !n by             
sup]naturalism 9 its moni/ic & its !i/ic
 =m4 ,! *ief defect ( ! ,*ri/ian        
religion is ! transc5d5tal-eudemoni/ic  
het]onomy ( its e?ics47 ,! ,religion (  
,_s divides into ?ree p>ts4 ,! psy*ology
 ( religion consid]s ! religi\s function
 9 its subjective aspect1 fai? z a      
comb9$ act ( repres5tation1 feel+1 & w1 
9 :i* "o ( ^! ?ree elem5ts may          
pr$om9ate--?\gh feel+ =ms ! inmo/ k]nel 
( ! !oretical & practical activities z  
well--&1 z ! objective correlate ( fai?1
 grace 7reveal+1 r$eem+1 & sanctify+71  

:i* elevates man above p]iph]al &       
ph5om5al dep5d5ce on ! _w1 & frees him f
 x1 ?r\gh 8 becom+ consci\s ( 8 c5tral &
 metaphysical dep5d5ce ^u ,god4 ,!      
metaphysics ( religion 79 !ological1    
an?ropological1 & cosmological sections7
 proves by induction f ! facts (        
religion ! exi/5ce1 omnipot5ce1         
spirituality1 omnisci5ce1 righte\sness1 
& hol9ess ( ! ,all-"o1 :i* co9cides ) ! 
moral ord] ( ! _w4 ,fur!r1 x proves !   
ne$ & ! capacity ( man = r$emption f    
guilt & evil--"h ?ree sph]es ( !        
individual w are di/+ui%$1 "o b5ea?     
,god1 "o contr>y to ,god1 & "o con=mable
 to ,god1 or a natural1 an evil1 & a    
moral sph]e--&1 pres]v+ alike !         
absolut5ess ( ,god & ! reality ( ! _w1  
%[s t x is n s mu* man z ,god himself1  
:o1 z ! be>] ( all ! suff]+ ( ! _w1 is !
 subject ( r$emption4 ,! e?ics (        
religion discusses ! subjective &       
objective processes ( r$emption1 namely1
 rep5tance & am5dm5t on ! "p ( !        
individual & ! ecclesia/ical cultus ( ! 

future1 :i* is to despise symbols & art4
  ,x is to ,h>tmann's cr$it1 ?\gh ! fact
 has n be5 suffici5tly appreciat$ by    
pr(essional ?9k]s1 t 9 a "t av]se to    
speculation he has devot$ 8 en]gies to !
 highe/ problems ( metaphysics1 & 9 _!  
elaboration has approa*$ 8 task )       
sci5tific e>ne/ness & a compreh5sive &  
?or\gh consid]ation ( previ\s results4  
,?us ! critique ( e?ical /&po9ts 9 !    
hi/orical "p ( ! ,ph5om5ology ( ! ,moral
 ,consci\sness1 especially1 conta9s mu* 
t is wor?y ( consid]ation2 & 8          
fundam5tal metaphysical idea1 t !       
absolute is to be conceiv$ z ! unity ( w
 & reason1 also des]ves 9 g5]al a m     
lively ass5t ?an has be5 accord$ to x1  
:ile 8 rejection ( an inf9ite           
consci\sness has ju/ly met )            
contradiction4 ,x has be5 impossible "h 
to g into 8 discussions 9 ! philosophy (
 nature--!y _c be describ$ 9 brief--on  
matt] 7atomic =ces71 on ! me*anical &   
teleological views ( life & its         
developm5t1 on in/9ct1 on sexual love1  

etc41 :i* he v skillfully uses 9 support
 ( 8 metaphysical pr9ciple4   #c4 ,f !  
,revival ( ! ,kantian ,philosophy to !  
,pres5t ,"t4  7a7 ,neo-,kantianism1     
,positivism1 & ,k9dr$ ,ph5om5a4--,!     
,kantian philosophy has creat$ two      
epo*s3 "o at ! "t ( its appe>ance1 & a  
second two g5]ations aft] ! dea? ( its  
au?or4 ,! new ,kantian movem5t1 :i* is  
"o ( ! mo/ prom95t *>act]i/ics ( !      
philosophy ( ! pres5t "t1 took its      
beg9n+ a qu>t] ( a c5tury ago4 ,x is    
true t ev5 be=e #ahfe individual ?9k]s l
 ,ern/ ,re9hold ( ,j5a 7di$ #ahee71 !   
admir] ( ,fries1 ,j4,b4 ,mey] ( ,bonn1  
,k4,a4 von ,rei*l9-,meldegg1 & o!rs _h  
s\ght a po9t ( dep>ture = _! views 9    
,kant2 t ,k4 ,fis*]'s "w on ,kant       
7#ahfj7 _h giv5 a lively impulse to !   
r5ew$ /udy ( ! critical philosophy2 nay1
 t ! cry ,back to ,kant _h be5 expressly
 rais$ by ,=tlage 7z e>ly z #ahcb 9 8   
treatise ,! ,gaps 9 ! ,hegelian ,sy/em71
 & by ,zell] 7p4 #ehi74 ,b ! movem5t    
fir/ became g5]al aft] ,f4,a4 ,lange 9 8

 ,hi/ory ( ,mat]ialism _h en]getically  
advocat$ ! ,kantian doctr9e accord+ to 8
 special conception ( x1 aft]           
,helmholtz#a 7born #ahba7 _h call$      
att5tion to ! agreem5t ( ! results (    
physiology ) ^? ( ! ,critique ( ,reason1
 & at ! same "t ,liebmann's y\?ful "w1  
,kant & ! ,epigones1 9 :i* e *apt] end$ 
) ! inexorable refra91 !re=e we mu/ g   
back to ,kant1 _h giv5 ! /ronge/        
expression to ! long+ ( ! "t4  ,footnote
 #a3 ,helmholtz3 ,on ,human ,vision1    
#ahee2 ,physiological ,optics1 #ahfg2   
,s5sations ( ,tone1 #ahfc1 #d? ed41     
#ahgg ,engli% translation by ,ellis1    
#b;d ed41 #ahhe4  ,otto ,liebmann 7cf4  
also ! *apt] on ,! ,metamorphoses ( ! ,a
 ,priori 9 8 ,analysis ( ,reality7 sees 
! fundam5tal tru? ( criticism 9 !       
irrefutable pro( t1 space1 "t1 & !      
categories are functions ( ! intellect1 
& t subject & object are necess>y       
correlates1 insep>able factors ( !      
empirical _w1 & f9ds ,kant's fundam5tal 
error1 :i* ! ,epigones h n correct$1 b  

made /ill worse1 9 ! non-concept ( ! ?+ 
9 itself1 :i* mu/ be expell$ f !        
,kantian philosophy z a remnant (       
dogmatism1 z a drop ( ali5 blood1 & z an
 illegitimate invad] :i* has debas$ x4  
,accord+ to ,fri$ri* ,alb]t ,lange#a    
7#ahbh-ge2 dur+ ! la/ ye>s ( 8 life     
pr(essor at ,m>burg71 mat]ialism1 :i* is
 unfruitful & unt5able z a pr9ciple1 a  
sy/em1 & a view ( ! _w1 b useful &      
indisp5sable z a me?od & a maxim (      
inve/igation1 mu/ be supplem5t$ by =mal 
idealism1 :i*1 reject+ all sci5ce f m]e 
reason limits k to ! s5su\s1 to t :i* c 
be exp]i5c$1 yet at ! same "t conceives 
! =mal elem5t 9 ! s5se _w z ! product ( 
! organization ( man1 & h5ce makes      
objects con=m to our repres5tations4    
,above ! s5su\s _w ( exp]i5ce & (       
me*anical becom+1 h[ev]1 ! speculative  
impulse to con/ruction1 r\nd+ (f !      
fragm5t>y tru? ( ! sci5ces into a unifi$
 picture ( ! :ole tru?1 re>s ! ideal _w 
( t :i* ought to be4 ,not)/&+ _!        
indefeasible c]titude1 ! ,ideas possess 

no sci5tific tru?1 ?\gh !y h a moral    
value :i* makes !m m ?an m]e fabrics ( !
 bra93 man is fram$ n m]ely = ! k (     
tru?1 b also = ! realization ( values4  
,b s9ce ! significance ( ! ,ideas is    
only practical1 & s9ce det]m9ations (   
value are n gr\nds ( explanation1 sci5ce
 & metaphysics or concept poetry        
7,begriffsdi*tung7 mu/ be kept /rictly  
sep>ate4  ,footnote #a3 ,f4,a4 ,lange3  
,logical ,/udies1 #ahgg4 ,cf4 ,m4 ,he9ze
 9 ! ,vi]teljahrss*rift fr              
wiss5s*aftli*e ,philosophic1 #ahgg1 &   
,vaih+] 9 ! "w cit$ above1 p4 #faj note4
  ,fri$ri* ,pauls5 ( ,b]l9 7born 9      
#ahdf2 cf4 pp4 #ccj1 #ccb1 note7 sees 9 
! ,kantian philosophy ! f\ndation = !   
philosophy ( ! future4 ,a pr(\nd] ,wolff
 7! self-dom9ion ( ! reason71 a         
,prussian ,hume 7! categories ( !       
und]/&+ are n _w-categories2 rejection (
 an?ropomorphic metaphysics71 & a ,g]man
 ,r\sseau 7! primacy ( ! w1 consid]ation
 ( ! dem&s ( ! he>t2 ! good w alone1 n  
de$s nor culture1 con/itutes ! wor? (   

man2 fre$om1 ! rights ( man7 9 "o p]son1
 ,kant has )drawn f sci5tific discussion
 ! "q conc]n+ ! dep5d5ce ( reality on   
values or ! good1 :i* is !oretically    
insoluble b practically to be answ]$ 9 !
 affirmative1 & giv5 x ov] to fai?4     
,kant is 9 s f> a positivi/ t he limits 
! mission ( k to ! r$uction ( !         
temporo-spatial relations ( ph5om5a to  
rules1 & decl>es ! teleological p[] (   
values to be undemon/rable4 ,b sci5ce is
 able to prove ?is mu*1 t ! belief 9 a  
supras5sible _w1 9 ! inde/ructibility ( 
t :i* alone has wor?1 & 9 ! fre$om ( !  
intelligible "*1 :i* ! w dem&s1 is n    
sci5tifically impossible4 ,s9ce1 accord+
 to =mal rationalism1 ! :ole ord] (     
nature is a creation ( ! und]/&+1 & h5ce
 atomism & me*anism are only =ms (      
repres5tation1 valid1 no d\bt1 = our    
p]iph]al po9t ( view1 b n absolutely    
valid1 s9ce1 fur!r1 ! empirical view ( !
 _w ap>t f ! ,idea ( ! div9e unity ( !  
_w 7:i*1 x is true1 is incapable (      
!oretical realization7 w\ld lack        

completion1 ! imm$iate conviction ( !   
he>t 9 reg>d to ! p[] ( ! good is 9 no  
dang] ( attack f ! side ( sci5ce1 al?\gh
 ?is c d no fur!r s]vice = fai? ?an to  
remove ! ob/acles :i* oppose x4 ,! w1 n 
! intellect1 det]m9es ! view ( ! _w2 b  
?is is only a belief1 & 9 ! _w (        
repres5tation1 ! intelligible _w1 ) :i* 
! w br+s u into relation1 c come be=e u 
only 9 ! =m ( symbols4--,:ile ,albre*t  
,krause 7,! ,laws ( ! ,human ,he>t1 a   
,=mal ,logic ( ,pure ,feel+1 #ahgf7 &   
,a4 ,class5 7,physiology ( ! ,s5se (    
,sight1 #ahgg7 are /rict foll[]s (      
,kant1 ,j4 ,volkelt 7,analysis ( !      
,fundam5tal ,pr9ciples ( ,kant's ,!ory (
 ,k1 #ahgi7 has trac$ ! (t5 deplor$     
inconsi/5cies & contradictions 9 ,kant  
d[n to _! roots1 & has %[n t 9 ,kant's  
?9k+1 :i* has hi!rto be5 conceiv$ z too 
simple & transp>5t1 b :i*1 9 fact1 is   
extremely complicat$ & /ruggl+ 9 ! d>k1 
a numb] ( entirely het]og5e\s pr9ciples 
( ?\ght 7skeptical1 subjectivi/ic1      
metaphysico-"w1 rationali/ic1 a priori1 

& practical motives7 are at :i*1        
conflict+ ) & crippl+ "o ano!r1 make !  
atta9m5t ( h>moni\s results impossible4 
,b5no ,erdmann 7p4 #ccj7 & ,hans ,vaih+]
 7pp4 #cbc note1 #cca7 h giv5 ,kant's   
pr9cipal works c>eful philological      
int]pretation4  ,among ! v>i\s diff]5ces
 ( op9ion :i* exi/ )9 ! neo-,kantian    
ranks1 ! mo/ important relates to ! "q1 
:e!r ! individual ego or a transc5d5tal 
consci\sness is to be look$ ^u z !      
executor ( ! a priori functions4 ,9     
agreem5t ) ,s*op5hau] & ) ,lotze1 :o    
makes ! subjectivity ( space1 "t1 & !   
pure concepts p>allel ) t ( ! s5se      
qualities1 ,lange tea*es t ! human      
individual is s organiz$ t he mu/       
appreh5d t :i* is s5su\sly giv5 "u ^!   
=ms4 ,o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 urge t !      
individual s\l ) its organization is    
itself a ph5om5on1 & consequ5tly _c be !
 be>] ( t :i* prec$es ph5om5a--space1   
"t1 & ! categories z conditions (       
exp]i5ce are functions ( a pure         
consci\sness to be presuppos$4 ,!       

anti!sis ( subject & object1 ! s\l & !  
_w1 fir/ arises 9 ! sph]e ( ph5om5a4 ,! 
empirical subject1 l ! _w ( objects1 is 
itself a product ( ! a priori =ms1 h5ce 
n t :i* produces !m4 ,to ! transc5d5tal 
gr\p belong ,h]mann ,coh5#a 9 ,m>burg1  
,a4 ,/adl]#b1 ,natorp1 ,lasswitz        
7p4#ag71 ,e4 ,knig 7p4 #ag71 ,koppelmann
 7p4 #ccj71 ,/aud+] 7p4 #cca74 ,fritz   
,s*ultze ( ,dresd5 is also to be c\nt$  
among ! neo-,kantians 7,philosophy (    
,natural ,sci5ce1 #ahhb2 ,kant & ,d>w91 
#ahge2 ,! ,fundam5tal ,?\ghts (         
,mat]ialism1 #ahha2 ,! ,fundam5tal      
,?\ghts ( ,spiritualism1 #ahhc2         
,comp>ative ,psy*ology1 i4 #a1 #ahib74  
,footnote #a3 ,coh53 ,kant's ,!ory (    
,exp]i5ce1 #ahga1 #b;d ed41 #ahhf2      
,kant's ,f\ndation ( ,e?ics1 #ahgg2     
,kant's ,f\ndation ( ,ae/hetics1 #ahhi4 
,footnote #b3 ,/adl]3 ,kant's           
,teleology1 #ahgd2 ,! ,pr9ciples ( !    
,pure ,!ory ( ,k 9 ! ,kantian           
,philosophy1 #ahgf2 ,kant's ,!ory (     
,matt]1 #ahhc4  ,! ,g]man               

positivi/s#a3--;,e4 ,laas ( ,/rasburg   
7#ahcg-he71 ,a4 ,riehl ( ,freiburg 9    
,bad5 7born #ahdd71 & ,r4 ,av5>ius (    
,zuri* 7born #ahdc7--;develop _!        
s5sationali/ic !ory ( k 9 critical      
connection ) ,kant4 ,ern/ ,laas def9es  
positivism 7f\nd$ by ,protagoras1       
advocat$ 9 mod]n times by ,hume & ,j4,s4
 ,mill1 & ho/ile to ,platonic idealism7 
z t philosophy :i* recognizes no o!r    
f\ndations ?an positive facts 7i4e41    
p]ceptions71 & requires e op9ion to     
exhibit ! exp]i5ces on :i* x re/s4 ,its 
basis is con/itut$ by ?ree articles (   
belief3 7#a7 ,! correlative facts1      
subject & object1 exi/ & arise only 9   
connection 7objects are directly kn[n   
only z ! cont5ts ( a consci\sness1 cui  
objecta sunt1 subjects only z c5t]s (   
relation1 z ! sc5e or f\ndation ( a     
repres5tative cont5t1 cui subjecta sunt3
 outside my ?\ghts body does n exi/ z   
body1 nor ,i myself z s\l74 7#b7 ,!     
v>iability ( ! objects ( p]ception4 7#c7
 ,s5sationalism--all specific diff]5ces 

9 consci\sness mu/ be conceiv$ z        
diff]5ces 9 degree1 all high] m5tal     
processes & /ates1 includ+ ?\ght1 z !   
p]ceptions & exp]i5ces1 trans=m$ accord+
 to law1 ( be+s :i* feel1 h wants1      
possess memory1 & are capable (         
spontane\s motion4 ,! subject co9cides )
 its feel+ ( pleasure & pa91 f :i*      
s5sation is di/+ui%$ by its objective   
cont5t4 ,! illusions ( metaphysics are  
sci5tifically unt5able & practically    
unnecess>y4 ,v>i\s ye>n+s1 wants1       
pres5tim5ts1 hopes1 & fancies1 x is     
true1 lead beyond ! sph]e ( t :i* c be  
*eck$ by s5se & exp]i5ce1 b = none ( _! 
positions c any suffici5t pro( be       
adduc$4 ,z physics has disc>d$          
transc5d5t causes & le>n$ h[ to get     
along ) imman5t causes1 s e?ics also mu/
 endeavor to e/abli% ! wor? ( moral good
 )\t excursions into ! supras5sible4 ,! 
e?ical obligations arise naturally f    
human relations1 f e>?ly ne$s4 ,! ?ird  
volume ( ,laas's "w diff]s f ! e>li]    
ones by conc$+ ! rank ( facts to !      

pr9ciples ( logic z well z to p]ception4
 ,aloys ,riehl opposes ! !ory ( k 7:i*  
/>ts f ! fundam5tal fact ( s5sation7 z  
sci5tific philosophy to metaphysics z   
unsci5tific1 & bani%es ! doctr9e ( !    
practical ideals f ! realm ( sci5ce into
 ! region ( religion & art4 ,ri*>d      
,av5>ius def5ds ! pr9ciple ( pure       
exp]i5ce4 ,s5sation1 :i* is all t is    
left z objectively giv5 aft] ! removal (
 ! subjective additions1 con/itutes !   
cont5t1 & motion ! =m ( be+4  ,footnote 
#a3 ,laas3 ,idealism & ,positivism1     
#ahgi-hd4 ,riehl3 ,philosophical        
,criticism1 #ahgf-hg2 ,address ,on      
,sci5tific & ,unsci5tific ,philosophy1  
#ahhc4 ,av5>ius 7p4 #eih73 ,philosophy z
 ,?\ght conc]n+ ! ,_w accord+ to !      
,pr9ciple ( ,lea/ ,"w1 #ahgf2 ,critique 
( ,pure ,exp]i5ce1 vol4 i4 #ahhh1 vol4  
ii4 #ahij2 ,man's ,concept ( ! ,_w1     
#ahia4 ,c4 ,gr+ 7di$ #ahgi2 ,sy/em (    
,critical ,philosophy1 #ahge7 may also  
be plac$ "h4  ,) ! neo-,kantians & !    
positivi/s !re is associat$1 ?irdly1 a  

coh]5t gr\p ( notical ?9k]s1 :o1 reject+
 extram5tal elem5ts ( e k9d1 look on all
 conceivable be+ z m]ely a consci\s     
cont5t4 ,?is monism ( consci\sness is   
advocat$ by ,w4 ,s*uppe ( ,greifswald   
7born #ahcf2 ,notical ,logic1 #ahgh71   
,j4 ,rehmke1 also ( ,greifswald 7,! ,_w 
z ,p]cept & ,concept1 #ahhj2 ,! ,"q ( ! 
,s\l 9 vol4 ii4 ( ! ,zeits*rift fr      
,psy*ologie1 #ahia71 ,a4 von ,leclair   
7,contributions to a ,moni/ic ,!ory (   
,k1 #ahhb71 & ,r4 von ,s*ub]t-,sold]n   
7,f\ndations ( a ,!ory ( ,k1 #ahhd2 ,on 
! ,transc5d5ce ( ,object & ,subject1    
#ahhb2 ,f\ndations = an ,e?ics1 #ahhg74 
,j4 ,b]gmann#a 9 ,m>burg 7born #ahdj7   
occupies a k9dr$ position4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,b]gmann3 ,outl9es ( a ,!ory (      
,consci\sness1 #ahgj2 ,pure ,logic1     
#ahgi2 ,be+ & ,kn[+1 #ahhj2 ,!          
,fundam5tal ,problems ( ,logic1 #ahhb2  
,on ! ,"r1 #ahhc2 ,lectures on          
,metaphysics1 #ahhf2 ,on ! ,beautiful1  
#ahhg2 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 vol4 i41  
,pre-,kantian ,philosophy1 #ahib4  ,x is

 ! same sci5tific _s ( ! "t1 :i* 9 !    
fifties l$ _m :o 7 we>y ( ! ideali/ic   
speculations ov] to mat]ialism1 t n[    
secures su* wide dissem9ation & s       
widespread favor = ! endeavors ( !      
neo-,kantians & ! positivi/s or         
neo-,baconians1 :o desire to see        
metaphysics /rick5 f ! li/ ( ! sci5ces &
 replac$ by notics1 & ! !ory ( ! _w     
relegat$ to fai?4 ,! philosophy ( !     
pres5t1 l ! pre-,socratic philosophy & !
 philosophy ( ! e>ly mod]n p]iod1 we>s !
 badge ( physics4 ,! _w is conceiv$ f ! 
/&po9t ( nature1 psy*ical ph5om5a are 9 
"p neglect$1 9 "p see _! inconv5i5t     
claims r$uc$ to a m9imum1 :ile x is b   
r>ely t we f9d an appreciation ( _!     
indep5d5ce & co-ord9ate value1 n to     
speak ( _! sup]ior position4 ,! p[] :i* 
natural sci5ce has ga9$ ov] philosophy  
dates ess5tially f a s]ies ( fam\s      
discov]ies & !ories1 by :i* sci5ce has  
op5$ up entirely new & wide outlooks1 & 
^: title to be consid]$ 9 ! =mation ( a 
g5]al view ( reality is inconte/able4   

,to m5tion only ! mo/ prom95t1 ! foll[+ 
h all posit$ important & f>-rea*+       
problems = philosophy z well z = sci5ce3
 ,johannes ,mll]'s 7,mll] di$ #aheh7    
!ory ( ! specific en]gies ( ! s5ses1 :i*
 ,helmholtz made use ( z an empirical   
confirmation ( ! ,kantian apriorism2 !  
law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy discov]$ by 
,rob]t ,may] 7#ahdb1 #ahej2 ,helmholtz1 
#ahdg1 #ahfb71 &1 9 p>ticul>1 ! law ( ! 
trans=mation ( heat into motion1 :i*    
invit$ an exam9ation ( all ! =ces active
 9 ! _w to te/ _! mutual conv]tibility2 
! ext5sion ( me*anism to ! vital        
processes1 favor$ ev5 by ,lotze2 ! r5ew$
 conflict betwe5 atomism & dynamism2    
fur!r1 ! ,d>w9ian !ory#a 7#ahei71 :i*   
makes organic species develop f "o ano!r
 by natural selection 9 ! /ruggle =     
exi/5ce 7?r\gh inh]itance & adaptation72
 f9ally1 ! meta-geometrical             
speculations#b ( ,gauss 7#ahbh71        
,riemann 7,on ! ,hypo!ses :i* lie at !  
,basis ( ,geometry1 #ahed1 publi%$ 9    
#ahfg71 ,helmholtz 7#ahfh71 ,b4 ,erdmann

 7,! ,axioms ( ,geometry1 #ahgg74 ,g4   
,cantor1 & o!rs1 :i* look on our        
,euclidean space ( ?ree dim5sions z a   
special case ( ! un9tuitable yet ?9kable
 analytic concept ( a space ( n         
dim5sions4 ,! circum/ance t ^! !ories   
are /ill l>gely hypo!tical 9 _! own     
field appe>s to h /irr$ up r ?an mod]at$
 ! zeal = c>ry+ !m ov] into o!r         
dep>tm5ts & = apply+ !m to ! _w z a     
:ole4 ,?us1 especially1 ! ,d>w9ians#c h 
undaunt$ly attempt$ to utilize !        
biological hypo!sis ( ! ma/] z a        
philosophical pr9ciple ( ! _w1 & to br+ 
! m5tal sci5ces "u ! po9t ( view ( !    
me*anical !ory ( developm5t1 ?\gh ?us f>
 ) m d>+ & noise ?an success4 ,! f9ely  
conceiv$ e?ics ( ,hffd+ 7p4 #ehe7 is an 
exception to ! rule :i* is ! object (   
?is rem>k4  ,footnote #a3 ,a critical   
exposition ( ! mod]n doctr9e (          
developm5t & ( ! causes us$ to expla9 x 
is giv5 by ,otto ,hamann1               
,entwickelungslehre und ,d>w9ismus1     
,j5a1 #ahib4 ,cf4 also1 ,o4 ,liebmann1  

,analysis d] ,wirkli*keit2 & ,ed4 von   
,h>tmann 7above1 p4 #faj74 ,among !     
num]\s works 9 ,engli% ! read] may be   
ref]r$ to ! article ,evolution1 by      
,huxley & ,sully1 ,encyclop$ia          
,britannica1 #i? ed41 vol4 viii42       
,wallace's ,d>w9ism1 #ahhi2 ,romanes1   
,d>w9 & aft] ,d>w91 i4 ,! ,d>w9ian      
,!ory1 #ahib2 & ,conn's ,evolution (    
,to-day1 #ahhf4--,,tr4  ,footnote #b3   
,cf4 ,liebmann1 ,analysis d]            
,wirkli*keit1 #b;d ed41 pp4 #ec-ei4 ,g4 
,frege 7,begriffss*rift1 #ahgi2 ,!      
,f\ndations ( ,ari?metic1 #ahhd2        
,function & ,concept1 #ahia2 ,on ,s5se &
 ,mean+ 9 ! ,zeits*rift fr ,philosophie1
 vol4 c4 #ahib7 has also *os5 ! region  
int]m$iate betwe5 ma!matics & philosophy
 = 8 field ( "w4 ,we note1 fur!r1 ,e4,g4
 ,huss]l1 ,philosophy ( ,ari?metic1 vol4
 i41 #ahia4  ,footnote #c3 ,ern/        
,haeckel ( ,j5a 7born #ahcd2 ,g5]al     
,morphology1 #ahff2 ,natural ,hi/ory (  
,creation1 #ahfh ,engli%1 #ahge ,i      
,an?ropog5y1 #ahgd2 ,aims & ,me?ods ( ! 

,developm5t ,hi/ory ( ,to-day1 #ahge2   
,popul> ,lectures1 #ahgh seq4--,engli%1 
#ahhc71 ,g4 ,jg]1 ,a4 ,s*lei*] 7,!      
,d>w9ian ,!ory & ! ,sci5ce ( ,language1 
#ahfe71 ,ern/ ,krause 7,c>us ,/]ne1 !   
editor ( ,kosmos7 ,o4 ,casp>i1 ,c>n]i   
7,morals & ,d>w9ism1 #ahga71 ,o4        
,s*midt1 ,du ,prel1 ,paul ,re 7,! ,orig9
 ( ! ,moral ,feel+s1 #ahgg2 ,! ,g5esis (
 ,consci5ce1 #ahhe2 ,! ,illusion ( ,free
 ,w1 #ahhe72 ,g4,h4 ,s*neid] 7,! ,animal
 ,w1 #ahhj2 ,! ,human ,w1 #ahhb2 ,!     
,good & ,,iii ( ! ,human ,race1 #ahhc74 
,besides ! !ory ( k1 9 ! elaboration (  
:i* ! mo/ em95t naturali/s#a p>ticipate 
) acut5ess & success1 psy*ology & !     
practical discipl9es also betray !      
influ5ce ( ! sci5tific _s4 ,:ile        
sociology & e?ics1 foll[+ ! ,engli%     
model1 seek an empirical basis & beg9 to
 make philosophical use ( /ati/ical     
results 7,e4,f4 ,s*ffle1 ,frame & ,life 
( ! ,social ,body1 new ed41 #ahhe2 ,a4  
von ,oett+51 ,moral ,/ati/ic 9 its      
,significance = a ,social ,e?ics1 #c;d  

ed41 #ahhb71 psy*ology endeavors to     
atta9 exact results 9 reg>d to psy*ical 
life & its relation to its physical     
basis--besides ,fe*n] & ! ,h]b>tians1   
,w4 ,wundt & ,a4 ,horwicz %\ld be       
m5tion$ "h4 ,wundt &1 ( late1 ,haeckel g
 back to ! ,sp9ozi/ic p>allelism (      
mat]ial & psy*ical exi/5ce1 only t !    
latt] emphasizes m]ely ! insep>ability  
7,ni*tohnee9&]7 ( ! two sides 7!        
cell-body & ! cell-s\l7 ) a real        
diff]5ce betwe5 !m & a metaphysical     
prepond]ance ( ! mat]ial side1 :ile !   
=m] emphasizes ! ess5tial unity ( body &
 s\l1 & ! high] reality ( ! spiritual   
side4  ,footnote #a3 ,helmholtz1 ,vir*[ 
7born #ahba71 ,zlln] 7#ahcd-hb2 ,on !   
,nature ( ,comets1 #ahgb71 & ,du        
,bois-,reymond 7born #ahah71 :o1 9 8    
lectures ,on ! ,limits ( ! ,k ( ,nature1
 #ahgb1 & ,! ,sev5 ,_w-riddles1 #ahhj   
7bo? toge!r 9 #ahhb1 & repr9t$ 9 ! fir/ 
s]ies ( 8 ,addresses1 #ahhf71 looks on !
 orig9 ( life1 ! purposive ord] (       
nature1 & ?\ght z problems soluble 9 !  

future1 b decl>es1 on ! o!r h&1 t !     
nature ( matt] 7atoms7 & =ce 7actio 9   
di/ant71 ! orig9 ( motion1 ! g5esis (   
consci\sness 7( s5sation1 toge!r )      
pleasure & pa97 f ! kn[able conditions (
 psy*ical life1 & ! fre$om ( ! w1 are   
absolute limits to our k ( nature4  7b7 
,ideali/ic ,reaction aga9/ ! ,sci5tific 
,_s4--,9 opposition to ! prepond]ance ( 
natural sci5ce & ! empirico-skeptical   
t5d5cy ( ! philosophy ( ! day condition$
 by x1 an ideali/ic c\nt]-movem5t is    
mak+ itself increas+ly felt z ! ye>s g  
on4 ,wilhelm ,dil!y#a ab&ons metaphysics
 z a basis1 x is true1 b 7) ! ass5t (   
,gi]ke1 ,preussis*e ,jahrb*]1 vol4 liii4
 #ahhd7 decl>es aga9/ ! transf] ( !     
me?od ( natural sci5ce to ! m5tal       
sci5ces1 :i* require a special          
f\ndation4 ,9 spite ( 8 critical        
rejection ( metaphysics1 ,wilhelm       
,w9delb& 9 ,/rasburg 7born #ahdh2       
,preludes1 #ahhd7 is1 l ,dil!y1 to be   
c\nt$ among ! ideali/s4 ,9 opposition to
 ! individualism ( ! positivi/s1 !      

folk-psy*ologi/s--at _! head ,/e9?al &  
,laz>us 7p4 #ecf72 ,gu/av ,glogau#b 9   
,kiel 7born #ahdd7 is an adh]5t ( ! same
 movem5t--def5d ! p[] ( ! univ]sal ov]  
individual spirits4 ,! _s ( ! p is n a  
phrase1 an empty "n1 b a real =ce1 n !  
sum ( ! individuals belong+ to ! p1 b an
 encompass+ & controll+ p[]1 :i* br+s =?
 9 ! :ole body processes 7e4g41         
language7 :i* c\ld n occur 9 individuals
 z su*4 ,x is only z a memb] ( society t
 anyone becomes truly man2 ! community  
is ! subject ( ! high] life ( _s4       
,footnote #a3 ,dil!y3 ,introduction to !
 ,m5tal ,sci5ces1 "p i41 #ahhc2 ,poetic 
,creation 9 ! ,zell] ,aufstze1 #ahhg2   
,contributions to ! ,solution ( ! ,"q ( 
! ,orig9 ( our ,belief 9 ! ,reality ( ! 
,ext]nal ,_w1 & its ,validity1          
,sitzungsb]i*te ( ! ,b]l9 ,academy (    
,sci5ces1 #ahij2 ,conception & ,analysis
 ( ,man 9 ! ,fifte5? & ,sixte5?         
,c5turies 9 ! ,ar*iv fr ,ges*i*te d]    
,philosophie1 vols4 iv41 v41 #ahia-ib4  
,footnote #b3 ,glogau3 ,sket* ( !       

,fundam5tal ,philosophical ,sci5ces 7"p 
i41 ,! ,=m & ! ,laws ( ,motion ( ! ,_s1 
#ahhj2 "p ii41 ,! ,nature & !           
,fundam5tal ,=ms ( ,consci\s ,_s1       
#ahhh72 ,outl9es ( ,psy*ology2 #ahhd4   
,if folk-psy*ology1 ^: title b          
imp]fectly expresses ! compreh5sive     
endeavor to con/ruct a psy*ology (      
society or ( ! univ]sal _s1 is1 z x 71  
an empirical confirmation ( ,hegel's    
!ory ( ,objective ,_s1 ,rudolf ,euck5#a 
7born #ahdf71 press+ on 9 ! ,fi*tean    
mann] f ! second>y facts ( consci\sness 
to an orig9al real-life1 endeavors to   
solve ! "q ( a univ]sal becom+1 ( an    
all-p]vasive =ce1 ( a support+ unity    
7totality7 9 ! life ( _s 7nei!r 9 a     
purely notical nor a purely             
metaphysical1 b7 9 a nological way1 &   
dem&s t ! fundam5tal sci5ce or doctr9e (
 pr9ciples direct its att5tion n to     
cognition by itself1 b to ! activity (  
psy*ical life z a :ole4  ,footnote #a3  
,euck53 ,! ,unity ( ,spiritual ,life 9 !
 ,consci\sness & ,de$s ( ,humanity1     

#ahhh2 ,prolegom5a to ?is1 #ahhe4 ,a    
detail$ analysis ( ! latt] by ,falck5b]g
 is giv5 9 ! ,zeits*rift fr             
,philosophie1 vol4 xc1 #ahhg2 cf4 above1
 pp4 #ag & #faj4  ,we h else:]e discuss$
 ! m rec5t attempts to e/abli% a        
metaphysic :i* %all be empirically well 
gr\nd$ & %all cauti\sly rise f facts4#a 
,9 reg>d to ! possibility ( metaphysics 
?ree p>ties are to be di/+ui%$3 ,on !   
left1 ! positivi/s1 ! neo-,kantians1 & !
 moni/s ( consci\sness1 :o d5y x out (  
h&4 ,on ! "r1 a s]ies (                 
philosoph]s--e4g41 adh]5ts ( ,hegel1    
,h]b>t1 & ,s*op5hau]--:o1 )\t mak+ any  
concessions to ! mod]n !ory ( k1 hold   
fa/ to ! possibility ( a speculative    
metaphysics ( ! old type4 ,9 ! c5t]1 a  
gr\p ( ?9k]s :o are will+ to r5\nce     
nei!r a solid notical f\ndation nor !   
atta9m5t ( metaphysical conclusions--s  
,edu>d von ,h>tmann1 ,wundt1#b ,euck51  
,volkelt 7pp4 #eij1 #fag74 ,otto        
,liebmann 7born #ahdj2 ,on ! ,analysis (
 ,reality1 #ahgf1 #b;d ed41 #ahhj2      

,?\ghts & ,facts1 ,heft i4 #ahhb7 dem&s 
a %>p sep>ation betwe5 ! c]ta9 & !      
unc]ta9 & an exact e/imation ( ! degree 
( probability :i* !ories possess2 puts !
 pr9ciples ( metaphysics "u ! rubric (  
logical hypo!sis2 &1 9 8 ,climax ( !    
,!ories1 #ahhd1 calls att5tion to ! fact
 t exp]i5tial sci5ce1 9 addition to     
axioms necess>ily or apodictically c]ta9
 & empeiremes possess+ actual or        
ass]tory c]ta9ty1 ne$s1 fur!r1 a numb] (
 int]polation maxims1 :i* =m an         
attribute ( our type ( intellectual     
organization 7i4e41 pr9ciples1 accord+  
to ! /&>d ( :i* we supplem5t ! fragm5t>y
 & discrete s]ies ( s+le p]ceptions &   
isolat$ obs]vations by ! int]polation ( 
! ne$$ int]m$iate l9ks1 s t !y =m a     
connect$ exp]i5ce74 ,! mo/ important (  
^! maxims are ! pr9ciples ( real        
id5tity1 ( ! cont9uity ( exi/5ce1 (     
causality1 & ( ! cont9uity ( becom+4    
,exp]i5ce is a gift ( ! und]/&+2 !      
premises1 z a rule1 lat5t 9 ord9>y      
consci\sness1 on ^: anticipatory        

application our exp]i5ce is bas$        
?r\gh\t1 ass]t some?+ absolutely        
incapable ( be+ exp]i5c$4 ,if1 9 ord] to
 ! production ( a pure exp]i5ce1 we     
elim9ate all subjective additions ( !   
und]/&+ conta9$ 9 exp]i5tial ?\ght 7all 
t _c be pres5t at ! mom5t or locally at 
h&1 9 %ort1 all t _c be ! direct object 
& cont5t ( actual obs]vation71 ?is      
breaks up into an unord]$1 unconnect$   
aggregate ( discont9u\s p]ceptual       
fragm5ts2 9 ord] t a complete &         
articulat$ condition ( exp]i5ce may     
result1 ^! fragm5ts 7! purely factual   
cont5t ( obs]vation1 ! incoh]5t matt] ( 
p]ception7 mu/ be supplem5t$ & connect$ 
by v mu* t is n obs]v$4  ,footnote #a3  
,r4 ,falck5b]g1 ,ueb] die geg5wrtige    
,lage d] deuts*5 ,philosophie1 inaugural
 address at ,erlang51 ,leipsic1 #ahij4  
,footnote #b3 ,wundt3 ,essays1 #ahhe1   
includ+ ,philosophy & ,sci5ce2 ,sy/em ( 
,philosophy1 #ahhi4 ,on ! latt] cf4     
,volkelt's pap] 9 ! ,philosophis*e      
,monat%efte1 vol4 xxvii4 #ahia2 & on !  

,essays a notice by ! same au?or 9 !    
same review1 vol4 xxiii4 #ahhg4  ,fur!r1
 a reaction aga9/ crude naturalism is   
obs]vable 9 ! practical field1 ?\gh     
political economi/s 7,ros*]7 & juri/s   
take a m active "p 9 x ?an !            
philosoph]s4 ,p]sonally ,r4 von ,jh]+   
7#ahah-ib2 ,purpose 9 ,law1 #b vols41   
#ahgg-hc1 #b;d ed41 #ahhd-hf7 /&s on    
ideali/ic gr\nd1 al?\gh1 reject+ !      
nativi/ic & =mali/ic !ory1 he is 9      
pr9ciple an adh]5t ( realism1 ( !       
pr9ciple ( int]e/ & social utility 7!   
moral is t ,:i* is p]man5tly useful to  
society74  ,f9ally1 simil> motives      
und]lie ! gr[+ int]e/ 9 ! hi/ory (      
philosophy4 ,! ideali/ic impulse seeks !
 n\ri%m5t :i* ! un-metaphysical pres5t  
d5ies to x f ! great works ( ! pa/1 &   
hopes1 by keep+ alive ! classical       
a*ievem5ts ( previ\s times1 to enhance !
 consci\sness ( ! urg5cy &              
irrepressibl5ess ( ! highe/ que/ions1 & 
to awak5 c\rage = r5ew$ attempts at _!  
solution4 ,?us ! /udy ( hi/ory ent]s !  

s]vice ( sy/ematic philosophy4  7c7 ,!  
,special ,philosophical ,sci5ces4--,! m 
! c\rage to attack ! c5tral problems (  
philosophy has be5 p>alyz$ by !         
neo-,kantian !ory ( k & ! com+-9 ( !    
positivi/ic _s1 ! m lively has be5 ! "w 
( ! la/ decades 9 ! special dep>tm5ts3 !
 transf] ( ! c5t] ( gravity f           
metaphysics to ! p>ticul> sci5ces is !  
mo/ prom95t *>act]i/ic ( ! philosophy ( 
! "t4 ,logic sees c5tury-old convictions
 %att]$ & new f\ndations aris+4         
,psy*ology has ent]$ into competition ) 
physiology 9 reg>d to ! discov]y ( !    
laws ( ! psy*ical functions :i* dep5d on
 bodily processes1 :ile metaphysical    
que/ions are =c$ into ! backgr\nd & !re 
is a gr[+ di/ru/ ( ! reliability ( inn] 
obs]vation4 ,! philosophy ( religion is 
favor$ ) undim9i%$ int]e/ & ae/hetics1  
aft] long neglect1 ) a r5ewal (         
att5tion2 ! philosophy ( hi/ory is ab\t 
to reconqu] its =m] rights4 ,!re is1    
moreov]1 an especially lively int]e/ 9  
e?ics2 & ! inve/igation ( ! hi/ory (    

philosophy is m widely ext5d$ ?an ev]   
be=e4 ,we w close our sket* ) a %ort    
survey ( ! p>ticul> discipl9es4  ,9 !   
dep>tm5t ( logic ! foll[+ %\ld be       
m5tion$ z classical a*ievem5ts3 ! works 
( ,*ri/oph ,sigw>t ( ,tb+5 7vol4 i4     
#ahgc1 #b;d ed41 #ahhi2 vol4 ii4 #ahgh71
 ( ,lotze 7p4 #fje71 & ( ,wundt 7vol4 i4
 ,erk5ntnisslehre1 #ahhj2 vol4 ii4      
,me?od5lehre1 #ahhc74 ,besides ^!1      
,b]gmann 7p4 #fbj71 ,s*uppe 7p4 #fai71 &
 ,b5no ,erdmann 7,logik1 vol4 i4 #ahib7 
des]ve notice4  ,9 psy*ology ! foll[+   
writ]s h made !mselves prom95t3 ,wilhelm
 ,wundt at ,leipsic 7born #ahcb71       
,grundzge d] physiologis*5 ,psy*ologie1 
#ahgd1 #c;d ed41 #ahhg2 ,a4 ,horwicz1   
,psy*ologis*e ,analys5 auf physiologis*]
 ,grundlage1 #ahgb seq42 ,franz ,br5tano
 9 ,vi5na 7born #ahch71 ,psy*ologie vom 
empiris*5 ,/&punkte1 vol4 i4 #ahgd2 ,c>l
 ,/umpf ( ,muni* 7born #ahdh71 ,ueb] d5 
psy*ologis*5 ,ursprung d]               
,raumvor/ellung1 #ahgc1 ,tonpsy*ologie1 
vol4 i4 #ahhc1 vol4 ii4 #ahij2 ,!odor   

,lipps ( ,breslau 7born #ahea71         
,grund?atsa*5 des ,seel5leb5s1 #ahhc4 ,!
 foll[+ may be m5tion$ 9 ! same         
connection3 ,j4,h4 ,witte1 ,das ,wes5 d]
 ,seele1 #ahhh2 ,h4 ,mn/]b]g1 ,die      
,will5%&lung1 #ahhh1 ,beitrge zur       
exp]im5tell5 ,psy*ologie1 #ahhi seq12   
,gosw9 ,k4 ,uphues at ,halle1           
,wahrnehmung und ,empf9dung1 #ahhh1     
,ueb] die ,er9n]ung1 #ahhi2 ,h4         
,s*midkunz1 ,psy*ologie d] ,sugge/ion1  
#ahib2 ,h4 ,ebb+haus1 ! co-editor ( !   
,zeits*rift fr ,psy*ologie una          
,physiologie d] ,s9nesorgane1 #ahij     
seq42 ,h4 ,spitta2 ,max ,dessoir1 ,d]   
,hauts9n1 9 ! ,ar*iv fr ,anatomie una   
,physiologie1 #ahib4 ,! foll[+ works are
 psy*ological contributions to ! !ory ( 
k3 ,e4,l4 ,fis*]1 ,!orie d]             
,gesi*tswahrnehmung1 #ahia2 ,h]mann     
,s*w>z1 ,das ,wahrnehmungsproblem1      
#ahib4 ,f9ally we may add ,a4 ,dorn] 9  
,knigsb]g1 ,das m5s*li*e ,erk5n51 #ahhg2
 & ,e4,l4 ,fis*]1 ,die ,grundfrag5 d]   
,erk5ntnis/heorie1 #ahhg4  ,! lit]ature 

( moral philosophy has be5 sub/antially 
enri*$ by ,wundt1 ,e?ik1 #ahhf1 #b;d    
ed41 #ahib2 & ,fri$ri* ,pauls51 ,sy/em  
d] ,e?ik1 #ahhi1 #b;d ed41 #ahia4 ,we   
may m5tion1 fur!r1 ,baumann 7p4 #fja72  
,s*uppe1 ,grundzge d] ,e?ik und         
,re*tsphilosophie1 #ahhb2 ,witte1       
,freiheit des ,will5s1 #ahhb2 ,g4 ,class
 9 ,erlang51 ,ideale und ,gt]1 #ahhf2   
,ri*>d ,wallas*ek1 ,ide5 zur praktis*5  
,philosophic1 #ahhf2 ,f4 ,tnnies 9      
,kiel1 ,geme9s*aft und ,gesells*aft1    
#ahhg2 ,a4 ,dr+1 ,philosophis*e         
,gt]lehre1 #ahhh2 ,?4 ,ziegl]1          
,sittli*es ,se9 und ,w]d51 #b;d ed41    
#ahij2 ,g4 ,simmel1 ,e9leitung 9 die    
,moralwiss5s*aft1 vol4 i4 #ahib4  ,( !  
new] works 9 ! field ( ae/hetics1 9     
addition to ,a4 ,zeis+'s ,ae/hetis*e    
,=s*ung51 #ahee1 ,c4 ,h]mann's          
,ae/hetik1 #ahge1 & ,h>tmann's          
,philosophie des ,s*n51 #ahhg1 we may   
m5tion ! ,e9leitung 9 die ,ae/hetik (   
,k>l ,groos1 #ahib1 & ! foll[+ by       
,lipps3 ,d] ,/reit b] die ,tragdie1     

#ahij2 ,ae/hetis*e ,faktor5 d]          
,raumans*auung1 #ahia2 ! essay          
,psy*ologie d] ,komik 7,philosophis*e   
,monat%efte1 vols4 xxiv4-xxv4 #ahhh-hi71
 & ,ae/hetis*e ,litt]aturb]i*te1 79 !   
same review1 vol4 xxvi4 #ahij seq474    
,among ! writ]s & works on ! philosophy 
( hi/ory we may note ,conrad ,h]mann 9  
,leipsic 7born #ahai71 ,philosophie d]  
,ges*i*te1 #ahgj2 ,b]nheim1             
,ges*i*ts=s*ung und                     
,ges*i*tsphilosophie1 #ahhj2 ,k>l       
,fis*]1 ,i/ e9e ,philosophie d]         
,ges*i*te wiss5s*aftli* er=d]li* bezw4  
mgli*8 ,dill5burg ,programme1 #ahhi2    
,h9neb]g1 ,die philosophis*5 ,grundlag5 
d] ,ges*i*tswiss5s*aft 9 ,sybel's       
,hi/oris*e ,zeits*rift1 vol4 lxiii4     
#ahhi2 ,a4 ,dippe1 ,das ,ges*i*ts/udium 
mit se95 ,ziel5 und ,frag51 #ahia2      
,georg ,simmel1 ,die ,probleme d]       
,ges*i*tsphilosophie1 #ahib4  ,9 !      
philosophy ( religion1 :i* is discuss$  
especially by ! !ologians1 a            
neo-,kantian & a neo-,hegelian t5d5cy   

confront ea* o!r4 ,! =m]1 divid+ 9 its  
turn1 is repres5t$1 on ! "o h&1 by !    
,rits*lian s*ool--,w4 ,h]rmann 9 ,m>burg
 7,die ,metaphysik 9 d] ,!ologie1 #ahgf1
 ,die ,religion im ,v]hltniss zum       
,welt]k5n5 und zur ,sittli*keit1 #ahhi71
 ,j4 ,kaftan 9 ,b]l9 7,das ,wes5 d]     
*ri/li*5 ,religion1 #ahha7--;&1 on !    
o!r1 by ,r4,a4 ,lipsius 9 ,j5a 7born    
#ahcj2 ,dogmatik1 #ahgf1 #b;d ed41      
#ahgi2 ,philosophie und ,religion1      
#ahhe74 ,! latt] is repres5t$ by ,a4,e4 
,bi$]mann ( ,zuri* 7#ahai-he2 ,*ri/li*e 
,dogmatik1 #ahfh2 #b;d ed41 #ahhd-he71 a
 pupil ( ,w4 ,vatke1 & by ,otto         
,pfleid]] ( ,b]l9 7born #ahci2          
,religionsphilosophie1 #ahgi2 #b;d ed41 
#ahhc-d74 ,! neo-,kantians base religion
 exclusively on ! practical side ( human
 nature1 especially on ! moral law1     
d]ive x f ! contra/ betwe5 ext]nal      
dep5d5ce on nature & ! inn] fre$om or   
sup]natural de/9ation ( ! _s1 & wi% x   
pres]v$ f all int]mixture ) metaphysics4
 ,accord+ to ! neo-,hegelians1 on !     

contr>y1 ! !oretical elem5t 9 religion  
is no less ess5tial2 & is capable ( be+ 
purifi$1 ( be+ elevat$ f ! =m (         
repres5tation1 :i* is full (            
contradictions1 into ! adequate =m (    
pure ?\ght1 capable1 !re=e1 (           
reconciliation ) philosophy4 ,hugo      
,delff 7,ueb] d5 ,weg zum ,wiss5 und zur
 ,gewis%eit zu gelang51 #ahhb2 ,die     
,hauptprobleme d] ,philosophie und      
,religion1 #ahhf7 foll[s ,jacobi's      
c\rse4  ,among ! num]\s works on !      
hi/ory ( philosophy1 besides !          
ma/]pieces ( ,zell]1 ,j4,e4 ,erdmann1 & 
,kuno ,fis*]1 ! foll[+ are especially   
wor?y ( att5tion3  ,cl4 ,bumk] 9        
,breslau1 ,das ,problem d] ,mat]ie 9 d] 
grie*is*5 ,philosophie1 #ahij2 ,h4      
,bonitz1 ,platonis*e ,/udi51 #c;d ed41  
#ahhf1 ,ari/otelis*e ,/udi51 #ahfb seq41
 ,index ,ari/otelicus1 #ahgj1 ,kle9e    
,s*rift52 ,p4 ,deuss5 7born #ahde71 ,das
 ,sy/em d] ,v$anta1 #ahhc1 ,h4 ,diels 9 
,b]l91 ,doxographi ,graeci1 #ahgi2      
,euck5 9 ,j5a 7p4 #ag71 ,die ,me?ode d] 

ari/otelis*5 ,=s*ung1 #ahgb1 ,address   
,ueb] d5 ,w]? d] ,ges*i*te d]           
,philosophie1 #ahgd2 ,j4 ,freud5?al 9   
,breslau 7born #ahci1 pp4 #fc1 #aah71   
,hell5i/is*e ,/udi51 #c ,hefte1 #ahgi1  
,ueb] die ,!ologie des ,x5ophanes1      
#ahhf2 ,m4 ,he9ze 9 ,leipsic1 ,die      
,lehre vom ,logos 9 d] grie*is*5        
,philosophie1 #ahgb2 ,g4 ,freih]r von   
,h]tl+ 9 ,muni* 7born #ahdc71 ,mat]ie   
und ,=m und die ,def9ition d] ,seele bei
 ,ari/oteles1 #ahga1 ,alb]tus ,magnus1  
#ahhj2 ,h4 ,heussl] 9 ,basle 7p4 #fe    
note71 ,d] ,rationalismus des ,,xvii4   
,jahrhund]ts 9 se95 ,beziehung5 zur     
,eniwickelungslehre1 #ahhe2 ,fr4 ,jodl 9
 ,prague 7born #ahdi2 pp4 #af1 #bba     
note72 ,a4 ,krohn 7#ahdj-hi71 ,sokrates 
und ,x5ophon1 #ahgd1 ,d] platonis*e     
,/aat1 #ahgf1 ,die platonis*e ,frage1   
#ahgh--on ,krohn1 an obitu>y by         
,falck5b]g 9 ! ,biographis*es ,jahrbu*  
fr ,alt]?umskunde1 ,jahrg4 #ab1 #ahhi2  
,p4 ,natorp 7pp4 #hh note1 #eih71       
,=s*ung5 zur ,ges*i*te des              

,erk5ntnissproblems im ,alt]?um1 #ahhd2 
,edmund ,pfleid]] 9 ,tb+5 7born #ahdb2  
p4 #aac note#a71 ,empirismus und        
,skepsis im ,d4 ,humes ,philosophie1    
#ahgd1 ,die ,philosophie des ,h]aklit im
 ,li*te d] ,my/]i5idee1 #ahhf2 ,k4 von  
,prantl 7#ahbj-hh71 ,ges*i*te d] ,logik 
im ,ab5dl&e1 #d vols41 #ahee-gj2 ,c>l   
,s*a>s*midt 7pp4 #hh note1 #aag-aah72   
,johannes ,s>isb]i5sis1 #ahfb1 ,die     
,sammlung d] platonis*5 ,s*rift51 #ahff2
 ,l4 ,s*midt 9 ,m>burg 7born #ahbd71    
,die ,e?ik d] alt5 ,grie*51 #ahha2      
,gu/av ,s*neid]1 ,die platonis*e        
,metaphysik1 #ahhd2 ,h4 ,siebeck 9      
,giess51 ,unt]su*ung5 zur ,philosophie  
d] ,grie*51 #ahgc1 #b;d ed41 #ahhh1     
,ges*i*te d] ,psy*ologie1 "p i4         
#ahhj-hd2 ,*r4 von ,sigw>t 7born #ahcj2 
pp4 #ag1 #aah72 ,he9ri* von ,/e9 9      
,ro/ock 7born #ahcc71 ,sieb5 ,b*] zur   
,ges*i*te des ,platonismus1 #ahfb-ge2   
,ludwig ,/e9 9 ,b]ne1 editor ( ! ,ar*iv 
fr ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 f\nd$ 9   
#ahgg1 ,die ,psy*ologie d] ,/oa1 ,i4    

,metaphysis*-,an?ropologis*] ,!il1      
#ahhf1 ,,ii4 ,erk5ntnis/heorie1 #ahhh1  
,leibniz und ,sp9oza1 #ahij2 ,l4        
,/rmpell1 ,ges*i*te d] grie*is*5        
,philosophie1 #ahed1 #ahfa2 ,susemihl 9 
,greifswald1 ,die ,politik des          
,ari/oteles1 ,greek & ,g]man ) notes1   
#ahgi1 fur!r1 a s]ies ( essays on ,plato
 & ,ari/otle2 ,tei*mll] 7p4 #fja72      
,tr5del5burg 7pp4 #fjj-fja71 ,ari/otelis
 de ,anima1 #b;d ed41 by ,belg]4 #ahhg2 
,?4 ,waitz1 ,ari/otelis ,organon1       
#ahdd-df2 ,j4 ,walt] 9 ,knigsb]g1 ,die  
,lehre von d] praktis*5 ,v]nunft 9 d]   
grie*is*5 ,philosophie1 #ahgd1 ,ges*i*te
 d] ,ae/hetik im ,alt]?um1 #ahib2 ,tob4 
,wildau] 9 ,innsbruck1 ,die ,psy*ologie 
des ,will5s bei ,sokrates1 ,platon1 und 
,ari/oteles1 #ahgg1 #ahgi2 ,w4          
,w9delbund 9 ,/rasburg 7pp4 #ae-af71    
,ges*i*te d] alt5 ,philosophie1 #ahhh2  
,!ob4 ,ziegl] 9 ,/rasburg1 ,ges*i*te d] 
*ri/li*5 ,e?ik1 #ahhf1 #b;d ed41 )      
index1 #ahib2 ,rob4 ,zimm]mann 7pp4 #ai 
note1 #cca1 #ecf71 ,/udi5 und ,kritik51 

#ahgj4   #d4 ,retrospect4  ,9 ord] to   
avoid ! appe>ance ( arbitr>y con/ruction
 we h be5 sp>+ ) ref]5ces ( a           
philosophico-hi/orical "*4 ,9           
conclusion1 look+ back at ! p]iod pass$ 
ov]1 we may give expression to "s       
convictions conc]n+ ! guid+ ?reads 9 !  
developm5t ( mod]n philosophy1 ?\gh ^!  
"h claim only ! rights ( subjective     
op9ion4  ,a mirror ( mod]n culture1 &   
consci\s ( its %>p anti!sis to          
,s*ola/icism1 mod]n philosophy 9 its    
pre-,kantian p]iod is pre-em95tly       
*>act]iz$ by naturalism4 ,nature1 z a   
sy/em ( masses mov$ accord+ to law1 =ms 
n only ! favorite object ( inve/igation1
 b also ! /&>d by :i* psy*ical reality  
is judg$ & expla9$4 ,! two directions 9 
:i* ?is naturalism expresses itself1 !  
me*anical view ( ! _w1 :i* endeavors to 
und]/& ! univ]se f ! /&po9t ( nature &  
all becom+ f ! /&po9t ( motion1#a & !   
intellectuali/ic view1 :i* seeks to     
und]/& ! m9d f ! /&po9t ( k1 are mo/    
intimately connect$4 ,:]e ! g5]al view (

 ! ,all takes =m & color f nature1 a    
cont5t & a mission c come to ! m9d f no 
o!r s\rce ?an ! ext]nal _w2 :e!r we     
7empirically7 make x take up ! mat]ial (
 repres5tation f )\t or                 
7rationali/ically7 make x create an     
ideal reproduction ( ! cont5t ( ext]nal 
reality f )91 x is always ! function (  
k1 conceiv$ z ! reproduction ( a        
complet$ reality1 :i*1 s9ce x br+s u    
into contact ) nature1 advances into !  
=egr\nd & det]m9es ! nature ( psy*ical  
activity4 ,z is conceivable1 along )    
dogmatic fai? 9 ! p[] ( ! reason to     
possess itself ( ! reality be=e x & to  
recon/rue x 9 ! sy/em ( sci5ce1 & )     
triumphant ref]5ces to ! ma!matical     
me?od z a gu>anty = ! absolute c]ta9ty (
 philosophical k1 ! notical "q em]ges z 
to ! means by :i*1 & ! limits )9 :i*1   
human k is able to d ju/ice to ?is great
 problem4 ,desc>tes gave out ! programme
 = all ^! v>i\s t5d5cies--! me*anical   
explanation ( nature1 ! absolute        
sep>ation ( body & s\l                  

7despiritualization ( matt]71 ?\ght !   
ess5ce ( ! m9d1 ! dem& = c]ta9 k1 arm$  
aga9/ e d\bt1 & ! "q z to ! orig9 (     
ideas4 ,its execution by 8 successors   
%[s n only a lat]al ext5sion 9 ! mo/    
v>i\s directions 7! duali/ic view ( ! _w
 held by ! occasionali/s1 ! moni/ic or  
pan!i/ic view ( ,sp9oza1 ! plurali/ic or
 individuali/ic view ( ,leibnitz2       
simil>ly ! anti!sis betwe5 !            
s5sationalism ( ,locke & ,condillac & ! 
rationalism ( ,sp9oza & ,leibnitz71 b   
also a progressive deep5+ ( problems1   
m$iat$ by p>ty /rife :i* puts e en]gy to
 ! /ra94 ,:at a trem5d\s /ep f !        
empiricism ( ,bacon to ! skepticism (   
,hume1 f ! innate ideas ( ,desc>tes to !
 pot5tial a priori ( ,leibnitz6 ,f !    
mom5t :5 ! negative & positive          
culm9ations ( ! pre-,kantian movem5t 9  
?\ght--,hume & ,leibnitz--came toge!r 9 
"o m9d1 ! conditions ( ! ,kantian re=m 7
 giv51 j z ! prep>ation = ! ,socratic   
re=m _h be5 giv5 9 ! skepticism ( !     
,sophi/s & ! ,greek3 n\s pr9ciple (     

,anaxagoras4  ,footnote #a3 ,ev5 =      
,leibnitz ! m9d is a ma*9e 7automaton   
spirituale71 & psy*ical action a movem5t
 ( ideas4  ,kant1 :o dom9ates ! second  
p]iod ( mod]n philosophy d[n to ! pres5t
 "t1 is relat$ to 8 pr$ecessors 9 a     
tw(old way4 ,9 8 criticism he completes 
! notical t5d5cy1 & at ! same "t        
ov]comes naturalism1 by limit+ !        
me*anical explanation 7& ) x c]ta9 k1 x 
is true7 to ph5om5a & oppos+ moralism to
 intellectualism4 ,nature mu/ be        
conceiv$ f ! /&po9t ( ! _s 7z its       
product1 = all con=mity to law takes its
 orig9 9 ! _s71 ! _s f ! /&po9t ( ! w4  
,metaphysics1 z ! !ory ( ! a priori     
conditions ( exp]i5ce1 is rais$ to !    
rank ( a sci5ce1 :ile ! supras5sible is 
remov$ f ! region ( pro( & refutation & 
bas$ ^u ! rock ( moral w4 ,9 ! positive 
side ( ! ,kantian philosophy--! _s !    
law-giv] ( nature1 ! w ! ess5ce ( _s & !
 key to true reality--we f9d its k]nel1 
t 9 x :i* is =ev] valid4 ,! conclusions 
on ! absolute wor? ( ! moral            

disposition1 on ! ultimate moral aim ( !
 _w1 on ! intelligible "*1 & on radical 
evil1 reveal ! en]gy ) :i* ,kant took up
 ! mission ( furni%+ ! life-=ces op5$ up
 by ,*ri/ianity--:i* ! ,middle ,ages _h 
hidd5 r ?an cons]v$ "u ! cru/ (         
,ari/otelian conceptions entirely ali5  
to !m1 & ! pre-,kantian p]iod ( mod]n   
times _h almo/ :olly ignor$--an entrance
 into philosophy1 & ( trans=m+ & enri*+ 
! mod]n view ( ! _w f ?is /&po9t4       
,kant's position is z opposite & sup]ior
 to ! specifically mod]n1 to !          
naturali/ic temp] ( ! new p]iod1 z      
,plato /&s out1 a /rang] & a prophet ( !
 future1 above ! level ( ,greek modes ( 
?\ght4 ,m =tunate1 h[ev]1 ?an ,plato1 he
 f\nd disciples :o foll[$ fur!r 9 !     
direction po9t$ out by t face ( !       
,janus-head ( 8 philosophy :i* look$    
t[>d ! future3 ! e!lism ( ,fi*te & !    
hi/oricism ( ,hegel h _! roots 9 ,kant's
 doctr9e ( ! practical reason4 ,^! are  
acquisitions :i* mu/ nev] be giv5 up1   
:i* mu/ ev] be reconqu]$ 9 face ( attack

 f =ces ho/ile to _s & to morals4 ,9    
life1 z 9 sci5ce1 we mu/ ev] anew w9    
e?ical idealism 9 ord] to possess x4 ,z 
yet ! reconciliation ( ! hi/orical & !  
sci5tific1 ! ,*ri/ian & ! mod]n _s is n 
effect$4 ,= ! inbr$ naturalism ( ! mod]n
 p]iod has n only ass]t$ itself1        
amalgamat$ ) ,kantian elem5ts1 9 !      
reali/ic metaphysics & me*anical        
psy*ology ( ,h]b>t & 9 ! sy/em (        
,s*op5hau]1 z a lat]al curr5t by ! side 
( ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 & ,hegel1 b1 "u !    
influ5ce ( ! new & p[]ful developm5t ( !
 natural sci5ces1 has once m confid5tly 
ris5 aga9/ ! traditions ( ! ideali/ic   
s*ool1 al?\gh n[ x is temp]$ by         
criticism & conc$es to ! practical      
ideals at lea/ a refuge 9 fai?4 ,!      
conviction t ! rule ( neo-,kantianism is
 provisional does n re/ m]ely on !      
mutability ( human affairs4 ,!          
widespread active /udy ( ! philosophy ( 
! great ,knigsb]g] gives gr\nd = ! hope 
t also ^? elem5ts 9 x f :i* ! sy/ems ( !
 ideali/s h proce$$ z necess>y          

consequ5ces w aga9 f9d att5tion &       
appreciation4 ,! p]ception ( ! fact t ! 
naturali/ico-me*anical view repres5ts   
only a "p1 a subord9ate "p1 ( ! tru? w  
lead to ! fur!r tru?1 t ! l[] c only be 
expla9$ by ! high]4 ,we %all also le>n m
 & m to di/+ui% betwe5 ! p]man5t import 
( ! position ( fundam5tal idealism & !  
p>ticul> =m :i* ! con/ructive ?9k]s h   
giv5 x2 ! latt] may fall be=e legitimate
 assaults1 b ! =m] w n be affect$ by !m4
 ,! revival ( ! ,fi*teo-,hegelian       
idealism by means ( a me?od :i* %all d  
ju/ice to ! dem&s ( ! "t by a clos]     
adh]5ce to exp]i5ce1 by mak+ g5]al use (
 bo? ! natural & ! m5tal sci5ces1 & by  
an exact & cauti\s mode ( argum5t--?is  
seems to u to be ! task ( ! future4 ,!  
mo/ important ( ! po/-,hegelian sy/ems1 
! sy/em ( ,lotze1 %[s t ! sci5tific _s  
does n resi/ reconciliation ) ideali/ic 
convictions 9 reg>d to ! highe/         
que/ions1 & ! consid]ation :i* x on all 
sides enjoys1 t !re exi/s a /rong ye>n+ 
9 ?is direction4 ,b :5 a deeply f\nd$   

ne$ ( ! "t becomes active1 x also r\ses 
=ces :i* d$icate !mselves to its s]vice 
& :i* are equal to ! "w4   ,,! ,,end4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,index4  ,abbt ,absolute1 !  ,fi*te on 
,s*ell+ on  ,f4 ,krause on  ,s*lei]ma*] 
on  ,hegel on  ,=tlage on  ,sp5c] on    
,b/rom on  ,/rauss on  ,feu]ba* on  !   
!i/ic s*ool on  ,lotze on  ,h>tmann on  
,see also  ,god  ! ,uncondition$        
,a*ill9i ,adamson1 ,r4 ,ae/hetics  (    
,home 7,"l ,kames7  ( ,burke  (         
,baumg>t5  ( ,h]d]  ( ,kant  ( ,s*ill]  
( ,s*ell+  ( ,hegel  ( ,j4,f4 ,fries  ( 
,h]b>t  ( ,s*op5hau] ,agno/icism1 (     
,sp5c] ,agricola1 ,r4 ,agrippa (        
,nette%eim ,ahr5s1 ,h4 ,alex&ri/s       
,allihn ,al?usius ,&]son ,angiulli1 ,a4 
,annet1 ,p4 ,antal1 ,g4 von ,ant9omies1 
!  ( ,kant  8 ant9omy ( ae/hetic judgm5t
  & ( teleological judgm5t ,apelt1      
,e4,f4 ,a priori1 !  9 ,kant  9 ,kant & 
! po/-,kantians  nature1 9 ,s*ell+  9   
,j4,f4 ,fries  ,b5eke on  ,h]b>t on     
,j4,s4 ,mill on  ,sp5c]'s doctr9e ( !   

racial orig9 (  ,opzoom] on  ,cf4 ,ideas
 ,aqu9as1 ,?omas ,ardig1 ,r4            
,ari/otelians1 !  oppon5ts ( ,arnauld   
,arnoldt1 ,e4 ,associationalism  (      
,h>tley & ,prie/ley  ( ,hume  ( ! ,mills
  ( ,ba9 ,a/1 ,g4,a4,f4 ,atomism  9     
mod]n physics  9 ,gass5di & ,desc>tes  9
 ,boyle  ,leibnitz on ,attributes  9    
,desc>tes  ,sp9oza's doctr9e ( ,au]ba*  
,augu/9e ,av5>ius1 ,r4 ,av]roi/s        
,baad]1 ,f4 7von71  & ,s*ell+  sy/em (  
,ba*1 ,j4 ,bacmei/] ,bacon1 ,francis  a 
beg9n] ( mod]n philosophy1  doctr9e (1  
9 relation to ,locke  ,bacon1 ,rog]     
,bahns51 ,j4 ,ba91 ,alex&] ,baku ,b>clay
 ,b>dili ,b>?olomaei ,b>zellotti1 ,g4   
,bas$[ ,bau]1 ,bruno ,bau]1 ,edg>       
,baumann1 ,j4 ,baumei/] ,baumg>t51      
,alex4 ,baumg>t51 ,siegmund ,bumk]1 ,cl4
 ,baur1 ,f4,c4 ,bayle1 ,p41  doctr9e (1 
& ,leibnitz ,beattie1 ,j4 ,beck1        
,sigismund ,beck]s1 ,h41 ,bekk]1        
,bal?as>1 ,,iii ,belg] ,bell>m9 ,b5eke1 
,f4,e4 ,b5oit1 ,g4 von ,b5?am1 ,j4      
,b5tley1 ,ri*>d ,b]g]1 ,j4,e4 von       

,b]gmann1 ,j4 ,b]keley1 ,george1        
position 9 mod]n philosophy1  view ( m9d
 & matt]1  relation to ,locke on        
p]ception1  on k1  8 sy/em1  relation to
 ,hume1  relation to ,scotti% ,s*ool1   
relation to ,condillac1  8 idealism     
criticis$ by ,kant1  ref]r$ to ,b]n>d1  
,claude ,b]nheim ,bess>ion ,bezold1 ,f4 
von1 ,bib]g ,bi$]mann1 ,a4,e4 ,bi$]mann1
 ,fr4 ,k4 ,bilf+] ,billewicz1 ,j4 von1  
,biran1 ,ma9e de ,blignires ,blunts*li  
,bod97u7 ,body & ,m9d1 see ,m9d & ,body 
,bo?ius1 ,d4 ,bhme1 ,jacob1  sy/em (1  &
 ,s*ell+ ,bhm] ,bhr+]1 ,a4 ,bol91 ,w4   
,bol+broke ,bolzano1 ,b4 ,bonald1       
,victor de ,bonatelli1 ,f4 ,bonitz1 ,h4 
,bonnet ,bontekoe ,boole1 ,g4 ,borelius1
 ,j4 ,borelli ,borgeaud ,bosanquet1 ,b4 
,b/rom1 ,c4,j4 ,botta1 ,v4 ,b\illi]     
,b\rd9 ,b\rignon1 ,anto9ette ,b[51 ,f4  
,b[ne1 ,b4,p4 ,boyle1 ,r4 ,bradley1     
,f4,h4 ,brah1 ,ty*o ,br&es1 ,g4 ,br&is1 
,c4,a4 ,braniss1 ,j4 ,bras*1 ,m4        
,br5tano1 ,f4 ,br*n]1 ,h4 ,brock]h(f    
,br[n1 ,?omas ,br[ne1 ,pet] ,br[ne1 ,sir

 ,?omas ,bruck] ,brud] ,brunnh(] ,bruno1
 ,giordano  sy/em (  & ,sp9oza1  &      
,s*ell+ ,brtt1 ,m4 ,bu*anan1 ,george    
,b*n]1 ,l4 ,buckle ,budde ,buffon       
,burckh>dt ,burda*1 ,k4,f4 ,burg]sdijck 
,burke1 ,edmund ,burt1 ,b4,c4 ,bus*1 ,o4
 ,butl]1 ,joseph ,butl]1 ,n4,m4         
,cabanis ,caesalp9 ,caird1 ,edw>d       
,caird1 ,john ,cairns ,calk]1 ,f4,v4    
,cam]] ,campanella1 ,?omas  sy/em (     
,campe ,cantoni ,cantor1 ,g4 ,caporali1 
,e4 ,c>danus1 ,hi]onymus ,c>lyle1 ,?omas
 ,c>n]i ,c>o1 ,e4 ,c>p5t]1 ,w4,b4       
,c>rire1 ,m4 ,c>tesians1 !  ,locke's    
relation to  ,leibnitz's relation to    
,c>us1 ,f4,a4 ,c>us1 ,k4,g4 ,c>us1 ,p4  
,casp>i1 ,o4 ,categories1 !1 ,kant on   
,hegel's doctr9e ( ,cat]us ,causation   
,sp9oza's view (  ,locke on  ,hume's    
skeptical analysis (  ,kant on          
,s*op5hau] on  ,lotze on  ,h>tmann on   
,see also ,suffici5t ,reason1 ,teleology
 ,cesca1 ,giovanni ,*alybaeus ,*&l]1    
,samuel ,*ann+1 ,w4,e4 ,"*1 !           
,intelligible  9 ,kant  9 ,s*ell+  9    

,s*op5hau] ,*>ron1 ,pi]re ,*ri/1 ,p4    
,*ubb1 ,?omas ,cieszk[ski1 ,a4 von      
,cl>ke1 ,samuel  e?ics ( ,class1 ,g4    
,class51 ,a4 ,claub]g ,cogito ergo sum  
! ,c>tesian ,coh51 ,h4 ,colec*i1 ,a4    
,col]idge1 ,s4,t4 ,coll>d1 ,roy]        
,colli]1 ,ar?ur ,coll9s1 ,an?ony        
,coll9s1 ,f4,h4 ,coll9s1 ,w4,l4         
,comba*ius ,com5ius ,comm]1 ,e4 ,common 
,s5se1 ,scotti% doctr9e ( ,comte1       
,augu/e ,condillac  doctr9e ( ,condorcet
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,cop]nicus1 ,n4 ,cordemoy ,cosmological 
,argum5t1 !  9 ,locke  9 ,r\sseau  9    
,leibnitz  9 ,kant ,cotes1 ,rog] ,c\s91 
,victor ,cremon9i ,crescas1 ,*asdai     
,creuz1 ,k4 von ,critique ( ,reason1 !  
mean+ (  ! neo-,kantians on  its c5tral 
position 9 mod]n ?\ght ,cr\saz ,crusius1
 ,c4,a4 ,cudwor?1 ,ralph  e?ics (       
,cumb]l&1 ,ri*>d ,czolbe1 ,h4           
,d',alemb]t ,damiron ,danzel ,d>jes     
,d>w91 ,*>les ,d>w91 ,erasmus ,daub1 ,k4
 ,da ,v9ci1 ,leon>do ,deism  naturalism 
(  9 ,h]b]t  9 ,engli% ?9k]s ( ,,xviii4 

c5tury  9 ,hume  9 ,r\sseau  ( ,reim>us 
9 ,less+  ,kant's relation to  ,see also
 ,fai?1 ,fai? & ,reason1 ,religion1     
,!ology ,delboeuf ,delff1 ,h4 ,de       
,morgan1 ,a4  ,d5ifle ,des ,bosses      
,desc>tes1 ,r5  sy/em (  & occasionalism
  & ,sp9oza  & ,locke  & ,leibnitz  ,see
 also ,sp9oza ,desd\its ,dessoir1 ,m4   
,det] ,det]m9ism  9 ,hobbes  9 ,sp9oza  
( ! e>ly associationali/s  ( ,hume  9   
,leibnitz  ( ,s*lei]ma*]  ( ,h]b>t  (   
,s*op5hau]  ( ,j4,s4 ,mill  ( ,jona?an  
,edw>ds  ,see also ,"*1 ! ,intelligible2
 ,fre$om ( ! ,w ,deuss51 ,p4 ,deut+]1   
,m4 ,de ,wette ,dewey1 ,j4 ,did]ot1     
,d5is ,diels1 ,h4 ,diet]i*1 ,k4 ,digby1 
,ev]>d ,dillman ,dil!y1 ,w4  doctr9e (1 
,dippe1 ,a4 ,dr+1 ,a4 ,dorn]1 ,a4 ,d\bt 
! ,c>tesian  9 ,bayle  ,r\sseau's       
rev]5tial ,drobis*1 ,m4,w4 ,droz        
,drusk[itz1 ,hel5e ,du ,bois-,reymond1  
,e ,dhr+1 ,e4 ,dumont1 ,e4 ,duncan1     
,g4,m4 ,durdik  ,ebb+haus1 ,h4 ,eb]h>d1 
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 ! ,g]man ,illum9ation  ( ,s*lei]ma*]  (

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,education  ,locke on  ,r\sseau on      
,edw>ds1 ,jona?an ,ego1 !  c]ta9 k (1 9 
,campanella1 & ,desc>tes  ! individual1 
& ! transc5d5tal consci\sness 9 ,kant   
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repres5tations 9 ,b5eke  ,=tlage on     
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consci\sness  ,see also ,s\l ,ellis     
,em]son1 ,r4,w4 ,empiricism  f\nd$ by   
,bacon  9 ,hobbes  & rationalism  (     
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,s5sationalism ,encyclop$i/s1 ! ,engel1 
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,erdmann1 ,b5no  works by ,erdmann1     
,j4,e4  works by  philosophy ( ,erh>dt1 
,f4 ,es*5may]1 ,k4,a4 ,e!lism  9        
,crusius  ( ,fi*te  ( ,s*op5hau]  9     
,h>tmann  ,see also ,pan!lism4 ,e?ics   
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,pascal on  ,malebran*e on  ,locke on   
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empirical & me*anical  ( ,fr5*          
s5sationali/s  ( ,fr5* mat]iali/s  (    
,r\sseau  ( ,leibnitz  ( ,h]d]  ( ,kant 
( ,fi*te  ( ,s*lei]ma*]  ( ,hegel  (    
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9 ,euck51 ,r4  works by  philosophy (   
,ev]ett1 ,c4,c4 ,evil  ,weigel on !     
orig9 (  ,bhme on ! orig9 (  ,sp9oza's  
doctr9e (  ,leibnitz's doctr9e (        
,s*ell+'s !ory (  ,baad]'s !ory (       
,fe*n]'s view (  ,see also ,optimism1   
,pessimism ,evolution  9 ! s5se (       
explication 9 ,nicolas ( ,cusa  &       
involution 9 ,leibnitz  cosmical1 (     
,sp5c]  biological1 ( ,d>w9  ,cf4 also !
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,exn]1 ,f4 ,exp]i5ce  ! basis ( sci5ce 9
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 view (  ,see also ,empiricism1         
,s5sationalism ,ext]nal ,_w1 !  reality 
(1 9 ,desc>tes  k & reality (1 9 ,locke 
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mat]ial ( duty 9 ! =m ( s5se 9 ,fi*te   
,fab] ,/apul5sis 7,lefvre ( ,etaples7   
,fai?  ! re=m]s' view (  ,dei/ic view ( 
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philosophy  ,bayle on  ,locke on        
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,giuseppe ,f]raz ,f]ri1 ,l4 ,f]ri]1 ,d4 
,f]ri]1 ,j4,f4 ,fe/]1 ,r4 ,feu]ba*1 ,l4 
philosophy ( ,fi*te1 ,i4,h4 ,fi*te1     
,j4,g4  & ,kant  sy/em (  & ,s*ell+  &  
,hegel  & ,h]b>t  & ,lotze  ,see also   
,idealism1 ,jacobi1 ,kant ,fic9us ,film]
 ,f9al ,causes1 see ,teleology          

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,k4 ,ph4 ,fis*]1 ,k>l ,fis*]1 ,kuno     
works by  on ,sp9oza  on ,kant  8       
philosophy  & neo-,kantianism ,fiske1   
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works by  sy/em ( ,f\ille1 ,a4 ,f[l]1   
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unlimit$ affirmation (  d5i$ by ,sp9oza 
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on  ,j-,s4 ,mill on  ,see also ,"*1 !   
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con/ructive idealism  8 sy/em  & ,h]b>t 
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,e4,g4 ,geil ,g5ovesi1 ,a4 ,g5tilis1    
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7,g5nadius7 ,g]dil1 ,s4 ,g]h>dt ,g]son  
,g]sonides ,geul9cx1 ,arnold ,gi*tel    
,gi]ke1 ,o4 ,gilb]t1 ,william ,giob]ti1 
,v4 ,gioja1 ,m4 ,gizycki1 ,g4 von       
,glanvil ,glisson1 ,francis ,glogau1 ,g4
 ,god1 doctr9e (1 9 ,nicolas ( ,cusa  9 
,taurellus  9 ,bruno  ,campanella's     
argum5t = ! exi/5ce (  ,weigel's doctr9e
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argum5ts = ! exi/5ce (  ,sp9oza's       
doctr9e (  ,malebran*e's view (         
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ideas ( s5se-_w to  ,hume's doctr9e (   
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discussion (  ,leibnitz's doctr9e (     
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,f4 ,krause's doctr9e (  ,baad]'s       
doctr9e (  ,s*lei]ma*]'s doctr9e (      

,b5eke's doctr9e (  ,h]b>t's doctr9e (  
,b/rom's doctr9e (  ! doctr9e (1 9      
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,feu]ba*'s doctr9e (  ! doctr9e (1 9 !  
,!i/ic ,s*ool  ,fe*n] on ! relation (   
,god & ! _w  ,lotze's doctr9e (         
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,ontological ,argum5t  ,religion        
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,c4 ,gol!r1 ,l4 von ,gs*el ,goe!        
,gotts*$ ,gracian1 ,b4 ,grazia1 ,v4 de  
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,grimm1 ,e4 ,grimm1 ,f4,m41 ,b>on von   
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,h4 ,grn1 ,k4 ,guhrau] ,gn!r1 ,a4       
,gutb]let1 ,c4 ,gu?rie1 ,m4 ,gttl]1 ,c4 
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,e4 ,haegh51 ,v4 van d] ,hagemann ,hall1
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pre-e/abli%$  ,wolff's developm5t (     
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,h>t5/e91 ,g4 ,h>tley1 ,david ,h>tmann1 
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,havet ,haym1 ,r4 ,haz>d1 ,r4,g4 ,hea?  
,hebl]1 ,c4 ,he]eboord ,hegel1 ,g4,w4,f4
  & ,s*ell+  sy/em (  oppon5ts (        
influ5ce & foll[]s (  ,see also ,j4,g4  
,fi*te1 ,kant1 ,s*ell+ ,hegelians1 !    
,old  ! ,"y  ,see also ,semi-,hegelians 
,hegl]1 ,a4 ,heil&1 ,k4 ,he9ze1 ,m4     
,helmholtz1 ,h4 ,helmont1 ,f4,m4 van    
,helmont1 ,j4,b4 van ,helvetius1 ,c4,a4 
,hemm+ ,hem/]huis1 ,f4 ,h]b>t1 ,j4,f4   
sy/em (  ,see also ,j4,g4 ,fi*te ,h]b]t1
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,s*ell+ & ,h]+ ,h]mann1 ,c4 ,h]mann1 ,w4
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van ,heussl]1 ,h4 ,heyd]1 ,k>l ,h9neb]g 
,h9ri*s ,hirnhaym ,hi/ory  ,ma*iavelli  
on  ,h]d]'s philosophy (  ,kant's view (
  ,fi*te's view (  ,s*ell+'s view (  ,f4
 ,krause's philosophy (  ,hegel's       
philosophy (  ,vico's philosophy (      
,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 !  importance (  

me?od 9  ,hegel's view (  rec5t         
developm5t ( ,hobbes1 ,?omas  8 sy/em  &
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,hld]1 ,a4  ,hld]l9 ,home1 ,h5ry1 7,"l  
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,hub]1 ,j4 ,hub]1 ,u4 ,huet7ius71 ,p4,d4
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,scotti% ,s*ool  & ,kant  ,see also     
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,t4,h4  ,ibbot ,idealism  ph5om5al or   
individual ( ,b]keley  9 ,leibnitz      
critical or transc5d5tal1 ( ,kant       
po/-,kantian1 ( ,beck  subjective1 (    
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or logical1 ( ,hegel  ! opposition to   
con/ructive  9 ,s*op5hau]  ,g]man1 9    
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e?ical or ideological1 ( ,lotze         
ideali/ic reaction 9 ,g]many aga9/ !    
sci5tific _s  ,falck5b]g on 7e?ical7    
idealism & ! future ,ideas1  innate1 9  
,desc>tes1 ,locke1 ,leibnitz1 !         

rationali/s & ! empirici/s  orig9 (1 9  
,desc>tes1 ,locke1 ,b]keley1 ,hume1 !   
rationali/s &  empirici/s1 & ,h]b>t     
impressions &1 9 ,hume  unconsci\s ideas
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 reason 9 ,kant  ! logical ,idea !      
subject ( ! _w-process 9 ,hegel         
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philosophy (1 among ,s*ell+'s foll[]s   
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sy/em (  philosophy (1 9 ,s*op5hau]     
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,s*lei]ma*] on  ,b5eke on  ,h]b>t on    
,hegel's foll[]s on  ,/rauss on  ,fe*n] 
on ,imp]ative1 ! ,categorical  9 ,kant  
9 ,fi*te  9 ,b5eke ,induction  ,kepl] on
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 !ory (  9 ,hobbes  ,j4,s4 ,mill's !ory 
( ,irw+1 ,von  ,jacobi1 ,f4,h4  sy/em ( 
& ,fi*te  & ! anti-ideali/s ,jacobson1  
,j4 ,jg]1 ,g4 ,james1 ,william ,janet1  
,paul ,jans5i/s ,ja/r[1 ,j4 ,jesuits    
,jevons1 ,w4,s4 ,jh]+1 ,r4 von ,jodl1   

,f4 ,jol1 ,m4 ,j\ffroy1 ,t4 ,judgm5t    
,desc>tes on  rationali/s & empirici/s  
bo? mi/ake nature (  ,kant on syn!tic   
judgm5ts a priori  ! categories &1 9    
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 9 ,kant  ,kant on ae/hetic &           
teleological ,jungius  ,kaatz1 ,h4      
,kaftan1 ,j4 ,kalt5born1 ,c4 von ,kant1 
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developm5t to ,fi*te  & ,fi*te  &       
,s*ell+  & ,hegel  & ,s*op5hau]  8      
influ5ce1 foll[]s1 & oppon5ts  ,see also
 ,b]keley1 ,critique ( ,reason1 ,j4,g4  
,fi*te1 ,hume1 ,leibnitz1  ,locke1      
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,j4,s4 ,k5t1 ,g4 ,kepl]1 ,j4  philosophy
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,knoodt1 ,p4 ,k  !ory (1 9 mod]n ?\ght  
doctr9e (1 9 ,nicolas ( ,cusa  decl>$   
deceptive by ,montaigne  ma!matical     
basis (1 9 ,kepl] & ,galileo  9 ,bacon  
9 ,hobbes  9 ,h]b>t  ! two views (      

,geul9cx on  ,desc>tes on  ,sp9oza on   
,malebran*e on 7we see all ?+s 9 ,god7  
,locke's doctr9e (  ,b]keley on  ,hume's
 skeptical doctr9e (  ,scotti% doctr9e (
  s5sationali/ic doctr9e (1 9 ,france   
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 doctr9e (  ,b5eke on speculative       
,s*op5hau]'s doctr9e (  ,comte's doctr9e
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,j4,s4 ,mill's doctr9e (  ,sp5c]'s      
doctr9e (  ,t4,h4 ,gre5's doctr9e (     
,feu]ba*'s doctr9e (  ,lotze's doctr9e (
  ,h>tmann's doctr9e (  ! neo-,kantians 
on  ! ,g]man positivi/s on  influ5ce (  
rec5t sci5ce on ! !ory (  ,liebmann's   
doctr9e (  ,see also ,agno/icism1       
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  ,fai? & ,reason1 ,nom9alism1          
,positivism1 ,rationalism & ,empiricism1
  ,relativity1 ,s5sationalism1          
,skepticism ,knutz51 ,m4 ,ko*1 ,a4      
,koeb]1 ,r4 von ,koegel1 ,f4 ,knig1 ,e4 

,koppelmann ,k/l91 ,k>l ,krause1 ,a4    
,krause1 ,e4 ,krause1 ,f4 ,krau?1 ,c4,p4
 ,krohn1 ,a4 ,kroman1 ,k4 ,krug1 ,w4,t4 
,kuhn ,kuntze1 ,j4,e4 ,kvacsala ,kym1   
,a4,l4  ,laas1 ,e4 ,laban1 ,f4          
,labriola1 ,la ,bruyre ,ladd1 ,g4,t4    
,laffitte1 ,p4 ,lagrange ,lamb]t1 ,j4,h4
 ,lam5nais1 ,f4 de ,la ,mettrie1 ,j4,o4 
de ,la ,mo! la ,vay] ,l&1 ,j4,p4,n4     
,lange1 ,f4,a4 ,lange1 ,j4,j4 ,la       
,ro*ef\cauld ,lasson1 ,a4 ,lasswitz1 ,k4
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philosophy (  ,montesquieu on  ,puf5dorf
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legal "r  ,fi*te's !ory ( "r  ,s*ell+'s 
view (  ,f4 ,krause's philosophy ( "r   
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,fri$ri* 7! fa!r7 ,leibnitz1 ,g4,w4     
position 9 mod]n ?\ght  & occasionalism 
sy/em (  & ! ,illum9ation 7,wolff1      
,less+7  & ,kant  ,see also ,desc>tes1  
,locke1 ,sp9oza ,leonh>di1 ,h4,k4 von   
,leopold ,less+1 ,g4,e4  sy/em ( ,lewes1
 ,g4,h4 ,li>d1 ,l4 ,lib]atore1 ,m4      

,li*t5b]g ,liebig ,liebmann1 ,o4 ,l9de1 
,a4 van d] ,l9demann ,lipps1 ,t4        
,lipsius1 ,ju/us ,lipsius1 ,r4,a4       
,littr1 ,e4 ,locke1 ,j4  position 9     
mod]n philosophy  sy/em (  & ,b]keley  &
 ,hume  & ! ,fr5* ,illum9ation 7&       
,r\sseau7  & ,leibnitz  & ,kant  ,see   
also ,bacon1 ,b]keley1 ,desc>tes1       
,empiricism1 ,kant ,lohmey] ,lombroso1  
,c4 ,lossius ,lott1 ,f4,c4 ,lotze1      
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,j4 ,llmann1 ,c4 ,lu!r ,lutt]beck ,lyng1
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,n4 ,mackie ,mack9to%1 ,j4 ,mahaffy1    
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,ma9lnd]1 ,p4 ,ma9z]1 ,j4 ,mai/re1 ,j1  
de ,malebran*e1 ,nicolas  sy/em (       
,mamiani1 ,t4 ,m&eville1 ,b]n>d de      
,mansel1 ,h4,l4 ,m>cus ,m>he9eke        
,m>iana1 ,juan ,m>iano ,m>ion1 ,h4 ,m>%1
 ,james ,m>silius ( ,padua ,m>t91 ,b4   
,m>t9eau1 ,h>riet ,m>t9eau1 ,james      
,m>t9i1 ,jacob ,masson1 ,david          
,mat]ialism  9 ,hobbes  ,sp9oza's t5d5cy
 t[>d  9 ! e>ly associationali/s  9     

,france 9 ,,xviii4 c5tury  ,kant on  9  
,s*op5hau]  & ,sp5c]'s philosophy  9    
,/rauss  ( ,feu]ba*  ! controv]sy ov]1 9
 ,g]many  ,lange on ,ma!matics  !       
philosophical use (1 advocat$ by        
,nicolas ( ,cusa  by ,kepl]  sci5tific  
use (1 ignor$ by ,bacon  ,hobbes's      
recognition (  me?od (1 adopt$ by       
,sp9oza  ,kant on philosophy &  ,kant on
 sci5ce &  appli$ to psy*ology by ,h]b>t
  & by ,fe*n]  rec5t1 & philosophy      
,maudsley1 ,h5ry ,maup]tuis ,may]1 ,f4  
,may]1 ,r4 ,mc,cosh1 ,j4 ,me*anism  9   
mod]n ?\ght  9 mod]n physical sci5ce  ! 
c5tral doctr9e ( ,hobbes  fundam5tal 9  
,sp9oza  appli$ to m9d by !             
associationali/s  ( ,j4,f4 ,fries  (    
ideas 9 ,h]b>t  9 ,lotze  9 rec5t       
physical sci5ce  ,see also ,naturalism1 
,physical ,sci5ce1 ,teleology ,mei]1    
,g4,f4 ,me9]s ,melanc?on ,mell9         
,melville1 ,&rew ,m5delssohn ,m]s5ne    
,m]z1 ,j4,t4 ,metaphysics  ,bacon on  ( 
,desc>tes  ( ,sp9oza  ( ,leibnitz  !    
,wolffian division (  ,kant on  ,hegel  

on  ( ,=tlage  ( ,h]b>t  ,comte on  (   
,fe*n]  ( ,lotze  ( ,h>tmann  rec5t     
,g]man views on ,mey]1 ,j4,b4 ,mey]1    
,ludwig ,mi*elet1 ,c4,l4 ,mi*elis1      
,mill1 ,james ,mill1 ,j4,s4 ,milton1    
,john ,m9d & ,body  ,desc>tes on        
occasionali/ic view (1 9 ,geul9cx       
,sp9oza on  ,h>tley & ,prie/ley on      
,leibnitz on  ,j4,f4 ,fries on ,mod]n   
,philosophy  value ( hi/ory (           
*>act]i/ics (  relation to ! *ur*       
relation to nationality  beg9n+s (      
bibliography (  two ma9 s*ools (  future
 ( ,modes 7( ,sub/ance7  9 ,desc>tes  9 
,sp9oza  9 ,locke ,moles*ott ,monads    
,giordano ,bruno's doctr9e (            
,leibnitz's doctr9e (  ,wolff's         
developm5t ( ,leibnitz's doctr9e (      
,mon*amp1 ,g4 ,monck1 ,w4,h4,s4 ,monrad1
 ,m4,j4 ,montaigne1 ,m4 de ,montesquieu 
,m1 ,h4 ,m1 ,?omas ,moreau ,morelly     
,morgan1 ,c4,l4 ,morgan1 ,?omas ,moriz  
,morley1 ,j4 ,morris1 ,g4,s4 ,morselli  
,muell]1 ,w4 ,mll]1 ,f4,a4 ,mll]1 ,g4,e4
 ,mll]1 ,h4 ,mll]1 ,johannes ,mll]1 ,max

 ,mn/]b]g1 ,h4 ,mnz1 ,w4  ,nahl[sky     
,naigeon ,natge ,natorp1 ,p4 ,naturalism
  *>act]i/ic ( mod]n philosophy  ,see   
also ,me*anism1 ,physical ,sci5ce1      
,teleology ,nature1 ,philosophy (  e>ly 
,italian  ,s*ell+'s  among ,s*ell+'s    
foll[]s  ,hegel's  ,j4,f4 ,fries's      
,h]b>t's  ,see also ,physical ,sci5ce   
,n$i* ,nees von ,es5beck ,nemes1 ,e4    
,neo-,kantians ,nettle%ip1 ,r4,l4       
,neudeck] ,newton1 ,isaac ,ni*ol        
,nicolai1 ,f4 ,nicolas ( ,cusa ,nicole  
,niels51 ,r4 ,nie?amm] ,nietzs*e1 ,f4   
,niphus ,nippold ,nizolius1 ,m>ius      
,noack1 ,l4 ,noir1 ,l4 ,nol5 ,nom9alism 
9 ,hobbes  9 ,locke  ( ,b]keley  ( ,hume
 ,n\m5a  ,see also ,ph5om5a1 ,?+s 9     
!mselves ,novalis ,nyblaeus1 ,a4  ,occam
 ,occasionali/s ,ois*+] ,ok51 ,l4       
,old5dorp ,ontological argum5t1 !  9    
,desc>tes  9 ,sp9oza  9 ,leibnitz  9    
,kant ,opel1 ,j4,o4 ,opposites  ! unity 
(1 9 ,nicolas ( ,cusa  9 ,s*ell+  !     
reconciliation & id5tity (1 9 ,hegel    
,optimism  9 ,voltaire  ( ,leibnitz  (  

,s*lei]ma*] ,opzoom]1 ,c4,w4 ,oratorians
 ,o]/$1 ,h4,c4 ,oswald1 ,james ,oett+51 
,a4 von  ,pab/1 ,j4,h4 ,paley1 ,w4      
,pan!ism  ( ,nicolas ( ,cusa  ( ,sp9oza 
,malebran*e's ,*ri/ian  9 ,tol&         
,b]keley's t5d5cy to  ( ,holba*  9      
,fi*te  9 ,s*ell+  9 ,s*lei]ma*]        
,=tlage's transc5d5t  ( ,/rauss  ! !i/ic
 s*ool on  ,see also ,hegel1 ,pan!lism  
,pan!lism  ( ,fi*te  9 ,s*ell+  (       
,s*op5hau]  ,see also ,e!lism ,papp5heim
 ,p>acelsus ,p>k] ,pascal1 ,blaise      
,patritius1 ,franciscus ,pauls51 ,f4    
,paulus ,p]tz ,pessimism  ( ,s*op5hau]  
( ,h>tmann ,pes* ,pe/alozzi1 ,j4,h4     
,pet]s1 ,k4 ,pfleid]]1 ,e4 ,pfleid]]1   
,o4 ,ph5om5a  & ?+s 9 !mselves 9 ,kant  
& repres5tation 9 ,kant  & ?+s 9        
!mselves 9 ,h]b>t  9 ,s*op5hau]  9      
,lotze  ,see also ,n\m5a1 ,?+s 9        
!mselves ,physical ,sci5ce  concepts (  
mod]n  ,newton's developm5t (  its      
influ5ce on philosophy 9 ,,xix c5tury   
,pico1 ,francis1 ( ,mir&ola ,pico1      
,john1 ( ,mir&ola ,pi]son ,piets*1 ,t4  

,planck1 ,a4 ,planck1 ,k4,c4 ,platn]    
,platoni/s ,ple?o1 ,g4,g4 ,plitt        
,pl\cquet ,plma*]1 ,o4 ,poiret1 ,p4     
,pollock1 ,f4 ,pomponatius1 ,petrus     
,port]1 ,n4 ,positivism  9 ,italy  (    
,comte  ( ,comte's foll[]s  9 ,engl&  9 
,sw$51 ,brazil1 & ,*ili  9 ,g]many      
,prantl ,prel1 ,k4 du ,price1 ,ri*>d    
,prie/ley1 ,j4 ,pr[e1 ,l4 ,psy*ology  ! 
associational  ! s5sationali/ic  (      
,leibnitz  ( ,wolff  ( ,tet5s  ,kant on 
rational  con/ructive  ! basis (        
philosophy 9 ,j4,f4 ,fries  & ,b5eke  ( 
,b5eke  ( ,=tlage  ( ,h]b>t  ( ,comte   
physiological  folk-psy*ology   ( ,sp5c]
  ,see also ,ego1 ,m9d & ,body1 ,s\l    
,puf5dorf1 ,samuel ,pnj]1 ,b41 works by 
,quaebick]1 ,r4 ,qualities  ,prim>y &   
,second>y1 s t]m$ by ,boyle  ,locke's   
doctr9e (  ,kant's relation to          
,b]keley's co-ord9ation ( ,quesnay      
,rabus1 ,l4 ,ragnisco ,ramus 7,pi]re de 
la ,rame7 ,rationalism & ,empiricism  9 
,locke  9 ,leibnitz  9 ,ts*irnhaus5  9  
o!rs ( ! ,g]man ,illum9ati  9 relation  

to ,kant ,rauw5h(f ,ravaisson1 ,f4      
,realism  ( ,h]b>t  ! transfigur$1 (    
,sp5c]  ! transc5d5tal realism (        
,h>tmann ,re1 ,p4 ,regius ,regulative & 
con/itutive pr9ciples1 9 ,kant ,rehmke1 
,j4 ,rehnis* ,rei*l9-,meldegg1 ,k4,a4   
von ,reicke1 ,r ,reid1 ,?omas ,reiff1   
,j4,f4 ,reim>us ,re9hold1 ,e4 ,re9hold1 
,k4,l4 ,relativity ( ,k  9 ,comte  (    
,sir ,wm4 ,hamilton  ( ,mansel  ( ,sp5c]
 ,religion  ,bacon's view (  ,hobbes on 
,"l ,h]b]t's doctr9e ( natural  ,pascal 
on  dei/ic view (  ,hume on  ,voltaire  
on  ,holba* on  ,r\sseau's view (       
,leibnitz on  ,reim>us on  ,less+'s     
developm5tal !ory (  ,kant on  ,fi*te on
  ,s*ell+ on  ,s*lei]ma*]'s philosophy (
  ,hegel's philosophy (  ,b5eke on      
,h]b>t's doctr9e (  ,s*op5hau]'s doctr9e
 (  ,comte's religion ( humanity        
,sp5c]'s view (  ,hegel's foll[]s on    
,/rauss on  ,feu]ba*'s doctr9e (        
,h>tmann's philosophy (  ,see also      
,deism1 ,fai?1 ,fai? & ,reason1 ,god1   
,!ology ,rmusat1 ,c4 de ,r5an1 ,e4 ,r5]y

 ,r5\vi]1 ,c4 ,reu*l91 ,h4 ,reu*l91 ,j4 
,reut]1 ,h4 ,reynaud1 ,j4 ,ribb+1 ,s4   
,ribot1 ,?4 ,ri$el1 ,o4 ,riehl1 ,a4     
,riemann ,riezl]1 ,s4 ,"r1 see ,law     
,rio1 ,j4,s4 del ,rits*l1 ,a4 ,ritt]1   
,h4 ,rixn] ,rob]tson1 ,g4,c4 ,rob9et    
,rob9et1 ,j4,b4 ,ro*oll ,ro$] ,rohm]1   
,f4 ,romagnosi1 ,g4 ,romanes1 ,g4,j4    
,romantici/s1 ! ,romundt1 ,h4 ,ros*]    
,rse1 ,f4 ,ros5krantz1 ,w4 ,ros5kranz1  
,k4 ,rosm9i1 ,a4 ,ro!1 ,r4 ,r\sseau1    
,j4,j4  sy/em ( ,royce1 ,j4 ,rdig]      
,ruge1 ,a4 ,ruge1 ,s4 ,ruysbroek  ,sahl9
 ,/4 ,m>t91 ,l4,c4 ,sa9t ,simon1 ,h4 de 
,saisset1 ,e4 ,san*ez1 ,francis         
,s*a>s*midt1 ,c4 ,s*ffle1 ,e4,f4 ,s*all]
 ,s*r]1 ,e4 ,s*asl]1 ,m4 ,s*effl]       
,s*eibl] ,s*ell+1 ,f4,w4,j4 7von7  sy/em
 (  imm$iate foll[]s (  & ,hegel  ,see  
also ,j4,g4 ,fi*te1 ,hegel1 ,kant1      
,sp9oza ,s*elv] ,s*ematism1 ,kant's     
,s*ill] ,s*9dl]1 ,c4 ,s*legel1 ,f4      
,s*lei*]1 ,a4 ,s*leid5 ,s*lei]ma*]1     
,f4,d4,e4  sy/em ( ,s*mid1 ,e4 ,s*mid1  
,leopold ,s*midkunz1 ,h4                

,s*mid-,s*w>z5b]g ,s*midt1 ,k4 ,s*midt1 
,l4 ,s*midt1 ,o4 ,s*neid]1 ,c4,m4       
,s*neid]1 ,g4 ,s*neid]1 ,g4,h4 ,s*neid]1
 ,o4 ,s*o5lank ,s*op5hau]1 ,a4  & ,kant 
sy/em (  foll[]s ( ,s*oppe 7,scioppius7 
,s*ub]t1 ,f4,w4 ,s*ub]t1 ,g4,h4         
,s*ub]t-,sold]n1 ,r4 von ,s*ull]1 ,h4   
,s*ultze1 ,fritz ,s*ulz1 ,j4 ,s*ulze1   
,g4,e4 7,a5esidemus-,s*ulze7 ,s*uppe1   
,w4 ,s*urman1 ,j4,g4 ,s*tz ,s*w>z1 ,h4  
,s*w>z1 ,g4,e4 ,s*wegl]1 ,a4 ,s*w5ckfeld
 ,scotti% ,s*ool1 ! ,selby-,bigge       
,semi-,hegelians1 ! ,semi-,kantians1 !  
,seml] ,s5gl]1 ,j4 ,s5n]t1 ,d4 ,s5sation
  a s\rce ( k 9 ,locke  & 9 ,hume  !    
sole s\rce ( k 9 ,condillac  ,leibnitz's
 view (  ,see also ,rationalism &       
,empiricism1 ,s5sationalism             
,s5sationalism  9 ,hobbes  9 mod]n ?\ght
 9 g5]al  ( ,locke  ( ,condillac  (     
,bonnet  ( ,helvetius  ( ,la ,mettrie  (
 ,holba*  9 ,italy  ( ,feu]ba*  ( !     
,g]man positivi/s  ,see also            
,empiricism1 ,exp]i5ce1 ,s5sation ,s]gi1
 ,g4 ,se?1 ,a4 ,seydel1 ,r4 ,seyf>?     

,%aftesbury ,%]lock1 ,t4 ,sibb]n1 ,f4,c4
 ,sib] ,siciliani1 ,p4 ,sidgwick1 ,h4   
,sidney1 ,alg]non ,siebeck ,sigw>t1 ,*r4
 von ,sigw>t1 ,*r4 ,w4 ,silesius ,sime1 
,j4 ,simmel1 ,g4 ,simon1 ,j4            
,skepticism1 9 ,montaigne  9 ,*>ron  9  
,f4 ,san*ez  9 ,bayle  ( ,hume  (       
,did]ot1  ( ,d',alemb]t  !              
anti-,critical1 ( ,s*ulze  ! ,critical1 
( ,maimon ,smi?1 ,adam ,snell1 ,k4      
,social ,contract1 ! !ory (1 9 ,hobbes  
,hume on  9 ,r\sseau  ,kant on ,solg]1  
,k4,f4 ,somm]1 ,h4 ,somm]1 ,r4 ,s\l1 !1 
?\ght ! ess5ce (1 9 ,desc>tes  a        
cong]ies ( ideas 9 ,sp9oza  ?\ght !     
ess5ce (1 9 ,malebran*e1  ?\ght m]ely an
 activity (1 9 ,locke  a sum ( inn]     
/ates 9 ,hume  ,leibnitz's monadological
 view (  ,kant on  ,h]b>t on  ,see also 
,ego1 ,immortality1 ,m9d & ,body ,space 
7& ,"t71 ,hobbes on  9 ,leibnitz  9     
,kant  9 ,h]b>t  9 ,s*op5hau]  9 ,sp5c] 
9 ,lotze ,spav5ta ,sp$d+ ,sp5c]1 ,h4    
sy/em ( ,spick]1 ,g4 ,sp9oza1 ,b4 de    
position 9 mod]n philosophy  & ,desc>tes

  sy/em (  & ,leibnitz  & ,s*ell+  ,see 
also ,desc>tes ,_s1 ,s*ill+'s philosophy
 (  ,hegel's ph5om5ology (  8 doctr9e ( 
subjective  ( objective  ( absolute     
rec5t ,g]man philosophy ( ,spitta1 ,h4  
,/adl]1 ,a4 ,/ahl1 ,f4,j4 ,/>cke1 ,c4,n4
 ,/ate1 !1 e>ly !ories (  ,hobbes on    
,sp9oza on  ,locke on  ,montesquieu on  
,r\sseau's !ory (  ,kant's view (       
,fi*te on  ,s*ell+ on  ,hegel on  ,sp5c]
 on  ,see also ,social ,contract        
,/aud+]1 ,f4 ,/eckelma*]1 ,m4 ,/eff5s1  
,h4 ,/eff5s51 ,k4 ,/e9b>t ,/e91 ,h4 von 
,/e91 ,l4 ,/e9?al ,/eph51 ,leslie ,/]n1 
,a4 ,/ew>t1 ,dugald ,/irl+1 ,j4,h4      
,/irn]1 ,max 7pseudonym1 cf4 ,k4        
,s*midt7 ,/oeckl1 ,a4 ,/hr1 ,a4 ,/\t1   
,g4,f4 ,/rauss1 ,d4,f4 ,/rmpell1 ,l4    
,/umpf1 ,c4 ,/umpf1 ,t4 ,/urm1 ,*ri/oph 
,/utzmann ,suab$iss5 ,su>ez1 ,francis   
,sub/ance  ,desc>tes on  ,sp9oza on     
,locke on  ,b]keley on 7mat]ial7        
,hume's skeptical analysis (            
,leibnitz's doctr9e (  ,kant on         
,s*op5hau] on  ,h>tmann on ,suffici5t   

,reason1 ! ,pr9ciple (  9 ,leibnitz  9  
,s*op5hau] ,sully1 ,james ,sulz]        
,susemihl ,suso  ,ta9e1 ,h4 ,tappan1    
,h4,p4 ,taub]t1 ,a4 ,taul] ,taurellus   
,taute ,tei*mll] ,teleological ,argum5t1
 !  9 ,boyle  ,hume on  ,reim>us on     
,leibnitz on  ,kant on  ,h]b>t on       
,teleology  m9imiz$ by mod]n ?\ght      
reject$ by mod]n physics  9 ,boyle      
,bacon on  ,hobbes's d5ial (  ,desc>tes 
on  ,sp9oza's d5ial (  ,newton on       
,leibnitz on  ,kant on  9 ,fi*te        
,s*ell+ on  9 ,hegel  9 ,tr5del5burg  9 
,h>tmann  ,see also ,me*anism1          
,naturalism1 ,suffici5t ,reason1        
,teleological  ,argum5t ,telesius       
,temple1 ,sir ,william ,te/a ,tet5s1    
,j4,n4 ,?aul[ ,!ology  relation (1 to   
philosophy 9 ,taurellus  9 ,campanella  
& sci5ce 9 ,bacon  9 ,leibnitz  ,less+'s
 speculative   ,kant's view (  ,s*ell+  
on  ,s*lei]ma*]'s view (  ,comte on !   
!ological /age ( ?\ght  ,/rauss on      
,feu]ba* on  ,see also ,deism1 ,fai?1   
,fai? & ,reason1 ,god1 ,religion ,?iele1

 ,g4 ,?+s 9 !mselves  9 ,kant's critics 
& imm$iate successors  9 ,fi*te         
,liebmann on  ,see also ,ph5om5a1 ,n\m5a
 ,?omas  ,kempis ,?ilo ,?omasius1       
,*ri/ian ,?omasius1 ,jacob 7,fa!r (     
,*ri/ian7 ,?omson1 ,w4 ,?orild1 ,t4     
,?mmig ,tieck ,ti$emann ,tillotson1 ,j4 
,"t1 ,kant on objective det]m9ations (  
,see also ,space & ,"t ,t9dal1 ,mat!w   
,tol&1 ,john ,tnnies1 ,f4 ,torrey1      
,h4,a4,p4 ,toscanelli ,tracy1 ,de/utt de
 ,trahndorff ,transc5d5tal &            
,transc5d5t1 mean+ (1 9 ,kant           
,tr5del5burg1 ,a4 ,tres*[1 ,n4          
,ts*irnhaus5 ,turgot ,tw>d[ski1 ,k4     
,ueb]hor/ ,ueb]weg1 ,f4 ,ueb+]1 ,j4     
,ulrici1 ,h4 ,uncondition$1 !  9 ,kant  
9 ,sir ,wm4 ,hamilton  9 ,mansel  9     
,sp5c]  ,see also ! ,absolute           
,unconsci\s1 !1 ,h>tmann's philosophy ( 
,uphues1 ,g4,k4  ,va*]ot1 ,e4 ,vaih+]1  
,h4 ,valla1 ,l4 ,van9i ,vatke1 ,w4      
,veit*1 ,j4 ,v5etian]1 ,m4 ,v5n1 ,j4    
,v]a ,vico ,vill]s ,vir*[1 ,r4 ,vis*]1  
,f4,t4 ,vives ,vlot51 ,j4 van ,votius   

,vogel ,vogt1 ,k>l ,volkelt1 ,j4  works 
by  position ( ,volkmann von ,volkm>    
,volney 7,*asseboeuf7 ,voltaire         
,vorlnd]1 ,f4  ,wadd+ton ,wagn]1 ,j4,j4 
,wagn]1 ,ri*>d ,wagn]1 ,rudolph ,waitz1 
,!odor ,wallace1 ,a4,r4 ,wallace1       
,william ,wallas*ek1 ,r4 ,walt]1 ,j4    
,w>burton1 ,w4 ,w>d1 ,j4 ,watson1 ,john 
,web]1 ,e4,h4 ,web]1 ,!odor ,weigel1 ,e4
 ,weigel1 ,val5t9 ,weiss1 ,bruno        
,weisse1 ,c4,h4 ,weiss5born ,w]n]1 ,k4  
,we/on1 ,s4 ,burns ,weygoldt ,:ately1   
,ri*>d ,:$on1 ,d4,d4 ,:ewell1 ,w4       
,:i/on1 ,w4 ,wildau]1 ,t4 ,willmann1 ,o4
 ,w9delb&1 ,w4 ,w9kl]1 ,b4 ,witte1      
,j4,h4 ,wohlrabe ,wolff1 ,*ri/ian  sy/em
 (  & ,kant ,wolla/on1 ,william         
,wool/on1 ,t4 ,wundt1 ,w4 ,wyck1 ,van d]
 ,wytt5ba*1 ,d4  ,zab>ella ,z>t1 ,g4    
,zeis+1 ,a4 ,zell]1 ,e4  works (        
position ( ,ziegl]1 ,t4 ,zill]1 ,t4     
,zimm]1 ,f4 ,zimm]mann1 ,r4 ,zimm]n1    
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